10878	----	THE MULE A TREATISE ON THE BREEDING, TRAINING, AND USES TO WHICH HE MAY BE PUT. BY HARVEY RILEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE GOVERNMENT CORRAL, WASHINGTON D.C. 1867. PREFACE. There is no more useful or willing animal than the Mule. And perhaps there is no other animal so much abused, or so little cared for. Popular opinion of his nature has not been favorable; and he has had to plod and work through life against the prejudices of the ignorant. Still, he has been the great friend of man, in war and in peace serving him well and faithfully. If he could tell man what he most needed it would be kind treatment. We all know how much can be done to improve the condition and advance the comfort of this animal; and he is a true friend of humanity who does what he can for his benefit. My object in writing this book was to do what I could toward working out a much needed reform in the breeding, care, and treatment of these animals. Let me ask that what I have said in regard to the value of kind treatment be carefully read and followed. I have had thirty years' experience in the use of this animal, and during that time have made his nature a study. The result of that study is, that humanity as well as economy will be best served by kindness. It has indeed seemed to me that the Government might make a great saving every year by employing only such teamsters and wagon-masters as had been thoroughly instructed in the treatment and management of animals, and were in every way qualified to perform their duties properly. Indeed, it would seem only reasonable not to trust a man with a valuable team of animals, or perhaps a train, until he had been thoroughly instructed in their use, and had received a certificate of capacity from the Quartermaster's Department. If this were done, it would go far to establish a system that would check that great destruction of animal life which costs the Government so heavy a sum every year. H.R. WASHINGTON, D.C., _April 12, 1867_. NOTE. I have, in another part of this work, spoken of the mule as being free from splint. Perhaps I should have said that I had never seen one that had it, notwithstanding the number I have had to do with. There are, I know, persons who assert that they have seen mules that had it. I ought to mention here, also, by way of correction, that there is another ailment the mule does not have in common with the horse, and that is quarter-crack. The same cause that keeps them from having quarter-crack preserves them from splint--the want of front action. A great many persons insist that a mule has no marrow in the bones of his legs. This is a very singular error. The bone of the mule's leg has a cavity, and is as well filled with marrow as the horse's. It also varies in just the same proportion as in the horse's leg. The feet of some mules, however, will crack and split, but in most cases it is the result of bad shoeing. It at times occurs from a lack of moisture to the foot; and is seen among mules used in cities, where there are no facilities for driving them into running water every day, to soften the feet and keep them moist. CONTENTS. Best Method of Breaking Value of Kind Treatment How to Harness Injured by Working too Young What the Mule can Endure Color and Peculiar Habits Mexican Mules, and Packing The Agricultural Committee Working Condition of Mules Spotted Mules Mule-Breeding and Raising How Colts should be Handled Packing Mules Physical Constitution Value of Harnessing Properly Government Wagons More about Breeding Mules Ancient History of the Mule Table of Statistics 14 Portraits of Celebrated Mules Diseases Common to the Mule, and how they should be treated CHAPTER I. HOW MULES SHOULD BE TREATED IN BREAKING. I have long had it in contemplation to write something concerning the mule, in the hope that it might be of benefit to those who had to deal with him, as well in as out of the army, and make them better acquainted with his habits and usefulness. The patient, plodding mule is indeed an animal that has served us well in the army, and done a great amount of good for humanity during the late war. He was in truth a necessity to the army and the Government, and performed a most important part in supplying our army in the field. That he will perform an equally important part in the future movements of our army is equally clear, and should not be lost sight of by the Government. It has seemed to me somewhat strange, then, that so little should have been written concerning him, and so little pains taken to improve his quality. I have noticed in the army that those who had most to do with him were the least acquainted with his habits, and took the least pains to study his disposition, or to ascertain by proper means how he could be made the most useful. The Government might have saved hundreds of thousands of dollars, if, when the war began, there had been a proper understanding of this animal among its employees. Probably no animal has been the subject of more cruel and brutal treatment than the mule, and it is safe to say that no animal ever performed his part better, not even the horse. In breaking the mule, most persons are apt to get out of patience with him. I have got out of patience with him myself. But patience is the great essential in breaking, and in the use of it you will find that you get along much better. The mule is an unnatural animal, and hence more timid of man than the horse; and yet he is tractable, and capable of being taught to understand what you want him to do. And when he understands what you want, and has gained your confidence, you will, if you treat him kindly, have little trouble in making him perform his duty. In commencing to break the mule, take hold of him gently, and talk to him kindly. Don't spring at him, as if he were a tiger you were in dread of. Don't yell at him; don't jerk him; don't strike him with a club, as is too often done; don't get excited at his jumping and kicking. Approach and handle him the same as you would an animal already broken, and through kindness you will, in less than a week, have your mule more tractable, better broken, and kinder than you would in a month, had you used the whip. Mules, with very few exceptions, are born kickers. Breed them as you will, the moment they are able to stand up, and you put your hand on them, they will kick. It is, indeed, their natural means of defence, and they resort to it through the force of instinct. In commencing to break them, then, kicking is the first thing to guard against and overcome. The young mule kicks because he is afraid of a man. He has seen those intrusted with their care beat and abuse the older ones, and he very naturally fears the same treatment as soon as a man approaches him. Most persons intrusted with the care of these young and green mules have not had experience enough with them to know that this defect of kicking is soonest remedied by kind treatment. Careful study of the animal's nature and long experience with the animal have taught me that, in breaking the mule, whipping and harsh treatment almost invariably make him a worse kicker. They certainly make him more timid and afraid of you. And just as long as you fight a young mule and keep him afraid of you, just so long will you be in danger of his kicking you. You must convince him through kindness that you are not going to hurt or punish him. And the sooner you do this, the sooner you are out of danger from his feet. It may at times become necessary to correct the mule before he is subdued; but before doing so he should be well bridle or halter-broken, and also used to harness. He should also be made to know what you are whipping him for. In harnessing up a mule that will kick or strike with the forefeet, get a rope, or, as we term it in the army, a lariat. Throw, or put the noose of this over his head, taking care at the same time that it be done so that the noose does not choke him; then get the mule on the near side of a wagon, put the end of the lariat through the space between the spokes of the fore wheel, then pull the end through so that you can walk back with it to the hinder wheel (taking care to keep it tight), then pass it through the same, and pull the mule close to the wagon. In this position you can bridle and harness him without fear of being crippled. In putting the rope through the above places, it should be put through the wheels, so as to bring it as high as the mule's breast in front, and flanks in the rear. In making them fast in this way, they frequently kick until they get over the rope, or lariat; hence the necessity of keeping it as high up as possible. If you chance upon a mule so wild that you cannot handle him in this way, put a noose of the lariat in the mule's mouth, and let the eye, or the part where you put the end of the lariat through, be so as to form another noose. Set this directly at the root of the mule's ear, pull it tight on him, taking care to keep the noose in the same place. But when you get it pulled tight enough, let some one hold the end of the lariat, and, my word for it, you will bridle the mule without much further trouble. In hitching the mule to a wagon, if he be wild or vicious, keep the lariat the same as I have described until you get him hitched up, then slack it gently, as nearly all mules will buck or jump stiff-legged as soon as you ease up the lariat; and be careful not to pull the rope too tight when first put on, as by so doing you might split the mule's mouth. Let me say here that I have broken thousands of four and six-mule teams that not one of the animals had ever had a strap of harness on when I began with them, and I have driven six-mule teams for years on the frontier, but I have yet to see the first team of unbroken mules that could be driven with any degree of certainty. I do not mean to say that they cannot be got along the road; but I regard it no driving worthy of the name when a driver cannot get his team to any place where he may desire to go in a reasonable time--and this he cannot do with unbroken mules. With green or unbroken mules, you must chase or herd them along without the whip, until you get them to know that you want them to pull in a wagon. When you have got them in a wagon, pull their heads round in the direction you want them to go; then convince them by your kindness that you are not going to abuse them, and in twelve days' careful handling you will be able to drive them any way you please. In bridling the young mule, it is necessary to have a bit that will not injure the animal's mouth. Hundreds of mules belonging to the Government are, in a measure, ruined by using a bridle bit that is not much thicker than the wire used by the telegraph. I do not mean by this that the bridle bit used by the Government in its blind bridles is not well adapted to the purpose. If properly made and properly used, it is. Nor do I think any board of officers could have gotten up or devised a better harness and wagon for army purposes than those made in conformity with the decision of the board of officers that recommended the harness and wagon now used. The trouble with a great many of the bits is, that they are not made up to the regulations, and are too thin. And this bit, when the animal's head is reined up too tight, as army teamsters are very likely to do, is sure to work a sore mouth. There are few things in breaking the mule that should be so carefully guarded against as this. For as soon as the animal gets a sore mouth, he cannot eat well, and becomes fretful; then he cannot drink well, and as his mouth keeps splitting up on the sides, he soon gets so that he cannot keep water in it, and every swallow he attempts to take, the water will spirt out of the sides, just above the bit. As soon as the mule finds that he cannot drink without this trouble, he very naturally pushes his nose into the water above where his mouth is split, and drinks until the want of breath forces him to stop, although he has not had sufficient water. The animal, of course, throws up its head, and the stupid teamster, as a general thing, drives the mule away from the water with his thirst about half satisfied. Mules with their mouths split in this way are not fit to be used in the teams, and the sooner they are taken out and cured the better for the army and the Government. I have frequently seen Government trains detained several minutes, block the road, and throw the train into disorder, in order to give a mule with a split mouth time to drink. In making up teams for a train, I invariably leave out all mules whose mouths are not in a sound state, and this I do without regard to the kind or quality of the animal. But the mule's mouth can be saved from the condition I have referred to, if the bit be made in a proper manner. The bit should be one inch and seven-eighths round, and five inches in the draw, or between the rings. It should also have a sweep of one quarter of an inch to the five inches long. I refer now to the bit for the blind bridle. With a bit of this kind it is almost impossible to injure the mule's mouth, unless he is very young, and it cannot be done then if the animal is handled with proper care. There is another matter in regard to harnessing the mule which I deem worthy of notice here. Government teamsters, as a general thing, like to see a mule's head reined tightly up. I confess that, with all my experience, I have never seen the benefit there was to be derived from this. I always found that the mule worked better when allowed to carry his head and neck in a natural position. When not reined up at all, he will do more work, out-pull, and wear out the one that is. At present, nearly all the Government mule-teams are reined up, and worked with a single rein. This is the old Virginia way of driving mules. It used to be said that any negro knew enough to drive mules. I fear the Government has too long acted on that idea. I never heard but one reason given for reining the heads of a mule-team up tight, and that was, that it made the animals look better. The next thing requiring particular attention is the harnessing. During the war it became customary to cut the drawing-chains, or, as some call them, the trace-chains. The object of this was, to bring the mule close up to his work. The theory was taken from the strings of horses used in drawing railroad cars through cities. Horses that are used for hauling cars in this manner are generally fed morning, noon, and night; and are able to get out of the way of a swingle-tree, should it be let down so low as to work on the brakes, as it did too frequently in the army. Besides, the coupling of the car, or the part they attach the horse to, is two-thirds the height of a common-sized animal, which, it will be seen at a glance, is enough to keep the swingle-tree off his heels. Now, the tongue of a Government wagon is a very different thing. In its proper condition, it is about on an average height with the mule's hocks; and, especially during the last two years of the war, it was customary to pull the mule so close up to the swingle-tree that his hocks would touch it. The result of hitching in this manner is, that the mule is continually trying to keep out of the way of the swingle-tree, and, finding that he cannot succeed, he becomes discouraged. And as soon as he does this he will lag behind; and as he gets sore from this continual banging, he will spread his hind legs and try to avoid the blows; and, in doing this, he forgets his business and becomes irritable. This excites the teamster, and, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, he will beat and punish the animal cruelly, expecting thereby to cure him of the trouble. But, instead of pacifying the mule, he will only make him worse, which should, under no circumstances, be done. The proper course to pursue, and I say so from long experience, is to stop the team at once, and let all the traces out to a length that will allow the swingle-tree to swing half way between the hock and the heel of the hoof. In other words, give him room enough to step, between the collar and swingle-tree, so that the swingle-tree cannot touch his legs when walking at his longest stride. If the above rule be followed, the animal will not be apt to touch the swingle-tree. Indeed, it will not be apt to touch him, unless he be lazy; and, in that case, the sooner you get another mule the better. I say this because one lazy mule will spoil a good team, invariably. A lazy mule will be kept up to his work with a whip, you will say; but, in whipping a lazy animal, you keep the others in such a state of excitement that they are certain to get poor and valueless. There is another advantage in having the drawing-chains worked at the length I have described. It is this: The officers that formed the board that recommended the drawing-chain, also recommended a number of large links on one end of the chain, so that it could be made longer or shorter, as desired. If made in conformity with the recommendation of that board of officers, it can be let out so as to fit the largest sized mule, and can be taken up to fit the shortest. When I say this, I mean to include such animals as are received according to the standard of the Quartermaster-General's department. CHAPTER II. THE DISADVANTAGES OF WORKING MULES THAT ARE TOO YOUNG. A great many of the mules purchased by the Government during the war were entirely too young for use. This was particularly so in the West, where both contractor and inspector seemed anxious only to get the greatest number they could on the hands of the Government, without respect to age or quality. I have harnessed, or rather tried to harness, mules during the war, that were so young and small that you could not get collars small enough to fit them. As to the harness, they were almost buried in it. A great many of these small mules were but two years old. These animals were of no use to the Government for a long time. Indeed, the inspector might just as well have given his certificate for a lot of milk cows, so far as they added to our force of transportation. Another source of trouble has been caused through a mistaken opinion as to what a young mule could do, and how he ought to be fed. Employers and others, who had young mules under their charge during the war, had, as a general thing, surplus forage on hand. When they were in a place where nine pounds of grain could be procured, and fourteen of hay, the full allowance was purchased. The surplus resulting from this attracted notice, and many wondered why it was that the Government did not reduce the forage on the mule. These persons did not for a moment suspect, or imagine, that a three year old mule has so many loose teeth in his mouth as to be hardly able to crack a grain of corn, or masticate his oats. Another point in that case is this: at three years old, a mule is in a worse condition, generally, than he is at any other period in life. At three, he is more subject to distemper, sore eyes, and inflammation of all parts of the head and body. He becomes quite weak from not being able to eat, gets loose and gaunt, and is at that time more subject and more apt to take contagious diseases than at any other change he may go through. There is but one sure way to remedy this evil. Do not buy three year old mules to put to work that it requires a five or six year old mule to perform. Six three year old mules are just about as fit to travel fifteen miles per day, with an army wagon loaded with twenty-five hundred and their forage, as a boy, six years of age, is fit to do a man's work. During the first twelve months of the war, I had charge of one hundred and six mule-teams, and I noticed in particular, that not one solitary mule as high as six years old gave out on the trips that I made with the teams. I also noticed that, on most occasions, the three year olds gave out, or became so leg-weary that they could scarce walk out of the way of the swingle-tree, whereas those of four and upward would be bright and brisk, and able to eat their forage when they came to camp. The three year old mules would lie down and not eat a bite, through sheer exhaustion. I also noticed that nearly all the three year old mules that went to Utah, in 1857, froze to death that winter, while those whose ages varied from four, and up to ten, stood the winter and came out in the spring in good working condition. In August, 1855, I drove a six-mule team to Fort Riley, in Kansas Territory, from Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri River, loaded with twelve sacks of grain. It took us thirteen days to make the trip. When we reached Fort Riley there were not fifty mules, in the train of one hundred and fifty, that would have sold at public sale for thirty dollars, and a great many gave out on account of being too young and the want of proper treatment. In the fall of 1860, I drove a six-mule team, loaded with thirty hundred weight, twenty-five days' rations for myself and another man, and twelve days' storage for the team, being allowed twelve pounds to each mule per day. I drove this team to Fort Laramie, in Nebraska Territory, and from there to Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri River. I made the drive there and back in thirty-eight days, and laid over two and a half days out of that. The distance travelled was twelve hundred and thirty-six miles. After a rest of two days, I started with the same team, and drove to Fort Scott, in Kansas Territory, in five days, a distance of one hundred and twenty miles. I went with Harney's command, and, for the most part of the time, had no hay, and was forced to subsist our animals on dry prairie grass, and had a poor supply of even that. Notwithstanding this, I do not believe that any mule in the team lost as much as ten pounds of flesh. Each of these mules, let me say, was upward of five years old. In 1858, I took a train of mules to Camp Floyd, in Utah, forty-eight miles south of Salt Lake City; During the march there were days and nights that I could not get a drop of water for the animals. The young mules, three and four years old, gave out from sheer exhaustion; while the older ones kept up, and had to draw the wagons along. Now, there are many purposes to which a young mule may be put with advantage; but they are altogether unfit for army purposes, and the sooner the Government stops using them, the better. When they are purchased for army use, they are almost sure to be put into a train, and turned over to the tender mercies of some teamster, who knows nothing whatever about the character of the animal. And here let me say that thousands of the best mules in the army, during the war, were ruined and made useless to the Government on account of the incompetency and ignorance of the wagon-masters and teamsters who had to deal with them. Persons who own private teams and horses are generally particular to know the character of the person who takes care of them, and to ascertain that he knows his business. Is he a good driver? Is he a good groom? Is he careful in feeding and watering? These are the questions that are asked; and if he has not these qualities he will not do. But a teamster in the army has none of these questions put to him. No; he is intrusted with a valuable team, and expected to take proper care of it when he has not the first qualification to do so. If he is asked a question at all, it is merely if he has ever driven a team before. If he answer in the affirmative, and there are any vacancies, he is employed at once, though he may not know how to lead a mule by the head properly. This is not alone the case with teamsters. I have known wagon-masters who really did not know how to straighten out a six-mule team, or, indeed, put the harness on them properly. And yet the wagon-master has almost complete power over the train. It will be readily seen from this, how much valuable property may be destroyed by placing incompetent men in such places. Wagon-masters, it seems to me, should not be allowed, under any circumstances, to have or take charge of a train of animals of any kind until they are thoroughly competent to handle, harness, and drive a six-animal team. There is another matter which needs essential improvement. I refer now to the men who are placed as superintendents over our Government corrals and depots for animals. Many of these men know little of either the horse or the mule, and are almost entirely ignorant of what is necessary for transportation. A superintendent should have a thorough knowledge of the character and capacity of all kinds of animals necessary for a good team. He should know at sight the age and weight of animals, should be able to tell the most suitable place for different animals in a team, and where each would be of the most service. He should know all parts of his wagon and harness at a glance, be able to take each portion apart and put them together again, each in its proper shape and place, and, above all, he should have practical experience with all kinds of animals that are used in the army. This is especially necessary during war. CHAPTER III. COLOR, CHARACTER, AND PECULIARITIES OF MULES. After being in command of the upper corral, I was ordered, on the 7th of September, 1864, to take charge of the Eastern Branch Wagon Park, Washington. There were at that time in the park twenty-one six-mule trains. Each train had one hundred and fifty mules and two horses attached. There were times, however, when we had as many as forty-two trains of six-mule teams, with thirty men attached to each train. In a year from the above date we handled upward of seventy-four thousand mules, each and every one passing under my inspection and through my hands. In handling this large number of animals, I aimed to ascertain which was the best, the hardest, and the most durable color for a mule. I did this because great importance has been attached by many to the color of these animals. Indeed, some of our officers have made it a distinguishing feature. But color, I am satisfied, is no criterion to judge by. There is an exception to this, perhaps, in the cream-colored mule. In most cases, these cream-colored mules are apt to be soft, and they also lack strength. This is particularly so with those that take after the mare, and have manes and tails of the same color. Those that take after the jack generally have black stripes round their legs, black manes and tails, and black stripes down their backs and across their shoulders, and are more hardy and better animals. I have frequently seen men, in purchasing a lot of mules, select those of a certain color, fancying that they were the hardiest, and yet the animals would be widely different in their working qualities. You may take a black mule, black mane, black hair in his ears, black at the flank, between the hips or thighs, and black under the belly, and put him alongside of a similar sized mule, marked as I have described above, say light, or what is called mealy-colored, on each of the above-mentioned parts, put them in the same condition and flesh, of similar age and soundness, and, in many cases, the mule with the light-colored parts will wear the other out. It is very different with the white mule. He is generally soft, and can stand but little hardship. I refer particularly to those that have a white skin. Next to the white and cream, we have the iron-grey mule. This color generally indicates a hardy mule. We have now twelve teams of iron-gray mules in the park, which have been doing hard work every day since July, 1865; it is now January, 1866. Only one of these mules has become unfit for service, and that one was injured by being kicked by his mate. All our other teams have had more or less animals made unfit for service and exchanged. In speaking of the color of mules, it must not be inferred that there are no mules that are all of a color that are not hardy and capable of endurance. I have had some, whose color did not vary from head to foot, that were capable of great endurance. But in most cases, if kept steadily at work from the time they were three years old until they were eight or ten, they generally gave out in some part, and became an expense instead of profit. Various opinions are held as to what the mule can be made to do under the saddle, many persons asserting that in crossing the plains he can be made to perform almost equal to the horse. This is true on the prairie. But there he works with every advantage over the horse. In 1858, I rode a mule from Cedar Valley, forty-eight miles north of Salt Lake City, to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, a distance of nearly fourteen hundred miles. Starting from Cedar Valley on the 22d of October, I reached Fort Leavenworth on the 31st of December. At the end of the journey the animal was completely worn down. In this condition I put her into Fleming's livery stable, in Leavenworth City, and was asked if she was perfectly gentle. One would suppose that, in such a condition, she would naturally be so. I assured the hostler that she was; that I had ridden her nearly a year, and never knew her to kick. That same morning, when the hostler went to feed her, she suddenly became vicious, and kicked him very severely. She was then about twelve years old. I have since thought that when a mule gets perfectly gentle he is unfit for service. Proprietors of omnibuses, stage lines, and city railroads have, in many cases, tried to work mules, as a matter of economy; but, as a general thing, the experiment proved a failure, and they gave it up and returned to horses. The great reason for this failure was, that the persons placed in charge of them knew nothing of their disposition, and lacked that experience in handling them which is so necessary to success. But it must be admitted that, as a general thing, they are not well adapted for road or city purposes, no matter how much you may understand driving and handling them. The mule may be made to do good service on the prairies, in supplying our army, in towing canal boats in hauling cars inside of coal mines-- these are his proper places, where he can jog along and take his own time, patiently. Work of this kind would, however, in nearly all cases, break down the spirit of the horse, and render him useless in a very short time. I have seen it asserted that there were mules that had been known to trot in harness in three minutes. In all my experience, I have never seen any thing of the kind, and do not believe the mule ever existed that could do it. It is a remarkably good road horse that will do this, and I have never yet seen a mule that could compare for speed with a good roadster. I have driven mules, single and double, night and day, from two to ten in a team, and have handled them in every way that it is possible to handle them, and have in my charge at this time two hundred of the best mule teams in the world, and there is not a span among them that could be forced over the road in four minutes. It is true of the mule that he will stand more abuse, more beating, more straining and constant dogging at him than any other animal used in a team. But all the work you can get out of him, over and above an ordinary day's work, you have to work as hard as he does to accomplish. Some curious facts have come under my knowledge as to what the mule can endure. These facts also illustrate what can be done with the animal by persons thoroughly acquainted with his character. While on the plains, I have known Kiowa and Camanche Indians to break into our pickets during the night, and steal mules that had been pronounced completely broken down by white men. And these mules they have ridden sixty and sixty-five miles of a single night. How these Indians managed to do this, I never could tell. I have repeatedly seen Mexicans mount mules that our men had pronounced unfit for further service, and ride them twenty and twenty-five miles without stopping. I do not mention this to show that a Mexican can do more with the mule than an American. He cannot. And yet there seems to be some sort of fellow-feeling between these Mexicans and the mule. One seems to understand the other completely; and in disposition there is very little difference. And yet the Mexican is so brutish in dealing with animals, that I never allowed one of them to drive a Government team for me. Indeed, a low Mexican does not seem disposed to work for a man who will not allow him full latitude in the abuse of animals. _Packing Mules_.--The Mexican is a better packer than the American. He has had more experience, and understands all its details better than any other man. Some of our United States officers have tried to improve on the experience of the Greaser, and have made what they called an improvement on the Mexican pack-saddle. But all the attempts at improvement have been utter failures. The ranchero, on the Pacific side of the Sierra Nevadas, is also a good packer; and he can beat the Mexican lassoing cattle. But he is the only man in the United States who can. The reason for this is, that they went into that country when very young, and improved on the Mexican, by having cattle, mules, and horses round them all the time, and being continually catching them for the purpose of branding and marking. There is, in Old as well as New Mexico, a class of mules that are known to us as Spanish, or Mexican mules. These mules are not large, but for endurance they are very superior, and, in my opinion, cannot be excelled. I am not saying too much when I assert, that I have seen nothing in the United States that could compare with them. They can, apparently, stand any amount of starvation and abuse. I have had three Spanish mules in a train of twenty-five six-mule teams, and starting from Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on Colonel (since General) Sumner's expedition, in 1857, have travelled to Walnut Creek, on the Santa Fe route, a distance of three hundred miles, in nine days. And this in the month of August. The usual effects of hard driving, I noticed, showed but very little on them. I noticed also, along the march, that with a halt of less than three hours, feeding on grass that was only tolerably thick, they will fill up better and look in better condition for resuming the march, than one of our American mules that had rested five hours, and had the same forage. The breed, of course, has something to do with this. But the animal is smaller, more compact than our mules, and, of course, it takes less to fill him up. It stands to reason, that a mule with a body half as large as a hogshead cannot satisfy his hunger in the time it would take a small one. This is the secret of small mules outlasting large ones on the prairies. It takes the large one so long to find enough to eat, when the grass is scanty, that he has not time enough for rest and recuperation. I often found them leaving camp, in the morning, quite as hungry and discouraged as they were when we halted the previous evening. With the small mule it is different. He gets enough to eat, quick, and has time to rest and refresh himself. The Spanish or Mexican mule, however, is better as a pack animal, than for a team. They are vicious, hard to break, and two-thirds of them kick. In looking over a book, with the title of "Domestic Animals," I notice that the author, Mr. R.L. Allen, has copied from the official report of the Agricultural Committee of South Carolina, and asserts that a mule is fit for service sooner than a horse. This is not true; and to prove that it is not, I will give what I consider to be ample proof. In the first place, a mule at three years old is just as much and even more of a colt than a horse is. And he is as much out of condition, on account of cutting teeth, distemper, and other colt ailments, as it is possible to be. Get a three year old mule tired and fatigued, and in nine cases out of ten he will get so discouraged that it will be next to impossible to get him home or into camp. A horse colt, if able to travel at all, will work his way home cheerfully; but the young mule will sulk, and in many instances will not move an inch while life lasts. An honest horse will try to help himself, and do all he can for you, especially if you treat him kindly. The mule colt will, just as likely as not, do all he can to make it inconvenient for you and him. To show of how little service three year old mules are to the Government, I will give the number handled by me during part of 1864 and 1865. On the 1st of September, 1864, I had charge of five thousand and eighty-two mules; and during the same month I received two thousand two hundred and ten, and issued to the Armies of the Potomac, the James, and the Shenandoah, three thousand five hundred and seventy-one, which left us on hand, on the 1st of October, three thousand seven hundred and twenty-one. During the month of October we received only nine hundred and eighty, and issued two thousand five hundred and thirty, which left us on hand, on the 1st of November, two thousand one hundred and seventy-one. During November we received two thousand one hundred and eighty-six, and issued to the army one thousand seven hundred and fifty-seven, which left us on hand, on the 1st of December, two thousand four hundred and thirty mules. Now mark the deaths. During the month of September, 1864, there died in the corral fifteen mules. In October, six died. In November, three; and in December, eight. They were all two and three years old. On the 1st of May, 1865, we had on hand four thousand and twelve head, and received, during the same month, seven thousand nine hundred and fifty-eight. We issued, during the same month, fifteen thousand five hundred and sixty-three, leaving us on hand, on the 1st of June, six thousand four hundred and eighty-seven. During this month we received seven thousand nine hundred and fifty-one, and issued eleven thousand nine hundred and fifteen. Our mules during these months were sent out to be herded, and the total number of deaths during the time was twenty-four. But two of them were over four years old. Now, it occurs to me that it would be a great saving to the Government not to purchase any mules under four years old. This statement of deaths at the corral is as nothing when compared with the number of deaths of young mules in the field. It is, in fact, well established that fully two-thirds of the deaths in the field are of young animals under three years of age. This waste of animal life carries with it an expense it would be difficult to estimate, but which a remedy might easily be found for. Now, it is well known that when a mule has reached the age of four years, you will have very little trouble with him, so far as sickness and disease are concerned. Besides, at the age of four he is able to work, and work well; and he also understands better what you want him to do. The committee appointed to report on this subject say many mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn meal. This is something entirely new to me; and I am of opinion that more Government mules die because they do not get enough of this straw and meal. The same committee say, also, that in no instance have they known them to be inflicted with disease other than inflammation of the intestines, caused by exposure. I only wish that the members of that committee could have had access to the affidavits in the Quartermaster-General's department-- they would then have satisfied themselves that thousands of Government mules have died with almost every disease the horse is subject to. And I do not see why they should not be liable to the same diseases, since they derive life and animation from the horse. The mule that breeds closest after the jack, and is marked like him, is the hardiest, can stand fatigue the best, and is less liable to those diseases common to the horse; while those which breed close after the mare, and have no marks of the jack about them, are liable to all of them. In the beginning of this chapter I spoke of the color of mules. I will, in closing, make a few more remarks on that subject, which may interest the reader. We have now at work three dun-colored mules, that were transferred to the Army of the Potomac in 1862, and that went through all the campaigns of that army, and were transferred back to us in June, 1865. They had been steadily at work, and yet were in good condition, hardy, and bright, when they were turned in. These mules have a black stripe across their shoulders, down their backs, and are what is called "dark-colored duns." We also have the only full team that has gone through all the campaigns of the Army of the Potomac. It was fitted up at Annapolis, Md., in September, 1861, under Captain Santelle, A.Q.M. They are now in fine condition, and equal to any thing we have in the corral. The leaders are very fine animals. They are fourteen hands high, one weighing eight hundred, and the other eight hundred and forty-five pounds. One of the middle leaders weighs nine hundred, the other nine hundred and forty-seven pounds, and fourteen hands and a half high. CHAPTER IV. DISEASES MULES ARE LIABLE TO.--WHAT HE CAN DRAW, ETC., ETC. The committee also say that the mule is a more steady animal in his draft than the horse. I think this the greatest mistake the committee has made. You have only to observe the manner in which a dray or heavily-loaded wagon will toss a mule about, and the way he will toss himself around on the road, to be satisfied that the committee have formed an erroneous opinion on that point. In starting with a load, the mule, in many cases, works with his feet as if they were set on a pivot, and hence does not take so firm a hold of the ground as the horse does. I have never yet seen a mule in a dray or cart that could keep it from jolting him round. In the first place, he has not the power to steady a dray; and, in the second place, they never can be taught to do it. In fine, they have not the formation to handle a dray or cart. What, then, becomes of the idea that they are as steady in drays or teams as the horse. The committee also say that mules are not subject to such ailments as horses--spavin, glanders, ringbone, and bots. If I had the committee here, I would show its members that every other mule in the quartermasters' department, over fifteen and a half hands high, is either spavined, ringboned, or ill some way injured by the above-named diseases. The mule may not be so liable to spavin as the horse, but he has ringbone just the same. I cannot, for the life of me, see how the committee could have fallen into this error. There is this, however, to be taken into consideration: the mule is not of so sensitive a nature as the horse, and will bear pain without showing it in lameness. The close observer, however, can easily detect it. One reason why they do not show spavin and ringbone so much at the horse, is because our blacksmiths do not cut their heels as low as they do a horse's, and consequently that part of the foot is not made to work so hard. If you believe a mule has a ringbone, and yet is not lame, just cut his heel down low, and give him a few good pulls in a muddy place, and he will soon develop to you both lameness and ringbone. Cut his toes down and leave his heels high, and he will not be apt to go lame with it. The committee also say that a Mr. Elliott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, says they hardly ever had a mule die of disease. This is a strange statement; for the poorest teams I ever saw, and the very worst bred stock, were on the Patuxent River, through the southern part of Maryland, and at the markets on Washington City. It is pitiable to see, as you can on market days, the shabby teams driven by the farmers of eastern and southern Maryland. A more broken-hearted, poverty-stricken, and dejected-looking set of teams can be seen nowhere else. The people of Maryland have raised good horses; it is high time they waked up to the necessity, and even profit, of raising a better kind of mule. In regard to the draft power of mules, in comparison with horses, there are various opinions; and yet it is one which ought to be easily settled. I have tested mules to the very utmost of their strength, and it was very rare to find a pair that could draw thirty hundred weight a single year, without being used up completely. Now, it is well known that in the northern and western States you can find any number of pairs of horses that will draw thirty-five and forty hundred weight anywhere. And they will keep doing it, day after day, and retain their condition. There was one great difficulty the Agricultural Committee of South Carolina had to contend with, and it was this. At the time it had the subject of the mule under consideration, he was not used generally throughout the United States. I can easily understand, therefore, that the committee obtained its knowledge from the very few persons who had them, and made the best report it could under the circumstances. Indeed, I firmly believe the report was written with the intention of giving correct information, but it failed entirely. In recommending any thing of this kind, great care should be taken not to lead the inexperienced astray, and to give only such facts as are obtained from thorough knowledge; and no man should be accepted as authority in the care and treatment of animals, unless he has had long experience with them, and has made them a subject of study. A few words more on breaking the mule. Don't fight or abuse him. After you have harnessed him, and he proves to be refractory, keep your own temper, slack your reins, push him round, backward and forward, not roughly; and if he will not go, and do what you want, tie him to a post and let him stand there a day or so without food or water. Take care, also, that he does not lie down, and be careful to have a person to guard him, so that he does not foul in the harness. If he will not go, after a day or two of this sort of treatment, give him one or two more of it, and my word for it, he will come to his senses and do any thing you want from that time forward. Some persons assert that the mule is a very cunning animal; others assert that he is dull and stupid, and cannot be made to understand what you want. He is, I admit, what may be called a tricky animal; but, for experiment sake, just play one or two tricks with him, and he will show you by his action that he understands them well. Indeed, he knows a great deal more than he generally gets credit for, and few animals are more capable of appreciating proper treatment. Like many other species of animal, there are scarcely two to be found of precisely the same temper and disposition, if we except the single vice of kicking, which they will all do, especially when well fed and rested. And we can excuse even this vice in consideration of the fact, that the mule is not a natural animal, but only an invention of man. Some persons are inclined to think that, when a mule is a kicker, he has not been properly broken. I doubt if you can break a mule so that he will not kick a stranger at sight, especially if he be under six years old. The only way to keep a mule from kicking you is to handle it a great deal when young, and accustom it to the ways and actions of men. You must through kindness convince it that you are not going to harm or abuse it; and you can do that best by taking hold of it in a gentle manner every time it appears to be frightened. Such treatment I have always found more effective than all the beating and abusing you can apply. There is another fault the mule has to contend against. It is the common belief among teamsters and others that he has less confidence in man than the horse has, and to improve this they almost invariably apply the whip. The reason for this want of confidence is readily found in the fact that mule colts are never handled with that degree of kindness and care that horse colts are. They are naturally more stubborn than the horse, and most of those persons who undertake to halter or harness them for the first time are even more stubborn in their disposition than the mule. They commence to break the animal by beating him in the most unmerciful manner, and that at once so excites the mule's stubbornness, that many of them, in this condition, would not move an inch if you were to cut them to pieces. And let me say here that nothing should be so much avoided in breaking this animal as the whip. The young, unbroken mule cannot be made to understand what you are whipping him for. It is a habit with mule drivers in the army, many of whom are men without feeling for a dumb animal, to whip mules just to hear their whips crack, and to let others hear with what dexterity they can do it. It has a very bad effect on the animals, and some means should be applied to stop it. Army teamsters and stable-men seem to regard it as a virtue to be cruel to animals. They soon cultivate vicious habits, and a bad temper seems to grow up with their occupation. It naturally follows, then, that in the treatment of their animals they do just what they ought not to do. The Government has been a very severe sufferer by this; and I contend that during a war it is just as necessary to have experienced and well trained teamsters as it is to have hardened and well trained soldiers. The mule is peculiar in his dislikes. Many of them, when first harnessed, so dislike a blind bridle that they will not work in it. When you find this, let him stand for say a day in the blinders, and then take them off, and in forty-nine cases out of fifty he will go at once. It has been said that the mule never scares or runs away. This is not true. He is not so apt to get frightened and run away as the horse is. But any one who has had long experience with them in the army knows that they will both get frightened and run away. They do not, however, lose all their senses when they get frightened and run away, as the horse does. Bring a mule back after he has run away, and in most cases he will not want to do it again. A horse that has once run away, however, is never safe afterward. Indeed, in all the tens of thousands of mules that I have handled, I never yet found an habitual runaway. Their sluggish nature does not incline them to such tricks. If a team attempts to run away, one or two of them will fall down before they have gone far, and this will stop the remainder. Attempt to put one up to the same speed you would a horse, over a rough road, and you will have performed wonders if he does not fall and break your bones. The mule, especially if large, cannot stand hard roads and pavements. His limbs are too small for his body, and they generally give out. You will notice that all good judges of road and trotting horses like to see a good strong bone in the leg. This is actually necessary. The mule, you will notice, is very deficient in leg, and generally have poor muscle. And many of them are what is called cat-hammed. _Working Condition of Mules_.--Most persons, when they see a good, fat, slick mule, are apt to exclaim: "What a fine mule there is!" He takes it for granted that because the animal is fat, tall, and heavy, he must be a good work animal. This, however, is no criterion to judge by. A mule, to be in good condition for work, should never be any fatter than what is known as good working condition. One of fourteen and a half hands high, to be in good working condition, should not weigh over nine hundred and fifty pounds. One of fifteen hands high should not weigh over one thousand pounds. If he does, his legs will in a very short time give out, and he will have to go to the hospital. In working a mule with too much flesh, it will produce curbs, spavin, ringbone, or crooked hocks. The muscles and tendons of their small legs are not capable of carrying a heavy weight of body for any length of time. He may not, as I have said before, show his blemishes in lameness, but it is only because he lacks that fine feeling common to the horse. I have, singular as it may seem, known mules that have been spavined, curbed, and ringboned, and yet have been worked for years without exhibiting lameness. Avoid spotted, or dapple mules; they are the very poorest animal you can get. They cannot stand hard work, and once they get diseased and begin to lose strength, there is no saving them. The Mexicans call them pintos, or painted mules. We call them calico Arabians or Chickasaws. They have generally bad eyes, which get very sore during the heat and dust of summer, when many of them go blind. Many of the snow-white mules are of the same description, and about as useless. Mules with the white muzzle, or, as some term it, white-nore white, and with white rings round the eyes, are also of but little account as work mules. They can stand no hardship of any kind. Government, at least, should never purchase them. In purchasing mules, you must look well to the age, form, height, eyes, size of bone and muscle, and disposition; for these are of more importance than his color. Get these right and you will have a good animal. If any gentleman wants to purchase a mule for the saddle, let him get one bred closer after the mare than the jack. They are more docile, handle easier, and are more tractable, and will do what you want with less trouble than the other. If possible, also, get mare mules; they are much more safe and trusty under the saddle, and less liable to get stubborn. They are also better than a horse mule for team purposes. In short, if I were purchasing mules for myself, I would give at least fifteen dollars more for mare mules than I would for horse. They are superior to the horse mule in every way. One reason is, that they possess all their natural faculties, while you deprive the horse of his by altering. The most disagreeable and unmanageable, and I was going to say useless, animal in the world, is a stud mule. They are no benefit to anybody, and yet they are more troublesome than any other animal. They rarely ever get fat, and are always fretting; and it is next to impossible to keep them from breaking loose and getting at mares. Besides, they are exceedingly dangerous to have amongst horses. They will frequently fly at the horse, like a tiger, and bite, tear, and kick him to pieces. I have known them to shut their eyes, become furious, and dash over both man and beast to get at a mare. It is curious, also, that a white mare seems to have the greatest attractions for them. I have known a stud mule to take a fancy to a white mare, and it seemed impossible to keep him away from her. Mules of all kinds, however, seem to have a peculiar fancy for white mares and horses, and when this attachment is once formed, it is almost impossible to separate them. If you want to drive a herd of five hundred mules any distance, turn a white or gray mare in among them for two or three days, and they will become so attached to her that you may turn them out, and they will follow her anywhere. Just let a man lead the mare, and with two men mounted you can manage the whole herd almost as well as if they were in a team. Another way to lead mules is, to put a bell on the mare's neck. The mules will listen for that bell like a lot of school children, and will follow its tinkling, with the same instinct. Another curious thing about the mule is this: You may hitch him up to-day for the first time, and he may become sullen and refuse to go a step for you. This may be very provoking, and perhaps excite your temper; but do not let it, for ten chances to one, if you take him out of the harness to-day and put him in again to-morrow, that he will go right off, and do any thing you want him. It is best always to get a young mule well used to the harness before you try to work him in a team. When you get him so that he is not afraid of the harness, you may consider your mule two-thirds broke. I have seen it asserted that a team of mules was more easily handled than a team of horses. It is impossible that this can be so, for the reason that you never can make a mule as bridle-wise as a horse. To further prove that this cannot be so, let any reinsman put as many mules together as there are horses in the "band wagon" of a show, or circus, and see what he can do with them. There is not a driver living who can rein them with the same safety that he can a horse, and for the very reason, that whenever the mule finds that he has the advantage of you, he will keep it in spite of all you can do. _Mule Raising_.--I never could understand why it was that almost every person, that raises stock, recommends big, ugly gollips of mares, for mule-breeding. The principle is certainly a wrong one, as a little study of nature must show. To produce a good, well-proportioned mule, you must have a good, compact, and serviceable mare. It is just as necessary as in the crossing of any other animal. It certainly is more profitable to raise good animals than poor ones; and you cannot raise good mules from bad mares, no matter what the jack is. You invariably see the bad mare in the flabby, long-legged mule. It has been held by some of our officers, that the mule was a better animal for Government service, because he required less care and feed than the horse, and would go longer without water. This, again, is a grave mistake. The mule, if properly taken care of, requires nearly as much forage as the horse, and should be groomed and cared for just the same. I refer now to team animals. Such statements do a great deal of injury, inasmuch as they encourage the men who have charge of animals to neglect and abuse them. The teamster who hears his superior talk in this way will soon take advantage of it. Animals of all kinds, in a wild and natural state, have a way of keeping themselves clean. If left wild, the mule would do it. But when man deprives them of the privileges by tying them up and domesticating them, he must assist them in the most natural way to keep themselves clean. And this assistance the animal appreciates to its fullest extent. _How to Handle a Mule Colt._--Owners and raisers of mules should pay more attention to their habits when young. And I would give them this advice: When the colt is six months old, put a halter on him and let the strap hang loose. Let your strap be about four feet long, so that it will drag on the ground. The animal will soon accustom himself to this; and when he has, take up the end and lead him to the place where you have been accustomed to feed him. This will make him familiar with you, and increase his confidence. Handle his ears at times, but don't squeeze them, for the ear is the most sensitive part of this animal. As soon as he lets you handle his ears familiarly, put a loose bridle on him. Put it on and take it off frequently. In this way you will secure the colt's confidence, and he will retain it until you need him for work. Speaking of the sensitiveness of the mule's ear, a scratch, or the slightest injury to it, will excite their stubbornness and make them afraid of you. I have known a mule's ear to be scratched by rough handling, and for months afterward it was with the greatest difficulty you could bridle him. Nothing is more important than that you should bridle a young mule properly. I have found from experience that the best way is this: stand on the near side, of course; take the top of the bridle in your right hand, and the bit in your left; pass your arm gently over his eye until that part of the arm bends his ear down, then slip the bit into his mouth, and at the same time let your hand be working slowly with the bearings still on his head and neck, until you have arranged the head-stall. It would be a saving of thousands of dollars to the Government, if, in purchasing mules, it could get them all halter and bridle-broken. Stablemen, in the employ of the Government, will not take the trouble to halter and bridle-break them properly; and I have seen hundreds of mules, in the City of Washington, totally ruined by tying them up behind wagons while young, and literally dragging them through the streets. These mules had never, perhaps, had a halter on before. I have seen them, while tied in this manner, jump back, throw themselves down, and be dragged on the ground until they were nearly dead. And what is worse, the teamster invariably seeks to remedy this by beating them. In most cases, the teamster would see them dragged to death before he would give them a helping hand. If he knew how to apply a proper remedy, very likely he would not give himself the trouble to apply it. I have never been able to find out how this pernicious habit of tying mules behind wagons originated; but the sooner an order is issued putting a stop to it, the better, for it is nothing less than a costly torture. The mule, more than any other animal, wants to see where he is going. He cannot do this at the tail of an army wagon, though it is an excellent plan for him to get his head bruised or his brains knocked out. Some persons charge it as an habitual vice with the mule to pull back. I have seen horses contract that vice, and continue it until they killed themselves. But, in all my experience with the mule, I never saw one in which it was a settled vice. During the time I had charge of the receiving and issuing of horses to the army, I had a great many horses injured seriously by this vice of pulling back. Some of these horses became so badly injured in the spine that I had to send them to the hospital, then under the charge of Dr. L.H. Braley. Some were so badly injured that they died in fits; others were cured. Even when the mule gets his neck sore, he will endure it like the ox, and instead of pulling back, as the horse will, he will come right up for the purpose of easing it. They do not, as some suppose, do this because of their sore, but because they are not sensitive like the horse. _Packing Mules_.--In looking over a copy of Mason's Farrier, or Stud Book, by Mr. Skinner, I find it stated that a mule is capable of packing six or eight hundred pounds. Mr. Skinner has evidently never packed mules, or he would not have made so erroneous a statement. I have been in all our Northern and Western Territories, in Old and New Mexico, where nearly all the business is done by pack animals, mules, and asses; and I have also been among the tribes of Indians bordering on the Mexican States, where they have to a great extent adopted the Spanish method of packing, and yet I never saw an instance when a mule could be packed six or eight hundred pounds. Indeed, the people in these countries would ridicule such an assertion. And here I purpose to give the result of my own experience in packing, together with that of several others who have long followed the business. I also purpose to say something on what I consider the best mode of packing, the weight suitable for each animal, and the relative gain or loss that might result from this method of transportation, as compared with transportation by wagon. In the first place, packing ought never to be resorted to, because it cannot be done with profit, where the roads are good and wagons and animals are to be had. In mountains, over deserts and plains of sand, where forage is scant, and water only to be had at long intervals, then the pack is a necessity, and can be used with profit. Let it be understood, also, that in packing, the Spanish pack-mule, as as well as saddle, is the most suitable. Second: The Spanish method of packing is, above all others, the most ancient, the best and most economical. With it the animal can carry a heavier burden with less injury to himself. Third: The weight to be packed, under ever so favorable circumstances, should never be over four hundred and fifty pounds. Fourth: The American pack-saddle is a worthless thing, and should never be used when any considerable amount of weight is required to be packed. If I had previously entertained any doubt in regard to this American pack-saddle, it was removed by what came under my observation three years ago. While employed in the quartermasters' depot, at Washington, D.C., as superintendent of the General Hospital Stables, we at one time received three hundred mules, on which the experiment of packing with this saddle had been tried in the Army of the Potomac. It was said this was one of General Butterfield's experiments. These animals presented no evidence of being packed more than once; but such was the terrible condition of their backs that the whole number required to be placed at once under medical treatment. Officers of the army who knew Dr. Braley, know how invariably successful he has been in the treatment of Government animals, and how carefully he treats them. Yet, in spite of all his skill, and with the best of shelter, fifteen of these animals died from mortification of their wounds and injuries of the spine. The remainder were a very long time in recovering, and when they did, their backs, in many cases, were scarred in such a manner as to render them unfit ever after for being used for a similar purpose. The use of the American pack-saddle, and lack of knowledge on the part of those in charge as to what mules were suitable for packing, did this. The experienced packer would have seen at a glance that a large portion of these mules were utterly unfit for the business. The experiment was a wretched failure, but cost the Government some thousands of dollars. I ought to mention, however, that the class of mules on which this experiment was tried were loose, leggy animals, such as I have heretofore described as being almost unfit for any branch of Government service. But, by all means, let the Government abandon the American pack-saddle until some further improvements are made in it. Now, as to the weight a mule can pack. I have seen the Delaware Indians, with all their effects packed on mules, going out on a buffalo hunt. I have seen the Potawatamies, the Kickapoos, the Pawnees, the Cheyennes, Pi-Ute, Sioux, Arapahoes, and indeed almost every tribe that use mules, pack them to the very extent of their strength, and never yet saw the mule that could pack what Mr. Skinner asserts. More than that, I assert here that you cannot find a mule that will pack even four hundred pounds, and keep his condition sixty days. Eight hundred pounds, Mr. Skinner, is a trying weight for a horse to drag any distance. What, then, must we think of it on the back of a mule? The officers of our quartermasters' department, who have been out on the plains, understand this matter perfectly. Any of these gentlemen will tell you that there is not a pack train of fifty mules in existence, that can pack on an average for forty days, three hundred pounds to the animal. I will now give you the experience of some of the best mule packers in the country, in order to show that what has been written in regard to the mule's strength is calculated to mislead the reader. In 1856, William Anderson, a man whom I know well, packed from the City of Del Norte to Chihuahua and Durango, in Mexico, a distance of five hundred miles or thereabout. Anderson and a man of the name of Frank Roberts had charge of the pack train. They had seventy-five mules, and used to pack boxes of dry goods, bales, and even barrels. They had two Mexican drivers, and travelled about fifteen miles a day, at most, though they took the very best of care of their animals. Now, the very most it was possible for any mule in this train to get along with was two hundred and seventy-five pounds. More than this, they did not have over twenty-five mules out of the whole number that could pack two hundred and fifty pounds, the average weight to the whole train being a little less than two hundred pounds. To make this fifteen miles a day, they had to make two drives, letting the animals stop to feed whenever they had made seven or eight miles. In 1858, this same Anderson packed for the expedition sent after the Snake Indians. His train consisted of some two hundred and fifty or three hundred mules. They packed from Cordelaine Mission to Walla Walla, in Oregon. The animals were of a very superior kind, selected for the purpose of packing out of a very large lot. Some of the very best of these mules were packed with three hundred pounds, but at the end of two weeks gave out completely. In 1859, this same Anderson packed for a gentleman of the name of David Reese, living at the Dalles, in Portland, Oregon. His train consisted of fifty mules, in good average condition, many of them weighing nine hundred and fifty pounds, and from thirteen to fourteen hands high. His average packing was two hundred and fifty pounds. The distance was three hundred miles, and it occupied forty days in going and returning. Such was the severity of the labor that nearly two-thirds of the animals became poor, and their backs so sore as to be unfit for work. This trip was made from the Dalles, in Oregon, to Salmon Falls, on the Columbia River. Anderson asserts it, as the result of his experience, that, in packing fifty mules a distance of three hundred miles with two hundred and fifty pounds, the animals will be so reduced at the end of the journey as to require at least four weeks to bring them into condition again. This also conforms with my own experience. In 1857, there was started from Fort Laramie, Nebraska Territory, to go to Fort Bridger with salt, a train of forty mules. It was in the winter; each mule was packed with one hundred and eighty pounds, as near as we could possibly estimate, and the train was given in charge of a man of the name of Donovan. The weather and roads were bad, and the pack proved entirely too heavy. Donovan did all he could to get his train through, but was forced to leave more than two-thirds of it on the way. At that season of the year, when grass is poor and the weather bad, one hundred and forty or one hundred and fifty pounds is enough for any mule to pack. There were also, in 1857, regular pack trains run from Red Bluffs, on the Sacramento River, in California, to Yreka and Curran River. Out of all the mules used in these trains, none were packed with over two hundred pounds. To sum up, packing never should be resorted to when there is any other means of transportation open. It is, beyond doubt, the most expensive means of transportation, even when the most experienced packers are employed. If, however, it were necessary for the Government to establish a system of packing, it would be a great saving to import Mexicans, accustomed to the work, to perform the labor, and Americans to take charge of the trains. Packing is a very laborious business, and very few Americans either care about doing it, or have the patience necessary to it. CHAPTER V. PHYSICAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE MULE. I now propose to say something on the mule's limbs and feet. It will be observed that the mule has a jack's leg from the knee down, and in this part of the leg he is weak; and with these he frequently has to carry a horse's body. It stands to reason, then, that if you feed him until he gets two or three hundred pounds of extra flesh on him, as many persons do, he will break down for want of leg-strength. Indeed, the mule is weakest where the horse is strongest. His feet, too, are a singular formation, differing very materially from those of the horse. The mule's feet grow very slow, and the grain or pores of the hoof are much closer and harder than those of the horse. It is not so liable, however, to break or crumble. And yet they are not so well adapted for work on macadamized or stony roads, and the more flesh you put on his body, after a reasonable weight, the more you add to the means of his destruction. Observe, for instance, a farmer's mule, or a poor man's mule working in the city. These persons, with rare exceptions, feed their mules very little grain, and they are generally in low flesh. And yet they last a very long time, notwithstanding the rough treatment they get. When you feed a mule, you must adjust the proportions of his body to the strength of his limbs and the kind of service he is required to perform. Experience has taught me, that the less you feed a mule below what he will eat clean, just that amount of value and life is kept out of him. In relation to feeding animals. Some persons boast of having horses and mules that eat but little, and are therefore easily kept. Now, when I want to get a horse or a mule, these small eaters are the last ones I would think of purchasing. In nine cases out of ten, you will find such animals out of condition. When I find animals in the Government's possession, that cannot eat the amount necessary to sustain them and give them proper strength, I invariably throw them out, to be nursed until they will eat their rations. Animals, to be kept in good condition, and fit for proper service, should eat their ten and twelve quarts of grain per head per day, with hay in proportion--say, twelve pounds. I wish here again to correct a popular error, that the mule does not eat, and requires much less food than the horse. My experience has been, that a mule, twelve hands high, and weighing eight hundred pounds, will eat and, indeed, requires just as much as a horse of similar dimensions. Give them similar work, keep then in a stable, or camp them out during the winter months, and the mule will eat more than the horse will or can. A mule, however, will eat almost any thing rather than starve. Straw, pine boards, the bark of trees, grain sacks, pieces of old leather, do not come amiss with him when he is hungry. There were many instances, during the late war, where a team of mules were found, of a morning, standing over the remains of what had, the evening before, been a Government wagon. When two or more have been kept tied to a wagon, they have been known to eat each other's tail off to the bone, And yet the animal, thus deprived of his caudal appendage, did not evince much pain. In the South, many of the plantations are worked with mules, driven by negroes. The mule seems to understand and appreciate the negro; and the negro has a sort of fellow-feeling for the mule. Both are sluggish and stubborn, and yet they get along well together. The mule, too, is well suited to plantation labor, and will outlast a horse at it. The soil is also light and sandy, and better suited to the mule's feet. A negro has not much sympathy for a work-horse, and in a short time will ruin him with abuse, whereas he will share his corn with the mule. Nor does the working of the soil on southern plantations overtax the power of the mule. _The Value of Harnessing properly_.--In working any animal, and more especially the mule, it is both humane and economical to have him harnessed properly, Unless he be, the animal cannot perform the labor he is capable of with ease and comfort, And you cannot watch too closely to see that every thing works in its right place. Begin with the bridle, and see that it does not chafe or cut him, The army blind-bridle, with the bit alteration attached, is the very best bridle that can be used on either horse or mule. Be careful, however, that the crown-piece is not attached too tight. Be careful, also, that it does not draw the sides of the animal's mouth up into wrinkles, for the bit, working against these, is sure to make the animal's mouth sore. The mule's mouth is a very difficult part to heal, and once it gets sore he becomes unfit for work. Your bridle should be fitted well to the mule's head before you attempt to work him in it. Leave your bearing-line slack, so as to allow the mule the privilege of learning to walk easy with harness on. It is too frequently the case, that the eyes of mules that are worked in the Government's service are injured by the blinds being allowed to work too close to the eyes. This is caused by the blind-stay being too tight, or perhaps not split far enough up between the eyes and ears. This stay should always be split high enough up to allow the blinds to stand at least one inch and a half from the eye. Another, and even more essential part of the harness is the collar. More mules are maimed and even ruined altogether by improperly fitting collars, than is generally believed by quartermasters. It requires more judgment to fit a collar properly on a mule than it does to fit any other part of the harness. Get your collar long enough to buckle the strap close up to the last hole. Then examine the bottom, and see that there be room enough between the mule's neck or wind-pipe to lay your open hand in easily. This will leave a space between the collar and the mule's neck of nearly two inches. Aside from the creased neck, mules' necks are nearly all alike in shape, They indeed vary as little in neck as they do in feet; and what I say on the collar will apply to them all, The teamster has always the means in his own hands of remedying a bad fitting collar. If the animal does not work easy in it, if it pinch him somewhere, let it remain in water over night, put it on the animal wet the next morning, and in a few minutes it will take the exact formation of the animal's neck. See that it is properly fitted above and below to the hames, then the impression which the collar takes in a natural form will be superior to the best mechanical skill of the best harness-maker. There is another thing about collars, which, in my opinion, is very important. When you are pursuing a journey with teams of mules, where hay and grain are scarce, the animals will naturally become poor, and their necks get thin and small. If once the collar becomes too large, and you have no way of exchanging it for a smaller one, of course you must do the next best thing you can. Now, first take the collar off the animal, lay it on a level, and cut about one inch out of the centre. When you have done this, try it on the animal again; and if it still continues too large take a little more from each side of the centre until you get it right. In this way you can effect the remedy you need. In performing a long journey, the animals will, if driven hard, soon show you where the collar ought to be cut, They generally get sore on the outer part of the shoulder, and this on account of the muscle wasting away. Teamsters on the plains and in the Western Territories cut all the collars when starting on a trip. It takes less time afterward to fit them to the teams, and to harness and unharness. When you find out where the collar has injured the shoulder, cut it and take out enough of the stuffing to prevent the leather from touching the sore. In this way the animal will soon get sound-shouldered again. Let the part of the leather you cut hang loose, so that when you take the stuffing out you may put it back and prevent any more than is actually necessary from coming out. See that your hames fit well, for they are a matter of great importance in a mule's drawing. Unless your hames fit your collar well, you are sure to have trouble with your harness, and your mule will work badly. Some persons think, because a mule can be accustomed to work with almost any thing for a harness, that money is saved in letting him do it. This is a great mistake. You serve the best economy when you harness him well and make his working comfortable. Indeed, a mule can do more work with a bad-fitting collar and harness than a man can walk with a bad-fitting boot. Try your hames on, and draw them tight enough at the top of the mule's neck, so that they will not work or roll round. They should be tight enough to fit well without pinching the neck or shoulder, and in fine, fit as neatly as a man's shirt-collar. Do not get the bulge part of your collar down too low. If you do, you interfere with the machinery that propels the mule's fore legs. Again, if you raise it too high, you at once interfere with his wind. There is an exact place for the bulge of the collar, and it is on the point of the mule's shoulder. Some persons use a pad made of sheepskin on the toe of the collar. Take it off, for it does no good, and get a piece of thick leather, free from wrinkles, ten or twelve inches long and seven wide; slit it crosswise an inch or so from each end, leaving about an inch in the centre. Fit this in, in place of the pad of sheepskin, and you will have a cheaper, more durable, and cooler neck-gear for the animal. You cannot keep a mule's neck in good condition with heating and quilted pads. The same is true of padded saddles. I have perhaps ridden as much as any other man in the service, of my age, and yet I never could keep a horse's back in good condition with a padded saddle when I rode over twenty-five or thirty miles a day. There is another evil which ought to be remedied. I refer now to the throat-latch. Hundreds of mules are in a measure ruined by allowing the throat-latch to be worked too tight. A tight throat-latch invariably makes his head sore. Besides, it interferes with a part which, if it were not for, you would not have the mule--his wind. I have frequently known mules' heads so injured by the throat-latch that they would not allow you to bridle them, or indeed touch their heads. And to bridle a mule with a sore head requires a little more patience than nature generally supplies man with. Let a mule's ears alone. It is very common with teamsters and others, when they want to harness mules, to catch them by the ears, put twitches on their ears. Even blacksmiths, who certainly ought to know better, are in the habit of putting tongs and twitches in their ears when they shoe them. Now, against all these barbarous and inhuman practices, I here, in the name of humanity, enter my protest. The animal becomes almost worthless by the injuries caused by such practices. There are extreme cases in which the twitch may be resorted to, but it should in all cases be applied to the nose, and only then when all milder means have failed. But there is another, and much better, method of handling and overcoming the vices of refractory mules. I refer to the lariat. Throw the noose over the head of the unruly mule, then draw him carefully up to a wagon, as if for the purpose of bridling him. In case he is extremely hard to bridle, or vicious, throw an additional lariat or rope over his head, fixing it precisely as represented in the drawing. By this method you can hold any mule. But even this method had better be avoided unless where it is absolutely necessary. It is now August, 1866. We are working five hundred and fifty-eight animals, from six o'clock in the morning until seven o'clock at night, and out of this number we have not got ten sore or galled animals. The reason is, because we do not use a single padded saddle or collar. Also, that the part of the harness that the heaviest strain comes on is kept as smooth and pliable as it is possible for it to be. Look well to your drawing-chains, too, and see that they are kept of an even length. If your collar gets gummy or dirty, don't scrape it with a knife; wash it, and preserve the smooth surface. Your breeching, or wheel harness, is also another very important part; see that it does not cut and chafe the animal so as to wear the hair off, or injure the skin. If you get this too tight, it is impossible for the animal to stretch out and walk free. Besides obstructing the animal's gait, however, the straps will hold the collar and hames so tight to his shoulder as to make him sore on the top of his neck. These straps should always be slack enough to allow the mule perfect freedom when at his best walk. And now I have a few words to say on Government wagons. Government wagons, as now made, can be used for other purposes besides the army. The large-sized Government wagon is, it has been proved, too heavy for four horses. The smaller sized one is nearer right; but whenever you take an ordinary load on it (the smaller one) and have a rough country to move through, it will give out. It is too heavy for two horses and a light load, and yet not heavy enough to carry twenty-five hundred or three thousand pounds, a four-horse load, when the roads are in any way bad. They do tolerably well about cities, established posts, and indeed anywhere where the roads are good, and they are not subject to much strain. Improvements on the Government wagon have been attempted, but the result has been failure. The more simple you can get such wagons, the better, and this is why the original yet stands as the best. There is, however, great difference in the material used, and some makers make better wagons than others. The six and eight-mule wagon, the largest size used for road and field purposes, is, in my humble opinion, the very best adapted to the uses of our American army. During the rebellion there were a great many wagons used that were not of the army pattern. One of these, I remember, was called the Wheeling wagon, and used to a great extent for light work, and did well. On this account many persons recommended them. I could not, and for this reason: they are too complicated, and they are much too light to carry the ordinary load of a six-mule team. At the end of the war it was shown that the army pattern wagon had been worked more, had been repaired less, and was in better condition than any other wagon used. I refer now to those made in Philadelphia, by Wilson & Childs, or Wilson, Childs & Co. They are known in the army as the Wilson wagon. The very best place to test the durability of a wagon is on the plains. Run it there, one summer, when there is but little wet weather, where there are all kinds of roads to travel on and loads to carry, and if it stands that it will stand any thing. The wagon-brake, instead of the lock-chain, is a great and very valuable improvement made during the War. Having a brake on the wagon saves the time and trouble of stopping at the top of every hill to lock the wheels, and again at the bottom to unlock them. Officers of the army know how much trouble this used to cause, how it used to block up the roads, and delay the movements of troops impatient to get ahead. The lock-chain ground out the wagon tire in one spot. The brake saves that; and it also saves the animal's neck from that bruising and chafing incident to the dead strain that was required when dragging the locked wheel. There is another difficulty that has been overcome by the wagon-brake. In stopping to lock wheels on the top of a hill, your train get into disorder. In most cases, when trains are moving on the road, there is a space of ten or fifteen feet between the wagons. Each team, then, will naturally close up that space as it comes to the place for halting to lock. Now, about the time the first teamster gets his wheel locked, the one in the rear of him is dismounting for the same purpose. This being repeated along the train, it is not difficult to see how the space must increase, and irregularity follow. The more wagons you have to lock with the drag-chain, the further you get the teams apart. When you have a large body of wagons moving together, it naturally follows that, with such a halt as this, the teams in the rear must make twenty-five halts, or stops, and starts, for everyone that the head team makes. When the teamster driving the second team gets ready to lock, the first, or head team, starts up. This excites the mule of the second to do the same, and so all along the train. This irritates the teamster, and he is compelled to run up and catch the wheel-mules by the head, to make them stop, so that he can lock his wheels. In nine cases out of ten he will waste time in punishing his animals for what they do not understand. He never thinks for a moment that the mule is accustomed to start up when the wagon ahead of him moves, and supposes he is doing his duty. In many cases, when he had got his wheels locked, he had so excited his mules that they would run down the hill, cripple some of the men, break the wagon, cause a "smash-up" in the train, and perhaps destroy the very rations and clothes on which some poor soldier's life depended. We all know what delay and disaster have resulted from the roads being blocked up in this manner. The brake, thanks to the inventor, offers a remedy for all this. It also saves the neck and shoulders of every animal in the train; it saves the feet of the wheelers; it saves the harness; it saves the lead and swing mules from being stopped so quick that they cut themselves; and it saves the wheels at least twenty per cent. Those who have had wagons thrown over precipices, or labored and struggled in mud and water two and three hours at a time, can easily understand how time and trouble could have been saved if the wagon could have been locked in any way after it started over those places. The best brake by all odds, is that which fastens with a lever chain to the brake-bar. I do not like those which attach with a rope, and for the reason that the lazy teamster can sit on the saddle-mule and lock and unlock, while, with the chain and lever, he must get off. In this way he relieves the saddle-mule's back. We all know that, in riding mules down steep or long hills, you do much to stiffen them up and wear them out. CHAPTER VI. SOMETHING MORE ABOUT BREEDING MULES. Before I close this work, I desire to say something more about breeding mules. It has long been a popular error that to get a good mule colt you must breed from large mares. The average sized, compact mare, is by all odds the superior animal to breed mules from. Experience has satisfied me that very large mules are about as useless for army service as very large men are for troopers. You can get no great amount of service out of either. One is good at destroying rations; the other at lowering haystacks and corn-bins. Of all the number we had in the army, I never saw six of these large, overgrown mules that were of much service. Indeed, I have yet to see the value in any animal that runs or rushes to an overgrowth. The same is true with man, beast, or vegetable. I will get the average size of either of them, and you will acknowledge the superiority. The only advantage these large mares may give to the mule is in the size of the feet and bone that they may impart. The heavier you can get the bone and feet, the better. And yet you can rarely get even this, and for the reason that I have before given, that the mare, in nineteen cases out of twenty, breeds close after the jack, more especially in the feet and legs. It makes little difference how you cross mares and jacks, the result is almost certain to be a horse's body, a jack's legs and feet, a jack's ears, and, in most cases, a jack's marks. Nature has directed this crossing for the best, since the closer the mare breeds after the jack the better the mule. The highest marked mules, and the deepest of the different colors, I have invariably found to be the best. What is it, let us inquire, that makes the Mexican mule hardy, trim, robust, well-marked after the jack, and so serviceable? It is nothing more nor less than breeding from sound, serviceable, compact, and spirited Mexican or mustang mares. You must, in fact, use the same judgment in crossing these animals as you would if you wanted to produce a good race or trotting horse. We are told, in Mason and Skinner's Stud Book, that in breeding mules the mares should be large barrelled small limbed, with a moderate-sized head and a good forehead. This, it seems to me, will strike our officers as a very novel recommendation. The mule's limbs and feet are the identical parts you want as large as possible, as everyone that has had much to do with the animal knows. You rarely find a mule that has legs as large as a horse. But the mule, from having a horse's body, will fatten and fill up, and become just as heavy as the body of an average-sized horse. Having, then, to carry this extra amount of fat and flesh on the slender legs and feet of a jackass, you can easily see what the result must be. No; you will be perfectly safe in getting your mule as large-legged as you can. And by all means let the mare you breed from have a good, sound, healthy block of a foot. Then the colt will stand some chance of inheriting a portion of it. It is natural that the larger you get his feet the steadier he will travel. Some persons will tell you that these small feet are natural, and are best adapted to the animal. But they forget that the mule is not a natural animal, only an invention of man. Let your mare and jack be each of the average size, the jack well marked, and No. 1 of his kind, and I will take the product and wear out any other style of breed. Indeed, you have only to appeal to your better judgment to convince you as to what would result from putting a jack, seven or eight hands high, to a mare of sixteen or more. I have witnessed some curious results in mule breeding, and which it may be well enough to mention here. I have seen frequent instances where one of the very best jacks in the country had been put to mares of good quality and spirit. Putting them to such contemptible animals seemed to degrade them, to destroy their natural will and temper. The result was a sort of bastard mule, a small-legged, small-footed, cowardly animal, inheriting all the vices of the mule and none of the horse's virtues-- the very meanest of his kind. CHAPTER VII. ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE MULE. The mule seems to have been used by the ancients in a great variety of ways; but what should have prompted his production must for ever remain a mystery. That they early discovered his great usefulness in making long journeys, climbing mountains, and crossing deserts of burnings and, when subsistence and water were scarce, and horses would have perished, is well established. That he would soon recover from the severe effects of these long and trying journeys must also have been of great value in their eyes. But however much they valued him for his usefulness, they seem not to have had the slightest veneration for him, as they had for some other animals. I am led to believe, then, that it was his great usefulness in crossing the sandy deserts that led to his production. It is a proof, also, that where the ass was at hand there also was the horse, or the mule could not have been produced. Any people with sufficient knowledge to produce the mule would also have had sufficient knowledge to discover the difference between him and the horse, and would have given the preference to the horse in all service except that I have just described. And yet, in the early history of the world, we find men of rank, and even rulers, using them on state and similar occasions; and this when it might have been supposed that the horse, being the nobler animal, would have made more display. The Scriptures tell us that Absalom, when he led the rebel hosts against his father David, rode on a mule, that he rode under an oak, and hung himself by the hair of his head. Then, again, we hear of the mule at the inauguration of King Solomon. It is but reasonable to suppose that the horse would have been used on that great occasion, had he been present. On the other hand, it is not reasonable to suppose that the ass, or any thing pertaining to him, was held in high esteem by a nation that believed they were commanded by God, through their prophet Moses, not to work the ox and the ass together. It must be inferred from this that the ass was not held in very high esteem, and that the prohibition was for the purpose of not degrading the ox, he being of that family of which the perfect males were used for sacrifice. The ass, of course, was never allowed to appear on the sacred altar. And yet He who came to save our fallen race, and open the gates of heaven, and fulfil the words of the prophet, rode a female of this apparently degraded race of animals when He made his triumphal march into the city of the temple of the living God. List of Mules Received, died, and Shot, at the Depot of Washington, D.C., from 1st February, 1863. to 31st July, 1866. 1863 1864 1865 Month Received Died Shot Received Died Shot Received Died Shot Jan. .. .. .. 624 14 76 3,677 66 226 Feb. 135 96 7 329 16 62 1,603 84 150 Mar. 2,552 150 4 448 10 64 2,823 77 169 Apr. 2,906 118 61 1,305 15 47 6,102 106 223 May. 1,087 56 46 2,440 18 52 11,780 68 211 Jun. 3,848 120 118 4,410 76 48 19,304 178 49 Jul. 1,731 94 335 4,702 74 125 13,398 462 68 Aug. 5,250 51 159 5,431 88 231 1,275 284 23 Sep. 2,834 72 248 1,198 64 176 1,536 3 18 Oct. 1,166 36 202 1,468 81 134 876 .. .. Nov. 2,934 30 204 3,036 35 123 252 3 .. Dec. 2,832 14 113 3,923 66 158 324 4 .. Total 27,275 837 1,497 29,414 557 1,296 62,950 1,335 1,137 1866 Received Died Shot 169 .. .. 34 2 1 13 .. .. 29 1 .. 20 1 .. 2 .. .. 62 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 329 4 1 DATE RECEIVED DIED SHOT 1863............. 27,275 837 1,497 1864............. 29,414 557 1,296 1865.............. 62,950 1,335 1,137 1866.............. 329 4 1 Total........... 119,968 2,733 3,931 PICTURES OF SOME OF OUR MOST CELEBRATED ARMY MULES. I have had photographs taken of some of our mules. A number of these animals performed extraordinary service in connection with the Army of the Potomac and the Western Army. One of them, a remarkable animal, made the great circuit of Sherman's campaign, and has an historical interest. I propose to give you these illustrations according to their numbers. No.1, then, is a very remarkable six-mule team. It was fitted out at Berryville, Maryland, early in the spring of 1861, under the directions of Captain Sawtelle, A. Q. M. They are all small, compact mules, and I had them photographed in order to show them together. The leaders and swing, or, as some call them, the middle leaders, have been worked steadily together in the same team since December 31, 1861. They have also been driven by the same driver, a colored man, of the name of Edward Wesley Williams. He was with Captain Sawtelle until the 1st of March, 1862; was then transferred, with his team, to the City of Washington, and placed under a wagon-master of the name of Horn, who belonged to Harrisburg, Pa. Wesley took good care of his team, and was kept at constant work with it in Washington, until May 14, 1862. He was then transferred, with his team, to a train that was ordered to join General McClellan at Fort Monroe. He then followed the fortunes of the Army of the Potomac up the Peninsula; was at the siege of Yorktown, the battle of Williamsburg, and in the swamps of the Chickahominy. He was also in the seven days' battles, and brought up at Harrison's Landing with the Army of the Potomac. He then drove his team back to Fort Monroe, where they were shipped, with the animals of the Army of the Potomac, for Washington. He was set to work as soon as he reached a landing, and participated in hauling ammunition at the second battle of Bull Run. He then followed the army to Antietam, and from that battle-field to Fredericksburg, where he hauled ammunition during the terrible disaster under General Burnside. The team then belonged to a train of which John Dorny was wagon-master. When General Hooker took command of the army this team followed him through the Chancellorville and Chantilly fights. It also followed the Army of the Potomac until General Grant took command, when the train it belonged to was sent to City Point. This brings us up to 1864. It was with the army in front of Petersburg, and, during that winter, the saddle mule was killed by the enemy's shot while the team was going for a load of wood. In short, they were worked every day until Richmond was taken. In June, 1865, they were transferred back to the City of Washington. It is now August, 1866, and they are still working in the train, and make one of the very best teams we have. I refer now to the leaders and swing mules, as they are the only four that are together, and that followed the Army of the Potomac through all its campaigns. There is not a mule of the four that is over fourteen and a half hands high, and not one that weighs over nine hundred pounds. This team, I ought to add here, has frequently been without a bite of hay or grain for four or five days, and nothing to eat but what they could pick up along the road. And there are instances when they have been twenty-four hours without a sup of water. The experienced eye will see that they have round, compact bodies, and stand well on their feet. No. 2 is the leader of the team, and for light work on the prairies, packing, or any similar work, is a model mule. Indeed, she cannot be surpassed. Her bone and muscle is full, and she is not inclined to run to flesh. No. 3 is the off-leader of the same team. She is a good eater, tough, hardy, and a good worker,--in every way a first-class mule. I would advise persons purchasing mules to notice her form. She is a little sprung in the knees; but this has in no way interfered with her working. This was occasioned by allowing the heels on her fore-feet to grow out too much. During, and for some time after, the second battle of Bull Run, the train to which she belonged was kept at very hard work. The shoes that were on her at that time, to use the driver's own language, were "put on to stay." Indeed, he informed me that they were on so long, that he concluded they had grown to the feet. And in this case, as in many others, for want of a little knowledge of the peculiarities of a mule's feet, and the injury that results from over-growth, the animal had to suffer, and was permanently injured. No. 4 is the off-swing, or middle-leader mule. She is perfectly sound, of good height, a good eater, and a great worker. She is also well adapted for packing, and a tolerably good rider. Her ears and eyes are of the very finest kind, and her whole head indicates intelligence. Her front parts are perfection itself. She is also remarkably kind. ILLUSTRATION 1 ILLUSTRATION 2 ILLUSTRATION 3 ILLUSTRATION 4 ILLUSTRATION 5 ILLUSTRATION 6 ILLUSTRATION 7 ILLUSTRATION 8 ILLUSTRATION 9 ILLUSTRATION 10 ILLUSTRATION 11 ILLUSTRATION 12 ILLUSTRATION 13 ILLUSTRATION 14 No. 5 is the near swing mule, or middle leader. She is what is called a mouse-color, and is the fattest mule in the team. She underwent the entire campaigns of the Army of the Potomac, and is to-day without a blemish, and capable of doing as much work as any mule in the pack. Her powers of endurance, as well as her ability to withstand starvation and abuse, are beyond description. I have had mules of her build with me in trains, in the Western Territories, that endured hardship and starvation to an extent almost incredible; and yet they were remarkably kind when well treated, and would follow me like dogs, and, indeed, try to show me how much they could endure without flinching. No. 6 is an off-wheel mule, of ordinary quality. I had to take the spotted mules from the wheels of this team, as they were not equal to the work required of them, and got very sore in front. No. 7 is a spotted, or, as the. Mexicans call them, a calico mule. He and his mate were sent to the Army of the Potomac about the time General Grant took command of it. They were worked as wheel mules in the team until 1866, when this one, like nearly all spotted animals, showed his weak parts by letting up in his fore-feet, which became contracted to such an extent that the surgeon had to cut them nearly off. We were compelled to let him go barefoot until they grew out. This is one of the spotted mules I have referred to before. You never can rely on them. No. 8 is the mate of No. 7. His bead, ears, and front shoulder indicate him to be of Canadian stock. His neck and front shoulder, as you will see, are faultless. But on looking closely at his eyes you will find them to be sore, and running water continually. I have noticed that nearly all animals in the army that are marked in this way have weak and inflamed eyes. A farmer should never purchase them. No. 9 is a swing mule that has undergone a great deal of hardship. She is tolerably well formed but inclined to kick. She is also hard to keep in good condition, and unless great care is taken with her she would give out in the hind feet, where she now shows considerable fullness. When a mule's neck lacks the ordinary thickness there must be some direct cause for it, and you should set about finding out what it is. Lack of food is sometimes the cause. But in my opinion creased neck very frequently so affects the passages to and from the head, that the organs that should work in depositing flesh, fat, or muscle become deranged, and the neck becomes weak and in a disordered state. Purchasers would do well to discard these creased-neck mules. No. 10 is an animal of an entirely different character from No. 9. She is remarkably gentle and tractable, of good form, and great endurance, and will work in any way. She is fifteen hands and one inch high, weighs ten hundred and fifty pounds, and is seven years old. This celebrated animal went through all of General Sherman's campaigns, and is as sound and active to-day as a four-year old. No. 11 is one of those peculiar animals I have described elsewhere. He is all bones and belly. His legs are long, and of little use as legs. He is five years old, sixteen and a half hands high, and weighs thirteen hundred and ninety pounds. One of his hind legs shows a thorough pin. His hocks are all out of shape, and his legs are stuck into his hoofs on nearly the same principle that you stick a post into the ground. The reason why his pastern-joints show so straight is, that the heels on the hind feet have been badly trimmed when shaving. They too have been permitted to grow too long, and thus he is thrown into the position you now see him. This mule belongs to a class that is raised to a considerable extent, and prized very highly in Pennsylvania. In the army they were of very little use except to devour forage. No. 12 is what may be called a pack mule of the first class. He is seven years old, fifteen and a half hands high, and weighs eleven hundred and fifty-six pounds. This animal has endured almost incredible hardships. He is made for it, as you will readily see. He is what is called a portly mule, but is not inclined to run to belly unless over-fed and not worked. He has a remarkably kind disposition, is healthy, and a good feeder. This animal has but one evil to contend with. His off hind foot has grown too long, and plainly shows how much too far back it throws the pastern-joint. This is in a measure the effect of bad shoeing. It is very rare to find a blacksmith who discovers this fact until it is too late. Now there is nothing more easy than to ruin a mule by letting his toes grow too long. Doctor L.H. Braley, chief veterinary surgeon of the army, is now developing a plan for shoeing mules, which I consider the very best that has been suggested. His treatment of the foot when well, and how to keep it so; and how to treat the foot by shoeing when it becomes injured, is the best that can be adopted. No. 13 is a mule that has been worked in a two-mule train which has been in my charge for about a year. She was previously worked in a six-mule train, as the off-wheel mule. She is five years old, rising; size, fifteen hands and three inches high, and weighs fourteen hundred and twenty-two pounds. She was received into the Government service at Wheeling, Virginia, and when shipped or transferred to this depot, with four hundred others, was but two years old, rising three. She was worked, at least a year or more, too young; and to this cause I attribute certain injuries which I shall speak of hereafter. This mule, with two hundred others, was transferred to the Army of the Potomac, and went through its campaigns from 1864 up to the fall of Richmond. She is an excellent worker, and her neck, head, and fore shoulders are as fine as can be. Indeed, they are a perfect development of the horse. But her hips or flank joints are very deficient. Owing to her being worked too young, the muscles of the hind legs have given way, and they have become crooked. This is done frequently by the animal being placed as a wheeler when too young, and holding back under a heavy load. If you want to see how quick you can ruin young mules, place them in the wheels. No. 14 is the off-wheel mule of a six-mule team. I had this mule photographed for the purpose of showing the effects of hitching animals so short to the team that the swingle-tree will strike or rest on their hocks. I referred to this great evil in another place. This mule is but six years old, sixteen hands high, and weighs nearly sixteen hundred pounds. Aside from the hocks, she is the best made and the best looking mule in the park; and is also a remarkably good worker. You will notice, however, that the caps of her hocks are so swollen and calloused by the action of the swingle-tree as to make them permanently disfigured. The position I have placed this mule in, as relates to the wagon wheel, is the proper position to put all wild, green, contrary or stubborn mules in when they are hard to bridle. This is the severest use to which a lariat can be put on mule or horse. The person using it, however, should be careful to see that it sets well back to the shoulder of the animal. I refer now to the part of the loop that is around the neck. The end of the lariat should always be held by a man, and not made fast to any part of the wagon, so that if the animal falls or throws himself, you can slack up the lariat and save him from injury. Three applications of the buck will conquer them so thoroughly that you will have little trouble afterwards. Be careful to keep the lariat, in front, as high as the mule's breast; and see also that they are pulled up close to the front wheel before pulling it through the hind wheel. DISEASES COMMON TO THE MULE, AND HOW THEY SHOULD BE TREATED. The mule does not differ materially from the horse in the diseases he is afflicted with. He however suffers less from them, owing to lack of sensibility. It may be useful here to make a few remarks on the various diseases he is subject to, and to recommend a course of treatment which I have practiced and seen practiced, and which I believe is the best that can be applied. DISTEMPER IN COLTS. This disease is peculiar to young mules. Its symptoms develop with soreness and swelling of the glands of the throat, a cough, difficulty of swallowing, discharging at the nostrils, and general prostration. If not properly treated it is surely fatal. TREATMENT:--Give light bran mashes, plenty of common salt, and keep the animal in a warm and dry stable. You need not clothe, for the mule, unlike the horse, is not used to clothing. If the swelling under the throat shows a disposition to ulcerate, which it generally does, do nothing to prevent it. Encourage the ulcer, and let it come to a head gradually, for this is the easiest and most natural way that the trouble, which at first seems to pervade the whole system, can be got rid of. When the ulcer appears soft enough to lance, do so, and be careful to avoid the glands and veins. Lance through the skin in the soft spot, which appears almost ready to break. If the throat is at any time so swollen as to render swallowing difficult, give water frequently, about milk warm, with nourishing feed of oats, corn, or rye meal--the last is the best. If this treatment, which is very simple, be carefully carried out, few animals will fail to recover. CATARRH OR COLDS. This disease seldom attacks the mule. We have had many thousands of them in camp, and out of the whole number, I do not recollect of a case where it either destroyed or disabled a single animal. In fact, it is a question with me whether mules will take cold when kept as the Government keeps them--camped out, or standing in sheds where the temperature is the same as outdoors. GLANDERS. This is one of the most destructive of diseases with which the horse family is afflicted, and one that has set the best veterinary skill of the world at defiance. A remedy for it has yet to be discovered. I have deemed it proper here, however, to carefully describe its symptoms, and to recommend that all animals showing symptoms of it be kept by themselves until their case be definitely ascertained. When you have ascertained to a certainty that they are afflicted with the disease, destroy them as quick as possible. See, too, that the place where they have been kept is thoroughly cleansed and sprinkled with lime, for the disease is contagious and the slightest particle of virus will spread it anew. Farcy is but one stage of this terrible disease, but is not necessarily fatal while in this stage. It should, however, be treated with great care and caution. Farcy can also be conveyed to others by inoculation. Any one who has had the field for observation the author has for the last four years, would become convinced that the recommendations I am about to make describe the only course to be taken with this contagious disease. The number of its victims under my observation were counted by thousands. All that can be done is to prevent, if possible, the disease taking place, and to destroy when ascertained to a certainty that the animal has contracted it. I would say here, however, that this subject will soon be thoroughly handled in a work soon to be published by Doctor Braley, head veterinary surgeon of the army. He will undoubtedly throw some light on the subject that has not yet appeared in print. SYMPTOMS. First:--When it appears in a natural form, without the agency of contagion or inoculation, dryness of the skin, entire omission of insensible perspiration, starring of the coat. Sometimes slight discoloring can be observed about the forehead and lower part of the ears. Drowsiness, want of lustre in the eye, slight swelling on the inside of the hind legs, extending up to the bu-boa. This condition of things may continue for several days, and will be followed by enlargement between the legs. The inflammation incident to this may entirely subside, or it may continue to enlarge, and break out in ulcers on the _lactiles_ of the lymphatic, which accompanies the large veins. In the last case it has appeared in the form of Farcy. This being the case, the countenance assumes a more cheerful look, and the animal otherwise shows signs of relief from the discharges of poisonous matter. If it remain in this state, death is not generally the result. If the system be toned up it will sometimes heal, and the animal will seem to be in a recovering state of health. Yet, from watching the symptoms and general health of the animal afterwards, you will be convinced that the disease is only checked, not eradicated. Acting in the system, it only waits a favorable opportunity to act as a secondary agent in colds, general debility, or exposure, when it will make its appearance and produce death. But in the first case, as shown by the swelling in the hind legs, if the swelling disappear, and general debility of the system continues; if the eyes grow more drowsy, and discharge from the lower corners; and if this is followed by discharge from the nostrils, slight swelling and hardening of the sub-maxillary glands, which are between the under jaws, then it is clearly developed glanders. All the glands in the body have now become involved or poisoned, and death must follow in the course of ten or fifteen days, as the constitution of the animal may not be in a condition to combat the disease. If this disease be annoyed by inoculation from the _farcy heads_ of farcied animals into suppurating sores on other animals, it will be very slow in its progress, especially if it attack the other in a region remote from the lymphatic. If in a saddle-gall, it will make sores very difficult to heal. If there is any such thing as checking the disease in its progress, it is in these three cases. I have observed that when it has been taken in a sore mouth it has followed down the cheek to the sub-maxillary gland, and ended in a clear case of glanders or farcy. There is another form in which this disease can be taken, and which is, of all others, the most treacherous and dangerous, yet never producing death without the agency of other diseases--always carrying with it the germs of infection, and ready to convey it to debilitated subjects and cause their death. The animal will still live himself, and show no sign of disease further than I am about to describe in the position. It is that which is taken in at the nostrils and attacks the sub-maxillary glands, which become enlarged and will remain so. When these become overloaded there will be a discharge at the nose. That being thrown off, it may be some time before any further discharge will be seen from the same source. In some cases, when the discharge is constant, this can be easily distinguished from gleet or ozena, from the healthy and natural appearance of the membranes of the nose, which at first are pale, then become fiery red or purple. In gleet the discharges from the nostrils, as in ozena, are of a very light color. In glanders they are first of a deep yellow, then of a dirty gray--almost slate color. Mules affected with glanders of this kind, although it may seem hard from their otherwise healthy appearance, should be destroyed. They indeed carry with them the germs of infection and death, without any visible marks in their appearance to warn those who have the care of animals against their danger. TEETHING. As mules seldom change hands to any great extent until two or three years old, it is not deemed necessary here to say any thing of their age until they have reached two years, so as to give the inexperienced a wider scope. The mule's mouth undergoes exactly the same changes as the horse's. Between the ages of two and three these changes begin to take place in the mule's mouth. The front incisor teeth, two above and two below, are replaced by the horse for permanent teeth. These teeth are larger than the others, have two grooves in the outer converse surface, and the mark is long, narrow, deep, and black. Not having attained their full growth, they are somewhat lower than the others, the mark in the two next nippers being nearly worn out, and is also wearing away in the corner nippers. A mule at three years old ought to have the central permanent nippers growing, the other two pairs uniting, six grinders in each jaw, above and below, the first and fifth level with the others, and the sixth protruding. As the permanent nippers wear and continue to grow, a narrow portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed to the attrition; and they look as if they had been compressed. This is not so, however; the mark of some gradually disappears as the pit is worn away. At the age of three and a half or four years the next pair of nippers will be changed, and the mouth at that time cannot be mistaken. The central nippers will have nearly attained their full growth, and a vacuity will be left where the second stood; or, they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth and worn down, the mark becoming small and faint. At this period also the second pair of grinders will be shed. At four years the central nippers will be fully developed, the sharp edges somewhat worn off, and the marks shorter, wider, and fainter. The next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep and extending quite across. Their corner nippers will be larger than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, and flat, and nearly worn out. The sixth grinder will have risen to a level with the others; and the tushes will begin to appear in the male animal. The female seldom has them, although the germ is always present in the jaw. At four years and a half, or between that and five, the last important change takes place in the mouth of the mule. The corner nippers are shed, and the permanent ones begin to appear. When the central nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair are showing marks of wear, the tush will have protruded, and will generally be a full half inch in height. Externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either side, and is evidently hollow within. At six years old the mark on the central nippers is worn out. There will, however, still be a difference of color in the center of the tooth. The cement filling up the hole made by the dipping in of the enamel, will present a browner hue than the other part of the tooth. It will be surrounded by an edge of enamel, and there will remain a little depression in the center, and also a depression around the case of the enamel. But the deep hole in the center of the enamel, with the blackened surface it presents, and the elevated edge of the enamel, will have disappeared. The mule may now be said to have a perfect mouth, all the teeth being produced and fully grown. What I have said above must not be taken as a positive guide in all cases, for mules' mouths are frequently torn, twisted, smashed, and knocked into all kinds of shapes by cruel treatment, and the inexperience, to use no harsher term, of those who have charge of them. Indeed, I have known cases of cruelty so severe that it were impossible to tell the age of the animal from his teeth. At seven years old the mark, in the way in which I have described it, is worn out in the four central nippers, and is also fast wearing away in the corner teeth. I refer now to a natural mouth that has not been subjected to injuries. At eight years old the mark is gone from all the bottom nippers, and may be said to be quite out of the mouth. There is nothing remaining in the bottom nippers by which the age of the mule can be positively ascertained. The tushes are a poor guide at any time in the life of the animal to ascertain his age by; they, more than any other of the teeth, being most exposed to the injuries I have referred to. From this time forward, the changes that take place in the teeth may be of some assistance in forming an opinion; but there are no marks in the teeth by which a year, more or less, can be positively ascertained. You can ascertain almost as much from the general appearance of the animal as from an examination of the mouth. The mule, if he be long-lived, has the same effect in changing his general appearance from youth to old age as is shown on the rest of the animal creation. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. There are few if any diseases to which the mule's teeth are subject, after the permanent teeth are developed; but during the time of their changes I have been led to believe that he suffers more inconvenience, or at least as much as any other animal--not so much on account of the suffering that nature inflicts upon him, as through the inexperience and cruelty of those who are generally intrusted with his care. I will here speak first of lampass. The animal's mouth is made sore and sensitive by teething; and this irritation and soreness is increased by the use of improper bits. As if this were not enough, resort is had to that barbarous and inhuman practice of burning out lampass. This I do, and always have protested against. If the gums are swollen from the cutting of teeth, which is about all the cause for their inflamed and enlarged appearance, a light stroke of a lancet or sharp knife over the gums, at a point where the teeth are forcing their way through, and a little regard to the animal's diet, will be all that is necessary. It must not be forgotten, that at this time the animal's mouth is too sore and sensitive to masticate hard food, such as corn. With the development of the teeth, however, the lampass will generally disappear. THE EYE. Mules are remarkable for having good eyes. Occasionally they become inflamed and sore. In such cases the application of cold water, and the removing of the cause, whether it be from chafing of the blinders, forcing the blood to the head through the influence of badly fitting collars, or any other cause known, is all I can recommend in their case. THE TONGUE. Mules suffer much from injury to the tongue, caused by the bad treatment of those who have charge of them, and also from sore month, produced in the same manner. The best thing for this is a light decoction of white-oak bark, applied with a sponge to the sore parts. Charcoal, mixed in water, and applied in the same manner, is good. Any quantity of this can be used, as it is not dangerous. If possible, give the animal nourishing gruels, or bran mashes; and, above all, keep the bit out of the mouth until it is perfectly healed. POLL-EVIL. This is a disease the mule more than all other animals is subject to. This is more particularly so with those brought into the service of the Government unbroken. It will be very easily seen that the necessary course of training, halter-breaking, &c., will expose them to many of the causes of this disease. Aside from this, the inhuman treatment of teamsters, and others who have charge of them, frequently produces it in its worst form. It begins with an ulcer or sore at the junction where the head and neck join; and from its position, more than any other cause, is very difficult to heal. The first thing to be done, when the swelling appears, is to use hot fomentations. If these are not at hand, use cold water frequently. Keep the bridle and halter from the parts. In case inflammation cannot be abated, and ulceration takes place, the only means to effect a cure, with safety and certainty, is by the use of the seton. This should be applied only by a hand well skilled in the use of it. The person should also well understand the anatomy of the parts, as injuries committed with the seton-needle, in those parts, are often more serious and more difficult of cure than the disease caused by the first injury. FISTULA. This is a disease the mule is more subject to than any other animal in Government use. And this, on account of his being used as a beast of burden by almost all nations and classes of people, and because he is the worst cared for. Fistula is the result of a bruise. Some animals have been known to produce it by rolling on stones and other hard substances. It generally makes its appearance first in the way of a rise or swelling where the saddle has been allowed to press too hard on the withers, and especially when the animal has high and lean ones. As the animal becomes reduced in flesh, the withers, as a matter of course, are more exposed and appear higher, on account of the muscle wasting from each side of the back-bone. This, under the saddle, can be remedied to a great extent, by adding an additional fold to the saddle blanket, or in making the pad of the saddle high enough to keep it from the withers. In packing with the pack-saddle this is more difficult, as the weight is generally a dead, heavy substance, and as the animal steps low or high, the pack does the same. Much, however, might be done by care in packing, to prevent injury to the withers and bruising of the back-bone. When the withers begin to swell and inflammation sets in, or a tumor begins to form, the whole may be driven away and the fistula scattered or avoided by frequent or almost constant applications of cold water--the same as is recommended in poll-evil. But if, in despite of this, the swelling should continue or become larger, warm fomentations, poultices, and stimulating embrocations should be applied, in order to bring the protuberance to its full formation as soon as possible. When full, a seton should be passed, by a skillful hand, from the top to the bottom of the tumor, so that all the pus may have free access of escape. The incision should be kept free until all the matter has escaped and the wound shows signs of healing. The after treatment must be similar to that recommended in the case of poll-evil. The above treatment, if properly administered, will in nearly all cases of _fistula_ effect a cure. COLLAR-GALLS. Sore necks, saddle-galls, and stilfasts, are a species of injury and sore, which are in many cases very difficult of cure, especially saddle-galls on mules that have to be ridden every day. One of the best remedies for saddle gall is to heighten the saddle up as much as possible, and bathe the back with cold water as often as an opportunity affords. In many cases this will drive the fever away and scatter the trouble that is about to take place. This, however, does not always scatter, for the trouble will often continue, a root forming in the center of what we call the saddle-gall. The edges of this will be clear, and the stilfast hold only by the root. I have had many cases of this kind occur with the mule, both on his back and neck, mostly caused on the latter part by the collar being too loose. And I have found but one way to effectually cure them. Some persons advise cutting, which I think is too tedious and painful to the animal. My advice is to take a pair of pincers, or forceps of any kind, and pull it out. This done, bathe frequently with cold water, and keep the collar or saddle as much free of the sore as possible. This will do more towards relieving the animal and healing the injury than all the medicine you can give. A little soothing oil, or grease free from salt, may be rubbed lightly on the parts as they begin to heal. This is a very simple but effective remedy. THRUSH. This is another trouble with which the mule is afflicted. Cut away the parts of the frog that seem to be destroyed, clean the parts well with castile-soap, and apply muriatic acid. If you have not this at hand, a little tar mixed with salt, and placed on oakum or tow, and applied, will do nearly as well. Apply this every day, keeping the parts well dressed, and the feet according to directions in shoeing, and the trouble will soon disappear. CHEST FOUNDERS. Mules are not subject to this disease. Some persons assert that they are, but it is a mistake. These persons mistake for founder in the chest what is nothing more than a case of contraction of the feet. I have repeatedly seen veterinary surgeons connected with the army, on being asked what was the trouble with a mule, look wise, and declare the complaint chest founder, swelling of the shoulders, &c. I was inclined to put some faith in the wisdom of these gentlemen, until Doctor Braley, chief veterinary surgeon of the department of Washington, produced the most convincing proofs that it was almost an impossibility for these animals to become injured in the shoulder. When mules become sore in front, look well to their feet, and in nine cases out of ten, you will find the cause of the trouble there. In very many cases a good practical shoer can remove the trouble by proper paring and shoeing. BLEEDING. It was always a subject of inquiry with me, who originated the system of bleeding; and why it was that all kinds of doctors and physicians persist in taking the stream of life itself from the system in order to preserve life. In the case of General Washington, which I copy from the _Independent Chronicle_ of Boston, January 6, 1800, the editor, using "James Craik, physician, and Elisha C. Dick, physician," as authority, states that a bleeder was procured in the neighborhood, who took from the General's arm from twelve to fourteen ounces of blood, in the morning; and in the afternoon of the same day was bled copiously twice. More than that, it was agreed upon by these same enlightened doctors, to try the result of another blood-letting, by which thirty two ounces more was drawn. And, wonderful as it may seem to the intelligent mind at this day, they state that all this was done without the slightest alleviation of the disease. The world has become more wise now, and experience has shown how ridiculous this system of bleeding was. What is true in regard to the human system is also true in regard to the animal. There are some extreme cases in which I have no doubt moderate bleeding might render relief. But these cases are so few that it should only be suffered to be done by an experienced, careful, and skillful person. My advice is, avoid it in all cases where you can. COLIC. The mule is quite subject to this complaint. It is what is commonly known as belly-ache. Over doses of cold water will produce it. There is nothing, however, so likely to produce it in the mule as changes of grain. Musty corn will also produce it, and should never be given to animals. I recollect, in 1856, when I was in New Mexico, at Fort Union, we had several mules die from eating what is termed Spanish or Mexican corn, a small blue and purplish grain. It was exceedingly hard and flinty, and, in fact, more like buckshot than grain. We fed about four quarts of this to the mule, at the first feed. The result was, they swelled up, began to pant, look round at their sides, sweat above the eyes and at the flanks. Then they commenced to roll, spring up suddenly, lie down again, roll and try to lie on their backs. Then they would spring up, and after standing a few seconds, fall down, and groan, and pant. At length they would resign themselves to what they apparently knew to be their fate, and die. And yet, singular as it may seem, the animal could be accustomed to this grain by judicious feeding at first. We did not know at that time what to give the animal to relieve or cure him; and the Government lost hundreds of valuable animals through our want of knowledge. Whenever these violent cases appear, get some common soap, make a strong suds and drench the mule with it. I have found in every case where I used it that the mule got well. It is the alkali in the soap that neutralizes the gases. There is another good receipt, and it is generally to be found in camp. Take two ounces of saleratus, put it into a pint of water, shake well, and then drench with the same. Above all things, keep whisky and other stimulants away, as they only serve to aggravate the disease. PHYSICKING. This is another of those imaginary cures resorted to by persons having charge of mules. Very many of these persons honestly believe that it is necessary to clean the animal out every spring with large doses of poisonous and other truck. This, they say, ought to be given to loosen the hide, soften the hair, &c. In my opinion it does very little good. If his dung gets dry, and his hair hard and crispy, give him bran mashes mixed with his grain, and a teaspoonful of salt at each feed. If there is grass, let him graze a few hours every day. This will do more towards softening his coat and loosening his bowels than any thing else. When real disease makes its appearance, it is time to use medicines; but they should be applied by some one who thoroughly understands them. STRINGHALT. This sometimes occurs in the mule. It is a sudden, nervous, quick jerk of either or both of the hind legs. In the mule it frequently shows but little after being worked an hour or so. It is what I regard as unsoundness, and a mule badly affected with it is generally of but little use. It is often the result of strains, caused by backing, pulling and twisting, and heavy falls. You can detect it in its slightest form by turning the animal short around to the right or to the left. Turn him in the track he stands in, as near as possible, and then back him. If he has it, one of these three ways will develop its symptoms. There are a great many opinions as to the soundness or unsoundness of an animal afflicted with this complaint. If I had now a good animal afflicted with it, the pain caused to my feelings by looking at it would be a serious drawback. CRAMP. I have now under my charge several mules that are subject to this complaint. It does not really injure them for service, but it is very disagreeable to those having them in charge. It frequently requires from half an hour to two hours to get them rubbed so as the blood gets to its proper circulation, and to get them to walk without dragging their legs. In cases where they are attacked violently, they will appear to lose all use of their legs. I have known cases when a sudden stroke with a light piece of board, so as to cause a surprise, would drive it away. In other cases sudden application of the whip would have the same effect. SPAVIN. It is generally believed that the mule does not inherit this disease. But this is not altogether true. Small, compact mules, bred after the jack, are indeed not subject to it. On the contrary, large mules, bred from large, coarse mares, are very frequently afflicted with it. The author has under his charge at the present time quite a number of those kind of mules, in which this disease is visible. At times, when worked hard, they are sore and lame. The only thing to be recommended in this case is careful treatment, and as much rest at intervals as it is possible to give them. Hand rubbing and application of stimulant liniments, or tincture of arnica, is about all that can be done. The old method of firing and blistering only puts the animal to torture and the owner to expense. A cure can never be effected through it, and therefore should never be tried. RINGBONE. These appear on the same kind of large, bony mules as referred to in cases of spavin, and are incurable. They can, however, be relieved by the same process as recommended in spavin. Relief can also be afforded by letting the heels of the affected feet grow down to considerable length, or shoeing with a high-heeled shoe, and thus taking the weight or strain off the injured parts. The only way to make the best use or an animal afflicted with this disease, is to abandon experiments to effect a cure, as they will only be attended with expense and disappointment. MANGE. Mules are subject to this disease when kept in large numbers, as in the army. This is peculiarly a cuticle disease, like the itch in the human system, and yields to the same course of treatment. A mixture of sulphur and hog's lard, one pint of the latter to two of the former. Rub the animal all over, then cover with a blanket. After standing two days, wash him clean with soft-soap and water. After this process has been gone through, keep the animal blanketed for a few days, as he will be liable to take cold. Feed with bran mashes, plenty of common salt, and water. This will relieve the bowels all that is necessary, and can scarcely fail of effecting a cure. Another method, but not so certain in its effect, is to make a decoction of tobacco, say about one pound of the stems to two gallons of water, boiled until the strength is extracted from the weed, and when cool enough, bathe the mule well with it from head to foot, let him dry off, and do not curry him for a day or two. Then curry him well, and if the itching appear again, repeat the bathing two or three times, and it will produce a cure. The same treatment will apply in case of lice, which frequently occurs where mules are kept in large numbers. Mercury should never be used in any form, internally or externally, on an animal so much exposed as the mule. GREASE-HEEL. Clean the parts well with castile-soap and warm water. As soon as you have discovered the disease, stop wetting the legs, as that only aggravates it, and use ointment made from the following substances: Powdered charcoal, two ounces; lard or tallow, four ounces; sulphur, two ounces. Mix them well together, then rub the ointment in well with your hand on the affected parts. If the above is not at hand, get gunpowder, some lard or tallow, in equal parts, and apply in the same manner. If the animal be poor, and his system need toning up, give him plenty of nourishing food, with bran mash mixed plentifully with the grain. Add a teaspoonful of salt two or three times a day, as it will aid in keeping the bowels open. If the stable bottoms, or floors, or yards are filthy, see that they are properly cleaned, as filthiness is one of the causes of this disease. The same treatment will apply to scratches, as they are the same disease in a different form. To avoid scratches and grease-heel during the winter, or indeed at any other season, the hair on the mule's heels should never be cut. Nor should the mud, in winter season, be washed off, but allowed to dry on the animal's legs, and then rubbed off with hay or straw. This washing, and cutting the hair off the legs, leave them without any protection, and is, in many cases, the cause of grease-heel and scratches. SHOES, SHOEING, AND THE FOOT. The foot, its diseases, and how to shoe it properly, is a subject much discussed among horsemen. Nearly every farrier and blacksmith has a way of his own for curing diseased feet, and shoeing. No matter how absurd it may be, he will insist that it has merits superior to all others, and it would be next to impossible to convince him of his error. Skillful veterinarians now understand perfectly all the diseases peculiar to the foot, and the means of effecting a cure. They understand, also, what sort of shoe is needed for the feet of different animals. Latterly number of shoes have been invented and patented, all professing to be exactly what is wanted to relieve and cure diseased feet of all kinds. One man has a shoe he calls "_concave_," and says it will cure contraction, corns, thrush, quarter-crack, toe-crack, &c., &c. But when you come to examine it closely, you will find it nothing more than a nicely dressed piece of iron, made almost in the shape of a half moon. After a fair trial, however, it will be found of no more virtue in curing diseases or relieving the animal than the ordinary shoe used by a country smithy. Another inventive genius springs up and asserts that he has discovered a shoe that will cure all sorts of diseased feet; and brings at least a bushel basket full of letters from persons he declares to be interested in the horse, confirming what he has said of the virtues of his shoe. But a short trial of this wonderful shoe only goes to show how little these persons understand the whole subject, and how easy a matter it is to procure letters recommending what they have invented. Another has a "specific method" for shoeing, which is to cut away the toe right in the center of the foot, cut away the bars on the inside of the foot, cut and clean away all around on the inside of the hoof, then to let the animal stand on a board floor, so that his feet would be in the position a saucer would represent with one piece broken out at the front and two at the back. This I consider the most inhuman method in the art of shoeing. Turn this saucer upside down and see how little pressure it would bear, and you will have some idea of the cruelty of applying this "specific method." Sometimes bar-shoes and other contrivances are used, to keep the inside of the foot from coming down. But why do this? Why not get at once a shoe adapted to the spreading of the foot. Tyrell's shoe for this purpose is the best I have yet seen. We have used it in the Government service for two years, and experience has taught me that it has advantages that ought not to be overlooked. But even this shoe may be used to disadvantage by ignorant hands. Indeed, in the hands of a blacksmith who prefers "his own way," some kinds of feet may be just as badly injured by it as others are benefited. The United States Army affords the largest field for gaining practical knowledge concerning the diseases, especially of the feet, with which horses and mules are afflicted. During the late war, when so little care was given to animals in the field, when they were injured in every conceivable manner, and by all sorts of accidents, the veterinary found a field for study such as has never been opened before. Experience has taught me, that common sense is one of the most essential things in the treatment of a horse's foot. You must remember that horses' feet differ as well as men's, and require different treatment, especially in shoeing. You must shoe the foot according to its peculiarity and demands, not according to any specific "system of shoe." Give the ground surface a level bearing, let the frog come to the ground, and the weight of the mule rest on the frog as much as any other part of the foot. If it project beyond the shoe, so much the better. That is what it was made for, and to catch the weight on an elastic principle. Never, under any circumstances, cut it away. Put two nails in the shoe on each side, and both forward of the quarters, and one in the toe, directly in front of the foot. Let those on the sides be an inch apart, then you will be sure not to cut and tear the foot. Let the nails and nail-holes be small, for they will then aid in saving the foot. It will still further aid in saving it by letting the nails run well up into the hoof, for that keeps the shoe steadier on the foot. The hoof is just as thick to within an inch of the top, and is generally sounder, and of a better substance, than it is at the bottom. Keep the first reason for shoeing apparent in your mind always--that you only shoe your mule because his feet will not stand the roads without it. And whenever you can, shoe him with a shoe exactly the shape of his foot. Some blacksmiths will insist on a shoe, and then cutting and shaping the foot to it. The first or central surface of the hoof, made hard by the animal's own peculiar way of traveling, indicates the manner in which he should be shod. All the art in the world cannot improve this, for it is the model prepared by nature. Let the shoes be as light as possible, and without calks if it can be afforded, as the mule always travels unsteady on them. The Goodenough shoe is far superior to the old calked shoe, and will answer every purpose where holding is necessary. It is also good in mountainous countries, and there is no danger of the animal calking himself with it. I have carefully observed the different effect of shoes, while with troops on the march. I accompanied the Seventh Infantry, in 1858, in its march to Cedar Valley, in Utah, a distance of fourteen hundred miles, and noticed that scarcely a man who wore regulation shoes had a blister on his feet, while the civilians, who did not, were continually falling out, and dropping to the rear, from the effects of narrow and improper shoes and boots. The same is the case with the animal. The foot must have something flat and broad to bear on. The first care of those having charge of mules, should be to see that their feet are kept in as near a natural state as possible. Then, if all the laws of nature be observed, and strictly obeyed, the animal's feet will last as long, and be as sound in his domestic state as he would be in a state of nature. The most ordinary observer will soon find that the outer portion or covering of the mule's foot possesses very little animal life, and has no sensibility, like the hair or covering of the body. Indeed, the foot of the horse and mule is a dense block of horn, and must therefore be influenced and governed by certain chemical laws, which control the elements that come in contact with it. Hence it was that the feet of these animals was made to bear on the hard ground, and to be wet naturally every time the horse drank. Drought and heat will contract and make hard and brittle the substance of which the feet is composed; while on the other hand cooling and moisture will expand it, and render it pliable and soft. Nature has provided everything necessary to preserve and protect this foot, while the animal is in a natural state; but when brought into domestic use, it requires the good sense of man, whose servant he is, to artificially employ those means which nature has provided, to keep it perfectly healthy. When, then, the foot is in a healthy state, wet it at least twice a day; and do not be content with merely throwing cold water on the outside, for the foot takes in very little if any moisture through the wall. In short, it absorbs moisture most through the frog and sole, particularly in the region where the sole joins the wall. This, if covered by a tight shoe, closes the medium, and prevents the proper supply. Horses that are shod should be allowed to stand in moist places as much as possible. Use clay or loam floors, especially if the horse has to stand much of his time. Stone or brick is the next best, as the foot of the animal will absorb moisture from either of these. Dry pine planks are the very worst, because they attract moisture from the horse's foot. Where animals have to stand idle much of the time, keep their feet well stuffed with cow manure at night. That is the best and cheapest preservative of the feet that you can use. ADVICE TO BLACKSMITHS. Let me enjoin you, for humanity's sake, that when you first undertake to shoe a young animal, you will not forget the value of kind treatment. Keep its head turned away from the glaring fire, the clinking anvil, &c., &c. Let the man whom he has been accustomed to, the groom or owner, stand at his head, and talk to him kindly. When you approach him for the first time, let it be without those implements you are to use in his shoeing. Speak to him gently, then take up his foot. If he refuse to let you do this, let the person having him in charge do it. A young animal will allow this with a person he is accustomed to, when he will repel a stranger. By treating him kindly you can make him understand what is wanted; by abusing him you will only frighten him into obstinacy. When you have got the animal under perfect subjection, examine the foot carefully, and you will find the heels, at the back part of the frog, entirely free from that member, which is soft and spongy. When the foot is down, resting on the ground, grasp the heels in your strong hand, press them inwards towards the frog, and you will immediately find that they will yield. You will then see that what yields so easily to the mere pressure of the hand will expand and spread out when the weight of the body is thrown on it. This should give you an idea of what you have to do in shoeing that foot, and your practical knowledge should stand you well in an argument with any of those "learned professors," who declare the foot of the mule does not expand or contract. In truth it is one of its necessary conditions. After being a long time badly shod, nearly or all of this necessary principle of the foot will be lost. You should therefore study to preserve it. And here let me give you what little aid experience has enabled me to do. You will observe the ground surface of the foot, no matter how high the arch may be, to be at least half an inch wide, and sometimes more than an inch, with the heels spread out at the outside quarter. Do not cut away this important brace. It is as necessary to the heel of the animal, to guard him against lateral motion, on which the whole of the above structure depends, as the toes are to the human being. Curve the outside of the shoe nearly to fit the foot, and you will find the inside heel a little straighter, especially if the animal be narrow-breasted, and the feet stand close together. Nature has provided this safeguard to prevent its striking the opposite leg. After the shoe is prepared to fit the foot, as I have before described, rasp the bottom level--it will be found nearly so. Do not put a knife to the sole or the frog. The sole of the foot, remember, is its life, and the frog its defender. In punching the shoe, two nail-holes on a side, on a foot like this, are sufficient to hold on a shoe. Three may be used, if set in their proper places, without injury to the foot. Practice will teach you that any more nailing than this is unnecessary. I have used two nails on a side on an animal with not the best of a foot, and very high action, and he has worn them entirely out without throwing either of them off. Previous to punching the shoe, observe the grain of the foot. It will be seen that the fibres of the hoof run from the top of the foot, or coronary border, towards the toe, in most feet, at an angle of about forty-five degrees. It will be plain, then, that if the nails are driven with the grain of the horn, they will drive much easier, and hold better, and be less liable to cut and crack the fibers. Another benefit can be derived from this process of nailing. When the foot comes to the ground, the nails act as a brace to keep the foot from slipping forward off the shoe. This renders that very ingenious foot destroyer, the toe-clip, unnecessary. Then, in punching the shoe, hold the top of the pritchell toward the heel of the shoe, so as to get the hole in the shoe on an angle with the grain of the hoof. Punch the holes large enough, so that the nails will not bind in the shoe, nor require unnecessary hammering or bruising of the foot to get them up to their proper place. Prepare the nails well, point them thin and narrow; and, as I have said before, use as small a nail as possible. When you proceed to nail on the shoe, take a slight hold at the bottom, so as to be sure that the nail starts in the wall of the foot instead of the sole. Let it come out as high up as possible. You need not be afraid of pricking with nails set in this way, as the wall of the foot is as thick, until you get within half an inch of the top, as it is where you set the nail. Nails driven in this way injure the feet less, hold on longer, and are stronger than when driven in any other way. If you have any doubt of this, test it in this manner: when you take off an old shoe to set a new one, and cut the clinches (which should be done in all cases), you will find the old nail and the clinches not started up; and in drawing the nail out you will also find the foot not slipped or cracked; and that the horn binds the nail until it is entirely drawn out. Indeed, I have known the hole to almost close as the nail left it. Set the two front nails well towards the toe, so as not to be more than two inches apart when measured across the bottom of the foot. Let the next two divide the distance from that to the heel, so as to leave from two to two and a half inches free of nails, as the form of the foot may allow. Lastly, before nailing on the shoe, and while it is cold on the anvil, strike the surface that comes next to the foot on the outside, a few blows with the hammer, right across the heels, and see also that the outside of the heels is a shade lowest, so that the animal in throwing his weight upon them will spread out, and not pinch in his feet. 
10539	----	ESMERALDA*** Transcribed by Elizabeth Durack, who is very pleased to be able to share this rare and charming book. IN THE RIDING-SCHOOL; CHATS WITH ESMERALDA BY THEO. STEPHENSON BROWNE 1890 -- We two will ride, Lady mine, At your pleasure, side by side, Laugh and chat. ALDRICH TO THE MODERN MEN OF UZ; MY FRENCH, ENGLISH, AND AMERICAN MASTERS. CONTENTS I. A PRELIMINARY CHAT WITH ESMERALDA The proper frame of mind --Dress--Preparatory exercises. II. SHALL YOU TAKE YOUR MOTHER, ESMERALDA? The first lesson-- Various ways of mounting--Slippery reins--Clucking--After a ride. III. CHAT DURING THE SECOND LESSON Equestrian language-- Trotting without a horse--Exercises in and out of the saddle. IV. ESMERALDA'S TRIALS AT THE THIRD LESSON Pounding the saddle --A critical spectator--A few rein-holds. V. ESMERALDA ON THE ROAD Good and bad and indifferent riders-- A very little runaway. VI. THE ORDEAL OF A PRIVATE LESSON Voltes and half voltes-- "On the right hand of the school"--Imagination as a teacher. VII. ESMERALDA AT A MUSIC RIDE Sitting like a poker--The ways of the bad rider. VIII. ESMERALDA IN CLASS Keeping distances--Corners-- Proper place in the saddle--Exercises to correct nervous stiffness. IX. ELEMENTARY MILITARY EVOLUTIONS "Forward, forward, and again forward!"--How to guide a horse easily. X. CHAT DURING AN EXERCISE RIDE The deeds of the three-legged trotter--The omniscient rider--Backing a step or two-- Fun in the dressing-room. XI. ESMERALDA IS MANAGED Intervals--The secret of learning to ride. XII. CHAT ABOUT THE HABIT Riding-dress in history and fiction-- Cloth, linings and sewing--Boots, gloves, and hats. XIII. CHAT ABOUT TEACHERS Foreign and native instructors--Why American women learn slowly--"Keep riding!" I. Impatient to mount and ride. _Longfellow_. And you want to learn how to ride, Esmeralda? Why? Because? Reason good and sufficient, Esmeralda; to require anything more definite would be brutal, although an explanation of your motives would render the task of directing you much easier. As you are an American, it is reasonable to presume that you desire to learn quickly; as you are youthful, it is certain that you earnestly wish to look pretty in the saddle, and as you are a youthful American, there is not a shadow of a doubt that your objections to authoritative teaching will be almost unconquerable, and that you will insist upon being treated, from the very beginning, as if your small head contained the knowledge of a Hiram Woodruff or of an Archer. Perhaps you may find a teacher who will comply with your wishes; who will be exceedingly deferential to your little whims; will unhesitatingly accept your report of your own sensations and your hypotheses as to their cause; and, Esmeralda, when once your eyes behold that model man, be content, and go and take lessons of another, for either he is a pretentious humbug, careless of everything except his fees, or he is an ignoramus. It may not be necessary that you should be insulted or ridiculed in order to become a rider, although there are girls who seem utterly impervious by teaching by gentle methods. Is it not a matter of tradition that Queen Victoria owes her regal carriage to the rough drill-sergeant who, with no effect upon his pupil, horrified her governess, and astonished her, by sharply saying: "A pretty Queen you'll make with that dot-and-go-one gait!" Up went the little chin, back went the shoulders, down went the elbows, and, in her wrath, the little princess did precisely what the old soldier had been striving to make her do; but his delighted cry of "Just right!" was a surprise to her, inasmuch as she had been conscious of no muscular effort whatsoever. From that time forth, _incessit regina_. You may not need such rough treatment, but it is necessary that you should be corrected every moment and almost every second until you learn to correct yourself, until every muscle in your body becomes self-conscious, and until an improper position is almost instantly felt as uncomfortable, and the teacher who does not drill you steadily and continuously, permits you to fall into bad habits. If you were a German princess, Esmeralda, you would be compelled to sit in the saddle for many an hour without touching the reins, while your patient horse walked around a tan bark ring, and you balanced yourself and straightened yourself, and adjusted arms, shoulders, waist, knees and feet, under the orders of a drill- sergeant, who might, indeed, sugar-coat his phrases with "Your Highness," but whose intonations would say "You must," as plainly as if he were drilling an awkward squad of peasant recruits. If you were the daughter of a hundred earls, you would be mounted on a Shetland pony and shaken into a good seat long before you outgrew short frocks, and afterwards you would be trained by your mother or older sisters, by the gentlemen of your family, or perhaps, by some trusted old groom, or in a good London riding- school, and, no matter who your instructor might be, you would be compelled to be submissive and obedient. But you object that you cannot afford to pay for very careful, minute, and long-continued training; that you must content yourself with such teaching as you can obtain by riding in a ring under the charge of two or three masters, receiving such instruction as they find time to give you while maintaining order and looking after an indefinite number of other pupils. Your real teacher in that case must be yourself, striving assiduously to obey every order given to you, no matter whether it appears unreasonable or seems, as the Concord young woman said, "in accordance with the latest scientific developments and the esoteric meaning of differentiated animal existences." That sentence, by the way, silenced her master, and nearly caused him to have a fit of illness from suppression of language, but perhaps it might affect your teacher otherwise, and you would better reserve it for that private mental rehearsal of your first lesson which you will conduct in your maiden meditation. You are your own best teacher, you understand, and you may be encouraged to know that one of the foremost horsemen in the country says: "I have had many teachers, but my best master was here," touching his forehead. "Where do you ride, sir?" asked one of his pupils, after vainly striving with reins and whip, knee, heel and spur to execute a movement which the master had compelled his horse to perform while apparently holding himself as rigid as bronze. "I ride here, sir," was the grim answer, with another tap on the forehead. And first, Esmeralda, being feminine, you wish to know what you are to wear. Until you have taken at least ten lessons, it would be simply foolishness for you to buy any special thing to wear, except a plain flannel skirt, the material for which should not cost you more than two dollars and a half. Harper's Bazar has published two or three patterns, following which any dressmaker can make a skirt quite good enough for the ring. A jersey, a Norfolk jacket, a simple street jacket or even an ordinary basque waist; any small, close-fitting hat, securely pinned to your hair, and very loose gloves will complete a dress quite suitable for private lessons, and not so expensive that you need grudge the swift destruction certain to come to all equestrian costumes. Nothing is more ludicrous than to see a rider clothed in a correct habit, properly scant and unhemmed, to avoid all risks when taking fences and hedges in a hunting country, with her chimney-pot hat and her own gold-mounted crop, her knowing little riding-boots and buckskins, with outfit enough for Baby Blake and Di Vernon and Lady Gay Spanker, and to see that young woman dancing in the saddle, now here and now there, pulling at the reins in a manner to make a rocking-horse rear, and squealing tearfully and jerkily: "Oh, ho-ho-oh, wh-h-hat m-m-makes h-h-him g-g-go s-s-s-so?" If you think it possible that you may be easily discouraged, and that your first appearance in the riding-school will be your last, you need not buy any skirt, for you will find several in the school dressing-room, and, for once, you may submit to wearing a garment not your own. Shall you buy trousers or tights? Wait till you decide to take lessons before buying either, first to avoid unnecessary expense, and second, because until experience shall show what kind of a horsewoman you are likely to be, you cannot tell which will be the more suitable and comfortable. Laced boots, a plain, dark underskirt, cut princess, undergarments without a wrinkle, and no tight bands to compress veins, or to restrain muscles by adding their resistance to the force of gravitation make up the list of details to which you must give your attention before leaving home. If you be addicted to light gymnastics you will find it beneficial to practise a few movements daily, both before taking your first lesson and as long as you may continue to ride. First--Hold your shoulders square and perfectly rigid, and turn the head towards the right four times, and then to the left four times. Second--Bend the head four times to the right and four times to the left. Third--Bend the head four times to the back and four times to the front. These exercises will enable you to look at anything which may interest you, without distracting the attention of your horse, as you might do if you moved your shoulders, and thus disturbed your equilibrium on your back. Feeling the change, he naturally supposes that you want something of him, and when you become as sensitive as you should be, you will notice that at such times he changes his gait perceptibly. Fourth--Bend from the waist four times to the right, four to the left, four times forward, and four times backward. These movements will not only make the waist more flexible, but will strengthen certain muscles of the leg. Fifth--Execute any movement which experience has shown you will square your shoulders and flatten your back most effectually. Throw the hands backward until they touch one another, or bring your elbows together behind you, if you can. Hold the arms close to the side, the elbows against the waist, the forearm at right angles with the arm, the fists clenched, with the little finger down and the knuckles facing each other, and describe ellipses, first with one shoulder, then with the other, then with both. This movement is found in Mason's School Gymnastics, and is prescribed by M. de Bussigny in his little manual for horsewomen, and it will prove admirable in its effects. Stretch the arms at full length above the head, the palms of the hands at front, the thumbs touching one another, and then carry them straight outward without bending the elbows, and bend them down, the palms still in front, until the little finger touches the leg. This movement is recommended by Mason and also by Blaikie, and as it is part of the West Point "setting up" drill, it may be regarded as considered on good authority to be efficacious in producing an erect carriage. Stand as upright as you can, your arms against your side, the forearm at right angles, as before, and jerk your elbows downward four times. Sixth--Sit down on the floor with your feet stretched straight before you, and resting on their heels, and drop backward until you are lying flat, then resume your first position, keeping your arms and forearms at right angles during the whole exercise. Still sitting, bend as far to the right as you can, then bend as far as possible to the left, resuming a perfectly erect position between the movements, and keeping your feet and legs still. Rising, stand on your toes and let yourself down fifty times; then stand on your heels, and raise and lower your toes fifty times. The firmer you hold your arms and hands during these movements, the better for you, Esmeralda, and for the horse who will be your first victim. Already one can seem to see him, poor, innocent beast, miserable in the memories of an army of beginners, his mouth so accustomed to being jerked in every direction, without anything in particular being meant by it, that neither Arabia nor Mexico can furnish a bit which would surprise him, or startle his four legs from their propriety. No cow is more placid, no lamb more gentle; he would not harm a tsetse fly or kick a snapping terrier. His sole object in life is to keep himself and his rider out of danger, and to betake himself to that part of the ring in which the least labor should be expected of him. The tiny girls who ride him call him "dear old Billy Buttons," or "darling Gypsy," or "nice Sir Archer." Heaven knows what he calls them in his heart! Were he human, it would be something to be expressed by dashes and "d's"; but, being a horse, he is silent, and shows his feelings principally by heading for the mounting-stand whenever he thinks that a pupil's hour is at an end. Why that long face, Esmeralda? Must you do all those exercises? Bless your innocent soul, no! Dress yourself and run away. The exercises will be good for you, but they are not absolutely necessary. Remember, however, that your best riding-school master is behind your own pretty forehead, and that your brain can save your muscles many a strain and many a pound of labor. And remember, too, that, in riding, as in everything else, to him that hath shall be given, and the harder and firmer your muscles when you begin, the greater will be the benefit which you will derive from your rides, and the more you will enjoy them. The pale and weary invalid may gain flesh and color with every lesson, but the bright and healthy pupil, whose muscles are like iron, whose heart and lungs are in perfect order, can ride for hours without weariness, and double her strength in a comparatively short time. But--Esmeralda, dear, before you go--whisper! Why do you want to take riding lessons? Theodore asked you to go out with him next Monday, and Nell said that she would lend you her habit, and you thought that you would take three lessons and learn to ride? There, go and dress, child; go and dress! II. Bring forth the horse! _Byron_. Being ready to start, Esmeralda, the question now arises: "Is a riding school," as the girl asked about the new French play, "a place to which one can take her mother?" Little girls too young to dress themselves should be attended by their mothers or by their maids, but an older girl no more needs guardianship at riding-school than at any other place at which she receives instruction, and there is no more reason why her mother should follow her into the ring than into the class-room. Her presence, even if she preserve absolute silence, will probably embarrass both teacher and pupil, and although her own children may not be affected by it, it will be decidedly troublesome to the children of other mothers. If, instead of being quiet, she talk, and it is the nature of the mother who accompanies her daughter to riding-school to talk volubly and loudly, she will become a nuisance, and even a source of actual danger, by distracting the attention of the master from his pupils, and the attention of the pupils from their horses, to say nothing of the possibility that some of her pretty, ladylike screams of, "Oh, darling, I know you're tired!" or, "Oh, what a horrid horse; see him jump!" may really frighten some lucky animal whose acquaintance has included no women but the sensible. If she be inclined to laugh at the awkward beginners, and to ridicule them audibly--but really, Esmeralda, it should not be necessary to consider such an action, impossible in a well-bred woman, unlikely in a woman of good feeling! Leave your mother, if not at home, in the dressing-room or the reception room, and go to the mounting-stand alone. In some schools you may ride at any time, but the usual morning hours for ladies' lessons are from nine o'clock to noon, and the afternoon hours from two o'clock until four. Some masters prefer that their pupils should have fixed days and hours for their lessons, and others allow the very largest liberty. For your own sake it is better to have a regular time for your lessons, but if you cannot manage to do so, do not complain if you sometimes have to wait a few minutes for your horse, or for your master. The school is not carried on entirely for your benefit, although you will at first assume that it is. As a rule, a single lesson will cost two dollars, but a ten-lesson ticket will cost but fifteen dollars, a twenty-lesson ticket twenty-five dollars, and a ticket for twenty exercise rides twenty dollars. In schools which give music-rides, there are special rates for the evenings upon which they take place, but you need not think of music-rides until you have had at least the three lessons which you desire. Buy your ticket before you go to the dressing-room, and ask if you may have a key to a locker. Dress as quickly as you can, and if there be no maid in the dressing-room, lock up your street clothing and keep your key. If there be a maid, she will attend to this matter, and will assist you in putting on your skirt, showing you that it buttons on the left side, and that you must pin it down the basque of your jersey or your jacket in the back, unless you desire it to wave wildly with every leap of your horse. Flatter not yourself that lead weights will prevent this! When a horse begins a canter that sends you, if your feelings be any gauge, eighteen good inches nearer the ceiling, do you think that an ounce of lead will remain stationary? give a final touch to your hairpins and hatpins, button your gloves, pull the rubber straps of your habit over your right toe and left heel, and you are ready. In most schools, you will be made to mount from the ground, and you will find it surprisingly and delightfully easy to you. What it may be to the master who puts you into the saddle is another matter, but nine out of ten teachers will make no complaint, and will assure you that they do very well. If you wish to deceive any other girl's inconsiderate mother whom you may find comfortably seated in a good position for criticism, and to make her suppose that you are an old rider, keep silence. Do not criticise your horse or his equipments, do not profess inability to mount, but when you master says "Now!" step forward and stand facing in the same direction of your horse, placing your right hand on the upper pommel of the two on the left of the saddle. Set your left foot in whichever hand he holds out for it. Some masters offer the left, some the right, and some count for a pupil, and others prefer that she should count for yourself. The usual "One, two, three!" means, one, rest the weight strongly on the right foot; two, bend the right knee, keeping the body perfectly erect; three, spring up from the right foot, turning very slightly to the left, so as to place yourself sideways on the saddle, your right hand toward the horse's head. Some masters offer a shoulder as a support for a pupil's left hand, and some face toward the horse's head and some toward his tail, so it is best for you to wait a little for directions, Esmeralda, and not to suppose that, because you know all about Lucy Fountain's way of mounting a horse, or about James Burdock's tuition of Mabel Vane, there is no other method of putting a lady in the saddle. After your first lesson, you will find it well to practise springing upward from the right foot, holding your left on a hassock, or a chair rung, your right hand raised as if grasping the pommel, your shoulders carefully kept back, and your body straight. It is best to perform this exercise before a mirror, and when you begin to think you have mastered it, close you eyes, give ten upward springs and then look at yourself. A hopeless wreck, eh? Not quite so bad as that, but, before, you unconsciously corrected your position by the eye, and you must learn to do it entirely by feeling. You will probably improve very much on a second trial, because your shoulders will begin to be sensitive. Why not practise this exercise before your first lesson? Because you should know just how your master prefers to stand, in order to be able to imagine him standing as he really will. It is not unusual to see riders of some experience puzzled and made awkward by an innovation on what they have regarded as the true and only method of mounting, although, when once the right leg and wrist are properly trained, a woman ought to be able to reach the saddle without caring what her escort's method of assistance. Mounting from a high horseblock is a matter of being fairly lifted into the saddle, and you cannot possibly do it improperly. it is easy, but it gives you no training for rides outside the school, and masters use it, not because they approve of it, but because their pupils, not knowing how easy it is to mount from the ground, often desire it. But, being in the saddle, turn so as to face your horse's head, put our right knee over the pommel, and slip your left foot into the stirrup. Then rise on your left foot and smooth your skirt, a task in which your master will assist you, and take you reins and your whip from him. How shall you hold your reins? As your master tells you! Probably, he will give you but one rein at first, and very likely will direct you to hold it in both hands, keeping them five or six inches apart, the wrists on a level with the elbows or even a very little lower, and he is not likely to insist on any other details, knowing that it will be difficult for you to attain perfection in these. An English master might give you a single rein to be passed outside the little finger, and between the forefinger and the middle finger, the loop coming between the forefinger and thumb, and being held in place by the thumb. Then he would expect you to keep your right shoulder back very firmly, but a French master will tell you that it is better to learn to keep the shoulder back a little while holding a rein in the right hand, and an American master will usually allow you to take your choice, but, until you have experience, obey orders in silence. And now, having taken your whip, draw yourself back in your saddle so as to feel the pommel under your right knee; sit well towards the right, square your shoulders, force your elbows well down, hollow your waist a little, and start. He won't go? Of course he will not, until bidden to do so, if he know his business. Bend forward the least bit in the world, draw very slightly on the reins, and rather harder on the right, so as to turn him from the stand, and away he walks, and you are in the ring. You had no idea that it was so large, and you feel as if lost on a western prairie, but you are in no danger whatsoever. You cannot fall off while your right knee and left foot are in place, and if you deliberately threw yourself into the tan, you would be unhurt, and the riding-school horse knows better than to tread on anything unusual which he may find in his way. Now, Esmeralda, keep your mind--No, your saddle is not turning; it is well girthed. You feel as if it were? Pray, how do you know how you would feel if a saddle were to turn? Did you ever try it? And your saddle is not too large! Neither is it too small! And there is nothing at all the matter with your horse! Now, Esmeralda, keep your mind--No, that other girl is not going to ride you down. Her horse would not allow her, if she endeavored to do so. The trouble is that she does not guide her horse, but is worrying herself about staying on his back, when she should be thinking about making him turn sharp corners and go straight forward. Regard her as a warning, Esmeralda, and keep your mind-- What is the matter with the reins? Apparently they are oiled, for they have slipped from under your thumbs, and your horse is wandering along with drooping head, looking as if training to play the part of the dead warrior's charger at a military funeral. Shorten your reins now, carefully! Not quite so much, or your horse will think that you intend to begin to trot, and do not lean backward, or he will fancy that you wish him to back or stop. The poor thing has to guess at what a pupil wishes, and no wonder that he sometimes mistakes. But, Esmeralda, keep your mind on those thumbs and hold them close to your forefingers. Driving will give no idea of the slipperiness of leather, but after your first riding lesson you will wonder why it is not used to floor roller-skating rinks. But remember that your reins are for your horse's support, not for yours; they are the telegraph wires along which you send dispatches to him, not parallel bars upon which your weight is to depend. Hitherto, you have not ridden an inch. Your horse has strolled about, and you have not dropped from his back, and that is not riding, but now you shall begin. In a large ring, pupils are required to keep to the wall when walking, as this gives the horse a certain guide, but in small rings the rule is to keep to the wall when trotting, so as to improve every foot of pace, and to walk about six feet from the wall, not in a circle, but describing a rectangle. New pupils are always taught to turn to the right, and to make all their movements in that direction. Hold your thumbs firmly in place, and draw your right hand a very little upward and inward, touching your whip lightly to the horse's right side, and turning your face and leaning your body slightly to the right. The instant that the corner is turned, drop your hand, keeping the thumb in place, square your shoulders, look straight between your horse's ears, and then allow your eyes to range upward as far as possible without losing sight of him altogether. No matter what is going on about you. Very likely, the criticizing mamma on the mounting-stand is scolding sharply about noting. Possibly, a dear little boy is fairly flying about the ring on a pony that seems to have cantered out of a fairy tale, and a marvelously graceful girl, whom you envy with your whole soul, is doing pirouettes in the centre of the ring. All that is not your business. Your sole concern is to keep your body in position, and your mind fixed on making your horse obey you, doing nothing of his own will. Stop him now and then by leaning back, and drawing on the reins, not with your body but with your hands. Then lean forward and go on, but if he should remain planted as fast as the Great Pyramid, if when started he should refuse to pay any attention to the little taps of your left heel and the touches of your whip, nay, if he should lie down and pretend to die, like a trick horse in a circus, don't cluck. No good riding master will teach a pupil to cluck or will permit the practice to pass unreproved, and riding-school horses do not understand it, and are quite as likely to start at the cluck of a rider on the other side of the ring as they are when a similar noise is made by the person on their own backs. But now, just as you have shortened your reins for the fortieth time or so, your master rides up beside you. You told him of your little three-lesson plan, and being wise in his generation, he smilingly assented to it. "Shall we trot?" he asks, in an agreeable voice. "Shorten your reins, now! Don't pull on them! Right shoulder back! Now rise from the saddle as I count, 'One, two, three, four!' Off we go!'" You would like to know what he meant by "off!" "Off," indeed! You thought you were "off" the saddle. You have been bounced up and down mercilessly, and have gasped, "Stop him!" before you have been twice around the ring, and not one corner have you been able to turn properly. As for your elbows, you know that they have been flying all abroad, but still--it was fun, and you would like to try again. You do try again, and you would like to try again. You do try again, and, at last, you are conscious of a sudden feeling of elasticity, of sympathy with your horse, of rising when he does, and then your master looks at you triumphantly, and says: "You rose that time," and leaves you to go to some other pupil. And then you walk your horse again, trying to keep in position, and you make furtive little essays at trotting by yourself, and find that you cannot keep your horse to the wall, although you pull your hardest at his left rein, the reason being that, unconsciously, you also pull at the right rein, and that he calmly obeys what the reins tell him and goes straight forward. Then your master offers to help you by lifting you, grasping your right arm with his left hand, and you make one or two more circuits of the ring, and then the hour is over and you dismount and go to the dressing-room. Tired, Esmeralda? A little, and you do wonder whether you shall not be a bruised piece of humanity to-morrow. Not if your flesh be as hard as any girl's should be in these days of gymnasiums, but if you have managed to bruise a muscle or to strain one, lay a bottle of hot water against it when you go to bed and it will not be painful in the morning. If, in spite of warnings, you have been so careless about your underclothing as to cause a blister, a bit of muslin saturated with Vaseline, with a drop of tincture of benzoin rubbed into it, makes a plaster which will end the smart instantly. This is not a physician's prescription, but is hat of a horseman who for years led the best riding class in Boston, and it is asserted that nobody was ever known to be dissatisfied with its effects. Muffle yourself warmly, Esmeralda, and hasten home, for nothing is easier than to catch cold after riding. Air your frock and cloak before an open fire to volatilize the slight ammoniacal scent which they must inevitably contract in the locker, and then be as good to yourself as the hostler will be to your poor horse. That is to say, give yourself a sponge bath in hot water, with a dash of Sarg's soap and almond meal in it, rubbing dry with a Turkish towel, and then dress and go down to dinner. Looking at your glowing face and shining eyes, your father will tell your mother that she should have gone also, but when he marks the havoc which you make with the substantial part of the meal, and sees that your appetite for dessert is twice as good as usual, he will reflect upon his butcher's and grocer's bills, and, considering what they would be with provision to make for two such voracious creatures, he will say, "No, Esmeralda, don't take your mother!" III. Up into the saddle, Lithe and light, vaulting she perched. _Hayne_. And you still think, Esmeralda, that three lessons will be enough to make you a horse woman, and that by next Monday you will be able to join the road party, and witch the world with your accomplishments? Very well, array yourself for conquest and come to the school. Talk is cheap, according to a proverb more common than elegant; but it is sinful to waste the cheapest of things. While you dress, you will meditate upon the sensation which it is your intention to make in the ring, and upon the humiliation which you will heap upon your riding master by showing wonderful ability to rise in the saddle. Although not quite ready to assert ability to ride hour after hour like a mounted policeman, you feel certain that you could ride as gracefully as he, and perhaps you are right, for official position does not confer wisdom in equitation. To say nothing of policemen, it is not many seasons since an ambitious member of the governor's staff presented himself before a riding master to "take a lesson, just to get used to it, you know; got to review some regiments at Framingham tomorrow." And when, after some trouble, he had been landed in the saddle, never a strap had he, and long before his lesson hour was finished, he was a spectacle to make a Prussian sentinel giggle while on duty. And for your further encouragement, Esmeralda, know that it is but a few years ago that a riding master, in answer to a rebellious pupil who defended some sin against Baucher with, "Mr. --of the governor's staff always does so," retorted, "There is just one man on the governor's staff who can ride, and I taught him; and if he had ridden like that !" An awful silence expressed so many painful possibilities that the pupil was meek and humble ever after, and yet it was not written in any newspaper that any of those ignorant colonels were thrown from their saddles in public, nor did the strapless gentleman furnish amusement to civilian or soldier by rolling on the grass at Framingham. The truth is, that the number of persons able to judge of riding is smaller than the number able to ride, and that number is rather less than one in a hundred of those who appear on horseback either in the ring or on the road; but Boston could furnish a legion of men and women who find healthful enjoyment in the saddle, and who look passably well while doing it, and possibly you may add yourself to their ranks after a very few lessons, although there is--You are ready? Come then! Into the saddle well thought, thanks to your master, but why that ghastly pause? Turn instantly, place your knee over the pommel and thrust your foot into the stirrup, if you possibly can, without waiting for assistance. Teachers of experience, riding masters, dancing masters, musicians, artists, gymnasts, will unite in telling you that unless a pupil's mental qualities be rather extraordinary, it is more difficult to impart knowledge at a second lesson than at the first, simply because the pupil gives less attention, expecting his muscles to work mechanically. Undoubtedly, after long training, fingers will play scales, and flying feet whirl their owner about a ballroom without making him conscious of every muscular extension and contraction, but this facility comes only to those who, in the beginning, fix an undivided mind upon what they are doing, and who never fall into willful negligence. Keep watch of yourself, manage yourself as assiduously as you watch and manage your horse, and ten times more assiduously than you would watch your fingers at the piano, or your feet in the dancing class, because you must watch for two, for your horse and for yourself. If you give him an incorrect signal, he will obey it, you will be unprepared for his next act, and in half a minute you will have a very pretty misunderstanding on your hands. But there is no reason for being frightened. You cannot fall, and if your horse should show any signs of actual misbehavior, you would find your master at your right hand, with fingers of steel to grasp your reins, and a voice accustomed to command obedience from quadrupeds, howsoever little of it he may be able to obtain at first from well-meaning bipeds. You are perfectly safe with him, Esmeralda, not only because he knows how to ride, but because the strongest of all human motives, self-interest, is enlisted to promote your safety. "She said she was afraid to risk her neck," said an exhausted teacher, speaking the words of frankness to a spectator, as a timid and stupid pupil disappeared into the dressing-room, "and I told her that she could afford the risk better than I. If she broke it, than don't you know, it probably could not be mended, but mine might be broken in trying to save her, and, at the best, my reputation and my means of getting a livelihood would be gone forever in an instant. It's only a neck with her; it's life and wife and babies that I risk, and I'll insure her neck." And when the stupid pupil, who was a lady in spite of her dulness, came from the dressing-room, calmed and quieted, and began to offer a blushing apology, he repeated his remarks to her, and so excellent was the understanding established between them after this little incident that she actually came to be a tolerable rider. Feeling that he would tell her to do nothing dangerous to her, she was ready at his command to lie down on her horse's back and to raise herself again and again, and, after doing this a few times, and bending alternately to the right and to the left, the saddle seemed quite homelike, and to remain in it sitting upright was very easy for a few moments. Only for a few moments, however, for the necessity of paying attention still remained, as it does with you, and again she stiffened herself, as you are doing now. As Mr. Mead very justly says, in his "Horsemanship for Women," a lesson may be learned from a bag of grain set up on horseback, which is, that while the lower part of your body should settle itself almost lazily in place, the upper part, which is comparatively light, should sway slightly but easily with the horse's motion. Manage to ride behind the girl who was teaching herself to do pirouettes the other day. Her horse is walking rapidly, and you could almost fancy that her prettily squared shoulders were part of him, so sympathetically do they respond to each step, but if you should let your horse straggle against hers and frighten him, you would see that no rock is more firmly seated then she. If it should please your master to require you to perform the bending exercise, you will feel the advantage of having practiced it at home, for it is infinitely easier in the saddle than it is on the floor, and your riding master will be exceedingly pleased at the ease with which you effect it. There is no necessity for telling him that the little feat is quite familiar to you. The woman of sense keeps as many of her doings secret as she can, and the wise pupil confesses no knowledge except that derived from her master. Being, in spite of his superior knowledge, a mortal man, he will take twice the pains with her, and a hundredfold more pride in her if persuaded that she owes everything to him. There is no reason to worry about a little stiffness during the first lessons. It is almost entirely nervousness, and will disappear as soon as you are quite comfortable and easy, but the beautiful flexibility of the good horsewoman comes only to her whose muscles are perfectly trained, and it is surprising how few muscles there are to which one may not give employment in an hour's practice in the ring. If you like, you may, without the assistance of your master, lean forward to the right side until your left shoulder touches your horse's crest, and when you are trotting it is well how and then to lean forward and to the right until you can see your horse's forefeet, but you would better not perform the same exercise on the left side for the present, for you might overbalance yourself and almost slip from the saddle. If able, as you should be, to touch the floor with your fingertips without bending your knees, this little movement will be nothing to you, but do not bend to the left, Esmeralda. Why not? Why, because if you will have the truth, you are slipping to the left already, your right shoulder is drooping forward, and your weight is hanging in your stirrup and pulling your saddle to the left so forcibly that your horse has lost all respect for you, and would be thoroughly uncomfortable, were it not that you have forgotten all about your thumbs, and you have allowed your reins to slip away from you, so that he is going where he pleases, except when you jerk him sharply to the right, and then he shakes and tosses his head and goes on contentedly, as one saying, "All things have an end, even a new pupil's hour." Now, sit well to the right, remembering the meal sack; shorten your reins, keeping your elbows down and your hands low. Shorten them a very little more, so as to bring your elbows further forward. When you stop, you should not be compelled to jerk your elbows back of your waist, but should bring them into line with it, leaning back slightly, and drawing yourself upward. Stop your horse now, for practice. Do not speak to him during your first lessons, except by your master's express command, but address him in his own language, using your reins, your foot, and your whip, if your master permit. "Why do you make coquette of your horse?" asked a French master of a pretty girl who was coaxingly calling her mount "a naughty, horrid thing," and casting glances fit to distract a man on the ungrateful creature's irresponsive crest. "Your horse does not care anything at all about you; don't you think he does!" pursued he, ungallantly. "You may coax me as much as you like," said a Yankee teacher to a young woman who was trying the "treat him kindly" theory, and was calling her horse a "dear old ducky darling;" "and," he continued, "I'm rather fond of candy myself, but it isn't coaxing or lump sugar that will make that horse go. It's brains and reins and foot and whip." When you have a horse of your own, talk to him as much as you like, and teach him your language as an accomplishment, but address the riding-school horse in his own tongue, until you have mastered it yourself. Now, adjust yourself carefully, lean forward, extend your hands a very little, touch your horse with your left heel, and, as soon as he moves, sit erect and let your hands resume their position. Hasten his steps until he is almost trotting, before you strike him with the whip. You can do this by very slightly opening and shutting your fingers in time with the slight pull which he gives with his head at every step, by touches with your heel, and by touches, not blows, with the whip, and by allowing yourself, not to rise, but to sit a little lighter with each step. It is not very easy to do, and you need not be discouraged if you cannot effect it after many trials. Some masters will tell you to strike your horse on the shoulder, and some will prefer that you should strike him on the flank as a signal for trotting. Those who prefer the former will tell you to carry your whip pointing forward; the others will tell you to carry it pointing backward, and many masters will say that it makes little difference as long as it is carried gracefully, and as long as you understand that it takes the place of a leg on the right side of the horse. General Anderson, in "On Horseback," lays down the rule that a horse should never be struck on the shoulder, as it will cause him to swerve, but use your master's horses in obedience to his orders. Now, then, one, two, three, four! One, two, three, four! You don't seem to be astonishing anybody very much, Esmeralda! Again, one, two, three, four! Never mind! Sit down and let the horse do the work. Keep your left heel down, and your left knee close to the saddle. Not close to the pommel, understand, but close to the saddle. Try and imagine, if you like, that you are carrying a dollar between the knee and the saddle, after the West Point fashion, and do not fret overmuch because you are not rising. If you were a cavalryman riding with your troop, you would not be allowed to rise, and to sit properly while sitting close is an accomplishment not to be despised. "Ow!" What does that mean? You rose without trying? Watch yourself carefully, and if such a phenomenon should occur again, try to make it repeat itself by letting yourself down into the saddle, and then rising again quickly. But keep trotting! Count how many times you trot around the ring, and mentally pledge yourself to increase the number of circuits at your next lesson. And--"Cluck!" Sit down in the saddle, Esmeralda! Lean back a little, bring your left knee up against the pommel, keeping the lower part of the leg close against the saddle; keep your right knee in place and your right foot and the lower part of your right leg close to the saddled; guide your horse, but do not otherwise exert yourself. How do you like it? Delightful? Yes, with a good horse it is as delightful as sitting in a rocking-chair, but, if you were a rider of experience, you would not allow your horse to enter upon the gait without permission, but would bring him back to the trot by slightly pulling first the left rein and then the right, a movement which is called sawing the mouth. The poor creature is really not in fault. He heard the cluck given by that complacent- looking man, trotting slowly about, and not knowing how to use his reins and knees in order to go faster, and he said to himself: "She is tired of trotting and wants a rest; so do I," and away he went. If you had been trying to rise, you might have been thrown, for the greatest danger that you will encounter in the school comes from rising while the horse is at a canter. The cadence of the motion is triple, instead of in common time like that of the trot, and you will soon distinguish the difference, but eschew cantering at first. If you once become addicted to it, you will never learn to trot, or even to walk well. Having had your little warning against clucking, perhaps you will now sympathize with the indignant Englishwoman who, having been almost unseated by a similar mischance, responded, when the clucking cause thereof rode up to say that he was sorry that her horse should behave so: "It wasn't the horse that was in fault, sir; it was a donkey." But now, try a round or two more of trotting, then guide your horse carefully about the ring two or three times, bring him up to the mounting-stand, dismount, and go to the dressing-room. You are rather warm, but not in the least tired, and you have had "such a good time," as you enthusiastically explain to everybody who will listen to you, but as there is much merry chatter going on from behind screens, and as it is all to the same effect, nobody pays much attention, and if you were cross and complaining, everybody would laugh at you. A riding-school is a place from which every woman issues better contented than she entered, and there is no sympathy for grumblers. Remember to be careful about your wraps, and that you may be able to ride better next time, practice these exercises at home: Place your knees together and heels together, adjust your shoulders, hands, and arms as if you were in the saddle, and sit down as far as possible, while keeping the legs vertical from the knee down. Rise, counting "One," sink again, rise once more at "Two," and continue through three measures, common time. Rest a minute and repeat until you are a little weary. Nothing is gained by doing too much work, but if you do just enough of this between lessons, you cannot possibly grow stiff. When you can do it fairly well, try to do it first on one foot and then on the other, and then bring your right foot in front of your left knee, and, standing on your left foot, assume, as nearly as possibly, the proper position for the saddle, and try to rise in time. You will not find it very difficult, and you will be compelled to keep your heel down while doing it, especially if you put a block about an inch thick under your left tow. You may try doing it while sitting sidewise in a chair, if it be difficult for you to poise yourself on one foot, but a girl who cannot stand thus for some time, long enough to lace her riding boot, for instance, is much too weak for her own good. Take all your spare minutes for this work, Esmeralda. Bob up and down in all the secluded corners of the house; try to feel the motion in the horse-cars--it will not need much effort in many of them. And if you want to be comfortable in a herdic, sit sidewise and pretend that the seat is a horse. This is Mr. Hurlburt's rule for riding in an Irish "outside car." In short, while taking your first riding-lessons, walk, sit, and think to the tune of "One, two, three, four! Near the wall, Make him trot; You cannot fall!" IV. The Horse does not attempt to fly; He knows his powers, and so should I. _Spurgeon_. Wilful will to water, eh, Esmeralda? You are determined to appear in that riding party after your third lesson, and you think that you "will look no worse than a great many others." Undoubtedly, that is true, and more's the pity, but, since you will go, let us make the most of the third lesson, and trust that you will return in a whole piece, like Henry Clay's pie. You do not see why there is any more danger on the road than in the ring, and you have never been thrown! It would be unkind, in the face of that "never," to remind you that you have been in the saddle precisely twice, and, really, there is no more danger from your incompetency, should it manifest itself on the road, than might arise from its display in the ring, but with your horse it is another matter. Having the whole world before him, why not, he will meditate, speed forth into space, and escape from the hateful creature who jerks on his head so causelessly, making him sigh wearily for the days of his unbroken colthood? He would endure it within doors, because he has noticed that his tormentor gives place to another every hour, and pain may be borne when it is not monotonous; but he remembers that there is no limit to the time during which one human being may impel him along an open road, and he also remembers some very pretty friskings, delightful to himself, but disconcerting to his rider, and he may perform some of them. Even if he should, he would not unseat a rider well accustomed to school work, but you! You actually rose in the saddle three times in succession, the other day, and where were your elbows and where were your feet when you ceased rising, and long before your steady, quiet mount understood that you desired him to walk? Your master smiles indulgently when you announce that this is your last practice lesson, and says: "Very well, you shall ride Charlie, to-day, at least for a little while, until some others come in." He himself mounts, moves off a pace or two, one of the assistant masters puts you in the saddle, and before the groom lets Master Charlie's head go, your master says, easily: "Leave his reins pretty long, especially the right one. Put your left knee close against the pommel; don't try to rise until I tell you. Ready. Now." You feel as if you were in a transformation scene at the theatre. The windows of the ring seem to run into one another, and at very short intervals you catch a glimpse in the mirror of a young woman, in a familiar looking Norfolk jacket, sitting with her elbows as far behind her as if held there by the Austrian plan of running a broomstick in front of the arms and behind the waist. On and on! You earnestly wish to stop, but are ashamed to say so. Close at your right hand, pace for pace with you, rides your master, keeping up an unbroken fire of brief ejaculation: "Hands a little lower! Arms close to the side!" Shoulders square! Square! Draw your right shoulder backward and upward! Now down with your right elbow! Don't pull o the right rein! Don't lift your hands! You'll make him go faster!" "I like this kind of trot," you say sweetly. "It's easier than the other kind." "It isn't a trot; it's a canter," says your master, with a suspicion of dryness in his voice, "but you may make him trot if you like. Shorten both reins, especially the left. Whoa, Charlie! Wait until I say 'Now,' before you do it! Shorten both reins, especially the left; that will keep him to the wall, Then extend your left arm a little, and draw back your right; draw back your left and extend your right, and repeat until he comes down to a trot. That saws his mouth, and gives him something besides scampering to occupy his mind. Now we will start up again at a canter. Lengthen your reins, but remember to shorten them when you want to trot." "Shall I tell you before hand, so that you may have time to make your horse trot, too?" you ask. Esmeralda, you must have been reading one of those sweet books on etiquette which advise the horsewoman to be considerate of her companions. How much notice do you think your master requires to "make his horse trot"? You will blush over the memory of that question next year, although now you feel that you have been very ladylike, even very Christian, in putting it, for have you not shown that your temper is unruffled and that you are thinking how to make others happy? Your master answers that his horse may be trusted, and that if you prefer to take your own time to change from the canter to the trot, rather than to wait for him to say, "Now," you may do so. And the canter begins again, and, after a round or two, you try the mouth-sawing process, doing it very well, for it is an ugly little trick at best, rarely found necessary by an accomplished rider, and beginners seldom fail to succeed in it at the very first attempt. If it were pretty and graceful, it would be more difficult. Down to the trot comes the obedient Charles, and up you go one, two, three, four! And down you come, until you really expect to find yourself and the saddle in the tan between the two halves of your horse. Of what can the creature's spinal column be made, to bear such a succession of blows! You begin by pitying the horse, but after about half a circuit, you think that human beings have their little troubles also, and you feel a suspicion of sarcasm in your master's gentle: "You need not do French trot any longer, unless you like. It will be easier for you to rise." You give a frantic hop in your stirrup at the wrong minute, and begin a series of jumps in which you and the horse rise on alternate beats, by which means your saddle receives twice as much pounding as at first, and then you have breath enough left to gasp "Stop," and in a second you are walking along quietly, and your master is saying in a matter-of-fact way: "You would better keep your left heel down all the time, and turn the toe toward the horse's side and keep your right foot and leg close to the saddle below the knee; swing yourself up and down as a man does; don't drop like a lump of lead." "Like a snowflake," you murmur, for you fancy that you have a pretty wit like Will Honeycomb. "Not at all," says your master. "The snowflake comes down because it must, and comes to stay. You come because you choose, and come down to rise again instantly. You must keep your right shoulder back, and your hands on a level with your elbows, and you must turn the corners, not let your horse turn them as he pleases-- but more pupils are coming now and I must give you another horse. You may have Billy Buttons." The change is effected, the other pupils begin their lessons, and you and Billy walk deliberately about in the centre of the ring. At first he keeps moderately near the wall, but after a time you find that the circle described by his footsteps has grown smaller, and that he apparently fancies himself walking around a rather small tree. Your master rides up as you are pulling and jerking your left rein in the endeavor to come nearer to the wall, and says, "Try Billy's canter. I'll take a round with you. Strike him on the shoulder, and when you want him to trot, shorten your reins and touch him on the flank. Those are the signals which he minds best. Now! Canter." You remember having heard of a "canter like a rocking-chair." Charlie had it, but you were too inexperienced to know it, but bad riders long ago deprived Billy of any likeness to a rocking- chair. He knows that if he should let himself go freely, you would come near to making him rear by pulling on the reins, and so he goes along "one, two, three, one, two, three," deliberately, and you feel and look, as you hear an unsympathetic gazer in the gallery remark, "like a pea in a hot skillet." You prided yourself on keeping your temper unruffled under the wise criticism of your master, but in truth you did not really believe him. You said to yourself that he was too particular, and you even thought of informing him that he must not expect perfection immediately, but this piece of impudence, spoken by a person who, for aught that you can tell, does not know Billy from a clotheshorse, convinces you instantly, and you decide to canter no more, but to trot, and so you "shorten your reins and strike him on the flank." As you shorten the right rein more than the left, and as your whip falls as lightly as if you meant the blow for yourself, Billy goes to the centre of the ring, but you jerk him to the wall, and in time, trot he does. But your left foot swings now forward and now outward, and you cannot rise. The regular, pulsating count by which a clever girl is moving like a machine, irritates you, and you tell another beginner, "They really ought to let us rise on alternate bats at first, until we are more accustomed to the motion," and she agrees with you, and both of you try this, which might be called trotting on the American pupil plan, but even the calm Billy manages to take about six steps between what you regard as the "alternate beats," and at last breaks into a canter, and you hear yourself ordered, very peremptorily, to "sit down." You obey, but begin the pea in the skillet performance again, and at last you tell your master that you will not try to trot anymore, but would like to know all about managing the reins. "And then," you say, looking as wise as the three Gothamites of the nursery song, "even if I should not be able to trot long, and should fall behind my friends on the road, I shall have perfect control of my horse, and can walk on until they miss me and turn back for me. Will you please tell me all the ways of holding the reins?" Your master does not laugh; the joke is too venerable, and he feels awe-struck as he hears it, so ancient does it seem. "If you take your reins in one hand," he says, "an easy way is to hold the snaffle on your ring finger, and the left curb outside the little finger, with the right curb between the middle and fore fingers. Then, when you want to use both hands, put your right little finger and ring finger between the right curb and right snaffle, and hold your hands at exactly even distances from your horse's head, with the two reins firmly nipped by the thumbs resting on top of the fore-fingers. This is the way recommended in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in Colonel Dodge's 'Patroclus and Penelope,' and you will see it in many very good hunting pictures. "Colonel Anderson, in his 'On Horseback,' recommends dividing the curb reins by the little finger of the left hand and the snaffle reins by the middle finger, carrying the ends up through the hand, and holding them by the thumb. Mr. Mead, in his 'Horsemanship for Women,' mentions this hold, but prefers taking the curb on the ring finger, and the snaffle outside the little finger, and between the forefinger and middle finger. This hold is used in the British army, and it is convenient in school, because if it be desirable to drop the curb in order to ride with the snaffle only, you can do it by dropping your ring finger, and, if your horse be moderately quiet, you can knot the curb rein and let it lie on his neck. Besides, it makes the snaffle a little tighter than the curb, and that is held to be a good thing in England. An English soldier is prone to accuse American cavalrymen of riding too much on the curb, and by the way, I have heard English soldiers assert that they were taught the second method, but it was a riding master formerly in the Queen's service who told me that the third was preferred. "M. de Bussigny, in his little 'Handbook for Horsewomen,' gives the preference to crossing the reins, the curb coming outside the little finger and between the ring and middle finger, and the snaffle between the little and ring fingers and the middle finger and forefinger. I hold my won in that way when training a horse, but it is better for you to use both hands on the reins, and he would tell you so. You are more likely to sit square; it gives you twice the hold, and then, too, you know where your right hand is, and are not waving it about in the air, or devising queer ways of holding your whip. Now your hour is over, and I will take you off your horse. Wait until he is perfectly still, and the groom has him by the head. Now drop your reins; let me take off the foot straps; take your foot out of the stirrup; turn in the saddle; put one hand on my shoulder and one on my elbow, and slip down as lightly as you can." You glance at the clock, perceive that you have been I the saddle almost an hour and a half, and murmur an apology. "Don't mind," is the encouraging answer. "As long as a pupil does not complain and call us stingy when we make her dismount, we do not say much. But are you really going on the road, Monday, Miss Esmeralda?" "Yes, I am," you answer. "Ah, well," he says, a little regretfully, "don't forget, then. Hold on with your right knee and sit down for the canter." What shall you do by way of exercise before Monday? Practise all the old movements, a little of each one at a time, and take two lengths of ribbon as wide as an ordinary rein, or, better still, two leather straps, and fasten one to the knobs on the two sides of a door and run the other through the keyhole. Call the knob straps the snaffle reins, and the keyhole straps the curb, and, sitting near enough to let them lie in your lap, practice picking them up and adjusting them with your eyes shut. When you can do it quickly and neatly, try and see with how little exertion you can sway the door to left and right, and then practice holding these dummy reins while standing on one foot and executing the movement used in trotting. If the door move by a hair's breadth, it will show you that you are pulling too much, and you must remember that your hold on your horse's mouth gives you greater leverage than you have on the door, and then, perhaps, you will pity the poor beast a little now and then. What is that? Your master treated you as if you were an ignorant girl? So you are, dear, and even if you were not, if you knew all that there is in all the books, you might still be a bad horsewoman, because you might now know enough to use your knowledge. You don't care, and you feel very well, and are very glad that you went? Of course, that is the invariable cry! And you mean to take some more lessons if you find that you really need them? Then leave your skirt in the dressing-room locker! You will come back from your ride a wiser, but not a sadder, girl. One cannot be sad on horseback. V. --Pad, pad, pad! Like a thing that was mad, My chestnut broke away. _Thornbury_. Esmeralda was puzzled when she returned from her first riding party. In the morning, looking very pretty in her borrowed riding habit, her English hat with the hunting guard made necessary by the Back Bay breezes, her brown gauntlets, and the one scarlet carnation in her button-hole, she drove to the riding-school, where she had agreed to meet Theodore and her other friends, not like Mrs. Gilpin, lest all should say that she was proud, but because her master had promised to lend her one of the school horses, to put her ion the saddle and to adjust her stirrup, and because she secretly felt that she would better give herself every possible advantage in what, as it came nearer, assumed the aspect of a trial rather than a pleasure. Beholding Ronald, the promised horse, severely correct in his road saddle, and looking immensely tall as he stood on the stable floor, she inly applauded her own wisdom, strongly doubting that Theodore's unpractised arm would have tossed her into her place as lightly as the master's, and she was secretly overjoyed when the master himself mounted and joined the party with her, making its number nine; Esmeralda herself, the graduate of three lessons; Theodore, all his life accustomed to ride anything calling itself a horse, but making no pretenses to mastery of the equestrian science; the lawyer, understood, on his own authority, to be well informed in everything; the society young lady, erect, precise, self-satisfied; the Texan, riding with apparent laziness, his hands rather high and seldom quiet, but not to be shaken from his seat; the beauty, languid and secretly discontented because her horse was "intended for a brunette, and a ridiculous mount for a blonde"; Versatilia, who had "taken up riding a little," and the cavalryman, calm, quiet, and fraternally regarded by the master, as he reviewed the little flock from the back of a horse which had been offered to him as the paragon of its species, and for which and its kind, as he announced after riding a square or two, he "was not paying a cent a carload." "It is a lovely horse," said the beauty. "It is such a beautiful color. But men never care for color." "Good color is a good thing, undoubtedly," said the master, "but a beautiful horse is a good horse, not necessarily an animal which would look well in a painted landscape, because its color would harmonize with the hue of the trees." "She is a beautiful girl, isn't she," said Esmeralda, looking admiringly at the beauty, who, having just remembered Tennyson's line about swaying the rein with flying finger tips, was executing some movements which made her horse raise his ears to listen for the cause of such conduct, and then shake his head in mild disapproval. "What do I care for a pretty girl?" demanded the master. "Pretty rider is what I want to see, and 'pretty rider' is 'good rider.' Wait until that girl trots three minutes or so, and see whether or not she is pretty." The party went through the streets at a rapid walk, now and then meeting a horse-car, now and then a stray wagon, but invariably allowed to take its own way, with very little regard for the rule of the road. The American who drives, whatever may be his social station, admires the courage of the woman who rides, but he is firmly convinced that she does not understand horses, and gives her all the space available wherein to disport herself. "Are we all right in placing the ladies on the left?" asked Theodore, turning to the master. "Of course," cried the lawyer. "We follow the English rule, and the left was the place of safety for the lady in the days when English equestrianism was born. Travelers took the left of the road, and this placed the cavalier between his lady and any possible danger." "And in the United States they take the right, and she is between him and any possible danger," said the master. "It is the custom, but it seems illogical and foolish. True, it removes any danger that the lady may be crushed between her own horse and her escort's, but who protects her from any passing car or carriage, and in case of a runaway what can her escort, his left hand occupied with his own reins, do to aid her with hers, or to disentangle her foot from the stirrup or her habit from the pommels in case she is thrown? Can he snatch her from the saddle, after the matter of one of Joaquin Miller's young men? The truth is that since the rule of the road is 'keep to the right,' the rule of the saddle should be 'sit on the right,' but with a lady on his bridle hand the horseman could not be at his best as an escort, even then. "It is one of the many little absurdities in American customs; the old story of the survival of the two buttons at the back of the coat, and, by the way, Miss Esmeralda, the two buttons on the back of your habit are out of place, not because of your tailor's fault, but because of yours. They should make a line at right angles with your horse's spinal column. Draw yourself back a little, until you can feel the pommel under your right knee. 'Draw' yourself back; don't lean, but keep yourself perfectly erect, your back perpendicular to your horse's. Sit a little to the left; lean a little to the right. Let your left shoulder go forward a little, your right shoulder backward. Now you are exactly right. Try to remember your sensations at this minute, in order to be able to reproduce them. When I say 'Careful,' pass yourself in review and endeavor to feel where you are wrong. But," addressing the cavalryman, who was in advance with Versatilia, "is this procession a funeral?" "Not exactly," said the cavalryman, and the, after a backward glance, he cried, in the fashion of a military riding-school master: "Pr-r-re-pare to tr-r-r-ot--Trot!" Esmeralda remembered to shorten her reins, and resigned herself to the Fates, who were propitious, enabling her to catch the cadence of the trot, and to rise to it during the few seconds before the cavalryman slackened rein. "Careful," said the master, and she shook herself into place, eliciting a hearty "Good!" from him. "Look at your pretty girl," he growled softly, but savagely, and truly the beauty solicited attention. Slipping to the left in her saddle, one elbow pointing toward Cambridgeport and the other toward Dorchester, her right foot visible through her habit, and her left all but out of the stirrup, she was attractive no longer, and to complete the master's disgust she ejaculated: "My hair is coming down!" "Better bring a nurse and a ladies' maid for her," he muttered to Esmeralda, confidentially. "Hairpins in your saddle pocket? Well, you are a sensible girl," and he rode forward with the little packet, giving it to the lawyer to pass to the unfortunate young woman. But here arose a little difficulty. The space between the lawyer's horse and the beauty's as they stood was too wide to allow him to lay the parcel in her outstretched fingers. The Texan, on her right hand, had enough to do to keep her horse and his own absolutely motionless that she might not be thrown by any unexpected motion of either animal. Versatilia exclaimed in remonstrance, "Don't leave me," when the cavalryman said, "Wait a second, I'll come and give them to her;" the master sat quiet and smiling. "Why don't you dismount and give them to her?" cried Theodore, and was out of his saddle, had placed the parcel in her hand, and was back in his place again before either of the other three men could speak. "Very well done," said the master, approvingly, "but not the right thing to do. Never leave your saddle without good cause, and never leave your horse loose for a moment. Yes, I saw that you retained your hold of the reins; I was talking at Miss Esmeralda." "Why didn't you make your horse step sideways?" he asked the lawyer. "I can't. He won't. See there!" Sundry pulls, precisely like those which he might have used had he intended the horse to turn, a pair of absolutely motionless legs, and an unused whip were accepted as evidence that the lawyer's "I can't" was perfectly true, and the master and the cavalryman exchanged comprehending glances as the latter said: "Well, don't mind. An eminent authority announced after the Boston horse show of 1889 that high-school airs were of no use on the road. To make a horse move a step sideways is the veriest little zephyr of an air, but it would have been of some use to you, then. Are we ready now? What's that? Dropped your whip?" Up went the Texan's left heel, catching cleverly on the saddle as he dropped lightly to the right, after the fashion of the Arab, the Moor, the Apache, of all the nations which ride for speed and for fighting rather than for leaping and hunting, and he caught the whip from the ground and was back in his place in a twinkling. The ladies were unmoved, because inappreciative; the lawyer looked savagely envious, the cavalryman and the master approving, and Theodore, frankly admiring, but no one said anything, the little cavalcade rearranged itself, and once more moved on at a footpace until an electric car appeared. "Ronald is like a rock," said the master, "and you need not be afraid, but I'll take this beast along in advance. He will shy, or do some outrageous thing, and he has a mouth as sensitive as the Mississippi's, and no more." The "beast" did indeed sidle and fret and prance, and manifest a disposition to hasten to drown himself in the reservoir, beyond the reach of self-propelling vehicles, and he repeated the performance a the sight of two other cars, although evidently less alarmed than at first, but the fourth car was in charge of a kindly-disposed driver, who came to a dead stop, out of pure amiability. This was too much for the "beast" to endure; a moving house he was beginning to regard as tolerable, but a house which stopped short and glared at him with all its windows was more than horse nature could endure, and he started for the next county to institute an inquiry as to whether such actions were to be allowed, but found himself forced to stop, and not altogether comfortable, while the master cried good-naturedly: "Go along and take care of your car. I'll take care of my horse!" "More than some other folks can do," said the driver, with a quiet grin at the lawyer, whose angry, "Here, what are you doing!" shouted to his plunging steed, had brought all the women in the car to the front, to explain to one another that "that man was abusing his horse, poor thing." The car glided off, and Versatilia turned to look at it; her horse stumbled slightly, jerking her wrists sharply, and but for the cavalryman's quick shifting of the reins to his right hand and his strong grasp of her reins with his left, she might have been in danger. "Never look back," lectured the master. Esmeralda was his pupil, and he would have taken the whole centennial quadrille and all the cabinet ladies to point his moral, had he seen them making equestrian blunders. "Where your horse has been, where, he is, is the past. Look to the future, straight before you." "The cavalryman looked back just now," Esmeralda ventured to say. "Yes, but he turned his horse very slightly to do it, and he may do almost anything because he has a perfect seat, and is a good horseman." "Suppose I hear something or somebody coming up behind me?" "If it have any intelligence, it will not hurt you. If it have none, looking will do you no good. Turn out to the right as far as you can and look to the front harder than ever, so as to be ready to guide your horse and to avoid any obstacles in case he should start to run. What is the trouble with the ladies now?" "O, dear!" cried the beauty to the society young lady, "your horse." "What's the matter with him?" asked the other, still very stately and not turning. "Oh! The dreadful creature has caught his tail on my horse's bit," said the beauty. "Then you'd better take your horse's bit away," retorted the other. "My horse's eyes are not at that end of him, and he can't be expected to look at his tail." "And you may be kicked," added the Texan. "Check him a little; there! We ought not to be so close together, and we ought to be moving a little, I think. Shall we trot again?" Everybody assented, the cavalryman and Versatilia set off, the others followed as best they might, the beauty "going to pieces" in a minute or two, according to the master, the society young lady stiffening visibly, losing the cadence of the trot very soon, but making no outcry as she was tossed about uncomfortably, and not bending her head to look at her reins, as Versatilia did. "There's the advantage of training in other things," said the master. "She's a good dancer and a good amateur actress, and she is controlling herself as she would on a ballroom floor, and remembering the spectators as she would on the stage. She's no rider, but is perfectly selfish and self-possessed, and she will cheat her escort into thinking that she is one. Glad she's no pupil of mine, however! She always heads the conversation, one of her friends told me the other day. That is to say, she is always acting. I can't teach such a person anything; nobody can. She can teach herself, as she can think of herself and love herself, but she can't go outside of herself--and the lawyer will find it out after he has married her." Esmeralda and Theodore stared in astonishment. "Walk," said the master, noticing that his pupil looked too warm for comfort, and the three allowed the others to go on without them. "Careful," he added, and Esmeralda, adjusting herself studiously, asked: "Is it really easier to ride on the road than it is in the school? It seems so." "It is a little, especially if the corners of the ring are so near together that the horse goes in a circle, for then the rider has to lean to the right, while on the road she may sit straight. Give me the right kind of horse for my pupil to ride, and I would as leif give lessons on the road as anywhere, but it is not well for the pupil, whose attention is distracted by a thousand things, and who learns less in a year than she would in a month in school. There is no finish about the riding of a woman so taught. She may be pretty, as you said of one of your friends, she may be self-possessed, like the other, but she will betray her ignorance every moment. You were surprised just now at what I said of the society young lady. A woman can't cheat an old riding-master, after he has seen her in the saddle. He knows her and her little ways by heart. Shall we start up? Ah!" Ronald, the "steady as a rock," was off and away at a canter; Theodore was starting to gallop in pursuit, but was sharply ordered back by the master, who went on himself at a rather slow canter, ready to break into a gallop if his pupil were thrown, but keeping out of Ronald's hearing, lest he should be further startled by finding himself followed. There was a clear stretch of road before her, and Esmeralda sat down as firmly as possible, brought her left knee up against the pommel, clung firmly with her right knee, held her hands low and her thumbs as firm as possible, and thought very hard. "Very soon," she said to herself, "I shall be thrown and dragged, and hat a figure I shall be going home, if I', not killed! But I sha'n't be! I shall be ridiculous, and that's worse." Here she swept by the riding party, but as Versatilia and the beauty turned to look at her, and forgot to control their horses, the cavalryman and the Texan had to do it for them, and could do nothing for Esmeralda except to shout "Whoa," which Ronald very properly disregarded. The master came up, and the society young lady addressed him with, "Very silly of her to try to exhibit herself so, isn't it?" "That's no exhibition; that's a runaway," said the master grimly. "She's doing well too, poor girl," and he and Theodore went on after the flying rider. Two or three carriages, the riders staring with horror; a pedestrian or two, innocently wondering why a lady should be on the road alone; a small boy whistling shrilly; these were all the spectators of Esmeralda's flight. She felt desolate and deserted, and yet sure that it was best that she should be alone, since the master could overtake her if he would, and she wondered if she should be very seriously injured when thrown at last, but all the time she was talking to Ronald in a voice carefully kept at a low pitch, and her hands were held with a steadiness utterly new to them, and the good horse went on regularly, but faster and faster. "That isn't a real runaway," said the master to himself. "Ah, I see! Her whip is down and strikes him at every stride, and so she unconsciously urges him forward. If there were a side road here, I'd gallop around and meet her, or if there were fields on either side, I'd leap the fence and make a circuit and cut her off, but through this place, with banks like a railway cutting on each side, there is nothing to do." Swifter and swifter! Esmeralda began to feel weaker, thought of Theodore, and of some other things of which she never told even him, said a little prayer, but all the time remembered her master's injunctions, and kept her place firmly, waiting for the final, and, as she believed, inevitable crash, when lo! She saw that just in front of her lay a long piece of half-mended road, full of ugly little stones, and she turned Ronald on it, with a triumphant, "See how you like that, sir," and then sawed his mouth. In half a minute he was walking. In another the master was beside her with words of approval. Theodore galloped up, pale and anxious, and between the two she had quite as much praise as was good for her, and, being told of the position of the whip, found her confidence in Ronald restored. "But you should never start up hastily," said the master. "Take time for everything, and check your horse the instant he goes faster than you mean to have him. You are a good girl, and you shall not be scolded, or snubbed, either," he muttered, and the party came up, the cavalryman and the Texan loud in praise, the other four clamorous with questions and advice. "You look quite disheveled," said the society young lady agreeably. "Ladies often do after they have been on the road a little while. Excuse me, but one of your skirt buttons is unfastened," said the master, and, not knowing how to pass her reins into her right hand so as to use her left to repair the accident, the society young lady was effectually silenced, while the master, holding Esmeralda's horse, made her wipe her face, arrange the curly locks flying about her ears, readjust her hat, and generally smooth her plumage, until she was once more comfortable. After a little, the master proposed a trot up the hill, and instructed Esmeralda to lean forward as her horse climbed upward, "If you should have to trot down hill, lean back a little, and keep your reins short," he said. The lawyer and the society young lady, essaying to descend the next hill brilliantly, barely escaped going over their horses' heads, and all four ladies were glad when they perceived that they were going homeward. "I like it," Esmeralda said to the master, "but I wish I knew more, and I'm going to learn, and I see now that three lessons isn't enough, even for a beginning." "I knew a girl who took seventeen lessons and then was thrown," said the society young lady. "Native ability is better than teaching. I don't believe any master could make a rider of you, Esmeralda." "A good teacher can make a rider out of anyone who will study," said the master, to whom she looked for approval. "As for seventeen lessons, they are better than seven, of course, but they are not much, after all. How many dancing lessons, music lessons, elocution lessons have you taken? More than seventeen? I thought so. Here's a railroad bridge, but no train coming. Had one been approaching, and had there been no chance to cross it before it came, I should have made you turn Ronald the other way, Miss Esmeralda, so that if he ran he would run out of what he thinks is danger, and not into it. And now for an easy little trot home." An easy little trot it was, and Esmeralda, left at her own door, where a groom waited to take her horse to the stable, was happy, but puzzled. "Theodore," she cried, as soon as he appeared in the evening, "did you ask the master to go with us? He treated me just as he does in school." "Yes, I did," said Theodore boldly. "I was afraid to take charge of you alone. That was a 'road lesson.'" "You--you--exasperating thing!" cried Esmeralda. "But then, you were sensible." "That's tautology," said Theodore. VI. A solitary horseman might have been seen. _G.P.R. James_. And so you are feeling very meek after your road lesson and your runaway, Esmeralda, and are a perfect Uriah Heep for 'umbleness, and are, henceforth and forever, going to believe every syllable that your master utters, and to obey every command the instant that it is given, and--there, that will do! And you are going to take one private lesson so as to learn a few little things before you display your progress before any other pupils again? One private lesson! Did your master advise it? No-no, but he consented to give it, when you had persuaded him that it would be best for you? When you had persuaded him? Behold the American pupil's definition of obedience: to follow commands dictated by herself! However, there is no use in trying to eradicate the ideas bequeathed and fostered by a hundred years of national self-government, so go to the school at the hour when no other pupils are expected. The horses pace very solemnly around the great ring, and you adjust yourself with wonderful dignity, feeling that your master must perceive by your improved carriage and by the general perfection of your aspect that your exquisite timidity and charming shyness have been responsible for your awkwardness in former lessons, when other pupils were present, but now he leaves your side and takes a position in the centre of the ring, whence he addresses you thus: "Keep your reins even! The right ones are too short, the left too long! Stop him! That is not stopping him! He took two steps forward after he checked himself. Go forward, and try again when I tell you. Stop! Not so hard, not so hard! You are making him back! Extend your arms forward! There! A little more, and you would have made him rear! Whoa! Wo-ho! Now listen! Not so! Don't drop your reins in that way, and sit so carelessly that a start would throw you from your place! Never leave your horse to himself a second! Sit as well as you can, look between your horse's ears and listen! Always use some discretion in choosing your place to stop. Do not try to stop when turning a corner, even to avoid danger, but rather change your direction. In the ring, never stop on the track, unless in obedience to your masters order, but turn out into the centre, but when you have once told your horse to stop, make him do it, for his sake, as well as for your own, if you have to spend an hour in the effort. And it will be an hour well spent, so that you need not lose patient, and if you do lose it, do not allow your horse to perceive it. "To stop, you should press your leg and your whip against your horse's sides; lift your hands a very little, and turn them in toward your body, lean back and draw yourself up. There are six things to do: two to your horse, one on each side of him, two with your hands and two with your body, and you must do them almost simultaneously. Unless you do the first two, your horse will surely take a forward step or two after stopping, in order to bring himself into a comfortable position. If you do not cease doing the last four the moment that your horse has stopped, he may rear or he may back several steps, and he should never do that, but should await an order for each step. Now, do you remember the six things? Very well! Go forward! Stop! Did I tell you to do anything with your arms? No> Well, why did you bring your elbows back of your waist, then? It is allowable to do that --to save your life, but not to stop your horse. Bend your hands at the wrist, turning the knuckles, if need be, until they are at right angles with their ordinary position, so that the back of your hand is toward your horse's ears, but keep the thumb uppermost all the time. "Now, think it over a moment! Go forward! Stop! Pretty well! Go on! Don't lean forward too much when you start, and sit up again instantly. "Now walk around the school once, and go into all the corners. Stop! You stopped pretty well, but you leaned back too far, and you did not draw yourself up at all. Mind, you draw 'yourself' up; you don't try to pull the bit up through the corners of your horse's mouth. What I wanted to say was that a turn is just half a stop as far as your hands, leg and whip are concerned. To turn to the right, use your right hand and whip, but keep your left leg and hand steady; to turn to the left, use your left leg and hand and keep your whip and whip hand steady. When you turn to the right, lean to the right instead of backward; 'lean,' not twist to the right, and turn your head to the right so as to see what may be there. "If you were on the road, and did not turn your head before going down a side street, you might knock over a bicycle rider, and thereby hurt your horse, which would be a pity," he says, with apparent indifference as to the bicycle rider's possible injuries. "Now go around the school again. Left shoulder forward! Right shoulder back! Sit to the right! Lean to the left! I told you to sit to the left, the other day? And that is the reason that I have told you to sit to the right to-day. You over-do it. Miss Esmeralda, if I were talking for my own pleasure, I should say pretty things to you, but I am talking to teach you, and when I say 'This is wrong! This is wrong!' and again 'This is wrong!' I do it for you, not for myself. When your father and mother say 'This is wrong; you must not do it, or you will be sorry,' you do not look at them as if you thought them to be unreasonable--or, I trust that you do not," he adds, mentally. "Heaven only knows what an American girl may do when anybody says, 'You must not' to her. "Now," he goes on aloud, "it is the same with your teacher; he says 'You are wrong,' lest you should be sorry by and by, and he is patient and says it many times, as your father and mother do, and he says it every time that you do anything wrong, unless you do so many wrong things at once that he cannot speak of each one. Now you shall turn to the right, and remember that a turn is half a stop. Go across the school and then turn to the left! Keep a firm hold on your right rein now so as to keep your horse close to the wall. Where, where are your toes? It was not necessary to make you turn so as to see your right foot through your riding habit as I can now, to know that they were pointing outward. Your right shoulder told the story by drooping forward. M. de Bussigny lays especial stress on this point in his manual, and you will find that your whole position depends more on that seemingly unimportant right foot than on many other things, so bend your will to holding it properly, close against the saddle. Walk on now, keeping on a straight line. If you cannot do it in the school, you cannot on the road, and many an ugly scrape against walls, horse-cars, and other horses you will receive unless you can keep to the right and in a straight line. Now turn to the left, and go straight across the school. Straight! Fix your eye on something when you start, and ride at it with as much determination as if it were a fence; now you turn to the right again and go forward. Have you read Delsarte?" No, you murmur to yourself, you have not read Delsarte, and, if you had, you do not believe that you could remember it or anything else just at present. What an endless string of directions! You wish that there was another pupil with you to take the burden of a few of them! You wish you were--oh! Anywhere. This is your obedience, is it Esmeralda? Well, you don't care! This is dull! Your horse thinks so, too. He gently tries the reins, and, finding that you offer no resistance, he decides to take a little exercise, and starts off at a canter, keeping away from the wall most piously, avoiding the corners as if some Hector might be in ambuscade there to catch and tame him, and rushing on faster and faster, as you do nothing in particular to stop him. "Lean to the right," cries the master, and you obey, but the horse continues his canter, almost a gallop now, when suddenly your wits return to you, you draw back first the right hand and then the left, he begins to trot, and by some miracle you begin to rise, and continue to do it, you do not know exactly how, feeling a delight in it, an exhilarating, exultant sensation as if flying. "Keep your right leg close to the saddle below the knee and turn your toes in!" You obey, and even remember to press your left knee to the saddle also and to keep your heel down. "Don't rise to the left! Rise straight! Your horse is circling to the right, and you must lean to the right to rise straight! Take him into the corners so that he will move more on a straight line, and you can rise straight and be as much at ease as if on the road. Whoa! Now, don't change your position, but look at yourself! You did not shorten your reins when you began to trot, and, if your horse had stumbled, you could not have aided him to regain his balance. Had you shortened them properly, you could, by sitting down, using your leg and whip lightly and turning your hands toward your body, have brought him down to a walk without hurling yourself forward against the pommel in that fashion. Now, adjust yourself and your reins, and start forward once more," and you obey, and are beginning to flatter yourself that your master does not know that your canter was accidental, when he warns you against allowing a horse to do anything unbidden. "You should have stopped him at once," he says. "He will very likely try to repeat his little maneuver in a few minutes. When he does, check him instantly, not by your voice, but as you have been directed. And now, have you read Delsarte? No? If you have time, you might read a chapter or two with advantage, simply for the sake of learning that a principle underlies all attitudes. "He divides the body into three parts; the head, torso, and legs, and he teaches that the first and third should act on the same line, while the second is in opposition to them. For instance, if you be standing and looking toward the right, your weight should rest on your right leg and your torso should be turned to the left. Neither turn should be exaggerated, but the two should be exactly proportioned, one to another. "Now for riding, your body is divided into three parts, your head and torso making one, your legs above the knee, the second, and your legs below the knee, the third, and you will find that the first and third will act together, whether you desire it or not. Your right foot is properly placed now, but turn its toes outward and upward; you see what becomes of your right shoulder. Now try to make a circle to the right, a volte we call it, because it is best to become accustomed to a few French words, as there are really no English equivalents for many of the terms used in the art of equestrianism. "To make a volte you have only to turn to the right and to keep turning, going steadily away from the wall until opposite your starting point, and then regaining it by a half-circle. Making voltes is not only a useful exercise, showing your horse that you really mean to guide him, and teaching you to execute a movement steadily, but it affords an excellent way of diverting the horse's attention from the mischief which Satan is always ready to find for idle hoofs. Give him a few voltes and he forgets his plans for setting off at a canter. Do you understand? Very well. When you are half-way down the school try to make a volte. I will give you no order. Your horse would understand if I did and would begin the movement himself, and you should do it unaided." You try the volte, and convince yourself that the geometry master who taught you that a circle was a polygon with an infinite number of sides was more exact and less poetical than you thought him in the days before the riding-school began to reform your judgment on many things. You are conscious of not making a respectable curve in return, and you draw a deep breath of disgust as you say, "That was very bad, wasn't it?" "Not for the first time. Keep your left hand and leg steady, and try it again on the other side of the ring. Better! Now walk around, and make him go into the corners, if you have to double your left wrist in doing it, but don't move your arm, and when you begin to bend you right wrist to turn, straighten your left, and remember to lean your body and turn your head, if you want your horse to turn his body. Your wrist acts on his head and keeps him in line; your whip and leg bring his hind legs under him, but you must move your body if you want him to move his. "Now, you shall make a half volte, or shall 'change hands,' as it is sometimes called, because, if you start with your left hand nearest the wall, you will come back to the wall with your right hand nearest to it; or, to speak properly, 'if you start on the right hand of the school, you will end on the left hand.' For the half volte, make a half circle to the right, and then ride in a diagonal line to a point some distance back on your track, and when you are close to it make three quarters of a turn to the left and you will find yourself on the left of the school, and in a position to practice keeping your horse to the right. Try it, beginning about two thirds of the way down the long side of the school. Now to get back to the right hand, you may turn to the left across the school, and turn to the left again. "There is a better way of dong it, but that is enough for to-day. Walk now. Do you see how much better your horse carries himself, and how much better you carry your hands, after those little exercises? Now you must try and imagine yourself doing them over and over and over again, to accustom your mind to them, just as when learning to play scales and five-finger exercises you used to think them out while walking. Shall you not need pictures and diagrams to assist you? Not if you have as much imagination as any horsewoman should have. Not if you have enough imagination to manage a cow, much more to enter into the feelings of a good horse. Pictures are invaluable to the stupid; they benumb and enervate the clever, and turn them into apish imitators, instead of making them able to act from their own knowledge and volition. Theory will not make you a good rider, but a really good rider without theory is an impossibility, and your theory must have a deeper seat than your retinae. Now, you shall have a very little trot, and then you may walk for ten minutes, and try to do voltes and half voltes by yourself, asking me for aid if you cannot remember how to execute the movements. Doing them will help you to pass away the time when you are too tired to trot, and will keep you from having any dull moments." And you, Esmeralda, you naughty girl! You forgot all about your sulkiness half an hour ago, and, looking your master in the face, you say: "But nobody ever has dull moments in riding-school." There! Finish your lesson and walk off to the dressing-room; you will be trying to trade horses with somebody the next thing, you artful, flattering puss! VII. Here we are riding, she and I! _Browning_. What is it now, Esmeralda? By your blushing and stammering it is fairly evident that another of your devices for learning on the American plan--that is to say, by not studying--is in full possession of your fancy, and that again you expect to become a horsewoman by a miracle; come, what is it? A music ride? Nell has an acquaintance who always rides to music, and asserts that it is as easy as dancing; that the music "fairly lifts you out of the saddle," and that the pleasure of equestrian exercise is doubled when it is done to the sound of the flute, violin, and bassoon, or whatever may be the riding-school substitutes? As for lifting you out of the saddle, Esmeralda, it is quite possible that music might execute that feat, promptly and neatly, once, and might leave you out, were it produced suddenly and unexpectedly by "dot leetle Sherman bad," and it is undoubtedly true that, were you a rider, music would exhilarate you, quicken your motions, stimulate your nerves, and assist you as it assists a soldier when marching. It is also true that it will aid even you somewhat, by indicating on what step you should rise, so that your motions will not alternate with those of your horse, to your discomfiture and his disgust, and that thus, by mechanically executing the movement, you may acquire the power of seeing that you are not performing it when you rise once a minute or thereabouts, but a music ride is an exercise which a wise pupil will not take until advised thereto by her master. Still, have your own way! Why did George Washington and the other fathers of the republic exist, if its daughters must be in bondage to common sense and expediency? Borrow Nell's habit once more, for the criticism to be undergone on the road is mild compared to that of a gallery of spectators before whom you must repeatedly pass in review, and who may select you as the object of their especial scrutiny. Dress at home, if possible; if not, go to the school early, and array yourself rapidly, but carefully, for there may be fifty riders present during the evening, and there will be little room to spare on the mounting-stand, and no minutes to waste on buttoning gloves, shortening skirt straps or tightening boot lacings. Remember all that you have been taught about mounting and about taking your reins, and think assiduously of it, with a determination to pay no attention to the gallery. There will be no spectators on the mounting-stand, and Theodore, who will take charge of you in the ring, will mount before you do, and when you have been put in your saddle by one of the masters, and start, he will take his place on your right, nearer the centre of the ring. While you are walking your horses slowly about, turning corners carefully and never ceasing to control your reins, warn him that when you say, "Centre," he must turn out to the right instantly, that you also may do so. If possible, you will not pronounce the word, but will ride as long as the horses canter or trot in time to the music. "Do you understand," Theodore asks, "that these horses adjust their gait to the music?" "So Nell's friend says." "Well, I don't believe it. They are good horses, but I don't believe that they practice circus tricks. Why must I go to the centre the minute that you bid me? Why couldn't you pull up and pass out behind me?" "Because if I did, somebody might ride over me. It is not proper to stop while on the track." "Oh-h! How long do they trot or canter at a time? Half an hour?" "Only a few minutes," you answer, wondering whether Theodore really supposes that you could canter, much less trot half an hour, even if stimulated by the music of the spheres. "That's a pretty rider," he says, as a girl circles lightly past, sitting fairly well, and rising straight, but with her arms so much extended that her elbow is the apex of a very obtuse angle, though her forearms are horizontal. You explain this point to Theodore, who replies that she looks pretty, and seems to be able to trot for some time, whereupon your heart sinks within you. What will he say when he sees the necessary brevity of your performance? Other riders enter: two or three men mounted on their own horses, beautiful creatures concerning whose value fabulous tales are told in the stable; the best rider of the school, very quietly and correctly dressed, and managing her horse so easily that the women in the gallery do not perceive that she is guiding him at all, although the real judges, old soldiers, a stray racing man or two, the other school pupils and the master--regard her admiringly, and the grooms, as they bring in new horses, keep an eye on her and her movements, as they linger on their way back to the stable. "Her horse is very good," Theodore admits, "but I don't think much of her. Well, yes, she is pretty," he admits, as she executes the Spanish trot for a few steps and then pats her horse's shoulder; "it's pretty, but anybody could do it on a trained horse, couldn't they, sir?" he asks your master, who rides up, mounted on his own pet horse. "Anybody who knew how. The horse has been trained to answer certain orders, but the orders must be given. An untrained horse would not understand the orders, no matter how good an animal he might be. Antinous might not have been able to ride Bucephalus, and I don't believe that Alexander could have coaxed Rosinante into a Spanish trot. It isn't enough to have a Corliss engine, or enough to have a good engineer: you must have them both, and they must be acquainted with one another. I don't believe that horse would do that for you." "No, I don't think he would," Theodore says dryly, for he has been watching, and has reluctantly owned to himself that he does not see how the movement is effected. Meantime, you, Esmeralda, have been arduously devoting yourself to maintaining a correct attitude, and are rewarded by hearing somebody in the gallery wonder whether you represent the kitchen poker or Bunker Hill Monument. "Don't mind," your master says, encouragingly. "It is better to be stiffly erect than to be crooked, and as for the person who spoke, she could not ride a Newfoundland dog," and with that he touches his hat, and rides lightly across the ring to speak to a lady whose horse has, in the opinion of the gallery, been showing a very bad temper, although in reality every plunge and curvet has been made in answer to her wrist and to the tiny spur which his rider wears and uses when needed. The lady nods in answer to something which the master says, the two draw near to the wall, side by side, the others fall in behind them, and the band begins a waltz, playing rather deliberately at first, but soon slightly accelerating the time. There is very little actual need of guiding your horse, Esmeralda, because long habit has taught him what to do at a music-ride, but you do right to continue to endeavor to make him obey you. Should he stumble; should that man riding before you and struggling to make his horse change his leading foot fail in the attempt, and cause the poor creature to fall; should the rider behind you lose control of her horse, your firm hold of the reins would be of priceless value to you, but now the waltz rhythm suddenly changes to that of a march, and your horse begins to trot, slowly and with little action at first, and then with a freer, longer stride which really lifts you out of the saddle, sending you rather too high for grace, indeed, but making the effort very slight for you, and enabling you to think about your elbows, and sitting to the right and keeping your right shoulder back and your right foot close to the saddle and pointing downward, and your left knee also close, and "about seventy-five other things," as you sum up the case to yourself. Thanks to this, you are enabled to continue until the music stops, and Theodore says, approvingly, "Well, you can ride a little." "A very little," your master says. She has learned something, of course, but it would be the unkindest of flattery for me to fell her that she does well." "One must begin to ride in early childhood," Theodore says. "One should begin to be taught in childhood," the master amends, "but it is not absolutely necessary. Some of the best riders in the French Army never mounted until they went to the military school, and some of the best riders at West Point only know a horse by sight until they fall into the clutches of the masters there, and then!" His countenance expresses deep commiseration. "Now," he adds, "if you take my advice, you two, you will take places in the centre of the ring; you will sit as well as you know how, Miss Esmeralda, and you will watch the others through the next music. It is perfectly allowable," he adds, drawing rein a moment as he passes, "to sit a little carelessly when your horse is at rest, always keeping firm hold of the reins, but I would rather that you did not do it until you had ridden a little more and are firmer in your seat. Hollow your waist the least in the world, for the sake of our poker-critic in the gallery, and watch for bad riding as well as for good," and away he goes, and again the double circle of riders sweeps around the ring, and you have time to see that the horses seem to enjoy the motion, and that their action is more easy and graceful than it is when they are obeying the commands of poor riders. Theodore indulges in a little sarcasm at the expense of a man whose elbows are on a level with his shoulders, while his two hands are within about three inches of one another on the reins, and his horse has as full possession of his head as of his body and legs, which is saying much, for his riders toes are pointing earthward and his heels apparently trying to find a way to one another through the body of his steed. Another man, riding at an amble into which he has forced his fat horse by using a Mexican bit, and keeping his wrists in constant motion; and another, who leans backward until his nose is on a level with the visor of his cap, also attract his attention, but he persists in his opinion that the best riders among the ladies are those who can trot and canter the longest, until your master, coming up, says in answer to your protest against such heresy, "No. Ease and a good seat are indeed essential, but they are not everything. They insure comfort and confidence, but not always safety. It is well to be able to leap a fence without being thrown. It is better to know how to stop and open a gate and shut it after you, lest some day you should have a horse which cannot leap, or a sprained wrist which may make the leap imprudent for yourself. You can acquire the seat almost insensibly while learning the management, but you must study in order to learn the management. However, you came mainly for enjoyment to-night, I think. Go and ride some more." And you obey, and you have the enjoyment. And when you go to the dressing-room, it is with a feeling of perfect indifference to the gallery critics, and when you come down, ready for the street, you have a little gossip with the master. This is the only kind of music ride, he tells you, practicable for riders of widely varying ability, but the ordinary circus is but a poor display of horsemanship compared to what may be seen in some private evening classes in this country, or in military schools. There are groups of riders in Boston and in New York, friends who have long practiced together, who can dancer the lancers and Virginia reels as easily on horseback as on foot, and who can ride at the ring as well as Lord Lindesay himself, or as well as the pretty English girls who amuse themselves with the sport in India. "Just think," you sigh, "to be able to make your horse go forward and back, and to move in a circle, a little bit of a circle, and to do all of it exactly in time! Oh!" And then, seeing Theodore perfectly unmoved, your master tells of the military music rides when, rank after rank, the soldiers dash across the wide spaces of the school and stop at a word, or by a preconcerted, silent signal, every horse's head in line, every left hand down, saber or lance exactly poised, every foot motionless, horse and rider still as if wrought from bronze. And then he tells of the labyrinthine evolutions when the long line moving over the school floor coils and uncoils itself more swiftly than any serpent, each horse moving at speed, each one obeying as implicitly as any creature of brass and iron moved by steam. And then he talks of broadsword fights, in which the left hand, managing the horse, outdoes the cunning of the right, and of the great reviews, when, if ever, a monarch must feel his power as he sees his squadrons dash past him, saluting as one man, and reflects on the expenditure of mental and physical power represented in that one moment's display. "You can't learn to do such things as these," he says, "by mere rough riding. Why, only the other day, when Queen Victoria went to Sandringham, the gentlemen of the Norfolk County hunt turned out to escort her carriage, all in pink, all wearing the green velvet caps of the hunt, all splendidly mounted and perfectly appointed. They were a magnificent sight, and it was no wonder that Her Majesty looked at them with approval. "In a dash across country they would probably have surpassed any other riders in the world, unless, perhaps, those of some other English country, but when Her Majesty and the Prince of Wales appeared at a front window, and the gentlemen rode past to salute them, what happened? The first three or four ranks went on well enough, although Frenchmen, or Spaniards, or Germans would have done better, because they, had they chosen, would have saluted and then reined backward, but the Englishmen made a gallant show, and Her Majesty smiled. Somebody raised a cheer, and the horses began to rear and perform movements not named in the school manuals. The Queen laughed outright, and the gentlemen finished their pretty parade in some confusion. Now a very little school training would have prevented that accident, and the huntsmen would have been as undisturbed as Queen Christina was that day when her horse began to plunge while in a procession, and she quickly brought him to his senses, and won the heart of every Spaniard who saw her by showing that 'the Austrian' could ride. An English hunting-man's seat is so good that he is often careless about fine details, but a trained horseman is careless about nothing, and a trained horsewoman is like unto him." And now the lights are out, and you and Theodore go away, and, walking home, lay plans for further work in the saddle, for he, too, has caught the riding-fever, and now you begin to think about class lessons. VIII. All in a wow. _Sothern_. And you really fancy, Esmeralda, that you are ready for class lessons? You have been in the saddle only six times, remember. But you have been assured, on the highest authority, that fifty lessons in class are worth a hundred private lessons? And the same authority says that the class lessons should be preceded by at least twice as much private instruction as you have enjoyed; but, naturally, you suppress this unfavorable context. You think that you cannot begin to subject yourself to military discipline so soon? After that highly edifying statement of your feelings, Esmeralda, hasten away to school before the dew evaporates from your dawning humility, and make arrangements for entering a class of beginners. You are fortunate in arriving half way between two "hours," and find to your delight that you may begin to ride with five or six other pupils on the next stroke of the clock, and you hasten to array yourself, and come forth just in time to see another class, a long line of pretty girls, making its closing rounds, the leader sitting with exquisitely balanced poise, which seems perfectly careless, but is the result of years of training and practice; others following her with somewhat less grace, but still accomplishing what even your slightly taught vision perceives to be feats of management far beyond you; still others, one blushing little girl with her hat slung on her arm, the heavy coils of her hair falling below her waist; and an assistant master riding with the last pupil, who is less skillful than the others, while another master rides up and down the line or stands still in the centre of the ring, criticising, exhorting, praising, using sarcasm, entreaty and sharp command, until the zeal and energy of all Gaul seem centered in his speech. The clock strikes, and in a trice the whole class is dismounted, and its members have scampered away to make themselves presentable for the journey home, and to you, awaiting your destiny in the reception room, enter Versatilia, the beauty, and the society young lady, and Nell, and you stare at them in wrathful astonishment fully equalled by theirs, and then, in the following grand outburst of confession, you are informed that, each one having planned to outgeneral the others and to become a wondrous equestrian, the Fates and the wise fairy who, sitting in a little room overlooking the ring, presides over the destinies of classes, have willed that you should be taught together. "And there are three other young ladies who have never ridden at all," the wise fairy says, "and they are to ride behind you, and you must do very well in order to encourage them," she adds with a kind smile; and then there is a general muster of grooms and horses, and in a moment you are all in your saddles and walking about the ring, into which, an instant after, another lady rides easily and gracefully, to be saluted by both masters with a sigh of relief, and requested to take the lead, which she does, trotting lightly across the ring, wheeling into line and falling into a walk with trained precision, and now the lesson really begins. "You must understand, ladies," says the teacher, that you must always, in riding in class, keep a distance of about three feet between your horse and the one before you, and that you must preserve this equally in the corners, on the short sides of the school, and on the long sides." "That's easy enough, I'm sure," says the society young lady, taking it upon herself to answer, and eliciting an expression of astonishment from the teacher, not because he is surprised, habit already rendering him sadly familiar with young women of her type, but because he wishes to relegate her to her proper position of submissive silence as soon as may be. "You think so?" he asks. "Then we shall depend on you to regard the distance with great accuracy. At present you are two feet too far in the rear. Forward! Now, ladies, when I say 'forward,' it is not alone for one; it is for all of you; each one must look and see whether or not her horse is in the right place. And she must not bend sideways to do it, Miss Versatilia. She must look over her horse's head between his ears. Now, forward! Now, look straight between your horse's ears, each one of you, and see something on the horse before you that is just on a line with the top of his head, and use that as a guide to tell you whether or not you are in place! Now, forward, Miss--Miss Lady! Not so fast! Keep walking! Do not let him trot! Keep up in the corners! Do not let your horse go there to think! Use your whip lightly! Not so, not so!" as the society young lady brings down her whip, half on the shoulder of gentle Toto, half on his saddle, and sets him dancing lightly out of line, to the discomfiture of Versatilia's horse, who follows him from a sense of duty. "Take your places again," cries your teacher, "and keep to the wall! If you had had proper control of your horse, that would not have happened, Miss Versatilia! Now, Miss Lady, hold your whip in the hollow of your hand, and use it by a slight movement, not by raising your arm and lashing, lashing, lashing as if you were on the race course. A lady is not a jockey, and she should employ her whip almost as quietly as she moves her left foot. Forward, forward! And keep on the track, ladies! Keep your horses' heads straight by holding your reins perfectly even, then their bodies will be straight, and you will make one line instead of being on six lines as you are now. And, Miss Esmeralda, forward! Use your whip! Not so gently! It is not always enough to give your horse one little tap. Give him many, one after the other with quickened movement, so that he will understand that you are in a hurry. It is like the reveille which sounds ever louder until everybody is awake! "Now, you must not make circles! Make squares! Go into the corners! Don't pull on your horse's head, Miss Nell! He thinks that you mean him to stop, and then you whip him and he tries to go on, and you pull again, and he knows not what to think. Always carry out whatever purpose you begin with your horse if you can. If sometimes you make a mistake, and cannot absolutely correct it because of those behind you, guide your horse to his proper place, and the next time that you come to that part of the ring, make him go right! Forward, forward! Ladies, not one of you is in the right place! Keep up! Keep up! Miss Lady, you must go forward regularly! Now prepare to trot! No, no! Walk! When I say, 'Prepare to trot,' it is not for you to begin, but to think of what you must do to begin, and you must not let your horses go until I give the second order, and then not too fast at first. Now, prepare to trot! Trot! Not quite so fast, Miss Lady; gently! Keep up, keep up, Miss Beauty! Miss Esmeralda, you are sitting too far to the left, your left shoulder is too far back! on't hold your hands so high, Miss Versatilia! Rise straight, Miss Esmeralda! Now, remember, ladies, what I say is for all. Prepare to whoa! Whoa!" The leader, by an almost imperceptible series of movements, first sitting down in her saddle, then slightly relaxing her hold of the reins, and turning both hands very slightly inward, brings her horse to a walk and continues on her way. The others, with more or less awkwardness, come to a full stop, and your teacher laughs. "When I say that," he explains, "I mean to cease trotting, not to stop. Go forward, and remember how you have been taught to go forward, Miss Esmeralda. It is not enough to frown at your horse. Now, prepare to trot! Trot!" And then he repeats again and again that series of injunctions which already seems so threadbare to you, Esmeralda, but which you do not follow, not because you do not try, but because you have not full control of your muscles, and then comes once more the order, "Prepare to whoa. Whoa!" and a volley of sharp reminders about the solemn duty of keeping a horse moving while turning corners, and once more the column proceeds as regularly as possible. "I observe," says your teacher, riding close to you, "that you seem timid, Miss Esmeralda. Do you feel frightened." "No," you assure him. "Then it is because you are nervous that you are so rigid. Try not to be stiff. Give yourself a little more flexibility in the fingers, the wrists, the elbows, everywhere! You are not tired? No? Be easy then, be easy!" And you remember that you have been likened unto a poker, and sadly think that, perhaps the comparison was just. "The other master shall ride with you for a few rounds," he continues; "that will give you confidence, and you will not be nervous." You indignantly disclaim the possession of nerves, he smiles indulgently, and the other teacher rides up beside you, and advises you steadily and quietly during the next succession of trotting and walking, and, conscious of not exerting yourself quite so much and of being easier, you begin to think that perhaps you have a nerve or two somewhere, and you determine to conquer them. "You are sitting too far to the right now," says your new guide, the most quiet of North Britons. "There should be about half an inch of the saddle visible to you beyond the edge of your habit, if it fit quite smooth, but you would better not look down to se it. It would do no harm for once, perhaps, but it would look queer, and might come to be a habit. Try to judge of your position by the feeling of your shoulders and by thinking whether you are observing every rule; but, once in a great while, when you are walking, take your reins in your left hand, pass your right hand lightly along the edge of your saddle, ad satisfy yourself that you are quite correct in position. If you be quite sure that you can take a downward glance, without moving your head, try it occasionally, but very rarely. Use this, in fact, as you would use a measure to verify a drawing after employing every other test, and if any teacher notice you and reprove you for doing it, do not allow yourself to use it again for two or three lessons, for, unless you can be quiet about it, it is better not to use it at all." "Ladies, ladies," cries a new voice, at the sound of which the leader is seen to sit even better than before, "this is not a church, that you should go to sleep while you are taught truth! Attend to your instructor! Keep up when he tells you. Make your movements with energy. You tire him; you tire me; you tire the good horses! how then, rouse yourselves! Prepare to trot! Trot!" And away go the horses, for it is not every hour that they hear the strong voice which means that instant obedience must be rendered. "Keep up! keep up!" cries your teacher. "Come in!" says your own guide, and then pauses himself, to urge one of the beginners behind you, and for a minute or two the orders follow one another thick and fast, the three men working together, each seeming to have eyes for each pupil, and to divine the intentions of his coadjutors, and then comes the order, "Prepare to whoa! Whoa! and the master sits down on the mounting-stand, and frees his mind on the subject of corners, a topic which you begin to think is inexhaustible. "Please show these ladies how to go into a corner," he concludes, and your teacher does so, executing the movement so marvelously that it seems as if he would have no difficulty in performing it in any passageway through which his horse could walk in a straight line. The whole class gazes enviously, to be brought to the proper frame of mind by a sharp expostulatory fire of: "Keep your distance! Forward!" with about four times as many warnings addressed to the society young lady as to all the others; and then suddenly, unexpectedly, the clock strikes and the lesson is over. The society young lady dresses herself with much precision and deliberation, and announces that she will never, no, never! never so long as she lives, come again; and in spite of Nell's attempts to quiet her, she repeats the statement in the reception room, in the master's hearing, aiming it straight at his quiet countenance. "No?" he says, not so much disturbed as she could desire. "You should not despair, you will learn in time." "I don't despair," she answers; "but I know something, and I will not be treated as if I knew nothing." "An, you know something," he repeats, in an interested way. "But what you do not know, my young lady, is how little that something is! This is a school; you came here to be taught. I will not cheat you by not teaching you." "And it is no way to teach! Three men ordering a class at once!" "Ah, it is 'no way to teach'! Now, it is I who am taking a lesson from you. I am greatly obliged, but I must keep to my own old way. It may be wrong--for you, my young lady--but it has made soldiers to ride, and little girls, and other young ladies, and I am content. And these others? Are they not coming any more?" And every one of those cowardly girls huddles away behind you, Esmeralda, and leaves you to stammer, "Y-yes, sir, but you do s-scold a little hard." "That," says the master, "is my bog voice to make the horses mind, and to make sure that you hear it. And I told you the other day that I spoke for your good, not for my own. If I should say every time I want trotting, 'My dear and much respected beautiful young ladies, please to trot,' how much would you learn in a morning?" "We are ladies," says the society young lady, "and we should be treated as ladies." "And you--or these others, since you retire--are my pupils, and shall be treated as my pupils," he says with a courtly bow and a "Good morning," and you go away trying to persuade the society young lady to reconsider. "Not that I care much whether she does or not," Nell says confidentially to you. "She's too overbearing for me," and just at that minute the voice of the society young lady is heard to call the master "overbearing," and you and Nell exchange delighted, mischievous smiles. Now for that stiffness of yours, Esmeralda, there is a remedy, as there is for everything but death, and you should use it immediately, before the rigidity becomes habitual. Continue your other exercises, but devote only about a third as much time to them, and use the other two thirds for Delsarte movements. First: Let your hands swing loosely from the wrist, and swing them lifelessly to and fro. Execute the movement first with the right hand then with the left, then with both. Second: Let the fingers hang from the knuckles, and shake them in the same way and in the same order. Third: Let the forearm hang from the elbow, and proceed in like manner. Fourth: Let the whole arm hang from the shoulder, and swing the arms by twisting the torso. Execute the finger and hand movements with the arms hanging at the side, extended sidewise, stretched above the head, thrust straight forward, with the arms bent at right angles to them and with the arms flung backward as far as possible. Execute the forearm movements with the arms falling at the side, and also with the elbow as high as the shoulder. After you have performed these exercises for a few days, you will begin to find it possible to make yourself limp and lifeless when necessary, and the knowledge will be almost as valuable as the ability to hold yourself firm and steady. You will find the exercises in Mrs. Thompson's "Society Gymnastics," but these are all that you will need for at least one week, especially if you have to devote many hours to the task of persuading the society young lady not to leave your class unto you desolate. IX. "Left wheel into line!" and they wheel and obey. _Tennyson_. When you arrive at the school for your second class lesson, Esmeralda, you find the dressing-room pervaded by a silence as clearly indicative of a recent tempest as the path cloven through a forest by a tornado. From the shelter of screens and from retired nooks, come sounds indicative of garments doffed and donned with abnormal celerity and severity, but never a word of joking, and never a cry for deft-fingered Kitty's assistance, and then, little by little, even these noises die away, and the palace of the Sleeping Beauty could not be more quiet. No girl stirs from her lurking-place, until our yourself issue from your pet corner, and then Nell, a warning finger on her lip, noiselessly emerges from hers, and you go into the reception room together, and she explains to you that, despite her announcement that she would never come again, the society young lady has appeared, and has announced her intention to defend what she grandly terms her position as a lady. "And the master will think us, her associates, as unruly as she is!" Nell almost sobs. "If I were he, I would send the whole class home, there!" But the other girls now enter, each magnificently polite to the others, and the file of nine begins its journey along the wall, attended as before, the society young lady taking great pains about distance, and really doing very well, but the beauty sitting with calm negligence which soon brings a volley of remonstrance from both teachers, who address her much after the fashion of Sydney Smith's saying, "You are on the high road to ruin the moment you think yourself rich enough to be careless." "You must not keep your whip in contact with your horse's shoulder all the time," lectured one of the teachers, "if you do, you have no means of urging him to go forward a little faster. Keep it pressed against the saddle, not slanting outward or backward. When you use it, do it without relaxing your hold upon the reins, for if, by any mischance, your horse should start quickly, you will need it. Forward, ladies, forward! don't stop in the corners! Use your whips a very little, just as you begin to turn! Miss Esmeralda, keep to the wall! No, no! Don't keep to the wall by having your left rein shorter than your right! They should be precisely even." "As you approach the corner," says the other teacher quietly, speaking to you alone, "carry your right hand a little nearer to your left without bending your wrist, so that your rein will just touch your horse's neck on the right side. That will keep his head straight." "But he seems determined to go to the right," you object. "That is because your right rein is too short now. While we are going down the long side of the school, make the reins precisely even. Now, lay the right rein on his neck, use your whip, and touch him with your heel to make him go on; bend your right wrist to turn him, use your whip once more, and go on again!" "Forward, Miss Esmeralda, forward!" cries the other teacher. "That is because Miss Lady did not go into the corner, and so is too far in advance," your teacher explains. "You must, in class, keep your distance as carefully when the rifer immediately before you is wrong as when she is right. It is the necessity of doing that, of having to be ready for emergencies, to think of others as much as of your horse and of yourself, that give class teaching much of its value." "Forward, ladies, forward," cries the other teacher. "Remember that you are not to go to sleep! Now prepare to trot, and don't go too fast at first. Remember always to change from one gait to another gently, for your own sake, that you may not be thrown out of position; for your horse's, that he may not be startled, and made unruly and ungraceful. He has nerves as well as you. Now, prepare to trot! Trot! Shorten your reins, Miss Beauty! Shorten them!" and during the next minute or two, while the class trots about a third of a mile, the poor beauty hears every command in the manual addressed to her, and smilingly tries, but tries in vain to obey them; but in an unhappy moment the teacher's glance falls on the society young lady and he bids her keep her right shoulder back. "You told me that before," she says, rather more crisply than is prescribed by any of he manuals of etiquette which constitute her sole library. "Then why don't you do it?" is his answer. "Keep your left shoulder forward," he says a moment later, whereupon the society young lady turns to the right, and plants herself in the centre of the ring with as much dignity as is possible, considering that her horse, not having been properly stopped, and feeling the nervous movements of her hands, moves now one leg and now another, now draws his head down pulling her forward on the pommel, and generally disturbs the beautiful repose of manner upon which she prides herself. "You are tired? No? Frightened? Your stirrup is too short? You are not comfortable?" demands the teacher, riding up beside her. "Is there anything which you would like to have me do?" "I don't like to be told to do two things at once," she responds in a tone which should be felt by the thermometer at the other end of the ring. "But you must do two things at once, and many more than two, on horseback," he says; "when you are rested, take your place in the line." "I think I will dismount," she says. "Very well," and before she has time to change her mind, a bell is rung, a groom guides her horse to the mounting-stand, the master himself takes her out of the saddle, courteously bids her be seated in the reception room and watch the others, and she finds her little demonstration completely and effectually crushed, and, what is worse, apparently without intention. Nobody appears to be aware that she has intended a rebellion, although "whole Fourth of Julys seem to bile in her veins." "Now," the teacher goes on, "we will turn to the right, singly. Turn! Keep up, ladies! Keep up! Ride straight! To the right again! Turn!" and back on the track, on the other side of the school, the leader in the rear, the beginners in advance, you continue until two more turns to the right replace you. "That was all wrong," the teacher says, cheerfully. "You did not ride straight, and you did not ride together. Your horses' heads should be in line with one another, and then when you arrive at the track and turn to the right again, your distance will be correct. Now we will have a little trot, and while you are resting afterward, you shall try the turn again." The society young lady, watching the scene in sulkiness, notes various faults in each rider and feels that the truly promising pupil of the class is sitting in her chair at that moment; but she says nothing of the kind, contenting herself by asking the master, with well-adjusted carelessness, if it would not be better for the teacher to speak softly. "It gives a positive shock to the nerves to be so vehemently addressed," she says, with the air of a Hammond advising an ignorant nurse. "That is what he has the intention to do," replies the other. "It is necessary to arouse the rider's will and not let her sleep, but if it were not, the teacher of riding, or anybody who has to give orders, orders, orders all day long, must speak from an expanded chest, with his lungs full of air, or at night he will be dumb. The young man behind the counter who has to entreat, persuade, to beg, to be gentle, he may make his voice soft, but to speak with energy in a low tone is to strain the vocal cords and to injure the lungs permanently. The opera singer finds to sing piano, pianissimo more wearisome than to make herself heard above a Wagner orchestra. The orator, with everybody still and listening with countenance intent, dares not speak softly, except now and then for contrast. In the army we have three months' rest, and then we go to the surgeon, and he examines our throats and lungs, and sees whether or not they need any treatment. If you go to the camp of the military this summer, you will find the young officers whom you know in the ball-room so soft and so gentle, not whispering to their men, but shouting, and the best officer will have the loudest shout." The society young lady remembers the stories which she has heard her father and uncles tell of that "officer's sore throat," which in 1861 and 1862, caused so many ludicrous incidents among the volunteer soldiery, the energetic rill master of one day being transformed into a voiceless pantomimist by the next, but, like Juliet when she spoke, she says nothing, and now the teacher once more cries, "Turn!" and then, suddenly, "Prepare to stop! Stop! Now look at your line! Now two of you have your horses' heads even! And how many of you were riding straight?" A dead silence gives a precisely correct answer, and again he cries, "Forward!" A repetition of the movement is demanded, and is received with cries of "This is not good, ladies! This is not good! We will try again by and by. Now, prepare to change hands in file." The leader, turning at one corner of the school, makes a line almost like a reversed "s" to the corner diagonally opposite, and comes back to the track on the left hand, the others straggling after with about as much precision and grace as Jill followed Jack down the hill; but, before they are fairly aware how very ill they have performed the manoeuvre, they perceive that their teacher not only aimed at having them learn how to turn to the left at each corner, but also at giving himself an opportunity to make remarks about their feet and the position thereof, and at the end of five minutes each girl feels as if she were a centipede, and you, Esmeralda, secretly wonder whether something in the way of mucilage of thumb-tacks might not be used to keep your own riding boots close to the saddle. "And don't let your left foot swing," says the teacher in closing his exhortations; "hold it perfectly steady! Now change hands in file, and come back to the track on the right again, and we will have a little trot." "And before you begin," lectures the master, "I will tell you something. The faster you go, after once you know how to stay in the saddle, the better for you, the better for your horse. You see the great steamer crossing the ocean when under full headway, and she can turn how this way and now that, with the least little touch of the rudder, but when she is creeping, creeping through the narrow channel, she must have a strong, sure hand at the helm, and when she is coming up to her wharf, easy, easy, she must swing in a wide circle. That is why my word to you is always 'Forward! Forward!' and again, 'Forward!' There is a scientific reason underlying this, if you care to know it. When you go fast, neither you nor the horse has time to feel the pressure of the atmosphere from above, and that is why it seems as if you were flying, and he is happy and exhilarated as well as you. You will see the tame horse in the paddock gallop about for his pleasure, and the wild horse on the prairie will start and run for miles in mere sportiveness. So, if you want to have pleasure on horseback, 'Forward!'" While the little trot is going on, the society young lady improves the shining hour by asking the master "if he does not think it cruel to make a poor horse go just as fast as it can," to which he replies that the horse will desire to go quite as long as she can or will, whereupon she withdraws into the cave of sulkiness again, but brightens perceptibly as you dismount and join her. "You do look so funny, Esmeralda," she begins. "Your feet do seem positively immense, as the teacher said." "Pardon me; I said not that," gently interposes the teacher; "only that they looked too big, bigger than they are, when she turns them outward." "And you do sit very much on one side," she continues to Versatilia: "and your crimps are quite flat, my dear," to the beauty. "Never mind; they aren't fastened on with a safety pin," retorts the beauty, plucking up spirit, unexpectedly. "O, no! of course not," the wise fairy interposes, with a little laugh. "You young ladies do not do such things, of course. But, do you know, I heard of a lady who wore a switch into a riding- school ring one day, and it came off, and the riding master had to keep it in his pocket until the end of the session." Little does the wise fairy know of the society young lady's ways! What she has determined to say, she declines to retain unsaid, and so she cries: "And you do thrust your head forward so awkwardly, Nell!" "'We are ladies,'" quotes Nell, "and we can't answer you," and the society young lady finds herself alone with the wise fairy, who is suddenly very busy with her books, and after a moment, she renews her announcement that she is not coming any more. "Well, I wouldn't," the wise fairy says, looking thoughtfully at her. "You make the others unhappy, and that is not desirable, and you will not be taught. I gave you fair warning that the master would be severe, but those who come here to learn enjoy their lessons. Once in a great while there are ladies who do not wish to be taught, but they find it out very soon, as you have." "There is always a good reason for everything," the master says gravely. "Now, I have seen many great men who could not learn to ride. There was Gambetta. Nothing would make a fine rider out of that man! Why? Because for one moment that his mind was on his horse, a hundred it was on something else. And Jules Verne! He could not learn! And Emile Giardin! They had so many things to think about! Now, perhaps it is so with this young lady. Society demands so much, one must do so many things, that she cannot bend her mind to this one little art. It is unfortunate, but then she is not the first!" And with a little salute he turns away, and the society young lady, much crosser than she was before he invented this apology for her, comes into the dressing room and-- bids you farewell? Not at all! Says that she is sorry, and that she knows that she can learn, and is going to try. "And I suppose now that nothing will make her go!" Nell says, lugubriously, as you saunter homeward. You are still conscious of stiffness, Esmeralda? That is not a matter for surprise or for anxiety. All your life you have been working for strength, for even your dancing-school teacher was not one of those scientific ballet-masters who, like Carlo Blasis, would have taught you that the strength of a muscle often deprives it of flexibility and softness. You desire that your muscles should be rigid or relaxed at will. Go and stand in front of your mirror, and let your head drop forward toward either shoulder, causing your whole torso to become limp. Now hold the head erect, and try to reproduce the feeling. The effect is awkward, and not to be practised in public, but the exercise enables you to perceive for yourself when you are stiff about the shoulders and waist. Now drop your head backward, and swing the body, not trying to control the head, and persist until you can thoroughly relax the muscles of the neck, a work which you need not expect to accomplish until after you have made many efforts. Now execute all your movements for strengthening the muscles, very slowly and lightly, using as little force as possible. After you can do this fairly well, begin by executing them quickly and forcibly, then gradually retard them, and make them more gently, until you glide at last into perfect repose. This will take time, but the good results will appear not only in your riding, but also in your walking and in your dancing. You and Nell might practise these Delsarte exercises together, for no especial dress is needed for them, and companionship will remove the danger of the dulness which, it must be admitted, sometimes besets the amateur, unsustained by the artist's patient energy. Before you take another class lesson, you may have an exercise ride, in which to practise what you have learned. "Tried to learn!" do you say? Well, really, Esmeralda, one begins to have hopes of you! X. --Ye couldn't have made him a rider, And then ye know, boys will be boys, and hosses, --well, hosses is hosses! _Harte_. When you and Nell go to take your exercise ride, Esmeralda, you must assume the air of having ridden before you were able to walk, and of being so replete with equestrian knowledge that the "acquisition of another detail would cause immediate dissolution," as the Normal college girl said when asked if she knew how to teach. You must insist on having a certain horse, no matter ho much inconvenience it may create, and, if possible, you should order him twenty-four hours in advance, stipulating that nobody shall mount him in the interval, and, while waiting for him to be brought from the stable, you should proclaim that he is a wonderfully spirited, not to say vicious, creature, but that you are not in the smallest degree afraid of him. You should pick up your reins with easy grace, and having twisted them into a hopeless snarl, should explain to any spectator who may presume to smile that one "very soon forgets the little things, you know, but they will come back in a little while." Having started, you must choose between steadily trotting or rapidly cantering, absolutely regardless of the rights or wishes of any one else, or else you must hold your horse to a spiritless crawl, carefully keeping him in such a position as to prevent anybody else from outspeeding you. If you were a man, you would feel it incumbent on you to entreat your master to permit you to change horses with him, and would give him certain valuable information, derived from quarters vaguely specified as "a person who knows," or "a man who rides a great deal." meaning somebody who is in the saddle twenty times a year, and duly pays his livery stable bill for the privilege, and you would confide in some other exercise rider, if possible, in the hearing of seven or eight pupils, that your master was not much of a rider after all, that the "natural rider is best," and you would insinuate that to observe perfection it was only necessary to look at you. If, in addition to this, you could intimate to any worried or impatient pupils that they had not been properly taught, you would make yourself generally beloved, and these are the ways of the casual exercise rider, male and female. But you, Esmeralda, are slightly unfitted for the perfect assumption of this part by knowing how certain things ought to be done, although you cannot do them, and alas! you are not yet adapted to the humbler but prettier character of the real exercise rider, who is thoroughly taught, and whose every movement is a pleasure to behold. There are many such women and a few men who prefer the ring to the road for various reasons, and from them you may learn much, both by observation and from the hints which many of them will give you if they find that you are anxious to learn, and that you are really nothing more pretentious than a solitary student. So into the saddle you go, and you and Nell begin to walk about in company. "In company," indeed, for about half a round, and then you begin to fall behind. Touching your Abdallah lightly with whip and heel starts him into a trot and coming up beside Nell you start off her Arab, and both horses are rather astonished to be checked. What do these girls want, they think, and when you fall behind again, it takes too strokes of the whip to urge Abdallah forward, Arab is unmoved by your passing him, and you find the breadth of the ring dividing you and Nell. You pause, she turns to the right, crosses the space between you, turns again and is by your side, and now both of you begin to see what you must do. Nell, who is riding on the inside, that is to say on the included square, must check her horse very slightly after turning each corner, and you must hasten yours a little before turning, and a little after, so as to give her sufficient space to turn, and, at the same time, to keep up with her. You, being on her left, must be very careful every moment to have a firm hold of your left rein, so as to keep away from her feet, and she must keep especial watch of her right rein in order to guard herself. After each of you has learned her part pretty well, you should exchange places and try again, and then have a round or two of trotting, keeping your horses' heads in line. You will find both of them very tractable to this discipline, because accustomed to having your master's horse keep pace with them, and because they often go in pairs at the music rides, and you must not expect that an ordinary livery stable horse would be as easily managed. It is rather fashionable to sneer at the riding-school horse as too mild for the use of a good rider, and very likely, while you and Nell are patiently trying your little experiment, you will hear a youth with very evident straps on his trousers, superciliously requesting to have "something spirited" brought in from the stable for him. "Not one of your school horses, taught to tramp a treadmill round, but a regular flyer," he explains. "Is he a very good rider?" you ask your master. "Last time he was hear I had to take him off Abdallah," he says sadly, and then he goes to the mounting-stand to deny "the regular flyer," and to tender instead, "an animal that we don't give to everybody, William." Enter "William," otherwise Billy Buttons, whom the gentleman covetous of a flyer soon finds to be enough for him to manage, because William, although accustomed to riders awkward through weakness, is not used to the manners of what is called the "three-legged trotter"; that is to say, the man whose unbent arms and tightened reins make a straight line from his shoulders to his horse's mouth, while his whole weight is thrown upon the reins by a backward inclination of his body. If you would like to know how Billy feels about it, Esmeralda, bend your chin toward your throat, and imagine a bar of iron placed across your tongue and pulling your head upward. It would hurt you, but you could raise your head and still go forward, making wild gestures with your hands, kicking, perhaps, in a ladylike manner, as Gail Hamilton kicked Halicarnassus, but by no means stopping. Now suppose that bar of iron drawn backward by reins passing one on each side of your shoulders and held firmly between your scapulae; you could not go forward without almost breaking your neck, could you? No more could Billy, if his rider would let out his reins, bend his elbows, and hold his hands low, almost touching his saddle, but, as it is, he goes on, and if he should rear by and by, and if his rider should slide off, be not alarmed. The three-legged trotter is not the kind of horseman to cling to his reins, and he will not be dragged, and Billy is too good-tempered not to stop the moment he has rid himself of his tormentor. But while he is still on Billy's back, and flattering himself that he is doing wonders in subjugating the "horse that we don't give to everybody," do you and Nell go to the centre of the ring and see if you can stop properly. Pretty well done, but wait a moment before trying it again, for it is not pleasant to a horse. Sit still a few minutes, and then try and see if you can back your horse a step or two. In order to do this, it is not enough to sit up straight and to say "back," or even to say "bake," which, according to certain "natural riders," is the secret of having the movement executed properly. You must draw yourself up and lean backward, touching your horse both with your foot and with your whip, in order that he may stand squarely, and you must raise your wrists a little, and the same time turning them inward. The horse will take a step, you must instantly sit up straight, lower your hands, and then repeat the movement until he has backed far enough. Four steps will be quite as many as you should try when working thus by yourself, because you do not wish to form any bad habits, and your master will probably find much to criticise in your way of executing the movement. The most that you can do for yourself is to be sure that Abdallah makes but one step for each of your demands. If he make two, lower your hands, and make him go forward, for a horse that backs unbidden is always troublesome and may sometimes be dangerous. "Just watch that man on Billy Buttons," says your master, coming up to you, "and make up your minds never to do anything that you see him do. And look at those two ladies who are mounting now, and see how well it is possible to ride without being taught in school, provided one rides enough. They cannot trot a rod, but they have often been in the saddle half a day at a time in Spanish America, whence they come, and they can 'lope,' as they call it, for hours without drawing rein. They sit almost, but not quite straight, and they have strength enough in their hands to control any of our horses, although they complain that these English bits are poor things compared to the Spanish bit. You see, they can stay on, although they cannot ride scientifically." "And isn't that best?" asked Nell. "It is better," corrects the master. "The very best is to stay on because one rides scientifically, and that is what I hope that you two will do by and by. There's that girl who always brings in bags of groceries for her horse! Apples this time!" "Isn't it a good thing to give a horse a tidbit of some kind after a ride?" asked Nell. "'Good,' if it be your own horse, but not good in a riding- school. It tends to make the horses impatient for the end of a ride, and sometimes makes them jealous of one another at the mounting-stand, and keeps them there so long as to inconvenience others who wish to dismount. Besides, careless pupils, like that girl, have a way of tossing a paper bag into the ring after the horse has emptied it, and although we always pick it up as soon as possible, it may cause another horse to shy. A dropped handkerchief is also dangerous, for a horse is a suspicious creature and fears anything novel as a woman dreads a mouse." What is the trouble on the mounting-stand? Nothing, except that a tearful little girl wants "her dear Daisy; she never rides anything else, and she hates Clifton, and does not like Rex and Jewel canters, and she wants Da-a-isy!" "But is it not better for you to change horses now and then, and Daisy is not fit to be in the ring to-day," says your master. "Jewel is very easy and good-tempered. Will you have him?" "No, I'll have Abdallah." "A lady is riding him." "Well, I want him." It is against the rules for your master to suggest such a thing to you, Esmeralda, but suppose you go up to the mounting-stand and offer to take Jewel yourself and let her have Abdallah. You do it; your master puts you on Jewel, and sends the wilful little girl away on Abdallah, and then comes up to you and Nell, thanks you, and says, "It was very good of you, but she must learn some day to ride everything, and I shall tell her so, and next time!" He looks capable of giving her Hector, Irish Hector, who is wilful as the wind, but in reward for your goodness he bestows a little warning about your whips upon Nell, who has a fancy for carrying hers slantwise across her body, so that both ends show from the back, and the whole whip is quite useless as far as the horse is concerned, although picturesque enough with its loop of bright ribbon. "It makes one think of a circus picture," he says; "and, Miss Esmeralda, don't hold your whip with the lash pointing outward, to tickle Miss Nell's horse, and to make you look like an American Mr. Briggs 'going to take a run with the Myopias, don't you know.' Isn't this a pretty horse?" "Well, I don't know," you say frankly; "I'm no judge. I don't know anything about a horse." For once your master loses his self-possession, and stares unreservedly. "Child," he says, "I never, never before saw anybody in this ring who didn't know all about a horse." "Well, but I really don't, you know." "No, but nobody ever says so. Now just hear this new pupil instruct me." The new pupil, who thinks a riding habit should be worn over two or three skirts, and is consequently sitting with the aerial elegance of a feather bed, is riding with her snaffle rein, the curb tied on her horse's neck, and is clasping it by the centre, allowing the rest to hang loose, so that Clifton, supposing that she means to give him liberty to browse, is looking for grass among the tan. Not finding it, he snorts occasionally, whereupon she calls him "poor thing," and tells him that "it is a warm day, and that he should rest, so he should!" "Your reins are too long," says your master. "Do you mean that they are too long, or that I am holding them so as to make them too long," she inquires, in a precise manner. "They are right enough. Our saddlers know their business. But you are holding them so that you might as well have none. Shorten them, and make him bring his head up in its proper place." "But I think it's cruel to treat him so, when he's tired, poor thing! I always hold my reins in the middle when I'm driving, and my horse goes straight enough. This one seems dizzy. He goes round and round." "He wouldn't if he were in harness with two shafts to keep his head straight"-- "But then why wouldn't it be a good thing to have some kind of a light shaft for a beginner's horse?" "It would be a neat addition to a side saddle," says your master, "but shorten your reins. Take one in each hand. Leave about eight inches of rein between your hands. There! See. Now Guide your horse." He leaves her, in order that he may enjoy the idea of the side saddle with shafts, and she promptly resumes her old attitude which she feels is elegant, and when Clifton wanders up beside Abdallah, she sweetly asks Nell, "Is this your first lesson? Do you think this horse is good? The master wants me to pull on my reins, but I think it is inhuman, and I won't, and"--but Clifton strays out of hearing, and your arouse yourselves to remember that you are having more fun than work. There is plenty of room in the ring, now, so you change hands, and circle to the left, first walking and then trotting, slowly at first, and then rapidly, finding to your pleasant surprise, that, just as you begin to think that you can go no further, you are suddenly endowed with new strength and can make two more rounds. "A good half mile," your master says, approvingly, as you fall into a walk and pass him, and then you do a volte or two, and one little round at a canter, and then walk five minutes, and dismount to find the rider of the alleged William assuring John, the head groom, that redoubtable animal needs "taking down." "Shall ride him with spurs next time," he says. "I can manage him, but he would be too much for most men," and away he goes and a flute-voiced little boy of eight mounts William, retransformed into Billy Buttons, and guides him like a lamb, and you escape up stairs to laugh. But you have no time for this before the merciful young woman enters to say that she is going to another school, where she can do as she pleases and have better horses, too, and the more you and Nell assure her that there is no school in which she can learn without obedience, and that her horse was too good, if anything, the more determined she becomes, and soon you wisely desist. As she departs, "Oh, dear," you say, "I thought there was nothing but fun at riding-school, and just see all these queer folks." "My dear," says philosophic Nell, "they ar part of the fun. And we are fun to the old riders; and we are all fun to our master." Here you find yourselves enjoying a bit of fun from which your master is shut out, for three or four girls come up from the ring together, and, not seeing you, hidden behind your screens, two, in whom you and Nell have already recognized saleswomen from whom you have more than once bought laces, begin to talk to overawe the others. "My deah," says one, "now I think of it, I weally don't like the setting of these diamonds that you had given you last night. It's too heavy, don't you think?" The other replies in a tone which would cheat a man, but in which you instantly detect an accent of surprise and a determination to play up to her partner as well as possible, that she "liked it very well." "I should have them reset," says the former speaker. "Like mine, you know; light and airy. Deah me, I usedn't to care for diamonds, and now I'm puffectly infatooated with them, don't you know! My!" she screams, catching sight of a church clock, and, relapsing into her everyday speech: "Half-past four! And I am due at"--[An awkward pause.] "I promised to return at four!" There is no more talk about diamonds, but a hurried scramble to dress, an a precipitate departure, after which one of the other ladies is heard to say very distinctly: "I remember that girl as a pupil when I was teaching in a public school, and I know all about her. Salary, four dollars a week. Diamonds!" "She registered at the desk as Mrs. Something," rejoins the other. "She only came in for one ride, and so they gave her a horse without looking up her reference, but one of the masters knew her real name. Poor little goosey! She has simply spoiled her chance of ever becoming a regular pupil, no matter how much she may desire it. No riding master will give lessons to a person who behaves so. He would lose more than he gained by it, no matter how long she took lessons. And they know everybody in a riding-school, although they won't gossip. I'd as soon try to cheat a Pinkerton agency." "I know one thing," Nell says, as you walk homeward: "I'm going to take an exercise ride between every two lessons, and I'm going to ride a new horse every time, if I can get him, and I'm going to do what I'm told, and I shall not stop trotting at the next lesson, even if I feel as if I should drop out of the saddle. I've learned so much from an exercise ride." XI. Ride as though you were flying. _Mrs. Norton_. "Cross," Esmeralda? Why? Because having had seven lessons of various sorts, and two rides, you do not feel yourself to be a brilliant horsewoman? Because you cannot trot more than half a mile, and because you cannot flatter yourself that it would be prudent for you to imitate your favorite English heroines, and to order your horse brought around to the hall door for a solitary morning canter? And you really think that you do well to be angry, and that, had your teacher been as discreet and as entirely admirable as you feel yourself to be, you would be more skilful and better informed? Very well, continue to think so, but pray do not flatter yourself that your mental attitude has the very smallest fragment of an original line, curve or angle. Thus, and not otherwise, do all youthful equestrians feel, excepting those doubly-dyed in conceit, who fancy that they have mastered a whole art in less than twelve hours. You certainly are not a good rider, and yet you have received instruction on almost every point in regard to which you would need to know anything in an ordinary ride on a good road. You have not yet been taught every one of these things, certainly, for she who has been really taught a physical or mental feat, can execute it at will, but you have been partly instructed, and it is yours to see that the instruction is not wasted, by not being either repeated, or faithfully reduced to practice. Remember clever Mrs. Wesley's answer to the unwise person who said in reproof, "You have told that thing to that child thirty times." "Had I told it but twenty-nine," replied the indomitable Susanna, "they had been wasted." What you need now is practice, preferably in the ring with a teacher, but if you cannot afford that, without a teacher, and road rides whenever you can have them on a safe horse, taken from a school stable, if possible, with companions like yourself, intent upon study and enjoyment, not upon displaying their habits, or, if they be men, the airs of their horses, and the correctness of their equipment, or upon racing. As for the solitary canter, when the kindly Fates shall endow that respectable American sovereign, your father, with a park somewhat bigger than the seventy-five square feet of ground inclosed by an iron railing before his present palace, it will be time enough to think about that; but you can no more venture upon a public road alone than an English lady could, and indeed, your risk in doing so would be even greater than hers. Why? Because in rural England all men and boys, even the poorest and the humblest, seem to know instinctively how a horse should be equipped. True, a Wordsworth or a Coleridge did hesitate for hours over the problem of adjusting a horse collar, but Johnny Ragamuffin, from the slums, or Jerry Hickathrift, of some shire with the most uncouth of dialects, can adjust a slipping saddle, or, in a hand's turn, can remove a stone which is torturing a hoof. Not so your American wayfarer, city bred or country grown; it will be wonderful if he can lengthen a stirrup leather, ad, before allowing such an one to tighten a girth for you, you would better alight and take shelter behind a tree, and a good large tree, because he may drive your horse half frantic by his well- meant unskilfulness. Besides, Mrs. Grundy very severely frowns on the woman who rides alone, and there is no appeal from Mrs. Grundy's wisdom. Sneer at her, deride her, try, if you will, to undermine her authority, but obey her commands and yield to her judgment if you would have the respect of men, and, what is of more consequence, the fair speech of women. And so, Esmeralda, as you really have no cause for repining, go away to your class lesson, which has a double interest for you and Nell, because of the wicked pleasure which you derive from hearing the master quietly crush the society young lady with unanswerable logic. You have seen him with a class of disobedient, well-bred little girls, and know how persuasive he can be to a child who is really frightened. You have seen him surrounded by a class of eager small goys, and beset with a clamorous shout of, "Plea-ease let us mount from the ground." You have heard his peremptory "No," and then, as they turned away discomfited, have noted how kindly was his "I will tell you why, my dear boys. It is because your legs are too short. Wait until you are tall, then you shall mount." You know that when Versatilia, having attended a party the previous evening and arisen at five o'clock to practise Chopin, and then worked an hour at gymnastics, could not, from pure weariness, manage her horse, how swift was his bound across the ring, and how carefully he lifted her from the saddle, and gave her over to the ministrations of the wise fairy. You know that any teacher must extract respect from his scholars, and you detect method in all the little sallies which almost drive the society young lady to madness, but this morning it is your turn. You do, one after the other, all the things against which you have been warned, and, when corrected, you look so very dismal and discouraged that the Scotch teacher comes quietly to your side and rides with you, and, feeling that he will prevent your horse from doing anything dangerous, you begin to mend your ways, when suddenly you hear the master proclaim in a voice which, to your horrified ears, seems audible to the whole universe: "Ah, Miss Esmeralda! she cannot ride, she cannot do her best, unless she has a gentleman beside her." In fancy's eye you seem to see yourself blushing for that criticism during the remainder of your allotted days, and you almost hope that they will be few. You know that every other girl in the class will repeat it to other girls, and even to men, and possibly even to Theodore, and that you will never be allowed to forget it. Cannot ride or do your best without a gentleman, indeed! You could do very well without one gentleman whom you know, you think vengefully, and then you turn to the kindly Scotch teacher, and, with true feminine justice, endeavor to punish him for another's misdeeds by telling him that, if he please, you would prefer to ride alone. As he reins back, you feel a decided sinking of the heart and again become conscious that you are oddly incapable of doing anything properly, and then, suddenly, it flashes upon you that the master was right in his judgment, and you fly into a small fury of determination to show him that you can exist "without a gentleman." Down go your hands, you straighten your shoulders, adjust yourself to a nicety, think of yourself and of your horse with all the intensity of which you are capable, and make two or three rounds without reproof. "Now," says the teacher, "we will try a rather longer trot than usual, and when any lady is tired she may go to the centre of the ring. Prepare to trot! Trot!" The leader's eyes sparkle with delight as she allows her good horse, after a round or two, to take his own speed, the teacher continues his usual fire of truthful comments as to shoulders, hands and reins, and one after another, the girls leave the track, and only the leader and you remain, she, calm and cool as an iceberg, you, flushed, and compelled to correct your position at almost every stride of your horse, sometimes obliged to sit close for half a round, but with your whole Yankee soul set upon trotting until your master bids you cease. Can you believe your ears? "Brava, Miss Esmeralda!" shouts the master. "Go in again. That is the way. Ah, go in again! That is the way the rider is made! Again! Ah, brava!" "Prepare to whoa! Whoa!" says the teacher, and both he and your banished cavalier congratulate you, and it dawns upon you that the society young lady is not the only person whom the master understands, and is able to manage. However, you are grateful, and even pluck up courage to salute him when next you pass him; but alas! that does not soften his heart so thoroughly that he does not warningly ejaculate, "Right foot," and then comes poor Nell's turn. She, reared in a select private school for young ladies, and having no idea of proper discipline, ventures to explain the cause of some one of her misdeeds, instead of correcting it in silence. She does it courteously, but is met with, "Ah-h-h! Miss Esmeralda, you know Miss Nell. Is it not with her on foot as it is on horseback? Does she not argue?" You shake your head severely and loyally, but brave Nell speaks out frankly, "Yes, sir; I do. But I won't again." "I would have liked to ride straight at him," she confides to you afterwards, "but he was right. Still, it is rather astounding to hear the truth sometimes." And now, for the first time around, you are allowed to ride in pairs, and the word "interval," meaning the space between two horses moving in parallel lines, is introduced, and you and Nell, who are together, congratulate yourselves on having in your exercise ride learned something of the manner in which the interval may be preserved exactly, for it is a greater trouble to the others than that "distance" which you have been told a thousand times to "keep." You have but very little of this practice, however, before you are again formed in file, and directed to "Prepare to volte singly!" When this is done perfectly, it is a very pretty manoeuvre, and, the pupils returning to their places at the same movement, the column continues on its way with its distances perfectly preserved, but as no two of your class make circles of the same size, or move at similar rates of speed, your small procession finds itself in hopeless disorder, and in trying to rearrange yourselves, each one of you discovers that she has yet something to learn about turning. However, after a little trot and the usual closing walk, the lesson ends, and you retire from the ring, with the exception of Nell, who, having been taught by an amateur to leap in a more or less unscientific manner, has begged the master to give her "one little lesson," a proposition to which he has consented. The hurdle is brought out, placed half-way down one of the long sides of the school, and Nell walks her horse quietly down the other, turns him again as she comes on the second long side, shakes her reins lightly, putting him to a canter, and is over-- "beautifully," as you say to yourself, as you watch her enviously. "You did not fall off," the master comments, coiling the lash of the long whip with which he has stood beside the hurdle during Miss Nell's performance, "but you did not guard yourself against falling when you went up, and had you had some horses, you might have come down before he did, although that is not so easy for a lady as it is for a man. When you start for a leap, you must draw your right foot well back, so as to clasp the pommel with your knee, and just as the horse stops to spring upward, you must lean back and lift both hands a little, and then, when he springs, straighten yourself, feel proud and haughty, if you can, and, as he comes down, lean back once more and raise your hands again, because your horse will drop on his fore legs, and you desire him to lift them, that he may go forward before you do. You should practise this, counting one, as you lean backward, drawing but not turning the hands backward and upward; two, as you straighten yourself wit the hands down, and three, as you repeat the first movement; and, except in making a water jump, or some other very long leap, the 'two' will be the shortest beat, as it is in the waltz. And, although you must use some strength in raising your hands, you must not raise them too high, and you must not lean your head forward or draw your elbows back. A jockey may, when riding in a steeplechase for money, but he will be angry with himself for having to do it, and a lady must not. I would rather that you did not leap again to-day, because what I told you will only confuse you until you have time to think it over and to practise it by yourself in a chair. And I would rather that you did not leap again in your own way, until you have let me see you do it once or twice more, at least." "You did not have to whip my horse to make him leap," Nell says, "The whip was not to strike him, but to show him what was ready for him if he refused," says the master. "One must never permit a horse to refuse without punishing bum, for otherwise he may repeat the fault when mounted by a poor rider, and a dangerous accident may follow. One must never brutalize a horse--indeed, no one but a brute does--but one must rule him." By this time he has taken Nell from her saddle and is in the reception room where he finds you grouped and gazing at him in a manner rather trying even to his soldierly gravity, and decidedly amusing to the wise fairy, who glances at him with a laugh and betakes herself to her own little nest. "My young ladies," he says. "I will show you one little leap, not high, you know, but a little leap sitting on a side saddle," and, going out, he takes Nell's horse, and in a minute you see him sailing through the air, light as a bird, and without any of the encouraging shouts used by some horsemen. It is only a little leap, but it impresses your illogical minds as no skilfulness in the voltes and no _haute ecole_ airs could do, for leaping is the crowning accomplishment of riding in the eyes of all your male friends except the cavalryman, and when he returns to the reception room, you linger in the hope of a little lecture, and you are not disappointed. "My young ladies," he says, "at the point at which you are in the equestrian art, what you should do is to keep doing what you know, over and over again, no matter if you do it wrong. Keep doing and doing, and by and by you will do it right. I have tried that plan of perfecting each step before undertaking another, but it is of no use with American ladies. You will not do things at all, unless you can do them well, you say. That is to say if you were to go to a ball, and were to say, 'No, I have taken lessons, I have danced in school, but I am afraid I cannot do so well as some others. I will not dance here.' That would not be the way to do. Dance, and again dance, and if you make a little mistake, dance again! The mistake is of the past; it is not matter for troubling; dance again, and do not make it again. And so of riding, ride, and again ride! Try all ways. Take your foot out of the stirrup sometimes, and slip it back again without stopping your horse, and when you can do it at the walk, do it at the trot, and keep rising! And learn not to be afraid to keep trotting after you are a little tired. Keep trotting! Keep trotting! Then you will know real pleasure, and you will not hurt your horses, as you will if you pull them up just as they begin to enjoy the pace. And then"--looking very hard at nothing at all, and not at you, Esmeralda, as your guilty soul fancies-- "and then, gentlemen will not be afraid to ride with you for fear of spoiling their horses by checking them too often." And with this he goes away, and on! Esmeralda, does not the society young lady make life pleasant for you and Nell in the dressing-room, until the beauty attracts general attention by stating that she has had an hour of torment! "Perhaps you have not noticed that most of these saddles are buckskin," she continues; "I did not, until I found myself slipping about on mine to day as if it were glazed, and lo! It was pigskin, and that made the difference. I would not have it changed, because the Texan is always sneering at English pigskin, and I wanted to learn to ride on it; but, until the last quarter of the hour, I expected to slip off. I rather think I should have," she adds, "only just as I was ready to slip off on one side, something would occur to make me slip to the other. I shall not be afraid of pigskin again, ad you would better try it, every one of you. Suppose you should get a horse from a livery stable some day with one of those slippery saddles!" "I am thinking of buying a horse," says the society young lad; "but the master says that I do not know enough to ride a beast that has been really trained. Fancy that!" "And all the authorities agree with him," says Versatilia, who has accumulated a small library of books on equestrianism since she began to take lessons. "Your horse ought not to know much more than you do--for if he do, you will find him perfectly unmanageable." Here you and Nell flee on the wings of discretion. The daring of the girl! To tell the society young lady that a horse may know more than she does! XII. Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy. _Shakespeare_. And now, Esmeralda, having determined to put your master's advice into practice and to "keep riding," you think that you must have a habit in order to be ready to take to the road whenever you have an opportunity, and to be able to accompany Theodore, should he desire to repeat your music-ride? And you would like to know just what it will cost, and everything about it? And first, what color can you have? You "can" have any color, Esmeralda, and you "can" have any material, for that matter. Queen Guinevere wore grass green silk, and if her skirt were as long as those worn by Matilda of Flanders, Norman William's wife, centuries after, her women must have spent several hours daily in mending it, unless she had a new habit for every ride, or unless the English forest roads were wider than they are to-day. But all the ladies of Arthur's court seem to have ridden in their ordinary dress. Enid, for instance, was arrayed in the faded silk which had been her house-dress and waking-dress in girlhood, when she performed her little feat of guiding six armor-laden horses. Queen Elizabeth and Mary Stuart seem to have liked velvet, either green or black, and to have adorned it with gold lace, and both probably took their fashions form France; the young woman in the Scotch ballad was "all in cramoisie"; Kate Peyton wore scarlet broadcloth, but secretly longed for purple, having been told by a rival, who had probably found her too pretty for scarlet, that green or purple was "her color." There are crimson velvet and dark blue velvet and Lincoln green velvet habits without end in fiction, and in the records of English royal wardrobes, but, beautiful as velvet is, and exquisitely becoming as it would be, you would better not indulge your artistic taste by wearing it. It would cost almost three times as much as cloth; it would be nearly impossible to make a well fitting modern skirt of it, and it would be worn into ugliness by a very few hours of trotting. Be thankful, therefore, that fashion says that woollen cloth is the most costly material that may be used. In India, during the last two or three seasons, Englishwomen have worn London-made habits of very light stuffs, mohairs and fine Bradford woollens, and there is no reason why any American woman should not do the same. In Hyde Park, for three summers, in those early morning hours when some of the best riders go, attended by a groom, to enjoy something more lively than the afternoon parade, skirts of light tweed and covert coats of the same material worn over white silk shirts, with linen collars and a man's tie, have made their wearers look cool and comfortable, and duck covert jackets, with ordinary woollen skirts have had a similar effect, but American women have rather hesitated as to adopting these fashions, lest some one, beholding, should say that they were not correct. Thus did they once think that they must wear bonnets with strings in church, no matter what remonstrance was made by the thermometer, or how surely they were deafened to psalm and sermon by longing for the cool, comfortable hats, which certain wise persons had decided were too frivolous for the sanctuary. New York girls have worn white cloth habits at Lenox without shocking the moral sense of the inhabitants, but Lenox, during the season, probably contains a smaller percentage of simpletons than any village in the United States, and some daring Boston girls have appeared this year in cool and elegant habits of shepherd's check, and have pleased every good judge who has seen them. If quite sure that you have as much common sense and independence as these young ladies, imitate them, but if not, wear the regulation close, dark cloth habit throughout the year, be uncomfortable, and lose half the benefit of your summer rides from becoming overheated, to say nothing of being unable to "keep trotting" as long as you could if suitably clothed for exercise. But might you not, if your habit were thin, catch cold while your horse was walking? You might if you tried, but probably you would not be in a state so susceptible to that disaster as you would if heavily dressed. There is little danger that the temperature will change so much during a three hours' ride that you cannot keep yourself sufficiently warm for comfort and for safety, and if you start for a long excursion, you must use your common sense. The best and least expensive way of solving the difficulty is to have an ordinary habit, with the waist and skirt separate, and to wear a lighter coat, with a habit shirt, or with a habit shirt and waistcoat, whenever something lighter is desirable. This plan gives three changes of dress, which should be enough for any reasonable girl. But still, you do not know what color you can wear? Black is suitable for all hours and all places, even for an English fox hunt, although the addition of a scarlet waistcoat, just visible at the throat and below the waist, is desirable for the field. Dark blue, dark green, dark brown are suitable for most occasions, and a riding master whose experience has made him acquainted with the dress worn in the principal European capitals, declares his preference for gray with a white waistcoat. Among the habits shown by English tailors at the French exhibition of 189, was one of blue gray, and a Paris tailor displayed a tan-colored habit made with a coat and waistcoat revealing a white shirt front. London women are now wearing white waistcoats and white ties in the Park, both tie and waistcoat as stiff and masculine as possible. This affectation of adopting men's dress, when riding, is comparatively modern. Sir Walter gives the date in "Rob Roy," when Mr. Francis sees Diana for the first time and notices that she wears a coat, vest and hat resembling those of a man, "a mode introduced during my absence in France," he says, "and perfectly new to me." But this coat had the collar and wide sharply pointed lapels and deep cuffs now known as "directoire," and its skirts were full, and so long that they touched the right side of the saddle, and skirts, lapels, collar and cuffs were trimmed with gold braid almost an inch wide. The waistcoat, the vest, as Sir Walter calls it, not knowing the risk that he ran in this half century of being considered as speaking American, had a smaller, but similar, collar and lapels, work outside those of the coat, and the "man's tie" was of soft white muslin, and a muslin sleeve and ruffles were visible at the wrists. The hat was very broad brimmed, and was worn set back from the forehead, and bent into coquettish curves, and altogether the fair Diana might depend upon having a very long following of astonished gazers if she should ride down Beacon Street or appear in Central Park to-day. Your habit shall not be like hers, Esmeralda, but shall have a plain waist, made as long as you can possibly wear it while sitting, slightly pointed in front and curving upward at the side to a point about half an inch below that where the belt of your skirt fastens, and having a very small and perfectly flat postilion, or the new English round back. Elizabeth of Austria may wear a princess habit, if it please her, but would you, Esmeralda, be prepared, in order to have your habit fit properly, to postpone buttoning it until after you were placed in the saddle, as she was accustomed to do in the happy days when she could forget her imperial state in her long wild gallops across the beautiful Irish hunting counties? The sleeves shall not be so tight that you can feel them, nor shall the armholes be so close as to prevent you from clasping your hands above your head with your arms extended at full length, and the waist shall be loose. If you go to a tailor, Esmeralda, prepare yourself to make a firm stand on this point. Warn him, in as few words as possible, that you will not take the habit out of his shop unless it suits you, and do not allow yourself to be overawed by the list of his patrons, all of whom "wear their habits far tighter, ma'am." Unless you can draw a full, deep breath with your habit buttoned, you cannot do yourself or your teacher any credit in trotting, and you will sometimes find yourself compelled to give your escort the appearance of being discourteous by drawing rein suddenly, leaving him, unwarned, to trot on, apparently disregarding your plight. Both your horse and his will resent your action, and unless he resemble both Moses and Job more strongly than most Americans, he will have a few words to say in regard to it, after you have repeated it once or twice. And, lastly, Esmeralda, no riding master with any sense of duty will allow you to wear such a habit in his presence without telling you his opinion of it, and stating his reasons for objecting to it, and you best know whether or not a little lecture of that sort will be agreeable, especially if delivered in the presence of other women. Warn your tailor of your determination, then, and if his devotion to his ideal should compel him to decline your patronage, go to another, until you find one who will be content not to transform you into the likeness of a wooden doll. Women are not made to advertise tailors, whatever the tailors may think. What must you pay for your habit? You may pay three hundred dollars, if you like, although that price is seldom charged, unless to customers who seem desirous of paying if, but the usual scale runs downward from one hundred and fifty dollars. This includes cloth and all other materials, and finish as perfect within as without, and is not dear, considering the retail price of cloth, the careful making, and the touch of style which only practised hands can give. The heavy meltons worn for hunting habits in England cost seven dollars a yard; English tweeds which have come into vogue during the last few years in London, cost six dollars, broadcloth five dollars; rough, uncut cheviots, about six dollars; and shepherds' checks, single width, about two dollars and a half. For waistcoats, duck costs two dollars and a quarter a yard, and fancy flannels and Tattersall checks anywhere from one dollar and a half to two dollars. The heavy cloths are the most economical in the end, because they do not wear out where the skirt is stretched over the pommel, the point at which a light material is very soon in tatters. The small, flat buttons cost twenty-five cents a dozen; the fine black sateen used for linings may be bought for thirty-five cents a yard, and canvas for interlinings for twenty-five cents. With these figures you may easily make your own computations as to the cost of material, for unless a woman is "more than common tall," two yards and a half will be more than enough for her habit skirt, which should not rest an inch on the ground on the left side when she stands, and should not be more than a quarter of a yard longer in its longest part. Two lengths, with allowance for the hem two inches deep are needed for the skirt, and when very heavy melton is used, the edges are left raw, the perfect riding skirt in modern eyes being that which shows no trace of the needle, an end secured with lighter cloths by pressing all the seams before hemming, and then very lightly blind-stitching the pointed edges in their proper place. Strength is not desirable in the sewing of a habit skirt. It is always possible that one may be thrown, and the substantial stitching which will hold one to pommel and stirrup may be fatal to life. So hems are constructed to tear away easily, and seams are run rather than stitched, or stitched with fine silk, and the cloth is not too firmly secured to the wide sateen belt. The English safety skirts, invented three or four years ago, have the seam on the knee-gore open from the knee down to the edge, and the two breadths are caught together with buttons and elastic loops, all sewed on very lightly so as to give way easily. The effect of this style of cutting is, if one be thrown, to transform one into a flattered or libelous likeness of Lilian Russell in her naval uniform, prepared to scamper away from one's horse, and from any other creatures with eyes, but with one's bones unbroken and one's face unscathed by being dragged and pounded over the road, or by being kicked. For the waist and sleeves, Esmeralda, you will allow as much as for those of your ordinary frocks, and if you cannot find a fashionable tailor who will consent to adapt himself to your tastes and to your purse, you may be fortunate enough to find men who have worked in shops, but who now make habits at home, charging twenty-five dollars for the work, and doing it well and faithfully, although, of course, not being able to keep themselves informed as to the latest freaks of English fashion by foreign travellers and correspondents, as their late employers do. There are two or three dressmakers in Boston and five or six in New York whose habits fit well, and are elegant in every particular, and, if you can find an old-fashioned tailoress who really knows her business, and can prepare yourself to tell her about a few special details, you may obtain a well-fitting waist and skirt at a very reasonable price. Of these details the first is that the sateen lining should be black. Gay colors are very pretty, but soon spoiled by perspiration, and white, the most fitting lining for a lady's ordinary frock, is unsuitable for a habit, since one long, warm ride may convert it into something very untidy of aspect. This lining, of which all the seams should be turned toward the outside, should end at the belt line, and between it and the cloth outside should be a layer of canvas, cut and shaped as carefully as possible, and the whalebones, each in its covering, should be sewed between the canvas and the sateen. If a waistcoat be worn, it should have a double sateen back with canvas interlining, and may be high in the throat or made with a step collar like that of the waist. The cuffs are simply indicated by stitching and are buttoned on the outside of the sleeve with two or three buttons. Simulated waistcoats, basted firmly to the shoulder seams and under-arm seams of the waist, and cut high to the throat with an officer collar, are liked by ladies with a taste for variety, and are not expensive, as but for a small quantity of material is required for each one. They are fastened by small hooks except in those parts shown by the openings, and on these flat or globular pearl buttons are used. When a step collar and a man's tie are worn, the ordinary high collar and chemisette, sold for thirty-eight cents, takes the place of the straight linen band worn with the habit high in the throat, and the proper tie is the white silk scarf fastened in a four-in-hand knot, and, if you be wise, Esmeralda you will buy this at a good shop, and pay two dollars and a quarter for it, rather than to pay less and repent ever after. Some girls wear white lawn evening ties, but they are really out of place in the saddle, in which one is supposed to be in morning dress. Wear the loosest of collars and cuffs, and fasten the latter to your habit sleeves with safety pins. The belts of your habit skirt and waist should also be pinned together at the back, at the sides, and the front, unless your tailor has fitted them with hooks and eyes, and if you be a provident young person, you will tuck away a few more safety pins, a hairpin or two, half a row of "the most common pin of North America," and a quarter-ounce flash of cologne, in one of the little leather change pouches, and put it either in your habit pocket or your saddle pocket. Sometimes, after a dusty ride of an hour or two, a five-minute halt under the trees by the roadside, gives opportunity to remove the dust from the face and to cool the hands, and the cologne is much better than the handkerchief "dipped in the pellucid waters of a rippling brook," _a la_ novelist, for the pellucid brook of Massachusetts is very likely to run past a leather factory, in which case its waters are anything but agreeable. Whether or not your habit shall have a pocket is a matter of choice. If it have one, it should be small and should be on the left side, just beyond the three flat buttons which fasten the front breadth and side breadth of your habit at the waist. When thus placed, you can easily reach it with either hand. Fitting the habit over the knee is a feat not to be effected by an amateur without a pattern, and the proper slope and adjustment of the breadths come by art, not chance; but Harper's Bazaar patterns are easily obtained by mail. The best tailors adjust the skirt while the wearer sits on a side saddle, and there is no really good substitute for this, for, although one my guess fairly well at the fir of the knee, nothing but actual trial will show whether or not, when in the saddle, the left side of the skirt hangs perfectly straight, concealing the right side, and leaving the horse's body visible below it. When your skirt is finished, no matter if it be made by the very best of tailors, wear it once in the school before you appear on the road with it, and, looking in the mirror, view it "with a crocket's eye," as the little boy said when he appeared on the school platform as an example of the advantages of the wonderful merits of oral instruction. An elastic strap about a quarter of a yard long should be sewed half way between the curved knee seam and the hem, and should be slipped over the right toe before mounting, and a second strap, for the left heel, should be sewed on the last seam on the under side of the habit, to be adjusted after the foot is placed in the stirrup. The result of this cutting and arrangement is the straight, simple, modern habit which is so great a change from the riding dress of half a century ago, with its full skirt which nearly swept the ground. The short skirt first appears in the English novel in "Guy Livingstone," and is worn by the severe and upright Lady Alice, the dame who hesitated not to snub Florence Bellasis, when snubbing was needful, and who was a mighty huntress. Now everybody wears it, and the full skirts are seen nowhere except in the riding-school dressing-rooms, where they yet linger because they may be worn by anybody, whereas the plain skirts fits but one person. It seems odd that so many years were required to discover that a short skirt, held in place by a strap placed over the right toe and another slipped over the left heel, really protected the feet more than yards of loosely floating cloth, but did not steam and electricity wait for centuries? Since the new style was generally adopted, Englishwomen allow themselves the luxury of five or six habits, instead of the one or two formerly considered sufficient, but each one is worn for several years. When the extravagant wife, in Mrs. Alexander's "A Crooked Path," suggests that she may soon want a new habit, her husband asks indignantly, "Did I not give you one two years ago?" The trousers may mach the habit or may be of stockinet, or the imported cashmere tights may be worn. Women who are not fat and whose muscles are hard, may choose whichsoever one of these pleases them, but fat women, and women whose flesh is not too solid, must wear thick trousers, and would better have them lined with buckskin, unless they would be transformed into what Sairey would call "a mask of bruiges," and would frequent remark to Mrs. Harris that such was what she expected. Trousers with gaiter fastenings below the knee are preferred by some women who put not their faith in straps alone, and knee-breeches are liked by some, but to wear knee breeches means to pay fifteen dollars for long riding-boots, instead of the modest seven or eight dollars which suffice to buy ordinary Balmoral boots. Gaiters must button on the left side of each leg, and trouser straps may be sewed on one side and buttoned on the other, instead of being buttoned on both sides as men's are. Tailors sometimes insist on two buttons, but as a woman does not wear her trousers except with the strap, it is not difficult to see why she needs to be able to remove it. The best material for the strap is thick soft kid, or thin leather lined with cloth. The thick, rubber strap used by some tailors is dangerous, sometimes preventing the rider from placing her foot in the stirrup, sometimes making her lose it at a critical moment. Whether breeches, tights, or trousers are worn, they must be loose at the knee, or trotting will be impossible, and the rider will feel as if bound to the second pommel, and will sometimes be unable to rise at all. As to gloves, the choice lies between the warm antelope skin mousquetaires at two dollars a pair, and the tan-colored kid gauntlets at the same price. The former are most comfortable for winter, the latter for summer, and neither can be too large. Nobody was ever ordered out for execution for wearing black gloves, although they are unusual, and now and then one sees a woman, whose soul is set on novelty, gorgeous in yellow cavalry gauntlets, or even with white dragoon gauntlets, making her look like a badly focused photograph. Lastly, as to the hat. What shall it be, Esmeralda? No tuft of grass-green plumes for you, like Queen Guinevere's, nor yet the free flowing feather to be seen in so many beautiful old French pictures, nor the plumed hat which "my sweet Mistress Ann Dacre" wore when Constance Sherwood's loving eyes first fell upon her, but the simple jockey cap, exactly matching your habit, and costing two dollars and a half or three dollars; the Derby cap for the same price or a little more; or, best of all, the English or the American silk hat, as universally suitable as a black silk frock was in the good old times when Mrs. Rutherford Birchard Hayes was in the White House. The English Henry Heath hat at seven or eight dollars, with its velvet forehead piece and its band of soft, rough silk, stays in place better than any other, but it is too heavy for comfort. If you can have an American hatter remodel it, making it weigh half a pound less, it will be perfection, always provided that he does not, as he assuredly will unless you forbid it, throw away the soft, rough band, which keeps the hat in place, and substitute one of the American smooth bands, designed to slip off without ruffling the hair, and doing it instantly, the moment that a breeze touches the brim of the hat. A hunting guard, fastened at the back of the hat brim and between two habit buttons is better than an elastic caught under the braids of your hair, for when an elastic does not snap outright, it is always trying to do so, and in the effort holds the hat so tightly on the head so as sometimes to give actual pain. The hunting guard is no restraint at all unless the hat flies off, in which case it keeps it from following the example of John Gilpin's, but with the Henry Heath lining, your hat is perfectly secure in anything from a Texas Norther to a New England east wind. If you follow London example, and wear a straw hat for morning rides, sew a piece of white velvet on the inner side of the band, and your forehead will not be marked. Arrayed after these suggestions, Esmeralda, you will be inconspicuous, and that is the general aim of the true lady's riding dress, with the exception of those worn by German princesses, when, at a review, they lead the regiments which they command. Then, their habits may be frogged and braided with gold, or they may fire the air in habit and hat of white and scarlet, the regimental colors, as the Empress of Germany did the other day. If you were sure of riding as these royal ladies do, perhaps even white and scarlet might be permitted to you, but can you fancy yourself, Esmeralda, sweeping across a parade ground with a thousand horsemen behind you, and ready to salute your sovereign and commander-in-chief at the right moment, and to go forward with as much precision as if you, too, were one of those magnificently drilled machines brought into being by the man of blood and iron? XIII. 'Tis an old maxim in the schools, That flattery's the food of fools. _Swift_. If American children and American girls were the angels which their mothers and their lovers tell them that they are, the best possible riding master for them would be an American soldier who had learned and taught riding at West Point. Being of the same race, pupil and teacher would have that vast fund of common memories, hopes and feelings; that common knowledge of character, of good qualities and of defects, and that ability to divine motives and to predict action which constitute perfect sympathy, and their relations to one another would be mutually agreeable and profitable. Unfortunately, Esmeralda, you, like possibly some other American girls, are not an angel, and if you were, you could not have such a riding master, because the very few men who have the specified qualifications are too well acquainted with the characteristics of their countrywomen to instruct them in the equestrian art. Who, then, shall be his substitute? Clearly, either a person sufficiently patient and clever to neutralize the faults of American women, or one capable of adapting himself to them, of eluding them, and of forcing a certain quantity of knowledge upon his pupils, almost in spite of themselves. The former is hardly to be found among natives of the United States; the latter can be found nowhere else, except, possibly, in certain English shires in which the inhabitants so closely resemble the average American that when they immigrate hither they are scarcely distinguishable from men whose ancestors came two or three centuries ago. A foreign teacher, whether French, German, or Hungarian, always regards himself in the just and proper European manner as the superior of his pupil. The traditions in which he has been reared, in which he has been instructed, not only in riding, but in all other matters, survive from the time when all learning was received from men whose title to respect rested not only on their wisdom but on their ecclesiastical office, and who expected and received as much deference from their pupils as from their congregations. Undeniably, there are unruly children in European schools, but their rebelliousness is never encouraged, and their teachers are expected to quell it, not to submit to it, much less to endeavour to avoid it by giving no commands which are distasteful. Even in the worst conducted private schools on the continent, there is always at least one master who must be obeyed, whose authority is held as beyond appeal, and in the school conducted either by the church or by civil authority, the duty of enforcing perfect discipline is regarded as quite as imperative as that of demanding well-learned lessons. Passing through these institutions, the young European enters the military school with as little thought of disputing any order which may be given him as of arguing with the priest who states a theological truth from the pulpit. And, indeed, had he been reared under the tutelage of one of those modern silver-tongued American pedagogues, who make gentle requests lest they should elicit antagonism by commands, the military school should soon completely alter the complexion of his ideas, for he would find his failures in the execution of orders treated as disobedience. He would not be punished at first, it is true, but pretty theories that he was nervous, or ill, or the victim of hereditary disability, or of fibre too delicately attenuated to perform any required act, would not be admitted except, indeed, as a reason for expulsion. Moreover, the tests to which he would be compelled to submit before this escape from discipline lay open to him, would be neither slight nor easily borne, for the European military teacher has yet to learn the existence of that exquisite personal dignity which is hopelessly blighted by corporal punishment or infractions of discipline. "Will you teach me how to ride, sir?" asked a Boston man of a Hungarian soldier, one of the pioneers among Boston instructors. "Will I teach you! Eh! I don't know," said the exile dolefully, for during his few weeks in the city, he had seen something of the ways of the American who fancies himself desirous of being taught. "Perhaps you will learn, but will--I--teach--you? You can ride?" "A little." "Very well! Mount that horse, and ride around the ring." Away went the pupil, doing his best, but before he had traversed two sides of the school, the master shouted to the horse, and the pupil was sitting in the tan. He picked himself up, and returned to the mounting-stand, saying: "Will you tell me how to stay on next time?" "I will," cried the Hungarian in a small ecstasy; "and I will make a rider of you!" And he did, too, and certainly took as much pleasure in his pupil in the long course of instruction which followed, and in the resultant proficiency. In European riding-schools for ladies, there is, of course, no resort to corporal punishment, but there is none of that careful abstention from telling disagreeable truths which popular ignorance extracts from American teachers in all schools, except in the military and naval academies. Indeed, the need of it is hardly felt, for that peculiar self-consciousness which makes an American awkward under observation and restive under reproof is scarcely found in countries not democratic, and the "I'm ez good ez you be" feeling that is at the bottom of American intractability, has no chance to flourish in lands where position is a matter of birth and not of self-assertion. A French woman, compelled to make part of her toilet in a railway waiting-room under the eyes of half a score of enemies, that is to say, of ten other women, arranges her tresses, purchased or natural, uses powder-puff and hare's foot if she choose, and turns away from the mirror armed for conquest; but an American similarly situated, forgets half her hair-pins, does not dare to wash her face carefully lest some one should sniff condemnation of her fussiness, and looks worse after her efforts at beautifying. A French girl, told that her English accent is bad, corrects it carefully; an American, gently reminded that a French "u" is not pronounced like "you," changes it to "oo," and stares defiance at Bocher and all his works. And even that commendable reserve which hinders well-bred Americans from frank self-discussion, stands in the way of perfect sympathy between him and the European master, representative of races in which everybody, from an emperor in his proclamations to the peasant chatting over his beer or _petit vin_, may discourse upon his most recondite peculiarities. For all these reasons, the European riding master is often misunderstood, even by his older pupils, and young girls almost invariably mistake his patient reiteration and his methodical vivacity for anger, so that his classes seldom contain any pupils not really anxious to learn, or whose parents are not determined that they shall learn in his school and no other. Teaching is a matter of strict conscience with him, and even after years of experience, and in spite of more than one severe lesson as to American sensitiveness, he continues to speak the truth. Even when his pupils have become what the ordinary observer calls perfect riders, he allows no fault to go unreproved, although nobody can more thoroughly enjoy the evening classes, organized by fairly good riders rather for amusement than for instruction. If you think you can endure perfect discipline and incessant plain speaking go to him, Esmeralda. If you cannot, take the other alternative, the American or the English master, but remember that it is only by absolute submission that you will obtain the best instruction which he is capable of giving. If you do not compel him to tax his mind with remembering all your foibles and weaknesses, you may, thanks to race sympathy, learn more rapidly at first from him than from a foreigner, and, unless you are rude and insubordinate to the point of insolence, you may depend upon receiving no actual harshness from him, although he will refuse to flatter you, and will repeat his warnings against faults, quite as persistently as any foreigner. A very little observation of your fellow pupils will show you that presumption upon his good nature is wofully common, and that his American inability to forget that a woman is a woman, even when she conducts herself as if her name were Ursa or Jenny, often subjects him to stupendous impertinence, which he receives with calm and silent contempt. You will find that his instruction follows the same lines as that of all foreign masters in the United States, for there is no American system of horsemanship, the traditions of the army, and of the north, being derived from France, those of the south fro, England, and those of the southwest from Spain, by the way of Mexico and Texas. Under his instruction, you will remain longer in the debatable land between perfect ignorance of horsemanship, and being a really accomplished rider, than you would if taught by a foreigner, but, as has already been said, you will learn more rapidly at first, an the result, if you choose to work hard, will be much the same. Should you, by way of experiment, choose to take lessons from both native and foreign masters, you will find each frankly ready to admit the merits of the other, and to acknowledge that he himself is better suited to some pupils than to others and, to come back to what was told you at the outset, you will find them unanimous in assuring you that your best teacher, the instructor without whose aid you can learn nothing, is yourself, your slightly rebellious, but withal clever, American self. You can learn, Esmeralda. There is no field of knowledge into which the American woman has attempted to enter, in which she has not demonstrated her ability to compete, when she chooses to put forth all her energy, with her sisters of other nations, but she must work, and must work steadily. There are American teachers of grammar who cannot parse; American female journalists who cannot write; American women calling themselves doctors, but unable to make a diagnosis between the cholera and the measles; and American women practising law and dependent for a living on blatant self-advertising, but with the faculties of Vassar and Wellesley in existence; with the editor of Harper's Bazar receiving the same salary as Mr. Curtis; with American women acknowledged as a credit to the medical and to the legal profession--what of it? The American woman can learn anything, can do anything. Do you learn to ride, and, having done it, "keep riding." At present you have received just sufficient instruction to qualify you to ride properly escorted, on good roads, but-- "KEEP RIDING!" 
1176	----	ON HORSEMANSHIP By Xenophon Translation by H. G. Dakyns Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land and property in Scillus, where he lived for many years before having to move once more, to settle in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. On Horsemanship advises the reader on how to buy a good horse, and how to raise it to be either a war horse or show horse. Xenophon ends with some words on military equipment for a cavalryman. PREPARER'S NOTE This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though there is doubt about some of these) is: Work Number of books The Anabasis 7 The Hellenica 7 The Cyropaedia 8 The Memorabilia 4 The Symposium 1 The Economist 1 On Horsemanship 1 The Sportsman 1 The Cavalry General 1 The Apology 1 On Revenues 1 The Hiero 1 The Agesilaus 1 The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The diacritical marks have been lost. ON HORSEMANSHIP I Claiming to have attained some proficiency in horsemanship (1) ourselves, as the result of long experience in the field, our wish is to explain, for the benefit of our younger friends, what we conceive to be the most correct method of dealing with horses. (1) Lit. "Since, through the accident of having for a long time 'ridden' ourselves, we believe we have become proficients in horsemanship, we wish to show to our younger friends how, as we conceive the matter, they will proceed most correctly in dealing with horses." {ippeuein} in the case of Xenophon = serve as a {ippeus}, whether technically as an Athenian "knight" or more particularly in reference to his organisation of a troop of cavalry during "the retreat" ("Anab." III. iii. 8-20), and, as is commonly believed, while serving under Agesilaus ("Hell." III. iv. 14) in Asia, 396, 395 B.C. There is, it is true, a treatise on horsemanship written by Simon, the same who dedicated the bronze horse near the Eleusinion in Athens (2) with a representation of his exploits engraved in relief on the pedestal. (3) But we shall not on that account expunge from our treatise any conclusions in which we happen to agree with that author; on the contrary we shall hand them on with still greater pleasure to our friends, in the belief that we shall only gain in authority from the fact that so great an expert in horsemanship held similar views to our own; whilst with regard to matters omitted in his treatise, we shall endeavour to supply them. (2) L. Dind. (in Athens). The Eleusinion. For the position of this sanctuary of Demeter and Kore see Leake, "Top. of Athens," i. p. 296 foll. For Simon see Sauppe, vol. v. Praef. to "de R. E." p. 230; L. Dind. Praef. "Xen. Opusc." p. xx.; Dr. Morris H. Morgan, "The Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon," p. 119 foll. A fragment of the work referred to, {peri eidous kai ekloges ippon}, exists. The MS. is in the library of Emmanual Coll. Cant. It so happens that one of the hipparchs (?) appealed to by Demosthenes in Arist. "Knights," 242. {andres ippes, paragenesthe nun o kairos, o Simon, o Panaiti, ouk elate pros to dexion keras}; bears the name. (3) Lit. "and carved on the pedestal a representation of his own performances." As our first topic we shall deal with the question, how a man may best avoid being cheated in the purchase of a horse. Take the case of a foal as yet unbroken: it is plain that our scrutiny must begin with the body; an animal that has never yet been mounted can but present the vaguest indications of spirit. Confining ourselves therefore to the body, the first point to examine, we maintain, will be the feet. Just as a house would be of little use, however beautiful its upper stories, if the underlying foundations were not what they ought to be, so there is little use to be extracted from a horse, and in particular a war-horse, (4) if unsound in his feet, however excellent his other points; since he could not turn a single one of them to good account. (5) (4) Or, "and that a charger, we will suppose." For the simile see "Mem." III. i. 7. (5) Cf. Hor. "Sat." I. ii. 86: regibus hic mos est: ubi equos mercantur, opertos inspiciunt, ne, si facies, ut saepe, decora molli fulta pede est, emptorem inducat hiantem, quod pulchrae clunes, breve quod caput, ardua cervix. and see Virg. "Georg." iii. 72 foll. In testing the feet the first thing to examine will be the horny portion of the hoof. For soundness of foot a thick horn is far better than a thin. Again it is important to notice whether the hoofs are high both before and behind, or flat to the ground; for a high hoof keeps the "frog," (6) as it is called, well off the ground; whereas a low hoof treads equally with the stoutest and softest part of the foot alike, the gait resembling that of a bandy-legged man. (7) "You may tell a good foot clearly by the ring," says Simon happily; (8) for the hollow hoof rings like a cymbal against the solid earth. (9) (6) Lit. "the swallow." (7) Al. "a knock-kneed person." See Stonehenge, "The Horse" (ed. 1892), pp. 3, 9. (8) Or, "and he is right." (9) Cf. Virg. "Georg." iii. 88; Hor. "Epod." xvi. 12. And now that we have begun with the feet, let us ascend from this point to the rest of the body. The bones (10) above the hoof and below the fetlock must not be too straight, like those of a goat; through not being properly elastic, (11) legs of this type will jar the rider, and are more liable to become inflamed. On the other hand, these bones must not be too low, or else the fetlock will be abraded or lacerated when the horse is galloped over clods and stones. (10) i.e. "the pasterns ({mesokunia}) and the coffin should be 'sloping.'" (11) Or, "being too inflexible." Lit. "giving blow for blow, overuch like anvil to hammer." The bones of the shanks (12) ought to be thick, being as they are the columns on which the body rests; thick in themselves, that is, not puffed out with veins or flesh; or else in riding over hard ground they will inevitably be surcharged with blood, and varicose conditions be set up, (13) the legs becoming thick and puffy, whilst the skin recedes; and with this loosening of the skin the back sinew (14) is very apt to start and render the horse lame. (12) i.e. "the metacarpals and metatarsals." (13) Or, "and become varicose, with the result that the shanks swell whilst the skin recedes from the bone." (14) Or, "suspensory ligament"? Possibly Xenophon's anatomy is wrong, and he mistook the back sinew for a bone like the fibula. The part in question might intelligibly enough, if not technically, be termed {perone}, being of the brooch-pin order. If the young horse in walking bends his knees flexibly, you may safely conjecture that when he comes to be ridden he will have flexible legs, since the quality of suppleness invariably increases with age. (15) Supple knees are highly esteemed and with good reason, rendering as they do the horse less liable to stumble or break down from fatigue than those of stiffer build. (15) Lit. "all horses bend their legs more flexibly as time advances." Coming to the thighs below the shoulder-blades, (16) or arms, these if thick and muscular present a stronger and handsomer appearance, just as in the case of a human being. Again, a comparatively broad chest is better alike for strength and beauty, and better adapted to carry the legs well asunder, so that they will not overlap and interfere with one another. Again, the neck should not be set on dropping forward from the chest, like a boar's, but, like that of a game-cock rather, it should shoot upwards to the crest, and be slack (17) along the curvature; whilst the head should be bony and the jawbone small. In this way the neck will be well in front of the rider, and the eye will command what lies before the horse's feet. A horse, moreover, of this build, however spirited, will be least capable of overmastering the rider, (18) since it is not by arching but by stretching out his neck and head that a horse endeavours to assert his power. (19) (16) Lit. "the thighs below the shoulder-blades" are distinguished from "the thighs below the tail." They correspond respectively to our "arms" (i.e. forearms) and "gaskins," and anatomically speaking = the radius (os brachii) and the tibia. (17) "Slack towards the flexure" (Stonehenge). (18) Or, "of forcing the rider's hand and bolting." (19) Or, "to display violence or run away." It is important also to observe whether the jaws are soft or hard on one or other side, since as a rule a horse with unequal jaws (20) is liable to become hard-mouthed on one side. (20) Or, "whose bars are not equally sensitive." Again, a prominent rather than a sunken eye is suggestive of alertness, and a horse of this type will have a wider range of vision. And so of the nostrils: a wide-dilated nostril is at once better than a contracted one for respiration, and gives the animal a fiercer aspect. Note how, for instance, when one stallion is enraged against another, or when his spirit chafes in being ridden, (21) the nostrils at once become dilated. (21) Or, "in the racecourse or on the exercising-ground how readily he distends his nostrils." A comparatively large crest and small ears give a more typical and horse-like appearance to the head, whilst lofty withers again allow the rider a surer seat and a stronger adhesion between the shoulders and the body. (22) (22) Or if with L. D. ({kai to somati}), transl. "adhesion to the horse's shoulders." A "double spine," (23) again, is at once softer to sit on than a single, and more pleasing to the eye. So, too, a fairly deep side somewhat rounded towards the belly (24) will render the animal at once easier to sit and stronger, and as a general rule better able to digest his food. (25) (23) Reading after Courier {rakhis ge men}. See Virg. "Georg." iii. 87, "at duplex agitur per lumbos spina." "In a horse that is in good case, the back is broad, and the spine does not stick up like a ridge, but forms a kind of furrow on the back" (John Martyn); "a full back," as we say. (24) Or, "in proportion to." See Courier ("Du Commandement de la Cavalerie at de l'Equitation": deux livres de Xenophon, traduits par un officier d'artillerie a cheval), note ad loc. p. 83. (25) i.e. "and keep in good condition." The broader and shorter the loins the more easily will the horse raise his forequarters and bring up his hindquarters under him. Given these points, moreover, the belly will appear as small as possible, a portion of the body which if large is partly a disfigurement and partly tends to make the horse less strong and capable of carrying weight. (26) (26) Al. "more feeble at once and ponderous in his gait." The quarters should be broad and fleshy in correspondence with the sides and chest, and if they are also firm and solid throughout they will be all the lighter for the racecourse, and will render the horse in every way more fleet. To come to the thighs (and buttocks): (27) if the horse have these separated by a broad line of demarcation (28) he will be able to plant his hind-legs under him with a good gap between; (29) and in so doing will assume a posture (30) and a gait in action at once prouder and more firmly balanced, and in every way appear to the best advantage. (27) Lit. "the thighs beneath the tail." (28) Reading {plateia to gramme diorismenous ekhe}, sc. the perineum. Al. Courier (after Apsyrtus), op. cit. p. 14, {plateis te kai me diestrammenous}, "broad and not turned outwards." (29) Or, "he will be sure to spread well behind," etc. (30) {ton upobasin}, tech. of the crouching posture assumed by the horse for mounting or "in doing the demi-passade" (so Morgan, op. cit. p. 126). The human subject would seem to point to this conclusion. When a man wants to lift anything from off the ground he essays to do so by bringing the legs apart and not by bringing them together. A horse ought not to have large testicles, though that is not a point to be determined in the colt. And now, as regards the lower parts, the hocks, (31) or shanks and fetlocks and hoofs, we have only to repeat what has been said already about those of the fore-legs. (31) {ton katothen astragelon, e knemon}, lit. "the under (or hinder?) knuckle-bones (hocks?) or shins"; i.e. anatomically speaking, the os calcis, astragalus, tarsals, and metatarsal large and small. I will here note some indications by which one may forecast the probable size of the grown animal. The colt with the longest shanks at the moment of being foaled will grow into the biggest horse; the fact being--and it holds of all the domestic quadrupeds (32)--that with advance of time the legs hardly increase at all, while the rest of the body grows uniformly up to these, until it has attained its proper symmetry. (32) Cf. Aristot. "de Part. Anim." iv. 10; "H. A." ii. 1; Plin. "N. H." xi. 108. Such is the type (33) of colt and such the tests to be applied, with every prospect of getting a sound-footed, strong, and fleshy animal fine of form and large of stature. If changes in some instances develop during growth, that need not prevent us from applying our tests in confidence. It far more often happens that an ugly-looking colt will turn out serviceable, (34) than that a foal of the above description will turn out ugly or defective. (33) Lit. "by testing the shape of the colt in this way it seems to us the purchaser will get," etc. (34) For the vulg. {eukhroastoi}, a doubtful word = "well coloured," i.e. "sleek and healthy," L. & S. would read {eukhrooi} (cf. "Pol. Lac." v. 8). L. Dind. conj. {enrostoi}, "robust"; Schneid. {eukhrestoi}, "serviceable." II The right method of breaking a colt needs no description at our hands. (1) As a matter of state organisation, (2) cavalry duties usually devolve upon those who are not stinted in means, and who have a considerable share in the government; (3) and it seems far better for a young man to give heed to his own health of body and to horsemanship, or, if he already knows how to ride with skill, to practising manoeuvres, than that he should set up as a trainer of horses. (4) The older man has his town property and his friends, and the hundred-and-one concerns of state or of war, on which to employ his time and energies rather than on horsebreaking. It is plain then that any one holding my views (5) on the subject will put a young horse out to be broken. But in so doing he ought to draw up articles, just as a father does when he apprentices his son to some art or handicraft, stating what sort of knowledge the young creature is to be sent back possessed of. These will serve as indications (6) to the trainer what points he must pay special heed to if he is to earn his fee. At the same time pains should be taken on the owner's part to see that the colt is gentle, tractable, and affectionate, (7) when delivered to the professional trainer. That is a condition of things which for the most part may be brought about at home and by the groom--if he knows how to let the animal connect (8) hunger and thirst and the annoyance of flies with solitude, whilst associating food and drink and escape from sources of irritation with the presence of man. As the result of this treatment, necessarily the young horse will acquire--not fondness merely, but an absolute craving for human beings. A good deal can be done by touching, stroking, patting those parts of the body which the creature likes to have so handled. These are the hairiest parts, or where, if there is anything annoying him, the horse can least of all apply relief himself. (1) Or, "The training of the colt is a topic which, as it seems to us, may fairly be omitted, since those appointed for cavalry service in these states are persons who," etc. For reading see Courier, "Notes," p. 84. (2) "Organisation in the several states." (3) Or, "As a matter of fact it is the wealthiest members of the state, and those who have the largest stake in civic life, that are appointed to cavalry duties." See "Hippparch," i. 9. (4) Cf. "Econ." iii. 10. (5) {ego}. Hitherto the author has used the plural {emin} with which he started. (6) Reading {upodeigmata}, "finger-post signs," as it were, or "draft in outline"; al. {upomnemata} = "memoranda." (7) "Gentle, and accustomed to the hand, and fond of man." (8) Lit. "if he knows how to provide that hunger and thirst, etc., should be felt by the colt in solitude, whilst food and drink, etc., come through help of man." The groom should have standing orders to take his charge through crowds, and to make him familiar with all sorts of sights and noises; and if the colt shows sign of apprehension at them, (9) he must teach him--not by cruel, but by gentle handling--that they are not really formidable. (9) Or, "is disposed to shy." On this topic, then, of training, (10) the rules here given will, I think, suffice for any private individual. (10) Or, "In reference to horsebreaking, the above remarks will perhaps be found sufficient for the practical guidance of an amateur." III To meet the case in which the object is to buy a horse already fit for riding, we will set down certain memoranda, (1) which, if applied intelligently, may save the purchaser from being cheated. (1) "Which the purchaser should lay to heart, if he does not wish to be cheated." First, then, let there be no mistake about the age. If the horse has lost his mark teeth, (2) not only will the purchaser's hopes be blighted, but he may find himself saddled for ever with a sorry bargain. (3) (2) Or, "the milk teeth," i.e. is more than five years old. See Morgan, p. 126. (3) Lit. "a horse that has lost his milk teeth cannot be said to gladden his owner's mind with hopes, and is not so easily disposed of." Given that the fact of youth is well established, let there be no mistake about another matter: how does he take the bit into his mouth and the headstall (4) over his ears? There need be little ambiguity on this score, if the purchaser will see the bit inserted and again removed, under his eyes. Next, let it be carefully noted how the horse stands being mounted. Many horses are extremely loath to admit the approach of anything which, if once accepted, clearly means to them enforced exertion. (4) {koruphaia}, part of the {khalinos} gear. Another point to ascertain is whether the horse, when mounted, can be induced to leave other horses, or when being ridden past a group of horses standing, will not bolt off to join the company. Some horses again, as the result of bad training, will run away from the exercising-ground and make for the stable. A hard mouth may be detected by the exercise called the {pede} or volte, (5) and still more so by varying the direction of the volte to right or left. Many horses will not attempt to run away except for the concurrence of a bad mouth along with an avenue of escape home. (6) (5) See Sturz, s.v.; Pollux, i. 219. Al. "the longe," but the passage below (vii. 14) is suggestive rather of the volte. (6) Al. "will only attempt to bolt where the passage out towards home combines, as it were, with a bad mouth." {e... ekphora} = "the exit from the manege or riding school." Another point which it is necessary to learn is, whether when let go at full speed the horse can be pulled up (7) sharp and is willing to wheel round in obedience to the rein. (7) {analambanetai}, "come to the poise" (Morgan). For {apostrephesthai} see ix.6; tech. "caracole." It is also well to ascertain by experience if the horse you propose to purchase will show equal docility in response to the whip. Every one knows what a useless thing a servant is, or a body of troops, that will not obey. A disobedient horse is not only useless, but may easily play the part of an arrant traitor. And since it is assumed that the horse to be purchased is intended for war, we must widen our test to include everything which war itself can bring to the proof: such as leaping ditches, scrambling over walls, scaling up and springing off high banks. We must test his paces by galloping him up and down steep pitches and sharp inclines and along a slant. For each and all of these will serve as a touchstone to gauge the endurance of his spirit and the soundness of his body. I am far from saying, indeed, that because an animal fails to perform all these parts to perfection, he must straightway be rejected; since many a horse will fall short at first, not from inability, but from want of experience. With teaching, practice, and habit, almost any horse will come to perform all these feats beautifully, provided he be sound and free from vice. Only you must beware of a horse that is naturally of a nervous temperament. An over-timorous animal will not only prevent the rider from using the vantage-ground of its back to strike an enemy, but is as likely as not to bring him to earth himself and plunge him into the worst of straits. We must, also, find out of the horse shows any viciousness towards other horses or towards human beings; also, whether he is skittish; (8) such defects are apt to cause his owner trouble. (8) Or, "very ticklish." As to any reluctance on the horse's part to being bitted or mounted, dancing and twisting about and the rest, (9) you will get a more exact idea on this score, if, when he has gone through his work, you will try and repeat the precise operations which he went through before you began your ride. Any horse that having done his work shows a readiness to undergo it all again, affords sufficient evidence thereby of spirit and endurance. (9) Reading {talla dineumata}, lit. "and the rest of his twistings and twirlings about." To put the matter in a nutshell: given that the horse is sound-footed, gentle, moderately fast, willing and able to undergo toil, and above all things (10) obedient--such an animal, we venture to predict, will give the least trouble and the greatest security to his rider in the circumstances of war; while, conversely, a beast who either out of sluggishness needs much driving, or from excess of mettle much coaxing and manoeuvering, will give his rider work enough to occupy both his hands and a sinking of the heart when dangers thicken. (10) Al. "thoroughly." IV We will now suppose the purchaser has found a horse which he admires; (1) the purchase is effected, and he has brought him home--how is he to be housed? It is best that the stable should be placed in a quarter of the establishment where the master will see the horse as often as possible. (2) It is a good thing also to have his stall so arranged that there will be as little risk of the horse's food being stolen from the manger, as of the master's from his larder or store-closet. To neglect a detail of this kind is surely to neglect oneself; since in the hour of danger, it is certain, the owner has to consign himself, life and limb, to the safe keeping of his horse. (1) Lit. "To proceed: when you have bought a horse which you admire and have brought him home." (2) i.e. "where he will be brought as frequently as possible under the master's eye." Cf. "Econ." xii. 20. Nor is it only to avoid the risk of food being stolen that a secure horse-box is desirable, but for the further reason that if the horse takes to scattering his food, the action is at once detected; and any one who observes that happening may take it as a sign and symptom either of too much blood, (3) which calls for veterinary aid, or of over-fatigue, for which rest is the cure, or else that an attack of indigestion (4) or some other malady is coming on. And just as with human beings, so with the horse, all diseases are more curable at their commencement (5) than after they have become chronic, or been wrongly treated. (6) (3) "A plethoric condition of the blood." (4) {krithiasis}. Lit. "barley surfeit"; "une fourbure." See Aristot. "H. A." viii. 24. 4. (5) i.e. "in the early acute stages." (6) Al. "and the mischief has spread." But if food and exercise with a view to strengthening the horse's body are matters of prime consideration, no less important is it to pay attention to the feet. A stable with a damp and smooth floor will spoil the best hoof which nature can give. (7) To prevent the floor being damp, it should be sloped with channels; and to avoid smoothness, paved with cobble stones sunk side by side in the ground and similar in size to the horse's hoofs. (8) A stable floor of this sort is calculated to strengthen the horse's feet by the mere pressure on the part in standing. In the next place it will be the groom's business to lead out the horse somewhere to comb and curry him; and after his morning's feed to unhalter him from the manger, (9) so that he may come to his evening meal with greater relish. To secure the best type of stable-yard, and with a view to strengthening the horse's feet, I would suggest to take and throw down loosely (10) four or five waggon loads of pebbles, each as large as can be grasped in the hand, and about a pound in weight; the whole to be fenced round with a skirting of iron to prevent scattering. The mere standing on these will come to precisely the same thing as if for a certain portion of the day the horse were, off and on, stepping along a stony road; whilst being curried or when fidgeted by flies he will be forced to use his hoofs just as much as if he were walking. Nor is it the hoofs merely, but a surface so strewn with stones will tend to harden the frog of the foot also. (7) Lit. "A damp and smooth floor may be the ruin of a naturally good hoof." It will be understood that the Greeks did not shoe their horses. (8) See Courier, p. 54, for an interesting experiment tried by himself at Bari. (9) Cf. "Hipparch," i. 16. (10) Or, "spread so as to form a surface." But if care is needed to make the hoofs hard, similar pains should be taken to make the mouth and jaws soft; and the same means and appliances which will render a man's flesh and skin soft, will serve to soften and supple a horse's mouth. (11) (11) Or, "may be used with like effect on a horse's mouth," i.e. bathing, friction, oil. See Pollux, i. 201. V It is the duty of a horseman, as we think, to have his groom trained thoroughly in all that concerns the treatment of the horse. In the first place, then, the groom should know that he is never to knot the halter (1) at the point where the headstall is attached to the horse's head. By constantly rubbing his head against the manger, if the halter does not sit quite loose about his ears, the horse will be constantly injuring himself; (2) and with sores so set up, it is inevitable that he should show peevishness, while being bitted or rubbed down. (1) Lit. "by which the horse is tied to the manger"; "licol d'ecurie." (2) Al. "in nine cases out of ten he rubs his head... and ten to one will make a sore." It is desirable that the groom should be ordered to carry out the dung and litter of the horse to some one place each day. By so doing, he will discharge the duty with least trouble to himself, (3) and at the same time be doing the horse a kindness. (3) Al. "get rid of the refuse in the easiest way." The groom should also be instructed to attach the muzzle to the horse's mouth, both when taking him out to be groomed and to the rolling-ground. (4) In fact he should always muzzle him whenever he takes him anywhere without the bit. The muzzle, while it is no hindrance to respiration, prevents biting; and when attached it serves to rob the horse of opportunity for vice. (5) (4) Cf. "Econ." xi. 18; Aristoph. "Clouds," 32. (5) Or, "prevents the horse from carrying out vicious designs." Again, care should be taken to tie the horse up with the halter above his head. A horse's natural instinct, in trying to rid himself of anything that irritates the face, is to toss up his head, and by this upward movement, if so tied, he only slackens the chain instead of snapping it. In rubbing the horse down, the groom should begin with the head and mane; as until the upper parts are clean, it is vain to cleanse the lower; then, as regards the rest of the body, first brush up the hair, by help of all the ordinary implements for cleansing, and then beat out the dust, following the lie of the hair. The hair on the spine (and dorsal region) ought not to be touched with any instrument whatever; the hand alone should be used to rub and smooth it, and in the direction of its natural growth, so as to preserve from injury that part of the horse's back on which the rider sits. The head should be drenched with water simply; for, being bony, if you try to cleanse it with iron or wooden instruments injury may be caused. So, too, the forelock should be merely wetted; the long hairs of which it is composed, without hindering the animal's vision, serve to scare away from the eyes anything that might trouble them. Providence, we must suppose, (6) bestowed these hairs upon the horse, instead of the large ears which are given to the ass and the mule as a protection to the eyes. (7) The tail, again, and mane should be washed, the object being to help the hairs to grow--those in the tail so as to allow the creature the greatest reach possible in brushing away molesting objects, (8) and those of the neck in order that the rider may have as free a grip as possible. (6) Lit. "The gods, we must suppose, gave..." (7) Lit. "as defences or protective bulwarks." (8) Insects, etc. Mane, forelock, and tail are triple gifts bestowed by the gods upon the horse for the sake of pride and ornament, (9) and here is the proof: a brood mare, so long as her mane is long and flowing, will not readily suffer herself to be covered by an ass; hence breeders of mules take care to clip the mane of the mare with a view to covering. (10) (9) {aglaias eneka} (a poetic word). Cf. "Od." xv. 78; xvii. 310. (10) For this belief Schneid. cf Aristot. "H. A." vi. 18; Plin. viii. 42; Aelian, "H. A." ii. 10, xi. 18, xii. 16, to which Dr. Morgan aptly adds Soph. "Fr." 587 (Tyro), a beautiful passage, {komes de penthos lagkhano polou diken, k.t.l.} (cf. Plut. "Mor." 754 A). Washing of the legs we are inclined to dispense with--no good is done but rather harm to the hoofs by this daily washing. So, too, excessive cleanliness of the belly is to be discouraged; the operation itself is most annoying to the horse; and the cleaner these parts are made, the thicker the swarm of troublesome things which collect beneath the belly. Besides which, however elaborately you clean these parts, the horse is no sooner led out than presently he will be just as dirty as if he had not been cleaned. Omit these ablutions then, we say; and similarly for the legs, rubbing and currying by hand is quite sufficient. VI We will now explain how the operation of grooming may be performed with least danger to oneself and best advantage to the horse. If the groom attempts to clean the horse with his face turned the same way as the horse, he runs the risk of getting a knock in the face from the animal's knee or hoof. When cleaning him he should turn his face in the opposite direction to the horse, and planting himself well out of the way of his leg, at an angle to his shoulder-blade, proceed to rub him down. He will then escape all mischief, and he will be able to clean the frog by folding back the hoof. Let him clean the hind-legs in the same way. The man who has to do with the horse should know, with regard to this and all other necessary operations, that he ought to approach as little as possible from the head or the tail to perform them; for if the horse attempt to show vice he is master of the man in front and rear. But by approaching from the side he will get the greatest hold over the horse with the least risk of injury to himself. When the horse has to be led, we do not approve of leading him from in front, for the simple reason that the person so leading him robs himself of his power of self-protection, whilst he leaves the horse freedom to do what he likes. On the other hand, we take a like exception to the plan of training the horse to go forward on a long rein (1) and lead the way, and for this reason: it gives the horse the opportunity of mischief, in whichever direction he likes, on either flank, and the power also to turn right about and face his driver. How can a troop of horses be kept free of one another, if driven in this fashion from behind?--whereas a horse accustomed to be led from the side will have least power of mischief to horse or man, and at the same time be in the best position to be mounted by the rider at a moment's notice, were it necessary. (1) See a passage from Strattis, "Chrys." 2 (Pollux, x. 55), {prosage ton polon atrema, proslabon ton agogea brakhuteron. oukh oras oti abolos estin}. In order to insert the bit correctly the groom should, in the first place, approach on the near (2) side of the horse, and then throwing the reins over his head, let them drop loosely on the withers; raise the headstall in his right hand, and with his left present the bit. If the horse will take the bit, it is a simple business to adjust the strap of the headstall; but if he refuses to open his mouth, the groom must hold the bit against the teeth and at the same time insert the thumb (3) of his left hand inside the horse's jaws. Most horses will open their mouths to that operation. But if he still refuses, then the groom must press the lip against the tush (4); very few horses will refuse the bit, when that is done to them. (5) (2) Lit. "on the left-hand side." (3) {ton megan daktulon}, Hdt. iii. 8. (4) i.e. "canine tooth." (5) Or, "it is a very exceptional horse that will not open his mouth under the circumstances." The groom can hardly be too much alive to the following points * * * if any work is to be done: (6) in fact, so important is it that the horse should readily take his bit, that, to put it tersely, a horse that will not take it is good for nothing. Now, if the horse be bitted not only when he has work to do, but also when he is being taken to his food and when he is being led home from a ride, it would be no great marvel if he learnt to take the bit of his own accord, when first presented to him. (6) Reading with L. Dind. {khre de ton ippokomon kai ta oiade... paroxunthai, ei ti dei ponein}, or if as Schneid., Sauppe, etc., {khre de ton ippon me kata toiade, k.t.l.}, transl. "the horse must not be irritated in such operations as these," etc.; but {toiade} = "as follows," if correct, suggests a lacuna in either case at this point. It would be good for the groom to know how to give a leg up in the Persian fashion, (7) so that in case of illness or infirmity of age the master himself may have a man to help him on to horseback without trouble, or, if he so wish, be able to oblige a friend with a man to mount him. (8) (7) Cf. "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Hipparch," i. 17; "Cyrop." VII. i. 38. (8) An {anaboleus}. Cf. Plut. "C. Gracch." 7. The one best precept--the golden rule--in dealing with a horse is never to approach him angrily. Anger is so devoid of forethought that it will often drive a man to do things which in a calmer mood he will regret. (9) Thus, when a horse is shy of any object and refuses to approach it, you must teach him that there is nothing to be alarmed at, particularly if he be a plucky animal; (10) or, failing that, touch the formidable object yourself, and then gently lead the horse up to it. The opposite plan of forcing the frightened creature by blows only intensifies its fear, the horse mentally associating the pain he suffers at such a moment with the object of suspicion, which he naturally regards as its cause. (9) Cf. "Hell." v. iii. 7 for this maxim. (10) Al. "if possibly by help of another and plucky animal." If, when the groom brings up the horse to his master to mount, he knows how to make him lower his back, (11) to facilitate mounting, we have no fault to find. Still, we consider that the horseman should practise and be able to mount, even if the horse does not so lend himself; (12) since on another occasion another type of horse may fall to the rider's lot, (13) nor can the same rider be always served by the same equerry. (14) (11) {upobibazesthai}. See above, i. 14; Pollux, i. 213; Morgan ad loc. "Stirrups were unknown till long after the Christian era began." (12) Or, "apart from these good graces on the animal's part." (13) As a member of the cavalry. (14) Reading {allo}. Al. reading {allos} with L. D., "and the same horse will at one time humour you in one way and again in another." Cf. viii. 13, x. 12, for {uperetein} of the horse. VII The master, let us suppose, has received his horse and is ready to mount. (1) We will now prescribe certain rules to be observed in the interests not only of the horseman but of the animal which he bestrides. First, then, he should take the leading rein, which hangs from the chin-strap or nose-band, (2) conveniently in his left hand, held slack so as not to jerk the horse's mouth, whether he means to mount by hoisting himself up, catching hold of the mane behind the ears, or to vault on to horseback by help of his spear. With the right hand he should grip the reins along with a tuft of hair beside the shoulder-joint, (3) so that he may not in any way wrench the horse's mouth with the bit while mounting. In the act of taking the spring off the ground for mounting, (4) he should hoist his body by help of the left hand, and with the right at full stretch assist the upward movement (5) (a position in mounting which will present a graceful spectacle also from behind); (6) at the same time with the leg well bent, and taking care not to place his knee on the horse's back, he must pass his leg clean over to the off side; and so having brought his foot well round, plant himself firmly on his seat. (7) (1) Reading {otan... paradexetai... os anabesomenos}. Or, reading {otan paradexetai ton ippea (sc. o. ippos) ws anabesomenon}, transl. "the horse has been brought round ready for mounting." (2) So Courier, "la muserolle." It might be merely a stitched leather strap or made of a chain in part, which rattled; as {khrusokhalinon patagon psalion} (Aristoph. "Peace," 155) implies. "Curb" would be misleading. (3) "Near the withers." (4) Or, "as soon as he has got the springing poise preliminary to mounting." (5) "Give himself simultaneously a lift." Reading {ekteinon}, or if {enteinon}, "keeping his right arm stiff." (6) Or, "a style of mounting which will obviate an ungainly attitude behind." (7) Lit. "lower his buttocks on to the horse's back." To meet the case in which the horseman may chance to be leading his horse with the left hand and carrying his spear in the right, it would be good, we think, for every one to practise vaulting on to his seat from the right side also. In fact, he has nothing else to learn except to do with his right limbs what he has previously done with the left, and vice versa. And the reason we approve of this method of mounting is (8) that it enables the soldier at one and the same instant to get astride of his horse and to find himself prepared at all points, supposing he should have to enter the lists of battle on a sudden. (8) Lit. "One reason for the praise which we bestow on this method of mounting is that at the very instant of gaining his seat the soldier finds himself fully prepared to engage the enemy on a sudden, if occasion need." But now, supposing the rider fairly seated, whether bareback or on a saddle-cloth, a good seat is not that of a man seated on a chair, but rather the pose of a man standing upright with his legs apart. In this way he will be able to hold on to the horse more firmly by his thighs; and this erect attitude will enable him to hurl a javelin or to strike a blow from horseback, if occasion calls, with more vigorous effect. The leg and foot should hang loosely from the knee; by keeping the leg stiff, the rider is apt to have it broken in collision with some obstacle; whereas a flexible leg (9) will yield to the impact, and at the same time not shift the thigh from its position. The rider should also accustom the whole of his body above the hips to be as supple as possible; for thus he will enlarge his scope of action, and in case of a tug or shove be less liable to be unseated. Next, when the rider is seated, he must, in the first place, teach his horse to stand quiet, until he has drawn his skirts from under him, if need be, (10) and got the reins an equal length and grasped his spear in the handiest fashion; and, in the next place, he should keep his left arm close to his side. This position will give the rider absolute ease and freedom, (11) and his hand the firmest hold. (9) i.e. "below the knee"; "shin and calf." (10) Lit. "pulled up" (and arranged the folds of his mantle). (11) {eustalestatos}, "the most business-like deportment." As to reins, we recommend those which are well balanced, without being weak or slippery or thick, so that when necessary, the hand which holds them can also grasp a spear. As soon as the rider gives the signal to the horse to start, (12) he should begin at a walking pace, which will tend to allay his excitement. If the horse is inclined to droop his head, the reins should be held pretty high; or somewhat low, if he is disposed to carry his head high. This will set off the horse's bearing to the best advantage. Presently, as he falls into a natural trot, (13) he will gradually relax his limbs without the slightest suffering, and so come more agreeably to the gallop. (14) Since, too, the preference is given to starting on the left foot, it will best conduce to that lead if, while the horse is still trotting, the signal to gallop should be given at the instant of making a step with his right foot. (15) As he is on the point of lifting his left foot he will start upon it, and while turning left will simultaneously make the first bound of the gallop; (16) since, as a matter of instinct, a horse, on being turned to the right, leads off with his right limbs, and to the left with his left. (12) "Forwards!" (13) Or, "the true trot." (14) {epirrabdophorein}, "a fast pace in response to a wave of the whip." (15) See Berenger, i. p. 249; also the "Cavalry Drill Book," Part I. Equitation, S. 22, "The Canter." (16) {tes episkeliseos}, "he will make the forward stride of the gallop in the act of turning to the left." See Morgan ad loc. As an exercise, we recommend what is called the volte, (17) since it habituates the animal to turn to either hand; while a variation in the order of the turn is good as involving an equalisation of both sides of the mouth, in first one, and then the other half of the exercise. (18) But of the two we commend the oval form of the volte rather than the circular; for the horse, being already sated with the straight course, will be all the more ready to turn, and will be practised at once in the straight course and in wheeling. At the curve, he should be held up, (19) because it is neither easy nor indeed safe when the horse is at full speed to turn sharp, especially if the ground is broken (20) or slippery. (17) {pede}, figure of eight. (18) Or, "on first one and then the other half of the manege." (19) {upolambanein}. See "Hipparch," iii. 14; "Hunting," iii. 10; vi. 22, of a dog. (20) {apokroton}, al. {epikroton}, "beaten, hard-trodden ground." But in collecting him, the rider should as little as possible sway the horse obliquely with the bit, and as little as possible incline his own body; or, he may rest assured, a trifle will suffice to stretch him and his horse full length upon the ground. The moment the horse has his eyes fixed on the straight course after making a turn, is the time to urge him to full speed. In battle, obviously, these turns and wheelings are with a view to charging or retiring; consequently, to practise quickening the pace after wheeling is desirable. When the horse seems to have had enough of the manege, it would be good to give him a slight pause, and then suddenly to put him to his quickest, away from his fellows first, (21) and now towards them; and then again to quiet him down in mid-career as short as possible; (22) and from halt once more to turn him right-about and off again full charge. It is easy to predict that the day will come when there will be need of each of these manoeuvres. (21) {mentoi}, "of course." (22) Or, "within the narrowest compass"; "as finely as possible." When the moment to dismount has come, you should never do so among other horses, nor near a group of people, (23) nor outside the exercising-ground; but on the precise spot which is the scene of his compulsory exertion there let the horse find also relaxation. (24) (23) Or, "a knot of bystanders"; cf. Thuc. ii. 21. (24) Or, as we say, "be caressed, and dismissed." VIII As there will, doubtless, be times when the horse will need to race downhill and uphill and on sloping ground; times, also, when he will need to leap across an obstacle; or, take a flying leap from off a bank; (1) or, jump down from a height, the rider must teach and train himself and his horse to meet all emergencies. In this way the two will have a chance of saving each the other, and may be expected to increase their usefulness. (1) {ekpedan} = exsilire in altum (Sturz, and so Berenger); "to leap over ditches, and upon high places and down from them." And here, if any reader should accuse us of repeating ourselves, on the ground that we are only stating now what we said before on the same topics, (2) we say that this is not mere repetition. In the former case, we confined ourselves to advising the purchaser before he concluded his bargain to test whether the horse could do those particular things; (3) what we are now maintaining is that the owner ought to teach his own horse, and we will explain how this teaching is to be done. (2) Or, "treating of a topic already handled." (3) i.e. possessed a certain ability at the date of purchase. With a horse entirely ignorant of leaping, the best way is to take him by the leading rein, which hangs loose, and to get across the trench yourself first, and then to pull tight on the leading-rein, to induce him to leap across. If he refuses, some one with a whip or switch should apply it smartly. The result will be that the horse will clear at a bound, not the distance merely, but a far larger space than requisite; and for the future there will be no need for an actual blow, the mere sight of some one coming up behind will suffice to make him leap. As soon as he is accustomed to leap in this way you may mount him and put him first at smaller and then at larger trenches. At the moment of the spring be ready to apply the spur; and so too, when training him to leap up and leap down, you should touch him with the spur at the critical instant. In the effort to perform any of these actions with the whole body, the horse will certainly perform them with more safety to himself and to his rider than he will, if his hind-quarters lag, in taking a ditch or fence, or in making an upward spring or downward jump. (4) (4) Lit. "in making these jumps, springs, and leaps across or up or down." To face a steep incline, you must first teach him on soft ground, and finally, when he is accustomed to that, he will much prefer the downward to the upward slope for a fast pace. And as to the apprehension, which some people entertain, that a horse may dislocate the shoulder in galloping down an incline, it should encourage them to learn that the Persians and Odrysians all run races down precipitous slopes; (5) and their horses are every bit as sound as our own. (6) (5) Cf. "Anab." IV. viii. 28; and so the Georgians to this day (Chardin ap. Courier, op. cit. p. 70, n. 1). (6) Lit. "as are those of the Hellenes." Nor must we omit another topic: how the rider is to accommodate himself to these several movements. (7) Thus, when the horse breaks off into a gallop, the rider ought to bend forward, since the horse will be less likely to slip from under; and so to pitch his rider off. So again in pulling him up short (8) the rider should lean back; and thus escape a shock. In leaping a ditch or tearing up a steep incline, it is no bad plan to let go the reins and take hold of the mane, so that the animal may not feel the burthen of the bit in addition to that of the ground. In going down a steep incline the rider must throw himself right back and hold in the horse with the bit, to prevent himself being hurled headforemost down the slope himself if not his horse. (7) Or, "to each set of occurrences." (8) Al. "when the horse is being brought to a poise" (Morgan); and see Hermann ap. Schneid., {analambanein} = retinere equum, anhalten, pariren. i.e. "rein in" of the "Parade." It is a correct principle to vary these exercises, which should be gone through sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and should sometimes be shorter and sometimes longer in duration. The horse will take much more kindly to them if you do not confine him to one place and one routine. Since it is a matter of prime necessity that the rider should keep his seat, while galloping full speed on every sort of ground, and at the same time be able to use his weapons with effect on horseback, nothing could be better, where the country suits and there are wild animals, than to practise horsemanship in combination with the chase. But when these resources fail, a good exercise may be supplied in the combined efforts of two horsemen. (9) One of them will play the part of fugitive, retreating helter-skelter over every sort of ground, with lance reversed and plying the butt end. The other pursues, with buttons on his javelins and his lance similarly handled. (10) Whenever he comes within javelin range he lets fly at the retreating foeman with his blunted missiles; or whenever within spear thrust he deals the overtaken combatant a blow. In coming to close quarters, it is a good plan first to drag the foeman towards oneself, and then on a sudden to thrust him off; that is a device to bring him to the ground. (11) The correct plan for the man so dragged is to press his horse forward: by which action the man who is being dragged is more likely to unhorse his assailant than to be brought to the ground himself. (9) {ippota}. A poetic word; "cavaliers." (10) Or, "manipulated." (11) Or, "that may be spoken off as the 'purl trick'"; "it will unhorse him if anything." If it ever happens that you have an enemy's camp in front, and cavalry skirmishing is the order of the day (at one time charging the enemy right up to the hostile battle-line, and again beating a retreat), under these circumstances it is well to bear in mind that so long as the skirmisher is close to his own party, (12) valour and discretion alike dictate to wheel and charge in the vanguard might and main; but when he finds himself in close proximity to the foe, he must keep his horse well in hand. This, in all probability, will enable him to do the greatest mischief to the enemy, and to receive least damage at his hands. (12) See "Hipparch," viii. 23. The gods have bestowed on man, indeed, the gift of teaching man his duty by means of speech and reasoning, but the horse, it is obvious, is not open to instruction by speech and reasoning. If you would have a horse learn to perform his duty, your best plan will be, whenever he does as you wish, to show him some kindness in return, and when he is disobedient to chastise him. This principle, though capable of being stated in a few words, is one which holds good throughout the whole of horsemanship. As, for instance, a horse will more readily take the bit, if each time he accepts it some good befalls him; or, again, he will leap ditches and spring up embankments and perform all the other feats incumbent on him, if he be led to associate obedience to the word of command with relaxation. (13) (13) Lit. "if every time he performs the word of command he is led to expect some relaxation." IX The topics hitherto considered have been: firstly, how to reduce the chance of being cheated in the purchase of a colt or full-grown horse; secondly, how to escape as much as possible the risk of injuring your purchase by mishandling; and lastly, how to succeed in turning out a horse possessed of all the qualities demanded by the cavalry soldier for the purposes of war. The time has come perhaps to add a few suggestions, in case the rider should be called upon to deal with an animal either unduly spirited or again unduly sluggish in disposition. The first point to recognise is, that temper of spirit in a horse takes the place of passion or anger in a man; and just as you may best escape exciting a man's ill-temper by avoiding harshness of speech and act, so you will best avoid enraging a spirited horse by not annoying him. Thus, from the first instant, in the act of mounting him, you should take pains to minimise the annoyance; and once on his back you should sit quiet for longer than the ordinary time, and so urge him forward by the gentlest signs possible; next, beginning at the slowest pace, gradually work him into a quicker step, but so gradually that he will find himself at full speed without noticing it. (1) Any sudden signal will bewilder a spirited horse, just as a man is bewildered by any sudden sight or sound or other experience. (I say one should be aware that any unexpected shock will produce disturbance in a horse.) (2) (1) Or, "so that the horse may insensibly fall into a gallop." (2) L. Dindorf and others bracket, as spurious. So if you wish to pull up a spirited horse when breaking off into a quicker pace than requisite, you must not suddenly wrench him, but quietly and gently bring the bit to bear upon him, coaxing him rather than compelling him to calm down. It is the long steady course rather than the frequent turn which tends to calm a horse. (3) A quiet pace sustained for a long time has a caressing, (4) soothing effect, the reverse of exciting. If any one proposes by a series of fast and oft-repeated gallops to produce a sense of weariness in the horse, and so to tame him, his expectation will not be justified by the result; for under such circumstances a spirited horse will do his best to carry the day by main force, (5) and with a show of temper, like a passionate man, may contrive to bring on himself and his rider irreparable mischief. (3) Or, "long stretches rather than a succession of turns and counter turns," {apostrophai}. (4) Reading {katapsosi} with L. Dind. (5) {agein bia}, vi agere, vi uti, Sturz; al. "go his own gait by sheer force." A spirited horse should be kept in check, so that he does not dash off at full speed; and on the same principle, you should absolutely abstain from setting him to race against another; as a general rule, your fiery-spirited horse is only too fond of contention. (6) (6) Reading {skhedon gar kai phil oi thum}, or if {... oi thil kai th.} transl. "the more eager and ambitious a horse is, the more mettlesome he will tend to become." Smooth bits are better and more serviceable than rough; if a rough bit be inserted at all, it must be made to resemble a smooth one as much as possible by lightness of hand. It is a good thing also for the rider to accustom himself to keep a quiet seat, especially when mounted on a spirited horse; and also to touch him as little as possible with anything except that part of the body necessary to secure a firm seat. Again, it should be known that the conventional "chirrup" (7) to quiet and "cluck" to rouse a horse are a sort of precept of the training school; and supposing any one from the beginning chose to associate soft soothing actions with the "cluck" sound, and harsh rousing actions with the "chirrup," the horse could be taught to rouse himself at the "chirrup" and to calm himself at the "cluck" sound. On this principle, at the sound of the trumpet or the shout of battle the rider should avoid coming up to his charger in a state of excitement, or, indeed, bringing any disturbing influence to bear on the animal. As far as possible, at such a crisis he should halt and rest him; and, if circumstances permit, give him his morning or his evening meal. But the best advice of all is not to get an over-spirited horse for the purposes of war. (7) Al. "whistling," and see Berenger, ii. 68. {poppusmos}, a sound from the lips; {klogmos}, from the cheek. As to the sluggish type of animal, I need only suggest to do everything the opposite to what we advise as appropriate in dealing with an animal of high spirit. X But possibly you are not content with a horse serviceable for war. You want to find in him a showy, attractive animal, with a certain grandeur of bearing. If so, you must abstain from pulling at his mouth with the bit, or applying the spur and whip--methods commonly adopted by people with a view to a fine effect, though, as a matter of fact, they thereby achieve the very opposite of what they are aiming at. That is to say, by dragging the mouth up they render the horse blind instead of alive to what is in front of him; and what with spurring and whipping they distract the creature to the point of absolute bewilderment and danger. (1) Feats indeed!--the feats of horses with a strong dislike to being ridden--up to all sorts of ugly and ungainly tricks. On the contrary, let the horse be taught to be ridden on a loose bridle, and to hold his head high and arch his neck, and you will practically be making him perform the very acts which he himself delights or rather exults in; and the best proof of the pleasure which he takes is, that when he is let loose with other horses, and more particularly with mares, you will see him rear his head aloft to the full height, and arch his neck with nervous vigour, (2) pawing the air with pliant legs (3) and waving his tail on high. By training him to adopt the very airs and graces which he naturally assumes when showing off to best advantage, you have got what you are aiming at--a horse that delights in being ridden, a splendid and showy animal, the joy of all beholders. (1) Al. "the animals are so scared that, the chances are, they are thrown into disorder." (2) {gorgoumenos}, with pride and spirit, but with a suggestion of "fierceness and rage," as of Job's war-horse. (3) "Mollia crura reponit," Virg. "Georg." iii. 76; Hom. "Hymn. ad Merc." How these desirable results are, in our opinion, to be produced, we will now endeavour to explain. In the first place, then, you ought to have at least two bits. One of these should be smooth, with discs of a good size; the other should have heavy and flat discs (4) studded with sharp spikes, so that when the horse seizes it and dislikes the roughness he will drop it; then when the smooth is given him instead, he is delighted with its smoothness, and whatever he has learnt before upon the rough, he will perform with greater relish on the smooth. He may certainly, out of contempt for its very smoothness, perpetually try to get a purchase on it, and that is why we attach large discs to the smooth bit, the effect of which is to make him open his mouth, and drop the mouthpiece. It is possible to make the rough bit of every degree of roughness by keeping it slack or taut. (4) See Morgan, op. cit. p. 144 foll. But, whatever the type of bit may be, let it in any case be flexible. If it be stiff, at whatever point the horse seizes it he must take it up bodily against his jaws; just as it does not matter at what point a man takes hold of a bar of iron, (5) he lifts it as a whole. The other flexibly constructed type acts like a chain (only the single point at which you hold it remains stiff, the rest hangs loose); and while perpetually hunting for the portion which escapes him, he lets the mouthpiece go from his bars. (6) For this reason the rings are hung in the middle from the two axles, (7) so that while feeling for them with his tongue and teeth he may neglect to take the bit up against his jaws. (5) Or, "poker," as we might say; lit. "spit." (6) Schneid. cf. Eur. "Hippol." 1223. (7) See Morgan, note ad loc. Berenger (i. 261) notes: "We have a small chain in the upset or hollow part of our bits, called a 'Player,' with which the horse playing with his tongue, and rolling it about, keeps his mouth moist and fresh; and, as Xenophon hints, it may serve likewise to fix his attention and prevent him from writhing his mouth about, or as the French call it, 'faire ses forces.'" To explain what is meant by flexible and stiff as applied to a bit, we will describe the matter. A flexible bit is one in which the axles have their points of junction broad and smooth, (8) so as to bend easily; and where the several parts fitting round the axles, being large of aperture and not too closely packed, have greater flexibility; whereas, if the several parts do not slide to and fro with ease, and play into each other, that is what we call a stiff bit. Whatever the kind of bit may be, the rider must carry out precisely the same rules in using it, as follows, if he wishes to turn out a horse with the qualities described. The horse's mouth is not to be pulled back too harshly so as to make him toss his head aside, nor yet so gently that he will not feel the pressure. But the instant he raises his neck in answer to the pull, give him the bit at once; and so throughout, as we never cease repeating, at every response to your wishes, whenever and wherever the animal performs his service well, (9) reward and humour him. Thus, when the rider perceives that the horse takes a pleasure in the high arching and supple play of his neck, let him seize the instant not to impose severe exertion on him, like a taskmaster, but rather to caress and coax him, as if anxious to give him a rest. In this way the horse will be encouraged and fall into a rapid pace. (8) i.e. "the ends of the axles (at the point of junction) which work into each other are broad and smooth, so as to play freely at the join." (9) "Behaves compliantly." That a horse takes pleasure in swift movement, may be shown conclusively. As soon as he has got his liberty, he sets off at a trot or gallop, never at a walking pace; so natural and instinctive a pleasure does this action afford him, if he is not forced to perform it to excess; since it is true of horse and man alike that nothing is pleasant if carried to excess. (10) (10) L. Dind. cf. Eur. "Med." 128, {ta de' uperballont oudena kairon}. But now suppose he has attained to the grand style when ridden--we have accustomed him of course in his first exercise to wheel and fall into a canter simultaneously; assuming then, he has got that lesson well by heart, if the rider pulls him up with the bit while simultaneously giving him one of the signals to be off, the horse, galled on the one hand by the bit, and on the other collecting himself in obedience to the signal "off," will throw forward his chest and raise his legs aloft with fiery spirit; though not indeed with suppleness, for the supple play of the limbs ceases as soon as the horse feels annoyance. But now, supposing when his fire is thus enkindled (11) you give him the rein, the effect is instantaneous. Under the pleasurable sense of freedom, thanks to the relaxation of the bit, with stately bearing and legs pliantly moving he dashes forward in his pride, in every respect imitating the airs and graces of a horse approaching other horses. Listen to the epithets with which spectators will describe the type of horse: the noble animal! and what willingness to work, what paces, (12) what a spirit and what mettle; how proudly he bears himself (13)--a joy at once, and yet a terror to behold. (11) Cf. "Hell." V. iv. 46, "kindled into new life." (12) {ipposten}, "a true soldier's horse." (13) {sobaron}, "what a push and swagger"; {kai ama edun te kai gorgon idein}, "a la fois doux et terrible a voir," see Victor Cherbuliez, "Un Cheval de Phidias," p. 148. Thus far on this topic; these notes may serve perhaps to meet a special need. XI If, however, the wish is to secure a horse adapted to parade and state processions, a high stepper and a showy (1) animal, these are qualities not to be found combined in every horse, but to begin with, the animal must have high spirit and a stalwart body. Not that, as some think, a horse with flexible legs will necessarily be able to rear his body. What we want is a horse with supple loins, and not supple only but short and strong (I do not mean the loins towards the tail, but by the belly the region between the ribs and thighs). That is the horse who will be able to plant his hind-legs well under the forearm. If while he is so planting his hind-quarters, he is pulled up with the bit, he lowers his hind-legs on his hocks (2) and raises the forepart of his body, so that any one in front of him will see the whole length of his belly to the sheath. (3) At the moment the horse does this, the rider should give him the rein, so that he may display the noblest feats which a horse can perform of his own free will, to the satisfaction of the spectators. (1) {lampros}. Cf. Isae. xi. 41 ("On the estate of Hagnias"), Lys. xix. 63 ("de Bon. Arist."). (2) See Berenger, ii. 68. (3) Lit. "testicles." There are, indeed, other methods of teaching these arts. (4) Some do so by touching the horse with a switch under the hocks, others employ an attendant to run alongside and strike the horse with a stick under the gaskins. For ourselves, however, far the best method of instruction, (5) as we keep repeating, is to let the horse feel that whatever he does in obedience to the rider's wishes will be followed by some rest and relaxation. (4) Lit. "People, it must be admitted, claim to teach these arts in various ways--some by... others by bidding..." (5) Reading {didaskalion}, al. {didaskalion}, "systems." Schneid. cf. Herod. v. 58. To quote a dictum of Simon, what a horse does under compulsion he does blindly, and his performance is no more beautiful than would be that of a ballet-dancer taught by whip and goad. The performances of horse or man so treated would seem to be displays of clumsy gestures rather than of grace and beauty. What we need is that the horse should of his own accord exhibit his finest airs and paces at set signals. (6) Supposing, when he is in the riding-field, (7) you push him to a gallop until he is bathed in sweat, and when he begins to prance and show his airs to fine effect, you promptly dismount and take off the bit, you may rely upon it he will of his own accord another time break into the same prancing action. Such are the horses on which gods and heroes ride, as represented by the artist. The majesty of men themselves is best discovered in the graceful handling of such animals. (8) A horse so prancing is indeed a thing of beauty, a wonder and a marvel; riveting the gaze of all who see him, young alike and graybeards. They will never turn their backs, I venture to predict, or weary of their gazing so long as he continues to display his splendid action. (6) Or, "by aids and signs," as we say. (7) Or, "exercising-ground." (8) Or, "and the man who knows how to manage such a creature gracefully himself at once appears magnificent." If the possessor of so rare a creature should find himself by chance in the position of a squadron leader or a general of cavalry, he must not confine his zeal to the development of his personal splendour, but should study all the more to make the troop or regiment a splendid spectacle. Supposing (in accordance with the high praise bestowed upon the type of animal) (9) the leader is mounted on a horse which with his high airs and frequent prancing makes but the slightest movement forward--obviously the rest of the troop must follow at a walking pace, and one may fairly ask where is the element of splendour in the spectacle? But now suppose that you, sir, being at the head of the procession, rouse your horse and take the lead at a pace neither too fast nor yet too slow, but in a way to bring out the best qualities in all the animals, their spirit, fire, grace of mien and bearing ripe for action--I say, if you take the lead of them in this style, the collective thud, the general neighing and the snorting of the horses will combine to render not only you at the head, but your whole company (10) down to the last man a thrilling spectacle. (9) Reading as vulg. {os malista epainousi tous toioutous ippous, os}. L. Dind. omits the words as a gloss. (10) Reading {oi} (for {osoi}) {sumparepomenoi}. See Hartmann, "An. Xen. Nov." xiv. p. 343. One word more. Supposing a man has shown some skill in purchasing his horses, and can rear them into strong and serviceable animals, supposing further he can handle them in the right way, not only in the training for war, but in exercises with a view to display, or lastly, in the stress of actual battle, what is there to prevent such a man from making every horse he owns of far more value in the end than when he bought it, with the further outlook that, unless some power higher than human interpose, (11) he will become the owner of a celebrated stable, and himself as celebrated for his skill in horsemanship. (11) Or, "there is nothing, humanly speaking, to prevent such a man." For the phrase see "Mem." I. iii. 5; cf. "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; and for the advice, "Econ." iii. 9, 10. XII We will now describe the manner in which a trooper destined to run the risks of battle upon horseback should be armed. In the first place, then, we would insist, the corselet must be made to fit the person; since, if it fits well, its weight will be distributed over the whole body; whereas, if too loose, the shoulders will have all the weight to bear, while, if too tight, the corselet is no longer a defensive arm, but a "strait jacket." (1) Again, the neck, as being a vital part, (2) ought to have, as we maintain, a covering, appended to the corselet and close-fitting. This will serve as an ornament, and if made as it ought to be, will conceal the rider's face--if so he chooses--up to the nose. (1) Cf. "Mem." III. x. (2) L. Dind. cf. Hom. "Il." viii. 326: {... othi kleis apoergei aukhena te stethos te, malista de kairion estin.} "Where the collar-bone fenceth off neck and breast, and where is the most deadly spot" (W. Leaf). As to the helmet, the best kind, in our opinion, is one of the Boeotian pattern, (3) on the principle again, that it covers all the parts exposed above the breastplate without hindering vision. Another point: the corselet should be so constructed that it does not prevent its wearer sitting down or stooping. About the abdomen and the genitals and parts surrounding (4) flaps should be attached in texture and in thickness sufficient to protect (5) that region. (3) Schneider cf. Aelian, "V. H." iii. 24; Pollux, i. 149. (4) Schneider cf. "Anab." IV. vii. 15, and for {kai ta kuklo}, conj. {kuklo}, "the abdomen and middle should be encircled by a skirt." (5) Lit. "let there be wings of such sort, size, and number as to protect the limbs." Again, as an injury to the left hand may disable the horseman, we would recommend the newly-invented piece of armour called the gauntlet, which protects the shoulder, arm, and elbow, with the hand engaged in holding the reins, being so constructed as to extend and contract; in addition to which it covers the gap left by the corselet under the armpit. The case is different with the right hand, which the horseman must needs raise to discharge a javelin or strike a blow. Here, accordingly, any part of the corselet which would hinder action out to be removed; in place of which the corselet ought to have some extra flaps (6) at the joints, which as the outstretched arm is raised unfold, and as the arm descends close tight again. The arm itself, (7) it seems to us, will better be protected by a piece like a greave stretched over it than bound up with the corselet. Again, the part exposed when the right hand is raised should be covered close to the corselet either with calfskin or with metal; or else there will be a want of protection just at the most vital point. (6) {prosthetai}, "moveable," "false." For {gigglumois} L. & S. cf. Hipp. 411. 12; Aristot. "de An." iii. 10. 9 = "ball-and-socket joints." (7) i.e. "forearm." Moreover, as any damage done to the horse will involve his rider in extreme peril, the horse also should be clad in armour--frontlet, breastplate, and thigh-pieces; (8) which latter may at the same time serve as cuisses for the mounted man. Beyond all else, the horse's belly, being the most vital and defenceless part, should be protected. It is possible to protect it with the saddle-cloth. The saddle itself should be of such sort and so stitched as to give the rider a firm seat, and yet not gall the horse's back. (8) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. iv. 1; VII. i. 2. As regards the limbs in general, both horse and rider may be looked upon as fully armed. The only parts remaining are the shins and feet, which of course protrude beyond the cuisses, but these also may be armed by the addition of gaiters made of leather like that used for making sandals. And thus you will have at once defensive armour for the shins and stockings for the feet. The above, with the blessing of heaven, will serve for armour of defence. To come to weapons of offence, we recommend the sabre rather than the straight sword, (9) since from the vantage-ground of the horse's position the curved blade will descend with greater force than the ordinary weapon. (9) The {makhaira} (or {kopis}), Persian fashion, rather than the {xephos}. "Cyrop." I. ii. 13. Again, in place of the long reed spear, which is apt to be weak and awkward to carry, we would substitute two darts of cornel-wood; (10) the one of which the skilful horseman can let fly, and still ply the one reserved in all directions, forwards, backwards, (11) and obliquely; add to that, these smaller weapons are not only stronger than the spear but far more manageable. (10) For these reforms, the result of the author's Asiatic experiences perhaps, cf. "Hell." III. iv. 14; "Anab." I. viii. 3; "Cyrop." I. ii. 9. (11) Reading {eis toupisthen} after Leoncl. As regards range of discharge in shooting we are in favour of the longest possible, as giving more time to rally (12) and transfer the second javelin to the right hand. And here we will state shortly the most effective method of hurling the javelin. The horseman should throw forward his left side, while drawing back his right; then rising bodily from the thighs, he should let fly the missile with the point slightly upwards. The dart so discharged will carry with the greatest force and to the farthest distance; we may add, too, with the truest aim, if at the moment of discharge the lance be directed steadily on the object aimed at. (13) (12) Al. "to turn right-about." (13) "If the lance is steadily eyeing the mark at the instant of discharge." This treatise, consisting of notes and suggestions, lessons and exercises suited to a private individual, must come to a conclusion; the theory and practice of the matter suited to a cavalry commander will be found developed in the companion treatise. (14) (14) In reference to "The Cavalry General", or "Hipparch." 
22561	----	TAME ANIMALS GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LONDON AND NEW YORK. Kronheim & Co., London TAME ANIMALS. [Illustration] THE HARE. I suppose you have all seen a Hare, and perhaps many of you have helped to eat one. The Hare is a very timid animal, running away on the least alarm; but, poor fellow, he is too often caught by the dogs and killed, notwithstanding his swift running. It is rather difficult to tame Hares, but there is a very amusing account of three, named Puss, Tiney, and Bess, written by the poet Cowper, who kept them for some time, and one day you shall read about them. The colour of the Hare in this country is usually brown, but white Hares are found in very cold countries. The Hare does not burrow like the rabbit, but makes a kind of nest called its form. [Illustration] THE GOAT. The Goat ranks in general usefulness next to the sheep, and as a domestic animal is very valuable. His chief pleasure seems to consist in climbing from one rock to another, for which amusement his hoofs are well adapted. The milk of the Goat is sweet and nourishing, and is made into cheese by the mountaineers, who also eat his flesh, which is rather tough. His skin is made into the materials called morocco leather, and vellum; and that of the young animals, the kids, is used to make the best kinds of gloves. The hair of some species of Goats is soft and fine, and is woven into shawls of beautiful texture. [Illustration] THE COW. Cows are very useful to mankind, in supplying them with milk from which both butter and cheese are made. Their young ones are called calves, and the flesh of calves is veal. A good Cow will give about fifteen or more quarts of milk a day, but much depends upon the quality of the pasture she feeds upon. Her age is told by her horns; after she is three years old a ring is formed every year at the root of the horn, so that by counting the number of circles, her age may be exactly known. Cows are sometimes prettily marked with black, brown, and yellow spots, and, as they lie scattered about a green meadow, add much to the charms of a landscape. [Illustration] THE SHEEP. The Sheep is found in every quarter of the globe, and is one of the most profitable animals that mankind possesses. His flesh is eaten by the inhabitants of all nations, and, as you know, is called mutton. The wool of the Sheep is very valuable, and most of our clothing is made from it: that produced by the breed called Merino sheep is particularly fine, and fetches a high price. The skin is also of service, and forms covers for many of your school-books. Sheep-washing and shearing are busy times for the farmer, and are very interesting sights. Young sheep are called lambs--you have often seen the gentle little things skipping about in the meadows. [Illustration] THE DORMOUSE. In some places people call this little animal "the Sleeper," because he lies in a torpid state through the long winter and spring, until the weather becomes quite warm. He builds his nest in an old hollow tree, or beneath the bushes, and during the summer lays up a great quantity of nuts or acorns for his winter provender. Dormice rarely come out, except at night, passing the day in a solitary manner in their cells, which they manage to make very comfortable by linings of moss. Dormice are about the size of the common mice, only more bulky, and of a reddish brown colour. The American Dormouse is a more beautiful animal, striped down the back, and much resembling the squirrel in his habits. [Illustration] THE ASS. Is the most patient of all quadrupeds, and, although thought by many to be the most stubborn, he is not really so, but is both active and willing if well treated. Donkeys are generally badly used by their masters, and you cannot go far without seeing one with his skin bruised by hard blows. Poor beasts! I hope you pity them when you see them looking half-starved, with no flesh on their aching bones, dragging with slow and weary steps some heavy load of sand or wood. The milk of Asses is greatly esteemed for the use of invalids: in some diseases it forms the only nourishment that can be safely given. The foal of the Ass is a pretty, lively little fellow, and jumps about, very unlike his quiet mother. ROUTLEDGE'S THREEPENNY TOY-BOOKS, WITH SIX COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS, PRINTED BY KRONHEIM. * * * * * 5. MY FIRST ALPHABET 6. ER GOOSE 7. THE BABES IN THE WOOD 8. THIS LITTLE PIG 9. THE OLD WOMAN WHO LIVED IN A SHOE 10. LITTLE BO-PEEP 11. NURSERY RHYMES 12. FARM-YARD ALPHABET 13. JACK AND THE BEANSTALK 14. JOHN GILPIN 15. OLD MOTHER HUBBARD 16. THE THREE BEARS 17. THE HOUSE THAT JACK BUILT 18. THE DOGS' DINNER PARTY 19. MY MOTHER 20. THE CATS' TEA PARTY 21. MORE NURSERY RHYMES 22. ROBIN REDBREAST 23. A, APPLE PIE 24. THE RAILWAY ALPHABET 25. NURSERY SONGS 26. NURSERY DITTIES 27. PUNCH AND JUDY 28. OUR PETS 29. Cinderella 30. PUSS-IN-BOOTS 31. LITTLE RED RIDING-HOOD 32. WILD ANIMALS 33. TAME ANIMALS 34. BIRDS * * * * * GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, LONDON AND NEW YORK. 
14776	----	THE ARABIAN ART OF TAMING AND TRAINING WILD & VICIOUS HORSES. BY T. GILBERT, BRO. RAMSEY & CO. PRINTED AND SOLD FOR THE PUBLISHER BY HENRY WATKINS PRINTER, 225 & 227 WEST FIFTH STREET, CINCINNATI, OHIO 1856. INTRODUCTION. The first domestication of the horse, one of the greatest achievements of man in the animal kingdom, was not the work of a day; but like all other great accomplishments, was brought about by a gradual process of discoveries and experiments. He first subdued the more subordinate animals, on account of their being easily caught and tamed, and used for many years the mere drudges, the ox, the ass, and the camel, instead of the fleet and elegant horse. This noble animal was the last brought into subjection, owing, perhaps, to man's limited and inaccurate knowledge of his nature, and his consequent inability to control him. This fact alone is sufficient evidence of his superiority over all other animals. Man, in all his inventions and discoveries, has almost invariably commenced with some simple principle, and gradually developed it from one degree of perfection to another. The first hint that we have of the use of electricity was Franklin's drawing it from the clouds with his kite. Now it is the instrument of conveying thought from mind to mind, with a rapidity that surpasses time. The great propelling power that drives the wheel of the engine over our land, and ploughs the ocean with our steamers, was first discovered escaping from a tea-kettle. And so the powers of the horse, second only to the powers of steam, became known to man only as experiments, and investigation revealed them. The horse, according to the best accounts we can gather, has been the constant servant of man for nearly four thousand years, ever rewarding him with his labor and adding to his comfort in proportion to his skill and manner of using him; but being to those who govern him by brute force, and know nothing of the beauty and delight to be gained from the cultivation of his finer nature, a fretful, vicious, and often dangerous servant; whilst to the Arabs, whose horse is the pride of his life, and who governs him by the law of kindness, we find him to be quite a different animal. The manner in which he is treated from a foal gives him an affection and attachment for his master not known in any other country. The Arab and his children, the mare and her foal, inhabit the tent together; and although the foal and the mare's neck are often pillows for the children to roll upon, no accident ever occurs, the mare being as careful of the children as of the colt. Such is the mutual attachment between the horse and his master, that he will leave his companions at his master's call, ever glad to obey his voice. And when the Arab falls from his horse, and is unable to rise again, he will stand by him and neigh for assistance; and if he lays down to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him to do in the midst of the desert, his faithful steed will watch over him, and neigh to arouse him if man or beast approaches. The Arabs frequently teach their horses secret signs or signals, which they make use of on urgent occasions to call forth their utmost exertions. These are more efficient than the barbarous mode of urging them on with the spur and whip, a forcible illustration of which will be found in the following anecdote. A Bedouin, named Jabal, possessed a mare of great celebrity. Hassad Pacha, then Governor of Damascus, wished to buy the animal, and repeatedly made the owner the most liberal offers, which Jabal steadily refused. The Pacha then had recourse to threats, but with no better success. At length, one Gafar, a Bedouin of another tribe, presented himself to the Pacha, and asked what he would give the man who should make him master of Jabal's mare? "I will fill his horse's nose-bag with gold," replied Hassad. The result of this interview having gone abroad; Jabal became more watchful than ever, and always secured his mare at night with an iron chain, one end of which was fastened to her hind fetlock, whilst the other, after passing through the tent cloth, was attached to a picket driven in the ground under the felt that served himself and wife for a bed. But one midnight, Gafar crept silently into the tent, and succeeded in loosening the chain. Just before starting off with his prize, he caught up Jabal's lance, and poking him with the butt end, cried out: "I am Gafar! I have stolen your noble mare, and will give you notice in time." This warning was in accordance with the customs of the Desert; for to rob a hostile tribe is considered an honorable exploit, and the man who accomplishes it is desirous of all the glory that may flow from the deed. Poor Jabal, when he heard the words, rushed out of the tent and gave the alarm, then mounting his brother's mare, accompanied by some of his tribe, he pursued the robber for four hours. The brother's mare was of the same stock as Jabal's but was not equal to her; nevertheless, he outstripped those of all the other pursuers, and was even on the point of overtaking the robber, when Jabal shouted to him: "Pinch her right ear and give her a touch of the heel." Gafar did so, and away went the mare like lightning, speedily rendering further pursuit hopeless. The _pinch in the ear_ and the _touch with the heel_ were the secret signs by which Jabal had been used to urge his mare to her utmost speed. Jabal's companions were amazed and indignant at his strange conduct. "O thou father of a jackass!" they cried, "thou hast helped the thief to rob thee of thy jewel." But he silenced their upbraidings by saying: "I would rather lose her than sully her reputation. Would you have me suffer it to be said among the tribes that another mare had proved fleeter than mine? I have at least this comfort left me, that I can say she never met with her match." Different countries have their different modes of horsemanship, but amongst all of them its first practice was carried on in but a rude and indifferent way, being hardly a stepping stone to the comfort and delight gained from the use of the horse at the present day. The polished Greeks as well as the ruder nations of Northern Africa, for a long while rode without either saddle or bridle, guiding their horses, with the voice or the hand, or with a light switch with which they touched the animal on the side of the face to make him turn in the opposite direction. They urged him forward by a touch of the heel, and stopped him by catching him by the muzzle. Bridles and bits were at length introduced, but many centuries elapsed before anything that could be called a saddle was used. Instead of these, cloths, single or padded, and skins of wild beasts, often richly adorned, were placed beneath the rider, but always without stirrups; and it is given as an extraordinary fact, that the Romans even in the times when luxury was carried to excess amongst them, never desired so simple an expedient for assisting the horseman to mount, to lessen his fatigue and aid him in sitting more securely in his saddle. Ancient sculptors prove that the horsemen of almost every country were accustomed to mount their horses from the right side of the animal, that they might the better grasp the mane, which hangs on that side, a practice universally changed in modern times. The ancients generally leaped on their horse's backs, though they sometimes carried a spear, with a loop or projection about two feet from the bottom which served them as a step. In Greece and Rome, the local magistracy were bound to see that blocks for mounting (what the Scotch call _loupin_-on-stanes) were placed along the road at convenient distances. The great, however, thought it more dignified to mount their horses by stepping on the bent backs of their servants or slaves, and many who could not command such costly help used to carry a light ladder about with them. The first distinct notice that we have of the use of the saddle occurs in the edict of the Emperor Theodosias, (A.D. 385) from which we also learn that it was usual for those who hired post-horses, to provide their own saddle, and that the saddle should not weigh more than sixty pounds, a cumbrous contrivance, more like the howdahs placed on the backs of elephants than the light and elegant saddle of modern times. Side-saddles for ladies are an invention of comparatively recent date. The first seen in England was made for Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard the Second, and was probably more like a pillion than the side-saddle of the present day. A pillion is a sort of a very low-backed arm-chair, and was fastened on the horse's croup, behind the saddle, on which a man rode who had all the care of managing the horse, while the lady sat at her ease, supporting herself by grasping a belt which he wore, or passing her arm around his body, if the _gentleman was not too ticklish_. But the Mexicans manage these things with more gallantry than the ancients did. The "pisanna," or country lady, we are told is often seen mounted before her "cavalera," who take the more natural position of being seated behind his fair one, supporting her by throwing his arm around her waist, (a very appropriate support if the bent position of the arm does not cause an occasional contraction of the muscles.) These two positions may justly be considered as the first steps taken by the ladies towards their improved and elegant mode of riding at the present day. At an early period when the diversion of hawking was prevalent, they dressed themselves in the costume of the knight, and rode astride. Horses were in general use for many centuries before anything like a protection for the hoof was thought of, and it was introduced, at first, as a matter of course, on a very simple scale. The first foot defense, it is said, which was given to the horse, was on the same principle as that worn by man, which was a sort of sandal, made of leather and tied to the horse's foot, by means of straps or strings. And finally plates of metal were fastened to the horse's feet by the same simple means. Here again, as in the case of the sturrupless saddle, when we reflect that men should, for nearly a thousand years, have gone on fastening plates of metal under horses' hoofs by the clumsy means of straps and strings, without its ever occurring to them to try so simple an improvement as nails, we have another remarkable demonstration of the slow steps by which horsemanship has reached its present state. In the forgoing remarks I have taken the liberty of extracting several facts from a valuable little work by Rolla Springfield. With this short comment on the rise and progress of horsemanship, from its commencement up to the present time, I will proceed to give you the principles of a new theory of taming wild horses, which is the result of many experiments and a thorough investigation and trial of the different methods of horsemanship now in use. THE THREE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF MY THEORY Founded on the Leading Characteristics of the Horse. FIRST.--That he is so constituted by nature that he will not offer resistance to any demand made of him which he fully comprehends, if made in a way consistent with the laws of his nature. SECOND.--That he has no consciousness of his strength beyond his experience, and can be handled according to our will, without force. THIRD.--That we can, in compliance with the laws of his nature by which he examines all things new to him, take any object, however frightful, around, over or on him, that does not inflict pain, without causing him to fear. To take these assertions in order, I will first give you some of the reasons why I think he is naturally obedient, and will not offer resistance to anything fully comprehended. The horse, though possessed of some faculties superior to man's being deficient in reasoning powers, has no knowledge of right or wrong, of free will and independent government, and knows not of any imposition practiced upon him, however unreasonable these impositions may be. Consequently, he cannot come to any decision what he should or should not do, because he has not the reasoning faculties of man to argue the justice of the thing demanded of him. If he had, taking into consideration his superior strength, he would be useless to man as a servant. Give him _mind_ in proportion to his strength, and he will demand of us the green fields for an inheritance, where he will roam at leisure, denying the right of servitude at all. God has wisely formed his nature so that it can be operated upon by the knowledge of man according to the dictates of his will, and he might well be termed an unconscious, submissive servant. This truth we can see verified in every day's experience by the abuses practiced upon him. Any one who chooses to be so cruel, can mount the noble steed and run him 'till he drops with fatigue, or, as is often the case with more spirited, fall dead with the rider. If he had the power to reason, would he not vault and pitch his rider, rather than suffer him to run him to death? Or would he condescend to carry at all the vain imposter, who, with but equal intellect, was trying to impose on his equal rights and equally independent spirit? But happily for us, he has no consciousness of imposition, no thought of disobedience except by impulse caused by the violation of the law of nature. Consequently when disobedient it is the fault of man. Then, we can but come to the conclusion, that if a horse is not taken in a way at variance with the law of his nature, he will do anything that he fully comprehends without making any offer of resistance. _Second._ The fact of the horse being unconscious of the amount of his strength, can be proven to the satisfaction of any one. For instance, such remarks as these are common, and perhaps familiar to your recollection. One person says to another, "If that wild horse there was conscious of the amount of his strength, his owner could have no business with him in that vehicle; such light reins and harness, too; if he knew he could snap them asunder in a minute and be as free as the air we breathe;" and, "that horse yonder that is pawing and fretting to follow the company that is fast leaving him, if he knew his strength he would not remain long fastened to that hitching post so much against his will, by a strap that would no more resist his powerful weight and strength, than a cotton thread would bind a strong man." Yet these facts made common by every day occurrence, are not thought of as anything wonderful. Like the ignorant man who looks at the different phases of the moon, you look at these things as he looks at her different changes, without troubling your mind with the question, "Why are these things so?" What would be the condition of the world if all our minds lay dormant? If men did not think, reason and act, our undisturbed, slumbering intellects would not excel the imbecility of the brute; we would live in chaos, hardly aware of our existence. And yet with all our activity of mind, we daily pass by unobserved that which would be wonderful if philosophised and reasoned upon, and with the same inconsistency wonder at that which a little consideration, reason and philosophy would be but a simple affair. _Thirdly._ He will allow any object, however frightful in appearance, to come around, over or on him, that does not inflict pain. We know from a natural course of reasoning, that there has never been an effected without a cause, and we infer from this, that there can be no action, either in animate or inanimate matter, without there first being some cause to produce it. And from this self-evident fact we know that there is some cause for every impulse or movement of either mind or matter, and that this law governs every action or movement of the animal kingdom. Then, according to this theory, there must be some cause before fear can exist; and, if fear exists from the effect of imagination, and not from the infliction of real pain, it can be removed by complying with those laws of nature by which the horse examines an object, and determines upon its innocence or harm. A log or stump by the road-side may be, in the imagination of the horse, some great beast about to pounce upon him; but after you take him up to it and let him stand by it a little while, and touch it with his nose, and go through his process of examination, he will not care any thing more about it. And the same principle and process will have the same effect with any other object, however frightful in appearance, in which there is no harm. Take a boy that has been frightened by a false-face or any other object that he could not comprehend at once; but let him take that face or object in his hands and examine it, and he will not care anything more about it. This is a demonstration of the same principle. With this introduction to the principles of my theory, I shall next attempt to teach you how to put it into practice, and whatever instructions may follow, you can rely on as having been proven practical by my own experiments. And knowing from experience just what obstacles I have met with in handling bad horses, I shall try to anticipate them for you, and assist you in surmounting them, by commencing with the first steps taken with the colt, and accompanying you through the whole task of breaking. HOW TO SUCCEED IN GETTING THE COLT FROM PASTURE. Go to the pasture and walk around the whole herd quietly, and at such a distance as not to cause them to scare and run. Then approach them very slowly, and if they stick up their heads and seem to be frightened, hold on until they become quiet, so as not to make them run before you are close enough to drive them in the direction you want to go. And when you begin to drive, do not flourish your arms or hollow, but gently follow them off leaving the direction free for them that you wish them to take. Thus taking advantage of their ignorance, you will be able to get them in the pound as easily as the hunter drives the quails into his net. For, if they have always run into the pasture uncared for, (as many horses do in prairie countries and on large plantations,) there is no reason why they should not be as wild as the sportsman's birds and require the same gentle treatment, if you want to get them without trouble; for the horse in his natural state is as wild as any of the undomesticated animals, though more easily tamed than most of them. HOW TO STABLE A COLT WITHOUT TROUBLE. The next step will be, to get the horse into a stable or shed. This should be done as quietly as possible, so as not to excite any suspicion in the horse of any danger befalling him. The best way to do this, is to lead a gentle horse into the stable first and hitch him, then quietly walk around the colt and let him go in of his own accord. It is almost impossible to get men, who have never practiced on this principle, to go slow and considerate enough about it. They do not know that in handling a wild horse, above all other things, is that good old adage true, that "haste makes waste;" that is, waste of time, for the gain of trouble and perplexity. One wrong move may frighten your horse, and make him think it is necessary to escape at all hazards for the safety of his life, and thus make two hours work of a ten minutes job; and this would be all your own fault, and entirely unnecessary; for he will not run unless you run after him, and that would not be good policy, unless you knew that you could outrun him; or you will have to let him stop of his own accord after all. But he will not try to break away, unless you attempt to force him into measures. If he does not see the way at once, and is a little fretful about going in, do not undertake to drive him, but give him a little less room outside, by gently closing in around him. Do not raise your arms, but let them hang at your side; for you might as well raise a club. The horse has never studied anatomy, and does not know but they will unhinge themselves and fly at him. It he attempts to turn back, walk before him, but do not run; and if he gets past you, encircle him again in the same quiet manner, and he will soon find that you are not going to hurt him; and you can soon walk so close around him that he will go into the stable for more room, and to get farther from you. As soon as he is in, remove the quiet horse and shut the door. This will be his first notion of confinement--not knowing how to get in such a place, nor how to get out of it. That he may take it as quietly as possible, see that the shed is entirely free from dogs, chickens, or anything that would annoy him; then give him a few ears of corn, and let him remain alone fifteen or twenty minutes, until he has examined his apartment, and has become reconciled to his confinement. TIME TO REFLECT. And now, while your horse is eating those few ears of corn, is the proper time to see that your halter is ready and all right, and to reflect on the best mode of operations; for, in the horsebreaking, it is highly important that you should be governed by some system. And you should know before you attempt to do anything, just what you are going to do, and how you are going to do it. And, if you are experienced in the art of taming wild horses, you ought to be able to tell within a few minutes the length of time it would take you to halter the colt, and learn him to lead. THE KIND OF HALTER. Always use a leather halter, and be sure to have it made so that it will not draw tight around his nose if he pulls on it. It should be of the right size to fit his head easily and nicely; so that the nose band will not be too tight or too low. Never put a rope halter on an unbroken colt under any circumstances whatever. They have caused more horses to hurt or kill themselves, than would pay for twice the cost of all the leather halters that have ever been needed for the purpose of haltering colts. It is almost impossible to break a colt that is very wild with a rope halter, without having him pull, rear and throw himself, and thus endanger his life; and I will tell you why. It is just as natural for a horse to try to get his head out of anything that hurts it, or feels unpleasant, as it would be for you to try to get your hand out of a fire. The cords of the rope are hard and cutting; this makes him raise his head and draw on it, and as soon as he pulls, the slip noose (the way rope halters are always made) tightens, and pinches his nose, and then he will struggle for life, until, perchance, he throws himself; and who would have his horse throw himself, and run the risk of breaking his neck, rather than pay the price of a leather halter. But this is not the worst. A horse that has once pulled on his halter, can never be as well broke as one that has never pulled at all. REMARKS ON THE HORSE. But before we attempt to do anything more with the colt, I will give you some of the characteristics of his nature, that you may better understand his motions. Every one that has ever paid any attention to the horse, has noticed his natural inclination to smell of everything which to him looks new and frightful. This is their strange mode of examining everything. And, when they are frightened at anything, though they look at it sharply, they seem to have no confidence in this optical examination alone, but must touch it with the nose before they are entirely satisfied; and, as soon as this is done, all is right. EXPERIMENTS WITH THE ROBE. If you want to satisfy yourself of this characteristic of the horse, and learn something of importance concerning the peculiarities of his nature, etc., turn him into the barn-yard, or a large stable will do, and then gather up something that you know will frighten him; a red blanket, buffalo robe, or something of that kind. Hold it up so that he can see it; he will stick up his head and snort. Then throw it down somewhere in the center of the lot or barn, and walk off to one side. Watch his motions, and study his nature. If he is frightened at the object, he will not rest until he has touched it with his nose. You will see him begin to walk around the robe and snort, all the time getting a little closer, as if drawn up by some magic spell, until he finally gets within reach of it. He will then very cautiously stretch out his neck as far as he can reach, merely touching it with his nose, as though he thought it was ready to fly at him. But after he has repeated these touches a few times, for the first (though he has been looking at it all the time) he seems to have an idea what it is. But now he has found, by the sense of feeling, that it is nothing that will do him any harm, and he is ready to play with it. And if you watch him closely, you will see him take hold of it with his teeth, and raise it up and pull at it. And in a few minutes you can see that he has not that same wild look about his eye, but stands like a horse biting at some familiar stump. Yet the horse is never well satisfied when he is about anything that has frightened him, as when he is standing with his nose to it. And, in nine cases out of ten, you will see some of that same wild look about him again, as he turns to walk from it. And you will, probably, see him looking back very suspiciously as he walks away, as though he thought it might come after him yet. And, in all probability, he will have to go back and make another examination before he is satisfied. But he will familiarize himself with it, and, if he should run in that lot a few days, the robe that frightened him so much at first, will be no more to him than a familiar stump. SUPPOSITIONS ON THE SENSE OF SMELLING. We might very naturally suppose, from the fact of the horse's applying his nose to every thing new to him, that he always does so for the purpose of smelling these objects. But I believe that it is as much or more for the purpose of feeling; and that he makes use of his nose or muzzle, (as it is sometimes called.) as we would of our hands; because it is the only organ by which he can touch or feel anything with much susceptibility. I believe that he invariably makes use of the four senses, seeing, hearing, smelling and feeling, in all of his examinations, of which the sense of feeling is, perhaps, the most important. And I think that in the experiment with the robe, his gradual approach and final touch with his nose was as much for the purpose of feeling, as anything else, his sense of smell being so keen, that it would not be necessary for him to touch his nose against anything in order to get the proper scent; for it is said that a horse can smell a man the distance of a mile. And, if the scent of the robe was all that was necessary, he could get that several rods off. But, we know from experience, that if a horse sees and smells a robe a short distance from him, he is very much frightened, (unless he is used to it,) until he touches or feels it with his nose; which is a positive proof that feeling is the controlling sense in this case. PREVAILING OPINION OF HORSEMEN. It is a prevailing opinion among horsemen generally, that the sense of smell is the governing sense of the horse. And Faucher, as well as others, have, with that view, got up receipts of strong smelling oils, etc., to tame the horse, sometimes using the chesnut of his leg, which they dry, grind into powder and blow into his nostrils. Sometimes using the oil of rhodium, organnnum, etc.; that are noted for their strong smell. And sometimes they scent the hands with the sweat from under the arm, or blow their breath into his nostrils, etc., etc. All of which, as far as the scent goes have no effect whatever in gentling the horse, or conveying any idea to his mind; though the works that accompany these efforts--handling him, touching him about the nose and head, and patting him, as they direct you should, after administering the articles, may have a very great effect, which they mistake to be the effect of the ingredients used. And Faucher, in his work entitled, "The Arabian art of taming Horses," page 17, tells us how to accustom a horse to a robe, by administering certain articles to his nose; and goes on to say, that these articles must first be applied to the horse's nose before you attempt to break him, in order to operate successfully. Now, reader, can you, or any one else, give one single reason how scent can convey any idea to the horse's mind of what we want him to do? If not, then of course strong scents of any kind are of no account in taming the unbroken horse. For every thing that we get him to do of his own accord, without force, must be accomplished by some means of conveying our ideas to his mind. I say to my horse "go 'long" and he goes; "ho!" and he stops: because these two words, of which he has learned the meaning by the tap of the whip, and the pull of the rein that first accompanied them, convey the two ideas to his mind of go and stop. Faucher, or no one else, can ever learn the horse a single thing by the means of a scent alone. How long do you suppose a horse would have to stand and smell of a bottle of oil before he would learn to bend his knee and make a bow at your bidding, "go yonder and bring your hat," or "come here and lay down?" Thus you see the absurdity of trying to break or tame the horse by the means of receipts for articles to smell of, or medicine to give him, of any kind whatever. The only science that has ever existed in the world, relative to the breaking of horses, that has been of any account, is that true method which takes them in their native state, and improves their intelligence. POWEL'S SYSTEM OF APPROACHING THE COLT. But, before we go further, I will give you Willis J. Powel's system of approaching a wild colt, as given by him in a work published in Europe, about the year 1811, on the "Art of taming wild horses." He says, "A horse is gentled by my secret, in from two to sixteen hours." The time I have most commonly employed has been from four to six hours. He goes on to say: "Cause your horse to be put in a small yard, stable, or room. If in a stable or room, it ought to be large in order to give him some exercise with the halter before you lead him out. If the horse belong to that class which appears only to fear man, you must introduce yourself gently into the stable, room, or yard, where the horse is. He will naturally run from you, and frequently turn his head from you; but you must walk about extremely slow and softly, so that he can see you whenever he turns his head towards you, which he never fails to do in a short time, say in a quarter of an hour. I never knew one to be much longer without turning towards me. "At the very moment he turns his head, hold out your left hand towards him, and stand perfectly still, keeping your eyes upon the horse, watching his motions if he makes any. If the horse does not stir for ten or fifteen minutes, advance as slowly as possible, and without making the least noise, always holding out your left hand, without any other ingredient in it than that what nature put in it." He says, "I have made use of certain, ingredients before people, such as the sweat under my arm, etc., to disguise the real secret, and many believed that the docility to which the horse arrived in so short a time, was owing to these ingredients; but you see from this explanation that they were of no use whatever. The implicit faith placed in these ingredients, though innocent of themselves, becomes 'faith without works.' And thus men remained always in doubt concerning this secret. If the horse makes the least motion when you advance toward him, stop, and remain perfectly still until he is quiet. Remain a few moments in this condition, and then advance again in the same slow and imperceptible manner. Take notice: if the horse stirs, stop without changing your position. It is very uncommon for the horse to stir more than once after you begin to advance, yet there are exceptions. He generally keeps his eyes steadfast on you, until you get near enough to touch him on the forehead. When you are thus near to him, raise slowly, and by degrees, your hand, and let it come in contact with that part just above the nostrils as lightly as possible. If the horse flinches, (as many will,) repeat with great rapidity these light strokes upon the forehead, going a little further up towards his ears by degrees, and descending with the same rapidity until he will let you handle his forehead all over. Now let the strokes be repeated with more force over all his forehead, descending by lighter strokes to each side of his head, until you can handle that part with equal facility. Then touch in the same light manner, making your hands and fingers play around the lower part of the horse's ears, coming down now and then to his forehead, which may be looked upon as the helm that governs all the rest. "Having succeeded in handling his ears, advance towards the neck, with the same precautions, and in the same manner; observing always to augment the force of the strokes whenever the horse will permit it. Perform the same on both sides of the neck, until he lets you take it in your arms without flinching. "Proceed in the same progressive manner to the sides, and then to the back of the horse. Every time the horse shows any nervousness return immediately to the forehead as the true standard, patting him with your hands, and from thence rapidly to where you had already arrived, always gaining ground a considerable distance farther on every time this happens. The head, ears, neck and body being thus gentled, proceed from the back to the root of the tail. "This must be managed with dexterity, as a horse is never to be depended on that is skittish about the tail. Let your hand fall lightly and rapidly on that part next to the body a minute or two, and then you will begin to give it a slight pull upwards every quarter of a minute. At the same time you continue this handling of him, augment the force of the strokes, as well as the raising of the tail, until you can raise it and handle it with the greatest ease, which commonly happens in a quarter of an hour in most horses; in others almost immediately, and in some much longer. It now remains to handle all his legs. From the tail come back again to the head, handle it well, as likewise the ears, breast, neck, etc., speaking now and then to the horse. Begin by degrees to descend to the legs, always ascending and descending, gaining ground every time you descend until you get to his feet. "Talk to the horse in Latin, Greek, French, English, or Spanish, or in any other language you please; but let him hear the sound of your voice, which at the beginning of the operation is not quite so necessary, but which I have always done in making him lift up his feet. Hold up your foot--'Live la pied'--'Alza el pie'--'Aron ton poda,' etc., at the same time lift his foot with your hand. He soon becomes familiar with the sounds, and will hold his foot up at command. Then proceed to the hind feet and go on in the same manner, and in a short time the horse will let you lift them and even take them up in your arms. "All this operation is no magnetism, no galvanism; it is merely taking away the fear a horse generally has of a man, and familiarizing the animal with his master; as the horse doubtless experiences a certain pleasure from this handling, he will soon become gentle under it, and show a very marked attachment to his keeper." REMARKS ON POWEL'S TREATMENT HOW TO GOVERN HORSES OF ANY KIND. These instructions are very good, but not quite sufficient for horses of all kinds, and for haltering and leading the colt; but I have inserted it here, because it gives some of the true philosophy of approaching the horse, and of establishing confidence between man and horse. He speaks only of the kind that fear man. To those who understand the philosophy of horsemanship, these are the easiest trained; for when we have a horse that is wild and lively, we can train him to our will in a very short time; for they are generally quick to learn, and always ready to obey. But there is another kind that are of a stubborn or vicious disposition, and, although they are not wild, and do not require taming, in the sense it is generally understood, they are just as ignorant as a wild horse, if not more so, and need to be learned just as much; and in order to have them obey quickly, it is very necessary that they should be made to fear their masters; for, in order to obtain perfect obedience from any horse, we must first have him fear us, for our motto is _fear, love, and obey_; and we must have the fulfilment of the first two before we can expect the latter, and it is by our philosophy of creating fear, love and confidence, that we govern to our will every kind of a horse whatever. Then, in order to take horses as we find them, or all kinds, and to train them to our likings, we will always take with us, when we go into a stable to train a colt, a long switch whip, (whale-bone buggy whips is the best,) with a good silk cracker, so as to cut keen and make a sharp report, which, if handled with dexterity, and rightly applied, accompanied with a sharp, fierce word, will be sufficient to enliven the spirits of any horse. With this whip in your right hand, with the lash pointing backward, enter the stable alone. It is a great disadvantage in training a horse, to have any one in the stable with you; you should be entirely alone, so as not to have nothing but yourself to attract his attention. If he is wild you will soon see him in the opposite side of the stable from you; and now is the time to use a little judgement. I would not want for myself, more than half or three-quarters of an hour to handle any kind of a colt, and have him running about in the stable after me; though I would advise a new beginner to take more time, and not to be in too much of a hurry. If you have but one colt to gentle, and are not particular about the length of time you spend, and have not had any experience in handling colts, I would advise you to take Mr. Powel's method at first, till you gentle him, which he says takes from two to six hours. But, as I want to accomplish the same, and what is much more, learn the horse to lead in less than one hour, I shall give you a much quicker process of accomplishing the same end. Accordingly, when you have entered the stable, stand still and let your horse look at you a minute or two, and as soon as he is settled in one place, approach him slowly, with both arms stationary, your right hanging by your side, holding the whip as directed, and the left bent at the elbow, with your hand projecting. As you approach him, go not too much towards his head or croop, so as not to make him move either forward or backward, thus keeping your horse stationary, if he does move a little forward or backward, step a little to the right or left very cautiously; this will keep him in one place, as you get very near him, draw a little to his shoulder, and stop a few seconds. If you are in his reach he will turn his head and smell at your hand, not that he has any preference for your hand, but because that it is projecting, and is the nearest portion of your body to the horse. This all colts will do, and they will smell of your naked hand just as quick as they will of any thing that you can put in it, and with just as good an effect, however much some men have preached the doctrine of taming horses by giving them the scent articles from the hand. I have already proved that to be a mistake. As soon as he touches his nose to your hand, caress him as before directed, always using a very light, soft hand, merely touching the horse, all ways rubbing the way the hair lays, so that your hand will pass along as smoothly as possible. As you stand by his side you may find it more convenient to rub his neck or the side of his head, which will answer the same purpose, as rubbing his forehead. Favor every inclination of the horse to smell or touch you with his nose. Always follow each touch or communication of this kind with the most tender and affectionate caresses, accompanied with a kind look, and pleasant word of some sort, such as: Ho! my little boy, ho! my little boy, pretty boy, nice lady! or something of that kind, constantly repeating the same words, with the same kind, steady tone of voice; for the horse soon learns to read the expression of the face and voice, and will know as well when fear, love or anger, prevails as you know your own feelings; two of which, _fear and anger_, a good horseman _should never feel_. HOW TO PROCEED IF YOUR HORSE IS OF A STUBBORN DISPOSITION. If your horse, instead of being wild, seems to be of a stubborn or _mulish_ disposition; if he lays back his ears as you approach him, or turns his heels to kick you, he has not that regard or fear of man that he should have, to enable you to handle him quickly and easily; and it might be well to give him a few sharp cuts with the whip, about the legs, pretty close to the body. It will crack keen as it plies around his legs, and the crack of the whip will affect him as much as the stroke; besides one sharp cut about his legs will affect him more than two or three over his back, the skin on the inner part of his legs or about his flank being thinner, more tender than on his back. But do not whip him much, just enough to scare him, it is not because we want to hurt the horse that we whip him, we only do it to scare that bad disposition out of him. But whatever you do, do quickly, sharply and with a good deal of fire, but always without anger. If you are going to scare him at all you must do it at once. Never go into a pitch battle with your horse, and whip him until he is mad and will fight you; you had better not touch him at all, for you will establish, instead of fear and regard, feelings of resentment, hatred and ill-will. It will do him no good but an injury, to strike a blow, unless you can scare him; but if you succeed in scaring him, you can whip him without making him mad; for fear and anger never exist together in the horse, and as soon as one is visible, you will find that the other has disappeared. As soon as you have frightened him so that he will stand up straight and pay some attention to you, approach him again and caress him a good deal more than you whipped him, then you will excite the two controlling passions of his nature, love and fear, and then he will fear and love you too, and as soon as he learns what to do will quickly obey. HOW TO HALTER AND LEAD THE COLT. As soon as you have gentled the colt a little, take the halter in your left hand and approach him as before, and on the same side that you have gentled him. If he is very timid about your approaching closely to him, you can get up to him quicker by making the whip a part of your arm, and reaching out very gently with the but end of it, rubbing him lightly on the neck, all the time getting a little closer, shortening the whip by taking it up in your hand, until you finally get close enough to put your hands on him. If he is inclined to hold his head from you, put the end of the halter strap around his neck, drop your whip, and draw very gently; he will let his neck give, and you can pull his head to you. Then take hold of that part of the halter, which buckles over the top of his head, and pass the long side, or that part which goes into the buckle, under his neck, grasping it on the opposite side with your right hand, letting the first strap loose--the latter will be sufficient to hold his head to you. Lower the halter a little, just enough to get his nose into that part which goes around it, then raise it somewhat, and fasten the top buckle, and you will have it all right. The first time you halter a colt you should stand on the left side, pretty well back to his shoulder only taking hold of that part of the halter that goes around his neck, then with your hands about his neck you can hold his head to you, and raise the halter on it without making him dodge by putting your hands about his nose. You should have a long rope or strap ready, and as soon as you have the halter on, attach this to it, so that you can let him walk the length of the stable without letting go of the strap, or without making him pull on the halter, for if you only let him feel the weight of your hand on the halter, and give him rope when he runs from you, he will never rear, pull, or throw himself, yet you will be holding him all the time, and doing more towards gentling him, than if you had the power to snub him right up, and hold him to one spot; because, he does not know any thing about his strength, and if you don't do any thing to make him pull, he will never know that he can. In a few minutes you can begin to control him with the halter, then shorten the distance between yourself and the horse, by taking up the strap in your hand. As soon as he will allow you to hold him by a tolerably short strap, and step up to him without flying back, you can begin to give him some idea about leading. But to do this, do not go before and attempt to pull him after you, but commence by pulling him very quietly to one side. He has nothing to brace either side of his neck, and will soon yield to a steady, gradual pull of the halter; and as soon as you have pulled him a step or two to one side, step up to him and caress him, and then pull him again, repeating this operation until you can pull him around in every direction, and walk about the stable with him, which you can do in a few minutes, for he will soon think when you have made him step to the right or left a few times, that he is compelled to follow the pull of the halter, not knowing that he has the power to resist your pulling; besides, you have handled him so gently, that he is not afraid of you, and you always caress him when he comes up to you, and he likes that, and would just as leave follow you as not. And after he has had a few lessons of that kind, if you turn him out in a lot he will come up to you every opportunity he gets. You should lead him about in the stable some time before you take him out, opening the door, so that he can see out, leading him up to it and back again, and past it. See that there is nothing on the outside to make him jump, when you take him out, and as you go out with him, try to make him go very slowly, catching hold of the halter close to the jaw, with your left hand, while the right is resting on the top of the neck, holding to his mane. After you are out with him a little while, you can lead him about as you please. Don't let any second person come up to you when you first take him out; a stranger taking hold of the halter would frighten him, and make him run. There should not even be any one standing near him to attract his attention, or scare him. If you are alone, and manage him right, it will not require any more force to lead or hold him than it would to manage a broke horse. HOW TO LEAD A COLT BY THE SIDE OF A BROKEN HORSE. If you should want to lead your colt by the side of another horse, as is often the case, I would advise you to take your horse into the stable, attach a second strap to the colt's halter, and lead your horse up alongside of him. Then get on the broke horse and take one strap around his breast, under his martingale, (if he has any on,) holding it in your left hand. This will prevent the colt from getting back too far; besides, you will have more power to hold him, with the strap pulling against the horse's breast. The other strap take up in your right hand to prevent him from running ahead; then turn him about a few times in the stable, and if the door is wide enough, ride out with him in that position; if not, take the broke horse out first, and stand his breast up against the door, then lead the colt to the same spot, and take the straps as before directed, one on each side of his neck, then let some one start the colt out, and as he comes out, turn your horse to the left, and you will have them all right. This is the best way to lead a colt; you can manage any kind of a colt in this way, without any trouble; for, if he tries to run ahead, or pull back, the two straps will bring the horses facing each other, so that you can easily follow up his movements without doing much holding, and as soon as he stops running backward you are right with him, and all ready to go ahead. And if he gets stubborn and does not want to go, you can remove all his stubbornness by riding your horse against his neck, thus compelling him to turn to the right, and as soon as you have turned him about a few times, he will be willing to go along. The next thing, after you are through leading him, will be to take him into a stable, and hitch him in such a way as not to have him pull on the halter, and as they are often troublesome to get into a stable the first few times, I will give you some instructions about getting him in. HOW TO LEAD A COLT INTO THE STABLE AND HITCH HIM WITHOUT HAVING HIM PULL ON THE HALTER. You should lead the broke horse into the stable first, and get the colt, if you can, to follow in after him. If he refuses to go, step up to him, taking a little stick or switch in your right hand; then take hold of the halter close to his head with your left hand, at the same time reaching over his back with your right arm so that you can tap him on the opposite side with your switch; bring him up facing the door, tap him lightly with your switch, reaching as far back with it as you can. This tapping, by being pretty well back, and on the opposite side, will drive him ahead, and keep him close to you, then by giving him the right direction with your left hand you can walk into the stable with him. I have walked colts into the stable this way, in less than a minute, after men had worked at them half an hour, trying to pull them in. If you cannot walk him it at once this way, turn him about and walk him round in every direction, until you can get him up to the door without pulling at him. Then let him stand a few minutes, keeping his head in the right direction with the halter, and he will walk in, in less than ten minutes. Never attempt to pull the colt into the stable; that would make him think at once that it was a dangerous place, and if he was not afraid of it before, he would be then. Besides we don't want him to know anything about pulling on the halter. Colts are often hurt, and sometimes killed, by trying to force them into the stable; and those who attempt to do it in that way, go into an up-hill business, when a plain smooth road is before them. If you want to hitch your colt, put him in a tolerably wide stall which should not be too long, and should be connected by a bar or something of that kind to the partition behind it; so that, after the colt is in he cannot get far enough back to take a straight, backward pull on the halter; then by hitching him in the center of the stall, it would be impossible for him to pull on the halter, the partition behind preventing him from going back, and the halter in the center checking him every time he turns to the left or right. In a state of this kind you can break every horse to stand hitched by a light strap, any where, without his ever knowing any thing about pulling. But if you have broke your horse to lead, and have learned him the use of the halter (which you should always do before you hitch him to any thing), you can hitch him in any kind of a stall, and give him something to eat to keep him up to his place for a few minutes at first and there is not one colt in fifty that will pull on his halter. THE KIND OF BIT AND HOW TO ACCUSTOM A HORSE TO IT. You should use a large, smooth, snaffle bit, so as not to hurt his mouth, with a bar to each side, to prevent the bit from pulling through either way. This you should attach to the head-stall of your bridle and put it on your colt without any reins to it, and let him run loose in a large stable or shed, some time, until he becomes a little used to the bit, and will bear it without trying to get it out of his mouth. It would be well, if convenient, to repeat this several times before you do anything more with the colt; as soon as he will bear the bit, attach a single rein to it, without any martingale. You should also have a halter on your colt, or a bridle made after the fashion of a halter, with a strap to it, so that you can hold or lead him about without pulling on the bit much. He is now ready for the saddle. HOW TO SADDLE A COLT. Any one man, who has this theory, can put a saddle on the wildest colt that ever grew, without any help, and without scaring him. The first thing will be to tie each stirrup strap into a loose knot to make them short, and prevent the stirrups from flying about and hitting him. Then double up the skirts and take the saddle under your right arm, so as not to frighten him with it as you approach. When you get to him, rub him gently a few times with your hand, and then raise the saddle very slowly until he can see it, and smell, and feel it with his nose. Then let the skirts loose, and rub it very gently against his neck the way the hair lays, letting him hear the rattle of the skirts as he feels them against him; each time getting a little farther backward, and finally slip it over his shoulders on his back. Shake it a little with your hand, and in less than five minutes you can rattle it about over his back as much as you please, and pull it off and throw it on again, without his paying much attention to it. As soon as you have accustomed him to the saddle, fasten the girth. Be careful how you do this. It often frightens a Colt when he feels the girth binding him, and making the saddle fit tight on his back. You should bring up the girth very gently, and not draw it too tight at first, just enough to hold the saddle on. Move him a little, and then girth it as tight as you choose, and he will not mind it. You should see that the pad of your saddle is all right before you put it on, and that there is nothing to make it hurt him, or feel unpleasant to his back. It should not have any loose straps on the back part of it to flap about and scare him. After you have saddled him in this way, take a switch in your right hand to tap him up with, and walk about in the stable a few times with your right arm over the saddle, taking hold of the reins on each side of his neck, with your right and left hands. Thus marching him about in the stable until you learn him the use of the bridle, and can turn him about in any direction, and stop him by a gentle pull of the rein. Always caress him, and loose the reins a little every time you stop him. You should always be alone, and have your colt in some tight stable or shed, the first time you ride him; the loft should be high so that you can sit on his back without endangering your head. You can learn him more in two hours time in a stable of this kind, than you could in two weeks in the common way of breaking colts, out in an open place. It you follow my course of treatment, you need not run any risk, or have any trouble in riding the worst kind of a horse. You take him a step at a time, until you get up a mutual confidence and trust between yourself and horse. First learn him to lead and stand hitched, next acquaint him with the saddle, and the use of the bit; and then all that remains, is to get on him without scaring him, and you can ride him as well as any horse. HOW TO MOUNT THE COLT. First gentle him well on both sides, about the saddle, and all over, until he will stand still without holding, and is not afraid to see you any where about him. As soon as you have him thus gentled, get a small block, about one foot or eighteen inches in height, and set it down by the side of him, about where you want to stand to mount him; step up on this, raising yourself very gently; horses notice every change of position very closely, and if you were to step up suddenly on the block, it would be very apt to scare him; but by raising yourself gradually on it, he will see you, without being frightened, in a position very near the same as when you are on his back. As soon as he will bear this without alarm, untie the stirrup strap next to you, and put your left foot into the stirrup, and stand square over it, holding your knee against the horse, and your toe out, so as to touch him under the shoulder with the toe of your boot. Place your right hand on the front of the saddle and on the opposite side of you. Taking hold of a portion of the mane and the reins as they hang loosely over his neck with your left hand; then gradually bear your weight on the stirrup, and on your right hand, until the horse feels your whole weight on the saddle; repeat this several times, each time raising yourself a little higher from the block, until he will allow you to raise your leg over his croop, and place yourself in the saddle. There are three great advantages in having a block to mount from. First, a sudden change of position is very apt to frighten a young horse that has never been handled; he will allow you to walk up to him, and stand by his side without scaring at you, because you have gentled him to that position, but if you get down on your hands and knees and crawl towards him, he will be very much frightened, and upon the same principle, he would frighten at your new position if you had the power to hold yourself over his back without touching him. Then the first great advantage of the block is to gradually gentle him to that new position in which he will see you when you ride him. Secondly, by the process of leaning your weight in the stirrups, and on your hand, you can gradually accustom him to your weight, so as not to frighten him by having him feel it all at once. And in the third place the block elevates you so that you will not have to make a spring in order to get on to the horse's back, but from it you can gradually raise yourself into the saddle. When you take these precautions, there is no horse so wild, but what you can mount him without making him jump. I have tried it on the worst horses that could be found, and have never failed in any case. When mounting, your horse should always stand without being held. A horse is never well broke when he has to be held with a tight rein while mounting; and a colt is never so safe to mount, as when you see that assurance of confidence, and absence of fear, which causes him to stand without holding. HOW TO RIDE THE COLT. When you want him to start do not touch him on the side with your heel or do anything to frighten him and make him jump. But speak to him kindly, and if he does not start pull him a little to the left until he starts, and then let him walk off slowly with the reins loose. Walk him around in the stable a few times until he gets used to the bit, and you can turn him about in every direction and stop him as you please. It would be well to get on and off a good many times until he gets perfectly used to it before you take him out of the stable. After you have trained him in this way, which should not take you more than one or two hours, you can ride him any where you choose without ever having him jump or make any effort to throw you. When you first take him out of the stable be very gentle with him, as he will feel a little more at liberty to jump or run, and be a little easier frightened than he was while in the stable. But after handling him so much in the stable he will be pretty well broke, and you will be able to manage him without trouble or danger. When you first mount him take a little the shortest hold on the left rein, so that if any thing frightens him you can prevent him jumping by pulling his head around to you. This operation of pulling a horse's head around against his side will prevent any horse from jumping ahead, rearing up, or running away. If he is stubborn and will not go you can make him move by pulling his head around to one side, when whipping would have no effect. And turning him around a few times will make him dizzy, and then by letting him have his head straight, and giving him a little touch with the whip, he will go along without any trouble. Never use martingales on a colt when you first ride him; every movement of the hand should go right to the bit in the direction in which it is applied to the reins, without a martingale to change the direct of the force applied. You can guide the colt much better without them, and learn him the use of the bit in much less time. Besides, martingales would prevent you from pulling his head around if he should try to jump. After your colt has been rode until he is gentle and well accustomed to the bit, you may find it an advantage if he carries his head too high, or his nose too far out, to put martingales on him. You should be careful not to ride your colt so far at first as to heat, worry or tire him. Get off as soon as you see he is a little fatigued; gentle him and let him rest, this will make him kind to you and prevent him from getting stubborn or mad. THE PROPER WAY TO BIT A COLT. Farmers often put bitting harness on a colt the first thing they do to him, buckling up the bitting as tight as they can draw it to make him carry his head high, and then turn him out in a lot to run a half day at a time. This is one of the worst punishments that they could inflict on the colt, and very injurious to a young horse that has been used to running in pasture with his head down. I have seen colts so injured in this way that they never got over it. A horse should be well accustomed to the bit before you put on the bitting harness, and when you first bit him you should only rein his head up to that point where he naturally holds it, let that be high or low; he will soon learn that he cannot lower his head, and that raising it a little will loosen the bit in his mouth. This will give him the idea of raising his head to loosen the bit, and then you can draw the bitting a little tighter every time you put it on, and he will still raise his head to loosen it; by this means you will gradually get his head and neck in the position you want him to carry it, and give him a nice and graceful carriage without hurting him, making him mad, or causing his mouth to get sore. If you put the bitting on very tight the first time, he cannot raise his head enough to loosen it, but will bear on it all the time, and paw, sweat and throw himself. Many horses have been killed by falling backward with the bitting on, their heads being drawn up, strike the ground with the whole weight of the body. Horses that have their heads drawn up tightly should not have the bitting on more than fifteen or twenty minutes at a time. HOW TO DRIVE A HORSE THAT IS VERY WILD, AND HAS ANY VICIOUS HABIT Take up one fore foot and bend his knee till his hoof is bottom upwards, and merely touching his body, then slip a loop over his knee, and up until it comes above the pasture joint to keep it up, being careful to draw the loop together between the hoof and pasture joint with a second strap of some kind, to prevent the loop from slipping down and coming off. This will leave the horse standing on three legs; you can now handle him as you wish, for it is utterly impossible for him to kick in this position. There is something in this operation of taking up one foot that conquers a horse quicker and better than any thing else you can do to him. There is no process in the world equal to it to break a kicking horse, for several reasons. First, there is a principle of this kind in the nature of the horse; that by conquering one member you conquer to a great extent the whole horse. You have perhaps seen men operate upon this principle by sewing a horse's ears together to prevent him from kicking. I once saw a plan given in a newspaper to make a bad horse stand to be shod, which was to fasten down one ear. There were no reasons given why you should do so; but I tried it several times, and thought it had a good effect--though I would not recommend its use, especially stitching his ears together. The only benefit arising from this process is, that by disarranging his ears we draw his attention to them, and he is not so apt to resist the shoeing. By tying up one foot we operate on the same principle to a much better effect. When you first fasten up a horse's foot he will sometimes get very mad, and strike with his knee, and try every possible way to get it down; but he cannot do that, and will soon give it up. This will conquer him better than anything you could do, and without any possible danger of hurting himself or you either, for you can tie up his foot and sit down and look at him until he gives up. When you find that he is conquered, go to him, let down his foot, rub his leg with your hand, caress him and let him rest a little, then put it up again. Repeat this a few times, always putting up the same foot, and he will soon learn to travel on three legs so that you can drive him some distance. As soon as he gets a little used to this way of traveling, put on your harness and hitch him to a sulky. If he is the worst kicking horse that ever raised a foot you need not be fearful of his doing any damage while he has one foot up, for he cannot kick, neither can he run fast enough to do any harm. And if he is the wildest horse that ever had harness on, and has run away every time he has been hitched, you can now hitch him in a sulky and drive him as you please. And if he wants to run you can let him have the lines, and the whip too, with perfect safety, for he cannot go but a slow gait on three legs, and will soon be tired and willing to stop; only hold him enough to guide him in the right direction, and he will soon be tired and willing to stop at the word. Thus you will effectually cure him at once of any further notion of running off. Kicking horses have always been the dread of every body; you always hear men say, when they speak about a bad horse, "I don't care what he does, so he don't kick." This new method is an effectual cure for this worst of all habits. There are plenty of ways by which you can hitch a kicking horse and force him to go, though he kicks all the time; but this don't have any good effect towards breaking him, for we know that horses kick because they are afraid of what is behind them, and when they kick against it and it hurts them they will only kick the harder, and this will hurt them still more and make them remember the scrape much longer, and make it still more difficult to persuade them to have any confidence in any thing dragging behind them ever after. But by this new method you can hitch them to a rattling sulky, plow, wagon, or anything else in its worst shape. They may be frightened at first, but cannot kick or do any thing to hurt themselves, and will soon find that you do not intend to hurt them, and then they will not care any thing more about it. You can then let down the leg and drive along gently without any farther trouble. By this new process a bad kicking horse can be learned to go gentle in harness in a few hours' time. ON BALKING. Horses know nothing about balking, only as they are brought into it by improper management, and when a horse balks in harness it is generally from some mismanagement, excitement, confusion, or from not knowing how to pull, but seldom from any unwillingness to perform all that he understands. High spirited, free going horses are the most subject to balking, and only so because drivers do not properly understand how to manage this kind. A free horse in a team may be so anxious to go that when he hears the word he will start with a jump, which will not move the load, but give him such a severe jerk on the shoulders that he will fly back and stop the other horse; the teamster will continue his driving without any cessation, and by the time he has the slow horse started again he will find that the free horse has made another jump, and again flew back, and now he has them both badly balked, and so confused that neither of them knows what is the matter, or how to start the load. Next will come the slashing and cracking of the whip, and hallooing of the driver, till something is broken or he is through with his course of treatment. But what a mistake the driver commits by whipping his horse for this act. Reason and common sense should teach him that the horse was willing and anxious to go, but did not know how to start the load. And should he whip him for that? If so, he should whip him again for not knowing how to talk. A man that wants to act with any rationality or reason should not fly into a passion, but should always think before he strikes. It takes a steady pressure against the collar to move a load, and you cannot expect him to act with a steady, determined purpose while you are whipping him. There is hardly one balking horse in five hundred that will pull true from whipping; it is only adding fuel to fire, and will make them more liable to balk another time. You always see horses that have been balked a few times, turn their heads and look back, as soon as they are a little frustrated. This is because they have been whipped and are afraid of what is behind them. This is an invariable rule with balked horses, just as much as it is for them to look around at their sides when they have the bots; in either case they are deserving of the same sympathy and the same kind, rational treatment. When your horse balks, or is a little excited, if he wants to start quickly, or looks around and don't want to go, there is something wrong, and needs kind he treatment immediately. Caress him kindly, and if he don't understand at once what you want him to do he will not be so much excited as to jump and break things, and do everything wrong through fear. As long as you are calm and can keep down the excitement of the horse, there are ten chances to have him understand you, where there would not be one under harsh treatment, and then the little _flare up_ would not carry with it any unfavorable recollections, and he would soon forget all about it, and learn to pull true. Almost every wrong act the horse commits is from mismanagement, fear or excitement; one harsh word will so excite a nervous horse as to increase his pulse ten beats in a minute. When we remember that we are dealing with dumb brutes, and reflect how difficult it must be for them to understand our motions, signs and language, we should never get out of patience with them because they don't understand us, or wonder at their doing things wrong. With all our intellect, if we were placed in the horse's situation, it would be difficult for us to understand the driving of some foreigner, of foreign ways and foreign language. We should always recollect that our ways and language are just as foreign and unknown to the horse as any language in the world is to us, and should try to practice what we could understand, were we the horse, endeavoring by some simple means to work on his understanding rather than on the different parts of his body. All balked horses can be started true and steady in a few minutes time; they are all willing to pull as soon as they know how, and I never yet found a balked horse that I could not teach him to start his load in fifteen, and often less than three minutes time. Almost any team, when first balked, will start kindly, if you let them stand five or ten minutes, as though there was nothing wrong, and then speak to them with a steady voice, and turn them a little to the right or left, so as to get them both in motion before they feel the pinch of the load. But if you want to start a team that you are not driving yourself, that has been balked, fooled and whipped for some time, go to them and hang the lines on their hames, or fasten them to the wagon, so that they will be perfectly loose; make the driver and spectators (if there is any) stand off some distance to one side, so as not to attract the attention of the horses; unloose their checkreins, so that they can get their heads down, if they choose; let them stand a few minutes in this condition, until you can see that they are a little composed. While they are standing you should be about their heads, gentling them; it will make them a little more kind, and the spectators will think that you are doing something that they do not understand, and will not learn the secret. When you have them ready to start, stand before them, and as you seldom have but one balky horse in a team, get as near in front of him as you can, and if he is too fast for the other horse, let his nose come against your breast; this will keep him steady, for he will go slow rather than run on you; turn them gently to the right, without letting them pull on the traces, as far as the tongue will let them go; stop them with a kind word, gentle them a little, and then turn them back to the left, by the same process. You will have them under your control by this time, and as you turn them again to the right, steady them in the collar, and you can take them where you please. There is a quicker process that will generally start a balky horse, but not so sure. Stand him a little ahead, so that his shoulders will be against the collar, and then take up one of his fore feet in your hand, and let the driver start them, and when the weight comes against his shoulders, he will try to step; then let him have his foot, and he will go right along. If you want to break a horse from balking that has long been in that habit, you ought to set apart a half day for that purpose. Put him by the side of some steady horse; have check lines on them; tie up all the traces and straps, so that there will be nothing to excite them; do not rein them up, but let them have their heads loose. Walk them about together for some time as slowly and lazily as possible; stop often, and go up to your balky horse and gentle him. Do not take any whip about him, or do any thing to excite him, but keep him just as quiet as you can. He will soon learn to start off at the word, and stop whenever you tell him. As soon as he performs right, hitch him in an empty wagon; have it stand in a favorable position for starting. It would be well to shorten the stay chain behind the steady horse, so that if it is necessary he can take the weight of the wagon the first time you start them. Do not drive but a few rods at first; watch your balky horse closely, and if you see that he is getting balky, stop him before he stops of his own accord, caress him a little, and start again. As soon as they go well, drive them over a small hill a few times, and then over a large one, occasionally adding a little load. This process will make any horse true to pull. TO BREAK A HORSE TO HARNESS. Take him in a tight stable, as you did to ride him; take the harness and go through the same process that you did with the saddle, until you get him familiar with them, so that you can put them on him and rattle them about without his caring for them. As soon as he will bear this, put on the lines, caress him as you draw them over him, and drive him about in the stable till he will bear them over his hips. The _lines_ are a great aggravation to some colts, and often frighten them as much as if you were to raise a whip over them. As soon as he is familiar with the harness and line, take him out and put him by the side of a gentle horse, and go through the same process that you did with the balking horse. Always use a bridle without blinds when you are breaking a horse to harness. HOW TO HITCH A HORSE IN A SULKY. Lead him to and around it; let him look at it, touch it with his nose, and stand by it till he does not care for it; then pull the shafts a little to the left, and stand by your horse in front of the off wheel. Let some one stand on the right side of the horse, and hold him by the bit, while you stand on the left side, facing the sulky. This will keep him straight. Run your left hand back and let it rest on his hip, and lay hold of the shafts with your right, bringing them up very gently to the left hand, which still remains stationary. Do not let anything but your arm touch his back, and as soon as you have the shafts square over him, let the person on the opposite side take hold of one of them and lower them very gently on the shaft bearers. Be very slow and deliberate about hitching; the longer time you take, the better, as a general thing. When you have the shafts placed, shake them slightly, so that he will feel them against each side. As soon as he will bear them without scaring, fasten your braces, etc., and start him along very slowly. Let one man lead the horse to keep him gentle, while the other gradually works back with the lines till he can get behind and drive him. After you have driven him in this way a short distance, you can get into the sulky, and all will go right. It is very important to have your horse go gently, when you first hitch him. After you have walked him awhile, there is not half so much danger of his scaring. Men do very wrong to jump up behind a horse to drive him as soon as they have him hitched. There are too many things for him to comprehend all at once. The shafts, the lines, the harness, and the rattling of the sulky, all tend to scare him, and he must be made familiar with them by degrees. If your horse is very wild, I would advise you to put up one foot the first time you drive him. HOW TO MAKE A HORSE LIE DOWN. Every thing that we want to learn the horse must be commenced in some way to give him an idea of what you want him to do, and then be repeated till he learns it perfectly. To make a horse lie down, bend his left fore leg, and slip a loop over it, so that he cannot get it down. Then put a circingle around his body, and fasten one end of a long strap around the other fore leg, just above the hoof. Place the other end under the circingle, so as to keep the strap in the right hand; stand on the left side of the horse, grasp the bit in your left hand, pull steadily on the strap with your right; bear against his shoulder till you cause him to move. As soon as he lifts his weight, your pulling will raise the other foot, and he will have to come on his knees. Keep the strap tight in your hand, so that he cannot straighten his leg if he raises up. Hold him in his position, and turn his head toward you; bear against his side with your shoulder, not hard, but with a steady equal pressure, and in about ten minutes he will lie down. As soon as he lies down he will be completely conquered, and you can handle him as you please. Take off the straps, and straighten out his legs; rub him lightly about the face and neck with your hand the way the hair lays; handle all his legs, and after he has lain ten or twenty minutes, let him get up again. After resting him a short time, make him lie down as before. Repeat the operation three or four times, which will be sufficient for one lesson. Give him two lessons a day, and when you have given him four lessons, he will lie down by taking hold of one foot. As soon as he is well broken to lie down in this way, tap him on the opposite leg with a stick when you take hold of his foot, and in a few days he will lie down from the mere motion of the stick. HOW TO MAKE A HORSE FOLLOW YOU. Turn him into a large stable or shed, where there is no chance to get out, with a halter or bridle on. Go to him and gentle him a little, take hold of his halter and turn him towards you, at the same time touching him lightly over the hips with a long whip. Lead him the length of the stable, rubbing him on the neck, saying in a steady tone of voice as you lead him, COME ALONG BOY! or use his name instead of boy, if you choose. Every time you turn, touch him slightly with the whip, to make him step up close to you, and then caress him with your hand. He will soon learn to hurry up to escape the whip and be caressed, and you can make him follow you around without taking hold of the halter. If he should stop and turn from you, give him a few cuts about the hind legs, and he will soon turn his head toward you, when you must always caress him. A few lessons of this kind will make him run after you, when he sees the motion of the whip--in twenty or thirty minutes he will follow you about the stable. After you have given him two or three lessons in the stable, take him out into a small lot and train him; and from thence you can take him into the road and make him follow you anywhere, and run after you. HOW TO MAKE A HORSE STAND WITHOUT HOLDING. After you have him well broken to follow you, stand him in the center of the stable--begin at his head to caress him, gradually working backward. If he move, give him a cut with the whip and put him back in the same spot from which he started. If he stands, caress him as before, and continue gentling him in this way until you can get round him without making him move. Keep walking around him, increasing your pace, and only touch him occasionally. Enlarge your circle as you walk around and if he then moves, give him another cut with the whip and put him back to his place. If he stands, go to him frequently and caress him, and then walk around him again. Do not keep him in one position too long at a time, but make him come to you occasionally and follow you round in the stable. Then stand him in another place, and proceed as before. You should not train your horse more than half an hour at a time. THE HORSEMAN'S GUIDE AND FARRIER. BY JOHN J. STUTZMAN, WEST RUSHVILLE, FAIRFIELD COUNTY, OHIO. I will here insert some of the most efficient cures of diseases to which the horse is subject. I have practised them for many years with unparalleled success. I have cured horses with the following remedies, which, (in many cases,) have been given up in despair, and I never had a case in which I did not effect a cure. CURE FOR COLIC. Take 1 gill of turpentine, 1 gill of opium dissolved in whisky; 1 quart of water, milk warm. Drench the horse and move him about slowly. If there is no relief in fifteen minutes, take a piece of chalk, about the size of an egg, powder it, and put it into a pint of cider vinegar, which should be blood warm, give that, and then move him as before. ANOTHER.--Take 1 ounce laudanum, 1 ounce of ether, 1 ounce of tincture of assafoetida, 2 ounces tincture of peppermint, half pint of whisky; put all in a quart bottle, shake it well and drench the horse. CURE FOR THE BOTS. Take 1-1/2 pint of fresh milk, (just from the cow,) 1 pint of molasses. Drench the horse and bleed him in the mouth; then give him 1 pint of linseed oil to remove them. FOR DISTEMPER. Take mustard seed ground fine, tar and rye chop, make pills about the size of a hen's egg. Give him six pills every six hours, until they physic him; then give him one table spoonful of the horse powder mentioned before, once a day, until cured. Keep him from cold water for six hours after using the powder. LONG FEVER. In the first place bleed the horse severely. Give him spirits of nitre, in water which should not be too cold, for it would chill him. Keep him well covered with blankets, and rub his legs and body well; blister him around the chest with mustard seed, and be sure to give him no cold water, unless there is spirits of nitre in it. RHEUMATIC LINIMENT. Take croton oil, aqua ammonia, f.f.f; oil of cajuput, oil of origanum, in equal parts. Rub well. It is good for spinal diseases and weak back. CUTS AND WOUNDS OF ALL KINDS. One pint of alcohol, half ounce of gum of myrrh, half ounce aloes, wash once a day. SPRAINS AND SWELLINGS. Take 1-1/2 ounces of harts-horn, 1 ounce camphor, 2 ounces spirits of turpentine, 4 ounces sweet oil, 8 ounces alcohol. Anoint twice a day. FOR GLANDERS. Take of burnt buck's horn a table spoonful, every three days for nine days. If there is no relief in that time, continue the powder until there is relief. SADDLE OR COLLAR LINIMENT. One ounce of spirits of turpentine, half ounce of oil of spike, half ounce essence of wormwood, half ounce castile soap, half ounce gum camphor, half ounce sulphuric ether, half pint alcohol, and wash freely. LINIMENT TO SET THE STIFLE JOINT ON A HORSE. One ounce oil of spike, half ounce origanum, half ounce oil amber. Shake it well and rub the joints twice a day until cured, which will be in two or three days. EYE WATER. I have tried the following and found it an efficient remedy. I have tried it on my own eyes and those of others. Take bolus muna 1 ounce, white vitrol 1 ounce, alum half ounce, with one pint clear rain water: shake it well before using. If too strong, weaken it with rain water. LINIMENT FOR WINDGALLS, STRAINS AND GROWTH OF LUMPS ON MAN OR HORSE. One ounce oil of spike, half ounce origanum, half ounce amber, aqua fortis and sal amoniac 1 drachm, spirits of salts 1 drachm oil of sassafras half ounce, harts-horn half ounce. Bathe once or twice a day. HORSE POWDER. This powder will cure more diseases than any other medicine known; such as Distemper, Fersey, Hidebound, Colds, and all lingering diseases which may arise from impurity of the blood or lungs.--Take 1 lb. comfrey root, half lb. antimony, half lb. sulphur, 3 oz. of saltpetre, half lb. laurel berries, half lb. juniper berries, half lb. angetice seed, half lb. rosin, 3 oz. alum, half lb. copperas, half lb. master wort, half lb. gun powder. Mix all to a powder and give in the most cases, one table spoonful in mash feed once a day till cured. Keep the horse dry, and keep him from the cold water six hours after using it. FOR CUTS OR WOUNDS ON HORSE OR MAN. Take fishworms mashed up with old bacon oil, and tie on the wound, which is the surest and safest cure. OIL FOR COLLARS. This oil will also cure bruises, sores, swellings, strains or galls. Take fishworms and put them in a crock or other vessel 24 hours, till they become clean; then put them in a bottle and throw plenty of salt upon them, place them near a stove and they will turn to oil; rub the parts affected freely. I have cured knee-sprung horses with this oil frequently. SORE AND SCUMMED EYES ON HORSES. Take fresh butter or rabbit's fat, honey, and the white of three eggs, well stirred up with salt, and black pepper ground to a fine powder; mix it well and apply to the eye with a feather. Also rub above the eye (in the hollow,) with the salve. Wash freely with cold spring water. FOR A BRUISED EYE. Take rabbit's fat, and use as above directed. Bathe freely with fresh spring water. I have cured many bloodshot eyes with this simple remedy. POLL-EVIL OR FISTULA. Take of Spanish flies 1 oz., gum euphorbium 3 drachms, tartar emetic 1 oz., rosin 3 oz.; mix and pulverize, and then mix them with a half lb. of lard. Anoint every three days for three weeks; grease the parts affected with lard every four days. Wash with soap and water before using the salve. In poll-evil, if open, pulverize black bottle glass, put as much in each ear as will lay on a dime. The above is recommended in outside callous, such as spavin, ringbone, curbs, windgalls, etc. etc. FOR THE FERSEY. Take 1 quart of sassafras root bark, 1 quart burdock root, spice wood broke fine, 1 pint rattle weed root. Boil in 1-1/2 gallons of water; scald bran; when cool give it to the horse once a day for 3 or 4 days. Then bleed him in the neck and give him the horse powder as directed. In extreme cases, I also rowel in the breast and hind legs, to extract the corruption and remove the swelling. This is also an efficient remedy for blood diseases, etc., etc. TO MAKE THE HAIR GROW ON MAN OR BEAST. Take milk of sulphur 1/2 drachm, sugar of lead 1/2 drachm, rose water 1/2 gill, mix and bathe well twice a day for ten days. CHOLERA OR DIARRHEA TINCTURE. 1 oz. of laudanum, 1 oz. of spirits of camphor, 1 oz. spirits of nitre, 1/2 oz. essence of peppermint, 20 drops of chloroform; put all in a bottle, shake well, and take 1/2 teaspoonful in cold water once every six, twelve and twenty-four hours, according to the nature of the case. CURE FOR THE HEAVES. Give 30 grains of tartar emetic every week until cured. PROCESS OF CAUSING A HORSE TO LAY DOWN. Approach him gently upon the left side, fasten a strap around the ancle of his fore-foot; then raise the foot gently, so as to bring the knee against the breast and the foot against the belly. The leg being in this position, fasten the strap around his arm, which will effectually prevent him from putting that foot to the ground again. Then fasten a strap around the opposite leg, and bring it over his shoulder, on the left side, so that you can catch hold of it; then push these gently, and when he goes to fall, pull the strap, which will bring him on his knees. Now commence patting him under the belly; by continuing your gentle strokes upon the belly, you will, in a few minutes, bring him to his knees behind. Continue the process, and he will lie entirely down, and submit himself wholly to your treatment. By thus proceeding gently, you may handle his feet and legs in any way you choose. However wild and fractious a horse may be naturally, after practicing this process a few times, you will find him perfectly gentle and submissive, and even disposed to follow you anywhere, and unwilling to leave you on any occasion. Unless the horse be wild, the first treatment will be all sufficient; but should he be too fractious to be approached in a manner necessary to perform the first named operation, this you will find effectual, and you may then train your horse to harness or anything else with the utmost ease. In breaking horses for harness, after giving the powders, put the harness on gently, without startling him, and pat him gently, then fasten _the chain_ to a log, which he will draw for an indefinite length of time. When you find him sufficiently gentle, place him to a wagon or other vehicle. NOTE.--Be _extremely_ careful in catching a horse, not to affright him. After he is caught, and the powders given, rub him gently on the head, neck, back and legs, and on each side of the eyes, the way the hair lies, but be very careful not to whip, for a young horse is equally passionate with yourself, and this pernicious practice has ruined many fine and valuable horses. When you are riding a colt (or even an old horse), do not whip him if he scares, but draw the bridle, so that his eye may rest upon the object which has affrighted him, and pat him upon the neck as you approach it; by this means you will pacify him, and render him less liable to start in future. MEANS OF LEARNING A HORSE TO PACE. Buckle a four pound weight around the ancles of his hind legs, (lead is preferable) ride your horse briskly with those weights upon his ancles, at the same time, twitching each rein of the bridle alternately, by this means you will immediately throw him into a pace. After you have trained him in this way to some extent, change your leaded weights for something lighter; leather padding, or something equal to it, will answer the purpose; let him wear these light weights until he is perfectly trained. This process will make a smooth and easy pacer of any horse. HORSEMANSHIP. The rider should, in the first place, let the horse know that he is not afraid of him. Before mounting a horse, take the rein into the left hand, draw it tightly, put the left foot in the stirrup, and raise quickly. When you are seated press your knees to the saddle, let your leg, from the knee, stand out; turn your toe in and heel out; sit upright in your saddle, throw your weight forward--one third of it in the stirrups--and hold your rein tight. Should your horse scare, you are braced in your saddle and he cannot throw you. INDICATION OF A HORSE'S DISPOSITION. A long, thin neck indicates a good disposition, contrariwise, if it be short and thick. A broad forehead, high between the ears, indicates a very vicious disposition. CURES, &C. _Cure for the Founder._--Let 1-1/2 gallons of blood from the neck vein, make frequent applications of hot water to his forelegs; after which, bathe them in wet cloths, then give one quart Linseed Oil. The horse will be ready for service the next day. _Botts._--Mix one pint honey with one quart sweet milk, give as a drench, one hour after, dissolve 1 oz. pulverized Coperas in a pint of water, use likewise, then give one quart of Linseed Oil. Cure effectual. _Colic._--After bleeding copiously in the mouth, take a half pound of raw cotton, wrap it around a coal of fire in such a way as to exclude the air; when it begins to smoke, hold it under the horse's nose until he becomes easy. Cure certain in ten minutes. _Distemper._--Take 1-1/2 gallons blood from the neck vein, then give a dose of Sassafras Oil, 1-1/2 ounces is sufficient. Cure speedy and certain. _Fistula._--When it makes its appearance, rowel both sides of the shoulder; if it should break, take one ounce of verdigris, 1 ounce oil rosin, 1 ounce copperas, pulverize and mix together. Use it as a salve. RECEIPT FOR BONE SPAVIN OR RING-BONE. Take a table-spoonful of corrosive sublimate; quicksilver about the size of a bean; 3 or 4 drops of muriatic acid; iodine about the size of a pea, and lard enough to form a paste; grind the iodine and sublimate fine as flour, and put altogether in a cup, mix well, then shear the hair all off the size you want; wash clean with soap-suds, rub dry, then apply the medicine. Let it stay on five days; if it does not take effect, take it off, mix it over with a little more lard, and add some fresh medicine. When the lump comes out, wash it clean in soap-suds, then apply a poultice of cow dung, leave it on twelve hours, then apply healing medicine. TEMPERANCE BEVERAGE. One quart of water, three pounds of sugar, one teaspoonful of lemon oil, one table-spoonful of flour, with the white of four eggs, well beat up. Mix the above well together, then divide the syrup, and add four ounces of carbonic soda in one-half, and three ounces of tartaric acid in the other half; then bottle for use. SARSAPARILLA SYRUP. One ounce Sarsaparilla, two pounds brown sugar, ten drops wintergreen, and half pint of water. "THE MOST WONDERFUL BOOK EVER WRITTEN." ESOTERIC ANTHROPOLOGY INTERIOR SCIENCE OF MAN. A Comprehensive and Confidential Treaties on the Structure and Functions, Passional attractions and Perversions; True and False Physical and Social Conditions, and the most intimate relations of men and women. By T.L. Nichols, M.D. 482 pages, 81 engravings, cloth. THIS BOOK IS ALL THAT ITS TITLE INDICATES.--It treats of the generation, formation, birth, infancy youth, manhood, old age, and death of man; of health and disease, marriage and celibacy, virtue and vice, happiness and misery; of education, development and the laws of a true life. It is intended to answer all questions, and to give the fullest and most reliable information on every subject of a physiological or medical nature--to be a faithful friend in health and disease, and in all the conditions of life, especially to the young of both sexes, and those who are about to enter upon new relations. It contains the highest and deepest truths in Human Physiology, with their individual and social application; the true nature and hidden causes of disease; the condition of health, physical and passional; all that information which every human being needs, which few dare to ask for, or know how to obtain, but which, amid the discordances of civilization, is of priceless value. The portion of the work on the generative system, is written with entire frankness and fully illustrated, and is unquestionably the most remarkable exposition of the physical, spiritual, and passional nature of man ever written--so remarkable indeed, that it has seemed to many persons to be the result of direct inspiration. The whole subject of the relations of the sexes, or love, marriage, and paternity, is laid open, as it never has been by any other author. A miscellaneous chapter, forming an appendix to this portion of the work, is also of a very remarkable character. It has been truly said, "There can scarcely be any important question, which any man or woman can ever need to ask a physician, to which this book does not contain an answer." The diseases of the generative system, physical and passional, are treated of with great fitness. Hundreds of voluntary testimonials to the extraordinary character and merits of this book have been received from persons eminently qualified to judge, among which are clergymen, physicians, lawyers, college professors, etc. We select the following: "I look upon it," says Dr. STEPHENS, of Forest City, N.Y., "as the most wonderful book ever written. It marks a new era in literature and life." "What a pity," says Dr. SCHELL, of Ind., "that a copy cannot be found in every family in the whole world!" "This book," says Dr. DODGE, of Owego, N.Y., "contains more that is weighty in fact, and sound in philosophy; more that is useful in medical science and effective in medical art; more that is purificative and elevative of man than any one work, in volumes few or many that has ever grace the Librarie Medicale of civilization." "It contains," says Dr. BAKER, of Racine, Wis. "just such knowledge as a suffering world needs, to enlighten, develop, and ennoble the minds of the people." Dr. FARRAR, of Portland, Me., says, "Esoteric Anthropology is vital in every part, refreshing every man's and woman's soul that reads it with a most grateful sense of its truth and importance. I know of no work in the world like it, or comparable with it." "I have read 'ESOTERIC ANTHROPOLOGY' with all the deep earnestness and absorbing interest with which I have ever perused the most brilliant romance. It has inspired nobler emotions, and deeper pleasure. 'Truth' is more attractive than 'fiction.' The work, I believe to be eminently true to nature--to her unerring laws; I hesitate not, therefore, to pronounce it a noble work. It will be a great blessing to humanity."--PROF. ALLEN, of Antioch College. The enthusiastic letters respecting it, received, would fill a volume, larger than book itself. Sacrificing every personal consideration, and changing his first intention, which was to keep it as strictly private and professional work, a physiological mystery, as its title indicates--the author offers ESOTERIC ANTHROPOLOGY to the whole public of readers; satisfied that no permanent evil can result to any human being, from the knowledge of the deepest truths, and most sacred mysteries of the science of life. MARK THIS.--Nearly every other work on this subject directs the reader to apply to its author for a prescription in case of sickness, accompanied by a fee; while this, although its author is a practising physician, contains not a line of this kind; its whole tendency being to place every reader, whether male or female, entirely above the need of a physician. * * * * * SENT FREE BY MAIL FOR ONE DOLLAR. * * * * * WATKIN & NICHOLSON, PUBLISHERS NO. 225 FIFTH STREET, CINCINNATI, O. _The attention of Lecturers and Book Agents is especially called to this work as being likely to give more satisfaction to the thoughtful and inquiring reader than almost and other they could introduce._ 
18033	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 18033-h.htm or 18033-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/8/0/3/18033/18033-h/18033-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/8/0/3/18033/18033-h.zip) THE BOSTON TERRIER AND ALL ABOUT IT. A Practical, Scientific, and Up to Date Guide to the Breeding of the American Dog by EDWARD AXTELL Proprietor St. Botolph Kennels, Cliftondale, Mass., U.S.A. Associate Member American Kennel Club Member of The Boston Terrier Club For Twelve Years The Boston Terrier Club of New York [Illustration: Edward Axtell] Published by Dogdom Battle Creek Mich. Copyright, 1910, by Dogdom Publishing Co. Battle Creek, Michigan Fourth Edition TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. The Boston Terrier CHAPTER II. The Boston Terrier Club; Its History; The Order of Business; Constitution, By-Laws and Official Standard The Revised Boston Terrier Standard CHAPTER III. Kenneling CHAPTER IV. General Hints On Breeding CHAPTER V. Rearing Of Puppies CHAPTER VI. Breeding For Size CHAPTER VII. Breeding For Good Disposition CHAPTER VIII. Breeding For a Vigorous Constitution CHAPTER IX. Breeding For Color and Markings CHAPTER X. Sales CHAPTER XI. Boston Terrier Type and the Standard CHAPTER XII. Picture Taking CHAPTER XIII. Notes CHAPTER XIV. Conclusion CHAPTER XV. Technical Terms Used In Relation To the Boston Terrier, and Their Meaning INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Edward Axtell Franz J. Heilborn Heilborn's Raffles Edward Burnett, a Prominent Early Breeder Barnard's Tom Hall's Max Champion Halloo Prince Bixby's Tony Boy J. P. Barnard, the Father of the Boston Terrier Champion Sonnie Punch Rockydale Junior Edward Axtell, Jr., and One of His Boston Terriers E. S. Pollard, A Large and Successful Breeder St. Botolph's Mistress King Champion Yankee Doodle Pride Champion Dallen's Spider Champion Mister Jack Champion Caddy Belle Prince Lutana Champion Fosco "Pop" Benson with Bunny II Sir Barney Blue Champion Lady Dainty Champion Todd Boy Champion Willowbrook Glory Squantum Punch Tony Ringmaster Goode's Buster Champion Whisper Champion Druid Vixen Champion Remlik Bonnie Champion Boylston Reina Champion Roxie Peter's Little Boy and Ch. Trimont Roman Champion Lord Derby Gordon Boy, Gretchen, Derby's Buster, Tommy Tucker, Ch. Lord Derby Gordon Boy Champion Dean's Lady Luana Mrs. William Kuback, with Ch. Lady Sensation CHAPTER I. THE BOSTON TERRIER. Who and what is this little dog that has forced his way by leaps and bounds from Boston town to the uttermost parts of this grand country, from the broad Atlantic to the Golden Gate, and from the Canadian border to the Gulf of Mexico? Nay, not content with this, but has overrun the imaginary borders north and south until he is fast becoming as great a favorite on the other side as here, and who promises in the near future, unless all signs fail, to cross all oceans, and extend his conquests wherever man is found that can appreciate beauty and fidelity in man's best friend. What passports does he present that he should be entitled to the recognition that he has everywhere accorded him? A dog that has in 35 years or less so thoroughly established himself in the affections of the great body of the American people, so that his friends offer no apology whatever in calling him the American dog, must possess peculiar qualities that endear him to all classes and conditions of men, and I firmly believe that when all the fads for which his native city is so well known have died a natural death, he will be in the early bloom of youth. Yea, in the illimitable future, when the historian McCauley's New Zealander is lamenting over the ruins of that marvelous city of London, he will be accompanied by a Boston terrier, who will doubtless be intelligent enough to share his grief. In reply to the query as to who and what he is, it will be readily recalled that on the birth of possibly the greatest poet the world has ever seen it was stated: "The force of nature could no further go, To make a third, she joined the other two." And this applies with equal force to the production of the Boston terrier. The two old standard breeds of world-wide reputation, the English bulldog and the bull terrier, had to be joined to make a third which we believe to be the peer of either, and the superior of both. The dog thus evolved possesses a type and individuality strictly his own, inherited from both sides of the house, and is a happy medium between these two grand breeds, possessing the best qualities of each. To some the name "terrier" would suggest the formation of the dog on approximate terrier lines, but this is as completely erroneous as to imagine that the dog should approach in like proportion to the bull type. When the dog was in its infancy it was frequently called the Boston bull, and then again the round-headed bull and terrier, and later, when the Boston Terrier Club was taken under the wings of the great A.K.C. in 1893, it became officially known as the Boston terrier. There are several features that are characteristic of the dog that tend to its universal popularity--its attractive shape, style and size, its winning disposition, and its beautiful color and markings. From the bulldog he inherits a sweet, charming personality, quiet, restful demeanor, and an intense love of his master and home. He does not possess the restless, roving disposition which characterizes so many members of the terrier tribe, nor will he be found quarreling with other dogs. From the bull terrier side he inherits a lively mood, the quality of taking care of himself if attacked by another dog, and of his owner, too, if necessary, the propensity to be a great destroyer of all kinds of vermin if properly trained, and an ideal watch dog at night. No wonder he is popular, he deserves to be. The standard describes him as follows: "The general appearance of the Boston terrier is that of a smooth, short-coated, compactly built dog of medium station. The head should indicate a high degree of intelligence and should be in proportion to the dog's size; the body rather short and well knit, the limbs strong and finely turned, no feature being so prominent that the dog appears badly proportioned. The dog conveys an impression of determination, strength and activity, style of a high order and carriage easy and graceful." The men composing the Boston Terrier Club, who framed this standard in 1900, were as thoughtful a body as could possibly be gotten together, and they carefully considered and deliberated over every point at issue, and in my estimation this standard is as near perfect as any can be. I was an interested participant in the discussion of the same, having in my mind's eye as models those two noted dogs owned by that wonderful judge of the breed, Mr. Alex. Goode, Champion Monte, and his illustrious sire, Buster. If one takes the pains to analyze the standard he will be impressed by the perfect co-relation of harmony of all parts of the dog, from the tip of his broad, even muzzle, to the end of his short screw tail. Nothing incongruous in its makeup presents itself, but a graceful, symmetrical style characterizes the dog, and I firmly believe that any change whatever would be a detriment. [Illustration: Franz J. Heilborn] [Illustration: Heilborn's Raffles] [Illustration: Edward Burnett A Prominent Early Breeder] It seems to be hardly necessary at this late date to give a history of the dog, but perhaps for that large number of people who are intensely interested in him but have not had the chance to have been made acquainted with his origin, a brief survey may be of service. Although Boston rightly claims the honor of being the birthplace of the Boston terrier, still I think the original start of the dog was in England, for the first dog that was destined to be the ancestor of the modern Boston terrier was a dog named Judge, a cross between an English bull and bull terrier, imported from the other side and owned by Mr. R. C. Hooper, and known as Hooper's Judge. On my last visit to England I found that quite a number of dogs have been bred in this way, viz., a first cross between the bull and terrier, especially in the neighborhood of Birmingham in the middle of England; but these dogs are no more like the Boston terrier than an ass is like a thoroughbred horse. Judge was a dark brindle, with a white stripe in face, nearly even mouthed, weighing about thirty-two pounds, and approximating more to the bull than the terrier side. He was mated to a white, stocky built, three-quarter tail, low stationed bitch, named Gyp (or Kate), owned by Mr. Edward Burnett of Southboro. Like Judge, she possessed a good, short, blocky head. It may not be out of place to state here that some few years ago, on paying a visit to Mr. Burnett at Deerfoot Farm, Southboro, he told me that in the early days he possessed thirteen white Boston terrier dogs that used to accompany him in his walks about the farm, and woe to any kind of vermin or vagrant curs that showed themselves. From Judge and Gyp descended Well's Eph, a low-stationed, dark brindle dog with even white markings, weighing twenty-eight pounds. Eph was mated to a golden brindle, short-headed, twenty pound bitch, having a three-quarter tail, named Tobin's Kate. From this union came a red brindle dog with a white blaze on one side of his face, white collar, white chest, and white feet, weighing twenty-two pounds, and possessing the first screw tail, named Barnard's Tom. I shall never forget the first visit I made to Barnard's stable to see him. To my mind he possessed a certain type, style and quality such as I had never seen before, but which stamped him as the first real Boston terrier, as the dog is today understood. I was never tired of going to see him and his brother, Atkinson's Toby. Tom was mated to a dark brindle bitch, evenly marked, weighing twenty pounds. She had a good, short, blocky head, and a three-quarter tail, and known as Kelley's Nell. The result of this mating was a dog destined to make Boston terrier history, and to my mind the most famous Boston terrier born, judged by results. He was known as "Mike," commonly called "Barnard's Mike." He was a rather light brindle and white, even mouthed, short tailed dog, weighing about twenty-five pounds, very typical, but what impressed me was his large, full eye, the first I had ever seen, and which we see so often occurring in his descendants. I owned a grandson of his named "Gus," 48136, who was almost a reproduction of him, with eyes fully as large. Unfortunately he jumped out of a third-story window in my kennels and permanently ended his usefulness. Chief among the direct descendants from Hooper's Judge were the noted stud dogs, Ben Butler, Hall's Max, O'Brien's Ross, Hook's Punch, Trimount King, McMullen's Boxer, and Ben, Goode's Ned, and Bixby's Tony Boy. The two dogs that impressed me the most in that group were Max, a fairly good sized, beautiful dispositioned dog that could almost talk, belonging to Dr. Hall, then a house doctor at the Eye and Ear Infirmary, Charles street. He was used, I am told, a great deal in the stud, and sired a great many more puppies than the doctor ever knew of. Bixby's Tony Boy was the other. I had a very handsome bitch by him out of a Torrey's Ned bitch, and liked her so much that I offered Mr. Bixby, I believe, $700 for Tony, only to be told that a colored gentleman (who evidently knew a good thing when he saw it) had offered him $200 more. Of the line of early bitches of the same breeding may briefly be mentioned Reynold's Famous, dam of Gilbert's Fun; Kelley's Nell, dam of Ross and Trimount King; Saunder's Kate, dam of Ben Butler; Nolan's Mollie, dam of Doctor, Evadne and Nancy. Quite a number of other small dogs were subsequently introduced into the breed, which had now been somewhat inbred. These were largely imported from the other side, and were similar in type to Hooper's Judge. One of the most noted was the Jack Reede dog. He was an evenly marked, reddish brindle and white, rather rough in coat, three-quarter tail, weighing fourteen pounds. Another very small dog was the Perry dog, imported from Scotland, bluish and white in color, with a three-quarter straight tail, and weighing but six pounds. I have always felt very sorry not to have seen him, as he must have been a curiosity. Still another outside dog, also imported, and very quarrelsome, white in color, weighing eighteen pounds, with a good, large skull, and an eye as full as Barnard's Mike, but straight tail, was Kelley's Brick. Another outside dog (I do not know where he came from), was O'Brien's Ben. He was a short, cobby, white and tan brindle color, three-quarter tail, with a short head and even mouth. It will be observed that practically all these outside dogs were small sized, and were selected largely on that account. By the continued inbreeding of the most typical of the sons and daughters of Tom, the present type of the dog was made permanent. [Illustration: Barnard's Tom] [Illustration: Hall's Max] [Illustration: Champion Halloo Prince] [Illustration: Bixby's Tony Boy] Perhaps this somewhat restricted review of the breed, going back over thirty-six or seven years and showing the somewhat mixed ancestry of our present blue-blooded Boston terrier of today, may afford some explanation of the diversity of type frequently presented in one litter. I have seen numbers of litters where the utmost attention has been paid to every detail with the expectancy of getting crackerjacks, to find that one will have to wait for the "next time," as the litter in question showed the bull type, and the terrier also, and very little Boston; but fortunately, with the mating intelligently attended to, and the putting aside of all dogs that do not comport to the standard as non-breeders, a type of a dog will be bred true to our highest ideals. My advice to all breeders is, do not get discouraged, try, yes, try again, and Boston terriers, that gladden the eye and fill the pocketbook, will be yours. CHAPTER II. THE BOSTON TERRIER CLUB. ITS HISTORY, THE ORDER OF ITS BUSINESS, CONSTITUTION, BY-LAWS, AND OFFICIAL STANDARD. In 1890 a club was formed in Boston by a comparatively small body of men who were very much interested in the dog then known as the Round-Headed Bull and Terrier dog. These men were breeders and lovers of the dog, and their main object in coming together was not to have a social good time (although, happily, this generally took place), but to further the interests of the dog in every legitimate way. The dog had been shown at the New England Kennel Club show, held in Boston in April, 1888, being judged by Mr. J. P. Barnard, Jr., ofttimes styled "the father of the breed," practically two years before the formation of the Club. The year following the Club applied for admission in the American Kennel Club, and recognition for their dogs in the Stud Book. The A. K. C. stated that while perfectly willing to take the Club into its fold, they could not place the dog in the Stud Book, as he was not an established breed, and suggesting, that as the dog was not a bull terrier, and as he was then bred exclusively in Boston, the name of the "Boston Terrier Club." The year following the A. K. C., after a great deal of persuasion by the loyal and devoted members of the Club, became convinced of the merits of the breed, and formally acknowledged the same by admitting the Club to membership, and giving their dog a place in the official Stud Book. The Boston Terrier Club is duly incorporated under the laws of Massachusetts, has a present membership of from seventy-five to a hundred, men and women who are devoted to the dog, and willing to do everything for its advancement. The annual meeting is held on the second Wednesday in December, at which a number of judges are elected, whose names are forwarded to the bench show committees of the principal shows, requesting that one of the number be elected to officiate as judge of the Boston terriers. Monthly meetings are held which are always exceedingly interesting and instructive. The officers are elected by printed ballots sent to all members of the Club, who mark and return them. They consist of the president, vice-president, secretary, and treasurer. The executive committee consists of the officers (ex officio) and three others. The Club gives a specialty show yearly in Boston and is the largest and greatest of one breed fixtures; the dog being, in fact, one of the largest supporters of the dog shows in the country. Cups and medals are offered at most of the bench shows for competition among the members, and at the Ladies' Kennel Association shows a cup and medal were offered, open to all exhibitors of Boston terriers. In view of the fact that so many Boston Terrier Clubs are starting up all over the country, and even beyond, the following Order of Business, Constitution, By-Laws, and Official Standard, can safely be taken as models: ORDER OF BUSINESS. 1. Calling meeting to order. 2. Roll call. 3. Reading of minutes. 4. Reports of officers. 5. Reports of standing committees by seniority. 6. Reports of special committees. 7. Communications. 8. Applications for membership. 9. Election of members. 10. Election of officers. 11. Unfinished business. 12. New business. 13. Welfare of the Club. Under this heading is included remarks and debates intended to promote the interests of the Club and the Boston terrier in general. 14. Adjournment. CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE I. NAME. This Association shall be known as and called the Boston Terrier Club. ARTICLE II. OBJECT. The object of the Club shall be to promote and encourage the breeding and improvement of the Boston Terrier Dog, as defined by its standard. ARTICLE III. MEMBERSHIP. SECTION 1. Applications for membership must be accompanied by the membership fee and endorsed by two members, and made at least seven days before action by the Club, to the secretary or a member of the membership committee, who shall refer it to said committee for investigation. SEC. 2. Any member can resign from the Club by sending his resignation to the secretary in writing, and upon the acceptance of such, all his interest in the property of the Club ceases from the date of such resignation. SEC. 3. Any member whose dues shall remain unpaid for one month after the same becomes due, shall cease to be a member, and forfeit to the Club all claims and benefits to which he would have been entitled as a member, provided that the executive committee may consider his case, and upon sufficient cause shown, reinstate him to membership upon payment of his dues. ARTICLE IV. MANAGEMENT. SECTION 1. The officers of the Club shall consist of a president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, and an executive committee, of which three shall constitute a quorum; said committee to consist of the above named officers and three active members chosen by the Club. SEC. 2. Any office vacated during the year shall be filled by the executive committee. ARTICLE V. SECTION 1. Nomination for officers and judges for the ensuing year shall be made either by mail or from the floor, at a meeting to be held in November, at least twenty days prior to the annual meeting, the call to contain the purpose of the meeting, after which nominations shall be closed. The secretary shall mail a ballot containing all regular nominations to each member in time to be voted at the annual meeting. SEC. 2. The officers of the Club shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting and shall hold their respective offices for one year or until their respective successors are elected. SEC. 3. Mail voting shall be allowed on amendments to the Constitution, By-Laws, Standard and Scale of Points. SEC. 4. Each member shall have the right to vote on the election of officers and judges by mailing the official ballot duly marked and sealed to the secretary, and enclosed in an envelope, which envelope shall also contain the name of the member so voting. ARTICLE VI. MEETINGS. SECTION 1. There shall be meetings of the Club, at which seven members present and voting shall constitute a quorum, held at Boston, Mass., at such time and place as the president may direct, but the annual meeting shall be held on the second Wednesday in December of each year. SPECIAL MEETINGS. SEC. 2. A special meeting of the Club shall be called by the president on the written application of five members in good standing. BY-LAWS. ARTICLE I. DUTIES OF OFFICERS. SECTION 1. President.--The president shall discharge the usual duties of his office, preside at all meetings of the Club and of the executive committee, call special meetings of the Club, or of the executive committee, and enforce the provisions of the Constitution and By-Laws of the Club. He may vote on amendments to the Constitution or alteration of the By-Laws and Standard or Scale of Points, on the expulsion or suspension of a member, and on election of officers and judges. But on all other matters he shall vote only in case of tie and then give the deciding vote. SEC. 2. Vice-President.--The vice-president shall discharge all the duties of the president in the latter's absence. SEC. 3. Secretary.--The secretary shall have charge of all official correspondence, keep copies of all letters sent by him, and file such as he may receive, and correspond at the request of the president or executive committee on all matters appertaining to the object of the Club. He shall keep a roll of the members of the Club with their addresses. He shall be exempt from payment of annual dues. SEC. 4. Treasurer.--The treasurer shall collect and receive all moneys due the Club and keep a correct account of the same. He shall pay all orders drawn on him by the executive committee out of the funds of the Club, when countersigned by the president, and present a report of the condition of affairs in his department at the request of the executive committee or president, and at the annual meeting. The treasurer shall furnish a bond satisfactory to the executive committee. SEC. 5. Committees.--The executive committee shall make all purchases ordered by the Club, audit the accounts of the treasurer and report the same at the annual election in December, and transact all business not otherwise provided for. It shall have the power to appoint sub-committees for any special purpose, and to delegate to each sub-committee the powers and functions of the committee relating thereto. The president shall be the chairman of the executive committee. SEC. 6. Sub-Committees.--The standing sub-committees shall be a membership committee of five and a pedigree committee of three. The membership committee shall investigate the standing of all applicants, and report to the Club for action those names it considers as desirable members. The pedigree committee shall investigate the pedigrees of those dogs offered for registration in the Boston Terrier Stud Book. The chairman of the pedigree committee shall have the custody of the Club stud book, and shall enter in the same the registrations allowed by the B. T. C. ARTICLE II. DISCIPLINE. The executive committee shall have the power to discipline by suspension a member found guilty of conduct prejudicial to the best interests of the Club. All charges against a member must be made in writing and filed with the executive committee, and no member shall be suspended without an opportunity to be heard in his own defense. When the expulsion of a member is considered advisable, the report of the committee shall be presented to the Club, whose action shall be final. ARTICLE III. DUES. SECTION 1. The entrance fee shall be five dollars, which must accompany the application for membership. SEC. 2. The annual dues shall be ten dollars, payable upon notice of election and at each annual meeting thereafter. ARTICLE IV. JUDGES. SECTION 1. There shall be elected by ballot each year at the annual meeting a corps of not more than fifteen judges, a list of whose names shall be sent to bench show committees with a request that the judge of Boston terriers at their approaching shows be selected from said list. SEC. 2. The Club judges may exhibit, but shall not compete at or be interested directly or indirectly in the show at which they officiate. ARTICLE V. AMENDMENTS. This Constitution and these By-Laws, and the Standard and Scale of Points may be amended or altered by a two-thirds vote at any regular meeting or special meeting called for that purpose. Notice of proposed change having been given to all members at least ten days previous to said meeting. THE REVISED BOSTON TERRIER STANDARD The present Boston terrier standard was adopted by the Boston Terrier Club on October 7, 1914, as a result of a revision recommended by a committee appointed by the Boston Terrier Club. It was felt, in view of the fact that the dog had become established all over the continent among breeders and fanciers not as familiar with the ideal of the breed as were the original breeders and friends of the dog around Boston, that a more explicit, definite standard, one that could be more easily understood by the great body of the dog's admirers of today, should be adopted. It will be readily observed by a comparison of the old standard, which has practically been in existence since the formation of the club in 1891, that no vital point has been really changed. REVISED STANDARD OLD STANDARD. Point Values Scale of Points. 10 GENERAL APPEARANCE: The 10 GENERAL APPEARANCE AND general appearance of STYLE: The general the Boston terrier appearance of the Boston should be that of a Terrier is that of a lively, highly smooth, short-coated, intelligent, smooth compactly-built dog of coated, short headed, medium station. The head compactly built, short should indicate a high tailed, well balanced degree of intelligence and dog of medium station, should be in proportion to of brindle color and the dog's size; the body evenly marked with rather short and white. The head should well-knit, the limbs indicate a high degree strong and finely turned, of intelligence and no feature being so should be in proportion prominent that the dog to the size of the dog; appears badly the body rather short proportioned. The dog and well knit, the limbs conveys an impression of strong and neatly determination, strength turned; tail short and and activity. Style of a no feature being so high order, and carriage prominent that the dog easy and graceful. appears badly proportioned. The dog should convey an impression of determination, strength and activity, with style of a high order; carriage easy and graceful. A proportionate combination of "Color" and "Ideal Markings" is a particularly distinctive feature of a representative specimen, and dogs with a preponderance of white on body, or without the proper proportion of brindle and white on head, should possess sufficient merit otherwise to counteract their deficiencies in these respects. The ideal "Boston Terrier Expression" as indicating "a high degree of intelligence," is also an important characteristic of the breed. "Color and Markings" and "Expression" should be given particular consideration in determining the relative value of "General Appearance" to other points. 12 SKULL: Square, flat on 12 SKULL: Broad and flat, top, free from wrinkles; without prominent cheeks, cheeks flat; brow abrupt, and forehead free from stop well defined. wrinkles. 2 STOP: Well defined, but indenture not too deep. 5 EYES: Wide apart, large 5 EYES: Wide apart, large and and round, dark in round, neither sunken nor too color, expression alert, prominent, and in color dark but kind and and soft. The outside corner intelligent; the eyes should be on a line with the should set square across cheeks as viewed from the brow and the outside front. corners should be on a line with the cheeks as viewed from the front. 12 MUZZLE: Short, square, 12 MUZZLE: Short, square, wide and deep; free from wide and deep, without wrinkles; shorter in wrinkles. Nose black and length than in width and wide, with a well defined depth, and in proportion straight line between to skull; width and nostrils. The jaws broad depth carried out well and square, with short, to end. Nose black and regular teeth. The chops wide, with well defined wide and deep, not line between nostrils. pendulous, completely The jaws broad and covering the teeth when square, with short mouth is closed. regular teeth. The chops of good depth, but not pendulous, completely covering the teeth when mouth is closed. The muzzle should not exceed in approximate length one-third of length of skull. 2 EARS: Small and thin, 2 EARS: Small and thin, situated as near corners situated as near corners of skull as possible. of skull as possible. HEAD FAULTS: Skull "domed" or inclined; furrowed by a medial line; skull too long for breadth, or vice versa; stop too shallow; brow and skull too slanting. Eyes small or sunken; too prominent; light color; showing too much white or haw. Muzzle wedge shaped or lacking depth; down faced; too much cut out below the eyes; pinched nostrils; protruding teeth; weak lower jaw; showing "turn up." Poorly carried ears or out of proportion. 3 NECK: Of fair length, 5 NECK: Of fair length, slightly arched and without throatiness and carrying the head slightly arched. gracefully; setting neatly into shoulders. NECK FAULTS: Ewe-necked; throatiness; short and thick. 15 BODY: Deep with good 15 BODY: Deep and broad of width of chest; chest, well ribbed up. shoulders sloping; back Back short, not roached. short; ribs deep and Loins and quarters strong. well sprung, carried well back of loins; loins short and muscular; rump curving slightly to set-on of tail. Flank slightly cut up. The body should appear short, but not chunky. BODY FAULTS: Flat sides; narrow chest; long or slack loins; roach back; sway back; too much cut up in flank. 4 ELBOWS: Standing 2 ELBOWS: Standing neither neither in nor out. in nor out. 5 FORELEGS: Set moderately 4 FORELEGS: Wide apart, wide apart and on a line straight and well with the points of the muscled. shoulders; straight in bone and well muscled; pasterns short and strong. 5 HINDLEGS: Set true; bent 4 HINDLEGS: Straight, at stifles; short from quite long from stifle hocks to feet; hocks to hock (which should turning neither in nor turn neither in nor out; thighs strong and out), short and straight well muscled. from hock to pasterns. Thighs well muscled. Hocks not too prominent. 5 FEET: Round, small and 2 FEET: Small, nearly compact, and turned round, and turned neither in nor out; toes neither in nor out. Toes well arched. compact and arched. LEG AND FEET FAULTS: Loose shoulders or elbows; hind legs too straight at stifles; hocks too prominent; long or weak pasterns; splay feet. 5 TAIL: Set-on low; short, 10 TAIL: Set-on low, short, fine and tapering; fine and tapering, straight or screw; devoid of fringe or devoid of fringe or coarse hair, and not coarse hair, and not carried above the carried above horizontal. horizontal. TAIL FAULTS: A long or gaily carried tail; extremely gnarled or curled against body. (Note: The preferred tail should not exceed in length approximately half the distance from set-on to hock.) 4 COLOR: Brindle with 8 COLOR: Any color, white markings. brindle, evenly marked with white, strongly preferred. 10 IDEAL MARKINGS: White 4 MARKINGS: White muzzle, even white blaze muzzle, blaze on face, over head, collar, collar, chest and feet. breast, part or whole of forelegs and hindlegs below hocks. COLOR AND MARKINGS FAULTS: All white; absence of white markings; preponderance of white on body; without the proper proportion of brindle and white on head; or any variations detracting from the general appearance. 3 COAT: Short, smooth, 3 COAT: Fine in texture, bright and fine in short, bright and not texture. too hard. COAT FAULTS: Long or coarse; lacking lustre. --- --- 100 100 WEIGHTS: Not exceeding WEIGHT: Lightweight class, 27 pounds, divided as 12 and not to exceed 17 follows: pounds; middleweight Lightweight: Under 17 class, 17 and not to pounds. exceed 22 pounds; Middleweight: 17 and not heavyweight class, 22 and exceeding 22 pounds. not to exceed 28 pounds. Heavyweight: 22 and not exceeding 27 pounds. DISQUALIFICATIONS: DISQUALIFICATIONS: Docked Solid black, black and tail and any artificial tan, liver and mouse means used to deceive the colors. Docked tail and judge. any artificial means used to deceive the judge. [Illustration: J. P. Barnard The Father of the Boston Terrier] [Illustration: Champion Sonnie Punch] [Illustration: Rockydale Junior] AN EARLY STANDARD The following standard adopted when the dog was known as the Round-Headed Bull and Terrier Dog, will be of interest here. Skull--Large, broad and flat. Stop--Well defined. Ears--Preferably cut, if left on should be small and thin, situated as near corners of skull as possible; rose ears preferable. Eyes--Wide apart, large, round, dark and soft and not "goggle" eyed. Muzzle--Short, round and deep, without wrinkles, nose should be black and wide. Mouth--Preferably even, teeth should be covered when mouth is closed. Neck--Thick, clean and strong. Body--Deep at chest and well ribbed up, making a short backed, cobby built dog; loins and buttocks strong. Legs--Straight and well muscled. Feet--Strong, small and moderately round. Tail--Short and fine, straight or screw, carried low. Color--Any color, except black, mouse or liver; brindle and white, brindle or whole white are the colors most preferred. Coat--Short, fine, bright and hard. Symmetry--Of a high order. Disqualifications--Hair lip, docked tail and any artificial means used to deceive the judge. Weight--It was voted to divide the different weights into three classes, as follows: 15 pounds and under, 25 pounds and under, 36 pounds and under. Scale of points: Skull 15 Muzzle 15 Nose 5 Eyes 5 Ears 5 Neck 5 Body 10 Legs and Feet 10 Tail 10 Color and Coat 10 Symmetry 10 --- Total 100 CHAPTER III. KENNELING It goes without saying that any place is not good enough for a dog, although when one considers the way some dogs are housed in small, dark outbuildings, or damp, ill-lighted and poorly ventilated cellars, or even perhaps worse, in old barrels or discarded drygoods boxes in some out-of-the-way corner, it is not surprising the quality of the puppies raised in them. A great many people who only keep one or two dogs keep them in the kitchen or living room, and here, of course, conditions are all right, but the fancier who keeps any considerable number will find that it pays to house his dogs in a comfortable, roomy, dry building, free from draughts, on high lands (with a gravel foundation, if possible), that can be flooded with sunshine and fresh air. Such a kennel can be simple or elaborate in construction, severely plain or ornamental in its architecture, but it must possess the above characteristics in order to have its occupants kept in the pink of condition. Where half a dozen dogs are kept, I think a kennel about 20 feet long, nine feet wide, with a pitched roof, nine feet high in the front, and at the back seven feet, with a southern exposure, with good windows that open top and bottom, and a good tight board floor will do admirably. This can, of course, be partitioned off in pens to suit, with convenient runs outside wired at the top to prevent dogs jumping over. The building should, of course, be well constructed, covered with good sheathing paper, and either clapboarded or shingled. Such a building should be cool in summer and warm in winter, and thoroughly weather proof. If provided with a good "Eureka ventilator" and well painted, the dogs and their owner will be satisfied. Where a much larger number of dogs are kept, then a corresponding amount of floor space is a necessity. I rather like the style of a kennel, say from fifty to a hundred feet long, twelve to fifteen feet wide, with an open compartment or shed, about twelve feet long (in which the dogs can take a sun bath or get the air if the weather is not favorable to go outside. This also makes an ideal feeding pen), in the middle of the house, without outside runs to each pen, and each run opening into a large exercising yard, so that all the dogs may have a good frolic together, of course, under the watchful eye of the kennel man. The large breeders will also require a separate building at some distance from the main kennels for use as a hospital, a small kennel for his bitches in season, and some small, portable kennels which can be placed under adequate shade trees for his litters of puppies during the hot weather. It would be an excellent plan if good shade trees could be planted to cover all the runs, but if this is not possible, then it is advisable to have at the rear of the kennels a clear space covered over with a roof, say ten or twelve feet wide, for the dogs to have free access to during the heat of the day. Perhaps a description of our own kennels, entirely different in construction from these, and costing more to build, may be of interest here. We have two buildings, seventy-five feet apart, built exactly like a house, with two stories and a high basement or cellar, twenty-five feet wide and thirty feet long. One of these houses is lined with matched paneling and divided off on each floor into separate compartments; the other is only boarded, one thickness of good paper and clapboarded and, of course, not nearly as warm. This second building has no pens in it. The basement has a stone wall at the back, but on the east, south and west sides is boarded to the ground, and has a dry gravel floor. These buildings are well supplied with windows (the same as a house), and get the sun all day. In these buildings we have no artificial heat whatever, and all stock, except small puppies, are kept there. Our pups in the winter have warm quarters until they are four months old, when they are placed in the south side of the warmer kennels. All puppies are kept in the cool basement in the hot weather, and during the summer our bitches in whelp are kept there also. We have not any separate runs attached to these buildings, which entails a much closer watch on the dogs, of course, but each building opens into a very large enclosure with abundant shade trees, and the dogs can, if let out, have the run of several acres. In the fall of the year we have several tons of rowen (second crop hay with a good deal of clover in it) put in the upper story of the open kennel, and a smaller amount in the first story, and during the winter a certain number of young dogs that will not quarrel amongst themselves are given the run of the building where they burrow into the soft hay and are as comfortable as can be. Particular care has to be taken that they do not get any bones or any food to quarrel over, or trouble would ensue right away. Allow me to say that only dogs brought up together with perfect dispositions can be allowed to run together. A strange dog must never be placed with them or his days will be numbered. In the summer, of course, no dogs are kept in the upper story, as they would suffer from the heat. Also no bitches in whelp are ever allowed to run together. In the other kennel in each pen during the cold weather is a large, tight box, with hole in side, filled with this soft hay, renewed when necessary, in which two dogs sleep very comfortably. The windows in each kennel, as soon as the weather permits, are kept open at the top night and day, and top and bottom while the dogs are out doors in the daytime, and in this way the kennels can be kept perfectly sweet and sanitary. Three times during the year, in spring, midsummer and fall, the kennels are treated with a thorough fumigation of sulphur. We buy bar sulphur by the barrel of a wholesale druggist or importer, and use a good quantity (a small dose does not do much good), keeping the kennel windows and doors tightly closed for twelve hours, after which the building is thoroughly aired before the dogs are returned. Of course, this would not be practical during the winter, nor is it at all necessary. We find that once a week (except of course, during the cold weather), it is a good plan to give the woodwork that the dog comes in contact with a good sprinkling with a watering pot with a solution of permanganate of potassium, using a tablespoonful of the crystals dissolved in a quart of hot water. It costs at wholesale fifty cents per pound, and is the best disinfectant I have ever used. Unless the kennels are kept scrupulously clean the dogs' eyes, especially the puppies, are liable to become seriously inflamed. The gravel in the basement we remove to a depth of eight inches twice a year, putting fresh in its place. Where a large number of dogs are kept it will be found very convenient to have a cook house, wash room and a small closet for kennel utensils in close proximity to the kennels. By attending to these important essentials, viz., an abundance of pure air and sunshine, protection from dampness, draughts, and cold, proper disinfecting, and sufficient protection from the intense heat of summer, good health, and a reasonable amount of success can be confidently expected, but disease will surely find an entrance where these requirements are not met. I would like to add that kennels only large enough for white mice, or perchance piebald rats, can never be successfully used to raise Boston terriers in. CHAPTER IV. GENERAL HINTS ON BREEDING. Having become possessed of suitable kennels to house his stock, the breeder is confronted with the great question: How and where shall I obtain my breeding stock? Much depends on a right start and the getting of the proper kind of dogs for the foundation. Our celebrated Boston poet, Oliver Wendell Holmes, when asked when a child's education should begin, promptly replied, "A hundred years before it was born." This contains an inherent truth that all breeders of choice stock of whatever description it may be, recognize. To be well born is half the battle, and I think this applies with particular force to the Boston terrier, for without a good ancestry of well bred dogs, possessing the best of dispositions, constitutions and conformity to the standard, he is worse than useless. Whether the start is made with one bitch or a dozen, I believe the best plan to follow is to obtain of a reliable breeder, noted for the general excellence of his dogs in all desirable characteristics, what he considers the best stock obtainable for breeding purposes. This does not imply, of course, that these bitches will be candidates for bench honors, but it does mean that if mated with suitable sires the production of good, all-round puppies with a reasonable amount of luck will be the result. It would be useless to attempt to deal with the subject of breeding in more than a few of its aspects, for after a period of twenty-five years of expended and scientific experiments in the breeding exclusively of Bostons, I shall have to confess that there are many problems still unsolved. The rules and regulations that govern the production of many other breeds of dogs seem impotent here, the assumption that "like produces like" does not seem to hold good frequently in this breed, but perhaps the elements of uncertainty give an unspeakable charm to the efforts put forth for the production of the dogs which will be a credit to the owner's kennel. The old adage that "there is nothing duller than a _puzzle_ of which the answer is known," can readily be applied here. I shall endeavor to confine my remarks to the laws observed and the lines followed for the production of dogs in our kennels, especially in the attainment of correct color and markings, vigorous constitutions and desirable dispositions. In speaking of the breeding stock I am aware that I am going contrary to the opinion of many breeders when I state that I believe that the dam should possess equal or more quality than the sire, that her influence and characteristics are perpetuated in her posterity to a greater degree than are those of the sire's, especially that feature of paramount importance, a beautiful disposition, hence I speak of the maternal side of the house first. There are two inexorable laws that confront the breeder at the onset, more rigid than were those of the Medes and Persians, the non-observance of which will inevitably lead to shipwreck. Better by far turn one's energies in attempting to square the circle, or produce a strain of frogs covered with feathers, than attempt to raise Boston terriers without due attention being given to those physiological laws which experience has proven correct. The first law is that "Like produces like," although, as previously stated in the case of this breed, more than in any other known to the writer, many exceptions present themselves, even when the utmost care has been exercised, still the maxim holds good in the main. The second law is that of Heredity, too often paid inadequate attention to, but which demands constant and unremitting apprehension, as it modifies the first law in many ways. It may be briefly described as the biological law by which the general characteristics of living creatures are repeated in their descendants. Practically every one has noticed its workings in the human family, how many children bear a stronger resemblance to their grandparents, uncles, cousins, etc., than to their parents, and in the lower order of animals, and it seems to me in the Bostons especially, this tendency to atavism, or throwing back to some ancestor, in many cases quite remote, is very pronounced, hence the necessity of a good general knowledge of the pedigree and family history of the dogs the breeder selects for his foundation stock. A kennel cannot be built in a day; it takes time, money, perseverance, and a strict attention to detail to insure success. "Breed to the best," is a golden rule, but this applies not only to the animals themselves, but also in a far greater measure to the good general qualities possessed by their ancestry. Far more pregnant with good results would be the mating of two good all-round specimens, lacking to a considerable extent show points, but the products of two families known for their general excellence for several generations, than the offspring would be of two noted prize winners of uncertain ancestry, neither of which possessed the inherent quality of being able to reproduce themselves. It will be noted that very few first prize winners had prize winning sires and dams. The noted stud dogs of the past, "Buster," "Sullivan's Punch," "Cracksman," "Hickey's Teddy IV." and many others were not in themselves noted winners, and the same statement may be made of the dams of many of the prize winning dogs, but they possessed in themselves and their ancestry that "hall mark" of quality which appeared in a pronounced form in their offspring. Experience has shown that first class qualities must exist for several generations in order to render their perpetuation highly probable. The converse of this is equally true, that any bad qualities bred for the same length of time are quite as hard to eliminate. If the dog or bitch possesses weak points, be sure to breed to dogs coming from families that are noted for their corresponding strong points. In this case the principle of "give and take" will be adopted. It used to be the ambition of every breeder (or, at least, most of them), to produce a winner, rather than the production of a line of dogs of good uniform type, of good average salable quality, but most have lived long enough to see that this has not paid as well in money or expected results as where similar endeavors have been directed towards the production of good all-round dogs, always striving to advance their dogs to a higher grade of excellence. In this way in nearly every instance prize winning dogs have been produced, and there is this peculiarity noticeable in this breed, that any one, whether he be a breeder of the greatest number, or a very poor man owning only one or two in his kitchen kennel, possesses an equal chance of producing the winner of the blue. The breeder of today has a far easier time than in the early days of the dog when type was not as pronounced or fixed, and when considerable inbreeding of necessity had to be resorted to. In almost all parts of the country stud dogs of first class lineage are obtainable and the general public are educated sufficiently to understand the good points of the dog. I think the breeding of this dog appeals to a wider class of people than any other breed, from the man of wealth who produces the puppies to be given away as wedding presents or Christmas gifts, down to the lone widow, or the man incapacitated for hard work, who must do something to keep the wolf from the door, and who finds in the raising of these charming little pets a certain source of income and a delightful occupation combined. I do not think that any one may apprehend that the market will ever be overstocked, for as the dog becomes known, the desire for possession among all classes will be correspondingly increased, and as he is strictly an American product, no importation from Europe can possibly supply winners, or specially good dogs, as is the case with almost all other breeds. And the fact is demonstrated that dogs of A 1 quality can be produced on American soil. There are two or three subjects that demand the most careful consideration at the hands of the breeder, and to which I am afraid in many cases not particular enough attention is given. I refer in the first place to the question of inbreeding, an admitted necessity in the early history of the dog, but in the writer's estimation very harmful and much to be discouraged at the present time. I will yield to no man in the belief that the fact is absolutely and scientifically true that close consanguineous breeding is the most powerful means of determining character and establishing type, in many instances justifiable as the only correct way to fix desirable qualities, both physical and mental, but extreme care must be exercised that both parties to the union must be of good quality and not share the same defects, and where it is evident that the extra good qualities on the one side more than outbalance the defects of the other, and extreme precaution must always be paid to avoid carrying this system too far. In regard to intense inbreeding, as in the case of mating dogs from the same sire and dam, or the bitch to her sire, or dam to son, I thing it is highly objectionable and should never under any circumstances be resorted to; failure will ensue. Far better to let the bitch go by unmated and lose six months than mate her in this way because a suitable stud dog was not at the time available. I believe that this inbreeding is productive of excessive nervousness, weakness in physical form, the impairment of breeding functions, and the predisposition to disease in its multiform manifestations. [Illustration: Edward Axtell, Jr., and One of His Boston Terriers] [Illustration: E. S. Pollard, A Large and Successful Breeder] [Illustration: St. Botolph's Mistress King] That eminent authority, Sir John Seabright, the originator of the early race of bantams, known as the silver and gold spangled Seabrights, also conducted an exhaustive series of experiments on the inbreeding of dogs and demonstrated to an absolute certainty that the system was productive of weakness, diminished growth, and general weediness. His experiments had a world-wide reputation and the writer, when he first visited his large estates near London, little dreamed that in after years he would personally benefit by Sir John's work. I believe the prevailing ideas in many quarters a number of years ago, as to the general stupidity of the Boston terrier (and in some isolated cases I believed well founded), arose from the fact that it was popularly believed he was too much inbred. I will give just one case of inbreeding in our kennels, tried for experiment's sake, as a warning. I took the most rugged bitch I possessed and mated her to her sire, a dog of equal vigor. The result was six puppies, strong, and as handsome as a picture. When two months old they were sold to different parties on the Eastern seaboard, from Philadelphia up to the Canadian line. This was before the West had "caught on" to the breed. About two months later I had a letter from New York stating that the pup was growing finely, but that he seemed to be hard of hearing. A few days after this I received another epistle from Salem that the puppy I had sent on was believed to be stone deaf. It would be superfluous to add that the purchase money was returned, and the other four customers were notified of the condition of the others. It may seem somewhat incredible, but two out of the four stated that they believed the pups had defective hearing, and declined to receive their money back, and the other two stated that before my notification they had never observed that their dogs were deaf. Here was a case of the entire litter being perfect practically in every other respect, and yet every one stone deaf, and in my estimation not worth a sou. As we have never had a case of deafness in our kennels before or since, we attribute this solely to inbreeding. Another important feature, little understood, and frequently much dreaded, is that of Antecedent Impressions. When a bitch has been served by a dog not of her own breed it has been proven in extremely rare cases that the subsequent litters by dogs of her own kind, showed traces (or, at least, one or more of the litter did) of the dog she was first lined by. The theory by physiologists is that the life-giving germ, implanted by the first dog, penetrates the serous coat of the ovary, burrows into its parenchyma, and seeks out immature ova, not to be ripened and discharged perhaps for years, and to produce the modifying influence described. Many breeders are unwise enough to believe that a bitch the victim of misalliance is practically ruined for breeding purposes and discard her. While, of course, we believe in the fact of Antecedent Impressions, we think they are as rare as the proverbial visit of angels. We have given this subject serious attention and have tried numerous experiments, using various dogs to ward our bitches, including a pug, spaniel, wire-haired fox terrier, pointer, and perhaps one other, and we have never seen a trace of these matings in subsequent litters. One case, for example: In another part of this book we allude to a dog spoken of by Dr. Mott, in his "Treatise of the Boston Terrier," named "Muggy Dee." The grandmother of this charming little dog was bred in our kennels, by name, "St. Botolph's Bessie." We sold her to a Boston banker, and she matured into a beautiful dog. Upon coming in season she was unfortunately warded by a spaniel on the estate, which so disgusted her owner that he gave her to the coachman. She proved a perfect gold mine to him, as she raised two litters of elegant ideal Bostons every twelve months for a great number of years, and never at any time showed any result of the misalliance. On the subject of Mental Impressions we need say but little, as the chances of it ever taking place are so small that we merely give it a passing notice and say that in all our experience we have never been troubled with a case. For the benefit of the uninitiated will briefly state that this consists of the mental impression made on the mind of a bitch by a dog with whom she has been denied sexual intercourse, affecting the progeny resulting from the union of another dog with the bitch, generally in regard to the color, and this strange phenomena, when it does occur, is apt to mark usually one puppy of each litter. A fact not generally known by breeders is that if a bitch is lined by a second dog at any time during heat, the chances are that a second conception may take place, resulting in two distinct sets of pups, half-sister or brother to each other. This fact we have proven. There is one other important feature which must be noticed before this chapter is closed, and that is Predetermining the Sex. Most breeders, of course, are anxious to have male pups predominate in a litter, and it is a demonstrated fact that ordinary mating produces from four to ten per cent more males than females. For a number of years I had always believed it was impossible to breed so as to attain more than the excess of males above noted, but several years ago I accepted an invitation from Mr. Burnett, of Deerfoot Farm, of Southboro (the owner of Kate or Gyp, the mother of the breed), to spend the day. He was, as will be recalled, one of the earliest and most enthusiastic breeders of the Boston, and is now a scientific breeder of choice dairy stock. We had been discussing a number of problems in regard to raising stock, when he exclaimed: "Mr. Axtell, I believe I have discovered the problem of sex breeding. If I want heifer calves, I breed the cow as soon as she comes in season. If a bull calf is wanted, the cow is served just before going out of season." And said he, "In nineteen experiments I have only been unsuccessful once, and I think you might try the same plan with your Bostons." I have since done so, and although not nearly the same measure of success has attended my experiments as his, yet by breeding bitches at the close of the heat rather than at its commencement, the number of males in a litter has materially increased. Again, I find if a young, vigorous dog is bred to a similar bitch, females will predominate in the offspring, whereas, if the same bitch is bred to a much older dog, an excess of males will generally occur. Occasionally some dogs will be met with that no matter what mated with, will produce largely males, and some the opposite of this will nearly always produce females, and some bitches, no matter how bred, do likewise, but these are exceptions, and not the rule. A kennel man need never worry about sex, inasmuch as good dogs of either gender will always be in demand. The law of Selection must be carefully attended to to insure the best results. Choose your best and most typical bitches for breeding, especially those that approximate rather to the bull type and are rather long in body and not too narrow in their hind quarters. I do not care if the dam has a somewhat longer tail than the dog, my experience has been that a bitch possessing a tight screw tail did not do quite as well in whelping as one having one a little longer. Do not consider this as suggesting that the tail is a matter of secondary importance, by no means, it is of primal import, and too much attention can never be given to the production of this distinguishing mark of the dog. A Boston without a good tail is almost as worthless as a check without a signature. Be sure at the time of breeding the bitch is free from worms. A great many are troubled whose owners are totally ignorant of the fact, and this frequently accounts for non-success. Always remember that worms thrive the most when the alimentary canal is kept loaded with indigestible or half-digested food, and that liquid foods are favorable to these pests, while solids tend to expel them. Freshly powdered areca nut, in teaspoonful doses, and the same quantity of a mixture of oil of male fern and olive oil, three parts oil and one part male fern oil, I find are both excellent vermifuges to give to matured dogs. Give a dose and two days after repeat, and this, I think, will be found generally effectual. Do not, on any account, allow the breeding stock to become too fat. Proper feeding and exercise, of course, will prevent this. It will be found if this is not attended to that the organs of generation have lost their functional activity, and if pups are produced, are, as a rule, small and lack vigor. My experience with Bostons is that it is very desirable to breed them as often as they come in season; if allowed to go by it will be found increasingly harder to get them in whelp. I think a stud dog, to last for a reasonable number of years, should not be used more frequently than once a week. I have found it pays best to give the bitch in whelp a generous feed of raw meat daily. It often effectually prevents the puppy-eating habit. In closing these general hints on breeding, allow me to say there is no reason whatever, if one has a genuine love for the dog and is thoroughly in earnest in his attentions to it, why the breeding problem should possess any great terrors for him. Perhaps, before closing this chapter, it might be well to write on one or two matters, practically of no special import, but which may at times be instructive and illuminate some few incidents that may puzzle the beginner. I allude first to that strange phenomena known as "false heat," to which Bostons, more than any other breed with which the writer is familiar, are liable, and which consists of the bitch coming "in season" between the two periods in the year when she legitimately should do so, and after being warded by the dog, is, of course, not in whelp. The next is somewhat akin to this, and consists of the fact that the bitch, after being properly warded by a dog, notwithstanding all the external evidences of being in whelp, even to the possession of milk in her breasts at the expiration of the ninth week, is not so, neither has she been. If, in addition to the above symptoms, and there has been unusual abdominal, uterine, and breast enlargement, with a discharge of blood for several days and no pups are in evidence, then in this case it may safely be concluded that the offspring fell victims to the puppy-eating habit, in which case a close watch must be kept on the bitch at the next time of whelping, as this is a curable habit generally. I have had two cases to my knowledge, both of which were cured I think, largely by giving these two bitches all the raw meat they could possibly eat while in whelp. One other fact, related somewhat to the last two, and one that the inexperienced breeder must give intelligent heed to, is that some bitches go through the entire period of gestation without presenting a single sign of pregnancy appreciable to the ordinary observer. Of course, to a dog man the facts of the case would in all probability be known, but I shall have to confess, after years of extended experience I myself have been deceived two or three times. Never give up hope until the last gun is fired. I think it will generally be considered a good plan, if the bitch is expected to whelp in the kennel she has been in the habit of occupying, to thoroughly clean out and wash with boiling water the box or corner she will use, to destroy all eggs and worms that may chance to be there. I also deem it a good plan to rub gently into her coat and over her breasts precipitated sulphur two or three days before the expected arrival. If the bitch is suffering from a severe case of constipation at this time, a dose of castor oil will be of service, otherwise, let her severely alone. A bitch that is in good health, properly fed, that has free access to good wholesome drinking water, can safely be left without a cathartic. Another important fact to be observed in breeding Bostons, is the suitability of certain stud dogs for particular bitches. It used to be my belief for a number of years, and I suppose many dog men today entertain the same idea, that a first class dog in every respect mated with a number of equally well bred typical bitches would produce on an average a comparatively uniform type of pups. Nothing could be further from actual results. The same dog bred, say to four females practically alike in style, size, conformation, color and markings, and from common ancestry, will give perchance in one litter two or three crackerjacks, and the other three will contain only medium pups. This same thing will occur every time the dogs are bred. This is because the bitch with the choice pups and the dog "nick," a phrase signifying that some psychological union has taken place, not understood by man, in which the best points of both dogs are reproduced in their offspring. Whenever one finds a dog eminently suited to his bitch, do not make a change, always breed to the same dog. I am perfectly cognizant of the fact that a great temptation presents itself to want to breed to a better dog, a noted prize winner probably, expecting, of course, that inasmuch as the dam did so well with a somewhat inferior dog, she must of necessity do correspondingly better with an A 1 dog. The reasoning is perfectly correct, but the result does not correspond. Very inferior pups to her previous litter by the inferior dog surprise and disgust the owner. In our kennels we have had numerous examples of this. One bitch especially, years ago, when bred to "Buster," always gave first class puppies of uniform type each litter, but the same bitch bred to some noted prize winner always gave ordinary pups. Another bitch that at the present time is practically retiring from the puppy raising business from age, when bred to Hickey's Teddy IV., always had in her litter four crackerjacks out of the seven or eight she always presented us with; when bred to any other dog (and we have tried her with several), no matter how good, never had a first class pup in the litter. Hence I repeat, if a dog "nicks" with your bitch, resulting in good pups, do not on any account ever change. Let the marriage last for life. Somewhat closely connected with this last fact is another equally important, the fact of prepotency in a stud dog, consisting of the capacity on the part of the dog to transmit his share of characteristics to his offspring in a far larger degree than is imparted by the average dog. Those who closely follow the breed will discover how certain dogs do, and have done in the past, from "Barnard's Mike" down to certain dogs of the present time, stamp the hall-mark of excellence on all the pups they sire, in a greater or less degree. Happy are those owners of dams who are aware of this important fact and take pains to use in the stud dogs of this character. I have sometimes wondered how much Barnard's Mike was worth to the breed. It will be doubtless remembered by horsemen that the great trainer, Hiram Woodruff, speaking of the importation of the thoroughbred, "Messenger," one of the founders of the American trotter, in 1788, said that "when Messenger charged down the gang-plank, in landing from the ship, the value of not less than one hundred million dollars struck our soil." He would be a very courageous man who would dare compute the worth of "Mike" or "Buster" or "Sullivan's Punch," when viewed from the same standpoint. CHAPTER V. REARING OF PUPPIES. Assuming that the bitch has successfully whelped and all goes well, there is practically nothing to do beyond seeing that the mother is well fed, in which good meat, and where there is a good sized litter of pups, a liberal supply of milk and oatmeal gruel, is furnished. In case the mother's supply of milk is inadequate, then a foster mother must be obtained, or the pups brought up on a bottle. If a bottle, then a small one, kept scrupulously clean, with a rubber nipple that fits easily without compression. The pups must be kept perfectly warm, away from draughts, in a basket lined with flannel, and fed the first week every hour and a half day and night, every two hours the second week, and three hours in the third. I find that good, fresh cow's milk, diluted one-quarter with warm water, is the nearest approach to their natural food. After three weeks they can be fed less frequently with a spoon, and can readily be taught to lap up the milk. Where it is practical, it is always advisable to have two or more bitches whelp together, and then the pups are provided for if anything happens. In case the bitch should lose her pups, she must be fed sparingly and her breasts should be gently rubbed with camphorated oil to prevent caking. It is not uncommon for Boston terrier pups to be born with hare-lips, in which case it is far better to put them to sleep at once, as they rarely ever live and are a deformity if they do. Be sure that the puppies' quarters have abundance of sunshine and fresh air, or they will never thrive as they should, but will be prone to disease. They are very much like plants in this respect. When the pups are four weeks old (I used to commence at five, but so many deaths have occurred in my kennels that of late I have commenced a week earlier), give them a mild vermifuge for worms. No matter if they do not show symptoms of harboring these pests, do it just the same. You will doubtless discover the reason very soon. Only those who have had experience in handling and breeding puppies are aware of their danger from worms. I know of nothing more disappointing than to go to the kennel and find the fine litter of pups that looked so promising, and on which such high hopes had been placed, with distended stomachs and the flesh literally wasted away. When this is the case do not waste a moment, administer the vermifuge. If the intestinal walls have not yet been perforated by these pests, or too great an inflammation of the alimentary canal produced, or convulsions occasioned by the impression of the worms upon the head center of the nervous system have not yet taken place, the pups, or most of them, can be saved. Hence the need of taking time by the forelock and getting rid of the worms before they get in their work. There are all kinds of worm medicines on the market, and I have tried them all. While some are all right for older pups, many of them have proven too harsh in their effects and puppies as well as worms have been destroyed. The following recipe I know will rid the little tots of their trouble without injuring them: Wormseed oil, sixteen drops. Oil of turpentine, two drops. Oil of anise, sixteen drops. Olive oil, three drachms. Castor oil, four drachms. Put into a two-ounce bottle, warm slightly, shake well, and give one-half teaspoonful, floated on the same quantity of milk. If the worms do not pass away, repeat the dose the next day. To those who would rather administer the dose in the form of a capsule, then I strongly recommend Spratts' Puppy Capsules, except when the pups are unusually small. I have just written to the Spratts people, telling them that their puppy capsules are too large for very small pups of the Boston terrier breed, and their manager has assured me he will have some made half the size. I think when the pups are about seven weeks old, when they are generally weaned, it is good, safe, precautionary measure to give them another dose of worm medicine, when we use, Santonine, four grains. Wormseed oil, twenty drops. Oil of turpentine, three drops. Olive of anise, sixteen drops. Olive oil, two drachms. Castor oil, six drachms. Warm slightly, shake thoroughly and give one teaspoonful on an empty stomach, and I think it will be found that the worms will be eliminated. I have found it also a good plan every little while to give a teaspoonful of linseed oil to young dogs. For several years I was troubled with the loss of puppies eight or nine weeks old that had been effectually freed from worms, that seemed to gradually fade away, as it were, but an autopsy plainly revealed the cause. The mother, after eating a hearty meal, would return and vomit what she had eaten on the hay which the puppies would greedily devour. In so doing they swallowed some of the hay, which effected a lodgment in the small intestines, not being digested, until enough was collected to cause a stoppage, and the puppies consequently died. The cause being removed, we lost no more pups. As infection is always in lurk in kennels it is, I think, always advisable to give puppies that have passed the tenth week a dose of vermifuge occasionally until after the ninth month. When the kennels are kept perfectly free from fleas and other noxious insects, during the warm weather a thorough good washing once a week is of great benefit to the growing stock, and I know of no soap so good to use as the following: 1 lb. of Crown Soap (English harness soap). 1-2 ounce of mild mercurial ointment (commonly called by the chemists "blue ointment"). 1 ounce of powdered camphor. Mix thoroughly, and take a very small quantity and rub into the coat, thoroughly rinsing afterwards, followed by careful drying. Every day a good brushing will be found of great benefit, and when an extra luster is desired in the coat, as for the show bench, there is nothing that will do the trick as readily as to give the coat a thorough good dressing with newly ground yellow corn meal, carefully brushing out all the particles, which will leave the coat immaculately clean. [Illustration: Champion Yankee Doodle Pride] [Illustration: Champion Dallen's Spider] [Illustration: Champion Mister Jack] [Illustration: Champion Caddy Belle] In regard to feeding the pups after weaning, it will be found an excellent plan to feed until ten weeks old four times a day, from that age until six months old, three times daily, and from that age until maturity, twice daily. I think a good drink of milk once a day excellent, and where there are enough fresh table scraps left to feed the pups, nothing better can be given. Where the number of dogs kept is too numerous to be supplied in this way, then a good meal of puppy biscuits in the morning, a good meal of meat (fresh butcher's trimmings, not too fat, bought daily) with vegetables at noon and at night well cooked oatmeal or rice with milk makes an excellent safe diet. Good, large bones with some meat on are always in order, as all dogs crave, and I think ought to have, some meat raw. Be careful not to over feed, and above all do not give the dogs sweets. When a puppy is delicate or a shy feeder, an egg beaten up in milk forms an excellent change, and good fresh beef or lamb minced up will tempt the most delicate appetite. Give the puppies a chance to get out on the fresh grass and see what Dr. Green will do for them. Above all see that they always have free access to pure, cool water. I frequently hear numerous complaints of dog's eyes, especially pups that have been newly weaned, becoming inflamed, and in many cases small ulcers form. The same thing has occasionally happened in our kennels, and after trying practically all the eye washes on the market, sometimes without success, I applied to a friend of mine in the laboratory of the Massachusetts General Hospital and was advised by him to wash the dog's eyes two or three times a day with a ten per cent. solution of argyrol, which has been eminently successful. For slight inflammations a boracic acid wash, that any chemist will put up, will usually effect a cure. The several forms of skin disease which cause so much disquiet to young stock, preventing rest and hindering growth, are sometimes due to faults in feeding which upset the work of the assimilative organs, and are to a great extent preventable. Not so those that are due to the presence of a parasite that burrows under the skin and produces that condition of the coat commonly known as mange. A dog may go for some considerable time unsuspected, but the sooner it is discovered and attended to the better, as it is highly contagious. The first thing to do is to take an equal amount of powdered sulphur and lard, make a paste, and rub it thoroughly into the coat of the dog and let it stay on for two days. Of course, the dog will lick off all he can, but the internal application will be good for him. At the end of the second day take the dog and give him a thorough wash with good castile soap, and after drying rub into his coat thoroughly (care being taken that none gets into the eyes or ears) crude petroleum. Let this stay on one day, and without washing take this time enough benzine and powdered sulphur to make a paste and rub in as before. It will be found that this has penetrated deeper than the lard and sulphur did and has doubtless reached the parasites. Repeat this twice, washing in between, after which give the dog a good dressing of petroleum once a day for a week, followed by a week's anointing with the benzine, and dollars to doughnuts, the dog's coat will come out all right. A good dressing to be applied occasionally afterwards, well rubbed into the skin, is composed of equal parts of castor, olive and kerosene oils, thoroughly mixed. If the hair has long been off apply the tincture of cantharides, or the sulphate of quinine to the bald spots, taking care the dog does not lick it with his tongue. These two remedies are best used in the form of an ointment, twice a day. In regard to fleas or lice on the young stock, a good wash in not too strong a solution of any of the standard tar products is usually perfectly effectual. One other disease, and that the most deadly of all, remains to be considered, viz., distemper. This is largely contracted at the dog shows, or being brought into contact with dogs suffering from the disease. I do not believe it is ever spontaneous, and dogs kept away from infected stock will be exempt. Well do I remember my first dose of it. I had loaned a friend of mine a young dog raised by him to show, as he was trying for a prize for Druid Merk as a stud dog. The dog in question, Merk Jr., came back from the show rather depressed, and in a few days I had my entire kennel down with the disease. It was in the spring of the year, cold and damp, and I succeeded in saving just one of the young dogs and Merk Jr. After a thorough fumigation with a great quantity of sulphur I managed to get the kennels disinfected, and did not have an outbreak again for several years. A bitch sent to be bred where a case of distemper existed, unknown to me, of course, brought it to my place again, and I had the same unfortunate experience over again; fortunately this time it was in the early fall, and weather conditions being auspicious, we lost only about twenty-five per cent. of young stock. By extreme vigilance, in knowing the conditions of the kennels where bitches were sent for service, we succeeded in escaping an attack for several years, when an old bitch that had had distemper several years previously, brought back the germs in her coat from a kennel where two young dogs, just home from the Boston show, were sick with the disease. This was in the spring, the weather was wet and cold, and a loss of practically fifty per cent. ensued. One very interesting and peculiar feature of the last attack was, that half the dogs sick were given the best medical treatment possible, with a loss of one-half; the other half were not given any medicine whatever, and the same proportion died. Of course, all had the best of care, nursing, and strict attention to diet paid. I was very much gratified to observe that in these three attacks we have never had a dog that had a recurrence of the disease, and what is of far greater importance, have never had any after ill effect (with one solitary exception, when a bitch was left with a slight twitching of one leg) in the shape of the number of ailments that frequently follow, and in all cases after the disease had run its course the dogs seemed in a short time as vigorous as ever. This we attribute solely to the strong, vigorous constitutions the dogs possessed. A breeder who raises many dogs will have a very difficult feat to accomplish if he aspires to enter the show ring also. In our case we were convinced at the start that these two would not go together. When one considers that dogs returning from shows frequently carry the germs in their coats, and even the crates become affected, and while not suffering from the disease themselves, will readily convey it to the occupants of the kennel they come in contact with, also that the kennel man (unless a separate man has charge of infected stock exclusively) can readily carry the germs on his hands, person and clothing, it will instantly be perceived what a risk attends the combined breeding and showing. I think it pays best in the long run to keep these two branches of the business separate. The temptation to exhibit will be very strong, but before doing so, count the cost, especially if much valuable young stock is in the kennels. In regard to the treatment of this much dreaded disease, there are a number of remedies on the market, one especially that has lately come out, viz., "Moore's Toxin," which claims to effect a cure, but having never used it can not give a personal endorsement. Whatever remedy is tried, remember that good nursing, a suitable diet, and strict hygienic measures must be given. Feed generously of raw eggs, beaten up in milk, in which a few drops of good brandy are added, every few hours, and nourishing broths and gruels may be given for a change. If the eyes are affected then the boracic acid wash; if the nose is stopped up, then a good steaming from the kettle. While the dog must have plenty of fresh air, be sure to avoid draughts. When the lungs and bronchial tubes are affected, then put flannels wrung out of hot Arabian balsam around neck and chest, and give suitable doses of cod liver oil. If the disease is principally seated in the intestines, then give once a day a teaspoonful of castor oil, and the dog should be fed with arrow root gruel, made with plenty of good milk, and a very little lean meat (beef, mutton, or chicken), once a day. When the dog is on the high road to recovery be very careful he does not get cold, or pneumonia is almost certain to ensue. Do not forget a thorough fumigation of the kennels, and all utensils, with sulphur. CHAPTER VI. BREEDING FOR SIZE. When I joined the Boston Terrier Club in 1895, there were two classes for weight--the light weight, from 15 to 23 pounds, and the heavy weight, from 23 to 30 pounds, inclusive. This, of course, has been changed since to three classes--the light weight, 12 and not to exceed 17 pounds; middle weight class, 17 and not to exceed 22 pounds, and heavy weight, 22 and not to exceed 28 pounds and a class, for Toys, weighing under twelve pounds, has been added. The Boston terrier dog was never intended, in the writer's estimation, to be a dog to be carried in one's pocket, but such an one as the standard calls for, and which the oldest breeders have persistently and consistently bred. To my mind the ideal dog is one weighing from 15 pounds for my lady's parlor, to 20 or 25 pounds for the dog intended as a man's companion, suitable to tackle any kind of vermin, and to be an ideal watch dog in the house should any knights of the dark lantern make their nocturnal calls. During the past few years we have had (in common, I suppose, with all large breeders), a great many orders for first class dogs, typical in every respect, weighing from 30 to 40 pounds. The constant tendency among men of wealth today is to move from the city onto country estates, where they stay the greater part of the year, and in many cases all the time. They are looking for first class watch dogs that can be kept in the house or stable, that are thoroughly reliable, that do not bring too much mud in on their coats, that do not cover the furniture with long hairs, that are vigorous enough to follow on a horseback ride, and which will not wander from home. I was in the company of a party of gentlemen the other day who had bought a number of estates in a town twenty miles from Boston, and the subject of a suitable breed of dogs for their residences was under discussion. All the fashionable breeds were gone over, some were objected to because they barked too much, others because of their propensity to rush out at teams; some that their coats were too long and they brought a great deal of mud, etc., in, and still others that their fighting disposition was too pronounced, but they all agreed that a good-sized, vigorous, good natured Boston terrier just about filled the bill. Said the nephew of Senator Henry Cabot Lodge to me last week: "Edward, I want a Boston big enough to take care of himself if anything happens, and of me also, if necessary, weighing about 35 pounds." A Boston banker, who has a large place in the country, would not take two dogs weighing under 35 pounds. Last week I received a letter from a Mr. W. B. Bogert, of the firm of Bogert, Maltby & Co., commission grain merchants, Chicago, ordering a "very heavy weight dog of kindly disposition and good blood. I can get out here any number of light weight dogs, but I do not like them. Kindly send me what you think will suit me." These are only a few sample cases, and I can say that my orders today call for more first class heavy weight dogs than for any other size. This is, of course, a comparatively new feature, but all up to date breeders will see the necessity of being able to fill this class of orders. The small sized toys will always be in demand, as they make ideal little pets, suitable eminently for a city flat or an apartment house, to be carried by the lady in her carriage, or to accompany her in her walks, and they make first rate playmates for children. This class is by far the hardest to breed. For best results mate a bitch weighing about fifteen pounds, that comes from a numerous litter, to a twelve-pound dog that comes from small ancestry. Some of the pups are bound to be small. One important feature in the production of small pups is this: Bitches that whelp in the fall, the smallest pups are raised from, especially if the pups are fed a somewhat restricted diet, whereas puppies that are raised in the spring, that are generously fed, and have vigorous exercise in the sunshine, attain a far greater size. A great many breeders underfeed their young stock to stop growth, which I believe to be a very grave mistake. There is no question whatever it accomplishes the result wished, but at the expense of stamina and a fine, generous disposition. The pups from stock advanced in years, or from bitches excessively fat are very apt to run small, as are also the offspring of inbred parents. One very important fact in regard to breeding for large sized dogs to be considered is this: While a great many breeders always select for the production of large pups large bitches and dogs, yet experience has proven that the majority of big ones have been the offspring of medium sized dams that were bred to strong, heavy-boned dogs of substance. I bred a bitch weighing twenty pounds to a large bull terrier that weighed forty-five pounds for an experiment, and the pups, five in number, weighed at maturity from thirty-five to forty pounds, with noses and tails nearly as long as their sire's, and his color, but were very nice in their disposition, and were given away for stable dogs. Progressive up-to-date kennel men will see that they have on hand not only the three classes called for by the standard, but the fourth class, so to speak, that I have mentioned above, those weighing anywhere from thirty to forty pounds. Quite a number of breeders in the past have put in the kennel pail at birth extra large pups that they thought would mature too large to sell, but they need do so no longer. This precaution must always be taken where there are one or more of these large size puppies, viz., to look out that they do not get more than their proportionate share of the milk, or later the food, as they are very apt to crowd out the others. Remember that the Boston terrier of whatever size will always hold his own as a companion, a dog that can be talked to and caressed, for between the dog and his owner will always be found a bond of affection and sympathetic understanding. [Illustration: Prince Lutana] [Illustration: Champion Fosco] [Illustration: "Pop" Benson with Bunny II] [Illustration: Sir Barney Blue] CHAPTER VII. BREEDING FOR GOOD DISPOSITION. This, to my mind, is the most important feature in the breeding of the dog that demands the most careful attention. If the disposition of the dog is not all that can be desired, of what avail is superb constitution, an ideal conformation and beautiful color and markings? Better by far obtain the most pronounced mongrel that roams the street that shows a loving, generous nature if he cost his weight in gold, than take as a gift the most royally bred Boston that could not be depended upon at all times and under all circumstances to manifest a perfect disposition. A short time ago I went to visit a noted pack of English fox hounds. One beautiful dog especially, took my eye, a strong, vigorous, noble-looking fellow, and on my asking the kennel man, a quaint old Scotchman, if he would let the dog out for me to see, he replied: "Why, certainly, Mr. Axtell, that dog is Dashwood, he is a perfect gentleman," and this is what all Boston terriers should be. Of course, I am speaking of the well bred, properly trained, blue blooded dog, not the mongrel that so often masquerades under his name. Still, as there are black sheep in every family, a dog showing an ugly, snapping, quarrelsome disposition will occasionally be met with which, to the shame of the owner, is not mercifully put out of the way and buried so deep that he can not be scratched up, but is allowed to perpetuate his or her own kind to the everlasting detriment of the breed. How many a one has come away from a dog show utterly disgusted with perhaps one of the best looking dogs on the bench, who, after admiring its attractiveness in every detail, discovers on too near an approach to him that he possesses a snappy, vicious disposition? I am perfectly well aware that due allowance must be made for the unnatural excitement that surrounds a dog, perhaps for the first time shown, away from all he knows, and surrounded by strange noises and faces. Yet I consider it an outrage on the public who give their time and pay their money, to subject them to any risk of being bitten by any dog, I care not of what breed it may be. At a recent show in Boston, in company with three or four gentlemen, I was admiring a very handsome looking Boston, a candidate for high honors, when his owner called out to me: "Mr. Axtell, do not go too near him or he will bite your fingers off." I replied: "You need not advise an old dog man like me; I can tell by the look of his eye what he would do if given a chance. You have no right whatever to show such a dog." Since then I went to the kennels where a noted prize winner is placed at public stud, and he showed such a vicious disposition and attempt to bite through the bars of his pen that the attendant had to cover the bars over with a blanket. Such dogs as these should be given at once a sufficient amount of chloroform and a suitable burial without mourners. If a man must keep such a brute, then a strong chain and a secure place where his owner alone can visit him is absolutely imperative. Boston terriers, of all breeds, must possess perfect dispositions if they are to maintain their present popularity; and yet, how many unscrupulous breeders and dealers are palming off upon a confiding public dogs which, instead of being "put away" (I think that is the general term they use) should be put under so much solid mother earth that no one would suspect their interment. I know it takes considerable grit and force of character to cheerfully put to sleep a dog for which perhaps a large sum of money has been paid, that has developed an uncertain, snappy disposition, yet it pays so to do; honesty is not alone the best policy, but the only one. In my experience as a dog man I could give many personal incidents concerning the sale of vicious dogs, but for space sake one must suffice. Last year a Chicago banker sent me an order for a dog similar in style and disposition to the one I had sold him a few years previously, to go to his niece, a young lady staying for treatment at a large sanatorium in southern Massachusetts. I replied that I had not in my kennels a large enough dog to suit, but that I knew a dealer who possessed a fairly good reputation who had, and would get him for him if he would run the chances. This was satisfactory, and I bought the dog. He was guaranteed to me as all right in every way, but I felt somewhat suspicious, as the price was very low for a dog of his style. I kept him with me for a week and saw no outs whatever about him, and practically concluded my suspicions were unfounded. Upon taking the dog personally to the young lady in question, I told her his history as far as I knew it, and also that while I could give her the dealer's guarantee of the dog I could not of course, endorse it, but that if she cared to run the risk she could have the dog on approval as long as she wished. I said in warning that there was something about his eye that did not altogether strike my fancy, and that if he showed the least symptom of being anything but affectionate, to ship him to my kennels in Cliftondale immediately. As he was a handsome dog, with beautiful color, I could see she wanted him at once, and the dog seemed to take to her in an even greater degree. I received a letter from her in a week's time, saying how perfectly satisfactory the dog was in every way, and what a general favorite he had become with the lady patients there, several of whom would like me to get one like him for them. I need not say how pleased I was to hear this, but what was my surprise to receive a letter the next day asking me to send at once for the dog, as he had bitten the matron. You may depend that neither she nor any other of the inmates there would ever want to see a Boston again, and who would want them to? Of course I lost my money, but that is not worth mentioning. The sorrow I felt stays by me today. I sent for the dog and kept him at my kennels for five months, taking care of him myself and never letting him out of my sight, during which time he was as gentle as a kitten, until one day a young dog man came down into the yard, and the dog, for some unaccountable reason, as in the case of the matron, jumped on him and took hold of his sleeve. The man, being accustomed to dogs, was fortunately not scared. This explained the low price of the dog, and it is needless to add, he ornamented my kennels no longer. I can only state in connection with this that that dealer has sold very few dogs since. I never purchase a dog now, unless I know the man from whom I buy. How to breed dogs possessing an ideal disposition is the all-important question, and I give the rules as followed in our kennels with complete success. Breed only from stock that you know comes from an ancestry noted for this particular feature. Many dogs are naturally of an affectionate nature, but have been made snappish by ill treatment, or teasing. This can be bred out by judicious care, but where a vicious tendency is hereditary, look out for trouble ahead. Damages for dog bites come high, and he must be either a very rich man, or a very poor one, that can afford to keep this kind of stock. Use only thoroughly healthy stock; disease is often productive of an uneven, sullen disposition. See that the bitch especially never shows a tendency to be cross or snappy. The male dog usually controls the shape, color and markings, and the dam the constitution and disposition. Hence it is, if anything, of more importance that the female should be strong in this feature than the male, although the male, of course, should be first class also. So well known is this physiological fact that breeders of standard bred horses, particularly hunters and carriage horses, will never breed a vicious mare to a quiet stallion, and yet they are generally willing to risk breeding a quiet mare to a stallion not as good in this respect. The education of the puppies should begin as soon as they can run around. Very much depends upon a right start. We are admonished to "train up a child in the way he should go," and this applies with equal force to the dog. Treat them with the utmost kindness, but with a firm hand. Be sure they are taught to mind when spoken to, and never fail to correct at once when necessary. A stitch in time saves many times nine. A habit once formed is hard to break. Never be harsh with them; never whip; remember that judicious kindness with firmness is far more effective with dogs, as with children. Be sure to accustom them to mingle with people and children, and introduce them as early as possible to the sights of the street, to go on ahead, and to come at your call. Prevent the pernicious habit of running and barking at teams, etc., and other dogs. The time to check these habits as aforesaid is before they become fixed. If, after all these pains, you see a dog show the slightest disposition to be vicious, then do not hesitate to send him at once by a humane transit to dog heaven. By thus continuously breeding a strain of dogs with an affectionate nature and the elimination of any that show the least deviation from the same, in a short time kennels can be established whose dogs will not only be a source of supreme satisfaction to the owner, but will be the best advertisers of said kennels wherever they go. It will readily be admitted by all who have given the matter any consideration that a dog of an affectionate nature, whose fidelity has always been constant, and whose devotion to its owner has always under all circumstances been perfectly sincere and lasting, makes an appeal to something that is inherent in human nature. The fact of the case is that the love of such a dog is imbedded in the soul of every normal man and woman who have red blood in their veins. I think it is instinctive, and has its foundation in the fact that from the beginning of time he has ministered to man's necessities, and has accompanied him as his best friend on man's upward march to civilization and enlightenment. "There may be races of people who have never known the dog, but I very much question if, after they have made his acquaintance, they fail to appreciate his desirable qualities, and to conceive for him both esteem and affection." [Illustration: Champion Lady Dainty] [Illustration: Champion Todd Boy] CHAPTER VIII. BREEDING FOR A VIGOROUS CONSTITUTION. I think there never was a time in the history of the breed when this particular feature needed more thoughtful, systematic and scientific attention devoted to it than now. For the past few years breeders have been straining every nerve, and leaving no stone unturned, to produce small stock, toys, in fact, and everyone realizes, who has given the question thoughtful consideration, that this line of breeding has been at the expense of the vigor, and indirectly largely of a beautiful disposition, of the dog, to say nothing of the financial loss that must inevitably ensue. Said an old Boston terrier man (Mr. Barnard) at a recent show: "Mr. Axtell, if they keep on breeding at this rate, it won't be long before they produce a race of black and tans." In my estimation it will not be black and tan terriers, but nothing. It will be productive of a line of bitches that are either barren, or so small that they can not possibly whelp without the aid of a "Vet." One does not have to look very far to discover numbers of men who started in the breeding of the American dog with high hopes and enthusiastic endeavors to success, who have fallen by the wayside, owing largely to the fact that proper attention was not paid to the selection of suitable breeding stock, especially the matrons. Said a man to me last year: "Much as I love the dog, and crazy as I am to raise some good pups, I have given up for all time trying to breed Boston terriers. I have lost eight bitches in succession whelping." We have all of us "been there" and quite a number of us "many a time." In order to obtain strong, vigorous puppies that will live and develop into dogs that will be noted for vigorous constitutions, we shall simply, and in language that can be readily understood by the novice as well as the established breeder, lay down the rules that a quarter of a century has demonstrated to be the correct ones for the attainment of the same as used in our kennels. As all puppies that leave our place are sold with the guarantee of reaching maturity (unless shown, when we take no risks whatever in regard to distemper, mange, etc.), it will readily be seen that they must have a first class start, and must of necessity be the progeny of stock possessing first class vigor and the quality of being able to transmit the same to their offspring. An ounce of experience is worth many tons of theory, and it is, then, with pleasure we give the system pursued by us, feeling certain that the same measure of success will attend others that will take the necessary pains to attain the same, and they will be spared the many pitfalls and mistakes that have necessarily been ours before we acquired our present knowledge. It has been for a number of years (starting as we did when the breed was in its infancy, and only the intense love of the dog, coupled with an extensive leisure, which enabled us to devote a great deal of attention to important and scientific experiments, have enabled us to arrive where we are), an uphill road, the breeding problems have had to be solved at the outlay of brains, patience and considerable money. Unlike any established breed, there was practically no data to fall back on, no books of instruction to follow, but if the pioneer work has been arduous the results obtained have far outbalanced it, and the dog today stands as a monument to all the faithful, conscientious and determined body of men who would never acknowledge defeat, but who, in spite of all discouragements from all quarters, and from many where it should have been least expected, have pressed forward until they find the object of their unfailing endeavors the supreme favorite in dogdom the continent over. In the first place, in the attainment of vigorous puppies, we state the bitches selected are of primary importance, in our view, as already stated, far more so than the sire. For best results we choose a bitch weighing from fifteen to twenty-five pounds. If they happen to weigh over this we do not consider it any detriment whatever, rather otherwise. Always select said matrons from litters that have been large, bred from strong, vigorous stock, thoroughly matured, and that have been bred by reliable (we speak advisedly) men for several generations if possible. If one can, obtain from kennels that while perfectly comfortable, have not been supplied with artificial heat. There is more in this than appears on the surface. Dogs that have been coddled and brought up around a stove rarely have stamina and vitality enough to enable them to live the number of years they are entitled to, and fall a ready victim to the first serious trouble, whether distemper, or the many and one ills that beset their path. Intelligent breeders of all kinds of stock today recognize the value of fresh air and unlimited sunshine, and if best results are to be obtained these two things are imperative. I was very much interested in the prize herd of Hereford cattle owned by Mr. Joseph Rowlands, near Worcester, England, and conceded by experts to be the best in that country, and to learn that for a number of years the herd (over one hundred in number) have been kept in the open, the cows being placed in the barn for a few days at calving, and that the prize winning bull that heads the herd, "Tumbler," is sixteen years old, and still used, and it is stated by Mr. Rowlands is producing as good stock today as ever. The significant fact about this herd is, they are and have been perfectly free from tuberculosis. Another herd of Jerseys (although not prize winners) are kept near there, under precisely the same conditions with similar results. A breeder of prize winning Belgian hares has kept these for a number of years without artificial heat, with the best of results with freedom from disease, and the attainment of strong, robust constitutions. When puppies are four months old (in the winter time) they should be placed in well built kennels, without artificial heat. (Of course, this does not apply to a colder latitude than Massachusetts.) The reason for choosing bitches that come from dams noted for their large litters is this: the chances are (if the dog bred to comes from a similar litter) that they will inherit the propensity to give birth to large litters themselves, and the pups will necessarily be smaller than when only one or two pups are born. The bitch that has but that number runs an awful risk, especially if she has been well fed. The pups will be large and the dam has great difficulty in whelping. If toy bitches are bred, look out for breakers ahead; only a very small per cent. live to play with their little ones. A toy bitch, bred to a toy dog, will frequently have but one pup, and that quite a large one in proportion to the size of parents. When a toy bitch is bred, attend carefully to these three things. See that the dog used is small in himself, comes from small stock, and does not possess too large a head. Secondly, be sure the bitch is kept in rather poor condition, in other words, not too fat; and thirdly, and this is the most important of all, see that she has all the natural exercise she can be induced to take. These conditions strictly and faithfully adhered to may result in success. In the next place, the consideration of the dog to be used is in order. Whether he be a first prize winner or an equally good dog that has never been shown (and the proportion of the best raised dogs that appear on the bench is very small) insist on the following rules: Be sure that the dog is typical with first class constitution, vigorous, and possessing an ideal disposition, and what is of the utmost importance, that he comes from a line of ancestry eminently noted for these characteristics. Breed to no other, though he were a winner of a thousand first prizes. I prefer a symmetrical dog weighing from sixteen to twenty pounds, rather finer in his make-up than the bitch, and possessing the indefinable quality of style, and evidences in his make-up courage and a fine, open, generous temperament. Do not breed to a dog that is overworked in the stud, kept on a board floor chained up in a kennel or barn, and never given a chance to properly exercise. If you do the chances are that one of three things will happen: the bitch will not be in whelp (the most likely result) the pups, or some of them will be born dead, and one runs an awful risk of the bitch dying, or, if alive at birth, a very small per cent. only of the pups will live to reach maturity. I think Boston terriers are particularly susceptible to worms or distemper, and it is absolutely imperative that they should not be handicapped at the onset. One other very important factor is natural exercise for the bitch. Unless one is willing to take the necessary pains to give her this, give up all expectation of ever succeeding in raising puppies. [Illustration: Champion Willowbrook Glory] [Illustration: Squantum Punch] [Illustration: Tony Ringmaster] Someone asked a noted critic whom he considered the best singer he had ever heard, and he answered, "Patti." In being asked who came next, he replied, "Patti;" and on being questioned who was his third choice, gave the same answer. Were I asked the three most important essentials for the success of the brood bitch, I should say, "Exercise, exercise, exercise." By this I do not mean leading with a chain, running behind a horse or team, but the natural exercise a bitch will take if left to her own devices. Nature has provided an infallible monitor to direct the dog the best amount to take, and when to take it. One of the best bitches I ever possessed was one weighing fourteen pounds by the original Tony Boy (one of the best little dogs that ever lived) out of a bitch by Torrey's Ned, by A. Goode's Ned. Her name was Lottie, and she had thirteen litters and raised over ninety per cent. Those who have read that interesting little book on the "Boston Terrier," by the late Dr. Mott, will readily recall the genial Doctor speaking of the first Boston he ever owned, named "Muggy Dee," and how intelligent he was, and what a number of tricks the Doctor taught him, will be interested to know that Lottie was his great-grandmother, and she was equally intelligent. We had several bitches by the celebrated Mr. Mullen's "Boxer" out of her, (this is going back to ancient history), one of which, "Brownie," was, to my fancy, the nicest dog we ever had. She, with the rest of the litter, had the run of several hundred acres, and many times I did not see them for days together. They went in and out of the hayloft at pleasure, and spent the greater part of their time hunting and digging out skunks and woodchucks which were quite thick in the woods back of us at that time. I remember the first time Brownie was bred to that king of sires, "Buster," owned by Alex. Goode (than whom a more loyal Boston terrier man never lived), and I was rather anxious to see the litter when it arrived, as from the mating I expected crackerjacks. I had not seen her or her mother for two or three days, but the time for whelping having arrived, was keeping a close watch on the stable. About dusk she came in with Lottie, and in a short time gave birth to four of the most vigorous, perfectly formed little tots I had ever seen. Each one proved to be good enough to show, although only one was sold to an exhibitor, Mr. G. Rawson, the rest going into private hands. "Druid Pero" was shown in New York in 1898, taking first prize and silver cup for best in his class, but I think his brother, "Caddie," beat him, his owner, a Boston banker, being offered a number of times ten times the sum he paid for him. * * * * * The day after Brownie whelped she and her mother went off for an hour or so, and they finished digging out Mr. Skunk (which the attention to her maternal duties necessitated a postponement of), the old dog dragging him home in triumph. I attribute the success these dogs, in common with the rest of the bitches in the kennels who had similar advantages, had in whelping and the rearing of their young to the fact that they always had unlimited natural exercise. I can enumerate scores of cases similar to these attended with equally good results, if space permitted. * * * * * In regard to mating, one service, if properly performed, is usually enough, if the bitch is ready to take the dog. If a bitch should fail to be in whelp I should advise the next time she comes in season two or even three visits to the dog, and where convenient I should suggest a different dog this time. In case this time these services were unsuccessful, then I should suggest the course that breeders of thoroughbred horses pursue, viz., to let the female run with the male for three or four days together. There are many things connected with breeding that we do not understand, and frequently going back to nature, as in this case, is productive of results when all else fails. One very important factor in the production of strong, rugged pups that live, is good feeding. Do not imagine that feeding dog biscuits to the bitch in whelp will give good results, it will not; she needs meat and vegetables once a day. Biscuits are all right as a supplementary food, but that is all. Meat is the natural food for a dog, and it is a wise kennel man that can improve on nature. Be sure the meat is free from taint, especially at this time and when the bitch is nursing pups. The gastric juice of a dog's stomach is a great germicide, but there is a limit. Be certain the dogs have a plentiful supply of good, pure water. This is of far more importance than many people imagine. Do not administer drugs of any description to your dogs, except in the case of a good vermifuge, if they are harboring worms, and a proper dose of castor oil if constipated. If the dog at any time is sick, consult a good veterinary accustomed to dogs, not one who has practiced entirely on horses or cows. If a bitch, at the time of whelping, is much distressed and can not proceed, get a veterinary and get him quick. When the pups arrive, if all is well and they are able to nurse, let them severely alone. If they are very weak they will have to be assisted to suckle--do not delay attention in this case. Be sure the box the bitch whelped in is large enough for her to turn around in, and do not use any material in the nest that the pups can get entangled with. My advice to breeders is, if the bitch is fully formed and grown to her full proportions, to breed the first time she comes in season. She will have an easier time whelping than when she is older. If delicate or immature, delay breeding till the next time. Do not use a dog in the stud until he is a year and a half old for best results; they will, of course, sire pups at a year or younger, but better wait. To those people who live in the city, or where a kennel can not be established for want of adequate room to give the dogs the necessary exercise, an excellent plan to follow is one adopted by an acquaintance of mine, and followed by him for a number of years with a good measure of success. He owns one or two good stud dogs that he keeps at his home, and he has put out on different farms, within a radius of ten miles of Boston, one bitch at each place, and pays the farmer (who is only too glad to have this source of income at the outlay of so little trouble and expense) one hundred dollars for each litter of pups the bitch has, the farmer to deliver the pups when required, usually when three months old. The farmer brings in the bitch to be bred, and the owner has no further trouble. The pups, when delivered, are usually in the pink of condition and are, in a great measure, house broken, and their manners to a certain extent cultivated. He has no trouble whatever with pups when ordered, as he simply sends the address of customers and the farmer ships them. This, to me, is a very uninteresting and somewhat mercenary way of doing business, as one misses all the charm of breeding and the bringing up of the little tots, to many of us the most delightful part of the business. To those breeders who have newly started in, do not get discouraged if success does not immediately crown your efforts; remember, if Boston terriers could be raised as easily as other dogs, the prices would immediately drop to the others' level. [Illustration: Goode's Buster] [Illustration: Champion Whisper] [Illustration: Champion Druid Vixen] [Illustration: Champion Remlik Bonnie] CHAPTER IX. BREEDING FOR COLOR AND MARKINGS. Every one who has a Boston terrier for sale knows that a handsome seal or mahogany brindle with correct markings, with plenty of luster in the coat, provided all other things are equal, sells more readily at a far higher price than any other. When one considers the number of points given in the standard for this particular feature, and the very important factor it occupies in the sale of the dog, too much attention cannot be given by breeders for the attainment of this desideratum. I am, of course, thoroughly in sympathy with the absolute justice that should always prevail in the show ring in the consideration of the place color and markings occupy in scoring a candidate for awards. Twelve points are allowed in the standard for these, and any dog, I care not whether it be "black, white, gray, or grizzled," that scored thirteen points over the most perfectly marked dog, should be awarded the prize. But be it ever remembered that the show ring and the selling of a dog are two separate and distinct propositions. In the writer's opinion and experience a wide gulf opens up between a perfect white or black dog comporting absolutely to the standard, and one of desirable color and markings that is off a number of points. I have always found a white, black, mouse, or liver colored dog, I care not how good in every other respect, almost impossible to get rid of at any decent price. People simply would not take them. Perhaps my experience has run counter to others. I trust it may have done so, but candor compels me to make this statement. I find that this condition of things is somewhat misleading, especially to beginners in the breed. They have seen the awards made in the shows (with absolute justice, as already stated), and have naturally inferred that in consequence of this, breeding for desirable colors was not of paramount importance after all. Only a month or two ago an article appeared in a charming little dog magazine, written evidently by an amateur, on this question of color and markings. He had visited the Boston Terrier Club show last November, and speaking of seal brindles, said: "If this color is so very desirable it seems strange that so few were seen, and that so many of the leading terriers were black and white, and some white entirely," then follows his deduction, viz., "the tendency evidently is that color is immaterial with the best judges, so that a breeder is foolish to waste his time on side issues which are not material." I can only state in passing that if he had a number of dogs on hand that were of the colors he specifies, "black and white, and some white entirely," it would doubtless "seem strange" to him why they persisted in remaining on his hands as if he had given each one an extra bath in Le Page's liquid glue. Pitfalls beset the path of the beginner and this book is written largely to avoid them. When one reads or hears the statement made that color and markings are of secondary consideration or even less, take warning. The reader's pardon will now have to be craved for the apparent egotism evidenced by the writer in speaking of himself in a way that only indirectly concerns canine matters, but which has a bearing on this very important question of color, and partially, at least, explains why this particular feature of the breeding of the Boston terrier has appealed to him so prominently. My father was a wholesale merchant in straw goods, and had extensive dye works and bleacheries where the straw, silk and cotton braids were colored. As a youngster I used to take great delight in watching the dyers and bleachers preparing their different colors and shades, etc., and was anxious to see the results obtained by the different chemical combinations. When a young man, while studying animal physiology under the direction of the eminent scientist, Professor Huxley, whose diploma I value most highly, I made a number of extended scientific experiments in color breeding in poultry and rabbits, so that when I took up breeding Boston terriers later in life this feature particularly attracted me. I was "predisposed," as a physician says of a case where the infection is certain, hence I offer no apology whatever for the assertion that this chapter is scientifically correct in the rules laid down for the breeding to attain desirable shades and markings. When we first commenced breeding Bostons in 1885, the prevailing shades were a rather light golden brindle (often a yellow), and mahogany brindles, and quite a considerable number had a great deal of white. Then three shades were debarred, viz., black, mouse and liver, and although years after the Boston Terrier Club removed this embargo, they still remain very undesirable colors. The rich mahogany brindle next became the fashionable color (and personally I consider it the most beautiful shade), and Mr. A. Goode with Champion "Monte" and Mr. Rawson with the beautiful pair, "Druid Merke" and "Vixen," set the pace and every one followed. A few years later Messrs. Phelps and Davis (who, with the above mentioned gentlemen, were true friends of the breed), sold a handsome pair of seal brindles, Chs. "Commissioner II." and "Topsy," to Mr. Borden of New York, and confirmed, if not established, the fashion for that color in that city. I think that all people will agree, from all parts of the country, that New York sets the style for practically everything, from my lady's headgear to the pattern of her equipages, and the edict from that city has decreed that the correct color in Boston terriers is a rich seal brindle, with white markings, with plenty of luster to it, and all sections of the continent promptly say amen! I have taken the pains to look up a number of orders that we have recently received, which include (not enumerating those received from the New England States, or New York), three from Portland, Oregon, one from California, one from St. Louis, one from Mexico, four from Canada, two from Chicago, and one from Texas, and with the exception of two who wished to replace dogs bought of us ten or twelve years previously, they practically all wanted seal brindles. These orders were nearly all from bankers and brokers, men who are supposed to be en rapport with the dictates of fashion. It goes without saying that what a public taste demands, every effort will be made to attain the same, and breeders will strive their utmost to produce this shade. Many who do not understand scientific matings to obtain these desirable colors have fallen into a very natural mistake in so doing. In regard to the mahogany brindles they say, why not breed continuously together rich mahogany sires and dams, and then we shall always have the brindles we desire. "Like produces like" is a truism often quoted, but there are exceptions, and Boston terrier breeding furnishes an important one. A very few years of breeding this way will give a brown, solid color, without a particle of brindle, or even worse, a buckskin. If the foundation stock is a lighter brindle to start, the result will be a mouse color. The proper course to pursue is to take a golden brindle bitch that comes from a family noted for that shade, and mate her with a dark mahogany brindle dog that comes from an ancestry possessed of that color. The bitch from this mating can be bred to dark mahogany brindles, and the females from this last mating bred again to dark mahogany males, but now a change is necessary. The maxim, "twice in and once out," applies here. The last bred bitches should be bred this time to a golden brindle dog, and same process repeated, that is, the bitches from this last union and their daughters can be bred to dark mahogany brindle dogs, when the golden brindle sire comes in play again. This can be repeated indefinitely. A rule in color breeding to be observed is this: that the male largely influences the color of the pups. If darker colors are desired, use a darker male than the female. If lighter shades are desired, use a lighter colored male. If a tiger brindle is wanted, take a gray brindle bitch and mate to a dark mahogany dog. Steel and gray brindles are in so little demand and are so easy to produce that we shall not notice them. In regard to seal brindles. A great many breeders who do not understand proper breeding to obtain them have fallen into the same pit as the others. In their desire to obtain the dark seal brindles they have mated very dark dogs to equally dark bitches, which has resulted in a few generations in producing dogs absolutely black in color, with coats that look as if they had been steeped in a pail of ink. A visit to any of the leading shows of late will reveal the fact that quite a number of candidates for bench honors are not real brindle, except possibly on the under side of the body, or perchance a slight shading on the legs. A considerable number are perfectly black, and are called by courtesy black brindles. As well call the ace of spades by the same name. A serious feature in connection with this is, that the longer this line of breeding is persisted in, the harder will be the task to breed away. In fact, in my estimation it will be as difficult as the elimination of white. One important fact in connection here is that black color is more pronounced from white stock than from brindle. I recently went into the kennels of a man who has started a comparatively short time ago, and who has been most energetic in his endeavors to produce a line of dark seal brindles, and who is much perplexed because he has a lot of stock on hand, while first rate in every other respect, are with coats as black as crows and not worth ten dollars apiece. He seemed very much surprised when I told him his mistake, but grateful to be shown a way out of his difficulty. A visit to another kennel not far from the last revealed the fact that the owner was advertising and sending largely to the West what he called black brindles, but as devoid of brindle as a frog is of feathers. His case was rather amusing, as he honestly believed that because the dog was a Boston terrier its color of necessity must be a brindle. He reminded me a good deal of a man who started a dog store in Boston a number of years ago who advertised in his windows a Boston terrier for sale cheap. Upon stepping in to see the dog all that presented itself to view was a dog, a cross between a fox and bull terrier. When the man was told of this, he made this amusing reply: "The dog was born in Boston, and he is a terrier. Why is he not a Boston terrier?" Upon telling him that according to his reasoning if the dog had been born in New York city he would be a New York terrier he smiled. Fortunately I had "Druid Pero" with me and said: "Here is a dog bred in my kennels at Cliftondale, Mass., that was a first prize winner at the last New York show, and yet he is a Boston terrier." After looking Pero carefully over he exclaimed: "Well, by gosh, they don't look much like brothers, but I guess some greenhorn will come along who will give me twenty-five dollars for him," and on inquiring a little later was told the green gentleman had called and bought the dog. How to breed the dogs so that the brindle will not become too dark, with the bright reddish sheen that sparkles in the sun, is the important question, and I am surprised at the ignorance displayed by kennel men that one would naturally suppose would have made the necessary scientific experiments to obtain this desirable shading. Only a short time ago a doctor, a friend of mine, told me he had just started a kennel of Bostons, buying several bitches at a bargain on account of their being black in color, and that he proposed breeding them to a white dog to get puppies of a desirable brindle. He seemed quite surprised when told the only shades he could reasonably expect would be black, white and splashed, all equally undesirable. The system adopted in our kennels some years ago to obtain seal brindles with correct markings and the desirable luster and reddish sheen to the coat is as follows: We take a rich red, or light mahogany bitch, with perfect markings, that comes from a family noted for the brilliancy of their color, and without white in the pedigrees for a number of generations, and mate her always to a dark seal brindle dog with an ancestry back of him noted for the same color. The pups from these matings will come practically seventy-five per cent. medium seal brindles. We now take the females that approximate the nearest in shade to their mother, and mate them to a dark seal brindle dog always. The bitches that are the result of this union are always bred to a dark seal brindle dog. The females that come from the last union are bred to a medium seal brindle dog, but now comes the time to introduce a mahogany brindle dog as a sire next time, for if these last bitches were mated to a seal brindle dog a large per cent. of the pups would come too dark or even black. This system is used indefinitely and desirable seal brindles with white markings can thus be always obtained. To the best of my recollection we have had but one black dog in twenty years. We have demonstrated, we trust, so that all may understand how golden, mahogany, and seal brindles are obtained, and how they may be bred for all time without losing the brindle so essential, and we now pass on to the consideration of a far harder problem, the obtaining of the rich seal brindles from all undesirable colors, and we present to all interested in this important, and practically unknown and misunderstood, problem the result of a number of years extended and scientific experiments which, we confess, were disheartening and unproductive for a long time, but which ultimately resulted in success, the following rules to be observed, known as "The St. Botolph Color Chart." In presenting this we are fully aware that as far as we know this is the only scientific system evolved up to date, also that there are a number of breeders of the American dog who maintain that this is an absolute impossibility, that breeding for color is as absurd as it is impractical, but we can assure these honest doubters that we have blazed a trail, and all they now have to do is simply to follow instructions and success will crown their efforts. We will enumerate the following colors in the order of their resistance, so to speak: No. 1. White. This color, theoretically a combination of red, green and violet will be found the hardest to eliminate, as the shade desired will have to be worked in, so to speak, and it will take several generations before a seal brindle with perfect markings that can be depended upon to always reproduce itself can be obtained. Starting with a white bitch (always remember that the shades desired must be possessed by the dog), we breed her always to a golden brindle dog. The bitches (those most resembling the sire in color being selected) from these two are mated to a dark mahogany brindle dog, and the females from this last union are mated to a dark seal brindle dog. It will readily be observed that we have bred into the white color, golden, mahogany and seal brindle and this admixture of color will give practically over ninety per cent. of desirable brindles. Always see that the sires used are perfectly marked, from ancestry possessing the same correct markings. This is absolutely imperative, where the stock to be improved is worked upon is white. No. 2. Black. This color is the opposite of white, inasmuch as there is an excess of pigment, which in this case will have to be worked out. Breed the black bitch to a red brindle dog (with the same conditions regarding his ancestry). The females from these matings bred always to a dark mahogany brindle dog. The females from the last matings breed to a medium seal brindle dog with a very glossy coat, and the result of these last matings will be good seal brindles. If any bitches should occasionally come black, breed always to a golden brindle dog. No other shade will do the trick. No. 3. Gray brindle. This is practically a dead color, but easy to work out. Breed first to a golden brindle dog. The females from this union breed to a rich mahogany brindle, and the bitches from this last litter breed to a seal brindle dog. No. 4. Buckskin. Breed bitch to golden brindle dog; the females from this union to a red brindle dog (if unobtainable, use mahogany brindle dog, but this is not so effective), and the females from last union breed to a seal brindle dog. No. 5. Liver. This is a great deal like the last, but a little harder to manipulate. Breed first to a golden brindle dog. The females from this union breed to a seal brindle. The bitches from this union breed to mahogany brindle dog with black bars running through the coat, and the females from last mating breed to seal brindles. No. 6. Mouse color. Use same process as for gray brindles. No. 7. Yellow. A very undesirable shade, but easy to eliminate. Breed to mahogany brindle dog as dark as can be obtained, and bitches from this mating breed to a seal brindle dog. No. 8. Steel and tiger brindles I class together, as the process is the same and results are easy. Breed first to a red brindle dog; bitches from this union to a dark mahogany brindle, and then use seal brindle dog on bitch from last mating. No. 9. Red brindle. No skill is required here. Breed first to mahogany brindles, and bitches from this union to seal brindles. We have now enumerated practically all the less desirable shades, but let me observe in passing, in the process of color breeding that the law of atavism, or "throwing back," often asserts itself, and we shall see colors belonging to a far-off ancestry occasionally presenting themselves in all these matings. Once in a while a dog will be found that no matter what color bitches he may be mated with, he will mark a certain number of the litter with the peculiar color or markings of some remote ancestor. Just a case apropos of this will suffice. We used in our kennels a dog of perfect markings, coming from an immediate ancestry of perfectly marked dogs, and mated him with quite a number of absolutely perfectly marked bitches that we had bred for a great number of years that had before that had perfectly marked pups, and every bitch, no matter how bred, had over fifty per cent. of white headed pups. We saw the pups in other places sired by this dog, no matter where bred, similarly marked. We found his grandmother was a white headed dog, and this dog inherited this feature in his blood, and passed it on to posterity. The minute a stud dog, perfect in himself, is prepotent to impress upon his offspring a defect in his ancestry, discard him at once. I have often been amused to see how frequently this law of atavism is either misunderstood or ignored. Only recently I have seen a number of letters in a leading dog magazine, in which several people who apparently ought to know better, were accusing litters of bulldog pups as being of impure blood because there were one or two black pups amongst them. They must, of course, have been conversant with the fact that bulldogs years ago frequently came of that color, and failed to reason that in consequence of this, pups of that shade are liable once in a while to occur. It is always a safe rule in color breeding to discard as a stud a dog, no matter how brilliant his coat may be, who persistently sires pups whose colors are indistinct and run together, as it were. [Illustration: Champion Boylston Reina] [Illustration: Champion Roxie] [Illustration: Peter's Little Boy and Ch. Trimont Roman] [Illustration: Champion Lord Derby] Remember, in closing this chapter, that as "eternal vigilance is the price of liberty," so the eternal admixtures of colors is the price of rich brindles. If one has the time the works of an Austrian monk named Mendel are of great interest as bearing somewhat on this subject, and the two English naturalists, Messrs. Everett and J. G. Millais, whose writings contain the result of extensive scientific experiments on dogs and game birds, are of absorbing interest also. CHAPTER X. SALES. Every person who has bred Bostons for any length of time knows that a good dog sells himself. I do not imagine there is practically any part of this great country where a typical dog, of proper color and markings and all right in every respect, fails to meet a prospective buyer, and yet, of course, there are certain places where an A 1 dog, like an ideal saddle or carriage horse meets with a readier sale, at a far greater price than others. New York city, in particular, and all the larger cities of the country where there are large accumulations of wealth, offer the best markets for the greatest numbers of this aristocratic member of the dog fraternity, and from my own personal knowledge the larger cities of the countries adjacent to the United States furnish nearly as good a market, at a somewhat reduced price. Were the quarantines removed in the mother country, which England no doubt has found absolutely necessary, it would not surprise me in the least to see an unprecedented demand for the Boston at very high prices, and I am going to make a prediction that on the continent of Europe it will not be long before the American dog will follow the trotting horse, and will work his way eastward, until jealous China and strange Japan will be as enamoured with him as we are, and his devotees at the Antipodes will be wondering where he got his little screw tail, and why that sweet, serene expression on his face, like the "Quaker Oat smile," never comes off. This to a person who knows not the Boston may seem extravagant praise, but to all such we simply say: Get one, and then see if you are not ready to exclaim with the Queen of Sheba, when visiting King Solomon and being shown his treasures: "Behold, the half was not told me!" Perhaps the system of sales that has always been followed by us may be of interest to many engaged in the breeding of the dog, and while we do not hold a patent on the same, or even suggest its adoption by others, must confess it has worked with entire satisfaction in our case, and we have never once failed to receive the purchase money. We must say in explanation that our customers practically are all bankers and brokers, and that our dogs have never been sold by advertising or being exhibited at shows, but by being recommended by one man to another, starting many years ago by the first sale to a Boston banker, then to several members of his firm, going from Boston to their correspondents in other cities, until the orders come in from everywhere. We had three orders from as many countries in one mail last week. I merely mention this to show how the demand for the dog has grown. When we commenced to sell dogs we adopted the following plan, which we conceived to be just and equitable alike to buyer and seller: When a dog is ordered we send on one which we believe will fill the bill, accurately describing the dog, stating age, pedigree, etc., and stating that when the customer is perfectly satisfied with the dog (as long a trial being given as may be wished) in every respect, a check will be accepted, and not before. Should the dog at any time prove unsatisfactory in any way, the purchase money will be cheerfully refunded, or a dog of equal value will be sent in exchange. In the case of a bitch that fails to become a good breeder, the same plan, of course, is followed. In regard to the sale of puppies, we guarantee them (barring accidents, and the showing of them, when owner assumes risks) to reach maturity, and in case they do not, refund purchase money, or send on another puppy of equal value. Of course, where the buyer is not known, or personally recommended, then the seller has to adopt entirely different methods. Still, I see no reason why an honest man who has a Boston, or any other dog, for sale, or, in fact, any article of merchandise, should not be willing to send on the same to any honest buyer. This is on the assumption, of course, that both parties are honorable men. To the seller I advise the purchase money being received before the dog is shipped, and express charges guaranteed, if the buyer is not known or unable to supply absolutely reliable references. Decline to receive any order where the object sought is to obtain a dog to use to breed to a bitch, or several, as the case may be, and then be returned as unsatisfactory. We have had no experience in this line, but are informed it has frequently been done. If such a customer presents himself, simply tell him he can inspect the dog or have an expert do so for him if too far away to come, but that when the deal is closed and the money paid that under no conditions whatever can the dog be returned. In regard to the seller shipping the dog to its destination, we will say that we think he will run practically no risk in so doing. If the dog is all right in every way it is dollars to doughnuts that he will arrive in perfect condition. We can say that in over twenty years' shipments of dogs to all parts of the country and beyond we have never had a dog die en route, lost, exchanged, or stolen. I think the express companies of this country, Canada, Mexico, and beyond, are to be highly commended for the excellent care they take of the dogs committed to their charge, neither do I think the express charges are ever excessive, when one considers the value of the dogs carried. We will now consider the case of the buyer, assuming, of course, he is known or capable of presenting suitable references. We always advise him to deal with kennels or dealers of established reputations. Run no chances with any other unless you desire to be "trimmed." Pray do not be misled by glowing advertisements (stating that they have the largest kennels on earth) in every paper that does not know them. I have investigated quite a number of these so-called kennels and found they usually consisted of an old box stall in a cheap stable, or a room over an equally cheap barroom, and their stock in trade consisted of two or three mutts. Be very suspicious of any man who advertises that he has dogs for sale that can win in fast company for fifty or a hundred dollars, or A 1 bitches in whelp to noted dogs for the same price. Any man who possesses these kinds of dogs does not have to advertise their sale. There are plenty of people here in Boston only too glad to buy this kind of stock at three or four times this price. I attended the last show in Boston with a number of orders in my pocket, but failed to discover any dogs I picked out possessing the quality described at anything less than a good stiff price, for Boston terriers with the "hall mark" of quality have been, are, and, I believe, always will be, as staple in value as diamonds. The number of letters we have received from all over the country, particularly from the West, complaining of the skin games played upon them by fake kennels and dealers, would make an angel weep, and make one almost regret that one ever knew a Boston. If the same ingenuity, skill and patience employed in the getting up of these fake advertisements had been devoted to the breeding of the dog, this class of advertising gentry (?) would have produced something fit to sell. It is stated on the best of authority that in some cases nothing was shipped for money received. In spite of this vast number of unscrupulous breeders and dealers scattered abroad, I think the chances for reliable kennels was never so good as now in the history of the breed. Cream will always rise, and right dealing, whether in dogs or diamonds, will ever meet with their just returns. Remember that one never forgets being "taken in" in a horse trade, and when, instead of a horse a dog is involved, I think one never forgives as well. To that number of persons who, in their daily walks of life are fairly honest, but who, when it comes to a trade in dogs are apt to lose that fine sense of justice that should characterize all transactions, we would say with Shakespeare: "To thine own self be true. Thou canst not then be false to any man." Yea, we would repeat the command of a greater than Shakespeare, to whom, I trust, we all pay reverence, when He lays down for us all the Golden Rule: "Whatsoever ye would that men would do to you, do ye even so to them." To go back to the responsible buyer who is in the market for a good dog, we say: Send your orders to responsible men, with said dogs to sell, stating exactly what you want, and the price you desire to pay, agreeing to send a check just as soon as dogs prove satisfactory, assuming, of course, express charges. Reputable dealers and breeders are looking for just such customers. To all breeders and dealers who have not an established reputation, would say: Advertise accurately what you have for sale in first class reliable papers and magazines. In regard to prices, the following scale, adopted by us many years ago, and which we have never seen since any reason to change, is practically as follows: For pups from two to three months old, from fifty to seventy-five dollars. When six months old, from seventy-five to a hundred: From six months to maturity, from one hundred to two hundred. These prices are, of course, for the ordinary all-around good dogs. With dogs that approximate perfection, and which only come in the same proportion as giants and dwarfs do in the human race (I believe the proportion is one in five thousand), and the advent of which would surprise the average kennel man as much as if the President had sent him a special invitation to dine with him at the White House, the price is problematical, and is negotiated solely by the demand for such a wonder by a comparatively few buyers. I think Boston terriers as a breed occupy the same position amongst dogs as the hunter and carriage horse does amongst horses. Each are more or less a luxury. A well matched pair of horses of good all-round action, of desirable color and perfect manners and suitable age will sell in the Eastern cities (I am not sufficiently acquainted with the other sections of the country to know values there) at from eight hundred to two thousand dollars, but with a pair of carriage horses able to win on the tan bark, the price will be regulated by the comparatively few people who have sufficient money to spare to purchase this fashionable luxury, and ten times the amount paid for the first mentioned pair would be a reasonable price to pay for the prize winners. I think the winners of the blue in the Bostons would fetch a relative sum. The important factor of the cost of production in the case of the dog necessarily enters into the selling price. Good Bostons are as hard to raise as first class hunters, and a correspondingly large sum has to be obtained to meet expenses, to say nothing of profit, but in the writer's experience the best dog or horse sells the readiest. Do not be misled by the remark "that a dog is worth all he will bring." Generally speaking, this is sound logic, but not always. Many dogs have been sold for very little by people not cognizant of their value, but this in no way changed the intrinsic worth of the dog. On the other hand, many dogs have been disposed of at many times their real value, but this transaction did not enhance their worth in the slightest degree. A gold dollar is worth one hundred cents whether changed for fifty cents or five hundred. An article of intrinsic value never changes. Our advice to all who have dogs for sale (or any other article, in fact), ask what you know is a good, honest, fair value, and although you may not sell the dog today, remember that there are other days to follow. What I am going to add now I know a great many dealers and breeders will laugh at and declare me a fit subject for an alienist to work on, but it is fundamentally true just the same, and is this: Never ask or take for a dog more than you know (not guess) the dog is worth. This is nothing but ordinary, common everyday justice that every man has every right to demand of his fellow man, and every man that is a gentleman will recognize the truth and force of. I was reading a novel this summer, and one statement amongst a great many good ones impressed me. It stated "that all men were divided into two classes: those that behaved themselves, and those who did not." We all know that society has divided men into many classes, but I think any thoughtful man will confess, in the last analysis, that the novelist's classification was the correct one. I need not apply the moral. It will be somewhat of a temptation to resist taking what a party, liberally supplied with this world's goods, will frequently in their ignorance offer for a dog that appeals to them, but which the owner knows perfectly well is not worth the price offered. If he belongs to the class that behaves themselves he will tell the prospective buyer what the dog is intrinsically worth, and point out the reasons why he is not worth more. You may depend that you have not only obtained a customer for life, but one that will readily advertise your kennels under all circumstances. I shall have to ask the reader to overlook the apparent egotism of the statements I am now about to make, but as this book is largely the outgrowth of the author's own experience, of necessity personal matters are spoken of. A number of years ago I received an order from the Western coast, through a Boston house, for a good all-round puppy at two hundred dollars. I sent the puppy on, and much to the surprise of the customer, stated my price for him would be one hundred instead of two. The pup matured into a very nice dog, as I expected he would, being a Cracksman pup out of a good bitch. What has been the result of this treatment? Ever since (and no later than yesterday), orders for dogs from this gentleman have been coming right along. Another case, and this is only a sample of several from the same city: A number of years back a New York lady, accompanied by her husband, came to our kennels to purchase a dog. I had quite a handsome litter of five or six months old pups by "Merk Jr.," out of Buster stock on the dam's side, one of which, a perfectly marked seal brindle female, at once took her fancy, and she said: "We have just come from another large kennel in Boston where they asked us three hundred dollars for a little female I do not like nearly as well as this one." Her husband was one of the leading men of one of the largest trusts in the country, and money was apparently no object, and when I replied, "Mrs. Keller, that dog you select is not worth over fifty dollars (the price I afterwards sold her for) and the best dog in the litter I shall be glad to let you have for seventy-five," she seemed much surprised. I then, of course, told her that the dogs were not worth more as their muzzles were not deep enough to be worth a higher price than I wanted. I recently received a letter from her stating that her dog was still as active and much loved as ever, and the number of orders that have come to me through the sale of this dog would surprise the owners of those kennels who stick their customers with an outrageous price, and who find to their sorrow that no subsequent orders ever come, either from the customer or any one else in the vicinity. People have a way sooner or later (usually sooner) in discovering when they have been overcharged and act accordingly. One other recommendation I wish to make in place here is: "Never try to fill an order that one has not the dogs to suit." Frankly say so, and recommend a brother fancier that you know has. One good turn deserves another and he may have a chance later to reciprocate. This creates a kindly feeling amongst kennel men, and is productive of good will, and ofttimes a large increase in business. A few years ago a lady from Connecticut came to see me to buy a first class dog or a pair, if she could get suited. I knew that in the past she had paid the highest price for her Bostons, and she wanted a dog in the neighborhood of two thousand dollars. I told her at once I had nothing for sale to suit her, but that I knew a man who owned a dog I considered worth about that sum, and recommended her strongly to buy him, and sent her to Mr. Keady, who sold to her "Gordon Boy" for that price. The sequel to this is somewhat amusing and shows how reciprocity did not take place. I went to see a litter of pups at Mr. Keady's house soon after, and expected to obtain a somewhat favorable price on the pup I picked out of the litter on account of the sale of the dog, and offered the gentleman three hundred dollars for him, upon which he replied: "Mr. Axtell, do you think that five weeks old pup is worth that sum?" and upon my replying, "I certainly do," instead of saying, "All right, take him," he exclaimed: "If that is your opinion, and I know you always say what you believe, then he is worth that sum to me," and put him back in the box. He subsequently sold him to Mr. Borden for over six thousand dollars, the highest price ever obtained for a Boston. While writing on the subject of sales, I think it will be in order to speak of a matter that is a source of anxiety to a great many breeders, and that is the getting rid of the small bitches that are too small to breed. We have always found a ready sale for these when properly spayed for ladies' pets, largely in New York city. They make ideal house dogs, perhaps more winning and affectionate in their manner than others, never wandering off, and I believe the license fee is the same as for a male. Great care must be taken that the operation is thoroughly performed by a competent veterinary, and it is usually best done when the pup is six months old. My first experience may be of value and interest. I had a little "Buster" bitch that I felt assured to my sorrow was to small to whelp successfully, and being much fancied by a lady doctor in Waterbury, Conn., advised spaying before being sent. I took her to a veterinary with a good reputation in Boston, and after the dog had fully recovered from the operation, sent her to Dr. Conky. What was my surprise to hear that when nine months old she had come "in season." I sent the ex-President of the Boston Terrier Club, Dr. Osgood, down and an additional cost of fifty dollars ensued, whereas the first charge of two dollars would have been all that was necessary if the operation had been properly done in the first place. Am glad to say I have seen no failures since. I can conceive of no reason why there should not be a ready sale for this class of dogs in all sections of the country, and the disposal of the same will materially help the income of a great many breeders. In conclusion let me state: "Put a price on your dogs that in your best judgment you know (not guess) to be a fair and equitable one (and if unable to decide what is right, call in an honorable expert who can) and take neither more nor less. Always remember that a man can raise horses, corn, cotton, or dogs (or any other honest product) and be a gentleman, but the moment he raises 'Cain' he ceases to be one." [Illustration: Gordon Boy, Gretchen, Derby's Buster, Tommy Tucker, Ch. Lord Derby] [Illustration: Gordon Boy] CHAPTER XI. BOSTON TERRIER TYPE AND THE STANDARD. The standard adopted by the Boston Terrier Club in 1900 was the result of earnest, sincere, thoughtful deliberations of as conservative and conscientious a body of men as could anywhere be gotten together. Nothing was done in haste, the utmost consideration was given to every detail, and it was a thoroughly matured, and practically infallible guide to the general character and type of the breed by men who were genuine lovers of the dog for its own sake, who were perfectly familiar with the breed from its start, and who were cognizant of every point and characteristic which differentiated him from the bulldog on the one side and the bull terrier on the other, and while admitting the just claims of every other breed, believed sincerely that the dog evolved under their fostering care was the peer, if not the superior, of all in the particular sphere for which he was designed, an all-round house dog and companion. In the writer's estimation this type of dog, for the particular position in life, so to speak, he is to occupy, could not in any way be improved, and the mental qualities that accompany the physical characteristics (which are particularly specified in the first chapter) are of such inestimable value that any possible change would be detrimental. It may be observed that it was the dogs of this type that have led the van everywhere in the days when he was practically unknown outside of the state in which he originated. "Monte," "Druid Vixon," "Bonnie," "Revilo Peach," and dogs of their conformation possessed a type of interesting individuality that blazed the way east, west, north and south. Does any one imagine that the so-called terrier type one so often hears of, and which a large number of people are apparently led today to believe to be "par excellence," the correct thing, would have been capable of so doing? No one realizes more fully than the writer the fact that the bully type can be carried too far, and great harm will inevitably ensue, but the swing of the pendulum to the exaggerated terrier type will in time, I firmly believe, ring in his death knell. It is a source of wonderment to me that numbers of men who don the ermine can distribute prizes to the weedy specimens, shallow in muzzle, light in bone and substance, long in body, head and tail, who adorn (?) the shows of the past few years. I am not a prophet, neither the son of one, but I will hazard my reputation in predicting that before many years have rolled, a type, approximating that authorized by the Boston Terrier Club in 1900 will prevail, and the friends of the dog will undoubtedly believe it to be good enough to last for all time. It will readily be recalled that Lord Byron said of the eminent actor, Sheridan, "that nature broke the die in moulding one such man," and the same may be affirmed with equal truth of the Boston terrier, and he will ever remain a type superior to and differ from all other breeds in his particular sphere. It may not be generally known by those who are insisting on a much more terrier conformation than the standard calls for, that an equally extreme desire for an exaggerated bull type prevailed a number of years ago amongst some of the dogs' warmest supporters, whose ideal was that practically of a miniature bulldog, without the pronounced contour of the same. I remember when I joined the Club in the early days that some of the members then were afraid that the dogs were approximating too much to the terrier side of the house. What their views today would be I leave the reader to imagine. The plain fact of the case is, the dog should be a happy medium between the two, the bull and the terrier. Can any intelligent man find a chance for improvement here? I admit that many people are so constituted that a change is necessary in practically everything they are brought into close contact with. But is a change necessarily an improvement? If some men could change the color of their eyes or the general contour of their features they would never rest satisfied until they had so done, but they would speedily find out that such a change would be very detrimental to their appearance, the harmony of features and correlation of one part to another would be distorted. I admit readily that one very important result would be obtained, viz., the dog of the pronounced terrier type could be bred much more easily. But is an easy production a desideratum? I certainly think not. To those who "must be doing something" and who find a certain sense of satisfaction in tinkering with the standard, we extend our pity, and state that experience is a hard school, but some people will learn in no other. To those of us who love the dog as he is, and who believe in "letting well enough alone," we admit we might as well suggest to improve the majestic proportions of the old world cathedrals and castles we all love so much to see, or advocate the lightening up of the shadows on the canvas of the old masters, or recommend the touching up of the immortal carvings of the Italian sculptors. We advise the preacher to stick to his text, and the shoemaker to his last, and to all those who would improve the standard we say: Hands off! One very important feature in connection with the Standard is, that while breeders and judges are perfectly willing to have all dogs that come in the heavyweight class conform practically to it, when the lightweights and toys are concerned, a somewhat different type is permitted and the so-called terrier type is allowed, hence we see a tendency with the smaller dogs to a narrower chest, longer face and tail. While personally I am in favor of a dog weighing from sixteen to twenty pounds, or even somewhat heavier, there is absolutely no reason why one should not have any sized dog one desires, but please observe, do not breed small dogs at the expense of the type. Let the ten or twelve pound dog conform to the standard as much as if it weighed twenty. I think an object lesson will be of inestimable value here. Every one who has visited the poultry shows of the past few years must have been delighted and impressed to see the beautiful varieties of bantams. Take the games, for example, with their magnificent plumage and sprightly bearing. On even a casual examination it will be discovered that these little fowls are an exact reproduction of the game fowl in miniature. The same identical proportions, symmetry and shape. Take the lordly Brahma and the bantam bearing the same name, and the same exact proportions prevail. And so it should be with the small Boston terrier. They should possess the same proportions and symmetry as the larger. Remember always that when the dog is bred too much away from the bulldog type, a great loss in the loving disposition of the dog is bound to ensue. Personally, if the type had to be changed, I would rather lean to the bull type than the terrier. The following testimony of a Boston banker and director of the Union Pacific Railroad, to whom I sold two large dogs that were decidedly on the bull type, may be of interest at this point. Speaking of the first dog he said: "I have had all kinds of dogs, but I get more genuine pleasure out of my Boston terrier than all my other dogs combined. When I reach home in the afternoon I am met at the gate by Prince, and when I sit down to read my paper or a book the dog is at my feet on the rug, staying there perfectly still as long as I do. When dinner is announced he goes with me to the dining room, takes his place by my side, and every little while licks my hands, and when I go out for my usual walk before retiring the dog is waiting for me at the door while I put my hat and coat on. He follows me, never running away or barking, and he sleeps on a mat outside my door at night, and I never worry about burglars." All this is very simple and commonplace, but it shows why this type of a dog is liked. In regard to the differences of opinion that different judges exhibit when passing upon a dog in the show room, one preferring one type of a dog and the other another, this, of course, is morally wrong. The standard requirements should govern, and not individual preferences. We hear a good deal said nowadays about the cleaning up of the head, and the so-called terrier finish. That seems to be the thing to do, but does not the standard call for a compactly built dog, finished in every part of his make-up, and possessing style and a graceful carriage? This being the case, a dog should not possess wrinkled, loose skin on head or neck, and the shoulders should be neat and trim. In a word, in comporting to the standard a dog is produced that possesses a harmonious whole, "a thing of beauty" and a joy as long as he lives. In short, the dog should be as far removed from the bull type as he is from the terrier. If the present judges can not see their way clear to follow the standard, why, appoint those that will, for as every fair minded man agrees, the dogs should follow the standard and not the standard follow the dogs. It is needless to add that I do not share in the pessimistic view taken by many lovers of the dog who think he will be permanently injured by the differences of opinion that prevail as to the type, etc., and the personalities that sometimes mar the showing of the dog, for I am of the same opinion as was probably felt by the great fish who had to give up Jonah, "that it is an impossible feat to keep a good man (or dog) down," and that instead of falling off, as one writer intimates, he will fall into the good graces of a larger number of people than has heretofore fallen to the lot of any variety of man's best friend. CHAPTER XII. PICTURE TAKING. It would seem at the first glance that to write on this subject was only a waste of time and energy, and yet I know that no one feature of the dog business is more vital in importance or more fraught with trouble than this apparently simple process of dog photography. The novice will at once exclaim: "What could be more natural than sending on a picture of a dog I want to sell to the prospective customer? Surely he can see exactly what he is purchasing!" This may be perfectly true, and yet again it may not. I am not writing of the subject of false pictures on the stud cards of some unscrupulous breeders, or those pictures taken of dogs whose markings are faked, only too common in some quarters. The photos look good, of course, to the buyer, but when the dog arrives, he finds, to his disgust, that the beautiful markings, in some mysterious manner, got "rubbed off" while making the journey in the crate. I recently saw a photograph of a dog sold to a Western customer, by a dealer in an adjoining town to mine, taken by an artist in photography when the dog was all "chalked up". When the dog arrived he was as free from nose band as my pocket is frequently of a dollar bill. Small wonder the buyer remarked with emphasis that the dealer was a fraud. One can almost forgive his exclamation, which he surely had not learned at Sunday school, at being taken in, in so mean a way. I am writing more particularly of the art of the photographer in bringing out the best points of the dog, and effectually hiding the poorer ones. How many times have we heard the dealer say, in speaking of a dog with good markings, but off in many other respects: "He will make a good seller to ship away, as I can get a good looking picture of him." He knows perfectly well that a clever photographer can so pose the dog as to hide bad defects. A long muzzle, a long back, or one badly roached, poor tail, bad legs and feet, can all be minimized by posing the dog on the stand. The buyer, on receipt of the dog, although thoroughly dissatisfied, will have to admit that the photo is a genuine one, and, in most cases, is unable to obtain any redress. Another very important side of dog photography is the mania for picture collecting. Some time ago I saw a signed article in "Dogdom", from a very charming lady living in a city fifty miles from Boston, asserting she was about to retire from the Boston terrier game, as it cost her too much to furnish photos of her dogs to people from all parts of the country, who, under the guise of wishing to buy dogs, wanted photos and pedigrees of the same. They usually stated that if they did not purchase the dog, the photo and pedigree would be promptly returned. This was the last she ever heard of them, and pictures were rarely if ever, returned. As her photos were taken by a first class photographer, the cost was considerable, and the photos were really works of art, which, perhaps, may be one reason why the recipients could not bear to let them go back. She was a lady of large wealth, and she had established a kennel of real Bostons, presided over by an expert kennel-maid, and would have become a genuine help to the breed, but "pictures" were her undoing. Since the American dog has become the most popular breed in the canine world, many people, who cannot afford to purchase a choice specimen, seem to rest satisfied when they can obtain a photo, and they have no scruples apparently in writing to the leading kennels for pictures of their leading dogs. I have had many instances come under my notice, but, for want of space, only one typical case can be mentioned. A few years ago, on visiting a city a short distance from Boston, I was accosted by a young man, rather flashily attired, who invited me to call and see his kennels, assuring me he had some crackerjacks. As I was unaware of the existence of any number of A-1 Bostons in his neighborhood, my curiosity was aroused and I went. I found the dogs quartered in a back room in a very small house. I have never seen such a collection of the aristocrats of the breed before or since. When I found my voice, I managed to exclaim: "Allow me to congratulate you, my dear sir, I have never seen so many good dogs kenneled in so small a space before. You are certainly a very lucky man; the food problem never troubles you; you do not have to dodge the tax collector; no need ever to call in a vet.; no neighbors can ever complain of being kept awake at night, and the dogs that are tacked upon the ceiling seem just as content as those pasted on the walls." He then produced his book where the pedigrees of the dogs were neatly recorded. The trouble is, he is not the only one who owns such a kennel of thorough-breds. It must not be inferred from the above that I am averse to picture taking. By no means. They are absolutely necessary. But make them "Pen Pictures". Write a complete description of the dog in question, giving actual weight, age, conformation, color and markings, condition of health, and disposition. State the color of the brindle and the extent of the markings whether full or partial. Do not state that the dog has perfect markings if it lacks a collar or white feet. If banded only on one side of the muzzle, say so. If pinched or undershot, say so. If roached in back, poor eyes, weak in hind quarters or off in tail, say so. In fact, plainly state any defects. At the same time, if the dog is practically O. K. in all respects, stylish and trappy, do not hesitate to emphasize the fact, and if the dog likewise possesses a charming, delightful personality, make the most of it. Always remember that the perfect Boston terrier dies young! CHAPTER XIII. NOTES. There are several features of vital import in Boston terrier breeding that the passing years have disclosed to the writer the imperative need of attention to. Most of these have been spoken of in this book before, but they seem to me at the present time to demand being specially emphasized. Feeding and its relation to skin diseases, I think, naturally heads the list. I have received more letters of inquiry from all parts of the country asking what to do for skin trouble than for all other ailments combined. I think our little dog is more susceptible to skin affections than most dogs, owing to the fact that he is more or less a house pet, and does not get the chance of as much outdoor exercise, and the access to nature's remedy--grass, as most breeds. At the same time if fed properly, given sufficient life in the open, no dog possesses a more beautiful glossy coat. No one factor is more responsible for skin trouble than the indiscriminate feeding of dog biscuit. These, as previously written, are first rate supplementary food, but where they are made the "piece de resistance," look out for breakers ahead. The mere fact of their being available under all circumstances and in all places contributes largely to their general use. At the new million dollar Angell Memorial Animal Hospital, Boston, Doctors Daly and Flanigan have conducted a series of scientific experiments on dogs. I had talked with Dr. Flanigan, and stated my experience was that an exclusive dog biscuit diet was the cause of skin trouble invariably. They selected forty dogs in perfect physical condition, dividing them into two groups of twenty each. To one was fed exclusively dog biscuits, and the other a diet of milk in the morning, and at night a feed composed of a liberal amount of spinach--they had to use the canned article as it was in winter--boiled with meat scraps and thickened with sound stale bread. At the end of a fortnight seventeen of the first group were afflicted more or less with skin trouble, while the other twenty were in the pink of condition. To effect a cure, the spinach diet--called by the French "the broom of the stomach"--was fed, and the coat washed with a weak sulpho-naphtha solution. No internal medicine was given. In a month's time the coats of the dogs were normal. Further comment on this is unnecessary. Next in importance to spinach I place carrots and cabbage, boiled up with the meat and rice, oat meal and occasionally corn meal. Don't be afraid to give a good quantity of the sliced boiled carrots, especially in the winter season when the dogs cannot obtain grass. A short time ago, I went to see a group of trained monkeys and dogs perform. They both looked in beautiful condition, and on enquiring of the proprietor as to his methods of feeding, he said it was a very easy matter, as he had trained both dogs and monkeys to eat raw carrots while on the road, during which time he had to feed dog biscuits. When at home in New York he fed a vegetable hash with sound meat and rye bread, using largely carrots, beets, a very few potatoes and some apples. While on the road he had no facilities for cooking for his animals so he accustomed them to eating cut up raw carrots every other day. Previous to this he was bothered with skin trouble with both dogs and monkeys. [Illustration: Champion Dean's Lady Luana] [Illustration: Mrs. William Kuback, with Ch. Lady Sensation] The food problem at the present time is a very serious one. The high cost of all sorts of food of every variety should force those breeders who have been keeping a very inferior stock to make up their minds once and for all that it takes just as much time and cost to raise "mutts" as it does the real article. Weed out the inferior stock that never did or will pay for their keep. Keep half a dozen good ones that will reproduce, if bred rightly, their quality, if you have not plenty of room for a large number. To those fanciers who only own two or three, sufficient food is usually furnished from the scraps left from the table, supplemented, of course, with dog biscuit. Many kennel-men, who have a large number of dogs to feed, obtain daily from hotels or boarding houses the table scraps, and this makes an ideal food. We fed quite a large number of dogs for several years in this way with perfect success. I know of a large pack of foxhounds that are fed from the same food furnished by a large hotel. Fish heads boiled with vegetables make a good diet--be sure there are no fish hooks left in them, and the scraps from the butchers that are not quite fit for human consumption make ideal food when cooked with rice or vegetables. Be careful they are not too old, however. When skimmed milk is obtainable at the right price, with waste stale bread, it makes a well balanced ration for occasional feeding. A few onions boiled up with the feed are always in order. I think the subject of "Tails" requires more than a passing mention here. All observers at the recent shows must have noticed the tendency toward a lengthening in many of the tails of the dogs on the bench. Some dogs have been awarded high honors which carried "more than the law allows", owing doubtless to their other excellent qualities. While I personally believe in a happy medium, never lose sight of the fact that a good short screw tail has always been, and, I believe, will always remain a leading characteristic of the American dog. In selecting a stud dog be certain his tail is O. K. The bitch can very well afford to carry a longer one, and usually whelps better on this account. I know of nothing more discouraging in the Boston terrier game than to have a litter of choice puppies in every other respect, but off in tails. While writing on the subject of tails, it may not be out of place to note an interesting fact in connection with this at the earliest history of our little dog. Mr. John Barnard became the possessor of Tom, afterward known as Barnard's Tom. This was the first Boston terrier to rejoice in a screw tail. Mr. Barnard did not know what to make of it, so he took the pup to old Dr. Saunders, a well known and respected veterinary surgeon of the day, to have the tail, if possible, put into splints and straightened. I guess there have been quite a number of pups, descendants of Tom, whose owners would have been only too glad to have had their straight tails put in splints, if, thereby, it would have been possible to produce a "screw". I think the subject of sufficient importance to again call the attention of breeders to the necessity of the extreme care in breeding seal brindles. The demand started some years ago for very dark color has placed upon the market many dogs devoid of any brindle shading. At the last Boston Terrier Club specialty show a beautiful little dog, almost perfect in every other respect, was given the gate on account of being practically black. In my former chapter on Color Breeding, I urged the necessity of using a red or light mahogany brindle on black stock. If either sex come black, never use any other color than these to mix in. Enough said! One is constantly hearing from all parts of the country of the prevalence of bitches missing. Where they are bred to over-worked stud dogs no surprise need be manifested. In case of a "miss" have the bitch bred two or three times to the dog next time. If she misses then, the next time let her run with the dog for several days. I have written this before, but it will bear repetition. Do not acquire the habit of getting rid of the matrons of the kennel when six or seven years old. Many bitches give birth to strong pups when eight or nine years old. I write, of course, of those in strong, vigorous condition, that have always had plenty of good outdoor exercise. Remember, there is no spot on this broad land where the Boston terrier does not make himself thoroughly "at home." What more can one wish? CHAPTER XIV. CONCLUSION. I was sitting by an open fire the other evening, and there passed through my mind a review of the breed since I saw a great many years ago, when the world, to me, was young, a handsome little lad leading down Beacon street, Boston, two dogs, of a different type than I had ever seen before, that seemed to have stamped upon them an individual personality and style. They were not bulldogs, neither were they bull terriers; breeds with which I had been familiar all my life; but appeared to be a happy combination of both. I need hardly say that one was Barnard's Tom, and the other his litter brother, Atkinson's Toby. Tom was the one destined to make Boston terrier history, as he was the sire of Barnard's Mike. Mr. J. P. Barnard has rightly been called the "Father of the Boston terrier," and he still lives, hale and hearty. May his last days be his best, and full of good cheer! I am now rapidly approaching the allotted time for man, but I venture the assertion that were I to visit any city or even small town of the United States or Canada, I could see some handsome little lad or lassie leading one of Barnard's Mike's sons or daughters. Small wonder he is called the American dog. The celebrated Dr. Johnson once remarked that few children live to fulfil the promise of their youth. Our little aristocrat of the dog world has more than done so. May his shadow never grow less! I feel convinced that I ought to take this opportunity to record my kindly appreciation of the generous expressions of thanks for my efforts on behalf of the dog. They have come from all parts of the country, and from all classes of people. Were it in my power I would gladly reply to each individual writer. This is impossible. I can only say, "I thank you! May God bless us, one and all!" CHAPTER XV. TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN RELATION TO THE BOSTON TERRIER, AND THEIR MEANING. A Crackerjack--A first class, typical dog. A Mutt--A worthless specimen. A Flyer--A dog capable of winning in any company. A Weed--A leggy, thin, attenuated dog, bred so. A Fake--A dog whose natural appearance has been interfered with to hide defects. A Dope--A dog afflicted, usually with chorea, that has had cocaine administered to him to stop the twitching while in the judging ring. A Ringer--A dog shown under a false name, that has previously been shown under his right name. Apple-headed--Skull round, instead of flat on top. Broken-up Face--Bulldog face, with deep stop and wrinkle and receding nose. Frog or Down Face--Nose not receding. Dish-faced--One whose nasal bone is higher at the nose than at the stop. Butterfly Nose--A spotted nose. Dudley Nose--A flesh-colored nose. Rose Ear--An ear which the tip turns backward and downward, disclosing the inside. Button Ear--An ear that falls over in front, concealing the inside. Tulip Ear--An upright, or pricked ear. Blaze--The white line up the face. Cheeky--When the cheek bumps are strongly defined. Occiput--The prominent bone at the back or top of the skull, noticeably prominent in bloodhounds. Chops--The pendulous lips of the bulldog. Cushion--Fullness in the top lips. Dewlap--The pendulous skin under the throat. Lippy--The hanging lips of some dogs, who should not possess same, as in the bull terrier. Layback--A receding nose. Pig-jawed--The upper jaw protruding over the lower; an exaggeration of an undershot jaw. Overshot--The upper teeth projecting beyond the lower. Undershot--The lower incisor teeth projecting beyond the upper, as in bulldogs. Wrinkle--Loose, folding skin over the skull. Wall Eye--A blue mottled eye. Snipy--Too pointed in muzzle; pinched. Stop--The indentation between the skull and the nasal bone near the eyes. Septum--The division between the nostrils. Leather--The skin of the ear. Expression--The size and placement of the eye determines the expression of the dog. Brisket--That part of the body in front of the chest and below the neck. Chest--That part of the body between the forelegs, sometimes called the breast, extending from the brisket to the body. Cobby--Thick set; low in stature, and short coupled; or well ribbed up, short and compact. Couplings--The space between the tops of the shoulder blades, and the tops of the hip joints. A dog is accordingly said to be long or short "in the couplings." Deep in Brisket--Deep in chest. Elbows--The joint at the top of forearm. Elbows Out--Self-explanatory; either congenital, or as a result of weakness. Flat-sided--Flat in ribs; not rounded. Forearm--The foreleg between the elbows and pastern. Pastern--The lower section of the leg below the knee or hock respectively. Shoulders--The top of the shoulder blades, the point at which a dog is measured. Racy--Slight in build and leggy. Roach-back--The arched or wheel formation of loin. Pad--The underneath portion of the foot. Loins--The part of body between the last rib and hindquarters. Long in flank--Long in back of loins. Lumber--Unnecessary flesh. Cat-foot--A short, round foot, with the knuckles well developed. Hare-foot--A long, narrow foot, carried forward. Splay-foot--A flat, awkward forefoot, usually turned outward. Stifles--The upper joint of hind legs. Second Thighs--The muscular development between stifle joint and hock. The Hock--The lowest point of the hind leg. Spring--Round, or well sprung ribs; not flat. Shelly--Narrow, shelly body. Timber--Bone. Tucked Up--Tucked up loin, as seen in greyhounds. Upright Shoulders--Shoulders that are set in an upright, instead of an oblique position. Leggy--Having the legs too long in proportion to body. Stern--Tail. Screw Tail--A tail twisted in the form of a screw. Kink Tail--A tail with a break or kink in it. Even Mouthed--A term used to describe a dog whose jaws are neither overhung nor underhung. Beefy--Big, beefy hind quarters. Bully--Where the dog approaches the bulldog too much in conformation. Terrier Type--Where the dog approaches the terrier too much in conformation. Cow-hocked--The hocks turning inward. Saddle-back--The opposite of roach-back. Lengthy--Possessing length of body. Broody--A broody bitch; one whose length of conformation evidences a likely mother; one who will whelp easily and rear her pups. Blood--A blood; a dog whose appearance denotes high breeding. Condition--Another name for perfect health, without superfluous flesh, coat in the best of shape, and spirits lively and cheerful. Style--Showy, and of a stylish, gay demeanor. Listless--Dull and sluggish. Character--A sub-total of all the points which give to the dog the desired character associated with his particular variety, which differentiates him from all other breeds. Hall-mark--That stamp of quality that distinguishes him from inferior dogs, as the sterling mark on silver, or the hall-mark on the same metal in England. 
19319	----	page images produced and generously made available by the Core Historical Literature in Agriculture collection of Cornell University (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/) Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 19319-h.htm or 19319-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/3/1/19319/19319-h/19319-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/9/3/1/19319/19319-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through the Core Historical Literature in Agriculture collection of Cornell University. See http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=5017637 A DESCRIPTION OF THE BAR-AND-FRAME-HIVE, Invented by W. AUGUSTUS MUNN, ESQ. With an Abstract of Wildman's Complete Guide for the Management of Bees Throughout the Year. Ipsa autem, seu corticibus tibi suta cavatis, Seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta, Angustos habeant aditus; nam frigore mella Cogit hiems, eademque calor liquefacta remittit. Virgil, _G. lib._ iv. London: John Van Voorst, Paternoster Row. M.DCCC.XLIV. London Printed by S. & J. Bentley, Wilson, and Fley, Bangor House, Shoe Lane. PREFACE Having been frequently requested to explain the use of the _bar-and-frame-hive_, in the management of bees, I have been induced to print the following pamphlet, to point out the advantages this new hive possesses over the common ones. I have added extracts from various authorities to show the importance of transporting bees for a change of pasturage, and thus prolonging the honey harvest. Regarding the natural history of the bee, I have merely stated a few of the leading facts connected with that interesting subject, drawn from Wildman's Book on Bee-management. _London, April, 1844._ [Illustration: PLATE I. _FIG. 1._] EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. PLATE I, FIGURE 1. A B C D E F and E F, the oblong box as shown in fig. 1, Plate I. A B C D, the top lid of the oblong box; G H, the half of it made to fall back, and supported at an angle by the hinges, _h h_; _l_, the upper part of the lock of the box; _i k_, the two gable ends of the roof; _i_, the perforated zinc shown as secured in a triangular frame; and _k_, the outside appearance of the ventilator. Q Q, the two quadrants, supporting the table, I J, which is formed by the side of the box, A C E E, being let down; _a a a_, &c., fifteen holes made to receive the back bolt, _m_, of the observation-frame, Z; _b b_, two bolts to fasten into the holes, _c_ and _d_, when the table I J, is closed, _f_, being the other part of the lock. T, one of the handles of the box (the other not seen). U, one of the blocks (the other not shown) to keep the bottom of the box from the ground, when the four legs L L L L, are unscrewed from the four corners of the box. X X B D, the front of the box; _e_, the alighting board, four inches wide, extending the whole length from F to F; X _2_, shows a small ledge to keep the wet from entering the bee-box, and X I, one of the slides _s_, drawn out, and extending beyond the end of the box; the other half slide, _s_, on the _left_ hand side, not drawn out in the sketch, the part under X 1, shows the opening for the ingress and egress of the bees. R, one of the two pieces of red cedar at the inside of the box, fixed at the ends, E F. E F. The Q Q, quadrants being made to work between the red cedar and the outer case or box; _v v_, the fillet fixed in the length of the box, on a level with the tops of red cedar; _c d_, the holes for the bolts _b b_, in the table I J. W W, pieces of perforated zinc laid upon the tops of the bee-frames resting on the fillets, _v v_. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, six of the 15 grooves, half an inch deep, 9-1/2 long, and 1-1/2 of an inch broad, formed on the floor-board: the holes shown in the floor-board above the figures being made for the reception of the two pins, _a b_, in the observation-frame. No. 8, shows the "division-frame" run into the eighth groove of the floor-board, and No. 14 and 15, the bee-frames run into their respective grooves, and the 1-1/8 of an inch openings in the back closed by the slips of tin, _q q q q_, &c. Y Y, the bar of mahogany with corresponding grooves, X X X X, &c. to those on the floor-board, at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, and 15-2/8 holes for the top bolt, _r_, of the observation-frame, Z, to fix into. _t, t, t_, the screw nuts at the backs of the bee-frames, &c., for the screw at the end of the spindle, S, to work into, and thus hold and draw out of the grooves the bee-frames; _w_, the bee-frame containing comb and bees, drawn partly into the observation-frame, Z. A DESCRIPTION OF THE BAR-AND-FRAME-HIVE. THE BAR-AND-FRAME-HIVE. By first giving a general description of the "bar-and-frame-hive," the details of its construction can be better explained afterwards. An oblong box is formed of well seasoned wood of an inch in thickness, about thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and twelve inches broad; but the size may be varied to suit the convenience or taste of different apiarians. Instead of the lid of the box being flat, it is made in the shape of the roof of a cottage, and with projecting eaves to throw off the wet more effectually. One of the long sides of the box is constructed to open with hinges, and to hang on a level with the _bottom_ of the box, and is held up by means of two quadrants. As many grooves, half of an inch broad, half an inch deep, and about 9-1/2 inches long, are formed, 1-1/8 of an inch apart, in the inside of the bottom of the box as its length will admit. In the other side, a long half inch slip is cut for the egress and ingress of the bees, having a piece of wood about an inch thick, and four inches wide, fastened on the outside, just under the opening, to form the alighting board for them. At the top, of the side of the box which is made to let down, a four inch piece of mahogany the length of the inside of the box is secured in, having corresponding grooves formed, half an inch broad, 1-1/8 of an inch deep, and half an inch apart, to those made in the bottom of the box, leaving just _twelve_ inches between the bottom grooves and the upper bar grooves. When the four legs are screwed into the four corners of the box, the small "bee-house" is ready for the reception of the "bee-frames" and the bees. The "bee-frames" are made of half inch mahogany, being twelve inches high, nine inches long, and not more than half of an inch broad, so that these frames will fit into the box, sliding into fifteen grooves formed on the bottom, and kept securely in their places by the upper grooves in the mahogany bar. When the fifteen, or whatever number of the bee-frames intended to be used, have been run into the grooves, sheets of perforated zinc are placed on the tops of them; the 1-1/8 of an inch openings at the backs of the frames being closed with slips of tin. One of the bee-frames is made solid, with sheets of zinc being fixed in it; this frame can then be used as a divider between any number of the bee-frames, and thus form the box into two compartments, either to augment or diminish the space in the box according to the size of the swarm, or the increasing wants of the bees for more room. The bees are then introduced into the hive (having first closed the backs of the bee-frames with the slips of tin, and fastened the side lid of the box against them, and also removed one of the sheets of perforated zinc from the tops of the bee-frames) by dislodging the bees from the straw-hive in which they had been previously collected, or shaken from the boughs of the tree, where they may have settled, so as to fall upon the tops of the frames within the box; when the bees have all congregated within the bee-frames by crawling through the open spaces at the top, the perforated sheet of zinc is placed over them; the bees can then only escape through the long slip or entrance which was made for them in the front of the box. The top lid can be closed and locked, when the bees will be secure from the gaze of the inquisitive, or the bad intentions of thieves. Before I proceed to give any directions for the construction of the "bar-and-frame-hive" I am _anxious_ to _warn_ all amateur carpenters, and those who delight to superintend the labours of a "cheap working country carpenter," against the fatal error of using unseasoned wood; for, unless the "bottom board" and the "bee-frames" are made of mahogany, or some well-seasoned, hard, or close-grained wood, the advantages of the bar and frame-hive will be quite destroyed, as the great object is to have the bee-frames to slide in and out of the grooves with the _greatest facility_. Throughout the whole of the making of the hive or box, no glue should be used, unless further secured with small SCREWS OR NAILS.[1] [Footnote 1: Mr. John Milton of No. 10, Great Marylebone-street, has some well constructed bar and frame bee-hives of various prices.] The oblong box, A B C D, E F and E F (Plate I, fig. 1), is to be made of well-seasoned poplar, fir, or deal, of an inch in thickness; the inside dimensions are 28 inches and 5/8 of an inch long from A to C, 10-1/2 inches broad from A to B, and sixteen inches deep from A to E. The top lid A B C D is formed in the shape of a common roof, and made to project an inch, before, behind, and at the two gable ends, like the eaves of a cottage to throw off the wet. The half of this roof G H, is made to open and fall back with hinges _h h_. The two gable ends of the roof have holes cut in them, _i, k_, to admit the circulation of air; and secured with perforated zinc withinside to prevent the intrusion of wasps, or any other enemies to bees; the gable marked _i_, shows the perforated zinc framed into the gable, and _k_ the outside appearance of the ventilator. The side of the box marked A C E E, is made to let down and form a table I J, hung on hinges P P, and supported by the quadrants Q Q, one inch _below the level of the bottom board_. Two handles are fixed in the ends of the box, one shown in the sketch at T. Two blocks of wood are screwed on the bottom of the box (one shown at U) to keep it off the ground, &c., when the four legs, L L L L, at the four corners of the box are unscrewed for the convenience of packing, &c. In the opposite side or front of the box at X X, is fixed a piece of board _e_, four inches broad, and an inch thick, extending the whole length from F F; this is secured at an angle with the bottom of the box, so as to form a slightly inclined plain _e_, for the alighting board, which would be always dry for the bees to land upon. A half inch opening is made from F to F, just above the alighting board, for the ingress and egress of the bees. Slides are made _s s_, to regulate the extent of the openings, or to entirely close the entrance to the box; these slides can be drawn out when it is necessary to clean the bottom board, &c. Within-side the box, two pieces of red cedar of half an inch in thickness, 12-1/8 inches long, 9-1/2 inches broad, are nailed on to each end at E F, and E F (one of the pieces of red cedar shown at R). The quadrants, Q Q, being made to work between them and the outer case. A fillet, _v v_, is fastened on a level with the tops of the two pieces of red cedar, to form a ledge of about a 1/4 of an inch all round, to support the sheets of perforated zinc, as shown at W W. Sixteen pieces of mahogany, 1-1/8 of an inch broad, and half an inch deep, are to be screwed to the mahogany floor board, commencing against the piece of red cedar, R, and leaving a space between each piece, half of an inch, and finishing against the other piece of red cedar with the last; there will then be formed fifteen grooves, half of an inch in width, half an inch in depth, and 9-1/2 inches long on the floor-board as shown at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. A bar of mahogany, Y Y, about two inches square, having grooves, X X X X, &c., corresponding to those on the floor-board, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c., is let in, and fastened between A and C, having a clear space of twelve inches between the floor-board, and this top bar; the object of these grooves being to receive, and keep steadily in their places, the fifteen bee-frames, when introduced into them. [Illustration: _Fig. I._] The "bee-frames" are made of mahogany, nine inches long, twelve inches high, and half an inch broad. Each frame is _dove-tailed_ to make it strong at the angles, and to keep it true; the upper part is formed of one inch mahogany, and _bevelled_ off (as the carpenters call it) to the eighth of an inch, in the centre, as shown at _a_, fig. 1: on the two sides of this triangular bar, _b b_, pieces of glass, extending the length of the bar, are fixed with red lead. The two sides of the frame, _d, d_, are to increase in size, from half an inch at the top, to 1-1/2 inches at the bottom. The bottom piece, _c_, is half an inch in depth. The back of each frame has a piece of tin, about the thickness of a card, fixed on it, of the exact size, viz. twelve inches long, and half an inch broad, _e, e_. In the centre of the back of each frame, _f_, a screw-nut is let in, which is made to fit a screw at the end of a long spindle, S, Plate I, fig. 1. This spindle with a handle, Z, will screw equally well into the screw-nuts of the fifteen bee-frames and division-frame. The use of this spindle being, to draw in and out of the grooves the fifteen bee-frames when required. When the bee-frames have been put into the grooves in the box, slips of tin about thirteen inches long, and and a half broad, are slipped into their backs (being run in between the backs of the bee-frames, and the pieces of thin tin fixed upon them), to close the 1-1/8 of an inch openings. And three or four sheets of perforated zinc are laid upon the tops of the bee-frames, resting on the fillets. Thus, then, when a swarm of bees has been introduced into this box, the bees have to build their combs within the fifteen bee-frames, or whatever number may have been run into the grooves for that purpose. The bees cannot escape from above the frames, as the sheets of perforated zinc prevent them, nor from the 1-1/8 of an inch openings at the backs of the frames, as they have been closed with the slips of tin; the only open part being the long narrow slip, just above the alighting board, which was originally left for their ingress and egress. The division-frame is made of half inch mahogany, twelve inches high, 9-1/2 long, and half of an inch broad. So that it will run into any of the grooves formed for the bee-frames; but made to fit close to the box at the end, by means of a slip of wood, C C, fig. 2, to prevent the bees crawling between the frame and the outer-box, as they can do round the bee-frames. [Illustration: _Fig. II._] The division-frame itself is closed by having two sheets of zinc run into it as shown in fig. 2, the one marked _b b b b_, and partly drawn out, being of solid sheet zinc; and _a a_, the other in the frame, of perforated zinc; _d_, being the screw-nut (like those in the bee-frames) by means of which it can be drawn out into the observation-frame, &c. Thus, wherever this division-frame is run into the bee-box, (except of course at No. 1, and No. 15 grooves) it cuts off all communication with the bee-frames on the right or left of it; and two colonies of bees may be kept in the same box, and still have distinct frames to work upon, and separate entrances, &c. If then bees have been put into one of the bar-and-frame-hives, and sufficient time has been given them to build their combs within "the bee-frames," the frames with their contents can be drawn out into the "observation-frame," (which will be more fully described) whenever it is wished to examine the bees, &c., as the 1-1/8 of an inch spaces between the grooves will allow of a sufficient distance to be preserved, between the lateral surfaces of the perpendicular combs formed in the "bee-frames," and thus permit them to slide by each other with facility. [Illustration: _Fig. III._] The "observation-frame," fig. 3, is a mahogany frame, fourteen inches high, eleven inches long, and about four inches wide, having a single groove half an inch deep, and half an inch broad, running within its whole length of eleven inches. The two largest sides have panes of glass fixed in them with small brads. The top, bottom, and one end (this end forming the back) of this frame, are made of solid wood; the back having a small hole, _f_, 2/8 of an inch in diameter in the middle, to allow the spindle before mentioned to pass through it. The end which forms the front of the frame is open, so that any one of the bee-frames can be run into the observation-frame, but may be closed by a piece of tin (_d_) being slipt into the small grooves at _c c_. The observation-frame has two pins, _a, b_, to fit into the 2/8 holes made along the bottom board of the bee-box, shown by the figures, 1, 2, 3, &c., see Plate I, fig. 1, and also two small bolts _r_ and _m_; _r_, the upper one to fix into the holes above X X X, &c., in the mahogany bar; (but this bolt is only used during the operation of drawing out the bee-frames into the observation frame); and the other bolt _m_ at the back of the frame, to fasten into the 2/8 holes, _a, a, a_, &c., made in the lid, I J. When the two pins and the bolts of the observation-frame have been adjusted and fixed, the groove in it will be in a straight line with one of the grooves formed in the bottom board of the box, consequently a bee-frame can be made to slide, by means of the long spindle, in and out of the box, into the observation-frame. The use of this "observation frame" must now be explained more fully: the top lid of the bee box, Plate I, fig. 1. G. H. being thrown up, will screen the "operator" from the bees, which are flying in and out in the front of the hive or box. The back lid, I. J., is let down, and supported by the quadrants Q. Q., and forms a table, the box having been raised from the ground by the four legs, L L L L. The observation frame is placed opposite to whichever bee-frame is to be examined; the two pins, _a, b_, fig. 3, running into the holes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., made in the bottom board. The small bolts, Plate I, secured at the top, as at _r_, and the back _m_: the long spindle, S, is run through the 2/8 hole in the back of the observation frame, as at Z, and the end of the spindle screwed into the screw socket _t_, at the back of the bee-frame _w_; the two pieces of tin on the right and left of the bee-frame are pulled out (of course the observation frame being empty, and having the piece of tin from its front taken out), the operator holding by the handle, _z_, of the spindle, gradually draws out the bee-frame into the observation frame, and after examining the bees and comb, gently returns the bee-frame into its groove in the floor-board: the two slips of tin are then replaced in the backs of the bee-frames: the spindle is unscrewed and withdrawn, the bolts are unfastened, the observation frame being kept firmly in its place, held by the left hand of the operator, whilst with the right he runs in the long slip of tin, _d_, fig. 3, into the front of the observation frame, to keep the bees (escaped from the returned bee-frame), until the observation frame is again fixed opposite to another bee-frame, when the tin is withdrawn and the bolts fastened as before. It has been shown that by these means, each bee-frame, and the bees and comb contained in it, can be easily drawn out and examined, without interfering with any other part of the hive, or occasioning the loss of a single bee. The whole of the interior of the hive is thus open to inspection at any moment, and a choice can be made of the combs containing the most honey, or the bee owner enabled to trace the devastation of the honey moth, and ascertain the presence of any other enemy, and this without the assistance of smoke, which must be injurious both to the bees and their brood. When the bee-frame is returned and secured, the observation-frame is removed; then the lid, I J, being shut up and bolted, and the upper lid, G H, closed, the box may be locked up. When the bees have been shut in with the slide in the front, the hive or box is ready to be transported anywhere, to procure new pasturage for them, which, as every experienced bee-keeper knows, is of the greatest benefit to prolong their honey-harvest. Perfect protection from wet and the vicissitudes of temperature, is partly ensured by the external bee-box being made of well-seasoned wood; poplar is recommended as of a looser grain than fir, deal, &c., and consequently, not so great a conductor of heat; but the objection to wooden bee-hives or boxes, for being more easily affected by the variations of the temperature, is removed by the construction of the "bar frame-hive;" for the bee-frames form, as it were, a smaller box within the oblong box, and are not in immediate contact with the external air, but have a half inch space nearly all round them, which will to a certain extent maintain an equable temperature for the bees, both in summer and winter. Any moisture condensed from the heated air generated by the bees, is carried off through the perforated sheets of zinc above the frames, and cool store-room for the honey is also thus secured. A feeding trough is made on the principle of a bird-glass: with a tin feeder and a small bottle for the liquid food to be put into. [Illustration: _Fig. IV._] The tin feeder is six inches by 7-1/2 long, and one inch deep, and just fits on to the top of the bee-frames, where the perforated sheets of zinc are laid; within this feeder a half inch opening is cut at the bottom, fig 4, _a_, and an inclined plane _b_, reaching half way up the depth of the trough; and a sheet of perforated tin, _c_ (placed horizontally from point _b_,) through which the bees suck the food, which is kept at the same level by atmospheric pressure; for as the food is drawn down below the mouth of the bottle, _d_, air forces itself into the bottle, and the same quantity of food trickles down into the feeder, a piece of glass, _e_, exactly the same size as the feeder, is placed over it, through which the bees may be seen whilst feeding, and the feeding trough will be nearly of the same temperature as the interior of the box or hive, and prevent the bees being chilled, as they would be in winter, if compelled to descend for their food; and besides, the bees are less likely to be attacked by wasps or strange bees when fed from above, as the intruders would have to ascend through the mass of bees in the box, which would be attended with danger to them. The bees can be fed when necessary by one of the sheets of perforated zinc being drawn on one side, and the feeding trough, with the bottle of food in it, being placed over the opening; when the bees will ascend through the half inch space at _a_, and feed themselves with the liquid, or carry it away and store it up for future use. HIVES AND BEE-BOXES. Having given a description of the bar-frame-hive, it will be as well to enter into the comparative advantages of using wooden boxes and straw hives. Some apiarians confine themselves to the use of straw hives, others to wooden boxes, and a third party use both; but as far as the bees are concerned it matters little what kind of hive is given them, for if the season be favourable, and the bee-pasturage rich with flowers, they collect and store up the honey in their combs in any receptacle of any shape or size, provided it affords them shelter from the weather. Hives made of straw are generally preferred for an out-of-door apiary, as being less liable to be over-heated by the rays of the sun, and in the winter they exclude the cold better than hives made of other materials, while the moisture arising from the bees is more quickly absorbed within the hive, and does not run down the sides as it generally does in wooden hives or boxes; at the same time they are always to be obtained from their cheapness, and from their simplicity easily understood and made use of; wooden boxes can only be used with advantage in a bee-house, they stand firmer on the bottom boards, or one upon another, they admit of having glass windows, through which to observe the operations of the bees, and they are not so liable to harbour moths, spiders, and other insects, as the straw hives. The objects to be attained in the construction and management of an apiary, are, to secure the prosperity and multiplication of the colonies of bees, to increase the amount of their productive labour, and to obtain their products with facility, and with the least possible detriment to the stock. It is to the interest of the owner, therefore, that he provide for the bees shelter against moisture, and the extremes of heat and cold--especially, sudden vicissitudes of temperature, protection from their numerous enemies, every facility for constructing their combs and for rearing their brood, and that the hive should be so constructed as to allow of every part of the combs to be inspected at any moment, and capable of removal when requisite: and while attention is paid to economy, it should be made of materials that will secure its durability. These observations apply equally to the straw hives, boxes, or whatever the bees may be lodged in or hived. Some cultivators of bees have been chiefly anxious to promote their multiplication, and to prevent the escape of the swarms in their natural way, by forming artificial swarms, by separating a populous hive previous to its swarming, into two parts, and allowing to each greater room for the construction of their works. Others, and the most numerous class, have contemplated only the abundance of the products which they yield, and the facility of extracting them from the hive, without showing any particular solicitude as to the preservation of the bees themselves. Another class of apiarians have, on the other hand, had it more particularly in view, to facilitate the prosecution of researches in the natural history and economy of bees. Then, again, amongst apiarians a diversity of opinion exists regarding the system to be adopted in the management of the hives, whether the bees are to be kept in single hives, caps or bell-glasses, and extra boxes, which may be added at the top, which is called the _storifying_ system; or inserting additional room at the bottom, called _nadering_; or whether adding boxes at the sides, called the _collateral_ system, should be followed out; and a plan of ventilating the boxes has been added to the last system, but experience has proved that it is utterly useless, as in spite of ventilating tubes and thermometers, the bees have swarmed, and the queen-bee has deposited her eggs in the collateral boxes and destroyed the purity of the honey. No successful plan has been yet devised to ventilate the combs where the bees cluster; for the bees prevent the circulation of the cold air amongst the combs by immediately forming themselves in thick rows at the bottom of the combs; and instead of ranging the fields to gather honey or pollen, have to collect together and idle away their time to retain the necessary heat for the formation of the combs, or to rear their brood. As a single hive, Huber's leaf-hive is certainly the best; but it requires great attention, and none but experienced apiarists can use it for the purpose of trying experiments; but in the hands of experienced apiarists it is invaluable. All other single hives are objectionable, as neither the proceedings of the bees can be observed, nor the honey taken out, without either destroying the bees, or driving them out with smoke by which much of the brood is killed; or if rainy weather occur at the time the bees are preparing to throw off a swarm, and the hive be filled to its utmost limits with comb, all the bees must remain idle till the return of fine weather for want of room. To meet this objection, some apiarians have straw-hives with flat wooden tops made, or use boxes, and have holes cut in them at the top, so that small glasses may be added, when the bees require room. But this does not prevent swarming, and besides, the flatness of the roof is prejudicial, as it allows the moisture which exhales from the bees to collect in the roof, and to fall in drops at different parts, to the great injury of the subjacent contents of the hive, and, like the common straw hive or square box, the bees cannot be examined, except partially through the windows made in the sides. To remedy this evil, the further plan of _storifying_ hives or boxes, was introduced, and by this method swarming may to an extent be prevented, and the wax and honey can be taken without destroying the bees; and with the same view was introduced the _collateral_ system, which is adding room at the sides (of course preserving a free communication between the boxes and hives). But there are objections to the _collateral_ system, as it is now a very well established fact, that partitions of any kind are detrimental to the prosperity of the bees; and the same applies, though perhaps in an inferior degree, to the _storied_ system, or hives and boxes divided into stories one above another; besides that which holds good equally to all hives or boxes, that it is not possible to proportion the hives in all cases to the magnitude of the swarms, or the energy with which they labour. In single hives the honey becomes bad and discoloured from being put into the old breeding cells. In double storied, or collateral hives, the bees are divided, and live in different families; while their own preservation, and that of the brood, requires them to live in the strictest union; the heat also necessary for the secretion of wax is lessened by the division of the bees into different groups. And, besides, all these different hives or boxes should have some sort of protection from the weather, either in the way of eaves or covers, or be placed in a shed or bee-house. They require also centre boards and division tins, &c. to separate one hive or box from another, floor boards for them to stand upon, as well as stands or stools to raise them from the ground, &c., for a description of which, and a full history of all hives and boxes, I refer the reader to Dr. Bevan's "Honey-bee." In mentioning the defects of these different boxes and hives, I do not mean to condemn them as useless, for they will all answer to a certain extent the purposes for which they were intended, rewarding the attentive bee-keeper, according to the seasons, and enabling the bees to send forth many swarms, and collecting and storing up their treasures of honey; but my object has been to point out briefly to those anxious for the better, more extended, and economical mode of bee-management, the difficulties to be provided against, and to recommend to their consideration the advantages offered in the bar frame-hive. But, however, I should not be doing justice to Mr. R. Golding, if I did not particularly mention his "improved Grecian hive" by the use of which combs may be removed from the interior of the hive and inspected at pleasure: this improvement he has effected by carefully investigating the laws of the insects for whose use the hives were intended, and by a particular arrangement of the bars, (every alternate one being furnished with guide combs,) the bees have been induced, in a manner at once simple and beautiful, to construct a uniform range of combs. When the hive is filled with honey, two or three, or more of the bars may be, at any time, removed, or exchanged for unoccupied bars, without much disturbing the brood combs, all annoyance from the bees being prevented by a whiff or two of tobacco smoke being blown into the hive at the time of the removal of the bars. With the protection of a bee-house these hives can be applied to many of the systems of bee-management, and prove equally profitable, and more manageable than some of the newly-invented hives. THE APIARY. Next of importance to the kind of hive and the system to be followed, is the proper situation of an apiary. This subject engaged the attention of bee-keepers in ancient as much as in modern times; but the directions given by Columella and Virgil are as good now as when they were written; and as is observed by the writer in No. CXLI. of the Quarterly Review, in the amusing article on "Bee-books,"--"It would amply repay (and this is saying a great deal,) the most forgetful country gentleman to rub up his schoolboy Latin, for the sole pleasure he would derive from the perusal of the fourth Georgic." The aspect has been regarded as of the first importance; but there are points of greater consequence, namely the vicinity of good bee pasturage, the shelter of the hives from the winds by trees or houses, and their distance from ponds or rivers, as the high winds might dash the bees into the water. Various aspects have been recommended, but the south, with a point to the east or west, according to its situation as respects the shelter it may receive from walls or trees, &c. is the best: care, however, must be taken that neither walls, trees, nor anything else impede the going forth of the bees to their pasturage. "I have ever found it best," says Wildman, "to place the mouth of the hives to the west in spring, care being taken that they have the afternoon sun; the morning sun is extremely dangerous during the colder months, when its glare often tempts these industrious insects out to their ruin; whereas the mouth of the hive being then in the shade, the bees remain at home; and as clouds generally obscure the afternoon's sun at that season, the bees escape the temptation of going out. When food is to be obtained, the warmth of the air continues round the hive in the afternoon, which enables the bees to pursue their labours without danger. A valley is a better situation for an apiary than a hill, being more convenient to the bees returning home with their loads; and, besides, bees are not so apt to fly away when swarming as when on a hill: but when swarms take a distant flight, they generally fly against the wind, so that the stragglers of the swarms may better hear the direction of the course taken by their fellow emigrants. I recommend a hard gravel terrace for the hives to be placed upon, as being drier both in summer and winter for the bee-master to walk upon, when inspecting his bees, and also as less likely to afford shelter for ants or other enemies to bees; and, besides, it is better for the bees, which when much fatigued by their journeys, or benumbed by the cold, are apt to fall around the hives, and would recover more quickly from the warmth of the dry ground than if they had alighted on damp grass. The hives should not be placed where water from the eaves of houses, from hedges, or trees, drop upon them; but they should be near the mansion house for the convenience of watching the bees, &c. A small stream of water running near the hives is thought to be of advantage, especially in dry seasons, with gently declining banks, in order that the bees may have safe access to it. Heaths, or places abounding in wild flowers, constitute the best neighbourhood for an apiary, and in default of this pasturage, there should be gardens where flowers are cultivated, and fields in which buck-wheat, clover, or sainfoin, is sown. But cultivating small gardens of flowers for bees is useless, except a few early flowers near the hives for the bees to collect some pollen for the brood, such as the common kinds of crocus, white alyssum, single blue hepaticas, helleborus niger, and tussilago petasites, all of which flower early; but should any of the tribe of the willows grow near, there will be no necessity for cultivating the flowers above-mentioned, as they yield an abundant harvest of farina, or pollen. A rich corn country is well known to be a barren desert to the bees during a greater portion of the year. Hence the judicious practice of shifting the bees from place to place according to the circumstances of the season, and the custom of other nations in this particular well deserves our imitation. Few places are so happily situated as to afford bees proper pasturage both in the beginning of the season and also the autumn; it was the advice of Celsus that, after the vernal pastures are consumed, they should be transported to places abounding with autumnal flowers; as was practised by conveying the bees from Achaia to Attica, from Euboea and the Cyclad Islands to Syrus, and also in Sicily, where they were brought to Hybla from other parts of the island. Pliny states that the custom of removing bees from place to place for fresh pasturage was frequent in the Roman territories, and such is still the practice of the Italians who live near the banks of the Po, (the river which Pliny particularly instances,) mentioned by Alexander de Montfort, who says that the Italians treat their bees in nearly the same manner as the Egyptians did and still do; that they load boats with hives and convey them to the neighbourhood of the mountains of Piedmont; that in proportion as the bees gather in their harvest, the boats, by growing heavier, sink deeper into the water; and that the watermen determine from this, when their hives are loaded sufficiently, and it is time to carry them back to their places from which they came. The same author relates that the people of the country of Juliers used the same practice; for that, at a certain season of the year, they carried their bees to the foot of mountains that were covered with wild thyme. M. Maillet, who was the French Consul in Egypt in 1692, says in his curious description of Egypt; "that in spite of the ignorance and rusticity which have got possession of that country, there yet remain in it several traces of the industry and skill of the ancient Egyptians." One of their most admirable contrivances is, the sending their bees annually into different districts to collect food, at a time when they could not find any at home. About the end October, all such inhabitants of Lower Egypt, as have hives of bees, embark them on the Nile, and convey them up that river quite into Upper Egypt; observing to time it so that they arrive there just when the inundation is withdrawn, the lands have been sown, and the flowers begin to bud. The hives thus sent are marked and numbered by their respective owners, and placed pyramidically in boats prepared for the purpose. After they have remained some time at their furthest station, and are supposed to have gathered all the pollen and honey they could find in the fields within two or three leagues around, their conductors convey them in the same boats, two or three leagues lower down, and there leave the laborious insects so long a time as is necessary for them to collect all the riches of this spot. Thus the nearer they come to the place of their more permanent abode, they find the plants which afford them food, forward in proportion. In fine, about the beginning of February, after having travelled through the whole length of Egypt, and gathered all the rich produce of the delightful banks of the Nile, they arrive at the mouth of that river, towards the ocean; from whence they had set out: care is taken to keep an exact register of every district from whence the hives were sent in the beginning of the season, of their numbers, of the names of the persons who sent them, and likewise of the mark or number of the boat in which they were placed. Niebuhr saw upon the Nile, between Cairo and Damietta, a convoy of four thousand hives, in their transit from Upper Egypt to the Delta. Savary, in his letters on Egypt, also gives an account of the manner of transporting the hives down the Nile. In France floating bee-houses are common. Goldsmith describes from his own observation, a kind of floating apiary in some parts of France and Piedmont. "They have on board of one barge," he says, "three score or a hundred bee-hives, well defended from the inclemency of an accidental storm, and with these the owners float quietly down the stream: one bee-hive yields the proprietor a considerable income. Why," he adds, "a method similar to this has never been adopted in England where we have more gentle rivers, and more flowery banks, than in any part of the world, I know not; certainly it might be turned to advantage." They have also a method of transporting their hives by land in carts in Germany; and particularly in Hanover travelling caravans of bees may be seen during the season. I have thus briefly quoted from famous authorities, to impress upon those who keep apiaries the importance of transporting their bees from pasture to pasture. The advantage to weak swarms is very great, "but whilst so little of the true principles of bee management is understood, as that the destruction of the bees has been considered absolutely essential, in order to the attainment of their stores, it is no wonder that so little attention should have been paid to their cultivation in this country, and that it should not have proved a more productive department of rural economy." "Bees, like everything else worth possessing, require care and attention; but persons generally think it is quite sufficient to procure a hive and a swarm, and set it down in the middle of a garden, and that streams of honey and money will forthwith flow; and, perhaps, commence calculating, from the perusal of the statements of the profits made by Thorley from a single hive, which he estimates to be 4300_l._ 16_s._ from 8192 hives kept during fourteen years! deducting ten shillings and sixpence, the cost of the first hive!" The bar and frame-hives are so constructed that they can be moved from place to place with the greatest ease, and, perhaps, this may be an inducement for bee-masters to try the recommendations of transporting bees, and thus avoid one expense of feeding them during the winter. Connected with the foregoing subject of transporting bees from place to place, is the question of the distance to which bees extend their flight in search of food, &c.; and the comparative excellence of the position of an apiary depends in some measure on the greater or less distance the bees will have to fly to their pasturage. Dr. Chambers, and Dr. Hunter were of opinion, that the bee cannot extend its flight beyond a mile, which idea they adopted on the authority of Schirach; but then it must be recollected that the German mile of Schirach is equal to about 3-1/2 English miles. It was the opinion of Huber, that the radii of the circle of the flight of the bee extended nearly to four English miles. And Huish says "The travelling apiaries of Germany, particularly those of Hanover, are regulated by the prevailing opinion, that the bee can, and does, extend its flight to four and even five miles; and acting upon that supposition, when the bee-masters move their apiaries, they always travel about two _stunden_, that is, about eight miles, as they then calculate that the bees are beyond the former range of their pasture by four miles." And adds, "a travelling apiary of 80 or 100 hives will exhaust the food within the area of a circle of four miles in about a fortnight or three weeks." "But certainly there is no reason to fear that any part of this country will be overstocked with bees, for where one hive is now kept, fifty might be kept without running any risk of overstocking the country; for the average number of hives in the various apiaries does not exceed five." "It has been calculated" says another authority, "that the pastures of Scotland could maintain as many bees as would produce 4,000,000 pints of honey, and 1,000,000 lbs. of wax; and were these quantities tripled for England and Ireland, the produce of the British empire would be 12,000,000 pints of honey, and 3,000,000 lbs. of wax per annum, worth about five shillings per pint for the honey, and one shilling and sixpence per lb. for the wax, making an annual produce in money of about 3,225,000_l._ But in consequence of the present neglect of this branch of rural economy, we pay annually nearly 12,000_l._ for honey alone. The imports and exports of wax bleached and unbleached were as follows: Returned Imported. Exported. for home the rate Consumption. of Duty 1831. 1832. 1831. 1832. 1831. 1832. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. £ s. d. Unbleached 7,005 1,878 10,002 1 10 0 4,349 2,536 826 Bleached 195 504 94 3 0 0 Produce of Duty. Unbleached £ 10,262 Bleached 823 The price of wax varies (duty included) from 5_l._ to 10_l._ a cwt. In 1831, 7,203 cwt. of wax were imported, of which 3,892 cwt. of it came from Western Africa; 1,551, from Tripoli, Barbary, &c.; and 910 cwt. from the United States. In 1839, imports were 6,314 cwt., in 1841, 4,483 cwt. of wax; in 1838, 675 cwt. of honey; and in 1841, 3,761 cwt. valued at 12,000_l._ brought principally from the West Indies, Germany, and Portugal. The above statement proves the demand there is in this country for honey and wax. It is mentioned in Wildman's pamphlet that, when Corsica was subject to the Romans, a tribute was imposed upon it of no less than two hundred thousand pounds of wax yearly; but this is no proof of the excellence of their honey, which, according to Ovid, was of very ill account, and seems to be the reason why the tributary tax was exacted in wax, in preference to honey. The honey collected by the bees at all times retains qualities derived from the kind of plant from whence it has been procured, as is manifest not only by the peculiar odour of the honey, such as that collected from leek blossoms and all the onion tribe, but by the effects produced by the use of honey obtained from certain plants, chiefly from the subtribe Rhodoraceæ, such as the kalmia, azalea, rhododendron, &c., which yield a honey frequently poisonous and intoxicating, as has been proved by the fatal effects on persons in America. It is recorded by Xenophon in his Anabasis that, during the retreat of the ten thousand, the soldiers sucked some honey-combs in a place near Trebizonde, and in consequence became intoxicated, and did not recover their strength for three or four days; and these effects are supposed to have been produced from the honey having been extracted by the bees from the rhododendron ponticum or azalea pontica of Linnæus. Although many of these plants have been introduced into this country, yet, probably from their small proportion to the whole of the flowers in bloom, the honey collected by the bees has not been found to be injured or to have produced any evil consequences. The goodness and flavour of honey depend on the fragrance of the plants from which the bees collect it, and hence it is that the honey of different places is held in different degrees of estimation. The honey gathered from the genus erica (termed _heather honey_) and most labiate plants, is wholesome. That which is made early in the year is preferred to what is collected in the latter end of the season. Whilst on the subject of honey, I will add the directions given by Wildman, how to separate the honey from the wax: "Take," he says, "the combs which have been extracted from the different hives or boxes into a close room, rather warm than otherwise, that the honey may drain more freely, and keep the doors and windows shut, to prevent the bees from entering, or else they will be very troublesome, and will attack and carry away the greater part of the honey from the combs. "Lay aside such combs as have young bees or brood in them, as they would give your honey a bad flavour and render it unwholesome, and the bee-brood must also be separated and melted with the brood-combs. When you have thus separated the combs, let such as are very fine be nicely drained by themselves, without the least pressing whatever, having been carefully cleaned of every sort of filth, or insects, and dividing each comb in such a manner that the cells may be open at both ends, and placing them upon a sieve or coarse cloth, that the honey may drain off quite pure and undefiled. The remainder of the combs from which the honey has been thus drained, together with those which contained the bee-bread and brood, must be put into a coarse cloth or bag, and squeezed or pressed to get all the honey out. This will make it inferior in quality, and unfit for many uses, therefore it should be put into pots or bottles by itself, to feed bees with, for which purpose it will be better than pure honey, on account of the bee-bread that will be mixed with it, which is necessary for their subsistence. "In order to obtain the wax in a pure state, what remains of the combs after separating the honey, together with the empty combs which had been laid aside, should be put into a copper with clean water; made to boil gently over a slow fire, keeping it constantly stirring. When it is melted, run it through a coarse cloth or bag made for the purpose, and put it into a press to separate the wax from the dross. Let the wax run from the press into a vessel placed under it, into which put some water to prevent the wax adhering to the sides. "If this process of boiling and pressing is repeated twice or even three times, the wax will be much purer and consequently of greater value. Set it in a place where it may cool by degrees, in pans of the size you would choose your cakes to be, with some water in them, to prevent the wax sticking to the sides whilst hot. Honey should be kept only in stone jars, called Bristol ware, and in a cool and dry situation, but not corked up until a week or two after it has transuded through the sieve, &c., but should be carefully covered with perforated sheets of zinc to keep out insects and flies, &c. after which period the jars may be secured and put into the store-rooms. "The only protection necessary for gentlemen,--for ladies, I presume, would never venture to undertake the dangerous task of extracting the honey combs from hives or boxes,--will be a pair of buckskin gloves, with a pair of worsted gloves over them extending to the elbows; so that the bees should not be able to creep between the gloves and the sleeves; for the face a piece of wire pattern gauze net, made in the shape of a bag, to draw with a string round the hat above the brim, which will keep it from the face, and the other open end being secured under the neck handkerchief, and with the assistance of a puff or two of smoke into any hive intended to be operated upon, the bee-master may fearlessly turn up the hive, and cut out combs or dislodge bees from their habitations, &c. with impunity." THE ENEMIES TO BEES, &c. The proprietor having provided shelter for his bees, and as great a plenty of pasture as he possibly can, should next be careful to guard them from the numerous enemies which prey upon them, and destroy their honey-combs. Bees themselves, in the autumn and spring, are very often great enemies to one another, and rob each other's hives, especially in dry seasons, when the honey gathering is almost over; and the bees from over-stocked hives, not having honey sufficient for their winter's store, will through necessity attack the old hives or stocks, which are thinned by over swarming, carry away all their honey, and often destroy their queens. In order to prevent this havoc, contract the entrance or entrances of the hive attempted to be robbed, so that a few bees only can enter at a time, by which means the old stocks will be better able to defend themselves. If, notwithstanding this narrowness of the passage, robbers attack a hive, the entrance should be instantly closed and kept so till the thieves are gone, and it will be advisable in the evening to examine the state of the hive, especially as to weight, and if the queen be safe, remove it to another place, at least a mile from the old locality. The person who is thus employed, at a time when the bees are full of resentment, should be well defended from their stings. But, should he be so unfortunate as to get stung for his interference, the first thing is to extract the sting. To alleviate the irritation, cooling lotions should be applied, but the pain of a sting is relieved by applying spirits of hartshorn, or liquor potassæ, to the spot where the sting entered. One would imagine the moth to be an enemy of no consequence, but the wax-moth (_Tinea mellonella_) is a most formidable enemy. She lays her eggs under the very skirts of the hive, or in the rubbish on the floor, or even in the combs of the bees; these eggs when hatched produce a small whitish worm or larva, and it is in this stage that it commits its ravages, extending its galleries through every quarter of the combs, detaching them from the tops and sides of the hives, and causing them to fall together. The way to destroy them is frequently to lift up the hive in the morning, and kill all you can see. The most effectual way is to drive the bees into a new hive, but this can be only done in the height of the honey season; or the affected combs may be cut out, and the bees restored to their old habitation. Mice are likewise very destructive to bees; sometimes they enter at the door, but most commonly near the top of the hive; this they do generally during winter, when the bees are in a torpid state; when this is suspected, set a few traps about the hives. The common bat will also sometimes take possession of a hive, and commit very great havoc amongst the bees. Wasps and hornets must be destroyed, if possible, either by gunpowder, or by the more primitive mode of placing limed twigs before the holes, when you have discovered their nests. The spring is the time to kill the female wasps and hornets, for then, by the death of one female, a whole nest is destroyed. Or place bottles half full of sugar and beer where the wasps frequent; they will go in to drink, and drown themselves in the liquor, not being able to get out of the bottle again. Spiders must be killed, and their nets or webs broken down, otherwise they will catch and destroy many bees. Swallows, frogs, ants, earwigs, snails, woodlice, poultry, and small birds of almost all kinds, are reckoned amongst their foes. And, therefore, there should be no lack of vigilance on the part of the owner of bees, to keep the bee-house as clean as possible from all vermin. The signs of dysentery having commenced in any colony of bees may be known by the floor-boards and combs being covered with stains, by the dark coloured evacuations, producing an offensive smell, and frequent deaths amongst the bees. "Bees," says Gelieu, "have no real disease; they are always in good health as long as they are at liberty, are kept warm, and provided with plenty of food. All their pretended diseases are the result of cold, hunger, or the infection produced by a too close and long confinement during winter, and by exposure to damp, &c." They appear however sometimes to be seized, in the spring, with dysentery; this is occasioned by their feeding too greedily, it is supposed, on honey dew, without the mixture of pollen and other wholesome nutriment. The only remedy that has been found for this disease, is to give the bees plenty of honey, such honey as that extracted from the refuse combs in the autumn, that had abundance of bee-bread pressed amongst it,--the more the better,--mixing with it a table-spoonful of salt, and giving the bees their full liberty, and a clean hive. Many things are necessary for the preservation of bees, but more especially in this country, where the bees have only one season in five, on an average of years, really good for their honey harvest; wherefore the owner should take care to provide the light stocks with a sufficient quantity of food, which they have not been able to secure by their own industry, either through the badness of the bee-pasturage, the inclemency of the seasons, the weakness of the colony, or the spoil made by their enemies; and sometimes by the ill-judged management of their owners, in robbing the bees beyond the bounds of reason. By this last unjust way of proceeding, these poor industrious little insects are absolutely starved, and their greedy masters deservedly experience the old proverb; that "Too much covetousness breaks the bag." It is impossible to ascertain what quantity of honey will serve a hive of bees the whole winter, because the number in the hive may be more or less, and in some years, the spring is more forward than in others; but 25 lbs. is said to be the quantity required in a common cottage-hive. During frost, the bees consume very little food indeed; and still less during severe cold weather. Mr. White (with many other apiarians) is of opinion, that a greater degree of cold than is commonly imagined to be proper for bees is favourable to them in winter, for the bees during that period, are in so lethargic a state, that little food supports them. The best method to feed the weak stocks, if in one of Mr. R. Golding's improved Grecian hives, is to place some combs (drone combs reserved for that purpose) filled on one side with honey, over the centre-board, and covering it over with a common hive. The advantage of feeding bees from above is great; they are less likely to be attacked by the bees from other hives, and they do not become benumbed by the cold, as the same temperature is maintained above as in the rest of the hive. But in all cases, bees should be fed in autumn, and before they are in absolute want of food, otherwise they will be so poor and weak that they will not be able to ascend or descend to feed themselves. When that happens, it is almost too late to save them; however, you may try and feed them, by first tying a piece of gauze over the bottom of the hive, turning it up to receive the heat of the sun or fire, and, if the bees revive at all, place a pewter dish with some liquid honey in it, on the floor-board, and the hive over it, when the bees will draw up the honey through the gauze or net without smearing themselves, the the pewter dish having been filled with hot water to keep the honey liquid, and to diffuse a genial warmth throughout the hive, and thus secure them for a time from the cold, which would chill and even kill the bees in the winter, when they came down to the bottom of the hive to feed on the proffered bounty. In prosperous hives or colonies, as soon as the severity of the winter's frost is past, the queen-bee begins to lay her eggs in the various cells in the combs, and proceeds in proportion to the mildness of the season to deposit a succession. The number of young bees that may by this means rise in a hive, may endanger the lives of all the bees by famine, for the increased multitude consume a great deal of honey, an accident likely to happen if the mild weather of January or February should be succeeded by cold, rainy, or even dry weather; for it is found that the flowers do not secrete the sweet juices, which constitute honey, so freely during the prevalence of dry easterly winds; and thus present a barren field for the out-of-door labours of the bees. On this account, the proprietor should examine the hives frequently at this season, that, if necessary, he may give them a proper supply, in which he should be bountiful rather than otherwise, because the bees are faithful stewards, and will return with interest what is thus in their great need bestowed upon them. The time of the bees' swarming is generally in the months of May and June, and sometimes July, but the latter is too late, as there are then fewer bees than in the earlier swarms, and they seldom live through the winter without much care and feeding. The later swarms should be hived in rather smaller hives than the first, that, by clustering together, they may the better nourish and keep themselves warm. The hours of their swarming are for the most part about twelve o'clock at noon, never before eight, and seldom after four in the afternoon. The symptom of swarming, is generally the unusual number of bees seen hanging at the mouth of the hive, and if a piping noise, or a shrill note, which is made by the queen is heard, it is a sure index the bees will swarm, if the weather be warm and dry. If the bees work a comb under the floor-board, as is sometimes the case, it is a sign they will not swarm; a more certain sign is when they throw out the young dead queens with the drone brood. When they retain the drones in the hives after August, it is a bad omen, as they are then reserved for the sake of the young queens, which they are expecting to raise; and the season being too far advanced, and their failing in the attempt, and being without a queen, the colony will most certainly dwindle away, before the next season. Always choose a hive proportionable to the size of your swarm, and prepare to hive them as soon as possible, lest they should rise again. It is not unusual to ring a bell or tinkle a brass pan, &c., at the time the bees swarm; it is also a common method to dress the hives with honey, balm, &c. I mention these things, because they are customs of long standing: the tinkling of bells is of little use, as the bees will generally settle near the hive; and as to dressing the hives, I by no means recommend it, as the bees like a clean new hive much better, for it does not give them so much trouble to clean, &c. If the swarm should rise in the full heat of the day, and the sun shine hot upon them, they will not continue long in their first situation; for when they find they have all got their company together, they will soon uncluster, rise again, fly to some particular spot which has been fixed upon for that purpose by detached parties of bees, who return and acquaint the swarm; therefore I would advise to hive them as soon as possible, and remove them in the evening to the place where they are to remain. The supposed relative value of early and late swarms is thus mentioned in an old English proverb:-- A swarm in May, Is worth a load of hay. A swarm in June, Is worth a silver spoon; A swarm in July, Is not worth a fly. SWARMING AND HIVING THE BEES. Every good swarm should weigh about 5 lbs., and according to the account given in Key's Treatise, would contain 23,000 bees. The manner of hiving them must be regulated chiefly by the places upon which they alight. If they settle on a dead hedge, or upon the ground, set a hive over them, putting props under it if necessary, and, with a large spoon or brush of wet weeds, stir them softly underneath, and they will go in. If they should happen to settle upon a small bough, you may cut it off, and laying it quietly on a cloth, place a hive over them; or if you cannot conveniently separate the bough from the body of the tree, you may shake or sweep them off into the hive. If the sun shines hot upon it, shade it with a few boughs, &c., but let it remain near the place where the bees settled until the evening, at which time move it to the bee-house, or the place where it is to stand during the season, as just directed. If the bees have hung a considerable time to the place where they first settled, you will, perhaps, find it difficult entirely to dislodge them, as they will neglect their labour and fly about the spot for many days afterwards. The best method to prevent this is, by rubbing the branches with rue, or any kind of herb disagreeable to the bees; but be careful not to hurt any of the bees. Swarms seldom return home again, when they are well settled, and if you find them inclined to do so, depend upon it, some accident has happened to their queen, which you will easily ascertain by their making a murmuring noise, and running in a distracted manner over and about the sides of the hive. When you observe this, immediately seek about for her, beginning with the stock-hive from whence the swarm rose, and pursue the track they took at setting out; you will seldom miss finding her, for she is never alone, but generally encompassed with a cluster of bees, who would sooner perish than leave her in danger. When you have found her, take her up gently, and put her to the swarm, and you will soon find the cause of their dissatisfaction removed by the arrival of the queen. The greatest care must be taken to have your hive clean and sweet, free from loose straws or other obstacles, which will create great trouble and loss of time to the bees, if left to them to remove. If bees have flowers suitable to their tastes, and no great distance to travel to them, they will fill their hives both with honey and wax, in about a month or five weeks, and, if the season has proved fair and pleasant, in less time; but the bee-keeper must expect four out of every five seasons to be unpropitious to his little charge, and, therefore, he must be on the watch to assist them with food in the time of need. Scarcely has the swarm arrived at its new habitation, when the working bees labour with the utmost diligence, to procure food and build their combs. Their principal aim is not only to have cells in which they may deposit the honey and pollen, but a stronger motive seems to animate them; they seem to know that their queen is about to deposit her eggs; and their industry is such, that in four and twenty hours they will have made combs, twelve inches long, and three or four inches wide. They build more combs during the first fortnight, than they do during all the rest of the year. Other bees are at the same time busy in stopping all the holes and crevices they happen to find in their new hive, in order to guard against the entrance of insects which covet their honey, their wax, or themselves; and also to exclude the cold air; for it is indispensably necessary that they be lodged warm and secure from damp, &c. A second swarm scarcely is, and much less are the third ones called _casts_ worth keeping single, because, being few in number, they cannot allow so large a proportion of working bees to go abroad in search of provisions, as more numerous swarms can, after retaining a proper number for the various works to be done within the hive. Bees sometimes swarm so often that the mother-hive is too much weakened or reduced in population. In this case they should be restored; and this should also be done when a swarm produces a swarm the first summer, as is sometimes the case in early seasons. The best way, indeed, is to prevent such swarming, by giving the bees more room; though this, again, will not answer where there is a prolific young queen in the hive; as she well knows that her life is the forfeit of her remaining at home. Before the union of one or two casts or late swarms is made, it is better to kill one of the queens, if possible, to prevent the queens destroying one another. If an old hive is full of bees, and yet shows no disposition to swarm, puff in a little smoke at the entrance of the hive, then turn the hive up, and give it some slight strokes on the sides so as to alarm the bees. They will immediately run to the extremities of the combs, and if you then attentively examine them, you will, in all probability, perceive the queen-bee the foremost amongst them. Seize her between your fore finger and thumb, and confine her in your hand till most part of the bees take wing; let her then go, the bees will soon join her, and settle on some branch of a tree. Put them into an empty hive. Restore the old hive in its place, that the bees which have been out in the fields may enter it on their return, and having allowed them to remain there an hour or two, place it upon another stand near or next to its own. The hive having what may now be called a swarm in it, is then placed on the stand of the old stock; and if the bees in both hives work regularly, carrying in loads of pollen on their thighs, all is well. Bees are not apt to sting when they swarm naturally, therefore, it is not necessary then to take extraordinary precaution against them; but when any of these violent and artificial modes are attempted, I should advise the operator to be well guarded at all points. Wildman weighed bees and found it required 4,928 bees to make a pound of sixteen ounces, but the different circumstances in bees may occasion a considerable difference in their weight. When the bees swarm, they come out loaded with wax secreted in their wax pockets and honey in their honey bags, and would weigh heavier than bees taken for that purpose by chance; and, therefore, the number of the bees is not to be thus computed, from the weight of the swarm; for one fourth of the number at least should be deducted, in lieu of the wax and honey they have brought off with them. There is also another allowance to be made, namely, that when alive, they do not probably weigh so heavy as when dead. The person who intends to erect an apiary, should purchase a proper number of hives at the latter end of the year, when they are cheapest. The hives should be full of combs, and well stored with bees. The purchaser should examine the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The combs of that season are white, those of a darkish yellow are of the previous year; and, where the combs are black, the hives should be rejected, because old hives are most liable to vermin and other accidents. If the number of hives wanted were not purchased in the autumn, it will be necessary to remedy this neglect after the severity of the cold is past in the spring. At this season, bees which are in good condition, will get into the fields early in the morning, return loaded, enter boldly, and do not come out of the hive in bad weather; for when they do, this indicates that they are in great want of provisions. They are alert on the least disturbance; and by the loudness of their humming, you can judge of their strength. They preserve their hives free from filth, and are ready to defend it against every enemy that approaches. But the better plan is at once to commence with new hives, and purchase the first and strong swarms to put into them, and introduce them into the bee-house. There are various substances found in a hive, such as the _wax_, with which the combs are built, the _honey_, the _farina_ or _pollen_, with which the bee-brood is fed, and _propolis_. _Honey_, is a fluid or semi-fluid substance, the materials of which are collected by the bees, from the nectaries at the base of the corollæ of flowers, where this vegetable production is secreted. It cannot be said to be a purely vegetable production when found in the combs, for after being collected by the insect by means of its proboscis, it is transmitted into what is called the honey bag, where it is elaborated, and, hurrying homewards with its precious load, the bee regurgitates it into the cell of the honey comb. It takes a great many drops to fill a cell, as the honey bag when full does not exceed the size of a small pea. When the cell is full, it is sealed up with a mixture of of wax and pollen, and reserved for future use in winter and spring. _Wax_. There are several varieties of this substance, but bees-wax is a secretion of that insect from its ventral scales. With this substance the comb is constructed; it takes the bees, according to Huber's account, twenty-four hours to secrete the six laminæ of wax in the wax pockets, which may be seen to exude between the segments of the under side of the abdomen of the bee. For the purpose of the formation of wax, the bees have to cluster and form themselves into festoons from the top of the hive, and after the elapse of the necessary period, the wax scales are formed, with which the bees commence immediately to build their combs, and the various cells for the reception of the brood or food, according to the season of the year. _Propolis_, is a tenacious, semi-transparent substance, having a balsamic odour; which the bees gather from the buds of certain trees in the spring, such as the horse-chestnut, the willow, the poplar, and the birch. This tenacious substance is employed by the bees to attach more firmly the combs to the top or foundation, and also the edges of the combs to the sides of the hive or box, to stop the crevices, and fasten the hives or boxes to the floor-boards, and in forming barriers against the intrusion of enemies. _Farina_, or _Pollen_, is the dust or minute globules contained in the anthers of flowers, and is the fertilizing property of flowers, which the bees thus assist to carry, whilst travelling from flower to flower, without which the flowers would not fructify. The bees have been found to continue collecting pollen from the same species of flowers, and prevent the multiplication of hybrid plants. They collect and carry this substance on the outer surface of the tibia, or the middle joint of the hinder leg; this part of the leg is broad, and on one side it is concave, and furnished with a row of strong hairs on its margins, forming as it were a natural basket, well adapted for the purpose. This substance mixed with honey, forms the food of the larvæ or young brood, after undergoing, perhaps, a peculiar elaboration by the working or nurse bees. Having thus mentioned the different substances found in a hive, it only remains to add a short history of the inmates of the hive. Every swarm of bees comprises three distinct kinds of the same species, namely, the _female_ or _queen_, the _neuter_ or _worker-bee_, and the _male_ or _drone_. As there is only one _queen-bee_ in each swarm or colony, she is seldom to be seen amidst the thousands of other bees; but she is easily distinguished from the rest by her slower movements, her greater length and larger size; and the general appearance of her body, being of a more dark orange colour, and her hinder legs having neither brushes nor pollen baskets upon them, although longer than those of the worker-bee; her wings also appear stronger, and she possesses a more curved sting, which she seldom uses, except when asserting her rights to the sovereignty of the hive. Without a _queen-bee_ no swarm can thrive, for she is not only the ruler, but chiefly the mother of the community in which she dwells, and wherever she goes, the greatest attention is paid her. In the hive, the utmost solicitude is evinced to satisfy her in every wish; wherever she moves the bees anxiously clear away before her, and turn their heads towards their sovereign, and with much affection touch her with their antennæ, and supply her, as often as she needs, with honey or other delicacy which their own exertions, or those of their fellow labourers, have gathered for her use. The queen-bee is said to live four or five years, and is generally succeeded on her throne by one of her own descendants duly brought up for the purpose; but in the event of her untimely decease, the workers have the power of raising a sovereign from amongst themselves, and fitting her for the station she is intended to occupy; this they do by selecting one of the larvæ of the worker-bee of a certain age, and, enlarging the cell which it is to occupy, supplying it with a nourishment different from that which they give to the worker and drone-brood. A _queen-bee_ takes seventeen days to arrive at maturity, that is to say, from the egg-state to the fully developed queen, but this period will vary as a sudden change of temperature will prolong the interval; and this also applies to the perfect _queen_ herself, who will not deposit her eggs in the cells, when any severe weather happens at the period she may be expected to produce the eggs. The fecundity of the queen-bee is very great, for it is estimated that during breeding time, unless prevented by the cold weather, she lays at the rate of from one hundred to two hundred eggs a day, causing an increase of not less than eighty thousand worker-bees, and drones included, in a season when circumstances are favourable. The cells formed for the royal brood are very different from those of the males or the workers, and are generally suspended from the sides or edges of the combs; in shape they are very much like a pear, the thickest end joining the comb, and the small end having the mouth or entrance to the cell, and hanging downwards, and being almost as large as a lady's thimble. The _drones_ or _males_ in a hive are computed at from six hundred to two thousand, but the numbers are remarkably irregular, and the proportion is not regulated by the number of bees contained in a hive; for a small swarm or colony will contain as many, or more sometimes, than a large one. The drone may be easily distinguished from the _queen_ or _workers_, from its greater breadth, having large eyes which meet at the top of the head, and no sting, and from its making a loud humming whilst flying. It takes twenty-four days from the time of the laying of the drone _egg_ to its coming forth a perfect insect. Drones are generally hatched about the end of April or the beginning of May; they venture out of the hive only in warm weather, and then only in the middle of the day, and they are generally expelled by the bees from the hives about July or August, after the impregnation of the young queens has taken place. When the destruction of the drones takes place earlier, it may be considered a certain indication that no swarming will take place during that season; but the retention of the drones after August, is a very bad sign, as the swarm must certainly perish in the winter, unless their vacant throne is supplied with a prolific queen. The _neuter_ or _worker-bee_, is the least of the three, and of a dark brown colour; the abdomen is conical, and composed of six distinct segments, and armed with a straight sting; it possesses a long flexible trunk, known by the name of a proboscis, and has on its two hinder legs a hollow or basket, to receive the propolis and farina which it collects as before described. The number of workers in a well-stocked hive is about fifteen thousand or twenty thousand. Upon them devolves the whole care and labour of the colony, to collect pollen, propolis, and honey; to build the combs and to attend upon the brood or young bees. The _worker-bee_ is short-lived, seldom surviving more than a year, but this is more from the toil they have to endure, though it be a labour of love, and the many risks they run upon each occasion of going out in search of food, &c., from the weather, or their numerous winged enemies. "Sunt quibus ad portas cecidit custodia sorti: Inque vicem speculantur aquas et nubila coeli, Aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto Ignavum fucos pecus à præsepibus arcent. Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella." LONDON: Printed by S. & J. BENTLEY, WILSON, and FLEY, Bangor House, Shoe Lane. * * * * * Transcribers notes: A page of Errata appearing here has been applied to the text and removed. Inconsistency in the hyphenation of phrases has been retained. 
16744	----	PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS ON THE CARE OF LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY THE PRATT FOOD COMPANY OF CANADA, Limited, maintains its established position of leadership, after nearly half a century of business service, because of the sustained good will of those whom it serves. Better products than anyone else could produce, plus expert, personal, whole-hearted service, built that good will. And retained it through all these years. It was the constant aim and effort of those who founded this business, and of those who have carried out the founders' work to the present, to anticipate the needs of the industry, to co-operate with the individuals in it, to show their vital interest in the success of their customers. These principles of business practice won the good will that established this company as the authority in its important field. Our future success depends upon the continuance of that good will. Our appreciation of that fact is your best assurance that in the future the services of this company, as well as the superiority of its products, will justify the confidence and good will of the thousands to whom the name of _Pratt_ is but another name for _Quality_ and _Service_. ~PROFITABLE LIVESTOCK~ [Illustration: Farm Animals] ~INTRODUCTION~ Animal husbandry is the sure foundation of profitable, permanent agriculture. Where many animals are kept and their manure properly cared for and returned to the land, the soil becomes richer and crop-production steadily increases. And the farmer grows rich with his land. Further, the keeping of live stock distributes the farm labor and the farm income over the entire year. This is true whether meat, milk or eggs are the money crops. And certainly both factors are worthy of consideration from a straight business standpoint. With labor as valuable as it is at present, lost time cuts into the profits. And when the income is regular, not concentrated in a short period or dependent upon the success of a single crop, the matter of farm finance is much simplified. Consider the richest and most desirable agricultural sections of our great land. With very few exceptions, the best and most valuable farms are those which are heavily stocked with domestic animals. Here, too, are found the finest farm homes, the most prosperous and contented farm families. And this fact, which is so well established that it requires no argument, plainly shows that _animal husbandry pays_. In the following pages you will find much valuable information regarding the proper care--in health and sickness--of horses, cattle, swine, sheep and poultry. We trust, and believe that you will find it most helpful in connection with your work. That it will enable you to be more successful, earn bigger profits. Right at the start we wish to emphasize two facts which are really fundamental and which are recognized by the most successful stock keepers. The first is this: It does not pay to keep scrub stock, animals which cannot under any conditions give the big returns. The second: No animal, regardless of breeding, can do its best work unless it is kept in perfect physical condition. The selection of your animals is up to you. Get good ones. Than _keep them good_ and _make them better_. The Pratt line of stock and poultry preparations, regulators, tonics, disinfectants and remedies, will help you greatly. Made for nearly fifty years by America's pioneer concern in this line, each article is the best of its kind, each is backed by this square-deal guarantee--"Your Money Back If You Are Not Satisfied." PRATT FOOD COMPANY Philadelphia Chicago Toronto ~THE PRATT GUARANTEE~ "~Your Money Back If YOU Are Not Satisfied~" The Pratt Food Company believes in fair play. We desire that our millions of customers _shall receive full value_ for every cent they spend in purchasing our goods. And to that end we spare no expense in making each article in the Pratt Line just as good, just as efficient, as is humanly possible. More than that, we wish each customer to be _completely satisfied_. If for any reason any article bearing the Pratt trade-mark fails to give such satisfaction, the full purchase price will be refunded on demand by the dealer who made the sale. You can buy and use Pratts Stock and Poultry Preparations with fullest confidence because you are protected by ~The Guarantee That Has Stood For Nearly Fifty Years~ Copyright, 1919, by Pratt Food Co. ~PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS~ ~HORSES~ While the automobile and the tractor are now doing much of the work formerly done by horses, the "horseless era" is still far off. A good horse will always be worth good money, will always be a desirable and profitable member of the farm family. But the undersized no-breed specimen will be even less valuable in the future than in the past. The great demand for horses for army use and the high prices paid by the Government, tempted horse breeders and farmers to dispose of the fine specimens which alone met the exacting requirements of army buyers. It will take years to make good this tremendous wastage of horse flesh. But this is a big opportunity for breeders of good horses and we may expect them to make the most of it. Prices of really desirable horses are now high. If you have a good one, take good care of him. Protect his health, lengthen his life. If you must buy, be sure that you get a sound animal which will serve you long and faithfully. See the horse in his stall. If he has a spavin he will hop on one leg when made to "get over," or jerk it up as he backs out if he is affected with chorea (St. Vitus' dance). In the latter disease the tail is suddenly raised and quivers when the animal backs out of stall. Watch to see if the horse "cribs" and "sucks wind": also that he is not vicious in the stall. Stand him at rest on a level floor before exercise. If he is lame he will rest the sore foot. Examine both sides of the horse. The dealer may stand the "bad side" next to a wall. Pick up each foot in turn. Suspect something wrong if he wears bar shoes, special shape shoes, leather soles or rubber pads. Remove all such things and examine carefully before buying. [Illustration: ~PERCHERON HORSE~] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Englewood, Colo. I have had many dealings with rundown horses, both in the draft and hot blood classes, and Pratts goods have always brought them out on top. JAS. S. KINSLEY, JR._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Reject for contracted feet, steep heels, shrunken frogs and bars, dropped soles, corns, quarter cracks and signs of founder. See that hoof dressing does not cover evidences of un-soundness. Following bad attacks of founder the hoof grows out long at the toes, shows marked grooves and ridges, is convex at the points of the frogs, and the horse tends to thrust his forefeet out in front when standing and walks and trots on his heels. Ringbones are indicated by hard bony enlargements on the pastern; side-bones, by similar enlargements at the quarters just above juncture of horn and hair. Examine front of knees for scars indicating results of stumbling and falling. Similar scars on the inside of knees and fetlocks indicate objectionable cutting and interfering. Shoulders and hips should be smooth, well covered, and free from tumors or sores. No sores should be seen on back or top of neck under collar. Examine teeth for age and soundness. See that eyes are of like color, are sound, and the eyelids whole. The horse should allow one to examine his ears, and should neither hold them absolutely still nor keep them constantly moving. Still ears may indicate deafness; restless ones, poor eyesight or nervousness. See that the horse goes sound and does not "roar" when galloped. Give him all the water he will drink before testing for "wind." It will bring out the characteristic symptoms of "heaves" if he has been "doped." Heaves is indicated by labored bellows-like action of the abdominal muscles when breathing. Examine the nostrils, as sponges or squeezed lemons may have been inserted to hide roaring. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Madison, Wis. I think every man that owns horses should have Pratts Animal Regulator on hand. I am a teamster and find it of great benefit to my horses, whether run down or not. HARRY E. BURMEISTER_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [Illustration: ~CLYDESDALE HORSE~] A spavined horse starts out lame for a few steps or rods and then goes sound. A lame shoulder causes dragging of the toe and rolling when in motion. A ring-bone causes an extra long step and lameness increases with exercise. Stifle lameness causes walking on the heels of shoe and consequent wearing of the iron. Hip lameness causes outward rolling of the leg in trotting, and wasting of the muscles of stifle and hip leads to a characteristic drop. See that the horse's tail is sound, has not been joined on and is free from sores, tumors or evidences of recent docking. Always remember to back the horse up as well as drive or ride him and see that he is not only sound and gentle but suitable for the special work he will be required to do. [Illustration: Care of the Horse] ~Care of the Horse~ A grown work horse requires daily about one pound of grain (concentrate) for each hundred pounds of live weight. Of hay he will need a slightly larger amount or about fourteen to eighteen pounds a day, according to size, weight, and character of work done. The idle horse will do well on less grain and more roughage. For a farm horse, 10 pounds of oats, 5 pounds of corn, and 3 pounds of bran, divided into three equal feeds, will make a suitable ration for one day. The corn may be fed at noon to give variety. For the evening meal crushed oats, bran, and a few handfuls of cut hay, wetted and salted, will be relished. The bulk of the hay should be fed at night, and but two or three pounds of it at noon, during hot weather. Avoid dusty hay. Clover hay is apt to be moldy. It is suitable food for work horses, or idle drafters, if sound and not too liberally fed. Increase the corn in cold weather. Omit it in hot weather entirely. Alfalfa is of high feeding value, but if moldy, or fed as a well-nigh exclusive ration, is apt to affect the kidneys injuriously. It is deemed unsafe food for stallions, as it is said to induce impotence or sterility. Horses should drink _before_ they eat, unless they have ready access to fresh water. It is best to allow drinking water often in small quantities, even if the horse is hot. So used it will not hurt him. The horse's stomach holds three and one-half gallons. Water flows through the stomach along seventy or more feet of small intestine, into the "waterbag." Hay is not digested to any extent in the stomach. That organ cares for the concentrated food. Theoretically, a horse should drink first, then eat hay, then grain. Practically no great amount of water should be taken just after a meal as it tends to flush undigested food out of the stomach; nor should it be given soon after a meal. All stables, pens, out houses, poultry houses and yards should be regularly disinfected every week; nothing better can be used than Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. This preparation is entirely free from all dangerous substances, arsenic, mercury, etc., but full of medicinal qualities and properties which make it most effective without the dangerous results which are experienced with many other preparations, such as carbolic acid, etc. It kills disease germs and prevents contagious diseases from spreading. Farm horses do not need blanketing in the stable under ordinary circumstances. A thin sheet in the stable keeps off flies and dust and is necessary. Pratts Fly Chaser is a proved and safe fly repellant. It does not gum the hair. Its efficiency is unequalled. If a horse sweats under the blanket, uncover his rear parts. Always tuck the blanket about a horse's chest when standing on the street in inclement weather or when cooling off. Rubber loin covers, used on carriage horses in wet weather, should be perforated. In the spring, the amount of Pratts Animal Regulator given should be somewhat increased. This will put the horse into condition in much less time, and be of great assistance in helping to shed readily. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Winthrop, N.Y. I have used Pratts Animal Regulator for the past three years and have found it very successful with both horses and hogs._ THOS. J. O'DONNELL._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~INSURE LIVE STOCK HEALTH AND VIGOR~ | | | |Don't permit your hard-working, heavy-producing or fast-growing animals | |to become run-down and out of condition. It's much easier and less | |expensive to _keep_ them right than to restore them to perfect health. | | | |The regular use of Pratts Animal Regulator absolutely insures health and | |vigor in live stock of all kinds. It keeps healthy animals in the pink | |of condition; it quickly puts half-sick, unprofitable stock in the | |money-making class. | | | |Pratts Animal Regulator, America's original guaranteed Stock Tonic and | |Conditioner, is not a food. It is a combination of roots, herbs, spices | |and medicines which sharpen appetite and improves digestion, regulates | |the bowels, makes rich, red blood, and _naturally_ invigorates the | |organs of production. It promotes growth, improves health and strength, | |increases production. And all at very little cost. | | | |Packed in handy cartons, pails and boxes. The larger sizes are more | |economical. | | | |[Illustration: Pratts Animal Regulator] | | | | ~IF DISEASE APPEARS, CURE IT QUICK~ | | | |Early treatment is most necessary. Do not let the disorder become firmly | |seated before you attack it. Keep these Pratts Remedies on hand and use | |them _at once_ if needed. Delay may mean the loss of a valuable animal. | | | | | |~PRATTS COLIC REMEDY~ | | | |A quick certain cure for colic and acute indigestion in horses. Has a | |record of 998 cures out of 1,000 cases. | | | |Keep a bottle in each wagon and in your stable. | | | | | |~PRATTS DISTEMPER and PINK EYE REMEDY~ | | | |It goes direct to the cause of the disease, purifies the blood, prevents | |weakening of the internal organs caused by impure blood or poisoned by | |absorbing the impure matter from the abscesses. | | | | | |~PRATTS HEALING OINTMENT~ | | | |A splendid antiseptic ointment for man or beast. Keep a box on hand for | |cuts, burns, sores, scratches, eczema, galls, etc. | | | | | |~PRATTS WORM POWDER~ | | | |is a special preparation for the destruction of all kinds of worms in | |horses, cows, hogs and sheep. It is purely vegetable and is | |unquestionably the quickest, surest and most thorough worm destroyer | |procurable. | | | | | |~PRATTS LINIMENT~ | | | |For man or beast. The best thing in the world for lameness, sprains, | |bruises, thrush, kicks, shoe boils, etc. A bottle should be kept in | |every medicine chest. | | | | | |~PRATTS HEAVE REMEDY~ | | | |A positive guaranteed remedy for heaves, coughs and colds. It cures | |coughs and colds by strengthening the digestive and respiratory organs, | |and counteracts the inflammation and irritation. | | | |Try a box on your "heavy" horse. | | | | | |~PRATTS HEALING POWDER~ | | | |A guaranteed remedy for harness galls, sores, grease heel, bleeding | |ulcers, etc. It will arrest hemorrhage and check blood flow. Dirt and | |dust cannot get into wounds, as the Powder forms a coating over them. | | | | | |~PRATTS FLY CHASER~ | | | |Gives comfort to Horses and Cows. Insures more milk and prevents | |annoyance at milking time to both the milker and the cow. Guaranteed to | |satisfy. | | | | | |Sold by 60,000 Pratts dealers. There is one near you. | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+ Always go to a horseshoer who thoroughly understands the anatomy of the horse's foot. [Illustration: ~MORGAN HORSE~] The hoof is not an insensitive mass of horn, to be cut, rasped, burned, nail-pierced, and hammered without causing pain or injury. It is a thin mass of horn overlying and intimately attached to a sensitive, blood and nerve-endowed tissue called the "quick" which is capable of suffering excruciating agony. The slices should be made to fit the hoof and need to be reset once a month. The permanent teeth are forty--twenty-four grinders, twelve front teeth and four tusks, except in mares, which seldom have tusks. The age of a horse can be told more or less accurately by the teeth. The teeth are liable to disease and should be closely watched. Bad teeth are often an unsuspected cause of indigestion, loss of condition, bad coat, slobbering and other troubles which puzzle the owner. Horses very often have decayed teeth, and suffer with toothache. These teeth should be removed. ~Horse Diseases~ If horses and cattle were left free to roam as Nature intended, many of their present-day ailments would be unknown. Man has taken these animals from Nature's broad garden, and confined them to the narrow limits of stable and stall. No longer can they seek out and instinctively find just those roots, herbs, seeds, and barks which their systems demand. This explains why Pratts Animal Regulator has been used by successful horsemen for nearly a half century, as it is largely composed of these same vegetable ingredients from Nature's garden. Merit and quality count, and while hosts of imitators have sprung up, none have ever come near equalling our product. Pratts Animal Regulator restores to the animals their natural constitutions and functions, supplying just that which they formerly had, but now lack. While not a cure for every disease, it is a positive preventive of the most common disorders. It aids digestion and insures the animal receiving full benefit of its food; purifies the blood and keeps the bowels free and regular. After you have accomplished these three things, you need not fear disease in the shape of colic, bloat, heaves, hide-bound, distemper, constipation, worms, and the like. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _I shall be pleased to recommend Pratts Animal Regulator always, as my horse has gained in strength and weight and is looking fine, always having a glossy coat. He works hard every day in the dray business._ _H.G. AMERINE._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Barb-Wire Cuts~ Clean with soap and water, and apply Pratts Healing Ointment or Pratts Healing Powder. These remedies heal naturally and leave no dangerous scar. ~Colds~ _Symptoms._--A dull appearance of the horse, rough coat; the body will be hot in parts and cold in others; running of the eyes and a discharge from the nose. _Treatment._--Keep the horse warm and free from draughts; use nose bag and give Pratts Heave, Cough and Cold Remedy according to directions. It never fails. Give nourishing feed and bran mashes and Pratts Animal Regulator daily. ~Colic~ Common causes of colic are sudden changes of food; feeding too much or too seldom; feeding when the horse is hot and tired; watering or working too soon after a meal; feeding new oats, or new hay, or grass; or, in short, anything that is apt to derange digestion. There are various forms of colic. In cramp (spasmodic) colic, pains come and go and the horse rolls violently and fearlessly. In wind (flatulent) colic there is bloating of the right flank and the horse lies down, rolls without violence, breathes with difficulty, paws, looks around at his sides and finds no relief. In bloat of the stomach, gas and fluid gush back and forth from the stomach to the throat; flanks may not show bloat; pain is steady but not violent; horse sweats; nostrils flap; pulse is fast and weak; countenance is haggard and anxious. In enteritis (inflammation of the bowels) pain is constant and severe; the horse makes frequent attempts to lie down but is afraid to do so; pulse and temperature run high; membranes of eyelids, nostrils, and mouth are red; bowels and bladder do not act; horse may walk persistently in a circle. In impaction of the bowels, pains are comparatively mild or fugitive; horse is restless, paws often, strains and passes no manure, or only a few balls covered with slime and streaks of white mucus. In gut-tie, hernia, and other absolute stoppage of the bowels, symptoms of enteritis are common and the horse may, when down, strain and then sit on his haunches. The latter condition, and enteritis, usually prove fatal. Wind colic may need prompt use of the trocar and cannula to puncture high up in the right flank for liberation of gas. In impaction, raw linseed oil should be freely given in repeated doses of one pint, and rectal injections of soapy warm water and glycerine will help. No irritants should be inserted in the vagina or sheath in any form of colic. Stoppage of urine is a result of pain, not the cause of colic. The urine will come when the pain subsides. A good all-around colic remedy will be found in Pratts Veterinary Colic Remedy. It is compounded from the prescription of a qualified veterinarian and has a record of curing 998 cases out of 1,000 treated. ~Constipation~ All horses should be given a warm bran mash weekly and Pratts Animal Regulator daily, and constipation will be unknown. Constipation is often the cause of hide bound, rough coat and loss of flesh. Give a good physic of linseed oil, aloes or cantor oil, and use the Regulator mentioned above. ~Coughs~ _Cause._--Chronic coughs are the result of distemper, sore throat, a neglected cold, catarrh or dusty hay, and frequently turn into heaves, bronchitis, etc. _Treatment._--Give only the best and most nourishing foods, dampened. Keep horse warm, and blanketed in a well ventilated stable. If there is a swelling of the throat it should be blistered with Pratts Liniment, or Pratts Spavin Paste--A Blister. Use Pratts Heave, Cough and Cold Remedy according to directions. ~Diarrhoea~ _Symptoms._--At first it resembles colic, and will be followed by violent diarrhoea; the discharge soon becomes merely discolored water and smells bad; the horse is very thirsty, the pulse thick and feeble, the heart skips its beats, the position of the horse is something like colic, and he sweats freely. _Cause._--From diseased condition of teeth, eating rich, juicy food, drinking impure water or from overdose of physic. _Treatment._--If the diarrhoea is severe, call a veterinarian. During and after recovery pay attention to the food. Avoid bran mashes. Much depends on the care at this time, and the constant using of Pratts Animal Regulator, with all feed, during his recovery. Feed lightly for first two or three days. ~Distemper~ Distemper and Pink Eye are closely related and one is often mistaken for the other. It usually affects colts between the ages of three and five years. If a horse is once afflicted it is immune from a second attack. The feature of distemper is the swelling under the jaw, the size indicating the severity of the case. The animal is dull; the head has a "poked-out" appearance; coughs; no appetite; feet are cold; saliva runs from its mouth; has catarrhal symptoms and difficulty in swallowing; the name "strangles" is often applied to it. When this swelling forms on the lungs, liver, etc., the case is aggravated and difficult to cure. Distemper is contagious. It may occur at any time, but is most prevalent from September to April. Pratts Distemper and Pink Eye Remedy will positively relieve the disease at once. Blanket the horse and keep in a well-ventilated stable, free from draughts. Give cold water frequently in small quantities and feed with whatever he will eat. When an abscess forms on the outside and becomes soft, it should be opened and the soft parts surrounding it poulticed so that there will be no "bunch" left after it heals. Disinfect stable with Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. ~Founder or Laminitis~ _Symptoms._--An inflammation of the entire foot which causes such intense pain that the animal cannot stand. The pulse is strong, thick and throbbing, and the horse lies down with legs stretched out. _Cause._--Over-exertion, or after-effects from chilling, inflammation of the lungs, bowels or mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes, etc. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Frankford, Pa. I doctored a very lame horse with Pratts Liniment after trying other treatment for months. In a couple of days the lameness left and we used him every day till he died of old age._ ARTHUR C. SHIMEL_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Treatment._--Remove the shoe, and soak the feet in warm water for six or eight hours and repeat in two or three days. Also apply Pratts Peerless Hoof Ointment at night all over the bottom of the foot and to all parts of the frog and at top of hoof joining the hair, and cover the entire wall of the foot. The horse should stand on a deep, soft bed. Cover with blankets. Feed bran mashes, vegetables and hay; no grain. Use wide-webbed shoes two weeks after recovery. ~Heaves~ The symptoms of this disease are chronic, spasmodic cough and simultaneous passage of gas from the rectum; double bellowslike action of the abdominal muscles in breathing; harsh staring coat; hide-bound skin; weakness, and ill-health in general. Over-burdening of the stomach with coarse, bulky, dusty, or woody hay or other roughage, and working the horse immediately after such a meal induces heaves. The horse that has inherited a gluttonous appetite is especially subject to the disease. Probably the most effective remedy for this disease is Pratts Heave Remedy. In addition to using the Remedy as directed, we would suggest wetting all food with lime water, feeding wet oat straw in winter and grass in summer in preference to hay; allowing double the customary rest period after meals and keeping the bowels freely open by feeding bran mashes containing raw linseed oil or flaxseed meal. ~Itch~ This is the name given to mange, eczema and other skin diseases. It is usually prevalent in summer and from a small beginning on an animal, will rapidly spread all over the body. _Treatment._--Wash the parts thoroughly with a solution of one part of Pratts Disinfectant to 20 parts water. Let it dry and then apply Pratts Healing Ointment or Healing Powder two or three times a day. ~Lice~ Sprinkle Pratts Disinfectant on an old blanket and tie it around the animal for two or three hours. This will quickly kill all vermin. Spray lightly upon the legs and such places that the blanket will not cover. Then spray thoroughly the stable and all poultry houses near with the Disinfectant, according to directions. Give Pratts Animal Regulator to build up the animals that have been affected. ~Puncture and Wounds in the Foot~ In all cases, the opening or puncture in the hoof must be made larger, so as to give free vent for the matter which is sure to form. If this is not done, quittor will follow. Then dress with Pratts Peerless Hoof Ointment. While working the horse, a pledget of tow, covered with Pratts Peerless Hoof Ointment, may be placed in and over the puncture and confined; but it must not be allowed to remain after the horse returns to the stable. Soak the feet for eight or ten hours a day for two or three days in a 5% solution of Pratts Disinfectant and apply the Ointment. Horse will not have proud flesh when this remedy is used. ~Quarter Cracks~ Cut top of hoof above the crack deep enough to draw blood. Soak foot in hot water, apply Pratts Peerless Hoof Ointment and cover with oakum. Pare out sole and open heel--blacksmith must use care in expanding. Apply Pratts Peerless Hoof Ointment daily to the coronet and frogs--this is very important. Use bar shoe. ~Thin Flesh~ Animal needs a good tonic. Use Pratts Animal Regulator daily with the feed according to directions. This is a regulator, tonic and digestive and so works upon the blood, liver, bowels and digestive organs that the animal is quickly built up, and is given strength, health and flesh. ~Thrush~ _Symptoms._--Shown by a foul discharge issuing from the cleft of the foot, and usually attended with decay of the horn and a vile odor. The foot is hot and hard. _Cause._--In the fore feet, it is generally the result of navicular disease or contraction of the feet. In the hind feet it is entirely caused by filthy stables, allowing the feet to stand in decaying manure. _Treatment._--Have absolute cleanliness in the stable and stalls, disinfecting with Pratts Disinfectant. Wash the foot thoroughly with soap and water, and cut away all diseased and ragged parts as well as the white, powdery decayed horn and substance, even if the flesh is exposed and the frog much reduced. Then pour Pratts Liniment over the affected parts. Dress daily until cured. Another excellent remedy is to wash out diseased portion of hoof with one part Pratts Disinfectant and 20 parts of water three times a day. ~Worms~ Horses take in worm eggs on pasture, in hay, and in drinking water from contaminated troughs or ponds. Marsh or swale hay is particularly liable to infest with worms. Avoid sources of worms. Cleanliness is imperative. Cut down feed one-half, mix bran with feed and dampen it. Give one dose of Pratts Specially Prepared Worm Powder with the feed twice a day for four days. After fourth day give large, soft, well-scalded bran mash to loosen bowels freely. Repeat the bran mashes if necessary, as the bowels must be moved freely. Should the horse refuse to eat the bran mash, it will be necessary to give him a dose of Glauber's salts, or some other purge to loosen the bowels. _Pin Worms._--Sometimes pin worms remain just inside the rectum, and are very hard and stubborn to cure. In cases of this kind, if the desired result is not obtained by feeding Pratts Worm Powder, dissolve one of the powders in a quart of water and inject in the rectum. Repeat this once a day in the evening, and continue for four or five days. Do not fail in this case, as in all other cases of worms, to feed bran mashes until the bowels are freely moved, and should the horse refuse the bran mash or should it fail to move the bowels, give the horse a dose of Glauber's salts. Pratts Worm Powder is a special preparation for the destruction of all kinds of worms in horses, hogs, and sheep. It is purely vegetable, has a strong tonic effect that builds up and helps the animal to regain strength, and is the quickest and most thorough worm destroyer on the market. +-------------------------------------------------------------+ |~Every PRATT PREPARATION is sold with a positive and absolute| |GUARANTEE--"Your Money Back If You Are Not Satisfied."~ | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: Care of Cows] ~CATTLE~ Cows will bring large or small profits in proportion to the care they receive. If properly housed, properly fed, properly bred, and properly protected against disease they will fully repay the little extra attention required. Strive intelligently to secure the greatest possible regular production. Keep a sharp lookout for unfavorable symptoms and be prompt in finding a cause for poor condition and remedying it. Cows kept in perfect health are the least expense, least trouble, and the greatest profit-earners. You do not need to be a veterinarian to know that the health of a cow depends on a good healthy appetite with complete digestion and perfect assimilation of the daily ration. That is just plain common sense. No cow which is not a big eater can be profitable. But appetite is not of itself sufficient to make a cow a money maker. There must be sound digestion. Once establish and maintain good digestion, food performs its natural functions. Bodily waste is repaired. Strength and growth are noticed and the cow gives the utmost possible amount of milk. See then, that your cows have hearty, healthy appetites and good digestion. Good digestion does not always follow a large appetite. A cow giving only a few quarts of milk a day will often eat as much as one giving gallons. She requires the same amount of care and attention. The trouble is that she does not have good digestion to convert food into milk. Of course there are cows which will always be small milkers, but there are many many more cows which can be made to give substantial, paying increase of milk production if proper attention is given them. Perhaps there are such cows in your herd. Without your even realizing it, they are out of condition. A little help and they would give enough more milk to pay you a satisfactory profit. This "help" can easily be given. Your own dealer has it. We mean Pratts Cow Remedy, for cows only. We all know how, when we are well, the sight or smell of pleasant tasting food, "makes the mouth water." This is literally true because the digestive glands of the mouth and stomach pour out their secretions and are ready to begin digesting the food. When, however, the nerves fail to send their messages to the glands or the glands fail to respond, we have a diseased condition and we take medicine to assist in recovery. Thus the sensation known as appetite is really at the basis of sound health. Without it, it is doubtful if animals would eat enough to supply their bodily needs. The mere forcing of food into the stomach would avail little. There must be desire for food, and restoring the appetite is the first step in bringing the health back. In other words an appetizer is often required to induce us to eat. Then thorough digestion builds up bodily strength. Pratts Cow Remedy does all this for the cow, assisting Nature in bringing up the appetite, stimulating digestion, restoring and maintaining health. Cattle is generally divided into dairy, beef and dual purpose breeds. The names signify the advantages claimed for them. In the dairy breeds, the Holstein, Jersey, Guernseys, French Canadian and Ayrshire are leaders. Shorthorns, Herefords, Polled Durhams are the best-known beef breeds. While among the dual purpose breeds, Milking Shorthorns, Red Polls, Brown Swiss and Devons have many admirers. The indications when selecting dairy females, and important in the order given, are: (1) Much length or depth in the barrel or coupling, indicating a large possible consumption and utilization of food. (2) Refinement of form, as evidenced more particularly in the head, neck, withers, thighs, and limbs. (3) Good development of udder and milk veins. (4) Constitution, as indicated by a capacious chest, much width through the heart, a broad loin, a full, clear eye, and an active carriage. (5) Downward and yet outward spring and open-spaced ribs, covered with a soft, pliable and elastic skin. The essential indications of correct form in beef cattle are: (1) A compact form wide and deep throughout, and but moderately long in the coupling. (2) A good back, wide from neck to tail, well fleshed, and straight. (3) A good front quarter, wide, deep, and full. (4) A good hind quarter, long, wide, and deep. (5) Good handling qualities, as indicated in elastic flesh and pliant skin. [Illustration: ~GUERNSEY COW~] The important indications of good form in dual females are: (1) Medium to large size for the breed or grade. (2) Good length and depth in the coupling. (3) Good development of udder and milk veins. (4) Good constitution, as indicated by good width through the heart. (5) Head and neck inclining to long and fine. (6) Ribs of medium spring, open spaced, and covered with a good handling skin. The dual types have an absence of extreme development in the direction of either the dairy or the beef form. In males selected for breeding, the evidences of masculinity should be markedly present. These include increased strength as shown in the head, neck, breast, shoulders, back and limbs. The advantage of having pure blood stock over "scrubs" is apparent. For those, however, who want something better than scrubstock and cannot pay the high price which pure blood commands, the ownership of grade cattle offers a satisfactory solution of the problem. Grading consists in mating thoroughbred sires with common females and with the female progeny for a number of generations. Where the work is wisely done by the use of good sires, accompanied by the rejection of all inferior animals for future breeding, the progeny of beef sires may be brought up to the level of the pure breed for beef making from which the sires have been selected in four generations. To bring milking qualities up to the level may call for one or two more generations of such breeding. Not only do these grade animals answer almost equally well, with pure breeds, but they may be bought for much less. If cows are to produce a maximum return in milk, they must be kept in comfort. In winter they are usually tied in the stall. The light should be ample and the ventilation thorough. Lack of proper ventilation causes the spread of tuberculosis in cattle. Cows must be allowed exercise, even in winter. They should be allowed to go out daily for an hour or more into a sheltered yard, save on days when the weather is extreme; or, better still, be given the liberty of a closed and well-ventilated shed during a portion of the day. It should be supplied with a fodder rack. In summer, cows in milk must be protected from storms, from excessive sunshine, and from flies, as far as this may be practicable. Pratts Fly Chaser is unequalled as a fly repellant. It is perfectly safe to use, does not injure or gum the hair, and is economical. A light spray is both lasting and effective. Cows in milk should be driven gently. The pasture should not be too distant from the stable, and driving during the heat of the day should be avoided. The quality of milk is easily injured by coming in direct contact with foreign substances or by imbibing odors. The milk must be drawn from clean udders, with clean hands, into clean pails, and amid clean surroundings. The stables must have attention. The udder and teats should be wiped off by using a damp cloth. Milking should be done with dry hands into metal pails, kept clean by scalding. Milking before feeding prevents dust particles from getting into the milk. Noxious odors are kept down by the prompt removal of droppings and by strewing sand, plaster, rock phosphate, or dry earth in the manure gutters. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Elderton, Pa. "I have used Pratts Cow Remedy with best results. I fully believe it cannot be surpassed for increasing the flow of milk." JAS. YOUNG._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Unless milking is done at stated times, and by the same person, there will be a loss in the production. When milking is delayed, a decreased flow is noticeable the following morning. When a change of milkers is made, some cows resent it by withholding a part of the milk. It is not easy to dry some dairy cows prior to the birth of the next calf, and yet, as a rule, it ought to be done. When they are to be dried the process should begin by milking them once a day and putting them on dry food. The food may also be reduced somewhat in quantity. Later the milk is taken out at intervals which constantly increase in length until the cow is dry. The udder should be carefully watched during the later stages of the drying process. Where suitable pasture may be obtained, it is usually a cheaper source of food for cows than soiling food or cured fodders, as the element of labor in giving the food is largely eliminated. The best pastures, viewed from the standpoint of production, are those grown on lands that may be irrigated during the season of growth. These consist of clover and certain grasses. Permanent pastures which are grown on moist land, and which contain a number of grasses, are usually satisfactory, but the nature of the pasture must, of course, be largely determined by the attendant conditions. Blue grass pastures are excellent while succulent and abundant, but in midsummer they lose their succulence for weeks in succession. Brouer grass is a favorite pasture in northwestern areas, and Bermuda grass in the South. In the Eastern and Central States, the most suitable pastures are made up of blue grass, timothy, and orchard grass, and of the common red, white and alsike clovers. There is more or less of hazard to cows when grazing on alfalfa--liability to bloating, which may result fatally. Likewise second growth sorghum or the second growth of the non-saccharine sorghums is full of hazard, especially in dry seasons when it has become stunted in growth. Nor should rape and rye be grazed, save for a short time after the cows have been milked, lest they give a taint to the milk. The change from winter rations to grazing should never be suddenly made, or purging caused by the fresh grass will lead to loss in weight and loss of milk, though at first there will probably be an advance in the same. The change may be made in outline as follows: (1) The cows will not be turned out until after the food given in the morning has been sufficiently consumed. (2) They will be kept out an hour, or two the first day, and the time increased. (3) The time called for to effect the change should never be less than one week or more than three. (4) As soon as the change begins, the reduction in succulent food, ensilage, and field roots should also begin. (5) The dry fodder should be continued morning and evening as long as the cows will take it. [Illustration: ~AYRSHIRE COW~] (6) There should be some reduction and it may be modification in the grain for a short time. After turning out a full supply may be necessary. Should the pasture be composed mainly of grasses, food rich in protein, as wheat bran, should be fed, but if it is composed mainly of clover, then more carbonaceous grain, as corn, should be fed. When pasture is succulent and abundant, it is a disputed point as to whether it will pay to feed meal of any kind in addition. The following conclusion in regard to this question would seem safe: When cows are fed grain on pastures succulent and abundant, the tendency is to increase the yield in the milk and also to increase flesh. The quality of the milk is not materially influenced. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Millsboro, Del. Pratts Cow Remedy was fed to the cow from the receipt of Remedy until the calf was eight weeks old and the calf weighed 234 pounds and was acknowledged unanimously to be the nicest calf that was ever shipped from this depot. W.R. ATKINS._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Some saving is effected in the grazing, and the resultant fertilizer from the grain fed has a tangible value. It is certain, therefore, that full value will be obtained for a small grain ration thus fed. [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~GET MORE MILK MONEY~ | | | |Help your cows, every one, to give the largest possible amount of milk | |and to produce big, strong, husky calves each season. The _extra_ pounds| |of milk, the _extra_ value of the calves are all clear profit. | | | |[Illustration: Pratts Cow Remedy] | | | |It costs as much to house and care for and nearly as much to feed a poor| |producer as a good one. The first may be kept at a loss. The latter is a| |sure profit-payer. The difference is generally merely a matter of | |physical condition. And this _you_ can control. | | | |Pratts Cow Remedy makes cows healthy and productive. It is not a | |food--it is _all medicine_, preventive and curative. It is absolutely | |safe to use because free from arsenic, antimony and other dangerous | |ingredients. | | | | ~PRATTS COW REMEDY~ | | | |is nature's able assistant. It not only improves appetite and assists | |digestion, increases milk yield and percentage of butter fat, but in | |large measure prevents and overcomes such disorders as barrenness and | |abortion, garget, milk fever, scours, indigestion, liver and kidney | |troubles. | | | |The reason is plain when you know the ingredients. Here they | |are--gentian root, Epsom salts, capsicum, oxide of iron, fenugreek, nux | |vomica, ginger root, charcoal, soda, salt. All of superior quality and | |properly proportioned and combined. | | | |You may _think_ your cows are doing their best when they are not. _Now | |find out_. Secure a supply of the original and genuine Pratts Cow | |Remedy. Use it and watch results. You will be astonished and delighted. | |But if for any reason you are not-- | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] As soon as the supply of pasture becomes insufficient in quantity or lacking in succulence, it should be supplemented with food cut and fed in the green form, as winter rye, oats and peas, and oats and vetches grown together, millet in several varieties, grasses, perennial and Italian rye, especially the latter, alfalfa, the medium red, the mammoth, alsike and crimson clovers, corn of many varieties, and the sorghums. Alfalfa, where it can be freely grown, is king among soiling foods. Peas and oats grown together are excellent, the bulk being peas. Corn is more commonly used, and in some sections sweet sorghum is given an important place. The aim should be to grow soiling foods that will be ready for feeding in that succession that will provide food through all the summer and autumn. Soiling furnished by grains, grasses, and clovers are usually fed in the stables or feed yards, and corn and sorghum are usually strewn over the pastures, as much as is needed from day to day. Where much soiling food is wanted from year to year, it would seem safe to say that it can be most cheaply supplied in the form of silage. Even when grass is abundant, cows will eat with avidity more or less of ensilage well made. They should not be fed in winter more than 25 pounds per animal per day, but the quantity needed is determined largely by the condition of the pastures. Because of the less quantity of the silage called for in summer, the silo that contains the silage should be of less diameter than the silo that holds food for winter use, otherwise the exposed silage will dry out too much between the times of feeding it. In autumn soiling foods may be fed with profit that are possessed of less succulence than would suffice at an earlier period, as in the autumn the pastures are usually more succulent than in the summer. Corn may be fed at such a time with much advantage from the shock, and sorghum that has been harvested may likewise be fed from the shock or from the cocks. Pumpkins may be thrown into the pasture and broken when fed. Viewed from the standpoint of milk production, the legumes (clover, cow peas, soy beans, etc.) must be assigned first rank. After these come grain fodders, corn and sorghum fodders, and fodders from grasses, suitable in the order named. Lowest of all is straw furnished by the small cereals. Fodders when fed are not restricted in quantity as concentrates are. Among legumes, hay furnished by alfalfa, any of the clovers, cow peas, soy beans and vetches, is excellent for producing milk when these are cut at the proper stage and properly cured. Alfalfa should be cut for such feeding when only a small per cent. of blooms have been formed, clovers when in full bloom, and cow peas, soy beans, and vetches when the first forward pods are filling. Proper curing means by the aid of wind stirring through the mass rather than sun bleaching it. When good leguminous fodders are fed, from 33 to 50 per cent. less grain will suffice than would be called for when non-leguminous fodders only are fed. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Leavenworth, Kansas. When two veterinarians had given up a cow to die, I gave her Pratts Animal Regulator with the result that she was on her feed in about a week. I am a constant user of Pratt Products. J.D. WATSON._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Fodder may usually be cheaply furnished from corn and sorghum, when grown so that the stalks are fine and leafy, and if cut when nearing completed maturity and well cured. Such food is excellent for milk production when fed with suitable adjuncts, even though the fodder is grown so thickly that nubbins do not form. The aim should be to feed the sorghums in the autumn and early winter and the corn so that it may be supplemented by other hay when the winter is past, as later than the time specified these foods deteriorate. [Illustration: ~JERSEY COW~] Rye and wheat straw are of little use in making milk, oat straw is better, and good bright pea straw is still more valuable. When fodder is scarce, these may be fed to advantage if run through a cutting box and mixed with cut hay. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Thomaston, Ga. Since I started feeding her Pratts Cow Remedy, my cow has shown an increase in her daily flow of milk of over one gallon and is now in better condition than she has ever been. I give all the credit for this remarkable improvement to Pratts Cow remedy. O.W. JONES._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- The necessity for feeding succulent food in some form where maximum milk yields are to be attained has come to be recognized by all dairy-men. The plants that furnish succulence in winter are corn in all its varieties, field roots of certain kinds, and the sorghums. Corn and sorghum to furnish the necessary succulence must be ensiled. Corn ensilage is without a rival in providing winter succulence for cows. Field roots furnish succulence that, pound for pound, is more valuable than corn, because of the more favorable influence which it exerts on the digestion. But roots cost more to grow than corn. Rutabagas and turnips will give the milk an offensive taint if fed freely at any other time than just after the milk has been withdrawn, but that is not true of mangel wurtzel, sugar beets, or carrots. The necessity for giving grain feed containing high percentage of digestible matter (known as concentrates) to dairy cows is based on the inability of the cow to consume and digest enough coarse fodders to result in maximum production, even though the fodders should be in balance as to their constituents. Concentrates are purchased or home grown. It matters not from which source they are obtained, but the values of those purchased are becoming so high as to force upon dairy-men the necessity of growing them at home as far as this may be practicable, and of insuring sound digestion by giving some such tonic and appetizer as Pratts Cow Remedy. This splendid prescription should be kept on hand the year round, and should be given with every feeding, especially in winter. Its value in keeping up milk production and for maintaining health is unequalled. The method of furnishing concentrates by growing certain of the small grains in combination is growing in favor. These combinations may include wheat, barley, outs, peas, and flax. Frequently but two varieties are grown together. They are grown thus, in the first place, to secure better yields, and, in the second, to furnish concentrates in approximate balance. Such a food, for instance, is obtained from growing wheat and oats together, and if some flax is grown in the mixture it will be further improved. When choosing concentrates for feeding cows, the aim should be to select them so that when fed along with the roughage on hand, they will be in approximate balance, that is, the elements in them will best meet the needs of the cows. If a flesh and milk-making food, like clover, is the source of the fodder, then a fat and heat-producing food, like corn, should furnish a large proportion of the grain fed. But it is not more profitable in all instances to feed foods in exact balance. Some of the factors may be so high priced and others so cheap that it will pay better to feed them more or less out of balance. When good clover hay or alfalfa is being fed to cows in milk, any one of the following grain supplements will give satisfactory results. (1) Corn meal and wheat bran, equal parts by weight. (2) Corn meal, wheat bran, and ground oats in the proportions of 2, 1, and 1 parts. (3) Corn meal, wheat bran, and cottonseed meal in the proportion of 2, 1, and 1 parts. Whether corn meal or corn and cob meals is fed is not very material. Barley meal may be fed instead of corn. Should corn ensilage be fed to the extent of, say, 40 pounds per day along with clover or alfalfa, any one of the following grain supplements should suffice: (1) Corn or barley meal, wheat bran, and ground oats, fed in equal parts by weight. (2) Corn or barley meal and wheat bran, fed in the proportions of 1 and 2 parts. (3) Corn or barley meal, cottonseed meal, and wheat or rice bran, fed in equal proportions. (4) Ground peas and oats, also fed in equal proportions. The succotash mixture may be fed alone or in conjunction with other meal added to make the food still more in balance. It is preferable to feed meal admixed with cut fodders. The mastication that follows will then be more thorough and the digestion more complete. When ensilage is fed, admixture will result sufficiently if the meal is thrown over the ensilage where it has been put into the mangers. In order to insure the animal obtaining full benefit of all its feed, it will be found highly profitable to include Pratts Cow Remedy with the daily ration. It acts as a digestive and at the same time insures a healthy and natural action of the bowels. Bulls should be fed and managed with a view to secure good, large and robust physical development and the retention of begetting powers unimpaired to a good old age. The aim should be to avoid tying bulls in the stall continuously for any prolonged period, but to give them opportunity to take exercise in box stalls, paddocks, and pastures to the greatest extent that may be practicable. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Jacksonville, Fla. Have used Pratts Cow Remedy with good success as a general tonic and for increasing milk. Omitting it at intervals as a test showed a falling off of about a pint for each cow, which was always made up when the remedy was added. T.C. JOHNSTON._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- A ring should be inserted in the nose when not yet one year old. Rings most commonly used are two and one-half to three inches in diameter. When inserting them the head of the animal should be drawn tightly up to a post or other firm objects, so that the muzzle points upward at a suitable angle. A hole is then made with a suitable implement through the cartilage between the nasal passages, and forward rather than backward in the cartilage. The ring is then inserted, the two parts are brought together again, and they are held in place by a small screw. When ringed, a strap or rope with a spring attached will suffice for a time when leading them, but later they should be led with a lead, which is a strong, tough circular piece of wood, four to five feet long, with a snap attached to one end. [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~SELL THE MILK BUT GROW THE CALVES~ | | | |Whole milk is too valuable to use as calf feed, even if calves--both | |veals and those kept for dairy purposes--are selling at such high | |prices. Sell the milk, get all the cash out of it, but grow the calves| |just the same. Merely feed the perfect milk substitute-- | | | | ~PRATTS CALF MEAL | | "BABY FOOD FOR BABY CALVES"~ | | | |When prepared and fed in accordance with the simple directions, Pratts| |Calf Meal will grow calves _equal to those grown on whole or skim-milk| |and at less cost_. | | | |This truly wonderful calf feed has practically the same chemical | |composition as the solids of whole milk. It is made of superior | |materials, carefully selected and especially adapted to calf feeding. | |These are milled separately and bolted to remove hulls and coarse | |particles, which insures perfect digestion. Finally, the mixture is | |thoroughly steam-cooked, in a sense pre-digested. | | | |Calves fed Pratts way thrive and grow rapidly and are not subject to | |scours and other calf disorders. Just make a test. Feed some calves | |_your_ way and some _Pratts_ way. Let your eye and the scales tell the| |story. Learn how easy it is to grow the best of calves at less cost. | | | | "YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED" | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] Avoid using in service bulls under one year. During the one-year form they should not be allowed to serve more than a score of cows; after they have reached the age of 24 to 30 months they may be used with much freedom in service until the vital forces begin to weaken with age. When properly managed, waning should not begin before the age of 7 or 8 years. It has been found that the bull's service can be made more sure by the use of Pratts Cow Remedy, because of its mild and safe tonic properties. Bulls should he able to serve from 75 to 300 cows a year without injury when the times of service spread over much of the year. Calves reared to be made into meat at a later period are very frequently allowed to nurse from their dams. This should never be done in the dairy. Such a method of raising them is adverse to maximum milk giving, as the calves when young cannot take all the milk the cows are capable of giving; hence the stimulus is absent that would lead her to give more. At no time in the life of a dairy cow should she be allowed to suckle her calf longer than the third day of its existence. In certain parts of the country, especially where whole milk is sold for consumption in the cities, dairy-men frequently kill calves at birth because of lack of milk for feeding them. This practice is wrong and unnecessary. All strong calves should be grown, either for milking animals or veal. And this can now be done, easily and cheaply, by feeding Pratts Calf Meal, the perfect milk substitute, the guaranteed "baby food for baby calves." When this scientific food is used, calves of really superior quality, big, sturdy, vigorous, are grown practically without milk. Pratts Calf Meal must not be confused with coarse mixtures of mill by-products sometimes sold as "calf meal" or "calf food." Pratts is as carefully made as the baby foods which are so widely used for children. It appeals to the calf's appetite, is easily and quickly digested, produces rapid growth and even development. It does not cause scours and other digestive troubles. And it is easy to prepare and feed. [Illustration: ~SHORT HORN COW~] In chemical composition, Pratts Calf Meal is practically identical with the solids of whole milk. It is made exclusively of materials especially suited to calf feeding and these are always of the highest quality obtainable. This is one secret of the great success of this truly remarkable feed. The various materials are ground very fine, milled separately, and are then bolted to remove any coarse particles. They are then combined in exact proportions and thoroughly mixed. Finally, the mixture is steam-cooked, which makes the feed easy to digest and assimilate. This expensive, but most necessary process, prevents indigestion and bowel troubles which accompany the use of unbolted, uncooked meals. Where milk is available for calf feeding the following plan may be used: The young calf should take milk from its dam for, say, three days. During that period the milk is only fit for feeding purposes. It is very important that the calf shall be started right, and in no way can this be done so well as by Nature's method, that is, by allowing it to take milk from the dam at will. At the end of that time it should be taught to drink. This can usually be accomplished without difficulty by allowing the calf to become hungry before its first lesson in drinking. It should be given all whole milk, for say, two weeks. This given in three feeds per day, and not more in quantity, as a rule, than two quarts at a feed. The change from whole to skim-milk should be made gradually. A small amount of skim-milk should be added to the whole milk the first day, and a corresponding amount of whole milk withheld. The amount of skim-milk increased from day to day, and the whole milk fed decreased correspondingly. The time covered in making the change from all whole to all skim-milk should be from one to two weeks. Any skim-milk that is sweet will answer, but it should not be fed to young calves at a lower temperature than about 98 degrees in winter. Milk obtained by cream separators, soon after drawn from the cow, is particularly suitable. [Illustration: ~HOLSTEIN COW~] As soon as the change from whole to skim-milk is begun, some substitute should be added to replace the fat withheld by reducing the amount of whole milk fed. Ground flax or oil-meal is the best. It is generally fed in the latter form. In some instances the oil-meal is put directly into the milk beginning with a heaping teaspoonful and gradually increasing the quantity. A too lax condition of the digestion would indicate that an excessive amount was being fed. Later the meal may be more conveniently fed when mixed with other meal. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Riverdale, Md. Very much pleased with results of Pratts Animal Regulator during the present period of my cows breeding. An extraordinary strong calf and the mother in fine condition. WM. C. GRAY._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- As soon as the calves will eat meal it should be given to them. No meal is more suitable at the first than ground oats and wheat bran. A little later whole oats will answer quite well. To calves grown for dairy uses they may form the sole grain food. If the calves are to be grown for beef, some more fattening food, as ground corn, or ground barley, should be added to the meal. For such calves, equal parts of bran, oats whole or ground, and ground corn, barley, rye, or speltz are excellent. Until three months old they may be allowed to take all the grain that they will eat. Later it may be necessary to restrict the quantity fed. Calves for the dairy must be kept in a good growing condition, but without an excess of fat. The meal should be kept in a box at all times accessible to the calves and should be frequently renewed. Grain feeding may cease when the calves are put upon pasture. As soon as the calves will eat fodder it should be given to them. Fodder gives the necessary distention to the digestive organs, which makes the animals capable of taking a sufficient quantity of food to result in high production. Alfalfa, clover-hay, and pea and oat hay are excellent, provided they are of fine growth and cut before they are too advanced in growth. If field roots can be added to the fodder the result in development and good digestion will be excellent. Any kind of field roots are good, but mangels, sugar beets, and rutabagas are the most suitable because of their good keeping qualities. They should be fed sliced, preferably with a root slicer, and the calves may be given all that they will eat without harm resulting. The duration of the milk period more commonly covers three to four months with calves that are hand fed, but it may be extended indefinitely providing skim-milk may be spared for such a use. Such feeding is costly. Calves reared on their dams are seldom allowed milk for more than six or seven months, save when they are reared for show purposes. (1) The amount should be determined by the observed capacity of the calf to take milk and by the relative cost of the skim-milk and the adjuncts fed along with it. (2) During the first weeks until it begins to eat other food freely, it should be given all the milk that it will take without disturbing the digestion. (3) Usually it would be safe to begin with six pounds of milk per day, giving eight pounds at the end of the first week, and to add one pound each week subsequently until the age of 10 to 12 weeks. Any excess of milk given at one time usually disturbs the digestion and is followed by too lax a condition of the bowels. When milk has been the chief food, and the weaning is sudden, usually growth will be more or less arrested. When sustained largely on other foods, the change may be made without any check to the growth, even in the case of calves that suck their dams. When hand raised, the quantity of milk is gradually reduced until none is given. In the case of sucking calves they should be allowed to take milk once a day for a time before being shut entirely away from the dams. The supplementary food should be strengthened as the milk is withheld. Calves should have constant access to good water, even during the milk period, and also to salt. Where many are fed simultaneously, the milk should be given in pails kept scrupulously clean. The pails should be set in a manger, but not until the calves have been secured by the neck in suitable stanchions. As soon as they have taken the milk, a little meal should be thrown into each pail. Eating the dry meal takes away the desire to suck one another. Calves of the dairy, dual purpose, and beef breeds may be reared by hand along the same lines, but with the following points of difference: (1) The dual types want to carry more flesh than the dairy types, and the beef types more than either. (2) To secure this end, more and richer milk must be given to calves of the beef type, especially during the first weeks of growth. Forcing calves of the beef type would be against the highest development attainable. Until the milking period is reached, the food and general treatment for the three classes is the same. They should be in fair flesh until they begin to furnish milk. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Coshocton, Ohio. With good care and Pratts Animal Regulator (which I have used for two years) this Jersey calf grew like a weed. I can prove what it has done for my cow and calves. MRS. ELLEN BUTZ._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- When calves come in the autumn, the heifers enter the first winter strong and vigorous. They should be so fed that growth will be continuous right through the winter, but on cheap foods. It is different with animals for the block, which should have grain every winter until sold, when reared on the arable farm, unless roots are freely fed, when they may be carried through the winter in fine form on straw and cornstalks, feeding some hay toward spring. They may be fed in an open or a closed shed, and without being tied when dehorned as they ought to be when not purely bred. It is a good time to dehorn them when about one year old, as they will be more peaceful subsequently than if the horns had never been allowed to grow. The bedding should be plentiful and they should have free access to water and salt. [Illustration: ~HEREFORD BULL~] To carry growing animals through the winter so that they make no increase and in some instances lose weight, to be made up the following summer, is short-sighted policy and wasteful of food. If a stunted condition is allowed at any time, increase is not only retarded, but the capacity for future increase is also lessened. The pastures for heifers should be abundant, or supplemented by soiling food where they are short. This is specially necessary because the heifers will then be pregnant, and because of the burden thus put upon them in addition to that of growth, certain evils will follow. In some instances calves are grown on whole milk and adjuncts, and are sold at the age of 6 to 9 months. This is practicable when two or three calves are reared on one cow. The meal adjuncts to accompany such feeding may consist of ground corn, oats, bran, and oil meal, fed in the proportions of, say 4, 2, 1, and 1 parts by weight. In some instances they are kept two or three months longer, and when sold such calves well fattened bring high prices. The growing of baby beef is coming into much favor. Baby beef means beef put upon the market when it can no longer be called veal and when considerably short of maturity, usually under the age of 24 months. To grow such beef properly animals must be given a good healthy start, growth must not be interrupted and must be reasonably rapid, and the condition of flesh in which they are kept must be higher than for breeding uses. The process is in a sense a forcing one through feeding of relatively large amounts of grain. Though kept in good flesh all the while, the highest condition of flesh should be sought during the latter stages of feeding. When stall feeding begins, cattle are led up gradually during preliminary feeding to full feeding. Full feeding means consumption of all grain and other food the animal can take without injuring digestion. A lean animal cannot be fattened quickly. Before rapid deposits of fat can occur the lean animal must be brought into a well-nourished condition. Preliminary feeding should cover a period of four to eight weeks in ordinary fattening. When cattle are to be finished on grass, they are usually fed a moderate amount of grain daily the previous winter. The amount will be influenced by the character of the fodders and by the season when the cattle are to be sold. Usually it is not less than three pounds per animal, daily, nor more than six pounds. Steers will fatten in much shorter time when Pratts Cow Remedy is used. It causes them to quickly put on solid flesh, due to its action on the blood, bowels, and digestive organs. ~COMMON DISEASES OF CATTLE~ The cow is generally healthy and if fed, stabled and cared for properly she will seldom be ill. When a cow is sick, provide clean, comfortable quarters, with plenty of bedding and let her lie down. If weather is cold, cover her with a blanket. A healthy cow has a good appetite, the muzzle is moist, the eye bright, coat is smooth, the horns are warm, breathing is regular, the milk is given in good quantities and the process of rumination is constant soon after eating. The sick cow has more or less fever, the muzzle is dry and hot, the breathing is rapid, no appetite, an increase in the pulse, dull eye, rough coat, a suspension of rumination, and the cow will stand alone with head down. Usually all that is needed is Pratts Cow Remedy with bran mashes and good digestible feed. Give pure, clean water, and careful attention. ~Preventing Milk Fever~ Many excellent cows have been lost through milk fever within a day or two of the birth of the calf. The preventive measures include: (1) Reducing the quantity of the food fed. (2) Feeding food that is not unduly succulent, lest the milk flow should be overstimulated. (3) Giving a mild purgative a day or two before the calf is born, or within a few hours after its birth. The purgative most commonly used is Epsom salts, and the dose is three-quarters of a pound to one pound. (4) Removing only a small portion of the milk at a time for the first two or three days. Only moderate amounts of food are necessary until the danger of milk fever is past. Where Pratts Cow Remedy has been given, there is little, if any, danger of milk fever. The value of this splendid prescription during the calving season has been tested time and time again. ~Abortion~ A germ disease highly contagious and one of the most injurious of those which affect dairy cattle. The money-making value of a herd in which the germs of contagious abortion are permitted to exist will be completely destroyed. A cow which has once aborted will do so again unless carefully treated. So contagious is the disease that the germs introduced into a perfectly healthy cow will cause her to abort, and it is no uncommon thing for the infection to spread through an entire herd in a single season. The herd bull readily becomes a source of herd infection, and service from a bull, where there are aborting cows should be refused. _Cause._--By infection, the herding together of a large number of cows, high feeding, smutty corn and ergotty pastures. In a small number of cows abortion may result from accidental injuries. Such cases are pure accidents and are not to be considered along with contagious abortion. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Bradford, Ohio. Abortion had got a hold on my herd and I was expecting to have to dispose of them, when Pratts Cow Remedy came to my rescue. Calves are all coming now at the right time. BENJ. LOXLEY, JR._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Treatment._--As in all contagious diseases, treatment should be given the infected animals and sanitary measures with treatment should be adopted to prevent its spread to healthy cows. For increasing the disease resistance of cows as well as for building up the vitality of infected and suspected animals, Pratts Cow Remedy is most effective. It is a true remedy and tonic, which restores to health and upbuilds the cow's constitution. It is all medicine, free from harmful ingredients or mineral poisons. Give one level tablespoonful of Pratts Cow Remedy three times a day to each cow, either with the grain or separately. Pratts Cow Remedy should be given before and after service, and when Contagious Abortion is only suspected, should be continued during the period when the cow is in calf. An excellent preventive practice is to douche the vagina of all pregnant cows and to wash the tails and hind quarters of the entire herd with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 100 parts warm water. As a certain number of the cows will harbor the germ in the womb when treatment is started, it is not to be expected that abortion will cease at once, but by keeping up the treatment the trouble will probably disappear the following year. When the small cost of Pratts Cow Remedy and Pratts Dip and Disinfectant and their wonderful effectiveness in ridding the cow of the disease are considered, there is no question but that it ought always to be given to all cows to keep them well. To prevent the spread of Contagious Abortion, the entire premises should be disinfected regularly with Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~COMFORT FOR COW AND MILKER~ | | | |Milking is a twice-a-day job. And if the cow has a sore, feverish and | |inflamed udder, cut, cracked or sore teats, milking time is most | |uncomfortable for both the cow and the one who does the milking. | | | |Whenever a cow gives any indication of tenderness or soreness of udder | |or teats, apply | | | | ~PRATTS BAG OINTMENT~ | | | |and speedy improvement will follow. It quickly penetrates to the seat of| |the trouble, softens and soothes the feverish parts, and heals up the | |sores. | | | |Use it for caked bags, or garget, for cuts, cracks, scratches or sores | |on udder or teats. It works wonders. Better keep a package on hand for | |quick use. | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ ~Retained After-Birth~ _Causes._--The cow, the most of all our domestic animals, is especially subject to this accident. It is most likely to occur after abortion. Again, in low conditions of health and an imperfect power of contraction, we have causes for retention. The condition is common when the cow is given food insufficient in quantity or in nutriment. _Treatment._--Blanket the cow in a warm stable, and three times a day give hot drinks and hot mashes of wheat bran to which two tablespoonfuls of Pratts Cow Remedy have been added. When the after-birth comes away, continue treatment giving one tablespoonful of Pratts Cow Remedy until full recovery. The vagina and womb should be syringed with a solution of one ounce of Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to a gallon of warm water. Repeat daily until all discharge has disappeared. _Prevention._--If the cow has been given Pratts Cow Remedy during pregnancy or from two to four weeks before calving, there will be very few cases of this trouble. ~Barrenness and Sterility~ When a cow persistently fails to breed and bear young, she is said to be barren. That a barren cow cannot be a profit maker, goes without saying. _Causes._--Barrenness in many cases is due to malformation of the generative organs, tumors or other diseased conditions. Very frequently it is a result of Contagious Abortion, and this should always be suspected. Cows bred at too early an age frequently produce calves which prove to be barren, due to constitutional weakness. _Treatment._--The true preventive of such conditions is to be found in sound hygiene. Use Pratts Dip and Disinfectant freely about the premises. The breeding animal should be of adult age neither overfed nor underfed, but well fed and moderately exercised. In proof of the beneficial results of exercise, it is of record that a cow pronounced barren, when driven to a new owner, living several miles distant, became fertile and for years thereafter produced healthy calves. Vigorous health must be sought, not only that a strong race may be propagated but that the cow may breed with certainty. For toning up the generative organs, so that they can perform their natural functions, Pratts Cow Remedy is safe and positive. The usual dose is a level tablespoonful twice a day in the feed. Thus for less than a cent a day, you can make sure of the cow enjoying health and being productive. ~Aphtha, Sores on the Lips and Tongue~ _Symptoms._--Painful blisters which become sores on the lips and tongue. Occurs often in sucking calves. _Treatment._--Wash the mouth twice a day with one ounce of borax and one fluid ounce of myrrh mixed in one quart of water or a mild solution of Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. Give Pratts Cow Remedy daily. If the mouth is very sore give the remedies in gruel form. Feed animal on regular gruel feed. If it occurs in calves, give Pratts Cow Remedy with milk and use borax as mentioned above. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Pittsfield, Ill. Am using Pratts Bag Ointment on young heifer with a very sore bag and she is doing fine. I would not do without it. F.E. STORCK._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Bloat~ _Symptoms_.--While eating, or shortly afterward, a swelling appears on the left side, and as the swelling increases the animal appears to be in great distress, pants, strikes belly with its hind feet, the belching of gas is noticed and the animal does not chew its cud. Later the breathing becomes difficult, the animal moans, its back is arched, eyes protrude, the tongue hangs out and saliva runs from the mouth. _Cause._--Eating damp grass, succulent grass of early spring and second crop clover in autumn when wet with dew or rain. Also caused by a change of food or over filling the paunch of animal with indigestible food. _Treatment._--At this stage mix one ounce aromatic spirits of ammonia in one pint of water and give the mixture as a drench. Repeat in twenty minutes if necessary. In extreme cases a mechanical treatment can be successfully employed by the use of Pratts Cattle Trocar. ~Caked Udder, or Garget~ Apply Pratts Bag Ointment according to directions. It is very penetrating, and has great softening and cooling properties. Use also for chafing and inflammation. ~Cold~ _Symptoms._--Heated forehead, sneezing, coughing, may have diarrhoea or be constipated, fever and loss of appetite. Urine deficient. _Treatment._--Give large doses of Pratts Cow Remedy in gruel form and gradually reduce quantity. Keep animal warm, bandage legs and rub throat and lungs with Pratts Liniment. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _McDonoghville, La. Pratts Animal Regulator can't be beat for sick calves--this is from actual experience. E.M. HUBERT._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Colic~ Animal will be uneasy, gets up and lies down, and suffers much pain. Walk the animal for a few minutes, then give one pint of Glauber Salts dissolved in a pint of warm water, and inject a quart of warm water, with two fluid ounces of laudanum, into the bowels. Give regularly Pratts Cow Remedy mixed with warm water as gruel until animal is relieved, then mix with the feed. In extreme cases give four drams of carbonate of ammonia, two drams of belladonna, mixed with one pint of water. Blankets wrung out of hot water and applied will help to relieve the pain. Another remedy is one ounce of sulphuric ether and one ounce tincture of opium in a pint of warm water. A pint of whiskey in a pint of warm water is also good. ~Constipation~ _Cause._--From eating dry, coarse food, lack of exercise and not enough water. _Treatment._--Give Epsom salts or a pint of raw linseed oil and plenty of green food, linseed meal, bran mashes, roots and Pratts Cow Remedy daily. Exercise is necessary. ~Cow Pox~ (Variola) _Symptoms._--Round inflamed spots appear upon the teats. They enlarge and form large scabs. The milk yield is always diminished. It is very contagious. This is the vaccine-virus used as a preventive for smallpox. _Treatment._--Separate the cows affected. Do not break the pox. Apply Pratts Healing Ointment to the sores and give Pratts Cow Remedy to all the cows, whether affected or not. ~Closing of the Milk Duct~ Use Pratts Self-Retaining Milking Tube. Never use a solid probe or needle. ~Cut, Cracked, Injured or Sore Teats~ Apply Pratts Bag Ointment according to directions on box. ~Diarrhoea~ (Scours) _Treatment._--Give large doses of Pratts Cow Remedy at first, then reduce to regular quantity. Give starch gruel or flour and water. Another remedy is two fluid drams of tincture of kino three times daily. ~Foot and Mouth Disease~ _Symptoms._--Sore feet and blisters form in and about the mouth and on udder. Animal shivers, has fever, becomes lame and teeth become loose. It is very contagious. _Treatment._--Separate all sick animals and wash mouths with one part Pratts Disinfectant to 100 parts water, or one-half teaspoonful of tincture of aloes and myrrh. Stand animals in a trough containing one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 20 parts water. Repeat in five days. Disinfect all stables, litter, etc. Give daily Pratts Cow Remedy with the regular feed. Use Pratts Bag Ointment on teats and udder. When recovered, sponge all over with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 20 parts water. ~Foot Rot~ _Treatment._--Clean stalls and disinfect with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 100 parts water. Pare away all ragged portions of the foot and keep animal on clean floor until cured. Make a poultice of one part Disinfectant to five parts water and stir in a little flour to the proper constituency and apply to the foot. ~Lice~ Lousy stock cannot grow fat for the nourishment given is absorbed by the lice. _Treatment._--Clean stable thoroughly and spray Pratts Dip and Disinfectant everywhere. Sprinkle a small quantity on an old blanket and tie it around the animal for two or three hours. Spray the legs and such places the blanket does not cover. Repeat if necessary. If Pratts Powdered Lice Killer is used, dust the animals thoroughly with the powder, rubbing the hair the wrong way, then rub it thoroughly into the skin. ~Lump Jaw~ _Cause._--A vegetable parasite. It is contagious. _Treatment._--Remove the tumor by surgical means or paint daily with tincture of iodine. Give daily two drams of iodide of potash. Give nourishing feed with Pratts Cow Remedy daily. Disinfect stable with Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. ~Milk--Bloody or Stringy~ _Cause._--By rupture of minute vessels in the udder due to injury, irritation or inflammation and derangement of the system. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _East Point, Ga. Please send me a box of Pratts Cow Remedy and some Pratts Bag Ointment. I sure do need it. I found no other that will do the work. It brings in calves easy. MRS. MATTIE BROWN._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Treatment._--Change the food and pasture. Give large doses of Pratts Cow Remedy at first, and gradually reduce to regular quantity. Give good nutritious feed with bran mashes and clean fresh, water. Rub udder twice daily with Pratts Bag Ointment. Four drams of hyposulphite of soda in feed twice a day has produced good results. ~Milk--Blue and Watery~ _Treatment._--Keep stable perfectly clean, disinfect thoroughly with Pratts Disinfectant and treat same as for bloody milk. Sometimes blue milk is the sign of tuberculosis. If so, have the cow killed and burned or buried deep. ~Milk Fever~ _Symptoms._--There is a feverish condition and inflammation of the brain; a complete stoppage of milk, weakness in hind quarters, animal staggers and when down is unable to rise, throws head to one side and goes into a state of stupor. _Cause._--By trouble peculiar to calving or running into rich pasture during hot weather; by lack of exercise and from costiveness. Usually attacks fat cows. _Treatment._--(From Circular 45, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture.) "Of all known methods of treating milk fever, the injection of sterile atmospheric air into the udder is by far the most simple and practicable as well as the most efficacious and harmless one at our disposal." Pratts Milk Fever Outfit for air treatment should always be kept on hand. The price is $3. This treatment has cured 97 per cent. of cases treated. _Prevention._--Feed pregnant cows with nutritious and laxative feed, give plenty of water and Pratts Cow Remedy daily. Keep stable clean, well ventilated and disinfected with Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. ~Milk--To Increase the Flow of~ _Treatment._--To increase flow of milk give Pratts Cow Remedy daily with a good nutritious ration and plenty of water. These supply just what a cow needs to make her food appetizing, to regulate the blood, bowels and digestive organs, to turn all the nutriment of the feed given into flesh and milk without waste. Pratts Cow Remedy has been used for over 40 years by successful and conservative feeders, and wherever used, according to directions, has produced wonderful results. ~Ophthalmia--Sore Eyes~ _Treatment._--Separate affected animals at once and put them in clean, well ventilated but dark stalls as this is contagious. Disinfect entire place with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 75 parts of water. Give physic of a pound and a half of Epsom salts, dissolve in a pint of warm water, to which add two ounces of powdered ginger. Give sloppy feed with one dram of powdered nitrate of potassia added and Pratts Cow Remedy daily. Fasten a cloth over the eyes and keep it wet with a lotion of chloride of zinc, one dram; carbolic acid, two drams; water, one gallon. Apply to the cheek below each eye, to the space of about two inches, a small portion composed of Spanish fly, 2 drams; lard, two tablespoonfuls. Apply in the morning and wash off with soap suds and a sponge, six hours later. Apply lard. Keep separated from herd for a month after recovery. ~Rheumatism~ _Symptoms._--Hot, painful swellings at the joints, stiffness in walking and difficulty in rising. _Cause._--By exposure, badly ventilated and wet stables, damp, marshy pasture and impure food. _Treatment._--Bathe joints with Pratts Liniment. Give a physic of a pound of Epsom salts in warm water. Give two drams of salicylate of soda every three hours for two days. Keep animal warm and dry. Give nutritious feed of a laxative nature with Pratts Cow Remedy daily. ~Sore Throat~ _Symptoms._--Difficulty in swallowing, pain and difficult breathing. _Treatment._--Place in dry, clean, well ventilated stable. Use nose bag. Rub throat with Pratts Liniment. Give physic of one pound of Epsom salts in warm water. Give one-half ounce of tincture of belladonna every six hours. Syringe throat three times a day with an ounce of following solution: one and one-half drams nitrate of silver and one pint of distilled water. ~Sprains~ Use Pratts Liniment, nothing better. ~Teats--Obstructed~ _Treatment._--Wash off with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant and 50 parts of water. Use Pratts Teat Opener. Pratts Self-Retaining Milking Tube can then be inserted until teat is better. Rub teats with Pratts Bag Ointment. ~Ticks~ _Treatment._--All cattle infected with ticks should be sponged or dipped at once with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 20 parts water. Repeat in ten days. This will not only kill the ticks but cure mange, soften the hair and make the skin healthy. ~Tuberculosis--Consumption~ _Symptoms._--Not well marked in early stages. Disease develops slowly. There is a loss of flesh, a short dry cough, irregular appetite, rapid breathing, weakness, bloating, diarrhoea, the milk is lessened and is watery and blue in color. The coat is rough and back arched. Whenever an animal is suspected of having tuberculosis, have a competent person give the "Tuberculosis Test" at once. _Cause._--Poor feed and water, badly ventilated stables, dirty stables, from over-feeding and inoculation. It is hereditary. May also follow abortion and catarrhal trouble of the genital organs. _Treatment._--Disease is incurable. Kill and burn all animals affected at once and disinfect thoroughly stables, yards, etc., with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant to 50 parts of water. Disinfect every week until every germ is destroyed. Use Pratts Dip and Disinfectant in all whitewash and sponge or dip all the cattle in a solution of one part Disinfectant to 100 parts water. ~Wire Cuts, Wounds, Bites, Etc.~ _Treatment._--Wash with one part Pratts Dip and Disinfectant and 50 parts water and apply Pratts Healing Ointment or Healing Powder three times a day. ~Worms~ Give Pratts Specially Prepared Worm Powder according to directions. It is quick in its action and has a strong tonic effect. [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] ~SHEEP~ Many years ago the sheep industry of America flourished. Then came a period of depression in this line accompanied by a steady decrease in the number of sheep kept. But the tide turned again about 1914 and the sheep are rapidly coming back to American farms and ranges. This change is doubtless due to the steadily increasing cost of grain and labor accompanied by correspondingly high prices of lamb, mutton and wool. Also to a general recognition of the economic value of sheep--both of the mutton and wool breeds--as quick producers of income, no little part of which should be profit. The latter point is due to the fact that sheep are inexpensive to maintain as they thrive upon the roughest of pastures and coarse feeds which will not sell to advantage, and their care consumes but little time. Low production costs--feed and labor--and high prices for the products make a most satisfactory combination. Methods of successful sheep management vary in different sections of the country. The beginner may well consult the successful sheep-growers in his section and adopt the methods which give good results under the conditions existing in his locality. At the same time he should neglect no opportunity to secure more information from all sources, in order to know and use the most advanced methods and so make the maximum profits. Here are a few basic facts: Sheep raising requires careful attention, but does not demand a great amount of heavy labor or expensive equipment. The best time to make a start is in the early fall when good breeding stock may be selected. While pure-bred breeders are best, a pure-bred ram and ewes of good grade will prove very satisfactory. A start may be made in a small way, but it is best to have at least twenty to forty breeders for economy of time, labor and other expenses. As a rule it is most profitable to push the lambs for growth and market them when they weigh 65 to 75 pounds. This weight can be secured in about four months. If a very large pasture is available the flock will thrive on this. Otherwise fields must be fenced off and forage crops provided. Breeding ewes must be exercised in the winter to insure strong lambs. But protect them from rain or wet snow as soaked fleeces cause colds and pneumonia. [Illustration: ~SHROPSHIRE SHEEP~] Thrifty condition and vigorous health must be maintained at all costs. Otherwise the lambs will be small and weak and fleeces of inferior quality. The regular use of Pratts Animal Regulator will improve condition, insure health and vigor, increase number and quality of lambs, promote growth of flesh and wool. And in large measure, it keeps common diseases away because Pratt-fed sheep are in condition to _resist_ disease. Shearing should be done after lambing, usually in late spring or early summer. If lambing time is late, the shearing may be done before the lambs arrive. Tie up the fleeces separately, first sorting out dung locks and tags. After lambing, the individual ewes should be carefully watched to see that they have plenty of milk and are in good condition. They should be kept in pens for about three days, when they may be permitted to run with the flock. Feed lightly for two or three days, then heavily to stimulate the milk flow so lambs will be well-nourished. They may profitably receive one to two pounds of grain per day during the nursing period. Inferior ewes should be marketed as rapidly as they are identified. Get rid of the barren ones, producers of poor lambs, poor milkers, light shearers. Sheep must be protected against blood-thirsty dogs and external and internal parasites. In many sections sheep growers have united to fight sheep-killing dogs and good results have been secured. United action against a common enemy is best, as public sentiment may thus be aroused. Because of their thick fleeces and helplessness, sheep suffer greatly from the attacks of ticks, lice and other parasites. Ticks are particularly injurious. They annoy and weaken the adult animals, torture the lambs and check their growth. The result is always a money loss to the sheep owner. Fortunately it is a simple matter to exterminate the ticks and lice and overcome the ordinary skin diseases of sheep. Merely dip the sheep in a solution of Pratts Disinfectant. It is non-poisonous, inexpensive--does the work! [Illustration: ~MERINO RAM~] July and August is the popular time for dipping, but the work can be done as soon after shearing as the shear cuts heal. Two dippings are necessary, about twenty-four days apart. The first treatment may not kill all the eggs, but the second will kill the young ticks, thus completing the job. For successful results, it is necessary to use a dipping tank or vat large enough to hold sufficient of the solution to immerse and thoroughly saturate each animal. Intestinal parasites, of which the stomach worm is perhaps the most dreaded, cause great loss to sheep owners. These worms live in the fourth stomach. They are easily identified, being from one-half to one and a quarter inches long, marked with a red stripe. Their eggs are found in the droppings of the sheep, so infection is secured in the pasture. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Augusta, Me. As a constant user of Pratts Animal Regulator, for sheep, I find that it not only helps them to put on flesh but keeps their system in fine condition. I take great pleasure in recommending it, knowing its benefit to Cloverdale Shropshires. H.J. O'HEAR, Samoset Farm._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [Illustration: Care of Swine] ~SWINE~ No other class of animals kept upon the farm brings returns so quickly as swine, with the exception of fowls. Swine are specially valuable for utilizing food that would otherwise go to waste. They are an invaluable adjunct to the dairy, particularly when the whole milk is separated on the farm. You can grow big, healthy, profit-paying hogs, if you will merely meet certain clearly defined hog requirements. If you do this, and it's easy, you need never worry about profits. You are _sure_ to succeed. The world needs and will pay you well for all the hogs you can produce. Aside from the pork products required for consumption in America, the hog growers of the United States must for years export to Europe more pork in various forms, and more lard, than ever before. The European herds of hogs have been sadly depleted. Dr. Vernon Kellogg, of the United States Food Administration, has personally investigated the situation. He reports decreases in hogs in leading countries as follows: France, 49 per cent.; Great Britain, 25 per cent.; Italy, 12 1/2 per cent. And, of course, conditions are even worse in Germany, Austria and the Balkan Nations, all of which are big producers in normal times. Properly handled, kept healthy and vigorous, the American hog is a money-maker. Many farmers know this from experience: others fail to realize how useful and profitable the hog really is. The experts connected with the United States Department of Agriculture make the following assertions in Farmers' Bulletin 874: "No branch of live-stock farming gives better results than the raising of well-bred swine when conducted with a reasonable amount of intelligence. The hog is one of the most important animals to raise on the farm, either for meat or for profit, and no farm is complete unless some hogs are kept to aid in the modern method of farming. The farmers of the South and West, awakening to the merits of the hog, are rapidly increasing their output of pork and their bank accounts. The hog requires less labor, less equipment, less capital, and makes greater gains per hundred pounds of concentrates than any other farm animal, and reproduces himself faster and in greater numbers; and returns the money invested more quickly than any other farm animal except poultry." The University of Minnesota, in Extension Bulletin 7, sums up the matter as follows: "From a business point of view, the hog is described as a great national resource, a farm mortgage lifter and debt-payer, and the most generally profitable domesticated animal in American agriculture." And this summarizes the general opinion of progressive hog growers and the experts connected with the United States Department of Agriculture and the various State Agricultural Experiment Stations and Colleges. Breeds of hogs are divided into two general classes--bacon type and lard type. Where milk is plentiful, and especially where such foods as barley and peas are grown, the bacon type will be the most profitable, as they furnish the largest litters and also make pork that brings the best price in the market. The lard type of swine are usually kept where corn is the cereal that is most grown. The large Yorkshire and Tamworth are the leading bacon breeds. The Poland China, the Duroc Jersey, and the Chester White are leading lard types. The Berkshires, Cheshires, and Hampshires are intermediate between the bacon and lard types. When bacon sires are crossed upon sows of any of the other breeds, the progeny are excellent for pork. The farmer who is about to adopt a breed should be sure to select one of the standard and common breeds of his own neighborhood. Many men make the mistake of introducing a breed new to the section, and when the time comes that a new boar must be secured much difficulty and expense are incurred before a satisfactory one can be found. The bulletin quoted above further says: "To the production of pork, then, in _the largest amount_, in _the shortest time_, and with _the minimum of money and labor_, all the details of the hog-raising industry are directed." Here is the whole secret--pork in largest amount, in shortest time, at lowest production costs. And the very foundation is perfect health and vigorous condition of the hogs, both breeding animals and market stock. Health and vigor are necessary in the breeding animals if they are to produce big litters of sturdy pigs--in the market animals if they are to consume large amounts of food and economically and quickly convert it into fat and muscle. Weak, sickly, run-down hogs are a constant source of trouble and are never profitable under any conditions. Disease is one of the greatest drawbacks in the hog industry. [Illustration: ~POLAND CHINA PIG~] When selecting brood sows of any breed, the preference should be given to those which have reasonably long sides and limbs of medium length. When selecting boars make sure that vigor is present in a marked degree and also strong limbs. Any weakness in the back of male or female is to be carefully shunned. During pregnancy two facts must be borne in mind. The first is that the sow is doing double duty. She is keeping up her own bodily functions, as well as developing her fetal litter. Therefore, feeding should be liberal. The mistakes in feeding breeding animals are more frequently those which keep such stock thin. The importance of ample feeding at this time is a demonstrated fact, as well as one which appeals to common sense. In the second place the sow is building new tissue. Hence the kind of feed is important. Bran, peas, oats and barley and such forage plants as clover, alfalfa, vetches and the like. Ordinary pasture grasses are of much value. All breeders lay great emphasis on the condition of the bowels during pregnancy, and particularly at farrowing. The special danger to be avoided is constipation. It is right here that Pratts Hog Tonic shows its great worth to hog raiser. It puts the digestion organs into healthy condition and the result is safe farrowing and a healthy litter which is not apt to suffer from scours or thumps. [Illustration: ~DUROC-JERSEY BOAR~] Good health is inherited from vigorous, healthy ancestors. It is intensified and preserved by proper management. "The time to begin fitting pigs for market is before they are farrowed. For this reason it is advisable to pay particular attention to the feed and care of the brood sow from breeding to farrowing time." And "It must be understood that it is much easier to continue an animal (hog) in a thrifty, hardy condition than to bring the animal back to his normal appetite and rate of growth, once he is out of order." (Circular 90, New Jersey Agr. Exp. Station.) These common-sense statements must appeal to the reason of every thinking hog producer. And they make plain the wisdom of regularly supplying Pratts Hog Tonic to the entire herd, to breeding stock, growing pigs, fattening hogs. This remarkable natural tonic and conditioners _is not_ a specific for any single disease. It is a health-builder and health-preserver. In this connection we wish to particularly mention that most dreaded and destructive of all hog diseases--hog cholera. We do not claim that Pratts Hog Tonic will entirely prevent or cure this scourge. But it will put and keep your herd in such fine condition that the individuals will be more resistant and will not as readily contract cholera or other germ diseases. It will prevent and control such troubles as indigestion, diarrhoea, constipation and the like, which are such a source of trouble in the average herd. You may not appreciate the value of using such a conditioner, but the Kentucky Agr. Exp. Station, in Bulletin 181, contains the following statement which deserves the careful consideration of every thoughtful hog raiser: _"General conditioners have been found to be advantageous in the maintenance of healthy conditions in hogs_." Brood sows should not produce their first litter under twelve months. Whether they should produce one or two litters a year will depend largely upon the conditions, especially of climate. Sows should be kept for breeding as long as they will produce good, even litters. Well-chosen sows should rear an average of eight to the litter. Brood sows should have ample exercise. They get it in good form when they are allowed to turn over litter in the barnyard on which a little grain, as corn, has previously been sprinkled. Two-thirds of the winter rations may consist of mangels or alfalfa hay--the other third being grain or swill. Alfalfa for hogs should be cut before blossoming. When sows farrow they should be fed lightly for the first three days. Later give all they will eat of milk-making foods. A combination of ground oats, wheat shorts, and some corn is excellent. And Pratts Hog Tonic will be found especially valuable during the nursing period. Meal is fed ground and soaked. As soon as young pigs will take skim-milk they should get it in a trough apart from the sow. They are weaned at seven or eight weeks where two litters are grown in a year, and at twelve weeks where but one is grown. When pigs are weaned, and previously, there is nothing better than shorts and skim milk. They should be grown subsequently to weaning on pasture, with one to two pounds of grain added daily. In season, winter or spring rye, clover, alfalfa, barley, and rape all make excellent pasture. The fattening period with swine covers from six to eight weeks. Unground corn and water will fatten swine in good form. The same is true of barley and rye, ground and soaked. They may be fattened nicely while grazing on field peas. They may also be similarly fattened by hogging off corn or gathering it from the excrement of cattle that are being fattened on it. Swine well grown should make an average gain of a pound a day. Bacon swine may be best sold at 175 to 200 pounds in weight. Lard types are usually grown to greater weights. Swine breeders have long recognized the value of Pratts Hog Tonic as a disease preventive and fattener. Progressive breeders now consider it a necessity in profitable hog raising. If a second litter is wanted during a year the sows should be put to the boar during the first heat after weaning. Many breeders do not like to pass periods of heat for fear that the sows may become "shy," and there is little reason why a sow should not have two litters a year. In any case, the sows should be carried on comparatively light feed until time to breed again, gaining a little in weight; and their treatment after breeding should be as already detailed for pregnant sows. When the boar arrives at the farm he should be dipped in a solution of Pratts Dip and Disinfectant, as a matter of ordinary precaution against the introduction of vermin. As an additional precaution, a quarantine pen should be ready for him, especially if epizootics are prevalent. His feed before change of owners should be known, and either adhered to or changed gradually to suit the new conditions. If he has come from a long distance it will be well to feed lightly until he is well acclimated. [Illustration: ~TAMWORTH PIG~] Breeders generally advocate the practice of keeping a boar to himself during the entire year--out of sight and hearing of the sows. However, a boar is often allowed to run with the sows after they are safe in pig; but during the breeding season it is by far the best policy to keep him by himself, admitting a sow to his yard for mating, and allowing but one service. The litters will generally be larger and the pigs stronger. The boar should not serve more than two sows daily, preferably one in the morning and one in the afternoon, and can serve 50 to 60 in a season without difficulty. In order to keep the boar in vigorous physical condition, he should be given Pratts Hog Tonic regularly. The beneficial results will be seen in the way of larger litters and stronger pigs. The greatest drawback to the hog industry which breeders in this country have to contend against is found in the losses which may be experienced through the infestation of the animals, especially young pigs, by parasites, through outbreaks of hog cholera or swine plague, or through the contraction of tuberculosis. [Illustration: ~CHESTER WHITE BOAR~] In dealing with the diseases of hogs, preventive measures must be most relied upon. The animals must be given dry and well-ventilated quarters, which must be kept clean. Contrary to common belief, hogs have some habits which raise them above other domestic animals from the standpoint of cleanliness. For example, unless compelled to do so, a hog will not sleep in its own filth. If part of the floor of the pen is raised and kept well bedded with straw, while the rest is not, all excrement will be left on the unbedded portion of the floor, and the bed itself will be always clean. In addition to cleanliness, close attention should be given to the feed which is supplied, that nothing may be fed which will convey the germs of disease, especially tuberculosis, to the herd. If the hogs are fed milk in any form obtained from cows kept upon the same farm, the cows should be subjected to the tuberculin test, as by this means all tuberculous milk may be kept from the hogs. If they run with the cattle of the farm a tuberculin test of all the cattle is none the less desirable. Animals dead from any disease should not be fed to the hogs until the meat has been made safe by cooking. Skim milk or refuse from a public creamery should not be fed to hogs until it has been thoroughly sterilized. Feeding and drinking places should be clean and the water supply pure. Unless the origin is known to be uncontaminated and there has been no possibility of infection during its course, hogs should not be allowed access to any stream. Wallows should be drained out or kept filled up as much as possible. At least once a month the quarters should be disinfected with a solution of Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. These precautions will be found valuable aids in the destruction of the various animal parasites, as well as a protection from some more serious troubles. The methods of feeding and management outlined above have been successfully followed by hog growers for many years. They are conservative and safe. But during recent years a new method of feeding has been developed and is being generally adopted, especially by specialists who make hog growing a real business. This is known as the "self-fed" plan, under which system feed is kept before the hogs at all times and they are permitted to eat at will. In poultry feeding this is called "the dry mash system." Just who deserves credit for originating or developing this plan cannot be stated. That it is a good one is evidenced by the fact that it has received the endorsement of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture; of many Agricultural Experiment Stations; of the specialty swine journals; of practical hog breeders in all sections of the country. For this self-feed plan it is claimed that both feed and labor are saved, thus reducing production costs. That a 250-pound hog can be grown in thirty days less time than is possible where slop-feeding is practiced, thus getting the hogs to market earlier and avoiding danger of loss during this time. That it produces pork of highest quality, the meat being fine in flavor, firm, and with lean and fat well distributed. Advocates of the self-feeding plan make the following comparison with the old-time slop-feeding method: When dry food is supplied in automatic feeders, the attendant may fill the feeders at any convenient time of day and that at intervals of several days. In slop feeding, the meals must be prepared and fed twice daily, usually when other duties are pressing and time especially valuable. When dry, ground grains are kept before the hogs at all times, they eat when they feel the need of food and are not liable to overeat at any time. Because of the dry character of the feed, they eat slowly, masticating the food thoroughly and mixing it with saliva. This means more thorough digestion and an absence of indigestion and bowel troubles. And, of course, quicker growth. Slop-fed hogs, on the other hand, get very hungry between meals. At feeding time they pile up around the troughs, the stronger rushing and pushing away the weaker ones, those that really need the feed the most. Then they bolt the food without chewing it, taking all they can hold and leaving little for those that cannot find a place at the "first table." The quality of the dry-fed pork has been mentioned. Equally important, from the standpoint of the butcher, is the loss in dressing of hogs. Tests have shown that slop-fed stock loses six to eight pounds more per hundredweight than does the dry-fed. [Illustration: ~BERKSHIRE BOAR~] Another big advantage of dry-feeding lies in the fact that large numbers of swine, including those of various ages and sizes, can be safely kept in one herd. The writer has seen over two hundred head of swine, ranging in size from pigs just weaned to 250-pound porkers ready for market, living in peace and contentment in one building, eating and sleeping and sharing the forage pastures together. Of course this means a big saving in buildings and fencing and a great reduction in the amount of necessary labor. The self-feeder may be used all through the life of the hog, beginning when the pigs are still nursing and continuing until they reach market weight. During all this time the ration should contain Pratts Hog Tonic, the guaranteed hog conditioner, in order that at all times the herd may be maintained in vigorous condition, be kept free from disease, may avoid wasting feed through imperfect or sluggish digestion, may earn for the farmer the maximum amount of profit. We suggest that you make a test of this results-insuring, profit-producing tonic. Watch results. If _you_ are not satisfied the dealer from whom you purchased the goods will refund the full amount you paid for them. The self-feeding plan of growing hogs gives best results when the animals are given access to growing forage crops. The feeders may be placed under cover out in the fields or kept in the hog house if the latter is reasonably near the pasture lots. An unlimited supply of fresh water must be available at all times because dry-fed stock drinks many times the amount of water that slop-fed hogs do. The reason is plain. There are many different systems of handling hogs under this plan, varying according to local conditions. We will give in detail the method used most successfully for many years on a Pennsylvania farm which each season markets several hundred hogs of a quality which commands a premium above current quotations. On this farm, particular attention is paid to keeping the hog houses clean and sanitary, light, sunny and dry. Dampness is always a fertile source of loss. Further, the houses are never crowded. Each animal is given plenty of room. The brood sows are placed in separate pens at farrowing time and watched carefully when giving birth to the pigs. They are fed a rich slop, a small quantity at first, but in gradually increasing amount until they are receiving enough to insure a big flow of milk. When the pigs are eight to ten days of age they are permitted to go at will to the self-feeder containing a mixture of ground grains. As a rule, several sows farrow at about the same time and the pens are so arranged that the pigs from several litters may all use one feeder. This arrangement results in the pigs taking more exercise, eating more food and making more rapid growth. It reduces the danger of thumps and gives the youngsters a wonderfully strong start in life. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~MORE PIGS PER HOG--MORE HOG PER PIG~ | | | |Big litters of strong-boned, growthy pigs, and rapid growth of pigs from| |birth to maturity are the natural result of health and vigor of breeding| |stock and youngsters. Weak, run-down boars and sows produce inferior | |pigs and usually small litters. And such pigs are not money-makers. | | | | ~PRATTS HOG TONIC~ | | | |the guaranteed conditioner for swine, overcomes most hog diseases, makes| |the breeders healthy and vigorous, insures big litters of big pigs, | |makes the youngsters grow steadily and rapidly from birth to maturity | |and fatten quickly and economically. | | | |Many of the most successful hog-growers will tell you that one secret of| |their success is the regular use of Pratts Hog Tonic. You should at | |least test it. No risk on your part because | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: Care of Swine] The feed mixture used at this time varies somewhat according to available supplies and current prices. A sample pig ration is made up as follows: RATION FOR YOUNG PIGS Winter wheat middlings 40 lbs. Hominy meal 40 lbs. Oil meal 3 lbs. Whole oats (heavy) 5 lbs. 60 per cent. Digester tankage 12 lbs. Fine salt 1/2 lb. Mix thoroughly. When the pigs are weaned they are placed with the herd, a safe practice because of the general contentment and quietness and the entire absence of meal-time stampedes. They quickly adjust themselves to their new surroundings, and, because accustomed to the use of self-feeders, at once begin eating the regular hog ration with the rest of the herd. In the hog house, enough self-feeders are provided to permit all animals to eat at will without being crowded. One feeder to each twenty-five hogs is the rule. The hog ration, like the pig ration, varies according to conditions. But at all times it is palatable and contains feeds which build bone, muscle and fat. A favorite formula is this: RATION FOR GROWING HOGS Winter wheat middlings 50 lbs. Wheat bran 50 lbs. Corn chop 50 lbs. Whole oats 10 lbs. 50 per cent. Digester tankage 20 lbs. Soft coal and salt are kept before the herd at all times. The hogs eat these at will. The grazing system is used on this farm. Many different forage crops are planted, in order to insure a regular succession of succulent feeds. As each field reaches proper condition for grazing, a hog fence is thrown around it and the herd admitted. The hogs do all the work of harvesting, thus securing valuable exercise and at the same time saving man labor. Under this system the fields have steadily improved in fertility, due to the turning under of the uneaten green stuff and the direct application of the valuable hog manure. Forage crops vary in different sections of the country. On the farm in question the earliest forage is rye, followed in rotation by the various clovers and mixtures of oats, Canada field peas, vetch, soy beans, etc. Dwarf Essex rape is a favorite crop and one that furnishes a tremendous amount of forage per acre. When the corn crop matures, the larger individuals are given the liberty of the corn fields and the crop is "hogged down." This again saves a great amount of hand labor, a big item under existing conditions. In the winter, when grazing is out of the question, the herd receives once daily a liberal feed of second crop alfalfa or clover hay. Understand, the feeders containing the dry mixture of ground grains, are available to the hogs _at all times_. They help themselves at will, day and night. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _La Fontaine, Ind. We have been trying to produce the largest hog in the world and we have done it! We have a Big Type Poland China hog, that has been fed 123 days, making a gain of 450 pounds and at this time weighs over 1200 pounds. We fed him on Pratts Animal Regulator. H.E. HENRY._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- When keeping hogs in large herds like this, it is of primary importance that the most careful attention be paid to sanitation. Pratts Dip and Disinfectant should be used regularly and thoroughly to protect against disease germs and vermin. And Pratts Hog Tonic used to keep the hogs in perfect condition _inside_. If sickness appears in the herd the unaffected hogs should at once be removed to clean, disinfected quarters, preferably without much range, for by running over pastures they may come in contact with contagion. Their feed should be carefully regulated, and, if they have previously been on pasture, should include some green feed, roots, or an abundance of skim milk. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~BANISH HOG VERMIN AND DISEASES~ | | | |To make a success of hog raising, dipping is almost as essential as | |feeding. At least it is second only to proper feeding. | | | |Lice and vermin, the comfort-destroyers and profit-reducers, and the | |germs which cause cholera and tuberculosis, are exterminated by the | |regular use of | | | | ~PRATTS DIP AND DISINFECTANT~ | | | |Put the hogs and pigs through the dipping vat and spray the quarters and| |feed receptacles occasionally with a strong solution of the original | |Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. Result--comfortable, vermin-free and | |disease-free hogs, less loss, more pork, more money. | | | |[Illustration: Pratts Animal Dip] | | | |There are other dips that look like the original Pratts, but they are | |not the same in efficiency. Refuse the substitutes. Use Pratts, the dip | |you can depend upon. It costs no more but it's worth more! You be the | |judge-- | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ The quarters in which the sickness first appeared should be thoroughly cleaned, all bedding and rubbish burned, and loose boards and old partitions torn out and burned. If the pen is old, knock it to pieces and burn it. Disinfect pens and sleeping places using Pratts Dip and Disinfectant on the floors, walls and ceilings. Whitewash everything. If a hog dies from any cause, the carcass should never be exposed where it may be devoured by the other hogs or by passing birds or beasts, but should be burned at once or buried deeply and the pens thoroughly disinfected immediately. If possible, do not move the carcass from the place where it falls; but if this cannot be done the ground over which it is dragged should be disinfected. Hog-cholera bacilli can live in the ground for at least three months. Care must be taken to maintain an absolute quarantine between the sick and well hogs. The same attendant should not care for both lots unless he disinfects himself thoroughly after each visit to the infected hogs. Dogs should be confined until the disease is stamped out. Treatment of hogs suffering from cholera or swine plague is not always satisfactory. The disease runs its course so rapidly that curative measures are more or less ineffectual, and prevention of an outbreak should be relied upon rather than the cure of sick animals. Pratts Hog Tonic has been successful in less virulent outbreaks when administered as soon as signs of sickness are shown. Pratts Hog Tonic should be thoroughly mixed with the feed, which should be soft, made of bran and middlings, corn meal and middlings, corn meal and ground and sifted oats, or crushed wheat, mixed with hot water. If the hogs are too sick to come to the feed, the tonic should be given as a drench. Pull the cheek away from the teeth and pour the mixture in slowly. Care should be exercised, as hogs are easily suffocated by drenching. Do not turn a hog on its back to drench it. Hogs often suffer very much from vermin. Lice are introduced from neighboring herds, and the losses in feeding are often severe, especially among young pigs, when death is sometimes a secondary if not an immediate result. When very numerous, lice are a very serious drain on vitality, fattening is prevented, and in case of exposure to disease the lousy hogs are much more liable to contract and succumb to it. Newly purchased hogs should be carefully examined for vermin, and they should not be turned out with the herd until they are known to be free from these pests. When the herd is found to be badly infested with lice all bedding should be burned and loose boards and partitions torn out. Old boards and rubbish should be burned. The quarters should then be thoroughly disinfected by spraying with Pratts Dip and Disinfectant. Vermin are most common around the ears, inside the legs, and in the folds of the skin on the jowl sides and flanks. In light and isolated cases they may be destroyed by washing the hogs with Pratts Dip and Disinfectant, properly diluted, applied with a broom. In severe cases, however, especially where the whole herd is affected, thorough spraying or dipping should be resorted to. In this case a dipping tank will be a great convenience. Whenever any animals are brought to the farm, or when animals are brought home from shows or from neighboring farms, they should be kept apart from the rest of the herd for at least three weeks. If they have been exposed to hog cholera or swine plague the diseases will be manifested within this time, and the sick animals can be treated or killed and disposed of at once. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Galway, N.Y. I bought two spring pigs the 15th of April and began feeding them Pratts Animal Regulator until the 15th of December when I butchered them. One weighed 415 pounds, the other 420 pounds. I know this Regulator does what you claim it to do. BALDWIN O'BREY._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- If cholera breaks out in the neighborhood the farmer should maintain a strict quarantine against the infected herds. He should refrain from visits to farms where they are located, and should insist on requiring that his neighbors stay out of his hog lots. Visiting of all kinds at this time should be carefully restricted. Dogs, cats, crows, and buzzards are very active carriers of infection from farm to farm, and should be guarded against as far as possible. [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] ~COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE~ (Symptoms and Treatment) ~Diarrhoea or Scours~ _Cause._--By milk of the dam being affected by feeding of food tainted with the elements of decay; by making a sudden change in the food; by some disordered condition in the health of the sow, and by excess of milk furnished by the dam. Usually occurs before the weaning stage, as a rule in swine not yet ten days old. _Symptoms._--Very soft condition of the voidings which are sometimes almost watery. _Treatment._--Being highly contagious, spray the floor thoroughly with Pratts Disinfectant. Keep the young swine comfortable and remove the voidings carefully two or three times a day. Correct the food given the dam, mixing Pratts Hog Tonic with her feed. Also give a small tablespoonful of sulphur daily to the sow. ~Hog Cholera and Swine Plague~ Hog Cholera and Swine Plague are very much alike. Both are characterized by inflammation of stomach and intestines, enlarged and inflamed lymphatic glands and sloughing of portions of the skin. The treatment and preventive measures are alike in many respects. They are germ diseases, contracted in purchasing swine which may contract the germs when in transit on cars; by exhibiting at fairs; through persons who have visited infected herds; through the feet of dogs and birds to which the germs may have adhered; through the water of an infected pond or stream. The most dangerous source of infection by far is coming in touch with diseased animals. Reduced stamina and filthy quarters favor the spread of these diseases. ~Hog Cholera~ _Symptoms._--Dullness, loss of appetite or depraved appetite and a disposition to lie down; constipation or diarrhoea; stiff gait; red spots or blotches discernible about the ears and under the neck and belly; in some instances there is difficulty in breathing. _Treatment._--Authorities agree that there is no known cure for real hog cholera. Preventive measures, therefore, are of vital importance. Pratts Disinfectant should be used frequently and to build up the general health of the hog, giving it full disease-resisting power, Pratts Hog Tonic should be added to the ration. Besides, it is a valuable tonic and fattener. ~Swine Plague~ _Symptoms._--Extensive inflammation of the lungs, by which it can be distinguished from hog cholera. There is coughing and labored, painful and oppressed breathing. It frequently comes as a pneumonia or an inflammation of the lungs and pleural membrane. The animal is in a sleepy and even comatose condition much of the time. If it walks it staggers. The skin reddens in a marked degree and the bowels become constipated. This disease, though not nearly so common as hog cholera is usually very fatal. Preventive measures, as indicated for hog cholera, are all important. Use Pratts Hog Tonic as directed and disinfect with Pratts Disinfectant. ~Thumps~ _Cause._--Too liberal feeding and lack of exercise, resulting in poor digestion. The diaphragm contracts suddenly at irregular intervals, thus giving the name to the disease. The pig becomes unthrifty and stunted. If the sow is a liberal milker, nursing pigs may be affected. Treatment is usually preventive, consisting of exercise and careful feeding, Pratts Hog Tonic being added to the feed. ~Tuberculosis in Swine~ The losses from this disease are beginning to assume enormous proportions. It results largely from swine drinking the milk of tuberculous cattle. _Symptoms._--Digestive disorders, such as diarrhoea and vomiting; a stunted condition and a staring coat and breathing more or less labored. _Treatment._--There is no positive cure for this severe disease, but good sanitation is the best preventive. Use Pratts Disinfectant freely and maintain health and vigor by regularly using Pratts Hog Tonic. The importance of testing heads of cattle that may be affected with tuberculosis is thus further emphasized. ~Worms~ There is perhaps no other animal troubled to so great an extent or with so many varieties of worms, as the hog. Indeed it is almost a rule with some growers when a hog is sick and it cannot be told exactly what is the matter that they doctor for worms. There are four species of worms that live in the intestines of swine, resulting in more or less harm. The Common Round Worm, Pin Worm and Whip Worm develop from eggs taken in in food and water. The Thornheaded Worm develops from a white grub which swine eat. To a great extent these are kept in check by Pratts Hog Tonic. As preventive measures, drain stagnant pools and wet places where these eggs may be found; plough up yards and pastures; do not feed on floors not properly cleaned, or on ground that may have been much used for such feeding; do not give water from a deep well, do not allow the swine to wallow in the drinking trough. _Symptoms._--Frequently a gluttonous appetite without corresponding improvement in flesh. Again a much impaired appetite is found; diarrhoea or constipation; excessive itching, causing the animal to rub, especially the hind parts. These symptoms will only exist when worms are present in large numbers. _Treatment._--Give each adult hog one heaping tablespoonful of Pratts Worm Powder with the feed once a day for four days. After the last dose give a bran mash to loosen bowels. Repeat this treatment two weeks after the first to insure killing any worms which may have hatched in the meantime. Even if you are not sure that your hogs have worms--as they _probably_ have--you should use Pratts Worm Powder as above as a matter of precaution. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Woodsboro, Md. I bought four pigs, four months' old, weighing about 16 pounds each, and, in bad condition. Began to feed Pratts Animal Regulator and at 5 months' old they averaged a gain of one pound a day per pig. CHARLES W. HOLBRUNER._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [Illustration: Care of Poultry] ~POULTRY~ "One hundred hens on every farm" was the small number set by the United States Department of Agriculture in its great war drive for increased production of foods. And certainly this number of fowls, and many more, can be easily and profitably maintained on the average farm. Easily, because under free range conditions, which are possible on the farm they require but little attention. Profitably, because under these conditions, where they pick up much of their living, the cost of production is comparatively low, while eggs and flesh sell at good prices. Further, these delicious and nutritious foods add variety to the farm table. [Illustration: ~BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCKS~] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _South Easton, Mass. I have used Pratts Poultry Regulator regularly. The egg record for 900 fowls for five months the past winter was as follows: Dec., 50%; Jan., 43%; Feb., 55%; March, 69%; April, 69%. The lower record of January was caused by some pullets moulting. Would say that fertility of eggs averaged 87% in December to over 90% later in the spring. J.H. RANKIN._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Many a farmer's wife finds her poultry flock a never-failing source of pin money. Many a farm girl and boy have secured their education from faithfully saving the "egg-money." And the opportunities for profit in this line are now greater than ever before. ~Helps for Poultrymen~ In a short chapter in a general publication of this kind it is impossible to go into the finer details of modern methods of poultry husbandry. For those who desire more information on this subject we have a big 160-page book, pages 6x9 inches in size, fully illustrated with 150 photos and drawings. The title is "The Poultryman's Complete Handbook." It's worth a dollar, but we will send you a copy, prepaid, for only ten cents in stamps or silver. Address your request to Pratt Food Co., Philadelphia. [Illustration: ~WHITE WYANDOTTES~] Pratts Poultry Service Department is maintained to give expert information and advice on poultry topics. There is no charge for this service. Whenever you get puzzled, write Pratts experts. They will send you a prompt personal reply containing the information you desire. No charge, no obligation. Address such letters to Poultry Service Department, Pratt Food Co., Philadelphia. [Illustration: ~S.C. WHITE LEGHORNS~] ~Breeds of Poultry~ Regardless of breeding and appearance, a heavy layer is a good hen to own. And laying ability is not confined to any one breed or class of fowls. There are exceptional layers, dependable profit-payers, in practically every fair-sized flock, whether made up of standard-bred stock or mongrels. As a general rule, however, standard-bred birds are best. By that term we mean those which have been bred to meet the typical breed and variety descriptions as appearing in the official Standard of Perfection which is published by the American Poultry Association. Such a flock is bound to be uniform in size, appearance and general characteristics, is easier to manage properly because of its uniformity, and its products, both eggs and table poultry, will also be uniform. Further the income from such a flock may be increased through the sale of eggs for hatching and of breeding stock at prices many times greater than those of table eggs and poultry. No matter what breed you select, the most important matter, the very foundation of success, is the securing of _individual birds which are strong, sturdy, vigorous and healthy_. Only stock of high vitality can be depended upon to give continuously good results. It is time and money wasted to keep fowls which are weak, sickly or "run-down," the result of improper breeding or management. As a rule, it is best to select that breed which is most popular locally, because such popularity indicates that the breed in question thrives under local conditions and meets the requirements of the local markets. Further, one has greater opportunities of securing good birds and a larger market for hatching eggs and stock. [Illustration: ~RHODE ISLAND REDS~] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Clemson College, S.C. We have been using Pratts Baby Chick Food and are very well pleased with it. I think that it is the best baby chick mash on the market today. FRANK C. HARE, Prof. of Poultry Husbandry._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Among the farmers whose markets demand white-shelled eggs, the S.C. White Leghorn is the most popular fowl. The Black Minorca is another favorite. It produces the largest white eggs. [Illustration: TOLMAN TYPE HOUSE] Where brown-shelled eggs are wanted, the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red and Orpington lead. And for the production of the largest table carcasses the Light Brahma, either pure or crossed with a more active breed, is a favorite. The live weights of adult birds of these breeds are as follows: Breed. Cock. Hen. Leghorns 5 1/2 lbs. 4 lbs. Black Minorcas 9 lbs. 7 1/2 lbs. Plymouth Rocks 9 1/2 lbs. 7 1/2 lbs. Wyandottes 8 1/2 lbs. 6 1/2 lbs. Rhode Island Reds 8 1/2 lbs. 6 1/2 lbs. Orpingtons 10 lbs. 8 lbs. Light Brahmas 12 lbs. 9 1/2 lbs. Most of these breeds have varieties, determined by color of plumage or shape of comb. Select that one which best pleases you. [Illustration: UNEVEN SPAN ROOF HOUSE] ~Poultry Houses~ When locating the poultry house remember that it is a great advantage to have soil which is light and naturally well drained, since such soil dries off quickly after a rain and is "much warmer," as poultrymen express it. Heavy soil, even stiff clay, may be made to serve the purpose admirably if provision is made to drain off all surface water. But avoid a site on which water settles in pools, as the surface soon becomes filthy and is a menace to the health of the flock. [Illustration: NEW JERSEY MULTIPLE UNIT HOUSE Two units combined to house two hundred fowls] The birds should have the benefit of several hours of sunshine each day. So locate the poultry house where the sun can strike it freely. The shelter of tall buildings on the north, or even on the east or west, is frequently an advantage during the winter months, but the south side should be open if conditions permit. Shade trees and large shrubs about the house are a source of comfort to the fowls during hot weather and may be used to screen or partially hide the poultry plant. The poultry house must be dry, well-ventilated, free from draughts, light, sunny and cheerful. And if it is planned with reference to the convenience of the poultryman, so much the better. The most simple and inexpensive form of construction should be used. In all sections of the country, excepting the extreme north, a single wall of matched boards on a light frame is perfectly satisfactory. Unmatched boards with battens nailed over the cracks or a layer of lightweight roofing paper over all are equally good. In fact, in case of necessity, one may use the roughest of lumber, and by covering the entire structure with roofing paper make a building which is tight and comfortable and acceptable in appearance. The rear and end walls and roof must be _tight_ to insure dryness and prevent all draughts. Windows and doors may be placed in end walls, but these should usually be located forward of the center of the building and made to fit snugly. The rear part of the house, where the roosts are located, must at all costs be protected against cross-currents of air. [Illustration: ROOST] The south or front walls, on the other hand, should have ample openings to admit air and sunshine. The open-front or fresh-air type of house is much superior to the old tightly closed type. Plenty of fresh air means comfort, health, vitality and increased production. [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | "~PRATTS MAKES HENS LAY~" | | | |~What is Pratts Poultry Regulator?~ A positive tonic and conditioner for| |poultry of all kinds and ages. _A health-builder and health-preserver._ | |Not a food. | | | |~What does it contain?~ Roots, herbs, spices, mineral substances, etc. | |Each ingredient performs a certain duty. The combination spells "health | |insurance." | | | |~What does it do?~ Pratts Poultry Regulator makes and keeps poultry | |healthy, vigorous and productive. It shortens the molt, sharpens the | |appetite, improves digestion and circulation, hastens growth and | |increases egg-production. _It saves feed_ by preventing waste due to | |poor digestion. _It prevents disease by_ keeping the birds in condition | |to resist the common ailments. | | | |~Has it been fully tested?~ Yes! In general use for nearly fifty years. | |The _original_ poultry conditioner. Imitated, but unequalled. | | | |~Does it give general satisfaction?~ Positively! _Satisfaction | |guaranteed or money refunded._ Test it at our risk. Increased egg | |production will prove that "Pratts makes hens lay." | | | |~How is it best used?~ Daily in small quantities. For adults, | |tablespoonful daily for 10 birds. Younger stock in proportion. Mix with | |dry or moist mash. | | | |~What does it cost?~ Nothing, because _it pays big profits_. About a | |cent a month per hen is the investment required. | | | |~Where can I get it?~ From 60,000 Pratt dealers. There is one near you. | |Direct from the Pratt Food Co., prepaid, if your dealer can't supply | |you. | | | |[Illustration: PRATTS EGG PRODUCER] | |[Illustration: PRATTS POULTRY REGULATOR] | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Cincinnati, O. I have been using your poultry foods and remedies with the best of satisfaction and results for the last ten years. FRED O. FLAHERTY._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- [Illustration: SIMPLE A-SHAPED HOUSE] From a quarter to a third of the front wall should be left open. Cover the openings with one-inch mesh wire netting to keep the fowls in and repel all enemies and food-seeking sparrows. Cloth-covered frames should be provided to close these openings and keep out driving storms. The cloth, should be open in texture, as coarse cotton or heavy cheese cloth, not "boardy" and air-tight. Frames may be left loose to hook or button on inside or outside, or hinged to the top of the openings and swung up against the roof when not in use. In some cases, as in the Tolman house, these openings are never closed, day or night, summer or winter. It is advisable to provide one or more glass windows in addition to the openings referred to above in order to admit light when the cloth-covered frames are closed. The windows may be placed in either the front wall or the side walls. In the latter case the sun is admitted to the building more hours each day, which is a big advantage during the fall and winter months. Poultry house floors may be of cement, boards or earth. Cement is best for large, permanent structures. Board floors are excellent in houses of any size and are almost a necessity in small ones which may be moved frequently. Earth floors seem to be favored by the fowls, but if used the earth should be filled in to bring the floor level several inches above the surrounding ground. This to insure dryness. The accompanying cuts show typical designs of satisfactory poultry houses. When building, just bear the above principles in mind and the results will be satisfactory. The Tolman type is a strictly "fresh air" or "open front" house. For a flock of thirty to forty birds this house should be ten feet wide, sixteen feet front to back, seven feet to peak of roof, front wall four feet and rear wall five feet high. The highest point of roof is five feet from the rear wall. The entire south side is a wire-covered opening, save for boards placed as shown in the cut. A full-sized door is located in the east wall opposite the window in the west side. Roosts are placed near the north wall, level with or slightly above the front opening. [Illustration: V-SHAPED FEED TROUGH] [Illustration: NEST BOX] [Illustration: DRY MASH HOPPER] [Illustration: GRIT OR SHELL HOPPER] [Illustration: WATER BUCKET] ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Port Dover, Canada. After a long experience I find Pratts Poultry Regulator to be absolutely the best tonic to keep a flock of poultry in condition. Just as soon as I find a pen is not doing well, I use the Regulator in their mash. Almost immediately I notice their appetites improve, their combs redden and they lay better. I have also made trial of your other remedies and I find them all absolutely reliable. JOHN S. MARTIN_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- For a flock of one hundred or more birds the New Jersey Multiple Unit Laying House is to be recommended. Each unit is twenty feet square, accommodating a hundred fowls. Similar units may be added for each hundred additional birds. The drawing on page 48 shows two units. In this house the front studs are nine feet high, rear studs are four and a half feet high. Simple, inexpensive furnishings are best. The cuts show home-made equipment which will meet all practical requirements. ~Getting the Eggs~ Early-hatched, well-matured pullets are the most dependable layers during the fall and early winter months. Some few yearling hens may continue to lay fairly well during their molting period, but, as a rule, egg production drops with the feathers and does not begin until the new coat of plumage is completed and the system readjusted. So yearlings, taken as a whole, do little toward filling the egg-basket until January or later. Get the early-hatched pullets into winter quarters by late September or early October before they begin to lay. But be sure the house is fully prepared in advance. Clean house! Disinfect thoroughly with a strong solution of Pratts Poultry Disinfectant. Kill every germ. Avoid possible loss. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Cherokee, Iowa. I have used Pratts Poultry Regulator for the last twenty years and always had the best of results. It is a great egg producer and the best feed to keep little chicks strong and guard off that terrible disease, bowel complaint. In fact, I cannot do without it. GEO. WM. LYON._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Get Fall and Winter Eggs~ It is most desirable that the flock begin egg production before the weather becomes severe. Get the laying habit established while the season is favorable, and it is comparatively easy to maintain it. And, as production will not commence until the layers are fully matured, the pullets must be hatched early to give ample time for them to make the needed growth. As a rule, it takes about seven months to mature pullets of the general purpose breeds and six months for the egg breeds. Therefore, March and April chicks of the former, and April and May chicks of the latter, are most valuable. This is a general rule. Some poultrymen are experts in this matter of growing chicks and can bring them to laying maturity in less time. If disease appears take instant action to check it. Delay of a day or two may permit an epidemic to get well started. In order to enable you to give proper treatment without delay you may well keep a stock of Pratts Poultry Remedies on hand. [Illustration: APPLYING LICE POWDER] Give every bird a thorough treatment for lice. Work Pratts Powdered Lice Killer all through the plumage. This will fix the lice, but will not kill the eggs. In anticipation of the latter hatching, rub Pratts Lice Salve in the small feathers about the vent and beneath the wings. That means death to the young lice as they appear, but to make sure, apply the salve at intervals of a few weeks. Don't overcrowd the house. Better have a hundred hens comfortable and laying than double the number crowded and loafing. Leave all ventilating openings wide open. Keep them open until winter storms make more protection necessary. During the summer months the pullets have had plenty of fresh air. To bring them into a warm, tightly closed house is to invite general debility and an epidemic of colds, catarrh, roup and other allied diseases. (Pratts Roup Remedy dissolved in the drinking water every few days, especially during changes of weather, will help to prevent such troubles.) Keep the house clean. Remove the litter from the floor as soon as it becomes damp or soiled and replace with new, fresh material. Clean the droppings boards at frequent intervals. Wash with Pratts Poultry Disinfectant or scald the food and water dishes. Disinfect the whole house every few weeks, taking advantage of sunny weather so quick drying will follow. Disease causes loss--disinfection prevents disease. Therefore, DISINFECT whether you see need of it or not. ~Poultry Feeding~ The more food the birds eat beyond bodily requirements the greater the amount of the salable products they create. Any hen that is a natural layer will turn the surplus food into eggs. If she is naturally a meat producer she will build flesh or take on fat. And the sooner the fat producers are identified and removed from the laying flock, the better for all concerned. Your birds will not "get too fat to lay"--they will get fat if they don't lay. And _the big problem is to induce the layers to eat as much food as they can digest_ in order that they may lay heavily and steadily. To overcome all possible danger of overfeeding, Pratts Poultry Regulator should be regularly added to the mash. This natural tonic and conditioner contains appetizers, to stimulate the desire for food--digestives, to insure complete digestion and assimilation of the food consumed--laxatives, to regulate the bowels--internal antiseptics, to keep the entire digestive tract in a condition of perfect health--worm destroyers, to expel irritating and dangerous intestinal parasites. Regularly used, Pratts Poultry Regulator insures freedom from the more common poultry disorders, reduces feed bills by preventing feed waste due to sluggish digestion, hastens growth, improves the egg-yield, shortens the molt, makes the entire flock more efficient, swells the profits. Pratts Poultry Regulator should be added to the mash at the rate of one and three-quarters pound to each hundred pounds of mash. Mix thoroughly so each layer will get her share. The ideal poultry ration is a varied one. It contains mineral matter, green food, animal food and grains. The absence of any one of these groups of foodstuffs means a reduced egg yield. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _I am both selling and feeding Pratts Poultry Regulator, and make a specialty of high-bred Buff Orpingtons. Twelve cockerels, worth from $20 to $75 each, were all placed in healthy condition by use of Pratts Poultry Regulator and their quarters disinfected with Pratts Disinfectant. W.H. TOPP, Westgate, Iowa._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- The staple grain feeds are corn, oats, wheat, barley and buckwheat. The grain by-products, bran, middlings and gluten feed, to which may be added corn meal, ground oats and ground barley. Animal food of some kind is an essential to growth and egg-production. Skim milk and butter milk, fish scrap made from oil-free fish, beef scrap, fresh cut green bone and good grades of digester tankage are all excellent. But use only feeds of this character which are of prime quality. Oily fish, poor beef scrap and mouldy green bone will surely cause trouble. Fowls on range during the growing season will pick up all needed green food. In the winter one may feed cabbages, mangel wurtzels, beets, carrots, etc. Or, if fresh stuff is not available, heavy oats may be sprouted and fed when the sprouts are two or three inches long. Dried beet pulp, a dairy food made at beet sugar factories, is a convenient green food. It must be well soaked before feeding. One saves much time, and not infrequently some money, by buying ready-mixed feeds, especially dry mash. In, making such purchases, be guided by _quality_ rather than price. Adopt some brand made by a reputable concern and give it a fair trial. But do not hesitate to change if a better brand becomes available. Just try Pratts Milk Egg Mash. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Kingston, R.I. I have used your Baby Chick Food with the best success and would gladly recommend it to anyone wanting such food. I do not only use it for baby chicks, but for those 5-7 weeks' of age. C.E. BRETT, Rhode Island State College Dept. of Poultry Service._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Feeding Dry Mash~ The most simple and generally satisfactory feeding method is the dry mash system. Feed a certain amount of the scratch mixture--whole and cracked grains--each day and permit the fowls to complete the daily ration by eating dry mash--ground grains--at will. Keep mash before them in open hoppers and let them help themselves. The mash, because of its high protein content, is the real egg-maker. And during recent years there has been a tendency toward restricting the scratch feed and inducing the layers to eat more mash. Results seem to indicate that this plan is best, increasing the yield and reducing feed costs. The laying ration now recommended by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station is simple and efficient. This ration is made as follows: ~Dry Mash~ lbs. Wheat Bran 100 Wheat Middlings 100 Ground Oats (heavy) 100 Corn Meal 100 ~High-grade Fish Scrap or Meat~ Scrap 100 ~Scratch Grain~ lbs. Cracked Corn 200 Wheat 100 Oats (heavy) 100 Barley 100 The same institution has perfected the following feeding table showing what amount of scratch feed should be given the layers daily each month in the year. This is a most valuable guide, especially to the inexperienced poultryman. When the birds are fed scratch grain, as indicated, they will naturally eat enough mash from the open hoppers to meet their requirements. ~Amount of Grain to Feed Layers Each Month in the Year~ Months Amount Per Day Per Pounds For Each 100 Birds Feeding A.M. P.M. November 12 lbs. 4 lbs. 8 lbs. December 12 " 4 " 8 " January 12 " 4 " 8 " February 12 " 4 " 8 " March 12 " 4 " 8 " April 12 " 4 " 8 " May 10 " 4 " 6 " June 10 " 4 " 6 " July 8 " 3 " 5 " August 6 " 2 " 4 " September 5 " 2 " 3 " October 5 " 2 " 3 " Study this question of mash and grain consumption, for if your birds are not getting enough protein mash, they cannot lay eggs in larger numbers. * * * * * ~Hatching the Chicks~ For layers or broilers, hatch chicks early. For late markets and home use, you may bring off hatches at intervals throughout the entire summer. The incubator and brooder are big helps where many chicks are hatched. Pratts Poultry Service Department will gladly advise you regarding makes of such machines which are giving general satisfaction. Just a word of caution. Operate incubators and brooders in accordance with the directions furnished by the maker. Go slow in making changes. Sitting hens are very satisfactory if properly handled. Use only quiet, motherly sitters and place them where they will not be troubled by the rest of the flock. Feed whole grain and a little green food and supply plenty of water. Dust the sitting hens occasionally with Pratts Powdered Lice Killer so they won't hatch a brood of lice with the chicks. And paint the nest boxes with Pratts Red Mite Special to keep the blood-thirsty mites away. ~Growing the Chicks~ Little chicks must be attended to no matter what else is done, because lack of intelligent care in early life will be reflected in poor performance when the chicks reach maturity. One can seldom, if ever, offset the mistakes of brooding time by the best of attention later on. Protect your chicks against the weather, against their various enemies, against diseases, against lice and mites. Keep them comfortable and happy. Start them right, keep them growing steadily until they attain their full size. Protection against unfavorable weather conditions--rain, cold winds, blazing sun--is secured by providing well-built coops and natural or artificial shade. Coops should be weather-proof, but well ventilated, and so located that surface water from sudden showers cannot flood their floors. They should also be sufficiently roomy to keep the flock happy during long hours of confinement in periods of stormy weather. Chick enemies include those that do their work in the coops, usually at night, as rats, weasels and skunks, and those that prey upon the flock when it is at liberty, as cats, dogs, crows and hawks. Protection against the former is found in proper construction of the coops, which should have tight floors and fine wire netting over openings left open at night. A good dog will discourage these night prowlers and steel traps placed at strategic points will often put a quick end to their activities. Protection against ordinary diseases lies in keeping the little birds strong and vigorous through proper feeding, exercise, etc., and by close attention to sanitation. Keep the quarters and food and water dishes _clean_. Use Pratts Poultry Disinfectant at frequent intervals. [Illustration: A-SHAPED COOP] Aim to _prevent_ rather than _cure_ disease. Should there be any evidence of bowel trouble, give Pratts White Diarrhoea Remedy in the drinking water. Don't let the condition become chronic or general. In "sour weather," when colds may be expected to appear, use Pratts Roup Remedy in the drinking water. Lice and mites work practically unseen, but they are the source of heavy loss, both directly and indirectly. In extreme cases they actually kill many chicks. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | "~BABY FOOD FOR BABY CHICKS~" | | | |~Pratts~ Buttermilk Baby Chick Food raises every good chick. It won't | |prevent losses from accidents, but it does prevent death from digestive| |troubles and the more common chick disorders which are so often due to | |improper feeding. | | | |The original Baby Chick Food--PRATTS--contains all the food elements | |required to build muscle, bone and feather, to nourish the whole body, | |to give that strong start in life which assures rapid growth, even | |development and profitable maturity. | | | |Feed the original Pratts for the first three weeks--the critical | |period--at least; it may profitably be used much longer. Refuse | |substitutes and imitations. These may be slightly less in _first cost_,| |but in _results_, as measured by _number_ and _quality_ of chicks | |_reared_, Pratts Buttermilk Baby Chick Food is | | | | ~The Cheapest Food on Earth~ | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: PRATTS PRACTICAL POINTERS] ~POULTRY~ Early in life, when two to four days old, all chicks should be treated with Pratts Head Lice Ointment. Rub a little of the mild preparation on top of the head, under the throat and beneath the wings. At the same time dust with Pratts Powdered Lice Killer. Treat the mother hens most thoroughly, substituting Pratts Lice Salve for the ointment. When the youngsters are ten days old, treat them again, this time using the salve. And repeat the treatment at reasonably frequent intervals to insure complete freedom from the trouble makers. The deadly blood-sucking mites do not live on the bodies of the birds, but make their homes in cracks and crevices of walls and floors of the coops. Attack them there. Clean coops carefully, then spray or wash walls and floors with Pratts Red Mite Special. Repeat as necessary. That will fix 'em. But you had best do the work on a bright, sunny day when the flock can be kept outside until the coop dries. ~Feeding the Chicks~ Do not feed chicks for forty-eight hours after hatching. In fact, you may safely wait until they are seventy-two hours old before giving them their first meal. Nature has provided for nourishment during this period and it is best not to upset things. If possible, start the youngsters off on their life's journey with a drink of _sour milk_. Let them have sour milk to drink exclusively for the first ten days at least, and give it to them all through life, if this excellent food drink is available. The principal feed for the first three weeks and profitably for a much longer time should be Pratts Buttermilk Baby Chick Food, a real "baby food for baby chicks," a mixture which is properly balanced in composition and in the right mechanical condition to insure quick digestion. As chicks eat so little during this period, as measured by pounds, one is fully justified in paying a relatively high price per pound for this special feed which will give them a strong, vigorous start and put their digestive organs in proper condition to efficiently use less expensive foods when food consumption becomes heavy. The ideal baby chick food, Pratts, is made of a variety of foodstuffs so blended as to supply, in proper proportion, the nutrients required to build flesh, bone and feather. It is ground exceedingly fine so it may be consumed freely and yet not tax the digestive organs. Obviously such a feed cannot satisfactorily be prepared at home, which explains the rapidly growing demand which has arisen for Pratts Buttermilk Baby Chick Food during recent years. For the first day or two, feed Pratts Buttermilk Baby Chick Food exclusively at intervals of two to three hours. At first, spread it upon a shingle or piece of board. Later place it in little troughs or shallow dishes. Let the chicks eat a reasonable amount, what they will take in twenty to thirty minutes, then remove it. Supply a bit of fine, bright grit during this time. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Rohrerstown, Pa. I have used the Baby Chick Food this season and have had excellent results. I find it to meet all requirements. It makes rapid growth and at the same time maintains vigor. L.B. SPRECHER, Director, Penna. State Poultry Association._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- The second or third day after feeding has begun, cut out a meal or two of the baby chick food and instead sprinkle a little regulation chick feed (scratch feed) in the litter. There are many good brands of such feed on the market. If preferred, one may be made as follows: ~Scratch Feed for Chicks~ Cracked Wheat 15 lbs. Fine Cracked Corn 15 lbs. Pinhead Oats 10 lbs. Broken Rice 3 lbs. Charcoal 2 lbs. At the beginning of the second week the scratch feed may be given three times daily, just the quantity they will clean up and hunt for more, and the baby chick food left in open hoppers or dishes to which the chicks may run at will. By this time, too, grit may safely be left in open hoppers before the flock. And if milk is not given freely it is well to supply some additional animal food each day. Fine fish scrap or beef scrap--always of high quality--may be fed sparingly in troughs or on pieces of board. Do not feed too much of this material. If bowel trouble develops, reduce the quantity of animal food. The amount given may be increased progressively as the youngsters gain in size. While Pratts Baby Chick Food need not be fed longer than the first three weeks, it is good practice to continue its use for two to three weeks longer. But at any time after the critical twenty-one day period one may safely begin to substitute a somewhat coarser and heavier developing or growing mash for the baby chick food. We advise the use of Pratts Buttermilk Growing Mash. Here is a good home-made mixture: ~Growing or Developing Mash~ Cornmeal 10 lbs. Wheat Bran 20 lbs. Feeding Flour 10 lbs. Fine Ground Oats, Sifted 10 lbs. Fine Fish or Beef Scrap 10 lbs. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _"The regular use of Pratts Poultry Regulator in the ration for growing chicks prevents deaths from common disease, increases the appetite and hastens growth. This means less loss, earlier laying or market maturity, bigger profits. P.G. PLATT, Sec. Delaware Co. Poultry Assn., Wallingford, Pa._" ----------------------------------------------------------------- At six to eight weeks of age, or as soon as the youngsters can comfortably eat coarser grains, the fine scratch feed may be replaced by a coarser mixture. Equal parts, by weight, of cracked corn and wheat, form the basis of this, with barley, heavy oats, kafir corn and buckwheat added for variety if available at reasonable prices. When the flock is weaned and well feathered, the regular laying mash may be substituted for the growing mash, though the latter may well be continued for a much longer period. Above all things, see to it that nothing but feed of superior quality is supplied. Moldy, chaffy, grains and weed seeds may be _cheaper to buy_ than sweet, sound materials, but the latter are _cheaper to feed_. Begin giving green food when the chicks are three or four days old, cutting it up finely so they can eat it. And continue to feed greens liberally at all times. It's good for the health and cuts feed bills, too. ~Care of the Growing Chicks~ As the chicks grow, provide larger quarters if the original coops are at all crowded. And teach the youngsters to roost early, especially where brooders are used, so they will not "pile up" in corners when the heat is removed. When the brood is five to six weeks of age place low roosts, lath tacked on six to eight-inch boards, in the coops. The sturdier individuals will soon learn to use them and educate the rest of the flock. Pay special attention to the water supply. Have clean water available at all times. And do not leave the water dishes in the sun, which will quickly make the water so warm that it is unfit to drink. Give the growing pullets as much space, indoors and out, as you possibly can. Feed them liberally. Keep them clean and comfortable. In every way help them gain the health, strength and vigor which they must have in order to do full duty in the laying and breeding pens. Finally, cull your flock without mercy, beginning at hatching time and continuing to the end. If any baby chicks are crippled or weak, dispose of them at once. As the flock grows, mark--by toe punching or otherwise--all individuals which show evidence of being lacking in vigor, which are stunted or do not make rapid growth, which fail to feather properly, which are ever noticeably sick. Then rush them to market as soon as they reach the proper weight. Thus you will save for your own use only those which are physically right, which have the health and stamina that will enable them to stand up under the strain of continuous egg-production. And such a flock, after it has undergone the further culling of a year in the laying pen, will give you breeding birds capable of producing worthwhile chicks. ~Poultry Diseases~ Prevention of disease is most essential. And the first step consists of carefully selecting the birds which will he given a place in the flock, retaining only those which are healthy and vigorous, and rejecting the weaklings and physically unfit. The next step is to keep the birds in a high state of vitality through proper management and keep contagious and infectious diseases away by adopting the necessary sanitary measures. Fresh air, wholesome food and clean water are essential. Equally necessary is the use of Pratts Poultry Regulator, which keeps the birds in perfect condition internally and so prevents such self-developed disorders as indigestion, constipation, and the like. Most of the serious diseases which take heavy toll of carelessly managed flocks are due to germs of various kinds. These may be introduced in many different ways, and when present in the flock they multiply and spread with great rapidity. Cleanliness and sanitation will largely overcome them, and as each fowl is worth so much money under present conditions, it is really economical to prevent loss even at the expense of some time and of germ-killing preparations. Pratts Poultry Disinfectant costs but a trifle. A gallon, diluted with water, makes fifty gallons of a powerful disinfectant, one that is highly efficient, but both safe and pleasant to use. Spray the house and furnishings and wash feed and water containers at frequent intervals with this economical germ-killer. Results will surely be seen in healthier, more productive birds, less trouble and less loss from disease. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Staunton, Va. I would not have tried to raise expensive poultry without Pratts products in my house. While I was a boy at home we always had a supply of Pratts on hand. I find that my success is due to the use of the Pratts products kept constantly on the shelf. H.L. CAMPBELL._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- In this condensed book we can discuss only the more general disorders. The subject is covered thoroughly in Chapter IX, The Poultryman's Complete Handbook, including directions for equipping a hospital, administering medicine, symptom and treatment chart, diagrams of the fowl's digestive system and skeleton, control of poultry vices, etc. Send a dime, in silver or stamps, for a copy, to Pratt Food Co., Philadelphia. If necessary, do not hesitate to consult the poultry experts connected with Pratts Poultry Service Dept. They will give you personal help without charge. In writing, give all symptoms and necessary facts. Address such letters to our Philadelphia office. It is important that diseases of all kinds be recognized as early as possible, and equally so that immediate treatment be given. Watch your birds! If any show signs of being out of condition, examine them carefully to determine the trouble. Then give them the care which is demanded in each case. Quick treatment will often effect a speedy cure of a valuable bird that might be lost if the disease became firmly established. Pratts Poultry Remedies include dependable preparations for most common poultry diseases. They are guaranteed to give satisfaction and are inexpensive. Keep a supply on hand. Use promptly as occasion demands. The saving of a single good laying or breeding fowl by instant treatment will more than pay the cost of a well-stocked poultry medicine shelf. ~POULTRY LICE AND MITES~ ~Body Lice~--There are many different kinds of these parasites and all are serious trouble makers. They cause endless annoyance, check growth and egg production. Lice-free fowls are healthier and more comfortable, therefore more productive and profitable. +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ~GUARANTEED POULTRY REMEDIES~ | | | |~Pratts~ line of Guaranteed Poultry Remedies is the result of fifty | |years of experience. Each preparation is positively the best of its | |kind. Keep a supply on hand for instant use. | | | |~PRATTS ROUP REMEDY (Tablets or Powder)~ | | | |A sure preventive and cure for roup, colds, canker, catarrh and similar | |diseases. | | | |~PRATTS GAPE REMEDY~ | | | |Guaranteed to bring prompt relief. Use as a preventive the first four | |weeks and your chicks will not be troubled with gape-worms. | | | |~PRATTS SORE-HEAD CHICKEN-POX REMEDY~ | | | |A guaranteed cure for this highly contagious disease. Don't risk having | |your entire flock ruined. Keep it on hand for quick use when the ailment| |is first noticed. | | | |~PRATTS BRONCHITIS REMEDY~ | | | |A quick and effective remedy. Fully guaranteed for a disease that is | |generally fatal unless promptly checked. | | | |~PRATTS WHITE DIARRHOEA REMEDY~ | | | |Will save the chicks and cure completely when used promptly. Valuable in| |preventing the heavy chick losses usually experienced. | | | |~PRATTS CHOLERA REMEDY~ | | | |A sure remedy for cholera, indigestion, sour crop, dysentery, and bowel | |trouble. Guaranteed to satisfy or money refunded. | | | |~PRATTS SCALY LEG REMEDY~ | | | |This disease impairs the vitality of the birds and ruins their | |appearance. Pratts remedy will keep the legs clean and healthy. | | | |~PRATTS CONDITION TABLETS~ | | | |An effective remedy for "run-down" birds. Keeps show birds in condition | |and prevents colds, roup and liver trouble. | | | | "~YOUR MONEY BACK IF YOU ARE NOT SATISFIED~" | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ _Treatment_--If all poultrymen would use Pratts Powdered Lice Killer on their poultry, lice would be unknown. It is different and better than many like preparations, being stronger, non-poisonous, has great disinfecting qualities, and positively kills all kinds of chicken lice. If you want to make money from your poultry you can't afford to be without it. Pratts Poultry Disinfectant, or the more powerful Pratts Red Mite Special, should also be used in the poultry houses. Lice seek crevices, cracks, openings, etc., that can only be reached by the liquid. This should be sprayed or sprinkled on perches, nest boxes, drop boards, floors and inside walls of all poultry houses. It not only kills lice, but has great disinfecting value. Do not accept a substitute. Pratts Lice Salve is a sure-fire lice killer in another form. Apply to the feathers beneath the wings and around the vent and quick results will be noticed. A single application will be effective for a considerable time. ~Head Lice~--The big grey lice commonly found on heads of little chicks, causing great mortality. _Treatment_--Keep on hand all the time a box of Pratts Head Lice Ointment, and use it on your little chicks, and save their lives. Two or three days before the brood should hatch, sprinkle the sitting hen thoroughly with Pratts Powdered Lice Killer. ~Poultry Mites (Red Mites)~--These tiny parasites are poultry killers. They do not live on the bodies of the birds, but in cracks and crevices of the building, coming out for their food. They suck the blood from the fowls, weakening and often killing them. _Treatment_--Look around roosts and in cracks in warm weather and you are apt to see hundreds of mites. Every week spray perches, dropping boards, sides of houses, and roof near perches with Pratts Red Mite Special; powder birds with Pratts Powdered Lice Killer, and also add this to the dust bath. ~Depluming Mites~--Parasites that attack the roots or base of feathers which break off leaving bare spots. Will quickly spread through an entire flock. Usually found in spring and summer. _Treatment_--Separate all affected birds from the rest of flock. Rub Pratts Head Lice Ointment on and around the bare spots every few days, until the mites have all been destroyed. Spray houses, roofs, runs, etc., with Pratts Poultry Disinfectant. Persistent treatment is necessary to get rid of these pests. ~THE MORE COMMON POULTRY DISEASES~ ~Symptoms and Treatment~ ~Apoplexy~--_Cause:_ Fowls too fat, general poor condition. _Symptoms:_ Paralysis, sudden death. Birds frequently found dead under roosts. _Treatment:_ Affected birds will not usually respond to treatment. Flocks should be treated to prevent further loss. Reduce the amount of feed, give less corn, supply Pratts Poultry Regulator to improve general condition. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Reading, Pa. Have been using your poultry remedies for many years. Have used your Baby Chick Food and had wonderful results. I think it is great. I also use your Disinfectant, Lice Powder and Roup Remedy. WM. FAUST_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Aspergilosis~--_Cause:_ Growth of mould in air passages. _Symptoms:_ Rapid breathing, rattling in throat, loss of weight, dragging wings, weakness, exhaustion. In chicks, sleepiness, diarrhoea, yellowish growth on lungs. _Treatment:_ Avoid mouldy grain and litter to keep flock free from infection. Disinfect with Pratts Poultry Disinfectant. Put flock in condition with Pratts Poultry Regulator. ~Bacillary White Diarrhoea~--_Cause:_ Bacteria. The disease may be inherited from hens having infected ovaries, or pass from chick to chick. _Symptoms:_ Chicks have diarrhoea, usually white or creamy. Sleepy, chilly, thin, rough plumage, drooping wings. Heaviest mortality under three weeks of age. _Treatment:_ Badly infected chicks should be killed. Prevent epidemics by disinfecting everything with Pratts Poultry Disinfectant. Give Pratts White Diarrhoea Remedy in drinking water. Give chicks strong start by feeding Pratts Baby Chick Food. ~Bronchitis~--_Cause:_ Development of common cold, breathing in dust. _Symptoms:_ Cough, rapid breathing, whistling, rattling and bubbling in throat. _Treatment:_ Keep patient dry, give laxative, treat with Pratts Bronchitis Remedy. ~Canker~--_Cause:_ Development of pus germs following injury or digestive troubles. _Symptoms:_ Cheesy growths in mouth and throat. _Treatment:_ Scrape off canker and swab with full strength Pratts Poultry Disinfectant. Improve general condition with Pratts Poultry Regulator. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Summerville, S.C. I have used Pratts White Diarrhoea Remedy, and I wish to say that I have had some chicks that started with the white diarrhoea and I have given them the tablets in their drinking water, and have not had any trouble since. They are growing fine. R.C. FOSTER._ ----------------------------------------------------------------- ~Catarrh~--_Cause:_ Draughts, dampness, exposure. _Symptoms:_ Thin discharge from eyes and nostrils, sneezing, difficult breathing, dullness. _Treatment:_ Pratts Condition Tablets to quickly tone up the system and Pratts Roup Remedy to overcome the disease. ~Chicken Pox or Sore Head~--_Cause:_ Bacteria. _Symptoms:_ Eruption on unfeathered areas of head. At first small and gray in color, increasing until head is covered with scabs. Eyes frequently closed. _Treatment:_ Disinfect most thoroughly with Pratts Poultry Disinfectant. Treat with Pratts Sore Head (Chicken Pox) Remedy. ~Cholera~--_Cause:_ Bacteria. _Symptoms:_ Weakness, thirst, head drawn down, drooping wings, intense thirst, frequently full crops, yellow or green diarrhoea. _Treatment:_ Give Pratts Chicken Cholera Remedy to whole flock as remedy and preventive. Improve general health with Pratts Poultry Regulator. Disinfect most carefully and frequently. Burn all dead birds and everything taken from poultry house. A most difficult disease to control if it gets established. ~Gapes~--_Cause:_ Small Y-shaped worm, about one-half inch long. May be either pale or red in color. Attaches itself to interior walls of windpipe, weakening the chick by sucking the blood, and also causing strangulation. This apparently double-headed worm is really two worms, one of each sex, joined together. _Symptoms:_ Usually afflicts young chicks. Frequent gasping; gaping; coughing; discharge of mucus and worms from throat. _Treatment:_ Use Pratts Gape Remedy. Disinfect floors of coops and runs with Pratts Disinfectant. Move to new ground and keep chicks off wet grass. ~Intestinal Parasites (Worms)~--_Symptoms:_ Dullness, poor condition. Worms found in droppings. _Treatment:_ Fowls regularly receiving Pratts Poultry Regulator are almost invariably free from this trouble. See details of individual treatment in The Poultryman's Complete Handbook. ~Leg Weakness (Chicks)~--_Cause:_ Feed lacking in bone and animal matter; close confinement; lack of exercise; over-heating in brooders. _Symptoms:_ Chicks walk in a wobbly, weak-kneed fashion, often resting or hobbling along on the joints. _Treatment:_ Feed young chicks on Pratts Baby Chick Food. Give fair amount of beef or fish scrap and bone meal. Afford opportunity for exercise, especially on the ground. Avoid bottom heat in brooders. Feed liberally on green food. Add small quantity Pratts Poultry Regulator to the ration. ~Liver Disease~--_Cause:_ Improper food, as overfeeding of corn or animal food, lack of exercise, general inactivity of intestinal tract. _Symptoms:_ No prominent ones. If flock is not doing well and birds are lazy and sluggish, kill one or more and examine the livers. If found diseased, treat the flock. _Treatment:_ Use Pratts Poultry Regulator to improve general condition. Feed plenty of green food. Disinfect the buildings, and admit a big volume of fresh air. Induce the birds to exercise. ~Rheumatism~--_Cause:_ Exposure to dampness, and cold. _Symptoms:_ Swelling of joints, stiffness, lameness. _Treatment:_ Make house dry and sunny. Use Pratts Poultry Regulator to improve general condition. Rub affected parts with Pratts Liniment. (This fine liniment should be in every household. It has a hundred uses.) ~Roup~--_Symptoms:_ Bad-smelling discharge from the nostrils; sticky discharge from the eyes; feathers under wings and on back smeared and sticky, where bird has wiped its head; sometimes coughing and sneezing; eyes stuck shut; eyes closed and swollen out; mouth forced open by cheesy growth; patches of canker in mouth and throat. _Treatment:_ The disease is very contagious. Remove all birds showing symptoms. Clean up and disinfect the quarters, using Pratts Disinfectant liberally. Give sick and well birds Pratts Roup Remedy. Give the healthy flock Pratts Poultry Regulator. Treat the sick with Pratts Condition Tablets in addition to the Roup remedy. Burn all dead birds and all material removed from the hospital. ~Scaly Leg~--_Cause:_ A tiny mite which burrows under the scales and into the tissues of the leg. _Symptoms:_ Scaly, rough, crusty appearance of feet and shanks. _Treatment:_ Apply Pratts Scaly Leg Ointment. ~Tuberculosis~--_Cause:_ A minute germ. _Symptoms:_ Steady loss in weight; paleness of comb, wattles and face; general weakness; lameness, ruffling of feathers; frequently diarrhoea. Eye bright; ravenous appetite. _Treatment:_ The disease is contagious and will spread through the flock unless proper precautions are taken. Remove affected birds. Disinfect the poultry plant and surroundings with Pratts Disinfectant. Kill birds in advanced stages. Give the whole flock a nourishing ration, and include Pratts Poultry Regulator. Use lime freely. If disease continues to spread, dispose of entire flock, disinfect with greatest care, start anew with healthy stock. ----------------------------------------------------------------- _Pleasant Valley, N.Y. I gave Pratts Roup Remedy a careful test on a flock of 50 growing white Wyandotte chicks in October which were infected with bad colds, and after treating one week with your roup remedy nearly every one was well. EDGAR BRIGGS_ ----------------------------------------------------------------- Pratts PRACTICAL POINTERS on the care of LIVESTOCK and POULTRY GET YOUR PRATTS FROM LAING BROS. WINNIPEG MAN. FLOUR & FEED. 
21900	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Inconsistent hyphenation and unusual spelling in the | | original document have been preserved. | | | | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. For | | a complete list, please see the end of this document. | | | | Note that 'neat cattle' does not refer to cattle that | | dress nicely, nor is it a typo. Neat cattle are | | domesticated straight-backed animals of the bovine | | genus. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING: OR, GLIMPSES AT THE PHYSIOLOGICAL LAWS INVOLVED IN THE REPRODUCTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. BY S.L. GOODALE, SECRETARY OF THE MAINE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. BOSTON: CROSBY, NICHOLS, LEE AND COMPANY, 117 WASHINGTON ST. 1861. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, BY STEPHEN L. GOODALE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Maine. Press of Stevens & Sayward, Augusta, Maine. PREFACE. The writer has had frequent occasion to notice the want of some handy book embodying the principles necessary to be understood in order to secure improvement in Domestic Animals. It has been his aim to supply this want. In doing so he has availed himself freely of the knowledge supplied by others, the aim being to furnish a useful, rather than an original book. If it serve in any measure to supply the need, and to awaken greater interest upon a matter of vital importance to the agricultural interests of the country, the writer's purpose will be accomplished. CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTORY, 7 II.--LAW OF SIMILARITY, 21 III.--LAW OF VARIATION, 33 IV.--ATAVISM OR ANCESTRAL INFLUENCE, 61 V.--RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF THE PARENTS, 68 VI.--LAW OF SEX, 89 VII.--IN-AND-IN BREEDING, 94 VIII.--CROSSING, 105 IX.--BREEDING IN THE LINE, 119 X.--CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS, 127 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. The object of the husbandman, like that of men engaged in other avocations, is _profit_; and like other men the farmer may expect success proportionate to the skill, care, judgment and perseverance with which his operations are conducted. The better policy of farmers generally, is to make stock husbandry in some one or more of its departments a leading aim--that is to say, while they shape their operations according to the circumstances in which they are situated, these should steadily embrace the conversion of a large proportion of the crops grown into animal products,--and this because, by so doing, they may not only secure a present livelihood, but best maintain and increase the fertility of their lands. The object of the stock grower is to obtain the most valuable returns from his vegetable products. He needs, as Bakewell happily expressed it, "the best _machine_ for converting herbage and other animal food into money." He will therefore do well to seek such animals as are most perfect of their kind--such as will pay best for the expense of procuring the machinery, for the care and attention bestowed, and for the consumption of raw material. The returns come in various forms. They may or may not be connected with the ultimate value of the animal. In the beef ox and the mutton sheep, they are so connected to a large extent; in the dairy cow and the fine wooled sheep, this is quite a secondary consideration;--in the horse, valued as he is for beauty, speed and draught, it is not thought of at all. Not only is there a wide range of field for operations, from which the stock grower may select his own path of procedure, but there is a demand that his attention be directed _with a definite aim_, and _towards an end clearly apprehended_. The first question to be answered, is, what do we want? and the next, how shall we get it? What we want, depends wholly upon our situation and surroundings, and each must answer it for himself. In England the problem to be solved by the breeder of neat cattle and sheep is how "to produce an animal or a living machine which with a certain quantity and quality of food, and under certain given circumstances, shall yield in the shortest time the largest quantity and best quality of beef, mutton or milk, with the largest profit to the producer and at least cost to the consumer." But this is not precisely the problem for American farmers to solve, because our circumstances are different. Few, if any, here grow oxen for beef alone, but for labor and beef, so that earliest possible maturity may be omitted and a year or more of labor profitably intervene before conversion to beef. Many cultivators of sheep, too, are so situated as to prefer fine wool, which is incompatible with the largest quantity and best quality of meat. Others differently situated in regard to a meat market would do well to follow the English practice and aim at the most profitable production of mutton. A great many farmers, not only of those in the vicinity of large towns, but of those at some distance, might, beyond doubt, cultivate dairy qualities in cows, to great advantage, and this too, even, if necessary, at the sacrifice, to considerable extent, of beef making qualities. As a general thing dairy qualities have been sadly neglected in years past. Whatever may be the object in view, it should be clearly apprehended, and striven for with persistent and well directed efforts. To buy or breed common animals of mixed qualities and use them for any and for all purposes is too much like a manufacturer of cloth procuring some carding, spinning and weaving machinery, adapted to no particular purpose but which can somehow be used for any, and attempting to make fabrics of cotton, of wool, and of linen with it. I do not say that cloth would not be produced, but he would assuredly be slow in getting rich by it. The stock grower needs not only to have a clear and definite aim in view, but also to understand the means by which it may best be accomplished. Among these means a knowledge of the principles of breeding holds a prominent place, and this is not of very easy acquisition by the mass of farmers. The experience of any one man would go but a little way towards acquiring it, and there has not been much published on the subject in any form within the reach of most. I have been able to find nothing like an extended systematic treatise on the subject, either among our own or the foreign agricultural literature which has come within my notice. Indeed, from the scantiness of what appears to have been written, coupled with the fact that much knowledge must exist somewhere, one is tempted to believe that not all which might have done so, has yet found its way to printers' ink. That a great deal has been acquired, we know, as we know a tree--by its fruits. That immense achievements have been accomplished is beyond doubt. The improvement of the domestic animals of a country so as greatly to enhance their individual and aggregate value, and to render the rearing of them more profitable to all concerned, is surely one of the achievements of advanced civilization and enlightenment, and is as much a triumph of science and skill as the construction of a railroad, a steamship, an electric telegraph, or any work of architecture. If any doubt this, let them ponder the history of those breeds of animals which have made England the stock nursery of the world, the perfection of which enables her to export thousands of animals at prices almost fabulously beyond their value for any purpose but to propagate their kind; let them note the patient industry, the genius and application which have been put forth to bring them to the condition they have attained, and their doubts must cease. Robert Bakewell of Dishley, was one of the first of these improvers. Let us stop for a moment's glance at him. Born in 1725, on the farm where his father and grandfather had been tenants, he began at the age of thirty to carry out the plans for the improvement of domestic animals upon which he had resolved as the result of long and patient study and reflection. He was a man of genius, energy and perseverance. With sagacity to conceive and fortitude to perfect his designs, he laid his plans and struggled against many disappointments, amid the ridicule and predictions of failure freely bestowed by his neighbors,--often against serious pecuniary embarrassments; and at last was crowned by a wonderful degree of success. When he commenced letting his rams, (a system first introduced by him and adhered to during his life, in place of selling,) they brought him 17_s._ 6_d._ each, for the season. This was ten years after he commenced his improvements. Soon the price came to a guinea, then to two or three guineas--rapidly increasing with the reputation of his stock, until in 1784, they brought him 100 guineas each! Five years later his lettings for one season amounted to $30,000! With all his skill and success he seemed afraid lest others might profit by the knowledge he had so laboriously acquired. He put no pen to paper and at death left not even the slightest memorandum throwing light upon his operations, and it is chiefly through his cotemporaries, who gathered somewhat from verbal communications, that we know anything regarding them. From these we learn that he formed an ideal standard in his own mind and then endeavored, first by a wide selection and a judicious and discriminating coupling, to obtain the type desired, and then by close breeding, connected with rigorous weeding out, to perpetuate and fix it. After him came a host of others, not all of whom concealed their light beneath a bushel. By long continued and extensive observation, resulting in the collection of numerous facts, and by the collation of these facts of nature, by scientific research and practical experiments, certain physiological laws have been discovered, and principles of breeding have been deduced and established. It is true that some of these laws are as yet hidden from us, and much regarding them is but imperfectly understood. What we do not know is a deal more than what we do know, but to ignore so much as has been discovered, and is well established, and can be learned by any who care to do so, and to go on regardless of it, would indicate a degree of wisdom in the breeder on a par with that of a builder who should fasten together wood and iron just as the pieces happened to come to his hand, regardless of the laws of architecture, and expect a convenient house or a fast sailing ship to be the result of his labors. Is not the usual course of procedure among many farmers too nearly parallel to the case supposed? Let the ill-favored, chance-bred, mongrel beasts in their barn yards testify. The truth is, and it is of no use to deny or disguise the fact, the _improvement_ of domestic animals is one of the most important and to a large extent, one of the most neglected branches of rural economy. The fault is not that farmers do not keep stock enough, much oftener they keep more than they can feed to the most profitable point, and when a short crop of hay comes, there is serious difficulty in supporting them, or in selling them at a paying price; but the great majority neither bestow proper care upon the selection of animals for breeding, nor do they appreciate the dollars and cents difference between such as are profitable and such as are profitless. How many will hesitate or refuse to pay a dollar for the services of a good bull when some sort of a calf can be begotten for a "quarter?" and this too when one by the good male would be worth a dollar more for veal and ten or twenty dollars more when grown to a cow or an ox? How few will hesitate or refuse to allow to a butcher the cull of his calves and lambs for a few extra shillings, and this when the butcher's difference in shillings would soon, were the best kept and the worst sold, grow into as many dollars and more? How many there are who esteem size to be of more consequence than symmetry, or adaptation to the use for which they are kept? How many ever sit down to calculate the difference in money value between an animal which barely pays for keeping, or perhaps not that, and one which pays a profit? Let us reckon a little. Suppose a man wishes to buy a cow. Two are offered him, both four years old, and which might probably be serviceable for ten years to come. With the same food and attendance the first will yield for ten months in the year, an average of five quarts per day,--and the other for the same term will yield seven quarts and of equal quality. What is the comparative value of each? The difference in yield is six hundred quarts per annum. For the purpose of this calculation we will suppose it worth three cents per quart--amounting to eighteen dollars. Is not the second cow, while she holds out to give it, as good as the first, and three hundred dollars at interest besides? If the first just pays for her food and attendance, the second, yielding two-fifths more, pays _forty per cent. profit_ annually; and yet how many farmers having two such cows for sale would make more than ten, or twenty, or at most, thirty dollars difference in the price? The profit from one is eighteen dollars a year--in ten years one hundred and eighty dollars, besides the annual accumulations of interest--the profit of the other is--nothing. If the seller has need to keep one, would he not be wiser to give away the first, than to part with the second for a hundred dollars? Suppose again, that an acre of grass or a ton of hay costs five dollars, and that for its consumption by a given set of animals, the farmer gets a return of five dollars worth of labor, or meat, or wool, or milk. He is selling his crop at cost, and makes no profit. Suppose by employing other animals, better horses, better cows, oxen and sheep, he can get ten dollars per ton in returns. How much are the latter worth more than the former? Have they not doubled the value of the crops, and increased the profit of farming from nothing to a hundred per cent? Except that the manure is not doubled, and the animals would some day need to be replaced, could he not as well afford to give the price of his farm for one set as to accept the other as a gift? Among many, who are in fact ignorant of what goes to constitute merit in a breeding animal, there is an inclination to treat as imaginary and unreal the higher values placed upon well-bred animals over those of mixed origin, unless they are larger and handsomer in proportion to the price demanded. The sums paid for qualities which are not at once apparent to the eye are stigmatized as _fancy prices_. It is not denied that fancy prices are sometimes, perhaps often paid, for there are probably few who are not willing occasionally to pay dearly for what merely pleases them, aside from any other merit commensurate to the price. But, on the other hand, it is fully as true that great intrinsic value for breeding purposes may exist in an animal and yet make very little show. Such an one may not even look so well to a casual observer, as a grade, or cross-bred animal, which although valuable as an individual, is not, for breeding purposes, worth a tenth part as much. Let us suppose two farmers to need a bull; they go to seek and two are offered, both two years old, of similar color, form and general appearance. One is offered for twenty dollars--for the other a hundred is demanded. Satisfactory evidence is offered that the latter is no better than any or all of its ancestors for many generations back on both sides, or than its kindred--that it is of a pure and distinct breed, that it possesses certain well known hereditary qualities, that it is suited for a definite purpose, it may be a Short-horn, noted for large size and early maturity, it may be a Devon, of fine color and symmetry, active and hardy, it may be an Ayrshire, noted for dairy qualities, or of some other definite breed, whose uses, excellencies and deficiencies are all well known. The other is of no breed whatever, perhaps it is called a grade or a cross. The man who bred it had rather confused ideas, so far as he had any, about breeding, and thought to combine all sorts of good qualities in one animal, and so he worked in a little grade Durham, or Hereford to get size, and a little Ayrshire for milk, and a little Devon for color, and so on, using perhaps dams sired by a bull in the neighborhood which had also got some "Whitten"[1] or "Peter Waldo" calves, (though none of these showed it,) at any rate he wanted some of the "native" element in his stock, because it was tough, and some folks thought natives were the best after all. Among its ancestors and kindred were some good and some not good, some large and some small, some well favored and fat, some ill favored and lean, some profitable and some profitless. The animal now offered is a great deal better than the average of them. It looks for aught they can see, about as well as the one for which five times his price is asked. Perhaps he served forty cows last year and brought his owner as many quarters, while the other only served five and brought an income of but five dollars. The question arises, which is the better bargain? After pondering the matter, one buys the low-priced and the other the high-priced one, both being well satisfied in their own minds. What did results show? The low-priced one served that season perhaps a hundred cows; more than ought to have done so, came a second time;--having been overtasked as a yearling, he lacked somewhat of vigor. The calves came _of all sorts_, some good, some poor, a few like the sire, more like the dams--all mongrels and showing mongrel origin more than he did. There seemed in many of them a tendency to combine the defects of the grades from which he sprung rather than their good points. In some, the quietness of the Short-horn degenerated into stupidity, and in others the activity of the Devon into nervous viciousness. Take them together they perhaps paid for rearing, or nearly so. After using him another year, he was killed, having been used long enough. The other, we will say, served that same season a reasonable number, perhaps four to six in a week, or one every day, not more. Few came a second time and those for no fault of his. The calves bear a striking resemblance to the sire. Some from the better cows look even better in some points, than himself and few much worse. There is a remarkable uniformity among them; as they grow up they thrive better than those by the low priced one. They prove better adapted to the use intended. On the whole they are quite satisfactory and each pays annually in its growth, labor or milk a profit over the cost of food and attendance of five or ten dollars or more. If worked enough to furnish the exercise needful to insure vigorous health, he may be as serviceable and as manageable at eight or ten years old, as at two; meantime he has got, perhaps, five hundred calves, which in due time become worth ten or twenty dollars each more than those from the other. Which now seems the wiser purchase? Was the higher estimate placed on the well bred animal based upon fancy or upon intrinsic value? The conviction that a better knowledge of the principles of breeding would render our system of agriculture more profitable, and the hope of contributing somewhat to this end, have induced the attempt to set forth some of the physiological principles involved in the reproduction of domestic animals, or in other words, the laws which govern hereditary transmission. FOOTNOTES: [1] Local names for _lyery_, or black fleshed cattle. CHAPTER II. THE LAW OF SIMILARITY. The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this connection is that of SIMILARITY. It is by virtue of this law that the peculiar characters, qualities and properties of the parents, whether external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased, are transmitted to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature. Children resemble their parents, and they do so because these are hereditary. The law is constant. Within certain limits progeny always and every where resemble their parents. If this were not so, there would be no constancy of species, and a horse might beget a calf or a sow have a litter of puppies, which is never the case,--for in all time we find repeated in the offspring the structure, the instincts and all the general characteristics of the parents, and never those of another species. Such is the law of nature and hence the axiom that "like produces like." But while experience teaches the constancy of hereditary transmission, it teaches just as plainly that the constancy is not absolute and perfect, and this introduces us to another law, viz: that of variation, which will be considered by and by; our present concern is to ascertain what we can of the law of similarity. The lesson which this law teaches might be stated in five words, to wit: _Breed only from the best_--but the teaching may be more impressive, and will more likely be heeded, if we understand the extent and scope of the law. Facts in abundance show the hereditary tendency of physical, mental and moral qualities in men, and very few would hesitate to admit that the external form and general characteristics of parents descend to children in both the human and brute races; but not all are aware that this law reaches to such minute particulars as facts show to be the case. We see hereditary transmission of a peculiar type upon an extensive scale, in some of the distinct races, the Jews, and the Gypsies, for example. Although exposed for centuries to the modifying influences of diverse climates, to association with peoples of widely differing customs and habits, they never merge their peculiarities in those of any people with whom they dwell, but continue distinct. They retain the same features, the same figures, the same manners, customs and habits. The Jew in Poland, in Austria, in London, or in New York, is the same; and the money-changers of the Temple at Jerusalem in the time of our Lord may be seen to-day on change in any of the larger marts of trade. How is this? Just because the Jew is a "thorough-bred." There is with him no intermarriage with the Gentile--no crossing, no mingling of his organization with that of another. When this ensues "permanence of race" will cease and give place to variations of any or of all sorts. Some families are remarkable during long periods for tall and handsome figures and striking regularity of features, while in others a less perfect form, or some peculiar deformity reappears with equal constancy. A family in Yorkshire is known for several generations to have been furnished with six fingers and toes. A family possessing the same peculiarity resides in the valley of the Kennebec, and the same has reappeared in one or more other families connected with it by marriage. The thick upper lip of the imperial house of Austria, introduced by the marriage of the Emperor Maximillian with Mary of Burgundy, has been a marked feature in that family for hundreds of years, and is, visible in their descendants to this day. Equally noticeable is the "Bourbon nose" in the former reigning family of France. All the Barons de Vessins had a peculiar mark between their shoulders, and it is said that by means of it a posthumous son of a late Baron de Vessins was discovered in a London shoemaker's apprentice. Haller cites the case of a family where an external tumor was transmitted from father to son which always swelled when the atmosphere was moist. A remarkable example of a singular organic peculiarity and of its transmission to descendants, is furnished in the case of the English family of "Porcupine men," so called from having all the body except the head and face, and the soles and palms, covered with hard dark-colored excrescences of a horny nature. The first of these was Edward Lambert, born in Suffolk in 1718, and exhibited before the Royal Society when fourteen years of age. The other children of his parents were naturally formed; and Edward, aside from this peculiarity, was good looking and enjoyed good health. He afterward had six children, all of whom inherited the same formation, as did also several grand-children. Numerous instances are on record tending to show that even accidents do sometimes, although not usually, become hereditary. Blumenbach mentions the case of a man whose little finger was crushed and twisted by an accident to his right hand. His sons inherited right hands with the little finger distorted. A bitch had her hinder parts paralyzed for some days by a blow. Six of her seven pups were deformed, or so weak in their hinder parts that they were drowned as useless. A pregnant cat got her tail injured; in each of her five kittens the tail was distorted, and had an enlargement or knob near the end of each. Horses marked during successive generations with red-hot irons in the same place, transmit visible traces of such marks to their colts. Very curious are the facts which go to show that acquired habits sometimes become hereditary. Pritchard, in his "Natural History of Man," says that the horses bred on the table lands of the Cordilleras "are carefully taught a peculiar pace which is a sort of running amble;" that after a few generations this pace becomes a natural one; young untrained horses adopting it without compulsion. But a still more curious fact is, that if these domesticated stallions breed with mares of the wild herd, which abound in the surrounding plains, they "become the sires of a race in which the ambling pace is natural and requires no teaching." Mr. T.A. Knight, in a paper read before the Royal Society, says, "the hereditary propensities of the offspring of Norwegian ponies, whether full or half-bred, are very singular. Their ancestors have been in the habit of _obeying the voice_ of their riders and _not the bridle_; and horse-breakers complain that it is impossible to produce this last habit in the young colts. They are, however, exceedingly docile and obedient when they understand the commands of their masters." A late writer in one of the foreign journals, says that he had a "pup taken from its mother at six weeks old, who although never taught to 'beg' (an accomplishment his mother had been taught) spontaneously took to begging for every thing he wanted when about seven or eight months old; he would beg for food, beg to be let out of the room, and one day was found opposite a rabbit hutch apparently begging the rabbits to come and play." If even in such minute particulars as these, hereditary transmission may be distinctly seen, it becomes the breeder to look closely to the "like" which he wishes to see reproduced. Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this should have regard to _every particular_--general appearance, length of limb, shape of carcass, development of chest; if in cattle, the size, shape and position of udder, thickness of skin, "touch," length and texture of hair, docility, &c., &c.; if in horses, their adaptation to any special excellence depending on form, or temperament, or nervous energy. Not only should care be taken to avoid _structural defects_, but especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_, as both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities. There is often no obvious peculiarity of structure, or appearance, indicating the possession of diseases or defects which are transmissible, and so, special care and continued acquaintance are necessary in order to be assured of their absence in breeding animals; but such a tendency although invisible or inappreciable to cursory observation, must still, judging from its effects, have as real and certain an existence, as any peculiarity of form or color. Every one who believes that a disease may be hereditary at all, must admit that certain individuals possess certain tendencies which render them especially liable to certain diseases, as consumption or scrofula; yet it is not easy to say precisely in what this predisposition consists. It seems probable, however, that it may be due either to some want of harmony between different organs, some faulty formation or combination of parts, or to some peculiar physical or chemical condition of the blood or tissues; and that this altered state, constituting the inherent congenital tendency to the disease, is duly transmitted from parent to offspring like any other quality more readily apparent to observation. Hereditary diseases exhibit certain eminently characteristic phenomena, which a late writer[2] enumerates as follows: 1. "They are transmitted by the male as well as by the female parent, and are doubly severe in the offspring of parents both of which are affected by them. 2. They develop themselves not only in the immediate progeny of one affected by them, but also in many subsequent generations. 3. They do not, however, always appear in each generation in the same form; one disease is sometimes substituted for another, analogous to it, and this again after some generations becomes changed into that to which the breed was originally liable--as phthisis (consumption) and dysentery. Thus, a stock of cattle previously subject to phthisis, sometimes become affected for several generations with dysentery to the exclusion of phthisis, but by and by, dysentery disappears to give place to phthisis. 4. Hereditary diseases occur to a certain extent independently of external circumstances; appearing under all sorts of management, and being little affected by changes of locality, separation from diseased stock, or such causes as modify the production of non-hereditary diseases. 5. They are, however, most certainly and speedily developed in circumstances inimical to general good health, and often occur at certain, so called, critical periods of life, when unusual demands on the vital powers take place. 6. They show a striking tendency to modify and absorb into themselves all extraneous diseases; for example, in an animal of consumptive constitution, pneumonia seldom runs its ordinary course, and when arrested, often passes into consumption. 7. Hereditary diseases are less effectually treated by ordinary remedies than other diseases. Thus, although an attack of phthisis, rheumatism or opthalmia may be subdued, and the patient put out of pain and danger, the tendency to the disease will still remain and be greatly aggravated by each attack. In horses and neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at birth, and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps through one or two generations and afterwards breaks out with all its former severity." The diseases which are found to be hereditary in horses are scrofula, rheumatism, rickets, chronic cough, roaring, ophthalmia or inflammation of the eye,--grease or scratches, bone spavin, curb, &c. Indeed, Youatt says, "there is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject, that is not hereditary. Contracted feet, curb, spavin, roaring, thick wind, blindness, notoriously descend from the sire or dam to the foal." The diseases which are found hereditary in neat cattle are scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrhea, rheumatism and malignant tumors. Neat cattle being less exposed to the exciting causes of disease, and less liable to be overtasked or exposed to violent changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are not so numerous, and what they have are less violent than in the horse, and generally of a chronic character. Scrofula is not uncommon among sheep, and it presents itself in various forms. Sometimes it is connected with consumption; sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the mesenteric glands in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. The scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the foetus, and lambs have occasionally been born with it, but much oftener they show it at an early age, and any affected in this way are liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevailing disease which develops in such with unusual severity. Sheep are also liable to several diseases of the brain and of the respiratory and digestive organs. Epilepsy, or "fits," and rheumatism sometimes occur. Swine are subject to nearly the same hereditary diseases as sheep. Epilepsy is more common with them than with the latter, and they are more liable to scrofula than any other domestic animals. When properly and carefully managed, swine are not ordinarily very liable to disease, but when, as too often kept in small, damp, filthy styes, and obliged constantly to inhale noxious effluvia, and to eat unsuitable food, we cannot wonder either that they become victims of disease or transmit to their progeny a weak and sickly organization. Swine are not naturally the dirty beasts which many suppose. "Wallowing in the mire," so proverbial of them, is rather from a wish for protection from insects and for coolness, than from any inherent love of filth, and if well cared for they will be comparatively cleanly. The practice of close breeding, which is probably carried to greater extent with swine than with any other domestic animal, undoubtedly contributes to their liability to hereditary diseases, and when those possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the stock is easily and quickly effected, for as already stated, they are propagated by either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggravated form, when occurring in both. With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost invariable rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to disease should not be employed for breeding. If, however, for special reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease, although for the latter it is doubtful if the possession of any good qualities can fully compensate, it should be mated with one which excels in every respect in which the other is deficient, and on no account with one which is near of kin to it. Notwithstanding the importance due to the subject of hereditary diseases, it is also true that few diseases invariably owe their development to hereditary causes. Even such as are usually hereditary are sometimes produced accidentally, (as of course there must be a beginning to everything,) and in such case, they may, or may not be, transmitted to their progeny. As before shown, it is certain that they sometimes are, which is sufficient reason to avoid such for breeding purposes. It is also well known that, in the horse, for instance, certain forms of limbs predispose to certain diseases, as bone spavin is most commonly seen where there is a disproportion in the size of the limb above and below the hock, and others might be named of similar character; in all such cases the disease may be caused by an agency which would be wholly inadequate in one of more perfect form, but once existing, it is liable to be reproduced in the offspring--all tending to show the great importance of _giving due heed_ in selecting breeding animals _to all qualities, both external and internal_, so long as "like produces like." FOOTNOTES: [2] Finlay Dun, V.S., in Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. CHAPTER III. THE LAW OF VARIATION. We come now to consider another law, by which that of similarity is greatly modified, to wit, the law of variation or divergence. All organic beings, whether plants or animals, possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization, rendering them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When in a state of nature variations are comparatively slow and infrequent, but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a much greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic productions being reared under conditions of life not so uniform, and different from, those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature. Flexibility of organization in connexion with climate, is seen in a remarkable degree in Indian corn. The small Canada variety, growing only three feet high and ripening in seventy to ninety days when carried southward, gradually enlarges in the whole plant until it may be grown twelve feet high and upwards, and requires one hundred and fifty days to ripen its seed. A southern variety brought northward, gradually dwindles in size and ripens earlier until it reaches a type specially fitted to its latitude. Variation, although the same in kind, is greater in degree, among domesticated plants than among animals. From the single wild variety of the potato as first discovered and taken to Europe, have sprung innumerable sorts. Kemp, in his work on Agricultural Physiology, tells us, that on the maritime cliffs of England, there exists a little plant with a fusiform root, smooth glaucous leaves, flowers similar to wild mustard and of a saline taste. It is called by botanists, _Brassica oleracea_. By cultivation there have been obtained from this insignificant and apparently useless plant-- 1st, all borecoles or kails, 12 varieties or more. 2d, all cabbages having heart. 3d, the various kinds of Savoy cabbages. 4th, Brussels sprouts. 5th, all the broccolis and cauliflowers which do not heart. 6th, the rape plant. 7th, the ruta baga or Swedish turnip. 8th, yellow and white turnips. 9th, hybrid turnips. 10th, kohl rabbi. Similar examples are numerous among our common useful plants, and among flowers the dahlia and verbena furnish an illustration of countless varieties, embracing numberless hues and combinations of color, from purest white through nearly all the tints of the rainbow to almost black, of divers hights too, and habits of growth, springing up under the hand of cultivation in a few years from plants which at first yielded only a comparatively unattractive and self-colored flower. In brief, it may be said, that nearly or quite all the choicest productions both of our kitchen and flower gardens are due to variations induced by cultivation in a course of years from plants which in their natural condition would scarcely attract a passing glance. We cannot say what might have been the original type of many of our domestic animals, for the inquiry would carry us beyond any record of history or tradition regarding it, but few doubt that all our varieties of the horse, the ox, the sheep and the dog, sprang each originally from a single type, and that the countless variations are due to causes connected with their domestication. Of those reclaimed within the period of memory may be named the turkey. This was unknown to the inhabitants of the old continent until discovered here in a wild state. Since then, having been domesticated and widely disseminated, it now offers varieties of wide departure from the original type, and which have been nurtured into self-sustaining breeds, distinguished from each other by the possession of peculiar characteristics. Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may be named climate, food and habit. Animals in cold climates are provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it is said that in some of the tropical provinces of South America, there are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur in place of the ordinary pile of hair. Various other instances could be cited, if necessary, going to show that a beneficent Creator has implanted in many animals, to a certain extent, a _power of accommodation_ to the circumstances and conditions amid which they are reared. The _supply of food_, whether abundant or scanty, is one of the most active cases of variation known to be within the control of man. For illustration of its effect, let us suppose two pairs of twin calves, as nearly alike as possible, and let a male and a female from each pair be suckled by their mothers until they wean themselves, and be fed always after with plenty of the most nourishing food; and the others to be fed with skimmed milk, hay tea and gruel at first, to be put to grass at two months old, and subsequently fed on coarse and innutritious fodder. Let these be bred from separately, and the same style of treatment kept up, and not many generations would elapse before we had distinct varieties, or breeds, differing materially in size, temperament and time of coming to maturity. Suppose other similar pairs, and one from each to be placed in the richest blue-grass pastures of Kentucky, or in the fertile valley of the Tees; always supplied with abundance of rich food, these live luxuriously, grow rapidly, increase in hight, bulk, thickness, every way, they early reach the full size which they are capable of attaining; having nothing to induce exertion, they become inactive, lazy, lethargic and fat. Being bred from, the progeny resemble the parents, "only more so." Each generation acquiring more firmly and fixedly the characteristics induced by their situation, these become hereditary, and we by and by have a _breed_ exhibiting somewhat of the traits of the Teeswater or Durhams from which the improved Short-horns of the present day have been reared. The others we will suppose to have been placed on the hill-sides of New England, or on the barren Isle of Jersey, or on the highlands of Scotland, or in the pastures of Devonshire. These being obliged to roam longer for a scantier repast grow more slowly, develop their capabilities in regard to size not only more slowly, but, perhaps, not fully at all--they become more active in temperament and habit, thinner and flatter in muscle. Their young cannot so soon shift for themselves and require more milk, and the dams yield it. Each generation in its turn becomes more completely and fully adapted to the circumstances amid which they are reared, and if bred indiscriminately with any thing and every thing else, we by and by have the common mixed cattle of New England, miscalled natives; or if kept more distinct, we have something approaching the Devon, the Ayrshire, or the Jersey breeds. A due consideration of the natural effect of climate and food is a point worthy the special attention of the stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well adapted to the situation, and the capacity of the soil is such as to feed them fully, profit may be safely calculated upon. Animals are to be looked upon as machines for converting herbage into money. Now it costs a certain amount to keep up the motive power of any machine, and also to make good the wear and tear incident to its working; and in the case of animals it is only so much as is digested and assimilated, _in addition to the amount thus required_, which is converted into meat, milk or wool; so that the greater the proportion which the latter bears to the former, the greater will be the _profit_ to be realized from keeping them. There has been in New England generally a tendency to choose animals of large size, as large as can be had from any where, and if they possess symmetry and all other good qualities commensurate with the size, and if plenty of nutritious food can be supplied, there is an advantage gained by keeping such, for it costs less, other things being equal, to shelter and care for one animal than for two. But our pastures and meadows are not the richest to be found any where, and if we select such as require, in order to give the profit which they are capable of yielding, more or richer food than our farms can supply, or than we have the means to purchase, we must necessarily fail to reap as much profit as we might by the selection of such as could be easily fed upon home resources to the point of highest profit. Whether the selection be of such as are either larger or smaller than suit our situation, they will, and equally in both cases, vary by degrees towards the fitting size or type for the locality in which they are kept, but there is this noteworthy difference, that if larger ones be brought in, they will not only diminish, but deteriorate, while if smaller be brought in, they will enlarge _and improve_. The bestowal of food sufficient both in amount and quality to enable animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and to obtain all the profit to be derived from them, is something very distinct from undue forcing or pampering. This process may produce wonderful animals to look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation, for, as in plants, we find that forcing, pampering, high culture or whatever else it may be called, may be carried so far as to result in the production of double flowers, (an unnatural development,) and these accompanied with greater or less inability to perfect seed, so in animals, the same process may be carried far enough to produce sterility. Instances are not wanting, and particularly among the more recent improved Short-horns, of impotency among the males and of barrenness in the females, and in some cases where they have borne calves they have failed to secrete milk for their nourishment.[3] Impotency in bulls of various breeds has not unfrequently occurred from too high feeding, and especially if connected _with lack of sufficient exercise_.[4] _Habit_ has a decided influence towards inducing variation. As the blacksmith's right arm becomes more muscular from the habit of exercise induced by his vocation, so we find in domestic animals that use, or the demand created by habit, is met by a development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement. For instance, with cows in a state of nature or where required only to suckle their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the requirement. If more is desired, and if the milk be drawn completely and regularly, the yield is increased and continued longer. By keeping up the demand there is induced in the next generation a greater development of the secreting organs, and more milk is given. By continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful conditions of suitable food, &c., and by selecting in each generation those animals showing the greatest tendency towards milk, a breed specially adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that the Ayrshires have, in the past eighty or a hundred years, been brought to be what they are, a breed giving more good milk upon a given quantity of food than any other. It is because the English breeders of modern Short-horns altogether prefer beef-making to milk-giving properties that they have constantly fostered variation in favor of the one at the expense of the other until the milking quality in many families is nearly bred out. It was not so formerly--thirty years ago the Short-horns (or as they were then usually called, the Durhams) were not deficient in dairy qualities, and some families were famous for large yield. By properly directed efforts they might, doubtless, be bred back to milk, but of this there is no probability, at least in England, for the tendency of modern practice is very strong toward having each breed specially fitted to its use--the dairy breeds for milk and the beef breeds for meat only. The requirements of the English breeder are in some respects quite unlike those of New England farmers--for instance, as they employ no oxen for labor there is no inducement to cultivate working qualities even, in connection with beef. As an illustration of the effect of habit, Darwin[5] cites the domestic duck, of which he says, "I find that the bones of the wing weigh less, and the bones of the leg more, in proportion to the whole skeleton, than do the same bones in the wild duck; and I presume that this change may be safely attributed to the domestic duck flying much less and walking more than its wild parent." And again, "not a single domestic animal can be named which has not in some country drooping ears, and the view suggested by some authors, that the drooping is due to the disuse of the muscles of the ear, from the animals not being much alarmed by danger, seems probable." Climate, food and habit are the principal causes of variation which are known to be in any marked degree under the control of man; and the effect of these is, doubtless, in some measure indirect and subservient to other laws, of reproduction, growth and inheritance, of which we have at present very imperfect knowledge. This is shown by the fact that the young of the same litter sometimes differ considerably from each other, though both the young and their parents have apparently been exposed to exactly the same conditions of life; for had the action of these conditions been specific or direct and independent of other laws, if any of the young had varied, the whole would probably have varied in the same manner. Numberless hypotheses have been started to account for variation. Some hold that it is as much the function of the reproductive system to produce individual differences as it is to make the child like the parents. Darwin says "the reproductive system is eminently susceptible to changes in the conditions of life; and to this system being functionally disturbed in the parents I chiefly attribute the varying or plastic condition of the offspring. The male and female sexual elements seem to be affected before that union takes place which is to form a new being. But why, because the re-productive system is disturbed this or that part should vary more or less, we are profoundly ignorant. Nevertheless we can here and there dimly catch a faint ray of light, and we may feel sure that there must be some cause for each deviation of structure however slight." It may be useless for us to speculate here upon the laws which govern variations. The fact that these exist is what the breeder has to deal with, and a most important one it is, for it is this chiefly, which makes hereditary transmission the problem which it is. His aim should ever be _to grasp and render permanent and increase so far as practicable, every variation for the better, and to reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency_. That this may be done, there is abundant proof in the success which has in many instances attended the well directed efforts of intelligent breeders. A remarkable instance is furnished in the new Mauchamp-Merino sheep of Mons. Graux, which originated in a single animal, a product of the law of variation, and which by skillful breeding and selection has become an established breed of a peculiar type and possessing valuable properties. Samples of the wool of these sheep were shown at the great exhibition in London, in 1851, and attracted much attention. It was also shown at the great recent Agricultural Exhibition at Paris. A correspondent of the _Mark Lane Express_, says: "One of the most interesting portions of the sheep-show is that of the Mauchamp variety of Merinos, having a new kind of wool, glossy and silky, similar to mohair. This is an instance of an entirely new breed being as it were created from a mere sport of nature. It was originated by Mons. J.L. Graux. In the year 1828, a Merino ewe produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different shape from the usual Merino, and possessing a long, straight, and silky character of wool. In 1830, M. Graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, having the silky character of wool. In 1831, among the produce were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and in 1833 there were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes. In each subsequent year the lambs were of two kinds; one possessing the curled elastic wool of the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer; the other like the new breed. At last, the skillful breeder obtained a flock combining the fine silky fleece with a smaller head, broader flanks, and more capacious chest; and several flocks being crossed with the Mauchamp variety, have produced also the Mauchamp-Merino breed. The pure Mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length and fineness of the fibre. It is found of great value by the manufacturers of Cashmere shawls and similar goods, being second only to the true Cashmere fleece, in the fine flexible delicacy of the fibre; and when in combination with Cashmere wool, imparting strength and consistency. The quantity of the wool has now become as great or greater than from ordinary Merinos, while the quality commands for it twenty-five per cent. higher price in the French market. Surely breeders cannot watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or characteristic in their flocks or herds." Mons. Vilmorin, the eminent horticulturist of Paris, has likened the law of similarity to the centripetal force, and the law of variation to the centrifugal force; and in truth their operations seem analogous, and possibly they may be the same in kind, though certainly unlike in this, that they are not reducible to arithmetical calculation and cannot be subjected to definite measurement. His thought is at least a highly suggestive one and may be pursued with profit. Among the "faint rays" alluded to by Mr. Darwin as throwing light upon the changes dependent on the laws of reproduction, there is one, perhaps the brightest yet seen, which deserves our notice. It is the apparent influence of the male first having fruitful intercourse with a female upon her subsequent offspring by other males. Attention was first directed to this by the following circumstance, related by Sir Everard Home: A young chestnut mare, seven-eighths Arabian, belonging to the Earl of Morton, was covered in 1815 by a Quagga, which is a species of wild ass from Africa, and marked somewhat in the style of a Zebra. The mare was covered but once by the Quagga, and after a pregnancy of eleven months and four days gave birth to a hybrid, which had, as was expected, distinct marks of the Quagga, in the shape of its head, black bars on the legs and shoulders, &c. In 1817, 1818 and 1821, the same mare was covered by a very fine black Arabian horse, and produced successively three foals, and although she had not seen the Quagga since 1816, they all bore his curious and unequivocal markings. Since the occurrence of this case numerous others of a similar character have been observed, a few of which may be mentioned. Mr. McGillivray says, that in several foals in the royal stud at Hampton Court, got by the horse "Actæon," there were unmistakable marks of the horse "Colonel." The dams of these foals were bred from by Colonel the previous year. A colt, the property of the Earl of Suffield, got by "Laurel," so resembled another horse, "Camel," that it was whispered and even asserted at Newmarket that he must have been got by "Camel." It was ascertained, however, that the mother of the colt bore a foal the previous year by "Camel." Alex. Morrison, Esq., of Bognie, had a fine Clydesdale mare which in 1843 was served by a Spanish ass and produced a mule. She afterwards had a colt by a horse, which bore a very marked likeness to a mule--seen at a distance, every one sets it down at once as a mule. The ears are nine and one-half inches long,--the girth not quite six feet, stands above sixteen hands high. The hoofs are so long and narrow that there is a difficulty in shoeing them, and the tail is thin and scanty. He is a beast of indomitable energy and durability, and highly prized by his owner. Numerous similar cases are on record,[6] and it appears to have been known among the Arabs for centuries, that a mare which has first borne a mule, is ever after unfit to breed pure horses;[7] and the fact seems now to be perfectly well understood in all the mule-breeding States of the Union. A pure Aberdeenshire heifer, the property of a farmer in Forgue, was served with a pure Teeswater bull to which she had a first cross calf. The following season the same cow was served with a pure Aberdeenshire bull, the produce was in appearance a cross-bred calf, which at two years old had long horns; the parents were both hornless. A small flock of ewes, belonging to Dr. W. Wells in the island of Grenada, were served by a ram procured for the purpose;--the ewes were all white and woolly; the ram was quite different,--of a chocolate color, and hairy like a goat. The progeny were of course crosses but bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. The next season, Dr. Wells obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes, but the progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram, in color and covering. The same thing occurred on neighboring estates under like circumstances. Six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, belonging to Mr. H. Shaw of Leochel-Cushnie, were served by a Leicester ram, (white-faced and hornless.) The lambs were crosses. The next year they were served by a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves. To Mr. Shaw's astonishment the lambs were without an exception hornless and brownish in the face, instead of being black and horned. The third year (1846) they were again served by a superior ram of their own breed, and again the lambs were mongrels, but showed less of the Leicester characteristics than before. Mr. Shaw at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred lamb.[8] "It has been noticed that a well bred bitch, if she have been impregnated by a mongrel dog, will not although lined subsequently by a pure dog, bear thorough-bred puppies in the next two or three litters."[9] The like occurrence has been noticed in respect of the sow. "A sow of the black and white breed became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. The pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar being in some very predominant. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained or marked with the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter and the same occurred after a third impregnation, the boar being then of the same kind as herself. What adds to the force of this case is that in the course of many years' observation the breed in question was never known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color."[10] The above are a few of the many instances on record tending to show the influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other males. Not a few might also be given showing that the same rule holds in the human species, of which a single one will suffice here:--"A young woman residing in Edinburgh, and born of white parents, but whose mother previous to her marriage bore a mulatto child by a negro man servant, exhibits distinct traces of the negro. Dr. Simpson, whose patient at one time, the young woman was, recollects being struck with the resemblance, and noticed particularly that the hair had the qualities characteristic of the negro." Dr. Carpenter, in the last edition of his work on physiology, says it is by no means an infrequent occurrence for a widow who has married again to bear children resembling her first husband. Various explanations have been offered to account for the facts observed, among which the theory of Mr. McGillivray, V.S., which is endorsed by Dr. Harvey, and considered (as we shall presently see) as very probable at least by Dr. Carpenter, seems the most satisfactory. Dr. Harvey says: "Instances are sufficiently common among the lower animals where the offspring exhibit more or less distinctly over and beyond the characters of the male by which they were begotten, the peculiarities also of a male by which their mother at some former period had been impregnated. * * * Great difficulty has been felt by physiological writers in regard to the proper explanation of this kind of phenomena. They have been ascribed by some to a permanent impression made somehow by the semen of the first male on the genitals and more particularly on the ova of the female:[11] and by others to an abiding influence exerted by him on the imagination and operating at the time of her connection subsequently with other males and perhaps during her pregnancy; but they seem to be regarded by most physiologists as inexplicable. Very recently, in a paper published in the Aberdeen Journal, a Veterinary Surgeon, Mr. James McGillivray of Huntley, has offered an explanation which seems to me to be the true one. His theory is that "_when a pure animal of any breed has been pregnant to an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal is a cross ever after, the purity of her blood being lost in consequence of her connection with the foreign animal, herself_ BECOMING A CROSS FOREVER, _incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed_." Dr. Harvey believes "that while as all allow, a portion of the mother's blood is continually passing by absorption and assimilation into the body of the foetus, in order to its nutrition and development, a portion of the blood of the foetus is as constantly passing in like manner into the body of the mother; that as this commingles there with the general mass of the mother's own blood, it inoculates her system with the constitutional qualities of the foetus, and that, as these qualities are in part derived to the foetus from the male progenitor, the peculiarities of the latter are thereby so ingrafted on the system of the female as to be communicable by her to any offspring she may subsequently have by other males." In support of this view, Mr. McGillivray cites a case in which there was presented unmistakable evidence that the organization of the placenta admits the return of the venous blood to the mother; and Dr. Harvey, with much force, suggests that the effect produced is analogous to the known fact that constitutional syphilis has been communicated to a female who never had any of the primary symptoms. Regarding the occurrence of such phenomena, Dr. Harvey under a later date says: "since then I have learned that many among the agricultural body in this district are familiar to a degree that is annoying to them with the facts then adduced in illustration of it, finding that after breeding crosses, their cows though served with bulls of their own breed yield crosses still or rather mongrels; that they were already impressed with the idea of contamination of blood as the cause of the phenomenon; that the doctrine so intuitively commended itself to their minds as soon as stated, that they fancied they were told nothing but what they knew before, so just is the observation that truth proposed is much more easily perceived than without such proposal is it discovered."[12] Dr. Carpenter, speaking of phenomena analogous to what are here alluded to, says: "Some of these cases appear referable to the strong impression left by the first male parent upon the female; but there are others which seem to render it more likely that the blood of the female has imbibed from that of the foetus, through the placental circulation, some of the attributes which the latter has derived from its male parent, and that the female may communicate these, with those proper to herself, to the subsequent offspring of a different male parentage. This idea is borne out by a great number of important facts. * * As this is a point of great practical importance it may be hoped that those who have the opportunity of bringing observation to bear upon it, will not omit to do so." In the absence of more general and accurate observations directed to this point, it is impossible to say to what extent the first male produces impression upon subsequent progeny by other males. There can be no doubt, however, but that such an impression is made. The instances where it is of so marked and obvious a character as in some of those just related may be comparatively few, yet there is abundant reason to believe, that although in a majority of cases the effect may be less noticeable, it is not less real, and demands the special attention of all breeders. Whether this result is to be ascribed to inoculation of the system of the female with the characteristics of the male through the foetus, or to any other mode of operation, it is obviously of great advantage for every breeder to know it and thereby both avoid error and loss and secure profit. It is a matter which deserves thorough investigation and the observations should be minute and have regard not only to peculiarities of form, but also to qualities and characteristics not so obvious; for instance there may be greater or less hardiness, endurance or aptitude to fatten. These may be usually more dependent on the dam, but the male is never without a degree of influence upon them, and it is well established that aptitude to fatten is usually communicated by the Short-horn bull to crosses with cattle of mixed or mongrel origin which are often very deficient in this desirable property. Mr. McGillivray says: "A knowledge of the fact must be of the greatest benefit to the breeder in two ways, positively and negatively. I have known very great disappointment and loss result from allowing an inferior male to serve a first rate female--the usefulness of such female being thereby forever destroyed. As for the positive benefits arising from the inoculation--they are obvious to any unbiased mind. The black polled and Aberdeenshire cattle common to this country (Scotland) may be, and often are, improved by the following plan: Select a good, well formed, and healthy heifer--put her, in proper season, to a pure Short-horn bull; after the calf to this Durham bull, breed from the cow with bulls of her own breed; occasionally, and most likely the first time, a red calf ultimately having horns will appear even from the polled bull and cow; but in general the calves will be of the same type with the polled parents but with many points improved, and an aptitude to fatten, to come earlier to maturity, &c., such as no one of the pure polled or Aberdeenshire breed ever exhibited in this country, or any other country, however well kept, previous to the introduction of the Short-horn breed. The offspring of these breeds thus improved, when bred from again, will exhibit many points and qualities of excellence similar to the best crosses but retaining much of the hardiness of the original stock, no mean consideration for this changeable and often severe climate. And, moreover, such crosses,--for they are crosses--will command high prices as improved polled or Aberdeenshire cattle. I happen to know of a case where a farmer, from a distance purchased a two year old heifer of the stamp referred to, for the purpose of improving his polled cattle, and for this heifer he paid fifty guineas." The knowledge of this law[13] gives us a clue to the cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often complain and to the cause of many variations otherwise unaccountable, and it suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the coupling of animals, a matter which has often been deemed of little consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves are reared, than of such as are borne subsequently. Another faint ray of light touching the causes of variation is afforded us by the fact that the qualities of offspring are not only dependent on the habitual conditions of the parents, but also upon any peculiar condition existing at the time of sexual congress. For instance, the offspring of parents ordinarily healthy and temperate, but begotten in a fit of intoxication, would be likely to suffer permanently, both physically and mentally, from the condition which the parents had temporarily brought upon themselves. On the other hand, offspring begotten of parents in an unusually healthy and active condition of body and mind, would likely be unusually endowed both mentally and physically. The Arabs in breeding horses take advantage of this fact, for before intercourse, both sire and dam are actively exercised, not to weariness, but sufficiently to induce the most vigorous condition possible. Of this, too, we have proof in the phenomenon sometimes observed by breeders, that a strong mental impression made upon the female by a particular male, will give the offspring a resemblance to him, even though she have no sexual intercourse with him. Of this, Mr. Boswell in his prize essay published in 1828, gives a remarkable instance. He says that Mr. Mustard of Angus, one of the most intelligent breeders he had ever met with, told him that one of his cows chanced to come into season while pasturing on a field bounded by that of one of his neighbors, out of which field an ox jumped and went with the cow until she was brought home to the bull. The ox was white, with black spots, and horned. Mr. Mustard had not a horned beast in his possession, nor one with any white on it. Nevertheless, the produce of the following spring was a black and white calf with horns. The case of Jacob is often quoted in support of this view, and although many believe some miraculous agency to have been exerted in his case, and though he could say with truth, "God hath taken away the cattle of your father and given them to me," it seems, on the whole, more probable, inasmuch as supernatural agency may never be presumed, except where we know, or have good reason to believe, that natural causes are insufficient, that God "gave" them, as he now gives to some, riches or honors; that is to say, by virtue of the operation of natural laws. If all who keep cattle would exercise a tithe of the patriarch's shrewdness and sagacity in improving their stock, we should see fewer ill-favored kine than at present. The possibility of some effect being produced by a strong impression at the time of conception, is not to be confounded with the popular error that "marks" upon an infant[14] are due to a transient, although strong impression upon the imagination of the mother at any period of gestation, which is unsupported by facts and absurd; but there are facts sufficient upon record to prove that _habitual_ mental condition, and especially at an early stage of pregnancy, _may_ have the effect to produce some bodily deformity, and should induce great caution. FOOTNOTES: [3] See Rowley's Prize Report on Farming in Derbyshire, in Journal of Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. 14. [4] A _working bull_, though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one, (for fat sometimes covers a multitude of defects,) is a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to inherit full health and vigor. [5] In his Origin of Species. [6] It was long ago stated by Haller, that when a mare had a foal by an ass and afterwards another by a horse, the second offspring begotten by the horse nevertheless approached in character to a mule. [7] See Abd el Kader's letter. [8] Journal of Medical Science, 1850. [9] Kirke's Physiology. [10] Philosophical Transactions for 1821. [11] The late M.A. Cuming, V.S., of New Brunswick, once remarked to the writer, that it might be due to the fact that the nerves of the uterus, which before the first impregnation were in a rudimentary state, were developed under a specific influence from the semen of the first male, and that they might retain so much of a peculiar style of development as to impress upon future progeny by other males the likeness of the first. [12] Edinburgh Journal Medical Science, 1849. [13] A very striking fact may be related in this connection, which while it may or may not have a practical bearing on the breeding of domestic animals, shows forcibly how mysterious are some of the laws of reproduction. It is stated by the celebrated traveler, Count de Strzelecki, in his Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land. "Whenever," he says, "a fruitful intercourse has taken place between an aboriginal woman and an European male, that aboriginal woman is forever after incapable of being impregnated by a male of her own nation, although she may again be fertile with a European." The Count, whose means and powers of observation are of the highest possible order, affirms that "hundreds of instances of this extraordinary fact are on record in the writer's memoranda all recurring invariably under the same circumstances, all tending to prove that the sterility of the female, which is relative only to one and not to the other male is not accidental, but follows laws as cogent though as mysterious as the rest of those connected with generation." The Count's statement is endorsed by Dr. Maunsell of Dublin, Dr. Carmichael of Edinburgh, and the late Prof. Goodsir, who say they have learned from independent sources that as regards Australia, Strzelecki's statement is unquestionable and must be regarded as the expression of a law of nature. The law does not extend to the negro race, the fertility of the negro female not being apparently impaired by previous fruitful intercourse with a European male. In reply to an inquiry made whether he had ever noticed exceptional cases, the Count says: "It has not come under my cognizance to see or hear of a native female which having a child with a European had afterwards any offspring with a male of her own race." The Count's statement is suggestive as to the disappearance of the aborigines of some countries. This has often been the subject of severe comment and is generally ascribed to the rum and diseases introduced by the white man. It would now appear that other influences have also been operative. [14] Carpenter's Physiology, new edition, page 783. CHAPTER IV. ATAVISM, OR ANCESTRAL INFLUENCE. It may not be easy to say whether this phenomenon is more connected with the law of similarity, or with that of variation. Youatt, in his work on cattle published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, inclines to the former. He speaks of it as showing the universality of the application of the axiom that "like produces like"--that when this "may not seem to hold good, it is often because the lost resemblance to generations gone by is strongly revived." The phenomenon, or law, as it is sometimes called, of atavism,[15] or ancestral influence, is one of considerable practical importance, and well deserves careful attention by the breeder of farm stock. Every one is aware that it is nothing unusual for a child to resemble its grandfather or grandmother or some ancestor still farther back, more than it does either its own father or mother. The fact is too familiar to require the citing of examples. We find the same occurrence among our domestic animals, and oftener in proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock of neat cattle, (_natives_, as they are often called,) originating as they have done from animals brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France and Spain, each possessing different characteristics of form, color and use; and bred, as our common stock has usually been, indiscriminately together, with no special point in view, no attempt to obtain any particular type or form, or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose, we have very frequent opportunities of witnessing the results of the operation of this law of hereditary transmission. So common indeed is its occurrence, that the remark is often made, that however good a cow may be, there is no telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is sufficiently obvious that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen often speak of it as "breeding back," or "crying back." The cause of this phenomenon we may not fully understand. A late writer says, "it is to be explained on the supposition that the qualities were transmitted by the grandfather to the father in whom they were _masked_ by the presence of some antagonistic or controlling influence, and were thence transmitted to the son in whom the antagonistic influence being withdrawn they manifest themselves." A French writer on Physiology says, if there is not inheritance of paternal characteristics, there is at least an _aptitude_ to inherit them, a disposition to reproduce them; and there is always a transmission of this aptitude to some new descendants, among whom these traits will manifest themselves sooner or later.[16] Mr. Singer, let us say, has a remarkable aptitude for music; but the influence of Mrs. Singer is such that their children inheriting her imperfect ear, manifest no musical talent whatever. These children however have inherited the disposition of the father in spite of its non-manifestation; and if, when they transmit what in them is latent, the influence of their wives is favorable, the grand-children may turn out musically gifted. The lesson taught by the law of atavism is very plain. It shows the importance of seeking "thorough-bred" or "well-bred" animals; and by these terms are simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for many generations the desirable forms, qualities and characteristics have been _uniformly shown_. In such a case, even if ancestral influence does come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the ancestors being all essentially alike. From this stand point we best perceive in what consists the money value of a good "pedigree." It is in the evidence which it brings that the animal is descended from a line all the individuals of which were alike, and excellent of their kind, and so is almost sure to transmit like excellencies to its progeny in turn;--not that every animal with a long pedigree full of high-sounding names is necessarily of great value as a breeder, for in every race or breed, as we have seen while speaking of the law of variation, there will be here and there some which are less perfect and symmetrical of their kind than others; and if such be bred from, they may likely enough transmit undesirable points; and if they be mated with others possessing similar failings, they are almost sure to deteriorate very considerably. Pedigree is valuable in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended, not only from such as are purely of its own race or breed, but also from such individuals in that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies for which that particular breed is esteemed. Weeds are none the less worthless because they appear among a crop consisting chiefly of valuable plants, nor should deformed or degenerate plants, although they be true to their kind, ever be employed to produce seed. If we would have good cabbages or turnips, it is needful to select the most perfect and the soundest to grow seed from, and to continue such selection year after year. Precisely the same rule holds with regard to animals. The pertinacity with which hereditary traits cling to the organization in a latent, masked or undeveloped condition for long after they might be supposed to be wholly "bred out" is sometimes very remarkable. What is known among breeders of Short-horns as the "Galloway alloy," although originating by the employment for only once of a single animal of a different breed, is said to be traceable even now, after many years, in the occasional development of a "smutty nose" in descendants of that family. Many years ago there were in the Kennebec valley a few polled or hornless cattle. They were not particularly cherished, and gradually diminished in numbers. Mr. Payne Wingate shot the last animal of this breed, (a bull calf or a yearling,) mistaking it in the dark for a bear. During thirty-five years subsequently all the cattle upon his farm had horns, but at the end of that time one of his cows produced a calf which grew up without horns, and Mr. Wingate said it was, in all respects, the exact image of the first bull of the breed brought there. Probably the most familiar exemplification of clearly marked ancestral influence among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-breeched calves occasionally, and not very unfrequently, dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, and which, if killed early, make very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being often sterile, the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts, yielding flesh of very dark color, ill flavor and destitute of fat. They are known by various names in different localities, in Maine as the "Whitten" and "Peter Waldo" breed, in Massachusetts as "Yorkshire" and "Westminster," in New York as the "Pumpkin buttocks," in England as "_Lyery_" or "_Lyery_ Dutch," &c., &c. Those in northern New England are believed to be descended chiefly from a bull brought from Watervliet, near Albany, New York, more than forty years ago, (in 1818,) by the Shakers at Alfred, in York county, Maine, and afterwards transferred to their brethren in Cumberland county. No one who has proved the worthlessness of these cattle can readily believe that any bull of this sort would have been knowingly kept for service since the first one brought into the State, and yet it is by no means a rare occurrence to find calves dropped at the present time bearing unmistakable evidence of that origin. It seems likely that this disagreeable peculiarity was first brought into the country by means of some of the early importations of Dutch or of the old Durham breed. Culley, in speaking of the Short-horns, inclines to the opinion that they were originally from Holland, and himself recollected men who in the early part of their lives imported Dutch cattle into the county of Durham, and of one Mr. Dobinson he says, he was noted for having the best breed of Short-horns of any and sold at high prices. "But afterwards some other persons of less knowledge, going over, brought home some bulls that introduced the disagreeable kind of cattle called _lyery_ or _double lyered_, that is, black-fleshed. These will feed to great weight, but though fed ever so long will not have a pound of fat about them, neither within or without, and the flesh (for it does not deserve to be called beef) is as black and coarse grained as horse flesh. No man will buy one of this kind if he knows any thing of the matter, and if he should be once taken in he will remember it well for the future; people conversant with cattle very readily find them out by their round form, particularly their buttocks, which are turned like a black coach horse, and the smallness of the tail; but they are best known to the graziers and dealers in cattle by the _feel_ or _touch_ of the fingers; indeed it is this nice touch or feel of the hand that in a great measure constitutes the judge of cattle." FOOTNOTES: [15] From the Latin _Atavus_--meaning any ancestor indefinitely, as a grandmother's great grandfather. [16] "S'il n'y a pas héritage des caractéres paternels il y a donc au moins _aptitude_ à en heriter, disposition à les reproduire, et toujours cette transmission de cette aptitude à des noveau descendants, chez lesquels ces mêmes caractéres se manifesteront tôt ou tard."--_Longet's_ "_Traite de Physiologie_," ii: 133. CHAPTER V. RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF THE PARENTS. The relative influence of the male and female parents upon the characteristics of progeny has long been a fertile subject of discussion among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny sometimes resembles one parent more than the other,--sometimes there is an apparent blending of the characteristics of both,--sometimes a noticeable dissimilarity to either, though always more or less resemblance somewhere, and sometimes, the impress of one may be seen upon a portion of the organization of the offspring and that of the other parent upon another portion; yet we are not authorized from such discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance, for all of nature's operations are conducted by fixed laws, whether we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always produce the same results. In this case, not less than in others there are, beyond all doubt, fixed laws, and the varying results which we see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of conditions or modifying influences not fully patent to our observation. In the year 1825, the Highland Society of Scotland, proposed as the subject of prize essays, the solution of the question, "whether the breed of live stock connected with agriculture be susceptible of the greatest improvement from the qualities conspicuous in the male or from those conspicuous in the female parent?" Four essays received premiums. Mr. Boswell, one of the prize writers, maintained that it is not only the male parent which is capable of most speedily improving the breed of live stock, "but that the male is the parent which we can alone look to for improvement." His paper is of considerable length and ably written--abounding in argument and illustrations not easily condensed so as to be given here, and it is but justice to add that he also holds that "before the breed of a country can be improved, much more must be looked to than the answer to the question put by the Highland Society--such as crossing, selection of both parents, attention to pedigree, and to the food and care of offspring." And of crossing, he says, "when I praise the advantage of crossing, I would have it clearly understood that it is only to bring together animals _not nearly related_ but always of _the same breed_; never attempting to breed from a speed horse and a draught mare or vice versa." Crossing of breeds "may do well enough for once, but will end in vexation, if attempted to be prolonged into a line." Mr. Christian, in his essay, supports the view, that the offspring bears the greatest resemblance to that parent whether male or female, which has exerted the greatest sway of generative influence in the formation of the foetus, "that any hypothesis which would assign a superiority, or set limits to the influence of either sex in the product of generation is unsound and inadmissible," and he thus concludes--"as therefore it is unsafe to trust to the qualities of any individual animal, male or female, in improving stock, the best bred and most perfect animals of both sexes should be selected and employed in propagation; there being, in short, no other certain or equally efficacious means of establishing or preserving an eligible breed." Mr. Dallas, in his essay, starts with the idea that the seminal fluid of the male invests the ovum, the formation of which he ascribes to the female; and he supports the opinion, that where external appearance is concerned, the influence of the male will be discovered; but in what relates to internal qualities, the offspring will take most from the female. He concludes thus:--"When color, quality of fleece, or outward form is wanted, the male may be most depended on for these; but when milk is the object, when disposition, hardiness, and freedom from diseases of the viscera, and, in short, all internal qualities that may be desired, then the female may be most relied on." One of the most valuable of these papers was written by the Rev. Henry Berry of Worcestershire, in which, after stating that the question proposed is one full of difficulty and that the discovery of an independent quality such as that alluded to, in either sex, would be attended with beneficial results, he proceeds to show, that it is not to sex, but to high blood, or in other words, to animals long and successfully selected, and bred with a view to particular qualifications, whether in the male or female parent, that the quality is to be ascribed, which the Highland Society has been desirous to assign correctly. The origin of the prevalent opinion which assigns this power principally to the male, he explains by giving the probable history of the first efforts in improving stock. The greatest attention would naturally be paid to the male, both on account of his more extended services, and the more numerous produce of which he could become the parent; in consequence of which sires would be well-bred before dams. "The ideas entertained respecting the useful qualities of an animal would be very similar and lead to the adoption of a general standard of excellence, towards which it would be required that each male should approximate; and thus there would exist among what may be termed fashionable sires, a corresponding form and character different from, and superior to, those of the general stock of the country. This form and character would in most instances have been acquired by _perseverance in breeding from animals which possessed the important or fancied requisites_, and might therefore be said to be almost _confirmed_ in such individuals. Under these circumstances, striking results would doubtless follow the introduction of these sires to a common stock; results which would lead superficial observers to remark, that individual sires possessed properties as _males_, which in fact were only assignable to them as _improved_ animals." The opinion entertained by some, that the female possesses the power generally ascribed to the male, he explains also by a reference to the history of breeding: "It is well known to persons conversant with the subject of improved breeding, that of late years numerous sales have taken place of the entire stocks of celebrated breeders of sires, and thus, the females, valuable for such a purpose, have passed into a great number of hands. Such persons have sometimes introduced a cow so acquired to a bull inferior in point of descent and general good qualities, and the offspring is known, in many instances, to have proved superior to the sire by virtue of the dam's excellence, and to have caused a suspicion in the minds of persons not habituated to compare causes with effects, that certain females also possess the property in question." The writer gives various instances illustrative of his views, in some of which the male only, and in others the female only, was the high-bred animal, in all of which the progeny bore a remarkable resemblance to the well-bred parent. He says, that where both parents are equally well bred, and of nearly equal individual excellence, it is not probable that their progeny will give general proof of a preponderating power in either parent to impress peculiar characteristics upon the offspring;--yet in view of all the information we have upon the subject, he recommends a resort to the best males as the most simple and efficacious mode of improving such stocks as require improvement, and the only proceeding by which stock already good can be preserved in excellence. Mon. Giron[17] expresses the opinion that the relative age and vigor of the parents exercises very considerable influence, and states as the results of his observation, that the offspring of an old male and a young female resembles the father less than the mother in proportion as the mother is more vigorous and the father more decrepit, and that the reverse occurs with the offspring of an old female and a young male. Among the more recent theories or hypotheses which have been started regarding the relative influence of the male and female parents, those of Mr. Orton, presented in a paper read before the Farmers' Club at Newcastle upon Tyne, on the Physiology of Breeding, and of Mr. Walker in his work on Intermarriage, as they both arrived to a certain extent, at substantially the same conclusions by independent observations of their own and as these seem to agree most nearly with the majority of observed facts, are deemed worthy of favorable mention. The conclusions of Mr. Orton, briefly stated,[18] are, that in the progeny there is no casual or haphazard blending of the parts or qualities of the two parents, but rather that organization is transmitted by halves, or that each parent contributes to the formation of certain structures, and to the development of certain qualities. Advancing a step further, he maintains, that the male parent chiefly determines the external characters, the general appearance, in fact, the outward structure and locomotive powers of the offspring, as the framework, or bones and muscles, more particularly those of the limbs, the organs of sense and skin; while the female parent chiefly determines the internal structures and the general quality, mainly furnishing the vital organs, i.e., the heart, lungs, glands and digestive organs, and giving tone and character to the vital functions of secretion, nutrition and growth. "Not however that the male is without influence on the internal organs and vital functions, or the female without influence on the external organs and locomotive powers of their offspring. The law holds only within certain restrictions, and these form as it were a secondary law, one of limitations, and scarcely less important to be understood than the fundamental law itself." Mr. Orton relies chiefly on the evidence presented by _hybrids_, the progeny of distinct species, or by crosses between the most distinct varieties embraced within a single species, to establish his law. The examples adduced are chiefly from the former. The _mule_ is the progeny of the male ass and the mare; the _hinny_ that of the horse and the she ass. Both hybrids are the produce of the same set of animals. They differ widely, however, in their respective characters--the mule in all that relates to its external characters having the distinctive features of the ass,--the hinny, in the same respects having all the distinctive features of the horse; while in all that relates to the internal organs and vital qualities, the mule partakes of the character of the horse, and the hinny of those of the ass. Mr. Orton says--"The mule, the produce of the male ass and mare, is essentially a _modified ass_: the ears are those of an ass somewhat shortened; the mane is that of the ass, erect; the tail is that of an ass; the skin and color are those of an ass somewhat modified; the legs are slender and the hoofs high, narrow and contracted, like those of an ass. In fact, in all these respects it is an ass somewhat modified. The body and barrel, however, of the mule are round and full, in which it differs from the ass and resembles the mare. The hinny, on the other hand, the produce of the stallion and she ass, is essentially a _modified horse_. The ears are those of a horse somewhat lengthened; the mane flowing; the tail bushy, like that of the horse; the skin is finer, like that of the horse, and the color varies also, like the horse; the legs are stronger and the hoofs broad and expanded like those of the horse. In fact, in all these respects it is a horse somewhat modified. The body and barrel, however, of the hinny are flat and narrow, in which it differs from the horse and resembles the she ass. A very curious circumstance pertains to the voice of the mule and the hinny. The mule _brays_, the hinny _neighs_. The why and wherefore of this is a perfect mystery until we come to apply the knowledge afforded us by the law before given. The male gives the locomotive organs, and the muscles are amongst these; the muscles are the organs which modulate the voice of the animal; the mule has the muscular structure of its sire, and brays; the hinny has the muscular structure of its sire, and neighs." In connexion with these examples Mr. Orton refers to a special feature seen equally in the two instances, and which seems at first sight, a departure from the principle laid down by him. It is this, both hybrids, the mule and the hinny take after the male parents in all their external characters save one, which is _size_. In this respect they both follow the female parents, the mule being in all respects a larger and finer animal than its sire, the ass; the hinny being in all respects a smaller and inferior animal to its sire, the horse, the body and barrel of the mule being large and round, those of the hinny being flat and narrow; both animals being in these particulars the reverse of their respective sires, but both resembling their female parents. In explanation of this seeming exception is adduced a well known principle in physiology, which is, that the whole bony framework is moulded in adaptation to the softer structures immediately related to it; the muscles covering it in the case of the limbs; and to the viscera in that of the great cavities which it assists in forming. Accordingly, in perfect accordance with the views above expressed, the _general_ size and form which must be mainly that of the _trunk_, will be determined by the size and character of the viscera of the chest and abdomen, and will therefore accord with that of the female parents by whom the viscera in question are chiefly furnished. The foregoing are the most important of Mr. Orton's statements. He gives, however, numerous additional illustrations from among beasts, birds and fishes, of which we quote only the following: "The mule and the hinny have been selected and placed first, because they afford the most conclusive evidence and are the most familiar. Equally conclusive, though perhaps less striking instances, may be drawn from other sources. Thus, it has been observed that when the Ancon or Otter sheep were allowed to breed with common ewes, the cross is not a medium between the two breeds, but that the offspring retains in a great measure the short and twisted legs of the sire." Buffon made a cross between the male goat and the ewe; the resulting hybrid in all the instances, which were many, were strongly characteristic of the male parent, more particularly in the hair and length of leg. Curious enough, the number of teats in some of the cases corresponded with those of the goat. A cross between the male wolf and a bitch illustrates the same law; the offspring having a markedly wolfish aspect; skin, color, ears and tail. On the other hand, a cross between the dog and female wolf afforded animals much more dog-like in aspect--slouched ears and even pied in color. If you look at the descriptions and illustrations of these two hybrids, you will perceive at a glance that the doubt arises to the mind in the case of the first, 'what genus of _wolf_ is this?' whereas in the case of the second, 'what a curious _mongrel dog_!' The views of Mr. Walker in his work on Intermarriage, before alluded to, agree substantially with those of Mr. Orton, _so far as regards crossing between different breeds_; but they cover a broader field of observation and in some respects differ. Mr. Walker maintains that when both parents are of the _same breed_ that _either parent may transmit either half_ of the organization. That when they are of _different varieties_ or breeds (and by parity of reasoning the same should hold, strongly, when hybrids are produced by crossing different _species_) and supposing also that both parents are of equal age and vigor, that the _male_ gives the _back head and locomotive organs_ and the _female_ the _face and_ nutritive organs--I quote his language: "when both parents are of the same variety, _one parent communicates the anterior part of the head, the bony part of the face, the forms of the organs of sense_ (the external ear, under lip, lower part of the nose and eye brows being often modified) _and the whole of the internal nutritive system_, (the contents of the trunk or the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and consequently the form of the trunk itself in so far as that depends on its contents.) The resemblance to that parent is consequently found in the forehead and bony parts of the face, as the orbits, cheek bones, jaws, chin and teeth, as well as the shape of the organs of sense and the tone of the voice. _The other parent communicates the posterior part of the head, the cerebel situated within the skull immediately above its junction with the back of the neck, and the whole of the locomotive system_; (the bones, ligaments and muscles or fleshy parts.) The resemblance to that parent is consequently found in the back head, the few more movable parts of the face, as the external ear, under lip, lower part of the nose, eyebrows, and the external forms of the body, in so far as they depend on the muscles as well as the form of the limbs, even to the fingers, toes and nails. * * It is a fact established by my observations that in animals of the _same variety, either the male or the female parent_ may give _either series of organs_ as above arranged--that is _either_ forehead and organs of sense, together with the vital and nutritive organs, _or_ back head, together with the locomotive organs." To show that among domesticated animals organization is transmitted by halves in the way indicated, and that either parent may give either series of organs, he cites among other instances the account of the Ancon sheep. "When both parents are of the Ancon or Otter breed, their descendants inherit their peculiar appearance and proportions of form. When an Ancon ewe is impregnated by a common ram, the progeny resembles wholly either the ewe or the ram. The progeny of a common ewe impregnated by an Ancon ram follows entirely in shape the one or the other without blending any of the distinguishing and essential peculiarities of both. 'Frequent instances have occurred where common ewes have had twins by Ancon rams; when one exhibited the complete marks and features of the ewe and the other of the ram. The contrast has been rendered singularly striking when one short legged and one long legged lamb produced at a birth have been sucking the dam at the same time.' As the short and crooked legs or those of opposite form, here indicate the parent giving the locomotive system, it is evident that one of the twins derived it from one parent and the other twin from the other parent;--the parent not giving it, doubtless communicating in each case, the vital or nutritive system." Where the parents are of different varieties or species, Mr. Walker says, "The second law, namely, that of CROSSING, operates where each parent is of a _different breed_, and where, supposing both to be of equal age and vigor the _male_ gives the _back head_ and _locomotive organs_, and the _female_ the _face_ and _nutritive organs_." After giving numerous illustrations from facts and many quotations from eminent breeders, he says, "thus, in crosses of cattle as well as of horses, the male, except where feebler or of inferior voluntary and locomotive power, gives the locomotive system, the female the vital one." W.C. Spooner, V.S., one of the most eminent authorities of the present day on this subject, and writing within the past year in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, says:--"The most probable supposition is, that propagation is done by halves, each parent giving to the offspring the shape of one half of the body. Thus the back, loins, hind-quarters, general shape, skin and size follow one parent; and the fore-quarters, head, vital and nervous system, the other; and we may go so far as to add, that the former in the great majority of cases go with the male parent, and the latter with the female. A corroboration of this fact is found in the common system of putting an ordinary mare to a thorough-bred horse; not only does the head of the offspring resemble the dam but the forelegs likewise, and thus it is fortunately the case that the too-frequently faulty and tottering legs of the sire are not reproduced in the foal, whilst the full thighs and hind quarters which belong to the blood-horse are generally given to the offspring. There is however a minority of cases in which the opposite result obtains. That size is governed more by the male parent there is no great difficulty in showing; familiar examples may be found in the pony-mare and the full sized horse, which considerably exceed the dam in size. Again, in the first cross between the small indigenous ewe and the large ram of another improved breed--the offspring is found to approach in size and shape very much to the ram. The mule offspring of the mare also much resembles both in size and appearance its donkey sire. These are familiar examples of the preponderating influence of the male parent, so far as the external form is considered. To show however that size and hight do not invariably follow the male, we need go no further for illustration than the human subject. How often do we find that in the by no means unfrequent case of the union of a tall man with a short woman, the result in some instances is that all the children are tall and in others all short; or sometimes that some are short and others tall. Within our own knowledge in one case, where the father was tall and the mother short, the children, six in number, are all tall. In another instance, the father being short and the mother tall, the children, seven in number, are all of lofty stature. In a third instance, the mother being tall and the father short, the greater portion of the family are short. Such facts as these are sufficient to prove that hight or growth does not exclusively follow either the one parent or the other. Although this is the case, it is also a striking fact that the union of tall and short parents rarely, if ever, produces offspring of a medium size--midway, as it were, between the two parents. Thus, in the breeding of animals, if the object be to modify certain defects by using a male or female in which such defects may not exist, we cannot produce this desired alteration; or rather it cannot be equally produced in all the offspring, but can only be attained by weeding out those in whom the objectionable points are repeated. We are, however, of opinion that in the majority of instances, the hight in the human subject, and the size and _contour_ in animals, is influenced _much more by the male_ than the female parent--and on the other hand, that the constitution, the chest and vital organs, and the forehand generally more frequently follow the female." Dr. Carpenter, the highest authority in Physiology, says "it has long been a prevalent idea that certain parts of the organism of the offspring" are derived from the male, and certain other parts from the female parent; and although no universal rule can be laid down upon this point, yet the independent observations which have been made by numerous practical breeders of domestic animals seem to establish that such a _tendency_ has a real existence; the characters of the _animal_ portion of the fabric being especially (but not exclusively) derived from the male parent, and those of the _organic_ apparatus being in like manner derived from the female parent. The former will be chiefly manifested in the external appearance, in the general configuration of the head and limbs, in the organs of the senses (including the skin) and in the locomotive apparatus; whilst the latter show themselves in the size of the body (which is primarily determined by the development of the viscera contained in the trunk) and in the mode in "which the vital functions are performed." On the whole it may be said that the evidence both from observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders goes to show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the organization to the offspring, and that each has a modifying influence upon the other. Facts also show that the same parent does not always contribute the same portions, but that the order is reversed. Now, as no operation of nature is by accident, but by virtue of _law_, there must be fixed laws here, and there must also be, at times, certain influences at work to modify the action of these laws. Where animals are of distinct species, or of distinct breeds, transmission is usually found to be in accordance with the rule above indicated, i.e. the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system, and the female chiefly the interior system, constitution, &c. Where the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the portions contributed by each are governed in large measure by the condition of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual potency or superiority of physical endowment. This _potency_ or power of transmission seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or the concentration of fixed qualities obtained by continued descent for many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the qualities desired. On the other hand it must be admitted that there are exceptional cases not easily accounted for upon any theory, and it seems not improbable that in these the modifying influences may be such as to effect what may approximate a reconstruction or new combination of the elements, in a manner analogous to the chemical changes which we know take place in the constituents of vegetables, as for instance, we find that sugar, gum and starch, substances quite unlike in their appearance and uses, are yet formed from the same elements and in nearly or precisely the same proportions, by a chemistry which we have not yet fathomed. Whether this supposition be correct or not, there is little doubt that if we understood fully all the influences at work, and could estimate fairly all the data to judge from, we might predict with confidence what would be the characteristics of the progeny from any given union. Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services of the best sires; that is, _the best for the end and purposes in view_--that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and symmetry--that he select dams best calculated to develop the good qualities of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom from internal disease, for hardihood, constitution, and generally for all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system. The neglect which is too common, and especially in breeding horses, to the qualities of the dam, miserably old and inferior females being often employed, cannot be too strongly censured. In rearing valuable horses the dams are not of less consequence than the sires, although their influence upon the progeny be not the same. This is well understood and practiced upon by the Arab, who cultivates endurance and bottom. If his mare be of the true Kochlani breed he will part with her for no consideration whatever, while you can buy his stallion at a comparatively moderate price. The prevalent practice in England and America of cultivating speed in preference to other qualities, has led us to attach greater importance to the male, and the too common neglect of health, vigor, endurance and constitution in the mares has in thousands of cases entailed the loss of qualities not less valuable, and without which speed alone is of comparatively little worth. FOOTNOTES: [17] In his work, "De la Generation," Paris, 1828. [18] Quoted, in part, from a paper by Alex. Harvey, M.D., read before the Medical Society of Southampton, June 6th, 1854. CHAPTER VI. SEX. With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of progeny very little is known. Many and extensive observations have been made, but without arriving at any definite conclusions. Nature seems to have provided that the number of either sex produced, shall be nearly equal, but by what means this result is attained, has not been discovered. Some physiologists think the sex decided by the influence of the sire, others think it due to the mother. Sir Everard Home believed the _ovum_ or germ, previous to impregnation to be of no sex, but so formed as to be equally fitted to become either male or female, and that it is the process of impregnation which marks the sex and forms the generative organs; that before the fourth month the sex cannot be said to be confirmed, and that it will prove male or female as the tendency to the paternal or maternal type may preponderate. Mr. T.A. Knight[19] was of opinion that the sex of progeny depended upon the influence of the female parent. He says, "The female parent's influence upon the sex of offspring in cows, and I have reason to believe in the females of our other domestic animals, is so strong, that it may, I think, be pronounced nearly positive," He also says, "I have repeatedly proved that by dividing a herd of thirty cows into three equal parts, I could calculate with confidence upon a large majority of females from one part, of males from another, and upon nearly an equal number of males and females from the remainder. I have frequently endeavored to change the habits by changing the male without success." He relates a case as follows:--"Two cows brought all female offspring, one fourteen in fifteen years, and the other fifteen in sixteen years, though I annually changed the bull. Both however produced one male each, and that in the same year; and I confidently expected, when the one produced a male that the other would, as she did." M. Giron, after long continued observation and experiment, stated with much confidence, that the general law upon this point was, that the sex of progeny would depend on the greater or less relative vigor of the individuals coupled. In many experiments purposely made, he obtained from ewes more males than females by coupling very strong rams with ewes either too young, or too aged, or badly fed, and more females than males by a reverse choice in the ewes and rams he put together. Mon. Martegoute, formerly Professor of Rural Economy, in a late communication to the "Journal D'Agriculture Pratique," says that as the result of daily observations at a sheepfold of great importance, that of the Dishley Mauchamp Merinos of M. Viallet at Blanc, he has, if not deceived, obtained some new hints. He states that Giron's law developed itself regularly at the sheepfold in all cases where difference of vigor was observed in the ewes or rams which were coupled; but he adds another fact, which he had observed every year since 1853, when his observations began. This fact consists-- _First_, In that at the commencement of the rutting season when the ram is in his full vigor he procreated more males than females. _Second_, When, some days after, and the ewes coming in heat in great numbers at once, the ram being weakened by a more frequent renewal of the exertion, the procreation of females took the lead. _Third_, The period of excessive exertion having passed, and the number of ewes in heat being diminished, the ram also found less weakened, the procreation of males in majority again commenced." In order to show that the cause of such a result is isolated from all other influences of a nature to be confounded with it, he gives the details of his observations in a year when the number of births of males and females were about equal. He also goes on to say, that, "at the end of each month all the animals at the sheepfold are weighed separately, and thanks to these monthly weighings, we have drawn up several tables from which are seen the diminution or increase in weight of the different animals classed in various points of view, whether according to age, sex or the object for which they were intended. Two of these tables have been appropriated to bearing ewes--one to those which have borne and nursed males and the other to those which have borne and brought up females. The abstract results of these two tables have furnished two remarkable facts. _First_, The ewes that have produced the female lambs are, on an average, of a weight superior to those that produced the males; and they evidently lose more in weight than these last during the suckling period. _Second_, The ewes that produce males weigh less, and do not lose in nursing so much as the others. If the indications given by these facts come to be confirmed by experiments sufficiently repeated, two new laws will be placed by the side of that which Giron de Bazareingues has determined by his observations and experiments. On the one hand, as, at liberty, or in the savage state, it is a general rule that the predominance in acts of generation belongs to the strongest males to the exclusion of the weak, and as such a predominance is favorable to the procreation of the male sex, it would follow that the number of males would tend to surpass incessantly that of the females, amongst whom no want of energy or power would turn aside from generation, and the species would find in it a fatal obstacle to its reproduction. But, on the other hand, if it was true that the strongest females and the best nurses amongst them produce females rather than males, nature would thus oppose a contrary law, which would establish the equilibrium, and by an admirable harmony would secure the perfection and preservation of the species, by confiding the reproduction of either sex to the most perfect type of each respectively." FOOTNOTES: [19] Philosophical Transactions, 1809. CHAPTER VII. IN-AND-IN BREEDING. It has long been a disputed point whether the system of breeding _in-and-in_ or the opposite one of frequent crossing has the greater tendency to maintain or improve the character of stock. The advocates of both systems are earnest and confident of being in the right. The truth probably is, as in some other similar disputes, that both are right and both wrong--to a certain extent, or within certain limits. The term _in-and-in_ is often very loosely used and is variously understood; some, and among these several of the best writers, confine the phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, i.e. brothers and sisters; while others include in it breeding from parents and offspring, and others still employ the term to embrace those of more distant relationship. For the latter, the term breeding in, or close breeding, is deemed more fitting. The prevalent opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any near relationships; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy, although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects follow in a majority of cases is not to be doubted, but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon other grounds. In a state of nature animals of near affinities interbreed without injurious results, and it is found by experience that where domesticated animals are of a pure race, or of a distinct, well defined and pure breed, the coupling of those of near affinities is not so often followed by injurious effects as when they are crosses, or of mixed or mongrel origin, like the great majority of the cattle in the country at large. In the latter case breeding in-and-in is _usually_ found to result in decided and rapid deterioration. We should consider also that few animals in a state of domestication are wholly free from hereditary defects and diseases, and that these are propagated all the more readily and surely when possessed by both parents, and that those nearly related are more likely than others, to possess similar qualities and tendencies. If such is to be regarded as the true explanation, it follows that the same method would be also efficacious in perpetuating and confirming good qualities. Such is the fact; and it is well known that nearly all who have achieved eminence as breeders, have availed themselves freely of its benefits. Bakewell, the Messrs. Colling, Mr. Mason, Mr. Bates and others, all practiced it. Mr. Bates' rule was, "breed in-and-in from a bad stock and you cause ruin and devastation, they must always be changing to keep even moderately in caste; but _if a good stock_ be selected, you may breed in-and-in as much as you please."[20] Bakewell originated his famous sheep by crossing from the best he could gather from far or near; but when he had obtained such as suited him, he bred exclusively from within his own. As in all breeding from crosses, it was needful to throw out as weeds, a large proportion of the progeny, but by rigidly doing so, and saving none to breed from but such as became more and more firmly possessed of the forms and qualities desired, the weeds gradually became fewer, until at length he fully established the breed; and he continued it, and sustained its high reputation during his life by in-breeding _connected with proper selections for coupling_. After his death, others, not possessing his tact and judgment in making selections, were less fortunate, and in some hands the breed degenerated seriously, insomuch that it was humorously remarked, "there was nothing but a little tallow left." In others it has been maintained by the same method. Mr. Valentine Barford of Foscote, has the pedigree of his Leicester sheep since the day of Bakewell, in 1783, and since 1810, he has bred entirely from his own flock, sire and dam, without an inter-change of male or female from any other flock. He observes "that his flock being bred from the nearest affinities--commonly called in-and-in breeding--has not experienced any of the ill effects ascribed to the practice." W.C. Spooner, V.S., speaking of Mr. Barford's sheep says, "His flock is remarkably healthy and his rams successful, but his sheep are small." Mr. Charles Colling, after he procured the famous bull Hubback, selected cows most likely to develop his special excellencies, and from the progeny of these he bred very closely. From that day to this, the Short-horns as a general thing, have been very closely bred,[21] and the practice has been carried so far, the selections not always being the most judicious possible, as to result in many cases in delicacy of constitution, and in some where connected with pampering, in sterility.[22] Col. Jaques, of the Ten Hills Farm near Boston, imported a pair of Bremen geese in 1822. They were bred together till 1830, when the gander was accidentally killed. Since then the goose bred with her offspring till she was killed by an attack of dogs in 1852. Great numbers were bred during this time, and of course there was much of the closest breeding, yet there was no deterioration, and in fact some of the later ones were larger and better than the first pair. The same gentleman also obtained a pair of wild geese from Canada in 1818, which with their progeny were bred from without change until destroyed by dogs with the above named in 1852. They continued perfect as at first. Among gregarious ruminating animals in a state of nature, all who associate in a herd acknowledge a chieftain, or head, who maintains his position by virtue of physical health, strength and general superiority. He not only directs all their movements but is literally the father of the herd. When a stronger than he comes, the post of chieftain and sire is yielded, but in all probability his successor is one of his own sons, who in turn begets offspring by his sisters. The progeny inheriting full health, strength and development, the herd continues in full power and vigor,[23] and does not degenerate as often happens when man assumes to make the selections, and chooses according to fancy or convenience. The continuance of health, strength and perfect physical development is believed to depend on the _wisdom of the selection, upon the presence of the desirable hereditary qualities, and the absence of injurious ones_, and not upon relationship whether near or remote. It has fallen within the observation of most persons that in the human race frequent intermarriages in the same family for successive generations often tend to degeneracy of both mind and body; size and vigor diminishing, and constitutional defects and diseases being perpetuated and aggravated; but neither in this case is the result believed to be a necessary and inevitable consequence. Else how could it be, that Infinite Wisdom, whose operations are ever in accordance with the laws of his own institution, in originating a "peculiar people," chosen to be the depositories of intellectual and physical power, wealth and influence, and who, in spite of oppression without parallel in the world's history, have ever maintained the possession of a goodly share of all these,--would have allowed their first progenitor, Abraham, to marry his near kinswoman Sarah, a half sister, niece or cousin, and Isaac their son to wed his first cousin Rebecca, and Jacob who sprang from that union, to marry first cousins, and their offspring for long generations to intermarry within their own people and tribes alone? At a later period, marriages within certain degrees of consanguinity were forbidden by Divine authority, but not until the peculiar race was fully established, and so far multiplied, as to allow departure from close breeding without change of characteristics, and not improbably the prohibition was even then based more upon moral reasons, or upon man's ignorance or recklessness regarding selection, than upon physical law. Such laws exist among us at present, and it is well they do, inasmuch as for the reasons already given there is greater probability of degeneracy by means of such connections than among those not so related by blood. But they present an instance of the imperfection of human laws, it being impossible for any legal enactments to prevent wholly the evil thus sought to be avoided. It would be better far, if such a degree of physiological knowledge existed and such caution was exercised among the community generally, as would prevent the contraction of any marriages, where, from the structure and endowments of the parties, debility, deformity, insanity or idiocy must inevitably be the portion of their offspring whether they are more nearly related than through their common ancestor, Noah, or not. If we adopt Mr. Walker's views, it is easy to see how parents of near affinities may produce offspring perfect and healthy, or the reverse. He holds, that to secure satisfactory results from any union, there should be some inherent, constitutional, or fundamental difference; some such difference as we often see in the human family to be the ground of preference and attachment; as men generally prefer women of a feminine rather than a masculine type. All desire, in a mate, properties and qualities not possessed by themselves. Now assuming as Mr. Walker holds, that organization is transmitted by halves, and that, in animals of the same variety, either parent may give either series of organs, we can see in the case of brother and sister that if one receives the locomotive system of the father and the nutritive system of the mother, and the other the locomotive system of the mother and the nutritive system of the father, they are essentially unlike, there is scarcely any similarity between them, although, as we say, of precisely the same blood; and their progeny if coupled might show no deterioration; whereas, if both have the same series of organs from the same parents, they would be essentially the same, a sort of quasi identity would exist between them, and they are utterly unfit to be mated. There might be impotency, or barrenness, or the progeny, if any, would be decidedly inferior to the parents; and the same applies, more or less, to other relatives descended from a common ancestry, but more distant than brother and sister. Mr. Walker also holds that where the parents are not only of the same variety but of the same family in the narrowest sense, the female always gives the locomotive system and the father the nutritive; in which case the progeny is necessarily inferior to the parents. A careful consideration of the subject brings us to the following conclusions, viz: That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals common in the country, _close breeding should be scrupulously avoided_ as highly detrimental. It is better _always_ to avoid breeding from near affinities whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view, as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the breed, and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect in health and development, close breeding may be practiced with advantage. FOOTNOTES: [20] Mr. Bates, although eminent as a breeder, was not infallible in making his selections, and after long continued close breeding, he was compelled to go out of his own herd to procure breeding animals. [21] Probably few who have not critically examined the facts regarding close breeding in the improved Short-horns are aware of the extent to which it has been carried. On the 28th of March, 1860, at a sale of Short-horns at Milcote, near Stratford upon Avon (England) thirty-one descendants of a cow called "Charmer," bred of Mr. Colling's purest blood, and praised in the advertisement as "capital milkers and very prolific, _not having been pampered_," sold for £2,140, averaging about $350 each, and many of them were calves. The stock was also praised as "offering to the public as much of the pure blood of 'Favorite' as could be found in any herd." With reference to this sale, which also comprised other stock, the Agricultural Gazette, published a few days previous, had some remarks from which the following is extracted: "It is unquestionable that the ability of a cow or bull to transmit the merit either may possess does in a great degree depend upon its having been inherited by them through a long line of ancestry. Nothing is more remarkable than the way in which the earlier improvers of the Short-horn breed carried out their belief in this. They were indeed driven by the comparative fewness of well bred animals to a repeated use of the same sire on successive generations of his own begetting, while breeders now-a-days have the advantage of fifty different strains and families from which to choose the materials of their herd, but whether it were necessity or choice it is certain that the pedigree of no pure bred Short-horn can be traced without very soon reaching many an illustration of the way in which 'breeding in-and-in' has influenced its character, deepened it, made it permanent, so that it is handed down unimpaired and even strengthened in the hands of the judicious breeder. What an extraordinary influence has thus been exerted by a single bull on the fortunes of the Short-horn breed! There is hardly a single choice pure-bred Short-horn that is not descended from 'Favorite' (252) and not only descended in a single line--but descended in fifty different lines. Take any single animal, and this bull shall occur in a dozen of its preceding generations and repeatedly up to a hundred times! in the animals of some of the more distant generations. His influence is thus so paramount in the breed that one fancies he has created it and that the present character of the whole breed is due the 'accidental' appearance of an animal of extraordinary endowments on the stage in the beginning of the present century. And yet this is not so;--he is himself an illustration of the breeding in-and-in system--his sire and dam having been half brother and sister, both got by 'Foljambe.' And this breeding in-and-in has handed down his influence to the present time in an extraordinary degree. Take for instance, the cow 'Charmer,' from which as will be seen elsewhere, no fewer than thirty-one descendants are to be sold next Wednesday. She had of course two immediate parents, four progenitors in the second generation, eight in the third, sixteen in the fourth, the number necessarily doubling each step farther back. Of the eight bulls named in the fourth generation from which she was descended, one was by 'Favorite.' She is one-sixteenth 'Favorite' on that account, but the cow to which he was then put was also descended from 'Favorite,' and so are each of the other seven bulls and seven cows which stand on the same level of descent with the gr. gr. g. dam of 'Charmer.' And in fact it will be found on examination that in so far as 'Charmer's' pedigree is known, which it is in some instances to the sixteenth generation, she is not one-sixteenth only but nearly nine-sixteenths of pure Favorite blood. This arises from 'Favorite' having been used repeatedly on cows descended from himself. In the pedigree of 'Charmer' we repeatedly meet with 'Comet'--'Comet' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Young Phoenix' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'George'--'George' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Lady Grace' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Chilton'--'Chilton' was by 'Favorite' and his dam was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Minor'--'Minor' was by 'Favorite' and his dam also was by 'Favorite;' with 'Peeress'--she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Bright Eyes'--she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Strawberry'--she was by 'Favorite' and her dam by 'Favorite;' 'Dandy,' 'Moss Rose,' among the cows and 'North Star' among the bulls are also of similar descent. There is no difficulty therefore in understanding how this name appears repeatedly in any given generation of the pedigree of any given animal of the Short-horn breed." [22] Journal Royal Agricultural Society, volume 20, page 297. [23] It may be said with truth, that the average health and vigor of a wild herd is much higher than it would be if the feebler portion of the young were reared, as in a state of domestication, instead of being destroyed by the stronger, or perishing from hardship; but if close breeding be, of itself and necessarily, injurious, the whole herd should gradually fail, which is not found to be the case. CHAPTER VIII. CROSSING. The practice of crossing, like that of close breeding, has its strong and its weak side. Substantial arguments can be brought both in its favor and against it. Judiciously practiced, it offers a means of procuring animals _for the butcher_, often superior to and more profitable than those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well considered attempt to establish a new breed. Such attempts, however, as they necessarily involve considerable expense, and efforts continued during a long term of years, will be rarely made. But when crossing is practiced injudiciously and indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of procuring _breeding animals_, it cannot be too severely censured, and is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and-in breeding. The following remarks, from the pen of W.C. Spooner, V.S., are introduced as sound and reliable, and as comprising nearly all which need be said on the subject of crossing breeds possessing distinctive characteristics: "Crossing is generally understood to refer to the alliance of animals of different breeds, such as between a thorough-bred and a half-bred among horses or a South Down and Leicester among sheep. Now the advantages or disadvantages of this system depend entirely on the object we have in view, whether merely to beget an animal for the butcher, or for the purpose of perpetuating the species. If the latter is the object, then crossing should be adopted gradually and with care, and by no means between distant or antagonistic qualities, as for example a thorough-bred and a cart-horse. The result of the latter connection is generally an ill-assorted and unfavorable animal, too heavy perhaps for one purpose, and too light for another. If we wish to instil more activity into the cart-horse breed, it is better to do so by means of some half-bred animal, whilst the latter can be improved by means of the three-parts-bred horse and this again by the thorough-bred. There is a remarkable tendency, in breeding, for both good qualities and bad to disappear for one or two generations, and to reappear in the second and third; thus an animal often resembles the grand dam more than the dam. This peculiarity is itself an objection to the practice of crossing, as it tends to prevent uniformity and to encourage contrarieties; and thus we find in many flocks and herds that the hopes of the breeders have been entirely baffled and a race of mongrels established. The first cross is generally successful--a tolerable degree of uniformity is produced, resembling in external conformation the sire, which is usually of a superior breed; and thus the offspring are superior to the dams. These cross-bred animals are now paired amongst each other, and what is the consequence? Uniformity at once disappears; some of the offspring resemble the grandsire, and others the grandams, and some possess the disposition and constitution of the one and some of the other; and consequently a race of mongrels is perpetuated. If, however, the cross is really a good and desirable one, then, by means of rigorous and continued selection, pursued for several generations, that is, by casting aside, as regards breeding purposes, every animal that does not exhibit uniformity, or possess the qualifications we are desirous of perpetuating, a valuable breed of animals may in the course of time be established. By this system many varieties of sheep have been so far improved as to become almost new breeds; as for instance the New Oxford Downs which have frequently gained prizes at the great Agricultural Meetings as being the best long wooled sheep. To cross, however, merely for crossing sake--to do so without that care and vigilance which we have deemed so essential--is a practice which cannot be too much condemned. It is in fact a national evil and a sin against society, that is, if carried beyond the first cross, or if the cross-bred animals are used for breeding. A useful breed of animals may thus be lost, and a generation of mongrels established in their place, a result which has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals. The principal use of crossing, however, is to raise animals for the butcher. In this respect it has not (with sheep) been adopted to the extent which it might to advantage. The male being generally an animal of a superior breed and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size and muscular development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to him, whilst their internal nature derived from the dam, well adapts them to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed. With regard to cattle, the system cannot be so advantageously pursued (except for the purpose of improving the size and qualities of the calf, where veal is the object) in as much as every required qualification for breeding purposes can be obtained by using animals of the pure breeds. But with sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil as regards the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable, and the weight of mutton is materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, more systematic attention than farmers usually like to bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a native ram for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed, and a foreign ram to raise the improved cross-bred animals for fatting either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South Down rams to improve the quality of the mutton. One inconvenience attending this plan, is the necessity of fatting the maiden ewes as well as the wethers; they may however be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spaying might be adopted, so as to increase the fatting disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill where the object is to improve the breed of animals; it should never be practiced carelessly or capriciously, but it may be advantageously pursued with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher." In another paper on this subject, after presenting many interesting details regarding British breeds of sheep and the results of crossing, Mr. Spooner says: "We cannot do better, in concluding our paper, than gather up and arrange in a collected form, the various points of our subject, which appear to be of sufficient importance to be again presented to the attention of our readers. We think, therefore, we are justified in coming to the conclusions: 1st. That there is a direct pecuniary advantage in judicious cross-breeding; that increased size, disposition to fatten, and early maturity, are thereby induced. 2d. That while this may be caused for the most part, by the very fact of crossing, yet it is principally due to the superior influence of the male over the size and external appearance of the offspring; so that it is desirable, for the purpose of the butcher, that the male should be of a larger frame than the female, and should excel in those peculiarities we are desirous of reproducing. Let it be here however, repeated, as an exceptional truth, that though as a rule the male parent influences mostly the size and external form, and the female parent the constitution, general health and vital powers, yet that the opposite result sometimes takes place. 3d. Certain peculiarities may be imparted to a breed by a single cross. Thus, the ponies of the New Forest exhibit characteristics of blood, although it is many years since that a thorough-bred horse was turned into the forest for the purpose. So, likewise, we observe in the Hampshire sheep the Roman nose and large heads, which formed so strong a feature in their maternal ancestors, although successive crosses of the South Down were employed to change the character of the breed. * * * 4th. Although in the crossing of sheep for the purpose of the butcher, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance that the _pelvis_ of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no injury should arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason. In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which we seek to improve. Thus the South Downs have vastly improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester the huge Lincolns and the Cotswolds. 5th. Although the benefits are most evident in the first cross, after which, from pairing the cross-bred animals, the defects of one breed or the other, or the incongruities of both, are perpetually breaking out--yet, unless the characteristics and conformation of the two breeds are altogether averse to each other, nature opposes no barrier to their successful admixture; so that in the course of time, by the aid of selection and careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new breed altogether. This, in fact, has been the history of our principal breeds. * * * We confess that we cannot entirely admit either of the antagonistic doctrines held by the rival advocates of crossing and pure breeding. The public have reason to be grateful to the exertions of either party; and still more have they respectively reason to be grateful to each other. * * * * Let us conclude by repeating the advice that, when equal advantages can be attained by keeping a pure breed of sheep, such pure breed should unquestionably be preferred; and that, although crossing for the purpose of the butcher may be practiced with impunity, and even with advantage, yet no one should do so for the purpose of establishing a new breed, unless he has clear and well defined views of the object he seeks to accomplish, and has duly studied the principles on which it can be carried out, and is determined to bestow for the space of half a life-time his constant and unremitting attention to the discovery and removal of defects." The term crossing is sometimes used in a much more restricted sense, as in the remark of Mr. Boswell in his essay quoted on page 69 where he says, "When I praise the advantage of crossing I would have it clearly understood that it is only to bring together animals _not nearly related_ but always of _the same breed_." It is evident that such crossing as this is wholly unobjectionable; no one but an avowed and ultra advocate of close breeding could possibly find any fault with it. There is yet another style of crossing which when practicable, may, it is believed, be made a means to the highest degree of improvement attainable, and especially in the breeding of horses. The word "breed" is often used with varying signification. In order to be understood, let me premise that I use it here simply to designate a class of animals possessing a good degree of uniformity growing out of the fact of a common origin and of their having been reared under similar conditions. The method proposed is to unite animals _possessing similarity of desirable characteristics, with difference of breed_; that is to say, difference of breed in the sense just specified. From unions based upon this principle, the selections being guided by a skillful judgment and a discriminating tact, we may expect progeny possessing not only a fitting and symmetrical development of the locomotive system, but also an amount and intensity of nervous energy and power unattainable by any other method. Such was in all probability the origin of the celebrated horse Justin Morgan; an animal which not only did more to stamp excellence and impart value to the roadsters of New England than any other, but was the originator of the only distinct, indigenous breed of animals of which America can boast;--a breed which as fast and durable road horses and for any light harness work, is not equalled by any other, any where. In the present state of our knowledge it is scarcely conceivable how an animal possessing the endowments of Justin Morgan could have originated in any other way than from such a parentage as above indicated. On the other hand it is very certain that _contrast in character_, as well as in breed, has occasioned much of the disappointment of which breeders have had occasion to complain. The principle here laid down is one of broad application, and should never be lost sight of in attempts at improvement by crossing. Another point worthy special attention is that all crossing, to insure successful results, should be gentle rather than violent; that is, never couple animals possessing marked dissimilarity, but endeavor to remedy faults and to effect improvement by gradual approaches. Harmony of structure and a proper balancing of desirable characteristics, "an equilibrium of good qualities," as it has been happily expressed, can be secured only in this way. It may not be out of place here to say, that much of the talk about _blood_ in animals, especially horses, is sheer nonsense. When a "blood horse" is spoken of, it means, so far as it means any thing, that his pedigree can be traced to Arabian or Barbary origin, and so is possessed of the peculiar type of structure and great nervous energy which usually attaches to "thorough-bred" horses. When a bull, or cow, or sheep is said to be of "pure blood," it means simply that the animal is of some distinct variety--that it has been bred from an ancestry all of which were marked by the same peculiarities and characteristics. So long as the term "blood" is used to convey the idea of definite hereditary qualities it may not be objectionable. We frequently use expressions which are not strictly accurate, as when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, and so long as every body knows that we refer to apparent position and not to any motion of the sun, no false ideas are conveyed. But to suppose that the hereditary qualities of an animal attach to the blood more than to any other fluid or to any of the tissues of the body, or that the blood of a high-bred horse is essentially different from that of another, is entirely erroneous. The qualities of an animal depend upon its organization and endowments, and the blood is only the vehicle by which these are nourished and sustained;--moreover the blood varies in quality, composition and amount, according to the food eaten, the air breathed and the exercise taken. If one horse is better than another it is not because the fluid in his veins is of superior quality, but rather because his structure is more perfect mechanically, and because nervous energy is present in fitting amount and intensity. For illustration, take two horses--one so built and endowed that he can draw two tons or more, three miles in an hour; the other so that he can trot a mile in three minutes or less. Let us suppose the blood coursing in the veins of each to be transferred to the other; would the draft horse acquire speed thereby, or the trotter acquire power? Just as much and no more as if you fed each for a month with the hay, oats and water intended for the other. It is well to attend to pedigree, for thus only can we know what are the hereditary qualities, but it is not well to lay too much stress upon "blood," What matters it that my horse was sired by such a one or such a one, if he be himself defective? In breeding horses, _structure_ is first, and endowment with nervous energy is next to be seen to, and then pedigree--afterwards that these be fittingly united, by proper selection for coupling, in order to secure the highest degree of probability which the nature of the case admits, that the offspring may prove a perfect machine and be suitably endowed with motive power. "The body of an animal is a piece of mechanism, the moving power of which is the vital principle, which like fire to the steam engine sets the whole in motion; but whatever quantity of fire or vital energy may be applied, neither the animal machine nor the engine will work with regularity and effect, unless the individual parts of which the machine is composed are properly adjusted and fitted for the purposes for which they are intended; or if it is found that the machine does move by the increase of moving power, still the motion is irregular and imperfect; the bolts and joints are continually giving way, there is a continued straining of the various parts, and the machine becomes worn out and useless in half the time it might have lasted if the proportions had been just and accurate. Such is the case with the animal machine. It is not enough that it is put in motion by the noblest spirit or that it is nourished by the highest blood; every bone must have its just proportion; every muscle or tendon its proper pulley; every lever its proper length and fulcrum; every joint its most accurate adjustment and proper lubrication; all must have their relative proportions and strength, before the motions of the machine can be accurate, vigorous and durable. In every machine modifications are required according as the purposes vary to which it is applied. The heavy dray horse is far from having the arrangement necessary for the purposes of the turf, while the thorough-bred is as ill adapted for the dray. Animals are therefore to be selected for the individual purposes for which they are intended, with the modifications of form proper for the different uses to which they are to be applied; but for whatever purpose they may be intended, there are some points which are common to all, in the adjustment of the individual parts. If the bones want their due proportions, or are imperfectly placed--if the muscles or tendons want their proper levers--if the flexions of the joints be interrupted by the defectiveness of their mechanism, the animal must either be defective in motion or strength; the bones have irregular pressure, and if they do not break, become diseased; if the muscles or tendons do not become sprained or ruptured, they are defective in their action; if friction or inflammation does not take place in the joints, the motions are awkward and grotesque. As in every other machine, the beauty of the animate, whether in motion or at rest, depends upon the arrangement of the individual parts." CHAPTER IX. BREEDING IN THE LINE. The preferable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to adopt, is neither to cross, nor to breed from close affinities, (except in rare instances and for some specific and clearly understood purpose,) but to _breed in the line_, that is, select the breed or race best adapted to fulfill the requirements demanded, whether it be for the dairy, for labor or for beef in cattle, or for such combination of these as can be had without too great sacrifice of the principal requisite; whether for fine wool as a primary object and for meat as a secondary one, or for mutton as a primary and wool for a secondary object, and then procure a _pure bred_ male of the kind determined on, and breed him to the females of the herd or of the flock; and if these be not such as are calculated to develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another _pure bred_ male of the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let this plan be steadily pursued, and although we cannot, without the intervention of well bred females, obtain stock purely of kind desired, yet in several generations, if proper care be given in the selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon the points gained by his predecessor, the stock for most practical purposes will be as good as if thorough-bred. Were this plan generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchange of males established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons, and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief. The writer on Cattle in the Library of Useful Knowledge well remarks:--"At the outset of his career, the farmer should have a clear and determined conception of the object that he wishes to accomplish. He should consider the nature of his farm; the quality, abundance or deficiency of his pasturage, the character of the soil, the seasons of the year when he will have plenty or deficiency of food, the locality of his farm, the market to which he has access and the produce which can be disposed of with greatest profit, and these things will at once point to him the breed he should be solicitous to obtain. The man of wealth and patriotism may have more extensive views, and nobly look to the general improvement of cattle; but the farmer, with his limited means and with the claims that press upon him, regards his cattle as a valuable portion of his own little property, and on which every thing should appear to be in natural keeping, and be turned to the best advantage. The best beast for him is that which suits his farm the best, and with a view to this, he studies, or ought to study, the points and qualities of his own cattle, and those of others. The dairyman will regard the quantity of milk--the quality--its value for the production of butter and cheese--the time that the cow continues in milk--the character of the breed for quietness, or as being good nurses--the predisposition to garget or other disease, or dropping after calving--the natural tendency to turn every thing to nutriment--the ease with which she is fattened when given up as a milker, and the proportion of food requisite to keep her in full milk or to fatten her when dry. The grazier will consider the kind of beast which his land will bear--the kind of meat most in demand in his neighborhood--the early maturity--the quickness of fattening at any age--the quality of the meat--the parts on which the flesh and fat are principally laid--and more than all the hardihood and the adaptation to the climate and soil. In order to obtain these valuable properties the good farmer will make himself perfectly master of the characters and qualities of his own stock. He will trace the connection of certain good qualities and certain bad ones, with an almost invariable peculiarity of shape and structure; and at length he will arrive at a clear conception, not so much of beauty of form (although that is a pleasing object to contemplate) as of that outline and proportion of parts with which _utility_ is oftenest combined. Then carefully viewing his stock he will consider where they approach to, and how far they wander from, this utility of form; and he will be anxious to preserve or to increase the one and to supply the deficiency of the other. He will endeavor to select from his own stock those animals that excel in the most valuable points, and particularly those which possess the greatest number of these points, and he will unhesitatingly condemn every beast that manifests deficiency in any one important point. He will not, however, too long confine himself to his own stock, unless it be a very numerous one. The breeding from close affinities has many advantages to a certain extent. It was the source whence sprung the cattle and sheep of Bakewell and the superior cattle of Colling; and to it must also be traced the speedy degeneracy, the absolute disappearance of the New Leicester cattle, and, in the hands of many agriculturists, the impairment of constitution and decreased value of the New Leicester sheep and of the Short-horns. He will therefore seek some change in his stock every second or third year, and that change is most conveniently effected by introducing a new bull. This bull should be of the same breed, and pure, coming from a similar pasturage and climate, but possessing no relationship--or, at most, a very distant one--to the stock to which he is introduced. He should bring with him every good point which the breeder has labored to produce in his stock, and if possible, some improvement, and especially in the points where the old stock may have been somewhat deficient, and most certainly he should have no manifest defect of form; and that most essential of all qualifications, a hardy constitution, should not be wanting. There is one circumstance, however, which the breeder occasionally forgets, but which is of as much importance to the permanent value of his stock as any careful selection of animals can be--and that is, good keeping. It has been well said that all good stock must be both bred with attention and well fed. It is necessary that these two essentials in this species of improvement should always accompany each other; for without good resources of keeping, it would be vain to attempt supporting a valuable stock. This is true with regard to the original stock. It is yet more evident when animals are absurdly brought from a better to a poorer soil. The original stock will deteriorate if neglected and half-starved, and the improved breed will lose ground even more rapidly, and to a far greater extent." A very brief resumé of the preceding remarks may be expressed as follows: The Law of Similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and best combination. Regard should be had not only to the more obvious characteristics, but also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation. From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad, we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities and properties _thoroughly inbred_; or, in other words, so firmly fixed in each generation, that the next is warrantably certain to present nothing worse,--that no ill results follow from breeding back towards some inferior ancestor,--that all undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible, _bred out_. So important is this consideration, that in practice, it is decidedly preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance, provided his ancestry be all which is desired, rather than a grade or cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty. A knowledge of the Law of Divergence teaches us to avoid, for breeding purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose in view; and to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; also to secure as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to induce or to perpetuate any improvement, such as general treatment, food, climate, habit, &c. Where the parents do not possess the perfection desired, selections for coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellence in the other. But to correct defects too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing those very unlike, oftener results in loss than in gain. Mating a horse for speed with a draft mare, will more likely beget progeny good for neither, than for both. Avoid all extremes, and endeavor by moderate degrees to obtain the object desired. Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals for the shambles, may be advantageously practiced to considerable extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general rule cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males. In ordinary practice, breeding from near relationships is to be _scrupulously avoided_; for certain purposes, under certain conditions and circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be practiced with advantage, but not otherwise. In a large majority of cases (other things being equal) we may expect in progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together with the internal qualities, constitution and nutritive system of the dam; each, however, modified by the other. Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health. Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never be fat but once. In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets. No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, or any amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better care they deserve. CHAPTER X. CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS BREEDS. The inquiry is frequently made, what is the best breed of cattle, sheep, &c., for general use. In reply it may be said that no breed can by any possibility fulfill all requirements in the best possible manner; one is better for meat and early maturity, another for milk, another for wool, and so on. Because under certain circumstances it may be necessary or advisable for a man to serve as his own builder, tailor, tanner and blacksmith, it by no means follows that all which is required will be as well, or as easily done, as by a division of labor. So it is better for many reasons, and more profit can be made, by employing different breeds for different purposes, than by using one for all, and towards such profitable employment we should constantly aim. At the same time there is a large class of farmers so situated that they cannot keep distinct breeds, and yet wish to employ them for different uses, and whose requirements will best be met by a kind of cattle, which, without possessing remarkable excellence in any one direction, shall be sufficiently hardy, the oxen proving docile and efficient laborers for a while, and then turn quickly into good beef upon such food as their farms will produce, the cows giving a fair quantity and quality of milk for the needs of the family and perhaps to furnish a little butter and cheese for market. Before proceeding to answer the inquiry more definitely, it may be well to remark further, that among the facts of experience regarding cattle, sheep and horses, nothing is better established than that no breed can be transferred from the place where it originated, and to which it was suited, to another of unlike surface, climate and fertility, and retain equal adaptation to its new situation, nor can it continue to be what it was before. It must and will vary. The influence of climate alone, aside from food and other agencies in causing variation, is so great that the utmost skill in breeding, and care in all other respects, cannot wholly control its modifying effects. It is also pretty well established that no breed brought in from abroad can be fully as good, _other things being equal_, as one indigenous to the locality, or what approximates the same thing, as one, which by being reared through repeated generations on the spot has become thoroughly acclimated; so that the presumption is strongly in favor of _natives_. When we look about us however, we find, if we except the Morgan horses, nothing which deserves the name of indigenous breeds or races. The cattle and sheep known as "natives" are of mixed foreign origin, and have been bred with no care in selection, but crossed in every possible way. They possess no fixed hereditary traits, and although among them are many of very respectable qualities, and which possess desirable characteristics, they cannot be relied upon _as breeders, to produce progeny of like excellence_. Instead of constancy, there is continual variation, and frequent "breeding back," exhibiting the undesirable traits of inferior ancestors. That a breed might be established from them, by careful selection continued during repeated generations, aided perhaps by judicious crossing with more recent importations, fully as good as any now existing, is not to be doubted. Very probably, a breed for dairy purposes might be thus created which should excel any now existing in Europe, for some of our so called native cows, carelessly as they have been bred, are not surpassed by any of foreign origin upon which great care has been expended. To accomplish this is an object worthy the ambition of those who possess the skill, enthusiasm, ample means and indomitable perseverance requisite to success. But except the single attempt of Col. Jaques, of the Ten Hills Farm, to establish the Creampot breed,[24] of which, as little has been heard since his death, it is fair to presume that it has dropped into the level of common grade cattle, no systematic and continued effort has come to our knowledge. Consequently such as may be deemed absolutely the best is a thing of the future; they do not yet exist--and there is no probability that the desideratum will soon be attained. We Yankees are an impatient people; we dislike to wait, for any thing, or to invest where five, ten, twenty or fifty years may be expected to elapse before satisfactory dividends may be safely anticipated. Still, if all would begin to-day, to use what skill and judgment they have, or can acquire, in breeding only from the best of such as they have, coupling with reference to their peculiarities, and consigning to the butcher as fast as possible every inferior animal, and if, in addition, they would do what is equally necessary, namely, improve their general treatment as much as lies in their power, there would result an immediate, a marked and a steadily progressive improvement in stock. To the acclimation or Americanization already acquired, would be added increased symmetry of form and greater value in many other respects. This is within the power of every man, and whatever else he may be obliged to leave undone, for want of ability, none should be content to fall short of this. Those who have the command of ample means will of course desire that improvement should be as rapid as possible. They will endeavor at once to procure well bred animals, or in other words, such as already possess the desired qualities so thoroughly inwrought into their organization that they can rely with a good degree of confidence on their imparting them to their progeny. It may be well to allude here to a distinction between breeds and races. By _breeds_, are understood such varieties as were originally produced by a cross or mixture, like the Leicester sheep for example, and subsequently established by selecting for breeding purposes only the best specimens and rejecting all others. In process of time deviations become less frequent and greater uniformity is secured; but there remains a tendency, greater or less in proportion to the time which elapses and the skill employed in selection, to resolve itself into its original elements, to breed back toward one or other of the kinds of which it was at first composed. By _races_, are understood such varieties as were moulded to their peculiar type by natural causes, with no interference of man, no intermixture of other varieties, and have continued substantially the same for a period beyond which the memory and knowledge of man does not reach. Such are the North Devon cattle, and it is fortunate that attention was drawn to the merits of this variety before facilities for inter-communication had so greatly increased as of late, and while yet the race in some districts remained pure. All that breeders have done to better it, is by selections and rejections from within itself; and so, much improvement has been effected without any adulteration. Consequently we may anticipate that so long as no crossing takes place, there will be little variation. Among the established breeds of cattle the IMPROVED SHORT-HORNS are the most fashionable, and the most widely diffused; and where the fertility of the soil, and the climate, are such as to allow the development of their peculiar excellencies, they occupy the highest rank as a meat-producing breed. Their beef is hardly equal in quality to that of the Devons, Herefords or Scots, the fat and lean being not so well mixed together and the flesh of coarser grain. But they possess a remarkable tendency to lay on fat and flesh, attaining greater size and weight, and coming earlier to maturity than any other breed. These properties, together with their symmetry and stately beauty, make them very popular in those counties of England, where they originated, and wherever else they have been carried, provided their surroundings are such as to meet their wants. In the rich pastures of Kentucky and in some other parts of the west, they seem as much at home as on the banks of the Tees, and are highly and deservedly esteemed. The Short-horns have also been widely and successfully used to cross with most other breeds, and with inferior mixed cattle, as they are found to impress strongly upon them their own characteristics. Without entering into the question of its original composition, or of its antiquity, regarding both of which much doubt exists, it may suffice here to say, that about a hundred years ago, Charles Colling and others entered zealously and successfully into an attempt to improve them by careful breeding, in whose hands they soon acquired a wide spread fame and brought enormous prices; and the sums realized for choice specimens of this breed from that time to the present, have been greater than for those of any other. Much of their early notoriety was due to the exhibition of an ox reared by Charles Colling from a common cow by his famous bull "Favorite," and known as the "Durham" ox, and also as the "Ketton" ox, (both which names have since then been more or less applied to the breed, but which are now mostly superceded by the original and more appropriate one of Short-horn,) which was shown in most parts of England and Scotland from 1801 to 1807, and whose live weight was nearly four thousand pounds, and which was at one time valued for purposes of exhibition as high as $10,000. The old Teeswater cattle were remarkably deep milkers, and although it does not appear that good grazing points necessarily conflict with excellence for the dairy, the fact is, that as improvement in feeding qualities was gained, the production of milk in most cases fell off; and although some families at the present time embrace many excellent milkers, the majority of them have deteriorated in this respect about in proportion to the improvement effected as meat-producing animals. The earlier Short-horns introduced into this country were from the very best milking families, and their descendants have usually proved valuable for dairy purposes--but many of those more recently imported are unlike them in this respect. By crossing the males upon the common cows of the country the progeny inherited increased size and symmetry of form, more quiet dispositions, greater aptitude to feed and earlier maturity. Notwithstanding the prejudices with which they were at first received, they gradually rose in estimation, more of them have been introduced than of any other breed, and probably more of the improvement which has taken place in cattle for the last forty years is due to them than to any other; yet _as a pure breed they are not adapted to New England wants_. Their size is beyond the ability of most farms to support profitably: crossed upon such as through neglect in breeding, scanty fare and exposure were bad feeders, too small in size, and too slow in growth, they effected great improvement in all these respects; and this improvement demanded and encouraged the bestowal of more food and better treatment, and so they prospered;--inheriting their constitutions chiefly from the hardy and acclimated dams, the grades were by no means so delicate and sensitive as the pure bred animals to the cold and changes of a climate very unlike that of the mild and fertile region where they originated. The lethargic temperament characteristic of the Short-horn and which in the grades results in the greater quietness and docility so highly valued, necessarily unfits them for active work; pure bred animals being altogether too sluggish for profitable labor. This temperament is inseparably connected with their aptitude to fatten and early maturity, and these both demand abundant and nutritious food beyond the ability of many to supply and at the same time are incompatible with the activity of habit and hard service demanded of the working ox. The NORTH DEVONS are deemed to be of longer standing than any other of the distinct breeds of England, and they have been esteemed for their good qualities for several centuries. Mr. George Turner, a noted breeder of Devons, describes them as follows:--"Their color is generally a bright red, but varying a little either darker or more yellow; they have seldom any white except about the udder of the cow or belly of the bull, and this is but little seen. They have long yellowish horns, beautifully and gracefully curved, noses or muzzles white, with expanded nostrils, eyes full and prominent, but calm, ears of moderate size and yellowish inside, necks rather long, with but little dewlap, and the head well set on, shoulders oblique with small points or marrow bones, legs small and straight and feet in proportion. The chest is of moderate width, and the ribs round and well expanded, except in some instances, where too great attention has been paid to the hind quarters at the expense of the fore, and which has caused a falling off, or flatness, behind the shoulders. The loins are first rate, wide, long and full of flesh, hips round and of moderate width; rumps level and well filled at the bed; tail full near the rump and tapering much at the top. The thighs of the cows are occasionally light, but the bull and ox are full of muscle, with a deep and rich flank. On the whole there is scarcely any breed of cattle so rich and mellow in its touch, so silky and fine in its hair, and altogether so handsome in its appearance, as the North Devon, added to which they have a greater proportion of weight in the most valuable joints and less in the coarse, than any other breed, and also consume less food in its production. As milkers they are about the same as most other breeds;--the general average of a dairy of cows being about one pound of butter per day from each cow during the summer months, although in some instances the very best bred cows give a great deal more. As working oxen they greatly surpass any other breed. They are perfectly docile and excellent walkers, are generally worked until five or six years old, and then fattened at less expense than most other oxen." The author of the report on the live stock shown at the exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society at Warwick in 1859 (Mr. Robert Smith) says: "Although little has been written on it, the improvement of the Devon has not been neglected; on the contrary, its breeding has been studied like a science, and carried into execution with the most sedulous attention and dexterity for upwards of two hundred years. The object of the Devon breeder has been to lessen those parts of the animal frame which are least useful to man, such as the bone and offal, and at the same time to increase such other parts (flesh and fat) as furnish man with food. These ends have been accomplished by a judicious selection of individual animals possessing the wished for form and qualities in the highest degree, which being perpetuated in their progeny in various proportions, and the selection being continued from the most approved specimens among these, enabled the late Mr. Francis Quartly at length to fully establish the breed with the desired properties. This result is substantially confirmed by the statistics contained in Davy's 'Devon Herd-Book.' We have been curious enough to examine these pedigrees, and find that nine-tenths of the present herds of these truly beautiful animals are directly descended (especially in their early parentage) from the old Quartly stock. Later improvements have been engrafted on these by the Messrs. Quartly of the present day. The example of various opulent breeders and farmers in all parts of the country has tended to spread this improvement, by which the North Devon cattle have become more general and fashionable. The leading characteristics of the North Devon breed are such as qualify them for every hardship. They are cast in a peculiar mold, with a degree of elegance in their movement which is not to be excelled. Their hardihood, resulting from compactness of frame and lightness of offal, enables them (when wanted) to perform the operations of the farm with a lively step and great endurance. For the production of animal food they are not to be surpassed, and in conjunction with the Highland Scot of similar pretension, they are the first to receive the attention of the London West-end butcher. In the show-yard, again, the form of the Devon and its rich quality of flesh serve as the leading guide to all decisions. He has a prominent eye, with a placid face, small nose and elegantly turned horns, which have an upward tendency (and cast outward at the end) as if to put the last finish upon his symmetrical form and carriage. These animals are beautifully covered with silken coats of a medium red color. The shoulder points, sides, and foreflanks are well covered with rich meat, which, when blended with their peculiar property of producing meat of first-rate quality along their tops, makes them what they are--'models of perfection.' Of course, we here speak of the best-bred animals. Some object to the North Devon, and class him as a small animal, with the remark, 'He is too small for the grazier.' In saying this it should ever be remembered that the Devon has its particular mission to perform, viz., that of converting the produce of cold and hilly pastures into meat, which could not be done to advantage by large-framed animals, however good their parentage." The Devons have been less extensively, and more recently, introduced than the Short-horn, but the experience of those who have fairly tried them fully sustains the opinions given above, and they promise to become a favorite and prevailing breed. The usual objection made to them by those who have been accustomed to consider improvement in cattle to be necessarily connected with enlargement of size, is, that they are too small. But their size instead of being a valid objection, is believed to be a recommendation, the Devons being as large as the fertility of New England soils generally are _capable of feeding fully and profitably_. Their qualities as working oxen are unrivalled, no other breed so uniformly furnishing such active, docile, strong and hardy workers as the Devons, and their uniformity is such as to render it very easy to match them. Without possessing so early maturity as the Short-horns, they fatten readily and easily at from four to six years old, and from their compact build and well balanced proportions usually weigh more than one accustomed to common cattle would anticipate. The Devons are not generally deep milkers but the milk is richer than that of most other breeds, and some families, where proper care and attention have been given to this quality in breeding, yield largely. It is, however, as a breed for general use, combining beef, labor and milk, in fair proportion, that the Devons will generally give best satisfaction, as they are hardy enough to suit the climate, and cheaply furnish efficient labor and valuable meat. Farmers, whose ideas upon stock have been formed wholly from their experience with Short-horns and their grades, have often been surprised at witnessing the facility with which Devons sustain themselves upon scanty pasturage, and not a few when first critically examining well bred specimens, sympathize with the feeling which prompted the remark made to the reporter of the great English Exhibition at Chester, after examining with him fine specimens of the Devons--"I am delighted; I find we Short-horn men have yet much to learn of the true formation of animals; their beautiful contour and extreme quality of flesh surprise me." The HEREFORDS are an ancient and well established breed, and are probably entitled to be called a race. Little is known with certainty of their origin beyond the fact that for many generations they can be traced as the peculiar breed of the county whence they derive their name. Youatt says that "Mr. Culley, although an excellent judge of cattle, formed a very erroneous opinion of the Herefords when he pronounced them to be nothing but a mixture of the Welsh with a bastard race of Long Horns. They are evidently an aboriginal breed, and descended from the same stock as the Devon. If it were not for the white face and somewhat larger head and thicker neck it would not at all times be easy to distinguish between a heavy Devon and a light Hereford." Mr. Gisborne says "The Hereford brings good evidence that he is the British representative of a widely diffused and ancient race. The most uniform drove of oxen which we ever saw, consisted of five hundred from the Ukraine. They had white faces, upward horns and tawny bodies. Placed in Hereford, Leicester or Northampton markets, they would have puzzled the graziers as to the land of their nativity; but no one would have hesitated to pronounce that they were rough Herefords." Mr. Rowlandson, in his prize report on the farming of Herefordshire, says "The Herefords, or as they have sometimes been termed, the middle horned cattle have ever been esteemed a most valuable breed, and when housed from the inclemency of the weather, probably put on more meat and fat in proportion to the food consumed, than any other variety. They are not so hardy as the North Devon cattle, to which they bear a general resemblance; they however are larger than the Devons, especially the males. On the other hand, the Herefords are larger boned, to compensate for which defect, may be cast in the opposite scale the fact that the flesh of the Hereford ox surpasses all other breeds for that beautiful marbled appearance caused by the intermixture of fat and lean which is so much prized by the epicure. The Hereford is usually deeper in the chine, and the shoulders are larger and coarser than the Devon. They are worse milkers than the Devon, or than, perhaps, any other breed, for the Hereford grazier has neglected the female and paid the whole of his attention to the male." It is said that formerly they were of a brown or reddish brown color, and some had grey or mottled faces. Mr. P. Tully states that the white face originated accidentally on a farm belonging to one of his ancestors. "That about the middle of the last century the cow-man came to the house announcing as a remarkable fact that the favorite cow had produced a white faced bull calf. This had never been known to have occurred before, and, as a curiosity it was agreed that the animal should be kept and reared as a future sire. Such, in a few words, is the origin of a fact that has since prevailed through the country, for the progeny of this very bull became celebrated for white faces." Of late years there has been much uniformity of color; the face, throat, the under portion of the body, the inside and lower part of the leg's and the tip of the tail being white, and the other parts of the body a rich deep red. Compared with the Short-horn the Hereford is nearly as large, of rather less early maturity, but a better animal for grazing, and hardier. The competition between these breeds in England is very close and warm, and taking many facts together it would seem probable that the Hereford is in some instances rather more profitable, and the Short-horn generally more fashionable. Challenges have been repeatedly offered by Hereford men to Shorthorn men to feed an equal number of each in order to test their respective merits, and have usually been declined, perhaps because if the decision was against them, the loss might be serious, and if they won, the gain would be little or nothing, the Short-horns being more popular already and commanding higher prices. As working oxen the Herefords are preferable to the Short-horns, being more hardy and active. Some complaint is made of their being "breachy." Their large frames demand food, and if enough be furnished they are content, but if not, they have intelligence and activity enough to help themselves if food be within reach. Their chief merit is as large oxen, for heavy labor, and for beef. Some grade cows from good milking dams give a fair quantity of milk, and what they give is always rich, but wherever they have been introduced, milking qualities generally deteriorate very much. The AYRSHIRES are a breed especially valuable for dairy purposes. Regarding its origin, Mr. Aiton who felt much interest in the subject, and whose opportunities for knowing the facts were second to those of no other, writing about forty years since, says, "The dairy breed of cows in the county of Ayr now so much and so deservedly esteemed, is not, in their present form, an ancient or indigenous race, but a breed formed during the memory of living individuals and which have been gradually improving for more than fifty years past, till now they are brought to a degree of perfection that has never been surpassed as dairy stock in any part of Britain, or probably in the world. They have increased to double their former size, and they yield about four and some of them five times as much milk as formerly. By greater attention to breeding and feeding, they have been changed from an ill-shaped, puny, mongrel race of cattle to a fixed and specific breed of excellent color and quality. So gradually and imperceptibly were improvements in the breed and condition of the cattle introduced, that although I lived in Ayrshire from 1760 to 1785, and have traversed it every year since, I have difficulty in stating from my own observation or what I have learned from others, either the precise period when improvement began, or the exact means by which a change so important was wrought." He then relates several instances in which between 1760 and 1770 some larger cows were brought in of the English or Dutch breeds, and of their effect he says, "I am disposed to believe that although they rendered the red color with white patches fashionable in Ayr, they could not have had much effect in changing the breed into their present highly improved condition," and thinks it mainly due to careful selections and better treatment. Mr. Aiton says "the chief qualities of a dairy cow are that she gives a copious draught of milk, that she fattens readily and turns out well in the shambles. In all these respects combined the Ayrshire breed excels all others in Scotland, and is probably superior to any in Britain. They certainly yield more milk than any other breed in Europe. No other breed fatten faster, and none cut up better in the shambles, and the fat is as well mixed with the lean flesh, or marbled, as the butchers say, as any other. They always turn out better than the most skillful grazier or butcher who are strangers to the breed could expect on handling them. They are tame, quiet, and feed at ease without roaming, breaking over fences, or goring each other. They are very hardy and active, and are not injured but rather improved by lying out all night during summer and autumn." Since Mr. Aiton wrote, even greater care and attention has been paid to this breed than before, and it is now well entitled to rank as the first dairy breed in the world, quantity and quality of yield and the amount of food required being all considered. Compared with the Jersey, its only rival as a dairy breed, the milk of the Ayrshire is much more abundant, and richer in caseine, but not so rich in oily matter, although better in this respect than the average of cows. Experience of their qualities in this country shows that if they do not here fully sustain their reputation in Scotland, they come near to it, as near as the difference in our drier climate allows, giving more good milk upon a given amount of food than any other. Upon ordinarily fertile pastures they yield largely and prove very hardy and docile. The oxen too are good workers, fatten well, and yield juicy, fine flavored meat. The JERSEY race, formerly known as the Aldernay, is almost exclusively employed for dairy purposes, and may not be expected to give satisfaction for other uses. Their milk is richer than that of any other cows, and the butter made from it possesses a superior flavor and a deep rich color, and consequently commands an extraordinary price in all markets where good butter is appreciated. The Jersey cattle are of Norman origin, and until within about twenty or thirty years were far more uninviting in appearance than now, great improvement having been effected in their symmetry and general appearance by means of careful selections in breeding, and this without loss of milking properties. The cows are generally very docile and gentle, but the males when past two or three years of age often become vicious and unmanageable. It is said that the cows fatten readily when dry, and make good beef. There is no branch of cattle husbandry which promises better returns than the breeding and rearing of milch cows. Here and there are to be found some good enough. In the vicinity of large towns and cities are many which having been culled from many miles around, on account of dairy properties, are considerably above the average, but taking the cows of the country together they do not compare favorably with the oxen. Farmers generally take more pride in their oxen, and strive to have as good or better than any of their neighbors, while if a cow will give milk enough to rear a large steer calf and a little besides, it is often deemed satisfactory. SHEEP.--The sheep first introduced into this country were of English origin, and generally not very dissimilar to the ancient unimproved Down sheep. Probably some were these--as many of the first cattle were the Devons of that day. More than fifty years since the Merinos were introduced and extensively bred. At various periods other choice breeds have been introduced. The number kept has fluctuated very much, depending mainly on the market value of wool. When it was high many kept sheep, and when it fell the flocks were neglected. The true mission of the sheep in fulfilling the threefold purpose of furnishing _food, and raiment, and the means of fertilization_, seems not yet to be generally apprehended. One of the most serious defects in the husbandry of New England at the present time, is the prevalent neglect of sheep. Ten times the present number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, wool and progeny, more direct profit than any other domestic animal, and at the same time the food they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than an equal amount consumed by any other animal. It is notorious that our pastures have seriously deteriorated in fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the exclusion of nutritious grasses. Sheep husbandry has declined. If these two facts as uniformly stand to each other in the relation of cause and effect, as they certainly do in many instances, the remedy is suggested at once--replace the animal with "golden feet." After devoting the best land to cultivation and the poorest to wood, we have thousands upon thousands of acres evidently intended by the Creator for sheep walks, because better adapted for this purpose than for any other. An indication of Providence so unmistakable as this should not be unheeded. The MERINOS are perhaps the most ancient race of sheep extant. They originated in Spain, and were for ages bred there alone. In 1765 they were introduced into Saxony, where they were bred with care and with special reference to increasing the fineness of the wool, little regard being paid to other considerations. They were also taken to France and to Silesia, and from all these sources importations have been made into the United States. The Spanish Merino has proved the most successful, and by skill and care in breeding has been greatly improved, insomuch that intelligent judges are of opinion that some of the Vermont flocks are superior to the best in Europe, both in form, hardiness, quantity of fleece and staple. They are too well known to require a detailed description here. Suffice it to say that they are below rather than above medium size, possessing a good constitution, and are thrifty, and cheaply kept. Their chief merit is as fine wooled sheep, and as such they excel all others. As mutton sheep they are constitutionally and anatomically deficient, being of late maturity and great longevity, (a recommendation as fine wooled sheep,) having too flat sides, too narrow chests, too little meat in the best parts, and too great a percentage of offal when slaughtered. Their mutton, however, is of fair quality when mature and well fatted. As nurses they are inferior to many other breeds. Many careful, extensive and protracted attempts have been made to produce a breed combining the fleece of the Merino with the carcass of the Leicester or other long wooled sheep. They have all signally failed. The forms, characteristics and qualities of breeds so unlike seem to be incompatible with one another. A cross of the Merino buck and Leicester ewe gives progeny which is of more rapid growth than the Merino alone, and is hardier than the Leicester. It is a good cross for the butchers' use, but not to be perpetuated. Improvement in the Merino should be sought by skillful selection and pairing the parents in view of their relative fitness to one another. The LEICESTER, or more properly the New Leicester, is the breed which Bakewell established, and is repeatedly referred to in the preceding pages. It has quite superseded the old breed of this name. His aim was to produce sheep which would give the greatest amount of meat in the shortest time on a given amount of food, and for early maturity and disposition to fatten, it still ranks among the highest. The objections to the breed for New England are, that they are not hardy enough for the climate, and require richer pastures and more abundant food than most farmers can supply. Its chief value in such locations is for crossing upon ordinary sheep for lambs and mutton. The COTSWOLDS derive their name from a low range of hills in Gloucestershire. These have long been noted for the numbers and excellence of the sheep there maintained, and are so called from Cote, a sheepfold, and Would, a naked hill. An old writer says:--"In these woulds they feed in great numbers flocks of sheep, long necked and square of bulk and bone, by reason (as is commonly thought) of the weally and hilly situation of their pastures, whose wool, being most fine and soft, is held in passing great account amongst all nations." Since his time, however, great changes have passed both upon the sheep and the district they inhabit. The improved Cotswolds are among the largest British breeds, long wooled, prolific, good nurses, and of early maturity. More robust, and less liable to disease than the Leicesters, of fine symmetry and carrying great weight and light offal, they are among the most popular of large mutton sheep. The SOUTH DOWN is an ancient British breed, taking its name from a chalky range of hills in Sussex and other counties in England about sixty miles in length, known as the South Downs, by the side of which is a tract of land of ordinary fertility and well calculated for sheep walks, and on which probably more than a million of this breed of sheep are pastured. The flock tended by the "Shepherd of Salisbury Plain," of whose earnest piety and simple faith Hannah More has told us in her widely circulated tract, were South Downs. Formerly these sheep possessed few of the attractions they now present. About the year 1782 Mr. John Ellman of Glynde turned his attention to their improvement. Unlike his cotemporary Bakewell, he did not attempt to make a new breed by crossing, but by attention to the principles of breeding, by skillful selections for coupling and continued perseverance for fifty years, he obtained what he sought--health, soundness of constitution, symmetry of form, early maturity, and facility of fattening, and thus brought his flock to a high state of perfection. Before he began we are told that the South Downs were of "small size and ill shape, long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on the loins, down on the rumps, the tail set on very low, sharp on the back, the ribs flat," &c., &c., and were not mature enough to fatten until three years old or past. Of his flock in 1794, Arthur Young[25] says: "Mr. Ellman's flock of sheep, I must observe in this place, is unquestionably the first in the country; there is nothing that can be compared with it; the wool is the finest and the carcass the best proportioned; although I saw several noble flocks afterwards which I examined with a great degree of attention; some few had very fine wool, which might be equal to his, but then the carcass was ill-shaped, and many had a good carcass with coarse wool; but this incomparable farmer had eminently united both these circumstances in his flock at Glynde. I affirm this with the greater degree of certainty, since the eye of prejudice has been at work in this country to disparage and call in question the quality of his flock, merely because he has raised the merit of it by unremitted attention above the rest of the neighboring farmers, and it now stands unrivalled." This, it will be noticed, was only twelve years after he began his improvements. To Mr. Ellman's credit be it said that he exhibited none of the selfishness which characterized Mr. Bakewell's career, but was always ready to impart information to those desirous to learn, and labored zealously to encourage general improvement. That he was pecuniarily successful is evident from the continued rise in the price of his sheep. The Duke of Richmond, Mr. Jonas Webb, Mr. Grantham, and other cotemporaries and successors of Mr. Ellman have carried successfully forward the work so well begun by him. The Improved South Downs now rank first among British breeds in hardiness, constitution, early maturity, symmetry, and quality of mutton and of wool combined. The meat usually brings one to two cents per pound more than that of most other breeds in Smithfield market. It is of fine flavor, juicy, and well marbled. The South Downs are of medium size, (although Mr. Webb has in some cases attained a live weight in breeding rams of 250 pounds, and a dressed weight of 200 pounds in fattened wethers,) hardy, prolific, and easily kept, succeeding on short pastures, although they pay well for liberal feeding. The OXFORD DOWNS may be named as an instance of successful cross-breeding. They originated in a cross between the Improved Cotswolds and the Hampshire Downs.[26] Having been perpetuated now for more than twenty years, they possess so good a degree of uniformity as to be entitled to the designation of a distinct breed, and have lately been formally recognized as such in England. They were first introduced into Massachusetts by R.S. Fay, Esq., of Lynn, and into Maine by Mr. Sears, both in 1854. They were first bred with a view to unite increased size with the superiority of flesh and patience of short keep which characterize the Downs. It is understood that they inherit from the Cotswold a carcass exceeding in weight that of the Downs from a fifth to a quarter; a fleece somewhat coarser but heavier than that of the Downs by one-third to one-half; and from the latter they inherit rotundity of form and fullness of muscle in the more valuable parts, together with the brown face and leg. In reply to a note of inquiry addressed to Mr. Fay, he says: "I selected the Oxford Downs with some hesitation as between them and the Shropshire Downs, after a careful examination of all the various breeds of sheep in England. My attention was called to them by observing that they took, (1854,) without any distinct name, all the prizes as mutton sheep at Birmingham and elsewhere, where they were admitted to compete. They were only known under the name of half or cross bred sheep, with name of the breeder. Mr. Rives of Virginia and myself went into Oxfordshire to look at them, and so little were they known as a class, that Philip Pusey, Esq., President of the Royal Agricultural Society, knew nothing about them, although one of his largest tenants, Mr. Druce, had long bred them. It is only within two years that they were formally recognized at a meeting, I believe, of the Smithfield club, and they then received the name which I gave them years ago, of Oxford Downs. By this name they are now known in England. I can only add that an experience of six years confirms all that is claimed for them. Fifty-two ewes produced seventy-three healthy lambs from February 13th to March 15th, this year. The same ewes sheared an average of more than seven pounds to the fleece, unwashed wool, which sold for 34 cents per pound. A good ram should weigh as a shearling from 180 to 250 pounds; a good ewe from 125 to 160 pounds. They fatten rapidly, and thrive on rough pasture. My flock, now the older and poorer ones have been disposed of, will average, I have no doubt, eight pounds of wool to the fleece. The mutton is exceedingly fine and can be turned into cash in 18 months from birth." * * * * * The kind of sheep most desirable, on the whole, in any given case, depends chiefly on the surface, character and fertility of the farm and its location. At too great a distance from a good meat market to allow of a profitable sale of the carcass, the Spanish Merino is doubtless to be preferred, but if nearer, the English breeds will pay better. Mutton can be grown cheaper than any other meat. It is daily becoming better appreciated, and strange as it may seem, good mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality does in England. Its substitution in a large measure for pork would contribute materially to the health of the community. Winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable and deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an object--(and where is it not?) In England it is considered good policy to fatten sheep if the increase of weight will pay for the oil cake or grain consumed; the manure being deemed a fair equivalent for the other food, that is, as much straw and turnips as they will eat. Lean sheep there usually command as high a price per pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring, while here the latter usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a great advantage. The difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation. Suppose a wether of a good mutton breed weighing 80 pounds in the fall to cost 6 cents per pound ($4.80) and to require 20 pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other food, and to gain a pound and a half each week, the gain in weight in four months would be about 25 pounds, which at 6 cents per pound would be $1.50 or less than $10 per ton for the hay consumed; but if the same sheep could be bought in fall for 3 cents per pound and sold in spring for 6 cents, the gain would amount to $3.90 or upwards of $20 per ton for the hay--the manure being the same in either case. For fattening it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty and in as good condition as can be done at fair prices; and to feed liberally so as to secure the most rapid increase which can be had without waste of food. The fattening of sheep by the aid of oil cake or grain purchased for the purpose, may often be made a cheaper and altogether preferable mode of obtaining manure than by the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as guano, superphosphate of lime, &c. It is practiced extensively and advantageously abroad and deserves at least a fair trial here. HORSES.--It does not seem necessary in this connection to give descriptions of the various breeds of horses, as comparatively few of our animals can fairly be said to be of any pure or distinct varieties. Names are common enough, but the great majority of the horses among us are so mixed in their descent from the breeds which have been introduced at various times from abroad, as to be almost as near of kin to one as to another. Success in breeding will depend far more upon attention to selection in regard to structure and endowments than to names. Although it may be somewhat beyond the scope of an attempt to treat merely of the principles of breeding to offer remarks regarding its practice, a few brief hints may be pardoned; and first, let far more care be taken in respect of breeding mares. Let none be bred from which are too old, or of feeble constitution, or the subjects of hereditary disease. No greater mistake can be made than to suppose that a mare fit for nothing else, is worthy to be bred from. If fit for this, she is good for much else--gentle, courageous, of good action, durable and good looking; outward form is perhaps of less importance than in the male, but serious defect in this greatly lessens her value. She should be _roomy_, that is the pelvis should be such that she can well develop and easily carry and deliver the foal. Youatt says, "it may, perhaps, be justly affirmed that there is more difficulty in selecting a good mare to breed from, than a good horse, because she should possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcass should be long to give room for the growth of the foetus, yet with this there should be compactness of form and shortness[27] of leg." The next point is the selection of a stallion. It is easy enough to say that he should be compactly built, "having as much goodness and strength as possible condensed in a little space," and rather smaller relatively than the mare, that he should be of approved descent and possess the forms, properties and characteristics which are desired to be perpetuated. It is not very difficult to specify with tolerable accuracy what forms are best adapted for certain purposes, as an oblique shoulder, and depth, rather than width, of chest are indispensable for trotting; that in a draft horse this obliquity of shoulder is not wanted, one more upright being preferable, and so forth; but after all, a main point to secure success is _relative adaptation of the parents to each other_, and here written directions are necessarily insufficient and cannot supply the place of skill and judgment to be obtained only by careful study and practical experience; nor is it always easy, even if fully aware of the necessary requirements, to find them in the best combination in the horses nearest at hand. A stallion may be all which can be desired for one dam and yet be very unsuitable for another. In this aspect we can perceive how valuable results may accrue from such establishments as now exist in various sections of the country, where not a single stallion only is kept, but many, and where no pains nor expense are spared to secure the presence of superior specimens of the most approved breeds, and choice strains of blood in various combinations; so that the necessary requirements in a sire are no sooner fairly apprehended than they are fully met. On this point therefore, my suggestion is, that this relative adaptation of the parents to one another be made the subject of patient and careful study; and a word of caution is offered lest in the decisions made, too great importance be attached to speed alone. That speed is an element of value is not doubted, nor do I intimate that he who breeds horses to sell, may not aim to adapt his wares to his market as much as the man who breeds neat cattle and sheep, or the man who manufactures furniture to sell. But I do say that speed may be, and often has been, sought at too dear a rate, and that bottom, courage, docility and action are equally elements of money value and equally worthy of being sought for in progeny. Nor is it unlikely that an attempt to breed for these last named qualities, with a proper reference to speed, would result in the production of as many fast horses as we now get, and in addition to this, a much higher average degree of merit in the whole number reared. Another suggestion may not be out of place. Hitherto (if we except fast trotting) there has been little attention paid to breeding for special purposes, as for draft horses, carriage horses, saddle horses, etc., and the majority of people at the present time undoubtedly prefer horses of all work. This is well enough so long as it is a fact that the wants of the masses are thus best met, but it is equally true that as population increases in density and as division of labor is carried farther, it will be good policy to allow the horse to share in this division of labor, and to breed with reference to different uses; just as it is good policy for one man to prepare himself for one department of business and another for another. The same principle holds in either case. Sufficient attention has never been paid to the breaking and training of horses. Not one in a thousand receives a proper education. It ought to be such as to bring him under perfect control, with his powers fully developed, his virtues strengthened and his vices eradicated. What usually passes for breaking is but a distant approximation to this. The methods recently promulgated by Rarey and Baucher are now attracting attention, and deservedly too, not merely for the immediate profit resulting from increased value in the subjects, but in view of the ultimate results which may be anticipated; for, as we have seen when treating of the law of similarity, acquired habits may in time become so inbred as to be transmissible by hereditary descent. FOOTNOTES: [24] This was commenced by a cross of Coelebs, a Short-horn bull, upon a common cow of remarkable excellence. [25] Annals of Agriculture, Vol. 11, p. 224. [26] The Hampshires are somewhat larger than the South Downs, and quite as hardy--the fleece a trifle shorter. The Oxford Downs are not to be confounded with the New Oxfordshires. [27] Mr. Youatt here probably refers to length below, rather than above, the knee and hock. * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Typographical errors corrected in text: | | | | Page 34: maratime replaced with maritime | | Page 53: analagous replaced with analogous | | Page 155: suceeding replaced with succeeding | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * 
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14293	----	Proofreading Team BOB BROWN The Complete Book of Cheese _Illustrations by_ Eric Blegvad [Illustration] _Gramercy Publishing Company New York_ 1955 _Author of_ THE WINE COOK BOOK AMERICA COOKS 10,000 SNACKS SALADS AND HERBS THE SOUTH AMERICAN COOK BOOK SOUPS, SAUCES AND GRAVIES THE VEGETABLE COOK BOOK LOOK BEFORE YOU COOK! THE EUROPEAN COOK BOOK THE WINING AND DINING QUIZ MOST FOR YOUR MONEY OUTDOOR COOKING FISH AND SEAFOOD COOK BOOK THE COUNTRY COOK BOOK _Co-author of Food and Drink Books by_ The Browns LET THERE BE BEER! HOMEMADE HILARITY [Illustration: TO] TO PHIL ALPERT _Turophile Extraordinary_ [Illustration: Contents] 1 I Remember Cheese 2 The Big Cheese 3 Foreign Greats 4 Native Americans 5 Sixty-five Sizzling Rabbits 6 The Fondue 7 Soufflés, Puffs and Ramekins 8 Pizzas, Blintzes, Pastes and Cheese Cake 9 Au Gratin, Soups, Salads and Sauces 10 Appetizers, Crackers, Sandwiches, Savories, Snacks, Spreads and Toasts 11 "Fit for Drink" 12 Lazy Lou APPENDIX--The A-B-Z of Cheese INDEX OF RECIPES [Illustration] _Chapter One_ I Remember Cheese Cheese market day in a town in the north of Holland. All the cheese-fanciers are out, thumping the cannon-ball Edams and the millstone Goudas with their bare red knuckles, plugging in with a hollow steel tool for samples. In Holland the business of judging a crumb of cheese has been taken with great seriousness for centuries. The abracadabra is comparable to that of the wine-taster or tea-taster. These Edamers have the trained ear of music-masters and, merely by knuckle-rapping, can tell down to an air pocket left by a gas bubble just how mature the interior is. The connoisseurs use gingerbread as a mouth-freshener; and I, too, that sunny day among the Edams, kept my gingerbread handy and made my way from one fine cheese to another, trying out generous plugs from the heaped cannon balls that looked like the ammunition dump at Antietam. I remember another market day, this time in Lucerne. All morning I stocked up on good Schweizerkäse and better Gruyère. For lunch I had cheese salad. All around me the farmers were rolling two-hundred-pound Emmentalers, bigger than oxcart wheels. I sat in a little café, absorbing cheese and cheese lore in equal quantities. I learned that a prize cheese must be chock-full of equal-sized eyes, the gas holes produced during fermentation. They must glisten like polished bar glass. The cheese itself must be of a light, lemonish yellow. Its flavor must be nutlike. (Nuts and Swiss cheese complement each other as subtly as Gorgonzola and a ripe banana.) There are, I learned, "blind" Swiss cheeses as well, but the million-eyed ones are better. But I don't have to hark back to Switzerland and Holland for cheese memories. Here at home we have increasingly taken over the cheeses of all nations, first importing them, then imitating them, from Swiss Engadine to what we call Genuine Sprinz. We've naturalized Scandinavian Blues and smoked browns and baptized our own Saaland Pfarr in native whiskey. Of fifty popular Italian types we duplicate more than half, some fairly well, others badly. We have our own legitimate offspring too, beginning with the Pineapple, supposed to have been first made about 1845 in Litchfield County, Connecticut. We have our own creamy Neufchâtel, New York Coon, Vermont Sage, the delicious Liederkranz, California Jack, Nuworld, and dozens of others, not all quite so original. And, true to the American way, we've organized cheese-eating. There's an annual cheese week, and a cheese month (October). We even boast a mail-order Cheese-of-the-Month Club. We haven't yet reached the point of sophistication, however, attained by a Paris cheese club that meets regularly. To qualify for membership you have to identify two hundred basic cheeses, and you have to do it blindfolded. This is a test I'd prefer not to submit to, but in my amateur way I have during the past year or two been sharpening my cheese perception with whatever varieties I could encounter around New York. I've run into briny Caucasian Cossack, Corsican Gricotta, and exotics like Rarush Durmar, Travnik, and Karaghi La-la. Cheese-hunting is one of the greatest--and least competitively crowded--of sports. I hope this book may lead others to give it a try. [Illustration] _Chapter Two_ The Big Cheese One of the world's first outsize cheeses officially weighed in at four tons in a fair at Toronto, Canada, seventy years ago. Another monstrous Cheddar tipped the scales at six tons in the New York State Fair at Syracuse in 1937. Before this, a one-thousand-pounder was fetched all the way from New Zealand to London to star in the Wembley Exposition of 1924. But, compared to the outsize Syracusan, it looked like a Baby Gouda. As a matter of fact, neither England nor any of her great dairying colonies have gone in for mammoth jobs, except Canada, with that four-tonner shown at Toronto. We should mention two historic king-size Chesters. You can find out all about them in _Cheddar Gorge,_ edited by Sir John Squire. The first of them weighed 149 pounds, and was the largest made, up to the year 1825. It was proudly presented to H.R.H. the Duke of York. (Its heft almost tied the 147-pound Green County wheel of Wisconsin Swiss presented by the makers to President Coolidge in 1928 in appreciation of his raising the protective tariff against genuine Swiss to 50 percent.) While the cheese itself weighed a mite under 150, His Royal Highness, ruff, belly, knee breeches, doffed high hat and all, was a hundred-weight heavier, and thus almost dwarfed it. It was almost a century later that the second record-breaking Chester weighed in, at only 200 pounds. Yet it won a Gold Medal and a Challenge Cup and was presented to the King, who graciously accepted it. This was more than Queen Victoria had done with a bridal gift cheese that tipped the scales at 1,100 pounds. It took a whole day's yield from 780 contented cows, and stood a foot and eight inches high, measuring nine feet, four inches around the middle. The assembled donors of the cheese were so proud of it that they asked royal permission to exhibit it on a round of country fairs. The Queen assented to this ambitious request, perhaps prompted by the exhibition-minded Albert. The publicity-seeking cheesemongers assured Her Majesty that the gift would be returned to her just as soon as it had been exhibited. But the Queen didn't want it back after it was show-worn. The donors began to quarrel among themselves about what to do with the remains, until finally it got into Chancery where so many lost causes end their days. The cheese was never heard of again. While it is generally true that the bigger the cheese the better, (much the same as a magnum bottle of champagne is better than a pint), there is a limit to the obesity of a block, ball or brick of almost any kinds of cheese. When they pass a certain limit, they lack homogeneity and are not nearly so good as the smaller ones. Today a good magnum size for an exhibition Cheddar is 560 pounds; for a prize Provolone, 280 pounds; while a Swiss wheel of only 210 will draw crowds to any food-shop window. Yet by and large it's the monsters that get into the Cheese Hall of Fame and come down to us in song and story. For example, that four-ton Toronto affair inspired a cheese poet, James McIntyre, who doubled as the local undertaker. We have thee, mammoth cheese, Lying quietly at your ease; Gently fanned by evening breeze, Thy fair form no flies dare seize. All gaily dressed soon you'll go To the greatest provincial show, To be admired by many a beau In the city of Toronto. May you not receive a scar as We have heard that Mr. Harris Intends to send you off as far as The great world's show at Paris. Of the youth beware of these, For some of them might rudely squeeze And bite your cheek; then song or glees We could not sing, oh, Queen of Cheese. An ode to a one hundred percent American mammoth was inspired by "The Ultra-Democratic, Anti-Federalist Cheese of Cheshire." This was in the summer of 1801 when the patriotic people of Cheshire, Massachusetts, turned out en masse to concoct a mammoth cheese on the village green for presentation to their beloved President Jefferson. The unique demonstration occurred spontaneously in jubilant commemoration of the greatest political triumph of a new country in a new century--the victory of the Democrats over the Federalists. Its collective making was heralded in Boston's _Mercury and New England Palladium_, September 8, 1801: _The Mammoth Cheese_ AN EPICO-LYRICO BALLAD From meadows rich, with clover red, A thousand heifers come; The tinkling bells the tidings spread, The milkmaid muffles up her head, And wakes the village hum. In shining pans the snowy flood Through whitened canvas pours; The dyeing pots of otter good And rennet tinged with madder blood Are sought among their stores. The quivering curd, in panniers stowed, Is loaded on the jade, The stumbling beast supports the load, While trickling whey bedews the road Along the dusty glade. As Cairo's slaves, to bondage bred, The arid deserts roam, Through trackless sands undaunted tread, With skins of water on their head To cheer their masters home, So here full many a sturdy swain His precious baggage bore; Old misers e'en forgot their gain, And bed-rid cripples, free from pain, Now took the road before. The widow, with her dripping mite Upon her saddle horn, Rode up in haste to see the sight And aid a charity so right, A pauper so forlorn. The circling throng an opening drew Upon the verdant-grass To let the vast procession through To spread their rich repast in view, And Elder J. L. pass. Then Elder J. with lifted eyes In musing posture stood, Invoked a blessing from the skies To save from vermin, mites and flies, And keep the bounty good. Now mellow strokes the yielding pile From polished steel receives, And shining nymphs stand still a while, Or mix the mass with salt and oil, With sage and savory leaves. Then sextonlike, the patriot troop, With naked arms and crown, Embraced, with hardy hands, the scoop, And filled the vast expanded hoop, While beetles smacked it down. Next girding screws the ponderous beam, With heft immense, drew down; The gushing whey from every seam Flowed through the streets a rapid stream, And shad came up to town. This spirited achievement of early democracy is commemorated today by a sign set up at the ancient and honorable town of Cheshire, located between Pittsfield and North Adams, on Route 8. Jefferson's speech of thanks to the democratic people of Cheshire rings out in history: "I look upon this cheese as a token of fidelity from the very heart of the people of this land to the great cause of equal rights to all men." This popular presentation started a tradition. When Van Buren succeeded to the Presidency, he received a similar mammoth cheese in token of the high esteem in which he was held. A monstrous one, bigger than the Jeffersonian, was made by New Englanders to show their loyalty to President Jackson. For weeks this stood in state in the hall of the White House. At last the floor was a foot deep in the fragments remaining after the enthusiastic Democrats had eaten their fill. [Illustration] _Chapter Three_ Foreign Greats _Ode to Cheese_ God of the country, bless today Thy cheese, For which we give Thee thanks on bended knees. Let them be fat or light, with onions blent, Shallots, brine, pepper, honey; whether scent Of sheep or fields is in them, in the yard Let them, good Lord, at dawn be beaten hard. And let their edges take on silvery shades Under the moist red hands of dairymaids; And, round and greenish, let them go to town Weighing the shepherd's folding mantle down; Whether from Parma or from Jura heights, Kneaded by august hands of Carmelites, Stamped with the mitre of a proud abbess. Flowered with the perfumes of the grass of Bresse, From hollow Holland, from the Vosges, from Brie, From Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Italy! Bless them, good Lord! Bless Stilton's royal fare, Red Cheshire, and the tearful cream Gruyère. FROM JETHRO BITHELL'S TRANSLATION OF A POEM BY M. Thomas Braun _Symphonie des Fromages_ A giant Cantal, seeming to have been chopped open with an ax, stood aside of a golden-hued Chester and a Swiss Gruyère resembling the wheel of a Roman chariot There were Dutch Edams, round and blood-red, and Port-Saluts lined up like soldiers on parade. Three Bries, side by side, suggested phases of the moon; two of them, very dry, were amber-colored and "full," and the third, in its second quarter, was runny and creamy, with a "milky way" which no human barrier seemed able to restrain. And all the while majestic Roqueforts looked down with princely contempt upon the other, through the glass of their crystal covers. Emile Zola In 1953 the United States Department of Agriculture published Handbook No. 54, entitled _Cheese Varieties and Descriptions,_ with this comment: "There probably are only about eighteen distinct types or kinds of natural cheese." All the rest (more than 400 names) are of local origin, usually named after towns or communities. A list of the best-known names applied to each of these distinct varieties or groups is given: Brick Gouda Romano Camembert Hand Roquefort Cheddar Limburger Sapsago Cottage Neufchâtel Swiss Cream Parmesan Trappist Edam Provolone Whey cheeses (Mysost and Ricotta) May we nominate another dozen to form our own Cheese Hall of Fame? We begin our list with a partial roll call of the big Blues family and end it with members of the monastic order of Port-Salut Trappist that includes Canadian Oka and our own Kentucky thoroughbred. The Blues that Are Green Stilton, Roquefort and Gorgonzola form the triumvirate that rules a world of lesser Blues. They are actually green, as green as the mythical cheese the moon is made of. In almost every, land where cheese is made you can sample a handful of lesser Blues and imitations of the invincible three and try to classify them, until you're blue in the face. The best we can do in this slight summary is to mention a few of the most notable, aside from our own Blues of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Oregon and other states that major in cheese. Danish Blues are popular and splendidly made, such as "Flower of Denmark." The Argentine competes with a pampas-grass Blue all its own. But France and England are the leaders in this line, France first with a sort of triple triumvirate within a triumvirate--Septmoncel, Gex, and Sassenage, all three made with three milks mixed together: cow, goat and sheep. Septmoncel is the leader of these, made in the Jura mountains and considered by many French caseophiles to outrank Roquefort. This class of Blue or marbled cheese is called fromage persillé, as well as fromage bleu and pate bleue. Similar mountain cheeses are made in Auvergne and Aubrac and have distinct qualities that have brought them fame, such as Cantal, bleu d'Auvergne Guiole or Laguiole, bleu de Salers, and St. Flour. Olivet and Queville come within the color scheme, and sundry others such as Champoléon, Journiac, Queyras and Sarraz. Of English Blues there are several celebrities beside Stilton and Cheshire Stilton. Wensleydale was one in the early days, and still is, together with Blue Dorset, the deepest green of them all, and esoteric Blue Vinny, a choosey cheese not liked by everybody, the favorite of Thomas Hardy. Brie Sheila Hibben once wrote in _The New Yorker:_ I can't imagine any difference of opinion about Brie's being the queen of all cheeses, and if there is any such difference, I shall certainly ignore it. The very shape of Brie--so uncheese-like and so charmingly fragile--is exciting. Nine times out of ten a Brie will let you down--will be all caked into layers, which shows it is too young, or at the over-runny stage, which means it is too old--but when you come on the tenth Brie, _coulant_ to just the right, delicate creaminess, and the color of fresh, sweet butter, no other cheese can compare with it. The season of Brie, like that of oysters, is simple to remember: only months with an "R," beginning with September, which is the best, bar none. Caciocavallo From Bulgaria to Turkey the Italian "horse cheese," as Caciocavallo translates, is as universally popular as it is at home and in all the Little Italics throughout the rest of the world. Flattering imitations are made and named after it, as follows: BULGARIA: Kascaval GREECE: Kashcavallo and Caskcaval HUNGARY: Parenica RUMANIA: Pentele and Kascaval SERBIA: Katschkawalj SYRIA: Cashkavallo TRANSYLVANIA: Kascaval (as in Rumania) TURKEY: Cascaval Penir YUGOSLAVIA: Kackavalj A horse's head printed on the cheese gave rise to its popular name and to the myth that it is made of mare's milk. It is, however, curded from cow's milk, whole or partly skimmed, and sometimes from water buffalo; hard, yellow and so buttery that the best of it, which comes from Sorrento, is called _Cacio burro,_ butter cheese. Slightly salty, with a spicy tang, it is eaten sliced when young and mild and used for grating and seasoning when old, not only on the usual Italian pastes but on sweets. Different from the many grating cheeses made from little balls of curd called _grana_, Caciocavallo is a _pasta fileta_, or drawn-curd product. Because of this it is sometimes drawn out in long thick threads and braided. It is a cheese for skilled artists to make sculptures with, sometimes horses' heads, again bunches of grapes and other fruits, even as Provolone is shaped like apples and pears and often worked into elaborate bas-relief designs. But ordinarily the horse's head is a plain tenpin in shape or a squat bottle with a knob on the side by which it has been tied up, two cheeses at a time, on opposite sides of a rafter, while being smoked lightly golden and rubbed with olive oil and butter to make it all the more buttery. In Calabria and Sicily it is very popular, and although the best comes from Sorrento, there is keen competition from Abruzzi, Apulian Province and Molise. It keeps well and doesn't spoil when shipped overseas. In his _Little Book of Cheese_ Osbert Burdett recommends the high, horsy strength of this smoked Cacio over tobacco smoke after dinner: Only monsters smoke at meals, but a monster assured me that Gorgonzola best survives this malpractice. Clearly, some pungency is necessary, and confidence suggests rather Cacio which would survive anything, the monster said. Camembert Camembert is called "mold-matured" and all that is genuine is labeled _Syndicat du Vrai Camembert_. The name in full is _Syndicat des Fabricants du Veritable Camembert de Normandie_ and we agree that this is "a most useful association for the defense of one of the best cheeses of France." Its extremely delicate piquance cannot be matched, except perhaps by Brie. Napoleon is said to have named it and to have kissed the waitress who first served it to him in the tiny town of Camembert. And there a statue stands today in the market place to honor Marie Harel who made the first Camembert. Camembert is equally good on thin slices of apple, pineapple, pear, French "flute" or pumpernickel. As-with Brie and with oysters, Camembert should be eaten only in the "R" months, and of these September is the best. Since Camembert rhymes with beware, if you can't get the _véritable_ don't fall for a domestic imitation or any West German abomination such as one dressed like a valentine in a heart-shaped box and labeled "Camembert--Cheese Exquisite." They are equally tasteless, chalky with youth, or choking with ammoniacal gas when old and decrepit. Cheddar The English _Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_ says: Cheddar cheese is one of the kings of cheese; it is pale coloured, mellow, salvy, and, when good, resembling a hazelnut in flavour. The Cheddar principle pervades the whole cheesemaking districts of America, Canada and New Zealand, but no cheese imported into England can equal the Cheddars of Somerset and the West of Scotland. Named for a village near Bristol where farmer Joseph Harding first manufactured it, the best is still called Farmhouse Cheddar, but in America we have practically none of this. Farmhouse Cheddar must be ripened at least nine months to a mellowness, and little of our American cheese gets as much as that. Back in 1695 John Houghton wrote that it "contended in goodness (if kept from two to five years, according to magnitude) with any cheese in England." Today it is called "England's second-best cheese," second after Stilton, of course. In early days a large cheese sufficed for a year or two of family feeding, according to this old note: "A big Cheddar can be kept for two years in excellent condition if kept in a cool room and turned over every other day." But in old England some were harder to preserve: "In Bath... I asked one lady of the larder how she kept Cheddar cheese. Her eyes twinkled: 'We don't keep cheese; we eats it.'" Cheshire A Cheshireman sailed into Spain To trade for merchandise; When he arrived from the main A Spaniard him espies. Who said, "You English rogue, look here! What fruits and spices fine Our land produces twice a year. Thou has not such in thine." The Cheshireman ran to his hold And fetched a Cheshire cheese, And said, "Look here, you dog, behold! We have such fruits as these. Your fruits are ripe but twice a year, As you yourself do say, But such as I present you here Our land brings twice a day." Anonymous Let us pass on to cheese. We have some glorious cheeses, and far too few people glorying in them. The Cheddar of the inn, of the chophouse, of the average English home, is a libel on a thing which, when authentic, is worthy of great honor. Cheshire, divinely commanded into existence as to three parts to precede and as to one part to accompany certain Tawny Ports and some Late-Bottled Ports, can be a thing for which the British Navy ought to fire a salute on the principle on which Colonel Brisson made his regiment salute when passing the great Burgundian vineyard. T. Earle Welby, IN "THE DINNER KNELL" Cheshire is not only the most literary cheese in England, but the oldest. It was already manufactured when Caesar conquered Britain, and tradition is that the Romans built the walled city of Chester to control the district where the precious cheese was made. Chester on the River Dee was a stronghold against the Roman invasion. It came to fame with The Old Cheshire Cheese in Elizabethan times and waxed great with Samuel Johnson presiding at the Fleet Street Inn where White Cheshire was served "with radishes or watercress or celery when in season," and Red Cheshire was served toasted or stewed in a sort of Welsh Rabbit. (_See_ Chapter 5.) The Blue variety is called Cheshire-Stilton, and Vyvyan Holland, in _Cheddar Gorge_ suggests that "it was no doubt a cheese of this sort, discovered and filched from the larder of the Queen of Hearts, that accounted for the contented grin on the face of the Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland." All very English, as recorded in Victor Meusy's couplet: _Dans le Chester sec et rose A longues dents, l'Anglais mord._ In the Chester dry and pink The long teeth of the English sink. Edam and Gouda _Edam in Peace and War_ There also coming into the river two Dutchmen, we sent a couple of men on board and brought three Holland cheeses, cost 4d. a piece, excellent cheeses. Pepys' _Diary_, March 2,1663 Commodore Coe, of the Montevidian Navy, defeated Admiral Brown of the Buenos Ayrean Navy, in a naval battle, when he used Holland cheese for cannon balls. _The Harbinger_ (Vermont), December 11, 1847 The crimson cannon balls of Holland have been heard around the world. Known as "red balls" in England and _katzenkopf,_ "cat's head," in Germany, they differ from Gouda chiefly in the shape, Gouda being round but flattish and now chiefly imported as one-pound Baby Goudas. Edam when it is good is very, very good, but when it is bad it is horrid. Sophisticated ones are sent over already scalloped for the ultimate consumer to add port, and there are crocks of Holland cheese potted with sauterne. Both Edam and Gouda should be well aged to develop full-bodied quality, two years being the accepted standard for Edam. The best Edams result from a perfect combination of Breed (black-and-white Dutch Friesian) and Feed (the rich pasturage of Friesland and Noord Holland). The Goudas, shaped like English Derby and Belgian Delft and Leyden, come from South Holland. Some are specially made for the Jewish trade and called Kosher Gouda. Both Edam and Gouda are eaten at mealtimes thrice daily in Holland. A Dutch breakfast without one or the other on black bread with butter and black coffee would be unthinkable. They're also boon companions to plum bread and Dutch cocoa. "Eclair Edams" are those with soft insides. Emmentaler, Gruyère and Swiss When the working woman Takes her midday lunch, It is a piece of Gruyère Which for her takes the place of roast. Victor Meusy Whether an Emmentaler is eminently Schweizerkäse, grand Gruyère from France, or lesser Swiss of the United States, the shape, size and glisten of the eyes indicate the stage of ripeness, skill of making and quality of flavor. They must be uniform, roundish, about the size of a big cherry and, most important of all, must glisten like the eye of a lass in love, dry but with the suggestion of a tear. Gruyère does not see eye to eye with the big-holed Swiss Saanen cartwheel or American imitation. It has tiny holes, and many of them; let us say it is freckled with pinholes, rather than pock-marked. This variety is technically called a _niszler_, while one without any holes at all is "blind." Eyes or holes are also called vesicles. Gruyère Trauben (Grape Gruyère) is aged in Neuchâtel wine in Switzerland, although most Gruyère has been made in France since its introduction there in 1722. The most famous is made in the Jura, and another is called Comté from its origin in Franche-Comté. A blind Emmentaler was made in Switzerland for export to Italy where it was hardened in caves to become a grating cheese called Raper, and now it is largely imitated there. Emmentaler, in fact, because of its piquant pecan-nut flavor and inimitable quality, is simulated everywhere, even in Switzerland. Besides phonies from Argentina and countries as far off as Finland, we get a flood of imported and domestic Swisses of all sad sorts, with all possible faults--from too many holes, that make a flabby, wobbly cheese, to too few--cracked, dried-up, collapsed or utterly ruined by molding inside. So it will pay you to buy only the kind already marked genuine in Switzerland. For there cheese such as Saanen takes six years to ripen, improves with age, and keeps forever. Cartwheels well over a hundred years old are still kept in cheese cellars (as common in Switzerland as wine cellars are in France), and it is said that the rank of a family is determined by the age and quality of the cheese in its larder. Feta and Casere The Greeks have a name for it--Feta. Their neighbors call it Greek cheese. Feta is to cheese what Hymettus is to honey. The two together make ambrosial manna. Feta is soft and as blinding white as a plate of fresh Ricotta smothered with sour cream. The whiteness is preserved by shipping the cheese all the way from Greece in kegs sloshing full of milk, the milk being renewed from time to time. Having been cured in brine, this great sheep-milk curd is slightly salty and somewhat sharp, but superbly spicy. When first we tasted it fresh from the keg with salty milk dripping through our fingers, we gave it full marks. This was at the Staikos Brothers Greek-import store on West 23rd Street in Manhattan. We then compared Feta with thin wisps of its grown-up brother, Casere. This gray and greasy, hard and brittle palate-tickler of sheep's milk made us bleat for more Feta. Gorgonzola Gorgonzola, least pretentious of the Blues triumvirate (including Roquefort and Stilton) is nonetheless by common consent monarch of all other Blues from Argentina to Denmark. In England, indeed, many epicures consider Gorgonzola greater than Stilton, which is the highest praise any cheese can get there. Like all great cheeses it has been widely imitated, but never equaled. Imported Gorgonzola, when fruity ripe, is still firm but creamy and golden inside with rich green veins running through. Very pungent and highly flavored, it is eaten sliced or crumbled to flavor salad dressings, like Roquefort. Hablé Crème Chantilly The name Hablé Crème Chantilly sounds French, but the cheese is Swedish and actually lives up to the blurb in the imported package: "The overall characteristic is indescribable and delightful freshness." This exclusive product of the Walk Gärd Creamery was hailed by Sheila Hibben in _The New Yorker_ of May 6, 1950, as enthusiastically as Brillat-Savarin would have greeted a new dish, or the Planetarium a new star: Endeavoring to be as restrained as I can, I shall merely suggest that the arrival of Crème Chantilly is a historic event and that in reporting on it I feel something of the responsibility that the contemporaries of Madame Harel, the famous cheese-making lady of Normandy, must have felt when they were passing judgment on the first Camembert. Miss Hibben goes on to say that only a fromage à la crème made in Quebec had come anywhere near her impression of the new Swedish triumph. She quotes the last word from the makers themselves: "This is a very special product that has never been made on this earth before," and speaks of "the elusive flavor of mushrooms" before summing up, "the exquisitely textured curd and the unexpectedly fresh flavor combine to make it one of the most subtly enjoyable foods that have come my way in a long time." And so say we--all of us. Hand Cheese Hand cheese has this niche in our Cheese Hall of Fame not because we consider it great, but because it is usually included among the eighteen varieties on which the hundreds of others are based. It is named from having been molded into its final shape by hand. Universally popular with Germanic races, it is too strong for the others. To our mind, Hand cheese never had anything that Allgäuer or Limburger hasn't improved upon. It is the only cheese that is commonly melted into steins of beer and drunk instead of eaten. It is usually studded with caraway seeds, the most natural spice for curds. Limburger Limburger has always been popular in America, ever since it was brought over by German-American immigrants; but England never took to it. This is eloquently expressed in the following entry in the English _Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_: Limburger cheese is chiefly famous for its pungently offensive odor. It is made from skimmed milk, and allowed to partially decompose before pressing. It is very little known in this country, and might be less so with advantage to consumers. But this is libel. Butter-soft and sapid, Limburger has brought gustatory pleasure to millions of hardy gastronomes since it came to light in the province of Lüttich in Belgium. It has been Americanized for almost a century and is by now one of the very few cheeses successfully imitated here, chiefly in New York and Wisconsin. Early Wisconsiners will never forget the Limburger Rebellion in Green County, when the people rose in protest against the Limburger caravan that was accustomed to park in the little town of Monroe where it was marketed. They threatened to stage a modern Boston Tea Party and dump the odoriferous bricks in the river, when five or six wagonloads were left ripening in the sun in front of the town bank. The Limburger was finally stored safely underground. Livarot Livarot has been described as decadent, "The very Verlaine of them all," and Victor Meusy personifies it in a poem dedicated to all the great French cheeses, of which we give a free translation: In the dog days In its overflowing dish Livarot gesticulates Or weeps like a child. Münster At the diplomatic banquet One must choose his piece. All is politics, A cheese and a flag. You annoy the Russians If you take Chester; You irritate the Prussians In choosing Münster. Victor Meusy Like Limburger, this male cheese, often caraway-flavored, does not fare well in England. Although over here we consider Münster far milder than Limburger, the English writer Eric Weir in _When Madame Cooks_ will have none of it: I cannot think why this cheese was not thrown from the aeroplanes during the war to spread panic amongst enemy troops. It would have proved far more efficacious than those nasty deadly gases that kill people permanently. Neufchâtel If the cream cheese be white Far fairer the hands that made them. Arthur Hugh Clough Although originally from Normandy, Neufchâtel, like Limburger, was so long ago welcomed to America and made so splendidly at home here that we may consider it our very own. All we have against it is that it has served as the model for too many processed abominations. Parmesan, Romano, Pecorino, Pecorino Romano Parmesan when young, soft and slightly crumbly is eaten on bread. But when well aged, let us say up to a century, it becomes Rock of Gibraltar of cheeses and really suited for grating. It is easy to believe that the so-called "Spanish cheese" used as a barricade by Americans in Nicaragua almost a century ago was none other than the almost indestructible Grana, as Parmesan is called in Italy. The association between cheese and battling began in B.C. days with the Jews and Romans, who fed cheese to their soldiers not only for its energy value but as a convenient form of rations, since every army travels on its stomach and can't go faster than its impedimenta. The last notable mention of cheese in war was the name of the _Monitor_: "A cheese box on a raft." Romano is not as expensive as Parmesan, although it is as friable, sharp and tangy for flavoring, especially for soups such as onion and minestrone. It is brittle and just off-white when well aged. Although made of sheep's milk, Pecorino is classed with both Parmesan and Romano. All three are excellently imitated in Argentina. Romano and Pecorino Romano are interchangeable names for the strong, medium-sharp and piquant Parmesan types that sell for considerably less. Most of it is now shipped from Sardinia. There are several different kinds: Pecorino Dolce (sweet), Sardo Tuscano, and Pecorino Romano Cacio, which relates it to Caciocavallo. Kibitzers complain that some of the cheaper types of Pecorino are soapy, but fans give it high praise. Gillian F., in her "Letter from Italy" in Osbert Burdett's delectable _Little Book of Cheese_, writes: Out in the orchard, my companion, I don't remember how, had provided the miracle: a flask of wine, a loaf of bread and a slab of fresh Pecorino cheese (there wasn't any "thou" for either) ... But that cheese was Paradise; and the flask was emptied, and a wood dove cooing made you think that the flask's contents were in a crystal goblet instead of an enamel cup ... one only ... and the cheese broken with the fingers ... a cheese of cheeses. Pont L'Evêque This semisoft, medium-strong, golden-tinted French classic made since the thirteenth century, is definitely a dessert cheese whose excellence is brought out best by a sound claret or tawny port. Port-Salut (_See_ Trappist) Provolone Within recent years Provolone has taken America by storm, as Camembert, Roquefort, Swiss, Limburger, Neufchâtel and such great ones did long before. But it has not been successfully imitated here because the original is made of rich water-buffalo milk unattainable in the Americas. With Caciocavallo, this mellow, smoky flavorsome delight is put up in all sorts of artistic forms, red-cellophaned apples, pears, bells, a regular zoo of animals, and in all sorts of sizes, up to a monumental hundred-pound bas-relief imported for exhibition purposes by Phil Alpert. Roquefort Homage to this _fromage!_ Long hailed as _le roi_ Roquefort, it has filled books and booklets beyond count. By the miracle of _Penicillium Roqueforti_ a new cheese was made. It is placed historically back around the eighth century when Charlemagne was found picking out the green spots of Persillé with the point of his knife, thinking them decay. But the monks of Saint-Gall, who were his hosts, recorded in their annals that when they regaled him with Roquefort (because it was Friday and they had no fish) they also made bold to tell him he was wasting the best part of the cheese. So he tasted again, found the advice excellent and liked it so well he ordered two _caisses_ of it sent every year to his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle. He also suggested that it be cut in half first, to make sure it was well veined with blue, and then bound up with a wooden fastening. Perhaps he hoped the wood would protect the cheeses from mice and rats, for the good monks of Saint-Gall couldn't be expected to send an escort of cats from their chalky caves to guard them--even for Charlemagne. There is no telling how many cats were mustered out in the caves, in those early days, but a recent census put the number at five hundred. We can readily imagine the head handler in the caves leading a night inspection with a candle, followed by his chief taster and a regiment of cats. While the Dutch and other makers of cheese also employ cats to patrol their storage caves, Roquefort holds the record for number. An interesting point in this connection is that as rats and mice pick only the prime cheeses, a gnawed one is not thrown away but greatly prized. Sapsago, Schabziger or Swiss Green Cheese The name Sapsago is a corruption of Schabziger, German for whey cheese. It's a hay cheese, flavored heavily with melilot, a kind of clover that's also grown for hay. It comes from Switzerland in a hard, truncated cone wrapped in a piece of paper that says: To be used grated only Genuine Swiss Green Cheese Made of skimmed milk and herbs To the housewives! Do you want a change in your meals? Try the contents of this wrapper! Delicious as spreading mixed with butter, excellent for flavoring eggs, macaroni, spaghetti, potatoes, soup, etc. Can be used in place of any other cheese. _Do not take too much, you might spoil the flavor_. We put this wrapper among our papers, sealed it tight in an envelope, and to this day, six months later, the scent of Sapsago clings 'round it still. Stilton _Honor for Cheeses_ Literary and munching circles in London are putting quite a lot of thought into a proposed memorial to Stilton cheese. There is a Stilton Memorial Committee, with Sir John Squire at the head, and already the boys are fighting. One side, led by Sir John, is all for a monument. This, presumably, would not be a replica of Stilton itself, although Mr. Epstein could probably hack out a pretty effective cheese-shaped figure and call it "Dolorosa." The monument-boosters plan a figure of Mrs. Paulet, who first introduced Stilton to England. (Possibly a group showing Mrs. Paulet holding a young Stilton by the hand and introducing it, while the Stilton curtsies.) T.S. Eliot does not think that anyone would look at a monument, but wants to establish a Foundation for the Preservation of Ancient Cheeses. The practicability of this plan would depend largely on the site selected for the treasure house and the cost of obtaining a curator who could, or would, give his whole time to the work. Mr. J.A. Symonds, who is secretary of the committee, agrees with Mr. Eliot that a simple statue is not the best form. "I should like," he says, "something irrelevant--gargoyles, perhaps." I think that Mr. Symonds has hit on something there. I would suggest, if we Americans can pitch into this great movement, some gargoyles designed by Mr. Rube Goldberg. If the memorial could be devised so as to take on an international scope, an exchange fellowship might be established between England and America, although the exchange, in the case of Stilton, would have to be all on England's side. We might be allowed to furnish the money, however, while England furnishes the cheese. There is a very good precedent for such a bargain between the two countries. Robert Benchley, in _After 1903--What?_ When all seems lost in England there is still Stilton, an endless after-dinner conversation piece to which England points with pride. For a sound appreciation of this cheese see Clifton Fadiman's introduction to this book. Taleggio and Bel Paese When the great Italian cheese-maker, Galbini, first exported Bel Paese some years ago, it was an eloquent ambassador to America. But as the years went on and imitations were made in many lands, Galbini deemed it wise to set up his own factory in _our_ beautiful country. However, the domestic Bel Paese and a minute one-pounder called Bel Paesino just didn't have that old Alpine zest. They were no better than the German copy called Schönland, after the original, or the French Fleur des Alpes. Mel Fino was a blend of Bel Paese and Gorgonzola. It perked up the market for a full, fruity cheese with snap. Then Galbini hit the jackpot with his Taleggio that fills the need for the sharpest, most sophisticated pungence of them all. Trappist, Port-Salut, or Port du Salut, and Oka In spite of its name Trappist is no rat-trap commoner. Always of the elect, and better known as Port-Salut or Port du Salut from the original home of the Trappist monks in their chief French abbey, it is also set apart from the ordinary Canadians under the name of Oka, from the Trappist monastery there. It is made by Trappist monks all over the world, according to the original secret formula, and by Trappist Cistercian monks at the Abbey of Gethsemani Trappist in Kentucky. This is a soft cheese, creamy and of superb flavor. You can't go wrong if you look for the monastery name stamped on, such as Harzé in Belgium, Mont-des-Cats in Flanders, Sainte Anne d'Auray in Brittany, and so forth. Last but not least, a commercial Port-Salut entirely without benefit of clergy or monastery is made in Milwaukee under the Lion Brand. It is one of the finest American cheeses in which we have ever sunk a fang. [Illustration] _Chapter Four_ Native Americans American Cheddars The first American Cheddar was made soon after 1620 around Plymouth by Pilgrim fathers who brought along not only cheese from the homeland but a live cow to continue the supply. Proof of our ability to manufacture Cheddar of our own lies in the fact that by 1790 we were exporting it back to England. It was called Cheddar after the English original named for the village of Cheddar near Bristol. More than a century ago it made a new name for itself, Herkimer County cheese, from the section of New York State where it was first made best. Herkimer still equals its several distinguished competitors, Coon, Colorado Blackie, California Jack, Pineapple, Sage, Vermont Colby and Wisconsin Longhorn. The English called our imitation Yankee, or American, Cheddar, while here at home it was popularly known as yellow or store cheese from its prominent position in every country store; also apple-pie cheese because of its affinity for the all-American dessert. The first Cheddar factory was founded by Jesse Williams in Rome, New York, just over a century ago and, with Herkimer County Cheddar already widely known, this established "New York" as the preferred "store-boughten" cheese. An account of New York's cheese business in the pioneer Wooden Nutmeg Era is found in Ernest Elmo Calkins' interesting book, _They Broke the Prairies_. A Yankee named Silvanus Ferris, "the most successful dairyman of Herkimer County," in the first decades of the 1800's teamed up with Robert Nesbit, "the old Quaker Cheese Buyer." They bought from farmers in the region and sold in New York City. And "according to the business ethics of the times," Nesbit went ahead to cheapen the cheese offered by deprecating its quality, hinting at a bad market and departing without buying. Later when Ferris arrived in a more optimistic mood, offering a slightly better price, the seller, unaware they were partners, and ignorant of the market price, snapped up the offer. Similar sharp-trade tactics put too much green cheese on the market, so those honestly aged from a minimum of eight months up to two years fetched higher prices. They were called "old," such as Old Herkimer, Old Wisconsin Longhorn, and Old California Jack. Although the established Cheddar ages are three, fresh, medium-cured, and cured or aged, commercially they are divided into two and described as mild and sharp. The most popular are named for their states: Colorado, Illinois, Kentucky, New York, Ohio, Vermont and Wisconsin. Two New York Staters are called and named separately, Coon and Herkimer County. Tillamook goes by its own name with no mention of Oregon. Pineapple, Monterey Jack and Sage are seldom listed as Cheddars at all, although they are basically that. Brick Brick is the one and only cheese for which the whole world gives America credit. Runners-up are Liederkranz, which rivals say is too close to Limburger, and Pineapple, which is only a Cheddar under its crisscrossed, painted and flavored rind. Yet Brick is no more distinguished than either of the hundred percent Americans, and in our opinion is less worth bragging about. It is a medium-firm, mild-to-strong slicing cheese for sandwiches and melting in hot dishes. Its texture is elastic but not rubbery, its taste sweetish, and it is full of little round holes or eyes. All this has inspired enthusiasts to liken it to Emmentaler. The most appropriate name for it has long been "married man's Limburger." To make up for the mildness caraway seed is sometimes added. About Civil War time, John Jossi, a dairyman of Dodge County, Wisconsin, came up with this novelty, a rennet cheese made of whole cow's milk. The curd is cut like Cheddar, heated, stirred and cooked firm to put in a brick-shaped box without a bottom and with slits in the sides to drain. When this is set on the draining table a couple of bricks are also laid on the cooked curd for pressure. It is this double use of bricks, for shaping and for pressing, that has led to the confusion about which came first in originating the name. The formed "bricks" of cheese are rubbed with salt for three days and they ripen slowly, taking up to two months. We eat several million pounds a year and 95 percent of that comes from Wisconsin, with a trickle from New York. Colorado Blackie Cheese A subtly different American Cheddar is putting Colorado on our cheese map. It is called Blackie from the black-waxed rind and it resembles Vermont State cheese, although it is flatter. This is a proud new American product, proving that although Papa Cheddar was born in England his American kinfolk have developed independent and valuable characters all on their own. Coon Cheese Coon cheese is full of flavor from being aged on shelves at a higher temperature than cold storage. Its rind is darker from the growth of mold and this shade is sometimes painted on more ordinary Cheddars to make them look like Coon, which always brings a 10 percent premium above the general run. Made at Lowville, New York, it has received high praise from a host of admirers, among them the French cook, Clementine, in Phineas Beck's _Kitchen_, who raised it to the par of French immortals by calling it Fromage de Coon. Clementine used it "with scintillating success in countless French recipes which ended with the words _gratiner au four et servir tres chaud_. She made _baguettes_ of it by soaking sticks three-eights-inch square and one and a half inches long in lukewarm milk, rolling them in flour, beaten egg and bread crumbs and browning them instantaneously in boiling oil." Herkimer County Cheese The standard method for making American Cheddar was established in Herkimer County, New York, in 1841 and has been rigidly maintained down to this day. Made with rennet and a bacterial "starter," the curd is cut and pressed to squeeze out all of the whey and then aged in cylindrical forms for a year or more. Herkimer leads the whole breed by being flaky, brittle, sharp and nutty, with a crumb that will crumble, and a soft, mouth-watering pale orange color when it is properly aged. Isigny Isigny is a native American cheese that came a cropper. It seems to be extinct now, and perhaps that is all to the good, for it never meant to be anything more than another Camembert, of which we have plenty of imitation. Not long after the Civil War the attempt was made to perfect Isigny. The curd was carefully prepared according to an original formula, washed and rubbed and set aside to come of age. But when it did, alas, it was more like Limburger than Camembert, and since good domestic Limburger was then a dime a pound, obviously it wouldn't pay off. Yet in shape the newborn resembled Camembert, although it was much larger. So they cut it down and named it after the delicate French Creme d'lsigny. Jack, California Jack and Monterey Jack Jack was first known as Monterey cheese from the California county where it originated. Then it was called Jack for short, and only now takes its full name after sixty years of popularity on the West Coast. Because it is little known in the East and has to be shipped so far, it commands the top Cheddar price. Monterey Jack is a stirred curd Cheddar without any annatto coloring. It is sweeter than most and milder when young, but it gets sharper with age and more expensive because of storage costs. Liederkranz No native American cheese has been so widely ballyhooed, and so deservedly, as Liederkranz, which translates "Wreath of Song." Back in the gay, inventive nineties, Emil Frey, a young delicatessen keeper in New York, tried to please some bereft customers by making an imitation of Bismarck Schlosskäse. This was imperative because the imported German cheese didn't stand up during the long sea trip and Emil's customers, mostly members of the famous Liederkranz singing society, didn't feel like singing without it. But Emil's attempts at imitation only added indigestion to their dejection, until one day--_fabelhaft!_ One of those cheese dream castles in Spain came true. He turned out a tawny, altogether golden, tangy and mellow little marvel that actually was an improvement on Bismarck's old Schlosskäse. Better than Brick, it was a deodorized Limburger, both a man's cheese and one that cheese-conscious women adored. Emil named it "Wreath of Song" for the Liederkranz customers. It soon became as internationally known as tabasco from Texas or Parisian Camembert which it slightly resembles. Borden's bought out Frey in 1929 and they enjoy telling the story of a G.I. who, to celebrate V-E Day in Paris, sent to his family in Indiana, only a few miles from the factory at Van Wert, Ohio, a whole case of what he had learned was "the finest cheese France could make." And when the family opened it, there was Liederkranz. Another deserved distinction is that of being sandwiched in between two foreign immortals in the following recipe: Schnitzelbank Pot 1 ripe Camembert cheese 1 Liederkranz 1/8 pound imported Roquefort 1/4 pound butter 1 tablespoon flour 1 cup cream 1/2 cup finely chopped olives 1/4 cup canned pimiento A sprinkling of cayenne Depending on whether or not you like the edible rind of Camembert and Liederkranz, you can leave it on, scrape any thick part off, or remove it all. Mash the soft creams together with the Roquefort, butter and flour, using a silver fork. Put the mix into an enameled pan, for anything with a metal surface will turn the cheese black in cooking. Stir in the cream and keep stirring until you have a smooth, creamy sauce. Strain through sieve or cheesecloth, and mix in the olives and pimiento thoroughly. Sprinkle well with cayenne and put into a pot to mellow for a few days, or much longer. The name _Schnitzelbank_ comes from "school bench," a game. This snappy-sweet pot is specially suited to a beer party and stein songs. It is also the affinity-spread with rye and pumpernickel, and may be served in small sandwiches or on crackers, celery and such, to make appetizing tidbits for cocktails, tea, or cider. Like the trinity of cheeses that make it, the mixture is eaten best at room temperature, when its flavor is fullest. If kept in the refrigerator, it should be taken out a couple of hours before serving. Since it is a natural cheese mixture, which has gone through no process or doping with preservative, it will not keep more than two weeks. This mellow-sharp mix is the sort of ideal the factory processors shoot at with their olive-pimiento abominations. Once you've potted your own, you'll find it gives the same thrill as garnishing your own Liptauer. Minnesota Blue The discovery of sandstone caves in the bluffs along the Mississippi, in and near the Twin Cities of Minnesota, has established a distinctive type of Blue cheese named for the state. Although the Roquefort process of France is followed and the cheese is inoculated in the same way by mold from bread, it can never equal the genuine imported, marked with its red-sheep brand, because the milk used in Minnesota Blue is cow's milk, and the caves are sandstone instead of limestone. Yet this is an excellent, Blue cheese in its own right. Pineapple Pineapple cheese is named after its shape rather than its flavor, although there are rumors that some pineapple flavor is noticeable near the oiled rind. This flavor does not penetrate through to the Cheddar center. Many makers of processed cheese have tampered with the original, so today you can't be sure of anything except getting a smaller size every year or two, at a higher price. Originally six pounds, the Pineapple has shrunk to nearly six ounces. The proper bright-orange, oiled and shellacked surface is more apt to be a sickly lemon. Always an ornamental cheese, it once stood in state on the side-board under a silver bell also made to represent a pineapple. You cut a top slice off the cheese, just as you would off the fruit, and there was a rose-colored, fine-tasting, mellow-hard cheese to spoon out with a special silver cheese spoon or scoop. Between meals the silver top was put on the silver holder and the oiled and shellacked rind kept the cheese moist. Even when the Pineapple was eaten down to the rind the shell served as a dunking bowl to fill with some salubrious cold Fondue or salad. Made in the same manner as Cheddar with the curd cooked harder, Pineapple's distinction lies in being hung in a net that makes diamond-shaped corrugations on the surface, simulating the sections of the fruit. It is a pioneer American product with almost a century and a half of service since Lewis M. Norton conceived it in 1808 in Litchfield County, Connecticut. There in 1845 he built a factory and made a deserved fortune out of his decorative ingenuity with what before had been plain, unromantic yellow or store cheese. Perhaps his inspiration came from cone-shaped Cheshire in old England, also called Pineapple cheese, combined with the hanging up of Provolones in Italy that leaves the looser pattern of the four sustaining strings. Sage, Vermont Sage and Vermont State The story of Sage cheese, or green cheese as it was called originally, shows the several phases most cheeses have gone through, from their simple, honest beginnings to commercialization, and sometimes back to the real thing. The English _Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_ has an early Sage recipe: This is a species of cream cheese made by adding sage leaves and greening to the milk. A very good receipt for it is given thus: Bruise the tops of fresh young red sage leaves with an equal quantity of spinach leaves and squeeze out the juice. Add this to the extract of rennet and stir into the milk as much as your taste may deem sufficient. Break the curd when it comes, salt it, fill the vat high with it, press for a few hours, and then turn the cheese every day. _Fancy Cheese in America, lay_ Charles A. Publow, records the commercialization of the cheese mentioned above, a century or two later, in 1910: Sage cheese is another modified form of the Cheddar variety. Its distinguishing features are a mottled green color and a sage flavor. The usual method of manufacture is as follows: One-third of the total amount of milk is placed in a vat by itself and colored green by the addition of eight to twelve ounces of commercial sage color to each 1,000 pounds of milk. If green corn leaves (unavailable in England) or other substances are used for coloring, the amounts will vary accordingly. The milk is then made up by the regular Cheddar method, as is also the remaining two-thirds, in a separate vat. At the time of removing the whey the green and white curds are mixed. Some prefer, however, to mix the curds at the time of milling, as a more distinct color is secured. After milling, the sage extract flavoring is sprayed over the curd with an atomizer. The curd is then salted and pressed into the regular Cheddar shapes and sizes. A very satisfactory Sage cheese is made at the New York State College of Agriculture by simply dropping green coloring, made from the leaves of corn and spinach, upon the curd, after milling. An even green mottling is thus easily secured without additional labor. Sage flavoring extract is sprayed over the curd by an atomizer. One-half ounce of flavoring is usually sufficient for a hundred pounds of curd and can be secured from dairy supply houses. A modern cheese authority reported on the current (1953) method: Instead of sage leaves, or tea prepared from them, at present the cheese is flavored with oil of Dalmatian wild sage because it has the sharpest flavor. This piny oil, thujone, is diluted with water, 250 parts to one, and either added to the milk or sprayed over the curds, one-eighth ounce for 500 quarts of milk. In scouting around for a possible maker of the real thing today, we wrote to Vrest Orton of Vermont, and got this reply: Sage cheese is one of the really indigenous and best native Vermont products. So far as I know, there is only one factory making it and that is my friend, George Crowley's. He makes a limited amount for my Vermont Country Store. It is the fine old-time full cream cheese, flavored with real sage. On this hangs a tale. Some years ago I couldn't get enough sage cheese (we never can) so I asked a Wisconsin cheesemaker if he would make some. Said he would but couldn't at that time--because the alfalfa wasn't ripe. I said, "What in hell has alfalfa got to do with sage cheese?" He said, "Well, we flavor the sage cheese with a synthetic sage flavor and then throw in some pieces of chopped-up alfalfa to make it look green." So I said to hell with that and the next time I saw George Crowley I told him the story and George said, "We don't use synthetic flavor, alfalfa or anything like that." "Then what do you use, George?" I inquired. "We use real sage." "Why?" "Well, because it's cheaper than that synthetic stuff." The genuine Vermont Sage arrived. Here are our notes on it: Oh, wilderness were Paradise enow! My taste buds come to full flower with the Sage. There's a slight burned savor recalling smoked cheese, although not related in any way. Mildly resinous like that Near East one packed in pine, suggesting the well-saged dressing of a turkey. A round mouthful of luscious mellowness, with a bouquet--a snapping reminder to the nose. And there's just a soupçon of new-mown hay above the green freckles of herb to delight the eye and set the fancy free. So this is the _véritable vert_, green cheese--the moon is made of it! _Vert véritable._ A general favorite with everybody who ever tasted it, for generations of lusty crumblers. Old-Fashioned Vermont State Store Cheese We received from savant Vrest Orton another letter, together with some Vermont store cheese and some crackers. This cheese is our regular old-fashioned store cheese--it's been in old country stores for generations and we have been pioneers in spreading the word about it. It is, of course, a natural aged cheese, no processing, no fussing, no fooling with it. It's made the same way it was back in 1870, by the old-time Colby method which makes a cheese which is not so dry as Cheddar and also has holes in it, something like Swiss. Also, it ages faster. Did you know that during the last part of the nineteenth century and part of the twentieth, Vermont was the leading cheesemaking state in the Union? When I was a lad, every town in Vermont had one or more cheese factories. Now there are only two left--not counting any that make process. Process isn't cheese! The crackers are the old-time store cracker--every Vermonter used to buy a big barrel once a year to set in the buttery and eat. A classic dish is crackers, broken up in a bowl of cold milk, with a hunk of Vermont cheese like this on the side. Grand snack, grand midnight supper, grand anything. These crackers are not sweet, not salt, and as such make a good base for anything--swell with clam chowder, also with toasted cheese.... Tillamook It takes two pocket-sized, but thick, yellow volumes to record the story of Oregon's great Tillamook. _The Cheddar Box_, by Dean Collins, comes neatly boxed and bound in golden cloth stamped with a purple title, like the rind of a real Tillamook. Volume I is entitled _Cheese Cheddar_, and Volume II is a two-pound Cheddar cheese labeled Tillamook and molded to fit inside its book jacket. We borrowed Volume I from a noted _littérateur_, and never could get him to come across with Volume II. We guessed its fate, however, from a note on the flyleaf of the only tome available: "This is an excellent cheese, full cream and medium sharp, and a unique set of books in which Volume II suggests Bacon's: 'Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.'" Wisconsin Longhorn Since we began this chapter with all-American Cheddars, it is only fitting to end with Wisconsin Longhorn, a sort of national standard, even though it's not nearly so fancy or high-priced as some of the regional natives that can't approach its enormous output. It's one of those all-purpose round cheeses that even taste round in your mouth. We are specially partial to it. Most Cheddars are named after their states. Yet, putting all of these thirty-seven states together, they produce only about half as much as Wisconsin alone. Besides Longhorn, in Wisconsin there are a dozen regional competitors ranging from White Twin Cheddar, to which no annatto coloring has been added, through Green Bay cheese to Wisconsin Redskin and Martha Washington Aged, proudly set forth by P.H. Kasper of Bear Creek, who is said to have "won more prizes in forty years than any ten cheesemakers put together." To help guarantee a market for all this excellent apple-pie cheese, the Wisconsin State Legislature made a law about it, recognizing the truth of Eugene Field's jingle: Apple pie without cheese Is like a kiss without a squeeze. Small matter in the Badger State when the affinity is made legal and the couple lawfully wedded in Statute No. 160,065. It's still in force: _Butter and cheese to be served._ Every person, firm or corporation duly licensed to operate a hotel or restaurant shall serve with each meal for which a charge of twenty-five cents or more is made, at least two-thirds of an ounce of Wisconsin butter and two-thirds of an ounce of Wisconsin cheese. Besides Longhorn, Wisconsin leads in Limburger. It produces so much Swiss that the state is sometimes called Swissconsin. [Illustration] _Chapter Five_ Sixty-five Sizzling Rabbits That nice little smoky room at the "Salutation," which is even now continually presenting itself to my recollection, with all its associated train of pipes, egg-hot, welsh-rabbits, metaphysics and poetry. Charles Lamb, IN A LETTER TO COLERIDGE Unlike the beginning of the classical Jugged Hare recipe: "First catch your hare!" we modern Rabbit-hunters start off with "First catch your Cheddar!" And some of us go so far as to smuggle in formerly forbidden _fromages_ such as Gruyère, Neufchâtel, Parmesan, and mixtures thereof. We run the gamut of personal preferences in selecting the Rabbit cheese itself, from old-time American, yellow or store cheese, to Coon and Canadian-smoked, though all of it is still Cheddar, no matter how you slice it. Then, too, guests are made to run the gauntlet of all-American trimmings from pin-money pickles to peanut butter, succotash and maybe marshmallows; we add mustard, chill, curry, tabasco and sundry bottled red devils from the grocery store, to add pep and piquance to the traditional cayenne and black pepper. This results in Rabbits that are out of focus, out of order and out of this world. Among modern sins of omission, the Worcestershire sauce is left out by braggarts who aver that they can take it or leave it. And, in these degenerate days, when it comes to substitutions for the original beer or stale pale ale, we find the gratings of great Cheddars wet down with mere California sherry or even ginger ale--yet so far, thank goodness, no Cokes. And there's tomato juice out of a can into the Rum Turn Tiddy, and sometimes celery soup in place of milk or cream. In view of all this, we can only look to the standard cookbooks for salvation. These are mostly compiled by women, our thoughtful mothers, wives and sweethearts who have saved the twin Basic Rabbits for us. If it weren't for these Fanny Farmers, the making of a real aboriginal Welsh Rabbit would be a lost art--lost in sporting male attempts to improve upon the original. The girls are still polite about the whole thing and protectively pervert the original spelling of "Rabbit" to "Rarebit" in their culinary guides. We have heard that once a club of ladies in high society tried to high-pressure the publishers of Mr. Webster's dictionary to change the old spelling in their favor. Yet there is a lot to be said for this more genteel and appetizing rendering of the word, for the Welsh masterpiece is, after all, a very rare bit of cheesemongery, male or female. Yet in dealing with "Rarebits" the distaff side seldom sets down more than the basic Adam and Eve in a whole Paradise of Rabbits: No. 1, the wild male type made with beer, and No. 2, the mild female made with milk. Yet now that the chafing dish has come back to stay, there's a flurry in the Rabbit warren and the new cooking encyclopedias give up to a dozen variants. Actually there are easily half a gross of valid ones in current esteem. The two basic recipes are differentiated by the liquid ingredient, but both the beer and the milk are used only one way--warm, or anyway at room temperature. And again for the two, there is but one traditional cheese--Cheddar, ripe, old or merely aged from six months onward. This is also called American, store, sharp, Rabbit, yellow, beer, Wisconsin Longhorn, mouse, and even rat. The seasoned, sapid Cheddar-type, so indispensable, includes dozens of varieties under different names, regional or commercial. These are easily identified as sisters-under-the-rinds by all five senses: sight: Golden yellow and mellow to the eye. It's one of those round cheeses that also tastes round in the mouth. hearing: By thumping, a cheese-fancier, like a melon-picker, can tell if a Cheddar is rich, ripe and ready for the Rabbit. When you hear your dealer say, "It's six months old or more," enough said. smell: A scent as fresh as that of the daisies and herbs the mother milk cow munched "will hang round it still." Also a slight beery savor. touch: Crumbly--a caress to the fingers. taste: The quintessence of this fivefold test. Just cuddle a crumb with your tongue and if it tickles the taste buds it's prime. When it melts in your mouth, that's proof it will melt in the pan. Beyond all this (and in spite of the school that plumps for the No. 2 temperance alternative) we must point out that beer has a special affinity for Cheddar. The French have clearly established this in their names for Welsh Rabbit, _Fromage Fondue à la Bière_ and _Fondue à l'Anglaise_. To prepare such a cheese for the pan, each Rabbit hound may have a preference all his own, for here the question comes up of how it melts best. Do you shave, slice, dice, shred, mince, chop, cut, scrape or crumble it in the fingers? This will vary according to one's temperament and the condition of the cheese. Generally, for best results it is coarsely grated. When it comes to making all this into a rare bit of Rabbit there is: The One and Only Method Use a double boiler, or preferably a chafing dish, avoiding aluminum and other soft metals. Heat the upper pan by simmering water in the lower one, but don't let the water boil up or touch the top pan. Most, but not all, Rabbits are begun by heating a bit of butter or margarine in the pan in which one cup of roughly grated cheese, usually sharp Cheddar, is melted and mixed with one-half cup of liquid, added gradually. (The butter isn't necessary for a cheese that should melt by itself.) The two principal ingredients are melted smoothly together and kept from curdling by stirring steadily in one direction only, over an even heat. The spoon used should be of hard wood, sterling silver or porcelain. Never use tin, aluminum or soft metal--the taste may come off to taint the job. Be sure the liquid is at room temperature, or warmer, and add it gradually, without interrupting the stirring. Do not let it come to the bubbling point, and never let it boil. Add seasonings only when the cheese is melted, which will take two or three minutes. Then continue to stir in the same direction without an instant's letup, for maybe ten minutes or more, until the Rabbit is smooth. The consistency and velvety smoothness depend a good deal on whether or not an egg, or a beaten yolk, is added. The hotter the Rabbit is served, the better. You can sizzle the top with a salamander or other branding iron, but in any case set it forth as nearly sizzling as possible, on toast hellishly hot, whether it's browned or buttered on one side or both. Give a thought to the sad case of the "little dog whose name was Rover, and when he was dead he was dead all over." Something very similar happens with a Rabbit that's allowed to cool down--when it's cold it's cold all over, and you can't resuscitate it by heating. BASIC WELSH RABBIT No. 1 (with beer) 2 tablespoons butter 3 cups grated old Cheddar 1/2 teaspoon English dry mustard 1/2 teaspoon salt A dash of cayenne 1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce 2 egg yolks, lightly beaten with 1/2 cup light beer or ale 4 slices hot buttered toast Over boiling water melt butter and cheese together, stirring steadily with a wooden (or other tasteless) spoon in one direction only. Add seasonings and do not interrupt your rhythmic stirring, as you pour in a bit at a time of the beer-and-egg mixture until it's all used up. It may take many minutes of constant stirring to achieve the essential creamy thickness and then some more to slick it out as smooth as velvet. Keep it piping hot but don't let it bubble, for a boiled Rabbit is a spoiled Rabbit. Only unremitting stirring (and the best of cheese) will keep it from curdling, getting stringy or rubbery. Pour the Rabbit generously over crisp, freshly buttered toast and serve instantly on hot plates. Usually crusts are cut off the bread before toasting, and some aesthetes toast one side only, spreading the toasted side with cold butter for taste contrast. Lay the toast on the hot plate, buttered side down, and pour the Rabbit over the porous untoasted side so it can soak in. (This is recommended in Lady Llanover's recipe, which appears on page 52 of this book.) Although the original bread for Rabbit toast was white, there is now no limit in choice among whole wheat, graham, rolls, muffins, buns, croutons and crackers, to infinity. No. 2 (with milk) For a rich milk Rabbit use 1/2 cup thin cream, evaporated milk, whole milk or buttermilk, instead of beer as in No. 1. Then, to keep everything bland, cut down the mustard by half or leave it out, and use paprika in place of cayenne. As in No. 1, the use of Worcestershire sauce is optional, although our feeling is that any spirited Rabbit would resent its being left out. Either of these basic recipes can be made without eggs, and more cheaply, although the beaten egg is a guarantee against stringiness. When the egg is missing, we are sad to record that a teaspoon or so of cornstarch generally takes its place. Rabbiteers are of two minds about fast and slow heating and stirring, so you'll have to adjust that to your own experience and rhythm. As a rule, the heat is reduced when the cheese is almost melted, and speed of stirring slows when the eggs and last ingredients go in. Many moderns who have found that monosodium glutamate steps up the flavor of natural cheese, put it in at the start, using one-half teaspoon for each cup of grated Cheddar. When it comes to pepper you are fancy-free. As both black and white pepper are now held in almost equal esteem, you might equip your hutch with twin hand-mills to do the grinding fresh, for this is always worth the trouble. Tabasco sauce is little used and needs a cautious hand, but some addicts can't leave it out any more than they can swear off the Worcestershire. The school that plumps for malty Rabbits and the other that goes for milky ones are equally emphatic in their choice. So let us consider the compromise of our old friend Frederick Philip Stieff, the Baltimore _homme de bouche_, as he set it forth for us years ago in _10,000 Snacks_: "The idea of cooking a Rabbit with beer is an exploded and dangerous theory. Tap your keg or open your case of ale or beer and serve _with_, not in your Rabbit." The Stieff Recipe BASIC MILK RABBIT (_completely surrounded by a lake of malt beverages_) 2 cups grated sharp cheese 3 heaping tablespoons butter 1-1/2 cups milk 4 eggs 1 heaping tablespoon mustard 2 teaspoons Worcestershire sauce Pepper, salt and paprika to taste--then add more of each. Grease well with butter the interior of your double boiler so that no hard particles of cheese will form in the mixture later and contribute undesirable lumps. Put cheese, well-grated, into the double boiler and add butter and milk. From this point vigorous stirring should be indulged in until Rabbit is ready for serving. Prepare a mixture of Worcestershire sauce, mustard, pepper, salt and paprika. These should be beaten until light and then slowly poured into the double boiler. Nothing now remains to be done except to stir and cook down to proper consistency over a fairly slow flame. The finale has not arrived until you can drip the rabbit from the spoon and spell the word _finis_ on the surface. Pour over two pieces of toast per plate and send anyone home who does not attack it at once. This is sufficient for six gourmets or four gourmands. _Nota bene_: A Welsh Rabbit, to be a success, should never be of the consistency whereby it may be used to tie up bundles, nor yet should it bounce if inadvertently dropped on the kitchen floor. Lady Llanover's Toasted Welsh Rabbit Cut a slice of the real Welsh cheese made of sheep's and cow's milk; toast it at the fire on both sides, but not so much as to drop (melt). Toast on one side a piece of bread less than 1/4 inch thick, to be quite crisp, and spread it very thinly with fresh, cold butter on the toasted side. (It must not be saturated.) Lay the toasted cheese upon the untoasted bread side and serve immediately on a very hot plate. The butter on the toast can, of course, be omitted. (It is more frequently eaten without butter.) From this original toasting of the cheese many Englishmen still call Welsh Rabbit "Toasted Cheese," but Lady Llanover goes on to point out that the Toasted Rabbit of her Wales and the Melted or Stewed Buck Rabbit of England (which has become our American standard) are as different in the making as the regional cheeses used in them, and she says that while doctors prescribed the toasted Welsh as salubrious for invalids, the stewed cheese of Olde England was "only adapted to strong digestions." English literature rings with praise for the toasted cheese of Wales and England. There is Christopher North's eloquent "threads of unbeaten gold, shining like gossamer filaments (that may be pulled from its tough and tenacious substance)." Yet not all of the references are complimentary. Thus Shakespeare in _King Lear_: Look, look a mouse! Peace, peace;--this piece of toasted cheese will do it. And Sydney Smith's: Old friendships are destroyed by toasted cheese, and hard salted meat has led to suicide. But Rhys Davis in _My Wales_ makes up for such rudenesses: _The Welsh Enter Heaven_ The Lord had been complaining to St. Peter of the dearth of good singers in Heaven. "Yet," He said testily, "I hear excellent singing outside the walls. Why are not those singers here with me?" St. Peter said, "They are the Welsh. They refuse to come in; they say they are happy enough outside, playing with a ball and boxing and singing such songs as '_Suspan Fach_'" The Lord said, "I wish them to come in here to sing Bach and Mendelssohn. See that they are in before sundown." St. Peter went to the Welsh and gave them the commands of the Lord. But still they shook their heads. Harassed, St. Peter went to consult with St. David, who, with a smile, was reading the works of Caradoc Evans. St. David said, "Try toasted cheese. Build a fire just inside the gates and get a few angels to toast cheese in front of it" This St. Peter did. The heavenly aroma of the sizzling, browning cheese was wafted over the walls and, with loud shouts, a great concourse of the Welsh came sprinting in. When sufficient were inside to make up a male voice choir of a hundred, St Peter slammed the gates. However, it is said that these are the only Welsh in Heaven. And, lest we forget, the wonderful drink that made Alice grow and grow to the ceiling of Wonderland contained not only strawberry jam but toasted cheese. Then there's the frightening nursery rhyme: The Irishman loved usquebaugh, The Scot loved ale called Bluecap. The Welshman, he loved toasted cheese, And made his mouth like a mousetrap. The Irishman was drowned in usquebaugh, The Scot was drowned in ale, The Welshman he near swallowed a mouse But he pulled it out by the tail. And, perhaps worst of all, Shakespeare, no cheese-lover, this tune in _Merry Wives of Windsor_: 'Tis time I were choked by a bit of toasted cheese. An elaboration of the simple Welsh original went English with Dr. William Maginn, the London journalist whose facile pen enlivened the _Blackwoods Magazine_ era with _Ten Tales_: [Illustration] Dr. Maginn's Rabbit Much is to be said in favor of toasted cheese for supper. It is the cant to say that Welsh rabbit is heavy eating. I like it best in the genuine Welsh way, however--that is, the toasted bread buttered on both sides profusely, then a layer of cold roast beef with mustard and horseradish, and then, on the top of all, the superstratum, of Cheshire _thoroughly_ saturated, while, in the process of toasting, with genuine porter, black pepper, and shallot vinegar. I peril myself upon the assertion that this is not a heavy supper for a man who has been busy all day till dinner in reading, writing, walking or riding--who has occupied himself between dinner and supper in the discussion of a bottle or two of sound wine, or any equivalent--and who proposes to swallow at least three tumblers of something hot ere he resigns himself to the embrace of Somnus. With these provisos, I recommend toasted cheese for supper. The popularity of this has come down to us in the succinct summing-up, "Toasted cheese hath no master." The Welsh original became simple after Dr. Maginn's supper sandwich was served, a century and a half ago; for it was served as a savory to sum up and help digest a dinner, in this form: After-Dinner Rabbit Remove all crusts from bread slices, toast on both sides and soak to saturation in hot beer. Melt thin slices of sharp old cheese in butter in an iron skillet, with an added spot of beer and dry English mustard. Stir steadily with a wooden spoon and, when velvety, serve a-sizzle on piping hot beer-soaked toast. While toasted cheese undoubtedly was the Number One dairy dish of Anglo-Saxons, stewed cheese came along to rival it in Elizabethan London. This sophisticated, big-city dish, also called a Buck Rabbit, was the making of Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese on Fleet Street, where Dr. Johnson later presided. And it must have been the pick of the town back in the days when barrooms still had sawdust on the floor, for the learned Doctor endorsed old Omar Khayyam's love of the pub with: "There is nothing which has been contrived by man by which so much happiness is produced as by a good tavern." Yet he was no gourmet, as may be judged by his likening of a succulent, golden-fried oyster to "a baby's ear dropped in sawdust." Perhaps it is just as well that no description of the world's first Golden Buck has come down from him. But we don't have to look far for on-the-spot pen pictures by other men of letters at "The Cheese," as it was affectionately called. To a man they sang praises for that piping hot dish of preserved and beatified milk. Inspired by stewed cheese, Mark Lemon, the leading rhymester of _Punch_, wrote the following poem and dedicated it to the memory of Lovelace: Champagne will not a dinner make, Nor caviar a meal Men gluttonous and rich may take Those till they make them ill If I've potatoes to my chop, And after chop have cheese, Angels in Pond and Spiers's shop Know no such luxuries. All that's necessary is an old-time "cheese stewer" or a reasonable substitute. The base of this is what was once quaintly called a "hot-water bath." This was a sort of miniature wash boiler just big enough to fit in snugly half a dozen individual tins, made squarish and standing high enough above the bath water to keep any of it from getting into the stew. In these tins the cheese is melted. But since such a tinsmith's contraption is hard to come by in these days of fireproof cooking glass, we suggest muffin tins, ramekins or even small cups to crowd into the bottom of your double boiler or chafing dish. But beyond this we plump for a revival of the "cheese stewer" in stainless steel, silver or glass. In the ritual at "The Cheese," these dishes, brimming over, "bubbling and blistering with the stew," followed a pudding that's still famous. Although down the centuries the recipe has been kept secret, the identifiable ingredients have been itemized as follows: "Tender steak, savory oyster, seductive kidney, fascinating lark, rich gravy, ardent pepper and delicate paste"--not to mention mushrooms. And after the second or third helping of pudding, with a pint of stout, bitter, or the mildest and mellowest brown October Ale in a dented pewter pot, "the stewed Cheshire cheese." Cheese was the one and only other course prescribed by tradition and appetite from the time when Charles II aled and regaled Nell Gwyn at "The Cheese," where Shakespeare is said to have sampled this "kind of a glorified Welsh Rarebit, served piping hot in the square shallow tins in which it is cooked and garnished with sippets of delicately colored toast." Among early records is this report of Addison's in _The Spectator_ of September 25,1711: They yawn for a Cheshire cheese, and begin about midnight, when the whole company is disposed to be drowsy. He that yawns widest, and at the same time so naturally as to produce the most yawns amongst his spectators, carries home the cheese. Only a short time later, in 1725, the proprietor of Simpson's in the Strand inaugurated a daily guessing contest that drew crowds to his fashionable eating and drinking place. He would set forth a huge portion of cheese and wager champagne and cigars for the house that no one present could correctly estimate the weight, height and girth of it. As late as 1795, when Boswell was accompanying Dr. Johnson to "The Cheese," records of St. Dunstan's Club, which also met there, showed that the current price of a Buck Rabbit was tuppence, and that this was also the amount of the usual tip. Ye Original Recipe 1-1/2 ounces butter 1 cup cream 1-1/2 cups grated Cheshire cheese (more pungent, snappier, richer, and more brightly colored than its first cousin, Cheddar) Heat butter and cream together, then stir in the cheese and let it stew. You dunk fingers of toast directly into your individual tin, or pour the Stewed Rabbit over toast and brown the top under a blistering salamander. The salamander is worth modernizing, too, so you can brand your own Rabbits with your monogram or the design of your own Rabbitry. Such a branding iron might be square, like the stew tin, and about the size of a piece of toast It is notable that there is no beer or ale in this recipe, but not lamentable, since all aboriginal cheese toasts were washed down in tossing seas of ale, beer, porter, stout, and 'arf and 'arf. This creamy Stewed Buck, on which the literary greats of Johnson's time supped while they smoked their church wardens, received its highest praise from an American newspaper woman who rhapsodized in 1891: "Then came stewed cheese, on the thin shaving of crisp, golden toast in hot silver saucers--so hot that the cheese was the substance of thick cream, the flavor of purple pansies and red raspberries commingled." This may seem a bit flowery, but in truth many fine cheeses hold a trace of the bouquet of the flowers that have enriched the milk. Alpine blooms and herbs haunt the Gruyère, Parmesan wafts the scent of Parma violets, the Flower Cheese of England is perfumed with the petals of rose, violet, marigold and jasmine. Oven Rabbit (FROM AN OLD RECIPE) Chop small 1/2 pound of cooking cheese. Put it, with a piece of butter the size of a walnut, in a little saucepan, and as the butter melts and the cheese gets warm, mash them together, When softened add 2 yolks of eggs, 1/2 teacupful of ale, a little cayenne pepper and salt. Stir with a wooden spoon one way only, until it is creamy, but do not let it boil, for that would spoil it. Place some slices of buttered toast on a dish, pour the Rarebit upon them, and set inside-the oven about 2 minutes before serving. Yorkshire Rabbit _(originally called Gherkin Buck, from a pioneer recipe_) Put into a saucepan 1/2 pound of cheese, sprinkle with pepper (black, of course) to taste, pour over 1/2 teacup of ale, and convert the whole into a smooth, creamy mass, over the fire, stirring continually, for about 10 minutes. In 2 more minutes it should be done. (10 minutes altogether is the minimum.) Pour it over slices of hot toast, place a piece of broiled bacon on the top of each and serve as hot as possible. Golden Buck A Golden Buck is simply the Basic Welsh Rabbit with beer (No. 1) plus a poached egg on top. The egg, sunny side up, gave it its shining name a couple of centuries ago. Nowadays some chafing dish show-offs try to gild the Golden Buck with dashes of ginger and spice. Golden Buck II This is only a Golden Buck with the addition of bacon strips. The Venerable Yorkshire Buck Spread 1/2-inch slices of bread with mustard and brown in hot oven. Then moisten each slice with 1/2 glass of ale, lay on top a slice of cheese 1/4-inch thick, and 2 slices of bacon on top of that. Put back in oven, cook till cheese is melted and the bacon crisp, and serve piping hot, with tankards of cold ale. Bacon is the thing that identifies any Yorkshire Rabbit. Yale College Welsh Rabbit (MORIARTY'S) 1 jigger of beer 1/4 teaspoon salt 1/4 teaspoon black pepper 1/4 teaspoon mustard 1-1/2 cups grated or shaved cheese More beer Pour the jigger of beer into "a low saucepan," dash on the seasonings, add the cheese and stir unremittingly, moistening from time to time with more beer, a pony or two at a time. When creamy, pour over buttered toast (2 slices for this amount) and serve with still more beer. There are two schools of postgraduate Rabbit-hunters: Yale, as above, with beer both in the Rabbit and with it; and the other featured in the Stieff Recipe, which prefers leaving it out of the Rabbit, but taps a keg to drink with it. The ancient age of Moriarty's campus classic is registered by the use of pioneer black pepper in place of white, which is often used today and is thought more sophisticated by some than the red cayenne of Rector's Naughty Nineties Chafing Dish Rabbit, which is precisely the same as our Basic Recipe No. 1. Border-hopping Bunny, or Frijole Rabbit 1-1/2 tablespoons butter 1-1/2 tablespoons chopped onion 2 tablespoons chopped pepper, green or red, or both 1-1/2 teaspoon chili powder 1 small can kidney beans, drained 1-1/2 tablespoons catsup 1/2 teaspoon Worcestershire Salt 2 cups grated cheese Cook onion and pepper lightly in butter with chili powder; add kidney beans and seasonings and stir in the cheese until melted. Serve this beany Bunny peppery hot on tortillas or crackers, toasted and buttered. In the whole hutch of kitchen Rabbitry the most popular modern ones are made with tomato, a little or lots. They hop in from everywhere, from Mexico to South Africa, and call for all kinds of quirks, down to mixing in some dried beef, and there is even a skimpy Tomato Rabbit for reducers, made with farmer cheese and skimmed milk. Although the quaintly named Rum Tum Tiddy was doubtless the great-grandpappy of all Tomato Rabbits, a richer, more buttery and more eggy one has taken its place as the standard today. The following is a typical recipe for this, tried and true, since it has had a successful run through a score of the best modern cookbooks, with only slight personal changes to keep its juice a-flowing blood-red. Tomato Rabbit 2 tablespoons butter 2 tablespoons flour 3/4 cup thin cream or evaporated milk 3/4 cup canned tomato pulp, rubbed through a sieve to remove seeds A pinch of soda 3 cups grated cheese Pinches of dry mustard, salt and cayenne 2 eggs, lightly beaten Blend flour in melted butter, add cream slowly, and when this white sauce is a little thick, stir in tomato sprinkled with soda. Keep stirring steadily while adding cheese and seasonings, and when cooked enough, stir in the eggs to make a creamy texture, smooth as silk. Serve on buttered whole wheat or graham bread for a change. Instead of soda, some antiquated recipes call for "a tablespoon of bicarbonate of potash." South African Tomato Rabbit This is the same as above, except that 1/2 teaspoon of sugar is used in place of the soda and the Rabbit is poured over baked pastry cut into squares and sprinkled with parsley, chopped fine, put in the oven and served immediately. Rum Tum Tiddy, Rink Tum Ditty, etc. (OLD BOSTON STYLE) 1 tablespoon butter 1 onion, minced 1 teaspoon salt 1 big pinch of pepper 2 cups cooked tomatoes 1 tablespoon sugar 3 cups grated store cheese 1 egg, lightly beaten Slowly fry onion bright golden in butter, season and add tomatoes with sugar. Heat just under the bubbling point. Don't let it boil, but keep adding cheese and shaking the pan until it melts. Then stir in egg gently and serve very hot Tomato Soup Rabbit 1 can condensed tomato soup 2 cups grated cheese 1/4 teaspoon English mustard 1 egg, lightly beaten Salt and pepper Heat soup, stir in cheese until melted, add mustard and egg slowly, season and serve hot. This is a quickie Rum Tum Tiddy, without any onion, a poor, housebroken version of the original. It can be called a Celery Rabbit if you use a can of celery soup in place of the tomato. Onion Rum Tum Tiddy Prepare as in Rum Tum Tiddy, but use only 1-1/2 cups cooked tomatoes and add 1/2 cup of mashed boiled onions. Sherry Rum Tum Tiddy 1 tablespoon butter 1 small onion, minced 1 small green pepper, minced 1 can tomato soup 3/4 cup milk 3 cups grated cheese 1/2 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce Salt and pepper 1 egg, lightly beaten 1 jigger sherry Crackers Prepare as in Rum Tum Tiddy. Stir in sherry last to retain its flavor. Crumble crackers into a hot tureen until it's about 1/3 full and pour the hot Rum Tum Tiddy over them. Blushing Bunny This is a sister-under-the-skin to the old-fashioned Rum Tum Tiddy, except that her complexion is made a little rosier with a lot of paprika in place of plain pepper, and the paprika cooked in from the start, of course. Blushing Bunny is one of those playful English names for dishes, like Pink Poodle, Scotch Woodcock (given below), Bubble and Squeak _(Bubblum Squeakum_), and Toad in the Hole. Scotch Woodcock Another variant of Rum Tum Tiddy. Make your Rum Tum Tiddy, but before finishing up with the beaten egg, stir in 2 heaping tablespoons of anchovy paste and prepare the buttered toast by laying on slices of hard-cooked eggs. American Woodchuck 1-1/2 cups tomato purée 2 cups grated cheese 1 egg, lightly beaten Cayenne 1 tablespoon brown sugar Salt and pepper Heat the tomato and stir in the cheese. When partly melted stir in the egg and, when almost cooked, add seasonings without ever interrupting the stirring. Pour over hot toasted crackers or bread. No doubt this all-American Tomato Rabbit with brown sugar was named after the native woodchuck, in playful imitation of the Scotch Woodcock above. It's the only Rabbit we know that's sweetened with brown sugar. Running Rabbit (_as served at the Waldorf-Astoria, First Annual Cheeselers Field Day, November 12,1937_) Cut finest old American cheese in very small pieces and melt in saucepan with a little good beer. Season and add Worcestershire sauce. Serve instantly with freshly made toast. This running cony can be poured over toast like any other Rabbit, or over crushed crackers in a hot tureen, as in Sherry Rum Tum Tiddy, or served like Fondue, in the original cooking bowl or pan, with the spoon kept moving in it in one direction only and the Rabbit following the spoon, like a greyhound following the stuffed rabbit at the dog races. Mexican Chilaly 1 tablespoon butter 3 tablespoons chopped green pepper 1-1/2 tablespoons chopped onion 1 cup chopped and drained canned tomatoes, without seeds 2-1/2 cups grated cheese 3/4 teaspoon salt Dash of cayenne 1 egg, lightly beaten 2 tablespoons canned tomato juice Water cress Cook pepper and onion lightly in butter, add tomato pulp and cook 5 minutes before putting over boiling water and stirring steadily as you add cheese and seasonings. Moisten the egg with the tomato juice and stir in until the Rabbit is thick and velvety. Serve on toast and dress with water cress. This popular modern Rabbit seems to be a twin to Rum Tum Tiddy in spite of the centuries' difference in age. Fluffy, Eggy Rabbit Stir up a Chilaly as above, but use 2 well-beaten eggs to make it more fluffy, and leave out the watercress. Serve it hot over cold slices of hard-cooked eggs crowded flat on hot buttered toast, to make it extra eggy. Grilled Tomato Rabbit Slice big, red, juicy tomatoes 1/2-inch thick, season with salt, pepper and plenty of brown sugar. Dot both sides with all the butter that won't slip off. Heat in moderate oven, and when almost cooked, remove and broil on both sides. Put on hot plates in place of the usual toast and pour the Rabbit over them. (The Rabbit is made according to either Basic Recipe No. 1 or No. 2.) Slices of crisp bacon on top of the tomato slices and a touch of horseradish help. Grilled Tomato and Onion Rabbit Slice 1/4-inch thick an equal number of tomato and onion rings. Season with salt, pepper, brown sugar and dots of butter. Heat in moderate oven, and when almost cooked remove and broil lightly. On hot plates lay first the onion rings, top with the tomato ones and pour the Rabbit over, as in the plain Grilled Tomato recipe above. For another onion-flavored Rabbit see Celery and Onion Rabbit. The Devil's Own (_a fresh tomato variant_) 2 tablespoons butter 1 large peeled tomato in 4 thick slices 2-1/2 cups grated cheese 1/4 teaspoon English mustard A pinch of cayenne A dash of tabasco sauce 2 tablespoons chili sauce 1/2 cup ale or beer 1 egg, lightly beaten Sauté tomato slices lightly on both sides in 1 tablespoon butter. Keep warm on hot platter while you make the toast and a Basic Rabbit, pepped up by the extra-hot seasonings listed above. Put hot tomato slices on hot toast on hot plates; pour the hot mixture over. Dried Beef or Chipped Beef Rabbit 1 tablespoon butter 1 cup canned tomato, drained, chopped and de-seeded 1/4 pound dried beef, shredded 2 eggs, lightly beaten 1/4 teaspoon pepper 2 cups grated cheese Heat tomato in butter, add beef and eggs, stir until mixed well, then sprinkle with pepper, stir in the grated cheese until smooth and creamy. Serve on toast. No salt is needed on this jerked steer meat that is called both dried beef and chipped beef on this side of the border, _tasajo_ on the other side, and _xarque_ when you get all the way down to Brazil. Kansas Jack Rabbit 1 cup milk 3 tablespoons butter 3 tablespoons flour 2 cups grated cheese 1 cup cream-style corn Salt and pepper Make a white sauce of milk, butter and flour and stir in cheese steadily and gradually until melted. Add corn and season to taste. Serve on hot buttered toast. Kansas has plenty of the makings for this, yet the dish must have been easier to make on Baron Münchhausen's "Island of Cheese," where the cornstalks produced loaves of bread, ready-made, instead of ears, and were no doubt crossed with long-eared jacks to produce Corn Rabbits quite as miraculous. After tomatoes, in popularity, come onions and then green peppers or canned pimientos as vegetable ingredients in modern, Americanized Rabbits. And after that, corn, as in the following recipe which appeals to all Latin-Americans from Mexico to Chile because it has everything. Latin-American Corn Rabbit 2 tablespoons butter 1 green pepper, chopped 1 large onion, chopped 1/2 cup condensed tomato soup 3 cups grated cheese 1 teaspoon salt 1/4 teaspoon black pepper 1/2 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce 1 cup canned corn 1 egg, lightly beaten Fry pepper and onion 5 minutes in butter; add soup, cover and cook 5 minutes more. Put over boiling water; add cheese with seasonings and stir steadily, slowly adding the corn, and when thoroughly blended and creamy, moisten the egg with a little of the liquid, stir in until thickened and then pour over hot toast or crackers. Mushroom-Tomato Rabbit In one pan commence frying in butter 1 cup of sliced fresh mushrooms, and in another make a Rabbit by melting over boiling water 2 cups of grated cheese with 1/2 teaspoon salt and 1/2 teaspoon paprika. Stir steadily and, when partially melted, stir in a can of condensed tomato soup, previously heated. Then add the fried mushrooms slowly, stir until creamy and pour over hot toast or crackers. Celery and Onion Rabbit 1/2 cup chopped hearts of celery 1 small onion, chopped 1 tablespoon butter 1-1/2 cups grated sharp cheese Salt and pepper In a separate pan boil celery and onion until tender. Meanwhile, melt cheese with butter and seasonings and stir steadily. When nearly done stir the celery and onion in gradually, until smooth and creamy. Pour over buttered toast and brown with a salamander or under the grill. Asparagus Rabbit Make as above, substituting a cupful of tender sliced asparagus tops for the celery and onion. Oyster Rabbit 2 dozen oysters and their liquor 1 teaspoon butter 2 eggs, lightly beaten 1 large pinch of salt 1 small pinch of cayenne 3 cups grated cheese Heat oysters until edges curl and put aside to keep warm while you proceed to stir up a Rabbit. When cheese is melted add the eggs with some of the oyster liquor and keep stirring. When the Rabbit has thickened to a smooth cream, drop in the warm oysters to heat a little more, and serve on hot buttered toast. Sea-food Rabbits _(crab, lobster, shrimp, scallops, clams, mussels, abalone, squid, octopi; anything that swims in the sea or crawls on the bottom of the ocean)_ Shred, flake or mince a cupful of any freshly cooked or canned sea food and save some of the liquor, if any. Make according to Oyster Rabbit recipe above. Instead of using only one kind of sea food, try several, mixed according to taste. Spike this succulent Sea Rabbit with horseradish or a dollop of sherry, for a change. "Bouquet of the Sea" Rabbit The seafaring Portuguese set the style for this lush bouquet of as many different kinds of cooked fish (tuna, cod, salmon, etc.) as can be sardined together in the whirlpool of melted cheese in the chafing dish. They also accent it with tidbits of sea food as above. Other Fish Rabbit, Fresh or Dried Any cooked fresh fish, flaked or shredded, from the alewife to the whale, or cooked dried herring, finnan haddie, mackerel, cod, and so on, can be stirred in to make a basic Rabbit more tasty. Happy combinations are hit upon in mixing leftovers of several kinds by the cupful. So the odd old cookbook direction, "Add a cup of fish," takes on new meaning. Grilled Sardine Rabbit Make a Basic Rabbit and pour it over sardines, skinned, boned, halved and grilled, on buttered toast. Similarly cooked fillets of any small fish will make as succulent a grilled Rabbit. Roe Rabbits Slice cooked roe of shad or toothsome eggs of other fish, grill on toast, butter well and pour a Basic Rabbit over. Although shad roe is esteemed the finest, there are many other sapid ones of salmon, herring, flounder, cod, etc. Plain Sardine Rabbit Make Basic Rabbit with only 2 cups of cheese, and in place of the egg yolks and beer, stir in a large tin of sardines, skinned, boned and flaked. Anchovy Rabbit Make Basic Rabbit, add 1 tablespoon of imported East Indian chutney with the egg yolks and beer at the finish, spread toast thickly with anchovy paste and butter, and pour the Rabbit over. Smoked sturgeon, whiting, eel, smoked salmon, and the like Lay cold slices or flakes of any fine smoked fish (and all of them are fine) on hot buttered toast and pour a Basic Rabbit over the fish. The best combination we ever tasted is made by laying a thin slice of smoked salmon over a thick one of smoked sturgeon. Smoked Cheddar Rabbit With or without smoked fish, Rabbit-hunters whose palates crave the savor of a wisp of smoke go for a Basic Rabbit made with smoked Cheddar in place of the usual aged, but unsmoked, Cheddar. We use a two-year-old that Phil Alpert, Mr. Cheese himself, brings down from Canada and has specially smoked in the same savory room where sturgeon is getting the works. So his Cheddar absorbs the de luxe flavor of six-dollar-per-pound sturgeon and is sold for a fraction of that. And just in case you are fishing around for something extra special, serve this smoky Rabbit on oven-browned Bombay ducks, those crunchy flat toasts of East Indian fish. Or go Oriental by accompanying this with cups of smoky Lapsang Soochong China tea. Crumby Rabbit 1 tablespoon butter 2 cups grated cheese 1 cup stale bread crumbs soaked with 1 cup milk 1 egg, lightly beaten Salt Cayenne Toasted crackers Melt cheese in butter, stir in the soaked crumbs and seasonings. When cooked smooth and creamy, stir in the egg to thicken the mixture and serve on toasted crackers, dry or buttered, for contrast with the bread. Some Rabbiteers monkey with this, lacing it with half a cup of catsup, making a sort of pink baboon out of what should be a white monkey. There is a cult for Crumby Rabbits variations on which extend all the way to a deep casserole dish called Baked Rabbit and consisting of alternate layers of stale bread crumbs and grated-cheese crumbs. This illegitimate three-layer Rabbit is moistened with eggs beaten up with milk, and seasoned with salt and paprika. Crumby Tomato Rabbit 2 teaspoons butter 2 cups grated cheese 1/2 cup soft bread crumbs 1 cup tomato soup Salt and pepper 1 egg, lightly beaten Melt cheese in butter, moisten bread crumbs with the tomato soup and stir in; season, add egg and keep stirring until velvety. Serve on toasted crackers, as a contrast to the bread crumbs. Gherkin or Irish Rabbit 2 tablespoons butter 2 cups grated cheese 1/2 cup milk (or beer) A dash of vinegar 1/2 teaspoon mustard Salt and pepper 1/2 cup chopped gherkin pickles Melt cheese in butter, steadily stir in liquid and seasonings. Keep stirring until smooth, then add the pickles and serve. This may have been called Irish after the green of the pickle. Dutch Rabbit Melt thin slices of any good cooking cheese in a heavy skillet with a little butter, prepared mustard, and a splash of beer. Have ready some slices of toast soaked in hot beer or ale and pour the Rabbit over them. The temperance version of this substitutes milk for beer and delicately soaks the toast in hot water instead. Proof that there is no Anglo-Saxon influence here lies in the use of prepared mustard. The English, who still do a lot of things the hard way, mix their biting dry mustard fresh with water before every meal, while the Germans and French bottle theirs, as we do. Pumpernickel Rabbit This German deviation is made exactly the same as the Dutch Rabbit above, but its ingredients are the opposite in color. Black bread (pumpernickel) slices are soaked in heated dark beer (porter or stout) and the yellow cheese melted in the skillet is also stirred up with brunette beer. Since beer is a kind of liquid bread, it is natural for the two to commingle in Rabbits whether they are blond Dutch or black pumpernickel. And since cheese is only solid milk, and the Cheddar is noted for its beery smell, there is further affinity here. An old English proverb sums it up neatly: "Bread and cheese are the two targets against death." By the way, the word pumpernickel is said to have been coined when Napoleon tasted his first black bread in Germany. Contemptuously he spat it out with: "This would be good for my horse, Nicole." "_Bon pour Nicole_" in French. Gruyère Welsh Rabbit _au gratin_ Cut crusts from a half-dozen slices of bread. Toast them lightly, lay in a roasting pan and top each with a matching slice of imported Gruyère 3/8-inch thick. Pepper to taste and cover with bread crumbs. Put in oven 10 minutes and rush to the ultimate consumer. To our American ears anything _au gratin_ suggests "with cheese," so this Rabbit _au gratin_ may sound redundant. To a Frenchman, however, it means a dish covered with bread crumbs. Swiss Cheese Rabbit 1/2 cup white wine, preferably Neufchâtel 1/2 cup grated Gruyère 1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce 1/2 saltspoon paprika 2 egg yolks Stir wine and seasonings together with the cheese until it melts, then thicken with the egg yolks, stirring at least 3 more minutes until smooth. Sherry Rabbit 3 cups grated cheese 1/2 cup cream or evaporated milk 1/2 cup sherry 1/4 teaspoon English mustard 1/2 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce A dash of paprika Heat cheese over hot water, with or without a bit of butter, and when it begins to melt, stir in the cream. Keep stirring until almost all of the cheese is melted, then add sherry. When smooth and creamy, stir in the mustard and Worcestershire sauce, and after pouring over buttered toast dash with paprika for color. Spanish Sherry Rabbit 3 tablespoons butter 3 tablespoons flour 1 bouillon cube, mashed 1/2 teaspoon salt 1/2 teaspoon dry mustard 1-1/2 cups milk 1-1/2 cups grated cheese 1 jigger sherry Make a smooth paste of butter, flour, bouillon cube and seasonings, and add milk slowly. When well-heated stir in the cheese gradually. Continue stirring at least 10 minutes, and when well-blended stir in the sherry and serve on hot, buttered toast. Pink Poodle 2 tablespoons butter 1 tablespoon chopped onion 1 tablespoon flour 1 jigger California claret 1 cup cream of tomato soup A pinch of soda 1/2 teaspoon dry mustard 1/2 teaspoon salt 1 teaspoon paprika A dash of powdered cloves 3 cups grated cheese 1 egg, lightly beaten Cook onion in butter until light golden, then blend in flour, wine and soup with the soda and all seasonings. Stir in cheese slowly until melted and finish off by thickening with the egg and stirring until smooth and velvety. Serve on crisp, buttered toast with a dry red wine. Although wine Rabbits, red or white, are as unusual as Swiss ones with Gruyère in place of Cheddar, wine is commonly drunk with anything from a Golden Buck to a Blushing Bunny. But for most of us, a deep draught of beer or ale goes best with an even deeper draught of the mellow scent of a Cheddar golden-yellow. Savory Eggy Dry Rabbit 1/8 pound butter 2 cups grated Gruyère 4 eggs, well-beaten Salt Pepper Mustard Melt butter and cheese together with the beaten eggs, stirring steadily with wooden spoon until soft and smooth. Season and pour over dry toast. This "dry" Rabbit, in which the volume of the eggs makes up for any lacking liquid, is still served as a savory after the sweets to finish a fine meal in some old-fashioned English homes and hostelries. Cream Cheese Rabbit This Rabbit, made with a package of cream cheese, is more scrambled hen fruit than Rabbit food, for you simply scramble a half-dozen eggs with butter, milk, salt, pepper and cayenne, and just before the finish work in the cheese until smooth and serve on crackers--water crackers for a change. Reducing Rarebit (Tomato Rarebit)[A] YIELD: 2 servings. 235 calories per serving. 1/2 pound farmer cheese 2 eggs 1 level tablespoon powdered milk 1 level teaspoon baking powder 1 teaspoon gelatin or agar powder 4 egg tomatoes, quartered, or 2 tomatoes, quartered 1 teaspoon caraway seeds 1/4 teaspoon garlic powder 1 teaspoon parsley flakes 1/2 head lettuce and/or 1 cucumber 1/4 cup wine vinegar Salt and pepper to taste [Footnote A: (from _The Low-Calory Cookbook_ by Bernard Koten, published by Random House)] Fill bottom of double boiler with water to 3/4 mark. Sprinkle salt in upper part of double boiler. Boil over medium flame. When upper part is hot, put in cheese, powdered milk, baking powder, gelatin, caraway seeds and pepper and garlic powder to taste. Mix. Break eggs into this mixture, cook over low flame, continually stirring. Add tomatoes when mixture bubbles and continue cooking and stirring until tomatoes have been cooked soft. Remove to lettuce and/or cucumber (sliced thin) which has been slightly marinated in wine vinegar and sprinkle the parsley flakes over the top of the mixture. Curry Rabbit 1 tablespoon cornstarch 2 cups milk 2-1/2 cups grated cheese 1 tablespoon minced chives 2 green onions, minced 2 shallots, minced 1/4 teaspoon imported curry powder 1 tablespoon chutney sauce Dissolve cornstarch in a little of the milk and scald the rest over hot water. Thicken with cornstarch mixture and stir in the cheese, chives, onions, shallots, curry and chutney while wooden-spooning steadily until smooth and sizzling enough to pour over buttered toast. People who can't let well enough alone put cornstarch in Rabbits, just as they add soda to spoil the cooking of vegetables. Ginger Ale Rabbit Simply substitute ginger ale for the real thing in the No. 1 Rabbit of all time. Buttermilk Rabbit Substitute buttermilk for plain milk in the No. 2 Rabbit. To be consistent, use fresh-cured Buttermilk Cheese, instead of the usual Cheddar of fresh cow's milk. This is milder. Eggnog Rabbit 2 tablespoons sweet butter 2 cups grated mellow Cheddar 1-1/3 cups eggnog Dashes of spice to taste. After melting the cheese in butter, stir in the eggnog and keep stirring until smooth and thickened. Season or not, depending on taste and the quality of eggnog employed. Ever since the innovation of bottled eggnogs fresh from the milkman in holiday season, such supremely creamy and flavorful Rabbits have been multiplying as fast as guinea pigs. All-American Succotash Rabbit 1 cup milk 3 tablespoons butter 3 tablespoons flour 3 cups grated cheese 1 cup creamed succotash, strained Salt and pepper Make a white sauce of milk, butter and flour and stir in the cheese steadily and gradually until melted. Add the creamed succotash and season to taste. Serve on toasted, buttered corn bread. Danish Rabbit 1 quart warm milk 2 cups grated cheese Stir together to boiling point and pour over piping-hot toast in heated bowl. This is an esteemed breakfast dish in north Denmark. As in all Rabbits, more or less cheese may be used, to taste. Easy English Rabbit Soak bread slices in hot beer. Melt thin slices of cheese with butter in iron frying pan, stir in a few spoonfuls of beer and a bit of prepared mustard. When smoothly melted, pour over the piping-hot, beer-soaked toast. [Illustration] _Chapter Six_ The Fondue There is a conspiracy among the dictionary makers to take the heart out of the Fondue. Webster makes it seem no better than a collapsed soufflé, with his definition: Fondue. Also, erroneously, _fondu_. A dish made of melted cheese, butter, eggs, and, often, milk and bread crumbs. Thorndike-Barnhart further demotes this dish, that for centuries has been one of the world's greatest, to "a combination of melted cheese, eggs and butter" and explains that the name comes from the French _fondre_, meaning melt. The latest snub is delivered by the up-to-date _Cook's Quiz_ compiled by TV culinary experts: A baked dish with eggs, cheese, butter, milk and bread crumbs. A baked dish, indeed! Yet the Fondue has added to the gaiety and inebriety of nations, if not of dictionaries. It has commanded the respect of the culinary great. Savarin, Boulestin, André Simon, all have hailed its heavenly consistency, all have been regaled with its creamy, nay velvety, smoothness. A touch of garlic, a dash of kirsch, fresh ground black pepper, nutmeg, black pearl truffles of Bugey, red cayenne pepper, the luscious gravy of roast turkey--such little matters help to make an authentic dunking Fondue, not a baked Fondue, mind you. Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin a century and a half ago brought the original "receipt" with him and spread it around with characteristic generosity during the two years of his exile in New York after the French Revolution. In his monumental _Physiologie du Goût_ he records an incident that occurred in 1795: Whilst passing through Boston ... I taught the restaurant-keeper Julien to make a _Fondue_, or eggs cooked with cheese. This dish, a novelty to the Americans, became so much the rage, that he (Julien) felt himself obliged, by way of thanks, to send me to New York the rump of one of those pretty little roebucks that are brought from Canada in winter, and which was declared exquisite by the chosen committee whom I convoked for the occasion. As the great French gourmet, Savarin was born on the Swiss border (at Belley, in the fertile Province of Bugey, where Gertrude Stein later had a summer home), he no doubt ate Gruyère three times a day, as is the custom in Switzerland and adjacent parts. He sets down the recipe just as he got it from its Swiss source, the papers of Monsieur Trolliet, in the neighboring Canton of Berne: Take as many eggs as you wish to use, according to the number of your guests. Then take a lump of good Gruyère cheese, weighing about a third of the eggs, and a nut of butter about half the weight of the cheese. (Since today's eggs in America weigh about 1-1/2 ounces apiece, if you start the Fondue with 8. your lump of good Gruyère would come to 1/4 pound and your butter to 1/8 pound.) Break and beat the eggs well in a flat pan, then add the butter and the cheese, grated or cut in small pieces. Place the pan on a good fire and stir with a wooden spoon until the mixture is fairly thick and soft; put in a little or no salt, according to the age of the cheese, and a good deal of pepper, for this is one of the special attributes of this ancient dish. Let it be placed on the table in a hot dish, and if some of the best wines be produced, and the bottle passed quite freely, a marvelous effect will be beheld. This has long been quoted as the proper way to make the national dish of Switzerland. Savarin tells of hearing oldsters in his district laugh over the Bishop of Belley eating his Fondue with a spoon instead of the traditional fork, in the first decade of the 1700's. He tells, too, of a Fondue party he threw for a couple of his septuagenarian cousins in Paris "about the year 1801." The party was the result of much friendly taunting of the master: "By Jove, Jean, you have been bragging for such a long time about your Fondues, you have continually made our mouths water. It is high time to put a stop to all this. We will come and breakfast with you some day and see what sort of thing this dish is." Savarin invited them for ten o'clock next day, started them off with the table laid on a "snow white cloth, and in each one's place two dozen oysters with a bright golden lemon. At each end of the table stood a bottle of sauterne, carefully wiped, excepting the cork, which showed distinctly that it had been in the cellar for a long while.... After the oysters, which were quite fresh, came some broiled kidneys, a _terrine_ of _foie gras_, a pie with truffles, and finally the Fondue. The different ingredients had all been assembled in a stewpan, which was placed on the table over a chafing dish, heated with spirits of wine. "Then," Savarin is quoted, "I commenced operations on the field of battle, and my cousins did not lose a single one of my movements. They were loud in the praise of this preparation, and asked me to let them have the receipt, which I promised them...." This Fondue breakfast party that gave the nineteenth century such a good start was polished off with "fruits in season and sweets, a cup of genuine mocha, ... and finally two sorts of liqueurs, one a spirit for cleansing, and the other an oil for softening." This primitive Swiss Cheese Fondue is now prepared more elaborately in what is called: Neufchâtel Style 2-1/2 cups grated imported Swiss 1-1/2 tablespoons flour 1 clove of garlic 1 cup dry white wine Crusty French "flute" or hard rolls cut into big mouthfuls, handy for dunking 1 jigger kirsch Salt Pepper Nutmeg The cheese should be shredded or grated coarsely and mixed well with the flour. Use a chafing dish for cooking and a small heated casserole for serving. Hub the bottom and sides of the blazer well with garlic, pour in the wine and heat to bubbling, just under boiling. Add cheese slowly, half a cup at a time, and stir steadily in one direction only, as in making Welsh Rabbit. Use a silver fork. Season with very little salt, always depending on how salty the cheese is, but use plenty of black pepper, freshly ground, and a touch of nutmeg. Then pour in the kirsch, stir steadily and invite guests to dunk their forked bread in the dish or in a smaller preheated casserole over a low electric or alcohol burner on the dining table. The trick is to keep the bubbling melted cheese in rhythmic motion with the fork, both up and down and around and around. The dunkers stab the hunks of crusty French bread through the soft part to secure a firm hold in the crust, for if your bread comes off in dunking you pay a forfeit, often a bottle of wine. The dunking is done as rhythmically as the stirring, guests taking regular turns at twirling the fork to keep the cheese swirling. When this "chafing dish cheese custard," as it has been called in England, is ready for eating, each in turn thrusts in his fork, sops up a mouthful with the bread for a sponge and gives the Fondue a final stir, to keep it always moving in the same direction. All the while the heat beneath the dish keeps it gently bubbling. Such a Neufchâtel party was a favorite of King Edward VII, especially when he was stepping out as the Prince of Wales. He was as fond of Fondue as most of the great gourmets of his day and preferred it to Welsh Rabbit, perhaps because of the wine and kirsch that went into it. At such a party a little heated wine is added if the Fondue gets too thick. When finally it has cooked down to a crust in the bottom of the dish, this is forked out by the host and divided among the guests as a very special dividend. Any dry white wine will serve in a pinch, and the Switzerland Cheese Association, in broadcasting this classical recipe, points out that any dry rum, slivovitz, or brandy, including applejack, will be a valid substitute for the kirsch. To us, applejack seems specially suited, when we stop to consider our native taste that has married apple pie to cheese since pioneer times. In culinary usage fondue means "melting to an edible consistency" and this, of course, doesn't refer to cheese alone, although we use it chiefly for that. In France Fondue is also the common name for a simple dish of eggs scrambled with grated cheese and butter and served very hot on toasted bread, or filled into fancy paper cases, quickly browned on top and served at once. The reason for this is that all baked Fondues fall as easily and as far as Soufflés, although the latter are more noted for this failing. There is a similarity in the soft fluffiness of both, although the Fondues are always more moist. For there is a stiff, stuffed-shirt buildup around any Soufflé, suggesting a dressy dinner, while Fondue started as a self-service dunking bowl. Our modern tendency is to try to make over the original French Fondue on the Welsh Rabbit model--to turn it into a sort of French Rabbit. Although we know that both Gruyère and Emmentaler are what we call Swiss and that it is impossible in America to duplicate the rich Alpine flavor given by the mountain herbs, we are inclined to try all sorts of domestic cheeses and mixtures thereof. But it's best to stick to Savarin's "lump of Gruyère" just as the neighboring French and Italians do. It is interesting to note that this Swiss Alpine cooking has become so international that it is credited to Italy in the following description we reprint from _When Madame Cooks_, by an Englishman, Eric Weir: Fondue à l'Italienne This is one of those egg dishes that makes one feel really grateful to hens. From its name it originated probably in Italy, but it has crossed the Alps. I have often met it in France, but only once in Italy. First of all, make a very stiff white sauce with butter, flour and milk. The sauce should be stiff enough to allow the wooden spoon to stand upright or almost. Off the fire, add yolks of eggs and 4 ounces of grated Gruyère cheese. Mix this in well with the white sauce and season with salt, pepper and some grated nutmeg. Beat whites of egg firm. Add the whites to the preparation, stir in, and pour into a pudding basin. Take a large saucepan and fill half full of water. Bring to a boil, and then place the pudding basin so that the top of the basin is well out of the water. Allow to boil gently for 1-1/2 to 2 hours. Renew the boiling water from time to time, as it evaporates, and take care that the water, in boiling, does not bubble over the mixture. Test with a knife, as for a cake, to see if it is cooked. When the knife comes out clean, take the basin out of the water and turn the Fondue out on a dish. It should be fairly firm and keep the shape of the basin. Sprinkle with some finely chopped ham and serve hot. The imported Swiss sometimes is cubed instead of grated, then marinated for four or five hours in dry white wine, before being melted and liquored with the schnapps. This can be pleasantly adopted here in: All-American Fondue 1 pound imported Swiss cheese, cubed 3/4 cup scuppernong or other American white wine 1-1/2 jiggers applejack After marinating the Swiss cubes in the wine, simply melt together over hot water, stir until soft and creamy, add the applejack and dunk with fingers of toast or your own to a chorus of "All Bound Round with a Woolen String." Of course, this can be treated as a mere vinous Welsh Rabbit and poured over toast, to be accompanied by beer. But wine is the thing, for the French Fondue is to dry wine what the Rabbit is to stale ale or fresh beer. We say French instead of Swiss because the French took over the dish so eagerly, together with the great Gruyère that makes it distinctive. They internationalized it, sent it around the world with bouillabaisse and onion soup, that celestial _soupe à l'oignon_ on which snowy showers of grated Gruyère descend. To put the Welsh Rabbit in its place they called it Fondue à l'Anglaise, which also points up the twinlike relationship of the world's two favorite dishes of melted cheese. But to differentiate and show they are not identical twins, the No. 1 dish remained Fromage Fondue while the second was baptized Fromage Fondue à la Bière. Beginning with Savarin the French whisked up more rapturous, rhapsodic writing about Gruyère and its offspring, the Fondue, together with the puffed Soufflé, than about any other imported cheese except Parmesan. Parmesan and Gruyère were praised as the two greatest culinary cheeses. A variant Fondue was made of the Italian cheese. Parmesan Fondue 3 tablespoons butter 1 cup grated Parmesan cheese 4 eggs, lightly beaten Salt Pepper Over boiling water melt butter and cheese slowly, stir in the eggs, season to taste and stir steadily in one direction only, until smooth. Pour over fingers of buttered toast. Or spoon it up, as the ancients did, before there were any forks. It's beaten with a fork but eaten catch-as-catch-can, like chicken-in-the-rough. Sapsago Swiss Fondue 2 tablespoons butter 2 tablespoons flour 1/2 teaspoon salt 1-1/2 cups milk 2-1/2 cups shredded Swiss cheese 2-1/2 tablespoons grated Sapsago 1/2 cup dry white wine Pepper, black and red, freshly ground Fingers of toast Over boiling water stir the first four ingredients into a smooth, fairly thick cream sauce. Then stir in Swiss cheese until well melted. After that add the Sapsago, finely grated, and wine in small splashes. Stir steadily, in one direction only, until velvety. Season sharply with the contrasting peppers and serve over fingers of toast. This is also nice when served bubbling in individual, preheated pastry shells, casseroles or ramekins, although this way most of the fun of the dunking party is left out. To make up for it, however, cooked slices of mushrooms are sometimes added. At the Cheese Cellar in the New York World's Fair Swiss Pavilion, where a continual dunking party was in progress, thousands of amateurs learned such basic things as not to overcook the Fondue lest it become stringy, and the protocol of dunking in turn and keeping the mass in continual motion until the next on the Fondue line dips in his cube of bread. The success of the dish depends on making it quickly, keeping it gently a-bubble and never letting it stand still for a split second. The Swiss, who consume three or four times as much cheese per capita as we, and almost twice as much as the French, are willing to share Fondue honors with the French Alpine province of Savoy, a natural cheese cellar with almost two dozen distinctive types of its very own, such as Fat cheese, also called Death's Head; La Grande Bornand, a luscious half-dried sheep's milker; Chevrotins, small, dry goat milk cheeses; and Le Vacherin. The latter, made in both Savoy and Switzerland, boasts two interesting variants: 1. _Vacherin Fondue or Spiced Fondue:_ Made about the same as Emmentaler, ripened to sharp age, and then melted, spices added and the cheese re-formed. It is also called Spiced Fondue and sells for about two dollars a pound. Named Fondue from being melted, though it's really recooked, 2. _Vacherin à la Main:_ This is a curiosity in cheeses, resembling a cold, uncooked Fondue. Made of cow's milk, it is round, a foot in diameter and half a foot high. It is salted and aged until the rind is hard and the inside more runny than the ripest Camembert, so it can be eaten with a spoon (like the cooked Fondue) as well as spread on bread. The local name for it is _Tome de Montagne_. Here is a good assortment of Fondues: Vacherin-Fribourg Fondue 2 tablespoons butter 1 clove garlic, crushed 2 cups shredded Vacherin cheese 2 tablespoons hot water This authentic quickie is started by cooking the garlic in butter until the butter is melted. Then remove garlic and reduce heat. Add the soft cheese and stir with silver fork until smooth and velvety. Add the water in little splashes, stirring constantly in one direction. Dunk! (In this melted Swiss a little water takes the place of a lot of wine.) La Fondue Comtois This regional specialty of Franche-Comté is made with white wine. Sauterne, Chablis, Riesling or any Rhenish type will serve splendidly. Also use butter, grated Gruyère, beaten eggs and that touch of garlic. Chives Fondue 3 cups grated Swiss cheese 3 tablespoons flour 2 tablespoons butter 1 garlic clove, crushed 3 tablespoons finely chopped chives 1 cup dry white wine Salt Freshly ground pepper A pinch of nutmeg 1/4 cup kirsch Mix cheese and flour. Melt butter in chafing-dish blazer rubbed with garlic. Cook chives in butter 1 minute. Add wine and heat just under boiling. Keep simmering as you add cheese-and-flour mix gradually, stirring always in one direction. Salt according to age and sharpness of cheese; add plenty of freshly ground pepper and the pinch of nutmeg. When everything is stirred smooth and bubbling, toss in the kirsch without missing a stroke of the fork and get to dunking. Large, crisp, hot potato chips make a pleasant change for dunking purposes. Or try assorted crackers alternating with the absorbent bread, or hard rolls. Tomato Fondue 2 tomatoes, skinned, seeded and chopped 1/2 teaspoon dried sweet basil 1 clove garlic 2 tablespoons butter 1/2 cup dry white wine 2 cups grated Cheddar cheese Paprika Mix basil with chopped tomatoes. Rub chafing dish with garlic, melt butter, add tomatoes and much paprika. Cook 5 to 6 minutes, add wine, stir steadily to boiling point. Then add cheese, half a cup at a time, and keep stirring until everything is smooth. Serve on hot toast, like Welsh Rabbit. Here the two most popular melted-cheese dishes tangle, but they're held together with the common ingredient, tomato. Fondue also appears as a sauce to pour over baked tomatoes. Stale bread crumbs are soaked in tomato juice to make: Tomato Baked Fondue 1 cup tomato juice 1 cup stale bread crumbs 1 cup grated sharp American cheese 1 tablespoon melted butter Salt 4 eggs, separated and well beaten Soak crumbs in tomato juice, stir cheese in butter until melted, season with a little or no salt, depending on saltiness of the cheese. Mix in the beaten yolks, fold in the white and bake about 50 minutes in moderate oven. BAKED FONDUES Although Savarin's dunking Fondue was first to make a sensation on these shores and is still in highest esteem among epicures, the Fondue America took to its bosom was baked. The original recipe came from the super-caseous province of Savoy under the explicit title, _La Fondue au Fromage_. La Fondue au Fromage Make the usual creamy mixture of butter, flour, milk, yolks of eggs and Gruyère, in thin slices for a change. Use red pepper instead of black, splash in a jigger of kirsch but no white wine. Finally fold in the egg whites and bake in a mold for 45 minutes. We adapted this to our national taste which had already based the whole business of melted cheese on the Welsh Rabbit with stale ale or milk instead of white wine and Worcestershire, mustard and hot peppers. Today we have come up with this: 100% American Fondue 2 cups scalded milk 2 cups stale bread crumbs 1/2 teaspoon dry English mustard Salt Dash of nutmeg Dash of pepper 2 cups American cheese (Cheddar) 2 egg yolks, well beaten 2 egg whites, beaten stiff Soak crumbs in milk, season and stir in the cheese until melted. Add the beaten egg yolks and stir until you have a smooth mixture. Let this cool while beating the whites stiff, leaving them slightly moist. Fold the whites into the cool, custardy mix and bake in a buttered dish until firm. (About 50 minutes in a moderate oven.) This is more of a baked cheese job than a true Fondue, to our way of thinking, and the scalded milk doesn't exactly take the place of the wine or kirsch. It is characteristic of our bland cookery. OTHER FONDUES PLAIN AND FANCY, BAKED AND NOT Quickie Catsup Tummy Fondiddy 3/4 pound sharp cheese, diced 1 can condensed tomato soup 1/2 cup catsup 1/2 teaspoon mustard 1 egg, lightly beaten In double boiler melt cheese in soup. Blend thoroughly by constant stirring. Remove from heat, lightly whip or fold in the catsup and mustard mixed with egg. Serve on Melba toast or rusks. This might be suggested as a novel midnight snack, with a cup of cocoa, for a change. Cheese and Rice Fondue 1 cup cooked rice 2 cups milk 4 eggs, separated and well beaten 1/2 cup grated cheese 1/2 teaspoon salt Cayenne, Worcestershire sauce or tabasco sauce, or all three Heat rice (instead of bread crumbs) in milk, stir in cheese until melted, add egg yolks beaten lemon-yellow, season, fold in stiff egg whites. Serve hot on toast. Corn and Cheese Fondue 1 cup bread crumbs 1 large can creamed corn 1 small onion, chopped 1/2 green pepper, chopped 2 cups cottage cheese 1/2 teaspoon salt 1/2 cup milk 2 eggs, well beaten Mix all ingredients together and bake in buttered casserole set in pan of hot water. Bake about 1 hour in moderate oven, or until set. Cheese Fondue 1 cup grated Cheddar 1/2 cup crumbled Roquefort 1 cup pimento cheese 3 tablespoons cream 3 tablespoons butter 1 teaspoon Worcestershire Stir everything together over hot water until smooth and creamy. Then whisk until fluffy, moistening with more cream or mayonnaise if too stiff. Serve on Melba toast, or assorted thin toasted crackers. Brick Fondue 1/2 cup butter 2 cups grated Brick cheese 1/2 cup warm milk 1/2 teaspoon salt 2 eggs Melt butter and cheese together, use wire whisk to whip in the warm milk. Season. Take from fire and beat in the eggs, one at a time. Please note that Fondue protocol calls for each egg to be beaten separately in cases like this. Serve over hot toast or crackers. Cheddar Dunk Bowl 3/4 pound sharp Cheddar cheese 3 tablespoons cream 2/3 teaspoon dry mustard 1-1/2 teaspoons Worcestershire Grate the cheese powdery fine and mash it together with the cream until fluffy. Season and serve in a beautiful bowl for dunking in the original style of Savarin, although this is a static imitation of the real thing. All kinds of crackers and colorful dips can be used, from celery stalks and potato chips to thin paddles cut from Bombay duck. [Illustration] _Chapter Seven_ Soufflés, Puffs and Ramekins There isn't much difference between Cheese Soufflés, Puffs and Ramekins. The _English Encyclopedia of Practical Cookery_, the oldest, biggest and best of such works in English, lumps Cheese Puffs and Ramekins together, giving the same recipes for both, although it treats each extensively under its own name when not made with cheese. Cheese was the basis of the original French Ramequin, cheese and bread crumbs or puff paste, baked in a mold, (with puff again the principal factor in Soufflé, from the French _souffler_, puff up). Basic Soufflé 3 tablespoons butter or margarine 4 tablespoons flour 1-1/4 cups hot milk, scalded 1 teaspoon salt A dash of cayenne 1/2 cup grated Cheddar cheese, sharp 2 egg yolks, beaten lemon-yellow 2 egg whites, beaten stiff Melt butter, stir in flour and milk gradually until thick and smooth. Season and add the cheese, continuing the cooking and slow stirring until velvety. Remove from heat and let cool somewhat; then stir in the egg yolks with a light hand and an upward motion. Fold in the stiff whites and when evenly mixed pour into a big, round baking dish. (Some butter it and some don't.) To make sure the top will be even when baked, run a spoon or knife around the surface, about 1 inch from the edge of the dish, before baking slowly in a moderate oven until puffed high and beautifully browned. Serve instantly for fear the Soufflé may fall. The baking takes up to an hour and the egg whites shouldn't be beaten so stiff they are hard to fold in and contain no air to expand and puff up the dish. To perk up the seasonings, mustard, Worcestershire sauce, lemon juice, nutmeg and even garlic are often used to taste, especially in England. While Cheddar is the preferred cheese, Parmesan runs it a close second. Then comes Swiss. You may use any two or all three of these together. Sometimes Roquefort is added, as in the Ramekin recipes below. Parmesan Soufflé Make the same as Basic Soufflé, with these small modifications in the ingredients: 1 full cup of grated Parmesan 1 extra egg in place of the 1/2 cup of Cheddar cheese A little more butter Black pepper, not cayenne Swiss Soufflé Make the same as Basic Soufflé, with these slight changes: 1-1/4 cups grated Swiss cheese instead of the Cheddar cheese Nutmeg in place of the cayenne Parmesan-Swiss Soufflé Make the same as Basic Soufflé, with these little differences: 1/2 cup grated Swiss cheese, and 1/2 cup grated Parmesan in place of the Cheddar cheese 1/4 teaspoon each of sugar and black pepper for seasoning. Any of these makes a light, lovely luncheon or a proper climax to a grand dinner. Cheese-Corn Soufflé Make as Basic Soufflé, substituting for the scalded milk 1 cup of sieved and strained juice from cream-style canned corn. Cheese-Spinach Soufflé Sauté 1-1/2 cups of finely chopped, drained spinach in butter with 1 teaspoon finely grated onion, and then whip it until light and fluffy. Mix well into the white sauce of the Basic Soufflé before adding the cheese and following the rest of the recipe. Cheese-Tomato Soufflé Substitute hot tomato juice for the scalded milk. Cheese-Sea-food Soufflé Add 1-1/2 cups finely chopped or ground lobster, crab, shrimp, other sea food or mixture thereof, with any preferred seasoning added. Cheese-Mushroom Soufflé 1-1/2 cups grated sharp Cheddar 1 cup cream of mushroom soup Paprika, to taste Salt 2 egg yolks, well beaten 2 egg whites, beaten stiff 2 tablespoons chopped, cooked bacon 2 tablespoons sliced, blanched almonds Heat cheese with soup and paprika, adding the cheese gradually and stirring until smooth. Add salt and thicken the sauce with egg yolks, still stirring steadily, and finally fold in the whites. Sprinkle with bacon and almonds and bake until golden brown and puffed high (about 1 hour). Cheese-Potato Soufflé (Potato Puff) 6 potatoes 2 onions 1 tablespoon butter or margarine 1 cup hot milk 3/4 cup grated Cheddar cheese 1 teaspoon salt A dash of pepper 2 egg yolks, well beaten 2 egg whites, beaten stiff 1/4 cup grated Cheddar cheese Cook potatoes and onions together until tender and put through a ricer. Mix with all the other ingredients except the egg whites and the Cheddar. Fold in the egg whites, mix thoroughly and pour into a buttered baking dish. Sprinkle the 1/4 cup of Cheddar on top and bake in moderate oven about 1/2 hour, until golden-brown and well puffed. Serve instantly. Variations of this popular Soufflé leave out the onion and simplify matters by using 2 cups of mashed potatoes. Sometimes 1 tablespoon of catsup and another of minced parsley is added to the mixture. Or onion juice alone, to take the place of the cooked onions--about a tablespoon, full or scant. The English, in concocting such a Potato Puff or Soufflé, are inclined to make it extra peppery, as they do most of their Cheese Soufflés, with not only "a dust of black pepper" but "as much cayenne as may be stood on the face of a sixpence." Cheese Fritter Soufflés These combine ham with Parmesan cheese and are even more delicately handled in the making than crêpes suzette. PUFFS Three-in-One Puffs 1 cup grated Swiss 1 cup grated Parmesan 1 cup cream cheese 5 eggs, lightly beaten salt and pepper Mix the cheeses into one mass moistened with the beaten eggs, splashed on at intervals. When thoroughly incorporated, put in ramekins, tiny tins, cups, or any sort of little mold of any shape. Bake in hot oven about 10 minutes, until richly browned. Such miniature Soufflés serve as liaison officers for this entire section, since they are baked in ramekins, or ramequins, from the French word for the small baking dish that holds only one portion. These may be paper boxes, usually round, earthenware, china, Pyrex, of any attractive shape in which to bake or serve the Puffs. More commonly, in America at least, Puffs are made without ramekin dishes, as follows: Fried Puffs 2 egg whites, beaten stiff 1/2 cup grated cheese 1 tablespoon flour Salt Paprika Into the stiff egg whites fold the cheese, flour and seasonings. When thoroughly mixed pat into shape desired, roll in crumbs and fry. Roquefort Puffs 1/8 pound genuine French Roquefort 1 egg white, beaten stiff 8 crackers or 2-inch bread rounds Cream the Roquefort, fold in the egg white, pile on crackers and bake 15 minutes in slow oven. The constant repetition of "beaten stiff" in these recipes may give the impression that the whites are badly beaten up, but such is not the case. They are simply whipped to peaks and left moist and glistening as a teardrop, with a slight sad droop to them that shows there is still room for the air to expand and puff things up in cooking. Parmesan Puffs Make a spread of mayonnaise or other salad dressing with equal parts of imported Parmesan, grated fine. Spread on a score or more of crackers in a roomy pan and broil a couple of minutes till they puff up golden-brown. Use only the best Parmesan, imported from Italy; or, second best, from Argentina where the rich pampas grass and Italian settlers get together on excellent Parmesan and Romano. Never buy Parmesan already grated; it quickly loses its flavor. Breakfast Puffs 1 cup flour 1 cup milk 1/4 cup finely grated cheese 1 egg, lightly beaten 1/2 teaspoon salt Mix all together to a smooth, light batter and fill ramekins or cups half full; then bake in quick oven until they are puffing over the top and golden-brown. Danish Fondue Puffs 1 stale roll 1/2 cup boiling hot milk Salt Pepper 2 cups freshly grated Cheddar cheese 4 egg yolks, beaten lemon-yellow 4 egg whites, beaten stiff Soak roll in boiling milk and beat to a paste. Mix with cheese and egg yolks. When smooth and thickened fold in the egg whites and fill ramekins, tins, cups or paper forms and slowly bake until puffed up and golden-brown. New England Cheese Puffs 1 cup sifted flour 1 teaspoon baking powder 1/2 teaspoon salt 1/2 teaspoon Hungarian paprika 1/4 teaspoon dry mustard 2 egg yolks, beaten lemon-yellow 1/2 cup milk 1 cup freshly grated Cheddar cheese 2 egg whites, beaten stiff but not dry Sift dry ingredients together, mix yolks with milk and stir in. Add cheese and when thoroughly incorporated fold in the egg whites to make a smooth batter. Drop from a big spoon into hot deep fat and cook until well browned. Caraway seeds are sometimes added. Poppy seeds are also used, and either of these makes a snappier puff, especially tasty when served with soup. A few drops of tabasco give this an extra tang. Cream Cheese Puffs 1/2 pound cream cheese 1 cup milk 4 eggs, lightly beaten 1/2 teaspoon salt 1/2 teaspoon dry mustard Soften cheese by heating over hot water. Remove from heat and add milk, eggs and seasoning. Beat until well blended, then pour into custard cups, ramekins or any other individual baking dishes that are attractive enough to serve the puffs in. RAMEKINS OR RAMEQUINS Some Ramekin dishes are made so exquisitely that they may be collected like snuff bottles. Ramekins are utterly French, both the cooked Puffs and the individual dishes in which they are baked. Essentially a Cheese Puff, this is also _au gratin_ when topped with both cheese and browned bread crumbs. By a sort of poetic cook's license the name is also applied to any kind of cake containing cheese and cooked in the identifying one-portion ramekin. It is used chiefly in the plural, however, together with the name of the chief ingredient, such as "Chicken Ramekins" and: Cheese Ramekins I 2 eggs 2 tablespoons flour 1/8 pound butter, melted 1/8 pound grated cheese Mix well and bake in individual molds for 15 minutes. Cheese Ramekins II 3 tablespoons melted butter 1/2 teaspoon each, salt and pepper 3/4 cup bread crumbs 1/2 cup grated cheese 2 eggs, lightly beaten 1-1/2 cups milk Mix the first four dry ingredients together, stir eggs into the milk and add. Stir to a smooth batter and bake in buttered ramekins, standing in water, in moderate oven. Serve piping hot, for like Soufflés and all associated Puffs, the hot air will puff out of them quickly; then they will sink and be inedible. TWO ANCIENT ENGLISH RECIPES, STILL GOING STRONG Cheese Ramekins III Grate 1/2 pound of any dry, rich cheese. Butter a dozen small paper cases, or little boxes of stiff writing paper like Soufflé cases. Put a saucepan containing 1/2 pint of water over the fire, add 2 tablespoons of butter, and when the water boils, stir in 1 heaping tablespoonful of flour. Beat the mixture until it shrinks away from the sides of the saucepan; then stir in the grated cheese. Remove the paste thus made from the fire, and let it partly cool. In the meantime separate the yolks from the whites of three eggs, and beat them until the yolks foam and the whites make a stiff froth. Put the mixture at once into the buttered paper cases, only half-filling them (since they rise very high while being baked) with small slices of cheese, and bake in a moderate oven for about 15 minutes. As soon as the Puffs are done, put the cases on a hot dish covered with a folded napkin, and serve very hot. The most popular cheese for Ramekins has always been, and still is, Gruyère. But because the early English also adopted Italian Parmesan, that followed as a close second, and remains there today. Sharp Cheddar makes tangy Ramekins, as will be seen in this second oldster; for though it prescribes Gloucester and Cheshire "'arf-and-'arf," both are essentially Cheddars. Gloucester has been called "a glorified Cheshire" and the latter has long been known as a peculiarly rich and colorful elder brother of Cheddar, described in Kenelme Digby's _Closet Open'd_ as a "quick, fat, rich, well-tasted cheese." Cheese Ramekins IV Scrape fine 1/4 pound of Gloucester cheese and 1/4 pound of Cheshire cheese. Beat this scraped cheese in a mortar with the yolks of 4 eggs, 1/4 pound of fresh butter, and the crumbs of a French roll boiled in cream until soft. When all this is well mixed and pounded to a paste, add the beaten whites of 4 eggs. Should the paste seem too stiff, 1 or 2 tablespoons of sherry may be added. Put the paste into paper cases, and bake in a Dutch oven till nicely browned. The Ramekins should be served very hot. Since both Gloucester cheese and Cheshire cheese are not easily come by even in London today, it would be hard to reproduce this in the States. So the best we can suggest is to use half-and-half of two of our own great Cheddars, say half-Coon and half-Wisconsin Longhorn, or half-Tillamook and half-Herkimer County. For there's no doubt about it, contrasting cheeses tickle the taste buds, and as many as three different kinds put together make Puffs all the more perfect. Ramequins à la Parisienne 2 cups milk 1 cup cream 1 ounce salt butter 1 tablespoon flour 1/2 cup grated Gruyère Coarsely ground pepper An atom of nutmeg A _soupçon_ of garlic A light touch of powdered sugar 8 eggs, separated Boil milk and cream together. Melt butter, mix in the flour and stir over heat 5 minutes, adding the milk and cream mixture a little at a time. When thoroughly cooked, remove from heat and stir in cheese, seasonings and the yolks of all 8 eggs, well beaten, and the whites of 2 even better beaten. When well mixed, fold in the remaining egg whites, stiffly beaten, until you have a batter as smooth and thick as cream. Pour this into ramekins of paper, porcelain or earthenware, filling each about 2/3 full to allow for them to puff up as they bake in a very slow oven until golden-brown (or a little less than 20 minutes). Le Ramequin Morézien This celebrated specialty of Franche-Comté is described as "a porridge of water, butter, seasoning, chopped garlic and toast; thickened with minced Gruyère and served very hot." Several French provinces are known for distinctive individual Puffs usually served in the dainty fluted forms they are cooked in. In Jeanne d'Arc's Lorraine, for instance, there are the simply named _Les Ramequins_, made of flour, Gruyère and eggs. Swiss-Roquefort Ramekins 1/4 pound Swiss cheese 1/4 pound Roquefort cheese 1/2 pound butter 8 eggs, separated 4 breakfast rolls, crusts removed 1/2 cup cream The batter is made in the usual way, with the soft insides of the rolls simmered in the cream and stirred in. The egg whites are folded in last, as always, the batter poured into ramekins part full and baked to a golden-brown. Then they are served instantaneously, lest they fall. Puff Paste Ramekins Puff or other pastry is rolled out fiat and sprinkled with fine tasty cheese or any cheese mixture, such as Parmesan with Gruyère and/or Swiss Sapsago for a piquant change, but in lesser quantity than the other cheeses used. Parmesan cheese has long been the favorite for these. Fold paste into 3 layers, roll out again and dust with more cheese. Fold once more and roll this out and cut in small fancy shapes to bake 10 to 15 minutes in a hot oven. Brushing with egg yolk before baking makes these Ramekins shine. Frying Pan Ramekins Melt 2 ounces of butter, let it cool a little and then mix with 1/2 pound of cheese. Fold in the whites of 3 eggs, beaten stiff but not dry. Cover frying pan with buttered papers, put slices of bread on this and cover with the cheese mixture. Cook about 5 minutes, take it off and brown it with a salamander. There are two schools of salamandering among turophiles. One holds that it toughens the cheese and makes it less digestible; the other that it's simply swell. Some of the latter addicts have special cheese-branding irons made with their monograms, to identify their creations, whether they be burned on the skins of Welsh Rabbits or Frying Pan Ramekins. Salamandering with an iron that has a gay, carnivalesque design can make a sort of harlequin Ramekin. Casserole Ramekin Here is the Americanization of a French original: In a deep casserole lay alternate slices of white bread and Swiss cheese, with the cheese slices a bit bigger all around. Beat 2 eggs with 2 cups of milk, season with salt and--of all things--nutmeg! Proceed to bake like individual Ramekins. [Illustration] _Chapter Eight_ Pizzas, Blintzes, Pastes, Cheese Cakes, etc. No matter how big or hungry your family, you can always appease them with pizza. Pizza--The Tomato Pie of Sicily DOUGH 1 package yeast, dissolved in warm water 2 cups sifted flour 1 teaspoon salt 2 tablespoons olive oil Make dough of this. Knead 12 to 20 minutes. Pat into a ball, cover it tight and let stand 3 hours in warm place until twice the size. TOMATO PASTE 3 tablespoons olive oil 2 large onions, sliced thin 1 can Italian tomato paste 8 to 10 anchovy filets, cut small 1/2 teaspoon oregano Salt Crushed chili pepper 2-1/2 cups water In the oil fry onion tender but not too brown, stir in tomato paste and keep stirring 3 or 4 minutes. Season, pour water over and simmer slowly 25 to 30 minutes. Add anchovies when sauce is done. CHEESE 1/2 cup grated Italian, Parmesan, Romano or Pecorino, depending on your pocketbook Procure a low, wide and handsome tin pizza pan, or reasonable substitute, and grease well before spreading the well-raised dough 1/2 to 3/4 inch thick. Poke your finger tips haphazardly into the dough to make marks that will catch the sauce when you pour it on generously. Shake on Parmesan or Parmesan-type cheese and bake in hot oven 1/2 hour, then 1/4 hour more at lower heat until the pizza is golden-brown. Cut in wedges like any other pie and serve. The proper pans come all tin and a yard wide, down to regular apple-pie size, but twelve-inch pans are the most popular. Miniature Pizzas Miniature pizzas are split English muffins rubbed with garlic or onion and brushed with olive oil. Cover with tomato sauce and a slice of Mozzarella cheese, anchovy, oregano and grated Parmesan, and heat 8 minutes. Italian-Swiss Scallopini 1 pound paper-thin veal cutlets 1/2 cup flour 1/2 cup grated Swiss and Parmesan, mixed 1 egg yolk, lightly beaten with water Butter Salt Paprika Moisten veal with egg and roll in flour mixed with cheese, quickly brown, lower flame and cook 4 to 5 minutes till tender. Dust with paprika and salt. Neapolitan Baked Lasagne, or Stuffed Noodles 1 pound lasagne, or other wide noodles 1-1/2 cups cooked thick tomato sauce with meat 1/2 pound Ricotta or cottage cheese 1 pound Mozzarella or American Cheddar 1/4 pound grated Parmesan, Romano or Pecorino Salt Pepper, preferably crushed red pods A shaker filled with grated Parmesan, or reasonable substitute Cook wide or broad noodles 15 to 20 minutes in rapidly boiling salted water until tender, but not soft, and drain. Pour 1/2 cup of tomato sauce in baking dish or pan, cover with about 1/2 of the noodles, sprinkle with grated Parmesan, a layer of sauce, a layer of Mozzarella and dabs of Ricotta. Continue in this fashion, alternating layers and seasoning each, ending with a final spread of sauce, Parmesan and red pepper. Bake firm in moderate oven, about 15 minutes, and served in wedges like pizza, with canisters of grated Parmesan, crushed red pepper pods and more of the sauce to taste. Little Hats, Cappelletti Freshly made and still moist Cappelletti, little hats, contrived out of tasty paste, may be had in any Little Italy macaroni shop. These may be stuffed sensationally in four different flavors with only two cheeses. Brown slices of chicken and ham separately, in butter. Mince each very fine and divide in half, to make four mixtures in equal amounts. Season these with salt, pepper and nutmeg and a binding of 2 parts egg yolk to I part egg white. With these meat mixtures you can make four different-flavored fillings: Ham and Mozzarella Chicken and Mozzarella Ham and Ricotta Chicken and Ricotta Fill the little hats alternately, so you'll have the same number of each different kind. Pinch edges tight together to keep the stuffings in while boiling fast for 5 minutes in chicken broth (or salted water, if you must). Since these Cappelletti are only a pleasing form and shape of ravioli, they are served in the same way on hot plates, with plain tomato sauce and Parmesan or reasonable substitute. If we count this final seasoning as an ingredient, this makes three cheeses, so that each of half a dozen taste buds can be getting individual sensations without letting the others know what it's doing. Dauphiny Ravioli This French variant of the famous Italian pockets of pastry follows the Cappelletti pattern, with any fresh goat cheese and Gruyère melted with butter and minced parsley and boiled in chicken broth. Italian Fritters 1/4 cup flour 2 tablespoons sugar 1/4 pound fresh Ricotta 2 eggs, beaten 1/2 cup shredded Mozzarella Rind of 1/2 lemon, grated 3 tablespoons brandy Salt Stir and mix well together in the order given and let stand 1 hour or more to thicken the batter so it will hold its shape while cooking. Shape batter like walnuts and hold one at a time in the bowl of a long-handled spoon dipped for 10 seconds in boiling hot oil. Fritter the "walnuts" so, and serve at once with powdered sugar. To make fascinating cheese croquettes, mix several contrasting cheeses in this batter. Italian Asparagus and Cheese This gives great scope for contrasting cheeses in one and the same dish. In a shallow baking pan put a foundation layer of grated Cheddar and a little butter. Cover with a layer of tender parts of asparagus, lightly salted; next a layer of grated Gruyère with a bit of butter, and another of asparagus. From here you can go as far as you like with varied layers of melting cheeses alternating with asparagus, until you come to the top, where you add two more kinds of cheese, a mixture of powdered Parmesan with Sapsago to give the new-mown hay scent. Garlic on Cheese For one sandwich prepare 30 or 40 garlic cloves by removing skins and frying out the fierce pungence in smoking olive oil. They skip in the hot pan like Mexican jumping beans. Toast one side of a thickish slice of bread, put this side down on a grilling pan, cover it with a slice of imported Swiss Emmentaler or Gruyère, of about the same size, shape and thickness. Stick the cooked garlic cloves, while still blistering hot, in a close pattern into the cheese and brown for a minute under the grill. Salt lightly and dash with paprika for the color. (Recipe by Bob Brown in Merle Armitage's collection _Fit for a King_.) Spaniards call garlic cloves teeth, Englishmen call them toes. It was cheese and garlic together that inspired Shakespeare to Hotspur's declaration in _King Henry IV_: I had rather live With cheese and garlic in a windmill, far, Than feed on cates and have him talk to me In any summer-house in Christendom. Some people can take a mere _soupçon_ of the stuff, while others can down it by the soup spoon, so we feel it necessary in reprinting our recipe to point to the warning of another early English writer: "Garlic is very dangerous to young children, fine women and hot young men." Blintzes This snow white member of the crêpes suzette sorority is the most popular deb in New York's fancy cheese dishes set. Almost unknown here a decade or two ago, it has joined blinis, kreplach and cheeseburgers as a quick and sustaining lunch for office workers. 2 eggs 1 cup water 1 cup sifted flour Salt Cooking oil 1/2 pound cottage cheese 2 tablespoons butter 2 cups sour cream Beat 1 egg light and make a batter with the water, flour and salt to taste. Heat a well-greased small frying pan and make little pancakes with 2 tablespoons of batter each. Cook the cakes over low heat and on one side only. Slide each cake off on a white cloth, with the cooked side down. While these are cooling make the blintz-filling by beating together the second egg, cottage cheese and butter. Spread each pancake thickly with the mixture and roll or make into little pockets or envelopes with the end tucked in to hold the filling. Cook in foil till golden-brown and serve at once with sufficient sour cream to smother them. Vatroushki Russia seems to have been the cradle of all sorts of blinis and blintzes, and perhaps the first, of them to be made was vatroushki, a variant of the blintzes above. The chief difference is that rounds of puff paste dough are used instead of the hot cakes, 1 teaspoon of sugar is added to the cottage cheese filling, and the sour cream, 1/2 cup, is mixed into this instead of being served with it. Little cups filled with this mix are made by pinching the edges of the dough together. The tops are brushed with egg yolk and baked in a brisk oven. Cottage Cheese Pancakes 1 cup prepared pancake 4 tablespoons top milk or light cream 1 teaspoon salt 4 eggs, well beaten 1 tablespoon sugar 2 cups cottage cheese, put through ricer Mix batter and stir in cheese last until smooth. Cheese Waffles 2 cups prepared waffle flour 3 egg yolks, lightly beaten 1/4 cup melted butter 3/4 cup grated sharp Cheddar 3 egg whites, beaten stiff Stir up a smooth waffle batter of the first 4 ingredients and fold in egg whites last. Today you can get imported canned Holland cheese waffles to heat quickly and serve. Napkin Dumpling 1 pound cottage cheese 1/8 pound butter, softened 3 eggs, beaten 3/4 cup Farina 1/2 teaspoon salt Cinnamon and brown sugar Mix together all ingredients (except the cinnamon and sugar) to form a ball. Moisten a linen napkin with cold water and tie the ball of dough in it. Simmer 40 to 50 minutes in salted boiling water, remove from napkin, sprinkle well with cinnamon and brown sugar, and serve. This is on the style of Hungarian potato and other succulent dumplings and may be served with goulash or as a meal in itself. BUTTER AND CHEESE Where fish is scant And fruit of trees, Supply that want With butter and cheese. Thomas Tusser in _The Last Remedy_ Butter and cheese are mixed together in equal parts for cheese butter. Serbia has a cheese called Butter that more or less matches Turkey's Durak, of which butter is an indispensable ingredient, and French Cancoillote is based on sour milk simmered with butter. The English have a cheese called Margarine, made with the butter substitute. In Westphalia there are no two schools of thought about whether 'tis better to eat butter with cheese or not, for in Westphalia sour-milk cheese, butter is mixed in as part of the process of making. The Arabs press curds and butter together to store in vats, and the Scots have Crowdie or Cruddy Butter. BUTTERMILK CHEESE The value of buttermilk is stressed in an extravagant old Hindu proverb: "A man may live without bread, but without buttermilk he dies." Cheese was made before butter, being the earliest form of dairy manufacturing, so buttermilk cheese came well after plain milk cheese, even after whey cheese. It is very tasty, and a natural with potato salad. The curd is salted after draining and sold in small parchment packages. German "leather" cheese has buttermilk mixed with the plain. The Danes make their Appetitost with sour buttermilk. Ricotta Romano, for a novelty, is made of sheep buttermilk. COTTAGE CHEESE In America cottage cheese is also called pot, Dutch and smearcase. It is the easiest and quickest to make of all cheeses, by simply letting milk sour, or adding buttermilk to curdle it, then stand a while on the back of the kitchen stove, since it is homemade as a rule. It is drained in a bag of cheesecloth and may be eaten the same day, usually salted. The Pilgrims brought along the following two tried and true recipes from olde England, and both are still in use and good repute: _Cottage Cheese No. 1_ Let milk sour until clotted. Pour boiling water over and it will immediately curd. Stir well and pour into a colander. Pour a little cold water on the curd, salt it and break it up attractively for serving. _Cottage Cheese No. 2_ A very rich and tasty variety is made of equal parts whole milk and buttermilk heated together to just under the boiling point. Pour into a linen bag and let drain until next day. Then remove, salt to taste and add a bit of butter or cream to make a smooth, creamy consistency, and pat into balls the size of a Seville orange. CREAM CHEESE In England there are three distinct manners of making cream cheese: 1. Fresh milk strained and lightly drained. 2. Scalded cream dried and drained dry, like Devonshire. 3. Rennet curd ripened, with thin, edible rind, or none, packaged in small blocks or miniature bricks by dairy companies, as in the U.S. Philadelphia Cream cheese. American cream cheeses follow the English pattern, being named from then: region or established brands owned by Breakstone, Borden, Kraft, Shefford, etc. Cream cheese such as the first listed above is easier to make than cottage cheese or any other. Technically, in fact, it is not a cheese but the dried curd of milk and is often called virginal. Fresh milk is simply strained through muslin in a perforated box through which the whey and extra moisture drains away for three or four days, leaving a residue as firm as fresh butter. In America, where we mix cream cheese with everything, a popular assortment of twelve sold in New York bears these ingredients and names: Chives, Cherry, Garden, Caviar, Lachs, Pimiento, Olive and Pimiento, Pineapple, Relish, Scallion, Strawberry, and Triple Decker of Relish, Pimiento and Cream in layers. In Italy there is Stracchino Cream, in Sweden Chantilly. Finally, to come to France, la Foncée or Fromage de Pau, a cream also known around the world as Crême d'Isigny, Double Crême, Fromage à la Crême de Gien, Pots de Crême St. Gervais, etc. etc. The French go even farther by eating thick fresh cream with Chevretons du Beaujolais and Fromage Blanc in the style that adds _à la crême_ to their already glorified names. The English came along with Snow Cream Cheese that is more of a dessert, similar to Italian Cream Cheese. We'd like to have a cheese ice cream to contrast with too sweet ones. Attempts at this have been made, both here and in England; Scottish Caledonian cream came closest. We have frozen cheese with fruit, to be sure, but no true cheese ice cream as yet, though some cream cheeses seem especially suitable. The farmer's daughter hath soft brown hair (Butter and eggs and a pound of cheese) And I met with a ballad I can't say where, That wholly consisted of lines like these, (Butter and eggs and a pound of cheese.) In this parody by Calverly, "The Farmer's Daughter," the ingredients suggest cheese cake, dating back to 1381 In England. From that year Kettner in his _Book of the Table_ quotes this recipe: Take cream of almonds or of cow milk and beat them well together; and make small coffins (that is, cases of pastry), and do it (put it) therein; and do (put) thereto sugar and good powders. Or take good fat cheese and eggs and make them of divers colours, green, red or yellow, and bake them or serve them forth. This primitive "receipt" grew up into Richmond maids of honor that caused Kettner to wax poetic with: At Richmond we are permitted to touch with our lips a countless number of these maids--light and airy as the "airy, fairy Lilian." What more can the finest poetry achieve in quickening the things of earth into tokens and foretastes of heaven, with glimpses of higher life and ethereal worlds. CHEESECAKES _Coronation Cheese Cake_ The _Oxford Dictionary_ defines cheese cake as a "tartlet filled with sweet curds, etc." This shows that the cheese is the main thing, and the and-so-forth just a matter of taste. We are delighted to record that the Lord Mayor of London picked traditional cheese tarts, the maids of honor mentioned earlier in this section, as the Coronation dessert with which to regale the second Queen Elizabeth at the city luncheon in Guildhall This is most fitting, since these tarts were named after the maids of honor at the court of the first Queen Elizabeth. The original recipe is said to have sold for a thousand pounds. These Richmond maids of honor had the usual cheese cake ingredients: butter and eggs and pounds of cheese, but what made the subtle flavor: nutmeg, brandy, lemon, orange-flower water, or all four? More than 2,000 years before this land of Coronation cheese cake, the Greeks had a word for it--several in fact: Apician Cheese Cake, Aristoxenean, and Philoxenean among them. Then the Romans took it over and we read from an epistle of the period: Thirty times in this one year, Charinus, while you have been arranging to make your will, have I sent you cheese cakes dripping with Hyblaean Thyme. (Celestial honey, such as that of Mount Hymettus we still get from Greece.) Plato mentioned cheese cake, and a town near Thebes was named for it before Christ was born, at a time when cheese cakes were widely known as "dainty food for mortal man." Today cheese cakes come in a half dozen popular styles, of which the ones flavored with fresh pineapple are the most popular in New York. But buyers delight in every sort, including the one hundred percent American type called cheese pies. Indeed, there seems to be no dividing line between cheese cakes and cheese pies. While most of them are sweet, some are made piquant with pimientos and olives. We offer a favorite of ours made from popcorn-style pot cheese put through a sieve: Pineapple Cheese Cake 2-1/2 pounds sieved pot cheese 1-inch piece vanilla bean 1/4 pound sweet butter, melted 1/2 small box graham crackers, crushed fine 4 eggs 2 cups sugar 1 small can crushed pineapple, drained 2 cups milk 1/3 cup flour In a big bowl mix everything except the graham crackers and pineapple in the order given above. Butter a square Pyrex pan and put in the graham-cracker dust to make a crust. Cover this evenly with the pineapple and pour in the cheese-custard mixture. Bake I hour in a "quiet" oven, as the English used to say for a moderate one, and when done set aside for 12 hours before eating. Because of the time and labor involved maybe you had better buy your cheese cakes, even though some of the truly fine ones cost a dime a bite, especially the pedigreed Jewish-American ones in Manhattan. Reuben's and Lindy's are two leaders at about five dollars a cake. Some are fruited with cherries or strawberries. Cheese Custard 4 eggs, slightly beaten 1/2 teaspoon salt 1 cup milk A dash of pepper or paprika 3 tablespoons melted butter A few drops of onion juice, if desired 4 tablespoons grated Swiss (imported) Mix all together, set in molds in pan of hot water, and bake until brown. Open-faced Cheese Pie 3 eggs 1 cup sugar 2 pounds soft smearcase Whip everything together and fill two pie crusts. Bake without any upper crust. The Apple-pie Affinity Hot apple pie was always accompanied with cheese in New England, even as every slice of apple pie in Wisconsin has cheese for a sidekick, according to law. Pioneer hot pies were baked in brick ovens and flavored with nutmeg, cinnamon and rose geranium. The cheese was Cheddar, but today all sorts of pie and cheese combinations are common, such as banana pie and Gorgonzola, mince with Danish Blue, pumpkin with cream cheese, peach pie with Hablé, and even a green dusting of Sapsago over raisin pie. Apple pie _au gratin_, thickly grated over with Parmesan, Caciocavallo or Sapsago, is something special when served with black coffee. Cider, too, or applejack, is a natural accompaniment to any dessert of apple with its cheese. Apple Pie Adorned Apple pie is adorned with cream and cheese by pressing cream cheese through a ricer and folding in plenty of double cream beaten thick and salted a little. Put the mixture in a pastry tube and decorate top of pie in fanciful fashion. Apple Pie á la Cheese Lay a slice of melting cheese on top of apple (or any fruit or berry) pie, and melt under broiler 2 to 3 minutes. Cheese-crusty Apple Pie In making an apple pie, roll out the top crust and sprinkle with sharp Cheddar, grated, dot with butter and bake golden-brown. Flan au Fromage To make this Franche-Comté tart of crisp paste, simply mix coarsely grated Gruyère with beaten egg, fill the tart cases and bake. For any cheese pastry or fruit and custard pie crusts, work in tasty shredded sharp Cheddar in the ratio of 1 to 4 parts of flour. Christmas Cake Sandwiches A traditional Christmas carol begs for: A little bit of spice cake A little bit of cheese, A glass of cold water, A penny, if you please. For a festive handout cut the spice cake or fruit cake in slices and sandwich them with slices of tasty cheese between. To maintain traditional Christmas cheer for the elders, serve apple pie with cheese and applejack. Angelic Camembert 1 ripe Camembert, imported 1 cup Anjou dry white wine 1/2 pound sweet butter, softened 2 tablespoons finely grated toast crumbs Lightly scrape all crusty skin from the Camembert and when its creamy interior stands revealed put it in a small, round covered dish, pour in the wine, cover tightly so no bouquet or aroma can possibly escape, and let stand overnight. When ready to serve drain off and discard any wine left, dry the cheese and mash with the sweet butter into an angelic paste. Reshape in original Camembert form, dust thickly with the crumbs and there you are. Such a delicate dessert is a favorite with the ladies, since some of them find a prime Camembert a bit too strong if taken straight. Although A. W. Fulton's observation in _For Men Only_ is going out of date, it is none the less amusing: In the course of a somewhat varied career I have only met one woman who appreciated cheese. This quality in her seemed to me so deserving of reward that I did not hesitate to acquire her hand in marriage. Another writer has said that "only gourmets among women seem to like cheese, except farm women and foreigners." The association between gourmets and farm women is borne out by the following urgent plea from early Italian landowners: _Ai contadini non far sapere Quanta è buono it cacio con le pere_. Don't let the peasants know How good are cheese and pears. Having found out for ourselves, we suggest a golden slice of Taleggio, Stracchino, or pale gold Bel Paese to polish off a good dinner, with a juicy Lombardy pear or its American equivalent, a Bartlett, let us say. This celestial association of cheese and pears is further accented by the French: _Entre la poire et le fromage_ Between the pear and the cheese. This places the cheese after the fruit, as the last course, in accordance with early English usage set down by John Clarke in his _Paroemiologia_: After cheese comes nothing. But in his _Epigrams_ Ben Jonson serves them together. Digestive cheese, and fruit there sure will be. That brings us back to cheese and pippins: I will make an end of my dinner; there's pippins and cheese to come. Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_ When should the cheese be served? In England it is served before or after the fruit, with or without the port. Following _The Book of Keruynge_ in modern spelling we note when it was published in 1431 the proper thing "after meat" was "pears, nuts, strawberries, whortleberries (American huckleberries) and hard cheese." In modern practice we serve some suitable cheese like Camembert directly on slices of apple and pears, Gorgonzola on sliced banana, Hablé spread on pineapple and a cheese dessert tray to match the Lazy Lou, with everything crunchy down to Crackerjacks. Good, too, are figs, both fresh and preserved, stuffed with cream cheese, kumquats, avocados, fruity dunking mixtures of Pineapple cheese, served in the scooped-out casque of the cheese itself, and apple or pear and Provolone creamed and put back in the rind it came in. Pots of liquored and wined cheeses, no end, those of your own making being the best. Champagned Roquefort or Gorgonzola 1/2 pound mellow Roquefort 1/4 pound sweet butter, softened A dash cayenne 3/4 cup champagne With a silver fork mix cheese and butter to a smooth paste, moistening with champagne as you go along, using a little more or less champagne according to consistency desired. Serve with the demitasse and cognac, offering, besides crackers, gilt gingerbread in the style of Holland Dutch cheese tasters, or just plain bread. After dinner cheeses suggested by Phil Alpert are: FROM FRANCE: Port-Salut, Roblochon, Coulommiers, Camembert, Brie, Roquefort, Calvados (try it with a spot of Calvados, apple brandy) FROM THE U.S.: Liederkranz, Blue, Cheddar FROM SWEDEN: Hablé Crême Chantilly FROM ITALY: Taleggio, Gorgonzola, Provolone, Bel Paese FROM HUNGARY: Kascaval FROM SWITZERLAND: Swiss Gruyère FROM GERMANY: Kümmelkäse FROM NORWAY: Gjetost, Bondost FROM HOLLAND: Edam, Gouda FROM ENGLAND: Stilton FROM POLAND: Warshawski Syr [Illustration] _Chapter Nine_ Au Gratin, Soups, Salads and Sauces He who says _au gratin_ says Parmesan. Thomas Gray, the English poet, saluted it two centuries ago with: Parma, the happy country where huge cheeses grow. On September 4, 1666, Pepys recorded the burying of his pet Parmesan, "as well as my wine and some other things," in a pit in Sir W. Batten's garden. And on the selfsame fourth of September, more than a century later, in 1784, Woodforde in his _Diary of a Country Parson_ wrote: I sent Mr. Custance about 3 doz. more of apricots, and he sent me back another large piece of fine Parmesan cheese. It was very kind of him. The second most popular cheese for _au gratin_ is Italian Romano, and, for an entirely different flavor, Swiss Sapsago. The French, who gave us this cookery term, use it in its original meaning for any dish with a browned topping, usually of bread crumbs, or crumbs and cheese. In America we think of _au gratin_ as grated cheese only, although Webster says, "with a browned covering, often mixed with butter or cheese; as, potatoes _au gratin_." So let us begin with that. Potatoes au Gratin 2 cups diced cooked potatoes 2 tablespoons grated onion 1/2 cup grated American Cheddar cheese 2 tablespoons butter 1/2 cup milk 1 egg Salt Pepper More grated cheese for covering In a buttered baking dish put a layer of diced potatoes, sprinkle with onion and bits of butter. Next, scatter on a thin layer of cheese and alternate with potatoes, onions and butter. Stir milk, egg, salt and pepper together and pour it on the mixture. Top everything with plenty of grated cheese to make it authentically American _au gratin_. Bake until firm in moderate oven, about 1/2 hour. Eggs au Gratin Make a white sauce flavored with minced onion to pour over any desired number of eggs broken into a buttered baking dish. Begin by using half of the sauce and sprinkling on a lot of grated cheese. After the eggs are in, pour on the rest of the sauce, cover it with grated cheese and bread crumbs, drop in bits of butter, and cook until brown in oven (or about 12 minutes). Tomatoes au Gratin Cover bottom of shallow baking pan with slices of tomato and sprinkle liberally with bread crumbs and grated cheese, season with salt, pepper and dots of butter, add another layer of tomato slices, season as before and continue this, alternating with cheese, until pan is full. Add a generous topping of crumbs, cheese and butter. Bake 50 minutes in moderate oven. Onion Soup au Gratin 4 or 5 onions, sliced 4 or 5 tablespoons butter 1 quart stock or canned consommé 1 quart bouillon made from dissolving 4 or 5 cubes Rounds of toasted French bread 1-1/2 cups grated Parmesan cheese Sauté onions in butter in a roomy saucepan until light golden, and pour the stock over. When heated put in a larger casserole, add the bouillon, season to taste and heat to boiling point. Let simmer 15 minutes and serve in deep well-heated soup plates, the bottoms covered with rounds of toasted French bread which have been heaped with freshly grated Parmesan and browned under the broiler. More cheese is served for guests to sprinkle on as desired. At gala parties, where wine flows, a couple of glasses of champagne are often added to the bouillon. In the famed onion soup _au gratin_ at Les Halles in Paris, grated Gruyère is used in place of Parmesan. They are interchangeable in this recipe. AMERICAN CHEESE SOUPS In this era of fine canned soups a quick cheese soup is made by heating cream of tomato soup, ready made, and adding finely grated Swiss or Parmesan to taste. French bread toasted and topped with more cheese and broiled golden makes the best base to pour this over, as is done with the French onion soup above. The same cheese toasts are the basis of a simple milk-cheese soup, with heated milk poured over and a seasoning of salt, pepper, chopped chives, or a dash of nutmeg. Chicken Cheese Soup Heat together 1 cup milk, 1 cup water in which 2 chicken bouillon cubes have been dissolved, and 1 can of condensed cream of chicken soup. Stir in 1/4 cup grated American Cheddar cheese and season with salt, pepper, and plenty of paprika until cheese melts. Other popular American recipes simply add grated cheese to lima bean or split bean soup, peanut butter soup, or plain cheese soup with rice. Imported French _marmites_ are _de rigueur_ for a real onion soup _au gratin_, and an imported Parmesan grinder might be used for freshly ground cheese. In preparing, it is well to remember that they are basically only melted cheese, melted from the top down. CHEESE SALADS When a Frenchman reaches the salad he is resting and in no hurry. He eats the salad to prepare himself for the cheese. Henri Charpentier, _Life & la Henri_, Green Cheese Salad Julienne Take endive, water cress and as many different kinds of crisp lettuce as you can find and mix well with Provolone cheese cut in thin julienne strips and marinated 3 to 4 hours in French dressing. Crumble over the salad some Blue cheese and toss everything thoroughly, with plenty of French dressing. American Cheese Salad Slice a sweet ripe pineapple thin and sprinkle with shredded American Cheddar. Serve on lettuce dipped in French dressing. Cheese and Nut Salad Mix American Cheddar with an equal amount of nut meats and enough mayonnaise to make a paste. Roll these in little balls and serve with fruit salads, dusting lightly with finely grated Sapsago. Brie or Camembert Salad Fill ripe pear-or peach-halves with creamy imported Brie or Camembert, sprinkle with honey, serve on lettuce drenched with French dressing and scatter shredded almonds over. (Cream cheese will do in a pinch. If the Camembert isn't creamy enough, mash it with some sweet cream.) Three-in-One Mold 3/4 cup cream cheese 1/2 cup grated American Cheddar cheese 1/2 cup Roquefort cheese, crumbled 2 tablespoons gelatin, dissolved and stirred into 1/2 cup boiling water Juice of 1 lemon Salt Pepper 2 cups cream, beaten stiff 1/2 cup minced chives Mash the cheeses together, season gelatin liquid with lemon, salt and pepper and stir into cheese with the whipped cream. Add chives last Put in ring mold or any mold you fancy, chill well and slice at table to serve on lettuce with a little mayonnaise, or plain. Swiss Cheese Salad Dice 1/2 pound of cheese into 1/2-inch cubes. Slice one onion very thin. Mix well in a soup plate. Dash with German mustard, olive oil, wine vinegar, Worcestershire sauce. Salt lightly and grind in plenty of black pepper. Then stir, preferably with a wooden spoon so you won't mash the cheese, until every hole is drenched with the dressing. Rosie's Swiss Breakfast Cheese Salad Often Emmentaler is cubed in a salad for breakfast, relished specially by males on the morning after. We quote the original recipe brought over by Rosie from the Swiss Tyrol to thrill the writers' and artists' colony of Ridgefield, New Jersey, in her brother Emil's White House Inn: First Rosie cut a thick slice of prime imported Emmentaler into half-inch cubes. Then she mixed imported French olive oil, German mustard and Swiss white wine vinegar with salt and freshly ground pepper in a deep soup plate, sprinkled on a few drops of pepper sauce scattered in the chunks of Schweizer and stirred the cubes with a light hand, using a wooden fork and spoon to prevent bruising. The salad was ready to eat only when each and every tiny, shiny cell of the Swiss from the homeland had been washed, oiled and polished with the soothing mixture. "Drink down the juice, too, when you have finished mine Breakfast Cheese Salad," Rosie advised the customers. "It is the best cure in the world for the worst hangover." Gorgonzola and Banana Salad Slice bananas lengthwise, as for a banana split. Sprinkle with lemon juice and spread with creamy Gorgonzola. Sluice with French dressing made with lemon juice in place of vinegar, to help bring out the natural banana flavor of ripe Gorgonzola. Cheese and Pea Salad Cube 1/2 pound of American Cheddar and mix with a can of peas, 1 cup of diced celery, 1 cup of mayonnaise, 1/2 cup of sour cream, and 2 tablespoons each of minced pimientos and sweet pickles. Serve in lettuce cups with a sprinkling of parsley and chopped radishes. Apple and Cheese Salad 1/2 cup cream cheese 1 cup chopped pecans Salt and pepper Apples, sliced 1/2-inch thick Lettuce leaves Creamy salad dressing Make tiny seasoned cheese balls, center on the apple slices standing on lettuce leaves, and sluice with creamy salad dressing. Roquefort Cheese Salad Dressing No cheese sauce is easier to make than the American favorite of Roquefort cheese mashed with a fork and mixed with French dressing. It is often made in a pint Mason jar and kept in the refrigerator to shake up on occasion and toss over lettuce or other salads. Unfortunately, even when the Roquefort is the French import, complete with the picture of the sheep in red, and _garanti véritable_, the dressing is often ruined by bad vinegar and cottonseed oil (of all things). When bottled to sell in stores, all sorts of extraneous spice, oils and mustard flour are used where nothing more is necessary than the manipulation of a fork, fine olive oil and good vinegar--white wine, tarragon or malt. Some ardent amateurs must have their splash of Worcestershire sauce or lemon juice with salt and pepper. This Roquefort dressing is good on all green salads, but on endive it's something special. SAUCE MORNAY Sauce Mornay has been hailed internationally as "the greatest culinary achievement in cheese." Nothing is simpler to make. All you do is prepare a white sauce (the French Sauce Béchamel) and add grated Parmesan to your liking, stirring it in until melted and the sauce is creamy. This can be snapped up with cayenne or minced parsley, and when used with fish a little of the cooking broth is added. PLAIN CHEESE SAUCE 1 part of any grated cheese to 4 parts of white sauce This is a mild sauce that is nice with creamed or hard-cooked eggs. When the cheese content is doubled, 2 parts of cheese to 4 of white sauce, it is delicious on boiled cauliflower, baked potatoes, macaroni and crackers soaked in milk. The sauce may be made richer by mixing melted butter with the flour in making the white sauce, or by beating egg yolk in with the cheese. From thin to medium to thick it serves divers purposes: _Thin_: it may be used instead of milk to make a tasty milk toast, sometimes spiced with curry. _Medium_: for baking by pouring over crackers soaked in milk. _Thick_: serves as a sort of Welsh Rabbit when poured generously over bread toasted on one side only, with the untoasted side up, to let the sauce sink in. PARSLEYED CHEESE SAUCE This makes a mild, pleasantly pungent sauce, to enliven the cabbage family--hot cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage and Brussels sprouts. Croutons help when sprinkled over. CORNUCOPIA OF CHEESE RECIPES Since this is the Complete Book of Cheese we will fill a bounteous cornucopia here with more or less essential, if not indispensable, recipes and dishes not so easy to classify, or overlooked or crowded out of the main sections devoted to the classic Fondues, Rabbits, Soufflés, etc. _Stuffed Celery, Endive, Anise and Other Suitable Stalks_ Use any soft cheese you like, or firm cheese softened by pressing through a sieve; at room temperature, of course, with any seasoning or relish. SUGGESTIONS: Cream cheese and chopped chives, pimientos, olives, or all three, with or without a touch of Worcestershire. Cottage cheese and piccalilli or chili sauce. Sharp Cheddar mixed with mayonnaise, mustard, cream, minced capers, pickles, or minced ham. Roquefort and other Blues are excellent fillings for your favorite vegetable stalk, or scooped-out dill pickle. This last is specially nice when filled with snappy cheese creamed with sweet butter. All canapé butters are ideally suited to stuffing stalks. Pineapple cheese, especially that part close to the pineapple-flavored rind, is perfect when creamed. A masterpiece in the line of filled stalks: Cut the leafy tops off an entire head of celery, endive, anise or anything similarly suitable. Wash and separate stalks, but keep them in order, to reassemble in the head after each is stuffed with a different mixture, using any of the above, or a tangy mix of your own concoction. After all stalks are filled, beginning with the baby center ones, press them together in the form of the original head, tie tight, and chill. When ready, slice in rolls about 8-inch thick and arrange as a salad on a bed of water cress or lettuce, moistened with French dressing. Cold Dunking Besides hot dunking in Swiss Fondue, cold dunking may be had by moistening plenty of cream cheese with cream or lemon in a dunking bowl. When the cheese is sufficiently liquefied, it is liberally seasoned with chopped parsley, chives, onions, pimiento and/or other relish. Then a couple of tins of anchovies are macerated and stirred in, oil and all. Cheese Charlotte Line a baking dish from bottom to top with decrusted slices of bread dipped in milk. Cream 1 tablespoon of sweet butter with 2 eggs and season before stirring in 2 cups of grated cheese. Bake until golden brown in slow oven. Straws Roll pastry dough thin and cover with grated Cheddar, fold and roll at least twice more, sprinkling with cheese each time. Chill dough in refrigerator and cut in straw-size strips. Stiffly salt a beaten egg yolk and glaze with that to give a salty taste. Bake for several minutes until crisp. Supa Shetgia[B] [Footnote B: (from _Cheese Cookery_, by Helmut Ripperger)] _This is the famous cheese soup of the Engadine and little known in this country. One of its seasonings is nutmeg and until one has used it in cheese dishes, it is hard to describe how perfectly it gives that extra something. The recipe, as given, is for each plate, but there is no reason why the old-fashioned tureen could not be used and the quantities simply increased_. Put a slice of stale French bread, toasted or not, into a soup plate and cover it with 4 tablespoons of grated or shredded Swiss cheese. Place another slice of bread on top of this and pour over it some boiling milk. Cover the plate and let it stand for several minutes. Season with salt, pepper and nutmeg. Serve topped with browned, hot butter. Use whole nutmeg and grate it freshly. WITH A CHEESE SHAKER ON THE TABLE Italians are so dependent on cheese to enrich all their dishes, from soups to spaghetti--and indeed any vegetable--that a shaker of grated Parmesan, Romano or reasonable substitute stands ready at every table, or is served freshly grated on a side dish. Thus any Italian soup might be called a cheese soup, but we know of only one, the great minestrone, in which cheese is listed as an indispensable ingredient along with the pasta, peas, onion, tomatoes, kidney beans, celery, olive oil, garlic, oregano, potatoes, carrots, and so forth. Likewise, a chunk of melting or toasting cheese is essential in the Fritto Misto, the finest mixed grill we know, and it's served up as a separate tidbit with the meats. Italians grate on more cheese for seasoning than any other people, as the French are wont to use more wine in cooking. Pfeffernüsse and Caraway The gingery little "pepper nuts," _pfeffernüsse_, imported from Germany in barrels at Christmastime, make one of the best accompaniments to almost any kind of cheese. For contrast try a dish of caraway. Diablotins Small rounds of buttered bread or toast heaped with a mound of grated cheese and browned in the oven is a French contribution. CHEESE OMELETS Cheddar Omelet Make a plain omelet your own way. When the mixture has just begun to cook, dust over it evenly 1/2 cup grated Cheddar. (a) Use young Cheddar if you want a mild, bland omelet (b) Use sharp, aged Cheddar for a full-flavored one. (c) Sprinkle (b) with Worcestershire sauce to make what might be called a Wild Omelet. Cook as usual. Fold and serve. Parmesan Omelet (mild) Cook as above, but use 1/4 cup only of Parmesan, grated fine, in place of the 1/2 cup Cheddar. Parmesan Omelet (full flavored) As above, but use 1/2 cup Parmesan, finely grated, as follows: Sift 1/4 cup of the Parmesan into your egg mixture at the beginning and dust on the second 1/4 cup evenly, just as the omelet begins to set. A Meal-in-One Omelet Fry 1/2 dozen bacon slices crisp and keep hot while frying a cup of diced, boiled potatoes in the bacon fat, to equal crispness. Meanwhile make your omelet mixture of 3 eggs, beaten, and 1-1/2 tablespoons of shredded Emmentaler (or domestic Swiss) with 1 tablespoon of chopped chives and salt and pepper to taste. Tomato and Make plain omelet, cover with thin rounds of fresh tomato and dust well with any grated cheese you like. Put under broiler until cheese melts to a golden brown. Omelet with Cheese Sauce Make a plain French, fluffy or puffy omelet and when finished, cover with a hot, seasoned, reinforced white sauce in which 1/4 pound of shredded cheese has been melted, and mixed well with 1/2 cup cooked, diced celery and 1 tablespoon of pimiento, minced. The French use grated Gruyère for this with all sorts of sauces, such as the _Savoyar de Savoie_, with potatoes, chervil, tarragon and cream. A delicious appearance and added flavor can be had by browning with a salamander. Spanish Flan--Quesillo FOR THE CARAMEL: 1/2 cup sugar 4 tablespoons water FOR THE FLAN: 4 eggs, beaten separately 2 cups hot milk 1/2 cup sugar Salt Brown sugar and mix with water to make the caramel. Pour it into a baking mold. Make Flan by mixing together all the ingredients. Add to carameled mold and bake in pan of water in moderate oven about 3/4 hour. Italian Fritto Misto The distinctive Italian Mixed Fry, Fritto Misto, is made with whatever fish, sweetbreads, brains, kidneys, or tidbits of meat are at hand, say a half dozen different cubes of meat and giblets, with as many hearts of artichokes, _finocchi_, tomato, and different vegetables as you can find, but always with a hunk of melting cheese, to fork out in golden threads with each mouthful of the mixture. Polish Piroghs (a pocketful of cheese) Make noodle dough with 2 eggs and 2 cups of flour, roll out very thin and cut in 2-inch squares. Cream a cupful of cottage cheese with a tablespoon of melted butter, flavor with cinnamon and toss in a handful of seedless currents. Fill pastry squares with this and pinch edges tight together to make little pockets. Drop into a lot of fast-boiling water, lightly salted, and boil steadily 30 minutes, lowering the heat so the pockets won't burst open. Drain and serve on a piping hot platter with melted butter and a sprinkling of bread crumbs. This is a cross between ravioli and blintzes. Cheesed Mashed Potatoes Whip into a steaming hot dish of creamily mashed potatoes some old Cheddar with melted butter and a crumbling of crisp, cooked bacon. If there's a chafing dish handy, a first-rate nightcap can be made via a Sautéed Swiss Sandwich Tuck a slice of Swiss cheese between two pieces of thickly buttered bread, trim crusts, cut sandwich in two, surround it with one well-beaten egg, slide it into sizzling butter and fry on both sides. A chef at the New York Athletic Club once improved on this by first sandwiching the Swiss between a slice of ham and a slice of chicken breast, then beating up a brace of eggs with a jigger of heavy sweet cream and soaking his sandwich in this until it sopped up every drop. A final frying in sweet butter made strong men cry for it. [Illustration] _Chapter Ten_ Appetizers, Crackers, Sandwiches, Savories, Snacks, Spreads and Toasts In America cheese got its start in country stores in our cracker-barrel days when every man felt free to saunter in, pick up the cheese knife and cut himself a wedge from the big-bellied rattrap cheese standing under its glass bell or wire mesh hood that kept the flies off but not the free-lunchers. Cheese by itself being none too palatable, the taster would saunter over to the cracker barrel, shoo the cat off and help himself to the old-time crackers that can't be beat today. At that time Wisconsin still belonged to the Indians and Vermont was our leading cheese state, with its Sage and Cheddar and Vermont Country Store Crackers, as Vrest Orton of Weston Vermont, calls them. When Orton heard we were writing this book, he sent samples from the store his father started in 1897 which is still going strong. Together with the Vermont Good Old-fashioned Natural Cheese and the Sage came a handy handmade Cracker Basket, all wicker, ten crackers long and just one double cracker wide. A snug little casket for those puffy, old-time, two-in-one soda biscuits that have no salt to spoil the taste of the accompanying cheese. Each does double duty because it's made to split in the middle, so you can try one kind of cheese on one half and another on t'other, or sandwich them between. Some Pied Piper took the country cheese and crackers to the corner saloon and led a free-lunch procession that never faltered till Prohibition came. The same old store cheese was soon pepped up as saloon cheese with a saucer of caraway seeds, bowls of pickles, peppers, pickled peppers and rye bread with plenty of mustard, pretzels or cheese straws, smearcase and schwarzbrot. Beer and cheese forever together, as in the free-lunch ditty of that great day: I am an Irish hunter; I am, I ain't. I do not hunt for deer But beer. Oh, Otto, wring the bar rag. I do not hunt for fleas But cheese. Oh, Adolph, bring the free lunch. It was there and then that cheese came of age from coast to coast. In every bar there was a choice of Swiss, Cottage, Limburger--manly cheeses, walkie-talkie oldsters that could sit up and beg, golden yellow, tangy mellow, always cut in cubes. Cheese takes the cube form as naturally as eggs take the oval and honeycombs the hexagon. On the more elegant handout buffets, besides the shapely cubes, free Welsh Rabbit started at four every afternoon, to lead the tired businessman in by the nose; or a smear of Canadian Snappy out of a pure white porcelain pot in the classy places, on a Bent's water biscuit. SANDWICHES AND SAVORY SNACKS Next to nibbling cheese with crackers and appetizers, of which there is no end in sight, cheese sandwiches help us consume most of our country's enormous output of Brick, Cheddar and Swiss. To attempt to classify and describe all of these would be impossible, so we will content ourselves by picking a few of the cold and hot, the plain and the fancy, the familiar and the exotic. Let's use the alphabet to sum up the situation. A Alpine Club Sandwich Spread toasts with mayonnaise and fill with a thick slice of imported Emmentaler, well-mustarded and seasoned, and the usual club-sandwich toppings of thin slices of chicken or turkey, tomato, bacon and a lettuce leaf. B Boston Beany, Open-face Lightly butter a slice of Boston brown bread, cover it generously with hot baked beans and a thick layer of shredded Cheddar. Top with bacon and put under a slow broiler until cheese melts and the bacon crisps. C Cheeseburgers Pat out some small seasoned hamburgers exceedingly thin and, using them instead of slices of bread, sandwich in a nice slice of American Cheddar well covered with mustard. Crimp edges of the hamburgers all around to hold in the cheese when it melts and begins to run. Toast under a brisk boiler and serve on soft, toasted sandwich buns. D Deviled Rye Butter flat Swedish rye bread and heat quickly in hot oven. Cool until crisp again. Then spread thickly with cream cheese, bedeviled with catsup, paprika or pimiento. E Egg, Open-faced Sauté minced small onion and small green pepper in 2 tablespoons of butter and make a sauce by cooking with a cup of canned tomatoes. Season and reduce to about half. Fry 4 eggs and put one in the center of each of 4 pieces of hot toast spread with the red sauce. Sprinkle each generously with grated Cheddar, broil until melted and serve with crisp bacon. F French-fried Swiss Simply make a sandwich with a noble slice of imported Gruyère, soak it in beaten egg and milk and fry slowly till cheese melts and the sandwich is nicely browned. This is a specialty of Franche-Comté. G Grilled Chicken-Ham-Cheddar Cut crusts from 2 slices of white bread and butter them on both sides. Make a sandwich of these with 1 slice cooked chicken, 1/2 slice sharp Cheddar cheese, and a sprinkling of minced ham. Fasten tight with toothpicks, cut in half and dip thoroughly in a mixture of egg and milk. Grill golden on both sides and serve with lengthwise slices of dill pickle. H He-man Sandwich, Open-faced Butter a thick slice of dark rye bread, cover with a layer of mashed cold baked beans and a slice of ham, then one of Swiss cheese and a wheel of Bermuda onion topped with mustard and a sowing of capers. I International Sandwich Split English muffins and toast on the hard outsides, cover soft, untoasted insides with Swiss cheese, spread lightly with mustard, top that with a wheel of Bermuda onion and 1 or 2 slices of Italian-type tomato. Season with cayenne and salt, dot with butter, cover with Brazil nuts and brown under the broiler. J Jurassiennes, or Croûtes Comtoises Soak slices of stale buns in milk, cover with a mixture of onion browned in chopped lean bacon and mixed with grated Gruyère. Simmer until cheese melts, and serve. K Kümmelkäse If you like caraway flavor this is your sandwich: On well-buttered but lightly mustarded rye, lay a thickish slab of Milwaukee Kümmelkäse, which translates caraway cheese. For good measure sprinkle caraway seeds on top, or serve them in a saucer on the side. Then dash on a splash of kümmel, the caraway liqueur that's best when imported. L Limburger Onion or Limburger Catsup Marinate slices of Bermuda onion in a peppery French dressing for 1/2 hour. Then butter slices of rye, spread well with soft Limburger, top with onion and you will have something super-duper--if you like Limburger. When catsup is substituted for marinated onion the sandwich has quite another character and flavor, so true Limburger addicts make one of each and take alternate bites for the thrill of contrast. M Meringue, Open-faced (from the Browns' _10,000 Snacks_) Allow 1 egg and 4 tablespoons of grated cheese to 1 slice of bread. Toast bread on one side only, spread butter on untoasted side, put 2 tablespoons grated cheese over butter, and the yolk of an egg in the center. Beat egg white stiff with a few grains of salt and pile lightly on top. Sprinkle the other 2 tablespoons of grated cheese over that and bake in moderate oven until the egg white is firm and the cheese has melted to a golden-brown. N Neufchâtel and Honey We know no sandwich more ethereal than one made with thin, decrusted, white bread, spread with sweet butter, then with Neufchâtel topped with some fine honey--Mount Hymettus, if possible. Any creamy Petit Suisse will do as well as the Neufchâtel, but nothing will take the place of the honey to make this heavenly sandwich that must have been the original ambrosia. O Oskar's Ham-Cam Oskar Davidsen of Copenhagen, whose five-foot menu lists 186 superb sandwiches and snacks, each with a character all its own, perfected the Ham-Cam base for a flock of fancy ham sandwiches, open-faced on rye or white, soft or crisp, sweet or sour, almost any one-way slice you desire. He uses as many contrasting kinds of bread as possible, and his butter varies from salt to fresh and whipped. The Ham-Cam base involves "a juicy, tender slice of freshly boiled, mild-cured ham" with imported Camembert spread on the ham as thick as velvet. The Ham-Cam is built up with such splendors as "goose liver paste and Madeira wine jelly," "fried calves' kidney and _rémoulade_," "Bombay curry salad," "bird's liver and fried egg," "a slice of red roast beef" and more of that red Madeira jelly, with anything else you say, just so long as it does credit to Camembert on ham. P Pickled Camembert Butter a thin slice of rye or pumpernickel and spread with ripe imported Camembert, when in season (which isn't summer). Make a mixture of sweet, sour and dill pickles, finely chopped, and spread it on. Top this with a thin slice of white bread for pleasing contrast with the black. Q Queijo da Serra Sandwich On generous rounds of French "flute" or other crunchy, crusty white bread place thick portions of any good Portuguese cheese made of sheep's milk "in the mountains." This last translates back into Queijo da Serra, the fattest, finest cheese in the world--on a par with fine Greek Feta. Bead the open-faced creamy cheese lightly with imported capers, and you'll say it's scrumptious. R Roquefort Nut Butter hot toast and cover with a thickish slice of genuine Roquefort cheese. Sprinkle thickly with genuine Hungarian paprika. Put in moderate oven for about 6 minutes. Finish it off with chopped pine nuts, almonds, or a mixture thereof. S Smoky Sandwich and Sturgeon-smoked Sandwich Skin some juicy little, jolly little sprats, lay on thin rye, or a slice of miniature-loaf rye studded with caraway, spread with sweet butter and cover with a slice of smoked cheese. Hickory is preferred for most of the smoking in America. In New York the best smoked cheese, whether from Canada or nearer home, is usually cured in the same room with sturgeon. Since this king of smoked fish imparts some of its regal savor to the Cheddar, there is a natural affinity peculiarly suited to sandwiching as above. Smoked salmon, eel, whitefish or any other, is also good with cheese smoked with hickory or anything with a salubrious savor, while a sandwich of smoked turkey with smoked cheese is out of this world. We accompany it with a cup of smoky Lapsang Soochong China tea. T Tangy Sandwich On buttered rye spread cream cheese, and on this bed lay thinly sliced dried beef. In place of mustard dot the beef with horseradish and pearl onions or those reliable old chopped chives. And by the way, if you must use mustard on every cheese sandwich, try different kinds for a change: sharp English freshly mixed by your own hand out of the tin of powder, or Dijon for a French touch. U Unusual Sandwich--of Flowers, Hay and Clover On a sweet-buttered slice of French white bread lay a layer of equally sweet English Flower cheese (made with petals of rose, marigold, violet, etc.) and top that with French Fromage de foin. This French hay cheese gets its name from being ripened on hay and holds its new-mown scent. Sprinkle on a few imported capers (the smaller they are, the better), with a little of the luscious juice, and dust lightly with Sapsago. V Vegetarian Sandwich Roll your own of alternate leaves of lettuce, slices of store cheese, avocados, cream cheese sprinkled heavily with chopped chives, and anything else in the Vegetable or Caseous Kingdoms that suits your fancy. W Witch's Sandwich Butter 2 slices of sandwich bread, cover one with a thin slice of imported Emmentaler, dash with cayenne and a drop or two of tabasco. Slap on a sizzling hot slice of grilled ham and press it together with the cheese between the two bread slices, put in a hot oven and serve piping hot with a handful of "moonstones"--those outsize pearl onions. X Xochomilco Sandwich In spite of the "milco" in Xochomilco, there isn't a drop to be had that's native to the festive, floating gardens near Mexico City. For there, instead of the cow, a sort of century plant gives milky white _pulque_, the fermented juice of this cactuslike desert plant. With this goes a vegetable cheese curded by its own vegetable rennet. It's called tuna cheese, made from the milky juice of the prickly pear that grows on yet another cactuslike plant of the dry lands. This tuna cheese sometimes teams up in arid lands with the juicy thick cactus leaf sliced into a tortilla sandwich. The milky _pulque_ of Xochomilco goes as well with it as beer with a Swiss cheese sandwich. Y Yolk Picnic Sandwich Hard-cooked egg yolk worked into a yellow paste with cream cheese, mustard, olive oil, lemon juice, celery salt and a touch of tabasco, spread on thick slices of whole wheat bread. Z Zebra Take a tip from Oskar over in Copenhagen and design your own Zebra sandwich as decoratively as one of those oft-photoed skins in El Morocco. Just alternate stripes of black bread with various white cheeses in between, to follow, the black and white zebra pattern. For good measure we will toss in a couple of toasted cheese sandwiches. Toasted Cheese Sandwich Butter both sides of 2 thick slices of white bread and sandwich between them a seasoned mixture of shredded sharp cheese, egg yolk, mustard and chopped chives, together with stiffly beaten egg white folded in last to make a light filling. Fry the buttered sandwich in more butter until well melted and nicely gilded. This toasted cheeser is so good it's positively sinful. The French, who outdo us in both cooking and sin, make one of their own in the form of fried fingers of stale bread doused in an 'arf and 'arf Welsh Rabbit and Fondue melting of Gruyère, that serves as a liaison to further sandwich the two. Garlic is often used in place of chopped chives, and in contrast to this wild one there's a mild one made of Dutch cream cheese by the equally Dutch Pennsylvanians. England, of course, together with Wales, holds all-time honors with such celebrated regional "toasting cheeses" as Devonshire and Dunlop. Even British Newfoundland is known for its simple version, that's quite as pleasing as its rich Prince Edward Island Oyster Stew. Newfoundland Toasted Cheese Sandwich 1 pound grated Cheddar 1 egg, well beaten 1/2 cup milk 1 tablespoon butter Heat together and pour over well-buttered toast. [Illustration] _Chapter Eleven_ "Fit for Drink" A country without a fit drink for cheese has no cheese fit for drink. Greece was the first country to prove its epicurean fitness, according to the old saying above, for it had wine to tipple and sheep's milk cheese to nibble. The classical Greek cheese has always been Feta, and no doubt this was the kind that Circe combined most suitably with wine to make a farewell drink for her lovers. She put further sweetness and body into the stirrup cup by stirring honey and barley meal into it. Today we might whip this up in an electric mixer to toast her memory. While a land flowing with milk and honey is the ideal of many, France, Italy, Spain or Portugal, flowing with wine and honey, suit a lot of gourmets better. Indeed, in such vinous-caseous places cheese is on the house at all wine sales for prospective customers to snack upon and thus bring out the full flavor of the cellared vintages. But professional wine tasters are forbidden any cheese between sips. They may clear their palates with plain bread, but nary a crumb of Roquefort or cube of Gruyère in working hours, lest it give the wine a spurious nobility. And, speaking of Roquefort, Romanée has the closest affinity for it. Such affinities are also found in Pont l'Evêque and Beaujolais, Brie and red champagne, Coulommiers and any good _vin rosé_. Heavenly marriages are made in Burgundy between red and white wines of both Côtes, de Nuits and de Baune, and Burgundian cheeses such as Epoisses, Soumaintarin and Saint-Florentin. Pommard and Port-Salut seem to be made for each other, as do Château Margaux and Camembert. A great cheese for a great wine is the rule that brings together in the neighboring provinces such notables as Sainte Maure, Valençay, Vendôme and the Loire wines--Vouvray, Saumur and Anjou. Gruyère mates with Chablis, Camembert with St. Emilion; and any dry red wine, most commonly claret, is a fit drink for the hundreds of other fine French cheeses. Every country has such happy marriages, an Italian standard being Provolone and Chianti. Then there is a most unusual pair, French Neufchâtel cheese and Swiss Neuchâtel wine from just across the border. Switzerland also has another cheese favorite at home--Trauben (grape cheese), named from the Neuchâtel wine in which it is aged. One kind of French Neufchâtel cheese, Bondon, is also uniquely suited to the company of any good wine because it is made in the exact shape and size of a wine barrel bung. A similar relation is found in Brinzas (or Brindzas) that are packed in miniature wine barrels, strongly suggesting what should be drunk with such excellent cheeses: Hungarian Tokay. Other foreign cheeses go to market wrapped in vine leaves. The affinity has clearly been laid down in heaven. Only the English seem to have a _fortissimo_ taste in the go-with wines, according to these matches registered by André Simon in _The Art of Good Living:_ Red Cheshire with Light Tawny Port White Cheshire with Oloroso Sherry Blue Leicester with Old Vintage Port Green Roquefort with New Vintage Port To these we might add brittle chips of Greek Casere with nips of Amontillado, for an eloquent appetizer. The English also pour port into Stilton, and sundry other wines and liquors into Cheddars and such. This doctoring leads to fraudulent imitation, however, for either port or stout is put into counterfeit Cheshire cheese to make up for the richness it lacks. While some combinations of cheeses and wines may turn out palatable, we prefer taking ours straight. When something more fiery is needed we can twirl the flecks of pure gold in a chalice of Eau de Vie de Danzig and nibble on legitimate Danzig cheese unadulterated. _Goldwasser_, or Eau de Vie, was a favorite liqueur of cheese-loving Franklin Roosevelt, and we can be sure he took the two separately. Another perfect combination, if you can take it, is imported kümmel with any caraway-seeded cheese, or cream cheese with a handy saucer of caraway seeds. In the section of France devoted to gin, the juniper berries that flavor the drink also go into a local cheese, Fromage Fort. This is further fortified with brandy, white wine and pepper. One regional tipple with such brutally strong cheese is black coffee laced with gin. French la Jonchée is another potted thriller with not only coffee and rum mixed in during the making, but orange flower water, too. Then there is la Petafina, made with brandy and absinthe; Hazebrook with brandy alone; and la Cachat with white wine and brandy. In Italy white Gorgonzola is also put up in crocks with brandy. In Oporto the sharp cheese of that name is enlivened by port, Cider and the greatest of applejacks, Calvados, seem made to go the regional Calvados cheese. This is also true of our native Jersey Lightning and hard cider with their accompanying New York State cheese. In the Auge Valley of France, farmers also drink homemade cider with their own Augelot, a piquant kind of Pont l'Evêque. The English sip pear cider (perry) with almost any British cheese. Milk would seem to be redundant, but Sage cheese and buttermilk do go well together. Wine and cheese have other things in common. Some wines and some cheeses are aged in caves, and there are vintage cheeses no less than vintage wines, as is the case with Stilton. [Illustration] _Chapter Twelve_ Lazy Lou Once, so goes the sad story, there was a cheesemonger unworthy of his heritage. He exported a shipload of inferior "Swiss" made somewhere in the U.S.A. Bad to begin with, it had worsened on the voyage. Rejected by the health authorities on the other side, it was shipped back, reaching home in the unhappy condition known as "cracked." To cut his losses the rascally cheesemonger had his cargo ground up and its flavor disguised with hot peppers and chili sauce. Thus there came into being the abortion known as the "cheese spread." The cheese spread or "food" and its cousin, the processed cheese, are handy, cheap and nasty. They are available everywhere and some people even like them. So any cheese book is bound to take formal notice of their existence. I have done so--and now, an unfond farewell to them. My academic cheese education began at the University of Wisconsin in 1904. I grew up with our great Midwest industry; I have read with profit hundreds of pamphlets put out by the learned Aggies of my Alma Mater. Mostly they treat of honest, natural cheeses: the making, keeping and enjoying of authentic Longhorn Cheddars, short Bricks and naturalized Limburgers. At the School of Agriculture the students still, I am told, keep their hand in by studying the classical layout on a cheese board. One booklet recommends the following for freshman contemplation: CARAWAY BRICK SELECT BRICK EDAM WISCONSIN SWISS LONGHORN AMERICAN SHEFFORD These six sturdy samples of Wisconsin's best will stimulate any amount of classroom discussion. Does the Edam go better with German-American black bread or with Swedish Ry-Krisp? To butter or not to butter? And if to butter, with which cheese? Salt or sweet? How close do we come to the excellence of the genuine Alpine Swiss? Primary school stuff, but not unworthy of thought. Pass on down the years. You are now ready to graduate. Your cheese board can stand a more sophisticated setup. Try two boards; play the teams against each other. The All-American Champs NEW YORK COON PHILADELPHIA CREAM OHIO LIEDERKRANZ VERMONT SAGE KENTUCKY TRAPPIST WISCONSIN LIMBURGER CALIFORNIA JACK PINEAPPLE MINNESOTA BLUE BRICK TILLAMOOK VS. The European Giants PORTUGUESE TRAZ- DUTCH GOUDA ITALIAN PARMESAN OS-MONTES FRENCH ROQUEFORT SWISS EMMENTALER YUGOSLAVIAN KACKAVALJ ENGLISH STILTON DANISH BLUE GERMAN MÜNSTER GREEK FETA HABLÉ The postgraduate may play the game using as counters the great and distinctive cheeses of more than fifty countries. Your Scandinavian board alone, just to give an idea of the riches available, will shine with blues, yellows, whites, smoky browns, and chocolates representing Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Iceland and Lapland. For the Britisher only blue-veined Stilton is worthy to crown the banquet. The Frenchman defends Roquefort, the Dane his own regal Blue; the Swiss sticks to Emmentaler before, during and after all three meals. You may prefer to finish with a delicate Brie, a smoky slice of Provolone, a bit of Baby Gouda, or some Liptauer Garniert, about which more later. We load them all on Lazy Lou, Lazy Susan's big twin brother, a giant roulette wheel of cheese, every number a winner. A second Lazy Lou will bear the savories and go-withs. For these tidbits the English have a divine genius; think of the deviled shrimps, smoked oysters, herring roe on toast, snips of broiled sausage ... But we will make do with some olives and radishes, a few pickles, nuts, capers. With our two trusty Lazy Lous on hand plus wine or beer, we can easily dispense with the mere dinner itself. Perhaps it is an Italian night. Then Lazy Lou is happily burdened with imported Latticini; Incanestrato, still bearing the imprint of its wicker basket; Pepato, which is but Incanestrato peppered; Mel Fina; deep-yellow, buttery Scanno with its slightly burned flavor; tangy Asiago; Caciocavallo, so called because the the cheeses, tied in pairs and hung over a pole, look as though they were sitting in a saddle--cheese on horseback, or "_cacio a cavallo_." Then we ring in Lazy Lou's first assistant, an old, silver-plated, revolving Florentine magnum-holder. It's designed to spin a gigantic flask of Chianti. The flick of a finger and the bottle is before you. Gently pull it down and hold your glass to the spout. True, imported wines and cheeses are expensive. But native American products and reasonably edible imitations of the real thing are available as substitutes. Anyway, protein for protein, a cheese party will cost less than a steak barbecue. And it can be more fun. Encourage your guests to contribute their own latest discoveries. One may bring along as his ticket of admission a Primavera from Brazil; another some cubes of an Andean specialty just flown in from Colombia's mountain city, Mérida, and still wrapped in its aromatic leaves of _Frailejón Lanudo_; another a few wedges of savory sweet English Flower cheese, some flavored with rose petals, others with marigolds; another a tube of South American Kräuterkäse. Provide your own assortment of breads and try to include some of those fat, flaky old-fashioned crackers that country stores in New England can still supply. Mustard? Sure, if _.you_ like it. If you want to be fancy, use a tricky little gadget put out by the Maille condiment-makers in France and available here in the food specialty shops. It's a miniature painter's palate holding five mustards of different shades and flavors and two mustard paddles. The mustards, in proper chromatic order, are: jonquil yellow "Strong Dijon"; "Green Herbs"; brownish "Tarragon"; golden "Ora"; crimson "Tomato-flavored." And, just to keep things moving, we have restored an antique whirling cruet-holder to deliver Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, A-1, Tap Sauce and Major Grey's Chutney. Salt shakers and pepper mills are handy, with a big-holed tin canister filled with crushed red-pepper pods, chili powder, Hungarian-paprika and such small matters. Butter, both sweet and salt, is on hand, together with, saucers or bowls of curry, capers, chives (sliced, not chopped), minced onion, fresh mint leaves, chopped pimientos, caraway, quartered lemons, parsley, fresh tarragon, tomato slices, red and white radishes, green and black olives, pearl onions and assorted nutmeats. Some years ago, when I was collaborating with my mother, Cora, and my wife, Rose, in writing _10,000 Snacks_ (which, by the way, devotes nearly forty pages to cheeses), we staged a rather elaborate tasting party just for the three of us. It took a two-tiered Lazy Lou to twirl the load. The eight wedges on the top round were English and French samples and the lower one carried the rest, as follows: ENGLISH CHEDDAR CHESHIRE ENGLISH STILTON CANADIAN CHEDDAR (rum flavored) FRENCH MÜNSTER FRENCH BRIE FRENCH FRENCH CAMEMBERT ROQUEFORT SWISS SAPSAGO SWISS GRUYERE SWISS EDAM DUTCH GOUDA ITALIAN CZECH ITALIAN NORWEGIAN PROVOLONE OSTIEPKI GORGONZOLA GJETOST HUNGARIAN LIPTAUER The tasting began with familiar English Cheddars, Cheshires and Stiltons from the top row. We had cheese knives, scoops, graters, scrapers and a regulation wire saw, but for this line of crumbly Britishers fingers were best. The Cheddar was a light, lemony-yellow, almost white, like our best domestic "bar cheese" of old. The Cheshire was moldy and milky, with a slightly fermented flavor that brought up the musty dining room of Fleet Street's Cheshire cheese and called for draughts of beer. The Stilton was strong but mellow, as high in flavor as in price. Only the rum-flavored Canadian Cheddar from Montreal (by courtesy English) let us down. It was done up as fancy as a bridegroom in waxed white paper and looked as smooth and glossy as a gardenia. But there its beauty ended. Either the rum that flavored it wasn't up to much or the mixture hadn't been allowed to ripen naturally. The French Münster, however, was hearty, cheery, and better made than most German Münster, which at that time wasn't being exported much by the Nazis. The Brie was melting prime, the Camembert was so perfectly matured we ate every scrap of the crust, which can't be done with many American "Camemberts" or, indeed, with the dead, dry French ones sold out of season. Then came the Roquefort, a regal cheese we voted the best buy of the lot, even though it was the most expensive. A plump piece, pleasantly unctuous but not greasy, sharp in scent, stimulatingly bittersweet in taste--unbeatable. There is no American pretender to the Roquefort throne. Ours is invariably chalky and tasteless. That doesn't mean we have no good Blues. We have. But they are not Roquefort. The Sapsago or Kräuterkäse from Switzerland (it has been made in the Canton of Glarus for over five hundred years) was the least expensive of the lot. Well-cured and dry, it lent itself to grating and tasted fine on an old-fashioned buttered soda cracker. Sapsago has its own seduction, derived from the clover-leaf powder with which the curd is mixed and which gives it its haunting flavor and spring-like sage-green color. Next came some truly great Swiss Gruyère, delicately rich, and nutty enough to make us think of the sharp white wines to be drunk with it at the source. As for the Provolone, notable for the water-buffalo milk that makes it, there's an example of really grown-up milk. Perfumed as spring flowers drenched with a shower of Anjou, having a bouquet all its own and a trace of a winelike kick, it made us vow never to taste another American imitation. Only a smooth-cheeked, thick slab cut from a pedigreed Italian Provolone of medium girth, all in one piece and with no sign of a crack, satisfy the gourmet. The second Italian classic was Gorgonzola, gorgeous Gorgonzola, as fruity as apples, peaches and pears sliced together. It smells so much like a ripe banana we often eat them together, plain or with the crumbly _formaggio_ lightly forked into the fruit, split lengthwise. After that the Edam tasted too lipsticky, like the red-paint job on its rind, and the Gouda seemed only half-hearted. Both too obviously ready-made for commerce with nothing individual or custom-made about them, rolled or bounced over from Holland by the boat load. The Ostiepki from Czechoslovakia might have been a link of smoked ostrich sausage put up in the skin of its own red neck. In spite of its pleasing lemon-yellow interior, we couldn't think of any use for it except maybe crumbling thirty or forty cents' worth into a ten-cent bowl of bean soup. But that seemed like a waste of money, so we set it aside to try in tiny chunks on crackers as an appetizer some other day, when it might be more appetizing. We felt much the same about the chocolate-brown Norwegian Gjetost that looked like a slab of boarding-school fudge and which had the same cloying cling to the tongue. We were told by a native that our piece was entirely too young. That's what made it so insipid, undeveloped in texture and flavor. But the next piece we got turned out to be too old and decrepit, and so strong it would have taken a Paul Bunyan to stand up under it. When we complained to our expert about the shock to our palates, he only laughed, pointing to the nail on his little finger. "You should take just a little bit, like that. A pill no bigger than a couple of aspirins or an Alka-Seltzer. It's only in the morning you take it when it's old and strong like this, for a pick-me-up, a cure for a hangover, you know, like a prairie oyster well soused in Worcestershire." That made us think we might use it up to flavor a Welsh Rabbit, _instead_ of the Worcestershire sauce, but we couldn't melt it with anything less than a blowtorch. To bring the party to a happy end, we went to town on the Hungarian Liptauer, garnishing that fine, granulating buttery base after mixing it well with some cream cheese. We mixed the mixed cheese with sardine and tuna mashed together in a little of the oil from the can. We juiced it with lemon, sluiced it with bottled sauces, worked in the leftovers, some tarragon, mint, spicy seeds, parsley, capers and chives. We peppered and paprikaed it, salted and spiced it, then spread it thicker than butter on pumpernickel and went to it. _That's_ Liptauer Garniert. [Illustration: No. 4 Cheese Inc.] _Appendix_ The A-B-Z of Cheese _Each cheese is listed by its name and country of origin, with any further information available. Unless otherwise indicated, the cheese is made of cow's milk._ A Aberdeen _Scotland_ Soft; creamy mellow. Abertam _Bohemia_ _(Made near Carlsbad_) Hard; sheep; distinctive, with a savory smack all its own. Absinthe _see_ Petafina. Acidophilus _see_ Saint-Ivel. Aettekees _Belgium_ November to May--winter-made and eaten. Affiné, Carré _see_ Ancien Impérial. Affumicata, Mozzarella _see_ Mozzarella. After-dinner cheeses _see_ Chapter 8. Agricultural school cheeses _see_ College-educated. Aiguilles, Fromage d' _Alpine France_ Named "Cheese of the Needles" from the sharp Alpine peaks of the district where it is made. Aizy, Cendrée d' _see_ Cendrée. Ajacilo, Ajaccio _Corsica_ Semihard; piquant; nut-flavor. Named after the chief city of French Corsica where a cheese-lover, Napoleon, was born. à la Crème _see_ Fromage, Fromage Blanc, Chevretons. à la Main _see_ Vacherin. à la Pie _see_ Fromage. à la Rachette _see_ Bagnes. Albini _Northern Italy_ Semihard; made of both goat and cow milk; white, mellow, pleasant-tasting table cheese. Albula _Switzerland_ Rich with the flavor of cuds of green herbs chewed into creamy milk that makes tasty curds. Made in the fertile Swiss Valley of Albula whose proud name it bears. Alderney _Channel Islands_ The French, who are fond of this special product of the very special breed of cattle named after the Channel Island of Alderney, translate it phonetically--Fromage d'Aurigny. Alemtejo _Portugal_ Called in full Queijo de Alemtejo, cheese of Alemtejo, in the same way that so many French cheeses carry along the _fromage_ title. Soft; sheep and sometimes goat or cow; in cylinders of three sizes, weighing respectively about two ounces, one pound, and four pounds. The smaller sizes are the ones most often made with mixed goat and sheep milk. The method of curdling without the usual animal rennet is interesting and unusual. The milk is warmed and curdled with vegetable rennet made from the flowers of a local thistle, or cardoon, which is used in two other Portuguese cheeses--Queijo da Cardiga and Queijo da Serra da Estrella--and probably in many others not known beyond their locale. In France la Caillebotte is distinguished for being clabbered with _chardonnette_, wild artichoke seed. In Portugal, where there isn't so much separating of the sheep from the goats, it takes several weeks for Alemtejos to ripen, depending on the lactic content and difference in sizes. Alfalfa _see_ Sage. Alise Saint-Reine _France_ Soft; summer-made. Allgäuer Bergkäse, Allgäuer Rundkäse, or Allgäuer Emmentaler _Bavaria_ Hard; Emmentaler type. The small district of Allgäu names a mountain of cheeses almost as fabulous as our "Rock-candy Mountain." There are two principal kinds, vintage Allgäuer Bergkäse and soft Allgäuer Rahmkäse, described below. This celebrated cheese section runs through rich pasture lands right down and into the Swiss Valley of the Emme that gives the name Emmentaler to one of the world's greatest. So it is no wonder that Allgäuer Bergkäse can compete with the best Swiss. Before the Russian revolution, in fact, all vintage cheeses of Allgäu were bought up by wealthy Russian noblemen and kept in their home caves in separate compartments for each year, as far back as the early 1900's. As with fine vintage wines, the price of the great years went up steadily. Such cheeses were shipped to their Russian owners only when the chief cheese-pluggers of Allgäu found they had reached their prime. Allgäuer Rahmkäse _Bavaria_ Full cream, similar to Romadur and Limburger, but milder than both. This sets a high grade for similar cheeses made in the Bavarian mountains, in monasteries such as Andechs. It goes exquisitely with the rich dark Bavarian beer. Some of it is as slippery as the stronger, smellier Bierkäse, or the old-time Slipcote of England. Like so many North Europeans, it is often flavored with caraway. Although entirely different from its big brother, vintage Bergkäse, Rahmkäse can stand proudly at its side as one of the finest cheeses in Germany. Alpe _see_ Fiore di Alpe. Al Pepe _Italy_ Hard and peppery, like its name. Similar to Pepato (_see_). Alpes _France_ Similar to Bel Paese. Alpestra _Austria_ A smoked cheese that tastes, smells and inhales like whatever fish it was smoked with. The French Alps has a different Alpestre; Italy spells hers Alpestro. Alpestre, Alpin, or Fromage de Briançon _France_ Hard; goat; dry; small; lightly salted. Made at Briançon and Gap. Alpestro _Italy_ Semisoft; goat; dry; lightly salted. Alpin or Clérimbert _Alpine France_ The milk is coagulated with rennet at 80° F. in two hours. The curd is dipped into molds three to four inches in diameter and two and a half inches in height, allowed to drain, turned several times for one day only, then salted and ripened one to two weeks. Altenburg, or Altenburger Ziegenkäse _Germany_ Soft; goat; small and flat--one to two inches thick, eight inches in diameter, weight two pounds. Alt Kuhkäse Old Cow Cheese _Germany_ Hard; well-aged, as its simple name suggests. Altsohl _see_ Brinza. Ambert, or Fourme d'Ambert _Limagne, Auvergne, France_ A kind of Cheddar made from November to May and belonging to the Cantal--Fourme-La Tome tribe. American, American Cheddar _U.S.A._ Described under their home states and distinctive names are a dozen fine American Cheddars, such as Coon, Wisconsin, Herkimer County and Tillamook, to name only a few. They come in as many different shapes, with traditional names such as Daisies, Flats, Longhorns, Midgets, Picnics, Prints and Twins. The ones simply called Cheddars weigh about sixty pounds. All are made and pressed and ripened in about the same way, although they differ greatly in flavor and quality. They are ripened anywhere from two months to two years and become sharper, richer and more flavorsome, as well as more expensive, with the passing of time. _See_ Cheddar states and Cheddar types in Chapter 4. Americano Romano _U.S.A._ Hard; brittle; sharp. Amou _Béarn, France_ Winter cheese, October to May. Anatolian _Turkey_ Hard; sharp. Anchovy Links _U.S.A._ American processed cheese that can be mixed up with anchovies or any fish from whitebait to whale, made like a sausage and sold in handy links. Ancien Impérial _Normandy, France_ Soft; fresh cream; white, mellow and creamy like Neufchâtel and made in the same way. Tiny bricks packaged in tin foil, two inches square, one-half inch thick, weighing three ounces. Eaten both fresh and when ripe. It is also called Carré and has separate names for the new and the old: (a) Petit Carré when newly made; (b) Carré Affiné, when it has reached a ripe old age, which doesn't take long--about the same time as Neufchâtel. Ancona _see_ Pecorino. Andean _Venezuela_ A cow's-milker made in the Andes near Mérida. It is formed into rough cubes and wrapped in the pungent, aromatic leaves of _Frailejón Lanudo_ (_Espeletia Schultzii_) which imparts to it a characteristic flavor. (Description given in _Buen Provecho!_ by Dorothy Kamen-Kaye.) Andechs _Bavaria_ A lusty Allgäuer type. Monk-made on the monastery hill at Andechs on Ammersee. A superb snack with equally monkish dark beer, black bread and blacker radishes, served by the brothers in dark brown robes. Antwerp _Belgium_ Semihard; nut-flavored; named after its place of origin. Appenzeller _Switzerland, Bavaria and Baden_ Semisoft Emmentaler type made in a small twenty-pound wheel--a pony-cart wheel in comparison to the big Swiss. There are two qualities: (a) Common, made of skim milk and cured in brine for a year; (b) Festive, full milk, steeped in brine with wine, plus white wine lees and pepper. The only cheese we know of that is ripened with lees of wine. Appetitost _Denmark_ Semisoft; sour milk; nutlike flavor. It's an appetizer that lives up to its name, eaten fresh on the spot, from the loose bottom pans in which it is made. Appetost _Denmark_ Sour buttermilk, similar to Primula, with caraway seeds added for snap. Imitated in U.S.A. Apple _U.S.A._ A small New York State Cheddar put up in the form of a red-cheeked apple for New York City trade. Inspired by the pear-shaped Provolone and Baby Gouda, no doubt. Arber _Bohemia_ Semihard; sour milk; yellow; mellow and creamy. Made in mountains between Bohemia and Silesia. Argentine _Argentina_ Argentina is specially noted for fine reproductions of classical Italian hard-grating cheeses such as Parmesan and Romano, rich and fruity because of the lush pampas-grass feeding. Armavir _Western Caucasus_ Soft; whole sour sheep milk; a hand cheese made by stirring cold, sour buttermilk or whey into heated milk, pressing in forms and ripening in a warm place. Similar to Hand cheese. Arnauten _see_ Travnik. Arovature _Italy_ Water-buffalo milk. Arras, Coeurs d' _see_ Coeurs. Arrigny _Champagne, France_ Made only in winter, November to May. Since gourmet products of the same province often have a special affinity, Arrigny and champagne are specially well suited to one another. Artichoke, Cardoon or Thistle for Rennet _see_ Caillebotte. Artificial Dessert Cheese In the lavish days of olde England Artificial Dessert Cheese was made by mixing one quart of cream with two of milk and spiking it with powdered cinnamon, nutmeg and mace. Four beaten eggs were then stirred in with one-half cup of white vinegar and the mixture boiled to a curd. It was then poured into a cheesecloth and hung up to drain six to eight hours. When taken out of the cloth it was further flavored with rose water, sweetened with castor sugar, left to ripen for an hour or two and finally served up with more cream. Asadero, or Oaxaca _Jalisco and Oaxaca, Mexico_ White; whole-milk. Curd is heated, and hot curd is cut and braided or kneaded into loaves from eight ounces to eleven pounds in weight Asadero means "suitable for roasting." Asco _Corsica, France_ Made only in the winter season, October to May. Asiago I, II and III _Vicenza, Italy_ Sometimes classed as medium and mild, depending mostly on age. Loaves weigh about eighteen pounds each and look like American Cheddar but have a taste all their own. I. Mild, nutty and sharp, used for table slicing and eating. II. Medium, semihard and tangy, also used for slicing until nine months old. III. Hard, old, dry, sharp, brittle. When over nine months old, it's fine for grating. Asin, or Water cheese _Northern Italy_ Sour-milk; washed-curd; whitish; soft; buttery. Made mostly in spring and eaten in summer and autumn. Dessert cheese, frequently eaten with honey and fruit. Au Cumin _see_ Münster. Au Fenouil _see_ Tome de Savoie. Au Foin and de Foin A style of ripening "on the hay." _See_ Pithiviers au Foin and Fromage de Foin. Augelot _Valée d'Auge, Normandy, France_ Soft; tangy; piquant Pont l'Evêque type. d'Auray _see_ Sainte-Anne. Aurigny, Fromage d' _see_ Alderney. Aurillac _see_ Bleu d'Auvergne. Aurore and Triple Aurore _Normandy, France_ Made and eaten all year. Australian and New Zealand _Australia and New Zealand_ Enough cheese is produced for local consumption, chiefly Cheddar; some Gruyère, but unfortunately mostly processed. Autun _Nivernais, France_ Produced and eaten all year. Fromage de Vache is another name for it and this is of special interest in a province where the chief competitors are made of goat's milk. Auvergne, Bleu d' _see_ Bleu. Au Vin Blanc, Confits _see_ Epoisses. Avesnes, Boulette d' _see_ Boulette. Aydes, les _Orléanais, France_ Not eaten during July, August or September. Season, October to June. Azeitão, Queijo do _Portugal_ Soft, sheep, sapid and extremely oily as the superlative _ão_ implies. There are no finer, fatter cheeses in the world than those made of rich sheep milk in the mountains of Portugal and named for them. Azeitoso _Portugal_ Soft; mellow, zestful and as oily as it is named. Azuldoch Mountain _Turkey_ Mild and mellow mountain product. B Backsteiner _Bavaria_ Resembles Limburger, but smaller, and translates Brick, from the shape. It is aromatic and piquant and not very much like the U.S. Brick. Bagnes, or Fromage à la Raclette _Switzerland_ Not only hard but very hard, named from _racler_, French for "scrape." A thick, one-half-inch slice is cut across the whole cheese and toasted until runny. It is then scraped off the pan it's toasted in with a flexible knife, spread on bread and eaten like an open-faced Welsh Rabbit sandwich. Bagozzo, Grana Bagozzo, Bresciano _Italy_ Hard; yellow; sharp. Surface often colored red. Parmesan type. Bakers' cheese Skim milk, similar to cottage cheese, but softer and finer grained. Used in making bakery products such as cheese cake, pie, and pastries, but may also be eaten like creamed cottage cheese. Ball _U.S.A._ Made from thick sour milk in Pennsylvania in the style of the original Pennsylvania Dutch settlers. Ballakäse or Womelsdorf Similar to Ball. Balls, Dutch Red English name for Edam. Banbury _England_ Soft, rich cylinder about one inch thick made in the town of Banbury, famous for its spicy, citrus-peel buns and its equestrienne. Banbury cheese with Banbury buns made a sensational snack in the early nineteenth century, but both are getting scarce today. Banick _Armenia_ White and sweet. Banjaluka _Bosnia_ Port-Salut type from its Trappist monastery. Banon, or les Petits Banons _Provence, France,_ Small, dried, sheep-milker, made in the foothills of the Alps and exported through Marseilles in season, May to November. This sprightly summer cheese is generously sprinkled with the local brandy and festively wrapped in fresh green leaves. Bar cheese _U.S.A._ Any saloon Cheddar, formerly served on every free-lunch counter in the U.S. Before Prohibition, free-lunch cheese was the backbone of America's cheese industry. Barbacena _Minas Geraes, Brazil_ Hard, white, sometimes chalky. Named from its home city in the leading cheese state of Brazil. Barberey, or Fromage de Troyes _Champagne, France_ Soft, creamy and smooth, resembling Camembert, five to six inches in diameter and 1-1/4 inches thick. Named from its home town, Barberey, near Troyes, whose name it also bears. Fresh, warm milk is coagulated by rennet in four hours. Uncut curd then goes into a wooden mold with a perforated bottom, to drain three hours, before being finished off in an earthenware mold. The cheeses are salted, dried and ripened three weeks in a cave. The season is from November to May and when made in summer they are often sold fresh. Barboux _France_ Soft. Baronet _U.S.A._ A natural product, mild and mellow. Barron _France_ Soft. Bassillac _see_ Bleu. Bath _England_ Gently made, lightly salted, drained on a straw mat in the historic resort town of Bath. Ripened in two weeks and eaten only when covered with a refined fuzzy mold that's also eminently edible. It is the most delicate of English-speaking cheeses. Battelmatt _Switzerland, St. Gothard Alps, northern Italy, and western Austria_ An Emmentaler made small where milk is not plentiful. The "wheel" is only sixteen inches in diameter and four inches high, weighing forty to eighty pounds. The cooking of the curd is done at a little lower temperature than Emmentaler, it ripens more rapidly--in four months --and is somewhat softer, but has the same holes and creamy though sharp, full nutty flavor. Bauden (_see also_ Koppen) _Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Silesia_ Semisoft, sour milk, hand type, made in herders' mountain huts in about the same way as Harzkäse, though it is bigger. In two forms, one cup shape (called Koppen), the other a cylinder. Strong and aromatic, whether made with or without caraway. Bavarian Beer cheese _see_ Bayrischer Bierkäse. Bavarian Cream _German_ Very soft; smooth and creamy. Made in the Bavarian mountains. Especially good with sweet wines and sweet sauces. Bavarois à la Vanille _see_ Fromage Bavarois. Bayonne _see_ Fromage de Bayonne. Bayrischer Bierkäse _Bavaria_ Bavarian beer cheese from the Tyrol is made not only to eat with beer, but to dunk in it. Beads of cheese _Tibet_ Beads of hard cheese, two inches in diameter, are strung like a necklace of cowrie shells or a rosary, fifty to a hundred on a string. _Also see_ Money Made of Cheese. Beagues _see_ Tome de Savoie. Bean Cake, Tao-foo, or Tofu _China, Japan, the Orient_ Soy bean cheese imported from Shanghai and other oriental ports, and also imitated in every Chinatown around the world. Made from the milk of beans and curdled with its own vegetable rennet. Beaujolais _see_ Chevretons. Beaumont, or Tome de Beaumont _Savoy, France_ A more or less successful imitation of Trappist Tamie, a trade-secret triumph of Savoy. At its best from October to June. Beaupré de Roybon _Dauphiné, France_ A winter specialty made from November to April. Beckenried _Switzerland_ A good mountain cheese from goat milk. Beer cheese _U.S.A._ While our beer cheese came from Germany and the word is merely a translation of Bierkäse, we use it chiefly for a type of strong Limburger made mostly in Milwaukee. This fine, aromatic cheese is considered by many as the very best to eat while drinking beer. But in Germany Bierkäse is more apt to be dissolved in a glass or stein of beer, much as we mix malted powder in milk, and drunk with it, rather than eaten. Beer-Regis _Dorsetshire, England_ This sounds like another beer cheese, but it's only a mild Cheddar named after its hometown in Dorsetshire. Beist-Cheese _Scotland_ A curiosity of the old days. "The first milk after a calving, boiled or baked to a thick consistency, the result somewhat resembling new-made cheese, though this is clearly not a true cheese." (MacNeill) Belarno _Italy_ Hard; goat; creamy dessert cheese. Belgian Cooked _Belgium_ The milk, which has been allowed to curdle spontaneously, is skimmed and allowed to drain. When dry it is thoroughly kneaded by hand and is allowed to undergo fermentation, which takes ordinarily from ten to fourteen days in winter and six to eight days in summer. When the fermentation is complete, cream and salt are added and the mixture is heated slowly and stirred until homogeneous, when it is put into molds and allowed to ripen for eight days longer. A cheese ordinarily weighs about three-and-a-half pounds. It is not essentially different from other forms of cooked cheese. Beli Sir _see_ Domaci. Bellelay, Tête de Moine, or Monk's Head _Switzerland_ Soft, buttery, semisharp spread. Sweet milk is coagulated with rennet in twenty to thirty minutes, the curd cut fairly fine and cooked not so firm as Emmentaler, but firmer than Limburger. After being pressed, the cheeses are wrapped in bark for a couple of weeks until they can stand alone. Since no eyes are desired in the cheeses, they are ripened in a moist cellar at a lowish temperature. They take a year to ripen and will keep three or four years. The diameter is seven inches, the weight nine to fifteen pounds. The monk's head after cutting is kept wrapped in a napkin soaked in white wine and the soft, creamy spread is scraped out to "butter" bread and snacks that go with more white wine. Such combinations of old wine and old cheese suggest monkish influence, which began here in the fifteenth century with the jolly friars of the Canton of Bern. There it is still made exclusively and not exported, for there's never quite enough to go around. Bel Paese _Italy_ _See under_ Foreign Greats, Chapter 3. _Also see_ Mel Fino, a blend, and Bel Paese types--French Boudanne and German Saint Stefano. The American imitation is not nearly so good as the Italian original. Bel Paesino _U.S.A._ A play on the Bel Paese name and fame. Weight one pound and diminutive in every other way. Bergkäse _see_ Allgäuer. Bergquara _Sweden_ Semihard, fat, resembles Dutch Gouda. Tangy, pleasant taste. Gets sharper with age, as they all do. Molded in cylinders of fifteen to forty pounds. Popular in Sweden since the eighteenth century. Berkeley _England_ Named after its home town in Gloucester, England. Berliner Kuhkäse _Berlin, Germany_ Cow cheese, pet-named turkey cock cheese by Berlin students. Typical German hand cheese, soft; aromatic with caraway seeds, and that's about the only difference between it and Alt Kuhkäse, without caraway. Bernarde, Formagelle Bernarde _Italy_ Cow's whole milk, to which about 10% of goat's milk is added for flavor. Cured for two months. Berques _France_ Made of skim milk. Berry Rennet _see_ Withania. Bessay, le _Bourbonnais, France_ Soft, mild, and creamy. Bexhill _England_ Cream cheeses, small, flat, round. Excellent munching. Bierkäse _Germany_ There are several of these unique beer cheeses that are actually dissolved in a stein of beer and drunk down with it in the Bierstubes, notably Bayrischer, Dresdener, and Olmützer. Semisoft; aromatic; sharp. Well imitated in _echt Deutsche_ American spots such as Milwaukee and Hoboken. Bifrost _Norway_ Goat; white; mildly salt. Imitated in a process spread in 4-1/4-ounce package. Binn _Wallis, Switzerland_ Exceptionally fine Swiss from the great cheese canton of Wallis. Bitto _Northern Italy_ Hard Emmentaler type made in the Valtellina. It is really two cheeses in one. When eaten fresh, it is smooth, sapid, big-eyed Swiss. When eaten after two years of ripening, it is very hard and sharp and has small eyes. Blanc à la crème _see_ Fromage Blanc. Blanc _see_ Fromage Blanc I and II. Bleu _France_ Brittle; blue-veined; smooth; biting. Bleu d'Auvergne or Fromage Bleu _Auvergne, France_ Hard; sheep or mixed sheep, goat or cow; from Pontgibaud and Laqueuille ripening caves. Similar to better-known Cantal of the same province. Akin to Roquefort and Stilton, and to Bleu de Laqueuille. Bleu de Bassillac _Limousin, France_ Blue mold of Roquefort type that's prime from November to May. Bleu de Laqueuille _France_ Similar to Bleu d'Auvergne, but with a different savor. Named for its originator, Antoine Roussel-Laqueuille, who first made it a century ago, in 1854. Bleu de Limousin, Fromage _Lower Limousin_ Practically the same as Bleu de Bassillac, from Lower Limousin. Bleu de Salers _France_ A variety of Bleu d'Auvergne from the same province distinguished for its blues that are green. With the majority, this is at its best only in the winter months, from November to May. Bleu, Fromage _see_ Bleu d'Auvergne. Bleu-Olivet _see_ Olivet. Blind The name for cheeses lacking the usual holes of the type they belong to, such as blind Swiss. Block Edam _U.S.A._ U.S. imitation of the classical Dutch cheese named after the town of Edam. Block, Smoked _Austria_ The name is self-explanatory and suggests a well-colored meerschaum. Bloder, or Schlicker Milch _Switzerland_ Sour-milker. Blue Cheddar _see_ Cheshire-Stilton. Blue, Danish _see_ Danish Blue. Blue Dorset _see_ Dorset. Blue, Jura _see_ Jura Bleu and Septmoncel. Blue, and Blue with Port Links _U.S.A._ One of the modern American process sausages. Blue, Minnesota _see_ Minnesota. Blue Moon _U.S.A._ A process product. Blue Vinny, Blue Vinid, Blue-veined Dorset, or Double Dorset _Dorsetshire, England_ A unique Blue that actually isn't green-veined. Farmers make it for private consumption, because it dries up too easily to market. An epicurean esoteric match for Truckles No. 1 of Wiltshire. It comes in a flat form, chalk-white, crumbly and sharply flavored, with a "royal Blue" vein running right through horizontally. The Vinny mold, from which it was named, is different from all other cheese molds and has a different action. Bocconi Geganti _Italy_ Sharp and smoky specialty. Bocconi Provoloni _see_ Provolone. Boîte _see_ Fromage de Boîte. Bombay _India_ Hard; goat; dry; sharp. Good to crunch with a Bombay Duck in place of a cracker. Bondes _see_ Bondon de Neufchâtel. Bondon de Neufchâtel, or Bondes _Normandy, France_ Nicknamed _Bonde à tout bien_, from resemblance to the bung in a barrel of Neuchâtel wine. Soft, small loaf rolls, fresh and mild. Similar to Gournay, but sweeter because of 2% added sugar. Bondon de Rouen _France_ A fresh Neufchâtel, similar to Petit Suisse, but slightly salted, to last up to ten days. Bondost _Sweden_ When caraway seed is added this is called Kommenost, spelled Kuminost in Norway. Bond Ost _U.S.A._ Imitation of Scandinavian cheese, with small production in Wisconsin. Bon Larron _France_ Romantically named "the penitent thief." Borden's _U.S.A._ A full line of processed and naturals, of which Liederkranz is the leader. Borelli _Italy_ A small water-buffalo cheese. Bossons Maceres _Provence, France_ A winter product, December, January, February and March only. Boudanne _France_ Whole or skimmed cow's milk, ripens in two to three months. Boudes, Boudon _Normandy, France_ Soft, fresh, smooth, creamy, mild child of the Neufchâtel family. Bougon Lamothe _see_ Lamothe. Bouillé, la _Normandy France_ One of this most prolific province's thirty different notables. In season October to May. Boule de Lille _France_ Name given to Belgian Oude Kaas by the French who enjoy it. Boulette d'Avesnes, or Boulette de Cambrai _Flanders, France_ Made from November to May, eaten all year. Bourgain _France_ Type of fresh Neufchâtel made in France. Perishable and consumed locally. Bourgognes _see_ Petits Bourgognes. Box _Württemberg, Germany_ Similar to U.S. Brick. It comes in two styles; firm, and soft: I. Also known as Schachtelkäse, Boxed Cheese; and Hohenheim, where it is made. A rather unimportant variety. Made in a copper kettle, with partially skim milk, colored with saffron and spiked with caraway, a handful to every two hundred pounds. Salted and ripened for three months and shipped in wooden boxes. II. Also known by names of localities where made: Hohenburg, Mondess and Weihenstephan. Made of whole milk. Mild but piquant. Bra No. I _Piedmont, Italy_ Hard, round form, twelve inches in diameter, three inches high, weight twelve pounds. A somewhat romantic cheese, made by nomads who wander with their herds from pasture to pasture in the region of Bra. Bra No. II _Turin and Cuneo, Italy_ Soft, creamy, small, round and mild although cured in brine. Brand or Brandkäse _Germany_ Soft, sour-milk hand cheese, weighing one-third of a pound. The curd is cooked at a high temperature, then salted and set to ferment for a day. Butter is then mixed into it before pressing into small bricks. After drying it is put in used beer kegs to ripen and is frequently moistened with beer while curing. Brandy _see_ Caledonian, Cream. Branja de Brailia _Rumania_ Hard; sheep; extra salty because always kept in brine. Branja de Cosulet _Rumania_ Described by Richard Wyndham in _Wine and Food_ (Winter, 1937): A creamy sheep's cheese which is encased in pine bark. My only criticism of this most excellent cheese is that the center must always remain a gastronomical second best. It is no more interesting than a good English Cheddar, while the outer crust has a scented, resinous flavor which must be unique among cheeses. Bratkäse _Switzerland_ Strong; specially made to roast in slices over coal. Fine, grilled on toast. Breakfast, Frühstück, Lunch, Delikat, and other names _Germany_ Soft and delicate, but with a strong tang. Small round, for spreading. Lauterbach is a well-known breakfast cheese in Germany, while in Switzerland Emmentaler is eaten at all three meals. Breakstone _U.S.A._ Like Borden and other leading American cheesemongers and manufacturers, Breakstone offer a full line, of which their cream cheese is an American product to be proud of. Brésegaut _Savoy, France_ Soft, white. Breslau _Germany_ A proud Prussian dessert cheese. Bressans _see_ les Petits. Bresse _France_ Lightly cooked. Bretagne _see_ Montauban. Brevine _Switzerland_ Emmentaler type. Briançon _see_ Alpin. Brick _see_ Chapter 4. Brickbat _Wiltshire, England_ A traditional Wiltshire product since early in the eighteenth century. Made with fresh milk and some cream, to ripen for one year before "it's fit to eat." The French call it Briqueton. Bricotta _Corsica_ Semisoft, sour sheep, sometimes mixed with sugar and rum and made into small luscious cakes. Brie _see_ Chapter 3; _also see_ Cendré and Coulommiers. Brie Façon _France_ The name of imitation Brie or Brie type made in all parts of France. Often it is dry, chalky, and far inferior to the finest Brie _véritable_ that is still made best in its original home, formerly called La Brie, now Seine et Marne, or Ile-de-France. _see_ Nivernais Decize, Le Mont d'Or, and Ile-de-France. Brie de Meaux _France_ This genuine Brie from the Meaux region has an excellent reputation for high quality. It is made only from November to May. Brie de Melun _France_ This Brie _véritable_ is made not only in the seasonal months, from November to May, but practically all the year around. It is not always prime. Summer Brie, called Maigre, is notably poor and thin. Spring Brie is merely Migras, half-fat, as against the fat autumn Gras that ripens until May. Brillat-Savarin _Normandy, France_ Soft, and available all year. Although the author of _Physiologie du Goût_ was not noted as a caseophile and wrote little on the subject beyond _Le Fondue_ (_see_ Chapter 6), this savory Normandy produce is named in his everlasting praise. Brina Dubreala _Rumania_ Semisoft, sheep, done in brine. Brindza _U.S.A._ Our imitation of this creamy sort of fresh, white Roquefort is as popular in foreign colonies in America as back in its Hungarian and Greek homelands. On New York's East Side several stores advertise "Brindza fresh daily," with an extra "d" crowded into the original Brinza. Brine _see_ Italian Bra, Caucasian Ekiwani, Brina Dubreala, Briney. Briney, or Brined _Syria_ Semisoft, salty, sharp. So-called from being processed in brine. Turkish Tullum Penney is of the same salt-soaked type. Brinza, or Brinsen _Hungary, Rumania, Carpathian Mountains_ Goes by many local names: Altsohl, Klencz, Landoch, Liptauer, Neusohl, Siebenburgen and Zips. Soft, sheep milk or sheep and goat; crumbly, sharp and biting, but creamy. Made in small lots and cured in a tub with beech shavings. Ftinoporino is its opposite number in Macedonia. Brioler _see_ Westphalia. Briquebec _see_ Providence Briqueton _England_ The French name for English Wiltshire Brickbat, one of the very few cheeses imported into France. Known in France in the eighteenth century, it may have influenced the making of Trappist Port-Salut at the Bricquebec Monastery in Manche. Brittle _see_ Greek Cashera, Italian Ricotta, Turkish Rarush Durmar, and U.S. Hopi. Brizecon _Savoy, France_ Imitation Reblochon made in the same Savoy province. Broccio, or le Brocconis _Corsica, France_ Soft, sour sheep milk or goat, like Bricotta and a first cousin to Italian Chiavari. Cream white, slightly salty; eaten fresh in Paris, where it is as popular as on its home island. Sometimes salted and half-dried, or made into little cakes with rum and sugar. Made and eaten all year. Broodkaas _Holland_ Hard, flat, nutty. Brousses de la Vézubie, les _Nice, France_ Small; sheep; long narrow bar shape, served either with powdered sugar or salt, pepper and chopped chives. Made in Vézubie. Brussels or Bruxelles _Belgium_ Soft, washed skim milk, fermented, semisharp, from Louvain and Hal districts. Budapest _Hungary_ Soft, fresh, creamy and mellow, a favorite at home in Budapest and abroad in Vienna. Buderich _Germany_ A specialty in Dusseldorf. Bulle _Switzerland_ A Swiss-Gruyère. Bundost _Sweden_ Semihard; mellow; tangy. Burgundy _France_ Named after the province, not the wine, but they go wonderfully together. Bushman _Australia_ Semihard; yellow; tangy. Butter and Cheese _see_ Chapter 8. "Butter," Serbian _see_ Kajmar. Buttermilk _U.S. & Europe_ Resembles cottage cheese, but of finer grain. C Cabeçou, le _Auvergne, France_ Small; goat; from Maurs. Cabrillon _Auvergne, France_ So much like the Cabreçon they might be called sister nannies under the rind. Cachet d'Entrechaux, le, or Fromage Fort du Ventoux _Provence Mountains, France_ Semihard; sheep; mixed with brandy, dry white wine and sundry seasonings. Well marinated and extremely strong. Season May to November. Caciocavallo _Italy_ "Horse Cheese." The ubiquitous cheese of classical greats, imitated all around the world and back to Italy again. _See_ Chapter 3. Caciocavallo Siciliano _Sicily, also in U.S.A._ Essentially a pressed Provolone. Usually from cow's whole milk, but sometimes from goat's milk or a mixture of the two. Weight between 17-1/2 and 26 pounds. Used for both table cheese and grating. Cacio Fiore, or Caciotta _Italy_ Soft as butter; sheep; in four-pound square frames; sweetish; eaten fresh. Cacio Pecorino Romano _see_ Pecorino. Cacio Romano _see_ Chiavari. Caerphilly _Wales and England--Devon, Dorset, Somerset & Wilshire_ Semihard; whole fresh milk; takes three weeks to ripen. Also sold "green," young and innocent, at the age of ten to eleven days when weighing about that many pounds. Since it has little keeping qualities it should be eaten quickly. Welsh miners eat a lot of it, think it specially suited to their needs, because it is easily digested and does not produce so much heat in the body as long-keeping cheeses. Caillebottes (Curds) _France--Anjou, Poitou, Saintonge & Vendée_ Soft, creamy, sweetened fresh or sour milk clabbered with chardonnette, wild artichoke seed, over slow fire. Cut in lozenges and served cold not two hours after cooking. Smooth, mellow and aromatic. A high type of this unusual cheese is Jonchée (_see_). Other cheeses are made with vegetable rennet, some from similar thistle or cardoon juice, especially in Portugal. Caille de Poitiers _see_ Petits pots. Caille de Habas _Gascony, France_ Clabbered or clotted sheep milk. Cajassou _Périgord, France_ A notable goat cheese made in Cubjac. Calabrian _Italy_ The Calabrians make good sheep cheese, such as this and Caciocavallo. Calcagno _Sicily_ Hard; ewe's milk. Suitable for grating. Caledonian Cream _Scotland_ More of a dessert than a true cheese. We read in _Scotland's Inner Man_: "A sort of fresh cream cheese, flavored with chopped orange marmalade, sugar brandy and lemon juice. It is whisked for about half an hour. Otherwise, if put into a freezer, it would be good ice-pudding." Calvados _France_ Medium-hard; tangy. Perfect with Calvados applejack from the same province. Calvenzano _Italy_ Similar to Gorgonzola, made in Bergamo. Cambrai _see_ Boulette. Cambridge, or York _England_ Soft; fresh; creamy; tangy. The curd is quickly made in one hour and dipped into molds without cutting to ripen for eating in thirty hours. Camembert _see_ Chapter 3. "Camembert" _Germany, U.S. & elsewhere_ A West German imitation that comes in a cute little heart-shaped box which nevertheless doesn't make it any more like the Camembert _véritable_ of Normandy. Camosun _U.S.A._ Semisoft; open-textured, resembling Monterey. Drained curd is pressed in hoops, cheese is salted in brine for thirty hours, then coated with paraffin and cured for one to three months in humid room at 50° to 60° F. Canadian Club _see_ Cheddar Club. Cancoillotte, Cancaillotte, Canquoillotte, Quincoillotte, Cancoiade, Fromagère, Tempête and "Purée" de fromage tres fort _Franche-Comté, France_ Soft; sour milk; sharp and aromatic; with added eggs and butter and sometimes brandy or dry white wine. Sold in attractive small molds and pots. Other sharp seasonings besides the brandy or wine make this one of the strongest of French strong cheeses, similar to Fromage Fort. Canestrato _Sicily, Italy_ Hard; mixed goat and sheep; yellow and strong. Takes one year to mature and is very popular both in Sicily where it is made to perfection and in Southern Colorado where it is imitated by and for Italian settlers. Cantal, Fromage de Cantal, Auvergne or Auvergne Bleu; also Fourme and La Tome. _Auvergne, France_ Semihard; smooth; mellow; a kind of Cheddar, lightly colored lemon; yellow; strong, sharp taste but hardly any smell. Forty to a hundred-twenty pound cylinders. The rich milk from highland pastures is more or less skimmed and, being a very old variety, it is still made most primitively. Cured six weeks or six months, and when very old it's very hard and very sharp. A Cantal type is Laguiole or Guiole. Capitanata _Italy_ Sheep. Caprian _Capri, Italy_ Made from milk of goats that still overrun the original Goat Island, and tangy as a buck. Caprino (Little Goat) _Argentina_ Semihard; goat; sharp; table cheese. Caraway Loaf _U.S.A._ This is just one imitation of dozens of German caraway-seeded cheeses that roam the world. In Germany there is not only Kümmel loaf cheese but a loaf of caraway-seeded bread to go with it. Milwaukee has long made a good Kümmelkäse or hand cheese and it would take more than the fingers on both hands to enumerate all of the European originals, from Dutch Komynkaas through Danish King Christian IX and Norwegian Kuminost, Italian Freisa, Pomeranian Rinnen and Belgian Leyden, to Pennsylvania Pot. Cardiga, Queijo da _Portugal_ Hard; sheep; oily; mild flavor. Named from cardo, cardoon in English, a kind of thistle used as a vegetable rennet in making several other cheeses, such as French Caillebottes curdled with chardonnette, wild artichoke seed. Only classical Greek sheep cheeses like Casera can compare with the superb ones from the Portuguese mountain districts. They are lusciously oily, but never rancidly so. Carlsbad _Bohemia_ Semihard; sheep; white; slightly salted; expensive. Carré Affiné _France_ Soft, delicate, in small square forms; similar to Petit Carré and Ancien Impérial (_see_). Carré de l'Est _France_ Similar to Camembert, and imitated in the U.S.A. Cascaval Penir _Turkey_ Cacciocavallo imitation consumed at home. Caseralla _Greece_ Semisoft; sheep; mellow; creamy. Casere _Greece_ Hard; sheep; brittle; gray and greasy. But wonderful! Sour-sweet tongue tickle. This classical though greasy Grecian is imitated with goat milk instead of sheep in Southern California. Cashera _Armenia and Greece_ Hard; goat or cow's milk; brittle; sharp; nutty. Similar to Casere and high in quality. Cashera _Turkey_ Semihard; sheep. Casher Penner _see_ Kasher. Cashkavallo _Syria_ Mellow but sharp imitation of the ubiquitous Italian Cacciocavallo. Casigiolu, Panedda, Pera di vacca _Sardinia_ Plastic-curd cheese, made by the Caciocavallo method. Caskcaval or Kaschcavallo _see_ Feta. Caspian _Caucasus_ Semihard. Sheep or cow, milked directly into cone-shaped cloth bag to speed the making. Tastes tangy, sharp and biting. Cassaro _Italy_ Locally consumed, seldom exported. Castelmagno _Italy_ Blue-mold, Gorgonzola type. Castelo Branco, White Castle _Portugal_ Semisoft; goat or goat and sheep; fermented. Similar to Serra da Estrella (_see_). Castillon, or Fromage de Gascony _France_ Fresh cream cheese. Castle, Schlosskäse _North Austria_ Limburger type. Catanzaro _Italy_ Consumed locally, seldom exported. Cat's Head _see_ Katzenkopf. Celery _Norway_ Flavored mildly with celery seeds, instead of the usual caraway. Cendrée, la _France--Orléanais, Blois & Aube_ Hard; sheep; round and flat. Other Cendrées are Champenois or Ricey, Brie, d'Aizy and Olivet Cendré d'Aizy _Burgundy, France_ Available all year. _See_ la Cendrée. Cendré de la Brie _Ile-de-France, France_ Fall and winter Brie cured under the ashes, season September to May. Cendré Champenois or Cendré des Riceys _Aube & Marne, France_ Made and eaten from September to June, and ripened under the ashes. Cendré Olivet _see_ Olivet. Cenis _see_ Mont Cenis. Certoso Stracchino _Italy, near Milan_ A variety of Stracchino named after the Carthusian friars who have made it for donkey's years. It is milder and softer and creamier than the Taleggio because it's made of cow instead of goat milk, but it has less distinction for the same reason. Ceva _Italy_ Soft veteran of Roman times named from its town near Turin. Chabichou _Poitou, France_ Soft; goat; fresh; sweet and tasty. A vintage cheese of the months from April to December, since such cheeses don't last long enough to be vintaged like wine by the year. Chaingy _Orléans, France_ Season September to June. Cham _Switzerland_ One of those eminent Emmentalers from Cham, the home town of Mister Pfister (_see_ Pfister). Chamois milk Aristotle said that the most savorous cheese came from the chamois. This small goatlike antelope feeds on wild mountain herbs not available to lumbering cows, less agile sheep or domesticated mountain goats, so it gives, in small quantity but high quality, the richest, most flavorsome of milk. Champenois or Fromage des Riceys _Aube & Marne, France_ Season from September to June. The same as Cendré Champenois and des Riceys. Champoléon de Queyras _Hautes-Alpes, France_. Hard; skim-milker. Chantelle _U.S.A._ Natural Port du Salut type described as "zesty" by some of the best purveyors of domestic cheeses. It has a sharp taste and little odor, perhaps to fill the demand for a "married man's Limburger." Chantilly _see_ Hablé. Chaource _Champagne, France_ Soft, nice to nibble with the bottled product of this same high-living Champagne Province. A kind of Camembert. Chapelle _France_ Soft. Charmey Fine _Switzerland_ Gruyère type. Chaschol, or Chaschosis _Canton of Grisons, Switzerland_ Hard; skim; small wheels, eighteen to twenty-two inches in diameter by three to four inches high, weight twenty-two to forty pounds. Chasteaux _see_ Petits Fromages. Chateauroux _see_ Fromage de Chèvre. Chaumont _Champagne, France_ Season November to May. Chavignol _see_ Crottin. Chechaluk _Armenia_ Soft; pot; flaky; creamy. Cheddar _see_ Chapter 3. Cheese bread _Russia and U.S.A._ For centuries Russia has excelled in making a salubrious cheese bread called Notruschki and the cheese that flavors it is Tworog. (_See both_.) Only recently Schrafft's in New York put out a yellow, soft and toothsome cheese bread that has become very popular for toasting. It takes heat to bring out its full cheesy savor. Good when overlaid with cheese butter of contrasting piquance, say one mixed with Sapsago. Cheese butter Equal parts of creamed butter and finely grated or soft cheese and mixtures thereof. The imported but still cheap green Sapsago is not to be forgotten when mixing your own cheese butter. Cheese food _U.S.A._ "Any mixtures of various lots of cheese and other solids derived from milk with emulsifying agents, coloring matter, seasonings, condiments, relishes and water, heated or not, into a homogeneous mass." (A long and kind word for a homely, tasteless, heterogeneous mess.) From an advertisement Cheese hoppers _see_ Hoppers. Cheese mites _see_ Mites. Cheshire and Cheshire imitations _see_ with Cheddar in Chapter 3. Cheshire-Stilton _England_ In making this combination of Cheshire and Stilton, the blue mold peculiar to Stilton is introduced in the usual Cheshire process by keeping out each day a little of the curd and mixing it with that in which the mold is growing well. The result is the Cheshire in size and shape and general characteristics but with the blue veins of Stilton, making it really a Blue Cheddar. Another combination is Yorkshire-Stilton, and quite as distinguished. Chester _England_ Another name for Cheshire, used in France where formerly some was imported to make the visiting Britishers feel at home. Chevalier _France_ Curds sweetened with sugar. Chevèlle _U.S.A._ A processed Wisconsin. Chèvre _see_ Fromages. Chèvre de Chateauroux _see_ Fromages. Chèvre petit _see_ Petìts Fromages. Chèvre, Tome de _see_ Tome. Chevretin _Savoy, France_ Goat; small and square. Named after the mammy nanny, as so many are. Chevrets, Ponta & St. Rémy _Bresse & Franche-Comté, France_ Dry and semi-dry; crumbly; goat; small squares; lightly salted. Season December to April. Such small goat cheeses are named in the plural in France. Chevretons du Beaujolais à la crème, les _Lyonnais, France_ Small goat-milkers served with cream. This is a fair sample of the railroad names some French cheeses stagger under. Chevrotins _Savoy, France_ Soft, dried goat milk; white; small; tangy and semi-tangy. Made and eaten from March to December. Chhana _Asia_ All we know is that this is made of the whole milk of cows, soured, and it is not as unusual as the double "h" in its name. Chiavari _Italy_ There are two different kinds named for the Chiavari region, and both are hard: I. Sour cow's milk, also known as Cacio Romano. II. Sweet whole milker, similar to Corsican Broccio. Chiavari, the historic little port between Genoa and Pisa, is more noted as the birthplace of the barbaric "chivaree" razzing of newlyweds with its raucous serenade of dishpans, sour-note bugling and such. Chives cream cheese Of the world's many fine fresh cheeses further freshened with chives, there's Belgian Hervé and French Claqueret (with onion added). (_See both_.) For our taste it's best when the chives are added at home, as it's done in Germany, in person at the table or just before. Christalinna _Canton Graubünden, Switzerland_ Hard; smooth; sharp; tangy. Christian IX _Denmark_ A distinguished spiced cheese. Ciclo _Italy_ Soft, small cream cheese. Cierp de Luchon _France_ Made from November to May in the Comté de Foix, where it has the distinction of being the only local product worth listing with France's three hundred notables. Citeaux _Burgundy, France_ Trappist Port-Salut. Clabber cheese _England_ Simply cottage cheese left in a cool place until it grows soft and automatically changes its name from cottage to clabber. Clairvaux _France_ Formerly made in a Benedictine monastery of that name. Claqueret, le _Lyonnais, France_ Fresh cream whipped with chives, chopped fine with onions. _See_ Chives. Clérimbert _see_ Alpin. Cleves _France_ French imitation of the German imitation of a Holland-Dutch original. Cloves _see_ Nagelkäse. Club, Potted Club, Snappy, Cold-pack and Comminuted cheese _U.S.A. and Canada_ Probably McLaren's Imperial Club in pots was first to be called club, but others credit club to the U.S. In any case McLaren's was bought by an American company and is now all-American. Today there are many clubs that may sound swanky but taste very ordinary, if at all. They are made of finely ground aged, sharp Cheddar mixed with condiments, liquors, olives, pimientos, etc., and mostly carry come-on names to make the customers think they are getting something from Olde England or some aristocratic private club. All are described as "tangy." Originally butter went into the better clubs which were sold in small porcelain jars, but in these process days they are wrapped in smaller tin foil and wax-paper packets and called "snappy." Cocktail Cheeses Recommended from stock by Phil Alpert's "Cheeses of all Nations" stores: Argentine aged Gruyère Canadian d'Oka French Bleu Brie Camembert Fontainebleu Pont l'Evêque Port du Salut Roblochon Roquefort Grecian Feta Hungarian Brinza Polish Warshawski Syr Rumanian Kaskaval Swiss Schweizerkäse American Cheddar in brandy Hopi Indian Coeur à la Crème _Burgundy, France_ This becomes Fromage à la Crème II (_see_) when served with sugar, and it is also called a heart of cream after being molded into that romantic shape in a wicker or willow-twig basket. Coeurs d'Arras _Artois, France_ These hearts of Arras are soft, smooth, mellow, caressingly rich with the cream of Arras. Coffee-flavored cheese Just as the Dutch captivated coffee lovers all over the world with their coffee-flavored candies, Haagische Hopjes, so the French with Jonchée cheese and Italians with Ricotta satisfy the universal craving by putting coffee in for flavor. Coimbra _Portugal_ Goat or cow; semihard; firm; round; salty; sharp. Not only one of those college-educated cheeses but a postgraduate one, bearing the honored name of Portugal's ancient academic center. Colby _U.S.A._ Similar to Cheddar, but of softer body and more open texture. Contains more moisture, and doesn't keep as well as Cheddar. College-educated Besides Coimbra several countries have cheeses brought out by their colleges. Even Brazil has one in Minas Geraes and Transylvania another called Kolos-Monostor, while our agricultural colleges in every big cheese state from California through Ames in Iowa, Madison in Wisconsin, all across the continent to Cornell in New York, vie with one another in turning out diploma-ed American Cheddars and such of high degree. It is largely to the agricultural colleges that we owe the steady improvement in both quality and number of foreign imitations since the University of Wisconsin broke the curds early in this century by importing Swiss professors to teach the high art of Emmentaler. Colwick _see_ Slipcote. Combe-air _France_ Small; similar to Italian Stracchino in everything but size. Commission _Holland_ Hard; ball-shaped like Edam and resembling it except being darker in color and packed in a ball weighing about twice as much, around eight pounds. It is made in the province of North Holland and in Friesland. It is often preferred to Edam for size and nutty flavor. Compiègne _France_ Soft Comté _see_ Gruyère. Conches _France_ Emmentaler type. Condrieu, Rigotte de la _Rhone Valley below Lyons, France_ Semihard; goat; small; smooth; creamy; mellow; tasty. A cheese of cheeses for epicures, only made from May to November when pasturage is rich. Confits au Marc de Bourgogne _see_ Epoisses. Confits au Vin Blanc _see_ Epoisses. Cooked, or Pennsylvania pot _U.S.A._ Named from cooking sour clabbered curd to the melting point. When cool it is allowed to stand three or four days until it is colored through. Then it is cooked again with salt, milk, and usually caraway. It is stirred until it's as thick as molasses and strings from a spoon. It is then put into pots or molds, whose shape it retains when turned out. All cooked cheese is apt to be tasteless unless some of the milk flavor cooked out is put back in, as wheat germ is now returned to white bread. Almost every country has a cooked cheese all its own, with or without caraway, such as the following: Belgium--Kochtounkäse Germany--Kochkäse, Topfen Luxembourg--Kochenkäse France--Fromage Ouit & Le P'Teux Sardinia--Pannedas, Freisa Coon _see_ Chapter 4. Cornhusker _U.S.A._ A Nebraska product similar to Cheddar and Colby, but with softer body and more moisture. Cornimont _Vosges, France_ A splendid French version of Alsatian Münster spiked with caraway, in flattish cylinders with mahogany-red coating. It is similar to Géromé and the harvest cheese of Gérardmer in the same lush Vosges Valley. Corse, Roquefort de _Corsica, France_ Corsican imitation of the real Roquefort, and not nearly so good, of course. Cossack _Caucasus_ Cow or sheep. There are two varieties: I. Soft, cured in brine and still soft and mild after two months in the salt bath. II. Semihard and very sharp after aging in brine for a year or more. Cotherstone _Yorkshire, England_ Also known as Yorkshire-Stilton, and Wensleydale No. I. (_See both_.) Cotrone, Cotronese _see_ Pecorino. Cotta _see_ Pasta. Cottage cheese Made in all countries where any sort of milk is obtainable. In America it's also called pot, Dutch, and smearcase. The English, who like playful names for homely dishes, call cottage cheese smearcase from the German Schmierkäse. It is also called Glumse in Deutschland, and, together with cream, formed the basis of all of our fine Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine. Cottenham or Double Cottenham _English Midlands_ Semihard; double cream; blue mold. Similar to Stilton but creamier and richer, and made in flatter and broader forms. Cottslowe _Cotswold, England_ A brand of cream cheese named for its home in Cotswold, Gloucester. Although soft, it tastes like hard Cheddar. Coulommiers Frais, or Petit-Moule _Ile-de-France, France_ Fresh cream similar to Petit Suisse. (_See_.) Coulommiers, le, or Brie de Coulommiers _France_ Also called Petit-moule, from its small form. This genuine Brie is a pocket edition, no larger than a Camembert, standing only one inch high and measuring five or six inches across. It is made near Paris and is a great favorite from the autumn and winter months, when it is made, on until May. The making starts in October, a month earlier than most Brie, and it is off the market by July, so it's seldom tasted by the avalanche of American summer tourists. Cow cheese Sounds redundant, and is used mostly in Germany, where an identifying word is added, such as Berliner Kuhkäse and Alt Kuhkäse: old cow cheese. Cream cheese _International_ England, France and America go for it heavily. English cream begins with Devonshire, the world-famous, thick fresh cream that is sold cool in earthenware pots and makes fresh berries--especially the small wild strawberries of rural England--taste out of this world. It is also drained on straw mats and formed into fresh hardened cheeses in small molds. (_See_ Devonshire cream.) Among regional specialties are the following, named from their place of origin or commercial brands: Cambridge Cottslowe Cornwall Farm Vale Guilford Homer's "Italian" Lincoln New Forest Rush (from being made on rush or straw mats--_see_ Rush) St. Ivel (distinguished for being made with acidophilus bacteria) Scotch Caledonian Slipcote (famous in the eighteenth century) Victoria York Crème Chantilly _see_ Hablé. Crème de Gien _see_ Fromage. Crème de Gruyère _Franche-Comté France_ Soft Gruyère cream cheese, arrives in America in perfect condition in tin foil packets. Expensive but worth it. Crème des Vosges _Alsace, France_ Soft cream. Season October to April. Crème Double _see_ Double-Crème. Crème, Fromage à la _see_ Fromage. Crème, Fromage Blanc à la _see_ Fromage Blanc. Crème St Gervais _see_ Pots de Crème St Gervais. Crèmet Nantais _Lower Loire, France_ Soft fresh cream of Nantes. Crèmets, les _Anjou, France_ A fresh cream equal to English Devonshire, served more as a dessert than a dessert cheese. The cream is whipped stiff with egg whites, drained and eaten with more fresh cream, sprinkled with vanilla and sugar. Cremini _Italy_ Soft, small cream cheese from Cremona, the violin town. And by the way, art-loving Italians make ornamental cheeses in the form of musical instruments, statues, still life groups and everything. Creole _Louisiana, U.S.A._ Soft, rich, unripened cottage cheese type, made by mixing cottage-type curd and rich cream. Crescenza, Carsenza, Stracchino Crescenza, Crescenza Lombardi _Lombardy, Italy_ Uncooked; soft; creamy; mildly sweet; fast-ripening; yellowish; whole milk. Made from September to April. Creuse _Creuse, France_ A two-in-one farm cheese of skimmed milk, resulting from two different ways of ripening, after the cheese has been removed from perforated earthen molds seven inches in diameter and five or six inches high, where it has drained for several days: I. It is salted and turned frequently until very dry and hard. II. It is ripened by placing in tightly closed mold, lined with straw. This softens, flavors, and turns it golden-yellow. (_See_ Hay or Fromage de Foin.) Creusois, or Guéret _Limousin, France_ Season, October to June. Croissant Demi-sel _France_ Soft, double cream, semisalty. All year. Crottin de Chavignol _Berry, France_ Semihard; goat's milk; small; lightly salted; mellow. In season April to December. The name is not exactly complimentary. Crowdie, or Cruddy butter _Scotland_ Named from the combination of fresh sweet milk curds pressed together with fresh butter. A popular breakfast food in Inverness and the Ross Shires. When kept for months it develops a high flavor. A similar curd and butter is made by Arabs and stored in vats, the same as in India, the land of ghee, where there's no refrigeration. Crying Kebbuck F. Marion MacNeill, in _The Scots Kitchen_ says that this was the name of a cheese that used to be part of the Kimmers feast at a lying-in. Cuajada _see_ Venezuela. Cubjac _see_ Cajassou. Cuit _see_ Fromage Cuit. Cumin, Münster au _see_ Münster. Cup _see_ Koppen. Curd _see_ Granular curd, Sweet curd and York curd. Curds and butter _Arabia_ Fresh sweet milk curd and fresh butter are pressed together as in making Crowdie or Cruddy butter in Scotland. The Arabs put this strong mixture away in vats to get it even stronger than East Indian ghee. Curé, Fromage de _see_ Nantais. D Daisies, fresh A popular type and packaging of mild Cheddar, originally English. Known as an "all-around cheese," to eat raw, cook, let ripen, and use for seasoning. Dalmatian _Austria_ Hard ewe's-milker. Dambo _Denmark_ Semihard and nutty. Damen, or Glory of the Mountains (Gloires des Montagnes) _Hungary_ Soft, uncured, mild ladies' cheese, as its name asserts. Popular Alpine snack in Viennese cafés with coffee gossip in the afternoon. Danish Blue _Denmark_ Semihard, rich, blue-veined, piquant, delicate, excellent imitation of Roquefort. Sometimes called "Danish Roquefort," and because it is exported around the world it is Denmark's best-known cheese. Although it sells for 20% to 30% less than the international triumvirate of Blues, Roquefort, Stilton and Gorgonzola, it rivals them and definitely leads lesser Blues. Danish Export _Denmark_ Skim milk and buttermilk. Round and flat, mild and mellow. A fine cheese, as many Danish exports are. Dansk Schweizerost _Denmark_ Danish Swiss cheese, imitation Emmentaler, but with small holes. Nutty, sweet dessert or "picnic cheese," as Swiss is often called. Danzig _Poland_ A pleasant cheese to accompany a glass of the great liqueur, Goldwasser, Eau de Vie de Danzig, from the same celebrated city. Darling _U.S.A._ One of the finest Vermont Cheddars, handled for years by one of America's finest fancy food suppliers, S.S. Pierce of Boston. Dauphin _Flanders, France_ Season, November to May. d'Aurigny, Fromage _see_ Alderney. Daventry _England_ A Stilton type, white, small, round, flat and very rich, with "blue" veins of a darker green. Decize _Nivernaise, France_ In season all year. Soft, creamy, mellow, resembles Brie. de Foin, Fromage _see_ Hay. de Fontine _Spain_ Crumbly, sharp, nutty. de Gascony, Fromage _see_ Castillon. de Gérardmer _see_ Récollet. Delft _Holland_ About the same as Leyden. (_See_.) Délicieux The brand name of a truly delicious Brie. Delikat _U.S.A._ A mellow breakfast spread, on the style of the German Frühstück original. (_See_.) de Lile, Boule French name for Belgian Oude Kaas. Demi-Étuve Half-size Étuve. (_See_.) Demi Petit Suisse The name for an extra small Petit Suisse to distinguish it from the Gros. Demi-Sel _Normandy, France_ Soft, whole, creamy, lightly salted, resembles Gournay but slightly saltier; also like U.S. cream cheese, but softer and creamier. Demi-Sel, Croissant _see_ Croissant Demi-Sel. Derby, or Derbyshire _England_ Hard; shape like Austrian Nagelkassa and the size of Cheshire though sometimes smaller. Dry, large, flat, round, flaky, sharp and tangy. A factory cheese said to be identical with Double Gloucester and similar to Warwickshire, Wiltshire and Leicester. The experts pronounce it "a somewhat inferior Cheshire, but deficient in its quality and the flavor of Cheddar." So it's unlikely to win in any cheese derby in spite of its name. Devonshire cream and cheese _England_ Devonshire cream is world famous for its thickness and richness. Superb with wild strawberries; almost a cream cheese by itself. Devonshire cream is made into a luscious cheese ripened on straw, which gives it a special flavor, such as that of French Foin or Hay cheese. Dolce Verde _Italy_ This creamy blue-vein variety is named Sweet Green, because cheesemongers are color-blind when it comes to the blue-greens and the green-blues. Domaci Beli Sir _Yugoslavia_ "Sir" is not a title but the word for cheese. This is a typical ewe's-milker cured in a fresh sheep skin. Domestic Gruyère _U.S.A._ An imitation of a cheese impossible to imitate. Domestic Swiss _U.S.A_ Same as domestic Gruyère, maybe more so, since it is made in ponderous 150-to 200-pound wheels, chiefly in Wisconsin and Ohio. The trouble is there is no Alpine pasturage and Emmentaler Valley in our country. Domiati _Egypt_ Whole or partly skimmed cow's or buffalo's milk. Soft; white; no openings; mild and salty when fresh and cleanly acid when cured. It's called "a pickled cheese" and is very popular in the Near East. Dorset, Double Dorset, Blue Dorset, or Blue Vinny _England_ Blue mold type from Dorsetshire; crumbly, sharp; made in flat forms. "Its manufacture has been traced back 150 years in the family of F.E. Dare, who says that in all probability it was made longer ago than that." (_See_ Blue Vinny.) Dotter _Nürnberg, Germany_ An entirely original cheese perfected by G. Leuchs in Nürnberg. He enriched skim milk with yolk of eggs and made the cheese in the usual way. When well ripened it is splendid. Doubles The English name cheese made of whole milk "double," such as Double Cottenham, Double Dorset, Double Gloucester. "Singles" are cheeses from which some of the cream has been removed. Double-cream _England_ Similar to Wensleydale. Double-crème _France_ There are several of this name, made in the summer when milk is richest in cream. The full name is Fromage à la Double-crème, and Pommel is one well known. They are made throughout France in season and are much in demand. Dresdener Bierkäse _Germany_ A celebrated hand cheese made in Dresden. The typical soft, skim milker, strong with caraway and drunk dissolved in beer, as well as merely eaten. Drinking cheeses Not only Dresdener, but dozens of regional hand cheeses in Germanic countries are melted in steins of beer or glasses of wine to make distinctive cheesed drinks for strong stomachs and noses. This peps up the drinks in somewhat the same way as ale and beer are laced with pepper sauce in some parts. Dry _Germany_ From the drinking cheese just above to dry cheese is quite a leap. "This cheese, known as Sperrkäse and Trockenkäse, is made in the small dairies of the eastern part of the Bavarian Alps and in the Tyrol. It is an extremely simple product, made for home consumption and only in the winter season, when the milk cannot be profitably used for other purposes. As soon as the milk is skimmed it is put into a large kettle which can be swung over a fire, where it is kept warm until it is thoroughly thickened from souring. It is then broken up and cooked quite firm. A small quantity of salt and sometimes some caraway seed are added, and the curd is put into forms of various sizes. It is then placed in a drying room, where it becomes very hard, when it is ready for eating." (From U.S. Department of Agriculture _Bulletin_ No. 608.) Dubreala _see_ Brina. Duel _Austria_ Soft; skim milk; hand type; two by two by one-inch cube. Dunlop _Scotland_ One of the national cheeses of Scotland, but now far behind Cheddar, which it resembles, although it is closer in texture and moister. Semihard; white; sharp; buttery; tangy and rich in flavor. It is one of the "toasting cheeses" resembling Lancashire, too, in form and weight. Made in Ayr, Lanark and Renfrew and sold in the markets of Kilmarnock, Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. Durak _Turkey_ Mixed with butter; mellow and smoky. Costs three dollars a pound. Duralag, or Bgug-Panir _Armenia_ Sheep; semisoft to brittle hard; square; sharp but mellow and tangy with herbs. Sometimes salty from lying in a brine bath from two days to two months. Durmar, Rarush _see_ Rarush. Dutch _Holland_ Cream cheese of skim milk, very perishable spread. Dutch cheese American vernacular for cottage or pot cheese. Dutch Cream Cheese _England_ Made in England although called Dutch. Contains eggs, and is therefore richer than Dutch cream cheese in Holland itself. In America we call the original Holland-kind Dutch, cottage, pot, and farmer. Dutch Mill _U.S.A._ A specialty of Oakland, California. Dutch Red Balls English name for Edam. E Echourgnac, Trappe d' _Périgord, France_ Trappist monastery Port-Salut made in Limousin. Edam _see_ Chapter 3. Egg _Finland_ Semihard. One of the few cheeses made by adding eggs to the curds. Others are Dutch Cream Cheese of England; German Dotter; French Fromage Cuit (cooked cheese), and Westphalian. Authorities agree that these should be labeled "egg cheese" so the buyers won't be fooled by their richness. The Finns age their eggs even as the Chinese ripen their hundred-year-old eggs, by burying them in grain, as all Scandinavians do, and the Scotch as well, in the oat bin. But none of them is left a century to ripen, as eggs are said to be in China. Elbinger, or Elbing _West Prussia_ Hard; crumbly; sharp. Made of whole milk except in winter when it is skimmed. Also known as Werderkäse and Niederungskäse. Ekiwani _Caucasus_ Hard; sheep; white; sharp; salty with some of the brine it's bathed in. Elisavetpolen, or Eriwani _Caucasus_ Hard; sheep; sweetish-sharp and slightly salty when fresh from the brine bath. Also called Kasach (Cossack), Tali, Kurini and Karab in different locales. Elmo Table _Italy_ Soft, mellow, tasty. Emiliano _Italy_ Hard; flavor varies from mild to sharp. Parmesan type. Emmentaler _Switzerland_ There are so many, many types of this celebrated Swiss all around the world that we're not surprised to find Lapland reindeer milk cheese listed as similar to Emmentaler of the hardest variety. (_See_ Chapter 3, _also_ Vacherin Fondu.) "En enveloppe" French phrase of packaged cheese, "in the envelope." Similar to English packet and our process. Raw natural cheese the French refer to frankly as _nu_, "in the nude." Engadine _Graubünden, Switzerland_ Semihard; mild; tangy-sweet. English Dairy _England and U.S.A._ Extra-hard, crumbly and sharp. Resembles Cheddar and has long been imitated in the States, chiefly as a cooking cheese. Entrechaux, le Cachat d' _see_ Cachat. Epoisses, Fromage d' _Côte d'Or, Upper Burgundy, France_ Soft, small cylinder with flattened end, about five inches across. The season is from November to July. Equally proud of their wine and cheese, the Burgundians marry white wine or _marc_ to d'Epoisses in making _confits_ with that name. Erbo _Italy_ Similar to Gorgonzola. The Galvani cheesemakers of Italy who put out both Bel Paese and Taleggio also export Erbo to our shores. Erce _Languedoc, France_ Soft, smooth and sharp. A winter cheese in season only from November to May. Eriwani _see_ Elisavetpolen. Ervy _Champagne, France_ Soft; yellow rind; smooth; tangy; piquant; seven by two-and-a-half inches, weight four pounds. Resembles Camembert. A washed cheese, also known as Fromage de Troyes. In season November to May. Essex _U.S.A._ Imitation of an extinct or at least dormant English type. Estrella _see_ Serra da Estrella. Étuve and Demi-Étuve _Holland_ Semihard; smooth; mellow. In full size and demi (half) size. In season all year. Evarglice _Yugoslavia_ Sharp, nutty flavor. Excelsior _Normandy, France_ Season all year. F Factory Cheddar _U.S.A._ Very Old Factory Cheddar is the trade name for well-aged sharp Cheddar. New Factory is just that--mild, young and tractable--too tractable, in fact. Farm _France_ Known as Ferme; Maigre (thin); Fromage à la Pie (nothing to do with apple pie); and Mou (weak). About the same as our cottage cheese. Farmer _U.S.A._ This is curd only and is nowadays mixed with pepper, lachs, nuts, fruits, almost anything. A very good base for your own fancy spread, or season a slab to fancy and bake it like a hoe cake, but in the oven. Farmhouse _see_ Herrgårdsost. Farm Vale _England_ Cream cheese of Somerset wrapped in tin foil and boxed in wedges, eight to a box. Fat cheese _see_ Frontage Gras and Maile Pener. Fenouil _see_ Tome de Savoie. Ferme _see_ Farm. Feta _see_ Chapter 3. Feuille de Dreux _Béarn, France_ November to May. "Filled cheese" _England_ Before our processed and food cheese era some scoundrels in the cheese business over there added animal fats and margarine to skimmed milk to make it pass as whole milk in making cheese. Such adulteration killed the flavor and quality, and no doubt some of the customers. Luckily in America we put down this vicious counterfeiting with pure food laws. But such foreign fats are still stuffed into the skimmed milk of many foreign cheeses. To take the place of the natural butterfat the phony fats are whipped in violently and extra rennet is added to speed up coagulation. Fin de Siècle _Normandy, France_ Although this is an "all year" cheese its name dates it back to the years at the close of the nineteenth century. Fiore di Alpe _Italy_ Hard; sharp; tangy. Romantically named "Flowers of the Alps." Fiore Sardo _Italy_ Ewe's milk. Hard. Table cheese when immature; a condiment when fully cured. Flandre, Tuile de _France_ A kind of Marolles. Fleur de Deauville _France_ A type of Brie, in season December to May. Fleur des Alpes _see_ Bel Paese and Millefiori. Floedeost _Norway_ Like Gjedeost, but not so rich because it's made of cow's milk. Fløtost _Norway_ Although the name translates Cream Cheese it is made of boiled whey. Similar to Mysost, but fatter. Flower _England_ Soft and fragrant with petals of roses, violets, marigolds and such, delicately mixed in. Since the English are so fond of oriental teas scented with jasmine and other flowers, perhaps they imported the idea of mixing petals with their cheese, since there is no oriental cheese for them to import except bean curd. Fodder cheese A term for cheese made from fodder in seasons when there is no grass. Good fresh grass is the essence of all fine cheese, so silo or barn-fed cows can't give the kind of milk it takes. Foggiano _Apulia, Italy_ A member of the big Pecorino family because it's made of sheep's milk. Foin, Fromage de _see_ Hay. Fondu, Vacherin _see_ Vacherin Fondu. Fontainebleau _France_ Named after its own royal commune. Soft; fresh cream; smooth; mellow; summer variety. Fontina _Val d'Acosta, Italy_ Soft; goat; creamy; with a nutty flavor and delightful aroma. Fontine, de _Franche-Comté, France_ A favorite all-year product. Fontinelli _Italy_ Semidry; flaky; nutty; sharp. Fontini _Parma, Italy_ Hard; goat; similar to Swiss, but harder and sharper. From the same region as Parmesan. Food cheese _U.S.A._ An unattractive type of processed mixes, presumably with some cheese content to flavor it. Forez, also called d'Ambert _France_ The process of making this is said to be very crude, and the ripening unusual. The cheeses are cylindrical, ten inches in diameter and six inches high. They are ripened by placing them on the floor of the cellar, covering with dirt, and allowing water to trickle over them. Many are spoiled by the unusual growths of mold and bacteria. The flavor of the best of these is said to resemble Roquefort. (From _Bulletin_ No. 608 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, to which we are indebted for descriptions of hundreds of varieties in this alphabet.) Formagelle _Northwest Italy_ Soft, ripened specialty put up in half-pound packages. Formaggi di Pasta Filata _Italy_ A group of Italian cheeses made by curdling milk with rennet, warming and fermenting the curd, heating it until it is plastic, drawing it into ropes and then kneading and shaping while hot. Provolone, Caciocavallo and Mozzarella are in this group. Formaggini, and Formaggini di Lecco _Italy_ Several small cheeses answer to this name, of which Lecco is typical. A Lombardy dessert cheese measuring 1-1/4 by two inches, weighing two ounces. It is eaten from the time it is fresh and sweet until it ripens to piquance. Sometimes made of cow and goat milk mixed, with the addition of oil and vinegar, as well as salt, pepper, sugar and cinnamon. Formaggio d'Oro _Northwest Italy_ Hard, sharp, mountain-made. Formaggio Duro (Dry) and Formaggio Tenero _see_ Nostrale. Fort _see_ Fromage Fort. Fourme, Cantal, and la Tome _Auvergne, France_ This is a big family in the rich cheese province of Auvergne, where many mountain varieties are baptized after their districts, such as Aubrac, Aurilla, Grand Murol, Rôche and Salers. (_See_ Fourme d'Ambert and Cantal.) Fourme de Montebrison _Auvergne, France_ This belongs to the Fourme clan and is in season from November to May. Fourme de Salers _see_ Cantal, which it resembles so closely it is sometimes sold under that name. Fresa, or Pannedas _Sardinia, Italy_ A soft, mild and sweet cooked cheese. Fribourg _Italy and Switzerland_ Hard; cooked-curd, Swiss type very similar to Spalen. (_See_) Frissche Kaas, Fresh cheese _Holland_ Dutch generic name for any soft, fresh spring cheese, although some is made in winter, beginning in November. Friesian _see_ West Friesian. Fromage à la Creme _France_ I. Sour milk drained and mixed with cream. Eaten with sugar. That of Gien is a noted produce, and so is d'Isigny. II. Franche-Comté--fresh sheep milk melted with fresh thick cream, whipped egg whites and sugar. III. Morvan--homemade cottage cheese. When milk has soured solid it is hung in cheesecloth in a cool place to drain, then mixed with a little fresh milk and served with cream. IV. When Morvan or other type is put into a heart-shaped wicker basket for a mold, and marketed in that, it becomes Coeur à la Crème, heart of cream, to be eaten with sugar. Fromage à la Pie _see_ Fromage Blanc just below, and Farm Fromage Bavarois à la Vanille _France_ Dessert cheese sweetened and flavored with vanilla and named after Bavaria where it probably originated. Fromage Blanc _France_ Soft cream or cottage cheese, called à la Pie, too, suggesting pie à la mode; also Farm from the place it's made. Usually eaten with salt and pepper, in summer only. It is the ascetic version of Fromage à la Crème, usually eaten with salt and pepper and without cream or sugar, except in the Province of Bresse where it is served with cream and called Fromage Blanc à la Crème. Every milky province has its own Blanc. In Champagne it's made of fresh ewe milk. In Upper Brittany it is named after Nantes and also called Fromage de Curé. Other districts devoted to it are Alsace-Lorraine, Auvergne, Languedoc, and Ile-de-France. Fromage Bleu _see_ Bleu d'Auvergne. Fromage Cuit (cooked cheese) _Thionville, Lorraine, France_ Although a specialty of Lorraine, this cooked cheese is produced in many places. First it is made with fresh whole cow milk, then pressed and potted. After maturing a while it is de-potted, mixed with milk and egg yolk, re-cooked and re-potted. Fromage d'Aurigny _see_ Alderney. Fromage de Bayonne _Bayonne, France_ Made with ewe's milk. Fromage de Bôite _Doubs, France_ Soft, mountain-made, in the fall only. Resembles Pont l'Evêque. Fromage de Bourgogne _see_ Burgundy. Fromage de Chèvre de Chateauroux _Berry, France_ A seasonal goat cheese. Fromage de Curé _see_ Nantais. Fromage de Fontenay-le Comté _Poitou, France_ Half goat and half cow milk. Fromage de Gascony _see_ Castillon. Fromage de Pau _see_ La Foncée. Fromage de St. Rémy _see_ Chevrets. Fromage de Serac _Savoy, France_ Half and half, cow and goat, from Serac des Allues. Fromage de Troyes _France_ Two cheeses have this name. (_See_ Barberry and Ervy.) Fromage de Vache Another name for Autun. Fromage de Monsieur Fromage _Normandy, France_ This Cheese of Mr. Cheese is as exceptional as its name. Its season runs from November to June. It comes wrapped in a green leaf, maybe from a grape vine, suggesting what to drink with it. It is semidry, mildly snappy with a piquant pungence all its own. The playful name suggests the celebrated dish, Poulette de Madame Poulet, Chick of Mrs. Chicken. Fromage Fort _France_ Several cooked cheeses are named Fort (strong) chiefly in the department of Aisne. Well-drained curd is melted, poured into a cloth and pressed, then buried in dry ashes to remove any whey left. After being fermented eight to ten days it is grated, mixed with butter, salt, pepper, wine, juniper berries, butter and other things, before fermenting some more. Similar extra-strong cheeses are the one in Lorraine called Fondue and Fromagère of eastern France, classed as the strongest cheeses in all France. _Fort No. I_: That of Flanders, potted with juniper berries, as the gin of this section is flavored, plus pepper, salt and white wine. _Fort No. II_: That from Franche-Comté Small dry goat cheeses pounded and potted with thyme, tarragon, leeks, pepper and brandy. (_See_ Hazebrook.) _Fort No. III_: From Provence, also called Cachat d'Entrechaux. In production from May to November. Semihard, sheep milk, mixed with brandy, white wine, strong herbs and seasonings and well marinated. Fromage Gras (fat cheese) _Savoy, France_ Soft, round, fat ball called _tête de mort_, "death's head." Winter Brie is also called Gras but there is no relation. This macabre name incited Victor Meusy to these lines: _Les gens à l'humeur morose Prennent la Tête-de-Mort._ People of a morose disposition Take the Death's Head. Fromage Mou Any soft cheese. Fromage Piquant _see_ Remoudon. Fromagère _see_ Canquillote. Fromages de Chèvre _Orléanais, France_ Small, dried goat-milkers. Frühstück Also known as breakfast and lunch cheese. Small rounds two-and-a-half to three inches in diameter. Limburger type. Cheeses on which many Germans and Americans break their fast. Ftinoporino _Macedonia, Greece_ Sheep's-milker similar to Brinza. G Gaiskäsli _Germany and Switzerland_ A general name for goat's milk cheese. Usually a small cylinder three inches in diameter and an inch-and-a-half thick, weighing up to a half pound. In making, the curds are set on a straw mat in molds, for the whey to run away. They are salted and turned after two days to salt the other side. They ripen in three weeks with a very pleasing flavor. Gammelost _Norway_ Hard, golden-brown, sour-milker. After being pressed it is turned daily for fourteen days and then packed in a chest with wet straw. So far as we are concerned it can stay there. The color all the way through is tobacco-brown and the taste, too. It has been compared to medicine, chewing tobacco, petrified Limburger, and worse. In his _Encyclopedia of Food_ Artemas Ward says that in Gammelost the ferments absorb so much of the curd that "in consequence, instead of eating cheese flavored by fungi, one is practically eating fungi flavored with cheese." Garda _Italy_ Soft, creamy, fermented. A truly fine product made in the resort town on Gardasee where d'Annunzio retired. It is one of those luscious little ones exported in tin foil to America, and edible, including the moldy crust that could hardly be called a rind. Garden _U.S.A._ Cream cheese with some greens or vegetables mixed in. Garlic _U.S.A._ A processed Cheddar type flavored with garlic. Garlic-onion Link _U.S.A._ A strong processed Cheddar put up to look like links of sausage, nobody knows why. Gascony, Fromage de _see Castillon._ Gautrias _Mayenne, France_ Soft, cylinder weighing about five pounds and resembling Port-Salut. Gavot _Hautes-Alpes, France_ A good Alpine cheese whether made of sheep, goat or cow milk. Geheimrath _Netherlands_ A factory cheese turned out in small quantities. The color is deep yellow and it resembles a Baby Gouda in every way, down to the weight Gérardmer, de _see_ Récollet German-American adopted types Bierkäse Delikat Grinnen Hand Harzkäse Kümmelkäse Koppen Lager Liederkranz Mein Kaese Münster Old Heidelberg Schafkäse (sheep) Silesian Stein Tilsit Weisslack (piquant like Bavarian Allgäuer) Géromé, la _Vosges, France_ Semihard: cylinders up to eleven pounds; brick-red rind; like Münster, but larger. Strong, fragrant and flavorsome, sometimes with aniseed. It stands high at home, where it is in season from October to April. Gervais _Ile-de-France, France_ Cream cheese like Neufchâtel, long made by Maison Gervais, near Paris. Sold in tiny tin-foil squares not much larger than old-time yeast. Like Petit Suisse, it makes a perfect luncheon dessert with honey. Gesundheitkäse, Holsteiner _see_ Holstein Health. Getmesost _Sweden_ Soft; goat; whey; sweet. Gex _Pays de Gex, France_ Semihard; skim milk; blue-veined. A "little" Roquefort in season from November to May. Gex Marbré _France_ A very special type marbled with rich milks of cow, goat and sheep, mixed. A full-flavored ambassador of the big international Blues family, that are green in spite of their name. Gien _see_ Fromage à la Crème. Gislev _Scandinavia_ Hard; mild, made from skimmed cow's milk. Gjetost _Norway_ A traditional chocolate-colored companion piece to Gammelost, but made with goat's milk. Glavis _Switzerland_ The brand name of a cone of Sapsago. (_See_.) Glattkäse, or Gelbkäse _Germany_ Smooth cheese or yellow cheese. A classification of sour-milkers that includes Olmützer Quargel. Cloire des Montagnes _see_ Damen. Gloucester _Gloucestershire, England_ There are two types: I. Double, the better of the two Gloucesters, is eaten only after six months of ripening. "It has a pronounced, but mellow, delicacy of flavor...the tiniest morsel being pregnant with savour. To measure its refinement, it can undergo the same comparison as that we apply to vintage wines. Begin with a small piece of Red Cheshire. If you then pass to a morsel of Double Gloucester, you will find that the praises accorded to the latter have been no whit exaggerated." _A Concise Encyclopedia of Gastronomy,_ by André L. Simon. II. Single. By way of comparison, the spring and summer Single Gloucester ripens in two months and is not as big as its "large grindstone" brother. And neither is it "glorified Cheshire." It is mild and "as different in qualify of flavour as a young and crisp wine is from an old vintage." Glumse _West Prussia, Germany_ A common, undistinguished cottage cheese. Glux _Nivernais, France_ Season, all year. Goat _France_ A frank and fair name for a semihard, brittle mouthful of flavor. Every country has its goat specialties. In Norway the milk is boiled dry, then fresh milk or cream added. In Czechoslovakia the peasants smoke the cheese up the kitchen chimney. No matter how you slice it, goat cheese is always notable or noble. Gold-N-Rich _U.S.A._ Golden in color and rich in taste. Bland, as American taste demands. Like Bel Paese but not so full-flavored and a bit sweet. A good and deservedly popular cheese none the less, easily recognized by its red rind. Gomost _Norway_ Usually made from cow's milk, but sometimes from goat's. Milk is curdled with rennet and condensed by heating until it has a butter-like consistency. (_See_ Mysost.) Gorgonzola _Italy_ Besides the standard type exported to us (_See_ Chapter 3.) there is White Gorgonzola, little known outside Italy where it is enjoyed by local caseophiles, who like it put up in crocks with brandy, too. Gouda _see_ Chapter 3. Gouda, Kosher _Holland_ The same semihard good Gouda, but made with kosher rennet. It is a bit more mellow than most and, like all kosher products, is stamped by the Jewish authorities who prepare it. Goya _Corrientes, Argentine_ Hard, dry, Italian type for grating. Like all fine Argentine cheeses the milk of pedigreed herds fed on prime pampas grass distinguishes Goya from lesser Parmesan types, even back in Italy. It is interesting that the nitrate in Chilean soil makes their wines the best in America, and the richness of Argentine milk does the same for their cheeses, most of which are Italian imitations and some of which excel the originals. Gournay _Seine, France_ Soft, similar to Demi-sel, comes in round and flat forms about 1/4 pound in weight. Those shaped like Bondons resemble corks about 3/4 of an inch thick and four inches long. Grana _Italy_ Another name for Parmesan. From "grains", the size of big shot, that the curd is cut into. Grana Lombardo _Lombardy_ The same hard type for grating, named after its origin in Lombardy. Grana Reggiano _Reggio, Italy_ A brand of Parmesan type made near Reggio and widely imitated, not only in Lombardy and Mantua, but also in the Argentine where it goes by a pet name of its own--Regianito. Grande Bornand, la _Switzerland_ A luscious half-dried sheep's milker. Granular curd _see_ Stirred curd. Gras, or Velvet Kaas _Holland_ Named from its butterfat content and called "Moors Head", _Tête de Maure_, in France, from its shape and size. The same is true of Fromage de Gras in France, called _Tête de Mort_, "Death's Head". Gras is also the popular name for Brie that's made in the autumn in France and sold from November to May. (_See_ Brie.) Gratairon _France_ Goat milk named, as so many are, from the place it is made. Graubünden _Switzerland_ A luscious half-dried sheep's milker. Green Bay _U.S.A._ Medium-sharp, splendid White Cheddar from Green Bay, Wisconsin, the Limburger county. Grey _Germany and Austrian Tyrol_ Semisoft; sour skim milk with salty flavor from curing in brine bath. Named from the gray color that pervades the entire cheese when ripe. It has a very pleasant taste. Gruyère _see_ Chapter 3. Güssing, or Land-l-kas _Austria_ Similar to Brick. Skim milk. Weight between four and eight pounds. H Habas _see_ Caille. Hablé Crème Chantilly _Ösmo, Sweden_ Soft ripened dessert cheese made from pasteurized cream by the old Walla Creamery. Put up in five-ounce wedge-shaped boxes for export and sold for a high price, well over two dollars a pound, in fancy big city groceries. Truly an aristocrat of cheeses to compare with the finest French Brie or Camembert. _See_ Chapter 3. Hand _see_ Chapter 3. Hard _Puerto Rico_ Dry; tangy. Harzkäse, Harz _Harz Mountains, Germany_ Tiny hand cheese. Probably the world's smallest soft cheese, varying from 2-1/2 inches by 1-1/2 down to 1/4 by 1-1/2. Packed in little boxes, a dozen together, rubbing rinds, as close as sardines. And like Harz canaries, they thrive on seeds, chiefly caraway. Harzé _Belgium_ Port-Salut type from the Trappist monastery at Harzé. Hasandach _Turkey_ Bland; sweet. Hauskäse. _Germany_ Limburger type. Disk-shaped. Haute Marne _France_ Soft; square. Hay, or Fromage au Foin _Seine, France_ A skim-milker resembling "a poor grade of Livarot." Nothing to write home about, except that it is ripened on new-mown hay. Hazebrook There are two kinds: I. Flemish; a Fromage Fort type with white wine, juniper, salt and pepper. Excessively strong for bland American tasters. II. Franche-Comté, France; small dry goat's milker, pounded, potted and marinated in a mixture of thyme, tarragon, leeks, pepper and brandy. Head Four cheeses are called Head: The French Death's Head. Swiss Monk's Head. Dutch Cat's Head. Moor's Head. There's headcheese besides but that's made of a pig's head and is only a cheese by discourtesy. Health _see_ Holstein. Herbesthal _Germany_ Named from a valley full of rich _herbes_ for grazing. Herkimer _U.S.A._ Cheddar type; nearly white. _See_ Chapter 4. Herrgårdsost, Farm House or Manor House _West Gothland and Jamtland, Sweden_ Hard Emmentaler type in two qualities: full cream and half cream. Weighs 25 to 40 pounds. It is the most popular cheese in all Sweden and the best is from West Gothland and Jutland. Herrgårdstyp _see_ Hushållsost. Hervé _Belgium_ Soft; made in cubes and peppered with _herbes_ such as tarragon, parsley and chives. It flourishes from November to May and comes in three qualities: extra cream, cream, and part skim milk. Hickory Smoked _U.S.A._ Good smoke is often wasted on bad cheese. Hohenburg _see_ Box No. II. Hohenheim _Germany_ Soft; part skimmed milk; half-pound cylinders. (See Box No. I.) Hoi Poi _China_ Soybean cheese, developed by vegetable rennet. Exported in jars. Hoja _see_ Queso de. Hollander _North Germany_ Imitation Dutch Goudas and Edams, chiefly from Neukirchen in Holstein. Holstein Dairy _see_ Leather. Holsteiner, or Old Holsteiner _Germany_ Eaten best when old, with butter, or in the North, with dripping. Holstein Health, or Holsteiner Gesundheitkäse _Germany_ Sour-milk curd pressed hard and then cooked in a tin kettle with a little cream and salt. When mixed and melted it is poured into half-pound molds and cooled. Holstein Skim Milk or Holstein Magerkäse _Germany_ Skim-milker colored with saffron. Its name, "thin cheese," tells all. Hop, Hopfen _Germany_ Small, one inch by 2-1/2 inches, packed in hops to ripen. An ideal beer cheese, loaded with lupulin. Hopi _U.S.A._ Hard; goat; brittle; sharp; supposed to have been made first by the Hopi Indians out west where it's still at home. Horner's _England_ An old cream cheese brand in Redditch where Worcestershire sauce originated. Horse Cheese Not made of mare's milk, but the nickname for Caciocavallo because of the horse's head used to trademark the first edition of it. Hum _Holland_ Brand name of one of those mild little red Baby Goudas that make you say "Ho-hum." Hushållsost, Household Cheese _Sweden_ Popular in three types: Herrgårdstyp--Farmhouse Västgötatyp--Westgotland Sveciatyp--Swedish Hvid Gjetost _Norway_ A strong variety of Gjetost, little known and less liked outside of Scandinavia. I Icelandic In _Letters from Iceland_, W.H. Auden says: "The ordinary cheese is like a strong Dutch and good. There is also a brown sweet cheese, like the Norwegian." Doubtless the latter is Gjetost. Ihlefield _Mecklenburg, Germany_ A hand cheese. Ilha, Queijo de _Azores_ Semihard "Cheese of the Isle," largely exported to mother Portugal, measuring about a foot across and four inches high. The one word, _Ilha_, Isle, covers the several Azorian Islands whose names, such as _Pico_, Peak, and _Terceiro_, Third, are sometimes added to their cheeses. Impérial, Ancien _see_ Ancien. Imperial Club _Canada_ Potted Cheddar; snappy; perhaps named after the famous French Ancien Impérial. Incanestrato _Sicily, Italy_ Very sharp; white; cooked; spiced; formed into large round "heads" from fifteen to twenty pounds. _See_ Majocchino, a kind made with the three milks, goat, sheep and cow, and enriched with olive oil besides. Irish Cheeses Irish Cheddar and Irish Stilton are fairly ordinary imitations named after their native places of manufacture: Ardagh, Galtee, Whitehorn, Three Counties, etc. Isigny _France_ Full name Fromage à la Crème d'Isigny. _(See.)_ Cream cheese. The American cheese of this name never amounted to much. It was an attempt to imitate Camembert in the Gay Nineties, but it turned out to be closer to Limburger. (_See_ Chapter 2.) In France there is also Crème d'Isigny, thick fresh cream that's as famous as England's Devonshire and comes as close to being cheese as any cream can. Island of Orléans _Canada_ This soft, full-flavored cheese was doubtless brought from France by early emigrés, for it has been made since 1869 on the Orléans Island in the St. Lawrence River near Quebec. It is known by its French name, Le Fromage Raffiné de l'Ile d'Orléans, and lives up to the name "refined." J Jack _see_ Monterey. Jochberg _Tyrol, Germany_ Cow and goat milk mixed in a fine Tyrolean product, as all mountain cheese are. Twenty inches in diameter and four inches high, it weighs in at forty-five pounds with the rind on. Jonchée _Santonge, France_ A superior Caillebotte, flavored with rum, orange-flower water or, uniquely, black coffee. Josephine _Silesia, Germany_ Soft and ladylike as its name suggests. Put up in small cylindrical packages. Journiac _see_ Chapter 3. Julost _Sweden_. Semihard; tangy. Jura Bleu, or Septmoncel _France_ Hard: blue-veined; sharp; tangy. K Kaas, Oude _Belgium_ Flemish name for the French Boule de Lille. Kackavalj _Yugoslavia_ Same as Italian Caciocavallo. Kaiser-käse _Germany_ This was an imperial cheese in the days of the kaisers and is still made under that once awesome name. Now it's just a jolly old mellow, yellow container of tang. Kajmar, or Serbian Butter _Serbia and Turkey_ Cream cheese, soft and bland when young but ages to a tang between that of any goat's-milker and Roquefort. Kamembert _Yugoslavia_ Imitation Camembert. Karaghi La-La _Turkey_ Nutty and tangy. Kareish _Egypt_ A pickled cheese, similar to Domiati. Karut _India_ Semihard; mellow; for grating and seasoning. Karvi _Norway_ Soft; caraway-seeded; comes in smallish packages. Kash _Rumania_ Soft, white, somewhat stringy cheese named cheese. Kashcavallo, Caskcaval _Greece_ A good imitation of Italian Caciocavallo. Kasher, or Caher, Penner _Turkey_ Hard; white; sharp. Kash Kwan _Bulgaria and the Balkans_ An all-purpose goat's milk, Parmesan type, eaten sliced when young, grated when old. An attempt to imitate it in Chicago failed. It is sold in Near East quarters in New York, Washington and all big American cities. Kaskaval _Rumania_ Identical with Italian Caciocavallo, widely imitated, and well, in Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Transylvania and neighboring lands. As popular as Cheddar in England, Canada and U.S.A. Kasseri _Greece_ Hard; ewe's milk, usually. Katschkawalj _Serbia_ Just another version of the international Caciocavallo. Katzenkopf, Cat's Head _Holland_ Another name for Edam. (_See_ Chapter 3.) Kaukauna Club _U.S.A._ Widely advertised processed cheese food. Kauna _Lithuania_ A hearty cheese that's in season all the year around. Kefalotir, Kefalotyi _Yugoslavia, Greece and Syria_ Both of these hard, grating cheeses are made from either goat's or ewe's milk and named after their shape, resembling a Greek hat, or Kefalo. Keg-ripened _see_ Brand. King Christian IX _Denmark_ Sharp with caraway. Popular with everybody. Kingdom Farm _U.S.A, near Ithaca, N.Y._ The Rutherfordites or Jehovah's Witnesses make Brick, Limburger and Münster that are said to be most delectable by those mortals lucky enough to get into the Kingdom Farm. Unfortunately their cheese is not available elsewhere. Kirgischerkäse _see_ Krutt. Kjarsgaard _Denmark_ Hard; skim; sharp; tangy. Klatschkäse, Gossip Cheese _Germany_ A rich "ladies' cheese" corresponding to Damen; both designed to promote the flow of gossip in afternoon _Kaffee-klatsches_ in the _Konditories_. Kloster, Kloster Käse _Bavaria_ Soft; ripe; finger-shaped, one by one by four inches. In Munich this was, and perhaps still is, carried by brew masters on their tasting tours "to bring out the excellence of a freshly broached tun." Named from being made by monks in early cloisters, down to this day. Kochenkäse _Luxembourg_ Cooked white dessert cheese. Since it is salt-free it is recommended for diets. Koch Käse _Germany_ This translates "cooked cheese." Kochtounkäse _Belgium_ Semisoft, cooked and smoked. Bland flavor. Kolos-monostor _Rumania_ Sheep; rectangular four-pounder, 8-1/2 by five by three inches. One of those college-educated cheeses turned out by the students and professors at the Agricultural School of Transylvania. Kolosvarer _Rumania_ A Trappist Port-Salut imitation made with water-buffalo milk, as are so many of the world's fine cheeses. Komijnekaas, Komynekass _North Holland_ Spiked with caraway seeds and named after them. Konigskäse _Germany_ A regal name for a German imitation of Bel Paese. Kopanisti _Greece_ Blue-mold cheese with sharp, peppery flavor. Koppen, Cup, or Bauden _Germany_ Semihard; goat; made in a cup-shaped mold that gives both its shape and name. Small, three to four ounces; sharp; pungent; somewhat smoky. Imitated in U.S.A. in half-pound packages. Korestin _Russia_ Semisoft; mellow; cured in brine. Kosher This cheese appears in many countries under several names. Similar to Limburger, but eaten fresh. It is stamped genuine by Jewish authorities, for the use of religious persons. (_See_ Gouda, Kosher.) Krauterkäse _Brazil_ Soft-paste herb cheese put up in a tube by German Brazilians near the Argentine border. A rich, full-flavored adaptation of Swiss Krauterkäse even though it is processed. Kreuterkäse, Herb Cheese _Switzerland_ Hard, grating cheese flavored with herbs; like Sapsago or Grunkäse. Krutt, or Kirgischerkäse _Asian Steppes_ A cheese turned out en route by nomadic tribes in the Asiatic Steppes, from sour skim milk of goat, sheep, cow or camel. The salted and pressed curd is made into small balls and dried in the sun. Kühbacher _Bavaria_ Soft, ripe, and chiefly interesting because of its name, Cow Creek, where it is made. Kuminost _Norway_ Semihard; caraway-seeded. Kumminost _Sweden_ This is Bondost with caraway added. Kummin Ost _Wisconsin, U.S.A._ Imitation of the Scandinavian, with small production in Wisconsin where so many Swedes and Norwegians make their home and their _ost_. Kümmel, Leyden, or Leidsche Kaas _Holland_ Caraway-seeded and named. Kümmelkäse _Germany and U.S.A._ Semihard; sharp with caraway. Milwaukee Kümmelkäse has made a name for itself as a nibble most suitable with most drinks, from beer to imported kümmel liqueur. L Labneh _Syria_ Sour-milk. La Foncée, or Fromage de Pau _France_ Cream cheese. Lager Käse _U.S.A._ Semidry and mellow. While _lager_ means merely "to store," there is more than a subtle suggestion of lager beer here. Laguiole, Fromage de, and Guiole _Aveyron, France_ An ancient Cantal type said to have flourished since the Roman occupation. Many consider Laguiole superior to Cantal. It is in full season from November to May. Lamothe-Bougon, La Mothe St. Heray _Poitou_ Goat cheese made from May to November. Lancashire, or Lancaster _North England_ White; crumbly; sharp; a good Welsh Rabbit cheese if you can get it. It is more like Cheshire than Cheddar. This most popular variety in the north of England is turned out best at Fylde, near the Irish Sea. It is a curiosity in manufacture, for often the curds used are of different ages, and this is accountable for a loose, friable texture. Deep orange in color. Land-l-kas, or Güssing _Austria_ Skim-milker, similar to U.S. Brick. Square loaves, four to eight pounds. Langlois Blue _U.S.A._ A Colorado Blue with an excellent reputation, though it can hardly compete with Roquefort. Langres _Haute-Marne, France_ Semihard; fermented whole milk; farm-made; full-flavored, high-smelling Limburger type, similar to Maroilles. Ancient of days, said to have been made since the time of the Merovingian kings. Cylindrical, five by eight inches, they weigh one and a half to two pounds. Consumed mostly at home. Lapland _Lapland_ Reindeer milk. Resembles hard Swiss. Of unusual shape, both round and flat, so a cross-section looks like a dumbbell with angular ends. Laredo _Mexico_ Soft; creamy; mellow, made and named after the North Mexico city. Larron _France_ A kind of Maroilles. Latticini _Italy_ Trade name for a soft, water-buffalo product as creamy as Camembert. Laumes, les _Burgundy, France_ Made from November to July. Lauterbach _Germany_ Breakfast cheese Leaf _see_ Tschil. Leather, Leder, or Holstein Dairy _Germany_ A skim-milker with five to ten percent buttermilk, all from the great _milch_ cows up near Denmark in Schleswig-Holstein. A technical point in its making is that it's "broken up with a harp or a stirring stick and stirred with a Danish stirrer." Lebanie _Syria_ Dessert cottage cheese often served with yogurt. Lecco, Formaggini di _Italy_ Soft; cow or goat; round dessert variety; representative of a cheese family as big as the human family of most Italians. Lees _see_ Appenzeller, Festive, No. II. LeGuéyin _Lorraine, France_ Half-dried; small; salted; peppered and sharp. The salt _and_ pepper make it unusual, though not as peppery as Italian Pepato. Leicester _England_ Hard; shallow; flat millstone of Cheddar-like cheese weighing forty pounds. Dark orange and mild to red and strong, according to age. With Wiltshire and Warwickshire it belongs to the Derbyshire type. An ancient saying is: "Leicester cheese and water cress were just made for each other." Leidsche Kaas _see_ Leyden. Leonessa A kind of Pecorino. Leroy _U.S.A._ Notable because it's a natural cheese in a mob of modern processed. Lerroux _France_ Goat; in season from February to September and not eaten in fall or winter months. Lescin _Caucasus_ Curious because the sheep's milk that makes it is milked directly into a sack of skin. It is made in the usual way, rennet added, curd broken up, whey drained off, curd put into forms and pressed lightly. But after that it is wrapped in leaves and ropes of grass. After curing two weeks in the leaves, they are discarded, the cheese salted and wrapped up in leaves again for another ripening period. The use of a skin sack again points the association of cheese and wine in a region where wine is still drunk from skin bags with nozzles, as in many wild and mountainous parts. Les Petits Bressans _Bresse, France_ Small goat cheeses named from food-famous Bresse, of the plump pullets, and often stimulated with brandy before being wrapped in fresh vine leaves, like Les Petits Banons. Les Petits Fromages _see_ Petits Fromages and Thiviers. Le Vacherin Name given to two entirely different varieties: I. Vacherin à la Main II. Vacherin Fondu. (_See_ Vacherin.) Levroux _Berry, France_ A goat cheese in season from May to December. Leyden, Komijne Kaas, Caraway Cheese _Holland_ Semihard, tangy with caraway. Similar Delft. There are two kinds of Leyden that might be called Farm Fat and Factory Thin, for those made on the farms contain 30 to 35% fat, against 20% in the factory product. Liederkranz _see_ Chapter 4. Limburger _see_ Chapter 3. Lincoln _England_ Cream cheese that keeps two to three weeks. This is in England, where there is much less refrigeration than in the U.S.A., and that's a big break for most natural cheeses. Lindenhof _Belgium_ Semisoft; aromatic; sharp. Lipta, Liptauer, Liptoiu _Hungary_ A classic mixture with condiments, especially the great peppers from which the world's best paprika is made. Liptauer is the regional name for Brinza, as well, and it's made in the same manner, of sheep milk and sometimes cow. Salty and spready, somewhat oily, as most sheep-milkers are. A fairly sharp taste with a suggestion of sour milk. It is sold in various containers and known as "pickled cheese." (_See_ Chapter 3.) Lipto _Hungary_ Soft; sheep; white; mild and milky taste. A close relative of both Liptauer and Brinza. Little Nippy _U.S.A._ Processed cheese with a cute name, wrapped up both plain and smoky, to "slice and serve for cheese trays, mash or whip for spreading," but no matter how you slice, mash and whip it, it's still processed. Livarot _Calvados, France_ Soft paste, colored with annatto-brown or deep red (also, uncommonly, fresh and white). It has the advantage over Camembert, made in the same region, in that it may be manufactured during the summer months when skim milk is plentiful and cheap. It is formed in cylinders, six by two inches, and ripened several months in the even temperature of caves, to be eaten at its best only in January, February and March. By June and afterward it should be avoided. Similar to Mignot II. Early in the process of making, after ripening ten to twelve days, the cheeses are wrapped in fresh _laiche_ leaves, both to give flavor and help hold in the ammonia and other essentials for making a strong, piquant Livarot. Livlander _Russia_ A popular hand cheese. A most unusual variety because the cheese itself is red, not the rind. Locatelli _Italy_ A brand of Pecorino differing slightly from Bomano Pecorino. Lodigiano, or Lombardo _Lodi, Italy_ Sharp; fragrant; sometimes slightly bitter; yellow. Cylindrical; surface colored dark and oiled. Used for grating. Similar to Parmesan but not as fine in quality. Longhorn _Wisconsin, U.S.A._ This fine American Cheddar was named from its resemblance to the long horn of a popular milking breed of cattle, or just from the Longhorn breed of cow that furnished the makings. Lorraine _Lorraine, Germany_ Hard; small; delicate; unique because it's seasoned with pistachio nuts besides salt and pepper. Eaten while quite young, in two-ounce portions that bring a very high price. Lumburger _Belgium_ Semisoft and tangy dessert cheese. The opposite of Limburger because it has no odor. Lunch _Germany and U.S.A._ The same as Breakfast and Frühstück. A Limburger type of eye-opener. Lüneberg _West Austria_ Swiss type; saffron-colored; made in a copper kettle; not as strong as Limburger, or as mild as Emmentaler, yet piquant and aromatic, with a character of its own. Luxembourg _U.S.A._ Tiny tin-foiled type of Liederkranz. A mild, bland, would-be Camembert. M Maconnais _France_ Soft; goat's milk; two inches square by one and a half inches thick. Macqueline _Oise, France_ Soft Camembert type, made in the same region, but sold at a cheaper price. Madridejos _Spain_ Named for Madrid where it is made. Magdeburger-kuhkäse _Germany_ "Cow cheese" made in Magdeburg. Magerkäse _see_ Holstein Skim Milk Maggenga, Sorte _Italy_ A term for Parmesan types made between April and September. Maguis _Belgium_ Also called Fromage Mou. Soft; white; sharp; spread. Maigre _France_ A name for Brie made in summer and inferior to both the winter Gras and spring Migras. Maile _Crimea_ Sheep; cooked; drained; salted; made into forms and put into a brine bath where it stays sometimes a year. Maile Pener (Fat Cheese) _Crimea_ Sheep; crumbly; open texture and pleasing flavor when ripened. Mainauer _German_ Semihard; full cream; round; red outside, yellow within. Weight three pounds. Mainzer Hand _German_ Typical hand cheese, kneaded by hand thoroughly, which makes for quality, pressed into flat cakes by hand, dried for a week, packed in kegs or jars and ripened in the cellar six to eight weeks. As in making bread, the skill in kneading Mainzer makes a worthy craft. Majocchino _Sicily, Italy_ An exceptional variety of the three usual milks mixed together: goat, sheep and cow, flavored with spices and olive oil. A kind of Incanestrato. Malakoff _France_ A form of Neufchâtel about a half inch by two inches, eaten fresh or ripe. Manicamp _French Flanders_ In season from October to July. Mano, Queso de _Venezuela_ A kind of Venezuelan hand cheese, as its Spanish name translates. (_See_ Venezuelan.) Manor House _see_ Herrgårdsost. Manteca, Butter _Italy_ Cheese and butter combined in a small brick of butter with a covering of Mozzarella. This is for slicing--not for cooking--which is unusual for any Italian cheese. Manur, or Manuri _Yugoslavia_ Sheep or cow's milk heated to boiling, then cooled "until the fingers can be held in it". A mixture of fresh whey and buttermilk is added with the rennet. "The curd is lifted from the whey in a cloth and allowed to drain, when it is kneaded like bread, lightly salted, and dried." Maqueé _Belgium_ Another name for Fromage Mou, Soft Cheese. Marches _Tuscany, Italy_ Ewe's milk; hard. Margarine _England_ An oily cheese made with oleomargarine. Margherita _Italy_ Soft; cream; small. Marienhofer _Austria_ Limburger type. About 4-1/2 inches square and 1-1/2 inches thick; weight about a pound. Wrapped in tin foil. Märkisch, or Märkisch Hand _Germany_ Soft; smelly; hand type. Maroilles, Marolles, Marole _Flanders, France_ Semisoft and semihard, half way between Pont l'Evêque and Limburger. Full flavor, high smell, reddish brown rind, yellow within. Five inches square and 2-1/4 inches thick; some larger. Martha Washington Aged Cheese _U.S.A._ Made by Kasper of Bear Creek, Wisconsin. (_See under_ Wisconsin in Chapter 4.) Mascarpone, or Macherone _Italy_ Soft; white; delicate fresh cream from Lombardy. Usually packed in muslin or gauze bags, a quarter to a half pound. McIntosh _Alaska_ An early Klondike Cheddar named by its maker, Peter McIntosh, and described as being as yellow as that "Alaskan gold, which brought at times about ounce for ounce over mining-camp counters." _The Cheddar Box_ by Dean Collins. McLaren's _U.S.A._ Pioneer club type of snappy Cheddar in a pot, originally made in Canada, now by Kraft in the U.S.A. Meadowbloom _U.S.A._ Made by the Iowa State College at Ames. Mecklenburg Skim _Germany_ No more distinguished than most skim-milkers. Meilbou _France_ Made in the Champagne district. Mein Käse _U.S.A._ Sharp; aromatic; trade-marked package. Melfa _U.S.A._ Excellent for a processed cheese. White; flavorsome. Packed in half moons. Melun _France_ Brown-red rind, yellow inside; high-smelling. There is also a Brie de Melun. Mentelto _Italy_ Sharp; goat; from the Mentelto mountains Merignac _France_ Goat. Merovingian _Northeast France_ Semisoft; white; creamy; sharp; historic since the time of the Merovingian kings. Mersem _France_ Lightly cooked. Mesitra _Crimea_ Eaten when fresh and unsalted; also when ripened. Soft, ewe's milk. Mesost _Sweden_ Whey; sweetish. Metton _Franche-Comté, France_ Season October to June. Meuse _France_ Soft; piquant; aromatic. Midget Salami Provolone _U.S.A._ This goes Baby Goudas and Edams one better by being a sort of sausage, too. Mignot _Calvados, France_ _White, No. I:_ Soft; fresh; in small cubes or cylinders; in season only in summer, April to September. _Passe, No. II:_ Soft but ripened, and in the same forms, but only seasonal in winter, October to March. Similar to Pont l'Evêque and popular for more than a century. It goes specially well with Calvados cider, fresh, hard or distilled. Migras Name given to spring Brie--midway between fat winter Gras and thin summer Maigre. Milano, Stracchino di Milano, Fresco, Quardo _Italy_ Similar to Bel Paese. Yellow, with thin rind. 1-1/2 to 2-3/4 inches thick, 3 to 6-1/2 pounds. Milk Mud _see_ Schlickermilch. Millefiori _Milan, Italy_ A Thousand Flowers--as highly scented as its sentimental name. Yet no cheeses are so freshly fragrant as these flowery Alpine ones. Milltown Bar _U.S.A._ Robust texture and flavor reminiscent of free-lunch and old-time bars. Milk cheeses Milks that make cheese around the world: Ass Buffalo Camel Chamois Elephant Goat Human (_see_ Mother's milk) Llama Mare Reindeer Sea cow (Amazonian legend) Sheep Whale (legendary; see Whale Cheese) Yak Zebra Zebu U.S. pure food laws prohibit cheeses made of unusual or strange animal's milk, such as camel, llama and zebra. Milwaukee Kümmelkäse and Hand Käse _U.S.A._ Aromatic with caraway, brought from Germany by early emigrants and successfully imitated. Minas _Brazil_ Name for the Brazilian state of Minas Geraes, where it is made. Semihard; white; round two-pounder; often chalky. The two best brands are one called Primavera, Spring, and another put out by the Swiss professors who teach the art at the Agricultural University in the State Capital, Bello Horizonte. Minnesota Blue _U.S.A._ A good national product known from coast to coast. Besides Blue, Minnesota makes good all-American Brick and Cheddar, natural nationals to be proud of. Mintzitra _in Macedonia; and_ Mitzithra _in Greece_ Sheep; soft; succulent; and as pleasantly greasy as other sheep cheeses from Greece. It's a by-product of the fabulous Feta. Modena, Monte _U.S.A._ Made in U.S.A. during World War II. Parmesan-type. Mohawk Limburger Spread _U.S.A._ A brand that comes in one-pound jars. Moliterno _Italy_ Similar to Caciocavallo. _(See.)_ Monceau _Champagne, France_ Semihard, similar to Maroilles. Moncenisio _Italy_ Similar to Gorgonzola. Mondseer, Mondseer Schachtelkäse, Mondseer Schlosskäse _Austria_ This little family with a lot of long names is closely related to the Münster tribe, with very distant connections with the mildest branch of the Limburgers. The Schachtelkäse is named from the wooden boxes in which it is shipped, while the Schlosskäse shows its class by being called Castle Cheese, probably because it is richer than the others, being made of whole milk. Money made of cheese _China_ In the Chase National Bank collection of moneys of the world there is a specimen of "Cheese money" about which the curator, Farran Zerbee, writes: "A specimen of the so-called 'cheese money' of Northern China, 1850-70, now in the Chase Bank collection, came to me personally some thirty years ago from a woman missionary, who had been located in the field where she said a cake form of condensed milk, and referred to as 'cheese,' was a medium of exchange among the natives. It, like other commodities, particularly compressed tea, was prized as a trading medium in China, in that it had value as nutriment and was sufficiently appreciated by the population as to be exchangeable for other articles of service." Monk's Head _see_ Tête de Moine. Monostorer _Transylvania, Rumania_ Ewe's milk. Monsieur _France_ Soft; salted; rich in flavor. Monsieur Fromage _see_ Fromage de Monsieur Fromage. Montana _Catalonia_ A mountain cheese. Montasio _Austria and Italy_ Usually skimmed goat and cow milk mixed. When finished, the rind is often rubbed with olive oil or blackened with soot. It is eaten both fresh, white and sweet, and aged, when it is yellow, granular and sharp, with a characteristic flavor. Mostly used when three to twelve months old, but kept much longer and grated for seasoning. Widely imitated in America. Montauban de Bretagne, Fromage de _Brittany, France_ A celebrated cheese of Brittany. Montavoner _Austria_ Sour and sometimes sweet milk, made tasty with dried herbs of the _Achittea_ family. Mont Blanc _France_ An Alpine cheese. Mont Cenis _Southeastern France_ Usually made of all three available milks, cow, goat and sheep; it is semihard and blue-veined like the other Roquefort imitations, Gex and Septmoncel. Primitive methods are still used in the making and sometimes the ripening is done by _penicillium_ introduced in moldy bread. Large rounds, eighteen by six to eight inches, weighing twenty-five pounds. Mont-des-Cats _French Flanders_ Trappist monk-made Port-Salut. Montdidier _France_ A fresh cream. Mont d'or, le, or Mont Dore _Lyonnais, France_ Soft; whole milk; originally goat, now cow; made throughout the Rhone Valley. Fat, golden-yellow and "relished by financiers" according to Victor Meusy. Between Brie and Pont l'Evêque but more delicate than either, though not effeminate. Alpin and Riola are similar. The best is still turned out at Mont d'Or, with runners-up in St. Cyr and St. Didier. Montavoner _Austria_ A sour-milker made fragrant with herbs added to the curd. Monterey _Mexico_ Hard; sharp; perhaps inspired by Montery Jack that's made in California and along the Mexican border. Monterey Jack _see_ Chapter 4. Monthéry _Seine-et-Oise, France_ Whole or partly skimmed milk; soft in quality and large in size, weighing up to 5-1/2 pounds. Notable only for its patriotic tri-color in ripening, with whitish mold that turns blue and has red spots. Montpellier _France_ Sheep. Moravian _Czechoslovakia_ Semihard and sharp. Morbier _Bresse, France_ In season from November to July. Mostoffait _France_ A little-known product of Champagne. Mother's milk In his book about French varieties, _Les Fromages_, Maurice des Ombiaux sums up the many exotic milks made into cheese and recounts the story of Paul Bert, who served a cheese "white as snow" that was so delicately appetizing it was partaken of in "religious silence." All the guests guessed, but none was right. So the host announced it was made of _"lait de femme"_ and an astounded turophile exclaimed, "Then all of us are cannibals." Mountain _Bavaria_ Soft; yellow; sharp. Mountain, Azuldoch _see_ Azuldoch. Mount Hope _U.S.A._ Yellow; mellow; mild and porous California Cheddar. Mouse or Mouse Trap _U.S.A._ Common name for young, green, cracked, leathery or rubbery low-grade store cheese fit only to bait traps. When it's aged and sharp, however, the same cheese can be bait for caseophiles. Mozzarella _Italy_ Soft; water-buffalo milk; moistly fresh and unripened; bland, white cooking cheese put up in balls or big bowl-like cups weighing about a half pound and protected with wax paper. The genuine is made at Cardito, Aversa, Salernitano and in the Mazzoni di Capua. Like Ricotta, this is such a popular cheese all over America that it is imitated widely, and often badly, with a bitter taste. Mozzarella-Affumicata, also called Scamozza _Italy_ Semisoft; smooth; white; bland; un-salted. Put up in pear shapes of about one pound, with tan rind, from smoking. Eaten chiefly sliced, but prized, both fresh and smoked, in true Italian one-dish meals such as Lasagne and Pizza. Mozzarinelli _Italy_ A pet name for a diminutive edition of Mozzarella. Mrsav _see_ Sir Posny. Münster _Germany_ German originally, now made from Colmar, Strassburg and Copenhagen to Milwaukee in all sorts of imitations, both good and bad. Semihard; whole milk; yellow inside, brick-red outside; flavor from mild to strong, depending on age and amount of caraway or anise seed added. Best in winter season, from November to April. Münster is a world-wide classic that doubles for both German and French. Géromé is a standard French type of it, with a little longer season, beginning in April, and a somewhat different flavor from anise seed. Often, instead of putting the seeds inside, a dish of caraway is served with the cheese for those who like to flavor to taste. In Alsace, Münster is made plain and also under the name of Münster au Cumin because of the caraway. American imitations are much milder and marketed much younger. They are supposed to blend the taste of Brick and Limburger; maybe they do. Mustard _U.S.A._ A processed domestic, Gruyère type. Myjithra Imitated with goat's milk in Southern Colorado. Mysost, Mytost _Scandinavia_ Made in all Scandinavian countries and imitated in the U.S.A. A whey cheese, buttery, mild and sweetish with a caramel color all through, instead of the heavy chocolate or dark tobacco shade of Gjetost. Frimost is a local name for it. The American imitations are cylindrical and wrapped in tin foil. N Nagelkassa (Fresh), Fresh Clove Cheese, called Nageles in Holland _Austria_ Skim milk; curd mixed with caraway and cloves called nails, _nagel_, in Germany and Austria. The large flat rounds resemble English Derby. Nantais, or Fromage du Curé, Cheese of the Curate _Brittany, France_ A special variety dedicated to some curate of Nantes. Nessel _England_ Soft; whole milk; round and very thin. Neufchâtel, or Petit Suisse _Normandy, France_ Soft; whole milk; small loaf. See Ancien Impérial, Bondon, and Chapter 9. New Forest _England_ Cream cheese from the New Forest district. Nieheimer _Westphalia, Germany_ Sour milk; with salt and caraway seed added, sometimes beer or milk. Covered lightly with straw and packed in kegs with hops to ripen. Both beer and hops in one cheese is unique. Niolo _Corsica_ In season from October to May. Noekkelost or Nögelost _Norway_ Similar to spiced Leyden or Edam with caraway, and shaped like a Gouda. Nordlands-Ost "Kalas" _U.S.A._ Trade name for an American imitation of a Scandinavian variety, perhaps suggested by Swedish Nordost. Nordost _Sweden_ Semisoft; white; baked; salty and smoky. North Wilts _Wiltshire, England_ Cheddar type; smooth; hard rind; rich but delicate in flavor. Small size, ten to twelve pounds; named for its locale. Nostrale _Northwest Italy_ An ancient-of-days variety of which there are two kinds: I. _Formaggio Duro:_ hard, as its name says, made in the spring when the cows are in the valley. II. _Formaggio Tenero:_ soft and richer, summer-made with milk from lush mountain-grazing. Notruschki (cheese bread) _Russia_ Made with Tworog cheese and widely popular. Nova Scotia Smoked _U.S.A._ The name must mean that the cheese was smoked in the Nova Scotia manner, for it is smoked mostly in New York City, like sturgeon, to give the luxurious flavor. Nuworld _U.S.A._ This semisoft newcomer arrived about 1954 and is advertised as a brand-new variety. It is made in the Midwest and packed in small, heavily waxed portions to preserve all of its fine, full aroma and flavor. A cheese all America can be proud of, whether it is an entirely new species or not. O Oaxaca _see_ Asadero. Oka, or La Trappe _Canada_ Medium soft; aromatic; the Port-Salut made by Trappist monks in Canada after the secret method of the order that originated in France. _See_ Trappe. Old English Club _U.S.A._ Not old, not English, and representing no club we know of. Old Heidelberg _U.S.A._ Soft, piquant rival of Liederkranz. Oléron Isle, Fromage d'Ile _France_ A celebrated sheep cheese from this island of Oléron. Olive Cream _U.S.A._ Ground olives mixed to taste with cream cheese. Olives rival pimientos for such mildly piquant blends that just suit the bland American taste. A more exciting olive cream may be made with Greek Calatma olives and Feta sheep cheese. Olivet _Orléans, France_ Soft sheep cheese sold in three forms: I. Fresh; summer, white; cream cheese. II. Olivet-Bleu--mold inoculated; half-ripened. III. Olivet-Cendré, ripened in the ashes. Season, October to June. Olmützer Quargel, also Olmützer Bierkäse _Austria_ Soft; skim milk-soured; salty. The smallest of hand cheeses, only 1/2 of an inch thick by 1-1/2 inches in diameter. Packed in kegs to ripen into beer cheese and keep the liquid contents of other kegs company. A dozen of these little ones are packed together in a box ready to drop into wine or beer drinks at home or at the bar. Oloron, or Fromage de la Vallee d'ossour _Béarn, France_ In season from October to May. Onion with garlic links _U.S.A_ Processed and put up like frankfurters, in links. Oporto _Portugal_ Hard; sharp; tangy. From the home town of port wine. Orkney _Scotland_ A country cheese of the Orkney Islands where it is buried in the oat bin to ripen, and kept there between meals as well. Oatmeal and Scotch country cheese are natural affinities. Southey, Johnson and Boswell have all remarked the fine savor of such cheese with oatcakes. Orléans _France_ Named after the Orléans district Soft; creamy; tangy. Ossetin, Tuschninsk, or Kasach _Caucasus_ Comes in two forms: I. Soft and mild sheep or cow cheese ripened in brine for two months. II. Hard, after ripening a year and more in brine. The type made of sheep milk is the better. Ostiepek, Oschtjepek, Oschtjpeka _Czechoslovakia_ Sheep in the Carpathian Mountains supply the herb-rich milk for this type, similar to Italian Caciocavallo. Oswego _U.S.A._ New York State Cheddar of distinction. Oude Kaas _Belgium_ Popular in France as Boule de Lille. Oust, Fromage de _Roussillon, France_ Of the Camembert family. Ovár _Hungarian_ Semisoft to semihard, reddish-brown rind, reddish-yellow inside. Mild but pleasantly piquant It has been called Hungarian Tilsit. Oveji Sir _Yugoslavian Alpine_ Hard, mountain-sheep cheese of quality Cellar-ripened three months. Weight six to ten pounds. Oxfordshire _England_ An obsolescent type, now only of literary interest because of Jonathan Swift's little story around it, in the eighteenth century: "An odd land of fellow, who when the cheese came upon the table, pretended to faint; so somebody said, Pray take away the cheese.' "'No,' said I, 'pray take away the fool. Said I well?' "To this Colonel Arwit rejoins: 'Faith, my lord, you served the coxcomb right enough; and therefore I wish we had a bit of your lordship's Oxfordshire cheese.'" P Pabstett _U.S.A_ The Pabst beer people got this out during Prohibition, and although beer and cheese are brothers under their ferment, and Prohibition has long since been done away with, the relation of the processed paste to a natural cheese is still as distant as near beer from regular beer. Packet cheese _England_ This corresponds to our process cheese and is named from the package or packet it comes in. Paglia _Switzerland_ Italian-influenced Canton of Ticino. Soft. A copy of Gorgonzola. A Blue with a pleasant, aromatic flavor, and of further interest because in Switzerland, the motherland of cheese, it is an imitation of a foreign type. Pago _Dalmatia, Yugoslavia_ A sheep-milk specialty made on the island of Pago in Dalmatia, in weights from 1/2 to eight pounds. Paladru _Savoy, France_ In season from November to May. Palpuszta _Hungary_ Fairly strong Limburger type. Pannarone _Italy_ Gorgonzola type with white curd but without blue veining. Parenica _Hungary_ Sheep. Caciocavallo type. Parmesan, Parmigiano _Italy_ The grand mogul of all graters. Called "The hardest cheese in the world." It enlivens every course from onion soup to cheese straws with the demitasse, and puts spirit into the sparse Lenten menu as _Pasta al Pesto_, powdered Parmesan, garlic, olive oil and basil, pounded in a mortar with a pestle. Passauer Rahmkäse, Crème de Passau _German_ Noted Bavarian cream cheese, known in France as Crème de Passau. Pasta Cotta _Italy_ The ball or _grana_ of curd used in making Parmesan. Pasta Filata _Italy_ A "drawn" curd, the opposite of the little balls or grains into which Grana is chopped.(_See_ Formaggi di Pasta Filata.) Pasteurized Process Cheese Food _U.S.A._ This is the ultimate desecration of natural fermented cheese. Had Pasteur but known what eventual harm his discovery would do to a world of cheese, he might have stayed his hand. Pastorella _Italy_ Soft, rich table cheese. Patagras _Cuba_ Similar to Gouda. Pecorino _Italy_ Italian cheese made from ewe's milk. Salted in brine. Granular. Pelardon de Rioms _Languedoc, France_ A goat cheese in season from May to November. Peneteleu _Rumania_ One of the international Caciocavallo family. Penicillium Glaucum and Penicillium Album Tiny mushroom spores of _Penicillium Glaucum_ sprinkled in the curd destined to become Roquefort, sprout and grow into "blue" veins that impart the characteristic flavor. In twelve to fifteen days a second spore develops on the surface, snow-white _Penicillium Album_. Pennich _Turkey_ Mellow sheep cheese packed in the skin of sheep or lamb. Pennsylvania Hand Cheese _U.S.A._ This German original has been made by the Pennsylvania Dutch ever since they arrived from the old country. Also Pennsylvania pot, or cooked. Penroque _Pennsylvania, U.S.A_ Cow milk imitation Roquefort, inoculated with _Penicillium Roqueforti_ and ripened in "caverns where nature has duplicated the ideal condition of the cheese-curing caverns of France." So any failure of Penroque to rival real Roquefort is more likely to be the fault of mother cow than mother nature. Pepato _Italy_ Hard; stinging, with whole black peppers that make the lips burn. Fine for fire-eaters. An American imitation is made in Northern Michigan. Persillé de Savoie _Savoie, France_ In season from May to January, flavored with parsley in a manner similar to that of sage in Vermont Cheddar. Petafina, La _Dauphiné, France_ Goat or cow milk mixed together, with yeast of dried cheese added, plus salt and pepper, olive oil, brandy and absinthe. Petit Carré _France_ Fresh, unripened Ancien Impérial. Petit Gruyère _Denmark_ Imitation Gruyère, pasteurized, processed and made almost unrecognizable and inedible. Six tin-foil wedges to a box; also packaged with a couple of crackers for bars, one wedge for fifteen cents, where free lunch is forbidden. This is a fair sample of one of several foreign imitations that are actually worse than we can do at home. Petit Moule _Ile-de-France, France_ A pet name for Coulommiers. Petit Suisse _France_ Fresh, unsalted cream cheese. The same as Neufchâtel and similar to Coulommiers. It comes in two sizes: Gros--a largest cylinder Demi--a small one Keats called this "the creamy curd," and another writer has praised its "La Fontaine-like simplicity." Whether made in Normandy, Switzerland, or Petropolis, Brazil, by early Swiss settlers, it is ideal with honey. Petit Vacher _France_ "Little Cowboy," an appropriate name for a small cow's-milk cheese. Petits Bourgognes _Lower Burgundy, France_ Soft; sheep; white, small, tangy. Other notable Petits also beginning with B are Banons and Bressans. Petits Fromages de Chasteaux, les _France_ Small, sheep cream cheeses from Lower Limousin. Petits Fromages de Chèvre _France_ Little cheeses from little goats grazing on the little mountains of Provence. Petits Pots de Caillé de Poitiers _Poitou, France_ Clotted milk in small pots. Pfister _Cham, Switzerland_ Emmentaler type, although differing in its method of making with fresh skim milk. It is named for Pfister Huber who was the first to manufacture it, in Chain. Philadelphia Cream _U.S.A._ An excellent cream cheese that has been standard for seventy years. Made in New York State in spite of its name. Picnic _U.S.A._ Handy-size picnic packing of mild American Cheddar. Swiss has long been called picnic cheese in America, its home away from home. Picodon de Dieule Fit _Dauphiné, France_ In season from May to December. Pie, Fromage à la _France_ Another name for Fromage Blanc or Farm; soft, creamy cottage-cheese type. Pie Cheese _U.S.A_ An apt American name for any round store cheese that can be cut in wedges like a pie. Perfect with apple or mince or any other pie. And by the way, in these days when natural cheese is getting harder to find, any piece of American Cheddar cut in pie wedges before being wrapped in cellophane is apt to be the real thing--if it has the rind on. The wedge shape is used, however, _without any rind_, to make processed pastes pass for "natural" even without that identifying word, and with misleading labels such as old, sharp Cheddar and "aged nine months." That's long enough to make a baby, but not a "natural" out of a processed "Cheddar." Pimiento _U.S.A._ Because pimiento is the blandest of peppers, it just suits our bland national taste, especially when mixed with Neufchâtel, cream, club or cottage. The best is homemade, of course, with honest, snappy old Cheddar mashed and mixed to taste, with the mild Spanish pepper that equals the Spanish olive as a partner in such spreads. Pimp _see_ Mainzer Hand Cheese. Pineapple _see_ Chapter 4. Piora _Tessin, Switzerland_ Whole milk, either cow's or a mixture of goat's and cow's. Pippen _U.S.A._ Borden brand of Cheddar. Also Pippen Roll Pithiviers au Foin _France_ Orléans variety ripened on hay from October to May. Poitiers _France_ Goat's milker named from its Poitou district. Pommel _France_ All year. Double cream; unsalted. Ponta Delgada _Azores_ Semifirm; delicate; piquant Pontgibaud _France_ Similar to Roquefort Ripened at a very low temperature. Pont l'Evêque Characterized as a classic French _fromage_ "with Huge-like Romanticism." (_See_ Chapter 3.) An imported brand is called "The Inquisitive Cow." Poona _U.S.A._ Semisoft; mellow; New York Stater of distinctive flavor. Sold in two-pound packs, to be kept four or five hours at room temperature before serving. Port-Salut, Port du Salut _see_ Chapter 3. Port, Blue Links _U.S.A._ "Blue" flavored with red port and put up in pseudo-sausage links. Pot cheese _U.S.A._ Cottage cheese with a dry curd, not creamed. An old English favorite for fruited cheese cakes with perfumed plums, lemons, almonds and macaroons. In Ireland it was used in connection with the sheep-shearing ceremonies, although itself a common cow curd. Pennsylvania pot cheese is cooked. Potato _Germany and U.S.A._ Made in Thuringia from sour cow milk with sheep or goat sometimes added. "The potatoes are boiled and grated or mashed. One part of the potato is thoroughly mixed or kneaded with two or three parts of die curd. In the better cheese three parts of potatoes are mixed with two of curd. During the mixing, salt and sometimes caraway seed are added. The cheese is allowed to stand for from two to four days while a fermentation takes place. After this the curd is sometimes covered with beer or cream and is finally placed in tubs and allowed to ripen for fourteen days. A variety of this cheese is made in the U.S. It is probable, however, that it is not allowed to ripen for quite so long a period as the potato cheese of Europe. In all other essentials it appears to be the same." From U.S. Department of Agriculture _Bulletin_ No. 608. Potato Pepper _Italy_ Italian Potato cheese is enlivened with black pepper, like Pepato, only not so stony hard. Pots de Crème St. Gervais _St. Gervais-sur-mer, France_ The celebrated cream that rivals English Devonshire and is eaten both as a sweet and as a fresh cheese. Pouligny-St. Pierre _Touraine, France_ A celebrated cylindrical cheese made in Indre. Season from May to December. Poustagnax, le _France_ A fresh cow-milk cheese of Gascony. Prato _Brazil_ Semihard, very yellow imitation of the Argentine imitation of Holland Dutch. Standard Brazilian dessert with guava or quince paste. Named not from "dish" but the River Plate district of the Argentine from whence it was borrowed long ago. Prattigau _Switzerland_ Aromatic and sharp, Limburger type, from skim milk. Named for its home valley. Prestost or Saaland Flarr _Sweden_ Similar to Gouda, but unique--the curd being mixed with whiskey, packed in a basket, salted and cellared, wrapped in a cloth changed daily; and on the third day finally washed with whiskey. Primavera, Spring _Minas Geraes, Brazil_ Semihard white brand of Minas cheese high quality, with a spring-like fragrance. Primost _Norway_ Soft; whey; unripened; light brown; mild flavor. Primula _Norway_ A blend of French Brie and Petit Gruyère, mild table cheese imitate in Norway, sold in small packages. Danish Appetitost is similar, but with caraway added. Processed _U.S.A._ From here around the world. Natural cheese melted and modified by emulsification with a harmless agent and thus changed into a plastic mass. Promessi _Italy_ Small soft-cream cheese. Provatura _Italy_ A water-buffalo variety. This type of milk makes a good beginning for a fine cheese, no matter how it is made. Providence _France_ Port-Salut from the Trappist monastery at Briquebec. Provole, Provolone, Provolocine, Provoloncinni, Provoletti, and Provolino _Italy_ All are types, shapes and sizes of Italy's most widely known and appreciated cheese. It is almost as widely but badly imitated in the U.S.A., where the final "e" and "i" are interchangeable. Cured in string nets that stay on permanently to hang decoratively in the home kitchen or dining room. Like straw Chianti bottles, Provolones weigh from _bocconi_ (mouthful), about one pound, to two to four pounds. There are three-to five-pound Provoletti, and upward with huge Salamis and Giants. Small ones come ball, pear, apple, and all sorts of decorative shapes, big ones become monumental sculptures that are works of art to compare with butter and soap modeling. P'teux, le, or Fromage Cuit _Lorraine, France_ Cooked cheese worked with white wine instead of milk, and potted. Puant Macere _Flanders_ "The most candidly named cheese in existence." In season from November to June. Pultost or Knaost _Norway_ Sour milk with some buttermilk, farm made in mountains. Pusztador _Hungary_ Semihard, Limburger-Romadur type. Full flavor, high scent. Pyrenees, Fromage des _France_ A fine mountain variety. Q Quartiolo _Italy_ Term used to distinguish Parmesan-type cheese made between September and November. Quacheq _Macedonia, Greece_ Sheep, eaten both fresh and ripened. Quargel _see_ Olmützer. Quartirolo _Italy_ Soft, cow's milk. Queijos--Cheeses of the Azores, Brazil and Portugal _see_ under their local or regional names: Alemtejo, Azeitão, Cardiga, Ilha, Prato and Serra da Estrella. Queso Anejo _Mexico_ White, dry, skim milk. Queso de Bola _Mexico_ Whole milk, similar to Edam. Queso de Cavallo _Venezuela_ Pear-shaped cheese. Quesos Cheeses: Blanco, Cartera and Palma Metida _see_ Venezuela. Queso de Cincho _Venezuela_ Hard, round orange balls weighing four pounds and wrapped in palm leaves. Queso de Crema _Costa Rica_ Similar to soft Brick. Queso de Hoja, Leaf Cheese _Puerto Rico_ Named from its appearance when cut, like leaves piled on top of each other. Queso de Mano _Venezuela_ Aromatic, sharp, in four-ounce packages. Queso del Fais, Queso de la Tierra _Puerto Rico_ White; pressed; semisoft Consumed locally, Queso de Prensa _Puerto Rico_ The name means pressed cheese. It is eaten either fresh or after ripening two or three months. Queso de Puna _Puerto Rico_ Like U.S. cottage or Dutch cheese, eaten fresh. Queso de Tapara _Venezuela_ Made in Carora, near Barqisimeto, called _tapara_ from the shape and tough skin of that local gourd. "It is very good fresh, but by the time it arrives in Carora it is often bad and dry." D.K.K. in _Bueno Provecho._ Queso Fresco _El Salvador_ Cottage-cheese type. Queville _see_ Chapter 3. Queyras _see_ Champoléon. R Rabaçal _Coimbra, Portugal_ Semisoft; sheep or goat; thick, round, four to five inches in diameter. Pleasantly oily, if made from sheep milk. Rabbit Cheese _U.S.A._ A playful name for Cheddar two to three years old. Radener _Germany_ Hard; skim, similar to Emmentaler; made in Mecklenburg. Sixteen by four inches, weight 32 pounds. Radolfzeller Cream _Germany, Switzerland, Austria_ Similar to Münster. Ragnit _see_ Tilsit. Rahmkäse, Allgäuer _German_ Cream. Rainbow _Mexico_ Mild; mellow. Ramadoux _Belgium_ Soft; sweet cream; formed in cubes. Similar to Hervé Rammil or Rammel _England_ André Simon calls this "the best cheese made in Dorsetshire." Also called Rammilk, because made from whole or "raw milk." Practically unobtainable today. Rangiport _France_ A good imitation of Port-Salut made in Seine-et-Oise. Rarush Durmar _Turkey_ Brittle; mellow; nutty. Rächerkäse The name for all smoked cheese in Germanic countries, where it is very popular. Raviggiolo _Tuscany, Italy_ Ewe's milk. Uncooked; soft; sweet; creamy. Rayon or Raper _Switzerland_ A blind Emmentaler called Rayon is shipped young to Italy, where it is hardened by aging and then sold as Raper, for grating and seasoning. Reblochon or Roblochon _Savoy_ Sheep; soft; whole milk; in season from October to June. Weight one to two pounds. A cooked cheese imitated as Brizecon in the same section. Récollet de Gérardmer _Vosges, France_ A harvest variety similar to Géromé, made from October to April Red _Russia_ _see_ Livlander. Red Balls _Dutch_ _see_ Edam. Reggiano _see_ Grana. Regianito _Argentine_ Italian Reggiano type with a name of its own, for it is not a mere imitation in this land of rich milk and extra fine cheeses. Reichkäse _German_ Patriotically hailed as cheese of the empire, when Germany had one. Reindeer _Lapland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway_ In all far northern lands a type of Swiss is made from reindeer milk It is lightly salted, very hard; and the Lapland production is curiously formed, like a dumbbell with angular instead of round ends. Relish cream cheese _U.S.A._ Mixed with any piquant relish and eaten fresh. Remoudon, or Fromage Piquant _Belgium_ The two names combine in re-ground piquant cheese, and that's what it is. The season is winter, from November to June. Requeijão _Portugal and Brazil_ Recooked. Resurrection _see_ Welsh. Rhubarbe _France_ A type of Roquefort which, in spite of its name, is no relation to our pie plant. Riceys _see_ Champenois. Ricotta Romano _Italy_ Soft and fresh. The best is made from sheep buttermilk. Creamy, piquant, with subtle fragrance. Eaten with sugar and cinnamon, sometimes with a dusting of powdered coffee. Ricotta _Italy and U.S.A._ Fresh, moist, unsalted cottage cheese for sandwiches, salads, lasagne, blintzes and many Italian dishes. It is also mixed with Marsala and rum and relished for dessert Ricotta may be had in every Little Italy, some of it very well made and, unfortunately, some of it a poor substitute whey cheese. Ricotta Salata Hard; grayish white. Although its flavor is milk it is too hard and too salty for eating as is, and is mostly used for grating. Riesengebirge _Bohemia_ Semisoft; goat or cow; delicate flavor, lightly smoked in Bohemia's northern mountains. Rinnen _Germany_ This traditional Pomeranian sour-milk, caraway-seeded variety is named from the wooden trough in which it is laid to drain. Riola _Normandy, France_ Soft; sheep or goat; sharp; resembles Mont d'Or but takes longer to ripen, two to three months. Robbiole Robbiola Robbiolini _ Lombardy_ _ Italian_ Very similar to Crescenza (_see_.) Alpine winter cheese of fine quality. The form is circular and flat, weighing from eight ounces to two pounds, while Robbiolini, the baby of the family tips the scale at just under four ounces. Roblochon, le Same as Reblochon. A delicious form of it is made of half-dried sheep's milk in Le Grand Bornand. Rocamadur _Limousin, France_ Tiny sheep milk cheese weighing two ounces. In season November to May. Rocroi _France_ From the Champagne district. Rokadur _Yugoslavia_ Imitation Roquefort. Roll _England_ Hard cylinder, eight by nine inches, weighing twenty pounds. Rollot or Rigolot _Picardy and Montdidier, France_ Soft; fermented; mold-inoculated; resembles Brie and Camembert, but much smaller. In season October to May. This is Picardy's one and only cheese. Roma _Italy_ Soft cream. Romadour, Romadura, and other national spellings _Germany, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland_ A great Linburger. The eating season is from November to April. It is not a summer cheese, especially in lands where refrigeration is scarce. Fine brands are exported to America from several countries. Romano, Romano Vacchino _Italy_ Strong: flavoring cheese like Parmesan and Pecorino. Romanello _U.S.A._ Similar to Romano Vacchino and Old Monterey Jack. Small grating cheese, cured one year. Roquefort _France_ King of cheeses, with its "tingling Rabelaisian pungency." _See_ Chapter 3. Roquefort cheese dressing, bottled _U.S.A._ Made with genuine imported Roquefort, but with cottonseed oil instead of olive, plain instead of wine vinegar, sugar, salt, paprika, mustard, flour and spice oil. Roquefort de Corse _Corsica, France_ This Corsican imitation is blue-colored and correctly made of sheep milk, but lacks the chalk caves of Auvergne for ripening. Roquefort de Tournemire _France_ Another Blue cheese of sheep milk from Languedoc, using the royal Roquefort name. Rougerets, les _Lyonnais, France_ A typical small goat cheese from Forez, in a section where practically every variety is made with goat milk. Rouennais _France_ This specialty, named after its city, Rouen, is a winter cheese, eaten from October to May. Round Dutch _Holland_ An early name for Edam. Rouy, le _Normandy, France_ From the greatest of the cheese provinces, Normandy. Royal Brabant _Belgium_ Whole milk. Small, Limburger type. Royal Sentry _Denmark_ Processed Swiss made in Denmark and shipped to Americans who haven't yet learned that a European imitation can be as bad as an American one. This particular pasteurized process-cheese spread puts its ingredients in finer type than any accident insurance policy: Samsoe (Danish Swiss) cheese, cream, water, non-fat dry milk solids, cheese whey solids and disodium phosphate. Ruffec, Fromage de _Saintonge, France_ Fresh; goat. Runesten _Denmark and U.S.A._ Similar to Herrgårdsost. Small eyes. "Wheel" weighs about three pounds. Wrapped in red transparent film. Rush Cream Cheese _England and France_ Not named from the rush in which many of our cheeses are made, but from the rush mats and nets some fresh cream cheeses are wrapped and sewed up in to ripen. According to an old English recipe the curds are collected with an ordinary fish-slice and placed in a rush shape, covered with a cloth when filled. Lay a half-pound weight in a saucer and set this on top of the strained curd for a few hours, and then increase the weight by about a half pound. Change the cloths daily until the cheese looks mellow, then put into the rush shape with the fish slice. The formula in use in France, where willow heart-shape baskets are sold for making this cheese, is as follows: Add one cup new warm milk to two cups freshly-skimmed cream. Dissolve in this one teaspoon of fine sugar and one tablespoon common rennet or thirty drops of Hauser's extract of rennet. Let it remain in a warm place until curd sets. Rush and straw mats are easily made by cutting the straw into lengths and stringing them with a needle and thread. The mats or baskets should not be used a second time. S Saaland Pfarr, or Prestost _Sweden_ Firm; sharp; biting; unique of its kind because it is made with whiskey as an ingredient and the finished product is also washed with whiskey. Saanen _Switzerland_ Semihard and as mellow as all good Swiss cheese. This is the finest cheese in the greatest cheese land; an Emmentaler also known as Hartkäse, Reibkäse and Walliskäse, it came to fame in the sixteenth century and has always fetched an extra price for its quality and age. It is cooked much dryer in the making, so it takes longer to ripen and then keeps longer than any other. It weighs only ten to twenty pounds and the eyes are small and scarce. The average period needed for ripening is six years, but some take nine. Sage, or Green cheese _England_ This is more of a cream cheese, than a Cheddar, as Sage is in the U.S.A. It is made by adding sage leaves and a greening to milk by the method described in Chapter 4. Saint-Affrique _Guyenne, France_ This gourmetic center, hard by the celebrated town of Roquefort, lives up to its reputation by turning out a toothsome goat cheese of local renown. We will not attempt to describe it further, since like most of the host of cheeses honored with the names of Saints, it is seldom shipped abroad. Saint-Agathon _Brittany, France_ Season, October to July. Saint-Amand-Montrond _Berry, France_ Made from goat's milk. Saint-Benoit _Loiret, France_ Soft Olivet type distinguished by charcoal being added to the salt rubbed on the outside of the finished cheese. It ripens in twelve to fifteen days in summer, and eighteen to twenty in winter. It is about six inches in diameter. Saint-Claude _Franche-Comté, France_ Semihard; blue; goat; mellow; small; square; a quarter to a half pound. The curd is kept five to six hours only before salting and is then eaten fresh or put away to ripen. Saint-Cyr _see_ Mont d'Or. Saint-Didier au Mont d'Or _see_ Mont d'Or. Saint-Florentin _Burgundy, France_ A lusty cheese, soft but salty, in season from November to July. Saint-Flour _Auvergne, France_ Another seasonal specialty from this province of many cheeses. Saint-Gelay _Poitou, France_ Made from goat's milk. Saint-Gervais, Pots de Creme, or Le Saint Gervais _see_ Pots de Crème. Saint-Heray _see_ La Mothe. Saint-Honoré _Nivernais, France_ A small goat cheese. Saint-Hubert _France_ Similar to Brie. Saint-Ivel _England_ Fresh dairy cream cheese containing _Lactobacillus acidophilus_. Similar to the yogurt cheese of the U.S.A., which is made with _Bacillus Bulgaricus._ Saint-Laurent _Roussillon, France_ Mountain sheep cheese. Saint-Lizier _Béarn, France_ A white, curd cheese. Saint-Loup, Fromage de _Poitou and Vendée, France_ Half-goat, half-cow milk, in season February to September Saint-Marcellin _Dauphiné, France_ One of the very best of all goat cheeses. Three by 3/4 inches, weighing a quarter of a pound. In season from March to December. Sometimes sheep milk may be added, even cow's, but this is essentially a goat cheese. Saint-Moritz _Switzerland_ Soft and tangy. Saint-Nectaire, or Senecterre _Auvergne, France_ Noted as one of the greatest of all French goat cheeses. Saint-Olivet _see_ Chapter 3. Saint-Pierre-Pouligny _see_ Pouligny-Saint-Pierre. Saint-Reine _see_ Alise. Saint-Rémy, Fromage de _Haute-Saône, France_ Soft Pont l'Evêque type. Saint-Stefano _German_ Bel Paese type. Saint-Winx _Flanders, France_ The fromage of Saint-Winx is a traditional leader in this Belgian border province noted for its strong, spiced dairy products. Sainte-Anne d'Auray _Brittany, France_ A notable Port-Salut made by Trappist monks. Sainte-Marie _Franche-Comté, France_ A creamy concoction worthy of its saintly name. Sainte-Maure, le, or Fromage de Sainte-Maure-de-Touraine _France_ Made in Touraine from May to November. Similar to Valençay. Salamana _Southern Europe_ Soft sheep's milk cheese stuffed into bladderlike sausage, to ripen. It has authority and flavor when ready to spread on bread, or to mix with cornmeal and cook into a highly cheese-flavored porridge. Salame _France_ Soft cream cheese stuffed into skins like salami sausages. Salami-sausage style of packing cheese has always been common in Italy, from Provolone down, and now--both as salami and links--it has became extremely popular for processed and cheese foods throughout America. Salers, Bleu de _France_ One of the very good French Blues. Saligny _Champagne, France_ White cheese made from sheep's milk. Saloio _Lisbon, Portugal_ An aromatic farm-made hand cheese of skim milk. Short cylinder, 1-1/2 to two inches in diameter, weighing a quarter of a pound. Made near the capital, Lisbon, on many small farms. Salonite _Italy_ Favorite of Emperor Augustus a couple of thousand years ago. Saltee _Ireland_ Firm; highly colored; tangy; boxed in half-pound slabs. The same as Whitethorn except for the added color. Whitethorn is as white as its name implies. Salt-free cheese, for diets U.S. cottage; French fresh goat cheese; and Luxembourg Kochenkäse. Samsö _Denmark_ Hard; white; sharp; slightly powdery and sweetish. This is the pet cheese of Erik Blegvad who illustrated this book. Sandwich Nut An American mixture of chopped nuts with Cream cheese or Neufchâtel. Sapsago _see_ Chapter 3. Sardegna _Sardinia_ A Romano type made in Sardinia. Sardinian _Sardinia, Italy_ The typical hard grating cheese of this section of Italy. Sardo _Sardinia, Italy_ Hard; sharp; for table and for seasoning. Imitated in the Argentine. There is also a Pecorino named Sardo. Sarraz or Sarrazin _Vaud, Switzerland_ Roquefort type. Sassenage _Dauphiny, France_ Semihard; bluer and stronger than Stilton. This makes a French trio of Blues with Septmoncel and Gex, all three of which are made with the three usual milks mixed: cow, goat and sheep. A succulent fermented variety for which both Grenoble and Sassenage are celebrated. Satz _Germany_ Hard cheese made in Saxony. Savoy, Savoie _France_ Semisoft; mellow; tangy Port-Salut made by Trappist monks in Savoy. Sbrinz _Argentine_ Hard; dry; nutty; Parmesan grating type. Scanno _Abruzzi, Italy_ Soft as butter; sheep; burnt taste, delicious with fruits. Blackened rind, deep yellow interior. Scarmorze or Scamorze _Italy_ Hard; buffalo milk; mild Provolone type. Also called Pear from being made in that shape, oddly enough also in pairs, tied together to hang from rafters on strings in ripening rooms or in the home kitchen. Fine when sliced thick and fried in olive oil. A specialty around Naples. Light-tan oiled rind, about 3-1/2 by five inches in size. Imitated in Wisconsin and sold as Pear cheese. Schabziger _see_ Chapter 3. Schafkäse (Sheep Cheese) _Germany_ Soft; part sheep milk; smooth and delightful. Schamser, or Rheinwald _Canton Graubiinden, Switzerland_ Large skim-milker eighteen by five inches, weighing forty to forty-six pounds. Schlickermilch This might be translated "milk mud." It's another name for Bloder, sour milk "waddle" cheese. Schlesische Sauermilchkäse _Silesia, Poland_ Hard; sour-milker; made like hand cheese. Laid on straw-covered shelves, dried by a stove in winter and in open latticed sheds in summer. When very dry and hard, it is put to ripen in a cellar three to eight weeks and washed with warm water two or three times a week. Schlesischer Weichquarg _Silesia, Poland_ Soft, fresh skim, sour curd, broken up and cooked at 100° for a short time. Lightly pressed in a cloth sack twenty-four hours, then kneaded and shaped by hand, as all hand cheeses are. Sometimes sharply flavored with onions or caraway. Eaten fresh, before the strong hand cheese odor develops. Schloss, Schlosskäse, or Bismarck _German_ This Castle cheese, also named for Bismarck and probably a favorite of his, together with Bismarck jelly doughnuts, is an aristocratic Limburger that served as a model for Liederkranz. Schmierkäse German cottage cheese that becomes smearcase in America. Schnitzelbank Pot _see_ Liederkranz, Chapter 4. Schönland _German_ Imitation of Italian Bel Paese, also translated "beautiful land." Schützenkäse _Austria_ Romadur-type. Small rectangular blocks weighing less than four ounces and wrapped in tin foil. Shottengsied _Alpine_ A whey cheese made and consumed locally in the Alps. Schwarzenberger _Hungary and Bohemia_ One part skim to two parts fresh milk. It takes two to three months to ripen. Schweizerkäse _Switzerland_ German for Swiss cheese. (_See_ Emmentaler.) Schweizerost Dansk, Danish Swiss Cheese _Denmark_ A popular Danish imitation of Swiss Swiss cheese that is nothing wonderful. Select Brick _see_ Chapter 12. Selles-sur Cher _Berry, France_ A goat cheese, eaten from February to September. Sénecterre _Puy-de-Dôme, France_ Soft, whole-milk; cylindrical, weighing about 1-1/2 pounds. Septmoncel _France_ Semihard; skim; blue-veined; made of all three milks: cow, goat and sheep. An excellent "Blue" ranked above Roquefort by some, and next to Stilton. Also called Jura Bleu, and a member of the triple milk triplets with Gex and Sassenage. Serbian _Serbia_ Made most primitively by dropping heated stones into a kettle of milk over an open fire. After the rennet is added, the curd stands for an hour and is separated from the whey by being lifted in a cheesecloth and strained. It is finally put in a wooden vessel to ripen. First it is salted, then covered each day with whey for eight days and finally with fresh milk for six. Syria also makes a cheese called Serbian from goat's milk. It is semisoft. Serbian Butter _see_ Kajmar. Serra da Estrella, Queijo da (Cheese of the Star Mountain Range) _Portugal_ The finest of several superb mountain-sheep cheeses in Portugal. Other milk is sometimes added, but sheep is standard. The milk is coagulated by an extract of thistle or cardoon flowers in two to six hours. It is ripened in circular forms for several weeks and marketed in rounds averaging five pounds, about ten by two inches. The soft paste inside is pleasantly oily and delightfully acid. Sharp-flavored cheese U.S. aged Cheddars, including Monterey Jack; Italian Romano Fecorino, Old Asiago, Gorgonzola, Incanestrato and Caciocavallo; Spanish de Fontine; Aged Roumanian Kaskaval. Shefford _see_ Chapter 2. Silesian _Poland and Germany_ White; mellow; caraway-seeded. Imitated in the U.S.A. (see Schlesischer.) Sir cheeses In Yugoslavia, Montenegro and adjacent lands Sir or Cyr means cheese. Mostly this type is made of skimmed sheep milk and has small eyes or holes, a sharp taste and resemblance to both American Brick and Limburger. They are much fewer than the Saint cheeses in France. Sir Iz Mjesine _Dalmatia, Yugoslavia_ Primitively made by heating skim sheep milk in a bottle over an open fire, coagulating it quickly with pig or calf rennet, breaking up the curd with a wooden spoon and stirring it by hand over the fire. Pressed into forms eight inches square and two inches thick, it is dried for a day and either eaten fresh or cut into cubes, salted, packed in green sheep or goat hides, and put away to ripen. Sir Mastny _Montenegro_ Fresh sheep milk. Sir Posny _Montenegro_ Hard; skim sheep milk; white, with many small holes. Also answers to the names of Tord and Mrsav. Sir, Twdr _see_ Twdr Sir. Sir, Warshawski _see_ Warshawski Syr. Siraz _Serbia_ Semisoft; whole milk. Mellow. Skyr _Iceland_ The one standard cheese of the country. A cross between Devonshire cream and cream cheese, eaten with sugar and cream. It is very well liked and filling, so people are apt to take too much. A writer on the subject gives this bit of useful information for travelers: "It is not advisable, however, to take coffee and Skyr together just before riding, as it gives you diarrhea." Slipcote, or Colwick _England_ Soft; unripened; small; white; rich as butter. The curd is put in forms six by two inches for the whey to drain away. When firm it is placed between cabbage leaves to ripen for a week or two, and when it is taken from the leaves the skin or coat becomes loose and easily slips off--hence the name. In the middle of the eighteenth century it was considered the best cream cheese in England and was made then, as today, in Wissenden, Rutlandshire. Smältost _Sweden_ Soft and melting. Smearcase Old English corruption of German Schmierkäse, long used in America for cottage cheese. Smoked Block _Austria_ A well-smoked cheese in block form. Smoked Mozzarella _see_ Mozzarella Affumicata. Smoked Szekely _Hungary_ Soft; sheep; packed like sausage in skins or bladders and smoked. Smokelet _Norway_. A small smoked cheese. Soaked-curd cheese _see_ Washed-curd cheese. Sorbais _Champagne, France_ Semihard; whole milk; fermented; yellow, with reddish brown rind. Full flavor, high smell. Similar to Maroilles in taste and square shape, but smaller. Sorte Maggenga and Sorte Vermenga Two "sorts" of Italian Parmesan. Soumaintrain, Fromage de _France_ Soft; fine; strong variety from Upper Burgundy. Soybean _China_ Because this cheese is made of vegetable milk and often developed with a vegetable rennet, it is rated by many as a regular cheese. But our occidental kind with animal milk and rennet is never eaten by Chinese and the mere mention of it has been known to make them shiver. Spalen or Stringer _Switzerland_ A small Emmentaler of fine reputation made in the Canton of Unterwalden from whole and partly skimmed milk and named from the vessel in which five or six are packed and transported together. Sperrkäse _see_ Dry. Spiced _International_ Many a bland cheese is saved from oblivion by the addition of spice, to give it zest. One or more spices are added in the making and thoroughly mixed with the finished product, so the cheese often takes the name of the spice: Kuminost or Kommenost for cumin; Caraway in English and several other languages, among them Kümmel, Nokkelost and Leyden; Friesan Clove and Nagelkass; Sage; Thyme, cloverleaf Sapsago; whole black pepper Pepato, etc. Spiced and Spiced Spreads _U.S.A._ Government standards for spiced cheeses and spreads specify not less than 1-1/2 ounces of spice to 100 pounds of cheese. Spiced Fondue _see_ Vacherin Fondu. _France_ Spitz Spitzkase _Germany_ Small cylinder, four by one and a half inches. Caraway spiced, Limburger-like. _see_ Backsteiner. Sposi _Italy_ Soft; small; cream. Spra _Greek_ Sharp and pleasantly salty, packed fresh from the brine bath in one-pound jars. As tasty as all Greek cheeses because they are made principally from sheep milk. Stängenkase _Germany_ Limburger type. Stein Käse _U.S.A._ Aromatic, piquant "stone." A beer stein accompaniment well made after the old German original. Steinbuscher-Käse _German_ Semihard; firm; full cream; mildly sour and pungent. Brick forms, reddish and buttery. Originated in Frankfurt. Highly thought of at home but little known abroad. Steppe _Russia, Germany, Austria, Denmark_ German colonists made and named this in Russia. Rich and mellow, it tastes like Tilsiter and is now made in Denmark for export, as well as in Germany and Austria for home consumption. Stilton _see_ Chapter 3. Stirred curd cheese _U.S.A._ Similar to Cheddar, but more granular, softer in texture and marketed younger. Stracchino _Italy_ Soft; goat; fresh cream; winter; light yellow; very sharp, rich and pungent. Made in many parts of Italy and eaten sliced, never grated. A fine cheese of which Taleggio is the leading variety. See in Chapter 3. Also see Certoso Stracchino. Stracchino Crescenza is an extremely soft and highly colored member of this distinguished family. Stravecchio _Italy_ Well-aged, according to the name. Creamy and mellow. Stringer _see_ Spalen. Styria _Austria_ Whole milk. Cylindrical form. Suffolk _England_ An old-timer, seldom seen today. Stony-hard, horny "flet milk" cartwheels locally nicknamed "bang." Never popular anywhere, it has stood more abuse than Limburger, not for its smell but for its flinty hardness. "Hunger will break through stone walls and anything except a Suffolk cheese." "Those that made me were uncivil For they made me harder than the devil. Knives won't cut me; fire won't sweat me; Dogs bark at me, but can't eat me." Surati, Panir _India_ Buffalo milk. Uncolored. Suraz _Serbia_ Semihard and semisoft. Sveciaost _Sweden_ A national pride, named for its country, Swedish cheese, to match Swiss cheese and Dutch cheese. It comes in three qualities: full cream, 3/4 cream, and half cream. Soft; rich; ready to eat at six weeks and won't keep past six months. A whole-hearted, whole-milk, wholesome cheese named after the country rather than a part of it as most _osts_ are. Sweet-curd _U.S.A._ Hard Cheddar, differing in that the milk is set sweet and the curd cooked firmer and faster, salted and pressed at once. When ripe, however, it is hardly distinguishable from the usual Cheddar made by the granular process. Swiss _U.S.A._ In 1845 emigrants from Galrus, Switzerland, founded New Galrus, Wisconsin and, after failing at farming due to cinch bugs gobbling their crops, they turned to cheesemaking and have been at it ever since. American Swiss, known long ago as picnic cheese, has been their standby, and only in recent years these Wisconsin Schweizers have had competition from Ohio and other states who turn out the typical cartwheels, which still look like the genuine imported Emmentaler. Szekely _Transylvania, Hungary_ Soft; sheep; packed in links of bladders and sometimes smoked. This is the type of foreign cheese that set the popular style for American processed links, with wine flavors and everything. T Taffel, Table, Taffelost _Denmark_ A Danish brand name for an ordinary slicing cheese. Tafi _Argentina_ Made in the rich province of Tucuman. Taiviers, les Petits Fromages de _Périgord, France_ Very small and tasty goat cheese. Taleggio _Lombardy, Italy_ Soft, whole-milk, Stracchino type. Tallance _France_ Goat. Tamie _France_ Port-Salut made by Trappist monks at Savoy from their method that is more or less a trade secret. Tome de Beaumont is an imitation produced not far away. Tanzenberger _Carinthia, Austria_ Limburger type. Tao-foo or Tofu _China, Japan, the Orient_ Soybean curd or cheese made from the "milk" of soybeans. The beans are ground and steeped, made into a paste that's boiled so the starch dissolves with the casein. After being strained off, the "milk" is coagulated with a solution of gypsum. This is then handled in the same way as animal milk in making ordinary cow-milk cheeses. After being salted and pressed in molds it is ready to be warmed up and added to soups and cooked dishes, as well as being eaten as is. Teleme _Rumania_ Similar to Brinza and sometimes called Branza de Bralia. Made of sheep's milk and rapidly ripened, so it is ready to eat in ten days. Terzolo _Italy_ Term used to designate Parmesan-type cheese made in winter. Tête à Tête, Tête de Maure, Moor's Head _France_ Round in shape. French name for Dutch Edam. Tête de Moine, Monk's Head _France_ A soft "head" weighing ten to twenty pounds. Creamy, tasty, summer Swiss, imitated in Jura, France, and also called Bellelay. Tête de Mort _see_ Fromage Gras for this death's head. "The Tempting cheese of Fyvie" _Scotland_ Something on the order of Eve's apple, according to the Scottish rhyme that exposes it: The first love token ye gae me Was the tempting cheese of Fyvie. O wae be to the tempting cheese, The tempting cheese of Fyvie, Gat me forsake my ain gude man And follow a fottman laddie. Texel Sheep's milk cheese of three or four pounds made on the island of Texel, off the coast of the Netherlands. Thenay _Vendôme, France_ Resembles Camembert and Vendôme. Thion _Switzerland_ A fine Emmentaler. Three Counties _Ireland_ An undistinguished Cheddar named for the three counties that make most of the Irish cheese. Thuringia Caraway _Germany_ A hand cheese spiked with caraway. Thyme _Syria_ Soft and mellow, with the contrasting pungence of thyme. Two other herbal cheeses are flavored with thyme--both French: Fromage Fort II, Hazebrook II. Tibet _Tibet_ The small, hard, grating cheeses named after the country Tibet, are of sheep's milk, in cubes about two inches on all sides, with holes to string them through the middle, fifty to a hundred on each string. They suggest Chinese strings of cash and doubtless served as currency, in the same way as Chinese cheese money. (_See under_ Money.) Tignard _Savoy, France_ Hard; sheep or goat; blue-veined; sharp; tangy; from Tigne Valley in Savoy. Similar to Gex, Sassenage and Septmoncel. Tijuana _Mexico_ Hard; sharp; biting; named from the border race-track town. Tillamook _see_ Chapter 4. Tilsit, or Tilsiter Käse, also called Ragnit _Germany_ This classical variety of East Prussia is similar to American Brick. Made of whole milk, with many small holes that give it an open texture, as in Port-Salut, which it also resembles, although it is stronger and coarser. Old Tilsiter is something special in aromatic tang, and attempts to imitate it are made around the world. One of them, Ovár, is such a good copy it is called Hungarian Tilsit. There are American, Danish, and Canadian--even Swiss--imitations. The genuine Tilsit has been well described as "forthright in flavor; a good snack cheese, but not suitable for elegant post-prandial dallying." Tilziski _Yugoslavia_ A Montenegrin imitation Tilsiter. Tome de Beaumont _France_ Whole cow's milk. Tome, la _Auvergne, France_ Also called Fourme, Cantal, or Fromage de Cantal. A kind of Cheddar that comes from Ambert, Aubrac, Aurillac, Grand-Murol, Rôche, Salers, etc. Tome de Chèvre _Savoy, France_ Soft goat cheese. Tome de Savoie _France_ Soft paste; goat or cow. Others in the same category are: Tome des Beagues, Tome au Fenouil, Tome Doudane. Tomelitan Gruyère _Norway_ Imitation of French Gruyère in 2-1/2 ounce packages. Topf or Topfkäse _Germany_ A cooked cheese to which Pennsylvania pot is similar. Sour skim milk cheese, eaten fresh and sold in packages of one ounce. When cured it is flaky. Toscano, or Pecorino Toscano _Tuscany, Italy_ Sheep's milk cheese like Romano but softer, and therefore used as a table cheese. Toscanello _Tuscany, Italy_ A smaller edition of Toscano. Touareg _Berber, Africa_ Skim milk often curdled with Korourou leaves. The soft curd is then dipped out onto mats like pancake batter and sun dried for ten days or placed by a fire for six, with frequent turning. Very hard and dry and never salted. Made from Lake Tchad to the Barbary States by Berber tribes. Tour Eiffel _Berry, France_ Besides naming this Berry cheese, Tour Eiffel serves as a picturesque label and trademark for a brand of Camembert. Touloumisio _Greece_ Similar to Feta. Tournette _France_ Small goat cheese. Tourne de chèvre _Dauphiné, France_ Goat cheese. Trappe, la, or Oka _Canada_ Truly fine Port-Salut named for the Trappist order and its Canadian monastery. Trappist _see_ Chapter 3. Trappist _Yugoslavia_ Trappist Port-Salut imitation. Trauben (Grape) _Switzerland_ Swiss or Gruyère aged in Swiss Neuchâtel wine and so named for the grape. Travnik, Travnicki _Albania, Russia, Yugoslavia_ Soft, sheep whole milk with a little goat sometimes and occasionally skim milk. More than a century of success in Europe, Turkey and adjacent lands where it is also known as Arnauten, Arnautski Sir and Vlasic. When fresh it is almost white and has a mild, pleasing taste. It ripens to a stronger flavor in from two weeks to several months, and is not so good if holes should develop in it. The pure sheep-milk type when aged is characteristically oily and sharp. Traz os Montes _Portugal_ Soft; sheep; oily; rich; sapid. For city turophiles nostalgically named "From the Mountains." All sheep cheese is oily, some of it a bit muttony, but none of it at all tallowy. Trecce _Italy_ Small, braided cheese, eaten fresh. Triple Aurore _France_ Normandy cheese in season all the year around. Troo _France_ Made and consumed in Touraine from May to January. Trouville _France_ Soft, fresh, whole milk. Pont l'Evêque type of superior quality. Troyes, Fromage de _see_ Barberey and Ervy. Truckles _England_ No. I: Wiltshire, England. Skimmed milk; blue-veined variety like Blue Vinny. The quaint word is the same as used in truckle or trundle bed. On Shrove Monday Wiltshire kids went from door to door singing for a handout: Pray, dame, something, An apple or a dumpling, Or a piece of Truckle cheese Of your own making. No. II: Local name in the West of England for a full cream Cheddar put up in loaves. Tschil _Armenia_ Also known as Leaf, Telpanir and Zwirn. Skim milk of either sheep or cows. Made into cakes and packed in skins in a land where wine is drunk from skin canteens, often with Tschil. Tuile de Flandre _France_ A type of Marolles. Tullum Penney _Turkey_ Salty from being soaked in brine. Tuna, Prickly Pear _Mexico_ Not an animal milk cheese, but a vegetable one, made by boiling and straining the pulp of the cactuslike prickly pear fruit to cheeselike consistency. It is chocolate-color and sharp, piquantly pleasant when hard and dry. It is sometimes enriched with nuts, spices and/or flowers. It will keep for a very long time and has been a dessert or confection in Mexico for centuries. Tuscano _Italy_ Semihard; cream color; a sort of Tuscany Parmesan. Twdr Sir _Serbia_ Semisoft sheep skim-milk cheese with small holes and a sharp taste. Pressed in forms two by ten to twelve inches in diameter. Similar to Brick or Limburger. Twin Cheese _U.S.A._ Outstanding American Cheddar marketed by Joannes Brothers, Green Bay, Wisconsin. Tworog _Russia_ Semihard sour milk farm (not factory) made. It is used in the cheese bread called Notruschki. Tybo _Denmark_ Made in Copenhagen from pasteurized skim milk. Tyrol Sour _German_ A typical Tyrolean hand cheese. Tzgone _Dalmatia_ The opposite number of Tzigen, just below. Tzigenkäse _Austria_ Semisoft; skimmed sheep, goat or cow milk. White; sharp and salty; originated in Dalmatia. U Urda _Rumania_ Creamy; sweet; mild. Uri _Switzerland_ Hard; brittle; white; tangy. Made in the Canton of Uri. Eight by eight to twelve inches, weight twenty to forty pounds. Urseren _Switzerland_ Mild flavored. Cooked curd. Urt, Fromage d' Soft Port-Salut type of the Basque country. V Vacherin _France and Switzerland_ I. Vacherin à la Main. Savoy, France. Firm, leathery rind, soft interior like Brie or Camembert; round, five to six by twelve inches in diameter. Made in summer to eat in winter. When fully ripe it is almost a cold version of the great dish called Fondue. Inside the hard-rind container is a velvety, spicy, aromatic cream, more runny than Brie, so it can be eaten with a spoon, dunked in, or spread on bread. The local name is Tome de Montague. II. Vacherin Fondu, or Spiced Fondu. Switzerland. Although called Fondu from being melted, the No. I Vacherin comes much closer to our conception of the dish Fondue, which we spell with an "e." Vacherin No. II might be called a re-cooked and spiced Emmentaler, for the original cheese is made, and ripened about the same as the Swiss classic and is afterward melted, spiced and reformed into Vacherin. Val-d'Andorre, Fromage du _Andorra, France_ Sheep milk. Valdeblore, le _Nice, France_ Hard, dried, small Alpine goat cheese. Valençay, or Fromage de Valençay _Touraine, France_ Soft; cream; goat milk; similar to Saint-Maure. In season from May to December. This was a favorite with Francis I. Valio _Finland_ One-ounce wedges, six to a box, labeled pasteurized process Swiss cheese, made by the Cooperative Butter Export Association, Helsinki, Finland, to sell to North Americans to help them forget what real cheese is. Valsic _Albania_ Crumbly and sharp. Varalpenland _Germany_ Alpine. Piquant, strong in flavor and smell. Varennes, Fromage de _France_ Soft, fine, strong variety from Upper Burgundy. Västerbottenost _West Bothnia_ Slow-maturing. One to one-and-a-half years in ripening to a pungent, almost bitter taste. Västgötaost _West Gothland, Sweden_ Semihard; sweet and nutty. Takes a half year to mature. Weight twenty to thirty pounds. Vendôme, Fromage de _France_ Hard; sheep; round and flat; like la Cendrée in being ripened under ashes. There is also a soft Vendôme sold mostly in Paris. Veneto, Venezza _Italy_ Parmesan type, similar to Asiago. Usually sharp. Vic-en-Bigorre _France_ Winter cheese of Béarn in season October to May. Victoria _England_ The brand name of a cream cheese made in Guilford. Ville Saint-Jacques _France_ Ile-de-France winter specialty in season from November to May. Villiers _France_ Soft, one-pound squares made in Haute-Marne. Viry-vory, or Vary _France_ Fresh cream cheese. Viterbo _Italy_ Sheep milk usually curdled with wild artichoke, _Cynara Scolymus_. Strong grating and seasoning type of the Parmesan-Romano-Pecorino family. Vize _Greece_ Ewe's milk; suitable for grating. Void _Meuse, France_ Soft associate of Pont l'Evêque and Limburger. Volvet Kaas _Holland_ The name means "full cream" cheese and that--according to law--has 45% fat in the dry product (_See_ Gras.) Vorarlberg Sour-milk _Greasy_ Hard; greasy; semicircular form of different sizes, with extra-strong flavor and odor. The name indicates that it is made of sour milk. Vory, le _France_ Fresh cream variety like Neufchâtel and Petit Suisse. W Warshawski Syr _Poland_ Semihard; fine nutty flavor; named for the capital city of Poland. Warwickshire _England_ Derbyshire type. Washed-curd cheese _U.S.A._ Similar to Cheddar. The curd is washed to remove acidity and any abnormal flavors. Wedesslborg _Denmark_ A mild, full cream loaf of Danish blue that can be very good if fully ripened. Weisschmiere _Bavaria, Germany_ Similar to Weisslacker, a slow-ripening variety that takes four months. Weisslacker, White Lacquer _Bavaria_ Soft; piquant; semisharp; Allgäuer-type put up in cylinders and rectangles, 4-1/2 by 4 by 3-1/2, weighing 2-1/2 pounds. One of Germany's finest soft cheeses. Welsh cheeses The words Welsh and cheese have become synonyms down the ages. Welsh "cheeses can be attractive: the pale, mild Caerphilly was famous at one time, and nowadays has usually a factory flavor. A soft cream cheese can be obtained at some farms, and sometimes holds the same delicate melting sensuousness that is found in the poems of John Keats. "The 'Resurrection Cheese' of Llanfihangel Abercowyn is no longer available, at least under that name. This cheese was so called because it was pressed by gravestones taken from an old church that had fallen into ruins. Often enough the cheeses would be inscribed with such wording as 'Here lies Blodwen Evans, aged 72.'" (From _My Wales_ by Rhys Davies.) Wensleydale _England_ I. England, Yorkshire. Hard; blue-veined; double cream; similar to Stilton. This production of the medieval town of Wensleydale in the Ure Valley is also called Yorkshire-Stilton and is in season from June to September. It is put up in the same cylindrical form as Stilton, but smaller. The rind is corrugated from the way the wrapping is put on. II. White; flat-shaped; eaten fresh; made mostly from January through the Spring, skipping the season when the greater No. I is made (throughout the summer) and beginning to be made again in the fall and winter. Werder, Elbinger and Niederungskäse _West Prussia_ Semisoft cow's-milker, mildly acid, shaped like Gouda. West Friesian _Netherlands_ Skim-milk cheese eaten when only a week old. The honored antiquity of it is preserved in the anonymous English couplet: Good bread, good butter and good cheese Is good English and good Friese. Westphalia Sour Milk, or Brioler _Germany_ Sour-milk hand cheese, kneaded by hand. Butter and/or egg yolk is mixed in with salt, and either pepper or caraway seeds. Then the richly colored curd is shaped by hand into small balls or rolls of about one pound. It is dried for a couple of hours before being put down cellar to ripen. The peculiar flavor is due partly to the seasonings and partly to the curd being allowed to putrify a little, like Limburger, before pressing. This sour-milker is as celebrated as Westphalian raw ham. It is so soft and fat it makes a sumptuous spread, similar to Tilsit and Brinza. It was named Brioler from the "Gute Brioler" inn where it was perfected by the owner, Frau Westphal, well over a century ago. The English sometimes miscall it Bristol from a Hobson-Jobson of the name Briol. Whale Cheese _U.S.A._ In _The Cheddar Box, _Dean Collins tells of an ancient legend in which the whales came into Tillamook Bay to be milked; and he poses the possible origin of some waxy fossilized deposits along the shore as petrified whale-milk cheese made by the aboriginal Indians after milking the whales. White, Fromage Blanc _France_ Skim-milk summer cheese made in many parts of the country and eaten fresh, with or without salt. White Cheddar _U.S.A._ Any Cheddar that isn't colored with anatto is known as White Cheddar. Green Bay brand is a fine example of it. White Gorgonzola This type without the distinguishing blue veins is little known outside of Italy where it is highly esteemed. (_See_ Gorgonzola.) White Stilton _England_ This white form of England's royal blue cheese lacks the aristocratic veins that are really as green as Ireland's flag. Whitethorn _Ireland_ Firm; white; tangy; half-pound slabs boxed. Saltee is the same, except that it is colored. Wilstermarsch-Käse Holsteiner Marsch _Schleswig-Holstein, Germany_ Semihard; full cream; rapidly cured; Tilsit type; very fine; made at Itzehoe. Wiltshire or Wilts _England_ A Derbyshire type of sharp Cheddar popular in Wiltshire. (_See_ North Wilts.) Wisconsin Factory Cheeses _U.S.A._ Have the date of manufacture stamped on the rind, indicating by the age whether the flavor is "mild, mellow, nippy, or sharp." American Cheddar requires from eight months to a year to ripen properly, but most of it is sold green when far too young. Notable Wisconsiners are Loaf, Limburger, Redskin and Swiss. Withania _India_ Cow taboos affect the cheesemaking in India, and in place of rennet from calves a vegetable rennet is made from withania berries. This names a cheese of agreeable flavor when ripened, but, unfortunately, it becomes acrid with age. Y Yoghurt, or Yogurt _U.S.A._ Made with _Bacillus bulgaricus_, that develops the acidity of the milk. It is similar to the English Saint Ivel. York, York Curd and Cambridge York _England_ A high-grade cream cheese similar to Slipcote, both of which are becoming almost extinct since World War II. Also, this type is too rich to keep any length of time and is sold on the straw mat on which it is cured, for local consumption. Yorkshire-Stilton _Cotherstone, England_ This Stilton, made chiefly at Cotherstone, develops with age a fine internal fat which makes it so extra-juicy that it's a general favorite with English epicures who like their game well hung. York State _U.S.A._ Short for New York State, the most venerable of our Cheddars. Young America _U.S.A._ A mild, young, yellow Cheddar. Yo-yo _U.S.A._ Copying pear-and apple-shaped balls of Italian Provolone hanging on strings, a New York cheesemonger put out a Cheddar on a string, shaped like a yo-yo. Z Ziegel _Austria_ Whole milk, or whole milk with cream added. Aged only two months. Ziegenkäse _Germany_ A general name in Germanic lands for cheeses made of goat's milk. Altenburger is a leader among Ziegenkäse. Ziger I. This whey product is not a true cheese, but a cheap form of food made in all countries of central Europe and called albumin cheese, Recuit, Ricotta, Broccio, Brocotte, Serac, Ceracee, etc. Some are flavored with cider and others with vinegar. There is also a whey bread. II. Similar to Corsican Broccio and made of sour sheep milk instead of whey. Sometimes mixed with sugar into small cakes. Zips _see_ Brinza. Zomma _Turkey_ Similar to Caciocavallo. Zwirn _see_ Tschil. [Illustration] Index of Recipes American Cheese Salad, 128 Angelic Camembert, 120 Apple and Cheese Salad, 130 Apple Pie à la Cheese, 119 Apple Pie Adorned, 119 Apple Pie, Cheese-crusty, 119 Asparagus and Cheese, Italian, 110 au Gratin Eggs, 125 Potatoes, 125 Tomatoes, 125 Blintzes, 111 Brie or Camembert Salad, 128 Camembert, Angelic, 120 Champagned Roquefort or Gorgonzola, 122 Cheddar Omelet, 135 Cheese and Nut Salad, 128 Cheese and Pea Salad, 130 Cheese Cake, Pineapple, 117 Cheese Charlotte, 133 Cheese-crusty Apple Pie, 119 Cheese Custard, 118 Cheese Pie, Open-faced, 118 Cheese Sauce, Plain, 131 Cheese Waffles, 112 Cheesed Mashed Potatoes, 137 Chicken Cheese Soup, 127 Cottage Cheese Pancakes, 112 Christmas Cake Sandwiches, 120 Cold Dunking, 133 Custard, Cheese, 118 Dauphiny Ravioli, 109 Diablotins, 135 Dumpling, Napkin, 112 Dunking, Cold, 133 Eggs au Gratin, 125 Flan au Fromage, 119 Fondue à l'Italienne, 84 All-American, 85 au Fromage, 90 Baked Tomato, 89 Brick, 92 Catsup Tummy Fondiddy, Quickie, 91 Cheddar Dunk Bowl, 93 Cheese, 92 Cheese, and Corn, 92 Cheese and Rice, 91 Chives, 88 Comtois, 88 Corn and Cheese, 92 Neufchâtel Style, 82 100% American, 90 Parmesan, 86 Quickie Catsup Tummy Fondiddy, 91 Rice, and Cheese, 91 Sapsago Swiss, 86 Tomato, 89 Tomato Baked, 89 Vacherin-Fribourg, 88 Fritters, Italian, 109 Fritto Misto, Italian, 137 Garlic on Cheese, 110 Gorgonzola and Banana Salad, 129 Green Cheese Salad Julienne, 127 Italian Asparagus and Cheese, 110 Italian Fritters, 109 Italian Fritto Misto, 137 Italian-Swiss Scallopini, 108 Little Hats, Cappelletti, 108 Meal-in-One Omelet, A, 135 Miniature Pizzas, 107 Napkin Dumpling, 112 Neapolitan Baked Lasagne, 108 Omelet Cheddar, 135 Meal-in-One, 135 Parmesan, 135 Tomato, 136 with Cheese Sauce, 136 Onion Soup, 126 Onion Soup au Gratin, 126 Open-faced Cheese Pie, 118 Pancakes, Cottage Cheese, 112 Parmesan Omelet, 135 Parsleyed Cheese Sauce, 131 Pfeffernüsse and Caraway, 134 Pineapple Cheese Cake, 117 Piroghs, Polish, 137 Pizza, 106 Cheese, 107 Dough, 106 Miniature, 107 Tomato Paste, 107 Polish Piroghs, 137 Potatoes au Gratin, 125 Potatoes, Mashed, Cheesed, 137 Puffs Breakfast, 100 Cheese, New England, 100 Cream Cheese, 100 Danish Fondue, 100 Fried, 99 New England Cheese, 100 Parmesan, 99 Roquefort, 99 Three-in-One, 98 Rabbit After-Dinner, 55 All-American Succotash, 77 American Woodchuck, 63 Anchovy, 70 Asparagus, 68 Basic No. 1 (with beer), 49 No. 2 (with milk), 50 Blushing Bunny, 63 Border-hopping Bunny, 60 "Bouquet of the Sea," 69 Buttermilk, 76 Celery and Onion, 67 Chipped Beef, 66 Cream Cheese, 75 Crumby, 70 Crumby Tomato, 71 Curry, 76 Danish, 77 Devil's Own, The, 65 Dr. Maginn's, 54 Dried Beef, 66 Dutch, 72 Easy English, 78 Eggnog, 77 Fish, Fresh or Dried, 69 Fluffy, Eggy, 64 Frijole, 60 Gherkin, 71 Ginger Ale, 76 Golden Buck, 59 Golden Buck II, 59 Grilled Sardine, 69 Grilled Tomato, 65 Grilled Tomato and Onion, 65 Gruyère, 73 Kansas Jack, 66 Lady Llanover's Toasted, 52 Latin-American Corn, 67 Mexican Chilaly, 64 Mushroom-Tomato, 67 Onion Rum Tum Tiddy, 62 Original Recipe, Ye, 57 Oven, 58 Oyster, 68 Pink Poodle, 74 Pumpernickel, 72 Reducing, 75 Roe, 69 Rum Tum Tiddy, 61 Rum Tum Tiddy, Onion, 62 Rum Tum Tiddy, Sherry, 62 Running, 63 Sardine, Grilled, 69 Sardine, Plain, 69 Savory Eggy Dry, 75 Scotch Woodcock, 63 Sea-food, 68 Sherry, 73 Sherry Rum Tum Tiddy, 62 Smoked Cheddar, 70 Smoked fish, 70 South African Tomato, 61 Spanish Sherry, 74 Stieff Recipe, The, 51 Swiss Cheese, 73 Tomato, 61 Tomato and Onion, Grilled, 65 Tomato, Crumby, 71 Tomato, Grilled, 65 Tomato Soup, 62 Tomato, South American, 61 Venerable Yorkshire Buck, The, 59 Yale College, 59 Yorkshire, 58 Ramekins à la Parisienne, 103 Casserole, 105 Cheese I, 101 Cheese II, 102 Cheese III, 102 Cheese IV, 103 Frying Pan, 105 Morézien, 104 Puff Paste, 105 Roquefort-Swiss, 104 Swiss-Roquefort, 104 Ravioli, Dauphiny, 109 Roquefort, Champagned, 122 Roquefort Cheese Salad Dressing, 130 Rosie's Swiss Breakfast Cheese Salad, 129 Salad American Cheese, 128 Apple and Cheese, 130 Brie, 128 Camembert, 128 Cheese and Nut, 128 Cheese and Pea, 130 Gorgonzola and Banana, 129 Green Cheese Salad Julienne, 127 Rosie's Swiss Breakfast Cheese, 129 Swiss Cheese, 129 Three-in-One Mold, 128 Sandwiches Alpine Club, 141 Boston Beany, Open-face, 141 Cheeseburgers, 141 Deviled Rye, 142 Egg, Open-faced, 142 French-fried Swiss, 142 Grilled Chicken-Ham-Cheddar, 142 He-man, Open-faced, 143 International, 143 Jurassiennes, or Croûtes Comtoises, 143 Kümmelkäse, 143 Limburger Onion, or Catsup, 143 Meringue, Open-faced, 144 Neufchâtel and Honey, 144 Newfoundland Toasted Cheese, 148 Oskar's Ham-Cam, 144 Pickled Camembert, 145 Queijo da Serra, 145 Roquefort Nut, 145 Smoky, Sturgeon-smoked, 145 Tangy, 146 Toasted Cheese, 148 Unusual--of Flowers, Hay and Clover, 146 Vegetarian, 146 Witch's, 147 Xochomilco, 147 Yolk Picnic, 147 Sauce Cheese, 131 Mornay, 131 Parsleyed Cheese, 131 Sauce Mornay, 131 Scallopini, Italian-Swiss, 108 Schnitzelbank Pot, 37 Soufflé Basic, 95 Cheese-Corn, 96 Cheese Fritter, 98 Cheese-Mushroom, 97 Cheese-Potato, 97 Cheese-Sea-food, 97 Cheese-Spinach, 96 Cheese-Tomato, 96 Corn-Cheese, 96 Mushroom-Cheese, 97 Parmesan, 95 Parmesan-Swiss, 96 Potato-Cheese, 97 Sea-food-Cheese, 97 Spinach-Cheese, 96 Swiss, 96 Tomato-Cheese, 96 Soup Chicken Cheese, 127 Onion, 126 Onion, au Gratin, 126 Supa Shetgia, 133 Spanish Flan--Quesillo, 136 Straws, 133 Stuffed Celery, 132 Supa Shetgia, 133 Swiss Cheese Salad, 129 Three-in-One Mold, 128 Tomato Omelet, 136 Tomatoes au Gratin, 125 Vatroushki, 111 Waffles, Cheese, 112 ABOUT THE AUTHOR * * * * * Bob Brown, after living thirty years in as many foreign lands and enjoying countless national cheeses at the source, returned to New York and summed them all up in this book. Born in Chicago, he was graduated from Oak Park High School and entered the University of Wisconsin at the exact moment when a number of imported Swiss professors in this great dairy state began teaching their students how to hole an Emmentaler. After majoring in beer and free lunch from Milwaukee to Munich, Bob celebrated the end of Prohibition with a book called _Let There Be Beer!_ and then decided to write another about Beer's best friend, Cheese. But first he collaborated with his mother Cora and wife Rose on _The Wine Cookbook_, still in print after nearly twenty-five years. This first manual on the subject in America paced a baker's dozen food-and-drink books, including: _America Cooks, 10,000 Snacks, Fish and Seafood_ and _The South American Cookbook_. For ten years he published his own weekly magazines in Rio de Janeiro, Mexico City and London. In the decade before that, from 1907 to 1917, he wrote more than a thousand short stories and serials under his full name, Robert Carlton Brown. One of his first books, _What Happened to Mary_, became a best seller and was the first five-reel movie. This put him in _Who's Who_ in his early twenties. In 1928 he retired to write and travel. After a couple of years spent in collecting books and bibelots throughout the Orient, he settled down in Paris with the expatriate group of Americans and invented the Reading Machine for their delectation. Nancy Cunard published his _Words_ and Harry Crosby printed _1450-1950_ at the Black Sun Press, while in Cagnes-sur-Mer Bob had his own imprint Roving Eye Press, that turned out _Demonics; Gems, a Censored Anthology; Globe-gliding_ and _Readies for Bob Brown's Machine_ with contributions by Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, Kay Boyle, James T. Farrell _et al._ The depression drove him back to New York, but a decade later he returned to Brazil that had long been his home away from home. There he wrote _The Amazing Amazon_, with his wife Rose, making a total of thirty books bearing his name. After the death of his wife and mother, Bob Brown closed their mountain home in Petropolis, Brazil, and returned to New York where he remarried and now lives, in the Greenwich Village of his free-lancing youth. With him came the family's working library in a score of trunks and boxes, that formed the basis of a mail-order book business in which he specializes today in food, drink and other out-of-the-way items. [Compiler's Notes: Moved what was page 1 of project past title page, removed publisher's copyright information from page 3. Removed references to Introduction, as it was omitted from the book project.] 
13254	----	[Transcriber's Note: This printing had more than its share of typographical errors. Obvious typos, like "tim" for "time", have been corrected.] THE DOLLAR HEN BY MILO M. HASTINGS FORMERLY POULTRYMAN AT KANSAS EXPERIMENT STATION; LATER IN CHARGE OF THE COMMERCIAL POULTRY INVESTIGATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE SYRACUSE NATIONAL POULTRY MAGAZINE 1911 COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY NATIONAL POULTRY PUBLISHING COMPANY WHY THIS BOOK WAS WRITTEN Twenty-five years ago there were in print hundreds of complete treatises on human diseases and the practice of medicine. Notwithstanding the size of the book-shelves or the high standing of the authorities, one might have read the entire medical library of that day and still have remained in ignorance of the fact that out-door life is a better cure for consumption than the contents of a drug store. The medical professor of 1885 may have gone prematurely to his grave because of ignorance of facts which are to-day the property of every intelligent man. There are to-day on the book-shelves of agricultural colleges and public libraries, scores of complete works on "Poultry" and hundreds of minor writings on various phases of the industry. Let the would-be poultryman master this entire collection of literature and he is still in ignorance of facts and principles, a knowledge of which in better developed industries would be considered prime necessities for carrying on the business. As a concrete illustration of the above statement, I want to point to a young man, intelligent, enterprising, industrious, and a graduate of the best known agricultural college poultry course in the country. This lad invested some $18,000 of his own and his friends' money in a poultry plant. The plant was built and the business conducted in accordance with the plans and principles of the recognized poultry authorities. To-day the young man is bravely facing the proposition of working on a salary in another business, to pay back the debts of honor resulting from his attempt to apply in practice the teaching of our agricultural colleges and our poultry bookshelves. The experience just related did not prove disastrous from some single item of ignorance or oversight; the difficulty was that the cost of growing and marketing the product amounted to more than the receipts from its sale. This poultry farm, like the surgeon's operation, "was successful, but the patient died." The writer's belief in the reality of the situation as above portrayed warrants him in publishing the present volume. Whether his criticism of poultry literature is founded on fact or fancy may, five years after the copyright date of this book, be told by any unbiased observer. I have written this book for the purpose of assisting in placing the poultry business on a sound scientific and economic basis. The book does not pretend to be a complete encyclopedia of information concerning poultry, but treats only of those phases of poultry production and marketing upon which the financial success of the business depends. The reader who is looking for information concerning fancy breeds, poultry shows, patent processes, patent foods, or patent methods, will be disappointed, for the object of this book is to help the poultryman to make money, not to spend it. HOW TO READ THIS BOOK Unless the reader has picked up this volume out of idle curiosity, he will be one of the following individuals: 1. A farmer or would-be farmer, who is interested in poultry production as a portion of the work of general farming. 2. A poultryman or would-be poultryman, who wishes to make a business of producing poultry or eggs for sale as a food product or as breeding stock. 3. A person interested in poultry as a diversion and who enjoys losing a dollar on his chickens almost as well as earning one. 4. A man interested in poultry in the capacity of an editor, teacher or some one engaged as a manufacturer or dealer in merchandise the sale of which is dependent upon the welfare of the poultry industry. To the reader of the fourth class I have no suggestions to make save such as he will find in the suggestions made to others. To the reader of the third class I wish to say that if you are a shoe salesman, who has spent your evenings in a Brooklyn flat, drawing up plans for a poultry plant, I have only to apologize for any interference that this book may cause with your highly fascinating amusement. To the poultryman already in the business, or to the man who is planning to engage in the business for reasons equivalent to those which would justify his entering other occupations of the semi-technical class, such as dairying, fruit growing or the manufacture of washing machines, I wish to say it is for you that "The Dollar Hen" is primarily written. This book does not assume you to be a graduate of a technical school, but it does bring up discussions and use methods of illustration that may be unfamiliar to many readers. That such matter is introduced is because the subject requires it; and if it is confusing to the student he will do better to master it than to dodge it. Especially would I call your attention to the diagrams used in illustrating various statistics. Such diagrams are technically called "curves." They may at first seem mere crooked lines, if so I suggest that you get a series of figures in which you are interested, such as the daily egg yields of your own flock or your monthly food bills, and "plot" a few curves of your own. After you catch on you will be surprised at the greater ease with which the true meaning of a series of figures can be recognized when this graphic method is used. I wish to call the farmer's attention to the fact that poultry keeping as an adjunct to general farming, especially to general farming in the Mississippi Valley, is quite a different proposition from poultry production as a regular business. Poultry keeping as a part of farm life and farm enterprise is a thing well worth while in any section of the United States, whereas poultry keeping, a separate occupation, requires special location and special conditions to make it profitable. I would suggest the farmer first read Chapter XVI, which is devoted to his special conditions. Later he may read the remainder of the book, but should again consult the part on farm poultry production before attempting to apply the more complicated methods to his own needs. Chapter XVI, while written primarily for the farmer, is, because of the simplicity of its directions, the best general guide for the beginner in poultry keeping wherever he may be. To the reader in general, I want to say, that the table of contents, a part of the book which most people never read, is in this volume so placed and so arranged that it cannot well be avoided. Read it before you begin the rest of the book, and use it then and thereafter in guiding you toward the facts that you at the time particularly want to know. Many people in starting to read a book find something in the first chapter which does not interest them and cast aside the work, often missing just the information they are seeking. The conspicuous arrangement of the contents is for the purpose of preventing such an occurrence in this case. WHAT IS IN THIS VOLUME CHAPTER I IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? A Big Business; Growing Bigger Less Ham and More Eggs Who Gets the Hen Money? CHAPTER II WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? Various Poultry Products The Duck Business Squabs Have Been Overdone Turkeys not Adapted to Commercial Growing Guinea Growing a New Venture Geese, the Fame of Watertown The Ill-omened Broiler Business South Shore Roasters Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable CHAPTER III THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY Established Poultry Communities Developing Poultry Communities Will Co-operation Work? Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark Corporation or Co-operation CHAPTER IV WHERE TO LOCATE Some Poultry Geography Chicken Climate Suitable Soil Marketing--Transportation Availability of Water A Few Statistics CHAPTER V THE DOLLAR HEN FARM The Plan of Housing The Feeding System Water Systems Out-door Accommodations Equipment for Chick Rearing Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms Five Acre Poultry Farms CHAPTER VI INCUBATION Fertility of Eggs The Wisdom of the Egyptians Principles of Incubation Moisture and Evaporation Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide Turning Eggs Cooling Eggs Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation The Box Type of Incubator in Actual Use The Future of Incubation CHAPTER VII FEEDING Conventional Food Chemistry How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations CHAPTER VIII DISEASES Don't Doctor Chickens The Causes of Poultry Diseases Chicken Cholera Roup Chicken-pox, Gapes, Limber-neck Lice and Mites CHAPTER IX POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING Crate Fattening Caponizing CHAPTER X MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES Farm Grown Chickens The Special Poultry Plant Suggestions From Other Countries Cold Storage of Poultry Drawn or Undrawn Fowls Poultry Inspection CHAPTER XI QUALITY IN EGGS Grading Eggs How Eggs are Spoiled Egg Size Table The Loss Due to Carelessness Requisites of Producing High Grade Eggs CHAPTER XII HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED The Country Merchant The Huckster The Produce Buyer The City Distribution of Eggs Cold Storage of Eggs Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs The High Grade Egg Business Buying Eggs by Weight The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer The Price of Eggs N.Y. Mercantile Exchange, Official Quotations CHAPTER XIII BREEDS OF CHICKENS Breed Tests The Hen's Ancestors What Breed? CHAPTER XIV PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING Breeding as an Art Scientific Theories of Breeding Breeding for Egg Production CHAPTER XV EXPERIMENT STATION WORK The Stations Leading in Poultry Work The Story of the "Big Coon" Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station Experimental Bias The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station CHAPTER XVI POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM Best Breeds for the Farm Keep Only Workers Hatching Chicks with Hens Incubators on the Farm Rearing Chicks Feeding Laying Hens Cleanliness Farm Chicken Houses THE DOLLAR HEN CHAPTER I IS THERE MONEY IN THE POULTRY BUSINESS? The chicken business is big. No one knows how big it is and no one can find out. The reason it is hard to find out is because so many people are engaged in it and because the chicken crop is sold, not once a year, but a hundred times a year. Statistics are guesses. True statistics are the sum of little guesses, but often figures published as statistics are big guesses by a guesser who is big enough to have his guess accepted. A Big Business; Growing Bigger The only real statistics for the poultry crop of the United States are those of the Federal Census. At this writing these statistics are nine years old and somewhat out of date. The value of poultry and eggs in 1899, according to the census figures, was $291,000,000. Is this too big or too little? I don't know. If the reader wishes to know let him imagine the census enumerator asking a farmer the value of the poultry and eggs which he has produced the previous year. Would the farmer's guess be too big or too small? From these census figures as a base, estimates have been made for later years. The Secretary of Agriculture, or, speaking more accurately, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of the Department of Agriculture, says the poultry and egg crop for 1907 was over $600,000,000. The best two sources of information known to the writer by which this estimate may be checked are the receipts of the New York market and the annual "Value of Poultry and Eggs Sold," as given by the Kansas State Board of Agriculture. [Illustration: Plate I. Page 14. Graph - Is There Money in Poultry?] In plate I the top curve a-a gives the average spring price of Western first eggs in the New York market. The curve b-b gives the annual receipts of eggs at New York in millions of cases. Now, since value equals quantity multiplied by price, and since the quantity and values of poultry are closely correlated to those of eggs, the product of these two figures is a fair means of showing the rate of increase in the value of the poultry crop. Starting with the census value of $291,000,000 for the year 1899, we thus find that by 1907 the amount is very close to $700,000,000. This is represented by the lower line. The value of the poultry and eggs sold in Kansas have increased as follows: Year Value 1903 $ 6,498,856 1904 7,551,871 1905 8,541,153 1906 9,085,896 1907 10,300,082 The dotted line e-e represents the increase in the national poultry and egg crop estimated from the Kansas figures. Evidently the estimate given in Secretary Wilson's report was not excessive. Now, I want to call the reader's attention to some relations about which there can be no doubt and which are even more significant. The straight line c-c in Plate 1 represents the rate of increase of population in this country. The line b-b represents the rate of increase in egg receipts at New York. As the country data backs up the New York figures, the conclusion is inevitable that the production of poultry and eggs is increasing much more rapidly than is our population. "Over-production," I hear the pessimist cry, but unfortunately for Friend Pessimist, we have a gauge on the over-production idea that lays all fears to rest. When the supply of any commodity increases faster than the demand, we have over-production and falling prices. Vice-versa, under-production is shown by a rising price. That prices of poultry and eggs have risen and risen rapidly, has already been shown. "But prices of all products have risen," says one. Very true, but by statistics with which I will not burden the reader, I find that prices of poultry products have risen more rapidly than the average rise in values of all commodities. This shows that poultry products are really more in demand and more valuable, not apparently so. Moreover, the rise in the price of poultry products has been much more pronounced than the average rise in the price of all food products, which proves the growing demand for poultry and eggs to be a real growing demand, not a turning to poultry products because of the high price of other foods, as is sometimes stated. Less Ham and More Eggs. Certainly we, as a nation, are rapidly becoming eaters of hens and of hen fruit. Reasons are not hard to find. Poultry and eggs are the most palatable, most wholesome, most convenient of foods. Our demands for the products of the poultry yard grows because we are learning to like them, and because our prosperity has grown and we can afford them. Another reason that the consumption of eggs is growing is because the condition in which they reach the consumer is improving. The writer may say some pretty hard things in this work about the condition of poultry and eggs as they are now marketed, but any old-timer in the business will tell you stories of things as they used to be that will easily explain why our fathers ate more ham and less eggs. Yet another reason why the per capita consumption of hens as measured in pounds or dollars increases, is that the hen herself has increased in size; whereas John when he was Johnnie ate a two-ounce drumstick, now Johnnie eats an analogous piece that weighs three ounces. Perhaps, also, we have a growing respect for the law of Moses, or may be vegetarians who think that eggs grow on egg plants are becoming more numerous. Our consumption of pork per capita has, in the last half century, diminished by half, our consumption of beef has remained stationary, but our consumption of poultry and eggs has doubled itself, we know not how many times, for a half century ago the ancestor of the industrious hen of this age serenely scratched up grandmother's geraniums and was unmolested by the statisticians. Who Gets the Hen Money? Seven hundred millions of dollars is a lot of money. Who gets it? There are no Rockefellers or Armours in the hen business. It is the people's business. Why? Because the nature of the business is such that it cannot be centralized. Land and intelligent labor, prompted by the spirit of ownership, is necessary to succeed in the hen business. Land the captains of industry have not monopolized, and labor imbued with the spirit of ownership they cannot monopolize. The chicken business is, in dollars, one of the biggest industries in the country. In numbers of those engaged in it, the chicken business is the biggest industry in the world--I bar none. Why is this true? Primarily because the hen is a natural part of the equipment of every farm and of many village homes as well. It is these millions of small flocks that count up in dollars and men and give such an immense aggregate. More than ninety-eight per cent. of the poultry and eggs of the country are produced on the general farm. The remaining one or two per cent. are produced on farms or plants where chicken culture is the cash crop or chief business of the farmer. It is this business, relatively small, though actually a matter of millions, that is commonly spoken of as the poultry business, and about which our chief interest centers. A farmer can disregard all knowledge and all progress and still keep chickens, but the man who has no other means of a livelihood must produce chicken products efficiently, or fail altogether--hence the greater interest in this portion of the industry. The poultry business as a business to occupy a man's time and earn him a livelihood, is a thing of recent origin and was little heard of before 1890. Since that time it has undergone a somewhat painful, though steady growth. Many people have lost money in the business and have given it up in disgust, but on a whole the business has progressed wonderfully, and now shows features of development that are clearly beyond the experimental stage and are undoubtedly here to stay. The suggestion has been made by those who have failed or have seen others fail in the poultry business, that success was impossible because of the destructive competition of the farmer, whose expense of production is small. Herein lies a great truth and a great error. The farmer's cost of production is small, much smaller than that on most of the book-made poultry farms--but the inference that the poultryman's cost of production cannot be lowered below that of the farmer is a different statement. The farm of our grandfather was a very diversified institution. It contained in miniature a woolen mill, a packing house, a cheese factory, perhaps a shoe factory and a blacksmith shop. One by one these industries have been withdrawn from general farm-life, and established as independent businesses. Likewise our dairy farms, our fruit farms, and our market gardens have been segregated from the general farm. This simply means that manufacturing cloth, or cheese, or producing milk, or tomatoes can be done at less cost in separate establishments than upon a general farm. The general farm will always grow poultry for home consumption, and will always have some surplus to sell. With the surplus, the poultryman must compete. His only hope of successful competition is production at lower cost. Can this be done? It is being done, and the numbers of people who are doing it are increasing, but they spend little money at poultry shows, or with the advertisers of poultry papers, and hence are little heard of in the poultry world. The people whose names and faces are in the poultry papers are frequently there only while their money lasts. They write long articles and show pictures of many houses and yards to prove that there is money in the poultry business, but if one should keep their names and put the question to them five years hence, a great many could say, "Yes, there is money in the poultry business; mine is in it." Such people and such plants do not get the cost of production down below the farmer's level. Between these two classes of poultry plants, the writer hopes in this work to show the distinction. CHAPTER II WHAT BRANCH OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS? The chicken business is especially prone to failure from a disregard of the common essential relation of cost and selling price necessary to the success of any business. That this should be more true of the poultry business than of any other undertakings is to be explained by the facts that as a business, it is new, that many of those who engage in it are inexperienced, but most particularly because practically all the literature published on the subject has been written by or written in the interest of those who had something to sell to the poultryman. As a result the figures of production are generally given higher than the facts warrant. The investor, be he ever so shrewd a man, builds upon these promises and when he finds his production lower, is caught with an excessive investment and a complicated system on his hands, which make all profits impossible and which cannot readily be adapted to the new conditions. Estimates of poultry profits are quite common, but there are few published figures showing the results that are actually obtained under practical working conditions. In this volume I will try to give the facts of what is being and can be actually accomplished. Various Poultry Products. In considering the poultry industry we must first get some idea of the various articles produced for sale. It is common knowledge that the large meat packer can undersell the small packer because the by-products, such as bristles, which are wasted by the local killer, are a source of income to the large packer. Now, this does not infer that the small packer is shiftless and neglects to save his bristles, but that on the scale on which he operates it would cost him more to save the bristles than he could realize on them. So it is with poultry farming. For illustration: A visionary writer in a leading poultry paper, not long ago, advised poultrymen to store eggs. In reality this would be the height of folly, unless the poultryman had his own retail store. In the first place profit on cold storage eggs, when all expenses are paid, will not average a half a cent a dozen; in the second place, the small lot would be relatively troublesome and expensive to handle, and in the third place, small lots of cold storage eggs are looked upon with suspicion and do not find ready sale. So we see that cold storage eggs are not a suitable product for the small poultryman to handle. A second illustration of an ill-chosen combination might be taken in the case of a duck farmer who attempts to produce broilers. The principal difficulty of the duck business is that of getting sufficient intelligent labor in the rush season. The chief expense of investment is for incubators and brooder houses. If the duck farmer now tries to add broilers, he will find that the labor comes at the same time of the year, that the chief equipment required is that which is already crowded by the duck business, and that of the men who have succeeded moderately well in caring for ducks will fail altogether with the young chicks, which do not thrive under the same machine-like methods. On the other hand, let us take the example of an egg farm man who has resolved to combine his attention wholly to the production of market eggs. He succeeds well in his work and is visited by the poultry editors. His picture, the picture of his chickens and of his chicken houses, are printed in the poultry papers. For a reasonable sum invested in advertising and in exhibition at the shows, this man could now double his income by going into the breeding stock business. To refuse to spread out in this case would certainly be foolish. The following classification of the sales products of the poultry industry is given as a basis for farther consideration. CHICKENS. For food purposes: Eggs. Hens, after laying has been finished. Cockerels, necessarily hatched in hatching pullets for layers. (Sold as squab broilers, regular broilers, springs, roasters or capons.) Both sexes as squab broilers, broilers or roasters. For stock purposes: Eggs for hatching. Day-old chicks. Mature fowls. DUCKS. For table--green or spring ducks. By-products, old ducks and duck feathers. For breeding-stock. GEESE. Food, Feathers, Breeders. TURKEYS. Food, Breeders. PIGEONS. Squabs, Breeding Stock. GUINEAS. Broilers, Mature Fowls. I will now discuss these products more in detail. Poultry, other than chickens, I do not care to discuss at length, because it is not for the purpose of the book, and because the demand for other kinds of poultry is limited and the chance for the growth of the business small. The Duck Business. The duck business is the most highly commercialized at the present time of any branch of the poultry business. The duck is the oldest domestic bird and was hatched by artificial incubation in China, when our ancestors were gnawing raw bones in the caves of Europe. The duck is the most domestic of birds and will thrive under more machine-like methods and without that touch of nature and of the owner's kindly interest so necessary to the welfare of the fowls of the gallinaceous order. The green duck business is about twenty years old and has become an established business in every sense of the word. The largest plants now produce about one hundred thousand ducks per annum. The profits at present are not large even for the most successful plants, because the demand is limited and the production has reached such a point that cost of production and selling price bear a definite relation as in all established businesses. The green duck business is not an easy one for the novice because the margin between cost (chiefly food cost) and selling price is low, and unless the new man can reduce the cost of production or raise his selling price in some way, he will have no advantage over the old and successful firms. Squab Business Overdone. The business of producing pigeon squabs resembles the duck business in the sense that it has been reduced to a successful system. The production of squabs has grown until the demand is satisfied and the price has fallen to just that figure that will continue to bring in a sufficient number of squabs from the plants which are already established, or which continue to be established by those who do not stop to investigate the relation between the cost of production and the prevailing prices. Turkeys Not a Commercial Success. In the case of turkeys, we find exactly opposite conditions. The price of turkeys has risen with the price of chickens and eggs, until one would think that there would be great money in the business, and there is, for the motherly farm wife who has the knack of bringing the little turks through the danger of delicate babyhood. But just as the duck is more domesticated than the chicken, so the turkey, which yet closely resembles its wild ancestor, is less domestic and has as yet failed to surrender to the ways of commercial reasoning, the chief factor of which is artificial brooding. The presence of a disease called blackhead has done vast injury to the turkey industry in the northeastern section of the country. In the South the industry has been booming. Especially in Tennessee and Texas, I found great local pride in the turkey crop. I certainly would advise any farm wife, in sections where blackhead does not prevail, to try her hand at turkey raising. As to her advisability of continuance in the business, the number of turkeys at the end of the season will be the best judge. Guinea Growing a New Venture. The guinea growing business is the newest of the poultry industries. In fact, it may be said of guineas, as of our grandmother's tomatoes, "Folks had them around without knowing they were of any use." The new use for guineas is as a substitute for game. Guinea broilers make quail-on-toast and older ones are good for grouse, prairie chicken or pheasant. The retail price in the large cities runs as high as $1.50 to $2.00 a pair. It will probably not pay to raise them unless one is sure of receiving as much as 50 cents each. As for the rearing of guineas, they may be considered on a parallel case with turkeys, if anything they are even more difficult to raise in large quantities. I would also advise this additional precaution: Look up the market in the locality before attempting guinea rearing. Geese--the Fame of Watertown. As for the goose business, the writer must admit that he doesn't know much about it. In fact, the most of my knowledge concerning this business was acquired by a visit to Watertown, Wis., which is the center of the noodled goose industry The Watertown geese are fed by hand every two hours day and night. They sell to the Hebrew trade at as much per pound as the goose weighs, and have brought as high as $14.00 apiece. All of this is interesting, but I hold that the reader who is willing to take instruction will do better to be guided toward those branches of the poultry industry for the products of which there is a great and increasing demand. So we will leave the goose and guinea business to the venturesome spirits and consider the various branches of the chicken industry. The Ill-omened Broiler Business. The broiler business stands to-day as the ill-omened valley in the poultry landscape. As a rule broiler production has not and probably will not pay. I know of a few exceptions--about enough to prove the rule. Most poultry writers, when they make the statement that broilers do not pay, insert the phrase "As an exclusive business" after the word broilers. This is merely a ruse to take the rough edge off an unpleasant statement, for it certainly hurts the poultry editor to admit that a much exploited branch of the industry is a failure. Nevertheless it is a failure and the more frankly we admit the fact, the less good capital and good brains will be wasted in the attempt to produce at a profit something which is, and probably always will be, produced at a loss. The reason the broiler is produced at a loss is that 95 per cent. of the broilers produced are a by-product of egg, fancy and general poultry production, and as such their selling price is not determined by the cost of production, or the supply determined by the demand. That the broiler business received the boom that it did, is due to plain ignorance of the cost of production, or to the appreciation that the ability to rear young chicks could find a more profitable outlet than in broiler production. Let us take an analogous case. Suppose a city man should discover the fact that there was a demand for dried casein from skim milk. With pencil and paper he could easily figure profits in the business. If this dreamer would attempt to keep cows for the production of casein and throw away his butter fat, we would have an analogous case to the broiler raiser who does not keep his pullets for egg production. The young cockerel, like skim milk, is a by-product and may pay over the cost of feeding, or some other specific item, but that he does not pay the whole cost, including wages for the manager is proven by two facts: First, every large broiler plant yet started has either failed flatly or shifted its main line to other things; second, egg farmers would be only too glad to buy pullets at the price for which they sell the cockerels--a confession that it costs more to produce broilers than they will bring. The conception of the broiler business when it was boomed twenty years ago was to produce broilers in early spring, when other folks had none. It was, like the early watermelon, or the early strawberry business--to make its profits in extreme prices. This idea received several severe blows from the hands of modern progress. One is the development of poultry fattening and crate feeding in this country. This has resulted in supplying the consumer with choice chicken-flesh that can be produced more economically than broilers. Formerly it was a case of eating old hen--rooster, age unknown, or broilers--now we have capon, roaster, crate-fattened chickens and green ducks, all rivals for the place formerly occupied exclusively by the broiler. Again, the improvement of shipping and dressing facilities, the universal introduction of the refrigerator car and the introduction into the central west of the American breeds, has flooded the eastern market with a large amount of spring chickens--by-products of the egg business on the farm--which are almost equal in quality to the down-eastern product. The most prominent reason of the lessened profit in broilers is the development of the cold storage industry. Cold storage destroys the element of season, and allows only that margin of profit that the consumer is willing to pay for a fresh killed broiler from a Jersey broiler plant, as compared with last summer's product from the Iowa farms. From a summer copy of Farm Poultry, I quote the Boston market: Fresh killed Northern and Eastern: Fowls, choice 15c Broilers, choice to fancy 23-25c Western, ice packed: Fowls, choice 14c Broilers, choice 20-22c Western frozen: Fowls, choice................. 14c Broilers, choice..............18-20c Eggs: Nearly fancy.................. 26c Western choice........17-1/2-18-1/2c To complete our comparison I turn to the previous winter and find that the best storage eggs are quoted at 19c, when the best fresh are selling at 35c. This was a poor storage season and a quotation of 22c and 25c would perhaps be a fairer comparative figure. We find the per cent, of premium on the local product to be: Fowls, local over fresh western........... 7 per cent. Fowls, local over frozen western.......... 7 per cent. Broilers, local over fresh western........14 per cent. Broilers, local over frozen western.......26 per cent. Eggs, local over fresh western............30 per cent. Eggs, local over storage western..........37 per cent. I consider these general facts concerning the failure of broiler production, and the logical explanations given, as far more convincing than any figures I could give concerning the detailed cost of production. Nor am I capable of giving as accurate figures as I can in the case of poultry keeping for egg production, for I have had neither the desire nor the opportunity to look them up. The following suggestive analysis I submit for the purpose of pointing out why the cost of production is too great to allow a profit. We may consider the chick marketing as May, the weight as 1-1/4, and the price as 35 cents a pound, or, putting it roundly a price of 50 cents a bird. Now, May broilers mean February eggs. If the reader will refer to the tables of hatchability and mortality he will see that for our northern states this is one of the worst seasons for hatching. A hatchability of 40 per cent, times a liveability of 50 per cent, gives a net liveability of 20 per cent. Now, anyone with the ability to produce high grade eggs at that time a year, could get about 40c a dozen for them, which raises the egg cost per broiler to about 17 cents. The feed cost per broiler is small, usually estimated at 12 cents, and this makes a cost of 29 cents. Now, let us allow a cent for expense of selling charges and forget all about investment, fuel and incidentals, we have left a margin of 20 cents. Before going farther let us look at the labor bill. Suppose it is a one-man plant. Suppose the owner sets a value on his services of $1,200 per annum. That is pretty good, but few men who set a lower value on their services will have accumulated enough capital to go into the business. At 20 cents each it will take 6,000 broilers to make $1,200. That will take 30,000 eggs and at three settings will require 40 240-egg incubators, which, of a good make, will cost $1,260. To spread the hatching out over a longer period is to run into cheap prices on the one hand, or a still impossible egg season on the other. It will take upwards of a hundred brooders to house the chicks. There is no use of going farther till we have solved these difficulties. First we have more work than one man can do; second, we require a number of hatchable eggs that cannot be bought in winter without a campaign of advertising and canvassing for them, that would make them cost double our previous figure. To produce them oneself would require a flock of 2,500 hens. When a man gets to that point in the business he is out of the broiler business and an egg farmer, and will do the same thing, hatch the chicks when eggs are cheap and fertile, selling his surplus cockerels for 25 cents each and permit the storage man to freeze them until the following spring to compete with the broiler man's expensively produced goods. The effort at early broiler production was a natural result of the combination of the idea of artificial incubation with our grandmother's pride in having the first setting hen. But in the present age the man who attempts it is rowing against the current of economical production, for the cheaply produced broiler can be stored until the season of scarcity, with but slight loss in quality. To produce broilers in the season of scarcity, necessitates the consumption of a product (eggs) which cannot be so successfully stored, with a lesser quantity of that same product in its season of plenty. We will give the production of broilers no further attention save as a by-product of egg production. South Shore Roaster. The production of South Shore soft roasters in a local section of Massachusetts, offers a successful contrast with the broiler business and is, so far as the writer knows, the only case in the United States where pullets are profitably diverted from egg production. The process of roaster production is essentially as follows: The incubators are set in the fall or early winter, and the chicks reared in brooder houses. As soon as the tender age is past, the chickens are put in simple colony houses where, with hopper fed corn, beef scrap and rye on the range, they grow throughout the winter and spring. They are sold from May 1st to July 1st and bring such prices that the cockerels are caponized yet not sold as capons, showing them to be the highest priced chicken flesh in the market save small broilers. Now, the income of roasters is two to five times as much per head as that of broilers. The added expense is only a matter of feed, which bears about the same ratio to weight as with broilers. The great advantage of the roaster business over that of the broiler business comes in the following points: 1st: The initial expense of eggs, incubation and brooding are distributed over a much larger final valuation. 2nd: The incubation period, while perhaps in as difficult a season, can be distributed over a longer period of time. With 8 pound roasters at 30 cents, we have an expense account about as follows: cost of production to broiler stage, 30 cents as previously given. An additional food cost of 10 cents per pound of chicken flesh would still leave a margin of $1.40, so, for an income of $1,200, only about 860 birds need be raised, a proposition not beyond the capacity of one man to handle. Allowing a spread of five hatching periods, the number of eggs required at once would be one-twelfth that demanded by the broiler farm. As it is, the roaster grower finds trouble in getting good eggs and is obliged to pay 50 cents a dozen for them, but his want is within the region of possibility. The South Shore roaster district is an example of an industry built up by specialization and co-operation. But in this sense I do not mean co-operation in production, but that the product is handled by a few dealers and has become well known so that the brand sells readily at an advanced price. To a beginner in the South Shore district, the numerous successes and failures around him cannot help but be of great benefit. The South Shore roaster district of Massachusetts is the best example of specialized community production of poultry flesh that we have in the United States. It is only rivaled by the districts in the south of England and in France. In Chapter III the writer takes up fully the community production of eggs. The reason I have gone into this matter in regard to eggs rather than roasters, is because the egg production is much the greater industry, and, whereas the soft roaster is at a premium only in a few Boston shops, high grade eggs are universally recognized and in demand. Many of the economies, especially concerning incubation, would apply equally well in both communities. I expect to see the time when chicken flesh shall be produced with these more advanced methods in many "South Shore" communities. Too Much Competition in Fancy Poultry. The various types of chicken farming are classified by what is made the leading sales product. This will depend wholly upon what is done with the female chicks that are hatched. If they are sold as broilers it is a broiler plant; if as roasters, it is a roaster plant; if as stock, it is a fancy or breeding stock business, but if kept for laying the proposition is an egg farm, and all other products are by-products. These by-products are to be carefully considered, and sold at the greatest possible price, but their production is incidental to the production of the main crop. Of the fancy poultry business as a main issue it must be said that it is certainly a poor policy to start out to make a living doing what hundreds of other people are only too glad to spend money in doing. Just as a homeless girl in a great city is beaten out in the struggle for existence by competition with girls who have good homes, and are working for chocolate money, so the man starting out as a poultry fancier is certainly working at great odds in competition with the professional men, farmers and poultry raisers whose income from fancy stock is meant to buy Christmas presents and not to pay grocery bills. To enter the fancy poultry business, one should take up poultry breeding in a small way, while working at another occupation, or he may take up commercial poultry production, learn to produce stock in large quantities and at a low productive cost, after which any breeding stock business he may secure will be added profit. The fancier will find the cost of production as given for commercial purposes very instructive, but if he operates in a small way he should expect to find his productive costs increased unless he chooses to count his own labor as of little or no value. That every chicken fancier also has in a small way commercial products to sell, goes without saying. These, indeed, together with his sales of high-priced stock, may pull him through with a total profit, even though his production cost is great, but every fancier should take a pride in making the sales at commercial rates pay for their cost of production. If the reader has received the impression from the present discussion that fancy poultry breeding always proves unprofitable, he certainly has failed to get the key-note of the situation. There are numbers of fancy poultry breeders making incomes of several thousand dollars per year, but these are old breeders and well-known men. There is another type of poultry fancier who is more commercial in his methods, but whose work lacks the personal enthusiasm and artistic touch of the regular fancier. I refer to the band wagon style of breeder who gets out a general catalog in which are pictured acres of poultry yards with fences as straight as the draughtsman's rule can make them. Such men do a big business. They may carry a part or all of the breeding stock on a central poultry plant and farm out the eggs, contracting to buy back the stock in the fall, or the poultry farm may be a myth and the manager may simply sell the product of the neighboring farmers who raise it under contract. The system is naturally disliked by the higher class fanciers, but the writer must confess that any system which gets improved stock distributed among the farmers is worthy of praise. These types of poultry farms have been more largely carried on in the West than in the East, owing to the fact that true fanciers are thicker in the East. There is undoubtedly still plenty of room for band wagon poultry plants in the West and especially in the South. As adjuncts of this business may be mentioned the sale of a line of poultry supplies and the handling of other pet stock, such as dogs or Shetland ponies. In this case the advantage of such additions depends upon the fact that the greatest cost is that of advertising, and, if anything that will be associated in the buyer's mind with the main article be added to the catalog, it will result in additional sales at a low rate of advertising cost. Egg Farming the Most Certain and Profitable. We have now discussed all the branches of the poultry business save that of egg production, and the result of our review indicates that most of these fields are either of limited opportunities or that they present obstacles in the very nature of the work that prevent their being conducted on a large scale. Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable branch of the poultry industries. The chief reason that this is true is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are worth several times the value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once we succeed in rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to engage in. For each hen that passes through a laying period there is her own carcass, and at least one cockerel, that are necessarily produced and that must be marketed. Now, the pullet is worth more for egg producing than can be realized for her as a broiler or roaster, and her extra worth may be considered as counter-balancing the price at which cockerels must be sold. The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be overdone, whereas any other type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens that are a by-product of egg farming. Egg farming by no means relieves one from the difficulties of incubation and growing young stock, but it does throw these difficult parts of the business at the natural season of the year and results in a distribution of work throughout a longer period of time. In the remainder of the volume we will consider the poultryman as an egg farmer. We will also, unless otherwise stated, assume that he is a White Leghorn egg farmer, who is hatching by artificial incubation. Such reference to the marketing of poultry flesh or to other breeds will be made only in comparison of this type of the business or in relation to the production or handling of farm-grown poultry. CHAPTER III THE POULTRY PRODUCING COMMUNITY The builder of air castles in Poultrydom invariably starts out with a resumé of the specialization of the world's work and the wonderful advances in the economy of production of the large corporate organization, compared with the individual producer. The lone blacksmith hammering out a horseshoe nail is contrasted with the mills of the American Steel Company. The fond dreamer looks upon the steel trust, the oil trust, the department store, the packing house, the chain groceries, the theatrical trust, and the colossal enterprises that dominate every field of industry save agriculture. Here, then, lies the neglected opportunity for the industrial dreamer to hop over the fence, awaken the sleeping farmer, and fill his own purse with the wealth to be made by applying modern business methods to agriculture. The knowing smile--the farmer may be asleep and he may not be. Suppose that he is, does the fond dreamer dream that he is the first man from the industrial kingdom of great things to look with hungry eyes at the rich field of agricultural opportunity, basking in last century's sun? Alas, fond dreamer, your name is legion. Every farmer who has sent a son to college has known you and the Hon. William Jennings Bryan has met you, called you an agriculturist and defined you as a man who makes his money in town and spends it in the country. But the dreamer is right in his first premise--great economies in production are the result of specialization and combination. Why not then in agriculture? I'll tell you why. There is a touch of nature in the living thing that calls for a closer interest on the part of the laborer than the industrial system of the mine and factory can give. Why is combined and specialized production more economical? It may be because it gets more efficient work out of labor, it may be that larger operations make feasible the employment of more efficient methods and machinery. The cost of production may be lowered, by either or both of these means, or it may be lowered by an increased efficiency in machinery, even with a decreased efficiency in labor. Combination and specialization so commonly cut down expenses because of large operations and the use of better tools, that we may take this saving for granted. When it comes to labor there is a different story. The negro working with boss and gang, or the machine-tender in the factory work as well or better for large than for small concerns, but the labor of a poultry plant is different. It is made up of a great many different operations well scattered in space and time. For the most part it is simple labor, but it is essential that it be performed with reasonable concern for the welfare of the business. In other industries, as with men working at a bench, the presence of a foreman keeps them busy and their work may be daily inspected. To have foremen in poultry work would require as many foremen as laborers, and even then they would be as useless, for when the last round of the brooders is made at night a foreman standing three feet away could not know whether the laborer who had placed his hand in the brooder had found all well or all wrong. It is useless to carry the argument farther. The labor bill is one of the biggest items of expense in poultry production. With a system where the efficiency of the labor decreases with the size of the business, large industrial enterprises are impossible. Such savings as will be made in buying supplies, selling, etc., will be wasted in the reduced efficiency of labor. The bulk of labor in poultry work must be self-reliant labor and the only test for such efficiency is number of chicks reared and the weight of the egg basket. Even this will not be a complete test unless from the income be subtracted the feed bills. A system of renting or working on shares that will gain the advantages of centralization without losing the individual interest of the laborer, will go a long way toward making the poultry business one wherein large capital and large brains can find a place to work. I expect to see in the future some such system evolved. In fact we have to-day a profit-sharing plan between owner and foreman on many of our best plants. To extend such to each laborer requires more system and better superintendence, but it is feasible and must come. But, better still is it for the worker to own the stock. Best yet if he owns both stock and land, leaving to larger capital only such phases of the business as involve great saving when done on a wholesale basis. Just as the manufacturer of farm machinery, the packing of meat and the manufacture of butter have successfully been taken out of the control of the individual farmer and placed under corporate or co-operative organization, so the writer expects to see certain portions of the process of poultry production removed from the hands of the farmer and controlled by more specialized and expert labor. Far from meaning the lessening of the earning power of the farmer, every one of such steps means larger production and more profits. The ideal of agricultural economics is to give the farmer the smallest possible proportion of the work of agricultural production in order that the most may be produced and the farmer's share along with the others may be largest. Established Poultry Communities. In a previous chapter we spoke of the South Shore roaster district of Massachusetts. Here is a community where, in lots of from a dozen to four or five thousand, are annually produced seventy-five or one hundred thousand market fowls of one particular type. While this business was not built up by the efforts of a corporation or individual who planned definitely the entire project, yet we find a central influence at work in the person of the firm of Curtis Bros., who for years have bought the majority of South Shore roasters, and who have done a great deal to advertise the product and encourage their neighbors to a larger and more uniform production. At Little Compton, R. I., is a very similar parallel of the South Shore district in the shape of egg farms. Here we find within a radius of two miles about one hundred thousand Rhode Island Red hens owned in flocks of two thousand or less. The methods used throughout the community are all alike and are simple in the extreme. There are no incubators, no brooders, no poultry houses, no long houses, no dropping boards to be scraped every morning, nothing in fact, but board-walled, board-roofed, colony houses, scattered over the grass fields and similar though smaller fields covered with coops for hens and chicks. Feeding is equally simple; a mash of meat, vegetables and ground grain mixed once a day and hauled around in a one-horse cart and hoppers of whole corn exposed in the houses. The houses are cleaned twice a year. Little Compton is, indeed, a community where all the rules of the poultry books are regularly violated, and yet a larger number of successful egg farms can be seen from the church spire at Little Compton Corners than most poultry writers have ever seen or read about. Strange it is, as Josh Billings puts it, that "some folks know things that ain't so." An illustration published in a recent issue of the World's Work tells a remarkable story. A pile of egg shells as big as a straw stack certainly indicates "something doing" in the chicken business, and it is a very proud monument to Mr. Byce who, some twenty odd years ago, established an incubator factory at the town of Petaluma. Petaluma is in Sonoma County, California, forty miles north of San Francisco. In the census year of 1899, Sonoma County produced more eggs than any other county in the United States. To-day there are in the Petaluma region close to one million hens. Like the Little Compton district, Petaluma is a one-breed community, White Leghorns being the breed used. The individual flocks range larger than at Little Compton, chiefly because the milder climate, smaller breed, and establishment of the central hatchery enables one man to take care of more birds. When I asked Mr. Byce for a list of the people in his neighborhood keeping over one thousand hens, he replied by sending me a list of twenty-two men who keep from 8,000 down to 2,500 each, and said that to give those keeping from one to two thousand, would practically be to take a census of the county. The methods of housing and feeding used are simple and inexpensive like those at Little Compton. The chief reason why Petaluma shows a more advanced development in the poultry community than the eastern poultry growing localities, is to be found in the climatic advantages which favor incubation (see Chapter on Incubation) and the consequent development of the central hatchery. Outside of this, the location is not especially favorable. The temperature is milder in the winter than in the East, but the Petaluma winter is one of continual rain which develops roup to a greater extent than we have it in the East. The prices received for high grade eggs in San Francisco is in the winter about equal to the top prices in New York. In the spring and summer New York will give more for fancy goods. The cost of corn on the Pacific Coast is about 40 cents a hundred more than on the Atlantic Coast. Wheat, however, is cheaper than in the East, but not cheap enough to substitute for the more staple grain. The eggs from the Petaluma region are at present marketed largely through a co-operative marketing association. Developing Poultry Communities. I have shown why the large individual poultry farms with hired labor have not proven profitable fields for the investment of capital. Again, I have shown that in a few localities where the business was incidentally started, communities of independent poultry farmers have grown up which are very successful, and that there is no apparent reason why similar communities elsewhere, if intelligently located, could not do as well or better. This looks like an excellent field for corporate enterprise. Certainly there is no more reason why the poultry community cannot be as successfully promoted as an irrigation project, or a cheese factory, or a trucking community. In such a community there are many functions that can be better performed by a capitalized body managed by experts than by individual poultrymen acting alone. These functions are: First, the selection of a location and the purchase of the land in large quantities. Second, laying out this land into suitable individual holdings, with regard to economy of water supply and the collection of the product. Third, the partial or complete equipment of these farms at less expense and in a more suitable manner than could or would be done by the individual holders. Fourth, the sale or rent of these places to poultrymen at a reasonable profit on the investment, but at a rate which will still be below the cost at which the individual could have acquired the land. Fifth, the selection of the stock that would not only be better adapted to the enterprise than that which would be acquired by the individual farmer, but would possess the uniformity necessary to the maintenance of a standard grade in the product. Sixth, the centralized hatching of the chicks by which means chicks can be more cheaply hatched and better hatched than by the imperfect methods available to the small poultryman. Seventh, the purchase of all outside supplies with the usual savings involved in large purchases. Eighth, a teaming system of delivering such supplies. Ninth, a general protection against thieves and predatory animals by an organized war on all "varments." Tenth, maintenance of the best methods in feeding and care by the employment of skilled advisers, or the operation of demonstration farms under the direction of the central management. Eleventh, the enforced daily gathering of all eggs and their lodgment that same evening in a clean, dry cooler, with a thermometer hovering around 29 degrees Fahrenheit. Twelfth, the strict enforcement of penalties against the man who attempts to sell bad eggs. Thirteenth, the prompt dispatch of the product to its final market. Fourteenth, the final sale of the eggs with opportunities for fancy prices made possible by an absolutely guaranteed product in quantities sufficient to permit of a regular supply and of advertising the product. Fifteenth, the conduction of breeding operations along any desired line, with the opportunity of combining the principle of great numbers for selection with the comparison of all progeny from ancestry, a method that will bring results a hundred times more quickly than the efforts of the small breeder. Sixteenth, the advantage of the sale of breeding stock to be acquired from the free publicity which is showered on all unique industrial enterprises. In these sixteen functions there is ample opportunity for capital, backed by ability in organization, to reap an ample reward. Is it a dream? In a sense yes, but a dream made possible by the observation of the actual results achieved in similar lines, and of the present tendency in the poultry producing world. Why has not this thing been done before? Because no one knew enough to do it. Why did not the wonderful trucking regions develop earlier in the South, and why does it still take northern settlers, backed by railroad advertising, to develop the wonderful modern industries which enables every city dweller in the North to have strawberries in February and fresh vegetables any day in the year? Why did the California fruit trade develop? Did anyone suppose forty years ago that the unsettled valley around Pasadena would ever produce one thousand dollars per acre in one year? These orange groves, too valuable for agricultural purposes to be used as town sites, were precarious experiments until the trans-continental refrigerator car and the California Fruit Growers' Exchange paved the way and put each day in every eastern and northern city just the quantity of oranges that the people could consume at a profitable price. Mr. Harwood, in the World's Work for May, 1908, after describing the "City of a Million Hens," raises the question, "If in Petaluma, why not anywhere?" I would like to answer that question by saying that while anywhere is a little broad, the reason the industry has not developed elsewhere has been because of the diversion of interested capital towards impractical large individual poultry plants, manned by hired labor. Another reason has been the lack of the technical knowledge necessary to construct and operate efficient hatcheries. The poultryman has been a disciple of the poultry papers and poultry fanciers of the day. The poultry papers and poultry literature has generally been supported by poultry fanciers and manufacturers of incubators, patent nests and portable houses. The good folks have vied with one another in complicating the business. They have built steam-piped houses, with padded walls and miniature railways with which daily to haul away the droppings. A few famous fanciers selling eggs at $10.00 per setting have made such business pay, but alas for the luckless investor in what the visiting poultry editor would style a "handsomely equipped modern poultry plant." A few years ago a Government poultry expert paid a visit to Petaluma. He came back and reported, "It is a great disappointment, the methods are very crude." The case is most pathetic. Here was a man employed by the people to teach them how to make poultry pay. His carfare is paid across the continent that he might visit the only community in the United States where at that time any considerable number of people were making their living from poultry, and because he did not find lightning rods on the poultry houses, he came back with the look of Naamen who, when he was requested by Elisha to bathe seven times in the river Jordan, replied, "It is very crude." Will Co-operation Work? That magic thing, "Co-operation," while utterly lacking in the Utopian qualities with which the word artist paints it, is a decidedly bigger factor in American affairs than the average man realizes. The chief difficulty with co-operation is that the manager, if not incompetent, has an excellent opportunity to be a grafter. In Europe co-operation in agricultural and mercantile enterprise is older and better developed than in this country. Perhaps the Europeans are less inclined to be grafters, but a more likely explanation is that the members of such associations as these have learned how to prevent and detect graft, just as our business men have learned to avoid losses from the dishonesty of employes. That this is the true explanation is substantiated by the fact that when co-operation once becomes established in this country, it succeeds even better than in Europe. When the creameries were started in the West several years ago, there was much complaint of swindlers, fake stock companies, and co-operative ventures in which the manager absconded with the butter money. To-day more than half of the American creameries are co-operative and the number is constantly increasing. They are efficient and successful in every way, and to-day make the finest of butter and pay the highest prices to the farmer for his cream. But their way was first paved and the business developed by successful private concerns. Co-operation is entirely feasible and successful where the people behind the movement have enough interest in the enterprise and good enough business sense to run the proposition as efficiently as similar private enterprises are run. The idea that co-operation must always result in a big saving is a misconception. Employes will not work any harder for an association than for a private employer, sometimes not as hard. Certainly no employee will work as hard for an association as he will for himself. Why people should expect to buy out the grocery store and hire the grocer to run it and save money for themselves, is a thing I could never understand. But if there is some great waste that co-operation will prevent, as where seven milk wagons drive every morning over the same route, or where the market of perishable crops is glutted one day and starved the next, centralization, corporate or co-operate, will pay. I know of no better way to impress the reader with American co-operation in actual practice than to quote from a brief account of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. The Exchange was founded upon the theory that every member is entitled to furnish his pro rata of the fruit for shipment through his association, and every association to its pro rata to the various markets of the country. This theory reduced to practice gives every grower his fair share, and the average price of all markets throughout the season. Another cardinal provision of the plan was that all fruit should be marketed on a level basis of actual cost, with all books and accounts open for inspection at the pleasure of the members. These broad principles of full co-operation constitute the basis of the Exchange movement. The Exchange system is simple, but quite democratic. The local association consists of a number of growers contiguously situated, who unite themselves for the purpose of preparing their fruit for market on a co-operative basis. They establish their own brands, make such rules as they may agree upon for grading, packing and pooling their fruit. Usually these associations own thoroughly equipped packing houses. All members are given a like privilege to pick and deliver fruit to the packing house, where it is weighed in and properly receipted for. Every grower's fruit is separated into different grades, according to quality, and usually thereafter it goes into the common pool, and in due course takes its percentage of the returns according to grade. Any given brand is the exclusive property of the Local Association using it, and the fruit under this brand is always packed in the same locality, and therefore of uniform quality. This is of great advantage in marketing, as the trade soon learns that the pack is reliable. There are more than eighty associations, covering every citrus fruit district in California, and packing nearly two hundred reliable and guaranteed brands of oranges and lemons. The several local Exchanges designate one man each from their membership as their representative, and he is elected a director of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. By this method the policy-making and governing power of the organization remains in the hands of the local Exchanges. From top to bottom the organization is planned, dominated and in general detail controlled absolutely by fruit growers, and for the common good of all members. No corporation nor individual reaps from it either dividends or private gain. So far we have dealt almost exclusively with the organization of the Exchange, its co-operative aspects, and general policy at home. Equally important is its organization in the markets. Seeking to free itself from the shifting influence of speculative trading, by taking the business out of the hands of middlemen at home, the Exchange found it quite as important to maintain the control of its own affairs in the markets. For this purpose the Exchange established a system of exclusive agencies in all the principal cities of the country, employing as agents active, capable young men of experience in the fruit business. Most of these agents are salaried, and have no other business of any kind to engage their attention, and none of the Exchange representatives handle any other citrus fruits. These agents sell to smaller cities contiguous to their headquarters, or in the territory covered by their districts. Over all these agencies are two general or traveling agents, with authority to supervise and check up the various offices. These general agents maintain in their offices at Chicago and Omaha, a complete bureau of information, through which all agents receive every day detailed information as to sales of Exchange fruit in other markets the previous day. Possessing this data, the selling agent cannot be taken advantage of as to prices. If any agent finds his market sluggish, and is unable to sell at the average prices prevailing elsewhere, he promptly advises the head office in Los Angeles, and sufficient fruit is diverted from his market to relieve it and restore prices to normal level. Through these agencies of its own the Exchange is able to get and transmit to its members the most trustworthy information regarding market conditions, visible supplies, etc. This system affords a maximum of good service at a minimum cost. The volume of the business is so large that a most thorough equipment is maintained at much less cost to growers than any other selling agency can offer. The annual business of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange amounts to over ten million dollars, and the Exchange handles over half the citrus fruit output of the State. Yet there are people who say co-operation in America will not work. Co-operative Egg Marketing in Denmark. I have discussed at length the work of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange, as the best example in the United States of the co-operative marketing of farm produce. We have thus far but little co-operative work in the marketing of poultry products. Canada has a few examples, but it is to European countries that we must go for a full demonstration of the principle of co-operation when applied to the products of the hen. In England and in Ireland co-operative efforts in the growing, fattening, and marketing of poultry and eggs are quite common. It is to Denmark, however, that we must go to find the most wholesale example of this truly modern type of business effort. The Danes are co-operators in the fullest sense. They have co-operative creameries and co-operative packing houses. The Danish Egg Export Society is an organization, the plan and work of which is very much like that of the California Fruit Growers' Exchange. The local branch of the association buys the eggs of the farmer, paying for them by weight. Collectors are hired to gather them at frequent and regular intervals, and are paid In accordance with the amount of their collections, but must stand the loss of breakage. Each individual poultryman's eggs are kept separate until they reach a centralizing station. There are a number of these central stations at which the eggs are carefully crated and packed for shipment to England. The individual farmer is fined or taxed for all bad eggs found in his lot. This fine is deducted from his receipts and he has nothing to do but to submit to it or get out of the association. The latter he cannot afford to do because the association has its established brands and can pay him more for his eggs than he could secure by attempting to market them himself. As a result of this strict system of making the producer responsible for weight and quality of the eggs the Danish eggs have become the largest and finest in the world. Although the writer firmly believes in the co-operative marketing of farm produce, and considers that the success already secured in this work is conclusive evidence of the practicability and desirability of co-operation, it would not be fair to infer that co-operation has entirely driven out private or corporate enterprise. Just as a goodly per cent. of the citrus fruit of California is still handled by private dealers, so in Denmark we find that nearly one-half of the eggs sent to England are handled by private companies. Let it be noted, however, that these companies maintain a system of buying on merit which enforces high quality that is not to be found where private buyers are without the spur of co-operative competition. Before co-operation entered the orange regions of California, the fruit was poorly packed and handled and the markets at times so glutted, that shipments of fruit sometimes failed to pay the freight, and this was actually charged back to the unfortunate grower. Co-operation has done away with this waste. In like manner the great loss from decomposed eggs and half hatched chicks is unknown to the egg trade of Denmark. Corporation or Co-operation? The community of farmers producing a large quantity of a single kind of product is the coming form of agricultural enterprise. Will this community be promoted by corporation or by co-operation? Arthur Brisbane says, "As individual control of the Government has been superceded by collective control, so individual control of industries will be followed by collective control. That is the natural order." Brisbane is right. The individual, or the corporation, which is an individual using other men's money, foreruns co-operation, because the individual knows exactly what he wants to do and the big group of individuals does not know what they want or how to do it until individuals have, by concrete successes, shown them. When the creameries were started, co-operative creameries were unsuccessful and could not compete with privately owned creameries. The farmers have now become too wise to be "easy-marks" to the fake creamery promoters or to trust their butter sales to a comparative stranger and co-operation is a success. Poultry communities cannot be made out of whole cloth by the co-operative plan. Private corporations will be necessary to launch these enterprises. When they have reached the stage of development now to be seen in Little Compton and Petaluma they are ready for co-operation. I have emphasized the point that the private corporation is the natural forerunner in this matter in order to discourage premature or over-ambitious efforts at co-operation. Whenever a community of poultrymen or, for that matter, a community of growers of any perishable form of products, who are already successful in the producing end, wish to take up co-operation and will see that men are selected to manage it who will use the same precautions to guard against incompetency or graft that they, as individuals, would use in their own business, there is excellent chance of success. Go slow. Do not expect to get rich quick by "cutting out the middleman's enormous profits," for the middleman's profits are not enormous, and if you see that your co-operation is not paying, give it up and confess to yourselves that you do not know as much about the business as your private competitors. CHAPTER IV WHERE TO LOCATE That poultry should be kept on every farm to supply the farmer's own table does not permit of argument. When it comes to production for market, I believe there are some sections where it costs more to produce and market poultry and eggs than is received for the product when sold. For illustration: On a farm which is twenty miles from town and where grain cannot be profitably grown, the cost of teaming grain from the railroad station and of sending the eggs to market as frequently as is necessary to have a wholesome product, would certainly eat up all possible profits. The farmer thus located would find a more profitable use for his time in some industry where the raw material is near at hand and the product needs less frequent marketing. Some Poultry Geography. When we are discussing poultry on the general farm, the problem of location is not to be taken into consideration, save to the extent that there are a few localities where food cost is so high or marketing facilities so poor as to make even the usual farm surplus unprofitable. The map on page 45 shows the intensity of egg production and also indicates the location of the more important localities where poultry plants have succeeded. The map on page 47 shows the quality of eggs coming from various sections, which indicates pretty closely the general development of the poultry industry. These indications, however, are of little value in locating a poultry plant, for they refer to the poultry product on the general farm, and are a matter of the number and general intelligence of farmers, rather that a sign of the suitability of the locality for the poultry industry. For purposes of discussion, I have divided the United States into seven sections as shown by the dotted lines on the second map. [Illustration: Plate II. Page 45. Map: Intensity of egg production in the United States] Section 1 is the North Woods and too cold and remote for the poultry business. Section 2 includes the great West, of which an adequate discussion is out of the question. Of course, the great majority of this area is too remote from markets for poultry production. The locations around the big cities in this section are excellent for poultry farming, as they are so far removed from the great farm region that their bulk of imported eggs are of necessity somewhat stale. California is good chicken country. The Puget Sound country is rather too damp. In the interior western regions the chicken business has not done well, chiefly because the atmosphere is too dry for the methods of artificial incubation attempted. Section 3 is the great granary of the world. It is also the home of three-fourths of the country's poultry crop. It is a region of corn, cattle and hogs. Such a country will produce poultry in a very inexpensive manner. But it is not the region for special poultry farms. In the northern portion of this tract, we find a heavy housing expense and much winter labor necessary. It is a region of high priced lands and labor, and low prices for poultry products. Even the large cities in this region offer little in the way of demand for high grade poultry products. This is because they are so abundantly surrounded with farms that all produce is moderately fresh and plentiful. There are no successful poultry farms in this section west of the Mississippi. It is the natural location of extensive rather than intensive branches of agriculture. The only type of commercial poultry farming that could succeed in any portion of this section would be a large community of producers who could ship their products out regularly in carload lots. Such development could only take place in the southern portion of this region, for the housing expense is too great for the north. At best the distance from market is a disadvantage, for the rate on eggs just about equals the rate on the quantity of grain necessary to produce them. The added time of shipment is something of a drawback, though in refrigerator cars this is not serious. After the establishment of poultry communities becomes more common, the Oklahoma and Texas region will become available for this purpose, but they must be established in full swing at the start, for a few isolated poultrymen have no chance at all in this section, for they cannot sell their product to advantage. Section 4. This region, extending from the Ozarks to Eastern Tennessee, is one of the very best poultry sections. The climate is such that green food is available winter and summer, and the expense of housing and winter labor is reasonable. This section is still in the corn growing region. The question is almost always one of railroad facilities to get the product out. All poultry farms in this section must grow their own grain or buy it of their immediate neighbors. It will not pay to ship grain into this region. [Illustration: Plate III. Page 47. Map: Intensity of egg production in the United States] When near shipping facilities, individual poultry farms in Section 4 have a good chance of success, especially east of the Mississippi. This is the most favorable region in the country for the establishment of poultry communities that are to grow their own grain. Such poultry farms will not be expected to confine their attention as exclusively to the business as those in the section where it is profitable to import the grain. Section 5 is the non-grain growing region of the South. It at present produces little poultry. The climate is all right for the purpose, but the freight rates on grain from the West are high and likewise the freight service and freight rates to the final market are excessive. Under these conditions poultry farming will not pay except in a few localities as in Florida, where there is a high class local market due to the popular resorts. If grain could be profitably grown in this section the same type of poultry farming that prevails in Section 4 would be advisable. Now, grain can be grown in the cotton belt of the South, and many Yankee farmers are making good money doing it. But when grown it is liable to be worth more to feed mules than to feed chickens. Section 6 is the "Down East" section of dense population. The land for the most part is rocky, wooded and hilly. The climate and nature of the soil are against the economical production of poultry, but the grain can be profitably fed, and as the markets are the best in the country, commercial poultry farming has gained quite a foothold. If a man is already located in this section and wishes to go into the poultry business I would by all means say, "Go ahead," but I would not advise an outsider looking for a location to come here, for the next section has several advantages. Section 7 is the best poultry farming district in the United States, either for the individual poultry plant or for the community of poultry growers. The reasons for this are: First: The soil is of a sandy nature and excellent land for poultry farming can be had at a low price. Second: The climate is much more favorable than farther north or farther inland. Third: Grain rates from the West are very reasonable. Fourth: The best market in the country--New York City--is within easy shipping distance. The type of poultry farming here to be recommended, like that of Section 6, is one in which imported grain is fed. The fertility of this grain, going back on the light soil, is used to grow the green food required by the hens, and, in addition, may be used in a rotation system for growing truck. It will not pay to grow any quantity of grain. Section 7, because of its advantages over Section 6 in climate and the availability of large tracts of suitable land, is a much better location for the poultry community. Over Section 4, which is the second best region for this purpose, it has the advantage of nearness to markets. The climatic advantage of Sections 4 and 7 are about on a par. The chief distinction is the matter of growing grain or importing it. If you are to grow your grain, using poultry as a means of marketing it, Section 4 is the best locality. If you are to buy grain, Section 7 is the place. The boundaries of Section 7 are not arbitrary and should be noted carefully. The line runs from Mattawan, New Jersey, across to the main line of the Pennsylvania and down this to Washington. To the north and west of this, the soils are heavy clays which are wet, cold, slushy and easily befouled. Likewise, the line on the south is distinctly marked by the Norfolk and Western Railway and is a matter of freight rates on grain. Norfolk gets a rate of sixteen and a half cents from Chicago; a couple of hundred miles south, the rate is about twice as much. Cheaper grain rates would of course extend this belt on down the coast where the climate is even more favorable. Chicken Climate. Climate is a big figure in the cost of poultry production. Every day that water is frozen in winter means increased labor and decreased egg yield. Mild winters means cheap houses, cheap labor, cheap feed (a large proportion of green food), an earlier chick season, which, together with the mild weather and green feed, mean a large proportion of the egg yield at the season when eggs are high in price. The American poultry editor wastes a great deal of ink explaining why the Australian egg records of 175 eggs per hen, cannot be so, because in this country, the hens at the Maine station only averaged 125. The Maine Experiment Station lies buried in a snow drift for about five months of the year. The Australian station has a winter climate equal to that of New Orleans. The Australian records do not go below thirty eggs per day per hundred hens at any time during the year. Our New York and New England records run down anywhere from one to ten eggs per day per hundred hens. The following table will show the effect of the climate upon the distribution of the egg yield throughout the year. The records at New York are from a large number of hens of several different flocks and probably represent a normal distribution of the egg yield for that section. The Kansas and Arkansas lists are taken from the record of small flocks and are not very reliable. The fourth column gives the Australian records with the months transferred on account of being in the southern hemisphere. The last column gives the railroad shipments from a division of the N.C. & St. L. railroad in Western Tennessee: Column Headings: NY--Central New York per hen per day KS--Kansas Ex. Station per hen per day AR--Arkansas Ex. Station per hen per day AU--Australian Laying Contest per hen per day NH--Shipments from New Hampshire egg farm TN--Shipments from Western Tennessee NY KS AR AU NH TN January .21 .25 .32 .51 26 1509 February .26 .22 .30 .66 41 1520 March .43 .60 .62 .67 66 2407 April .56 .52 .38 .61 83 1775 May .59 .57 .44 .53 81 1650 June .50 .46 .42 .45 61 1131 July .44 .43 .34 .43 58 878 August .37 .32 .38 .41 54 422 September .26 .28 .29 .29 24 100 October .17 .13 .22 .31 3 541 November .08 .06 .18 .31 2 703 December .14 .25 .15 .40 11 1150 An equable climate the year round is the best for the chicken business. The California coast is fairly equable in temperature, but its winter rains and summer drouth are against it. The Atlantic coast south of New York is fairly good, probably the best the country affords. The most southern portions will be rather too hot in summer, which will result in a small August and September egg yield. Probably the region around Norfolk is, all considered, the best poultry climate the country affords. Suitable Soil. Soil is important in poultry farming; in fact it is very important, and many failures can be traced to soil mistakes. Rocky and uncultivated lands must not be chosen. To locate on any soil which will not utilize the droppings for the production of green food, is to introduce a loss sufficient to turn success into failure. The ideal soil for poultry is a soil too sandy to produce ordinary farm crops successfully, and hence an inexpensive soil; but because land too sandy to be used for heavy farming is best for poultry, this does not mean that any cheap soil will do. A heavy wet clay soil worth $150 an acre for dairying is worth nothing for poultry. Pure sand is likewise worthless and nothing can be more pitiable than to see poultry confined in yards of wind swept sand, without a spear of anything green within half a mile. The soils that are valuable for early truck are equally valuable for poultry. Sand with a little loam, or very fine sand, if a few green crops are turned under to provide humus, are ideal poultry soils. The Norfolk fine Sand and Norfolk Sandy Loam of the U.S. soil survey, are types of such soil. These soils absorb the droppings readily and are never covered with standing water. The winter snows do not stay on them. Crops will keep greener on them in winter than on clay soils three hundred miles farther south. The disadvantage of such soils is that they lose their fertility by leaching. The same principles that will cause the droppings to disappear from the top of the ground will likewise cause them to be washed down beyond the depths of plant roots. This loss must be guarded against by not going to the extreme in selecting a light soil and may be largely overcome by schemes of running the poultry right among growing crops or by quick rotations. Land sloping to the southward is commonly advised for the purpose of getting the same advantages as are to be had in a sandy soil. In practice the slope of the land cannot be given great prominence, although, other things being equal, one should certainly not disregard this point. In heavy lands it is necessary to raise the floors and grade up around the houses. The quickly drained soil does away with this expense. Timber on the land is a disadvantage. Poultry farming in the woods has not been made a success. It's the same proposition of the droppings going to waste. I know a man who bought a timbered tract because it was cheap and who scraped up the droppings to sell by the barrel to his neighbor, who used them to fertilize his cabbage patch and in turn sold the poultryman cabbages to feed his hens, at 5 cents a head. Of course, this man failed, as does practically every man who attempts to scrape dropping boards and carry poultry manure around in baskets, instead of using it where it falls. There is little to be said in favor of uncleared land for the poultry business, but there is something that can be said in favor of the poultry business for uncleared land. A man who buys a timbered land for trucking can get no income whatever the first year, but the poultryman can begin his operations in the woods, clearing the land while he is raising a crop of chickens on it. The coops may be placed in the cleared streak and most of the droppings utilized. In fact, the plan of a streak of timber alongside the houses is not bad for a permanent arrangement--the birds certainly enjoy the shade. But the shade of growing crops is the most profitable kind for poultry. Marketing--Transportation. The possibilities of working up a local trade of high grade eggs at fancy prices varies greatly with the locality. Large cities and wealthy people are essentials. Other than this the principal distinctions are that regions where a general surplus of eggs are produced offer little chance for a fancy trade. Where the great bulk of eggs are imported fancy trade is more feasible. St. Louis is the smallest western city that supports anything like a fancy trade in eggs and there it is only on a small scale. Minneapolis, Omaha, etc., would not pay 3 cents premium for the best eggs produced, but cities of the same size east of the Appalachians and especially in New England, will pay a good premium. The Far West or the mountain districts will pay up better than the Mississippi Valley. The South will pay a little better than the upper Mississippi Valley, but has few cities of sufficient size to make such markets abundant. The Southerner has little regard for quality in produce and the most aristocratic people consume eggs regularly that the wife of a Connecticut factory hand wouldn't have in the house. The egg farmer who expects to sell locally had best not locate south of Washington or west of Pittsburg, unless he goes to the Pacific Coast. Where marketing is not done by wagon the subject of railroad transportation is practically identical with the question of marketing. It is the cost in freight service and freight rates that count. The proposition of transportation, especially for the grain buying poultry farm, catches us coming and going and both must be considered. A poultry farm in Section 7 will buy one hundred pounds of feed per year per hen and market one-third of a case of eggs. On this basis the grain rate from Chicago or St. Louis and the egg rate to New York must be balanced against each other. Don't take these things for granted. Look them up. Jamesburg and Freehold, two New Jersey towns ten miles apart and equi-distant and with equal freight rates from New York, might seem to the uninitiated as equally well situated to poultry farming. We will suppose two men bought forty-acre farms of equal quality and equi-distant from the railroad stations at these two towns. Suppose, further, they each kept five thousand hens. Jamesburg is on a Philadelphia-New York line of the Pennsylvania and its Chicago grain rate is the same as that of New York, namely: 19-1/2 cents per hundred. Freehold is on a branch line; its rate is 24-1/2 cents. In a year the difference amounts to $250. Figured at six per cent. interest, the land at Jamesburg is worth just about one hundred dollars an acre more than that at Freehold. Lumber rates or local lumber prices should also be taken into consideration. Whether one plans to ship his product out by express or freight will, of course, be an important consideration in deciding the location. As a general thing, the individual poultry farmer will, for shipping his product, use express east of Buffalo and north of Norfolk. The poultry community could use freight in these same regions and get as good or better service than by express. The location in relation to the railroad station is equally important to the freight rate. Besides heavy hauling frequent trips will be necessary in marketing eggs. These on the larger farms will be daily or at least semi-weekly. On the heavy hauling alone, at 25 cents per ton mile, distance from the railroad will figure up 1-1/4 cents per hen which, on the basis of the previous illustration, would make a difference of twenty-five dollars per acre for every mile of distance from the station. One of the most successful poultry farms I know is right along the railroad and has an elevator which handles the grain from the cars and later dumps it into the feed wagons without its ever being touched by hand. The labor saving in this counts up rapidly. The poultry community can have its own elevator and the grain can be sold to the farmer to be delivered directly into the hoppers in his field with but a single loading into a wagon. Availability of Water. One more point to be considered in location is water. The labor of watering poultry by carrying water in buckets is tremendous and not to be considered on any up-to-date poultry plant. Watering must be accomplished by some artificial piping system or from spring-fed brooks. The more length of flowing streams on a piece of land, provided the adjacent ground is dry, the more value the property has for poultry. Two spring-fed brooks crossing a forty-acre tract so as to give a half mile of running water, or a full mile of houses, would water five thousand hens without labor. This would mean an annual saving of at least one man's time as against hand watering, or a matter of a thousand dollars or more in the cost of installation of a watering system. If running water cannot be had the next best thing is to get land with water near the surface which may be tapped with sand points. If one must go deep for water a large flow is essential so that one power pump may easily supply sufficient water for the plant. The land should lay in a gentle slope so that water may be run over the entire surface by gravity. Hilly lands are a nuisance in poultry keeping and raise the expense at every turn. A Few Statistics. The following table does not bear directly upon the poultry-man's choice of a location, but is inserted here because of its general interest in showing the poultry development of the country. It will be noted that the egg production per hen is very low in the Southern States. This may seem at variance with my previous statements. The poor poultry keeping of the South is a fault of the industrial conditions, not of the climate. Chickens on the Southern farm simply live around the premises as do rats or English sparrows. No grain is grown; there are no feed lots to run to, no measures are taken to keep down vermin, and no protection is provided from wind and rain. In the North chickens could not exist with such treatment. The figures given showing the relation between the poultry and total agricultural wealth is the best way that can be found to express statistically the importance of poultry keeping in relation to the general business of farming. These figures should not be confused with the distribution of the actual volume of poultry products. Iowa, the greatest poultry producing state, shows only a moderate proportion of poultry to all farm wealth, but this is because more agricultural wealth is produced in Iowa than in all the "Down East" states. Table showing the development of the poultry industry in the various states, according to the returns of the census of 1900: No. of Percentage of No. of Farm value eggs per farm wealth eggs of eggs per capita earned by per hen dozen States poultry Alabama 124 4.9 48 9.7 cents Arizona 80 4.5 60 19.9 Arkansas 235 6.8 58 9.1 California 197 5.4 74 15.8 Colorado 127 5.4 71 15.0 Connecticut 105 11.3 89 19.1 Delaware 231 14.7 68 13.7 Florida 96 8.2 46 13.1 Georgia 156 4.4 41 10.4 Idaho 213 5.0 67 16.2 Indiana 338 10.0 77 10.5 Iowa 536 7.4 64 10.1 Illinois 215 3.7 62 10.3 Kansas 597 8.2 73 9.9 Kentucky 198 8.3 62 9.8 Louisiana 111 4.0 40 10.0 Maine 233 11.0 100 15.3 Maryland 126 10.4 71 12.6 Massachusetts 56 11.7 96 19.9 Michigan 270 9.7 82 11.2 Minnesota 296 5.8 67 10.5 Mississippi 144 4.7 43 9.9 Missouri 291 11.6 68 9.8 Montana 148 4.3 67 21.0 Nebraska 463 6.1 66 9.9 Nevada 68 3.7 71 20.8 New Hampshire 238 11.5 96 17.3 New Jersey 76 12.0 72 16.2 New Mexico 45 2.7 65 18.7 New York 102 7.1 83 13.9 North Carolina 112 5.7 55 10.2 North Dakota 249 2.6 64 10.5 Ohio 265 9.6 77 11.2 Oklahoma 315 6.4 60 9.3 Oregon 224 6.2 72 15.1 Pennsylvania 112 10.8 75 13.5 Rhode Island 90 19.7 77 20.4 South Carolina 80 4.0 41 10.3 South Dakota 502 5.2 68 10.0 Tennessee 189 8.4 61 9.8 Texas 228 4.8 52 8.0 Utah 146 5.1 76 12.5 Vermont 219 7.5 94 15.3 Virginia 165 8.9 67 11.1 Washington 171 7.1 74 16.8 West Virginia 216 10.2 74 10.9 Wisconsin 268 7.1 68 10.5 Wyoming 121 2.4 79 17.4 Entire U.S. 205 7.4 65 11.1 CHAPTER V THE DOLLAR HEN FARM As has already been emphasized, the way to get money out of the chicken business is not to put so much in. Land, however, well suited to the purpose, should not be begrudged, for interest at six per cent, will afford a very considerable extra investment in land well suited to the business if it in any way cuts down the cost of operation. The Plan of Housing. The houses are the next consideration. On most poultry farms they are the chief items of expense. I know of a poultry farm near New York City where the house cost $12.00 per hen. The owner built this farm with a view of making money. People also buy stock in Nevada gold mines with a view of making money. I know another poultry farm owned by a man named Tillinghast at Vernon, Connecticut, where the houses cost thirty cents per hen. Mr. Tillinghast gets more eggs per hen than the New York man. Incidentally, he is sending his son to Yale, and he has no other visible means of support except his chicken farm. For the region of light soils and the localities which I have recommended for poultry farming, the following style of poultry house should be used: No floors, single boarded walls, a roof of matched cypress lumber or of cheap pine covered with tarred paper. This house is to have no windows and no door. The roosts are in the back end; the front end is open or partly open; feed hoppers and nests are in the front end. The feed hoppers may be made in the walls, made loose to set in the house, or made to shed water and placed outside the house. All watering is to be done outside the houses; likewise any feeding beyond that done in hoppers. The exact style of the house I leave to the reader's own plan. Were I recommending complex houses costing several dollars per hen, this certainly would be leaving the reader in the dark woods. With houses of the kind described it is hard to go far amiss. The simplest form is a double pitched roof, the ridge-pole standing about seven feet high, and the walls about four. The house is made eight by sixteen, and one end--not the side--left open. For the house that man is to enter, this form cannot be improved upon. The only other points are to construct it on a couple of 4x4 runners so that it can be dragged about by a team. Cypress, or other decay-proof wood should be used for these mud-sills. The framing should be light and as little of it used as is consistent with firmness. If the whole house costs more than twenty-five dollars there is something wrong in its planning. This house should accommodate seventy-five or eighty hens. For smaller operations, especially for horseless, or intensive farming, a low, light house may be used, which the attendant never enters. A portion of the roof lifts up to fill feed-hoppers, gather eggs or spray. These small houses may be made light enough to be moved short distances by a pry-pole, the team being required only when they are moved to a new field. Not one particle of poultry manure is to be removed from either style of house. Instead, the houses are removed from the manure, which is then scattered on the neighboring ground with a fork, or, if desired to be used on a field in which poultry may not run, it may be loaded upon a wagon together with some of the underlaying soil. There have been books and books written on poultry houses, but what I have just given is sufficient poultry-house knowledge for the Dollar Hen man. If he hasn't enough intelligence to put this into practice, he has no business in the hen business. Additional book-knowledge of hen-houses is useless; it may be harmful. If you are sure that you are fool-proof, you may get Dr. Feather or Reverend Earlobe's "Book of Poultry House Plans." It will be a good text-book for the children's drawing lessons. The Feeding System. Oyster shells, beef scraps, corn, and one other kind of grain, together with an abundance of pasturage or green feed, is the sum and substance of feeding hens on the Dollar Hen Farm. The dry feeds are placed in hoppers. They are built to protect the feeds from the weather. The neck must be sufficiently large to prevent clogging, and the hopper so protected by slats in front that the hen cannot toss the feed out by a side jerk of her head. These hoppers may be built any size desired. The grain compartments should, of course, be made larger than the others. Weekly filling is good, but where a team is not owned, it would be better to have the hoppers larger so that feed purchased, say, once a month, could be delivered directly into the hoppers. Water Systems. The best water system is a spring-fed brook. The man proposing to establish an individual poultry plant, and who after reading this book goes and buys a tract of land where an artificial water system is necessary, would catch Mississippi drift-wood on shares. But there are plenty of such people in the world. A man once stood all day on London Bridge hawking gold sovereigns at a shilling a-piece and did not make a sale. Next to natural streams are the made streams. This is the logical watering method of the community of poultry farmers. These artificial streams are to be made by conducting the water of natural streams back of the land to be watered, as in irrigation. It is the problem of irrigation over again. Indeed, where trucking is combined with poultry-growing, fowl watering should be combined with irrigation. It may be necessary to dam the stream to get head, sufficient supply or both. In sandy soils, ditches leak, and board flumes must be substituted. The larger ones are made of the boards at right angles and tapered so that one end of one trough rests in the upper end of the next lower section. The smaller, or lateral troughs may be made V-shaped. The cost of the smaller sized flume is three cents a foot. Iron pipe costs twelve cents a foot. The greater the slope of the ground the smaller may be the troughs, but on ground where the slopes are great, more expense will be necessary in stilting the flumes to maintain the level, and the harder it will be to find a large section that can be brought under the ditch. Fluming water for poultry is, like irrigation, a community project. The greatest dominating people of history have their origin in arid countries. It was co-operate or starve, and they learned co-operation and conquered the earth. If a man interferes with the flume, or takes more than his share of the water, put him out. We are in the hen, not the hog business. Community water systems, where water must be pumped and piped in iron pipe, is of course a more expensive undertaking. It will only pay where water is too deep for individuals to drive sand points on their own property. There is certainly little reason to consider an expensive method when there are abundant localities where simple plans may be used. On sand lands, with water near the surface, each farmer may drive sand points and pump his water by hand. In this case running water is not possible, but the pipes or flumes may be arranged so that fresh pumping flushes all the drinking places and also leaves them full of standing water. The simplest way to arrange this will be by wooden surface troughs as used in the fluming scheme. The only difference is that an occasional section is made deeper so that it will retain water. A more permanent arrangement may be made by using a line of three-fourths inch pipe. At each watering place the pipe is brought to the surface so that the water flows into a galvanized pan with sloping sides. This pan has an overflow through a short section of smaller tubing soldered to the side of the pan. The pipe line is parallel with the fence line, the pans supply both fields. By this arrangement the entire plant may be watered in a few minutes. The overflow tubes are on one side. Using these tubes as a pivot the pans may be swung out from under the fence with the foot and cleaned with an old broom. Where the ground water is deep a wind mill and storage tank would be desirable. Outdoor Accommodations. The hen house is a place for roosting, laying and a protection for the feed. The hen is to live out doors. On the most successful New England poultry farms, warm houses for hens have been given up. Hens fare better out of doors in Virginia than they do in New England, but make more profit out of doors anywhere than they will shut up in houses. If your climate will not permit your hen to live out doors get out of the climate or get out of the hen business. There is, however, a vast difference in the kind of out-of-doors. The running stream with its fringe of trees, brush and rank growing grass, forms daylight quarters for the hen par excellence. Rank growing crops, fodder piled against the fences, a board fence on the north side of the lot, or little sheds made by propping a platform against a stake, will all help. A place out of the wind for the hens to dust and sun and be sociable is what is wanted, and what must be provided, preferably by Nature, if not by Nature then by the poultryman. The hens are to be kept as much as possible out of the houses, in sheltered places among the crops or brush. They should not herd together in a few places but should be separated in little clumps well scattered over the land. These hiding places for the hens must, of course, not be too secluded or eggs will be lost. Equipment for Chick Rearing. Just as the long houses for hens have been weighed and found wanting, so larger brooder houses, with one exception, have never been established on what may be called a successful basis. By establishment on a successful basis, I mean established so that they could be used by larger numbers of people in rearing market chickens. There are plenty of large brooder houses in use, just as there are plenty of yarded poultry plants, but many intelligent, industrious people have tried both systems only to find that the cost of production exceeds the selling price. This makes us prone to believe that some of those who claim to be succeeding may differ from the crowd in that they had more capital to begin with and hence last longer. The one exception I make to this is that of the South Shore Roaster District of Massachusetts. Here steam-pipe brooder houses are used quite extensively. The logical reason that pipe brooder houses have found use in the winter chicken business and not in rearing pullets is that of season and profits. When chicks are to be hatched in the dead of winter the steam-heated brooder house is a necessity. In this limited use it is all right, where the profits per chick are great enough to stand the expense and losses. For the rearing of the great bulk of spring chicks the methods that have proven profitable are as follows: First: Rearing with hens as practiced at Little Compton. For suggestions on this see the chapter entitled "Poultry on the General Farm." Second: Rearing with lamp brooder. Many large book-built poultry plants have been equipped with steam, or, more properly, hot water heated brooder houses, only to have a practical manager see that they did not work, tear out the piping and fill the house with rows of common lamp brooders. The advantage claimed for the lamp brooder is that they can be regulated separately for each flock. As a matter of fact, the same regulation for each flock of chicks could be secured with a proper type of hot water heaters and one of the most practical poultry farms in the country is now installing such a system. A brooder system where hot air under the pressure of a blower or centrifugal fan would seem ideal. So far the efforts made along these lines have been clumsy and unnecessarily expensive. If the continuous house is ever made practical, I believe it will be along this line, but at present I advise sticking to the methods that are known to be successful. Individual lamp brooders in colony houses are perhaps the most generally successful means of rearing chicks on northern poultry farms. They are troublesome and somewhat expensive, but with properly hatched chickens are more successful than hen rearing. In buying such a brooder the chief points to be observed are: A good lamp, a heating device giving off the heat from a central drum, and an arrangement which facilitates easy cleaning. The brooder should be large, having not less than nine square feet of floor space. The work demanded of a brooder is not as exacting as with an incubator. The heat and circulation of air may vary a little without harm, but they must not fail altogether. The greatest trouble with brooders in operation is the uncertainty of the lamp. The brooder-lamp should have sufficient oil capacity and a large wick. Brooder-lamps are often exposed to the wind, and, if cheaply constructed or poorly enclosed, the result will be a chilled brood of chicks, or perhaps a fire. The chief thing sought in the internal arrangements of a brooder is a provision to keep the chicks from piling up and smothering each other as they crowd toward the source of heat. This can be accomplished by having the warmest part of the brooder in the center rather than at the side or corner. If the heat comes from above and a considerable portion of the brooder be heated to the same temperature, no crowding will take place. The temperature given for running brooders vary with the machine and the position of the thermometer. The one reliable guide for temperature is the action of the chicks. If they are cold they will crowd toward the source of heat; if too warm they will wander uneasily about; but if the temperature is right, each chick will sleep stretched out on the floor. The cold chicken does not sleep at all, but puts in its time fighting its way toward the source of heat. In an improperly constructed or improperly run brooder the chicks go through a varying process of chilling, sweating and struggling when they should be sleeping, and the result is puny chicks that dwindle and die. The arrangement of the brooder for the sleeping accommodations of the chicks is important, but this is not the only thing to be considered in a brooder. The brooder used in the early season, and especially the outdoor brooder, must have ample space provided for the daytime accommodation of the chick. In the colony house brooder such space will, of course, be the floor of the house. When operating on a large scale it will not pay to buy complete brooders. The lamps and hovers can be purchased separately and installed in colony houses which do both for brooders and later for houses for growing young stock. The universal hover sold by the Prairie State Incubator people is about as perfect a lamp hover as can be made. The cold brooder, or Philo box, as it has been popularly called, is the chief item in a system of poultry keeping that has been widely advertised. The principle of the Philo box is that of holding the air warmed by the chick down close to them by a sagging piece of cloth. The cloth checks most of the radiating heat, but is not so tight as to smother the chick. This limits the space of air to be warmed by the chicks to such a degree that the body warmth is used to the greatest advantage. That chickens can be raised in these fire-less brooders, is not in question, for that has been abundantly proven, but most poultrymen believe that it will pay better, especially in the North, to give the little fellows a few weeks' warmth. Curtis Bros. at Ransomville, N.Y., who raise some twenty thousand chicks per year, have adopted the following system: The chicks are kept under hovers heated by hot water pipes for one week, or until they learn to hover. Then they are put in Philo boxes for a week in the same building but away from the pipes. The third week the Philo boxes are placed in a large, unheated room. After that they go to a large Philo box in a colony house. To make a Philo house of the Curtis pattern, take a box 5 in. deep and 18 in. to 24 in. square. Cut a hole in one side for a chick door, run a strip of screen around the inside of the box to round the corners. Now take a second similar box. Tack a piece of cloth rather loosely across its open face. Bore a few augur holes in the sides of either box. Invert box No. 2 upon box No. 1. This we will call a Curtis box. It costs about fifteen cents and should accommodate fifty to seventy-five chicks. A universal hover in a colony coop or colony house, for which a Curtis box is substituted, as early in the game as the weather permits, is the method I advise for rearing young chicks. The lamp problem we still have with us, but it is one that cannot be easily solved. Large vessels or tanks of water which are regularly warmed by injection of steam from a movable boiler, offers a possible way out of the difficulty. On a plant large enough to keep one man continually at this work, this plan might be an improvement over filling lamps, but for the smaller plant it is lamps, or go south. Rearing young chicks is the hardest part of the poultry business. There is a lot of work about it that cannot be gotten rid of. Little chicks must be kept comfortable and their water and feed for the first few days must needs be given largely by hand. They are to be early led to drink from the regular water vessels and eat from the hoppers, but this takes time and patience. The feeding of chicks I will discuss in the chapter on "Poultry on the General Farm," and as the same methods apply in both cases, I will refer the reader to that section. After chicks get three or four weeks old their care is the simplest part of the poultry farm work and consists chiefly of filling feed hoppers and protecting them from vermin and thieves. Board floor colony houses are used as a protection against rats and this danger necessitates the protection of the opening by netting and the closing of the doors at night. Cockerels must be gotten out of the flocks and sold at an early age. Those that are to be kept for sale or use as breeding birds should be early separated from the pullets. Coops for growing chickens, especially Leghorns, cannot be put among trees, as the birds will learn to roost in the trees, causing no end of trouble to get them broken of the habit. All pullets save a few culls should be saved for laying. They are to be kept two years. They should lay sixty-five to seventy per cent as many eggs the second year as the first. They are sold the third summer to make room for the growing stock. Twenty-five Acre Poultry Farms. This section will be devoted to a general discussion of the type of poultry farms best suited to Section 4 and the southerly portions of Section 7 as discussed in the previous chapter. We will discuss this type of farm with this assumption: That they are to be developed in large numbers by co-operative or corporate effort. This does not infer that they cannot be developed by individual effort, and nine-tenths of the operations will remain the same in the latter case. Suppose a large tract of land adjacent to railroad facilities has been found. The land in the original survey should be divided into long, relatively narrow strips, lying at right angles to the slope of the land. The farmstead should occupy the highest end of the strip. For a twenty-five acre or one-man poultry farm these strips should be about forty rods in width. The object of this survey is to permit the water being run by gravity to the entire farm. The first thing is the farmstead, including such orchard and garden as are desired. This stretches across the entire front end of the place. The remainder of the strip is fenced in with chicken fence. The farm is also divided into two narrow fields by a fence down the center of the strip. This fence, at frequent intervals, has removable panels. The year's season we will begin late in the fall. All layers are in field No. 1 pasturing on rape, top turnips or other fall crops. In lot No. 2 is growing wheat or rye. As the green feed gets short in the first lot the hens are let into lot No. 2. Sometime in March the houses that have been brought up close to the gaps are drawn through into the wheat field. The feed hoppers are also gradually moved and the hens find themselves confined in lot No. 2 without any serious disturbance. Lot No. 1 is broken up as soon as weather permits and planted in oats, corn, Kaffir corn and perhaps a few sunflowers. The oats form a little strip near the coops and watering places and the Kaffir corn is on the far side. As soon as corn planting is over the farmer begins to receive his chickens from the hatchery. The brooders are now placed in the corn field. The object of the corn is not green food but for a shade and a grain crop. The chicks are summered in the corn field and the hens in the wheat or rye. Whether the latter will head up will depend upon the number of the flock. It will be best to work the houses across to the far side and let that portion near the middle fence head up. As the old grain gets too tough for green food strips of ground should be broken up and sown in oats. The grain that matures will not be cut, but the hens will be allowed to thresh it out. The straw may be cut with mower or scythe for use as nesting material. Sometime in June or early in July a little rape vetch or cow-peas is drilled in between the rows of corn as on the far side from the chicken coops. During July or about the first of August, after all cockerels have been sold, the gates are opened and the pullets are allowed to associate with the hens. After this acquaintance ripens into friendship the hen houses are worked back into the pullet lots. Surplus hens are sold off or new houses inserted as the case may be until there is room for the pullets in the houses. Each coop is worked up alongside a house and after most of the pullets have taken to the houses the coops are removed. The vacant lot is now broken up and sown in a mixture of fall green crops. The flock is kept in the corn field until the corn is ripe. The Kaffir corn and sunflowers are knocked down where they stand and are threshed by the hens. As soon as the corn crop is ripe the houses are run back and the corn cut up or husked and the wheat planted in the corn field. The next year the lots are transposed, the young stock being grown in the lot that had the hens the previous year. If the ground is inclined to be at all damp when the fields are broken up the plowing is done in narrow lands so as to form a succession of ridges, on which are placed the coops or houses. The directions of these ridges will be determined by the lay of the land--the object being neither to dam up water or to encourage washing. The location of the ridges are alternated by seasons, so that the droppings from the houses are well distributed throughout the soil. This system with the particular crops found that do best in the locality, give us an ideal method of poultry husbandry. We have kept hens and young stock supplied with green food the year round; we have utilized every particle of manure without one bit of labor. We have a rotation of crops. We have the benefits to the ground of several green crops turned under. We have raised one grain crop per year on most of the ground. We have no labor in feeding and watering except the keeping of the grain, beef and grit hoppers filled, and the water system in order. The number of fowls that may be kept per acre will be determined by the richness of the soil. The chief object of the entire scheme is to provide abundant green pasture at all times and to allow the production of a reasonable amount of grain. With one hundred hens per acre on the entire tract, and with houses containing eighty hens each, it will be necessary to set the houses ninety-five feet apart. This will give the flock a tract of 95 by 330 feet in which to pasture. The above estimate with a little land allowed for house, garden, orchard and a little cow and team pasture, will permit the keeping of two thousand hens on a twenty-five acre farm. In regions where grain is to be raised most farmers would want more land. They may also wish to own a few extra cows, hogs, etc., or to alternate the entire poultry operations with some crop that will, on such highly fertilized land, give a good cash profit. Forty acres is a good size for such uses. The cost of land when purchased in large tracts in Virginia is very small, but the cost of clearing is often much more than that of the land. Twenty-five to fifty dollars an acre should secure such a tract of land and put it in shape for poultry farming. The cost of the farm home, etc., will, of course vary altogether with the taste of the occupant. If they are constructed by a central company, from five hundred to a thousand dollars should cover the amount. The cost of poultry buildings and equipment used on the farm will depend largely on the efficiency of the labor of construction. If constructed in large numbers by a central company, the cost would be reduced, but the company would expect to make a profit on their work. A plot laid out for two thousand hens will require in material: 250 rods of fence with 6-ft. netting which should cost about fifty cents a rod. My estimate of this fence put up would be $150. If the neighboring field contained no other poultry, a portion of this fence might be done away with, although its protection against dogs and strangers may be worth while. Of course, if poultry fields of different owners lay adjoining, the fence must be used, but the cost will be reduced one-half. The next most expensive piece of equipment will be a line of about eighty rods of 3/4 in. gas pipe and about fifty elbows and twenty-five galvanized iron pans. The cost of installation will depend largely on how deep it is necessary to go to get below the frost line. One hundred and seventy-five dollars should cover cost of material and by the use of a plow the line ought to be put in for twenty-five dollars. The source of water, and the cost of getting a head, will necessarily vary with the location. The installation of a wind mill and tank to hold supply for several days, or of a small gasoline engine, would cost in the neighborhood of one hundred dollars, but it is a luxury that may be dispensed with if the well is not too deep. The houses for the hens, of which there are twenty-five, are constructed in accordance with some of the plans previously discussed. The cost should be about twenty-five cents per hen. At least twice as many brooders as colony coops will be needed as there are hen houses, but of the lamps and hovers not over twenty-five will be required, as the chicks soon outgrow the need of this aid. This makes a list of equipment required for the keeping of two thousand layers and their replenishing: 25 acres of farm land, at $50 per acre $1250.00 250 rods of fence 150.00 One farmstead 1000.00 One team, plow and farm implements 300.00 One watering system 300.00 25 hen houses, at $20 500.00 50 colony coops, at $2.50 150.00 25 lamps and hovers, at $5 125.00 -------- $3775.00 [Transcriber's note: "50 colony coops, at $2.50" is $125.00, not $150. The total should therefore be $3750 rather than $3775. This was, presumably, a printing error, because the correct total is used in the further calculations below.] This is a good, liberal capitalization. The business can be started with much less. Figured interest at 6 per cent. we have $225.00 per year. The upkeep of the plant will be about 15 per cent. on the capital, not counting land. This equals $375, which, added to interest, gives an annual overhead expense of $600, which is our first item to be set against gross receipts. The cost of operation will involve cost of chicks at hatchery, purchased feed, seed for ground, and feed for team. The price of chicks at the Petaluma hatcheries is from six to eight cents each. We expect to raise enough pullets to make up for the accidental losses, and to renew bulk of the flock each year. The number required will, of course, depend upon the loss. This loss will be much less when the chicks are obtained from a modern moisture controlled hatchery, than from the box type incubator. I think a 33 per cent. loss is a liberal estimate, but as I am treading on unproven ground, I will make that loss 40 per cent., which is on a par with old style methods. To replace 1,000 hens, this will require 3,500 chicks at a cost of about two hundred and fifty dollars. Green pasturage throughout the year will materially cut down the cost of feed. The corn consumed out of the hoppers will be about one bushel per hen. The beef scrap will also be less than with yarded fowls, perhaps twenty-five cents per hen. Now, of the corn we will raise on the land, at least ten acres. This should yield us five hundred bushels. This leaves fifteen hundred bushels of corn to be purchased. At the present high rates, this will cost $1,000 which, added to beef scrap cost, makes an outside feed cost of $1,500. The seed cost of rye, rape, cow-peas, etc., will amount to about $50 per annum. For expense of production we have: Interest and upkeep of plant $600.00 Chicks 250.00 Purchased corn 1000.00 Beef scrap and grit 500.00 Seed 50.00 Team feed 100.00 --------- $2,500.00 This figures out the cost of production at a little more than a dollar per hen. The income from the place should be about as follows: Eleven hundred cockerels sold as squab broilers at 40 cents each, $440.00; four hundred and seventy-five old hens at 30 cents, $140.00. The receipts from egg yield are, of course, impossible of very accurate calculation, for it is here that the personal element that determines success or failure enters. The Arkansas per-hen-day figures (see last chapter), multiplied by the average quotation for extras in the New York market, will be as fair as any, and certainly cannot be considered a high estimate, as it is only 113 eggs per hen per year. Price per doz Income for Eggs per Extras month from hen day in New York 2000 layers --------------------------------------------- January .32 $ .30 $494.00 February .30 .29 404.00 March .62 .22 700.00 April .38 .19 350.00 May .44 .19 429.00 June .42 .18 377.00 July .34 .21 367.00 August .38 .22 429.00 September .21 .25 262.00 October .22 .28 316.00 November .18 .33 267.00 December .15 .32 246.00 --------- Total $4,641.00 The total income as figured will be $5,221. From this subtract the cost of production, and we have still nearly $3,000, which is to be combined item of wages and profit. We have entered no labor bill because this is to be a one-man farm, and with the assistance of the public hatchery and co-operative marketing association, which will send a wagon right to a man's door to gather the eggs, it is entirely feasible for one man to attend to two thousand hens. In the rush spring season other members of the family will have to turn out and help, or a man may be hired to attend the plowing and rougher work. This is a good handsome income, and yet the above price of the man's labor--it is only about one dollar per hen, which has always been the estimated profit of successful poultry keeping. As a matter of fact, this profit is seldom reached under the old system of poultry keeping, not because the above gross income cannot be reached, but because the expenses are greater. Under the present methods, with the exception of the rearing of the young chicks, one man can easily take care of three thousand hens. Indeed, practically the only work in their care is cultivating the ground and hauling around and dumping into hoppers, about two loads of feed per week. But, young chicks must be reared, and this is more laborious. For this reason I advise going into some other industry on a part of the land, which will not require attention in the young chick season. One of the best things for this purpose is the cultivation of cane fruits as blackberries, raspberries and dewberries. The work of caring for these can be made to fall wholly without the young chick season. Peaches and grapes for a slower profit can be added, but spraying and cultivation of these is more liable to take spring labor. All these fruits have the advantage of doing well in the same kind of soil recommended for chickens. Young chickens may be grown around such berry crops and removed to permanent quarters before the berries ripen. Strawberries would be a very poor crop because their labor falls in the chick season. Another plan, and perhaps a better one, is to have about three fields, and rotate in such a manner that a marketable crop may be always kept growing in the third field. Any crop may be selected, the chief labor of which falls between July and the following March. Late cabbage and potatoes, or celery, will do if the ground is suitable for these crops. Kale and spinach are staple fall crops. Fall lettuce could also be grown. If the market is glutted on such crops, they can be fed out at home. Whenever a field is vacant, have some crop growing on it, if only for purposes of green manuring. Never let sandy ground lie fallow. A modification of the above plans suited to heavier ground, is to seed down the entire farm to grass. It is then divided into three fields and provided with three sets of colony houses. Coops are entirely dispensed with, and cheap indoor brooders are used in the permanent houses. The pullets stay in these same houses in the same field until the moulting season of the third year, or until they are two and a half years old. One field will always be vacant during the fall and winter season which time may be utilized for fresh seeding. The difficulty of maintaining a sod will necessitate somewhat heavier soil than by the previous plan. The houses should be moved around occasionally, as the grass kills out in the locality. This plan is a lazy man's way, taking the least labor of any method of poultry keeping known. It is adapted to the cheaper ground in the region farthest from market. On the Atlantic seaboard, the more enterprising man will use the third field for rotation, and sell some of the fertility of the western grain in the form of a truck crop. Five Acre Poultry Farms. Can a living for a family be made from a five acre poultry farm? Yes; by individual effort, where the marketing opportunities are good; by corporate or co-operate effort, any place where the fundamental conditions are right. This type of poultry farm is well suited for development near our large cities, where the cry of "back to the land" has filled with new hope the discouraged dweller in flat and tenement. No greater chance for humanitarian work, and at the same time no greater business opportunity, is open to-day than that of the promotion of colonies of small poultry and truck farms where the parent colony not only sells the land, but helps the settler to establish himself in the business and to successfully market the product. The natural location for such projects is in the sandy soils of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and Virginia. We have already discussed the twenty-five acre farm, representing the largest probable unit for such an enterprise. We will now discuss the five acre farm which represents the smallest probable unit. On the five-acre farm a considerable difference of methods will be necessary. In the first place, it is to be a horseless farm. All hauling and plowing must be attended to by the central company, or the same results could be obtained by a team owned in common by a small group, say of six farmers, each of whom is to use the team one day of the week. A single isolated farmer in a community of farms or market gardeners, could hire a team by the day as he needed it. I do not recommend this scheme, however, but would suggest that the single individual get a larger plot of ground, at least ten acres, and a team of his own. In the co-operative community the five-acre teamless farm is entirely feasible. The tract should be surveyed about twice as long as wide, which, for five acres, makes it 20 by 40 rods, or 330 by 660 feet. Measure off a strip one hundred feet back from the road. Fence the remainder of the tract. Now run a partition fence down the center until we have come to within twelve rods of the back side. Here run a cross fence. This gives us three yards of about one and one-half acres each. The gates are arranged so that one passes through the three yards in a single trip. Where the middle partition fence adjoins the front fence, a well is driven. A water line is run down the partition fence to the rear yard. The plot around the house is set in permanent crops, such as berries, fruit trees, asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Of the other three yards, at least one is kept in growing marketable crops. Every inch is cultivated, and crops of the leafy nature, as lettuce, cabbage, kale and spinach, are chiefly grown, as they utilize the rich nitrogenous poultry manure to the best advantage, and the waste portions, or worthless crops, are utilized for the poultry. The method of supplying the fowls with green food is entirely by soiling. This means to grow the food in an adjoining lot and throw it over the fence. The above mentioned crops are all good for the purpose. Rape, which is not grown for human food, is also excellent. Kale is one of the very best crops for soiling purposes. It is planted in the fall and fed by pulling off the lower leaves during the winter. In the spring the hardened stalks stand at a considerable height and the field may be used for growing young chicks, giving shade, and at the same time producing abundant green feed, without any immediate labor, which means a great saving in the busy season. A set of panels or netting stretched on light frames is provided. They are of sufficient number to set along the longest side of one of the fields. A strip along the fence, four or five feet wide, can be planted to sunflowers, corn, rape, kale, or other rank growing crop and the panels leaned against the fence to protect the young plants from the hens. In this way the fence rows can be kept provided with the shade of growing crops, which relieves the otherwise serious fault of this plan of poultry farming, in that the hens would be required to live in absolutely barren and sunburned lots, for we propose to keep five or six hundred hens on one and a half acres of ground, and no green things could get a start without protection. Rotate the houses from field to field as often as the crops allow. Never permit hens to run in one bare field for more than six months at a time. Always keep every inch of ground not in use by the chickens, luxuriant in something green. If you have a crop of vegetables which are about matured, drill rape or crimson clover between the rows; by the time the crop is harvested and the hens are to be moved in, such crops will have made a good growth. The hens will kill it out but it will be a "profitable killing." By this system of intensive combination of trucking and poultry farming, we have a combination which for small capital and small lands cannot be beaten. The hens should yield better than a dollar profit per head on this plan; the one and a half acres automatically fertilized and intensely cultivated, growing two or three crops a year, should easily double the income. Twelve hundred dollars a year is a conservative estimate for the net income from such a plant, and the original investment, exclusive of residence, will not be over one thousand dollars. CHAPTER VI INCUBATION The differences in the process of reproduction in birds and mammals is frequently misunderstood. The laying of the bird's egg is not analogous to the birth of young in mammals. The female, whether bird or beast, forms a true egg which must be fertilized by the male sperm cell before the offspring can develop. In the mammal, if fertilization does not occur, the egg which is inconspicuous, passes out of the body and is lost. If fertilized, it passes into the womb where the young develops through the embryonic stages, being supplied with nourishment and oxygen directly by the mother. In the bird, the egg, fertilized or unfertilized, passes out of the body and, being of conspicuous size, is readily observed. The size of the egg is due to the supply of food material which is comparable with that supplied to the mammalian young during its stay in the mother's womb. The reptiles lay eggs that are left to develop outside of the body of the mother, subject to the vicissitudes of the environment. The young of the bird, being warm blooded, cannot develop without more uniform temperature than weather conditions ordinarily supply. This heat is supplied by the instinctive brooding habit of the mother bird. Fertility of Eggs In a state of nature the number of eggs laid by wild fowl are only as many as can be covered by the female. These are laid in the spring of the year, and one copulation of the male bird is sufficient to fertilize the entire clutch. Under domestication, the hen lays quite indefinitely, and is served by the male at frequent intervals. The fertilizing power of the male bird extends over a period of about 15 days. For most of my readers, it will be unnecessary to state that the male has no influence upon the other offspring than those which he actually fertilizes within this period. The belief in the influence of the first male upon the later hatches by another male is simply a superstition. The domestic chicken is decidedly polygamous. The common rule is one male to 12 or 15 hens. I have had equally good results, however, with one male to 20 hens. In the Little Compton and South Shore districts, one male is used for thirty or even forty hens. By infertile eggs is meant eggs in which the sperm cell has never united with the ovum. Such eggs may occur in a flock from the absence of the male, from his disinclination or physical inability to serve the hens, from the weakness or lack of vitality in the sperm cells, from his neglect of a particular hen, from lifelessness, or lack of vitality in the ovule, or from chance misses, by which some eggs fail to be reached by the sperm cells. In practice, lack of sexual inclination in a vigorous looking rooster is very rare indeed. The more likely explanation is that he neglects some hens, or that the eggs are fertilized, but the germs die before incubation begins, or in the early stages of that process. The former trouble may be avoided by having a relay of roosters and shutting each one up part of the time. The latter difficulty will be diminished by setting the egg as fresh as possible, meanwhile storing them in a cool place. The other factors to be considered in getting fertile eggs, are so nearly synonymous with the problems of health and vitality in laying stock generally, that to discuss it here would be but a repetition of ideas. In connection with the discussion of fertile eggs, I want to point out the fact that the whole subject of fertility as distinct from hatchability, is somewhat meaningless. The facts of the case are, that whatever factors in the care of the stock will get a large percentage fertile eggs, will also give hatchable eggs and vice versa. This is to be explained by the fact that most of the unfertile eggs tested out during incubation, are in reality dead germs in which death has occurred before the chick became visible to the naked eye. Such deaths should usually be ascribed to poor parentage, but may be caused by wrong storage or incubation. Likewise, it would not be just to credit all deaths after chicks became visible to wrong incubation, although the most of the blame probably belongs there. Likewise, with brooder chicks, we must divide the credit of their livability in an arbitrary fashion between parentage, incubation, and care after hatching. By the hatchability of eggs, we then mean the percentage of eggs set that hatch chicks able to walk and eat. By the livability of chicks, we mean the percentage of chicks hatched that live to the age of four weeks, after which they are subject to no greater death rate than adult chickens. By the livability of eggs, we mean the product of these two factors, i.e.: the percentage of chicks at four weeks of age based upon the total number of eggs set. As before mentioned, the fertility of eggs bears fairly definite relation to the hatchability, so likewise the hatchability bears a relation to the livability of chicks. When poor hatches occur because of weak germs, as because of faulty incubation, this same injury to the chick's organism is carried over and causes a larger death among the hatched chicks. Moreover, the relation between the two is not the same with all classes of hatches, but as hatches get poorer the mortality among the chicks increases at an accelerating rate. The following table gives a rough approximation of these ratios: Per cent. of Per cent. of chick Per cent. of egg Hatchability. Livability. Livability. 100 100 100 90 95 85 80 88 70 70 84 50 60 72 43 50 55 27 40 40 16 30 24 7 20 10 2 10 2 1 These figures are based on incubator data. Eggs set under hens usually give a hatchability of 50 per cent. to 65 per cent., and livability of 70 per cent. to 80 per cent. The reason for the greater livability is that the real hatchability of the eggs is 70 per cent. to 75 per cent., and is reduced by mechanical breakage. The hatchability of eggs varies with the season. This variation is commonly ascribed to nature, it being stated that springtime is the natural breeding season, and therefore eggs are of greater fertility. While there may be a little foundation for this idea, the chief cause is to be found in the manner of artificial incubation, as will be discussed in a later section of this chapter. The following table is given as the seasonable hatchability for northern states. This is based on May hatch of 50 per cent: January 38 July 40 February 42 August 40 March 47 September 42 April 49 October 43 May 50 November 40 June 46 December 35 Most people have an exaggerated idea of the hen's success as a hatcher. I have a number of records of hen hatching with large numbers of eggs set, and they are all between 55 per cent. and 60 per cent. The reasons the hen does not hatch better are as follows: First: Actual infertile eggs--usually, running about 10 per cent. in the best season of the year. Second: Mechanical breakage. Third: Eggs accidentally getting chilled by rolled to one side of the nests, or by the sick, lousy or crazy hens leaving the nests or standing up on the eggs. Fourth: Eggs getting damp from wet nests, dung or broken eggs; thus causing bacterial infection and decay. The last three causes are not present in artificial incubation. From my observation they cause a loss of 15 per cent. of the eggs that fail to hatch, when hens are managed in large numbers. This would properly credit our hens with hatches running from 70 per cent. to 75 per cent., which, for reasons later explained, is not equal to hatches under the best known conditions of artificial incubation. The assumption that the hen is a perfect hatcher, even barring accidents and the inherited imperfection of the egg, is not, I think, in harmony with our general conception of nature. Not only are eggs under the hens subject to unfavorable weather conditions, but the hen, to satisfy her whims or hunger, frequently remains too long away from the eggs, allowing them to become chilled. For directions of how to manage setting hens, consult the Chapter on "Poultry on the General Farm." The Wisdom of the Egyptians. Up to the present there have been just three types of artificial incubation that have proven successful enough to warrant our attention. These are: First, the modern wooden-box-kerosene-lamp incubator which is seen at its best development in the United States. Second, the Egyptian incubator of ancient origin, which is a large clay oven holding thousands of eggs and warmed by smouldering fires of straw. Third, the Chinese incubator, much on the principle of the Egyptian hatchery, but run in the room of an ordinary house, heated with charcoal braziers and used only for duck eggs. I have no accurate information on the results of the Chinese method, and as it is not used for hen eggs, we will confine our attention to the first two processes only. I do not care to go into detail in discussing makes of box incubators, but I will mention briefly the chief points in the development of our present machines. The first difficulties were in getting lamps, regulators, etc., that would give a uniform temperature. This now has been worked out to a point where, with any good incubator and an experienced operator, the temperature of the egg chamber is readily kept within the desired range. These are two principal types of box incubators now in use. In the earliest of these, the eggs were heated by radiation from a tank of hot water. These machines depended for ventilation or, what is much more important, evaporation, upon chance air currents passing in and out of augur holes in the ends or bottom of the machine. The second, or more modern type, warms the eggs by a current of air which passes around a lamp flue where, being made lighter by the expansion due to heat, the air rises, creating a draft that forces it into the egg chamber. There it is caused to spread by muslin or felt diaphragms so that no perceptible current of air strikes the eggs. This type is the most popular type of small incubator on the market. Its advantage will be more readily seen after the discussion of the principles of incubation. Hazy tales of Egyptian incubators have gone the rounds of poultry papers these many years. More recently some accurate accounts from American travelers and European investigators have come to light, and as a result, the average poultry editor is kept busy trying to explain how such wonderful results can be obtained "in opposition to the well-known laws of incubation." The facts about Egyptian incubators are as follows: They have a capacity of 50 to 100 thousand eggs, and are built as a single large room, partly underground and made of clay reinforced with straw. The walls are two or three feet thick. Inside, the main rooms are little clay domes with two floors. The hatching season begins the middle of January and lasts three months. A couple of weeks before the hatching begins, the fireproof house is filled with straw which is set afire, thoroughly warming the hatchery. The ashes are then taken out and little fires built in pots are set around the outside of the big room. The little clay rooms with the double floors are now filled with eggs. That is, one is filled at a time, the idea being to have fresh eggs entering and chicks moving out in a regular order, so as not to cause radical changes in the temperature of the hatchery. No thermometer is used, but the operator has a very highly cultivated sense of temperature, such as is possessed by a cheese maker or dynamite dryer. About the twelfth day the eggs are moved to the upper part of the little interior rooms where they are further removed from the heated floor. The eggs are turned and tested out much as in this country. They are never cooled and the room is full of the fumes and smoke of burning straw. The ventilation provided is incidental. This is about the whole story save for results. The incubator men pay back three chicks for four eggs, and take their profits by selling the extra chicks that are hatched above the 75 per cent. This statement is in itself so astonishing and yet convincing, that to add that the hatch runs between 85 per cent. and 90 per cent. of all eggs set, and that the incubators of the Nile Delta hatch about 75,000,000 chicks a year seems almost superfluous. As for the explanation of the results of the Egyptian incubators compared with the American kerosene lamp type, I think it can best be brought about by a consideration in detail of the scientific principles of incubators. Principles of Incubation. HEAT.--To keep animal life, once started, alive and growing, we need: First, a suitable surrounding temperature. Second, a fairly constant proportion of water in the body substance. Third, oxygen. Fourth, food. Now, a fertile egg is a living young animal and as such its wants should be considered. We may at once dispose of the food problem of the unhatched chick, by saying that the food is the contents of the egg at the time of laying, and as far as incubation is concerned, is beyond our control. In consideration of external temperature in its relation to life, we should note: (A) the optimum temperature; (B) the range of temperature consistent with general good health; (C) the range at which death occurs. Just to show the principle at stake, and without looking up authorities, I will state these temperatures for a number of animals. Of course you can dispute the accuracy of these figures, but they will serve to illustrate our purpose: External External External Internal Internal Optimum Healthful Fatal Optimum Fatal Point Range Range Point Range Man 70 0 to 100 50 to 140 98 90 to 106 Dog 60 70 to 140 70 to 140 101 95 to 110 Monkey 90 30 to 140 30 to 140 101 95 to 108 Horse 80 20 to 120 20 to 120 99 95 to 105 Fowl 80 20 to 140 20 to 140 107 100 to 115 Newly hatched chick 90 70 to 100 40 to 120 108 100 to 115 Fertile egg at start of incubation 103 32 to 110 31 to 125 103 31 to 125 Egg incubated three days 103 98 to 105 80 to 118 103 95 to 118 Egg incubated eighteen days 103 75 to 105 50 to 118 106 98 to 116 This table shows, among other things, that we are considering in the chick not a new proposition to which the laws of general animal life do not apply, but merely a young animal during the process of growth to a point where its internal mechanism for heat control, has power to maintain the body temperature through a greater range of external temperature change. In the cooling process that occurs after laying the living cells of the egg become dormant, and like a hibernating animal, the actual internal temperature can be subjected to a much greater range than when the animal is active. After incubation begins and cell activity returns, and especially after blood forms and circulation commences, the temperature of the chick becomes subject to about the same internal range as with other warm blooded animals. In the case of fully formed animals, the internal temperature is regulated by a double process. If the external temperature be lowered, more food substance is combined with oxygen to keep up the warmth of the body, while, if the external temperature be raised, the body temperature is kept low by the cooling effects of evaporation. This occurs in mammals chiefly by sweating. Birds do not sweat, but the same effect is brought about by increased breathing. Now, the chick gradually develops the heat producing function during incubation, until towards the close of the period it can take care of itself fairly well in case of lowered external temperature. The power to cool the body by breathing is not, however, granted to the unhatched chick, and for this reason the incubating egg cannot stand excess of heat as well as lack of it. The practical points to be remembered from the above are: First: Before incubation begins, eggs may be subjected to any temperature that will not physically or chemically injure the substance. Second: During the first few days of the hatch, eggs have no appreciable power of heat formation and the external temperature for any considerable period of time can safely vary only within the range of temperature at which the physiological process may be carried on. Third: As the chick develops it needs less careful guarding against cooling, and must still be guarded against over-heating. Fourth: It should be remembered, however, that eggs are very poor conductors of heat, and if the temperature change is not great several hours of exposure are required to bring the egg to the new temperature. Temperature is the most readily observed feature about natural incubation and its control was consequently the first and chief effort of the early incubator inventors. A great deal of experimental work has been done to determine the degree of temperature for eggs during incubation. The temperature of the hen's blood is about 105 to 107 degrees F. The eggs are not warmed quite to this temperature, the amount by which they fail to reach the temperature of the hen's body depending, of course, upon the surrounding temperature. 103 degrees F. is the temperature that has been generally agreed upon by incubator manufacturers. Some of these advise running 102 degrees the first week, 103 degrees the second, 104 degrees the third. As a matter of fact it is very difficult to determine the actual temperature of the egg in the box incubator. This is because the source of heat is above the eggs and the air temperature changes rapidly as the thermometer is raised or lowered through the egg chamber. The advice to place the bulb of the thermometer against the live egg is very good, but in practice quite variable results will be found on different eggs and different parts of the machine. With incubators of the same make, and in all appearances identical, quite marked variation in hatching capacity has been observed in individual machines. Careful experimentation will usually show this to be a matter of the way the thermometer is hung in relation to the heating surfaces and to the eggs. Ovi-thermometers, which consists of a thermometer enclosed in the celluloid imitation of an egg, are now in the market and are perhaps as safe as anything that can be used. As was indicated in the previous section greater care in temperature of the egg is necessary in the first half of the hatch. The temperature of 102 degrees F. as above given is, in the writer's opinion, too low for this portion of the hatch. An actual temperature of 104 degrees at the top of the eggs will, as has been shown by careful experimental work, give better hatches than the lower temperature. Moisture and Evaporation. The subject of the water content of the egg and its relation to life, is the least understood of poultry problems. The whole study of the water content of the egg during incubation hangs on the amount of evaporation. Now, the rates of evaporation from any moist object is determined by two factors: vapor pressure and the rate of movement of the air past the object. As incubation is always carried on at the same temperature, the evaporating power of the air is directly proportioned to the difference in the vapor pressure of water at that temperature, and the vapor pressure of the air as it enters the machine. Thus, in order to know the evaporative power of the air, we have only to determine the vapor pressure of the air and to remember that the rate of evaporation is in proportion to this pressure, i.e.: when the vapor pressure is high the evaporation will be slow and the eggs remain too wet, and when the vapor pressure is low the eggs will be excessively dried out. The reader is probably more familiar with the term relative humidity than the term vapor pressure, but as the actual significance of relative humidity is changed at every change in outside temperature, the use of this term for expressing the evaporating power of the air has led to no end of confusion. The influence of air currents on evaporation is to increase it directly proportional with the rate of air movement. Thus, 10 cubic feet of air per hour passing through an egg chamber would remove twice as much moisture as would 5 cubic feet. If the percentage of water in any living body be changed a relatively small amount, serious disturbances of the physiological processes and ultimately death will result. The mature animal can, by drinking, take considerable excess of water without danger, for the surplus will be speedily removed by perspiration and by the secretion from the kidneys. But the percentage of water in the actual tissues of the body can vary only within a narrow range of not more than three or four per cent. The chick in the shell is not provided with means of increasing its water content by drinking or diminishing it by excretion, but the fresh egg is provided with more moisture than the hatched chick will require, and the surplus is gradually lost by evaporation. This places the water content of the chick's body at the mercies of the evaporating power of the air that surrounds the egg during incubation. To assume that these risks of uncertain rates of evaporation is desirable, is as absurd as to assume that the risks of rainfall are desirable for plant life. As the plants of a certain climate have become adapted to the amount of soil moisture which the climate is likely to provide, so the egg has by natural selection been formed with about as much excess of water as will be lost in an average season under the natural conditions of incubation. Plant life suffers in drought or flood, and likewise bird life suffers in seasons of abnormal evaporative conditions. This view is substantiated by the fact that the eggs of water fowl which are in nature incubated in damper places, have a lower water content than the eggs of land birds. The per cent. of water contained in the contents of fresh eggs is about 74 per cent., or about 65.5 per cent, based on the weight, shell included. Unfortunately no investigations have been made concerning the per cent. of water present in the newly hatched chick. Upon the subject of the loss of water for the whole period of incubation, valuable data has been collected at the Utah, Oregon and Ontario Experiment Stations. In these tests we find that as a rule the evaporation of eggs under hens is less than in incubators. With both hens and incubators, the rate of evaporation is greatest at the Utah Station, which one would naturally expect from the climate. The eggs under hens at the Ontario Station averaged about 12 per cent. loss in weight, and those at the Utah Station about 15 per cent. At both stations, incubators without moisture ran several per cent. higher evaporation than eggs under hens. The conclusions at all stations were that the addition of moisture to incubators was a material aid to good hatches of livable chicks. At Ontario the average evaporation ran from as low as 7 per cent. At Utah it reached as high as 24 per cent. Now as the entire loss of weight is loss of water, the solid contents remaining the same, and as the original per cent, of water contained in the egg (shell included) is only 65.5, the chicks of the two lots with the same amount of solid substance would contain water in the proportion of 58.5 to 41.5. Based on the weight of the chick, this would make a difference of water content of over 25 per cent. That human beings or other animals could not exist with such differences in the chemical composition of the body, is at once apparent. In fact I do not believe that the chick can live under such remarkable circumstances. As I have picked the extreme cases in the series given, it is possible that these extremes were experimental errors, and as in the Utah data, no information is given as what happened to the chicks, I have no proof that they did live. But from the large number of hatches that were recorded below 9 per cent, and above 15 per cent., giving a variation of the actual water content in the chick's body of about 10 per cent., it is evident that chicks do hatch under remarkable physiological difficulties. One explanation that suggests itself is, that as there is considerable variation in evaporation of individual eggs due to the amount of shell porosity, and the chicks that hatch in either case may be the ones whose individual variations threw them nearer the normal. By a further study from the Ontario data of the relation of the evaporation to the results in livable chicks, it can be readily observed that all good hatches have evaporation centering around the 12 per cent. moisture loss, and that all lots with evaporations above 15 per cent. hatch out extremely poor. The general averages of the machines supplied with some form of moisture was 35 per cent. of all eggs set, in chicks alive at four weeks of age, while the machines ran dry gave only 20 per cent. of live chicks at a similar period. Now, I wish to call attention to a further point in connection with evaporation. If the final measure of the loss of weight by evaporation were the only criterion of correct conditions of moisture in the chick's body, the hatches that show 12 per cent., or whatever the correct amount of evaporation may be, should be decidedly superior to those on either side. That they are better, has already been shown. But they are far from what they should be. An explanation is not hard to find. The correct content of moisture is not the only essential to the chick's well being at the moments of hatching, but during the whole period of incubation. Under our present system of incubation, the chick is immediately subject to the changing evaporation of American weather conditions. The data for that fact, picked at random, will be of interest. The following table gives the vapor pressure at Buffalo, N. Y., for twenty consecutive days in April: April 1..................170 2..................130 3...................95 4..................103 5..................110 6..................106 7..................154 8..................183 9..................245 10.................311 11.................342 12.................286 13.................219 14.................248 15.................217 16.................193 17.................241 18.................306 19.................261 20.................204 Supposing a hatch to be started at the beginning of the above period, by the end of the first week, with the excessive evaporation, due to a low vapor pressure, the eggs would all be several per cent. below the normal water content; the fact that the next week was warm and rainy, and the vapor pressure rose until the loss was entirely counterbalanced, would not repair the injury, even though the eggs showed at the end of incubation exactly the correct amount of shrinkage. A man might thirst in the desert for a week, then, coming to a hole of water fall in and drown, but we would hardly accept the report of a normal water content found at the post-mortem examination as evidence that his death was not connected with the moisture problem. The change of evaporation, due to weather conditions, is, under hens, less marked than in incubators. This is because there are no drafts under the hen, and because the hen's moist body and the moist earth, if she sets on the ground, are separate sources of moisture which the changing humidity of the atmosphere does not affect. Among about forty hens set at different times at the Utah Station and the loss of moisture of which was determined at three equal periods of six days each, the greatest irregularity I found was as follows: 1st period, 5.81 per cent; 2d period, 3.86 per cent; 3d period, 6.15 per cent. Compare this with a similar incubator record at the same station in which the loss for the three periods was 5.63, 9.18 and 2.15. I think the reader is now in position to appreciate the almost unsurmountable difficulties in the proper control of evaporation with the common small incubator in our climate. It is little wonder that one of our best incubator manufacturers, after studying the proposition for some time, threw over the whole moisture proposition, and put out a machine in which drafts of air were slowed down by felt diaphragms and the use of moisture was strictly forbidden. The moisture problem to the small incubator operator presents itself as follows: If left to the mercies of chance and the weather, the too great or too little evaporation from his eggs will yield hatches that will prove unprofitable. In order to regulate this evaporation, he must know and be able to control both vapor pressure and the currents of air that strike the eggs. Now he does not know the amount of vapor pressure and has no way of finding it out. The so-called humidity gauges on the market are practically worthless, and even were the readings on relative humidity accurately determined, they would be wholly confusing, for their effect of the same relative humidity on the evaporation will vary widely with variations of the out-of-door temperature. If the operator knows or guesses that the humidity is too low, he can increase it by adding water to the room, or the egg chamber, but he cannot tell when he has too much, nor can he reduce the vapor pressure of the air on rainy days when nature gives him too much water. As to air currents he is little better off--he has no way to tell accurately as to the behavior of air in the egg chamber and changes in temperature of the heater or if the outside air will throw these currents all off, since they depend upon the draft principle. Taking it all in all, the man with the small incubator had better follow the manufacturer's directions and trust to luck. The writer has long been of the conviction that a plan which would keep the rate of evaporation within as narrow bounds as we now keep the temperature, would not only solve the problem of artificial incubation, but improve on nature and increase not only the numbers but the vitality or livability of the chicks. With a view of studying further the relations between the conditions of atmospheric vapor pressure, and the success of artificial incubation, I have investigated climatic reports and hatching records in the various sections of the world. The following are averages of the monthly vapor pressures at four points in which we are interested: Buffalo, St. Louis, San Fran- Cairo Month N.Y. Mo. cisco. Egypt January 87 98 311 279 February 81 94 310 288 March 138 224 337 287 April 171 283 332 311 May 301 423 317 328 June 466 550 345 365 July 546 599 374 413 August 496 627 382 435 September 429 506 389 372 October 285 327 342 365 November 271 225 285 321 December 143 133 243 397 A study of the extent of daily variations is also of interest. As a general thing they are less extreme in localities when the seasonal variations are also less. In Cairo, however, which has a seasonal variation greater than San Francisco, the daily variations during the hatching season are much less than in California. This is due to a constant wind from sea to land, and an absolute absence of rainfall, conditions for which Egypt is noted. Nearness to a coast does not mean uniform vapor pressure, for with wind alternating from sea to land, it means just the opposite. As will be readily seen the months in spring which give the best hatches, occupy a medium place in the humidity scale. The fact that both hens and machines succeed best in this period, is to me very suggestive of the possibility that with an incubator absolutely controlling evaporation, much of the seasonal variation in the hatchability would disappear. The uniform humidity of the California coast is shown in the above table. This is not inconsistent with the excellent results obtained at Petaluma. The Egyptian hatcher in his long experience has learned just about how much airholes and smudge fire are necessary to get results. With these kept constant and the atmosphere constant, we have more nearly perfect conditions of incubation than are to be found anywhere else in the world, and I do not except the natural methods. The climatic conditions of Egypt cannot be equaled in any other climate, but as will be shown in the last section of this chapter, their effect can be duplicated readily enough by modern science and engineering. Mr. Edward Brown, who was sent over here by the English Government to investigate our poultry industry, was greatly surprised at our poor results in artificial incubation. Compared with our acknowledged records of less than 50 per cent. hatches, he quotes the results obtained in hatching 18,000 eggs at an English experiment station as 62 per cent. I have not obtained any data of English humidity, but it is undoubtedly more uniform than the eastern United States. Ventilation--Carbon Dioxide. The last of the four life requisites we have to consider is that of oxygen. The chick in the shell, like a fish, breathes oxygen which is dissolved in a liquid. A special breathing organ is developed for the chick during its embryonic stages and floats in the white and absorbs the oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. The amount of this breathing that occurs in the chick is at first insignificant, but increases with development. At no time, however, is it anywhere equal to that of the hatched chicks, for the physiological function to be maintained by the unhatched chicks requires little energy and little oxidation. Upon the subject of ventilation in general, a great misunderstanding exists. Be it far from me to say anything that will cause either my readers or his chickens to sleep less in the fresh air, yet for the love of truth and for the simplification of the problem of incubation, the real facts about ventilation must be given. In breathing, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide and water vapor are given off. It is popularly held that abundance of fresh air is necessary to supply the oxygen for breathing and that carbon dioxide is a poison. Both are mistakes. The amount of oxygen normally in the air is about 20 per cent. Of carbon dioxide there is normally three hundredths of one per cent. During breathing these gasses are exchanged in about equal volume. A doubling or tripling of carbon dioxide was formerly thought to be "very dangerous." Now, if the carbon dioxide were increased 100 times, we would have only three per cent., and have seventeen per cent. of oxygen remaining. This oxygen would still be of sufficient pressure to readily pass into the blood. We might breathe a little faster to make up for the lessened oxygen pressure. In fact such a condition of the air would not be unlike the effects of higher altitudes. Some investigations recently conducted at the U.S. Experiment Station for human nutrition, have shown the utter misconception of the old idea of ventilation. The respiratory calorimeter is an air-tight compartment in which men are confined for a week or more at a time while studies are being made concerning heat and energy yielded by food products. It being inconvenient to analyze such an immense volume of air as would be necessary to keep the room freshened according to conventional ventilation standards, experiments were made to see how vitiated the air could be made without causing ill effects to the subject. This led to a remarkable series of experiments in which it was repeatedly demonstrated that a man could live and work for a week at a time without experiencing any ill effects whatever in an atmosphere of his own breath containing as high as 1.86 per cent. of carbon dioxide, or, in other words, the air had its impurity increased 62 times. This agrees with what every chemist and physiologist has long known, and that is that carbon dioxide is not poisonous, but is a harmless dilutant just as nitrogen. This does not mean that a man or animal may not die of suffocation, but that these are smothered, as they are drowned, by a real absence of oxygen, not poisoned by a fraction of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide. In the same series of experiments, search was made for the mysterious poisons of the breath which many who had learned of the actual harmlessness of carbon dioxide alleged to be the cause of the ill effects attributed to foul air. Without discussion, I will say that the investigators failed to find such poisons, but concluded that the sense of suffocation in an unventilated room is due not to carbon dioxide or other "poisonous" respiratory products, but is wholly due to warmth, water vapor, and the unpleasant odors given off by the body. The subject of ventilation has always been a bone of contention in incubator discussions. With its little understood real importance, as shown in the previous section, and the greatly exaggerated popular notions of the importance of oxygen and imagined poisonous qualities of carbon dioxide, the confusion in the subject should cause little wonder. A few years ago some one with an investigating mind decided to see if incubators were properly ventilated, and proceeded to make carbon dioxide determinations of the air under a hen and in an incubator. The air under the hen was found to contain the most of the obnoxious gas. Now, this information was disconcerting, for the hen had always been considered the source of all incubator wisdom. Clearly the perfection of the hen or the conception of pure air must be sacrificed. Chemistry here came to the rescue, and said that carbon dioxide mixed with water, formed an acid and acid would dissolve the lime of an egg shell. Evidently the hen was sacrificing her own health by breathing impure air in order to soften up the shells a little so the chicks could get out. Since it could have been demonstrated in a few hours in any laboratory, that carbon dioxide in the quantities involved, has no perceptible effect upon egg shells, it is with some apology that I mention that quite a deal of good brains has been spent upon the subject by two experiment stations. The data accumulated, of course, fails to prove the theory, but it is interesting as further evidence of the needlessness in the old fear of insufficient ventilation. At the Ontario Station, the average amounts of carbon dioxide under a large number of hens was .32 of one per cent., or about ten times that of fresh air, or one-sixth of that which the man breathed so happily in the respiratory calorimeter. With incubators, every conceivable scheme was tried to change the amount of carbon dioxide. In some, sour milk was placed which, in fermenting, gives off the gas in question. Others were supplied with buttermilk, presumably to familiarize the chickens with this article so they would recognize it in the fattening rations. In other machines, lamp fumes were run in, and to still others, pure carbon dioxide was supplied. The percentage of the gas present varied in the machines from .06 to .58 of one per cent. The results, of course, vary as any run of hatches would. The detailed discussion of the hatches and their relation to the amount of carbon dioxide as given in Bulletin 160 of the Ontario Station, would be unfortunately confusing to the novice, but would make amusing reading for the old poultryman. Speaking of a comparison of two hatches, the writer, on page 53 of the bulletin says, "The increase in vitality of chicks from the combination of the carbon dioxide and moisture over moisture only, amounting, as it does, to 4.5 per cent. of the eggs set, seems directly due to the higher carbon dioxide content." I cannot refrain from suggesting that if my reader has two incubators, he might set up a Chinese prayer machine in front of one and see if he cannot in like manner demonstrate the efficacy of Heavenly supplications in the hatching of chickens. The practical bearing of the subject of ventilation in the small incubator is almost wholly one of evaporation. The majority of such machines are probably too much ventilated. In a large and properly constructed hatchery, such as is discussed in the last section of this chapter, the entire composition of the air, as well as its movement, is entirely under control. Nothing has yet been brought to light that indicates any particular attention need be given to the composition of such air save in regard to its moisture content, but as the control of this factor renders it necessary that the air be in a closed circuit, and not open to all out-doors, it will be very easy to subject the air to further changes such as the increasing oxygen, if such can be demonstrated to be desirable. Turning Eggs. The subject of turning eggs is another source of rather meaningless controversy. Of course, the hen moves her eggs around and in doing so turns them. Doubtless the reader, were he setting on a pile of door knobs as big as his head, would do the same thing. As proof that eggs need turning, we are referred to the fact that yolks stick to the shell if the eggs are not turned. I have candled thousands of eggs and have yet to see a yolk stuck to the shell unless the egg contained foreign organism or was several months old. However, I have seen hundreds of blood rings stuck to the shell. Whether the chick died because the blood rings stuck or whether the blood rings stuck because the chicken died I know not, but I have a strong presumption that the latter explanation is correct, for I see no reason if the live blood ring was in the habit of sticking to the shell, why this would not occur in a few hours as well as in a few days. In the year 1901 I saw plenty of chicks hatched out in Kansas in egg cases, kitchen cupboards and other places where regular turning was entirely overlooked. Mr. J.P. Collins, head of the Produce Department of Swift & Co., says that he was one time cruelly deserted in a Pullman smoker for telling the same story. The statement is true, however, in spite of Mr. Collins' unpleasant experience. Texas egg dealers frequently find hatched chickens in cases of eggs. Upon the subject of turning eggs the writer will admit that he is doing what poultry writers as a class do on a great many occasions, i.e.: expressing an opinion rather than giving the proven facts. In incubation practice it is highly desirable to change the position of eggs so that unevenness in temperature and evaporation will be balanced. When doing this it is easier to turn the eggs than not to turn them, and for this reason the writer has never gone to the trouble of thoroughly investigating the matter. But it has been abundantly proven that any particular pains in egg turning is a waste of time. Cooling Eggs. The belief in the necessity of cooling eggs undoubtedly arose from the effort to follow closely and blindly in the footsteps of the hen. With this idea in mind the fact that the hen cooled her eggs occasionally led us to discover a theory which proved such cooling to be necessary. A more reasonable theory is that the hen cools the eggs from necessity, not from choice. In some species of birds the male relieves the female while the latter goes foraging. But there is no need to argue the question. Eggs will hatch if cooled according to custom, but that they will hatch as well or better without the cooling is abundantly proven by the results in Egyptian incubators where no cooling whatever is practiced. Searching for the "Open Sesame" of Incubation. The experiment station workers have, the last few years, gone a hunting for the weak spot in artificial incubation. Some reference to this work has already been made in the sections on moisture and ventilation. Before leaving the subject I want to refer to two more efforts to find this key to the mystery of incubation and in the one case at least correct an erroneous impression that has been given out. At the Ontario Station a patent disinfectant wash called "Zenoleum" was incidentally used to deodorize incubators. Now, for some reason, perhaps due to the belief that white diarrhoea was caused by a germ in the egg, this idea of washing with Zenoleum was conceived to be a possible solution of the incubator problem. In the numerous experiments at that station in 1907 Zenoleum applied to the machine in various ways was combined with various other incipient panaceas and at the end of the season the results of the various combinations were duly tabulated. The machine with buttermilk and Zenoleum headed the list for livable chicks. For reasons explained in the chapter on "Experiment Station Work," the idea of contrasting the results of one hatch with one sort with the average results of many hatches of another sort is very poor science. Feeling that the Station men would hardly be guilty of expressing as they did in favor of such a method without better reason, I very carefully went over the results and compared all machines using Zenoleum with all machines without it. The results in favor of Zenoleum were less marked but still perceptible. I was somewhat puzzled, as I could see no rational explanation of the relation between disinfecting incubator walls and the hatchability of the chick in its germ-proof cage. Finally I hit upon the scheme of arranging the hatches by dates and the explanation became at once apparent. The hatching experiments had extended from March to July, but the Zenoleum hatches were grouped in April and early in May, when, as one would expect from weather conditions, all hatches were running good. After allowing for this error Zenoleum appeared as harmless and meaningless as would the Attar of Roses. The second link after the missing link of incubation to which I wish to call your attention also occurred at the Ontario Station. The latter case, however, is happier in that no unwarranted conclusions were drawn and that an interesting bit of scientific knowledge was added to the world's store. The conception to be tested was an offshoot from the carbon dioxide theory. You will remember at the Utah Station the idea was that carbon dioxide was to dissolve the shell so the chick could break out easier. At the Guelph Station the conception was that the carbon dioxide might dissolve the lime of the shell for the chick to use in "makin' hisself." As an egg could not be analyzed fresh and then hatched, a number were analyzed from the same hens and others from those hens were then incubated with the various amounts of carbon dioxide, buttermilk, Zenoleum, and other factors. The lime content of the contents of the fresh egg averaged about .04 grams. At hatching time the lime in the chick's body averaged about .20 grams and was always several times as great as the maximum of the eggs. Clearly calcium phosphate of the chick's bones is made by the digestion of the calcium carbonate from the shell and its combination with the phosphorus of the yolk. Certainly a remarkable and hitherto unexplained fact. The amount of lime required is not great enough, however, to materially weaken the shell, but, of course, the process is vital to the chick as bones are quite essential to his welfare, but it is an "inside affair" of which the three-tenths of one per cent of carbon dioxide incidentally present under the hen is entirely irrelevant. A further observation made by the investigator is that the chicks which obtained the lowest amount of lime were abnormally weak. As long as we are powerless to aid the chick in digesting lime this fact, like the other, belongs in the field of pure, rather than applied science. I think that we are safe in saying that the weakness caused the shortage of lime rather than vice versa; if the writer remembers runts in other animals are usually a little short of bone material. The chemist of the station is to be given special credit for not jumping at conclusions. In the summary of this work he states: "There is apparently no connection between the amount of lime absorbed by the chick and the amount of carbon dioxide present during incubation." The Box Type of Incubator In Actual Use. Although the fact is not so advertised and frequently not recognized even by the makers, the success of existing incubators is directly proportional to the extent with which they control evaporation. In order to show this I have only to call attention briefly to two or three of the most successful types of incubators on the market. Let me first repeat that evaporation increases with increased air currents and with decreased vapor pressure. Now, the vapor pressure undergoes all manner of changes with the passing of storm centers and the changes of prevailing winds. But there is a general tendency for vapor pressure to increase with increase in outside temperature. Now, the movement of air in all common incubators depends upon the draft principle and the greater the difference in machine temperature and outside temperature the greater will be this draft. Thus, we have two factors combining to cause variation in the rate of evaporation. The tendency for the rate of airflow to vary is diminished when a cellar is used for an incubator room, but the cellar does not materially remedy the climatic variation in vapor pressure. The general tendency of incubators as ordinarily constructed, is to dry out the eggs too rapidly. With a view of counteracting this, water is placed in pans in the egg room. A surface of water exposed to quiet air does not evaporate as fast as one might think, as is easily shown by the fact that air above rivers, lakes and even seas is frequently far from the saturation point. The result of the moisture pan with a given current of air is that the vapor pressure is increased a definite amount, but by no means is it regulated or made uniform. Inasmuch as too much shrinking is the most prevalent fault in box incubators, the use of moisture is on the whole beneficial, but in hot, murky weather, with less circulation and higher outside vapor pressure, the moisture is overdone and the operator condemns the system. The subject not being clearly understood and no means being available for vapor pressure determinations, the system results in confusion and disputes. When the felt diaphragm machine was brought into the market it was advertised as a no-moisture machine. The result of the diaphragm is that of choking off air movement and consequently reducing evaporation. This gives exactly the same results as the use of moisture, but the machine is easier to operate and seemed to do away with the vexatious moisture problem which, together perhaps, with some fancied resemblance of felt diaphragms to hen feathers, has resulted in the widespread use of this type of machine. The latest effort along the lines of reducing evaporation is the sand tray machine that followed in the wake of the Ontario investigation. This device simply gives a greater evaporating surface to the water and hence a greater addition to the vapor pressure. The results in practice I had given me by a man who last year hatched sixty-five thousand chicks and as many more ducklings. He said: "The sand tray early in the season gave the best hatches and most vigorous chicks we had, but later on things got too wet and the chickens drowned." No nicer demonstration of science in practice could be desired. In the present-day incubator of either type we are wholly at the mercy of sudden climatic changes of vapor pressure. For the slower changes from season to season some control by greater and less amounts of supplied moisture, or by ventilator slides is available, but little understood and seldom practiced. It will certainly be of interest to my readers to know the actual hatches obtained with the prevailing type of box incubator. By actual hatches we mean the per cent. of live chicks taken out of the machine to the per cent. of eggs put in. The ordinary published hatches, based on one per cent. of fertile hatches, are a delusion and a snare. When eggs are tested out many dead germs come out with them and the separation of microscopic dead germs from the infertile egg is, of course, impossible. Such padded and show hatching records do not interest us. Where incubators are run on top of the ground I have found the results to be poor and to improve, the bigger and deeper and damper and warmer and less ventilated the cellar is made. The reason for this is plain. In such a cellar the vapor pressure of the air is not only greater but is less influenced by the shifting vapor pressure of the outside air. In a good cellar the operator, though his knowledge of the factors with which he deals is grievously deficient, learns, through long and costly experience, about what addition of moisture or about what rate of ventilation will give him the best results. In the room more subject to outside influences, the conditions are so constantly changing that uniformity of practice never gives uniform results, and hence the operator is without guidance, either intelligent or blind, and the results are wholly a product of chance. As proof of my contention I may give results of a series of full season hatches for 1908, each involving several thousand eggs. First, a state experiment station, the name of which I do not care to publish. Incubators kept in a cement basement which has flues in which fires were built to secure "ample ventilation." This caused a strong draft of cold, dry air, making the worst possible condition for incubation. The hatch for the season averaged 25 per cent. and was explained by lack of vitality in the stock. Second, Ontario Agricultural College. A room above ground, moisture used in most machines and various other efforts being made to improve the hatches by a staff of half a dozen scientists. Results: Hatch 48 per cent.--incubator manufacturers call the experimenters names and say they are ignorant and prejudiced. Third, Cornell University: dry ventilated basement representing typical conditions of common incubator practice of the country. Results: Hatch 52 per cent., results when given out commonly based on fertile eggs and every one generally pleased. Fourth: One of the most successful poultrymen in New York State, who has, without knowing why, hit upon the plan of using a no-moisture type of incubator in a basement which is heated with steam pipes, which maintains temperature at 70 degrees and has a cement floor which is kept covered with water. Results: Hatch 59 per cent. Fifth: As a fifth in such a series I might mention again the Egyptian machine with the uniform vapor pressure of the climate and the three chicks exchanged for four eggs. While an official in the United States Department of Agriculture, I gathered data from original records of private plants covering the incubation of several hundred thousand eggs. Such information was furnished me in confidence as a public official and as a private citizen I have no right to publish that which would mean financial profit or loss to those concerned. Of records where there were ten thousand or more eggs involved, the lowest I found was 44 per cent. and the highest, that mentioned as the fourth case above, or 59 per cent. The great majority of these records hung very closely around the 50 per cent. mark. The following is a fair sample of such data. It is the record of hatching hen eggs for the first six months of 1908, at one of the largest poultry plants in America: Eggs Chicks Per Cent. Month Set Hatched Hatched January 4,213 1,585 37 2-3 February 6,275 2,339 33 3-4 March 17,990 6,993 38 1-3 April 18,819 10,265 54 1-2 May 24,458 14,438 59 June 13,100 6,614 55 ------ ------ ------ Total 84,855 42,234 50 p.c. The Future Method of Incubation. The idea of the mammoth incubator which would hatch eggs by the hundred thousand and a minimum of expense is the dream of the American incubator inventor. We have long had available such methods of insulation and regulating the supply of heat as would point to the practicability of such a dream. The past efforts in this direction have fallen down for the following simple reason: All eggs were placed in a single big room with a view of the man's entering the room to take care of them. Contact with cold walls, the opening of doors, the hatching of chicks or introduction of fresh eggs set up air currents, the hot air rising and the cold air settling until great differences in temperature would be found in the room. No systematic regulation of evaporation was contemplated, as the principles at stake or the means of such regulation were unknown. The attempt just referred to was made several years ago by one of the most successful of incubator manufacturers and because of his failure other inventors were inclined to steer clear of the proposition. Meanwhile the need of such an incubator has grown enormously. At the time that above effort was made no duck ranch existed whose annual production ran over thirty or forty thousand ducklings, whereas we now have several in the one hundred thousand class. Much more remarkable has been the growth of the day-old chick business. The discovery that newly hatched chicks could be successfully shipped hundreds of miles with less loss than shipping eggs for hatching, has resulted in a few years' time in the growth of hatcheries of considerable size where chicks are hatched by means of common incubators. Still another opportunity for the use of large hatcheries has been by the growth of poultry communities. There are other communities besides those mentioned in this book which would amply support public hatcheries. If half the poultry growers of Lancaster County, Pa., were to be prevailed upon to patronize a public hatchery, the county would support between fifteen and twenty 100,000 egg incubators. Any of the numerous trolley centers in Indiana, Ohio and Southern Michigan would likewise be profitable locations for the establishment of public hatcheries. The demand for the incubator of large capacity has, within the last year or so, brought two or three "mammoth" incubators into the market. The devices I now refer to consist of a row of box incubators which, instead of being heated by single lamps, are heated by continuous hot water pipes. This scheme effects a considerable saving in fuel cost and labor, but the bulkiness of construction and the woeful lack of evaporation control are still to be dealt with. The writer now wishes briefly to describe the plan of construction and operation of a new type of hatchery, the success of which has recently been made feasible by inventions and technical knowledge hitherto unavailable. The plan of the hatchery is on that of a cold storage plant as far as insulation and general construction go. The eggs are kept in bulk in special cases which are turned as a whole and may rest on either of four sides. At hatching time the eggs are spread out in trays in a special hatching room, which is only large enough to accommodate chicks to the amount of one-sixth of the incubator capacity, for twice a week deliverings, or one-third if weekly deliveries are desired. There are no pipes or other sources of heat in the egg chambers. All temperature regulation is by means of air heated (or cooled as the case may be) outside of the egg rooms and forced into the egg rooms by a motor driven cone fan, maintaining a steady current of air, the rate of movement of which may be varied at will. The air movement maintained will always be sufficiently brisk, however, to prevent an unevenness of temperature in different parts of the room. So simple is this that the reader will doubtless wonder why it was not developed earlier. The reason is that air subject to the climatic influences will, with any forced draft sufficient to equalize temperature, result in a fatal rate of evaporation. Sprinkling the air has not generally been thought practical because of the notion that air must not be used in the egg chamber but once, which involved quite a waste of heat necessary in warming a large bulk of air and evaporating sufficient water. Moreover, no means has, in the past, been available for making a sufficiently accurate measurement of the evaporating power of the air. The hair hygrometers commonly sold to incubator operators are known by scientists to be absolutely unreliable. The range between the wet and dry bulb thermometers was found in the Ontario experiments to give readings with and without fanning that varied 15 to 20 per cent. in relative humidity which, at the temperature of an egg chamber, would amount to a variation of three to four hundred of vapor pressure units, which, with the forced draught plan, would ruin a hatch of eggs in a few hours. The sling psychrometer as used by the U.S. Weather Bureau should, in the hands of an expert, give results making possible measurements accurate to two or three per cent. of relative humidity or forty to sixty units of vapor pressure. In contrast with these blundering instruments we now have available an instrument with which the writer has frequently determined vapor pressure accurately to within a range of two or three vapor pressure units and the instrument is capable of being constructed for even finer work. As it is only by means of air with the moisture content absolutely controlled that the use of a large room becomes possible, we can now see why this type of hatching remained so long undeveloped. By means of such vapor pressure control the large egg chamber is not only feasible but the rate of evaporation at once becomes subject to the control of the operator and we achieve a perfection in artificial incubation hitherto unattained. The means by which the air moisture is regulated is similar to that used in up-to-date cold storage plants where the air is made moist by sprinkling and dried with deliquescent salts. The regulation of vapor pressure, like that of temperature, may be by electrically moved dampers which switch a greater or less proportion of the incoming current to the sprinkler or dryer as the case may be. The ordinary incubator thermostat gives the necessary impulse for the control of the temperature dampers, while the instrument above referred to is used for the vapor pressure control. As the entire air circuit is closed, the chemical composition of the air may also be regulated at will. This results in a reduction of the quantity of heat required to a minimum; in fact, with the incubator in full swing, the air will, at times, need cooling rather than warming. The question of the cost of incubation by this method, or of profit of such a hatchery operated for the public is almost wholly one of the size of operations. Where sufficient eggs may be obtained and sufficient demand exists for the chicks to make it profitable to operate, the additional cost of hatching extra chicks will be insignificant compared with the present system. The Egyptian poultryman gives four eggs for three chicks, but the American poultryman would be willing to give four eggs for one chick, as is shown by the fact that he sells eggs for from 1 to 3 cents apiece and buys day-old chicks for ten to fifteen cents. A plant with a seasonable capacity of 100,000 eggs has a basis to work upon something as follows: With a fifty per cent. hatch and chicks at 10 cents each there would be a gross income of $5,000 annually. From this we must subtract for eggs at 2 cents each, $2,000. Salary for operator $1,000, wages for helper $300. Fuel, supplies and repairs $500. Cost of delivery and sales of chicks $200. This leaves a residue of $1,000, which would pay a 20 per cent. interest on the necessary investment of $5,000. Personally, I think this is about the minimum unit of hatching that would prove worth while as independent institutions. Any increase in the percentage of the hatch would, of course, reduce the unit of size necessary for profitable operation. Upon a single poultry plant as a duck farm the cost of operation would be materially reduced, as the operator himself would take the place of the intelligent manager and the cost of gathering eggs and the delivery of the product would be eliminated. The most profitable method of hatchery operation undoubtedly will be upon a plan analogous to what, in creamery operation, is called centralization. The success of this scheme depends upon the fact that transportation and agencies at country stores are relatively less important items of expense than plant construction and high salaries for skilled labor. A hatchery with a million capacity can be built and run at not more than twice the cost of one hundred-thousand plant and better men can be kept in charge of it. A portion of the saving will of course be expended in maintaining a system of buying eggs and selling chicks. The material advantage of operating a hatchery in connection with a high-class egg handling and poultry packing establishment, or as one feature of a poultry community, is at once apparent, for the system of collecting the market produce will be utilized for gathering eggs and distributing chicks, each business helping the other. The public hatchery also gives an excellent opportunity for the introduction of good stock among farmers who would be too shiftless to acquire it by ordinary methods. CHAPTER VII FEEDING The old adage that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing is nowhere better illustrated than in the scientific phases of poultry feeding. The attempted application of the common theoretical feeding standards to poultry has caused not only a great waste of time but has also resulted in expenditures for high-priced feeds when cheaper feeds would have given as good or better results. The so-called science of food chemistry is really a rough approximation of things about which the actual facts are unknown. Such knowledge bears the same relation to accurate science as the maps of America drawn by the early explorers do to a modern atlas. Like these early efforts of geography the present science of food chemistry is all right if we realize its incompleteness. In practice, the poultryman, after a general glance at the "map," will find a more reliable guide in simpler things. I am writing this book for the poultryman, not the professor, and because I state that the particular kind of science wherein the professor has taken the most pains to teach the poultryman is comparatively useless, I fear it may arouse a mistrust of the value of science as a whole. I know of no way to prevent this except to point out the distinction between scientific facts and guesses couched in scientific language. When a scientist states that a hen cannot lay egg shells containing calcium without having calcium in her food, that is a fact, and it works out in practice, for calcium is an element, and the hen cannot create elementary substances. When the same scientist, finding that an egg contains protein, says that wheat is a better egg food than corn because it has the largest amount of protein, that is a guess and does not work in practice because protein is not a definite substance, but the name of a group of substances of which the scientist does not know the composition, and which may or may not be of equal use to the hen in the formation of eggs. All substances of which the world is made are composed of elements which cannot be changed. When these elements are combined they form definite substances with definite proportions entirely independent of the original elements. The pure diamond is carbon. Gasoline is carbon and hydrogen. Several hundred other things are also carbon and hydrogen. Sugar is carbon combined with hydrogen and oxygen. These three elements make several thousand different substances, including fats, alcohol and formaldehyde. Hydrocyanic acid is carbon combined with hydrogen and nitrogen, and is the most deadly poison known. The failure of food science is partly because we do not know the composition of many of the substances of food and partly because these substances are changed in the animal body in a manner which we do not understand and cannot control. Conventional Food Chemistry The conventional analysis of feeding stuff divides the food substances in water, carbohydrates, fat, protein and ash. The amount of water in the body is all-important, but, with the exception of eggs during incubation, I confess I prefer to rely upon the chicken's judgment as to the amount required. The carbohydrate group contains starch, sugar, cellulose and a number of other things. Carbohydrates constitute two-thirds to three-fourths of all common rations and nine-tenths of that amount is starch. The proposition of how much carbohydrates the hen eats is chiefly determined by the quantity of grain she consumes. Of fats there are many kinds of which the composition is definitely known. The amount of fats the hen eats is unimportant because she makes starch into fat. The protein or nitrogen containing substances of the diet is the group of food substances over which most of the theories are expounded. The hen can make egg fat from corn starch or cabbage leaves because they contain the same elements. She cannot make egg white from starch or fat because the element of nitrogen which is in the egg white is lacking in the starch and fats. The substances that have nitrogen in them are called protein. They are very complex and difficult to analyze. In digestion these proteins are all torn to pieces and built up into other kinds of protein. Just as in tearing down an old house, only a portion of the material can be used in a new house, so it is with protein and laboratory analysis cannot tell us how much of the old house can be utilized in building the new one. In practice the whole subject simmers down to the proposition of finding out by direct experiment whether the hen will do the work best on this or that food, irregardless of its nitrogen content as determined in the laboratory. The results of many experiments and much experience has shown that lean meat protein will make egg protein and chicken flesh protein and that vegetable protein pound for pound is not its equal. I know of no results that have proven that the high priced vegetable foods such as linseed meal, gluten feed, etc., have proven a more valuable chicken food than the cheapest grains. With cows and pigeons this is not the case, but the hen is not a vegetarian by nature and high priced vegetable protein doesn't seem to be in her line. Of the three standard grains there is some indication of the value of the proteids for chickens and of the following ranks, 1st oats, 2d corn, 3d wheat. The false conceptions of the value of wheat proteids has been specially the cause of much waste of money. Digestive trials and direct experiments both show that, as chicken foods, wheat is worth less, pound for pound, than corn and yet, though much higher in price, it is still used not only as a variety grain, but by many poultrymen as the chief article of diet. Wheat contains only 3 per cent. more proteid than corn. The man who substitutes wheat at one and one-half cents a pound for corn worth one cent a pound pays 17 cents a pound for his added protein. In beef scrap he could get the protein for 5 cents a pound and have a very superior article besides. Milk as a source of protein ranks between the vegetable proteids and those of meat. It is preferably fed clabbered. The dried casein recently put on the market is a valuable food but is not worth as much as meat food and will not be extensively utilized until the demand for meat scrap forces up the price to a point where the casein can be sold more cheaply. Meat scrap, to be relished by the chickens, must not be a fine meal, but should consist of particles the size of wheat kernels or larger. The fine scrap gives the manufacturer a chance to utilize dried blood and tankage which is cheaper in quality and price than particles of real meat. The last and least understood of the groups of food substances is mineral substance or ash. Now, the chemist determines mineral substance by burning the food and analyzing the residue. In the intense heat numerous chemical changes take place and the substances that come out of the furnace are entirely different from those contained in the fresh food. The lay reader will probably ask why the chemist does not analyze the substances of the fresh material. The answer is that he doesn't know how. Progress is made every year but the whole subject is yet too much clouded in obscurity to be of any practical application. At present the feeding of mineral substance, like the feeding of protein, can best be learned by experimenting directly with the foods rather than by attempting to go by their chemical composition. In practice it is found that green feed supplies something which grain lacks, presumably mineral salts. Moreover we know that such food fed fresh is superior to the same substance dried. This may be because of chemical changes that occur in curing or simply because of greater palatability. The other chief source of mineral matter is meat preparations with or without ground bone. Recent experiments at Rhode Island have attempted to show the relative value of the mineral constituents of meat by adding bone ash to vegetable proteids, as linseed and gluten meal. The results clearly indicate that mineral matter of animal origin greatly improves the value of the vegetable diet, but that the latter is still sadly deficient. Of course the burning process used in preparing the bone ash may have destroyed some of the valuable qualities of the mineral salts. Practically, we do not care whether the value of animal meal be due to protein, mineral salts or both. In time the world will become so thickly populated that we cannot afford to rear cattle and condemn a portion of the carcass to go through another life cycle before human consumption. By that time the necessary food salts will doubtless be known and we will be able to medicate our corn and alfalfa and do away with the beef scrap. The poultrymen will do well, however, not to count on the chemistry of the future, for the chemist that makes the "tissue salts" for the hen may manufacture human food with Niagara power and fresh eggs will come in tin cans. How the Hen Unbalances Balanced Rations. Let the poultryman who figures the nutritious ratio of chicken feed try this simple experiment. Place before a half dozen newly hatched chicks a feed of one of the commercial chick feeds. When they have had their fill, sacrifice these innocents on the altar of science and open their crops. He will find that one chick has eaten almost exclusively of millet seed, another has preferred cracked corn, another has filled up heavily on bits of beef scrap and mica crystal grit, while a fourth fancied oats and granulated bone. In short the chick has, in three minutes, unbalanced the balanced ration that it took a week to figure out. This experiment can be varied by placing hens in individual coops and setting before each weighed portions of every food in the poultryman supply man's catalogue. There is only one kind of feeding that will balance rations and that is to feed exclusively on wet mash. This is successfully done in the duck business, but the duck is a Chinese animal and his ways are not the ways of the more fastidious hen. In dairy work the individual preferences of the cows are given attention and their whimsy catered to by the herdsman. I know of nothing that makes a man more feel his kinship to the beast than to hear a good dairyman talk of the personalities and preferences of his feminine co-operators. With commercial chicken work, humanly guided individual feedings is out of the question, though, if used, it might hasten the coming of the two-egg-per-day hen. Individual feeding with the hen as sole judge as to what she shall eat, which means each food in separate hoppers and free range, is the best system of chicken feeding yet evolved. The duty of the poultryman is to supply the food, giving enough variety to permit of the hens having a fair selection. In practice this means that every hen must have access to water, grit (preferably oyster shell), one kind of grain, one kind of meat, and one kind of green food. In practice it will pay to add granulated bone for growing stock. One or two extra grains for variety and as many green foods as conveniences will permit to increase palatability--hence increase the amount of food consumed, for a heavy food consumption is necessary for egg production. As corn is the cheapest food known, let it be the bread at the boarding house and other grains the rotating series of hash, beans and bacon. The grain hopper may have two divisions. The corn never changes but the other should have a change of grain occasionally. The extent of the use made of the various grains will be determined by their price per pound. The proportions of food of the various classes that will be consumed is about as follows: Of 100 lbs. of dry matter: 8 to 12 lbs. meat; 66 to 75 lbs. grain; 15 to 25 lbs. green food. The profits of the business will be increased by supplying the green food in such tempting forms as to increase the amount consumed and cut down the use of grains. The methods we have been describing in which various dry unground grains, beef scrap and oyster shell, each in a separate compartment, are exposed before the hen at all times, together with the abundant use of green food, either as pasture or a soiling crop, is the method of feeding assumed throughout this book. The hopper feeding of so-called dry mash or ground grain mixture has been quite a fad in the last few years. The tendency of the hens to waste such food has occasioned considerable trouble. They are picking it over for their favorite foods and trying to avoid disagreeable foods. This difficulty is relieved when the food be separated into its various components and the hen offered each separately. As a matter of fact, there is no occasion for feeding ground feed except in fattening rations and here the wet mash is desirable. The use of the products of wheat milling has been the chief excuse for such practices, but unless these get considerably lower in price per pound than corn they may be left off the bill-of-fare to advantage. The great use made of these products in poultry feeding was chiefly a result of the attempted application of the balanced ration idea, but as has already been shown the efforts to raise the protein ratio with grain foods is generally false economy. The old-fashioned wet mash which the writer does not recommend because of the labor involved, is, nevertheless, a fairly profitable method of poultry feeding. It is used in the Little Compton district of Rhode Island and was also used in the famous Australian egg laying contests elsewhere described. Personally I would prefer feeding ground grain wet, especially wheat bran and middlings, to feeding it dry. The scattering of grain in litter so generally recommended in poultry literature is all right and proper, but is rather out of place in commercial poultry farming. It is used on the large poultry plants with the yards and long houses, but is not used on colony farms or in any of the poultry growing communities. I should recommend littered houses for Section 6 and the northern half of Section 3 (see Chapter IV), but with warmer soils and climate where the snow does not lie on the ground it would add a labor expense that would very seriously handicap the business. The systems of poultry feeding that are commonly advertised are based either on some patent nostrum or a recommendation of green food in novel form, such as sprouted oats. The joke about poultry feed at 10 cents a bushel, absurd though it may seem, has caught lots of dollars. To take a bushel of oats worth 50 cents, add water, let them sprout and have five bushels costing 10 cents, is certainly a wonderful achievement in wealth getting. The only reason a man couldn't run a soup kitchen on the same principle is that he can't do a soup business by mail. Sprouted oats are a good green food, however, though somewhat laborious to prepare. I should certainly recommend them if for any reason the regular green food supply should run out. The points already mentioned are about all the practical suggestions that the science of animal nutrition has to offer the poultryman. The discussion of feeding from its technical viewpoint is sufficiently covered in the chapter on "Farm Poultry" and the discussion of the management and economics of various types of poultry production. CHAPTER VIII DISEASES For the study of the classification and description of the numerous ailments by which individual fowls pass to their untimely end, I recommend any of the numerous books written upon the subject. Some of these works are more accurate than others, but that I consider immaterial. The study of these diseases is good for the poultryman, it gives his mind exercise. When a boy in high school I studied Latin for the same purpose. Don't Doctor Chickens. For the cure of all poultry diseases when they have passed a point when the fowl does not eat or for other reasons recovery is improbable, I recommend a blow on the head--the hatchet spills the blood which is unwise. The usual formula of "burn or bury deeply" is somewhat troublesome, unless you have a furnace running. A covered pit is more convenient if far enough removed from the house that the odor is not prohibitive. A post with a tally card may be planted near by. This part of the poultry farm may be marked "Exhibit A," and shown first to the visitor during the busy season. If he is one of those prospective pleasure and profit poultrymen who propose to disregard all facts of biology and economics of production, you may save yourself the trouble of showing him the rest of the plant. Unfortunately, this scheme is not open to the poultryman who has breeding stock for sale. I have frequently had the question put to me in the smoker of a Pullman car, "Do not epidemic diseases make the poultry business precarious?" Such questions came from farm-raised men, but not from poultry farmers. Poultrymen should figure a certain loss of birds just as insurance companies figure on the human death rate, but to all practical intents and purposes the epidemic disease has been banished from the poultry farms and seldom if ever enters the records in answer to the question, "Why do poultry farms fail?" Some of my readers may take exception to me either in regard to roup or white diarrhoea. Roup is a disease of the wrong system and careless management. White diarrhoea, so-called, is a matter of wrong incubation. The high mortality of young chicks, though not an epidemic disease, shares with excessive cost of production, very much of the responsibility for poultry farm failures. At the present writing the poultry editors of the country are having much discussion over the conclusion of Dr. Morse of the Bureau of Animal Industry to the effect that white diarrhoea is caused by an intestinal parasite similar to the germ that causes human dysentery. Dr. Morse's opportunities for investigation have been somewhat limited and as the intestines of any animal are always swarming with various organisms, it will take very conclusive evidence to prove that the doctor is right. Practically the naming of the germs that attend the funeral is not particularly important for the reason that it has been thoroughly demonstrated that with good parentage, good incubation and good brooder conditions, white diarrhoea is unknown. The Causes of Poultry Diseases. Poultry ailments are assignable to one of the three following causes, or a combination of these: First, hereditary or inborn weakness; second, unfavorable conditions of food, surroundings, etc.; third, bacteria or animal parasites. A great many chickens die while yet within the shell, or during the growing process, there being no assignable reason save that of inherited weakness. To this class of troubles the only remedy is to breed from better stock. It is as much the trait of some birds to produce infertile eggs or chicks of low vitality as it is for others to produce vigorous offspring. The second class of ailments needs no discussion save that accorded it under the general discussions of the method of conducting the business. The third class of ailments includes the contagious diseases. It is now believed that most common diseases are caused by microscopic germs known as bacteria. These germs in some manner gain entrance to the body of an animal, and, growing within the tissues, give off poisonous substances known as toxins, which produce the symptoms of the disease. The ability to withstand disease germs varies with the particular animal and the kind of disease. As a general rule it may be stated that disease germs cannot live in the body of a perfectly vigorous and healthy animal. It is only when the vitality is at a low ebb, owing to unfavorable conditions or inherited weakness, that disease germs enter the body and produce disease. The bacteria which cause disease, like other living organisms, may be killed by poisoning. Such poisons are known as disinfectants. If it were possible to kill the bacteria within the animal, the curing of disease would be a simple matter, but unfortunately the common chemical poisons that kill germs kill the animal also. The only thing that can be relied upon to kill disease germs within the animal, is a counter-poison developed by the animal itself and known as anti-toxin. Such anti-toxins can be produced artificially and are used to combat certain diseases, as diphtheria and small-pox in human beings and blackleg in cattle. Such methods of combating poultry diseases have not been developed, and due to the small value of an individual fowl would probably not be commercially useful even if successful from a scientific standpoint. The only available method of fighting contagious diseases of poultry is to destroy the disease germs before they enter the fowls and to remove the causes which make the fowl susceptible to the disease. Contagious diseases of poultry may be grouped into two general classes: First, those highly contagious; second, those contracted only by fowls that are in a weakened condition. To the first class belong the severe epidemics, of which chicken-cholera is the most destructive. Chicken-Cholera. The European fowl-cholera has only been rarely identified in this country. Other diseases similar in symptoms and effect are confused with this. As the treatment should be similar the identification of the diseases is not essential. Yellow or greenish-colored droppings, listless attitude, refusal of food and great thirst are the more readily observed symptoms. The disease runs a rapid course, death resulting in about three days. The death rate is very high. The disease is spread by droppings and dead birds, and through feed and water. To stamp out the disease kill or burn or bury all sick chickens, and disinfect the premises frequently and thoroughly. A spray made of one-half gallon carbolic acid, one-half gallon of phenol and twenty gallons of water may be used. Corrosive sublimate, 1 part in 5000 parts of water, should be used as drinking water. This is not to cure sick birds, but to prevent the disease from spreading by means of the drinking vessels. Food should be given in troughs arranged so that the chickens cannot infect the food with the feet. All this work must be done thoroughly, and even then considerable loss can be expected before the disease is stamped out. If cholera has a good start in a flock of chickens it will often be better to dispose of the entire flock than to combat the disease. Fortunately cholera epidemics are rare and in many localities have never been known. Roup. This disease is a representative of that class of diseases which, while being caused by bacteria, can be considered more of a disease of conditions than of contagion. Roup may be caused by a number of different bacteria which are commonly found in the air and soil. When chickens catch cold these germs find lodgment in the nasal passages and roup ensues. The first symptoms of roup are those of an ordinary cold, but as the disease progresses a cheesy secretion appears in the head and throat. A wheezing or rattling sound is often produced by the breathing. The face and eyes swell, and in severe cases the chicken becomes blind. The most certain way of identifying roup is a characteristic sickening odor. The disease may last a week or a year. Birds occasionally recover, but are generally useless after having had roup. Sick birds should be removed and destroyed, but the time usually spent in doctoring sick birds and disinfecting houses can in this case be better employed in finding and remedying the cause of the disease. Such causes may be looked for as dampness, exposure to cold winds, or to a sudden change in temperature as is experienced by chickens roosting in a tight house. Fall and winter are the seasons of roup, while it is poorly housed and poorly fed flocks that most commonly suffer from this disease. Flocks that have become thoroughly roupy should be disposed of and more vigorous birds secured. The open front house has proved to be the most practical scheme for the reduction of this disease. Chicken-Pox, Gapes, Limber Neck. Chicken-pox or sore-head is a disease peculiar to the South. It attacks growing chickens late in the summer. Southern poultrymen who give reasonable attention to their stock, find that, while this disease is a source of some annoyance, the losses are not severe and that it may be readily controlled. In the first place, the animal epidemic of pox can be practically avoided by bringing the chicks out early in the season. If the disease does develop in the flock, the birds are taken from the coops at night and their heads dipped in a proper strength of one of the coal tar disinfectants. Such treatment once a week has generally been effective. This disease is an exception to the general rule that disinfectants which kill germs also kill the chicken. The explanation is that chicken-pox is an external disease. Gapes is given in every poultry book as one of the prominent poultry diseases, but are not common in the Northern and Western States. Gapes are caused by a parasitic worm in the windpipe. Growing chicks are affected. The remedy is to move the chicks to fresh ground and cultivate the old. Limber neck is not a disease, but is the result of the fowl's eating maggots from dead carcasses. It can be prevented by not allowing dead carcasses to remain where the chickens will find them. No practical cure is known. Lice and Mites. The parasites referred to as chicken-lice include many different species, but in habit they may be classed as body-lice and roost-mites. The first, or true bird-lice, live on the body of the chicken and eat the feathers and skin. The roost-mite is similar to a spider and differs in habits from the body-louse in that it sucks the blood of the chicken and does not remain on the body of the fowl except at night. Body-lice are to be found upon almost all chickens, as well as on many other kinds of birds. Their presence in small numbers on matured fowls is not a serious matter. When body-lice are abundant on sitting hens they go from the hen to the newly hatched chickens, and may cause the death of the chicks. The successful methods of destroying body-lice are three in number: First, dust or earth wallows in which the active hens will get rid of lice. Such dust baths should be especially provided for yarded chickens and during the winter. Dry earth can be stored for this purpose. Sitting hens should have access to dust baths. Second: The second method by which body-lice may be destroyed is the use of insect powder. The pyrethrum powder is considered the best for this purpose, but is expensive and difficult to procure in the pure state. Tobacco dust is also used. Insect powder is applied by holding the hen by the feet and working the dust thoroughly into the feathers, especially the fluff. The use of insect powder should be confined to sitting hens and fancy stock, as the cost and labor of applying is too great for use upon the common chicken. The third method is suitable for young chickens, and consists of applying some oil and grease on the head and under the wings. Do not grease the chick all over. With vigorous chickens and correct management the natural dust bath is all that is needed to combat the lice. The roost-mite is probably the cause of more loss to farm poultry raisers than any other pest or disease. The great difficulty in destroying mites on many farms is that chickens are allowed to roost in too many places. If the chicken-house proper is the only building infected with mites the difficulty of destroying them is not great. Plainness in the interior furnishings of the chicken-house is also a great advantage when it comes to fighting mites. The mites in the daytime are to be found lodged in the cracks near the roosting-place of the chickens. Mites can be killed with various liquids, the best in point of cheapness is boiling water. Give the chicken-house a thorough cleaning and scald by throwing dippers of hot water in all places where the mites can find lodgment. Hot water destroys the eggs as well as the mites. Whitewash is a good remedy, as it buries both mites and eggs beneath a coating of lime from which they cannot emerge. Pure kerosene or a solution of carbolic acid in kerosene, at the rate of a pint of acid to a gallon of oil, is an effective lice-paint. Another substance much used for destroying insects or similar pests is carbon bisulphide. This is a liquid which evaporates readily, the vapor destroying the insects or mites. Carbon bisulphide or other fumigating agents are not effective in the average chicken-house because the house cannot be tightly closed. The liquid lice-killers on the market are very effective. They are usually composed of the remedies just mentioned, or of something of similar properties. CHAPTER IX POULTRY FLESH AND POULTRY FATTENING The poultry flesh which is used for food may be grouped into three divisions. First: Poultry carcasses grown especially for market. Second: Poultry carcasses consisting of hens and young male birds that are sold from the general farms where the pullets are kept for egg production. Third: The cockerels and old hens sold as a by-product from egg farms. The third class hardly needs our consideration in the present chapter. This stock, usually Leghorns, like Jersey veal, is to be disposed of at whatever price the market offers. The cockerel will, if growing nicely, be fairly plump and the hens, if on hopper rations of corn and beef scrap, will be about as fat as they can be profitably made, and to waste further effort upon them would not pay. Leghorn cockerels and hens are a wholesome enough meat, but will never command fancy prices nor warrant extra pains. In class two we find the great mass of the poultry flesh of the country. This stock consisting chiefly, as it does, of Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, is well worth some extra pains toward increasing its quantity and quality. Within the last ten or fifteen years several changes have been brought about in the general methods of handling farm poultry. Formerly it was thought desirable to market all stock not kept as layers while in the broiler stage of from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds. Since the introduction of the custom of holding fall broilers over in cold storage, the price has fallen until it is now more profitable to market the surplus cockerels from the farm at three or four months of age. At this period the flesh has cost less per pound to produce than at either an earlier or later stage. For such purposes only the well fleshed type of American breeds has been found desirable. The Leghorns and similar breeds are too small and become staggy too soon. Contrary to a common belief and to the custom in the poultry books of classifying the Asiatics as meat breeds, the Brahmas and Cochins are among the very poorest fowls that can be used for farm production of poultry meat. At the age spoken of these breeds are lanky and unsightly and not wanted by poultry packers. Consecutively with and perhaps responsible for change of sentiment that demands that broilers be allowed to grow into four pound chickens, we find the development of the crate fattening industry. Crate-Fattening. The introduction of crate-fattening into the Central West occurred about 1900. The credit of this introduction belongs to the large meat packing firms. At the present time the business is not confined to the meat packers, but is shared by independent plants throughout the country. The plants of the West range from a few hundred to as high as 20,000 capacity. They are constructed for convenience and a saving of labor, and in this respect are decidedly in advance of the European establishments where fattening has been long practiced. The room used for fattening is well built and sanitary. A good system of ventilation is essential, as murky, damp air breeds colds and roup. The coops are built back to back, and two or more coops in height. Each coop is high and wide enough to comfortably accommodate the chickens, and long enough to contain from five to twelve chickens. The chickens stand on slats, beneath which are dropping-boards that may be drawn out for cleaning. The dropping-boards and feeding-troughs are often made of metal. Strict cleanliness is enforced. No droppings or feed are allowed to accumulate and decompose. As is a general rule in meat production, young animals give much better returns for food consumed than do mature individuals. With the young chicken the weight is added as flesh, while the hen has a tendency, which increases with age, to turn the same food into useless fat. For this reason the general practice is to fatten only the best of the young chickens. The head feeder at a large and successful poultry plant gave the following information on the selection of birds for the fattening-crates: "The younger the stock the more profitable the gain. All specimens showing the slightest indication of disease are discarded. The Plymouth Rock is the favorite breed, and the Wyandotte is second. Leghorns are comparatively fat when received, and, while they do well under feed and 'yellow up' nicely, they do not gain as much as the American breeds. Black chickens are not fed at all. Brahmas and Cochins are not considered good feeders at the age when they are commonly sold. Chickens in fair flesh at the start make better gains than those that are extremely lean or very fat. But, contrary to what the amateur might assume, the moderately fat chicken will continue to make fair gains, while the very lean chicken seldom returns a profit." The idea has been somewhat prevalent that there is some guarded secret about the rations used in crate-fattening. This is a mistaken notion. The rations used contain no new or wonderful constituent, and although individual feeders may have their own formulas, the general composition of the feed is common knowledge. The feed most commonly used consists of finely ground grain, mixed to a batter with buttermilk or sour skim-milk. The favorite grain for the purpose is oats finely ground and the hulls removed. Oats may be used as the sole grain, and is the only grain recommended as suitable to be fed alone. Corn is used, but not by itself. Shorts, ground barley or ground buckwheat are sometimes used. Beans, peas, linseed and gluten meals may be used in small quantities. When milk products are obtainable they are a great aid to successful fattening. Tallow is often used in small quantities toward the finish of the feeding period. The assumption is that it causes the deposit of fat-globules throughout the muscular tissues, thus adding to the quality of the meat. The following simple rations show that there is nothing complex about the crate-fed chicken's bill of fare: No. 1.--Ground oats, 2 parts; ground barley, 1 part; ground corn, 1 part; mixed with skim-milk. No. 2.--Ground corn, 4 parts; ground peas, 1 part; ground oats, 1 part; meat-meal, 1 part; mixed with water. A ration used by some fatters with great success is composed of simply oatmeal and buttermilk. The feed is given as a soft batter and is left in the troughs for about thirty minutes, when the residue is removed. Chickens are generally fed three times per day. Water may or may not be given, according to the weather and the amount of liquid used in the food. The chicken that has been crate-fattened has practically the same amount of skeleton and offal as the unfattened specimen, but carries one or two pounds more of edible meat upon its carcass. Not only is the weight of the chicken and amount of edible meat increased, but the quality of the meat is greatly improved, consisting of juicy, tender flesh. For this reason the crate-feeding process is often spoken of as fleshing rather than as fattening. The enforced idleness causes the muscular tissue to become tender and filled with stored nutriment. The fatness of a young chicken, crate-fed on buttermilk and oatmeal, is a radically different thing from the fatness of an old hen that has been ranging around the corn-crib. The crate-fattening industry while deserving credit for great improvement in the quality of chicken flesh in the regions where it has been introduced, cannot on the whole be considered a great success. It is commonly reported that some of the firms instrumental in its introduction lost money on the deal. The crate-fattening plant has come to stay in the communities where careful methods of poultry raising are practiced, and where the stock is of the best, but when a plant is located in a newly settled region where the poultry stock is small and feed scarce, the venture is pretty apt to prove a fiasco. While poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made a large number of individual weighings of fowls in the crates of one of the large fattening plants of the state. These weighings pointed out very clearly why the expected profits had not been realized. The birds selected for weighing were all fine, uniform looking Barred Rock Cockerels. At the end of the first week they were found to still appear much the same, but when handled a difference was easily noticed. By the end of the second week a few birds had died and many others were in a bad way. The individual changes of weight ran from 2-1/2 pounds gain to 3/4 pound loss, and many of the lighter birds were of very poor appearance. It is simply a matter of forced feeding being a process that makes trouble with the health of the chicken if all is not just right. It is probable that in the future more fattening will be done on the farm, or by the farmer operating in a small way among his neighbors. The reason for this is that the saving of labor in the large plant is hardly as great as the added loss from the shrinkage of the birds due to the excitement of shipping and crowding, and the introduction of disease by the mingling of chickens from so many different sources. The Canadians especially have encouraged fattening on the farm. The following is a hand-bill gotten out by an enterprising Canadian dealer for distribution among the farmers of his locality: HOW TO FATTEN CHICKENS FOR THE EXPORT TRADE. To fatten birds for the export trade, it is necessary to have proper coops to put them in. These should be two feet long, twenty inches high and twenty inches deep, the top, bottom and front made of slats. This size will hold four birds, but the cheapest plan is to build the coops ten feet long and divide them into five sections. What to feed. Oats chopped fine, the coarse hulls sifted out, two parts; ground buckwheat, one part; mix with skim-milk to a good soft batter, and feed three times a day. Or, black barley and oats, two parts oats to one part barley. Give clean drinking water twice a day, grit twice a week, and charcoal once a week. During the first week the birds are in the coops they should be fed sparingly--only about one-half of what they will eat. After that gradually increase the amount until you find out just how much they will eat up clean each time. Never leave any food in the troughs, as it will sour and cause trouble. Mix the food always one feed ahead. Birds fed in this way will be ready for the export trade in from four to five weeks. Chickens make the best gain put in the coop weighing three to four pounds. We Supply the Coops. We have on hand a number of coops for fattening chicks, which we will loan to any person, "free of charge", who will sign an agreement to bring all chicks fattened in them to us. Every farmer should have at least one of these coops, as this is the only way to fatten chicks properly. In this way you can get the highest market price. We can handle any quantity of chicks properly fatted. ARMSTRONG BROS. The farmer who does not think it worth while to construct fattening-crates for his own crop of chickens, may get very fair results by simply enclosing the chickens in some vacant shed. To these may feed a ration of two-thirds corn meal and one-third shorts, or some of the more complicated rations used at the fattening plants may be fed. In the East, poultry fattening on the general farm is not dissimilar from the practices in the Central West, but we find a larger use of cramming machines, caponizing, and the growing of chickens for meat as an industry independent of keeping hens for egg production. The cramming machine is a device by means of which food in a semi-liquid state is pumped into the bird's crop, through a tube inserted in the mouth. This means of feeding is much more used in Europe than in this country. It requires good stock and careful workmen. The method will probably slowly gain ground in this country. The feed used in cramming is similar to that used in ordinary crate feeding, except that it is mixed as a thin batter. Caponizing. Caponizing is the castration of male chickens. Capons hold the same place in the poultry market as do steers in the beef market. Caponizing is practiced to quite an extent in France, and to a less degree in England and the United States. Much the larger part of the industry is confined to that portion of the United States east of Philadelphia, though increasing numbers of capons are being raised in the North Central States. During the winter months capon is regularly quoted in the markets of the larger eastern cities. Massachusetts and New Jersey are the great centers for the growing of capons, while Boston, New York, and Philadelphia are the great markets. In many eastern markets the prices paid for dressed capons range from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The highest prices usually prevail from January to May, and the larger the birds the more they bring a pound. The purpose of caponizing is not, as is sometimes stated, to increase the size of the chicken, but to improve the quality of the meat. The capon fattens more readily and economically than other birds. As they do not interfere with or worry one another, large flocks may be kept together. The breeds suitable for caponizing are the Asiatics and Americans. Brahmas will produce, with proper care and sufficient time, the largest and finest capons. On the ordinary farm, where capons would be allowed to run loose, Plymouth Rocks would prove more profitable. Plymouth Rocks, Brahmas, Langshans, Wyandottes, Indian Games, may all be used for capons. Leghorns are not to be considered for this purpose. Capons should be operated upon when they are about ten weeks or three months old and weigh about two pounds. The operation of caponizing is performed by cutting in between the last two ribs. Both testicles may be removed from one side or both sides may be opened. The cockerel should be starved for twenty-four hours in order to empty the intestines. Asiatics are more difficult to operate on than Americans, the testicles being larger and less firm. There is always some danger of causing death by tearing blood vessels, but the per cent. of loss with an experienced operator is very small. Loss by inflammation is still more rare. The testicle of a bird is not as highly developed as in a mammal, and if the organ is broken and a small fragment remains attached it will produce birds known as slips. Some growers advise looking over the capons and puncturing the wind puffs that gather beneath the skin. This, however, is not necessary. A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased for from $2 to $3. As a complete set of instructions is furnished with each set it is unnecessary to go into details here. The beginner should, however, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to operate on a live one. After caponizing the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and water. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the operation is performed, and no one would suppose that a radical change had taken place in his nature. The feeding of capons differs little from the feeding of other growing chickens. Corn, wheat, barley and Kaffir-corn would be suitable grain, while beef-scrap would be necessary to produce the best growth. About three weeks before marketing place the capons in small yards and feed them three or four times a day, giving plenty of corn and other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the section on fattening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts by weight, moistened with water or milk, make a good mash for fattening capons. In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers, including those a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up to the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped comb and wattles. The price received for capons is greater than any other kind of poultry meat except early broilers. There may be trouble in some localities in getting dealers to recognize capons as such and pay an advanced price. On several farms in Massachusetts, 500 to 1,000 capons are raised annually, and on one farm 5,000 cockerels are held for caponizing. The industry is growing rapidly year by year and the supply does not equal the demand. It is to be expected that the amount of caponizing done in the West will gradually increase. Those wishing to try the growing of capons will do well to secure an experienced operator. Good men at this work receive five cents per bird. Poor operators are dear at any price, as they produce a large number of worthless slips. CHAPTER X MARKETING POULTRY CARCASSES In the marketing of poultry carcasses as in other phases of the industry, we really have two systems to discuss. The one is used for the marketing of the product of the farm of the Central West, and the other the product of the poultryman or eastern farmer, who is near a large market and who will be repaid for taking special pains in preparing his poultry for market. Farm-Grown Chickens. At the present time almost the entire poultry crop of the Central West is sold from the farm as live poultry. This farm stock is purchased by produce buyers or general merchants and shipped to the nearest county seat or other important town, where there are usually one or more poultry-killing establishments. These establishments may vary from a simple shed, where the chickens are picked and packed in barrels, to the more modern poultry-packing establishment, with its accommodations for fattening, dressing, packing, freezing, and storing. The poultry-buying stations may be branches of the larger packing establishments, branch houses of large produce firms, or small firms operating independently and selling in the open market. The chickens as purchased are grouped into the following classes: Springs, hens, old roosters and (at certain seasons) young roosters or staggy cockerels. Early in the season small springs are quoted as broilers, while capons form a separate item where such are grown. Chickens are starved before killing, for the purpose of emptying the crop, and, to some degree, the intestines. If this is not done the carcass presents an unsightly appearance and spoils more readily in storage. The method of picking is not always the same, even in the same plant. Scalding is frequently used for local trade, in the summer season, or with cheap-grade stuff. The greater portion of the stock is picked dry. The pickers are generally paid so much per bird. In some plants men do the roughing while girls are employed as pinners. Pickers work either with the chickens suspended by a cord or fastened upon a bench adopted to this purpose. The killing is done by bleeding and sticking. The last thrust reaches the brain and paralyzes the bird. The manner of making these cuts must be learned by practical instruction. The feathers are saved, and amount to a considerable item. White feathers are worth more than others. The head and feet are left on the chicken and the entrails are not removed. The bird, after being chilled in ice-water or in the cooling room, is ready for grading and packing. This, from the producer's standpoint, is the most interesting stage in the process, for it is here that the quality of the stock is to be observed. The grading is made on three considerations: (1) The general division of cocks, springs, hens and capons is kept separate from the killing-room; (2) the grading for quality; (3) the assortment according to size. The grading for quality depends on the general shape of the chicken, the plumpness or covering of meat, the neatness of picking, the color of skin and legs, and the appearance of the feet and head, which latter points indicate the age and condition of health. The culls consist of deformed and scrawny chickens. The seconds are poor in flesh, or they may be, in the case of hens, unsightly from overfatness. They are packed in barrels and go to the cheapest trade. Those carcasses slightly bruised or torn in dressing also go in this class. Although a preference is generally stated for yellow-skinned poultry, the white-skinned birds, if equal in other points, are not underranked in this score. The skin color that is decidedly objectionable is the purplish tinge, which is a sign of diseased stock. Black pin-feathers and dark-colored legs are a source of objection. Especially is this true with young birds which show the pin-feathers. Feathered legs are slightly more objectionable than smooth legs. Small combs and the absence of spurs give better appearance to the carcass. The following is the nomenclature and corresponding weights of the farm marketed chickens. In each class there will be seconds and culls. The seconds of each group are kept separate, but not graded so strictly or perhaps not graded at all for size. The culls are packed in barrels and all kinds of chickens from fryers to old roosters here sojourn together until they reach their final destination, as potted chicken or chicken soup. Broilers--Packed in two weights. 1st: Less than two pounds; 2d: between 2 and 2-1/2 pounds. Chickens--Packed in three weights. 1st: between 2-1/2 and 3 pounds; 2d: between 3 and 3-1/2 pounds; 3d: between 3-1/2 and 4 pounds. Roasters--Packed in two weights. 1st: between 4 and 5 pounds; 2d: above 5 pounds. Stag Roosters--Cockerels, showing spurs and hard blue meat, packed in two weights. 1st: under 4 pounds; 2d: above 4 pounds. Fowls, are hens. They are packed in three sizes. 1st: under 3-1/4 pounds; 2d: between 3-1/4 and 4-1/2 pounds; 3d: over 4-1/2 pounds. Old Roosters--Packed in barrels. One grade only. After packing, chickens may be shipped to market immediately, or they may be frozen and stored in the local plant. Shipments of any importance are made in refrigerator cars. The poultry that is shipped to the final market alive is gradually diminishing in quantity, as poultry killing plants are built up throughout the country. The live poultry shipments are chiefly made in the Live Poultry Transportation Cars. The following figures give the number of such cars that moved out of the States named in a recent year: Iowa 645 Tennessee 169 Missouri 630 Michigan 165 Illinois 624 S. Dakota 103 Kentucky 472 Oklahoma 101 Nebraska 395 Indiana 100 Kansas 370 Wisconsin 93 Minnesota 174 Texas 91 Ohio 173 Arkansas 47 The most of this live poultry goes to New York and other eastern cities and is consumed largely by the Hebrew trade. The Special Poultry Plant. The special egg farmer of the East should sell his poultry alive to the regular dealer. The exception to this advice may be taken in the case of squab broilers for which some local dealers will not pay as fancy a price as may be obtained by dressing and shipping to the hotel trade. The grower of roasters and capons will probably want to market his own product. As to whether it will pay him to do so will depend upon whether his dealer will pay what the quality of the goods really demands. The dealer can afford to do this all right, if he will hustle around and find an outlet for the particular grade of goods, for he is in position to kill and dress the fowls more economically than the producer. I have never been able to study out why the average writer upon agricultural subjects is always advising the farmer to attempt to do difficult work for which special firms already exist. In the case of fattening just referred to, there is reason why the farmer may be able to do the work more successfully than the special establishment, but why any one should urge the farmer to turn the woodshed into a temporary poultry packing establishment I can hardly see. If the farmer has nothing to do he had better get a job at the poultry killing house where they have ice water and barrels in which to put the feathers. I do not think it worth while in this book for me to attempt to describe in detail the various methods of killing and packing poultry for the various retail markets. The grower who contemplates killing his own stuff had better spend a day visiting the produce houses and market stalls and inquire which methods are locally in demand. Suggestions from Other Countries. In European countries generally, and especially in France and England, great pains is taken in the production of market poultry. Each farmer and each neighborhood become known in the market for the quality of their poultry, and the prices they receive vary accordingly. In these countries more poultry is fattened and dressed by the growers than in the United States where we have greater specialization of labor. In countries that have an export trade different systems have originated. In Denmark and Ireland co-operative societies are organized to handle perishable farm products. These, however, deal more with eggs than with poultry. In portions of England the fattening is done by private fatteners. The country being thickly settled, the chickens are collected directly from the farms by wagons making regular trips. This allows the rejection of the poor and immature specimens, whereas a premium may be paid on better stock. The greatest fault of poultry buying as conducted in this country is the evil of a uniform price. After chickens are dressed the difference of quality is readily discerned, and the price varies from fancy quotations to almost nothing for culls. The packer pays a given rate per pound for live hens or for spring chickens. The price is paid alike for the best poultry received or for the scrawniest chickens that can be coaxed to stand up and be weighed. The prices paid is the average worth of all chickens purchased at that market. All farmers who market an article better than the average are unjust losers, while those who sell inferior stock receive unearned profits. The producer of good stock receives pay for the extra quantity of his chickens, but for the extra quality no recognition whatever is given. To the deserving producer, if quality was recognized, it would result in a greatly increased stimulation of the production of good poultry. Any packer, if questioned, will state that he would be willing to grade chickens and pay for them according to quality, but that he does not do so because his competitor would pay a uniform price and drive him out of business. The man who receives an increased price would say little of it, while the man who sells poor chickens, if he failed to receive the full amount to which he is accustomed, would think himself unjustly treated and use his influence against the dealer. A recognition of quality in buying is for the interest of both the farmer and the poultry dealer, and a mutual effort on the part of those interested to put in practice this reform would result in a great improvement of the poultry industry. Cold Storage of Poultry. The growth of the cold storage of poultry has been phenomenal. Poultry is packed in thin boxes that will readily lose their heat and these are stacked in a freezer with a temperature near the zero point. The temperature used for holding poultry are anywhere from 0 degree up to 20 degrees. Poultry is held for periods of one to six weeks at temperature above the freezing point. Frozen poultry will keep almost indefinitely save for the drying out, which is due to the fact that evaporation will proceed slowly even from a frozen body. The time frozen poultry is stored varies from a few weeks to eight or ten months. The usual rule is that any crop is highest in price when it first comes on the market and cheapest just after the point of its greatest production. Thus, broilers are high in May and cheap in September. In such cases the goods are carried from the season of plenty to the following season of scarcity. This period is always less than a year. The idea circulated by wild writers, that cold storage poultry was kept several years is an economic impossibility. The interest on the investment alone would make the holding of storage goods into the second season of plenty, quite unprofitable, but when the costs of storage, insurance and shrinkage are to be paid, storing poultry for more than one season becomes absurd. The fowl that has been once frozen cannot be made to look "fresh killed" again. For that reason packers like to get a monopoly on a particular market so that the two classes of goods will not have to compete side by side. The quality of the frozen fowl when served is very fair, practically as good as and some say better than the fresh killed. Cold storage poultry is best thawed out by being placed over night in a tank of water. Poultry prejudice prevents the practice of retailing the goods frozen, though this method would be highly desirable. Drawn or Undrawn Fowls. Within the last two or three years there has been a great hue and cry about the marketing of poultry without drawing the entrails. The objection to the custom rests upon the general prejudice to allowing the entrails of animals to remain in the carcass. If a little thought is given the subject, however, it is seen that human prejudice is very inconsistent in such matters. We draw beef and mutton carcasses, to be sure, but fish and game are stored undrawn, and as for oysters and lobsters we not only store them undrawn but we eat them so. The facts about the undrawn poultry proposition are as follows: The intestines of the fowl at death contain numerous species of bacteria, whereas the flesh is quite free from germs. If the carcass is not drawn, but immediately frozen hard, the bacteria remain inactive and no essential change occurs. If the carcass is stored without freezing, or remains for even a short time at a high temperature, the bacteria will begin to grow through the intestinal walls and contaminate the flesh. Now, if the fowl is drawn, the unprotected flesh is exposed to bacterial contamination, which results in decomposition more rapidly than through the intestinal walls. The opening of the carcass also allows a greater drying out and shrinkage. If poultry carcasses were split wide open as with beef or mutton, drawing might not prove as satisfactory as the present method, but since this is not desirable, and since ordinary laborers will break the intestines and spill their contents over the flesh, and otherwise mutilate the fowl, all those who have had actual experience in the matter agree that drawing poultry is unpractical and undesirable. As far as danger of disease or ptomaine poison is concerned, chances between the two methods seem to offer little choice. The Bureau of Chemistry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has conducted a series of experiments along the line of poultry storage. So far as the results have been published, nothing very striking has been learned. From what has been published, the writer is of the opinion that the somewhat mysterious changes that were observed in the cold storage poultry were mostly a matter of drying out of the carcass. Poultry Inspection. The enthusiastic members of the medical profession, and others whose knowledge of practical affairs is somewhat limited, occasionally come forth with the idea of an inspection of poultry carcasses similar to the Federal inspection of the heavier meats. The reasons that are supposed to warrant the Federal meat inspection are precaution against disease and the idea of enforcing a cleanliness in the handling of food behind the consumer's back, which he would insist upon were he the preparer of his own food products. No doubt there is well established evidence that some diseases, such as the dread trichinosis, are acquired by the consumption of diseased meat. As far as it is at present known there are no diseases acquired from the consumption of diseased poultry flesh, but, as we do not know as much about the bacteria that infests poultry as we do of that of larger animals, there is no positive proof that such transmission of disease could not occur. Thorough cooking kills all disease germs, and poultry is seldom, if ever, eaten without such preparation. The idea of protecting people from uncleanly methods of handling their foods, concerning which they cannot themselves know, is somewhat of a sentimental proposition. In practice it amounts to nothing, save as the popular conception of this protection increases the demand for the product which is marked "U.S. Inspected and Passed." It may be interesting to some of the reformers of 1906 to know that the meat inspection bill then forced upon Congress by a clamoring public was desired by the packers themselves. Because Congress would not listen to the packers, and the Department of Agriculture, the Chief Executive very kindly indulged in a little conversation with a few reporters, the results of which gave Congress the needed inspiration. It cost the Government three million dollars to tell the people that their meats are packed in a cleanly manner. If the people want this, it is all well and good. The tax it places upon the price of meat is less than half of one per cent. A similar inspection of the killing and packing of poultry would involve a very much higher rate of taxation, because of the fact that poultry products are packed in small establishments scattered throughout the entire country. One reason that the meat packers wanted the United States Inspection, is because it puts out of business the little fellow to whom the Government cannot afford to grant inspection. A few of the very largest poultry packers would like to see poultry inspection for the same reason, but with the business so thoroughly scattered as to render Government inspection so expensive as to be quite impracticable, any such bill would certainly be killed in a congressional committee. Any practical means to bring about the cleanly handling, and to prevent the consumption of diseased poultry, should certainly be encouraged. This can be done by the education of the consumer. Poultry carcasses should be marketed with head and feet attached and the entrails undrawn. By this precaution the consumer may tell whether the fowl he is buying is male or female, young or old, healthy or diseased. All cold storage poultry should be frozen and should be sold to the consumer in a frozen condition. I am not in favor of the detailed regulation of business by law, but I do believe that the legal enforcement of these last precautions would be a good thing. CHAPTER XI QUALITY IN EGGS [*] [Footnote *: Much of the matter in this and the following chapter is taken from the writer's report of the egg trade of the United States, published as Circular 140 of the Bureau of Annual Industry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In the present volume, however, I have inserted some additional matters which policy forbade that I discuss in a Federal document.] Because of the readiness with which eggs spoil, the term "fresh" has become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality in eggs. As a matter of fact the actual age of an egg is quite subordinate to other factors which affect the quality. An egg forty-eight hours old that has lain in a wheat shock during a warm July rain, would probably be swarming with bacteria and be absolutely unfit for food. Another egg stored eight months in a first-class cold storage room would be perfectly wholesome. Grading Eggs. Eggs are among the most difficult of food products to grade, because each egg must be considered separately and because the actual substance of the egg cannot be examined without destroying the egg. From external appearance, eggs can be selected for size, color, cleanliness of shell and freedom from cracks. This is the common method of grading in early spring when the eggs are uniformly of good quality. Later in the season the egg candle is used. In the technical sense any kind of a light may be used as an egg candle. A sixteen candle power electric lamp is the most desirable. The light is enclosed in a dark box, and the eggs are held against openings about the size of a half dollar. The candler holds the egg large end upward, and gives it a quick turn in order to view all sides, and to cause the contents to whirl within the shell. To the expert this process reveals the actual condition of the egg to an extent that the novice can hardly realize. The art of egg candling cannot be readily taught by worded description. One who wishes to learn egg candling had best go to an adept in the art, or he may begin unaided and by breaking many eggs learn the essential points. Eggs when laid vary considerably in size, but otherwise are a very uniform product. The purpose of the egg in nature requires that this be the case, because the contents of the egg must be so proportioned as to form the chick without surplus or waste, and this demands a very constant chemical composition. For food purposes all fresh eggs are practically equal. The tint of the yolk varies a little, being a brighter yellow when green food has been supplied the hens. Occasionally, when hens eat unusual quantities of green food, the yolk show a greenish brown tint, and appear dark to the candler. Such eggs are called grass eggs; they are perfectly wholesome. An opinion exists among egg men that the white of the spring egg is of finer quality and will stand up better than summer eggs. This is true enough of commercial eggs, but the difference is chiefly, if not entirely, due to external factors that act upon the egg after it is laid. There are some other peculiarities that may exist in eggs at the time of laying, such as a blood clot enclosed with the contents of the egg, a broken yolk or perhaps bacterial contamination. "Tape worms," so-called by egg candlers, are detached portions of the membrane lining of the egg. "Liver spots" or "meat spots" are detached folds from the walls of the oviduct. Such abnormalities are rare and not worth worrying about. The shells of eggs vary in shape, color and firmness. These variations are more a matter of breed and individual idiosyncrasy than of care or feed. The strength of egg shells is important because of the loss from breakage. The distinction between weak and firm shelled eggs is not one, however, which can be readily remedied. Nothing more can be advised in this regard than to feed a ration containing plenty of mineral matter and to discard hens that lay noticeably weak shelled or irregularly shaped eggs. Preference in the color of eggs shells is a hobby, and one well worth catering to. As is commonly stated, Boston and surrounding towns want brown eggs, while New York and San Francisco demand white eggs. These trade fancies take their origin in the circumstances of there being large henneries in the respective localities producing the particular class of eggs. If the eggs from such farms are the best in the market and were uniformly of a particular shade, that mark of distinction, like the trade name on a popular article, would naturally become a selling point. Only the select trade consider the color in buying. Eggs of all Mediterranean breeds are white. Those of Asiatics are brown. Those of the American breeds are usually brown, but not of so uniform a tint. The size of eggs is chiefly controlled by the breed or by selection of layers of large eggs. In a number of experiments published by various experiment stations, slight differences in the sizes of the eggs have been noted with varying rations and environment, but this cannot be attributed to anything more specific than the general development and vigor of the fowls. Pullets, at the beginning of the laying period, lay an egg decidedly smaller than those produced at a later stage in life. The egg size table below gives the size of representative classes of eggs. These figures must not be applied too rigidly, as the eggs of all breeds and all localities vary. They are given as approximate averages of the eggs one might reasonably expect to find in the class mentioned. EGG SIZE TABLE. GEOGRAPHICAL BREED Net Wt. Weight Relative CLASSIFICATION CLASSIFICATIONS Per 30 Ounces Values Dozen Per Per Case Dozen Dozen Southern Iowa's Purebred flocks of 45 lbs. 24 25c. "Two ounce eggs" American varieties of "egg farm Leghorns." Poorest flocks of Games and 36 lbs. 19 1-5 20c. Southern Dunghills Hamburgs. Average Tennessee Poorest strains 40 lbs. 21 1-3 22 1-3c. or Texas eggs. of Leghorns. Average for the The mixed barnyard 43 lbs. 23 23 9-10c. United States as fowl of the western represented by farm, largely of Kansas, Plymouth Rock origin. Minnesota and Southern Illinois. Average size of eggs American Brahmas 48 lbs. 25 3-5 26 2-3c. produced in Denmark. and Minorcas. Selected brands of Equaled by several 54 lbs. 28 4-5 30c. Danish eggs. pens of Leghorns in the Australian laying contest. How Eggs Are Spoiled. Dirty eggs are grouped roughly in three classes: (A) Plain dirties, those to which soil or dung adheres; (B) stained eggs, those caused by contact with damp straw or other material which discolors the shell (plain dirties when washed usually show this appearance); (C) smeared eggs, those covered with the contents of broken eggs. For the first two classes of dirty eggs the producer is to blame. The third class originates all along the route from the nest to consumer. The percentage of dirty eggs varies with the season and weather conditions, being noticeably increased during rainy weather. In grading, about five per cent. of farm grown eggs are thrown out as dirties. These dirties are sold at a loss of at least twenty per cent. The common trade name for cracked eggs is checks. Blind checks are those in which the break in the shell is not readily observable. They are detected with the aid of the candle, or by sounding, which consists of clicking the eggs together. Dents are checks in which the egg shell is pushed in without rupturing the membrane. Leakers have lost part of the contents and are not only an entire loss themselves, but produce smeared eggs. The loss from breakage varies considerably with the amount of handling in the process of marketing. A western produce house, collecting from grocers by local freight will record from four to seven per cent. of checks. With properly handled eggs the loss through breakage should not run over one or two per cent. Eggs in which the chick has begun to develop are spoken of as "heated" eggs. Infertile eggs cannot heat because the germ has not been fertilized and can make no growth. That such infertile eggs cannot spoil is, however, a mistaken notion, for they are subjected to all the other factors by which eggs may be spoiled. The sale of eggs tested out of the incubators has been encouraged by the dissemination of the knowledge that infertile eggs are not changed by incubation. Eggs thrown out of an incubator will be shrunken and weakened, and some of them may contain dead germs and the remains of chicks that have died after starting to develop. Such eggs may be sold for what they are, but should never be mixed with other eggs or sold as fresh. When carefully candled they should be worth ten or twelve cents a dozen. Fertile eggs, at the time of laying, cannot be told from infertile eggs, as the germ of the chick is microscopic in size. If the egg is immediately cooled and held at a temperature below 70 degrees, the germ will not develop. At a temperature of 103 degrees, the development of the chick proceeds most rapidly. At this temperature the development is about as follows: Twelve hours incubation: When broken in a saucer, the germ spot, visible upon all eggs, seems somewhat enlarged. Looked at with a candle such an egg cannot be distinguished from a fresh egg. Twenty-four hours: The germ spot mottled and about the size of a dime. This egg, if not too dark shelled, can readily be detected with the candle, the germ spot causing the yolk to appear considerably darker than the yolk of a fresh egg. Such an egg is called a heavy egg or a floater. Forty-eight hours: By this time the opaque white membrane, which surrounds the germ, has spread well over the top of the yolk, and the egg is quite dark or heavy before the light. Blood appears at about this period, but is difficult of detection by the candler, unless the germ dies and the blood ring sticks to the membrane of the egg. Three days: The blood ring is the prominent feature and is as large as a nickel. The yolk behind the membrane has become watery. Four days: The body of the chick becomes readily visible, and prominent radiating blood vessels are seen. The yolk is half covered with a water containing membrane. These stages develop as given, occurring at a temperature of 103 degrees. As the temperature is lowered the rate of chick development is retarded, but at any temperature above 70, this development will proceed far enough to cause serious injury to the quality of the eggs. For commercial use eggs may be grouped in regard to heating as follows: (1) No heat shown. Cannot be told at the candle from fresh eggs. (2) Light floats. First grade that can be separated by candling, corresponding to about twenty-four hours of incubation. These are not objectionable to the average housewife. (3) Heavy floats. This group has no distinction from the former, except an exaggeration of the same feature. These eggs are objectionable to the fastidious housewife, because of the appearing of the white and scummy looking allantois on the yolk. (4) Blood rings. Eggs in which blood has developed, extending to the period when the chick becomes visible. (5) Chicks visible to the candle. The loss due to heated eggs is enormous; probably greater than that caused by any other source of loss to the egg trade. The loss varies with the season of the year, and the climate. In New England heat loss is to be considered as in the same class as loss from dirties and checks. In Texas the egg business from the 15th of June until cool weather in the fall is practically dead. People stop eating eggs at home and shipping out of the State nets the producer such small returns by the time the loss is allowed that, at the prices offered, it hardly pays the farmer to gather the eggs. In the season of 1901 hatched chickens were commonly found in cases of market eggs, throughout the trans-Mississippi region, and eggs did well to net the shippers three cents per dozen. Damage to eggs by heating and consequent financial loss is inexcusable. In the first place, market eggs have no business being fertilized, but whether they are or not they should be kept in a place sufficiently cool to prevent all germ growth. The egg shell is porous so that the developing chick may obtain air. This exposes the moist contents of the egg to the drying influence of the atmosphere. Evaporation from eggs takes place constantly. It is increased by warm temperatures, dry air and currents of air striking the egg. When the egg is formed within the hen the contents fill the shell completely. As the egg cools the contents shrink, and the two layers of membrane separate in the large end of the egg, causing the appearance of the bubble or air cell. Evaporation of water from the egg further shrinks the contents and increases the size of the air cell. The size of the air cell is commonly taken as a guide to the age of the egg. But when we consider that with the same relative humidity on a hot July day, evaporation would take place about ten times as fast as on a frosty November morning, and that differences in humidity and air currents equally great occur between localities, we see that the age of an egg, judged by this method, means simply the extent of evaporation, and proves nothing at all about the actual age. Even as a measure of evaporation, the size of the air cell may be deceptive, for when an egg with an air cell of considerable size is roughly handled, the air cell breaks down the side of the egg, and gives the air cell the appearance of being larger than it really is. Still rougher handling of shrunken eggs may cause the rupture of the inner membrane, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the egg. This causes a so-called watery or frothy egg. The quality is in no wise injured by the mechanical mishap, but eggs so ruptured are usually discriminated against by candlers. In this connection it might be well to speak further of the subject of "white strength," by which is meant the stiffness or viscosity of the egg white. The white of an egg is a limpid, clear liquid, but in the egg of good quality that portion immediately surrounding the yolk appears to be in a semi-solid mass. The cause of this appearance is the presence of an invisible network of fibrous material. By age and mechanical disturbance this network is gradually broken down and the liquid white separates out. Such a weak and watery white is usually associated with shrunken eggs. These eggs will not stand up well or whip into a firm froth and are thrown in lower grades. The weakness of the yolk membranes also increases with age, and is objectionable because the breakage of the yolk is unsightly and spoils the egg for poaching. The shrunken egg is most abundant in the fall, when the rising prices tempt the farmer and grocery man to hold the eggs. This holding is so prevalent, in fact, that from August to December full fresh eggs are the exception rather than the rule. While we have called attention to evaporation as the most pronounced fault of fall eggs, losses from other causes are greatly increased by the holding process. If the eggs are held in a warm place, heat and shrinkage will case the greatest damage; if held in a cellar, rot, mold, and bad odors will cause the chief loss. The loss due to shrunken eggs is not understood nor appreciated by those outside the trade. Such ignorance is due to the fact that the shrunken is not so repulsive as the rotten or heated egg. But the inferiority of the shrunken egg is so well appreciated by the consumer that high class dealers find it impossible to use them without ruining their trade. The result is that shrunken eggs are constantly being sent into the cheaper channels, with the result that all lower grades of eggs are more depreciated in the fall of the year than at any other time. In the classes of spoiled eggs, of which we have thus far spoken, the proverbial rotten egg has not been considered. The term "rot" in the egg trade is used to apply to any egg absolutely unfit for food purposes. But I prefer to confine the term "rotten egg" to the egg which contains a growth of bacteria. The normal egg when laid is germ free. But the egg shell is not germ proof. The pores in the egg shell proper are large enough to admit all forms of bacteria, but the membrane inside the shell is germ proof as long as it remains dry. When this membrane becomes moist so that bacteria may grow in it, these germs of decay quickly grow through it and contaminate the contents of the egg. Heat favors the growth of bacteria in eggs and sufficient cold prevents it, but as bacteria cannot enter without moisture on the surface of the egg we can consider dampness as the cause of rotten eggs. Moisture on the shell may come from an external wetting, from the "sweating" of eggs coming out of cold storage, or by the prevention of evaporation to such an extent that the external moisture of the egg thoroughly soaks the membrane. The latter happens in damp cellars, and when eggs are covered with some impervious material. Rotten eggs may be of different kinds, according to the species of germ that causes the decomposition. The specific kinds of egg rotting bacteria have not been worked out, but the following three groups of bacterially infected eggs are readily distinguishable in the practical work of egg candling. (1) Black rots. It is probable that many different species of bacteria cause this form of rotten eggs. The prominent feature is the formation of hydrogen sulphide gas, which blackens the contents of the egg, gives the characteristic rotten egg smell and sometimes causes the equally well known explosion. (2) Sour eggs or white rots. These eggs have a characteristic sour smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and the whites mix and the whole egg is offensive to both eye and nose. (3) The spot rot. In this the bacterial growth has not contaminated the whole egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken open show lumpy adhesions on the inside of the shell. These lumps are of various colors and appearances. It is probable that these spots are caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes the distinction is immaterial. In practice it is impossible to separate rotten from heated eggs for the reason that in the typical nest of spoiled eggs found around the farm, both causes have been at work. Dead chicks will not necessarily cause the eggs to decay, but many such eggs do become contaminated by bacteria before they reach the candler, and hence, as a physician would say, show complications. The loss of eggs that are actually rotten is not as great as one might imagine. Perhaps one or two per cent. of the country's egg crop actually rot, but the expenses of the candling necessitated, and the lowering of value of eggs that contain even a few rotten specimens are severe losses. Moldy or musty eggs are caused by accidentally wet cases or damp cellars and ice houses. The moldy egg is most frequently a spot rot. In the musty egg proper the meat is free from foreign organisms, but has been tainted by the odor of mold growth upon the shell or packing materials. The absorption of odors is the most baffling of all causes of bad eggs. Here the candler, so expert in other points, is usually helpless. Eggs, by storage in old musty cellars, or in rooms, with lemons, onions and cheese, may become so badly flavored as to be seriously objected to by a fancy trade, and yet there is no means of detecting the trouble without destroying the egg. Such eggs occur most frequently among the held stock of the fall season. The Loss Due to Carelessness. The egg crop of the country, more than ninety-five per cent, of which originates on the general farm, is subject to immense waste due to ignorant and careless handling. The great mass of eggs for sale in our large cities possess to a greater or less degree the faults we have discussed. Some idea of the loss due to the present shiftless method of handling eggs, may be obtained by a comparison of the actual average prices received for all eggs sold in New York City, and the wholesale prices quoted by a prominent New York firm dealing in high grade goods. The contrasted price for the year 1907 are as follows: Prices at which total goods Wholesale prices for strictly moved. fresh eggs. January 25.8 January 42. February 24.5 February 40. March 19.3 March 32. April 16.9 April 30. May 16.6 May 31. June 15.5 June 32. July 15.6 July 35. August 17.7 August 38. September 20.7 September 40. October 21.4 October 42. November 26.0 November 45. December 27.7 December 48. The total values figured by multiplying these prices by the New York receipts, are as follows: Amount actually received $23,832,000 Values at quotations for strictly fresh 44,730,000 No one would contend it is possible to bring the entire egg crop of the country up to the latter value, but the fact that there is a definite market for eggs of first class quality at almost double the figures for which the egg crop as a whole is actually sold, is a point very significant to the ambitious producer of high grade eggs. Requisites of the Production of High Grade Eggs. (a) Hens that produce a goodly number of eggs, and at the same time an egg that is moderately large (average two ounces each). Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons, Leghorns, Minorcas are the varieties which will do this. (b) Good housing, regular feeding and watering, and above all clean, dry nests. (c) Daily gathering of eggs, when the temperature is above 80 degrees, gathering twice a day. (d) The confining of all broody hens as soon as discovered. (e) The rejection as doubtful of all eggs found in a nest which was not visited the previous day. (Such eggs should be used at home where each may be broken separately). (f) The placing as soon as gathered of all summer eggs in the coolest spot available. (g) The prevention at all times of moisture in any form coming in contact with the egg's shell. (h) The selling of young cockerels before they begin to annoy the hens. Also the selling or confining of old male birds from the time hatching is over until cool weather in fall. (i) The using of cracked and dirty, as well as small eggs, at home. Such eggs if consumed when fresh are perfectly wholesome, but when marketed are discriminated against and are likely to become an entire loss. (j) Keeping eggs away from musty cellars or bad odors. (k) Keeping the egg as cool and dry as possible while en route to market. (l) The marketing of all eggs at least once per week and oftener, when facilities permit. (m) The use of strong, clean cases or cartons and good fillers. CHAPTER XII HOW EGGS ARE MARKETED The methods by which the larger number of American eggs pass from the producer to consumer is as follows: The eggs are gathered by the farmer with varying regularity and are brought perhaps on the average of once a week, to the local village merchant. This merchant receives weekly quotations from a number of surrounding egg dealers and at intervals of from two days to two weeks, ships to such a dealer, by local freight. The dealer buys the eggs case count, that is, he pays for them by the case regardless of quality. He then repacks the eggs in new cases and, with the exception of a period in the early spring, candles them. This dealer, in turn, receives quotations from city egg houses and sells to them by wire. He usually ships in carload lots. The city receiver may also be a jobber who sells to grocers, or he may sell the car outright to a jobbing house. The jobber re-candles the eggs, sorting them into a number of grades, which are sold to various classes of trade. The last link in the chain is the housewife, who by 'phone or personal call, asks for "a dozen nice fresh eggs." This most frequently repeated story of the American egg applies particularly in the case of eggs produced west of the Mississippi and marketed in the very large cities of the East. We will now discuss the various steps of the egg trade, pointing out the reason for the existence of the present methods and their influence upon quality and consequent value. The Country Merchant. The country merchant is the logical business link between the farmer and the outside world and usually continues to act as the farmers' buyer and seller until the commodity dealt in becomes of such importance as to demand more specialized form of marketing. Eggs being a perishable crop continuously produced, must be marketed at frequent intervals, and the trips to the general store, necessary to supply the household needs, offers the only convenient opportunity for such marketing. The merchant buys eggs because by doing so he can control his selling trade. The farmer trades where he sells his eggs, because it is convenient to do both errands at one place, and also because he wishes to avoid affronting the merchant by breaking the established custom of trading out the amount. For these reasons the merchant knows that to buy eggs means to sell goods, and he therefore bids for eggs. His competitors across the street, and in other towns, also bid for eggs. The effect to the merchant of lowering the price of his goods or raising the price of eggs is financially the same. In either case it is the matter of cutting the prices under the spur of competition. Now, the articles on which the merchant make his chief profits from the farmers' trade are dry goods and notions. Such articles are not standardized, but vary in a manner quite impossible of estimation by the unsophisticated. On the other hand, eggs are quoted by the dozen, and all that run may read. Suppose, for illustration, two merchants in the same town are each doing a business with a twenty per cent. profit, and are buying eggs at ten cents and selling for eleven, the cent advance being sufficient to pay for their labor, incidental loss, and a small profit. Now one merchant concludes to play for more trade. If he marks his goods down he would gain some trade, but many people would fear his goods were cheap. But if he puts up a placard, "Eleven Cents Paid For Eggs," the farmers will throng his store and never question the quality of his goods. This move having been successful, his rival across the street quietly stocks up with a cheaper line of dry goods, and some fine morning puts out a card, "Twelve Cents For Eggs." The farm wagons this week will be hitched on the other side of the street. The rate of business at ten per cent, being insufficient to maintain two men in the town, a mutual understanding is gradually brought about by which the prices of goods sold are worked back to the basis of twenty per cent, gross profit, but the false price of eggs will serve to draw the trade from neighboring towns and is therefore maintained. As a matter of fact the price paid to farmers for eggs by the general stores of the Mississippi Valley is frequently one to two cents above the price at which the storekeeper sells the product. Allowing the cost of handling, we have a condition prevailing in which the merchant is handling eggs at from five to ten per cent. loss, and it stands to reason that he is making up the loss by adding that per cent. to his profits on his goods. Some of the effects of this system are: 1--The inflated prices of merchandise is an injustice to the townspeople and to farmers not selling produce, in fact it amounts to a taxation of these people for the benefit of the egg producers. 2--The inflated prices of merchant's wares work to his disadvantage in competition with mail order or out-of-town trade. 3--The farmer who exchanges eggs for dry goods is not being paid more for his eggs, save as the tax on the townspeople contributes a little to that end, but is in the main merely swapping more dollars. 4--The use of eggs as a drawing card for trade works in favor of inferior produce, and the loss to the farmer through the lowering of prices thus caused, is much greater than his gain through the forced contributions of his neighbors. The Huckster. The huckster or peddling wagon which gathers eggs and other produce directly from the farm, prevail east and south of a line drawn from Galveston to Chicago through Texarkana, Ark., Springfield, Mo., and St. Louis. North and west of this line the huckster is almost unknown. The huckster wagons may be of the following types: 1--An extension of the local grocery store, trading merchandise for eggs. 2--An independent traveling peddler. 3--A cash dealer who buys his load, and hauls it to the nearest city where he peddles the produce from house to house or sells it to city grocers. 4--A representative of the local produce buyer. 5--A fifth style of egg wagon does not visit the farm at all, but is a system of rural freight service run by a produce buyer for the purpose of collecting the eggs from country stores. As far as the quality of product and advantage to the farmer is concerned, the fourth style of huckster is preferable. This style exists chiefly in Indiana and Michigan, and the better settled regions of Kentucky and Tennessee. The writer found hucksters in southern Michigan working on a profit of one-half a cent per dozen, while in the mountains of Tennessee he found a huckster paying ten cents for eggs that were worth eighteen cents in Chattanooga, and twenty-three cents in New York. The huckster scheme of gathering eggs would seemingly be a means of obtaining good eggs because of the advantage of regularity of collection, but in reality it does not always work out that way. While it must be admitted that in the isolated regions of the Middle and Southern States the presence of the huckster is the only factor that makes egg selling possible, it is also true that the peddling huckster of those regions usually disregards the first principles of handling perishable products. He makes a week's trip in sun and rain with his load of produce, with the result that the quality of his summer eggs is about as low as can be found. In the more densely populated region with a twice or thrice a week, or even daily service, the huckster egg becomes the finest farm grown egg in the market. The second step in the usual scheme of egg marketing is the sale of eggs collected by the small storekeeper to the produce man or shipper. The Produce Buyer. Throughout the Mississippi Valley there are wholesale produce houses at all important railroad junctions. A typical house will ship the produce of one to three counties. These houses, once a week or oftener, send out postal card quotations. These quotations read so much per case, and are usually case count, with a reservation, however, of the privilege to reject or charge loss on goods that are utterly bad. Each grocery receives quotations from one to a dozen such houses, and perhaps also from commission firms in the nearest city. The highest of these quotations gets the shipment. The buyer repacks the eggs and usually candles them, the strictness of the grading depending upon the intended destination. The loss in candling is generally kept account of, but is seldom charged back to the shipper. The egg man wants volume of business, and if he antagonizes a shipper by charging up his loss, the usual result will be the loss of trade. So the buyer estimates his probable loss and lowers his price enough to cover it. By loss off, or "rots out," is meant the subtraction of the bad eggs from the number to be paid for. Buying on a candled or graded basis, usually not only means rots cut, but that a variation of the price is made for two or more grades of merchantable eggs. Much discussion prevails among the western egg buyers as to whether eggs should be bought loss off or case count. Loss off buying seems to be more desirable and just, but in practice is fraught with difficulties. If the loss off buyer feels he is losing business, he may instruct his candler to grade more closely, which means he will pay less. Whether done with honest or dishonest intention, the buyer thus sets the price to be paid after he has the goods in his own hands, and this is an obviously difficult commercial system. Where the buyer in one case changes the grading basis to protect himself, there are probably ten cases where the eggs really deserve the loss charged; but the tenth chance gives the seller an opportunity to nurse his loss with the belief that he has been robbed by the buyer. Such an uncertain feeling is disagreeable, and the results are that where one or two competing egg dealers buys loss off, and the other case count, the case count man will get most of the business. The case count method being the path of least resistance, the loss off system can only succeed where there is some factor that overcomes the disinclination of a shipper to let the other man set the price. This factor may be: 1st--An exceptional reputation of a particular firm for honesty and fair dealing. 2d--Exceptional opportunities for selling fancy goods, enabling the loss off buyer to pay much higher rates for good stuff. 3d--A condition that prevails in the South in the summer, where the losses are so heavy that the dealers will not take the risk involved in case count buying. 4th--Some sort of a monopoly. A monopoly for enforcing the loss off system of buying has been brought about in some sections of the West by agreement among egg dealers. In such cases the usual experience has been that some one would get anxious for more business, and begin quoting case count, the result being that he would get the business of the disgruntled shippers in his section. When one buyer begins quoting case count, the remainder rapidly follow suit and case count buying is quickly re-established. The City Distribution of Eggs. In name, city egg dealers are usually commission houses, but in practice the majority of large lots of eggs are now bought by telegraph and the prices definitely known before shipment. In the larger cities eggs are dealt in by a produce board of trade. Such exchanges frequently have rules of grading and an official inspector. This gives stability to egg dealing and largely solves the problem of uncertainty as to quality, so annoying to the country buyer. In the city even, where official grading is not resorted to, personal inspection of the lot by the buyer is practical, and one may know what he is getting. In many cases, especially in smaller cities, the receiver is the jobber and sells to the grocers. In larger cities the receiver sells to a firm who makes a business of selling them to groceries, restaurants, etc. The jobber grades the eggs as the trade demands. In a western city this may mean two grades--good and bad; in New York, it may mean seven or eight grades, and the finer of these ones being packed in sealed cartons, perhaps each egg stamped with the dealer's brand. The city retailer of eggs include grocers, dairies, butcher shops, soda fountains, hotels, restaurants and bakeries. The soda fountain trade and the first-class hotel are among the high bidder for strictly first-class eggs. Many such institutions in eastern cities are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The figures at which such eggs are purchased are frequently at a given premium above the market quotation, or a year round contract price for a given number of eggs per week. This premium over common farm eggs may range from one or two cents in western cities, to five to twenty cents in New York and Boston. An advance of ten cents over the quotation for extras or a year round contract price of thirty-five cents per dozen, might be considered typical of such arrangements in New York City. Some of the larger chain grocers in New York City are in the market for strictly fresh eggs and have even installed buying departments in charge of expert egg men. The great bulk of eggs move through the channels of the small restaurant, bakery and grocery. In the small cities of the Central West the grocer handles eggs at a margin of one to three cents. In the South and farther West the margin is two to seven cents, the retail price always being in the even nickel. In the large eastern city there exists the custom unknown in the West of having two or more grades of eggs for sale in the same store. All eggs offered for sale are claimed by the salesman to be "strictly fresh" or the "best," and yet these eggs may vary if it be April from fifteen cents to forty cents, or if in December from thirty cents to seventy-five cents per dozen. The New York grocers' profit is from two to five cents on cheap eggs, but runs higher on high grade eggs, frequently reach twenty cents a dozen and sometimes going as high as forty cents for very fancy stock. City retailing is by far the most expensive item in the marketing of eggs. As an illustration of the profits of the various handlers of eggs might be as follows: Paid the farmer in Iowa $.15 Profit of country store .00 Gross profit of shipper .00-3/4 Freight to New York .01-1/2 Gross profit of receiver .00-1/2 Gross profit of jobber .01-1/2 Loss from candling .01-1/2 Gross profit of retailer .04-1/2 ------- Cost to consumer $.25 The cheapest grade of eggs sold are taken by bakeries and for cooking purposes at restaurants. When cooked with other food an egg may have its flavor so covered up that a very repulsive specimen may be used. Measures have been frequently taken by city boards of health to stop the sale of spot rots and other low grade eggs. The great difficulty with such regulations is that they are difficult of enforcement because no line of demarcation can be drawn as in the case of adulterated or preserved products. That embryo chicks and bacterially contaminated eggs are consumed by the million cannot be doubted, but the individual examination of each egg sold would be the only way in which the food inspectors can prevent their use. The egg from the well-kept flock whose subsequent handling has been conducted with intelligence and dispatch is the only egg whose "purity" is assured with or without law. The encouragement of such production and such handling is the proper sphere of governmental regulations in regard to this product. Cold Storage of Eggs. The supply of eggs ranges from month to month, the heavy season of production centering about April and the lightest run being in November. The cold storage men begin storing eggs in March or April and continue to store heavily until June, after which time the quality deteriorates and does not keep well in storage. This storage stock begins to move out in September and should be cleaned up by December. Great loss may result if storage eggs are held too long. The effect of the storage business is to even up the prices for the year. The reduction of the exceedingly high winter prices is unfortunate for those who are skilled enough to produce many eggs at that season of the year, but on a whole the storage business adds to the wealth-producing powers of the hen, for it serves to increase the annual consumption of eggs and prevents eggs from becoming a drug on the market during the season of heavy production. March and April eggs are, in spite of a long period of storage, the best quality of storage stock. This is accounted for by the fact that owing to cooler weather and rising price eggs leave the farm in the best condition at this season of the year. Because eggs are spoiled by hard freezing, they must be kept at a higher temperature than meat and butter. Temperatures of from 29 degrees to 30 degrees F. are used in cold storage of eggs. At such temperatures the eggs, if kept in moist air, become moldy or musty. To prevent this mustiness the air in a first class storage room is kept moderately dry. This shrinks the eggs, though much more slowly than would occur without storage. The growth of bacteria in cold storage is practically prevented, but if bacteria are in the eggs when stored they will lie dormant and begin activity when the eggs are warmed up. Of the cold storage egg as a whole we can say it is a wholesome food product, though somewhat inferior in flavor and strength of white to a fresh egg. The cold storage egg can be very nearly duplicated in appearance and quality by allowing eggs to stand for a week or two in a dry room. Cold storage eggs, when in case lots, can be told by the candler because of the uniform shrinkage, the presence of mold on cracked eggs and perhaps the occasional presence of certain kinds of spot rots peculiar to storage stock, but the absolute detection of a single cold storage egg, so far as the writer knows, is impossible. It may be further said that with the present prevailing custom of holding eggs without storage facilities for the fall rise of price, eggs placed in cold storage in April are frequently superior to the current fall and early winter receipts. Cold storage eggs are generally sold wholesale as cold storage goods, but are retailed as "eggs." The fall eggs offered to the consumer cover every imaginable variation in quality and the poorest ones sold may be a cold storage product, or they may not be. The Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of Agriculture has recently announced the finding of certain crystals in the yolks of cold storage eggs that are not present in the fresh stock. This finding of a laboratory method of detecting cold storage stock was at first taken to be a great discovery. Further investigation, however, indicates that the crystal mentioned forms as the egg ages and that the rate of formation varies with the individual eggs and probably also with the temperature, so that while crystals may indicate an aged egg, the discovery only means that the microscopist in the laboratory can now do in a half hour what any egg candler in his booth can do in ten seconds. At the present writing (February, 1909) there has been much talk of laws against the sale of cold storage eggs as fresh. The Federal Pure Food Commission, under the general law against misbranding, have made one such prosecution. Many States have agitated such laws but little or nothing has been done. I find that the idea of such a law is quite popular, especially with poultrymen. Contrary to popular opinion, the cold storage men and larger egg dealers are not opposed to the law. The people that are hit are the small dealers and especially the city grocers. These fellows buy the eggs at wholesale storage prices and sell them at retail prices for fresh, thus making excessive profits but cutting down the amount of the sales. This lessens the demand for storage stock and lowers the wholesale price. This is the reason the wholesaler and warehouse man are in favor of the law. We may all grant that the opportunity given the small dealers to grab quick gains and in so doing hurt the trade ought to be abolished. But how are we to do it? "Have State and Federal branding of the cases as they go into or come out of storage," says one--an excellent plan, to be sure by which the grocers could buy one case of fresh, eggs and a back room full of storage goods and do Elijah's flour barrel trick to perfection. Clearly government inspection and stamping of each egg is the only method that would be effective and the consideration of what this means turns the whole matter into a joke. The official inspection now maintained by the boards of trade of the larger cities may be extended and the producers, dealers and consuming public may be educated to appreciate quality in eggs, as they have been in dairy products. City and State laws may also be made which will taboo the sale of spot eggs or eggs that will float on water. Meanwhile, a great opportunity is open for the man who has high grade eggs for sale, whether he be producer or tradesman. Many eggs that would not do for ordinary storage are preserved by direct freezing. These eggs are broken and carefully sorted and placed in large cans and then frozen. Such a product is disposed of to bakers, confectioners and others desiring eggs in large quantities. Another method of preserving eggs is by evaporation. Evaporated or dried egg is, weight considered, about the most nourishing food product known. The chief value of such an article lies in provisioning inaccessible regions. There is no reason, however, why this product should not become a common article of diet during the season of high prices of eggs. Dried eggs can be eaten as custards, omelets, or similar dishes. Preserving Eggs Out of Cold Storage. Occasional articles have been printed in agricultural papers calling attention to the fact that the cold storage men were reaping vast profits which rightfully belonged to the farmer. Such writers advise the farmer to send his own eggs to the storage house or to preserve them by other means. As a matter of fact the business of storing eggs has not of late years been particularly profitable, there being severe losses during several seasons; Even were the profit of egg storing many times greater than they are the above advice would still be unwise, for the storing, removing and selling of a small quantity of eggs would eat up all possible profit. The only reliable methods of preserving eggs outside of cold storage are as follows: Liming: Make a saturated solution of lime, to which salt may be added, let it settle, dip off the clear liquid, put the eggs in while fresh, keep them submerged in the liquid and keep the liquid as cold as the available location will permit. Water glass: This is exactly the same as liming except that the solution used is made by mixing ten per cent. of liquid water glass or sodium silicate with water. Liming eggs was formerly more popular than it is to-day. There are still two large liming plants in this country and several in Canada. In Europe both lime and water glass are used on a more extensive scale. All limed or water glassed eggs can be told at a glance by an experienced candler. They pop open when boiled. When properly preserved they are as well or better flavored than storage stock, but the farmer or poultryman will make frequent mistakes and thus throw lots of positively bad eggs on the market. These eggs must be sold at a low price themselves, and by their presence cast suspicion on all eggs, thus tending to suppress the price paid to the producers. The farmers' efforts to preserve eggs has in this way acted as a boomerang, and have in the long run caused more loss than gain to the producers. For the poultryman with his own special outlet for high grade goods, the use of pickling or cold storage is generally not to be considered for fear of hurting his trade. Any scheme that would help to overcome the difficulty of getting sufficient fresh eggs to supply such customers in the season of scarcity would be of great advantage. The proposition of pickling a limited number of eggs and selling them for "cooking" purposes, explaining just what they are, ought to offer something of a solution, although, to the writer's knowledge, it has not been done. Improved Methods of Marketing Farm-Grown Eggs. The loss to the farmers of this country from the careless handling of eggs is something enormous. No great or sudden change in this state of affairs can be brought about, but a few points on how this loss may be averted will not be out of order. Numerous efforts have recently been made in western states to prevent the sale of bad eggs by law. Minnesota began this work by arresting several farmers and dealers. The parties invariably pleaded guilty. A number of other States followed the example of Minnesota in challenging the sale of rotten eggs, but few prosecutions were made. Such laws mean well enough, but the only efficient means of enforcing them would be to have food inspectors who are trained as practical candlers. The present usefulness of the laws is in calling the attention of the farmer to the mistake that he may be carelessly committing, and in placing over him a fear of possible disgrace in case of arrest and prosecution. The weakness of the law is the difficulty of its enforcement because of the number of violations, and the difficulty of drawing distinct lines in regard to which eggs are to be considered unlawful. Education of the farmer as to the situation is, of course, the surest means of preventing the loss, but the education of ten millions of farmers is easier to suggest than to execute. The most effective plan of education would be the introduction of a method of buying eggs similar to the one in vogue in Denmark, in which every producer is paid strictly in accordance with the quality of his eggs. With our complicated system involving five to six dealers between the producer and the consumer, such a system is well nigh impossible. With the introduction of co-operative buying or the community system of production, paying for quality becomes entirely possible. For enterprising farming communities, the following plans offer a cure for the evil of general store buying that take good and bad alike and causes the worthy farmer to suffer for the carelessness and dishonesty of his neighbor. First: The encouragement of the cash buying of produce, and, if possible, the candling of all eggs with proper deduction for loss. Second: The buying of eggs by co-operative creameries. The greatest difficulty in this has been the opposition of the merchants, who through numerous ways available in a small town, may retaliate and injure the creamery patronage to an extent greater than the newly installed egg business will repay. Third: The agreement of the merchants to turn all egg buying over to a single produce buyer. This has been successfully done in a few instances, but there are not many towns in which those interested will stick to such an agreement. The worst fault with this plan is that the moment the egg buyer is given a monopoly he is tempted to lower the farmer's prices for the purpose of increasing his own profits. Fourth: A modification of the above scheme is the case in which the produce buyer is on a salary and in the employment of the merchants. This scheme has been successfully carried into effect in some Nebraska towns. It may be the ultimate solution of the egg buying in the West. It eliminates the temptation of the buyer to use his privilege of monopoly to fatten his own pocket-book. The weakness of the plan is that a salaried man's efficiency in the close bargaining necessary to sell the goods is inferior to that of the man trading for himself. Other difficulties are: Getting a group of merchants who will live up to such an agreement; the farmers object to driving to two places; the competition of other towns; the merchants' realization that, the farmer with cash in his pocket or a check good at all stores, is not as certain a trader as one standing, egg basket on arm, before the counter; and last, and most convincing, the merchant's further realization that any fine Saturday morning, with eggs selling at fifteen cents at the produce house, he may stick out a card "Sixteen Cents Paid for Eggs" and make more money in one day than his competitors did all week. Fifth: Co-operative egg buying by the farmers themselves. This has been discussed in a previous chapter. It is all right in localities where the business is big enough to warrant it and the farmers are intelligent and enthusiastic to back it up and stick to it. The High Grade Egg Business. There are many excellent opportunities for men of moderate capital and ability in the high grade egg trade. The produce business on its present line, either at the country end or at the city end, is as open as any well-known form of business enterprise can be. The chances of success for a man new to the trade will be better, however, if he can find a niche in the business where he may crowd in and establish himself before the old firms realize what is up. The proposition of buying high grade eggs from producers and selling direct to consumers is a proposition of this kind. The little game of existence is chiefly one of apeing our betters and strutting before the lesser members of the flock. The large cities are full of people in search of some way to display their superior wealth, taste and exclusiveness. If an ingenious dealer takes a dozen eggs from common candled stock, places them in a blue lined box and labels them "Exquisite Ovarian Deposital," he can sell quite a few of them at a long price, but the game has its limits. Now, let this man secure a truly high grade article from reliable producers, teach his customers the points that actually distinguish his eggs from common stock, and he can get not only the sucker trade above referred to but a more satisfactory and permanent trade from that class of people who are willing to pay for genuine superiority but whose ears have not quite grown through their hats. An express messenger running out of St. Louis became interested in the egg trade. He arranged with a few country friends to ship him their eggs. These he candled in his house cellar and began selling them to a limited trade in the wealthy section of the city. At first he delivered the eggs himself. This was in the World's Fair year of 1904. In 1908 he did a $100,000 worth of business and his type of business shows a much better percentage of profit than that of the ordinary type of dealer. In Chicago, one of the large dairy companies established an egg department and placed a young man in charge of it. The eggs in this case are not bought of farmers but are secured from country produce buyers whom the Chicago company have encouraged to educate their farmers to bring in a high grade of goods. These people buy their eggs in Tennessee in the winter and in Minnesota in the summer, thus getting the best eggs the year round. They sell by wagon on regular routes. The business is growing nicely and pays good profits. Other similar concerns are operating in Chicago and other large cities. They are not numerous, however, and there is room for more. The reason the business has not been overdone is chiefly because of the difficulty of getting sufficiently really high grade eggs in the season of scarcity. Southern winter eggs are destined to relieve this situation more and more. Another great difficulty with a plan that attempts to buy eggs directly from the producer is that premium offered on the goods tempts the farmer to go out and buy up eggs from his neighbors. This brings disastrous results in the quality of the goods and the farmer must be dropped from the list. In order to make a success, a system of buying directly from producers must be based upon a grading scheme that will pay for the actual quality of the eggs. No fear then need be exercised as to whether the farmer sells his own eggs or those of his neighbor. The following extract from Farmer's Bulletin 128 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has been used as advertising "dope" in the sale of high grade eggs: "Under certain conditions eggs may be the cause of illness by communicating some bacterial disease or some parasite. It is possible for an egg to become infected with micro-organisms, either before it is laid or after. The shell is porous, and offers no greater resistance to micro-organisms which cause disease than it does to those which cause the egg to spoil or rot. When the infected egg is eaten raw the microorganisms, if present, are communicated to man and may cause disease. If an egg remains in a dirty nest, defiled with the micro-organisms which cause typhoid fever, carried there on the hen's feet or feathers, it is not strange if some of these bacteria occasionally penetrate the shell and the egg thus becomes a possible source of infection. Perhaps one of the most common troubles due to bacterial infection of eggs is the more or less serious illness sometimes caused by eating those which are 'stale.' This often resembles ptomaine poisoning, which is caused, not by micro-organisms themselves, but by the poisonous products which they elaborate from materials on which they grow. "In view of this possibility, it is best to keep eggs as clean as possible and thus endeavor to prevent infection. Clean poultry-houses, poultry-runs and nests are important, and eggs should always be stored and marketed under sanitary conditions. The subject of handling food in a cleanly manner is given entirely too little attention." The reprint upon the succeeding pages will give some idea of the advertising literature used in selling high grade eggs. This is a copy of a hand-bill inserted in the egg boxes of a prominent Chicago dealer: * * * * * MOORE'S BREAKFAST EGGS are guaranteed to be perfect in quality when you receive them and to remain so until all eaten up. If for any reason they are not satisfactory return the Eggs to your dealer and get your money back. (Signature.) WE URGE YOU to assist us in our endeavor to furnish you at all times with the finest Eggs by being careful to KEEP THEM DRY A damp "filler" will in 24 hours make the finest fresh Eggs taste like old Cold Storage Eggs. The flavor of an Egg cannot be detected even by the powerful electric lights used to inspect every Egg in this package, so it might be possible for a "strong" Egg to get by our inspectors, but in the past the cause of nearly every complaint has been traced to the consumer's ice box or pantry window sill. REMEMBER Eggs are 25c-40c per doz. retail only when fine Eggs are scarce. Ordinarily we can get a sufficient supply from the farmers bringing milk daily to the creameries where we make Delicia Pure Cream Butter, but in times of scarcity we often have to go as far as Oklahoma, Arkansas or Tennessee to find the best Eggs. These are not equal to our creamery Eggs but are the freshest and best to be had and are vastly superior to the old Cold Storage Eggs that flood the market at such times. Be Sure This Seal is Unbroken When You Get the Eggs W. S. MOORE & CO., Chicago Office--131 South Water Street. Buying Eggs By Weight. Whenever an improved method of buying is installed, eggs should be bought of the producer by weight. As far as selling to the consumer is concerned, the present scheme is more feasible; this scheme is to grade according to the size and other qualities, and sell by the dozen, the price per dozen varying according to the grade. Buying by weight simplifies the problem of grading. It will, in addition, only be necessary to have a fine of so much for eggs that are wrong in quality. For rotten or heated eggs should be deducted an amount considerably in excess of their value, for their presence is a source of danger to the reputation of the brand. Shrunken eggs are hard to classify. In order that this may be done fairly and uniformly the specific gravity or brine test should be used. All eggs that float in a given salt brine of, say, 1.05 specific gravity should be fined. Two or more grades can be made in this fashion if desired. The Retailing of Eggs by the Producer. In poultry papers the poultryman has been commonly advised to get near a large city and retail his own eggs at a fancy price. This sounds all right on paper but in practice it works out differently. A man cannot be in two places or do two things at the same time. The poultryman's time is valuable on his plant, and the question is whether he can handle city sales as well as a man who made it his business. If the poultryman tries to retail his own goods he will be working on too small a scale to advertise his goods or to make deliveries economically. The man making a specialty of the city end can sell ten to a hundred times as much produce as one poultryman can produce. With a group of poultry farmers working co-operatively, or a large corporation having contracts with producers, the producing and selling end can be brought under the same management advantageously. The isolated poultryman, unless he find a market at his very door, will do better to permit at least one middleman to slip in between himself and the consumer. But there is no reason why he should not know this middleman personally and insist upon a method of buying that will pay him upon the merits of his goods. Consigning eggs or any other produce to commission men, without a definite understanding, will always be, as it always has been, a source of dissatisfaction and loss. There is a great opportunity here for the man who can organize a system that shall do away with commission houses, other intermediate steps, and form the single step from producer to consumer. Some people say that farmers cannot be dealt with in this manner. Such people would probably have said as much about general merchandising before the days of the mail order houses. It is all a matter of efficient organization. A system of business fitted to deal in carload lots will, of course, fail when dealing with half cases. It is more difficult to deal in little things than in big ones because the margin is closer, but it can and will be done. The Price of Eggs. We will consider the price of all eggs from the quotation of Western firsts in the New York market. The reason for this is evident. Every egg raised east of Colorado is in line for shipment to New York. If other towns get eggs they must pay sufficiently to keep them from going to New York. In pricing eggs we have first to consider the price of Western firsts in New York and secondly the quality relation of the particular grade to Western firsts and the consequent relation in price. The price of eggs varies with the price of other commodities as the periods of prosperity and adversity follow one another through the years. As is well known, all prices in the '90's passed through a period of depression. For eggs this reached a base in 1897. Since then there has been a gradual climb till this realized a high point in 1904, remained high till 1907. In the spring of 1908 egg prices dropped again, but the fall prices of 1908 were exceptionally high. As this work goes to press (May, 1909) eggs are going into storage at the highest May price on record. The prices of eggs also vary independently of other commodities because of a gradual changing relation between production and consumption. As stated in the first chapter the prices of poultry products have shown a general rise when compared with other articles. This has been most marked since 1900. As for the future we cannot prophesy save to say that there is nothing in sight to lead us to believe that we will not go still higher in egg prices. A third variation in the price of eggs is the one caused by the seasonal relation of production and consumption. This change is from year to year fairly constant. Its normal may be seen in the scientifically smoothed curve in plate IV. This curve is based upon the New York prices for the last eighteen years. In addition to these broader influences there are disturbing tendencies that cause the market to fluctuate back and forth across the line where the more general influences would place it. Of those general factors, weather is the most important. Storms, rain and cold in the egg producing region decrease the lay, lower supplies and raise the price. This is due both to the fact that laying is cut down and that the country roads become impassable and the farmers do not bring the eggs to town. As long as there are storage eggs in the warehouses weather conditions are not so effective, but when these are gone, which is usually about the first of the year, the egg market becomes highly sensitive to all weather changes. Suppose late in February storms and snows force up the price of eggs. This is followed by a warm spell which starts the March lay. The roads, meanwhile, are in a quagmire from melting snows. When they do dry up eggs come to town by the wagon loads. A drop of ten cents or more may occur on such occasions within a day or two's time. This is known as the spring drop and for one to get caught with eggs on hand means heavy losses. When once eggs have suffered this drop to the spring level or the storage price for the season, the prices for April, May and June will remain fairly steady. About the last week in June the summer climb begins. This goes on very steadily with local variation of about the same as those of the spring months. The storage eggs begin to come out in August and at first sell about the same as fresh. As the season advances the fresh product continues to rise in price. The storage egg price will remain fairly uniform. By November the season of high prices is reached. If storage eggs are still plentiful and the weather is mild sudden variations in price may occur. These are caused by a fear that the storage eggs will not all be consumed before spring. If an oversupply of eggs have been stored a warm spell in winter will make a heavy drop in the market, but if storage eggs are scarce the sudden variations will be up-shots due to cold waves. From November until spring egg prices are a creature of the weather maps and sudden jumps from 5 to 10 cents may occur at any time. [Illustration: Plate IV. Page 159. Graphs of egg prices and volume of egg sales as they vary throughout the year.] The price curve of 1908, which is represented by the dotted line in plate IV will illustrate these general principles. In the lower portion of plate IV is given the curves for the New York receipts. The heavy line represents the smoothed or normal curve, deduced from eighteen years' statistics and calculated for the year 1908. The dotted line shows the actual receipts of 1908. A comparison week by week of the receipts and price will show the detailed workings of the law of supply and demand. Aside from the weather there are other factors that perceptibly affect the receipts and price of eggs. A high price of meat will increase farm and village consumption of eggs and cut down the receipts that reach the city. Abundance of fruit in the city market will cut down the demand for eggs. A cold, wet spring will increase the mortality of chicks and cause a decreased egg yield the following season, due to a scarcity of pullets. Scarcity and high price of feed will cut down the egg yield. High price of hens is said by some to cut down the egg yield, but I think this is doubtful, as the impulse to sell off the hens is counteracted by the desire to "keep 'em and raise more." The following are the quotations taken from the New York Price-Current for November 14, 1908: State, Pennsylvania and nearby fresh eggs continue in very small supply and of more or less irregular quality, a good many being mixed with held eggs--sometimes with pickled stock. The few new laid lots received direct from henneries command extreme prices--sometimes working out in a small way above any figures that could fairly be quoted as a wholesale value. We quote: Selected white, fancy, 48@50c.; do., fair to choice, 35@46c.; do., lower grades, 26@32c.; brown and mixed, fancy, 38@40c.; do., fair to choice, 30@36c; do., lower grades, 25@28c. N.Y. Mercantile Exchange Official Quotations. Fresh gathered, extras, per dozen @37 Fresh gathered, firsts 32 @33 Fresh gathered, seconds 29 @31 Fresh gathered, thirds 25 @28 Dirties, No. 1 21 @22 Dirties, No. 2 18 @20 Dirties, inferior 12 @17 Checks, fresh gathered, fair to prime 18 @20 Checks, inferior 12 @16 Refrigerator, firsts, charges paid for season 24 @24-1/2 Refrigerator, firsts, on dock 23 @23-1/2 Refrigerator, seconds, charges paid for season 22-1/2 @23-1/2 Refrigerator, seconds, on dock 21-1/2 @22-1/2 Refrigerator, thirds 20 @21 Limed, firsts 22-1/2 @23 Limed, seconds 21 @22 The writer was in the New York market at the time and saw many cases of White Leghorn eggs sell wholesale at as high as 55 cents. These were commonly retailed at 5 cents each. There were a good many brands retailing at 65 cents and one of the largest high class groceries was selling for 70 cents. This is practically double the official quotations and three times that of cold storage stock. The above prices represent a fair sample of the fall prices of 1908. It should be noted that the 1908 fall prices were relatively somewhat better than the rest of the season. The time of high prices is also the time of the greatest variation in the price of the different grades. In the springtime all eggs are fairly fresh and good, and the fanciest eggs bring wholesale only two or three cents above quotations. There are a few retailers who hold the spring prices to their customers up above the general market. One New York firm that does a large high class egg business never lets their price at any season go below 40 cents. This, of course, means big profits and sales only to those who, when they are satisfied, never bother about price. In the fall any man who has fresh eggs can sell them at very near the highest price, but in the spring only a small per cent. can go at fancy prices and the great majority of even the high grade eggs must go at very ordinary prices. In the summer months there is not so much demand in the cities, as the wealthy are not there to buy. The coast and mountain resorts are then good markets for fancy produce. CHAPTER XIII BREEDS OF CHICKENS I do not place much dependence on the results of breed tests. Indeed, I consider the almost universal use of the Barred Rock in the most productive farm poultry regions in the United States, and the equal predominance of S.C. White Leghorns on the egg farms of New York and California, as far more conclusive than any possible breed tests. Breed Tests. In Australia there has been conducted a series of breed tests so remarkable and extensive that the writer considers them well worth quoting. The Hawkesbury Agricultural College tests extend over a period of five years, the pens entered were of six birds each, and the time one year. The results were as follows: No. of Pens Yield of Average Yield Competing Highest Pen of All Pens 1903 ... 70 218 163 1904 ... 100 204 152 1905 ... 100 235 162 1906 ... 100 247 177 1907 ... 60 245 173 The winners and losers for five years were as follows: Winning Pen Losing Pen 1903 Silver Wyandotte Silver Wyandotte 1904 Silver Wyandotte Partridge Wyandotte 1905 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.W. Leghorns 1906 Black Langshans Golden Wyandotte 1907 S.C.W. Leghorns S.C.B. Leghorns As a matter of fact, the winning pen means little for breed comparison. This is shown by the winning and losing pens frequently being of the same breed. The average for hens of one breed for the whole five years is more enlightening. For the three most popular Australian breeds, these grand averages are: Average Av. Wt. Eggs. No. Hens Egg Yield Oz. Per Doz. S.C.W. Leghorns ... 564 175.5 26.4 Black Orpingtons ... 522 166.6 26.1 Silver Wyandottes ... 474 161.1 24.9 These figures are undoubtedly the most trustworthy breed comparisons that have ever been obtained. When we go into the other breeds, however, with smaller numbers entered, the results show chance variation and become untrustworthy, for illustration: R.C. Brown Leghorns, with 42 birds entered, have an average of 176.4. This does not signify that the R.C. Browns are better than the S.S. Whites, for if the Whites were divided by chance into a dozen lots of similar size, some would undoubtedly have surpassed the R.C. Browns. As further proof, take the case of the R.C.W. Leghorns with 36 birds entered and an egg yield of 166.9. Both breeds are probably a little poorer layers than S.C. Whites, but luck was with the R.C. Browns and against the R.C. Whites. For a discussion of this principle of the worth of averages from different sized flocks see Chapter XV. All Leghorns in the tests with 846 birds entered, averaged 170.3 eggs each. All of the general purpose breeds (Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons), with 1416 birds entered, averaged 160.2. The comparison between the Leghorns and the general purpose fowls as classes is undoubtedly a fair one. A study of the relations between the leading breeds in these groups and the general average of these groups is worth while. It bears out the writer's statement that the best fowls of a group or breed are to be found in the popular variety of that breed. The Australian poultryman, wanting utility only, would do wise to choose out of the three great Australian breeds here mentioned. The S.C.W. Leghorn is the only one of the three breeds to which the advice would apply in America. Barred Rocks and perhaps White Wyandottes, would here represent the other types. There is one more point in the Australian records worthy of especial mention. The winning pen in 1906 were Black Langshans and, what seems still more remarkable, were daughters of birds purchased from the original home of Langshans in North China. Other pens of Langshans in the test failed to make remarkable records, but this pen of Chinese stock, with a record of 246 5-6* eggs per hen for the first year and 414 1-2* eggs per hen for two years, is the world's record layers beyond all quibble. This record is held by a breed and a region in which we would not expect to find great layers. This holding of the record by a breed hitherto not considered a laying type, would be comparable to a tenderfoot bagging the pots in an Arizona gambling den. If the latter incident should occur and be heralded in the papers it would be no proof that it would pay another Eastern youth to rush out to Arizona. It is probable that the man who, on the strength of this single record, stocks an egg farm with imported Chinese Langshans, will fare as the second tenderfoot. The year following the Langshan winning, the first eleven winning pens were all S.C.W. Leghorns. This is also remarkable--much more remarkable in fact than the Langshans record. It is like a royal flush in a poker game. Standing alone, this would be very suggestive evidence of the eminence of the breed. Standing as it does, with the combined evidence of years and numbers, it gives the S.C.W. Leghorn hen the same reputation in Australia as she has in America and Denmark--that of being the greatest egg machine ever created. Isolated evidence is misleading. Accumulated evidence is convincing. The difference between the scientist and the enthusiast is that the former knows the difference between these two classes of evidence. The Hen's Ancestors. To one who is unfamiliar with the different types of chickens found in a poultry showroom, it seems incredible that these varieties should have descended from one parent source. It was, however, held by Darwin that all domestic chickens were sprung from a single species of Indian jungle fowl. Other scientists have since disputed Darwin's conclusion, but it does not seem to the writer that the origin of domestic fowls from more than one wild variety makes the changes that have taken place under domestication any less remarkable. The buff, white and dominique colors, unheard of in wild species, frizzles with their feathers all awry, the Polish with their deformed skulls and the sooty fowls whose skin and bones are black, are some of the remarkable characters that have sprung up and been preserved under domestication. The varieties of domestic fowl form one of the most profound exhibits of man's control over the laws of inheritance. What makes these wonders all the more inexplicable is that these profound changes were accomplished in an age when a scientific study of breeding was a thing unheard of. The wild chicken whom Darwin credits as the parent of the modern gallinaceous menagerie, is smaller than modern fowls and is colored in a manner similar to the Black-breasted Game. The habits of this bird are like those of the quail and prairie-chicken, both of which belong to the same zoological family. From its natural home in India the chicken spread east and west. Chinese poultry culture is ancient. In China, as well as in India, the chief care seems to have been to breed very large fowls, and from these countries all the large, heavily feathered and feather legged chickens of the modern world have come. Poultry is also known to have been bred in the early Babylonian and Egyptian periods. Here, however, the progress was in a different line from that of China. Artificial incubation was early developed, and the selection was for birds that produced eggs continually, rather than for those that laid fewer eggs and brooded in the natural manner. The Egyptian type of chicken spread to the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and from Southern Europe our non-sitting breeds of fowls have been imported. Throughout the countries of Northern Europe minor differences were developed. The French chickens were selected for the quality of the meat, while in Poland the peculiar top-knotted breed is supposed to have been formed. The English Dorking is one of the oldest of European breeds and is possessed of five toes. Five-toed fowls were reported in Rome and exist to-day in Turkey and Japan. The Dorkings may be descended directly from the Roman fowls, or various strains of five-toed fowls may have arisen independently from the preservation of sports. The chief point to be noted in all European poultry is that it differs from Asiatic poultry in being smaller, lighter feathered, quicker maturing, of greater egg-producing capacity, less disposed to become broody, and more active than the Asiatic fowl. The early American hens were of European origin, but of no fixed breeds. About 1840 Italian chickens began to be imported. These, with stock from Spain, have been bred for fixed types of form and color, and constitute our Mediterranean or non-sitting breeds of the present day. Soon after the importation of Italian chickens a chance importation was made from Southeastern Asia. These Asiatic chickens were quite different from anything yet seen, and further importations followed. Poultry-breeding soon became the fashion. The first poultry show was held in Boston in the early '50's. The Asiatic fowls imported were gray or yellowish-red in color, and were variously known as the Brahmapootras, Cochin-Chinas and Shanghais. With the rapid development of poultry-breeding there came a desire to produce new varieties. Every conceivable form of cross-breeding was resorted to. The great majority of breeds and varieties as they exist to-day are the results of crosses followed by a few years of selection for the desired form and color. Many of our common breeds still give us occasional individuals that resemble some of the types from which the breed was formed. The exact history of the formation of the American or mixed breeds is in dispute, but it is certain that they have been formed from a complex mixing of blood from both European and Asiatic sources. The English have recently furnished the world with a very popular breed which was originated by the same methods. I refer to the Orpingtons. The ever growing multiplicity of varieties of chicken is in reality only casually related to the business of the poultryman whose object is the production of human food. Breeding as an art or vocation, is a source of endless pleasure to man, and as such, is as worthy of encouragement as is painting, music, or the collection of the bones of prehistoric animals. Breeding as an art has produced many forms of chickens that are entirely worthless as food producers, but this same group of poultry breeders, tempered to be sure by the demands of commercialism, have produced other breeds that are certainly superior for the various commercial purposes to the unselected fowls of the old-fashioned farm-yard. The mongrel chicken is a production of chance. Its ancestry represents everything available in the barn-yard of the neighborhood, and its offspring will be equally varied. In the pure breeds there has been a rigid selection practiced that gives uniform appearance. The size and shape requirements of the standard, although not based on the market demands, come much nearer producing an ideal carcass than does chance breeding. Ability to mature for the fall shows is a decidedly practical quality that the fancier breeds into his chickens. Moreover, poultry-breeders, while still keeping standard points in mind, have also made improvements in the lay and meat-producing qualities of their chickens. Considering these facts it is an erroneous idea to think that mongrel chickens offer any advantage over pure bred stock. In the broader sense we may regard as pure-bred those animals that reproduce their shape, color, habits, or other distinctive qualities with uniformity. In order that we may get offspring like the parent and like each other we must have animals whose ancestors for many generations back have been of one type. The more generations of such uniformity, the more certain it will be that the young will possess similar quality. One strain of chickens may be selected for uniform color of feathers, another for a certain size and shape, another for laying large eggs of a certain color, and yet another strain for being producers of many eggs. Each of these strains might be well-bred in these particular traits, but would be mongrels when the other considerations were taken into account. This explains to us why the family or strains is frequently more important than the breed. In fact, the whole series of breed classification is arbitrary. This is especially true of the American or mixed breeds. Humorously turned fanciers at the poultry show frequently have much sport trying to get other fanciers to tell White or Buff Rocks from Wyandottes, when the heads are hidden. From the dressed carcasses with feet and head removed, the finest set of poultry judges in the world would be hopelessly lost in a collection of Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds and Orpingtons and, I dare say, one could run in a few Langshans and Minorcas if it were not for their black pin feathers. What Breed. The writer has great admiration for breeding as an art. He would rather be the originator of a breed of green chickens with six toes, than to have been the author of "Afraid to Go Home in the Dark." But I do want the novice who reads this book to be spared some of the mental throes usually indulged in over the selection of a breed. So-called meat breeds, that is, the big feather legged Asiatics save on a few capon and roaster plants in New England, are really useless. They have given size to American chickens as a class, and in that have served a useful purpose, but standing alone they cannot compete with lighter, quick growing breeds. For commercial consideration there are really but two types: The egg breeds of Mediterranean origin and the general purpose breeds or growers, including the Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. The difference between the layers on the one hand and the growers on the other, is quite important. Which should be used depends on the location and plan of operations, as has already been discussed. The choice of variety within the group is a matter of taste and chance of sales of fancy stock. This one principle can, however, be laid down: The more popular the breed, the more choice there will be in selecting strains and individuals. Pea Comb Plymouth Rocks and Duckwing Leghorns should not be considered because of their rarity. Of the growers, their popularity and claims are close enough to make the particular choice unimportant. For commercial consideration, the writer would as soon invest his money in a flock of Barred Rock, White Wyandottes or Rhode Island Reds. Among layers the S. C. White has achieved such a lead that the majority of good laying strains are in this breed and to choose any other would be to place a handicap on oneself. For a description of breeds, the reader should secure an Illustrated American Standard of Perfection, or some of the books published by poultry fanciers and judges. To take up the matter here would merely be using my space for imparting knowledge which can be better secured elsewhere. The relative popularity of breeds at the poultry shows is nicely shown by the following list. This data was compiled by adding the numbers of each breed exhibited at 124 different poultry shows in the season of 1907. A detailed report of the total entries of each breed is as follows: Plymouth Rocks, 14,514; Wyandottes, 12,320; Leghorns, 8,740; Rhode Island Reds, 5,812; Orpingtons, 2,857; Langshans, 2,153; Minorcas, 1,709; Cochin Bantams, 1,590; Games, 1,277; Brahmas, 1,181; Cochins, 1,010; Hamburgs, 758; Game Bantams, 637; Polish, 618; Houdans, 538; Indians, 538; Anconas, 464; Sebright Bantams, 423; Andalusians, 117; Japanese Bantams, 115; Dorkings, 105; Brahma Bantams, 104; Buckeyes, 95; Silkies, 85; Spanish, 83; Redcaps, 71; Sumatras, 41; Polish Bantams, 37; Sultans, 18; Malays, 12; Frizzles, 7; Le Fleche, 7; Dominiques, 5; Booted Bantams, 4; Malay Bantams, 3; Crevecoeure, 3. CHAPTER XIV PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BREEDING Science has been defined as the "know how" and art as the "do how." The man who works by art depends upon an unconscious judgment which is inborn or is acquired by long practice. The man who works by science may also have this artistic taste, but he tests its dicta by comparison with known facts and principles. The scientist not only looks before he leaps, but measures the distance and knows exactly where he is going to land. Breeding has for centuries been an art, but the science of breeding is so new as to seem a mass of contradictions to all except those familiar with the maze of mathematics and biology by which the barn-yard facts must find their ultimate explanation. The science of breeding may in the future bring about that which would now seem miraculous, but it is the ancient art of breeding that is and will for years continue to be the means by which the poultry fancier will achieve his results. In a volume the chief aim of which is to place the poultry industry, which is now conducted as an art, in the realm of technical science, it might seem proper to devote considerable space to the subject of breeding, That I shall not do so, is for the reason that while theoretically I recognize the important part that breeding plays in all animal production, for the practical proposition of producing poultry products at the lowest possible cost, a knowledge of the technical science of breeding is unessential and may, by diverting the poultryman's time to unprofitable efforts, prove an actual handicap. For the show room breeder the new science of breeding is too undeveloped to be of immediate service, or I had better say, the show room requisites are too complicated for theoretical breeding to promise results. For the commercial poultryman, I shall review what has been accomplished and state briefly the theories upon which contemplated work is based. The objects striven after in poultry breeding are: 1st: To create new varieties which shall have improved practical points or shall attract attention as curiosities. 2d: To approach the ideals accepted by fanciers for established breeds, and hence win in competition. 3d: To change some particular feature or habit as, to increase egg production or reduce the size of bantams. 4th: To improve several points at once as, eggs and size in general purpose fowls. This classification is really unnecessary, as the most specialized breeding involves consideration of many points. Breeding as an Art. The method by which breeds and varieties of the show room specimens have been developed is essentially as follows: The wonderfully different varieties of fowl from every quarter of the earth are brought together. Crossing is then resorted to, with the result that birds of all forms and colors are produced. The breeder then selects specimens that most nearly conform to the type or ideal in his mind. Suppose a man wished to produce Barred Leghorns, with a fifth toe. He would secure Barred Rocks, White Leghorns and White or Gray Dorkings. Then he would cross in every conceivable fashion. Perhaps he might have trouble getting the white color to disappear. In that case Buff Leghorns which are a newer breed might be tried and found more pliable material. By such methods the breeder would in three or four generations of crossing get a crude type of what he desired. Henceforth it would be a matter of patience and selection. Five to twenty years is the time usually taken to produce new breeds of fancy poultry that will breed true to type. In this style of breeding the principles at stake are simple. The first is to secure the variations wanted; second, to breed from the most desirable of these specimens. The same methods of selection that establish a breed are used to maintain it, or to establish strains. In ordinary breeding there are two other principles that are sometimes called into play. One is prepotency, the other is inbreeding. By prepotent we mean having unusual power to transmit characters to offspring. Suppose a breeder has five yards headed by five cock birds. The male in yard two he does not consider quite as fine as the bird in yard one, but in the fall he finds the offspring of bird from two much better than the offspring from yard one. The breeder should keep the prepotent sire and his offspring rather than the more perfect male, who fails to stamp his traits upon his get. Normally a child has two parents, four grandparents, and eight great-grandparents. Now, when cousins marry, the great-grandparents of the offspring are reduced to six. The mating of brother and sister cuts the grandparents to two, and the great-grandparents to four. Mating of parent and offspring makes a parent and grandparent identical and likewise eliminates ancestry. Inbreeding means the reduction of the number of branches in the ancestral tree, and this means the reduction of the number of chances to get variation, be they good or bad. Inbreeding simply intensifies whatever is there. It does not necessarily destroy the vitality, but if close inbreeding is practiced long enough, sooner or later some little existing weakness or peculiarity would become intensified and may prove fatal to the strain. For illustration, suppose we began inbreeding brother and sister with a view of keeping it up indefinitely. Now, in the original blood, a tendency for the predominance of one sex over the other undoubtedly exists and would be intensified until there would come a generation all of one sex, which, of course, terminates our experiment. Inbreeding has always been tabooed by the people generally. Meanwhile the clever stock breeders have combined inbreeding with selection and have won the show prizes and sold the people "new blood" at fancy prices. Unintelligent inbreeding as practiced on many a farm, results in run down stock, not so much from inbreeding as from lack of selection. Out-crossing or mixing in of new blood is better than hit-or-miss inbreeding. Intelligent inbreeding is better still. Scientific Theories of Breeding. The main tenet of Darwin's theory of racial inheritance or evolution, was that changes in animal life, wild or domestic, were brought about by the addition of very slight, perhaps imperceptible, variations. He argued that the giraffe with the longest neck could browse on higher leaves in time of drought and hence left offspring with slightly longer necks than the previous generation. Upon this theory the ordinary breeding by selection is based. In case of breeding for show room, the breeder's eye, or the judge's score card, is the tape with which to measure the length of the giraffe's neck. This principle can be applied equally well, even better, to characteristics where accurate measurement may be used. The last forty years of scientific progress has established firmly the general theories of Darwin, but they have also resulted in our questioning his idea that all great changes are due to the sum of small variations. Many instances have been suggested in which the theory of gradual changes could not explain the facts. The theory of mutation, of which Hugo de Vries, of Holland, is the chief expounder, does not antagonize Darwin, but simply gives more weight in the process of evolution to the factor of sudden changes commonly called sports. Let us illustrate: In the giraffe of our former forest, one might appear whose neck was not longer because of slightly longer vertebrae, but who possessed an extra vertebrae. This would be a mutation. In other words, a mutation is a marked variation that may be inherited. We now believe that polled cattle, five-toed Dorkings, top-knotted Houdans, frizzles and black skinned chickens arose through mutations. Burbank's Methods--The wonderful Burbank with his thornless cactus, his stoneless plum, and his white blackberry, is simply a searcher after mutations. His success is not because he uses any secret methods, but because of the size of his operations. He produces his specimens by the millions, and in these millions looks, and often looks in vain for the lonely sport that is to father a new race. Burbank has, with plants, many advantages of which the animal breeder is deprived. He can produce his specimens in greater number, he can more easily find out the desirable character, and in many plants he has not the uncertain element of double parentage to contend with, while with others he is still more fortunate, as he can produce them by seed, stimulate variation until the desired mutation is found and can then reproduce the desired variation with certainty by the use of cuttings. This latter is not true inheritance with its inevitable variation, but the indefinite prolongation of the life of one individual. In this sense there is only one seedless orange tree in the world. The Centgenitor System--Prof. Hays in breeding wheat at Minnesota, first used in this country a system of breeding which is essentially as follows: A large variety of individual seeds are selected. These are planted separately and the amount and character of the yield observed. The offspring of one seed is kept separate for several generations, or until the character of the tribe is thoroughly established. The advantage of this plan of breeding is in that the selection is not made by comparing individuals, but by comparing the offspring of individuals. Thus, we necessarily select the only trait really worth while; that is prepotency or the ability to beget desirable qualities. The application of this centgenitor system necessitates inbreeding; it also necessitates large operations. Of the former, breeders have generally been afraid; of the latter they have lacked opportunity. But the centgenitor system, combined with Burbank's principle of large opportunity of selection, is, in the writer's belief, the method by which the 200-egg hen will be ultimately established in America. Much of the recent stimulus to the study of the Science of Breeding was occasioned by the discovery of Mendel's Law. Briefly, the law states that when two pure traits or characters are crossed, one dominates in the first generation of offspring--the other remaining hidden or recessive. Of the second generation, one-half the individuals are still mixed, bearing the dominant characteristic externally and the other hidden; one-fourth are pure dominants and one-fourth are pure recessives. In future generations the mixed or hybrid individuals again give birth to mixed and pure types apportioned as before, thus continuing until all offspring become ultimately pure. For illustration: If rose and single comb chickens are crossed, rose combs are dominant. The first generation will all have rose combs. The second generation will have one-fourth single combs that will breed true, one-fourth rose combs that will breed rose combs only, and one-half that again will give all three types. Mendel's Law works all right in cases where pure unit characteristics are to be found. For the great practical problems in inheritance, Mendel's law is utterly hopeless. The trouble is that the chief things with which we are concerned are not unit characteristics but are combinations of countless characteristics which cannot be seen or known, hence cannot be picked out. Thus the tendency to revert to pure types is foiled by the constant recrossing of these types. Mendel's law is a scientific curiosity like the aeroplane. It may some day be more than a curiosity, but both have tremendous odds to overcome before they supplant our present methods. Prof. C.B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institute, is working on experimental poultry breeding in its purely scientific sense. His conclusions have been much criticised by poultry fanciers. The truth of the matter is that the fancier fails to appreciate the spirit of pure science. The scientist, enthused to find his white fowl re-occur after a generation of black ones, is wholly undisturbed by the fact that the white ones, if exhibited, might be taken for a Silver Spangled Hamburg. Mendel's law as yet offers little to the fancier and less to the commercial poultryman. Its study is all right in its place, but its place is not on the poultry plant whose profits are to buy the baby a new dress. Breeding for Egg Production. Attempts to improve the egg-producing qualities of the hen date from the domestication of the hen, but it has only been within the last few years that rapid progress has been possible in this work. The inability to determine the good layers has been the difficulty. The great majority of people make no selection of hens from which to hatch their stock. The eggs of the whole flock are kept together and when eggs are desired for hatching they are selected from a general basket. It has been assumed, and is shown by trap-nest records, that eggs thus selected in the spring of the year are from the poorer, rather than from the better layers. This is because hens that have not been laying during the winter will lay very heavily during the spring season. Many breeders have attempted to pick out the good layers by the appearance of the hens. Before the advent of the trap-nest the "egg type" of hen was believed to be a positive indication of a good layer. The "egg type" hen had slender neck, small head, long, deep body of a wedge shape. Various "systems" founded on these or other "signs" have been sold for fancy prices to people who were easily separated from their money. Trap-nest records show such systems to be on a par with the lunar guidance in agricultural operations. I might remark here that the determination of sex by the shape of the egg or similar methods, is in a like category. Science finds no proof of such theories. A few methods of selecting the layers have been suggested which, while far from absolute, are of some significance and are well worth noting. The hen that sits upon the roost while other hens are out foraging, is probably a drone. The excessively fat or the excessively lean hens are not likely to be layers. It would naturally be supposed that the active laying hen would be the last one to go to roost at night. At the Kansas Experiment Station, the writer made observations upon the order in which the hens went to roost, and the above assumption was found in the majority of cases to be correct. A still better scheme of selecting layers is the practice of picking out the thrifty, quickly maturing pullets when they first begin to lay in the fall season. At the Maine Experiment Station, such a selection gave a flock of layers which averaged about one hundred and eighty eggs, when the remainder of the flock yielded only one hundred and forty. Trap-nests devised to catch the hen that lays the egg are numerous in the market. A trap-nest to be successful, must not only catch the hen that lays, but must prevent the entrance of the other hens. The more trap-nests that are provided, the less often they will require attention, but the more often the nests are attended the better for the comfort of the hens. The use of trap-nests is expensive and cannot be recommended for the poultryman who must make every hour of time put on his chickens yield him an immediate income. Fanciers and Experiment Stations can well afford to use trap-nests and must, indeed, use them both for breeding for egg production, and also for determining the hen that laid the egg when full pedigrees are desired in other breeding work. A scheme that has sometimes been used in the place of trap-nests, is a system of small compartments, in each of which one hen is kept. Such a scheme does not seem feasible on a large scale, but for breeders wishing to keep the records of a small number of hens, it is all right. Because of its cost, this system is wholly out of the question, except for a man following breeding as a hobby and who cannot devote himself during the day to the care of trap-nests. Having determined the best layers, it remains to breed from these and from their descendants. The tests of pullets hatched from hens are better signs of the hen's value as a breeder than is her own record. It has been surmised that a hen which lays heavily will not lay eggs containing vigorous germs. So far as the writer's experience has gone, the laying of infertile eggs is a family or individual trait not particularly related to the number of eggs laid. When we have bred from the best layers and have raised our average egg yielder to a higher level, the question arises as to whether the strain will permanently maintain the high yield or drop back to the former rate of production. Theory says that it will not drop back. As a matter of fact it will not do so, for the heavier production will be more trying on the hen's constitution, and naturally selection will gradually cause the egg record to dwindle. Hence the necessity of continued selection or the infusion of new blood from other selected strains. Whatever may be the change desired in a strain of chickens, specimens showing the trait to be selected should be used as breeders. Those characteristics readily visible to the eye have long been the subjects of the breeder's efforts. But traits not directly visible can likewise be changed by breeding. The number of eggs, size and color of eggs, rapid growth, ready fattening powers, quality of meat and general characteristics, are all matters of inheritance, and if proper means are taken to select the desirable individuals all such characteristics can be changed at the will of the breeder. It is a fact, however, often overlooked, that the more traits for which one selects, the slower will be progress. For illustration: If in breeding for egg production, one-half the good layers are discarded for lack of fancy points, the progress will be just half as rapid. A discussion of the work in breeding for egg production at the Maine Experiment Station is taken up in the next chapter. CHAPTER XV EXPERIMENT STATION WORK Our entire scheme of agricultural education and experimentation is new. The poultry work at experiment stations is very new. Ten years will about cover everything worthy of a permanent record in the poultry experiment station files. Stations Leading in Poultry Work. Among the earliest stations to begin poultry work in this country were Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine. Rhode Island conducted the first school of poultry culture. The two stations of New York State were also early in the work, and Cornell now has the leading school of poultry culture in this country. West Virginia has always maintained a considerable poultry plant. Outside of the states east of the Appalachians, the first poultry work to be heard of was that of Prof. Dryden at the Experiment Station of Utah. Prof. Dryden's work was of a demonstrative nature. His early bulletins were forceful and well illustrated, and did much to call attention to poultry work. In all this early work the great Mississippi Valley, where four-fifths of the nation's poultry is produced, entirely ignored the hen. The writer began his work with poultry at the Kansas Station in 1902, but his chickens were housed in a discarded hog house, and no funds being available, little was accomplished. In the last three or four years these experiment stations are rapidly falling into line and a number of poultry bulletins have recently been issued from these younger schools. A few of the early landmarks in experiment station work was as follows: The Utah Station clearly found that hens laid about 65 per cent. as many eggs in the second as in the first year, and that to keep hens for egg production beyond the second year, was unprofitable. Massachusetts proved that corn was a better food for layers than wheat, and that the prejudice against it was founded on a misapplied theory. The New York Station at Geneva demonstrated that poultry generally, and ducks in particular, are not vegetarians, and must have meat to thrive and that vegetable protein will not make good the deficiency. The Maine Station was chiefly instrumental in introducing trap-nests, curtain front houses and dry feeding. The breeding work at Maine will be discussed at length in the last section of this chapter. The United States Department of Agriculture did not take up poultry work until 1906. The publications issued by the department before that time were written by outsiders and printed by the Government. The following is the list of the addresses of the experiment stations who have taken a leading interest in poultry work. It is not worth while giving a list of poultry bulletins, as many of them are out of print and can only be consulted in a library. Maine--Orono. Mass.--Amherst. Conn.--Storrs. Rhode Is.--Kingston. New York--Ithaca. New York--Geneva. Maryland--College Park. West. Va.--Morgantown. Iowa--Ames. Kansas--Manhattan. Utah--Logan. Calif.--Berkeley. Oregon--Corvalis. U.S. Gov.--Washington, D.C. Ontario--Guelph (Canada). Many foreign governments have us out-distanced in the encouragement of the poultry industry. Our Canadian neighbors have done much more practical work in getting out among the farmers and improving the stock and methods along commercial lines. As a result the Canadians have built up a nice British trade with which we have thus far not been able to compete. The work by the Ontario Station on the subject of incubation is discussed in the Chapter on Incubation. Australia, like Canada, has given much practical assistance in marketing the poultry products, the government maintaining packing stations, where the poultry is packed for export. The Australian laying contests are quoted in the present volume. They outclass anything else in the world along that line. In England, Ireland and especially in Denmark, the government, or societies encouraged by the Government, have done a great deal to develop the poultry industry. Depots for marketing and grading are maintained and the stock of the farmers is improved by fowls from the government breeding farms. The Story of the "Big Coon." With apologies to Joel Chandler Harris, I will tell a little story. Uncle Remus was telling the little boy about the "big coon." It seems that the "big coon" had been seen on numerous occasions, but all efforts at his capture had failed. One night they saw the "big coon" up in the 'simmon tree, in the middle of the ten-acre lot. All hands and the dogs were summoned. To be sure of bagging the game, the tree was cut down. The dogs rushed in but there was no coon. "But, Uncle Remus," said the little boy, "I thought you said you saw the big coon in the tree." "Laws, chile," replied Uncle Remus, "doesn't youse know dat it am mighty easy for folks to see something dat ain't dar, when dey are lookin' fer it?" When scientific experimenters entered the poultry field about fifteen years ago, they found it swarming with old ladies' notions. For everything a reason was given, but these reasons were derived from the kind of dreams where that which pleases the human mind is seized upon and search is made to find ideas to back it, not because it is true, but because it "listens good" to the dreamer. The first duty of the scientist was to banish these will-o'-the-wisp ideas that lead to no practical results. For illustration Round eggs were supposed to hatch pullets and long ones cockerels. Eggs will not hatch if it thunders. Shipped eggs must be allowed to rest before hatching, the drug store was the universal source of relief when the chickens became sick, and red pepper and patent foods were the egg foods par excellence. These things, thanks to the scientist, are no longer believed or regarded by well read poultrymen, and instead his attention has been turned to matters having a more happy relation to his bank account. In clearing away the useless popular notions, the scientists themselves have not been free from their influence, especially when they seemed to agree with accepted scientific theory. Many, indeed, are the 'coons in poultry science that have been seen because they were being looked for. As a partial explanation it should be said that men available for scientific poultry work are very scarce. Poultry keepers schooled in the University of the Poultry Yard have no conception of scientific methods, and would explain experimental results by a theory that would fail to fit elsewhere. The available scientists on the other hand are seldom poultrymen. Among the first men to take up animal husbandry work of all kinds, were the veterinarians. For years the only poultry publications put out by the U.S. Government were by veterinarians. These dust covered volumes with their five color plates of the fifty-seven varieties of tapeworms, still rest on the shelves of public libraries, a monument to the time when the practical poultryman knew only things that weren't so, and the scientific poultryman knew only things that were useless. The first general law that all experimenters should know and the ignorance of which has caused and still causes the waste of the major portion of experimental brains and money, we will call the "Law of Chance." Let the reader who is not familiar with such things take two pennies and toss them upon the table. They are both heads up. He tosses them again, one comes heads, the other tails. The third time repeats the second. The fourth both come tails. The law of chance says this is correct. Heads should appear 25 per cent., tails 25 per cent., and mixed 50 per cent. of the time. Now let the reader try this in a lot of twelve tosses. Does it prove the law? Try it again. Are all lots alike? Now pitch a hundred times, then pitch pennies all day. By night the law will be so near proven that the experimenter will be willing to concede its validity. Now suppose the lots of twelve tosses, each were lots of twelve hens, one Plymouth Rocks, the other Wyandottes, or one fed corn and the other wheat. The law of chance clearly proves that the larger number of unites, the nearer the theoretical truths will be the experimental results. Note, however, that small lots may by chance be as near the truth as large lots. In practice two grave errors are made: First, conclusions are drawn from small lots compared with each other; second, conclusions are drawn from large lots compared with small lots. In the first case both may be off; in the latter case the small one may be off. Examples of the first error are to be found in the scores of contradicting breed and feed tests, that were published in the early days of poultry research. The second error is exemplified in the Ontario experiments in incubation, to which reference has already been made. Here is a further example of this error. From the fifth egg laying competition at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College in Australia, I copy the following: No. of Hens. Variety. Ave. Egg Yield. 6 Cuckoo Leghorn 190.16 30 S.C. Brown Leghorn 177.00 138 S.C. White Leghorn 174.93 12 R.C. Brown Leghorn 173.50 12 R.C. White Leghorn 172.66 18 Buff Leghorn 160.55 6 Black Leghorn 138.33 The ranking of Cuckoo Leghorns as first is a chance happening due to the small number; likewise the Black Leghorns had a streak of bad luck and received lowest place. To one not familiar with such work, the real significance of the table is that the S.C.W. Leghorns did the best work. A totaling of all other varieties gives 84 fowls with an average egg production of 170.5, which bears out the conclusion. As these birds were all kept in pens of six, we would expect to find the highest single pen to be White Leghorns, because, when compared with all other Leghorns, they have both the highest average and the greatest number. This accords with the fact that as the highest single pen is found to be White Leghorns with an egg yield of 239 eggs. The above illustrates another important phase of the laws of chance, which says that not only is the average likely to be nearer the theoretical average sought when the number is increased, but that the individual extremes will be more removed. Important Experimental Results at the Illinois Station. From an Illinois Experiment Station report, the following is quoted: "The stock used was Barred Plymouth Rock pullets. These pullets were a very uniform Barred Rock stock that had been bred as an individual strain for many years. They were practically the same age, and except for the factors mentioned were treated as uniformly as possible. First Year's Results. No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. 10 Nitrogenous Diet 132.9 10 Carbonaceous Diet 128.4 10 Wet Wash 155.8 10 Dry Wash 111.4 "The results of the first test are somewhat surprising for it is generally believed that the nitrogenous diet is best for laying hens. The difference indicated in the first year's results was so light that it was decided to repeat the experiment the second year. "As the wet wash is clearly proven to be superior, these hens were used the second year to compare meat meal with fresh cut bone. Second Year's Result. No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. 10 Nitrogenous 142.2 10 Carbonaceous 134.5 10 Meat Meal 102.2 10 Green Cut Bone 128.9 "The results of the second year clearly indicate the great superiority of green cut bone as compared with the dry unpalatable meat meal. The comparison of a highly nitrogenous ration with that of a ration consisting largely of corn, while showing the advantages of the nitrogenous rations, does not show the contrast expected. "Some visiting poultrymen expressed the opinion that corn is a better poultry food than commonly supposed. Considering this fact and the great fundamental importance of the question at issue, it was decided to repeat the experiment a third year, and feed a large number of birds on each ration. No. Hens. Diet. Ave. Egg Yield. 100 Nitrogenous 126.9 100 Carbonaceous 127.2" I will leave the last without comment, for the whole thing is a hoax. The Illinois Experiment Station has never owned a chicken. These "Illinois" experiments were planned and executed in a few minutes of the writer's spare time. The basis of the experiments was a pack of cards containing the individual records of the Maine Experiment Station hens, shuffling the cards and averaging the desired number of records as they come in the pack, made the distinction between the various diets. Experimental Bias. Pet ideas consciously or unconsciously mold practice. A bias toward an idea may show itself in the planning and conducting of an experiment, or it may come out in the later interpretation. An illustration of the first kind is found in the early work of the West Virginia Station (Bulletin 60). With the preconceived notion that hens should have a nitrogenous diet an experiment was planned and conducted as follows: One lot of hens was fed corn, potatoes, oats and corn meal. A contrasted lot reveled in corn, potatoes, hominy feed, oat meal, corn meal and fresh cut bone. The results were in favor of the latter ration by a doubled egg yield. To any experienced poultryman the reason is evident. The variety of the diet and the meat food are what made the showing. About the same time the Massachusetts Station planned a similar experiment. The bias was the same, but it took a fairer form. The hens were both given a decent variety of food and some form of meat. The bulk of the grain was corn in the carbonaceous, and wheat in the nitrogenous ration. The results were in favor of the corn. This astonished the experimenter. He tried it again and again tests came out in favor of corn. At last the old theory was revoked, and the fallacy of wheat being essential to egg production was exploded. If by an irony of fate in the shuffling of the hens, the wheat pen had the first time showed an advantage, the experimenter might have been satisfied and the waste of feeding high priced feed when a better and a cheaper is at hand, might have gone on indefinitely. Of bias in the interpretation of results all publications are more or less saturated. A reading of the Chapter on Incubation will illustrate this. A common error of this kind is the omission of facts necessary to fully explain results. Items of costs are invariably omitted or minimized. Food cost alone is usually mentioned in figuring experimenting station poultry profits, which statement will undoubtedly cause a sad smile to creep over the face of many a "has-been" poultryman. The writer remembers an incident from his college days which illustrates the point in hand. Let it first be remarked that this was on the new lands of the trans-Missouri Country, where manure had no more commercial value than soil, and is freely given to those who will haul it away. The professor at the blackboard had been figuring up handsome profits on a type of dairying towards which he wits very partial. The figures showed a goodly profit, but the biggest expense item--that of labor--was omitted. One of the students held up his hand and inquired after the labor bill. "Oh," said the smiling professor, "The manure will pay for the labor." When the class adjourned, the student remarked: "They say figures won't lie, but a liar will figure." The third way in which experiments are made worthless is by the introduction of factors other than the one being tested. This may be done by chance, and the conductor not realize the presence of the other factor, or the varying factors may be introduced intentionally under the belief that they are negligible. Of the first case an instance may be cited of the placing of two flocks in a house, one end of which is damper than the other, the accidental introduction into one flock of a contagious disease, or one flock being thrown off feed by an excessive feed of greens, etc., etc. These factors that influence pens of birds greatly add to the error of the law of chance. In fact it amounts to the same thing on a larger scale. For this reason not only are many individuals, but many flocks, many locations, and many years needed to prove the superiority of the contrasted methods. The criticisms in the following section will amply illustrate the case of foreign factors being unwisely introduced into an experiment. The Egg Breeding Work at the Maine Station. As is well known the Maine Station was for years considered by all poultrymen to be doing a great and beneficial work in breeding for increased egg production. Up until the fall of 1907, the poultrymen of the country were of the opinion that this work was in every way successful, and a large number of private breeders had taken up the use of trap-nests in an effort to build up the egg production of their fowls. When early in 1908 Bulletin 157 of the Maine Experiment Station was published, it showed by averages as given in the table on page 202 that the egg yield at the station was for the entire period on the decline. In Bulletin 157, the statement was made that "arithmetical mistakes" and "faulty statistical methods" accounted for the discrepancies between the former publications and the criticised data. The further explanation that "the experiment was a success as an experiment," etc., only appeared to the public mind as a graceful way of explaining what was, to the practical man, an utter failure of the entire work. The unfortunate death of Professor Gowell, together with the fact that he had equipped a private poultry farm with station stock, added to the confusion, and the result of the bulletin was the precipitation of a general "pow-wow" in which the poultry editors were about equally divided between those who were casting insinuations upon the personnel of the station, and those who decried the whole effort toward improving the egg yield. After going over the publications of Professor Gowell, visiting the station and meeting the present force, I came to the following conclusions regarding the matter: Professor Gowell's work is open to severe criticism. Errors have been made in conducting the work at Maine which have made it possible for a mathematical biologist to take the data and seemingly prove that selection, as practiced by Professor Gowell, actually resulted in lowering inherent egg capacity of the strain of Plymouth Rock hens under experimentation. Had Professor Gowell's successor been a practical poultryman, it is my candid opinion that the public would have been given a radically different explanation of the results. Professor Gowell is the author of the following statement: "The small chicken grower is earnestly urged to use an incubator for hatching." This opinion is not in accord with that of the majority of breeders and the more progressive experiment station workers. The opinion has been expressed by Professor Graham and others, that the particular results at the Maine Station may have been due to the decrease of vitality caused by continued artificial hatching. This view may be wholly without foundation. Nevertheless, as the common type of incubator is under heavy criticism, and it is pretty well proven that chicks so hatched have not the vitality of naturally hatched chicks, surely a series of breeding experiments would carry more weight if the replenishing of the flock had been accomplished by natural means. For the first few years of the breeding work the house used was the old-fashioned double walled and warmed pattern. The last few years of this work were conducted in curtain front houses. That the cool house is an improvement over the warm house is generally conceded, but there are many poultrymen who are still of the opinion that the warm house will give a larger egg yield, though at a greater expense and less profit. In the early years of the work the method of feeding was also a time-honored one, and included a warm mash. About the middle of the experimental period Professor Gowell brought out the system of feeding dry mash from hoppers. This custom became a great fad and Professor Gowell and Director Woods have preached it far and wide. Perhaps it is an improvement, but it is to-day much more popular with novices than with established egg farms. Many old line poultrymen have tried dry mash only to go back to wet mash, by which method the hens can be induced to eat more which is conducive to high egg yields. Whether these changes in housing and feeding have been improvements as claimed by those who introduced them, or whether their popularity may be explained in part at least by the psychology of fads, is a point in question, but certainly the marring of a breeding experiment by introducing radical changes in the factors of production is at best unfortunate. A much more serious criticism than any of the foregoing is to be found in a change of the size of flocks and amount of floor space per fowl. I have gone over carefully the published records of Professor Gowell, and the review of Dr. Pearl, and the following table represents, as near as I can determine, these factors for the series of years. In the year 1903 I find no clear statement as to the manner in which the birds were housed, and I may be in error in this case. Otherwise the table gives the facts. Year Hens in Flock Per Hen Egg Yield 1900 20 8. sq. ft. 136.36 1901 20 8. sq. ft. 143.44 1902 20 8. sq. ft. 155.58 1903 20 8. sq. ft. 135.42 1904 50 4.4 sq. ft. 117.90 1905 50 4.4 sq. ft. 134.07 1906 50 4.4 sq. ft. 140.14 1907 50 4.4 sq. ft. 113.24 Certainly this oversight is a serious one, and one especially remarkable considering the fact that the comparison of different size flocks formed a prominent part of the Maine Station work during the last three years of the breeding test. The results of the work at the Maine Station on testing flock size, conducted without relation to the breeding work, gave the following results: No. of Hens Sq. ft. per Hen Egg Yield 150 3.2 111.68 100 4.8 123.21 50 4.8 129.69 No comparisons of 50 and 20 bird flocks in the same year are available, but by extending the comparisons of the 50, 100 and 150 flocks into the 20 flock size, we can get some idea of the error that has been here introduced. The result of the Australian egg laying contest in which the flocks were composed of six hens, shows a yield of about one and one-half times as heavy as the Maine records, which certainly seems to substantiate the ideas here brought out. It is a well established fact in poultry circles that many men who succeed with a few hundred hens, fail when the number is increased to as many thousands. When the breeding experiments under discussion were started, Professor Gowell had under his supervision about three hundred hens. When the work was closed the experiment station plant had been increased to four or five times its capacity, and Professor Gowell had a large private poultry plant of his own in addition. It is interesting to note in this connection that the last four years of the records are explained by Professor Gowell as being low, due to various "accidents" (?) It is unreasonable to suppose the true explanation of these "accidents" would be found in connection with the increased responsibility and size of the plant. The breeding stock sent out by Professor Gowell has given general satisfaction, and was found by Professor Graham of the Ontario Station, as well as by a number of private individuals, to be of superior laying quality to that of the average Barred Rock. Clearly there is only one way to prove whether Professor Gowell's work has been a wasted effort, and that is for flocks of his strain to be tested at other experiment stations against birds of miscellaneous origin. That much has been lost to the poultrymen of the country by the recent upheaval at the Maine Station, I believe to be the case, but that does not mean that the men now in charge will not in the future be of great value to the poultry interests. They are, however, in the class of pure scientists rather than applied scientists, but if let alone they will dig out something sooner or later which they or others can apply to the benefit of the industry. Upon the whole, I think that the present case of the trap-nest method of increasing egg production stands very much as it is has always stood, being a commendable thing for small breeders who could afford the time, but not practical in a large way, except at experiment stations. On a large commercial scale the system of selecting sires by the collective work of his first year's offspring would probably get the quickest results. The best use of the funds of the people in the promotion of agricultural industries is in the permanent endorsement on the one hand of a few high grade research stations where the deeper theories may be worked out, and on the other the teaching of such good principles and practices as are already known. The greatest opportunity for Government effort lies in the development demonstration farm work in poultry Just as it is doing with the corn and cotton in the South. CHAPTER XVI POULTRY ON THE GENERAL FARM This chapter will be devoted to specific directions for the profitable keeping of chickens on the typical American farm. By typical American farm I mean the farm west of Ohio, north of Tennessee and east of Colorado. Farms outside this section present different problems. In the region mentioned about three-quarters of the American poultry and egg crop is produced, and in this section poultry keeping is more profitable when conducted as a part of general farm operations than as an exclusive business. There is no reason why a farmer should not be a poultry fancier if he desires, but in that case his special interest in his chickens would throw him out of the class we are at present considering. Likewise, I do not doubt that in many instances where the farmer or members of his family took special interest in poultry work, it would be profitable to increase the size of operations beyond those herein advised, using incubators and keeping Leghorns. Of these exceptions the farmer himself must judge. The rules I lay down are for those farmers who wish to keep chickens for profit, but do not care to devote any larger share of their time and study to them than they do to the cows, hogs, orchard or garden. The advice herein given in this chapter will differ from much of the advice given to farmers by poultry writers. The average poultry editor is afraid to give specific advice concerning breeds, incubators, etc., because he fears to offend his advertisers. The reader, left to judge for himself, is liable to pick out some fancy impractical variety or method. Best Breeds for the Farm. Keep only one variety of chickens. Do not bother with other varieties of poultry unless it is turkeys. Whether it will pay to raise turkeys will depend upon your success with the little turks, and on the freedom of the community from the disease called Black-head. The kind of chicken you should keep should be picked from the three following breeds: Barred Plymouth Rock, White Wyandotte, Rhode Island Reds. If you go outside of these three breeds be sure you have a very good reason for doing so. Then get a start with a new breed, buy at least four sittings of eggs in a single season, paying not over $2.00 per sitting. Keep all the pullets and a half dozen of the best cockerels. The next spring pen these pullets up with the best cockerels, and use none but eggs from this pen for hatching. That fall sell all of the young cockerels and all the old scrub hens. The second spring the two old roosters from the original purchased eggs are used with the general flock. From this time on the entire flock is pure bred and should remain so. Each year when the chicks are about six or eight weeks old pick out the largest, most vigorous male chick from each brood. Mark these by clipping the web of the foot or putting on leg bands. From those so marked the breeding cockerels for the next season are later selected. When you pick the good cockerels pick out all runty looking pullets and cut off the last joint of the hind toe. These runts are later to be eaten or sold. The more surplus chicks raised, the more strictly can the selection be made. This system of picking the best cockerel from each brood and discarding the poorest pullets is the most practical method known of building up a vigorous, quick growing and early laying strain. When we allow the entire flock of many different ages to grow up before the selection is made it is impossible to select intelligently. Every third or fourth year an extra cock bird may be purchased provided you are sure you are getting a specimen from a better flock than your own. Swapping roosters or eggs every year is poor policy. If your neighbor has better stock than you, get his blood pure and sell off your own, but do not keep a barnyard full of scrubs who can trace their ancestry to every flock in the neighborhood. Keep Only Workers. On many farms few eggs are gathered from October to January. This is a season when eggs bring the best prices. To secure eggs at this season, the first requisite is that the pullets be hatched between the first of March and the middle of May, or, in the case of Leghorns, between the first of April and the first of June. Pullets hatched later than these dates are a source of expense during the fall and early winter. On the other hand, it is an unnecessary waste of effort to hatch pullets before the dates mentioned, because, if hatched too early, they will molt in the fall and stop laying the same as old hens. Pullets must be well fed and cared for if expected to develop in the time allowed. As they begin to show signs of maturity they should be gotten into permanent quarters. If allowed to begin laying while roosting in coops or in trees they will be liable to quit when changed to new quarters. If possible the coops should be gradually moved toward the hen-house and the pullets gotten into quarters without excitement or confinement. The poultry-house should have an ample circulation of fresh air. Young stock that have been roosting in open coops are liable to catch cold if confined in tight houses. A common mistake is to allow a large troop of young roosters to overrun the premises in the early fall. Not only is money lost in the decrease in price that can be obtained for these cockerels, but the pullets are greatly annoyed, to the detriment of the egg yield. Any chicken that is not paying for its food in growth or in egg production is a source of loss. As soon as the hatching season is over old roosters should be sent to market. Through June and August egg production is not very profitable, and a thorough culling of the hens should be made. Market all hens two years or more of age. Send with these all the yearling hens that appear fat and lazy. By the time the young pullets are ready to be moved into quarters--the latter part of August--these hens should be reduced to about one-half the original number. Some time during September a final culling of the old stock should be made. Those that have not yet begun to molt should be sold, as they will not be laying again before the warm days of the following February. This system of culling will leave the best portion of the yearling hens, which, together with the early-hatched pullets, will make a profitable flock of layers. Hatching Chicks With Hens. The eggs for hatching should be stored in a cool, dry location at a temperature between forty and seventy degrees Fahrenheit. A good rule is not to set eggs over two weeks old. The two chief losses with sitting-hens are due to lice and interference of other hens. The practice of setting hens in the chicken-house makes both these difficulties more troublesome. Almost all farms will have some outbuilding situated apart from the regular chicken-house that can be used for sitting-hens. The most convenient arrangement will be to use boxes, and have these open at the top. They may be placed in rows and a plank somewhat narrower than the boxes used as a cover. The nests should be made by throwing a shovel of earth into the box and then shaping a nest of clean straw. Make the nest roomy enough so that as the hen steps into the nest the eggs will spread apart readily and not be broken. When a hen shows signs of broodiness remove her to the sitting-room. This should be done in the evening, so that the hen becomes accustomed to her position by daylight. Place the hen upon the nest-eggs and confine her to the nest. If all is well the next evening give her a full setting of eggs. A practical method to arrange for sitting-hens is to build the nests out of doors, allowing each hen a little yard, so that she may have liberty to leave her nest as she chooses. These nests may be built by using twelve-inch boards set on edge, so as to form a series of small runways about one by six feet. In one end are built the nests, which are covered by a broad board, while the remainder of the arrangement is covered with lath or netting. The food, grit and water should be placed at the opposite end of the runway. Care should be taken to locate these nests on well-drained ground. Arrangements should be made to close the front of the nest during hatching so that the chicks will not drop out. A contrivance of this kind furnishes a very convenient method of handling sitting-hens, and if no separate building is available would be the best method to use. Incubators on the Farm. My candid advice to the farmer who is in doubt as whether to buy an incubator or not, is to let it alone. If the farmer reads the chapter on artificial incubation, he will see that he is dealing with a very complex problem, and one in which his chances of success are not very great. In order to learn the facts concerning incubators on the farms the writer made a special investigation on the subject while poultryman at the Kansas Experiment Station. Replies received from 111 Kansas farmers, report 21 as having tried incubators. Of these, 6 reported the incubators as being an improvement over hatching with hens; 10 reported the incubator as being successful, but not better than hens, while the remaining 5 declared the incubator to be a failure. The results of this inquiry, and of personal visits to farms, led the writer to believe that about one-tenth of the farmers of Kansas had tried incubators, and that about as many failed as succeeded with artificial hatching. The argument for the incubator on the farm is certainly not one of better hatching, but there is an argument, and a good one for the farm incubator. The argument is this: Hens will not set early enough and in sufficient quantities to get out as large a number of chicks as the farmer may desire. Now, each hen will not hatch over 10 chicks, but is capable of caring for at least 30. Here the incubator comes into good use, for the farmer can set a half dozen hens along with the incubator, and give all the chicks to the hens. This is the method I recommend where an incubator is to be used. The development of the public hatchery would supply these other 20 chicks more economically and more certainly than the farm incubator, but until that institution becomes established the more ambitious farm poultry raisers are justified in trying an incubator. The best known incubators in the market are the Cyphers, the Model and the Prairie State. Cheaper machines are liable to do poor work. The following points may help the farmer in deciding whether or not to buy an incubator and in picking out a good machine. The person to run the incubator is the first condition of its success. A good incubator requires attention twice a day. One person should give this attention, and must give it regularly and carefully. The farmer's wife or some younger member of the family can often give more time and interest to this work than can the farmer. The likelihood of a person's success with artificial hatchers can best be determined by himself. The best location for an incubator is a moderately damp cellar. The next choice would be a room in the house away from the fire or from windows. Drafts of air blowing on the machine are especially to be avoided. Not only do they affect the temperature directly, but cause the lamp to burn irregularly, and this may result in fire. The objects in view in building an incubator are: (1) To keep the eggs at a proper temperature (103 degrees on a level with the top of the eggs). (2) To cause the evaporation of moisture from the eggs at a normal rate. (3) To prevent the eggs from resting too long in one position. The case of the incubator should be built double, or triple-walled, to withstand variation in the outside temperature. The doors should fit neatly and be made of double glass. The lamp should be made of the best material, and the wick of sufficient width that the temperature may be maintained with a low blaze. The most satisfactory place for the lamp is at the end of the machine, outside the case. Regulators composed of two metals, such as aluminum and steel, are best. Wafers filled with ether or similar liquid are more sensitive but weaker in action. Hard-rubber bars are frequently used. The most practical system of controlling evaporation is a system of forced ventilation, in which the air is heated around the lamp-flue and passes through the egg-chamber at a rate determined by ventilators in the bottom of the machine. With the outside air cold and dry only slight current is required, but as the outer air becomes warmer or damper more circulation is needed. Turning the egg is not the work that many imagine it to be. It is not necessary that the egg be turned with absolute precision and regularity. An elaborate device for this work is useless. The trays will need frequently to be removed and turned around or shifted, and the eggs can be turned at this time by lifting out a few on one side of the tray and rolling the others over. Two other points to be considered in the incubator are: A suitable nursery or place for the newly hatched chick, and a good thermometer. Rearing Chicks. If it is very early in the spring, and the ground is damp, it is best to put the hen and her brood in some building. During the most of the season the best thing is an outdoor coop. The first consideration in making a chicken-coop is to see that it is rain-proof and rat-tight. The next thing to look for is that the coop is not air-tight. Let the front be of rat-tight netting or heavy screen. The same general plan may be used for small coops for hens, or for larger coops to be used as colony-houses for growing chickens. The essentials are: A movable floor raided on cleats, a sliding front covered with rat-tight netting, and a hood over the front to keep the rain from beating in. If used late in the fall or early in the spring a piece of cloth should be tacked on the sliding front. The chicken-coops should not be bunched up, but scattered out over as much ground as is convenient. Neither should they remain long in one spot, but should be shifted a few feet each day. At first water should be provided at each coop, but as the chickens grow older they may be required to come to a few central water pans. As before suggested, rearing chicks with hens is the only suitable method for general farm practice. The brooder on the farm is an expensive nuisance. For brooder raised chicks it is necessary to provide means for the little chick to exercise. But in the season when the great majority of farm chicks are raised they may be placed out of doors from the start and the trouble will now be to keep them from getting too much exercise, i.e.: to keep the hens from chasing around with them especially in the wet grass. This is properly prevented by keeping the brood coops in plowed ground, and keeping the hens confined by a slatted door, until the chicks are strong enough to follow her readily. The chick should not be fed until 48 to 72 hours old. It may then be started on the same kind of food as is to form its diet in after life. The hard boiled egg and bread and milk diets are wholly unnecessary and are only a waste of time. I recommend the same system of chick feeding for the general farm as is used on commercial plants, and I especially insist that it will pay the farmer to provide meat food of some sort for his growing chicks. The amount eaten will not be large, nor need the farmer fear that supplying the chicks with meat food will prevent their consuming all the bugs and worms that come their way. Besides comfortable quarters, the chick to thrive, must have: Exercise, water, grit, a variety of grain food, green or succulent food, and meat food. Water should be provided in shallow dishes. This can best be arranged by having a dish with an inverted can or bottle which allows only a little water to stand in the drinking basin. Chicks running at large on gravelly ground need no provision for grit. Chicks on board floors or clay soils must be provided with either coarse sand or chick grit, such as is sold for the purpose. Grain is the principal, and, too often, the only food of the chick. The common farm way of feeding grain to young chickens is to mix corn-meal and water and feed in a trough or on the ground. There is no particular advantage in this way of feeding, and there are several disadvantages. The feed is all in a bunch, and the weaker chicks are crowded out, while if wet feed is thrown on the ground or in a dirty trough the chicks must swallow the adhering filth, and if any food is left over it quickly sours and becomes a menace to health. Some people mix dough with sour milk and soda and bake this into a bread. The better way is to feed all of the grain in a natural dry condition. There are foods in the market known as chick foods. The commercial foods contain various grains and seeds, together with meat and grit. Their use renders chick feeding quite a simple matter, it being necessary to supply in addition only water and green foods. For those who wish to prepare their own chick foods the following suggestions are given: Oatmeal is probably the best grain food for chicks. Oats cannot be suitably prepared, however, in a common feed-mill. The hulled oats are what is wanted. They can be purchased as the common rolled oats, or sometimes as cut or pin-head oatmeal. The latter form would be preferred, but either of these is an excellent chick feed. Oats in these forms are expensive and should be purchased in bulk, not in packages. If too expensive, oats should be used only for a few days, when they may be replaced by cheaper grains. Cracked corn is the best and cheapest chick food. Flaxseed could be used in small quantities. Kaffir-corn, wheat, cow-peas--in fact any wholesome grain--may be used, the more variety the better. Farmers possessing feed-mills have no excuse for feeding chicks exclusively on one kind of grain. If there is no way of grinding corn on the farm, oatmeal, millet seed and corn chop can be purchased. At about one week of age whole Kaffir-corn, and, a little later whole wheat, can be used to replace the more expensive feeds. Green or bulky food of some kind is necessary to the healthy growth of young chickens. Chickens fed in litter from clover or alfalfa will pick up many bits of leaves. This answers the purpose fairly well, but it is advisable to feed some leafy vegetable, as kale or lettuce. The chicks should be gotten on some growing green crop as soon as possible. Chickens are not by nature vegetarians. They require some meat to thrive. It has been proven in several experiments that young chickens with an allowance of meat foods make much better growth than chickens with a vegetable diet, even when the chemical constituents and the variety of the two rations are practically the same. Very few farmers feed any meat whatever. They rely on insects to supply the deficiency. This would be all right if the insects were plentiful and lasted throughout the year, but as conditions are it will pay the farmer to supplement this source of food with the commercial meat foods. Fresh bone, cut by bone-cutters, is an excellent source of the meat and mineral matter needed by growing chicks. If one is handy to a butcher shop that will agree to furnish fresh bones at little or no cost, it will pay to get a bone-mill, but the cost of the mill and labor of grinding are considerable items, and unless the supply of bones is reliable and convenient this source of meat foods is not to be depended upon. The best way to feed beef-scrap is to keep a supply in the hopper so the chickens may help themselves. In case meat food is given, bone-meal, fed in small quantities, will form a valuable addition to their ration. Infertile eggs from incubators, as well as by-products of the dairy, can be used to help out in the animal-food portion of the ration. Chickens may be given all the milk they will drink. It is generally recommended that this be given clabbered. Feeding Laying Hens. The food requirements of a laying hen are very like those of a growing chicken. One addition to the list is, however, required for egg production, which is lime, of which the shell of the egg is formed. In the summer-time hens on the range will find sufficient lime to supply their needs. In the winter-time they should be supplied with more lime than the food contains. Crushed oyster shell answers the purpose admirably. A supply of green food is one of the requisites of successful winter feeding. Every farmer should see that a patch of rye, crimson clover, or some other winter green crop is grown near his chicken-house. Vegetables and refuse from the kitchen help out in this matter, but seldom furnish a sufficient supply. Vegetables may be grown for this purpose. Mangels and sugar-beets are excellent. Cabbage, potatoes and turnips answer the purpose fairly well. Mangels are fed by splitting in halves and sticking to nails driven in the wall. Clover and alfalfa are excellent chicken feeds and should be used in regions where winter crops will not keep green. The leaves that shatter off in the mow are the choicest portion for chicken feeding, and may be fed by scalding with hot water and mixing in a mash. Hens will eat good green alfalfa if fed dry in a box. The feeding of sprouted oats should be practiced when no other green food is available. Oats may be prepared for this purpose by thoroughly soaking in warm water and being kept in a warm, damp place for a few days. Feed when the sprouts are a couple of inches long. Almost all grains are suitable foods for hens. Corn, on account of its cheapness and general distribution, is the best. The general prejudice against corn feeding should be directed rather against feeding one grain alone without the other forms of food. If hens are supplied with green foods, with mineral matter, some form of meat food, and are forced to take sufficient amount of exercise, the danger from overfatness, due to the feeding of a reasonable amount of corn, need not be feared. As has already been emphasized, the variety of food given is more essential than the kind. Do not feed one grain all the time. The more variety fed the better. Corn and Kaffir-corn, being cheap grains, will form the major portion of the ration, but, even if much higher in price, it will pay to add a portion of such grain as wheat, barley, oats or buckwheat. Cleanliness. The advice commonly given in poultry papers would require one to exercise nearly as much pains in the cleaning of a chicken house as in the cleaning of a kitchen. Such advice may be suitable for the city poultry fanciers, but it is out of place when given to the farmer. Poultry raising, the same as other farm work, must pay for the labor put into it, and this will not be the case if attempt is made to follow all the suggestions of the theoretical poultry writer. The ease with which the premises may be kept reasonably free from litter and filth is largely a matter of convenient arrangement. The handiest plan from this view-point is the colony system. In this the houses are moved to new locations when the ground becomes soiled. If the chicken-house is a stationary structure it should be built away from other buildings, scrap-piles, fence corners, etc., so that the ground can be frequently freshened by plowing and sowing in oats, rye or rape. The ground should be well sloped, so that the water draining from the surface may wash away much of the filth that on level ground would accumulate. Cleanliness indoors can be simplified by proper arrangement. First, the house must be dry. Poultry droppings, when dry, are not a source of danger if kept out of the feed. They should be removed often enough to prevent foul odors. Drinking vessels should be rinsed out when refilled and not allowed to accumulate a coat of slime. If a mash is fed, feed-boards should be scraped off and dried in the sun. Sunshine is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. The advice on the control of lice and the method of handling sick chickens that has been given in the main section of the book, will apply as well on the farm as on the commercial poultry plant. Certainly the farmer's time is too valuable to fool with the details of poultry therapeutics. Farm Chicken Houses. The following notes on poultry houses apply to Iowa and Nebraska, where the winters are severe, and similar climates. Farther south and east the farmer should use the same style of houses as recommended for egg farms. A chicken house just high enough for a man to walk erectly and a floor space of about 3 square feet per hen is advisable. This requires a house 12 by 24 for 100 hens, or 10 by 16 for 50. Lands sloping to south or southeast, and that which dries quickly after a rain, will prove the most suitable for chickens. A gumbo patch should not be selected as a location for poultry. Hogs and hens should not occupy the same quarters, in fact, should be some distance apart, especially if heavy breeds of chickens are kept. Hens should be removed from the garden, but may be near an orchard. Chicken-houses should be separated from tool-houses, stables, and other outbuildings. Grading for chicken-houses is not commonly practiced, but this is the easiest means of preventing dampness in the house and is necessary in heavy soils. The ground-level may be raised with a plow and scraper, or the foundation of the house may be built and filled with dirt. A stone foundation is best, but where stone is expensive may be replaced by cedar, hemlock or Osage orange posts, deeply set in the ground. Small houses can be built on runners as described for colony houses for an egg farm. Floors are commonly constructed of earth, boards or cement. Cement floors are perfectly sanitary and easy to keep clean. The objections to their common use is the first cost of good cement floors. Cheaply constructed floors will not last. Board floors are very common and are preferred by many poultrymen, but if close to the ground they harbor rats, while if open underneath they make the house cold. Covering wet ground by a board floor does not remedy the fault of dampness nearly so effectually as would a similar expenditure spent in raising the floor and surrounding ground by grading. All things considered, the dirt floor is the most suitable. This should be made by filling in above the outside ground-level. The drainage will be facilitated if the first layer of this floor be of cinders, small rocks or other coarse material. Above this layer should be placed a layer of clay, wet and packed hard, so the hens cannot scratch it up, or a different plan may be used and the floor constructed of a sandy or loamy soil of which the top layer can be renewed each year. The walls of a chicken-house must first of all be wind-tight. This may be attained in several ways. Upright boards with cracks battened is the cheapest method. Various kinds of lap-siding give similar results. The single-board wall may be greatly improved by lining with building-paper. This should be put on between the studding and siding. Lath should also be used to prevent the paper bagging out from the wall. The double-board wall is the best where a warm house is desired. It should be made by siding up outside the studding with cheap lumber. On this is placed a layer of roofing paper and over it the ordinary siding. The windows of a chicken-house should furnish sufficient light that the hens may find grain in the litter on cloudy days. Too much glass in a poultry house makes the house cold at night, and it is a needless expenditure. The subject of roofing farm buildings may be summarized in this advice: Use patent roofing if you know of a variety that will last; if not, use shingles. Shingle roofs require a steeper pitch than do roofs of prepared roofing. A shingle roof can be made much warmer by using tightly laid sheathing covered with building-paper. Especial care should be taken that the joints at the eaves of the house are tightly fitted. The object of ventilating a chicken-house is to supply a reasonable amount of fresh air, and, equally important, to keep the house dry. Ventilation should not be by cracks or open cupolas. Direct drafts of air are injurious, and ventilation by such means is always the greatest when the least needed. Schemes of ventilation by a system of pipes are expensive and unnecessary. The latest, best and cheapest plan for providing ventilation is the curtain front house for the north, and the open front house for the more southerly sections. The curtain front house is giving way to the open front with a somewhat smaller opening in sections, as far north as Connecticut. Make all roosts on the same level. The ladder arrangement is a nuisance and offers no advantage. Arrange the roosts so that they may be readily removed for cleaning. Do not fill the chicken-house full of roosts. Put in only enough to accommodate the hens, and let these be on one side of the house. The floor under the roosts should be separated from the feeding floor by a board set on edge. For laying flocks the nests must be clean, secluded and plentiful. Boxes under the roost-platform will answer, but a better plan is to have the nest upon a shelf along a side wall so arranged as to allow the hen to enter from the rear side. Nests should be constructed so that all parts are accessible to a white-wash brush. The less contrivances in a chicken-house, the better. The farmer can get along very well without any chicken-yard at all. It will, however, prove a very convenient arrangement if a small yard is attached to the chicken-house. The house should be arranged to open either into the yard or out into the range. This yard may be used for fattening chickens or confining cockerels, or perhaps to enclose the flock during the ripening of a favorite tomato or berry crop. THE END. 
22520	----	produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) CATTLE AND CATTLE-BREEDERS BY WILLIAM M'COMBIE, M.P. TILLYFOUR SECOND EDITION, REVISED WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLXIX Transcriber's Note: The advertisements and reviews that preceded the title page have been moved to the end of this text. CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE I. THE FEEDING OF CATTLE, ETC. 1 II. REMINISCENCES, 34 III. THE CATTLE TRADE, THEN AND NOW, 67 IV. BLACK POLLED ABERDEEN AND ANGUS CATTLE AND SHORTHORNS, 86 V. HINTS ON THE BREEDING AND CARE OF CATTLE, 99 CATTLE AND CATTLE-BREEDERS. I. THE FEEDING OF CATTLE, ETC. (_Read before the Chamber of Agriculture._) As my friend Mr Stevenson and some other members of the Chamber of Agriculture have expressed a desire that I should read a paper on my experience as a feeder of cattle, I have, with some hesitation, put together a few notes of my experience. I trust the Chamber will overlook the somewhat egotistical form into which I have been led in referring to the subject of dealing in cattle. My father and my grandfather were dealers in cattle. The former carried on a very extensive business: he had dealings with several of the most eminent feeders in East Lothian; among others, with the late Adam Bogue, Linplum, John Rennie of Phantassie, Mr Walker, Ferrygate, &c. I cannot express how much I reverence the memory of the late Adam Bogue, as one of the finest specimens of a kind-hearted gentleman I have ever met. Other friends of my father and of myself in East Lothian I also recall with the greatest respect; among these let me mention William Brodie, John Brodie, William Kerr, John Slate, Archibald Skirving, and Mr Broadwood, farmers, all eminent as feeders of stock. My father's chief business-connection was with East Lothian; but he had also a connection with Mid-Lothian and the county of Fife, and a large trade with England. At one of the Michaelmas Trysts of Falkirk he sold 1500 cattle. He wished to give all the members of his family a good education. I was kept at school, and was afterwards two years at college; but to this day I regret my inattention when at school. My father was very unwilling that I should follow his business, knowing that it was a very precarious one; but what could he do with me? I would do nothing else, and he was obliged to yield. I worked on the farm for years, when not away at the fairs, with the servants, and shared their diet. I cut two harvests, and during the season took charge of the cattle. My first speculation was a £12 grass-field. In this I had a partner, an excellent man, who had been a servant to my father for twenty years. It was a good year, and we divided £15 of profit. This gave me encouragement. I yearly increased my speculations, and gradually got into my father's business at the Falkirk markets and Hallow Fair. My father was very indulgent, and sent me away to a fair when a very young man, giving me authority to buy, and money to pay for, half-a-dozen beasts. I exceeded my commission and bought three little lots--about fifteen in all. The owners trusted me the money I was short. I drove them home myself--about sixteen miles--feeling very proud of my drove. My father examined them next morning, and remarked, "They have not the countenance of beasts." Of course, this chagrined me very much. This was about my first appearance as a buyer of cattle, and some of the beasts I remember to this day. I believe there is no better way to train a young man than to put him to market without assistance. If a man cannot back himself, he is unfit for the trade of a butcher, a jobber, or grazier. My father retired with a good name, and I retained his old customers. On one occasion only did Adam Bogue buy a beast from any dealer except from my father or myself, and he declared he was no gainer by the transaction. He purchased 120 cattle yearly. The late Mr Broadwood always bought about eighty beasts at the Michaelmas Fair. I put up the number and the size he wanted, and he bought them from me and my father for many years, always choosing middle-sized three and four year olds, and never going beyond £11 per head. The highest figure at that time for feeding-cattle at Falkirk Tryst was about £13. On Tuesday morning he came to my cattle, and inspected them first of any he looked at, and asked their price. With such a customer as Mr Broadwood I asked close. To some parties it is necessary to give halter. He then went away and examined the cattle of other dealers, but always came back in about an hour; and I think he never once failed to deal with me. He was a good judge, and did not require any assistance in selecting his stock; he came alone. I had also several dealings with Mr Broadwood's son, but only occasionally, and he did not hold so close to me as his father had done. I also retained the friendship of Robert Walker, the Messrs Brodie, and Archibald Skirving, and secured for myself that of Mr Buist, the late William Kerr, the late John Slate, and John Dudgeon, Almondhill. My father and I always had about the best cattle at Falkirk Tryst. There was then a great trade with Cumberland at the Michaelmas Tryst for horned Aberdeen cattle. The animals were sent from Cumberland to Barnet in spring, and sold off the marshes fat in July and August. My best sixty generally commanded the highest price. The late Mr William Thom was my great opponent in the horned-cattle trade, and sometimes beat me despite all my efforts. When we saw it for our interest we went in company, and attended all the great fairs in the north; and in conjunction with each other we secured a good proportion of the best cattle. Our grazing cattle were always sold separately. Mr Thom must still be remembered by many. He was a giant in strength: an honester man never lived; perhaps a little decided in his manner, but of great ability and perseverance. As copartners we were not very regular book-keepers, and our accounts got confused. At the wind-up at Hallow Fair, as we had the accounts of the Falkirk Trysts likewise to settle, we worked at them for days, and the longer we worked the more confused they became. To this day I do not know in whose favour the balance was. For the future we resolved to act separately. It was a bad Hallow Fair for large cattle. I have doubled stirks at Hallow Fair, buying them at from £2 to £4, and, to use an Aberdeen expression, turning them heels over heads. But I never could make a shilling of profit out of large cattle. At Hallow Fair Mr Thom and I had unfortunately sixty very large cattle left over unsold from the Michaelmas, many of which had cost £13 and £14 in Aberdeenshire. Mr Thom had the selling of them. He had just one offer in the shape of three gentlemen--one from East Lothian, one from Fife, and one from Perth, who likewise joined. They were sold the next day at £12, 5s. a-head. After the bargain was struck, the gentlemen requested Mr Thom to divide them. His answer was, with a sarcastic look to his customers, "Well, gentlemen, you have been good and great friends for two days, it would be a great pity for me to make you quarrel now." Mr Thom, who was thoroughly "awake," turned upon his heel and went away. I divided the beasts for the gentlemen; and to divide a lot of beasts equally is not such an easy matter as some might suppose. I have often been puzzled in dividing, say, forty beasts into four tens (I had often to divide lots of cattle for my customers when I was in the lean-cattle trade). The cattle are first cut through as equally as possible; the two divisions are then cut through again, and you have thus four tens. They are then examined, and a good beast is exchanged for a bad from the best to the worst side, and so on alternately until you bring them as equal as it is possible to make them. But with all my experience, I have often been unable to satisfy myself of the equality of the four tens; and when this was the case, I had to decide what was the difference and tell the buyers. If you draw, say, No. 1, being the most valuable lot, you must pay to the gentleman drawing No. 2, an inferior lot, the sum of £2, £3, or £5, as the case may be, &c. This may seem strange to a good judge of cattle, but let him be called on himself to decide in such a case. He may naturally think a change of a beast will make all right, but he will find that in some cases no exchange will rectify the matter to his satisfaction. In connection with this let me offer my friends a piece of advice:--if they buy a cut of cattle from a dealer, say twenty out of sixty, a neutral party and a good judge ought to divide the cattle: it should not be the buyer, and much less ought it to be the dealer, because the seller knows the beasts individually; and however well you drive sixty cattle round the circle, there will always be a better and a worse side. The dealer sees this at a glance, and, if so inclined, can make the cut much as he likes. The buyer, again, if he is as good a judge as the jobber (which is seldom the case), if allowed to cut them, would be likely to make a good cut for himself, and not a fair one for the seller; but the difference will not be so glaring, as he cannot know the beasts as the dealer does. I am speaking always of a fair cut as sold from the sixty. It is not easy to explain in writing how this division is made; but as there is no doubt many a one has been bitten, I shall do my best to describe the process. Suppose the sixty beasts are well driven through one another, which is always done before a cut is attempted, and suppose the dealer is to cut the cattle, he merely gives the lot a glance; he can see in a moment the strong and the weak side, for there will be a difference. He will run off the twenty from the worst side of the sixty, and he will run the number off to a beast or two. It is very quickly done; the stick is used sharply, and in running off the twenty he can easily put six or eight of the best in the line to any side he may think fit. I do not mean to say this is often done, but I wish to show that it can be managed. In selling lean cattle there is a great deal to be gained by choosing a favourable stance and showing them off properly to the buyers. Cattle look best on the face of a moderate sloping bank, and worst of all at a dead wall. The larger the number shown in a lot, especially of polled cattle, as they stand close together, they look the better. I never liked to show less than forty in a lot, but sixty will look better than forty, and eighty better still. I never would break a lot of beasts except for a consideration in price, as the cattle left behind never have the same appearance. The dealer likewise knows that cattle look largest on the off-side. Many buyers like to see every beast in a lot go past them; and if the dealer can get the buyer to inspect them on the off-side, it is to his own advantage. Cattle and sheep are the better of a good rouse-up when the buyer is inspecting them. I have often seen quarrelling between the buyers and the drovers, the buyers insisting on the drovers letting them alone, while the drovers will not let them stand. I have seen a clever man keep some of the best beasts always in view of the buyers, a stick with a whipcord being used for the purpose. Many were the long rides, the late nights, and early mornings that Thom and I had together in the North buying drove cattle. In the end of October and beginning of November the nights get very dark. At Skippy Fair of New Deer we nearly came to grief two or three years in succession; it is held in the end of October. There was a decent man, Abel, and his wife, who lived in Inverurie, and attended all the fairs. Their conveyance was a cart. They were honest hard-working people, and good judges of cows. They knew very well what they were about; and they required to do so, for Mrs Abel brought up, I believe, nineteen of a family: she was a very stout, "motherly" woman. They drove home likewise in the cart, always buying two cows, which they led with ropes behind the cart. A cart with a cow attached by a rope at each side will take up the greater part of a narrow road. It was very dark, and near the old Castle of Barra. Thom rode a very fast horse he had hired from Richard Cruickshank, a celebrated judge of horses, who was at that time a horse-hirer in Aberdeen. I rode an old steady pony of my own which had been sixteen years in our family. Thom was going before at a dashing pace, I considerably in the rear, when bang he came against the ropes attaching the cows to the cart. His horse was thrown into the ditch; he recovered himself, but fell again, coming down heavily upon Thom, who was very much hurt, and had to go home instead of going to Potarch Market next day. I escaped, Thom's mishap warning me of the danger. At the same fair next year we had bought, as we found on comparing our books, ninety-nine cattle, mostly stirks. It was dark before we got the animals settled for, and we had to watch them on the market-stance. While crossing the lonely moor between New Deer and Methlick, Thom was as usual a little in advance, I following on the same old pony the best way I could close at his heels, when all at once a man took hold of his horse by the reins and asked him the road to New Deer. I observed another man and a box or two lying on the road, such as are used by travelling hawkers. Thom struck at the man's head with his stick with all his might, saying at the same time, "_Cattle of your description cannot be far out of your road anywhere_." The man let go his hold, and Thom galloped off, calling to me to follow, which I was nothing loath to do. Thom's horse was white, and mine was a bay. The vagabonds might have seen a white horse coming on in the dark, while they did not observe the bay, and may thus have been led to suppose there was only one man. As the boxes were laid aside, I have no doubt they intended a robbery, though this did not strike me at the time. But our troubles were not yet at an end; at the same old Castle of Barra, Thom, still in advance, called out, "_The wife, the cows, and the ropes again!_" He had just time to save his distance, and save me too. The ninety-nine beasts turned out to be only ninety-five (they were no great spec after all, leaving only £45 of profit). Thom had booked four he had never bought; and when the lot was counted to be joined to the drove, they would not number more than ninety-five. I advertised for them, and had a man in Buchan a week searching for them; and when I told Thom in Edinburgh that they could not be found, he confessed he had never bought them. I am not sure if it was the same year we had come up to Edinburgh the Saturday night before Hallow Fair. We were rather late in getting ready to go to church. I had heard a great deal about Dr Muir as a preacher, and we went to hear him; but not being very certain of the church, we inquired at a gentleman's servant, dressed in splendid livery, very civilly, the way to Dr Muir's church. Instead of giving a civil reply, "Oh," he said, "Aberdeen awa'!" Thom, who was very impulsive, came across the side of the fellow's head with his umbrella, and laid him flat on his back in the middle of the street, with his heels in the air. I made no remark, Thom said as little, but walked on as if nothing had happened. We heard our friend calling after us he would have his revenge; I hope it was a lesson to him to be civil in future. I sent for many years sixty horned cattle in spring to Mr Buist, Tynninghame. They were grazed in Tynninghame Park, and he also required other forty or sixty during the season for house-feeding. I only gave up the commission business when I could carry it out no longer to my satisfaction and to the advantage of my employers. For years after I went to the Falkirk markets there was not a white beast to be seen; but by-and-by Irish-bred cattle appeared, and then the Shorthorns. The business of dealing in north-country cattle came to be worthless. I bade Falkirk adieu, and turned my attention entirely to the rearing and fattening of cattle at home. I gave up the fascinating business of a lean-cattle jobber, seeing it was done for, and I have never regretted my resolution. The lean-cattle trade was difficult to manage, and in fact was most dangerous. Many a day, when attending Hallow Fair, I have got up by four or five o'clock in the morning, breakfasted, and not tasted food till six o'clock at night. The weather was so bad on one occasion that man and beast were up to the knees in mud. I had my beasts standing near one of the gates. Mr Archibald Skirving never got further than them; he bought forty, sent them away, and returned home. As he bade me good morning, he remarked, "I would not like to be in your place to-day." I have stood many a bad Hallow Fair, but the worst was about twenty years ago. I never was so much in want of assistance from my friends. The price of cattle had fallen very much after the Michaelmas Tryst. Turnips were bad in East Lothian. I had been on a visit to Mr Buist, and met Mr Kerr, Mr Slate, Mr Walker, &c. Both buyers and sellers anticipated a bad fair, and it turned out the worst I ever saw; it is generally either a very good or very bad market. Tuesday came, and with it a perfect storm of wind and rain--the worst market-day I ever encountered. You could hardly know the colour of the cattle, which were standing up to their bellies in a stubble-field. My friends got to the market; there were Mr Buist, Mr Walker, Ferrygate, Mr Kerr, Mr Slate, and one or two more. They gave my cattle what examination it was possible to give animals in such a stormy day. Out of about two hundred which I had, they wanted about one hundred and seventy. Mr Walker said to me, "I think you might give us a glass of brandy;" and accordingly we retired to a tent, from which we did not move for an hour, as one wanted forty, another thirty, another twenty, &c.; and of course it took a good deal of time to talk over the different lots. At last we rose. I had, while seated, drawn them as to the price as far as they would come. The weather was dreadful. I was very unwilling, and they were not very anxious, to face the storm. I was in the middle of my customers. I did what I could to get an advance on their offers, but I could not extract another farthing; and when all was settled, I gave the accustomed clap of the dealer on the hand all round, and I did not see them again till night, except Mr William Kerr, who, with a struggle, got the length of my remaining thirty beasts, and bought ten. I think I hear the triumphant howls of the men to this day, as they started the nine score of cattle for their destinations, one lot after another, through the astonished dealers, whose cattle at that hour, I believe, were never priced. There were few sold on the first day. I could not sell my twenty remaining cattle, and could not even get a bid for them. Of all the good turns my friends did for me, this was the best. I came out with a small profit, while the losses sustained by other parties at the market were heavy. A great many cattle were sent farther south, and returned back to the north. One respectable dealer told me that no one had ever asked the price of his cattle, and coolly added, "I have taken turnips from ----, and sent the cattle home." I never lost a shilling in East Lothian, or by a bad debt, as a lean-cattle dealer. To be a good judge of store cattle is exceedingly difficult. We have many judges of fat cattle among our farmers and butchers, and a few good judges of breeding stock; but our really good judges of store cattle are exceedingly few. A judge of store cattle ought to be able to say at a glance how much the animal will improve, how much additional value you can put upon him on good, bad, or indifferent land, and on turnips, in three, six, or twelve months. Unless a grazier is able to do this, he is working in the dark, and can never obtain eminence in his profession. Since my first speculation, already referred to--the half of the £12 field--I have bought and grazed store cattle for nearly fifty years. No one has been able to put upon paper a clear definition, such as can be understood by the reader, of the characteristics of a good store beast. It is only practice and a natural gift that can enable any one to master the subject. There are a few rules, however, that the buyer of store cattle should be acquainted with. He ought to know how they have been kept for the previous six months, otherwise their keep may be entirely thrown away. I make it an almost universal rule (and I have never departed from the rule except with a loss), that I will graze no cattle except those that have been kept in the open strawyard, and have been fed exclusively on turnips and straw. If you can get them off yellow turnips it will be decidedly to your advantage. I have seen this proved by dividing twenty beasts, and keeping one half on yellow turnips, and one half on swedes, both lots getting full turnips. Those on the swedes shot far ahead in the strawyard of those upon the yellows. When taken up from grass, however, the cattle fed upon the yellows were equal to those fed on the swedes. They were grazed together. The difference of improvement in different lots of cattle must have often struck every observer. I am well acquainted with the different strawyards in Morayshire, and know how the cattle are kept, and how they thrive. There are some farms on which they thrive better than others, even when their keep is in other respects the same. There are farms in Morayshire which are not breeding farms, and where the young stock does not thrive, and the calves have to be sold, and even old cattle only thrive for a certain length of time. Some farms are apt to produce cancer on the throat and side of the head. I pay little attention to this, as change of air cures the complaint. For the first two or three weeks after a beast is attacked with this disease, it will go back in condition; but I have seldom seen much loss by it. If in warm weather, the beast may have to be taken up to avoid the flies; if the disease is inside the throat, it may interfere with the breathing, and the animal may have to be killed. I bought from the late Mr David Sheriffs, Barnyards of Beauly, in spring, ten Highlanders, every one of which had cancer in different stages. I grazed them until October, when the cancers had all disappeared, and the beasts did well (for Highlanders) at grass. If you put upon grass cattle which have been fed through the winter upon cake, corn, brewers' wash, grains, or potatoes, and kept in hot byres or close strawyards, and look to them to pay a rent, you will find that they will soon make a poor man of you. This mode of feeding is unnatural. Before the animals begin to improve, three months will have passed. If half-fat cattle are bought, which have been kept close in byres or strawyards, and put to grass in April or the first two weeks of May, and cold stormy weather sets in, with no covering to defend them, they will fall off so much that the purchaser will scarcely believe they are the beasts he bought. Thus he not only loses all his grass, but the beasts will be lighter at the end of three months than when they were put into the field. Let me not, however, be misunderstood. I do not mean to say that a few weeks of a little cake or corn will ruin a beast for grazing; but you may depend upon it, that the less artificial food given during winter the better. When kept upon the food I have specified for months and months, they are perfectly unfit for grazing. I regard cake as the safest substitute for turnips; and corn, potatoes, brewers' wash, and grain, as the worst. But my ambition is to graze a bullock that has never been forced, and has never tasted cake, corn, or potatoes. The store cattle I winter for grazing are all kept in open strawyards, with a sufficient covering for bad weather, and as dry a bed as the quantity of straw will permit. This is indispensable for the thriving of the cattle. They receive as many turnips as they can eat. Beasts must always be kept progressing; if they are not, they will never pay. My store cattle never see cake, corn, or potatoes. I would rather throw potatoes to the dunghill than give them to a store bullock, though I would give them to my fatting bullocks.[1] If I can get the bullocks for grazing that I want, I will not lose one mouthful of grass upon them. They will not go on, however, without proper care and superintendence. It requires a practised eye. If a grazier has a number of fields and many cattle, to carry out the treatment of his cattle properly, shifting and fresh grass once in ten or fourteen days should, if possible, be adopted. This has always been my practice. In one day I have observed a marked difference in the improvement of animals after the shift. [1] As to giving potatoes to store cattle, since writing the above, I wish to modify the opinion I have expressed to a certain extent. I had a conversation with Mr Hope on the subject, and he states that his belief is, that potatoes are not prejudicial to the growth of store cattle when put to grass, and that his practice is to give them potatoes. I will admit that a few potatoes may not do a store beast much harm; but in my experience in Aberdeenshire I have found that in cattle which have been fed with potatoes the black colour changes to a dusty brown; they are also bad thrivers. A beast that sports that colour is never doing well. I shall, however, prosecute the inquiry. The grazier must always consider the quality of his grass-land, and buy cattle adapted for it. It would be very bad policy to buy fine cattle for poor or middling lands. You must always keep in view how the cattle have been kept. If they have been kept improperly for your purpose, their size, whether large or small, will not save you from loss. If the cattle are kept on cake, corn, potatoes, or brewers' wash or grain, during the previous winter, it will be ruin to the grazier. Let it not be supposed, however, that I recommend buying lean, half-starved beasts. What I wish to impress on you is, that you must keep the cattle always full of flesh; and, as a breeder, you must be careful not to lose the calf flesh. If you do so by starving the animal at any time of his growth, you lose the cream--the covering of flesh so much prized by all our best retail butchers. Where do all the scraggy, bad-fleshed beasts come from that we see daily in our fat markets, and what is the cause of their scragginess? It is because they have been stinted and starved at some period of their growth. If the calf flesh is once lost, it can never be regained. A great deal of tallow may be got internally by high feeding, but the animal can never again be made one that will be prized by the great retail butcher. Our Aberdeen working bullocks carry little good meat. Draught as well as starvation takes off the flesh. They are generally only fit for ship beef. Let me now offer a few observations as to the breeds of cattle best adapted for paying a rent--the great object of our cattle rearing and feeding. I have grazed the pure Aberdeen and Angus, the Aberdeen and North-country crosses, the Highland, the Galloways, and what is termed in Angus the South-country cattle, the Dutch, and the Jutland. Except the two latter, all the others have got a fair trial. I am aware that the merits of the pure Aberdeen and Angus form a difficult and delicate subject to deal with. I know that the breeders of Shorthorns will scrutinise my statements carefully. But my only object is to lay down my own experience, and I trust that I have divested myself of prejudice as much as possible. If store cattle of the Aberdeen and Angus breed out of our best herds can be secured, I believe _no other_ breed of cattle will pay the grazier more money in the north for the same value of keep. But there is a race of starved vermin which is known by some in the north by the name of "Highland hummlies," which I consider the worst of all breeds. No keep will move them much. At the top of these I must place those with the brown ridge along the back. They can be made older, but it takes more ability than I ever had to make them much bigger. Keep is entirely thrown away upon such animals. As regards good Aberdeen or North-country crosses, they are rent-payers. He would be very prejudiced indeed who would not acknowledge their merits. I graze more cross-bred cattle than pure-bred polled. The Highlanders on our land are not profitable; they are of such a restless disposition that they are unsuitable for stall-feeding, however well they are adapted for grazing purposes in certain localities and under certain conditions. But, I repeat, for stall-feeding they are unsuitable; confinement is unnatural to their disposition. The last Highlanders I attempted to feed were bought at a cheap time. In the month of June they were most beautiful animals, and they grazed fairly. I tied them up; but they broke loose again and again, and ran three miles off to the glen where they had been grazed. There was one of them that his keeper never dared to approach, and the stall had to be cleaned out with a long crook. They consumed few turnips, and did not pay sixpence for what turnips they did consume. No other description of cattle, however, is so beautiful for noblemen's and gentlemen's parks. As to the Galloway cattle, they also have had a fair trial with me. I was in the habit of buying for years from one of the most eminent judges of store Galloways in Britain--Captain Kennedy of Bennane--a lot of that breed. He selected them generally when stirks from all the eminent breeders of Galloway cattle, and bought nearly all the prize stirks at the different shows. In fact, he would not see a bad Galloway on his manors. The Galloway has undoubtedly many and great qualifications. On poor land they are unrivalled, except perhaps by the small Highlanders. Captain Kennedy's cattle always paid me; they were grazed on a 100-acre park of poor land--so poor, indeed, that our Aberdeens could not subsist upon it. I had ultimately to break it up for cropping. If I had not been obliged to do this, I should not have liked to have missed Captain Kennedy's Galloways. Although the Galloways are such good cattle to graze--and this goes to prove the truth of my remarks as to the forcing system, the Galloways at Glenapp being wintered out--they are not so easily finished as our Aberdeen and Angus or cross-bred cattle. They have too much thickness of skin and hair, too much timber in their legs; they are too thick in their tails, too deep in their necks, too sunken in the eye, for being very fast feeders. It is difficult to make them ripe. You can bring them to be three-quarters fat, and there they stick; it is difficult to give them the last dip. If, however, you succeed in doing so, there is no other breed worth more by the pound weight than a first-class Galloway. As to what we term the South-country cattle, I have also given them a trial. My experience is that they are great beasts to grow; that they consume an immense deal of food, but that they are difficult to finish; and when finished they are very indifferent sellers in the London market. They generally carry a deal of offal along with them; but those who have patience, and keep them for many months, they may pay for keep. I have had a few German and Jutland cattle through my hands, but not in sufficient numbers to enable me to say anything about them worthy of your notice. After trying all the breeds of cattle I have specified, I have come to the conclusion that the Aberdeen and Angus polled, and the Aberdeen and North-country crosses, are the cattle best adapted, under ordinary circumstances, in the north of Scotland, for paying the feeder. Our cross-bred cattle, and especially the South-country cattle, are greater consumers of food than the pure Aberdeens. This is a part of the subject which has never got the consideration it deserves. When the cross and South-country cattle are two or three years old, and when the day lengthens out, they consume a fearful quantity of food. The age of cattle ought also to be taken into consideration. No doubt a young two-year-old will grow more than a three-year-old, and for a long keep may pay as well. But I have been always partial to aged cattle; and if you want a quick clearance, age is of great consequence. The great retail London butchers are not partial to "the two teeths," as they call them; and I have seen them on the great Christmas-day examining the mouths of cattle before they would buy them. They die badly as to internal fat, and are generally light on the fore-rib. I have always given a preference to aged cattle, as they get sooner fat, are deep on the fore-rib, and require less cake to finish them. Aged cattle, however, are now difficult to be had, and every year they will be scarcer with the present demand for beef. A perfect breeding or feeding animal should have a fine expression of countenance--I could point it out, but it is difficult to describe upon paper. It should be mild, serene, and expressive. The animal should be fine in the bone, with clean muzzle, a tail like a rat's, and not ewe-necked; short on the legs. He should have a small well-put-on head, prominent eye, a skin not too thick nor too thin; should be covered with fine silky hair--to the touch like a lady's glove; should have a good belly to hold his meat; should be straight-backed, well ribbed up, and well ribbed home; his hook-bones should not be too wide apart. A wide-hooked animal, especially a cow after calving, always has a vacancy between the hook-bone and the tail, and a want of the most valuable part of the carcass. I detest to see hooks too wide apart; they should correspond with the other proportions of the body. A level line should run from the hook to the tail. He should be well set in at the tail, free of patchiness there and all over, with deep thighs, that the butcher may get his second round and prominent brisket deep in the fore-rib, with a good purse below him, which is always worth £1 to him in the London market; well fleshed in the fore-breast, with equal covering of fine flesh all over his carcass, so valuable to the butcher. His outline ought to be such that if a tape is stretched from the fore-shoulder to the thigh, and from the shoulder along the back to the extremity there, the line should lie close, with no vacancies; and without a void, the line should fill from the hook to the tail. From the shoulder-blade to the head should be well filled up--as we say, good in the neck vein. I am aware that the preceding remarks as to the quality and proportions a beast should possess must be very unsatisfactory to you, as they are to myself; scarcely any one animal has possessed them all, and to look for the half of them in a good commercial beast would be vain. I have consulted no writer upon the subject; they are set down, and not in good order, just as they struck me at the time. Thick legs, thick tails, sunken eyes, and deep necks, with thick skin and bristly hair, always point to sluggish feeders. In cold weather in the month of May, the old silky coat of the strawyard bullock is of great advantage. If we could get the qualities and proportions I have specified in animals, it would not be difficult to make them fat. It would be difficult only to make them lean, when once in condition. A high standing, want of ribbing-up and ribbing home, with the tucked-up flank, always denote a worthless feeder. You must all have observed how difficult it is to bring such cattle into a state for killing. It will take a deal of cake and corn to make them ripe. A great many can never be made more than fresh; it is only a waste of time and money to keep them on. I have adverted to the way cattle should be treated in winter as stores. The earlier you can put cattle upon grass so much the better. Cattle never forget an early bite of new grass. A week's new grass in Aberdeenshire at the first of the season is worth at least two and a half upon old grass; and it is wonderful what improvement a good strawyard bullock will make in four or five weeks at the first of the season. If kept on straw and turnips alone in winter, he may add a third or at least a fourth to his live weight. But much depends on the weather. I have never known cattle make much improvement in April, or even up to the 12th of May, because the weather is so unsteady, and the cold nights when they are exposed in the fields take off the condition the grass puts on. The grazier will find it of great advantage to house his cattle at night during this season. In Aberdeenshire the 10th of May is about the earliest period cattle should be put to grass. Where there is new grass, first year, it is a most difficult matter to get the full advantage of it. There is no other grass to be compared with it for putting on beef in Aberdeenshire. You must be careful at the first of the season, if much rain falls, not to allow the cattle to remain on the young grass. They must be shifted immediately; and no one can get the proper advantage of such grass who is deprived of the power of shifting the cattle into a park of older grass till the land again becomes firm for the cattle. I have seen a small field of new grass in the month of May or the beginning of June utterly ruined in one night, when heavily stocked with cattle. When wet and cold the cattle wander about the whole night, and in the morning the fields are little better than ploughed land. In fact, the field so injured will never recover until broken up again. In regard to my own farms, I cut scarcely any hay. I pasture almost all my new grass, and the moment the cattle's feet begin to injure the grass, they are removed. If cattle are changed to an old grass field, so much the better; but they will be safe on second or third year's grass, provided the land is naturally dry. By the 1st July, the new grass land gets consolidated, and you are safe. New grass fields are bad to manage in another respect. The grass comes very rapidly about the 10th June, and if you are not a very good judge of what you are about, it will get away in a few days, become too rank, and will lose its feeding qualities during the remainder of the season. By the middle of July it will be nothing but withered herbage. Young grass ought to be well eaten down, and then relieved for two or three weeks; then return the cattle, and the grass will be as sweet as before. It requires practice to know the number of cattle, and the proper time to put on these cattle, to secure the full benefits of new grass. Three days' miscalculation may cause a heavy loss. I have been bit so often, and found the difficulty so great, that I fear to extend my observations on this part of the subject, when I am addressing gentlemen many of whom make their young grass into hay, or sell the grass to the cowfeeders. The pasturing of new grass, in which the farmers of Aberdeenshire and the north of Scotland have a deep interest, may not apply to many other parts of Scotland. I come now to the way cattle should be treated after being taken from their pastures and put on turnips. The earlier you put them up, the sooner they will be ready for the butcher. The practice of tying the cattle early up in Aberdeenshire is now almost universal; the success of the feeder depends upon it, for a few weeks may make a difference of several pounds. I recollect tying up a lot of cattle at Ardmundo, thirty in number--a fair cut of ten being left in the field at home on fine land and beautiful grass. The thirty were tied up by the 1st of September, the ten on the 1st of October. The weather was cold, wet, and stormy; and between the improvement the thirty had made and the deterioration upon the ten, there was by my computation, however incredible it may appear, £5 a-head of difference. Mr Knowles of Aberdeen happened to see the cattle, and when he came upon the ten he asked what was the matter with them. He could scarcely credit the facts; their hair was so bad that they actually looked like diseased animals, and it was long before they took a start. I shall state the method I adopt. I sow annually from twelve to sixteen acres of tares, and about the middle of June save a portion of the new grass full of red clover, and from the 1st to the 20th of August both tares and clover are fit for the cattle. I have for many years fed from three hundred to four hundred cattle; and if I was not to take them up in time, I could pay no rent at all. A week's house-feeding in August, September, and October, is as good as three weeks' in the dead of winter. I begin to put the cattle into the yards from the 1st to the middle of August, drafting first the largest cattle intended for the great Christmas market. This drafting gives a great relief to the grass parks, and leaves abundance to the cattle in the fields. During the months of August, September, and October, cattle do best in the yards, the byres being too hot; but when the cold weather sets in there is no way, where many cattle are kept, in which they will do so well as at the stall. You cannot get loose-boxes for eighty or a hundred cattle on one farm. I generally buy my store cattle in Morayshire. They have all been kept in the strawyard, never being tied. When the cattle are tied up on my farms, a rope is thrown over the neck of the bullock; the other end of the rope is taken round the stake; two men are put upon it, and overhaul the bullock to his place. When tightened up to the stall the chain is attached to the neck, and the beast is fast. We can tie up fifty beasts in five hours in this way. When tied, you must keep a man with a switch to keep up the bullocks. If you did not do this you would soon have every one of them loose again. They require to be carefully watched the first night, and in three days they get quite accustomed to their confinement, except in the case of some very wild beast. I never lost a bullock by this method of tying up. This system is like other systems--it requires trained hands to practise it. I never give feeding cattle unripe tares; they must be three parts ripe before being cut. I mix the tares when they are sown with a third of white pease and a third of oats. When three parts ripe, especially the white pease, they are very good feeding. Fresh clover, given along with tares, pease, &c., forms a capital mixture. I sow a proportion of yellow Aberdeen turnips early to succeed the tares and clover. I find the soft varieties are more apt to run to seed when sown early than yellow turnips. It is indispensable for the improvement of the cattle that they receive their turnips clean, dry, and fresh. When obliged to be taken off the land in wet weather, the hand should be used to fill the turnips from the land to the carts. The turnips should be pulled and laid in rows of four or six drills together on the top of one drill, with the tops all one way and the roots another; but it is better that parties should follow the carts and pull the turnips from the drills, and throw them into the carts at once. It is an invariable rule with me that the turnips are filled by hand in wet weather. Advantage should be taken of fine weather to secure a good stock of turnips, and a good manager will always provide for a rainy day. A very considerable proportion of turnips should be stored, to wait the severe winters very often experienced on the north-east coast. If I had sufficient command of labour, I would store the greater part of my Swedish turnips (if ripe). I would, however, store only a proportion of the Aberdeen yellow, as they lose the relish, and cattle prefer them from the field; but I require a proportion of them for calving cows in frost. Frosted turnips make cows with calf abort, and rather than give calving cows such turnips I would order them straw and water. Fresh Swedish turnips are indispensable to feeding cattle during the winter. It is a sorrowful sight to see a gang of men with picks taking up turnips in a frosty day, leaving a third of the produce on the land, and the turnips going before your bullocks as hard as iron. We have almost every year a week or ten days' fine weather about Christmas, and this should be taken advantage of to store turnips, if not stored previously. I have tried all the different modes of storing recommended. I shall not enter on the minutiæ of the subject, as it is now generally so well understood; and I need only urge here that the roots should not be bled in any way, that the tops should not be taken off too near to the bulbs, that the tails be only switched, and that they be pitted and secured _every_ night to keep them free from frost and rain. I have adopted my friend Mr Porter of Monymusk's plan (in a late climate and where Swedish turnips in some years never come to full maturity) of pitting them upon the land where they grow, from one to two loads together; and, although not quite ripe, I have never seen a turnip go wrong when stored in this manner. The land also escapes being poached, as the turnips are carted in frost, and at a time when the other operations of the farm are not pressing. A foot of earth will keep them safe, and they are easily covered by taking a couple of furrows with a pair of horses on each side of the line of pits. In a week or ten days after the first lot of cattle is taken up from grass, a second lot is taken up. This is a further relief to the pastures, and the cattle left in the fields thrive better. This taking up continues every week or ten days to the end of September. At this period all feeding cattle ought to be under cover that are intended to be fattened during the succeeding winter. The stronger cattle are drafted first, and the lesser ones left until the last _cull_ is put under cover. It would be of no use to attempt to feed cattle, unless you can command a staff of experienced men to take charge of them. However faithful in other respects, these men must have a taste and a strong liking to cattle--they must be their hobby. Even with men of the greatest experience, the difference in the thriving of the different lots upon the same keep is great. They must not be oppressed with having too many in charge, or the owner will suffer by his ill-judged parsimony. From August till November a man may take care of, and pull turnips for, thirty cattle very well, or a few more, if the cattle are loose; but when the day gets short, twenty to twenty-five is as many as one man can feed, to do them justice, if tied up. Good cattlemen are invaluable. They must not only know what to give the cattle; but the great secret, especially when cattle are forced up for show purposes, is to know _what not to give them_. An inexperienced man amongst a lot of feeding cattle must be a great loss to his employer. Like everything else, the proper management of the animals cannot be learned in a day--the cattleman must be always learning. For myself, I can only say that, long as I have traded in cattle, have studied their treatment, have considered their symmetry, I am learning something new every other day. As regards the treatment of cattle when put upon tares or cut clover, there is no danger; but with turnips an ignorant man may injure the cattle in one week so much that they may not recover it during the season. The cattle must be gradually brought on, giving them a few turnips at first, and increasing the quantity daily, till in from ten to fourteen days they may get a full supply. When improperly treated the cattle scour and hove, the stomach getting deranged. It is a long time before they recover, and some never do well. We generally cure hove by repeated doses of salts, sulphur, and ginger. Occasionally a beast will hove under the best treatment; but if you find a lot of them blown up every day, it is time to change their keeper. In cattle which are being forced for exhibition, hove is generally the first warning that the constitution can do no more. I have seen cases so obstinate that they would swell upon hay or straw without turnips. Putting the animal out to grass for a couple of months will generally renovate the constitution and remove the tendency to hove; and after being taken up from grass, with a man in charge who knows what to give and _what not to give_, the animal may go on for a few months longer, and with great attention may at last prove a winner. Occasionally an animal may be found whose digestion no amount of forcing will derange, but such cases are very rare. Cattle feeding in the stall should be kept as clean as the hunter or valuable race-horse, and their beds should be carefully shaken up. I change the feeding cattle from tares and clover on to Aberdeen yellow turnips, and afterwards to swedes, if possible by the middle of October. I do not like soft turnips for feeding cattle. The cattle that I intend for the great Christmas market have at first from 2 lb. to 4 lb. of cake a-day by the 1st of November. In a week or two I increase the cake to at least 4 lb. a-day, and give a feed of bruised oats or barley, which I continue up to the 12th or 14th of December, when they leave for the Christmas market. The cake is apportioned to the condition of the different animals, and some of the leanest cattle get the double of others which are riper. The cattle being tied to the stall places this quite in your power, while in the strawyard it could not be done. When ten or twenty beasts in the strawyard stand together, the strongest take the greatest share, and these are very often the animals that least require it. I consider the stall a great advantage over the strawyard in this respect, as you can give each beast what you wish him to have. My men are told the quantity of cake and corn which I wish every beast to receive. You must all have observed the inequality in the improvement of cattle in the strawyard when ten, fifteen, or twenty beasts are fed together. I have seen the best beast in a lot when put up, the worst when taken out. The first three weeks after the cattle are put upon cake along with their turnips, they will put on as much meat as they will do with an equal quantity of cake for the next five. It is absolutely necessary to increase the quantity of cake and corn weekly to insure a steady improvement; and if cattle are forced upon cake and corn over two or three months, it will, in my opinion, pay no one. To give unlimited quantities for years, and to say it will pay, is preposterous. To give fat cattle the finishing dip, cake and corn, given in moderation and with skill for six weeks before the cattle are sent to the fat market, will pay the feeder; but to continue this for more than two months will never pay in Aberdeenshire. This is no doubt a bold assertion, but I believe it to be correct. The cake and corn given to cattle day by day loses its effect, till at last you bring the beast almost to a standstill, and week after week you can perceive little improvement. Cake, and still more corn, appear to injure their constitution; grass, turnips, and straw or hay are their only healthy food. For commercial cattle, and for commercial purposes, two months is the utmost limit that cake and corn will pay the Aberdeenshire feeder. There can be no substitute for grass, straw, and turnips, except for a very limited period; though in times of scarcity, and to give the last dip to fat cattle, the other feeding materials are valuable auxiliaries. I have kept on a favourite show bullock for a year, thinking I would improve him, and given him everything he would take; and when that day twelvemonth came round, he was worse than a twelvemonth before. You can only torture nature so far; and if you force a yearling bullock, he will never come to the size that he will attain if kept on common fare. If you wish to bring a bullock to size for exhibition, give him as much grass and turnips as he can eat. Begin to force only when he is two and a half to three years old, and by the time he is four years he will not only be a neater but a larger animal than if he had been forced earlier: forcing in youth deteriorates the symmetry of the animal as well as diminishes his size. I am speaking only of Aberdeen and Angus cattle, but I believe the breeders of Highlanders are also well aware of this fact. I am not speaking of pounds, shillings, and pence, or of the profit to the farmer; for who would think of keeping beasts bred to himself older than rising three years old? Calves dropped early should go to the fat market at the age of two years. A word as to show bullocks. I believe they are the most unprofitable speculation an agriculturist can interfere with. To keep a show bullock as he ought to be kept will cost from 12s. to 15s. a-week, which amounts to about £40 a-year. The method I adopt as to using cake and corn is the following:--On the different farms where I feed the cattle, I put a fourth part of their number only upon cake and corn at one time, and six weeks (which is about my limit of time for cake and corn, &c., paying the feeder) before they are to be sent to the fat market. When the six weeks are expired they are sent away; another fourth part of the original number take their place, and get their six weeks' cake. When they leave, the other cattle in succession get the same treatment. When turnips are plentiful the system works very well. The cattle draw beautifully, week by week, from the different farms, and come out very ripe. I may mention that almost all the cattle I graze are generally kept during the previous winter upon as many turnips as they can eat, and are in high condition when put to grass. I believe, however, that in the south of Scotland, where there is more corn and less grass land, this method would not be suitable. Large bills for cake are not easily paid, and when paid swallow up our profits. When cattle are fed almost exclusively upon the produce of the farm, the feeders know what they are about; but this method of feeding requires time and patience, and there is a long outlay of capital. Still, if the system is adopted and judiciously managed, upon medium or high-lying and low-rented land, the cattle treated as above ought to pay the rent and leave a fair profit to the feeder. There is no doubt that in the north, and especially in Aberdeenshire, there is a rage for fine cattle; and on my part it has almost amounted to a "craze." I would have been a richer man to-day if I had not been so fastidious in my selections; but I cannot endure to look at, and never will tolerate, a bad beast on my land. The gentlemen I buy from know my weakness, and they say, if they are anxious to sell, We must let M'Combie have a "pull." Many are the lots of beasts I have bought and culled, and I had to pay for it. Sellers have served me right. Still there is a fatality follows me that I fear it is hopeless now to endeavour to get over. A good bullock will always be a good one, and will easily be made ripe--requiring little cake or corn--and come right out at last. The following is the system I have adopted in the selection of the cattle I have wintered. I buy the best lots I can find during the summer, fit for wintering and keeping on to the following Christmas. I then cull the worst of the different lots, feeding the culls and wintering the tops. By this method I secure a lot of wintering cattle for the great Christmas market of the ensuing year, without one bad or indifferent beast among them. The price I have obtained for several years, with the exception of the culls of my winterers, has been £35 a-head. In Aberdeenshire I consider that a large bullock ought to pay 25s. to 30s. a-month for keep, if he is properly treated. We often get less, and sometimes a little more, owing in some measure to the way in which the cattle are bought, the price of beef at the time, the season of the year the cattle are bought, and the time they are sold. Before we were threatened with the cattle plague I always made a point of buying my beasts early in the season, beginning in January and buying monthly up to May. I had thus a chance of the best lots, whereas, if I deferred making my selections, these went into other hands. II. REMINISCENCES. Fifty years ago, and for many a long year thereafter, there were no shorthorns in the north. There were few turnips grown, and few cattle fed. The great firm of the Williamsons, who rented St John's Wells, Bethelnie, and Easter Crichie; James Allardyce of Boyndsmill; the Harveys of Beidlestone and Danestone, and a few others, were almost the only parties who attempted the feeding of cattle. Mr Harvey of Ardo, who was then tenant of Danestone, died only the other day, aged ninety. Messrs Williamson and Reid were the great Aberdeen butchers at that period, and the feeders had either to sell to them or send their cattle on to Barnet Fair on their own account, or in the hands of the jobber. The journey occupied a month, and hay was their food. The cattle stood the road best upon hay, and it was surprising how fresh and sound the drovers took them up. Disease was unknown; the lung disease, the foot-and-mouth disease, are comparatively recent importations. I was in the lean-cattle trade when foot-and-mouth disease first broke out, and got a sad fright when I came up to Falkirk and found my drove affected. When it got into a drove on their transit, the loss was heavy. At that time the cattle were not made more than half fat, else they could never have performed their journeys. I was well acquainted with the Messrs Williamson, and, when a boy, was the guest of the late George Williamson, St John's Wells; of the late James Williamson, Bethelnie; and of William Williamson, Easter Crichie. George Williamson was a great wit, and many are the anecdotes I have heard him tell. One of these I recollect. He was passing through Perth with a large drove of cattle, the bells were ringing a merry peal for the peace--St John's Wells said it was a sorrowful peal to him, for it cost him £4000. He told that the Messrs Williamson and Reid came to buy a lot of cattle at Bethelnie, and they were not like to agree, when Bethelnie's grieve volunteered the statement--much to the chagrin of James Williamson, but to the delight of Messrs Williamson and Reid--that there were turnips to put over to-morrow and no longer. Messrs Williamson and Reid did not advance their offer under these circumstances. James Williamson was a smarter man in some respects than George; he had great taste as a farmer, but lacked the wit of his brother; while William of Easter Crichie, St John's Wells' eldest son, and a member of the great firm, took matters more coolly than either, but was a capital judge, and a good buyer of drove and store cattle. They have all gone to their rest, but have left a name behind them which will not soon be forgotten in Aberdeenshire. As a firm they were the largest cattle-dealers in Scotland of their day. William Williamson was most hospitable, and many were the happy evenings I have spent at Easter Crichie. It was a great treat to hear him when he became eloquent upon the Haycocks, the great Leicestershire graziers, and the bullock he bought from Mr Harvey and sold to Mr Haycock that gained the prize against all comers at Smithfield. The Williamsons were the largest buyers in spring, not only in Aberdeenshire and the north, but in Forfar and Fife, shires. At one time they had little opposition in the spring trade, and old St John's Wells' advice to the members of the firm, when they went to Forfar and Fife, was to "bid little and lie far back." The Williamsons generally brought down from Fifeshire on their spring visits a lot of the best Fife cows, and no doubt their blood are in many of the Aberdeen cattle to this day. The Williamsons also bought largely at the Falkirk Trysts. Although they had the spring trade mostly to themselves, it must not be supposed that the summer trade was equally in their hands. For a time, however, it was doubtful if they would not concentrate the whole business in their own firm; as when they had heavy stocks on hand, and prices showed a downward tendency, they adopted the daring expedient of buying up almost all the cattle for sale, that they might become the exclusive owners. This might have succeeded so far, but it was a dangerous expedient, and could not continue; and other energetic men, both in the north and south, began to oppose them. My own father became their greatest opponent, and, though single-handed, for years conducted as large a business in summer as themselves. Mr James Anderson, Pitcarry, who is still alive and tenant of Pitcarry, was also an extensive dealer, and sent large droves to England--a man who through life has enjoyed the respect of all classes, of great coolness, and proverbial for his rectitude. The writer was sleeping with him at Huntly the night of an Old Keith market; and in the morning Mr Anderson was in the middle of a deep discussion, when his topsman knocked at the door. On being asked what he wanted, he said he had lost four cattle. "Go and find them," was Mr Anderson's answer, and he immediately resumed the discussion. My father often told how Mr Anderson and he were at a dinner at Haddington, given by the East Lothian Farmers' Club, on the day of the cattle market, when Mr Rennie of Phantassie was chairman, and where, after dinner, a discussion arose about an Act of Parliament. Mr Anderson told them they were all wrong, and that the contents of the Act were so and so. The books were brought from the Council Chambers, when Mr Anderson was found right, and all the East Lothian gentlemen wrong. He is a very well-informed man, and has all the Acts of Parliament at his finger-ends. I was present at a Hallow Fair when a cross toll-bar was erected, and many paid the toll demanded. At last Mr Anderson came up with his drove, and having the Act of Parliament in his pocket at the time, he broke down the toll-bar and sent the keeper home to his honest calling. But James Milner, Tillyriach, was perhaps the most remarkable among all the cattle-dealers of the time. He was a very large tall man, with tremendously big feet--a great man for dress--wore top-boots, white neckcloth, long blue coat, with all the et-ceteras, and used hair-powder. He was, withal, very clever, and had an immensity of mother-wit. He rode the best horse in the country, kept greyhounds, and galloped a horse he called the "Rattler." The rides he took with this animal are the talk of the country to this day. The Rattler was very fast, and would jump over anything. There was no end to the hares Milner killed. He was tenant not only of Tillyriach, which was at that time the property of Sir William Forbes of Craigievar, but he rented Carnaveron and other farms in the Vale of Alford. His position was good: he dined with the gentlemen of the neighbourhood. On one occasion he had Sir William Forbes to dine with him at Tillyriach, and collected all the horses, cattle, and servants from his other farms, and had them all coming as if from the yoke when Sir William arrived. Milner wanted allowances for several improvements from his landlord, and, among the rest, allowance to build, and payment for, a large dwelling-house; but he outwitted himself for once, as Sir William was afraid of the man, and refused to give any allowance whatsoever, remarking that his wealth in cattle and horses was so enormous that he might build himself in so that he would never get him out. However, Milner built an additional large dining-room at his own expense, and it being finished all but the chimney-top, he got up one summer morning very early, ordered his men and horses along with a mason to follow him, and went to William Laing, one of his sub-tenants, of whom he had a host, quietly removed a new dressed granite chimney-top which Laing had lately erected, without being detected by the inmates, and had it placed upon his room ere ever it was missed. There it remained for fifty years, until the houses at Tillyriach were taken down. Milner was very fond of a lark; he was the best possible neighbour; but if he took offence or considered himself slighted or overlooked, he would have his revenge. There was a rather troublesome neighbour who had offended Mr Milner, and of whom he could not get the better, except in the following way:--He put a large drove of cattle among his corn during the night, and was there in the morning with his appraiser to pay the damage. The damage is never in such cases estimated at the loss sustained by the owner, and a man may easily be ruined in that way. Mr Milner was the Captain Barclay of the Vale of Alford. He must have the best of everything--the best horses, the best cattle; and at the first cattle-show in the country, at Kincardine O'Neil, he gained the first prize for the best bull. He had the finest horses in the country, and it was worth something to get a "lift" of Milner's horses; and the most grievous fault his servants could commit, was allowing any other horses in the country to take as heavy loads as his. Tillyfour and Tillyriach adjoin, and are now one farm.[2] My father was in Tillyfour, and Milner in Tillyriach. The crop was all cut by the sickle, and wonderful were the prodigies performed by some of the shearers. When the harvest came near a conclusion, there was generally a severe "kemp" between neighbours who would have "cliach" first. One season Milner had fallen much behind his Tillyfour neighbours, and it became clear that Tillyfour was to gain the victory. Milner ordered Rattler to be saddled, and he was not long in galloping with such a horse, and on such an emergency, over the length and breadth of the Vale of Alford. He collected the whole country, and cut the last standing sheaf on Tillyriach in one night. The first thing heard at Tillyfour next morning was one volley of firearms after another, which was continued through the day, with a relay of shooters, and in the very teeth of my father's people. It cost Milner a great deal of Athole-brose[3] and powder, but he did not mind trifles to gain his point. It was the custom at that time that the party who finished harvest first communicated the intelligence to his neighbours by the firing of guns. [2] For description of a day at Tillyfour, see Dixon's 'Field and Fern,' Part North, p. 158-181. [3] Whisky and oatmeal mixed. Another anecdote or two of Milner, and I have done with him. As he was dressing at the glass one morning, at an inn in the south, and in the act of powdering his hair, and tying his white neckerchief, which he always wore on high days and holidays, James Williamson of Bethelnie said to him, "Ah! what a pretty man you are, James!" "Yes," said Milner, with an oath, "if it were not for these ugly skulks of feet of mine." He always carried large saddlebags on his horse on his journeys, well replenished with all necessary auxiliaries for a change of dress, as when he went north he had often to dine with the Highland proprietors, and Milner was not the man to go otherwise than in full dress. He took a good deal of liberty with his fellow-cattle-dealers, who were not so exact as to their wardrobes, and carried generally in their pocket only a spare shirt and a pair of stockings. Milner's traps were a great additional burden on his horse. While going north he thought proper, one morning, to fasten them on my father's horse. My father took no notice of this at the time; but falling a little behind before coming to the top of a high hill, he contrived to unloose the mouths of the bags. The cattle-dealers always dismounted at the top of a hill, and walked down, either leading or driving their horses before them to the foot. My father dismounted, put the whip to his horse, a very spirited animal, and down the hill he galloped. First one article of clothing, then another, went helter-skelter along the road for a mile, one here and one there--ruffled shirts, white neckcloths, long coats, cashmere vests, boot-tops, pomatum boxes, cotton stockings, &c. &c.--not two of them together. It took Milner a long time to collect the contents of his bags; he was very sulky during the day, and his own horse carried the saddlebags in future. On a journey in the north, his comrades proposed that he should dress himself (and he did so to some purpose), and call on a gentleman, a large owner of fine stock, but whose land-steward and the cattle were some forty miles distant from the manor-house. Mr Milner did so; was well received and hospitably entertained; and at parting the gentleman gave him a letter to his land-steward, with instructions as to the sale of his stock. Milner was very quick, and he had his doubts as to these instructions; and as from forty to fifty miles was a long journey out and returning, he became anxious to know the contents. He returned to his friends, and communicated his suspicions to them. One more daring than the others proposed that the letter should be opened; a tea-kettle was got, the water brought to the boil, the wafer put to the steam, and the letter opened. The contents read thus:--"Be sure and sell the _old cows_, but do not sell the bullocks upon any account." I need not say what a rage Milner was in; calling the gentleman out was the least punishment he might expect. On one occasion he was in the south, where he bought cattle as well as in the north, and had an appointment to purchase a rare lot of cattle. James Williamson, Bethelnie, was also anxious to secure the same lot. The two were at the same inn; and after Milner went to bed, his shoes were turned out of his bedroom to be brushed. Williamson got hold of them, and had them put into a pot of water and boiled for hours. He contrived to do away with his stockings in a way I shall not mention. When Milner rose to continue his journey, he might have got the better of the loss of his stockings, but his shoes were a hopeless case, and he was obliged to defer his journey. New shoes had to be made; and as Milner's feet were so large, lasts had first to be made; and thus it took several days to get him fitted out for the road. James Williamson, meanwhile, bought the cattle and had his laugh at Milner, who reaped a share of the profits. It is now about half a century since Milner died, at a comparatively early age; but there still remains a lively impression of his person and exploits among the older residenters of the Vale of Alford. James Allardyce of Boyndsmill, tenant of Cobairdy, was also a great farmer, but of a different stamp. He was a friend of the late Duke of Gordon, who introduced him at Court; he also always wore powder. Many were the stories he told of his journey to London, and the great personages he was introduced to there. He was the best chairman at a public meeting I ever saw; and at a public sale it was a perfect treat to hear him. He was a master of the art of pleasing, and no man could put a company into equal good-humour. He had something to say in every one's praise, and no one else could say it so well. He spoke the dialect of his own county (the kingdom of Forgue) and never affected the English language. He fed--such feeding as they got!--sixty bullocks annually, which were always sold to one or other of the dealers, and went to Barnet Fair. Cobairdy's winterers and their prices were an interesting topic of conversation every spring, as the season came round. The great English dealers were the Armstrongs, James and Thomas, the Millers, Murphy, Robert M'Turk, Billie Brown, John Elliot, the Carmichaels, &c. &c. The Armstrongs were from Yorkshire; they bought largely of our good beasts at Falkirk, Falkland, and Kinross. Their credit was unlimited. They paid the cattle, not with Bank of England notes, but with their own private bills; and whereas they left home without more money than was necessary to pay the expenses of their journey, they would return with hundreds of pounds. For example: they would buy a lot of cattle for £860, give their acceptance for £1000, and get the balance (£140) from the seller. At last, however, they became bankrupt, and paid 3s. per pound. My father lost £3300 by them; and a great many of the returned bills are still in my possession. Messrs John and William Thom lost about the same sum. The Bannermans of Perth lost £4000--in fact, were ruined by their loss. My father and the Thoms stood out. The Thoms lost very heavily by the Millers also. My father's losses by bad debts were fully £10,000 in all. John Thom of Uras, Stonehaven, was also one of the firm that lost heavily, and has always, to his credit, paid 20s. in the pound. It was a saying of an old friend of mine that no great breeder or great cattle-dealer ever died rich; and this has held good in the great majority of cases. John Elliot and William Brown bought largely of our Aberdeen cattle, and attended Aikey Fair as well as Falkirk. Brown, who was very clever, had raised himself from being an Irish drover. He rented a farm in the neighbourhood of Carlisle, and died a few years ago much respected. Elliot was a Carlisle man, and so were the Millers. Elliot latterly became a Smithfield salesman, but died many years ago. But Robert M'Turk stood, in my estimation, at the top of the tree. I have known him buy seventy score of Highlanders at the October Falkirk Tryst without dismounting from his pony. I have seen seventy-five score of Galloways belonging to him in one drove passing through Carlisle to Norfolk. I have known him buy from a thousand to two thousand of our large county cattle at Falkirk, sweeping the fair of the best lots before other buyers could make up their minds to begin. He rented large grazings in Dumfriesshire, where he wintered and grazed the Highlanders, and which, I believe, his relatives still retain. He was a warm friend, and very kind to me when I was almost a boy, and on a busy day he trusted me to cull the beasts he had bought from myself. I shall never see his like again at Falkirk or any other place. I have a vivid recollection of the stout-built man upon his pony, buying his cattle by the thousand; his calm and composed demeanour was a striking contrast to the noise made by some jobbers at our fairs in even the buying of an old cow. Although plain in manner, he was a thorough gentleman, devoid of slang and equivocation. He was the Captain Barclay of Dumfriesshire, and furnished an exception to my friend's remark, for he died in independent circumstances. He paid for all his cattle ready money. The Carmichaels were another extensive firm of English dealers; they bought largely at Falkirk, Aikey Fair, and in the north. Robert Carmichael, of Ratcliffe Farm, near Stirling, was many years appointed a judge of Highlanders at the Highland Society's shows. But we had also the Hawick Club, a set of giants--Halliburton, Scott, and Harper--a very wealthy firm; and James Scott died the other year worth seventy or eighty thousand pounds. As a company they seldom bought runts--a term by which our Aberdeen cattle were known to the English jobbers; they bought large lots of Highlanders, especially Highland heifers, in October and November; but they were open at all times, when they saw a good prospect of profit, to buy any number, or any sort. I once came through Mr Harper's hands at a bad Hallow Fair with seven score of Aberdeen runts in a way I should not like often to do. The business of the "Club" was principally confined to the months of October and November, but individually they had large stakes in the country. James Scott was one of the largest sheep-farmers in Scotland, and one of the greatest buyers of sheep at Inverness. I could tell many anecdotes of the firm of Halliburton & Co., but I fear tiring my readers. I will, however, venture on one or two. As I have already mentioned, they were very powerful men. On one occasion Halliburton had arrived at Braemar very tired to attend the fair. He had fallen asleep on the sofa, and a thief was busy rifling his pockets, when he awoke, took hold of the thief, held him with one hand as if he had been in a vice, and handed him over to justice. It was told of James Scott, who was a very quiet reserved man, that once when he was in the Highlands he was insulted by a party of Highland gentlemen; from better it came to worse, and ended in Scott nearly killing every man of them. Halliburton was much respected, but he was a great declaimer as to prices of cattle falling when he was a purchaser. At an Amulree market he was very early on the market-ground. A soft-looking country man, well dressed, came up with thirteen very fine polled cattle, which Halliburton bought at a price that _satisfied even him_ as to their cheapness. He took James Ritchie, an Aberdeen dealer, to see them. On hearing the price Ritchie was astonished. "Oh," said Halliburton, "I have often told you, James, what country men would do, but you would not believe me." The seller was very anxious to get the money, as he said he had horses to buy; but Halliburton told him horses were dangerous, and he must wait his time. He began to be suspicious that all was not right, and in a short time the seller was apprehended for stealing the cattle from Wemyss Castle. He was tried at Perth, and transported for fourteen years, and Halliburton and Ritchie had to give evidence. The judge said to Halliburton at the trial at Perth, "You surely must have known the cattle were too cheap." Halliburton answered, "My lord, the next market would have proved if they were too cheap or too dear." The payments at Falkirk were all made through the bankers; there were always from four to six bank-tents on the muir. When I took payment for my cattle I went generally with the buyer to the bank-tent. This was merely a common tent, with a bank-office attached. The banker calculated the amount, and received the money, which he put to my credit, and after I concluded my business I got an order for the amount on Aberdeen. This avoided all risk of forged notes, &c. Strange payments were sometimes offered. On one occasion an Irishman, who appeared to have been "holding his Christmas," bought sixty horned cattle from me, the best in the fair, at £14, 14s. a-head--a long price at that time. The beasts were good, and the price was good. He presented first £70 in gold; he then took out a handkerchief, the contents of which were £100, £20, £10, £5, and £1 notes. Such a miscellaneous payment I had never seen offered, and I believe no one else had, at Falkirk or any other place. It would have been hopeless for us to attempt counting it, and Mr Salmon, agent for the Commercial Bank, took the business in hand. Looking first at the confused mass of notes, all "head and tail," and then scanning the appearance of my customer, he began his task; but with all his practice it took him a quarter of an hour to assort the payment. He threw back two £1-notes to the buyer, who got into a towering passion, and, with words that I cannot put upon paper, asked him if he thought _he_ would offer forged notes. Mr Salmon meekly replied that M'Combie might take them if he pleased, he had got nothing to do with that, but he would not. Our Irish friend then exchanged the notes, for he had no want of money. I did not even know the gentleman's name; I never saw him before, and I never, to my knowledge, saw him afterwards. There were in such large markets as Falkirk and Hallow Fair great chances of good prices to be had at times. When cattle were selling dear, buyers from England, Wales, Ireland, and all parts of Scotland, congregated at Falkirk: they were not all judges alike, and some sellers at such a time were always sure of a good price. For the amusement of my readers, I will give a few examples. On the second day of an October Falkirk Tryst (I had sold out, as I generally did, the first day), I was standing with a dealer from the north who had forty or sixty--I think sixty--two-year-old polled stots to sell. He had just parted with a customer for 2s. 6d. a-head, having offered them at £8, 15s., and refused £8, 12s. 6d. A gentleman's land-steward came through the lot of cattle with a milk-white horse, and his eyes looked first to the right and then to the left with wonderful quickness. He asked the price of the cattle. I thought the seller's conscience a trifle lax when he asked £13, 13s. a-head. Being very young I turned my back, as I could not keep my gravity. The owner then asked what he would give. £11, 11s. was the answer. No sooner were the words out of the man's mouth than down came the clap, "They are yours." I could stand it no longer, and drew back aghast. The buyer became suspicious that all was not right; and my father, who was held in great esteem both by buyers and sellers, acted as umpire, to whom both parties referred the transaction. Being the only witness, I was closely interrogated by the umpire, the buyer, and the seller. I told the price asked and the price offered. The matter had now assumed a serious aspect. My father, after hearing the evidence, which was not denied, and the price having been fairly offered and accepted, could only decide one way. I recollect his words when he gave his decision: "Well, sir, the beasts are dear according to this market, but they are good growers, and you will soon make them worth it; my decision is, you must take them." They were paid for, and went across the ferry to Fife again. In a rising market I have seen cattle raised £1 a-head; and if the jobber does not take a price when there is a rise, and fairly in his power, he is a fool, for he will soon find out that the buyers will have no mercy upon the sellers when in their power. In all my experience, the above, in a dull day, or any other day, was the most glaring start I remember. I never attended the fairs in Angusshire, but on one occasion Mr Thom hauled me off to Forfar market in the beginning of November, before Hallow Fair of Edinburgh. We were in partnership at the time, and bought seventy small polled stots to take to Hallow Fair, to which we had sent off two or three droves the week before. We could get but one drover, a townsman, to assist in lifting them, and had to turn drovers ourselves. We had not gone above a mile on our way to Dundee with the cattle when it came on a fearful night of rain, and got very dark. Mr Thom quarrelled with the drover--a useless creature--and sent him about his business, so that we were left alone with our seventy beasts in the dark, on a road with which we were entirely unacquainted. We went on for hours, not knowing where we were going, till at last we came to a bothy, where we asked the servants what we were to do with our charge, and if we were on the road to the ferry at Dundee. We were told, first, that we had taken the wrong road, and were miles out of our way; and second, that we might put the cattle into a field close at hand. We put the cattle up accordingly, and went to a public-house near by, which was kept by a very decent man, Edward, a cattle-dealer. We got supper, and took an hour or two in bed; and between one and two o'clock in the morning, the rain having abated and the moon risen, we started the drove and had the beasts at Dundee and across the ferry by the first boat at eight o'clock in the morning, with no assistance whatever. We now started fairly on our destination for Edinburgh, and having got food for the cattle and bread and cheese for ourselves, about three miles up the south side of the Tay we hired a sort of drover, and bent our way by Rathillet. About dark we arrived at ---- (Mr Walker's), where we not only got as much turnips and straw to our beasts as they could eat, but were ourselves treated like princes by Mr Walker. He gave us the best bed in the house, would not let us go without a good breakfast in the morning, and would accept of scarcely any remuneration. We started for Lochgelly after breakfast, but Mr Thom persuaded me to turn off and take Falkland market, which was held that day, while he and the drover proceeded straight to Lochgelly with the cattle. Falkland was far out of the way, but he assured me there were plenty of horses to hire there, and that I could easily join him at Lochgelly at night. When I got to Falkland I found there were only four beasts in the market that suited our trade, which was not encouraging, as I did not want plenty of money if I could have got anything to lay it out on. I found also that Mr Thom had been mistaken about the hiring. Not a horse was to be got at any price, and I had no help but to set off on foot for Lochgelly, on a road I had never travelled. I had scarcely left Falkland when I was overtaken by a heavy rain which continued throughout my journey. I had first to climb a long steep hill for about three or four miles, and when at last I got to the public road, I found it one mass of mud, in consequence of the large coal traffic, and the heavy fall of rain. I had a deal of money with me, and as it was quite dark, I was rather uneasy about it, meeting so many miners and coal-carters under such circumstances, and in a part of the country with which I was utterly unacquainted. The road is a very long one, and with such a protracted soaking in the mud, my feet began to fail me. I at last reached my destination, however; and with considerable difficulty--for I had never been in Lochgelly before--I hunted up Mr Thom, whom I found comfortably quartered beside a good fire, with supper before him. But my troubles were not yet over. One of the servants at the place was leaving, and what was termed a "foy" was being held that night. She had collected a great number of her friends, who kept the house in an uproar the whole night. We went to bed, but could get no sleep, the row these revellers made was so great, and our bedroom door was all but broken open two or three times. Our remonstrances had no effect, and sleep being out of the question, we got up about one o'clock, hunted up our drover, and started our drove once more, although the night was as bad as could be. By about nine o'clock A.M. we arrived at Queensferry; but by this time I had strained my leg, and was unable to proceed. I was therefore left on the north side in charge of the cattle, while Mr Thom crossed to the south side to procure the necessary food for the other droves during the market. It will thus be seen that we droved the seventy cattle from Forfar market all the way to Queensferry in two days and three nights during the short day of November, going out of our way once as much as six miles. I cannot say what the distance was exactly, but it must have been at least seventy miles--a feat in cattle-droving unparalleled in my experience. After a day's rest I crossed the ferry with the cattle, assisted by the drover. The beasts were dreadfully jaded, and with difficulty reached their destination, within a mile of the market-stance. The journey had told severely upon them, and two went down immediately on reaching the field. We tried every means to stir them, but failed. They were hand-fed, and with great difficulty got to the market, where they were quickly sold, though how they were got to their destination I never learned. At a very good Hallow Fair, I had forty small-horned Cabrach beasts and forty small polled stirks standing alongside of each other. I had been within 7s. 6d. a-head of selling them once or twice, when a stranger priced them, a very well-to-do and apparently young man. My price was £7, 7s. a-head for the eighty. He just took one look through them, and said, "Well, I shall have them, and you meet me at the Black Bull at eight o'clock, and I will pay you for them." It not being the _custom of the trade_ to get all our askings, I was a little nervous about my customer, but found he was all right. I met him at the Black Bull at the hour mentioned. He was in great spirits, and paid me in Bank of England notes. Arthur Ritchie, Bithnie, a cattle-dealer from Aberdeen, used to tell the following story: In a bad Hallow Fair, towards sunsetting, a gentleman came round and asked the price of a lot of cattle. Arthur had given him a large halter, and he got an offer which he accepted. It was a great price for the market. The buyer refused afterwards to take them, and my father was made umpire. The buyer said that a glimmer came over his eyes, and he thought them better when he offered the price. However, he got ashamed, and took the cattle. An old respected servant of my own, who assisted me for years in the buying and selling of cattle--James Elmslie, very well known here and in the south--had sold twenty beasts very well at Hallow Fair for me. There was a "buffalo" among them of the worst type--a great big "buffalo dog." The buyer, when he paid them, said, "Well, James, if they had all been like the big one, I would not have grudged you the price." "Ah, sir," said James, "you would have difficulty in getting a lot like him!" I could scarcely keep my gravity. A very grave and solemn conclusion to a sale occurred to me at Hallow Fair. I had sold twenty beasts to a very rich farmer near North Berwick, who had bought many lots from me. He had employed a marker, who had just marked nineteen out of the twenty. The buyer was joking with me about the dearness of the cattle, when, in a moment, he dropped down dead, falling on his back, and never moving or speaking more. The event created such a sensation, that no more sales were made that day. The English dealers seldom came north except to Aikey Fair. Then we had the Armstrongs, the Millers, Murphy, and other English dealers, and it was quite a sight to witness the droves going south; but Aikey Fair has now lost its ancient glory, and is only the shadow of what it was. It was a sight I shall never witness more to see the whole hillside covered with innumerable herds of "Buchan hummlies." Mr Bruce of Millhill showed the largest lots, and stood at the top as an exhibitor. Talking of Buchan, the names of Bruce, Millhill, and Smart, Sandhole, were household words at my father's board. My father and myself have bought thousands of cattle from them; no agriculturists have ever been more respected in Buchan. Mr Bruce, perhaps, was as solid, but Smart was the more dashing man. I have never met any one who would do the same amount of business with as few words as Smart, and do it as well. As one example: He brought sixty beasts to Mintlaw market--cattle were low-priced at the time. I had the first offer of them: he asked £12, 12s. a-head. I offered £12, and we split the 12s. The whole transaction did not take up half of the time I require to write it. Mr Bruce and Mr Smart were the best judges in Buchan. We had other great exhibitors, Mr Bruce, Inverwhomrey; Mr Scott, Yokieshill; Mr Milne, Mill of Boyndie; Mr Paton, Towie; Mr Milne, Watermill, &c. Mr Mitchell, Fiddesbeg, the Browns, the Rattrays, Hay of Little Ythsie, and Wm. M'Donald, were all extensive dealers in cattle in those days. The following anecdote of William M'Donald was told by my father: It had been a very good September Falkirk market, and Mr John Geddes, Haddoch, who was an extensive home grazier and dealer, had a large stock of cattle on hand. M'Donald and my father were both anxious for the chance to buy them, and pushed through their business at Falkirk as fast as possible to get to Haddoch. At that time the dealers accomplished all their journeys on horseback, and prided themselves on the fleetness of their saddle-horses. My father thought no one his match in the saddle. He reached Haddoch on Wednesday at midnight--the first cattle-market day at Falkirk being on Tuesday--but the first thing he observed on drawing near to the house, which remains on the farm to this day, although a new one has been built, was the main room lighted up. On coming nearer, he heard voices fast and loud, and one was that of M'Donald! It was all over! M'Donald had fairly beat M'Combie in the chase. My father got hold of Mrs Geddes, worn-out and disappointed, and got quietly to bed; and I have often heard him tell how M'Donald's peals of laughter rang in his ears as the punch-bowl went round, even to the dawning of the day. Neither M'Donald nor Haddoch knew my father was in the house. He left in the morning for Clashbrae, where he bought some smaller lots from the farmer there, who was a local dealer. A word as to M'Donald: He was a stout-made middle-sized man, and spoke so fast over the "bowl" that no one could follow him. He had a good deal of mother-wit; and his great ambition was to be the owner of large droves of cattle. I have seen a drove belonging to him a mile and more long. Mr John Geddes was a man of high standing and great firmness of character. He wore the broad blue bonnet, with a long blue coat and clear buttons, and boot-hose, and rode a very fine cob pony with a long tail. He was of great strength of constitution, and could have sat twenty-four hours with the punch-bowl before him (it was always the bowl at Haddoch), and risen as sober as when he sat down. Such were the habits of those days. I never pass on the railway from Huntly to Rothiemay, but on casting my eye over the old house I recall the night described so graphically by my father. He and Haddoch had large transactions. After a bad October Tryst, where my father had sixteen score of Aberdeenshire cattle, and when he lost £4 a-head upon every beast, Mr Geddes returned him £70 as a luck-penny upon a large lot he had bought from him. There have few men appeared in the north of greater influence or of higher moral worth than the late Mr John Geddes of Haddoch. His landlord, the late Duke of Gordon, was proud of him, as well he might be. It was the general custom that the dealers came to the market-ground with their cattle, and immediately before them, to the part of the market-stance where they wished them to stand. It was quite a sight to see Mr Geddes on an Old Keith market-day (Old Keith Market, like Aikey Fair, is now only a shadow of its ancient greatness), with his broad bonnet, the long blue coat, the overall stockings, and mounted on a strong bay pony with its tail to the ground, at the head of a large lot of heavy cattle. Every one made room for his cattle, as he rode before them to the upper wall; it would have been of no use to resist, as the weight of his animals would have soon cleared the road for themselves; and as soon as the large black mass of horned cattle appeared in the valley below, the cry was, "There comes Haddoch! We must clear the way, or else his cattle will soon clear it at our expense." After the first lot was stationed, another and another followed in succession, which were placed beside the others, till perhaps there were 200 altogether; the different lots being all kept completely separate for the inspection of purchasers. Mr Geddes never went south with cattle, but sold them all at home. In a bad year he once got as far south as Tillyfour with 120 cattle in November. They were at Tillyfour a night, and my father bought them in the morning, but they were about a mile on the road before the bargain was struck. No one could have seen Mr Geddes without pronouncing him a man of mark. But the greatest dealer the county could claim, and one at the same time deeply engaged in agriculture and its interests, was Mr James Innes of Durris. Mr Innes was born at Leuchars in Morayshire; his father was Sheriff of Kincardineshire, and proprietor of Leuchars; his brother, Cosmo Innes, Esq., was Sheriff of Morayshire. The father of Mr James Innes bought the lease of the estate of Durris for ninety-nine years from the trustees of the Earl of Peterborough for £30,000 and an annual feu-duty of a few hundred pounds. Owing to some new views of the law of entail, the Duke of Gordon, the legal heir of the Earl of Peterborough, turned Mr Innes out of the estate after he had expended £95,000 in improvements, and after the case had been in court for fifteen years. Mr Innes farmed extensively, having had seven or eight farms in his own occupancy at the same time. He rode on horseback yearly to Falkirk, and bought a large lot of Highland cattle. He generally had 200 cattle, 1500 sheep, and from ten to twelve pairs of horses on his farms. Mr Innes's horses went at the top of their speed in cart and plough; they had all breeding. No standing was allowed when the horses were in harness. In a busy day in harvest, and when the horses were yoked double, you would have seen Mr Innes's horses driving in the corn at a smart gallop. The harvest-carts were wide, railed and framed on both sides, with one or two cross bearers. In a "leading" day Mr Innes was a sure hand at the fork in the stackyard, and the man on the stack and the man on the cart had to look out. Mr Innes was no trifler, and would not be trifled with; but if an accident happened he made no remarks. He did not transact business by commission, but purchased both the cattle and sheep himself. The aged West Highlanders were sent to the wood during winter; the year-old Highlanders were put into the strawyards; and the four-year-old Aberdeens were bought for stall-feeding. Black-faced wethers were sent to the low pasture and for turnip-feeding. An annual sale of cattle and letting of grass took place about the 20th May. Mr Innes was famed for growing turnips. He gained the prize of £50, given by the Highland Society for the best field of turnips in the north of Scotland, twenty acres of yellow and ten of globe turnips. Deacon Williamson's six and eight year old Aberdeen work oxen--these were not the days of quick returns in cattle--consumed them, and they went to the Greenland whale-ships at last. Mr Innes was the poor man's friend, and a kind master to his servants, but a cool determined man. Although standing almost six feet three inches in height, he was a splendid horseman; when crossing the Dee he made his horse jump into the boat with himself upon his back. He galloped as the crow flies from one farm to another, and was at the head of everything himself. He was an intimate friend of the late Lord Kennedy, Captain Barclay of Ury, Farquharson of Finzean, Davidson of Balnagask, and Cruickshank of Langley Park. He sometimes took a holiday with them; and even entered for a time into some of their frolics, when his seedtime and harvest were finished: he was quite fit to keep his own with them. He was well educated, wrote out his leases, collected his rents, could floor any one in court, and was very popular as a justice. Mr Cruickshank of Langley Park and Mr Innes afterwards quarrelled: the quarrel originating at Blackhall. There had been a good deal of chaffing between them, which ended in a row. Cruickshank went home and wrote a challenge to Innes, and Innes went home and wrote one to Cruickshank. They met and fought at Laurencekirk: Major C. Robertson, Kindface, Invergordon, was Cruickshank's second, and Dr Hoyle, Montrose, was in attendance as surgeon. ---- ---- was Innes's second, and Dr Skene, Aberdeen, his surgeon. After the first fire the seconds stopped proceedings; but Mr Innes's mother had intercepted a letter, which she gave to her son after the first duel, and Mr Innes forthwith sent another challenge to Cruickshank. They fought again at Bourtreebush, half-way between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. Mr John Stewart, late in Anguston (who was a great friend of the laird of Durris) was standing with Mr Innes at the Plainstones, in Aberdeen. Mr Innes looked at the town clock, and said, "My time is up; but you will meet me at breakfast to-morrow at Durris at eight." He did not say what he was to be about. Mr William Walker, who was afterwards three years overseer to Mr Innes at Durris, tells that he thinks it was in June or July 1819 that his father's servant and himself were carting home fuel from near Bourtreebush, when they observed two carriages on the turnpike from Aberdeen driving at a furious pace. The carriages stopped in an instant within 300 yards of the inn; several gentlemen alighted and walked into the nearest field, and in a few minutes shots were twice exchanged, one party and carriage leaving twenty minutes before the other, in the direction of Stonehaven. At the second shot Mr Innes was wounded in the thigh; and it was a close shave on the other side, for Mr Innes's ball went through Mr Cruickshank's whiskers. Mr Innes, however, kept his appointment with Mr Stewart next morning. Mr Stewart said that he met him at Durris House at breakfast. He came down stairs with his wonted agility, in the best of spirits, and shook hands with him; but he seemed to tremble a little, and his hands fell downwards, and although he never mentioned the duel, Mr Stewart afterwards heard he was wounded in the groin. For the above account of the second famous duel fought between Mr Innes and Mr Cruickshank of Langley Park, I am indebted to Mr William Walker and Mr John Stewart, late of Anguston. The two were, however, great friends ever after. I was well acquainted with Alexander Davidson, the notorious poacher and smuggler. He was a very powerful man, and his whole body was covered with hair like that of an ox. He was a favourite with many of the gentlemen, and was often sent for by them to show his feats of strength and agility. He could shoot in a direct line from Braemar to Aberdeen with very little interruption. From many of the proprietors he had permission to take a run through their property; others winked at him: from myself, then acting for my father, he had permission to go on his course. He was very polite in his askings, and put it thus: "Will you have the goodness to allow me to go through your property when I am on my annual tour? I will not poach it; I will keep the straight line, and only kill what may be on my way." I believe Davidson was true to his promise; but if he was refused permission, and if any attempt was made to entrap him, he had his revenge: he would shoot and poach on that property for days, and no one could take him. In the year 1820 Mr Innes and Mr Davidson of Balnagask gave their support to Davidson against Lord Kennedy and Mr Farquharson of Finzean, who laid a bet of £50 that Davidson would not run without clothing from Barkley Street, Stonehaven, to the gate of Inchmarlo in a given time. It was thought that Davidson's feet must fail him. At the Bridge of Banchory there was a posse of wives, with Mrs Duncan the toll-mistress at their head, ready to make an onslaught on poor Davidson. They had been hired, some at five shillings, some at ten, and the leader, Mrs Duncan, at twenty shillings, and came prepared with their aprons full of stones and other missiles, and Mrs Duncan had in addition a large knotty stick. When Davidson came in sight he saw the trap that was laid for him, and drew up for breath before he came within the enemy's reach. The fearful rush and the unearthly appearance of Davidson took his enemies by surprise; their missiles fell wide of the mark, and with a few tremendous bounds he passed the wives and the bridge. Mrs Duncan was in a towering passion because Davidson had escaped, after all her generalship, and declared, not in the most becoming language, "that it was not a man, but a beast." Davidson was safe, and reached the gate of Inchmarlo up to time, and pocketed the £50. Davidson was at last found dead on the hills, with his faithful pointer standing over him. Captain Barclay of Ury and Mr Innes laid a heavy bet with Finzean that they would produce six better men in Durris than Finzean could do in all his estates. The men were selected, and the day was fixed; a long and strong rope was procured, which crossed the Dee, and twelve yards to each side extra, to allow the men to be tied in at regular distances from each other. At the place chosen to decide the wager the river had sloping banks on each side. Those who got the first start were sure to pull the others probably nearly through the river; the tide would then be turned, and the other party be as successful with their opponents. So matters went on several times, until it was found necessary to stop, and no decision could be given. The poor men got a proper ducking, and some of them were even in great danger of being drowned or hanged, as they were all tied into the ropes. I was very well acquainted with the late Captain Barclay, who was the lineal descendant of the author of the 'Apology for the Quakers,' and claimant of the earldom of Monteith, and was familiarly designated "the father of the shorthorns." Though Captain Barclay remains without a national acknowledgment of his merits, no man deserved better of the farmers of Scotland; for he was their firm supporter through life in good and bad report. Captain Barclay was in many respects a remarkable man--one not to be forgotten by any one who had once met him. I have been many a day in company with him, and have the most vivid recollection of him as he examined the stock in a show-yard. Pacing along from class to class, I think I see him drawing his open hand leisurely down over his chin, and, as he met an acquaintance, saying in his deep sonorous voice, "How do you do?" laying the emphasis on the "how," and passing on. No one would have made any mistake as to Captain Barclay being a gentleman, although his dress was plain--a long green coat with velvet collar and big yellow buttons, a coloured handkerchief, long yellow cashmere vest, knee-breeches, very wide top-boots with long brown dirty tops, and plain black hat, generally pretty well worn. When at home he wore knee-breeches with patches on the knees, coarse stockings, and large shoes. Captain Barclay carried through with energy whatever he took in hand. The "Defiance" must go its twelve miles an hour including stoppages. He took a great delight in driving the "Defiance," wearing the red coat with the "Defiance" buttons; and on one occasion he drove the mail from London to Stonehaven out and out. His horses were the strongest and his fields the largest in the country. He said "he did not like a field in which the cattle could see one another every day." He put four horses in his waggons, and never sent less than 20 bolls (16 quarters) of grain to Aberdeen upon a waggon. It was a great sight to see four or five of Captain Barclay's waggons going down Marischal Street. The houses shook, the inhabitants were alarmed, and nervous people thought the houses would tumble down. Captain Barclay could not tolerate a boaster or puppy in any shape. A few years before his death he happened to be in the coffee-room, Market Street, Aberdeen, one evening along with some of his friends. A fast young man took out £20 and boasted he would run a mile in a certain time: he was not aware that Captain B. was present. The Captain covered the money, and the £40 was lodged with the stakeholder. "Now, my man," said the Captain (turning the quid of tobacco once or twice in his mouth, and taking his hand down from his nose to his chin), in his prolonged solemn tone, "we will put you to time." The race was run and lost. The Captain was walking one day in his park when he came on an intruder in the shape of an ass. He seized the donkey and threw it over the wall of the park. To his astonishment the animal was returned. The Captain pitched him over again, and again he came back. This was repeated several times, till at last the Captain went outside the wall and found that it was a gypsy that was his match. He was so much pleased with the prowess of the man, that he took him to the mansion-house of Ury, treated him to all he could eat and drink, and gave him permission to graze his donkey as often as he liked on the policies of Ury. One morning, when the Captain was driving the "Defiance," there was a plain country woman sitting behind him. A gentleman wished to deprive the woman of her seat. The Captain remonstrated with him and bade him let the poor woman alone. The stranger did not know that it was Captain Barclay, and went on from better to worse, till he told the Captain if he would stop the coach and come down he would settle the matter with him. The Captain immediately stopped the coach, saying, "I suppose I must gratify you," gave the reins to Davie Troup, and jumped down with his top-coat on. The stranger advised him to strip. "Oh no," said the Captain, "that would be troublesome." His opponent, a very strong man, rushed at him like a bull-dog. The Captain put on his guard, looked at his antagonist for a moment or two, turned the quid of tobacco once or twice in his mouth, and then gave him a blow that felled him to the ground like a log of wood. He got to his feet again, when the Captain doubled the dose. The stranger was satisfied, and said, "You must either be the devil or Captain Barclay of Ury." "I am not the former," said the Captain, "but I am the latter." A stranger would hardly at first sight have got an adequate impression of Captain Barclay's power, but his appearance grew upon you when you came close to him; you then saw his great strength. He was a very round-made man, shaped for great endurance, which was put to a severe test when, in 1809, he walked a thousand miles in a thousand hours. His man Cross, who attended him, described to me the difficulty of his task in keeping him awake. At first he had to apply the stick and the lash, and the Captain growled most hideously at him; but latterly, when he saw he was to win, he improved in strength and spirits every hour till the end. After two days' rest he went on the Walcheren expedition. When past sixty he would walk twenty or thirty miles to dinner. I could relate many interesting reminiscences of Captain Barclay, but as most of them have been published already, I have only given a few well-authenticated anecdotes, which, so far as I know, have never before appeared. He was found dead in his bed in 1854: and in him the tenant-farmers of Scotland and the poor of his own neighbourhood lost one of their best friends. While speaking of Milner I referred to the great feats performed in those days with the sickle. I remember a Highland woman, "black Bell," who made sixteen to eighteen threaves (384 to 432 sheaves) daily in harvest of good-sized sheaves; but George Bruce, Ardgows, in the parish of Tough, could shear thirty-six threaves in a day, and bind and stook it. However incredible this may appear, it is a fact. I have seen him shearing after he was an old man; he drove the "rig" of say eighteen feet from side to side, and never lifted his hand till he had a sheaf. He used a long sickle, and drew the corn to him. I cannot describe his method properly. He was a tall, thin, wiry man, with very long arms. My father used to tell how my grandfather sent two men and two women to give George Bruce a day's shearing, and how George came with a little girl (who did little or nothing but make bands for her master), and how my grandfather asked him "if that was the way he intended to pay his debt." George replied that "he could put his four shearers on one 'rig'"--they were fully an average of the shearers in the country--"and he and the lassie would take the other." They started accordingly, and Bruce kept ahead of them throughout the day. III. THE CATTLE TRADE, THEN AND NOW. The lean-cattle trade is a most dangerous one, and I would not advise any young friend of mine to engage in it. I believe for one who has succeeded twenty have gone down. This is true, at least, as far as droving from the north to the south of Scotland and England is concerned. Home jobbers have been more fortunate, though I am not acquainted with many who have done much good. There are many temptations connected with it, and it requires a strong mind to resist them. I have only given the bright side of the picture; but let us look for a moment at the other. I have told that great chances are got by some at times; these, however, are exceptional to the general rule. Lean cattle are sold by value as well as fat, and if well bought will be easily sold. I found it the safe plan to buy a small drove well. It was only a little trade that I carried on--I never had fewer than from seven to ten score, and my largest droves never exceeded eighteen score; as a consequence, my losses were not heavy nor my profits very great. When I was in the trade the price of cattle was very low, which lessened my risk, but I have known £2 a-head lost over a large drove. During the French war the price of cattle became very high; and £4 a-head, and even much more, would sometimes be lost or gained on droving cattle. My father when a young man went to the far north--to Caithness, Sutherland, Skye, and the islands--and bought large droves of Highland cattle and brought them home. They were disposed of often by public roup in this county, or driven to the southern markets. At that time there were few regular markets in these counties, but the dealers when they went to the country cried a market, announcing that they would meet the sellers on a certain day and at a convenient place, and in this way the trade was carried out. Large profits were obtained; but the dealers were liable to heavy losses, especially in spring, the cattle being then but skin and bone, and many dying in the transit. My father lost in one night, after swimming the Spey, seventeen old Caithness runts. There were no bridges in those days. It came on a severe frost after the cattle had swam the river. The value of bone-manure was unknown, and their bones bleached in the sun on the braes of Auchindown for more than thirty years, and remains of them were visible within the last few years. My father not only carried on a very large trade to the Falkirk markets, but also a very extensive business to England, and had a salesman who attended all the great English fairs, particularly in Leicestershire, who sold drove after drove that were bought by my father here. Referring to documents in my possession, I find he had in one year 1500 head of cattle at the October Tryst of Falkirk, 800 of which were Highlanders, and the remainder Aberdeen cattle. The Highlanders were grazed in Braemar, on the Geldie, Boynach, and Corryvrone, the property of the Earl of Fife. His books show a clear profit at that fair of £2000, and the year following of £1500. Prices of cattle were very high during the war. I observe the prices of three heavy lots of horned Aberdeen cattle sold in Cumberland--viz., £22, £23, 10s., and £25 a-head. A Carlisle carrier, I have often heard my father say, was the purchaser. He declared he bought them for eating up his horse-litter. Steam navigation and the use of bone-dust being both introduced about the same time, shortly produced a complete revolution in the cattle trade; feeding soon became general, from the larger breadth and heavier crops of turnips grown; droving annually diminished, till now it has all but ceased, almost all the herds in Aberdeenshire being fattened, besides many brought in from north and south. The late Mr Hay, Shethin; Mr Lumsden, Aquhorthies; and his brother, Mr Lumsden, Eggie; Mr Milne, Fornet; Mr Mitchell, Fiddesbeg; Mr Stoddart, Cultercullen; Deacon Milne, and Deacon Spark, took the lead; and to these gentlemen the credit is due for being the first to introduce a proper and profitable system of feeding cattle in Aberdeenshire. More attention was also paid to the breeding department. James Anderson, Pitcarry, was the first man who shipped a beast from Aberdeen to London; his venture was two Angus polled oxen. The late Mr Hay, Shethin, was the first who sent cattle by rail from Aberdeen; his venture was a truck of Highlanders. The shipping of cattle gradually and rapidly increased, and soon became a great trade from our ports, many sailing-vessels, as well as steamers, being brought into requisition. Lean cattle were sent by sea instead of road. We had at that time no railway, and the expense was heavy. On a fat bullock it was from £2, 10s. a-head to £3 by steamer; by the sailing-vessels, however, it was only about £1, 10s. a-head. Sometimes they made quick passages, but this was uncertain; and I have known them a month at sea. I have seen the same cargo of cattle driven back to Aberdeen two or three times. I have been in the hold of the vessel when they were driven back, and shall never forget the scene when the buckets and water were brought forward; you would have thought the ship would have rent asunder by the struggles of the cattle to get at the water. I have sent cargoes of lean cattle by sailing-vessels to Barnett, Woolpit, &c. I have had them driven back after being days at sea. It was while inspecting one of these cargoes that I witnessed the scene of watering I have described. I lost money by that branch of my business, and I gave it up. Although the loss by deterioration of condition must have been great, it was astonishing how few deaths occurred in the sailing-vessels; the proportion was greater in the steamers. A year seldom passed without the shippers having heavy losses. I was owner of part of the cattle when every beast on board the Duke of Wellington, except three (one belonging to me, and he had to be carted from the boat, and two belonging to Mr Farquharson of Asloun), was either thrown overboard or smothered in the hold. The sailors told that a blackhorned Bogieside ox, belonging to Mr Hay, swam for several miles after the ship. I have made inquiry of the cattle-man as to the scene in the hold of a steamer in a storm amongst the cattle. He said, "I went once down to the hold amongst them, but I was glad to get back with my life; and although you had given me the ship and all upon her, I would not have gone back." He declared that, though you had set a hundred men with heavy flails in operation at one time beating upon the side of the ship, it would not have been worse than the legs of the cattle beating upon each other and all within their reach. The owners of the Aberdeen steamers have always been anxious to accommodate their customers; and about twelve years ago they raised an insurance fund for the protection of the shippers. They laid past one shilling for every beast they shipped to meet deaths and accidents, and they have most honourably paid the losses incurred by the shippers of cattle. It is a good arrangement for both parties; it gives confidence to the shippers, and no doubt has a tendency to make the owners more careful in not sending their ships to sea if danger is apprehended. The cattle go well by sea when the weather is moderate, but in rough weather they are safer by rail. The above description will give some idea of the hardships the poor beasts endure in the hold when overtaken by a storm. I have seen my own cattle, after they were taken from the hold of the steamboat at London, so changed in appearance that I could not identify them, and could not tell whether they were black or grey. I should most seriously advise the Railway Company to adopt some method of insurance, to avoid the unseemly squabbles that are daily occurring with the senders of live cattle and dead meat. It is not my province to make any remarks on the late rise of the freight on cattle by the Steamboat Company and the Railway. The matter is in their own hands; but I think conciliation, owing to the present state of feeling, might have been their wisest policy; however, we will allow them to be the best judges. It will now be our study, for our own protection, to exert our influence in the proper quarter to have our grievances removed. The method of transit is an important subject to the owners of the cattle, to the landowners, and to the consumers. I have no doubt whatsoever that a legislative enactment will make all right by-and-by. I cannot leave this subject without noticing Scott, the cattle-traffic manager of the Caledonian Company at Aberdeen, and John Henry, the cattle-traffic manager of the Aberdeen and London Steam Navigation Company--men who deserve to wear a better coat, and who have done everything in their power for the interest of the senders of cattle. I believe there is difficulty in avoiding causes of complaint at all times where there are so many servants, and the senders of cattle are sometimes themselves to blame. I have never myself lost a beast by rail; I prepare my cattle for their journey before they start from home. My heavy cattle are turned out three different times at least before they are sent to rail. I walk them in a lea field: the first day they are put out four hours; I then give them a day to rest; turn them out again on the second day and increase the distance, and they come quite fresh out of the trucks at London. What can an owner of cattle expect but that some will go down if he take his cattle six, eight, or ten miles without their ever having left the stall for five or eight months before, and put them on to rail? Many hundreds of good oxen have been lost in this way, or crushed and bruised. Cattle when tied up are kept in an unnatural state; they often take founder when at the stall as a consequence, and sometimes paralysis; but such moderate exercise as I have described tends to bring them back to their natural state. I have often been asked the question by those who had seen my Christmas market cattle--"How is it that your beasts are so good upon their legs compared with others?" The first day after the cattle are put out for four hours they will not look so well, and will return to the stalls very much fatigued; but on the second and third days of their exercise they will recover their wonted appearance. They will walk eight or ten miles in a morning and go fresh into the truck, and on reaching their destination will come out and stand well up in the market. Founder generally yields to bleeding and two or three doses of salts with sulphur and ginger: I never saw this treatment fail. Paralysis is a more serious matter: in that case the firing-iron must be applied, and after the most skilful treatment the results are often very unsatisfactory. Cattle of all ages that are confined are liable to paralysis of the hind quarters; the complaint, however, is most prevalent among young bulls, and although removed, they generally lose from six to twelve months' growth. Cattle that have been confined to the stall, and even straw-yard cattle, are utterly unfit for the road, on account of the softness of their hoofs, and when put to it at once, are very apt to take paralysis if not carefully prepared by previous exercise. A certain season of the year is more especially to be guarded against--viz., from the middle of March to the middle of May. Cattle that have been two weeks at grass may, however, be safely droved. Every one who has been in the cattle trade will recollect the losses he has sustained in spring, in the transit of cattle, by the animals throwing their hoofs; and we can all remember how often we have seen our beasts, especially in dry warm weather in spring, lying on the roads, and how we had to cart them home or to the nearest slaughtering shop. If there be a separation of the hoof at the top from the skin, and if a white frothy substance oozes out at this break, it is a sure sign that irreparable injury has been done. The beast will pine on for six months, and at last throw the old hoof when a new one has grown up. This is a more teasing case to the owner than when the hoof is thrown at once. The animal should be slaughtered immediately, if at all in condition, as it will not only lose condition every day till the hoof comes off, but be a bad thriver ever after. Five or six miles of bad driving at this season is enough to do the whole business. If cattle should cast their hoofs, or even one hoof, suddenly, if at all in condition, they should also be slaughtered without delay, as they will pine for six months and be a daily grievance to the owner. If it be a young or valuable breeding animal, however, it should be bled, and get two or three doses of cooling medicine to remove the inflammation; then soiled in a loose-box, and his feet well bound up with tow and tar. If animals are not slaughtered, I would recommend soiling in all cases, if possible. But "prevention is better than cure;" and all this can be avoided if we will only take proper precautions. I shall state the method I adopt in my practice, and I have paid dearly for my experience. I generally buy a good many beasts in spring in Morayshire, and sometimes winter a lot or two there. Until within a few years we had no railway conveyance, and the cattle all came by road. Before the time appointed for lifting the cattle, I sent across three or four able-bodied men who were acquainted with the dressing of the feet. Beginning their operations at the most northern point of the county, and going from one farm to another where the cattle were wintered, they dressed every hoof of every bullock that required it. By dressing, and by the proper training of the cattle before starting, I have brought home thousands of them safe and sound. Proper attention was no doubt paid to the droving, the men who had charge of them being trained to the occupation. Short stages and plenty of food are indispensable to their safe arrival. It is of great importance, in order to cattle thriving upon grass, to have their feet properly dressed; and many of our careful farmers have their cattle's feet dressed every year before they are put out to grass, even although they are not sent from the farm. The general method adopted in dressing is to take up the leg with a rope run from the couple; this, however, must be a severe strain on the beasts. The method I adopted when I was in the lean-cattle trade was different: the bullock was driven to a wall; a man, or two men, secured him by the nose and the back of the neck. The fore feet were easy to hold up--one man could generally manage them; but the hind feet were not so easy a matter, and it always required two, and sometimes three, strong men to hold them up. It is done entirely by method: not allowing the beast to stretch out his legs is the whole secret. The bullock has no power if his legs are kept close to his hind quarters; but if he is allowed to stretch them out, he will throw off any number of men. Two men, one on each side, put their backs close to the hind quarters of the bullock, and keep in his leg, not allowing him to strike it out. There he is fixed; and the topsman, who is generally an adept at the business, dresses the foot. Before the introduction of railways shoeing was sometimes required, but more frequently in autumn than in spring. In bad weather many of the cattle had to be shod, else they never could have performed their journeys. In wet weather their hoofs wore through to the sensitive parts, and they got lame; but when properly shod, they immediately recovered and took the front of the drove. The following may appear incredible, but it will show the proficiency some men attained in the art. Robert Gall of Kennethmont on one occasion shod seventy cattle to me in one day, near Perth, and no rope ever touched them in the field. It should, however, be remembered that cattle, after being driven a distance, get more easily handled. Robert Smith, one of the few of the old race of drovers now alive, and who is still in my service, assisted in this great performance. I should explain, for the sake of the general reader, that the inside hoof of the fore foot is generally the first to wear through. Many of the cattle had only one or two hoofs shod, others perhaps three or four, and an exceptional beast would have every one of the eight done. The shoes were made at the Crossgates of Fife; they were sent by coach to different cattle stations, and the men, by rotation, had to carry a supply upon their backs. It may seem a strange fact that no other blacksmith could make nails equal to those made at the Crossgates. The men would not hear of any others; they said they would not drive. The Crossgates blacksmith not only supplied the Scotch drovers, but also the English lean-cattle jobbers. As to fat cattle for market, after they are trained, they should not go a yard except by rail or steamboat. As to trucking store cattle, this must be regulated entirely by the season of the year and the weight of the cattle, &c. I have always had a reluctance to truck store cattle if I could possibly avoid it, not only for the expense, but for the risk incurred from dirty and infected trucks. I would recommend, if the cattle have a distance to travel in March, April, and May, and until they have been fourteen days at grass, that they should be trucked. But I have often been astonished at the recklessness of farmers buying cattle in a fair, going straight to the nearest station, and turning them into any dirty truck they can get--(when are trucks other than dirty?) The danger is great; despite the utmost circumspection, even the most careful may sometimes be caught. If those who act so escape, it is not owing to their good management. I would recommend my friends, when they go to a fair for the purpose of purchasing cattle, to take a confidential servant of their own along with them, or else make it a part of the bargain that the owner keeps the cattle for a certain time, till the buyer can get the trucks properly cleaned--which I find no difficulty in getting done--so that before they allow their cattle to be trucked they may be satisfied the trucks are thoroughly cleaned. They should be washed over with chloride of lime, or, what is still better, given a fresh coat of paint. Three to four shillings will paint a truck; that is a small matter--say sixpence a-head; but care must be taken that the paint is dry before the cattle are put into the truck, else the beasts will be poisoned. If this is neglected, there is great risk of bringing home foot-and-mouth disease, or even the lung disease. Some say that it was impossible to attend to such an operation--that business called them home, and that people would not take home their cattle. I have never found any difficulty in my own experience; but I must allow that some sellers are too distant to send the cattle home. In such an emergency the beasts should be laid past upon a little hay or straw for a day in the neighbourhood; there is always a field to be had, or the market green. What is a day, or a man or two, and a night's hay, if your beasts come safe? Disease has been carried in this way to hundreds of steadings, and the results have been most disastrous. The day's rest will be a great advantage to the cattle after the fatigue of standing in the market. The main object with store cattle should be to keep them sound on their feet and free from disease. If their transit is to be by rail, the quality of their food for a day or two is of minor importance; they will soon recover. It would be foolish to truck store cattle after they have been at grass for a few weeks. Their feet get hardened, and in the end of May, and in June, July, and August, there is no risk of injuring the beasts by driving in easy stages from ten to fourteen miles a-day. At that season cattle can hedge it; they will live almost on what they pick up on the roadsides as they go along. Your cattle arrive safe and sound, and free from all trouble and risk as respects trucks. In the dead-meat trade there has now sprung up a new trade and almost a new race of men. The quantity of dead meat sent from Aberdeen regulates the Newgate market. Mr Bonser, the great dead-meat salesman, states in his evidence before a committee of the House of Commons, "that there are no others that know the beasts for the London market equal to the Aberdeen butchers, and from no other place does it arrive in the same condition; and this may be owing to the cold climate." Mr Wilson of Edinburgh put the question to the Chamber of Agriculture, "What is the reason that the Aberdeenshire cattle proved better and carried more good flesh than any other cattle?" Mr Wilson's question is perhaps not very easily answered, but I should give as some of the reasons the following:--The Aberdeenshire farmers have turned their attention almost exclusively to the breeding and feeding of cattle. They have continued for a long period, without regard to price, in many cases, to introduce the best blood into their herds. By a long-continued infusion of first-class animals, and weeding out inferior animals, they have established a breed unequalled for meat-producing qualities in Britain. The Aberdeenshire turnips have been proved by analysis to be of a very superior quality, and it is likewise a good grazing county. Another point is the great attention paid to calves after weaning, and not allowing them to lose the calf-flesh, which, if lost, can never be regained. But the indomitable perseverance of the farmers in selecting good and weeding out inferior animals is, I think, the main cause. It will be seen by the following table that the dead-meat trade has become one of the great institutions of the country. There are hundreds engaged in the business, and it is yearly increasing. Amongst the greatest senders are Messrs Butler, Skinner, Wishart, and Wisely, and White of Aberdeen; but a great deal of dead meat is also sent from the rural districts. When the supply is short, some of our most enterprising butchers attend the Glasgow market, bring down cattle, and slaughter them in Aberdeen, and send their carcasses to London. I have known Mr Butler bring down fifty in one week. The following table shows the number of cattle and tons of dead meat sent to the London and other markets during 1865 and the six previous years; it also shows what was sent by rail and sea respectively:-- CATTLE. DEAD MEAT. Year. Rail. Sea. Rail. Sea. 1859 13,130 7,282 6,905 tons. 48 tons. 1860 13,993 3,782 5,769 tons. 53 tons. 1861 8,852 8,324 8,041 tons. 127 tons. 1862 6,281 4,518 9,392 tons. 76 tons. 1863 9,623 4,163 9,395 tons. 58 tons. 1864 7,624 3,551 9,840 tons. 2 tons. 1865 9,031 4,558 10,074 tons. 61 tons. Taking the year 1865, there were 10,074 tons of dead meat sent by rail, and 61 tons by sea. Calculating that 6 cwt. was the average weight of the cattle, this will show that 33,783 cattle were sent away from Aberdeen as dead meat, against 9031 live cattle by rail and 4558 by sea, so that 20,194 more were sent away dead than alive. The live cattle would weigh 7 cwt., or 1 cwt. more than the dead.[4] [4] Since the amalgamation between the Caledonian Railway and the Scottish North-Eastern took place, the returns of cattle and dead meat sent to London and elsewhere have not been given to the public. The Caledonian Company refused repeatedly to give them, and when pressed by myself, offered to let me have access to the accumulated pile of forwarding-notes for the last four years! The following valuable statistics, compiled by Mr James Valentine, Aberdeen, show that the proportion of dead meat sent to London is on the increase:-- 1. The _cattle and dead meat sent by sea_ during the past three years stood:-- CATTLE. DEAD MEAT. Year. Number. Tons. 1866, 5483 499 1867, 2770 487 1868, 6313 380 2. _Of dead meat booked "through" per Great North of Scotland Railway_, the amount for five years was:-- Year. Tons. 1864 1848 1865 2874 1866 3346 1867 3414 1868 3544 3. The number of _cattle-hides_ passing through the hands of the dealers in Aberdeen during 1867 was, in whole, 49,181. In 1868 the number was 42,115, besides 13,167 from the county, and 3125 from Kincardineshire. If we set down each animal slaughtered at 6 cwt., this would give a total of 17,500 tons; or, deducting the town's consumption (say 2500 tons), 15,000 tons sent south for the year. Probably, however, though hides to this amount dealt with in Aberdeen, represent meat as stated, part of the meat may be included in the category "booked through per Great North." Supposing, therefore, that the whole amount of dead meat despatched from Aberdeen from every quarter, in 1868, was 15,000 tons, we may assume that, in addition, 7500 cattle were sent south. The tendency of late years has undoubtedly been to send fewer live stock and more dead meat to the London market, and also to send more cattle by sea and dead meat by rail. I have stated that almost a new race of men has sprung up within the last forty years. Very few are now alive that were prominent in the cattle trade at that time; there are, however, some alive that I may name: Mr Anderson, Pitcarry; Mr Lumsden, Aquhorthies; and Mr Stoddart, Cultercullen. These must always hold a prominent position in the cattle trade of Aberdeenshire, as Mr Anderson was the first man that shipped cattle from Aberdeen, and Messrs Lumsden and Stoddart distinguished themselves in Aberdeenshire as two of our best judges, and were amongst the first to see and take advantage of steam communication. They are now the oldest of the Aberdeen shippers of cattle. They were some of the first to develop and mature that system of feeding which has made Aberdeenshire celebrated through Britain. The Aberdeen butchers have a higher standing than can be claimed by their brethren in any other part of the kingdom. The butchers in other cities are generally only purveyors, and never dispute the honours of the show-yard with the grazier or breeder. They buy their weekly supply at their weekly markets; but many of the chief Aberdeen butchers do not depend upon the market for their supplies, but feed large lots of fine cattle and sheep themselves to meet emergencies, upon which they can fall back. They do more than this; they are the largest and most successful exhibitors at our great annual fat shows. They are not only great purveyors themselves, but they supply a good proportion of the Christmas prize animals to the chief butchers of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Newcastle, York, Darlington, Edinburgh, Glasgow, &c. The names of Martin, Stewart, Knowles, &c., are celebrated not only in Great Britain, but in France. Such men are public benefactors, and entitled to the gratitude of their country. Messrs James and William Martin (butchers to the Queen) kill and retail 40 beasts and 100 sheep weekly. Messrs Knowles, Stewart, and Milne, have grand retail trades, but Mr White perhaps retails as much as, if not more than, any of them. It is a great sight to see the display of meat and the immense crowd of purchasers in his shop on a Friday forenoon. Mr White is a man who has raised himself to the highest position by his steadiness and persevering energy. He is one of those men who cannot be kept down. These butchers are also great senders of live cattle to London. At the great market they stand pre-eminent. The Messrs Martin, who stand at the top, send as many as 100 or 150 cattle, worth from £35 to £50 a-head. Messrs Stewart, Knowles, Wishart, and Wisely, &c., send yearly splendid lots. Messrs Wishart and Wisely, as feeders and dealers, are gradually drawing to the top. They feed a great many superior cattle, and put an immense number through their hands. Many of them they send alive to London, but they also send an enormous quantity of dead meat. No men in the trade know their business better. Mr Martin, however, must still stand at the top. As an example, I may mention that he exhibited a four-year-old Highlander at Birmingham, London, and Liverpool in 1868, which gained the first prize at each of these places. His head now adorns Mr Martin's shop in New Market, alongside of the royal arms, the firm being butchers to her Majesty. It is a perfect model of what the head of a Highlander should be. Deacon Milne, however, surpassed them all for several years, if not in numbers, in the quality and value of the animals he forwarded to the great Christmas market. For several years Mr Skinner, Woodside, has sent about 100 valuable animals to the Christmas market. He is one of the greatest senders of dead meat, and he also feeds a large lot of bullocks. To speak of all the senders of dead meat, butchers, and jobbers, in the city and the provinces, would be a hopeless and an endless task. I believe there cannot be fewer than 500 in Aberdeenshire alone; and, long as I have been connected with the cattle trade, I could not name one in ten. I have briefly noticed the cattle trade in connection with the Aberdeen butchers: let me now glance at the shippers and jobbers of the provinces, as it is from them that the raw material is furnished. The following remarks apply to Aberdeen, Banff, and Moray shires: our provincial jobbers are a host in themselves, and are a very heterogeneous multitude: from the man who can pay thousands, through all the intermediate stages, down to the man that buys a beast and cannot lift it unless he can sell it there and then for a profit. We have a large class of the first, who can not only pay their hundreds but their thousands. We have an intermediate class that job, generally occupiers of two and four horse farms. There is no end to their peregrinations, toil, and industry; in summer, in winter, in fair and foul, by night and by day, by moonlight and by starlight, they scour the country, and collect cattle from all points of the compass, and sell them at the fairs to farmers, butchers, and dealers. We have also the dealer of smaller pretensions, who can only afford to buy a beast or two, which he drives to market himself; such a beginning, however, I have known end in becoming the proprietor of £25,000 worth of landed property. We have the cow-jobber, and it is sometimes a very lucrative business; many have been very successful in the trade. Mr Forrest was a cow-jobber: he rented all the grass land round Hamilton Palace for many years from the Duke of Hamilton. He bought nothing but cows, and it was said he would ride 100 miles to buy a farrow cow. He died worth a fortune, and proprietor of a good estate. We have the jobber who buys only lean store cattle, and the jobber of fat cattle alone. Banffshire can claim a Stoddart, and Morayshire the two M'Kessocks, the Laird of Ardgay, and the tenant of Balnaferry; and I do not know which to admire most, the daring and skill of the laird, or the caution and skill of the tenant, Macdonald of Blervie, through whose hands three-fourths of the store cattle in Morayshire pass. We have in Aberdeenshire Mr Reid, Greystone, in the Vale of Alford; Mr Stoddart, Cultercullen; the Messrs Bruce in Alford, Clova, and Strathbogie; and Mr Mennie of Huntly. Mr Reid, Greystone, has attained the highest position as a feeder and grazier amongst British agriculturists. His stock have for many years taken a most prominent place at our national shows at London, Birmingham, Liverpool, York, Newcastle, Leeds, Edinburgh, &c. &c. IV. BLACK POLLED ABERDEEN AND ANGUS CATTLE & SHORTHORNS. It is not my purpose to treat of shorthorns: I may, however, glance at some of the principal breeders of that kind of stock in the north. Mr Alexander Hay, Shethin, was the first who introduced shorthorns into Aberdeenshire. He bought the celebrated bull "Jerry" from the late Mr John Rennie of Phantassie; and he was the first shorthorn that crossed the Dee. I should have mentioned his brother, the late William Hay, Shethin, the celebrated breeder of shorthorns, and one of the greatest feeders in the north. He was the first man in Aberdeenshire who gained a prize at the Smithfield Club Show, the animal being a Hereford ox; and he was also the first that sent cattle by railway to London. He and the Messrs Cruickshank, Sittyton, had everything their own way in the show-yard for years. The late Mr Grant Duff of Eden was one of the greatest and most systematic breeders of shorthorns in the north. He paid 170 guineas for "Brawith Bud," and she made his "herd's fortunes." He astonished the country by his crosses between the shorthorns and West-Highlanders. He was dead against the system of forcing for the show-yard. Foremost among eminent breeders of shorthorns in the north at the present time are the Messrs Cruickshank, Sittyton. Their fame is European; they own the largest herds of shorthorns in the world. It is only necessary to name "Fairfax Royal," "Prince Edward Fairfax," "Velvet Jacket," "Matadore," "Lord Sackville," the "Baron" by "Baron Warlaby," "Master Butterfly," the "2d John Bull," "Lancaster Comet," "Lord Raglan," "Ivanhoe," "Lord Garlies," "Malachite," "Windsor Augustus," "Sir James the Rose," and last, though not least, "Forth"--to show the distinguished position their herd has taken. Suffice it to say that no other breeder of shorthorns can claim having owned such an array of first-class bulls. Amongst the eminent breeders of shorthorns, Mr Campbell, Kinellar, occupies a distinguished place. I believe no one is a better judge of shorthorns, and no other has been more successful as a breeder. Mr C. began to breed this class of stock about twenty years ago, and "Lord Scarboro'," "Mosstrooper," "Beeswing," "Garioch Boy," "Scarlet Velvet," and "Diphthong," are some of the celebrated bulls that have been introduced into the herd. "Scarlet Velvet" and "Diphthong" gained the Aberdeenshire challenge-cup in 1862-63. At his annual sales his bull calves bring high prices; for some as much as sixty, eighty, and a hundred guineas each have been paid. His stock has for years taken a high position in our show-yards. Mr George Shepherd, Shethin, who succeeded his father-in-law, Mr Wm. Hay, had one of the largest herds of shorthorns, which were mostly sold off some years ago. Mr Shepherd's herd was of the highest blood, and won many prizes. The bull "Cherry Duke the Second," bred by Mr Bolden and bought by Mr Shepherd, jun., from Mr Atherston, was invincible. After gaining every prize in the north and the challenge-cup at Aberdeen, he finished his honourable career as a prize-winner at Edinburgh, when, in 1859, he took the first prize in the aged bull class. Mr Milne of Kinaldie is an eminent breeder of shorthorns; he has distanced all other competitors with his cows. Mr Marr, Uppermill, has got some of the very best shorthorns in the country; and his brother Mr Marr, Cairnbrogie; Mr Scott, Glendronach; Mr Bruce, Broadland; and Mr Mitchell, Haddo--are all eminent breeders of shorthorns. Their bull calves command high prices at their annual sales. In Banffshire we have that veteran and successful breeder, Mr Longmore, Rettie, whose stock has long borne a high character. In Morayshire we have two eminent breeders--Mr Geddes of Orbliston and Mr M'Kessock, Balnaferry, who have everything their own way in the show-yard north of the Spey. Mr Geddes stood at the top of the Highland Society's prize-list at the Inverness show as the owner of the best aged shorthorned bull, and was a winner along with Mr John M'Kessock in the class of shorthorned heifers. Mr Stronach of Ardmellie was a successful breeder of shorthorns. He sold off his stock some years ago. His farm was only 100 acres, but his stock fetched high prices. One yearling quey brought £54, and a cow £53. The proceeds of the sale amounted to about £1000--a large sum, considering the smallness of the farm. Mr Stronach was for many years a successful competitor at the local shows, and sold a cow to Mr Cruickshank that carried the first prize at one of the Highland Society's shows at Aberdeen. Mr Stronach crossed the yellow Highland cows and heifers with shorthorn bulls, and the result was very successful. Mr Stronach was also an exhibitor at the Paris show. I have only glanced at the breeders of shorthorns in the north; in conclusion, I may notice some of those noblemen and gentlemen who have distinguished themselves as breeders of Aberdeen and Angus polled cattle. Among these the late Hugh Watson, Keillor, deserves to be put in the front rank. No breeder of polled Aberdeen and Angus will grudge that well-merited honour to his memory. We all look up to him as the first great improver, and no one will question his title to this distinction. There is no herd in the country which is not indebted to the Keillor blood. For many a long year Mr Watson carried everything before him. He began to exhibit in 1810, and won during his lifetime some 200 prizes for cattle, sheep, and cart and thoroughbred horses. The heifers which he exhibited at Perth in 1829 were greatly admired; and the Smithfield heifer of '29 was so good that she was modelled, and her portrait is in the volume 'Cattle' of the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. He gained the Pureell challenge-cup at Belfast for an Angus ox, which was kept by the Prince Consort at the Royal Farm, Windsor, till his death, when his age was seventeen. As an example of the longevity of the race, Mr Watson's celebrated cow, "Old Grannie," the first cow in the Polled Herd Book, died at thirty-five years of age. Mr Watson bred many celebrated bulls, but "Old Jock" was _facile princeps_. He carried everything before him, and in 1844 was sold for a hundred guineas--a large price at that time. To "Angus," who fell into my hands, I am indebted for some of the best blood in the male line. Mr Watson also bred "Strathmore," "Windsor," "Pat," and "Second Jock," which last beat all the bulls in a sweepstake at Perth in 1852, after he was thirteen years old. Mr Bowie, of Mains of Kelly, has been a most successful and energetic breeder of polled cattle. To him I am indebted for "Hanton," who, with "Angus" and "Panmure" in the male line, were my "herds' fortunes." He also bred "Cup-Bearer," who did so much good for Lord Southesk's herd. "Second Earl Spencer" and "Cup-Bearer" were 1st and 2d prize bulls at Berwick. At our national shows Mr Bowie has been the most successful prize-taker in the Bull classes. Where he has exhibited he has generally carried the first honours. At Aberdeen, at Berwick, at Dumfries, and at the Royal Agricultural Society of England, his bulls were invincible. It is most deeply to be regretted that the plague got into his stock, and he has sustained a heavy loss. Still he came out better than any of his neighbours. He saved twenty-three cattle; and his herd will, I trust, in a few years attain its wonted position. I have drawn, at one time or another, largely from Mr Bowie's stock, and have paid him high prices--as high as a hundred guineas for bulls, and forty, fifty, and sixty guineas for females. Mr Bowie is one of the best judges of Aberdeen and Angus cattle in Scotland. Lord Southesk was one of our most enterprising breeders of polled stock; and before the plague decimated his fine herd last year, it was almost the best in the land. There has been a herd of pure Angus cattle at Kinnaird for fifty years; but when his lordship succeeded to the property it got a fresh start. He introduced "Cup-Bearer" by "Pat" from Mr Bowie's herd, and he did good service. The well-known "Druid," of show-yard celebrity, was descended from "Cup-Bearer" and from "Dora," bred to Mr Ruxton of Farnell. "Windsor" was afterwards introduced. He was bought from George Brown, Westerton of Fochabers, for two hundred guineas, and took the first prize at Edinburgh in the aged bull class; the silver medal to the breeder came to Tillyfour. He was carried off by the plague, at nine years of age, last winter at Kinnaird. "Druid" was a great prize-winner, and gained more than £100 in his different journeys, and a host of medals. The Kelso heifers were very superior, and "Quadrona" gained the first prize at Smithfield in the female polled class. It is deeply to be regretted that Lord Southesk's fine herd suffered so heavily by the rinderpest. This has been indeed a national loss. Lord Southesk spared no expense in purchasing the finest animals, and had an able assistant in his brother, the Hon. Charles Carnegie, M.P., who is not only a good judge, but knows the pedigrees of the different polled herds better than any other man. William Fullerton, late of Mains of Ardovie, now of Mains of Ardestie, was a celebrated breeder of Angus cattle; but pleuro-pneumonia got into his herd, and he lost no fewer than eighty cattle by the disease. One bull that recovered was good enough to go to Glasgow and take the first prize in the aged bull class. His bull "Panmure" gained the first prize at the Highland Society's Show at Dundee in the aged bull class, and Mr Fullerton also carried off the prize for the three best cows. "Panmure" was sold to the late Mr Taylor, Wellhouse, Alford, and some of my best stock trace their descent from "Panmure." The late Lord Panmure sent the late Mr Phillip, the great painter, to Wellhouse, to take the bull's portrait. Not satisfied with Mr Phillip's first sketch, he sent him back; and Mr Phillip lived at Wellhouse for weeks, and painted "Panmure" a second time. Mr Fullerton is one of our best judges, and to him I am indebted for my best stock in the female line. It was at his sale I purchased the "Queen," whose descendants in the female line have, except in two or three solitary cases, driven competition before them in Scotland, England, and France. Many of my best stock trace their pedigree from the "Queen." The Ballwyllo herd have long been celebrated, and were a tower of strength at the Angus Agricultural Society's shows. The late Mr Robert Scott was a most enthusiastic and successful breeder. The prizes gained by the Ballwyllo herd were very numerous. At Aberdeen, in 1847, Mr Robert Scott gained the first prize for a cow from the Highland Society; and at Windsor, in 1851, he gained the first prize in the cow class for the same animal, which was bred at Tillyfour. He also gained the first prize in the aged bull class at Perth, and the first prize in the yearling heifer class. Both animals were bred at Ballwyllo. The Ballwyllo stock have taken a prominent place at Dumfries, and at the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's shows. Since Mr Robert Scott's death, Mrs Scott, his mother, has most enthusiastically stuck to the Angus Doddies; but it is a matter of deep regret that she also was a severe sufferer by the rinderpest. Mr Mustard, Leuchland, is a very old breeder, and I believe no purer stock exist in Forfarshire. Mr Mustard never forces his stock for the show-yard, and seldom sends any except to the county show, where they are always winners. I have often admired the purity, style, and condition--as it ought to be in a breeding stock--of the Leuchland herd. Mr Lyell, of Shielhill, brother of Sir Charles Lyell, has a very good herd of polled Angus cattle. His bull "Prospero" gained the first prize at Perth in the two-year-old class, and at Battersea Park he won the first prize in the aged bull class. Mr Leslie of the Thorn is also a most successful breeder. He came out so strong at Stirling that he beat all and sundry for yearling bulls, and followed up his conquests by selling "President the Fourth" at an almost fabulous price. From Angus we come north to Kincardine, and we there find the celebrated breeder since 1826, Mr Robert Walker, Portlethen. It would be endless to attempt to sum up his victories, local, national, and international, they are spread over such a large surface. Mr Walker was a most successful competitor at the International Show at Paris, and refused £230 for his prize bull. His bull "Porty" was sent to Inverury, and took the first prize. There was no Aberdeen show at that time. "The Banks of Dee" carried everything before him, and his descendants gained seven firsts and a second in one year in the show-yard; but although Mr Walker had never bred another animal save "Fox Maule," his celebrity as a breeder would have been established. "Fox Maule" was one of the best polled bulls ever exhibited. Mr Hector, late in Fernyflat, was a very celebrated breeder of polled cattle, and his stock was of the very highest order, and gained many prizes at our national shows. The Crathes stock is of long standing. The late Sir Thomas Burnett was a most successful breeder, and stood in the front rank for many a long year. The Crathes herd was a tower of strength, and under the able management of Mr John Davidson they were dangerous antagonists. I have had many encounters with them in the Aberdeen show-yard, and have got soundly beaten. "The Banks of Dee," mentioned above, was the most celebrated bull of his day, and took the first prize wherever he was exhibited, local and national. Sir Thomas had his portrait taken and engraved. The prizes gained by the Crathes stock count by the hundred. On the lamented death of Sir Thomas Burnett he was succeeded by his brother, Sir Alexander Burnett, who kept up the stock; and at his death he was succeeded by the present proprietor, Sir James Burnett, who has added drafts from the best stocks in the country. There is no doubt the Crathes herd will remain true to its ancient fame. In Aberdeenshire the breeders of polled cattle are very numerous, but we shall only mention a few. William M'Combie, of Easter Skene, has always stuck to the polled breed, and his stock have been conspicuous as prize-takers. His cow, "Queen of Scots," beat Lord Southesk's "Dora" and ten other fine cows in 1853, and "Roderick Dhu" gained the first prize the same year, while "Alastor the Second" beat "Fox Maule" at Aberdeen--the only time that animal ever was beaten. One ox I purchased from Mr M'Combie gained the first prize at Glasgow at the last fat show held by the Highland Society.[5] [5] Mr M'Combie has taken a very prominent position since the above was written. At the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen he gained the first prize for the best yearling bull, the first prize for the best two-year-old bullock, and other prizes. Colonel Fraser, of Castle Fraser, has also stuck to the Aberdeen and Angus polled cattle. His stock take a prominent place at the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's shows.[6] They are not pampered for show-yard purposes, but he has bred from the best blood, and his stock always take a good place where exhibited. In the Garioch, as a breeder of polled cattle, Mr Stephen, Conglass, stands pre-eminent. The Conglass stock have been handed down from father to son, and the son has not allowed them to lose their position. Mr Stephen gained the Fat challenge-cup by a three-year-old ox, bred to himself at Aberdeen in 1864. At Poissy he carried off the first prize for the best heifer, beating all and sundry. [6] Since the first edition of this book was published, Colonel Fraser's stock has taken a leading position. At the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's show in 1867, he gained the Polled challenge-cup. The cup has to be gained for three successive years by the same party, and with different animals, before it becomes his property. I had gained it the two preceding years, and it was now fairly within my grasp. It was my last asking, but it was dashed from my lips, and went for the time to Castle Fraser, instead of going to Tillyfour for ever. Colonel Fraser likewise gained the first prize for the same cow at the Highland Society's show at Glasgow in 1867; and again carried first honours with a younger cow at the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen last summer. Mr M'Combie of Easter Skene's farm-manager has great merit by his indefatigable exertions in bringing up the Easter Skene stock to its high position. He is an old and respected servant of my own, and nothing gives him so much satisfaction as to beat his old master. Mr Hampton, manager for Castle Fraser, deserves equal credit for his unwearied exertions in improving the Castle Fraser stock. In Banffshire, Mr Walker of Montbletton is the most celebrated breeder. He has twenty breeding cows, and has carried almost every medal and prize at the Banff and Turriff shows for polled cattle, as well as many of the highest prizes at the Royal Northern and Highland Society's shows. In Morayshire we have Mr Brown, Westerton, who is well known as one of our best judges of polled cattle. Mr Brown's herd came first prominently into notice at the Highland Society's show at Inverness in 1856, when he carried off the highest honours for heifers, and was second to "Hanton"--who never was beaten but once--in the aged bull class. At the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen, he was first with "Windsor" in the two-year-old class. Mr Brown's skill was tested as to the purchase and sale of "Windsor;" he bought him from me as a calf in low condition, under £40, and sold him to Lord Southesk for 200 guineas. At Elgin, at Aberdeen, and at the Highland Society's shows, Mr Brown was a most successful competitor. But at the Dumfries show, Mr Brown, Mr Collie, and myself got pleuro-pneumonia into our stock, and it decimated Mr Brown's valuable herd. Mr Brown's character as a judge stands in the front rank with the breeders of Aberdeen and Angus stock, and he has often been put on to act in that capacity by the Directors of the Highland and Royal Northern Agricultural Societies. Mr Paterson, Mulben, is a great and fortunate breeder of polled stock. Mr Paterson commenced to breed in 1846. His celebrated "Mayflower" was the first-prize cow at the Highland Society's show at Perth in 1861; "Malcolm" was first at Elgin and Aberdeen, and second at Perth; and "Prince of Wales," bred to Mr Brown, Westerton, was first at Aberdeen in 1862, and first at the Highland Society's show at Stirling. It would be a hopeless as well as an endless task to record Mr Paterson's victories at the Highland and Royal Northern Societies' shows at Elgin, Aberdeen, Banff, Huntly, and Dufftown, where he has often got everything his own way. Mr John Collie, Ardgay, was a celebrated breeder, and was one of the most dangerous men to face in the show-yard I have ever encountered. He gave me a sound drubbing at Edinburgh in the Cow class, and beat me for a first place out of my own kennel with "Fair Maid of Perth," which he bought from me at 81 guineas; but not satisfied with that, he took a second place with "Mayflower," bred to Mr Paterson, and left me with the bronze medal for my cow prize. I am indebted to Mr Collie for some of my best animals--viz., "Zara," the second-prize heifer at Battersea, and "Kate of Aberdeen," out of "Zara," and many others. He has been a very successful exhibitor of stock, and has distinguished himself at Elgin, Aberdeen, the Highland Society's shows, and the great International Exhibition at Paris. The ox I gained the Smithfield prize with in 1864 was bred to Mr Collie. Perhaps the Ballindalloch herd of polled cattle are the oldest in the north; they have been the talk of the country since my earliest recollection, and were then superior to all other stock. The herd has been kept up to its wonted standard, and even raised higher, by the present proprietor, Sir George Macpherson Grant, of Ballindalloch and Invereshie, by selections from the best herds in the kingdom. Coming fast into notice is the Drumin herd; it consists of about twenty cows and their followers. Mr Skinner has improved his stock by drafts from the best herds in the country. He never forces for the show-yard, but his stock have been very successful at the Spey and Avonside Agricultural Society's shows. He has won the first prize for cows for the last two years--no small victory, when he had Sir George Macpherson Grant and Mr Paterson to contend against. He has also had his fair share of prizes for bulls, heifers, and bullocks. A bullock bred at Drumin took the first prize at Liverpool, in the Polled class, in December last. Mr Skinner has not exhibited his stock at the Highland Society's shows, but there is no doubt we shall see them there by-and-by.[7] [7] Mr Skinner was an exhibitor at the Highland Society's show at Aberdeen last summer, and gained the first prize for his two-year-old heifer. V. HINTS ON THE BREEDING AND CARE OF CATTLE. It has been suggested to me that I should add my experience as a breeder of Aberdeen and Angus stock to my observations on the feeding of cattle. It is with considerable hesitation that I have ventured to put upon paper my views upon a subject on which there is such diversity of opinion. It will, however, lessen the field of controversy, that my practice and observations apply only to the Aberdeen and Angus breed; although I presume what applies to one breed may apply in a great degree to all. My observations may be of some use to those readers who have not devoted much attention to the subject; they may prove of interest even to more experienced breeders, should I be able to adduce facts that may have escaped their notice, or in confirmation of their own observations. I can hardly speak with the same authority as a breeder, generally, that I can as a feeder; yet I have been a close observer now for many years, and devoted my earnest attention to the improvement of the Aberdeen and Angus polled breed of cattle, with respect to size, symmetry, fineness of bone, strength of constitution, and disposition to accumulate fat, sparing no expense in obtaining the finest animals from the purest stock. Laying the foundation of a breeding stock will be the first matter under consideration. We are met here at the very outset by the advocates of blood and those of selection. Much may be said and volumes have been written in favour of both. My experience leads me to take a middle course between the two, and to keep in view both the one and the other. With respect to the qualifications of a successful breeder, Darwin writes: "Not one man in a thousand has accuracy of eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent breeder. If gifted with these qualities, and he studies the subject for years, and devotes his lifetime to it with indomitable perseverance, he will succeed and make great improvements; and if he wants any of these qualities he will assuredly fail." Darwin's view will be found pretty correct. Many breed with a certain success, and even rush to the top for a time in the show-yard, but it is only those described by Darwin who will finally succeed. In laying the foundation of a breeding stock there is generally one of two objects in view: either, first, to raise up a herd the best of its race, with a view to competition in the show-yard and to improve it to the utmost; or, second, to breed commercial cattle for commercial purposes with the greatest possible profit. The first requires independent means; and, to secure success, skill, perseverance, and patience under heavy disappointments. The second can be attained by ordinary prudence. If the first object be the one aimed at, the selection should be made from the most established herds, and of animals of pedigree, and possessing the characteristics of the race you intend to propagate. But my attention will be more particularly directed to the second. There are few that have hatfuls of money to expend upon the purchase of high-bred animals; nor is this necessary in order to secure a profitable return from a breeding stock. I would recommend the following method: I shall suppose a farmer wishes to buy twenty cows to stock his farm (Aberdeen and Angus cattle). His entry is, say, at Whitsunday. He must have a bull to serve his cows. He should be selected from an established herd and from a race of good milkers. The farmer must be a good judge, or employ one in whom he has implicit confidence to act in his behalf. In his selection he must have a certain model in his eye, such as he wishes to propagate. I assume that he considered that his farm is adapted for the rearing of the Aberdeen and Angus breed of cattle, and is convinced of their hardihood of constitution being adapted to his soil and the climate. He ought to keep to certain ground in his selection; that, namely, where the polled breed are still in a state of purity, as in Angus, Aberdeen, Kincardine, Banff, and Moray shires. He ought to visit the Alford district, and all to the west of Alford. On the Spey he will find cattle well worth his attention. They are not of large size generally, but many of fine quality. In the neighbourhood of Dufftown, and west from Dufftown, there are many useful beasts. The Mearns and Angus he should carefully examine, visiting the farms where polled cattle are bred. The wealthy breeder, No. 1, may look to the honours of the show-yard; but No. 2, with his limited means, must have regard only to his ultimate profit. As it is a Whitsunday entry, he ought to have the lot made up, and the bull put to them in season, that he may not lose a year. The cows he buys will give milk to the house, and the two-year-old heifers will be easily kept on. I speak on the supposition that cows and heifers are bought, but the majority should be heifers. He ought to attend all the fairs in his power through spring, and be on the instant ready to pick up a suitable beast wherever it appears, which he can always do at market value. He ought to select the best heifers or cows (duly informing himself as to their breeding) from the different districts I have named. The produce, after a first-class bull, will be astonishing. The cows that throw the best calves should be retained, while those that "cry back" should be dismissed, and their places filled up with a new selection. By careful breeding for two years there will be a most useful profitable breeding stock established, and there is no doubt that even some good races may be secured. We have ample experience and proof of this in the good calves thrown by our worthless little black polled country cows, and it is on my experience of this fact that my recommendation is founded. For two-year-olds rising three, out of small cows, I have at Christmas got £40 from the butcher. Purity of blood in the male will be found highly to improve inferior races. A herd of breeding stock without the risk of haphazard will be secured at a moderate cost--one that will be profitable to the owner. The following remarks apply partly to a show-yard herd, and partly to one for commercial purposes. In the original selection, as I have already observed, the breeder must have in his eye the model he wishes to propagate. The animals selected should approach the desired type as nearly as can be obtained; and by careful and repeated selections the ideal may be reached. The selector must be well satisfied as to soundness of constitution, especially in laying the foundation of a show-yard herd. If male or female have hereditary defects of constitution, their progeny will inherit them. Show-yard stock, being pampered for exhibition, are more liable than the common stock of the country to be affected with hereditary diseases. Pedigree is of the most vital importance. We ought always to prefer a bull of high pedigree, with fair symmetry and quality, to another bull, though much superior in appearance, but of questionable pedigree. If the latter be turned to a herd superior in blood to himself, incalculable mischief may be done. Breeders have not given the subject the attention it deserves. I have paid dearly for my experience in the matter. But bulls, even from the purest herds, will not all produce stock alike. Some will give a majority of bull calves, others a majority of heifer calves; some will be famous for getting fine bulls, and others for getting fine heifers, while others produce little to boast of in the one or the other. No one can affirm that he has a first-class sire till he has been tested. If the result be satisfactory, money should be no temptation; he must not be sold. It must not be forgotten that the male has most influence in breeding; but without first-class females the descendants will not shine generally in the show-yard. Breeding for the show-yard must not be left to haphazard; nor is the breeder likely to be successful if pride and conceit be his besetting sins. Take the following by way of illustration: At perhaps a distant sale a fine cow is bought, or it may be at market. Attention to pedigree is ignored; the age is perhaps considered of no consequence. On her arrival she is examined and applauded by friends and neighbours. The inspection may cost the owner gallons of whisky; but she is to prove a mine of wealth. Great hopes are entertained of her progeny. The calf is expected to be first-class. After days of care and nights of dreams and anxious watchings, with unnecessary aid in calving, the calf at last sees the light of day. The owner is disgusted at the result. The cow yields little milk, either for the calf or the family. She is sent where she should have gone years before--to the butcher. The disappointed owner in future buys the cheapest animals that come to hand. If pedigree be ignored, and the sire be of doubtful antecedents, except in an accidental case, the progeny will be at the best of medium quality; but by ordinary precaution such loss may be avoided. Breeding in-and-in has some advantages and many advocates. It is a knotty point to touch upon. At the commencement I stated that my own experience led me to adopt a middle course; that experience has not been in favour of the system. By adhering to it I found that quality was maintained, and even improved; but size was reduced, and symptoms of delicacy of constitution were manifested. It may be pursued for a time, until the type is developed, but to continue for any length of time to breed _in_ and in, is not only against my experience, but, I believe, against nature. In looking over a herd of breeding cattle, I have often seen the owner or the cattle-keeper pointing out a cow that throws a good calf, and never threw a bad one, and at the same time telling you how great a milker she is. It would be difficult to buy such a cow too dear. Most of the above remarks may apply alike to the home farm of the proprietor, to the large and small farmer, and to the crofter with one cow. It is well known to breeders of cattle, and I believe of sheep, that there are particular races that are celebrated, and upon which you can calculate that they will never propagate an inferior animal. Specimens not so desirable will now and again appear, but the blood is there, and the divergence will not be great from the desired type. Again, there will be one race noted for producing celebrated males, and another for producing celebrated females. A bull may be introduced that is a great getter of bull calves, yet the change may not be to the advantage of the owner, as the female calves will not be bred of so high an order. Professor Thury, of Geneva, has written a very interesting paper on the law of the production of sexes. In a letter to me, dated 14th February 1864, he says: "There are, if the owner pleases, two periods of heating: the one the general period, which shows itself in the course of the year, following the seasons; the other, a particular period, which lasts in cows from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and which reveals itself a certain number of times. It is this particular period, lasting from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, the commencement of which gives females, while its termination gives males. In order that we may obtain a certain result, we must not cause the same cow to be covered twice in succession at an interval too short, for the (generative) substance of the bull preserves itself for a time sufficiently long in the organs of the cow. In the experiments made in Switzerland we have taken the cow at the first certain signs of heating, for the purpose of obtaining heifers, and at the termination of the heating for the purpose of obtaining males. The result of these experiments is, that we do not yet know what is the relative length of time which gives females, and the time which gives males; this would form an interesting subject of examination. I am of opinion that various circumstances must be regarded as influencing the relative period, so as to alter the moment of (conception), and that the season must exercise considerable influence. I am of opinion that in such questions as that which forms the subject of my little work, we physiologists should learn much from men of practice and experience, such as you, who have afforded proofs of their knowledge. The best results will follow when the raisers and experimentalists direct their attention to the same object." I would here acknowledge the courtesy and kindness of Professor Thury in so readily responding to my inquiries. The experiments conducted in Switzerland were decisive in support of Professor Thury's theory. In a trial of twenty-eight cows, it proved correct in the whole number. In the selection of the male, you will have to consider the faulty or defective points in your cows with a view to correct them. As far as possible--pedigree being right--you ought to purchase the bull that is strong upon the points where your females are faulty. If this is not duly attended to, the defect or malformation may be aggravated. But although the bull selected possesses the excellence wanting in the cows, he ought, of course, not to be very deficient in other points, else the cure may be worse than the disease. If possible, he should be taken from a pasture not superior to your own. Docility of temper in male and female is indispensable. Inexpressible mischief may be done by the introduction of wild blood into the herd, for it is sure to be inherited. I have suffered seriously by this error. To be good behind the shoulder, good in the girth, and well down in the fore-rib, are the qualifications most difficult to attain. Lightness of the fore-rib shows a tendency to delicacy of constitution, and strength and soundness are most important to the success of the breeder. Depth of rib is more important in the male than in the female. Lightness of the fore-rib may be tolerated when milk is the object (and many great milkers are so characterised), but not where the production of beef is the object. Then you must study to combine quality with weight. Quality ought to be the first consideration, but we must never forget that all must come to lbs. at last. I have already given my opinion as to the shape and quality of a perfect breeding and feeding animal. I shall only here remark that it is indispensable in our cold climate that the animals should have a good coat of soft silky hair to defend them from the cold blasts of autumn, winter, and spring. The Rev. H. Berry, in his Essay on Breeding, remarks: "A person selecting a stock from which to breed, notwithstanding he has set up for himself a standard of perfection, will obtain them with qualifications of different descriptions, and in different degrees. In breeding from such he will exercise his judgment, and decide what are indispensable or desirable qualities, and will cross with animals with a view to establish them. This proceeding will be of the 'give-and-take' kind. He will submit to the introduction of a trifling defect, in order that he may profit by a great excellence; and between excellences perhaps somewhat incompatible he will decide on which is the greatest, and give it the preference. To a person commencing improvement, the best advice is to get as good a bull as he can; and if he be a good one of his kind, to use him indiscriminately with all his cows; and when by this proceeding, which ought to be persisted in, his stock has, with an occasional change of bull, become sufficiently stamped with desirable excellences, his selection of males should then be made, to eradicate defects which he thinks it desirable to get rid of. He will not fail to keep in view the necessity of _good blood_ in the bulls resorted to, for that will give the only assurance that they will transmit their own valuable properties to their offspring; but he must not depend on this alone, or he will soon run the risk of degeneracy." I agree generally with the above extract from Mr Berry's most valuable prize essay; but I must take exception to at once using even the best bull indiscriminately for a large and valuable herd of breeding cows. I hold that every bull must be tested, and when the result is found satisfactory, _then, and not till then_, use him indiscriminately for all your cows. My experience coincides with Mr Berry's where he says the wise breeder "will not fail to keep in view the necessity of good blood in the bulls resorted to, for that will give the only assurance that they will transmit their own valuable properties to their offspring; but he must not depend upon this alone, or he will soon run the risk of degeneracy." To keep up a breeding stock to a high point of excellence is very difficult. The breeder ought to be always buying and selling and incorporating different _strains_ together. There will be many blanks, but there will be a prize; and when you hit, and the incorporation proves a lasting benefit and is stamped on the original herd, it is a great prize you have won. I therefore agree with Mr Berry that we must not depend alone upon the good blood of the bull. Having done my best to explain how I think the foundation of a breeding stock should be laid, I shall now give my opinion and experience how the herd should be treated, and how it should be kept up. The cows, heifers, and bulls should be kept fresh, not fat, nor too lean. The calves should have a different treatment. All breeding cattle tied to the stall should be let out every day for two or three hours, or at least every second day, unless the weather be very wet or stormy. The finer the quality of the stock the less rich will be the food they require. It is only throwing away your means to give high-bred cows with calf, or heifers rising two years old, a full supply of turnips. A few to keep them fresh and healthy, and plenty of straw, is all they should be allowed. Bulls that are apt to accumulate fat should also be stinted, else they will soon be useless as stock-getters. After calving, the cows, to secure a flow of milk, should receive a full allowance of turnips, but the increase must be gradual, as the cow has been stinted, or ought to have been, before calving. Before calving, milk-fever, or dropping after calving, is to be guarded against. I have three or four cases with only one recovery. I now bleed and physic every cow two or three days before calving. I stint them in their food two or three weeks, and have never lost one where this practice was fully carried out. The lean cow is as apt to go down as the fat one. Some think warm weather is the cause. I believe it has nothing to do with it. The grass being generally luxuriant in warm weather, and many cows going off in milk-fever at that season, has led to this error. Milk-fever may, however, be produced by giving cold water immediately after calving, &c. Cows may be attacked immediately or in a few hours after calving; when four or five days have passed, the animal may be considered safe. There are different causes, no doubt; but bringing a cow from poor pasture and putting her on a rich and luxuriant one without stint, or from straw and giving her a full allowance of turnips up to the time of calving, are two of the greatest predisposing causes. As an example, I bought a cow in July off a poor pasture and put her on a rich one; as she was low-priced I did not use the necessary precautions: she went down in milk-fever. A respected old servant bought a fine polled cow. I was walking across the field with him, and we came upon his cow. It was in July, and the grass was very luxuriant. I asked if he had bled the cow, as she would calve immediately. He said, "No, I have not; and I never saw them bled except at Tillyfour." To my sorrow and to the man's heavy loss the cow died of milk-fever. Milk-fever is thought by many to be incurable. Mr Sorely, veterinary surgeon, late of Alford, has been most successful in its treatment; and if the cows are not very far gone before he is called, he generally effects a cure. I would recommend those not acquainted with the treatment of this dreadful calamity to communicate with him. The symptoms are known by the cow getting restless, lifting her legs and setting them down again, a wild appearance, and attempting to poke her keeper: then succeeds a quick motion in the flank; she begins to stagger, falls, but recovers herself again. This is repeated several times, till she is at length no longer able to rise. Her head will be turned to one side; she loses the sense of feeling, and although pricked with a sharp instrument gives no sign of pain; and if not relieved, death closes the scene. If the sense of feeling returns, it is the first sign of recovery. The moment that milk-fever is observed the veterinary surgeon should be called in. There is little risk with a heifer with her first calf, and I never bleed or physic a heifer in calf, because she has not attained her growth. In her case "the additional nutriment goes to increase of size, instead of becoming the foundation of disease." Red-water is also a very fatal complaint among cows. They generally take it about the thirteenth or fourteenth day after calving. Many farms are almost exempt from this disease. It is very fatal, but if taken in time it can generally be cured; heavy losses are, however, experienced every year by it. I have only had two or three cases of red-water, and I do not therefore enlarge upon it. My observation has led me to believe that the theory of the late Mr Peter Smith, veterinary surgeon, Alford (who gained the Highland Society's prize for the best essay on red-water in cows), is correct, that the disease is generally most prevalent on farms where the land is black and of a moorish tendency. The veterinary surgeon should be called in _instanter_. Garget in the udder, or weed, is also to be guarded against. After calving, some cracks and sores appear in the udder; they get very troublesome. The teats must be drawn and clean milked out; blood will sometimes appear with the milk; the cow must be secured, if necessary, to effect this. The udder should be bathed with warm water, and well rubbed over with hog's lard, and to this treatment the complaint will generally yield. The too hastily drying the cow, and frequent carelessness in not milking clean out, are the general causes of this complaint. It may, however, assume a more serious aspect; the milk gets coagulated in the udder, and the result will be the loss for yielding milk of one, two, or more of the quarters of the udder, if the proper remedies are not instantly adopted. Mortification sometimes ensues; diseased portions will break off from the udder, and it may end in the death of the animal. Putting the calf to suckle the cow will be useful in effecting a cure; but often the teats become so painful that the cow will not allow the calf to approach her. I cannot impress too strongly on the breeder that, as soon as symptoms of garget are observed, the cow must be firmly secured and the teats properly drawn three or four times a-day. If this is neglected or inefficiently performed, the result is scarcely doubtful. Very often there will be only matter to draw, but it must be withdrawn from time to time as it collects. The teaching of experience is costly in such a case; and here the care of honest, intelligent servants is invaluable. When the calves are taken from their dams there is the greatest danger of garget, and this is always an anxious time with the breeder. The cows must be allowed to go gradually off their milk, the greatest care being taken to draw the teats once a-day when necessary. The food must be restricted till the milk disappear; and as some cows that have been suckled will not allow their teats to be drawn by the hand, the calves must be put to them once a-day till the milk cease. _The proper age for breeding._--The proper age for breeding may depend upon circumstances, breed, &c.; but, dealing as we are with the Aberdeen and Angus, I would say that heifers should never be put to the bull before they are two years old. There is, no doubt, some force in the argument that by breeding earlier keep is saved; but the answer to this is that growth is diminished, while calving is attended with danger. I had six heifers bulled when they were one year old. They had all difficulty in calving; three of them required assistance, and were very much torn and lacerated before the calves could be extracted, and the mothers have never attained the size of the other cows in the herd. Nor has the argument much force with me that the one-year-old is surer to stand to the bull than the two-year-old. I maintain that we have this very much in our own power, and that the two-year-old, with proper treatment, and at little cost, is as sure to stand to the bull as the one-year-old, while she will attain to a larger size. The treatment I adopt with yearling heifers intended for breeding purposes is the following--and I have seldom or never failed in getting them in calf: They are not starved to interfere with their growth, but through the summer, when rising two years old, they are kept on the very worst grass on the farm, and on the refuse of the grass rejected by the other cattle, which are removed to fresh pastures. In winter and spring, up to the time of serving with the bull, they get an average barrowful of turnips amongst every three, and no more. By this treatment the heifers will just be fresh, and will stand to the bull as readily as yearlings. I grant that if you were to put them on luxuriant pasture, and give them full allowance of turnips through the winter and spring, they would be fit for the butcher, and not for the bull. The advantages more than counterbalance the disadvantages. Their parts will be strong and open, and they will calve with safety; while, on the other hand, the calving of those served at a year old will always be attended with difficulty; the parts will often be injured and lacerated, and mortification of the womb and the death of the animal may follow. I need not tell my readers that the bull should not be allowed to go with the breeding cows or heifers, as the almost universal practice now is to keep them separate. The advantages of this must be manifest to every one. The symptoms of coition are so well known, that I shall not enlarge upon them; but if cows are confined to the house, there are some shy animals that require the greatest attention to detect them, while the majority are easily observed by their lowing and agitated appearance. In the former case the animal will not blare, neither will there be much difference in her general appearance; but her external parts will be red, and a transparent liquor will be discharged from the vagina. Let her be put out with another, which will prove her at once. In some seasons, although the cows and heifers are in a breeding state, it is, even with the best management, difficult to get them in calf. This becomes a source of great annoyance and loss to the breeder. A cow should never be allowed the bull sooner than five or six weeks after calving; to do otherwise will prove a failure, and will be detrimental to the animal. If a cow or heifer should miss to stand to the bull before the end of May, and the weather get warm, it is difficult to get them in calf; they may run on for months every two or three weeks. Many a good breeding animal has been lost in this way, and gone to the butcher, their owner having despaired of getting them in calf; whereas, if he had had patience until September or October, when the cold weather sets in, in all likelihood they would have been got in calf. I had three cows out of four, that had run on the whole summer, got in calf in one day. An early spring calf is preferable to a late one, and most desirable; but my doctrine is, that a good calf never can come wrong. It is trying to the breeder to see his fine cows running on, but we must not despair; we must not lose a chance, for we will generally catch them, and sometimes when we least expect it. When a cow assumes the appearance of what we term a regular buller--when she is running every day, or every second or third day, or when one or more retire from the herd and assume the habits of the male--then, and not till then, does the case become utterly hopeless. I had two fine cows I was obliged to quit; they assumed the habits of the male, absented themselves from the rest of the herd, went through the field lowing, roaring, and pawing the ground with their feet, their lowing being that of the male and not of the female, and their shapes and looks were completely changed. Some friends, in whose opinion I have confidence, think this disease hereditary. I would recommend, when cows and heifers are not standing to the bull, to give a dose or two of medicine. A change of the bull may succeed; and leading the cow or heifer six miles out and six miles in, when coming in heat, will sometimes be effectual. I was led to this practice by observing that cows or heifers that had run on the whole season up to the time of exhibition, when put to the bull on their arrival from the show, were got in calf at once. I naturally concluded that the exercise which they had undergone was the cure. I adopted the principle, and have succeeded in several cases, though not in all; and I know of some other breeders who have also been successful. A cow goes nine months with young, generally ten or fourteen days longer. I have known one go twenty-seven days past her time. They generally go longer with a bull calf than a heifer. It is almost a sure sign that all will be right if the cow go past her time; when matters are wrong the birth is generally premature. Slinking is one of the greatest pests to which a breeder is subjected. The symptoms are as follows: a yellow mixed with red, glairy, offensive fluid will be observed running from the vagina, a flow of milk to the udder, and a loosening of the couplings behind; in a day or two premature labour follows. No time is to be lost on these symptoms being observed. The cow should be immediately removed to a separate apartment, and kept by herself for two or three weeks. If the premature birth should take place before the cow is removed, the foetus and after-birth must be instantly buried, and not only the stall where the cow was standing, but the whole of the byre should be thoroughly washed over with hot lime, or chloride of lime. It is well known that if one cow abort, others are apt to follow. I recollect that almost every cow out of forty, belonging to the late James Walker, Wester Fintray, aborted. One half were polled, the other shorthorns. When a cow is with calf she has strong sympathetic feelings. The foetus and after-birth from a cow that has slinked are very offensive, and if left within reach, the other cows will sniff at it, and bellow around it; and in a short time more of the cows will abort. Many reasons have been given as the cause of abortion; from my own observations, frosty turnips are one great cause, and I never allow my cows to get these. If I happen to run short of fresh turnips from the store, and frosty weather continue, I order the cows straw and water, and perhaps a little cake or corn at the same time. I have paid dearly for this experience also. I believe hove to be another cause of abortion; and that particular atmospheric conditions have a good deal to do with it. The skilful veterinary surgeon should be consulted; he will probably recommend physic to cool the system, the foetus and placenta to be buried, the animal separated, and the cow-house disinfected. The cow should be fattened and sold, unless she be a very valuable breeding animal, as the chances are that she will slink again. I have indeed seen a cow, after slinking, breed regularly for many years; but the sure way is to get quit of her to the butcher, if she is not a valuable breeding animal. I have explained, under the head of Milk-Fever, the treatment previous to calving; I shall add that a cow ought to be let dry six weeks at least before calving. It is well known that a cow that is milked up to the time of calving proves very deficient as a milker for the season, even although she had formerly been a good one. It prevents improvement of condition; and from a very lean cow there is not much to be expected. As to natural labour a very few remarks will suffice. The cow should be disturbed as little as possible, and no assistance rendered where it is not necessary. When the water-bag comes away, the hand should be introduced to ascertain whether the calf is coming the right way; its fore-legs protruding to the passage, and its head lying upon them or a little between them, is the natural position when all is right. We must have patience, and, if possible, allow nature to effect its object; but if six or eight hours shall have passed, assistance must be given. In my practice I have observed that when the water-bag comes away in the early stages the labour is protracted. I have seen many tail-presentations, but I have found them easily dealt with by pushing back the hind-quarters and getting hold of the feet; pushing backwards, forwards, and upwards the hind-legs, and bringing them to the level of the passage, the calf will be easily extracted. In unnatural labour the veterinary surgeon should be immediately called in. Skellet 'On the Parturition of the Cow' is the most valuable authority I am acquainted with on unnatural labour, but I fear it is out of print. A word here as to free-martins. When a cow produces two calves, the one a male and the other a female, the female is called a free-martin. The almost universal belief is, that the free-martin will not breed; and generally this holds good. I have had, however, in my practice two free-martins that have bred. One of them proved one of the most useful animals and best breeders in the herd, and produced some of my finest females; but her own appearance lacked that female style which shows itself in a high-bred herd. And here I may remark that those who act as judges at our cattle-shows, if they are judging males, ought to judge them as males and not as females; and if they are judging females, they ought to judge them as females and not as males. Some may understand what I mean. As I consider it one of the most important qualifications in a judge to have the discernment I refer to, and as many are appointed judges, even at our national shows, _who never should have been appointed, and many act who never should act_, it ought to be put out of all doubt. As an example, when a bull shows the head of a female and a want of masculine character, he should be rejected. Masculine character in the bull is of the greatest importance to the success of the breeder--effeminacy in the male must be shunned as the most deadly poison. On the other hand, let that female be rejected by the judge in the show-yard, and by the breeder in his selection, that looks as much like a male as a female. However long she may have been kept up for show-yard purposes, or whatever enormous quantity of beef she may have put on, if she have the head of the ox (I do not say of the bull, because I have never seen a female so characterised) she must be put aside, unless very superior in other respects. Such animals will seldom pass muster with the first-class judge, but _even he must be upon his guard_. I have often seen great blunders committed, especially with heifers, the owner of which may, for the sake of winning the prize, have fed them for years without hope of propagation. I have seen them carry the prize to the exclusion of the really useful breeding animal, and when the show was over they were sold to the butcher. I would not propose any rule to be laid down to exclude animals from our exhibitions on account of their condition, because the proper amount of flesh can never be satisfactorily settled; nor can it be definitely fixed when an animal should be excluded as being too fat for breeding. The experiment was tried at some of our national shows, but utterly failed, as the jury could not agree. The rules of the Highland Society are good so far as they go--viz., that unless the owner of cows that have not had a calf in the year of the exhibition, and of the two-year-old heifers that have been awarded prizes, can certify that the animals have had a calf--the cows in four months and the heifers in nine after the exhibition--the money prize will be withheld. But this does not cover the difficulty, as the prize-money is of secondary importance to the majority of exhibitors--being first on the prize-list is their main ambition; but, I believe, it is all that rules can reach. The only safeguard lies with the council and the directors--and the strong moral force of the exhibitors ought to be brought to bear upon them--of our national and local cattle-shows. They ought to appoint no one, however highly connected, unless he is _acknowledged a judge by the exhibitors of the class of stock to which he is appointed_. If the right man be put in the right place, there will seldom be cause to complain of overfed useless breeding animals gaining the prizes; but if ignorant forward men are appointed, you are certain to see the fattest animals at the top of the prize-list. At one of our great shows the same judges were appointed for cattle and sheep;--they were unexceptional judges of cattle, but knew very little about breeding-sheep. There were two pens of breeding-ewes in competition: one of the pens was from a first-class stock of sheep, but from hill pasture; the other was from a jobber, who had selected them from the common sheep in the country, but had grazed them with the cows on the farm, and they were in high condition--they wanted style and breeding. The judges were hesitating as to which of the pens the prize should be awarded to, when one of them exclaimed, "Stop, stop; let me in o'er till I handle them!"--an Aberdeen man likes something that will handle, whether ox or sheep. He went, and after he had performed the handling proof, which required little time and less skill, "Ah!" he exclaimed, pointing to the fat ewes, "that's the sheep!" and the ticket was fixed accordingly. This anecdote was related to me by the owner of the fat ewes, who was present. No butcher, except he be well acquainted with the treatment of a breeding stock, ought to be a judge of breeding animals. With fat stock one of the judges ought always to be a first-class butcher. In natural labour the after-birth generally comes away soon after calving. Many remove it immediately; this, however, should never be allowed, as the cow will chew it greedily, and it acts as physic to her. If the after-birth should be retained, as it generally is in cases of premature labour, this need cause little alarm to the owner. I have never seen any danger from allowing it to remain, and I prefer letting it alone, as it will rot away of itself, to the danger of tearing it away; but the cow should be removed from the others. I believe the opinion to be erroneous that there is danger from the after-birth being retained for any moderate length of time; but the womb itself will sometimes follow the calf, and this requires prompt treatment. I have known of its being successfully returned without the aid of the veterinary surgeon, but this should never be attempted by an unpractised hand if you can command the surgeon's attendance. It is a very common occurrence that two or three months before calving the vagina protrudes when the cow is lying: when this occurs she should be kept well up behind, else it may bring on premature calving. When the cow calves the danger is over. If the calf is to be milked from the hand it should be taken from the cow as soon as it is dropt, and before the mother sees it; if allowed to remain with the cow for some time and then removed, it will be a cause of great irritation to the mother and very prejudicial to her milking. When it is to be suckled, the calf should be left quietly with the cow: and by licking the calf and eating the placenta the cow will be settled, the calf will get to its legs, and all may be expected to be right. A warm drink should be given--cold water must be avoided--and the cow made comfortable. She should be milked out after first suckling, and this will require to be repeated two or three times a-day for a few weeks, until the calf is able, and can with safety be allowed, to take all the milk. In a day or two after the calf is dropt it ought to be muzzled, and allowed a limited time to suckle the mother three times a-day. It must not be allowed a full allowance for the first fourteen days after birth. A confidential servant must remove the muzzle, stand beside the calf until it has taken a safe allowance, and then return the muzzle. When the calf has got the cud, which will be observed about fourteen days after its birth, it will then be safe to remove the muzzle. I muzzle all my calves, to prevent them from eating straw, hair, &c, which they cannot digest, and which accumulate in the stomach and prove the death of the animal. Many thousand calves are lost in this way, the owner never suspecting the cause. If the calf is opened up after death, there will be found in the stomach a large, firm, round ball composed of straw, hair, and other substances, with knots of curdled milk conjoined. After the calf has got the cud, and is fourteen days old, it may be allowed to suck at pleasure. It must be seen, however, that the calf has ability to clean out the udder of the cow; if part of the milk is retained, the cow must be milked by the hand. Plenty of good milk is the proper foundation to make a good animal; if stinted when a calf, a year's growth is lost. Selling a great deal of butter and rearing a good bullock are incompatible. Many good calves are milked from the pail, and they thrive better after they are weaned; but it will generally be found that the sure way to make first-class calves is to allow them to suckle. There will be many drawbacks at the expense of the calf if it is brought up from the pail; drafts will be required by the housekeeper for milk, butter, and cheese for the family, which cannot be made if the calf is suckled by the mother in the field. The plan adopted by some of giving skimmed milk to the calf cannot be too much reprobated; and to give old milk to a new-dropt calf is perfectly preposterous: it is unnatural, and will probably prove the death of the calf. The calf should be allowed to suckle or be fed from the pail for six or eight months. It has then strength to stand weaning, and, if properly cared for, will not be checked in its growth, and it will retain the good calf-flesh it has put on. The loss of the calf-flesh cannot be remedied, and great care should be taken to avoid this. If the calf-flesh is lost the animal will be reduced in value, and can never be made to yield first-class meat. Great care, therefore, must be taken by the breeder when his calves are weaned. To guard against Black-leg, the calves should be immediately corded in the dewlap,[8] and receive, along with other nourishing food, each 1-1/2 lb. of oilcake a-day. This treatment is absolutely necessary during their first winter. The open strawyard for calves is of great importance. If they are kept regularly growing on, black-leg will be prevented. While proper treatment is adopted, there will be little to fear from that dreadful scourge. [8] I have been accused of cruelty for cording the dewlaps of my calves. The pain must be of short duration, as it is done by a sharp instrument in a moment. I have never lost more than two of my breeding stock from Quarter-ill. There is no question that the cause of this dreadful malady is sudden transition from a restricted diet to a full and nutritious one, from a poor pasture to a rich and luxuriant one, or from a poor pasture in autumn to a full allowance of turnips; the increase of blood on the system is so great that the constitution cannot stand it. I have seen almost every calf on several large farms carried off by black-leg. There is no secret as to its prevention. Keep the young calf gradually growing, never let him want; give 1 to 2 lb. of oilcake a-day; and keep up the irritation by cords with a good hold of the dewlap. After the first winter, black-leg is little to be feared. I have had a case or two in two or three year olds, but it is very uncommon. Prevention is the only safeguard, for I have never seen black-leg cured. To some 1 to 2 lb. of oilcake a-day may look an expense that the calves cannot repay; but if any of my friends will divide a lot of their calves, and give the one lot turnips and straw, and the other turnips, straw, and 1 to 2 lb. of oilcake daily to each calf, if they are dissatisfied with the result on the 1st of May I shall pay the balance. I shall not enter upon the point of the great additional value of the manure, but leave that to the chemist. I allow my calves to suckle till October, and the late ones two or three months longer. Butter and even corn are but secondary to our cattle, and in these days of progression we must advance with the times or go down. As to Navel-ill, much has been written on the deadliness of the complaint. I have never had any loss from it. Diarrhoea is a very common complaint with calves, and I have lost one or two by it, but, I believe, owing to carelessness. It will generally yield to a dose or two of castor-oil. The Knee-ill is more to be dreaded. The complaint is worse some seasons than others, and some, under the best treatment, will die. The calf gets down and is unable to rise; on examination it will be found that one or both, generally of the fore-legs, are very much swollen at the joints; the calf is very much pained, especially if moved, and the disease acts very much like rheumatic fever on the human body. I cannot assign any cause for this disease, as I have seen calves seized with it that were kept warm and comfortable. In some cases it may be attributed to some particular atmospheric influence. It is very difficult to remove. The calf will be down for weeks, and in some cases they never get up. Very little can be done for them, and any treatment I have seen adopted is of small value. Rubbing turpentine daily into the swollen joints is useful, but attention to the general health is of the greatest consequence--such as counteracting costiveness in the bowels, &c. I have seen splints of wood introduced, and also tying out the leg with bandages; but I have no great faith in any such treatment. Rubbing daily with turpentine, and attention to the general health, is all I can recommend. Costiveness of the bowels, if not counteracted, may end in serious consequences. I had a case of a calf that got very costive--so bad that it moaned dreadfully from pain. I lost all hope of saving it. I thought of injections, and had them administered repeatedly for hours; to my astonishment the calf recovered and did well. Castor-oil is the safest medicine for calves. Let me here record an observation for which I am indebted to Mr Sorely, late veterinary surgeon, Alford. (While I have seen some with as good hands as Mr Sorely, I have never had the fortune to meet another with as clear a head.) The first question he asks when told that a calf is ailing, is, "How old is it?" If the calf is very young, and violently ill of any complaint, the great chance is, that it will not recover; whereas, if it be three weeks, and, still more, two or three months old, the probability is that it will. As to the castration of calves, it is such a simple process that it is unnecessary to say much on the subject. The only thing I would recommend is, that the breeder, if he does not castrate his calves himself, should not allow the operator to cut away any part of the purse, as it should be recollected a good purse in the London market will be the next criterion to the butcher after the flank, and a good purse is always worth £1 to a bullock in London. If the purse should get much swelled after castration, warm fomentations should be applied two or three times a-day, or even a poultice if the case be very bad. If there is an accumulation of pus, it may be necessary to puncture the purse, and the animal will soon be relieved. Rheumatism, I have no doubt, is hereditary. I have seen it in the fourth generation; little, if anything, can be done for it. At certain seasons of the year it will appear, and wear off again. Howk is perhaps the complaint to which my cattle are most liable. I have repeated cases of it every year. The animal is observed to be stiff and staring in his coat, eats little, and, as the disease advances, retires from the rest of herd. When taken up, his skin along the back will be found adhering to the flesh, and if pressed on the spine he will nearly crouch to the ground. If a hold is taken of the skin--which is very difficult to accomplish--and it is lifted from the flesh, when let go it will give a crack similar to the sound that follows when you give a knock to the common corn-basket. This is a never-failing symptom. I treat the complaint very successfully with doses of salts and sulphur. If the animal is taken up in the early stages of the disease, the skin may only be adhering to a part behind the shoulder-blade; but in a day or two the adhesion will be found to extend along the whole of the spine; or, _vice versa_, it may begin across the kidneys and go forward to the shoulder-blade. I regard indigestion as the cause, and some cattle take it in particular fields worse than others. Diseases of the tongue are rare: I have had some half-dozen cases. A cure is utterly hopeless, and the animal should be sent to the butcher without delay. When examined, the root of the tongue, or one side of it, will be found very much inflamed, and warts will also generally be observed. The animal will be found frothing at the mouth in the field; and if in the stall, a great deal of frothy matter will be seen before him. I never knew one recover, and I have attempted all sorts of treatment. Foul in the foot is very serious when it gets into a lot of heavy feeding cattle in winter; the loss it entails is sometimes very heavy. It assumes several phases. If there be but a crack between the claws without swelling, it is easily managed. The old plan of taking a hair-rope and drawing it several times through is very good practice, and with a little caustic applied, a cure is soon effected. There is another form of the disease more difficult to treat: there is the great swelling between the claws; it becomes a hard substance and very painful; the animal gets feverish and is scarcely able to rise, and if got up holds out the afflicted leg. He is off his food, and sinks rapidly in condition; and the pain is excruciating. I apply a succession of poultices, and when the lump breaks the danger is over: tow and tar are then applied to the sore, a cotton bandage put on between the claws of sufficient length to secure the application, and the ends made fast by a woollen garter cut from an old stocking. If the disease is neglected the consequences may be fatal; it is worst in winter when cattle are at the feeding-stall. I regard it as infectious. If it get into a byre of weighty fat cattle the loss will be heavy. I have seen a bullock drop in value £3, £4, or even £5; and several animals lost by carelessness. I had a bullock out upon turnips, which had been neglected, and was pronounced by my veterinary surgeon incurable. As to Foot-and-mouth disease, it is a light matter among stirks and lean cattle--they will be little if any the worse of it; but it is very serious amongst heavy feeding cattle and milch cows. If fat cattle are attacked, they should have their turnips sliced, with crushed oilcake and meal. There is no treatment of any avail in the fever stages. When the fever is gone, there will be a beast or two out of a lot whose feet will require attention. The horn of the hoof gets loosened from the flesh. The animal may require to be thrown and the dead horn cut away. It must be remembered that it will never attach itself again. The veterinary surgeon should generally perform the operation, unless the owner is skilful himself. Cows require great attention. The disease seats itself in their udders, and unless they are most carefully milked out they may be rendered useless as milkers--losing one, two, or even all the quarters of the udder. The foot-and-mouth disease is very infectious. I recollect having carried it home from a neighbouring farm, by merely handling a bull which was down with the disease. I came straight home and handled the first beast opposite the door in one of my own byres; in three days he was seized with the complaint; and in two or three days thereafter nearly every beast through the steading was down with it. Out of forty fat cattle thirty-eight had it, only two escaping. Upon inquiry I found that one of them had had it before. I lost from £4 to £5 of condition on an average off every one of the thirty-eight. From the same farm and at the same time a veterinary surgeon had been called in. He went straight to another farm six miles distant, and in a few days every animal there was seized with the same complaint. It is the general belief that an animal will not take the foot-and-mouth disease twice. This is a mistake. I have a cow that took it twice, but there were seven years between the attacks. I have had the Lung disease on two farms; all known treatment is unsatisfactory. I believe, if the attack be violent, no treatment will save the animal. It is sometimes difficult to know it at first. There will generally be a cough, but it is not the clear cough of the animal in health. It is compressed, and the animal coughs unwillingly and with evident pain. The particular cough cannot be mistaken, and the grunt is a never-failing symptom. There is generally one lung more affected than the other. The ear being applied to the chest will discover the impeded circulation. Many cattle take the disease so slightly that it is never discovered. Some have little if any cough, and the pile continues soft and healthy. I recollect a milking cow which I was suspicious had the disease. I made her be run out; there was no acceleration of breathing; her coat was fine, and there was no diminution of the milk; but she gave a grunt which confirmed me in my opinion that she had had a slight touch of the complaint. The grieve, a most intelligent man, was satisfied that the cow was healthy. I fattened her, and for my own information had her slaughtered at home. It was three months after, and the _post-mortem_ examination showed one of the lungs, to the extent of about the size of a crown-piece, adhering to the ribs--a sufficient proof that my conjecture was correct. Many take the disease that are never suspected. I had a bullock showing some symptoms of the disease in a byre amongst ten. The others were, to all appearance, in perfect health. I sent them immediately to London. My salesman was instructed to inspect the carcasses after they were slaughtered, and to report. He did so carefully, and there was not one of the number but had their lungs more or less affected. Mr Collie, Ardgay, Morayshire, had a byre of cattle slaughtered under the same circumstances, and with the very same result. Pleuro-pneumonia is not so infectious as foot-and-mouth disease, but if it get into a farm-steading it is most difficult to get clear of. I have known cattle infected in three days. I had bought a lot of cattle from a farm in Morayshire where the disease has never been up to this hour. It was in the month of April. There were two or three of the lot that I did not think profitable to graze. I tied them in a byre where infected cattle had stood. They were only to be kept a week or two, and I had no idea of danger. One of them took the disease very badly in three days after he was tied up. I have known it lie dormant in the system (as to any visible appearance) for three months and a half. I found the general period of incubation from five to six weeks. I have taken the greatest pains with the byres where the infected cattle stood, having the wood-work taken out, the roofs and greeps carefully scraped and washed with soap and warm water, lime-water, and afterwards with chloride of lime; and yet, after all this labour, I have seen the disease break out again and again. After repeated outbreaks, I not only removed the wood-work, but the whole of the stones in the stalls and greeps, and buried them. I had the roofs and stone mangers, &c., carefully scraped, and washed with soap and warm water, and afterwards with chloride of lime. They were then closely painted, and lastly coal-tarred; but it was only after five or six months' perseverance that I got clear of it. Having heard a report that a cow belonging to my cousin, Mr M'Combie, editor of the 'Free Press,' was labouring under pleuro-pneumonia, I went to see her. Mr Sorely, veterinary surgeon, was in attendance. As there had been no disease in the neighbourhood for five years, I was unwilling to credit the report. But a more marked case I have never witnessed; and the _post-mortem_ examination showed all the symptoms of the fell disease. Mr Sorely, Mr M'Combie's overseer, and I, all agreed that as a wood dividing-partition had been allowed to remain since the time of the previous infection, and the cow was seen chewing pieces of the wood that had got rotted at the base, the wood had retained the poison, and the cow had been infected from the chewing of it. The breath is the cause of the infection when cattle are housed together and the disease introduced. It generally attacks the animals standing at the walls first. The breath is driven by different currents through the building to the walls, where it is stopped; it rebounds, and hence the beasts at the walls generally fall the first victims--so, at least, I have found it in my experience. I had forty beasts divided by a stone-and-lime mid-wall to the level of the side-walls; up to the roof there was a strong and close division of wood. Unfortunately there had been a small aperture about two feet square left open. I made an observation to the cattleman that I should not be at all surprised if the disease came from the infected byre through the opening to the byre where the cattle were sound. The first or second day thereafter the animal standing below the aperture was seized, and got down in the disease. In treatment I have no confidence, having tried everything that could be tried and completely failed. I would, however, recommend that neither hay nor straw be given to animals labouring under the disease. I lost a valuable bull, after he was recovering, from this cause. He was allowed to eat too freely of hay, which he could not masticate; and when opened after death, an ordinary bucketful of hay was found in his stomach, as dry as when it was eaten. I have come to the conclusion that no animal should be allowed hay or straw while unable properly to masticate its food. It is well ascertained that when the poison is lying dormant in an animal, it will infect the other cattle before it is visible in itself. As a confirmation of this fact, I had a sale of breeding stock after the Dumfries show, on Thursday, 30th August 1860. The cattle seemed to be in perfect health on the day of the sale; about three-fourths of them were removed on Friday. The day following--viz., Saturday--a cow was taken ill. I entertained fears that it might turn out pleuro-pneumonia; and circulars were sent to the parties who had removed their cattle. The buyers isolated the cattle bought at the sale from their own stock. Two of the beasts that had been removed died, other two took the complaint and recovered; but fortunately it did not spread amongst the buyers other stock. The cow first taken ill recovered, and another that was left over took the disease and recovered. But, further, a bull was withdrawn from the sale and sent home to Tillyfour from Dorsell the night of the sale, to all appearance in perfect health, though he afterwards died of the disease. He was watered at a watering-place on the roadside, where a crofter's cattle watered daily. The crofter's cattle went down in the disease, and one of them died. Many were the weary days and restless nights I endured when the disease got fairly developed through two of my largest steadings. It is in such cases that the value of a clear-headed veterinary surgeon is appreciated. I would not be well away from one steading, when a messenger would meet me with intelligence of some disaster at the other. I had many beasts being fed on other farms as well as those on my own--not fewer than 400 one way or other. I have said how much I am indebted in such emergencies to the advice and counsel of a clear-headed veterinary surgeon. The disease was in the midst of my breeding stock, and two or three had succumbed to it. Mr Sorely and I were brooding over this state of matters, when I asked him whether he could do anything to save the herd. He said, "I will think over it till to-morrow." He came on the morrow, and seven successive evenings, and administered to each animal a drench, and he would trust no one but himself to do it. I believe there were three changes of medicine; not one animal which got the medicine took the disease, although they had been standing in the midst of it. There was one worthless old milk cow amongst the others, that I did not think worth the trouble of giving the medicine to; she took the disease, and was fed with gruel for fourteen days, and recovered, while the others continued in perfect health. I have related the diseases that are of a local character, as they have come under my own notice, without any desire to set myself up as an authority. 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10991	----	DOGS AND ALL ABOUT THEM BY ROBERT LEIGHTON ASSISTED BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES ON THE VARIOUS BREEDS WITH SEVENTEEN FULL-PAGE PLATES [Frontispiece: SMOOTH-COATED ST. BERNARD: CH. THE VIKING. (_From the Painting by Lilian Cheviot.)] [Transcriber's Note: The capital letter "P" has been used throughout to represent the pound sign of British currency.] PREFACE The popularity of the dog as a companion, as a guardian of property, as an assistant in the pursuit of game, and as the object of a pleasurable hobby, has never been so great as it is at the present time. More dogs are kept in this country than ever there formerly were, and they are more skilfully bred, more tenderly treated, and cared for with a more solicitous pride than was the case a generation ago. There are fewer mongrels in our midst, and the family dog has become a respectable member of society. Two million dog licences were taken out in the British Isles in the course of 1909. In that year, too, as many as 906 separate dog shows were sanctioned by the Kennel Club and held in various parts of the United Kingdom. At the present time there exist no fewer than 156 specialist clubs established for the purpose of watching over the interests of the different breeds. Recognising this advance in our national love of dogs and the growing demand for information on their distinguishing characteristics, I am persuaded that there is ample room for a concise and practical handbook on matters canine. In preparing the present volume, I have drawn abundantly upon the contents of my larger and more expensive _New Book of The Dog_, and I desire to acknowledge my obligations to the eminent experts who assisted me in the production of the earlier work and whose contributions I have further utilised in these pages. I am indebted to Mr. W. J. Stubbs for his clear exposition of the points of the Bulldog, to Colonel Claude Cane for his description of the Sporting Spaniels, to Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox for her authoritative paragraphs on the Pekinese, to Mr. Desmond O'Connell for his history of the Fox-terrier, and to Mr. Walter S. Glynn, Mr. Fred Gresham, Major J. H. Bailey, Mr. E. B. Joachim and other specialists whose aid I have enlisted. In the following chapters the varieties of the dog are classified in the order of (1) Non-Sporting and Utility breeds, (2) Hounds, Gundogs and other Sporting breeds, (3) the Terriers, (4) Toy and Miniature breeds. ROBERT LEIGHTON. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. General History of the Dog 2. The English Mastiff 3. The Bulldog 4. The St. Bernard 5. The Newfoundland 6. The Great Dane 7. The Dalmatian 8. The Collie 9. The Old English Sheepdog 10. The Chow Chow 11. The Poodle 12. The Schipperke 13. The Bloodhound 14. The Otterhound 15. The Irish Wolfhound 16. The Deerhound 17. The Borzoi, or Russian Wolfhound 18. The Greyhound 19. The Whippet 20. The Foxhound 21. The Harrier and the Beagle 22. The Pointer 23. The Setters 24. The Retrievers 25. The Sporting Spaniel 26. The Basset-Hound 27. The Dachshund 28. The Old Working Terrier 29. The White English Terrier 30. The Black and Tan Terrier 31. The Bull-Terrier 32. The Smooth Fox-Terrier 33. The Wire-Hair Fox-Terrier 34. The Airedale Terrier 35. The Bedlington Terrier 36. The Irish Terrier 37. The Welsh Terrier 38. The Scottish Terrier 39. The West Highland White Terrier 40. The Dandie Dinmont 41. The Skye and Clydesdale Terriers 42. The Yorkshire Terrier 43. The Pomeranian 44. The King Charles Spaniels 45. The Pekinese and Japanese 46. The Maltese Dog and the Pug 47. The Brussels Griffon 48. The Miniature Breeds 49. Practical Management 50. Breeding and Whelping 51. Some Common Ailments of the Dog and their Treatment 52. The Dog and the Law LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The Smooth-Coated St. Bernard, Ch. The Viking (From the painting by Lilian Cheviot.) _Frontispiece_ Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Mayor's Bulldog, Ch. Silent Duchess Mr. George Sinclair's St. Bernard, Ch. Lord Montgomery Mrs. Vale Nicolas's Newfoundland, Ch. Shelton Viking Mrs. H. Horsfall's Great Dane, Ch. Viola of Redgrave Mr. R. A. Tait's Collie, Ch. Wishaw Leader Bloodhound, Ch. Chatley Beaufort. Bred and owned by Mrs. G. A. Oliphant, Shrewton, Wilts. Mrs. Armstrong's Deerhound, Ch. Talisman Mrs. Aitcheson's Borzoi, Ch. Strawberry King Mr. H. Reginald Cooke's Retriever, Ch. Worsley Bess Three generations of Mr. R. de C. Peele's Blue Roan Cocker Spaniels, Ch. Ben Bowdler (Father), Ch. Bob Bowdler (Son), and Ch. Dixon Bowdler (Grandson) Fox-Terriers: 1. Mrs. J. H. Brown's, Ch. Captain Double 2. Mr. J. C. Tinne's, Ch. The Sylph 3. Mr. T. J. Stephen's Wire-Hair, Ch. Sylvan Result Mr. Fred. W. Breakell's Irish Terrier, Ch. Killarney Sport Mrs. Spencer's Dandie Dinmont, Ch. Braw Lad A Typical Airedale Head Mr. W. L. McCandlish's Scottish Terrier, Ems Cosmetic Col. Malcolm's West Highland White Terriers Sonny and Sarah Miss E. McCheane's Skye Terriers, Ch. Fairfield Diamond and Ch. Wolverley Chummie Toy Dogs: Miss Stevens' Typical Japanese Puppy Mrs. Vale Nicolas's Pomeranian, Ch. The Sable Mite Miss M. A. Bland's Pomeranian, Ch. Marland King Lady Hulton's Blenheim, Ch. Joy The Hon. Mrs. Lytton's King Charles, Ch. The Seraph Toy Dogs: 1. Mrs. Gresham's Pug, Ch. Grindley King 2. Mrs. T. Whaley's Brussels Griffon, Glenartney Sport 3. Pekinese, Ch. Chu-erh of Alderbourne CHAPTER I GENERAL HISTORY OF THE DOG There is no incongruity in the idea that in the very earliest period of man's habitation of this world he made a friend and companion of some sort of aboriginal representative of our modern dog, and that in return for its aid in protecting him from wilder animals, and in guarding his sheep and goats, he gave it a share of his food, a corner in his dwelling, and grew to trust it and care for it. Probably the animal was originally little else than an unusually gentle jackal, or an ailing wolf driven by its companions from the wild marauding pack to seek shelter in alien surroundings. One can well conceive the possibility of the partnership beginning in the circumstance of some helpless whelps being brought home by the early hunters to be tended and reared by the women and children. The present-day savage of New Guinea and mid-Africa does not, as a rule, take the trouble to tame and train an adult wild animal for his own purposes, and primitive man was surely equally indifferent to the questionable advantage of harbouring a dangerous guest. But a litter of woolly whelps introduced into the home as playthings for the children would grow to regard themselves, and be regarded, as members of the family, and it would soon be found that the hunting instincts of the maturing animal were of value to his captors. The savage master, treading the primeval forests in search of food, would not fail to recognise the helpfulness of a keener nose and sharper eyes even than his own unsullied senses, while the dog in his turn would find a better shelter in association with man than if he were hunting on his own account. Thus mutual benefit would result in some kind of tacit agreement of partnership, and through the generations the wild wolf or jackal would gradually become gentler, more docile, and tractable, and the dreaded enemy of the flock develop into the trusted guardian of the fold. In nearly all parts of the world traces of an indigenous dog family are found, the only exceptions being the West Indian Islands, Madagascar, the eastern islands of the Malayan Archipelago, New Zealand, and the Polynesian Islands, where there is no sign that any dog, wolf, or fox has existed as a true aboriginal animal. In the ancient Oriental lands, and generally among the early Mongolians, the dog remained savage and neglected for centuries, prowling in packs, gaunt and wolf-like, as it prowls to-day through the streets and under the walls of every Eastern city. No attempt was made to allure it into human companionship or to improve it into docility. It is not until we come to examine the records of the higher civilisations of Assyria and Egypt that we discover any distinct varieties of canine form. Assyrian sculptures depict two such, a Greyhound and a Mastiff, the latter described in the tablets as "the chained-up, mouth-opening dog"; that is to say, it was used as a watch-dog; and several varieties are referred to in the cuneiform inscriptions preserved in the British Museum. The Egyptian monuments of about 3000 B.C. present many forms of the domestic dog, and there can be no doubt that among the ancient Egyptians it was as completely a companion of man, as much a favourite in the house, and a help in the chase, as it is among ourselves at present. In the city of Cynopolis it was reverenced next to the sacred jackal, and on the death of a dog the members of the household to which he had belonged carefully shaved their whole bodies, and religiously abstained from using the food, of whatever kind, which happened to be in the house at the time. Among the distinct breeds kept in Egypt there was a massive wolf-dog, a large, heavily-built hound with drooping ears and a pointed head, at least two varieties of Greyhound used for hunting the gazelle, and a small breed of terrier or Turnspit, with short, crooked legs. This last appears to have been regarded as an especial household pet, for it was admitted into the living rooms and taken as a companion for walks out of doors. It was furnished with a collar of leaves, or of leather, or precious metal wrought into the form of leaves, and when it died it was embalmed. Every town throughout Egypt had its place of interment for canine mummies. The dog was not greatly appreciated in Palestine, and in both the Old and New Testaments it is commonly spoken of with scorn and contempt as an "unclean beast." Even the familiar reference to the Sheepdog in the Book of Job--"_But now they that are younger than I have me in derision, whose fathers I would have disdained to set with the dogs of my flock_"--is not without a suggestion of contempt, and it is significant that the only biblical allusion to the dog as a recognised companion of man occurs in the apocryphal Book of Tobit (v. 16), "_So they went forth both, and the young man's dog with them_." The pagan Greeks and Romans had a kindlier feeling for dumb animals than had the Jews. Their hounds, like their horses, were selected with discrimination, bred with care, and held in high esteem, receiving pet names; and the literatures of Greece and Rome contain many tributes to the courage, obedience, sagacity, and affectionate fidelity of the dog. The Phoenicians, too, were unquestionably lovers of the dog, quick to recognise the points of special breeds. In their colony in Carthage, during the reign of Sardanapalus, they had already possessed themselves of the Assyrian Mastiff, which they probably exported to far-off Britain, as they are said to have exported the Water Spaniel to Ireland and to Spain. It is a significant circumstance when we come to consider the probable origin of the dog, that there are indications of his domestication at such early periods by so many peoples in different parts of the world. As we have seen, dogs were more or less subjugated and tamed by primitive man, by the Assyrians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, as also by the ancient barbaric tribes of the western hemisphere. The important question now arises: Had all these dogs a common origin in a definite parent stock, or did they spring from separate and unrelated parents? Half a century ago it was believed that all the evidence which could be brought to bear upon the problem pointed to an independent origin of the dog. Youatt, writing in 1845, argued that "this power of tracing back the dog to the very earliest periods of history, and the fact that he then seemed to be as sagacious, as faithful, and as valuable as at the present day, strongly favours the opinion that he was descended from no inferior and comparatively worthless animal; and that he was not the progeny of the wolf, the jackal, or the fox, but was originally created, somewhat as we now find him, the associate and friend of man." When Youatt wrote, most people believed that the world was only six thousand years old, and that species were originally created and absolutely unchangeable. Lyell's discoveries in geology, however, overthrew the argument of the earth's chronology and of the antiquity of man, and Darwin's theory of evolution entirely transformed the accepted beliefs concerning the origin of species and the supposed invariability of animal types. The general superficial resemblance between the fox and many of our dogs, might well excuse the belief in a relationship. Gamekeepers are often very positive that a cross can be obtained between a dog fox and a terrier bitch; but cases in which this connection is alleged must be accepted with extreme caution. The late Mr. A. D. Bartlett, who was for years the superintendent of the Zoological Gardens in London, studied this question with minute care, and as a result of experiments and observations he positively affirmed that he had never met with one well-authenticated instance of a hybrid dog and fox. Mr. Bartlett's conclusions are incontestable. However much in appearance the supposed dog-fox may resemble the fox, there are certain opposing characteristics and structural differences which entirely dismiss the theory of relationship. One thing is certain, that foxes do not breed in confinement, except in very rare instances. The silver fox of North America is the only species recorded to have bred in the Zoological Gardens of London; the European fox has never been known to breed in captivity. Then, again, the fox is not a sociable animal. We never hear of foxes uniting in a pack, as do the wolves, the jackals, and the wild dogs. Apart from other considerations, a fox may be distinguished from a dog, without being seen or touched, by its smell. No one can produce a dog that has half the odour of Reynard, and this odour the dog-fox would doubtless possess were its sire a fox-dog or its dam a vixen. Whatever may be said concerning the difference existing between dogs and foxes will not hold good in reference to dogs, wolves, and jackals. The wolf and the jackal are so much alike that the only appreciable distinction is that of size, and so closely do they resemble many dogs in general appearance, structure, habits, instincts, and mental endowments that no difficulty presents itself in regarding them as being of one stock. Wolves and jackals can be, and have repeatedly been, tamed. Domestic dogs can become, and again and again do become, wild, even consorting with wolves, interbreeding with them, assuming their gregarious habits, and changing the characteristic bark into a dismal wolf-like howl. The wolf and the jackal when tamed answer to their master's call, wag their tails, lick his hands, crouch, jump round him to be caressed, and throw themselves on their backs in submission. When in high spirits they run round in circles or in a figure of eight, with their tails between their legs. Their howl becomes a business-like bark. They smell at the tails of other dogs and void their urine sideways, and lastly, like our domestic favourites, however refined and gentlemanly in other respects, they cannot be broken of the habit of rolling on carrion or on animals they have killed. This last habit of the domestic dog is one of the surviving traits of his wild ancestry, which, like his habits of burying bones or superfluous food, and of turning round and round on a carpet as if to make a nest for himself before lying down, go far towards connecting him in direct relationship with the wolf and the jackal. The great multitude of different breeds of the dog and the vast differences in their size, points, and general appearance are facts which make it difficult to believe that they could have had a common ancestry. One thinks of the difference between the Mastiff and the Japanese Spaniel, the Deerhound and the fashionable Pomeranian, the St. Bernard and the Miniature Black and Tan Terrier, and is perplexed in contemplating the possibility of their having descended from a common progenitor. Yet the disparity is no greater than that between the Shire horse and the Shetland pony, the Shorthorn and the Kerry cattle, or the Patagonian and the Pygmy; and all dog breeders know how easy it is to produce a variety in type and size by studied selection. In order properly to understand this question it is necessary first to consider the identity of structure in the wolf and the dog. This identity of structure may best be studied in a comparison of the osseous system, or skeletons, of the two animals, which so closely resemble each other that their transposition would not easily be detected. The spine of the dog consists of seven vertebrae in the neck, thirteen in the back, seven in the loins, three sacral vertebrae, and twenty to twenty-two in the tail. In both the dog and the wolf there are thirteen pairs of ribs, nine true and four false. Each has forty-two teeth. They both have five front and four hind toes, while outwardly the common wolf has so much the appearance of a large, bare-boned dog, that a popular description of the one would serve for the other. Nor are their habits different. The wolf's natural voice is a loud howl, but when confined with dogs he will learn to bark. Although he is carnivorous, he will also eat vegetables, and when sickly he will nibble grass. In the chase, a pack of wolves will divide into parties, one following the trail of the quarry, the other endeavouring to intercept its retreat, exercising a considerable amount of strategy, a trait which is exhibited by many of our sporting dogs and terriers when hunting in teams. A further important point of resemblance between the _Canis lupus_ and the _Canis familiaris_ lies in the fact that the period of gestation in both species is sixty-three days. There are from three to nine cubs in a wolf's litter, and these are blind for twenty-one days. They are suckled for two months, but at the end of that time they are able to eat half-digested flesh disgorged for them by their dam--or even their sire. We have seen that there is no authenticated instance of a hybrid between the dog and the fox. This is not the case with the dog and the wolf, or the dog and the jackal, all of which can interbreed. Moreover, their offspring are fertile. Pliny is the authority for the statement that the Gauls tied their female dogs in the wood that they might cross with wolves. The Eskimo dogs are not infrequently crossed with the grey Arctic wolf, which they so much resemble, and the Indians of America were accustomed to cross their half-wild dogs with the coyote to impart greater boldness to the breed. Tame dogs living in countries inhabited by the jackal often betray the jackal strain in their litters, and there are instances of men dwelling in lonely outposts of civilisation being molested by wolves or jackals following upon the trail of a bitch in season. These facts lead one to refer to the familiar circumstance that the native dogs of all regions approximate closely in size, coloration, form, and habit to the native wolf of those regions. Of this most important circumstance there are far too many instances to allow of its being looked upon as a mere coincidence. Sir John Richardson, writing in 1829, observed that "the resemblance between the North American wolves and the domestic dog of the Indians is so great that the size and strength of the wolf seems to be the only difference. I have more than once mistaken a band of wolves for the dogs of a party of Indians; and the howl of the animals of both species is prolonged so exactly in the same key that even the practised ear of the Indian fails at times to discriminate between them." As the Eskimo and Indian dogs resemble the North American wolf, so the dog of the Hare Indians, a very different breed, resembles the prairie wolf. Except in the matter of barking, there is no difference whatever between the black wolf-dog of the Indians of Florida and the wolves of the same country. The same phenomenon is seen in many kinds of European dogs. The Shepherd Dog of the plains of Hungary is white or reddish-brown, has a sharp nose, short erect ears, shaggy coat, and bushy tail, and so much resembles a wolf that Mr. Paget, who gives the description, says he has known a Hungarian mistake a wolf for one of his own dogs. Many of the dogs of Russia, Lapland, and Finland are comparable with the wolves of those countries. Some of the domestic dogs of Egypt, both at the present day and in the condition of mummies, are wolf-like in type, and the dogs of Nubia have the closest relation to a wild species of the same region, which is only a form of the common jackal. Dogs, it may again be noted, cross with the jackal as well as with wolves, and this is frequently the case in Africa, as, for example, in Bosjesmans, where the dogs have a marked resemblance to the black-backed jackal, which is a South African variety. It has been suggested that the one incontrovertible argument against the lupine relationship of the dog is the fact that all domestic dogs bark, while all wild _Canidae_ express their feelings only by howls. But the difficulty here is not so great as it seems, since we know that jackals, wild dogs, and wolf pups reared by bitches readily acquire the habit. On the other hand, domestic dogs allowed to run wild forget how to bark, while there are some which have not yet learned so to express themselves. The presence or absence of the habit of barking cannot, then, be regarded as an argument in deciding the question concerning the origin of the dog. This stumbling block consequently disappears, leaving us in the position of agreeing with Darwin, whose final hypothesis was that "it is highly probable that the domestic dogs of the world have descended from two good species of wolf (_C. lupus_ and _C. latrans_), and from two or three other doubtful species of wolves--namely, the European, Indian, and North African forms; from at least one or two South American canine species; from several races or species of jackal; and perhaps from one or more extinct species"; and that the blood of these, in some cases mingled together, flows in the veins of our domestic breeds. CHAPTER II THE ENGLISH MASTIFF Of the many different kinds of dogs now established as British, not a few have had their origin in other lands, whence specimens have been imported into this country, in course of time to be so improved by selection that they have come to be commonly accepted as native breeds. Some are protected from the claim that they are indigenous by the fact that their origin is indicated in their names. No one would pretend that the St. Bernard or the Newfoundland, the Spaniel or the Dalmatian, are of native breed. They are alien immigrants whom we have naturalised, as we are naturalising the majestic Great Dane, the decorative Borzoi, the alert Schipperke, and the frowning Chow Chow, which are of such recent introduction that they must still be regarded as half-acclimatised foreigners. But of the antiquity of the Mastiff there can be no doubt. He is the oldest of our British dogs, cultivated in these islands for so many centuries that the only difficulty concerning his history is that of tracing his descent, and discovering the period when he was not familiarly known. It is possible that the Mastiff owes his origin to some remote ancestor of alien strain. The Assyrian kings possessed a large dog of decided Mastiff type, and used it in the hunting of lions. It is supposed by many students that the breed was introduced into early Britain by the adventurous Phoenician traders who, in the sixth century B.C., voyaged to the Scilly Islands and Cornwall to barter their own commodities in exchange for the useful metals. Knowing the requirements of their barbarian customers, these early merchants from Tyre and Sidon are believed to have brought some of the larger _pugnaces_, which would be readily accepted by the Britons to supplant, or improve, their courageous but undersized fighting dogs. In Anglo-Saxon times every two villeins were required to maintain one of these dogs for the purpose of reducing the number of wolves and other wild animals. This would indicate that the Mastiff was recognised as a capable hunting dog; but at a later period his hunting instincts were not highly esteemed, and he was not regarded as a peril to preserved game; for in the reign of Henry III. the Forest Laws, which prohibited the keeping of all other breeds by unprivileged persons, permitted the Mastiff to come within the precincts of a forest, imposing, however, the condition that every such dog should have the claws of the fore-feet removed close to the skin. The name Mastiff was probably applied to any massively built dog. It is not easy to trace the true breed amid the various names which it owned. Molossus, Alan, Alaunt, Tie-dog, Bandog (or Band-dog), were among the number. The names Tie-dog and Bandog intimate that the Mastiff was commonly kept for guard, but many were specially trained for baiting bears, imported lions, and bulls. There is constant record of the Mastiff having been kept and carefully bred for many generations in certain old English families. One of the oldest strains of Mastiffs was that kept by Mr. Legh, of Lyme Hall, in Cheshire. They were large, powerful dogs, and longer in muzzle than those which we are now accustomed to see. Another old and valuable strain was kept by the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth. It is to these two strains that the dogs of the present day trace back. Mr. Woolmore's Crown Prince was one of the most celebrated of Mastiffs. He was a fawn dog with a Dudley nose and light eye, and was pale in muzzle, and whilst full credit must be given to him for having sired many good Mastiffs, he must be held responsible for the faults in many specimens of more recent years. Unfortunately, he was indiscriminately bred from, with the result that in a very short time breeders found it impossible to find a Mastiff unrelated to him. It is to be deplored that ever since his era there has been a perceptible diminution in the number of good examples of this fine old English breed, and that from being an admired and fashionable dog the Mastiff has so declined in popularity that few are to be seen either at exhibitions or in breeders' kennels. At the Crystal Palace in 1871 there were as many as sixty-three Mastiffs on show, forming a line of benches two hundred yards long, and not a bad one among them; whereas at a dog show held twenty-five years later, where more than twelve hundred dogs were entered, not a single Mastiff was benched. The difficulty of obtaining dogs of unblemished pedigree and superlative type may partly account for this decline, and another reason of unpopularity may be that the Mastiff requires so much attention to keep him in condition that without it he is apt to become indolent and heavy. Nevertheless, the mischief of breeding too continuously from one strain such as that of Crown Prince has to some extent been eradicated, and we have had many splendid Mastiffs since his time. Special mention should be made of that grand bitch Cambrian Princess, by Beau. She was purchased by Mrs. Willins, who, mating her with Maximilian (a dog of her own breeding by The Emperor), obtained Minting, who shared with Mr. Sidney Turner's Beaufort the reputation of being unapproached for all round merit in any period. The following description of a perfect Mastiff, taken from the Old English Mastiff Club's _Points of a Mastiff_, is admirable as a standard to which future breeders should aim to attain. * * * * * POINTS OF THE MASTIFF: GENERAL CHARACTER AND SYMMETRY--Large, massive, powerful, symmetrical and well-knit frame. A combination of grandeur and good nature, courage and docility. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF HEAD--In general outline, giving a square appearance when viewed from any point. Breadth greatly to be desired, and should be in ratio to length of the whole head and face as 2 to 3. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF BODY--Massive, broad, deep, long, powerfully built, on legs wide apart, and squarely set. Muscles sharply defined. Size a great desideratum, if combined with quality. Height and substance important if both points are proportionately combined. SKULL--Broad between the ears, forehead flat, but wrinkled when attention is excited. Brows (superciliary ridges) slightly raised. Muscles of the temples and cheeks (temporal and masseter) well developed. Arch across the skull of a rounded, flattened curve, with a depression up the centre of the forehead from the medium line between the eyes, to half way up the sagittal suture. FACE OR MUZZLE--Short, broad under the eyes, and keeping nearly parallel in width to the end of the nose; truncated, _i.e._ blunt and cut off square, thus forming a right angle with the upper line of the face, of great depth from the point of the nose to under jaw. Under jaw broad to the end; canine teeth healthy, powerful, and wide apart; incisors level, or the lower projecting beyond the upper, but never sufficiently so as to become visible when the mouth is closed. Nose broad, with widely spreading nostrils when viewed from the front; flat (not pointed or turned up) in profile. Lips diverging at obtuse angles with the septum, and slightly pendulous so as to show a square profile. Length of muzzle to whole head and face as 1 to 3. Circumference of muzzle (measured midway between the eyes and nose) to that of the head (measured before the ears) as 3 to 5. EARS--Small, thin to the touch, wide apart, set on at the highest points of the sides of the skull, so as to continue the outline across the summit, and lying flat and close to the cheeks when in repose. EYES--Small, wide apart, divided by at least the space of two eyes. The stop between the eyes well marked, but not too abrupt. Colour hazel-brown, the darker the better, showing no haw. NECK, CHEST AND RIBS--Neck--Slightly arched, moderately long, very muscular, and measuring in circumference about one or two inches less than the skull before the ears. Chest--Wide, deep, and well let down between the fore-legs. Ribs arched and well-rounded. False ribs deep and well set back to the hips. Girth should be one-third more than the height at the shoulder. Shoulder and Arm--Slightly sloping, heavy and muscular. FORE-LEGS AND FEET--Legs straight, strong, and set wide apart; bones very large. Elbows square. Pasterns upright. Feet large and round. Toes well arched up. Nails black. BACK, LOINS AND FLANKS--Back and loins wide and muscular; flat and very wide in a bitch, slightly arched in a dog. Great depth of flanks. HIND-LEGS AND FEET--Hind-quarters broad, wide, and muscular, with well developed second thighs, hocks bent, wide apart, and quite squarely set when standing or walking. Feet round. TAIL--Put on high up, and reaching to the hocks, or a little below them, wide at its root and tapering to the end, hanging straight in repose, but forming a curve, with the end pointing upwards, but not over the back, when the dog is excited. COAT--COLOUR--Coat short and close lying, but not too fine over the shoulders, neck and back. Colour, apricot or silver fawn, or dark fawn-brindle. In any case, muzzle, ears, and nose should be black, with black round the orbits, and extending upwards between them. * * * * * Size is a quality very desirable in this breed. The height of many dogs of olden days was from thirty-two to thirty-three inches. The height should be obtained rather from great depth of body than length of leg. A leggy Mastiff is very undesirable. Thirty inches may be taken as a fair average height for dogs, and bitches somewhat less. Many of Mr. Lukey's stood 32 inches and over; Mr. Green's Monarch was over 33 inches, The Shah 32 inches, and Cardinal 32 inches. The method of rearing a Mastiff has much to do with its ultimate size, but it is perhaps needless to say that the selection of the breeding stock has still more to do with this. It is therefore essential to select a dog and bitch of a large strain to obtain large Mastiffs. It is not so necessary that the dogs themselves should be so large as that they come from a large strain. The weight of a full-grown dog should be anything over 160 lb. Many have turned over the scale at 180 lb. The Shah, for instance, was 182 lb. in weight, Scawfell over 200 lb. One of the great difficulties that breeders of Mastiffs and all other large dogs have to contend against is in rearing the puppies; so many bitches being clumsy and apt to kill the whelps by lying on them. It is, therefore, always better to be provided with one or more foster bitches. At about six weeks old a fairly good opinion may be formed as to what the puppies will ultimately turn out in certain respects, for, although they may change materially during growth, the good or bad qualities which are manifest at that early age will, in all probability, be apparent when the puppy has reached maturity. It is, therefore, frequently easier to select the best puppy in the nest than to do so when they are from six to nine or ten months old. Puppies should be allowed all the liberty possible, and never be tied up: they should be taken out for steady, gentle exercise, and not permitted to get too fat or they become too heavy, with detrimental results to their legs. Many Mastiff puppies are very shy and nervous, but they will grow out of this if kindly handled, and eventually become the best guard and protector it is possible to have. The temper of a Mastiff should be taken into consideration by the breeder. They are, as a rule, possessed of the best of tempers. A savage dog with such power as the Mastiff possesses is indeed a dangerous creature, and, therefore, some inquiries as to the temper of a stud dog should be made before deciding to use him. In these dogs, as in all others, it is a question of how they are treated by the person having charge of them. The feeding of puppies is an important matter, and should be carefully seen to by anyone wishing to rear them successfully. If goat's milk is procurable it is preferable to cow's milk. The price asked for it is sometimes prohibitory, but this difficulty may be surmounted in many cases by keeping a goat or two on the premises. Many breeders have obtained a goat with the sole object of rearing a litter of puppies on her milk, and have eventually discarded cow's milk altogether, using goat's milk for household purposes instead. As soon as the puppies will lap they should be induced to take arrowroot prepared with milk. Oatmeal and maizemeal, about one quarter of the latter to three quarters of the former, make a good food for puppies. Dog biscuits and the various hound meals, soaked in good broth, may be used with advantage, but no dogs, either large or small, can be kept in condition for any length of time without a fair proportion of meat of some kind. Sheep's paunches, cleaned and well boiled, mixed with sweet stale bread, previously soaked in cold water, make an excellent food and can hardly be excelled as a staple diet. In feeding on horseflesh care should be taken to ascertain that the horse was not diseased, especially if any is given uncooked. Worms are a constant source of trouble from the earliest days of puppy-hood, and no puppy suffering from them will thrive; every effort, therefore, should be made to get rid of them. With proper feeding, grooming, exercise, and cleanliness, any large dog can be kept in good condition without resort to medicine, the use of which should be strictly prohibited unless there is real need for it. Mastiffs kept under such conditions are far more likely to prove successful stud dogs and brood bitches than those to which deleterious drugs are constantly being given. CHAPTER III THE BULLDOG The Bulldog is known to have been domiciled in this country for several centuries. Like the Mastiff, of which it is a smaller form, it is a descendant of the "Alaunt," Mastive, or Bandog, described by Dr. Caius, who states that "the Mastyve or Bandogge is vaste, huge, stubborne, ougly and eager, of a hevy, and burthenous body, and therefore but of little swiftnesse, terrible and frightful to beholde, and more fearce and fell than any Arcadian curre." The first mention of "Bulldog" as the distinctive name of this now national breed occurs in a letter, written by Prestwich Eaton from St. Sebastian to George Wellingham in St. Swithin's Lane, London, in 1631 or 1632, "for a good Mastive dogge, a case of bottles replenished with the best lickour, and pray proceur mee two good bulldoggs, and let them be sent by ye first shipp." Obviously the name was derived from the dog's association with the sport of bull-baiting. The object aimed at in that pursuit was that the dog should pin and hold the bull by the muzzle, and not leave it. The bull was naturally helpless when seized in his most tender part. As he lowered his head in order to use his horns it was necessary for the dog to keep close to the ground, or, in the words of the old fanciers of the sport, to "play low." Larger dogs were at a disadvantage in this respect, and, therefore, those of smaller proportions, which were quite as suitable for the sport, were selected. The average height of the dogs was about 16 inches, and the weight was generally about 45 lbs., whilst the body was broad, muscular, and compact, as is shown in Scott's well-known engraving of "Crib and Rosa." When bull-baiting was prohibited by law the sportsmen of the period turned their attention to dog-fighting, and for this pastime the Bulldogs were specially trained. The chief centres in London where these exhibitions took place were the Westminster Pit, the Bear Garden at Bankside, and the Old Conduit Fields in Bayswater. In order to obtain greater quickness of movement many of the Bulldogs were crossed with a terrier, although some fanciers relied on the pure breed. It is recorded that Lord Camelford's Bulldog Belcher fought one hundred and four battles without once suffering defeat. The decline of bull-baiting and dog-fighting after the passing of the Bill prohibiting these sports was responsible for a lack of interest in perpetuating the breed of Bulldogs. Even in 1824 it was said to be degenerating, and gentlemen who had previously been the chief breeders gradually deserted the fancy. At one time it was stated that Wasp, Child, and Billy, who were of the Duke of Hamilton's strain, were the only remaining Bulldogs in existence, and that upon their decease the Bulldog would become extinct--a prophecy which all Bulldog lovers happily find incorrect. The specimens alive in 1817, as seen in prints of that period, were not so cloddy as those met with at the present day. Still, the outline of Rosa in the engraving of Crib and Rosa, is considered to represent perfection in the shape, make, and size of the ideal type of Bulldog. The only objections which have been taken are that the bitch is deficient in wrinkles about the head and neck, and in substance of bone in the limbs. The commencement of the dog-show era in 1859 enabled classes to be provided for Bulldogs, and a fresh incentive to breed them was offered to the dog fancier. In certain districts of the country, notably in London, Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, and Dudley, a number of fanciers resided, and it is to their efforts that we are indebted for the varied specimens of the breed that are to be seen at the present time. In forming a judgment of a Bulldog the general appearance is of most importance, as the various points of the dog should be symmetrical and well balanced, no one point being in excess of the others so as to destroy the impression of determination, strength, and activity which is conveyed by the typical specimen. His body should be thickset, rather low in stature, but broad, powerful, and compact. The head should be strikingly massive and large in proportion to the dog's size. It cannot be too large so long as it is square; that is, it must not be wider than it is deep. The larger the head in circumference, caused by the prominent cheeks, the greater the quantity of muscle to hold the jaws together. The head should be of great depth from the occiput to the base of the lower jaw, and should not in any way be wedge-shaped, dome-shaped, or peaked. In circumference the skull should measure in front of the ears at least the height of the dog at the shoulders. The cheeks should be well rounded, extend sideways beyond the eyes, and be well furnished with muscle. Length of skull--that is, the distance between the eye and the ear--is very desirable. The forehead should be flat, and the skin upon it and about the head very loose, hanging in large wrinkles. The temples, or frontal bones, should be very prominent, broad, square and high, causing a wide and deep groove known as the "stop" between the eyes, and should extend up the middle of the forehead, dividing the head vertically, being traceable at the top of the skull. The expression "well broken up" is used where this stop and furrow are well marked, and if there is the attendant looseness of skin the animal's expression is well finished. The face, when measured from the front of the cheek-bone to the nose, should be short, and its skin should be deeply and closely wrinkled. Excessive shortness of face is not natural, and can only be obtained by the sacrifice of the "chop." Such shortness of face makes the dog appear smaller in head and less formidable than he otherwise would be. Formerly this shortness of face was artificially obtained by the use of the "jack," an atrocious form of torture, by which an iron instrument was used to force back the face by means of thumbscrews. The nose should be rough, large, broad, and black, and this colour should extend to the lower lip; its top should be deeply set back, almost between the eyes. The distance from the inner corner of the eye to the extreme tip of the nose should not be greater than the length from the tip of the nose to the edge of the under lip. The nostrils should be large and wide, with a well-defined straight line visible between them. The largeness of nostril, which is a very desirable property, is possessed by few of the recent prize-winners. When viewed in profile the tip of the nose should touch an imaginary line drawn from the extremity of the lower jaw to the top of the centre of the skull. This angle of the nose and face is known as the lay-back, and can only properly be ascertained by viewing the dog from the side. The inclination backward of the nose allows a free passage of the air into the nostrils whilst the dog is holding his quarry. It is apparent that if the mouth did not project beyond the nose, the nostrils would be flat against the part to which the dog was fixed, and breathing would then be stopped. The upper lip, called the "chop," or flews, should be thick, broad, pendant and very deep, hanging completely over the lower jaw at the sides, but only just joining the under lip in front, yet covering the teeth completely. The amount of "cushion" which a dog may have is dependent upon the thickness of the flews. The lips should not be pendulous. The upper jaw should be broad, massive, and square, the tusks being wide apart, whilst the lower jaw, being turned upwards, should project in front of the upper. The teeth should be large and strong, and the six small teeth between the tusks should be in an even row. The upper jaw cannot be too broad between the tusks. If the upper and lower jaws are level, and the muzzle is not turned upwards the dog is said to be "down-faced," whilst if the underjaw is not undershot he is said to be "froggy." A "wry-faced" dog is one having the lower jaw twisted, and this deformity so detracts from the general appearance of the dog as seriously to handicap him in the show-ring. The underjaw projects beyond the upper in order to allow the dog, when running directly to the front, to grasp the bull, and, when fixed, to give him a firmer hold. The eyes, seen from the front, should be situated low down in the skull, as far from the ears, the nose, and each other as possible, but quite in front of the forehead, so long as their corners are in a straight line at right angles with the stop, and in front of the forehead. They should be a little above the level of the base of the nasal bone, and should be quite round in shape, of moderate size, neither sunken nor prominent, and be as black in colour as possible--almost, if not quite, black, showing no white when looking directly to the front. A good deal of a Bulldog's appearance depends on the quality, shape, and carriage of his ears. They should be small and thin, and set high on the head; that is, the front inner edge of each ear should, as viewed from the front, join the outline of the skull at the top corner of such outline, so as to place them as wide apart, as high, and as far from the eyes as possible. The shape should be that which is known as "rose," in which the ear folds inward at the back, the upper or front edge curving over outwards and backwards, showing part of the inside of the burr. If the ears are placed low on the skull they give an appleheaded appearance to the dog. If the ear falls in front, hiding the interior, as is the case with a Fox-terrier, it is said to "button," and this type is highly objectionable. Unfortunately, within the last few years the "button" and "semi-tulip" ear have been rather prevalent amongst the specimens on the show bench. If the ear is carried erect it is known as a "tulip" ear, and this form also is objectionable. Nevertheless at the beginning of the nineteenth century two out of every three dogs possessed ears of this description. The neck should be moderate in length, very thick, deep, muscular, and short, but of sufficient length to allow it to be well arched at the back, commencing at the junction with the skull. There should be plenty of loose, thick, and wrinkled skin about the throat, forming a dewlap on each side from the lower jaw to the chest. The chest should be very wide laterally, round, prominent, and deep, making the dog appear very broad and short-legged in front. The shoulders should be broad, the blades sloping considerably from the body; they should be deep, very powerful, and muscular, and should be flat at the top and play loosely from the chest. The brisket should be capacious, round, and very deep from the shoulder to the lowest part, where it joins the chest, and be well let down between the fore-legs. It should be large in diameter, and round behind the fore-legs, neither flat-sided nor sinking, which it will not do provided that the first and succeeding ribs are well rounded. The belly should be well tucked up and not pendulous, a small narrow waist being greatly admired. The desired object in body formation is to obtain great girth at the brisket, and the smallest possible around the waist, that is, the loins should be arched very high, when the dog is said to have a good "cut-up." The back should be short and strong, very broad at the shoulder and comparatively narrow at the loins. The back should rise behind the shoulders in a graceful curve to the loins, the top of which should be higher than the top of the shoulders, thence curving again more suddenly to the tail, forming an arch known as the "roach" back, which is essentially a characteristic of the breed, though, unfortunately, many leading prize-winners of the present day are entirely deficient in this respect. Some dogs dip very considerably some distance behind the shoulders before the upward curve of the spine begins, and these are known as "swamp-backed"; others rise in an almost straight line to the root of the tail, and are known as "stern-high." The tail should be set on low, jut out rather straight, then turn downwards, the end pointing horizontally. It should be quite round in its whole length, smooth and devoid of fringe or coarse hair. It should be moderate in length, rather short than long, thick at the root, and taper quickly to a fine point. It should have a downward carriage, and the dog should not be able to raise it above the level of the backbone. The tail should not curve at the end, otherwise it is known as "ring-tailed." The ideal length of tail is about six inches. Many fanciers demand a "screw" or "kinked" tail, that is, one having congenital dislocations at the joints, but such appendages are not desirable in the best interests of the breed. The fore-legs should be very stout and strong, set wide apart, thick, muscular, and short, with well-developed muscles in the calves, presenting a rather bowed outline, but the bones of the legs must be straight, large, and not bandy or curved. They should be rather short in proportion to the hind-legs, but not so short as to make the back appear long or detract from the dog's activity and so cripple him. The elbows should be low and stand well away from the ribs, so as to permit the body to swing between them. If this property be absent the dog is said to be "on the leg." The ankles or pasterns should be short, straight, and strong. The fore-feet should be straight and turn very slightly outwards; they should be of medium size and moderately round, not too long or narrow, whilst the toes should be thick, compact, and well split up, making the knuckles prominent and high. The hind-legs, though of slighter build than the fore-legs, should be strong and muscular. They should be longer, in proportion, than the fore-legs in order to elevate the loins. The stifles should be round and turned slightly outwards, away from the body, thus bending the hocks inward and the hind-feet outward. The hocks should be well let down, so that the leg is long and muscular from the loins to the point of the hock, which makes the pasterns short, but these should not be so short as those of the fore-legs. The hind-feet, whilst being smaller than the forefeet, should be round and compact, with the toes well split up, and the knuckles prominent. The most desirable weight for a Bulldog is about 50 lbs. The coat should be fine in texture, short, close, and smooth, silky when stroked from the head towards the tail owing to its closeness, but not wiry when stroked in the reverse direction. The colour should be whole or smut, the latter being a whole colour with a black mask or muzzle. It should be brilliant and pure of its sort. The colours in order of merit are, first, whole colours and smuts, viz., brindles, reds, white, with their varieties, as whole fawns, fallows, etc., and, secondly, pied and mixed colours. Opinions differ considerably on the colour question; one judge will set back a fawn and put forward a pied dog, whilst others will do the reverse. Occasionally one comes across specimens having a black-and-tan colour, which, although not mentioned in the recognised standard as being debarred, do not as a rule figure in the prize list. Some of the best specimens which the writer has seen have been black-and-tans, and a few years ago on the award of a first prize to a bitch of this colour, a long but non-conclusive argument was held in the canine press. Granted that the colour is objectionable, a dog which scores in all other properties should not be put down for this point alone, seeing that in the dog-fighting days there were many specimens of this colour. In action the Bulldog should have a peculiarly heavy and constrained gait, a rolling, or "slouching" movement, appearing to walk with short, quick steps on the tip of his toes, his hind-feet not being lifted high but appearing to skim the ground, and running with the right shoulder rather advanced, similar to the manner of a horse when cantering. The foregoing minute description of the various show points of a Bulldog indicates that he should have the appearance of a thick-set Ayrshire or Highland bull. In stature he should be low to the ground, broad and compact, the body being carried between and not on the fore-legs. He should stand over a great deal of ground, and have the appearance of immense power. The height of the fore-leg should not exceed the distance from the elbow to the centre of the back, between the shoulder blades. Considerable importance is attached to the freedom and activity displayed by the animal in its movements. Deformed joints, or weakness, are very objectionable. The head should be strikingly massive and carried low, the face short, the muzzle very broad, blunt, and inclined upwards. The body should be short and well-knit, the limbs, stout and muscular. The hind-quarters should be very high and strong, but rather lightly made in comparison with the heavily-made fore-parts. It must be acknowledged that there are many strains of this breed which are constitutionally unsound. For this reason it is important that the novice should give very careful consideration to his first purchase of a Bulldog. He should ascertain beyond all doubt, not only that his proposed purchase is itself sound in wind and limb, but that its sire and dam are, and have been, in similarly healthy condition. The dog to be chosen should be physically strong and show pronounced muscular development. If these requirements are present and the dog is in no sense a contradiction of the good qualities of its progenitors, but a justification of its pedigree, care and good treatment will do the rest. It is to be remembered, however, that a Bulldog may be improved by judicious exercise. When at exercise, or taking a walk with his owner, the young dog should always be held by a leash. He will invariably pull vigorously against this restraint, but such action is beneficial, as it tends to develop the muscles of the shoulders and front of the body. When taking up the Bulldog fancy, nine out of every ten novices choose to purchase a male. The contrary course should be adopted. The female is an equally good companion in the house or on the road; she is not less affectionate and faithful; and when the inevitable desire to attempt to reproduce the species is reached the beginner has the means at once available. It is always difficult for the uninitiated to select what is likely to be a good dog from the nest. In choosing a puppy care should be taken to ensure it has plenty of bone in its limbs, and these should be fairly short and wide; the nostrils should be large and the face as short as possible. The chop should be thick and heavily wrinkled and the mouth square. There should be a distinct indent in the upper jaw, where the bone will eventually curve, whilst the lower jaw should show signs of curvature and protrude slightly in front of the upper jaw. The teeth from canine to canine, including the six front teeth, should be in a straight line. See that the ears are very small and thin, and the eyes set well apart. The puppy having these properties, together with a domed, peaked, or "cocoanut" shaped skull, is the one which, in nine cases out of ten, will eventually make the best headed dog of the litter. The breeding of Bulldogs requires unlimited patience, as success is very difficult to attain. The breeder who can rear five out of every ten puppies born may be considered fortunate. It is frequently found in what appears to be a healthy lot of puppies that some of them begin to whine and whimper towards the end of the first day, and in such cases the writer's experience is that there will be a speedy burial. It may be that the cause is due to some acidity of the milk, but in such a case one would expect that similar difficulty would be experienced with the remainder of the litter, but this is not the usual result. Provided that the puppies can be kept alive until the fourth day, it may be taken that the chances are well in favour of ultimate success. [Illustration: MR. AND MRS. ARTHUR MAYOR'S BULLDOG CH. SILENT DUCHESS] Many breeders object to feeding the mother with meat at this time, but the writer once had two litter sisters who whelped on the same day, and he decided to try the effect of a meat _versus_ farinaceous diet upon them. As a result the bitch who was freely fed with raw beef reared a stronger lot of puppies, showing better developed bone, than did the one who was fed on milk and cereals. Similarly, in order that the puppy, after weaning, may develop plenty of bone and muscle, it is advisable to feed once a day upon finely minced raw meat. There are some successful breeders, indeed, who invariably give to each puppy a teaspoonful of cod liver oil in the morning and a similar dose of extract of malt in the evening, with the result that there are never any rickety or weak dogs in the kennels, whilst the development of the bones in the skull and limbs is most pronounced. Owing to their lethargic disposition, young Bulldogs are somewhat liable to indigestion, and during the period of puppyhood it is of advantage to give them a tablespoonful of lime water once a day in their milk food. Many novices are in doubt as to the best time to breed from a Bull bitch, seeing that oestrum is present before she is fully developed. It may be taken as practically certain that it is better for her to be allowed to breed at her first heat. Nature has so arranged matters that a Bull bitch is not firmly set in her bones until she reaches an age of from twelve to eighteen months, and therefore she will have less difficulty in giving birth to her offspring if she be allowed to breed at this time. Great mortality occurs in attempting to breed from maiden bitches exceeding three years of age, as the writer knows to his cost. It is desirable, in the case of a young bitch having her first litter, for her master or mistress to be near her at the time, in order to render any necessary assistance; but such attentions should not be given unless actual necessity arises. Some bitches with excessive lay-back and shortness of face have at times a difficulty in releasing the puppy from the membrane in which it is born, and in such a case it is necessary for the owner to open this covering and release the puppy, gently shaking it about in the box until it coughs and begins to breathe. The umbilical cord should be severed from the afterbirth about four inches from the puppy, and this will dry up and fall away in the course of a couple of days. In general, it is true economy for the Bulldog breeder to provide a foster-mother in readiness for the birth of the expected litter; especially is this so in the case of a first litter, when the qualifications for nursing by the mother are unknown. Where there are more than five puppies it is also desirable to obtain a foster-mother in order that full nourishment may be given to the litter by both mothers. The best time of the year for puppies to be born is in the spring, when, owing to the approaching warm weather, they can lead an outdoor life. By the time they are six months old they should have sufficient stamina to enable them to withstand the cold of the succeeding winter. It has been ascertained that Bulldogs which have been reared out of doors are the least liable to suffer from indigestion, torpidity of the liver, asthma or other chest ailments, whilst they invariably have the hardiest constitution. Bulldogs generally require liberal feeding, and should have a meal of dry biscuit the first thing in the morning, whilst the evening meal should consist of a good stew of butcher's offal poured over broken biscuit, bread, or other cereal food. In the winter time it is advantageous to soak a tablespoonful of linseed in water overnight, and after the pods have opened to turn the resulting jelly into the stew pot. This ensures a fine glossy coat, and is of value in toning up the intestines. Care must, however, be taken not to follow this practice to excess in warm weather, as the heating nature of the linseed will eventually cause skin trouble. With these special points attended to, the novice should find no difficulty in successfully becoming a Bulldog fancier, owner, and breeder. In conclusion, it cannot be too widely known that the Bulldog is one of the very few breeds which can, with perfect safety, be trusted alone to the mercy of children, who, naturally, in the course of play, try the patience and good temper of the firmest friend of man. THE MINIATURE BULLDOG Fifty or sixty years ago, Toy--or, rather, as a recent edict of the Kennel Club requires them to be dubbed, Miniature--Bulldogs were common objects of the canine country-side. In fact, you can hardly ever talk for ten minutes to any Bulldog breeder of old standing without his telling you tall stories of the wonderful little Bulldogs, weighing about fifteen or sixteen pounds, he either knew or owned in those long-past days! Prominent among those who made a cult of these "bantams" were the laceworkers of Nottingham, and many prints are extant which bear witness to the excellent little specimens they bred. But a wave of unpopularity overwhelmed them, and they faded across the Channel to France, where, if, as is asserted, our Gallic neighbours appreciated them highly, they cannot be said to have taken much care to preserve their best points. When, in 1898, a small but devoted band of admirers revived them in England, they returned _most_ attractive, 'tis true, but hampered by many undesirable features, such as bat ears, froggy faces, waving tails, and a general lack of Bulldog character. However, the Toy Bulldog Club then started, took the dogs vigorously in hand, and thanks to unceasing efforts, Toy Bulldogs have always since been catered for at an ever increasing number of shows. Their weight, after much heated discussion and sundry downs and ups, was finally fixed at twenty-two pounds and under. The original aim of Miniature Bulldogs--_i.e._ to look like the larger variety seen through the wrong end of a telescope--if not actually achieved, is being rapidly approached, and can no longer be looked upon as merely the hopeless dream of a few enthusiasts. To enumerate in detail the Miniature Bulldog scale of points is quite unnecessary, as it is simply that of the big ones writ small. In other words, "the general appearance of the Miniature Bulldog must as nearly as possible resemble that of the Big Bulldog"--a terse sentence which comprises in itself all that can be said on the subject. As companions and friends Miniature Bulldogs are faithful, fond, and even foolish in their devotion, as all true friends should be. They are absolutely and invariably good-tempered, and, as a rule, sufficiently fond of the luxuries of this life--not to say greedy--to be easily cajoled into obedience. Remarkably intelligent, and caring enough for sport to be sympathetically excited at the sight of a rabbit without degenerating into cranks on the subject like terriers. Taking a keen interest in all surrounding people and objects, without, however, giving way to ceaseless barking; enjoying outdoor exercise, without requiring an exhausting amount, they are in every way ideal pets, and adapt themselves to town and country alike. As puppies they are delicate, and require constant care and supervision; but that only adds a keener zest to the attractive task of breeding them, the more so owing to the fact that as mothers they do not shine, being very difficult to manage, and generally manifesting a strong dislike to rearing their own offspring. In other respects they are quite hardy little dogs, and--one great advantage--they seldom have distemper. Cold and damp they particularly dislike, especially when puppies, and the greatest care should be taken to keep them thoroughly dry and warm. When very young indeed they can stand, and are the better for, an extraordinary amount of heat. THE FRENCH BULLDOG (BOULEDOGUE FRANCAIS) There appears to be no doubt that the French Bulldog originated in England, and is an offshoot of the English miniature variety Bulldog, not the Bulldog one sees on the bench to-day, but of the tulip-eared and short underjawed specimens which were common in London, Nottingham, Birmingham, and Sheffield in the early 'fifties. There was at that time a constant emigration of laceworkers from Nottingham to the coast towns of Normandy, where lace factories were springing into existence, and these immigrants frequently took a Bulldog with them to the land of their adoption. The converse method was also adopted. Prior to 1902 French Bulldogs were imported into this country with the object of resuscitating the strain of bantam Bulldogs, which in course of years had been allowed to dwindle in numbers, and were in danger of becoming extinct. There are superficial similarities between the English and the French toy Bulldog, the one distinguishing characteristic being that in the French variety the ears are higher on the head and are held erect. Until a few years ago the two were interbred, but disputes as to their essential differences led the Kennel Club to intervene and the types have since been kept rigidly apart, the smart little bat-eared Bulldogs of France receiving recognition under the breed name of Bouledogues Francais. CHAPTER IV THE ST. BERNARD The history of the St. Bernard dog would not be complete without reference being made to the noble work that he has done in Switzerland, his native land: how the Hospice St. Bernard kept a considerable number of dogs which were trained to go over the mountains with small barrels round their necks, containing restoratives, in the event of their coming across any poor travellers who had either lost their way, or had been overcome by the cold. We have been told that the intelligent animals saved many lives in this way, the subjects of their deliverance often being found entirely buried in the snow. Handsome as the St. Bernard is, with his attractive colour and markings, he is a cross-bred dog. From the records of old writers it is to be gathered that to refill the kennels at the Hospice which had been rendered vacant from the combined catastrophes of distemper and the fall of an avalanche which had swept away nearly all their hounds, the monks were compelled to have recourse to a cross with the Newfoundland and the Pyrenean sheepdog, the latter not unlike the St. Bernard in size and appearance. Then, again, there is no doubt whatever that at some time the Bloodhound has been introduced, and it is known for a certainty that almost all the most celebrated St. Bernards in England at the present time are closely allied to the Mastiff. The result of all this intermixture of different breeds has been the production of an exceedingly fine race of dogs, which form one of the most attractive features at our dog shows, and are individually excellent guards and companions. As a companion, the St. Bernard cannot be surpassed, when a large dog is required for the purpose. Most docile in temperament and disposition, he is admirably suited as the associate of a lady or a child. The St. Bernard is sensitive to a degree, and seldom forgets an insult, which he resents with dignity. Specimens of the breed have occasionally been seen that are savage, but when this is the case ill-treatment of some sort has assuredly been the provoking cause. The dogs at the Hospice of St. Bernard are small in comparison with those that are seen in England belonging to the same race. The Holy Fathers were more particular about their markings than great size. The body colour should be brindle or orange tawny, with white markings; the muzzle white, with a line running up between the eyes, and over the skull, joining at the back the white collar that encircles the neck down to the front of the shoulders. The colour round the eyes and on the ears should be of a darker shade in the red; in the centre of the white line at the occiput there should be a spot of colour. These markings are said to represent the stole, chasuble and scapular which form part of the vestments worn by the monks; but it is seldom that the markings are so clearly defined; they are more often white, with brindle or orange patches on the body, with evenly-marked heads. In England St. Bernards are either distinctly rough in coat or smooth, but the generality of the Hospice dogs are broken in coat, having a texture between the two extremes. The properties, however, of the rough and smooth are the same, so that the two varieties are often bred together, and, as a rule, both textures of coat will be the result of the alliance. The late M. Schumacher, a great authority on the breed in Switzerland, averred that dogs with very rough coats were found to be of no use for work on the Alps, as their thick covering became so loaded with snow and their feet so clogged that they succumbed under the weight and perished. On that account they were discarded by the monks. In connection with the origin of the St. Bernard, M. Schumacher wrote in a letter to Mr. J. C. Macdona, who was the first to introduce the breed into Great Britain in any numbers: "According to the tradition of the Holy Fathers of the Great Saint Bernard, their race descends from the crossing of a bitch (a Bulldog species) of Denmark and a Mastiff (Shepherd's Dog) of the Pyrenees. The descendants of the crossing, who have inherited from the Danish dog its extraordinary size and bodily strength, and from the Pyrenean Mastiff the intelligence, the exquisite sense of smell, and, at the same time, the faithfulness and sagacity which characterise them, have acquired in the space of five centuries so glorious a notoriety throughout Europe that they well merit the name of a distinct race for themselves." From the same authority we learn that it is something like six hundred years since the St. Bernard came into existence. It was not, however, till competitive exhibitions for dogs had been for some years established that the St. Bernard gained a footing in Great Britain. A few specimens had been imported from the Hospice before Mr. Cumming Macdona (then the Rev. Cumming Macdona) introduced us to the celebrated Tell, who, with others of the breed brought from Switzerland, formed the foundation of his magnificent kennel at West Kirby, in Cheshire. Albert Smith, whom some few that are now alive will remember as an amusing lecturer, brought a pair from the Hospice when returning from a visit to the Continent and made them take a part in his attractive entertainment; but the associations of the St. Bernard with the noble deeds recorded in history were not then so widely known, and these two dogs passed away without having created any particular enthusiasm. Later on, at a dog show at Cremorne held in 1863, two St. Bernards were exhibited, each of whom rejoiced in the name of Monk, and were, respectively, the property of the Rev. A. N. Bate and Mr. W. H. Stone. These dogs were exhibited without pedigrees, but were said to have been bred at the Hospice of St. Bernard. Three years later, at the National Show at Birmingham, a separate class was provided for the saintly breed, and Mr. Cumming Macdona was first and second with Tell and Bernard. This led to an immediate popularity of the St. Bernard. But Tell was the hero of the shows at which he appeared, and his owner was recognised as being the introducer into this country of the magnificent variety of the canine race that now holds such a prominent position as a show dog. The names of Tell and Bernard have been handed down to fame, the former as the progenitor of a long line of rough-coated offspring; the latter as one of the founders of the famous Shefford Kennel, kept by Mr. Fred Gresham, who probably contributed more to the perfecting of the St. Bernard than any other breeder. His Birnie, Monk, Abbess, Grosvenor Hector, and Shah are names which appear in the pedigrees of most of the best dogs of more recent times. When Mr. Gresham drew his long record of success to a close there came a lull in the popularity of the breed until Dr. Inman, in partnership with Mr. B. Walmsley, established a kennel first at Barford, near Bath, and then at The Priory, at Bowden, in Cheshire, where they succeeded in breeding the finest kennel of St. Bernards that has ever been seen in the world. Dr. Inman had for several years owned good dogs, and set about the work on scientific principles. He, in conjunction with Mr. Walmsley, purchased the smooth-coated Kenilworth from Mr. Loft, bred that dog's produce with a brindle Mastiff of high repute, and then crossed back to his St. Bernards with the most successful results. Dr. Inman was instrumental in forming the National St. Bernard Club, which was soon well supported with members, and now has at its disposal a good collection of valuable challenge cups. The dogs bred at Bowden carried all before them in the show ring, and were continually in request for stud purposes, improving the breed to a remarkable extent. At the disposal of Messrs. Inman and Walmsley's kennel, there were such admirable dogs as the rough-coated Wolfram--from whom were bred Tannhauser, Narcissus, Leontes and Klingsor--the smooth-coated dogs, the King's Son and The Viking; the rough-coated bitch, Judith Inman, and the smooth Viola, the last-named the finest specimen of her sex that has probably ever been seen. These dogs and bitches, with several others, were dispersed all over England, with the exception of Klingsor, who went to South Africa. Almost all the best St. Bernards in Great Britain at the present time have been bred or are descended from the Bowden dogs. [Illustration: MR. GEORGE SINCLAIR'S ST. BERNARD CH. LORD MONTGOMERY Photograph by C. Reid, Wishaw] The following is the description of the St. Bernard as drawn up by the members of the St. Bernard Club: * * * * * HEAD--The head should be large and massive, the circumference of the skull being more than double the length of the head from nose to occiput. From stop to tip of nose should be moderately short; full below the eye and square at the muzzle; there should be great depth from the eye to the lower jaw, and the lips should be deep throughout, but not too pendulous. From the nose to the stop should be straight, and the stop abrupt and well defined. The skull should be broad and rounded at the top, but not domed, with somewhat prominent brow. EARS--The ears should be of medium size, lying close to the cheek, but strong at the base and not heavily feathered. EYES--The eyes should be rather small and deep set, dark in colour and not too close together; the lower eyelid should droop, so as to show a fair amount of haw. NOSE--The nose should be large and black, with well developed nostrils. The teeth should be level. EXPRESSION--The expression should betoken benevolence, dignity, and intelligence. NECK--The neck should be lengthy, muscular, and slightly arched, with dewlap developed, and the shoulders broad and sloping, well up at the withers. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF BODY--The chest should be wide and deep, and the back level as far as the haunches, slightly arched over the loins; the ribs should be well rounded and carried well back; the loin wide and very muscular. TAIL--The tail should be set on rather high, long, and in the long-coated variety bushy; carried low when in repose, and when excited or in motion slightly above the line of the back. LEGS--The fore-legs should be perfectly straight, strong in bone, and of good length; and the hind-legs very muscular. The feet large, compact, with well-arched toes. SIZE--A dog should be at least 30 inches in height at the shoulder, and a bitch 27 inches (the taller the better, provided the symmetry is maintained); thoroughly well proportioned, and of great substance. The general outline should suggest great power and capability of endurance. COAT--In the long-coated variety the coat should be dense and flat; rather fuller round the neck; the thighs feathered but not too heavily. In the short-coated variety, the coat should be dense, hard, flat, and short, slightly feathered on thighs and tail. COLOUR AND MARKINGS--The colour should be red, orange, various shades of brindle (the richer colour the better), or white with patches on body of one of the above named colours. The markings should be as follows; white muzzle, white blaze up face, white collar round neck; white chest, forelegs, feet, and end of tail; black shadings on face and ears. If the blaze be wide and runs through to the collar, a spot of the body colour on the top of the head is desirable. The weight of a dog should be from 170 lbs. to 210 lbs.; of a bitch 160 lbs. to 190 lbs. * * * * * During the past twenty-five years St. Bernards have been bred in this country very much taller and heavier than they were in the days of Tell, Hope, Moltke, Monk, Hector, and Othman. Not one of these measured over 32 inches in height, or scaled over 180 lbs., but the increased height and greater weight of the more modern production have been obtained by forcing them as puppies and by fattening them to such an extent that they have been injured in constitution, and in many cases converted into cripples behind. The prizewinning rough-coated St. Bernard, as he is seen to-day is a purely manufactured animal, handsome in appearance certainly, but so cumbersome that he is scarcely able to raise a trot, let alone do any tracking in the snow. Usefulness, however, is not a consideration with breeders, who have reared the dog to meet the exigencies of the show ring. There is still much left to be desired, and there is room for considerable improvement, as only a few of the more modern dogs of the breed approach the standard drawn up by the Clubs that are interested in their welfare. CHAPTER V THE NEWFOUNDLAND The dogs which take their name from the island of Newfoundland appeal to all lovers of animals, romance, and beauty. A Newfoundland formed the subject of perhaps the most popular picture painted by Sir Edwin Landseer; a monument was erected by Byron over the grave of his Newfoundland in proximity to the place where the poet himself hoped to be buried, at Newstead Abbey, and the inscription on his monument contains the lines so frequently quoted: "But the poor dog in life the firmest friend, The first to welcome, foremost to defend, Whose honest heart is still his master's own, Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone. To mark a friend's remains these stones arise: I never knew but one, and here he lies." Robert Burns, also, in his poem, "The Twa Dogs," written in 1786, refers to a Newfoundland as being an aristocrat among dogs. Doubtless, other breeds of dogs have been the subjects of popular pictures and have had their praises sung by poets, but the Newfoundlands have yet a further honour, unique amongst dogs, in being the subject for a postage stamp of their native land. All these distinctions and honours have not been conferred without reason for no breed of dogs has greater claim to the title of friend of man, and it has become famous for its known readiness and ability to save persons in danger, especially from drowning. It is strong and courageous in the water, and on land a properly trained Newfoundland is an ideal companion and guard. Innumerable are the accounts of Newfoundlands having proved their devotion to their owners, and of the many lives saved by them in river and sea; and when Sir Edwin Landseer selected one of the breed as the subject of his picture entitled, "A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society," he was justified not only by the sentiment attaching to this remarkable race of dogs, but also by the deeds by which Newfoundlands have made good their claim to such great distinction, and the popular recognition of this, no doubt, in some degree added to the great esteem in which this painting has always been held. The picture was painted in 1838, and, as almost everyone knows, represents a white and black Newfoundland. The dog portrayed was typical of the breed, and after a lapse of over seventy years, the painting has now the added value of enabling us to make a comparison with specimens of the breed as it exists to-day. Such a comparison will show that among the best dogs now living are some which might have been the model for this picture. It is true that in the interval the white and black Newfoundlands have been coarser, heavier, higher on the legs, with an expression denoting excitability quite foreign to the true breed, but these departures from Newfoundland character are passing away--it is to be hoped for good. The breed is rapidly returning to the type which Landseer's picture represents--a dog of great beauty, dignity, and benevolence of character, showing in its eyes an almost human pathos. Some twenty-five to thirty years ago there was considerable discussion among owners of Newfoundlands in this country as to the proper colour of the true breed, and there were many persons who claimed, as some still claim, that the black variety is the only true variety, and that the white and black colouring indicates a cross-breed. Again Landseer's picture is of value, because, in the first place, we may be almost certain that he would have selected for such a picture a typical dog of the breed, and, secondly, because the picture shows, nearly half a century prior to the discussion, a white and black dog, typical in nearly every respect, except colour, of the black Newfoundland. There is no appearance of cross-breeding in Landseer's dog; on the contrary, he reveals all the characteristics of a thoroughbred. Seventy years ago, therefore, the white and black variety may be fairly considered to have been established, and it is worthy of mention here that "Idstone" quoted an article written in 1819 stating that back in the eighteenth century Newfoundlands were large, rough-coated, liver and white dogs. It is clear, also, that in 1832 Newfoundlands in British North America were of various colours. Additional evidence, too, is provided, in the fact that when selecting the type of head for their postage stamp the Government of Newfoundland chose the Landseer dog. Therefore, there are very strong arguments against the claim that the true variety is essentially black. However that may be, there are now two established varieties, the black and the white and black. There are also bronze-coloured dogs, but they are rare and are not favoured. It is stated, however, that puppies of that colour are generally the most promising in all other respects. The black variety of the Newfoundland is essentially black in colour; but this does not mean that there may be no other colour, for most black Newfoundlands have some white marks, and these are not considered objectionable, so long as they are limited to white hairs on the chest, toes, or the tip of the tail. In fact, a white marking on the chest is said to be typical of the true breed. Any white on the head or body would place the dog in the other than black variety. The black colour should preferably be of a dull jet appearance which approximates to brown. In the other than black class, there may be black and tan, bronze, and white and black. The latter predominates, and in this colour, beauty of marking is very important. The head should be black with a white muzzle and blaze, and the body and legs should be white with large patches of black on the saddle and quarters, with possibly other small black spots on the body and legs. Apart from colour, the varieties should conform to the same standard. The head should be broad and massive, but in no sense heavy in appearance. The muzzle should be short, square, and clean cut, eyes rather wide apart, deep set, dark and small, not showing any haw; ears small, with close side carriage, covered with fine short hair (there should be no fringe to the ears), expression full of intelligence, dignity, and kindness. The body should be long, square, and massive, loins strong and well filled; chest deep and broad; legs quite straight, somewhat short in proportion to the length of the body, and powerful, with round bone well covered with muscle; feet large, round, and close. The tail should be only long enough to reach just below the hocks, free from kink, and never curled over the back. The quality of the coat is very important; the coat should be very dense, with plenty of undercoat; the outer coat somewhat harsh and quite straight. A curly coat is very objectionable. A dog with a good coat may be in the water for a considerable time without getting wet on the skin. The appearance generally should indicate a dog of great strength, and very active for his build and size, moving freely with the body swung loosely between the legs, which gives a slight roll in gait. This has been compared to a sailor's roll, and is typical of the breed. As regards size, the Newfoundland Club standard gives 140 lbs. to 120 lbs. weight for a dog, and 110 lbs. to 120 lbs. for a bitch, with an average height at the shoulder of 27 inches and 25 inches respectively; but it is doubtful whether dogs in proper condition do conform to both requirements. At any rate, the writer is unable to trace any prominent Newfoundlands which do, and it would be safe to assume that for dogs of the weights specified, the height should be quite 29 inches for dogs, and 27 inches for bitches. A dog weighing 150 lbs. and measuring 29 inches in height at the shoulder would necessarily be long in body to be in proportion, and would probably much nearer approach the ideal form of a Newfoundland than a taller dog. In that respect Newfoundlands have very much improved during the past quarter of a century. Twenty-five years ago, the most noted dogs were stated as a rule to be well over 30 inches in height, but their weight for height would indicate legginess, which is an abomination in a Newfoundland. A 29-inch Newfoundland is quite tall enough, and even that height should not be gained at the expense of type and symmetry. The white and black variety are, as a rule, slightly taller, smaller in loin and longer in head, but these differences in the two varieties are being rapidly removed, and at no distant date the white and black variety will probably be as correct in type and symmetry as the black variety now is. For very many years the black variety has been the better in type; and in breeding, if blacks are desired, it will be safer as a general rule to insist upon the absence of white and black blood in any of the immediate ancestors of the sire and dam. But if, on the contrary, white and black dogs are required, the proper course is to make judicious crosses between the black and white, and black varieties, and destroy any black puppies, unless they are required for further crosses with white and black blood. In any case the first cross is likely to produce both black and mis-marked white and black puppies; but the latter, if bred back to the white and black blood, would generally produce well-marked white and black Newfoundlands. In mating, never be guided solely by the good points of the dog and bitch. It is very desirable that they should both have good points, the more good ones the better, but it is more important to ensure that they are dissimilar in their defects, and, if possible, that in neither case is there a very objectionable defect, especially if such defect was also apparent in the animal's sire or dam. [Illustration: MRS. VALE NICOLAS'S NEWFOUNDLAND CH. SHELTON VIKING Photograph by T. Fall] It is, therefore, important to study what were the good, and still more so the bad, points in the parents and grandparents. If you do not know these, other Newfoundland breeders will willingly give information, and any trouble involved in tracing the knowledge required will be amply repaid in the results, and probably save great disappointment. When rearing puppies give them soft food, such as well-boiled rice and milk, as soon as they will lap, and, shortly afterwards, scraped lean meat. Newfoundland puppies require plenty of meat to induce proper growth. The puppies should increase in weight at the rate of 3 lbs. a week, and this necessitates plenty of flesh, bone and muscle-forming food, plenty of meat, both raw and cooked. Milk is also good, but it requires to be strengthened with Plasmon, or casein. The secret of growing full-sized dogs with plenty of bone and substance is to get a good start from birth, good feeding, warm, dry quarters, and freedom for the puppies to move about and exercise themselves as they wish. Forced exercise may make them go wrong on their legs. Medicine should not be required except for worms, and the puppies should be physicked for these soon after they are weaned, and again when three or four months old, or before that if they are not thriving. If free from worms, Newfoundland puppies will be found quite hardy, and, under proper conditions of food and quarters, they are easy to rear. CHAPTER VI THE GREAT DANE The origin of the Great Dane, like that of many other varieties of dogs, is so obscure that all researches have only resulted in speculative theories, but the undoubted antiquity of this dog is proved by the fact that representatives of a breed sufficiently similar to be considered his ancestors are found on some of the oldest Egyptian monuments. A few years ago a controversy arose on the breed's proper designation, when the Germans claimed for it the title "Deutsche Dogge." Germany had several varieties of big dogs, such as the Hatzrude, Saufanger, Ulmer Dogge, and Rottweiler Metzgerhund; but contemporaneously with these there existed, as in other countries in Europe, another very big breed, but much nobler and more thoroughbred, known as the Great Dane. When after the war of 1870 national feeling was pulsating very strongly in the veins of reunited Germany, the German cynologists were on the lookout for a national dog, and for that purpose the Great Dane was re-christened "Deutsche Dogge," and elected as the champion of German Dogdom. For a long time all these breeds had, no doubt, been indiscriminately crossed. The Great Dane was introduced into this country spasmodically some thirty-five years ago, when he was commonly referred to as the Boarhound, or the German Mastiff, and for a time the breed had to undergo a probationary period in the "Foreign Class" at dog shows, but it soon gained in public favour, and in the early 'eighties a Great Dane Club was formed, and the breed has since become one of the most popular of the larger dogs. The Kennel Club has classed the Great Dane amongst the Non-Sporting dogs, probably because with us he cannot find a quarry worthy of his mettle; but, for all that, he has the instincts and qualifications of a sporting dog, and he has proved himself particularly valuable for hunting big game in hot climates, which he stands very well. Respecting the temperament of the Great Dane and his suitability as a companion writers have gone to extremes in praise and condemnation. In his favour it must be said that in natural intelligence he is surpassed by very few other dogs. He has a most imposing figure, and does not, like some other big breeds, slobber from his mouth, which is a particularly unpleasant peculiarity when a dog is kept in the house. On the other hand, it must be admitted that with almost the strength of a tiger he combines the excitability of a terrier, and no doubt a badly trained Great Dane is a very dangerous animal. It is not sufficient to teach him in the haphazard way which might be successful in getting a small dog under control, but even as a companion he ought to be trained systematically, and, considering his marked intelligence, this is not difficult of accomplishment. The Great Dane attains his full development in about a year and a half to two years, and, considering that puppies have to build up in that time a very big skeleton and straight limbs, special attention must be given to the rearing of them. The dam whelps frequently eight puppies, and sometimes even a few more. Mr. Larke's Princess Thor had a litter of seventeen, but even eight is too great a number for a bitch to suckle in a breed where great size is a desideratum. Not more than four, or at the outside five, should be left with the bitch; the others should be put to a foster mother, or if they are weaklings or foul-marked, it is best to destroy them. After the puppies are weaned, their food should be of bone-making quality, and they require ample space for exercise and play. Nothing is worse than to take the youngsters for forced marches before their bones have become firm. Before giving the description and standard which have been adopted by the Great Dane Clubs, a few remarks on some of the leading points will be useful. The general characteristic of the Great Dane is a combination of grace and power, and therefore the lightness of the Greyhound, as well as the heaviness of the Mastiff, must be avoided. The head should be powerful, but at the same time show quality by its nice modelling. The eyes should be intelligent and vivacious, but not have the hard expression of the terrier. The distance between the eyes is of great importance; if too wide apart they give the dog a stupid appearance, and if too close he has a treacherous look. Another very important point is the graceful carriage of the tail. When it is curled over the back it makes an otherwise handsome dog look mean, and a tail that curls at the end like a corkscrew is also very ugly. In former times "faking" was not infrequently resorted to to correct a faulty tail carriage, but it is easily detected. Great Danes sometimes injure the end of the tail by hitting it against a hard substance, and those with a good carriage of tail are most liable to this because in excitement they slash it about, whereas the faulty position of the tail, curled over the back, insures immunity from harm. Until recently British Great Dane breeders and exhibitors have paid very little attention to colour, on the principle that, like a good horse, a good Great Dane cannot be a bad colour. The English clubs, however, have now in this particular also adopted the German standard. The orthodox colours are brindle, fawn, blue, black, and harlequin. In the brindle dogs the ground colour should be any shade from light yellow to dark red-yellow on which the brindle appears in darker stripes. The harlequins have on a pure white ground fairly large black patches, which must be of irregular shape, broken up as if they had been torn, and not have rounded outlines. When brindle Great Danes are continuously bred together, it has been found that they get darker, and that the peculiar "striping" disappears, and in that case the introduction of a good fawn into the strain is advisable. The constant mating of harlequins has the tendency to make the black patches disappear, and the union with a good black Great Dane will prevent the loss of colour. The following is the official description issued by the Great Dane Club:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--The Great Dane is not so heavy or massive as the Mastiff, nor should he too nearly approach the Greyhound type. Remarkable in size and very muscular, strongly though elegantly built; the head and neck should be carried high, and the tail in line with the back, or slightly upwards, but not curled over the hind-quarters. Elegance of outline and grace of form are most essential to a Dane; size is absolutely necessary; but there must be that alertness of expression and briskness of movement without which the Dane character is lost. He should have a look of dash and daring, of being ready to go anywhere and do anything. TEMPERAMENT--The Great Dane is good-tempered, affectionate, and faithful to his master, not demonstrative with strangers; intelligent, courageous, and always alert. His value as a guard is unrivalled. He is easily controlled when well trained, but he may grow savage if confined too much, kept on chain, or ill treated. HEIGHT--The minimum height of an adult dog should be 30 ins.; that of a bitch, 28 ins. WEIGHT--The minimum weight of an adult dog should be 120 lbs.; that of a bitch, 100 lbs. The greater height and weight to be preferred, provided that quality and proportion are also combined. HEAD--Taken altogether, the head should give the idea of great length and strength of jaw. The muzzle, or foreface, is broad, and the skull proportionately narrow, so that the whole head, when viewed from above and in front, has the appearance of equal breadth throughout. LENGTH OF HEAD--The entire length of head varies with the height of the dog, 13 ins. from the tip of the nose to the back of the occiput is a good measurement for a dog of 32 ins. at the shoulder. The length from the end of the nose to the point between the eyes should be about equal, or preferably of greater length than from this point to the back of the occiput. SKULL--The skull should be flat rather than domed, and have a slight indentation running up the centre, the occipital peak not prominent. There should be a decided rise or brow over the eyes, but no abrupt stop between them. FACE--The face should be chiselled well and foreface long, of equal depth throughout, and well filled in below the eyes with no appearance of being pinched. MUSCLES OF THE CHEEK--The muscles of the cheeks should be quite flat, with no lumpiness or cheek bumps, the angle of the jaw-bone well defined. LIPS--The lips should hang quite square in front, forming a right angle with the upper line of foreface. UNDERLINE--The underline of the head, viewed in profile, runs almost in a straight line from the corner of the lip to the corner of the jawbone, allowing for the fold of the lip, but with no loose skin to hang down. JAW--The lower jaw should be about level, or at any rate not project more than the sixteenth of an inch. NOSE AND NOSTRILS--The bridge of the nose should be very wide, with a slight ridge where the cartilage joins the bone. (This is quite a characteristic of the breed.) The nostrils should be large, wide, and open, giving a blunt look to the nose. A butterfly or flesh-coloured nose is not objected to in harlequins. EARS--The ears should be small, set high on the skull, and carried slightly erect, with the tips falling forward. NECK--Next to the head, the neck is one of the chief characteristics. It should be long, well arched, and quite clean and free from loose skin, held well up, snakelike in carriage, well set in the shoulders, and the junction of head and neck well defined. SHOULDERS--The shoulders should be muscular but not loaded, and well sloped back, with the elbows well under the body, so that, when viewed in front, the dog does not stand too wide. FORE-LEGS AND FEET--The fore-legs should be perfectly straight, with big flat bone. The feet large and round, the toes well arched and close, the nails strong and curved. BODY--The body is very deep, with ribs well sprung and belly well drawn up. BACK AND LOINS--The back and loins are strong, the latter slightly arched, as in the Greyhound. HIND-QUARTERS--The hind-quarters and thighs are extremely muscular, giving the idea of great strength and galloping power. The second thigh is long and well developed as in a Greyhound, and the hocks set low, turning neither out nor in. TAIL--The tail is strong at the root and ends in a fine point, reaching to or just below the hocks. It should be carried, when the dog is in action, in a straight line level with the back, slightly curved towards the end, but should not curl over the back. COAT--The hair is short and dense, and sleek-looking, and in no case should it incline to coarseness. GAIT OR ACTION--The gait should be lithe, springy, and free, the action high. The hocks should move very freely, and the head should be held well up. COLOUR--The colours are brindle, fawn, blue, black, and harlequin. The harlequin should have jet black patches and spots on a pure white ground; grey patches are admissible but not desired; but fawn or brindle shades are objectionable. * * * * * [Illustration: MRS. H. HORSFALL'S GREAT DANE CH. VIOLA OF REDGRAVE Photograph by Coe, Norwich] CHAPTER VII THE DALMATIAN Before the Kennel Club found it necessary to insist upon a precise definition of each breed, the Dalmatian was known as the Coach Dog, a name appropriately derived from his fondness for following a carriage, for living in and about the stable, and for accompanying his master's horses at exercise. As an adjunct to the carriage he is peculiarly suitable, for in fine weather he will follow between the wheels for long distances without showing fatigue, keeping easy pace with the best horses. He appears almost to prefer equine to human companionship, and he is as fond of being among horses as the Collie is of being in the midst of sheep. Yet he is of friendly disposition, and it must be insisted that he is by no means so destitute of intelligence as he is often represented to be. On the contrary, he is capable of being trained into remarkable cleverness, as circus proprietors have discovered. The earliest authorities agree that this breed was first introduced from Dalmatia, and that he was brought into this country purely on account of his sporting proclivities. Of late years, however, these dogs have so far degenerated as to be looked upon simply as companions, or as exhibition dogs, for only very occasionally can it be found that any pains have been taken to train them systematically for gun-work. The first of the variety which appeared in the show ring was Mr. James Fawdry's Captain, in 1873. At that period they were looked upon as a novelty, and, though the generosity and influence of a few admirers ensured separate classes being provided for the breed at the leading shows, it did not necessitate the production of such perfect specimens as those which a few years afterwards won prizes. At the first they were more popular in the North of England than in any other part of Great Britain. It was at Kirkby Lonsdale that Dr. James's Spotted Dick was bred, and an early exploiter of the breed who made his dogs famous was Mr. Newby Wilson, of Lakeside, Windermere. He was indebted to Mr. Hugo Droesse, of London, for the foundation of his stud, inasmuch as it was from Mr. Droesse that he purchased Ch. Acrobat and Ch. Berolina. At a later date the famed Coming Still and Prince IV. were secured from the same kennel, the latter dog being the progenitor of most of the best liver-spotted specimens that have attained notoriety as prize-winners down to the present day. In appearance the Dalmatian should be very similar to a Pointer except in head and marking. Still, though not so long in muzzle nor so pendulous in lip as a Pointer, there should be no coarseness or common look about the skull, a fault which is much too prevalent. Then, again, some judges do not attach sufficient importance to the eyelids, or rather sears, which should invariably be edged round with black or brown. Those which are flesh-coloured in this particular should be discarded, however good they may be in other respects. The density and pureness of colour, in both blacks and browns, is of great importance, but should not be permitted to outweigh the evenness of the distribution of spots on the body; no black patches, or even mingling of the spots, should meet with favour, any more than a ring-tail or a clumsy-looking, heavy-shouldered dog should command attention. The darker-spotted variety usually prevails in a cross between the two colours, the offspring very seldom having the liver-coloured markings. The uninitiated may be informed that Dalmatian puppies are always born pure white. The clearer and whiter they are the better they are likely to be. There should not be the shadow of a mark or spot on them. When about a fortnight old, however, they generally develop a dark ridge on the belly, and the spots will then begin to show themselves; first about the neck and ears, and afterwards along the back, until at about the sixteenth day the markings are distinct over the body, excepting only the tail, which frequently remains white for a few weeks longer. The standard of points as laid down by the leading club is sufficiently explicit to be easily understood, and is as follows:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--The Dalmatian should represent a strong, muscular, and active dog, symmetrical in outline, and free from coarseness and lumber, capable of great endurance combined with a fair amount of speed. HEAD--The head should be of a fair length; the skull flat, rather broad between the ears, and moderately well defined at the temples--_i.e._ exhibiting a moderate amount of stop and not in one straight line from the nose to the occiput bone as required in a Bull-terrier. It should be entirely free from wrinkle. MUZZLE--The muzzle should be long and powerful; the lips clean, fitting the jaws moderately close. EYES--The eyes should be set moderately well apart, and of medium size, round, bright, and sparkling, with an intelligent expression, their colour greatly depending on the markings of the dog. In the black spotted variety the eyes should be dark (black or dark brown), in the liver-spotted variety they should be light (yellow or light brown). THE RIM ROUND THE EYES in the black-spotted variety should be black, in the liver-spotted variety brown--never flesh-colour in either. EARS--The ears should be set on rather high, of moderate size, rather wide at the base, and gradually tapering to a round point. They should be carried close to the head, be thin and fine in texture, and always spotted--the more profusely the better. NOSE--The nose in the black-spotted variety should always be black, in the liver-spotted variety always brown. NECK AND SHOULDERS--The neck should be fairly long, nicely arched, light and tapering, and entirely free from throatiness. The shoulders should be moderately oblique, clean, and muscular, denoting speed. BODY, BACK, CHEST, AND LOINS--The chest should not be too wide, but very deep and capacious, ribs moderately well sprung, never rounded like barrel hoops (which would indicate want of speed), the back powerful, loin strong, muscular, and slightly arched. LEGS AND FEET--The legs and feet are of great importance. The fore-legs should be perfectly straight, strong, and heavy in bone; elbows close to the body; fore-feet round, compact with well-arched toes (cat-footed), and round, tough, elastic pads. In the hind-legs the muscles should be clean, though well-defined; the hocks well let down. NAILS--The nails in the black-spotted variety should be black and white in the liver-spotted variety brown and white. TAIL--The tail should not be too long, strong at the insertion, and gradually tapering towards the end, free from coarseness. It should not be inserted too low down, but carried with a slight curve upwards, and never curled. It should be spotted, the more profusely the better. COAT--The coat should be short, hard, dense and fine, sleek and glossy in appearance, but neither woolly nor silky. COLOUR AND MARKINGS--These are most important points. The ground colour in both varieties should be pure white, very decided, and not intermixed. The colour of the spots of the black-spotted variety should be black, the deeper and richer the black the better; in the liver-spotted variety they should be brown. The spots should not intermingle, but be as round and well-defined as possible, the more distinct the better; in size they should be from that of a sixpence to a florin. The spots on head, face, ears, legs, tail, and extremities to be smaller than those on the body. WEIGHT--Dogs, 55 lbs.; bitches, 50 lbs. CHAPTER VIII THE COLLIE The townsman who knows the shepherd's dog only as he is to be seen, out of his true element, threading his confined way through crowded streets where sheep are not, can have small appreciation of his wisdom and his sterling worth. To know him properly, one needs to see him at work in a country where sheep abound, to watch him adroitly rounding up his scattered charges on a wide-stretching moorland, gathering the wandering wethers into close order and driving them before him in unbroken company to the fold; handling the stubborn pack in a narrow lane, or holding them in a corner of a field, immobile under the spell of his vigilant eye. He is at his best as a worker, conscious of the responsibility reposed in him; a marvel of generalship, gentle, judicious, slow to anger, quick to action; the priceless helpmeet of his master--the most useful member of all the tribe of dogs. Few dogs possess the fertile, resourceful brain of the Collie. He can be trained to perform the duties of other breeds. He makes an excellent sporting dog, and can be taught to do the work of the Pointer and the Setter, as well as that of the Water Spaniel and the Retriever. He is clever at hunting, having an excellent nose, is a good vermin-killer, and a most faithful watch, guard, and companion. Major Richardson, who for some years has been successful in training dogs to ambulance work on the field of battle, has carefully tested the abilities of various breeds in discovering wounded soldiers, and he gives to the Collie the decided preference. It is, however, as an assistant to the flock-master the farmer, the butcher, and the drover that the Collie takes his most appropriate place in every-day life. The shepherd on his daily rounds, travelling over miles of moorland, could not well accomplish his task without his Collie's skilful aid. One such dog, knowing what is expected of him, can do work which would otherwise require the combined efforts of a score of men. Little is known with certainty of the origin of the Collie, but his cunning and his outward appearance would seem to indicate a relationship with the wild dog. Buffon was of opinion that he was the true dog of nature, the stock and model of the whole canine species. He considered the Sheepdog superior in instinct and intelligence to all other breeds, and that, with a character in which education has comparatively little share, he is the only animal born perfectly trained for the service of man. One of the most perfect working Collies in Scotland to-day is the old-fashioned black and white type, which is the most popular among the shepherds of Scotland. At the shows this type of dog is invariably at the top of the class. He is considered the most tractable, and is certainly the most agile. Second to this type in favour is the smooth-coated variety, a very hard, useful dog, well adapted for hill work and usually very fleet of foot. He is not so sweet in temper as the black and white, and is slow to make friends. In the Ettrick and Yarrow district the smooth is a popular sheepdog. The shepherds maintain that he climbs the hills more swiftly than the rough, and in the heavy snowstorms his clean, unfeathered legs do not collect and carry the snow. He has a fuller coat than the show specimens usually carry, but he has the same type of head, eye, and ears, only not so well developed. Then there is the Scottish bearded, or Highland Collie, less popular still with the flock-master, a hardy-looking dog in outward style, but soft in temperament, and many of them make better cattle than sheep dogs. This dog and the Old English Sheepdog are much alike in appearance, but that the bearded is a more racy animal, with a head resembling that of the Dandie Dinmont rather than the square head of the Bobtail. The strong-limbed bearded Collie is capable of getting through a good day's work, but is not so steady nor so wise as the old-fashioned black and white, or even the smooth coated variety. He is a favourite with the butcher and drover who have sometimes a herd of troublesome cattle to handle, and he is well suited to rough and rocky ground, active in movement, and as sure-footed as the wild goat. He can endure cold and wet without discomfort, and can live on the Highland hills when others less sturdy would succumb. In the standard adopted for judging the breed, many points are given for good legs and feet, bone, body, and coat, while head and ears are not of great importance. Movement, size, and general appearance have much weight. The colour is varied in this breed. Cream-coloured specimens are not uncommon, and snow white with orange or black markings may often be seen, but the popular colour is grizzly grey. Unfortunately the coats of many are far too soft and the undercoat is frequently absent. Working trials to test the skill of the sheepdog have become frequent fixtures among shepherds and farmers within recent years, and these competitions have done much towards the improvement of the working qualities of the Collie. In general the excelling competitors at working trials are the rough-coated black and white Collies. The smooth-coated variety and the Beardie are less frequent winners. The handsome and distinguished gentlemen of the Ch. Wishaw Leader type are seldom seen on the trial field, although formerly such a dog as Ch. Ormskirk Charlie might be successfully entered with others equally well bred from the kennels of that good trainer and fancier, Mr. Piggin, of Long Eaton. A good working Collie, however, is not always robed in elegance. What is desirable is that the shepherd and farmer should fix a standard of points, and breed as near as possible to that standard, as the keepers of the show Collie breed to an acknowledged type of perfection. Nevertheless, from a bad worker of good descent many an efficient worker might be produced by proper mating, and those of us skilled in the breeding of Collies know the importance of a well-considered process of selection from unsullied strains. It is a pity that the hard-working dog of the shepherd does not receive the attention in the way of feeding and grooming that is bestowed on the ornamental show dog. He is too often neglected in these particulars. Notwithstanding this neglect, however, the average life of the working dog is longer by a year or two than that of his more beautiful cousin. Pampering and artificial living are not to be encouraged; but, on the other hand, neglect has the same effect of shortening the span of life, and bad feeding and inattention to cleanliness provoke the skin diseases which are far too prevalent. There is not a more graceful and physically beautiful dog to be seen than the show Collie of the present period. Produced from the old working type, he is now practically a distinct breed. His qualities in the field are not often tested, but he is a much more handsome and attractive animal, and his comeliness will always win for him many admiring friends. The improvements in his style and appearance have been alleged to be due to an admixture with Gordon Setter blood. In the early years of exhibitions he showed the shorter head, heavy ears, and much of the black and tan colouring which might seem to justify such a supposition; but there is no evidence that the cross was ever purposely sought. Gradually the colour was lightened to sable and a mingling of black, white, and tan came into favour. The shape of the head was also improved. These improvements in beauty of form and colour have been largely induced by the many Collie clubs now in existence not only in the United Kingdom and America, but also in South Africa and Germany, by whom the standards of points have been perfected. Type has been enhanced, the head with the small ornamental ears that now prevail is more classical; and scientific cultivation and careful selection of typical breeding stock have achieved what may be considered the superlative degree of quality, without appreciable loss of stamina, size, or substance. Twenty years or so ago, when Collies were becoming fashionable, the rich sable coat with long white mane was in highest request. In 1888 Ch. Metchley Wonder captivated his admirers by these rich qualities. He was the first Collie for which a very high purchase price was paid, Mr. Sam Boddington having sold him to Mr. A. H. Megson, of Manchester, for P530. High prices then became frequent. Mr. Megson paid as much as P1,600 to Mr. Tom Stretch for Ormskirk Emerald. No Collie has had a longer or more brilliant career than Emerald, and although he was not esteemed as a successful sire, yet he was certainly the greatest favourite among our show dogs of recent years. Mr. Megson has owned many other good specimens of the breed, both rough and smooth. In the same year that he bought Metchley Wonder, he gave P350 for a ten-months' puppy, Caractacus. Sable and white is his favourite combination of colour, a fancy which was shared some years ago by the American buyers, who would have nothing else. Black, tan, and white became more popular in England, and while there is now a good market for these in the United States the sable and white remains the favourite of the American buyers and breeders. The best Collie of modern times was undoubtedly Ch. Squire of Tytton, which went to America for P1,250. A golden sable with quality, nice size, and profuse coat, he had an unbeaten record in this country. Another of our best and most typical rough Collies was Ch. Wishaw Leader. This beautiful dog, who had a most distinguished show career, was a well-made black, tan, and white, with an enormous coat and beautiful flowing white mane; one of the most active movers, displaying quality all through, and yet having plenty of substance. He had that desirable distinction of type which is so often lacking in our long-headed Collies. Ormskirk Emerald's head was of good length and well balanced, the skull sufficiently flat; his eye was almond-shaped and dark-brown in colour, his expression keen and wise, entirely free from the soft look which we see on many of the faces to-day. Historical examples of the show Collie have also been seen in Champions Christopher, Anfield Model, Sappho of Tytton, Parbold Piccolo, and Woodmanstern Tartan. In recent years the smooth Collie has gained in popularity quite as certainly as his more amply attired relative. Originally he was a dog produced by mating the old-fashioned black and white with the Greyhound. But the Greyhound type, which was formerly very marked, can scarcely be discerned to-day. Still, it is not infrequent that a throw-back is discovered in a litter producing perhaps a slate-coloured, a pure, white, or a jet black individual, or that an otherwise perfect smooth Collie should betray the heavy ears or the eye of a Greyhound. At one time this breed of dog was much cultivated in Scotland, but nowadays the breeding of smooths is almost wholly confined to the English side of the Border. [Illustration: MR. R. A. TAIT'S COLLIE CH. WISHAW LEADER Photograph by C. Reid, Wishaw] The following is the accepted description of the Perfect Collie:-- * * * * * THE SKULL should be flat, moderately wide between the ears, and gradually tapering towards the eyes. There should only be a slight depression at stop. The width of skull necessarily depends upon combined length of skull and muzzle; and the whole must be considered in connection with the size of the dog. The cheek should not be full or prominent. THE MUZZLE should be of fair length, tapering to the nose, and must not show weakness or be snipy or lippy. Whatever the colour of the dog may be, the nose must be black. THE TEETH should be of good size, sound and level; very slight unevenness is permissible. THE JAWS--Clean cut and powerful. THE EYES are a very important feature, and give expression to the dog; they should be of medium size, set somewhat obliquely, of almond shape, and of a brown colour except in the case of merles, when the eyes are frequently (one or both) blue and white or china; expression full of intelligence, with a quick alert look when listening. THE EARS should be small and moderately wide at the base, and placed not too close together but on the top of the skull and not on the side of the head. When in repose they should be usually carried thrown back, but when on the alert brought forward and carried semi-erect, with tips slightly drooping in attitude of listening. THE NECK should be muscular, powerful and of fair length, and somewhat arched. THE BODY should be strong, with well sprung ribs, chest deep, fairly broad behind the shoulders, which should be sloped, loins very powerful. The dog should be straight in front. THE FORE-LEGS should be straight and muscular, neither in nor out at elbows, with a fair amount of bone; the forearm somewhat fleshy, the pasterns showing flexibility without weakness. THE HIND-LEGS should be muscular at the thighs, clean and sinewy below the hocks, with well bent stifles. THE FEET should be oval in shape, soles well padded, and the toes arched and close together. The hind feet less arched, the hocks well let down and powerful. THE BRUSH should be moderately long carried low when the dog is quiet, with a slight upward "swirl" at the end, and may be gaily carried when the dog is excited, but not over the back. THE COAT should be very dense, the outer coat harsh to the touch, the inner or under coat soft, furry, and very close, so close as almost to hide the skin. The mane and frill should be very abundant, the mask or face smooth, as also the ears at the tips, but they should carry more hair towards the base; the fore-legs well feathered, the hind-legs above the hocks profusely so; but below the hocks fairly smooth, although all heavily coated Collies are liable to grow a slight feathering. Hair on the brush very profuse. COLOUR in the Collie is immaterial. IN GENERAL CHARACTER he is a lithe active dog, his deep chest showing lung power, his neck strength, his sloping shoulders and well bent hocks indicating speed, and his expression high intelligence. He should be a fair length on the leg, giving him more of a racy than a cloddy appearance. In a few words, a Collie should show endurance, activity, and intelligence, with free and true action. In height dogs should be 22 ins. to 24 ins. at the shoulders, bitches 20 ins. to 22 ins. The weight for dogs is 45 to 65 lbs., bitches 40 to 55 lbs. THE SMOOTH COLLIE only differs from the rough in its coat, which should be hard, dense and quite smooth. THE MAIN FAULTS to be avoided are a domed skull, high peaked occipital bone, heavy, pendulous or pricked ears, weak jaws, snipy muzzle, full staring or light eyes, crooked legs, large, flat or hare feet, curly or soft coat, cow hocks, and brush twisted or carried right over the back, under or overshot mouth. CHAPTER IX THE OLD ENGLISH SHEEPDOG Intelligent and picturesque, workmanlike and affectionate, the Old English Sheepdog combines, in his shaggy person, the attributes at once of a drover's drudge and of an ideal companion. Although the modern dog is seen less often than of old performing his legitimate duties as a shepherd dog, there is no ground whatever for supposing that he is a whit less sagacious than the mongrels which have largely supplanted him. The instincts of the race remain unchanged; but the mongrel certainly comes cheaper. Carefully handled in his youth, the bob-tail is unequalled as a stock dog, and he is equally at home and efficient in charge of sheep, of cattle, and of New Forest ponies. So deep-rooted is the natural herding instinct of the breed that it is a thousand pities that the modern shepherd so frequently puts up with an inferior animal in place of the genuine article. Nor is it as a shepherd dog alone that the bob-tail shines in the field. His qualifications as a sporting dog are excellent, and he makes a capital retriever, being usually under excellent control, generally light-mouthed, and taking very readily to water. His natural inclination to remain at his master's heel and his exceptional sagacity and quickness of perception will speedily develop him, in a sportsman's hands, into a first-rate dog to shoot over. These points in his favour should never be lost sight of, because his increasing popularity on the show bench is apt to mislead many of his admirers into the belief that he is an ornamental rather than a utility dog. Nothing could be further from the fact. Nevertheless, he has few equals as a house dog, being naturally cleanly in his habits, affectionate in his disposition, an admirable watch, and an extraordinarily adaptable companion. As to his origin, there is considerable conflict of opinion, owing to the natural difficulty of tracing him back to that period when the dog-fancier, as he flourishes to-day, was all unknown, and the voluminous records of a watchful Kennel Club were still undreamed of. From time immemorial a sheepdog, of one kind or another, has presided over the welfare of flocks and herds in every land. Probably, in an age less peaceable than ours, this canine guardian was called upon, in addition to his other duties, to protect his charges from wolves and bears and other marauders. In that case it is very possible that the early progenitors of the breed were built upon a larger and more massive scale than is the sheepdog of to-day. The herd dogs of foreign countries, such as the Calabrian of the Pyrenees, the Himalayan drover's dog, and the Russian Owtchah, are all of them massive and powerful animals, far larger and fiercer than our own, though each of them, and notably the Owtchah, has many points in common with the English bob-tail. It is quite possible that all of them may trace their origin, at some remote period, to the same ancestral strain. Indeed, it is quite open to argument that the founders of our breed, as it exists to-day, were imported into England at some far-off date when the duties of a sheepdog demanded of him fighting qualities no longer necessary. Throughout the nineteenth century, one finds conclusive evidence that the breed was very fairly represented in many parts of England, notably in Suffolk, Hampshire, and Dorsetshire, and also in Wales. Youatt writes of it in 1845, Richardson in 1847, and "Stonehenge" in 1859. Their descriptions vary a little, though the leading characteristics are much the same, but each writer specially notes the exceptional sagacity of the breed. The dog was well known in Scotland, too, under the title of the Bearded Collie, for there is little doubt that this last is merely a variant of the breed. He differs, in point of fact, chiefly by reason of possessing a tail, the amputation of which is a recognised custom in England. With regard to this custom, it is said that the drovers originated it. Their dogs, kept for working purposes, were immune from taxation, and they adopted this method of distinguishing the animals thus exempted. It has been argued, by disciples of the Darwinian theory of inherited effects from continued mutilations, that a long process of breeding from tailless animals has resulted in producing puppies naturally bob-tailed, and it is difficult, on any other hypothesis, to account for the fact that many puppies are so born. It is certainly a fact that one or two natural bob-tails are frequently found in a litter of which the remainder are duly furnished with well-developed tails. From careful consideration of the weight of evidence, it seems unlikely that the breed was originally a tailless one, but the modern custom undoubtedly accentuates its picturesqueness by bringing into special prominence the rounded shaggy quarters and the characteristic bear-like gait which distinguish the Old English Sheepdog. Somewhere about the 'sixties there would appear to have been a revival of interest in the bob-tail's welfare, and attempts were made to bring him into prominence. In 1873 his admirers succeeded in obtaining for him a separate classification at a recognised show, and at the Curzon Hall, at Birmingham, in that year three temerarious competitors appeared to undergo the ordeal of expert judgment. It was an unpromising beginning, for Mr. M. B. Wynn, who officiated found their quality so inferior that he contented himself with awarding a second prize. But from this small beginning important results were to spring, and the Old English Sheepdog has made great strides in popularity since then. At Clerkenwell, in 1905, the entries in his classes reached a total of over one hundred, and there was no gainsaying the quality. This satisfactory result is due in no small measure to the initiative of the Old English Sheepdog Club, a society founded in 1888, with the avowed intention of promoting the breeding of the old-fashioned English Sheepdog, and of giving prizes at various shows held under Kennel Club Rules. The pioneers of this movement, so far as history records their names, were Dr. Edwardes-Ker, an enthusiast both in theory and in practice, from whose caustic pen dissentients were wont to suffer periodical castigation; Mr. W. G. Weager, who has held office in the club for some twenty years; Mrs. Mayhew, who capably held her own amongst her fellow-members of the sterner sex; Mr. Freeman Lloyd, who wrote an interesting pamphlet on the breed in 1889; and Messrs. J. Thomas and Parry Thomas. Theirs can have been no easy task at the outset, for it devolved upon them to lay down, in a succinct and practical form, leading principles for the guidance of future enthusiasts. It runs thus:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--A strong, compact-looking dog of great symmetry, absolutely free from legginess, profusely coated all over, very elastic in its gallop, but in walking or trotting he has a characteristic ambling or pacing movement, and his bark should be loud, with a peculiar _pot casse_ ring in it. Taking him all round, he is a thick-set, muscular, able-bodied dog, with a most intelligent expression, free from all _Poodle_ or _Deerhound_ character. SKULL--Capacious, and rather squarely formed, giving plenty of room for brain power. The parts over the eyes should be well arched and the whole well covered with hair. JAW--Fairly long, strong, square and truncated; the stop should be defined to avoid a Deerhound face. _The attention of judges is particularly called to the above properties, as a long, narrow head is a deformity_. EYES--Vary according to the colour of the dog, but dark or wall eyes are to be preferred. NOSE--Always black, large, and capacious. TEETH--Strong and large, evenly placed, and level in opposition. EARS--Small, and carried flat to side of head, coated moderately. LEGS--The fore-legs should be dead straight, with plenty of bone, removing the body to a medium height from the ground, without approaching legginess; well coated all round. FEET--Small, round; toes well arched and pads thick and hard. TAIL--Puppies requiring docking must have an appendage left of one and a half to two inches and the operation performed when not older than four days. NECK AND SHOULDERS--The neck should be fairly long, arched gracefully, and well coated with hair; the shoulders sloping and narrow at the points, the dog standing lower at the shoulder than at the loin. BODY--Rather short and very compact, ribs well sprung, and brisket deep and capacious. The loin should be very stout and gently arched, while the hind-quarters should be round and muscular, and with well let down hocks, and the hams densely coated with a thick long jacket in excess of any other part. COAT--Profuse, and of good hard texture, not straight but shaggy and free from curl. The undercoat should be a waterproof pile, when not removed by grooming or season. COLOUR--Any shade of grey, grizzle, blue or blue-merled, with or without white markings, or in reverse; any shade of brown or sable to be considered distinctly objectionable and not to be encouraged. HEIGHT--Twenty-two inches and upwards for dogs, slightly less for bitches. Type, character, and symmetry are of the greatest importance, and on no account to be sacrificed to size alone. * * * * * Turning to the questions of care and kennel management, we may start with the puppy. It is obvious that where bone and substance are matters of special desirability, it is essential to build up in the infant what is to be expected of the adult. For this reason it is a great mistake to allow the dam to bring up too many by herself. To about six or seven she can do justice, but a healthy bitch not infrequently gives birth to a dozen or more. Under such circumstances the services of a foster-mother are a cheap investment. By dividing the litter the weaklings may be given a fair chance in the struggle for existence, otherwise they receive scant consideration from their stronger brethren. At three or four days old the tails should be removed, as near the rump as possible. The operation is easy to perform, and if done with a sharp, clean instrument there is no danger of after ill effects. If the mother be kept on a very liberal diet, it will usually be found that she will do all that is necessary for her family's welfare for the first three weeks, by which time the pups have increased prodigiously in size. They are then old enough to learn to lap for themselves, an accomplishment which they very speedily acquire. Beginning with fresh cow's milk for a week, their diet may be gradually increased to Mellin's or Benger's food, and later to gruel and Quaker Oats, their steadily increasing appetites being catered for by the simple exercise of commonsense. Feed them little and often, about five times a day, and encourage them to move about as much as possible; and see that they never go hungry, without allowing them to gorge. Let them play until they tire, and sleep until they hunger again, and they will be found to thrive and grow with surprising rapidity. At six weeks old they can fend for themselves, and shortly afterwards additions may be made to their diet in the shape of paunches, carefully cleaned and cooked, and Spratt's Puppy Rodnim. A plentiful supply of fresh milk is still essential. Gradually the number of their meals may be decreased, first to four a day, and later on to three, until at six months old they verge on adolescence; and may be placed upon the rations of the adult dog, two meals a day. Meanwhile, the more fresh air and sunshine, exercise, and freedom they receive, the better will they prosper, but care must be taken that they are never allowed to get wet. Their sleeping-place especially must be thoroughly dry, well ventilated, and scrupulously clean. As to the adult dog, his needs are three: he must be well fed, well housed, and well exercised. Two meals a day suffice him, but he likes variety, and the more his fare can be diversified the better will he do justice to it. Biscuits, Rodnim, Flako, meat, vegetables, paunches, and sheep's heads, with an occasional big bone to gnaw, provide unlimited change, and the particular tastes of individuals should be learned and catered for. As to the bob-tail's kennel, there is no need whatever for a high-priced fancy structure. Any weatherproof building will do, provided it be well ventilated and free from draughts. In very cold weather a bed of clean wheat straw is desirable, in summer the bare boards are best. In all weathers cleanliness is an absolute essential, and a liberal supply of fresh water should be always available. Grooming is an important detail in a breed whose picturesqueness depends so largely on the profuseness of their shaggy coats, but there is a general tendency to overdo it. A good stiff pair of dandy brushes give the best results, but the coats must not be allowed to mat or tangle, which they have a tendency to do if not properly attended to. Mats and tangles, if taken in time, can generally be teased out with the fingers, and it is the greatest mistake to try and drag them out with combs. These last should be used as little as possible, and only with the greatest care when necessary at all. An over-groomed bob-tail loses half his natural charm. Far preferable is a muddy, matted, rough-and-tumble-looking customer, with his coat as Nature left it. CHAPTER X THE CHOW CHOW The Chow Chow is a dog of great versatility. He is a born sportsman and loves an open-air life--a warrior, always ready to accept battle, but seldom provoking it. He has a way of his own with tramps, and seldom fails to induce them to continue their travels. Yet withal he is tender-hearted, a friend of children, an ideal companion, and often has a clever gift for parlour tricks. In China, his fatherland, he is esteemed for another quality--his excellence as a substitute for roast mutton. Though in his own country he is regarded as plebeian, just a common cur, he is by no means a mongrel. That he is of ancient lineage is proved by the fact that he always breeds true to type. He yields to the Pekinese Spaniel the claim to be the Royal dog of China, yet his blood must be of the bluest. If you doubt it, look at his tongue. Outwardly, the Chow worthily embodies the kind, faithful heart and the brave spirit within. His compact body (weighing 40 lbs. or more), with the beautiful fur coat and ruff, the plume tail turned over on his back and almost meeting his neck-ruff, the strong, straight legs and neat, catlike feet, gives an impression of symmetry, power, and alertness. His handsome face wears a "scowl." This is the technical term for the "no nonsense" look which deters strangers from undue familiarity, though to friends his expression is kindness itself. Though the Chow has many perfections, the perfect Chow has not yet arrived. He nearly came with Ch. Chow VIII.--long since dead, alas!--and with Ch. Fu Chow, the best Chow now living, his light coloured eyes being his only defect. With many judges, however, this dog's black coat handicaps him sadly in competition with his red brethren. Chow VIII. is considered the best and most typical dog ever benched, notwithstanding his somewhat round eyes. Almond eyes are of course correct in Chinamen. Ch. Red Craze owns the head which is perfect with the correct ear-carriage and broad muzzle, and the scowl and characteristic expression of a good Chow. Dark red is the accepted colour of the Chow. Modern judges will not look twice at a light or parti-coloured dog, and it is to be feared that if even Ch. Chow VIII. could revisit the scenes of his bygone triumphs, his beautiful light markings would prove a fatal bar to his success. The judges would be quite wrong, but if you want a dog for show you must be sure to get a good whole-coloured dark red. If, on the other hand, you have a Chow as a companion and friend, do not be at all troubled if his ruff, yoke, culottes and tail are white or cream-coloured. These are natural, correct and typical marks, though present-day fanciers are trying to "improve" them away. A list of points as drawn up by the Chow Chow Club some years ago is added. The points are fairly right, but the tongue of a live Chow is never black. It should be blue, such a colour as might result from a diet of bilberries. * * * * * POINTS OF THE CHOW CHOW: HEAD--Skull flat and broad, with little stop, well filled out under the eyes. MUZZLE--Moderate in length, and broad from the eyes to the point (not pointed at the end like a fox). NOSE--Black, large and wide. (In cream or light-coloured specimens, a pink nose is allowable.) TONGUE--Black. EYES--Dark and small. (In a blue dog light colour is permissible.) EARS--Small, pointed, and carried stiffly erect. They should be placed well forward over the eyes, which gives the dog the peculiar characteristic expression of the breed--viz., a sort of scowl. TEETH--Strong and level. NECK--Strong, full, set well on the shoulders, and slightly arched. SHOULDERS--Muscular and sloping. CHEST--Broad and deep. BACK--Short, straight, and strong. LOINS--Powerful. TAIL--Curled tightly over the back. FORE-LEGS--Perfectly straight, of moderate length, and with great bone. HIND-LEGS--Same as fore-legs, muscular and with hocks well let down. FEET--Small, round and catlike, standing well on the toes. COAT--Abundant, dense, straight, and rather coarse in texture, with a soft woolly undercoat. COLOUR--Whole-coloured black, red, yellow, blue, white, etc., not in patches (the under part of tail and back of thighs frequently of a lighter colour). GENERAL APPEARANCE--A lively, compact, short coupled dog, well-knit in frame, with tail curled well over the back. DISQUALIFYING POINTS--Drop ears, red tongue, tail not curled over back, white spots on coat, and red nose, except in yellow or white specimens. N.B.--Smooth Chows are governed by the same scale of points, except that the coat is smooth. * * * * * As to the weight, bitches scale about 30 lbs., but dogs are heavier. Ch. Shylock weighed 47-3/4 lbs., and Red Craze 38 lbs. CHAPTER XI THE POODLE The Poodle is commonly acknowledged to be the most wisely intelligent of all members of the canine race. He is a scholar and a gentleman; but, in spite of his claims of long descent and his extraordinary natural cleverness, he has never been widely popular in this country as the Collie and the Fox-Terrier are popular. There is a general belief that he is a fop, whose time is largely occupied in personal embellishment, and that he requires a great deal of individual attention in the matter of his toilet. It may be true that to keep him in exhibition order and perfect cleanliness his owner has need to devote more consideration to him than is necessary in the case of many breeds; but in other respects he gives very little trouble, and all who are attached to him are consistent in their opinion that there is no dog so intensely interesting and responsive as a companion. His qualities of mind and his acute powers of reasoning are indeed so great that there is something almost human in his attractiveness and his devotion. His aptitude in learning is never denied, and many are the stories told of his marvellous talent and versatility. Not merely as a showman's dog has he distinguished himself. He is something more than a mountebank of the booths, trained to walk the tight rope and stand on his head. He is an adept at performing tricks, but it is his alertness of brain that places him apart from other animals. There is the example of the famous Munito, who in 1818 perplexed the Parisians by his cleverness with playing cards and his intricate arithmetical calculations. Paris was formerly the home of most of the learned Poodles, and one remembers the instance of the Poodle of the Pont Neuf, who had the habit of dirtying the boots of the passers-by in order that his master--a shoe-black stationed half-way across the bridge--might enjoy the profit of cleaning them. In Belgium Poodles were systematically trained to smuggle valuable lace, which was wound round their shaven bodies and covered with a false skin. These dogs were schooled to a dislike of all men in uniform, and consequently on their journey between Mechlin and the coast they always gave a wide berth to the Customs officers. On the Continent Poodles of the larger kind are often used for draught work. There can be little doubt that the breed originated in Germany, where it is known as the _Pudel_, and classed as the _Canis familiaris Aquaticus_. In form and coat he would seem to be closely related to the old Water-dog, and the resemblance between a brown Poodle and an Irish Water Spaniel is remarkable. The Poodle is no longer regarded as a sporting dog, but at one period he was trained to retrieve waterfowl, and he still on occasion displays an eager fondness for the water. Throughout Europe and in the United States--wherever these dogs are kept--it is usual to clip the coat on the face, the legs, and the hinder part of the body, leaving tufts of hair on the thighs and a ring of hair on the pasterns. The origin and purpose of the custom are not apparent, but now that Poodles are almost always kept as house dogs, this mode of ornamentation at least commends itself by reducing the labour of daily grooming if the coat is to be maintained in good condition and the dog to be a pleasant associate. The profuse and long coat of this dog has the peculiarity that if not kept constantly brushed out it twists up into little cords which increase in length as the new hair grows and clings about it. The unshed old hair and the new growth entwined together thus become distinct rope-like cords. Eventually, if these cords are not cut short, or accidentally torn off, they drag along the ground, and so prevent the poor animal from moving with any degree of comfort or freedom. Some few owners, who admire and cultivate these long cords, keep them tied up in bundles on the dog's back, but so unnatural and unsightly a method of burdening the animal is not to be commended. Corded Poodles are very showy, and from the remarkable appearance of the coat, attract a great deal of public attention when exhibited at shows; but they have lost popularity among most fanciers, and have become few in number owing to the obvious fact that it is impossible to make pets of them or keep them in the house. The reason of this is that the coat must, from time to time, be oiled in order to keep the cords supple and prevent them from snapping, and, of course, as their coats cannot be brushed, the only way of keeping the dog clean is to wash him, which with a corded Poodle is a lengthy and laborious process. Further, the coat takes hours to dry, and unless the newly washed dog be kept in a warm room he is very liable to catch cold. The result is, that the coats of corded Poodles are almost invariably dirty, and somewhat smelly. At one time it was suggested that cordeds and non-cordeds were two distinct breeds, but it is now generally accepted that the coat of every well-bred Poodle will, if allowed, develop cords. Curly Poodles, on the other hand, have advanced considerably in favour. Their coats should be kept regularly brushed and combed and, if washed occasionally, they will always be smart and clean, and pleasant companions in the house. The four colours usually considered correct are black, white, brown, and blue. White Poodles are considered the most intelligent, and it is certain that professional trainers of performing dogs prefer the white variety. The black come next in the order of intelligence, and easily surpass the brown and blue, which are somewhat lacking in true Poodle character. No strict lines are drawn as regards brown, and all shades ranging from cream to dark brown are classed as brown. Mrs. Robert Long a few years ago startled her fellow-enthusiasts by exhibiting some parti-coloured specimens; but they were regarded as freaks, and did not become popular. The points to be looked for in choosing a Poodle are, that he should be a lively, active dog, with a long, fine head, a dark oval eye, with a bright alert expression, short in the back, not leggy, but by no means low on the ground, with a good loin, carrying his tail well up; the coat should be profuse, all one colour, very curly, and rather wiry to the touch. If you buy a Poodle puppy you will find it like other intelligent and active youngsters, full of mischief. The great secret in training him is first to gain his affection. With firmness, kindness, and perseverance, you can then teach him almost anything. The most lively and excitable dogs are usually the easiest to train. It is advantageous to teach your dog when you give him his meal of biscuit, letting him have the food piece by piece as a reward when each trick is duly performed. Never attempt to teach him two new tricks at a time, and when instructing him in a new trick let him always go through his old ones first. Make it an invariable rule never to be beaten by him. If--as frequently is the case with your dogs--he declines to perform a trick, do not pass it over or allow him to substitute another he likes better; but, when you see he obstinately refuses, punish him by putting away the coveted food for an hour or two. If he once sees he can tire you out you will have no further authority over him, while if you are firm he will not hold out against you long. It is a bad plan to make a dog repeat too frequently a trick which he obviously dislikes, and insistence on your part may do great harm. The Poodle is exceptionally sensitive, and is far more efficiently taught when treated as a sensible being rather than as a mere quadrupedal automaton. He will learn twice as quickly if his master can make him understand the reason for performing a task. The whip is of little use when a lesson is to be taught, as the dog will probably associate his tasks with a thrashing and go through them in that unwilling, cowed, tail-between-legs fashion which too often betrays the unthinking hastiness of the master, and is the chief reason why the Poodle has sometimes been regarded as a spiritless coward. The Poodle bitch makes a good mother, rarely giving trouble in whelping, and the puppies are not difficult to rear. Their chief dangers are gastritis and congestion of the lungs, which can be avoided with careful treatment. It should be remembered that the dense coat of the Poodle takes a long time to dry after being wetted, and that if the dog has been out in the rain, and got his coat soaked, or if he has been washed or allowed to jump into a pond, you must take care not to leave him in a cold place or to lie inactive before he is perfectly dry. Most Poodles are kept in the house or in enclosed kennels, well protected from draught and moisture, and there is no difficulty in so keeping them, as they are naturally obedient and easily taught to be clean in the house and to be regular in their habits. The coat of a curly Poodle should be kept fleecy and free from tangle by being periodically combed and brushed. The grooming keeps the skin clean and healthy, and frequent washing, even for a white dog, is not necessary. The dog will, of course, require clipping from time to time. In Paris at present it is the fashion to clip the greater part of the body and hind-quarters, but the English Poodle Club recommends that the coat be left on as far down the body as the last rib, and it is also customary with us to leave a good deal of coat on the hind-quarters. Probably the best-known Poodle of his day in this country was Ch. The Model, a black corded dog belonging to Mr. H. A. Dagois, who imported him from the Continent. Model was a medium-sized dog, very well proportioned, and with a beautifully moulded head and dark, expressive eyes, and I believe was only once beaten in the show ring. He died some few years ago at a ripe old age, but a great many of the best-known Poodles of the present day claim relationship to him. One of his most famous descendants was Ch. The Joker, also black corded, who was very successful at exhibitions. Another very handsome dog was Ch. Vladimir, again a black corded, belonging to Miss Haulgrave. Since 1905 the curly Poodles have very much improved, and the best specimens of the breed are now to be found in their ranks. Ch. Orchard Admiral, the property of Mrs. Crouch, a son of Ch. The Joker and Lady Godiva, is probably the best specimen living. White Poodles, of which Mrs. Crouch's Orchard White Boy is a notable specimen, ought to be more widely kept than they are, but it must be admitted that the task of keeping a full-sized white Poodle's coat clean in a town is no light one. Toy White Poodles, consequently, are very popular. The toy variety should not exceed fifteen inches in height at the shoulder, and in all respects should be a miniature of the full-sized dog, with the same points. * * * * * POINTS OF THE PERFECT POODLE: GENERAL APPEARANCE--That of a very active, intelligent, and elegant-looking dog, well built, and carrying himself very proudly. HEAD--Long, straight, and fine, the skull not broad, with a slight peak at the back. MUZZLE--Long (but not snipy) and strong--not full in cheek; teeth white, strong, and level; gums black, lips black and not showing lippiness. EYES--Almond shaped, very dark, full of fire and intelligence. NOSE--Black and sharp. EARS--The leather long and wide, low set on, hanging close to the face. NECK--Well proportioned and strong, to admit of the head being carried high and with dignity. SHOULDERS--Strong and muscular, sloping well to the back. CHEST--Deep and moderately wide. BACK--Short, strong, and slightly hollowed, the loins broad and muscular, the ribs well sprung and braced up. FEET--Rather small, and of good shape, the toes well arched, pads thick and hard. LEGS--Fore-legs set straight from shoulder, with plenty of bone and muscle. Hind-legs very muscular and well bent, with the hocks well let down. TAIL--Set on rather high, well carried, never curled or carried over back. COAT--Very profuse, and of good hard texture; if corded, hanging in tight, even cords; if non-corded, very thick and strong, of even length, the curls close and thick, without knots or cords. COLOURS--All black, all white, all red, all blue. THE WHITE POODLE should have dark eyes, black or very dark liver nose, lips, and toe-nails. THE RED POODLE should have dark amber eyes, dark liver nose, lips, and toe-nails. THE BLUE POODLE should be of even colour, and have dark eyes, lips, and toe-nails. All the other points of White, Red, and Blue poodles should be the same as the perfect Black Poodle. N.B.--It is strongly recommended that only one-third of the body be clipped or shaved, and that the hair on the forehead be left on. CHAPTER XII THE SCHIPPERKE The Schipperke may fitly be described as the Paul Pry of canine society. His insatiate inquisitiveness induces him to poke his nose into everything; every strange object excites his curiosity, and he will, if possible, look behind it; the slightest noise arouses his attention, and he wants to investigate its cause. There is no end to his liveliness, but he moves about with almost catlike agility without upsetting any objects in a room, and when he hops he has a curious way of catching up his hind legs. The Schipperke's disposition is most affectionate, tinged with a good deal of jealousy, and even when made one of the household he generally attaches himself more particularly to one person, whom he "owns," and whose protection he deems his special duty. These qualities endear the Schipperke as a canine companion, with a quaint and lovable character; and he is also a capital vermin dog. When properly entered he cannot be surpassed as a "ratter." Schipperkes have always been kept as watch-dogs on the Flemish canal barges, and that, no doubt, is the origin of the name, which is the Flemish for "Little Skipper," the syllable "ke" forming the diminutive of "schipper." The respectable antiquity of this dog is proved by the result of the researches Mr. Van der Snickt and Mr. Van Buggenhoudt made in the archives of Flemish towns, which contain records of the breed going back in pure type over a hundred years. The first Schipperke which appeared at a show in this country was Mr. Berrie's Flo. This was, however, such a mediocre specimen that it did not appeal to the taste of the English dog-loving public. In 1888 Dr. Seelig brought over Skip, Drieske, and Mia. The first-named was purchased by Mr. E. B. Joachim, and the two others by Mr. G. R. Krehl. Later on Mr. Joachim became the owner of Mr. Green's Shtoots, and bought Fritz of Spa in Belgium, and these dogs formed the nucleus of the two kennels which laid the foundation of the breed in England. It was probably the introduction of the Schipperke to England that induced Belgian owners to pay greater attention to careful breeding, and a club was started in 1888 in Brussels, whose members, after "long and earnest consideration," settled a description and standard of points for the breed. Not long afterwards the Schipperke Club (England) was inaugurated, and drew up the following standard of points, which was adopted in December, 1890, and differed only very slightly from the one acknowledged by the Belgian society and later by the St. Hubert Schipperke Club. * * * * * STANDARD OF POINTS OF THE SCHIPPERKE CLUB, ENGLAND: HEAD--Foxy in type; skull should not be round, but broad, and with little stop. The muzzle should be moderate in length, fine but not weak, should be well filled out under the eyes. NOSE--Black and small. EYES--Dark brown, small, more oval than round, and not full; bright, and full of expression. EARS--Shape: Of moderate length, not too broad at the base, tapering to a point. Carriage: Stiffly erect, and when in that position the inside edge to form as near as possible a right angle with the skull and strong enough not to be bent otherwise than lengthways. TEETH--Strong and level. NECK--Strong and full, rather short, set broad on the shoulders and slightly arched. SHOULDERS--Muscular and sloping. CHEST--Broad and deep in brisket. BACK--Short, straight, and strong. LOINS--Powerful, well drawn up from the brisket. FORE-LEGS--Perfectly straight, well under the body, with bone in proportion to the body. HIND-LEGS--Strong, muscular, hocks well let down. FEET--Small, catlike, and standing well on the toes. NAILS--Black. HIND-QUARTERS--Fine compared to the fore-parts, muscular and well-developed thighs, tailless, rump well rounded. COAT--Black, abundant, dense, and harsh, smooth on the head, ears and legs, lying close on the back and sides, but erect and thick round the neck, forming a mane and frill, and well feathered on back of thighs. WEIGHT--About twelve pounds. GENERAL APPEARANCE--A small cobby animal with sharp expression, intensely lively, presenting the appearance of being always on the alert. DISQUALIFYING POINTS--Drop, or semi-erect ears. FAULTS--White hairs are objected to, but are not disqualifying. * * * * * The back of the Schipperke is described as straight, but it should round off at the rump, which should be rotund and full, guinea-pig-like. The continued straight line of a terrier's back is not desirable, but it will frequently be found in specimens that have been docked. The Belgian standard requires the legs to be "fine," and not have much bone. The bone of a terrier is only met with in coarse Schipperkes. As to size, it need only be noted that the maximum of the small size, viz., 12 lbs., is that generally preferred in England, as well as in Belgium. Further, it is only necessary to remark that the Schipperke is a dog of quality, of distinct characteristics, cobby in appearance, not long in the back, nor high on the leg; the muzzle must not be weak and thin, nor short and blunt; and, finally, he is not a prick-eared, black wire-haired terrier. The Schipperke's tail, or rather its absence, has been the cause of much discussion, and at one time gave rise to considerable acrimonious feeling amongst fanciers. On the introduction of this dog into Great Britain it arrived from abroad with the reputation of being a tailless breed, but whether Belgian owners accidentally conveyed that impression or did it purposely to give the breed an additional distinction is difficult to say. Anyhow the Schipperke is no more "tailless" than the old English Sheepdog. That is to say a larger number of individuals are born without any caudal appendage or only a stump of a tail than in any other variety of dogs. It is said that a docked dog can be told from one that has been born tailless in this way; when the docked animal is pleased, a slight movement at the end of the spine where the tail was cut off is discernible, but the naturally tailless dog sways the whole of its hind-quarters. CHAPTER XIII THE BLOODHOUND The Bloodhound was much used in olden times in hunting and in the pursuit of fugitives; two services for which his remarkable acuteness of smell, his ability to keep to the particular scent on which he is first laid, and the intelligence and pertinacity with which he follows up the trail, admirably fit him. The use and employment of these dogs date back into remote antiquity. We have it on the authority of Strabo that they were used against the Gauls, and we have certain knowledge that they were employed not only in the frequent feuds of the Scottish clans, and in the continuous border forays of those days, but also during the ever-recurring hostilities between England and Scotland. Indeed, the very name of the dog calls up visions of feudal castles, with their trains of knights and warriors and all the stirring panorama of these brave days of old, when the only tenure of life, property, or goods was by the strong hand. This feudal dog is frequently pictured by the poet in his ballads and romances, and in "The Lady of the Lake" we find the breed again mentioned as "--dogs of black St. Hubert's breed, Unmatched for courage, breath, and speed." These famous black Bloodhounds, called St. Huberts, are supposed to have been brought by pilgrims from the Holy Land. Another larger breed, also known by the same name, were pure white, and another kind were greyish-red. The dogs of the present day are probably a blend of all these varieties. [Illustration: BLOODHOUND CH. CHATLEY BEAUFORT. BY CH. CHATLEY BLAZER--CHATLEY FRIVOL. BRED AND OWNED BY MRS. G. A. OLIPHANT, SHREWTON, WILTS] The Bloodhound, from the nobler pursuit of heroes and knights, came in later years to perform the work of the more modern detective; but in this also his services were in time superseded by the justice's warrant and the police officer. We find it recorded about 1805, however, that "the Thrapston Association for the Prevention of Felons in Northamptonshire have provided and trained a Bloodhound for the detection of sheep-stealers." The reputation it obtained for sagacity and fierceness in the capture of runaway slaves, and the cruelties attributed to it in connection with the suppression of the various negro risings, especially that of the Maroons, have given the animal an evil repute, which more probably should attach to those who made the animal's courage and sagacity a means for the gratification of their own revolting cruelty of disposition. It has been justly remarked that if entire credence be given to the description that was transmitted through the country of this extraordinary animal, it might be supposed that the Spaniards had obtained the ancient and genuine breed of Cerberus himself. Coming again to this country, we find the Bloodhound used from time to time in pursuit of poachers and criminals, and in many instances the game recovered and the man arrested. There is no doubt that the police in country districts, and at our convict prisons, could use Bloodhounds to advantage; but public sentiment is decidedly against the idea, and although one of His Majesty's prisons has been offered a working hound for nothing, the authorities have refused to consider the question or give the hound a trial. Half a century ago the Bloodhound was so little esteemed in this country that the breed was confined to the kennels of a very few owners; but the institution of dog shows induced these owners to bring their hounds into public exhibition, when it was seen that, like the Mastiff, the Bloodhound claimed the advantage of having many venerable ancestral trees to branch from. At the first Birmingham show, in 1860, Lord Bagot brought out a team from a strain which had been in his lordship's family for two centuries, and at the same exhibition there was entered probably one of the best Bloodhounds ever seen, in Mr. T. A. Jenning's Druid. Known now as "Old" Druid, this dog was got by Lord Faversham's Raglan out of Baron Rothschild's historic bitch Fury, and his blood goes down in collateral veins through Mr. L. G. Morrel's Margrave, Prince Albert Solm's Druid, and Mr. Edwin Brough's Napier into the pedigrees of many of the celebrated hounds of the present day. Another famous Druid--grandsire of Colonel Cowen's hound of the name--was owned by the Hon. Grantley Berkeley. This typical dog was unsurpassed in his time, and his talent in following a line of scent was astonishing. His only blemish was one of character; for, although usually as good-tempered as most of the breed are, he was easily aroused to uncontrollable fits of savage anger. Queen Victoria at various times was the possessor of one or more fine specimens of the Bloodhound, procured for her by Sir Edwin Landseer, and a capital hound from the Home Park Kennels at Windsor was exhibited at the London Show in 1869, the judge on the occasion being the Rev. Thomas Pearce, afterwards known as "Idstone." Landseer was especially fond of painting the majestic Bloodhound, and he usually selected good models for his studies. The model for the hound in his well-known picture, "Dignity and Impudence," was Grafton, who was a collateral relative of Captain J. W. Clayton's celebrated Luath XI. Four superlative Bloodhounds of the past stand out in unmistakable eminence as the founders of recognised strains. They are Mr. Jenning's Old Druid, Colonel Cowen's Druid, Mr. Reynold Ray's Roswell, and Captain Clayton's Luath XI.; and the owner of a Bloodhound which can be traced back in direct line of descent to any one of these four patriarchs may pride himself upon possessing a dog of unimpeachable pedigree. Among breeders within recent years Mr. Edwin Brough, of Scarborough, is to be regarded as the most experienced and successful. No record of the breed would be complete without some acknowledgment of the great services he has rendered to it. Bloodhounds of the correct type would to-day have been very few and far between if it had not been for his enthusiasm and patient breeding. Mr. Brough bred and produced many hounds, which all bore the stamp of his ideal, and there is no doubt that for all-round quality his kennel stands first in the history of the Bloodhound. His most successful cross was, perhaps, Beckford and Bianca, and one has only to mention such hounds as Burgundy, Babbo, Benedicta, and Bardolph to recall the finest team of Bloodhounds that has ever been benched. Mrs. G. A. Oliphant, of Shrewton, Wilts, whose kennels include Chatley Blazer and Chatley Beaufort, has of late years been a keen supporter of the breed. Mrs. Oliphant, who is the president of the ladies' branch of the Kennel Club, is a great believer in hounds being workers first and show hounds second, and her large kennels have produced many hounds of a robust type and of good size and quality. There is no doubt that as far as hunting is concerned at the present moment this kennel stands easily first. But admirable Bloodhounds have also given distinction to the kennels of Mr. S. H. Mangin, Dr. Sidney Turner, Mr. Mark Beaufoy, Mr. F. W. Cousens, Mr. A. O. Mudie, Lord Decies, Mr. Hood Wright, Mr. A. Croxton Smith, Dr. C. C. Garfit, Dr. Semmence, and Mrs. C. Ashton Cross, to mention only a few owners and breeders who have given attention to this noble race of dog. The description of a perfect type of dog, as defined by the Association of Bloodhound breeders, is as follows:-- * * * * * GENERAL CHARACTER--The Bloodhound possesses, in a most marked degree, every point and characteristic of those dogs which hunt together by scent (_Sagaces_). He is very powerful and stands over more ground than is usual with hounds of other breeds. The skin is thin to the touch and extremely loose, this being more especially noticeable about the head and neck, where it hangs in deep folds. HEIGHT--The mean average height of adult dogs is 26 inches and of adult bitches 24 inches. Dogs usually vary from 25 inches to 27 inches and bitches from 23 inches to 25 inches; but in either case the greater height is to be preferred, provided that character and quality are also combined. WEIGHT--The mean average weight of adult dogs in fair condition is 90 pounds and of adult bitches 80 pounds. Dogs attain the weight of 110 pounds, bitches 100 pounds. The greater weights are to be preferred, provided (as in the case of height) that quality and proportion are also combined. EXPRESSION--The expression is noble and dignified and characterised by solemnity, wisdom and power. TEMPERAMENT--In temperament he is extremely affectionate, quarrelsome neither with companions nor with other dogs. His nature is somewhat shy, and equally sensitive to kindness or correction by his master. HEAD--The head is narrow in proportion to its length and long in proportion to the body, tapering but slightly from the temples to the end of the muzzle thus (when viewed from above and in front) having the appearance of being flattened at the sides and of being nearly equal in width throughout its entire length. In profile the upper outline of the skull is nearly in the same plane as that of the foreface. The length from end of nose to stop (midway between the eyes) should be not less than that from stop to back of occipital protuberance (peak). The entire length of head from the posterior part of the occipital protuberance to the end of the muzzle should be 12 inches, or more, in dogs, and 11 inches, or more, in bitches. SKULL--The skull is long and narrow, with the occipital peak very pronounced. The brows are not prominent, although, owing to the deep-set eyes, they may have that appearance. FOREFACE--The foreface is long, deep, and of even width throughout, with square outline when seen in profile. EYES--The eyes are deeply sunk in the orbits, the lids assuming a lozenge or diamond shape, in consequence of the lower lids being dragged down and everted by the heavy flews. The eyes correspond with the general tone of colour of the animal, varying from deep hazel to yellow. The hazel colour is, however, to be preferred, although very seldom seen in red-and-tan hounds. EARS--The ears are thin and soft to the touch, extremely long, set very low, and fall in graceful folds, the lower parts curling inwards and backwards. WRINKLE--The head is furnished with an amount of loose skin which in nearly every position appears super-abundant, but more particularly so when the head is carried low; the skin then falls into loose, pendulous ridges and folds, especially over the forehead and sides of the face. NOSTRILS--The nostrils are large and open. LIPS, FLEWS, AND DEWLAP--In front the lips fall squarely, making a right-angle with the upper line of the foreface, whilst behind they form deep, hanging flews, and, being continued into the pendent folds of loose skin about the neck, constitute the dewlap, which is very pronounced. These characters are found, though in a less degree, in the bitch. NECK, SHOULDERS, AND CHEST--The neck is long, the shoulders muscular and well sloped backwards; the ribs are well sprung, and the chest well let down between the forelegs, forming a deep keel. LEGS AND FEET--The fore-legs are straight and large in bone, with elbows squarely set; the feet strong and well knuckled up; the thighs and second thighs (gaskins) are very muscular; the hocks well bent and let down and squarely set. BACK AND LOINS--The back and loins are strong, the latter deep and slightly arched. STERN--The stern is long and tapering and set on rather high, with a moderate amount of hair underneath. GAIT--The gait is elastic, swinging, and free--the stern being carried high, but not too much curled over the back. COLOUR--The colours are black-and-tan, red-and-tan, and tawny--the darker colours being sometimes interspersed with lighter or badger-coloured hair and sometimes flecked with white. A small amount of white is permissible on chest, feet, and tip of stern. CHAPTER XIV THE OTTERHOUND The Otterhound is a descendant of the old Southern Hound, and there is reason to believe that all hounds hunting their quarry by nose had a similar source. Why the breed was first called the Southern Hound, or when his use became practical in Great Britain, must be subjects of conjecture; but that there was a hound good enough to hold a line for many hours is accredited in history that goes very far back into past centuries. The hound required three centuries ago even was all the better esteemed for being slow and unswerving on a line of scent, and in many parts of the Kingdom, up to within half that period, the so-called Southern Hound had been especially employed. In Devonshire and Wales the last sign of him in his purity was perhaps when Captain Hopwood hunted a small pack of hounds very similar in character on the fitch or pole-cat; the _modus operandi_ being to find the foraging grounds of the animal, and then on a line that might be two days old hunt him to his lair, often enough ten or twelve miles off. When this sort of hunting disappeared, and improved ideas of fox-hunting came into vogue, there was nothing left for the Southern Hound to do but to hunt the otter. He may have done this before at various periods, but history rather tends to show that otter-hunting was originally associated with a mixed pack, and some of Sir Walter Scott's pages seem to indicate that the Dandie Dinmont and kindred Scottish terriers had a good deal to do with the sport. It is more than probable that the rough-coated terrier is identical with the now recognised Otterhound as an offshoot of the Southern Hound; but be that as it may, there has been a special breed of Otterhound for the last eighty years, very carefully bred and gradually much improved in point of appearance. They are beautiful hounds to-day, with heads as typical as those of Bloodhounds, legs and feet that would do for Foxhounds, a unique coat of their own, and they are exactly suitable for hunting the otter, as everyone knows who has had the enjoyment of a day's sport on river or brook. The greatest otter hunter of the last century may have been the Hon. Geoffrey Hill, a younger brother of the late Lord Hill. A powerful athlete of over six feet, Major Hill was an ideal sportsman in appearance, and he was noted for the long distances he would travel on foot with his hounds. They were mostly of the pure rough sort, not very big; the dogs he reckoned at about 23-1/2 inches, bitches 22: beautiful Bloodhound type of heads, coats of thick, hard hair, big in ribs and bones, and good legs and feet. Major Hill seldom exhibited his hounds. They were seen now and then at Birmingham; but, hunting as hard as they did through Shropshire, Staffordshire, Cheshire, and into Wales, where they got their best water, there was not much time for showing. Their famous Master has been dead now many years, but his pack is still going, and shows great sport as the Hawkstone under the Mastership of Mr. H. P. Wardell, the kennels being at Ludlow race-course, Bromfield. The leading pack in the Kingdom for the last sixty years, at any rate, has been the Carlisle when in the hands of Mr. J. C. Carrick, who was famous both for the sport he showed and for his breed of Otterhound, so well represented at all the important shows. Such hounds as Lottery and Lucifer were very typical specimens; but of late years the entries of Otterhounds have not been very numerous at the great exhibitions, and this can well be explained by the fact that they are wanted in greater numbers for active service, there being many more packs than formerly--in all, twenty-one for the United Kingdom. The sport of otter-hunting is decidedly increasing, as there have been several hunts started within the last six years. There can well be many more, as, according to the opinion of that excellent authority, the late Rev. "Otter" Davies, as he was always called, there are otters on every river; but, owing to the nocturnal and mysterious habits of the animals, their whereabouts or existence is seldom known, or even suspected. Hunting them is a very beautiful sport, and the question arises as to whether the pure Otterhounds should not be more generally used than they are at present. It is often asserted that their continued exposure to water has caused a good deal of rheumatism in the breed, that they show age sooner than others, and that the puppies are difficult to rear. There are, however, many advantages in having a pure breed, and there is much to say for the perfect work of the Otterhound. The scent of the otter is possibly the sweetest of all trails left by animals. One cannot understand how it is that an animal swimming two or three feet from the bottom of a river-bed and the same from the surface should leave a clean line of burning scent that may remain for twelve or eighteen hours. The supposition must be that the scent from the animal at first descends and is then always rising. At any rate, the oldest Foxhound or Harrier that has never touched otter is at once in ravishing excitement on it, and all dogs will hunt it. The terrier is never keener than when he hits on such a line. The Foxhound, so wonderful in his forward dash, may have too much of it for otter hunting. The otter is so wary. His holt can very well be passed, his delicious scent may be overrun; but the pure-bred Otterhound is equal to all occasions. He is terribly certain on the trail when he finds it. Nothing can throw him off it, and when his deep note swells into a sort of savage howl, as he lifts his head towards the roots of some old pollard, there is a meaning in it--no mistake has been made. In every part of a run it is the same; the otter dodges up stream and down, lands for a moment, returns to his holt; but his adversaries are always with him, and as one sees their steady work the impression becomes stronger and stronger that for the real sport of otter-hunting there is nothing as good as the pure-bred Otterhound. There is something so dignified and noble about the hound of unsullied strain that if you once see a good one you will not soon forget him. He is a large hound, as he well needs to be, for the "varmint" who is his customary quarry is the wildest, most vicious, and, for its size, the most powerful of all British wild animals, the inveterate poacher of our salmon streams, and consequently to be mercilessly slaughtered, although always in sporting fashion. To be equal to such prey, the hound must have a Bulldog's courage, a Newfoundland's strength in water, a Pointer's nose, a Retriever's sagacity, the stamina of the Foxhound, the patience of a Beagle, the intelligence of a Collie. * * * * * THE PERFECT OTTERHOUND: HEAD--The head, which has been described as something between that of a Bloodhound and that of a Foxhound, is more hard and rugged than either. With a narrow forehead, ascending to a moderate peak. EARS--The ears are long and sweeping, but not feathered down to the tips, set low and lying flat to the cheeks. EYES--The eyes are large, dark and deeply set, having a peculiarly thoughtful expression. They show a considerable amount of the haw. NOSE--The nose is large and well developed, the nostrils expanding. MUZZLE--The muzzle well protected from wiry hair. The jaw very powerful with deep flews. NECK--The neck is strong and muscular, but rather long. The dewlap is loose and folded. CHEST--The chest, deep and capacious, but not too wide. BACK--The back is strong, wide and arched. SHOULDERS--The shoulders ought to be sloping, the arms and thighs substantial and muscular. FEET--The feet, fairly large and spreading, with firm pads and strong nails to resist sharp rocks. STERN--The stern when the hound is at work is carried gaily, like that of a rough Welsh Harrier. It is thick and well covered, to serve as a rudder. COAT--The coat is wiry, hard, long and close at the roots, impervious to water. COLOUR--Grey, or buff, or yellowish, or black, or rufus red, mixed with black or grey. HEIGHT--22 to 24 inches. CHAPTER XV THE IRISH WOLFHOUND It is now some thirty years since an important controversy was carried on in the columns of _The Live Stock Journal_ on the nature and history of the great Irish Wolfhound. The chief disputants in the discussion were Captain G. A. Graham, of Dursley, Mr. G. W. Hickman, Mr. F. Adcock, and the Rev. M. B. Wynn, and the main point as issue was whether the dog then imperfectly known as the Irish Wolfdog was a true descendant of the ancient _Canis graius Hibernicus_, or whether it was a mere manufactured mongrel, owing its origin to an admixture of the Great Dane and the dog of the Pyrenees, modified and brought to type by a cross with the Highland Deerhound. It was not doubted--indeed, history and tradition clearly attested--that there had existed in early times in Ireland a very large and rugged hound of Greyhound form, whose vocation it was to hunt the wolf, the red deer, and the fox. It was assuredly known to the Romans, and there can be little doubt that the huge dog Samr, which Jarl Gunnar got from the Irish king Myrkiarton in the tenth century and took back with him to Norway, was one of this breed. But it was supposed by many to have become extinct soon after the disappearance of the last wolf in Ireland, and it was the endeavour of Captain Graham to demonstrate that specimens, although admittedly degenerate, were still to be found, and that they were capable of being restored to a semblance of the original type. At the time when he entered into the controversy, Captain Graham had been actively interesting himself for something like a score of years in the resuscitation of the breed, and his patience had been well rewarded. By the year 1881 the Irish Wolfhound had been practically restored, although it has taken close upon a quarter of a century to produce the magnificent champions Cotswold and Cotswold Patricia, those brilliant examples of the modern breed--a brace of Wolfhounds who bear testimony to the vast amount of energy and perseverance which Captain Graham and his enthusiastic colleague Major Garnier displayed in evolving from rough material the majestic breed that holds so prominent a position to-day. There is little to be gathered from ancient writings concerning the size and appearance of the Irish Wolfhounds in early times. Exaggerated figures are given as to height and weight; but all authorities agree that they were impressively large and imposing dogs, and that they were regarded as the giants of the canine race. It seems extraordinary that so little should have been accurately known and recorded of a dog which at one time must have been a familiar figure in the halls of the Irish kings. It was no mere mythical animal like the heraldic griffin, but an actual sporting dog which was accepted as a national emblem of the Emerald Isle, associated with the harp and the shamrock. As regards the origin of the Irish Wolfhound, more than one theory is advanced. By some authorities it is suggested that it was the dog which we now know as the Great Dane. Others hold that as there were rough-coated Greyhounds in Ireland, it is this dog, under another name, which is now accepted. But probably the late Captain Graham was nearer the truth when he gave the opinion that the Irish hound that was kept to hunt wolves has never become extinct at all, but is now represented in the Scottish Deerhound, only altered a little in size and strength to suit the easier work required of it--that of hunting the deer. This is the more probable, as the fact remains that the chief factor in the resuscitation of the Irish Wolfhound has been the Scottish Deerhound. The result of Captain Graham's investigations when seeking for animals bearing some relationship to the original Irish "Wolfe Dogge" was that three strains were to be found in Ireland, but none of the representatives at that time was anything like so large as those mentioned in early writings, and they all appeared to have deteriorated in bone and substance. Sir J. Power, of Kilfane, was responsible for one line, Mr. Baker, of Ballytobin, for another, and Mr. Mahoney, of Dromore, for the remaining strain. From bitches obtained from two of these kennels, Captain Graham, by crossing them with the Great Dane and Scottish Deerhound, achieved the first step towards producing the animal that he desired. Later on the Russian Wolfhound, better known as the Borzoi, an exceedingly large hound, was introduced, as also were one or two other large breeds of dogs. The intermixture of these canine giants, however, was not at first very satisfactory, as although plenty of bone was obtained, many were most ungainly in appearance and ill-shaped animals that had very little about them to attract attention. Captain Graham, however, stuck to his work, and very soon the specimens that he brought forward began to show a fixity of type both in head and in general outline. Brian was one of his best dogs, but he was not very large, as he only stood just over thirty inches at the shoulder. Banshee and Fintragh were others, but probably the best of Captain Graham's kennel was the bitch Sheelah. It was not, however, until towards the end of the last century that the most perfect dogs were bred. These included O'Leary, the property of Mr. Crisp, of Playford Hall. O'Leary is responsible for many of the best dogs of the present day, and was the sire of Mrs. Percy Shewell's Ch. Cotswold, who is undoubtedly the grandest Irish Wolfhound ever bred. In height Cotswold stands 34-1/2 inches and is therefore perhaps the largest dog of any breed now alive. In 1900 Mr. Crisp bred Kilcullen from O'Leary, this dog winning the championship at the Kennel Club Show at the Crystal Palace in 1902 under Captain Graham. This was the year the Irish Wolfhound Club presented the hound Rajah of Kidnal as a regimental pet to the newly formed Irish Guards. Rajah of Kidnal, who was bred and exhibited by Mrs. A. Gerard, of Malpas, was the selection of Captain Graham and two other judges. This dog, which has been renamed Brian Boru, is still hearty and well, and was at his post on St. Patrick's Day, 1909, when the shamrock that had been sent by Her Majesty Queen Alexandra was handed to the men. Mrs. Gerard owned one of the largest kennels of Irish Wolfhounds in England, and amongst her many good dogs and bitches was Cheevra, who was a wonderful brood bitch, and included amongst her stock were several that worked their way up to championship honours; she was the dam of Rajah of Kidnal. Besides Ballyhooley, Mr. W. Williams owned a good dog in Finn by Brian II. Finn produced Miss Packe's Wickham Lavengro, a black and tan dog that has won several prizes. Some judges are opposed to giving prizes to Irish Wolfhounds of this colour, but Captain Graham did not object to it. Finn was a very heavy dog, and weighed 148 lbs. A hound that has been of great benefit to the breed in Ireland is Ch. Marquis of Donegal, the property of Mr. Martin. Amongst the bitches that have been instrumental in building up the breed to its present high state of excellence is Princess Patricia of Connaught who is by Dermot Astore out of Cheevra, and is the dam of Ch. Cotswold Patricia. She is one of the tallest of her race, her height being 33 inches; another bitch that measures the same number of inches at the shoulder being Dr. Pitts-Tucker's Juno of the Fen, a daughter of Ch. Wargrave. Mr. Everett, of Felixstowe, is now one of the most successful breeders. He exhibited at the 1908 Kennel Club show a most promising young dog in Felixstowe Kilronan, with which he was second to Mrs. Shewell's Ch. Cotswold, of whom he is now kennel companion. At the same show Miss Clifford, of Ryde, exhibited a good hound in Wildcroft, another of Dermot Astore's sons, and other supporters of the breed are Lady Kathleen Pilkington, Mr. T. Hamilton Adams, Mr. G. H. Thurston, Mr. Bailey, Mrs. F. Marshall, Mr. J. L. T. Dobbin, and Miss Ethel McCheane. The following is the description of the variety as drawn up by the Club:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--The Irish Wolfhound should not be quite so heavy or massive as the Great Dane, but more so than the Deerhound, which in general type he should otherwise resemble. Of great size and commanding appearance, very muscular, strongly though gracefully built; movements easy and active; head and neck carried high; the tail carried with an upward sweep, with a slight curve towards the extremity. The minimum height and weight of dogs should be 31 inches and 120 pounds, of bitches 28 inches and 90 pounds. Anything below this should be debarred from competition. Great size, including height at shoulder and proportionate length of body, is the desideratum to be aimed at, and it is desired firmly to establish a race that shall average from 32 inches to 34 inches in dogs, showing the requisite power, activity, courage, and symmetry. HEAD--Long, the frontal bones of the forehead very slightly raised and very little indentation between the eyes. Skull not too broad; muzzle long and moderately pointed; ears small and Greyhound-like in carriage. NECK--Rather long, very strong and muscular, well arched, without dewlap and loose skin about the throat. CHEST--Very deep, breast wide. BACK--Rather long than short. Loins arched. TAIL--Long and slightly curved, of moderate thickness, and well covered with hair. BELLY--Well drawn up. FORE-QUARTERS--Shoulders muscular, giving breadth of chest, set sloping, elbows well under, neither turned inwards nor outwards. Leg--Forearm muscular and the whole leg strong and quite straight. HIND-QUARTERS--Muscular thighs, and second thigh long and strong as in the Greyhound, and hocks well let down and turning neither in nor out. FEET--Moderately large and round, neither turned inwards nor outwards; toes well arched and closed, nails very strong and curved. HAIR--Rough and hard on body, legs, and head; especially wiry and long over eyes and under jaw. COLOUR AND MARKINGS--The recognised colours are grey, brindle, red, black, pure white, fawn, or any colour that appears in the Deerhound. FAULTS--Too light or heavy in head, too highly arched frontal bone, large ears and hanging flat to the face; short neck; full dewlap; too narrow or too broad a chest; sunken and hollow or quite level back; bent fore-legs; over-bent fetlocks; twisted feet; spreading toes; too curly a tail; weak hind-quarters, cow hocks, and a general want of muscle; too short in body. CHAPTER XVI THE DEERHOUND The Deerhound is one of the most decorative of dogs, impressively stately and picturesque wherever he is seen, whether it be amid the surroundings of the baronial hall, reclining at luxurious length before the open hearth in the fitful light of the log fire that flickers on polished armour and tarnished tapestry; out in the open, straining at the leash as he scents the dewy air, or gracefully bounding over the purple of his native hills. Grace and majesty are in his every movement and attitude, and even to the most prosaic mind there is about him the inseparable glamour of feudal romance and poetry. He is at his best alert in the excitement of the chase; but all too rare now is the inspiring sight that once was common among the mountains of Morven and the glens of Argyll of the deep-voiced hound speeding in pursuit of his antlered prey, racing him at full stretch along the mountain's ridge, or baying him at last in the fastness of darksome corrie or deep ravine. Gone are the good romantic days of stalking beloved by Scrope. The Highlands have lost their loneliness, and the inventions of the modern gunsmith have robbed one of the grandest of hunting dogs of his glory, relegating him to the life of a pedestrian pet, whose highest dignity is the winning of a pecuniary prize under Kennel Club rules. Historians of the Deerhound associate him with the original Irish Wolfdog, of whom he is obviously a close relative, and it is sure that when the wolf still lingered in the land it was the frequent quarry of the Highland as of the Hibernian hound. Legend has it that Prince Ossian, son of Fingal, King of Morven, hunted the wolf with the grey, long-bounding dogs. "Swift-footed Luath" and "White-breasted Bran" are among the names of Ossian's hounds. I am disposed to affirm that the old Irish Wolfhound and the Highland Deerhound are not only intimately allied in form and nature, but that they are two strains of an identical breed, altered only in size by circumstance and environment. Whatever the source of the Highland Deerhound, and at whatever period it became distinct from its now larger Irish relative, it was recognised as a native dog in Scotland in very early times, and it was distinguished as being superior in strength and beauty to the hounds of the Picts. From remote days the Scottish nobles cherished their strains of Deerhound, seeking glorious sport in the Highland forests. The red deer belonged by inexorable law to the kings of Scotland, and great drives, which often lasted for several days, were made to round up the herds into given neighbourhoods for the pleasure of the court, as in the reign of Queen Mary. But the organised coursing of deer by courtiers ceased during the Stuart troubles, and was left in the hands of retainers, who thus replenished their chief's larder. The revival of deerstalking dates back hardly further than a hundred years. It reached its greatest popularity in the Highlands at the time when the late Queen and Prince Albert were in residence at Balmoral. Solomon, Hector, and Bran were among the Balmoral hounds. Bran was an especially fine animal--one of the best of his time, standing over thirty inches in height. Two historic feats of strength and endurance illustrate the tenacity of the Deerhound at work. A brace of half-bred dogs, named Percy and Douglas, the property of Mr. Scrope, kept a stag at bay from Saturday night to Monday morning; and the pure bred Bran by himself pulled down two unwounded stags, one carrying ten and the other eleven tines. These, of course, are record performances, but they demonstrate the possibilities of the Deerhound when trained to his natural sport. [Illustration: MRS. ARMSTRONG'S DEERHOUND CH. TALISMAN] Driving was commonly resorted to in the extensive forests, but nowadays when forests are sub-divided into limited shootings the deer are seldom moved from their home preserves, whilst with the use of improved telescopes and the small-bore rifle, stalking has gone out of fashion. With guns having a muzzle velocity of 2,500 feet per second, it is no longer necessary for sportsmen stealthily to stalk their game to come within easy range, and as for hounds, they have become a doubtful appendage to the chase. Primarily and essentially the Deerhound belongs to the order _Agaseus_, hunting by sight and not by scent, and although he may indeed occasionally put his nose to the ground, yet his powers of scent are not remarkable. His vocation, therefore, has undergone a change, and it was recently ascertained that of sixty deer forests there were only six upon which Deerhounds were kept for sporting purposes. Happily the Deerhound has suffered no decline in the favour bestowed upon him for his own sake. The contrary is rather the case, and he is still an aristocrat among dogs, valued for his good looks, the symmetry of his form, his grace and elegance, and even more so for his faithful and affectionate nature. Sir Walter Scott declared that he was "a most perfect creature of heaven," and when one sees him represented in so beautiful a specimen of his noble race as St. Ronan's Rhyme, for example, or Talisman, or Ayrshire, one is tempted to echo this high praise. Seven-and-twenty years ago Captain Graham drew up a list of the most notable dogs of the last century. Among these were Sir St. George Gore's Gruim (1843-44), Black Bran (1850-51); the Marquis of Breadalbane's King of the Forest, said to stand 33 inches high; Mr. Beaseley's Alder (1863-67), bred by Sir John McNeill of Colonsay; Mr. Donald Cameron's Torrum (1869), and his two sons Monzie and Young Torrum; and Mr. Dadley's Hector, who was probably the best-bred dog living in the early eighties. Torrum, however, appears to have been the most successful of these dogs at stud. He was an exceedingly grand specimen of his race, strong framed, with plenty of hair of a blue brindle colour. Captain Graham's own dog Keildar, who had been trained for deerstalking in Windsor Park, was perhaps one of the most elegant and aristocratic-looking Deerhounds ever seen. His full height was 30 inches, girth 33-1/2 inches, and weight, 95 lbs., his colour bluish fawn, slightly brindled, the muzzle and ears being blue. His nearest competitor for perfection was, after Hector, probably Mr. Hood Wright's Bevis, a darkish red brown brindle of about 29 inches. Mr. Wright was the breeder of Champion Selwood Morven, who was the celebrity of his race about 1897, and who became the property of Mr. Harry Rawson. This stately dog was a dark heather brindle, standing 32-3/8 inches at the shoulder, with a chest girth of 34-1/2 inches. A few years ago breeders were inclined to mar the beauty of the Deerhound by a too anxious endeavour to obtain great size rather than to preserve the genuine type; but this error has been sufficiently corrected, with the result that symmetry and elegance conjoined with the desired attributes of speed are not sacrificed. The qualities aimed at now are a height of something less than 30 inches, and a weight not greater than 105 lbs., with straight fore-legs and short, cat-like feet, a deep chest, with broad, powerful loins, slightly arched, and strength of hind-quarters, with well-bent stifles, and the hocks well let down. Straight stifles are objectionable, giving a stilty appearance. Thick shoulders are equally a blemish to be avoided, as also a too great heaviness of bone. The following is the accepted standard of merit. * * * * * HEAD--The head should be broadest at the ears, tapering slightly to the eyes, with the muzzle tapering more decidedly to the nose. The muzzle should be pointed, but the teeth and lips level. The head should be long, the skull flat rather than round, with a very slight rise over the eyes, but with nothing approaching a stop. The skull should be coated with moderately long hair which is softer than the rest of the coat. The nose should be black (though in some blue-fawns the colour is blue) and slightly aquiline. In the lighter-coloured dogs a black muzzle is preferred. There should be a good moustache of rather silky hair, and a fair beard. EARS--The ears should be set on high, and, in repose, folded back like the Greyhound's, though raised above the head in excitement without losing the fold, and even, in some cases, semi-erect. A prick ear is bad. A big, thick ear, hanging flat to the head, or heavily coated with long hair, is the worst of faults. The ear should be soft, glossy, and like a mouse's coat to the touch, and the smaller it is the better. It should have no long coat or long fringe, but there is often a silky, silvery coat on the body of the ear and the tip. Whatever the general colour, the ears should be black or dark-coloured. NECK AND SHOULDERS--The neck should be long--that is, of the length that befits the Greyhound character of the dog. An over-long neck is not necessary, nor desirable, for the dog is not required to stoop in his work like a Greyhound, and it must be remembered that the mane, which every good specimen should have, detracts from the apparent length of neck. Moreover, a Deerhound requires a very strong neck to hold a stag. The nape of the neck should be very prominent where the head is set on, and the throat should be clean-cut at the angle and prominent. The shoulders should be well sloped, the blades well back, with not too much width between them. Loaded and straight shoulders are very bad faults. STERN--Stern should be tolerably long, tapering, and reaching to within 1-1/2 inches of the ground, and about 1-1/2 inches below the hocks. When the dog is still, dropped perfectly straight down, or curved. When in motion it should be curved when excited, in no case to be lifted out of the line of the back. It should be well covered with hair, on the inside thick and wiry, underside longer, and towards the end a slight fringe is not objectionable. A curl or ring tail is very undesirable. EYES--The eyes should be dark: generally they are dark brown or hazel. A very light eye is not liked. The eye is moderately full with a soft look in repose, but a keen, far-away gaze when the dog is roused. The rims of the eyelids should be black. BODY--The body and general formation is that of a Greyhound of larger size and bone. Chest deep rather than broad, but not too narrow and flat-sided. The loin well arched and drooping to the tail. A straight back is not desirable, this formation being unsuitable for going uphill, and very unsightly. LEGS AND FEET--The legs should be broad and flat, a good broad forearm and elbow being desirable. Fore-legs, of course, as straight as possible. Feet close and compact, with well-arched toes. The hind-quarters drooping, and as broad and powerful as possible, the hips being set wide apart. The hind-legs should be well bent at the stifle, with great length from the hip to the hock, which should be broad and flat. Cow hocks, weak pasterns, straight stifles, and splay feet are very bad faults. COAT--The hair on the body, neck, and quarters should be harsh and wiry, and about 3 inches or 4 inches long; that on the head, breast, and belly is much softer. There should be a slight hairy fringe on the inside of the fore and hind-legs, but nothing approaching to the feathering of a Collie. The Deerhound should be a shaggy dog, but not over coated. A woolly coat is bad. Some good strains have a slight mixture of silky coat with the hard, which is preferable to a woolly coat, but the proper covering is a thick, close-lying, ragged coat, harsh or crisp to the touch. COLOUR--Colour is much a matter of fancy. But there is no manner of doubt that the dark blue-grey is the most preferred. Next come the darker and lighter greys or brindles, the darkest being generally preferred. Yellow and sandy-red or red-fawn, especially with black points--_i.e._, ears and muzzle--are also in equal estimation, this being the colour of the oldest known strains, the McNeil and the Chesthill Menzies. White is condemned by all the old authorities, but a white chest and white toes, occurring as they do in a great many of the darkest-coloured dogs, are not so greatly objected to, but the less the better, as the Deerhound is a self-coloured dog. A white blaze on the head or a white collar should entirely disqualify. In other cases, though passable, an attempt should be made to get rid of white markings. The less white the better, but a slight white tip to the stern occurs in the best strains. HEIGHT OF DOGS--From 28 inches to 30 inches, or even more if there be symmetry without coarseness, which, however, is rare. HEIGHT OF BITCHES--From 26 inches upwards. There can be no objection to a bitch being large, unless she is too coarse, as even at her greatest height she does not approach that of the dog, and, therefore, could not well be too big for work, as over-big dogs are. Besides, a big bitch is good for breeding and keeping up the size. WEIGHT--From 85 pounds to 105 pounds in dogs; from 65 pounds to 80 pounds in bitches. * * * * * Among the more prominent owners of Deerhounds at the present time are Mrs. H. Armstrong, Mrs. W. C. Grew, Mrs. Janvrin Dickson, Miss A. Doxford, Mr. Harry Rawson, and Mr. H. McLauchin. Mrs. Armstrong is the breeder of two beautiful dog hounds in Talisman and Laird of Abbotsford, and of two typically good bitches in Fair Maid of Perth and Bride of Lammermoor. Mrs. Grew owns many admirable specimens, among them being Blair Athol, Ayrshire, Kenilworth, and Ferraline. Her Ayrshire is considered by some judges to be the most perfect Deerhound exhibited for some time past. He is somewhat large, perhaps, but he is throughout a hound of excellent quality and character, having a most typical head, with lovely eyes and expression, perfect front, feet and hind-quarters. Other judges would give the palm to Mr. Harry Rawson's St. Ronan's Ranger, who is certainly difficult to excel in all the characteristics most desirable in the breed. CHAPTER XVII THE BORZOI OR RUSSIAN WOLFHOUND Of the many foreign varieties of the dog that have been introduced into this country within recent years, there is not one among the larger breeds that has made greater headway in the public favour than the Borzoi, or Russian Wolfhound. Nor is this to be wondered at. The most graceful and elegant of all breeds, combining symmetry with strength, the wearer of a lovely silky coat that a toy dog might envy, the length of head, possessed by no other breed--all go to make the Borzoi the favourite he has become. He is essentially what our American cousins would call a "spectacular" dog. Given, for example, the best team of terriers and a fifth-rate team of Borzois, which attracts the more attention and admiration from the man in the street? Which does he turn again to look at? Not the terriers! Add to this that the Borzoi makes a capital house dog, is, as a rule, affectionate and a good companion, it is not to be wondered at that he has attained the dignified position in the canine world which he now holds. In his native country the Borzoi is employed, as his English name implies, in hunting the wolf and also smaller game, including foxes and hares. Several methods of hunting the larger game are adopted, one form being as follows. Wolves being reported to be present in the neighbourhood, the hunters set out on horseback, each holding in his left hand a leash of three Borzois, as nearly matched as possible in size, speed, and colour. Arrived at the scene of action, the chief huntsman stations the hunters at separate points every hundred yards or so round the wood. A pack of hounds is sent in to draw the quarry, and on the wolves breaking cover the nearest hunter slips his dogs. These endeavour to seize their prey by the neck, where they hold him until the hunter arrives, throws himself from his horse, and with his knife puts an end to the fray. Another method is to advance across the open country at intervals of about two hundred yards, slipping the dogs at any game they may put up. Trials are also held in Russia. These take place in a large railed enclosure, the wolves being brought in carts similar to our deer carts. In this case a brace of dogs is loosed on the wolf. The whole merit of the course is when the hounds can overtake the wolf and pin him to the ground, so that the keepers can secure him alive. It follows, therefore, that in this case also the hounds must be of equal speed, so that they reach the wolf simultaneously; one dog would, of course, be unable to hold him. Naturally, the dogs have to be trained to the work, for which purpose the best wolves are taken alive and sent to the kennels, where the young dogs are taught to pin him in such a manner that he cannot turn and use his teeth. There seems to be no reason why the Borzoi should not be used for coursing in this country. One of the first examples of the breed exhibited in England was owned by Messrs. Hill and Ashton, of Sheffield, about 1880, at which time good specimens were imported by the Rev. J. C. Macdona and Lady Emily Peel, whose Sandringham and Czar excited general admiration. It was then known as the Siberian Wolfhound. Some years later the Duchess of Newcastle obtained several fine dogs, and from this stock Her Grace founded the kennel which has since become so famous. Later still, Queen Alexandra received from the Czar a gift of a leash of these stately hounds, one of them being Alex, who quickly achieved honours as a champion. The breed has become as fashionable in the United States as in Great Britain, and some excellent specimens are to be seen at the annual shows at Madison Square Gardens. To take the points of the breed in detail, the description of the perfect Borzoi is as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--This should be long, lean, and well balanced, and the length, from the tip of the nose to the eyes, must be the same as from the eyes to the occiput. A dog may have a long head, but the length may be all in front of the eyes. The heads of this breed have greatly improved the last few years; fewer "apple-headed" specimens, and more of the desired triangular heads being seen. The skull should be flat and narrow, the stop not perceptible, the muzzle long and tapering. Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of the head being well filled up before the eyes. The head, from forehead to nose, should be so fine that the direction of the bones and principal veins can be seen clearly, and in profile should appear rather Roman nosed. Bitches should be even narrower in head than dogs. THE EYES should be dark, expressive, almond shaped, and not too far apart. THE EARS like those of a Greyhound, small, thin, and placed well back on the head, with the tips, when thrown back, almost touching behind the occiput. It is not a fault if the dog can raise his ears erect when excited or looking after game, although some English judges dislike this frequent characteristic. The head should be carried somewhat low, with the neck continuing the line of the back. SHOULDERS--Clean and sloping well back, _i.e._, the shoulder blades should almost touch one another. CHEST--Deep and somewhat narrow. It must be capacious, but the capacity must be got from depth, and not from "barrel" ribs--a bad fault in a running hound. BACK--Rather bony, and free from any cavity in the spinal column, the arch in the back being more marked in the dog than in the bitch. LOINS--Broad and very powerful, showing plenty of muscular development. THIGHS--Long and well developed, with good second thigh. The muscle in the Borzoi is longer than in the Greyhound. RIBS--Slightly sprung, very deep, reaching to the elbow. FORE-LEGS--Lean and straight. Seen from the front they should be narrow and from the side broad at the shoulder and narrowing gradually down to the foot, the bone appearing flat and not round as in the Foxhound. HIND-LEGS--The least thing under the body when standing still, not straight, and the stifle slightly bent. They should, of course, be straight as regards each other, and not "cow-hocked," but straight hind-legs imply a want of speed. FEET--Like those of the Deerhound, rather long. The toes close together and well arched. COAT--Long, silky, not woolly; either flat, wavy, or curly. On the head, ears and front-legs it should be short and smooth; on the neck the frill should be profuse and rather curly; on the chest and the rest of the body, the tail and hind-quarters, it should be long; the fore-legs being well feathered. TAIL--Long, well feathered, and not gaily carried. It should be carried well down, almost touching the ground. HEIGHT--Dogs from 29 inches upwards at shoulder, bitches from 27 inches upwards. (Originally 27 inches and 26 inches. Altered at a general meeting of the Borzoi Club, held February, 1906.) FAULTS--Head short and thick; too much stop; parti-coloured nose; eyes too wide apart; heavy ears; heavy shoulders; wide chest; "barrel" ribbed; dew-claws; elbows turned out; wide behind. Also light eyes and over or undershot jaws. COLOUR--The Club standard makes no mention of colour. White, of course, should predominate; fawn, lemon, orange, brindle, blue, slate and black markings are met with. Too much of the latter, or black and tan markings, are disliked. Whole coloured dogs are also seen. * * * * * The foregoing description embodies the standard of points as laid down and adopted by the Borzoi Club, interpolated with some remarks for the further guidance of the novice. The Borzoi Club was founded in 1892, and now consists of about fifty members, with the Duke and Duchess of Newcastle as joint-presidents. It does much good work for the breed, guaranteeing classes at shows, where otherwise few or none would be given, encouraging the breeding of high-class Borzois by offering its valuable challenge cups and other special prizes, and generally looking after the interests of the breed. Although the Club standard of height has been raised from 27 and 26 inches to 29 and 27 inches for dogs and bitches respectively, it must be borne in mind that the best dogs of to-day far exceed these measurements, and, unless _exceptionally_ good in other points, a dog of 29 inches at shoulder would stand little or no chance in the showing under the majority of English judges; indeed, bitches of 29 to 30 inches are by no means uncommon. Not many of us can afford to start at the top of the tree, and, except for the favoured few to whom money is no object, and who can buy ready-made champions, there is no better way of starting a kennel than to purchase a really good bitch, one, say, capable of winning at all but the more important shows. She must be of good pedigree, strong, and healthy; such an one ought to be obtained for P15 upwards. Mate her to the best dog whose blood "nicks" suitably with hers, but do not waste time and money breeding from fourth-rate stud dogs, for if you do it is certain you will only meet with disappointment. On the other hand, if you have had little or no experience of dogs, you may possibly prefer to start with a puppy. If so, place yourself in the hands of a breeder with a reputation at stake (unless you have a friend who understands the breed). It is a fact that even a "cast off" from a good strain that has been bred for certain points for years is more likely to turn out a better dog than a pup whose dam has been mated "haphazard" to some dog who may or may not have been a good one. Big kennels also generally possess the best bitches and breed from them, and the bitch is quite as important a factor as the sire. If, however, you prefer to rely on your own judgment, and wish to choose a puppy yourself from a litter, select the one with the longest head, biggest bone, smallest ears, and longest tail, or as many of these qualities as you can find combined in one individual. Coat is a secondary matter in quite a young pup; here one should be guided by the coat of the sire and dam. Still, choose a pup with a heavy coat, if possible, although when this puppy coat is cast, the dog may not grow so good as one as some of the litter who in early life were smoother. As regards size, a Borzoi pup of three months should measure about 19 inches at the shoulder, at six months about 25 inches, and at nine months from 27 to 29 inches. After ten or twelve months, growth is very slow, although some continue adding to their height until they are a year and a half old. They will, of course, increase in girth of chest and develop muscle until two years old; a Borzoi may be considered in its prime at from three to four years of age. As regards price, from P5 to P10 is not too much to pay for a really good pup of about eight to ten weeks old; if you pay less you will probably get only a second-rate one. Having purchased your puppy, there are three principal items to be considered if you intend to rear him well; firstly, his diet must be varied; secondly, the pup must have unlimited exercise, and never be kept on the chain; thirdly, internal parasites must be kept in check. For young puppies "Ruby" Worm Cure is most efficacious, and does not distress the patient. Food should be given at regular intervals--not less frequently than five times a day to newly weaned puppies--and may consist of porridge, bread and milk, raw meat minced fine, and any table scraps, with plenty of new milk. Well-boiled paunch is also greatly appreciated, and, being easily digested, may be given freely. One important part of the puppy's education that must by no means be neglected is to accustom him to go on the collar and lead. Borzoi pups are, as a rule extremely nervous, and it requires great patience in some cases to train them to the lead. Short lessons should be given when about four months old. If you can induce the puppy to think it is a new game, well and good--he will take to it naturally; but once he looks upon it as something to be dreaded, it means hours of patient work to break him in. If you decide on commencing with a brood bitch, see that she is dosed for worms before visiting the dog; that she is in good hard condition--not fat, however; and, if possible, accompany her yourself and see her mated. For the first week rather less than her usual quantity of food should be given; afterwards feed as her appetite dictates, but do not let her get too fat, or she may have a bad time when whelping. For two days before the puppies are due give sloppy but nourishing diet, and this should be continued, given slightly warm, for four or five days after the pups are born. Borzois as a rule make excellent mothers, but to rear them well they should not be allowed to suckle more than five--or, if a strong, big bitch, six--pups. If the litter is larger, it is better to destroy the remainder, or use a foster mother. [Illustration: MRS. AITCHESON'S BORZOI CH. STRAWBERRY KING] Whatever they may be in their native land--and the first imported specimens were perhaps rather uncertain in temper--the Borzoi, as we know him in this country, is affectionate, devoted to his owner, friendly with his kennel companions and makes a capital house dog. As a lady's companion he is hard to beat; indeed, a glance at any show catalogue will prove that the majority of Borzois are owned by the gentle sex. No one need be deterred from keeping a Borzoi by a remark the writer has heard hundreds of times at shows: "Those dogs are _so_ delicate." This is not the case. Once over distemper troubles--and the breed certainly does suffer badly if it contracts the disease--the Borzoi is as hardy as most breeds, if not hardier. Given a good dry kennel and plenty of straw, no weather is too cold for them. Damp, of course, must be avoided, but this applies equally to other breeds. The adult hound, like the puppy, should never be kept on chain; a kennel with a railed-in run should be provided, or a loose box makes a capital place for those kept out of doors, otherwise no different treatment is required from that of other large breeds. CHAPTER XVIII THE GREYHOUND The Greyhound is the oldest and most conservative of all dogs, and his type has altered singularly little during the seven thousand years in which he is known to have been cherished for his speed, and kept by men for running down the gazelle or coursing the hare. The earliest references to him are far back in the primitive ages, long before he was beautifully depicted by Assyrian artists, straining at the leash or racing after his prey across the desert sands. The Egyptians loved him and appreciated him centuries before the pyramids were built. In those days he wore a feathered tail, and his ears were heavy with a silken fringe of hair. His type was that of the modern Arabian Slughi, who is the direct and unaltered descendant of the ancient hound. The glorious King Solomon referred to him (Proverbs xxx. 31) as being one of the four things which "go well and are comely in going--a lion, which is strongest among beasts, and turneth not away from any; a Greyhound; an he goat also; and a king against whom there is no rising up." That the Greyhound is "comely in going," as well as in repose, was recognised very early by the Greeks, whose artists were fond of introducing this graceful animal as an ornament in their decorative workmanship. In their metal work, their carvings in ivory and stone, and more particularly as parts in the designs on their terra-cotta oil bottles, wine coolers, and other vases, the Greyhound is frequently to be seen, sometimes following the hare, and always in remarkably characteristic attitudes. Usually these Greek Greyhounds are represented with prick ears, but occasionally the true rose ear is shown. All writings in connection with Greyhounds point to the high estimation in which the dog has always been held. Dr. Caius, when referring to the name, says "The Greyhound hath his name of this word gre; which word soundeth gradus in Latin, in Englishe degree, because among all dogges these are the most principall, occupying the chiefest place, and being simply and absolutely the best of the gentle kinde of Houndes." It was not until the reign of Queen Elizabeth that coursing in England was conducted under established rules. These were drawn up by the then Duke of Norfolk. The sport quickly grew in favour, and continued to increase in popularity until the first coursing club was established at Swaffham in 1776. Then in 1780 the Ashdown Park Meeting came into existence. The Newmarket Meeting in 1805 was the next fixture that was inaugurated, and this now remains with the champion stakes as its most important event. Afterwards came the Amesbury Meeting in 1822, but Amesbury, like Ashdown, although for many years one of the most celebrated institutions of the description, has fallen from its high estate. Three years later came the Altcar Club. But it was not until eleven years after this period that the Waterloo Cup was instituted (in 1836), to win which is the highest ambition of followers of the leash. At the present time the run for the Waterloo Cup, which at the commencement was an eight dog stake, is composed of sixty-four nominations, the entry fee for which is P25. The winner takes P500, and the cup, value P100, presented by the Earl of Sefton, the runner up P200, the third and fourth P50 each, four dogs P36 each, eight dogs P20 each, and sixteen dogs P10 each. The thirty-two dogs beaten in the first round of the Cup compete for the Waterloo Purse, value P215, and the sixteen dogs run out in the second round for the Waterloo Plate, value P145. The winner in each case taking P75, and the runner up P30, the remainder being divided amongst the most forward runners in the respective stakes. The Waterloo Cup holds the same position in coursing circles as the Derby does in horse racing. The National Coursing Club was established in 1858, when a stud book was commenced, and a code of laws drawn up for the regulation of coursing meetings. This is recognised in Australia and other parts of the world where coursing meetings are held. The Stud Book, of which Mr. W. F. Lamonby is the keeper, contains particulars of all the best-known Greyhounds in the United Kingdom, and a dog is not allowed to compete at any of the large meetings held under Coursing Club rules unless it has been duly entered with its pedigree complete. In fact, the National Coursing Club is more particular in connection with the pedigrees of Greyhounds being correctly given, than the Kennel Club is about dogs that are exhibited; and that is saying a great deal. It holds the same position in coursing matters as the Jockey Club does in racing. It is in fact, the supreme authority on all matters connected with coursing. Various opinions have been advanced as to the best size and weight for a Greyhound. Like horses, Greyhounds run in all forms, and there is no doubt that a really good big one will always have an advantage over the little ones; but it is so difficult to find the former, and most of the chief winners of the Waterloo Cup have been comparatively small. Coomassie was the smallest Greyhound that ever won the blue ribbon of the leash; she drew the scale at 42 lbs., and was credited with the win of the Cup on two occasions. Bab at the Bowster, who is considered by many good judges to have been the best bitch that ever ran, was 2 lbs. more; she won the Cup once, and many other stakes, as she was run all over the country and was not kept for the big event. Master McGrath was a small dog, and only weighed 53 lbs., but he won the Waterloo Cup three times. Fullerton, who was a much bigger dog, and was four times declared the winner of the Cup, was 56 lbs. in weight. There are very few Greyhounds that have won the Waterloo Cup more than once, but Cerito was credited with it three times, namely, in 1850, 1852, and 1853, when it was a thirty-two dog stake. Canaradzo, Bit of Fashion, Miss Glendine, Herschel, Thoughtless Beauty, and Fabulous Fortune, are probably some of the best Greyhounds that ever ran besides those already alluded to. Bit of Fashion was the dam of Fullerton, who shares with Master McGrath the reputation of being the two best Greyhounds that ever ran. But Master McGrath came first. During his remarkable career in public he won thirty-six courses out of thirty-seven, the only time that he was defeated being the 1870 at his third attempt to win the Waterloo Cup, and the flag went up in favour of Mr. Trevor's Lady Lyons. He, however, retrieved his good fortune the following year, when he again ran through the stake. Fullerton, who, when he won all his honours, was the property of Colonel North, was bred by Mr. James Dent in Northumberland. Colonel North gave 850 guineas for him, which was then stated to be the highest price ever paid for a Greyhound. He ran five times altogether for the Waterloo Cup, and was declared the winner on four occasions. The first time was in 1889, when he divided with his kennel companion Troughend. Then he won the Cup outright the three following years. In 1893, however, after having been put to the stud, at which he proved a failure, he was again trained for the Cup, but age had begun to tell its tale, and after winning one course he was beaten by Mr. Keating's Full Captain, in the second. This was one of the two occasions upon which out of thirty-three courses he failed to raise the flag. On the other he was beaten by Mr. Gladstone's Greengage, when running the deciding course at Haydock Park. It appears like descending from the sublime to the ridiculous to mention the Greyhound as a show dog, after the many brilliant performances that have been recorded of him in the leash, but there are many dogs elegant in outline with fine muscular development that are to be seen in the judging ring. Mr. George Raper's Roasting Hot is one of the most prominent winners of the day; he is a fawn and white, as handsome as a peacock and, moreover, is a good dog in the field. On one occasion after competing successfully at the Kennel Club Show at the Crystal Palace, he was taken to a coursing meeting where he won the stake in which he was entered. A brace of very beautiful bitches are Mr. F. Eyer's Dorset Girl and Miss W. Easton's Okeford Queen. Although, as a rule, the most consistent winners in the leash have not been noted for their good looks, there have been exceptions in which the opposite has been the case. Fullerton was a good-looking dog, if not quite up to the form required in the show ring. Mr. Harding Cox has had several specimens that could run well and win prizes as show dogs, and the same may be said of Miss Maud May's fine kennel of Greyhounds in the North of England. In the South of England Mrs. A. Dewe keeps a number of longtails that when not winning prizes at the Crystal Palace and elsewhere are running at Plumpton and other meetings in Sussex. The following is the standard by which Greyhounds should be judged. * * * * * HEAD--Long and narrow, slightly wider in skull, allowing for plenty of brain room; lips tight, without any flew, and eyes bright and intelligent and dark in colour. EARS--Small and fine in texture, and semi-pricked. TEETH--Very strong and level, and not decayed or cankered. NECK--Lengthy, without any throatiness, but muscular. SHOULDERS--Placed well back in the body, and fairly muscular, without being loaded. FORE-LEGS--Perfectly straight, set well into the shoulders, with strong pasterns and toes set well up and close together. BODY--Chest very deep, with fairly well-sprung ribs; muscular back and loins, and well cut up in the flanks. HIND-QUARTERS--Wide and well let down, with hocks well bent and close to the ground, with very muscular haunches, showing great propelling power, and tail long and fine and tapering with a slight upward curve. COAT--Fairly fine in texture. WEIGHT--The ideal weight of a dog is from 60 pounds to 65 pounds, of a bitch from 55 pounds to 60 pounds. CHAPTER XIX THE WHIPPET For elegance of style, cleanliness of habit, and graceful movement, few dogs can equal the Whippet, for which reason his popularity as a companion has increased very greatly within the past decade. No more affectionate creature is to be found, yet he possesses considerable determination and pluck, and on occasion will defend himself in his own way. Too fragile in his anatomy for fighting, in the ordinary sense of the word, when molested, he will "snap" at his opponent with such celerity as to take even the most watchful by surprise; while his strength of jaw, combined with its comparatively great length, enables him to inflict severe punishment at the first grab. It was probably owing to this habit, which is common to all Whippets, that they were originally known as Snap-Dogs. The Whippet existed as a separate breed long before dog shows were thought of, and at a time when records of pedigrees were not officially preserved; but it is very certain that the Greyhound had a share in his genealogical history, for not only should his appearance be precisely that of a Greyhound in miniature, but the purpose for which he was bred is very similar to that for which his larger prototype is still used, the only difference being that rabbits were coursed by Whippets, and hares by Greyhounds. This sport has been mainly confined to the working classes, the colliers of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland being particularly devoted to it. As a rule the contests are handicaps, the starting point of each competitor being regulated by its weight; but the winners of previous important events are penalised in addition, according to their presumed merit, by having a certain number of yards deducted from the start to which weight alone would otherwise have entitled them. Each dog is taken to its stipulated mark according to the handicap, and there laid hold of by the nape of the neck and hind-quarters; the real starter stands behind the lot, and after warning all to be ready, discharges a pistol, upon which each attendant swings his dog as far forward as he can possibly throw him, but always making sure that he alights on his feet. The distance covered in the race is generally 200 yards, minus the starts allotted, and some idea of the speed at which these very active little animals can travel may be gleaned from the fact that the full distance has been covered in rather under 12 seconds. In order to induce each dog to do its best, the owner, or more probably the trainer stands beyond the winning post, and frantically waves a towel or very stout rag. Accompanied by a babel of noise, the race is started, and in less time than it takes to write it the competitors reach the goal, one and all as they finish taking a flying leap at their trainer's towel, to which they hold on with such tenacity that they are swung round in the air. The speed at which they are travelling makes this movement necessary in many cases to enable the dog to avoid accident, particularly where the space beyond the winning mark is limited. For racing purposes there is a wide margin of size allowed to the dogs, anything from 8 lbs. to 23 lbs., or even more, being eligible; but in view of the handicap terms those dogs which possess speed, and scale 9 to 12 lbs. amongst the light-weights, and over 17 lbs. in the heavy ones, are considered to have the best chance. Probably there is no locality where the pastime has maintained such a firm hold as in and around Oldham, one of the most famous tracks in the world being at Higginshaw, where not infrequently three hundred dogs are entered in one handicap. The Borough grounds at Oldham and the Wellington grounds at Bury are also noted centres for races. It is a remarkable but well recognised fact that bitches are faster than dogs, and in consequence the terms upon which they are handicapped are varied. The general custom is to allow a dog 2-1/2 to 3 yards advantage for every pound difference in weight between it and the gentle sex. One of the fastest dogs that ever ran was Collier Lad, but he was almost a Greyhound as regards size. Whitefoot, whose owner challenged the world, and was considered to be quite unbeatable, was a Whippet in every sense of the word, and was a nice medium weight, though probably Capplebank's time of 11-1/2 seconds stands alone. The best of the present-day racing dogs are Polly fro' Astley (15 lbs.) and Dinah (11-1/2 lbs.), and of those which promise well for the future, Eva, whose weight is only 9-3/4 lbs., is most prominent. The training of Whippets is by no means easy work, and is more expensive than most people imagine. The very choicest food is deemed absolutely necessary, in fact a Whippet undergoing preparation for an important race is provided with the most wholesome fare. Choice mutton-chops, beef-steaks and similar dainties comprise their daily portion. Of course exercise is a necessity, but it is not considered good policy to allow a dog in training to gambol about either on the roads or in the fields. Indeed, all dogs which are undergoing preparation for a race are practically deprived of their freedom, in lieu of which they are walked along hard roads secured by a lead; and for fear of their picking up the least bit of refuse each is securely muzzled by a box-like leather arrangement which completely envelops the jaws, but which is freely perforated to permit proper breathing. Any distance between six and a dozen miles a day, according to the stamina and condition of the dog, is supposed to be the proper amount of exercise, and scales are brought into use every few days to gauge the effect which is being produced. In addition to this private trials are necessary in the presence of someone who is accustomed to timing races by the aid of a stop-watch--a by no means easy task, considering that a slight particle of a second means so many yards, and the average speed working out at about 16 yards per second--nearly twice as fast as the fastest pedestrian sprinter, and altogether beyond the power of the fleetest race-horse. Colour in the Whippet is absolutely of no importance to a good judge, though possibly what is known as the peach fawn is the favourite among amateur fanciers. Red fawns, blue or slate coloured, black, brindled of various shades, and these colours intermingled with white, are most to be met with, however. In some quarters the idea is prevalent that Whippets are delicate in their constitution, but this is a popular error. Probably their disinclination to go out of doors on their own initiative when the weather is cold and wet may account for the opinion, but given the opportunity to roam about a house the Whippet will find a comfortable place, and will rarely ail anything. In scores of houses Whippets go to bed with the children, and are so clean that even scrupulous housewives take no objection to their finding their way under the clothes to the foot of the bed, thereby securing their own protection and serving as an excellent footwarmer in the winter months. Probably in no other breed, except the Greyhound, do judges attach so little importance to the shape of the head; so long as the jaws are fairly long and the colour of the eyes somewhat in keeping with that of the body, very little else is looked for in front of the ears. As in the case of racing competitors, really good dogs for show purposes are much more difficult to find than bitches. The best of the males are not so classical in outline as the females, though some of them are as good in legs and feet--points which are of the greatest importance. Though it is not quite in accordance with the standard laid down by the club, it will be found that most judges favour dogs which are about 17 lbs. weight, and bitches which are between 15 lbs. and 16 lbs., the 20 lbs. mentioned in the standard of points, without variation for sex being considered altogether too heavy. Appearances are sometimes deceptive, but these dogs are rarely weighed for exhibition purposes, the trained eye of the judge being sufficient guide to the size of the competitors according to his partiality for middle-size, big, or little animals. The South Durham and Yorkshire Show at Darlington has the credit for first introducing classes for Whippets into the prize ring. Previous to this it had not long been generally recognised as a distinct breed, and it is within the last twenty years that the Kennel Club has placed the breed on its recognised list. The following is the standard of points adopted by the Whippet Club:-- * * * * * HEAD--Long and lean, rather wide between the eyes and flat on the top; the jaw powerful yet cleanly cut; the teeth level and white. EYES--Bright and fiery. EARS--Small, fine in texture and rose shape. NECK--Long and muscular, elegantly arched and free from throatiness. SHOULDERS--Oblique and muscular. CHEST--Deep and capacious. BACK--Broad and square, rather long and slightly arched over the loin, which should be strong and powerful. FORE-LEGS--Rather long, well set under the dog, possessing a fair amount of bone. HIND-QUARTERS--Strong and broad across stifles, well bent thighs, broad and muscular; hocks well let down. FEET--Round, well split up, with strong soles. COAT--Fine and close. COLOUR--Black, red, white, brindle, fawn, blue, and the various mixtures of each. WEIGHT--Twenty pounds. CHAPTER XX THE FOXHOUND There is plenty of proof that Foxhounds were the very first of the canine races in Great Britain to come under the domination of scientific breeding. There had been hounds of more ancient origin, such as the Southern Hound and the Bloodhound; but something different was wanted towards the end of the seventeenth century to hunt the wild deer that had become somewhat scattered after Cromwell's civil war. The demand was consequently for a quicker hound than those hitherto known, and people devoted to the chase began to breed it. Whether there were crosses at first remains in dispute, but there is more probability that the policy adopted was one of selection; those exceptionally fast were bred with the same, until the slow, steady line hunter was improved out of his very character and shape. At any rate, there are proofs that in 1710 hounds were to be found in packs, carefully bred, and that at that time some of the hunts in question devoted attention to the fox. The first known kennel of all was at Wardour Castle, and was said to have been established in 1696; but more reliable is the date of the Brocklesby, commenced in 1713. The first record of a pack of hounds being sold was in 1730, when a Mr. Fownes sold his pack to a Mr. Bowles. The latter gentleman showed great sport with them in Yorkshire. At that time Lord Hertford began to hunt the Cotswold country, in Gloucestershire, and was the first to draw coverts for fox in the modern style. Very soon after this it became the fashion of the day to breed hounds. Many of the nobility and large landowners devoted much of their time and money to it, and would take long journeys to get fresh blood. It was the rule to breed hounds on the most scientific principles, and by 1750 there were fifty such breeders, including the fifth Duke of Beaufort, Lord Lincoln, Lord Stamford, Lord Percival, Lord Granby, Lord Ludlow, Lord Vernon, Lord Carlisle, Lord Mexbro, Sir Walter Vavasour, Sir Roland Winns, Mr. Noel, Mr. Stanhope, Mr. Meynell, Mr. Barry, and Mr. Charles Pelham. The last-named gentleman, afterward the first Lord Yarborough, was perhaps the most indefatigable of all, as he was the first to start the system of walking puppies amongst his tenantry, on the Brocklesby estates, and of keeping lists of hound pedigrees and ages. By 1760 all the above-named noblemen and gentlemen had been breeding from each other's kennels. The hounds were registered, as can be seen now in Lord Middleton's private kennel stud book, through which his lordship can trace the pedigrees of his present pack for a hundred and sixty years to hounds that were entered in 1760, got by Raytor, son of Merryman and grandson of Lord Granby's Ranter. Another pedigree was that of Ruby, who is credited with a numerous progeny, as she was by Raytor out of Mr. Stapleton's Cruel by Sailor, a son of Lord Granby's Sailor by Mr. Noel's Victor. This shows well how seriously Foxhound breeding was gone into before the middle of the eighteenth century. Portraits prove also that a hound approaching very closely to those of modern times had been produced at this early period. By such evidence the Foxhound had outstripped the Harrier in size by nearly five inches, as the latter does not appear to have been more than eighteen inches, and the early Foxhound would have been twenty-three inches. Then the heavy shoulder, the dewlap, and jowl of the Southern Hound had been got rid of, and the coat had been somewhat altered. The old school of breeders had evidently determined upon great speed and the ability to stay, through the medium of deep ribs, heart room, wide loins, length of quarter, quality of bone, straightness of fore-leg, and round strong feet; the slack loined, loosely built, and splayfooted hound of former generations had been left behind. To such perfection, indeed, had the Foxhound attained, that long before the close of the eighteenth century sportsmen were clamouring as to what a Foxhound could do. With so much prominence given to the Foxhound in the comparatively short period of forty or fifty years, it is no wonder that individual hounds became very celebrated in almost every part of the country. Mr. Pelham's Rockwood Tickler and Bumper were names well known in Yorkshire, and Lord Ludlow's Powerful and Growler were talked of both in Lincolnshire and Warwickshire. From the first, indeed, it appeared that certain hounds were very much better than others, and old huntsmen have generally declared for one which was in the whole length of their careers (sometimes extending to fifty years) immeasurably superior to all others they had hunted. Harry Ayris, who was for just half a century with Lord FitzHardinge, declared to the day of his death that nothing had equalled Cromwell; Osbaldeston said the same of Furrier, and Frank Gillard never falters from the opinion that Weathergage was quite by himself as the best hound he ever hunted. The Foxhound Kennel Stud Book abounds in the strongest proofs that hereditary merit in their work has been transmitted from these wonderful hounds, and they really make the history of the Foxhound. There have been many great hounds; but there must be the greatest of the great, and the following twelve hounds are probably the best England has ever seen:--Mr. Corbet's Trojan (1780), Lord Middleton's Vanguard (1815), Mr. Osbaldeston's Furrier (1820), Lord Henry Bentinck's Contest (1848), Lord FitzHardinge's Cromwell (1855), Mr. Drake's Duster (1844), Sir Richard Sutton's Dryden (1849), the Duke of Rutland's Senator (1862), Duke of Rutland's Weathergage (1874), the Earl of Coventry's Rambler (1874), Mr. E. P. Rawnsley's Freeman (1884), and the Grafton Woodman (1892). Breeding Foxhounds is one of the most fascinating of all the pleasures of animal culture, as the above list, so full of extreme merit, can be traced for nearly a hundred and thirty years. It cannot be said that the prices paid for Foxhounds in very recent times have greatly exceeded those of the past. In 1790 Colonel Thornton sold Merkin for four hogsheads of claret, and the seller to have two couples of the whelps. Then in 1808 Mr. John Warde sold a pack of hounds to Lord Althorpe for 1,000 guineas, and the same gentleman sold another pack for the same sum a few years later. In 1838 Lord Suffield offered 3,000 guineas for Mr. Lambton's pack, and afterwards sold it to Sir Matthew White Ridley for 2,500. In 1834 Osbaldeston sold ten couples of bitches, all descendants of Furrier, for 2,000 sovereigns, or P100 a hound--a record that was almost eclipsed at the sale of Lord Politmore's hounds in 1870, when twenty-two couples of dog-hounds sold for 3,365 guineas. Of late years there has been the sale of the Quorn for, it was said, P3,000, and the late Lord Willoughby de Broke valued the North Warwickshire for the county to purchase at P2,500. In 1903 the Atherstone was valued by Mr. Rawlence, the well-known representative of Tattersall's, at P3,500, or something like P50 a hound, and that has been considered very cheap. If, therefore, modern prices have not greatly exceeded those of the far past, there has not been any particular diminution, and there is no doubt about it that if certain packs could be purchased the prices would far exceed anything ever reached before. Foxhounds have very much improved in looks during the past five-and-twenty years, and unquestionably they are quite as good in the field or better. Whenever hounds have good foxes in front of them, and good huntsmen to assist or watch over them, they are as able as ever, notwithstanding that the drawbacks to good sport are more numerous now than they used to be. The noble hound will always be good enough, and ever and anon this is shown by a run of the Great Wood order, to hunt over five-and-twenty to thirty miles at a pace to settle all the horses, and yet every hound will be up. There has been a slight tendency to increase size of late years. The Belvoir dog-hound is within very little of 24 inches instead of 23-1/2, the standard of twenty years ago, and this increase has become very general. In elegance of form nothing has been lost, and there can be no other to possess beauty combined with power and the essential points for pace and endurance in the same degree as a Foxhound. A detailed description of the Foxhound is here given:-- * * * * * HEAD--Somewhat broad, not peaked like the Bloodhound, but long from the apex to the frontal bones, eyebrows very prominent, cheeks cut clean from the eye to the nostril, ears set low and in their natural condition thin and shapely, but not large, nose large, jaw strong and level, and small dewlaps, expression fierce, and with the best often repellent. EYES--Very bright and deeply set, full of determination, and with a very steady expression. The look of the Foxhound is very remarkable. NECK--Should be perfectly clean, no skin ruffle whatever, or neck cloth, as huntsmen call it. The length of neck is of importance, both for stooping and giving an air of majesty. SHOULDERS--The blades should be well into the back, and should slant, otherwise be wide and strong, to meet the arms, that should be long and powerful. LEGS AND FEET--The bone should be perfectly straight from the arm downward, and descend in the same degree of size to the ankles, or, as the saying is, "down to his toes." The knee should be almost flat and level; there should be no curve until coming to the toes, which should be very strong, round, cat-shaped, and every toe clean set as it were. FORE-RIBS AND BRISKET--Deep, fine ribs are very essential, and the brisket should be well below the elbows. BACK AND LOINS--Back should be straight. A hollow back offends the eye much, and a roach back is worse. The loin wide, back ribs deep and long, a slight prominence over the croup. QUARTERS AND HOCKS--The quarters cannot be too long, full, showing a second thigh, and meeting a straight hock low down, the shank bone short, and meeting shapely feet. COAT--The coat is hard hair, but short and smooth, the texture is as stiff as bristles, but beautifully laid. COLOUR--Belvoir tan, which is brown and black, perfectly intermixed, with white markings of various shapes and sizes. The white should be very opaque and clear. Black and white, with tan markings on head and stifles. Badger pied--a kind of grey and white. Lemon pied, light yellow and white. Hare pied, a darker yellow and white. STERN--Long and carried gaily, but not curled; often half white. HEIGHT--Dogs from 23-1/2 to 24 inches; bitches from 22 to 22-1/2 inches. CHAPTER XXI THE HARRIER AND THE BEAGLE The Harrier is a distinct breed of hound used for hunting the hare--or rather it should be said the Association of Masters of Harriers are doing their utmost to perpetuate this breed; the Harrier Stud Book bearing witness thereto: and it is to be deplored that so many Masters of Harriers ignore this fact, and are content to go solely to Foxhound kennels to start their packs of Harriers, choosing, maybe, 20 inch to 22 inch Foxhounds, and thenceforth calling them Harriers. It is, indeed, a common belief that the modern Harrier is but a smaller edition of the Foxhound, employed for hunting the hare instead of the fox, and it is almost useless to reiterate that it is a distinct breed of hound that can boast of possibly greater antiquity than any other, or to insist upon the fact that Xenophon himself kept a pack of Harriers over two thousands years ago. Nevertheless, in general appearance the Harrier and the Foxhound are very much alike, the one obvious distinction being that of size. Opinions differ as to what standard of height it is advisable to aim at. If you want to hunt your Harriers on foot, 16 inches is quite big enough--almost too big to run with; but if you are riding to them, 20 inches is a useful height, or even 19 inches. Either is a good workable size, and such hounds should be able to slip along fast enough for most people. Choose your hounds with plenty of bone, but not too clumsy or heavy; a round, firm neck, not too short, with a swan-like curve; a lean head with a long muzzle and fairly short ears; a broad chest with plenty of lung room, fore-legs like gun barrels, straight and strong; hind-legs with good thighs and well let down hocks; feet, round like cats' feet, and a well-set-on, tapering stern. Such a make and shape should see many seasons through, and allow you to be certain of pace and endurance in your pack. It is useless to lay down any hard and fast rule as to colour. It is so much a matter of individual taste. Some Masters have a great fancy for the dark colouring of the old Southern Hound, but nothing could look much smarter than a good combination of Belvoir tan with black and white. Puppies, as a rule, a week or two after they are whelped, show a greater proportion of dark marking than any other, but this as they grow older soon alters, and their white marking becomes much more conspicuous. As in the case of the Foxhound, the Harrier is very seldom kept as a companion apart from the pack. But puppies are usually sent out to walk, and may easily be procured to be kept and reared until they are old enough to be entered to their work. Doubtless the rearing of a Harrier puppy is a great responsibility, but it is also a delight to many who feel that they are helping in the advancement of a great national sport. * * * * * There is nothing to surpass the beauty of the Beagle either to see him on the flags of his kennel or in unravelling a difficulty on the line of a dodging hare. In neatness he is really the little model of a Foxhound. He is, of course, finer, but with the length of neck so perfect in the bigger hound, the little shoulders of the same pattern, and the typical quarters and second thighs. Then how quick he is in his casts! and when he is fairly on a line, of course he sticks to it, as the saying is, "like a beagle." Beagles have been carefully preserved for a great many years, and in some cases they have been in families for almost centuries. In the hereditary hunting establishments they have been frequently found, as the medium of amusement and instruction in hunting for the juvenile members of the house; and there can be nothing more likely to instil the right principles of venery into the youthful mind than to follow all the ways of these little hounds. Dorsetshire used to be the great county for Beagles. The downs there were exactly fitted for them, and years ago, when roe-deer were preserved on the large estates, Beagles were used to hunt this small breed of deer. Mr. Cranes' Beagles were noted at the time, and also those of a Colonel Harding. It is on record that King George IV. had a strong partiality for Beagles, and was wont to see them work on the downs round about Brighton. The uses of the Beagle in the early days of the last century, however, were a good deal diversified. They were hunted in big woodlands to drive game to the gun, and perhaps the ordinary Beagle of from 12 inches to 14 inches was not big enough for the requirements of the times. It is quite possible, therefore, that the Beagle was crossed with the Welsh, Southern or Otterhound, to get more size and power, as there certainly was a Welsh rough-coated Beagle of good 18 inches, and an almost identical contemporary that was called the Essex Beagle. Sixty years ago such hounds were common enough, but possibly through the adoption of the more prevalent plan of beating coverts, and Spaniels being in more general use, the vocation of the Beagle in this particular direction died out, and a big rough-coated Beagle is now very rarely seen. That a great many of the true order were bred became very manifest as soon as the Harrier and Beagle Association was formed, and more particularly when a section of the Peterborough Hound Show was reserved for them. Then they seemed to spring from every part of the country. In 1896 one became well acquainted with many packs that had apparently held aloof from the dog shows. There was the Cheshire, the Christ Church (Oxford), Mr. T. Johnson's, the Royal Rock, the Thorpe Satchville, the Worcestershire, etc., and of late there have been many more that are as well known as packs of Foxhounds. One hears now of the Chauston, the Halstead Place--very noted indeed--the Hulton, the Leigh Park, the Stoke Place, the Edinburgh, the Surbiton, the Trinity Foot, the Wooddale, Mrs. G. W. Hilliard's, Mrs. Price's, and Mrs. Turner's. Beagle owners, like the masters of Foxhound kennels, have never been very partial to the ordinary dog shows, and so the development of the up-to-date Beagle, as seen at recent shows, is somewhat new. It is just as it should be, and if more people take up "beagling" it may not be in the least surprising. They are very beautiful little hounds, can give a vast amount of amusement, and, for the matter of that, healthy exercise. If a stout runner can keep within fairly easy distance of a pack of well-bred Beagles on the line of a lively Jack hare, he is in the sort of condition to be generally envied. * * * * * DESCRIPTION OF THE BEAGLE: HEAD--Fair length, powerful without being coarse; skull domed, moderately wide, with an indication of peak, stop well defined, muzzle not snipy, and lips well flewed. NOSE--Black, broad, and nostrils well expanded. EYES--Brown, dark hazel or hazel, not deep set nor bulgy, and with a mild expression. EARS--Long, set on low, fine in texture, and hanging in a graceful fold close to the cheek. NECK--Moderately long, slightly arched, the throat showing some dewlap. SHOULDERS--Clean and slightly sloping. BODY--Short between the couplings, well let down in chest, ribs fairly well sprung and well ribbed up, with powerful and not tucked-up loins. HIND-QUARTERS--Very muscular about the thighs, stifles and hocks well bent, and hocks well let down. FORE-LEGS--Quite straight, well under the dog, of good substance and round in the bone. FEET--Round, well knuckled up, and strongly padded. STERN--Moderate length, set on high, thick and carried gaily, but not curled over the back. COLOUR--Any recognised hound colour. COAT--Smooth variety: Smooth, very dense and not too fine or short. Rough variety: Very dense and wiry. HEIGHT--Not exceeding 16 inches. Pocket Beagles must not exceed 10 inches. GENERAL APPEARANCE--A compactly-built hound, without coarseness, conveying the impression of great stamina and vivacity. CHAPTER XXII THE POINTER It has never been made quite clear in history why the Spaniards had a dog that was very remarkable for pointing all kinds of game. They have always been a pleasure-loving people, certainly, but more inclined to bull-fighting than field-craft, and yet as early as 1600 they must have had a better dog for game-finding than could have been found in any other part of the world. Singularly enough, too, the most esteemed breeds in many countries can be traced from the same source, such as the Russian Pointer, the German Pointer, the French double-nosed Griffon, and, far more important still, the English Pointer. A view has been taken that the Spanish double-nosed Pointer was introduced into England about two hundred years ago, when fire-arms were beginning to be popular for fowling purposes. Setters and Spaniels had been used to find and drive birds into nets, but as the Spanish Pointer became known it was apparently considered that he alone had the capacity to find game for the gun. This must have been towards the end of the seventeenth century, and for the next fifty years at least something very slow was wanted to meet the necessities of the old-fashioned flintlock gun, which occupied many minutes in loading and getting into position. Improvements came by degrees, until they set in very rapidly, but probably by 1750, when hunting had progressed a good deal, and pace was increased in all pastimes, the old-fashioned Pointer was voted a nuisance through his extreme caution and tortoise-like movements. There is evidence, through portraits, that Pointers had been altogether changed by the year 1800, but it is possible that the breed then had been continued by selection rather than by crossing for a couple of decades, as it is quite certain that by 1815 sportsmen were still dissatisfied with the want of pace in the Pointer, and many sportsmen are known to have crossed their Pointers with Foxhounds at about that time. By 1835 the old Spanish Pointer had been left behind, and the English dog was a perfect model for pace, stamina, resolution, and nerve. The breed was exactly adapted to the requirements of that day, which was not quite as fast as the present. Men shot with good Joe Mantons, did their own loading, and walked to their dogs, working them right and left by hand and whistle. The dogs beat their ground methodically, their heads at the right level for body scent, and when they came on game, down they were; the dog that had got it pointing, and the other barking or awaiting developments. There was nothing more beautiful than the work of a well-bred and well-broken brace of Pointers, or more perfect than the way a man got his shots from them. There was nothing slow about them, but on the contrary they went a great pace, seemed to shoot into the very currents of air for scent, and yet there was no impatience about them such as might have been expected from the Foxhound cross. The truth of it was that the capacity to concentrate the whole attention on the object found was so intense as to have lessened every other propensity. The rush of the Foxhound had been absorbed by the additional force of the Pointer character. There has been nothing at all like it in canine culture, and it came out so wonderfully after men had been shooting in the above manner for about forty years. It was nearing the end of this period that field trials began to occupy the attention of breeders and sportsmen, and although Setters had been getting into equal repute for the beauty of their work, there was something more brilliant about the Pointers at first. Brockton's Bounce was a magnificent dog, a winner on the show bench, and of the first Field Trial in England. Newton's Ranger was another of the early performers, and he was very staunch and brilliant, but it was in the next five years that the most extraordinary Pointer merit was seen, as quite incomparable was Sir Richard Garth's Drake, who was just five generations from the Spanish Pointer. Drake was rather a tall, gaunt dog, but with immense depth of girth, long shoulders, long haunches, and a benevolent, quiet countenance. There was nothing very attractive about him when walking about at Stafford prior to his trial, but the moment he was down he seemed to paralyse his opponent, as he went half as fast again. It was calculated that he went fifty miles an hour, and at this tremendous pace he would stop as if petrified, and the momentum would cover him with earth and dust. He did not seem capable of making a mistake, and his birds were always at about the same distance from him, to show thereby his extraordinary nose and confidence. Nothing in his day could beat him in a field. He got some good stock, but they were not generally show form, the bitches by him being mostly light and small, and his sons a bit high on the leg. None of them had his pace, but some were capital performers, such as Sir Thomas Lennard's Mallard, Mr. George Pilkington's Tory, Mr. Lloyd Price's Luck of Edenhall, winner of the Field Trial Derby, 1878; Lord Downe's Mars and Bounce, and Mr. Barclay Field's Riot. When Sir Richard Garth went to India and sold his kennel of Pointers at Tattersall's, Mr. Lloyd Price gave 150 guineas for Drake. The mid-century owners and breeders had probably all the advantages of what a past generation had done, as there were certainly many wonderful Pointers in the 'fifties, 'sixties, and 'seventies, as old men living to-day will freely allow. They were produced very regularly, too, in a marvellous type of perfection. Mr. William Arkwright, of Sutton Scarsdale, Derbyshire, has probably the best kennel in England at the present time. He discovered and revived an old breed of the North of England that was black, and bred for a great many years by Mr. Pape, of Carlisle, and his father before him. With these Mr. Arkwright has bred to the best working strains, with the result that he has had many good field trial winners. For a good many years now Elias Bishop, of Newton Abbot, has kept up the old breeds of Devon Pointers, the Ch. Bangs, the Mikes, and the Brackenburg Romps, and his have been amongst the best at the shows and the field trials during the past few years. There are, of course, exceptions to the rule that many of the modern Pointers do not carry about them the air of their true business; but it would appear that fewer people keep them now than was the case a quarter of a century ago, owing to the advance of quick-shooting, otherwise driving, and the consequent falling away of the old-fashioned methods, both for the stubble and the moor. However, there are many still who enjoy the work of dogs, and it would be a sin indeed in the calendar of British sports if the fine old breed of Pointer were allowed even to deteriorate. The apparent danger is that the personal or individual element is dying out. In the 'seventies the name of Drake, Bang, or Garnet were like household words. People talked of the great Pointers. They were spoken of in club chat or gossip; written about; and the prospects of the moors were much associated with the up-to-date characters of the Pointers and Setters. There is very little of this sort of talk now-a-days. Guns are more critically spoken of. There is, however, a wide enough world to supply with first-class Pointers. In England's numerous colonies it may be much more fitting to shoot over dogs. It has been tried in South Africa with marvellous results. Descendants of Bang have delighted the lone colonist on Cape partridge and quails, and Pointers suit the climate, whereas Setters do not. The Pointer is a noble breed to take up, as those still in middle life have seen its extraordinary merit whenever bred in the right way. As to the essential points of the breed, they may be set down as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--Should be wide from ear to ear, long and slanting from the top of the skull to the setting on of the nose; cheek bones prominent; ears set low and thin in texture, soft and velvety; nose broad at the base; mouth large and jaws level. NECK--The neck should be very strong, but long and slightly arched, meeting shoulders well knit into the back, which should be straight and joining a wide loin. There should be great depth of heart room, very deep brisket, narrow chest rather than otherwise, shoulders long and slanting. LEGS AND FEET--Should be as nearly like the Foxhound's as possible. There should be really no difference, as they must be straight, the knees big, and the bone should be of goodly size down to the toes, and the feet should be very round and cat-shaped. HIND-QUARTERS--A great feature in the Pointer is his hind-quarters. He cannot well be too long in the haunch or strong in the stifle, which should be well bent, and the muscles in the second thigh of a good Pointer are always remarkable. The hocks may be straighter than even in a Foxhound, as, in pulling up sharp on his point, he in a great measure throws his weight on them; the shank bones below the hock should be short. COLOUR--There have been good ones of all colours. The Derby colours were always liver and whites for their Pointers and black breasted reds for their game-cocks. The Seftons were liver and whites also, and so were the Edges of Strelly, but mostly heavily ticked. Brockton's Bounce was so, and so were Ch. Bang, Mike, and Young Bang. Drake was more of the Derby colour; dark liver and white. Mr. Whitehouse's were mostly lemon and whites, after Hamlet of that colour, and notable ones of the same hue were Squire, Bang Bang, and Mr. Whitehouse's Pax and Priam, all winners of field trials. There have been several very good black and whites. Mr. Francis's, afterwards Mr. Salter's, Chang was a field trial winner of this colour. A still better one was Mr. S. Becket's Rector, a somewhat mean little dog to look at, but quite extraordinary in his work, as he won the Pointer Puppy Stake at Shrewsbury and the All-Aged Stake three years in succession. Mr. Salter's Romp family were quite remarkable in colour--a white ground, heavily shot with black in patches and in ticks. There have never been any better Pointers than these. There have been, and are, good black Pointers also. HEIGHT AND SIZE--A big Pointer dog stands from 24-1/2 inches to 25 inches at the shoulder. Old Ch. Bang and Young Bang were of the former height, and the great bitch, Mr. Lloyd Price's Belle, was 24 inches. For big Pointers 60 pounds is about the weight for dogs and 56 pounds bitches; smaller size, 54 pounds dogs and 48 pounds bitches. There have been some very good ones still smaller. CHAPTER XXIII THE SETTERS I. THE ENGLISH SETTER.--In some form or other Setters are to be found wherever guns are in frequent use and irrespective of the precise class of work they have to perform; but their proper sphere is either on the moors, when the red grouse are in quest, or on the stubbles and amongst the root crops, when September comes in, and the partridge season commences. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, is supposed to have been the first person to train setting dogs in the manner which has been commonly adopted by his successors. His lordship lived in the middle of the sixteenth century, and was therefore a contemporary of Dr. Caius, who may possibly have been indebted to the Earl for information when, in his work on _English Dogges_, he wrote of the Setter under the name of the Index. Though Setters are divided into three distinct varieties,--The English, the Irish and the Gordon, or Black and Tan--there can be no doubt that all have a common origin, though it is scarcely probable, in view of their dissimilarity, that the same individual ancestors can be supposed to be their original progenitors. Nearly all authorities agree that the Spaniel family is accountable on one side, and this contention is borne out to a considerable extent by old illustrations and paintings of Setters at work, in which they are invariably depicted as being very much like the old liver and white Spaniel, though of different colours. Doubt exists as to the other side of their heredity, but it does not necessarily follow that all those who first bred them used the same means. Of the theories put forward, that which carries the most presumptive evidence must go to the credit of the old Spanish Pointer. Where else could they inherit that wonderful scenting power, that style in which they draw up to their game, their statuesque attitude when on point, and, above all, the staunchness and patience by which they hold their game spellbound until the shooter has time to walk leisurely up, even from a considerable distance? But, apart from the question of their origin, the different varieties have many other attributes in common; all perform the same kind of work, and in the same manner; consequently the system of breaking or training them varies only according to the temper or ideas of those who undertake their schooling. Few dogs are more admired than English Setters, and those who are looked upon as professional exhibitors have not been slow to recognise the fact that when a really good young dog makes its appearance it is a formidable rival amongst all other breeds when the special prizes come to be allotted. Seen either at its legitimate work as a gun dog or as a domestic companion, the English Setter is one of the most graceful and beautiful of the canine race, and its elegant form and feathery coat command instant admiration. Twenty years ago it was known by several distinct names, among the more important being the Blue Beltons and Laveracks, and this regardless of any consideration as to whether or not the dogs were in any way connected by relationship to the stock which had earned fame for either of these time-honoured names. It was the great increase in the number of shows and some confusion on the part of exhibitors that made it necessary for the Kennel Club to classify under one heading these and others which had attained some amount of notability and the old terms have gradually been dropped. Doubtless the English Setter Club has done much since its institution in 1890 to encourage this breed of dog, and has proved the usefulness of the club by providing two very valuable trophies, the Exhibitors' Challenge Cup and the Field Trial Challenge Cup, for competition amongst its members, besides having liberally supported all the leading shows; hence it has rightly come to be regarded as the only authority from which an acceptable and official dictum for the guidance of others can emanate. The following is the standard of points issued by the English Setter Club:-- * * * * * HEAD--The head should be long and lean, with well-defined stop. The skull oval from ear to ear, showing plenty of brain room, and with a well-defined occipital protuberance. The muzzle moderately deep and fairly square; from the stop to the point of the nose should be long, the nostrils wide, and the jaws of nearly equal length; flews not too pendulous. The colour of the nose should be black, or dark, or light liver, according to the colour of the coat. The eyes should be bright, mild, and intelligent, and of a dark hazel colour, the darker the better. The ears of moderate length, set on low and hanging in neat folds close to the cheek; the tip should be velvety, the upper part clothed with fine silky hair. NECK--The neck should be rather long, muscular, and lean, slightly arched at the crest, and clean cut where it joins the head; towards the shoulder it should be larger, and very muscular, not throaty with any pendulosity below the throat, but elegant and bloodlike in appearance. BODY--The body should be of moderate length, with shoulders well set back or oblique; back short and level; loins wide, slightly arched, strong and muscular. Chest deep in the brisket, with good round widely-sprung ribs, deep in the back ribs--that is, well ribbed up. LEGS AND FEET--The stifles should be well bent and ragged, thighs long from hip to hock. The forearm big and very muscular, the elbow well let down. Pasterns short, muscular, and straight. The feet very close and compact, and well protected by hair between the toes. TAIL--The tail should be set on almost in a line with the back; medium length, not curly or ropy, to be slightly curved or scimitar-shaped, but with no tendency to turn upwards; the flag or feather hanging in long, pendant flakes; the feather should not commence at the root, but slightly below, and increase in length to the middle, then gradually taper off towards the end; and the hair long, bright, soft and silky, wavy but not curly. COAT AND FEATHERING--The coat from the back of the head in a line with the ears ought to be slightly wavy, long, and silky, which should be the case with the coat generally; the breeches and fore-legs, nearly down to the feet, should be well feathered. COLOUR AND MARKINGS--The colour may be either black and white, lemon and white, liver and white, or tricolour--that is, black, white, and tan; those without heavy patches of colour on the body, but flecked all over preferred. * * * * * II. THE IRISH SETTER.--Though this variety has not attained such popularity as its English cousin, it is not because it is regarded as being less pleasing to the eye, for in general appearance of style and outline there is very little difference; in fact, none, if the chiselling of the head and colour of the coat be excepted. The beautiful rich golden, chestnut colour which predominates in all well-bred specimens is in itself sufficient to account for the great favour in which they are regarded generally, while their disposition is sufficiently engaging to attract the attention of those who desire to have a moderate-sized dog as a companion, rather than either a very large or very small one. Probably this accounts for so many lady exhibitors in England preferring them to the other varieties of Setters. We have to go over to its native country, however, to find the breed most highly esteemed as a sporting dog for actual work, and there it is naturally first favourite; in fact, very few of either of the other varieties are to be met with from one end of the Green Isle to the other. It has been suggested that all Irish Setters are too headstrong to make really high-class field trial dogs. Some of them, on the contrary, are quite as great in speed and not only as clever at their business, but quite as keen-nosed as other Setters. Some which have competed within the past few years at the Irish Red Setter Club's trials have had as rivals some of the best Pointers from England and Scotland, and have successfully held their own. The Secretary of the Irish Setter Club is Mr. S. Brown, 27, Eustace Street, Dublin, and the standard of points as laid down by that authority is as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--The head should be long and lean. The skull oval (from ear to ear), having plenty of brain room, and with well-defined occipital protuberance. Brows raised, showing stop. The muzzle moderately deep and fairly square at the end. From the stop to the point of the nose should be fairly long, the nostrils wide, and the jaws of nearly equal length; flews not to be pendulous. The colour of the nose dark mahogany or dark walnut, and that of the eyes (which ought not to be too large) rich hazel or brown. The ears to be of moderate size, fine in texture, set on low, well back, and hanging in a neat fold close to the head. NECK--The neck should be moderately long, very muscular, but not too thick; slightly arched, free from all tendency to throatiness. BODY--The body should be long. Shoulders fine at the points, deep and sloping well back. The chest as deep as possible, rather narrow in front. The ribs well sprung, leaving plenty of lung room. Loins muscular and slightly arched. The hind-quarters wide and powerful. LEGS AND FEET--The hind-legs from hip to hock should be long and muscular; from hock to heel short and strong. The stifle and hock joints well bent, and not inclined either in or out. The fore-legs should be straight and sinewy, having plenty of bone, with elbows free, well let down, and, like the hocks, not inclined either in or out. The feet small, very firm; toes strong, close together, and arched. TAIL--The tail should be of moderate length, set on rather low, strong at root, and tapering to a fine point, to be carried as nearly as possible on a level or below the back. COAT--On the head, front of legs, and tips of ears the coat should be short and fine; but on all other parts of the body and legs it ought to be of moderate length, flat, and as free as possible from curl or wave. FEATHERING--The feather on the upper portion of the ears should be long and silky; on the back of fore and hind-legs long and fine; a fair amount of hair on the belly, forming a nice fringe, which may extend on chest and throat. Feet to be well feathered between the toes. Tail to have a nice fringe of moderately long hair, decreasing in length as it approaches the point. All feathering to be as straight and as flat as possible. COLOUR AND MARKINGS--The colour should be a rich golden chestnut, with no trace whatever of black; white on chest, throat, or toes, or a small star on the forehead, or a narrow streak or blaze on the nose or face not to disqualify. * * * * * III. THE BLACK AND TAN SETTER.--Originally this variety was known as the Gordon Setter, but this title was only partly correct, as the particular dogs first favoured by the Duke of Gordon, from whom they took the name, were black, tan, and white, heavily built, and somewhat clumsy in appearance. But the introduction of the Irish blood had the effect of making a racier-looking dog more fashionable, the presence of white on the chest was looked upon with disfavour, and the Kennel Club settled the difficulty of name by abolishing the term "Gordon" altogether. Very few of this variety have appeared at field trials for several years past, but that cannot be considered a valid reason for stigmatising them as "old-men's dogs," as some narrow-minded faddists delight in calling them. On the few occasions when the opportunity has been presented they have acquitted themselves at least as well as, and on some occasions better than, their rivals of other varieties, proving to be as fast, as staunch, and as obedient as any of them. A notable example of this occurred during the season of 1902 and 1903, when Mr. Isaac Sharpe's Stylish Ranger was so remarkably successful at the trials. It is very difficult to account for the lack of interest which is taken in the variety outside Scotland, but the fact remains that very few have appeared at field trials within recent years, and that only about four owners are troubling the officials of English shows regularly at the present time. In France, Belgium, Norway, and especially in Russia this handsome sporting dog is a far greater favourite than it is in Great Britain, not only for work with the gun, but as a companion, and it is a fact that at many a Continental dog show more specimens of the breed are exhibited than could be gathered together in the whole of the United Kingdom. The want of an active organisation which would foster and encourage the interests of the Black and Tan Setter is much to be deplored, and is, without doubt, the chief cause of its being so much neglected, for in these strenuous days, when almost every breed or variety of breed is backed up by its own votaries, it cannot be expected that such as are not constantly kept in prominence will receive anything more than scant consideration. The Black and Tan Setter is heavier than the English or Irish varieties, but shows more of the hound and less of the Spaniel. The head is stronger than that of the English Setter, with a deeper and broader muzzle and heavier lips. The ears are also somewhat longer, and the eyes frequently show the haw. The black should be as jet, and entirely free from white. The tan on the cheeks and over the eyes, on the feet and pasterns, should be bright and clearly defined, and the feathering on the fore-legs and thighs should also be a rich, dark mahogany tan. Amongst the oldest and most successful owners of Setters who have consistently competed at field trials may be mentioned Colonel Cotes, whose Prince Frederick was probably the most wonderful backer ever known. Messrs. Purcell-Llewellyn, W. Arkwright, Elias and James Bishop, F. C. Lowe, J. Shorthose, G. Potter and S. Smale, who may be considered the oldest Setter judges, and who have owned dogs whose prowess in the field has brought them high reputation. Mr. B. J. Warwick has within recent years owned probably more winners at field trials than any other owner, one of his being Compton Bounce. Captain Heywood Lonsdale has on several occasions proved the Ightfield strain to be staunch and true, as witness the doughty deeds of Duke of that ilk, and the splendid success he achieved at recent grouse trials in Scotland with his Ightfield Rob Roy, Mack, and Dot, the first-named winning the all-aged stake, and the others being first and third in the puppy stake. Mr. Herbert Mitchell has been another good patron of the trials, and has won many important stakes. Mr. A. T. Williams has also owned a few noted trial winners, and from Scotland comes Mr. Isaac Sharpe, whose Gordon Setter, Stylish Ranger, has effectually put a stop to the silly argument that all this breed are old men's dogs. Many of the older field trial men hold tenaciously to the opinion that the modern exhibition Setter is useless for high-class work, and contend that if field-trial winners are to be produced they must be bred from noted working strains. Doubtless this prejudice in favour of working dogs has been engendered by the circumstance that many owners of celebrated bench winners care nothing about their dogs being trained, in some cases generation after generation having been bred simply for show purposes. Under such conditions it is not to be wondered at that the capacity for fine scenting properties and the natural aptitude for quickly picking up a knowledge of their proper duties in the field is impaired. But there is no reason why a good show dog should not also be a good worker, and the recent edict of the Kennel Club which rules that no gun dog shall be entitled to championship honours until it has gained a certificate of merit in field trials will doubtless tend towards a general improvement in the working qualities of the breeds whose providence is in the finding and retrieving of game. CHAPTER XXIV THE RETRIEVERS It is obviously useless to shoot game unless you can find it after it has been wounded or killed, and from the earliest times it has been the habit of sportsmen to train their dogs to do the work which they could not always successfully do for themselves. The Pointers, Setters, and Spaniels of our forefathers were carefully broken not only to find and stand their game, but also to fetch the fallen birds. This use of the setting and pointing dog is still common on the Continent and in the United States, and there is no inaccuracy in a French artist depicting a Pointer with a partridge in its mouth, or showing a Setter retrieving waterfowl. The Springer and the old curly-coated water-dog were regarded as particularly adroit in the double work of finding and retrieving. Pointers and Setters who had been thus broken were found to deteriorate in steadiness in the field, and it gradually came to be realised that even the Spaniel's capacity for retrieving was limited. A larger and quicker dog was wanted to divide the labour, and to be used solely as a retriever in conjunction with the other gun dogs. The Poodle was tried for retrieving with some success, and he showed considerable aptitude in finding and fetching wounded wild duck; but he, too, was inclined to maul his birds and deliver them dead. Even the old English Sheepdog was occasionally engaged in the work, and various crosses with Spaniel or Setter and Collie were attempted in the endeavour to produce a grade breed having the desired qualities of a good nose, a soft mouth, and an understanding brain, together with a coat that would protect its wearer from the ill effects of frequent immersion in water. It was when these efforts were most active--namely about the year 1850--that new material was discovered in a black-coated dog recently introduced into England from Labrador. He was a natural water-dog, with a constitution impervious to chills, and entirely free from the liability to ear canker, which had always been a drawback to the use of the Spaniel as a retriever of waterfowl. Moreover, he was himself reputed to be a born retriever of game, and remarkably sagacious. His importers called him a Spaniel--a breed name which at one time was also applied to his relative the Newfoundland. Probably there were not many specimens of the race in England, and, although there is no record explicitly saying so, it is conjectured that these were crossed with the English Setter, producing what is now familiarly known as the black, flat-coated Retriever. One very remarkable attribute of the Retriever is that notwithstanding the known fact that the parent stock was mongrel, and that in the early dogs the Setter type largely predominated, the ultimate result has favoured the Labrador cross distinctly and prominently, proving how potent, even when grafted upon a stock admittedly various, is the blood of a pure race, and how powerful its influence for fixing type and character over the other less vital elements with which it is blended. From the first, sportsmen recognised the extreme value of the new retrieving dog. Strengthened and improved by the Labrador blood, he had lost little if any of the Setter beauty of form. He was a dignified, substantial, intelligent, good-tempered, affectionate companion, faithful, talented, highly cultivated, and esteemed, in the season and out of it, for his mind as well as his beauty. It is only comparatively recently that we have realised how excellent an all-around sporting dog the Retriever has become. In many cases, indeed, where grouse and partridge are driven or walked-up a well-broken, soft-mouthed Retriever is unquestionably superior to Pointer, Setter, or Spaniel, and for general work in the field he is the best companion that a shooting man can possess. Doubtless in earlier days, when the art of training was less thoroughly understood, the breaking of a dog was a matter of infinite trouble to breeders. Most of the gun dogs could be taught by patience and practice to retrieve fur or feather, but game carefully and skilfully shot is easily rendered valueless by being mumbled and mauled by powerful jaws not schooled to gentleness. And this question of a tender mouth was certainly one of the problems that perturbed the minds of the originators of the breed. The difficulty was overcome by process of selection, and by the exclusion from breeding operations of all hard-mouthed specimens, with the happy effect that in the present time it is exceptional to find a working Retriever who does not know how to bring his bird to hand without injuring it. A better knowledge of what is expected of him distinguishes our modern Retriever. He knows his duty, and is intensely eager to perform it, but he no longer rushes off unbidden at the firing of the gun. He has learned to remain at heel until he is ordered by word or gesture from his master, upon whom he relies as his friend and director. It would be idle to expect that the offspring of unbroken sire and dam can be as easily educated as a Retriever whose parents before him have been properly trained. Inherited qualities count for a great deal in the adaptability of all sporting dogs, and the reason why one meets with so many Retrievers that are incapable or disobedient or gun-shy is simply that their preliminary education has been neglected--the education which should begin when the dog is very young. In his earliest youth he should be trained to prompt obedience to a given word or a wave of the hand. It is well to teach him very early to enter water, or he may be found wanting when you require him to fetch a bird from river or lake. Lessons in retrieving ought to be a part of his daily routine. Equally necessary is it to break him in to the knowledge that sheep and lambs are not game to be chased, and that rabbits and hares are to be discriminated from feathered game. Gun-shyness is often supposed to be hereditary; but it is not so. Any puppy can be cured of gun-shyness in half a dozen short lessons. Sir Henry Smith's advice is to get your puppy accustomed to the sound and sight of a gun being fired, first at a distance and gradually nearer and nearer, until he knows that no harm will come to him. Companionship and sympathy between dog and master is the beginning and end of the whole business, and there is a moral obligation between them which ought never to be strained. Both as a worker and as a show dog the flat-coated Retriever has reached something very near to the ideal standard of perfection which has been consistently bred up to. Careful selection and systematic breeding, backed up by enthusiasm, have resulted in the production of a dog combining useful working qualities with the highest degree of beauty. A very prominent admirer and breeder was the late Mr. S. E. Shirley, the President of the Kennel Club, who owned many Retrievers superlative both as workers and as show dogs, and who probably did more for the breed than any other man of his generation. [Illustration: MR. H. REGINALD COOKE'S RETRIEVER CH. WORSLEY BESS _From the Painting by Maud Earl_] Mr. Shirley's work was carried on by Mr. Harding Cox, who devoted much time and energy to the production of good Retrievers, many of which were of Mr. Shirley's strain. Mr. Cox's dogs deservedly achieved considerable fame for their levelness of type, and the improvement in heads so noticeable at the present time is to be ascribed to his breeding for this point. Mr. L. Allen Shuter, the owner of Ch. Darenth and other excellent Retrievers of his own breeding, claims also a large share of credit for the part he has played in the general improvement of the breed. Mr. C. A. Phillips, too, owned admirable specimens, and the name of the late Lieut.-Colonel Cornwall Legh must be included. Many of Colonel Legh's bitches were of Shirley blood, but it is believed that a breed of Retrievers had existed at High Legh for several generations, with which a judicious cross was made, the result being not only the formation of a remarkable kennel, but also a decided influence for good upon the breed in general. But since the Shirley days, when competition was more limited than it is at present, no kennel of Retrievers has ever attained anything like the distinction of that owned by Mr. H. Reginald Cooke, at Riverside, Nantwich. By acquiring the best specimens of the breed from all available sources, Mr. Cooke has gathered together a stock which has never been equalled. His ideas of type and conformation are the outcome of close and attentive study and consistent practice, and one needs to go to Riverside if one desires to see the highest examples of what a modern flat-coated Retriever can be. Since Dr. Bond Moore imparted to the Retriever a fixity of character, the coats have become longer and less wavy, and in conformation of skull, colour of eye, straightness of legs, and quality of bone, there has been a perceptible improvement. As there is no club devoted to the breed, and consequently no official standard of points, the following description of the perfect Retriever is offered:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--That of a well-proportioned bright and active sporting dog, showing power without lumber and raciness without weediness. HEAD--Long, fine, without being weak, the muzzle square, the underjaw strong with an absence of lippiness or throatiness. EYES--Dark as possible, with a very intelligent, mild expression. NECK--Long and clean. EARS--Small, well set on, and carried close to the head. SHOULDERS--Oblique, running well into the back, with plenty of depth of chest. BODY--Short and square, and well ribbed up. STERN--Short and straight, and carried gaily, but not curled over the back. FORE-LEGS--Straight, pasterns strong, feet small and round. QUARTERS--Strong; stifles well bent. COAT--Dense black or liver, of fine quality and texture. Flat, not wavy. WEIGHT--From 65 lb. to 80 lb. for dogs; bitches rather less. * * * * * As a rule the Retriever should be chosen for the intelligent look of his face, and particular attention should be paid to the shape of his head and to his eyes. His frame is important, of course, but in the Retriever the mental qualities are of more significance than bodily points. There has been a tendency in recent years among Retriever breeders to fall into the common error of exaggerating a particular point, and of breeding dogs with a head far too fine and narrow--it is what has been aptly called the alligator head--lacking in brain capacity and power of jaw. A perfect head should be long and clean, but neither weak nor snipy. The eye should be placed just halfway between the occiput and the tip of the nose. It is pleasing to add that to this beautiful breed the phrase "handsome is as handsome does" applies in full measure. Not only is the average Retriever of a companionable disposition, with delightful intelligence that is always responsive, but he is a good and faithful guard and a courageous protector of person and property. It has already been said that the majority of the best-looking Retrievers are also good working dogs, and it may here be added that many of the most successful working dogs are sired by prize-winners in the show ring. THE CURLY-COATED RETRIEVER The curly-coated Retriever is commonly believed to be of earlier origin than his flat-coated relative, and he is of less pure descent. He probably owes ancestral tribute to the Poodle. Such a cross may conceivably have been resorted to by the early Retriever breeders, and there was little to lose from a merely sporting point of view from this alien introduction, for the Poodle is well known to be by nature, if not by systematic training, an excellent water dog, capable of being taught anything that the canine mind can comprehend. During the early years of the nineteenth century the Poodle was fairly plentiful in England, and we had no other curly-coated dog of similar size and type apart from the Irish Water Spaniel, who may himself lay claim to Poodle relationship; while as to the Retriever, either curly or flat coated, he can in no sense be assigned to any country outside of Great Britain. The presumption is strong that the "gentleman from France" was largely instrumental in the manufacture of the variety, but whatever the origin of the curly-coated Retriever he is a beautiful dog, and one is gratified to note that the old prejudice against him, and the old indictment as to his hard mouth, are fast giving place to praise of his intelligence and admiration of his working abilities. Speaking generally, it seems to be accepted that he is slightly inferior in nose to his flat-coated cousin, and not quite so easy to break, but there are many keepers and handlers who have discovered in individual specimens extraordinary merit in the field combined with great endurance. It is not certain that any great improvement has been effected in the variety during recent years, but there are particular dogs to-day who are decidedly better than any that existed a dozen years or more ago, when such celebrities as True, Old Sam, King Koffee, Ben Wonder, Doden Ben, Lad and Una, were prominent, and there is no doubt that the curly coats attained show form in advance of the flat-coated variety. The coat of the curly Retriever plays a very important part in his value and personality. There are many kinds of coat, but the only true and proper one is the close-fitting "nigger curl," of which each knot is solid and inseparable. A coat of this quality is not capable of improvement by any method of grooming, for the simple reason that its natural condition is in itself perfect. The little locks should be so close together as to be impervious to water, and all parts of the body should be evenly covered with them, including the tail and legs. A bad class of coat, and one which readily yields to the faker's art, is the thin open curl which by careful manipulation can be greatly improved. Another bad quality of coat is one in which, upon the withers and over the loins in particular, the curls do not tighten up naturally, but are large, loose, and soft to the feel. Regarding the dog as a whole, the following may be taken as an all-round description:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--That of a smart, active, clean-cut and alert dog, full of go and fire--a sportsman from stem to stern. HEAD--Long and not weedy in the muzzle, nor thick and coarse in the skull, but tapering down and finishing with a stout broad muzzle. SKULL--Should be flat and moderately broad between the ears, which are rather small, and well covered with hair. EARS--Should lie close to the side of the head, but not dead in their carriage. FACE--The face should be smooth, and any indication of a forelock should be penalised. EYE--The eye should in all cases be dark and not too deeply set. NECK--Well placed in the shoulders and nicely arched, of moderate length and yet powerful and free from throatiness. SHOULDERS--Well laid back and as free from massiveness as possible, though there is a decided tendency in this variety to such a fault. LEGS--Straight and well covered with coat. The bone should show quality and yet be fairly abundant. FEET--Compact and hound-like. BODY--Should show great power, with deep, well-rounded ribs. As little cut-up in the flank as possible. TAIL--Strong at the base, set on in a line with the back and tapering to a point, the size of the curls upon it diminishing gradually to the end. HIND-QUARTERS--Should show great development of muscle, with bent hocks, the lower leg being strong and the hind feet compact. Any suspicion of cow hocks should be heavily penalised. COLOUR--Mostly a dull black. Some liver-coloured dogs are seen with very good coats and bodies, but their heads are generally thick and coarse, and the colour of their eyes does not always match, as it should do, with the colour of the coat. A few dogs of this colour have achieved distinction on the show bench. * * * * * THE LABRADOR Within recent years the original smooth-coated Labrador dog has taken its place as a recognised variety of the Retriever and become prominent both at exhibitions and as a worker. It is not probable that any have been imported into England for the past quarter of a century, but without the assistance of shows or imported blood they have survived marvellously. Thanks especially to the kennels of such breeders as the Dukes of Buccleuch and Hamilton, the Earl of Verulam, Lords Wimborne, Horne, and Malmesbury, the Hon. A. Holland Hibbert, Sir Savile Crossley, Mr. F. P. Barnett, Mr. C. Liddell, Mr. O. L. Mansel, and others equally enthusiastic. To the Duke of Buccleuch's kennel we are probably more indebted in the last twenty years than to any other. Its foundation was laid in two bitches by a dog of the Duke of Hamilton's from a bitch of Lord Malmesbury's. At Drumlanrig, as well as on the Duke's other estates, they have been most particular in preserving the purity and working qualities of their strain. And the same may be said of the Hon. A. Holland Hibbert, whose principal dogs are not only typical in appearance, but broken to perfection. The Duchess of Hamilton's kennels have been responsible for some of the best field trial winners of the present day. As far as looks are concerned, one cannot say that the Labrador compares favourably with either the flat or the curly coated Retriever, but that is immaterial so long as he continues to work as he is doing at present. CHAPTER XXV THE SPORTING SPANIEL I. THE SPANIEL FAMILY.--The Spaniel family is without any doubt one of the most important of the many groups which are included in the canine race, not only on account of its undoubted antiquity, and, compared with other families, its well authenticated lineage, but also because of its many branches and subdivisions, ranging in size from the majestic and massive Clumbers to the diminutive toys which we are accustomed to associate with fair ladies' laps and gaily-decked pens at our big dog shows. Moreover, the different varieties of Setters undoubtedly derive their origin from the same parent stock, since we find them described by the earlier sporting writers as "setting" or "crouching" Spaniels, in contradistinction to the "finding" or "springing" Spaniel, who flushed the game he found without setting or pointing it. As time went on, the setting variety was, no doubt, bred larger and longer in the leg, with a view to increased pace; but the Spaniel-like head and coat still remain to prove the near connection between the two breeds. All the different varieties of Spaniels, both sporting and toy, have, with the exception of the Clumber and the Irish Water Spaniel (who is not, despite his name, a true Spaniel at all), a common origin, though at a very early date we find them divided into two groups--viz., Land and Water Spaniels, and these two were kept distinct, and bred to develop those points which were most essential for their different spheres of work. The earliest mention of Spaniels to be found in English literature is contained in the celebrated "Master of Game," the work of Edward Plantagenet, second Duke of York, and Master of Game to his uncle, Henry IV., to whom the work is dedicated. It was written between the years 1406 and 1413, and although none of the MSS., of which some sixteen are in existence, is dated, this date can be fairly accurately fixed, as the author was appointed Master of Game in the former and killed at Agincourt in the latter year. His chapter on Spaniels, however, is mainly a translation from the equally celebrated "Livre de Chasse," of Gaston Comte de Foix, generally known as Gaston Phoebus, which was written in 1387, so that we may safely assume that Spaniels were well known, and habitually used as aids to the chase both in France and England, as early as the middle of the fourteenth century. In the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century the Spaniel was described by many writers on sporting subjects; but there is a great similarity in most of these accounts, each author apparently having been content to repeat in almost identical language what had been said upon the subject by his predecessors, without importing any originality or opinions of his own. Many of these works, notwithstanding this defect, are very interesting to the student of Spaniel lore, and the perusal of Blaine's _Rural Sports_, Taplin's _Sporting Dictionary and Rural Repository_, Scott's _Sportsman's Repository_, and Needham's _Complete Sportsman_, can be recommended to all who wish to study the history of the development of the various modern breeds. The works of the French writers, De Cominck, De Cherville, Blaze, and Megnin, are well worth reading, while of late years the subject has been treated very fully by such British writers as the late J. H. Walsh ("Stonehenge"), Mr. Vero Shaw, Mr. Rawdon Lee, Colonel Claude Cane, and Mr. C. A. Phillips. Nearly all of the early writers, both French and English, are agreed that the breed came originally from Spain, and we may assume that such early authorities as Gaston Phoebus, Edward Plantagenet, and Dr. Caius had good reasons for telling us that these dogs were called Spaniels because they came from Spain. The following distinct breeds or varieties are recognised by the Kennel Club: (1) Irish Water Spaniels; (2) Water Spaniels other than Irish; (3) Clumber Spaniels; (4) Sussex Spaniels; (5) Field Spaniels; (6) English Springers; (7) Welsh Springers; (8) Cocker Spaniels. Each of these varieties differs considerably from the others, and each has its own special advocates and admirers, as well as its own particular sphere of work for which it is best fitted, though almost any Spaniel can be made into a general utility dog, which is, perhaps, one of the main reasons for the popularity of the breed. II. THE IRISH WATER SPANIEL.--There is only one breed of dog known in these days by the name of Irish Water Spaniel, but if we are to trust the writers of no longer ago than half a century there were at one time two, if not three, breeds of Water Spaniels peculiar to the Emerald Isle. These were the Tweed Water Spaniel, the Northern Water Spaniel, and the Southern Water Spaniel, the last of these being the progenitors of our modern strains. The history of the Irish Water Spaniel is in many ways a very extraordinary one. According to the claim of Mr. Justin McCarthy, it originated entirely in his kennels, and this claim has never been seriously disputed by the subsequent owners and breeders of these dogs. It seems improbable that Mr. Justin McCarthy can actually have originated or manufactured a breed possessing so many extremely marked differences and divergences of type as the Irish Water Spaniel; but what he probably did was to rescue an old and moribund breed from impending extinction, and so improve it by judicious breeding, and cross-breeding as to give it a new lease of life, and permanently fix its salient points and characteristics. However that may be, little seems to have been known of the breed before he took it in hand, and it is very certain that nearly every Irish Water Spaniel seen for the last half century owes its descent to his old dog Boatswain, who was born in 1834 and lived for eighteen years. He must have been a grand old dog, since Mr. McCarthy gave him to Mr. Joliffe Tuffnell in 1849, when he was fifteen years old; and his new owner subsequently bred by him Jack, a dog whose name appears in many pedigrees. It was not until 1862 that the breed seems to have attracted much notice in England, but in that year the Birmingham Committee gave two classes for them, in which, however, several of the prizes were withheld for want of merit; the next few years saw these dogs making great strides in popularity and, classes being provided at most of the important shows, many good specimens were exhibited. During the last few years, however, the breed seems to have been progressing the wrong way, and classes at shows have not been nearly so strong, either in numbers or in quality, as they used to be. Yet there have been, and are still, quite a large number of good dogs and bitches to be seen, and it only needs enthusiasm and co-operation among breeders to bring back the palmiest days of the Irish Water Spaniel. There is no member of the whole canine family which has a more distinctive personal appearance than the Irish Water Spaniel. With him it is a case of once seen never forgotten, and no one who has ever seen one could possibly mistake him for anything else than what he is. His best friends probably would not claim beauty, in the aesthetic sense, for him; but he is attractive in a quaint way peculiarly his own, and intelligent-looking. In this particular his looks do not bewray him; he is, in fact, one of the most intelligent of all the dogs used in aid of the gun, and in his own sphere one of the most useful. That sphere, there is no doubt, is that indicated by his name, and it is in a country of bogs and marshes, like the south and west of Ireland, of which he was originally a native, where snipe and wildfowl provide the staple sport of the gunner, that he is in his element and seen at his best, though, no doubt, he can do excellent work as an ordinary retriever, and is often used as such. But Nature (or Mr. McCarthy's art) has specially formed and endowed him for the amphibious sport indicated above, and has provided him with an excellent nose, an almost waterproof coat, the sporting instincts of a true son of Erin, and, above all, a disposition full of good sense; he is high-couraged, and at the same time adaptable to the highest degree of perfection in training. His detractors often accuse him of being hard-mouthed, but this charge is not well founded. Many a dog which is used to hunt or find game as well as to retrieve it, will often kill a wounded bird or rabbit rather than allow it to escape, while there are many Irish Water Spaniels who, under normal circumstances, are just as tender-mouthed as the most fashionable of black Retrievers. Besides his virtues in the field, the Irish Water Spaniel has the reputation--a very well-founded one--of being the best of pals. Most people are well acquainted with the personal appearance of this quaint-looking dog. The points regarded as essential are as follows:-- * * * * * COLOUR--The colour should always be a rich dark liver or puce without any white at all. Any white except the slightest of "shirt fronts" should disqualify. The _nose_ of course should conform to the coat in colour, and be dark brown. HEAD--The head should have a capacious skull, fairly but not excessively domed, with plenty of brain room. It should be surmounted with a regular topknot of curly hair, a _most important_ and distinctive point. This topknot should _never_ be square cut or like a poodle's wig, but should grow down to a well defined point between the eyes. EYES--The eyes should be small, dark, and set obliquely, like a Chinaman's. EARS--The ears should be long, strong in leather, low set, heavily ringleted, and from 18 to 24 inches long, according to size. MUZZLE AND JAW--The muzzle and jaw should be long and strong. There should be a decided "stop," but not so pronounced as to make the brows or forehead prominent. NECK--The neck should be fairly long and very muscular. SHOULDERS--The shoulders should be sloping. Most Irish Water Spaniels have bad, straight shoulders, a defect which should be bred out. CHEST--The chest is deep, and usually rather narrow, but should not be so narrow as to constrict the heart and lungs. BACK AND LOINS--The back and loins strong and arched. FORE-LEGS--The fore-legs straight and well boned. Heavily feathered or ringleted all over. HIND-LEGS--The hind-legs with hocks set very low, stifles rather straight, feathered all over, except inside from the hocks down, which part should be covered with short hair (a most distinctive point). FEET--The feet large and rather spreading as is proper for a water dog, well clothed with hair. STERN--The stern covered with the shortest of hair, except for the first couple of inches next the buttocks, whiplike or stinglike (a most important point), and carried low, not like a hound's. COAT--The coat composed entirely of short crisp curls, not woolly like a Poodle's, and very dense. If left to itself, this coat mats or cords, but this is not permissible in show dogs. The hair on the muzzle and forehead below the topknot is quite short and smooth, as well as that on the stern. GENERAL APPEARANCE--Is not remarkable for symmetry, but is quaint and intelligent looking. HEIGHT--The height should be between 21 and 23 inches. * * * * * III. THE ENGLISH WATER SPANIEL.--In the Kennel Club's Register of Breeds no place is allotted to this variety, all Water Spaniels other than Irish being classed together. Despite this absence of official recognition there is abundant evidence that a breed of Spaniels legitimately entitled to the designation of English Water Spaniels has been in existence for many years, in all probability a descendant of the old "Water-Dogge," an animal closely resembling the French "Barbet," the ancestor of the modern Poodle. They were even trimmed at times much in the same way as a Poodle is nowadays, as Markham gives precise directions for "the cutting or shearing him from the nauill downeward or backeward." The opinion expressed by the writer of _The Sportsman's Cabinet_, 1803, is that the breed originated from a cross between the large water dog and the Springing Spaniel, and this is probably correct, though Youatt, a notable authority, thinks that the cross was with an English Setter. Possibly some strains may have been established in this way, and not differ very much in make and shape from those obtained from the cross with the Spaniel, as it is well known that Setters and Spaniels have a common origin. In general appearance the dog resembles somewhat closely the Springer, except that he may be somewhat higher on the leg, and that his coat should consist of crisp, tight curls, almost like Astrakhan fur, everywhere except on his face, where it should be short. There should be no topknot like that of the Irish Water Spaniel. IV. THE CLUMBER SPANIEL is in high favour in the Spaniel world, both with shooting men and exhibitors, and the breed well deserves from both points of view the position which it occupies in the public esteem. No other variety is better equipped mentally and physically for the work it is called upon to do in aid of the gun; and few, certainly none of the Spaniels, surpass or even equal it in appearance. As a sporting dog, the Clumber is possessed of the very best of noses, a natural inclination both to hunt his game and retrieve it when killed, great keenness and perseverance wonderful endurance and activity considering his massive build, and as a rule is very easy to train, being highly intelligent and more docile and "biddable." The man who owns a good dog of this breed, whether he uses it as a retriever for driven birds, works it in a team, or uses it as his sole companion when he goes gunning, possesses a treasure. The great success of these Spaniels in the Field Trials promoted by both the societies which foster those most useful institutions is enough to prove this, and more convincing still is the tenacity with which the fortunate possessors of old strains, mostly residents in the immediate neighbourhood of the original home of the breed, have held on to them and continued to breed and use them year after year for many generations. As a show dog, his massive frame, powerful limbs, pure white coat, with its pale lemon markings and frecklings, and, above all, his solemn and majestic aspect, mark him out as a true aristocrat, with all the beauty of refinement which comes from a long line of cultured ancestors. All research so far has failed to carry their history back any further than the last quarter of the eighteenth century. About that time the Duc de Noailles presented some Spaniels, probably his whole kennel, which he brought from France, to the second Duke of Newcastle, from whose place, Clumber Park, the breed has taken its name. Beyond this it seems impossible to go: indeed, the Clumber seems to be generally looked upon as a purely English breed. From Clumber Park specimens found their way to most of the other great houses in the neighbourhood, notably to Althorp Park, Welbeck Abbey, Birdsall House, Thoresby Hall, and Osberton Hall. It is from the kennels at the last-named place, owned by Mr. Foljambe, that most of the progenitors of the Clumbers which have earned notoriety derived their origin. Nearly all the most famous show winners of early days were descended from Mr. Foljambe's dogs, and his Beau may perhaps be considered one of the most important "pillars of the stud," as he was the sire of Nabob, a great prize-winner, and considered one of the best of his day, who belonged at various times during his career to such famous showmen as Messrs. Phineas Bullock, Mr. Fletcher, Mr. Rawdon Lee, and Mr. G. Oliver. There has been a great deal of lamentation lately among old breeders and exhibitors about the decadence of the breed and the loss of the true old type possessed by these dogs. But, despite all they can say to the contrary, the Clumber is now in a more flourishing state than it ever has been; and although perhaps we have not now, nor have had for the last decade, a John o' Gaunt or a Tower, there have been a large number of dogs shown during that time who possessed considerable merit and would probably have held their own even in the days of these bygone heroes. Some of the most notable have been Baillie Friar, Beechgrove Donally, Goring of Auchentorlie, Hempstead Toby, and Preston Shot, who all earned the coveted title of Champion. The Field Trials have, no doubt, had a great deal to do with the largely augmented popularity of the breed and the great increase in the number of those who own Clumbers. For the first two or three years after these were truly established no other breed seemed to have a chance with them; and even now, though both English and Welsh Springers have done remarkably well, they more than hold their own. The most distinguished performer by far was Mr. Winton Smith's Beechgrove Bee, a bitch whose work was practically faultless, and the first Field Trial Champion among Spaniels. Other good Clumbers who earned distinction in the field were Beechgrove Minette, Beechgrove Maud, the Duke of Portland's Welbeck Sambo, and Mr. Phillips' Rivington Honey, Rivington Pearl, and Rivington Reel. The points and general description of the breed as published by both the Spaniel Club and the Clumber Spaniel Club are identical. They are as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--Large, square and massive, of medium length, broad on top, with a decided occiput; heavy brows with a deep stop; heavy freckled muzzle, with well developed flew. EYES--Dark amber; slightly sunk. A light or prominent eye objectionable. EARS--Large, vine leaf shaped, and well covered with straight hair and hanging slightly forward, the feather not to extend below the leather. NECK--Very thick and powerful, and well feathered underneath. BODY (INCLUDING SIZE AND SYMMETRY)--Long and heavy, and near the ground. Weight of dogs about 55 lb. to 65 lb.; bitches about 45 lb. to 55 lb. NOSE--Square and flesh coloured. SHOULDERS AND CHEST--Wide and deep; shoulders strong and muscular. BACK AND LOIN--Back straight, broad and long; loin powerful, well let down in flank. HIND-QUARTERS--Very powerful and well developed. STERN--Set low, well feathered, and carried about level with the back. FEET AND LEGS--Feet large and round, well covered with hair; legs short, thick and strong; hocks low. COAT--Long, abundant, soft and straight. COLOUR--Plain white with lemon markings; orange permissible but not desirable; slight head markings with white body preferred. GENERAL APPEARANCE--Should be that of a long, low, heavy, very massive dog, with a thoughtful expression. * * * * * IV. THE SUSSEX SPANIEL.--This is one of the oldest of the distinct breeds of Land Spaniels now existing in the British Islands, and probably also the purest in point of descent, since it has for many years past been confined to a comparatively small number of kennels, the owners of which have always been at considerable pains to keep their strains free from any admixture of foreign blood. The modern race of Sussex Spaniels, as we know it, owes its origin in the main to the kennel kept by Mr. Fuller at Rosehill Park, Brightling, near Hastings. This gentleman, who died in 1847, is said to have kept his strain for fifty years or more, and to have shot over them almost daily during the season, but at his death they were dispersed by auction, and none of them can be traced with any accuracy except a dog and a bitch which were given at the time to Relf, the head keeper. Relf survived his master for forty years, and kept up his interest in the breed to the last. He used to say that the golden tinge peculiar to the Rosehill breed came from a bitch which had been mated with a dog belonging to Dr. Watts, of Battle, and that every now and then what he termed a "sandy" pup would turn up in her litters. Owing to an outbreak of dumb madness in the Rosehill kennels, a very large number of its occupants either died or had to be destroyed, and this no doubt accounted for the extreme scarcity of the breed when several enthusiasts began to revive it about the year 1870. Mr. Saxby and Mr. Marchant are said to have had the same strain as that at Rosehill, and certainly one of the most famous sires who is to be found in most Sussex pedigrees was Buckingham, by Marchant's Rover out of Saxby's Fan. It was from the union of Buckingham, who was claimed to be pure Rosehill--with Bebb's daughter Peggie that the great Bachelor resulted--a dog whose name is to be found in almost every latter-day pedigree, though Mr. Campbell Newington's strain, to which has descended the historic prefix "Rosehill," contains less of this blood than any other. About 1879 Mr. T. Jacobs, of Newton Abbot, took up this breed with great success, owning, amongst other good specimens, Russett, Dolly, Brunette, and Bachelor III., the latter a dog whose services at the stud cannot be estimated too highly. When this kennel was broken up in 1891, the best of the Sussex Spaniels were acquired by Mr. Woolland, and from that date this gentleman's kennel carried all before it until it in turn was broken up and dispersed in 1905. So successful was Mr. Woolland that one may almost say that he beat all other competitors off the field, though one of them, Mr. Campbell Newington, stuck most gallantly to him all through. Mr. Campbell Newington has been breeding Sussex Spaniels for over a quarter of a century with an enthusiasm and tenacity worthy of the warmest admiration, and his strain is probably the purest, and more full of the original blood than any other. His kennel has always maintained a very high standard of excellence, and many famous show specimens have come from it, notably Rosehill Ruler II. (a splendid Sussex, scarcely inferior to Bridford Giddie), Romulus, Roein, Rita, Rush, Rock, Rag, and Ranji, and many others of almost equal merit. Colonel Claude Cane's kennel of Sussex, started from a "Woolland-bred" foundation, has been going for some seventeen years, the best he has shown being Jonathan Swift, Celbridge Eldorado, and Celbridge Chrysolite. The breed has always had a good character for work, and most of the older writers who mention them speak of Sussex Spaniels in very eulogistic terms. They are rather slow workers, but thoroughly conscientious and painstaking, and are not afraid of any amount of thick covert, through which they will force their way, and seldom leave anything behind them. A well-bred Sussex Spaniel is a very handsome dog. Indeed, his beautiful colour alone is enough to make his appearance an attractive one, even if he were unsymmetrical and ungainly in his proportions. This colour, known as golden liver, is peculiar to the breed, and is the great touchstone and hall-mark of purity of blood. No other dog has exactly the same shade of coat, which the word "liver" hardly describes exactly, as it is totally different from the ordinary liver colour of an Irishman, a Pointer, or even a liver Field Spaniel. It is rather a golden chestnut with a regular metallic sheen as of burnished metal, showing more especially on the head and face and everywhere where the hair is short. This is very apparent when a dog gets his new coat. In time, of course, it is liable to get somewhat bleached by sun and weather, when it turns almost yellow. Every expert knows this colour well, and looks for it at once when judging a class of Sussex. The description of the breed given by the Spaniel Club is as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--The skull should be moderately long, and also wide, with an indentation in the middle, and a full stop, brows fairly heavy; occiput full, but not pointed, the whole giving an appearance of heaviness without dulness. EYES--Hazel colour, fairly large, soft and languishing, not showing the haw overmuch. NOSE--The muzzle should be about three inches long, square, and the lips somewhat pendulous. The nostrils well developed and liver colour. EARS--Thick, fairly large, and lobe shaped; set moderately low, but relatively not so low as in the Black Field Spaniel; carried close to the head, and furnished with soft wavy hair. NECK--Is rather short, strong, and slightly arched, but not carrying the head much above the level of the back. There should not be much throatiness in the skin, but well marked frill in the coat. CHEST AND SHOULDERS--The chest is round, especially behind the shoulders, deep and wide, giving a good girth. The shoulders should be oblique. BACK AND BACK RIBS--The back and loin are long, and should be very muscular, both in width and depth; for this development the back ribs must be deep. The whole body is characterised as low, long, level, and strong. LEGS AND FEET--The arms and thighs must be bony, as well as muscular, knees and hocks large and strong, pasterns very short and bony, feet large and round, and with short hair between the toes. The legs should be very short and strong, with great bone, and may show a slight bend in the forearm, and be moderately well feathered. The hind-legs should not be apparently shorter than the fore-legs, or be too much bent at the hocks, so as to give a Settery appearance which is so objectionable. The hind-legs should be well feathered above the hocks, but should not have much hair below that point. The hocks should be short and wide apart. TAIL--Should be docked from five to seven inches, set low, and not carried above the level of the back, thickly clothed with moderately long feather. COAT--Body coat abundant, flat or slightly waved, with no tendency to curl, moderately well feathered on legs and stern, but clean below the hocks. COLOUR--Rich golden liver; this is a certain sign of the purity of the breed, dark liver or puce denoting unmistakably a recent cross with the black or other variety of Field Spaniel. GENERAL APPEARANCE--Rather massive and muscular, but with free movements and nice tail action denoting a tractable and cheerful disposition. Weight from 35 lb. to 45 lb. * * * * * VI. THE FIELD SPANIEL.--The modern Field Spaniel may be divided into two classes. Indeed, we may almost say at this stage of canine history, two breeds, as for several years past there has not been very much intermingling of blood between the Blacks and those known by the awkward designation of "Any Other Variety," though, of course, all came originally from the same parent stock. The black members of the family have always been given the pride of place, and accounted of most importance, though latterly their parti-coloured brethren seem to have rather overtaken them. Among the really old writers there is one mention, and one only, of Spaniels of a black colour. Arcussia speaks of them, and of their being used in connection with the sport of hawking, but from his time up to the middle of the nineteenth century, though many colours are spoken of as being appropriate to the various breeds of Spaniels, no author mentions black. The first strain of blacks of which we know much belonged to Mr. F. Burdett, and was obtained from a Mr. Footman, of Lutterworth, Leicestershire, who was supposed to have owned them for some time. Mr. Burdett's Bob and Frank may be found at the head of very many of the best pedigrees. At his death most of his Spaniels became the property of Mr. Jones, of Oscott, and Mr. Phineas Bullock, of Bilston, the latter of whom was most extraordinarily successful, and owned a kennel of Field Spaniels which was practically unbeatable between the dates of the first Birmingham Show in 1861 and the publication of the first volume of the Kennel Club's Stud Book in 1874, many, if not most, of the dogs which won for other owners having been bred by him. His Nellie and Bob, who won the chief prizes year after year at all the leading shows, were probably the two best specimens of their day. Another most successful breeder was Mr. W. W. Boulton, of Beverley, whose kennel produced many celebrated dogs, including Beverlac, said to be the largest Field Spaniel ever exhibited, and Rolf, whose union with Belle produced four bitches who were destined, when mated with Nigger, a dog of Mr. Bullock's breeding, to form the foundation of the equally if not more famous kennel belonging to Mr. T. Jacobs, of Newton Abbot. It was Mr. Jacobs who, by judiciously mating his Sussex sires Bachelor, Bachelor III., and others with these black-bred bitches, established the strain which in his hands and in those of his successors, Captain S. M. Thomas and Mr. Moses Woolland, carried all before it for many years, and is still easily at the top of the tree, being the most sought for and highly prized of all on account of its "quality." If Black Spaniels are not quite so popular at present as they were some years ago, the fault lies with those breeders, exhibitors, and judges (the latter being most to blame) who encouraged the absurd craze for excessive length of body and shortness of leg which not very long ago threatened to transform the whole breed into a race of cripples, and to bring it into contempt and derision among all practical men. No breed or variety of dog has suffered more from the injudicious fads and crazes of those showmen who are not sportsmen also. At one time among a certain class of judges, length and lowness was everything, and soundness, activity, and symmetry simply did not count. As happens to all absurd crazes of this kind when carried to exaggeration, public opinion has proved too much for it, but not before a great deal of harm has been done to a breed which is certainly ornamental, and can be most useful as well. Most of the prize-winners of the present day are sound, useful dogs capable of work, and it is to be hoped that judges will combine to keep them so. The coloured Field Spaniel has now almost invariably at the principal shows special classes allotted to him, and does not have to compete against his black brother, as used to be the case in former years. The systematic attempt to breed Spaniels of various colours, with a groundwork of white, does not date back much more than a quarter of a century, and the greater part of the credit for producing this variety may be given to three gentlemen, Mr. F. E. Schofield, Dr. J. H. Spurgin, and Mr. J. W. Robinson. In the early days of breeding blacks, when the bitches were mated either with Sussex or liver and white Springers or Norfolk Spaniels, many parti-coloured puppies necessarily occurred, which most breeders destroyed; but it occurred to some of these gentlemen that a handsome and distinct variety might be obtained by careful selection, and they have certainly succeeded to a very great extent. The most famous names among the early sires are Dr. Spurgin's Alonzo and his son Fop, and Mr. Robinson's Alva Dash, from one or other of whom nearly all the modern celebrities derive their descent. Those who have been, and are, interested in promoting and breeding these variety Spaniels deserve a large amount of credit for their perseverance, which has been attended with the greatest success so far as producing colour goes. No doubt there is a very great fascination in breeding for colour, and in doing so there is no royal road to success, which can only be attained by the exercise of the greatest skill and the nicest discrimination in the selection of breeding stock. At the same time colour is not everything, and type and working qualities should never be sacrificed to it. This has too often been done in the case of coloured Field Spaniels. There are plenty of beautiful blue roans, red roans, and tricolours, whether blue roan and tan or liver roan and tan, but nearly all of them are either cocktailed, weak in hind-quarters, crooked-fronted, or houndy-headed, and showing far too much haw. In fact, in head and front the greater number of the tricolours remind one of the Basset-hound almost as much as they do in colour. It is to be hoped that colour-breeders will endeavour to get back the true Spaniel type before it is too late. The points of both black and coloured Field Spaniels are identical, bar colour, and here it must be said that black and tan, liver and tan, and liver are not considered true variety colours, though of course they have to compete in those classes, but rather sports from black. The colours aimed at by variety breeders have all a ground colour of white, and are black and white, blue roan, liver and white, red roan, liver white and tan, and tricolours or quadri-colours--_i.e._, blue or red roan and tan, or both combined, with tan. The Spaniel Club furnishes the following description of the Black Field Spaniel:-- * * * * * HEAD--Should be quite characteristic of this grand sporting dog, as that of the Bloodhound or the Bulldog; its very stamp and countenance should at once convey the conviction of high breeding, character and nobility; skull well developed, with a distinctly elevated occipital tuberosity, which, above all, gives the character alluded to; not too wide across muzzle, long and lean, never snipy nor squarely cut, and in profile curving gradually from nose to throat; lean beneath eyes, a thickness here gives coarseness to the whole head. The great length of muzzle gives surface for the free development of the olfactory nerve, and thus secures the highest possible scenting powers. EYES--Not too full, but not small, receding or overhung; colour dark hazel or dark brown, or nearly black; grave in expression, and bespeaking unusual docility and instinct. EARS--Set low down as possible, which greatly adds to the refinement and beauty of the head, moderately long and wide, and sufficiently clad with nice Setter-like feather. NECK--Very strong and muscular, so as to enable the dog to retrieve his game without undue fatigue; not too short, however. BODY (INCLUDING SIZE AND SYMMETRY)--Long and very low, well ribbed up to a good strong loin, straight or slightly arched, never slack; weight from about 35 lbs. to 45 lbs. NOSE--Well developed, with good open nostrils, and always black. SHOULDERS AND CHEST--Former sloping and free, latter deep and well developed, but not too round and wide. BACK AND LOIN--Very strong and muscular; level and long in proportion to the height of the dog. HIND-QUARTERS--Very powerful and muscular, wide, and fully developed. STERN--Well set on, and carried low, if possible below the level of the back, in a perfectly straight line, or with a slight downward inclination, never elevated above the back, and in action always kept low, nicely fringed, with wavy feather of silky texture. FEET AND LEGS--Feet not too small, and well protected between the toes with soft feather; good strong pads. Legs straight and immensely boned, strong and short, and nicely feathered with straight or waved Setter-like feather, overmuch feathering below the hocks objectionable. COAT--Flat or slightly waved, and never curled. Sufficiently dense to resist the weather, and not too short. Silky in texture, glossy, and refined in nature, with neither duffelness on the one hand nor curl or wiriness on the other. On chest under belly, and behind the legs, there should be abundant feather, but never too much, and that of the right sort, viz., Setter-like. The tail and hind-quarters should be similarly adorned. COLOUR--Jet black throughout, glossy and true. A little white on chest, though a drawback, not a disqualification. GENERAL APPEARANCE--That of a sporting dog, capable of learning and doing anything possible for his inches and conformation. A grand combination of beauty and utility. * * * * * VII. THE ENGLISH SPRINGER.--It is only quite recently that the Kennel Club has officially recognised the variety known by the name at the head of this section. For a long time the old-fashioned liver and white, or black Spaniels, longer in the leg than either Sussex or Field Spaniels, had been known as Norfolk Spaniels, and under this title the Spaniel Club has published a description of them. There had, however, been a considerable amount of discussion about the propriety of this name of "Norfolk," and the weight of the evidence adduced went to show that as far as any territorial connection with the county of that name went, it was a misnomer, and that it probably arose from the breed having been kept by one of the Dukes of Norfolk, most likely that one quoted by Blaine in his _Rural Sports_, who was so jealous of his strain that it was only on the expressly stipulated condition that they were not to be allowed to breed in the direct line that he would allow one to leave his kennels. But, when this old breed was taken up by the Sporting Spaniel Society, they decided to drop the name of "Norfolk," and to revert to the old title of "Springer," not, perhaps, a very happy choice, as all Spaniels are, properly speaking, Springers in contradistinction to Setters. The complete official designation on the Kennel Club's register is "English Springers other than Clumbers, Sussex, and Field," a very clumsy name for a breed. There is no doubt that this variety of Spaniel retains more resemblance to the old strains which belonged to our forefathers, before the long and low idea found favour in the eyes of exhibitors, and it was certainly well worth preserving. The only way nowadays by which uniformity of type can be obtained is by somebody having authority drawing up a standard and scale of points for breeders to go by, and the Sporting Spaniel Society are to be commended for having done this for the breed under notice, the fruit of their action being already apparent in the larger and more uniform classes to be seen at shows. As the officially recognised life of the breed has been such a short one, there are naturally not very many names of note among the prize-winners. The principal breeders and owners have so far been Mr. W. Arkwright, Mr. Harry Jones, Sir Hugo FitzHerbert, Mr. C. C. Bethune Eversfield, and Mr. Winton Smith. They are undoubtedly the right dogs for those who want Spaniels to travel faster and cover more ground than the more ponderous and short-legged Clumbers, Sussex, or Field Spaniels do, but their work is hardly equal in finish and precision to that of either of the two former breeds. The following revised description of the English Springer has been issued by the Sporting Spaniel Society:-- * * * * * SKULL--Long and slightly arched on top, fairly broad, with a stop, and well-developed temples. JAWS--Long and broad, not snipy, with plenty of thin lip. EYES--Medium size, not too full, but bright and intelligent, of a rich brown. EARS--Of fair length, low set, and lobular in shape. NECK--Long, strong, and slightly arched. SHOULDERS--Long and sloping. FORE-LEGS--Of a moderate length, straight, with flat strong bone. BODY--Strong, with well-sprung ribs, good girth, and chest deep and fairly broad. LOIN--Rather long, strong, and slightly arched. HIND-QUARTERS AND HIND-LEGS--Very muscular, hocks well let down, stifles moderately bent, and not twisted inwards or outwards. FEET--Strong and compact. STERN--Low carried, not above the level of the back, and with a vibratory motion. COAT--Thick and smooth or very slightly wavy, it must not be too long. The feathering must be only moderate on the ears, and scanty on the legs, but continued down to the heels. COLOUR--Liver and white and black and white (with or without tan), fawn and white, yellow and white, also roans and self colours of all these tints. The pied colours are preferable, however, as more easily seen in cover. GENERAL APPEARANCE--An active compact dog, upstanding, but by no means stilty. His height at shoulder should about equal his length from the top of the withers to the root of the tail. * * * * * VIII. THE WELSH SPRINGER.--Like the English Springer, the Welsh Springer has only very recently come into existence--officially, that is to say; but his admirers claim for him that he has existed as a separate breed for a long time, though not beyond the bounds of the Principality, where he is referred to as the Starter. When his claims were first put forward they were vigorously contested by many who could claim to speak and write with authority upon the various breeds of Spaniels existing in these islands, and it was freely asserted that they were nothing but crossbreds between the ordinary Springer and probably a Clumber in order to account for the red or orange markings and the vine-leaf-shaped ears. Even if they are a new breed, they are a most meritorious one, both in their appearance, which is eminently sporting and workmanlike, and for the excellence of their work in the field, which has been amply demonstrated by the record earned at the field trials by Mr. A. T. Williams and others, but those who have seen them at work have nothing but good to say of them, and for working large rough tracts of country in teams their admirers say they are unequalled. In appearance they are decidedly attractive, rather more lightly built than most Spaniels, small in size, indeed very little larger than Cockers, invariably white in colour, with red or orange markings, and possessing rather fine heads with small Clumber-shaped ears. Their general appearance is that of extremely smart and active little dogs. The Welsh Springer is described by the Sporting Spaniel Society as follows:-- * * * * * SKULL--Fairly long and fairly broad, slightly rounded with a stop at the eyes. JAWS--Medium length, straight, fairly square, the nostrils well developed, and flesh coloured or dark. A short, chubby head is objectionable. EYES--Hazel or dark, medium size, not prominent, not sunken, nor showing haw. EARS--Comparatively small and gradually narrowing towards the tip, covered with feather not longer than the ear, set moderately low and hanging close to the cheeks. NECK--Strong, muscular, clean in throat. SHOULDERS--Long and sloping. FORE-LEGS--Medium length, straight, good bone, moderately feathered. BODY--Strong, fairly deep, not long, well-sprung ribs. Length of body should be proportionate to length of leg. LOIN--Muscular and strong, slightly arched, well coupled up and knit together. HIND-QUARTERS AND HIND-LEGS--Strong; hocks well let down; stifles moderately bent (not twisted in or out), not feathered below the hock on the leg. FEET--Round, with thick pads. STERN--Low, never carried above the level of the back, feathered, and with a lively motion. COAT--Straight or flat, and thick. COLOUR--Red or orange and white. GENERAL APPEARANCE--Symmetrical, compact, strong, merry, active, not stilty, built for endurance and activity, and about 28 lb. and upwards in weight, but not exceeding 45 lb. * * * * * IX. THE COCKER SPANIEL.--For the last few years the popularity of this smaller sized branch of the Spaniel tribe has been steadily increasing, and the Cocker classes at most of the best shows are now remarkable both for the number of entries and the very high standard of excellence to which they attain. A short time ago black Cockers were decidedly more fashionable than their parti-coloured relatives, but now the reverse is the case, and the various roans and tricolours have overtaken and passed the others, both in general quality and in the public esteem. The reason for this popularity of the breed as a whole is not far to seek. The affectionate and merry disposition of the Cocker and his small size compared with that of the other breeds pre-eminently fit him for a companion in the house as well as in the field, and he ranks among his admirers quite as many of the fairer sex as he does men--a fact which is not without a certain element of danger, since it should never be lost sight of that the breed is a sporting one, which should on no account be allowed to degenerate into a race of mere house companions or toys. Small-sized Spaniels, usually called Cockers, from their being more especially used in woodcock shooting, have been indigenous to Wales and Devonshire for many years, and it is most likely from one or both of these sources that the modern type has been evolved. It is probable too that the type in favour to-day, of a short coupled, rather "cobby" dog, fairly high on the leg, is more like that of these old-fashioned Cockers than that which obtained a decade or two ago, when they were scarcely recognised as a separate breed, and the Spaniel classes were usually divided into "Field Spaniels over 25 lb." and "Field Spaniels under 25 lb." In those days a large proportion of the prizes fell to miniature Field Spaniels. The breed was not given official recognition on the Kennel Club's register till 1893, nor a section to itself in the Stud Book; and up to that date the only real qualification a dog required to be enabled to compete as a Cocker was that he should be under the weight of 25 lb., a limit arbitrarily and somewhat irrationally fixed, since in the case of an animal just on the border-line he might very well have been a Cocker before and a Field Spaniel after breakfast. It is not easy to find authentic pedigrees going back further than a quarter of a century, but Mr. C. A. Phillips can trace his own strain back to 1860, and Mr. James Farrow was exhibiting successfully thirty-five years ago. The former gentleman published the pedigree of his bitch Rivington Dora for eighteen generations _in extenso_ in _The Sporting Spaniel_; while the famous Obo strain of the latter may be said to have exercised more influence than any other on the black variety both in this country and in the United States. It was in 1880 that the most famous of all the "pillars" of the Cocker stud, Mr. James Farrow's Obo, made his first bow to the public, he and his litter sister Sally having been born the year before. He won the highest honours that the show bench can give, and the importance of his service to the breed both in his owner's kennel and outside it, can scarcely be over-estimated. Nearly all of the best blacks, and many of the best coloured Cockers, are descended from him. At this period the type mostly favoured was that of a dog rather longer in the body and lower on the leg than it is at present, but the Obo family marked a progressive step, and very rightly kept on winning under all the best judges for many years, their owner being far too good a judge himself ever to exhibit anything but first-class specimens. [Illustration: THREE GENERATIONS OF MR. R. DE C. PEELE'S BLUE ROAN COCKER SPANIELS--CH. BEN BOWDLER (Father), CH. BOB BOWDLER (Son), and CH. DIXON BOWDLER (Grandson) _From the Painting by Lilian Cheviot_] Meanwhile, although the blacks were far the most fashionable--and it was said that it was hopeless to try to get the same quality in coloured specimens--several enthusiastic breeders for colour were quietly at work, quite undismayed by the predilection shown by most exhibitors and judges for the former colour. Among them was Mr. C. A. Phillips, whose two bitches from Mr. James Freme, of Wepre Hall, Flintshire, succeeded in breeding from one of them, whom he named Rivington Sloe, the celebrated dog Rivington Signal, who, mated with Rivington Blossom, produced Rivington Bloom, who was in turn the dam of Rivington Redcoat. These dogs proved almost, if not quite, as valuable to the coloured variety as Obo did to the blacks, and formed the foundation of Mr. J. M. Porter's celebrated Braeside strain which afterwards became so famous. During the last few years Mr. R. de Courcy Peele's kennel has easily held the pride of place in this variety. Most readers are no doubt familiar with the many beautiful Cockers which have appeared in the show ring and carried off so many prizes under the distinguishing affix Bowdler. His kennel was built up on a Braeside foundation, and has contained at one time or other such flyers as Ben Bowdler, Bob Bowdler, Rufus Bowdler, Dixon Bowdler, Eva Bowdler, Mary Bowdler, Blue-coat Bowdler, Susan Bowdler, and others, and Ben and Bob have also been, as sires, responsible for the success of a good many dogs hailing from other kennels. He has also been fairly successful with blacks, which, however, have usually been purchased and not bred by him, the two best being Master Reuben, bred by Miss Joan Godfrey, and Jetsam Bowdler, a bitch who has distinguished herself both in the ring and in the field. Coloured Cockers are certainly "booming" just now, and as a consequence the blacks, who are equally worthy of support, are being rather neglected. Certainly it is the case that whereas one sees at most shows big classes of the former filled with a good level lot with hardly a bad specimen amongst them, the classes devoted to the latter, besides not being so well filled, are much more uneven, and always contain a large proportion of weeds and toys. A few years ago the black classes were immeasurably superior to the coloured, and it is to be hoped that in the near future they will regain at least a position of equality with them. At the last few Field Trial meetings the Spaniel Club has provided classes confined to Cockers, which have filled fairly well, and enabled the small breed to demonstrate that it can in its way be quite as useful as its larger cousins. A Cocker can very often go and work as well where a larger Spaniel cannot even creep, and for working really thick hedgerows or gorse has no superior. There seems to be every prospect of a brilliant future, and increased popularity for this charming breed. Its interests are looked after both by the Spaniel Club and the comparatively newly formed Cocker Spaniel Club, and it is also quite as much in favour on the other side of the Atlantic as it is in the United Kingdom. Indeed, the classes in America and Canada compare very favourably with our own. The descriptive particulars of the breed are:-- * * * * * HEAD--Not so heavy in proportion and not so high in occiput as in the modern Field Spaniel, with a nicely developed muzzle or jaw; lean, but not snipy, and yet not so square as in the Clumber or Sussex varieties, but always exhibiting a sufficiently wide and well-developed nose. Forehead perfectly smooth, rising without a too decided stop from muzzle into a comparatively wide and rounded, well-developed skull, with plenty of room for brain power. EYES--Full, but not prominent, hazel or brown coloured, with a general expression of intelligence and gentleness, though decidedly wideawake, bright and merry, never goggled nor weak as in the King Charles and Blenheim kinds. EARS--Lobular, set on low, leather fine and not exceeding beyond the nose, well clothed with long silky hair, which must be straight or wavy--no positive curls or ringlets. NECK--Strong and muscular, and neatly set on to fine sloping shoulders. BODY (INCLUDING SIZE AND SYMMETRY)--Not quite so long and low as in the other breeds of Spaniels, more compact and firmly knit together, giving the impression of a concentration of power and untiring activity. WEIGHT--The weight of a Cocker Spaniel of either sex should not exceed 25 lb., or be less than 20 lb. Any variation either way should be penalised. NOSE--Sufficiently wide and well developed to ensure the exquisite scenting powers of this breed. SHOULDERS AND CHEST--The former sloping and fine, chest deep and well developed, but not too wide and round to interfere with the free action of the fore-legs. BACK AND LOIN--Immensely strong and compact in proportion to the size and weight of the dog; slightly sloping towards the tail. HIND-QUARTERS--Wide, well rounded, and very muscular, so as to ensure untiring action and propelling power under the most trying circumstances of a long day, bad weather, rough ground, and dense covert. STERN--That most characteristic of blue blood in all the Spaniel family may, in the lighter and more active Cocker, although set low down, be allowed a slightly higher carriage than in the other breeds, but never cocked up over, but rather in a line with the back, though the lower its carriage and action the better, and when at work its action should be incessant in this, the brightest and merriest of the whole Spaniel family. FEET AND LEGS--The legs should be well boned, feathered and straight, for the tremendous exertions expected from this grand little sporting dog, and should be sufficiently short for concentrated power, but not too short as to interfere with its full activity. Feet firm, round, and cat-like, not too large, spreading, and loose jointed. This distinct breed of Spaniel does not follow exactly on the lines of the larger Field Spaniel, either in lengthiness, lowness, or otherwise, but is shorter in the back, and rather higher on the legs. COAT--Flat or waved, and silky in texture, never wiry, woolly, or curly, with sufficient feather of the right sort, viz., waved or Setter-like, but not too profuse and never curly. GENERAL APPEARANCE--Confirmatory of all indicated above, viz., a concentration of pure blood and type, sagacity, docility, good temper, affection, and activity. CHAPTER XXVI THE BASSET-HOUND The Basset was not familiarly known to British sportsmen before 1863, in which year specimens of the breed were seen at the first exhibition of dogs held in Paris, and caused general curiosity and admiration among English visitors. In France, however, this hound has been used for generations, much as we use our Spaniel, as a finder of game in covert, and it has long been a popular sporting dog in Russia and Germany. In early times it was chiefly to be found in Artois and Flanders, where it is supposed to have had its origin; but the home of the better type of Basset is now chiefly in La Vendee, in which department some remarkably fine strains have been produced. There are three main strains of the French Basset--the Lane, the Couteulx, and the Griffon. The Griffon Basset is a hound with a hard bristly coat, and short, crooked legs. It has never found great favour here. The Lane hounds are derived from the kennels of M. Lane, of Franqueville, Baos, Seine-Inferieure, and are also very little appreciated in this country. They are a lemon and white variety, with _torse_ or bent legs. The Couteulx hounds were a type bred up into a strain by Comte le Couteulx de Canteleu. They were tricolour, with straight, short legs, of sounder constitution than other strains, with the make generally of a more agile hound, and in the pedigree of the best Bassets owned in this country fifteen years ago, when the breed was in considerable demand, Comte de Couteulx's strain was prominent and always sought for. With careful selection and judicious breeding we have now produced a beautiful hound of fine smooth coat, and a rich admixture of markings, with a head of noble character and the best of legs and feet. Their short, twinkling legs make our Bassets more suitable for covert hunting than for hunting hares in the open, to which latter purpose they have frequently been adapted with some success. Their note is resonant, with wonderful power for so small a dog, and in tone it resembles the voice of the Bloodhound. The Basset-hound is usually very good tempered and not inclined to be quarrelsome with his kennel mates; but he is wilful, and loves to roam apart in search of game, and is not very amenable to discipline when alone. On the other hand, he works admirably with his companions in the pack, when he is most painstaking and indefatigable. Endowed with remarkable powers of scent, he will hunt a drag with keen intelligence. There are now several packs of Bassets kept in England, and they show very fair sport after the hares; but it is not their natural vocation, and their massive build is against the possibility of their becoming popular as harriers. The general custom is to follow them on foot, although occasionally some sportsmen use ponies. Their pace, however, hardly warrants the latter expedient. On the Continent, where big game is more common than with us, the employment of the Basset is varied. He is a valuable help in the tracking of boar, wolf, and deer, and he is also frequently engaged in the lighter pastimes of pheasant and partridge shooting. The Earl of Onslow and the late Sir John Everett Millais were among the earliest importers of the breed into England. They both had recourse to the kennels of Count Couteulx. Sir John Millais' Model was the first Basset-hound exhibited at an English dog show, at Wolverhampton in 1875. Later owners and breeders of prominence were Mr. G. Krehl, Mrs. Stokes, Mrs. C. C. Ellis and Mrs. Mabel Tottie. As with most imported breeds, the Basset-hound when first exhibited was required to undergo a probationary period as a foreign dog in the variety class at the principal shows. It was not until 1880 that a class was provided for it by the Kennel Club. It is to be regretted that owners of this beautiful hound are not more numerous. Admirable specimens are still to be seen at the leading exhibitions, but the breed is greatly in need of encouragement. At the present time the smooth dog hound taking the foremost place in the estimate of our most capable judges is Mr. W. W. M. White's Ch. Loo-Loo-Loo, bred by Mrs. Tottie, by Ch. Louis Le Beau out of Sibella. Mr. Croxton Smith's Waverer is also a dog of remarkably fine type. Among bitch hounds Sandringham Dido, the favourite of Her Majesty the Queen, ranks as the most perfect of her kind. The rough or Griffon-Basset, introduced into England at a later date than the smooth, has failed for some reason to receive great attention. In type it resembles the shaggy Otterhound, and as at present favoured it is larger and higher on the leg than the smooth variety. Their colouring is less distinct, and they seem generally to be lemon and white, grey and sandy red. Their note is not so rich as that of the smooth variety. In France the rough and the smooth Bassets are not regarded as of the same race, but here some breeders have crossed the two varieties, with indifferent consequences. Some beautiful specimens of the rough Basset have from time to time been sent to exhibition from the Sandringham kennels. His Majesty the King has always given affectionate attention to this breed, and has taken several first prizes at the leading shows, latterly with Sandringham Bobs, bred in the home kennels by Sandringham Babil ex Saracenesca. Perhaps the most explicit description of the perfect Basset-hound is still that compiled twenty-five years ago by Sir John Millais. It is at least sufficiently comprehensive and exact to serve as a guide:-- * * * * * "The Basset, for its size, has more bone, perhaps, than nearly any other dog. "The skull should be peaked like that of the Bloodhound, with the same dignity and expression, the nose black (although some of my own have white about theirs), and well flewed. For the size of the hound I think the teeth are extremely small. However, as they are not intended to destroy life, this is probably the reason. "The ears should hang like the Bloodhound's, and are like the softest velvet drapery. "The eyes are a deep brown, and are brimful of affection and intelligence. They are pretty deeply set, and should show a considerable haw. A Basset is one of those hounds incapable of having a wicked eye. "The neck is long, but of great power; and in the _Basset a jambes torses_ the flews extend very nearly down to the chest. The chest is more expansive than even in the Bulldog, and should in the _Bassets a jambes torses_ be not more than two inches from the ground. In the case of the _Bassets a jambes demi-torses_ and _jambes droites_, being generally lighter, their chests do not, of course, come so low. "The shoulders are of great power, and terminate in the crooked feet of the Basset, which appear to be a mass of joints. The back and ribs are strong, and the former of great length. "The stern is carried gaily, like that of hounds in general, and when the hound is on the scent of game this portion of his body gets extremely animated, and tells me, in my own hounds, when they have struck a fresh or a cold scent, and I even know when the foremost hound will give tongue. "The hind-quarters are very strong and muscular, the muscles standing rigidly out down to the hocks. "The skin is soft in the smooth haired dogs, and like that of any other hound, but in the rough variety it is like that of the Otterhound's. "Colour, of course, is a matter of fancy, although I infinitely prefer the tricolour, which has a tan head and a black and white body." CHAPTER XXVII THE DACHSHUND Persons unfamiliar with the sporting properties of this long-bodied breed are apt to refer smilingly to the Dachshund as "the dog that is sold by the yard," and few even of those who know him give credit to the debonair little fellow for the grim work which he is intended to perform in doing battle with the vicious badger in its lair. Dachshund means "badger dog," and it is a title fairly and squarely earned in his native Germany. Given proper training, he will perform the duties of several sporting breeds rolled into one. Possessing a wonderful nose, combined with remarkable steadiness, his kind will work out the coldest scent, and once fairly on the line they will give plenty of music and get over the ground at a pace almost incredible. Dachshunds hunt well in a pack, and, though it is not their recognised vocation, they can be successfully used on hare, on fox, and any form of vermin that wears a furry coat. But his legitimate work is directed against the badger, in locating the brock under ground, worrying and driving him into his innermost earth, and there holding him until dug out. It is no part of his calling to come to close grips, though that often happens in the confined space in which he has to work. In this position a badger with his powerful claws digs with such energy and skill as rapidly to bury himself, and the Dachshund needs to be provided with such apparatus as will permit him to clear his way and keep in touch with his formidable quarry. The badger is also hunted by Dachshunds above ground, usually in the mountainous parts of Germany, and in the growing crops of maize, on the lower slopes, where the vermin work terrible havoc in the evening. In this case the badger is rounded up and driven by the dogs up to the guns which are posted between the game and their earths. For this sport the dog used is heavier, coarser, and of larger build, higher on the leg, and more generally houndy in appearance. Dachshunds are frequently used for deer driving, in which operation they are especially valuable, as they work slowly, and do not frighten or overrun their quarry, and can penetrate the densest undergrowth. Packs of Dachshunds may sometimes be engaged on wild boar, and, as they are web-footed and excellent swimmers, there is no doubt that their terrier qualities would make them useful assistants to the Otterhound. Apropos of their capabilities in the water it is the case that a year or two ago, at Offenbach-on-Main, at some trials arranged for life-saving by dogs, a Dachshund carried off the first prize against all comers. As a companion in the house the Dachshund has perhaps no compeer. He is a perfect gentleman; cleanly in his habits, obedient, unobtrusive, incapable of smallness, affectionate, very sensitive to rebuke or to unkindness, and amusingly jealous. As a watch he is excellent, quick to detect a strange footstep, valiant to defend the threshold, and to challenge with deep voice any intruder, yet sensibly discerning his master's friends, and not annoying them with prolonged growling and grumbling as many terriers do when a stranger is admitted. Properly brought up, he is a perfectly safe and amusing companion for children, full of animal spirits, and ever ready to share in a romp, even though it be accompanied by rough and tumble play. In Germany, where he is the most popular of all dogs, large or small, he is to be found in every home, from the Emperor's palace downwards, and his quaint appearance, coupled with his entertaining personality, is daily seized upon by the comic papers to illustrate countless jokes at his expense. The origin of the Dachshund is not very clear. Some writers have professed to trace the breed or representations of it on the monuments of the Egyptians. Some aver that it is a direct descendant of the French Basset-hound, and others that he is related to the old Turnspits--the dogs so excellent in kitchen service, of whom Dr. Caius wrote that "when any meat is to be roasted they go into a wheel, where they, turning about with the weight of their bodies, so diligently look to their business that no drudge nor scullion can do the feat more cunningly, whom the popular sort hereupon term Turnspits." Certainly the dog commonly used in this occupation was long of body and short of leg, very much resembling the Dachshund. In all probability the Dachshund is a manufactured breed--a breed evolved from a large type of hound intermixed with a terrier to suit the special conditions involved in the pursuit and extermination of a quarry that, unchecked, was capable of seriously interfering with the cultivation of the land. He comprises in his small person the characteristics of both hound and terrier--his wonderful powers of scent, his long, pendulous ears, and, for his size, enormous bone, speak of his descent from the hound that hunts by scent. In many respects he favours the Bloodhound, and one may often see Dachshunds which, having been bred from parents carefully selected to accentuate some fancy point, have exhibited the very pronounced "peak" (occipital bone), the protruding haw of the eye, the loose dewlap and the colour markings characteristic of the Bloodhound. His small stature, iron heart, and willingness to enter the earth bespeak the terrier cross. The Dachshund was first introduced to this country in sufficient numbers to merit notice in the early 'sixties, and, speedily attracting notice by his quaint formation and undoubted sporting instincts, soon became a favourite. At first appearing at shows in the "Foreign Dog" class, he quickly received a recognition of his claims to more favoured treatment, and was promoted by the Kennel Club to a special classification as a sporting dog. Since then his rise has been rapid, and he now is reckoned as one of the numerically largest breeds exhibited. Unfortunately, however, he has been little, if ever, used for sport in the sense that applies in Germany, and this fact, coupled with years of breeding from too small a stock (or stock too nearly related) and the insane striving after the fanciful and exaggerated points demanded by judges at dog shows, many of whom never saw a Dachshund at his legitimate work, has seriously affected his usefulness. He has deteriorated in type, lost grit and sense, too, and is often a parody of the true type of Dachshund that is to be found in his native land. To the reader who contemplates possessing one or more Dachshunds a word of advice may be offered. Whether you want a dog for sport, for show, or as a companion, endeavour to get a good one--a well-bred one. To arrive at this do not buy from an advertisement on your own knowledge of the breed, but seek out an expert amateur breeder and exhibitor, and get his advice and assistance. If you intend to start a kennel for show purposes, do not buy a high-priced dog at a show, but start with a well-bred bitch, and breed your own puppies, under the guidance of the aforementioned expert. In this way, and by rearing and keeping your puppies till they are of an age to be exhibited, and at the same time carefully noting the awards at the best shows, you will speedily learn which to retain and the right type of dog to keep and breed for, and in future operations you will be able to discard inferior puppies at an earlier age. But it is a great mistake, if you intend to form a kennel for show purposes, to sell or part with your puppies too early. It is notorious with all breeds that puppies change very much as they grow. The best looking in the nest often go wrong later, and the ugly duckling turns out the best of the litter. This is especially true of Dachshunds, and it requires an expert to pick the best puppy of a litter at a month or two old, and even he may be at fault unless the puppy is exceptionally well reared. To rear Dachshund puppies successfully you must not overload them with fat--give them strengthening food that does not lay on flesh. Lean, raw beef, finely chopped, is an excellent food once or twice a day for the first few months, and, though this comes expensive, it pays in the end. Raw meat is supposed to cause worm troubles, but these pests are also found where meat is not given, and in any case a puppy is fortified with more strength to withstand them if fed on raw meat than otherwise, and a good dosing from time to time will be all that is necessary to keep him well and happy. Young growing puppies must have their freedom to gambol about, and get their legs strong. Never keep the puppies cooped up in a small kennel run or house. If you have a fair-sized yard, give them the run of that, or even the garden, in spite of what your gardener may say--they may do a little damage to the flowers, but will assuredly do good to themselves. They love to dig in the soft borders: digging is second nature to them, and is of great importance in their development. If you have not a garden, or if the flowers are too sacred, it is better to place your puppies as early as possible with respectable cottagers, or small farmers, especially the latter, with whom they will have entire freedom to run about, and will not be overfed. If you intend to show your puppies, you should begin some time in advance to school them to walk on the lead and to stand quiet when ordered to. Much depends on this in the judging ring, where a dog who is unused to being on a lead often spoils his chances of appearing at his best under the (to him) strange experiences of restraint which the lead entails. During the past five-and-twenty years the names of two particular Dachshunds stand out head and shoulders above those of their competitors: Champions Jackdaw and Pterodactyl. Jackdaw had a wonderful record, having, during a long show career, never been beaten in his class from start to finish, and having won many valuable prizes. He was credited with being the most perfect Dachshund that had ever been seen in England, and probably as good as anything in Germany. Ch. Jackdaw was a black and tan dog, bred and owned by Mr. Harry Jones, of Ipswich. He was sired by Ch. Charkow, out of Wagtail, and born 20th July, 1886. Through his dam he was descended from a famous bitch, Thusnelda, who was imported by Mr. Mudie in the early 'eighties. She was a winner of high honours in Hanover. The name of Jackdaw figures in all the best pedigrees of to-day. Ch. Pterodactyl was born in 1888, and bred by Mr. Willink. He was in a measure an outcross from the standard type of the day, and his dam, whose pedigree is in dispute, was thought to have been imported. After passing through one or two hands he was purchased by Mr. Harry Jones, and in his kennel speedily made a great name in the show ring and at the stud, and was eventually sold for a high price to Mr. Sidney Woodiwiss, who at that period had the largest kennel of Dachshunds in England. "Ptero," as he was called, was a big, light red dog, with wonderful fore-quarters and great muscular development. He also possessed what is called a "punishing jaw" and rather short ears, and looked a thorough "business" dog. He had an almost unbroken series of successes at shows in England, and being taken to Germany (in the days before the quarantine regulations), he took the highest honours in the heavy-weight class, and a special prize for the best Dachshund of all classes. This dog became the favourite sire of his day and the fashionable colour. The black and tan thereupon went quite out of favour, and this fact, coupled with the reckless amount of inbreeding of red to red that has been going on since Ptero's day, accounts largely for the prevalence of light eyes, pink noses, and bad-coloured coats of the Dachshunds, as a class, to-day. There are, strictly speaking, three varieties of Dachshund--(_a_) the short-haired, (_b_) the long-haired, and (_c_) the rough-haired. Of these we most usually find the first-named in England, and they are no doubt the original stock. Of the others, though fairly numerous in Germany, very few are to be seen in this country, and although one or two have been imported the type has never seemed to appeal to exhibitors. Both the long-haired and rough-haired varieties have no doubt been produced by crosses with other breeds, such as the Spaniel and probably the Irish Terrier, respectively. In the long-haired variety the hair should be soft and wavy, forming lengthy plumes under the throat, lower parts of the body, and the backs of the legs, and it is longest on the under side of the tail, where it forms a regular flag like that of a Setter or Spaniel. The rough-haired variety shows strongly a terrier cross by his "varmint" expression and short ears. The Germans also subdivide by colour, and again for show purposes by weight. These subdivisions are dealt with in their proper order in the standard of points, and it is only necessary to say here that all the varieties, colours, and weights are judged by the same standard except in so far as they differ in texture of coat. At the same time the Germans themselves do not regard the dapple Dachshunds as yet so fixed in type as the original coloured dogs, and this exception must also apply to the long and the rough haired varieties. The following German standard of points embodies a detailed description of the breed:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE AND DISPOSITION--In general appearance the Dachshund is a very long and low dog, with compact and well-muscled body, resting on short, slightly crooked fore-legs. A long head and ears, with bold and defiant carriage and intelligent expression. In disposition the Dachshund is full of spirit, defiant when attacked, aggressive even to foolhardiness when attacking; in play amusing and untiring; by nature wilful and unheeding. HEAD--Long, and appearing conical from above, and from a side view, tapering to the point of the muzzle, wedge-shaped. The skull should be broad rather than narrow, to allow plenty of brain room, slightly arched, and fairly straight, without a stop, but not deep or snipy. EYES--Medium in size, oval, and set obliquely, with very clear, sharp expression and of a dark colour, except in the case of the liver and tan, when the eyes may be yellow; and in the dapple, when the eyes may be light or "wall-eyed." NOSE--Preferably deep black. The flesh-coloured and spotted noses are allowable only in the liver and tan and dapple varieties. EARS--Set on moderately high, or, seen in profile, above the level of the eyes, well back, flat, not folded, pointed, or narrow, hanging close to the cheeks, very mobile, and when at attention carried with the back of the ear upward and outward. NECK--Moderately long, with slightly arched nape, muscular and clean, showing no dewlap, and carried well up and forward. FORE-QUARTERS--His work underground demands strength and compactness, and, therefore, the chest and shoulder regions should be deep, long, and wide. The shoulder blade should be long, and set on very sloping, the upper arm of equal length with, and at right angles to, the shoulder blade, strong-boned and well-muscled, and lying close to ribs, but moving freely. The lower arm is slightly bent inwards, and the feet should be turned slightly outwards, giving an appearance of "crooked" legs approximating to the cabriole of a Chippendale chair. Straight, narrow, short shoulders are always accompanied by straight, short, upper arms, forming an obtuse angle, badly developed brisket and "keel" or chicken breast, and the upper arm being thrown forward by the weight of the body behind causes the legs to knuckle over at the "knees." Broad, sloping shoulders, on the other hand, insure soundness of the fore-legs and feet. LEGS AND FEET--Fore-legs very short and strong in bone, slightly bent inwards; seen in profile, moderately straight and never bending forward or knuckling over. Feet large, round, and strong, with thick pads, compact and well-arched toes, nails strong and black. The dog must stand equally on all parts of the foot. BODY--Should be long and muscular, the chest very oval, rather than very narrow and deep, to allow ample room for heart and lungs, hanging low between front legs, the brisket point should be high and very prominent, the ribs well sprung out towards the loins (not flat-sided). Loins short and strong. The line of back only slightly depressed behind shoulders and only slightly arched over loins. The hind-quarters should not be higher than the shoulders, thus giving a general appearance of levelness. HIND-QUARTERS--The rump round, broad, and powerfully muscled; hip bone not too short, but broad and sloping; the upper arm, or thigh, thick, of good length, and jointed at right angles to the hip bone. The lower leg (or second thigh) is, compared with other animals, short, and is set on at right angles to the upper thigh, and is very firmly muscled. The hind-legs are lighter in bone than the front ones, but very strongly muscled, with well-rounded-out buttocks, and the knee joint well developed. Seen from behind, the legs should be wide apart and straight, and not cowhocked. The dog should not be higher at the quarters than at shoulder. STERN--Set on fairly high, strong at root, and tapering, but not too long. Neither too much curved nor carried too high; well, but not too much, feathered; a bushy tail is better than too little hair. COAT AND SKIN--Hair short and close as possible, glossy and smooth, but resistant to the touch if stroked the wrong way. The skin tough and elastic, but fitting close to the body. COLOUR--_One Coloured_:--There are several self-colours recognised, including deep red, yellowish red, smutty red. Of these the dark, or cherry, red is preferable, and in this colour light shadings on any part of the body or head are undesirable. "Black" is rare, and is only a sport from black and tan. _Two Coloured_:--Deep black, brown (liver) or grey, with golden or tan markings (spots) over the eyes at the side of the jaw and lips, inner rim of ears, the breast, inside and back of legs, the feet, and under the tail for about one-third of its length. In the above-mentioned colours white markings are objectionable. The utmost that is allowed being a small spot, or a few hairs, on the chest. _Dappled_:--A silver grey to almost white foundation colour, with dark, irregular spots (small for preference) of dark grey, brown, tan, or black. The general appearance should be a bright, indefinite coloration, which is considered especially useful in a hunting dog. WEIGHT--Dachshunds in Germany are classified by weight as follows:--_Light-weight_--Dogs up to 16-1/2 lb., bitches up to 15-1/2 lb. _Middle-weight_--Dogs up to 22 lb., bitches up to 22 lb. _Heavy-weight_--Over 22 lb. _Toys_--Up to 12 lb. The German pound is one-tenth more than the English. The light-weight dog is most used for going to ground. CHAPTER XXVIII THE OLD WORKING TERRIER There can hardly have been a time since the period of the Norman Conquest when the small earth dogs which we now call terriers were not known in these islands and used by sporting men as assistants in the chase, and by husbandmen for the killing of obnoxious vermin. The two little dogs shown in the Bayeux tapestry running with the hounds in advance of King Harold's hawking party were probably meant for terriers. Dame Juliana Berners in the fifteenth century did not neglect to include the "Teroures" in her catalogue of sporting dogs, and a hundred years later Dr. Caius gave pointed recognition to their value in unearthing the fox and drawing the badger. "Another sorte, there is," wrote the doctor's translator in 1576, "which hunteth the Fox and the Badger or Greye onely, whom we call Terrars, because they (after the manner and custome of ferrets in searching for Connyes) creep into the grounde, and by that meanes make afrayde, nyppe and bite the Foxe and the Badger in such sorte that eyther they teare them in pieces with theyr teeth, beying in the bosome of the earth, or else hayle and pull them perforce out of theyr lurking angles, darke dongeons, and close caues; or at the least through cocened feare drive them out of theire hollow harbours, in so much that they are compelled to prepare speedie flyte, and, being desirous of the next (albeit not the safest) refuge, are otherwise taken and intrapped with snayres and nettes layde over holes to the same purpose. But these be the least in that kynde called Sagax." The colour, size, and shape of the original terriers are not indicated by the early writers, and art supplies but vague and uncertain evidence. Nicholas Cox, who wrote of sporting dogs in _The Gentleman's Recreation_ (1667), seems to suggest that the type of working terrier was already fixed sufficiently to be divided into two kinds, the one having shaggy coats and straight limbs, the other smooth coats and short bent legs. Yet some years later another authority--Blome--in the same publication was more guarded in his statements as to the terrier type when he wrote: "Everybody that is a fox hunter is of opinion that he hath a good breed, and some will say that the terrier is a peculiar species of itself. I will not say anything to the affirmative or negative of the point." Searching for evidence on the subject, one finds that perhaps the earliest references to the colours of terriers were made by Daniel in his _Field Sports_ at the end of the eighteenth century, when he described two sorts, the one rough, short-legged, and long-backed, very strong, and "most commonly of a black or yellowish colour, mixed with white"--evidently a hound-marked dog; and another smooth-coated and beautifully formed, with a shorter body and more sprightly appearance, "generally of a reddish brown colour, or black with tanned legs." Gilpin's portrait of Colonel Thornton's celebrated Pitch, painted in 1790, presents a terrier having a smooth white coat with a black patch at the set-on of the undocked tail, and black markings on the face and ears. The dog's head is badly drawn and small in proportion; but the body and legs and colouring would hardly disgrace the Totteridge Kennels of to-day. Fox-terriers of a noted strain were depicted from life by Reinagle in _The Sportsman's Cabinet_, published over a hundred years ago; and in the text accompanying the engraving a minute account is given of the peculiarities and working capacities of the terrier. We are told that there were two breeds: the one wire-haired, larger, more powerful, and harder bitten; the other smooth-haired and smaller, with more style. The wire-hairs were white with spots, the smooths were black and tan, the tan apparently predominating over the black. The same writer states that it was customary to take out a brace of terriers with a pack of hounds, a larger and a smaller one, the smaller dog being used in emergency when the earth proved to be too narrow to admit his bigger companion. It is well known that many of the old fox hunters have kept their special breeds of terrier, and the Belvoir, the Grove, and Lord Middleton's are among the packs to which particular terrier strains have been attached. That even a hundred years ago terriers were bred with care, and that certain strains were held in especial value, is shown by the recorded fact that a litter of seven puppies was sold for twenty-one guineas--a good price even in these days--and that on one occasion so high a sum as twenty guineas was paid for a full-grown dog. At that time there was no definite and well-established breed recognised throughout the islands by a specific name; the embracing title of "Terrier" included all the varieties which have since been carefully differentiated. But very many of the breeds existed in their respective localities awaiting national recognition. Here and there some squire or huntsman nurtured a particular strain and developed a type which he kept pure, and at many a manor-house and farmstead in Devonshire and Cumberland, on many a Highland estate and Irish riverside where there were foxes to be hunted or otters to be killed, terriers of definite strain were religiously cherished. Several of these still survive, and are as respectable in descent and quite as important historically as some of the favoured and fashionable champions of our time. They do not perhaps possess the outward beauty and distinction of type which would justify their being brought into general notice, but as workers they retain all the fire and verve that are required in dogs that are expected to encounter such vicious vermin as the badger and the fox. Some of the breeds of terriers seen nowadays in every dog show were equally obscure and unknown a few years back. Thirty-seven years ago the now popular Irish Terrier was practically unknown in England, and the Scottish Terrier was only beginning to be recognised as a distinct breed. The Welsh Terrier is quite a new introduction that a dozen or so years ago was seldom seen outside the Principality; and so recently as 1881 the Airedale was merely a local dog known in Yorkshire as the Waterside or the Bingley Terrier. Yet the breeds just mentioned are all of unimpeachable ancestry, and the circumstance that they were formerly bred within limited neighbourhoods is in itself an argument in favour of their purity. We have seen the process of a sudden leap into recognition enacted during the past few years in connection with the white terrier of the Western Highlands--a dog which was familiarly known in Argyllshire centuries ago, yet which has only lately emerged from the heathery hillsides around Poltalloch to become an attraction on the benches at the Crystal Palace and on the lawns of the Botanical Gardens; and the example suggests the possibility that in another decade or so the neglected Sealyham Terrier, the ignored terrier of the Borders, and the almost forgotten Jack Russell strain, may have claimed a due recompense for their long neglect. There are lovers of the hard-bitten working "earth dogs" who still keep these strains inviolate, and who greatly prefer them to the better-known terriers whose natural activities have been too often atrophied by a system of artificial breeding to show points. Few of these old unregistered breeds would attract the eye of the fancier accustomed to judge a dog parading before him in the show ring. To know their value and to appreciate their sterling good qualities, one needs to watch them at work on badger or when they hit upon the line of an otter. It is then that they display the alertness and the dare-devil courage which have won for the English terriers their name and fame. An excellent working terrier was the white, rough-haired strain kept by the Rev. John Russell in Devonshire and distributed among privileged sportsmen about Somersetshire and Gloucestershire. The working attributes of these energetic terriers have long been understood, and the smart, plucky little dogs have been constantly coveted by breeders all over the country, but they have never won the popularity they deserve. Those who have kept both varieties prefer the Russell to the Sealyham Terrier, which is nevertheless an excellent worker. It is on record that one of these, a bitch of only 9 lb. weight, fought and killed, single-handed, a full-grown dog-fox. The Sealyham derives its breed name from the seat of the Edwardes family, near Haverfordwest, in Pembrokeshire, where the strain has been carefully preserved for well over a century. It is a long-bodied, short-legged terrier, with a hard, wiry coat, frequently whole white, but also white with black or brown markings or brown with black. They may be as heavy as 17 lb., but 12 lb. is the average weight. Some years ago the breed seemed to be on the down grade, requiring fresh blood from a well-chosen outcross. One hears very little concerning them nowadays, but it is certain that when in their prime they possessed all the grit, determination, and endurance that are looked for in a good working terrier. A wire-haired black and tan terrier was once common in Suffolk and Norfolk, where it was much used for rabbiting, but it may now be extinct, or, if not extinct, probably identified with the Welsh Terrier, which it closely resembled in size and colouring. There was also in Shropshire a well-known breed of wire-hair terriers, black and tan, on very short legs, and weighing about 10 lb. or 12 lb., with long punishing heads and extraordinary working powers. So, too, in Lancashire and Cheshire one used to meet with sandy-coloured terriers of no very well authenticated strain, but closely resembling the present breed of Irish Terrier; and Squire Thornton, at his place near Pickering, in Yorkshire, had a breed of wire-hairs tan in colour with a black stripe down the back. Then there is the Cowley strain, kept by the Cowleys of Callipers, near King's Langley. These are white wire-haired dogs marked like the Fox-terrier, and exceedingly game. Possibly the Elterwater Terrier is no longer to be found, but some few of them still existed a dozen years or so ago in the Lake District, where they were used in conjunction with the West Cumberland Otterhounds. They were not easily distinguishable from the better-known Border Terriers of which there are still many strains, ranging from Northumberland, where Mr. T. Robson, of Bellingham, has kept them for many years, to Galloway and Ayrshire and the Lothians, where their coats become longer and less crisp. There are many more local varieties of the working terrier as, for example, the Roseneath, which is often confused with the Poltalloch, or White West Highlander, to whom it is possibly related. And the Pittenweem, with which the Poltalloch Terriers are now being crossed; while Mrs. Alastair Campbell, of Ardrishaig, has a pack of Cairn Terriers which seem to represent the original type of the improved Scottie. Considering the great number of strains that have been preserved by sporting families and maintained in more or less purity to type, it is easy to understand how a "new" breed may become fashionable, and still claim the honour of long descent. They may not in all cases have the beauty of shape which is desired on the show bench; but it is well to remember that while our show terriers have been bred to the highest perfection we still possess in Great Britain a separate order of "earth dogs" that for pluckily following the fox and the badger into their lairs or bolting an otter from his holt cannot be excelled all the world over. CHAPTER XXIX THE WHITE ENGLISH TERRIER This dog, one would think, ought, by the dignified title which he bears, to be considered a representative national terrier, forming a fourth in the distinctively British quartette whose other members are the Scottish, the Irish, and the Welsh Terriers. Possibly in the early days when Pearson and Roocroft bred him to perfection it was hoped and intended that he should become a breed typical of England. He is still the only terrier who owns the national name, but he has long ago yielded pride of place to the Fox-terrier, and it is the case that the best specimens of his race are bred north of the border, while, instead of being the most popular dog in the land, he is actually one of the most neglected and the most seldom seen. At the Kennel Club Show of 1909 there was not a single specimen of the breed on view, nor was one to be found at the recent shows at Edinburgh, Birmingham, Manchester, or Islington, nor at the National Terrier Show at Westminster. It is a pity that so smart and beautiful a dog should be suffered to fall into such absolute neglect. One wonders what the reason of it can be. Possibly it is that the belief still prevails that he is of delicate constitution, and is not gifted with a great amount of intelligence or sagacity; there is no doubt, however, that a potent factor in hastening the decline is to be found in the edict against cropping. Neither the White Terrier nor the Manchester Terrier has since been anything like so popular as they both were before April, 1898, when the Kennel Club passed the law that dogs' ears must not be cropped. Writers on canine history, and Mr. Rawdon Lee among the number, tell us that the English White Terrier is a comparatively new breed, and that there is no evidence to show where he originally sprang from, who produced him, or for what reason he was introduced. His existence as a distinct breed is dated back no longer than forty years. This is about the accepted age of most of our named English terriers. Half a century ago, before the institution of properly organised dog shows drew particular attention to the differentiation of breeds, the generic term "terrier" without distinction was applied to all "earth dogs," and the consideration of colour and size was the only common rule observed in breeding. But it would not be difficult to prove that a white terrier resembling the one now under notice existed in England as a separate variety many generations anterior to the period usually assigned to its recognition. In the National Portrait Gallery there is a portrait of Mary of Modena, Queen Consort of James II., painted in 1670 by William Wissing, who has introduced at the Queen's side a terrier that is undoubtedly of this type. The dog has slight brown or brindle markings on the back, as many English White Terriers have, and it is to be presumed that it is of the breed from which this variety is descended. Apart from colour there is not a great difference between the White English Terrier and the Manchester Black and Tan. But although they are of similar shape and partake much of the same general character, yet there is the distinction that in the black and tan the conservation of type is stronger and more noticeable than in the white, in which the correct shape and action are difficult to obtain. It ought naturally to be easier to breed a pure white dog from white parents than to breed correctly marked and well tanned puppies from perfect black and tans; but the efforts of many breeders do not seem to support such a theory in connection with the English Terrier, whose litters frequently show the blemish of a spot of brindle or russet. These spots usually appear behind the ears or on the neck, and are of course a disfigurement on a dog whose coat to be perfect should be of an intense and brilliant white. It appears to be equally difficult to breed one which, while having the desired purity of colour, is also perfect in shape and terrier character. It is to be noted, too, that many otherwise good specimens are deaf--a fault which seriously militates against the dog's possibilities as a companion or as a watch. Birmingham and Manchester were the localities in which the English Terrier was most popular forty years ago, but it was Mr. Frederick White, of Clapham, who bred all the best of the white variety and who made it popular in the neighbourhood of London. His terriers were of a strain founded by a dog named King Dick, and in 1863 he exhibited a notable team in Laddie, Fly, Teddie, and Nettle. Mr. S. E. Shirley, M. P., was attracted to the breed, and possessed many good examples, as also did the Rev. J. W. Mellor and Mr. J. H. Murchison. Mr. Alfred Benjamin's Silvio was a prominent dog in 1877. Silvio was bred by Mr. James Roocroft, of Bolton, who owned a large kennel of this variety of terrier, and who joined with his townsman, Joe Walker, and with Bill Pearson in raising the breed to popularity in Lancashire. Bill Pearson was the breeder of Tim, who was considered the best terrier of his time, a dog of 14 lb., with a brilliant white coat, the darkest of eyes, and a perfect black nose. It is apparent that the Whippet was largely used as a cross with the English Terrier, which may account to a great extent for the decline of terrier character in the breed. Wiser breeders had recourse to the more closely allied Bull-terrier; Mr. Shirley's prize winning Purity was by Tim out of a Bull-terrier bitch, and there is no doubt that whatever stamina remains in the breed has been supported by this cross. The following is the description laid down by the White English Terrier Club:-- * * * * * HEAD--Narrow, long and level, almost flat skull, without cheek muscles, wedge-shaped, well filled up under the eyes, tapering to the nose, and not lippy. EYES--Small and black, set fairly close together, and oblong in shape. NOSE--Perfectly black. EARS--Cropped and standing perfectly erect. NECK AND SHOULDERS--The neck should be fairly long and tapering from the shoulders to the head, with sloping shoulders, the neck being free from throatiness, and slightly arched at the occiput. CHEST--Narrow and deep. BODY--Short and curving upwards at the loins, sprung out behind the shoulders, back slightly arched at loins, and falling again at the joining of the tail to the same height as the shoulders. LEGS--Perfectly straight and well under the body, moderate in bone, and of proportionate length. FEET--Feet nicely arched, with toes set well together, and more inclined to be round than hare-footed. TAIL--Moderate length, and set on where the arch of the back ends, thick where it joins the body, tapering to a point, and not carried higher than the back. COAT--Close, hard, short, and glossy. COLOUR--Pure white, coloured marking to disqualify. CONDITION--Flesh and muscles to be hard and firm. WEIGHT--From 12 lb. to 20 lb. CHAPTER XXX THE BLACK AND TAN TERRIER The Black and Tan, or Manchester, Terrier as we know him to-day is a comparatively new variety, and he is not to be confounded with the original terrier with tan and black colouring which was referred to by Dr. Caius in the sixteenth century, and which was at that time used for going to ground and driving out badgers and foxes. Formerly there was but little regard paid to colour and markings, and there was a considerably greater proportion of tan in the coat than there is at the present day, while the fancy markings, such as pencilled toes, thumb marks, and kissing spots were not cultivated. The general outline of the dog, too, was less graceful and altogether coarser. During the first half of the nineteenth century the chief accomplishment of this terrier was rat-killing. There are some extraordinary accounts of his adroitness, as well as courage, in destroying these vermin. The feats of a dog called Billy are recorded. He was matched to destroy one hundred large rats in eight minutes and a half. The rats were brought into the ring in bags, and as soon as the number was complete Billy was put over the railing into their midst. In six minutes and thirty-five seconds they were all destroyed. In another match he killed the same number in six minutes and thirteen seconds. It was a popular terrier in Lancashire, and it was in this county that the refining process in his shape and colouring was practised, and where he came by the name of the Manchester Terrier. Like the White English Terriers the Black and Tan has fallen on evil days. It is not a popular dog among fanciers, and although many good ones may be seen occasionally about the streets the breed suffers from want of the care and attention that are incidental to the breeding and rearing of dogs intended for competition at shows. There are many who hold the opinion that one of the chief reasons for the decadence in the popularity of the Black and Tan Terrier, notwithstanding its many claims to favour, is to be found in the loss of that very alert appearance which was a general characteristic before the Kennel Club made it illegal to crop the ears of such as were intended for exhibition. It must be admitted that until very recently there was a considerable amount of truth in the prevalent opinion, inasmuch as a rather heavy ear, if carried erect, was the best material to work upon, and from which to produce the long, fine, and upright, or "pricked" effect which was looked upon as being the correct thing in a cropped dog; hence it followed that no care was taken to select breeding stock likely to produce the small, semi-erect, well-carried, and thin ears required to-day, consequently when the edict forbidding the use of scissors came into force there were very few small-eared dogs to be found. It has taken at least ten or a dozen years to eradicate the mischief, and even yet the cure is not complete. Another factor which has had a bad effect is the belief, which has become much too prevalent, that a great deal of "faking" has been practised in the past, and that it has been so cleverly performed as to deceive the most observant judge, whereby a very artificial standard of quality has been obtained. The standard of points by which the breed should be judged is as follows:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--A terrier calculated to take his own part in the rat pit, and not of the Whippet type. HEAD--The head should be long, flat, and narrow, level and wedge-shaped, without showing cheek muscles; well filled up under the eyes, with tapering, tightly-lipped jaws and level teeth. EYES--The eyes should be very small, sparkling, and bright, set fairly close together and oblong in shape. NOSE--Black. EARS--The correct carriage of ears is a debatable point since cropping has been abolished. Probably in the large breed the drop ear is correct, but for Toys either erect or semi-erect carriage of the ear is most desirable. NECK AND SHOULDERS--The neck should be fairly long and tapering from the shoulders to the head, with sloping shoulders, the neck being free from throatiness and slightly arched at the occiput. CHEST--The chest should be narrow but deep. BODY--The body should be moderately short and curving upwards at the loin; ribs well sprung, back slightly arched at the loin and falling again at the joining of the tail to the same height as the shoulders. FEET--The feet should be more inclined to be cat- than hare-footed. TAIL--The tail should be of moderate length and set on where the arch of the back ends; thick where it joins the body, tapering to a point, and not carried higher than the back. COAT--The coat should be close, smooth, short and glossy. COLOUR--The coat should be jet black and rich mahogany tan, distributed over the body as follows: On the head the muzzle is tanned to the nose, which with the nasal bone is jet black. There is also a bright spot on each cheek and above each eye; the underjaw and throat are tanned, and the hair inside the ears is the same colour; the fore-legs tanned up to the knee, with black lines (pencil marks) up each toe, and a black mark (thumb mark) above the foot; inside the hind-legs tanned, but divided with black at the hock joints; and under the tail also tanned; and so is the vent, but only sufficiently to be easily covered by the tail; also slightly tanned on each side of the chest. Tan outside the hind-legs--commonly called breeching--is a serious defect. In all cases the black should not run into the tan, nor _vice versa_, but the division between the two colours should be well defined. WEIGHT--For toys not exceeding 7 lb.; for the large breed from 10 to 20 lb. is most desirable. CHAPTER XXXI THE BULL-TERRIER The Bull-terrier is now a gentlemanly and respectably owned dog, wearing an immaculate white coat and a burnished silver collar; he has dealings with aristocracy, and is no longer contemned for keeping bad company. But a generation or two ago he was commonly the associate of rogues and vagabonds, skulking at the heels of such members of society as Mr. William Sikes, whom he accompanied at night on darksome business to keep watch outside while Bill was within, cracking the crib. In those days the dog's ears were closely cropped, not for the sake of embellishment, but as a measure of protection against the fangs of his opponent in the pit when money was laid upon the result of a well-fought fight to the death. For fighting was the acknowledged vocation of his order, and he was bred and trained to the work. He knew something of rats, too, and many of his kind were famed in the land for their prowess in this direction. Jimmy Shaw's Jacko could finish off sixty rats in three minutes, and on one occasion made a record by killing a thousand in a trifle over an hour and a half. The breed is sufficiently modern to leave no doubt as to its derivation. In the first quarter of the nineteenth century attention was being directed to the improvement of terriers generally, and new types were sought for. They were alert, agile little dogs, excellent for work in the country; but the extravagant Corinthians of the time--the young gamesters who patronised the prize-ring and the cock-pit--desired to have a dog who should do something more than kill rats, or unearth the fox, or bolt the otter: which accomplishments afforded no amusement to the Town. They wanted a dog combining all the dash and gameness of the terrier with the heart and courage and fighting instinct of the Bulldog. Wherefore the terrier and the Bulldog were crossed. A large type of terrier was chosen, and this would be the smooth-coated Black and Tan, or the early English White Terrier; but probably both were used indifferently, and for a considerable period. The result gave the young bucks what they required: a dog that was at once a determined vermin killer and an intrepid fighter, upon whose skill in the pit wagers might with confidence be laid. The animal, however, was neither a true terrier nor a true Bulldog, but an uncompromising mongrel; albeit he served his immediate purpose, and was highly valued for his pertinacity, if not for his appearance. In 1806 Lord Camelford possessed one for which he had paid the very high price of eighty-four guineas, and which he presented to Belcher, the pugilist. This dog was figured in _The Sporting Magazine_ of the time. He was a short-legged, thick-set, fawn-coloured specimen, with closely amputated ears, a broad blunt muzzle, and a considerable lay-back; and this was the kind of dog which continued for many years to be known as the Bull-and-terrier. He was essentially a man's dog, and was vastly in favour among the undergraduates of Oxford and Cambridge. Gradually the Bulldog element, at first pronounced, was reduced to something like a fourth degree, and, with the terrier character predominating, the head was sharpened, the limbs were lengthened and straightened until little remained of the Bulldog strain but the dauntless heart and the fearless fighting spirit, together with the frequent reversion to brindle colouring, which was the last outward and visible characteristic to disappear. Within the remembrance of men not yet old the Bull-terrier was as much marked with fawn, brindle, or even black, as are the Fox-terriers of our own period. But fifty years or so ago white was becoming frequent, and was much admired. A strain of pure white was bred by James Hinks, a well-known dog-dealer of Birmingham, and it is no doubt to Hinks that we are indebted for the elegant Bull-terrier of the type that we know to-day. These Birmingham dogs showed a refinement and grace and an absence of the crook-legs and coloured patches which betrayed that Hinks had been using an out-cross with the English White Terrier, thus getting away further still from the Bulldog. With the advent of the Hinks strain in 1862 the short-faced dog fell into disrepute, and pure white became the accepted colour. There was a wide latitude in the matter of weight. If all other points were good, a dog might weigh anything between 10 and 38 lbs., but classes were usually divided for those above and those below 16 lb. The type became fixed, and it was ruled that the perfect Bull-terrier "must have a long head, wide between the ears, level jaws, a small black eye, a large black nose, a long neck, straight fore-legs, a small hare foot, a narrow chest, deep brisket, powerful loin, long body, a tail set and carried low, a fine coat, and small ears well hung and dropping forward." Idstone, who wrote this description in 1872, earnestly insisted that the ears of all dogs should be left uncut and as Nature made them; but for twenty years thereafter the ears of the Bull-terrier continued to be cropped to a thin, erect point. The practice of cropping, it is true, was even then illegal and punishable by law, but, although there were occasional convictions under the Cruelty to Animals Act, the dog owners who admired the alertness and perkiness of the cut ear ignored the risk they ran, and it was not until the Kennel Club took resolute action against the practice that cropping was entirely abandoned. The president of the Kennel Club, Mr. S. E. Shirley, M. P., had himself been a prominent owner and breeder of the Bull-terrier. His Nelson, bred by Joe Willock, was celebrated as an excellent example of the small-sized terrier, at a time, however, when there were not a great many competitors of the highest quality. His Dick, also, was a remarkably good dog. Earlier specimens which have left their names in the history of the breed were Hinks's Old Dutch, who was, perhaps, even a more perfect terrier than the same breeder's Madman and Puss. Lancashire and Yorkshire have always been noted for good Bull-terriers, and the best of the breed have usually been produced in the neighbourhoods of Leeds, Bradford, Manchester, Bolton, and Liverpool, while Birmingham also shared in the reputation. At one time Londoners gave careful attention to the breed, stimulated thereto by the encouragement of Mr. Shirley and the success of Alfred George. Of recent years the Bull-terrier has not been a great favourite, and it has sadly deteriorated in type; but there are signs that the variety is again coming into repute, and within the past two years many admirable specimens--as nearly perfect, perhaps, as many that won honour in former generations--have been brought into prominence. Among dogs, for example, there are Mr. E. T. Pimm's Sweet Lavender, Dr. M. Amsler's MacGregor, Mr. Chris Houlker's His Highness, and Mr. J. Haynes' Bloomsbury Young King. Among bitches there are Mrs. Kipping's Delphinium Wild and Desdemona, Mr. Hornby's Lady Sweetheart, Mr. W. Mayor's Mill Girl, Mr. T. Gannaway's Charlwood Belle, Dr. J. W. Low's Bess of Hardwicke, and Mrs. E. G. Money's Eastbourne Tarqueenia. While these and such as these beautiful and typical terriers are being bred and exhibited there is no cause to fear a further decline in popularity for a variety so eminently engaging. The club description is as follows:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--The general appearance of the Bull-terrier is that of a symmetrical animal, the embodiment of agility, grace, elegance, and determination. HEAD--The head should be long, flat, and wide between the ears, tapering to the nose, without cheek muscles. There should be a slight indentation down the face, without a stop between the eyes. The jaws should be long and very powerful, with a large black nose and open nostrils. Eyes small and very black, almond shape preferred. The lips should meet as tightly as possible, without a fold. The teeth should be regular in shape, and should meet exactly; any deviation, such as pigjaw, or being underhung, is a great fault. EARS--The ears, when cropped, should be done scientifically and according to fashion. Cropped dogs cannot win a prize at shows held under Kennel Club rules, if born after March 31st, 1895. When not cropped, it should be a semi-erect ear, but others do not disqualify. NECK--The neck should be long and slightly arched, nicely set into the shoulders tapering to the head without any loose skin, as found in the Bulldog. SHOULDERS--The shoulders should be strong, muscular, and slanting; the chest wide and deep, with ribs well rounded. BACK--The back short and muscular, but not out of proportion to the general contour of the animal. LEGS--The fore-legs should be perfectly straight, with well-developed muscles; not out at shoulder, but set on the racing lines, and very strong at the pastern joints. The hind-legs are long and, in proportion to the fore-legs, muscular, with good strong, straight hocks, well let down near the ground. FEET--The feet more resemble those of a cat than a hare. COLOUR--Should be white. COAT--Short, close, and stiff to the touch, with a fine gloss. TAIL--Short in proportion to the size of the dog, set on very low down, thick where it joins the body, and tapering to a fine point. It should be carried at an angle of about 45 degrees, without curl, and never over the back. HEIGHT AT SHOULDERS--From 12 to 18 inches. WEIGHT--From 15 lb. to 50 lb. CHAPTER XXXII THE SMOOTH FOX-TERRIER To attempt to set forth the origin of the Fox-terrier as we know him to-day would be of no interest to the general reader, and would entail the task of tracing back the several heterogeneous sources from which he sprang. It is a matter of very little moment whether he owes his origin to the white English Terrier or to the Bull-terrier crossed with the Black and Tan, or whether he has a mixture of Beagle blood in his composition, so it will suffice to take him as he emerged from the chaos of mongreldom about the middle of the last century, rescued in the first instance by the desire of huntsmen or masters of well-known packs to produce a terrier somewhat in keeping with their hounds; and, in the second place, to the advent of dog shows. Prior to that time any dog capable, from his size, conformation, and pluck, of going to ground and bolting his fox was a Fox-terrier, were he rough or smooth, black, brown, or white. The starting-point of the modern Fox-terrier dates from about the 'sixties, and no pedigrees before that are worth considering. From three dogs then well known--Old Jock, Trap, and Tartar--he claims descent; and, thanks to the Fox-terrier Club and the great care taken in compiling their stud-books, he can be brought down to to-day. Of these three dogs Old Jock was undoubtedly more of a terrier than the others. It is a moot point whether he was bred, as stated in most records of the time, by Captain Percy Williams, master of the Rufford, or by Jack Morgan, huntsman to the Grove; it seems, however, well established that the former owned his sire, also called Jock, and that his dam, Grove Pepper, was the property of Morgan. He first came before the public at the Birmingham show in 1862, where, shown by Mr. Wootton, of Nottingham, he won first prize. He subsequently changed hands several times, till he became the property of Mr. Murchison, in whose hands he died in the early 'seventies. He was exhibited for the last time at the Crystal Palace in 1870, and though then over ten years old won second to the same owner's Trimmer. At his best he was a smart, well-balanced terrier, with perhaps too much daylight under him, and wanting somewhat in jaw power; but he showed far less of the Bull-terrier type than did his contemporary Tartar. This dog's antecedents were very questionable, and his breeder is given as Mr. Stevenson, of Chester, most of whose dogs were Bull-terriers pure and simple, save that they had drop ears and short sterns, being in this respect unlike old Trap, whose sire is generally supposed to have been a Black and Tan Terrier. This dog came from the Oakley Kennels, and he was supposed to have been bred by a miller at Leicester. However questionable the antecedents of these three terriers may have been, they are undoubtedly the progenitors of our present strain, and from them arose the kennels that we have to-day. Mention has been made of Mr. Murchison, and to him we owe in a great measure the start in popularity which since the foundation of his large kennel the Fox-terrier has enjoyed. Mr. Murchison's chief opponents in the early 'seventies were Mr. Gibson, of Brockenhurst, with his dogs Tyke and Old Foiler; Mr. Luke Turner, of Leicester, with his Belvoir strain, which later gave us Ch. Brockenhurst Joe, Ch. Olive and her son, Ch. Spice; Mr. Theodore Bassett, Mr. Allison, and, a year or so later, Mr. Frederick Burbidge, the Messrs. Clarke, Mr. Tinne, Mr. Francis Redmond, and Mr. Vicary. About this time a tremendous impetus was given to the breed by the formation, in 1876, of the Fox-terrier Club, which owed its inception to Mr. Harding Cox and a party of enthusiasts seated round his dinner table at 36, Russell Square, among whom were Messrs. Bassett, Burbidge, Doyle, Allison, and Redmond, the last two named being still members of the club. The idea was very warmly welcomed, a committee formed, and a scale of points drawn up which, with but one alteration, is in vogue to-day. Every prominent exhibitor or breeder then, and with few exceptions since, has been a member, and the club is by far the strongest of all specialist clubs. It will be well to give here the said standard of points. * * * * * HEAD AND EARS--The _Skull_ should be flat and moderately narrow, and gradually decreasing in width to the eyes. Not much "stop" should be apparent, but there should be more dip in the profile between the forehead and top jaw than is seen in the case of a Greyhound. The _Cheeks_ must not be full. The _Ears_ should be V-shaped and small, of moderate thickness, and dropping forward close to the cheek, not hanging by the side of the head like a Foxhound's. The _Jaw_, upper and under, should be strong and muscular; should be of fair punishing strength, but not so in any way to resemble the Greyhound or modern English Terrier. There should not be much falling away below the eyes. This part of the head, should, however, be moderately chiselled out, so as not to go down in a straight line like a wedge. The _Nose_, towards which the muzzle must gradually taper, should be black. The _Eyes_ should be dark in colour, small, and rather deep set, full of fire, life, and intelligence; as nearly as possible circular in shape. The _Teeth_ should be as nearly as possible level, _i.e._, the upper teeth on the outside of the lower teeth. NECK--Should be clean and muscular, without throatiness, of fair length, and gradually widening to the shoulders. SHOULDERS AND CHEST--The _Shoulders_ should be long and sloping, well laid back, fine at the points, and clearly cut at the withers. The _Chest_ deep and not broad. BACK AND LOIN--The _Back_ should be short, straight, and strong, with no appearance of slackness. The _Loin_ should be powerful and very slightly arched. The fore ribs should be moderately arched, the back ribs deep; and the dog should be well ribbed up. HIND-QUARTERS--Should be strong and muscular, quite free from droop or crouch; the thighs long and powerful; hocks near the ground, the dog standing well up on them like a Foxhound, and not straight in the stifle. STERN--Should be set on rather high, and carried gaily, but not over the back or curled. It should be of good strength, anything approaching a "pipe-stopper" tail being especially objectionable. LEGS AND FEET--The _Legs_ viewed in any direction must be straight, showing little or no appearance of an ankle in front. They should be strong in bone throughout, short and straight to pastern. Both fore and hind legs should be carried straight forward in travelling, the stifles not turned outwards. The elbows should hang perpendicular to the body, working free of the side. The _Feet_ should be round, compact, and not large. The soles hard and tough. The toes moderately arched, and turned neither in nor out. COAT--Should be straight, flat, smooth, hard, dense, and abundant. The belly and under side of the thighs should not be bare. As regards colour, white should predominate; brindle, red, or liver markings are objectionable. Otherwise this point is of little or no importance. SYMMETRY, SIZE, AND CHARACTER--The dog must present a general gay, lively, and active appearance; bone and strength in a small compass are essentials; but this must not be taken to mean that a Fox-terrier should be cloggy, or in any way coarse--speed and endurance must be looked to as well as power, and the symmetry of the Foxhound taken as a model. The terrier, like the hound, must on no account be leggy, nor must he be too short in the leg. He should stand like a cleverly-made hunter, covering a lot of ground, yet with a short back, as before stated. He will then attain the highest degree of propelling power, together with the greatest length of stride that is compatible with the length of his body. Weight is not a certain criterion of a terrier's fitness for his work--general shape, size and contour are the main points; and if a dog can gallop and stay, and follow his fox up a drain, it matters little what his weight is to a pound or so, though, roughly speaking, it may be said he should not scale over twenty pounds in show condition. DISQUALIFYING POINTS: NOSE--White, cherry, or spotted to a considerable extent with either of these colours. EARS--prick, tulip, or rose. MOUTH--much overshot or much undershot. * * * * * In order to give some idea of the extraordinary way in which the Fox-terrier took the public taste, it will be necessary to hark back and give a _resume_ of the principal kennels and exhibitors to whom this was due. In the year in which the Fox-terrier Club was formed, Mr. Fred Burbidge, at one time captain of the Surrey Eleven, had the principal kennels. He was the pluckiest buyer of his day, and once he fancied a dog nothing stopped him till it was in his kennels. He bought Nimrod, Dorcas, Tweezers, and Nettle, and with them and other discriminating purchases he was very hard to beat on the show-bench. Strange to say, at this time he seemed unable to breed a good dog, and determined to have a clear out and start afresh. A few brood bitches only were retained, and the kennels moved from Champion Hill to Hunton Bridge, in Hertfordshire. From thence in a few years came Bloom, Blossom, Tweezers II., Hunton Baron, Hunton Bridegroom, and a host of others, which spread the fame of the great Hunton strain. When the kennel was dispersed at Mr. Burbidge's untimely death in 1892, the dogs, 130 lots in all, were sold by auction and realised P1,800; Hunton Tartar fetched P135, Justice P84, Bliss P70, and Scramble P65. Messrs. A. H. and C. Clarke were at this time quietly founding a kennel, which perhaps has left its mark more indelibly on the breed than any before or since. Brockenhurst Rally was a most fortunate purchase from his breeder, Mr. Herbert Peel, and was by Brockenhurst Joe from a Bitters bitch, as from this dog came Roysterer and Ruler, their dam being Jess, an old Turk bitch; and from Rollick by Buff was bred Ruse and Ransome. Roysterer was the sire of Result, by many considered the best Fox-terrier dog of all time; and Result's own daughter Rachel was certainly the best bitch of her day. All these terriers had intense quality and style, due for the most part to inbreeding. Very little new blood was introduced, with an inevitable result; and by degrees the kennel died out. No history of the Fox-terrier could be complete without mention of Mr. Francis Redmond and his kennel, going back, as it does, to the Murchison and Luke Turner period, and being still to-day the most prominent one in existence. We can date his earlier efforts from his purchase of Deacon Nettle, the dam of Deacon Ruby; Dusty was the dam of Ch. Diamond Dust; Dickon he had from Luke Turner, and in this dog we have one of the foundation-stones of the Fox-terrier stud-book, as he was the sire of Splinter, who in his turn was the sire of Vesuvian. Mr. Redmond's next great winners were D'Orsay and Dominie, two sterling good terriers, the former of which was the sire of Dame D'Orsay, who, bred to Despoiler, produced Dame Fortune, the mother of Donna Fortuna, whose other parent was Dominie. Donna Fortuna, considered universally the best specimen of a Fox-terrier ever produced, had from the first a brilliant career, for though fearlessly shown on all occasions she never knew defeat. Some took exception to her want of what is called terrier character, and others would have liked her a shade smaller; but we have still to see the Fox-terrier, taken all round, that could beat her. As an outcross Mr. Redmond purchased Dreadnought, one of the highest class dogs seen for many years, but had very bad luck with him, an accident preventing him from being shown and subsequently causing his early death. We must not forget Duchess of Durham or Dukedom; but to enumerate all Mr. Redmond's winners it would be necessary to take the catalogues of all the important shows held for the past thirty years. To no one do we owe so much; no one has made such a study of the breed, reducing it almost to a science, with the result that even outside his kennels no dog has any chance of permanently holding his own unless he has an ample supply of the blood. The great opponent of the Totteridge Kennel up to some few years ago was unquestionably Mr. Vicary, of Newton Abbot, who laid the foundation of his kennel with Vesuvian, who was by Splinter, out of Kohinor, and from whom came the long line of winners, Venio-Vesuvienne, Vice-Regal, Valuator, Visto, and Veracity. Fierce war raged round these kennels, each having its admiring and devoted adherents, until one side would not look at anything but a Redmond Terrier to the exclusion of the Vicary type. The Newton Abbot strain was remarkable for beautiful heads and great quality, but was faulty in feet and not absolute as to fronts, each of which properties was a _sine qua non_ amongst the Totteridge dogs. Latter-day breeders have recognised that in the crossing of the two perfection lies, and Mr. Redmond himself has not hesitated to go some way on the same road. [Illustration: FOX TERRIERS 1. Mrs. J. H. Brown's Ch. Captain Double 2. Mr. J. C. Tinne's Ch. The Sylph 3. Mr. T. J. Stephen's Wire-Hair Ch. Sylvan Result _Photograph by Revely_] It is fortunate for the breed of Fox-terriers how great a hold the hobby takes, and how enthusiastically its votaries pursue it, otherwise we should not have amongst us men like Mr. J. C. Tinne, whose name is now a household word in the Fox-terrier world, as it has been any time for the past thirty years. Close proximity, in those days, to Mr. Gibson at Brockenhurst made him all the keener, and one of his first terriers was a bitch of that blood by Bitters. With daughters of Old Foiler he did very well--to wit, Pungent, sister to Dorcas, while through Terror we get Banquet, the granddam of Despoiler. He purchased from Mr. Redmond both Deacon Diamond and Daze, each of whom was bred to Spice, and produced respectively Auburn and Brockenhurst Dainty; from the latter pair sprang Lottery and Worry, the granddam of Tom Newcome, to whom we owe Brockenhurst Agnes, Brockenhurst Dame, and Dinah Morris, and consequently Adam Bede and Hester Sorrel. It has always been Mr. Tinne's principle to aim at producing the best terrier he could, irrespective of the fads of this kennel or that, and his judgment has been amply vindicated, as the prize lists of every large show will testify. And to-day he is the proud possessor of Ch. The Sylph, who has beaten every one of her sex, and is considered by many about the best Fox-terrier ever seen. No name is better known or more highly respected by dog owners than that of the late Mr. J. A. Doyle, as a writer, breeder, judge, or exhibitor of Fox-terriers. Whilst breeding largely from his own stock, he was ever on the look-out for a likely outcross. He laid great store on terrier character, and was a stickler for good coats; a point much neglected in the present-day dog. Amongst the smaller kennels is that of Mr. Reeks, now mostly identified with Oxonian and that dog's produce, but he will always be remembered as the breeder of that beautiful terrier, Avon Minstrel. Mr. Arnold Gillett has had a good share of fortune's favours, as the Ridgewood dogs testify; whilst the Messrs. Powell, Castle, Glynn, Dale, and Crosthwaite have all written their names on the pages of Fox-terrier history. Ladies have ever been supporters of the breed, and no one more prominently so than Mrs. Bennett Edwards, who through Duke of Doncaster, a son of Durham, has founded a kennel which at times is almost invincible, and which still shelters such grand terriers as Doncaster, Dominie, Dodger, Dauphine, and many others well known to fame. Mrs. J. H. Brown, too, as the owner of Captain Double, a terrier which has won, and deservedly, more prizes than any Fox-terrier now or in the past, must not be omitted. Whether the present Fox-terrier is as good, both on the score of utility and appearance, as his predecessors is a question which has many times been asked, and as many times decided in the negative as well as in the affirmative. It would be idle to pretend that a great many of the dogs now seen on the show bench are fitted to do the work Nature intended them for, as irrespective of their make and shape they are so oversized as to preclude the possibility of going to ground in any average sized earth. This question of size is one that must sooner or later be tackled in some practical way by the Fox-terrier Club, unless we are to see a race of giants in the next few generations. Their own standard gives 20 lb.--a very liberal maximum; but there are dogs several pounds heavier constantly winning prizes at shows, and consequently being bred from, with the result which we see. There are many little dogs, and good ones, to be seen, but as long as the judges favour the big ones these hold no chance, and as it is far easier to produce a good big one than a good little one, breeders are encouraged to use sires who would not be looked at if a hard-and-fast line were drawn over which no dogs should win a prize. There are hundreds of Fox-terriers about quite as capable of doing their work as their ancestors ever were, and there is hardly a large kennel which has not from time to time furnished our leading packs with one or more dogs, and with gratifying results. It is, therefore, a great pity that our leading exhibitors should often be the greatest delinquents in showing dogs which they know in their hearts should be kept at home or drafted altogether, and it is deplorable that some of our oldest judges should by their awards encourage them. Before concluding this chapter it may not be out of place to say a few words as to the breeding and rearing of Fox terriers. In the first place, _never_ breed from an animal whose pedigree is not authenticated beyond a shadow of a doubt; and remember that while like _may_ beget like, the inevitable tendency is to throw back to former generations. The man who elects to breed Fox-terriers must have the bumps of patience and hope very strongly developed, as if the tyro imagines that he has only to mate his bitch to one of the known prize-winning dogs of the day in order to produce a champion, he had better try some other breed. Let him fix in his mind the ideal dog, and set to work by patient effort and in the face of many disappointments to produce it. It is not sufficient that, having acquired a bitch good in all points save in head, that he breeds her to the best-headed dog he can find. He must satisfy himself that the head is not a chance one, but is an inherited one, handed down from many generations, good in this particular, and consequently potent to reproduce its like. So in all other points that he wishes to reproduce. In the writer's experience, little bitches with quality are the most successful. Those having masculine characteristics should be avoided, and the best results will be obtained from the first three litters, after which a bitch rarely breeds anything so good. See that your bitch is free from worms before she goes to the dog, then feed her well, and beyond a dose of castor oil some days before she is due to whelp, let Nature take its course. Dose your puppies well for worms at eight weeks old, give them practically as much as they will eat, and unlimited exercise. Avoid the various advertised nostrums, and rely rather on the friendly advice of some fancier or your veterinary surgeon. Take your hobby seriously, and you will be amply repaid, even if success does not always crown your efforts, as while the breeding of most animals is a fascinating pursuit, that of the Fox-terrier presents many varying delights. CHAPTER XXXIII THE WIRE-HAIR FOX-TERRIER The wire-hair Fox-terrier is, with the exception of its coat, identical with the smooth Fox-terrier--full brother in fact to him. The two varieties are much interbred, and several litters in consequence include representatives of both; and not only this, but it is quite a frequent occurrence to get a smooth puppy from wire-hair parents, although for some generations neither of the parents may have had any smooth cross in their pedigrees. The North of England and South Wales (to a lesser extent) have ever been the home of the wire-hair, and nearly all the best specimens have come originally from one or the other of those districts. There is no doubt that there was excellent stock in both places, and there is also no doubt that though at times this was used to the best advantage, there was a good deal of carelessness in mating, and a certain amount in recording the parentage of some of the terriers. With regard to this latter point it is said that one gentleman who had quite a large kennel and several stud dogs, but who kept no books, used never to bother about remembering which particular dog he had put to a certain bitch, but generally satisfied himself as to the sire of a puppy when it came in from "walk" by just examining it and saying "Oh, that pup must be by owd Jock or Jim," as the case might be, "'cos he's so loike 'im," and down he would go on the entry form accordingly. However this may be, there is no doubt that the sire would be a wire-hair Fox-terrier, and, although the pedigree therefore may not have been quite right, the terrier was invariably pure bred. In the early days the smooth was not crossed with the wire to anything like the extent that it was later, and this fact is probably the cause of the salvation of the variety. The wire-hair has had more harm done to him by his being injudiciously crossed with the smooth than probably by anything else. The greatest care must be exercised in the matter of coat before any such cross is effected. The smooth that is crossed with the wire must have a really hard, and not too full coat, and, as there are very, very few smooths now being shown with anything like a proper coat for a terrier to possess, the very greatest caution is necessary. Some few years back, almost incalculable harm was done to the variety by a considerable amount of crossing into a strain of smooths with terribly soft flannelly coats. Good-looking terriers were produced, and therein lay the danger, but their coats were as bad as bad could be; and, though people were at first too prone to look over this very serious fault, they now seem to have recovered their senses, and thus, although much harm was done, any serious damage has been averted. If a person has a full-coated wire-hair bitch he is too apt to put her to a smooth simply because it is a smooth, whom he thinks will neutralise the length of his bitch's jacket, but this is absolute heresy, and must not be done unless the smooth has the very hardest of hair on him. If it is done, the result is too horrible for words: you get an elongated, smooth, full coat as soft as cotton wool, and sometimes as silkily wavy as a lady's hair. This is not a coat for any terrier to possess, and it is not a wire-hair terrier's coat, which ought to be a hard, crinkly, peculiar-looking broken coat on top, with a dense undercoat underneath, and must never be mistakable for an elongated smooth terrier's coat, which can never at any time be a protection from wind, water, or dirt, and is, in reality, the reverse. The wire-hair has had a great advertisement, for better or worse, in the extraordinarily prominent way he has been mentioned in connection with "faking" and trimming. Columns have been written on this subject, speeches of inordinate length have been delivered, motions and resolutions have been carried, rules have been promulgated, etc., etc., and the one dog mentioned throughout in connection with all of them has been our poor old, much maligned wire-hair. He has been the scapegoat, the subject of all this brilliancy and eloquence, and were he capable of understanding the language of the human, we may feel sure much amusement would be his. There are several breeds that are more trimmed than the wire-hair, and that might well be quoted before him in this connection. There is a vast difference between legitimate trimming, and what is called "faking." All dogs with long or wire-hair or rough coats naturally require more attention, and more grooming than those with short smooth coats. For the purposes of health and cleanliness it is absolutely necessary that such animals should be frequently well groomed. There is no necessity, given a wire-hair with a good and proper coat, to use anything but an ordinary close-toothed comb, a good hard brush, and an occasional removal of long old hairs on the head, ears, neck, legs, and belly, with the finger and thumb. The Kennel Club regulations for the preparation of dogs for exhibition are perfectly clear on this subject, and are worded most properly. They say that a dog "shall be disqualified if any part of his coat or hair has been cut, clipped, singed, or rasped down by any substance, or if any of the new or fast coat has been removed by pulling or plucking in any manner," and that "no comb shall be used which has a cutting or rasping edge." There is no law, therefore, against the removal of old coat by finger and thumb, and anyone who keeps long-haired dogs knows that it is essential to the dog's health that there should be none. It is in fact most necessary in certain cases, at certain times, to pull old coat out in this way. Several terriers with good coats are apt to grow long hair very thickly round the neck and ears, and unless this is removed when it gets old, the neck and ears are liable to become infested with objectionable little slate-coloured nits, which will never be found as long as the coat is kept down when necessary. Bitches in whelp and after whelping, although ordinarily good-coated, seem to go all wrong in their coats unless properly attended to in this way, and here again, if you wish to keep your bitch free from skin trouble, it is a necessity, in those cases which need it, to use finger and thumb. If the old hair is pulled out only when it is old, there is no difficulty about it, and no hurt whatever is occasioned to the dog, who does not in reality object at all. If, however, new or fast coat is pulled out it not only hurts the dog but it is also a very foolish thing to do, and the person guilty of such a thing fully merits disqualification. Most of the nonsense that is heard about trimming emanates, of course, from the ignoramus; the knife, he says, is used on them all, a sharp razor is run over their coats, they are singed, they are cut, they are rasped (the latter is the favourite term). Anything like such a sweeping condemnation is quite inaccurate and most unfair. It is impossible to cut a hair without being detected by a good judge, and very few people ever do any such thing, at any rate for some months before the terrier is exhibited, for if they do, they know they are bound to be discovered, and, as a fact, are. When the soft-coated dogs are clipped they are operated on, say, two or three months before they are wanted, and the hair gets a chance to grow, but even then it is easily discernible, and anyone who, like the writer, has any experience of clipping dogs in order to cure them of that awful disease, follicular mange, knows what a sight the animal is when he grows his coat, and how terribly unnatural he looks. The wire-hair has never been in better state than he is to-day; he is, generally speaking, far ahead of his predecessors of twenty-five years ago, not only from a show point of view, but also in working qualities. One has only to compare the old portraits of specimens of the variety with dogs of the present day to see this. A good many individual specimens of excellent merit, it is true, there were, but they do not seem to have been immortalised in this way. The portraits of those we do see are mostly representations of awful-looking brutes, as bad in shoulders, and light of bone, as they could be; they appear also to have had very soft coats, somewhat akin to that we see on a Pomeranian nowadays, though it is true this latter fault may have been that of the artist, or probably amplified by him. Perhaps the strongest kennel of wire-hairs that has existed was that owned a good many years ago by Messrs. Maxwell and Cassell. Several champions were in the kennel at the same time, and they were a sorty lot of nice size, and won prizes all over the country. Jack Frost, Jacks Again, Liffey, Barton Wonder, Barton Marvel, and several other good ones, were inmates of this kennel, the two latter especially being high-class terriers, which at one time were owned by Sir H. de Trafford. Barton Marvel was a very beautiful bitch, and probably the best of those named above, though Barton Wonder was frequently put above her. Sir H. de Trafford had for years a very good kennel of the variety, and at that time was probably the biggest and best buyer. Mr. Carrick, of Carlisle, was also a prominent owner years ago, and showed some excellent terriers, the best being Carlisle Tack, Trick, and Tyro. The latter was an exceptionally good dog. Mr. Sam Hill, of Sheffield, had also a strong kennel, always well shown by George Porter, who is now, and has been for some years, in America, where he still follows his old love. Mr. Hill's name will ever be associated with that of his great dog Meersbrook Bristles, who has undoubtedly done the breed a great amount of good. Mr. Mayhew is another old fancier, who nearly always showed a good one. Mr. Mayhew has been in America now for many years. One dog of his, who it is believed became a champion, viz. Brittle, did at one time a big business at stud, perhaps not to the advantage of the breed, for he was possessed of a very bad fault, in that he had what was called a topknot ring, a bunch of soft silky hairs on his forehead, an unfailing sign of a soft coat all over, and a thing which breeders should studiously avoid. This topknot was at one time more prevalent than it is now. Whether it is a coincidence or not one cannot say, but it is a fact that in the writer's experience several terriers possessed of this fault have also blue markings, which again are almost invariably accompanied by a soft coat, and taking these two peculiarities together it would seem that at some time, years ago, a cross with that wonderfully game but exceedingly soft-coated terrier, the Bedlington, may have been resorted to, though if so it would appear that nowadays any effect of it is gradually dying out. Mr. George Raper is one of the old fanciers who has for many years owned some of the best specimens of the variety, Ch. Go Bang perhaps being the most notable. Go Bang was a beautiful terrier; there was no denying his quality. Mr. Raper sold him to Mr. G. M. Carnochan, of New York, for something like P500, probably the biggest price that has ever been paid for any Fox-terrier. Mr. Hayward Field is another gentleman who has been exhibiting the breed for very many years, and has owned several good terriers. The late Mr. Clear had also at one time a strong kennel, the best of which by a long way was Ch. Jack St. Leger. Mr. Wharton was a well-known exhibitor and judge some time back. It was he who owned that excellent little terrier Ch. Bushey Broom, who created quite a furore when first exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium. Mr. Harding Cox was years ago a great supporter of the variety. He exhibited with varying success, and was always much in request as a judge; one knew in entering under him that he wanted firstly a _terrier_, and further that the terrier had to be _sound_. Mr. Cox has of course played a big part in the popularisation of the Fox-terrier, for, as all the world knows, he was the instigator of the Fox-terrier Club, it being founded at a meeting held at his house. His love has ever been for the small terrier, and certainly the specimens shown by him, whatever their individual faults, were invariably a sporting, game-looking lot. Mr. Sidney Castle has for many years shown wire-hair Fox-terriers of more than average merit; and thoroughly understands the variety, indeed, perhaps as well as anybody. Messrs. Bartle, Brumby Mutter, G. Welch, and S. Wilson, are all old fanciers who have great experience, have bred and shown excellent specimens. In mentioning the names of celebrated men and terriers of years gone by, reference must be made to a terrier shown some time ago, which was as good, taken all round, as any that have so far appeared. This was Ch. Quantock Nettle, afterwards purchased by a gentleman in Wales and renamed Lexden Nettle. Of correct size, with marvellous character, an excellent jacket and very takingly marked with badger tan and black on a wonderful head and ears, this bitch swept the board, as they say, and unquestionably rightly so. No article on the wire-hair Fox-terrier would be complete without mentioning the name of the late Mr. S. E. Shirley, President of the Kennel Club. Mr. Shirley was a successful exhibitor in the early days of the variety, and while his terriers were a good-looking lot, though not up to the show form of to-day, they were invariably hard-bitten, game dogs, kept chiefly for work. On the question of size nearly all the principal judges of the Fox-terrier are agreed. Their maxim is "a good little one can always beat a good big one." The difficulty arises when the little ones are no good, and the big ones are excellent; it is a somewhat common occurrence, and to anyone who loves a truly formed dog, and who knows what a truly formed dog can do, it is an extremely difficult thing to put the little above the larger. All big dogs with properly placed shoulders and sound formation are better terriers for work of any sort than dogs half their size, short on the leg, but bad in these points. It is in reality impossible to make an inexorable rule about this question of size; each class must be judged on its own merits. CHAPTER XXXIV THE AIREDALE TERRIER There is perhaps no breed of dog that in so short a time has been improved so much as the Airedale. He is now a very beautiful animal, whereas but a few years back, although maybe there were a few fairly nice specimens, by far the greater number were certainly the reverse of this. In place of the shaggy, soft-coated, ugly-coloured brute with large hound ears and big full eyes, we have now a very handsome creature, possessing all the points that go to make a really first-class terrier of taking colour, symmetrical build, full of character and "go," amply justifying--in looks, at any rate--its existence as a terrier. Whether it is common sense to call a dog weighing 40 lb. to 50 lb. a terrier is a question that one often hears discussed. The fact remains the dog is a terrier--a sort of glorified edition of what we understand by the word, it is true, but in points, looks, and character, a terrier nevertheless, and it is impossible otherwise to classify him. People will ask: "How can he be a terrier? Why he is an outrage on the very word, which can only mean a dog to go to ground; and to what animal in the country of his birth can an Airedale go to ground?" Above ground and in water, however, an Airedale can, and does, perform in a very excellent manner everything that any other terrier can do. As a water dog he is, of course, in his element; for work on land requiring a hard, strong, fast and resolute terrier he is, needless to say, of great value; and he is said to be also, when trained--as can easily be imagined when one considers his power of scent, his strength, sagacity, and speed--a most excellent gun-dog. He is, in fact, a general utility dog, for add to the above-mentioned qualities those of probably an incomparable guard and a most excellent companion, faithful and true, and ask yourself what do you want more, and what breed of dog, taken all round, can beat him? The Airedale is not of ancient origin. He was probably first heard of about the year 1850. He is undoubtedly the product of the Otterhound and the old Black and Tan wire-haired terrier referred to in the chapters on the wire-hair Fox and the Welsh Terriers. When one considers the magnificent nobleness, the great sagacity, courage, and stateliness of the Otterhound, the great gameness, cheek, and pertinacity of the old Black and Tan wire-hair, such a cross must surely produce an animal of excellent type and character. Yorkshire, more especially that part of it round and about the town of Otley, is responsible for the birth of the Airedale. The inhabitants of the country of broad acres are, and always have been, exceedingly fond of any kind of sport--as, indeed, may also be said of their brothers of the Red Rose--but if in connection with that sport a dog has to be introduced, then indeed are they doubly blessed, for they have no compeers at the game. Otter-hunting was formerly much indulged in by the people living in the dales of the Aire and the Wharfe, and not only were packs of Otterhounds kept, but many sportsmen maintained on their own account a few hounds for their personal delectation. These hounds were no doubt in some instances a nondescript lot, as, indeed, are several of the packs hunting the otter to-day, but there was unquestionably a good deal of Otterhound blood in them, and some pure bred hounds were also to be found. Yorkshire also has always been the great home of the terrier. Fox-terriers, as we now know them, had at this time hardly been seen. The terrier in existence then was the Black and Tan wire-hair, a hardy game terrier, a great workman on land or in water. Whether by design or accident is not known, but the fact remains that in or about the year mentioned a cross took place between these same hounds and terriers. It was found that a handier dog was produced for the business for which he was required, and it did not take many years to populate the district with these terrier-hounds, which soon came to be recognised as a distinct breed. The Waterside Terrier was the name first vouchsafed to the new variety. After this they went by the name of Bingley Terriers, and eventually they came to be known under their present appellation. The specimens of the Airedale which were first produced were not of very handsome appearance, being what would now be called bad in colour, very shaggy coated, and naturally big and ugly in ear. It, of course, took some time to breed the hound out at all satisfactorily; some authorities tell us that for this purpose the common fighting pit Bull-terrier and also the Irish Terrier were used, the latter to a considerable extent; and whether this is correct or not there is no doubt that there would also be many crosses back again into the small Black and Tan Terrier, primarily responsible for his existence. In about twenty years' time, the breed seems to have settled down and become thoroughly recognised as a variety of the terrier. It was not, however, for some ten years after this that classes were given for the breed at any representative show. In 1883 the committee of the National Show at Birmingham included three classes for Airedales in their schedule, which were fairly well supported; and three years after this recognition was given to the breed in the stud-book of the ruling authority. From this time on the breed prospered pretty well; several very good terriers were bred, the hound gradually almost disappeared, as also did to a great extent the bad-coloured ones. The best example amongst the early shown dogs was undoubtedly Newbold Test, who had a long and very successful career. This dog excelled in terrier character, and he was sound all over; his advent was opportune--he was just the dog that was wanted, and there is no doubt he did the breed a great amount of good. A dog called Colne Crack, who was a beautiful little terrier was another of the early shown ones by whom the breed has lost nothing, and two other terriers whose names are much revered by lovers of the breed are Cholmondeley Briar and Briar Test. Some years ago, when the breed was in the stage referred to above, a club was formed to look after its interests, and there is no doubt that though perhaps phenomenal success did not attend its efforts, it did its best, and forms a valuable link in the chain of popularity of the Airedale. It was at best apparently a sleepy sort of concern, and never seems to have attracted new fanciers. Some dozen or so years ago, however, a club, destined not only to make a great name for itself, but also to do a thousandfold more good to the breed it espouses than ever the old club did, was formed under the name of the South of England Airedale Terrier Club, and a marvellously successful and popular life it has so far lived. The younger club was in no way an antagonist of the older one, and it has ever been careful that it should not be looked upon in any way as such. The old club has, however, been quite overshadowed by the younger, which, whether it wishes it or not, is now looked upon as the leading society in connection with the breed. At a meeting of the first club--which went by the name of the Airedale Terrier Club--held in Manchester some eighteen or twenty years ago, the following standard of perfection and scale of points was drawn up and adopted:-- * * * * * HEAD--Long, with flat skull, but not too broad between the ears, narrowing slightly to the eyes, free from wrinkle; stop hardly visible, and cheeks free from fullness; jaw deep and powerful, well filled up before the eyes; lips light; ears V-shaped with a side carriage, small but not out of proportion to the size of the dog; the nose black; the eyes small and dark in colour, not prominent, and full of terrier expression; the teeth strong and level. The neck should be of moderate length and thickness, gradually widening towards the shoulders and free from throatiness. SHOULDERS AND CHEST--Shoulders long and sloping well into the back, shoulder-blades flat, chest deep, but not broad. BODY--Back short, strong and straight; ribs well sprung. HIND-QUARTERS--Strong and muscular, with no drop; hocks well let down; the tail set on high and carried gaily, but not curled over the back. LEGS AND FEET--Legs perfectly straight, with plenty of bone; feet small and round with good depth of pad. COAT--Hard and wiry, and not so long as to appear ragged; it should also be straight and close, covering the dog well over the body and legs. COLOUR--The head and ears, with the exception of dark markings on each side of the skull, should be tan, the ears being a darker shade than the rest, the legs up to the thigh and elbows being also tan, the body black or dark grizzle. WEIGHT--Dogs 40 lb. to 45 lb., bitches slightly less. * * * * * At the time of the formation of the Southern club the state of the Airedale was critical; possessed of perhaps unequalled natural advantages, lovely dog as he is, he had not made that progress that he should have done. He had not been boomed in any way, and had been crawling when he should have galloped. From the moment the new club was formed, however, the Airedale had a new lease of life. Mr. Holland Buckley and other keen enthusiasts seem to have recognised to a nicety exactly what was required to give a necessary fillip to the breed; they appear also to have founded their club at the right moment, and to have offered such an attractive bill of fare, that not only did everyone in the south who had anything to do with Airedales join at once, but very shortly a host of new fanciers was enrolled, and crowds of people began to take the breed up who had had nothing to do with it, or, indeed, any other sort of dog previously. Some few years after the foundation of this club, a junior branch of it was started, and this, ably looked after by Mr. R. Lauder McLaren, is almost as big a success in its way as is the parent institution. Other clubs have been started in the north and elsewhere, and altogether the Airedale is very well catered for in this respect, and, if things go on as they are now going, is bound to prosper and become even more extensively owned than he is at present. To Mr. Holland Buckley, Mr. G. H. Elder, Mr. Royston Mills, and Mr. Marshall Lee, the Airedale of the present day owes much. The Airedales that have struck the writer as the best he has come across are Master Briar, Clonmel Monarch, Clonmel Marvel, Dumbarton Lass, Tone Masterpiece, Mistress Royal, Master Royal, Tone Chief, Huckleberry Lass, Fielden Fashion, York Sceptre and Clonmel Floriform. Nearly everyone of these is now, either in the flesh or spirit, in the United States or Canada. In all probability, the person who knows more about this terrier than anyone living is Mr. Holland Buckley. He has written a most entertaining book on the Airedale; he has founded the principal club in connection with the breed; he has produced several very excellent specimens, and it goes without saying that he is--when he can be induced to "take the ring"--a first-rate judge. Mr. Buckley has frequently told the writer that in his opinion one of the best terriers he has seen was the aforesaid Clonmel Floriform, but, as this dog was sold for a big price very early in his career, the writer never saw him. Most of the articles that have been written on the Airedale have come from the pen of Mr. Buckley, and therefore but modest reference is made to the man who has worked so whole-heartedly, so well, and so successfully in the interests of the breed he loves. It would be ungenerous and unfair in any article on the Airedale, written by anyone but Mr. Buckley, if conspicuous reference were not made to the great power this gentleman has been, and to the great good that he has done. The Airedale is such a beautiful specimen of the canine race, and is, in reality, in such healthy state, that every one of his admirers--and they are legion--is naturally jealous for his welfare, and is wishful that all shall go well with him. It is gratifying to state that he has never been the tool of faction, though at one time he was doubtless near the brink; but this was some time ago, and it would be a grievous pity if he ever again became in jeopardy of feeling the baneful influence of any such curse. There is one serious matter in connection with him, however, and that is the laxity displayed by some judges of the breed in giving prizes to dogs shown in a condition, with regard to their coats, which ought to disentitle them to take a prize in any company. Shockingly badly-trimmed shoulders are becoming quite a common thing to see in Airedales. There is no necessity for this sort of thing; it is very foolish, and it is impossible to imagine anything more likely to do harm to a breed than that the idea should get abroad that this is the general practice in connection with it. CHAPTER XXXV THE BEDLINGTON TERRIER This gamest of all the terriers has been known as a distinct and thoroughly British breed for over a century, which is, I think, a fairly ancient lineage. There are various theories as to its original parentage, but the one which holds that he was the result of a cross between the Otterhound and the Dandie Dinmont suggests itself to me as the most probable one. His characteristics strongly resemble in many points both these breeds, and there can be but little doubt of his near relationship at some time or other to the Dandie. The earliest authentic record we have of the Bedlington was a dog named Old Flint, who belonged to Squire Trevelyan, and was whelped in 1782. The pedigree of Mr. William Clark's Scamp, a dog well known about 1792, is traced back to Old Flint, and the descendants of Scamp were traced in direct line from 1792 to 1873. A mason named Joseph Aynsley has the credit for giving the name of "Bedlington" to this terrier in 1825. It was previously known as the Rothbury Terrier, or the Northern Counties Fox-terrier. Mr. Thomas J. Pickett, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, was perhaps the earliest supporter of the breed on a large scale, and his Tynedale and Tyneside in especial have left their names in the history of the Bedlington. The present day Bedlington, like a good many other terriers, has become taller and heavier than the old day specimens. This no doubt is due to breeding for show points. He is a lathy dog, but not shelly, inclined to be flatsided, somewhat light in bone for his size, very lively in character, and has plenty of courage. If anything, indeed, his pluck is too insistent. The standard of points as adopted by the National Bedlington Terrier and The Yorkshire Bedlington Terrier Clubs is as follows:-- * * * * * SKULL--Narrow, but deep and rounded; high at the occiput, and covered with a nice silky tuft or topknot. MUZZLE--Long, tapering, sharp and muscular, as little stop as possible between the eyes, so as to form nearly a line from the nose-end along the joint of skull to the occiput. The lips close fitting and without flew. EYES--Should be small and well sunk in the head. The blues should have a dark eye, the blues and tans ditto, with amber shades; livers and sandies, a light brown eye. NOSE--Large, well angled; blues and blues and tans should have black noses, livers and sandies flesh-coloured. TEETH--Level or pincher-jawed. EARS--Moderately large, well formed, flat to the cheek, thinly covered and tipped with fine silky hair. They should be filbert shaped. LEGS--Of moderate length, not wide apart, straight and square set, and with good-sized feet, which are rather long. TAIL--Thick at the root, tapering to a point, slightly feathered on lower side, 9 inches to 11 inches long and scimitar shaped. NECK AND SHOULDERS--Neck long, deep at base, rising well from the shoulders, which should be flat. BODY--Long and well-proportioned, flat ribbed, and deep, not wide in chest, slightly arched back, well ribbed up, with light quarters. COAT--Hard, with close bottom, and not lying flat to sides. COLOUR--Dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and tan, sandy, or sandy and tan. HEIGHT--About 15 inches to 16 inches. WEIGHT--Dogs about 24 pounds; bitches about 22 pounds. GENERAL APPEARANCE--He is a light-made, lathy dog, but not shelly. * * * * * There is a tendency nowadays towards excess of size in the Bedlington. It is inclined to be too long in the body and too leggy, which, if not checked, will spoil the type of the breed. It is, therefore, very important that size should be more studied by judges than is at present the case. The faults referred to are doubtless the result of breeding for exceptionally long heads, which seem to be the craze just now, and, of course, one cannot get extra long heads without proportionately long bodies and large size. If it were possible to do so, then the dog would become a mere caricature. As a sporting terrier the Bedlington holds a position in the first rank. He is very fast and enduring, and exceedingly pertinacious, and is equally at home on land and in water. He will work an otter, draw a badger, or bolt a fox, and he has no superior at killing rats and all kinds of vermin. He has an exceptionally fine nose, and makes a very useful dog for rough shooting, being easily taught to retrieve. If he has any fault at all, it is that he is of too jealous a disposition, which renders it almost impossible to work him with other dogs, as he wants all the fun to himself, and if he cannot get it he will fight for it. But by himself he is perfect. As a companion he is peculiarly affectionate and faithful, and remarkably intelligent; he makes a capital house-dog, is a good guard and is very safe with children. Bedlingtons are not dainty feeders, as most writers have asserted, nor are they tender dogs. If they are kept in good condition and get plenty of exercise they feed as well as any others, and are as hard as nails if not pampered. They are easy to breed and rear, and the bitches make excellent mothers. If trained when young they are very obedient, and their tendency to fight can in a great measure be cured when they are puppies; but, if not checked then, it cannot be done afterwards. Once they take to fighting nothing will keep them from it, and instead of being pleasurable companions they become positive nuisances. On the other hand, if properly broken they give very little trouble, and will not quarrel unless set upon. CHAPTER XXXVI THE IRISH TERRIER The dare-devil Irish Terrier has most certainly made his home in our bosom. There is no breed of dog more genuinely loved by those who have sufficient experience and knowledge to make the comparison. Other dogs have a larger share of innate wisdom, others are most aesthetically beautiful, others more peaceable; but our rufous friend has a way of winning into his owner's heart and making there an abiding place which is all the more secure because it is gained by sincere and undemonstrative devotion. Perhaps one likes him equally for his faults as for his merits. His very failings are due to his soldierly faithfulness and loyalty, to his too ardent vigilance in guarding the threshold, to his officious belligerence towards other canines who offend his sense of proprietorship in his master. His particular stature may have some influence in his success as a chum. He is just tall enough to rest his chin upon one's knee and look up with all his soul into one's eyes. Whatever be the secret of his attraction 'tis certain that he has the Hibernian art of compelling affection and forgiveness, and that he makes one value him, not for the beauty of his ruddy raiment, the straightness of his fore-legs, the set of his eye and ear, the levelness of his back, or his ability to win prizes, but rather for his true and trusty heart, that exacts no return and seeks no recompense. He may be but an indifferent specimen of his kind, taken in as a stranger at the gates; but when at length the inevitable time arrives, as it does all too soon in canine nature, one then discovers how surely one has been harbouring an angel unawares. Statistics would probably show that in numbers the Fox-terrier justifies the reputation of being a more popular breed, and the Scottish Terrier is no doubt a formidable competitor for public esteem. It is safe, however, to say that the Irish Terrier shares with these the distinction of being one of the three most popular terriers in the British Isles. This fact taken into consideration, it is interesting to reflect that thirty years ago the "Dare-Devil" was virtually unknown in England. Idstone, in his book on dogs, published in 1872 did not give a word of mention to the breed, and dog shows had been instituted sixteen years before a class was opened for the Irish Terrier. The dog existed, of course, in its native land. It may indeed be almost truthfully said to have existed "as long as that country has been an island." About the year 1875, experts were in dispute over the Irish Terrier, and many averred that his rough coat and length of hair on forehead and muzzle were indubitable proof of Scotch blood. His very expression, they said, was Scotch. But the argument was quelled by more knowing disputants on the other side, who claimed that Ireland had never been without her terrier, and that she owed no manner of indebtedness to Scotland for a dog whose every hair was essentially Irish. In the same year at a show held in Belfast a goodly number of the breed were brought together, notable among them being Mr. D. O'Connell's Slasher, a very good-looking wire-coated working terrier, who is said to have excelled as a field and water dog. Slasher was lint white in colour, and reputed to be descended from a pure white strain. Two other terriers of the time were Mr. Morton's Fly (the first Irish Terrier to gain a championship) and Mr. George Jamison's Sport. The prominent Irish Terriers of the 'seventies varied considerably in type. Stinger, who won the first prize at Lisburn in 1875, was long-backed and short-legged, with a "dark blue grizzle coloured back, tan legs, and white turned-out feet." The dam of Mr. Burke's Killeney Boy was a rough black and tan, a combination of colours which was believed to accompany the best class of coats. Brindles were not uncommon. Some were tall on the leg, some short; some were lanky and others cobby; many were very small. There were classes given at a Dublin show in 1874 for Irish Terriers under 9 lb. weight. Jamison's Sport is an important dog historically, for various reasons. He was undoubtedly more akin to our present type than any other Irish Terrier of his time of which there is record. His dark ears were uncropped at a period when cropping was general; his weight approximated to our modern average. He was an all coloured red, and his legs were of a length that would not now be seriously objected to. But in his day he was not accepted as typical, and he was not particularly successful in the show ring. The distinguished terrier of his era was Burke's Killeney Boy, to whom, and to Mr. W. Graham's bitch Erin, with whom he was mated, nearly all the pedigrees of the best Irish Terriers of to-day date back. Erin was said to be superior in all respects to any of her breed previous to 1880. In her first litter by Killeney Boy were Play Boy, Pretty Lass, Poppy, Gerald, Pagan II., and Peggy, every one of whom became famous. More than one of these showed the black markings of their granddam, and their progeny for several generations were apt to throw back to the black-and-tan, grey, or brindle colouring. Play Boy and Poppy were the best of Erin's first litter. The dog's beautiful ears, which were left as Nature made them, were transmitted to his son Bogie Rattler, who was sire of Bachelor and Benedict, the latter the most successful stud dog of his time. Poppy had a rich red coat, and this colour recurred with fair regularity in her descendants. Red, which had not at first been greatly appreciated, came gradually to be the accepted colour of an Irish Terrier's jacket. Occasionally it tended towards flaxen; occasionally to a deep rich auburn; but the black and brindle were so rigidly bred out that by the year 1890, or thereabout, they very seldom recurred. Nowadays it is not often that any other colour than red is seen in a litter of Irish Terriers, although a white patch on the breast is frequent, as it is in all self-coloured breeds. In addition to the early celebrities already named, Extreme Carelessness, Michael, Brickbat, Poppy II., Moya Doolan, Straight Tip, and Gaelic have taken their places in the records of the breed, while yet more recent Irish Terriers who have achieved fame have been Mrs. Butcher's Bawn Boy and Bawn Beauty, Mr. Wallace's Treasurer, Mr. S. Wilson's Bolton Woods Mixer, Dr. Smyth's Sarah Kidd, and Mr. C. J. Barnett's Breda Muddler. Naturally in the case of a breed which has departed from its original type, discussions were frequent before a standard of perfection for the Irish Terrier was fixed. His size and weight, the length or shortness of his limbs, the carriage of his tail, the form of his skull and muzzle, the colour and texture of his coat were the subjects of controversy. It was considered at one juncture that he was being bred too big, and at another that he was being brought too much to resemble a red wire-hair Fox-terrier. When once the black marking on his body had been eliminated no one seems to have desired that it should be restored. Red was acknowledged to be the one and only colour for an Irish Terrier. But some held that the correct red should be deep auburn, and others that wheaten colour was the tone to be aimed at. A medium shade between the two extremes is now generally preferred. As to size, it should be about midway between that of the Airedale and the Fox-terrier, represented by a weight of from 22 to 27 lb. The two breeds just mentioned are, as a rule, superior to the Irish Terrier in front legs, and feet, but in the direction of these points great improvements have recently been observable. The heads of our Irish Terriers have also been brought nearer to a level of perfection, chiselled to the desired degree of leanness, with the determined expression so characteristic of the breed, and with the length, squareness, and strength of muzzle which formerly were so difficult to find. This squareness of head and jaw is an important point to be considered when choosing an Irish Terrier. Opinions differ in regard to slight details of this terrier's conformation, but the official description, issued by the Irish Terrier Club, supplies a guide upon which the uncertain novice may implicitly depend:-- * * * * * HEAD--Long; skull flat, and rather narrow between ears, getting slightly narrower towards the eye; free from wrinkles; stop hardly visible except in profile. The jaw must be strong and muscular, but not too full in the cheek, and of a good punishing length. There should be a slight falling away below the eye, so as not to have a Greyhound appearance. Hair on face of same description as on body, but short (about a quarter of an inch long), in appearance almost smooth and straight; a slight beard is the only longish hair (and it is only long in comparison with the rest) that is permissible, and this is characteristic. TEETH--Should be strong and level. LIPS--Not so tight as a Bull-terrier's, but well-fitting, showing through the hair their black lining. NOSE--Must be black. EYES--A dark hazel colour, small, not prominent, and full of life, fire, and intelligence. EARS--Small and V-shaped, of moderate thickness, set well on the head, and dropping forward closely to the cheek. The ear must be free of fringe, and the hair thereon shorter and darker in colour than the body. NECK--Should be of a fair length, and gradually widening towards the shoulders, well carried, and free of throatiness. There is generally a slight sort of frill visible at each side of the neck, running nearly to the corner of the ear. SHOULDERS AND CHEST--Shoulders must be fine, long, and sloping well into the back; the chest deep and muscular, but neither full nor wide. BACK AND LOIN--Body moderately long; back should be strong and straight, with no appearance of slackness behind the shoulders; the loin broad and powerful, and slightly arched; ribs fairly sprung, rather deep than round, and well ribbed back. HIND-QUARTERS--Should be strong and muscular, thighs powerful, hocks near ground, stifles moderately bent. STERN--Generally docked; should be free of fringe or feather, but well covered with rough hair, set on pretty high, carried gaily, but not over the back or curled. FEET AND LEGS--Feet should be strong, tolerably round, and moderately small; toes arched, and neither turned out nor in; black toe nails most desirable. Legs moderately long, well set from the shoulders, perfectly straight, with plenty of bone and muscle; the elbows working freely clear of the sides; pasterns short and straight, hardly noticeable. Both fore and hind legs should be moved straight forward when travelling, the stifles not turned outwards, the legs free of feather, and covered, like the head, with as hard a texture of coat as body, but not so long. COAT--Hard and wiry, free of softness or silkiness, not so long as to hide the outlines of the body, particularly in the hind-quarters, straight and flat, no shagginess, and free of lock or curl. COLOUR--Should be "whole-coloured," the most preferable being bright red, red, wheaten, or yellow red. White sometimes appears on chest and feet; it is more objectionable on the latter than on the chest, as a speck of white on chest is frequently to be seen in all self-coloured breeds. SIZE AND SYMMETRY--The most desirable weight in show condition is, for a dog 24 lb., and for a bitch 22 lb. The dog must present an active, lively, lithe, and wiry appearance; lots of substance, at the same time free of clumsiness, as speed and endurance, as well as power, are very essential. They must be neither cloddy or cobby, but should be framed on the lines of speed, showing a graceful racing outline. TEMPERAMENT--Dogs that are very game are usually surly or snappish. The Irish Terrier as a breed is an exception, being remarkably good-tempered, notably so with mankind, it being admitted, however, that he is perhaps a little too ready to resent interference on the part of other dogs. There is a heedless, reckless pluck about the Irish Terrier which is characteristic, and, coupled with the headlong dash, blind to all consequences, with which he rushes at his adversary, has earned for the breed the proud epithet of "The Dare-Devils." When "off-duty" they are characterised by a quiet, caress-inviting appearance, and when one sees them endearingly, timidly pushing their heads into their masters' hands, it is difficult to realise that on occasions, at the "set on," they can prove they have the courage of a lion, and will fight unto the last breath in their bodies. They develop an extraordinary devotion to and have been known to track their masters almost incredible distances. * * * * * [Illustration: MR. FRED W. BREAKELL'S IRISH TERRIER CH. KILLARNEY SPORT] It is difficult to refer to particular Irish Terriers of to-day without making invidious distinctions. There are so many excellent examples of the breed that a list even of those who have gained championship honours would be formidable. But one would hardly hesitate to head the list with the name of Paymaster, a dog of rare and almost superlative quality and true Irish Terrier character. Paymaster is the property of Miss Lilian Paull, of Weston-super-Mare, who bred him from her beautiful bitch Erasmic, from Breda Muddler, the sire of many of the best. Side by side with Paymaster, Mr. F. Clifton's Mile End Barrister might be placed. It would need a council of perfection, indeed, to decide which is the better dog of the two. Very high in the list, also, would come Mr. Henry Ridley's Redeemer and Mr. Breakell's Killarney Sport. And among bitches one would name certainly Mr. Gregg's Belfast Erin, Mr. Clifton's Charwoman, Mr. Everill's Erminie, and Mr. J. S. McComb's Beeston Betty. These are but half a dozen, but they represent the highest level of excellence that has yet been achieved by scientific breeding in Irish Terrier type. Breeding up to the standard of excellence necessary in competition in dog shows has doubtless been the agent which has brought the Irish Terrier to its present condition of perfection, and it is the means by which the general dog owning public is most surely educated to a practical knowledge of what is a desirable and what an undesirable dog to possess. But, after all, success in the show ring is not the one and only thing to be aimed at, and the Irish Terrier is not to be regarded merely as the possible winner of prizes. He is above all things a dog for man's companionship, and in this capacity he takes a favoured place. He has the great advantage of being equally suitable for town and country life. In the home he requires no pampering; he has a good, hardy constitution, and when once he has got over the ills incidental to puppyhood--worms and distemper--he needs only to be judiciously fed, kept reasonably clean, and to have his fill of active exercise. If he is taught to be obedient and of gentlemanly habit, there is no better house dog. He is naturally intelligent and easily trained. Although he is always ready to take his own part, he is not quarrelsome, but remarkably good-tempered and a safe associate of children. Perhaps with his boisterous spirits he is prone sometimes to be over-zealous in the pursuit of trespassing tabbies and in assailing the ankles of intruding butcher boys and officious postmen. These characteristics come from his sense of duty, which is strongly developed, and careful training will make him discriminative in his assaults. Very justly is he classed among the sporting dogs. He is a born sportsman, and of his pluck it were superfluous to speak. Fear is unknown to him. In this characteristic as in all others, he is truly a son of Erin. CHAPTER XXXVII THE WELSH TERRIER This breed is near akin to the wire-hair Fox-terrier, the principal differences being merely of colour and type. The Welsh Terrier is a wire-haired black or grizzle and tan. The most taking colouring is a jet black body and back with deep tan head, ears, legs, belly, and tail. Several specimens have, however, black foreheads, skulls, ears, and tail, and the black will frequently be seen also extending for a short way down the legs. There must be no black, however, below the hock, and there must be no substantial amount of white anywhere; a dog possessing either of these faults is, according to the recognised standard of the breed, disqualified. Many of the most successful bench winners have, nevertheless, been possessed of a little white on the chest and even a few hairs of that colour on their hind toes, and, apparently, by the common consent of all the judges of the breed, they have been in nowise handicapped for these blemishes. There are not so many grizzle coloured Welsh Terriers now as there used to be. A grizzle and tan never looks so smart as a black and tan; but though this is so, if the grizzle is of a dark hard colour, its owner should not be handicapped as against a black and tan; if, on the contrary, it is a washed-out, bluish-looking grizzle, a judge is entitled to handicap its possessor, apart altogether from the fact that any such colour on the back is invariably accompanied by an objectionable light tan on the legs, the whole being a certain sign of a soft, silky, unterrierlike coat. The coat of the Welsh Terrier slightly differs from that of the wire-hair Fox-terrier in that it is, as a rule, not so abundant, and is, in reality, a different class of coat. It is not so broken as is that of the Fox-terrier, and is generally a smoother, shorter coat, with the hairs very close together. When accompanied with this there is a dense undercoat, one has, for a terrier used to work a good deal in water, an ideal covering, as waterproof almost as the feathers on a duck's back. The other difference between the Fox and Welsh Terrier--viz., type--is very hard to define. To anyone who really understands Welsh Terriers, the selection of those of proper type from those of wrong type presents little if any difficulty. As a show-bench exhibit the Welsh Terrier is not more than twenty-two years old. He has, however, resided in Wales for centuries. There is no doubt that he is in reality identical with the old black and tan wire-haired dog which was England's first terrier, and which has taken such a prominent part in the production and evolution of all the other varieties of the sporting terrier. There are several people living in or about Carnarvonshire who can show that Welsh Terriers have been kept by their ancestors from, at any rate, a hundred to two hundred years ago. Notable among these is the present master of the Ynysfor Otterhounds, whose great grandfather, John Jones, of Ynysfor, owned Welsh Terriers in or about the year 1760. This pack of Otterhounds has always been kept by the Jones of Ynysfor, who have always worked and still work Welsh Terriers with them. From this strain some good terriers have sprung, and this although neither the present master nor any of his ancestors have concerned themselves greatly about the looks of their terriers, or kept anything but a head record of their pedigrees. They are all, however, pure bred, and are set much store on by their owner and his family, just as they always have been by their predecessors. Until about the year 1884 no one seems to have considered the question of putting specimens of the breed on the show bench. About that year, however, several gentlemen interested in the variety met together to see what could be done in connection with the matter, the outcome being that the Welsh Terrier Club was shortly afterwards founded, the Kennel Club recognised the breed, and the terrier himself began his career as a show dog. The specimens which were first shown were, as may be imagined, not a very high-class-looking lot. Although the breed had been kept pure, no care had been taken in the culture of it, except that which was necessary to produce a sporting game terrier, able to do its work. One can readily understand, therefore, that such an entirely "fancy" point as a long foreface and narrow, clean skull had never been thought of for a moment, and it was in these particulars that the Welsh Terrier at first failed, from a show point of view. Naturally enough, good shoulders, sound hind-quarters, more than fair legs and feet, and excellent jackets were to be found in abundance, but as the body was almost invariably surmounted by a very short and wedge-shaped head and jaw, often accompanied with a pair of heavy, round ears, an undershot mouth, and a light, full eye, it will be realised that the general appearance of the dog was not prepossessing. The Welsh Terrier to-day is very much improved beyond what he was when first put on the bench. This improvement has been brought about by careful and judicious breeding from nothing but pure bred specimens. No outside aid has been invoked--at any rate in the production of any of the best terriers--and none has been required. It is a matter for great congratulation that the breed has been kept pure despite all temptation and exhortation. The Welsh Terrier breeds as true as steel; you know what you are going to get. Had popular clamour had its way years ago, goodness only know what monstrosities would now be being bred. The colour of the Welsh Terrier is, of course, against him for working with a pack of hounds, especially in water. It is only fair, however, to the breed to say that, barring this colour drawback, there is no better terrier to hounds living. They are not quarrelsome, show very little jealousy one of another in working, can therefore easily be used, exercised, and kennelled together, being much better in this respect than any of the other breeds of terriers. They also, as a general rule, are dead game; they want a bit of rousing, and are not so flashily, showily game as, say, the Fox-terrier; but, just as with humans, when it comes to _real_ business, when the talking game is played out and there is nothing left but the _doing_ part of the business, then one's experience invariably is that the quiet man, the quiet terrier, is the animal wanted. On the formation of the Welsh Terrier Club a standard of perfection was drawn up and circulated with the club rules. This standard has remained unchanged up to the present day, and is as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--The skull should be flat and rather wider between the ears than the wire-hair Fox-terrier. The jaw should be powerful, clean cut rather deeper and more punishing--giving the head a more masculine appearance--than that usually seen in a Fox-terrier. The stop not too defined, fair length from stop to end of nose, the latter being of a black colour. EARS--The ears should be V-shaped, small, not too thin, set on fairly high, carried forward, and close to the cheek. EYES--The eyes should be small, not being too deeply set in or protruding out of skull, of a dark hazel colour, expressive and indicating abundant pluck. NECK--The neck should be of moderate length and thickness, slightly arched and sloping gracefully into the shoulders. BODY--The back should be short and well ribbed up, the loin strong, good depth, and moderate width of chest. The shoulders should be long, sloping and well set back. The hind-quarters should be strong, thighs muscular and of good length, with the hocks moderately straight, well set down and fair amount of bone. The stern should be set on moderately high, but not too gaily carried. LEGS AND FEET--The legs should be straight and muscular, possessing fair amount of bone with upright and powerful pasterns. The feet should be small, round and catlike. COAT--The coat should be wiry, hard, very close and abundant. COLOUR--The colour should be black and tan or black grizzle and tan, free from black pencilling on toes. SIZE--The height at shoulders should be 15 inches for dogs, bitches proportionately less. Twenty pounds shall be considered a fair average weight in working condition, but this may vary a pound or so either way. DISQUALIFYING POINTS: NOSE white, cherry, or spotted to a considerable extent with either of these colours. EARS prick, tulip, or rose. Undershot jaw or pig jawed mouth. Black below hocks or white anywhere to any appreciable extent, black pencilling on toes. CHAPTER XXXVIII THE SCOTTISH TERRIER The Scottish Terrier as a show dog dates from about 1877 to 1879. He seems almost at once to have attained popularity, and he has progressed gradually since then, ever in an upward direction, until he is to-day one of the most popular and extensively owned varieties of the dog. Sir Paynton Pigott had, at the date mentioned, a very fine kennel of the breed, for in _The Live Stock Journal_ of May 30th, 1879, we find his kennel fully reviewed in a most enthusiastic manner by a correspondent who visited it in consequence of a controversy that was going on at the time, as to whether or not there was such a dog at all, and who, therefore, wished to see and judge for himself as to this point. At the end of his report on the kennel the writer adds these words: "It was certainly one of the happiest days of my life to have the pleasure of looking over so many grand little dogs, but to find them in England quite staggered me. Four dogs and eight bitches are not a bad beginning, and with care and judicious selection in mating, I have little doubt but Mr. Pigott's kennel will be as renowned for Terriers as the late Mr. Laverack's was for Setters. I know but few that take such a delight in the brave little 'die-hards' as Mr. Pigott, and he may well feel proud of the lot he has got together at great trouble and expense." [Illustration: MRS. SPENCER'S DANDIE DINMONT CH. BRAW LAD Photograph by T. Fall] [Illustration: A TYPICAL AIREDALE HEAD] [Illustration: MR. W. L. McCANDLISH'S SCOTTISH TERRIER EMS COSMETIC] The fact that there was such a kennel already in existence proved, of course, a strong point in favour of the _bona fides_ of the breed. The best dog in it was Granite, whose portrait and description were given in the _Journal_ in connection with the said review; and the other animals of the kennel being of the same type, it was at once recognised that there was, in fact, such a breed, and the mouths of the doubters were stopped. Granite was unquestionably a typical Scottish Terrier, even as we know them at the present day. He was certainly longer in the back than we care for nowadays, and his head also was shorter, and his jaw more snipy than is now seen, but his portrait clearly shows he was a genuine Scottish Terrier, and there is no doubt that he, with his kennel mates, Tartan, Crofter, Syringa, Cavack, and Posey, conferred benefit upon the breed. To dive deeper into the antiquity of the Scottish Terrier is a thing which means that he who tries it must be prepared to meet all sorts of abuse, ridicule, and criticism. One man will tell you there never was any such thing as the present-day Scottish Terrier, that the mere fact of his having prick ears shows he is a mongrel; another, that he is merely an offshoot of the Skye or the Dandie; another, that the only Scottish Terrier that is a Scottish Terrier is a white one; another, that he is merely a manufactured article from Aberdeen, and so on _ad infinitum_. It is a most extraordinary fact that Scotland should have unto herself so many different varieties of the terrier. There is strong presumption that they one and all came originally from one variety, and it is quite possible, nay probable, that different crosses into other varieties have produced the assortment of to-day. The writer is strongly of opinion that there still exist in Scotland at the present time specimens of the breed which propagated the lot, which was what is called even now the Highland Terrier, a little long-backed, short-legged, snipy-faced, prick or drop-eared, mostly sandy and black-coloured terrier, game as a pebble, lively as a cricket, and all in all a most charming little companion; and further, that to produce our present-day Scottish Terrier--or shall we say, to improve the points of his progenitor?--the assistance of our old friend the Black and Tan wire-haired terrier of England was sought by a few astute people living probably not very far from Aberdeen. Scottish Terriers frequently go by the name of Aberdeen Terriers--an appellation, it is true, usually heard only from the lips of people who do not know much about them. Mr. W. L. McCandlish, one of the greatest living authorities on the breed, in an able treatise published some time back, tells us, in reference to this matter, that the terrier under notice went at different periods under the names of Highland, Cairn, Aberdeen, and Scotch; that he is now known by the proud title of Scottish Terrier; and that "the only surviving trace of the differing nomenclature is the title Aberdeen, which many people still regard as a different breed--a want of knowledge frequently turned to account by the unscrupulous dealer who is able to sell under the name of Aberdeen a dog too bad to dispose of as a Scottish Terrier." But there can be no doubt that originally there must have been _some_ reason for the name. In a letter to the writer, Sir Paynton Pigott says, "Some people call them and advertise them as the Aberdeen Terrier, which is altogether a mistake; but the reason of it is that forty years ago a Dr. Van Bust, who lived in Aberdeen, bred these terriers to a large extent and sold them, and those buying them called them, in consequence, 'Aberdeen Terriers,' whereas they were in reality merely a picked sort of Old Scotch or Highland Terrier." Sir Paynton himself, as appears from the columns of _The Live Stock Journal_ (March 2nd, 1877), bought some of the strain of Van Bust, and therein gives a full description of the same. Sir Paynton Pigott's kennel of the breed assumed quite large proportions, and was most successful, several times winning all the prizes offered in the variety at different shows. He may well be called the Father of the breed in England, for when he gave up exhibiting, a great deal of his best blood got into the kennels of Mr. H. J. Ludlow, who, as everyone knows, has done such a tremendous amount of good in popularising the breed and has also himself produced such a galaxy of specimens of the very best class. Mr. Ludlow's first terrier was a bitch called Splinter II. The name of Kildee is, in the breed, almost world-famous, and it is interesting to note that in every line does he go back to the said Splinter II. Rambler--called by the great authorities the first pillar of the stud book--was a son of a dog called Bon-Accord, and it is to this latter dog and Roger Rough, and also the aforesaid Tartan and Splinter II. that nearly all of the best present-day pedigrees go back. This being so, it is unnecessary to give many more names of dogs who have in their generations of some years back assisted in bringing the breed to its present state of perfection. An exception, however, must be made in the case of two sons of Rambler, by name Dundee and Alister, names very familiar in the Scottish Terrier pedigrees of the present day. Alister especially was quite an extraordinary stud dog. His progeny were legion, and some very good terriers of to-day own him as progenitor in nearly every line. The best descendants of Alister were Kildee, Tiree, Whinstone, Prince Alexander, and Heather Prince. He was apparently too much inbred to, and though he produced or was responsible for several beautiful terriers, it is much to be doubted whether in a breed which is suffering from the ill-effects of too much inbreeding, he was not one of the greatest sinners. The Scottish Terrier Club was formed in the year 1882. In the same year a joint committee drew up a standard of perfection for the breed, Messrs. J. B. Morison and Thomson Gray, two gentlemen who were looked upon as great authorities, having a good deal to do with it. * * * * * STANDARD OF POINTS OF THE SCOTTISH TERRIER: SKULL--Proportionately long, slightly domed and covered with short hard hair about 3/4 inch long or less. It should not be quite flat, as there should be a sort of stop or drop between the eyes. MUZZLE--Very powerful, and gradually tapering towards the nose, which should always be black and of a good size. The jaws should be perfectly level, and the teeth square, though the nose projects somewhat over the mouth which gives the impression of the upper jaw being longer than the under one. EYES--A dark-brown or hazel colour; small, piercing, very bright and rather sunken. EARS--Very small, prick or half prick (the former is preferable), but never drop. They should also be sharp pointed, and the hair on them should not be long, but velvety, and they should not be cut. The ears should be free from any fringe at the top. NECK--Short, thick and muscular; strongly set on sloping shoulders. CHEST--Broad in comparison to the size of the dog, and proportionately deep. BODY--Of moderate length, but not so long as a Skye's, and rather flat-sided; well ribbed up, and exceedingly strong in hind-quarters. LEGS AND FEET--Both fore and hind legs should be short and very heavy in bone, the former being straight and well set on under the body, as the Scottish Terrier should not be out at elbows. The hocks should be bent, and the thighs very muscular, and the feet strong, small and thickly covered with short hair, the fore feet being larger than the hind ones. TAIL--Should be about 7 inches long, never docked, carried with a slight bend and often gaily. COAT--Should be rather short (about 2 inches), intensely hard and wiry in texture, and very dense all over the body. SIZE--From 15 lb. to 20 lb.; the best weight being as near as possible 18 lb. for dogs, and 16 lb. for bitches when in condition for work. COLOUR--Steel or iron grey, black brindle, brown brindle, grey brindle, black, sandy and wheaten. White markings are objectionable, and can only be allowed on the chest and to a small extent. GENERAL APPEARANCE--The face should wear a very sharp, bright and active expression, and the head should be carried up. The dog (owing to the shortness of his coat) should appear to be higher on the leg than he really is; but at the same time he should look compact and possessed of great muscle in his hind-quarters. In fact, a Scottish Terrier, though essentially a terrier, cannot be too powerfully put together, and should be from about 9 inches to 12 inches in height. SPECIAL FAULTS: MUZZLE--Either under or over hung. EYES--Large or light-coloured. EARS--Large, round at the points or drop. It is also a fault if they are too heavily covered with hair. LEGS--Bent, or slightly bent, and out at elbows. COAT--Any silkiness, wave or tendency to curl is a serious blemish, as is also an open coat. SIZE--Specimens of over 20 lb. should be discouraged. * * * * * There have, of recent years, been many very excellent specimens of the Scottish Terrier bred and exhibited. Preeminent among them stands Mrs. Hannay's Ch. Heworth Rascal, who was a most symmetrical terrier, and probably the nearest approach to perfection in the breed yet seen. Other very first-class terriers have been the same lady's Ch. Gair, Mr. Powlett's Ch. Callum Dhu, Mr. McCandlish's Ems Cosmetic, Mr. Chapman's Heather Bob and Heather Charm, Mr. Kinnear's Seafield Rascal, Mr. Wood's Hyndman Chief, Messrs. Buckley and Mills's Clonmel Invader, and Mr. Deane Willis's Ch. Huntley Daisy and Ch. Carter Laddie. It is highly probable that of all the terrier tribe, the "Scottie," taken as a whole, is the best companion. He makes a most excellent house-dog, is not too big, does not leave white hairs about all over the place, loves only his master and his master's household, and is, withal, a capable and reliable guard. He is, as a rule, a game, attractive terrier, with heaps of brain power, and from a show point of view there is always some recompense in keeping him, as it will be found he breeds true to type and does not beget offspring of all sorts, shapes, and makes. CHAPTER XXXIX THE WEST HIGHLAND WHITE TERRIER Man, being a hunting animal, kills the otter for his skin, and the badger also; the fox he kills because the animal likes lamb and game to eat. Man, being unable to deal in the course of a morning with the rocks under and between which his quarry harbours, makes use of the small dog which will go underground, to which the French name terrier has been attached. Towards the end of the reign of James the First of England and Sixth of Scotland, we find him writing to Edinburgh to have half a dozen "earth dogges or terrieres" sent carefully to France as a present, and he directs that they be got from Argyll, and sent over in two or more ships lest they should get harm by the way. That was roughly three hundred years ago, and the King most probably would not have so highly valued a newly-invented strain as he evidently did value the "terrieres" from Argyll. We may take it then that in 1600 the Argyllshire terriers were considered to be the best in Scotland, and likely enough too, seeing the almost boundless opportunities the county gives for the work of the "earth dogges." But men kept their dogs in the evil pre-show days for work and not for points, and mighty indifferent were they whether an ear cocked up or lay flat to the cheek, whether the tail was exactly of fancy length, or how high to a hair's breadth it stood. These things are _sine qua non_ on the modern show bench, but were not thought of in the cruel, hard fighting days of old. In those days two things--and two things only--were imperatively necessary: pluck and capacity to get at the quarry. This entailed that the body in which the pluck was enshrined must be small and most active, to get at the innermost recesses of the lair, and that the body must be protected by the best possible teeth and jaws for fighting, on a strong and rather long neck and directed by a most capable brain. It is held that feet turned out a little are better for scrambling up rocks than perfectly straight Fox-terrier like feet. In addition, it was useful to have your dog of a colour easy to see when in motion, though no great weight was laid upon that point, as in the days before newspapers and trains men's eyes were good, as a rule. Still, the quantity of white in the existing terriers all through the west coast of Scotland shows that it must have been rather a favoured colour. White West Highland Terriers were kept at Poltalloch sixty years ago, and so they were first shown as Poltalloch Terriers. Yet although they were kept in their purest strain in Argyllshire, they are still to be found all along the west coast of Scotland, good specimens belonging to Ross-shire, to Skye, and at Ballachulish on Loch Leven, so that it is a breed with a long pedigree and not an invented breed of the present day. Emphatically, they are not simply white coloured Scottish Terriers, and it is an error to judge them on Scottish Terrier lines. They are smaller than the average Scottie, more "foxy" in general conformation--straight limbed, rather long, rather low, and active in body, with a broad forehead, light muzzle and underjaw, and a bright, small intelligent eye. Colonel Malcolm, of Poltalloch, who is recognised as the great authority on the breed, lays stress upon the quality of the coat. "The outer coat," he says, "should be very soft on the forehead and get gradually harder towards the haunches, but the harsh coat beloved of the show bench is all nonsense, and is the easiest thing in the world to 'fake,' as anyone can try who will dip his own hair into the now fashionable 'anturic' baths. The outer coat should be distinctly _long_, but not long in the 'fancy' or show sense. Still, it should be long enough to hang as a thatch over the soft, woolly real coat of the animal and keep it dry so that a good shake or two will throw off most of the water; while the under coat should be so thick and naturally oily that the dog can swim through a fair-sized river and not get wet, or be able to sit out through a drenching rain guarding something of his master's and be none the worse. This under coat I, at least, have never seen a judge look for, but for the working terrier it is most important. The size of the dog is perhaps best indicated by weight. The dog should not weigh more than 18 lb., nor the bitch more than 16 lb. "There is among judges, I find--with all respect I say it--an undue regard for weight and what is called strength, also for grooming, which means brushing or plucking out all the long hair to gratify the judge. One might as well judge of Sandow's strength, not by his performances, but by the kind of wax he puts on his moustache! "The West Highland Terrier of the old sort--I do not, of course, speak of bench dogs--earned their living following fox, badger, or otter wherever these went underground, between, over, or under rocks that no man could get at to move, and some of such size that a hundred men could not move them. (And oh! the beauty of their note when they came across the right scent!) I want my readers to understand this, and not to think of a Highland fox-cairn as if it were an English fox-earth dug in sand; nor of badger work as if it were a question of locating the badger and then digging him out. No; the badger makes his home amongst rocks, the small ones perhaps two or three tons in weight, and probably he has his 'hinner end' against one of three or four hundred tons--no digging him out--and, moreover, the passages between the rocks must be taken as they are; no scratching them a little wider. So if your dog's ribs are a trifle too big he may crush one or two through the narrow slit and then stick. He will never be able to pull himself back--at least, until starvation has so reduced him that he will probably be unable, if set free, to win (as we say in Scotland) his way back to the open. "I remember a tale of one of my father's terriers who got so lost. The keepers went daily to the cairn hoping against hope. At last one day a pair of bright eyes were seen at the bottom of a hole. They did not disappear when the dog's name was called. A brilliant idea seized one of the keepers. The dog evidently could not get up, so a rabbit skin was folded into a small parcel round a stone and let down by a string. The dog at once seized the situation--and the skin--held on, was drawn up, and fainted on reaching the mouth of the hole. He was carried home tenderly and nursed; he recovered." Referring to the characteristics of this terrier, Colonel Malcolm continues:--"Attention to breeding as to colour has undoubtedly increased the whiteness, but, other points being good, a dog of the West Highland White Terrier breed is not to be rejected if he shows his descent by a slight degree of pale red or yellow on his back or his ears. I know an old Argyllshire family who consider that to improve their terriers they ought all to have browny yellow ears. Neither again, except for the show bench, is there the slightest objection to half drop ears--_i.e._, the points of one or both ears just falling over. "Unfortunately, the show bench has a great tendency to spoil all breeds from too much attention being given to what is evident--and ears are grand things for judges to pin their faith to; also, they greatly admire a fine long face and what is called--but wrongly called--a strong jaw, meaning by that an ugly, heavy face. I have often pointed out that the tiger, the cat, the otter, all animals remarkable for their strength of jaw, have exceedingly short faces, but their bite is cruelly hard. And what, again, could be daintier than the face of a fox? "The terrier of the West Highlands of Scotland has come down to the present day, built on what I may perhaps call the fox lines, and it is a type evolved by work--hard and deadly dangerous work. It is only of late years that dogs have been bred for show. The so-called 'Scottish' Terrier, which at present rules the roost, dates from 1879 as a show dog. "I therefore earnestly hope that no fancy will arise about these dogs which will make them less hardy, less wise, less companionable, less active, or less desperate fighters underground than they are at present. A young dog that I gave to a keeper got its stomach torn open in a fight. It came out of the cairn to its master to be helped. He put the entrails back to the best of his ability, and then the dog slipped out of his hands to finish the fight, and forced the fox out into the open! That is the spirit of the breed; but, alas, that cannot be exhibited on the show bench. They do say that a keeper of mine, when chaffed by the 'fancy' about the baby faces of his 'lot,' was driven to ask, 'Well, can any of you gentlemen oblige me with a cat, and I'll show you?' I did not hear him say it, so it may only be a tale. "Anyhow, I have in my kennel a dog who, at ten months old, met a vixen fox as she was bolting out of her cairn, and he at once caught her by the throat, stuck to her till the pack came up, and then on till she was killed. In the course of one month his wounds were healed, and he had two other classical fights, one with a cat and the other with a dog fox. Not bad for a pup with a 'baby face?' "I trust my readers understand that the West Highland White Terriers are not White Aberdeens, not a new invention, but have a most respectable ancestry of their own. I add the formal list of points, but this is the work of show bench experts--and it will be seen from what I have written that I do not agree with them on certain particulars. There should be feather to a fair degree on the tail, but if experts will not allow it, put rosin on your hands and pull the hair out--and the rosin will win your prize. The eye should not be sunk, which gives the sulky look of the 'Scotch' Terrier, but should be full and bright, and the expression friendly and confiding. The skull should not be narrow anywhere. It is almost impossible to get black nails in a dog of pure breed and the black soon wears off the pad work, so folk must understand this. On two occasions recently I have shown dogs, acknowledged, as dogs, to be quite first class, 'but, you see, they are not the proper type.' The judges unfortunately have as yet their eyes filled with the 'Scottish' terrier type and prefer mongrels that show it to the real 'Simon Pure.'" * * * * * STANDARD OF POINTS: The GENERAL APPEARANCE of the West Highland White Terrier is that of a small, game, hardy-looking terrier, possessed with no small amount of self-esteem, with a "varminty" appearance, strongly built, deep in chest and back ribs, straight back and powerful quarters, on muscular legs and exhibiting in a marked degree a great combination of strength and activity. COLOUR--White. COAT--Very important, and seldom seen to perfection; must be double-coated. The outer coat consists of hard hair, about 2-1/2 inches long, and free from any curl. The under coat, which resembles fur, is short, soft, and close. Open coats are objectionable. SIZE--Dogs to weigh from 14 to 18 lb., and bitches from 12 to 16 lb., and measure from 8 to 12 inches at the shoulder. SKULL--Should not be too narrow, being in proportion to his powerful jaw, proportionately long, slightly domed, and gradually tapering to the eyes, between which there should be a slight indentation or stop. Eyebrows heavy. The hair on the skull to be from 3/4 to 1 inch long, and fairly hard. EYES--Widely set apart, medium in size, dark hazel in colour, slightly sunk in the head, sharp and intelligent, which, looking from under the heavy eyebrows, give a piercing look. Full eyes, and also light-coloured eyes, are very objectionable. MUZZLE--Should be powerful, proportionate in length, and should gradually taper towards the nose, which should be fairly wide, and should not project forward beyond the upper jaw. The jaws level and powerful, and teeth square or evenly met, well set, and large for the size of the dog. The nose and roof of mouth should be distinctly black in colour. EARS--Small, carried erect or semi-erect, but never drop, and should be carried tightly up. The semi-erect ear should drop nicely over at the tips, the break being about three-quarters up the ear, and both forms of ears should terminate in a sharp point. The hair on them should be short, smooth (velvety), and they should not be cut. The ears should be free from any fringe at the top. Round, pointed, broad and large ears are very objectionable, also ears too heavily covered with hair. NECK--Muscular, and nicely set on sloping shoulders. CHEST--Very deep, with breadth in proportion to the size of the dog. BODY--Compact, straight back, ribs deep and well arched in the upper half of rib, presenting a flattish side appearance. Loins broad and strong. Hind-quarters strong, muscular, and wide across the top. LEGS AND FEET--Both fore and hind legs should be short and muscular. The shoulder blades should be comparatively broad, and well-sloped backwards. The points of the shoulder blades should be closely knit into the backbone, so that very little movement of them should be noticeable when the dog is walking. The elbow should be close in to the body both when moving or standing, thus causing the fore-leg to be well placed in under the shoulder. The fore-legs should be straight and thickly covered with short hard hair. The hind-legs should be short and sinewy. The thighs very muscular and not too wide apart. The hocks bent and well set in under the body, so as to be fairly close to each other either when standing, walking, or running (trotting); and, when standing, the hind-legs, from the point of the hock down to fetlock joint, should be straight or perpendicular and not far apart. The fore-feet are larger than the hind ones, are round, proportionate in size, strong, thickly padded, and covered with short hard hair. The foot must point straight forward. The hind-feet are smaller, not quite as round as fore-feet, and thickly padded. The under surface of the pads of feet and all the nails should be distinctly black in colour. Hocks too much bent (cow hocks) detract from the general appearance. Straight hocks are weak. Both kinds are undesirable, and should be guarded against. TAIL--Six or seven inches long, covered with hard hairs, no feathers, as straight as possible; carried gaily, but not curled over back. A long tail is objectionable. MOVEMENT--Should be free, straight, and easy all round. In front, the leg should be freely extended forward by the shoulder. The hind movement should be free, strong, and close. The hocks should be freely flexed and drawn close in under the body, so that, when moving off the foot, the body is thrown or pushed forward with some force. Stiff, stilty movement behind is very objectionable. FAULTS: COAT--Any silkiness, wave, or tendency to curl is a serious blemish, as is also an open coat. Black or grey hairs disqualify for competition. SIZE--Any specimens under the minimum, or above the maximum weight, are objectionable. EYES--Full or light coloured. EARS--Round-pointed, drop, broad and large, or too heavily covered with hair. MUZZLE--Either under or over shot, and defective teeth. * * * * * [Illustration: COL. MALCOLM'S WEST HIGHLAND WHITE TERRIERS SONNY AND SARAH] [Illustration: MISS E. McCHEANE'S SKYE TERRIERS CH. FAIRFIELD DIAMOND AND CH. WOLVERLEY CHUMMIE Photograph by T. Fall] CHAPTER XL THE DANDIE DINMONT The breed of terrier now known as the Dandie Dinmont is one of the races of the dog which can boast of a fairly ancient lineage. Though it is impossible now to say what was the exact origin of this breed, we know that it was first recognised under its present name after the publication of Scott's _Guy Mannering_, in the year 1814, and we know that for many years previously there had existed in the Border counties a rough-haired, short-legged race of terrier, the constant and very effective companion of the Border farmers and others in their fox-hunting expeditions. Various theories have been suggested by different writers as to the manner in which the breed was founded. Some say that the Dandie is the result of crossing a strain of rough-haired terriers with the Dachshund; others that a rough-haired terrier was crossed with the Otterhound; and others again assert that no direct cross was ever introduced to found the breed, but that it was gradually evolved from the rough-haired terriers of the Border district. And this latter theory is probably correct. The Dandie would appear to be closely related to the Bedlington Terrier. In both breeds we find the same indomitable pluck, the same pendulous ear, and a light silky "topknot" adorning the skull of each; but the Dandie was evolved into a long-bodied, short-legged dog, and the Bedlington became a long-legged, short-bodied dog! Indeed to illustrate the close relationship of the two breeds a case is quoted of the late Lord Antrim, who, in the early days of dog shows, exhibited two animals from the same litter, and with the one obtained a prize or honourable mention in the Dandie classes, and with the other a like distinction in the Bedlington classes. It may be interesting to give a few particulars concerning the traceable ancestors of the modern Dandie. In Mr. Charles Cook's book on this breed, we are given particulars of one William Allan, of Holystone, born in 1704, and known as Piper Allan, and celebrated as a hunter of otters and foxes, and for his strain of rough-haired terriers who so ably assisted him in the chase. William Allan's terriers descended to his son James, also known as the "Piper," and born in the year 1734. James Allan died in 1810, and was survived by a son who sold to Mr. Francis Somner at Yetholm a terrier dog named Old Pepper, descended from his grandfather's famous dog Hitchem. Old Pepper was the great-grandsire of Mr. Somner's well-known dog Shem. These terriers belonging to the Allans and others in the district are considered by Mr. Cook to be the earliest known ancestors of the modern Dandie Dinmont. Sir Walter Scott himself informs us that he did not draw the character of Dandie Dinmont from any one individual in particular, but that the character would well fit a dozen or more of the Lidderdale yeomen of his acquaintance. However, owing to the circumstance of his calling all his terriers Mustard and Pepper, without any other distinction except "auld" and "young" and "little," the name came to be fixed by his associates upon one James Davidson, of Hindlee, a wild farm in the Teviotdale mountains. James Davidson died in the year 1820, by which time the Dandie Dinmont Terrier was being bred in considerable numbers by the Border farmers and others to meet the demand for it which had sprung up since the appearance of _Guy Mannering_. As a result of the controversies that were continually recurring with regard to the points of a typical Dandie Dinmont there was formed in the year 1876 the Dandie Dinmont Terrier Club, with the object of settling the question for ever, and for this purpose all the most noted breeders and others interested were invited to give their views upon it. The standard of points adopted by the club is as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--Strongly made and large, not out of proportion to the dog's size; the muscles showing extraordinary development, more especially the maxillary. SKULL--Broad between the ears, getting gradually less towards the eyes, and measuring about the same from the inner corner of the eyes to back of skull as it does from ear to ear. The forehead well domed. The head is covered with very soft silky hair, which should not be confined to a mere topknot, and the lighter in colour and silkier it is the better. The cheeks, starting from the ears proportionately with the skull, have a gradual taper towards the muzzle, which is deep and strongly made, and measures about three inches in length, or in proportion to skull as three is to five. The muzzle is covered with hair of a little darker shade than the topknot, and of the same texture as the feather of the fore-legs. The top of the muzzle is generally bare for about an inch from the black part of the nose, the bareness coming to a point towards the eye, and being about one inch broad at the nose. The nose and inside of mouth black or dark coloured. The teeth very strong, especially the canine, which are of extraordinary size for such a small dog. The canines fit well into each other, so as to give the greatest available holding and punishing power, and the teeth are level in front, the upper ones very slightly overlapping the under ones. (Many of the finest specimens have a "swine mouth," which is very objectionable, but it is not so great an objection as the protrusion of the under jaw.) EYES--Set wide apart, large, full, round, bright, expressive of great determination, intelligence and dignity; set low and prominent in front of the head; colour a rich dark hazel. EARS--Pendulous, set well back, wide apart and low on the skull, hanging close to the cheek, with a very slight projection at the base, broad at the junction of the head and tapering almost to a point, the fore part of the ear tapering very little, the tapering being mostly on the back part, the fore part of the ear coming almost straight down from its junction with the head to the tip. They should harmonise in colour with the body colour. In the case of a pepper dog they are covered with a soft, straight, brownish hair (in some cases almost black). In the case of a mustard dog the hair should be mustard in colour, a shade darker than the body, but not black. All should have a thin feather of light hair starting about two inches from the tip, and of nearly the same colour and texture as the topknot, which gives the ear the appearance of a distinct point. The animal is often one or two years old before the feather is shown. The cartilage and skin of the ear should not be thick, but rather thin. Length of ear, from three to four inches. NECK--Very muscular, well developed, and strong; showing great power of resistance, being well set into the shoulders. BODY--Long, strong, and flexible; ribs well sprung and round, chest well developed and let well down between the fore-legs; the back rather low at the shoulder, having a slight downward curve and a corresponding arch over the loins, with a very slight gradual drop from top of loins to root of tail; both sides of backbone well supplied with muscle. TAIL--Rather short, say from eight inches to ten inches, and covered on the upper side with wiry hair of darker colour than that of the body, the hair on the under side being lighter in colour, and not so wiry, with a nice feather, about two inches long, getting shorter as it nears the tip; rather thick at the root, getting thicker for about four inches, then tapering off to a point. It should not be twisted or curled in any way, but should come up with a curve like a scimitar, the tip, when excited, being in a perpendicular line with the root of the tail. It should neither be set on too high nor too low. When not excited it is carried gaily, and a little above the level of the body. LEGS--The fore-legs short, with immense muscular development and bone, set wide apart, the chest coming well down between them. The feet well formed, and _not flat_, with very strong brown or dark-coloured claws. Bandy legs and flat feet are objectionable. The hair on the fore-legs and feet of a pepper dog should be tan, varying according to the body colour from a rich tan to a pale fawn; of a mustard dog they are of a darker shade than its head, which is a creamy white. In both colours there is a nice feather, about two inches long, rather lighter in colour than the hair on the fore-part of the leg. The hind-legs are a little longer than the fore ones, and are set rather wide apart, but not spread out in an unnatural manner, while the feet are much smaller, the thighs are well developed, and the hair of the same colour and texture as the fore ones, but having no feather or dew claws; the whole claws should be dark; but the claws of all vary in shade according to the colour of the dog's body. COAT--This is a very important point; the hair should be about two inches long; that from skull to root of tail a mixture of hardish and soft hair, which gives a sort of crisp feel to the hand. The hair should not be wiry; the coat is termed pily or pencilled. The hair on the under part of the body is lighter in colour and softer than that on the top. The skin on the belly accords with the colour of dog. COLOUR--The colour is pepper or mustard. The pepper ranges from a dark bluish black to a light silver grey, the intermediate shades being preferred, the body colour coming well down the shoulder and hips, gradually merging into the leg colour. The mustards vary from a reddish brown to a pale fawn, the head being a creamy white, the legs and feet of a shade darker than the head. The claws are dark as in other colours. (Nearly all Dandie Dinmonts have some white on the chest, and some have also white claws.) SIZE--The height should be from 8 to 11 inches at the top of shoulder. Length from top of shoulder to root of tail should not be more than twice the dog's height, but, preferably, one or two inches less. WEIGHT--From 14 lb. to 24 lb. the best weight as near 18 lb. as possible. These weights are for dogs in good working order. * * * * * In the above standard of points we have a very full and detailed account of what a Dandie should be like, and if only judges at shows would bear them in mind a little more, we should have fewer conflicting decisions given, and Dandie fanciers and the public generally would not from time to time be set wondering as to what is the correct type of the breed. A Dandie makes an excellent house guard; for such a small dog he has an amazingly deep, loud bark, so that the stranger, who has heard him barking on the far side of the door, is quite astonished when he sees the small owner of the big voice. When kept as a companion he becomes a most devoted and affectionate little friend, and is very intelligent. As a dog to be kept in kennels there is certainly one great drawback where large kennels are desired, and that is the risk of keeping two or more dogs in one kennel; sooner or later there is sure to be a fight, and when Dandies fight it is generally a very serious matter; if no one is present to separate them, one or both of the combatants is pretty certain to be killed. But when out walking the Dandie is no more quarrelsome than other breeds of terriers, if properly trained from puppyhood. There is one little matter in breeding Dandies that is generally a surprise to the novice, and that is the very great difference in the appearance of the young pups and the adult dog. The pups are born quite smooth-haired, the peppers are black and tan in colour, and the mustards have a great deal of black in their colouring. The topknot begins to appear sometimes when the dog is a few months old, and sometimes not till he is a year or so old. It is generally best to mate a mustard to a pepper, to prevent the mustards becoming too light in colour, though two rich-coloured mustards may be mated together with good results. It is a rather curious fact that when two mustards are mated some of the progeny are usually pepper in colour, though when two peppers are mated there are very seldom any mustard puppies. The popularity of the Dandie has now lasted for nearly a hundred years, and there is no reason why it should not last for another century, if breeders will only steer clear of the exaggeration of show points, and continue to breed a sound, active, and hardy terrier. CHAPTER XLI THE SKYE, AND CLYDESDALE TERRIERS That the Skye Terrier should be called "the Heavenly Breed" is a tribute to the favour in which he is held by his admirers. Certainly when he is seen in perfection he is an exceedingly beautiful dog. As certainly there is no breed more affectionate, more faithful, or more lovable. Among his characteristics are a long-enduring patience, a prompt obedience, and a deep-hearted tenderness, combined with fearless courage. He is more sensitive to rebuke and punishment than most dogs, and will nurse resentment to those who are unjust to him; not viciously, but with an almost human plaintiveness which demands an immediate reconciliation. He is staunch and firm as his native hills to those who are kind to him, and for entering into battle with an enemy there is no dog more recklessly daring and resolute. Visitors to dog shows are disposed to believe that the Skye Terrier, with its well-groomed coat that falls in smooth cascades down its sides, and its veil of thick hair that obscures the tender softness of its dark and thoughtful eyes, is meant only to look beautiful upon the bench or to recline in comfortable indolence on silken cushions. This is a mistake. See a team of Skyes racing up a hillside after a fugitive rabbit, tirelessly burrowing after a rat, or displaying their terrier strategy around a fox's earth or an otter's holt, and you will admit that they are meant for sport, and are demons at it. Even their peculiarity of build is a proof that they are born to follow vermin underground. They are long of body, with short, strong legs, adapted for burrowing. With the Dachshund they approximate more closely than any other breeds to the shape of the badger, the weasel, and the otter, and so many animals which Nature has made long and low in order that they may inhabit earths and insinuate themselves into narrow passages in the moorland cairns. There can be no question that these dogs, which are so typically Highland in character and appearance, as well as the Clydesdale, the Scottish, the Dandie Dinmont, and the White Poltalloch terriers, are all the descendants of a purely native Scottish original. They are all inter-related; but which was the parent breed it is impossible to determine. It is even difficult to discover which of the two distinct types of the Skye Terrier was the earlier--the variety whose ears stand alertly erect or its near relative whose ears are pendulous. Perhaps it does not matter. The differences between the prick-eared Skye and the drop-eared are so slight, and the characteristics which they have in common are so many, that a dual classification was hardly necessary. The earliest descriptions and engravings of the breed present a terrier considerably smaller than the type of to-day, carrying a fairly profuse, hard coat, with short legs, a body long in proportion to its height, and with ears that were neither erect nor drooping, but semi-erect and capable of being raised to alertness in excitement. It is the case that drop-eared puppies often occur in the litters of prick-eared parents, and _vice versa_. As its name implies, this terrier had its early home in the misty island of Skye; which is not to say that it was not also to be found in Lewis, Oronsay, Colonsay and others of the Hebrides, as well as on the mainland of Scotland. Dr. Johnson, who visited these islands with Boswell in 1773, noticed these terriers and observed that otters and weasels were plentiful in Skye, that the foxes were numerous, and that they were _hunted by small dogs_. He was so accurate an observer that one regrets he did not describe the Macleod's terriers and their work. They were at that time of many colours, varying from pure white to fawn and brown, blue-grey and black. The lighter coloured ones had black muzzles, ears, and tails. Their tails were carried more gaily than would be permitted by a modern judge of the breed. In those days the Highlander cared less for the appearance than he did for the sporting proclivities of his dogs, whose business it was to oust the tod from the earth in which it had taken refuge; and for this purpose certain qualities were imperative. First and foremost the terrier needed to be small, short of leg, long and lithe in body, with ample face fringe to protect his eyes from injury, and possessed of unlimited pluck and dash. The Skye Terrier of to-day does not answer to each and every one of these requirements. He is too big--decidedly he is too big--especially in regard to the head. A noble-looking skull, with large, well-feathered ears may be admirable as ornament, but would assuredly debar its possessor from following into a fox's lair among the boulders. Then, again, his long coat would militate against the activity necessary for his legitimate calling. It was not until about 1860 that the Skye Terrier attracted much notice among dog lovers south of the Border, but Queen Victoria's admiration of the breed, of which from 1842 onwards she always owned favourite specimens, and Sir Edwin Landseer's paintings in which the Skye was introduced, had already drawn public attention to the decorative and useful qualities of this terrier. The breed was included in the first volume of the Kennel Club Stud Book, and the best among the early dogs were such as Mr. Pratt's Gillie and Dunvegan, Mr. D. W. Fyfe's Novelty, Mr. John Bowman's Dandie, and Mr. Macdona's Rook. These were mostly of the drop-eared variety, and were bred small. About the year 1874, fierce and stormy disputes arose concerning the distinctions of the Scottish breeds of terriers. The controversy was continued until 1879, when the Kennel Club was approached with the view to furnishing classes. The controversy was centred upon three types of Scottish terriers: those which claimed to be pure Skye Terriers, a dog described briefly as Scotch, and a third, which for a time was miscalled the Aberdeen. To those who had studied the varieties, the distinctions were clear; but the question at issue was--to which of the three rightly belonged the title of Scottish Terrier? The dog which the Scots enthusiasts were trying to get established under this classification was the Cairn Terrier of the Highlands, known in some localities as the short-coated, working Skye, and in others as the Fox-terrier, or Tod-hunter. A sub-division of this breed was the more leggy "Aberdeen" variety. The present-day Skye is without doubt one of the most beautiful terriers in existence. He is a dog of medium size, with a weight not exceeding 25 lb., and not less than 18 lb. he is long in proportion to his height, with a very level back, a powerful jaw with perfectly fitting teeth, a small hazel eye, and a long hard coat just reaching the ground. In the prick-eared variety the ears are carried erect, with very fine ear feathering, and the face fringe is long and thick. The ear feathering and face fall are finer in quality than the coat, which is exceedingly hard and weather-resisting. And here it is well to point out that the Skye has two distinct coats: the under coat, somewhat soft and woolly, and the upper, hard and rain-proof. This upper coat should be as straight as possible, without any tendency to wave or curl. The tail is not very long, and should be nicely feathered, and in repose never raised above the level of the back. The same description applies to the drop-eared type, except that the ears in repose, instead of being carried erect, fall evenly on each side of the head. When, however, the dog is excited, the ears are pricked forward, in exactly the same fashion as those of the Airedale Terrier. This is an important point, a houndy carriage of ear being a decided defect. The drop-eared variety is usually the heavier and larger dog of the two; and for some reason does not show the quality and breeding of its neighbour. Lately, however, there has evidently been an effort made to improve the drop-eared type, with the result that some very excellent dogs have recently appeared at the important shows. Probably Mr. James Pratt has devoted more time and attention to the Skye Terrier than any other now living fancier, though the names of Mr. Kidd and Mr. Todd are usually well known. Mr. Pratt's Skyes were allied to the type of terrier claiming to be the original Skye of the Highlands. The head was not so large, the ears also were not so heavily feathered, as is the case in the Skye of to-day, and the colours were very varied, ranging from every tint between black and white. In 1892 a great impetus was given to the breed by Mrs. Hughes, whose kennels at Wolverley were of overwhelmingly good quality. Mrs. Hughes was quickly followed by such ardent and successful fanciers as Sir Claud and Lady Alexander, of Ballochmyle, Mrs. Freeman, Miss Bowyer Smyth, and Miss McCheane. Lately other prominent exhibitors have forced their way into the front rank, among whom may be mentioned the Countess of Aberdeen, Mrs. Hugh Ripley, Mrs. Wilmer, Miss Whishaw, and Mrs. Sandwith. Mrs. Hughes' Wolverley Duchess and Wolverley Jock were excellent types of what a prick-eared Skye should be. Excellent, too, were Mrs. Freeman's Alister, and Sir Claud Alexander's Young Rosebery, Olden Times, Abbess, and Wee Mac of Adel, Mrs. Wilmer's Jean, and Mr. Millar's Prince Donard. But the superlative Skye of the period, and probably the best ever bred, is Wolverley Chummie, the winner of thirty championships which are but the public acknowledgment of his perfections. He is the property of Miss McCheane, who is also the owner of an almost equally good specimen of the other sex in Fairfield Diamond. Among the drop-eared Skyes of present celebrity may be mentioned Mrs. Hugh Ripley's Perfection, Miss Whishaw's Piper Grey, and Lady Aberdeen's Cromar Kelpie. There are two clubs in England and one in Scotland instituted to protect the interests of this breed, namely, the Skye Terrier Club of England, the Skye and Clydesdale Club, and the Skye Terrier Club of Scotland. The Scottish Club's description is as follows:-- * * * * * HEAD--Long, with powerful jaws and incisive teeth closing level, or upper just fitting over under. _Skull_: wide at front of brow, narrowing between the ears, and tapering gradually towards the muzzle, with little falling in between or behind the eyes. _Eyes_: hazel, medium size, close set. _Muzzle_: always black. EARS (PRICK OR PENDANT)--When _prick_, not large, erect at outer edges, and slanting towards each other at inner, from peak to skull. When _pendant_, larger, hanging straight, lying flat, and close at front. BODY--Pre-eminently long and low. Shoulders broad, chest deep, ribs well sprung and oval shaped, giving a flattish appearance to the sides. Hind-quarters and flank full and well developed. Back level and slightly declining from the top of the hip joint to the shoulders. The neck long and gently crested. TAIL--When _hanging_, the upper half perpendicular, the under half thrown backward in a curve. When _raised_, a prolongation of the incline of the back, and not rising higher nor curling up. LEGS--Short, straight, and muscular. No dew claws, the feet large and pointing forward. COAT (DOUBLE)--An _under_, short, close, soft, and woolly. An _over_, long, averaging 5-1/2 inches, hard, straight, flat, and free from crimp or curl. Hair on head, shorter, softer, and veiling the forehead and eyes; on the ears, overhanging inside, falling down and mingling with the side locks, not heavily, but surrounding the ear like a fringe, and allowing its shape to appear. Tail also gracefully feathered. COLOUR (ANY VARIETY)--Dark or light blue or grey, or fawn with black points. Shade of head and legs approximating that of body. 1. AVERAGE MEASUREMENTS: DOG--Height at shoulder, 9 inches. Length, back of skull to root of tail, 22-1/2 inches; muzzle to back of skull, 8-1/2 inches; root of tail to tip joint, 9 inches. Total length, 40 inches. BITCH--Half an inch lower, and 2-1/2 inches shorter than dog, all points proportional; thus, body, 21 inches; head, 8 inches; and tail, 8-1/2 inches. Total, 37-1/2 inches. 2. AVERAGE WEIGHT: DOG--18 lb.; bitch, 16 lb. No dog should be over 20 lb., nor under 16 lb.; and no bitch should be over 18 lb., nor under 14 lb. * * * * * Whereas the Scottish Club limits the approved length of coat to 5-1/2 inches, the English Club gives a maximum of 9 inches. This is a fairly good allowance, but many of the breed carry a much longer coat than this. It is not uncommon, indeed, to find a Skye with a covering of 12 inches in length, which, even allowing for the round of the body, causes the hair to reach and often to trail upon the ground. The Clydesdale may be described as an anomaly. He stands as it were upon a pedestal of his own; and unlike other Scotch terriers he is classified as non-sporting. Perhaps his marvellously fine and silky coat precludes him from the rough work of hunting after vermin, though it is certain his game-like instincts would naturally lead him to do so. Of all the Scottish dogs he is perhaps the smallest; his weight seldom exceeding 18 lb. He is thus described by the Skye Terrier Club of Scotland:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--A long, low, level dog, with heavily fringed erect ears, and a long coat like the finest silk or spun glass, which hangs quite straight and evenly down each side, from a parting extending from the nose to the root of the tail. HEAD--Fairly long, skull flat and very narrow between the ears, gradually widening towards the eyes and tapering very slightly to the nose, which must be black. The jaws strong and the teeth level. EYES--Medium in size, dark in colour, not prominent, but having a sharp, terrier-like expression, eyelids black. EARS--Small, set very high on the top of the head, carried perfectly erect, and covered with long silky hair, hanging in a heavy fringe down the sides of the head. BODY--Long, deep in chest, well ribbed up, the back being perfectly level. TAIL--Perfectly straight, carried almost level with the back, and heavily feathered. LEGS--As short and straight as possible, well set under the body, and entirely covered with silky hair. Feet round and cat-like. COAT--As long and straight as possible, free from all trace of curl or waviness, very glossy and silky in texture, with an entire absence of undercoat. COLOUR--A level, bright steel blue, extending from the back of the head to the root of the tail, and on no account intermingled with any fawn, light or dark hairs. The head, legs, and feet should be a clear, bright, golden tan, free from grey, sooty, or dark hairs. The tail should be very dark blue or black. * * * * * The Clydesdale Terrier is rare, at any rate as regards the show bench; there are never more than two or three at most exhibited south of the Tweed, even when classes are provided at the big shows and championships offered, thus indicating that the breed is not a popular one; and amongst those kennels who do show there exists at the present time but one dog who can lay claim to the title of champion; this unique specimen is the property of Sir Claud Alexander, Bart., of Ballochmyle, and is known under the name of Wee Wattie. There are of course several fanciers in Scotland, among whom may be mentioned Mr. G. Shaw, of Glasgow, who is the owner of several fine examples of the breed, including beautiful San Toy and the equally beautiful Mozart. As with the Skye Terrier, it seems a matter of difficulty to produce a perfect Clydesdale, and until the breed is taken up with more energy it is improbable that first class dogs will make an appearance in the show ring. A perfect Clydesdale should figure as one of the most elegant of the terrier breed; his lovely silken coat, the golden brown hue of his face fringe, paws and legs, his well pricked and feathery ear, and his generally smart appearance should combine to form a picture exciting general admiration. CHAPTER XLII THE YORKSHIRE TERRIER The most devout lover of this charming and beautiful terrier would fail if he were to attempt to claim for him the distinction of descent from antiquity. Bradford, and not Babylon, was his earliest home, and he must be candidly acknowledged to be a very modern manufactured variety of the dog. Yet it is important to remember that it was in Yorkshire that he was made--Yorkshire, where live the cleverest breeders of dogs that the world has known. One can roughly reconstitute the process. What the Yorkshiremen desired to make for themselves was a pigmy, prick-eared terrier with a long, silky, silvery grey and tan coat. They already possessed the foundation in the old English Black and Tan wire-haired Terrier. To lengthen the coat of this working breed they might very well have had recourse to a cross with the prick-eared Skye, and to eliminate the wiry texture of the hair a further cross with the Maltese dog would impart softness and silkiness without reducing the length. Again, a cross with the Clydesdale, which was then assuming a fixed type, would bring the variety yet nearer to the ideal, and a return to the black and tan would tend to conserve the desired colour. In all probability the Dandie Dinmont had some share in the process. Evidence of origin is often to be found more distinctly in puppies than in the mature dog, and it is to be noted that the puppies of both the Dandie and the Yorkshire are born with decided black and tan colouring. The original broken-haired Yorkshire Terrier of thirty years ago was often called a Scottish Terrier, or even a Skye, and there are many persons who still confound him with the Clydesdale, whom he somewhat closely resembles. At the present time he is classified as a toy dog and exhibited almost solely as such. It is to be regretted that until very lately the terrier character was being gradually bred out of him, and that the perkiness, the exuberance and gameness which once distinguished him as the companion of the Yorkshire operative, was in danger of being sacrificed to the desire for diminutive size and inordinate length of coat. Perhaps it would be an error to blame the breeders of Yorkshire Terriers for this departure from the original type as it appeared, say, about 1870. It is necessary to take into consideration the probability that what is now called the old-fashioned working variety was never regarded by the Yorkshiremen who made him as a complete and finished achievement. It was possibly their idea at the very beginning to produce just such a diminutive dog as is now to be seen in its perfection at exhibitions, glorying in its flowing tresses of steel blue silk and ruddy gold; and one must give them full credit for the patience and care with which during the past forty years they have been steadily working to the fixed design of producing a dwarfed breed which should excel all other breeds in the length and silkiness of its robe. The extreme of cultivation in this particular quality was reached some years ago by Mrs. Troughear, whose little dog Conqueror, weighing 5-1/2 lb., had a beautiful enveloping mantle of the uniform length of four-and-twenty inches. Doubtless all successful breeders and exhibitors of the Yorkshire Terrier have their little secrets and their peculiar methods of inducing the growth of hair. They regulate the diet with extreme particularity, keeping the dog lean rather than fat, and giving him nothing that they would not themselves eat. Bread, mixed with green vegetables, a little meat and gravy, or fresh fish, varied with milk puddings and Spratt's "Toy Pet" biscuits, should be the staple food. Bones ought not to be given, as the act of gnawing them is apt to mar the beard and moustache. For the same reason it is well when possible to serve the food from the fingers. But many owners use a sort of mask or hood of elastic material which they tie over the dog's head at meal-times to hold back the long face-fall and whiskers, that would otherwise be smeared and sullied. Similarly as a protection for the coat, when there is any skin irritation and an inclination to scratch, linen or cotton stockings are worn upon the hind feet. Many exhibitors pretend that they use no dressing, or very little, and this only occasionally, for the jackets of their Yorkshire Terriers; but it is quite certain that continuous use of grease of some sort is not only advisable but even necessary. Opinions differ as to which is the best cosmetic, but Hairmero, the dressing prepared for the purpose by Miss D. Wilmer, of Yoxford, Suffolk, could not easily be improved upon for this or any other long-coated breed. For the full display of their beauty, Yorkshire Terriers depend very much upon careful grooming. It is only by grooming that the silvery cascade of hair down the dog's sides and the beautiful tan face-fall that flows like a rain of gold from his head can be kept perfectly straight and free from curl or wrinkle; and no grease or pomade, even if their use were officially permitted, could impart to the coat the glistening sheen that is given by the dexterous application of the brush. The gentle art of grooming is not to be taught by theory. Practice is the best teacher. But the novice may learn much by observing the deft methods employed by an expert exhibitor. Mr. Peter Eden, of Manchester, is generally credited with being the actual inventor of the Yorkshire Terrier. He was certainly one of the earliest breeders and owners, and his celebrated Albert was only one of the many admirable specimens with which he convinced the public of the charms of this variety of dog. He may have given the breed its first impulse, but Mrs. M. A. Foster, of Bradford, was for many years the head and centre of all that pertained to the Yorkshire Terrier, and it was undoubtedly she who raised the variety to its highest point of perfection. Her dogs were invariably good in type. She never exhibited a bad one, and her Huddersfield Ben, Toy Smart, Bright, Sandy, Ted, Bradford Hero, Bradford Marie, and Bradford Queen--the last being a bitch weighing only 24 oz.--are remembered for their uniform excellence. Of more recent examples that have approached perfection may be mentioned Mrs. Walton's Ashton King, Queen, and Bright, and her Mont Thabor Duchess. Mr. Mitchell's Westbrook Fred has deservedly won many honours, and Mr. Firmstone's Grand Duke and Mynd Damaris, and Mrs. Sinclair's Mascus Superbus, stand high in the estimation of expert judges of the breed. Perhaps the most beautiful bitch ever shown was Waveless, the property of Mrs. R. Marshall, the owner of another admirable bitch in Little Picture. Mrs. W. Shaw's Ch. Sneinton Amethyst is also an admirable specimen. The standard of points laid down by the Yorkshire Terrier Club is as follows:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--That of a long-coated pet dog, the coat hanging quite straight and evenly down each side, a parting extending from the nose to the end of the tail. The animal should be very compact and neat, his carriage being very sprightly; bearing an air of importance. Although the frame is hidden beneath a mantle of hair, the general outline should be such as to suggest the existence of a vigorous and well-proportioned body. HEAD--Should be rather small and flat, not too prominent or round in the skull; rather broad at the muzzle, with a perfectly black nose; the hair on the muzzle very long, which should be a rich, deep tan, not sooty or grey. Under the chin, long hair, about the same colour as on the crown of the head, which should be a bright, golden tan, and not on any account intermingled with dark or sooty hairs. Hairs on the sides of the head should be very long, of a few shades deeper tan than that on the top of the head, especially about the ear-roots. EYES--Medium in size, dark in colour, having a sharp, intelligent expression, and placed so as to look directly forward. They should not be prominent. The edges of the eyelids should be dark. EARS--Small, V-shaped, and carried semi-erect, covered with short hair; colour to be a deep rich tan. MOUTH--Good even mouth; teeth as sound as possible. A dog having lost a tooth or two, through accident or otherwise, is not to disqualify, providing the jaws are even. BODY--Very compact, with a good loin, and level on the top of the back. COAT--The hair, as long and as straight as possible (not wavy), should be glossy, like silk (not woolly), extending from the back of the head to the root of the tail; colour, a bright steel blue, and on no account intermingled with fawn, light or dark hairs. All tan should be darker at the roots than at the middle of the hairs, shading off to a still lighter tan at the tips. LEGS--Quite straight, should be of a bright golden tan, well covered with hair, a few shades lighter at the end than at the roots. FEET--As round as possible; toe-nails black. TAIL--Cut to medium length; with plenty of hair, darker blue than the rest of the body, especially at the end of the tail, which is carried slightly higher than the level of the back. WEIGHT--Divided into two classes; under 5 lb. and over 5 lb. to 12 lb. CHAPTER XLIII THE POMERANIAN Long before the Pomeranian dog was common in Great Britain, this breed was to be met with in many parts of Europe, especially in Germany; and he was known under different names, according to his size and the locality in which he flourished. The title of Pomeranian is not admitted by the Germans at all, who claim this as one of their national breeds, and give it the general name of the German Spitz. At Athens, in the Street of Tombs, there is a representation of a little Spitz leaping up to the daughter of a family as she is taking leave of them, which bears the date equivalent to 56 B.C., and in the British Museum there is an ancient bronze jar of Greek workmanship, upon which is engraved a group of winged horses at whose feet there is a small dog of undoubted Pomeranian type. The date is the second century, B.C. It is now generally accepted that, wherever our Pomeranian originated, he is a Northern or Arctic breed. Evidence goes to show that his native land in prehistoric times was the land of the Samoyedes, in the north of Siberia, along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. The Samoyede dog is being gradually introduced into England, and good specimens can be frequently seen at the principal shows. The similarity between our large white Pomeranian and the Samoyede is too great to be accidental. And we are drawn to the conclusion that in prehistoric times a migration of the Samoyedes was made from their native land into Pomerania, the most eastern province of Prussia bordering on the Baltic Sea, and that these people took with them their dogs, which were the progenitors of the present race of Pomeranian or Spitz. But in any case the Pomeranian dog, so called, has been a native of various parts of Europe from very early times. His advent into England has been of comparatively recent date, at least in any great numbers, so far as can be ascertained, since no ancient records exist on this question. Gainsborough, however, painted the famous actress, Mrs. Robinson, with a large white Pomeranian sitting by her side. In Rees' _Encyclopedia_, published in 1816, a good picture of a white Pomeranian is given with a fairly truthful description. In this work he is said to be "larger than the common sheep dog." Rees gives his name as _Canis Pomeranius_, from Linnaeus, and _Chien Loup_, from Buffon. From these examples, therefore, we may infer that the large Pomeranian, or Wolf Spitz, was already known in England towards the end of the eighteenth century at least. There are, however, no systematic registers of Pomeranians prior to the year 1870. Even ten years later than this last date, so little was the breed appreciated that a well-known writer on dogs began an article on the Pomeranian with the words "The Pomeranian is admittedly one of the least interesting dogs in existence, and consequently his supporters are few and far between." The founders of the Kennel Club held their first dog show in 1870, and in that year only three Pomeranians were exhibited. For the next twenty years little or no permanent increase occurred in the numbers of Pomeranians entered at the chief dog show in England. The largest entry took place in 1881, when there were fifteen; but in 1890 there was not a single Pomeranian shown. From this time, however, the numbers rapidly increased. Commencing in 1891 with fourteen, increasing in 1901 to sixty, it culminated in 1905 with the record number of one hundred and twenty-five. Such a rapid advance between the years 1890 and 1905 is unprecedented in the history of dog shows, although it is right to add that this extraordinarily rapid rise into popularity has since been equalled in the case of the now fashionable Pekinese. This tendency to advancement in public favour was contemporaneous with the formation of the Pomeranian Club of England, which was founded in 1891, and through its fostering care the Pomeranian has reached a height of popularity far in advance of that attained by any other breed of toy dog. One of the first acts of the club was to draw up a standard of points as follows:-- * * * * * APPEARANCE--The Pomeranian should be a compact, short coupled dog, well knit in frame. He should exhibit great intelligence in his expression, and activity and buoyancy in his deportment. HEAD AND NOSE--Should be foxy in outline or wedge-shaped, the skull being slightly flat, large in proportion to the muzzle, which should finish rather fine and free from lippiness. The teeth should be level, and should on no account be undershot. The hair on the head and face should be smooth and short-coated. The nose should be black in white, orange and sable dogs; but in other colours may be self, but never parti-colour or white. EARS--Should be small, not set too far apart, nor too low down, but carried perfectly erect like those of a fox, and, like the head, should be covered with short, soft hair. EYES--Should be medium in size, not full, nor set too wide apart, bright and dark in colour, showing great intelligence; in white, shaded sable, or orange dogs the rims round the eyes should be black. NECK AND BODY--The neck should be rather short, well set in. The back must be short and the body compact, being well ribbed up and the barrel well rounded. The chest must be fairly deep and not too wide, but in proportion to the size of the dog. LEGS--The fore-legs must be well feathered, perfectly straight, of medium length, and not such as would be termed "leggy" or "low" on leg, but in due proportion in length and strength to a well-balanced frame. Must be fine in bone and free in action. The hind-legs and thighs must be well feathered, neither contracted nor wide behind; the feet small and compact in shape. Shoulders should be clean, and well laid back. TAIL--The tail is one of the characteristics of the breed, and should be turned over the back and carried flat and straight, being profusely covered with long, harsh, spreading hair. COAT--There should be two coats, an undercoat and an overcoat; the one a soft fluffy undercoat, the other a long, perfectly straight coat, harsh in texture, covering the whole of the body, being very abundant round the neck and fore part of the shoulders and chest where it should form a frill of profuse standing off straight hair, extending over the shoulders. The hind-quarters should be clad with long hair or feathering, from the top of the rump to the hock. COLOUR--All whole colours are admissible, but they should be free from white or shadings, and the whites must be quite free from lemon or any other colour. A few white hairs in any of the self colours shall not necessarily disqualify. At present the whole coloured dogs are:--White, black, brown (light or dark), blue (as pale as possible), orange (which should be as deep and even in colour as possible), beaver, or cream. Dogs, other than white, with white foot or feet, leg or legs, are decidedly objectionable and should be discouraged, and cannot compete as whole coloured specimens. In parti-coloured dogs the colours should be evenly distributed on the body in patches; a dog with white or tan feet or chest would not be a parti-colour. Shaded sables should be shaded throughout with three or more colours, the hairs to be as "uniformly shaded" as possible, with no patches of self colour. In mixed classes where whole coloured and parti-coloured Pomeranians compete together, the preference should, if in other points they are equal, be given to the whole coloured specimens. Where classification is not by colours the following is recommended for adoption by show committees:--1. Not exceeding 7 lb. (Pomeranian Miniatures). 2. Exceeding 7 lb. (Pomeranians). 3. Pomeranians and Pomeranian Miniatures mixed. * * * * * The early type of a Pomeranian was that of a dog varying from 10 lb. or 12 lb. weight up to 20 lb. weight, or even more, and some few of about 12 lb. and over are still to be met with; but the tendency among present-day breeders is to get them as small as possible, so that diminutive specimens weighing less than 5 lb. are now quite common, and always fetch higher prices than the heavier ones. The dividing weight, as arranged some ten years ago by the Pomeranian Club, is 8 lb., and the Kennel Club has recently divided the breed into two classes of Pomeranians and Pomeranians Miniature. As a rule the white specimens adhere more nearly to the primitive type, and are generally over 8 lb. in weight, but through the exertions of many breeders, several are now to be seen under this limit. The principal breeders of this colour in England to-day are Miss Hamilton of Rozelle, Miss Chell, Miss Lee-Roberts, Mrs. Pope, and Mrs. Goodall-Copestake. The first two whites to become full champions under Kennel Club rules were Rob of Rozelle and Konig of Rozelle, both belonging to Miss Hamilton of Rozelle. More black Pomeranians have been bred in England than of any other colour, and during the last fifteen years the number of good specimens that have appeared at our great exhibitions has been legion. There do not seem to be so many really good ones to-day as heretofore; this is explained, perhaps, by the fact that other colours are now receiving more and more attention from breeders. A typical small black of to-day is Billie Tee, the property of Mr. and Mrs. Stanley Mappin. He scales only 5-1/2 lb., and is therefore, as to size and weight as well as shape, style, and smartness of action, a good type of a toy Pomeranian. He was bred by Mrs. Cates, and is the winner of over fifty prizes and many specials. To enumerate all the first-class blacks during the last thirty years would be impossible, but those which stand out first and foremost have been Black Boy, King Pippin, Kaffir Boy, Bayswater Swell, Kensington King, Marland King, Black Prince, Hatcham Nip, Walkley Queenie, Viva, Gateacre Zulu, Glympton King Edward, and Billie Tee. The brown variety has for a long time been an especial favourite with the public, and many good ones have been bred during the last ten years. There are many different shades of browns, varying from a dark chocolate to a light beaver, but in all cases they should be whole-coloured. An admirable example of the brown Pomeranians is the incomparable Ch. Tina. This beautiful little lady was bred by Mrs. Addis from Bayswater Swell ex Kitsey, and scaled a little under 5 lb. She won over every Pomeranian that competed against her, besides having been many times placed over all other dogs of any breed in open competition. The shaded sables are among the prettiest of all the various colours which Pomeranians may assume. They must be shaded throughout with three or more colours, as uniformly as possible, with no patches of self-colour. They are becoming very popular, and good specimens are much sought after at high prices. Mrs. Hall-Walker has been constant in her devotion to this variety for several years, and she possesses a very fine team in Champions Dainty Boy, Dainty Belle, Bibury Belle, and in Gateacre Sable Sue. Mrs. Vale Nicolas also has recently been most successful with shaded sables. Ch. Nanky Po, over 8 lb., and Champions Sable Mite and Atom bear witness to this statement. Her lovely Mite is a typical example of a small Pomeranian of this colour. He was bred by Mr. Hirst, by Little Nipper ex Laurel Fluffie, and scales only 4-1/4 lb. Mention should also be made of Miss Ives' Dragon Fly, Mrs. Boutcher's Lady Wolfino, Miss Bland's Marland Topaz, Mr. Walter Winans' Morning Light, and Mr. Fowler's May Duchess. The blues, or smoke-coloured Pomeranians, have likewise their admirers, and among those who have taken up these as a speciality may be mentioned Miss Ives, Mrs. Parker, Mrs. Loy, and Miss Ruby Cooke. Another colour which has attained of late years increasing popularity in England is orange. These should be self-coloured throughout, and light shadings, though not disqualifying, should be discouraged. The principal breeder of the orange Pomeranian to-day is Mr. W. Brown, of Raleigh, Essex, who has probably more specimens in his kennels than any other breeder of this colour. Tiny Boy, The Boy, and Orange Boy are his best, and all three are approved sires. Mrs. Hall-Walker is an admirer of this colour, and her Gateacre Philander, Lupino, and Orange Girl are great prize-winners. Miss Hamilton of Rozelle has for many years bred "oranges," and has given to the Pomeranian Club, of which she is President, two challenge cups for Pomeranians of this colour. Mrs. Birch also is a lover of this hue, and possesses such good dogs as Rufus Rusticus and Cheriwinkle. There is still another variety which bears the name of parti-coloured. As the name implies, these dogs must be of more than one colour, and the colours should be evenly distributed on the body in patches; for example, a black dog with a white foot or leg or chest would not be a parti-colour. As a matter of fact, there have been bred in England very few parti-coloured Pomeranians; they seem to be freaks which are rarely produced. It does not follow that by mating a black dog to a white bitch, or _vice versa_, a parti-coloured will be necessarily obtained; on the contrary, it is more likely that the litter will consist of some whole-coloured blacks, and some whole-coloured whites. Miss Hamilton's Mafeking of Rozelle, and Mrs. Vale Nicolas's Shelton Novelty, are the two most prominent specimens at the present time, although Mrs. Harcourt-Clare's Magpie and Mr. Temple's Leyswood Tom Tit were perhaps better known some time ago. Among toy dogs this particular breed has enjoyed an unprecedented popularity; the growth in the public favour among all classes has been gradual and permanent during the last fifteen years, and there are no signs that it is losing its hold on the love and affection of a large section of the English people. His handsome appearance, his activity, and hardihood, his devotedness to his owner, his usefulness as a housedog, and his many other admirable qualities will always make the Pomeranian a favourite both in the cottage and in the palace. CHAPTER XLIV THE KING CHARLES SPANIELS In the fourth chapter of Macaulay's _History of England_ we read of King Charles II. that "he might be seen before the dew was off the grass in St. James's Park, striding among the trees playing with his Spaniels and flinging corn to his ducks, and these exhibitions endeared him to the common people, who always like to see the great unbend." Queen Elizabeth's physician, Dr. Caius, described these little Spaniels as "delicate, neate, and pretty kind of dogges, called the Spaniel gentle or the comforter," and further said: "These dogges are little, pretty, proper, and fyne, and sought for to satisfie the delicatenesse of daintie dames and wanton women's wills, instruments of folly for them to play and dally withall, to tryfle away the treasure of time, to withdraw their mindes from their commendable exercises. These puppies the smaller they be, the more pleasure they provoke as more meete playfellowes for minsing mistrisses to beare in their bosoms, to keepe company withall in their chambers, to succour with sleepe in bed, and nourishe with meate at board, to lie in their lappes, and licke their lippes as they ryde in their waggons, and good reason it should be so, for coursenesse with fynenesse hath no fellowship, but featnesse with neatnesse hath neighbourhood enough." There would appear to be much divergence of opinion as to the origin of this breed, and the date of its first appearance in England, but it was certainly acclimatised here as early as the reign of Henry VIII., and it is generally thought that it is of Japanese origin, taken from Japan to Spain by the early voyagers to the East, and thence imported into England. The English Toy Spaniels of to-day, especially the Blenheim variety, are also said by some to be related to some sporting Spaniels which belonged to Queen Mary about the year 1555, and might have been brought over from Germany. Mary kept a pack of Spaniels for hunting purposes. There is another theory advanced, and with some reason that the English Toy Spaniel of the present day derived its origin from the Cocker Spaniel, as these larger dogs have the same colours and markings, black and tan, tricolour, and red and white. The Cocker also occasionally has the spot on the forehead which is a characteristic of the Blenheim. Be the origin of the King Charles Spaniel, and its advent in this country, what it may, King Charles II. so much indulged and loved these little friends that they followed him hither and thither as they pleased, and seem to have been seldom separated from him. By him they were loved and cherished, and brought into great popularity; in his company they adorn canvas and ancient tapestries, and are reputed to have been allowed free access at all times to Whitehall, Hampton Court, and other royal palaces. There are now four recognised varieties of the English Toy Spaniel, or, more properly speaking, five, as the Marlborough Blenheims are considered a distinct type. The latter are said by some to be the oldest of the Toy Spaniels; by others to have been first brought over from Spain during the reign of Charles II. by John Churchill, first Duke of Marlborough, from whose home, Blenheim Palace, the name was derived, and has ever since been retained. If we may take the evidence of Vandyck, Watteau, Francois Boucher, and Greuze, in whose pictures they are so frequently introduced, all the toy Spaniels of bygone days had much longer noses and smaller, flatter heads than those of the present time, and they had much longer ears, these in many instances dragging on the ground. The Marlborough Blenheim has retained several of the ancestral points. Although this variety is of the same family, and has the same name, as the short-nosed Blenheim of the present day, there is a great deal of difference between the two types. The Marlborough is higher on the legs, which need not be so fully feathered. He has a much longer muzzle and a flatter and more contracted skull. The Marlborough possesses many of the attributes of a sporting Spaniel; but so also does the modern Blenheim, although perhaps in a lesser degree. He has a very good scent. Mr. Rawdon B. Lee states that "the Blenheims of Marlborough were excellent dogs to work the coverts for cock and pheasant, and that excepting in colour there is in reality not much difference in appearance between the older orange and white dogs (not as they are to-day, with their abnormally short noses, round skulls, and enormous eyes), and the liver and white Cockers which H. B. Chalon drew for Daniel's _Rural Sports_ in 1801." This will bear out the statement that the smaller type of Spaniel may be descended from the Cockers. The ground colour of this dog is white, with chestnut encircling the ears to the muzzle, the sides of the neck are chestnut, as are also the ears. There is a white blaze on the forehead, in the centre of which should be a clear lozenge-shaped chestnut spot, called the beauty spot, which by inbreeding with other varieties is fast being lost. Chestnut markings are on the body and on the sides of the hind-legs. The coat should incline to be curly; the head must be flat, not broad, and the muzzle should be straight. The chestnut should be of a rich colour. The four varieties--the King Charles, Tricolour or (as he has been called) Charles I. Spaniel, the modern Blenheim, and the Ruby--have all the same points, differing from one another in colour only, and the following description of the points as determined by the Toy Spaniel Club serves for all:-- * * * * * HEAD--Should be well domed, and in good specimens is absolutely semi-globular, sometimes even extending beyond the half-circle, and projecting over the eyes, so as nearly to meet the upturned nose. EYES--The eyes are set wide apart, with the eyelids square to the line of the face, not oblique or fox-like. The eyes themselves are large, and dark as possible, so as to be generally considered black, their enormous pupils, which are absolutely of that colour, increasing the description. There is always a certain amount of weeping shown at the inner angles. This is owing to a defect in the lachrymal duct. STOP--The "stop" or hollow between the eyes is well marked, as in the Bulldog, or even more so; some good specimens exhibit a hollow deep enough to bury a small marble. NOSE--The nose must be short and well turned up between the eyes, and without any indication of artificial displacement afforded by a deviation to either side. The colour of the end should be black, and it should be both deep and wide with open nostrils. JAW--The muzzle must be square and deep, and the lower jaw wide between the branches, leaving plenty of space for the tongue, and for the attachment of the lower lips, which should completely conceal the teeth. It should also be turned up or "finished," so as to allow of its meeting the end of the upper jaw turned up in a similar way, as above described. EARS--The ears must be long, so as to approach the ground. In an average-sized dog they measure twenty inches from tip to tip, and some reach twenty-two inches, or even a trifle more. They should be set low on the head, hang flat to the sides of the cheeks, and be heavily feathered. In this last respect the King Charles is expected to exceed the Blenheim, and his ears occasionally extend to twenty-four inches. SIZE--The most desirable size is indicated by the accepted weight of from 7 lb. to 10 lb. SHAPE--In compactness of shape these Spaniels almost rival the Pug, but the length of coat adds greatly to the apparent bulk, as the body, when the coat is wetted, looks small in comparison with that dog. Still, it ought to be decidedly "cobby," with strong, stout legs, short broad back and wide chest. The symmetry of the King Charles is of importance, but it is seldom that there is any defect in this respect. COAT--The coat should be long, silky, soft and wavy, but not curly. In the Blenheim there should be a profuse mane, extending well down in the front of the chest. The feather should be well displayed on the ears and feet, and in the latter case so thickly as to give the appearance of their being webbed. It is also carried well up the backs of the legs. In the Black and Tan the feather on the ears is very long and profuse, exceeding that of the Blenheim by an inch or more. The feather on the tail (which is cut to the length of three and a half to four inches) should be silky, and from five to six inches in length, constituting a marked "flag" of a square shape, and not carried above the level of the back. COLOUR--The colour differs with the variety. The Black and Tan is a rich glossy black and deep mahogany tan; tan spots over the eyes, and the usual markings on the muzzle, chest, and legs are also required. The Ruby is a rich chestnut red, and is whole-coloured. The presence of a _few_ white hairs _intermixed with the black_ on the chest of a Black and Tan, or _intermixed with the red_ on the chest of a Ruby Spaniel, shall carry _weight against_ a dog, but shall not in itself absolutely disqualify; but a white patch on the chest or white on any other part of a Black and Tan or Ruby Spaniel shall be a disqualification. The Blenheim must on no account be whole-coloured, but should have a ground of pure pearly white, with bright rich chestnut or ruby red markings evenly distributed in large patches. The ears and cheeks should be red, with a blaze of white extending from the nose up the forehead, and ending between the ears in a crescentic curve. In the centre of this blaze at the top of the forehead there should be a clear "spot" of red, of the size of a sixpence. Tan ticks on the fore-legs and on the white muzzle are desirable. The Tricolour should in part have the tan of the Black and Tan, with markings like the Blenheim in black instead of red on a pearly-white ground. The ears and under the tail should also be lined with tan. The Tricolour has no "spot," that beauty being peculiarly the property of the Blenheim. The All Red King Charles is known by the name of "Ruby Spaniel"; the colour of the nose is black. The points of the "Ruby" are the same as those of the "Black and Tan," differing only in colour. * * * * * The King Charles variety used to consist of black and tan and black and white Spaniels, and it is thought that by the inter-breeding of the two specimens the Tricolour was produced. The colour of the King Charles now is a glossy black with rich mahogany tan spots over the eyes and on the cheeks. There should also be some tan on the legs and under the tail. The Prince Charles, or Tricolour, should have a pearly-white ground with glossy black markings evenly distributed over the body in patches. The ears should be lined with tan; tan must also be seen over the eyes, and some on the cheeks. Under the tail also tan must appear. The Blenheim must also have a pearly-white ground with bright rich chestnut or ruby red markings evenly distributed in patches over the body. The ears and cheeks must be red, and a white blaze should stretch from the nose to the forehead and thence in a curve between the ears. In the middle of the forehead there should be, on the white blaze, a clear red spot about the size of a sixpence. This is called the "Blenheim spot," which, as well as the profuse mane, adds greatly to the beauty of this particular Toy Spaniel. Unfortunately, in a litter of Blenheims the spot is often wanting. The Ruby Spaniel is of one colour, a rich, unbroken red. The nose is black. There are now some very beautiful specimens of Ruby Spaniels, but it is only within the last quarter of a century that this variety has existed. It seems to have originally appeared in a litter of King Charles puppies, when it was looked upon as a freak of nature, taking for its entire colour only the tan markings and losing the black ground. The different varieties of Toy Spaniels have been so much interbred that a litter has been reputed to contain the four kinds, but this would be of very rare occurrence. The Blenheim is now often crossed with the Tricolour, when the litter consist of puppies quite true to the two types. The crossing of the King Charles with the Ruby is also attended with very good results, the tan markings on the King Charles becoming very bright and the colour of the Ruby also being improved. Neither of these specimens should be crossed with either the Blenheim or the Tricolour, as white must not appear in either the King Charles or the Ruby Spaniel. It is regretted by some of the admirers of these dogs that custom has ordained that their tails should be docked. As portrayed in early pictures of the King Charles and the Blenheim varieties, the tails are long, well flagged, and inclined to curve gracefully over the back, and in none of the pictures of the supposed ancestors of our present Toy Spaniels--even so recent as those painted by Sir Edwin Landseer--do we find an absence of the long tail. If left intact, the tail would take two or three years to attain perfection, but the same may be said of the dog generally, which improves very much with age, and is not at its best until it is three years old, and even then continues to improve. Although the Toy Spaniels are unquestionably true aristocrats by nature, birth, and breeding, and are most at home in a drawing-room or on a well-kept lawn, they are by no means deficient in sporting proclivities, and, in spite of their short noses, their scent is very keen. They thoroughly enjoy a good scamper, and are all the better for not being too much pampered. They are very good house-dogs, intelligent and affectionate, and have sympathetic, coaxing little ways. One point in their favour is the fact that they are not noisy, and do not yap continually when strangers go into a room where they are, or at other times, as is the habit with some breeds of toy dogs. Those who have once had King Charles Spaniels as pets seldom care to replace them by any other variety of dog, fearing lest they might not find in another breed such engaging little friends and companions, "gentle" as of yore and also "comforters." Although these dogs need care, they possess great powers of endurance. They appreciate warmth and comfort, but do not thrive so well in either extreme heat or intense cold. One thing to be avoided is the wetting of their feathered feet, or, should this happen, allowing them to remain so; and, as in the case of all dogs with long ears, the interior of the ears should be carefully kept dry to avoid the risk of canker. In going back to a period long before the last century was half-way through, we find that a great number of these ornamental pets were in the hands of working men living in the East End of London, and the competition among them to own the best was very keen. They held miniature dog shows at small taverns, and paraded their dogs on the sanded floor of tap-rooms, their owners sitting around smoking long church-warden pipes. The value of good specimens in those early days appears to have been from P5 to P250, which latter sum is said to have been refused by a comparatively poor man for a small black and tan with very long ears, and a nose much too long for our present-day fancy. Among the names of some old prominent breeders and exhibitors may be mentioned those of C. Aistrop, J. Garwood, J. A. Buggs, and Mrs. Forder. It is interesting to note, on looking over a catalogue of the Kennel Club Show, that in 1884 the classes for Toy Spaniels numbered five, with two championship prizes, one each for Blenheims and Black and Tans, and the total entries were 19. At this date neither Tricolours nor Rubies were recognised as a separate variety by the Kennel Club, and they had no place in the register of breeds until the year 1902. At the Kennel Club show in 1904 thirty-one classes were provided and eight challenge certificate prizes were given, the entries numbering 109. The formation of the Toy Spaniel Club in 1885, and the impetus given to breeders and exhibitors by the numerous shows with good classification, have caused this beautiful breed to become more popular year by year. Fifty years ago the owners might be almost counted on the fingers of one's hands; now probably the days of the year would hardly cover them. Among the most successful exhibitors of late years have been the Hon. Mrs. McLaren Morrison, the Hon. Mrs. Lytton, Mrs. Graves, Mrs. L. H. Thompson, Miss Young, Mrs. H. B. Looker, Mrs. Privette, Miss Hall, the Misses Clarkson and Grantham, Mrs. Dean, Mr. H. Taylor, Mrs. Bright, Mrs. Adamson, Miss Spofforth, Mrs. Hope Paterson, Mrs. Lydia Jenkins, and Miss E. Taylor. The novice fancier, desirous of breeding for profit, exhibition, or pleasure, when price is an object for consideration, is often better advised to purchase a healthy puppy from a breeder of repute rather than to be deluded with the notion that a good adult can be purchased for a few pounds, or to be carried away with the idea that a cheap, indifferently bred specimen will produce first-class stock. It takes years to breed out bad points, but good blood will tell. When you are purchasing a bitch with the intention of breeding, many inquiries should be made as to the stock from which she comes. This will influence the selection of the sire to whom she is to be mated, and he should excel in the points in which she is deficient. It is absolutely necessary to have perfectly healthy animals, and if the female be young, and small stock is desired, her mate should be several years her senior. A plain specimen of the right blood is quite likely to produce good results to the breeder; for example, should there be two female puppies in a well-bred litter, one remarkable as promising to have all the requirements for a coming champion, the other large and plain, this latter should be selected for breeding purposes as, being stronger, she will make a better and more useful mother than her handsome sister, who should be kept for exhibition, or for sale at a remunerative price. The modern craze for small specimens makes them quite unsuitable for procreation. A brood bitch should not be less than 9 lb. in weight, and even heavier is preferable. A sire the same size will produce small and far more typical stock than one of 5 lb. or 6 lb., as the tendency is to degenerate, especially in head points; but small size can be obtained by suitably selecting the parents. The early spring is the best season for breeding, as it gives the puppies a start of at least six months in which to grow and get strong before the cold weather sets in, although, of course, they can be bred at any time, but autumn and winter puppies are more troublesome to rear. It is always wise to administer occasionally, both to puppies and adults, a dose of worm medicine, so as to give no chance to internal parasites--the most troublesome ill with which the dog owner has to wrestle, causing even more mortality than the dreaded scourge of distemper. The rules of hygiene cannot be overlooked, as upon them hangs the success of the breeder; plenty of fresh air, light, and sunshine are as necessary as food. Puppies of this breed are essentially delicate, and must be kept free from cold and draughts, but they require liberty and freedom to develop and strengthen their limbs, otherwise they are liable to develop rickets. Their food should be of the best quality, and after the age of six months, nothing seems more suitable than stale brown bred, cut up dice size, and moistened with good stock gravy, together with minced, lean, underdone roast beef, with the addition, two or three times a week, of a little well-cooked green vegetable, varied with rice or suet pudding and plain biscuits. Fish may also be given occasionally. When only two or three dogs are kept, table scraps will generally be sufficient, but the pernicious habit of feeding at all times, and giving sweets, pastry, and rich dainties, is most harmful, and must produce disastrous results to the unfortunate animal. Two meals a day at regular intervals are quite sufficient to keep these little pets in the best condition, although puppies should be fed four times daily in small quantities. After leaving the mother they will thrive better if put on dry food, and a small portion of scraped or finely minced lean meat given them every other day, alternately with a chopped hard-boiled egg and stale bread-crumbs. CHAPTER XLV THE PEKINESE AND THE JAPANESE Few of the many breeds of foreign dogs now established in England have attained such a measure of popularity in so short a time as the Pekinese. Of their early history little is known, beyond the fact that at the looting of the Summer Palace of Pekin, in 1860, bronze effigies of these dogs, known to be more than two thousand years old, were found within the sacred precincts. The dogs were, and are to this day, jealously guarded under the supervision of the Chief Eunuch of the Court, and few have ever found their way into the outer world. So far as the writer is aware, the history of the breed in England dates from the importation in 1860 of five dogs taken from the Summer Palace, where they had, no doubt, been forgotten on the flight of the Court to the interior. Admiral Lord John Hay, who was present on active service, gives a graphic account of the finding of these little dogs in a part of the garden frequented by an aunt of the Emperor, who had committed suicide on the approach of the Allied Forces. Lord John and another naval officer, a cousin of the late Duchess of Richmond's, each secured two dogs; the fifth was taken by General Dunne, who presented it to Queen Victoria. Lord John took pains to ascertain that none had found their way into the French camp, and he heard then that the others had all been removed to Jehal with the Court. It is therefore reasonable to suppose that these five were the only Palace dogs, or Sacred Temple dogs of Pekin, which reached England, and it is from the pair which lived to a respectable old age at Goodwood that so many of the breed now in England trace their descent. [Illustration: TOY DOGS 1. MISS STEVENS' TYPICAL JAPANESE PUPPY; 2. MRS. VALE NICOLAS'S POMERANIAN CH. THE SABLE MITE _Photograph by T. Fall_; 3. MISS M. A. BLAND'S POMERANIAN CH. MARLAND KING _Photograph by T. Fall_; 4. LADY HULTON'S BLENHEIM CH. JOY _Photograph by Russell_; 5. THE HON. MRS. LYTTON'S KING CHARLES CH. THE SERAPH] Many years ago Mr. Alfred de Rothschild tried, through his agents in China, to secure a specimen of the Palace dog for the writer, in order to carry on the Goodwood strain, but without success, even after a correspondence with Pekin which lasted more than two years; but we succeeded in obtaining confirmation of what we had always understood: namely, that the Palace dogs are rigidly guarded, and that their theft is punishable by death. At the time of the Boxer Rebellion only Spaniels, Pugs, and Poodles were found in the Imperial Palace when it was occupied by the Allied Forces, the little dogs having once more preceded the court in the flight to Si-gnanfu. The Duchess of Richmond occasionally gave away a dog to intimate friends, such as the Dowager Lady Wharncliffe, Lady Dorothy Nevill, and others, but in those days the Pekinese was practically an unknown quantity, and it can therefore be more readily understood what interest was aroused about eleven years ago by the appearance of a small dog, similar in size, colour, and general type to those so carefully cherished at Goodwood. This proved to be none other than the since well-known sire Ah Cum, owned by Mrs. Douglas Murray, whose husband, having extensive interests in China, had managed after many years to secure a true Palace dog, smuggled in a box of hay, placed inside a crate which contained Japanese deer! Ah Cum was mated without delay to two Goodwood bitches, the result being, in the first litters, Ch. Goodwood Lo and Goodwood Put-Sing. To these three sires, some of the bluest Pekinese blood is traceable, _vide_ Ch. Goodwood Chum, Ch. Chu-Erh of Alderbourne, Ch. Gia-Gia, Manchu Tao-Tai, Goodwood Ming, Marland Myth, and others. It must, however, be clearly admitted that since the popularity of the breed has become established we unluckily see scores of Pekinese in the show-ring who have lost all resemblance to the original type, and for this the Pekinese Club is in some measure to blame. The original points for the guidance of breeders and judges were drawn up by Lady Samuelson, Mrs. Douglas Murray, and Lady Algernon Gordon-Lennox, who fixed the maximum size at 10 lb.--a very generous margin. Since then the club has amended the scale of points, no doubt in order to secure a larger membership, and the maximum now stands at 18 lb. Is it therefore to be wondered at that confusion exists as to what is the true type? At shows there should be two distinct classes; the Palace dog and the Pekin Spaniel, or any other name which would enable the breeds to be kept distinct. The following is the scale of points as issued by the Pekinese Club:-- * * * * * HEAD--Massive, broad skull, wide and flat between the ears (not dome shaped); wide between the eyes. NOSE--Black, broad, very short and flat. EYES--Large, dark, prominent, round, lustrous. STOP--Deep. EARS--Heart-shaped; not set too high; leather never long enough to come below the muzzle; not carried erect, but rather drooping, long feather. MUZZLE--Very short and broad; not underhung nor pointed; wrinkled. MANE--Profuse, extending beyond shoulder blades, forming ruff or frill round front of neck. SHAPE OF BODY--Heavy in front; broad chest falling away lighter behind; lion-like; not too long in the body. COAT AND FEATHER AND CONDITION--Long, with thick undercoat; straight and flat, not curly nor wavy; rather coarse but soft; feather on thighs, legs, tail and toes, long and profuse. COLOUR--All colours allowable, red, fawn, black, black and tan, sable, brindle, white and parti-coloured. Black masks, and spectacles round the eyes, with lines to the ears, are desirable. LEGS--Short; fore-legs heavy, bowed out at elbows; hind-legs lighter, but firm and well shaped. FEET--Flat, not round; should stand well up on toes, not on ankles. TAIL--Curled and carried well up on loins; long, profuse straight feather. SIZE--Being a toy dog the smaller the better, provided type and points are not sacrificed. Anything over 18 lb. should disqualify. When divided by weight, classes should be over 10 lb., and under 10 lb. ACTION--Free, strong and high; crossing feet or throwing them out in running should not take off marks; weakness of joints should be penalised. * * * * * Lady Algernon Gordon-Lennox has occasionally been criticised for her advocacy of _whole-coloured_ specimens, but in support of this preference it can be proved that the original pair brought to Goodwood, as well as Mrs. Murray's Ah Cum, were all of the golden chestnut shade; and, as no brindled, parti-coloured, or black dog has ever been born at Goodwood or Broughton, we have some authority for looking upon whole-colour as an important point. This view was in the first place confirmed by the late Chinese Ambassador in London, and further by Baron Speck von Sternberg, who was for many years Minister at Pekin and had very special facilities for noting the points of the Palace dogs. In every case a black muzzle is indispensable, also black points to the ears, with trousers, tail and feathering a somewhat lighter shade than the body. There is considerable divergence of opinion as to the penalisation of what, in other breeds, is known as a "Dudley" nose, but on this point there must be some difficulty at shows; in the Pekinese the colour of the nose varies in a remarkable way, especially in the case of the bitches. For instance, a pinkish tinge was always visible on the nose of Goodwood Meh before the birth of her puppies; but it resumed its normal colour when the puppies were a few weeks old. As a representative type, Chu-Erh of Alderbourne resembles most nearly the old Goodwood dogs. He has the same square, cobby appearance, broad chest, bowed legs, profuse feather, and large, lustrous eyes--points which are frequently looked for in vain nowadays--and his breeder and owner may well be proud of him. The Pekinese differs from the Japanese dog in that it appears to be far stronger in constitution, and withstands the changes of the English climate with much greater ease; in fact, they are as hardy, _under healthy conditions_, as any English breed, and the only serious trouble seems to be the weakness which is developing in the eyes. Small abscesses frequently appear when the puppies are a few months old, and, although they may not affect the sight, they almost inevitably leave a bluish mark, while in some cases the eye itself becomes contracted. Whether this is one of the results of in-breeding it is difficult to say, and it would be of interest to know whether the same trouble is met with in China. The Pekinese bitches are excellent mothers, provided they are not interfered with for the first few days. This was discovered at Goodwood years ago by the fact that, on two or three occasions, one Celestial lady, who had been given greater attention than she considered necessary, revenged herself by devouring her own family of puppies! One thing seems from experience to be especially advisable--as far as can be arranged, to breed in the spring rather than autumn. The puppies need all the open air and exercise that is possible, and where rickety specimens are so frequently met with it is only natural that a puppy who starts life with the summer months ahead is more likely to develop well than one born in the autumn. Great attention should be paid with reference to the frequent--almost certain--presence of worms, which trouble seems more prevalent with Pekinese than with any other breed. Wherever possible, fish should be given as part of the dietary; some Pekinese devour it with relish; others will not touch it, but there is no doubt it is a useful item in the bill of fare. Bread well soaked in very strong stock, sheep's head, and liver are always better as regular diet than meat, but in cases of debility a little raw meat given once a day is most beneficial. It would not be fitting to close an article on Pekinese without bearing testimony to their extraordinarily attractive characteristics. They are intensely affectionate and faithful, and have something almost cat-like in their domesticity. They display far more character than the so-called "toy dog" usually does, and for this reason it is all-important that pains should be taken to preserve the true type, in a recognition of the fact that quality is more essential than quantity. * * * * * As their breed-name implies, these tiny black and white, long-haired lap dogs are reputed to be natives of the land of the chrysanthemum. The Japanese, who have treasured them for centuries, have the belief that they are not less ancient than the dogs of Malta. There seems to be a probability, however, that the breed may claim to be Chinese just as surely as Japanese. The Hon. Mrs. McLaren Morrison, an authority on exotic dogs whose opinion must always be taken with respect, is inclined to the belief that they are related to the short-nosed Spaniels of Thibet; while other experts are equally of opinion that the variety is an offshoot from the Spaniels of Pekin. It is fairly certain that they are indigenous to the Far East, whence we have derived so many of our small snub-nosed, large-eyed, and long-haired pets. The Oriental peoples have always bred their lap dogs to small size, convenient for carrying in the sleeve. The "sleeve dog" and the "chin dog" are common and appropriate appellations in the East. The Japanese Spaniel was certainly known in England half a century ago, and probably much earlier. Our seamen often brought them home as presents for their sweethearts. These early imported specimens were generally of the larger kind, and if they were bred from--which is doubtful--it was by crossing with the already long-established King Charles or Blenheim Spaniels. Their colours were not invariably white and black. Many were white and red, or white with lemon-yellow patches. The colouring other than white was usually about the long-fringed ears and the crown of the head, with a line of white running from the point of the snub black nose between the eyes as far as the occiput. This blaze up the face was commonly said to resemble the body of a butterfly, whose closed wings were represented by the dog's expansive ears. The white and black colouring is now the most frequent. The points desired are a broad and rounded skull, large in proportion to the dog's body; a wide, strong muzzle and a turned-up lower jaw. Great length of body is not good; the back should be short and level. The legs are by preference slender and much feathered, the feet large and well separated. An important point is the coat. It should be abundant, particularly about the neck, where it forms a ruffle, and it ought to be quite straight and very silky. The Japanese Spaniel is constitutionally delicate, requiring considerable care in feeding. A frequent--almost a daily--change of diet is to be recommended, and manufactured foods are to be avoided. Rice usually agrees well; fresh fish, sheep's head, tongue, chicken livers, milk or batter puddings are also suitable; and occasionally give oatmeal porridge, alternated with a little scraped raw meat as an especial favour. For puppies newly weaned it is well to limit the supply of milk foods and to avoid red meat. Finely minced rabbit, or fish are better. Of the Japanese Spaniels which have recently been prominent in competition, may be mentioned Miss Serena's Champion Fuji of Kobe, a remarkably beautiful bitch, who was under 5 lb. in weight, and who in her brief life gained six full championships. Mrs. Gregson's Ch. Tora of Braywick, a fine red and white dog, somewhat over 7 lb., is also to be remembered as a typical example of the breed, together with Kara, the smallest Jap ever exhibited or bred in this country, weighing only 2-1/2 lb. when 2-1/2 years old; Lady Samuelson's Togo and O'Toyo of Braywick, and Mrs. Hull's Ch. Daddy Jap. There has lately been a tendency to lay too much stress upon diminutive size in this variety of the dog, to the neglect of well-formed limbs and free movement; but on the whole it may be stated with confidence that the Japanese is prospering in England, thanks largely to the energetic work of the Japanese Chin Club, which was formed some three years ago to promote the best interests of the breed. The following is the official standard issued by the Club:-- * * * * * HEAD--Should be large for size of animal, very broad and with slightly rounded skull. MUZZLE--Strong and wide; very short from eyes to nose; upper jaw should look slightly turned up between the eyes; lower jaw should be also turned up or finished so as to meet it, but should the lower jaw be slightly underhung it is not a blemish provided the teeth are not shown in consequence. NOSE--Very short in the muzzle part. The end or nose proper should be wide, with open nostrils, and must be the colour of the dog's marking, _i.e._, black in black-marked dogs, and red or deep flesh colour in red or lemon marked dogs. EYES--Large, dark, lustrous, rather prominent, and set wide apart. EARS--Small and V-shaped, nicely feathered, set wide apart and high on the head and carried slightly forward. NECK--Should be short and moderately thick. BODY--Very compact and squarely built, with a short back, rather wide chest, and of generally "cobby" shape. The body and legs should really go into a square, _i.e._, the length of the dog should be about its height. LEGS--The bones of the legs should be small, giving them a slender appearance, and they should be well feathered. FEET--Small and shaped, somewhat long; the dog stands up on its toes somewhat. If feathered, the tufts should never increase the width of the foot, but only its length a trifle. TAIL--Carried in a tight curl over the back. It should be profusely feathered so as to give the appearance of a beautiful "plume" on the animal's back. COAT--Profuse, long, straight, rather silky. It should be absolutely free from wave or curl, and not lie too flat, but have a tendency to stand out, especially at the neck, so as to give a thick mane or ruff, which with profuse feathering on thighs and tail gives a very showy appearance. COLOUR--Either black and white or red and white, _i.e._, parti-coloured. The term red includes all shades, sable, brindle, lemon or orange, but the brighter and clearer the red the better. The white should be clear white, and the colour, whether black or red, should be evenly distributed in patches over the body, cheeks, and ears. HEIGHT AT SHOULDER--About ten inches. WEIGHT--The size desirable is from 4 lb. to 9 lb. The smaller size is preferable if good shape. CHAPTER XLVI THE MALTESE DOG AND THE PUG No doubt has been cast upon the belief that the small, white, silky _Canis Melitaeus_ is the most ancient of all the lap dogs of the Western world. It was a favourite in the time of Phidias; it was an especial pet of the great ladies of Imperial Rome. It appears to have come originally from the Adriatic island of Melita rather than from the Mediterranean Malta, although this supposition cannot be verified. There is, however, no question that it is of European origin, and that the breed, as we know it to-day, has altered exceedingly little in type and size since it was alluded to by Aristotle more than three hundred years before the Christian era. One may gather from various references in literature, and from the evidence of art, that it was highly valued in ancient times. "When his favourite dog dies," wrote Theophrastus in illustration of the vain man, "he deposits the remains in a tomb, and erects a monument over the grave, with the inscription, 'Offspring of the stock of Malta.'" The "offspring of the stock of Malta" were probably first imported into England during the reign of Henry VIII. It is certain that they were regarded as "meet playfellows for mincing mistresses" in the reign of Elizabeth, whose physician, Dr. Caius, alluded to them as being distinct from the Spaniel, "gentle or comforter." Early writers aver that it was customary when Maltese puppies were born to press or twist the nasal bone with the fingers "in order that they may seem more elegant in the sight of men"--a circumstance which goes to show that our forefathers were not averse to improving artificially the points of their dogs. The snowy whiteness and soft, silky texture of its coat must always cause the Maltese dog to be admired; but the variety has never been commonly kept in England--a fact which is, no doubt, due to the difficulty of breeding it and to the trouble in keeping the dog's long jacket clean and free from tangle. Thirty or forty years ago it was more popular as a lap dog than it has ever been since, and in the early days of dog shows many beautiful specimens were exhibited. This popularity was largely due to the efforts of Mr. R. Mandeville, of Southwark, who has been referred to as virtually the founder of the modern Maltese. His Fido and Lily were certainly the most perfect representatives of the breed during the decade between 1860 and 1870, and at the shows held at Birmingham, Islington, the Crystal Palace, and Cremorne Gardens, this beautiful brace was unapproachable. It is a breed which to be kept in perfection requires more than ordinary attention, not only on account of its silky jacket, which is peculiarly liable to become matted, and is difficult to keep absolutely clean without frequent washing, but also on account of a somewhat delicate constitution, the Maltese being susceptible to colds and chills. If affected by such causes, the eyes are often attacked, and the water running from them induces a brown stain to mar the beauty of the face. Skin eruptions due to unwise feeding, or parasites due to uncleanliness, are quickly destructive to the silky coat, and constant watchfulness is necessary to protect the dog from all occasion for scratching. The diet is an important consideration always, and a nice discernment is imperative in balancing the proportions of meat and vegetable. Too much meat is prone to heat the blood, while too little induces eczema. Scraps of bread and green vegetables well mixed with gravy and finely-minced lean meat form the best dietary for the principal meal of the day, and plenty of exercise is imperative. The following is the standard description and points of the Maltese Club of London:-- * * * * * HEAD--Should not be too narrow, but should be of a Terrier shape, not too long, but not apple-headed. EARS--Should be long and well feathered, and hang close to the side of the head, the hair to be well mingled with the coat at the shoulders. EYES--Should be a dark brown, with black eye rims and not too far apart. NOSE--Should be pure black. LEGS AND FEET--Legs should be short and straight, feet round, and the pads of the feet should be black. BODY AND SHAPE--Should be short and cobby, low to the ground, and the back should be straight from the top of the shoulders to the tail. TAIL AND CARRIAGE--Should be well arched over the back and well feathered. COAT, LENGTH AND TEXTURE--Should be a good length, the longer the better, of a silky texture, not in any way woolly, and should be straight. COLOUR--It is desirable that they should be pure white, but slight lemon marks should not count against them. CONDITION AND APPEARANCE--Should be of a sharp Terrier appearance, with a lively action, the coat should not be stained, but should be well groomed in every way. SIZE--The most approved weights should be from 4 lb. to 9 lb., the smaller the better, but it is desirable that they should not exceed 10 lb. * * * * * There seems to be no doubt that the fawn-coloured Pug enjoys the antiquity of descent that is attached to the Greyhound, the Maltese dog, and some few other venerable breeds. Although much has been written on the origin of these dogs, nothing authentic has been discovered in connection with it. Statements have appeared from time to time to the effect that the Pug was brought into this country from Holland. In the early years of the last century it was commonly styled the Dutch Pug. But this theory does not trace the history far enough back, and it should be remembered that at that period the Dutch East India Company was in constant communication with the Far East. Others declare that Muscovy was the original home of the breed, a supposition for which there is no discernible foundation. The study of canine history receives frequent enlightenment from the study of the growth of commercial intercourse between nations, and the trend of events would lead one to the belief that the Pug had its origin in China, particularly in view of the fact that it is with that country that most of the blunt-nosed toy dogs, with tails curled over their backs, are associated. The Pug was brought into prominence in Great Britain about sixty years ago by Lady Willoughby de Eresby, of Grimthorpe, near Lincoln, and Mr. Morrison, of Walham Green, who each independently established a kennel of these dogs, with such success that eventually the fawn Pugs were spoken of as either the Willoughby or the Morrison Pugs. At that period the black variety was not known. The Willoughby Pug was duller in colour than the Morrison, which was of a brighter, ruddier hue, but the two varieties have since been so much interbred that they are now undistinguishable, and the fact that they were ever familiarly recognised as either Willoughbys or Morrisons is almost entirely forgotten. A "fawn" Pug may now be either silver grey or apricot, and equally valuable. Whatever may have been the history of the Pug as regards its nativity, it had not been long introduced into England before it became a popular favourite as a pet, and it shared with the King Charles Spaniel the affection of the great ladies of the land. The late Queen Victoria possessed one, of which she was very proud. The Pug has, however, now fallen from his high estate as a ladies' pet, and his place has been usurped by the Toy Pomeranian, the Pekinese, and Japanese, all of which are now more highly thought of in the drawing-room or boudoir. But the Pug has an advantage over all these dogs as, from the fact that he has a shorter coat, he is cleaner and does not require so much attention. It was not until the establishment of the Pug Dog Club in 1883 that a fixed standard of points was drawn up for the guidance of judges when awarding the prizes to Pugs. Later on the London and Provincial Pug Club was formed, and standards of points were drawn up by that society. These, however, have never been adhered to. The weight of a dog or bitch, according to the standard, should be from 13 lb. to 17 lb., but there are very few dogs indeed that are winning prizes who can draw the scale at the maximum weight. One of the most distinctive features of a fawn Pug is the trace, which is a line of black running along the top of the back from the occiput to the tail. It is the exception to find a fawn Pug with any trace at all now. The muzzle should be short, blunt, but not upfaced. Most of the winning Pugs of the present day are undershot at least half an inch, and consequently must be upfaced. Only one champion of the present day possesses a level mouth. The toe-nails should be black according to the standard, but this point is ignored altogether. In fact, the standard, as drawn up by the Club, should be completely revised, for it is no true guide. The colour, which should be either silver or apricot fawn; the markings on the head, which should show a thumb-mark or diamond on the forehead, together with the orthodox size, are not now taken into consideration, and the prizes are given to over-sized dogs with big skulls that are patchy in colour, and the charming little Pugs which were once so highly prized are now the exception rather than the rule, while the large, lustrous eyes, so sympathetic in their expression, are seldom seen. The black Pug is a recent production. He was brought into notice in 1886, when Lady Brassey exhibited some at the Maidstone Show. By whom he was manufactured is not a matter of much importance, as with the fawn Pug in existence there was not much difficulty in crossing it with the shortest-faced black dog of small size that could be found, and then back again to the fawn, and the thing was done. Fawn and black Pugs are continually being bred together, and, as a rule, if judgment is used in the selection of suitable crosses, the puppies are sound in colour, whether fawn or black. In every respect except markings the black Pug should be built on the same lines as the fawn, and be a cobby little dog with short back and well-developed hind-quarters, wide in skull, with square and blunt muzzle and tightly-curled tail. CHAPTER XLVII THE BRUSSELS GRIFFON Away back in the 'seventies numbers of miners in Yorkshire and the Midlands are said to have possessed little wiry-coated and wiry-dispositioned red dogs, which accompanied their owners to work, being stowed away in pockets of overcoats until the dinner hour, when they were brought out to share their masters' meals, perchance chasing a casual rat in between times. Old men of to-day who remember these little "red tarriers" tell us that they were the originals of the present-day Brussels Griffons, and to the sporting propensities of the aforesaid miners is attributed the gameness which is such a characteristic of their latter-day representatives. No one who is well acquainted with the Brussels Griffon would claim that the breed dates back, like the Greyhound, to hoary antiquity, or, indeed, that it has any pretensions to have "come over with the Conqueror." The dog is not less worthy of admiration on that account. It is futile to inquire too closely into his ancestry; like Topsy, "he growed" and we must love him for himself alone. Even in the last fifteen years we can trace a certain advance in the evolution of the Brussels Griffon. When the breed was first introduced under this name into this country, underjaw was accounted of little or no importance, whereas now a prominent chin is rightly recognised as being one of the most important physical characteristics of the race. Then, again, quite a few years ago a Griffon with a red pin-wire coat was rarely met with, but now this point has been generally rectified, and every show specimen of any account whatever possesses the much-desired covering. The first authentic importations of Brussels Griffons into this country were made by Mrs. Kingscote, Miss Adela Gordon, Mrs. Frank Pearce, and Fletcher, who at that time (_circa_ 1894) kept a dog-shop in Regent Street. Mrs. Handley Spicer soon followed, and it was at her house that, in 1896, the Griffon Bruxellois Club was first suggested and then formed. The Brussels Griffon Club of London was a later offshoot of this club, and, like many children, would appear to be more vigorous than its parent. Griffons soon made their appearance at shows and won many admirers, though it must be admitted that their progress up the ladder of popularity was not so rapid as might have been expected. The breed is especially attractive in the following points: It is hardy, compact, portable, very intelligent, equally smart and alert in appearance, affectionate, very companionable, and, above all, it possesses the special characteristic of wonderful eyes, ever changing in expression, and compared with which the eyes of many other toy breeds appear as a glass bead to a fathomless lake. Griffons are hardy little dogs, though, like most others, they are more susceptible to damp than to cold. While not greedy, like the Terrier tribe, they are usually good feeders and good doers, and not tiresomely dainty with regard to food, as is so often the case with Toy Spaniels. It must be admitted that Griffons are not the easiest of dogs to rear, particularly at weaning time. From five to eight weeks is always a critical period in the puppyhood of a Griffon, and it is necessary to supersede their maternal nourishment with extreme caution. Farinaceous foods do not answer, and usually cause trouble sooner or later. A small quantity of scraped raw beef--an eggspoonful at four weeks, increasing to a teaspoonful at six--may be given once a day, and from four to five weeks two additional meals of warm milk--goat's for preference--and not more than a tablespoonful at a time should be given. From five to six weeks the mother will remain with the puppies at night only, and three milk meals may be given during the day, with one of scraped meat, at intervals of about four hours, care being taken to give too little milk rather than too much. At six weeks the puppies may usually be taken entirely from the mother, and at this time it is generally advisable to give a gentle vermifuge, such as Ruby. A very little German rusk may also be added to the milk meals, which may be increased to one and a-half tablespoonfuls at a time, but it must always be remembered that, in nine cases out of ten, trouble is caused by overfeeding rather than underfeeding, and until the rubicon of eight weeks has been passed, care and oversight should be unremitting. At eight weeks' old, Force or brown breadcrumbs may be added to the morning milk, chopped meat may be given instead of scraped at midday, the usual milk at tea-time, and a dry biscuit, such as Plasmon, for supper. At ten weeks old the milk at tea-time may be discontinued and the other meals increased accordingly, and very little further trouble need be feared, for Griffons very rarely suffer from teething troubles. Brussels Griffons are divided into three groups, according to their appearance, and representatives of each group may be, and sometimes are, found in one and the same litter. First and foremost, both in importance and in beauty, comes the Griffon Bruxellois, a cobby, compact little dog, with wiry red coat, large eyes, short nose, well turned up, and sloping back, very prominent chin, and small ears. Secondly come the Griffons of any other colour, or, as they are termed in Brussels, Griffons Belges. These are very often Griffons of the usual colour, with a mismark of white or black, or occasionally they may be grey or fawn. But the most approved colour, and certainly the most attractive, is black and tan. The third group of Brussels Griffons is that termed "smooth," or, in Brussels, Griffons Brabancons. The smooth Griffon is identical with the rough in all points except for being short-haired. As is well known, smooth Griffons are most useful for breeding rough ones with the desired hard red coat, and many well-known show dogs with rough coats have been bred from smooth ones: for example, Sparklets, Ch. Copthorne Lobster, Ch. Copthorne Treasure, Ch. Copthorne Talk-o'-the-Town, and Copthorne Blunderbuss. This and many other facts in connection with breeding Griffons will be learnt from experience, always the best teacher. The descriptive particulars of the Brussels Griffon are:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--A lady's little dog--intelligent, sprightly, robust, of compact appearance--reminding one of a cob, and captivating the attention by a quasi-human expression. HEAD--Rounded, furnished with somewhat hard, irregular hairs, longer round the eyes, on the nose and cheeks. EARS--Erect when cropped as in Belgium, semi-erect when uncropped. EYES--Very large, black, or nearly black; eyelids edged with black, eyelashes long and black, eyebrows covered with hairs, leaving the eye they encircle perfectly uncovered. NOSE--Always black, short, surrounded with hair converging upward to meet those which surround the eyes. Very pronounced stop. LIPS--Edged with black, furnished with a moustache. A little black in the moustache is not a fault. CHIN--Prominent without showing the teeth, and edged with a small beard. CHEST--Rather wide and deep. LEGS--As straight as possible, of medium length. TAIL--Erect, and docked to two-thirds. COLOUR--In the Griffons Bruxellois, red; in the Griffons Belges, preferably black and tan, but also grey or fawn; in the Petit Brabancon, red or black and tan. TEXTURE OF COAT--Harsh and wiry, irregular, rather long and thick. In the Brabancon it is smooth and short. WEIGHT--Light weight, 5 lb. maximum; and heavy weight, 9 lb. maximum. FAULTS--The faults to be avoided are light eyes, silky hair on the head, brown nails, teeth showing, a hanging tongue or a brown nose. [Illustration: TOY DOGS 1. MRS. GRESHAM'S PUG CH. GRINDLEY KING 2. MRS. T. WHALEY'S BRUSSELS GRIFFON GLENARTNEY SPORT 3. PEKINESE CH. CHU-ERH OF ALDERBOURNE _Photograph by Russell_] CHAPTER XLVIII THE MINIATURE BREEDS Except in the matter of size, the general appearance and qualifications of the Miniature Black and Tan Terrier should be as nearly like the larger breed as possible, for the standard of points applies to both varieties, excepting that erect, or what are commonly known as tulip ears, of semi-erect carriage, are permissible in the miniatures. The officially recognised weight for the toy variety is given as "under seven pounds," but none of the most prominent present-day winners reach anything like that weight; some in fact are little more than half of it, and the great majority are between 4 lb. and 5 lb. Probably the most popular specimens of the miniature Black and Tan at the present time are Mr. Whaley's Glenartney Sport and Mr. Richmond's Merry Atom. Merry Atom is only 4-1/2 lb. in weight, and he is beautifully proportioned, with a fine, long head, a small, dark eye, small ears, and the true type of body. His markings of deep black and rich tan are good, and his coat is entirely free from the bare patches which so often mar the appearance of these toys, giving the suggestion of delicacy. The Miniature Black and Tan is certainly not a robust dog, and he has lost much of the terrier boisterousness of character by reason of being pampered and coddled; but it is a fallacy to suppose that he is necessarily delicate. He requires to be kept warm, but exercise is better for him than eiderdown quilts and silken cushions, and judicious feeding will protect him from the skin diseases to which he is believed to be liable. Under proper treatment he is no more delicate than any other toy dog, and his engaging manners and cleanliness of habit ought to place him among the most favoured of lady's pets and lapdogs. It is to be hoped that the efforts now being made by the Black and Tan Terrier Club will be beneficial to the increased popularity of this diminutive breed. For the technical description and scale of points the reader is referred to the chapter on the larger variety of Black and Tan Terrier. * * * * * Of late years Toy Bull-terriers have fallen in popularity. This is a pity, as their lilliputian self-assertion is most amusing. As pets they are most affectionate, excellent as watch-dogs, clever at acquiring tricks, and always cheerful and companionable. They have good noses and will hunt diligently; but wet weather or thick undergrowth will deter them, and they are too small to do serious harm to the best stocked game preserve. The most valuable Toy Bull-terriers are small and very light in weight, and these small dogs usually have "apple-heads." Pony Queen, the former property of Sir Raymond Tyrwhitt Wilson, weighed under 3 lb., but the breed remains "toy" up to 15 lb. When you get a dog with a long wedge-shaped head, the latter in competition with small "apple-headed" dogs always takes the prize, and a slightly contradictory state of affairs arises from the fact that the small dog with an imperfectly shaped head will sell for more money than a dog with a perfectly shaped head which is larger. In drawing up a show schedule of classes for this breed it is perhaps better to limit the weight of competitors to 12 lb. The Bull-terrier Club put 15 lb. as the lowest weight allowed for the large breed, and it seems a pity to have an interregnum between the large and miniature variety; still, in the interests of the small valuable specimens, this seems inevitable, and opportunist principles must be applied to doggy matters as to other business in this world. At present there is a diversity of opinion as to their points, but roughly they are a long flat head, wide between the eyes and tapering to the nose, which should be black. Ears erect and bat-like, straight legs and rather distinctive feet; some people say these are cat-like. Toy Bull-terriers ought to have an alert, gay appearance, coupled with refinement, which requires a nice whip tail. The best colour is pure white. A brindle spot is not amiss, and even a brindle dog is admissible, but black marks are wrong. The coat ought to be close and stiff to the touch. Toy Bull-terriers are not delicate as a rule. They require warmth and plenty of exercise in all weathers. * * * * * The most elegant, graceful, and refined of all dogs are the tiny Italian Greyhounds. Their exquisitely delicate lines, their supple movements and beautiful attitudes, their soft large eyes, their charming colouring, their gentle and loving nature, and their scrupulous cleanliness of habit--all these qualities justify the admiration bestowed upon them as drawing-room pets. They are fragile, it is true--fragile as eggshell china--not to be handled roughly. But their constitution is not necessarily delicate, and many have been known to live to extreme old age. Miss Mackenzie's Jack, one of the most beautiful of the breed ever known, lived to see his seventeenth birthday, and even then was strong and healthy. Their fragility is more apparent than real, and if they are not exposed to cold or damp, they require less pampering than they usually receive. This cause has been a frequent source of constitutional weakness, and it was deplorably a fault in the Italian Greyhounds of half a century ago. One cannot be quite certain as to the derivation of the Italian Greyhound. Its physical appearance naturally suggests a descent from the Gazehound of the ancients, with the added conjecture that it was purposely dwarfed for the convenience of being nursed in the lap. Greek art presents many examples of a very small dog of Greyhound type, and there is a probability that the diminutive breed was a familiar ornament in the atrium of most Roman villas. In Pompeii a dwarfed Greyhound was certainly kept as a domestic pet, and there is therefore some justification for the belief that the Italian prefix is not misplaced. In very early times the Italian Greyhound was appreciated. Vandyck, Kneller, and Watteau frequently introduced the graceful figures of these dogs as accessories in their portraits of the Court beauties of their times, and many such portraits may be noticed in the galleries of Windsor Castle and Hampton Court. Mary, Queen of Scots is supposed to have been fond of the breed, as more surely were Charles I. and Queen Anne. Some of the best of their kind were in the possession of Queen Victoria at Windsor and Balmoral, where Sir Edwin Landseer transferred their graceful forms to canvas. Among the more prominent owners of the present time are the Baroness Campbell von Laurentz, whose Rosemead Laura and Una are of superlative merit alike in outline, colour, style, length of head, and grace of action; Mrs. Florence Scarlett, whose Svelta, Saltarello, and Sola are almost equally perfect; Mrs. Matthews, the owner of Ch. Signor, our smallest and most elegant show dog; and Mr. Charlwood, who has exhibited many admirable specimens, among them Sussex Queen and Sussex Princess. The Italian Greyhound Club of England has drawn up the following standard and scale of points:-- * * * * * GENERAL APPEARANCE--A miniature English Greyhound, more slender in all proportions, and of ideal elegance and grace in shape, symmetry, and action. HEAD--Skull long, flat and narrow. Muzzle very fine. Nose dark in colour. Ears rose shaped, placed well back, soft and delicate, and should touch or nearly touch behind the head. Eyes large, bright, and full of expression. BODY--Neck long and gracefully arched. Shoulders long and sloping. Back curved and drooping at the quarters. LEGS AND FEET--Fore-legs straight, well set under the shoulder; fine pasterns; small delicate bone. Hind-legs, hocks well let down; thighs muscular. Feet long--hare foot. TAIL, COAT AND COLOUR--Tail rather long and with low carriage. Skin fine and supple. Hair thin and glossy like satin. Preferably self-coloured. The colour most prized is golden fawn, but all shades of fawn--red, mouse, cream and white--are recognised. Blacks, brindles and pied are considered less desirable. ACTION--High stepping and free. WEIGHT--Two classes, one of 8 lb. and under, the other over 8 lb. * * * * * The diminutive Shetland Sheepdog has many recommendations as a pet. Like the sturdy little Shetland pony, this dog has not been made small by artificial selection. It is a Collie in miniature, no larger than a Pomeranian, and it is perfectly hardy, wonderfully sagacious, and decidedly beautiful. At first glance the dog might easily be mistaken for a Belgian Butterfly dog, for its ears are somewhat large and upstanding, with a good amount of feather about them; but upon closer acquaintance the Collie shape and nature become more pronounced. The body is long and set low, on stout, short legs, which end in long-shaped, feathered feet. The tail is a substantial brush, beautifully carried, and the coat is long and inclined to silkiness, with a considerable neck-frill. The usual weight is from six to ten pounds, the dog being of smaller size than the bitch. The prettiest are all white, or white with rich sable markings, but many are black and tan or all black. The head is short and the face not so aquiline as that of the large Collie. The eyes are well proportioned to the size of the head, and have a singularly soft round brightness, reminding one of the eye of a woodcock or a snipe. The Shetlanders use them with the sheep, and they are excellent little workers, intelligent and very active, and as hardy as terriers. Dog lovers in search of novelty might do worse than take up this attractive and certainly genuine breed. CHAPTER XLIX PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT Many people are deterred from keeping dogs by the belief that the hobby is expensive and that it entails a profitless amount of trouble and anxiety; but to the true dog-lover the anxiety and trouble are far outbalanced by the pleasures of possession, and as to the expense, that is a matter which can be regulated at will. A luxuriously appointed kennel of valuable dogs, who are pampered into sickness, may, indeed, become a serious drain upon the owner's banking account, but if managed on business principles the occupation is capable of yielding a very respectable income. One does not wish to see dog-keeping turned into a profession, and there seems to be something mean in making money by our pets; but the process of drafting is necessary when the kennel is overstocked, and buying and selling are among the interesting accessories of the game, second only to the pleasurable excitement of submitting one's favourites to the judgment of the show-ring. The delights of breeding and rearing should be their own reward, as they usually are, yet something more than mere pin-money can be made by the alert amateur who possesses a kennel of acknowledged merit, and who knows how to turn it to account. A champion ought easily to earn his own living: some are a source of handsome revenue. Occasionally one hears of very high prices being paid for dogs acknowledged to be perfect specimens of their breed. For the St. Bernard Sir Belvidere sixteen hundred pounds were offered. Plinlimmon was sold for a thousand, the same sum that was paid for the Bulldog Rodney Stone. For the Collies Southport Perfection and Ormskirk Emerald Mr. Megson paid a thousand sovereigns each. Size is no criterion of a dog's market value; Mrs. Ashton Cross is said to have refused two thousand pounds for her celebrated Pekinese Chu-Erh, and there are many lap-dogs now living that could not be purchased for that high price. These are sums which only a competent judge with a long purse would dream of paying for an animal whose tenure of active life can hardly be more than eight or ten years, and already the dog's value must have been attested by his success in competition. It requires an expert eye to perceive the potentialities of a puppy, and there is always an element of speculative risk for both buyer and seller. Many a dog that has been sold for a song has grown to be a famous champion. At Cruft's show in 1905 the Bulldog Mahomet was offered for ten pounds. No one was bold enough to buy him, yet eighteen months afterwards he was sold and considered cheap at a thousand. Uncertainty adds zest to a hobby that is in itself engaging. Thanks to the influence of the Kennel Club and the institution of dog shows, which have encouraged the improvement of distinct breeds, there are fewer nondescript mongrels in our midst than there were a generation or so ago. A fuller knowledge has done much to increase the pride which the British people take in their canine companions, and our present population of dogs has never been equalled for good quality in any other age or any other land. The beginner cannot easily go wrong or be seriously cheated, but it is well when making a first purchase to take the advice of an expert and to be very certain of the dog's pedigree, age, temper, and condition. The approved method of buying a dog is to select one advertised for sale in the weekly journals devoted to the dog. A better way still, if a dog of distinguished pedigree is desired, is to apply direct to a well-known owner of the required breed, or to visit one of the great annual shows, such as Cruft's, Manchester, The Ladies' Kennel Association, The Kennel Club (Crystal Palace, in October), The Scottish Kennel Club, or Birmingham, and there choose the dog from the benches, buying him at his catalogue price. In determining the choice of a breed it is to be remembered that some are better watchdogs than others, some more docile, some safer with children. The size of the breed should be relative to the accommodation available. To have a St. Bernard or a Great Dane galumphing about a small house is an inconvenience, and sporting dogs which require constant exercise and freedom are not suited to the confined life of a Bloomsbury flat. Nor are the long-haired breeds at their best draggling round in the wet, muddy streets of a city. For town life the clean-legged Terrier, the Bulldog, the Pug, and the Schipperke are to be preferred. Bitches are cleaner in the house and more tractable than dogs. The idea that they are more trouble than dogs is a fallacy. The difficulty arises only twice in a twelvemonth for a few days, and if you are watchful there need be no misadventure. If only one dog, or two or three of the smaller kinds, be kept, there is no imperative need for an outdoor kennel, although all dogs are the better for life in the open air. The house-dog may be fed with meat-scraps from the kitchen served as an evening meal, with rodnim or a dry biscuit for breakfast. The duty of feeding him should be in the hands of one person only. When it is everybody's and nobody's duty he is apt to be neglected at one time and overfed at another. Regularity of feeding is one of the secrets of successful dog-keeping. It ought also to be one person's duty to see that he has frequent access to the yard or garden, that he gets plenty of clean drinking water, plenty of outdoor exercise, and a comfortable bed. For the toy and delicate breeds it is a good plan to have a dog-room set apart, with a suitable cage or basket-kennel for each dog. Even delicate Toy dogs, however, ought not to be permanently lodged within doors, and the dog-room is only complete when it has as an annexe a grass plot for playground and free exercise. Next to wholesome and regular food, fresh air and sunshine are the prime necessaries of healthy condition. Weakness and disease come more frequently from injudicious feeding and housing than from any other cause. Among the free and ownerless pariah dogs of the East disease is almost unknown. For the kennels of our British-bred dogs, perhaps a southern or a south-western aspect is the best, but wherever it is placed the kennel must be sufficiently sheltered from rain and wind, and it ought to be provided with a covered run in which the inmates may have full liberty. An awning of some kind is necessary. Trees afford good shelter from the sun-rays, but they harbour moisture, and damp must be avoided at all costs. When only one outdoor dog is kept, a kennel can be improvised out of a packing-case, supported on bricks above the ground, with the entrance properly shielded from the weather. No dog should be allowed to live in a kennel in which he cannot turn round at full length. Properly constructed, portable, and well-ventilated kennels for single dogs are not expensive and are greatly to be preferred to any amateurish makeshift. A good one for a terrier need not cost more than a pound. It is usually the single dog that suffers most from imperfect accommodation. His kennel is generally too small to admit of a good bed of straw, and if there is no railed-in run attached he must needs be chained up. The dog that is kept on the chain becomes dirty in his habits, unhappy, and savage. His chain is often too short and is not provided with swivels to avert kinks. On a sudden alarm, or on the appearance of a trespassing tabby, he will often bound forward at the risk of dislocating his neck. The yard-dog's chain ought always to be fitted with a stop link spring to counteract the effect of the sudden jerk. The method may be employed with advantage in the garden for several dogs, a separate rope being used for each. Unfriendly dogs can thus be kept safely apart and still be to some extent at liberty. There is no obvious advantage in keeping a watch-dog on the chain rather than in an enclosed compound, unless he is expected to go for a possible burglar and attack him. A wire-netting enclosure can easily be constructed at very little expense. For the more powerful dogs the use of wrought-iron railings is advisable, and these can be procured cheaply from Spratt's or Boulton and Paul's, fitted with gates and with revolving troughs for feeding from the outside. Opinions differ as to the best material for the flooring of kennels and the paving of runs. Asphalte is suitable for either in mild weather, but in summer it becomes uncomfortably hot for the feet, unless it is partly composed of cork. Concrete has its advantages if the surface can be kept dry. Flagstones are cold for winter, as also are tiles and bricks. For terriers, who enjoy burrowing, earth is the best ground for the run, and it can be kept free from dirt and buried bones by a rake over in the morning, while tufts of grass left round the margins supply the dogs' natural medicine. The movable sleeping bench must, of course, be of wood, raised a few inches above the floor, with a ledge to keep in the straw or other bedding. Wooden floors are open to the objection that they absorb the urine; but dogs should be taught not to foul their nest, and in any case a frequent disinfecting with a solution of Pearson's or Jeyes' fluid should obviate impurity, while fleas, which take refuge in the dust between the planks, may be dismissed or kept away with a sprinkling of paraffin. Whatever the flooring, scrupulous cleanliness in the kennel is a prime necessity, and the inner walls should be frequently limewashed. It is important, too, that no scraps of rejected food or bones should be left lying about to become putrid or to tempt the visits of rats, which bring fleas. If the dogs do not finish their food when it is served to them, it should be removed until hunger gives appetite for the next meal. Many breeders of the large and thick-coated varieties, such as St. Bernards, Newfoundlands, Old English Sheepdogs, and rough-haired Collies, give their dogs nothing to lie upon but clean bare boards. The coat is itself a sufficient cushion, but in winter weather straw gives added warmth, and for short-haired dogs something soft, if it is only a piece of carpet or a sack, is needed as a bed to protect the hocks from abrasion. With regard to feeding, this requires to be studied in relation to the particular breed. One good meal a day, served by preference in the evening, is sufficient for the adult if a dry dog-cake or a handful of rodnim be given for breakfast, and perhaps a large bone to gnaw at. Clean cold water must always be at hand in all weathers, and a drink of milk coloured with tea is nourishing. Goat's milk is particularly suitable for the dog: many owners keep goats on their premises to give a constant supply. It is a mistake to suppose, as many persons do, that meat diet provokes eczema and other skin troubles; the contrary is the case. The dog is by nature a carnivorous animal, and wholesome flesh, either cooked or raw, should be his staple food. Horseflesh, which is frequently used in large establishments, is not so fully to be relied upon as ordinary butcher meat. There is no serious objection to bullocks' heads, sheeps' heads, bullocks' tripes and paunches and a little liver given occasionally is an aperient food which most dogs enjoy. But when it can be afforded, wholesome butcher's meat is without question the proper food. Oatmeal porridge, rice, barley, linseed meal, and bone meal ought only to be regarded as occasional additions to the usual meat diet, and are not necessary when dog cakes are regularly supplied. Well-boiled green vegetables, such as cabbage, turnip-tops, and nettle-tops, are good mixed with the meat; potatoes are questionable. Of the various advertised dog foods, many of which are excellent, the choice may be left to those who are fond of experiment, or who seek for convenient substitutes for the old-fashioned and wholesome diet of the household. Sickly dogs require invalid's treatment; but the best course is usually the simplest, and, given a sound constitution to begin with, any dog ought to thrive if he is only properly housed, carefully fed, and gets abundant exercise. CHAPTER L BREEDING AND WHELPING The modern practice of dog-breeding in Great Britain has reached a condition which may be esteemed as an art. At no other time, and in no other country, have the various canine types been kept more rigidly distinct or brought to a higher level of perfection. Formerly dog-owners--apart from the keepers of packs of hounds--paid scant attention to the differentiation of breeds and the conservation of type, and they considered it no serious breach of duty to ignore the principles of scientific selection, and thus contribute to the multiplication of mongrels. Discriminate breeding was rare, and if a Bulldog should mate himself with a Greyhound, or a Spaniel with a Terrier, the alliance was regarded merely as an inconvenience. So careless were owners in preventing the promiscuous mingling of alien breeds that it is little short of surprising so many of our canine types have been preserved in their integrity. The elimination of the nondescript cur is no doubt largely due to the work of the homes for lost dogs that are instituted in most of our great towns. Every year some 26,000 homeless and ownerless canines are picked up by the police in the streets of London, and during the forty-seven years which have elapsed since the Dogs' Home at Battersea was established, upwards of 800,000 dogs have passed through the books, a few to be reclaimed or bought, the great majority to be put to death. A very large proportion of these have been veritable mongrels, not worth the value of their licences--diseased and maimed curs, or bitches in whelp, turned ruthlessly adrift to be consigned to the oblivion of the lethal chamber, where the thoroughbred seldom finds its way. And if as many as 500 undesirables are destroyed every week at one such institution, 'tis clear that the ill-bred mongrel must soon altogether disappear. But the chief factor in the general improvement of our canine population is due to the steadily growing care and pride which are bestowed upon the dog, and to the scientific skill with which he is being bred. Admitting that the dogs seen at our best contemporary shows are superlative examples of scientific selection, one has yet to acknowledge that the process of breeding for show points has its disadvantages, and that, in the sporting and pastoral varieties more especially, utility is apt to be sacrificed to ornament and type, and stamina to fancy qualities not always relative to the animal's capacities as a worker. The standards of perfection and scales of points laid down by the specialist clubs are usually admirable guides to the uninitiated, but they are often unreasonably arbitrary in their insistence upon certain details of form--generally in the neighbourhood of the head--while they leave the qualities of type and character to look after themselves or to be totally ignored. It is necessary to assure the beginner in breeding that points are essentially of far less moment than type and a good constitution. The one thing necessary in the cultivation of the dog is to bear in mind the purpose for which he is supposed to be employed, and to aim at adapting or conserving his physique to the best fulfilment of that purpose, remembering that the Greyhound has tucked-up loins to give elasticity and bend to the body in running, that a Terrier is kept small to enable him the better to enter an earth, that a Bulldog is massive and undershot for encounters in the bullring, that the Collie's ears are erected to assist him in hearing sounds from afar, as those of the Bloodhound are pendant, the more readily to detect sounds coming to him along the ground while his head is bent to the trail. Nature has been discriminate in her adaptations of animal forms; and the most perfect dog yet bred is the one which approaches nearest to Nature's wise intention. The foregoing chapters have given abundant examples of how the various breeds of the dog have been acquired, manufactured, improved, resuscitated, and retained. Broadly speaking, two methods have been adopted: The method of introducing an outcross to impart new blood, new strength, new character; and the method of inbreeding to retain an approved type. An outcross is introduced when the breed operated upon is declining in stamina or is in danger of extinction, or when some new physical or mental quality is desired. New types and eccentricities are hardly wanted, however, and the extreme requirements of an outcross may nowadays be achieved by the simple process of selecting individuals from differing strains of the same breed, mating a bitch which lacks the required points with a dog in whose family they are prominently and consistently present. Inbreeding is the reverse of outcrossing. It is the practice of mating animals closely related to each other, and it is, within limits, an entirely justifiable means of preserving and intensifying family characteristics. It is a law in zoology that an animal cannot transmit a quality which it does not itself innately possess, or which none of its progenitors has ever possessed. By mating a dog and a bitch of the same family, therefore, you concentrate and enhance the uniform inheritable qualities into one line instead of two, and you reduce the number of possibly heterogeneous ancestors by exactly a half right back to the very beginning. There is no surer way of maintaining uniformity of type, and an examination of the extended pedigree of almost any famous dog will show how commonly inbreeding is practised. Inbreeding is certainly advantageous when managed with judgment and discreet selection, but it has its disadvantages also, for it is to be remembered that faults and blemishes are inherited as well as merits, and that the faults have a way of asserting themselves with annoying persistency. Furthermore, breeding between animals closely allied in parentage is prone to lead to degeneracy, physical weakness, and mental stupidity, while impotence and sterility are frequent concomitants, and none but experienced breeders should attempt so hazardous an experiment. Observation has proved that the union of father with daughter and mother with son is preferable to an alliance between brother and sister. Perhaps the best union is that between cousins. For the preservation of general type, however, it ought to be sufficient to keep to one strain and to select from that strain members who, while exhibiting similar characteristics, are not actually too closely allied in consanguinity. To move perpetually from one strain to another is only to court an undesirable confusion of type. In founding a kennel it is advisable to begin with the possession of a bitch. As a companion the female is to be preferred to the male; she is not less affectionate and faithful, and she is usually much cleaner in her habits in the house. If it is intended to breed by her, she should be very carefully chosen and proved to be free from any serious fault or predisposition to disease. Not only should her written pedigree be scrupulously scrutinised, but her own constitution and that of her parents on both sides should be minutely inquired into. A bitch comes into season for breeding twice in a year; the first time when she is reaching maturity, usually at the age of from seven to ten months. Her condition will readily be discerned by the fact of an increased attentiveness of the opposite sex and the appearance of a mucous discharge from the vagina. She should then be carefully protected from the gallantry of suitors. Dogs kept in the near neighbourhood of a bitch on heat, who is not accessible to them, go off their feed and suffer in condition. With most breeds it is unwise to put a bitch to stud before she is eighteen months old, but Mr. Stubbs recommends that a Bull bitch should be allowed to breed at her first heat, while her body retains the flexibility of youth; and there is no doubt that with regard to the Bulldog great mortality occurs in attempting to breed from maiden bitches exceeding three years old. In almost all breeds it is the case that the first three litters are the best. It is accordingly important that a proper mating should be considered at the outset, and a prospective sire selected either through the medium of stud advertisements or by private arrangement with the owner of the desired dog. For the payment of the requisite stud fee, varying from a guinea to ten or fifteen pounds, the services of the best dogs of the particular breed can usually be secured. It is customary for the bitch to be the visitor, and it is well that her visit should extend to two or three days at the least. When possible a responsible person should accompany her. If the stud dog is a frequenter of shows he can usually be depended upon to be in sound physical condition. No dog who is not so can be expected to win prizes. But it ought to be ascertained before hand that he is what is known as a good stock-getter. The fee is for his services, not for the result of them. Some owners of stud dogs will grant two services, and this is often desirable, especially in the case of a maiden bitch or of a stud dog that is over-wrought, as so many are. It is most important that both the mated animals should be free from worms and skin disorders. Fifty per cent. of the casualties among young puppies are due to one or other of the parents having been in an unhealthy condition when mated. A winter whelping is not advisable. It is best for puppies to be born in the spring or early summer, thus escaping the rigours of inclement weather. During the period of gestation the breeding bitch should have ample but not violent exercise, with varied and wholesome food, including some preparation of bone meal; and at about the third week, whether she seems to require it or not, she should be treated for worms. At about the sixtieth day she will begin to be uneasy and restless. A mild purgative should be given; usually salad oil is enough, but if constipation is apparent castor oil may be necessary. On the sixty-second day the whelps may be expected, and everything ought to be in readiness for the event. A coarsely constituted bitch may be trusted to look after herself on these occasions; no help is necessary, and one may come down in the morning to find her with her litter comfortably nestling at her side. But with the Toy breeds, and the breeds that have been reared in artificial conditions, difficult or protracted parturition is frequent, and human assistance ought to be at hand in case of need. The owner of a valuable Bull bitch, for example, would never think of leaving her to her own unaided devices. All undue interference, however, should be avoided, and it is absolutely necessary that the person attending her should be one with whom she is fondly familiar. In anticipation of a possibly numerous litter, a foster-mother should be arranged for beforehand. Comfortable quarters should be prepared in a quiet part of the house or kennels, warm, and free from draughts. Clean bedding of wheaten straw should be provided, but the bitch should be allowed to make her nest in her own instinctive fashion. Let her have easy access to drinking water. She will probable refuse food for a few hours before her time, but a little concentrated nourishment, such as Brand's Essence or a drink of warm milk, should be offered to her. In further preparation for the confinement a basin of water containing antiseptic for washing in, towels, warm milk, a flask of brandy, a bottle of ergotine, and a pair of scissors are commodities which may all be required in emergency. The ergot, which must be used with extreme caution and only when the labour pains have commenced, is invaluable when parturition is protracted, and there is difficult straining without result. Its effect is to contract the womb and expel the contents. But when the puppies are expelled with ease it is superfluous. For a bitch of 10 lb. in weight ten drops of the extract of ergot in a teaspoonful of water should be ample, given by the mouth. The scissors are for severing the umbilical cord if the mother should fail to do it in her own natural way. Sometimes a puppy may be enclosed within a membrane which the dam cannot readily open with tongue and teeth. If help is necessary it should be given tenderly and with clean fingers. Occasionally a puppy may seem to be inert and lifeless, and after repeatedly licking it the bitch may relinquish all effort at restoration and turn her attention to another that is being born. In such a circumstance the rejected little one may be discreetly removed, and a drop of brandy on the point of the finger smeared upon its tongue may revive animation, or it may be plunged up to the neck in warm water. The object should be to keep it warm and to make it breathe. When the puppies are all born, their dam may be given a drink of warm milk and then left alone to their toilet and to suckle them. If any should be dead, these ought to be disposed of. Curiosity in regard to the others should be temporarily repressed, and inspection of them delayed until a more fitting opportunity. If any are then seen to be malformed or to have cleft palates, these had better be removed and mercifully destroyed. It is the experience of many observers that the first whelps born in a litter are the strongest, largest, and healthiest. If the litter is a large one, the last born may be noticeably puny, and this disparity in size may continue to maturity. The wise breeder will decide for himself how many whelps should be left to the care of their dam. The number should be relative to her health and constitution, and in any case it is well not to give her so many that they will be a drain upon her. Those breeds of dogs that have been most highly developed by man and that appear to have the greatest amount of brain and intelligence are generally the most prolific as to the number of puppies they produce. St. Bernards, Pointers, Setters are notable for the usual strength of their families. St. Bernards have been known to produce as many as eighteen whelps at a birth, and it is no uncommon thing for them to produce from nine to twelve. A Pointer of Mr. Barclay Field's produced fifteen, and it is well known that Mr. Statter's Setter Phoebe produced twenty-one at a birth. Phoebe reared ten of these herself, and almost every one of the family became celebrated. It would be straining the natural possibilities of any bitch to expect her to bring up eighteen puppies healthily. Half that number would tax her natural resources to the extreme. But Nature is extraordinarily adaptive in tempering the wind to the shorn lamb, and a dam who gives birth to a numerous litter ought not to have her family unduly reduced. It was good policy to allow Phoebe to have the rearing of as many as ten out of her twenty-one. A bitch having twelve will bring up nine very well, one having nine will rear seven without help, and a bitch having seven will bring up five better than four. Breeders of Toy-dogs often rear the overplus offspring by hand, with the help of a Maw and Thompson feeding-bottle, peptonised milk, and one or more of the various advertised infants' foods or orphan puppy foods. Others prefer to engage or prepare in advance a foster-mother. The foster-mother need not be of the same breed, but she should be approximately of similar size, and her own family ought to be of the same age as the one of which she is to take additional charge. One can usually be secured through advertisement in the canine press. Some owners do not object to taking one from a dogs' home, which is an easy method, in consideration of the circumstance that by far the larger number of "lost" dogs are bitches sent adrift because they are in whelp. The chief risk in this course is that the unknown foster-mother may be diseased or verminous or have contracted the seeds of distemper, or her milk may be populated with embryo worms. These are dangers to guard against. A cat makes an excellent foster-mother for Toy-dog puppies. Worms ought not to be a necessary accompaniment of puppyhood, and if the sire and dam are properly attended to in advance they need not be. The writer has attended at the birth of puppies, not one of whom has shown the remotest sign of having a worm, and the puppies have almost galloped into healthy, happy maturity, protected from all the usual canine ailments by constitutions impervious to disease. He has seen others almost eaten away by worms. Great writhing knots of them have been ejected; they have been vomited; they have wriggled out of the nostrils; they have perforated the stomach and wrought such damage that most of the puppies succumbed, and those that survived were permanently deficient in stamina and liable to go wrong on the least provocating. The puppy that is free from worms starts life with a great advantage. CHAPTER LI SOME COMMON AILMENTS OF THE DOG AND THEIR TREATMENT The experienced dog-owner has long ago realised that cleanliness, wholesome food, judicious exercise and a dry, comfortable and well-ventilated kennel are the surest safeguards of health, and that attention to these necessaries saves him an infinitude of trouble and anxiety by protecting his dogs from disease. On the first appearance of illness in his kennels the wise dog-owner at once calls in the skill of a good veterinary surgeon, but there are some of the minor ailments which he can deal with himself whilst he ought at least to be able to recognise the first symptoms of the dreaded Distemper and give first aid until the vet. arrives to apply his remedies and give professional advice. DISTEMPER. Although more than one hundred years have elapsed since this was first imported to this country from France, a great amount of misunderstanding still prevails among a large section of dog-breeders regarding its true nature and origin. The fact is, the disease came to us with a bad name, for the French themselves deemed it incurable. In this country the old-fashioned plan of treatment was wont to be the usual rough remedies--emetics, purgatives, the seton, and the lancet. Failing in this, specifics of all sorts were eagerly sought for and tried, and are unfortunately still believed in to a very great extent. Distemper has a certain course to run, and in this disease Nature seems to attempt the elimination of the poison through the secretions thrown out by the naso-pharyngeal mucous membrane. Our chief difficulty in the treatment of distemper lies in the complications thereof. We may, and often do, have the organs of respiration attacked; we have sometimes congestion of the liver, or mucous inflammation of the bile ducts, or some lesion of the brain or nervous structures, combined with epilepsy, convulsions, or chorea. Distemper is also often complicated with severe disease of the bowels, and at times with an affection of the eyes. _Causes_--Whether it be that the distemper virus, the poison seedling of the disease, really originates in the kennel, or is the result of contact of one dog with another, or whether the poison floats to the kennel on the wings of the wind, or is carried there on a shoe or the point of a walking-stick, the following facts ought to be borne in mind: (1) Anything that debilitates the body or weakens the nervous system paves the way for the distemper poison; (2) the healthier the dog the more power does he possess to resist contagion; (3) when the disease is epizootic, it can often be kept at bay by proper attention to diet and exercise, frequent change of kennel straw, and perfect cleanliness; (4) the predisposing causes which have come more immediately under my notice are debility, cold, damp, starvation, filthy kennels, unwholesome food, impure air, and grief. _The Age at which Dogs take Distemper_--They may take distemper at any age; the most common time of life is from the fifth till the eleventh or twelfth month. _Symptoms_--There is, first and foremost, a period of latency or of incubation, in which there is more or less of dullness and loss of appetite, and this glides gradually into a state of feverishness. The fever may be ushered in with chills and shivering. The nose now becomes hot and dry, the dog is restless and thirsty, and the conjunctivae of the eyes will be found to be considerably injected. Sometimes the bowels are at first constipated, but they are more usually irregular. Sneezing will also be frequent, and in some cases cough, dry and husky at first. The temperature should be taken, and if there is a rise of two or three degrees the case should be treated as distemper, and not as a common cold. At the commencement there is but little exudation from the eyes and nose, but as the disease advances this symptom will become more marked, being clear at first. So, too, will another symptom which is partially diagnostic of the malady, namely, increased heat of body combined with a rapid falling off in flesh, sometimes, indeed, proceeding quickly on to positive emaciation. As the disease creeps downwards and inwards along the air-passages, the chest gets more and more affected, the discharge of mucus and pus from the nostrils more abundant, and the cough loses its dry character, becoming moist. The discharge from the eyes is simply mucus and pus, but if not constantly dried away will gum the inflamed lids together, that from the nostrils is not only purulent, but often mixed with dark blood. The appetite is now clean gone, and there is often vomiting and occasional attacks of diarrhoea. Now in mild cases we may look for some abatement of the symptoms about the fourteenth day. The fever gets less, inflammation decreases in the mucous passages, and appetite is restored as one of the first signs of returning health. More often, however, the disease becomes complicated. _Diagnosis_--The diagnostic symptoms are the severe catarrh, combined not only with fever, but speedy emaciation. _Pneumonia_, as we might easily imagine, is a very likely complication, and a very dangerous one. There is great distress in breathing, the animal panting rapidly. The countenance is anxious, the pulse small and frequent, and the extremities cold. The animal would fain sit up on his haunches, or even seek to get out into the fresh air, but sickness, weakness, and prostration often forbid his movements. If the ear or stethoscope be applied to the chest, the characteristic signs of pneumonia will be heard; these are sounds of moist crepitations, etc. _Bronchitis_ is probably the most common complication; in fact, it is always present, except in very mild cases. The cough becomes more severe, and often comes on in tearing paroxysms, causing sickness and vomiting. The breathing is short and frequent, the mouth hot and filled with viscid saliva, while very often the bowels are constipated. If the liver becomes involved, we shall very soon have the jaundiced eye and the yellow skin. _Diarrhoea_ is another very common complication. We have frequent purging and, maybe, sickness and vomiting. _Fits_ of a convulsive character are frequent concomitants of distemper. _Epilepsy_ is sometimes seen, owing, no doubt, to degeneration of the nerve centres caused by blood-poisoning. There are many other complications, and skin complaints are common after it. _Treatment_--This consists firstly in doing all in our power to guide the specific catarrhal fever to a safe termination; and, secondly, in watching for and combating complications. Whenever we see a young dog ailing, losing appetite, exhibiting catarrhal symptoms, and getting thin, with a rise in temperature, we should not lose an hour. If he be an indoor dog, find him a good bed in a clean, well-ventilated apartment, free from lumber and free from dirt. If it be summer, have all the windows out or opened; if winter, a little fire will be necessary, but have half the window opened at the same time; only take precautions against his lying in a draught. Fresh air in cases of distemper, and, indeed, in fevers of all kinds, cannot be too highly extolled. The more rest the dog has the better; he must be kept free from excitement, and care must be taken to guard him against cold and wet when he goes out of doors to obey the calls of Nature. The most perfect cleanliness must be enjoined, and disinfectants used, such as permanganate of potash, carbolic acid, Pearson's, or Izal. If the sick dog, on the other hand, be one of a kennel of dogs, then quarantine must be adopted. The hospital should be quite removed from the vicinity of all other dogs, and as soon as the animal is taken from the kennel the latter should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected, and the other dogs kept warm and dry, well fed, and moderately exercised. _Food and Drink_--For the first three or four days let the food be light and easily digested. In order to induce the animal to take it, it should be as palatable as possible. For small dogs you cannot have anything better than milk porridge. [1] At all events, the dog must, if possible, be induced to eat; he must not be "horned" unless there be great emaciation; he must not over-eat, but what he gets must be good. As to drink, dogs usually prefer clean cold water, and we cannot do harm by mixing therewith a little plain nitre. [1] Oatmeal porridge made with milk instead of water. _Medicine_--Begin by giving a simple dose of castor oil, just enough and no more than will clear out the bowels by one or two motions. Drastic purgatives, and medicines such as mercury, jalap, aloes, and podophyllyn, cannot be too highly condemned. For very small Toy dogs, such as Italian Greyhounds, Yorkshire Terriers, etc., I should not recommend even oil itself, but _manna_--one drachm to two drachms dissolved in milk. By simply getting the bowels to act once or twice, we shall have done enough for the first day, and have only to make the dog comfortable for the night. On the next day begin with a mixture such as the following: Solution of acetate of ammonia, 30 drops to 120; sweet spirits of nitre, 15 drops to 60; salicylate of soda, 2 grains to 10. Thrice daily in a little camphor water. If the cough be very troublesome and the fever does not run very high, the following may be substituted for this on the second or third day: Syrup of squills, 10 drops to 60; tincture of henbane, 10 drops to 60; sweet spirits of nitre, 10 drops to 60, in camphor water. A few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid should be added to the dog's drink, and two teaspoonfuls (to a quart of water) of the chlorate of potash. This makes an excellent fever drink, especially if the dog can be got to take decoction of barley--barley-water--instead of plain cold water, best made of Keen and Robinson's patent barley. If there be persistent sickness and vomiting, the medicine must be stopped for a time. Small boluses of ice frequently administered will do much good, and doses of dilute prussic acid, from one to four drops in a little water, will generally arrest the vomiting. If constipation be present, we must use no rough remedies to get rid of it. A little raw meat cut into small pieces--minced, in fact--or a small portion of raw liver, may be given if there be little fever; if there be fever, we are to trust for a time to injections of plain soap-and-water. Diarrhoea, although often a troublesome symptom, is, it must be remembered, a salutary one. Unless, therefore, it becomes excessive, do not interfere; if it does, give the simple chalk mixture three times a day, but no longer than is needful. The discharge from the mouth and nose is to be wiped away with a soft rag--or, better still, some tow, which is afterwards to be burned--wetted with a weak solution of carbolic. The forehead, eyes, and nose may be fomented two or three times a day with moderately hot water with great advantage. It is not judicious to wet a long-haired dog much, but a short-haired one may have the chest and throat well fomented several times a day, and well rubbed dry afterwards. Heat applied to the chests of long-haired dogs by means of a flat iron will also effect good. The following is an excellent tonic: Sulphate of quinine, 1/8 to 3 grains; powdered rhubarb, 2 to 10 grains; extract of taraxacum, 3 to 20 grains; make a bolus. Thrice daily. During convalescence good food, Virol, Spratts' invalid food and invalid biscuit, moderate exercise, fresh air, and protection from cold. These, with an occasional mild dose of castor oil or rhubarb, are to be our sheet-anchors. I find no better tonic than the tablets of Phosferine. One quarter of a tablet thrice daily, rolled in tissue paper, for a Toy dog, up to two tablets for a dog of Mastiff size. BRONCHITIS. Dogs that have been exposed to wet, or that have been put to lie in a damp or draughty kennel with insufficient food, are not less liable than their masters to catch a severe cold, which, if not promptly attended to, may extend downward to the lining membranes of bronchi or lungs. In such cases there is always symptoms more or less of fever, with fits of shivering and thirst, accompanied with dullness, a tired appearance and loss of appetite. The breath is short, inspirations painful, and there is a rattling of mucus in chest or throat. The most prominent symptom, perhaps, is the frequent cough. It is at first dry, ringing, and evidently painful; in a few days, however, or sooner, it softens, and there is a discharge of frothy mucus with it, and, in the latter stages, of pus and ropy mucus. _Treatment_--Keep the patient in a comfortable, well-ventilated apartment, with free access in and out if the weather be dry. Let the bowels be freely acted upon to begin with, but no weakening discharge from the bowels must be kept up. After the bowels have been moved we should commence the exhibition of small doses of tartar emetic with squills and opium thrice a day. If the cough is very troublesome, give this mixture: Tincture of squills, 5 drops to 30; paregoric, 10 drops to 60; tartar emetic, one-sixteenth of a grain to 1 grain; syrup and water a sufficiency. Thrice daily. We may give a full dose of opium every night. In mild cases carbonate of ammonia may be tried; it often does good, the dose being from two grains to ten in camphor water, or even plain water. The chronic form of bronchitis will always yield, if the dog is young, to careful feeding, moderate exercise, and the exhibition of cod-liver oil with a mild iron tonic. The exercise, however, must be moderate, and the dog kept from the water. A few drops to a teaspoonful of paregoric, given at night, will do good, and the bowels should be kept regular, and a simple laxative pill given now and then. DIARRHOEA, or looseness of the bowels, or purging, is a very common disease among dogs of all ages and breeds. It is, nevertheless, more common among puppies about three or four months old, and among dogs who have reached the age of from seven to ten years. It is often symptomatic of other ailments. _Causes_--Very numerous. In weakly dogs exposure alone will produce it. The weather, too, has no doubt much to do with the production of diarrhoea. In most kennels it is more common in the months of July and August, although it often comes on in the very dead of winter. Puppies, if overfed, will often be seized with this troublesome complaint. A healthy puppy hardly ever knows when it has had enough, and it will, moreover, stuff itself with all sorts of garbage; acidity of the stomach follows, with vomiting of the ingesta, and diarrhoea succeeds, brought on by the acrid condition of the chyme, which finds its way into the duodenum. This stuff would in itself act as a purgative, but it does more, it abnormally excites the secretions of the whole alimentary canal, and a sort of sub-acute mucous inflammation is set up. The liver; too, becomes mixed up with the mischief, throws out a superabundance of bile, and thus aids in keeping up the diarrhoea. Among other causes, we find the eating of indigestible food, drinking foul or tainted water, too much green food, raw paunches, foul kennels, and damp, draughty kennels. _Symptoms_--The purging is, of course, the principal symptom, and the stools are either quite liquid or semi-fluid, bilious-looking, dirty-brown or clay-coloured, or mixed with slimy mucus. In some cases they resemble dirty water. Sometimes, as already said, a little blood will be found in the dejection, owing to congestion of the mucous membrane from liver obstruction. In case there be blood in the stools, a careful examination is always necessary in order to ascertain the real state of the patient. Blood, it must be remembered, might come from piles or polypi, or it might be dysenteric, and proceed from ulceration of the rectum and colon. In the simplest form of diarrhoea, unless the disease continues for a long time, there will not be much wasting, and the appetite will generally remain good but capricious. In bilious diarrhoea, with large brown fluid stools and complete loss of appetite, there is much thirst, and in a few days the dog gets rather thin, although nothing like so rapidly as in the emaciation of distemper. _The Treatment_ will, it need hardly be said, depend upon the cause, but as it is generally caused by the presence in the intestine of some irritating matter, we can hardly err by administering a small dose of castor oil, combining with it, if there be much pain--which you can tell by the animal's countenance--from 5 to 20 or 30 drops of laudanum, or of the solution of the muriate of morphia. This in itself will often suffice to cut short an attack. The oil is preferable to rhubarb, but the latter may be tried--the simple, not the compound powder--dose from 10 grains to 2 drachms in bolus. It the diarrhoea should continue next day, proceed cautiously--remember there is no great hurry, and a sudden check to diarrhoea is at times dangerous--to administer dog doses of the aromatic chalk and opium powder, or give the following medicine three times a day: Compound powdered catechu, 1 grain to 10; powdered chalk with opium, 3 grains to 30. Mix. If the diarrhoea still continues, good may accrue from a trial of the following mixture: Laudanum, 5 to 30 drops; dilute sulphuric acid, 2 to 15 drops; in camphor water. This after every liquid motion, or, if the motions may not be observed, three times a day. If blood should appear in the stools give the following: Kino powder, 1 to 10 grains; powder ipecac., 1/4 to 3 grains; powdered opium 1/2 to 2 grains. This may be made into a bolus with any simple extract, and given three times a day. The food is of importance. The diet should be changed; the food requires to be of a non-stimulating kind, no meat being allowed, but milk and bread, sago, or arrowroot or rice, etc. The drink either pure water, with a pinch or two of chlorate and nitrate of potash in it, or patent barley-water if the dog will take it. The bed must be warm and clean, and free from draughts, and, in all cases of diarrhoea, one cannot be too particular with the cleanliness and disinfection of the kennels. CONSTIPATION, more commonly called costiveness, is also a very common complaint. It often occurs in the progress of other diseases, but is just as often a separate ailment. Perhaps no complaint to which our canine friends are liable is less understood by the non-professional dog doctor and by dog owners themselves. Often caused by weakness in the coats of the intestine. _The exhibition of purgatives can only have a temporary effect in relieving the symptoms_, and is certain to be followed by reaction, and consequently by further debility. Want of exercise and bath common cause. Youatt was never more correct in his life than when he said: "Many dogs have a dry constipated habit, often greatly increased by the bones on which they are fed. This favours the disposition to mange, etc. It produces indigestion, encourages worms, blackens the teeth, and causes fetid breath." _Symptoms_--The stools are hard, usually in large round balls, and defecation is accomplished with great difficulty, the animal often having to try several times before he succeeds in effecting the act, and this only after the most acute suffering. The faeces are generally covered with white mucus, showing the heat and semi-dry condition of the gut. The stool is sometimes so dry as to fall to pieces like so much oatmeal. There is generally also a deficiency of bile in the motions, and, in addition to simple costiveness, we have more or less loss of appetite, with a too pale tongue, dullness, and sleepiness, with slight redness of the conjunctiva. Sometimes constipation alternates with diarrhoea, the food being improperly commingled with the gastric and other juices, ferments, spoils, and becomes, instead of healthy blood-producing chyme, an irritant purgative. _Treatment_--Hygienic treatment more than medicinal. Mild doses of castor oil, compound rhubarb pill, or olive oil, may at first be necessary. Sometimes an enema will be required if the medicine will not act. Plenty of exercise and a swim daily (with a good run after the swim), or instead of the swim a bucket bath--water thrown over the dog. Give oatmeal, rather than flour or fine bread, as the staple of his diet, but a goodly allowance of meat is to be given as well, with cabbage or boiled liver, or even a portion of raw liver. Fresh air and exercise in the fields. You may give a bolus before dinner, such as the following: Compound rhubarb pill, 1 to 5 grains; quinine, 1/8 to 2 grains; extract of taraxacum, 2 to 10 grains. Mix. FITS. Whatever be the cause, they are very alarming. In puppies they are called Convulsions, and resemble epileptic fits. Keep the dog very quiet, but use little force, simply enough to keep him from hurting himself. Keep out of the sun, or in a darkened room. When he can swallow give from 2 to 20 grains (according to size) of bromide of potassium in a little camphor water thrice daily for a few days. Only milk food. Keep quiet. SKIN DISEASES. In the whole range of dog ailments included in the term canine pathology there are none more bothersome to treat successfully nor more difficult to diagnose than those of the skin. There are none either that afford the quack or patent-nostrum monger a larger field for the practice of his fiendish gifts. If I were to be asked the questions, "Why do dogs suffer so much from skin complaints?" and "Why does it appear to be so difficult to treat them?" I should answer the first thus: Through the neglect of their owners, from want of cleanliness, from injudicious feeding, from bad kennelling, and from permitting their favourites such free intercourse with other members of the canine fraternity. Overcrowding is another and distinct source of skin troubles. My answer to the second question is that the layman too often treats the trouble in the skin as if it were the disease itself, whereas it is, generally, merely a symptom thereof. Examples: To plaster medicated oils or ointments all over the skin of a dog suffering from constitutional eczema is about as sensible as would be the painting white of the yellow skin in jaundice in order to cure the disordered liver. But even those contagious diseases that are caused by skin germs or animalcules will not be wholly cured by any applications whatever. Constitutional remedies should go hand in hand with these. And, indeed, so great is the defensive power of strong, pure blood, rich in its white corpuscles or leucocytes, that I believe I could cure even the worst forms of mange by internal remedies, good food, and tonics, etc., without the aid of any dressing whatever except pure cold water. In treating of skin diseases it is usual to divide them into three sections: (1) The non-contagious, (2) the contagious, and (3) ailments caused by external parasites. (1) The Non-Contagious.--(a) Erythema.--This is a redness, with slight inflammation of the skin, the deeper tissues underneath not being involved. _Examples_--That seen between the wrinkles of well-bred Pugs, Mastiffs, or Bulldogs, or inside the thighs of Greyhounds, etc. If the skin breaks there may be discharges of pus, and if the case is not cured the skin may thicken and crack, and the dog make matters worse with his tongue. _Treatment_--Review and correct the methods of feeding. A dog should be neither too gross nor too lean. Exercise, perfect cleanliness, the early morning sluice-down with cold water, and a quassia tonic. He may need a laxative as well. _Locally_--Dusting with oxide of zinc or the violet powder of the nurseries, a lotion of lead, or arnica. Fomentation, followed by cold water, and, when dry, dusting as above. A weak solution of boracic acid (any chemist) will sometimes do good. (b) Prurigo.--Itching all over, with or without scurf. Sometimes thickening. _Treatment_--Regulation of diet, green vegetables, fruit if he will take it, brushing and grooming, but never roughly. Try for worms and for fleas. (c) Eczema.--The name is not a happy one as applied to the usual itching skin disease of dogs. Eczema proper is an eruption in which the formed matter dries off into scales or scabs, and dog eczema, so-called, is as often as not a species of lichen. Then, of course, it is often accompanied with vermin, nearly always with dirt, and it is irritated out of all character by the biting and scratching of the dog himself. _Treatment_--Must be both constitutional and local. Attend to the organs of digestion. Give a moderate dose of opening medicine, to clear away offending matter. This simple aperient may be repeated occasionally, say once a week, and if diarrhoea be present it may be checked by the addition of a little morphia or dilute sulphuric acid. Cream of tartar with sulphur is an excellent derivative, being both diuretic and diaphoretic, but it must not be given in doses large enough to purge. At the same time we may give thrice daily a tonic pill like the following:-- Sulphate of quinine, 1/8 to 3 grains; sulphate of iron, 1/2 grain to 5 grains; extract of hyoscyamus, 1/8 to 3 grains; extract of taraxacum and glycerine enough to make a pill. _Locally_--Perfect cleanliness. Cooling lotions patted on to the sore places. Spratts' Cure. (N.B.--I know what every remedy contains, or I should not recommend it.) Benzoated zinc ointment after the lotion has dried in. Wash carefully once a week, using the ointment when skin is dry, or the lotion to allay irritation. (2) Contagious Skin Diseases.--These are usually called mange proper and follicular mange, or scabies. I want to say a word on the latter first. It depends upon a microscopic animalcule called the _Acarus folliculorum_. The trouble begins by the formation of patches, from which the hair falls off, and on which may be noticed a few pimples. Scabs form, the patches extend, or come out on other parts of the body, head, legs, belly, or sides. Skin becomes red in white-haired dogs. Odour of this trouble very offensive. More _pain_ than itching seems to be the symptomatic rule. Whole body may become affected. _Treatment_--Dress the affected parts twice a week with the following:-- Creosote, 2 drachms; linseed oil, 7 ounces; solution of potash, 1 ounce. First mix the creosote and oil, then add the solution and shake. Better to shave the hair off around the patches. Kennels must be kept clean with garden soap and hot water, and all bedding burned after use. From three months to six will be needed to cure bad cases. Mange Proper is also caused by a parasite or acarus, called the _Sarcops canus_. Unlike eczema, this mange is spread from dog to dog by touch or intercommunication, just as one person catches the itch from another. _The Symptoms_--At first these may escape attention, but there are vesicles which the dog scratches and breaks, and thus the disease spreads. The hair gets matted and falls off. Regions of the body most commonly affected, head, chest, back, rump, and extremities. There may not be much constitutional disturbance from the actual injury to the skin, but from his suffering so much from the irritation and the want of rest the health suffers. _Treatment_--Avoid the use of so-called disinfectants. Most of those sold as such are simply deodorisers, and, applied to the skin, are useless. Nor are they of much use in cleaning the kennels. Nothing suits better for woodwork than, first, carbolic wash, and then a thorough scrubbing with hot water and garden soap. Some ointment must be used to the skin, and as I am writing for laymen only I feel chary in recommending such strong ones as the green iodide of mercury. If you do use it mix it with twice its bulk of the compound sulphur ointment. Do over only a part or two at a time. The dog to be washed after three days. But the compound sulphur ointment itself is a splendid application, and it is not dangerous. (3) Skin Complaints from Vermin.--The treatment is obvious--get rid of the cause. _As their diagnosis is so difficult, whenever the dog-owner is in doubt, make certain by treating the dog not only by local applications but constitutionally as well_. In addition to good diet, perfect cleanliness of coat, kennel, and all surroundings, and the application of the ointment or oil, let the dog have all the fresh air possible, and exercise, but never over-exciting or too fatiguing. Then a course of arsenic seldom fails to do good. I do not believe in beginning the exhibition of arsenic too soon. I prefer paying my first attentions to the digestive organs and state of the bowels. The form of exhibition which I have found suit as well as any is the _tasteless Liquor arsenicalis_. It is easily administered. It ought to be given mixed with the food, as it ought to enter the blood with the chyle from the diet. It ought, day by day, to be gradually, not hurriedly, increased. Symptoms of loathing of food and redness of conjunctiva call for the cessation of its use for two or three days at least, when it is to be recommended at the same size of dose given when left off. There are two things which assist the arsenic, at least to go well with it; they are, iron in some form and Virol. The latter will be needed when there is much loss of flesh. A simple pill of sulphate of iron and extract of liquorice may be used. Dose of _Liquor arsenicalis_ from 1 to 6 drops _ter die_ to commence with, gradually increased to 5 to 20 drops. Dandruff.--A scaly or scurfy condition of the skin, with more or less of irritation. It is really a shedding of the scaly epidermis brought on by injudicious feeding or want of exercise as a primary cause. The dog, in cases of this kind, needs cooling medicines, such as small doses of the nitrate and chlorates of potash, perhaps less food. Bowels to be seen to by giving plenty of green food, with a morsel of sheep's melt or raw liver occasionally. Wash about once in three weeks, a very little borax in the last water, say a drachm to a gallon. Use mild soap. Never use a very hard brush or sharp comb. Tar soap (Wright's) may be tried. PARASITES--INTERNAL. WORMS. We have, roughly speaking, two kinds of worms to treat in the dog: (1) the round, and (2) the tape. (1) _Round-worms_--They are in shape and size not unlike the garden worm, but harder, pale, and pointed. _Symptoms_--Sometimes these are alarming, for the worm itself is occasionally seized with the mania for foreign travel, and finds its way into the throat or nostrils, causing the dog to become perfectly furious, and inducing such pain and agony that it may seem charity to end its life. The worms may also crawl into the stomach, and give rise to great irritation, but are usually dislodged therefrom by the violence accompanying the act of vomiting. Their usual habitat, however, is the small intestines, where they occasion great distress to their host. The appetite is always depraved and voracious. At times there is colic, with sickness and perhaps vomiting, and the bowels are alternately constipated or loose. The coat is harsh and staring, there usually is short, dry cough from reflex irritation of the bronchial mucous membrane, a bad-smelling breath and emaciation or at least considerable poverty of flesh. The disease is most common in puppies and in young dogs. The appearance of the ascaris in the dog's stools is, of course, _the_ diagnostic symptom. _Treatment_--I have cured many cases with santonin and areca-nut powder (betel-nut), dose 10 grains to 2 drachms; or turpentine, dose from 10 drops to 1-1/2 drachms, beaten up with yolk of egg. But areca-nut does better for tape-worm, so we cannot do better than trust to pure santonin. The dose is from 1 grain for a Toy up to 6 grains for a Mastiff. Mix it with a little butter, and stick it well back in the roof of the dog's mouth. He must have fasted previously for twelve hours, and had a dose of castor oil the day before. In four or five hours after he has swallowed the santonin, let him have a dose of either olive oil or decoction of aloes. Dose, 2 drachms to 2 ounces or more. Repeat the treatment in five days. Spratts' cure may be safely depended on for worms. [1] [1] Many dog owners swear by the preparation called Ruby, which can be recommended as a cure for worms.--Ed. The perfect cleanliness of the kennel is of paramount importance. The animal's general health requires looking after, and he may be brought once more into good condition by proper food and a course of vegetable tonics. If wanted in show condition we have Plasmon to fall back upon, and Burroughs and Wellcome's extract of malt. There is a round-worm which at times infests the dog's bladder, and may cause occlusion of the urethra; a whip-worm inhabiting the caecum; another may occupy a position in the mucous membrane of the stomach; some infest the blood, and others the eye. (2) _Tape-worms_--There are several kinds, but the treatment is the same in all cases. The commonest in the country is the Cucumerine. This is a tape-worm of about fifteen inches in average length, although I have taken them from Newfoundland pups fully thirty inches long. It is a semi-transparent entozoon; each segment is long compared to its breadth, and narrowed at both ends. Each joint has, when detached, an independent sexual existence. The dog often becomes infested with this parasite from eating sheeps' brains, and dogs thus afflicted and allowed to roam at pleasure over fields and hills where sheep are fed sow the seeds of gid in our flocks to any extent. We know too well the great use of Collie dogs to the shepherd or grazier to advise that dogs should not be employed as assistants, but surely it would be to their owners' advantage to see that they were kept in a state of health and cleanliness. _Treatment_--We ought to endeavour to prevent as well as to cure. We should never allow our dogs to eat the entrails of hares or rabbits. Never allow them to be fed on raw sheep's intestines, nor the brains of sheep. Never permit them to lounge around butchers' shops, nor eat offal of any kind. Let their food be well cooked, and their skins and kennels kept scrupulously clean. Dogs that are used for sheep and cattle ought, twice a year at least, to go under treatment for the expulsion of worms, whether they are infested or not; an anthelmintic would make sure, and could hardly hurt them. For the expulsion of tape-worms we depend mostly on areca-nut. In order that the tape-worm should receive the full benefit of the remedy, we order a dose of castor oil the day before in the morning, and recommend no food to be given that day except beef-tea or mutton broth. The bowels are thus empty next morning, so that the parasite cannot shelter itself anywhere, and is therefore sure to be acted on. Infusion of cusco is sometimes used as an anthelmintic, so is wormwood, and the liquid extract of male fern, and in America spigelia root and pumpkin seeds. The best tonic to give in cases of worms is the extract of quassia. Extract of quassia, 1 to 10 grains; extract of hyoscyamus, 1/2 to 5 grains. To make one pill. Thrice daily. PARASITES.--EXTERNAL. FLEAS. Washing with Spratts' medicated soap. Extra clean kennels. Dusting with Keating, and afterwards washing. This may not kill the fleas, but it drives them off. Take the dog on the grass while dusting, and begin along the spine. Never do it in the house. TICKS. I have noticed these disagreeable bloodsuckers only on the heads and bodies of sporting or Collie dogs, who had been boring for some time through coverts and thickets. They soon make themselves visible, as the body swells up with the blood they suck until they resemble small soft warts about as big as a pea. They belong to the natural family, _Ixodiadae_. _Treatment_--If not very numerous they should be cut off, and the part touched with a little turps. The sulphuret of calcium will also kill them, so will the more dangerous white precipitate, or even a strong solution of carbolic acid, which must be used sparingly, however. LICE. The lice are hatched from nits, which we find clinging in rows, and very tenaciously too, to the hairs. The insects themselves are more difficult to find, but they are on puppies sometimes in thousands. To destroy them I have tried several plans. Oil is very effectual, and has safety to recommend it. Common sweet oil is as good a cure as any, and you may add a little oil of anise and some sublimed sulphur, which will increase the effect. Quassia water may be used to damp the coat. The matted portions of a long-haired dog's coat must be cut off with scissors, for there the lice often lurk. The oil dressing will not kill the nits, so that vinegar must be used. After a few days the dressing must be repeated, and so on three or four times. To do any good, the whole of the dog's coat must be drenched in oil, and the dog washed with good dog soap and warm water twelve hours afterwards. CHAPTER LII THE DOG AND THE LAW PRIVILEGES OF FIRST BITE It is popularly, but rather erroneously, supposed that _every_ dog is entitled to one bite. Perhaps it would be more accurate to state that every dog may with impunity have one snap or one intended bite, but only dogs of hitherto irreproachable character are permitted the honour of a genuine tasteful bite. Once a dog, however, has displayed dangerous propensities, even though he has never had the satisfaction of effecting an actual bite, and once his owner or the person who harbours him becomes aware of these evil inclinations (scienter) either of his own knowledge or by notice, the Law looks upon such dog as a dangerous beast which the owner keeps at his peril. The onus of proof is on the victim to show that the owner had previous knowledge of the animal's ferocity, though in reality very little evidence of scienter is as a rule required, and notice need not necessarily be given directly to the owner, but to any person who has charge of the dog. The person attacked has yet another remedy. He can, if he is able, kill the dog before it can bite him, but he is not justified in shooting the animal as it runs away, even _after_ being bitten. By 28 and 29 Vict., c. 60, the owner of a dog which attacks sheep or cattle--and cattle includes horses--is responsible for all damage, and there is no necessity to prove previous evil propensities. This Act is wholly repealed by the Act called the Dogs' Act, 1906, which came into force on January 1st, 1907, but the new Act re-enacts the section having reference to damage to cattle, and says that in such cases it is not necessary for the persons claiming damages to show a previous mischievous propensity in the dog or the owner's knowledge of such previous propensity or to show that the injury was attributable to neglect on the part of the owner; the word "cattle" includes horses, asses, sheep, goats, and swine. The Law looks upon fighting between dogs as a natural and necessary incident in the career of every member of the canine race, and gives no redress to the owner of the vanquished animal, provided the fight was a fair one, and the contestants appear to consider it so. The owner, however, of a peaceably disposed dog which is attacked and injured, or killed, by one savage and unrestrained, has a right of action against the owner of the latter. The owner of the peaceably disposed animal may justifiably kill the savage brute in order to save his dog, but he must run the risk of being able to prove that this was the only means of putting a stop to the fight. LICENCES Every dog owner must annually take out a licence for each dog he keeps. The licence, which is obtainable at all post-offices at the cost of 7s. 6d., is dated to run from the hour it is taken out until the following 31st December. The person in whose custody or upon whose premises the dog is found will be deemed its owner until proved otherwise. The owners of certain dogs for certain purposes are, however, exempted from taking out licences, viz.: (1) Dogs under the age of six months; (2) hounds under twelve months old neither used nor hunted with the pack, provided that the Master has taken out proper licences for all hounds entered in the pack; (3) one dog kept and used by a blind person solely for his or her guidance; (4) dogs kept and used solely for the purpose of tending sheep or cattle or in the exercise of the occupation or calling of a shepherd. MUZZLING REGULATIONS Under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts, 1878-1894, local authorities (_i.e._, county, borough, or district councils) were empowered to issue orders regulating the muzzling of dogs in public places and the keeping of dogs under control (otherwise than by muzzling). Offenders under these Acts are liable to a fine not exceeding P20. The Statute 57 and 58 Vict., c. 57, gives the Board of Agriculture power to make orders for muzzling dogs, keeping them under control, and the detention and disposal of stray dogs; and section 2 of the Dogs Act, 1906 (known by some as the Curfew Bell Act), says that the Diseases of Animals Act, 1894, shall have effect: (a) For prescribing and regulating the wearing by dogs while in a highway or in a place of public resort of a collar with the name and address of the owner inscribed on the collar or on a plate or badge attached thereto: (b) With a view to the prevention of worrying of cattle for preventing dogs or any class of dogs from straying during all or any of the hours between sunset and sunrise. STRAY DOGS The Dogs Act, 1906, has some important sections dealing with seizure of stray dogs, and enacts that where a police officer has reason to believe that any dog found in a highway or place of public resort is a stray dog, he may seize and retain it until the owner has claimed it and paid all expenses incurred by reason of its detention. If the dog so seized wears a collar on which is the address of any person, or if the owner of the dog is known, then the chief officer of police or some person authorised by him in that behalf shall serve on either such person a notice in writing stating that the dog has been seized, and will be sold or destroyed if not claimed within seven clear days of the service of the notice. Failing the owner putting in an appearance and paying all expenses of detention within the seven clear days, then the chief officer of police or any person authorised by him may cause the dog to be sold, or destroyed in a manner to cause as little pain as possible. The police must keep a proper register of all dogs seized, and every such register shall be open to inspection at all reasonable times by any member of the public on payment of a fee of one shilling, and the police may transfer such dog to any establishment for the reception of stray dogs, but only if there is a proper register kept at such establishment open to inspection by the public on payment of a fee not exceeding one shilling. Another section enacts that any person who takes possession of a stray dog shall forthwith either return the dog to its owner or give notice in writing to the chief officer of police of the district where the dog was found, containing a description of the dog and stating the place where the dog was found, and the place where he is being detained, and any person failing to comply with the provisions of this section shall be liable on conviction under the Summary Jurisdiction Acts to a fine not exceeding forty shillings. IMPORTATION OF DOGS The power of making Orders dealing with the importation of dogs is vested in the Board of Agriculture, who have absolute authority in the matter. The initial step to be taken by a person wishing to import any dog into Great Britain from any other country excepting Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the Isle of Man, is that he must fill up an application form to the said Board, which he has previously obtained from them, in which he applies for a licence to land the dog under the conditions imposed by the Board, which he undertakes to obey. On the form he has to give a full description of the dog, the name and address of the owner, the proposed port of landing, and the approximate date of landing, and further from lists which he will receive from the Board he must select the carrying agents he proposes should superintend the movement of the dog from the port of landing to the place of detention, and also the premises of a veterinary surgeon on which he proposes the dog shall be detained and isolated as required by the Order. An imported dog must be landed and taken to its place of detention in a suitable box, hamper, crate or other receptacle, and as a general rule has to remain entirely isolated for a period of six months. MOTOR CARS AND DOGS Unquestionably the greatest enemy that the dog possesses at the present time is the motor car. Presuming the owner of the dog is fortunate enough to know whose car it was that ran over his dog, and to have some evidence of excessive or unreasonable speed or other negligence on the part of the car driver at the time of the accident, he will find the law ever ready to assist him. A dog has every bit as much right to the high road as a motor car. Efforts have been made on the part of motor owners to get the Courts to hold that dogs on a high road are only under proper control if on a "lead," and that if they are not on a "lead" the owner of them is guilty of negligence in allowing his dog to stroll about, and therefore is not entitled to recover: such efforts have not been successful. Even supposing a Court to hold that the fact of a dog being loose in this way or unaccompanied was evidence of negligence against his owner this would by no means defeat his owner's claim, for the law is, that though a plaintiff may have been negligent in some such way as this, yet if the defendant could, by the exercise of reasonable care, have avoided the accident, the plaintiff can still recover. There are several cases that decide this valuable principle. INDEX Airedale Terrier Assyrian Sculpture and Dog --Mastiff Basset-Hound Beagle Bedlington Terrier Bible, Dog in The Black and Tan Terrier Blenheim Spaniel Bloodhound Borzoi Breeding: Bulldog Newfoundland Borzoi Dachshund Smooth Fox-Terrier Dandie Dinmont King Charles Spaniel General Notes Bronchitis Brussels Griffon Bulldog --Miniature --French Bull-terrier ----Toy Chow Chow Clumber Spaniel Clydesdale Terrier Cocker Spaniel Collie Constipation Coursing Dachshund Dalmatian Dandie Dinmont Deerhound Diarrhoea Distemper English Terrier, White English Water Spaniel Egypt, Dog in Feeding Field Spaniel First Bite, Privileges of Fits Fleas Fox as progenitor of the Dog Foxhound Fox-terrier, Smooth --Wire-hair Great Dane Greeks, Dogs and Ancient Greyhound --Italian Harrier Importation if Dogs Irish Terrier Irish Water Spaniel Italian Greyhound Jackal as progenitor of Dog Japanese Spaniel Kennels and their management King Charles Spaniel Labrador, The Law, Dog and the Licences Maltese Dog Manchester Terrier --Miniature Mange Mastiff, Assyrian --English Miniature Breeds: Bulldog French Bulldog Poodle Pomeranian Black and Tan Terrier Toy Bull-terrier Italian Greyhound Shetland Sheepdog Motor Cars and Dogs Muzzling Regulations Newfoundland Origin of the Dog Otterhound Pekinese Phoenicians, and Dogs Pointer Pomeranian Poodle --Toy White Primitive Man and Dog Pug Puppies, Treatment of: Mastiff Bulldog Newfoundland Great Dane Old English Sheepdog Poodle Borzoi Dachshund King Charles Spaniel Pekinese Brussels Griffon General Notes Retriever, Flat-Coated --Curly Rome, Dogs and Ancient Samoyede Schipperke Scottish Terrier Setter, English --Irish --Black and Tan Sheepdog, Old English Shetland Sheepdog Skin Diseases Skye Terrier Spaniel Family, The Spaniel, Irish Water --English --Clumber --Sussex --Field --English Springer --Welsh Springer --Cocker --King Charles Springer, English --Welsh St. Bernard Stray Dogs Sussex Spaniel Terrier, Old Working --White English --Black and Tan --Bull- --Smooth Fox- --Wire-hair Fox- --Airedale --Bedlington --Irish --Welsh --Scottish --West Highland White --Dandie Dinmont --Skye, and Clydesdale --Yorkshire Toy Dogs: Pomeranian Poodle, White King Charles Spaniel Pekinese and Japanese Maltese and Pug Brussels Griffon Miniature Black and Tan, Bull-terrier, Italian Greyhound and Shetland Sheepdog Waterloo Cup Welsh Terrier West Highland White Terrier Whippet Wolf as progenitor of Dog Wolfhound, Irish --Russian (Borzoi) Worm, Treatment for Yorkshire Terrier 
20279	----	close resemblance to the parasite causing mange or scabies in the domesticated animal. Owing to the peculiar construction of their breathing organs fowls are more susceptible to parasites than animals. In addition to affecting the lungs, the Air Sac Mite may extend its operations to the intestines, kidneys, liver and bones. SYMPTOMS: Unthriftiness is first noticed, but after the parasites become numerous, the fowl shows signs of difficult breathing, perhaps terminating in bronchial pneumonia. In some cases death occurs without apparent cause. The bird will be inactive, becomes separated from the rest of the flock, comb pale, head drawn close to the body, wings hang pendulous, lose flesh, breathing becomes hard, coughing, sneezing and a rattling from the mucus in the windpipe is heard. Death is produced from suffocation. TREATMENT: Separate the sick from the healthy fowls. Disinfect coops and runways of both sick and healthy birds with Crude Carbolic Acid, undiluted. Also fumigate the fowls in their coops with steam from hot water and Pine Tar. This may be done by placing the water and Tar in a pan and then inserting a hot stone or brick in the solution. This perhaps is the simplest method of fumigation. Also mix Sulphur in their feed regularly. APOPLEXY (Hemorrhage of the Brain) Due to the rupture of a blood vessel of the brain and pressure from the escaping blood. CAUSE: Mechanical injuries, straining when laying eggs (hens are frequently found dead on the nest from this cause), overfeeding, stimulating food, etc., all tend to produce apoplexy. SYMPTOMS: Appear very suddenly, bird is seen to walk unsteadily, falls, or perhaps is found dead. TREATMENT: In mild attacks, apply cold water or ice to fowl's head until thoroughly cooled. Give one-half grain of Calomel, feed soft food, compel the bird to exercise. Owing to the loss of blood a tonic will be necessary. Pulv. Gentian Root, Pulv. Saltpeter, Capsicum and Ferri Sulphate (Pulv.) equal parts one ounce. Mix and place one teaspoonful in feed for every twenty-five fowls. This tonic purifies and builds up the blood, just what is needed in this particular condition. BALDNESS (Favus) CAUSE: Due to fungi. SYMPTOMS: The first noticeable sign is the whitish appearance of the comb due to gray spots about the size of a pin head. As the disease progresses, this condition spreads to other parts of the body; the feathers look rough and dry and break easily. The fowl grows weaker, refuses to eat and if not properly treated, dies. TREATMENT: Remove the scabs by separating the feathers and using a brush. Apply Sulphur Ointment. Repeat this treatment after two or three days. Great care must be taken to prevent the fowl from chilling or taking cold. BEAK AND THROAT OBSTRUCTION CAUSE: Lodgment in the beak or food canal of a foreign substance, such as a kernel of corn, sunflower seed, bone, etc. SYMPTOMS: Fowl jerks its head suddenly and frequently attempts to swallow. If a close examination is made the foreign body can be felt from the outside. TREATMENT: For the removal of such obstructions, no special treatment is needed further than to use care and avoid any injury to the beak or throat. Feed nutritious food, as wheat bran mashes and vegetables and see that they have a liberal quantity of good pure water at all times. BLACKHEAD (Infectious Entero Hepatitis of Turkeys) CAUSE: Due to a protozoa taken into the system with the food or drinking water. This parasite enters the caeca which becomes inflamed and discolored and the liver is enlarged and studded with yellowish spots about the size of a pea. SYMPTOMS: Although this disease is termed Blackhead, the discoloration of the head is not necessarily present in all cases; neither is this condition confined to this particular disease. One of the first symptoms is loss of appetite, followed in most cases by diarrhoea. The fowl becomes weak and loses weight rapidly. Examination of the liver after death will determine whether or not death has been caused by Infectious Entero Hepatitis. The dead birds should be burned to prevent the spread of the disease. TREATMENT: Prevention is one of the most important factors as this disease is very contagious and the protozoa once implanted in the turkey runs is almost impossible to eradicate. Provide clean, well ventilated coops and feed clean, wholesome food and good fresh water to drink. MEDICAL TREATMENT: Give Bismuth Salicylate and Quinine Sulphate each one grain two to three times a day. Also mix Hyposulphite of Soda in the proportion of two to four grains to every fowl in their drinking water twice daily. Disinfect coops and runs with Crude Carbolic Acid, undiluted. BODY LICE CAUSE: Insanitary conditions. Communicated by direct contact. SYMPTOMS: Young chicks become emaciated and die quickly. Older birds withstand the parasite much longer, but in time show signs of uneasiness by dusting themselves frequently. The comb and wattles become pale and bloodless, the feathers rough, dry and brittle. The birds grow weak, poor, and eventually die. TREATMENT: Dust the birds with the following: Sulphur, one part; Napthaline, one part; Tobacco Dust, twenty-eight parts and seventy parts of middlings. Powder finely and mix well together and dust the birds once daily. Also sprinkle freely in the dust baths. BRONCHITIS CAUSE: Exposure to dampness, cold drafts of air, inhaling irritating gases, vapors or dust. The fowls should be carefully examined, as bronchitis is occasionally caused by the presence of gapeworms. SYMPTOMS: Loss of appetite, the bird moves about slowly, breathing with difficulty and making a sort of whistling sound accompanied by a cough. As the disease progresses, there will be a peculiar bubbling sound from breathing due to an excessive accumulation of mucus in the windpipe. At this stage of the disease the bird becomes very weak and if not properly treated and cared for will rapidly lose strength, the feathers will become rough, head and wings droop, and the bird dies. TREATMENT: This disease is most satisfactorily treated by placing the affected birds in warm, dry, well ventilated quarters, admitting sunlight if possible, but excluding all drafts of air. Feed stale bread, middlings, etc. Also place the fowls in a moderately air tight coop and compel them to inhale steam from hot water and Turpentine. This is readily done by placing the water and Turpentine in a pan and then insert a hot stone or brick in the solution. Force them to inhale this steam from twenty to thirty minutes twice a day. Also add Chlorate of Potash to their drinking water, one teaspoonful to every twenty-five aged fowls. To chicks add one-fourth teaspoonful to every twenty-five. If the weather is favorable and the above treatment is followed, bronchitis yields very favorably. BUMBLE FOOT (Corns-Deep Bruises-Abscesses) CAUSE: Sharp-edged or narrow perches which bruise the feet or where the perches are high, heavy fowls often injure their feet by alighting on stones or other hard objects. SYMPTOMS: The bird limps or hobbles about, moving with great difficulty. Examination will show the foot to be hot and tender to the touch. TREATMENT: Wash with clean, warm water and in some cases it is advisable to apply Hot Flaxseed poultices. When soft spots or abscesses develop, lance them with a clean, sharp knife. After abscesses and bruises are opened, treat them antiseptically by washing with a solution of Carbolic Acid, one teaspoonful to a pint of water. The foot should be bandaged to keep out dust and dirt. [Illustration: Photograph of chicken.] PRIZE WINNING BUFF ORPINGTON COCK. CATARRH CAUSE: Exposure; poorly constructed coops which admit rain or drafts. Weak birds are very susceptible to Catarrh. SYMPTOMS: The bird is dull, moves about slowly, coughing or sneezing; appetite is poor, the mucous membrane of the air passage becomes inflamed and the breathing difficult, especially through the nose. The discharge from the nostrils at first watery, becomes mucus-like and thick and sticky, closing the nose, causing the bird to breathe wholly through the mouth with a wheezing sound. TREATMENT: The cause of Catarrh shows the necessity of clean and comfortable quarters for the fowls. Keep the birds strong and vigorous by feeding clean, nourishing food. MEDICAL TREATMENT: To each fowl administer in their drinking water or feed: Chlorate of Potash, one grain, twice daily. CHICKEN POX (Sore Head--Warts) CAUSE: These diseases are due to low forms of parasites or fungi and occur most frequently in wet weather especially if the coops are leaky and allow the rain to fall on the droppings, causing mold or fungi. Poor ventilation and lack of light also promotes the growth of fungi. SYMPTOMS: The disease is usually confined to the head and affects principally young chickens, pigeons and turkeys, but rarely ducks and geese. The infection appears in the form of yellowish warts or nodules about the nose, eyelids, comb, wattles, under the wings, or any unfeathered place. The warts vary in size from that of a pin head to the size of a pea and they discharge a fluid which at first is thin and watery but as the disease progresses, it becomes thick and sticky, yellow in color and fetid in smell. At this stage the appetite is poor, the feathers appear rough, and where the eyelids are affected, as in most cases, the bird cannot see, fails to eat, becomes emaciated, loses weight and strength rapidly and if not properly treated, dies. TREATMENT: This disease is very contagious, therefore the coops and runs should be disinfected with Crude Carbolic Acid, undiluted. In the drinking water add Hyposulphite of Soda in the proportion of one to two grains to each fowl (one-half grain to chicks). Wash the nodules or warts about the head with Carbolic Acid solution, one teaspoonful to a quart of water. Feed easily digested food, such as vegetables or warm bran mashes. CONGESTION OF THE LIVER CAUSE: Lack of exercise, overfeeding, tainted or moldy food, infection, or impure blood. SYMPTOMS: Birds suffering from this disease seldom show signs of sickness and it is well to dissect the fowl after death to ascertain the exact cause. If death is caused by Congestion of the Liver, the organ will be greatly enlarged and easily torn. TREATMENT: If the fowls are fat and sluggish, compel them to exercise by driving them about. Also give fifteen to twenty grains of Epsom Salts to each affected fowl. Feed laxative foods that are easily digested, as vegetables and wheat bran mashes. They are cooling and relieve congestion. CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS (Pulmonary Congestion) CAUSE: Exposure; the bird chills, causing contraction of the blood vessels near the surface of the body, thereby forcing a large quantity of blood to the internal organs; the small blood vessels in the lungs become distended with blood and rupture. SYMPTOMS: Rapid and difficult breathing; the bird appears stupid and sleepy and docs not care to move about; appetite poor, wings drooping, plumage ruffled, a thick mucus, colored with blood, escapes from the mouth, comb and wattles show a dark-red color from lack of oxygen in the blood. This disease is of very short duration, the bird dying within a few hours. It is very common among young chicks and turkeys that are permitted to run out in the early spring rains. TREATMENT: Medical treatment is of no value, as the disease progresses so rapidly that the bird dies shortly after the first symptoms appear. Sanitary surroundings, good light, pure air and exercise are essential. Do not allow the birds to stand out in the cold or rains, especially during the molting season. Keep your poultry strong and vigorous by feeding clean, nourishing food and give them pure water to drink. CONSTIPATION (Intestinal Obstruction) CAUSE: Irritation of the membranes lining the intestines, caused by dry feed, glass or gravel; may also be due to parasitic worms. Obstruction may occur in any part of the intestines although the external opening is the part most frequently affected. SYMPTOMS: Bird appears dull and stupid, walks with difficulty and attempts frequently to expel the obstructing material. The appetite is poor and the feathers rough. By examination and manipulation the obstruction may be located. Dried masses of excrement by adhering to the feathers sometimes block the outer opening of the intestines. TREATMENT: Remove the waste matter clinging to the feathers with warm water or by clipping the feathers off. If the Cloaca is obstructed, give injections of Sweet Oil or Olive Oil with a small bulb syringe. Also give one to two grains of Calomel and feed clean food and soft mashes containing Pulv. Gentian Root, one grain to each fowl twice daily. This stimulates the worm-like movement of the bowels and assists in expelling their contents. [Illustration: Photograph of chicken.] PRIZE WINNING PLYMOUTH ROCK COCK. CROP IMPACTION (Obstruction, Paralysis, Inflammation, Catarrh) CAUSE: Errors in feeding; birds that are not fed regularly are predisposed to any of the above conditions; may also be due to swallowing large pieces of bone, thread, nails, pins, glass, gravel, etc. SYMPTOMS: Loss of appetite, frequent attempts to swallow, crop greatly distended and hard on pressure; eventually the food decomposes and a liquid may escape from the mouth and nose. The bird appears dull, stupid and sleepy, comb pale, feathers rough, beak open, owing to pressure on the windpipe. If caused by swallowing sharp objects, they may penetrate the crop and skin, causing a gangrenous condition. Grain in the crop will sometimes send out sprouts of considerable lengths. TREATMENT: If no sharp objects are present, give two teaspoonfuls of Sweet or Olive Oil. This will lubricate the esophagus and crop. Manipulate the crop upward, forcing the food gently through the mouth, adding oil occasionally. If, however, sharp objects penetrate the crop it is best to remove them through an artificial opening. Clip the feathers from around the intended seat of operation and wash the clipped surface with a Carbolic Solution, one teaspoonful to a pint of water. The incision should not be over one-half inch long and should be made as high as possible and in the center of the crop. After removing the contents, sew up with ordinary thread and needle and wash occasionally with the above antiseptic solution. The operation is not difficult and will be successful if the parts are not too badly inflamed. After-treatment consists of feeding very little food until the crop is fairly well healed. Feed soft bran mashes and vegetables. To the drinking water add Boracic Acid, one grain, twice daily. It relieves the catarrhal condition that is present, such as irritations of the crop and intestines. DIARRHOEA (Gastro-Intestinal Catarrh--Enteritis) CAUSE: Inflammation of the digestive organs can be traced in every instance to the quality or quantity of food and water consumed. The food or water may contain parasites, or large quantities of mustard, pepper, or may be moldy or tainted. SYMPTOMS: Loss of appetite, the feathers appear rough, the crop is sometimes paralyzed and distended with gas, the bird moves slowly, the droppings vary in color from a white to a yellow or a green and finally becomes tinged with blood; at this stage there is a rise in temperature accompanied by great thirst and signs of pain. Mild cases of simple diarrhoea if not properly treated when first symptoms appear, will develop the same severe conditions described above. TREATMENT: Determine the cause and remove it if possible. See that the food is clean and nutritious, the coops well ventilated, the runs well lighted. Sunlight is very beneficial. Avoid exposure, drafts and dampness. Place oatmeal in their drinking water, also give two grains of Bismuth mixed with dough and make into a small pill. Give one every six hours. When in addition to the above symptoms a bloody discharge is present, give six drops of Tincture of Catechu every four hours. Warm mashes made of bran or oatmeal are very nourishing and soothing to the intestinal canal. DIPHTHERITIC ROUP (Diphtheria) CAUSE: Due to a specific germ. The disease is very contagious and is communicated by direct contact. Great care should be exercised, therefore, when showing or buying birds. Any new birds to be added to the flock should be kept in separate pens for a week or two to make sure they are in good condition. SYMPTOMS: The first symptoms are similar to those of catarrh or cold. A clear, watery liquid escapes from the eyes and nostrils, the head is drawn in toward the body, the feathers appear rough, the breathing fast, the temperature rises from three to five degrees above normal. The bird walks about as if blind, sneezing, swallowing with difficulty, and showing signs of great weakness. If the mouth is opened small white spots or elevations will be seen on the back of the tongue. There may be diarrhoea of a green or yellow color. As the disease progresses the discharge from the nose and eyes becomes thick and stringy, obstructing the air passages and gathering in large quantities between the eyelids. The mouth, throat and tongue are very much inflamed and swollen and in most cases it is impossible for the bird to make a sound. Recovery is doubtful after the disease has reached this stage. TREATMENT: Isolate the affected birds in some clean, warm, light, well ventilated quarters, excluding drafts. Dissolve thirty grains of Chlorate of Potash in one ounce of water and one ounce of Glycerine, and to the average sized fowl give one teaspoonful three or four times a day. To chicks give one-fourth the dose. When the scum loosens in the back part of the tongue, remove the scum gently, Care should be taken so as to prevent bleeding. Feed soft, nourishing food. DOUBLE-YOLK EGGS Eggs are frequently found with two yolks. This condition is produced by two ovary capsules bursting at about the same time and gaining entrance together into the oviduct where they are concealed in the same shell. Double-yolked eggs are larger than normal and may injure the oviduct when expelled. When hatched, they produce twins or abnormal chicks. DROPSY (Ascites) CAUSE: Generally due to irritating, indigestible food, causing inflammation of the membranous lining of the intestinal cavity. SYMPTOMS: The abdomen becomes enlarged, is tender to the touch and contains a watery fluid, the movement of which can be heard in most cases by pressure on the swollen parts. The bird appears stupid, the comb pale and the appetite poor. TREATMENT: Unless the bird is very valuable, treatment is not advisable. In case the bird is valuable, give one grain of Potassium Iodide twice daily in the feed or drinking water. Also feed nourishing food as beef-scraps, vegetables, wheat bran mashes, etc. [Illustration: Photograph of chicken.] PRIZE WINNING WHITE LEGHORN HEN. EGG BOUND (Difficult Laying; Obstruction of the Oviduct) CAUSE: Due to the eggs being too large, the bird too fat, or to the absence of the secretions lubricating the oviduct. SYMPTOMS: The first signs are scarcely noticeable but soon the feathers appear rough, the bird becomes dull and moves slowly, making frequent efforts to expel the egg. TREATMENT: Remove the egg by injecting Sweet Oil, assisting the bird with gentle pressure. In some cases it is well to puncture the egg and collapse the shell. If the bird is very fat, reduce by careful feeding. If the bird is of normal size, the trouble is probably due to the absence of lubricating secretions of the oviduct, in which case the following tonic should be given: Pulv. Ferri Sulphate, Pulv. Gentian Root, each one dram. Mix and make into thirty powders. Give one powder two or three times a day in their feed for a week or ten days. EGG EATING CAUSE: Is usually due to lack of shell-building material in the food; in such case the shell of the egg is thin and easily broken and the fowl craving the lime contained in the egg shell, naturally contracts the habit. TREATMENT: Supply ground bone and oyster shells. Feed green food such as cabbage, kale, potatoes, carrots, etc. EGGS WITHOUT SHELLS (Soft-Shelled Eggs) CAUSE: Deficiency of shell material; or it is possible that fright sometimes causes premature expulsion of the eggs before the shell is formed. TREATMENT: Feed ground bone, oyster shells. They contain egg shell producing material. Perhaps the best results are obtained when mixed with wheat bran. Also feed vegetables such as cabbage, potatoes and carrots. FEATHER PULLING (Feather Eating) CAUSE: Irritation of the skin due to lice, mites or to lack of exercise and improper food. TREATMENT: Feed meat, ground bones and vegetables. Place the food where the fowls are compelled to scratch and work to obtain it. Dust the fowls with Powdered Aloes. If due to lice, treat the same as recommended under the heading of Lice. GAPES (Verminous Tracheo Bronchitis) CAUSE: A red, parasitic worm, the male measuring about one-fifth of an inch and the female one-half an inch in length. Fowls become infected by eating worms containing this parasite or its eggs, and by coming in contact with other birds suffering from the disease. SYMPTOMS: The most noticeable symptom is frequent gaping; the Gapeworms attach themselves by their months to the walls of the windpipe where they suck the blood which nourishes them; they cause irritation and inflammation of the windpipe, bronchial tubes and lungs; breathing is difficult and the bird loses strength rapidly; windpipe eventually becomes totally obstructed and the bird dies from suffocation and exhaustion. Young, weak chickens are more susceptible to this disease than strong ones. TREATMENT: Separate the sick birds from the healthy ones. Clean and disinfect the coops and runs. Burn all manure. Remove the worms from the windpipe by the use of a feather, from which the fan has been stripped, leaving only a small brush at the end. Dip the feather into Oil of Turpentine or Coal Oil, removing the surplus liquid by drawing the feather between the fingers. Now insert the feather into the windpipe of the bird and by turning gently you will dislodge the worms from their attachments. Repeat this treatment once a day for two or three days. Disinfect coops and runs with undiluted Crude Carbolic Acid. Feed good nutritious food as wheat bran mashes, etc. HEAD LICE CAUSE: Result of insanitary conditions and lack of care. Communicated by direct contact with infected birds, or by infected coops or brooders. SYMPTOMS: The head soon becomes denuded of feathers, and also sore by being constantly scratched with the feet. If not properly treated the chicks weaken and die. TREATMENT: An ointment made of one part Sulphur and four parts Lard well mixed and applied two to three times will exterminate the lice. If the fowl is run down in condition, feed good nutritious food as wheat bran mashes. HOW TO FEED YOUNG POULTRY Withhold all food for at least eighteen hours; then feed stale bread moistened with boiled milk every three hours. When they are three or four days old, feed rolled oats, ground corn moistened with pure water, finely chopped meat and boiled vegetables. Feed them often and you will be well repaid by their rapid growth, strength, and the low death rate. After they reach the age of one week or ten days, watch them closely and regulate their feed to their apparent needs. INCOMPLETE EGG (Abortion) CAUSE: Irritation of the oviduct; improper secretion of albumen or internal egg-producing material. TREATMENT: Careful feeding will overcome this condition. Warm wheat bran mashes, ground bone, beef scraps, all tend to allay the irritations of the oviduct and stimulate the secretions of albumen. JAUNDICE CAUSE: Obstruction of the bile duct, due to rich, nitrogenous food and insufficient exercise. SYMPTOMS: Disease is not easily detected. The yellow color of the wattles and comb is the first symptom; the appetite is variable, the feathers appear rough and dry, the head is retracted, and the bird finally dies owing to the absorption of bile in the blood. TREATMENT: Change food. Feed upon a vegetable diet, also give one grain of Calomel, which is particularly useful in a case of sluggish liver in poultry. Also give one grain of Pulv. Gentian Root and one grain of Bicarbonate of Soda, twice daily in feed. MANGE (Scabies of the Body) CAUSE: Due to a parasite that resembles the mite. SYMPTOMS: When the affected bird is closely examined large quantities of scales or scabs are found in the soft feathers. The appetite is poor; the bird walks slowly about showing signs of uneasiness. If the disease is allowed to run its course, the bird grows weak and eventually dies. The disease is easily transmitted from one bird to another and should be treated without delay. TREATMENT: Disinfect roost, coops and pens with undiluted Crude Carbolic Acid. Apply to the irritations that present themselves on the body of the birds: Sulphur Ointment twice a week and feed good nourishing food as wheat bran mashes and vegetables. PIP (Inflammation of the Mouth) CAUSE: Irritations, injuries, or micro-organisms. It is sometimes caused by nothing more than a dry condition of the mucous membrane due to the bird breathing through the mouth when suffering from respiratory diseases. SYMPTOMS: Dryness of the mucous membrane of the mouth; especially the part covering the tongue, which becomes hard and ragged, forming rough edges along its sides. These dried portions become loose and partially detached from the tongue, interfering with its movements and causing more or less pain and annoyance. TREATMENT: Do not forcibly detach these pieces, but assist nature to remove them. This can be accomplished by mixing Glycerine and Water, equal parts, and dropping into the mouth with an ordinary syringe or dropper. It is advisable to add Boracic Acid, one teaspoonful to every gallon of drinking water, which will prevent the entrance of parasites into the blood. RED MITE CAUSE: These grow spontaneously in favorable surroundings, as the interior of poultry houses and brooders containing numerous cracks and crevices. SYMPTOMS: This mite is a blood-sucker; irritates the skin and sometimes causes sores to form on the body of the chick. The birds grow stupid and weak and die rapidly if not properly treated. Older fowls withstand the irritation of mites much longer, but do not thrive, or lay regularly, and will finally die if the insects become too numerous. The insect may be transmitted to horses, cattle, and even to man. TREATMENT: Paint the roosts and spray the interior of the coops and runs with Crude Carbolic Acid, undiluted, being very careful that the solution reaches the bottoms of the cracks and crevices. Also paint the interior of brooders with the same solution. RHEUMATISM (Leg Weakness--Gout--Paralysis) CAUSE: Damp coops and pens, lack of ventilation and improper food. SYMPTOMS: Fowl refuses to stand or walk, and on examination, the legs are found to be swollen and painful, especially about the joints. In some cases suppuration of the joints takes place and they become open running sores. The bone finally becomes diseased and the fowl dies. TREATMENT: Preventive measures are first to be considered. See that the coops and pens are clean and dry. Avoid drafts. Feed vegetables, also wheat bran mashes. Give internally Salicylic Acid, one-half grain, twice daily. When the legs are swollen and sore apply Camphorated Ointment once or twice daily. [Illustration: Photograph of chicken.] PRIZE WINNING COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTE COCK. SCALY LEG (Scabies) CAUSE: Due to a mite that burrows under the scales of the leg. SYMPTOMS: White, scaly-looking scabs form about the upper part of the foot. The feet and legs become swollen and painful as the disease progresses and if not checked will result in lameness, inflammation of the joints, and the toes may slough off. Great care is necessary as the disease is very easily transmitted from one bird to another. TREATMENT: Use boiling water or Crude Carbolic Acid, undiluted, on the perches. Wash the feet and legs with warm water and soft soap. Dry well and apply Carbolated Ointment. Repeat the above treatment every other day for a week. SORE MOUTH (Aphtha; Thrush) CAUSE: A vegetable parasite called Oidium Albicans. SYMPTOMS: Inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the mouth, throat, gullet and crop, which finally terminates in white ulcerations. Other symptoms are swelling of the head, poor appetite and a rapid loss in weight and strength. TREATMENT: Isolate the sick from the healthy fowls. Give as much sunlight as possible, feed nourishing food, such as warm oatmeal mashes, kale, potatoes, etc. Add one grain each of Chlorate of Potash and Boracic Acid to a tablespoonful of water and give three or four times a day or oftener if they will drink it. A good disinfectant must be used to prevent the disease from spreading and I would recommend the use of undiluted Crude Carbolic Acid about the coops and poultry runs. TUBERCULOSIS CAUSE: This dreaded disease is caused by the Bacillus of Tuberculosis. Damp, ill-ventilated, and poorly lighted coops are favorable to the development of the disease. SYMPTOMS: Except in advanced stages, this disease is not easily detected as it affects various organs, and considerable experience in post-mortems and a skillful use of the microscope is required to successfully diagnose a case. TREATMENT: Preventive measures should be practiced as the disease is incurable. Do not expose the fowls to cold wet weather. See that the coops are well ventilated and lighted and feed no contaminated food. VENT GLEET CAUSE: Constipation is perhaps the most common cause, the hard droppings causing irritation of the vent which is followed by inflammation and suppuration of the lining membranes, rectum and oviduct. SYMPTOMS: Frequent straining due to irritation. As the disease progresses a pus-like discharge is noticed. The disease may extend into the rectum or oviduct. The bird appears stupid, the plumage rough, the comb pale, and if not properly treated, dies a lingering death. TREATMENT: Preventive treatment is the best. Feed green food occasionally and warm bran mashes. This prevents constipation. When the bird strains frequently and a discharge is present the following solution should be injected: Sugar of Lead, two drams; Zinc Sulphate, one dram. Mix with two quarts of water. Inject about one ounce with a syringe twice daily until the discharge has ceased. WHITE DIARRHOEA (Fowl Cholera) CAUSE: Germ (Bacilli of Fowl Cholera) gaining entrance to the body through the bowels, lungs or wounds of the skin. Death results from toxic material produced while the germs are multiplying. SYMPTOMS: All poultry, cage or wild birds are subject to this disease. The first symptoms are loss of appetite; diarrhoea is present and the discharge is almost white in color and tinged with transparent mucus. The affected bird becomes separated from the flock, seems weak and stupid and appears to be asleep; feathers are rough, the wings droop and the head is drawn in toward the body; crop is generally full, owing to improper digestion. The comb is pale and bloodless, the temperature raised from three to five degrees above normal and the bird loses weight rapidly; it may die with convulsions and cries, or without a sound or struggle. TREATMENT: To grown fowls, give Zinc Sulphocarbolates in one-half grain doses three times a day in their food or drinking water. To chicks, dissolve thirty grains of Zinc Sulphocarbolates in two quarts of water. Saturate feed, as stale bread, etc., and give three times a day. Zinc Sulphocarbolates is an antiseptic especially prepared for septic conditions of the intestines, and very useful in treatment of White Diarrhoea and Fowl Cholera. In severe cases of diarrhoea, give Bismuth Salicylate, one grain, three times daily in feed or make into a pill with dough. When the fowls will eat, feed them clean, nitrogenous food that they can digest easily, as oatmeal mashes. It is also necessary to give them pure water to drink at all times. Disinfection of the premises is another essential factor in the treatment of this disease, and undiluted Crude Carbolic Acid is a disinfectant that we can rely upon at all times. I cannot recommend vaccination as the serum is very difficult and expensive to produce and different breeds of birds require varying doses, therefore, vaccinating poultry for White Diarrhoea or Fowl Cholera is not attended with any great degree of success. WORMS CAUSE: Few fowls are entirely free from worms. The soil over which the chicks are permitted to run may be infected, or the food may contain the eggs or embryos of worms. SYMPTOMS: The presence of worms in fowls may not be at once detected, since only a close observer would notice them in the droppings. If the birds eat well but remain poor, and the feathers appear rough and the comb and wattles pale, there is reason to suspect the existence of worms. TREATMENT: Preventive treatment is the best. Sprinkle the runs and coops regularly with Crude Carbolic Acid, undiluted. Give two drops of Turpentine in twice this quantity of Sweet or Olive Oil. This dose should be repeated in from six to eight days so as to insure the expulsion of the newly hatched worms or those that may have survived the first treatment. MISCELLANEOUS Some valuable facts and figures summed up for handy reference VALUABLE DRUGS AND THEIR DOSES FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS In the list of doses, oz. stands for ounce, pt. for pint, lb. for pound, gr. for grain, dr. for dram, dp. for drop. NAME OF DRUG CATTLE SHEEP HORSES HOGS DOGS Alcohol 4 oz. 1-2 oz. 2-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 1-4 dr. Alum 3-4 dr. 40 gr. 2-4 dr. 40 gr. 15 gr. Ammonia Aromatic 2 oz. 1-2 dr. 1-2 oz. 1-2 dr. 20-60 dp. Aniseed 1-5 oz. 1-2 dr. 1 oz. 1 dr. 15 gr. Arnica Tincture 1 oz. 2 dr .5-1 oz. 1 dr. 7-20 dp. Asafetida Tincture 3 oz. .5 oz. 2 oz. 2 dr. 1 dr. Boracic Acid 3 dr. 20 gr. 1-3 dr. 15 gr. 8 gr. Brandy 4 oz. 1-2 oz. 2-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 1-2 dr. Calcium Phosphate 1 oz. 1-2 dr. 2-4 dr. 1-2 dr. 5-20 gr. Calomel 1-2 dr. 5-20 gr. 1 dr. 5-20 gr. 1 gr. Camphor Spirit 1 oz. 2 dr. 2-4 dr. 15 dp. 10 dp. Carbolic Acid 1-2 dr. 10-20 dp. .5-2 dr. 5-15 dp. 3-8 dp. Castor Oil 1 pt. 2-4 oz. 1 pt. 2-4 oz. 1-2 dr. Chalk 2 oz. 1-2 dr. .5-2 oz. 1 dr. .5-1 dr. Charcoal 1-2 oz. 2-4 dr. 1-2 oz. 2-4 dr. 20-60 gr. Codliver Oil 3-8 oz. 3-8 dr. 2-6 oz. 2-6 dr. 1-3 dr. Copperas 2 dr. 20 gr. 1 dr. 10 gr. 4 gr. Copper Sulphate 2-4 dr. 20-30 gr. 2-4 dr. 20-30 gr. 1-2 gr. Digitalis 10-30 gr. 5-15 gr. 10-50 gr 3-10 gr. 2 gr. Epsom Salts 1 lb. 1-4 oz. .5-1 lb. 1 oz. 1-4 dr. Fowler's Solution 5 dr. 5-20 dp. 2-4 dr. 5-20 dp. 1-5 dp. Gentian 5-8 dr. 1-2 dr. 4-8 dr. 1-2 dr. 40 gr. Ginger 5-8 dr. 1-2 dr. 2-8 dr. 15-60 gr. 5-20 gr. Glauber Salts 1-1.5 lb. 1-4 dr. .5-1 lb. 1 oz. 1-4 dr. Iodide of Potash 1-2 dr. 10-25 gr. .5-2 dr. 5-20 gr. 2-8 gr. Iron Sulphate 2 dr. 25 gr. 1-2 dr. 25 gr. 4 gr. Jamaica Ginger 2 oz. .5 oz. 1 oz. .5-1 dr. 1/4-1/2 dr. Laudanum 2-5 oz. 1-4 dr. 1-4 oz. 1-2 dr. 20 dp. Lead Acetate 1 dr. 25 gr. 1 dr. 20 gr. 1-2 gr. Lime Water 4-6 oz. 2 oz. 4-6 oz. 2 oz. 1-8 dr. Linseed Oil 1-2 pt. 6-12 oz. .5-1 pt. 5-10 oz. 1 oz. Mustard 1 oz. 1-2 dr. .5-1 oz. 1-2 dr. 20 gr. Nitre 3-8 oz. 1 dr. 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 5-20 gr. Nux Vomica 2 dr. 30-40 gr. 1-2 dr. 10-20 gr. 1-2 gr. Olive Oil 1-2 pt. 3-8 dr. 1-2 pt. 2-6 dr. 2-4 oz. Pepper 2-4 dr. 15-25 gr. 1-3 dr. 10-20 gr. 4-10 gr. Peppermint Oil 30 dp. 5-8 dp. 15-30 dp. 3-7 dp. 1-5 dp. Potassium Bromide 2 oz. 2-4 dr. 1-2 oz. 2-4 dr. 5-50 gr. Quinine 1-2 dr. 5-10 gr. 50-60 gr. 5-10 gr. 1-2 gr. Rhubarb 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 5-10 gr. Saltpeter 1-3 dr. .5-1 dr. 2-4 dr. .5-1 dr. 2-10 gr. Soda 2 oz. 2-4 dr. 1-1.5 oz. 1-3 dr. 20-50 gr. Subnitrate of Bismuth 2 dr. 10-30 gr. 1-2 dr. 5-20 gr. 3-10 gr. Sulphur 3-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 2-4 oz. 1-2 oz. 1-4 dr. Turpentine 2 oz. 1-4 dr. 1-2 oz. 1 dr. 20-50 dp. CHAPTER VI RESPIRATION The number of respirations per minute varies with the different classes of animals; as a rule, the larger the animal, the slower the respiration. The Horse 8 to 10 Cattle 12 to 15 Sheep and Goats 12 to 20 The Dog 15 to 20 Swine 10 to 15 The rate of breathing is increased from the processes of digestion immediately after eating, or may increase from exercise. NORMAL TEMPERATURE OF THE HORSE From 2 to 5 years old the temperature is 100.6 degrees Fahr. From 5 to 10 years old the temperature is 100.4 degrees Fahr. From 10 to 15 years old the temperature is 100 degrees Fahr. From 15 to 20 years old the temperature is 98.4 to 100.2 degrees Fahr. Sex appears to slightly influence temperature: Stallion 100 degrees Fahr. Mare 100.8 degrees Fahr. Gelding 100.4 degrees Fahr. The time of day when temperature is taken is important, the lowest body temperature being at 4 a.m., and the highest at 6 p.m. New born foals' temperature will run from 102 to 104 degrees Fahr. TEMPERATURE OF CATTLE Normal temperature is from 101.8 to 102 degrees Fahr. Compared with the horse, the daily variations are small. TEMPERATURE OF SHEEP AND GOATS In these animals the greatest variation in temperature occurs, viz.: 100.9 to 105.8 degrees Fahr. In the majority of cases the temperature probably will be between 103.6 and 104.4 degrees Fahr. The cause of this variation is unknown. TEMPERATURE OF SWINE The average temperature is 103.3 degrees Fahr., varying from 100.9 to 105.4 degrees Fahr. TEMPERATURE OF THE DOG The dog is subject to important variations depending on the external temperature; it varies from 99.5 to 101.7 degrees Fahr., although in some localities it is as high as 100.9, 101.3 and 101.7 degrees Fahr. Feeding will increase the temperature, and it is also higher toward evening. PULSE THROBS PER MINUTE Per Minute The Horse 36 to 40 Cattle 45 to 50 Sheep and Goats 70 to 80 The Dog 70 to 80 Swine 90 to 100 The pulse in the young is much more rapid than in the adult animal; that of a foal at birth beats 100 to 102 per minute, while that of a calf will go to 130 per minute. In old age the pulsation becomes reduced and the arteries much weaker. The pulse rate in large animals is less than in smaller ones, as for instance, an elephant's pulse rate is from 25 to 28 beats per minute. The more rapid the pulse, the greater the quantity of blood in circulation. AVERAGE PERIODS OF GESTATION OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS Mare 11 months Ass 12 months Cow 9 months Sheep 5 months Goat 5 months Sow 3-1/2 months Bitch 9 weeks Cat 8 weeks AVERAGE PERIOD OF INCUBATION Chicken 20 to 22 days Geese 28 to 34 days Duck 28 to 30 days Turkey 27 to 29 days Pigeon 18 days Guinea Fowl 28 days Pheasant 25 days Ostrich 40 to 42 days Canary Bird 14 days VETERINARY FACTS AND ADVICE TO REMEMBER 1. Cleanliness of body and surroundings is a necessity in the treatment of animals. 2. Pure air, avoiding drafts, is equally essential. 3. Light, excepting in the treatment of eye diseases, is greatly to be desired. Darkness, while soothing to the eye, tends to prolong germ life and disease. 4. Keep dry--dampness breeds disease. 5. Keep warm--in chilly weather, blanket the sick animal, hand rub limbs and bandage with woolen cloths. 6. Exercise with care--excessive and insufficient exercise are both injurious. 7. Feed with care--green grass, in medium quantity, and vegetables are cooling to the blood, easily digested and exert a slight laxative effect. Grain feed is nutritious and strengthening, but it is not required in any quantity by a horse not working. Be sure that all feed is fresh and clean. 8. Drinking water must be pure--impure water carries many disease germs. Also avoid giving water in large quantities, especially if water is very cold. 9. Disinfection involves little time or expense, but is invaluable. Coal tar products which emulsify in water (1 part coal tar products to 50-75 parts water) should be freely and occasionally sprinkled about yards and buildings. If only these few fundamental and common-sense principles were followed by stock raisers, a very large percentage of the ills and diseases of domestic animals would be lastingly prevented. DRENCHING Do not drench an animal when you can administer the necessary medicine in any other way. Drench only when absolutely necessary. A horse, in contrast with all other domestic animals, cannot breathe through its mouth. Therefore, in treating horses, drenching is especially dangerous. While drenching any animal, strangulation, pneumonia, bronchitis, etc., are liable to be caused by some of the drenching liquid escaping from the mouth into the lungs. This is a frequent occurrence in which the drenching proves to be the immediate cause of the animal's death, as in case of strangulation, or the originating cause when drenched animals later succumb to pneumonia, bronchitis, etc. MEDICINE IN CAPSULES In many of the treatments prescribed in the preceding pages, the use of gelatine capsules has been advised in preference to giving the medicine in any other form. Capsules, made of gelatine, do not lie in the animal's stomach, as commonly supposed, but dissolve readily; the gelatine itself being beneficial in many cases, especially if the bowels or stomach be irritated. The animal receives the intended dose fully. It avoids any unpleasant taste. With capsule gun, or by hand, medicine in capsules is more easily and quickly given than to attempt to hold animal's head up, as is necessary when administering liquid drenches, the danger of which has been explained. PREVENTION OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES Newly purchased animals or poultry should be segregated for from ten days to two weeks to give opportunity for any infectious diseases with which they may be afflicted, or have been exposed to, to fully develop. This precaution will often save the buyer from loss. Avoid exhibiting in fairs, shows, etc., where the health of your animals might be jeopardized, especially through the presence of contagiously affected animals. If you cannot be sure proper precautions are to be taken, better forego your pride and possible prize ribbons. HEREDITARY TENDENCIES When breeding, it is of utmost importance to select a good female as well as male, for the least faulty conformation in either will in all probability be transferred to the offspring, viz.: an animal with a crooked hind leg is subject to bone spavin, curbs, bog spavin, thoroughpin, ring bone, etc., and is liable to transmit any of these diseases, especially if exposed to slight exertion. A tubercular cow will invariably give birth to a tubercular calf, or at any rate the calf will contract tuberculosis from the milk. EVOLUTION OF STOCK During the transformation which our country has undergone, and is undergoing, no one industry has experienced such marked changes as the production and raising of livestock. At the earliest time of which we have any record, and even up to within comparatively recent years, large herds of horses and cattle ranged over our plains in a wild state. At first no attempts were made to capture or round up these herds, and later but one or two attempts per year, when the young were branded and grown animals shipped, if possible, or driven to available markets. As the country became more thickly settled and populated these larger herds were broken up, the ranges becoming divided and fenced. With this segregation, attention to breeding and care of animals began to be practiced, gradually causing the animal's evolution from the wild to the domesticated state. As this process of evolution progressed the animal became farther and farther removed from its natural condition of living, becoming more dependent on man for food and shelter, and with this change the animal's former vitality and power to resist disease decreased markedly. With the advancement of agriculture, and their resultant prosperity, the farmers and settlers improved their stock by importing blooded or registered males and females, particularly the former, until today our country is second to none in the number of good conformated draft and speed horses; beef and dairy cattle; quick-maturing hogs; large wool and mutton-producing sheep, etc. Poultry has likewise been improved for both egg-laying and meat-producing qualities. The poultry industry is yet in its infancy, and offers large inducements to the practical raiser. Our importation of eggs is enormous. The average stock raiser and poultryman has just begun to realize the value of proper care and treatment of his stock, and how much unnecessary loss can be prevented by the expenditure of a little time and even less money if given at the proper time. Animals and poultry are subject, just as humans, to many diseases but, unfortunately, when they become ill are dependent on man to recognize the symptoms of disease and diagnose. Therefore, it behooves all owners of stock to know and practice the fundamental necessities of their animals' health, not only for the welfare of themselves, but also as an act of humanity to dumb animals. INDEX DISEASES OF HORSES Abortion Abscess Acute cough Anemia Apthae Ascaris megalcephala Atrophy Azoturia Barrenness Bleeding after castration Blood poisoning Bog spavin Bone spavin Bots Bronchitis Capped elbow Capped hock Capped knee Cerebral meningitis Choking Chronic catarrh Chronic cough Coffin joint lameness Cold Colic, flatulent Colic, spasmodic Colic, wind Colt constipation Colt diarrhoea Conjunctivitis Constipation Constipation in colts Corns Cough Cracked heels Curb Dentistry Diarrhoea Diarrhoea in colts Dislocation of the patella Distemper Dropsy of belly Dropsy of legs Dropsy of sheath Dropsy of udder Eczema Emphysema of the lungs Epizootic catarrh Eye diseases Failure to breed Farcy Filariae Fistula of foot Fistulous withers Flatulent colic Forage poisoning Founder Galls Gastrophilis Glanders Grease heels Haemopis Heaves Hernia, inguinal Horse dentistry Inflammation of the brain Inflammation of the membrane of nictitans Influenza Inguinal hernia Lampas Laryngitis Leeches Lock jaw Lung fever Lymphangitis Mange Monday Morning disease Mud fever Nasal catarrh Nasal gleet Navel rupture Navel string infection Navicular disease Nettle rash Open joint Oxyuris curvilis Palesade worm Petchial fever Pharyngitis Pink eye Pin worm Pleurisy Pneumonia Poll evil Purpura haemorrhagica Quittor Red worm Rheumatism Ring bone Round worm Rupture, scrotal Scabies Scrotal rupture Septicaemia Shoe boil Side bones Sore throat Spasmodic colic Spavin, bog Spavin, bone Splints Staggers Stifle joint lameness String halt Strongulus armatus Strongulus tetracanthus Supernumerary teeth Surfeit Sweeny Tapeworm Teeth, supernumerary Teeth, wolf Tenia Tetanus Thoroughpin Thread-like worm Thrush Umbilical hernia Umbilical pyemia Urtecaria Wind colic Wind galls Wolf teeth Worm, maw Worm, palesade Worm, pin Worm, red Worm, round Worm, tape Worm, thread Worm, thread-like Wounds DISEASES OF CATTLE Abdominal hernia Abdominal rupture Abnormal Calving Abortion, contagious Abortion, non-contagious Abscesses Absence of milk Actinomycosis Acute cough Afterbirth retention Amaurosis of the eye Anthrax Apoplexy, parturient Ascities Bacterial dysentery Bag Inflammation Barrenness Big head Black leg Black quarter Bleeding Bloating Blood poison Blood suckers Bloody flux Bloody flux in calves Bloody milk Blue milk Brain congestion Bronchitis Bronchitis verminous Calf cholera Calf scours Calving Casting the withers Cataract of the eye Catarrh Chapped teats Choking Chronic cough Chronic dysentery Colic Congestion of the brain Congestion of the lungs Congestion of the spinal cord Congestion of the udder Conjunctivitis Contagious abortion Cough Cow pox Cud chewing Dehorning Diarrhoea Dropsy Dysentery Eczema Epizootica eczema Ergot poisoning Ergotism Eversion of the womb Eye inflammation Eyelid laceration Failure to breed Fluke, liver Fluke, lung Foot and mouth disease Foot rot Foul in foot Founder Garget Grub Hard milkers Hematuria Hemorrhage Hernia, abdominal Hollow horn Indigestion Infectious abortion Infectious aphtha Inflammation of the bag Inflammation of the eye Inflammation of the heart sack Inflammation of the kidneys Inflammation of the penis Inflammation of the womb Joint ill Jones disease Kidney inflammation Laceration of the eyelid Laminitis Laryngitis Leeches Leucorrhea Liver fluke Loss of cud Lumpy jaw Lung congestion Lung fever Lung fluke Mammitis, simple Mange Measly beef Milk fever Navel ill Non-contagious abortion Obstruction of the esophagus Paralysis Parturient apoplexy Penis Inflammation Pericarditis Pharyngitis Physiology of rumination Pneumonia Pyemia Red Water Retained afterbirth Rheumatism Ring worm Round worm Rupture, abdominal Scabies Scum over the eye Septicaemia Sore throat Spinal cord congestion Stringy milk Suppression of milk Tape worm Teats chapped Texas fever Ticks Tuberculosis Twisted stomach worm Udder congestion Umbilical Pyemia Umbilical Septicemia Variola Verminous bronchitis Warts Warbles Whites White scours in calves Wolf in the tail Womb inflammation Wooden tongue Worm, lung Worm, round Worm, stomach Worm, tape DISEASES OF SWINE Abortion Administration of medicine Bag inflammation Black tooth Blood poisoning Bronchitis Castration Catarrh Choking Cholera, hog Cold in the head Congestion, kidney Diarrhoea in young pigs Heat stroke Hind quarter paralysis Hog, administration of medicine Hog cholera Hog lice Hog regulator and tonic Indigestion Inflammation, bag Inflammation, lung Inguinal rupture Jaundice Kidney congestion Kidney worms Lice on hogs Lung fever Lung inflammation Lung worm Mange Nasal catarrh Navel rupture Nettle rash Paralysis of the hind quarters Pig diarrhoea Pig scours Piles Pin worm Pleurisy Prolapse of the anus Pyemia Regulator and tonic Rheumatism Rickets Round worm Rupture, inguinal Rupture, navel Rupture, scrotal Rupture, umbilical Septicemia Scours in pigs Scrotal rupture Sore feet Sore mouth Sows eating their young Sun stroke Thorn headed worm Thumps Tonic and regulator Urticaria Worm, kidney Worm, lung Worm, pin Worm, round Worm, thorn headed Worm, whip Yellows DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOATS Abortion Acute indigestion Acute typanitis Apoplexy, pulmonary Black scours Bloating Bronchitis Catarrh Cold in the head Congestion of the liver Congestion of the lung Congestion of the udder Diarrhoea Dysentery Dyspepsia Foot rot Forage poisoning Foul in foot Garget Gastritis, verminous Gid Grub in the head Head grubs Head maggot Hoven Indigestion Indigestion, acute Inflammation of the liver Inflammation of the udder Jaundice Lamb disease Liver congestion Liver fluke Liver inflammation Louse fly Lung congestion Lung fever Lung worm Mange Pneumonia Poisoning, forage Pulmonary apoplexy Scab Scours, black Strongylosis Sturdy Tick Typanitis, acute Udder, congestion of Udder, inflammation of Verminous bronchitis Verminous gastritis Worm, lung DISEASES OF POULTRY Abortion Abscesses of the feet. Air sac mite Apoplexy of the brain Aptha Ascites Baldness Beak and throat obstruction Black head Body lice Body scabies Brain apoplexy Bronchitis Bronchitis verminous Bruises of the feet. Bumblefoot Catarrh Catarrh of the crop Chicken pox Cholera of the fowl Congestion of the liver Constipation Corns Crop impaction Diarrhoea Diarrhoea, white Difficult laying Diphtheria Diphtheritic roup Double yolked eggs Dropsy Egg bound Egg eating Egg incomplete Eggs with two yolks Eggs without shells Enteritis Favus Feather eating Feather pulling Feeding of young poultry Fowl cholera Gapes Gastro intestinal catarrh Gout Head lice Hemorrhage of the brain How to feed young poultry Impaction of the crop Incomplete egg Infectious entero hepatitis of turkeys Inflammation of the crop Inflammation of the mouth Intestinal obstruction Jaundice Leg weakness Lice, body Lice, head Liver congestion Mange Mite, red Mouth inflammation Obstruction of the beak and throat Obstruction of the bile duct Obstruction of the crop Obstruction of the intestines Obstruction of the oviduct Paralysis of the crop Paralysis of the legs Pip Pulmonary congestion Red mite Rheumatism Roup, diphtheritic Scabies of the body Scabies of the legs Scaly leg Soft shelled eggs Sore head Sore mouth Throat and beak obstruction Thrush Tuberculosis Vent gleet Verminous tracheo bronchitis Warts White diarrhoea Worms MISCELLANEOUS Average Period of Gestation Average Period of Incubation Deposit or Investment Table Drenching of Animals Evolution of Stock Hereditary Tendencies Medicine in Capsules Normal Purse Throbs Normal Respiration Normal Temperature Prevention of Contagious Diseases Six Per Cent Interest Table Table of Valuable Drugs and their Doses Veterinary Facts and Advice to Remember 
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16370	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 16370-h.htm or 16370-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/6/3/7/16370/16370-h/16370-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/6/3/7/16370/16370-h.zip) Transcriber's Note: The original text was inconsistent in the use of accents and hyphenation. These variants and a small number of typographical errors were maintained in this transcription. A complete list of the variant spellings is found at the end of the book along with the list of typographical errors. The Table of Contents lists the Authorities Cited section as preceding the Index, but it was printed following the Index. This order has been retained in this transcription. Veterinary Practitioners' Series No. 1 LAMENESS OF THE HORSE by J. V. Lacroix, D.V.S. Professor of Surgery, The Kansas City Veterinary College Author of "Animal Castration" Illustrated Chicago American Journal Of Veterinary Medicine 1916 PREFACE All that can be known on the subject of lameness, is founded on a knowledge of anatomy and of the physiology of locomotion. Without such knowledge, no one can master the principles of the diagnosis of lameness. However, it must be assumed that the readers are informed on these subjects, as it is impossible to include this fundamental instruction in a work so brief as this one. The technic of certain operative or corrective procedures, has been described at length only where such methods are not generally employed. Where there is no departure from the usual methods, treatment that is essentially within the domain of surgery or practice is not given in specific detail. Realizing the need for a treatise in the English language dealing with diagnosis and treatment of lameness, the author undertook the preparation of this manuscript. That the difficulties of depicting by means of word-pictures, the symptoms evinced in baffling cases of lameness, presented themselves in due course of writing, it is needless to say. It is hoped that this volume will serve its readers to the end that the handling of cases of lameness will become a more satisfactory and successful part of their work; that both the practitioner and his clients may profit thereby; and last but by no means least, that the horse, which has given such incalculable service to mankind and is deserving of a more concrete reward, will be benefited by the application of the principles herein outlined. In addition to the consultation of standard works bearing on various phases of the subject of lameness, the author wishes to thankfully acknowledge helpful advice and assistance received from the publisher, Dr. D.M. Campbell; to appreciatively credit Drs. L.A. Merillat, A. Trickett and F.F. Brown for valuable suggestions given from time to time. Particular acknowledgment is made to Dr. Septimus Sisson, author, and W.B. Saunders & Co., publishers of The Anatomy of Domestic Animals, for permission to use a number of illustrations from that work. J.V.L. Chicago, Illinois, October, 1916. _Justice shows a triumphant face at the works of humane practitioners, who give serious thought and expend honest effort, for the alleviation of animal suffering._ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Illustrations 7 Introduction 11 SECTION I Etiology and Occurrence 15 Affections of Bones 15 Rarefying Osteitis, or Degenerative Changes 16 Fractures 16 Affections of Ligaments 20 Luxations--Dislocations 21 Arthritis 22 Affections of Bursae and Thecae 27 Affections of Muscles and Tendons 28 Affections of Nerves 30 Affections of Blood Vessels 31 Affections of Lymph Vessels and Glands 32 Affections of the Feet 34 SECTION II Diagnostic Principles 37 Anamnesis 38 Visual Examination 39 Attitude of the Subject 41 Examination by Palpation 43 Passive Movements 47 Observing the Character of the Gait 48 Special Methods of Examination 53 SECTION III Lameness in the Fore Leg Anatomo-Physiological Review of Parts of the Fore Leg 55 Shoulder Lameness 61 Fracture of the Scapula 62 Scapulohumeral Arthritis 65 Infectious Arthritis 66 Injuries 66 Wounds 67 Luxation of the Scapulohumeral Joint 67 Inflammation of the Bicipital Bursa 68 Contusions of the Triceps Brachii 71 Shoulder Atrophy (Sweeny) 73 Paralysis of the Suprascapular Nerve 75 Radial Paralysis 77 Thrombosis of the Brachial Artery 81 Fracture of the Humerus 82 Inflammation of the Elbow 84 Fracture of the Ulna 86 Fracture of the Radius 87 Wounds of the Anterior Brachial Region 90 Inflammation and Contraction of the Carpal Flexors 93 Fracture and Luxation of the Carpal Bones 96 Carpitis 98 Open Carpal Joint 100 Thecitis and Bursitis 104 Fracture of the Metacarpus 106 Splints 107 Open Fetlock Joint 110 Phalangeal Exostosis (Ringbone) 118 Open Sheath of the Flexors of the Phalanges 124 Luxation of the Fetlock Joint 125 Sesamoiditis 127 Fracture of the Proximal Sesamoids 128 Inflammation of the Posterior Ligaments of the Pastern Proximal Interphalangeal Joint 129 Fracture of the First and Second Phalanges 131 Tendinitis (Inflammation of the Flexor Tendons) 135 Chronic Tendinitis and Contraction of the Flexor Tendons 137 Contracted Tendons of Foals 143 Rupture of the Flexor Tendons and Suspensory Ligament 146 Thecitis and Bursitis in the Fetlock Region 150 Arthritis of the Fetlock Joint 152 Ossification of the Cartilages of the Third Phalanx 155 Navicular Disease 157 Laminitis 160 Calk Wounds (Paronychia) 170 Corns 172 Quittor 174 Nail Punctures 178 SECTION IV Lameness in the Hind Leg Anatomo-Physiological Consideration of the Pelvic Limbs 185 Hip Lameness 195 Fractures of the Pelvic Bones 196 Fractures of the Femur 199 Luxation of the Femur 201 Gluteal Tendo-Synovitis 203 Paralysis of the Hind Leg 204 Paralysis of the Femoral (Crural) Nerve 204 Paralysis of the Obturator Nerve 206 Paralysis of the Sciatic Nerve 208 Iliac Thrombosis 209 Fracture of the Patella 212 Luxation of the Patella 213 Chronic Gonitis 217 Open Stifle Joint 220 Fracture of the Tibia 222 Rupture and Wounds of the Tendo Achillis 224 Spring-Halt (String-Halt) 225 Open Tarsal Joint 229 Fracture of the Fibular Tarsal Bone (Calcaneum) 230 Tarsal Sprains 232 Curb 233 Spavin (Bone Spavin) 235 Distension of the Tarsal Joint Capsule (Bog Spavin) 242 Distension of the Tarsal Sheath of the Deep Digital Flexor (Thoroughpin) 246 Capped Hock 251 Rupture and Division of the Long Digital Extensor (Extensor Pedis) 253 Wounds from Interfering 255 Lymphangitis 257 Authorities Cited 265 Index 267 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Fig. 1--Hoof Testers 53 Fig. 2--Muscles of Left Thoracic Limb, Lateral View 56 Fig. 3--Muscles of Left Thoracic Limb, Medial View 57 Fig. 4--Sagital Section of Digit and Distal Part of Metacarpus 59 Fig. 5--Ordinary Type of Heavy Sling 62 Fig. 6--A Sling Made in Two Parts 63 Fig. 7--Paralysis of the Suprascapular Nerve of Left Shoulder 76 Fig. 8--Radial Paralysis 78 Fig. 9--Merillat's Method of Fixing Carpus in Radial Paralysis 79 Fig. 10--Contraction of Carpal Flexors, "Knee Sprung" 95 Fig. 11--Pericarpal Inflammation and Enlargement Due to Injury 99 Fig. 12--Hygromatous Condition of the Right Carpus 100 Fig. 13--Carpal Exostosis in Aged Horse 101 Fig. 14--Exostosis of Carpus Resultant from Carpitis 102 Fig. 15--Distal End of Radius, Illustrating Effects of Carpitis 102 Fig. 16--Posterior View of Radius, Illustrating Effects of Splint 108 Fig. 17--Phalangeal Exosteses 120 Fig. 18--Rarefying Osteitis in Chronic Ringbone 121 Fig. 19--Phalangeal Exostoses in Chronic Ringbone 122 Fig. 20--Contraction of Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon Due to Tendinitis 138 Fig. 21--Contraction of Deep Flexor Tendon Due to Tendinitis 139 Fig. 22--Chronic Case of Contraction of Both Flexor Tendons of the Phalanges 140 Fig. 23--Contraction of Superficial and Deep Flexor Tendons 141 Fig. 24--Contraction of Superficial Digital Flexor and Slight Contraction of Deep Flexor Tendon 142 Fig. 25--"Fish Knees" 145 Fig. 26--Extreme Dorsal Flexion 146 Fig. 27--A Good Style of Shoe for Bracing the Fetlock 148 Fig. 28--The Roberts Brace in Operation 149 Fig. 29--Distension of Theca of Extensor of the Digit 151 Fig. 30--Rarefying Osteitis Wherein Articular Cartilage Was Destroyed 153 Fig. 31--Ringbone and Sidebone 156 Fig. 32--Position Assumed by Horse Having Unilateral Navicular Disease 159 Fig. 33--The Hoof in Chronic Laminitis 165 Fig. 34--Effects of Laminitis 166 Fig. 35--Cochran Shoe, Inferior Surface 168 Fig. 36--Cochran Shoe, Superior Surface 169 Fig. 37--Hyperplasia of Eight Forefoot Due to Chronic Quittor 176 Fig. 38--Chronic Quittor, Left Hind Foot 177 Fig. 39--Skiagraph of Foot 179 Fig. 40--Sagital Section of Eight Hock 186 Fig. 41--Muscles of Right Leg; Front View 187 Fig. 42--Muscles of Lower Part of Thigh, Leg and Foot 189 Fig. 43--Right Stifle Joint; Lateral View 190 Fig. 44--Left Stifle Joint; Medial View 191 Fig. 45--Left Stifle Joint; Front View 193 Fig. 46--Oblique Fracture of the Femur 200 Fig. 47--Fracture of Femur After Six Months' Treatment 201 Fig. 48--Aorta and Its Branches Showing Location of Thrombi 210 Fig. 49--Thrombosis of the Aorta, Iliacs and Branches 211 Fig. 50--Chronic Gonitis 218 Fig. 51--Position Assumed in Gonitis 219 Fig. 52--Spring-halt 226 Fig. 53--Lateral View of Tarsus Showing Effects of Tarsitis 228 Fig. 54--Right Hock Joint 231 Fig. 55--Spavin 235 Fig. 56--Bog Spavin 243 Fig. 57--Thoroughpin 247 Fig. 58--Fibrosity of Tarsus in Chronic Thoroughpin 248 Fig. 59--Another View of Case Shown in Fig. 58 249 Fig. 60--"Capped Hock" 252 Fig. 61--Chronic Lymphangitis 258 Fig. 62--Elephantiasis 259 INTRODUCTION Lameness is a symptom of an ailment or affection and is not to be considered in itself as an anomalous condition. It is the manifestation of a structural or functional disorder of some part of the locomotory apparatus, characterized by a limping or halting gait. Therefore, any affection causing a sensation and sign of pain which is increased by the bearing of weight upon the affected member, or by the moving of such a distressed part, results in an irregularity in locomotion, which is known as lameness or claudication. A halting gait may also be produced by the abnormal development of a member, or by the shortening of the leg occasioned by the loss of a shoe. For descriptive purposes lameness may be classified as _true_ and _false_. _True lameness_ is such as is occasioned by structural or functional defects of some part of the apparatus of locomotion, such as would be caused by spavin, ring-bone, or tendinitis. _False lameness_ is an impediment in the gait not caused by structural or functional disturbances, but is brought on by conditions such as may result from the too rapid driving of an unbridle-wise colt over an irregular road surface, or by urging a horse to trot at a pace exceeding the normal gait of the animal's capacity, causing it to "crow-hop" or to lose balance in the stride. The latter manifestation might, to the inexperienced eye, simulate _true lameness_ of the hind legs, but in reality, is merely the result of the animal having been forced to assume an abnormal pace and a lack of balance in locomotion is the consequence. The degree of lameness, though variable in different instances, is in most cases proportionate to the causative factor, and this fact serves as a helpful indicator in the matter of establishing a diagnosis and giving the prognosis, especially in cases of somewhat unusual character. An animal may be slightly lame and the exhibition of lameness be such as to render the cause bafflingly obscure. Cases of this nature are sometimes quite difficult to classify and in occasional instances a positive diagnosis is impossible. Subjects of this kind may not be sufficiently inconvenienced to warrant their being taken out of service, yet a lame horse, no matter how slightly affected, should not be continued in service unless it can be positively established that the degree of discomfort occasioned by the claudication is small and the work to be done by the animal, of the sort that will not aggravate the condition. Subjects that are very lame--so lame that little weight is borne by the affected member--are, of course, unfit for service and as a rule are not difficult of diagnosis. For instance, a fracture of the second phalanx would cause much more lameness than an injury to the lateral ligament of the coronary joint wherein there had occurred only a slight sprain, and though crepitation is not recognized, the diagnostician is not justified in excluding the possibility of fracture, if the lameness seems disproportionate to the apparent first cause. The course taken by cases of lameness is as variable as the degree of its manifestation, and no one can definitely predict the duration of any given cause of claudication. Because of the fact that horses are not often good self-nurses at best, and that it is difficult to enforce proper care for the parts affected, one can not wisely state that resolution will promptly follow in an acute involvement, nor can he predict that the case will or will not become chronic. Experience has proved that complete or partial recovery may result, or again, that no change may occur in any given case, and that in some instances even where rational treatment is early administered, a decided aggravation of the condition may follow unaccountably. However, because of the economic element to be reckoned with, it is of some value to be able to give a fairly accurate prognosis in the handling of cases of lameness, as in the majority of instances the treatment and manner of after-care are determined largely by the expense that any prescribed line of attention will occasion. A case of acute bone spavin in a horse of little value is not generally treated in a manner that will incur an expense equivalent to one-half the value of the subject. The fact is always to be considered in such cases, that even where ideal conditions favor proper treatment, the outcome is uncertain. Where less than six weeks of rest can be allowed the animal, one affected with bone spavin would therefore not be treated with the expectation of obtaining good results, as six weeks' time, at least, is necessary for a successful outcome. If the cost attending the enforced idleness of an animal of this kind is considered prohibitive for the employment of proper measures to affect a cure, and if lameness is slight, the animal should be given suitable work, but in cases of articular spavin in aged subjects, they should be humanely destroyed and not subjected to prolonged misery. A thorough knowledge of the structure and functions of the affected parts is necessary to proceed in cases of lameness; likewise, the age, conformation and temperament of the subject need to be taken into consideration; the presence or absence of complications demand the attention; the kind of care the subject will probably receive directly influences the outcome; and the character of service expected of the subject, too, needs to be carefully considered before the ultimate outcome may reasonably be foretold. The practitioner is often confronted with the problem of how best to handle certain cases. Will they do better under conditions where absolute quiet is enforced, or is it preferable to allow exercise at will? The temperament of the animal must be considered in such cases, and if a lame horse is too active and playful when given his freedom, exercise must be restricted or prevented, as the case may require. In cases of strains of tendons, during the acute stage, immobilization of the affected parts is in order. In certain sub-acute inflammatory processes or in instances of paralytic disturbance where convalescence is in progress, moderate exercise is highly beneficial. Consequently, each case in itself presents an individual problem to be judged and handled in the manner experience has taught to be most effective, appropriate and practical, and the veterinarian should give due consideration to the comfort and welfare of the crippled animal as well as to the interests of the owner. SECTION I. ETIOLOGY AND OCCURRENCE. In discussions of pathological conditions contributing to lameness in the horse, cause is generally classified under two heads--_predisposing_ and _exciting_. It becomes necessary, however, to adopt a more general and comprehensive method of classification, herein, which will enable the reader to obtain a better conception of the subject and to more clearly associate the parts so grouped descriptively. Though _predisposing_ factors, such as faulty conformation, are often to be reckoned with, _exciting_ causes predominate more frequently in any given number of cases. The noble tendency of the horse to serve its master under the stress of pain, even to the point of complete exhaustion and sudden death, should win for these willing servants a deeper consideration of their welfare. Too frequently are their manifestations of discomfort allowed to pass unheeded by careless, incompetent drivers lacking in a sense of compassion. Symptoms of malaise should never be ignored in any case; the humane and economic features should be realized by any owner of animals. In the consideration of group causes, lameness may be said to originate from affections of bones, ligaments, thecae and bursae, muscles and tendons, nerves, lymph vessels and glands, and blood vessels, and may also result from an involvement of one or several of the aforementioned tissues, caused by rheumatism. Further, affections of the feet merit separate consideration, and, finally, a miscellaneous grouping of various dissimilar ailments, which for the most part, do not directly involve the locomotory apparatus but do, by their nature, impede normal movement. AFFECTIONS OF BONES. The bony column serving as the framework and support of the legs, probably constitutes the most vital element having to do with weight bearing and locomotion, and therefore during the acute and painful stage of bone affections, the pain becomes more intense in the process and pressure of standing than when the member is swung or advanced. Certain bones are so well protected by muscular structures that they are not frequently injured except as a result of violence which may produce fracture. However, there are certain bones which receive the constant shock of concussion when the animal is subjected to daily, rapid work on hard road surfaces. Splints, ringbones and spavins are the most general examples produced by these conditions. Varying pathological developments often result from concussion, contusion or other violent shocks to the bony structures. In such cases there either follows a simple periostitis which may resolve spontaneously with no obvious outward symptom, or osteitis, which may occur with tissue changes, as in exostosis; or the case may produce any degree of reaction between these two possible extremes. Rarefying Osteitis, or Degenerative Changes. Certain bone affections, such as osteomalacia or osteoporosis, are in the main, responsible for distortions and morphological changes of bone, causing lameness, permanent blemish and even resulting in death of the affected animal. The climatic conditions in some localities favor these occurrences but they may also be ascribed to improper food constituents and to possible infective agencies. Rarefying degenerative changes manifested by exostosis involving the phalanges of the young, causing ringbone, are fairly common in occurrence throughout this country. This is due, supposedly, to a lack of mineral substance in the bony structure of the affected animals, and is known as rachitis--commonly called rickets. Since the affected subjects suffer involvement of several of the extremities at the same time, the theory of rachitic origin seems well supported. Fractures. Fractures of bones constitute serious conditions and are always manifested by lameness. A sub-classification is essential here for the student of veterinary medicine who would comprehend the technic of reduction and subsequent treatment in such cases. Fractures are classified by many authorities as being _simple_, _compound_, and _comminuted_. This method is practical because it separates dissimilar conditions. There are also grouped fractures, the pathologic anatomy of which is similar. Classification on an etiological basis would attempt to associate conditions, the morbid anatomy and gravity of which would justly preclude their being combined. Simple Fracture is a condition where the continuity of the bone has been broken without serious destruction of the soft structures adjacent, and where no opening has been made to the surface of the flesh. Such fractures do not reduce the bone to fragments. Long bones are frequently subjected to simple fracture, while short thick bones, such as the second phalanx, may suffer multiple or comminuted fractures. Compound Fracture designates a break of bone with the destruction of the soft tissues covering it, making an open wound to the surface of the skin. This form of fracture is serious because of the attendant danger of infection, and in treatment, necessitates special precaution being taken in the application of splints that the wound may be cared for without infection of the tissues. These fractures generally occur as a result of some forceful impact through the flesh to the bone, or where the bones are driven outward by the blow. Common examples are in fractures of the metacarpus and metatarsus of the first phalanx. This kind of injury in mature horses usually produces an irreparable condition, and viewed economically, is generally considered fatal. Comminuted Fractures, as the term implies, are those cases wherein the bone is reduced to a number of small pieces. This kind of break may be classified as simple-comminuted fracture when the skin is unbroken, and when the bone is exposed as a result of the injury, it is known as a compound-comminuted fracture. Such fractures are caused by violent contusion or where the member is caught between two objects and crushed. Multiple Fractures. Fractures are called _multiple_ when the bone is reduced to a number of pieces of large size. This condition differs from a comminuted fracture in that the multiple fracture may break the bone into several pieces without the pieces being ground or crushed, and the affected bone may still retain its normal shape. Further classification is of value in describing fractures of bone with respect to the manner in which the bone is broken--the direction of the fissure or fissures in relation to its long axis. A fracture is _transverse_ when the bone is broken at a right angle from its long axis. Such breaks when simple, are the least trouble to care for because there is little likelihood that the broken ends of bone will become so displaced that they will not remain in apposition. _Simple transverse_ fracture of the metacarpus, for instance, constitutes a favorable case for treatment if other conditions are favorable. _Oblique fractures_, as may be surmised, are solutions of continuity of bone in such manner that the fissure crosses the long axis of a bone at an acute or obtuse angle. These fractures are prone to injure the soft structures adjacent, and are frequently compound, as well. Moreover, because of the fact that the apposing pieces of bone are beveled, the broken ends of bone are likely to pass one another in such a way as to shorten the distance between the extremities of the injured member. Contraction of muscles also tends to exert traction upon a bone so fractured, resulting in a lateral approximation of the diaphysis and thus preventing union because the broken surfaces are not in proper contact. Fractures are _longitudinal_ when the fissure is parallel with the long axis of the bone. This variety of break is not infrequent in the first phalanx; and a vertical fracture of the second phalanx is also said to be longitudinal, however, there is little difference (if any, in some subjects) between the vertical and transverse diameters of this particular bone. _Green stick fractures_ are essentially those resulting from falls to young animals. They are usually sub-periosteal and when the periosteum is left intact or nearly so, no crepitation is discernible. If this fracture is _simple_, prompt recovery may be expected. Bones of young animals, because they do not contain proportionately as much mineral substance as do bones of adults, are more resilient and less apt to become completely fractured. They are, however, subject to what is known as green stick fracture. _Impacted fractures_ are usually occasioned by falls. When the weight of the body is suddenly caught by a member in such manner as to forcefully drive the epiphyseal portions of bone into and against the diaphysis, _multiple longitudinal_ fractures occur at the point of least resistance. Parts so affected undergo a fibrillary separation, increasing the transverse diameter of the bone; or if the impact has been sufficiently violent, the portion becomes an amorphous mass. In a treatise on the subject of lameness, the bones chiefly concerned and most often affected must be especially considered. The shape and size of a bone when injured, determines in a measure, the course and probable outcome in most cases, but of first and greater importance is the function of the bone. A fracture of the fibula in the horse need not incapacitate the subject, but a tibial fracture is serious and generally proves cause for fatal termination. The body of the scapula may be completely fractured and recovery will probably result in most cases without much attention being given to the subject, yet a fracture of the neck of this same bone constitutes an injury of serious consequence. The difference in the function of different parts of this same bone, as well as its shape and mode of attachment, determine the gravity of the case; so it is in fractures of other bones with respect to the course and prognosis of the case--function is the important factor to be considered. Next in importance is the age of the animal suffering fracture of the bone. Capacity for regeneration is naturally greater in a vigorous, young animal than in aged or even middle-aged subjects. A healthy condition of the bone and the body favor the process of repair in case of fracture, and prognosis may be favorable or unfavorable, depending upon these factors mentioned for consideration. Individuals of the same species, differing in temperament, may comport themselves in a manner that is conductive to prompt recovery, or to early destruction. This feature cannot be overestimated in importance, as it is sometimes a decisive element, regardless of other conditions. A horse suffering from an otherwise remediable pelvic fracture may be so worried and tortured by being confined in a sling that the case calls for special attention and care because of the animal's temperament. Sometimes, the constant presence of a kind attendant will so reassure the subject that it will become resigned to unnatural confinement, in a day or two. This precaution may, in itself, determine the outcome, and the wise veterinarian will not overlook this feature or fail to deviate from the usual rote in the handling of average cases. Recovery may be brought about in irritable subjects by this concession to the individual idiosyncrasies of such animals. AFFECTIONS OF LIGAMENTS. Ligaments which have to do with the locomotory apparatus are, for the most part, inelastic structures which are composed of white fibrous tissue and serve to join together the articular ends of bones; to bind down tendons; and to act as sheathes or grooves through which tendons pass, and as capsular membranes for retention of synovia in contact with articular surfaces of bones. Ligaments are injured less frequently than are bones. Because of their flexibility they escape fracture in the manner that bones suffer. They are, however, completely severed by being cut or ruptured, though fibrillary fracture the result of constant or intermittent tensile strain is of more frequent occurrence. Simple inflammation of ligaments is of occasional occurrence but, unless considerable injury is done this tissue, no perceptible manifestation of injury results. No doubt many cases wherein fibrillary fracture of ligaments (sprain) takes place some lameness is caused, but because of the dense, comparatively nonvascular nature of these structures, little if any manifestation, except lameness, is evident. And such cases, if recognized are usually diagnosed by excluding the existence of other possible causes and conditions which might also cause lameness. Certain ligaments are subjected to strain more than are others and therefore, when so involved, frequently cause lameness. Examples of this kind are affections of the collateral (lateral) ligaments of the phalanges. Because of the leverage afforded by the transverse diameter of the foot, when an animal is made to travel over uneven road surfaces, considerable strain is brought to bear on the collateral ligaments of the phalanges. A sequel to this form of injury is a circumscribed periostitis at the site of attachment of the ligaments and frequently the formation of an exostosis--ringbone--results. Where sudden and violent strain is placed upon a ligament and rupture occurs, the division is usually effected by the ligament being torn from its attachment to the bone. In such cases, a portion of periosteum and bone is usually detached and the condition may then properly be called one of fracture. In some cases of this kind recovery is tardy, because of the difficulty in maintaining perfect apposition of the divided structures, and reactionary inflammation is not of sufficient extent to enhance prompt repair. In fact, some cases of this kind seem to progress more favorably, when no attempt at immobilization of the affected member is attempted. If some freedom of movement is allowed, acute inflammation resulting in nature's provisional swelling soon develops and repair is hastened because of increased vascularity. But where luxation of phalanges accompanies sprain, reposition and immobilization are necessary--that is if cases are thought likely to benefit by any treatment. Luxations--Dislocations. Luxation or dislocation is a condition where the normal relation between articular ends of bones has been deranged to the extent that partial or complete loss of function results. When a bone is luxated (out of joint), there has occurred a partial or complete rupture of certain ligaments or tendons; or a bone may be luxated when an abnormal or unusual elasticity of inhibitory ligaments or tendons obtains. Luxations may be practically classified as _temporary_ and _fixed_. In temporary luxations, disarticulation is but momentary and spontaneous reposition always results; while a fixed luxation does not reduce spontaneously but remains luxated until reposition is effected by proper manipulation and treatment. Fixed luxation may be of such character as to be practically irreducible because of extensive damage done to ligaments or cartilage. Where a complete luxation of the metacarpophalangeal joint exists, it is probable that in most cases sufficient injury to collateral and capsular ligaments has been done to render complete recovery improbable, if not impossible. Temporary luxation of the patella is a common affection of the horse and fixed luxation of this bone also occurs. As a matter of fact, in the horse, patellar luxation is the one frequent affection of this kind. As a rule, complete disarticulation immobilizes the affected joint and in most instances there is noticeable an abnormal prominence in the immediate vicinity--in patellar luxation, the whole bone. In other instances the articular portion only, of the affected bone is malpositioned. Usually, luxation and fracture may be differentiated in that there is no crepitation in luxation and more or less crepitation exists in fracture. It is evident, when one considers the symptomatology and nature of the affection, that fixed luxation is usually caused by undue strain or violent and abnormal movement of a part. Joints having the greater freedom of movement are apt to suffer luxation more frequently. Arthritis. The study of arthritis in the horse is limited to a consideration of joint inflammations which, for the most part, are of traumatic origin. Unlike the human, the horse is not subject to many forms of specific arthritis--tubercular, gonorrheal, syphilitic, etc. A practical manner of classification of arthritis is _traumatic_ and _metastatic_. _Traumatic arthritis_ may result from all sorts of accidents wherein joints are contused. Such cases may be considered as being caused by direct injuries. Instances of this kind, depending on the degree of insult, manifest evidence of injury which ranges from a simple synovitis to the most active inflammatory involvement of the entire structure and adjacent tissues. The reactionary inflammation which attends a case of tarsitis caused by a horse being kicked is a good example of the result of direct injury. Such cases, if the contusion is of sufficient violence, result in arthritis and periarthritis. In inactive farm horses, during cold weather, this condition becomes chronic, swelling remains for weeks after all lameness and pain have subsided and occasionally hyperthrophy is permanent. Arthritis occasioned by indirect injury, such as characterizes joint inflammation from continuous concussion, is seen in horses that are worked at a rapid pace on city streets or other hard road surfaces. Such affections may be acute, as in some cases of spavin, but are usually inflammatory conditions that do not occasion serious disturbance when these affections become chronic. If the involvement persists with sufficient active inflammation, there may follow erosion of cartilage and incurable lameness. If extensive necrosis of cartilage takes place, the attendant pain will be sufficient to cause the animal to favor the diseased part and such immobilization enhances early ankylosis--nature's substitute for resolution in this disease. Wounds invading the tissues adjacent to joints, when these wounds are of considerable extent, cause inflammation of such articulations by contiguous extension of inflammation. As long as an injury remains practically aseptic, or if infected and the septic process does not involve the joint proper by direct extension, no more serious disturbance than a simple synovitis will result. If, instead, a periarthritic inflammation is serious or destructive in character, the type of arthritis will be grave--even though due to an indirect cause. Where a vulnerant body penetrates all structures and invades the interior of the joint capsule the result is that a more or less active disturbance is incited. The introduction of a sterile instrument into a joint cavity, under strict asepsis, where a perfect technic is executed, does not cause perceptible manifestation of the injury, if the opening so made is small--such as a suitable exploratory trocar makes. But a puncture made in a similar manner and with the same instrument without due regard to asepsis is likely to cause an infectious synovitis and arthritis usually follows. A larger opening than is produced by means of an exploratory trochar may be made into a joint cavity, causing escape of synovia as it is secreted for days and even for weeks and no serious or permanent trouble is experienced in some cases. If the synovitis or arthritis remains non-infected and the wound, traumatic or surgical, is not too large, healing by granulation occurs, and the discharge of synovia ceases. However, if synovial discharge persists too long because of tardy closure of an open joint, there is great danger of infection gaining entrance into the synovial cavity, or in some instances, desiccation of endothelial cells of the articulation occurs, in areas, and the reactionary inflammation eventually results in ankylosis. A small puncture which introduces into the synovial cavity infectious material of active virulence will cause an arthritis that is more serious, much more painful and more difficult to handle than is occasioned by a wound of moderate size, that affords ready escape of synovia even through the virulence of the infection be the same. Synovia is a good culture medium and the environment is ideal for multiplication of bacteria; consequently, the grave disturbances which may attend the introduction of pathogenic organisms into a synovial cavity as the result of a puncture wound are not to be forgotten. The veterinarian is in no position to estimate the virulency of organisms so introduced; neither can he determine the exact degree of resistance possessed by the subject in any given case. Therefore, he is uncertain as to the best method of handling such cases where an injury has been recently inflicted and positive evidence of the existence of an infectious synovitis is not present. If one could determine in advance the degree of infection and injury that is to follow small penetrant wounds of joint capsules, it would then be possible to select certain cases and immediately drain away all synovia and fill the cavity by injection with suitable antiseptic solutions. This offers a broad field for experimentation which will in time be productive of a radical change in the manner of treating such cases. _Metastatic arthritis_ is seen more frequently in colts or young animals than in mature horses and we here take the liberty of classifying with the arthritis of omphalophlebitis and strangles the so-called rheumatic variety. A specific polyarthritis or synovitis which attends navel infection of foals is perhaps the most frequent form of arthritis that is to be considered metastatic. This condition is truly a disease of young animals and, while it is a specific arthritis, the cause is yet to be attributed to any definite pathogenic organism with certainty. This condition is well defined by Bollinger as quoted by Hoare,[1] when he calls it a purulent omphalophlebitis due to local infection of the umbilicus and umbilical vessels, by pyogenic organisms, causing a metastatic pyemia. This affection is grave; its course is comparatively brief; the prognosis is usually unfavorable; and omphalophlebitis occasions a form of lameness which at once impresses the practitioner that serious constitutional disturbance exists. Its consideration properly belongs to discussions on practice or obstetrics and diseases of the new born, and it has received careful attention and is discussed at length in these works. A second form of metastatic arthritis is met with in strangles. Strangles occurs in the young principally and is not a frequent cause of synovitis or arthritis in the adult animal. Strangles or distemper is, according to most pathologists, due to the Streptococcus equi. Hoare[2] states that in this type of specific arthritis the contagium is probably carried by the blood. He gives it as his opinion that even laminitis has occurred as a result of the streptococcus-equi. This, indeed, would point toward probable extension by the blood as well as by way of lymph vessels. Septic synovitis and infectious arthritis are always serious affections even in young animals and much depends upon individual resistance and early rational treatment in such cases, if recovery is to follow. The same general plan of treatment is indicated in this kind of septic synovitis as is employed in all cases of infective synovitis and septic infection in open joints. There is to be considered, however, the fact that the young animal is more agile, a better self-nurse, and in a general way more apt to recover than is the adult, under similar conditions. _Rheumatic arthritis_, if one is justified in classifying rheumatic inflammation of joints as a metastatic form of arthritis, is not a common condition, though seen in mature and aged animals. Cases that may be diagnosed with certainty are usually advanced affections wherein dependable history is obtainable and the symptoms are well marked. Rheumatism may be thought of, with respect to arthritic inflammation caused thereby, as a sort of pyemia. Undoubtedly, exposure to wet and cold weather is an active factor, but probably a predisposing one only. Likewise a member that suffers from chronic inflammation due to recurrent injury or to constant or repeated strain is less able to resist the vicissitudes of climate and work. Consequently, rheumatic arthritis is to be seen affecting horses that are in service, more often at heavy draft work where they are exposed to severe straining of joints; where stabling is insanitary; and where they are obliged to lie down (if they do not remain standing) upon cold and wet ground or upon hard unbedded floors or paving. Where such inhumane and cruel treatment is given animals those responsible ought to be impressed with the unfairness to the animal as well as the economic loss occasioned by inflicting such unnecessary and merciless treatment upon their helpless and uncomplaining subjects. The very nature of the veterinarian's work affords him constant and frequent opportunity to convince those who are responsible for keeping animals in this manner, that it is inhumane and unprofitable. Cases of this kind are not uncommon about some grading and lumbering camps and in contract work where, often, shelter for animals is given little thought; the result is a cruel waste of horseflesh. Chronic articular rheumatism is occasionally observed in young animals that have never been in service. In these cases it seems that there exists an individual susceptibility and in some instances the condition is recurrent. Each attack is of longer duration, and eventually death results from continued suffering, emaciation and intoxication. AFFECTIONS OF BURSAE AND THECAE. Acute bursitis and thecitis is of frequent occurrence in horses because of direct injury from contusion, punctures and other forms of traumatism. These synovial membranes, with few exceptions, when inflamed occasion a synovitis that may be very acute, yet there is less manifestation of pain than in arthritis. It is only in structures such as the bursa intertubercularis or in the sheath of the deep digital flexor that an inflammation causes much pain and is apt to result in permanent lameness. This is due to the peculiar character of the function of such structures. An acute inflammation of a small bursa may even result in the destruction of such synovial apparatus without serious inconvenience to the subject, either at the time of destruction or thereafter. Obliteration of the superficial bursa over the summit of the os calcis is not likely to cause serious inconvenience or distress to the subject unless it be due to an infected wound. Even then, with reasonably good care given the animal, recovery is almost certain. Complete return of function of the member and cessation of lameness takes place within a few weeks in the average case. Where an infectious synovitis involves a structure such as the sheath of the tendon of the deep digital flexor (perforans) the condition is grave and because of the location of this theca the prognosis is not much more favorable than in an articular synovitis. Inflammation of bursae and thecae may be classified on a chronological basis with propriety because the duration of such affections, in many cases, materially modifies the result. A chronic inflammatory involvement of a theca through which an important tendon plays may cause adhesions to form. Or there may occur erosions of the parts with eventual hypertrophy and loss of function, partial or complete. However, in general practice a classification on an etiological basis is probably more practical and we shall consider inflammation of bursae and thecae as _infectious_ and _noninfectious_. _Infectious_ bursitis and thecitis is usually the result of direct introduction of septic material into the synovial structure by means of injuries. Infection by contiguous extension occurs and also metastatic involvement is met with occasionally. The noninfectious inflammation of bursae and thecae usually result from contusions or strains and generally run their course without becoming infective in character, where vitality and resistance of the subject are normal. In a general way, inflammation and other affections of bursae and thecae are considered very similar to like affections of joints. AFFECTIONS OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS. Muscles and tendons having to do with locomotion are more frequently injured than are any of the other structures whose function is to propel the body or sustain weight. This is due in part to the exposed position of muscles and tendons. They serve as a protection to the underlying structures and in this manner receive many blows the force and violence of which are spent before injury extends beyond these tissues. Muscles of the breast, shoulder and rump are most frequently the recipient of injuries of various kinds. The abductors of the thigh are subjected to bruising when horses are thrown astride of wagon poles or similar objects. Thus in one way or another muscle injuries are occasioned and cause lameness. Traumatic affection of muscles of locomotion may be surface or subsurface--subsurface with little injury done the skin and fascia, but with subsurface extravasation of blood and masceration of tissue. Puncture wounds wherein the vulnerant body is of small diameter, are observed, and they occasion deep seated infectious inflammation of the parts affected, with surface wounds that are often unnoticeable. Such injuries--puncture wounds--are always serious, and because of the fact that, there exists little evidence of injury at the time of their infliction, treatment is usually deferred several days and often infection has become quite extensive when the practitioner is consulted. Where infective wounds of muscles of locomotion occur, the course and gravity of the affection are directly influenced by the proximity of the injury to lymph plexuses. For instance, injuries causing an infectious inflammatory involvement of the adductors of the thigh may result in a generalization of the infection by way of the inguinal lymph glands. Large open wounds that extend deep into muscles, render inactive such structures, and even where division is not complete, the pain occasioned causes the subject to favor the part in every way possible. Contraction of muscular fibers of such parts increases pain and because of this fact groups of muscles are at times disabled because of injury done to one muscle. Instances of this kind are frequently seen where shoulder injuries, which affect but one muscle, exist; yet because of such injury a marked swinging-leg lameness is present. Tendons, because of their inelasticity, are subjected to injuries peculiar to themselves. In addition to being affected as are muscles, wounds of many kinds are found to affect tendons--contusions, interference wounds, penetrant wounds, incised wounds and lacerations. However, the commoner form of injury done tendons, is strain or sprain. Because of the sudden tensile strain brought to bear upon tendons in the shocks of concussion, as well as in propulsion of the body, there frequently occurs a rupture of fibers and this we know as sprain. Sprains may be considered as fibrillary fractures of soft structures and since this form of injury is subsurface, and limited to fractional portions of tendons, the inflammation occasioned usually remains an aseptic one. Reaction to this form of injury is characterized by inflammation, the course of which is erratic and variable. In chronic inflammation of tendons, where animals are continued in service, the usual sequel is contraction, or shortening of these structures. The degree of contraction as well as its import varies in different subjects and in the various tendons which may be affected. Contraction is a slow-going process that is progressive, gradually causing a decrease in the length of the affected structure and eventually rendering the animal useless. The practice of applying shoes with extended toe-calks for the purpose of "stretching" contracted deep digital flexor tendons (flexor pedis perforans) cannot be too strongly condemned. While the addition of an extension such as is ordinarily employed to the toe of a shoe of this kind, prevents for a time, frequent stumbling in such cases, the increased tensile strain which is thus occasioned hastens further contraction and subjects animals so shod to much unnecessary pain. AFFECTIONS OF NERVES. Because of their being protected by other structures, nerve trunks, which supply muscles of locomotion, are not subjected to frequent injuries such as contusions. However, they do become injured at times and the result is lameness, more or less severe. Lameness originating from nerve affection, may involve central structures as, for example, the spinal cord, medulla oblongata or parts of the brain. In making an examination of some lame animals it is necessary to distinguish between cases of lameness that are of central origin and marked by incoördination of movement, and disturbances caused by other affections. Tetanus in its incipiency should not be confused with laminitis involving all four feet, or with certain forms of pleuritis, when careful examination is made, yet, in a way, to one not trained, the clinical symptoms are similar. Disturbances of nerve function are caused in a variety of ways. It is not within the scope of this work to discuss central nervous disturbances caused by ingestion of mouldy provender, or disturbances of the brain or cord occasioned by infectious diseases, but mention of the existence of such conditions is appropriate. By direct injury the result of blows, certain nerves are injured and muscles supplied by such nerves are rendered inactive. Depending upon the nature and extent of an injury thus inflicted, so the manner in which the affection is manifested varies. The suprascapular nerve is rather frequently injured causing partial or complete loss of function of the structures supplied by this nerve, and abduction of the scapulohumeral joint naturally results. In some cases of dystocia the obturator nerve, (or nerves, if the involvement is bilateral), becomes injured by being caught between the maternal pelvis and some dense part of the fetus. This results in paralysis of the adductors of the thigh if sufficient injury is done. It is said that nerves become over-stretched and held tense, in certain positions in which animals are obliged to remain while cast in confinement such as in some instances where unusual methods of restraint are employed. When the fore feet are drawn backward in such manner that great strain is put upon the radial nerve, it suffers more or less injury, and this is followed by partial or complete paralysis which may be temporary or permanent. Degenerative changes affecting nerves, as in other tissues, occur and more or less locomotory impediment will follow--this depending upon the nerve or nerves affected and the nature of such involvement. Tumors may surround nerves and eventually the nerve so exposed becomes implicated in the destructive process. Before degenerative changes take place in the nerve substance, in such cases, pressure may completely paralyze a nerve when it is so situated. Melanotic tumors in the paraproctal tissue in some cases, because of the large size of the new-growths, cause paralysis of the sciatic nerve. The author has seen one case of brachial paralysis occasioned by an enormous development of fibrous tissue involving the structures about the ulna. AFFECTIONS OF BLOOD VESSELS. Lameness caused by disturbances of circulation may be due to structural affection of vessels, or functional disorders of the heart, and in some instances, a combination of these causes may be active. Direct involvement of vessels is the commoner form of circulatory disturbance which occasions lameness, and the most frequent cause is of parasitic origin. Sclerostomiasis with attendant arteritis, thrombus formation and subsequent lodgement of emboli in the iliac, femoral, or other arteries, causes sufficient obstruction to prevent free circulation of blood, and the characteristic lameness of thrombosis results. Indirect injury to vessels may occur because of contused wounds and subsequent inflammation of tissues supplied by such vessels. If the injury be of sufficient extent, considerable extravasation of blood will take place and the painfully swollen parts necessarily impair locomotion. In such instances lymph vessels participate in the disturbance, and the condition then becomes one wherein lymphangitis is the predominant disturbing element. Angiomatous tumors are occasionally found affecting horses' legs--usually the result of some injury; and because of their size or position, they mechanically interfere with function. Furthermore, when such tumors are located on the inner or flexor side of joints, enough pain is occasioned that affected animals show evidence of distress, usually by intermittent lameness. Horses do not suffer from distension of veins as does man, that is, there is rarely to be seen a case wherein much disturbance from this source exists. AFFECTIONS OF LYMPH VESSELS AND GLANDS. Inflamed lymph vessels and glands, the result of various causes, is a rather common source of lameness of horses. When one considers the proportion of tissue that is composed of lymph vessels and glands, it is then obvious that inflammation of these structures should cause a painful affection of members, when so affected, and that marked lameness and, in some instances, general constitutional disturbance such as anorexia, hyperthermia and general circulatory disorder are to follow. Lymphangitis is most frequently occasioned by the introduction of septic material into the tissues; consequently, infectious lymphangitis is more frequently observed than the non-infectious type. Specific infectious forms of lymphangitis are seen in glanders and in strangles; infectious types of this disturbance are found in many instances where, initially, a localized or circumscribed infection has occurred--the contagium having been introduced by way of an injury. An example of this kind is to be seen in a wound perforating the tibial fascia, where the injury is inflicted by means of a horse being kicked by another animal shod with sharp shoe-calks. Cases of this kind invariably result in a septic lymphangitis, and frequently lymphadenitis also occurs, for the inguinal lymph glands are so situated that their becoming contaminated is almost certain. The trite phrase that "the tissues are bathed in lymph" should make clear the reason for the frequent occurrence of infectious lymphangitis and lymphadenitis. Foreign substances, bacteria and their products, inorganic material and in fact, anything that is introduced into the tissues, if soluble or miscible, will be taken up and conveyed by the afferent lymph vessels and disseminated throughout the system--hence the constitutional disturbances so frequently thus caused. A non-infectious type of lymphangitis is frequently seen in the heavy draft breeds of horses and in such cases one or both hind legs are involved--it is very seldom that the thoracic limbs become so affected. Law[3] refers to this ailment as "Acute Lymphangitis of Plethora in Horse." When one takes into consideration that these cases so frequently occur in heavy draft animals that are not worked regularly, that the pelvic limbs are the ones involved, and that the disorder often runs a short course (recovery often taking place within two or three days, with no treatment given other than a purge, circulatory stimulants and walking exercise) it is plausible to ascribe the condition to idiopathic factors. Admitting the frequency of non-infectious lymphangitis, the practitioner must not confuse this type with similar lymphatic inflammation occasioned by nail punctures of the foot. It is very embarrassing indeed to make a diagnosis of lymphangitis--expecting that the disturbance will terminate favorably and uneventually--and later to discover a sub-solar abscess caused by a nail prick in the region of the heel. Recurrent attacks of this disturbance cause hypertrophy of the lymph vessels and in some cases lymphangiectasis. In old subjects used for dissection or surgical purposes, it is very evident that in the ones which have suffered from chronic lymphangitis there exists an excessive amount of sub-facial connective tissue, making subcutaneous neurectomies quite difficult in some instances. A sequel of chronic lymphangitis is a condition known as elephantiasis. In such cases there occurs a hyperplasia of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, resulting in some instances, in the affected member attaining an enormous size. Sporadic cases of this kind are to be seen occasionally, and are apparently caused by repeated attacks of lymphangitis. The affection is not benefited by treatment, and while a horse's leg may become so heavy and cumbersome as to mechanically impede its gait, as well as to fatigue the subject when made to do service even at a slow pace, elephantiasis causes no constitutional derangement. The hind legs, in elephantiasis, are affected and a unilateral involvement is more often seen than a bilateral one. The legs may be enlarged from the extremity to the body, but ordinarily the affection does not extend higher than the hock or the mid-tibial region. A chronic, progressive, hyperplastic-degeneration exists in some cases and the subjects are in time rendered unserviceable because of the burden of getting about encumbered by the affected extremity. In other animals hyperplasia progresses for a time--until the parts become greatly enlarged and conditions apparently attain an immutable state. Nevertheless animals so affected may continue in service for years without being distressed. AFFECTIONS OF THE FEET. Lameness is very often due to affections of the feet, and in all foot diseases probably the most constant cause is injury inflicted in some manner. Resultant from injury, there frequently develops complications and the one most often seen is infection. Because of the fact that the feet are constantly exposed to germ-laden soil and filth, if not actually bathed in such infectious materials, it naturally follows that septic infection of some part of the feet must be of frequent occurrence. Subsequent to being obliged to stand in mud and other damp or wet media, exposure to desiccating influences such as stabling upon dry floors, or at service on hot and dry road surfaces causes the insensitive parts of the feet to become dry, hard and brittle. This favors "checking" of the protecting structures and it frequently results in the formation of large fissures which expose the underlying sensitive parts of the feet and lameness is the inevitable outcome. The function of the feet--bearing the weight of the animal at all times when the subject is not recumbent, and in addition to this, the increased strain put upon them at heavy draft work, together with the concussion and buffeting occasioned by locomotion, make the feet susceptible to frequent affections of various kinds. Being almost completely encased by a somewhat inexpansible and insensitive wall and sole, renders the foot subject to pathologic changes peculiar to itself. The very nature of the structure of the foot together with the function of the sensitive lamina is sufficient cause for an affection unlike that seen involving other tissues--laminitis. An exhaustive consideration of foot affections is a study in itself and one that comes within the realm of pathologic shoeing; nevertheless, a practical knowledge of diseases of the foot is indispensable in the diagnosis of lameness wherein the foot may be at fault. The peculiar nature of foot affections renders them difficult of classification on any sort of basis that is helpful in the consideration of this subject. Injuries are the most constant cause of foot lameness, yet one must admit that there results complications because of infection in most instances; and that in some cases the injury is slight--just enough to permit the introduction of vulnerant organisms into the tissues. Therefore, one might well classify affections of the feet as infectious and non-infectious. There can be grouped in the class of infectious affections such conditions as nail pricks, calk wounds and canker. In the class of non-infectious affections one may consider conditions such as laminitis, strain and fractures. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: A System of Veterinary Medicine by E. Wallis Hoare, F.R.C.V.S., Vol. I, page 519.] [Footnote 2: Ibid, page 807.] [Footnote 3: Vol. I, page 534, Veterinary Medicine, by James Law, F.R.C.V.S.] SECTION II. DIAGNOSTIC PRINCIPLES. _To observe attentively is to remember distinctly._--_Poe_. Before treatment is administered in constitutional disturbances resulting in disease, _cause_ is logically sought; so, in order to handle effectively any case of lameness, it is necessary first to discover the source of the trouble and contributing conditions affecting the structures. Hence, diagnostic ability is the prime requisite; and a thorough knowledge of pathologic anatomy or of surgical technic is of little value if this knowledge is not applied with the insight of the trained diagnostician. The cruel and unnecessary methods employed by those untrained for diagnostics, cannot be too vigorously condemned. For instance, the application of an active and depilating vesicant upon a large area on the gluteal or crural region, in a case where the practitioner "guesses" the condition to be one of "hip lameness," constitutes an exposition of gross ignorance, and at once stamps the perpetrator as a crude bungler without scientific insight whose works are no credit to his profession. How much better it would be, if the practitioner does not see fit to call in a competent consultant, to prescribe a suitable agent to be given internally, and to recommend complete rest for the subject. In establishing a diagnosis in such cases, the student or practitioner seldom has recourse to laboratory assistance, and his work is done by means of physical examination; therefore, a thorough knowledge and a clear conception of the physiology of locomotion are essential. Memorizing nosological facts without an understanding of underlying principles is of no more practical benefit for qualification as a diagnostician in cases of lameness, than is the employment of similar methods in the study of theory and practice. A knowledge of the dosage of drugs does not in itself qualify one as being competent to administer such therapeutic agents to a proper effect. How much is a practitioner benefited by the knowledge that a high temperature is usually present in septic intoxication, if he is not possessed of a scientific understanding of anatomy, physiology, bacteriology and pathology, as well as the principles of clinical diagnosis? In order to determine the reasons for certain symptoms manifested by the subject, an analysis of these symptoms is the proper method of procedure, insofar as this is possible. If one may reason that an animal assumes a certain position while at rest to allow relaxation of an inflamed tendon or ligament, such a fact enables the diagnostician to recall that this is indicative of some specific ailment. In acute tendinitis, the subject while at rest, maintains the affected member in volar flexion because this position permits relaxation of the inhibitory apparatus, including the inflamed tendon. Likewise, the various abnormal positions assumed,--adduction, abduction, undue flexion or pointing--have their own significance and are taken into account by the trained diagnostician in the course of an examination. In the examination of lame subjects, where the cause is not obvious, a systematic method of diagnosis is pursued even by the most expert practitioners. In all obscure cases of lameness a methodical and thoroughly practical examination of the animal according to an established procedure is necessary to determine the nature and source of the affliction. Anamnesis. The first thing to be given consideration in diagnosis is the fact that related history of the case is not always dependable, because of lack of accurate observation or wilful deceit on the part of the owner or attendant. The successful veterinarian soon acquires the faculty of obtaining information in a manner best adapted to his client,--either by direct interrogation or by subtle means of suggestion, and in this way he draws out evaded facts essential to his diagnosis. In time he learns to make allowance for misstatements made to shield the owner or driver and to hide the facts of apparent neglect or abuse that the subject may have experienced. A suppurating cartilaginous quittor, complicated by the presence of a large amount of hyperplastic tissue, cannot be successfully represented to be an acute and recently developed affection, where a trained practitioner is left to judge the validity of the statement. In complicated conditions, where there is evident a chronic disturbance which could not be conceived as sufficient cause for a marked manifestation of lameness, accurate history of the case may be of great aid in arriving at a diagnosis. An aged animal, having recently become very lame, showing a small exostosis on the first phalanx, and with the history given that the osseous deposit was of long standing, should at once lead the veterinarian to seek the source of trouble elsewhere. Visual Examination. As in all diagnostic work, a careful visual examination of the subject should be made before it is approached. The novice is given to hasty examination by palpation, not realizing how much may be revealed by a careful scrutiny of the subject. In this way he is led to erroneous conclusions which the skilled diagnostician has learned from experience to avoid. _Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the importance of making a thoughtful visual examination in every instance before the subject is approached._ In this examination, type, conformation and temperament are taken into account at once, for each of these qualities is in itself, a determining factor in predisposing a subject to certain ailments or inherent attributes, which may exert a favorable or unfavorable influence upon existing conditions and thus make recovery probable or otherwise. Draft animals are less likely to be permanently incapacitated as a result of tendinitis, than are thoroughbreds. Likewise, one would not expect to find this affection present in heavy harness horses as frequently as in light harness animals. Mal-formation of a part, or an asymmetrical development of the body as a whole, may render an animal susceptible to certain affections which cause lameness. A "tied in" hock predisposes the subject to curb, and an animal having powerful and well-developed hips and imperfectly formed hocks, will, if subjected to heavy work, be a favorable subject for bone spavin. The matter of temperament cannot be disregarded in diagnosis, for in some instances, it is the chief determining factor which materially influences the outcome of the case. A nervous, excitable animal, that is kept at hard work, may, under some conditions, be expected to experience disturbances which more lethargic subjects escape. Nervous subjects, it is known, are more prone to azoturia than are those of lymphatic temperament. Furthermore, the lymphatic subject often recovers from certain bone fractures which are successfully treated only when the animal is sufficiently resigned by nature to remain confined in a sling for weeks without resistance. The physiognomy of a subject is often indicative of the gravity of its condition. The facial expression of an animal suffering the throes of tetanus, azoturia, or acute synovitis, is readily recognized by the experienced eye, and upon physiognomy alone, in many instances, may the opinions regarding prognosis be based. Particularly is this true where death is a matter of minutes, or at most is only a few hours distant. Due allowance should be made for restiveness manifested by some more nervous animals when the surroundings are strange and unusual. In such instances, even pathognomic symptoms may be masked to the extent that little, if any, sign of pain or malaise is evinced. In these cases the subject should be given sufficient time to adjust itself to the new environment, or it should be removed to a more suitable place for examination. Animals quickly detect the note of friendly reassurance in the human voice and can very often be calmed by being spoken to. By visual examination one may detect the presence of various swellings or enlargements, such as characterize bruises and strains of tendons where inflammation is acute. Inflammation of the plantar (calcaneocuboid) ligament in curb is readily detected when the affected member is viewed in profile. Spavin, ringbone, splints, quittor and many other anomalous conditions may all be observed from certain proper angles. The fact that the skins of most animals are pigmented and covered with hair, precludes the easy detection of erythema by visual examination, consequently this indicator of possible inflammation is not often made use of in the examination of equine subjects. Attitude of the Subject. The position assumed while the subject is in repose, is often characteristic of certain affections and this, of course, is noted at once. The manner in which the weight is borne by the animal at rest, should attract the attention of the diagnostician and if the attitude of the subject is abnormal or peculiar, the examiner tries to determine the reason for it. If weight-bearing causes symptoms of pain, the affected member will invariably be favored and held in some one of a number of positions. The foot may contact the ground squarely and yet the leg may remain relaxed and free from pressure; volar flexion, in such cases, is indicative of inflammation of a part of the flexor apparatus. If the condition be very painful, position of the afflicted member is frequently shifted, but in all cases where the pain is not so keenly felt, the inflamed member is held in a state of relaxation. There is need then, for a knowledge of anatomy and certain principles in physics to enable the observer to determine just which structures are purposely eased in this manner. Where palpation of parts is possible, one does not need to depend on visual examination alone, and it is always wise to take into consideration every factor that may influence conditions. Manipulation or palpation of the structures thought to be involved, should not be resorted to until a careful and thorough observation of the subject has revealed all that it can reveal to the diagnostician. In all conditions where extreme pain is manifested by the constant desire of the animal to keep its foot in motion off the ground, examination should be made for local cause. This is seen in certain septic inflammations of the feet such as those caused by nail punctures invading the navicular joint, or in newly made wounds where nerves have been divided and the proximal end of such a nerve is exposed to pressure or irritation. "Pointing" affords a comfortable position in some cases of navicular disease, and in a unilateral affection, one may observe the subject bearing weight with one sound member, while the affected foot is planted well ahead of the sound one. In a bilateral involvement of this kind, weight may be frequently shifted from one foot to the other, or in chronic cases, where no marked pain is experienced, the subject stands squarely upon both front feet and no peculiar shifting of weight or pointing is evident. In some cases of hip or shoulder involvement, complete relaxation of all parts of the affected member may be noticed. In brachial paralysis, the pectoral member is held limply; if the patient is made to move, it is evident there is lack of innervation to the afflicted part. In some cases where contusion has caused acute inflammation of the member, the subject instinctively tries to keep it inactive to relieve the pain which movement occasions. Where there is an active and painful inflammation of the prescapular lymph glands and contiguous structures, in some cases of "levator-humeri abscess," the scapulohumeral joint is extended. This is brought about by flexion of the elbow and carpal joints. There are some cases of bi-lateral affections which occasion such pain during weight-bearing that the subject shifts its weight from one affected leg to the other; an example of this condition may be observed in any acute case of gonitis which affects both patellar regions, making it equally painful to bear the weight on either member. A peculiar characteristic position is assumed in acute laminitis of the fore feet. In such instances, the hind feet are brought forward under the body sufficiently to relieve the front feet of the weight, insofar as is possible by the abnormal position taken in cases of acute laminitis. So in each position that is abnormal to any degree, assumed by a suffering animal, there may be deduced, the fact that the subject is attempting to relieve the affected structures, and in each clinical picture of this kind, the trained diagnostician sees some index to the nature and source of the trouble. Further examination is rendered more effective because of this preliminary visual examination which has precluded the unnecessary annoyance of the animal by manipulating unaffected structures. It has been presupposed in the foregoing, that the one making visual examination of a lame animal for diagnostic purposes, will remember that with the normal animal the weight is borne equally well with both fore legs; and that this is done without shifting from one to the other; and that the pelvic limbs do not support the body in this manner. Normal subjects shift their weight from one hind leg to the other and the one relaxed, rests in a state of flexion with the toe on the ground and the heel raised. Examination by Palpation. In nearly every case where lameness exists an examination of the affected parts, by palpation or by digital manipulation, is necessary before an accurate conclusion may be drawn; but in making this kind of an examination one needs to exercise good judgment lest he fail to acquire a correct impression of the actual existent conditions. There is need for the diagnostician, here, as well as in other conditions where physical examination is made, to approach the subject in a manner that will not excite or disturb to the extent that the animal will, in one way or another, resist or object to the approach of the diagnostician, thereby masking the symptoms sought. The practitioner would best acquire skill as a horseman--if he is not possessed of such--and handle each individual subject in the manner calculated to best suit the temperament of the animal examined. The unbroken subject is not handled as satisfactorily as is the intelligent family horse; in the former, in some cases, little dependence is placed upon digital examination. By palpation one is enabled to recognize hyperthermia and this, _in lieu_ of dependable history, is at times sufficient evidence upon which to determine the duration of any given inflammatory affection. By comparison of different parts of the same member or with an analogous portion of another member any marked increase in the apparently normal temperature of a part at once signalizes inflammation. In this manner, in examining a case where laminitis or other inflammation of the feet is suspected, one may arrive at a fairly accurate conclusion without the employment of other means. Throbbing vessels are not always easily recognized if the subject is a victim of chronic lymphangitis. In some instances, where a moderate degree of lameness exists and cause is apparently obscure, the recognition of hyperthermia may be the deciding factor in establishing a diagnosis. In cases of sprained ligaments in the phalangeal region, because of the dense character of the structures involved, little if any evidence of the cause of lameness, other than local heat, may be found twenty-four hours after the injury has been inflicted. In order to determine the amount or extent of hyperthermia with a fair degree of accuracy in any given case, one must make due allowance for external conditions affecting temperature; also the effect of a considerable amount of hair covering an area, as well as any possible dirt contacting the surface of the skin must be taken into account. All dirt should be removed if practicable, so that the diagnostician's palms may come as nearly in contact with the inflamed structures as possible. Then, too, the sense of touch if the operator's hands are chilled, is not dependable. In such instances the novice will need to be deliberate as to his findings--whether or not hyperthermia really exists. Such an examination is of little value where the subject's feet are wet and an examination is hurriedly made, as in cases of suspected laminitis. Often, before being able to distinguish the presence of a hyperthermic condition, one is impressed with the fact that an animal manifests evidence of being supersensitive. In fact, some animals in the anticipation of pain at the touch of an injured part, will instinctively withdraw--in self-protection--such an ailing member or resist the approach of the practitioner. This sensitiveness is more apparent in animals that have been subjected to previous manipulation or treatment which has occasioned pain, and consequently, allowance must be made for this exhibition of fear. No better example of this condition can be imagined than is present in cases of "shoe boil," where there exists an extensive area of acute inflammation of the elbow. There is always more or less surface disturbance wherever vesication has been produced, and in cases where irritants of any kind have been employed for several days or a week previous to an examination, more or less supersensitiveness is to be expected. One must not lose sight of the fact that unscrupulous dealers,--"traders"--make use of their knowledge of this principle in various way usually for the purpose of attracting attention to a part, which, presumably might have been blistered in order to intentionally produce inflammation of tissues, in this way, causing lameness which is not manifested until an animal has been kept by its new owner for twenty-four hours or more. This, to be sure, usually makes a dissatisfied purchaser who is willing to dispose of his newly acquired animal at a sacrifice, thus enabling the original owner or his agent to regain possession of the victimized animal at less than its real value. Some nervous animals, because of the manner of approach of the practitioner, are wont to flinch, and there is manifested a pseudo-supersensitiveness. Young animals not accustomed to being handled are likely to be timorous, and one must not hastily conclude that a part is painful to the touch because the subject resents even gentle digital manipulation of such parts. In instances of this kind, one needs to compare sensibility by manipulation of different parts of the subject's body in a careful and gentle manner; and by exercising patience and good judgment in such work, it is possible to actually distinguish between normal sensibility and abnormal sensitiveness, in most cases. Here, again, the diagnostician needs to possess skill as a horseman and good judgment as to individual temperament of different animals, under any condition which may exist at the time he makes his examination. By palpation alone, one can recognize the presence of fluctuating enlargements; one may not only recognize such conditions, but distinguish between a fluctuating mass such as exists in non-strangulated hernia and a large fibrous tumor. By palpation, for the recognition of density and for determining the presence or absence of hyperthermia, one may decide that there exists an abscess and not a tumor. Edematous swellings are recognized by palpation,--the characteristic indentations which may be made in dropsical swellings are pathognomonic indicators. In this manner it is easy to differentiate post-operative or post-traumatic edemas which may or may not cause lameness. At any rate, it is essential to take into account all determinate conditions that may assist in the prognosis of any given case, for the purpose of being able to outline rational remedial measures. To be able to distinguish between the generalization of a septic infection in its incipiency, and a more or less benign edema, is largely possible by digital manipulation alone. An extremity may be greatly swollen because of the existence of chronic lymphangitis, influenza, or an acute septic infection occasioned by the introduction of pathogenic and aerogenic organisms. Since the effect produced by these dissimilar ailments are productive of conditions that may terminate favorably or unfavorably, it becomes necessary for the diagnostician to develop a trained, discriminating, tactile-digital sense, in order to correctly interpret existing conditions, and handle cases in a rational and skillful manner. In order to ascertain the extent and exact location of a tumor, an exostosis, or other enlargements, the diagnostician, here also, needs to be in possession of a trained tactile sense and in addition if he be fortified with an accurate knowledge of normal anatomy and pathology, he is able to arrive at proper conclusions, when digital manipulations have been employed. Fibrous tumors are sometimes located in the inferior part of the medial side of the tarsus--exactly over the seat of bone-spavin. Such tumors, when the affected member is supporting weight, are not to be distinguished from exostoses; but as soon as the affected leg ceases to bear weight, it may be passively flexed and the nature of the enlargement recognized because it may be slightly displaced by digital manipulation. Displacement, of course, is not possible with an exostosis. A necessary qualification, which the diagnostician must possess, is that of being able to judge carefully the nearness of any given exostosis to articular structures. Also, the extent or area of the base of an exostosis as well as its exact position, needs be determined before one may estimate the probable outcome in any case,--whether treatment should be encouraged or discouraged by the practitioner. Periarticular ringbone may, because of the size and location of the exostosis, constitute a condition which cannot be relieved in any way in one case, and in another, because of the manner of distribution of such osseous deposits, the condition may be such that prompt recovery will follow proper treatment. In the examination of an exostosis of the tarsus, it is particularly important to determine the exact location of the exostosis--whether or not the spavin involves the tibial tarsal (astragulus) bone very near its tibial articular portions. Obviously, if articular surfaces of joints are involved, complete recovery cannot result despite the most skillful attention given the subject. Passive Movements. Wherever it is possible to gain the confidence of a tractable animal to the extent that it will relax the structures sufficiently to make possible passive movement of affected parts, much is to be learned as a result of such manipulation. By this method one may differentiate true crepitation, false crepitation, luxation and inflammation of ligaments that have been injured, as in sprains of such structures in the phalangeal region. _True crepitation_ is recognizable by the characteristic vibration which is interpreted by tactile sense. It is possible to recognize fracture by the use of other methods--auscultation, tuning fork tests, etc., but in ordinary veterinary practice one must rely upon the sense of touch for recognition of crepitation. Where pain is not so great that relaxation of parts does not occur, one can, by gently moving an extremity in various directions--as in flexion, extension and lateral motion as well as by rotation--cause to be manifested this peculiar grating,--the friction of newly broken bone. This is known as _true crepitation_. Where the subject, suffering phalangeal fracture, manifests evidence of pain due to tensing the structures about a fractured part, one may anesthetize the parts by using about two cubic centimeters of a two per cent. solution of cocain upon the plantar nerves, proximal to the fracture. It is perhaps best to deposit the cocain solution by means of two hypodermic punctures at different points along the course of each nerve, though closely situated to one another, thereby making more sure of the solution actually contacting the nerve. In some multiple fractures of the first or second phalanx this is quite necessary; otherwise, pain produced by passive manipulation causes the subject to keep the tendons so tense that crepitation may not be detected. The unnecessary infliction of pain is always to be avoided. We know as _false crepitation_ a vibrating impulse occasioned by normal contact of articular portions of bones such as in the metacarpophalangeal joint when this structure is passively moved, where the subject permits the parts to remain in a state of complete relaxation. Attempts to recognize supersensitiveness or inflammation by means of passive movement of the shoulder or hip, whether gently or forcefully, is not productive of good, in any case, in large animals. Because of the bulk and weight of parts so manipulated, as well as the resistance the subject offers even in normal cases, no accurate conclusion is to be arrived at in this manner in the average instance. Animals nearly always resist the placing of members in any position that is so unusual and uncomfortable as that which is required to materially displace the component tissues of the shoulder or hip; therefore, such practice is useless because one can not distinguish between normal resistance and flinching caused by painful sensations in injured parts. Such manipulations are practical in small animals. Observing the Character of the Gait. In order to determine the degree of lameness as well as its character, it is necessary to cause the subject which is being examined, to move in some manner. The degree of inconvenience or distress experienced by a lame animal that is being so examined is manifested by the character of the claudication; and where much pain is occasioned in locomotion there is disturbance of respiration; perspiration may be noticeable and in some instances manifestation of nervous shock are very evident--this in timid, nervous animals that anticipate being punished when approached and, consequently, make every effort possible to move when urged to do so. An animal, then, should be moved only sufficiently to cause it to exhibit the degree of lameness present in any given case, and if a marked impediment is manifested it is not necessary to cause the subject to be exerted to the extent of inflicting, in such manner, unnecessary punishment. Further or conclusive examination is made by palpation. To cause the subject to move, an assistant may simply lead the animal with a halter and compel it to walk a few steps. In this way, lameness, whether manifested during the weight-bearing period of an affected member, or when such a member is being advanced, or whether a combination of the two conditions exists, is made apparent. In the words of Dollar, one is thus enabled to recognize the existence of "supporting-leg-lameness," "swinging-leg-lameness" or "mixed lameness." When the cause of lameness is not strikingly apparent it becomes necessary to have the subject moved farther than a few steps and at different paces. Depending then, upon the character of lameness manifested, as well as upon its degree of intensity, one needs to exercise the subject in various ways, but this should not be overdone. The first thing apparent in the lame subject in action, is the lame leg. If this is not readily determinable, as in some complicated cases, the leg or legs which are at fault are to be discovered by further examination, and to do this,--word-pictures convey little that is helpful in difficult cases,--long practice is the one route by which one may become efficient; that is, by experience gained after fundamental principles in the diagnosis of lameness have been mastered. For a careful study of supporting-leg-lameness involving a fore limb, the subject is driven or led _toward_ the one making such examination. If a hind leg is to be observed, the animal is made to travel _away from_ the examiner. Where there exists swinging-leg-lameness, the subject should be caused to move past the diagnostician, so that he may get a side view of the subject while it is in motion. In every case such examinations are made to the best advantage if the practitioner can view his patient from a little distance. Here, again, a visual examination is made but this cannot be successfully executed, in difficult cases, if the practitioner is stationed at too close range. The average subject is best observed by being led, rather than being ridden, and in so doing the animal should be given moderately free rein. A close grasp on the lead may interfere somewhat with head movements. Nodding of the head with the catching up of weight by a sound member in supporting-leg-lameness of a fore leg, constitutes the chief symptom considered in detecting the lame leg. Where supporting-leg-lameness affects a hind limb the head is raised at the time weight is caught by the sound member--here the long axis of the subject's body may be likened unto a lever of the first class. The posterior part of the body, at the time weight is taken upon the sound leg, is as the long arm: the fore limbs the fulcrum, and the subject's head the weight, which is lifted. The head movements of a horse at a trot, in supporting-leg-lameness of a front leg, synchronize with the discharge of weight from a lame leg to the opposite one if sound; but in pelvic limb affections, the head is thrown or jerked upward as weight is caught by the sound member,--this peculiar nodding movement is _opposite_ in the two instances. In pacing horses, since front and hind legs of the same side are advanced at the same time, there occurs in supporting-leg-lameness, a nodding of the head with discharge of weight from the lame leg, and a dropping of the hip as weight is caught by the sound pelvic member. In observing animals that are limping, (as in supporting-leg-lameness) one notices particularly the sacro-iliac region in hind leg affections and the occipital region in lameness of the front legs. Where there exists a bilateral affection, (such as characterizes some cases of navicular disease or other affections causing supporting-leg-lameness) there occurs no nodding of the head; weight is supported for an equal length of time upon each one of the two legs, but the stride[4] is shortened. The gait, in such cases, is peculiar, animals appearing stiff and they are said, by horsemen, to have a "choppy" gait. It is desirable, in some cases, to cause an animal to move from side to side; in other instances the subject is best made to walk or trot in a circle, and if the circle be very small the animal then particularly employs the inner fore leg as a pivotal supporting member. To augment the manifestation of certain affections, it is necessary to cause the patient to walk backward, and each one of these tests of locomotion serves to point out in a more or less characteristic manner, the site of the affection which is causing lameness in different cases. Sprains or injuries of lateral ligaments of the extremities, ringbone and certain foot affections, are made manifest by a side to side movement or a pivotal movement. In fact, wherever it is possible to cause undue or unusual tension to be exerted upon an inflamed structure, manifestation of pain is the response. In an inflamed condition of the lateral side of the phalanges, unequal weight-bearing such as a rough road surface will, by virtue of the leverage which the solar surface of the foot affords, cause undue strain upon such inflamed parts, and increased lameness is evident. When an animal is made to travel in a circle, when a member affected with supporting-leg-lameness is on the inner side of the circle, lameness is accentuated because weight is borne by the lame leg for a greater length of time, the result of such circuitous manner of locomotion. In swinging-leg-lameness, on the other hand, because pain is increased at the time an affected member is being advanced, lameness is increased when the subject is made to travel in a circle, with the lame leg on the outside of a circle thus described. In supporting-leg-lameness, the transientness of the weight-bearing period upon the affected member is the determining factor in the production of lameness. This unequal period of weight-bearing upon the front legs, for instance, causes an acceleration in the advancement of the sound member, in order to relieve the diseased one which is bearing weight. In other words, when an animal that is affected with supporting-leg-lameness travels in a straight line, since weight is borne by the diseased leg for an abnormally short period of time, the sound member needs be in the act of advancement a correspondingly short period. The result is then, an unequal division of stride; a nodding of the head with the catching up of weight by the sound leg,--in front leg affections--and this is termed _limping_. With continuous exertion as in travel for a considerable distance, in some cases, lameness becomes less evident--as in spavin. This "warming out" process is due in a measure to the parts becoming less sensitive upon exertion, and is to be seen, to a limited extent, in all inflammatory affections that are not too severe; consequently, in some cases, examination of a lame animal should begin in the stall, for in instances where the impediment is not marked, there may be no evidence of lameness after the subject has walked a few steps. In other cases, lameness increases as the subject continues to travel, and often to the extent that the impediment becomes too severe to allow the animal being serviceable. Therefore, one can not, in every case of lameness observed, positively determine the gravity of the situation, without having seen the affected animal in action for a sufficient length of time to understand the nature of the condition existing. This necessitates driving the animal for several miles in certain cases. Sometimes it is impossible to arrive at any definite conclusion, as the result of a single examination, and it then becomes necessary to see the subject again at a later date, or under more favorable circumstances. This is to be expected in some conditions where there exists rheumatic affections, and also in some foot diseases. In the examination of young animals, unused to harness and to other strange incumbrances, one is obliged to make allowance for impediments of gait, which are not occasioned by diseased conditions. Such affections have been termed "false lameness." Young mules that are not well broken to harness, are difficult subjects for examination and in some cases it is necessary to have them led or driven for a considerable distance before one can definitely interpret the nature of the impediment in the gait when lameness is not pronounced. It is especially difficult to satisfactorily examine such subjects, for the reason that their normal rebellious temperaments cause resistance whenever a strange person approaches them, as it is necessary to do for an examination by palpation. In such cases--if an examination does not reveal the cause of trouble, rest must be recommended and further examination made at a later date, whereupon any new developments may be noted, if such changes exist. Special Methods of Examination. After having completed a general examination of a lame animal--obtaining the history of the case, noting its temperament, type, size, conformation, position assumed while at repose, swellings or enlargements if present, causing the subject to move to note the degree and character of lameness manifested; palpating and manipulating the parts affected to acquire a fairly definite notion of the nature of an inflammation or to recognize crepitation it becomes necessary in some cases to employ peculiar means of examination in singular instances. This may be done by making use of cocain in solution for the production of local anesthesia as in lameness of the phalanges. Such means are not, in themselves, dependable but are valuable when used in conjunction with all other available and practical methods. Trial use of various shoes in order to shift the weight from one part of the foot to another or to cause an animal to "break over" in a different manner so that the gait may be changed, constitutes a special test procedure. The use of hoof testers or of a hammer to note the degree or presence of supersensitiveness is another means that is of practical service. No examination, in any case of lameness, is complete without having removed the shoe and scrutinized the solar surface of the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 1--Hoof testers with special jaws of sufficient size to grasp the largest foot.] Diagnosis by exclusion, finally, is resorted to, and, as in any other case where the recognition of cause is difficult, exclusion of the existence of conditions,--one at a time, by an analysis of symptoms--generally enables the practictioner to eliminate all but the disturbing element. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 4: By stride is meant the distance between two successive imprints of the same foot. The term is not used in this work as being synonymous with step.] SECTION III. LAMENESS IN THE FORE LEG. Anatomo-Physiological Review of parts of the Fore Leg. For supporting weight, whether the subject is at rest or in motion, the bony column of the leg, together with attached ligaments, tendons and muscles, is wonderfully well adapted by nature for the function which they perform. The several bones which go to make up the supportive portion of the leg, are so joined at their points of articulation, that a minimum degree of strain is put upon each attachment. The upper third of the scapula, with its cartilage of prolongation, is sufficiently broad and flattened that it fits snugly against the thorax without necessity for a complicated method of attachment--the clavicle being absent, attachment is muscular. Smith[5] has very aptly stated that: "It seems quite legitimate to regard the muscular union between the thorax and forelimb as a joint. There are no bones resting on each other, no synovia; but where the scapula has its largest range of movement there is a remarkable amount of areolar tissue, which renders movement easy. The whole central area beneath the scapula and humerus not occupied by muscular attachment, is filled with this easy-moving, apparently gaseously distended, crepitant, areolar tissue over which the fore legs glide on the chest wall as freely as if the parts were a large, well lubricated joint." The scapulohumeral articulation (shoulder joint) is an enarthrodial (ball and socket) joint but because of its being held more or less firmly against the thoracic wall by muscular and tendinous attachment, and because a part of this attachment affords a means of support for the body itself, there is no need for binding ligaments and movement is possible in all directions even though restricted as to extent. [Illustration: Fig. 2--Muscles of Left Thoracic Limb from Elbow Downward; Lateral (External) View. a, Extensor carpi radialis; g, brachialis; g', anterior superficial pectoral; c, common digital extensor; e, ulnaris lateralis. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. für Künstler.) (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals").] [Illustration: Fig. 3--Muscles of Left Thoracic Limb from Elbow Downward; Medial (Internal) View. The fascia and the ulnar head of the flexor carpi ulnaris have been removed. 1, Distal end of humerus; 2, median vessels and nerve. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals").] Undue extension, (by extension is meant such movement as will cause the long axis of two articulating bones to assume a position which approaches or forms a straight line--opposite to flexion), of the scapulohumeral joint is impossible while weight is borne, because of the normally flexed position of the humerus on the scapula; whereas flexion, beyond desirable limits, is inhibited by the biceps brachii (flexor brachii or coracoradialis) muscle. The distal end of the humerus, however, articulating with the radius and ulna in a fashion that no support is lent by any sort of contact with the body, is a ginglymus (hinge) joint and lateral motion, because of the long transverse diameter of its articular portions, is easily prevented by the medial and lateral ligaments (internal and external ligaments). Flexion of this, the humeroradioulnar joint (elbow), is restrained by the triceps brachii and extension is checked by the biceps brachii (flexor brachii). The carpal joint (erroneously called the knee joint), is composed of the several carpal bones which interarticulate and, when taken as a group, serve as a means of attachment and articulation for the radius and metacarpal bones. The transverse diameter of this joint is long, thus giving it contacting surfaces that are sufficiently extensive to minimize the strain upon the mesial and lateral ligaments (internal and external lateral common ligaments). Motion is that of flexion and extension; slight rotation is possible when the position is that of flexion. While supporting weight the carpus is fixed in position by a slight dorsal flexion, but undue dorsal flexion is prevented by the flexor muscles and tendons and volar-carpal or annular ligament, together with the superior check ligament. The metacarpophalangeal articulation (fetlock joint), is a hinge joint and its articular surfaces contact one another, with respect to their having a long bearing surface from side to side, as do all ginglymus (hinge) joints. Two common lateral ligaments bind the bones together. While bearing weight, there is assumed a position of slight dorsal flexion, undue flexion being checked by the inhibitory apparatus of the joint--check ligaments, and their tendons and the suspensory ligament. The inhibitory apparatus of the fetlock joint is materially reinforced by the proximal sesamoid bones. Situated as they are, between the bifurcating portions of the suspensory ligament and the posterior part of the distal end of the metacarpus--with which they articulate--the sesamoid bones serve to change the course of the branches of the suspensory ligament in a manner that they give firm support to this joint. Volar flexion is limited by the extensors of the phalanges. [Illustration: Fig. 4--Sagital Section of Digit and Distal Part of Metacarpus. A, Metacarpal bone; B, first phalanx; C, second phalanx, D, third phalanx; E, distal sesamoid bone; 1, volar pouch of capsule of fetlock joint; 2, inter-sesamoidean ligament; 3, 4, proximal end of digital synovial sheath; 5, ring formed by superficial flexor tendon; 6, fibrous tissue underlying ergot; 7, ergot; 8, 9, 9', branches of digital vessels; 10, distal ligament of distal sesamoid bone; 11, suspensory ligament of distal sesamoid bone; 12, 12', proximal and distal ends of bursa podotrochlearis. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals").] The first phalanx (os suffraginis) normally sets at an angle of about 50 to 55 degrees from a horizontal plane while weight is being supported. Its distal end articulates with the second or median phalanx (os corona) and forms the proximal interphalangeal (pastern or suffraginocoronary) joint. This also, is a ginglymus joint, having but slight lateral motion, and that only when it is in a state of flexion. A rather broad articular surface--from side to side--exists here, lessening the strain on the collateral ligaments somewhat. Dorsal flexion is checked by the flexor tendons and dorsal ligaments. Volar flexion is restrained by the extensor tendons. The distal end of the second phalanx (os corona) has but slight lateral motion and this is manifested principally when it is in a state of volar flexion. Undue dorsal flexion is prevented by the deep flexor tendon (perforans) and volar flexion is inhibited by the extensor of the digit (extensor pedis). Thus it is seen, that when the leg is a weight-bearing member, weight is supported by the bony framework whose constituent parts are joined together by ligaments and tendons and each one of the several bones articulates in such manner that the joint is locked. The articular parts of bones rest upon or against an inhibitory apparatus, and are slightly flexed, as in the carpus, or considerably flexed such as in the fetlock joint when weight is being supported. In the first instance, for example, the flexors of the carpus and the superior check ligament assisted by the flexors of the phalanges constitute the inhibitory apparatus. It will be noted that provision for weight bearing is so arranged that muscular energy is not required except in the matter of suspension of the body between the scapulae and here tonic impulses only are necessary to maintain an equilibrium[6], yet in every instance where weight is not supported by bones, inelastic ligaments or tendinous structures relieve the musculature of this constant strain. This explains the fact that some horses do not lie in the stall, yet in spite of their constant standing position, they are able to rest and sleep. The student of lameness is interested in the function of the legs in the rôle of supporting weight and as propelling parts, and not particularly in the capacity of these members for inflicting offense or as weapons of defense. Yet, in the exercise of their functions other than that of locomotive appliances, injury often results, but usually it is the recipient of a blow that suffers the injury, such as an animal may receive upon being kicked. Therefore, we do not often concern ourselves with strains or other injuries that the subject experiences as the result of efforts put forth in kicking or striking. Where such injuries occur, however, a diagnosis is established by making use of the principles heretofore discussed. As propelling members the front legs bear weight and are advanced alternately when the horse is walking or trotting--in cantering this is not so. When the normal subject travels in a straight line, at a walk or a trot, the length of the stride is the same with the right and left members. The stride of the right foot then, for example, is equally divided by the imprint of the left foot, in the normal horse, when traveling at a walk and in a straight line. Shoulder Lameness. This enigmatical term is frequently employed by the diagnostician when he is baffled in the matter of definitely locating the cause of lameness; when he has by exclusion and otherwise arrived at a decision that lameness is "high up." Shoulder lameness may be caused by any one or several of a number of conditions, e.g., fractures of the scapula or humerus; arthritis of the shoulder or elbow joint; luxation of the shoulder or elbow joint (rarely); injuries of muscles and tendons of the region due to strains, contusions or penetrant wounds; paralysis of the brachial plexus or of the prescapular nerve; involvement of lymph glands; arterial thrombosis; metastatic infections; rheumatic disturbances; and as the result of inflammation, infectious or non-infectious occasioned by collar bruises. In some instances such inflammation is due to the manner of treatment of collar injuries. Therefore, when one considers the numerous and dissimilar possible causes of shoulder lameness, it behooves the practitioner to become proficient in diagnostic principles. A principle which is elemental in the diagnosis of locomotory impediment, is that lameness of the shoulder or hip is usually manifested by more or less difficulty in swinging the affected member. Swinging-leg-lameness, then, is usually present in shoulder affections. In some instances lameness is mixed as in joint ailments, involvement of the bicipital bursa (bursa intertubercularis), etc. In affections of the extremity there exists supporting leg lameness. Consequently, we employ this elemental principle, and, by a visual examination of the subject, which is being made to travel suitably, one may decide that lameness is either "high up"--shoulder lameness or, "low down"--of the extremity. [Illustration: Fig. 5--Ordinary type of heavy sling.] To make practical use of this principle, the examiner must be thoroughly familiar with the anatomy of the various structures concerned in advancing the leg--those which support weight as well as those concerned both in weight bearing and swinging the member. Fracture of the Scapula. Etiology and Occurrence.--Fractures of the body of the scapula are of infrequent occurrence in horses for the reason that protection is afforded this bone because of its position. Its function, too, is such that very unusual conditions are necessary to subject it to fracture. The spine is occasionally broken due to blows such as kicks, etc., and here frequently a compound fracture exists. [Illustration: Fig. 6--A sling made in two parts so that horses may be supported without use of central part or bodice. This sling is more comfortable than is the ordinary style and is particularly useful in cases that require a long period of this manner of confinement.] Where fractures of the body of the scapula occur, heavy contusions have been the cause as a rule, and serious injury is done the subject; consequently, treatment of fracture of the body of the scapula is seldom successfully practised. Fractures of the body of this bone resulting from accidents not involving internal injury or other disturbances and which would not seriously interfere with the vitality of the subject, are not necessarily serious unless compound. Fractures of the neck of the scapula are serious because of the fact that there occurs displacement of the broken parts and perfect apposition of the fractured ends is difficult, if not impossible. Fractures that extend to the articular surface are very serious, and complete recovery in such instances is practically impossible. The cartilage of prolongation of the scapula is sometimes seriously involved in certain cases of fistulous withers, and in some instances it has been separated from its attachment to the rhomboidea muscles, and lameness has resulted. In such instances, the upper portion of the scapula is disjoined from all attachment, and with every movement the animal makes, the scapula is moved back and forth. Complete recovery in such cases does not occur. Symptomatology.--Fractures of the scapular spine are ordinarily readily recognized because there is usually visible displacement of the broken part. Crepitation is also detected without difficulty. In fractures of the body of the scapula where an examination may be made before much swelling has taken place, and in subjects that are not heavily muscled, one should have no difficulty in recognizing the crepitation. Fractures of the neck of the scapula are recognized by crepitation, by passively moving the leg, but it is necessary to exclude fractures of the humerus when one depends upon the finding of crepitation by this means. However, unless undue swelling exists, the exact location of the crepitation is recognized without serious difficulty. Treatment.--The treatment of compound fractures of the scapular spine consists in the removal of the broken piece of bone by way of a cutaneous incision so situated that good drainage of the wound will follow. Simple fractures of the body of the scapula are best treated by placing the subject in a sling, if the animal is halter broken, and enforcing absolute quiet for a period of from three to six weeks. Splints or similar appliances are not of practical value in scapular fractures. Compound fractures of the scapula usually result from violence, which at the same time does serious injury to adjacent structures, and it then becomes necessary to administer an expectant treatment, observing general surgical principles and providing in so far as possible for the comfort of the patient. Scapulohumeral Arthritis. Anatomy.--The scapulohumeral joint is an enarthrodial (ball and socket) joint wherein the ball or humeral articulating head greatly exceeds in size the socket or glenoid cavity of the scapula. The capsular ligament surrounding this joint is very large and admits of free and extensive movement of the articulation. There exist no lateral or common ligaments jointing the scapula and humerus as in other joints, but instead the tendinous portions of muscles perform this function. The principal ones which are attached to the scapula and humerus that act as ligaments are the supraspinatus (antea-spinatus), infraspinatus (postea-spinatus) biceps-brachii (flexor brachii) and subscapularis muscles. Etiology and Occurrence.--Inflammation of the scapulohumeral articulation results from injuries of various kinds, including punctures which perforate the joint capsule, bruises from collars, metastatic infections and involvement as a result of direct extension of infectious conditions situated near the joint. Classification.--Acute arthritis may be septic or aseptic, and there seems to be a remarkable tendency for recovery in cases of septic arthritis involving this joint in the horse. Chronic arthritis with destruction of articular surfaces and ankylosis, is seldom observed. It is only in cases of severe injury, where the articular portions of the bones are damaged at the time of infliction of the injury, and where the articulation remains exposed for weeks at a time, together with immobility of the parts because of attending pain, that permanent ankylosis results. Scapulohumeral arthritis may result then from _infections_, local or metastatic; from _injuries_, such as contusions of various kinds; from _wounds_, which break the surface structure or perforate the joint capsule; or from _luxations_. Infectious Arthritis. Infectious arthritis of the scapulohumeral joint the result of local causes other than produced by septic wounds, seldom causes serious inconvenience to the subject. Where such occurs, however, there is manifested mixed lameness and complete extension of the extremity is impossible. Local swelling is present and manifestations of pain are evident upon palpation of the affected area. Treatment.--During the first stage of the infection, local applications, hot or cold, are indicated. A hot poultice of bran or other suitable material contained within a muslin sack, may be supported by means of cords or tapes which are passed over the withers and tied around the opposite fore leg. Such an appliance may be held in position more securely by attaching it to the affected member. Following the acute stage of such an infection, any local counter-irritating application or even a vesicant is in order. Where abatement of the infectious process does not take place, and suppuration of the structures in the vicinity of the joint occurs, it is necessary to provide drainage for pus. In some cases of strangles, for instance, large pus cavities are formed and drainage is imperative. However, metastatic inflammation of this joint is seldom observed except in cases of strangles. The animal should be kept perfectly quiet until recovery has taken place. Injuries. Injuries to the scapulohumeral joint may be the result of kicks, runaway accidents or bruises from the collar, and there may result, because of such injuries, reactionary inflammation which will vary in intensity from the mildest synovitis to the most severe arthritis, causing more or less lameness. Treatment.--The general plan of treatment in this form of arthritis is the same as has been outlined under the head of infectious arthritis, with the exception that there is seldom occasion to provide for drainage of pus. Wounds. Wounds which cause a break of the skin and fascia overlying the scapulohumeral joint are usually of little consequence, unless the blow is of sufficient force to directly injure the articulation, and in such cases, the treatment of the injury along general surgical principles, such as cleansing the area, providing drainage for wound secretion, and the administration of suitable dressing materials such as antiseptic dusting powder, is all that is required for the wound. The symptoms manifested by the subject in such cases are the same as have been discussed heretofore and merit no special consideration. Prognosis.--Unless very serious injury be done the articular portions of the scapula or the humerus, resulting in the destruction of the capsular ligament, prognosis is entirely favorable. Open Joint.--Where the capsular ligament is perforated and the condition becomes one of open joint, then a special wound treatment becomes necessary. The surface of the skin is first freed from all hair and filth in the vicinity of the wound. The wound proper is cleared of all foreign material either by clipping with the scissors, curetting or mopping with cotton or gauze pledgets. The whole exposed wound surface as well as the interior of the joint cavity, if much exposed, is moistened with tincture of iodin. Subsequent treatment consists in a local application of a desiccant dusting powder, which should be applied five or six times daily. The composition of the powder should be such as to permit of its liberal use, thereby affording mechanical protection to the wound as well as exerting a desiccative effect. Equal parts of boric acid and exsiccated alum serve very well in such cases. Animals suffering from open joints of this kind should be confined in a standing position, preferably in slings, and kept so confined for three or four weeks. Since they usually bear weight upon the affected member, there is no danger of laminitis resulting. Luxation of the Scapulohumeral Joint. Because of the large humeral head articulating as it does with a glenoid cavity, scapulohumeral luxations are very rare in the horse. According to Moller[7], luxation is generally due to excessive flexion of the scapulohumeral joint. In such cases the head of the humerus is displaced anterior to the articular portion of the scapula and remains so fixed. Symptoms.--Complete luxation of the scapula is recognized because of immobility of the scapulohumeral joint and of the abnormal position of the head of the humerus, which can be recognized by palpation, unless the swelling be excessive. Immobility of the scapulohumeral joint is noticeable when one attempts to passively move the parts. Treatment.--Reduction of the luxation is effected by making use of the same general principles that are employed in the reduction of all luxations, and they are--the control of the animal so that the manipulations of the operator are not antagonized by muscular contraction, which is best accomplished by anesthesia; placing the luxated bones in the position which they have taken to become unjointed; and then making use of force which is directed in a manner opposite to that which has effected the luxation. In a forward luxation of this kind, the operator should further flex the humerus, and while it is in this flexed position, force is exerted upon the articular head of this bone, and it is pushed downward and backward into its normal position. After-care consists in restriction of exercise and, if necessary, confining the subject in a sling and the application of a vesicant over the scapulohumeral region. Inflammation of the Bicipital Bursa. (Bursitis Intertubercularis.) Anatomy.--There is interposed between the tendon of the biceps brachii (flexor brachii) and the intertubercular or bicipital groove a heavy cartilaginous pad, which is a part of the bursa of the biceps brachii. This synovial bursa forms a smooth groove through which the biceps brachii glides in the anterior scapulohumeral region. Great strain is put upon these parts because the biceps brachii is the chief inhibiting structure of the scapulohumeral articulation--the one which prevents further flexion of the humerus during weight bearing. Passing, as it does, over two articulations, the biceps brachii has a somewhat complicated function, being a flexor of the radius and an extensor of the humerus. Thus it is seen, the biceps brachii is a weight bearing structure, as well as one that has to do with swinging the leg. Etiology and Occurrence.--Because of the exposed position of the bicipital bursa (bursa-intertubercularis) it is occasionally injured. Blows and injuries received in runaway accidents do serious injury to the bursa and because of the peculiar and important part it plays during locomotion, serious injuries are not likely to resolve, and too often chronic lameness results. It is to be noted that the tendon of the biceps brachii (flexor brachii) is always involved in cases of inflammation of the bicipital bursa, and according to the late Dr. Bell[8] strain of the biceps brachii is a frequent cause of lameness in city horses, more frequent than is generally supposed. Pathological Anatomy.--More or less destruction of the cartilaginous portion of the bursa, sometimes involving the tendinous portion of the biceps, takes place and, according to Moller, in some instances there occurs ossification of the tendon. Autopsies in some old horses reveal the presence of erosions of cartilage and hyperthrophy of the inflamed parts. Symptoms.--In acute inflammations, there is always marked lameness. This is manifested to a greater degree when the subject advances the affected leg. There is incomplete advancement of the member; the toe is dragged when the horse is made to walk and the foot kept in a position posterior to the opposite or weight bearing foot while the subject is at rest. Lameness is disproportionate to the amount of local manifestation in the way of heat, swelling and pain that is to be recognized on palpation. In fact, in some cases so much pain attends the condition that no weight is borne by the affected member, and when compelled to walk, the subject hops on the sound leg. Chronic inflammation of the bicipital bursa is occasionally met with wherein both members are affected. Because of the nature of the structures involved, when inflamed, chronic inflammation is a more frequent termination than is complete recovery. Bilateral affections are seen in horses that are driven for years, regularly at a fast pace on paved streets. In such cases, the gait is stilted, that is, there is incomplete advancement of both members and, of course, the period of weight bearing is correspondingly shortened; hence the short strides. In chronic cases, little if any evidence of inflammation is to be detected by digital manipulation of the parts. If flinching occurs, one is often unable to interpret the manifestation as to whether it is due to inflammation or not. There is no marked "warming out" in this condition, and animals are nearly as lame after having been driven a considerable distance as when started, although the lameness is not as a rule very great. Treatment.--In very painful cases acute inflammation is treated by employing cold applications during the initial stage. Cracked ice when contained in a suitable sack may be held in contact with the affected part and the pack is supported by means of cords or tapes as suggested in the discussion on treatment of scapulohumeral arthritis on page 66. Later, hot applications may be employed to good advantage. In the course of ten days or two weeks, if the acute painful condition has entirely subsided, vesication is indicated. The ordinary mercury and cantharides combination does very well. Depending upon the course taken in any given case, one is guided in the treatment employed. If prompt resolution comes to pass, the subject may be given free run at pasture after three or four weeks confinement in a box stall. If, however, the case does not progress in a prompt and satisfactory manner, absolute quiet must be enforced for six weeks or more. Repeated blistering is beneficial, although it is doubtful if firing is of sufficient benefit in the average chronic case of intertubercular bursitis to justify the punishment which this form of treatment inflicts, unless infliction of pain is the thing sought, to enforce repose in restless subjects. Patients are best given a long rest at pasture and returned to work for two or three months after an acute attack of inflammation of the bursa, lest the condition become chronic. When due consideration is given the pathology of such cases, the frequent unsatisfactory termination under the most careful treatment, is readily understood. Contusions of the Triceps Brachii. (Triceps Extensor Brachii: Caput Muscles.) Anatomy.--The triceps brachii is the principal structure which fills the space between the posterior border of the scapula and the humerus. The several heads originate for the most part on the border of the scapula, the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and the shaft of the humerus. Insertion of this large muscular mass is effected by means of several tendons to the olecranon. A synovial bursa is situated underneath the tendinous attachment of the posterior portion of the triceps brachii--the long head or caput magnum. The function of the triceps as a whole is to flex the shoulder joint and extend the forearm. The triceps brachii is the chief antagonist of the biceps brachii. Etiology and Occurrence.--Owing to the exposed position of this structure, it is not infrequently contused, the result of falls, kicks and other injuries. The function of the triceps is such that it becomes strained upon rare occasions when a horse resists confinement of restraint in such manner that the parts are unduly tensed in contraction. This sort of resistance may stretch the radial nerve or its branches in a way that paralysis results. A condition known as "dropped elbow" is described by Henry Taylor, F.R.C.V.S., in the Veterinary Record[9], wherein a two-year-old colt while resisting confinement was so injured. The triceps group because of its convenient location, constitutes the site for hypodermic injection of drugs and biologic agents, with some practitioners; and as a result, more or less inflammation may occur. The author has observed and treated some twenty cases where an intensely painful infectious inflammation of the triceps brachii was caused by the intramuscular injection of a caustic solution by a cruel and unscrupulous empiric, whose object was to increase his practice. Symptomatology.--As the triceps brachii is not particularly taxed during weight bearing in the subject at rest, there may be no unnatural position assumed during inflammation of the triceps. More or less swelling and supersensitiveness is always present, however, and great care and discrimination must be exercised in digital manipulation of the triceps region because many animals are normally sensitive to palpation of these parts. It is sometimes difficult to correctly interpret the true state of conditions because of this peculiarity. There is always swinging-leg-lameness, which is accentuated when the subject is urged to trot. Where symptoms are pronounced, it is unnecessary to cause the subject to move at a faster pace than at a walk to recognize the condition. The forward stride is shortened and in extremley painful conditions, no attempt is made to extend the leg. It is simply carried _en une piéce_--flexion of the shoulder and elbow joints is carefully avoided. Treatment.--During the early stage of inflammation, hot or cold applications are beneficial. Long continued use of moist heat--fomentations--allays pain and stimulates resolution. Keeping in contact with the painfully swollen parts a suitable bag filled with bran, which can be moistened at intervals with warm water, constitutes a practical and easy means of treatment. By employing this method, one is more likely to succeed in having his patient properly cared for, in that less work is entailed than if hot fomentations are prescribed. After the acute and painful stage has subsided, a stimulating liniment is of benefit. The subject should be kept within a comfortable and roomy box stall for a sufficient length of time to favor prompt resolution. Wild and nervous subjects, if not so confined, will probably overexert the affected parts if allowed the freedom of a paddock or pasture. Where the inflammation becomes infective, surgical interference is necessary. The prompt evacuation of pus, with adequate provision for wound discharge, should be attended to before extensive destruction of tissue takes place. Resolution is prompt as a rule in such cases because of the vascularity of the structures and the ease with which proper drainage may be effected. No special after-care is necessary if drainage is perfect, except that one should avoid injecting the wound cavity with aqueous solutions unless it be absolutely necessary to cleanse such cavity, and then it is best to swab the wound rather than to irrigate it freely. Shoulder Atrophy. (Sweeny or Swinney) No satisfactory consideration of the pathogeny of this condition is recorded, but practitioners have long distinguished between muscular atrophies which are apparently caused without doing serious injury to nerves and muscular atrophy which seems to be due to nerve affection. In the first instance, recovery when proper attention is given, is prompt; whereas, in the latter, regeneration of the wasted tissues requires months in spite of the best sort of treatment. The parts more frequently affected are the supra- and infrascapularis (antea- and posteaspinatus) muscles. But in some cases the triceps group is involved; however, this occurs in unusual and chronic affections. No doubt, these chronic cases are due to suspended innervation and are not to be classed with the ordinary case of atrophy of the abductor muscles of the humerus (supra- and infraspinatus) as in the usual case of "sweeny." Occurrence.--Shoulder atrophy such as the general practitioner commonly meets with, is an affection, more often seen in young animals and it seems to be due to injuries of various kinds which contuse the muscles of the shoulder. Ill-fitting collars and pulling in a manner that there occurs side draft with unusual strain on the muscles of one side of the neck and shoulder, seem to be the more frequent causes of this trouble. Blows such as are occasioned by kicks and falls frequently result in atrophy of shoulder muscles. Course.--In some cases a rapidly progressive atrophy characterizes the case and lameness and atrophy appear at about the same time. The affection in such instances does not recover spontaneously but constitutes a condition which requires prompt and rational treatment so that function may be fully restored to the parts involved. Occasionally one may observe cases where there is but slight atrophy; where the disease progresses slowly and atrophy is not extensive or marked. In vigorous young animals that are left to run at pasture when so mildly affected, spontaneous recovery occurs. Symptomatology.--Lameness is the first manifestation of shoulder atrophy, and in many cases where lameness is slight, the veterinarian may fail to discover the exact nature of the trouble if he is not very proficient as a diagnostician of lameness or if he is careless in taking into consideration obtainable history, age of the subject, etc. Because of the fact that the average layman believes that practically every case of fore-leg lameness wherein it is not obvious that the cause is elsewhere, is due to a shoulder affection of some kind, we may be too hasty in giving the client assurance that no "sweeny" exists. In some of these cases where a diagnosis of "shoulder lameness" has been made and the client has been assured that no sweeny exists, the patient is returned in about a week and there is then marked atrophy of one or both of the spinatus muscles. A mixed type of lameness characterizes this affection, and in the average case there exists little evidence of local pain. The salient points in recognizing the condition are a consideration of history if obtainable; age of the subject; finding slight local soreness, by carefully manipulating the muscles which are usually involved; noting the character of the lameness if any is present; and where atrophy is evident, of course, the true condition is obvious. Treatment.--Subcutaneous injections of equal parts of refined oil of turpentine and alcohol, with a suitable hypodermic syringe, is a practical and ordinarily effective treatment. From five to fifteen cubic centimeters (the quantity varies with the size of the animal), of this mixture is injected into the atrophied parts at different points, taking care to introduce only about one to two cubic centimeters at each point of injection. The syringe should be sterile and, needless to say, the site of injections must be surgically clean. Other agents, such as tincture of iodin, solutions of silver nitrate, saline solutions and various more or less irritating preparations have been employed; but in the use of these preparations one may either fail to stimulate sufficient inflammation to cause regeneration to take place, or infection is apt to occur. Where suppuration results, surgical evacuation of pus must be promptly effected else large suppurating cavities form. The employment of setons constitutes a dependable method of treatment of shoulder atrophy, but because of the attendant suppurative process which inevitably results, this method is not popular with modern surgeons and is a last resort procedure. After-care.--Regular exercise such as the horse usually takes when at pasture, is very helpful in treating atrophy, and in some cases it has been found that no reasonable amount of irritation would stimulate muscular regeneration; but by later allowing patients to exercise at will, recovery took place in a satisfactory manner. No special attention is ordinarily necessary. Paralysis of the Suprascapular Nerve. Anatomy.--The suprascapular (anterior scapular) nerve, a small branch of the brachial plexus, is given off from the anterior portion of this plexus. The nerve rounds the anterior border of the neck of the scapula, passing upward and backward under the supraspinatus (antea-spinatus) muscle and terminating in the infraspinatus (postea-spinatus) muscle. Etiology and Occurrence.--As the result of direct injury to this nerve by contusion such as may be received in runaway accidents, collar bruises, especially collar bruises in young horses that are not accustomed to pulling and that walk in a manner to cause side draft, injury to the nerve occurs, and partial or complete paralysis supervenes. Some writers state that it may be produced by confining an animal in recumbency, with the casting harness. The common cause of paralysis or paresis of this nerve in cases such as one observes in country practice, is bruises from the collar in colts that are put to heavy farm work or where ill fitting collars are used. Symptomatology.--With partial or complete suspension of function of the suprascapular nerve there results enervation of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles. Since these muscles act as external lateral ligaments of the scapulohumeral joint, when they are incapacitated, there naturally follows more or less abduction of the shoulder when weight is borne. In extreme cases, as soon as the ailing animal is caused to support weight with the affected member, the joint is suddenly thrown outward in a manner that the average layman at once concludes that there must be scapulohumeral luxation, and the veterinarian receives a call to see a case wherein the "shoulder is out of place." There exists, however, no luxation in such cases. If serious injury is done the nerve so that it undergoes degenerative changes, there will result atrophy of the muscles that derive their nerve supply from the suprascapular nerve. [Illustration: Fig. 7--Paralysis of the suprascapular nerve of the left shoulder] Treatment.--During the first few days following injuries which result in this form of paralysis, it is well to keep the subject inactive, and if much inflammation of the injured structures contiguous to the nerve exists, the application of cold packs is beneficial. Later, as soon as acute inflammation has subsided, vesication of a liberal area around the anteroexternal part of the scapulohumeral joint and over the course of the suprascapular nerve, will stimulate recovery in favorable cases. As a rule, in mild cases, the subject is in a condition to return to work in two or three weeks. Radial Paralysis. Described under the titles of "Radial Paralysis" and "Brachial Paralysis," there is to be found in veterinary literature a discussion of conditions which vary in character from the almost insignificant form of paresis to the incurably affected conditions wherein the whole shoulder is completely paralyzed. When one considers the anatomy of the brachial nerve plexus and the distribution of its various branches, the location of this plexus and its proximity to the first rib, and the inevitable injury it must suffer in fracture of this bone, together with the inaccessibility of the plexus, it is not strange that a correct diagnosis of the various affections of the brachial plexus and the radial nerve is often impossible until several days or weeks have passed. And, in some instances, diagnosis is not established until an autopsy has been performed. Here, too, we fail to find cause for paralysis in some rare instances. Anatomy.--The radial nerve is a large branch of the brachial plexus and is chiefly derived from the first thoracic root of the plexus and is here situated posterior to the deep brachial artery. It is directed downward and backward under the subscapularis and teres major muscles, rounding the posterior part of the humerus, and passing to the anterior and distal end of the humerus, it finally terminates in the anterior carpal region. The radial nerve supplies branches to the three heads of the triceps brachii, to the common and lateral extensors of the digit and also to the skin covering the forearm. Etiology and Occurrence.--Nothing definite is known about the cause of some forms of radial paralysis. However, radial paralysis is encountered following injury to the nerve occasioned by its being stretched, as in cases where the triceps brachii is unduly extended in restraining subjects by means of a casting harness. Berns[10] states that in confining horses on an old operating table where it was necessary to draw the affected foot forward twenty-four to thirty-six inches in advance of its fellow, which was secured in a natural vertical position, radial paralysis of a mild form was of frequent occurrence. Country practitioners, in restraining colts by casting with harness or ropes, occasionally observe a form of paresis wherein the radial nerve suffers sufficient injury that there is caused a temporary loss of function of the triceps brachii. Such cases recover within three or four days and are not a true paralysis, but nevertheless constitute conditions wherein normal nerve function is temporarily suspended. [Illustration: Fig. 8--Radial paralysis.] Symptoms.--Immediately subsequent to injuries which involve the radial nerve, there is manifested more or less impairment of function. Remembering the structures supplied by the radial nerve and its branches, one can readily understand that there should occur as Cadiot[11] has stated: In complete paralysis, the joints of the affected limb with the exception of the shoulder are usually flexed when the horse is resting. In consequence of loss of power in the triceps and anterior brachial muscles, the arm is extended and straightened on the shoulder, the scapulohumeral angle is open, and the elbow depressed. The forearm is flexed on the arm by the contraction of the coracoradialis (biceps brachii), while the metacarpus and phalanges are bent by the action of the posterior antibrachial muscles. The knee is carried in advance, level with, or in front of, a vertical line dropped from the point of the shoulder. The hoof is usually rested on the toe, but when advanced beyond the above mentioned vertical line, it may be placed flat on the ground, the joints then being less markedly bent. When the limb as a whole is flexed, it may be brought into normal position by thrusting back the knee with sufficient force to counteract the action of the flexor muscles. [Illustration: Fig. 9--Merillat's method of fixing carpus in radial paralysis. Courtesy, Alex. Eger.] When made to walk, the animal being unable to exert muscular action with the paralyzed structures, limply carries the member as a whole, and there is shortening of the anterior portion of the stride. There being loss of function of the triceps brachii, it is impossible for the subject to straighten the leg in the normal position for supporting weight; therefore, any attempt to bear weight results in further flexion of the affected member and the animal will fall if the body is not suddenly caught up with the sound leg. Differential Diagnosis.--In making examination of these cases, one can exclude fracture by absence of crepitation and usually, also, swelling is absent in radial paralysis. In a typical case of radial paralysis, the affected leg can sustain its normal share of weight if placed in position, that is, if the carpal joint is extended in such manner that the leg is positioned as in its normal weight-bearing attitude. In brachial paralysis, whether due to fracture of the first rib or to other serious injury, it is impossible for the subject to support weight with the affected member even when it is passively placed in position. No difficulty is ordinarily experienced in differentiating radial paralysis from muscular injuries to the triceps; yet, in some cases of "dropped elbow," it is necessary to observe the progress of the case for ten days or two weeks before one can positively establish a diagnosis. Quoting Merillat[12]: "When, after four weeks, there is no amelioration of the paralysis, the muscles have atrophied, and the patient has become emaciated from pain and discomfort, the diagnosis of brachial paralysis with fracture of the first rib may then be announced." Prognosis.--When no complete paralysis of the brachial plexus or no fracture of the first rib exists, the majority of cases recover completely in from ten days to six weeks. Some writers claim that recoveries occur in ninety per cent of cases when conditions are favorable. Treatment.--When incomplete radial paralysis exists, little needs be done except to allow the subject moderate exercise and to provide for its comfort. Local applications, stimulative in character, are beneficial, and the internal administration of strychnin is indicated. In the cases where weight is not supported without the affected leg being passively placed in position, it is necessary to provide for the subject's comfort in several ways. Mechanical appliances such as braces of some kind in order to keep the affected leg in a position of carpal extension, constitute the essential part of treatment. The leg is supported in such a manner that flexion of the carpus is impossible. Due regard is given to prevent chafing or pressure necrosis by contact of the skin with the braces--this may be done by bandaging with cotton. The supportive appliance is kept in position for ten days or two weeks. At the end of this time the brace may be removed and the subject given a chance to walk, and improvement, if any exists, will be evident. When there is manifested an amelioration of the condition, moderate daily exercise and massage of the affected parts are helpful. Should the subject be seriously inconvenienced by the application of a brace or other supportive appliances, it is necessary to employ slings. Further, if weight is supported entirely by the unaffected member, laminitis may supervene if a sling is not used. Thrombosis of the Brachial Artery. Thrombosis of the brachial artery or of its principal branches is of very rare occurrence in horses. Etiology.--Partial or complete obstruction of arteries (brachial or others) occurs as the result of direct injury to the vessel wall from compression and tension of muscles and resultant arteritis; lodging of emboli; and parasitic invasion of vessel walls causing internal arteritis. Symptomatology.--If sufficient collateral circulation exists to supply the parts with blood, no inconvenience is manifested while the subject is at rest. Where the lumen of the affected vessel is not completely occluded, there may be no manifestation of lameness when the ailing animal is moderately exercised. Consequently, the degree of lameness depends upon the extent of the obstruction to circulation; and, likewise, the course and prognosis depend upon the character and extent of such obstruction. In severe cases, lameness is markedly increased by causing the animal to travel at a fast pace for only a short distance. There are evinced symptoms of pain, muscular tremors and sudation, but the affected member remains dry and there is a marked difference of temperature between the normal areas and the cool anemic parts. When the subject is allowed to rest, circulation is not taxed, and there is a return to the original and apparently normal condition, only to recur again with exertion. This condition characterizes thrombosis. Treatment.--In these cases, little if any good directly results from any sort of treatment in the way of medication. Absolute rest is thought to be helpful. Potassium iodid, alkaline agents such as ammonium carbonate and potassium carbonate, have been administered. Circulatory stimulants also have been given, but it is doubtful if any good has come from medication. Fracture of Humerus. The shaft of the humerus, protected as it is by heavy muscles, is not frequently fractured; and fractures of its less protected parts, as for example, the head, are complicated in such manner that resultant arthritis soon constitutes the more serious condition. As a result of falls on frozen ground, kicks or any other form of heavy contusion, the humerus is occasionally broken. It is rarely fractured otherwise. Because of the force of contusions usually required to effect humeral fracture, the manner in which the bone is broken, with respect to direction, is variable. Often oblique fractures exist and occasionally there occurs multiple fracture. In addition to the ordinarily serious nature of the fracture itself, there is always much injury done the adjoining structures. Symptomatology.--Mixed lameness and manifestation of severe pain characterize this affection. Considerable swelling which increases, in some cases for a week or more, is to be observed. Crepitation is readily detected, if pain and swelling is not too great to prevent passive movement of the member. Where intense pain is not manifested, because of manipulation, one may abduct the extremity and thereby occasion distinct crepitation; but when it is possible to recognize crepitation by holding the hand in contact with the olecranon while the animal is made to walk, this method is to be preferred, if the subject can move without serious difficulty. The pathognomonic symptom here is recognition of crepitation, but this may be very difficult to recognize in fracture of condyles, and in such instances, a careful examination is necessary. Gentle manipulation in a manner that pain is not aggravated will tend to inspire confidence on the part of the subject and relaxation of muscles will enable the operator to detect crepitation. Course and Prognosis.--Because of the direction of the long axis of the humerus, with relation to the bony column of the extremity, it is obvious that any lateral movement of the leg tends to rotate the shaft of this bone. In fractures of the shaft of the humerus, then, it is apparent that immobilization is very difficult if at all possible. The proximity to the axillary lymph glands makes for easy dissemination of infection when the contused musculature becomes infected. The adjacent brachial nerve plexus is so very apt to become involved, if not actually injured at the time fracture occurs, that paralysis is a probable complication. Consequently, it is logical to reason that because of the many possible serious complications, such as shock, occasioned by the injury and the distress and pain which this accident produces, recovery must be the exception in fracture of the humerus. However, recoveries do take place and in addition to the reported recoveries by Liautard, Moller, Stockfleth, Lafosse, Frohner and others, we have instances cited by American practitioners where cases resulted in recovery. Thompson[13] reports a good recovery in a 1600-pound mare where there existed an oblique fracture of the humerus. This mare was kept in slings for eight weeks. Walters[14] reports complete recovery in humeral fracture in a foal three days old. The only treatment given was the application of a pitch plaster from the top of the scapula to the radius. The colt was kept in a comfortable box stall and in about four weeks regained use of the leg. Complete recovery eventually resulted. In the experience of the author, recovery has not occurred in humeral fractures. Treatment.--When animals are not aged and of sufficient value to justify treatment, they are best supported in a sling, if halter broken. If subjects are nervous, wild and unbroken, it is possible to employ the sling, if care is given to train the animal to this manner of restraint. The presence of an attendant for a day or two will reassure such subjects so that even in these cases it may be practicable to employ the sling. Braces and other mechanical appliances intended to immobilize the parts are not of practical benefit in the horse. Unlike the dog, the horse as yet has not been successfully subjected to tolerating rigid braces for the shoulder and hip. Everything possible must be done that will make for the patient's comfort. If the subject turns out to be a good self nurse, and the nature of the fracture is such that practical apposition of the broken ends of bone may be maintained, recovery will occur in some cases. Inflammation of the Elbow. (Arthritis.) Affections of this articulation other than those which are produced by traumatism are rare. This joint has wide articular surfaces, and securely joined as they are by the heavy medial and lateral ligaments (internal and external lateral ligaments), luxation is practically impossible. When luxation does occur, irreparable injury is usually done. Castagné as quoted by Liautard[15], reports a case of true luxation of the elbow joint in a horse where reduction was effected and complete recovery took place at the end of twenty-five days. This is an unusual case. The average practitioner does not meet with such instances. Anatomy.--The condyles of the humerus articulate with the glenoid cavities of the radius and a portion of the ulna. Two strong collateral ligaments pass from the distal end of the humerus to the head of the radius. The capsular ligament is a large, loose membrane which encloses the articular portion of the humerus with the radius and ulna and also the radioulnar articulation. It is attached anteriorly to the tendon of the biceps brachii (flexor brachii). The capsule extends downward beneath the origin of these digital flexors. This fact should be remembered in dealing with puncture wounds in the region, lest an error be made in estimating their extent and an open joint be overlooked at the initial examination. Etiology and Occurrence.--Exclusive of specific or metastatic arthritis, which is seldom observed except in young animals, inflammation of the elbow joint is usually caused by injury. This articulation is not subject to pathologic changes due to concussion or sprains as occasioned by ordinary service, but is frequently injured by contusion from falls, blows from the wagon-pole and kicks. Wounds which affect the elbow joint, then, may be thought of in most cases, as resultant from external violence. They may be contused wounds or penetrant wounds. Sharp shoe-calks afford a means of infliction of penetrant wounds which may occasion open joint and infectious arthritis. Classification.--A practical manner of classifying inflammation of the elbow is on an etiological basis. Eliminating the forms of elbow inflammation, such as are caused by metastatic infection and other conditions which properly belong to the domain of theory of practice, we may consider this affection under the classification of _contusive wounds_ and _penetrative wounds_. Symptomatology.--Any injury which is of sufficient violence to occasion inflammation of the elbow causes marked lameness and manifestation of pain. The degree of lameness and distress manifested by the subject, depends upon the nature and extent of the involvement. A contusion suffered as the result of a fall, which occasions a circumscribed inflammation of the structures covering this joint and where little inflammation of the articulating parts exists, marked evidence of pain and lameness might be absent. On the other hand, if a true arthritis is incited, there will be evident distress manifested, such as hurried respiration, accelerated pulse, inappetence, mixed lameness, local evidence of inflammation and particularly marked supersensitiveness of the affected parts. Considering these two extremes of manifested distress and injury, one may readily conclude that in the frequently seen case, wherein contusion has occasioned a moderate degree of injury, prognosis is favorable and recovery ordinarily follows in the course of a few weeks' treatment. In cases of arthritis due to penetrative wounds (because of the important function of this joint and its large capsule, which when inflamed discharges synovia in a manner that closure of such an open joint is seldom possible) a very grave condition results. Treatment.--Inflammation of the elbow, such as is frequently seen in general practice where horses are turned out together and exposed to kicks and other injuries, yields to treatment readily, if an open joint does not exist. Hot packs supported in contact with the elbow and kept around the inflamed articulation for a few days, materially decrease pain and tend to reduce inflammation. The subject must be kept quiet in a comfortable stall and, if necessary, a sling used. Where it is impossible for the animal to support much weight with the injured member the sling should be employed. As inflammation abates, which it does in the course of from one to three weeks in uncomplicated cases, the subject may be allowed the freedom of a comfortable box stall. Vesication of the parts is in order, and this may be repeated in the course of two weeks, if it is deemed necessary. Penetrative wounds resulting in open joint are not treated with success as a rule, and because of the handicap under which veterinarians labor, methods of handling such cases, where large, important articulations are affected, are not being rapidly improved. Prognosis is usually unfavorable, and for humane and economic reasons, animals so affected should be destroyed. Ordinary wounds of the region of the elbow are treated along general lines usually employed. They merit no special consideration, except that it may be mentioned that with such injuries concomitant contusion of the parts occasions injury that does not recover quickly. Fracture of the Ulna. Etiology and Occurrence.--Fractures of the ulna in the horse are not common in spite of the exposed position of the olecranon. This bone when broken, is usually fractured by heavy blows and any form of ulnar fracture is serious because of its function and position in relation to the joint capsule. Transverse fractures do not readily unite because of the tension of the triceps muscles, which prevent close approximation of the broken ends of the bone. Thompson[16], however, reports a case of transverse simple fracture of the ulna in a mare, the result of a kick, in which complete recovery took place. He kept the subject in a sling for six weeks and then allowed six months rest. Symptomatology.--The position assumed by a horse suffering from a transverse fracture of the ulna, is similar to that in radial paralysis. Crepitation may be detected by manipulating the parts, and in some instances of fracture of the olecranon, there occurs marked displacement of the broken portions of the bone. Lameness is intense and the parts are swollen and supersensitive. The capsular ligament of the elbow joint is usually involved in the injury because fracture of the ulna may directly extend within the capsular ligament. In such cases, there is synovitis, and later arthritis causes a fatal termination. Treatment.--The impossibility of applying a bandage in any way to practically immobilize these parts in fracture of the ulna, prevents our employing bandages and splints. Therefore, one can do little else than to put the patient in a sling and try to keep it quiet and as nearly comfortable as circumstances allow. Fracture of the Radius. Etiology and Occurrence.--From heavy blows received such as kicks, collision with trees or in falls in runaway accidents, the radius is occasionally fractured. In very young foals, fracture of the radius, as well as of the tibia and other bones, results from their being trampled upon by the mother. Symptomatology.--Excepting in some cases of radial fracture of foals where considerable swelling has taken place, there is no difficulty in readily recognizing this condition. The heavy brachial fascia materially contributes to the support of the radius, and in cases where swelling is marked, crepitation may not be readily detected. In fact, a sub-periosteal fracture may exist for several days or a week or more and then, with subsequent fracture of the periosteum, crepitation and abnormal mobility of the member are to be recognized. In such cases, the subject will bear some weight upon the affected member, but this causes much distress. In one instance the author observed a transverse fracture of the lower third of the radius which was not positively diagnosed until about ten days after injury was inflicted. In this case, without doubt, the subject originally suffered a sub-periosteal fracture of the bone and because the animal was a good self nurse, the brachial fascia supported the radius until the periosteum gave way and the leg dangled. In this instance infection took place and suppuration resulted. It was deemed advisable to destroy this animal. Prognosis.--In adult animals, radial fracture constitutes a grave condition; generally speaking, prognosis, in such cases, is unfavorable. Because of the leverage afforded by the extremity, immobilization of the radius is difficult. Any sort of mechanical appliance, which will immobilize these parts, is likely to produce pressure-necrosis of the soft structures so contacted. There is occasioned thereby much pain and the subject becomes restive, unmanageable and sometimes the splints are completely deranged because of the animal's struggles, and much additional injury to the leg is done. Occasionally, an otherwise favorable case is thus rendered hopelessly impossible to handle, and the subject must be destroyed several days after treatment has been instituted. Consequently, unless all conditions are good, and the affected animal a favorable subject, young, of good disposition, and the fracture a simple transverse one, complete recovery is not likely to result from any practical means of handling. Treatment.--Mature subjects ought to be put in slings and kept so restrained throughout the entire time of treatment. Immobilization of the broken parts of the bone is the object sought. This is attempted by practitioners who employ various methods, and each method has its advocates. Casts are used by some and serve very well in many cases; but because of their bulk and unyielding and rigid nature, they are not well adapted to use on fractures of bones proximal to the carpus and tarsus. This is in reference to plaster-of-paris casts or those of any similar material. Appliances which depend on glue or other adhesive substances combined with leather, wood or fiber for their support, are efficacious but not comfortable. The use of heavy leather when the member has been suitably padded with cotton and bandages, constitutes a very good manner of reducing fracture of the radius or of the tibia. Leather when cut to fit both the medial and lateral sides of a leg, and firmly held with bandages, will form a firm support that yields slightly to changes of position, thus making for comfort of the subject. Such a splint or support should extend from the fetlock region to the elbow, but the cotton and bandages are to reach to the foot. When one considers that, with the supportive appliance placed on each side of the affected member, rigidity is accomplished as much from tensile strain put upon the leather as from its own stiffness, it is seen that the leather need not be of the heaviest--sole leather is unnecessary. Because of the more comfortable immobilizing appliance, the subject is less restive, and chances for a successful outcome are materially increased thereby. In the mature subject, six or eight weeks' time is required for union of the parts to occur sufficiently so that splints may be dispensed with. Rearrangement of the supportive apparatus, however, is possible and usually necessary during the first few weeks of treatment. By employing care in handling the parts, the subject will be unlikely to do itself injury at the time readjustment of splints is being effected. In foals, it is best to give them the run of a box stall with the mother. Being agile, they get up and lie at will without doing injury to the fractured member. The splints (leather is preferable in these cases also) are looked after and readjusted as necessity demands. Three or four weeks time is all that is required for the average young colt to be kept in splints when suffering from simple transverse fracture of the radius. Compound fractures are necessarily more difficult to treat than are the simple variety, but even in such cases recovery results sometimes, and the practitioner is justified in attempting treatment after having explained the situation to his client. Oblique fractures, even when simple, do not completely recover. Muscular and tendinous contraction, together with the natural tendency for the beveled contacting parts of the broken bone to pass one another in oblique fracture, results in shortening of the leg and, if union results, a large callus usually forms. Where shortening of bones occur, necessarily, permanent lameness follows. Wounds of the Anterior Brachial Region. Etiology and Occurrence.--Contusions and lacerations of the forearm are of frequent occurrence in horses and are troublesome cases to handle; particularly is this noticeable where extensive laceration of the parts occurs. These injuries are caused by animals being kicked; by striking the forearm against bars in jumping; and in sections of the country where barbed wire is used to enclose pastures, extensive lacerated wounds are met with when horses jump into such fences. Symptomatology.--Any wound which causes inflammation of the structures of the anterior half of the forearm, is characterized by swinging-leg-lameness. Depending upon the nature and extent of the injury, manifestation varies. In cases where laceration has practically divided all of the substance of the extensor tendons, it is, of course, impossible for the subject to advance the leg; but where lacerated wounds involve only a part of the extensor apparatus of the foreleg, not so much inconvenience is evident, unless the wound is seriously infected and inflammation involves contiguous structures. Therefore, in many instances, lameness is more pronounced in contusions of the anterior brachial region than where tissues have been divided more or less keenly. In every instance diagnosis is easily established. The injury is quite evident, and the manner of locomotion is not in itself an essential feature to be considered in a discussion of symptoms. Where a contusion of the anterior brachial structures occurs, there is, in addition to lameness, swelling which is painful because of the pressure occasioned by the heavy non-yielding brachial fascia. And where suppuration occurs, there is then an intensely painful condition which is not relieved until pus has been evacuated. Rather frequently, drainage for wound secretions is a difficult problem, and approximation of the divided ends of muscles is always difficult to maintain. Treatment.--Contused wounds of the anterior brachial region are treated along usual lines; that is, attempt is made to stimulate prompt resolution. Hot or cold applications are employed throughout the acute stage of the affection. Complete rest is provided for until all pain has subsided. Later, stimulating liniments are beneficial. Where no injury is done the periosteum or bone, complete resorption of all products of inflammation usually occurs, though in many instances, this is tardy--six weeks or more are sometimes required for recovery to take place. If suppuration occurs, it is necessary to provide for drainage as soon as it is possible to distinguish the presence of pus. Due regard is given the manner of establishing drainage because of the usual existence of sub-fascial fistulae. In these cases, one avoids injecting solutions of aqueous antiseptics. By gently compressing the parts, pus is caused to drain out and in enforcing a moderate amount of exercise at a walk, when lameness is not intense, drainage is maintained. Cotton packs, moistened with hot antiseptic solutions, and kept around the forearm for several hours daily, are helpful because drainage is facilitated, and resolution is stimulated by the increase of blood thus attracted to the parts, and pain materially diminishes. In lacerated wounds of the anterior brachial region, after having controlled hemorrhage, an area around the wound margin is freed of hair by clipping or shaving. The wound is carefully examined, and the best site for drainage is selected and a suitable opening for wound discharge is provided for. Where the extensor carpiradialis (metacarpi magnus) with other structures, is divided and the distal portion is torn downward, as frequently is the case in barbed wire cuts, it is necessary to make careful provision for drainage. The wound is thoroughly cleansed by means of ablutions if necessary; but preferably by swabbing with pledgets of cotton or gauze which are moistened in antiseptic solutions. All shreds of macerated tissue are clipped with scissors and finally the whole wound surface is painted with tincture of iodin. If drainage is made by cutting through the tissues in the median portion of the structures that have been displaced, the opening should be packed with gauze so that it may remain patent after swelling has occurred. Such packing is left _in situ_ for twenty-four hours. The pendant muscular portions of tissues are sutured up by means of tapes and, while perfect apposition is not ordinarily possible, it is very essential to train the pendant tissues in their normal position even if they require resuturing within a week. This minimizes granulation of tissue, and there results less scar if the detached portions are kept near, even if not in contact with the proximal wound margins. The skin together with subcutaneous fascia is sutured on either side unless drainage is to be provided for on one side, and the lowermost part of that side is left unsutured. After-care.--Where extensive suturing of tissues has been necessary, subjects must be kept quiet. They are best confined in box stalls and not taken out for several weeks. Particularly is this true where transverse division of extensors has taken place. Sutures are removed at the end of from ten days to three weeks as cases permit. Drainage of wound secretions, which usually become infected, is necessary, because with obstructed drainage in an infected wound of this kind, there will result an early destruction of tissue at some point sutured. Daily irrigation done in a manner that practical asepsis is carried out, is necessary for about a week. All irrigation is done by way of the drainage opening, and this with warm aqueous solutions of suitable antiseptics. After a week or ten days' time, the wound should not be dressed more frequently than twice weekly. If it is necessary to leave a portion of the wound uncovered, as in cases where skin is destroyed, the frequent (three or four daily) application of a suitable antiseptic powder is necessary to check exuberant granulation. This may be directly effected by the use of an astringent or desiccant preparation, and such dressing serves as a mechanical protection as well. When such wounds are kept clean, where drainage is properly maintained, and the subject kept quiet, no particular attention other than the local application of an astringent lotion (such as the zinc and lead lotion) is necessary after the first three or four weeks. Usually, if the animal gnaws at the parts or otherwise manifests evidence of discomfort, it is an indication that new areas of infection are being established because of obstructed drainage or retained eschars. A thorough cleansing of the wound with a two per cent solution of Liquor Cresolis Compositus and this followed by moistening every part of the wound with tincture of iodin, will check all such disturbance if done promptly. Where practically all of the anterior surface of the radius has been denuded, recovery is tardy and there is in some cases imperfect extension of the leg for months after the wound has healed. But in such instances, animals gradually regain complete use of the affected member and in the course of a year function is fully restored. Inflammation and Contraction of the Carpal Flexors. Anatomy.--The structures which are usually considered as true flexors of the carpus are a group of three muscles, which have separate heads of origin and different points of tendinous insertion. The _flexor carpiradialis_ (flexor metacarpi internus) originates from the medial epicondyle of the humerus. It is inserted to the proximal end of the medial metacarpal (inner metacarpal or splint) bone. This muscle is the smaller of the three and is not usually divided in doing carpal tenotomy. The _flexor carpiulnaris_ (flexor metacarpi medius) has two heads of origin; one, the larger, originates from the epicondyle of the humerus and the other from the posterior surface of the olecranon. The two heads unite at the upper third of the radius and the muscle, becoming tendinous, as is the case with the other carpal flexors, is attached by one point of insertion to the accessory carpal bone (trapezum). The other blends with the posterior annular ligament of the carpus. The _ulnaris lateralis_ (flexor metacarpi externus) has its origin from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and inserts to the proximal extremity of the fourth metacarpal (outer splint) bone and by another attachment to the accessory carpal bone (trapezium) with the tendon of the flexor carpiulnaris (flexor metacarpi medius). Acting together, these muscles flex the carpus or extend the elbow and this action is antagonized by the biceps brachii (flexor brachii) and extensors of the carpus and phalanges. Etiology and Occurrence.--Inflammation of the muscular or tendinous parts of the carpal flexors, does not occur as frequently as does inflammation of the flexors of the extremity. They are subject to injury such as is occasioned by hard work and concussion and contract as a result; but, more frequently a congenital malformation of the leg is responsible for undue strain upon these parts. Horses that are "knee sprung" or that have a congenital condition where in the anterior line, as formed by the radius, carpal and metacarpal bones, is bent forward at the carpus, are subject to inflammation and contraction of the carpal flexors. When these flexors are contracted, the condition is commonly known among horsemen as "buck knee." In itself, inflammation of the carpal flexors is not a condition which is likely to prove troublesome, but because of carpal involvement (which is often present) the cause of the trouble remains, and inflammation of the carpal flexors recurs or becomes chronic and contraction of tendons results. Symptomatology.--Inflammation of the carpal flexors, when acute and uncomplicated, is characterized by a painfully swollen condition of the affected tendons. No weight is borne upon the affected leg and the carpal joint is flexed. Mixed lameness is present. There is no difficulty encountered in arriving at a diagnosis because of the very noticeably inflamed parts. Many fully developed cases of contraction of the tendons of the carpal flexors are observed where the condition has become established gradually and no lameness has resulted from tendinitis or carpitis. In some of these cases, subjects are stumblers and when they are carelessly handled or kept at fast work over irregular or hard roads, chronic carpitis with hyperplasia of the structures of the anterior carpal region results, owing to frequent bruising from falls. [Illustration: Fig. 10--Contraction of carpal flexors, "knee sprung."] Where inflammation is caused by a puncture wound and subfascial infection occurs, there is evident manifestation of pain. No weight is supported by the affected member and because of the pressure, occasioned by the swollen muscles confined within the non-yielding brachial fascia, there exists marked supersensitiveness of the affected parts. Flexion of the elbow is avoided because contraction of the biceps brachii (flexor brachii) or the extensors, which are antagonists of the flexors of the carpus, tenses the carpal flexors and pain is thereby increased. However, in most instances, the practitioner's attention is not directed to typical and uncomplicated cases, but to subacute or chronic inflammations which are often attended with contraction of the tendinous parts of the carpal flexors, and in such cases carpitis is present. Animals so affected have lost the rigidity which characterizes the normal carpal joint when the leg is a weight bearing member, and because of its sprung condition, the leg trembles when supporting weight. Treatment.--Acute inflammation is treated by means of local application of cold or hot packs until the pain and acute stage of inflammation has subsided and later stimulating liniments are indicated. Absolute quiet must be enforced. Especially where the carpus is involved must the subject be kept quiet until all evidence of inflammation has subsided. The application of vesicants or line-firing is beneficial in subacute inflammation of the tendons of the carpal flexors. Where contraction of tendons exists and no osseous or ligamentous change prevents correction of the condition, tenotomy is necessary. The reader is referred to Merillat's "Veterinary Surgery"[17] for a good description of the technic of this operation. In all serious cases of inflammation of the carpal flexors, whether tenotomy has been performed or not, the subject needs a long period of rest subsequent to treatment. In fact, three or four months at pasture is necessary to permit of recovery and this where no congenital deformity has predisposed the subject to such affection of the flexors. Return to work must be gradual and the character of the work such as to enable the animal to become inured to service without a recurrence of the trouble if possible. It follows then, that tenotomy, here as in other cases, is not practical from an economic viewpoint, unless the animal be of sufficient value to justify the long period of rest for recovery. Tenotomy is not of practical benefit unless ample time is allowed for regeneration of divided tendinous tissue. Fracture and Luxation of the Carpal Bones. Etiology and Occurrence.--Fracture of the carpal bones is of infrequent occurrence in horses and, when it does occur, it is usually due to injuries, and because of their nature (resulting as they generally do from heavy falls or in being run over by street cars or wagons), a comminuted fracture of one or more bones exists. The accessory carpal bone (trapezium) is said to be fractured at times without being subjected to blows or like injuries, but this is exceptional. Luxations of the carpal joint are of rare occurrence, and very few cases of this kind are on record. Walters[18] reports a case of carpometacarpal luxation in a pony wherein reduction was spontaneous and an uneventful recovery followed. His reason for reporting the case, as he states, is its rarity. Symptomatology.--Fractures of the carpal bones as they usually take place are diagnosed without difficulty. Because of their usually being comminuted, abnormal movement of the joint is possible. Such movement is not restricted and flexion of the leg at the carpus in any direction is possible. Crepitation is readily detected and frequently these fractures are of the compound-comminuted variety. In fracture of the accessory carpal bone (trapezium) or in fracture of any other single bone when such exists, there is no increase in the movement of the joint. The accessory carpal bone may be readily manipulated and when fractured, its parts are more or less displaced. Recognition of fracture of any other single carpal bone must be done by detecting crepitation unless it be a compound fracture, whereupon probing is of aid in establishing a diagnosis. Carpal luxation when present is to be recognized by finding the apposing carpal bones joined in an abnormal manner--that is, out of position. There is restricted or suspended function of the joint, and in the cases recorded, no difficulty has been experienced in making a diagnosis. The carpometacarpal portion of the articulation is the part which is usually affected. Prognosis and Treatment.--There is no chance for complete recovery in the usual case of carpal fracture because of the fact that there results sufficient arthritis to destroy articular cartilage beyond repair. In the average instance, because of arthritis which persists for a considerable length of time, more or less ankylosis results. At best, one can only hope for partial recovery, that is to say, the member may regain its usefulness as a weight-supporting part, but because of restricted or abolished joint function, locomotion is more or less difficult. Exostoses, articular and periarticular, occur and the carpus usually becomes a large immobile articulation. There is danger of infection resulting in simple carpal fractures and, needless to say, in a compound-comminuted fracture of the carpus, infection usually occurs and a fatal outcome is probable. When treatment is instituted, antiseptic precautions are taken in handling the compound fractures, and in any case immobilization of the parts is sought. Here, as has been previously pointed out, it is best to employ leather splints, so that a maximum degree of rigidity with a minimum of distress and inconvenience to the patient will result. The leg must be bandaged from the hoof upward, making use of a sufficient amount of cotton to ensure against pressure-necrosis. The leather splints are placed mesially and laterally and, of course, need to extend as high as the proximal end of the radius. Subjects must be kept in slings until union of bones has become established, and as a rule there will then exist marked ankylosis. There is no particular difference in the handling of carpal luxation and dislocation of other bones. Where ligaments have not been destroyed to the extent that reduction is of no practical use, the parts are kept immobilized, if thought necessary. Later, vesication of the whole pericarpal region is done and the subject allowed exercise at will. Carpitis. Etiology and Occurrence.--Inflammation of the carpus is caused by contusions, such as are occasioned in falling, by kicks by striking the carpus against objects in jumping and sometimes by striking it against the manger in pawing. The condition is of rather frequent occurrence. Symptomatology.--Evident symptoms of inflammation in carpitis are always present--hyperthermia, supersensitiveness and swelling. Also, there exists lameness which is characterized by an apparent inability to flex the leg, and there is circumduction of the leg as it is advanced because in this way little if any flexion of the carpus (which increases pain) is necessary. Depending upon the nature of the cause, there occurs a marked difference in the character and amount of swelling. [Illustration: Fig. 11--Pericarpal inflammation and enlargement due to injury.] Naturally, when much extravasation of serum and blood takes place, there is occasioned a fluctuating swelling which is usually less painful to the subject upon manipulation than is a dense inflammatory change without marked extravasation. In acute carpitis, there is present, then, a very painful condition which involves the articulation, causing marked lameness, disturbance of appetite and some elevation of temperature. Chronic cases do not occasion serious pain or constitutional disturbances, but do interfere with locomotion in direct proportion to the existing articular inflammation and periarticular hypertrophy of ligamentous and tendinous structures. Treatment.--If possible, keep the subject absolutely quiet, employing the sling if necessary. During the first stages of inflammation, the application of ice packs to the affected parts, is of marked benefit. At the end of forty-eight hours, hot applications may be used and this treatment continued throughout several days. Anodyne liniments are of service and should be employed throughout the acute stage of inflammation during intervals between the hydrotherapeutic treatments. As inflammation subsides, a counterirritating application such as a suitable liniment and later blistering or line-firing is helpful in stimulating resolution. [Illustration: Fig. 12--Hygromatous condition of the right carpus, also distension of sheaths of extensor tendons of both fore legs.] Open Carpal Joint. Anatomy.--The carpal bones as they articulate with one another and with the radius and metacarpal bones, as classed by anatomists, form three distinct articular parts of the joint as a whole and are known as radiocarpal, intercarpal and carpometacarpal. These three pairs of articulating surfaces are all enclosed within one capsular ligament. On the anterior face of the bones, the capsular ligament is attached to the carpal bones in such manner that an imperfect partitioning of the three joint compartments is formed. Posteriorly, the capsule is very heavy and forms a sort of padding over the irregular surfaces of the bones, and also its reflexions constitute the sheaths of the flexor tendons. The anterior portion of the capsular ligament forms sheaths for the extensor tendons, and both portions of the joint have an attachment around the distal end of the radius and another at the proximal end of the metacarpal bones. [Illustration: Fig. 13--Carpal exostosis in aged horse.] Etiology and Occurrence.--Puncture wounds of any kind may serve to perforate the joint capsule and such traumatisms are occasioned by falls, kicks and in various ways in runaway accidents, and open carpal joint may follow. Symptomatology.--The pathognomonic symptoms of the existence of an open joint is the exposure to view of articular surfaces of bones or noting the escape of synovia from the joint capsule. As has been previously referred to, there always exists a peculiar suspension of carpal flexion in all cases of carpitis. Non-infective wounds which may cause open joint are not necessarily productive of an active carpitis--a synovitis may be the extent of the disturbance. Unlike synovitis, which may characterize a non-infectious penetrative wound of the capsular ligament, septic arthritis which may supervene is a very painful inflammatory disturbance. It is characterized by all of the symptoms which attend the case of open joint and synovitis plus the obvious manifestation of great pain. There is an elevation of temperature of from two to five degrees above normal; circulation is accelerated; the pulse is bounding; respiration is hurried; there is an expression of pain as indicated by the physiognomy; and because of rapid erosive changes of cartilages which take place, there is soon so much of the articulation destroyed that death is inevitable. Death is usually due to generalization of the arthritic infection. [Illustration: Fig. 14--Exostosis of carpus resultant from carpitis.] [Illustration: Fig. 15--Distal end of radius. Illustrating the effects of chronic carpitis.] In the meanwhile, if the character of the infectious material is not so virulent, the disease will take on a slower course and the subject may experience laminitis from supporting weight upon the sound member, or because of continued recumbency, decubital gangrene and emaciation sometimes cause death. If the subject does not soon succumb, it is compelled to undergo days or even weeks of unnecessary suffering, and too often in such cases, it is later deemed advisable to destroy the animal because of the cost of continuing treatment until the horse is serviceable. Therefore, it is evident that when such joints as the carpus or tarsus are open and infection exists, if they are not promptly treated and the infectious process checked, it is neither humane nor practical to prolong treatment. Distinction must be made between the different joints when infected as the condition is much more serious in some cases than in others. All things considered, perhaps open joints rank, with respect to being serious cases as follows: elbow, navicular, stifle, tarsus, carpus, fetlock and pastern. This, of course, is restricted to articulations of the locomotory apparatus. Treatment.--Preliminary care in the treatment of an open carpal joint, is the same as has been described in this condition as it affects the scapulohumeral articulation described on page 65. Likewise the further treatment of such cases is along the same lines except that where it is possible, the parts are kept covered with cotton and bandages. However, in some cases, animals have been successfully treated without bandaging and by keeping the patient in a standing position and on pillar reins until recovery resulted. Such cases were of the non-infectious type and recovery was possible within three or four weeks. Further, the condition is not sufficiently painful in such instances as to prevent the subjects bearing weight with the affected member; hence, no danger of resulting laminitis is incurred. And finally, where bandages are not employed, the frequent use of antiseptic dusting powders is substituted for cotton as a protector. When bandaged, such wounds need dressing more or less frequently, as individual instances demand. The purulent infective inflammation of a carpal joint will require daily dressing; whereas, in other cases (non-infective), semi-weekly change of bandages is sufficient. Equal parts of boric acid and exsiccated alum constitute a suitable combination for the treatment of these cases, and this powder should be liberally employed. Tincture of iodin may be injected into the joint capsule where there is provision for its ready evacuation, as conditions seem to require. Daily injections for three, four or five days, are not harmful and will control infection in many instances. Thecitis and Bursitis. Etiology and Occurrence.--The thecae and bursae of the leg are several in number. In the carpal region, the flexors of the phalanges are contained together in the carpal sheath, and this is the principal theca in the carpal region. Each of the tendons is provided with synovial sheaths which are subject to inflammation and occasionally synovitis and distension of these synovial sheaths occur. Because of faulty conformation, some animals are subject to inflammation of these sheaths, and all forms of strenuous work which taxes the tendons greatly is apt to result in synovitis. Direct injury such as blows may be the cause of synovial distension of thecae and the affection is to be seen in all horses that have done much fast work on hard road surfaces or pavements. The usual case as it occurs in practice is a non-infective synovitis, but where puncture wounds cause the trouble, an infectious inflammation obtains. Symptomatology.--No trouble is experienced in diagnosing distension of tendon sheaths, for the affection is very palpable. During acute inflammatory stages of this affection, some lameness is present--in infectious inflammation lameness is intense. Local heat and pain upon manipulation are readily discernible in all acute cases. And finally, where there is reason for doubt, an aseptic exploratory puncture of the wall of the fluctuating enlargement may be made with a suitable trocar, and the discharging synovia will be proof of the existence of synovial distension. After the affection becomes subacute or chronic, no lameness or inconvenience is manifested, and the condition is undesirable only because of its being a blemish. Treatment.--Acute non-infectious synovial distension of tendon sheaths is treated by aspirating as much synovia as possible from the affected theca (this is, of course, done under strict asepsis) and by means of bandages, a uniform degree of pressure is kept over the parts for ten days or two weeks. The patient is kept quiet and in the course of two weeks an active blistering agent is employed over the region affected. Usually, at the end of a month's time, complete recovery has taken place and the subject may be gradually returned to work. When synovial distensions are of long standing, it is necessary to take special precautions to check excessive secretion of synovial fluid, and, also because of the atonic condition of the tissues affected, resolution is tardy. In addition to aspirating synovia, the introduction of equal parts of alcohol and tincture of iodin into the theca is necessary. The quantity of this combination injected, depends upon the size of the sheath affected and the amount of synovia retained at the time injection is made. Experience is necessary to judge as to this part of the work, but one may consider that a quantity between three and ten cubic centimeters of equal parts of tincture of iodin and alcohol constitutes the proper amount to employ. Where much synovia is contained within the sheath at the time of injection, there occurs great dilution of the agent injected and consequently less irritation results. The object of such injections is to check synovial secretion, and this is sought by the local effect of iodin in contact with the secreting cells together with the reactionary swelling which occasions pressure. An increase in the local blood supply also follows. In all cases where it is possible to employ suitable bandages, this should be done. The ordinary derby bandages serve well and if their use is continued for a sufficient length of time, good results follow. There are other methods of treating these affections, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. Line-firing, instead of the vesicant is made use of by some, but the object desired is the same and results obtained are similar. Sheaths may be opened surgically by means of a knife, and the removal of a portion of the wall of distended and atonic tendon sheaths is possible. These operations belong to the realm of surgery and are not properly a part of this treatise. However, in passing, it may be said that if a perfect technic is possible in doing the last named operation, a permanent recovery is the outcome. Fracture of the Metacarpus. Etiology and Occurrence.--As the result of all sorts of violence, such as falls and injuries in accidents of various kinds wherein the metacarpals are subjected to contusions, fractures may result. In the horse it is unusual for fracture of one of the small metacarpal bones to take place without there being at the same time a fracture of the third (large) metacarpal bone. Classification.--Fractures of the metacarpal bones as they occur, are as likely to be compound as simple, and the multiple and comminuted varieties are occasionally observed. The manner in which the third (large) metacarpus is fractured, largely determines the outcome in any given case. Symptomatology.--Abnormal mobility of the broken parts of bone and crepitation mark fracture of the metacarpus, and the condition is easily diagnosed. In many instances, when compound fracture exists, broken ends of bone are protruding through the skin. No weight is borne upon the fractured member ordinarily, although during the excitement occasioned by runaways, horses are sometimes seen to support weight with a broken leg even when the protruding bone is sunk into the ground in so doing. Prognosis.--Generally speaking, fractures other than the simple-transverse in young animals, are considered unfavorable cases. With the metacarpus, however, there are instances where compound fracture occurs in colts that justify treatment. But in all cases of compound fracture, the element of infection in addition to the increased difficulty in maintaining immobility of the broken bone, creates almost insuperable difficulties in the average instance. And unless the practitioner distinctly explains to his client the various reasons which make treatment an economic impracticability, dissatisfaction is likely to follow if treatment is instituted without such an understanding. Treatment.--Perfect apposition of the broken ends of bone is easily effected and less difficulty is encountered in maintaining such relations in metacarpal fractures than in fractures of the radius. However, reduction and immobilization of this as in all fractures, must be done without delay. In simple fracture, the metacarpus is covered with enough cotton to pad the parts, and this is retained in position by bandages. Splints of heavy leather or of thin pieces of tough flexible wood are placed on each side of the leg and firmly held in position with bandages. Bandages may be put on in layers and a coating of glue applied over each layer if this is thought necessary. The advantage gained in using glue or other adhesive materials is that the cast thus formed is more rigid than where such material is not employed. On the other hand, all elasticity is lost as soon as the cast adapts itself to the contour of the extremity, and because of this rigidity, it is doubtful if anything is gained by the incorporation of glue, except in the way of added strength of the cast. Since the animal does not walk upon the broken leg, it is possible to employ splints of suitable materials which are retained in position without glue and frequent readjustment of a part of the immobilizing apparatus is possible. This is impossible with casts. In compound fractures, provision ought to be made for dressing the wound of the soft structures. This entails adjusting the splints in such manner that one splint may be retained and others removed for dressing the wound and readjusted as often as wound dressing is necessary. Splints. By this term is meant a condition where there exists an exostosis which involves usually the second (inner small) and third (large) metacarpal bones. While an exostosis involving any one of the splint bones, even when directly caused by an injury, is called a "splint," the term is employed here, in reference to exostoses not due to direct injury such as in contusions. Etiology and Occurrence.--This condition is one wherein there is osseous formation following a periostitis and the region of the upper portion of the second (inner small) metacarpal bone is the usual site of the exostosis. There is incited an inflammation of the periosteum at the site of the interosseous ligament which attaches the small to the large metacarpal bone. This ligament is involved in the inflammatory process, and according to Havemann, whose view is supported by Moller, this inflammation is the origin of the trouble. Various theories attempting an explanation of the frequent affection of this one certain part so regularly involved have been offered, but no proof of the correctness of any exists. It follows, however, that splints occur in young animals; that the affection seldom starts in subjects that are ten years of age or older, and that when the exostosis has formed, lameness usually subsides. Anything which will cause undue strain or irritation of the metacarpal bones in young animals, is quite apt to result in a splint being formed. Concussion such as is caused by fast work on hard roads, or work on rough or irregular road surfaces which cause unequal distribution of weight, will cause splint lameness and exostosis follows. [Illustration: Fig. 16--Posterior view of radius (right) illustrative of effects of splint. Note the extent of exostosis.] Course.--Because of the peculiar manner in which the second and third metacarpal bones articulate in young animals, until the bones become ossified and permanently joined, the inflammation which attends the acute stage of this affection, causes lameness. Later, unless an unusually large exostosis is formed, which may cause a constant irritation due to its size and juxtaposition to the carpus, lameness is discontinued. Symptomatology.--Lameness is usually the first manifestation of this disorder, and the thing which characterizes splint lameness is its peculiar intermittence. There is a mixed form of lameness which may not be in evidence when an affected animal is started on a drive, but which is marked after the subject has gone some distance. The animal may, however, go lame throughout the whole of a drive and continue to be lame for several days or weeks in some cases. It is noticeable that lameness is augmented or produced when the subject travels on rough road surfaces and that little or no difficulty is encountered when roads are smooth. The heavy brachial fascia is inserted in part to the head of the second metacarpal (inner small) bone together with the oblique digital extensor (extensor metacarpi obliquus) and this explains the reason for pain being manifested during extension of the member. Before there is a visible exostosis, supersensitiveness is readily recognized upon palpation of the parts, if careful comparison is made between the sound and unsound members. However, frequently splints occur on both forelegs at the same time and in some instances exostoses are several in number upon each member affected. In some instances, the affection involves the outer splint bone and no evident involvement of the inner one exists. Treatment.--At the onset complete rest should be provided and the local application of some good cataplasm is in order. A stimulating liniment is beneficial when employed several times daily and massage is also quite helpful. Later, the application of a blistering ointment is good treatment. The use of the actual cautery stimulates prompt resolution, but there is seldom any resorption of products of inflammation following firing. Whereas, in cases where other treatment is begun early, there usually follows considerable diminution in the size of the exostosis. A rest of four or five weeks is necessary and very young animals should not be put to work too soon, if the character of the work is such as to induce a recurrence of the trouble. Many cases are treated successfully in draft types of animals (where the subjects are not kept at work that occasions serious irritation to the affected parts) by blistering the exostosis repeatedly and allowing the animals to continue in service. In such cases, it is unreasonable to expect to check the size of the exostosis and, of course, such methods are not employed where lameness causes distress to the subject. Firing usually causes prompt recovery from lameness and is a dependable manner of treating such cases but there remains more blemish following cauterization than where vesication is done. OPEN FETLOCK JOINT. This condition, because of the frequency with which it occurs may be taken as typal, from the standpoint of treatment and results obtained therefrom. While it serves to constitute a basis from which other joints, when open, are to be considered, due allowance must be made for the fact that, as has been previously mentioned, some articulations when open constitute cause for grave consequences; while with others an open capsule, even when infected, does not cause disturbance enough to be classed as difficult to handle. Moreover, the fetlock joint is admirably suited, anatomically, to bandaging; and when wounded, is easily kept protected by means of surgical dressings. This fact is of great importance in influencing the course and termination in any given case of open fetlock joint and should not be forgotten. There is no logical reason for comparing the pedal joint with the pastern on the basis that it may also be completely and securely bandaged. Open navicular joint does not occur, as a rule, except by way of the solar surface of the foot, and the introduction of active and virulent contagium is certain to happen; consequently, an acute synovitis quickly resulting in an intensely septic and progressively destructive arthritis soon follows in perforation of the capsule of the distal interphalangeal articulation. Etiology and Occurrence.--Wounds of the fetlock region resulting in perforation or destruction of a part of the capsular ligament are caused by all sorts of accidents, such as wire cuts, incised wounds occasioned by plowshares, disc harrows, stalk cutters and other farming implements. In runaways the joint capsule is sometimes punctured by sharp pieces of wood or other objects. In horses driven on unpaved country roads the fetlock is occasionally wounded by being struck against the sharp end of some object, the other end of which is firmly embedded in the ground. In one instance the author treated a case wherein the fetlock joint was perforated by the sickle-guard of a self-binder. In this case there occurred complete perforation causing two openings through the _cul-de-sac_ of the joint. Such wounds are produced by implements which are, to say the least, non-sterile, and this perforation of the uncleansed skin conveys infectious material into the joint capsule. Yet in many instances, especially in country practice, no infectious arthritis results where cases are promptly cared for. Symptomatology.--A difference in the character of symptoms is evidenced when dissimilar causes exist. Small penetrant wounds which infect the synovial membranes cause infectious arthritis in some cases, whereas a wound of sufficient size to produce evacuation of all synovia will, in many instances, cause no serious distress to the subject, even when not treated for several days. If it is not evident that an open joint exists and the articular cavity is not exposed to view a positive diagnosis may be early established by carefully probing the wound. In some cases where a small wound has perforated the joint capsule, swelling and slight change of relation of the overlying tissues may preclude all successful exploratory probing. In such instances it is necessary to await development of symptoms. Twenty-four hours after injury has been inflicted, there is noticeable discharge of synovia which coagulates about the margin of the orifice, where synovial discharge is possible. Particularly evident is this accumulation of coagulated synovia where wounds have been bandaged--there is no mistaking the characteristic straw-colored coagulum which, in such cases, is somewhat tenacious. No difference exists between other symptoms in infectious arthritis caused by punctures, and non-infectious arthritis, excepting the intensity of the pain occasioned, the rise in temperature, circulatory disturbances, etc.; all of which have been previously mentioned. Treatment.--Just as has been stated in discussions on the subject of open joint, probing or other instrumentation is to be avoided until the exterior of the wound and a liberal area surrounding has been thoroughly cleansed--too much importance can not be placed on this preliminary measure. In cases of open joint where ragged wound margins exist and the interior of the joint capsule is contaminated, much time is required to thoroughly cleanse all soiled parts. In some instances an hour's time is required for this cleansing process after the subject has been restrained and prepared. In order to thoroughly cleanse these delicate structures without doing them serious injury, one ought to be skillful and careful in all manipulations of the exposed parts of the joint capsule. The general plan of treatment, after preliminary cleansing has been accomplished, has been outlined on page 66 in the consideration of scapulohumeral joint affections. The injection of undiluted tincture of iodin in ounce quantities, it must be remembered, is not to be done unless there is provision for its free exit. Where good drainage from the joint cavity exists all infected wounds should be thus treated, and this treatment may be repeated as conditions seem to require--until infection is checked. If daily injections are necessary, dilution of the tincture of iodin with an equal amount of alcohol is advisable in order to avoid doing irreparable damage to the articular cartilages and synovial membranes. An antiseptic powder composed of equal parts of boric acid and exsiccated alum is employed to protect the wound surfaces and the margins, and the parts are then bandaged. In bandaging wounds of this kind a liberal amount of cotton should be employed, and after a large surface surrounding the wound has been thoroughly cleansed, it must be so kept thereafter. This is impossible, if one uses a small amount of cotton, particularly if such meager quantity of dressing material is carelessly wrapped in position with an insufficient amount of bandage material. Mention, without description of the elemental problem of applying cotton and bandages to a wound, would be sufficient, were it not that this is a very important part of the handling of such cases, and many practitioners are not only thoughtless in this part of their work, but also apparently careless. What does it profit to prepare a part and cleanse a wound with painstaking care and then neglect to take every possible precaution to prevent its subsequent contamination? In the handling of open joint capsules where the perforation of the capsular ligament is small and discharge of synovia does not immediately follow, there is presented a problem which is difficult to decide upon and that is the manner in which such wounds are to be handled. One hesitates to enlarge such openings to drain or irrigate the capsule when there is no proof that serious trouble will follow because of infectious material which has probably been introduced at the time the wound was inflicted. It is especially difficult to decide upon the manner of handling such cases where the tarsal joint is wounded, although one hesitates to invade any joint to the extent of incising its capsule, unless there is urgent need of so doing. Frost[19] offers the following suggestion in such instances: The treatment recommended by us for open joints, in which we wish to prevent ankylosis, is, first, to shave all hair from the area surrounding the wound, following with a thorough cleansing of the skin and disinfection of the wound, and then to inject a twenty per cent Lugol's solution in glycerin into the wound. This should be repeated two or three times a day, each time enough of the solution being injected to fill the joint capsule, thereby securing the flushing effect. As this solution does not cause irritation to the tissue and yet is a strong antiseptic, it serves to shorten the period of congestion and inflammation and to overcome the infection without causing a destruction of the secreting membrane until the external wound has had time to heal. The injection of this solution seems to retard the excessive secretion of synovia. The larger the joint capsule and the smaller the external wound, the longer our antiseptic will remain in contact with the inflamed tissues as the glycerin, being thick, does not flow through a small opening. After-care.--Following the initial cleansing and treatment of open joint, subsequent dressing is necessary as frequently as conditions demand. If the parts are badly infected and profuse discharge of pus exists a daily change of dressings is necessary. In the average instance, however, semi-weekly treatments are sufficient. And in many instances where one is obliged to travel a considerable distance to handle the affected animal one weekly dressing of the wound will suffice after the second treatment. The same general plan of treatment concerning the subject's comfort that has been previously mentioned in arthritis, is carried out here. A further and detailed consideration of the subject of handling of open joints follows.[20] * * * Such wounds may be classified in two general groups as follows: First, wounds in which the trauma has exposed the articulation to view, and second, those the result of punctures, in which the external wound is small and free drainage is lacking. Wounds in which the articulation is exposed to view have drainage either all ready provided for, or it is established without hesitancy surgically. With free drainage thus established there is little or no chance for the adjacent tissues to become infiltrated with infected wound discharge. This prevents an extension of the injury and the establishment of a good field for the growth of anaerobic bacteria. Open joints caused by punctures, unless the puncture is aseptic, produce a swelling which is more painful than is the open wound which exposes the joint to view. Especially is this true if the puncture is of small diameter, allowing the tissues to partially close the opening immediately after the wound has been made. Where drainage is lacking there follows an exudation which congests the tissues surrounding the injury and all factors favoring germ growth are present. It is perhaps advisable to establish good drainage in such cases as soon as a diagnosis is made. It is not always an easy matter to recognize an open-joint, when first made, but twelve to twenty-four hours later there is no cause for doubt. The condition is then a very painful one; lameness is excessive; there is rise in temperature; acceleration of the pulse and manipulation or palpation of the region affected, occasions great pain. The treatment of open joints must be varied to suit the disposition of the animal, the nature and location of the injury, the length of time intervening between the infliction of the wound and the first attention given, and the surroundings in which the patient is kept. In each and every case in which there exists an open wound the surface surrounding the wound is cleansed thoroughly, the hair is shaved if possible, and the margin of the wound is curretted and cleansed thoroughly with antiseptic solutions. If there is evidence that the articulation contains infective material, it is washed out with copious quantities of peroxide of hydrogen--usually as much as six or eight ounces. This is followed by injection of an ounce or two of tincture of iodin. Even though the joint appears to be clean some tincture of iodin is used, as it checks the secretion of synovia and is, in every way, beneficial. Care is taken to apply the iodin also to the surface immediately surrounding the wound. The entire wound is then covered with a dusting powder composed of zinc oxide, boric acid, exsiccated alum, phenol and camphor. This powder is used in abundance and the wound is then covered with a heavy layer of absorbent cotton and well bandaged. This bandage is not disturbed for at least three days and may be left in place for a week. In cases in which it is necessary to keep the dressing on for a week, or in cases where the patient is, through necessity, kept in quarters that are wet or unclean, the first bandage is covered with a layer of oakum which has been saturated in oil of tar and this in turn is held in place by means of several layers of bandages. The bandages are also saturated with oil of tar. In from one to two months wounds so treated, unless they are foot-wounds, will be ready to dress without being bandaged. It is ordinarily unnecessary to dress foot-wounds oftener than every second week after the discharge of synovia has ceased. When the wound has filled with granulation, a protective dressing is applied which is rendered water proof by the use of bandages covered with oil of tar. The patient can now be turned out for a month or six weeks without disturbing the dressing. After the removal of the bandages, the only treatment necessary is an occasional application of some mildly antiseptic ointment. Except in nail pricks of the foot, occasioned by punctures, a five per cent tincture of iodin is injected into open joints, if the wound remains sufficiently open, and this treatment is continued so long as there is a discharge of synovia. Surgical drainage is established if it is considered practicable and the remainder of the treatment is about the same as for wounds which are open. Open joints occur in horses at pasture and are sometimes not discovered until several days or a week after the injury, and in some instances the wounds are filled with maggots. The only difference in the treatment of these cases is that more time and care is taken in cleansing the wound, more curetting is necessary, and after cleansing the wound with peroxide of hydrogen, the joint is thoroughly washed out with equal parts of tincture of iodin and chloroform. This is followed by the injection of a quantity of seventy-five percent alcohol and the wound is dressed and bandaged as already described. At each subsequent dressing of infected wounds so treated less suppuration is noticed and the synovial discharge usually ceases in from one to two months. About _ninety percent of all cases of open joint make complete recoveries_, about four per cent partially recover and six per cent are fatal. Among the fatal cases are the open joints with complications as severed tendons, those occasioned by calk wounds in horses that are stabled, and nail punctures of the feet. The following report of twelve favorable cases is taken from a record of sixty-two cases. The favorable ones are reported, chiefly because there are now enough reports on record of such cases which have terminated fatally. Case 1.--A gray gelding used as a saddle pony received a horizontal wire cut laying completely bare the scapulohumeral articulation. The margins of the wound were cleansed as heretofore described, a drainage was provided surgically, tincture of iodin was injected and the wound was covered with equal parts of boric acid and exsiccated alum. The horse was kept tied and a diluted tincture of iodin was injected into the wound once daily and the powder applied often enough to keep the wound covered. The case made a complete recovery and the pony was again in service within sixty days. Case 2.--A twelve-hundred-pound bay mare with an open carpal joint. The wound was an open one about two and one-half inches in length, and made transversely and when the member was flexed the articular surface of the carpal bones were presented to view. An ounce of tincture of iodin was injected into this joint after having cleansed the margin of the wound and the mare was cross-tied in a single stall to keep her from lying down. The owner was instructed to keep the outside of the wound powdered with air slaked lime and a very unfavorable prognosis was given. I heard nothing further from this case until fifty-nine days from the date of the injury, when I met the owner driving this mare to a buggy. The wound had healed by first intention and at that time so little cicatrix remained that it was difficult to find it. Case 3.--A brown mare with an open fetlock joint due to a spike-nail puncture. Lameness was excessive, and joint greatly swollen. Tincture of iodin was injected into the wound and towels dipped in hot antiseptic solutions were applied for several hours daily until the acute stage had passed. Later the mare was turned out to pasture and a vesicant was applied once or twice a month until recovery was complete which was in about six months. Case 4.--A four-year-old bay mare having a wire-cut which opened the tarsus joint was treated as heretofore described. The wound was kept bandaged for about two weeks and later it was dressed without being bandaged. In ninety days she had completely recovered. Case 5.--A twelve-year-old mare with an open fetlock joint due to a puncture wound. The margins of the wound were cleansed and the external wound enlarged to facilitate drainage. Tincture of iodin was injected; the wound was bandaged and dressed for a month in the manner heretofore described, when all discharge had stopped. A vesicant was applied; the mare was put to pasture and within sixty days from the date of the injury she was being driven on short trips. Case 6.--A two-year-old brown gelding with a wire-cut on the left front foot. The wound extended down through the sole and opened the navicular joint. This colt was very wild and it was necessary to tie it down each time the wound was dressed. The wound was dressed weekly for a month and less frequently thereafter. It was handled eight times; the last dressing was left in place until worn out. Six months later the colt was practically well, a very little lameness being shown when walking on frozen ground. Case 7.--A seven-year-old saddle-horse weighing eleven hundred and fifty pounds received a wound of the tarsus, laying bare the articular surfaces of a part of the joint. It was impossible to keep this wound bandaged because of the restless disposition of the subject. Injections of a dilute tincture of iodin were employed every second or third day for a month and the wound was kept covered with the antiseptic dusting powder referred to heretofore. In five months complete recovery had taken place, with the exception of a stubborn skin disturbance which was successfully treated six months after the wound was inflicted. The horse is still in use and is absolutely free from lameness. Case 8.--A two-year-old brown gelding with a wire-wound opening the scapulohumeral joint. This wound was large enough to expose to view the articular portion of the humerus. The same treatment as that given case No. one was instituted and in ninety days the colt was practically well. Case 9.--A three-year-old bay filly was found at pasture with one fore foot badly injured. The owner intended to destroy her, but a neighbor prevailed upon him to have her treated. Apparently the wound was of about a week's standing and in a very bad condition, filled with maggots and dirt. Both the navicular and coronary articulations were open. This wound was cleansed in the usual manner and the owner cared for the case the balance of the time because the distance from my office was too great to give her personal attention. She made an almost complete recovery in five months. Case 10.--At two-year-old mule with an open navicular joint due to a barbed wire wound. Usual care was given this case and in five months recovery was complete and little scar is to be seen. This case received seven treatments. Case 11.--An eighteen-months-old colt at pasture was found down and unable to rise without help. In addition to several wounds of lesser importance there was a large wound on the inner side of the elbow, the joint was open and the entire leg was greatly swollen and in a state of acute infectious inflammation. The colt could not walk, its temperature was 105°, pulse was rapid and respiration was a little hurried. After advising the owner to put the poor animal out of its misery I left the place. Four days later the owner came to my office and asked if he could borrow some old shears to "trim off some loose hide from that colt." He left the colt in the pasture and all the care it received was the regular application of a proprietary dusting powder. It made a complete recovery. Case 12.--A family mare, heavy in foal, received a vertical wound of the fetlock joint inflicted by a disc-harrow. The _cul-de-sac_ of the ligament of this joint was opened freely. The wound was dressed in the usual manner and again three days later when no suppuration had taken place. Four days later the patient gave birth to a colt and suckled it right along through her convalescence. This wound healed by first intention and seventy-nine days from the date of the injury the mare was driven to town, two and one-half miles distant, and showed but little lameness. Phalangeal Exostosis (Ringbone) This term is applied to exostoses involving the first and second phalanges (suffraginis and corona), regardless of their size, extent or location. It is a misnomer, in a sense, and the veterinarian is frequently obliged to spend considerable time with his clients in order to convince them that a spherodial exostosis of the proximal phalanx, in certain cases, is in reality "ringbone," even though there exists no exostosis which completely encircles the affected bone. Etiology and Occurrence.--Exostosis of the first and second phalanges is usually due to some form of injury, whether it be a contusion, a lacerated wound which damages the periosteum, or periostititis and osteitis incited by concussions of locomotion, or ligamentous strain. Practically the only exception is in the rachitic form of ringbone which affects young animals. There are predisposing causes that merit consideration, chief among which is the normal conformation of the coronet joint. This proclivity is constant; the normal interphalangeal articulation is an incomplete ginglymoid joint and while its dorso-volar diameter is great, this in no wise compensates for its disproportionately narrow transverse diameter. The pivotal strain which is sometimes thrown upon this articulation when an animal turns on one foot, as well as the tension which is put on the collateral ligaments when the inner or the outer quarter of the foot rests in a depression of the road surface, tends to detach the insertion of these ligaments or to cause fibrillary fractures of their substance. Short, upright, pasterns receive greater concussion during fast travel on hard roads than do the longer more sloping and well formed extremities. Those who are advocates of the theory that this type of osteitis with its complications has its origin in the articular portion of the joint, claim that the upright pastern constitutes an important tendency toward ringbone. Howbeit, ringbone is an active, serious and frequent cause of lameness and it affects animals of all ages and occurs under various conditions. Horses having good conformation and kept at work wherein no great amount of strain is put upon these parts, are occasionally victims of this affection. Classification.--The arrangement employed by Moller[21] is intensely practical and logical. He considers ringbone as _articular_, _periarticular_, _rachitic_ and _traumatic_. A mode of classification that is common and in a practical way, good, is, high and low ringbone. When prognosis is considered, for instance, it is very convenient to state that the chances for recovery are much better in high ringbone than in low ringbone. The classification of Möller will be followed here. [Illustration: Fig. 17--Phalangeal exostoses.] Symptomatology.--In all forms of incipient ringbone except rachitic, the first manifestation of its existence, or of injury to the ligaments in the region of the pastern joint which causes periostitis, or affections of the articular portions of the proximal inter-phalangeal joint, is lameness. Lameness which typifies ringbone is of the supporting-leg variety and by compelling the subject to step from side to side, marked flinching is observed, especially in periarticular ringbone; causing the affected animal to turn abruptly on the diseased member, using it as a pivot, likewise accentuates the manifestation. In fact, many subjects that exhibit no evidence of locomotory impediment while walking or trotting in a straight line on a smooth road surface, will manifest the characteristic form of lameness from ringbone when the aforementioned side to side movement is performed. When the manner in which pain is occasioned is considered, it will be understood why lameness is intermittent in the early stages of this affection and may even be unnoticed by the driver. An animal may travel on a smooth road without giving evidence of any inconvenience, but as soon as a rough and irregular pavement or road surface is reached, will limp. As the subject is driven farther on level streets the lameness may disappear. This intermittent type of lameness may continue until there is developed a large exostosis, or until articular involvement causes so much distress during locomotion that lameness is constant. On the other hand, resolution may occur during the stage of periosteal inflammation, or, an exostosis forms which causes no interference with function. [Illustration: Fig. 18--Rarefying osteitis in chronic ringbone and ossification of lateral cartilages.] Before there is evidence of an exostosis, diagnosis of ringbone is not easy, for it is then a problem of detecting the presence of a ligamentous sprain, periostitis, or osteitis. The diagnostician should take note of local manifestations of hypersensitiveness, or heat if such exist, and, in addition, other conditions must be excluded before definite conclusions are possible. In _articular_ ringbone as soon as there is developed an exostosis, it occupies a position on the dorsal (anterior) part of the articulation and extends around the sides of the joint. _Periarticular_ ringbone is characterized by exostoses which are situated on the sides of the phalanges and not extending around to the anterior part of the joint. This type of ringbone as well as the articular may occur "high" or "low." [Illustration: Fig. 19--Phalangeal exostoses in chronic ringbone. Museum specimen of the Kansas City Veterinary College.] With the _traumatic_ form of ringbone, all consequences, as to the size and form the exostosis is to assume, depend upon the nature and extent of the injury. _Rachitic_ ringbone is frequently observed in some sections of the country and does not ordinarily cause much if any lameness. It is a disease of colts and may affect one or all of the phalanges at the same time. As the subject advances in age there is more or less diminution in the size of the enlargements. Treatment.--Rest is essential in the treatment of ringbone. If diagnosed during its incipiency, remedial measures such as are usually employed to treat sprains, are indicated and later the parts should be blistered. When an exostosis has developed puncture firing is the remedy _par excellence_. Not that this method of treatment is infallible, for to any thinking one who takes into consideration the pathological anatomy of this condition, it is evident that no manner of treatment is beneficial in some cases. If the exostosis is so situated that it does not mechanically interfere with function, and is not so large that it may inhibit flexion and extension, and where the articular portions of the joint are not eroded, good results attend the use of the actual cautery. In firing, after having anesthetized the extremity, and prepared the surgical area, the cautery is deeply inserted in numerous places, taking care, however, not to open the joint. The parts are immediately covered with aseptic absorbent cotton and this dressing is left in position for forty-eight hours and if perchance there is evidence of synovial discharge, the parts are again aseptically dressed in order to prevent infection of the articulation. If, as is the case usually, no perforation of the joint capsule exists, the openings made by the cautery have been closed by the coagulation of serum and there is then little chance of infection causing trouble, even though the member is left unbandaged. In several instances, the author has treated ringbone by this method where the periarticular type existed and lameness was marked, and in three weeks the subjects were in service and not lame--this, in one instance in a valuable polo pony where the subject continued in service for more than a year without any evidence of recurrence of the lameness. The production of a deep-seated and acute inflammation with the actual cautery is preferable to any sort of counter-irritation which may be produced by vesicants. There is no occasion for any difference in the treatment of either of the first three classes of ringbone, but in the rachitic type where treatment is given, the application of a vesicant is all that is required. In most instances treatment is not necessary. The affected animals require a month to three months' time for recovery to take place in the average favorable cases of ringbone. Median neurectomy is of service in many instances where lameness is not completely relieved by the use of the actual cautery and no bad results attend the performance of this operation even though no benefit is derived thereby. Plantar neurectomy is contraindicated in all cases where there exists much lameness. If lameness is due to acute inflammation bad results such as sloughing and loss of the hoof may follow; and if large exostoses mechanically interfere with function of the joint, or where articular erosions exist, no possible good can come from neurectomy. Careful discrimination should be employed in selecting cases for neurectomy for this operation; otherwise, it is very likely to prove disappointing. Open Sheath of the Flexors of the Phalanges. This condition does not differ from a like affection involving other tendons except that the function of these tendons is such that large synovial sheaths are necessary, and when synovitis exists, the condition then becomes more serious. Infectious synovitis involving these tendons in the fetlock region is of more frequent occurrence than a like affection of carpal or tarsal sheaths. With the exception of the extent of the involvement and distress occasioned thereby, synovitis the result of open tendon sheaths, is similar wherever it occurs. Etiology.--The same conditions which are responsible for open fetlock joint and other wounds of the pastern region, cause open tendon sheaths of the flexor tendons. Symptomatology.--Because of the size and extent of this sheath and the different manner in which it is opened, there is manifested dissimilar symptoms in different cases. A nail puncture which perforates the sheath in the pastern region and at the same time produces an infectious synovitis, will cause a markedly different manifestation than will a wound which freely opens the sheath above the fetlock. In the first instance, the condition is much more painful; swelling is intense in some cases; and if the subject does not possess sufficient resistance so that spontaneous resolution promptly occurs, surgical evacuation of pus is usually necessary. When these tendon sheaths are opened, there follows a reaction which is quite analogous to that which exists in arthritic synovitis, but instead of ankylosis, adhesions with thecal obliteration occur. Rarely there result cartilaginous and osseous formations. The constitutional disturbances which characterize this condition vary with the degree of distress occasioned. As the infection is virulent and causes serious destruction of the affected parts, so does evidence of malaise and finally distress appear. Detailed discussions of symptomatology in similar conditions have heretofore been given, and further repetition is unnecessary. Treatment.--The same general plan of treatment which is employed for handling open joint is put in practice in these cases. Following the preoperative cleansing of the external wound and adjacent surfaces, where liberal drainage exists, tincture of iodin is injected into the sheath, the parts covered with a suitable dressing powder, and the entire member is carefully dressed with cotton and bandages. Subsequent treatment is the same as has been outlined in the discussion of open fetlock joint on page 112. The same general plan of after-care is necessary. Recovery, however, does not require so much time ordinarily, yet punctures of the sheath occasioned by nails or other small implements make for long drawn out cases of infective synovitis. Luxation of the Fetlock Joint. Etiology and Occurrence.--The manner of construction of the fetlock joint is such that disarticulation without irreparable injury resulting, is practically impossible. Logically, this joint in the fore legs (not so in the pelvic limbs) should disarticulate in such manner that either all of the inhibitory apparatus (flexor tendons and suspensory ligament) must rupture or a lateral luxation is necessary. Lateral disarticulation must necessarily sever the attachment of one of the common collateral ligaments. Because of the width (transverse diameter) of the articulating surfaces of this joint, lateral luxation requires a great strain; and a force that is sufficient to occasion this trauma usually causes serious additional injury. Therefore, the condition is considered one wherein prognosis is always unfavorable in so far as practical methods of treatment are concerned. Mr. A. Barbier[22] reports a case of bilateral luxation of the fetlock joints of the hind legs in a horse. This was done in jumping, and the extensor tendon of each leg was ruptured and the anterior portion of the metatarsus was protruding through the skin. Profuse hemorrhage had taken place due to tearing of the blood vessels. Symptomatology.--Entire luxation of this joint when present is so evident that one cannot fail to recognize the condition. Complete disarrangement of normal relation occurs and there is either a breaking down of the inhibitory apparatus, or if a lateral disarticulation exists, the normally straight line formed by the bones of the front leg, as viewed from the front or rear, is broken at the fetlock. Often fracture of bones are concomitant and then, of course, mobility is increased and not decreased as is the case in uncomplicated luxation. Such violence occurs at times, when this joint is disarticulated, that the joint capsule is also completely ruptured and the articular portion of the bones is exposed to view. Treatment.--The condition being practically a hopeless one, destruction of the subject is the thing which should be promptly done. In valuable breeding animals, owners may prefer that treatment be attempted when a lateral luxation and detachment of but one common ligament have permitted luxation without complete disarticulation and rupture of the joint capsule. In such cases, by immobilizing the affected parts as in fracture, and confining the subject in a sling for about sixty days, partial recovery may occur in some instances. Experience has shown that where luxation with detachment of a collateral ligament occurs, recovery is slow and incomplete--there always results considerable exostosis at the site of injury. Sesamoiditis. Etiology and Occurrence.--Inflammation of the proximal sesamoid bones is caused by any kind of irritation which may involve this part of the inhibitory apparatus. Positioned as they are, between the bifurcations of the suspensory ligament and the pastern joint, they serve as fulcra and effectively assist in minimizing concussion which is received by the suspensory ligament. The flexor tendons also, in contracting, exert strain upon the inter-sesamoidean ligament, which has a similar effect upon the sesamoid bones as that which is produced by the suspensory ligament. The condition occurs quite frequently, and because of the important function performed by these bones, active inflammation of the sesamoids constitutes a serious affection. Because of the fact that these bones have proportionately large articular surfaces, when they are inflamed to the extent that degenerative changes affect the articular cartilage, complete recovery seldom results. The same pathological changes occur here that are to be seen in any case of arthritis. No special pathological condition characterizes sesamoiditis but this condition causes incurable lameness when the sesamoid bones are much inflamed. Symptomatology.--In acute inflammation, there exist all the symptoms which portray any arthritic inflammation of like character. The parts are readily palpable and are found to be hot, supersensitive, and more or less infiltration of the tissues contiguous to the joint causes swelling. There is volar flexion of the phalanges when the subject is at rest. Lameness is intense; in some acute inflammatory disturbances the subject is unable to bear weight on the affected member. In chronic sesamoiditis, constant lameness is the one salient feature which marks the condition. While it is possible for one sesamoid bone to become involved without its fellow being affected, this is not usual. Considerable organization of tissue surrounding the joint is present and no particular evidence of supersensitiveness exists. However, supporting weight brings sufficient pressure to bear upon the inflamed and more or less eroded bones so that pain is occasioned and lameness results. Treatment.--During acute inflammation, absolute quiet is, of course, of first consideration. Cold packs are to be kept in contact with the parts until acute inflammatory symptoms subside. The fetlock region is then enveloped with a poultice or an iodin and glycerin combination (iodin one part to seven parts of glycerin) is applied and a dressing of cotton is kept in contact with the inflamed region. Following this, a vesicant is employed and the subject is allowed a month's rest. In sub-acute cases, the entire region surrounding the pastern is blistered or the actual cautery is used. Line-firing is preferable. The subject is given a month or six weeks rest and one may be guided by the presence or absence of lameness as to whether improvement or recovery is taking place. Old chronic cases, and particularly those where there are considerable induration and fibrous organization of tissue surrounding the joint, are not to be benefited by treatment. The chief consideration in handling sesamoiditis is checking inflammation as early as possible and preventing, if this can be done, the erosion of articular surfaces. If destruction of any part of the articular surfaces can be prevented and the patient allowed ample time for complete resolution of the affected parts to occur, permanent relief is possible. Fracture of the Proximal Sesamoids. Etiology and Occurrence.--Fracture of the proximal sesamoid bones is caused by violent strain when there exists _fragilitas osseum_, or by contusions. The author treated a case where fracture of one sesamoid was occasioned by a horse receiving a puncture wound wherein the sharp end of a steel bar was protruding from the ground where it was firmly embedded. The subject in this case was injured while being driven along a country road. Frost[23] reports simultaneous fracture of all of the proximal sesamoids occurring in a sixteen-year-old pony. The condition is of rather common occurrence in some countries because of the fragile condition of horses' bones. Symptomatology.--If the parts can be examined before extravasation of blood and swelling mask the condition, crepitation may be detected. In other instances, it is possible to note a displacement of parts of the sesamoid bones--this in horizontal fracture. There occurs more or less descent of the fetlock which must not be attributed to rupture of the superficial flexor tendon (perforatus). By outlining the course of this tendon with the fingers, when it is passively tensed sufficiently to follow its course, one may exclude rupture of the superficial flexor. Finding the suspensory ligament intact from its origin to the sesamoid attachments, one may also eliminate rupture of this structure as a cause of the trouble. Needless to say, marked lameness and swelling of the fetlock soon take place. The condition is painful, and ordinarily, recovery is impossible. Treatment.--Where treatment is attempted, immobilization as in luxation is in order. The patient's comfort is sought, and if the fractured parts can be kept in close proximity, their union may occur in time. However, chances for partial recovery (which is the best to be hoped for) are so remote that early destruction of the subject is the humane and economical thing to do. Where treatment is instituted, it is found that there is required a long time for union of the fractured bones to occur (where union does take place) and the cost of treatment together with the uncertainty of even partial recovery, makes for an unfavorable outcome. When the best possible results succeed treatment, a large callosity is formed and movement of the pastern joint is restricted. Lameness, though not intense, in the case referred to, where one bone was broken, was permanent and the subject was out of service for nearly a year. Inflammation of the Posterior Ligaments of the Pastern (Proximal Interphalangeal) Joint. Anatomy.--The ligaments here involved are the four volar ligaments described by Sisson[24] as follows: "The _volar ligaments_ (Ligg Volaria) consist of a central pair and a lateral and medial bands which are attached below to the posterior margin of the proximal end of the second phalanx and its complementary fibro-cartilage. The lateral and medial ligaments are attached above to the middle of the borders of the first phalanx, the central pair lower down and on the margin of the triangular rough area." This portion of the inhibitory apparatus is described by Strangeways' Anatomy as two posterior ligaments which run each from three points on the sides of the os suffraginis to a piece of fibro cartilage, described as the glenoid cartilage, and attached to the postero-superior edge of the os coronae; between them is the insertion of the inferior sesamoidean ligament. Etiology and Occurrence.--Everything tending to increase strain upon these ligaments is contributory to possible fibrillary fracture of these structures. Excessive leverage as furnished by long toes, long toe-calks and low heels increases the normal tension on the posterior ligaments of the pastern joint. Faulty conformation, which throws an abnormal strain on these ligaments, is a predisposing cause of inflammation of these structures. Hard pulling upon slippery and rough or frozen roads is a common exciting cause of this injury. The condition is of comparatively frequent occurrence and is seen affecting draft horses frequently, in the hind legs. Symptomatology.--Lameness is the first manifestation of this affection and weight bearing is painful in direct proportion to the extent of injury present. Volar flexion of the phalanges relieves tension on the parts; therefore, this position is assumed while the subject is at rest. When considerable tissue has been ruptured, and the condition is very painful, the foot is held off the ground as in all painful affections of the extremity. By palpation evidence of pain is discernible, though very little swelling occurs. Pain is increased by manual tension of the parts which is done by grasping the toe of the foot and exerting traction on the flexor apparatus. Care must be taken in executing such manipulations, and it is only by comparison of the affected member with the sound one and noting the difference in the manifestations of discomfort that we may arrive at the proper conclusion. Some hyperthermia is to be recognized in acute inflammation, by comparing the extremities. In the fore legs, navicular disease is differentiated by noting absence of contraction at the heel. By use of the hoof testers one may recognize evidence of inflammation of the navicular apparatus. In inflammation of the posterior ligaments of the pastern joint, there is also absence of the characteristic stumbling which is seen in navicular disease. Treatment.--Rest is the first requisite, and in addition every mechanical means possible to change the center of gravity in the phalangeal region, is to be employed. This is best accomplished by shortening the toe and paring the sole at the toe as much as conditions will permit. The heel is raised by means of a shoe with moderately high heel calks. The iodin-glycerin combination heretofore mentioned may be applied and the parts covered with cotton and bandage. Subjects require from three weeks to several months' rest and must be returned to work carefully, lest the incompletely regenerated tissues suffer injury. Regeneration of tissue in such cases, as has been pointed out, is slow and sufficient time for complete recovery must be allowed or relapses will occur. Fracture of the First and Second Phalanges. Etiology and Occurrence.--Fractures of the first phalanx (suffraginis) occur with respect to frequency, second to pelvic fractures. Often, almost insignificant injuries cause phalangeal fractures. On city streets, horses shod with shoes having long calks get caught in frogs of street railways or by slipping on rails, and phalangeal bones are often broken. The author observed a case of comminuted fracture of both the first and second phalanges (suffraginis and corona) in a polo pony caused by making a sudden turn while in action in a contest on the turf. Symptomatology.--Fracture of the phalanges is nearly always signalized by lameness, and this is marked during the period of weight bearing. Lameness is usually intense and where the pathognomonic symptom (crepitation) is not recognized, the intensity of the claudication, when other causes are absent, is indicative of fracture. The subject does not bear weight upon the affected member and where pain is intense, the foot is held in an elevated position and swung back and forth. In hind legs the member is often flexed in abduction and held in this position for several minutes, being rested on the ground only during short intervals. When compelled to walk, if pain is excruciating, the animal hops with the sound leg, no weight being supported by the fractured member. When an examination of the subject is possible before the extremity is swollen, crepitation is usually found without great difficulty, except in a subperiosteal break or in some cases of vertical or oblique fracture. Great care is necessary in handling the injured extremity in these cases, and particularly in nervous subjects or in excited animals that have been recently injured in runaways, is it necessary to be gentle in manipulating the extremity, if definite deductions are to be made. As has been mentioned in the chapter on diagnostic principles, if the condition is so painful that the subject does not relax the parts and crepitation is masked, local anesthesia is necessary. An anesthetic solution of cocain or novocain may be applied to the metacarpal or metatarsal nerves and an entirely satisfactory examination is then possible. Passive movement of the phalanges in all directions is practised in order to produce crepitation. When rotation of the parts does not occasion crepitation, gentle flexion and extension may do so. And in many instances, considerable manipulation of the phalanges is necessary before the pathognomonic symptom is to be recognized. In cases where crepitation is not found and lameness is pronounced, out of proportion with other possible existing causes, one may by exclusion of other causes establish a diagnosis of fracture in the course of forty-eight hours. In the meanwhile, support is given the affected member by applying an effective leather splint, so that pain may be diminished. To combat inflammation, a suitable cataplasm may be applied directly to the skin, the extremity bandaged, and the temporary immobilizing appliance may be secured over all. In this manner one may make repeated examinations of the subject, and if slings are used and every other necessary precaution taken to promote comfort for the subject, no harm will result in delaying for several days the application of permanent immobilization--bandages and splints or casts. In fact, where much swelling exists at the time one is called to treat such cases, it is advisable to delay the application of a permanent dressing or cast until inflammation has somewhat subsided. Course and Prognosis.--Where conditions are favorable, the nature of the fracture one that will yield to treatment, the subject not aged, and facilities for giving good attention to the affected animal are ample, fractures of the first and second phalanges recover completely in from six weeks to four months. Only simple fractures are considered curable from a practical and economical point of view, excepting in foals, where compound, and even comminuted, fractures may be so handled that animals may eventually become serviceable though blemished. Age retards the process of osseous regeneration, but in one instance at the Kansas City Veterinary College, a very aged mare suffering from a multiple fracture of the first phalanx was treated and at the end of sixty days was able to walk into an ambulance. Large exostoses had developed and the subject remained lame, but union of the broken bone took place in a surprisingly prompt and effective manner, when age of the subject and nature of the fracture are considered. As a rule, one is loath to recommend treatment, even in a simple transverse fracture of the first phalanx, in animals ten years of age or older. The conditions which exist in any given locality that regulate the expense of caring for an animal during the period of treatment, especially influence the course to be pursued in treating fractures. Treatment.--For permanent immobilization of the phalanges in fracture, materials which might adapt themselves to the irregular contour of the member and at the same time contribute sufficient rigidity to the parts without doing injury to the soft structures, would constitute ideal means of treatment; but no such materials have yet been devised, and opinions are various as to the most efficient and practical method to employ. After the fetlock has been shorn of hair and the ergot trimmed, the skin is thoroughly cleansed and allowed to dry. Several thin layers of long fiber cotton are then wrapped around the extremity--enough to pad well the member--and this is retained in position with a wide bandage. Gauze bandages are preferable to heavier bandages of cotton fabric because they are somewhat more elastic and yield to the irregular contour of the parts to a better advantage. Layers of three inch gauze bandages, which are soaked with a cold starch paste are wound about the extremity. Strips of leather that are flexible and not more than an inch in width are placed in a vertical position around the leg and these are also covered with the starch and securely held in position with the bandages. In this way, one is able to provide a sufficient degree of rigidity and at the same time, where the cast is carefully applied, little if any injury is done the skin. Such a cast is not difficult to remove and is so inexpensive that it may be removed and reapplied at any time it should be thought preferable to do so. Of course, this does not constitute an effective means of support if the parts are to be frequently and thoroughly soaked with water, but animals undergoing this sort of treatment are usually kept sheltered. The same after-care is necessary in such cases as is given in fractures of other bones. Two months after the injury has been done, the application of a blistering ointment to the entire region is of benefit. Results.--Much depends on the nature of fractures as to the success one may attain in approximating the parts of a broken bone, and in some cases of oblique fracture for instance, complete recovery is impossible, despite the most skillful and painstaking attention given. On the other hand, cases of simple transverse fractures make perfect recoveries in some instances. All fractures are serious, and in every instance the practitioner would best be careful to impress his client with the many difficulties which usually attend the treatment of fracture in horses. Tendinitis. Inflammation of the Flexor Tendons. One of the most common causes of lameness in light harness and saddle horses is tendinitis, and because of the character of the structure of tendons and because of their function, an active inflammation of these parts is always serious. Being almost inelastic and not well supplied with blood, tendinous tissue is slowly regenerated, and so much time is required for complete recovery to take place in tendinitis, that affected animals seldom fully recover before they are in service or vigorously exercising at will. As a result, complete recovery is delayed or prevented. The extensor tendons, because of the nature of their function, are very seldom strained; they are often bruised and occasionally divided, but unlike this condition in the flexors, tendinitis of the extensors is of rare occurrence. For a concise discussion of this subject the most practical classification is one made on a chronological basis and we may then consider tendinitis as _acute_ and _chronic_. ACUTE TENDINITIS. Etiology and Occurrence.--Causes of tendinitis, as in almost all diseases, may be considered under the heads of predisposing and exciting. Among the predisposing causes of tendinitis may be mentioned, faulty conformation. Everything which has to do with increasing the strain upon tendons adds to the probability of their being over-taxed. Long, sloping, pastern bones; disproportionate development of parts, such as a heavy body and small, weak tendons and long hoofs, are the principal factors which usually predispose to tendinous sprains. Degenerative changes which take place in tendons following constitutional diseases such as influenza may also be classed as a predisposing cause. Excessive strain when put upon tendons in any possible manner, such as is occasioned in running and jumping; making missteps and catching up the weight of the body with one foot, when the force thus thrown upon the supporting structure is great because of momentum gained at a rapid pace, are exciting causes of tendinitis. Symptomatology.--In all cases of acute tendinitis there is presented a characteristic attitude by the subject. Volar flexion in a sufficient degree to relax the inflamed structures is always evident. The foot may be rested on the toe or placed slightly in advance of the one supporting weight, but the fetlock is always thrown forward. More or less swelling of the inflamed tendons is present. Where the deep flexor (perforans) is involved swelling is marked and with swelling there is present the other symptoms of inflammation--heat and supersensitiveness. In manipulating tendons for the purpose of detecting supersensitiveness, care must be taken so that no false conclusion be drawn, because of the aversion many horses have to submitting to palpation of the tendons even when they are in a normal condition. Supporting-leg-lameness is present and varies in degree with the intensity of the pain caused by weight bearing. In many instances, as soon as the subject has traveled a considerable distance, lameness diminishes or discontinues. As soon as the affected animal is permitted to stand long enough to "cool out" there is a return of the lameness, which is then marked. No difficulty is encountered in making a practical diagnosis in tendinitis; that is, one may fail to readily recognize the extent of the involvement as it affects the superficial flexor tendon, for instance, but this has no practical bearing on the prognosis and treatment, when existing inflammation of the deep flexor is recognized. The course of each tendon is readily outlined by palpation; all parts are easily manipulated; and with experience one may readily recognize the extent and degree of the inflammation. Treatment.--In some cases of acute tendinitis, pain is intense and the application of cold packs during this stage is very beneficial in that pain is controlled and inflammation subsides. The extremity may be bandaged with a liberal quantity of absorbent cotton or with woolen material. Ice water is then poured around the bandaged member every fifteen minutes and this should be continued for about forty-eight hours. In some cases this treatment is not necessary for more than twelve hours; at the end of this length of time, pain has subsided and the acute stage of inflammation has passed or its intensity has been diminished. Following the application of cold packs, the use of a poultice such as some of the sterile, medicated muds, is of marked benefit. The author has made use of tincture of iodin and glycerin in the proportion of one part of iodin to seven parts glycerin, with very satisfactory results. This combination is hygroscopic, anodyne and antiseptic and is easily applied. A liberal quantity is directly applied all around the affected tendons and the leg covered with a heavy layer of cotton, and this is snugly held in position with bandages. The application may be used once or twice daily, or if it is thought necessary, an attendant may pour a quantity of the iodized-glycerin around the leg and under the bandage once daily without removing the cotton and bandage. Needless to say, absolute rest is imperative. When all evidence of acute inflammation has subsided vesication is indicated. At this stage walking exercise is beneficial and the subject may be allowed the freedom of a paddock. Some practitioners are partial to the use of the actual cautery in these cases, but it is doubtful if it is necessary to produce such a great degree of counter-irritation in cases where the subject is suffering the first attack of tendinitis. As has been indicated, ample time should be allowed for recovery and depending upon conditions, it takes from three weeks to six months for complete recovery to become established. Chronic Tendinitis and Contraction of the Flexor Tendons. Etiology and Occurrence.--Acute inflammation of the flexor tendons may result in chronic tendinitis. Recurrent attacks in cases where insufficient time is allowed for complete recovery to result, is followed by chronic inflammation and hypertrophy of the tendons. Again, in subjects where conformation is faulty, no amount of care will be sufficient to prevent a recurrence of the inflammation and the condition must become chronic. Symptomatology.--On visual examination of the subject at rest, one may note the hypertrophied condition of the affected tendons. Their transverse diameter is usually perceptibly increased and in many cases, there is an increase in the antero-posterior diameter. The latter condition causes a bulging of the tendon that is so noticeable, because of the convexity thus formed, it is commonly known as "bowed tendon." [Illustration: Fig. 20--Contraction of the superficial digital flexor tendon (perforatus) of the right hind leg, due to tendinitis.] In chronic tendinitis there occurs repeated attacks of inflammation wherein lameness is pronounced and there exists in reality, at such times, acute inflammation of a hypertrophic structure, where at no time does inflammation completely subside. Therefore, in chronic tendinitis there is to be found at times the same conditions which characterize acute inflammation, except that there is usually a variance of symptoms because of the difference in the degree of inflammation and pain. The diagnosis of contraction of tendons is an easy matter because of the fact that relations between the phalanges are constantly changed with tendinous contraction. If one bears in mind the attachments and function of the digital flexors, no difficulty is encountered in recognizing contraction of either tendon. Contraction of the superficial digital flexor (perforatus), when uncomplicated, is characterized by volar flexion of the pastern joint. The foot is flat on the ground and the heel is not raised because the superficial flexor tendon does not have its insertion to the distal phalanx (os pedis) and therefore can not affect the position of the foot. By causing the subject to stand on the affected member, one may outline the course of the flexor tendons by palpation, and in this way recognize any lack of tenseness or contraction of tendons or of the suspensory ligament. [Illustration: Fig. 21--Contraction of the deep flexor tendon (perforans) of the right hind leg, due to tendinitis.] Contraction of the suspensory ligament would cause the pastern joint to assume the same position as is occasioned by contraction of the superficial digital flexor (perforatus) tendon, but when the subject is bearing weight on the affected member, it is easy to determine that no contraction of the suspensory ligament exists, by noting an absence of abnormal tenseness of this structure. And finally, contraction of the suspensory ligament is of rare occurrence. Contraction of the deep flexor tendon (perforans) causes an elevation of the heel. The foot can not set flat because the insertion of the deep flexor tendon to the solar surface of the distal phalanx (os pedis) causes when the tendon is contracted--a rotation of the distal phalanx on its transverse axis--hence the raised heel. No other tendon has this same effect on the distal phalanx and the condition is correctly diagnosed without difficulty. [Illustration: Fig. 22--A chronic case of contraction of both flexor tendons of the phalanges. In this case (presented at a clinic of the Kansas City Veterinary College) because of long continued contraction of the flexors, which prevented weight being supported with any degree of comfort, there resulted a partial paralysis of the extensors, and consequently the extremity was dragged on the ground.] Course and Complications.--This condition may exist for years without causing the subject any serious inconvenience, if the affected animal is kept at suitable work. In other instances recurrent attacks of lameness are of such frequent occurrence that the subject is not fit for service. Many affected animals that are kept in service in spite of lameness (and in some instances where no lameness is present), soon become unserviceable because of contraction of the inflamed tendon. This, in fact, is the condition which eventually becomes established in most instances. Treatment.--Where conformation is not too faulty so that recovery may be expected, good results are obtained by line-firing the tendons and allowing the subject a few months' rest. In some cases median neurectomy is advisable. This is recommended by Breton[25] as being productive of good results even where contraction of tendons exists and tenotomy is done. [Illustration: Fig. 23--Contraction of the superficial and deep flexor tendons (perforatus and perforans) of the left fore leg.] By shoeing with high heel-calks considerable strain is taken from the inflamed tendons because of the changed position of the foot which alters the distribution of weight on different parts of the leg. Rubber pads materially diminish concussion and should be made use of when the subject is returned to work, if the character of the work is such as to occasion much concussion. It is to be remembered, however, that in sprains there occurs fibrillary fracture of soft structures and time is required for regeneration of tissue which has been injured or destroyed. Absolute rest is necessary where inflammation is acute and in sub-acute or chronic tendinitis avoidance of all work which causes irritation to the affected tendons is imperative. [Illustration: Fig. 24--Contraction of superficial digital flexor and slight contraction of deep flexor tendon.] Where contraction of tendons exists surgical treatment is necessary. No good comes from appliances which are calculated to stretch the affected tendons; in fact, they aggravate the inflamed condition and hasten complete loss of function of the affected member. Where there exists no articular or ligamentous diseases which would defeat the purpose, tenotomy is the only remedy for contracted tendons. Contracted Tendons of Foals. Etiology and Occurrence.--This condition is occasionally observed and no positive explanation of the reason for its existence can be given. That mal-position _en utero_ causes the metacarpal bones to develop in length so rapidly that the tendons are too short, is an explanation that is offered. Be that as it may, in breeding sections of the country the general practitioner is obliged to handle these cases and successful methods of treatment are essential even though cause is not removable. Symptomatology.--The superficial flexor tendon (perforatus) alone, is the one usually contracted, and while both flexors are at times involved, this rarely occurs. The condition is usually bilateral. The degree of contraction varies greatly in different cases. In some, contraction exists to such extent that it is impossible for the colt to stand, and because of continual decubitus where no relief is given, the subject is lost because of gangrenous infection occasioned by bed sores. Otherwise the same symptoms are to be observed in this condition, that exist in contraction of tendons of the mature animal. Treatment.--Wherever contraction is not too marked and weight is borne with the affected members, and where the feet can be kept on the ground in a nearly normal position, it is possible to correct the condition without doing tenotomy. That is, in cases where the subject is simply "cock-ankled", where volar flexion of the pastern joint exists but the foot is kept flat on the ground, correction is possible without tenotomy. In such instances the foal must be treated early--before the skin on the anterior pastern region has been badly damaged by knuckling over. It is possible in many cases to stretch the flexor tendons by grasping the colt's foot with one hand, and with the other hand one may push the pastern in the direction of dorsal flexion. This may be tried and when a reasonable amount of force is employed, no harm is done, even though no material benefit results. Some veterinarians claim good results from this treatment alone and direct their clients to repeat the stretching process several times daily. Whether the tendons are manually stretched or not, splints should be adjusted to the affected members. The legs are padded with cotton and bandages and a suitable splint is applied on either side of the members and securely fixed in position by bandaging. The splints are kept in position for four or five days and then removed for inspection of the affected parts. If necessary, they are reapplied and left in position for a week; however, this is unnecessary in the average case that is treated in this manner. Where contraction exists to the extent that the subject can not stand and where no weight is borne by the feet, it is necessary to divide the affected tendons surgically. The same technic is put into practice that is employed in the mature subject but there is much greater chance for a favorable outcome in the foal. Further, if necessary, one may divide with impunity, both tendons on each leg, at the same time. In all cases this operation is done by observing strict aseptic precautions and the legs are, of course, bandaged. If both tendons are divided, splints should be employed and kept in position for ten days or two weeks. Primary union of the small surgical wound of the skin and fascia occurs in forty-eight hours. The reader is referred to William's "Veterinary Surgical and Obstetrical Operations," for a complete description of this operation. In veterinary literature there is occasionally described a condition which affects young foals wherein symptoms similar to those of contraction of the flexors are manifested, but upon examination it is found that rupture of the extensor of the digit (extensor pedis) exists. This affection is briefly described by Cadiot but no complete treatise on this condition has been published. In parts of Canada foals of from one to three days of age are found affected in such manner that more or less interference with the gait is to be seen in those moderately affected. There is, in some subjects, only a slight impediment in locomotion which is occasioned by inability to properly extend the digit. In other subjects, while able to stand and walk, great difficulty is experienced because of volar flexion of the phalanges. The more seriously affected animals are unable to stand and, in most instances, perish because of the effects of prolonged decubitus. A local enlargement occurs at the anterior carpal region and the mass is somewhat fluctuating, extravasated fluids becoming infected in many instances, and necrosis of the skin and fascia provide means for spontaneous discharge of the contents of the enlargement if it is not opened. The infection when it becomes generalized causes a fatal termination in most cases that are not treated. [Illustration: Fig. 25--"Fish knees."--Photo by Thos. Millar, M.R.C.V.S.] Native stock owners of some parts of Canada know this condition as "fish knees" because of the presence of the ruptured end of the extensor tendon which is found coiled in the cavity of the enlargements caused by the ruptured tendon. Local practitioners have treated the condition by incising the swollen mass and removing the part of tendon contained within such cavities. Treatment has not proved entirely satisfactory in the majority of instances, perhaps because of tardy interference. In a colt's leg sent the author by Mr. Thomas Millar, M.R.C.V.S., of Asquith, Saskatchewan, a careful dissection of the carpal region revealed the fact that in this case the ruptured extensor tendon was due to injury. The colt may have been trampled upon by its dam in such manner that the tendon was divided. No noticeable evidence of injury to the skin was to be seen on its outer surface, but on the fascial side a cyanotic congested area, which was situated immediately over the site of the ruptured tendon, was very evident. With the execution of a good surgical technic, the ruptured tendon might be sutured; the wound of the tendon sheath as well as that of the skin carefully united by means of gut sutures, the leg bandaged and immobilized with leather splints and recovery follow in a reasonable percentage of cases so treated. These cases afford an opportunity for the perfection of practical means of treatment by those who frequently meet with this affection. Rupture of the Flexor Tendons and Suspensory Ligament. Etiology and Occurrence.--Rupture of the flexor tendons or of the suspensory ligament is of rare occurrence. Frequently, these structures are divided as the result of wounds; but rupture, due to strain, is not frequent. [Illustration: Fig. 26--Extreme dorsal flexion said to have resulted from an attack of distemper. From Amer. J'n'l. Vet. Med., Vol. XI, No. 4.] In some cases in running horses, or in animals that are put to strenuous performances, such as are jumpers, rupture of tendons or of the suspensory ligament takes place. However, more frequently this follows certain debilitating diseases such as influenza or local infectious inflammation of the parts which results in degenerative changes and rupture follows. The non-elastic suspensory ligament receives some heavy strains during certain attitudes which are taken by horses in hurdle jumping as is explained in detail by Montané and Bourdelle[26] under the description of this ligament. But in spite of the frequent and unusually heavy strains, which these structures receive, complete rupture is not frequently seen. Symptomatology.--When the anatomy and function of the flexor tendons and suspensory ligament is thoroughly understood, recognition of rupture of either of these structures is easily recognized. When one considers that in rupture, a position directly opposite to that which is seen in contraction in either one of these structures, is assumed, a detailed description of each separate condition is needless repetition. However, it is pertinent to suggest that rupture of the deep flexor tendon (perforans) allows a turning up of the toe. Whether it be torn loose from its point of attachment or ruptured at some point proximal thereto, the position is the same--heel flat on the ground, toe slightly raised and this raising of the toe varies in degree as the subject moves about. When the superficial flexor (perforatus) is ruptured there is no change in the position of the foot but the fetlock joint is slightly lowered. The pathognomonic symptom is the lax tendon during weight bearing, which may be felt by palpation of the tendon along its course in the metacarpal region. With complete rupture of the suspensory ligament there occurs a marked dropping of the fetlock joint and an abnormal amount of weight is then thrown upon the superficial flexor tendon (perforatus), causing it to be markedly tensed. This is readily recognized by palpation. By palpating the suspensory ligament from its proximal portion down to and beyond its bifurcation, while the affected member is supporting weight, it is possible to diagnose rupture of one of its branches. Prognosis and Treatment.--In rupture of the superficial flexor tendon (perforatus) because of its comparatively less important function, prognosis is favorable and recovery takes place when proper treatment is put into practice. With rupture of the deep flexor tendon (perforans), especially when it occurs at or near its point of insertion and sometimes following disease, prognosis is unfavorable. Rupture of the suspensory ligament constitutes a condition which is, as a rule, hopeless, because of the impracticability of treating such cases. The salient feature which characterizes any practical attempt at treatment of ruptured tendons or other portions of the inhibitory apparatus of the fetlock region, is to retain the phalanges in their normal position for a sufficient length of time that the approximated ends of ruptured tendons or ligaments may unite. The length of time required for this to occur, together with the difficulties encountered in confining the affected extremities in suitable braces or supportive appliances, precludes all possibility of this condition's being practically amenable to treatment when the deep flexor tendon (perforans) and suspensory ligament are simultaneously ruptured. It does not follow, even so, that recovery does not succeed treatment in some of these unfavorable cases. [Illustration: Fig. 27--A good style of shoe for bracing the fetlock where tenotomy has been performed, or in case of traumatic division of the flexor tendons. An invention of Dr. G.H. Roberts.] Affected subjects are kept in slings as long as it seems necessary--until they learn to get up without deranging the braces worn. Several styles of braces are in use and each has its objections; nevertheless some sort of support to the affected member is necessary and steel braces which are connected with shoes are usually employed. The principal difficulty which attends the use of braces is pressure-necrosis of the skin which is caused by the constant and firm contact of the metal support. The practitioner's ingenuity is taxed in every case to contrive practical means of padding the exposed parts in order to prevent or minimize necrosis from pressure. This is attempted--with more or less success--by frequent changing of bandages and the local application of such agents as alcohol or witch hazel. Needless to say, the skin must be kept perfectly clean and the dressings free from all irritating substances. [Illustration: Fig. 28--Showing the Roberts brace in operation.] The fact that tendons or ligaments which are ruptured, do not regenerate as readily as in cases where traumatic or surgical division occurs, must not be lost sight of, and prognosis is given in accordance. Thecitis and Bursitis in the Fetlock Region. Etiology and Occurrence.--Synovial distension of tendon sheaths and bursae in the region of the fetlock are caused by the same active agencies which produce this condition in other parts. The fetlock region is exposed to more frequent injury than is the carpus and as a consequence is more often affected. The same proportionate amount of irritation affects this part of the leg, owing to strains, as affect the carpus from a similar cause; and synovitis from this cause, is as frequent in one case as in the other. Therefore, it is a natural sequence that the tendon sheaths of the metacarpophalangeal region are frequently distended because of chronic synovitis and thecitis. These inflammations are usually non-infective in character. The _cul-de-sac_ of the capsular ligament of the fetlock joint which extends upward between the bifurcation of the suspensory ligament is the most frequently affected structure in this region. When distended, two spheroidal masses bulge laterally and anterior to the flexor tendons in a characteristic manner. This condition is known among horsemen as "wind-gall" or "fetlock-gall." The sheath of the flexor tendons, which begins about the middle portion of the lower third of the metacarpus, and continues downward below the pastern joint is often distended. Excepting in cases of acute inflammation attending synovitis of these parts, no lameness marks its existence and in chronic cases of synovial distension the service of affected animals is not interfered with. These distensions constitute unsightly blemishes and they are treated chiefly for this reason. No difficulty is encountered in recognizing these conditions even where considerable organization of tissue overlying distended thecae occurs. In such cases there may be only slight fluctuation of the enlargement, but if necessary, an aseptic exploratory puncture may be made with a suitable needle or trocar. Treatment.--Complete rest and the local application of cold packs are in order in acute synovitis when there is distension of tendon sheaths. In the fetlock region, because of the ease with which pressure may be employed, the parts should be kept snugly wrapped with cotton, and derby bandages are used to exert the desired amount of pressure over the affected region. The pressure-bandages should be employed as soon as all acute and painful inflammation has subsided; and then they should be continued, day and night, for ten days or two weeks. The bandages should be removed morning and night. After the skin of the leg has thoroughly dried off, an infriction of alcohol or distilled extract of hamamelis is given the parts and the cotton and bandages are readjusted. A good, even and firm pressure in such cases is productive of satisfactory results. [Illustration: Fig. 29--Distension of theca of the extensor of the digit (extensor pedis).] In chronic distensions of tendon sheaths synovia may be aspirated and about five cubic centimeters of equal parts of tincture of iodin and alcohol is injected into the cavity. This is not done, however, without usual aseptic precautions. If no marked swelling results within forty-eight hours the entire fetlock region is thoroughly vesicated and, as soon as the skin has recovered from the effects of the vesicant, pressure bandages may be employed. In these cases, subjects may be put into service after all swelling which the injection or the vesicant has produced has subsided. The pressure bandages are used at night or during the time that the horse is in its stall and they are not worn by the subject while at work. Where no marked swelling occurs within ten days, as the result of the injection of iodin, the injection may be repeated and, if thought necessary, the quantity may be materially increased. If swelling does not occur it is indicative that no particular irritation has been caused. Some swelling is desirable and much swelling sometimes results and persists for weeks. This is not in any way likely to cause permanent trouble; and if the technic of injection is skilfully executed no infection will follow. By persistent and careful use of suitable elastic bandages, the support thus given the parts, together with the absorption of products of inflammation which constant pressure occasions, some chronic cases of synovial distension of tendon sheaths recover in two or three months and this without other treatment. Such good results are not to be expected in aged subjects, nor in horses having at the same time, chronic lymphangitis. Where bandages of pure rubber are employed great care is necessary, if one is not experienced in their use, lest necrosis result. Where bandages are uncomfortably tight the subject will manifest discomfort, and an attendant should observe the animal at intervals for a few hours (where there may be some doubt as to the degree of pressure which is exerted by elastic bandages) and readjustment made before any harm is done. Arthritis of the Fetlock Joint. Anatomy.--The anatomy of the metacarpophalangeal articulation is briefly reviewed on page 58 under the heading of "Anatomo-Physiological Review of Parts of the Foreleg." Etiology and Occurrence.--The chief causes of non-infective arthritis of the fetlock joint are irritations from concussion and contusions due to interfering. The condition occurs in young animals that are over-driven in livery service or other similar exhausting work, where they become so weary that serious injury is done these parts by striking the pasterns with the feet--interfering. In these "leg-weary" animals, that are always kept shod with fairly heavy shoes, much direct injury is done at times by concussion due to self-inflicted blows. In older animals, where there exists similar conditions, with respect to their being worn from fatigue and, in addition, periarticular inflammatory organizations, arthritis is not of uncommon occurrence. [Illustration: Fig. 30--Rarefying osteitis wherein articular cartilage was destroyed in a case of arthritis of fetlock joint.] Symptomatology.--In true arthritis there exists a very painful affection which is characterized by manifestations of distress. The subject may keep the extremity moving about--where pain is great--suspended and swinging. There is swelling which is more or less hot to the touch and compression of the parts with the fingers increases pain. Lameness is always pronounced and no weight is supported with the affected member in very acute and generalized arthritic inflammations. There occurs the usual facial manifestations of pain--the tense condition of the facial muscles and the fixed eye and nostril are in evidence. In cases where there exists a synovitis or where a very limited portion of the articulation is involved, a somewhat different clinical picture is presented. Then, the disturbance causes less distress; local swelling and evidence of supersensitiveness are not so pronounced and lameness is not intense, though weight-bearing is painful. Prognosis.--There is a constant difference in the degree of pain manifested, as well as the other symptoms of inflammation, between true arthritis, which involves much of the joint, and synovitis; or synovitis plus a small circumscribed area of joint involvement. This difference is present in all joint affections of the extremities and, in passing, it is well to say that infection usually increases every manifestation of pain. Infection occasions more pronounced local symptoms of inflammation and, because of the rapid progress of necrotic destruction of cartilage, the course of the affection is usually rapid; ankylosis is a frequent result and loss of the subject is often inevitable. However, in non-infective arthritis of the fetlock joint, prognosis is favorable. Treatment.--The same general principles which are employed in arthritis of other joints are used here. Rest and comfort for the patient is sought in every available manner. If the subject remains standing too long, the sling should be used and a well-bedded box-stall will contribute much to the comfort of the patient. Pain and acute inflammation is diminished or controlled, if possible, by using ice-cold packs. In nervous, well-bred animals analgesic agents may be employed; or small doses of morphin sulphate--one to two grains--given at intervals of three hours during the first stages of the affection is very beneficial. This is especially indicated in infectious arthritis. As inflammation subsides, hot applications are used and finally counter irritants are employed. Their selection is a matter of choice with the practitioner. The object sought is the same with every practitioner and while methods employed vary, results are not markedly different except in so far as the degree of counter irritation which is produced varies in given cases. Where a great degree of counter irritation is thought necessary, line-firing with the actual cautery is the remedy _par excellence_. After-care.--In the course of three or four weeks subjects may be allowed the run of a paddock and, after a complete rest of six weeks at pasture, they may be returned to work with care, if the work is not of a nature to occasion concussion or other manner of irritation to the articulation. Neurectomy is not indicated even though there is a recurrence of lameness, unless the lameness is not pronounced and inflammation is periarticular and no osseous enlargements mechanically interfere with function of the joint. There are few cases then, where neurectomy is materially helpful. Ossification of the Cartilages of the Third Phalanx. (Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages.) Anatomy and Function of the Cartilages.--Surmounting each wing of the distal phalanx (os pedis) is the irregularly-quadrangular cartilage. The superior border of this cartilage is thin, generally convex, and perforated for vessels to pass to the frog; the inferior border is attached to the wing of the third phalanx and posteriorly, it is reflected inward and is continuous with the inferior surface of the sensitive frog. The anterior border which is directed obliquely downward and backward becomes blended with the anterior lateral ligament of the coffin joint. The fibrous expansion of the anterior digital extensor (extensor pedis) is united to the anterior borders of the lateral cartilages. According to Smith[27]: These structures form an elastic wall to the sensitive foot, and attachment to the vascular laminae; they also admit of increase in width occurring at the posterior part of the foot without destroying the union of the two set of leaves. Further, by their connection with the vascular system of the foot, their elastic movements materially assist the circulation. The primary use of the lateral cartilages is to render the internal foot elastic, and admit of its change in shape which occurs under the influence of the weight of the body. The alteration in the shape of the foot is brought about by pressure on the pad, which widens and in consequence presses on the bars. The pressure received by the pad is also transmitted to the plantar cushion, which likewise flattens and spreads under pressure. Both of these factors force the cartilages slightly outwards. When the posterior wall recoils the cartilages are carried back to their original position. Should the elastic cartilage under pathological conditions become converted into bone, its functions are destroyed, and lameness may occur. Etiology and Occurrence.--The causes of ossification of these cartilages are several. No doubt there exists a predisposition to this condition for it is of such frequent occurrence in heavy draft types of horses. Concussion plays an important rôle and, according to Möller's[28] theory, which is sound, high heel calks prevent the frog from contacting the ground, and as weight is placed upon the foot "the lateral cartilages are subjected to a continuous inward and downward dragging strain." [Illustration: Fig. 31--Ringbone and sidebone.] The condition affects the cartilages of the fore feet more frequently than those of the hind and the outer cartilage is more often ossified than is the inner. This fact may be accounted for by its more exposed position; it is also frequently injured by being trampled upon and otherwise contused or cut, as in lacerated wounds of the quarter. Symptomatology.--Ossification of the cartilages is known by grasping the free borders with the fingers and attempting their flexion; the rigid inflexible ossified cartilage is thus easily recognized. Lameness during weight-bearing occurs in the majority of cases at some time. Much depends on the conformation of the foot and whether the involvement affects one or both cartilages as to the degree and duration of lameness which marks this affection. In narrow and contracted heels it is reasonable to expect more lameness than in well formed feet. Where only one cartilage is ossified, the other being flexible, there is less inconvenience experienced by the subject during weight-bearing, because of the expansion of the heel which the one normal cartilage allows. Treatment.--There is little if anything to be done in case the cartilage has become ossified except to shoe without high calks but preferably with rubber pads. The hoof should be kept moist; the wall at the quarter may be rasped thin and kept anointed. Firing is of no practical benefit in these cases, and it is doubtful if vesication is helpful excepting where only a part of the cartilage is ossified. Subjects which continue somewhat lame, because of complete ossification of both cartilages, are best put to slow work on soft ground and not driven on pavements. Navicular Disease. This more or less ambiguous term has been applied to various diseases affecting the structures which make up the coffin joint. We consider this name to be applicable to inflammatory involvement of the third sesamoid (navicular bone), the deep flexor tendon (perforans) and the bursa podotrochlearis or navicular bursa. Etiology and Occurrence.--In 1864 Thomas Greaves[29] wrote on the subject of navicular disease as follows: "The opinion I entertain upon the subject of navicular disease is, that in by far the greater majority (if not all) of these cases there exists in the animal affected a congenital tendency or predisposition, that, generally speaking, it is the high stepper, the good goer, that becomes the victim to this disease; and it is a fact well attested, that it as frequently develops itself in the feet with wide frogs, bulbous heels, shallow heels, spread flattish feet, as in the narrow upright feet.... I have known foals, born from defective parents, in which this condition was so strongly developed, that all men would at once pronounce them affected with navicular disease, and such lameness was permanent." Often both fore feet are affected and this would point toward its being a disease wherein either conformation or congenital tendencies exists. It is rare that hind feet are involved. There are many theories regarding the possible exciting causes of navicular disease and, when one has carefully considered the explanations as offered by Peters, Möller, Branell, Schrader and others, he may conclude that navicular disease is a non-infectuous inflammatory affection of the third sesamoid (navicular) bone, deep flexor tendon (perforans) and adjoining structures. Whether it originates in the flexor tendon or whether the bone is the original part affected, the disease is frequently met, and of all possible causes, jars and irritation incident to concussion of travel, are probably the principal causative agents. Symptomatology.--Lameness is the primary indicator and a constant symptom which attends navicular disease wherever much structural change affects the infirm parts. As the degree of intensity or extent varies, so is there a dissimilarity in the character of the impediment. Incipient cases of bilateral involvement are more difficult to diagnose than are unilateral affections, particularly when lameness is not marked. There is manifested a supporting-leg-lameness which varies as to degree in the same subject at different times. This may be noticed during the same trip in an animal that is being driven. There is a tendency for the subject to stumble and, of course, where the affection is bilateral, there is a stilted gait owing to shortened strides. At rest the lame animal usually points with the affected member. Because of the fact that the distance is lessened between the origin and insertion of the deep flexor tendon (perforans) by this attitude, one may readily understand the reason for the position assumed by the subject. Pressure on the navicular bone is diminished and tension on the flexor tendon is relieved by even slight volar flexion. In acute inflammatory affections abnormal heat may be detected in the region of the heel. By exerting tension on the flexor tendon, by means of passive dorsal flexion of the member, evidence of hyperesthesia may be detected. With the hoof testers one may determine supersensitivenss in most instances. There occurs more or less contraction of the hoof in navicular disease, but this is not to be taken as a cause of the affection, but rather a sequence. [Illustration: Fig. 32--"Pointing"--the position assumed by horse having unilateral navicular disease.] In some cases of unilateral navicular disease there is a marked contrast in size between the sound and unsound foot. However, one must not be misguided in this particular, for in some pairs of sound feet there exists considerable difference in size. Finally, by a change from the normal position of the foot to one in which the heel is somewhat elevated (as may be obtained by shoeing with high heel calks), relief is evident, and in the opposite position, the condition is aggravated. This experiment may be used for diagnostic purposes. Treatment.--When the anatomy of the diseased parts is taken into consideration, and an analysis of the lesions which occur in cases where considerable structural change is occasioned by this affection, it is obvious that recovery is impossible. Only in cases where the inflammation is promptly checked before damage has been done the navicular bone or the flexor tendon, is permanent recovery possible. The disease is not frequently treated during this stage, however, and in the majority of instances the condition becomes chronic. As soon as a diagnosis is made the shoes must be removed, the toe shortened with the hoof pincers and rasp and the subject is put in a well bedded box-stall. If the animal is very lame and the inflammation is acute, ice-cold packs should be applied to the feet. As soon as acute inflammation has subsided the foot may be so pared that all excess of sole and frog is removed without lowering the heels, and the animal may be blistered about the coronet region. The subject may be shod later, with heel calks that raise the heel moderately and a protracted period of rest should be enforced. In cases where no acute inflammatory condition exists, neurectomy is beneficial. One must discriminate, however, between favorable and unfavorable subjects. This is not a last resort expedient to be employed in cases where extensive lesions of the navicular structures exists. With proper shoeing, and by putting the subject at suitable work, where concussion of fast travel on hard roads is not necessary, the best results are obtainable. Laminitis. This disease is primarily a non-infective inflammation of the sensitive laminae which very frequently affects the front feet. Often all four feet are affected, less frequently one foot (when its fellow is unable to sustain weight) and rarely the hind feet alone. Occurrence.--Probably a greater number of cases of laminitis occur in localities where horses that are worked on heavy transfer wagons are, when in a state of perspiration, allowed to stand exposed to sudden lowering of temperature and to stand in a cool or cold shower of rain such as occurs near the coast of the Great Lakes or the ocean in some parts of this country. This disease occurs in connection with digestive disorders of various kinds and, because of the frequent association of the two conditions, the common term "founder" has long been employed to designate laminitis. In cases of "over-loading," particularly when a large quantity of wheat has been eaten by animals that are unaccustomed to this diet, laminitis almost constantly results. Large draughts of cold water, when drunk by animals that are overheated is often followed by laminitis. Concussion, such as attends hard driving, especially in unshod horses or on rough and hard roads, is often succeeded by this affection. Likewise, as has been stated, injury such as is occasioned by long continued standing on the same foot is followed by laminitis. Some horses that are frequently shod, suffer from this affection a few hours after shoes have been reset. Dr. Chas. R. Treadway of Kansas City reports the rather frequent occurrence of such conditions in horses that are in the fire department service in his city. Age in no way influences the occurrence of laminitis and the general condition of an animal with regard to its vigor or state of flesh has no apparent influence toward predisposing horses to this ailment. Etiology and Classification.--As it is with some other diseases, one may unprofitably theorize on cause and readily enumerate many conditions which are apparently contributory toward producing the affection. Causes may well be grouped, however, and a more definite understanding of laminitis is possible as a result. Such collocation would include conditions which directly or indirectly affect the digestion, such as puerperal laminitis, drinking of large quantities of cold water and exposure to cold and rain when the body is warm. All of these various conditions might be said to affect the vaso-constrictor nerves in such manner that the natural tendency (because of the peculiar structure of the sensitive laminae and their mode of attachment to the non-sensitive wall) which solipeds have for this affection is indirectly due to this one cause--vaso-constriction. According to Dr. D.M. Campbell, the effect of toxic materials, which may be absorbed from the digestive tract or the uterus in parturient females, upon the vaso-constrictor nerves, is such that a passive congestion of the sensitive laminae occurs and laminitis is the result. He believes that even the chilling of the surface of the body when very warm, by a cold rain, constitutes a condition wherein the effect upon the vaso-constrictors is the same. This grouping does not include the effect of direct injuries of any and all kinds to which the feet are subjected such as: Concussion in fast road work, injuries occasioned by tight or ill fitting shoes, contusions of any kind resulting in non-infectious inflammation of the sensitive laminae, as well as the causes which produce laminitis where weight is borne by one foot when its fellow is out of function. A classification which is practical is that of _acute_ and _chronic_ laminitis. To the practicing veterinarian it is this manner of consideration that is essential in the handling of these cases. Symptomatology.--In the acute attack the condition is so well described by Dr. R.C. Moore[30] that we quote him in part as follows: The acute form is generally ushered in very suddenly. Often a horse that is perfectly free from symptoms of the disease is found a few hours later so stiff and sore that he will scarcely move. They stand like they were riveted to the ground. If forced to move the evidence of pain subsides to some extent after they have gone a short distance, to return more severe than ever after they have been allowed to stand for a short time. If the disease is confined to the two front feet, the hind feet are placed well under the center of the body to support the weight and the front ones are advanced in front of a perpendicular line so as to lessen the weight they must bear. If they are made to move, the same position of the feet is maintained. If made to turn in a small circle, they do so by using the hind feet as a pivot, bringing the front parts around by placing as little weight on them as possible. Placing the hind feet so far under the body, arches the back and often leads to errors in diagnosis, the condition sometimes being taken for diseases of the loins or kidneys. If all four feet are involved, the animal stands in the usual position assumed in health, but if urged to move, the least effort to do so usually brings on chronic spasms of the entire body. In very severe cases, a slight touch of the hand will develop the spasms. At times they are so severe, and have such short intermissions, that the disease has been mistaken for tetanus. However, the clonic nature of the spasm should prevent such an error. If they are lying down, it is difficult to get them to arise, and if they do so, they show marked symptoms of pain for some time after rising. If the disease is confined to the hind feet, they are placed well forward to relieve the strain on the toe caused by the downward pull of the perforans (deep flexor) tendon, but in place of the front feet being kept in front of a perpendicular line, as they are when the disease is confined to the front ones, they are placed far back under the body, so they will carry the maximum share of the body weight of which they are capable. The position of the feet is of great importance and offers symptoms that should not be overlooked. When the subject is caused to walk, symptoms of excruciating pain are manifested in all acute cases of laminitis. In some cases where all four feet are affected, no reasonable amount of persuasion will cause the suffering animal to move from its tracks. There is acceleration of the rate of heart action; the pulse is full and in some cases, bounding. As the affection progresses the pulse becomes rather weak and irregular. The character of the pulse in the region of the extremity is a reliable indicator; but one has to learn to make necessary discrimination because of the condition of the parts, as in some cases of lymphangitis or where the skin is abnormally thick. The characteristic throbbing pulse is, however, easily recognized in most cases. Temperature is variable, though usually elevated from one to four degrees above normal. This symptom varies with the type and stage of the affection. In a subject that has been down, unable to rise for several days, where there is a suppurative and sloughing condition of the laminae, the temperature is high. Whereas, in some other and less destructive cases there may be little thermic disturbance after the first few hours have lapsed. A constant symptom in bilateral affections of acute laminitis is the difficulty with which the subject supports weight with one foot. It is this which causes the victim to stand as if "rooted to the ground" when all four feet are involved. If one attempts to take up one foot, thus causing the subject to stand on the other, there is much resistance and in many cases the animal refuses to give the foot. When we consider that the sensitive parts of the foot are encased by a horny, unyielding box and that, when the laminae are congested, a great pressure is brought to bear upon the sensitive structures, it is easy to understand why the condition is so painful. _Chronic laminitis_ is a sequel of acute inflammation of the sensitive laminae. It varies as to intensity and the exact manner of its manifestation depends upon preëxisting disturbances. In some mild cases of laminitis there are recurrent attacks wherein no particular structural change exists, and diagnosis is established chiefly by noting the character of the pulse at the bifurcation of the large metacarpal (or metatarsal) artery just above the fetlock. The same manifestation of pain is present when weight is supported by one foot, though in a lesser degree. There is less local heat to be detected by palpation than in the acute cases. Chronic laminitis as it occurs following acute attacks which have resulted in structural changes of the foot, present the same symptoms just described and, in addition, the peculiar alterations in structure exist. When, owing to acute inflammation of the sensitive laminae, there has resulted necrosis of this sensitive tissue together with infiltration between the anterior surface of the distal phalanx (os pedis) and the contacting hoof, the lower portion of the distal phalanx is turned downward and backward (rotated upon its transverse axis). Because of the traction which is exerted by the deep flexor tendon (perforans), as it attaches to the solar surface of the distal phalanx, this rotation is facilitated. With hyperplasia of lamina, at the anterior portion of the distal phalanx, there results a thick "white line." Rotation of the distal phalanx necessitates a descent of its apical portion and there occurs a "dropped sole." In time, partly because of excessive wear of hoof at the heel, owing to an altered condition in the normal antagonistic relation between the flexor and extensor tendons, the toe makes an excessive growth, and the concavity of the anterior line is accentuated owing to this abnormal length of hoof. The hoof, because of recurrent inflammatory attacks, is corrugated--elevations of horn in parallel rings are usually present. [Illustration: Fig. 33--The hoof in chronic laminitis. Note the concavity. This animal was serviceable for any work that could be performed at a walk.] Animals that are so affected in traveling strike the heel first and the toe is later contacted with the ground surface. Rotation of the distal phalanx upon its transverse axis produces a condition, with respect to this peculiar impediment, that is equivalent to added and excessive length of the deep flexor tendon. Where there occurs suppuration, by careful inspection of the coronary region, one may early recognize detachment of hoof. In such cases animals remain recumbent and, while the condition is not so painful at this stage, the practitioner must not overlook the real state of affairs. History, if obtainable, will be a helpful guide in such cases. Separation of hoof occurs as a rule in from four to ten days after the initial attack of acute laminitis. Needless to say these cases are hopeless, when the economic phase of handling subjects is considered. [Illustration: Fig. 34--Showing the effects of laminitis. By permission, from Merillat's "Veterinary Surgical Operations."] Treatment.--Much depends upon the concomitant disturbances (or causes if one is justified in referring to them as such) as to the manner in which laminitis is to be treated. In all cases where digestive disturbances exist, the prompt unloading of the contents of the alimentary canal is certainly indicated. D.M. Campbell[31] in a discussion of laminitis has the following to say regarding the treatment of such cases: Because superpurgation may be followed by laminitis, the advisability of using the active hypodermic cathartics is questioned. Neither arecolin nor eserin can cause superpurgation. The action of the former does not continue longer than an hour after administration and of the latter not more than eight hours. The action of either is mild after the first few minutes. I do not think that anyone has recommended either arecolin or eserin where there is severe purgation. Where the intestinal canal is fairly well emptied and its contents fluid, I should be inclined to rely upon intestinal antiseptics to hold in check harmful bacterial growth. The use of alum in the treatment of laminitis is held to be without reason other than the empirical one that it is beneficial. If laminitis is due chiefly to an autointoxication, good and sufficient reason for the administration of alum can be shown based upon its known physiological action. It is the most powerful intestinal astringent that I know of and has the fewest disadvantages. I have not noted constipation following its use nor diarrhea, nor a stopping of peristalsis, nor indigestion, and in any case its action lasts at most only a few hours, and if it did all these, it could not much matter. Quitman says, that it constricts the capillaries. If this is true, a thing of which I am not certain, is it not reasonable to suppose that as with other vaso-constrictors, e.g., digitalis, there is a selective action on the part of the capillaries (not of the drug) and those that need it most, i.e., those of the affected feet in laminitis, are constricted most? All body cells exert this selective action in the assimilation of food, the tissue needing most any particular kind of food circulating in the blood, gets it. Our first consideration in laminitis should be to remove the cause--to stop the absorption of the toxin in the intestinal tract that is producing the condition. This we accomplish by partially unloading it by the use of the active hypodermic cathartics and stopping absorption by the surest and most harmless of intestinal astringents. Whether the astonishingly prompt and certain action of alum in this case is due wholly to its astringent action or whether alum combines with the harmful bacterial products chemically and forms an innocuous combination, I can only surmise, and it is unimportant. At any rate, when alum is administered, the onslaught of the disease is promptly stopped. Irreparable damage may already have been done if the case is a neglected one, but whether administered early or late in acute attacks, the progress of the disease is stopped immediately. The same authority may be profitably quoted in the matter of handling all cases wherein the revulsive effect of agents which diminish vascular tension are chiefly indicated or necessary as adjuvants. In this connection, Campbell says: The early and vigorous administration of aconitin in laminitis to its full physiological effect, is more logical. Assuming that laminitis is due to absorption of harmful products from the intestinal tract permitted through the deranged functioning of the organs of digestion, or assuming that it is due to an extension of the inflammation from the mucosa to the sensitive lamina, or that it is a reflex from a sudden chilling of the skin, we have in any of these conditions a disturbed circulation, and aconitin is the first and foremost of circulation "equalizers." Furthermore, in laminitis there is an elevation of the temperature, an almost invariable indication for aconitin. A speedy return of the temperature to normal, a very marked diminution of the pain and improved conditions generally, appear coincident with the symptoms of full physiological effect of aconitin when given in cases of laminitis, which constitutes assuredly an important part of its treatment. [Illustration: Fig. 35--Inferior (convex) surface of Cochran shoe.] Where lameness is not great as in cases wherein no marked structural change of the foot has occurred, proper shoeing is very beneficial. By keeping the heels as low as possible and shoeing without heel calks a more comfortable position is made possible. Thin rubber pads which do not elevate the heel are of service in diminishing concussion. Dr. David W. Cochran of New York City has attained unusual success in cases of chronic laminitis with dropped sole by the use of a specially designed shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 36--Superior surface, showing concavity or bowl, as formed by the toe and branches of the shoe, as designed by Dr. David W. Cochran.] Cochran claims that, not only are horses with dropped soles that would otherwise have to be put off the streets enabled to do a fair amount of work by means of this shoe, but that continually wearing it, meanwhile keeping the convexity of the front of the hoof rasped thin, in time brings about a marked improvement, and that after some months or years of use the animals are able to work with ordinary rubber-pad shoes, provided they are arranged to facilitate breaking over. From having been successfully used on some race horses of high value, the Cochran shoe has attained considerable notoriety and is being used by a number of practitioners. A disadvantage, however, arises from the fact that few horseshoers other than Doctor Cochran seem able to make the shoe, the peculiar shape of which offers considerable difficulty in forging. Concerning the application of the shoe Cochran[32] says: "The most important primary procedure is the preparation of the foot to receive the shoe. All excess of growth must be removed from the anterior face of the hoof. The outer face must be reduced at the toe (not shortened), but rasped down thin for the lighter the top of the foot is, the more chance the sole and coffin bone will have of resuming their former normal position. The pressure of the wall at the toe upon the exudate between wall and coffin bone, tends to force the coffin bone and sole out of their normal position. Leave the sole alone. You can lower the excess of growth at the heels. "There are many designs of shoes to relieve this condition. A great deal depends on the judgment of the shoer to meet the conditions presented, depending on the degree of the convexity and strength of the sole. In some cases we use a shoe that admits of a large amount of sole room. Again, we shoe with a shoe of wide cover. In other cases a shoe with even pressure over the whole sole. In some cases a high, narrow shoe, resting only on the wall, or the ordinary plain shoe with side calks welded close to the outside edge and the shoe dished well from these as a foundation. Then we have the air cushion pad designed after the model of the bowl shoe." In cases when slight and persistent lameness interferes sufficiently to prevent using an animal at any sort of work on hard roads, median neurectomy will relieve all lameness in most instances. This is a safe operation, moreover, in that no bad after effects are to be feared, even though lameness were to continue. Calk Wounds. (Paronychia.) Etiology and Occurrence.--Injuries of various kinds are inflicted upon the coronary region but usually they are due to the foot being trampled upon. When the foot that inflicts the injury happens to be unshod, a contusion of the injured member is occasioned, but in the majority of instances, wounds that demand attention are the result of shoe calks which have penetrated the tissues in the region of the coronary band. Often calk wounds are self-inflicted. When animals are excited and in turning crowd one another, they often perform dancing movements which frequently result in deep calk wounds of the coronet. Some horses have a habit of resting the heel of one hind foot upon the anterior coronary region of the other. While sleeping in this position, if they are suddenly awakened, the weight is abruptly shifted to the uppermost foot and the one underneath is (because of the pain attending its being wounded) quickly drawn out from under its fellow. In this way deep cuts may divide the coronary band and inflict extensive injury to the sensitive lamina as well. An infectious type of coronary inflammation occurs in some localities during the winter months, wherein the condition is enzootic. Symptomatology.--Depending upon the manner in which the injury has been produced, the appearance of the wound varies and likewise lameness is more or less pronounced. If the tissues are not divided and the wound is chiefly of the subsurface structures, there will not immediately occur pronounced local evidence of the existence of injury; but as soon as the lame animal is made to move, the peculiar character of the impediment (supporting-leg lameness with the affected foot kept well in advance of its normal position) directs attention to the extremity and all of the symptoms of acute inflammation are discovered. Where a wound is inflicted which divides, in some manner, the surface structures (skin, coronary band, or the hoof wall) one's attention is at once called to the existence of the wound. Because of the fact that there is every facility for the production of a sub-coronary and podophylous infection, these wounds should receive prompt attention. In some instances, the pastern joint is opened by calk wounds and then, of course, an infectious arthritis succeeds the injury. Treatment.--In all contused wounds of the coronary region the parts need thorough cleansing; the hair, if long is clipped and a cataplasm is applied. Or preferably, an iodin-glycerin combination of one part of iodin to four parts of glycerin is poured on a layer of cotton, and this is confined in contact with the inflamed parts by means of a bandage. Where normal resistance to infection obtains, the subject usually suffers no suppurative disturbance when the surface structures are not broken; and daily applications of the antiseptic lotion above referred to stimulates complete resolution. This may be expected in from four to ten days depending upon the extent of the injury. If a calk wound has been inflicted, the adjoining surface structures are freed of hair and the parts cleansed in the usual manner, (which in wounds recently inflicted, should be done without employing quantities of water) and after painting the wound surface with tincture of iodin and saturating its depths with the same agent, the wound is cleansed, if it contains filth, by means of a small curette. By using a small and sharp curette, one is enabled to cleanse the average wound quickly and almost painlessly. In such cases, equal parts of tincture of iodin and glycerin are employed. The wound is filled with this preparation and a quantity of it is poured upon a suitable piece of aseptic gauze or cotton and this is contacted with the wound. The extremity is carefully bandaged and this dressing is left in position for forty-eight hours unless there occurs, in the meanwhile, evidence of profuse suppuration--which is unusual. One is to be guided as to the progress made by the degree of lameness present. If little or no lameness develops, it is reasonable to expect that infection has been checked; that the wound is dry and redressing every second day is sufficiently frequent. Where cases progress favorably, recovery (unless infectious arthritis results) should occur in from ten days to three weeks. Where extensive sub-coronary fistulae result, either from lack of prompt or proper attention, the condition is then one requiring a radical operation to establish drainage and to disinfect if possible, the suppurating tissues. Corns. Etiology and Occurrence.--In horses, because of a tendency toward contraction of the heel in some subjects, together with work on hard roads and pavements, where the feet become dry and brittle, and because of neglect of the matter of shoeing, this affection is of frequent occurrence. Unshod horses are rarely affected. If conformation is faulty and too much weight is borne on the inner or the outer quarter, and the hoof wall at the quarter tends to turn inward, corns are usually present. They occur more frequently on the inner quarters of the front feet, though the outer quarters are occasionally also affected and in rare instances corns are found at the toes. They do not often affect the hind feet. As soon as injury by pressure, such as is supposed to cause the formation of corns, is brought to bear on the sensitive sole, an extravasation of blood occurs. In time when the cause remains active, this discoloration is evident in the substance of the insensitive sole and consists in a red or yellowish spot which varies in size--this is ordinarily termed dry corn. In some cases where infection of this extravasation of blood and serum occurs, instead of desiccation and discoloration of the insensitive parts, there is, in time, manifested a circumscribed area of destruction of the insensitive sole and the abscess may, where no provision for drainage exists, burrow between sensitive and insensitive laminae and perforate the tissues at the coronet. If the suppurative material discharges readily by way of the sole, no disturbance of the heel or quarters occurs above the hoof. Symptomatology.--A supporting-leg-lameness characterizes this condition; and this lameness in most instances varies in degree with the amount of distress which is occasioned by pressure upon the inflamed parts. By an examination of the sole after having removed all dirt, and exposed the horny sole to view, no difficulty is encountered in locating the cause of the trouble. Treatment.--Before suppuration has taken place and in the cases where suppuration does not occur, the horse-shoer's method of paring out the diseased tissue affords a means of temporary relief; but unless frequently done, in many cases, lameness results within about three weeks after such treatment has been given. In other instances temporary relief is not to be gotten in this manner for any great length of time or until a more rational mode of treatment becomes necessary so that the subject may experience a cessation of the inconvenience or distress. The general plan which meets with the approval of most practitioners consists in careful leveling of the foot and removing enough of the wall and sole at the quarters to make possible frog pressure by means of a bar shoe. With frog pressure, expansion of the heel follows in time, and permanent relief is obtainable in this manner. Thinning the wall of the quarter is advocated by many practitioners and is undoubtedly beneficial in chronic cases where marked contraction has taken place. The wall must be thinned with a rasp until it is readily flexible by compressing with the thumbs. There are instances, however, where corns and contraction of the heel have existed so long that they do not yield to treatment. Such cases are found in old light-harness or saddle-horses that have been more or less lame for years and where there exists marked contraction of the heels, rough hoof walls, and hard and atrophied frogs. Suppurating corns require surgical attention in the way of removal of the purulent necrotic mass and making provision for drainage. Dry dressings, such as equal parts of zinc sulphate and boric acid, may be employed to pack the cavity. After the infectious condition has been controlled, and the wound is dry, the same plan of treatment is indicated that is employed in the non-suppurating corn. Ample time is allowed, however, for the surgically invaded tissues to granulate and, if the subject is to be put in service, a leather pad, under which there has been packed oakum and tar, affords good protection. Quittor. This name is employed to designate an infectious inflammation of the lateral cartilage and adjoining structures. The disease is characterized by a slowly progressive necrosis and by a destruction of more or less of the cartilage and by the presence of fistulous tracts. Etiology and Occurrence.--The disease is due to the introduction of pus producing organisms into the subcoronary region of the foot under conditions which favor the retention of such contagium and extension of infection into contiguous tissues. Morbific material is introduced into the region of the lateral cartilage by means of calk wounds and other penetrant injuries of the foot. A sub-coronary abscess which, because of lack of proper care or because of virulency of the contagium or low vitality of the subject, is quite apt to result in cartilaginous affection and its perforation by necrosis follows. Symptomatology.--Quittor is readily diagnosed on sight in many instances. Where there is dependable history or other evidence of the chronicity of an infectious inflammation of the kind, quittor is easily identified. If no positive evidence of the disease exists, by means of careful exploration of sinuses with the probe, one may distinguish between true cartilaginous quittor and superficial abscess formation that is often accompanied by hyperplasia. Lameness depends upon the extent of the involvement as it affects the structures contiguous to the cartilage. A variable degree of lameness is manifested in different cases. Treatment.--Two general plans of handling this disease are in vogue. One, the more popular method, consists in the injection of caustic solutions of various kinds into the fistulous openings with the object of causing sloughing of necrotic tissue and the stimulation of healthy granulation of such wounds. The other mode consists in either complete surgical removal of the cartilage or its remaining portions, or removal of the diseased parts of curettage. When quittor has not extensively damaged the foot and the lateral cartilage is not partly ossified as it is in some old chronic cases, the complete removal of the lateral cartilage by means of the Bayer operation or a modification thereof is indicated. A complete description of the Bayer operation as well as Merillat's operation for this disease (the latter consisting in part, in the removal of diseased cartilage with the curette) are given in Volume three of Merillat's "Veterinary Surgical Operations." Treatment by injection of caustic solutions has many advocates and because of the fact that, in many instances the condition is such that they are not desirable surgical cases and also because some animals may be put in service before treatment is completed, the injection method is popular. The mode of treatment advocated by Joseph Hughes, M.R.C.V.S., constitutes a very successful manner of handling quittor and we can do no better than quote Dr. J.T. Seeley[33] on his manner of using this particular treatment. [Illustration: Fig. 37--Hyperplasia of right fore foot, due to chronic quittor.] Preparation.--First remove the shoe, have the foot pared very thin and balanced as nicely as possible. Moreover, all loose fragments of horn must be detached and all crevices cleaned thoroughly. Next, have the leg brushed and hair clipped from the knee or hock to the foot and scrubbed with ethereal soap and warm water, after which the foot must be scrubbed in like manner. The foot is then placed in a bichlorid bath several hours daily, for from two to five days, depending upon whether or not soreness is shown. The bichlorid solution is 1 to 1,000 strength. On removing the horse from the bath a liberal layer of gauze is soaked in 1 to 1,000 bichlorid solution and placed so as to cover the entire foot. On discontinuing the bath, cover the foot with gauze saturated with a 1 to 1,000 bichlorid solution. This is to be covered with absorbent cotton and a gauze bandage, and over all is placed an oil cloth or silk covering. This pack is kept moist with bichloride solution for forty-eight hours. The foot is then ready for injection. [Illustration: Fig. 38--Chronic quittor, left hind foot. Showing position assumed because of painfulness of the affection.] Preparation of the Injection Fluids.--Have on hand a pint of a one per cent aqueous solution of formaldehyd made under cleanly conditions, even to a clean bottle and cork, and a clean container when ready to use the liquid. Prepare also a bichlorid of mercury solution as follows: Hydrarg. Chlor. Corros. 3IV; Acid Hydrochlor. 3Iss.; Aqua Bulliens, Oij. This should be thoroughly triturated, and then filtered into a clean bottle, when it is ready for use. Injection.--The patient should be laid on a table, if one is available, or cast, and the foot securely fixed. Then, with an ordinary one-ounce hard rubber syringe, with a good plunger (tried first to note whether or not any fluid works around between the barrel and the plunger), introduce one syringe full of the formaldehyd solution, then thoroughly probe the quittor to determine the number of sinuses. This done, inject each sinus. If two sinuses open on the surface, close one with cotton while filling the other so that if there is a connection the solution will come in contact with all tissues involved. Irrigate with the full pint of formaldehyd solution first, then follow with six or eight ounces of the bichlorid solution. Never probe the foot nor allow it to be tampered with except in the manner prescribed. After-Treatment.--Put on a pack saturated with a solution of bichlorid of mercury 1 to 1,000 and let it remain two days. Remove pack, and once daily afterwards wipe off with cotton the secretion which accumulates on the outside, and apply a dry dressing or healing oil composed of phenol, camphor gum and olive oil. When Dangerous to Inject.--Never inject a quittor in the acute stage. Never inject a quittor if considerable lameness is present. On injecting a solution of formalin, hold cotton tightly around the nozzle of the syringe, when the plunger is down, then withdraw the syringe gently and note particularly if the fluid returns through the opening; if none returns cease operations at once, as it is dangerous to proceed farther, it indicates that the sinus is not well defined and the fluid retained will cause much trouble and often the death of the patient. Experience has taught that, if extensive destructive changes of the foot exist, the Bayer operation is not indicated. In the country, where quittors are not so frequently met as in urban practice, the Merillat operation is preferable in all cases. However, the cost of the protracted period of idleness, which convalescent surgical patients require, renders the Hughes method more satisfactory in the hands of the general practitioner, especially in the city. Nail Punctures. Nail punctures, as herein considered, embrace all penetrant wounds of the solar surface of the horse's foot due to trampling upon street nails. This does not include accidental nail pricks occasioned in shoeing. In city practice, in some stables, these cases are of frequent occurrence; and, generally speaking, nail punctures are observed more frequently in urban horses than in animals that are kept in the country. Occurrence and Method of Examination.--This condition, then, is a rather common cause of lameness and in no case, where cause of the claudication is not obvious, is the practitioner warranted in concluding his examination without careful search for the possible existence of nail puncture of the solar surface of the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 39--Skiagraph of foot. The X-ray offers very limited possibilities in the diagnosis of lameness. The location of a "gravel" or a nail that had worked its way some distance from the surface, or of an abscess of some proportion, deep in the tissues, might be facilitated under some circumstances by the aid of the X-ray. Its use in the detention of fractures is very limited, owing to the difficulty encountered in getting a view from the right position--many trials being necessary in most cases. The case shown above was diagnosed clinically as incipient ringbone. The X-ray revealed no lesions. (Photo by L. Griessmann.)] In occasional instances there co-exists an obvious cause for supporting-leg-lameness and an occult cause--a nail puncture. Where such complications are met, the practitioner is not necessarily guilty of neglect or carelessness when the nail puncture is not discovered at once, nevertheless, an examination is not complete until practically every possible cause of lameness has been located or excluded in any given case. In a search for nail puncture it is necessary to expose to view every portion of the sole and frog in such manner that the existence of the smallest possible wound will be revealed. This necessitates removal of the shoe, if, after a preliminary examination, a puncture is not found, when there is good reason to suspect its presence. However, where it is readily possible to locate and care for a wound without removal of the shoe, allowing the shoe to remain materially facilitates retaining dressings in position and relieves the solar surface of contact with the ground. If extensive injury or infection exists, it is of course necessary to remove the shoe and leave it off. By removing a superficial portion of all of the sole and frog, thus carefully and completely exposing to view all parts of the solar surface of the foot, and with the aid of hoof-testers one is enabled to positively determine the existence of nail punctures. Because of the tendency of puncture wounds of the foot to close, and since the superficial portion of the solar structures are usually soiled, it is absolutely necessary to conduct examinations of this kind in a thorough manner. Symtomatology.--Not all cases of nail puncture cause lameness during the course of the disturbance and in many instances no lameness is manifested for some time after the injury has been inflicted--not until infection has been the means of causing considerable inflammation of sensitive structures. Nevertheless, this lack of manifestation occurs only in cases where serious injury has not taken place and the degree of lameness is a constant and reliable indicator of the character and extent of nail punctures within twenty-four hours after injury has been inflicted. The position assumed by the affected animal inconstantly varies with the location and nature of the injury and is not of particular importance in establishing a diagnosis. The subject may support some weight with the affected member and stand "base-wide" or "base-narrow," or no weight may be borne with the foot or the animal may point or keep the extremity in a state of volar flexion. In cases where extensive injury has been inflicted, and great pain exists, the foot is kept off the ground much of the time and it may be swung back and forth as in all painful affections of the extremity. Nail punctures cause typical supporting-leg-lameness and in some cases certain peculiarities of locomotory impediment are worthy of notice. Punctures of the region of the heel, which directly affect or involve the deep tendon sheath, cause a type of lameness wherein pain is augmented, when dorsal flexion of the extremity occurs as well as when weight is borne. Wounds in the region of the toe of the hind feet sometimes cause the subject to carry the extremity considerably in advance of the point where it is planted and, just before placing the foot on the ground, it is carried backward a little way--ten or twelve inches. However, diagnosis of nail puncture is based on the finding of the characteristic wound or resultant local changes. Course and Prognosis.--The nature of the progress and the manner of termination of these cases are variable. If the coffin joint has been invaded, and a septic arthritis exists, the condition is at once grave. An open and infected tendon sheath, while not so serious, constitutes a condition which is distressing, and recovery is slow even under the most favorable conditions. Where a heavy, rigid and sharp nail enters the foot, in such manner that fracture of the third phalanx (os pedis) occurs, this complication makes for a protraction of the condition. Experience teaches that the natural course and termination in these cases are modified by the location and depth of the injury, virulency of the contagium and resistance of the subject to such infection. Prevention.--In all horses which are kept at such work that exposure to nail punctures is frequent, a practical means of prevention of such injuries consists in the employment of heavy sole leather or suitable sheet metal to cover the sole of the foot and, at the same time, confine oakum and tar in contact with the solar surface to prevent the introduction of foreign material between the foot and such protecting appliances. Further, if drivers and owners could be impressed with the serious complications which so frequently attend wounds of this kind, undoubtedly many cases which are now lost, because of ignorance or neglect on the part of the teamsters or proprietors of horses, would be saved by prompt and rational treatment. Treatment.--The treatment of this condition falls so largely within the dominion of surgery that we can give little more than an outline here. In cases where there exists no evidence of open joint or open tendon sheath as judged by the site of the puncture and degree of lameness present (after having thoroughly cleansed the solar surface of the foot and enlarged the opening in the nonsensitive sole) a little phenol is introduced into the wound. In such cases, where it is possible for the antiseptic to contact every part of wound surface to the extreme depths of the puncture, infection is prevented when such treatment is promptly administered. This may be considered as first aid, or emergency care, and is indicated in all wounds of the foot whether the injury be serious or almost insignificant. Subsequently one of two general courses may be pursued in the treatment of cases of nail puncture. One, by the employment of means to keep the wound patent and injection of suitable antiseptics, or agents that are more or less caustic in conjunction with strict observance of asepsis and wound protection. The other method consists in prompt establishment of drainage by surgical means and includes exploration and curettage. The first method is better adapted to the use of the average general practitioner and he would do well to keep the opening in the nonsensitive structures patent. By introducing equal parts of tincture of iodin and glycerin daily, good results will follow in most instances. The wound is protected in unshod horses, either by completely bandaging the foot and retaining, in contact with the wound, cotton that is saturated with iodin and glycerin, or, if a minor injury exists, the moderately enlarged opening in the nonsensitive sole or frog, which has been moistened with the antiseptic, is packed with a very small quantity of cotton. A little practice in this mode of closing benign puncture wounds will enable the practitioner to successfully protect the sensitive parts in the treatment of such cases in unshod country horses. When the condition progresses favorably the wound may be dressed every second day or twice weekly, and in the course of from two to six weeks recovery should be complete. If the practitioner is somewhat proficient as a surgeon, and has at his command facilities for doing surgery, the second method is preferable in many cases. By using a local anesthetic on the plantar nerves and confining the subject on an operating table, restraint should be perfect. The solar surface of the foot is first thoroughly cleansed, the puncture wound is enlarged in the nonsensitive structures and the parts are then moistened with phenol or other suitable antiseptics. By means of a small probe the puncture is explored and, depending on the character of the wound and the structures involved, surgical intervention is varied to suit the case. If necessary, all of the insensitive frog is removed, and in wounds affecting the region of the heel the tissues may be incised from the puncture outward dividing all of the tissues outward and backward to the surface. A suitable surgical dressing is then applied. If, on the other hand, the puncture extends into the navicular bursa, the radical operation is perhaps indicated, though not until one is sure that infection of the bursa and serious consequences are to follow if this operation is not performed. Detailed description of the technic of this operation belongs to the realm of surgery and a good discussion of it is to be found in William's work on veterinary surgical and obstetrical operations. One may summarize the discussion of treatment of nail puncture by saying that emergency care as herein described is of first consideration. In every case an immunizing dose of anti-tetanic serum should be given. Subsequently, the method employed must suit the character of the wound, existing facilities for handling the subject and the skill and aptitude of the practitioner. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 5: Manual of Veterinary Physiology, by Major-General F. Smith, page 590.] [Footnote 6: Manual of Veterinary Physiology by Major-General F. Smith, page 589.] [Footnote 7: Regional Veterinary Surgery and Operative Technique, Jno. A.W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.I., page 765.] [Footnote 8: Dr. Roscoe R. Bell in the Proceedings, N.Y. State Veterinary Medical Society, 1899.] [Footnote 9: American Veterinary Review, Vol. 35, P. 456.] [Footnote 10: "Radial Paralysis and Its Treatment by Mechanical Fixation of Knee and Ankle," Geo. H. Berns, D.V.S. Proceedings of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 1912, p. 219.] [Footnote 11: As quoted by Berns, in Radial Paralysis, etc., Proceedings of the A.V.M.A., 1912.] [Footnote 12: Veterinary Surgical Operations, by L.A. Merillat, V.S., p. 507.] [Footnote 13: A paper presented before the Illinois Veterinary Medical Assn. by Dr. H. Thompson of Paxton, Ill., American Veterinary Review, Vol. 15, p. 134.] [Footnote 14: "Fractures in Foals," by Dr. Wilfred Walters, M.R.C.V.S., American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 8, p. 669.] [Footnote 15: American Veterinary Review, Vol. 26, p. 1068.] [Footnote 16: Fractures, by H. Thompson, Paxton, Ill., American Veterinary Review, Vol. 15, p. 134.] [Footnote 17: Veterinary Surgical Operations, by L.A. Merillat, Vol. 3, p. 198.] [Footnote 18: Wilfred Walters, American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 8, p. 606.] [Footnote 19: J.N. Frost, assistant professor of Surgery, Veterinary Dept., Cornell University, in "Wound Treatment," page 159.] [Footnote 20: Open Joints and Their Treatment in my practice, by J.V. Lacroix, American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Vol. 5, page 203.] [Footnote 21: Regional Veterinary Surgery Möller--Dollar, page 605.] [Footnote 22: Extract from Receuil de Médecine Vétérinaire in Ameircan Veterinary Review, Vol. 23, p. 893.] [Footnote 23: Fracture of All the Sesamoid Bones, by R.F. Frost, M.R.C.V.S., A.V.D., Rangoon, Burmah, in American Veterinary Review, Vol. 5, p. 362.] [Footnote 24: The Anatomy of the Domestic Animal, by Septimus Sisson, S.B., V.S.] [Footnote 25: Traité De Thérapeutique Chirurgicale Des Animaux Domestique, par P.J. Cadiot et J. Almy, Tome Second, page 547.] [Footnote 26: Anatomie Regionale Des Animaux Domestique, page 695.] [Footnote 27: Manual of Veterinary Physiology, by Major-General F. Smith, C.B., C.M.G., page 678.] [Footnote 28: Möller's Regional Veterinary Surgery, by Dollar, page 630.] [Footnote 29: Edinburgh Veterinary Review, Vol. VI, page 616.] [Footnote 30: Equine Laminitis or Pododermatitis, by R.C. Moore, D.V.S., American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Vol. XI, page 284.] [Footnote 31: American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Vol. XI, page 318.] [Footnote 32: The Shoeing of a Dropped Sole Foot by Dr. David W. Cochran, New York City, The Horse Shoers Journal, March, 1915.] [Footnote 33: Quittor and Its Treatment by the Hughes Method, J.T. Seeley, M.D.C., Seattle, Washington, Chicago Veterinary College Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 9, page 27.] SECTION IV. LAMENESS IN THE HIND LEG. Anatomo-Physiological Consideration of the Pelvic Limbs. The pelvic bones as a whole constitute the analogue of the scapulae with respect to their function as a part of the mechanism of locomotive and supportive apparatus of the horse. The manner of attachment or connection between the ilia and the trunk is materially different from that of the scapulae, however, and the angles as formed by the long axes of the ilia in relation to the spinal column are maintained by two functionally antagonistic structures--the sacrosciatic ligaments, and the abdominal muscles by means of the prepubian tendon. The sacro-iliac articulations are such that a very limited amount of movement is possible; free movement, however, is unnecessary because of the enarthrodial (ball and socket) femeropelvic joint. The various muscles which exert their effect upon the pelvis in changing their relationship between the long axes of the ilia and spinal column, are concerned but little more in propulsion and weight bearing than are the pectoral muscles. A general treatise on the subject of lameness does not properly include such structures any more than it does the various affections of the dorsal, lumbar and sacral vertebrae or inflammation of the abdominal parietes. Involvement of such parts cause manifestations of lameness but the matter of establishing a diagnosis is difficult in many instances and in some cases impossible. The femeropelvic articulation is formed by the hemispherical head of the femur and the acetabulum; the latter constituting a cotyloid cavity which is deepened by the cotyloid ligament. The round ligament (ligamentum teres) is the principal binding structure of the hip joint and it arises in a notch in the head of the femur and is attached in the subpubic groove close to the acetabular notch. Another ligament, peculiar to Equidae--the accessory (pubiofemoral)--is attached to the head of the femur near the round ligament and passes through the cotyloid notch and along the under side of the pubis. It is inserted or blends with the prepubic tendon. This ligament prevents extreme abduction of the leg. The joint capsule encompasses the articulation and is attached to the brim of the acetabulum and the edge of the head of the femur. [Illustration: Fig. 40--Sagital section of right hock. The section passes through the middle of the groove of the trochlea of the tibial tarsal bone. 1 and 2. Proximal ends of cavity of hock joint. 3. Thick part of joint capsule over which deep flexor tendon plays. 4. Fibular tarsal bone (sustentaculum). A large vein crosses the upper part of the joint capsule (in front of 1). (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")] [Illustration: Fig. 41--Muscles of right leg; front view. The greater part of the long extensor has been removed. 1, 2, 3. Stumps of patellar ligaments. 4. Tuberosity of tibia. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")] The stifle joint is analagous to the knee joint of man and is to be considered an atypical ginglymus (hinge) articulation formed by the femur, tibia and patella. The ligaments are femerotibial, femeropatellar and capsular. In addition to the usual provision for articulation of bones there are situated cartilaginous _menisci_ between the condyles of the femur and the head of the tibia. These discs surround the tibial spine and are otherwise shaped to fit perfectly between the articular portions of the femur and tibia. Collateral ligaments (internal and external lateral) pass from the distal end of the femur to the proximal portion of the tibia. The mesial (internal) arises from the internal condyle of the femur and is attached to a rough area below the margin of the medial (internal) condyle of the tibia. The lateral (external), shorter and thicker, arises from the depression on the lateral epicondyle and inserts to the head of the fibula. The crucial or interosseus, anterior and posterior, are situated between the femur and tibia, and according to Smith,[34] the crucial ligaments are necessary to properly join the two bones, because of the character of the structure of the articular ends of the femur and tibia. The femeropatella ligaments are two thin bands which reinforce the capsular ligament. They arise from the lateral aspects of the femur, just above the condyles and are inserted to the corresponding surfaces of the patella. The patellar ligaments are three strong bands which arise from the antero-inferior surface of the patella, and are inserted to the anterior aspect of the tuberosity of the tibia. Taken as a whole, the tarsal bones, interarticulating and articulating with the tibia and metatarsal bones form the hock joint and this articulation is analagous to the carpus. As with the carpus, there is less movement in the inferior portion of the joint than in the superior part of the articulation. The chief articulating parts are the tibia with the tibial tarsal bone (astragulus). [Illustration: Fig. 42--Muscles of lower part of thigh, leg and foot; lateral view, o', Fascia lata; q, q', q", biceps femoris; r, semitendinosus; 21', lateral condyle of tibia. The extensor brevis is visible in the angle between the long and lateral extensor tendons. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. für Künstler.) (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")] The capsular ligament is attached around the margin of the articular surfaces of the tibia, to the tarsal bones, the collateral ligaments (internal and external lateral) and to the metatarsus. [Illustration: Fig. 43--Right stifle joint; lateral view. The femoro-patellar capsule was filled with plaster-of-Paris and then removed after the cast was set. The femoro-tibial capsule and most of the lateral patellar ligament are removed. M. Lateral meniscus. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")] The common ligaments of the tarsal joint are the collateral, the plantar (calcaneo-metatarsal and c. cuboid) and dorsal ligaments (oblique). The medial (internal lateral) ligament serves to join the medial (internal) tibial malleolus with tibial tarsal (astragalus) and other tarsal bones. The lateral (external lateral) ligament is inserted to the lateral (external) tibial malleolus and its distal portions are attached to the tibial tarsal (astragalus), fibular tarsal (calcaneum) bone, fourth tarsal (cuboid) and metatarsus bones. [Illustration: Fig. 44--Left stifle joint; medial view. The capsules are removed. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")] The plantar ligament (calcaneo-cuboid) is a strong flat band which is attached to the plantar surface of the fibular and fourth tarsal bones (calcaneum and cuboid) and the head of the lateral metatarsal (external small) bone. The dorsal (oblique) ligament is attached above to the distal tuberosity on the inner side of the tibia. It is inserted below to the central (cuneiform magnum) and third (c. medium) tarsal bones, to the proximal ends of the large and outer small metatarsal bones. The tarsus is a true hinge joint and because of the great strain which it sustains, is subject to frequent injury. About seventy-five percent of cases of lameness affecting the hind leg may be said to arise from disease of the hock. As members of locomotion the legs receive strains of two kinds: those of concussion and weight-bearing and strains of propulsion; the latter are the greater. In the horse as a work animal, the hind legs are probably subjected to greater strains than are the front but the manner of construction of the various parts of the pelvic limbs with the possible exception (according to some authorities) of the tibial tarsal joint, offsets this condition. The femur may be considered analagous to the humerus in that it bears a similar relationship to the ilium, that exist between the humerus and scapula. Further flexion during repose is prevented chiefly by the glutens medius (maximus) muscle and its tendons. The larger tendon inserts to the summit of the trochanter major of the femur and corresponds to the biceps brachii in the action of the latter on the scapulohumeral joint, except that the gluteus medius, in attaching to the femoral trochanter, exerts its effect as a lever of the first class. Because of the relationship between the long axes of the femur and iliac shaft it is evident that the angle formed by these two bones is maintained chiefly by the gluteus muscles during weight bearing. Contraction of muscular fibers of the gluteus medius causes extension of the femur and muscular strain is prevented to a great degree by the inelastic portion of this muscle. The chief physiological antagonistics of the glutei are the quadriceps femoris and tensor fascia lata. While the leg is supporting weight the stifle joint is fixed in position mainly by the quadriceps femoris group of muscles which are attached to the patella. Tendinous fibres intersect this muscular mass and relieve muscular strain during weight bearing. Because of the manner in which the patella functionates with the trochlea of the femur, comparatively little energy is required to prevent further flexion of the stifle joint. The patella, according to Strangeways, may be considered a sesamoid bone. [Illustration: Fig. 45--Left stifle joint; front view. The capsules are removed. 1. Middle patellar ligament. 2. Stump of fascia lata. 3. Stump of common tendon of extensor longus and peroneus tertius. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of Domestic Animals.")] The quadriceps group of muscles is assisted by the anterior digital extensor (extensor pedis) peroneus tertius and tibialis anticus (flexor metatarsi) muscles. The latter pair (flexor metatarsi, muscular and tendinous portions, because of their attachment to the external condyle of the femur and to the metatarsal bone) are enabled to automatically flex the tarsal joint when the stifle is flexed. The hock is kept fixed in position by the gastrocnemius and the superficial digital flexor (perforatus). The latter structure, which is chiefly tendinous, originates in the supracondyloid fossa of the femur and has an insertion to the summit of the fibular tarsal (calcis) bone. It relieves the gastrocnemius of muscular strain during weight bearing. Smith[35] styles the function of the stifle and hock joints a reciprocating action, and we quote from this authority the following: From what has been said, it is evident that flexion and extension of stifle and hock are identical in their action. When the stifle is extended, the hock is automatically extended, nor can it under any circumstances flex without the previous flexion of the stifle. There is no parallel to this in the body. The two joints, though far apart, act as one, and they are locked by the drawing up of the patella, and in no other way. The so-called dislocation of the stifle in the horse is a misnomer. That the patella is capable of being dislocated is beyond doubt, but the ordinary condition described under that term, when the stifle and hock are rigid while the foot is turned back with its wall on the ground, is nothing more than spasm of the muscles which keeps the patella drawn up. The moment they relax the previously immovable limb and useless foot have their function restored as if by magic, but are immediately thrown out of gear in the course of a few minutes as a recurrence of the tetanus of the petallar muscle takes place. The fascia of the thigh, like that of the arm, is a most potent factor in giving assistance to the constant strain imposed on the muscles of the limbs during standing. Below the hock the hind limb is arranged like that of the fore, the deep flexor (perforans) receiving its additional support from the "check ligament," as in the fore leg. The natural attitude of standing adopted by the horse is to rest on three legs--one hind and two fore. If he is alert, he stands on all four limbs; but if standing in the ordinary manner, he always rests on one hind leg. He does not remain long in this position without changing to the other. Hour by hour he stands, shifting his weight at intervals from one to the other hind leg, and resting its fellow by flexing the hock and standing on the toe. He never spares his fore-limbs in this manner in a state of health, but always stands squarely on them. Hip Lameness. Fortunately, because of the heavy musculature which goes to form a part of the locomotive apparatus of the rear extremity, hip lameness is comparatively rare. While the term is in itself ambiguous and signifies nothing more definite than does "shoulder lameness," yet diagnosis of almost any condition that may be classed under the head of "hip lameness" is not easy except in cases where the cause is obvious, as in wounds of the musculature and certain fractures. To the complexity which the gait of the quadruped contributes, because of its being four-legged, there is added the complicated manner of articulation of the bones of the hind leg. This involves the hip in the manner of diagnostic problems and because of the inaccessibility of certain parts, owing to the bulk of the musculature of these parts, diagnosis of some hip ailments becomes an intricate problem. Consequently, in some instances, before one may arrive at definite and enlightening conclusions, repeated examinations are necessary as well as a knowledge of reliable history and recorded observations of the subject over a considerable period. Rheumatic affections, when present, usually cause recurrent attacks of lameness; myalgia, due to subsurface injury occasioned by contusion, generally produces an ephemeral disturbance; and while these are examples of cases where occult causes are active, they are by no means unprecedented. In cases where the cause of lameness is not definitely located, and when by the process of exclusion one is enabled to decide that the seat of trouble is in the hip, a tentative diagnosis of hip lameness is always appropriate. In one instance a Shetland pony evinced a peculiar form of intermittent lameness which affected the left hip, and repeated examinations did not disclose the cause of the trouble. After about a year there was established spontaneously an opening through the integument overlying the region of the attachment of the psoas major (magnus), through which pus discharged. With the occurrence of this fistula, lameness almost entirely disappeared, but the emission of a small amount of pus persisted for more than a year. The subject was not observed thereafter and the outcome in this case is not a matter of record. Whether there existed a psoic phlegmon due to metastatic infection or necrosis of a part of a lumber or dorsal vertebra is a matter for speculation. Thus the presence of some anomalous conditions which affect the pelvic region and cause lameness may be discovered, yet both in hip and shoulder regions causes may not be definitely located by means of practical methods of examination. Injuries of all kinds are the more frequent causes of hip lameness. In such cases, lameness may result directly and resolution be prompt, or the claudication become aggravated in time, due to muscular atrophy or degenerative changes affecting the hip joint or nerves. Rheumatism or metastatic infection may be the cause of hip lameness as well as affections of the pelvic bones, lumbar and sacral vertebrae. Hip lameness may also be provoked by melanotic or other tumors. In the diagnosis of hip lameness, one is guided in a general way by the character of the impediment manifested. Swinging-leg lameness is often present and the impediment is more accentuated when the animal is caused to step backward. In many cases lameness is mixed, being about equally noticeable during weight bearing and while the member is being swung. By exclusion of causes which might affect other parts; one may definitely locate the cause of the trouble or determine that a certain region is affected. The sudden manifestation of lameness is indicative of injury; thermic disturbances may signalize metastatic infection; history, if dependable, is always helpful. Repeated observations, taking into account the course which the affection assumes during a period of a few days, often serve to afford a means of establishing a diagnosis in baffling cases. Fractures of the Pelvic Bones. The os innominatum may be so fractured that the pelvic girdle is broken, as in fracture of the iliac shaft, or in a manner that the girdling continuity of the innominate bones is not interrupted. It naturally follows that greater injury is done when the pelvic girdle is broken than when it is not, except in cases where the acetabulum is involved and its brim not completely divided. Etiology and Occurrence.--Pelvic fractures are usually caused by falls or other manner of contusion. Cases are reported where it would seem that fracture of the iliac angle resulted from muscular contraction, but it is certain that most fractures of this kind are due to collisions with door jambs or similar injuries. In old horses especially, fracture of pelvic bones occurs frequently. This form of injury is of more frequent occurrence in animals of all ages that work on paved streets. The country horse is not subjected to the uncertain footing of the slippery pavement, nor to injuries which compare with those caused by contusions sustained in falling upon asphalt or cobble-stones. Symptomatology.--While in many cases of pelvic fracture lameness or abnormal decumbency are the salient manifestations, yet the pathognomic symptoms are crepitation or palpable evidence which may be obtained by rectal or vaginal examination. In fractures of the angle of the ilium and the ischial tuberosity, perceptible evidence always exists. In cases where fracture of some portion of the pelvic girdle is suspected and the subject is able to walk, crepitation is sought by placing one hand on an external angle of the ilium and the other on the ischial tuberosity and the animal is then made to walk. Or, by placing the hands as just directed, an assistant may grasp the horse's tail and by alternately exerting traction on the tail and pushing against the hip in such manner that weight is shifted from one leg to the other, crepitation may be detected. Fracture of the pubis near its symphysis constitutes a grave injury, as there is danger of the bladder becoming caught in the fissure and perforation of its wall may result. Such a case is reported by Bauman[36] wherein a three-year-old gelding bore the history of having been lame for ten days. Upon rectal examination the bladder was found to be hard and tumor-like and about the size of a baseball. The body of the ischium in this case was fractured and a rent in the bladder was caused by a sharp projecting piece of bone. Autopsy revealed, in addition to the fracture and rent of the bladder wall, a large quantity of urine in the peritoneal cavity. In other instances hemorrhage caused death and not infrequently infection was responsible for a fatal issue. Moller,[37] quoting Nocard, describes a case where fracture occurred through the region of the foramen ovale and paralysis of the obturator nerve followed. Fractures which include the acetabular bones cause great pain. This is manifested by marked lameness, both during weight bearing and when the member is swung. Such cases terminate unfavorably--complete recovery is impossible. Where small portions of the angle of the ilium are broken, and the skin is left intact, there exists the least troublesome class of pelvic fracture. If large portions of the ilium are fractured, considerable disturbance results. There eventually occurs more or less displacement in such cases, if such displacement does not take place at the time of injury. The same may be said of fracture of the tuber ischii, but when these bones are fractured a more serious condition results. Treatment.--When a case is found to be uncomplicated, that is, if the fracture is such that recovery seems possible and after having determined that treatment may be practicable, the first consideration is that of confining the subject in suitable slings. In many cases of pelvic fracture, the affected animal will need to be kept in slings from six weeks to three months, and it becomes a difficult problem to minimize the distress during this long period of confinement in the peculiar manner required for favorable outcome. The pattern of sling employed should be the best that is obtainable and the matter of its adjustment is quite important lest unnecessary chafing or even necrosis of skin result. Frequent readjustment may be necessary, and time is well spent in this manner since this contributes materially toward a favorable termination by encouraging the subject to remain quiet so that coaptation of the broken bones may be maintained. Aside from slings, mechanical appliances that are helpful in the treatment of these cases are not yet in use. A regimen that is nutritive and at the same time laxative is essential and in some cases cathartics and enemata are necessary. Also, during the first few days, if there is retention of urine, catheterization is imperative. In a word, the handling of such cases consists largely in keeping the subject inactive, as comfortable as possible, and giving attention to suitable diet. Simple fracture of the external iliac angle needs no particular attention, except that the subject is kept quiet until lameness subsides. In all cases where much of the bone is broken, the animal is blemished, but interference with function does not follow. If infection results because of a compound fracture, loose pieces of bone must be removed surgically and drainage provided for. In fracture of the ischial tuberosity, infection is more apt to result than in like injury of the ilium, and greater displacement of bone occurs. This displacement, due to contraction of the attached muscles, is in some instances a contributing cause to the infection which often follows in these cases. In females where the body of the ischium is fractured, lacerations of the vagina may be present, and this constitutes a serious complication which usually terminates fatally. After-care in fracture of the pelvic girdle consists principally in allowing a protracted period of rest before subjects are put to work. Fractures of the Femur. Etiology and Occurrence.--This is a comparatively rare injury in the horse because of the protection afforded the femur by the heavy musculature. Fragilitas of the bone probably exists in many cases when fracture of its diaphysis occurs. It is generally conceded that the neck of the femur is rarely broken because of a lack of constriction in this part, but fracture of the trochanters has been recorded rather frequently. However, Lienaux and Zwanenpoete[38] state that fracture of the neck of the femur is of frequent occurrence in Belgian colts. Tapley[39] reports in the Veterinary Journal (English) fracture of the head and internal trochanter of the femur and patellar luxation occurring simultaneously affecting a mule. In this case the mule was found decumbent on a concrete floor. After three weeks, the subject was destroyed and autopsy revealed rupture of the left pubiofemoral ligament, tearing with it a portion of the articular surface of the femur. The internal trochanter was also fractured in four small pieces. In this case it is fair to suppose that the mule in trying to regain footing on a slippery floor violently abducted the legs and fracture resulted. It is possible also that a temporary luxation of the patella took place first and caused the animal to struggle in such manner that fracture followed. [Illustration: Fig. 46--Oblique fracture of the femur of a 1,500 six-year-old draft horse. Showing shortening of bone, owing to a lateral approximation of the diaphysis because of muscular contraction. Photo by Dr. Edward Merillat.] Symptomatology.--According to Cadiot and Almy,[40] "regardless of the location of femoral fractures, the subject is usually intensely lame, the animal frequently walking on three legs--fractures of the diaphysis are characterized by an abnormal mobility." As a rule, crepitation is to be recognized in fractures of the shaft of the bone, by passively moving the leg to and from the medial plane (adduction and abduction). Fracture of the trochanter major is signalized by local swelling and evidence of pain; the forward stride is shortened because this movement tenses the tendon of the gluteus major (maximus) which is attached principally to the trochanter. [Illustration: Fig. 47--Same bone as in Fig. 46 after about six months' treatment. In this case Dr. Merillat employed a weight to counteract muscular contraction. It is noticeable that very little provisional callus has formed in this case, and in spite of unusual ingenuity and good facilities for caring for the subject, union of bone did not occur.] Treatment.--Reduction of femoral fracture in the horse is practically impossible, and retaining the broken bones in coaptation is not possible by means of mechanical appliances. Consequently, prognosis is unfavorable in fracture of the body of the femur. When union of bone occurs, there results shortening of the leg and animals are rendered permanently lame. If the immediate region of the head of the bone is involved as well as in case of fracture of the condyles, an incurable arthritis ensues. Where the trochanters are broken, chronic lameness and muscular atrophy is the result. Therefore, it is evident that, because of the manner of function of the femur, the leverage afforded by its great trochanter and its heavy muscular attachments, fractures of this bone in the horse do not terminate favorably. Luxation of the Femur. Etiology and Occurrence.--Uncomplicated femoral luxation is of less frequent occurrence in the horse than in the other domestic animals. The deep cotyloid cavity renders disarticulation difficult and luxation does not often take place. Complications that usually occur are rupture of the round (coxofemoral) ligament or fracture of the neck of the femur. Falls or violent strains are necessary to produce this luxation. Goubaux is quoted by Cadiot and Almy[41] as having observed the head of the femur in an instance wherein luxation had long existed. In this case autopsy revealed the fact that the inner portion (two-thirds) of the head of the femur had completely disappeared. Luxation of the femur is observed in old emaciated animals that are worked on slippery pavements. Occasionally, evidence of chronic luxation of the femur is observed in the anatomical laboratory. The chronicity of the condition is obvious when one notes the well formed articulation which Nature provides for the head of the femur, where fracture or other serious complications are not present. Symptomatology.--In every case there must exist either restriction of movement or an evident abnormal position of the leg, or both conditions may exist at once. Also, the leg may be markedly shortened. Manifestation of this affection varies, depending upon the character of the luxation (position of the head of the humerus with relation to the acetabulum). Lusk[42] cites a case of a mule which had suffered femoral luxation. The animal was destroyed and on autopsy the head of the femur found to be contained within a false articular cavity situated about four inches above the acetabulum. In Dr. Lusk's case as he states it, the following symptoms were presented: "Limb shortened and fixed in a position of adduction. While standing the affected limb hung directly across and in front of the opposite one; upper trochanter very prominent; skin over hip joint very tense. The mobility of the limb was very limited, especially in the forward direction." Being very prominent when there is an upward luxation and less perceptible in downward displacement, the location of the trochanter major is an indicator of the character of the luxation with respect to the position of the head of the femur. This variation of position causes abnormal tenseness or looseness of the skin over the region of the trochanter major. Rectal examination is of aid in locating the head of the humerus. Treatment.--When it is evident that a subject should be given treatment and not destroyed, the animal must be cast and completely anesthetized. With complete relaxation thus secured by rotation of the limb, using the hip joint region as a pivot, reduction may be effected. Traction is exerted in the same direction from the acetabulum that the head of the femur is situated and by pressing over the joint, the displaced bone may be returned in position. If luxation is downward, traction on the extremity will tend to dislodge the head of the femur from the inferior acetabular margin making reduction possible. The same general plan which is ordinarily employed in correcting luxation is indicated here, but because of the heavy musculature of the hip, complete anesthesia is imperative in all such manipulations. Gluteal Tendo-Synovitis. The glutens medius (g. maximus) muscle is inserted chiefly by means of two tendons; one to the summit of the trochanter major of the femur and the other passing over the anterior part of the convexity of the trochanter, and being attached to the crest below it. The trochanter is covered with cartilage, and a bursa (the trochanteric) is interposed between the tendon and the cartilage. Etiology and Occurrence.--This affection is probably caused in most instances by direct injury to the parts, such as may be occasioned by being kicked, falling on pavement, or being struck by the body of a heavy wagon. Strains in pulling or in slipping are undoubtedly causative factors and in draft horses such strains may result in involvement of this synovial apparatus. Symptomatology.--If pain be severe and inflammation acute, weight may not be borne with the affected member. There is some local manifestation of the condition in acute cases. Swelling of the tissues contiguous to the bursa is present and pain is evinced upon manipulation of the parts. A characteristic gait marks inflammation of the trochanteric bursa, and as Gunther has put it, the subject generally moves or trots as does the dog--the sound member being carried in advance of the affected one and the forward stride of the diseased leg is shortened. In some chronic cases crepitation is discernible by holding the hand on the trochanter while the subject walks. Treatment.--In the first stages of an acute affection absolute quiet must be enforced; local antiphlogistic applications are beneficial. Later, vesication of a liberal area surrounding the trochanter major is indicated. Where the condition has become chronic in horses that are to be kept at heavy draft work there is little chance for complete recovery. And, naturally, one is not to expect resolution in cases where there exist erosion and ossification of cartilage--where crepitation is discernible. Paralysis of the Hind Leg. Aside from paraplegic conditions due to disease of the cord or the lumbosacral plexus, and monoplegic affections resultant from disturbances of this plexus, paralysis of certain nerves are occasionally encountered. Anatomy.--The lumbosacral plexus results substantially from the union of the ventral branches of the last three lumbar and the first two sacral nerves, but it derives a small root from the third lumbar nerve also. The anterior part of the plexus lies in front of the internal iliac artery, between the lumbar transverse processes and the psoas minor. It supplies branches to the iliopsoas[43] (designated by Girard, the iliacomuscular nerves). The posterior part lies partly upon and partly in the texture of the sacrosciatic ligament. From the plexus are derived the nerves of the pelvic limb (Sisson). Paralysis of the Femoral (Crural) Nerve. Anatomy.--The femoral nerve (crural) is derived chiefly from the fourth and fifth lumbar nerves. It runs ventrally and backward, at first between the psoas major and minor, then crosses the deep face of the tendon of the latter and descends under cover of the sartorious over the terminal part of the iliopsoas. It innervates the psoas major (magnus), psoas minor (parvus), sartorious, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis (interims). Branches supply the stifle and the adductor and pectineus muscles. Etiology and Occurrence.--While paralysis of the femoral nerve, also known as "dropped stifle" occurs as a result of local injuries and melanotic tumors in gray horses, most cases are due to azoturia. So-called crural paralysis or "hip swinney" is occasionally observed but this is not a condition wherein the nerve is affected in the manner that characterizes the marked atrophy of quadriceps femoris (crural) muscles in some cases of hemaglobinuria. This form of paralysis according to Hutyra and Marek is due primarily to diffuse degeneration of the muscles. Symptomatology.--When muscular atrophy is not extensive no particular evidence of this condition may be manifested while the subject is at rest, but where muscular waste has occurred, the nature of the ailment is at once recognized. Since the femoral nerve supplies the quadriceps femoris muscles, it follows that when the psoic portion of this nerve becomes diseased, the stifle loses its support, and in a unilateral involvement when the subject attempts to walk on the affected member, the stifle sinks down for want of support and the leg collapses unless weight is caught up with the other leg. Often, following azoturia, a bilateral affection is to be observed. Treatment.--Horses may be restrained in the standing position, and in the average instance, a twitch and hood are all the restraining appliances necessary. In cases where the disease is unilateral and atrophy is not of too long standing, recovery is possible in vigorous subjects. All affections, however, wherein degenerative changes involve the nerve trunk, whether due to diffuse myositis or pressure from malignant tumors, will not yield to treatment. The same general plan of treatment is indicated that is described on page 74 in the consideration of atrophy of the scapular muscles. It is especially important to provide for the subject to be exercised when there is atrophy of the quadriceps muscles following azoturia. In addition to the foregoing, good results have attended the use of intramuscular injections of oxygen. The technic of the operation consists in preparing the area of skin which covers the atrophied muscles as for any operation. The hair is clipped over five or six or more circular areas of about an inch in diameter; the skin is cleansed and then painted with tincture of iodin. A long heavy sterile needle, which is connected with an oxygen tank by means of six feet of rubber tubing, is thrust into the depths of the affected muscles and the gas is gently introduced into the tissues. One needs exercise extreme care that the gas enter slowly because great pain is produced by the sudden injection of the oxygen. Likewise too much of the gas must not be introduced at one place. When the oxygen is slowly introduced it may be allowed to enter the tissues until the subject gives evidence of experiencing considerable pain, or if the parts are not particularly sensitive, a reasonable amount (enough to cause a mild degree of diffuse inflammation) is introduced at each one of five or six points. In large animals more points of injection may be used. No infection or other bad results will follow the execution of a good technic and the treatment may be repeated every three or four weeks until either marked regeneration of tissue is evident or the case is obviously proved hopeless. Paralysis of the Obturator Nerve. Anatomy.--The obturator nerve, situated at first under the peritoneum, accompanies the obturator artery through the obturator foramen and gaining the muscles on the internal face of the thigh, terminates in the obturator externus, adductors, pectineus and gracilis, also giving twigs to the obturator internus (Strangeways). Etiology and Occurrence.--This condition occurs upon rare occasions as the result of injury such as falls which cause extreme abduction of the legs, or in pelvic fracture where the nerve is directly injured, or when melanotic tumors or other new growths compress the nerve in such manner that its function is suspended. Paralysis of the obturator nerve or nerves is met with rather frequently, notwithstanding, in mares, following dystocia. The nerves (one or both) may become bruised at the brim of the obturator foramen by being caught between the pelvis and the body of the fetus in some cases of protracted labor. Symptomatology.--In a unilateral affection there may be little evidence of the trouble while the subject is standing; or there is to be seen some abduction; or the affected member may present abduction of the stifle and stand "toe outward." If the animal is walked there will be manifested more or less abduction and the character of the impediment varies according to the nature of the involvement. Following protracted cases of labor in some instances where only a unilateral paralysis exists, walking is performed with difficulty; the subject may be unable to support weight with the affected member and is obliged to hop on the one sound hind leg. In bilateral affections, they are unable to rise. If the condition is severe the sling is required to keep the subject standing, and with this care, recovery will follow. Treatment.--If new growths or callosities or similar conditions affect the nerve, little, if any, hope for recovery exists. In young and vigorous subjects where cause is not definitely known, a course of strychnin may be given. Good nursing, providing for the subject's comfort and allowing moderate exercise, constitute rational treatment. Stimulating embrocations on the abductor muscles resorted to in cases during the incipient stage may prove helpful. When paralysis of the obturator nerve occurs as a post-partum complication, and other conditions are favorable, the subject should be raised to its feet without unnecessary delay. If the mare is unable to assist in regaining her feet, a sling is required. Usually little else is necessary and after a few days in the sling the subject can get about unassisted. In the meanwhile the well-being of the affected animal is to be considered just as in any other case where the patient is so confined. The foal in such instances constitutes a source of some trouble, but the average mare offers no serious resistance to the confinement occasioned by the sling. Good hygienic care, a suitable diet and full physiological doses of strychnin are indicated. Cadiot and Almy recommend vaginal douches of cold water and counterirritation of the region of the inner thigh in these cases. Paralysis of the Sciatic Nerve. Anatomy.--The great sciatic nerve leaves the pelvis in company with the gluteal nerves, through the great sciatic foramen (notch), passing downward along the posterior face of the femur. Near the stifle it passes between the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle and continues as the tibial. Branches supply the following muscles--obturator, semimembranosus (adductor magnus), biceps femoris (triceps abductor femoris), semitendinosus (biceps rotator tibialis), lateral extensor (peroneus) and the tibial nerve, its continuation, innervates the digital flexors. Etiology and Occurrence.--Paralysis of the great sciatic nerve may be caused by central disorders, injury in falling, fractures and new growths. Because of its protected position, this nerve does not often suffer injury, and paralysis of the sciatic nerve is recorded in a few instances owing to its rarity. Symptomatology.--When consideration is given the number of muscles that are supplied by the sciatic nerve and the function of these muscular structures, it is obvious that the leg cannot be used in sciatic paralysis. However, the limb is capable of sustaining weight when it is fixed in position, but this is done without exertion of muscular fibers which are supplied by the great sciatic nerve. Trotting is impossible and flexion of the affected member is also likewise precluded. The foot is dragged when the subject is caused to advance. Under the heading "sciatica," Scott[44] has described a case of acute sciatic affection wherein a pacing horse manifested evidence of great pain of a nervous character. There were muscular twitchings and the leg was held off the floor and moved about convulsively. Breathing was very much accelerated, pulse 85 per minute, the temperature was 103° and manipulation of the hips augmented the pain. This was not a paralytic condition and recovery resulted, yet undoubtedly this was a case which, if not properly cared for, might have terminated unfavorably. Treatment.--Prognosis is decidedly unfavorable in paralysis of the great sciatic nerve. If treatment is attempted, it is to be conducted along the same general lines as in femoral paralysis. Particular attention should be given to conditions which will make for the patient's comfort, and as soon as it is evident that the affection is not progressing favorably, the subject should be humanely destroyed. Iliac Thrombosis. This condition is undoubtedly of more frequent occurrence than we are wont to grant when one considers the comparatively small number of cases that are actually recognized in practice. It does not follow, however, that iliac thrombosis rarely exists. Probably in the majority of instances there is insufficient obstruction of the lumina of vessels to provoke noticeable inconvenience. Or, if circulation is hampered to the extent that function is impaired and manifestations are observed by the driver, the subject may be permitted to rest a few days and partial resolution occurs, so that further trouble is not noticeable. As judged by lesions of the aorta and iliac arteries in dissecting subjects, the conclusion that arteritis and resultant disorders are of rather frequent occurrence, is logical. Etiology.--Inflammation of the vessel walls and resultant prolifieration of tissue together with the accumulation of clotted blood becoming organized, serve to obstruct the lumen of the affected artery. The cause of arteritis is unknown in many instances, but parasitic invasion and contiguous involvement of vessels in some inflammatory injuries are etiological factors. Symptomatology.--A characteristic type of lameness signalizes iliac thrombosis and the following brief abstract from a contribution on this subject by Drs. Merillat[45], clearly portrays the chief symptoms: [Illustration: Fig. 48--Exposure of aorta and its branches, showing location of thrombi in numerous places. In this case (same as Fig. 49) Dr. L.A. and Dr. Edward Merillat found the cause of the condition to be due to sclerastomiasis.] The seizures are accompanied with profuse sudation, tremors, dilated nostrils, accelerated respirations and other symptoms of pain and distress, all of which, together with the lameness, disappear as rapidly as they had developed, leaving the animal in an apparently perfect state of health, ready to fall with another attack of precisely the same kind, as soon as enough exercise is forced upon it. The rectal explorations may reveal a pulseless state of one or more of the iliac arteries and a hardness and enlargement of the aortic quadrifurcation, but sometimes this palpation fails to disclose any _perceptible_ diminution of the blood current of these vessels. The obturation being incomplete, it may be impossible by palpation to decide that thrombosis really exists. In this event and, in fact, in all eases, the clinical symptoms are sufficiently characteristic to make a diagnosis without reservation. It cannot be mistaken for any other disease, once properly investigated. Any given seizure may easily be mistaken for azoturia, at first, but a better examination soon excludes that disease. [Illustration: Fig. 49--Illustrative of thrombosis of the aorta, iliacs and branches. Photo by Dr. L.A. Merillat.] Prognosis and Treatment.--In the majority of instances, when there is occasioned serious inconvenience, the outcome is not likely to be favorable, according to Möller. Detachment of a portion of the thrombus, according to Hoare, may result in the lodgment of an embolus in the brain or kidneys. The latter authority also states that muscular atrophy may occur owing to lack of blood supply in some of these cases. Möller states that moderate exercise or work stimulates the establishment of collateral circulation. Massage per rectum is condemned as dangerous by Cadiot. Fracture of the Patella. Etiology and Occurrence.--Patellar fractures are rarely met with in the horse but may be caused by falls and heavy contusions. Violent muscular contraction, it is said, may also bring about the same condition. Symptomatology.--Fracture may be transverse or vertical, and depending on the manner in which the bone is broken, prognosis is either at once rendered favorable or unfavorable. The patella performs a function which is in a way similar to that of the sesamoids and when fractured, complete recovery is improbable in the average instance. When complete, transverse fractures permit of separation of the parts of bone. Tension on the straight ligaments below and contraction of the quadriceps above usually cause insuperable difficulty in the handling of this type of fracture in the horse. Compound fractures as well as multiple or comminuted fractures occasionally occur and these constitute injuries which are generally considered fatal, although Andrien, according to Cadiot and Almy, succeeded in obtaining complete recovery in a case of compound fracture of the patella and the horse was in service and almost free from lameness two months after treatment was begun. No difficulty is encountered in recognizing the fracture of the patella because of the exposed position of the bone. Crepitation, and in some cases fissures, may be easily detected. Treatment.--In simple fracture, when treatment is thought advisable, the subject is put in a sling and kept as nearly comfortable as possible. If little inflammation exists, the application of a vesicant two or three weeks after the injury has been inflicted will be helpful and serve to hasten repair. Bandages or mechanical appliances are of no practical use in the handling of these cases. Luxation of the Patella. Etiology and Occurrence.--This, the most common luxation met with in the equine subject, has been described by writers as existing in many forms. Patellar disarticulation may be more practically considered as _momentary_ and _fixed_, regardless of the position taken by the patella. Described under the title of false luxation are recorded cases wherein the quadriceps (crural) muscles become contracted in such manner that a condition simulating true disarticulation of the patella obtains. Also, some practictioners report cases of patellar luxation and refer to pseudo-luxations, without clearly defining the conditions which constitute pseudo-luxation. This has contributed to the extant cause of misconception as to actual differences between luxation and conditions simulating dislocation. Luxation of the patella is a condition wherein the articular portions of the femur and patella assume abnormal relations whether such displacement of the patella be momentary and capable of spontaneous reduction, or fixed and requiring corrective manipulation. Spasmodic contraction of the crural muscles which sometimes retains the patella in such position that the leg is rigidly extended, does not in itself constitute luxation of the patella; and unless this bone becomes lodged on the upper portion of a femoral condyle or laterally displaced out of its femoral groove, luxation cannot be said to exist in the horse. These are sub-luxations. Occasionally one may observe in suckling colts outward luxation of the patella wherein there is history of navel infection and no marked evidence of rachitis is present. Some of these cases recover. In a unilateral involvement of this kind in a three-month-old mule colt, the author observed a case wherein an unfavorable prognosis was given and destruction of the subject advised, because of the extreme dislocation of the patella. This colt, however, was not destroyed and in three weeks had apparently recovered. No treatment was given in this instance; the colt was allowed the run of a small pasture with its dam and in time it matured, becoming a sound and serviceable animal. Classification.--Two forms of true patellar luxation in the horse may be considered; one which is due to the patella becoming fixed upon the internal trochlear rim of the femur and the other when the patella slips over the outer rim of the trochlea. The first form is known as _upward_ luxation and is made possible by rupture of the mesial (internal) femeropatellar ligament. According to Cadiot and Almy, it is only by the rupture of this ligament--the femeropatellar--that upward luxation may occur. This type of luxation is rarely observed and is usually due to violent strain and abnormal extension of the stifle joint. The second class, _outward_ luxation, occurs in colts and is, in many instances, congenital. This form of luxation is also the one usually seen following debilitating diseases such as influenza and pneumonia. _Upward luxation of the patella_ is characterized by the stiff-extended position of the leg. When the patella is situated upon the inner trochlear rim, the tibia must be extended because of the traction exerted by the straight ligaments. Since the stifle and hock joints extend and flex in unison, there is presented also an extension of the tarsus. Extension of the stifle joint would increase the distance between the femoral origin of the gastrocnemius and its insertion to the summit of fibular tarsal bone (calcis) were it not for the gastrocnemius and superficial flexor (perforatus). Extension of the hock in upward luxation of the patella, permits of flexion of the phalanges. In upward luxation, then, the leg is extended as if too long, but the phalanges may be in a state of moderate flexion. If the foot rests on the ground when the extremity is not flexed, it is almost impossible for the subject to step backward. Because of immobilization of the stifle and hock joints in upward luxation, the subject can walk only by hopping on the sound leg and then the extremity is flexed, allowing the anterior portion of the fetlock to drag on the ground. In some cases practitioners are called to attend young animals that are reported to be "stifled" (often in young mules that have made a rapid growth) and upon arrival the only noticeable symptom of preëxisting luxation is the soiled condition of the anterior fetlock region--evidence of its having been dragged. Such cases may be styled momentary luxation, whether they are due to a weakened condition of the patellar ligaments or spasmodic contraction of the crural muscles. In upward luxation, reduction is effected by attempting further extension of the stifle joint and at the same time the patella is pulled outward, off the internal rim of the trochlea. This is attempted by securing the subject in a standing position; the sound side is kept against a wall if possible and a rope is tied to the extremity of the affected leg. Traction is exerted upon the rope and at the same time force is directed against the stifle joint to produce further extension if possible, so that the straight patellar ligaments may relax sufficiently to allow the patella to be dislodged from its position upon the inner trochlear lip. Failing in this manner of procedure, the affected animal is to be cast and anesthetized with chloroform. The relaxation which attends surgical anesthesia will permit of reduction of the dislocated bone and manipulations such as have just been outlined may be employed. Following reduction in the average case it is essential that the subject be given vigorous exercise for a few minutes. Reduction having been affected, the application of a vesicant over the whole patellar region is customary. In cases of habitual luxation, unless the ligaments are so lax that the patella may be displaced laterally over the inner as well as the outer trochler rims, division of the inner straight patellar ligament will correct the condition. This desmotomy has been advocated by Bassi, and good results in appropriate cases have been reported by Cadiot, Merillat and Schumacher. This operation has been found a corrective in cases of outward luxation as well as those of upward dislocation of the patella when resorted to before the trochleae are worn from frequent luxation. _Outward luxation of the patella_ is occasioned by a lax condition of the internal femeropatellar ligament or a rupture of the same so that the patella slips over the outer femoral trochlear rim and permits of an abnormal flexion of the stifle joint. The outer trochlear rim being the smaller of the two, inward luxation does not occur in the horse. With the patella disarticulated in this manner, the action of the quapriceps femoral group of muscles has no effect on the stifle joint and, therefore, flexion of this articulation occurs as soon as the subject attempts to sustain weight and the leg collapses unless weight is at once taken up by the other member if sound. As a rule, the reduction of this form of luxation is not difficult. The patella may be pushed inward and into position without manipulation of the leg. Retention of the patella in position is a difficult problem. Bandaging is considered impractical and is not ordinarily done in this country. Benard, according to Cadiot and Almy, recommends bandaging with a heavy piece of cloth in which an opening is made through which the patella is allowed to protrude, and by turning such a bandage snugly about the stifle several times, the patella is held in position. This bandage should be kept in place for about ten days. In young and rachitic animals outdoor exercise and a good nutritive ration for the subject are indicated. Hypophosphites in assimilable form may be beneficial, and vesication of the patellar region contributes to recovery. Where extreme luxation is present in both stifles, the prognosis is unfavorable. In such cases, degenerative changes may exist and in some instances the ligaments are so diseased and elongated that regeneration is impossible. Williams[46] reports a case where bilateral "floating" (outward) luxation was present and extensive degeneration changes affected the articulation. In subjects suffering frequent dislocation of the patella (habitual luxation) it is possible in some cases, to prevent its occurrence or at least to minimize the distress occasioned by momentary luxation, by keeping the animals in wide stalls so that "backing" is unnecessary. In some nervous subjects that seem to be suffering from cramp of the crural muscles, the difficulty and pain of their being backed out of narrow stalls, accentuates the nervousness. Sudation and restlessness are manifested and the subject presents a clinical picture of distress and fear of a painful ordeal. In some cases of this kind, complete recovery takes place by the time animals are five or six years of age. One should avoid keeping such subjects in narrow stalls. Preferably patellar desmotomy should be performed that relief may be obtained at once. Luxations attending some cases of influenza recover promptly when subjects are kept comfortably confined in roomy box-stalls. The administration of stimulative medicaments such as nux vomica and the application of an active blistering agent to the patella serve to hasten recovery. Dislocations in such cases are often bilateral and they are usually momentary. Reduction occurs spontaneously, as a rule, and the subjects are not occasioned much distress if they are kept quiet for a few days. Chronic Gonitis. Etiology and Occurrence.--Chronic inflammation of the stifle joint is met with following acute synovitis due to strains and concussion. It is an ailment which affects heavy horses and particularly animals that are kept at work on paved streets, but this does not explain its existence in animals that are not subjected to work likely to cause concussion. Berns[47] considers rheumatism a probable cause of gonitis and, as he states, the dropsical form of affection of this joint is not ordinarily attended with manifestations of inconvenience to the subject. Gonitis is often bilateral and its onset is insidious in many instances. Symptomatology.--In unilateral gonitis weight is not borne by the affected member. There is noticeable distension of the joint capsule--a characteristic pendant pouching protrusion. When both stifles are affected the subject frequently shifts the weight from one limb to the other. Lameness comes on gradually and during the incipient stages may be intermittent but it progressively increases so that in time affected animals become useless. In bilateral affections animals drag the toes because of the pain incident to flexing the stifles. This is particularly evident when the subject is made to trot. As the disease progresses, atrophy of the quadriceps femoris muscles becomes pronounced and as destructive changes involving the articular cartilages take place. The subject becomes more lame and eventually is rendered incapable of service. Upon manipulation of the patellar region, one is impressed with the fact that hyperesthesia does not exist in proportion to the pain manifested during locomotion. In some cases a gelatinous swelling is present and may be detected by palpating between the straight ligaments of the patella. Williams, Hughes, Merillat, Hadley and others have directed attention to the existence of floating masses (_corpora oryzoidea_) in the synovial capsule of this joint in gonitis, and as with all cases of arthritis, irreparable damage is often done the articular cartilages during the course of the ailment. [Illustration: Fig. 50--Chronic gonitis. The knuckling which results from long continued inactivity of the crural muscles in chronic cases is marked in this instance. Photo by Dr. L.A. Merillat.] Treatment.--No effective method is as yet known which will control this condition during its incipiency. The disease progresses, and more or less damage is done the affected parts in the course of months or even years in some cases before subjects are rendered hopelessly crippled. When recognized early (before chronic gonitis exists) aspiration of the synovia and the injection of diluted tincture of iodin might prove beneficial in cases of synovial distension. Chronic gonitis is considered an incurable affection and as soon as subjects manifest evidence of distress from this condition they should by all means be taken from work. Firing and vesication have not been productive of beneficial results. [Illustration: Fig. 51--Gonitis. Showing position assumed in such cases because of pain occasioned. Photo by Dr. C.A. McKillip.] Open Stifle Joint. Anatomy of the Joint Capsule.--This joint capsule is thin and very capacious. On the patella it is attached around the margin of the articular surface, but on the femur the line of attachment is at a varying distance from the articular surface. On the medial side it is an inch or more from the articular cartilage; on the lateral side and above, about half an inch. It pouches upward under the quadriceps femoris for a distance of two or three inches, a pad of fat separating the capsule from the muscle. Below the patella it is separated from the patellar ligaments by a thick pad of fat, but inferiorly it is in contact with the femerotibial capsules. The joint cavity is the most extensive in the body. It usually communicates with the medial sac of the femerotibial joint cavity by a slit-like opening situated at the lowest part of the medial ridge of the trochlea. A similar, usually smaller, communication with the lateral sac of the femerotibial capsule is often found at the lowest part of the lateral ridge. (Sisson's Anatomy.) Thus it is seen that because of its frequent communication with the other parts of this large synovial membrane, a wound which opens the external portion of the femerotibial capsule may be the cause of contamination and resultant infectious arthritis of the whole stifle joint. Because of the distance between the most dependent part of the femerotibial articulation and the summit of the patella, one may misjudge the exact location of the lowermost part of this portion of the capsular ligament of the stifle joint and thereby fail at once to appreciate the seriousness of calk wounds in this region. Etiology and Occurrence.--Wounds to the patellar region are of rather frequent occurrence, and because of the comparatively unprotected position of these structures, the capsular ligaments of the stifle joint may be perforated as a result of violence in some form. Calk wounds which penetrate the tissues in the immediate region of the lower portion of the external part of the femerotibial capsule sometimes result in open joint because of tissue necrosis resulting from the introduction of infection. Contused wounds sometimes destroy the skin and fascia over large areas on the lateral patellar region and because of subsequent sloughing of tissue due to infection as well as to the manner in which such wounds are inflicted, septic arthritis subsequently occurs. Penetrant wounds, such as may be caused by a fork tine may not result in infection; if infectious material is introduced an infectious arthritis does not necessarily follow, though such cases should be considered as serious from the outset. Symptomatology.--The pathognomonic symptom of open stifle joint is the profuse escape of synovia, indicating perforation of the synovial capsule; by means of a probe the wound may be explored in a way that will clearly reveal the nature of the injury. After a few days have elapsed in cases where considerable infection has taken place, there is manifestation of pain as in all cases of infective arthritis. Hughes[48] gives an excellent description of the clinical aspect of arthritis which applies here: Acute arthritis begins like an ordinary attack of synovitis. In joints other than the pedal and pastern, there is sudden and extensive swelling, which at first is intra-articular, succeeded by extra-articular tumefaction, and accompanied by violent lameness. The pain soon becomes intense and agonizing. There is severe constitutional disturbance, the temperature ranging from 104 to 106 degrees and the pulse from 60 to 72. Painful convulsions of the limb occur, shown by involuntary spasmodic elevations due to reflex irritation of the muscles. There is loss of appetite, rapid emaciation, the flank is tucked up and the back arched. In from three to six days, the tumefaction around the joint tends to soften at a particular place, and bursts, and a discharge that is sometimes of a sanious character, mixed with synovia, escapes. Great exhaustion at times supervenes, and if the joint is an important one, the horse lies or falls and is unable to rise. Treatment.--In small puncture wounds the immediate application of a vesicating ointment has given good results, but when infection has taken place to such extent that the animal manifests evidence of intense pain, and lameness is marked and local swelling and hyperesthesia are great, vesication is contraindicated. In such instances the exterior of the wound and its margins should be prepared as in similar affections of other joints. A quantity of synovia is then aspirated by means of a small trocar and care should be taken to observe all due aseptic precautions. Subsequently the injection of from four to six ounces of a mixture of tincture of iodin, one part to ten parts of glycerin, and gentle massage of the joint immediately after the injection has been made, serves to check the infective process in some cases. The subject should be cared for as has been previously suggested in arthritis proper provisions for comfort being made. Good nursing is always essential to a successful issue. However, the author cannot view cases of open stifle joint with the same optimism concerning their course and outcome that is expressed by a number of writers on this subject. It is a grave condition wherein the prognosis should be given advisedly. Fracture of the Tibia. Etiology and Occurrence.--Because of its exposed position to kicks, and its lack of protection by heavy musculature (especially on its inner surface), there is afforded ample opportunity for frequent injury to the tibia. Fractures are complete and varying as to nature, or incomplete. The heavy tibial fascia affords sufficient protection so that fissures without entire solution of continuity of the bone may occur from violence to which this part is often subjected. Möller classes tibial fracture as ranking second in frequency--pelvic fracture being more often met with in horses. This does not apply in our country as phalangeal and metacarpal and even metatarsal fractures are observed in more instances than are such injuries to the tibia. The tibia is occasionally broken at its middle and lower thirds, but malleolar fractures are not common. Symptomatology.--When fracture is complete and all support is removed, the leg dangles, and the nature of the injury is so obvious that there is no mistaking its identity. However, in case of incomplete fracture one needs to base all conclusions upon the history of the case, evidence of injury, or other knowledge of the character of violence to which this bone has been exposed. For without the presence of crepitation (even by excluding other possible causes for the pronounced lameness which characterizes some of these cases) we can only resort to the knowledge which experience has taught that fracture may be deemed probable in many injuries to the tibial region. Consequently, we are to look upon all injuries that affect the tibia as being fractures of some sort when there is either local evidence of the infliction of violence or whenever marked lameness attends such injuries, unless there is positive indication that no fractures exist. A careful examination of parts of the tibia, i.e., noting the amount and painfulness of swellings, exploration with the probe, and observations of the course taken in any given case, will determine the exact nature of injuries. Such examination needs to extend over a period of a week or in some instances two or three weeks may pass before the true state of affairs is apparent. In the meanwhile, cases are to be handled as though tibial fracture certainly existed. Prognosis.--Prediction of the outcome in tibial fracture is somewhat presumptuous, but in the majority of cases in mature subjects fatality results. Cadiot[49], however, views this condition with more optimism than have American practitioners. While he considers the condition grave, in citing case reports of successful treatment by d'Arboval, Duchemin, Leblanc, and others, his conclusion is that many practitioners erroneously consider fractures of the tibia as incurable. The method of handling these cases by Leblanc is as follows: The subject is placed in a sling; a pit is excavated below the affected member so that a heavy weight may be attached to the extremity; splints are applied to each side of the leg, which is padded with oakum, and this is kept in position by means of bandages covered with pitch. The outer splint extends from the hoof to the stifle and the inner one from the hoof to the upper third of the leg. This method in the hands of Leblanc has been successful in several instances, according to Cadiot. In a foal the author has in one instance succeeded in obtaining complete recovery in a simple fracture of the lower third of the tibia where the only support given the broken bone was a four-inch plaster-of-paris bandage which was adjusted above the hock. Below the tarsus a cotton and gauze bandage was applied to prevent swelling of the extremity. In this instance (an emergency case in which materials that are not to be recommended were necessarily employed) recovery took place within thirty days. As has been mentioned in the consideration of radial fractures, heavy leather is better suited for immobilization of these parts than a cast or other rigid splint materials. Mature animals may be expected to resist the immobilization of the hind legs because of the normal manner of flexion of the tarsal and stifle joints in unison. Therefore, the application of rigid splints to the leg and including the hock is productive of disastrous results in some cases. The application of cotton and bandages to pad the member and the adjusting of heavy leather splints on either side of the leg, and retaining them in position with four-inch gauze bandages will prove more nearly satisfactory than some other methods employed. Prognosis is unfavorable, however, in most cases of compound fracture and recovery is improbable when the upper portion of the tibia is broken. Rupture and Wounds of the Tendo Achillis. Etiology and Occurrence.--Cases are recorded by Uhlrich in which rupture has followed degenerative changes affecting the tendo Achillis. Not infrequently, the result of a trauma, division of the tendo Achillis occurs. Möller states that rupture of this tendon may be due to jumping, in riding horses and in draught horses, in their efforts to avoid slipping. In runaways, it sometimes occurs where sharp-edged implements are bounced against the legs in such fashion that division of the tendon results. Symptomatology.--With division of the tendo Achillis or of the musculature of the gastroenemii and the superficial flexor (perforatus), there remains nothing to inhibit tarsal flexion except the deep flexor tendon (perforans) and this does not support the leg. When attempt is made to sustain weight with the affected member, abnormal flexion of the tarsus takes place and the hock sinks almost to the ground. The symptoms are so characteristic that recognition is always easy even in case no wound of the skin exists. Prognosis.--Spontaneous recoveries occur and such cases are reported by Bouley who is quoted by Cadiot as having observed division of the tendo Achillis due to a sword wound wherein at the end of four months recovery was complete. Division of this tendon in brood mares has been practiced by the early settlers of parts of the United States for the purpose of preventing their straying too far from home. In such instances one leg only was so mutilated and in most instances, it is reported that spontaneous recovery took place. In unilateral involvement without complications, the prognosis is not unfavorable if provisions for giving necessary attention are available. Treatment.--The subject is to be confined in a sling and the member bandaged and supported by means of leather splints. Immobilization as for fracture is not necessary but, nevertheless, movement is to be restricted as much as possible. In case of open wounds, the exposed tissues are cared for along general surgical lines. Where the divided parts of the tendon are maintained in fairly close and constant relation, granulation of tissue, sufficient to sustain weight takes place in from six weeks to three months. Spring-Halt. (String-Halt.) Occurrence.--This condition is a myoclonic affection of the hind leg which is discussed in works on theory and practice under the head of neuroses, but the cause or causes have not been established. Theories that heredity is responsible have their supporters and advocates of hypotheses attributing it to disease of the sciatic nerve, patellar subluxation, fascial contraction of various muscles, "dry spavin" (tarsal arthritis), iliac exostoses, disease of the foot and contraction of the hoof, are on record in veterinary literature. This ailment affects old horses more frequently than it does young and is seen in all breeds of animals including mules. [Illustration: Fig. 52--Spring-halt.] Symptomatology.--This disease develops slowly, and progressively increases in severity as a rule, but does not ordinarily constitute cause for rendering an animal unserviceable. While the affection is sometimes bilateral (occasionally affections of the forelegs are reported) and the extreme flexion of the legs in the spasmodic manner which characterizes spring-halt, cause great waste of energy during locomotion, yet such cases are rare. Usually the ailment is markedly evinced when subjects are first taken from the stable, but as they are exercised the manifestation diminishes, and in many instances it completely subsides. The condition is generally more noticeable when the subject is made to step backward. In some animals there is marked abduction at the time flexion occurs and in singular instances the spasmodic contraction is so violent that the subject falls to the ground as a result of the peculiar flexion of the leg. In severe cases of "scratches" or chemical irritation of the extremity, the legs are abnormally flexed in a manner which simulates spring-halt, but because of the evident injury of the parts this is not likely to confuse. Since all facts concerning etiological agencies are surrounded with so much obscurity, classification does not lend any particular assistance in the consideration of this ailment. Prognosis.--One cannot intelligently give a prognosis in these cases if forecast is expected to state the exact course following treatment. However, in a general way, cases of recent affection are thought more favorable than are those of long standing or in old animals where myositis and other muscular and fascial affections exist owing to years of hard service. Treatment.--No known line of medicinal treatment is of service, nor is any particular surgical operation to be considered dependable for obtaining relief. Operations of almost every conceivable nature have been tried with the hope of securing recovery in spring-halt but under no condition can the practitioner as yet be reasonably certain of effecting permanent relief in any case. Treatment is, therefore, entirely empirical. Neurectomies have been performed and recoveries following were attributed thereto; fascial divisions in the crural region have been done with good results and this manner of treatment has its favorers. Advocates of tenotomies, likewise, are to be found. Consequently, one may summarize thus: Spring-halt is a disease of unknown origin--the exact cause has not been determined; therefore, all treatment is, in a way, experimental. The recommendation of any given procedure in handling cases must then be a matter of opinion based either upon practical experience or knowledge of the experiences of others. Divisions of the lateral digital extensor (peroneus) below the tarsus near its point of insertion to the extensor of the digit is recommended here because it is followed by a percentage of recoveries that is as large as in any other method of treatment and the operation is not difficult to perform nor is its performance fraught with any dangerous complications. In selected subjects about fifty per cent of cases recover in from two to six weeks following this operation. [Illustration: Fig. 53--Lateral (external) view of tarsus showing effects of generalized tarsitis.] Open Tarsal Joint. Like the tibia the hock is exposed to frequent injuries and in some cases wounds perforate the joint capsule. When due to calk wounds where horses are kicked, the injury is often on the side of the tarsus (medial or lateral) and such wounds not infrequently result in infectious arthritis. Horses sometimes jump over wire fences and wounds are inflicted which constitute extensive laceration of the joint capsule. In firing for bone spavin, where a deep puncture is made very near the tibial tarsal (tibioastragular) joint if infection gains entrance, serious and generalized infection of the open joint cavity supervenes in some cases. Symptomatology.--There is no marked difference in the constitutional disturbances which are occasioned in this condition and those encountered in other cases of septic arthritis (previously considered herein) except that there is a difference in the degree of resultant derangement and local tissue changes. Chiefly, because of the difficulty encountered in keeping the hock joint in an aseptic condition or securely bandaged, open tarsal joint constitutes a more serious condition than a similar affection of the fetlock. Otherwise, a very similar condition obtains and the same diagnostic principles serve here that have been described on page 110 in considering open fetlock joint. Treatment.--The same plan that is described in detail for treatment of similar conditions affecting the fetlock joint is indicated in this affection. Exceeding care must be exercised in bandaging the hock, however, lest the animal be so irritated that in the extreme flexion of the tarsus which is often caused by bandaging, the wound dressings may be completely deranged. A wide gauze bandage material is most satisfactory; cotton of long fiber is separated in thin layers and wound about the hock, extending from the site of injury to a point about six inches proximal to the summit of the os calcis. By using an abundance of cotton in this way, it will not be found necessary to apply the bandages very snugly; with a four-inch gauze bandage material, which is supported above the cap of the hock and brought across the anterior face of the tarsus in a diagonal manner, a comfortable and very serviceable protective dressing is provided for. Animals so treated will not ordinarily resist because of pressure from the bandages. Pressure is unavoidable in the use of adhesive dressings or where careful attention is not given the manner of applying cotton to the parts. Such methods are sure to result disastrously. But if subjects are kept quiet after the parts have been properly bandaged, no difficulty is encountered in maintaining asepsis in an uninfected wound. Recovery takes place in favorable cases in from three weeks to three months, depending on the nature and extent of injuries inflicted. Fracture of the Fibular Tarsal Bone (Calcaneum.) Etiology and Occurrence.--This condition though rarely met with in the horse, is the result of violent strain upon the os calcis by the gastrocnemius and superficial flexor tendons in efforts put forth by animals in attempts to regain a footing when the hind feet slip forward under the body, or in jumping and in falls or direct contusion by heavy bodies. Hoare[50] reports a case of a mare that had produced fracture in jumping. Fracture of the other tarsal bones are very seldom observed but may be occasioned by contusions wherein multiple or comminuted fractures are produced, such as are to be seen in small animals. Fracture of the tibial tarsal bone (astragalus) is to be observed as a complication in luxations of the tarsal joint and, according to Cadiot, the other tarsal bones may likewise suffer fracture in luxations of the hock. Symptomatology.--Great pain attends this accident according to the observations given in recorded cases. In the case cited by Hoare the animal evinced great pain and uneasiness; the hock was unduly flexed; the calcaneum was displaced forward; and marked crepitation was present. A portion of the body of the calcaneum was protruding through the perforated skin. The animal was destroyed and the bone was found broken in three pieces. [Illustration: Fig. 54--Right hock joint. Viewed from the front and slightly laterally after removal of joint capsule and long collateral ligaments. T.t., Tibial tarsal bone (distal tuberosity). T.c., central tarsal bone. T.3. Ridge of third tarsal bone. T.f. Fibular tarsal bone (distal end). T.4. Fourth tarsal bone. Mt. III, Mt. IV. Metatarsal bones. Arrow points to vascular canal. (From Sisson's "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.")] Since the support for the tendo Achillis is removed in such fracture and no leverage on the metatarsus obtains, it naturally follows that any attempt to sustain weight must result in extreme flexion of the hock and descent of this part in a manner similar to cases of rupture or division of the Achilles' tendon. The two conditions should not be confused, however, as the parts may be definitely outlined by palpation and the slack condition of the tendon and displaced summit of the calcaneum, which characterize fracture of the fibular tarsal bone, are easily recognized. Treatment.--Prognosis is unfavorable in the majority of cases, but should attempts at treatment be undertaken in young and quiet mares which might prove valuable for breeding purposes in case of imperfect recovery, they should be put in slings and the member is to be immobilized as in tibial fracture. Authorities are agreed that prognosis is entirely unfavorable in mature animals, when the case is viewed from an economic standpoint. Tarsal Sprains. Etiology and Occurrence.--The hock joint is often subjected to great strain because of the structural nature of this part and its relation to the hip as well as the manner in which the tarsus functionates during locomotion. That ligamentous injuries owing to sprain frequently occur and attendant periarticular inflammations with subsequent hypertrophic changes follow, is a logical inference. Fibrillary fracture of the collateral ligaments may take place in falls or when animals make violent efforts to maintain their footing on slippery streets. In expressing opinions concerning the frequency with which the hock is found to be the seat of trouble in lameness of the pelvic members, different writers place the percentage of hock lameness at from seventy-five to ninety per cent. And when one considers the possibility that a goodly proportion of cases of tarsal exostis are the outcome of sprains, the occurrence of tarsal sprains may be more generally admitted. Symptomatology.--A mixed type of lameness is present and the nature of the impediment varies, depending upon the location of the injury. Sprains of the mesial tarsal ligaments cause lameness somewhat similar to that of spavin. However, in establishing a diagnosis, local evidence in these cases is of greater significance than the manner of locomotion. During the acute stage of inflammation there is to be detected local hyperthermia, some hyperesthesia and a little swelling. Later, when resolution is not prompt, considerable swelling (or perhaps correctly speaking, an indurated enlargement) variable in size is developed. In some cases the entire tarsal region becomes greatly enlarged and this swelling is very slowly absorbed in part or completely. Such sub-acute cases are observed during the winter season and particularly where subjects are kept in tie stalls without exercise for weeks at a time. Treatment.--Attention should be directed toward relief for the animal in all acute inflammations. Local applications of heat are helpful and, of course, rest is essential. Towels that are wrung out of hot water and held in position by means of a few turns of a loose bandage and this covered with an impervious rubber sheet, will serve as a practical means of application of hydrotherapy. Following this when conditions improve, as in the handling of all similar cases, counterirritation is indicated. When proper care is given at the onset and where injury does not involve too much ligamentous tissue, recovery takes place in a few weeks but in some cases which occur during the winter season in farm horses, complete recovery does not result until several months have passed. Curb. The hock is said to be curbed when the normal appearance, viewed from the side, is that of bulging posteriorly at any point between the summit of the calcaneum and the upper third of the metatarsus. Among some horsemen a hock is said to be "curby" whenever there exists an enlargement of any kind on the posterior face of the tarsus whether it be due to sprain, exostosis or proliferation of tissue as a result of contusion. French veterinarians consider under the title of "courbe," an exostosis situated on the mesial side of the distal end of the tibia. Cadiot and Almy state that this condition (courbe) is of rare occurrence. Percivall defines curb as "a prominence upon the back of the hind leg, a little below the hock, of a curvilinear shape, running in a direct line downwards and consisting of infusion into, or thickening of, the sheath of the flexor tendons." Möller's version of true curb is a thickening of the plantar ligament (calcaneocuboid or calcaneometatarsal). Hughes and Merillat consider curb as a synovitis having for its seat the synovial bursa which is situated between the superficial flexor tendon (perforatus) and the plantar ligament. Occurrence.--Certain predisposing factors seem to favor the occurrence of curb. A malformation of the inferior part of the tarsus so that its antero-posterior diameter is considerably less than normal is a contributing cause. Such hocks are known as "tied-in." Another fault in conformation is the existence of a weak hock that is set low down on a crooked leg, especially when such a member is heavily muscled at the hip. Given such conformation in an excitable horse, and curb is usually produced before the subject is old enough for service. It is certain that in cases where conformation is bad, greater strain is put upon the plantar ligament. This structure serves to bind the tibial tarsal (calcis) bone to the metatarsus; traction exerted upon its summit by the tendo Achillis is great when animals run, jump or rear and also at heavy pulling. In animals having curby hocks, sprain is likely to result and curb supervenes. Symptomatology.--The characteristic swelling which marks curb may develop quickly and lameness occur suddenly or the enlargement comes on gradually and slowly, causing little lameness. Lameness is not proportionate to the size of the swelling and in all cases whether subacute or chronic, the condition improves with rest, but lameness is again manifested upon exertion. A horse which "throws a curb" will go lame until the acute inflammatory condition subsides and depending upon treatment received and conformation of the hock, this requires from three days to two or three weeks. The character of the swelling varies; in some cases it is not large but rather dense and lacking in evidence of heat and hyperesthesia; in other cases there is considerable swelling, which is hot and doughy, somewhat painful to the touch but not necessarily productive of much lameness. In any event, whether the swelling or enlargement is big or little, its location makes it conspicuous when viewed in profile. In most cases after the acute inflammatory period has passed, lameness is slight, if at all present, and in time no interference with the subject's usefulness is occasioned because of the curb, but the animals often remain blemished--complete resorption of inflammatory products being unusual when much disturbance has existed. Treatment.--The handling of curb during the acute inflammatory stage is along the same lines as in sprain--local applications of cold and heat. Subjects must be kept quiet until all inflammation has subsided, for there are no cases wherein a little brisk exercise is more likely to cause a recurrence of lameness before recovery is complete than in curb. Vesication is in order in a week or ten days after the affection has set in; in old stubborn cases that have resisted ordinary treatment for a few months, the use of the actual cautery (line firing) is to be recommended. [Illustration: Fig. 55--Spavin.] Spavin. (Bone Spavin.) This term is applied to an affection of the tarsus which is usually characterized by the existence of an exostosis on the mesial and inferior portion of the hock. There is also included under this name, articular inflammation wherein no external evidence is shown. Spavin lameness has long been recognized and much has been written upon this subject. Since authorities are agreed that most cases of lameness in the hind leg are due to hock affection, and because the majority of cases of lameness which have the tarsal region as the seat of trouble are instances of spavin lameness, this disease merits all the attention it has received. Etiology and Occurrence.--Causes may well be classified as predisposing and exciting, for there are many etiologic factors to be reckoned with in spavin, some of which are widely different in nature. Considered as predisposing causes, hereditary influences play an important rôle and may, owing to faulty conformation, subject an animal to affections of this kind because of disproportionate development of parts (weak and small joints and heavy muscular hips); or as a consequence of inherited traits, a subject may manifest susceptibility to degenerative bone changes which are signalized by the formation of exostoses of different parts on one or more of the legs. Hereditary predispositions make for the presence of spavin in a large percentage of the progeny of sires so affected. This fact has been repeatedly demonstrated in this country as well as elsewhere according to Quitman, Dalrymple and Merillat.[51] A number of states have passed stallion inspection laws stipulating that animals having such exostoses as spavin and ringbone cannot be registered except as "unsound." Asymmetrical conformation, particularly where the hock is obviously small and weak as compared with other parts of the leg, constitutes a noteworthy predisposing cause. Peters' theory is plausible that the screw-like joint between the tibia and the tibial tarsal (astragulus) bones causes these structures to functionate in a manner not in harmony with the provisions allowed by the collateral ligaments of the tarsus, permitting movement only in a direction parallel with the long axis of the body. Because of the quality of their temperaments, nervous animals possessing no particular congenital structural defects of the hock and having no history of spavined progenitors, are subject to spavin when kept at work likely to produce tarsal sprain. Spavin usually develops early in such subjects and examples of this kind may be frequently observed in agricultural sections of the country. Where spavin develops in unshod colts at three and four years of age, shoeing is not an influencing agency when animals are not worked on pavements. Exciting causes of spavin are sprain and concussion. Various hypotheses are recorded as to how sprains are influenced and among others may be mentioned that of McDonough[52], which is that the foot is robbed of its normal manner of support by the ordinary three-calked shoe. With such a shoe, little support is given the sides of the foot; hence, undue strain is put upon the collateral ligaments of the tarsus. Moreover, the shoe with its calks increases the length of the leg and adds to the leverage on the hock, by virtue of such added length. This makes for greater strain upon the mesial or lateral tarsal ligaments whenever the foot bears upon a sloping ground surface, so that one side (inner or outer) is higher or lower than the other. But according to McDonough's theory (a good one concerning horses that work on pavements), the chief error in shoeing lies in that the foot is deprived of its normal base or support on the sides--the three-calked shoe being an unstable support--and that this manner of shoeing city horses working on pavements is an "inhumane" practice, a "diabolical method." Whether spavin has its point of origin within the articulation as a rarefying ostitis of the cancellated structure of the lower tarsal bones as suggested by Eberlein; or, as Diekerhoff asserts, that the cunean bursa may be the initial point of affection, is unsettled; but it is reasonable to consider occult spavin as having its origin within the articulation, and that cases readily yielding to cunean tenotomy are primarily due to affection of the cunean bursa. Symptomatology.--Where a visible exostosis exists, the presence of spavin is easily detected, yet exostoses that extend over large areas may constitute cause for serious trouble and still be difficult of detection. By observing the internal surface of the hock from various suitable angles, such as from between the forelegs or directly behind the subject, one may note the presence of any ordinary exostosis. The position assumed by the spavined horse is often characteristic. More or less knuckling is usually present (Liautard, McDonald). There is abduction of the stifle in some cases, or the toe may be worn in unshod horses so that it presents a straight line at the surface. This is manifested to a great degree in some animals and in others the foot is not dragged and there is no wearing of the hoof at the toe. Spavin lameness is so distinctive that one trained and experienced in the examination of horses that are spavined, should correctly diagnose the condition in practically every instance without recourse to other means than noting the peculiar character of the gait of the subject. Lameness develops gradually in the majority of instances, and an important feature in spavin lameness is that it disappears after the subject has gone a little way, to return again as soon as the animal has rested for a variable length of time--from a half hour to several hours. This "warming out" is marked during the incipient stage, but less pronounced in most chronic cases. A complete disappearance of lameness is observed in some instances, while in others only partial subsidence is evident. Because of the fact that pain is occasioned both during weight bearing and while the leg is being flexed and advanced, there is manifested the characteristic mixed lameness and exaggerated hip action which typifies spavin. By throwing the hips upward with the sound member it is possible to advance the affected leg with less flexion, hence less pain is experienced in this manner of locomotion. When made to step aside in the stall, a spavined horse will flex the affected member abruptly and when weight is taken on the diseased leg, symptoms are evinced of pain, and weight is immediately shifted to the sound limb. This is marked during the incipient stages of spavin. Lameness usually precedes the formation of exostosis, though cases are observed wherein an exostosis is present and no lameness is manifested and no history of the previous existence of lameness is available. The "spavin test" is of value as a diagnostic measure when it is employed with other means of examination, though reaction to this test is seen in some cases in old "crampy" horses that have experienced hard service. The test consists in flexing the affected leg (elevating the foot from the ground twelve to twenty-four inches) and holding the member in this position for a minute, whereupon the animal is made to step away immediately at a trot. During the first few steps taken directly thereafter, the subject shows pronounced lameness and this constitutes a reaction to the spavin test. Where no exostosis is present it becomes necessary to exclude other causes for lameness but the characteristic spavin lameness is to be relied upon to a greater extent in such cases than are other means of examination. Such cases are known as occult spavin and may be present for months before any external changes in structure are observable. In some instances no extoses form even during the course of years. The spavin test is of aid in establishing a diagnosis here but the marked "warming out" peculiar to spavin is not so pronounced in such cases. Prognosis.--An animal having hereditary predisposition to spavin is not likely to recover completely whether this predisposition be due to faulty conformation or susceptibility to bone changes. In predicting the outcome, the temperament of the subject is to be taken into account, as well as the character of service the animal is expected to perform. And finally, a very important feature to be noted, is the location of the exostosis. If situated rather high and extending anterior to the hock, there is less likelihood of recovery resulting than where an exostosis is confined to the lower row of tarsal bones. When situated anterior to the tarsus a large exostosis may by mechanical interference to function, cause lameness when all other causes are absent. In making examinations one must not be deceived by the inconspicuous and seemingly insignificant exostosis which has a broad base. In some cases of this kind, dealers style the condition as "rough in the hock" when as a matter of fact, in some instances, incurable spavin lameness develops. Treatment.--Many incipient cases of spavin yield to vesication and a protracted period of rest. Results depend primarily upon the nature of the affection. However, in every instance if there is involvement of the tibial tarsal (astragalus) bone, complete recovery is highly improbable. When the disease is confined to the lower tarsal bones, lameness subsides as soon as the degenerative changes are checked and ankylosis occurs. The use of the actual cautery when properly employed constitutes an excellent method of treatment. The "auto-cautery" when equipped with a point of about one-eighth of an inch in diameter and about three-fourths of an inch in length is well suited for this particular operation. Before deciding to cauterize, it is necessary to ascertain the extent of area affected. The nearness of the exostosis to the tibiotarsal articulation can be definitely determined by palpation. The hair over the entire surgical field is clipped and the cautery at white heat is pushed through the overlying soft tissues and into the central part of the exostosis. Care is taken to keep the cautery-point away from the articular margin of the tibial tarsal bone about three-fourths of an inch. No danger will result from cauterizing to a depth of three-fourths of an inch in the average case. Two or three (and not more) centrally located points for penetration with the cautery are sufficient. Experience has shown that several (five or six or more) punctures are not productive of good results. When considerable cicatricial tissue is present, due to the action of depilating vesicants or other chemicals, sloughing of tissue is very apt to follow deep cauterization, if one is not careful to keep the punctures at least one-half inch apart when three are made. It is best, in such cases, to make but two deep penetrations with the cautery but additional superficial punctures may be made if kept about three-fourths of an inch distant and not nearer than this to one another. Sloughing of tissue is not necessarily productive of bad results but there is occasioned an open wound which usually becomes infected and necrosis of tissue may extend into the articulation. No benefit results from sloughing and it should be avoided. In small horses, one deep point of cauterization is sufficient if the osseous tissues are penetrated to a proper depth so that an active inflammation is induced. The cautery may, if necessary, be reintroduced several times. When the field of operation has been properly prepared and it is thought advisable (as where subjects are kept in the hospital for a time), the hock may be covered with cotton and bandaged and no chance for infection will occur. After cauterization the subject should be kept quiet in a comfortable stall for three weeks; thereafter, if the animal is not too playful, the run of a paddock may be allowed for about ten days and a protracted rest of a month or more at pasture is best. It is unwise in the average case to put an animal in service earlier than two months after having been "fired." Where cases progress favorably, lameness subsides in about three weeks after cauterization and little if any recurrence of the impediment is manifested thereafter. However, because of violent exercise taken in some instances when subjects are put out after being confined in the stall, a return of lameness occurs and it may remain for several days or in some cases become permanent. No good comes from the use of blistering ointments immediately after cauterization. The actual cautery is a means of producing all necessary inflammation and it should be so employed that sufficient reactionary inflammation succeeds such firing. The use of a vesicating ointment subsequent to cauterization invites infection because of the dust that is retained in contact with the wound. The employment of irritating chemicals in a liquid form following firing is needless and cruel. In many instances lameness is not relieved and subjects show no improvement at the end of six weeks time and it then becomes a question of whether or not recovery is to be expected even with continued rest and treatment. As a rule, such cases are unfavorable. In one instance the author employed the actual cautery three times during the course of six months and lameness gradually diminished for a year. In this case the spavin was of nearly one year's standing when treatment was instituted. The subject was a nervous and restless but well-formed seven-year-old gelding. Recovery was not complete; recurrent intervals of lameness marked this case, but the horse limped so slightly that the average observer could not detect its existence after the animal had been driven a little way. Cunean tenotomy has been advocated and practiced by Abildgaard, Lafosse, Peters, Herring, Zuill and others and good results have followed in many cases so treated. Considering results, the employment of chemicals of various kinds for the purpose of relieving spavin lameness does not compare favorably with firing. Moreover, so many animals have been tortured and needlessly blemished in the attempted cure of spavin that agents which are not of known value, the use of which are likely to result in extensive injury to the tissues, are only to be condemned. When spavin is bilateral and lameness is likewise affecting both members, prognosis is at once unfavorable. Such cases are often benefited by cauterization but only one leg at a time should be treated. Bossi's double tarsal neurectomy (division of the anterior and posterior tibial nerves) has undoubtedly been of decided benefit in many cases, but is not at present a popular method of treatment in this country. This operation has its indications, however, and may be recommended in chronic lameness where no extensive exostosis exists which may mechanically interfere with function. Distension of the Tarsal Joint Capsule. (Bog Spavin.) Distension of the capsular ligament of the tibial tarsal (tibioastragular) joint with synovia is commonly known as bog spavin. This condition is separate and distinct from that of distension of the sheath of the deep flexor tendon (perforans) though not infrequently the two affections coexist. Etiology and Occurrence.--Following strains from work in the harness or under the saddle, horses develop an acute synovitis of the hock joint, which often results in chronic synovial distension. Debilitating diseases favor the production of this affection in some animals. It is also frequently observed in young horses and in draught colts of twelve to eighteen months of age. This condition occurs while the subjects are at pasture and often spontaneous recovery results by the time the animals are two years of age. [Illustration: Fig. 56--Bog spavin. Showing point of view which may be most advantageously taken by the diagnostician in examining for distension of the capsular ligament of the tarsal joint.] Symptomatology.--Bog spavin is recognized by the distended condition of the joint capsule which is prominent just below the internal tibial malleolus and this affection is characterized by a fluctuating swelling which varies considerably in size in different subjects. Except in cases of acute synovitis, lameness is not present and in chronic distension of the capsule of the tarsal joint, no interference with the subject's usefulness occurs. In the majority of instances, the disfigurement which attends bog spavin is the principal objectionable feature. The condition is bilateral in many instances, and in such cases the subjects have a predisposition to this condition or it follows attacks of strangles or other debilitating ailments. Because of a rapid and unusual growth, bilateral affections are of frequent occurrence in some animals. Treatment.--The most practical method of handling bog spavin consists in aspiration of synovia and injection of tincture of iodin. Discretion should be employed in selecting subjects for treatment, regardless of the manner in which such cases are to be handled. Where there exists chronic distension of the joint capsule of several years' standing in old or weak subjects, needless to say, recovery is not likely to result. When animals are vigorous and two or three months' time is available, treatment may be begun with reasonable hope for success. The average subject is handled standing and can be restrained with a twitch, sideline and hood. Aspirating needles and all necessary equipment must be in readiness (sterile and wrapped in aseptic cotton or gauze) so that no delay will occur from this cause when the operation has been started. The central or most prominent part of the distended portion of the capsule is chosen for perforation and an area of an inch and a half in diameter is shaved. The skin is cleansed and then painted with tincture of iodin. The sterile aspirating needle is pushed through the tissues and into the capsule with a sudden thrust. With a large and sharp needle (fourteen gauge), synovia can be drawn from the cavity in most instances and the subject usually offers no resistance. By compressing the distended capsule and surrounding structures with the fingers, considerable synovia may be evacuated. In singular instances, no synovia is to be aspirated with the needle, and in such cases the amount of iodin injected needs be increased, possibly twenty-five per cent., as experience will indicate. From two to five cubic centimeters of U.S.P. tincture of iodin is injected through the aspirating needle into the synovial cavity of the joint, and the exterior of the parts are vigorously massaged immediately after injection to stimulate distribution of the iodin throughout the synovial cavity. Where a bilateral affection exists, two or three weeks' time should intervene between the treatments of each leg. A sterile metal syringe equipped with a slip joint for the needle is well adapted to this operation. Lubrication of the plunger with heavy sterile vaseline or glycerin will prevent the syringe from being ruined by the iodin. Following the injection, the subject is kept in a stall or in a suitable paddock, so that conditions may be observed for four or five days. The object sought by the introduction of iodin is not only for a local effect upon the synovial membranes in checking secretions, but the production of an active inflammation and great swelling, which will remain from four weeks to three months subsequent to the injection. This periarticular swelling should produce and maintain a constant pressure over the entire affected parts for a sufficient length of time until normal tone is re-established. In some cases, swelling does not develop as the result of a single injection of iodin. When marked swelling has not taken place within five days, none will occur and a repetition of the injection may be made within ten days after the first treatment has been given. One may safely increase the amount of iodin at the second injection in such cases by one-fourth to one-third. In Europe this method of treating bog spavin has been employed by Leblanc, Abadie, Dupont and others according to Cadiot; but Bouley, Rey, Lafosse and Varrier used it with bad results. Where a perfect technic is executed (and no other is excusable in this operation), no infection will occur if a reasonable amount of iodin is injected. The dilution of iodin with an equal amount of alcohol has been practised by the author in many cases, but later this was found unnecessary. Other methods of treatment have been used with success. Perhaps the most heroic consists in opening the joint capsule with a bistoury or with the actual cautery. Such practice is too hazardous for general use and is not to be recommended, although good results should follow the employment of such methods if infectious arthritis does not occur. Line firing over the distended capsule is a practical method of treatment. This is attended with good results in young animals in many cases, but considerable blemish is caused when sufficient irritation is produced to stimulate resolution. Vesication also is successfully employed in some instances. However, only cases of recent origin in young animals--colts of two years or younger--yield to blistering, and in some affected colts no doubt recovery would have been spontaneous had no treatment been instituted. Ligation of the saphenous vein at two points, one above and the other below the distended ligamentous capsule, is an old operation, which has undoubtedly given good results in some cases, although it does not seem to be a rational procedure. After-Care.--After swelling has fully developed--which occurs within a week--the subject is turned to pasture and no attention is necessary thereafter. A gradual subsidence of the swelling occurs and in the average instance, this completely resolves within six or eight weeks. Complete recovery succeeds the aspiration-and-injection-treatment in about seventy-five per cent of cases as the result of one operation, and subjects may be gradually and carefully returned to work in about sixty days after treatment has been given. Distension of the Tarsal Sheath of the Deep Digital Flexor. (Thoroughpin.) The terms "thoroughpin" or "throughpin" are translations from the French _vessignon chevillé_ and have the same significance. They are so named because of the diametrically opposed distensions of the sheath of the deep flexor tendon in such manner that the distensions appear to be due to a supporting peg. Anatomy.--The theca through which the deep digital flexor (perforans) plays in the tarsal region, begins about three inches above the inner tibial malleolus and extends about one-fourth of the way down the metatarsus. The posterior part of the capsular ligament of the hock joint is very thick in its most dependent portions and is in part cartilaginous, forming a suitable groove for the passage of the deep flexor tendon. [Illustration: Fig. 57--Thoroughpin. Showing distension of the sheath of the deep flexor tendon as it protrudes antero-externally to the fibular tarsal bone (calcaneum).] Etiology and Occurrence.--Strains and sequellae to debilitating diseases constitute the usual causes of this affection. As a result of acute synovitis a chronic synovial distension of the tarsal sheath occurs. Bog spavin is often present in case of thoroughpin but the two conditions are separate and distinct excepting in that both may occur simultaneously and as the result of the same cause. Some animals are undoubtedly predisposed to disease of synovial structures. The average horse that has been subjected to hard service on pavements or hard roads at fast work suffers synovial distension of bursae, thecae or of joint capsules. Some of the well bred types such as the thoroughbred horses may be subjected to years of hard service and still remain "clean limbed" and free from all blemishes. Thus it seems that subjects of rather faulty conformation, animals having lymphatic temperaments and the coarse-bred types, are prone to synovial disturbances such as thoroughpin, bog spavin, etc., sometimes having both legs affected. [Illustration: Fig. 58--Fibrosity of tarsus as a complication in chronic thoroughpin.] Symptomatology.--Thoroughpin is characterized by a distended condition of the tarsal sheath which is manifested by protrusions anterior to the tendo Achillis. However, where but moderate distension of the sheath exists, there is little, if any, bulging on the mesial side of the hock and but a small hemispherical enlargement is presented on the outer side of the tarsus, anterior to the summit of the os calcis. In some instances the protruding parts assume large proportions, but always, because of the relationship between the fibular tarsal bone (calcaneum) and the tendon sheath, the larger protrusion is situated mesially. During the acute inflammatory stage there is marked lameness present but this soon subsides when local antiphlogistic agents are applied to the parts. In fact, spontaneous relief from lameness usually results in the course of ten days' time following the appearance of thoroughpin. No lameness marks the advent of this affection when it develops as the result of continuous strain and concussion occasioned by hard service, and local changes tend to remain in _status quo_. [Illustration: Fig. 59--Another view of same case as illustrated in Fig. 58.] Treatment.--Rest and the local application of heat or cold will suffice to promote resolution of acute inflammation and lameness when present will subside within two weeks. In chronic affections, however, the matter and manner of effecting a correction of the condition--distended tarsal sheath--merit careful consideration. While drainage of distended thecae and bursae by means of openings made with hot irons was practiced by the Arabs, centuries ago, and good results have attended such heroic corrective measures, nevertheless the occasional serious complications which result from infection likely to be introduced in following such procedures, cause the prudent and skilful practitioner to employ safer methods of treatment. The application of blistering agents is of no value in stimulating resorption of an excessive amount of synovia in chronic cases and the actual cautery when employed without perforation of the synovial structure, is of little benefit. Trusses or mechanical appliances for the purpose of maintaining pressure upon the distended parts are of no practical value because of the great difficulty of keeping such contrivances in position. They usually cause so much discomfort to the subject that they are not tolerated. A very practical and fairly successful method of treatment consists in the aspiration of a quantity of synovia and injecting tincture of iodin. Cadiot recommends the drainage of synovia with a suitable trocar and cannula and injecting a mixture consisting of tincture of iodin, one part, to two parts of sterile water, to which is added a small quantity of potassium iodid. The latter agent is added to prevent precipitation of the iodin. This authority (Cadiot) further advocates the removal of practically all of the synovia that will run out through the cannula and the immediate introduction of as much as one hundred cubic centimeters of the above mentioned iodin solution. This solution is allowed to remain in the synovial cavity a few minutes and by compressing the tissues surrounding the tendon sheath, the evacuation of as much of the contents of the synovial cavity as is practicable, is effected. Subsequently the subject is allowed absolute rest and more or less inflammatory reaction follows. In some cases there occur marked lameness and some febrile disturbance, but where a good technic is carried out, no bad results follow. At the end of four weeks' time, horses so treated may be returned to service, but the full beneficial effect of such treatment is not experienced until several months' time have elapsed. Where good facilities for executing a careful technic in every detail are at hand, incision of the tarsal sheath, evacuation of its contents and uniting its walls again by means of sutures and providing for drainage with a suitable drainage tube, may be practiced. This manner of treatment has been satisfactory in the hands of a number of surgeons. Capped Hock. Enlargements which occur upon the summit of the os calcis, whether hypertrophy of the skin and subcuticular fascia, the result of injury or repeated vesication, distension of the subcutaneous bursa or injury to the superficial flexor tendon (perforatus) or its sheath, are generally known as capped hock. However, the term should be restricted to use in reference to distensions of synovial structures of that region. Etiology and Occurrence.--Usually there occurs a hygromatous involvement of the subcutaneous bursa due to contusion. As in bog spavin, following certain infectious diseases (influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, etc.) there remains a distended condition of the subcutaneous bursa, after swelling of the member has subsided. In feeding pens where numbers of young mules are kept in crowded quarters many cases may be observed. In some instances where violent contusions result from kicking cross-bars of wagon shafts (by nymphomaniacs or in habitual kickers where there is opportunity for doing such injury) the superficial flexor tendon and its synovial apparatus are injured and a more serious condition may result. Symptomatology.--In acute and extensive inflammation of the parts, lameness is present, but in the average case no inconvenience to the subject results. The prominent site of the affection is cause for an unsightly blemish. This is undesirable, particularly in light-harness or saddle horses. These affections are characterized by a fluctuating mass which has a thin wall and in all cases of long standing the condition is painless. By careful palpation one may readily distinguish between a hygromatous condition of the superficial bursa and involvement of the underlying structures. Affection of the expanded portion of the flexor tendon and contiguous structures makes for an organized mass of tissue which is somewhat dense and in some instances painful to the subject when manipulated. This is particularly noticeable in cases where the parts are regularly and repeatedly injured as in habitual kickers. [Illustration: Fig. 60--"Capped hock." Distension of the bursa over the summit of the os calcis.] Treatment.--In acute inflammation, antiphlogistic applications are indicated and the subject must be kept quiet. The matter of bandaging the hock is a difficult problem in some cases and needs be done with care. As has been previously stated in this volume, the tarsus needs to be well padded with cotton before the bandages are applied and only a moderate degree of tension is employed in applying the bandages lest anemic-necrosis result from pressure. In distension of the superficial bursa, after clipping the hair over a liberal area and preparing the skin by thoroughly cleansing and painting with tincture of iodin, the capsule is incised with a bistoury. An incision about an inch in length, situated low enough to provide drainage, is made through the tissues and the contents are evacuated. Tincture of iodin is injected into the cavity and the parts are covered with cotton and bandaged. No after-care is necessary except to retain the dressing in position, which is not difficult in the average case if the subject is kept tied. If much resistance is exhibited, such as extreme flexion of the bandaged hock, the animal may be put in a sling and little if any objection to the bandage will be offered thereafter. The wound may be dressed at the end of forty-eight hours and no redressing will be necessary in the average instance if infection is not present. But slight local disturbance and little distress to the subject result in cases so treated even when infection occurs, but a good technic is possible of execution in most instances and no infection should take place. The surgical wound heals in two or three weeks and inflammation gradually subsides. Bandages are retained one or two weeks, as the case may require, and subsequently a good wound lotion may be employed several times daily. A good lotion for such cases as well as in many others has long been employed with success by Dr. A. Trickett of Kansas City. It consists of approximately equal parts of glycerin, alcohol and distilled extract of witch hazel, to which is added liquor cresolis compositus, two percent, and coloring matter q.s. Complete resolution does not occur in the average case. There remains some hyperplastic tissue and even where the enlargement is slight, the prominent situation of the affection precludes its being unnoticed. In disease of the flexor tendon and its bursa where contiguous inflammation of tissue is present, the parts are blistered or fired. Line firing is beneficial in such instances but in all cases the cause is to be removed if possible. Rupture and Division of the Long Digital Extensor (Extensor Pedis). Etiology and Occurrence.--Because of the fact that the long digital extensor is the only extensor of the phalanges of the pelvic limb, its rupture or division constitutes a troublesome condition, which in some cases does not readily respond to treatment. Rupture of this tendon may occur during work on rough and uneven roads, particularly in range horses that are ridden over ground that is burrowed by gophers or prairie dogs; in such cases, horses are apt to suddenly and violently turn the foot in position of volar flexion, thereby causing undue strain to the digital extensor and its rupture sometimes follows. In foals of one or two days of age, this tendon is sometimes found parted or ruptured and the condition may be bilateral. As the result of accidents, the digital extensor may be divided and when the wound becomes contaminated, as it does because of the marked volar flexion (knuckling) which occurs during the course of this affection, regeneration of tissue is checked and recovery is tardy. Symptomatology.--There is no interference with ability to sustain weight in such cases, when the foot is placed in normal position; but immediately upon attempting to walk, the toe is dragged, and if weight is borne with the affected member, it comes upon the anterior face of the fetlock. The flexors are not antagonized and if there be an open wound the parts soon become contaminated; or, in rupture, if animals travel about very much, there soon occurs necrosis of the tissues of the anterior fetlock region and the condition is rendered incurable. Cases are reported of animals that have suffered rupture of the long digital extensor and the subjects learned to throw the member forward during extension, substituting for the extensor tendon the pendulum-like momentum which the foot affords when so employed; and a walking and even a trotting pace was possible without doing injury to the fetlock region. Where a subcutaneous division exists as in rupture, the divided ends of the tendon may be definitely recognized by palpation. Treatment.--Subjects are best put in slings and kept so confined until regeneration of tendinous structures has been completed. This requires from six weeks to two months' time. In addition, the extremity is kept in a state of extension by means of suitable splints and shoes,--a shoe equipped with an extension at the toe and perforated so that a steel brace may be hooked into the perforation and the brace fashioned to be buckled to the upper metatarsal region. When braces are placed in front of the foot, great care is necessary in properly padding the member with cotton lest sloughing from pressure occurs at the coronet; but this does not apply in rupture of extensors so much as where flexors are ruptured. Open wounds are treated along general surgical lines, dressed as frequently as occasion demands, and recovery will be complete in a few months' time unless much of the tendon has been destroyed. In one instance, the author had occasion to observe such a condition, which, because of the extensive destruction of tendon and lack of facilities for giving proper attention to the subject, results were so unfavorable that it was deemed necessary to destroy the animal. Wounds From Interfering. When, during locomotion, injury is inflicted upon the mesial side of an extremity by the swinging foot of the other member, the condition is termed interfering. Etiology and Occurrence.--Faulty conformation, bad shoeing and over-work are the principal causes of interfering. Horses that are "base narrow" or that have crooked legs are quite apt to interfere. Shoes that are put on a foot that is not level or applied in a twisted position, or shoes wide at the heel will often cause interfering and injury. Animals that are driven at fast work until they become nearly exhausted may be expected to interfere. Such cases are frequently observed in young horses that are driven over rough roads, particularly when so nearly exhausted or weakened from disease or inanition that the feet are dragged forward rather than picked up and advanced in the normal manner. Symptomatology.--Wounds inflicted by striking the extremities in this manner present various appearances and occasion dissimilar manifestations. The hind legs are almost as frequently affected as the front and the fetlock region is most often injured, though wounds may be inflicted to the coronet. In front, the carpus is sometimes the site of injury. When only an abrasion is caused, little if any lameness occurs, but where interfering is continued and nerves are involved or subfascial infection and extensive inflammation succeed such abrasions, marked lameness and evidence of great pain are manifested. Frequently, in chronic cases affecting the hind leg, the fetlock assumes large proportions, and at times during the course of every drive the subject strikes the inflamed part, immediately flexing and abducting the injured member, and the victim hops on the other leg until pain has somewhat subsided. Interfering is much more serious in animals that are used at fast work than in draft horses. In light-harness or saddle horses, it may render the subject practically valueless or unserviceable if the condition cannot be corrected. Treatment.--Wherever possible, cause is to be removed and if animals are properly used, ordinary interfering wounds will yield to treatment. If the shoeing is faulty, this should be corrected, the foot properly prepared and leveled before being shod and suitable shoes applied. In young animals that become "leg-weary" from constant overwork, rest and recuperation are necessary to enhance recovery. In such cases it will be found that very light shoes, frequently reset, will tend to prevent injury to the fetlock region such as characterizes these injuries of hind legs. Palliative measures of various kinds are employed where cause is not to be removed and a degree of success attends such effort. In draft horses or animals that are used at a slow pace, shields of various kinds are strapped to the extremity and protection is thus afforded. Or, large encircling pads of leather, variously constructed, serve to cause the subject to walk with the extremities apart. Interfering shoes of different types are of material benefit in many instances. Often the principle upon which corrective shoeing is based is that the mesial (inner) side of the foot is too low; the foot is consequently leveled and the inner branch of the shoe is made thicker than the outer, altering the position of the foot in this way. This is productive of desirable results. However, much depends upon the manner in which the foot in motion strikes the weight-bearing member as to the corrective measures that are indicated. This belongs to the domain of pathological shoeing and the reader is referred to works on this subject for further study of this phase of lameness. Lymphangitis. Excluding glanders, in the majority of instances, lymphangitis in the horse, such as frequently affects the hind legs, is due to the local introduction of infectious material into the tissues as a result of wounds. However, one may observe in some instances an acute lymphangitis which affects the pelvic limbs of horses and no evidence of infection exists. Consequently, lymphangitis may be considered as _infectious_ and _non-infectious_. INFECTIOUS LYMPHANGITIS. Etiology and Occurrence.--Traumatisms of the legs frequently result in infection and when such injuries are near lymph glands, even though the degree of infection be slight, more or less disturbance of function of the muscles in the vicinity of such glands occurs and lameness follows. The prescapular, axillary and cubital lymph glands when in a state of inflammation, cause lameness of the front leg, and the superficial inguinal and deep inguinal lymph glands not infrequently become involved also. Because of the location of these lymph glands, they are subject to comparatively frequent injury and inflammation, causing lameness more often than other lymph-gland-affections. Small puncture wounds in the region of the elbow are often met with. These may be inflicted when horses lie down upon sharp stumps of vegetation or shoe-calk injuries may be the means of introducing contagium, and an infectious inflammation results. Abscess formation, the result of strangles or other infection in the prescapular glands, may be observed at times. Following castration, the inguinal lymph glands may become involved in an infectious inflammation and locomotion is impeded to a marked degree. Horses running at pasture sometimes become injured by trampling upon pieces of wood, causing one end of these or of various implements to become embedded in the soft earth and the other end to enter at the inguinal region and even penetrate the tissues to and through the skin and fascia just below the perineal region. Nail punctures resulting in infection frequently cause an infectious lymphangitis and a marked and painful swelling of the legs supervenes. [Illustration: Fig. 61--Chronic lymphangitis. Showing hypertrophy of the left hind leg, due to repeated inflammation.] Symptomatology.--Lameness, mixed or swinging-leg, signalizes the presence of acute lymphangitis. There is always more or less swelling present and manipulation of the affected parts gives pain to the subject. Depending upon the character of the infection and its extent, there is presented a varying degree of constitutional disturbance. There may be a rise in temperature of from two to five degrees, and in such instances there is an accelerated pulse. Where much intoxication is present, anorexia and dipsosis are to be noticed. Swelling may increase gradually and in time discharge of pus may take place spontaneously without drainage being provided for, if the character of the infection does not cause early death. In these cases lameness is pronounced and the cause of the disturbance is to be sought, particularly if the condition be due to a nail puncture. [Illustration: Fig. 62--Elephantiasis.] Treatment.--Location of the site of injury is advisable in all cases and in some instances provision for drainage, as in puncture wounds, is helpful. Locally, curettage and the application of suitable antiseptics are indicated. Hot fomentations are beneficial and should be continued for several days if necessary, to stimulate resolution. A brisk purge should be admintered at the onset and strychnin, because of its indirect stimulative effect upon the circulation together with its tonic effect upon the musculature, is beneficial. In all such cases rational treatment, good hygiene and careful nursing are the principal factors which stimulate recovery. Individual resistance or lowered vitality has a marked influence on the course of this affection. NON-INFECTIOUS LYMPHANGITIS. This type of lymphangitis is associated with, or the result of, a derangement of digestion. It affects heavy draft horses, rarely other types of animals, and involves one or both hind legs. Occurrence.--In healthy and well nourished horses irregularly used, this affection may suddenly manifest itself. It occurs in singular instances in mares that are in advanced pregnancy even when such animals are at pasture. Usually, however, this malady is found in heavy draft horses that have been kept stabled from one to three days. Symptomatology.--At the outset in severe cases, there is elevation of temperature, labored breathing, accelerated pulse, anorexia and more or less swelling of the affected members. Swelling is very painful and when the affected legs are palpated, pain is manifested by flinching. The inguinal lymph glands are often swollen but in some cases they are not affected in any perceptible degree. In the average case suppuration does not occur and when conditions are favorable, resolution is complete within ten days. The extent of the involvement and the intensity of the affection vary materially in different cases and a chronic lymphangitis may succeed the acute attacks and finally in some instances, elephantiasis results. Treatment.--An active purgative should be given at once and in the ordinary case, stimulants are indicated. If marked distress is present, morphin is given and where there is much rise of temperature, cold drinking water is offered in abundance and catharsis is enhanced by enemata. Locally, hot applications are of benefit. Hot towels or cotton held in position by bandages and kept soaked with warm water will relieve pain and stimulate resolution. Diuretics may be of benefit and anodyne applications are to be employed with profit in some cases. Walking exercise, if not indulged in to excess, is helpful as soon as acute inflammation has subsided. By giving careful attention to the regimen and providing regular exercise for susceptible subjects, this type of lymphangitis is often forestalled. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 34: Manual of Veterinary Physiology. Page 610.] [Footnote 35: Manual of Veterinary Physiology, page 601.] [Footnote 36: Case report at meeting of the Iowa State Veterinary Medical Association, Jan., 1904, by Dr. S.H. Bauman, Birmingham, Ia.] [Footnote 37: Regional Veterinary Surgery and Operative Technique, by John A.W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.I., page 733.] [Footnote 38: As quoted by A. Liautard, M.D., V.M., American Veterinary Review, Vol. 37, page 667.] [Footnote 39: Quoted by Prof. Liautard, American Veterinary Review, Vol. 33, page 190.] [Footnote 40: Traite de Thérapeutique Chirurgical des Animaux Domestique par P.J. Cadiot et J. Almy, Tome second, page 460.] [Footnote 41: Traite de Thérapeutique Chirurgical, Tome second, page 465.] [Footnote 42: Luxation of the Femur, by Wm. V. Lusk, Veterinary Surgeon, U.S. Cavalry, American Veterinary Review, Vol. 21, page 254.] [Footnote 43: Because of the intimacy of the psoas major (p. magnus) and the iliacus they are sometimes called iliopsoas.] [Footnote 44: Dr. John Scott, Peoria, Ill., in The American Veterinary Review, Vol. 16, page 16.] [Footnote 45: Annotation on Surgical Items, by Drs. L.A. and Edward Merillat, American Veterinary Review, Vol. 31, page 358.] [Footnote 46: W.L. Williams in American Veterinary Review, Vol. 21, page 452.] [Footnote 47: Geo. H. Berns, D.V.S., report, American Veterinary Medical Association, 1912, page 238.] [Footnote 48: Joseph Hughes, M.R.C.V.S., in the Chicago Veterinary College Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 10, page 15.] [Footnote 49: Traite de Therap. Chir. Cadiot et Almy, Tome second, page 480.] [Footnote 50: E. Wallis Hoare, F.R.C.V.S., American Veterinary Review, Vol. 27, page 1189.] [Footnote 51: Discussions on paper entitled "The Spavin Group of Lamenesses," by W.L. Williams, Carl W. Fisher and D.H. Udall, Proceedings of American Veterinary Medical Association, 1905.] [Footnote 52: "Hock-Joint Lameness," by Dr. James McDonough, Proceedings of the A.V.M.A., 1913, page 545.] INDEX A Acetabulum, 185 Acute arthritis, 65 Acute laminitis, 162 Acute tendinitis, 135 Affections of blood vessels, 31 Affections of bursae and thecae, 27 Affections of the feet, 34 Affections of ligaments, 20 Affections of lymph vessels and glands, 32 Affections of muscles and tendons, 28 Affections of nerves, 30 Anamnesis, 38 Anatomo-physiological review of parts of fore leg, 55 Anatomo-physiological consideration of the pelvic limbs, 185 Anatomy of the joint capsule, 220 Annular ligament, 58 Antea-spinatus muscle, 65 Anterior brachial region, wounds of, 90 Anterior digital extensor muscle, 193 Arteritis, 209 Artery (brachial), thrombosis of the, 81 Arthritis, 22, 84 Arthritis, acute, 65 Arthritis, chronic, 65 Arthritis, infectious, 66 Arthritis, metastatic, 25 Arthritis of the fetlock joint, 152 Arthritis, rheumatic, 26 Arthritis, scapulohumeral, 65 Arthritis, tarsal, 225 Arthritis, traumatic, 22 Articular ringbone, 121 Articulation, femeropelvic, 185 Articulation, metacarpophalangeal, 58 Articulation, scapulohumeral, 55 Aspiration-and-injection treatment of bog spavin, 244 Aspiration-and-injection treatment of capped hock, 252 Aspiration-and-injection treatment of thoroughpin, 250 Astragalus, 190 Astragalus, fracture of the, 230 Attitude of the subject, 41 Atrophy of the quadriceps muscles, 205 Atrophy, shoulder, 73 B Biceps brachii, 58, 65, 68, 69 Bicipital bursa, inflammation of, 68 Blood vessels, affections of, 31 Bog spavin, 242 Bog spavin, aspiration-and-injection treatment of, 244 Bog spavin, line firing for, 246 Bog spavin, vesication for, 246 Bone spavin, 235 Bones, degenerative changes in, 16 Bones, tarsal, 190 Bossi's double tarsal neurectomy, 242 Brachial artery, thrombosis of the, 81 Brachial paralysis, 77 Bursa intertubercularis, 62, 69 Bursa podotrochlearis, inflammation of the, 157 Bursae, affections of, 27 Bursitis, 27, 104 Bursitis, infectious, 28 Bursitis in the fetlock region, 150 Bursitis intertubercularis, 68 Bursitis, noninfectious, 28 C Calcaneo-cuboid ligaments, 190 Calcaneo-metatarsal ligaments, 190 Calcaneum, fracture of the, 230 Calk wounds, 170 Capped hock, 251 Capped hock, aspiration-and-injection treatment of, 252 Capsular ligament, 190 Caput muscles, 71 Carpal bones, fracture of the, 96 Carpal bones, luxation of the, 96 Carpal flexors, contraction of the, 93 Carpal flexors, inflammation of the, 93 Carpal joint, 58 Carpal joint, open, 100 Carpitis, 98 Carpus, inflammation of the, 98 Cartilage, lateral, inflammation of, 174 Cartilages of the third phalanx, ossification of the, 155 Chronic arthritis, 65 Chronic gonitis, 217 Chronic laminitis, 164 Chronic tendinitis, 137 Cochran shoe for dropped soles, 169 Collateral ligaments, 190 Comminuted fractures, 17 Compound fractures, 17 Contracted tendons of foals, 143 Contraction of the carpal flexors, 93 Contraction of the flexor tendons, 137 Contusions of the triceps brachii, 71 Contusive wounds, 85 Coracoradialis, 58 Corns, 172 Coronary region, wounds of the, 170 Corpora oryzoidea, 218 Cotyloid ligament, 185 Courbe, 233 Crepitation, false, 48 Crepitation, true, 47 Crucial ligaments, 188 Crural nerve, paralysis of the, 204 Cunean bursa, 237 Cunean tenotomy, 242 Cuneiform magnum, 191 Cuneiform medium, 191 Curb, 233 D Deep digital flexor, distension of the tarsal sheath of, 246 Deep flexor tendon (perforans), 60 Degenerative changes in bones, 16 Diagnosis by exclusion, 53 Diagnosis by use of the X-ray, 179 Diagnostic principles, 37 Disease, navicular, 157 Dislocations, 21 Distension of the tarsal joint capsule, 242 Distension of the tarsal sheath of the deep digital flexor, 246 Division of long digital extensor, 253 Dorsal ligaments, 190 Dropped elbow, 71, 80 Dropped soles, shoe for, 169 Dropped stifle, 205 Dry spavin, 225 E Elbow, dropped, 71, 80 Elbow, inflammation of the, 84 Elbow joint, 58 Elephantiasis, 34 Etiology, general discussion of, 15 Examination by palpation, 43 Examination, special methods of, 53 Examination, visual, 39 Exclusion, diagnosis by, 53 Exostosis of splint bones, 107 Exostosis, phalangeal, 118 Extensor (long digital) rupture and division of, 253 Extensor of the digit, rupture of, 145 Extensor pedis, 60 Extensor pedis, rupture of, 145 Extensor pedis, rupture and division of, 253 F False crepitation, 48 Feet, affection of the, 34 Femoral nerve, paralysis of the, 204 Femeropatella ligaments, 188 Femeropelvic articulation, 185 Femur, 185, 192 Femur, fracture of the, 199 Femur, luxation of the, 201 Fetlock joint, 58 Fetlock joint, arthritis of the, 152 Fetlock joint, luxation of the, 125 Fetlock joint, open, 110 Fetlock region, thecitis and bursitis in, 148 Fetlock, shoe for bracing the, 181 Fibular tarsal bone, fracture of the, 230 Firing, treatment of ringbone by, 123 First phalanx, 59 "Fish knees", 145 Fixed luxations, 21 Fixed patellar disarticulation, 213 Flexor brachii, 58, 68, 69 Flexor carpiradialis, 93 Flexor carpiulnaris, 93 Flexor metacarpi externus, 94 Flexor metacarpi internus, 93 Flexor metacarpi medius, 93 Flexor metatarsi, 193 Flexor, superficial digital, 194 Flexor tendons, contraction of the, 137 Flexor tendons, inflammation of the, 135 Flexor tendons, rupture of, 146 Flexors of phalanges, open sheath of, 124 Foals, contracted tendons of, 143 Forearm, wounds of, 90 Fore leg, lameness in the, 55 Fracture of the carpal bones, 96 Fracture of the femur, 199 Fracture of the fibular tarsal bone, 230 Fracture of first and second phalanges, 131 Fracture of humerus, 82 Fracture of the ilium, 198 Fracture of the ischial tuberosity, 199 Fracture of the metacarpus, 106 Fracture of the patella, 212 Fractures of the pelvic bones, 196 Fracture of the proximal sesamoids, 128 Fracture of the pubis, 197 Fracture of the radius, 87 Fracture of the scapula, 62 Fracture of the tibia, 222 Fracture of the tibial tarsal bone, 230 Fracture of the ulna, 86 Fractures, 16 Fractures, comminuted, 17 Fractures, compound, 17 Fractures, green stick, 18 Fractures, impacted, 19 Fractures, longitudinal, 18 Fractures, multiple, 18 Fractures, multiple longitudinal, 19 Fractures, oblique, 18 Fractures, simple, 17 Fractures, simple transverse, 18 Fractures, transverse, 18 Fragilitas, 199 Fragilitas osseum, 128 G Gait, observing character of, 48 Gastrocnemius, 194 Gluteal tendo-synovitis, 203 Gluteus medius muscle, 192, 203 Gonitis, chronic, 217 Green stick fractures, 18 H Hind leg, lameness in the, 185 Hind leg, paralysis of the, 204 Hip lameness, 195 Hip swinney, 205 Hock, capped, 251 Hock joint, 188 Hoof testers, 53 Humeroradioulnar joint, 58 Humerus, fracture of, 82 I Iliac thrombosis, 209 Iliopsoas, 204 Ilium, fracture of the, 198 Impacted fractures, 19 Infectious arthritis, 66 Infectious bursitis, 28 Infectious inflammation of the lateral cartilage, 173 Infectious lymphangitis, 257 Infectious synovitis, 124 Inflammation of the bicipital bursa, 68 Inflammation of the bursa podotrochlearis, 157 Inflammation of the carpal flexors, 93 Inflammation of the carpus, 98 Inflammation of the elbow, 84 Inflammation of the flexor tendons, 135 Inflammation of posterior ligaments of pastern, 129 Inflammation of proximal sesamoid bones, 127 Inflammation of third sesamoid and deep flexor tendon, 157 Inflammation of the trochanteric bursa, 204 Infraspinatus muscle, 65 Injection of fluids for quittor, 177 Injuries to scapulohumeral joint, 66 Interfering, shoeing for, 256 Interfering, wounds from, 255 Ischial tuberosity, fracture of the, 199 J Joint capsule, anatomy of the, 220 Joint, carpal, 58 Joint, elbow, 58 Joint, fetlock, 58 Joint capsule, tarsal, distension of the, 242 Joint, fetlock, arthritis of the, 152 Joint, fetlock, luxation of, 125 Joint, hock, 188 Joint, humeroradioulnar, 58 Joint, open, 67 Joint, open carpal, 100 Joint, open fetlock, 110 Joint, pastern proximal interphalangeal, 129 Joint, shoulder, 55 Joint, stifle, open, 220 Joint, tarsal, open, 229 L Lameness, hip, 195 Lameness, mixed, 49 Lameness in the fore leg, 55 Lameness in the hind leg, 185 Lameness, shoulder, 61 Lameness, supporting-leg, 49 Lameness, swinging-leg, 49 Laminitis, 160 Laminitis, acute, 162 Laminitis, chronic, 164 Lateral cartilage, infectious inflammation of the, 174 Lateral cartilages, ossification of, 155 Ligaments, affections of, 20 Ligament, capsular, 190 Ligaments, collateral, 190 Ligament, cotyloid, 185 Ligaments, crucial, 188 Ligaments, dorsal, 190 Ligaments, femeropatella, 188 Ligament, medial, 190 Ligaments, mesial tarsal, sprains of the, 232 Ligaments of pastern proximal interphalangeal joint, inflammation of, 129 Ligaments, patellar, 188 Ligaments, plantar, 190 Ligament, pubiofemoral, 185 Ligament, superior check, 58 Ligament, suspensory, rupture of, 146 Ligaments, volar, 129 Ligament, volar-carpal or annular, 58 Ligation of the saphenous vein, 246 Line firing for bog spavin, 246 Longitudinal fractures, 18 Lumbosacral plexus, 204 Luxation of the carpal bones, 96 Luxation of the femur, 201 Luxation of fetlock joint, 125 Luxation of the patella, 213 Luxation of the patella, outward, 215 Luxation of the patella, upward, 214 Luxation of scapulohumeral joint, 67 Luxations, 21 Luxations, fixed, 21 Luxations, temporary, 21 Lymph vessels and glands, affections of, 32 Lymphangitis, 32 Lymphangitis, infectious, 257 Lymphangitis, non-infectious, 260 M Medial ligament, 190 Median neurectomy, 124 Mesial tarsal ligaments, sprains of the, 232 Metacarpophalangeal articulation, 58 Metacarpus, fracture of the, 106 Metastatic arthritis, 25 Mixed lameness, 49 Momentary patellar disarticulation, 213 Movements, passive, 47 Multiple fractures, 18 Multiple longitudinal fractures, 19 Muscles, affections of, 28 Muscle, antea-spinatus, 65 Muscle, anterior digital extensor, 193 Muscle, biceps brachii, 58 Muscle, caput, 71 Muscle, gluteus medium, 192, 203 Muscle, infraspinatus, 65 Muscle, peroneus tertius, 193 Muscle, postea-spinatus, 65 Muscles, quadriceps, 193 Muscles, quadriceps, atrophy of the, 205 Muscle, subscapularis, 65 Muscle, supraspinatus, 65 Muscle, tibialis anticus, 193 Muscle, triceps brachii, 58 Myalgia, 195 N Nail punctures, 178 Navicular disease, 157 Nerves, affections of, 30 Nerve, femoral, paralysis of the, 204 Nerve, obturator, paralysis of the, 206 Nerve, sciatic, paralysis of the, 208 Nerve, (suprascapular) paralysis of the, 75 Non-infectious lymphangitis, 260 Non-infectious bursitis, 28 Neurectomy, Bossi's double tarsal, 242 Neurectomy, median, 124 Neurectomy, plantar, 124 O Oblique fractures, 18 Observing character of gait, 48 Obturator nerve, paralysis of the, 206 Occurrence, general discussion of, 15 Omphalophlebitis, 25 Open carpal joint, 100 Open fetlock joint, 110 Open joint, 67 Open sheath of flexors of phalanges, 124 Open stifle joint, 220 Open tarsal joint, 229 Os corona, 60 Ossification of cartilages of the third phalanx, 155 Ossification of the lateral cartilages, 155 Os innominatum, 196 Os suffraginis, 59 Osteitis, rarefying, 16 Outward luxation of the patella, 215 P Palpation, examination by, 43 Paralysis, brachial, 77 Paralysis of the femoral nerve, 204 Paralysis of the hind leg, 204 Paralysis of the obturator nerve, 206 Paralysis of the sciatic nerve, 208 Paralysis of the suprascapular nerve, 75 Paralysis, radial, 77 Paronychia, 170 Passive movements, 47 Pastern proximal interphalangeal joint, inflammation of ligaments of, 129 Patella, 188 Patella, fracture of the, 212 Patella, luxation of the, 213 Patella, outward luxation of the, 215 Patella, upward luxation of the, 214 Patellar disarticulation, fixed, 213 Patellar disarticulation, momentary, 213 Patellar ligaments, 188 Pelvic bones, fractures of the, 196 Pelvic limbs, anatomo-physiological consideration of the, 185 Penetrative wounds, 85 Periarticular ringbone, 122 Peroneus tertius muscle, 193 Phalangeal exostosis, 118 Phalanges, fracture of first and second, 131 Phalanges, open sheath of flexors of, 124 Phalanx, first, 59 Phalanx, second, 60 Phalanx, third, ossification of cartilages of, 155 Plantar ligaments, 190 Plantar neurectomy, 124 Polyarthritis, 25 Postea-spinatus muscle, 65 Principles, diagnostic, 37 Proximal sesamoid bones, inflammation of, 127 Proximal sesamoids, fracture of, 128 Pubiofemoral ligament, 185 Pubis, fracture of the, 197 Punctures, nail, 178 Q Quadriceps muscles, 193 Quadriceps muscles, atrophy of the, 205 Quittor, 174 Quittor, injection of fluids for, 177 R Rachitic ringbone, 122 Radial paralysis, 77 Radius, fracture of the, 87 Rarefying osteitis, 16 Rheumatic arthritis, 26 Rheumatism, 196 Ringbone, 118 Ringbone, articular, 121 Ringbone, periarticular, 122 Ringbone, rachitic, 122 Ringbone, traumatic, 122 Ringbone treated by firing, 123 Roberts shoe for bracing the fetlock, 181 Rupture of the extensor pedis, 145 Rupture of flexor tendons and suspensory ligament, 146 Rupture of long digital extensor, 253 Rupture of the tendo archillis, 224 S Saphenous vein, ligation of the, 246 Scapula, fracture of the, 62 Scapulohumeral articulation, 55 Scapulohumeral joint, injuries to, 66 Scapulohumeral joint, luxation of, 67 Scapulohumeral joint, wounds of, 67 Scapulohumeral arthritis, 65 Sciatica, 208 Sciatic nerve, paralysis of the, 208 Second phalanx, 60 Sesamoid bones, 59 Sesamoid, third, inflammation of the, 157 Sesamoids, proximal, fracture of, 128 Sesamoiditis, 127 Setons, 75 Sheath of flexors of phalanges, open, 124 Sheath (tarsal) of the deep digital flexor, distension of the, 246 Shoe for dropped soles, 169 Shoeing for interfering, 256 Shoulder atrophy, 73 Shoulder joint, 55 Shoulder lameness, 61 Simple fractures, 17 Simple transverse fractures, 18 Soles, dropped, shoe for, 169 Spavin, bog, 242 Spavin, bone, 235 Spavin, dry, 225 Spavin test, 239 Special methods of examination, 53 Sprains of the mesial tarsal ligaments, 232 Sprains, tarsal, 232 Splints, 107 Spring-halt, 225 Stifle, dropped, 205 Stifle joint, open, 220 Strangles, 25 Streptococcus equi, 25 String-halt, 225 Subject, attitude of the, 41 Subscapularis muscle, 65 Supporting-leg-lameness, 49 Suprascapular nerve, paralysis of the, 75 Supraspinatus muscle, 65 Superficial digital flexor, 194 Superior check ligament, 58 Suspensory ligament, rupture of, 146 Sweeny, 73 Swinging-leg-lameness, 49 Swinney, 73 Swinney, hip, 205 Synovial distension of tendon sheaths, 104 Synovitis, 25 Synovitis, infectious, 124 T Tarsal arthritis, 225 Tarsal bones, 190 Tarsal joint capsule, distension of the, 242 Tarsal joint, open, 229 Tarsal sheath of the deep digital flexor, distension of the, 246 Tarsal sprains, 232 Tarsus, 192 Temporary luxations, 21 Tendinitis, 135 Tendinitis, acute, 135 Tendinitis, chronic, 137 Tendo achillis, rupture and wounds of the, 224 Tendon, deep flexor, inflammation of the, 157 Tendon, deep flexor (perforans), 60 Tendon, extensor, rupture of, 145 Tendon, flexor, rupture of, 146 Tendons of foals, contracted, 143 Tendon sheaths, synovial distension of, 104 Tendons, affections of, 28 Tendons, flexor, contraction of the, 137 Tendons, flexor, inflammation of the, 135 Tendo-synovitis, gluteal, 203 Tenotomy, cunean, 242 Tensor fascia lata, 192 Test, spavin, 239 Testers, hoof, 53 Thecae, affections of, 27 Thecitis, 27, 104 Thecitis in the fetlock region, 150 Thoroughpin, 246 Thoroughpin, aspiration-and-injection treatment of, 250 Thrombosis, iliac, 209 Thrombosis of the brachial artery, 81 Tibia, 188 Tibia, fracture of the, 222 Tibial tarsal bone, fracture of the, 230 Tibialis anticus muscle, 193 Tibioastragular joint, distension of the, 242 Transverse fractures, 18 Traumatic arthritis, 22 Traumatic ringbone, 122 Treatment of bog spavin by aspiration and injection, 244 Treatment of capped hock by aspiration and injection, 252 Treatment of ringbone by firing, 123 Treatment of thoroughpin by aspiration and injection, 250 Triceps brachii, 58 Triceps brachii, contusions of, 71 Triceps extensor brachii, 71 Trochanteric bursa, inflammation of the, 204 True crepitation, 47 U Ulna, fracture of the, 86 Ulnaris lateralis, 94 Upward luxation of the patella, 214 V Vein, saphenous, ligation of the, 246 Vesication for bog spavin, 246 Vessignon chevillé, 246 Visual examination, 39 Volar-carpal ligament, 58 Volar ligaments, 129 W Wounds, calk, 170 Wounds, contusive, 85 Wounds from interfering, 255 Wounds of anterior brachial region, 90 Wounds of coronary region, 170 Wounds of scapulohumeral joint, 67 Wounds of tendo achillis, 224 Wounds, penetrative, 85 X X-ray diagnosis, 179 AUTHORITIES CITED Almy, J., 141, 200, 202, 208, 212, 216, 214, 233 Bassi, 215 Bauman, S.H., 197 Bell, Roscoe R., 69 Benard, 216 Berns, Geo. H., 77, 218 Bouley, 225 Bourdelle, 147 Cadiot, P.J., 78, 141, 200, 202, 208, 212, 214, 216, 223, 225, 233, 245, 250 Campbell, D.M., 162, 166, 167 Castagné, 84 Cochran, David W., 169, 170 Diekerhoff, 237 Dollar, Jno. A.W., 68, 198 Eberlein, 237 Fisher, Carl W., 236 Frost, J.N., 113 Frost, R.F., 128 Greaves, Thomas, 157 Hoare, E. Wallis, 25, 211, 230 Hughes, Joseph, 176, 221 Hutyra and Marek, 205 Law, James, 33 Leblanc, 223 Liautard, A., 84, 199, 238 Lusk, Wm. V., 203 McDonough, James, 237 Merillat, Edward, 210 Merillat, L.A., 80, 96, 175, 210 Millar, Thomas, 145 Möller, H., 119, 156, 211, 222 Montane, 147 Moore, R.C., 162 Roberts, G.H., 181 Schumacher, 215 Scott, John, 208 Seeley, J.T., 176 Sisson, Septimus, 129, 204, 220 Smith, F., Major General, 56, 60, 155, 188, 194 Strangeways, 193 Taylor, Henry, 71 Thompson, H., 83, 87 Trickett, A., 253 Udall, D.H., 236 Uhlrich, 224 Walters, Wilfred, 83, 97 Williams, W.L., 217, 236 Transcriber's notes: Accented words: The following spelling differences have been maintained: Moller / Möller Montane / Montané Traite / Traité. Hyphenation: The following hyphenation differences have been maintained: bilateral / bi-lateral calcaneocuboid / calcaneo-cuboid calcaneometatarsal / calcaneo-metatarsal counterirritation / counter-irritation counterirritating / counter-irritating foreleg / fore-leg interphalangeal / inter-phalangeal noninfectious / non-infectious nonsensitive / non-sensitive overwork / over-work posteaspinatus / postea-spinatus ringbone / ring-bone subacute / sub-acute subcoronary / sub-coronary subfascial / sub-fascial subperiosteal / sub-periosteal Typographical errors: sub-facial for sub-fascial "At two-year-old" for "A two-year-old" Ameircan for American Symtomatology for Symptomatology extoses for exostoses admintered for administered 
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11204	----	DISEASES OF THE HORSE'S FOOT By H. CAULTON REEKS Fellow of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons Author of 'The Common Colics of the Horse' 1906 To J. MacQueen, F.R.C.V.S., Professor of Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London, as a slight acknowledgment of his ability as a teacher, and in return for many kindly services, this volume is gratefully inscribed by THE AUTHOR. PREFACE Stimulated by the reception accorded my 'Common Colics of the Horse,' both in this country and in America, and assured by my publishers that a work on diseases of the foot was needed, I have been led to give to the veterinary profession the present volume. While keeping the size of the book within reasonable limits, no effort has been spared to render it as complete as possible. This has only been achieved by adding to my own experience a great deal of the work of others. To mention individually those who have given me permission to use their writings would be too long a matter here. In every case, however, where the quotation is of any length, the source of my information is given, either in the text or in an accompanying footnote. A few there are who will, perhaps, find themselves quoted without my having first obtained their permission to do so. They, with the others, will, I am sure, accept my hearty thanks. The publishers have been generous in the matter of illustrations and diagrams, and although to the older practitioner some of these may appear superfluous, it is hoped they will serve to render the work an acceptable textbook for the student. H. CAULTON REEKS. SPALDING, _January, 1906_. CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION CHAPTER II REGIONAL ANATOMY A. The Bones B. The Ligaments C. The Tendons D. The Arteries E. The Veins F. The Nerves G. The Complementary Apparatus of the Os Pedis H. The Keratogenous Membrane I. The Hoof CHAPTER III GENERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL OBSERVATIONS A. Development of the Hoof B. Chemical Properties and Histology of Horn C. Expansion and Contraction of the Hoof D. The Functions of the Lateral Cartilages E. Growth of the Hoof CHAPTER IV METHOD OF EXAMINING THE FOOT CHAPTER V GENERAL REMARKS ON OPERATIONS ON THE FOOT A. Methods of Restraint B. Instruments required C. The Application of Dressings D. Plantar Neurectomy History of the Operation Preparation of the Subject The Operation After-treatment E. Median Neurectomy F. Length of Rest after Neurectomy G. Sequelæ of Neurectomy Liability of Pricked Foot going undetected Loss of Tone in the Non-sensitive Area Gelatinous Degeneration Chronic Oedema of the Leg Persistent Pruritus Fracture of the Bones Neuroma Reunion of the Divided Nerve The Existence of an Adventitious Nerve-supply Stumbling H. Advantages of the Operation I. The Use of the Horse that has undergone Neurectomy CHAPTER VI FAULTY CONFORMATION A. Weak Heels B. Contracted Foot (_a_) Contracted Heels (_b_) Local or Coronary Contraction C. Flat-foot D. Pumiced-foot, Dropped Sole, or Convex Sole E. 'Ringed' or 'Ribbed' Hoof F. The Hoof with Bad Horn (_a_) The Brittle Hoof (_b_) The Spongy Hoof G. Club-Foot H. The Crooked Foot (_a_) The Foot with Unequal Sides (_b_) The Curved Hoof CHAPTER VII DISEASES ARISING FROM FAULTY CONFORMATION A. Sand-crack Definition Classification Causes Complications Treatment Surgical Shoeing for Sand-crack B. Corns Definition Classification Causes Pathological Anatomy and Histology Treatment Surgical Shoeing for Corn C. Chronic Bruised Sole CHAPTER VIII WOUNDS OF THE KERATOGENOUS MEMBRANE A. Nail-bound Definition Causes Symptoms Treatment B. Punctured Foot Definition Causes Common Situations of the Wound Classification Symptoms and Diagnosis Complications Prognosis Treatment C. Coronitis (Simple) 1. Acute Definition Causes Symptoms Complications Prognosis Treatment 2. Chronic Definition Causes Symptoms Treatment D. False Quarter Definition Causes Treatment E. Accidental Tearing off of the Entire Hoof CHAPTER IX INFLAMMATORY AFFECTIONS OF THE KERATOGENOUS APPARATUS A. ACUTE Acute Laminitis Definition Causes Symptoms Pathological Anatomy Complications Diagnosis and Prognosis Treatment Broad's Treatment for Laminitis Smith's Operation for Laminitis B. CHRONIC 1. Chronic Laminitis Definition Causes Symptoms Pathological Anatomy Treatment 2. Seedy-Toe Definition Causes Symptoms Treatment 3. Keraphyllocele Definition Causes Symptoms Treatment 4. Keratoma 5. Thrush Definition Causes Symptoms Treatment 6. Canker Definition Causes, Predisposing and Exciting Symptoms and Pathological Anatomy Differential Diagnosis and Prognosis Treatment Malcolm's, Lieutenant Rose's, Bermbach's, Hoffmann's and Imminger's Treatment for Canker 7. Specific Coronitis Definition Causes Symptoms Treatment CHAPTER X DISEASES OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES A. Wounds of the Cartilages B. Quittor Definition Classification 1. Simple or Cutaneous Quittor Definition Causes Symptoms Pathological Anatomy Prognosis Complications Treatment, Preventive and Curative 2. Sub-horny Quittor Definition Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Complications Necrosis of the Lateral Cartilage Pathological Anatomy of the Diseased Cartilage Necrosis of Tendon and of Ligament Ossification of the Cartilage Treatment Operations for Extirpation of the Cartilage C. Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages (Side-bones) Definition Symptoms and Diagnosis Causes Treatment Smith's Operation for Ossification of the Lateral Cartilages CHAPTER XI DISEASES OF THE BONES A. Periostitis and Ostitis 1. Periostitis (_a_) Simple Acute Periostitis (_b_) Suppurative Periostitis (_c_) Osteoplastic Periostitis 2. Ostitis (_a_) Rarefying Ostitis (_b_) Osteoplastic Ostitis (_c_) Caries and Necrosis Treatment of Periostitis Recorded Cases of Periostitis B. Pyramidal Disease, Buttress Foot, or Low Ringbone Definition Symptoms and Diagnosis Pathological Anatomy Treatment Recorded Cases of Buttress Foot C. Fractures of the Bones 1. Fractures of the Os Coronæ Recorded Cases of Fractures of the Os Coronæ 2. Fractures of the Os Pedis Recorded Cases of Fractures of the Os Pedis 3. Fractures of the Navicular Bone Recorded Case of Fracture of the Navicular Bone Treatment of Fractures of the Bones of the Foot CHAPTER XII DISEASES OF THE JOINTS A. Synovitis (_a_) Simple (1) Acute (2) Chronic (_b_) Purulent or Suppurative B. Arthritis (_a_) Simple or Serous (_b_) Acute (_c_) Purulent or Suppurative (_d_) Anchylosis C. Navicular Disease Definition History Pathology Changes in the Bursa Changes in the Cartilage Changes in the Tendon Changes in the Bone Causes Heredity Compression Concussion A Weak Navicular Bone An Irregular Blood-supply to the Bone Senile Decay Symptoms and Diagnosis Differential Diagnosis Prognosis Treatment D. Dislocations LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. The Bones of the Phalanx 2. The Os Coronæ (Anterior View) 3. The Os Coronæ (Posterior View) 4. The Os Pedis (Postero-lateral View) 5. The Os Pedis (viewed from Below) 6. The Navicular Bone (viewed from Below) 7. The Navicular Bone (viewed from Above) 8. Ligaments of the First and Second Interphalangeal Articulations (Lateral View). (_After Dollar and Wheatley_) 9. Ligaments of the First and Second Interphalangeal Articulations (viewed from Behind). (_After Dollar and Wheatley_) 10. The Flexor Tendons and the Extensor Pedis. (_After Haübner_) 11. The Flexor Perforans and Perforatus 12. The Flexor Perforans and Perforatus (the Perforans cut through and deflected) 13. Median Section of Normal Foot 14. The Arteries of the Foot 15. The Veins and Nerves of the Foot 16. The Lateral Cartilage 17. The Keratogenous Membrane (viewed from the Side) 18. The Keratogenous Membrane (viewed from Below) 19. The Wall of the Hoof 20. Internal Features of the Hoof 21. Inferior Aspect of the Hoof 22. Hoof with the Sensitive Structures removed 23. Section of Epidermis 24. Section of Skin with Hair Follicle and Hair 25. Section of Human Nail and Nail-bed 26. Section of Foot of Equine Foetus. (_Mettam_) 27. Section from Foot of Sheep Embryo. (_Mettam_) 28. Section from Foot of Calf Embryo. (_Mettam_) 29. Section from Foot of Equine Foetus. (_Mettam_) 30. Section through Hoof and Soft Tissues of a Foal at Term. (_Mettam_) 31. Perpendicular Section of Horn of Wall 32. Horizontal Section of Horn of Wall 33. Horizontal Section through the Junction of the Wall with the Sole 34. Section of Frog. (_Mettam_) 35. Professor Lungwitz's Apparatus for Examining the Foot Movements 36. Professor Lungwitz's Apparatus for Examining the Foot Movements 37. The Movements of the Solar and Coronary Edges of the Hoof illustrated. (_Lungwitz_) 38. The Blind 39. The Side-line 40. Method of securing the Hind-foot with the Side-line 41. The Hind-foot secured with the Side-line 42. The Casting Hobbles 43. Method of securing the Hind-leg upon the Fore 44. The Hind-leg secured upon the Fore 45. The Drawing-knife (Ordinary Pattern) 46. Modern Forms of Drawing-knives 47. Symes's Knife 48-51. Illustrating Colonel Nunn's Method of applying a Poultice to the Foot 52. Poultice-boot of Canvas and Steel 53. Poultice-boot of Cocoa-fibre 54. Foot-swab 55. The Shoe with Plates 56. Quittor Syringe 57. The Esmarch Bandage and Tourniquet 58. Tourniquet with Wooden Block 59. Neurectomy Bistoury 60. Neurectomy Needle 61. Double Neurectomy Tenaculum 62. Adventitious Nerve-supply to Foot. (_Sessions_) 63. Tip Shoe 64. The Tip Shoe 'let in' to the Foot 65. The Thinned Tip 66. Drawing-knife for Charlier Shoeing 67. The Foot prepared for the Charlier Shoe 68. Bar Shoe 69. Rubber Bar Pad on Leather 70. The Bar Pad applied with a Half-shoe 71. Frog Pad 72. Frog Pad applied 73. Smith's Expansion Shoe for Contracted Feet 74. A Contracted Foot treated with Smith's Shoe 75. De Fay's Vice 76. Hartmann's Expanding Shoe 77. Broué's Slipper Shoe. (_Gutenacker_) 78. Einsiedel's Slipper and Bar-clip Shoe. (_Gutenacker_) 79. Hoof showing Coronary Contraction. (_Gutenacker_) 80. Flat-foot (Solar Surface). (_Gutenacker_) 81. Hoof showing Laminitis Rings on the Wall. _(Gutenacker)_ 82. Hoof showing 'Grass' Rings on the Wall. (_Gutenacker_) 83. Club-foot. (_Gutenacker_) 84. Shoe with extended Toe-piece. (_Gutenacker_) 85. A Crooked Foot in Cross-section. (_Gutenacker_) 86. Sand-crack Firing-iron 87. Sand-crack Forceps and Clamp. (_Vachette's_) 88. McGill's Sand-crack Clamp 89. Koster's Sand-crack Clamp 90. Sand-crack Belt 91. Method of 'Easing' the Bearing of the Wall on the Shoe in the Treatment of Sand-crack 92. Method of 'Easing' the Bearing of the Wall on the Shoe in the Treatment of Sand-crack 93. Method of 'Easing' the Bearing of the Wall on the Shoe in the Treatment of Sand-crack 94 96. Grooving the Wall in the Treatment of Sand-crack 97. Removing the Wall in the Treatment of Sand-crack 98. Removing the Wall in the Treatment of Sand-crack 99. Horizontal Section of Corn. (_Gutenacker_) 100. Inner Surface of the Wall, showing Changes in Chronic Corn. (_Gutenacker_) 101. Perpendicular Section of the Wall in a Case of Chronic Corn. (_Gutenacker_) 102. Three-quarter Shoe 103. Three-quarter Bar Shoe 104. Shoe with a 'Dropped' Heel 105. Shoe with a 'Set' Heel 106. Curette, or Volkmann's Spoon 107. Resection of the Terminal Portion of the Perforans Tendon (_Gutenacker_) 108. Shoe with extended Toe-piece. (_Colonel Nunn_) 109. Mesian Section of Foot with Lesions following Coronitis. (_Gutenacker_) 110. Toe of Ordinary Hind-shoe 111. Toe of Hind-shoe Bevelled for the Prevention of Overreach 112. Hoof showing Lesion in the Wall following Coronitis. (_Gutenacker_) 113. Foot with Lesions of Chronic Coronitis. (_Gutenacker_) 114. Hoof Accidentally Tom from Foot. (_Cartledge_) 115. Hoof Accidentally Tom from Foot. (_Rogerson_) 116. Section of Foot with Laminitis of Eight Days' Duration. (_Gutenacker_) 117. Section of Foot with Laminitis of Fourteen Days' Duration. (_Gutenacker_) 118. Chronic Ostitis of the Os Pedis in Laminitis. 119. Broad's Rocker Bar Shoe for Laminitis. 120. The Foot showing Grooves made in the Wall for Treatment of Laminitis (Anterior Surface). 121. The Foot showing Grooves made for the Treatment of Laminitis (Solar Surface). 122. Foot with Chronic Laminitis. (_Gutenacker_) 123. Inferior Aspect of Foot with Chronic Laminitis. (_Gutenacker_) 124. Section of Foot with Laminitis of Three Weeks' Duration. (_Gutenacker_) 125. Section of Foot with Laminitis of Several Years' Duration. (_Gutenacker_) 126. Diagram showing Position of the Abnormal Growth of Horn in Chronic Laminitis. 127. Diagram showing the same Abnormal Growth of Horn Removed prior to Shoeing. 128. Shoe with Heel-clip. 129. Internal Seedy-Toe. 130. External Seedy-Toe. (_Colonel Nunn_) 131. External Seedy-Toe. (_Colonel Nunn_) 132. A Keraphyllocele on the Inner Surface of the Horn of the Wall at the Toe. (_Gutenacker_) 133. Os Pedis showing Absorption of Bone caused by the Pressure of a Keraphyllocele. (_Gutenacker_) 134. Foot with Canker of the Frog and Heels. (_Gutenacker_) 135. Foot with Canker extending to the Wall. (_Malcolm_) 136. Foot with Advanced Canker. (_Gutenacker_) 137. Feet affected with Specific Coronitis. (_Taylor_) 138. Fore-foot with Specific Coronitis. (_Taylor_) 139. Excision of the Lateral Cartilage (Old Method). (_Gutenacker_) 140. Excision of the Lateral Cartilage. (_After Moller and Frick_). (_Gutenacker_) 141. Excision of the Lateral Cartilage. (_After Bayer_.) (_Gutenacker_) 142. Partial Excision of the Lateral Cartilage 143. Ossified Lateral Cartilages, or Side-bones. 144. Smith's Side-bone Saw (Old Pattern). 145. Smith's Side-bone Saw (Improved Pattern). 146. Smith's Hoof Plane. 147. Hodder's Hoof Chisel. 148. Foot showing the Grooves made in Smith's Operation for Side-bones (viewed from the Side). 149. Foot showing the Grooves made in Smith's Operation for Side-bones (viewed from Below). 150. Periostitis involving the Pedal and Navicular Bones. (_Litt_) 151. Periostitis involving the Pedal and Navicular Bones. (_Litt_) 152. Effects of Periostitis on the Os Pedis. (_Smith_) 153. Effects of Periostitis on the Os Pedis. (_Smith_) 154. Effects of Periostitis on the Os Pedis. (_Jones_) 155. Effects of Periostitis on the Os Pedis. (_Jones_) 156. Case of Buttress Foot. (_Routledge_) 157. Foot showing Fracture of the Pyramidal Process in a Case of Buttress Foot. (_Routledge_) 158. Fracture of the Os Coronæ. (_Crawford_) 159. Fracture of the Os Coronæ. (_Crawford_) 160. Fractured Os Pedis. (_Freeman_) 161. Navicular Bone showing Lesions of Navicular Disease. (_Gutenacker_) 162. Foot with the Seat of Navicular Disease exposed (showing Lesions). (_Gutenacker_) 163. Navicular Bone showing Lesions of Navicular Disease (a Case of Long-standing). (_Gutenacker_) 164. Frog Seton Needle. 165. Diagram showing Course of the Needle in Setoning the Frog. DISEASES OF THE HORSE'S FOOT CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The importance of that branch of veterinary surgery dealing with diseases of the horse's foot can hardly be overestimated. That the animal's usefulness is dependent upon his possession of four good feet is a fact that has long been recognised. Who, indeed, is there to be found entirely unacquainted with one or other of such well-known aphorisms as: 'Whoever hath charge of a horse's foot has the care of his whole body'; 'As well a horse with no head as a horse with no foot'; or the perhaps better known, and certainly more epigrammatic, 'No foot, no horse.' Without taking these sayings literally, it will be admitted by almost everyone that they contain a vast amount of actual truth. This allowed, it at once becomes clear that a ready understanding of the diseases to which the foot is liable, the means of holding them in check, and the correct methods of treating them should figure largely in the knowledge at the command of the veterinary surgeon. In the very great majority of instances the horse's ability to perform labour is the one thing that justifies his existence, and to that end the presence of four good, sound feet is an almost indispensable qualification. And yet how many circumstances do we see tending to militate against that one essential. Even in colthood the foot, if neglected, may become a source of trouble. Unless periodically examined and properly trimmed, its shape is liable to serious alteration. From that in which it is best calculated to withstand the effects of the wear it will be called upon to endure in after life, it may become so changed for the worse as to seriously affect the animal's value. In the matter of feeding, too, trouble is likely to ensue. Particularly is this the case where the colt shows points of exceptional merit. He is 'got up' for show, and the feet are likely to fall victims to the mismanagement that frequent exhibition so often carries with it. An extra allowance of peas, beans, wheat, or other equally injurious food is given. The result is a severe attack of laminitis, and an otherwise valuable and promising colt is permanently ruined. Exposed as it is, too, to injury, the foot of a young horse, even at grass, is frequently the seat of injuries from picked up nails, stakes, or other agents which, unless detected and carefully treated, may terminate in a troublesome case of quittor and incurable lameness. With the passing of colthood, and the coming into effect of the evils of further domestication, the troubles to which the foot is open become more numerous. Foremost among them will come those having their starting-point in errors of practice originating in the forge; for, in spite of attempts at their education, smiths, as a class, are as yet grievously unversed in even the elementary knowledge of the delicate construction of the member that is entrusted to their care. This fact has been dilated on in books devoted to shoeing, and in the prefatory note to the last edition of Fleming's manual on this subject we find the following statement: 'The records of all humane societies show that, of prosecutions for cruelty to animals, an overwhelming majority refer to the horse; and of these, a large proportion are for working horses while suffering from lameness in one form or other. 'So frequent are such cases that observers have concluded that their prevalence must result from some specific cause, and, not unnaturally, attention has thus been directed to the various modes of management practised in relation to the horse's foot, to the manner of shoeing, and, in particular, to the way in which the foot is prepared for the shoe.' It must be remembered, however, that although harm in the forge may frequently arise from culpable roughness or carelessness, such is not necessarily always the case, and that quite as much injury may result from careful and conscientious workmanship when it is unfortunate enough to be based upon principles wrong in themselves to commence with. It so happens, too, that shoeing, in itself a necessary evil, may be responsible for injuries in the causation of which the smith can have played no part. Take, for example, the ill effects following upon the animal's attendant allowing him to carry his shoes for too long a time. In this case the natural growth of the horn carries the heel of the shoe further beneath the foot than is safe for a correct bearing; in fact, anterior to the point of inflection of the wall. The shoe, at the same time, is greatly thinned from excessive wear. Result, a sharp and easily-bended piece of iron situate immediately under the seat of corn. Pressure or actual cutting of the sole is bound to occur, and the animal is lamed. Again, apart from the question of negligence or otherwise on the part of the smith or the animal's attendant, it must be remembered that the nailing on to the foot of a plate of iron is not giving to the animal an easier means of progression. The reverse is the case. In place of the sucker-like face of the natural horn is substituted a smooth, and, with wear, highly-polished surface. Slipping and sliding attempts to gain a foothold become frequent, and strains of the tendons and ligaments follow in their wake. As, however, this treatise is not intended to deal with the art of shoeing, the reader must be referred to other works for further information. In addition to Fleming's, there may be mentioned, among others, Hunting's 'Art of Horse Shoeing,' and the very excellent volume of Messrs. Dollar and Wheatley on the same subject. Leaving the forge, we may next look to the nature of the animal's work, and the conditions under which he is kept, for active causes in the production of disorders of the foot. From the yielding softness of the pasture he is called to spend the bulk of his time upon the hard macadamized tracks of our country roads, or the still more hard and more dangerous asphalt pavings or granite sets of our towns. The former, with the bruises they will give the sole and frog from loose and scattered stones, and the latter, with the increased concussion they will entail on the limb, are active factors in the troubles with which we are about to deal. Upon these unyielding surfaces the horse is called to carry slowly or rapidly, as the case may be, not only his own weight, but, in addition, is asked to labour at the hauling of heavy loads. The effects of concussion and heavy traction combined are bound primarily to find the feet, and such diseases as side-bones, ringbones, corns, and sand-cracks commence to make their appearance. Again, as opposed to the comparative healthiness of the surroundings when at grass, consideration must be given to the chemical changes the foot is frequently subjected to when the animal is housed. Only too often the bedding the animal has to stand upon for several hours of the twenty-four can only be fitly described as 'filthy in the extreme.' The ammoniacal exhalations from these collected body-discharges must, and do, have a prejudicial effect upon the nature of the horn, and, though slow in its progress, mischief is bound sooner or later to occur in the shape of a weakened and discharging frog, with its concomitant of contracted heels. Lucky it is in such a case if canker does not follow on. Observers, too, have chronicled the occurrence in horse's feet of disease resulting from the use of moss litter. Tenderness in the foot is first noticeable, which tenderness is afterwards followed by a peculiar softening of the horn of the sole and the frog. What should be a dense, fairly resilient substance is transformed into a material affording a yielding sensation to the fingers not unlike that imparted by a soft indiarubber, and as easily sliced as cheese-rind. Lastly, though the foot is extremely liable to suffer from the effects of extreme dryness or excessive humidity, especially with regard to the changes thus brought about in the nature of the horn, it is perforce exposed at all times to the varying condition of the roads upon which it must travel. The intense dryness of summer and the constant damp of winter, each in their turn take part in the deteriorating influences at work upon it. Though this subject might be indefinitely prolonged, this brief résumé of the adverse circumstances to which the foot of the horse is exposed is sufficient to point out the extreme importance of its study to the veterinary surgeon. So long as the horse is used as a beast of burden so long will this branch of veterinary surgery offer a wide and remunerative field of labour. CHAPTER II REGIONAL ANATOMY Considered from a zoological standpoint, the foot of the horse will include all those parts from the knee and hock downwards. For the purposes of this treatise, however, the word foot will be used in its more popular sense, and will refer solely to those portions of the digit contained within the hoof. When, in this chapter on regional anatomy, or elsewhere, the descriptive matter or the illustrations exceed that limit, it will be with the object of observing the relationship between the parts we are concerned with and adjoining structures. Taking the limit we have set, and enumerating the parts within the hoof from within outwards, we find them as follows: A. THE BONES.--The lower portion of the second phalanx or os coronæ; the third phalanx, os pedis, or coffin bone; and the navicular or shuttle bone. B. THE LIGAMENTS.--The ligaments binding the articulation. C. THE TENDONS.--The terminal portions of the extensor pedis and the flexor perforans. D. THE ARTERIES. E. THE VEINS. F. THE NERVES. G. THE COMPLEMENTARY APPARATUS OF THE OS PEDIS. H. THE KERATOGENOUS MEMBRANE. I. THE HOOF. A. THE BONES. THE SECOND PHALANX, OS CORONÆ, OR SMALL PASTERN BONE.--This belongs to the class of small bones, in that it possesses no medullary canal. It is situated obliquely in the digit, running from above downwards and from behind to before, and articulating superiorly with the first phalanx or os suffraginis, and inferiorly with the third phalanx and the navicular bone. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--THE BONES OF THE PHALANX. 1, The os suffraginis; 2, the os coronæ; 3, the os pedis; 4, the navicular bone, hidden by the wing of the os pedis, is in articulation in the position indicated by the barbed line.] [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECOND PHALANX OR OS CORONÆ (ANTERIOR VIEW). 1, Anterior surface; 2, superior articulatory surface; 3, inferior articulatory surface; 4, pits for ligamentous attachment.] [Illustration: FIG. 3.--SECOND PHALANX OR OS CORONÆ (POSTERIOR VIEW). 1, Posterior surface; 2, gliding surface for passage of flexor perforans; 3, lower articulatory surface.] Cubical in shape, it is flattened from before to behind, and may be described as possessing six surfaces: _An anterior surface_, covered with slight imprints; _a posterior surface_, provided above with a transversely elongated gliding surface for the passage of the flexor perforans; _two lateral surfaces_, each rough and perforated by foraminæ, and each bearing on its lower portion a thumb-like imprint for ligamentous attachment, and for the insertion of the bifid extremity of the perforatus tendon; _a superior surface_, bearing two shallow articular cavities, separated by an antero-posterior ridge, for the accommodation of the lower articulating surface of the first phalanx; _an inferior surface_, also articulatory, which in shape is obverse to the superior, bearing two unequal condyles, separated by an ill-defined antero-posterior groove, which surface articulates with the os pedis and the navicular bone. _Development_.--The bone usually ossifies from one centre, but often there is a complementary nucleus for the upper surface. THE THIRD PHALANX, OS PEDIS, OR COFFIN BONE.--This also belongs to the class of short bones. It forms the termination of the digit, and, with the navicular bone, is included entirely within the hoof. For our examination it offers _three surfaces_, _two lateral angles_, and _three edges_. _The Anterior or Laminal Surface_, following closely in contour the wall of the hoof, is markedly convex from side to side, nearly straight from above to below, and closely dotted with foraminæ of varying sizes. On each side of this surface is to be seen a distinct groove, the _preplantar groove_, or _preplantar fissure_, which, commencing behind, between the basilar and retrossal processes, runs horizontally forwards from the angles or wings of the bone, and terminates anteriorly in one of the larger foraminæ. As the name 'laminal' indicates, it is this surface which in the fresh state is covered by the sensitive laminæ. _The Inferior or Plantar Surface_, hollowed in the form of a low arch, presents for our inspection two regions, an anterior and a posterior, divided by a well-marked line, the _Semilunar Crest_, which extends forward in the shape of a semicircle. The anterior region, as is the laminal surface, is covered with foraminæ; in this case more minute. In the recent state it is covered by the sensitive sole. The posterior region, lying immediately behind the semilunar crest, shows on each side of a median process a large foramen, the _Plantar Foramen_. From this foramen runs the _Plantar Groove_, a channel, bounded above by the superior edge, and below by the semilunar crest of the bone, which conducts the plantar arteries into the _Semilunar Sinus_, a well-marked cavity in the interior of the bone. _The Superior or Articular Surface_ consists of two shallow depressions, divided by a slight median ridge. Its posterior part shows a transversely elongated facet for articulation with the navicular bone. _The Superior Edge_, outlining the superior margin of the laminal surface, describes a curve, with the convexity of the curve forward. In the centre of the curve is a triangular process, the _Pyramidal Process_, which serves as the point of attachment of the extensor pedis. _The Inferior Edge_, the most extensive of the three, separates the laminal from the solar surface. It is semicircular in shape, sharp, and finely dentated, and is perforated by eight to ten large foraminæ. _The Posterior Edge_, very slightly concave, divides the small, transversely elongated facet of the superior surface from the posterior region of the inferior surface. _The Lateral Angles_ of the bone, also termed the _Wings_, are two projections directed backwards. Each is divided by a cleft into an upper, the _Basilar Process_, and a lower, the _Retrossal Process_. In old animals the posterior portion of the cleft separating the two processes gradually becomes filled in with bony deposit, thus transforming the cleft into a foramen, which gives passage to the preplantar artery. We may mention in passing that the lateral angles give attachment to the lateral fibro-cartilages, and that the lateral angles themselves in old horses become increased in size owing to ossification of portions of the adjacent lateral cartilages. _Development_.--The os pedis ossifies from two centres, one of which is for the articular surface; but this epiphysis fuses with the rest of the bone before birth. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--THIRD PHALANX OR OS PEDIS (POSTERO-LATERAL VIEW). 1, Anterior or laminal surface; 2, preplantar foramen; 3, preplantar groove; 4, basilar process of the wing; 5, retrossal process of the wing; 6, foramen caused by the ossifying together posteriorly of the basilar and retrossal processes.] [Illustration: FIG. 5.--THIRD PHALANX OR OS PEDIS (VIEWED FROM BELOW). 1, Plantar surface; 2, plantar foramen and plantar groove; 3, semilunar crest; 4, tendinous surface; 5, retrossal processes of the wings.] THE NAVICULAR BONE, SHUTTLE BONE, OR SMALL SESAMOID.--Placed behind the articulating point of the second and third phalanges, this small shuttle-shaped bone assists in the formation of the pedal articulation. It is elongated transversely, flattened from above to below, and narrow at its extremities. In it we see two surfaces, and two borders. _The Superior or Articular Surface_ of the bone, which may easily be recognised by its smoothness, is moulded upon the lower articular surface of the second phalanx, being convex in its middle, and concave on either side. _The Inferior or Tendinous Surface_ resembles the preceding in form, but is broader and less smooth. In the recent state it is covered with fibro-cartilage for the passage of the flexor perforans. _The Anterior Border_ possesses above a small transversely elongated facet for articulation with the os pedis, and below a more extensive grooved portion, perforated by numerous foraminæ, affording attachment to the interosseous ligaments of the articulation. _The Posterior Border_, thick in the middle, but thinner towards the extremities, is roughened for ligamentous attachment. _Development_.--The bone ossifies from a single centre. B. THE LIGAMENTS. THE ARTICULATION OF THE FIRST WITH THE SECOND PHALANX, OR THE PASTERN JOINT.--Adhering to the limit we have set, this articulation should not receive our attention. As, however, we shall in a later page be concerned with fractures of the os coronæ, which fractures may affect the articulation above mentioned, a brief note of its formation will not be out of place. It is an imperfect hinge-joint, permitting of extension and flexion, allowing the first phalanx to pivot on the second, and admitting of the performance of slight lateral movements. It is formed by the opposing of the inferior surface of the os suffraginis with the superior surface of the os coronæ. The articulating surface of the os coronæ is supplemented by the addition behind of a thick piece of _fibro-cartilage (the glenoid_) attached inferiorly to the posterior edge of the upper articulatory surface of the os coronæ, and superiorly by means of three fibrous slips on each side to the os suffraginis. The innermost of these three slips becomes attached to about the middle of the lateral edge of the suffraginis, and the remaining two, beneath the first, attach themselves to nearer the lower end of that bone. The posterior surface of the complementary cartilage forms a gliding surface for the passage of the perforans. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--THE NAVICULAR BONE (VIEWED FROM BELOW). 1, Inferior surface (smooth for the passage of the flexor perforans); 2, anterior edge of inferior surface; 3, posterior edge of inferior surface.] [Illustration: FIG. 7.--THE NAVICULAR BONE (VIEWED FROM ABOVE, THE BONE TILTED POSTERIORLY TO SHOW ITS ANTERIOR BORDER). 1, Superior articulatory surface; 2, anterior border (grooved portion of); 3, anterior border (articulatory portion of).] [Illustration: FIG. 8.--LIGAMENTS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND INTERPHALANGEAL ARTICULATIONS (VIEWED FROM THE SIDE). (AFTER DOLLAR AND WHEATLEY.) 1, Outermost slip from the glenoidal fibro-cartilage; 2, lateral ligament of the first interphalangeal articulation; 3, prolongations of the lateral ligament of the first interphalangeal articulation attached to the end of the navicular bone to form the postero-lateral ligament of the pedal joint; 4, end of the navicular bone; 5, antero-lateral ligament of the pedal joint.] _The Lateral Ligaments_.--These are large and thick, an outer and an inner, running obliquely from above downwards and backwards. Each is inserted superiorly into the lateral tubercle of the lower end of the first phalanx, and inferiorly to the side of the second phalanx, their most inferior fibres becoming finally fixed to the extremities of the navicular bone, where they form the postero-lateral ligaments of the pedal articulation. In front of the joint the extensor pedis plays the part of an additional ligament. _The Synovial Membrane_.--This is limited in front by the tendon of the extensor pedis, on each side by the lateral ligaments of the joint, and behind by the glenoid fibro-cartilage. At this point it is prolonged upwards as a pouch behind the lower extremity of the first phalanx. THE ARTICULATION OF THE SECOND PHALANX WITH THE THIRD, THE PEDAL, OR THE COFFIN JOINT.--This also is an imperfect hinge-joint, permitting only of flexion and extension, which movements are more restricted than in the previous articulation. Three bones enter into its formation: the second phalanx, the third phalanx, and the navicular bone. The lower articulatory surface is formed by the third phalanx and the navicular bone combined. To effect this the navicular is closely and firmly attached to the third phalanx by an interosseous ligament. The two bones, as one, are then connected to the second phalanx by four lateral ligaments, an anterior and a posterior on each side. _The Interosseous Ligament_ consists of extremely short fibres running from the extensively grooved portion of the anterior surface of the navicular bone to become attached to the os pedis immediately behind its articular surface. _The Antero-lateral Ligaments_ are attached by their superior extremities to the lateral surfaces of the second phalanx, and by their inferior extremities into the depressions on either side of the pyramidal process of the os pedis. _The Postero-lateral Ligaments_.--As mentioned when describing the first interphalangeal articulation, these are in reality continuations of the lateral ligaments of that joint. Running obliquely downwards and backwards from their point of attachment to the first phalanx they curve round the lower part of the side of the second phalanx and end on the extremities and posterior surface of the navicular bone. Having reached that position, they send short attachments to the retrossal process of the os pedis and to the inner face of the lateral cartilage. [Illustration: FIG. 9.--LIGAMENTS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND INTERPHALANGEAL ARTICULATIONS (VIEWED FROM BEHIND). (AFTER DOLLAR AND WHEATLEY.) 1, Suspensory ligament; 2, innermost slip from complementary cartilage of pastern joint; 3, middle slip from complementary cartilage of pastern joint; 4, outermost slip from complementary cartilage of pastern joint; 5, glenoid or complementary cartilage of pastern joint; 6, postero-lateral ligaments of the pedal joint; 7, the navicular bone; 8, interosseous ligaments of the pedal joint; 9, semilunar crest of os pedis; 10, plantar surface of os pedis.] _Synovial Membrane_.--This extends below the facets uniting the navicular to the pedal bone, and offers for consideration two sacs. A large one posteriorly running up behind the second phalanx to nearly adjoin the sesamoidean bursæ, and a small one, a prolongation of the synovial membrane between the antero-lateral and postero-lateral ligaments of the same side. This latter is often distended, and on account of its close proximity to the seat of operation, is liable to be accidentally opened in excision of the lateral cartilage for quittor. C. THE TENDONS In order to convey an intelligent understanding of the tendons it will be wise to briefly describe the course of their parent muscles from their commencement. THE EXTENSOR PEDIS.--The extensor pedis arises from the lower extremity of the humerus in two distinct portions of unequal size, a muscular and a tendinous. These are succeeded by two tendons passing in common through a vertical groove at the lower end of the radius. Lower in the limb these tendons separate, the outer and smaller joining the tendon of the extensor suffraginis, and the inner and main tendon continuing its course downwards. With the exception of the navicular, it is attached to all the bones of the foot, and is covered internally by the capsular ligaments of the joints over which it passes, those with which we are concerned being the pastern joint and the pedal joint. Before its attachment to the os pedis it receives on each side of the middle of the first phalanx reinforcement in the shape of a strong band descending obliquely over the fetlock from the suspensory ligament. Widening out in fanlike fashion, it is inserted into the pyramidal process of the os pedis. _Action_.--The action of this muscle is to extend the third phalanx on the second, the second on the first, and the first on the metacarpus. It also assists in the extension of the foot on the forearm. [Illustration: FIG. 10.--THE FLEXOR TENDONS AND EXTENSOR PEDIS. (AFTER HAÜBNER.) 1, Tendon of flexor perforans; 2, its supporting check-band from the posterior ligament of the carpus; 3, tendon of the flexor perforatus; 4, ring and sheath of the flexor perforatus; 5, widening out of the flexor perforatus to form the plantar aponeurosis; 6, suspensory ligament; 7, reinforcing band from the suspensory ligament to the extensor pedis; 8, the extensor pedis.] THE FLEXOR PEDIS PERFORATUS, OR THE SUPERFICIAL FLEXOR OF THE PHALANGES.--In common with the perforans, this muscle arises from the inner condyloid ridge of the humerus. It is reinforced at the lower end of the radius by the superior carpal ligament, passes through the carpal and metacarpo-phalangeal sheaths, and, arriving behind the fetlock, forms a ring for the passage of the flexor perforans. Its termination is bifid, and it is inserted on either side to the lateral surface of the second phalanx. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--THE FLEXOR PERFORANS AND FLEXOR PERFORATUS TENDONS. The metacarpo-phalangeal sheath and the ring of the perforatus laid open posteriorly, and the cut edges reflected to show the passage of the perforans. 1, Reflected cut edges of the perforatus ring and the metacarpo-phalangeal sheath; 2, the perforans tendon; 3, point of insertion of the perforans tendon into the semilunar crest of the os pedis (this widened and thickened extremity of the perforans is known as the plantar aponeurosis).] [Illustration: FIG. 12.--THE FLEXOR PERFORATUS AND FLEXOR PERFORANS TENDONS. The metacarpo-phalangeal sheath and the ring of the perforatus laid open posteriorly, and the cut edges reflected; the flexor perforans cut through at about the region of the sesamoids, and its inferior portion deflected. 1, Superior end of severed perforans tendon; 2, inferior end of severed perforans tendon; 3, insertion of flexor perforans into semilunar crest of os pedis; 4, the cut and reflected edges of the metacarpo-phalangeal sheath and perforatus ring; 5, the bifid insertion of the flexor perforatus into the lateral surfaces of the os corona; 6, the capsular ligament of the pedal joint; 7, the navicular bone; 8, the posterior surface and glenoid fibro-cartilage of the os coronæ.] _Action_.--This muscle flexes the second phalanx on the first, the first on the metacarpus, and the entire foot on the forearm. Mechanically, it acts as a stay when the animal is standing by maintaining the metacarpo-phalangeal angle. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--MEDIAN SECTION OF FOOT. _A_, Os suffraginis; _B_, os coronæ; _C_, os pedis; _D_, navicular bone; _E_, tendon of the extensor pedis; _F_, insertion of the extensor pedis into the pyramidal process of the os pedis; _G_, the tendon of the flexor perforatus; _H_, insertion of perforatus into the os coronæ; _I_, tendon of the flexor perforans; _J_, its passing attachment to the os coronæ; _K_, its final insertion into the semilunar crest of os pedis; _a_, section of coronary cushion; _b_, section of plantar cushion; _c_, semilunar sinus of os pedis.] THE FLEXOR PEDIS PERFORANS, OR THE DEEP FLEXOR OF THE PHALANGES.--This muscle consists of three easily-divided portions: an ulnar, a humeral, and a radial, and has for points of origin the olecranon process of the ulna, the inner condyloid ridge of the humerus, and the posterior surface of the radius. These portions are continued by a common tendon which enters the carpal sheath with the tendon of the perforatus, and continues with it through the synovial sheath of the metacarpo-phalangeal region. Like the last-named tendon, it receives a supporting check-band, in this case from the posterior ligament of the carpus. Passing down between the suspensory ligament in front, and the perforatus tendon behind, it glides over the sesamoid pulley and passes through the ring formed by the perforatus. Continuing its course, it passes between the bifurcating portions of the extremity of the perforatus, glides over the smooth posterior surface of the supplementary glenoid cartilage of the articulation of the first and second phalanges, plays over the inferior surface of the navicular bone, and finally becomes inserted into the semilunar crest of the os pedis. On reaching the posterior border of the navicular bone it widens out to form the plantar aponeurosis. In connection with the lower portion of this tendon must be noticed the Navicular Sheath. This is a synovial sheath lining the deep face of the tendon, and reflected on to the navicular bone and the interosseous ligament of the pedal joint. This will be of particular interest when we come to deal with cases of pricked foot from picked up nails. Above, it is in connection with the synovial membrane of the pedal articulation and that of the metacarpo-phalangeal sheath. _Action_.--The action of the perforans is to flex the third on the second, and the second on the first phalanx. The latter it flexes in turn on the metacarpus. It also assists in the flexion of the entire foot on the forearm, and in supporting the angle of the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation when the animal is standing. D. THE ARTERIES. So far as the arteries supplying the foot are concerned, we shall be interested in following up the distribution of the two digitals, which are the terminal branches of the Large Metacarpal. THE LARGE METACARPAL, OR COLLATERAL ARTERY OF THE CANNON.--This, the larger terminal branch of the posterior radial artery, needs brief mention, for the reason that we shall be afterwards concerned with it in the operation of neurectomy. Its point of origin is the inside of the inferior extremity of the radius. Descending in company with the flexor tendons, and passing behind the carpus and beneath the carpal sheath, it continues its descent, in company with the internal plantar nerve and the internal metacarpal vein, on the inner side of the flexor tendons until just above the fetlock. At this point it bifurcates into the digital arteries. From the carpus downwards the large metacarpal artery, the internal metacarpal vein, and the internal plantar nerve are in close relation with each other. The vein holds the anterior position. The artery is between the two, and has the nerve in close contact with it behind. THE DIGITAL ARTERIES, OR COLLATERAL ARTERIES OF THE DIGIT.--These are of large volume, and carry the blood to the keratogenous apparatus of the foot. They separate from each other at an acute angle, and pass over the side of the fetlock, one to the inside, the other to the outside, to reach the internal face of the basilar process of the os pedis, where they bifurcate to form the _Plantar_ and _Preplantar_ arteries. In the whole of their course the digital arteries follow the flexor tendons, and are related in front to the digital vein, and behind to the posterior branch of the plantar nerve. This is the nerve implicated in the lower operation of neurectomy, and its relation to adjoining structures will be detailed under Section F. of this chapter. During its course the digital artery gives off branches in the following positions: 1. _At the Fetlock_ numerous branches to the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation, the sesamoid sheath, and the tendons. 2. _At the Upper Extremity of the First Phalanx_ branches for the supply of the surrounding tissues, and for the tissues of the ergot. 3. _Towards the Middle of the Third Phalanx_, the _Perpendicular_ artery of Percival. This arises at a right angle from the main vessel, and immediately divides into two series of ramifications--an ascending and a descending. The ramifications of these series freely anastomose with corresponding vessels of the opposite side. 4. _At the Superior Border of the Lateral Cartilage_, the _Artery of the Plantar Cushion_. This is directed obliquely downwards and backwards, under cover of the cartilage, and is distributed to the middle portion of the complementary apparatus of the os pedis, as well as to the villous tissue and the coronet. A branch of it is turned forwards to join with the coronary circle in forming the _circumflex artery of the coronet_. [Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE ARTERIES OF THE FOOT. The digital; 2, the perpendicular--(_a_) its ascending branch, (_b_) its descending branch; 3, circumflex artery of coronary cushion; 4, the preplantar (ungual) artery--this is seen issuing from the preplantar foramen, and distributing numerous ascending (_c_) and descending (_d_) branches (the latter concur in forming the circumflex artery of the toe); 5, the circumflex artery of the toe; 6, at the point marked (*) the terminal branch of the digital--namely, the plantar ungual--is hidden behind the lateral cartilage; 7, the lateral cartilage.] 5. _Under the Lateral Cartilage_ two transverse branches, an anterior and a posterior, to form the _Coronary Circle_. The numerous ramifications of these branches anastomose both anteriorly and posteriorly with their corresponding branches of the artery of the opposite side. This circle closely embraces the os coronæ. Among the larger branches given off from its anterior portion are two descending, one on each side of the extensor pedis, to assist in the formation of the _Circumflex Artery of the Coronary Cushion_. The formation of this last-named artery is completed posteriorly by the before-mentioned branch from the artery of the plantar cushion. THE PREPLANTAR (UNGUAL[A]) ARTERY.--This, the smaller of the two terminal branches of the digital, is situated inside the basilar process of the os pedis. It turns round this to gain the fissure between the basilar and retrossal processes, and becomes lodged in the preplantar fissure. Here it terminates in several divisions which bury themselves in the os pedis. Before leaving the inner aspect of the pedal wing it supplies a deep branch to the heel and the villous tissue. Gaining the outer aspect of the wing, it distributes a further backward branch, which passes behind the circumflex artery of the pedal bone, and, during its passage in the preplantar fissure, gives off ascending and descending branches, which ramify in the laminal tissue. THE PLANTAR (UNGUAL[A]) ARTERY.--This, the larger of the two terminals of the digital, may be looked upon as a continuation of the main vessel. Running along the plantar groove, it gains the plantar foramen. Here it enters the interior of the bone (the semilunar sinus) and anastomoses with the corresponding artery of the opposite side. The circle of vessels so formed is called the _Plantar Arch_ or the _Semilunar Anastomosis_. [Footnote A: The epithet 'ungual' is added by Chauveau to distinguish these arteries from the properly so-called plantar arteries--the terminal divisions of the posterior tibial artery.] From the semilunar anastomosis radiate two main groups of arterial branches, an ascending group and a descending one. The _ascending_ branches penetrate the substance of the os pedis, and emerge by the numerous foraminæ on its laminal surface. The _descending_ branches, larger in size, also penetrate the substance of the pedal bone, and emerge in turn from the foraminæ cribbling its outer surface--in this case the set of larger foraminæ opening on its inferior edge. Having gained exit from the bone, their frequent anastomosis, right and left, with their fellows forms a large vessel following the contour of the inferior edge of the os pedis. This constitutes the _Circumflex Artery of the Toe_. E. THE VEINS. These commence at the foot with a series of plexuses, which may be described as forming (1) AN INTERNAL OR INTRA-OSSEOUS VENOUS SYSTEM, and (2) AN EXTERNAL OR EXTRA-OSSEOUS VENOUS SYSTEM. 1. THE INTRA-OSSEOUS VENOUS SYSTEM.--This is a venous system within the structure of, and occupying the semilunar sinus of the os pedis. It follows in every respect the arrangement of the arteries as before described in the same region. Efferent vessels emerge from the plantar foraminæ, follow the plantar fissures, and ascend within the basilar processes of the os pedis. Here they lie under shelter of the lateral cartilages, and assist in the formation of the deep layer of the coronary plexus of the extra-osseous system. 2. THE EXTRA-OSSEOUS VENOUS SYSTEM.--This may be regarded as a close-meshed network enveloping the whole of the foot. Although a continuous system, it is best described by recognising in it three distinct parts: _(a) The Solar Plexus_. _(b) The Podophyllous Plexus_. _(c) The Coronary Plexus_. _(a) The Solar Plexus_.--The veins of this plexus discharge themselves in two directions: (1) _By a central canal_ or canals running along the bottom of the lateral lacunæ of the plantar cushion to gain the deep layer of the coronary plexus. (2) _By the Circumflex or Peripheral Vein of the Toe_, a canal formed by ramifications from the solar and the podophyllous plexuses, and following the direction of the artery of the same name. The circumflex vein terminates by forwarding branches to concur in the formation of the superficial coronary plexus. _(b) The Podophyllous or Laminal Plexus_.--The podophyllous veins anastomose below with the circumflex vein of the solar plexus, and above with the veins of the coronary plexus. _(c) The Coronary Plexus_.--This proceeds from the podophyllous, the intra-osseous, and the solar networks, and consists of a _central_ and _two lateral parts_. The _central_ portion lies between the lateral cartilages and immediately under the coronary cushion. The _lateral portions_ are ramifications on both surfaces of the lateral cartilages. The ramifications on the lateral cartilages may be again distinguished as _superficial_ and _deep_. The superficial layer is distributed over the external face of the cartilage, forming thereon a dense network, and finally converges towards the superior limit of the plexus to form ten or twelve principal branches, which again unite to form two large vessels. These vessels, by their final fusion at the lower end of the first phalanx, constitute the digital vein. The deep layer is formed, as before described, by ascending branches from the posterior parts of the podophyllous and solar plexuses, and by branches from the intra-osseous system of the pedal bone. The veins of this deep layer finally drain into the two vessels proceeding from the superficial layer, which go to the formation of the digital vein. THE DIGITAL VEINS--These arise from the network formed on the surfaces of the lateral cartilages, and ascend in front of the digital arteries to unite above the fetlock, where they form an arch between the deep flexor and the suspensory ligament. From this arch (named the _Sesamoidean)_ proceed the Metacarpal Veins. THE METACARPAL VEINS.--Three in number, they are distinguished as an _Internal_ and an _External Metacarpal_, and a _Deep_ or _Interosseous Metacarpal_. As we shall be concerned with these in the higher operation of neurectomy, we may give them brief mention. THE INTERNAL METACARPAL VEIN, the largest of the three, has relations with the internal metacarpal artery and the internal plantar nerve. These relations were shortly discussed under the section devoted to the arteries, to which the reader may refer. THE EXTERNAL METACARPAL VEIN.--This ascends on the external side of the flexor tendons in company with the external plantar nerve. _The Interosseous Vein_.--This is an irregular vessel running up between the suspensory ligament and the posterior face of the large metacarpal bone. F. THE NERVES. THE PLANTAR NERVES.--These are two in number, and are distinguished as Internal and External. THE INTERNAL PLANTAR NERVE lies behind and in close contact with the great metacarpal artery during that vessel's course down the region of the cannon. A point of interest is that it gives off at about the middle of the cannon a branch which bends obliquely downwards and behind the flexor tendons to join its fellow of the opposite side--namely, the external plantar. This it joins an inch or more above the bottom of the splint bone. Measured in a straight line, this is about 2-1/2 inches below its point of origin. Near the fetlock, at the level of the sesamoids, the internal plantar nerve ends in several digital branches. THE EXTERNAL PLANTAR NERVE.--This holds a position to the outside of the metacarpal region, analogous to that of the internal plantar nerve on the inside of the limb, running down on the external edge of the flexor tendons. Unlike the internal nerve, it is accompanied by a single vessel only, the external metacarpal vein, behind which it lies. At the level of the sesamoid bones it divides, as does the _internal_ nerve, into three main branches--the digital nerves. [Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE VEINS AND NERVES OF THE FOOT. 1, The digital vein; 2, its main tributaries, draining the podophyllous plexus, and concurring to form the digital; 3. the digital artery (the main trunk only of this is shown, in order to show its relationship with the vein and nerve); 4, the plantar nerve, with its three branches--(_a_) the anterior digital, (_b_) the middle digital, (_c_) the posterior digital; 5, the podophyllous plexus; 6, superficial portion of the coronary plexus; 7, the peripheral or circumflex vein of the toe.] THE DIGITAL NERVES.--These are distinguished as Anterior, Middle, and Posterior. _The Anterior Branch_ descends in front of the vein, distributing cutaneous branches to the front of the digit, and terminating in the coronary cushion. _The Middle Branch_ descends between the artery and the vein, and freely anastomoses with the two other branches. It terminates in the coronary cushion and the sensitive laminæ. _The Posterior Branch_.--This is the largest of the three, and may be regarded as the direct continuation of the plantar. At the fetlock it is placed immediately above the digital artery, but afterwards takes up a position directly behind that vessel. Together with the digital artery it descends to near the basilar process of the os pedis. Here it passes with the plantar artery into the interior of the os pedis, and continues its main branch, with the preplantar artery, in the fissure of the same name, to finally furnish supply to the os pedis and the sensitive laminæ. It is this nerve which is divided in the low operation of neurectomy. Beyond the fact of this branch descending, in the region of the pastern, 1 inch behind the digital artery, a further point of interest presents itself to the surgeon, and one to which attention must be paid. This is the presence in close proximity to the nerve of the Ligament of the Pad (Percival), or the Ligament of the Ergot (McFadyean). This is a subcutaneous glistening cord originating in the ergot of the fetlock, passing in an oblique direction downwards and forwards, and crossing over on its way both the digital artery and the posterior branch of the digital nerve. In the foregoing description of the anatomy, we have taken the fore-limb as our guide. In the hind-limb, where they reach the foot, the counterparts of the tendons, arteries, veins, and nerves differ in no great essential from their fellows in the fore. They will therefore need no special mention. G. THE COMPLEMENTARY APPARATUS OF THE OS PEDIS. This consists of two lateral pieces, the LATERAL CARTILAGES or _Fibro-cartilages_ of the pedal bone, united behind and below by the _Plantar Cushion_. 1. THE LATERAL CARTILAGES.--Each is a flattened plate of cartilage, possessing two faces and four borders separated by four angles. The external face is convex, covered by a plexus of veins, and slightly overhangs the pedal bone. The internal face is concave, and covers in front the pedal articulation and the synovial sac, already mentioned as protruding between the antero- and postero-lateral ligaments of that joint. We have already remarked that this is a point of interest to be remembered in connection with the operation for quittor. Below and behind, the internal face of the cartilage is united to the plantar cushion. [Illustration: FIG. 16.--EXTERNAL FACE OF THE OUTER LATERAL CARTILAGE. 1, External face of cartilage--(_a_) its upper border, (_b_) its posterior border, (_c_) its anterior border, (_d_) its inferior border; 2, the os pedis; 3, wing of os pedis.] The upper border, sometimes convex, sometimes straight, is thin and bevelled, and may easily be felt in the living animal. It is this border that the digital vessels cross to gain the foot, and the border is often broken by a deep notch to accommodate them. The inferior border is attached in front to the basilar and retrossal processes, behind which it blends with the plantar cushion. The posterior border is oblique from before to behind, and above to below, and joins the preceding two. The anterior border is oblique in the same direction, and is intimately attached to the antero-lateral ligament of the pedal articulation. The cartilages of the fore-feet are thicker and more extensive than those of the hind. 2. THE PLANTAR CUSHION on FIBRO-FATTY FROG.--Composed of a fibrous meshwork, in the interstices of which are lodged fine elastic and connective fibres and fat cells, this wedge-shaped body occupies the space between the two lateral cartilages, the extremity of the perforans tendon, and the horny frog. It offers for consideration an antero-superior and an infero-posterior face, a base, an apex, and two borders. The antero-superior face is in contact with the terminal expansion of the perforans tendon. The infero-posterior face is covered by the keratogenous membrane, and follows closely the shape of the horny frog, on whose inner surface it is moulded. It presents, therefore, at its centre a single conical prolongation, the _Pyramidal Body_, which is continued behind, as is the horny frog, in the shape of two lateral ridges divided by a median cleft. The _base_ of the cushion lies behind, and consists of two lateral masses, _the Bulbs of the Plantar Cushion_. In front these are continuous with the ridges of the pyramidal body, while behind they become confounded with the lateral cartilages and the coronary cushion. The _apex_ is fixed into the plantar surface of the os pedis, in front of its semilunar ridge. The _borders_, right and left, are wider behind than before, and are in relation with the inner faces of the lateral cartilages. H. THE KERATOGENOUS MEMBRANE. THE KERATOGENOUS, OR HORN-PRODUCING MEMBRANE, is in reality an extension of the dermis of the digit. It covers the extremity of the digit as a sock covers the foot, spreading over the insertion of the extensor pedis, the lower half of the external face of the lateral cartilages, the bulbs of the plantar cushion, the pyramidal body, the anterior portion of the plantar surface of the os pedis, and over the anterior face of the same bone. In turn, as the human foot with its sock is covered by the boot, this is encased by the hoof, the formation of which we shall study later. To expose the membrane for study the hoof must be removed. This may be done in two ways. By roasting in a fire, and afterwards dragging off the horny structures with a pair of pincers, a knife having first been passed round the superior edge of the horny box. Or by maceration in water for several days, when the hoof will become loosened by the process of decomposition, and may be easily removed by the hands. The latter method is less likely to injure the sensitive structures, and will expose them with a fresh appearance for observation. For purposes of description the keratogenous membrane is divided into three regions: 1. The Coronary Cushion. 2. The Velvety Tissue. 3. The Podophyllous Tissue, or the Sensitive laminæ. 1. THE CORONARY CUSHION. In the foot stripped of the hoof the coronary cushion is seen as a rounded structure overhanging the sensitive laminæ after the manner of a cornice. It extends from the inner to the outer bulbs of the plantar cushion, and is bounded above by the perioplic ring, and below by the laminæ. When _in situ_ it is accommodated by the _Cutigeral Groove_, a cavity produced by the bevelling out of the superior portion of the inner face of the wall of the hoof. Its superior surface is covered by numerous elongated papillæ, set so closely as to give the appearance of the 'pile' of velvet. This is observed to the best advantage with the foot immersed in water. _The Superior Border_ of the cushion is bounded by the _Perioplic Ring_, the cells of which have as their function the secreting of the _Periople_, a layer of thin horn to be noted afterwards as covering the external face of the wall. From the perioplic ring the cushion is separated by a narrow and shallow, though well-marked, groove. The inferior border is bounded by the sensitive laminæ. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--THE KERATOGENOUS MEMBRANE (VIEWED FROM THE SIDE). (THE HOOF REMOVED BY MACERATION.) 1. The sensitive laminæ, or podophyllous tissue; 2, the coronary cushion; 3, the perioplic ring; 4, portion of plantar cushion; 5, groove separating perioplic ring from coronary cushion; 6. the sensitive sole.] The upper portions of the laminæ, those in contact with the cushion, are pale in contrast with the portions immediately below, and thus there is given the appearance of a white zone adjoining the inferior border of the cushion. Widest at its centre, the cushion narrows towards its extremities, which, arriving at the bulbs of the plantar cushion, bend downwards into the lateral lacunæ of the pyramidal body, where they merge into the velvety tissue of the sole and frog. The papillæ of the coronary cushion secrete the horn tubules forming the wall, and the papillæ of the perioplic ring secrete the varnish-like veneer of thin horn covering the outside surface of the hoof. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--THE KERATOGENOUS MEMBRANE (VIEWED FROM BELOW). (THE HOOF REMOVED BY MACERATION.) 1, The sensitive sole; 2, the sensitive frog[A]--(a) its median lacuna, (6) its lateral lacuna; 3. V-shaped depression accommodating the toe-stay; 4, the sensitive laminæ which interleave with the horny laminæ of the bar.] [Footnote A: The sensitive frog thinly invests the plantar cushion or fibre-fatty frog, the outline of which is here indicated.] 2. THE VELVETY TISSUE.--This is the portion of the keratogenous membrane covering the plantar surface of the os pedis and the plantar cushion. To the irregularities of the latter body--its bulbs, pyramidal body, and its lacunæ--it is closely adapted. Its surface may, therefore, be divided into _(a) The Sensitive Frog_, and _(b) The Sensitive Sole_. _(a) The Sensitive Frog_ is that part of the velvety tissue moulded on the lower surface of the plantar cushion. The shape of the plantar cushion has already been described as identical with that of the horny frog. It only remains to state that, like the coronary cushion, the surface of the sensitive frog is closely studded with papillæ. The cells clothing the papillæ are instrumental in forming the horny frog. _(b) The Sensitive Sole_.--As its name indicates, this is the portion of the keratogenous membrane that covers the plantar surface of the os pedis. It also is clothed with papillæ, which again give rise to the formation of that part of the horny box to which they are adapted--namely, the sole. 3. THE PODOPHYLLOUS TISSUE, OR SENSITIVE LAMINÆ.--This portion of the keratogenous membrane is spread over the anterior face and sides of the os pedis, limited above by the coronary cushion, and below by the inferior edge of the bone. It presents the appearance of fine longitudinal streaks, which, when closely examined with a needle, are found to consist of numerous fine leaves. These extend downwards from the lower border of the coronary cushion to the inferior margin of the os pedis. At this point each terminates in several large villous prolongations, which extend into the horny tubes at the circumference of the sole. At the point of the toe this membrane sometimes shows a V-shaped depression, into which fits a inverted V-shaped prominence on the inner surface of the wall at this point. The sensitive laminæ increase in width from above to below. Their free margin is finely denticulated, while their sides are traversed from top to bottom by several folds (about sixty), which, examined microscopically, are seen to consist of secondary leaves, or _laminellæ_. Examined on the foot, deprived of its horny covering, the sensitive laminæ are, the majority of them, in close contact with each other. In the normal state this is not so. The interstices between the leaves are then occupied by the horny leaves, to be afterwards described as existing on the inner surface of the wall. Reaching and rounding the heels, the sensitive laminæ extend forward for a short distance, where they interleave with the horny laminæ of the bars. Much discussion has centred round the point as to whether or no the cells of the sensitive laminæ take any share in the formation of the horn of the wall. This will be alluded to in a future chapter. I. THE HOOF. Removed from the foot by maceration a well-shaped hoof is cylindro-conical in form, and appears to the ordinary observer to consist of a box or case cast in one single piece of horn. Prolonged maceration, however, will show that the apparently single piece is divisible into three. These are known as (1) THE WALL, (2) THE SOLE, and (3) THE FROG. In addition to these, we have also an appendage or circular continuation of the frog named (4) THE PERIOPLE, or CORONARY FROG BAND. These various divisions we will study separately. 1. THE WALL is that portion of the hoof seen in front and laterally when the horse's foot is on the ground. Posteriorly, instead of being continued round the heels to complete the circle, its extremities become suddenly inflected downwards, forwards, and inwards. These inflections can only be seen with the foot lifted from the floor, and form the so-called _Bars_. It will be noticed, too, with the foot lifted, that the wall projects beyond the level of the other structures of the plantar surface, taking upon itself the bearing of the greatest part of the animal's weight. The horn of the wall, viewed immediately from the front, is known as the _Toe_, which again is distinguished as _Outside Toe_ or _Inside Toe_, according as the horn to its inner or outer aspect is indicated. The remainder of the external face of the wall, that running back to the heels, is designated the _Quarters_. In the middle region of the toe, the wall following the angle of the bones is greatly oblique. This obliquity decreases as the quarters are reached, until on reaching the heels the wall is nearly upright. [Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE WALL OF THE HOOF. 1, The toe; 2, inner toe; 3, outside toe; 4, the quarter; 5, entigeral groove; 6, horny laminæ.] For observation the wall offers two faces, two borders, and two extremities. _The External Face_ is convex from side to side, but straight from the upper to the lower border. Examined closely, it is seen to be made up of closely-arranged parallel fibres running in a straight line from the upper to the lower border, and giving the surface of the foot a finely striated appearance. In addition to these lines, which are really the horn tubules, the external face is marked by a series of rings which run horizontally from heel to heel. These are due to varying influences of food, climate, and slight or severe disease. This will be noted again in a later page. In a young and healthy horse the whole of the external face of the wall is smooth and shining. This appearance is due to a thin layer of horn, secreted independently of the wall proper, termed the periople. [Illustration: FIG. 20.--INTERNAL FEATURES OF THE WALL, FROG, AND SOLE (MESIAN SECTION OF HOOF). 1, Horny laminæ covering internal face of wall; 2, superior border of wall; 3, junction of wall with horny sole; 4, the cutigeral groove; 5, the horny sole; 6, the horny frog (that portion of it known as the 'frog-stay'); 7, inverted V-shaped ridge on wall and sole (known as the 'toe-stay'); 8, anterior face of wall; 9, inferior border of wall.] _The Internal Face_ of the wall, that adapted to the sensitive laminæ, is closely covered over its entire surface with white parallel leaves _(Keraphyllæ_, or horn leaves, to distinguish them from the _Podophyllæ_, or sensitive leaves). These keraphyllæ dovetail intimately with the sensitive laminæ, covering the os pedis. Running along the superior portion of the inner face is the _Cutigeral Groove_. This cavity has been mentioned before as accommodating the coronary cushion, whose shape and general contour it closely follows, being widest and deepest in front, and gradually decreasing as it proceeds backwards. It is hollowed out at the expense of the wall, and shows on its surface numberless minute openings which receive the papillæ of the coronary cushion. At the bottom of the internal face, at the point where the toe joins the sole, will be noted the before-mentioned inverted V-shaped prominence. Its position will be clearly understood when we say that it gives the appearance of having been forced there by the pressure of the toe-clip of the shoe. This will be noted again when dealing with the sole. _The Inferior Border_ of the wall offers little to note. It is that portion in contact with the ground, and subject to wear. A point of interest is its union with the sole. This will be noticed in a foot which has just been pared as a narrow white or faint yellow line on the inner or concave face of the wall at its lower portion. It marks the point where the horny leaves of the wall terminate and become locked with corresponding leaves of the circumference of the sole. _The Superior Border_ follows closely the line marked by the perioplic ring and the groove separating the latter from the coronary cushion. _The Extremities_ of the wall are formed by the abruptly reflected portions of the wall at the heels. Termed by some the 'Inflexural Nodes,' they are better known to us as the '_Points of the Heels_.' 2. THE SOLE.--The sole is a thick plate of horn which, in conjunction with the bars and the frog, forms the floor of the foot. In shape it is irregularly crescentic, its posterior portion, that between the horns of the crescent, being deeply indented in a V-shaped manner to receive the frog. Its upper surface is convex, its lower concave. It may be recognised as possessing two faces and two borders. _The Superior or Internal Face_ is adapted to the sole of the os pedis. Its highest point, therefore, is at the point of its V-shaped indentation. From this point it slopes in every direction downwards and outwards until near the circumference. Here it curves up to form a kind of a groove in which is lodged the inferior edge of the os pedis. In the centre of its anterior portion--that is to say, at the toe--will be seen a small inverted V-shaped ridge, which is a direct continuation of the same shaped prominence before mentioned on the internal face of the wall. This Fleming has termed the toe-stay, from a notion that it serves to maintain the position of the os pedis. The whole of the superior face of the sole is covered with numerous fine punctures which receive the papillæ of the sensitive sole. _The Inferior Face_ is more or less concave according to circumstances, its deepest part being at the point of the frog. Sloping from this point to its circumference, it becomes suddenly flat just before joining the wall. Its horn in appearance is flaky. [Illustration: FIG. 21.--INFERIOR ASPECT OF HOOF. _a_ The inferior face of horny sole; _b_, inferior border of the wall; _c_, body or cushion of the frog; _d_, median lacuna of the frog; _e_, lateral lacuna of the frog; _f_, the bar; _g_, the quarter; _h_, the point of the frog; _i_ the heel.] _The External Border_ or Circumference is intimately dovetailed with the horny laminæ of the wall. At its circumference the sole, if unpared, is ordinarily as thick as the wall. This thickness is maintained for a short distance towards its centre, after which it becomes gradually more thin. _The Internal Border_ has the shape of an elongated V with the apex pointing forwards. It is much thinner than the external border, and, like it, is dovetailed into the horny laminæ of the inflections of the wall--namely, the bars. In front of the termination of the bars it is dovetailed into the sides and point of the frog. Where unworn by contact with the ground, the horn of the sole is shed by a process of exfoliation. 3. THE FROG.--Triangular or pyramidal in shape, the frog bears a close resemblance to the form of the plantar cushion, upon the lower surface of which body it is moulded. It offers for consideration two faces, two sides, a base, and a point or summit. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--HOOF WITH THE SENSITIVE STRUCTURES REMOVED. 1, Superior face of horny frog; 2, the frog-stay; 3, the lateral ridges of the frog's superior surface; 4, the horny laminæ at the inflections of the wall.] _The Superior Face_ is an exact cast of the lower surface of the plantar cushion. It shows in the centre, therefore, a triangular depression, with the base of the triangle directed backwards. Posteriorly, the depression is continued as two lateral channels divided by a median ridge. The median ridge widens out as it passes backwards, forming the larger part of the posterior portion of the frog. This median ridge fits into the cleft of the plantar cushion. It serves to prevent displacement of the sensitive from the horny frog, and has been rather aptly termed the '_Frog-stay_.' _The Inferior Surface_ is an exact reverse of the superior. The triangular depression of the superior surface is represented in the inferior surface by a triangular projection, and the ridge-like frog-stay of the upper surface is represented below by a median cleft, the _Median Lacuna_ of the frog. The triangular projection in front of the median lacuna is the body or cushion of the frog. It is continued backwards as two ridge-like branches, which, at the points of the heels, form acute angles with the bars. On the outer side of each lateral ridge is a fissure. These are known as the Lateral Lacunæ. _The Sides_ of the frog are flat and slightly oblique. They are closely united to the bars and to the triangular indentation in the posterior border of the sole. _The Base_ of the frog is formed by the extremities of its branches, which, becoming wider and more convex as they pass backwards, form two rounded, flexible, and elastic masses separated from each other by the median lacuna. These constitute the 'glomes' of the frog. They are continuous with the periople. _The Point of the Frog_ is situated, wedge-like, within the triangular notch in the posterior border of the sole. 4. THE PERIOPLE, OR CORONARY FROG BAND.--This is a continuation of the substance of the frog around the extreme upper surface of the hoof. It is widest at the heels over the bulbs or glomes of the frog, and gradually narrows as it reaches the front of the hoof. It is, in reality, a thin pellicle of semi-transparent horn secreted by the cells of the perioplic ring. When left untouched by the farrier's rasp it serves the purpose, by acting as a natural varnish, of protecting the horn of the wall from the effects of undue heat or moisture. CHAPTER III GENERAL PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL OBSERVATIONS The matter embraced by the heading of this chapter will offer for discussion many subjects of great interest to the veterinary surgeon. Around some of them debate has for many years waxed more than keen. Of the points in dispute, some of them may be regarded as satisfactorily settled, while others offer still further room for investigation. In this volume we can only hope to deal with them in brief, and must select such as appear to have the greatest bearing on the veterinarian's everyday practice. Always prolific of heated discussion has been one question: 'Are the horny laminæ secreted by the sensitive?' To answer this satisfactorily, it will be best to give a short account of the mode of production of the hoof in general. A. DEVELOPMENT OF THE HOOF. Starting with the statement that it is epidermal in origin, we will first consider the structure of the skin, and follow that with a brief description of the structure and mode of growth of the human nail, a short study of which will greatly assist us when we come to investigate the manner of growth of the horse's hoof. THE SKIN is composed of two portions, the EPIDERMIS and the CORIUM. THE EPIDERMIS is a stratified epithelium. The superficial layers of the cells composing it are hard and horny, while the deeper layers are soft and protoplasmic. These latter form the so-called _Retae Mucosum_ of Malpighi. [Illustration: FIG. 23.--VERTICAL SECTION OF EPIDERMIS (HUMAN). (AFTER RANVIER) _A_, The horny layer of the epidermis; _B_, the rete mucosum; _a_, the columnar pigment-containing cells of the rete; _b_, the polyhedral cells; _c_, the stratum granulosum; _d_, the stratum lucidum; _e_, swollen horny cells; _f_ the stratum squamosum.] Commencing from below and proceeding upwards, we find that the lowermost cells of the rete mucosum, those that are set immediately on the corium, are columnar in shape. In animals that have a coloured skin these cells contain pigment granules. Directly superposed to these we find cells which in shape are polyhedral. Above them, and forming the most superficial layer of the rete mucosum, is a series of flattened, granular-looking cells known as the _stratum granulosum_. Immediately above the stratum granulosum the horny portion of the epidermis commences. In the human skin this is formed of three distinct layers. Undermost a layer of clear compressed cells, the _stratum lucidum_. Next above it a layer of swollen cells, the nuclei of which are indistinguishable. Finally, a surface layer of thin, horny scales, the _stratum squamosum_, which become detached and thrown off in the form of scurf or dandruff. In the skin of the horse, except where it is thickest, these layers are not clearly defined. It is the Malpighian layer of the epidermis that is most active in cell division. As they are formed the new cells push upwards those already there, and the latter in their progress to the surface undergo a chemical change in which their protoplasm is converted into horny material. This change, as we have already indicated, takes place above the stratum granulosum. In addition to its constant formation of cells to replace those cast off from the surface, the active proliferation of the elements of the Malpighian layer is responsible for the development of the various appendages of the skin, the hairs with their sebaceous glands, the sweat glands, horny growths and the hoof, and, in the human subject, the nail. These occur as thickenings and down-growths of the epithelium into the corium. The epidermis is devoid of bloodvessels, but is provided with fine nerve fibrils which ramify between the cells of the rete mucosum. THE CORIUM is composed of dense connective tissue, the superficial layer of which bears minute papillæ. These project into the epidermis, which is moulded on them. For the most part the papillæ contain looped capillary vessels, rendering the superficial layer of the corium extremely vascular. Why this must be a moment's reflection will show. The epidermis, as we have already said, is devoid of bloodvessels. It therefore depends entirely for its nourishment upon the indirect supply it receives from the vessels of the corium. The need for extreme vascularity of the corium is further explained when we call to mind the constant proliferation and casting off of the cells of the epidermis, the growth of the hairs, the production of the horn of the hoof, and the work performed by the numerous sweat and other glands. Others of the papillæ contain nerves, ending here in tactile corpuscles, or continuing, as we have mentioned before, to ramify as fine fibrils in the rete mucosum of the epidermis. THE HAIRS are growths of the epidermis extending downwards into the deeper part of the corium. Each is developed in a small pit, the _Hair Follicle_, from the bottom of which it grows, the part lying within the follicle being known as the _Root_. It is important to note their structure, as it will be seen later that they bear an extremely close relation to the horn of the hoof. Under a high power of the microscope, and in optical section, the central portion of a hair is tube-like. In some cases the cavity of the tube is occupied by a dark looking substance formed of angular cells, and known as the _Medulla_. The walls of the tube, or the main substance of the hair, is made up of a pigmented, _horny, fibrous material_. This fibrous structure is covered by a delicate layer of finely imbricated scales, and is termed the _Hair Cuticle_. The root of the hair, that portion within the follicle, has exactly the same formation save at its extreme end. Here it becomes enlarged into a knob-like formation composed of soft, growing cells, which knob-like formation fits over a vascular papilla projecting up in the bottom of the follicle. We have already stated that the hairs are down-growths of the epidermis. It follows, therefore, that the hair follicles, really depressions or cul-de-sacs of the skin itself, are lined by epithelial cells and connective tissue. So closely does the epidermal portion of the follicle invest the hair root that it is often dragged out with it, and is known as the _Root Sheath_. This is made up of an outer layer of columnar cells (_the outer root sheath_) corresponding to the Malpighian layer of the epidermis, and of an inner horny layer, next to the hair, corresponding to the more superficial layer of the epidermis, and known as the _inner root sheath_. The hair grows from the bottom of the follicle by a multiplication of the cells covering the papilla upon which its root is moulded. When a hair is cast off a new one is produced from the cells covering the papilla, or, in case of the death or degeneration of the original papilla, the new hair is produced from a second papilla formed in place of the first at the bottom of the follicle. [Illustration: FIG. 24.--SECTION OF SKIN WITH HAIR FOLLICLE AND HAIR. _a_, The hair follicle; _b_, the hair root; _c_, the medulla; _d_, the hair cuticle; _e_, the outer root sheath; _f_, the inner root sheath; _g_, the papilla from which the hair is growing; _h_, a sebaceous gland; _i_, a sudoriferous gland.] THE SEBACEOUS GLANDS are small saccular glands with their ducts opening into the mouths of the hair follicles. They furnish a natural lubricant to the hairs and the skin. THE SUDORIFEROUS OR SWEAT GLANDS are composed of coiled tubes which lie in the deeper portion of the skin, and send up a corkscrew-like duct to open on the surface of the epidermis. They are numerous over the whole of the body. [Illustration: FIG. 25.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH NAIL AND NAIL-BED OF A HUMAN FOETAL FINGER.[A] _a_, The nail; _b_, the rete mucosum; _c_, the longitudinal ridges of the corium.] [Footnote A: Seeing that the section is a longitudinal one, it would appear from the way the ridges cut that they are running transversely beneath the nail. Their extreme delicacy, however, prevents a single one showing itself along the length of the section, and their constant accidental cutting makes them _appear_ to run transversely (H.C.R.).] THE HUMAN NAILS are thickenings of the lowermost layer of the horny portion of the epidermis, the stratum lucidum. They are developed over a modified portion of the corium known as the nail-bed. The horny substance of the nail is composed of clear horny cells, and rests immediately upon a Malpighian layer similar to that found in the epidermis generally. Instead of the papillæ present elsewhere in the skin, the corium of the nail-bed is marked by longitudinal ridges, a similar, though less distinct, arrangement to that found in the laminæ of the horse's foot. Having thus paved the way, we are now in a better position to discuss our original question (Are the horny laminæ secreted by the sensitive?), and better able to appreciate the work that has been done towards the elucidation of the problem. A most valuable contribution to this study is an article published in 1896 by Professor Mettam.[A] Here the question is dealt with in a manner that must effectually silence all other views save such as are based upon similar methods of investigation--namely, histological examination of sections of equine hoofs in various stages of foetal development. [Footnote A: The _Veterinarian_, vol. lxix., p.1.] Professor Mettam commences by drawing attention to the error that has been made in this connection by studying the soft structures of the foot separated by ordinary putrefactive changes from the horny covering. "In this way," the writer points out, "a wholly erroneous idea has crept in as to the relation of the one to the other, and the two parts have been treated as two anatomical items, when, indeed, they are portions of one and the same thing. As an illustration, and one very much to the point at issue, the soft structures of the foot are to the horny covering what the corium of the skin and the rete Malpighii are to the superficial portions of the epidermis. Indeed, the point where solution of continuity occurs in macerating is along the line of the soft protoplasmic cells of the rete." In the foregoing description of the skin we have seen that the corium is not a _plane_ surface, but that it is studded by numerous papillary projections, and that these projections, with the depressions between them, are covered by the cells of the epidermis. The corium of the horse's foot, however, although possessed of papillæ in certain positions (as, for example, the papillæ of the coronary cushion, and those of the sensitive frog and sole), has also most pronounced ridges (laminæ) which run down the whole depth of the os pedis. Each lamina again carries ridges (laminellæ) on its lateral aspects, giving a section of a lamina the appearance of being studded with papillæ. We have already pointed out the ridge-like formation of the human nail-bed, and noted that, with the exception that the secondary ridges are not so pronounced, it is an exact prototype of the laminal formation of the corium of the horse's foot. The distribution of the laminæ over the foot we have discussed in the chapter devoted to the grosser anatomy. In a macerated foot the sensitive laminæ of the corium interdigitate with the horny laminæ of the hoof; that is to say, there is no union between the two, for the simple reason that it has been destroyed; they simply interlock like the _unglued_ junction of a finely dovetailed piece of joinery. But no further, however, than the irregularities of the underneath surface of the epidermis of the skin can be said to interlock with the papillæ of the corium does interlocking of the horny and sensitive laminæ occur. It is only apparent. The horny laminæ are simply beautifully regular epidermal ingrowths cutting up the corium into minute leaf-like projections. In a macerated specimen, then, the exposed sensitive structures of the foot exhibit the corium as (1) the _Coronary Cushion_, fitting into the cutigeral groove; (2) the _Sensitive Laminæ_, clothing the outer surface of the terminal phalanx, and extending to the bars; (3) the _Plantar Cushion_, or sensitive frog; and (4) the _Sensitive Sole_. The main portion of the wall is developed from the numerous papillæ covering the corium of the coronary cushion. We have in this way numberless down-growing tubes of horn. Professor Mettam describes their formation in a singularly happy fashion: "Let the human fingers represent the coronary papillæ, the tips of the fingers the summits of the papillæ, and the folds of skin passing from finger to finger in the metacarpo-phalangeal region the depressions between the papillæ. Imagine that all have a continuous covering of a proliferating epithelium. Then we shall have a more or less continuous column of cells growing from the tip of the finger or papilla (a hollow tube of cells gradually moving from off the surface of the finger or papilla like a cast), and similar casts are passing from off all the fingers or papillæ." From this description it will be noticed that each down-growing tube of horn bears a striking resemblance to the growth of a hair, described on p. 47. In fact, the horn tube may be regarded as what it really is, a modified hair. We next continue Professor Mettam's illustration, and note how the modified hairs or horn tubes become as it were matted together to form the hoof wall. The cells lining the depressions are also proliferating, and their progeny serve to cement together the hollow casts of the papillæ, thus giving the _inter_-tubular substance. We have thus produced hollow tubes, united together by cells, all arising from the rete Malpighii of the coronary corium. Section of the lower part of the horn tubes shows them to contain a cellular debris. Thus, in all, in the horn of the wall we find a tubular, an intertubular, and intratubular substance. In fact, hairs matted together by intertubular material, and only differing from ordinary hairs in their development in that they arise, not from papillæ sunk in the corium, but from papillæ projecting from its surface. Although this disposes of the wall proper, there still confronts us the question of the development of the horny laminæ. To accurately determine this point it is absolutely essential to examine, histologically, the feet from embryos. In the foot of any young ungulate in the early stages of intra-uterine life horizontal sections will show a covering of epidermis of varying thickness.[A] This may be only two or three cells thick, or may consist of several layers. Lowermost we find the cells of the rete Malpighii. As some criterion of the activity with which these are acting, it may be noted that with the ordinary stains their nuclei take the dye intensely. The cells of this layer rest upon a basement membrane separating the epidermis from the corium. At this stage _the corium has a perfectly plane surface_. [Footnote A: Equine foetus, seventy-seven days old.] [Illustration: FIG. 26.--SECTION OF FOOT OF EQUINE FOETUS, SEVENTY-SEVEN DAYS OLD. The rete Malpighii rests on a plane corium; the rent in the section is along the line of the cells of the rete (Mettam).] [Illustration: FIG. 27.--SECTION FROM FOOT OF SHEEP EMBRYO. It shows a pronounced epithelial ingrowth into the corium (Mettam).] The next stage will demonstrate the first step in the formation of the sensitive laminæ.[A] The plain surface of the corium has now become broken up, and what is noticed is that the broken-up appearance is due to the epithelial cells irrupting and advancing _en échelon_ into its connective tissue. Each point of the ingrowing lines of the _échelon_ has usually one cell further advanced into the corium than its neighbours, and may be termed the _apical cell_. The fine basement membrane separating epithelium from corium is still clearly evident. This epidermal irruption of the corium takes place at definite points right round the foot. It is extremely probable, however, that it commences first at the toe and spreads laterally. [Footnote A: Sheep embryo, exact age unknown.] As yet, these cellular ingrowths (which are destined to be the _horny_ laminæ, and cut up the corium into _sensitive_ laminæ) are free from irregularities or secondary laminæ. Before these are to be observed other changes in connection with the ingrowths are to be noticed. [Illustration: FIG. 28.--SECTION FROM CALF EMBRYO. The epithelial ingrowths hang down from the epidermis into the corium like the teeth of a comb (Mettam).] The first is merely that of elongation of the epithelial processes into the connective tissue, until the rete Malpighii gives one the impression that it has hanging to its underneath surface and into the corium a number of thorn-like processes. These extend all round the front of the foot, and even in great part behind. Accompanying this elongation of the processes is a condensation of the epithelial cells immediately above the rete Malpighii, with a partial or total loss of their nuclei. This is the first appearance of true horn, and its commencement is almost coincident with the first stages of ossification of the os pedis. [Illustration: FIG. 29.--SECTION OF AN EPITHELIAL INGROWTH FROM AN EQUINE FOETUS. It shows commencing secondary laminar ridges. In the centre are epithelial cells which are undergoing change into horny elements to form the horn core, or 'horny laminæ' (Mettam).] With the appearance of horn comes difficulty of sectioning. The last specimen that Professor Mettam was able to satisfactorily cut upon the microtome was from a foetus between three and four months old. In this the secondary laminar ridges were clearly indicated, and the active layer of the rete Malpighii could be traced without a break from one ingrowing epithelial process to the next, and around this, following all the irregularities of its outline, and covering the branches of the nascent laminæ. The laminæ mostly show this branching as if a number of different growing points had arisen, each to take on a function similar to the epithelial process as it at first appeared. In the centre of the processes a few nuclei may be observed, but they are scarce, and stain only faintly; they have arisen from the cells of the rete Malpighii which have grown into the corium. In fact, the active cells are passing their daughters into the middle of the process, and these pass through similar stages as those derived from the ensheathing epidermis. In other words, the daughter cells of the constituents of the rete Malpighii which have grown into the corium pass through a degeneration precisely similar to that undergone by cells shed at desquamation, or those which eventually give rise by their agglutination to a hair. This is the real origin of the horny laminæ, and the thickness of these is increased merely by an increase in the area covered by the cells of the rete Malpighii--i.e., by the development of secondary laminar ridges. If a section from a foal at term be examined, the processes will be found far advanced into the corium, and, occupying the axis of each process, will be seen a horny plate, continuous with the horn of the wall. No line of demarcation can be observed between the horn so formed and the intertubular material of the wall. They merge into and blend with each other, with no indication of their different origins. The cells that have invaded the corium have thus _not lost their horn-forming function_. There has merely been an increase in the area for horn-producing cells. The horny processes are continuous with the hoof proper at the point where the epithelial ingrowth first commenced to invade the corium, and fuses here with the horn derived from the cells of the rete Malpighii which have _not_ grown inwards, and which are found between the processes in the intact foot. From this it is clear that some considerable portion of the horn of the wall is derived from the cells of the rete Malpighii covering the corium of the foot. It becomes even more clear when we remember the prompt appearance of horn in cases where a portion, or the whole, of the wall has been removed by operation or by accident (see reported cases in Chapter VII.). The activity of the cells of the rete Malpighii of the corium covering the remainder of the foot will be quite as necessary as the activity of the cells of the coronary papillæ which form the horn tubes themselves. 'For,' in Professor Mettam's own words, 'I am inclined to believe that much of the "white line" which is found uniting the wall of the hoof to the sole has been derived from the horn formed from the rete of the foot corium. This origin will explain the absence of pigment from this thin uniting "line," as it does from the horn lining the interior of the wall. The cells of the rete are free of colouring matter.' [Illustration: FIG. 30.--SECTION THROUGH HOOF AND SOFT TISSUES OF A FOAL AT TERM. The horn of the wall is shown, and the horn-core ('horny laminæ') of the epithelial ingrowth. The latter has advanced far into the corium, and is now provided with abundant secondary laminar ridges (Mettam).] From the matter here given us it is easy to understand how, in a macerated foot, the appearance is given of interlocking of the sensitive and horny laminæ. We see that the horny laminæ are ingrowths of the rete Malpighii, ploughing into and excavating the corium into the shape of leaves--the sensitive laminæ. Putrefactive changes simply break into two separate portions what originally was one whole, by destroying the cells along its weakest part. This part is the line of soft protoplasmic cells of the rete Malpighii. Thus the more resistant parts (the horn on the one hand, and the corium covering the foot on the other) are easily torn asunder. As a result of the evidence we have quoted, we are able to answer our original question in the affirmative. Seeing that the horny and the sensitive laminæ are both portions of the same thing--namely, a modified skin, in which the epidermis is represented by the horny laminæ, and the corium by the sensitive--it is clear to see that the cells covering the inspreading horny laminæ are dependent for their growth and reproduction upon the cells with which they are in immediate contact--namely, those of the sensitive laminæ--and that therefore the sensitive laminæ are responsible for the growth of the horny. B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND HISTOLOGY OF HORN. Horn is a solid, tenacious, fibrous material, and its density in the hoof varies in different situations. It is softened by alkalies, such as caustic potash or soda and ammonia, the parts first attacked being the commissures, then the frog, and afterwards the sole and wall. Strong acids, such as sulphuric acid and nitric acid, also dissolve it. The chemical composition of the hoof shows it to be a modification of albumin, its analysis yielding water, a large percentage of animal matter, and materials soluble and insoluble in water. The proportions of these, as existing in the various parts of the hoof, have been given by Professor Clement as follows: Wall. Sole. Frog. Water 16.12 36.0 42.0 Fatty matter 0.95 0.25 0.50 Matters soluble in water 1.04 1.50 1.50 Insoluble salts 0.26 0.25 0.22 Animal matter 81.63 62.0 55.78 Horn appears to be identical with epidermis, hair, wool, feathers, and whalebone, in yielding 'keratin,' a substance intermediate between albumin and gelatine, and containing from 60 to 80 per cent. of sulphur. That horn is combustible everyone who has watched the fitting of a hot shoe knows. That it is a bad conductor of heat, the absence of bad after-effects on the foot testifies. [Illustration: FIG. 31.--PERPENDICULAR SECTION OF HORN OF WALL.] In a previous page we have described the manner of growth of the horn tubules, and noted the direction they took in the wall; also, we have noticed the existence between them of an intertubular horn or cement. Those who wish to give this subject further study will find an excellent series of articles by Fleming in the _Veterinarian_ for 1871. We shall content ourselves here with introducing one or two diagrams and photo-micrographs, and dealing with the histology very briefly. Under the microscope the longitudinal striation of the wall is found to be due to the direction taken by the horn tubules. Fig. 31 is a magnified perpendicular section of the wall. In it the parallel dark striæ are the horn tubules in longitudinal section. The lighter striæ represent the intertubular material. Fig. 32 gives us the wall in horizontal section. To the left of this picture we find the horn tubules cut across, and standing out as so many concentrically ringed circles. In the centre of the figure are seen the horny laminæ, with their laminellæ, and the sensitive laminæ. The right portion of the figure pictures the corium. [Illustration: FIG. 32.--HORIZONTAL SECTION OF HORN OF WALL.] Fig. 33 is, again, a horizontal section, cut this time at the junction of the wall with the sole. To the left are seen, again, the horn tubules of the wall, and to the centre the horny laminæ. In this position, however, the structures interdigitating with the horny laminæ are not sensitive, but are themselves horny. As the diagram shows, they contain regularly arranged horn tubules cut across obliquely. It is this horn which forms the 'white line.' To the extreme right of the figure are seen the horn tubules of the sole. There remains now but to notice the arrangement of the horn tubules in the frog. The peculiar, indiarubber-like toughness of this organ is well known. Histological examination gives a reason for this. [Illustration: FIG. 33.--HORIZONTAL SECTION OF HORN THROUGH THE JUNCTION OF THE WALL WITH THE SOLE. _a_, Horn tubule of the wall; _b_, horn tubule of the sole; _c, d_, horny laminæ.] [Illustration: FIG. 34.--SECTION OF FROG THROUGH CORIUM AND HORN. The long finger-like projections of corium into epidermis are sections of the long papillæ from which the horn-tubes of the sole grow. In the stainable portion of the epidermis are to be clearly seen light and dark streaks pointing out the alternate strata-like arrangement of cells mentioned in the text (Mettam).] The horn tubules of the frog are sinuous in their course. This is accounted for by the fact that in the horn of the frog there is a large amount of intertubular material, this having the effect of frequently turning the horn tubules from the straight. In addition to this, the intertubular material has a peculiar arrangement of the cells composing it. These are laid down in alternating striæ (1) of cells with their long axes longitudinal, and (2) of cells with their long axes horizontal. This is seen in Fig. 34, between the long papillæ of the corium, where the lines of longitudinally arranged cells in horizontal section stand out darker than the adjoining strata in which their arrangement is horizontal. The tortuous direction of the horn tubules, and the almost interlocking nature of the alternating strata of the intertubular material, together combine to give the frog its characteristic toughness and resiliency. C. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF THE HOOF. Among other questions productive of heated argument come those relating to expansion of the horse's hoof. In the past many observers have strenuously insisted on the fact that expansion and contraction regularly occur during progression. Opposed to them have been others equally firm in the belief that neither took place. Quite within recent times this question also has been settled once and for all by the experiments of A. Lungwitz, of Dresden. His conclusions were published in an article entitled 'Changes in Form of the Hoof under the Action of the Body-weight.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. iv., p. 191. The whole of the matter in this article, from which we have borrowed Figs. 35 and 36, is too long for reproduction here. It forms, however, most instructive reading, and its careful perusal will well repay everyone interested in this most important question (H.C.R.).] In connection with this it is interesting to note how, all unconsciously, two separate observers were simultaneously arriving by almost identical means at an equally satisfactory answer to the question. Prior to the publication of Lungwitz's article on the subject, Colonel F. Smith, A.V.D., had arrived at similar conclusions by working on the same methods. [Illustration: Fig. 35. I. Electric Bell with Dry Element. a, Under part, with box, for the dry element; 6, roller for winding up the conducting-wires; c, dry element, with screw-clamp for attachment of the conducting-wires; c', conducting-wire leading to the screw-clamp, with contact-spring in c', Fig. 2, or to the wall in Fig. 3; d, upper part, with bell; d', conducting-wire to the shoe d' in Figs. 2 and 3; e, strap for slinging the apparatus around the body of the assistant or rider; f, connecting-wire between bell and dry element.] [Illustration: Fig. 35. II. Hoof Shod with Shoe provided with Toe-piece and Calkins; Wall of the Hoof covered with Tinfoil. a, Heel angle, with b, the contact-screws; c, screw-clamp, with contact-spring (isolated from the shoe); c' conducting-wire from the same; d, screw-clamp, with conducting-wire (d') screwed into the edge of the shoe; e, nails isolated by cutting a small window in the tinfoil.] [Illustration: Fig. 35. III. Hoof Shod with Plain Shoe; Horny Wall covered with Tinfoil. a, Toe and heel angle, with b, the contact-screws; c, conducting-wire passing from the tinfoil on the wall; d, conducting-wire passing from the shoe; c', d', ends of the conducting-wires, which must be imagined connected with the ends c', d', passing from the apparatus.] It is unnecessary for our purpose here to minutely describe the exact _modus operandi_ of these two experimenters. Briefly, the method of inquiry adopted in each case was the 'push and contact principle' of the ordinary electric bell, and the close attention which was paid to detail will be sufficiently gathered from Figs. 35 and 36. [Illustration: Fig. 36. I. LEFT FORE-FOOT SHOD AND MOUNTED TO RECOGNISE THE SINKING OF THE SOLE. _a_, Iron plate covering the inner half of the horny sole; _b_, openings in the same, with screw-holes for the reception of the contact-screw _c_ (the part of the sole under the plate is covered with tinfoil, which at _d_ passes out under the outer branch of the shoe, and becomes connected with the tinfoil of the wall; in order to give the freshly applied tinfoil a better hold, copying-tacks are at _e_ passed through it into the horn, and one is similarly used to protect the tinfoil at the place where the contact-screw touches the latter); _f_, holes with screw thread for the fastening of the angle required to measure the movement of the wall, and also for the fastening of the conducting-wire, _g; h_, conducting-wire passing from the tinfoil; _i_, isolated nails.] [Illustration: Fig. 36. II. BAR-SHOE WITH OPENINGS. _a_, Near the inner margin and in the longitudinal bar; _b_, for the reception of the contact-screw _c; d_, openings for fastening the angle and the conducting-wires.] After numerous experiments with the depicted contact-screws, moved to the various positions indicated in the drawings, the following conclusions were arrived at: 1. BEHAVIOUR OF THE CORONARY EDGE.--During uniform weighting of all four hoofs the coronary edge shows a tendency to contraction in the anterior and lateral regions of the hoof, and a tendency to expansion posteriorly. With heavy weighting of the hoof, which is shown by a backward inclination of the fetlock, contraction in the anterior and lateral regions is slight, but the expansion behind, in the region of the heels, is distinct, commencing gradually in front, becoming stronger, and diminishing again posteriorly. The coronary edge of the heels becomes slightly bulged outwards. The bulbs of the heels swell up and incline a little backwards and downwards. When the fetlock is raised the expansion of the coronary edge of the heels disappears from behind forwards, passing forwards like a fluid wave. In the lateral and anterior regions of the coronary edge the contraction disappears; and when the weight is thrown off the foot it passes into a gentle expansion of the coronary edge of the toe. During the opposite movement of the fetlock, that of sinking backwards, this change of form is executed in the converse manner. In short, the coronary edge resembles a closed elastic ring, which yields to pressure, even the most gentle, of the body-weight, in such a way that a bulging out of any one part is manifested by an inward movement of another part. In Fig. 37, _b_, the dotted line represents the changes of form in comparatively well-formed and sound hoofs at the moment of strongest over-extension[A] of the fetlock-joint. [Footnote A: The term 'over-extension,' as employed by Lungwitz, is intended to indicate that position assumed by the fetlock-joint when the opposite foot is raised from the ground.] 2. BEHAVIOUR OF THE SOLAR EDGE.--Under the action of the body-weight this is somewhat different from that of the coronary edge. Anteriorly, and at the sides, as far as the wall forms an acute angle with the ground, the tendency to expansion exists, but the change of form first becomes measurable in the region where the lateral cartilages begin. Quite posteriorly the expansion again diminishes. Fig. 37, _a_, by the dotted line represents the expansion at the moment of over-extension of the fetlock-joint. This expansion is itself rather less than at the coronary edge, and it shows itself distinctly _only when the weighted hoof is exposed to a counter-pressure on the sole and frog_, no matter whether the counter-pressure is produced naturally or artificially. Thus anything tending to the removal of the pressure from below, such as a decayed condition of the frog or excessive paring in the forge, will diminish the extent of expansion of the solar edge. Contraction of the solar edge of the heels occurs at the moment of greatest over-extension of the fetlock-joint--that is, in a foot with pressure from below absent. On the face of it, this appears impossible. Lungwitz, however, has perfectly demonstrated it; and, when dealing with the functions of the lateral cartilages in a later paragraph, we shall show reason for why it is but a simple and natural result of the foot dynamics. 3. BEHAVIOUR OF THE SOLE.--The horny sole becomes flattened under the action of the body-weight. This is most distinct at the solar branches, and gradually shades off anteriorly and towards the circumference. As might be supposed, width of hoof and thickness of the solar horn exert an influence on the extent of this movement. The sinking of the horny sole is most marked in flat hoofs. D. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES.[A] [Footnote A: Extracted from a paper by J.A. Gilruth, M.R.C.V.S., in the _Veterinary Record_, vol. v., p. 358.] We have just referred to contraction of the heels as taking the place of a normal expansion in those cases where ground frog-pressure was absent. We shall readily understand this when we bear in mind the anatomy of the parts concerned, especially that of the plantar cushion. This wedge-shaped structure we have already described as occupying the irregular space between the two lateral cartilages, the extremity of the perforans tendon, and the horny frog. Now, when weight or pressure is exerted from above on to this organ, and the _frog is in contact with the ground below_, it is clear from the position the cushion occupies that, whatever change of form pressure from above will cause it to take, it must certainly be limited in various directions. [Illustration: FIG. 37. _a_, The dotted lines in this diagram represent the expansion of the solar edge of the hoof at the moment of over-extension of the fetlock-joint; _b_, the dotted line represents the change in form of the coronary edge under similar circumstances.] Because of the shape of the cushion its change of form cannot be forwards (simultaneous pressure from above and below on to this wedge with its apex forwards must tend to give it a backward change of form). Because of the pastern being horizontal, and aiding in the downward pressure, its change of form cannot be upwards. And because of the ground it cannot be downwards. It follows, therefore, that the movement must be backwards and outwards, being especially directed outwards because of its shape and the median lacuna in its posterior half--this latter, the lacuna, accommodating as it does the frog-stay, preventing the tendency to backward movement becoming excessive, and directing the change of form to the sides. Where the greatest pressure is transmitted, then, is to the inner aspects of the flexible lateral cartilages. The coronary cushion being continuous with the plantar, the backward and outward movements of the latter will tend to pull upon and tighten the former, especially _in front_. This will account for the contraction noted by Lungwitz in the _anterior half_ of the coronary edge of the hoof. Remove the body-weight, and naturally the elastic nature of the lateral cartilages and the coronary and plantar cushions, with, in a less degree, that of the hoof, cause things to assume their normal position. Repeat the weighting of the hoof, in this second case _without frog-pressure_, and we shall see at once that we have done away with one of the greatest factors in determining the outward and backward movements of the plantar cushion--namely, the pressure from below on its wedge-shaped mass. The movement of the plantar cushion will now be _downwards_ as well as backwards; and, seeing that it is attached to the inner aspect of each lateral cartilage, we shall expect these latter, by the downward movement of the plantar cushion, to be drawn _inwards_. This Lungwitz has shown to occur. The chief function of the lateral cartilages, therefore, is to _receive the concussion engendered by locomotion_, which concussion is directed backwards and outwards by the pad-like plantar cushion. In addition to this, the lateral cartilages, together with the plantar and coronary cushions, _play the part of a valve to the whole of the veins of the foot_. It is in this way: We have only to refer to the chapter on anatomy to see that the whole of the foot is covered with a tissue of extreme vascularity. Thus we find papillæ--the over the coronary cushion; enlarged and modified papillæ sensitive laminæ--covering the anterior face of the os pedis; and numberless papillæ again covering the sole. There can be no doubt that the quantity of fluid brought by the bloodvessels of these papillæ to the foot acts largely as a means of hydraulic protection to the soft structures.[A] In like manner as that delicate organ, the brain, is best protected by being floated upon the cerebro-spinal fluid and bloodvessels (which fluids transmit waves of concussion or pressure _through_ the organ without injury to the delicate cells forming it), so, in like manner, does the extreme vascularity of the foot protect the cells of its softer structures from the effects of pressure and concussion. [Footnote A: The _Veterinary Record_, vol. iii., p. 518.] That this law of hydraulics may operate in the horse's foot to the best advantage, the veins must be provided with valves, and valves of no mean strength. These we know to be absent. It is here that the lateral cartilages and the elastic substances of the coronary and plantar cushions step in to supply the deficiency. At the time when weight is placed upon the foot (with, of course, a tendency to drive the blood upwards in the limb), and, therefore, the time when a valvular apparatus is needed to retain the fluid in the foot, we find the wanting conditions supplied by the pressure outwards of the plantar cushion compressing the large plexuses of veins on each side of the lateral cartilages, to which plexuses, it will be remembered, the bulk of the venous blood from the foot was directed. A more perfect valvular apparatus, automatic and powerful, it would be difficult to imagine. E. GROWTH OF THE HOOF. We will conclude this chapter with a few brief remarks on the growth of the hoof. That the rate of growth is slow is a well-known fact to every veterinarian, and it will serve for all practical purposes when we state that, roughly, the growth of the wall is about 1/4 inch per month. This rate is regular all round the coronet, from which it follows that the time taken for horn to grow from the coronary edge to the inferior margin will vary according as the toe, the quarters, or the heels are under consideration. As might naturally be expected, the rate of growth will depend on various influences. Any stimulus to the secreting structures of the coronet, such as a blister, the application of the hot iron, or any other irritant, results in an increased growth. Growth is favoured by moisture and by the animal going unshod, as witness the effects of turning out to grass. Exercise, a state of good health, stimulating diets--in fact, anything tending to an increased circulation of healthy blood--all lead to increased production of horn. With the effects of bodily disease and of ill-formed legs and feet on the wear of the hoof, and the growth of horn, we shall be concerned in a future chapter. CHAPTER IV METHOD OF EXAMINING THE FOOT As a general rule, it may be taken that most diseases of the foot are comparatively easy of diagnosis. When, however, the condition is one which commences simply with an initial lameness, the greatest care will have to be exercised by the practitioner. What remarks follow here should rightly be confined to a treatise on lameness. This much, however, we may state: As compared with lameness arising from abnormal conditions in other parts of the limb, that emanating from abnormalities of the foot is easy of detection. With a case of lameness before him, concerning which he is in doubt, the practitioner remembers that a very large percentage may safely be referred to the foot, and, if wise, subjects the foot to a rigorous examination. Much may be gathered by first putting the animal through his paces. When at a trot, notice the peculiarity of the 'drop,' whether any alteration in going on hard or soft ground, and watch for any special characteristic in gait. At the same time inquiry should be made as to the history of the case; its duration; whether pain, as evidenced by lameness, is constant or periodic; the effect of exercise on the lameness; and the length of time elapsed since the last shoeing. This failing to reveal adequate cause for the lameness in any higher part of the limb, one is led, by a process of negative deduction, to suspect the foot. If 'pointing' is a symptom, its manner is noticed. The foot is compared with the other for any deviation from the normal. In some cases the two fore or the two hind feet may differ in size. Though this may not necessarily indicate disease, it may, nevertheless, be taken into account if the lameness is not easily referable to any other member. Measurement with calipers will then be of help, and a pronounced increase in size, especially if marked in one position only, given due consideration. The hand is used upon each foot alternately to look for change of temperature, to detect the presence of growths small enough to escape the eye, and to discover evidence of painful spots along the coronet. At this stage the method of percussion recommends itself, and in many cases no more useful diagnostic agent is to be found than the ordinary hammer. As a preliminary, the foot of the sound limb should be always tapped first. This precaution will serve to bring to light what is frequently met with--the aversion nervous animals sometimes exhibit to this manner of manipulation of the hoof. Unless this is done, the ordinary objection to interference is apt to be read as evidence of pain. No aversion to the method being shown, the suspected foot is gently tapped in various places round the wall, a keen look-out being kept for any manifestation of tenderness. This may vary from a slight resentment to each tap, indicated by a sudden lifting and setting down again of the foot, to a complete removal of the foot from the ground, and a characteristic pawing of the air that points out clearly enough the seat of pain. Evidence of pain once given, the tapping is persisted in until, in some cases, the exact position of the tender spot is definitely located. Failing evidence obtained from percussion, attention should next be given to the shoeing. We may add here that, even when difficulties have to be encountered in doing it, it is always a wise plan to have the shoe removed. The nails should be removed one by one, the course they have taken, their point of emergence on the wall, and the condition of their broken ends all being carefully noted as they are withdrawn. The removed shoe should next be examined as to the coarseness or fineness of its punching and the 'pitch' of its nail-holes, and close attention given to the shape of its bearing surface. From that we may pass to a consideration of the underneath surface of the foot. The drawing-knife should be run lightly over the whole of its surface, the first thing to be noticed being the point of entrance of the nails as compared with the coarseness or fineness of the punching, and the staining or otherwise of the horn immediately around. We may thus be guided towards mischief arising from tight nailing apart from actual prick of the foot. This done, more than usual care should be taken in following up any other small prick or dark spot that may show itself upon the white surface of the cleaned sole. In any case, a suspicious-looking speck should be followed up with the searcher until it is either cut out or is traced to the sensitive structures. While this is done, we should also have noticed the condition of the horn at the seat of corn; should have noticed the shape of the heels, contracted or otherwise; and the appearance of the frog, clean or discharging. A point to be remembered in making this exploratory paring of the foot is the peculiar consistency of the horn of the frog, and its tendency to hide the existence of punctures. In like manner, as a pin pierces a piece of indiarubber, and leaves no clearly visible trace of the hole it has made, so does a nail or other sharp object penetrate the frog, leaving but little to show for the mischief that has been done. After all, even though we may have fully decided the foot is at fault, our case of lameness may remain obscure so far as a cause is concerned. Nothing remains, then, but to acknowledge the inability to discover it, to advocate poulticing, or some other expectant palliative measure, and to bring the case up for further examination at no distant date. Where, though we may have suspected the foot, we have not been able to definitely assure ourselves that there the mischief is to be found, a further method of examination presents itself--namely, subcutaneous injections of cocaine along the course of the plantar nerves. The salt of cocaine used is the hydrochlorate, 2-1/2 grains for a pony, 4 grains for a medium-sized animal, and 6 grains for a large horse. A solution of this is made in boiled water (about 3 drams), and injected at the seat of the lower operation of neurectomy. It is advisable to first render aseptic the seat of operation, and to sterilize both the needle and the syringe by boiling. A suitable point to choose for the injection is exactly over the upper border of the lateral faces of the two sesamoids, the needle being introduced behind the cord formed by the nerve and accompanying vessels, and parallel with it. It is possible that the vein or the artery may be wounded, but such accident is of little importance. All that is necessary in that case is to partly withdraw the needle and again insert it. It is advisable to use a twitch. When the needle is in position, the injection should be made slowly, and at the same time the point of the needle should be made to describe a semicircular sweep, so as to spread the solution over as wide an area as is possible. Anæsthesia ensues in from six to twenty minutes, and if the cause of the lameness is below the point of injection the animal moves sound. Regarding this method of diagnosis, Professor Udriski of Bucharest, after a series of trials, sums up as follows: 1. For the diagnosis of lameness cocaine injections are of very considerable value. 2. These injections should be made along the course of the nerves. 3. Solutions heated to 40° or 50° C. produced quicker, deeper, and longer anæsthesia than equally strong cold solutions. 4. In the sale of horses cocaine injections conceal fraud. Cocaine being an irritant, it must be remembered that after the anæsthesia the lameness is somewhat more marked than before. To the cocaine other practitioners add morphia in the following proportions: Cocaine hydrochlorate 2-1/2 grains. Morphia 1-1/2 " Aqua destil 1-1/2 drams. As a diagnostic this mixture of the two is said to be far superior to either cocaine or morphia alone. In connection with this subject, Professor Hobday has published, among others, the following cases illustrating the practical value of this method of diagnosis:[A] [Footnote A: The _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_ vol. viii., pp. 27, 43.] CASE I.--Cab gelding. Seat of lameness somewhat obscure; navicular disease suspected. Injected 2 grains of cocaine in aqueous solution on either side of the limb, immediately over the metacarpal nerves. _Five Minutes_.--Lameness perceptibly diminished. _Ten Minutes_.--Lameness scarcely perceptible. CASE II.--Mare. Obscure lameness; foot suspected. Injected 30 minims of a 5 per cent. solution on either side of the leg just above the fetlock. _Ten Minutes_.--No lameness, thus proving that the seat of lameness was below the point of injection. CASE III.--Cab gelding, aged, free clinique; Messrs. Elme's and Moffat's case. Obscure lameness; foot suspected of navicular disease; very lame. Injected 30 minims of a 5 per cent. solution of cocaine on either side of the leg over the metacarpal nerves. _Six Minutes_.--Lameness perceptibly less; there was no response whatever on the inside of the leg to the prick of a pin. On the outside, which had not been injected so thoroughly, there was sensation, although not so much as in a healthy foot. _Ten Minutes_.--Lameness had almost disappeared; so much so, that the opinion as to navicular disease was confirmed, and neurectomy was performed. Immediately after this operation there was no lameness whatever. The same author also reports numerous cases among horses and cattle, dogs and cats, pointing out the toxic properties of the drug. The symptoms following an overdose are interesting enough to relate here, and I select the following case of Professor Hobday's as being fairly typical:[A] [Footnote A: _Loc. cit_.] CASE IV.--Cart gelding. Free clinique; navicular disease. Injected subcutaneously over the metacarpal nerves on each side 6 grains of cocaine in aqueous solution. During the operation the animal manifested no signs of pain whatever, not even when the nerve was cut. This animal received altogether 12 grains of cocaine (3 grains were given on either side first, then fifteen minutes afterwards the same dose repeated). The effect was manifested on the system in ten minutes after the second injection by clonic spasms of the muscles of the limbs (the legs being involuntarily jerked backwards and forwards at intervals of about twenty seconds), which materially interfered with the performance of the operation. The animal was also continually moving the jaws, and was very sensitive to sounds, moving the ears backwards and forwards. This hyperæsthesia, as evinced by the movement of the ears, lasted for some considerable time after the animal had been allowed to get up. Cocaine hydrochlorate solutions, if intended to be kept for any length of time, should have added to them when freshly made 1/200 part of boric acid in order to preserve them. Even then they are liable to spoil, and should, for subcutaneous injection, be made up just before needed for use. CHAPTER V GENERAL REMARKS ON OPERATIONS ON THE FOOT A. METHODS OF RESTRAINT. Many of the simple operations on the foot, such as the probing of a sinus, the paring out of corns, or the searching of pricks, may most suitably be performed with the animal's leg held by the operator as a smith holds it for shoeing. According to the temperament of the animal, even the operation for the removal of a portion of the sole, or the injection of sinuses with caustics, may be carried out with the animal simply twitched. When the operation is still a simple one, casting inconvenient or impossible, and the animal restive, the twitch must be supplemented by some other method. The most simple and one of the most effective is the blind, cap, or bluff (Fig. 38). With it the most vicious animal or the most nervous is in many instances either cowed into submission or soothed into quietness. At the same time, more forcible means than the operator's own strength must be taken to hold the animal's foot from the ground. If the foot is a fore-foot, and the point desired to be operated on is to the outside, the pastern should be firmly lashed to the forearm by means of a thin, short cord, or a leather strap and buckle. Much may then be done in the way of paring and probing that would otherwise be impossible. [Illustration: Fig. 38--The BLIND.] [Illustration: Fig. 39--THE SIDE-LINE.] If the foot is a hind one, one of the many methods of using what is termed by Liautard, in his 'Manual of Operative Veterinary Surgery,' the plate-longe, must be adopted. This, in its most useful form, is a length of closely-woven cotton webbing, from about 2 to 2-1/2 inches wide, and from 5 to 6 yards long, provided with a small loop formed on one of its ends, and perhaps better known to English readers as a 'side-line.' If webbing be not available, a length of soft cotton rope, or a rope plaited and sold for the purpose, as Fig. 39, will serve equally well. One of the most convenient methods of using the side-line for securing the hind-foot is depicted in Figs. 40 and 41. [Illustration: FIG. 40.--THE SIDE-LINE ADJUSTED PREPARATORY TO SECURING THE NEAR HIND-FOOT.] [Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE NEAR HIND-FOOT SECURED WITH THE SIDE-LINE.] Here the side-line has formed upon it a loop sufficiently large to form a collar. This is placed round the animal's neck, the free end of the line run round the pastern of the desired foot, and the foot drawn forward, as in Fig. 40. The loose end of the line is then twisted once or twice round the tight portion, and finally given to an assistant to hold (see Fig. 41). The foot is thus held from the ground, and violent kicking movements prevented. Where the operation is a major one, restraint of a distinctly more forcible nature becomes imperative. Many of the more serious operations can most advantageously be performed with the patient secured in some form or other of stock or trevis, and the foot suitably fixed. It is not the good fortune of every veterinary surgeon, however, to be the lucky possessor of one of these useful aids to successful operating. Perforce, he must fall back on casting with the hobbles (Fig. 42). [Illustration: FIG. 42.--CASTING HOBBLES.] With the use of these we will assume our readers to be conversant, and will imagine the animal to be already cast. It remains, then, but to detail the most suitable means for firmly fixing the foot to be operated on. Here the side-line is again brought into use. Care should previously have been taken when casting to throw the animal so that the portion of the foot to be operated on, whether inside or outside, falls uppermost, and that the buckle of the hobble on that particular foot is placed so that it also is within easy reach when the animal is down. In the case we are illustrating the point of operation was the outside of the near hind coronet. We will, therefore, describe the mode of fixing the near hind-foot upon the cannon of the near fore-limb. [Illustration: FIG. 43.--PHOTOGRAPH ILLUSTRATING METHOD OF ADJUSTING THE SIDE-LINE PREPARATORY TO FIXING THE HIND-LEG UPON THE FORE.] The side-line is first adjusted as follows: It is fixed upon the cannon of the near hind-leg (A) by means of its small loop. From there it is passed under the forearm of the same limb, over the forearm, under the rope running from A to B; from there over and under the thigh, to be finally brought in front of the thigh, and below the portion of rope running from arm to thigh. The loose end of the side-line is then given to an assistant standing behind the animal's back, the buckle of the hobble restraining the foot unloosed, and strong but steady traction brought to bear from behind upon the line. The operator should now stand in front of the fore-limbs, and, by placing a hand on the rope passing round the arm, prevent the line from slipping below the knee. By this means the hind-limb is pulled forward until the foot projects beyond the cannon of the front-limb. When that position is reached, the operator grasps the hock firmly with one hand, and, directing the side-line to be slackened, gently slides downward the coils of rope round the arm and thigh until they encircle the cannons of both limbs. The cannon of the hind-limb is firmly lashed to the cannon of the fore, and the foot firmly and securely fixed in the best position for operating (see Fig. 44). [Illustration: FIG. 44.--PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING THE NEAR HIND-FOOT SECURED UPON THE CANNON OF THE NEAR FORE-LIMB.] Similarly, with the horse still on his off side, the off hind-limb may be fixed to the near fore, and the near fore and the off fore to the near hind. With the animal on his near side, we may fix the near hind and the off hind to the off fore, and the off fore and near fore to the near hind. The points to be remembered in fixing the limbs thus are: (1) The side-line should always commence upon the cannon of the limb to be operated on; (2) it should next pass under and over (or over and under, it is immaterial which) first the arm and then the thigh, or the thigh and the arm, as the case may be; (3) in every case, whether rounding the thigh and the arm from above or below, the piece of rope completing the round should always finish below that portion preceding it, so that traction upon it from behind the animal's back should tend to keep all portions of it from slipping below the knee and the hock. With the uppermost fore-limb secured to the hind-limb in the manner we have described, we have the underneath fore-limb suitably exposed for both the higher and lower operations of neurectomy. The position for this operation will be made better still if the lowermost limb (the one to be operated on) is removed from the hobbles and drawn forward by an assistant by means of a piece of rope fastened to the pastern. Taking what we have described as a general guide, other modifications of thus securing the foot will suggest themselves to the operator to meet the special requirements of the case with which he is dealing. Regarding the administration of chloroform, no description of the method is needed here, as it will be found fully detailed in most good works on general surgery. Where great immobility is needed, it is one of the most valuable means of restraint we have. Apart from that, its use in any serious operation is always to be advocated, if only on the score of humane consideration for the dumb animal helpless under our hands. B. INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED. In addition to those required for operations on the softer structures--such as scalpels, forceps, artery forceps, directors, scissors, etc.--the surgery of the foot demands instruments specially adapted for dealing with the horn. A great deal will depend upon the operator as to whether these are few or many. The average man of resource will deem a smith's rasp and one or two strong drawing-knives amply sufficient, and on no account should they be omitted from the list of those ready to hand. [Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE ORDINARY DRAWING-KNIFE.] The ordinary smith's drawing-knife (Fig. 45) is well known to almost everyone, and is well suited for much of the rougher part of the work. The careful following up of pricks, however, and some of the more special operations demanding removal of portions of the lateral cartilages call for instruments of a more delicate character and peculiar construction. These are to be found in the so-called sage-knife, and the modern (French) pattern of drawing-knife. [Illustration: FIG. 46. _a, b_, Modern forms of drawing-knife; _c, d, e_, sage-knives.] The modern drawing-knife differs from the smith's instrument in being attached to a straight, instead of a curved, handle, and in usually being sharp on both edges instead of only on one. These are made in various sizes (Fig. 46, _a, b_), and the blades flat, curved on the flat, or curved at an angle with the edges of the haft. The sage-knife, as its name indicates, is a knife with a lanceolate-shaped blade. These also may be obtained in varying forms and sizes (Fig. 46, _c, d, e_). Fig. 46, _c_, is a single-edged, right-handed sage-knife. Fig. 46, _d_, is a left-handed instrument of the same type. The double-edged sage-knife is represented in Fig. 46, _e_. [Illustration: FIG. 47.--SYMES'S ABSCESS-KNIFE.] It may be mentioned too, in passing, that the ordinary Symes's abscess-knife (Fig. 47) is a most useful instrument when performing the operation of partial excision of the lateral cartilages, its peculiar shape lending itself admirably to the niceties of the operation. One or two good-shaped firing-irons will also be found useful. They will lighten the labour of tediously excavating grooves with the knife, where that procedure is necessary; and, used in certain positions to be afterwards described, will afford just that necessary degree of stimulus to the horn-secreting structures of the foot, which the use of the knife alone will not. The man in country practice will also be well advised in carrying to every foot case a compact outfit, such as that carried by the smith. This will consist of hammer and pincers, drawing-knife and buffer. Much valuable time is then often saved which would otherwise be wasted in driving round for the nearest smith. There are other special operations requiring the use of specially-devised instruments for their successful carrying out. These we shall mention when we come to a consideration of the operations in which they are necessary. C. THE APPLICATION OF DRESSINGS. One of the most common methods of applying a dressing to the foot is poulticing. Usually resorted to on account of its warmth-retaining properties, the poultice may also be medicated. In fact, a poultice, strongly impregnated with perchloride of mercury or other powerful antiseptic, is a useful dressing in a case of a punctured foot, or a wise preliminary to an operation involving the wounding of the deeper structures. The poultice may consist of any material that serves to retain heat for the longest time. Meal of any kind that contains a fair percentage of oil is suitable. Crushed linseed, linseed and bran, or linseed-cake dust are among the best. To prepare it, all that is necessary is to partly fill a bucket with the material and pour upon it boiling water. The hot mass is emptied into a suitable bag, at the bottom of which it is wise to first place a thin layer of straw, in order to prevent the bag wearing through, and then secured round the foot. This is generally done by means of a piece of stout cord, or by straps and buckles fastened round the pastern and above the fetlock. An improved method of fastening has been devised by Lieutenant-Colonel Nunn: 'A thin rope or stout piece of cord about 5 feet long is doubled in two, and a knot tied at the double end so as to form a loop about 5 or 6 inches long, this length depending on the size of the foot (as at A, Fig. 48). The poultice or other dressing is applied to the foot, and the cloth wrapped round in the ordinary way, the loop of the cord being placed at the back of the pastern (as in A, Fig. 49); the ends of the cord are passed round, one on the inside and the other on the outside, towards the front (as in B, Fig. 49). These ends are then twined together down as far as the toe (see C in Fig. 49). The foot is now lifted up, and the ends of the cord (CC, Fig. 49), are passed through the loop A (as at D, Fig. 49), and then drawn tight. The ends of the cord are now separated, and carried up to the coronet (as at EE, Fig. 49), one on the outside, the other on the inside of the foot. They are then again twisted round each other once or twice (as at F, Fig. 50), and are passed round the pastern once or twice on each side. They are now passed under the cord (E, Fig. 49), and then reversed, so as to tighten up E, and are finally tied round the pastern in the usual manner. The arrangement of the cords on the sole is shown in Fig. 51, which is a view from the posterior part. [Illustration: FIGS. 48, 49, 50, 51.--ILLUSTRATING LIEUTENANT-COLONEL NUNN'S METHOD OF APPLYING A POULTICE TO THE FOOT.] 'The advantages of this method of fastening have been found to be: (1) It does not chafe the skin; (2) if properly applied it has never been known to come undone; (3) it is the only way we know that a poultice can be satisfactorily applied to a mule's hind-foot; (4) horses can be exercised when the poultice is on the foot, which is almost impossible with the ordinary leather boot; (5) the sacking or canvas does not cut through so quickly.' [Illustration: FIGS. 52, 53.--TWO FORMS OF POULTICE-BOOT.] A further method of applying the poultice is by using one of the poultice-boots made for that purpose (see Figs. 52 and 53). These have an objection. They are apt to be allowed to get extremely dirty, and so, by carrying infective matter from the foot of one animal to that of another, undo the good that the warmth of the poultice is bringing about. The advantage of the ordinary sacking or canvas is that it may be cast aside after the application of each poultice. Where the boot is kept clean, however, it will save a great deal of time and trouble to the attendant. While on the subject of poulticing, it is well to remark that in many cases it may be more advantageous to supply the necessary warmth and moisture to the foot by keeping it immersed in a narrow tub of water maintained at the required temperature. By this means the warmth is carried further up the limb (sometimes an important point), and the water can more conveniently be medicated with whatever is required than can the poultice. In fact, it is the author's general practice, where the attendants can be induced to take the necessary pains, to always advise this latter method. [Illustration: FIG. 54.--SWAB FOR APPLYING MOISTURE TO THE FOOT.] Where a dressing is relied upon by some practitioners on account of the warmth it gives, others, even in identical cases, will depend upon the effects of cold. This may be applied by means of what are called 'swabs.' In their simplest form swabs may consist only of hay-bands or several layers of thick bandage bound round the foot and coronet, and kept cool by having water constantly poured upon them. In many cases the form of swab depicted in Fig. 54 will be found more convenient. When only one foot is required to be dressed, and a water-supply is available, by far the preferable method is to attach one end of a length of rubber tubing to the water-tap, and fasten the other just above the coronet, allowing the water to trickle slowly over the foot. In cases where a forced water-supply is unobtainable, and the case warrants the extra trouble, much may be done with a medium-sized cask of water placed somewhere over the animal, and the rubber tubing connected with that. Where the dressing is desired to be kept applied to the sole and frog only, there is no method more satisfactory than the shoe with plates. [Illustration: FIG. 55.--THE SHOE WITH PLATES. _A_, The plates in position; _B_, the plates separated from the shoe.] [Illustration: FIG. 56.--THE QUITTOR SYRINGE.] The plates are of metal, preferably of thin sheet iron or zinc, and are slipped between the upper surface of the shoe and the foot after the manner shown in Fig. 55. The plates themselves are shaped as depicted in Fig. 55, _a, b, c, a_ and _b_ curved to meet the outlines of the shoe, and _c_ shaped so as to wedge tightly over the posterior ends of the side plates, and between them and the shoe. A distinct advantage of the plate method of dressing is that a certain amount of pressure may be maintained on the sole and frog, a very important consideration in connection with some of the diseases with which we shall later deal. When dealing with sinuous wounds of the foot, another favourite mode of applying dressings is by means of the syringe, and no better instrument for all cases can be found than that known as a quittor syringe (Fig. 56). A further mode of applying dressing, and one frequently practised in connection with the foot, is known as 'plugging.' This is almost sufficiently indicated by its name. It consists in rolling portions of the dressing into little cylinders, wrapped round with thin paper, and introduced into a sinus or other position where considered necessary. D. PLANTAR NEURECTOMY. As a last resort in the treatment of many diseases of the foot the operation of neurectomy is often advised. It will be wise, therefore, to insert a description of the operation here. _Derivation of the Word_.--For many years the operation was known simply as 'nerving' or 'unnerving,' and it was not until 1823, at the suggestion of Dr. George Pearson, that Percival introduced the word _neurotomy_ to signify the operation with which we are now about to deal. The word neurotomy, however, used strictly, means the act or practice of dissection of nerves, and, when applied to the operation as practised to-day, describes only a step in the procedure. As the operation really consists in cutting down upon, and afterwards excising a portion of the nerve, the modern appellation of _neurectomy_--from the Greek _neuron_, a nerve; and _tome_, a cutting, signifying the cutting out of a nerve or the portion of a nerve--is far more suitable. According as the nerve operated on is the plantar or the median, the operation is known as plantar or median neurectomy. _History of the Operation_.--It is to two English veterinarians that we owe the introduction of the operation to the veterinary world. In 1819 Professor Sewell announced himself as the originator of neurotomy. This claim was disputed by Moorcraft, who appears to have successfully shown himself to be the real person entitled to that honour, he having satisfactorily performed the operation on numerous animals for fully eighteen years prior to Professor Sewell's announcement. It appears that Moorcraft left this country for India in 1808, having practised the operation in more or less obscurity for some six or seven years previous to that. After his departure neurectomy, as introduced by him, either died away in repute, or was not made by him sufficiently public to become a matter of general knowledge. To Professor Sewell, therefore, although not the actual originator of the operation, belongs the honour of making it public to the veterinary profession. In 1824, five years after Sewell's introduction, we find it practised on the Continent by Girard. We gather, however, from the writings of Percival and Liautard, that both in this country and on the Continent the operation was for several years largely in the stage of experiment. Unsuitable subjects were operated on; the work afterwards given to the animal improperly adjusted to his altered condition; and the bad after-results of the operation almost ignored by some, and greatly exaggerated by others. In fact, some long time elapsed before veterinary surgeons allotted to the operation that measure of credit which the results following it warranted. _The Object of the Operation_ is to render the foot insensitive to pain, and to give to an otherwise incurably lame animal a further period of usefulness. After the operation, as time goes on, this object may become defeated by the reunion of the divided ends of the nerve. In that case, neurectomy must necessarily be performed again. _The Operation_.--Two forms of neurectomy are recognised--the high operation and the low. The low operation deals with the posterior digital branch of the plantar nerve, and the high operation with the plantar itself. It is the latter operation with which we shall deal first. In our opinion it is that most likely to be followed by satisfactory results. The area supplied by the posterior digital is mainly the posterior portion of the digit. Thus, unless the cause of the lameness is diagnosed with certainty to be situated somewhere in the posterior region of the foot, section of the posterior digital alone will not give total insensibility to pain. Added to that, we may remember this: Below the point at which the digitals branch off from the plantar there is always more likelihood of the part we are attempting to render insensible being supplied by another and adventitious branch, or a branch that, as regards its direction, is abnormally distributed. As a last consideration, we may say that the higher operation is the easier to perform. Percival, in his works on lameness, has some very sage remarks to make by way of a preliminary, and we cannot do better than quote them here. He says: 'To command success in neurectomy three considerations demand attention: '1. The subject must be fit and proper; in particular, the disease for which neurectomy is performed should be suitable in kind, seat, stage, etc. '2. The operation must be skilfully and effectually performed. '3. The use that is made of the patient afterwards should not exceed what his altered condition appears to have fitted him for. 'The veterinarian who is guided by considerations such as those will find that he has restored to work horses who would otherwise have been utterly useless. A plain and safe argument wherewith to meet the objections to neurectomy is simply to ask the question what the animal is worth, or to what useful purpose he can be put, that happens to be the subject of such an operation. 'If the horse can be shown to be still serviceable and valuable, then he is not a legitimate subject for the operation. The rule of procedure I have laid down is to operate on no other but the _incurably lame horse_; and whenever this has been attended to, not only has success been the more brilliant, but indemnification from blame or reproach has been assured.' _Preparation of the Subject_.--But little in the way of medicinal preparation is necessary. When the animal is a gross, heavy feeder, and carries a more than ordinary amount of cupboard, all that is needed is to withhold his usual allowance of food for some time prior to the operation, simply to avoid risk of rupture when casting. If considered advisable, a dose of physic may also be administered. To the seat of operation, however, careful attention should be given. On the day previous to the operation the hair should be closely removed with the clipping machines, and the skin thoroughly cleansed with warm water and soap. After this, a bandage soaked in a 4 per cent, watery solution of carbolic acid should be wrapped lightly round the limb, and allowed to remain in position until the animal is cast and ready for the operation the following morning. On removing the bandage prior to operating, the part should again be bathed with a cold 5 per cent. solution of carbolic acid and swabbed dry. Attention to these details will serve to leave the wound in that favourable condition in which it heals nicely, and with the minimum amount of trouble. _Preliminary Steps_.--By some practitioners the operation is performed with the animal standing, local anæsthesia having been first obtained by the use of cocaine, or an ethyl chloride spray. There is no gainsaying the fact, however, that the operation of neurectomy is a painful one, and that, with most operators, success will be more fully guaranteed with the animal cast and the limb held in a suitable position by an assistant. The animal is thrown by the hobbles upon the side of the leg which is to be operated on. The cannon of the upper fore-limb is then fixed to the cannon of the upper hind, as described under the section of this chapter devoted to the methods of restraint, and the lower limb freed from the hobbles and drawn forward by an assistant by means of a stout piece of cord round the pastern. An alternative method of holding the limb is to bind both fore-legs together above the knee by means of the side-line run round a few times in the form of the figure 8, and then fastened off. As in the former method, the lower foot is then removed from the hobble, and again held forward by an assistant. By either method the inside of the limb is operated on first. [Illustration: FIG. 57.--THE ESMARCH RUBBER BANDAGE AND TOURNIQUET.] Although it is not absolutely necessary, it is an advantage, especially to the inexperienced operator, to apply before operating an Esmarch's bandage and tourniquet (Fig. 57). This expels the greater part of the blood from the limb, and renders the operation comparatively bloodless. [Illustration: FIG. 58.--RUBBER TOURNIQUET WITH WOODEN BLOCK.] The Esmarch bandage is composed of solid rubber, and with it the limb is bandaged tightly from below upwards. On reaching the knee the tourniquet is stretched round the limb, fastened by means of its buckle and strap, and the bandage removed. Those who feel they can dispense with the bandage use the tourniquet alone. For this purpose the form depicted in Fig. 58, and the one in general use at the Royal Veterinary College, is more suitable, on account of its wooden block, which may be placed so as to press on the main artery of supply. [Illustration: Fig. 59. NEURECTOMY BISTOURY.] _Instruments Required_.--These should be at hand in an earthenware or enamelled iron tray containing just sufficient of a 5 per cent. solution of carbolic acid to keep them covered. Those that are necessary will be a sharp scalpel, or, if preferred, one of the many forms of bistoury devised for the purpose (see Fig. 59), a pair of artery forceps, a needle ready threaded with silk or gut, one of the patterns of neurectomy needle (see Fig. 60), and a pair of blunt-pointed scissors curved on the flat. It is also an advantage, when once the incision through the skin is made, to employ one of the forms of elastic, self-adjusting tenacula (see Fig. 61) for keeping the edges of the wound apart while searching for the nerve. [Illustration: FIG. 60. NEURECTOMY NEEDLE.] _Incision through the Skin_.--We remember that the plantar nerve of the inner side is in close relation with the internal metacarpal artery, and that both, in company with the internal metacarpal vein, run down the limb in close proximity with the inner border of the flexor tendons. Also, we remember that the external plantar nerve has no attendant artery, although, like its fellow, it is to be found in close touch with the edge of the flexor tendons. Bearing these landmarks in mind, we feel for the nerve in the hollow just above the fetlock-joint by noting the pulsations of the artery, and determining the edge of the flexor tendons. This done, a clean incision is made with the bistoury or the scalpel in the direction of the vessels. The incision should be made firmly and decisively, so that the skin may be cleanly penetrated with one clear cut. If judiciously made, little else in the shape of dissection will be needed. [Illustration: FIG. 61.--DOUBLE TENACULUM.] It is now that the double tenaculum (Fig. 61) is applied. One clip is fixed to the anterior edge of the wound, and the other carried beneath the limb and made to grasp the posterior edge. If found desirable to keep the edges of the wound apart, and no tenaculum to hand, the same end may be accomplished by means of a needle and silk. In like manner as is the tenaculum, the silk is attached to one edge of the wound, carried under the limb, and firmly secured to the other. Having made the incision, the wound should be wiped free from blood by means of a pledget of cotton-wool previously soaked in a carbolic acid solution and squeezed dry. At the bottom of the wound will now be seen the glistening white sheath, containing the vein, artery, and nerve. This should be picked up with the forceps, and a further incision made with the bistoury. Care should be exercised in making this second incision, or the artery may accidentally be opened. If an ordinary scalpel is used, the lower end of the sheath should be picked up and the point of the scalpel inserted through it. With the cutting edge of the scalpel turned towards the opening of the wound, the sheath is then slit from below upwards. The second incision satisfactorily made, the wound is again wiped dry, and the nerve seen as a piece of white, curled string in the posterior portion of the wound. At this stage it is advisable to accurately ascertain whether what we have taken to be the nerve actually is it. This is done by taking it up with the forceps and giving it a sharp tweeze. A sudden struggle on the part of the patient will then leave no doubt in the operator's mind that it is the nerve he has interfered with. _Section of the Nerve_.--The neurectomy needle (Fig. 60) is now taken, and, excluding the other structures, passed under the nerve. A piece of stout silk or ordinary string is then threaded through the eye of the needle, the needle withdrawn, and the silk left in position under the nerve. The silk is now tied in a loop, and the nerve by this means gently lifted from its bed. With the curved scissors or the scalpel it is severed as high up as is possible. The lower end of the severed nerve is then grasped firmly with the forceps, pulled downwards as far as possible, and then cut off. At least an inch of the nerve should be excised. The animal is then turned over, and the opposite side of the limb operated on in the same manner. The tourniquet is now removed, and the wound is examined for bleeding vessels. If the hæmorrhage is only slight, the wound should be merely dabbed gently with the antiseptic wool until it has stayed. A larger vessel may be taken up with the artery forceps and ligatured, or the hæmorrhage stopped by torsion. On no account, unless it it done to stay hæmorrhage that is otherwise uncontrollable, should the wound be sutured with blood in it. With the wound once dry and clean, it is well to insert three or four silk sutures, but care must be taken not to draw them too tightly. This done, the patient may be allowed to get up. _After-treatment_.--This is simple. Over each wound is placed a pledget of antiseptic cotton-wool or tow, and the whole lightly covered with a bandage soaked in an antiseptic solution. For the first night the animal should be tied up short to the rack, and the following morning the bandages removed. A little boracic acid or iodoform, or a mixture of the two combined with starch (starch and boracic acid equal parts, iodoform 1 drachm to each ounce) should now be dusted over the wounds, the antiseptic pledgets renewed, and the bandage readjusted over all. At the end of three or four days the bandages may be dispensed with. All that is necessary now is an occasional dusting with an antiseptic powder, and, as far as possible, the restriction of movement. At the end of a week the sutures may be removed, and the animal turned into a loose box or out to pasture. E. MEDIAN NEURECTOMY. As a palliative for lameness when confined to the foot, one would imagine that the plantar operation would be all sufficient. There are operators, however, who state that the results following section of the median nerve have been such as to cause them to entirely abandon the lower operation in its favour. If only for that reason a brief mention of the operation must be made here. The operation was first performed in this country in October, 1895, the subject being one of the out-patients at the Royal Veterinary College Free Clinique. For five or six years following this date Professor Hobday performed the operation some several hundred times, and was certainly instrumental in bringing the operation into prominence. Though so recently introduced here, it appears to have been practised for several years on the Continent, originating in Germany as early as 1867. In that country a first public account of it was published in 1885 by Professor Peters of Berlin, while in France it was introduced by Pellerin in 1892. In this operation a portion of the median nerve is excised on the inside of the elbow-joint just below the internal condyle of the humerus. Here the nerve runs behind the artery, then crosses it, and descends in a slightly forward direction behind the ridge formed by the radius. The position of the limb most suitable for the operation is exactly that we have described as most convenient for the plantar excision. The animal is cast, preferably anæsthetized, and the limb removed from the hobbles, and held as far forward as is possible by an assistant with the side-line. Professor Hobday's description of the operation is as follows: 'A bold incision is made through the skin and aponcurotic portion of the pectoralis transversus and panniculus muscles, about 1 to 3 inches (depending on the size of the horse) below the internal condyle of the humerus, and immediately behind the ridge formed by the radius. This latter, and the nerve which can be felt passing over the elbow-joint, form the chief landmarks. The hæmorrhage which ensues is principally venous, and is easily controlled by the artery forceps. In some cases I have found it of advantage to put on a tourniquet below the seat of operation, but this is not always advisable, as it distends the radial artery. We now have exposed to view the glistening white fascia of the arm, which must be incised cautiously for about an inch. This will reveal the median nerve itself situated upon the red fibres of the flexor metacarpi internus muscle. If not fortunate enough to have cut immediately over the nerve, it can be readily felt with the finger between the belly of the flexor muscle and the radius.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. ix., p. 181.] The nerve exposed, the remainder of the operation is exactly as that described in removing the portion of the nerve in the plantar operation. The wound is sutured and suitably dressed, and a fair amount of exercise afterwards allowed the patient. F. LENGTH OF REST AFTER NEURECTOMY. This is placed by the majority of surgeons at about three weeks to a month. Within that period no excessive exertion should be undergone by the patient. A certain amount of quiet exercise, however, is beneficial, facilitating the healing of the wounds, and accustoming the animal to the altered condition of his limb. G. SEQUELÆ OF NEURECTOMY. These we shall relate collectively, making no distinction between those following excision of the plantar nerve and those succeeding section of the median. It must be remembered by the surgeon, however, that the unfortunate sequelæ we are now about to describe are likely to be far more grave when following section of the larger nerve. _Liability of Pricked Foot going undetected_.--On account of the warning they convey to the surgeon, first place among the sequelæ of neurectomy must be given to accidents following loss of sensation. Take, for example, punctured foot. In any case, in the sense of being unforeseen, it is accidental. In the neurectomized foot it becomes doubly accidental, in that not only is it unforeseen, but that it is for some time indiscoverable. With the foot deprived of sensation, a nail may be picked up, or a prick sustained at the forge, and no intimation given to the attendant until pus has underrun the horn, and broken out at the coronet. What follows, then, is that the hoof as a whole, or the greater part of it, sloughs off. No neurectomy should be undertaken unless this contingency has been allowed for. The owner should be advised of it by the surgeon, who should at the same time enjoin on his client the absolute necessity of giving to the neurectomized foot daily and careful attention. _Loss of Tone in the Non-sensitive Area_.--In addition to the mischief resulting from a wound going undetected, it must be remembered that the loss of tone resulting from the operation gives to every wound (however slight), in the region supplied by the removed nerve, a sluggish and troublesome character. Difficult to deal with as wounds about the foot ordinarily are, they are rendered more so by a previous neurectomy. _Gelatinous Degeneration_. This is a condition liable to occur in cases where the operation has been too long deferred, and when considerable structural alteration has already taken place in the shape of diseased bone or tendon, more especially in navicular disease. It consists in a peculiar softening of the structures of the limb, accompanied with enlargement, due to swelling of the connective tissues, the enlargement and softening generally making itself first apparent by a soft, pulpy swelling in the hollow of the heel. From this onwards the enlargement increases, and lameness becomes excessive, the animal going more and more on his heels, until, finally, no portion of the solar surface of the foot comes to the ground at all. The case is hopeless, and destruction should be advised. _Reported Case_.--'The patient, a brown carriage gelding, was brought to the Royal Veterinary College infirmary in a cart on December 31, the only previous history obtainable being that it had suddenly fallen lame a month before. 'The symptoms presented were excessive lameness of the near fore-limb. On being trotted, the toe was elevated each time the foot reached the ground, progression being entirely on the heels. Separation of the hoof for about 2 inches at the hinder part of the coronet; oedematous swelling from foot to knee, extending during the next three days to the elbow. Great tenderness between the knee and the fetlock; below this no sensation whatever, as a pin was inserted in several places round the coronet without causing any symptoms of pain. On further examination, two unnerving scars were found. No treatment was adopted, and the horse was destroyed on January 6. 'On dissecting the leg, the following appearances presented themselves: 'The limb was very much enlarged, due to thickening of the connective tissue, the skin being removed only with difficulty. The tendons were soft and much thickened. A rupture of the skin at the coronet, just where the skin meets the wall of the foot. Large extravasations of blood at the back of the tendons, situated in the lower half. _External_ nerve trunk had become reunited, at the point of junction there being a hard lump about the size of a walnut. _Internal_ nerve trunk also had become reunited, and presented a thickened portion at the point of junction, but not so large as that of the outer side, and situated in the lower half of the tendon, about 2 inches higher than that on the external nerve. This nerve trunk was atrophied below the thickening, and had undergone gelatinous degeneration. Judging from the scars on the skin, this side had evidently been unnerved a week or ten days previously to that on the outer side. The band stretching across the back of the perforatus, between the external and internal nerves, appeared on the inside to have become firmly fixed into the tendon. 'On removing the hoof, under the sole there appeared a large quantity of very foetid pus; the laminæ were very much inflamed in patches. There was an enormous thickening of connective tissues in the heel. On cutting longitudinally through the perforatus tendon, there was exposed a large blood-coloured mass, of a gelatinous appearance, situated on the perforatus tendon, the latter being very much thickened, and growing to the navicular bone. The underneath surface of the superior suspensory ligament was much thickened, and firmly adherent to the bone; at the posterior surface of the metacarpus there was a quantity of gelatinous substance. The anterior ligament of the fetlock-joint was thickened; the navicular bone was entire, but showed lesions of navicular disease, being ulcerated. Section through the bone did not reveal anything further. It may be here remarked that the ulcerations were on either side of the central ridge, and not at all on the ridge itself. 'Microscopic examination of the tissue joining the two ends of the nerve together revealed a few nerve fibres; the general appearance was that of granulation tissue, containing capillary vessels, which were fairly plentiful, and comparatively large in size.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. iv., p. 386 (Hobday)] _Chronic Oedema of the Leg_.--In some cases there is a distinct swelling of the leg some time after the operation. This exposes the limb to the infliction of sores from striking with the opposite foot, with, of course, the difficulty in healing we have just described. _Persistent Pruritus_.--This annoying sequel occurs in the neurectomized limb, with or without gelatinous degeneration, and appears to be without a remedy. The itching in some cases is so intense as to lead the animal to constantly gnaw at the top of the foot. As one observer has remarked, the animal may begin literally biting pieces out of his limb. The result of the irritation and gnawing is fatal. Great sloughing of the parts takes place, and the animal has eventually to be slaughtered. _Fracture of the Bones_.--The sudden loss of sensation in a foot may cause the animal to use violently the limb he has for months past been carefully nursing. It may be that the lameness for which the operation has been performed has been due to disease existing in the navicular bone, and extending, perhaps, to the os pedis. By the disease the bone has already been made brittle, its substance and ligamentous attachments perchance weakened and broken up by a slow-spreading caries, and rarefaction of the remaining bone substance rendered almost certain. In this instance, the free use of the foot, and the application to the diseased structures of an unwonted pressure immediately after the operation results in fracture. With the rupture of the structures we get the elevated toe and soft swelling in the heel, as described in gelatinous degeneration. Treatment, of course, is out of the question. _Neuroma_.--A further sequel is the appearance at the seat of the operation of what is termed an 'amputational neuroma.' This is a tumour-like growth occurring on the end of the divided nerve. It is composed of connective-tissue elements permeated by nerve fibres which have grown out from the axis-cylinders of the nerve stump. It may vary in size from a pea to a hazel-nut, and is frequently the cause of much pain. This must be cut down upon and cleanly removed, taking away at the same time as much of the nerve as is possible. _Reunion of the Divided Nerve_.--We may say at once that 'reunion' in the popular sense of the word does not take place. At a varying period after section, however, we do get a return of sensation. This is brought about in the following manner: The axis-cylinder of the nerve, still in connection with the spinal cord, swells somewhat, and hypertrophies. The cells of this hypertrophied portion show a great tendency to proliferate and produce new nerve structure. This growing point splits, and gives rise to several fibrils, which are new axis-cylinders. These commence to grow towards the periphery, and, in so doing, grow through the cicatricial tissue that has formed at the seat of the operation. After passing through the cicatricial tissue (the amount of which tissue, of course, controls the length of time that insensibility remains), the growing axis-cylinders reach the degenerated portions of the nerve below the point of section. It is along the track of the old nerve that the new growths from the stump reproduce themselves. The fact of the new growths having to pass through the fibrous tissue of the cicatrix before they can gain the course of the old nerve, along which latter their progress of growth is comparatively easy, affords ample illustration that as large a portion as is possible of the nerve should be removed when operating, in order to convey insensibility for the longest time. After reunion, of course, nothing remains but to repeat the operation. _The Existence of an Adventitious Nerve-supply_.--While not exactly a sequel of the operation, the fact that it is not discovered until after the operation has been performed warrants us in mentioning it here. It is not an uncommon thing in the lower operation to find that sensation and symptoms of lameness still persist after section of the nerve. In many cases this has been traced to the existence of an abnormal nerve branch. In the higher operation this is not so likely to be met with. That it may occur, however, is shown by the following interesting case related by Harold Sessions, F.R.C.V.S.:[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. xii., p. 343.] 'In June of 1898 I saw a hunter suffering from navicular disease. After carefully examining the leg, I advised the owner to have the operation of neurectomy performed upon him. This he decided to do, and the horse was sent to me about the beginning of July. [Illustration: FIG. 62.--DISSECTED EXTERNAL METACARPAL NERVE AND BRANCHES. _a_, Metacarpal; _b_, anterior plantar; _c_, extra branch (probably from the internal metacarpal), conveying sensation after division of the external metacarpal.] 'The operation was performed in the ordinary way, without any difficulty whatever. The wounds healed nicely, but the horse still continued to go lame. Careful examination showed that there was still sensation on the outside of the foot. Thinking that possibly there might be two external metacarpal nerves, the horse was again cast, the operation being performed slightly lower down. Only the main branch of the external metacarpal nerve could be found. A piece of this was taken out, and the horse let up. On examination, sensation was still found in the posterior part of the outside of the foot. It was very evident that there was some abnormal distribution of the nerve, as sensation was still being conveyed to that part of the foot. 'As the horse was absolutely useless, and would have to be shot unless this piece of nerve could be found, he was again thrown, and after he had been anæsthetized I determined to follow the course of the nerve down, until I found where the accessory branch came from. This I found a little below the fetlock, about 1/2 inch below the point where the anterior plantar nerve is given off from the metacarpal nerve. It was about 1/2 inch below the spot where the anterior plantar nerve passes between the artery and vein of the foot, and it was somewhat difficult to get at it. 'Fig. 62 shows the exact size and distribution of the nerves. After the separation of the accessory branch, sensation was taken from the foot, and the horse went perfectly sound.' _Stumbling_.--In addition to the sequelæ we have mentioned, it is urged against the operation of neurectomy that one of the first effects of depriving the foot of the sense of touch is a tendency on the part of the animal to stumble. From the cases we have seen we cannot regard this objection as a serious one. Nevertheless, as veterinarians, with a knowledge of the physiology of the structures with which we are dealing, we must treat the objection with respect, for, after all, we are bound to allow that stumbling, and a bad form of it, would be but a natural sequence of the operation we have just performed. The real fact remains, however, that cases of stumbling, even immediately after the operation, are rare; and that even when they do occur, the animal seems easily able to accommodate himself to the altered condition, and as readily uses the comparatively inert mass at the end of his limb as he did previously the intact foot. H. ADVANTAGES OF THE OPERATION. From the prominence we have given to the unfortunate sequelæ of the operation it might possibly be inferred that, while not giving it our absolute condemnation, we regard neurectomy with a certain amount of distrust. That we may contradict any such false impression, we state here that in many cases the operation is the only measure which will offer relief from pain, and restore to work an otherwise useless animal. In support of that we will now quote the recognised advantages of the operation. That in many cases, when all other methods--surgical and medicinal--have failed, there is an immediate and total freedom from pain and lameness no one will deny. This, if it restores to active work an animal that would otherwise have had to have been cast aside, is ample justification for giving the operation, in spite of its many unfortunate terminations, a real place among the more highly favoured remedial measures to our hand. 'For _Contracted Hoofs_, viewing them in the light of idiopathic disease, or as being the immediate cause of the existing lameness in the uninflamed condition of the foot, and when consequential changes of its organism have taken place which bid defiance to therapeutic measures, _neurotomy_ is a _warrantable resource_' (Percival). 'For _Ringbone_ neurotomy has been practised with perfect success, after blistering and firing had both failed, notwithstanding the work the animal had to perform afterwards was of the most trying nature' (_ibid_.). For _Navicular Disease_, when that malady is diagnosed, the earlier neurectomy is performed the better. The greater work given to the diseased bursa and bone, and the return of the contracted heels to the normal, brought about by the greater freedom with which the foot is used, are claimed by many to effect a cure. Writing of navicular disease, and mentioning his belief in the possibility of the diseased bone effecting its own repair after the operation, Harold Leeney, M.R.C.V.S., says: 'The expansion of the heel, and rapid development of the frog (in this and many other cases) immediately after the operation, has not, I venture to think, attracted so much attention as it deserves, and may have something to do with those cases which appear to be actually _cured_, not merely made to go sound by absence of pain.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xi., p. 297.] Speaking of the median operation before a meeting of the Central Veterinary Medical Society, Professor Hobday says:[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiii., p. 427.] 'For old-standing lamenesses, when due to splints, exostoses, chronically sprained, thickened, and painful perforans and perforatus tendons, or cases of that kind which cause pain by pressing on the adjacent nerve structures, after all other known methods have failed, median neurectomy is the operation which will be most likely to give the animal a new lease of life and usefulness.' 'Of the _Humanity and Utility of Neurectomy_ there can be no question whatever, and provided the cases are well selected, and the operation is efficiently performed, the advantages to be derived from it are most striking as well as enduring. But the disadvantages attending the loss of sensation in the foot have been brought forward on many occasions as an argument against neurectomy, and no one can deny that the foot with sensation is better than one without that faculty. But in a long experience of the operation I have never found these disadvantages outweigh the great advantages which have immediately followed it.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. ix., p. 178 (Fleming).] Beyond these, the direct advantages of neurectomy, are other and more indirect advantages which claim attention. The most astonishing among them is the fact noted by many writers of repute that exostoses (ringbones, side-bones, splints, etc.) rapidly diminish in size. This is vouched for by such well-known authorities as Zundel and Nocard. Percival, too, mentions at some length the effect of the removal of pain on the oestral and generative functions, quoting a case of a brood cart-mare by reason of bony deposits being stayed from breeding for some years. Two months after the operation she went to work, and moved sound, her altered condition leading her to breed several healthy foals. I. THE USE OF THE HORSE THAT HAS UNDERGONE NEURECTOMY. No operation is of any considerable value to the veterinary surgeon unless he is able to show that after it he has left his patient workable. The alleviation of pain alone, commendable as it is from a humanitarian standpoint, is of no interest to the average owner of horse-flesh, unless with it he sees his animal capable of justifying his existence by the amount of labour performed. Criticised in this way, is the operation of neurectomy justifiable? Upon that point the opinions of many practitioners, even at the present day, differ. We have already partly answered the objections likely to be raised on this score by stating that the work afterwards allotted the animal should be fixed to suit his altered condition. It may be taken as a general rule that in all cases where the animal's usefulness depends upon his delicacy of touch, as, for example, animals used solely for hacking or hunting, his future usefulness in that special sphere of work will be done away with. Percival himself, always a strong advocate for the operation, fully recognises this. 'Does the neurotomized horse maintain the same step as before?' he asks. 'To this important question,' he replies, 'I unhesitatingly answer no; he does not. There can be no doubt but that the horse _feels_ the ground upon which he is treading, and that he regulates his action in consonance with such feeling, so as to render his step the least jarring and fatiguing to himself, and therefore the easiest and pleasantest to his rider.... Such impressions'--those of touch--'being in the neurotomized subject, so far as regards the feeling of the foot, altogether wanting, a bold, fearless projection of the limb in action will be the consequence, followed by a putting down of the hoof flat upon the ground, as though it were a block, creating a sensation alike unpleasant both to horse and rider.' Emphatic as Percival is upon this point, there are, nevertheless, others who maintain with equal stoutness that the unnerved animal is positively as safe, if not safer, than the animal who has not been so treated. 'That the tactile sense in the horse's foot is useful, it would be idle to deny; but that it is absolutely essential, even to safe progression, no one who has paid attention to the results of plantar neurectomy will maintain. On several occasions for years I have hunted, hacked, and driven horses which have been deprived of sensation in their fore-feet, and never had an accident with them. Their action has not been impaired by the operation; on the contrary, it has been vastly improved compared with what it had been previous to it. And my opinion has not been single in this respect, as many competent horsemen can give like evidence after long and severe trials of neurotomized horses. The opponents of neurotomy were, probably, not aware that there is in progression a _muscular_ as well as a _tactile sense_.' This latter contention is supported by numerous cases, reported at the time when the operation of neurectomy was at the heyday of its popularity. Two I select from writings of a later period: _Recorded Cases_.--1. 'Two of the finest among the many fine horses in the Second Life Guards were so lame from navicular disease, when I joined the regiment, that they were unsafe and unsightly to ride, and were therefore entered on the list to be cast off and sold. One was so crippled that it could scarcely be moved out of its stable. Peeling sorry at having to get rid of such good horses, and anxious to give another blow to the mistaken theory that unnerved animals were unsafe, I obtained the consent of my commanding officer, who patronizes practical conclusions, to perform neurotomy. This was carried out on both horses about eighteen months ago. Within a fortnight they were at their duty, absolutely free from lameness, and with first-rate action, and one of them, from being troublesome and unsteady in the ranks--probably from the pain in its feet--had become quite steady and tractable. Instead of being lame, blundering, and unsafe, both were sound, free in movement, and secure, and, the pain being abolished, they looked improved in condition. 'During the month of July the regiment attended the summer drills at Aldershot, and five days every week for a month these horses carried a weight of about 22 stones each over the roughest and most dangerous ground, nearly always at a fast pace, and for four, five, or six hours each day; and yet they never fell or blundered, and the troopers who rode them had unbounded confidence in their sure-footedness. They returned to Windsor, at the end of the month's severe test, as sound in their paces as when they left, and certainly now offer no indication whatever that they are less safe to ride than any other horse in the regiment. The effects of the relief from pain are also most marked, not only in the altered gait out of doors, but also in the stable.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal, vol_. ix., p. 178 (George Fleming, F.B.C.V.S.).] 2. 'Some years ago I operated upon a valuable hunter, the property of a gentleman in Kildare, the animal having shown unmistakable symptoms of navicular disease for some months previously, and which had been unsuccessfully combated by the milder forms of treatment for the disease without any benefit. Although the horse went sound, the owner feared to ride him, and sent him to be sold in Dublin, where he was disposed of for a small price, and I then lost sight of him. The following Punchestown Races, to my surprise, amongst a group of horses walking round the paddock previous to saddling for an important race, I recognised my old patient, bandaged, clothed, and trained, ready to take his part in the cross-country contest, and surrounded by a host of admirers willing to back him at any price. 'Having satisfied myself that it was no other than the same animal, my first impulse was at once to find out the jockey who was to ride him, and warn him of his danger by telling him his mount was devoid of feeling in both fore-feet; but the saddling-bell had already rung, and in a few moments more the jockey emerged from the weighing-room and the next view of the horse was his tearing up the course in the preliminary, and "pulling double." I was sorry for the jockey if he felt as I did at that moment, for if he did I fear he and his horse would have parted company at the first fence, as I was certain there would be a smash before the end of the long and difficult three miles of the Kildare Hunt Cup course. It was not until I saw him again in the front rank passing the stand, in the first round, that I breathed freely, and even then I felt very guilty, and, had he come to grief badly, I don't think I should ever have operated on another horse except in such a way as would have left unmistakable traces after it. '"The old horse wins!" screamed a thousand voices as the competitors safely cleared the last bank (now taken away for a gorse fence) the last time round, and from that moment the operation went up in my estimation a hundredfold, and I almost lost all interest in the finish (and it was a close one, with my patient a good third), resolving I would operate for the future on every animal, young and old, which showed symptoms of navicular disease. 'Neither owner nor jockey knew the horse had been operated on, and he was soon after, on the strength of his performance, sold for a good price to come to England. It is idle to think that all cases are as successful as this was, as experience soon told me; but I consider that, in careful hands, the advantages well outweigh the disadvantages of the operation, and I have selected this instance merely as a practical example.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. iii., p. 254 (W. Pallin, M.B.C.V.S.).] It is solely with the object of ventilating both sides of the question that we quote the last two cases. In our opinion, the colours in which the results of the operation are there painted are far too rosy. The practitioner who has before him the task of satisfying a client as to what will or what will not be the results of an operation he has suggested will do well to weigh each side of the argument carefully, and endeavour in his explanation to strike the happy mean. We hold, further, that the animal who has previously been accustomed to fast work, and to work entailing a large call upon the sense of touch when passing over rough and uneven ground, will be far more likely, in his neurectomized condition, to give satisfaction to his owner if put to a slower and a more suitable means of earning his living. CHAPTER VI FAULTY CONFORMATION Under this heading we shall deal with such formations of the feet as depart sufficiently from the normal to render them serious. Faulty conformation may be either congenital or acquired, and acquired gradually as the result of slowly operating causes, or suddenly as the sequel to previous acute disease. Whether congenital or acquired, serious in its nature or comparatively of no account, the veterinary surgeon will often find that the matter of conformation is one which will have a direct bearing on many of his 'foot' cases, and, furthermore, that it is one upon which he will often be called to give advice. A. WEAK HEELS. _Definition_.--That condition of the wall in which, owing to the softness of the horn and the oblique direction of the horn fibres, the heels are unable properly to bear the body-weight, and, as a consequence, curve in beneath the sole. We give the condition first mention, not because of its greater importance, but for the reason that it is frequently the forerunner of the condition to be next described--namely, contracted feet. _Symptoms_.--The extreme point of the heel is not affected unless the foot has been greatly neglected, and the condition allowed to develop. Where, however, the foot has been uncared for, curving in of the wall takes place to an alarming degree, and the heels curl underneath the foot to such an extent as to grow over the sole and the bars. By the pressure they exert on the sole corns result, and the animal is lamed. _Causes_.--In the main this defect is hereditary. It is seen commonly in connection with flat-foot, and where the horn of the wall is thin and shelly. _Treatment_.--In the case of weak or 'turned in' heels no suitable bearing is offered for the shoe in the posterior half of the foot. Any attempt to induce the heels to bear weight is immediately followed by their bending in. It follows from this that the best shoe to be used here is one in which the bearing is confined to the anterior half of the wall, the heels being relieved by being sufficiently pared. As might be expected, this bearing on the anterior half only of the foot is insufficient; pressure must be given the frog. This latter end is best gained by a bar shoe (Fig. 68). With it the anterior portions of the wall, the whole of the bars, and the whole of the frog may be in contact, and the heels only so pared as to take no bearing at all. A few such shoeings sees the defect remedied. In every instance paring of the sole should be discouraged, as it serves but to increase the deformity. B. CONTRACTED FOOT. _(a)_ GENERAL CONTRACTION--CONTRACTED HEELS. _Definition_. By the term contracted foot, otherwise known as hoof-bound, is indicated a condition in which the foot, more especially the posterior half of it, is, or becomes, narrower from side to side than is normal. It must be borne in mind, however, that certain breeds of horses have normally a foot which nearer approaches the oval than the circular in form, and that a narrow foot is not necessarily a contracted foot. The contraction may be bilateral when affecting both heels of the same foot and extending to the quarters, or unilateral when the inside or outside heel only is affected. In some cases contraction is confined to one foot, while in others it may be noticed equally bad in both. It is a matter of common knowledge that contraction is usually seen in the fore-feet, while the hind seldom or never suffer from it, a fact which, to our minds, seems difficult of adequate explanation. Zundel explains this by stating that contraction is principally _observed_ in the fore-feet, by reason of the fact that when lameness arises from it alteration in action will more readily be detected in front than behind. Percival, on the other hand, suggests that the greater expansive powers of the hind-foot, by reason of the impetus of its action, is able to overcome any influence operating towards contraction. It may be, however, that given a cause for contraction, such as the removal of the frog's counter-pressure with the ground by faulty shoeing or excessive paring, the fore-feet, by reason of their being called upon to bear the greater part of the body-weight, are the first to suffer. Flat feet with weak heels are those most frequently affected, and, as we have already intimated, the condition may exist with or without other disease of the foot. Depending upon its degree, contracted foot may vary from a simple abnormality, non-inflammatory and painless, to a condition in which it becomes a veritable disease, giving rise to a bad form of lameness, and bringing about a withered and sometimes discharging and cankerous affection of the frog. _Symptoms_.--In its early stages contraction is difficult of detection, and where both feet are affected may for some time go unsuspected. With only one foot undergoing change, the early stages may the more readily be marked, for in this case comparison with the other and sound foot will at once reveal the alteration in shape. If lameness in the suspected foot is present, then any lingering doubt will be quickly dispelled. When far advanced, contraction offers signs that cannot well be missed. The converging of the heels narrows the V-shaped indentation in the sole for the reception of the frog. As a consequence of this, the frog itself becomes atrophied by reason of the _continual_ pressure exerted upon it by the ingrowing horn of the wall and the bars. The median and lateral lacunæ of this organ, from being fairly broad and open channels, become pressed into mere crack-like openings (see the commencing of this condition in Fig. 80, and a badly wasted frog in Fig. 74A). As the case goes on, the lateral branches of the frog entirely disappear, and all that is left of the organ is a remnant of its body or cushion, now wedged in tightly between the bars. Following upon the disappearance of the frog, we find that the bars are in contact, or, in some cases, actually overlapping each other at their posterior extremities. At this stage, perhaps, the whole condition has become aggravated by a foul discharge from the place originally occupied by the frog, and the foot, especially in the region of the heels, has become hot and tender--really a form of local and subacute laminitis. The long-continued inflammation, although only of a low type, renders the horn of the hoof hard and dry, and only with difficulty will the ordinary foot instruments cut it. This in its turn leads to cracks and fissures in various places, but more especially in the bars and what is left of the frog. Often, too, cracks will appear in the horn of the quarters, and a troublesome and incurable form of sand-crack results. An animal with contraction advanced as far as this, especially if confined to one foot, goes unmistakably lame. With both feet affected, he ordinarily starts out from the stable in a manner that is commonly called 'groggy.' In other words, the gait is uncertain, and feeling; and stumbling is frequent. Anyone who has had the misfortune to drive an animal with feet in this condition knows full well that every little irregularity in the road at once makes itself felt to the feet, and that the animal, as time goes on, learns to carefully avoid any suspicious-looking group of stones he may see. To drive an animal like this is to keep one's self continually on tenter-hooks, for, sooner or later, the inevitable happens, and the animal comes down. Up to now we have described the changes of form in the hoof as seen when the contracted foot is viewed from the solar surface. With those changes as evident as we have depicted them, there will be no difficulty in detecting the alterations in the form of the wall. In addition to a narrowing from side to side there will be noticed an abnormal straightness of the quarters, with a turning in, more or less sudden, of the heels. This effect is given in these cases by the smith maintaining the shoe of a length and width that should normally fit a foot of that particular animal's size and substance. This is probably done with the idea of deceiving anyone examining the solar surface. Viewed from this position, the width of the shoe at the heels gives the impression that it is attached to a foot of normal breadth. This deception is heightened if at the same time has been practised the process of 'opening up the heels.' That expression indicates that the bars have been removed, and the lateral lacunæ of the frog made to continue the concavity of the sole. The arch of the latter is thus made to appear of much greater extent than it really is, and the heels, by reason of their being abruptly cut off when removing the bars, also convey the false impression of being wide apart. The practitioner unversed in the tricks of the forge will best guard against this by viewing the foot, while on the ground, from behind. From that position he will be able to detect the lowness of the quarters, and the projecting portion of the shoe, that the hoof, by reason of its sudden bending inwards, does not touch. The 'feeling' manner of the gait before alluded to, together with the disinclination to put the foot firmly and squarely forward, will sometimes lead the examiner to over-look the contraction, and diagnose his case as one of shoulder lameness. In many cases, too, such consequent conditions as 'thrushy frogs' and 'suppurating corns' are often treated with utter disregard of the contraction that has really brought them about. But above all, the disease most likely to be confounded with simple contraction is navicular disease. More than probable it is that many cases of so-called 'navicular' have in reality been nothing more than contraction brought about by one or other of the causes we shall afterwards enumerate--cases where a due attention to the prime cause of the mischief would, in all likelihood, have remedied the lameness. _Changes in the Internal Structures_.--It follows as a matter of course that the changes we have described in the form of the hoof itself carry with them alterations in the bones and sensitive structures beneath it. The tissues, as a whole, become atrophied. The os pedis becomes deformed, loses its circular shape, and gradually becomes more or less oval in contour. At the same time, its structure becomes more compact, the cribriform appearance of its anterior and lateral faces more or less destroyed, and the few remaining openings apparently increased in size. This atrophy of the os pedis is best noted at the wings. In the plantar cushion the effects of the atrophy are noted in the smallness of the organ, in its becoming whiter in colour than normal, and more resistant to pressure. The coronary cushion is also affected in the same way, where the changes are noted most in its posterior portions. A further effect of the narrowing of the heels, and their consequent tendency to drop downwards, is the exertion of a continual pressure on the sensitive sole. In course of time, and especially in flat feet, this leads to the appearance of corns. The navicular bone and bursa and the tendon of the perforans also suffer from the effects of compression. The movement of the tendon is restricted, and arterial supply to the adjacent structures rendered deficient. The tissues of the bone and bursa are insufficiently nourished, and the secretion of synovia lessened. In this way it is conceivable that navicular disease may follow the condition of simple contracted heels. In common with the other structures, the lateral cartilages also suffer from the continual pressure. Their blood-supply is lessened, their functions interfered with, and side-bones result. _Causes_.--Upon the causation of contraction a very great deal has been written, both by early veterinarians and by those of the present day. Many and widely differing opinions have been advanced, but a careful résumé of only a few will lead one to certain fixed conclusions. We may consider the causes of contraction under two headings--predisposing and exciting. _Predisposing Causes of Contraction_.--Among these we will first mention heredity, although it is possible it should not be deemed of so great account as it is by some. That the shape of certain feet, especially those with low heels and abnormally sloping walls, predisposes to contraction no one will deny. So long, however, as the animal goes unshod, so long does the foot maintain a normal condition of the heels. In other words, it is not until the tendency to contraction already there is aggravated by careless shoeing and the effects of work that it operates to any noticeable extent. The degree of contraction will also be very largely governed by the amount of the development of the frog. With a frog of good size, low down, and taking part in the pressure of the foot on the ground, contraction will be prevented. On the other hand, an ill-developed frog, one wasted by long-continued and spreading thrush, or one robbed of its normal function by excessive paring in the forge, is a common starting-point of the condition we are considering. We have already referred to this in Chapter III., when considering the experiments of Lungwitz in this connection. What we have to bear in mind in these experiments is that the application of a pad to the frog, in such a manner that effective ground-pressure is obtained, results always in a marked expansion of the heels, and that, with counter-pressure with the ground absent, expansion occurs to little or no extent. This is proof positive of the enormous part the frog plays in maintaining an open and elastic condition of the heels--a fact so insisted on by Coleman. It is worthy of mention, however, that loss of the frog's function does not operate to nearly so serious an extent in horses with high, upright heels as in those with the heels low and excessively sloping. In illustrating this, Mr. Dollar, in his work on shoeing, mentions the case of a pair of trotting horses of similar age, size, and weight, each having weak fore-heels. In one case the hoofs were flat, in the other upright. The horse with the flat hoofs suffered from contraction, while the other did not. The reason appears to be that in the animal with upright hoofs the proportion of body-weight borne by the heels is considerably less than in those with the hoofs flat and sloping. Certain conditions of the horn-producing membranes also predispose to contraction. For example, in horses reared on marshy soils, and afterwards transferred to standing in town stables, we find that a dry and brittle condition of the horn supervenes. This we may regard as a low form of laminitis, brought about by the heat of the material upon which the animal is standing, and the congestion of the feet engendered by his enforced standing for long periods in one position, as opposed to the more or less continuous exercise when at pasture. With the hoof in this condition it loses by evaporation the moisture that normally it should contain, and, as we might expect, a certain degree of contraction of its structure is the inevitable result. We thus see that contraction brought about in this way is not so much caused by the heat of the stable, as it is by the decreased ability of the horn to retain its own moisture. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that excessive warmth and dryness combined tend also to an undue abstraction of moisture, even from the horn of the healthy foot; and this explains in great measure how it is that lameness, as a rule, and especially that proceeding from contracted heels, is far more frequent and of greater intensity in the hot, dry months of summer, than in the cooler and more humid atmosphere of winter. It is interesting to note, too, that an alternation of humidity and dryness is far more liable to injure the quality of the horn and tend to its contraction than the long-continued effects of dryness alone. A common illustration of this is to be found in the effects of the ordinary poultice. Everyone knows that when, after a few days' application, they are discontinued, we get as a result an abnormally dry and brittle state of the horn. This is doubtless due to the poultice removing the thin, varnish-like, and protective pellicle known as the periople, and thereby allowing the process of evaporation to act on the water normally contained in the hoof. _Exciting Causes of Contraction_.--Among these, first place must undoubtedly be given to shoeing. This does not necessarily imply shoeing more than ordinarily faulty, nor a faulty preparation of the foot, but shoeing as it is generally practised. No ordinary shoe, except a few devised for the purpose, such as the Charlier or the tip, allows the frog to come in contact with the ground. This we take to be the main factor in the causation of contracted heels, especially with a predisposition already present in the foot itself. In the words of Lungwitz: 'Regarded from this point of view, there is no greater evil than shoeing. It abolishes the necessary counter-pressure, and thus interferes with expansion. Bars, sole, and frog cannot perform the functions that naturally belong to them as they would do without the shoe.' In addition to the evil of the shoe itself, errors of practice in the forge contribute to the causation of contraction. Taking first the preparation of the foot, we find that often the heels are lowered far too much, and the toe allowed to remain too long. This can have but one effect--that of throwing a greater proportion of the animal's weight upon the heels than properly they should bear, with, what we now know to be the consequence of that, a corresponding pushing inwards and downwards of the horn; in other words, contraction. Excessive paring of the bars, to which we have already partly alluded, is also an active agent in bringing about an inward growth of the horn of the heels and quarters. The bar, or inflexion of the wall at the heel, by means of its close contact with the frog, communicates the outward movements of that organ to the wall of the hoof. With the bar removed, the outward movements of the frog under pressure are naturally rendered of no account, and a proper and intermittent expansion of the wall denied it. The same evil follows, though to a less extent, excessive paring of the sole. The shape of the bearing surface of the shoe is often to be blamed. Where this is concave--'seated'--and the 'seating' is carried back to the heels, it is easy to see that, when weight is on the foot, there is an ever-present tendency for the bearing edge of the wall to slide down towards the inner edge of the shoe. This tendency, operating on both the inner and outer wall simultaneously, must strongly favour contraction. A further wrong practice is that of continuing the nailing too far towards the heels. In our opinion this is not now often met with. When it occurs its effect is, of course, to prevent those movements of expansion of the wall which we now know to be normal and most marked at the heels. It may be remarked of the build of the shoe, or of errors in the preparation of the foot, that neither are of much moment. Neither are they. But when one stays to consider that errors of this description are practised not only once, but each time the horse goes to the forge, and that with some of them--those relating to the build of the shoe--the injury thereby brought about is inflicted not only once, but every day that particular shoe is worn, then it is not to be wondered at that, sooner or later, ill consequences more or less grave result. _Prognosis_.--This will depend to a very large extent upon the conformation of the limb, and upon the previous duration of the contraction. Contraction of long standing, where atrophy of the sub-lying, soft structures and the pedal bone may be expected, will prove obstinate to treatment. Especially will this be so if the lateral cartilages have become ossified. Neither may we look for much benefit from treatment if the contraction has occurred in animals with an oblique foot axis and flat hoofs. On the other hand, if the case is comparatively recent, if the limb is straight and the form of the hoof is upright, and if matters are uncomplicated by side-bones, or other serious alteration in the internal structures, then treatment may be rewarded with some measure of success. [Illustration: FIG. 63.--TIP SHOE. The dotted portions represent the length of the branches removed.] _Treatment_.--The greater part of the treatment of contracted foot will almost suggest itself as a corollary of the causes we have enumerated. The normal width of the heels may be renewed, and development of the wasted frog brought about by one of three methods: 1. By restoring the pressure from below to the frog. 2. By the use of an expansion shoe. 3. By operative measures upon the horn of the wall. 1. _By Restoring the Pressure from Below to the Frog_. This may be accomplished as follows: _(a) By Shoeing with Tips_.--This method is advocated by Percival, by A.A. Holcombe, D.V.S., Inspector. Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S.A., by Dollar in his work on horseshoeing, and by many others. Though requiring more care than in fitting the ordinary shoe, the application of a tip is simple. In reality, the tip is just an ordinary shoe shortened by truncating the heels. Before applying the tip, the horn of the wall at the toe should be shortened sufficiently to prevent any undue obliquity of the hoof, and the foot should be so prepared as to allow the heels of the tip to sink flush with the bearing edge of the wall behind it. When the foot does not allow of the removal of much horn at the toe, what is termed a 'thinned' tip is to be preferred. Its shape is sufficiently shown by the accompanying figure (Fig. 65). With the tip the posterior half of the foot is allowed to come into contact with the ground, and the object we are striving for--namely, frog pressure, and greater facilities for alternate expansion and contraction of the heels--is thus brought about. [Illustration: FIG. 64.--THE TIP SHOE 'LET IN THE FOOT.] [Illustration: FIG. 65.--THE THINNED TIP.] _(b) By Shoeing with the Charlier_.--The results brought about by the use of a tip may be arrived at by the application of a Charlier or preplantar shoe, or by a modified Charlier or Charlier tip. Briefly described, a Charlier is a shoe that allows the sole and the frog to come to the ground exactly as in the unshod foot. This is accomplished by running a groove round the inferior edge of the hoof by removing a portion of the bearing edge of the wall with a specially devised drawing-knife. Into this groove is fitted a narrow and somewhat deep shoe, made, preferably, of a mixture of iron and steel, and forged in such a manner that its front or outer surface follows the outer slope of the wall. The Charlier should have the inner edge of its upper surface very slightly bevelled, in order to prevent any pressure on the sensitive sole, and should be provided with from four to six nail-holes. These latter should be small in size and conical in shape. The nails themselves should be small, and have a conical head and neck, to fit into the nail-hole of the shoe. [Illustration: FIG. 66.--THE SPECIAL DRAWING-KNIFE (FLEMING'S) FOR PREPARING THE FOOT FOR THE CHARLIER SHOE.] The modified Charlier, or Charlier tip, perhaps the better of the two for the purpose we are describing, is really a shortened Charlier, and bears the same relation to the Charlier proper as the tip does to the ordinary shoe. It is let into the solar surface of the foot in exactly the same manner as its larger fellow, but it does not extend backwards beyond the commencement of the quarters. By its use greater opportunity for expansion is given to the heels than is done by the Charlier with heels of full length. [Illustration: FIG. 67.--FOOT PREPARED FOR THE CHARLIER SHOE.] We do not here intend to deal at any length with the arguments for and against the Charlier as regards its adoption for general use. These will be found fully set out in any good work on shoeing. The point that it is correct in theory it would be idle to attempt to evade; but that it is generally practicable, or that it offers any very pronounced advantages, as compared with the disadvantages urged against it, over the shoes in ordinary use, the limited favour it has drawn to itself, since its introduction in 1865, seems sufficiently to deny. _(c) By the Use of a Bar Shoe_.--Where the frog is not excessively wasted benefit will be derived from the use of a bar shoe. [Illustration: FIG. 68.--BAR SHOE.] The transverse portion at the back, termed the 'bar,' and which gives the shoe its name, is instrumental in bringing about from below that counter-pressure on the frog that we now know to be so necessary a factor in remedying contraction. When the frog, by wasting or disease, is so deficient as to be unable to reach the 'bar,' this shoe must be supplemented by a leather or rubber sole. In the event of corn or sand-crack existing with the contraction, the shoe known as a 'three-quarter bar' is preferable (see Fig. 103). The break here made in the contour of the shoe allows of dressing the corn, and, in the case of sand-crack, removes the bearing from that portion of the wall. _(d) By the Use of a Bar Pad and a Heelless or 'Half' Shoe_.--The bar pad consists of a shape of rubber composition firmly fixed to a leather foundation, which shape of rubber takes the place of the 'bar' of the bar shoe. [Illustration: FIG. 69.--RUBBER BAR PAD ON LEATHER.] [Illustration: FIG. 70.--THE BAR, PAD APPLIED WITH A HALF-SHOE.] For habitual use in such cases as prove obstinate to treatment, or where a complete cure was never from the commencement expected, the bar pad is undoubtedly one of the most useful inventions to our hand. The animal's 'going' is improved, the tender frog is protected from injury by loose stones, and greater comfort given to both the horse and the driver. [Illustration: FIG. 71.--FROG PAD.] [Illustration: FIG. 72.--FROG PAD APPLIED.] _(e) By the Use of a Frog Pad and a Shoe of Ordinary Shape_.--The shape of rubber on this pad is designed to cover the frog only. Its shape and mode of application is sufficiently shown in the accompanying illustrations. _(f) By turning out to Grass_.--Where the expense of keep is no object, a return of contracted feet to the normal may be brought about by removing the shoes and turning the animal out to pasture, thus giving the feet the advantages to be derived from a more or less continuous operation of the normal movements of expansion and contraction. In this case the treatment must extend from three to four, or possibly six months. 2. _By the Use of Some Form of Expansion Shoe_. [Illustration: FIG. 73.--SMITH'S EXPANSION SHOE SEEN FROM ITS GROUND SURFACE AND FROM THE SIDE. _a_, The screw, with a fine-cut thread; _b_, nut which travels along it; _c_, a hollow thimble into which the screw passes at one end, the other being cut out V-shaped to catch into a slot (_d_) on the shoe; _e, e_, the grip[A] for the bars, the length and direction of which depend upon the shape of the foot; _f, f_, the counter-sunk rivets forming the hinge (_f_'); _g_, the counter-sunk rivet of the expanding piece.] [Footnote A: The inventor of this shoe uses the word 'grip' to denote what, in describing other expansion shoes, we term the 'clip' (H.C.R.).] _(a) Smith's_.--For many years past continental writers have been practising this method. So far as we know, however, Lieutenant-Colonel Fred Smith was the first English veterinarian to use a shoe of his own devising, and to report on its effects. This shoe we will, therefore, give first mention. The above figure, with its accompanying letterpress, sufficiently explains the nature of the shoe. In fitting the shoe, care must be taken to have the hinges (_f, f_) far enough back, or the shoe will have a tendency to spring at the heels, and the grips _(e, e)_, which catch on the bars, will have a difficulty in biting. This trouble will be avoided by having the hinges about 1-1/2 to 2 inches from the heels. After the shoe has been firmly nailed to the foot, the travelling nut _b_ is driven forward on the screw _a_ so as to cause the grips to just catch on the inside of the bars of the foot. According to the inventor, the amount of pressure to be exerted must be learned by experience, and he says: 'I screw up very gradually until I see the cleft of the frog just beginning to open. I now trot the horse up, and if he goes sound it is certain that the pressure I have exercised will not give rise to trouble. The animal is sent to work to assist in the expansion of the foot. On examining the shoe next day, the grip is found to be quite loose, the foot has enlarged, and the nut is turned once more until the grip on the bars is tightened, the horse being again trotted to ascertain that no injurious pressure is exerted. 'Every day or two I repeat this process, making measurements in all cases before widening the heels. The increase in width of the foot which results is astonishing, 1/4 to 3/8 inch during the first week may be safely predicted, and in a month to six weeks it is impossible to recognise in the large healthy frog and wide heels, the shrivelled-up organ of a short time before.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. v., p. 98.] It is pointed out by the writer of the above (and his observations, doubtless, apply to the use of all other expansion shoes in which the bars are gripped and forcibly expanded) that the whole secret of success lies in avoiding injurious pressure by exerting too great an expansion at one operation. After each manipulation of the expanding apparatus the horse should trot sound and the frog remain cool. Should the foot become hot, and lameness supervene, then tension should at once be relaxed. _Recorded Cases of the Use of the Shoe_.--The inventor of the shoe relates two cases of contracted foot treated by these means in which the heels of one, after thirty-nine days' treatment, had increased in width to the extent of 1 inch, and the heels of the other, after twenty-four days', had enlarged 5/8 inch. Of the first case he gives the drawings in Fig. 74. A represents the foot before treatment; B the same foot after nine days' treatment, when the heels had widened 3/4 inch; and C the same foot at the end of the thirty-nine days' treatment, at which date the frog was an excellent-looking one, and the foot had increased an inch in width.[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. v., p. 100] [Illustration: FIG. 74.--THE CHANGES IN FORM OF A CONTRACTED FOOT TREATED WITH SMITH'S EXPANSION SHOE] In 1893, at a meeting of the Midland Counties Veterinary Medical Association, the late Mr. Olver said he had applied this shoe to a valuable hunter that had gone so lame that he could scarcely put his foot to the ground. After a fortnight's application, and by the assistance of the double screw in the shoe, the heel was forced out. Then the horse was put to work with the shoe on, and he had hunted the whole of the last season in a perfectly sound condition.[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. vi., p. 143] F.D. McLaren, M.R.C.V.S., writes:[A] 'I resolved to try one of Captain Smith's shoes in a case where the hoof was badly contracted, and where the frog had entirely disappeared, there being also slight lameness. The roof rapidly expanded, and every other day the nut was moved on a bit to keep the cross-piece tight. I then had the cross-piece bent downwards a little _to prevent the nut pressing on the rapidly-growing frog_.[B] After another fortnight or so, I had a shoe made with clips resting against the inside of the bars,[C] and the next time he was shod these were also dispensed with. It is now a year ago since the animal recovered his frog, and he still has the largest frog in the stable, and the hoof shows no sign of contraction.' [Footnote A: _Ibid_., vol. vi., p. 183] [Footnote B: The italics are mine (H.C.R.).] [Footnote C: The expanding shoe itself was here evidently dispensed with, and an ordinary shoe with bar-clips used in its stead (H.C.R.).] _(b) De Fay's_.--Among other shoes of the expansion class may be mentioned that of De Fay. Like the preceding, it is a shoe with a flat bearing surface, and provided with bar-clips. It is, however, _un_ hinged. The requisite degree of periodic expansion is in this case arrived at by a forcible widening of the heels of the shoe, accomplished by bending the substance of which it is made, and for this purpose the instrument illustrated in Fig. 75 is employed. The foot is first properly trimmed by levelling the heels and thinning the sole on each side of the frog. The shoe is then fixed by nails in the ordinary manner, taking care that the last nails come not too far back, and that the clips rest evenly and firmly on the inside of the bars. The dilator, hoof-spreader, or vice, as it is variously called, is then applied, its two jaws (_a_ and _b_) fitting against the inner edge of the shoe at the heels. Careful note is taken of the width of the hoof as measured on the graduated scale (_e_, _e_), and the double screw (_g_, _h_) revolved by means of the wrench (k), until the opening of the jaws thus obtained registers an expansion of 1/12 to 1/8 inch. The dilatation is repeated at intervals of from eight to ten days, until, at the expiration of a month or six weeks, the amount of total expansion of the heels registers nearly an inch. That the method requires the greatest care may be gathered from the reports of continental writers. They state that frequently the pain and consequent lameness keep the patient confined to the stable for several days. Numerous and but slightly differing forms of the dilator are on the market. As in principle they are all essentially the same, and are to be found illustrated in any reliable instrument catalogue, they need no description here. [Illustration: FIG. 75.--DE FAY'S VICE.] _(c) Hartmann's_.--A further useful expansion shoe is that of Hartmann's (Fig. 76), in that it may be adapted for either unilateral or bilateral contraction. This shoe is also provided with bar-clips, and forcibly expanded at the heels by means of a dilator. The expansion is governed by saw-cuts through the inner margin of the shoe directed towards its outer margin, and running only partially through the inner half of the web (see Fig. 76). According as the contraction is confined to the inner or outer heel, the saw-cuts, one or two in number, are placed to the inner or outer side of the toe-clip. When the contraction is bilateral, the saw-cuts, one or more in number, are placed on each side of the toe-clip. _(d) Broué's_.--This is one of the forms of so-called 'slipper' shoes (see Fig. 77). We have already indicated that the shape of the bearing surface of the ordinary shoe--by its 'seating' or sloping from outside to inside--is sometimes a cause of contraction. In the 'slipper' of Broué this bearing is reversed, and the slope is from inside to outside. In the original form of this shoe the slope to the outside was continued completely round the shoe. Experience taught that the strain this enforced upon the junction of the wall with the sole was injurious, and that the 'reversed seating,' if we may so term it, was best confined to the hinder portions of the shoe's branches. [Illustration: FIG. 76. This figure illustrates the principle of the Hartmann expanding shoe. _a, a_, The clips to catch the inside of the bars; _b, c_, saw-cuts.] The amount of slope should not be excessive. If it is, too rapid and too forcible an expansion takes place, and pain and severe lameness results. Dollar gives the requisite degree of incline by saying that the outer margin of the bearing surface of the shoe should be from 1/12 to 1/8 inch lower than the inner. In the case of the Broué slipper, it is the animal's own weight that brings about the widening of the heels, the slope or outward incline of the slipper simply causing the inferior edge of the wall at the heels to spread itself outwards instead of sliding inwards on the bearing surface of the shoe. [Illustration: FIG. 77.--THE SLIPPER SHOE OF BROUÉ.] _(e) Einsiedel's_.--Like the 'slipper' of Broué, the Einsiedel shoe depends for its effects upon the slope of the bearing surface. It differs from the Broué in being provided with a 'bar-clip.' This, in addition to gripping the bars like the bar-clips of other expanding shoes, also assists, under the body-weight, in expanding the heels by the pronounced slope given to its upper surface. The expanding force exerted by the body-weight falls thus, through the medium of the bar-clip, clip, _partly_ upon the bars, instead of, as in the Broué, solely upon the wall. We say _partly_ advisedly, for, in addition to the slope upon the outer side of the bar-clips, the bearing surface of the heels of the shoe is _slightly_ sloped outwards also. The good office served by the bar-clip is the lessening of any tendency to strain upon the white line. [Illustration: FIG. 78.--THE SLIPPER AND BAR-CLIP SHOE OF EINSIEDEL.] Those we have described by no means exhaust the number of expansion shoes that have been devised. There are numerous others, many of which are composed of three-hinged portions, the two hindermost of which are gradually separated by a toothed arrangement of their inner margins and a travelling bar, the disadvantage of which is that it is liable to work loose. In the majority of this class of shoe the hinges are placed far forward, one on each side of the toe. They there become exposed to excessive wear. In fact, against the bulk of this form of shoe it may be urged that they cannot be worn by the animal at work, that they are expensive, difficult to make, and easily put out of order. 3. _By Operations on the Horn of the Wall_. _(a) Thinning the Wall in the Region of the Quarters_.--This is best done by means of an ordinary farrier's rasp. The thinning should lessen gradually from the heel for 2-1/2 to 3 inches in a forward direction. That portion of the wall next to the coronary border, about 1/2 inch in breadth, should not be touched. At this point the thinning should commence, should be at its greatest, and lessen gradually downwards until at the inferior margin of the wall the normal thickness of horn is left. The animal is then shod with a bar shoe and the hoof bound with a bandage soaked in a mixture of tar and grease, in order to keep the thinned portion of the wall from cracking. In this condition the animal may remain at light labour. When possible, however, it is better to combine the thinning process thus described with turning out to grass. In this case the ordinary shoe is first removed, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours to render the horn soft. The foot is then prepared by slightly lowering the heels--leaving the frog untouched--and thinning the quarters in exactly the manner described above. After this is done, the animal is shod with an ordinary tip, a sharp cantharides blister applied to the coronet, and then turned out in a damp pasture. In this case the object of the tip is to throw the weight on to the heels and quarters. The thinned horn yields to the pressure thus applied, and a hoof with heels of a wider pattern commences to grow down from the coronet. Two to three months' rest is necessary before the animal can again he put to work.[A] [Footnote A: This is the treatment strongly advocated by A.A. Holcombe, D.V.S., Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S.A.] _(b) Thinning the Wall in the Region of the Toe_.--This is done with the idea that the tendency of the heels to expand under pressure of the body-weight is helped by the thinned portion at the toe allowing the heels to more readily open behind. Seeing that in the case of toe sand-crack the converse is argued--that contraction of the heels readily takes place and forces the sand-crack wider open--it is doubtful whether this method is of any utility in treating contracted heels. _(c) Grooving the Wall Vertically or Horizontally, and Shoeing with a Bar Shoe_.--Marking the wall with a series of grooves, each running in a more or less vertical direction, was suggested to English veterinarians by Smith's operation for side-bones. The manner of making the grooves, and the instruments necessary, will be found fully described in Section C of Chapter X. That the method is followed by satisfactory results the undermentioned case will show: 'A mare, which I have had in my possession since she was a foal, has always had contracted feet, which were also unnaturally small.... Lately the mare has been going very "short," and at length her action was quite crippled. At times she was decidedly lame on the off fore-foot. At no time have I been able to detect any sign of structural disease. I thereupon concluded that the lameness was due to mechanical pressure on the sensitive structures, and I determined to try the effects of the above treatment. As this was my first experience of the process, I was careful to carry it out in all its details, as described by Professor Smith. After the bar shoes had been put on, the mare was very lame. I allowed her two days' rest, then commenced regular walking exercise, and she daily improved. After fourteen days there was no lameness, but still short action. I thereupon gave the mare another week's walking exercise, at the expiration of which I drove her a short turn of five miles, which she did quite well, and free from lameness. For three months I kept the saw-cuts open to the coronet, and continued the bar shoes, keeping the mare at exercise, and giving her occasionally a drive. She never liked the bar shoes, and I was glad when I could discontinue them, which I did in the fourth month. When shod with the usual shoes the complete success of the treatment was shown. I have now had her going with the ordinary shoes for the past two or three months, and the improvement in the shape of the feet is very marked; there is no lameness; the mare is free in movement, fast, and spirited, whereas previously she was quite the reverse, and almost unfit to drive.'[A] [Footnote A: W.S. Adams, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xxx., p. 19.] This method, though but recently introduced to the English veterinary surgeon, is by no means new. According to Zundel, it was recently made known on the Continent by Weber, but was previously known and mentioned by Lagueriniere, Brognier, and Hurtrel d'Arboval. When the grooving is in a horizontal direction, a single incision is sufficient. This is made 3/4 inch below the coronary margin of the wall, and parallel with it, extending from the point of the heel for 2 or 3 inches in a forward direction. As in the previous method, a bar shoe is applied, and the animal daily exercised. Thus separated from the fixed and contracted portion of the wall below, the more elastic coronet under pressure of the body-weight commences to bulge. The bulging is of such an extent as to cause the new growing hoof from the top to considerably overhang the contracted portion below, and cure of the condition results from the newly-expanded wall above growing down in a normal direction. This consideration of contracted heels may be concluded by drawing attention to the advisability of always maintaining the horn of the wall in as soft and supple a condition as is natural by the application of suitable hoof dressings. A useful one for the purpose is that made with lard, to which has been added a small quantity of wax or turpentine. Especially should a dressing like this be used when the hoof is inclined to be hard and brittle, and where tendency to contraction has already been noticed. The application of a hoof ointment is also particularly indicated where the foot is much exposed to dampness, where the animal is compelled to stand for long periods upon a dry bedding, or where the bedding is of a substance calculated to have a deleterious effect upon the horn. This, in conjunction with correct shoeing, will probably serve to avoid the necessity for more drastic measures at a later time. _(b)_ LOCAL OR CORONARY CONTRACTION. _Definition_.--Contraction at the heels, confined to the horn immediately succeeding that occupied by the coronary cushion. Really, the condition is but a somewhat arbitrary subdivision of contracted hoof, as we have just described it in general. For that reason we shall give it but very brief mention. _Symptoms_.--In this case the horn of the heels, instead of running down in a straight line from the coronary margin to the bearing surface of the wall, presents a more or less distinct concavity (See Fig. 79, _a_, _a_). As is the case with contraction considered as a whole, this deformity may affect one or both heels; and during its first appearance, which is after the first few shoeings, the animal may go distinctly lame. _Causes_.--Coronary contraction may occur in hoofs of normal shape immediately shoeing is commenced, and frog pressure with the ground removed. It is far more likely to ensue, however, if the hoof is flat, with the heels low, and the wall sloping. And with those predisposing circumstances it is that the horse goes lame, and not with the hoof of normal shape. Seeing, then, that this condition is largely dependent upon the shape of the foot, we may, to some extent, regard it as hereditary. Seeing further, however, that it only appears when shoeing is commenced, we may in a greater degree also regard it as acquired. The lesson, therefore, that this and other forms of contraction should teach us is the carefulness with which the shoeing should be superintended in a large stud, or in any case where the animal is of more than ordinary value. [Illustration: FIG. 79.--HOOF WITH LOCAL OR CORONARY CONTRACTION (AS INDICATED AT THE POINTS _a, a_).] The explanation of the restricted nature of this form of contraction is simple enough. We have only to refer to the lessons taught by the experiments of Lungwitz, described in Chapter III., and the condition almost explains itself. We remember that, briefly, the coronary margin of the wall resembles a closed elastic ring, which yields and expands to local pressure, no matter how slight. We remember also that removal of the counter-pressure of the frog with the ground tended to contraction of the wall's solar edge when weight was applied. Connect these two facts with the experience that this form of contraction more often than not occurs in hoofs with sloping heels, and we arrive at the following: 1. The excessive slope of the heels tends to throw a more than usual part of the body-weight upon the posterior portion of the coronary margin of the wall, with a consequent expansion of that part of the coronary margin implicated. 2. That the shoeing, in removing the counter-pressure of the frog with the ground, is at the same time tending to bring about contraction of the lower portions of the wall at the heels and quarters. 3. That this tendency to contraction will at first appear in the thinner portion of the area of wall named--namely, in that immediately below the bulging coronary margin. We thus get the appearance depicted in Fig. 79--a contraction _(a, a)_ of the heels in the horn below the coronary margin, with the coronary margin itself bulging above, and a hoof of apparently normal width below. We say 'apparently' with a purpose, for, as actual measurements will show, the wall near the solar edge is really contracting, for reasons which we have just described connected with shoeing. Its 'appearance' of normal width is accounted for thus: The contraction at _a, a_ is caused by the dragging inwards of the coronary cushion brought about by the sinking downwards of the plantar cushion, with which body it will be remembered the coronary cushion is continuous. With the constant dragging in and down of the coronary cushion there is given, to the horn-secreting papillæ, studding both the lower third of its outer face and its lowermost surface, a distinct 'cant' outwards. Below the lowermost limit of the coronary cushion, then, by reason of the cant outwards of the coronary papillæ in the situations mentioned, the horn of the wall takes a more outward direction than normal, a fact which lessens in effect the contraction as a whole really going on. It is interesting, too, to note that by this outward cant of the wall below, and the bulging of the coronary margin above it, the contraction (_a, a_) is heightened in effect, and caused to appear greater than really it is. From what we have said it follows that contraction of the heels, excepting the extreme coronary margin, is existent generally, and not confined solely to _a, a_. We have, then, in this condition, as we indicated at the commencement, but a phase in the evolution of ordinary contracted heels, for, with the progress of the contraction already existing at _a, a_, and below those points, it is only fair to assume that with it falling in of the at present bulging coronary margin must sooner or later occur, that, though expanded when compared with the wall below it, it will be really contracted as compared with what it was once in that same foot. We may therefore conclude this section by remarking that factors tending to contraction of the heels in general are equally potent in the causation of contracted coronet alone. _Treatment_.--Exactly that described for contracted heels. Bearing in mind that contracted coronary margin is but the onset of contracted heels, and that its first exciting cause is that of removal of the ground-pressure upon the frog, the most careful attention must be paid to the shoeing. The use of bar shoes, ordinary frog pads, or heelless shoes and bar pads, are especially indicated, together with abundant exercise. By these means the normal movements of expansion will be brought into play, and the condition quickly remedied. C. FLAT-FOOT. _Definition_.--By this term is indicated a condition of the foot where the natural concavity of the sole is absent. _Symptoms_.--In the flat-foot the inferior edge of the wall, the sole, and the frog, all lie more or less in the same plane. It is a condition observed far more frequently in fore than in hind limbs, and is seen in connection with low heels, more or less obliquity of the wall, and a tendency to contraction. The action of the animal with flat feet is heavy, a result partly of the build of the foot, and partly of the tenderness that soon comes on through the liability of the sole to constant bruising. [Illustration: FIG. 80. This figure represents the lower surface of a typical flat-foot. It illustrates, too, the commencement of a condition we referred to in Section B of this chapter--namely, the compression of the frog by the ingrowing heels (b) and bars (a).] _Causes_.--Flat-foot is undoubtedly a congenital defect, and is seen commonly in horses of a heavy, lymphatic type, and especially in those bred and reared on low, marshy lands. It is thus a common condition of the fore-feet of the Lincolnshire shire. As might be expected, a foot of this description is far more prone to suffer from the effects of shoeing than is the foot of normal shape, and regarded in this light shoeing may be looked upon as, if not an actual cause, certainly a means of aggravating the condition. Directly the shoe--or at any rate the ordinary shoe--is applied, mischief commences. The frog is raised from the ground, and the whole of the weight thrown on to the wall. The heels, already weak and inclined to turn in, are unable to bear the strain. They _turn in_, and contraction commences. This 'turning in' of the heels is favoured by the undue obliquity of the wall. At the same time, the sole being archless, a certain amount of elasticity is lost. The weight is thrown more on to the heels, and the os pedis slightly descends, rendering the flatness of the sole even more marked than before. With the loss of elasticity of the sole concussion makes itself more felt. The animal is easily lamed, bruised sole becomes frequent, and corns sooner or later make their appearance. _Treatment_.--Flat-foot is incurable. All that can be done is to pay careful attention to the shoeing, and so prevent the condition from being aggravated. In trimming the foot the sole should not be touched; the frog, too, should be left alone, and the wall pared only so far as regards broken and jagged pieces. The most suitable shoe is one _moderately_ seated. If the seating is excessive, and bearing allowed only on the wall, there is a tendency for the wall to be pushed outwards, and for the sole to drop still further. On the other hand, if the seating is insufficient, or the web of the shoe too wide, and too great a bearing thus given to the sole, then we get, first, an undue pressure upon the last-named portion of the foot a bruise, and, finally, lameness. The correct bearing should take in the whole of the wall and the whole of the white line, and should _just impinge_ upon the sole. Above all, the heels of the shoe should be of full length, otherwise, if the shoe is worn just a little too long, its heels are carried under the sole of the foot, and by pressure there produce a corn. If, with these precautions in shoeing flat-foot, tenderness still persists, a sole of leather or gutta-percha must be used with the shoe. D. PUMICED-FOOT, DROPPED SOLE, OR CONVEX SOLE. _Definition_.--This term is applied to the foot when the shape of the sole is comparable to the bottom of a saucer. When least marked it is really an aggravated form of flat-foot. _Symptoms_.--In pumiced-foot the sole projects beyond the level of the wall. The obliquity of the latter is more marked than in the previous condition, and progression, to a large extent, takes place upon the heels. In addition to its deformity, the horn is greatly altered in quality, and, as the name 'pumice' indicates, is more or less porous in appearance, bulging, and brittle. _Causes_.--As a general rule, it may be taken that pumiced-foot is a sequel of previous disease, although in its least pronounced form it may occur as the result of accidental or other causes, such as those described in the causation of flat-foot. Occurring in its most marked form, there is no gainsaying the fact that pumiced-foot is a sequel of either acute or subacute laminitis. As we shall see when we come to study that disease, the dropping of the sole is brought about by distinct and easily-understood morbid processes affecting the sensitive structures. Briefly, these morbid processes in laminitis may be described thus: The accumulated inflammatory exudate, and in some cases pus, weakens and destroys the union between the sensitive and insensitive laminæ. This separation, for reasons afterwards to be explained, is greatest in the region of the toe. The os pedis, loosened from its intimate attachment with the horny box, is dropped upon the sole, and the sole, unable to bear the weight, commences to bulge below. The altered character of the horn is accounted for by the inflammatory changes in the sensitive laminæ and the papillæ of the keratogenous membrane generally, for it follows as a matter of course that these tissues, themselves in a diseased condition, must naturally produce a horn of a greatly altered and inferior quality. When following the _subacute_ form of laminitis, the changes characterizing pumiced-foot are slow in making their appearance. The animal at first goes short, and the lameness thus indicated gradually becomes more severe, until the animal is no longer able to work. The feet become hot and dry, the hoof loses its circular form, and the growth of horn at the heels becomes excessive. At this stage the appearance of bulging at the sole begins to make itself seen. Later, the outer surface of the wall becomes 'ringed' or 'ribbed,' the rings being somewhat closely approximated in the region of the toe, and the distance between them gradually widening towards the heels. The wall too, especially in the region of the toe, instead of running in a straight line from the coronary margin to the shoe, becomes concave. It is this change, together with the appearance of the rings, that indicates the loosening of the attachment of the os pedis to the wall, and its afterwards backward and downward direction (see Fig. 124). [Illustration: FIG. 81.--HOOF WITH THE RIBS OR RINGS CAUSED BY CHRONIC LAMINITIS.] As a sequel of _acute_ laminitis, these changes make their appearance with more or less suddenness, and are generally complicated in that they owe their occurrence to the formation of pus within the horny box. _Treatment_.--Pumiced-foot is always a serious condition. The animal is useless for work upon hard roads or town pavings, and is of only limited utility for slow work upon soft lands. The more serious form, that following acute laminitis, and complicated by the presence of pus, we may regard as beyond hope of treatment. With the more simple form of the condition, we may do much to render greater the animal's usefulness. The same principles as were applied to the shoeing of flat feet will have to be observed here. Trimming or paring of any kind, save 'straightening up' of the wall, must be severely discountenanced. A broad-webbed shoe, one that will give a certain amount of cover to the sole, is indicated. As in the treatment of flat-foot, however, direct pressure upon the sole must be avoided, and the shoe 'seated.' The 'seating,' however, should not commence from the absolute outer margin of the shoe's upper surface. A _flat_ bearing should be given to the wall and the white line, and the seating commenced at the sole. We have already remarked on the increased growth of horn at the heels. It is in this position, then, that will be found the greatest bearing surface for the shoe, and it is wise, in this case, to have the heels of the shoe kept flat. In other words, the 'seating' is not to be continued to the hindermost portion of the branches of the shoe. By this means there may be obtained at each heel a good solid bearing of from 2 to 3 inches, which would otherwise be lost. Where the accompanying condition of the horn is bad enough to indicate it, a leather sole should be used, beneath which has been packed a compress of tow and grease, rendered more or less antiseptic by being mixed with tar. Where the sole is exceedingly thin, and inclined to be easily wounded, and where the hoof, by its brittleness, has become chipped and ragged at the lower margin of the wall, it may perhaps be more advantageous to use, in place of the compress of tow, the _huflederkitt_ of Rotten. This is a leather-like, dark brown paste. When warmed in hot water, or by itself, it becomes soft and plastic, and may readily be pressed to the lower surface of the foot, so as to fill in all little cracks and irregularities, and furnish a complete covering to the sole and frog, and to the bearing surface of the wall. When cold it hardens, without losing the shape given to it, into a hard, leather-like substance. Treated in this way, the animal with pumiced feet may yet be capable of earning his living at light labour or upon a farm. E. 'RINGED' OR 'RIBBED' HOOF. _Definition_.--A condition of the hoof in which the wall is marked by a series of well-defined ridges in the horn, each ridge running parallel with the coronary margin. They are known commonly as 'grass rings,' and may be easily distinguished from the more grave condition we have alluded to as following laminitis, by the mere fact that they do not, as do the laminitic rings, approximate each other in the region of the toe, but that they run round the foot, as we have already said, _parallel with each other_. [Illustration: FIG. 82.--HOOF SHOWING THE RINGS IN THE HORN BROUGHT ABOUT BY PHYSIOLOGICAL CAUSES.] _Causes_.--This condition is purely a physiological, and not a pathological one, and the words of its more common name, 'grass rings,' sufficiently indicate one of the most common causes. Anything tending to an alternate increase and decrease in the secretion of horn from the coronet will bring it about. Thus, in an animal at grass, with, according to the weather conditions, an alternate moistness and dryness of the pasture, with its consequent influence on the horn secretion, these rings nearly always appear. The effects of repeated blisters to the coronet make themselves apparent in the same way, and testify to the efficacy of blisters in this region in any case where an increased growth of horn is deemed necessary. From this it is clear that the condition depends primarily upon the amount and condition of the blood supplied to the coronary cushion. Thus, fluctuations in temperature during a long-continued fever, or the effects of alternate heat and cold, or of healthy exercise alternated with comparative idleness, will each rib the foot in much the same manner. _Treatment_.--The condition is so simple that we may almost regard it as normal. Consequently, treatment of any kind is superfluous. Where constitutional disturbance is exerting an influence upon either the quality or quantity of the blood directed to the part, then, of course, attention must be paid to the disease from which it is arising. F. THE HOOF WITH BAD HORN. (_a_) THE BRITTLE HOOF. _Definition_.--As the name indicates, we have in this condition an abnormally dry state of the horn. _Symptoms_.--These are obvious. The horn is hard, and when cut by the farrier's tools gives the impression of being baked hard and stony, the natural polish of the external layer is wanting, and there is present, usually, a tendency to contracted heels. With the dryness is a liability to fracture, especially at points where the shoe is attached by the nails. As a consequence, the shoes are easily cast, leading to splits in the direction of the horn fibres. These run dangerously near the sensitive structures, giving rise in many cases to lameness. Even where pronounced lameness is absent the action becomes short and 'groggy,' and the utmost care is required in the shoeing to keep the animal at work. _Causes_.--To a very great extent the condition is hereditary, and is observed frequently in animals of the short, 'cobby' type. In ponies bred in the Welsh and New Forest droves the condition is not uncommon, especially in the smaller animals. Animals who have had their feet much in water--as, for instance, those bred and reared on marshy soils--and afterwards transferred to the constant dryness of stable bedding, are also particularly liable to this condition. It is noticed, too, following the excessive use of unsuitable hoof-dressings, more especially in cases where coat after coat of the dressing is applied without occasionally removing the previous applications. _Treatment_.--As a prophylactic, a good hoof-dressing is indicated. It should not consist solely of grease, but should have mixed with it either wax, turpentine, or tar. Above all, careful shoeing should be insisted on, and the owner of an animal with feet such as these will be well advised if he is recommended to have the shoeing superintended by one well competent to direct it rightly. The foot should be trimmed but lightly, always remembering that in a foot of this description the horn, in addition to being brittle, is generally abnormally thin. Jagged or partly broken pieces should be removed, and the bearing surface rendered as level as possible. The foot should be carefully examined before punching the nail-holes in the shoe, and the nail-holes afterwards placed so as to come opposite the soundest portions of horn. The nails themselves should be as thin as is consistent with durability, and should be driven as high up as possible. On the least sign of undue wear the shoes should be removed, never, as is too often done, allowing them to remain on so long that a portion breaks away. If, with the laudable idea of not interfering with the horn more than is possible, this is practised, the portion of the shoe breaking off is bound to tear away with it more or less of the brittle horn to which it is attached. Where the breaks in the horn are so large as to prevent a level bearing for the shoe being obtained, the interstices should be filled up with one or other of the preparations made for this purpose. One of the most suitable is that discovered by M. Defay. By its means sand-cracks or other fractures of the horn may be durably cemented up. 'Even pieces of iron may be securely joined together by its means. The only precaution for its successful application is the careful removal of all grease by spirits of sal-ammoniac, sulphide of carbon, or ether. M. Defay makes no secret of its composition, which is as follows: Take 1 part of coarsely-powdered gum-ammoniac, and 2 parts of gutta-percha, in pieces the size of a hazel-nut. Put them in a tin-lined vessel over a slow fire, and stir constantly until thoroughly mixed. Before the thick, resinous mass gets cold mould it into sticks like sealing-wax. The cement will keep for years, and when required for use it is only necessary to cut off a sufficient quantity, and remelt it immediately before application. We have frequently used this cement for the repair of seriously broken hoofs. It is so tenacious that it will retain the nails by which the shoe is attached without tearing away from the hoof.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. iii., p.71.] Failing this, the bearing surface may be made level, and fractures repaired by using the _huflederkitt_ described in the treatment of pumiced sole. (_b_) THE SPONGY HOOF. _Definition_.--This is the opposite condition to the one we have just described, and is characterized by the soft and non-resistant qualities of the horn. _Symptoms_.--Spongy hoof is quite common in animals that have large, flat, and spreading feet--in fact, the two appear to run very much together. It is a common defect in animals reared in marshy districts, and of a heavy, lymphatic type. The Lincolnshire Shire, for instance, has often feet of this description, and, the causative factors being in this case long-continued, render the feet extremely predisposed to canker. The horn is distinctly soft to the knife, and has an appearance more or less greasy. Animals with spongy feet are unfit for long journeys on hard roads. When compelled to travel thus, the feet become hot and tender, and lameness results. A mild form of laminitis, extending over a period of three or four days, often follows on this enforced travelling on a hard road, more especially in cases where the animal is 'heavy topped,' and the usual food of a highly stimulating nature. In fact, it has been the author's experience to meet with this condition several times in the case of shire stallions doing a long walk daily upon hard roads, with the weather hot and dry. _Treatment_.--When a horse with spongy feet is shod for the first time, care must be taken to avoid excessive paring of the sole, for already the natural wear of the foot has been sufficient to keep the soft horn in a state of thinness. For the same reason hot fitting of the shoe must not be indulged in for too long a time. That common malpractice of the forge, 'opening up the heels,' must, in this case, be especially guarded against, or the excessive paring of the frog and partial removal of the bars that this operation consists in will lay the foot open to risk of contraction. To begin with, the heels are naturally weak, and, once the bars are removed, there is nothing to prevent them rapidly caving in towards the frog. Even when carefully shod, a foot of this class is readily prone to contract directly the animal is brought into the stable, and the horn commences to dry to excess. An ordinary light shoe should be used, and the nails should be light and thin. They should be driven carefully home, and the 'clinching' made as tight and secure as possible. G. CLUB-FOOT. _Definition_.--Under this name we indicate all cases in which the horn of the wall become straightened from above to below. It will, therefore, include all conformations varying from the so-called 'upright hoof,' in which the toe forms an angle of more than 60 degrees with the ground, to the badly 'clubbed' foot, in which the horn at the toe forms a right angle with the ground, or is even directed obliquely backwards and downwards, so that the coronary margin overhangs the solar edge of the wall. [Illustration: FIG. 83.--THE CLUB-FOOT.] _Symptoms_.--Even in its least pronounced form the condition is apparent at a glance, the alteration in the angle formed by the hoof with the ground striking the eye at once, and the heels, as compared with the toe, appearing much too high. When the condition is slight, the wall of the toe is about twice as high as that of the heels, while in the most marked form the toe and the heels may in height be nearly equal (see Fig. 83). When congenital, but little interference with the action is noticed. Such animals, by reason of their 'stiltiness,' are unfit for the saddle, but at ordinary work will perform their duties equally well with the animal of normal-shaped feet. When acquired as the result of overwork, of contracted tendons, or other causes, however, the gait becomes stumbling and uncertain. The body-weight is transferred from the heels to the anterior parts of the foot, and the shoe shows undue signs of wear at the toe. _Causes_.--Upright hoof is undoubtedly hereditary, and is even seen as a natural conformation in the feet of asses and mules. When hereditary in the horse, however, it is certainly a defect, and is associated commonly with an upright limb, and a short, upright pastern (see Fig. 83). Among other causes, we may enumerate sprains or wounds of the flexor tendons, or any disease of the limbs for a long time preventing extension of the fetlock-joint, such as sprains or injuries of the posterior ligaments of the limb, splints or ringbones so placed as to interfere with the movements of the flexor tendons, or, in the hind-limb, spavin, keeping for some months the fetlock in a state of flexion. In the very young animal the condition may be induced by an improper paring of the foot--cutting away too much at the toe, and allowing the heels to remain. _Treatment_.--When the condition is congenital, no treatment at all is indicated. It might, in fact, be said that interference would tend rather to minimize than enhance the animal's usefulness; for, in this case, the club-shaped feet are in all probability due to faulty conformation above. In other words, the upright hoof is in this instance but a natural result of the animal's build, with which useful interference is impossible. Where the upright hoof is a consequence of excessive paring of the toe, or insufficient removal of the heels, the condition may be remedied by directing attention to those particulars, and preventing their continuance. At the same time, a greater obliquity of the limb axis may be given by the use of a suitable shoe. The shoe indicated is a short one, with thin heels and a thick toe. In some cases the abnormality may be remedied by the use of a tip. Whatever method is adopted, care must be taken not to attempt too positive a change in the direction of the limb at one operation. The process must be gradual. In cases where the abnormality has been brought about by wounds to the flexor tendons, the alteration in the direction of the limb is often so great as to produce 'knuckling over' of the fetlock. This, to a very great extent, may be remedied by the use of a shoe with calkins and an extended toe-piece (see Fig. 84). [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE SHOE WITH EXTENDED TOE-PIECE AND HIGH CALKINS.] With this shoe a certain amount of forced exercise is advisable, and at intervals of about two weeks the calkins should be somewhat lowered, until the heels are brought as close to the ground as is possible. In giving directions for this shoe to be made the veterinary surgeon must, when referring to the length of the toe-piece, be guided entirely by the condition of the case. Ordinarily, a suitable length is from 3 to 4 inches. It is necessary also to warn the owner that, by reason of the length projecting, the shoe is liable to be torn off. Should the 'knuckling over' have become complicated by bony deposits round the seat of the original injury, then a favourable modification of the condition is not so likely to result. The benefit to be derived from the shoe with an extended toe-piece in a case of excessive knuckling is admirably shown in a brief report of a case, under the title of 'Hooked Foot,' in vol. xiv. of the _Veterinary Record_, p. 716: 'An eighteen months' old filly showed a deformity of the third phalanx, resulting in her walking with the front face of the hoof on the ground. The flexors were apparently all right, and the bending back seemed to be due to contraction of the ligaments of the joint and the sheath of the perforans. 'On the ground of absence of contraction of the flexors, or atrophy and paralysis of the extensors, the surgeon considered the lesion curable by simple orthopædic measures. By means of an elongated toe-piece to the shoe and calkins, which were shortened every fifteen days, the filly was completely cured in seventy days.' H. THE CROOKED FOOT. (_a_) THE FOOT WITH UNEQUAL SIDES. _Definition_.--The foot thus affected has one side of the wall higher than the other. _Symptoms_.--This deformity is the better recognised when the foot on the floor is viewed from behind. In addition to the difference between the height of the inner and outer heel is seen at once a deviation in the normal direction of the horn. That of the higher side is distinctly more upright than that of the lower, and runs from above downwards and inwards towards the axis of the foot, while the horn of the lower side maintains its normal direction of downwards and outwards. From what we have said before on contracted foot, this bending in of the wall of the upright side will at once be recognised as a form of contraction. It is, in fact, contraction confined to one-half of the foot only, and, as a result, the upright side of the crooked foot is prone to the troubles arising from that condition. Corns are frequent, and atrophy of that half of the frog on the affected side supervenes. With the inflammatory changes accompanying these conditions we find the horn of the affected side deteriorating in quality. It becomes dry and brittle, and extremely liable to sand-crack. At the same time, thrush of the contracted frog begins to make its appearance. _Causes_.--More often than not this condition is a result of the conformation of the limb. According as the build above inclines the animal to 'turned in' or 'turned out' toes, so shall we have feet with a wall crooked inwards or crooked outwards; and it may be mentioned here that the evil results inflicted on the foot by ill-shaped limbs above will make themselves the more readily noticed when the animal comes to be shod for any length of time. So long as a natural wear of the foot is allowed, so long does it accommodate itself to the form of limb above. So soon, however, as the shoe is applied, and a more or less equal (and in this case harmful) wear by that means insisted on, so soon does this abnormal change in the height and direction of the horn fibres begin to make itself seen. While arising in the majority of instances from faulty conformation of the limb, crooked feet may also be brought about by bad shoeing, or by unequal paring of the foot, and, in a few cases, from unequal wear of the foot in a state of nature. _Treatment_.--Although it may be taken as a rule that lowering of the higher wall, even if persisted in at every shoeing, will do nothing towards remedying the primary cause (viz., the evil conformation of the limb), yet it will serve to keep the condition within reasonable limits. In this case, while removing so much of the wall as is deemed necessary, care must be taken to leave uncut the sole and the bar. Leaving these intact gives us two natural and very potent protections against the contraction already mentioned as impending. Where, by reason of the thinness of the horn or other causes, sufficient paring to equalize the tread cannot be practised, then the same end may be arrived at by the use of special shoes. That branch of the shoe applied to the half of the foot with the lower wall should be thickened from above downwards. Or, on the same branch, may be turned up a calkin of sufficient height for the purpose. Of the two methods the first is preferable. In any case, whether depending upon paring, or upon the use of a special shoe, the animal should be sent to the forge quite often, for it is only by a well-directed, and therefore constant, application of the principles here laid down that improvement may be brought about. When marked contraction of one-half of the foot is present, it will be best treated with the expanding shoe of Hartmann, already described in the section of this chapter dealing with contracted heels (see Fig. 76). (_b_) THE CURVED HOOF. _Definition_.--The hoof with the wall of one side convex, and that of the opposite side concave. Fig. 85, showing the foot in section from side to side, gives an exact idea of this malformation. _Causes_.--As was the case with the condition previously described, this abnormality finds its primary cause in an unequal distribution of weight due to vice of conformation in the limb above, causing one side of the hoof to be higher than the other. As a result of this, the wall that is inordinately increasing in height commences to bulge outwardly (Fig. 85, _a_), while the opposite (Fig. 85, _b_) becomes concave. The same state of affairs may be occasioned in the forge by leaving one side of the foot too high, and subjecting the other to excessive paring for several consecutive shoeings. _Treatment_.--In the main this condition may be regarded as a long-standing and aggravated form of the foot with unequal sides. We may say at once, therefore, that it is not so easily remedied as that simpler defect; that, although identical principles will be followed in its treatment, cure must be a matter of some considerable time. [Illustration: FIG. 85.--SECTION THROUGH A CROOKED FOOT. _a_, The higher and convex side of the wall; _b_, the lower and concave side of the wall] Again, we must look to successive parings of the wall of the higher side to bring about a gradual return to the normal. At the same time, the tendency to contraction of that side is counteracted by shoeing wide, and, if necessary, giving to the upper surface of that branch of the shoe what we have termed elsewhere a 'reversed seating'--viz., an incline of its upper surface from within outwards. CHAPTER VII DISEASES ARISING FROM FAULTY CONFORMATION A. SAND-CRACK. _Definition_.--A solution of continuity of the horn of the foot, occurring usually in the wall, and following the direction of the horn fibres. _Classification_.--It is usual to classify sand-cracks according to-- _(a) Their Position_.--_Toe-crack_ when occurring in the middle line of the horn of the toe, and _quarter-crack_ when occurring in the horn of the quarters. Sand-crack of the frog and sand-crack of the sole may also each be met with. They are, however, of rare occurrence, and are seldom serious enough to merit special attention. The toe-crack is met with more often in the hind-foot than in the fore, while the quarter-crack more often than not makes its appearance in the fore-foot, and is there, as a rule, confined to the inner side. The reasons for these positions being so affected we shall deal with when treating of the causes of sand-crack in general. It is interesting to note that the portions of wall known as inside and outside toe are seldom affected. _(b) Their Length_.--_Complete_ when they extend from the coronary margin of the wall to its wearing edge; _Incomplete_ when not so extensive. _(c) Their Severity_.--_Simple_ when they occur in the horn only, and do not implicate the sensitive structures beneath; _Complicated_ when deep enough to allow of laceration and subsequent inflammation of the keratogenous membrane. Such complications may vary from a simple inflammation set up by laceration and irritation of the sensitive structures by particles of dirt and grit that have gained entrance through the crack, to other and more serious changes in the shape of the formation of pus, hæmorrhage from the laminal vessels, caries of the os pedis, or the development of a tumour-like growth of horn on the inner surface of the wall known as a keraphyllocele. _(d) Their Duration_.--_Recent_ when newly formed; _old_ when of long standing. _(e) Their Starting-point_.--This last distinction we make ourselves, and, referring to cracks of the wall, term them _high_ when commencing from the coronary margin, _low_ when starting from the bearing surface. _Causes_.--We have already classified sand-crack as a disease arising from faulty conformation. Thus, in just so far as a predisposing build of body may be handed down from parent to offspring, we may regard sand-crack as hereditary. If we do so, however, we must afterwards make up our minds to sharply distinguish between the sand-crack plainly brought about by accidental cause, and that occurring as a result of hereditary evil conformation. With regard to the latter, we need hardly say that feet with abnormally brittle horn are extremely liable. But with this, as with many other affections of the feet, we shall find it necessary to consider several causes acting in cooperation. In this case, for instance, given the brittle horn, it becomes necessary to further look for exciting causes of its fracture. We will take conformation first. In the animal with turned-out toes a more than fair share of the body-weight is imposed on the horn of the inner quarter. Here, then, three causes exert their influence together: The horn is brittle; the wall of the inner quarter is thinner than that of the outer; additional weight is imposed upon it. Fracture results. Take, again, the vice of contracted heels. Here, in the first place, we have a variety of causes tending to bring about the contraction. With the contraction, and its consequent pressure upon the sensitive structures in the region of the quarters and the frog, has arisen a low type of inflammation. The horn of the part has become dry and brittle. The exciting cause of its fracture is found in an excessive day's work upon a hard, dry road, with, perhaps, a suddenly-imposed improper distribution of weight, due to treading upon a loose stone, or a succession of such evil transfers of weight due to travelling upon a road that is rough in its whole extent. In their turn, too, such defects of the feet as we have mentioned in the last chapter--as, for example, the foot with the pumiced horn, the foot with abnormally upright heels, or that which is upright on one side only, or crooked--each offers a condition which is predisposing to the formation of a sand-crack. In each case it wants but the uneven distribution of the body-weight, which, as a matter of fact, some of these conditions themselves give, to bring about a fracture. Apart from the predisposition conferred by conformation, must be remembered the simpler predisposing causes leading to brittleness of the hoof. We refer to the after-effects of poulticing, the moving from pasture to stable, the emigration from a damp to a dry climate, or the alternate changes from damp to dry in a temperate region. Each may have a deteriorating influence upon the horn, rendering it liable to the condition we are describing. Excessive dampness alone, especially when the animal is called upon to labour at the drawing of heavy loads upon a rough road, is not infrequently a cause. In this case the wet, together with the constant friction of the sharp materials of which the road is made, serves to destroy the varnish-like periople. The wet gains access to the inner structures of the wall, the agglutination of the horn fibres is weakened, and fissures begin to appear. Other causes of sand-crack are purely accidental. An animal at fast work over-reaches. The secretion of horn at the injured coronet is interfered with, a diminished supply at an isolated spot being the result. From this point grows down a fissure in the wall. An injury of the same character may also be sustained in various other ways--treads from other animals when working in pairs, accidental wounding with the stable-fork, blows of any kind, or a self-inflicted tread with the calkin of an opposite foot--each with the same result. So far as causation is concerned, toe-crack stands in a class almost by itself. It is met with nearly always in a heavy animal in the hind-foot, and is directly attributable to the force exerted in starting a heavy load. Unskilful shoeing also plays a part in the causation of sand-crack. Removal of the periople by excessive rasping of the wall is most certainly a predisposing cause. Cracks, or their starting-points, may also be caused by using too wide a shoe, or by the use of nails too large in the shank. Also, they may arise from unskilful fitting of the toe-clip, especially in the hind-foot of a heavy animal. It must be admitted, however, that the part shoeing plays in the causation of sand-crack is not a large one; far more depends upon the state of the horn and the animal's conformation than upon the exciting cause. So far, our observations on the causes of sand-crack have referred to that form occurring in the wall. Sand-crack of the sole or frog we have already said is but seldom met with, and then it is always in connection with some exceptionally deteriorated quality of the horn, as in the case of badly pumiced feet, or occurs as a result of direct injury. Extensive slit-like cuts in this region, when deep enough to lacerate the keratogenous membrane, are sometimes followed by the growth of a fissure in the horn, and what might almost be termed a permanent sand-crack results. Such cuts may be occasioned by sharp flints, broken glass, or other sharp objects picked up on the road, or may result from the animal treading on the toe-clip of a partially cast shoe. _Symptoms_.--In every case the fissure, or evidence of its commencement, is a diagnostic symptom. It is well to remember, however, that this may be easily overlooked, especially when the crack is one commencing at the coronary margin. The reason is this: Sand-cracks in this position often commence in the wall proper, and not in the periople. They may, in fact, be first observed as a fine separation of the horn fibres immediately beneath the perioplic covering. A crack of this description may even show hæmorrhage, and have been in existence for some time, without the periople itself showing any lesion whatever. Thus, unless lameness is present, or a more than specially keen search is directed to the parts in question, the sand-crack goes undiscovered, until of greater dimensions. Further, the fissure may be hidden, either accidentally or of set purpose. It may be covered by the hair, filled in and covered over with mud, or intentionally concealed by being 'stopped' with an artificial horn, with wax, or with gutta-percha, or, as is more common, be hidden by the lavish application of a greasy hoof-dressing. In this latter connection it is well to warn the veterinary surgeon, especially the beginner, when examining for soundness, to be keenly critical before passing an animal who is presented with feet smothered with tar and grease or any other dressing. More especially should this warning be heeded when examining any of the heavier breeds of animal with an abundance of hair about the coronet. Referring again to the search for the crack, it is well to know that with toe-crack the fissure is the more readily seen when the foot is lifted from the ground. With quarter-crack, on the other hand, the fissure is wider, and consequently the easier detected with the foot bearing weight. Although commencing in the insidious manner we have described, the lesion is not thus often seen by the veterinary surgeon. Usually, the animal with sand-crack is brought for his inspection when lameness has arisen from it. In this case the cause for the lameness will reveal itself in the crack, which is now too large to escape observation. The coronet is hot and tender to the touch, and a sensation of warmth is sometimes conveyed to the hand by the horn of the surrounding parts of the wall. It is hardly necessary to say that, with accompanying conditions such as these, the sand-crack is a _deep_ one. Where the lameness is but slight, we may attribute it almost solely to the pain occasioned by the mere wounding of the keratogenous membrane, and to no very extensive inflammatory changes therein. By some authorities this is said to be due to the pinching of the sensitive structures between the edges of the fissure in the horny covering. In our opinion, however, pinching does not occur unless inflammatory exudation into the sensitive structures adjoining the crack has led to sufficient swelling to cause them to protrude. In other words, the movements of the horny box, communicating themselves to the structures beneath, and so occasioning movement in the wounded keratogenous membrane, are quite sufficient to give rise to the lameness without actual pinching of the structures implicated. The severity of the lameness will vary with the rapidity of the gait, and with the character of the road upon which the animal is made to travel. For instance, many animals in which the lameness is imperceptible at a walk become 'dead' lame at a fast trot. It is sufficiently explained when one remembers the greater movements of expansion and contraction of the posterior parts of the wall brought about by the increase in the rate of progression. The same animal, too, will go distinctly more lame upon a hard than upon a soft surface. In like manner the lameness from toe-crack also varies in degree with the rate of progression and the character of the travelling, though not to such a noticeable extent as in the lameness from quarter-crack. A greater variation may in this case be brought about by moving the animal on ascending and descending ground. Descending an incline, with a more than ordinary share of the body-weight thus thrown upon the heels, the lameness is most marked. The reason would appear to be that the greater expansion of the wall of the heels thus brought about leads to a proportionate contraction of the wall at the toe, especially at the edges of the crack, thus causing undue pressure upon the exact spot of the wound in the sensitive structures. Ascending--the weight in this case transferred from the posterior to the anterior portion of the foot--the expansion of the heels becomes a contraction, with a corresponding lessening of the contraction at the toe and a distinct decrease in the lameness. In the case of a deep but recent crack there is always more or less hæmorrhage. This favours risk of infection of the lesion with pus-forming organisms, and so leads to a more or less pronounced lameness, a degree of swelling, heat and tenderness in the coronet above, and a certain amount of surgical fever. The acute symptoms subdued, but the fissure still remaining, gives us the crack we have classified as 'old.' This may in every case be distinguished from a more recent lesion by the amount of thickening of the overhanging coronet, and the presence of an increased quantity of sub-coronary horn in the region immediately about the crack. The previous inflammatory changes in the adjoining sensitive structures have here led to an increased secretion of horn, and a greater or less deposition of inflammatory connective tissue in the wounded coronary cushion. Sand-crack of the toe always follows the direction of the horn fibres. That of the quarter, however, may on occasion run a course that is somewhat zigzag, first following the direction of the horn fibres for a short distance, then travelling in a horizontal direction, and finally continuing its course again in a line with the horn fibres, commonly at a point posterior to that at which it commenced. In a quarter-crack that is old, and when contraction of the heels exists (which in this case it usually does), then will often be found overlapping of the edges of the crack. The expansion of the wall brought about when the body-weight is on the heels, cannot, by reason of the break in it, continue itself anterior to the crack. As a consequence, repeated expansion of the wall posterior to the crack, with the portions anterior to it in a state of enforced quiescence, leads in time to the posterior edge of the crack coming to lie over that of the anterior. _Complications_.--The first complication likely to arise in a case of sand-crack is that attending simple laceration of the sensitive structures in a _deep_ lesion. With the laceration all the phenomena of a repairing inflammation make their appearance. As a result, there is more or less heat according to the degree of inflammatory hyperæmia, swelling according to the amount of inflammatory exudate, and pain according to the amount of pressure the two foregoing bring to bear on the nerves in the inflamed area. A second and more serious complication is the greater inflammation set up by the introduction into the crack of foreign substances. Small portions of gravel and flint, both by the irritation set up by their friction and by the infection they carry in with the dirt surrounding them, are responsible for the mischief. When, from direct communication with the blood-stream, due to extensive hæmorrhage, bacteria from the outside gain entrance, this simple inflammation is further complicated by the formation of pus, or a limited gangrene of the keratogenous membrane. In cases of great severity the gangrene of the keratogenous membrane spreads until the deeper structures are involved. We then get a necrosis (in the case of toe-crack) of the extensor pedis, and sometimes caries of the os pedis. In like manner the necrotic changes occurring under these circumstances may invade the deeper structures in the region of quarter-crack. As a result of this, we may have the starting-point of suppurating corn, or necrosis of the lateral cartilage--in other words, cartilaginous quittor. Commonly accompanying quarter-crack is the condition of contracted heels and atrophied frog. Sometimes described as a complication of sand-crack, it appears to us more rational to rather regard the sand-crack as a result or complication of the vice of contraction. The overlapping of the edges of the crack before referred to occasionally gives rise to the condition known as false quittor. A probe or a director passed beneath the overhanging ledge of horn reveals sometimes a fissure of 1 inch or considerably more in depth, and quittor is diagnosed. A careful paring away of the overhanging horn, however, reveals the true state of affairs, and exposes to view the original cause of the mischief--a simple fissure in the wall. A serious complication--one fortunately met with but rarely--is that of keraphyllocele. This is a tumour-like growth of horn, varying in size from the thickness of an ordinary quill pen to that of one's middle finger, growing down from the coronary cushion, and attached to the inner side of the wall of the hoof. With this lameness is always present, and more or less deformity of the hoof results. This condition will be found described at greater length in Chapter IX. _Prognosis_.--In the case of sand-crack this should always be guarded. It may be taken as a general rule that cracks commencing from the coronary margin are more troublesome to deal with than those originating below. The reason is not far to seek. They here affect the wall just where the bevel in it for the accommodation of the coronary cushion has rendered it weakest. Not only is it weakest, but being more resilient than the portions below it, it suffers more from the alternate movements of expansion and contraction of the foot than does the horn below. Although in many cases a cure of the existing crack may be easily accomplished, regard should be paid to the possibility of its recurrence, either in the same position or elsewhere. Really, in offering an opinion as to the future usefulness of an animal so affected, a greater attention should be directed to the animal's conformation than to the crack itself. Where the vice of conformation giving rise to it (as, for example, contracted heels or upright hoof) gives hope of being remedied, then naturally it may be safely said that the liability to sand-crack goes with it. A like favourable prognosis may be given in the case of cracks occasioned by purely accidental causes. Ordinarily, however, cracks once commenced tend rather to increase than decrease in size and severity. From being superficial and incomplete, they become complete and deep, with every unfavourable circumstance that an increase in size and depth brings with it. This much, however, may be promised to the owner. A simple crack, even though originating from the coronary margin, is, in the vast majority of cases, curable. Under a rational treatment its increase in size may be prevented, and a sound wall caused to grow down from the coronet. _Treatment_.--The principles governing the treatment of sand-crack are simple enough in themselves, if not always followed by success. 1. _Preventive_. This, as a rule, does not suggest itself until a crack of greater or less extent has made its appearance. Then, simultaneously with the treatment proper of the lesion, preventive measures should be adopted, to aid both in the healing of the fissure already present, and to ward off the occurrence of others that might be likely to form. The hoof, if abnormally brittle, should be regularly dressed with a suitable ointment (one containing glycerine for preference), and its horn kept as nearly as possible in a normal condition. When the condition of the horn predisposing to its fracture is brought about by excessive wet, then the appropriate preventive measures to be adopted suggest themselves. With regard to the lesion itself, we may term 'preventive treatment' all those measures having for their object the prevention of increase in the size of the crack. They are as follows: _(a) Blistering the Coronet_.--In a simple case, where the crack is superficial and close under the coronary margin of the wall, a sharp cantharides blister to the coronet immediately above it will have the desired effect. An increased secretion of horn is brought about, and by this simple means the crack prevented from becoming longer. Very often this is all that is necessary. In fact, we may say here that, no matter what other treatment is adopted, the simultaneous application of a blister to the coronet is always beneficial. To derive full advantages therefrom, the blistering should be repeated several times at intervals of about a fortnight. _(b) Clamping the Crack_.--When the services of a skilled smith are at hand, one of the readiest methods of performing this is to draw the edges of the crack together with an ordinary horse-nail. On each side of the crack a small horizontal furrow is burned or cut into the wall, leaving the horn for about 1/4 inch on each side of the crack intact. This provides a groove for the ends of the clamping-nail to rest in, and brings them flush with the outer surface of the wall. The nail is then driven carefully home through the crack, and the pointed end grasped by the farrier's pincers. The edges of the crack are then drawn tightly together, and the nail firmly clenched. [Illustration: FIG. 86.--THE SAND-CRACK FIRING-IRON.] 'The horse-nails are prepared in the ordinary way as for driving, with the exception that each is pointed on the reverse side, to prevent puncturing the sensitive structures. Before being used the nails are put in a vice, and the head hammered to form a shoulder, to prevent their being driven too far into the wall, and breaking out the hold.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinarian_, vol. xlviii., p. 100.] Before driving the nail some operators burn or bore a hole for it. Opinion seems to differ as to whether this is at all necessary. A method of clamping which, on account of its simplicity, has become greatly popular, is that of Vachette. For this operation is needed the outfit depicted in Figs. 86 and 87. [Illustration: FIG. 87.--THE SAND-CRACK FORCEPS AND CLAMP.] With the special firing-iron (Fig. 86) an indentation, sufficiently large to admit the points of the clamp (Fig. 87), is made on each side of the crack. The clamp is then adjusted, and pressed home tight by means of the sand-crack forceps (Fig. 87). According to the length of the crack, one, two, or three clamps may be necessary. Another useful clamp, though far more complicated in its structure, is that of Professor McGill (Fig. 88). [Illustration: FIG. 88.--MCGILL's SAND-CRACK CLAMP.] 'The object of this invention is to arrange on a spindle, which is screw-threaded at one end with a right-hand thread and at the other with a left-hand thread, two clips or clamps, free to travel on the thread, there being a nut between the two which can be turned by a spanner. The clips are placed on the hoof, one on each side of the sand-crack, the hoof being prepared to receive the instrument by filing a groove or notch for the clamps to fit into, and by turning the nut on the screw the clamps are brought towards each other, and the crack thus prevented from spreading.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinarian_, vol. lxi., p. 141.] Still a further useful clamp is that of Koster. This is considerably broader than the clamp of Vachette, and its gripping edges are provided with teeth (see Fig. 89). As with the clamp of Vachette so with this, a groove is burned into the wall on each side of the crack for the accommodation of the jaws of the instrument, and the clamp itself pressed home by means of a special pair of forceps. This form of clamp holds well, and has the advantage of securing a wider area of horn than that of Vachette or McGill. [Illustration: FIG. 89.--KOSTER'S SAND-CRACK CLAMP.] Clamping by any method should be advised or undertaken only under certain conditions. The horn should be moderately strong, and the wall should be thick. This practically restricts the use of the clamp to cracks of the toe, and it is there, as a fact, they are found of most benefit. While burning the grooves for the clamp, and while tightening the clamp itself, the animal's foot should be on the ground and bearing weight at the heels, thus insuring the greatest possible approximation of the edges of the crack. With all methods of clamping an untoward result is sometimes the formation of a fresh crack at the point of insertion of the clamps. (c) _By the Use of Thin Metal Plates_.--These are of use when the horn of the wall is too thin to allow of clamping, and are therefore of especial use in cracks of the quarters. The plates are made so as to cover the greater part of the length of the lesion, and are fastened to the wall by two or more screws on either side of the crack. It is an advantage to slightly let the plate into the wall by means of fitting it hot. In a complicated crack the plate serves the further useful purpose of holding in position antiseptic pledgets, and so keeping the lesion free from dirt and grit. _(d) By Various Methods of bandaging the whole Circumference of the Wall_.--In our opinion this method of attempting to secure immobility of the crack, and so prevent its extension, is not often followed by success. The main objection to the method is that it subjects the whole of the wall to the same pressure, and does not restrict the operation to the point at which it is required. As in the case of the metal plate, however, this method has the advantage that antiseptic dressings may be kept in position in the case of a complicated crack. [Illustration: FIG. 90.--SAND-CRACK BELT.] The binding of the wall may be accomplished in two ways. The simpler of the two is to merely apply the sand-crack belt depicted in Fig. 90. Beneath this should be applied a compress of tar and tow or other material, and the whole tightened up and kept in position by means of the buckle and strap. This method of binding admits of after-tightening should it unfortunately work loose. The older method of binding the wall, and one now often practised by the smith, is to use a quantity of so-called 'tar-band' or other stout cord. With this the foot is neatly bound after the manner of a cricket-bat handle, and all movement of the crack apparently restricted. There is always a tendency, however, for such a dressing to work loose, and in the case of a complicated crack it has the disadvantage of permanently hiding from view the changes taking place in the discharge from the fissure. _(e) By wedging the Crack_.--This is the exact opposite of clamping. Whereas in clamping we obtain immobility of the crack by keeping it fixed in the position of greatest approximation of its edges, in wedging, the crack is rendered free from movement by maintaining it in that position where its edges are most widely separated. In this case the edges of the crack are pared smooth, the cavity thoroughly cleansed, and a wedge of hard wood firmly driven in so as to fit exactly the fissure. On the face of it it appears that this procedure would really tend to force open and so lengthen the crack, especially at its coronary extremity. What one should really remember, however, is that the crack _is not made wider_ than before, but that it is simply maintained in a position occurring with every contraction of the heels of the foot, when it is normally at its widest. Movement of the edges is thereby stopped, the immediately surrounding structures are rested, and a new growth of horn, free from crack, induced to grow down from the coronet. This method of treatment only serves to emphasize the fact that, with a sand-crack once formed, it is the constant movement of the parts that tends most to keep it in existence, and not any particularly marked exertion of force. Some practitioners, with the wedge, apply also a clamp, thus assuring additional firmness and solidity to that portion of the wall under treatment. The method of wedging is undoubtedly successful, if neatly performed. _(f) By Surgical Shoeing_.--A partial rest is given to the affected parts by easing the bearing of the shoe at the point required. This may be done either by removal of part of the wall at the spot indicated, or by thinning the web of the shoe in the same position. The former is the method usually practised. Cessation of movement given in this way is, as we have already said, only partial; for, while the effects of pressure and concussion from below are minimized, the crack is still able to suffer from the movements of expansion and contraction of the foot. Still, as an auxiliary to other treatments, 'easing' of the wall under the affected part should always be practised. [Illustration: FIG. 91.---THE BEARING 'EASED' BY REMOVAL OF THE WALL.] [Illustration: FIG. 92.--THE BEARING 'EASED' BY THINNING THE WEB OF THE SHOE.] Figs. 91 and 92 show respectively the manner of 'easing' by removal of the wall, and by thinning the web of the shoe. In this connection it is necessary to point out that on no account should 'springing' of the heels of the shoe be allowed. Fig. 93 illustrates the ill-practice. In this case, when the entire weight is thrown on to the heels, the portion of wall posterior to the crack is bound to participate unduly in the downward movement, and so tend to widening of the crack at its highest point. [Illustration: FIG. 93.--THE BEARING 'EASED' BY 'SPRINGING' THE HEEL OF THE SHOE.] We have already referred to the matter of 'clips.' In no case, whether the crack be at the toe or in the quarters, should a clip be placed immediately below it. If the crack is at the toe, the usual clip should be dispensed with, and a clip at each side made to take its place. At the same time care should be taken to avoid throwing the weight far forward. For that reason a shoe with calkins or with very high heels should be removed, and a shoe with an ordinary flat web substituted. In the case of quarter-crack, where the constant movement of the parts under expansion and contraction of the foot makes itself most felt, it is wise to apply a shoe with clips fitting moderately tight against the inside of the bars. By this means movement will to a very large extent be curtailed. Where a marked tendency to contraction is found, as is often the case with quarter-crack, then the shoe with the clips may be rendered more marked in its operation by giving to the outer face of each clip--that face applied to the bar--a slope from above downwards and outwards. In other words, a slipper shoe should be applied and the contraction given equally as much attention as the sand-crack itself. Where the crack is situated far back in the quarter, and easing of the bearing cannot be accomplished without tending to spring the heels, then the most suitable shoe is a bar shoe. With it the bearing may, of course, be eased in exactly the position required, and the heels still allowed to take their fair share in bearing the body-weight, and thus assist in closing the crack. The bar shoe, if properly fitted, gives us also a bearing on the frog, and aids greatly in counteracting contraction. 2. _Curative_. _(a) The Application of Dressings to the Lesion_.--In the case of a recent crack, deep, and attended with hæmorrhage, the foot should be thoroughly cleansed. Where possible, a constant flow of cold water from a hose-pipe should be allowed to run over the foot. By this means the inflammatory symptoms will be held in check and pain prevented. Later the shoe may be eased at the required place, and a blister applied to the coronet. This, with rest, will sometimes prove all that is needed. Should a crack be of old standing, and complicated by the presence of pus, a course of hot poulticing will often prove of benefit. The poultice should be medicated with any reliable disinfectant, and should be renewed, or at any rate reheated, two or three times daily. The crack itself should be thoroughly cleaned after the removal of each poultice, and a concentrated antiseptic solution--such as Tuson's spts. hydrarg. perchlor., carbolic acid, and water, (1 in 10) or liquor zinci chlor.--poured into it. On discontinuing the poulticing, the strength of the antiseptic solutions may be decreased, the parts rested by correct shoeing, and a blister applied to the coronet as before. If these measures alone should prove insufficient, then the surgeon will either fall back on those we have just related, or proceed to methods next to be described. _(b) Immobilizing the Crack by Means of grooving the Wall_.--To our minds, this is as ready and withal as successful a method of dealing with sand-crack as has yet been devised. It may be done in a variety of ways: (1) By two grooves arranged about the crack in the form of a V, as Fig. 94; (2) by a perpendicular groove on either side of the crack, about 1 inch in distance from it, and parallel with the horn fibres, as Fig. 95; (3) by a single horizontal groove at the extreme upper limit of the crack; (4) by drawing two horizontal grooves, one at its upper and one at its lower end (see Fig. 96). [Illustration: FIG. 94, FIG. 95, FIG. 96. In Figs. 94, 95, and 96 the thick black lines illustrate the positions of the various grooves made with the firing-iron for the purpose of immobilizing a quarter sand-crack.] The points to be observed in carrying out this line of treatment are simple enough. In all cases see that the crack is rendered as clean as possible by the use of suitable dressings, and if an excess of horn is present immediately around it, as in the case of a long-standing and complicated lesion, have it thinned down by rasping. All that is then needed is one or two moderately sharp, flat firing-irons. The groove is then burned into the horn in the positions indicated, and that portion of the wall containing the sand-crack thus prevented from participating in the movements of the foot. For our own part, we consider the V-shaped incision, or either of the horizontal methods of grooving, preferable to lines running in the direction of the horn fibres. With the latter there is certainly a greater tendency to the formation of new cracks than with either of those we advocate. The V-shaped incision we consider most suitable of all, for the reason that by its means a greater degree of immobility is conferred upon the necessary portion of the wall. Whichever method is adopted, care should be taken to carry the grooves deep enough into the horn, taking them down as near as possible to the sensitive structures. At the same time, especial care should be exercised in not carrying them too deep at their extreme upper limit, or in that case the liability to the formation of fresh cracks in those positions will be greatly increased. After grooving, a sharp blister should be applied to the coronet every three or four weeks, and the animal, if free from lameness, put to work. _(c) By stripping away a V-shaped Portion of the Wall around the Crack_.--This method is only indicated when the crack is greatly complicated by the presence of pus, or by the growth of adventitious horn on the inner surface of the wall. A radical cure is thus obtained, but the animal for a longer time incapacitated from work. The operation is best performed by first grooving a line to connect the points _a_ and _c_ (Fig. 97). This should run immediately under the coronary margin of the wall, and should stop short of injuring the coronary cushion beneath. Grooves forming the sides _ab_ and _bc_ of the triangular piece of horn are next made, and the horn contained within the lines _ab, bc_, and _ca_, carefully removed. The grooves are the easiest made by a cautious use of the firing-iron. The greater thickness of the horn may thus be penetrated, and the grooves afterwards carried to their full and requisite depth by the use of the drawing-knife. With the removal of the horn the diseased structures are exposed to view. All such should be removed by a free use of the scalpel, and a suitable dressing afterwards applied. A necessary factor in the treatment is the employment of pledgets of antiseptic tow. With these the exposed tissues are covered, and the successive turns of a bandage run tightly over them, so as to exert a moderate degree of pressure. When hæmorrhage has accompanied the operation, this dressing should be removed on the following day, the wound dressed, and the pledgets of tow and the bandage renewed. Any after-dressing need only then be practised at intervals of a week. Repair after this operation is rapid, and takes place both from the exposed podophyllus membrane and from the coronary cushion. [Illustration: FIG. 97. The dotted lines outline the V-shaped portion of wall to be removed in the treatment of complicated toe-crack.] [Illustration: Fig. 98. The dotted lines indicate the portion of wall to be removed in the complete operation for complicated toe-crack.] _(d) By stripping the Wall from the Coronary Margin to its wearing Edge on Either Side of the Crack_.--This is merely a more extensive application of the method just described, and is only indicated in a _complete_ and _complicated_ crack that has refused to yield to other modes of treatment (see Fig. 98). As in the previous case, a groove is run from _a_ to _c_. The grooves _ab_ and _de_ are then continued to the lowermost edge of the wall, and the whole of the wall within these points removed. To facilitate removal, the white line should be grooved between the points _b_ and _d_. After-treatment is exactly the same as that just referred to. B. CORNS. _Definition_.--In veterinary surgery the term 'corn' is used to indicate the changes following upon a bruise to that portion of the sensitive sole between the wall and the bar. Usually they occur in the fore-feet, and are there found more often in the inner than in the outer heel. The changes are those depending upon the amount of hæmorrhage and the accompanying inflammatory phenomena occasioned by the injury. Thus, with the hæmorrhage we get ecchymosis, and consequent red staining of the surrounding structures. As is the case with extravasations of blood elsewhere, the hæmoglobin of the escaped corpuscles later undergoes a series of changes, giving rise to a succession of brown, blue, greenish and yellowish coloration. With the inflammation thereby set up we get swelling of the surrounding bloodvessels, pain from the compression of the swollen structures within the non-yielding hoof, and moistness as a result of the inflammatory exudate. In a severe case the inflammation is complicated by the presence of pus. _Classification_.--Putting on one side the classification of Lafosse _(natural_ and _accidental_), as perhaps wanting in correctness, seeing that all are accidental, and disregarding the suggested divisions of Zundel _(corn_ of the _sole_ and _corn_ of the _wall_) as serving no practical use, we believe, with Girard, that it is better to classify corns according to the changes just described. Following his system, we shall recognise three forms: (1) _Dry_, (2) _moist_, (3) _suppurating_. The _dry_ corn is one in which the injury has fortunately been unattended with excessive inflammatory changes, and where nothing but the coloration imparted to the horn by the extravasated blood remains to indicate what has happened. The _moist_ corn is that in which a great amount of inflammatory exudate is the most prominent symptom. It indicates an injury of comparatively recent infliction. The _suppurating_ corn, as the name indicates, is a corn in which the inflammatory changes are complicated by the presence of pus. _Causes_.--The causes of corns we may consider under two headings--namely, _predisposing_ and _exciting_. _Predisposing Causes_.--By the heading of this chapter we have already intimated that corns are due to faulty conformation of the foot. It is, therefore, merely a description of such shapes of foot as favour their formation that will need mention here. The wide, flat foot, with low heels, may be first considered. Here the posterior portions of the sole, those portions between the wall and the bars, fall very largely in the same plane as the wearing surface of the bars and the wall. As a consequence, these portions of the sole are more prone to receive injury from stones and rough roads and from the pressure of the shoe. The low heels, too, favour a more than due proportion of the body-weight being thrown on to the posterior parts of the foot. Two evils, both inclining to the production of corn, result from this. In the first place, the sensitive structures of the posterior portions of the foot are subjected to undue pressure from above; secondly, the posterior half of the foot, by reason of the extra weight thrown upon it, is exposed also to greater effects of concussion than normally it should meet. Added to this we find that the abnormally flat condition of the sole has resulted in a great loss of resiliency. With undue pressure above, and a loss of resiliency and added effects of concussion below, the sensitive structures included between the opposing pedal-bone and the horny sole are bound to suffer more or less bruising each time the foot comes to the ground, especially if the animal is moved at a rapid pace. Writing here of the effects of pressure and concussion affords a fitting occasion to mention the fact that corns occurring in feet affected with side-bones are always worse than in feet with normal elastic cartilages. The explanation of this is simple, for there can be no doubt that the loss of resiliency in the diseased cartilage is only another aid to undue pressure and concussion. The sensitive structures are pinched between unyielding bone above and practically unyielding horn below. Feet with high and contracted heels are also predisposed to corn. The contraction in this case interferes with the downward movements of the os pedis during progression, while in a state of rest there is a more or less constant pressure upon the sensitive structures, due to the correct downward displacement of the pedal-bone being opposed by the amount of contraction present. In the contracted foot, too, the nutrition of the vessels supplying the secretory apparatus of the horn is largely interfered with. The horn loses its natural elasticity, fails to respond to the normal movements of the parts within, and aids in the compression and laceration of the sensitive structures. Weak feet, with horn too thin to withstand the expansive movements continually going on--in other words, feet with weak, spreading heels--are also prone to suffer from corns. In this case the flatness induced by the spreading, and the insufficient protection afforded by the thin horn, both combine to lay the sole open to the effects of concussion and direct injury. Brittle feet--feet with horn of undue dryness, by reason of the contraction thus brought about--are, again, particularly subject to corn. So also with long feet. Whether occurring as a natural deformity, or as the result of insufficient paring, bruises of the sole in feet thus shaped are common. The reason for this will be better understood when we come to deal with the shoeing. Other and minor predisposing causes are those mainly referring to an unnatural dryness of the hoof when animals reared in the country are put to work in large towns. We here really get several predisposing causes combining. A sudden change is made from a more or less moist condition underfoot to one excessively dry. The character of the travelling is wholly altered from occasional work upon soft lands to continual labour upon hard-paved roads. The horn is often exposed to the vicious influences of unsuitable litter, the application of unsuitable dressings, and the deleterious effects of the street mud of our cities. All these play their part in determining a condition of the horn, rendering it open to receive the effects of the more exciting causes which we shall next consider. _Exciting Causes_.--Than the shoeing, no more frequent and exciting cause of corn exists. Whatever the predisposing influences may be, it is the shoeing that in nearly every case completes the list, and finally inflicts the injury. The evils in this connection we shall consider under two headings--viz., (1) the manner in which the foot is pared; (2) the make and fitting of the shoe. First among the faulty preparations of the foot comes that of excessive thinning of the sole, especially in the regions subject to corn. The farrier addicted to this is not as a rule content to confine his operations to the sole alone. In addition, the frog and the bars also suffer from the too lavish use of his knife. His main object is doubtless that of giving a broad and open appearance to the foot. It follows from this that his operations are confined more to the posterior than the anterior parts of the foot, and that the toe is therefore left too long. This gives us a combination of causes leading to pressure and bruises upon the sensitive structures at the seat of corn. By this unequal paring of the toe and the heels greater weight is thrown upon the posterior half of the foot. What then happens to the structures thinned as we have described is this: the pared frog, lessened in volume, does not meet the ground. It therefore fails to expand laterally with weight, and cannot assist, as normally it should, in aiding the heels generally in their movements of expansion. The weakened bars and the thinned sole, meeting with no opposition from the frog, give downwards and inwards with the body-weight at the precise moment these movements should be directed mainly outwards. As a further result of non-resistance on the part of the frog, this time in a lateral direction, the bars, the sole, and the wall at the heels all contract at the exact time they should expand. The end result must mean abnormal pressure and bruising of the sensitive structures in that particular region. Naturally, also, the excessive thinning of the horn renders direct injury to the sole from stones or other objects in the road far more probable. For this one reason alone--the manner in which it favours the production of corn--too great a condemnation cannot be placed upon excessive paring of the sole, the bars, and the frog. When corns are already present, as they may be from other causes, the same remarks will again apply to excessive paring. It is the custom with many smiths to carefully pare down the discoloured horn in every case of corn they meet with, and at the same time to again weaken the bars and even part of the wall at the heels, with the laudable idea of relieving pressure on the part diseased. After what has gone before, we need hardly say that their well-meant efforts have a precisely opposite effect to the one they intend. The fitting of the shoe is, perhaps, to a greater extent responsible for the causation of corn than is the paring we have just described. A few of the evils connected with the shoe may, however, be justly described as unavoidable. We _must_ shoe; we cannot shoe and leave a normal foot! A shoe excessively seated, especially from the last nail-hole backwards, may be regarded as dangerous. In this case, with every application of the body-weight, there is given to the foot a tendency to contract, especially at its lower margin. Result: undue pressure upon the tissues around and the production of corn. On the other hand, varying with the form of foot, the seating may be insufficient. In the case of flat-foot, or dropped sole, for instance, insufficient seating will lead to undue pressure of the web of the shoe upon the sole, and in that way bring about bruising of the sensitive sole beneath. Shoes with heels or calks too high, by destroying the counter-pressure of the frog with the ground, serve to bring about a series of changes we have described under contraction, and again result in pinching and bruising of the sensitive structures. The opposite excess--a shoe thick at the toe and thin at the heels--is blamed by Zundel for causing a like injury. In our opinion, the reason this author gives--namely, that the throwing of greater weight upon the heels leads to bruising of the sensitive structures--can only correctly apply to a _wrongly-applied_ shoe of this type, and not to the shoe itself. True, a shoe with a thick toe and thinned heels will throw an undue proportion of the body-weight upon the heels if the foot is not properly prepared for it. A wise man, however, will most certainly so cut down the toe for the reception of this shoe that, with the shoe in position, there will still be maintained a tread that is normal. To our minds harm is far more likely to arise from a shoe of this class through the thinned iron heels of the shoe becoming attenuated under wear to the point of bending, and so inflicting an injury upon the adjoining sole. Similarly, this last remark with regard to the thinning of the heels of the shoe will apply to a shoe with too broad a web. As the thinning of the shoe proceeds with wear, the inner portion of the thinned branch is bent up on to the sole, and again inflicts the injury. The matter of bearing is also of importance when considering the causation of corn. In a previous chapter we have already described the correct bearing as that which includes the whole of the lower margin of the wall and the white line, and just impinges on the sole. Any marked deviation from that will, if long continued, be followed by injury to the foot. With the bearing surface of the shoe too narrow--in contact with the wall solely, or perhaps only a portion of it--it is evident that a large proportion of the foot that should properly bear weight is thrown out of action. A heavy strain is imposed on the white line, and undue descent of the sole and contraction of the heels brought about. Again the result of this is compression and bruising of the tissues around the seat of corn. With its bearing surface too wide, the shoe immediately exerts direct pressure upon the sole with every movement of the animal. The sole normally is not made to receive this, and harm is bound to result. Among other ill-fitting shoes we may mention the one with branches too short, and the one with the extremities of the branches too pointed. In the first case, as wear of the shoe proceeds, the thinned end is far more likely to turn in under the seat of corn than is a shoe with branches of ordinarily correct length. It is evident in the second case that the pointed branch, when thinned, is a more dangerous agent than the branch which is nearer the square at its end. The matter contained in the first half of the foregoing paragraph explains in a large measure the rarity of corns in the hind-feet. Here there is nothing to prevent a shoe with branches of full length being used. The correct bearing is thus maintained, even with a shoe excessively thinned with wear, and the liability to injury from it decreased. An exception is to be found in the case of a feather-edged shoe, such as is used to prevent cutting or brushing. The thinning by wear from above to below of the branch already purposely thinned from side to side leads to the formation of a thin and narrow piece of iron admirably calculated to bend over and injure the sole. Even with a shoe of correct length, with a flat-bearing surface at the heels, and other conditions favourable to correct application, evil may still result from the shoe itself being made too narrow. As a result of this, the branch of _each_ side is set too far under the foot, with consequent injury to the sole. This is, of course, sheer carelessness on the part of the smith. When practised, however, it is not easy of detection, as in all cases the foot is rasped down to cover what has been done. In other words, the foot is made to fit the shoe and not the shoe the foot. Recognising this close fitting of the shoe as a cause, we are able to explain in some measure how it is that corns should occur with greater frequency in the inner than in the outer heel. There is no doubt that the inner branch of the shoe is nearly always fitted closer than is the outer. In the fore-foot it is also often shorter. Take these two evils and add to them the fact that the inner heel is called upon to bear more of the body-weight than is the outer, and the frequency of corns in the inner heel will no longer be wondered at. Indirectly, the shoe may still be a cause of corn by reason of the irritation set up by gravel and small pieces of flint becoming firmly fixed between the sole and the web of the shoe. In nearly every case of this description the part to be injured is the white line. Corns may also result from the animal picking up a stone. The stone becomes firmly wedged in between the inner border of the branch of the shoe and the bar or the frog. With every step the animal takes it becomes wedged more tightly into position. Projecting below the level of the lower surface of the shoe, it imparts the concussion it thus obtains directly to the sole. A bruise--and a bad bruise--is the result. Finally, it cannot be denied that the work the horse is put to is largely responsible for the causation of corn. In country animals corns are comparatively rare, while in animals in town, almost constantly upon hard paving, they are common. This seems to point strongly to the fact that concussion through constant work upon unyielding roads is a great factor in their production. _Symptoms_.--Unless the discoloration of the horn is accidentally discovered by the smith, the simple, dry corn may go undetected. The disturbance excited by it is so small, and the pain occasioned so slight, that the patient may offer no indication of its existence. Ordinarily, however, the first symptom is that of pain. The animal goes feelingly with one or both feet, in some cases even showing decided lameness. The lameness, however, is in no way diagnostic, and the lesion itself must be discovered before an exact opinion can be pronounced. As an aside, it is well to observe in this connection that a negative opinion as to the existence of corn should never be given unless the superficial layers of horn have first been removed with the knife. When standing at rest the animal exhibits signs more or less common to all foot lamenesses. He 'points' the foot--in other words, the limb is slightly advanced, the fetlock partly flexed, and the heels from off the ground. When both feet are affected they are pointed alternately, and the animal often manifests his uneasiness by repeated pawing movements, and by scraping his bedding behind him. Should the injury run on to suppuration, the lameness becomes most acute. The pawing movements become more pronounced, and there is evident disinclination on the part of the animal to place the foot squarely on the ground. One is then led to manipulate the foot. The hoof is hot to the touch. Percussion causes the animal to flinch, and to flinch particularly when that portion of the wall adjoining the corn is struck. Finally, exploration with the knife reveals the serious extent to which the injury has developed. In a neglected case of this description it is even possible to detect the presence of pus by the amount of swelling and fluctuating condition of the coronet. The suppurative process has advanced in the direction of least resistance, and is on the point of breaking through the tissues immediately above the horn. Lameness due to corn is oftentimes intermittent. With a simple corn, dry or moist, this intermission is largely dependent on the degree of dryness of the hoof or the road, and also on the character of the road surface. With a neglected, suppurating corn, on the other hand, variation in the degree of lameness, in addition to depending on circumstances such as these, is dependent to a larger extent upon the changes occurring with the suppuration. In this case the time of greatest lameness is immediately before the pus gains outlet. Immediately after its exit at the coronet the animal will go almost sound. Soundness continues so long as the opening at the coronet remains clear. The tendency, however, is for the opening thus made to quickly close again. Pus again accumulates, lameness arises as before, and disappears again with the second discharge of the contents of the sinus now formed. _Pathological Anatomy_.--When dealing with their classification we gave in outline the main pathological changes to be met with in corns. It now only remains to give the same matter in slightly greater detail. _In dry corn_ the changes we meet with are those accompanying blood extravasation. From excessive compression of the parts, or from the effects of direct injury, a portion of the sensitive sole has become lacerated. The escaping blood stains the surrounding soft tissues after the manner of blood extravasation elsewhere. If the escape of blood is sufficiently large, the horn fibres in the immediate vicinity also are stained. It is this stain in the horn that is the direct evidence of the injury, and is itself popularly known as the corn. It may vary in size from quite a small spot to a broad patch as large as half a crown, while its colour may be a uniform red, or a mottled red and white. The microscopic changes in this connection are illustrated in Fig. 99. [Illustration: FIG. 99.--HORIZONTAL SECTION OF A CORN. The section cut at about the base of the papillæ of the sensitive sole. _a_, papillæ, with horn-cells surrounding them; _b_, interpapillary or intertubular horn; _c_, hollow spaces in the intertubular material filled with blood; _d_, a papilla and its surrounding horn-cells filled with blood.] Ordinarily, this ecchymosis of the horny sole is due to injury of the sensitive sole _immediately beneath_ it. It may, however, proceed from injury to the vessels of the laminæ either of the bars or of the wall. In this case the ecchymosis of the horny sole may be explained by the fact that the escaped blood tends to _gravitate_ to that position. When the corn is of long standing, or is due to _repeated_ injuries on the same spot, the horn adjacent to the lesion becomes hard and dry, and often abnormally brittle, simply on account of the inflammatory changes thus kept in continuation. This is often seen when attempts are made to _pare out_ the corn with the knife. Should the injury be seated in the sensitive laminæ, then the brittle nature of the horn secreted by the injured tissues makes itself apparent by the appearance of cracks in the wall of the quarter. Why this should occur will be readily understood by a reference to Fig. 100. [Illustration: FIG. 100.--INNER SURFACE OF THE WALL OF THE QUARTER, SHOWING CHANGES IN THE HORNY LAMINÆ BROUGHT ABOUT BY CHRONIC CORN.] It will here be seen that the injury to the keratogenous membrane has led to great interference with the secretion of horn from the sensitive laminæ. As a result, the regularly leaf-like arrangement of the horny laminæ has been largely broken up. Certain of the laminæ are altogether wanting, while others are broken in their length and rendered incomplete. With this condition there is always more or less contraction of the quarter. Microscopic examination of the structures involved in such a case reveals the fact that with the contraction is an alteration in the normal direction of the horny and sensitive laminæ. They become bent backward, and, instead of the regular and normal arrangement depicted in Fig. 32, show the distorted appearance given in Fig. 101. From the appearances and characters of the blood-stain in the horny sole we are able to deduce evidence relative to the duration and nature of the injury. [ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 101.--PERPENDICULAR SECTION OF THE WALL OF A CONTRACTED QUARTER IN A CASE OF CHRONIC CORN. Both the sensitive and horny laminæ are bent backwards, and hæmorrhages have taken place at the base of the sensitive laminæ.] When, for instance, the stain is not to be found in the superficial layers of the sole, but is only discoverable by deep paring, then the injury is a recent one. Where the stain _is_ met with in the superficial layers of horn, and is quickly pared out, then the injury has been inflicted some time before, and has not been repeated. When, as is sometimes the case, layers of horn that are stained are found alternated with layers that are healthy, then we have evidence that the cause of the corn, whatever it may be, is not in constant operation. Similar indication of the age of the injury is also afforded by the colour of the lesion. A stain that is deep red is proof that the injury is comparatively recent. A distinct yellow or greenish tinge, on the other hand, is evidence that the injury is an old one. _In the Moist Corn_ we have, in addition to the blood extravasation, the outpouring of the inflammatory exudate. In the most superficial layer of the horn this may not be noticeable. As one cuts deeper into the sole with the knife, however, it will be found that the lower layers of horn are more or less infiltrated with the discharge. This gives to the horn a soft consistence, a yellow appearance, and a touch that is moist to the fingers. With the accompanying inflammation the cells in the neighbourhood of the injury are enfeebled and their normal functions interfered with. We may thus expect a corresponding interference with the growth of horn. This is exactly what happens, and as one cuts deeper still into the horn a point is finally reached when a well-marked cavity is encountered. A pale yellow and usually watery exudate fills it. This cavity points out the exact spot where the force of the injury has been greatest, where death of certain cells of the keratogenous membrane has resulted, and where the natural formation of horn has for a time been suspended. _In the Suppurating Corn_, as in moist corn, we have pathological changes due to the tissue reaction to the injury, _plus_ the addition of pus organisms. Confined within the horny box we have a discharge that, by reason of the living and constantly multiplying elements it contains--the pus organisms--is always increasing in bulk. This must be at the expense of the softer structures of the foot. Accordingly, as the formation of pus increases, we get pressure upon and final gangrene of the sensitive sole and of the sensitive laminæ of the bars and the wall. With no outlet below, the pus formation increases until finally it finds its way out of the hoof by emerging at the coronet. This in some instances it may do by confining its necrotic influences solely to the sensitive laminæ of the wall, in which case, if a dependent orifice is quickly made at the sole, the injury to the laminæ is soon repaired by the healthy tissue remaining. In other cases, however, the necrosis has spread deeper. Caries of the os pedis, of the lateral ligaments of the pedal-joint, or of the lateral cartilages, is a result. When this occurs the exuding discharge from the coronet becomes thinner and more putrescent, and its feel, when rubbed between the fingers, sometimes gritty with minute fragments of broken-up bone. Here, unless operative measures prevent it, necrosis soon spreads deeper still. The deeper portions of the os pedis become affected. The capsular ligament of the joint is penetrated by the suppurative process, and a condition of septic arthritis results. The cavity of the joint becomes more or less tensely distended, according to the amount of drainage present, which in this case is almost nil, with matter in a state of putrescence. As a consequence, the surrounding ligaments become softened and yield, and the articular surfaces displaced. The articular cartilages also suffer, become necrotic in patches, and frequently wholly destroyed. The end result is one of anchylosis of the joint and permanent lameness. _Prognosis_.--With the ordinary dry corn a return to the normal may nearly always be looked for. Similarly, with moist corn, and even with careful treatment of the suppurating variety, the same favourable termination may be looked for and promised. What cannot so safely be assured is that a relapse will not occur. In other words, the extent of the injury, no matter how serious, does not often offer anything that cannot be overcome by Nature and careful surgery; but the conformation of the animal does. A vicious predisposing conformation once there is there always, and although the injury resulting from it may easily give way to correct treatment, the same injury is bound to re-occur when the animal is again put to work. Although with care suppurating corn, like other cases of suppuration within the hoof, may yield to treatment, the owner of the animal should, nevertheless, be warned that the condition is a serious one, especially should the joint become affected. It may so happen, as sometimes in fact it does, that the animal may die as a result of the infective fever so set up. From no surface in the body can absorption take place quicker than from the synovial membrane of a joint. So soon, therefore, as this membrane comes in contact with septic material, so soon does a severe septic fever make its appearance. The septic matter has gained the blood-stream, and the patient succumbs to septic poisoning. Apart from death occurring naturally, the changes taking place in the joint in the shape of bony growths or of actual anchylosis may be so severe as to render the animal useless, and slaughter may have to be advised. _Treatment_.--We have already said that by far the most active cause in the production of corn is the shoe. It follows from this that it is to the shoeing we must largely look for a successful means of their prevention, and that the treatment of corn in its most simple form is really a matter for the smith, and not for the veterinary surgeon. The faults in connection with the shoeing we have mentioned fully when treating of the _causes_ of corn. From those we learn that a shoe with a flat-bearing surface, or one moderately seated but flat at the heels, is the correct shoe for nearly all feet. The heels of the shoe should not be too high, should not be too short, and should be wide enough apart from each other to insure the wall of the foot obtaining a fair share of the bearing. Finally, even with the present method of shoeing, whenever it is possible to allow the frog to come to the ground, it should be encouraged to do so, and excessive paring either of the latter organ or of the bars or the sole should be strictly discountenanced. Where the sole is thin, or the frog wasted, use a leather sole or a rubber pad. With these precautions, corns may be prevented from occuring even in a foot with a predisposing conformation. When corn is present, the first treatment usually adopted is that of 'paring it out.' This is advocated by Percival and by many other writers. We cannot say, however, that we agree with it--at any rate, not in the case of simple dry corn. 'Paring it out,' and by that we mean thinning down the sole until close on the sensitive structures, can only be advised in the case of suppurating corn, or in cases where doubt exists as to whether pus is present or not. In the latter case paring becomes necessary as an exploratory means to diagnosis. When it appears fairly certain, even in the case of a moist corn, that pus does not exist, then paring is to be discountenanced, for the reason that it only tends to weakening of the parts and to assist largely in the corn's recurrence. Those who advocate it do so for the reason that it relieves pressure on the injured parts. That it does so directly from below cannot be denied; but that it also favours contraction and compression from side to side is equally certain. A moderate paring may, however, be indulged in, say, to about one-half the estimated thickness of the sole. Softening of the horn and consequent lessening of pressure may then be brought about by the use of oil, oil and glycerine, tincture of creasote, or by poulticing. In the case of a moist corn the paring should be stopped immediately the true nature of the injury has made itself apparent. Warm poultices or hot baths should then be used in order to soften the surrounding parts, lessen the pressure, and ease the pain. After a day or two day's poulticing, should pain still continue with any symptom of severity, the formation of pus may be expected, and it is then time for the paring to be carried further, until the question 'pus or no pus?' is definitely settled. Should the moisture be due simply to the presence of the inflammatory exudate, then poulticing alone will have the desired effect, and the pain will be lessened. With the decrease in pain the poulticing may be discontinued, and the horn over the seat of the injury dressed with some antiseptic and hardening solution. Sulphate of zinc, a mixture of sulphate of zinc and lead acetate, sulphate of copper, or the mixture known as Villate's solution,[A] may either of them be used. Suitably shod, and with a leather sole for preference, the animal may then again be put to work. [Footnote A: The composition of the escharotic liquid bearing his name was published by M. Villate in 1829 as under: Subacetate of lead liquid ... ... ... 128 grammes. Sulphate of zinc [=a=a] ... ... ... 64 grammes. Sulphate of copper, [=a=a] ... ... ... 64 grammes. Acetic acid ... ... ... ... 1/2 litre. Dissolve the salts in the acid, add little by little the subacetate of lead, and well shake the mixture.] When dealing with suppurating corn, then, a considerable paring away of the horn of the sole becomes a matter of necessity. The freest possible exit should be given to the pus, and this even when an opening has already occurred at the coronet. Unless this is done, and done promptly, the putrescent matter still contained within the hoof will make further inroads upon the soft structures therein, and later upon the ligaments, and even bone itself. Having given drainage to the lesion by the dependent orifice in the sole, poulticing should again be resorted to and maintained for at least three or four days. The poulticing may then be discontinued, and the openings in the sole injected with a weak solution of Tuson's spts. hydrarg. perchlor., a 1 in 20 solution of carbolic acid, a solution of copper sulphate, with Villate's solution, or with any other combined antiseptic and astringent. The success of the treatment is soon seen in the cessation of pain and in the decreased amount of discharge from the opening in the sole. Should pain unfortunately continue, the discharge remain, and a state of fever reveal itself, then it may be understood that the suppurative process has not been checked, that a portion of necrosed ligament, cartilage, or bone still remains, which, surrounded as it is by pus organisms and putrefactive germs, is sufficient to excite a constant irritation and maintain the internal structures in a state of infection. In other words, we have what is known as a quittor. This will call for deeper operation. The horn of the wall must be removed, and the diseased structures, whether gangrenous keratogenous membrane, necrosed ligament, or carious bone, carefully excised or curetted. This will be better understood by a reference to the chapter on Quittor, where the means for carrying out the necessary operative measures will be found described in detail. _Surgical Shoeing for Corn_.--In the case of an ordinary dry corn, where the injury has been definitely ascertained to be accidental, no alteration in the shoeing will be necessary. Where, however, the corn is attended with a more than ordinary degree of inflammation, or where for some reason or other excessive paring has been practised, then it will become needful to shoe with a special shoe. The object to be attained is the removal of pressure from that portion of the wall next to the seat of corn. The most simple shoe for effecting this is the ordinary three-quarter shoe. The only way in which this differs from the ordinary shoe is that about an inch and a half of that branch of the shoe adjoining the corn is cut off (Fig. 102). If at the same time contraction of the heels exists, then, perhaps, a better shoe is that known as the three-quarter bar (Fig. 103). Or, if preferred, a complete bar shoe such as that described for sand-crack may be used, and the upper portion of the web in contact with the foot at the seat of corn thinned out so as to avoid pressure on the wall at this point. With this shoe we shall at the same time supply a certain amount of pressure to the frog, and aid in the healthy development of the part indirectly involved in the disease. The same pressure may also be given to the frog, and protection afforded the sole, by the use of a leather sole, or rubber pad on leather, as described when dealing with contracted feet. A further method of relieving pressure on this portion of the wall, without removing the wall itself (a practice which should never be advised) is to make certain alterations in the web of the shoe. This may be done in one of two ways. [Illustration: FIG. 102.--THREE-QUARTER SHOE.] [Illustration: FIG. 103.--THREE-QUARTER BAR SHOE.] In the first, that portion of the bearing surface of the heel of the shoe is 'dropped' about 1/8 inch from the plane of the remainder, so that the shoe at this position does not come into contact with the foot at all (see Fig. 104). In the second case the shoe is what is termed 'set' at the heel. Here it is the plane of the _wearing_ surface of the shoe that is altered. The hinder portion of the required heel is thinned so that its lower surface does not come into contact with the ground. By this means the wall is freed from concussion and pressure. At the same time the upper surface of the shoe is in contact with the wall of the foot (see Fig. 105). This 'setting' of the shoe is preferable to the method first described. It affords a greater protection to the foot, and does not allow of fragments of stone and flint getting in between the foot and the shoe, and so giving rise to further mischief. The 'set' portion should be fitted full and long. It is obvious, too, that the animal should not be allowed to carry the shoe too long; otherwise, as the other portion of the shoe wears down to the level of the 'set' heel, pressure on the tender part of the foot will again result. [Illustration: FIG. 104.--SHOE WITH A 'DROPPED' HEEL.] [Illustration: FIG. 105.--SHOE WITH A 'SET' HEEL.] In applying surgical shoes for corn of long standing, it must be remembered that the protection so afforded must be continued for some time. It is not sufficient to see the lesion itself disappear. In addition to that there is also, in the majority of cases, a certain amount of contraction to be overcome. This can only be done by continuing the use of a leather sole or some form of frog or bar-pad as recommended for the relief of that condition. C. CHRONIC BRUISED SOLE. A similar condition to that of corn may be met with in other positions on the sole. It is described by Rogerson as sand-crack of the sole[A], and is invariably met with around that portion of the sole in contact with the shoe. [Footnote A: _Veterinarian_, vol. lxiii., p. 51.] The animal is lame, and the shoe is removed in order to ascertain the cause. Nothing at first is noticeable except that the animal flinches when pressure is applied to the spot with the pincers, or the sole is tapped with the hammer. On removing the sole with the knife, however, a distinct black mark is discovered, which, when followed up by careful paring, is often found to have pus at the bottom. In this case the injury has resulted, as we have already intimated elsewhere, from causing the animal to wear for too long a time a shoe with too broad a web or insufficiently seated. Or it may have originated with the irritation set up by foreign and hard substances between the web of the shoe and the foot. In his description of this condition Mr. Rogerson draws attention to the fact that the pus found should not be wrongly attributed to accidental pricking of the foot. He says: 'Considering that the cracks or splits are always found in the immediate vicinity of the nail-holes, a certain amount of discretionary skill is required in order that the lameness may be attributed to its proper cause. This is an instance in which the presence of the veterinary surgeon is imperative, in order to prevent undue blame being attached to the shoeing-smith. Misconception in these cases might very easily arise when parties concerned are disposed to accept an unskilled opinion, sometimes resulting in danger to the proprietor of the forge, not only of losing a shoeing contract, but also of being involved in other ways which would probably prove even more disastrous. 'Horses that stand on sawdust or moss litter are sometimes found with extensive discoloration of the horny sole in front of the frog. Their bedding material collects in the shoe as snow does, and forms a mass, which keeps a continued and uneven pressure upon the sole. A sound foot is not injuriously affected, but a very thin sole is, and so also is a sole which has been bruised by a picked up stone. Even a slight bruise becomes serious if pressure is allowed to remain active over the injured part. Lameness increases, serous fluid is effused between the horn and sensitive part, or even hæmorrhage may take place.'[A] [Footnote A: Hunting, _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiv., p. 593.] _The Treatment of Chronic Bruised Sole_ offers no special difficulty. Removal of the cause (in nearly every case incorrect bearing of the shoe) is the first consideration. That done, the lesion may be searched for and treated in the ordinary manner as described for corn. When pus is present it must, of course, be given exit, and an antiseptic solution applied to the wound. Should the sensitive structures be laid bare when allowing the pus to escape, then the wound so made should afterwards be protected with a leather sole and antiseptic stopping. CHAPTER VIII WOUNDS OF THE KERATOGENOUS MEMBRANE A. NAIL-BOUND--BIND OR TIGHT-NAILING. _Definition_.--By the term 'nail-bound' is indicated that accident occurring in the forge in which the nail of the shoe is driven too near the sensitive structures. Although involving no actual wound, it is important to consider the condition under the heading of this chapter, in order that it may be distinguished from the graver accident of a 'prick.' _Causes_.--Very largely the whole matter of causation turns on the correct fitting of the shoe. The points especially to be noticed in this connection are (1) the position of the nail-holes in the web of the shoe, (2) the 'pitch' of the nail-holes. Regarding the position of the nails, it goes without saying that the first consideration when 'holing' the shoe should be to punch the holes opposite to sound horn. This remark applies especially to shelly and brittle feet, the type of feet in which tight-nailing most often occurs. The next consideration in this connection is that of punching the holes so that the nail emerges from the upper surface of the web at exactly its correct point of entrance on the bearing surface of the foot. This should be on the white line immediately where it joins the wall. From this position any marked deviation inwards ('fine-nailing,' as it is termed) is bound to give to the nail a direction dangerously near the sensitive structures. The 'pitch' of the nail-holes should be such that the nail is guided more or less nearly to follow the line of inclination of the wall. Accordingly, the nail-holes at the toe should be 'pitched' distinctly inwards, the inward pitch lessening as the quarters are reached, until the hindermost nail-hole or two is pitched in a direction that is almost perpendicular. Too great an inward inclination of the nail will, however, give rise to a bind. It is probable that 'tight-nailing' results more often from fine punching of the shoe than from any fault in the pitch of the hole. Inattention to either detail, however, is apt to bring the mischief about. Even with a correctly fitted shoe, and with a normal foot, tight-nailing may occur as a result of sheer carelessness on the part of the smith. _Symptoms_.--Possibly the animal returns from the forge sound. It is on the following day, as a rule, that evidence of the injury is given by the animal coming out from the stable lame. In a well-marked case the foot is warmer to the hand than its fellow, and percussion over the wall will sometimes reveal the particular nail that is the cause of the trouble. Should the shoe be removed, then the fact that the hole the nail has made is far too close to the sole often points out at once the seat of the mischief. _Treatment_. As to whether or not the shoe should be removed is very much a matter for careful discretion on the part of the veterinary surgeon. Where the foot is shelly and brittle even a good smith sometimes finds himself unable to firmly attach the shoe without verging closely on causing the condition we are now describing. The author has known cases where animals with feet of this description have almost invariably returned from the forge, or rather been found the next day, with a suspicion of tenderness. After the lapse of a day or two this has quite often disappeared, and nothing in the meantime been done with the foot. Seeing, therefore, that removal and refitting of the shoe is in this case attended with risk of breaking away portions of the brittle horn, and so rendering the foot in an even worse condition than it was before, it is policy to decline to have the shoes removed unless worse symptoms make their appearance. In coming to this decision the veterinary surgeon must be guided by noting in the wall the points of exit of the nails. Should the nail adjoining the position already pronounced to be tender have come out at a higher point than the others, it may be assumed that at a lower position in its course through the horn it has gone near the sensitive structures without actually penetrating the horny box, and that in the course of a day or two the sensitive structures involved will accommodate themselves to the pressure thus inflicted. If, on the other hand, symptoms of tight-nailing show themselves in an animal with good sound feet, then there is no objection to be raised against having the shoe at once removed. Should the offending nail be definitely detected, then the shoe may again be put on, and that particular nail omitted from the set. B. PUNCTURED FOOT. (_Pricked Foot_--_Nail-tread_--_Gathered Nail_.) _Definition_.--Under this heading we propose describing wounds of the foot occurring in the sole or in the frog, and penetrating the sensitive structures beneath. _Causes_.--These we shall consider under two headings: 1. Wounds resulting from the animal himself 'picking-up' or 'treading' on the offending object. 2. Cases of pricking in the forge. Those occurring under the first heading are, of course, purely accidental. In the majority of cases, the object picked up is a nail; but similar injury may result from the animal treading on sharp pieces of wood or iron, on pieces of umbrella wire, on pointed pieces of bones, broken-off stable-fork points, sharp pieces of flint, etc. The same accident may also occur in the forge as a result of the animal treading on the stumps of nails, from treading on an upturned shoe with the stumps of nails _in situ_, or from treading on an upturned toe-clip. It may also occur from an accidental prick with the stable-fork when 'bedding up,' or from casting part of a shoe when on the road and treading on the nails, in this case left sometimes partly in and partly out of the horn. 'Serious wounds of this description are also met with in animals engaged in carting timber from plantations in which brushwood has recently been cut down. This is, of course, from treading on the stake-like points that are left close to the ground. Hunters also meet with the same class of injury when passing through plantations or over hedge banks, where the hedge has just been laid low or cut down. 'Agricultural horses also meet with severe wounds of this class from treading on an upturned harrow.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. iv., p. 2.] It has been remarked how strange it is that nails should so readily penetrate the comparatively hard covering of the foot. The matter, however, admits of explanation. One knows from common observation how easy it is to tilt a nail with its point upwards by exerting a pressure in a more or less slanting direction upon its head. This is exactly the form of pressure that is no doubt put upon the nail if the animal treads upon it when moving at any pace out of a walk. The foot in its movement forward tilts the nail up, and almost simultaneously puts weight upon it. The great weight of the animal is then quite sufficient to account for its ready penetration. In purely country districts cases of punctured foot are of far less frequent occurrence than in large towns. In the latter, animals labouring in yards where a quantity of packing is done, or engaged in carting refuse containing such objects as we have mentioned, or broken pieces of earthenware or glass bottles, meet with it constantly. For the manner of causation of those wounds to the foot occurring in the forge the reader may be referred to the matter under the heading of 'nail-bound.' As in that case so in this the nail may be wrongly directed by improper fitting of the shoe, by the 'pitch' of the hole, or by the position of the hole. The nails may also be wrongly directed as a result of faulty pointing, or by meeting with the stump of a nail that has carelessly been allowed to remain in the substance of the horn. Often pricking is a result of carelessness engendered by a rush of work. Often it is almost unavoidable on account of the character of the foot that is brought to be shod. Feet with thin horn, especially a thin sole, feet with horn shelly and brittle, each in their way are difficult to shoe. Sometimes pricking is purely accidental, as in the case of a 'split' nail. The nail as it is driven splits at its point, and continues to split down its centre, one half emerging at the correct spot on the wall, the other half bending inwards, and penetrating the sensitive structures. _Common Situations of the Wound_.--In a case of picked-up nail the common seat of puncture is about the point of the frog, either in one of the lateral lacunæ, in the median lacuna, or the apex of the frog itself. In comparison with this puncture of the sole is rare. Prick sustained at the hands of the smith may, of course, run in either of the following directions: (1) Directly into the position where the horny and sensitive laminæ interleave; (2) between the sensitive laminæ and the os pedis; (3) into the os pedis itself; (4) the nail may bend excessively immediately after entering the horn, and so pass either between the horny and sensitive sole; or (5) between the sensitive sole and the bone. _Classification_.--Punctured wounds of the foot may be classified as follows: _Simple or superficial_ when penetrating no structure of great importance. For instance, a prick that penetrates to the sensitive sole and is not driven with sufficient force to seriously injure the os pedis we may regard as simple. In the same manner a prick to the frog that, although deep, is mainly concerned with penetrating the plantar cushion may also be classed as simple. _Deep or penetrating_ when driven with sufficient force or in such a direction as to injure structures whose penetration is calculated to give rise either to serious constitutional disturbance or to permanent lameness. In this category we may place injuries to the terminal portion of the perforans, puncture of the navicular bursa, fracture of the navicular bone and penetration of the pedal articulation, and splintering of the os pedis. _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--While discussing the symptoms and diagnosis, we will still continue to consider our subject under the two headings of (1) accidental 'gathering' of some foreign body, and (2) pricks inflicted in the forge. In a few cases belonging to the former class the veterinary surgeon is fortunate in obtaining a direct history of the injury. The driver has seen the animal go suddenly lame, and has examined the foot for the cause. Either the nail has been found embedded in the horn, or the puncture it has made detected, and the matter has been reported. The foot is then explored and the full extent of the injury ascertained. In many cases, however, it so happens that no evidence of the infliction of the injury is forthcoming. The momentary lameness occurring at the time of the prick is unreported at the time by the attendant, and the horse for a time goes sound. It is not until the changes set up by the subsequent inflammatory phenomena make their appearance, and lameness results, that attention is called to the foot. When this happens there has, as a rule, been time for pus to form around the seat of puncture--a matter of about forty-eight hours. The horse is now brought out for the veterinary surgeon's examination, going distinctly lame. If the case is well marked there may then be noted by the man of experience many little signs pointing to the foot as the seat of the lameness. These, though well enough known to the practitioner, are nevertheless difficult to describe. It is, in fact, hard to say exactly in what they really consist, appearing to be as much a matter of intuition as of actual observation. There is a peculiar 'feeling' characteristic in the gait. The affected foot is put forward fearlessly enough, but is not nearly so rapidly put to the ground. When at rest the foot is almost immediately pointed, and the pain at intervals manifested by pawing movements. It is this extreme liberty of the rest of the limb, as evinced during the pawing movements, that really strikes one. Shoulder, elbow, knee, and fetlock are all easily and painlessly flexed and extended. There is nothing wrong with them; it must be the foot. The short manipulation necessary to test the lameness--viz., the walk and slow trot--is sufficient to raise the animal's pulse and quicken the breathing. All this is enough, and more than enough, to lead the veterinary surgeon to examine the foot. It is hot to the touch, and at the coronet tender to pressure, possibly in a neglected case fluctuating at the heel. Pain is evinced by the animal withdrawing his foot when percussion takes place over the affected spot. In a bad case one gentle tap is all that is needed. The animal at once snatches away his foot, holds it high from the ground, and makes pawing movements in the air. At that moment, too, his countenance is highly expressive of the pain he is suffering. Again the foot is explored, the injury found, and the pus liberated. Regarding the manner of exploration of the foot we will take first that case in which the veterinary surgeon is called in early, and in which pus has not yet had time to form. Sometimes the merest cleaning up of the inferior surface of the foot then reveals a distinct stab either in the sole or the frog. If the accident be recent only a little blood will be found, either liquid, or coagulated about the wound. Later there exudes from the stab a flow of yellow, serous fluid. The opening thus found should be carefully probed, and its depth and situation noted. At other times the prick is not so readily apparent. The nail or other object has penetrated and afterwards withdrawn itself. The natural elasticity of the horn, especially that of the frog, causes it to contract upon the puncture, and to largely obliterate the hole made. What, therefore, may look to be but a simple injury to the horn alone may in reality be the only evidence of a stab complicating the sensitive structures. It thus behoves the veterinary surgeon to follow up and carefully cut out any unnatural-looking mark in the horn, more especially if the horn is discoloured, or if blood is extravasated into its fibres, or there is moisture exuding from the part. In some cases of this description the knife in the act of paring comes into contact with the cause of the trouble. Sometimes this is a nail, sometimes a sharp and small piece of flint, so deeply penetrated as to have become quite buried. When met with in this manner, however, the foreign body is more often than not a splinter of wood deeply embedded in the cleft of the frog or in the frog itself. The fact that multiple punctures may occur should here be remembered, and the remainder of the inferior surface of the foot thinly pared. On withdrawal of the foreign object blood may immediately follow. Should the former have been fixed in position for some time, however, pus is nearly always found at the bottom of the wound. As a rule, its removal is comparatively easy, but one case recalls itself to the author's mind in which the extraction was a matter of considerable difficulty. The offending object was a large, flat-headed nail, some 2 inches long. This was driven fast into the os pedis, and necessitated the employment of a pair of pincers and the exertion of some amount of force to move it from its position. In this connection it must be remembered that the penetrating object sometimes breaks off after entering the foot. The fact that this occasionally happens only serves to give point to the advice we have previously rendered--that every stab should be carefully probed, and its exact condition and depth ascertained. In those cases where percussion has led to the positive opinion that pus really exists, then the exploration must be most searching. There may, or may not, be a suspicious-looking mark to work on. In the latter case, the veterinary surgeon must not be content with confining his paring operations to one spot. The sole should be carefully thinned all round, and the thinning cautiously proceeded with until either small, pin-point hæmorrhages denote that healthy sensitive structures have been reached, or a sudden flow of pus indicates that the injury has been definitely located. While the symptoms remain much about the same, the diagnosis of pricks received in the forge, as compared with those occurring in the natural manner, is easy. The animal starts to the forge quite sound, and returns, perhaps, with a slight limp. The slight limp in two days' time becomes a decided lameness, and no doubt remains as to what has occurred. The mere fact of the lameness arising immediately after a visit to the forge should be sufficient in the majority of cases to lead one to a correct diagnosis. Where the opinion has been formed that a prick has been received, then the shoe should be removed. This operation should always be superintended by the veterinary surgeon himself. After the removal of the clinches, the nails should be drawn one at a time with the pincers, and carefully examined. Often the offending nail may thus be picked out by observing upon it blood-stains, or the moisture from inflammatory exudate or from pus. Further inflammation will also be gathered by occasionally meeting with a nail that has split. At this stage, too, the veterinary surgeon should have noticed whether or not the smith has previously sent the animal home with what is known as a 'draw back.' He has discovered, immediately after he has done it, that he has pricked the animal. He has then withdrawn the nail, and either sent the animal back with that nail altogether missing from the set in the shoe, or with the hole filled up with a stump. The shoe once off, the holes made by the nails in the horn should be minutely examined for the presence of hæmorrhage, inflammatory fluid, or pus exuding from them, and also for evidence of their correct placing in the foot. Should fluid matter issue from any one of them, or should it be deemed that one has approached too near the inner margin of the white line, more especially if tenderness exists around it, that hole should be followed up with a 'searcher' or small drawing-knife until diagnosis is certain. _Complications_.--Before proceeding to discuss the complications that may arise in the case of pricked foot, we may call to mind that the anatomy of the parts teaches us that the most serious position in which a punctured wound can occur is at the centre of the foot. Here the plantar aponeurosis, the navicular bursa, the navicular bone itself, or the pedal articulation may be injured. Anterior to this position the most serious mischief that can ordinarily result is stabbing of the os pedis. Posterior to the position we have named, the only structure to be injured is the plantar cushion. Anatomically, then, the inferior surface of the foot may be divided into three zones, as follows: _A. Anterior_, extending from the toe to the point of the frog. _B. Middle_, extending from the point of the frog to the commencement of its median lacuna. _C. Posterior_, including everything posterior to the middle zone. This division of the inferior surface of the foot into zones will be somewhat of a guide also when describing the complications next to follow: _(a) Suppuration_.--This is the common complication of most wounds of the foot. When detected, it calls for immediate surgical interference in the shape of removal of the horn of the sole or the frog, as the case may be. This we shall consider further under the treatment. _(b) Separation of the Horny Frog_.--This is a sequel to pus formation in the sensitive structures immediately beneath it, and the condition makes itself apparent by a line of separation between the horn and the skin of the heel of the injured side. _(c) Wounding of the Plantar Aponeurosis_.--This occurs when a moderately-deep penetration of the horn of the middle zone has taken place. It is always most painful, especially when complicated by necrosis. The heel is then persistently elevated, and lameness is extreme, in some cases so severe as to cause the leg to be carried altogether. In favourable cases the necrosed piece of tendon is sloughed off by the process of suppuration, and escapes with the discharges from the wound. There is then an abatement in the symptoms, and recovery is rapid. Commonly, however, on account of the non-vascularity of the structure of the tendon, the necrotic spot in it tends to spread. The wound is thus led to become fistulous in character, and the pus forming within it prevented from escaping from the original opening. As a result, lameness and fever persist. There is a gradual increase in the severity of the symptoms, and later fistulous openings appear in the hollow of the heel. _(d) Puncture of the Navicular Bursa_.--This results from a prick in exactly the same position as that last described, and means that the penetrating object has gone deeper, It may be distinguished from puncture of the plantar aponeurosis alone by the fact that there is an excessive discharge of synovia from the wound. This, as it escapes, is at first clear and straw-coloured. Later it becomes cloudy and flaked with pus, and shows a tendency to coagulate in yellowish clots. Pain and accompanying fever is most marked, much more so than when the plantar aponeurosis alone is injured. Should the original wound be insufficiently enlarged, or should its opening become occluded by the solid matters of the discharge, then this condition, like the last, ends in the formation of fistulous openings in the heel. These make their appearance as hot, painful, and fluctuating swellings in that position. Later they break, discharge their contents, and leave a fistulous track behind. _(e) Fracture of the Navicular Bone_.--Penetration of the substance of the navicular bone, _without_ its fracture, adds nothing to the symptoms we have described under puncture of the bursa. That the bone has been reached by the penetrating object may be detected by probing. This, however, must be performed with care, especially if a flow of synovia is absent. Otherwise, the wound, as yet, perhaps, superficial enough to avoid penetrating even the bursa, is made a penetrating one by the probe itself. Fracture of the navicular bone is fortunately rare. _(f) Penetration of the Pedal Articulation and Arthritis_.--This we shall consider in greater detail in Chapter XII. It is sufficient here to state that the condition may be suspected when a hot and painful swelling of the whole coronet makes its appearance. There is at the same time a diffused oedema of the fetlock and the region of the cannon, sometimes extending upwards to the whole of the limb. Of all the complications to be met with in punctured foot this is the one most to be dreaded. The intense pain and the high fever render the animal weak and thin in the extreme. The appetite becomes impaired, sometimes altogether lost, and the patient in many cases appears to die from sheer exhaustion. Added to this is always the extreme probability of the wound becoming purulent, and later the dread of general septic infection of the blood-stream ensuing, and death resulting from that. Even with the happier ending of resolution, anchylosis of the joint and incurable lameness is more often than not left behind. (See Suppurative or Purulent Arthritis, Chapter XII.) _(g) Ostitis and Caries of the Os Pedis_.--Injuries to the os pedis are met with in the anterior zone of the foot. Evidence that the bone has been injured is not usually forthcoming until after the lapse of some days. One is led to suspect it by the fact that there is no indication of the suppurative process extending further upwards, coupled with the facts that great pain, high fever, and extreme lameness persist, and that there is a continuous discharge from the wound of a copious blood-stained and foetid pus. Used now, the probe reveals the fact that the bone is bared, and conveys to the hand that is holding it a sensation of crumbling fragility. _(h) Wounding of the Lateral Cartilage and Quittor_.--This occurs as the result of a deep stab in the posterior zone. Ordinarily, wounds in this position are unattended with serious consequences, and the prick has to be a deep and a severe one before the cartilage is reached. What then happens is that a spot of necrosis is formed round the seat of puncture in the cartilage. This, unless met with surgical interference, is sufficient to maintain the wound in a septic condition; it takes on a fistulous character, and a quittor is formed. (See Chapter X.) _(i) Septic Infection of the Limb_.--This we have already once or twice referred to. It simply means that the septic matters from the wound have gained the lymphatics, and finally the blood-vessels of the limb, and set up local lesions elsewhere than in the foot. Although dismissed here with these few words, the condition is a most serious one. Usually, it has resulted from penetration of the pedal articulation and septic infection of the joint. In the vast majority of these cases slaughter is both humane and economical. _Prognosis_.--The first consideration in giving a prognosis in punctured foot should be the position of the wound. When occurring in the middle zone, the surgeon's statements should be most guarded, and the dangers attending a wound in that particular position fully explained to the owner. A wound in the anterior position is, as we have said, far less serious, and one in the posterior region of the foot even less serious still. Whenever possible, the nail or other object causing the prick should be examined. Much of the prognosis may be based upon the estimated depth of the wound, and this, in many cases, it is far safer to calculate from the length of the offending body than from the use of the probe. We need hardly say that in the middle zone the deeper the prick, the more serious the case, and the less favourable the prognosis. As in succession the sensitive sole, the plantar aponeurosis, the navicular bursa, the navicular bone, or the pedal articulation is injured, so with each step deeper of the prick is the severity of the case increased. The shape of the penetrating object may also be considered. One excessively blunt, and calculated to bruise and crush the tissues, will inflict a more serious wound than one of equal length that is pointed and sharp. The conformation of the foot should also be regarded. Wounds in well-shaped feet are less serious than in feet with soles that are flat or convex, or in which the horn is pumiced or otherwise deteriorated in quality. Although unaffecting the prognosis so far as the actual termination of the case is concerned, it may be mentioned that punctured foot is far more serious in a nag than in a heavy draught animal. With an equal degree of lameness resulting in each case, the former will be well-nigh useless, but the latter still capable of performing much of his usual labour. The temperament and condition of the patient will also in many cases largely influence the prognosis. An animal of excitable and nervous disposition is far more likely to succumb to the effects of pain and exhaustion than the horse of a more lymphatic type. In the case of a patient suffering from a prick to a hind-foot while heavily pregnant, the attempted forecast of the termination should be cautious. More especially does this apply to the case of a heavy cart-mare. Ordinarily, the heavier the breed, the greater the tendency to lymphatic swelling of the hind-limbs. With pregnancy this tendency is enormously increased, and it is no uncommon thing to find a cart-mare in this condition, with legs, as the owner terms it, 'as thick as gate-posts.' A prick to the foot, with the lymphatics of the limb in this state, is extremely likely to end in septic infection of the leg, for there appears to be no doubt but that invasion of the lymphatics with septic matter is favoured by a sluggish stream. Also, in the case of a patient in the advanced stages of pregnancy, it must be remembered that, no matter how great may be the need, one is debarred, for obvious reasons, from using the slings. _Treatment_.--_In a simple_ case--and by 'simple' here we mean the case in which the injury is discovered early, and pus has not yet commenced to form--our first duties are to give the wound free drainage, and to maintain it in an aseptic condition. The first of these objects is to be arrived at by paring down the horn in a funnel-shaped fashion over the seat of the prick. It is, perhaps, even better to thin the horn down to the sensitive structures for some little distance round the injury. By this latter method pressure from inflammatory exudate is lessened, and the after-formation of pus, if unfortunate enough to occur, the more readily detected, and the less likely to spread upwards. The matter of asepsis may then be attended to. When the puncture is sufficiently large to admit of it, the antiseptic dressing is best applied by means of the probe. This instrument is thinly wrapped with tow, or other absorbent material, so as to form a small swab. Dipped in a suitable solution (as, for example, Zinc Chloride, Spts. Hydrarg. Perchlor., Carbolic Acid, or any other that suggests itself), the swab is inserted into the prick, and the wound conveniently mopped clean. A further portion of the medicated tow is then pushed partially into the wound, and allowed to remain in position. The foot is subsequently wrapped in a clean bag, and kept free from dirt. This dressing should be repeated twice daily. If the prick is in a dangerous position, and deep enough to occasion alarm, our precautions to prevent the formation of septic matters within it may be more elaborate. The thinning of the horn and the swabbing of the wound may, as before, be proceeded with. In addition, the whole foot may then be immersed for some hours daily in a cold bath, which bath should be strongly impregnated with one or other of the following salts: Iron Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate, Copper Sulphate, Aluminium Sulphate, Lead Acetate, or Sodium Chloride--better still, a mixture of the various sulphates here mentioned. If preferred, one of the more commonly accepted antiseptics--such as Carbolic Acid, Lysol, Boracic Acid, or Perchloride of Mercury--may be substituted. By the cold of the bath inflammatory phenomena are held in check, while its added antiseptic prevents the formation of septic discharges. The lameness gradually diminishes, and resolution is rapid. In this way deep and serious, wounds are sometimes easily and successfully treated. _When suppuration has occurred_--and this, by-the-by, is by far the most frequent condition in which we find punctured foot--treatment must be prompt and decided. Careful search must at once be made by thinning down the sole, and carefully trimming the frog. On no account should the veterinary attendant rest content with 'digging' in one place, and upon that basing a negative opinion as to the existence of pus. The paring should be carried on, until either pus or hæmorrhage shows itself, in at least three positions--namely, at the most anterior portion of the sole, and in the sole at each side of the frog. In addition to this, the frog itself should be minutely examined for evidence of puncture, or for leaking of pus at the spot where the horn of the heels joins the skin. In many of our cases, however, this careful search is not so necessary. The accompanying symptoms are so decided as to leave no doubt as to the condition of the case. In such instances paring may often be commenced over the exact position of suppuration as previously ascertained by percussion. When met with, the track formed by the suppurative process should be followed up in whichever direction it has spread. This will often necessitate the removal of the greater part, if not the whole, of the horny sole. Having given vent to the pus, and opened up the cavity made by its formation, the foot should be placed in a hot poultice or, preferably, in a hot antiseptic bath.[A] [Footnote A: At the time of writing this, a certain amount of discussion is going on in our veterinary journals as to whether a hot or a cold bath is the one indicated. It is urged against the application of heat that it favours organismal growth and reproduction, and tends rather to induce the spread of the suppurative process than to overcome it. Those who hold this opinion urge in support of it that cold applications are inimical to the life of the pus organism. At the same time, it must be remembered that in just so far as cold inhibits the growth of the invading germ, so in just the same degree does it adversely influence the functions of the tissues that are to fight against it. To our minds the question thus set up must always remain more or less a moot-point, and while we fully agree that cold undoubtedly checks the growth of septic material, we just as fully believe that warmth serves to place the healthy surrounding structures in a far better condition to maintain a vigorous phagocytosis against it. We thus continue to advise a hot antiseptic poultice, or, better still, a bath.--THE AUTHOR.] At the end of the third or fourth day the poultice or the bath may be discontinued, and the opening in the sole dressed with any suitable astringent and antiseptic. The most serious complication arising from this method of treatment is one of excessive granulation of the sensitive sole. This we find to be successfully held in check by a daily application of undiluted Spts. Hydrarg. Perchlor. (Tuson). Should the granulations become very exuberant, then the knife must be called to our aid, and the wound so made afterwards dressed with an astringent. When the suppuration has under-run the horny frog there should be no hesitation in at once removing all the horn that is visibly separated from the sensitive structures beneath. _When the os pedis is splintered and carious_, a portion of the sole round the wound is removed, and the bone exposed. The diseased portion is scraped away either with a curette or with the point of the drawing-knife. In this case the only after-treatment called for is the application of suitable antiseptic dressings. _When necrosis of the plantar aponeurosis has occurred_. We have already pointed out the tendency there is in this case for the wound to maintain a fistulous character, and lead to the formation of abscesses in the hollow of the heel. With a wound in this position, as with a wound in any other, the only method of avoiding this termination consists in removing all that is visibly diseased, whether it be soft structures, bone, ligament, or tendon, and giving the wound free drainage. This can only be done by removing the horny sole and frog, and cutting boldly down upon the structures beneath. The operation is known as resection of the plantar aponeurosis, or the complete operation for gathered nail. Practised for some years on the Continent, this operation, on account of its gravity, has been avoided by English veterinarians. From reported cases, however, it appears often to be followed by success. That there is a large element of risk in the operation is quite evident, if only from the two facts mentioned beneath: 1. That the close attachment of the plantar aponeurosis to the navicular bursa, and the nearness of both to the pedal articulation, render penetration of a synovial sac or a joint cavity extremely likely. 2. That there is always great difficulty in maintaining strict asepsis of the foot, more especially if it is a hind one. On the other hand, it may be argued that equal risk to the patient is run in allowing him to remain with a disease (and that disease a progressive one) of the structures so closely antiguous to the navicular bursa and the pedal articulation. If only for that reason we give the operation brief mention here. The animal is prepared in the usual way for the operating bed; the foot soaked for a day or two previously in a strong antiseptic solution, the patient cast and chloroformed, and the operation proceeded with. [Illustration: FIG. 106.--'CURETTE,' OR VOLKMANN'S SPOON.] An Esmarch's bandage should be first applied, and a tourniquet afterwards placed higher up on the limb. The foot is then secured as described in an earlier chapter, and the whole of the horny structures of the lower surface of the foot (the sole, the frog, and the bars) pared until quite near the sensitive structures, or, if under-run with pus, stripped off entirely. An incision is then made in each lateral lacuna of the frog, the two meeting at the frog's point. Each incision thus made should be carried deep enough to cut through the substance of the plantar cushion. A tape is then passed through the point of the frog, tied in a loop, and given to an assistant to draw backwards. The plantar cushion itself is then incised in a direction from before backwards, and pulled on by the assistant, so as to expose the plantar aponeurosis. Should this be found at all necrotic, it may be taken that purulent inflammation of the navicular bursa and of the navicular bone itself exists. The operator must then proceed to resection of the tendon in order to treat the deeper structures thus affected. At its point of insertion into the semilunar crest the tendon is severed and afterwards reflected. This exposes the inferior face of the navicular bone. Instead of the glistening and clear appearance it ordinarily presents, its glenoid cartilage is found to be showing hæmorrhagic or even purulent spots of necrosis. The terminal portion of the tendon must then be excised. To effect this a clean transverse incision is made at the extreme upper border of the navicular bone. Here we are in close contact with the pedal articulation, and great care is necessary in making this last incision, in order that the synovial sac may not be penetrated. All structures showing spots of necrosis should now be carefully removed, either with the knife or with the curette. The knives most suitable for the last stages of this operation are those depicted in Fig. 45 (_c_, _d_, and _e_). The curette, or Volkmann's spoon, we show in Fig. 106. [Illustration: FIG. 107.--RESECTION OF TERMINAL PORTION OF THE PERFORANS. The horny sole and the horny frog stripped from off the sensitive structures. _a_, The plantar cushion; _b, b_, the plantar aponeurosis, or terminal portion of perforans; _c_, the navicular bone; _d_, interosseous ligaments of the pedal articulation; _e, e_, semilunar crest of the os pedis; _f_, inferior surface of os pedis; _g, g_, the sensitive laminæ of the bars; _h, h_, bearing surface of the wall; _i, i_, the sensitive sole; _k_, the sensitive frog.] When at all diseased the glenoidal surface of the navicular bone should be curetted, even to the extent of the removal of the whole of the cartilage. A healthy, granulating surface is thus insured. The above figure from Gutenacker's 'Hufkrankheiten' explains shortly the position of the operation wound and the structures involved, rendering further description unnecessary here. The operation ended, the dressing follows. Upon this depends very largely the ultimate recovery of the patient, for it is only by careful attention and suitable dressings that effectual repair of the injured structures may be brought about. A light shoe is first tacked on to the foot, and those portions of the horny sole that have been allowed to remain dressed with Venice turpentine, tar, or other thickly-adherent antiseptic. The exposed soft tissues are then dressed with pledgets of tow[A] soaked in alcohol and carbolic acid. This dressing must be allowed to remain in position, and is kept there by means of a bandage, or the shoe with plates (Fig. 55) and a bandage over it. No pressure is needed; consequently, the pledgets of tow must not be too thick. [Footnote A: When using tow in the form of a pad, it is well to remember that many small balls of the material rolled lightly in the palm of the hand and afterwards massed together are far better than one large pad of the tow taken without this preparation. The irregularities of the wound are better fitted, and the whole dressing easier remains _in situ_ (H.C.R.).] In the after-dressing of the wound careful attention must be paid to the granulating surface. Where tending to become too vigorous in growth it should be held in check by suitable caustic dressings. At the same time it must be remembered that the granulating process of repair is always more rapid upon the plantar cushion and fleshy sole than upon the bone, or upon tendinous or cartilaginous structures. As a result of this we have a wound showing various aspects of cicatrization. Healthy granulation may be profuse in one spot, while in another it may be checked either by a flow of synovia from the still open bursa, or by fragments of bone or of tendon still acting as foreign bodies in the wound. These latter may be readily detected by their standing out as dark and uncovered spots in the healthy granulation around, and should be at once removed. The time that an operation wound of this description takes to heal--and that without complication--is from one to two or three months. Continuation of pain and intensity of lameness are not to be taken as indications of failure. The reparative inflammation in the synovial membrane is quite sufficient to induce pain severe enough to prevent the animal from placing his foot to the ground for some weeks, even though the progress of the case, all unknown, may be all that is desired. So long as a great amount of pain is absent, and so long as appetite remains and swellings in the hollow of the heel fail to make their appearance, so long may the progress of the case be deemed satisfactory. _Recorded Case of the Treatment_.--A cart-horse, aged six years, was sent to the Alfort School by a veterinary surgeon for having picked up a nail in the hind-foot. Professor Cadiot, judging the necessity for the complete operation, performed it on January 14, and spared the plantar cushion as much as possible. In consequence of the plantar aponeurosis being extensively necrosed, it was advisable to scrape the navicular bone and a part of the semilunar crest. The wound having been washed with a 1 per cent. solution of perchloride of mercury, it was dusted with iodoform and packed with gauze, and covered with a cotton-wool dressing, kept in position by means of a suitable shoe. On January 16 there was no snatching up of the limb when the horse was made to put weight upon it; he ate his food well, and his condition improved every day. On January 21 the dressing was removed; the wound appeared pinky and granular, and there was no suppuration. The clot remaining from the hæmorrhage after the operation was removed, the wound was irrigated with a hot solution of sublimate, and then dusted with iodoform and covered with a dressing of iodoform gauze and absorbent wool. At this date the horse could stand on the injured limb. On January 31 a second dressing was made, and the animal almost walked sound. On February 7 the wound had almost closed up, save in its central part, where there was a small cavity, and the lameness had disappeared. On February 15 the wound had completely healed, and its borders were covered by a layer of thin horn. As the animal was sound it was sent to work. The author directs attention to the rapidity with which a large and complete wound cicatrizes after the operation for gathered nail.[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. XV., p. 226 (Jourdan).] _In the case of Penetrated Navicular Bursa_, unaccompanied by the formation of any large quantity of pus, and uncomplicated by necrosis of the aponeurosis, our aim must be to maintain the wound in that happy condition. This is doubtless best done by keeping the foot continually in a cold bath, rendered strongly antiseptic by the addition of sulphate of copper and perchloride of mercury. Should there be intervals when the bath must be neglected, the foot in the meantime must be kept clean by antiseptic packing and bandaging, and a clean bag over all. This treatment should be continued so long as the character of the discharge denotes that synovia is running. If, in spite of our precautions, the discharge becomes purulent, then the track made by the penetrating object should be syringed twice daily with a 1 in 1,000 solution of perchloride of mercury. During the treatment it will be wise to shoe the animal with a high-heeled shoe. We do not know as yet the full extent of the injury. The navicular bone may be tending to caries; or necrosis of the plantar aponeurosis, all unknown, gradually becoming pronounced. This calls for a relief of tension on the perforans, and is only to be brought about by the high-heeled shoe. The result of the inflammatory changes in the tendon, aided possibly by the use of the high-heeled shoe, is to afterwards bring about contraction. Where this has occurred, and the animal walks continuously on his toe, the shoe with the projecting toe-piece (Fig. 84) must be applied. When the continual use of the toe-piece appears inadvisable, the shoe devised by Colonel Nunn may be used in its stead (see Fig. 108). The toe-piece is screwed into the toe of the shoe when the horse is about to be exercised, and forms a powerful point of leverage with which to stretch the contracted tendon, and the shoe, being thin at the heels, admits of this. The advantage of this form of toe-piece over the ordinary form of fixed toe-lever is that it can be removed when the horse is in the stable; while the curved point diminishes the danger of the horse hurting itself--a danger always present if it is on a hind-foot. (See also Treatment of Purulent Arthritis in Chapter XII.) [Illustration: FIG. 108.--COLONEL NUNN'S SHOE WITH DETACHABLE TOE EXTENSION.] _Should a Sinuous Wound remain in the region of the Lateral Cartilage_, it should be explored, and its depth and likely number of branches ascertained. Should this exploration denote that the cartilage itself is diseased, or that the wound is not able to be sufficiently drained from the sole, then we know that we have on our hands a case of quittor. The treatment necessary in such a case will be found described in Chapter X. _When the Complication of Purulent Arthritis has arisen_, the surgeon has to admit to himself, reluctantly no doubt, that the case is often beyond hope of aid from him. Nothing can be done save to order continuous antiseptic baths and antiseptic irrigation of the wounds with a quittor syringe, and to attend to the general health and condition of the patient. At the best it is but a sorry look-out both for the veterinary attendant and the owner of the animal. Even with resolution incurable lameness results, and the animal is afterwards more or less a walking exhibition of the limitations of surgery, while the owner, unless the animal is valuable for the purpose of breeding, finds himself encumbered with a life that is practically useless. (See Treatment of Purulent Arthritis, Chapter XII.) _In the case of Lameness Persisting after the healing of all appreciable lesions_, then neurectomy is followed by good results. The animal, apparently recovered, is for a long time useless. Lameness persists for several months, as if the nail had at the moment of its penetration caused lesions, which doubtless it sometimes does, similar to those of navicular disease. Examination of the foot in this case reveals no lesion, and the pain has evidently a deep origin. The lameness caused by it is subject to variation. Frequently it becomes lessened during rest, and increased by hard work, while sometimes it is very much more pronounced at starting than after exercise. It is here that neurectomy is called for. The operation does nothing to impede the work of healing going on, and allows free movement of the foot and pastern to take place. At the same time suffering and emaciation cease, and the animal is rendered workable.[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. ii., p. 371.] C. CORONITIS (SIMPLE). TREAD, OVERREACH, ETC. 1. _Acute_. _Definition_.--Under the heading of simple coronitis in its acute form we intend to describe those inflammatory conditions of the skin and underlying structures of the coronet occurring without specific cause. Specific coronitis will be found described in Chapter IX. _Causes_.--This condition is almost invariably set up by an injury--either a bruise or an actual wound--to the coronet. By far the most common among such injuries are those inflicted by the animal himself by means of the shoes. That known as 'tread' is caused by the shoe on the opposite foot, and may happen in a variety of ways. More often than not it is met with in the feet of heavy draught animals, and is there caused by the calkin, either when being violently backed or suddenly turned round. It may also occur in horses with itchy legs, as a result of the animal rubbing the leg with the shoe of the opposite limb. The irritation in this case is nearly always due to parasitic infection (_Symbiotes equi_), and becomes sometimes so unbearable as to render the animal unmindful of the injury he may be inflicting so long as he experiences the relief obtained by the rubbing. Self-inflicted tread is also sometimes met with when horses are worked abreast at plough. The animal in the furrow, with one foot sometimes in and sometimes out of the hollow, is caused to make a false step, and so brings the injury about. Animals worked in pairs are further liable to receive a tread from the foot of their companion. This is commonly seen in heavy animals at agricultural labour in fields, where the walking is uneven, and abrupt turning constant. It is not uncommon either in animals at work in vans in town, and is occasionally met with in the feet of carriage-horses. 'Overreach' is the term used to indicate the injury inflicted on the coronary portion of the heel of the fore-foot by the shoe of the hind. Ordinarily, overreach occurs when the animal is at a gallop, and is thus met with in its severest form in hunters and steeplechasers. It can only occur when the fore-foot is raised from the ground and the hind-foot of the same side reached right forward. When the feet separate the injury takes place. In its movement backwards the inner border of the shoe of the hind-foot catches the coronet of the fore, and tears it backwards with it. Quite frequently a portion of the skin is removed entirely, but often it hangs as a triangular flap. The flap in such a case is always attached by its hindermost edge, and indicates plainly enough that the direction of the blow that cut it must have been from before backwards. Although ordinarily inflicted at the gallop, the same injury may, nevertheless, be caused by allowing a fast trotter, and one with extreme freedom of action behind, to push forward at the utmost limit of his pace. The outside heel is the one most subject to the injury. While the common form of injury to the coronet is, as we have described, that occasioned by the animal's own shoe, or that of a companion, it is evident that the foot is also open to similar injuries from quite outside sources. Falls of the shafts when unyoking animals from a heavy cart, blows or wounds from the stable fork, wounds resulting from the foot becoming fixed in a gate or a fence, either may equally well set up the mischief. Apart from severe injury, a particularly troublesome form of coronitis may arise from the condition of the roads. We refer to the conditions attendant on a thaw after snow. The animal is called upon to labour in, or perhaps stand for long periods in, a mixture of snow and water, or snow and mud. That this must have a prejudicial effect upon the structure of the coronet is plain. The circulation of the part, already predisposed to sluggishness by reason of its distance from the heart, is farther impeded by the action of the cold. Small abrasions of the skin, so small as to scarce be noticeable, are in this case freely open to infection with the septic matter the mud contains. Necrosis and consequent sloughing of the skin is bound to follow, and an extensive ulcerous wound, or a spreading suppuration of the coronary cushion is the result. _Symptoms_.--We will take first the case in which no actual wound is observable. Here the first indication of the trouble is the appearance of an inflammatory swelling, confined usually to one side, but extending sometimes to the whole of the coronet. Always the part is hot and tender, and with it the patient is lame--so much so, in many cases, as to be unable to put the foot to the ground, the toe alone being used. In a mild case, uncomplicated by septic infection, these symptoms rapidly subside, and resolution occurs. Always, however, the presence of septic infection must be suspected and looked for. When this has occurred, the inflammatory swelling becomes larger and more diffuse, and the animal fevered. This is then followed by a slough of the injured part. A portion of the skin first becomes gray, or even black, in appearance, and around it oozes an inflammatory exudate, or even pus. The skin immediately adjoining the spot of necrosis is swollen and hyperaæmic, and extremely painful and sensitive. Later, the necrosed portion becomes cast off, and an open wound remains. This as a rule marks the turning-point in the case. The pain and other symptoms rapidly abate, and the wound, with proper attention, is not more than ordinarily difficult to treat. In the case of an actual wound the symptoms are probably less severe. The injury is, in this instance, the sooner detected, and remedial measures put into operation. In this manner the formation of septic material is often checked, and nothing but the treatment of a simple wound demands attention. There are, however, complications. _Complications--(a) Diffuse Purulent Inflammation of the Sub-coronary Tissue_.--This condition is brought about by the spread into the loose tissue of the coronary cushion of the septic material introduced by the tread. The whole coronet in this instance becomes excessively swollen, hot, and painful, and the dangerous nature of the complication is evident enough when the structure and situation of the parts involved is considered. The amount of tendinous and ligamentous material in the neighbourhood offers a strong predisposition to necrosis, and the necrosis, with its attendant formation of pus, offers a further danger when the close proximity of the pedal articulation and the unyielding character of the horny box is considered with it. The pus formed in this condition may remain confined to the coronet and break through the skin as an ordinary abscess, or it may, before so doing, burrow beneath the wall, and invade the sensitive laminæ. In this case, whenever portions of the secreting layer of the keratogenous membrane are destroyed, or perhaps only temporarily prevented from fulfilling their horn-producing functions, then corresponding cavities in the horn are the result (see Fig. 109). _(b) Purulent Arthritis_.--Only too readily the pus so formed tends to penetration of the articulation and the causation of an incurable arthritis (see Chapter XII.). [Illustration: FIG. 109.--MESIAL SECTION OF A HOOF ILLUSTRATING THE CONDITIONS FOLLOWING UPON CORONITIS. _a_, Cavity in the horn of the wall; _b_, enlargement of the coronet and the horn of the wall following subcoronary suppuration; _c_, cavity in the wall following purulent inflammation of the sensitive laminæ; _d_, hollow in the horn of the sole consequent upon suppuration of the sensitive sole.] _(c) Necrosis of the Extensor Pedis_.--This may arise either as a result of spreading purulent infection of the coronary cushion, or as a result of direct injury immediately over it. The close relation of the terminal portion of this tendon with the pedal articulation, and the incomplete protection from outside injuries here afforded to the joint by the horny box, sufficiently points out the gravity of the condition. _(d) Penetration of the Articulation_.--This also may be a result either of the inroads made by pus, or of an actual wound. When occurring from the latter, it is seen more often than not in the hind-foot, being there caused by the calkin of the opposite foot. Where a wound in this position is characterized by an excessive flow of synovia, the condition should be suspected, and, if the wound be large enough, the little finger should be introduced in order to ascertain. Needless to say, the injury is a grave one. _(e) Sand-crack_.--Sand-crack is likely to result from tread when an injury is inflicted in the region of the quarter by a severe overreach. Treads, too, especially with the calkin of the hind-shoe, are especially apt to end in this way. In this latter instance the sand-crack usually has its origin in a nasty jagged tear at the top of the wall of the toe. _(f) Quittor_.--In one respect any suppurating wound at the coronet may be deemed a quittor. By indicating quittor as a complication of coronitis, however, we denote the more serious form of this disease, in which the wound has taken on a sinuous character, and conducted pus to invasion of the lateral cartilage. It is one of the worst complications we are likely to meet with in this condition, and will be found fully described in Chapter X. _(g) False Quarter_.--This complication of coronitis occurs when the injury or after-effect of the formation of pus has been severe enough to destroy outright a comparatively large portion of the papillary layer of the coronary cushion. To this condition we devote Section D of this chapter. _Prognosis_.--In giving a prognosis in a case of coronitis, attention should be paid to the manner in which the condition originated, and the extent, when present, of the wound. When the inflammatory swelling has arisen from bruising alone, without actual division of the skin, when the weather is that of winter, and the swelling showing a marked tendency to spread, then the prognosis must be guarded. As we have seen, this state of affairs is probably ushering in a condition of spreading suppuration of the coronary cushion, and considerable gangrene and sloughing of the skin. We have here no intimation as yet of how far the suppurative process may run, nor what important structures it may involve. Consequently, the guarded prognosis we have mentioned is imperative. Where an actual wound is to be seen, and where advice is sought early, then a more favourable opinion may be advanced. In this case antiseptic measures, commenced early and persisted in, may prevent the rise of further mischief. It goes without saying that, should there arise any other of the complications we have mentioned (viz., Arthritis, Necrosis of the Extensor Pedis, Sand-crack, Quittor, and False Quarter), the fact should be pointed out to the owner, and the prognosis regulated thereby. _Treatment--Preventive_.--Seeing that at any rate the majority of cases of coronitis result from injuries inflicted by the shoes, we may look at once to that particular for a means of prevention. Take first the case of 'treads'. There is no doubt that they are most common in animals shod with heavy shoes and with high and sharp calkins. This suggests at once that a preventive is to be found in substituting a calkin that is low and square. Where the injury is an overreach, and where, on account of the animal's pace and manner of gait it is in risk of being constantly inflicted, the shoeing should be seen to at once. We have already pointed out that it is the inner border of the lower surface of the toe of the hind-shoe which, in the act of being drawn backwards, inflicts the injury. (See Fig. 110). In this case prevention may be brought about either by shoeing with a shoe whose ground surface is wholly concave, or by bevelling off the sharp border (see Fig. 110, _a_, p. 236). When the tendency to overreach is not excessive, prevention may in many cases be effected by simply placing the shoe of the hind-foot a trifle further backwards than would ordinarily be correct, thus allowing the horn of the toe to project beyond the shoe. This at the same time does away with the annoyance of 'forging' or 'clacking,' which, as a rule, accompanies this condition. While recognising the value of shoeing in these cases, we must not forget that a great deal may be brought about by careful horsemanship. The animal should be held together and kept well up to the bit, but should _not_ be allowed to push forward at the top of his pace. With many animals of fast pace and free action overreach is more an indiscretion of youth than any defect in action or conformation, and his powers should therefore be husbanded by the driver until the animal has settled down into a convenient and steady manner of going. [Illustration: FIG. 110.--UNDER SURFACE OF THE TOE OF A HIND-SHOE. _a_, Marks the portion of the inner margin that inflicts overreach.] [Illustration: FIG. 111.--THE INNER MARGIN OF THE INFERIOR SURFACE OF THE HIND-SHOE BEVELLED TO PREVENT OVERREACH.] _Curative_.--Although in some cases it is so small as to go undetected, we may take it that in all cases of coronitis there is a wound, with consequent danger of septic infection of the surrounding parts. Therefore, after attention to the shoeing and removal of the cause, the first indication in the treatment will be to render the parts aseptic. This is best done by removing the hair from the coronet and soaking the whole foot in a cold antiseptic solution. After removal from the bath, the coronet may be dressed with a moderately strong solution of carbolic acid or perchloride of mercury. When the injury is slight and recent, such is sufficient to effect resolution. When marked swelling persists, however, and the increase in heat and tenderness denotes the formation of pus, recovery is not so easily obtained. In this case the application of hot poultices or hot baths is called for. By these means suppuration is promoted and induced to early break through in the most favourable position--namely, the softened skin of the coronet. The pus so escaping is always more or less blood-stained, and contains both large and small pieces of broken down and decomposed tissue. After discharge of the pus, the cavity remaining should be mopped out with an antiseptic solution, and a pledget of antiseptic tow or other material left in position. All that is then needed is constant dressing in a suitable manner. We prefer in this instance washing some three or four times a day with hot water until a perfectly clean wound is obtained, and, after the washing, painting the raw surface with a strong solution (1 in 200, or 1 in 100) of perchloride of mercury. When the abscess we have described as forming is extremely large, or where it is more than ordinarily slow in 'pointing,' the likelihood of its having burrowed for some distance below the upper margin of the wall must be suspected. Here it is sometimes wise to thin the wall with the rasp immediately below the point of greatest swelling of the coronet. This will serve to lessen pressure on the sensitive structures beneath. Immediately the abscess contents have found exit at the coronet, the cavity formerly occupied by the pus should be explored. If to any extent it is found then to have 'pocketed' beneath the upper border of the wall, a counter-opening should be made where the horn of the wall has been thinned with the rasp. When it so happens, either from extensive bruising or from the action of excessive cold, that we have or suspect the condition of sloughing, then the first indication is to aid the live tissues to throw off the necrosed portion. In spite of what is sometimes urged to the contrary, a hot poultice is, perhaps, the best means of bringing this about. Directly the necrosed piece is shed, a wound remains which, so far as treatment is concerned, may be regarded exactly as that left by the formation of pus. Hot water applications, some three or four times daily, will serve both to cleanse the wound and also to maintain vitality in the tissues immediately surrounding it. After each washing, the use of a strong antiseptic solution to the wound is again beneficial. In the case of an actual wound, whether, as in overreach, affecting the coronet alone or involving destruction of part of the wall, or, as in the case of toe-tread, penetrating the pedal articulation, the treatment to be followed is simple enough, in theory, if not always easy to carry out. It consists solely in maintaining a rigid asepsis of the parts until healing is well advanced or complete. The whole foot, including the coronet, should first be thoroughly washed in warm water. At the same time there should be used some agent that will tend to remove the natural grease of the parts. In this manner cleansing will be rendered more thorough, and penetration of the antiseptic solution to be afterwards applied made the more certain. The most ready way of effecting this is to use the ordinary stable 'water'-brush, and plenty of a freely-lathering soap. This done, the foot should be rinsed in cold water, and afterwards constantly soaked in a cold antiseptic bath. Where it is inconvenient or impossible to have the constant bathing carried out, a dry antiseptic dressing may be tried in its stead. In this case the foot should first be thoroughly washed and dressed as before. Afterwards an antiseptic powder in the shape of a mixture of iodoform 1 part, boracic acid 10 parts, should be freely dusted on the wound, a pledget of carbolized tow or cotton-wool placed over it, and the whole maintained in position with a bandage previously soaked in a 1 in 500 solution of perchloride of mercury. Once on, this dressing should be allowed to remain until healing is complete. Should the animal manifest pain, however, by constantly pawing, or should swelling and heat of the parts be suspected, the bandage should be removed, and the condition of the wound ascertained. An excellent example of the value of this method of treatment is that given below: 'I call to mind a valuable hunter in my practice a few seasons since, who, whilst hunting, we suppose, struck himself in the way we suggest. He not only removed the superior portion of the inner heel, but tore about 3 inches of the hoof from the top nearly to the bottom. This was clapped back by the owner, tied with a handkerchief, and the horse removed home. When the handkerchief was removed, I confess I did not think the horse looked at all like hunting again. The heel was fairly pulled down, the portion of the hoof that was hanging to it I could easily have wrenched off. The parts were fomented, however, with warm water which was slightly carbolized. I then removed a great portion of the heel and the lateral cartilage, which was split; placed the portion of hoof again on the laminæ, smothered the wound with iodoform pulv., covered it with cotton-wool packing, and all the boracic acid I could get it to hold. A piece of linen bandage was then tightly wrapped a few times round, and the lot enclosed in a plaster-of-Paris bandage. I did not undo it for a fortnight, when, to my great pleasure, the heel and hoof presented a highly satisfactory appearance. I did it up in much the same way for another ten days, then put the sand-crack clamps into the hoof and fixed it to the sound part. The hoof remained in position while the new horn grew from the top, and the horse hunted again the same season.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. ix., p. 501 (Bower).] _Sequels_.--Either of the complications we have mentioned--as, for instance, Arthritis, Sand-crack, or Quittor--may persist and remain as sequels to the case. In addition to these, there may be left behind a cavity in the horn of the wall (see Fig. 109), or a loss of the horn-substance of the wall proper, as that depicted in Fig. 112, or described under the heading of False Quarter. [Illustration: Fig. 112.--HOOF WITH A CAVITY IN THE SUBSTANCE OF THE WALL FOLLOWING UPON 'TREAD' TO THE CORONET.] The treatment of Arthritis, Sand-crack, Quittor, False Quarter, and Seedy-toe, will be found in the chapters devoted to their consideration. 2. _Chronic_. _Definition_.--Coronitis in which, owing to the persistence of the cause, inflammatory phenomena continue, resulting in the growth of large fibrous tumours about the coronet. _Causes_.--In many cases it is possible, of course, that abnormal large growths in this position may have an origin similar to that of neoplasms elsewhere--that is to say, an origin as yet undiscovered. There is no doubt, however, that the majority of the huge enlargements about the coronet have their starting-point in one or other of the diseases to which the foot is liable, in which the cause remains, and a low type of inflammation persists. In chronic and neglected suppurating corn, in untreated quittor, and in long-standing complicated sand-crack, for instance, we have conditions in which pus and other septic matters find ready entrance into the subcoronary tissues. Should either of these be neglected, or should the pus formation from the onset take on a slow but gradually spreading form (in other words, should either of these cases run a chronic rather than an acute course) then, with the persistence of the inflammatory phenomena so caused, is bound to result a steady and increasing growth of inflammatory fibrous connective tissue. This, as it grows, becomes in its turn penetrated by the ever-invading pus, and, under the stimulus thus caused, itself throws out new tissue. And so, constantly excited, the tumour-like mass tends to steady increase in size, until enlargements are formed which one may sometimes truly term enormous. _Symptoms_.--The appearance of the growth is, of course, immediately evident. Usually these swellings are slow in forming, so that the size of the enlargement depends entirely upon its age. We may thus meet with growths of this description, varying in weight from 4 or 5 pounds to the almost incredible size of 33-1/2 pounds. In the majority of cases a discharging sore is to be found upon it--in some cases several. Explored, these sores reveal their true nature. Their lip-like openings, and the ready manner in which they may be searched by the probe, show them to be sinuses. In a few cases, however, the outer surface of these tumours is intact. When this is the case, it is possible that the growth is a true fibroma--that is to say, a non-inflammatory new growth of fibrous connective tissue. On the other hand, it may have resulted from one or other of the causes we have enumerated, and its exact diagnosis have been impossible until operative measures had been proceeded with. In this case, small and encysted foci of inspissated pus scattered more or less throughout the growth indicate its true nature. Pain as a rule is absent, and, unless the growth, on account of its size, interferes with progress, the animal walks perfectly sound. Here the patient may, without offending the dictates of humanity, be put to slow work. _Treatment_.--In very many cases, possibly on account of the decreased circulation and vitality of the parts, these growths occur in aged animals. Here treatment is not economic, and may for that reason be put out of the question. Further, the growths are more common in heavy cart animals of a lymphatic type than in those of a lighter breed. Couple this with the fact that the tumour is often unattended with pain, and we see that the animal is still able to perform his accustomed labour. Here, again, treatment is contra-indicated. For still another reason surgical treatment, which is the only treatment likely to be of benefit, must not be undertaken rashly. A large and open wound is bound to be left behind. So large is it in many cases that the complete covering of the exposed surface with epidermal growths from the circumference cannot possibly be looked for. There is then left a large and horny-looking scar, which is an even worse eyesore than was the original enlargement. When the patient is a young and otherwise valuable animal, however, and when the case, judged either by the size of the swelling or its outside appearance, promises a fair measure of success, operative measures may be determined on. In this case the author's practice has been, after casting the animal, to apply a tourniquet to the limb and proceed to excision. A lozenge-shaped incision, extending to near but not quite the circumference of the swelling, should be made with a large knife right through the skin and deeply into the growth. The whole is then removed, proceeding in an excavating manner under the thickened skin at the margin. Hæmorrhage, though proceeding from several apparently large vessels in the structure of the tumour, and oozing generally over the whole of the outer surface, is rarely profuse enough to interfere with the operation, and is easily controlled by cold water douches and the application of the artery forceps to one or more of the larger vessels. The operation completed, the larger bleeding-points should be secured by exerting torsion with the artery forceps, and the surface oozing stayed by frequent dashing with cold water. When the hæmorrhage has sufficiently ceased, an ordinary flat firing-iron should be passed over the whole of the cut surface, and an effectual eschar formed. Following this, and _before removing the tourniquet_, the wound should be filled with pledgets of carbolized tow, and the whole tightly secured by a stout and broad linen bandage of not less than 6 yards in length. _Reported Case_.--'The patient, a middle-aged cart mare, had a pair of fore-feet the like of which I never saw. As the result of long-standing and imperfectly-treated quittor all over the seat of side-bone on the outer side of each fore-foot, beginning pretty far forward, and extending to the heel on the inner side, filling up the hollow and reaching nearly to the fetlock, was a big, bulging, hard, calloused enlargement or tumour standing out 3 or 4 inches all round, covered with thick horny skin and stubby hair, and having on its surface the small openings of several sinuses leading deeply down to the ossified and diseased cartilage underneath. And yet with all this diseased undergrowth the mare, strangely enough, walked and trotted sound. I was told that this mare had been troubled with suppurating corns and quittor, that many unsuccessful attempts had been made at cure, but that, getting worse instead of better, these tumours had formed. 'After casting and anæsthetizing, a strong rubber tourniquet was placed above the knee and the operation commenced. With a surgeon's amputating knife all the big fibrous mass which I could safely remove was cut and sliced off, and the coronet and pastern reduced as nearly as possible to its natural dimensions. The diseased cartilage, or side-bone, gave some trouble, a considerable portion having to be cut and scraped, and the sinus in it gouged out; but its complete removal did not appear to be called for. 'There was little if any hæmorrhage until release of the tourniquet, when the whole broad surface became deluged with blood, three or four small arteries spurting and veins flowing in all directions, so much so that I was glad to reafix the clasp, and with the firing-iron seal up the vessels, searing gently all over the surface. [Illustration: FIG. 113.--CHRONIC CORONITIS FOLLOWING 'TREAD.'] 'A good dusting with antiseptic powder, a thick pad of carbolized wool, and two long calico bandages wound tightly round, completed the work. 'The other, the near-leg, was then dealt with in the same way. 'The mass removed weighed a little over 9-1/2 pounds--5 pounds from the off-foot and 4-1/2 pounds from the near. Its structure was fibrous tissue, almost as firm and hard as cartilage, and with no appearance of malignancy. 'The after-treatment consisted simply of fresh dry dressings--copper, sulphate, zinc sulphate, and calamine, equal parts--applied every third or fourth day, after first bathing the feet in a shallow tub of warm antiseptic water. 'At the end of eight or ten weeks a fairly presentable appearance existed. The greater part of what had been raw surface was covered with healthy skin, and the remainder had become dry and horny.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiv., p. 201 (C. Cunningham, M.R.C.V.S.).] A further form of chronic coronitis is that shown in Fig. 113. This condition is commonly the result of a severe and jagged tread with the calkin, and takes the form of an ulcerous and excessively granulating wound. As time goes on the granulations become hard and horny-looking, and their fibrous tissue as hard and unyielding as tendon or cartilage. These if treated in the early stages with repeated dressings of caustic, or, if very exuberant, the use of the knife, usually yield to treatment. If neglected until the condition depicted in the figure is arrived at, then treatment, as a rule, is of no avail. Neither is treatment of any use if any great loss of the coronary cushion has occurred. D. FALSE QUARTER. _Definition_.--False quarter is the term applied to that condition of the horn of the quarter in which, owing to disease or injury of the coronet, the wall is grown in a manner that is incomplete. _Symptoms_.--This condition of the foot appears as a gap or shallow indentation, narrow or wide, in the thickness of the wall, with its length in the direction of the horn fibres. By this we do not mean that the sensitive laminæ are bared and exposed. Horn of a sort there is, and with this the sensitive structures are covered. Running down the centre of the incomplete horn is usually a narrow fissure marking the line of separation in the papillary layer of the coronary cushion, which, as we shall later see, is responsible for the malformation. On either side of the indentation, as if wishing to aid further than ordinarily it should in bearing the body-weight, the horn takes on an increased growth, and stands above the level of the horn surrounding it. It may, as perhaps it really is, be regarded as a form of hypertrophy, brought about by the increased work that the loss of substance in the region of the false quarter puts upon it. So long as the sensitive structures are protected the animal remains sound. Sometimes, however, from the effects of concussion or of the body-weight, a fissure appears in the narrow veneer of horn that covers them. Into this, which, of course, is but a form of sand-crack, gravel and dirt penetrate, and so set up inflammatory changes in the keratogenous membrane. As a result suppuration ensues, and the animal is lame. _Causes_.--False quarter may result from any disease of the foot that involves destruction of a portion of the coronary cushion. As we may see from a reference to Chapter III., it is from the papillæ of this body that the horn tubules of the wall are secreted. Destruction of any portion of it necessarily results in a corresponding loss of horn in that position. The disease occasioning this more often than any other is perhaps quittor. It may also result from suppurating corn, from a severe tread or overreach, or from the effects of a slowly progressing suppurating coronitis. _Treatment_.--A radical treatment of false quarter is not to be found. Once destruction of the secreting layer of the coronary cushion has occurred, the appearance of the fissure in the wall will always have to be reckoned with. A false quarter, therefore, not only renders the horse liable to occasional lameness, but also renders weaker that side of the hoof in which it occurs. The only method of treatment that can be practised, therefore, is that of palliation. Seeing that the trouble the veterinary attendant will have to deal with is loss of a portion of the weight-bearing surface, his attention is immediately directed to the shoeing. As with sand-crack, so with false quarter, the frog and the bars must be called upon to take more of the body-weight than commonly they do with the ordinary shoe. The indication, then, is a bar shoe. At the same time, the bearing of the wall on the shoe on either side of the fissure should be eased by slightly paring it, and the hypertrophied horn on the outer surface of the wall removed with the rasp. In cases where penetration of the sensitive structures has occurred, complicated with the formation of pus, the same treatment as for complicated crack is to be followed. The foot should be poulticed for several days with hot antiseptic dressings, and thorough cleansing of the infected parted brought about. Afterwards strong solutions of suitable antiseptics should be applied daily until such time as the horny covering has renewed itself. This done and the bar shoe applied, the fissure may be plugged with any effectual stopping. Either a mixture, such as Percival's, of pitch 2 parts, tar 1 part, and resin 1 part, melted and mixed together, or one of the artificial hoof-horns may either be used with advantage. E. ACCIDENTAL TEARING OFF OF THE ENTIRE HOOF. _Causes_.--Seeing that this accident to, and consequent severe wounding of, the keratogenous membrane nearly always occurs in but one way, it is worthy of special mention. So far as we are able to ascertain, it is an accident peculiar to horses continually engaged in shunting operations either in pits or station-yards. At the moment the animal is released from the waggon he has been pulling, and should turn to the right or the left in order to allow it to pass him, the shoe either becomes wedged in between two converging rails, or is trapped by the wheel of the waggon. Either the approaching waggon with the added weight its impetus gives it then pushes the animal suddenly away, leaving a part of his foot still fixed to the rails, or the animal himself, feeling securely held, makes a sudden effort to release himself, and draws his foot cleanly out of the imprisoned horny box. The author calls to mind a case in which entire removal of the horn of the foot of an ox occurred through the passing over it of the wheel of a heavily-laden cart. It is therefore quite conceivable that the same accident might occur to the horse. As a matter of fact, we find one case on record where one-half of the horny box was thus removed.[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiii., p. 129.] So far as we are able to gather, it is more a result of imprisonment of the shoe than of the foot. It appears, further, to be always a result of the animal being newly shod, and the clinches firmly secured; so much so that it would be probable, with imperfectly secured clinches, that the animal would draw the hoof from the clinches and the shoe rather than the foot from its horny covering. Therefore, as the author of one of the cases we shall afterwards relate suggests, it should be proposed as a preventive that the shoe-nails of animals regularly engaged in work on the metals should not be clinched in the regulation manner, but should have their points merely screwed off, and the nails afterwards rasped level with the wall. These cases are particularly interesting as illustrating the rapid manner in which a new hoof is afterwards formed, and the way in which the exposed sensitive laminæ take their share in adding to, though not forming the bulk of, the horn of the wall. From the cases we are able to record it will be seen that this accident need not be looked upon as fatal, nor the injury itself beyond hope of repair. Dependent largely upon the temperament of the animal, the amount of pain that is caused, and the way in which the animal bears it, recovery may be looked for. Even from the very commencement of the accident, however, the pain may be so acute and the animal so violent with it that slaughter becomes necessary. _Treatment_.--This consists in applying an antiseptic and sedative dressing to the injured parts (for example, Carbolized Oil and Tincture of Opium, equal parts) and afterwards bandaging. From the only data we are able to work on, it appears that this dressing should be repeated daily, the bandage being removed, each time, the foot well bathed in warm water, and the dressing and bandage afterwards replaced. On first sight, it would appear that once cleansed and bandaged the dressings might be left _in situ_ for several days. Seeing, however, that suppuration, if once set up, would add further to the intense pain the animal is already suffering, and considering the always constant exposure of the foot to infection, it is perhaps wise to persist in daily changing of the dressings. At the same time, the general health of the animal should be attended to. Suitable febrifuges should be administered, either in the shape of a dose of physic, or salines and liq. ammonia. acetatis; and the pain, if appearing unbearable, allayed by doses of choral and hypodermic injections of morphia. _Recorded Cases_.--1. 'A short time ago I was called to see a horse which had had his hoof torn off in a railway "point." When I arrived at the stable the injury had been done two hours, and the horse had been led from the railway to a loose-box nearly half-a-mile off. On going to this box I was surprised and horrified to find the poor animal mad with pain, rolling and dashing himself about. When on his back he would struggle and kick the walls with the injured foot, as though unconscious of pain. Not one moment was he still, and as I could see that the sensitive structures were much damaged by his violence, I obtained a gun and put him out of his pain. 'The accident happened in this way. The horse was employed in shunting coal-waggons, and had just drawn four loaded trucks up to a point at which they diverged to the left, and the horse, being unhooked, ought to have turned to the right. Here, unfortunately, the near fore-foot became wedged in between two converging railway plates, one of which formed a part of the waggon-way, on which the trucks were running. The horse was a big animal, and freshly shod with heavy shoes, on which a toe-piece and calkins were used. The shoe was roughly but strongly nailed on with eight nails, the clinches of which were all firm. This shoe was fitted wide at the heels, and when the foot was fixed in the points (toe downwards) it protruded over the face of the rail. When the trucks reached it they pressed it down, and, the horse leaning forward, the hoof was drawn off like a glove. The hoof was almost as clean inside as if taken off by maceration--only towards the toe was a small portion of the coffin-bone and some torn laminæ left inside the hoof. 'As soon as possible after the accident, so I was told, the foot was bound up with tow and a bandage; then a sack was cut up and placed over all, and the horse slowly led to his loose-box. He "carried" the leg all the way, limping along on the three sound ones. Almost immediately after reaching the box he lay down, but only for a short time. The standing position was not long maintained--profuse perspiration set in, and the alternations of position became more rapid and violent, till plunging and rolling were added to the other signs of excruciating pain. I was also told that the groaning of the poor animal was almost constant, and at times so loud and prolonged as to amount to a shriek. 'I have no experience of a similar case, and I should not have supposed that this accident would have caused such acute suffering and violent symptoms. I think I have heard of such cases making a complete recovery; but I feel sure that, in this case, I only anticipated death by, at most, a few hours.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. iv., p. 127.] 2. 'The case I am about to give you an account of, being one of rare occurrence, I thought would not prove uninteresting to the members of the Veterinary Medical Association. It is an instance of complete removal of the hoof by mechanical force. 'Our patient was a brown mare, five years old, the property of Messrs. Crawshaw and Co., railway contractors on the Sheffield and Manchester line. 'On June 20 the mare was, as usual, working on the line, drawing one of the waggons for the removal of soil from one place to another, and, as was the custom, the pace is generally increased at about the distance of from sixty to eighty yards from where the unloading takes place, in order to add to the velocity, so that the contents of the waggons might roll down so great a precipice. It was at this increased action, when the mare was being removed from the waggon, that she stepped between the ends of two iron rails, sufficiently apart to admit the foot only, when one end of the rail inserted itself between the sole and toe of the shoe, the other at the top and in front of the crust. 'The mare, finding herself fixed, endeavoured to disengage herself, and, in doing so, got in front of the waggon, which, coming at a great pace, forced her down into the pit, leaving behind the off fore-hoof, which was only removed from its situation between the two rails by a large hammer, it being so firmly wedged in. The shoe and hoof were bent in a very peculiar manner, as the accompanying cuts will show, the inside heel being completely raised from above the level of the frog, not one of the nails being unclenched, or in the slightest degree having given way to so large an amount of force imposed upon them, although the toe of the shoe was raised from the sole by the rail being immediately under it (see Fig. 114). The mare had been shod the day before, and, having a good sound foot, the shoe was firmly put on. 'Being a mile from home, she was with some difficulty made to travel that distance. On her arrival, my preceptor, Mr. Taylor, was immediately sent for, who found her, as I have before stated, with the off fore-foot hoofless. 'Proceeding to examine the foot, he ascertained that it had bled considerably, which, however, was stopped by bandages to the foot and a ligature round the coronet. The laminæ on one side and a small portion of the sensitive sole, though not to any great extent, were lacerated. The coffin-bone was not at all injured. The bleeding having nearly ceased, she was put into slings, the foot carefully washed with warm water, and immediately bound up with pledgets of tow saturated with the simple tincture of myrrh and tincture of opium, of each equal parts. [Illustration: FIG. 114.--HOOF TORN FROM THE FOOT BY ACCIDENT.] 'The dressing was ordered to be allowed to remain on all night, and on the following morning to be removed. The foot was then bathed, as before, in warm water, and the application of the tinctures repeated night and morning. The medicine internally given was castor oil, with tinct. opium, and this, in a diminished dose, was ordered the next morning. Blood was also abstracted from the jugular vein, to the amount of 6 quarts, so as to allay the inflammatory fever set up. The food consisted of bran and linseed, with small portions of hay and water. The mare being in a highly excited state, and suffering such severe pain, the opinion Mr. Taylor gave was that, should she get over the first four days (which appeared quite uncertain), he had no doubt of her ultimately getting well, and also that she would have a perfect hoof formed. It was now left for the owners' consideration, whether they thought the mare worth her keep till such took place, the time mentioned by Mr. Taylor being four or five months. She was seen again the fourth day after the accident, and was then found to be perfectly tranquil and feeding well; her pulse, which at the first visit could not be counted, was now not more than 65 beats in the minute. On removing the dressings, the foot presented a very favourable appearance, the treatment therefore varied only in the application of a linseed-meal poultice over the former dressings of tinctures of opium and myrrh, confining the whole in a soft leather boot. Diet as before, in addition to which give a few oats. Should the bowels become constipated, repeat the castor oil without the opium. '_June_ 28.--The animal was again seen, and appeared to be going on very favourably. The poultices were directed to be discontinued, and the parts dressed every other day with sol. sulph. cupri, as the granulations were getting rather luxuriant. '_July_ 6.--To-day she was found to have gone on so well, having two days before been removed from the slings, that it was thought justifiable to turn her out, protecting the foot with a boot, and ordering the dressings to be repeated. '_July_ 23.--She was seen by me in the field, where I had the boot removed, and so much had she improved, that not less than 2 inches of crust, proceeding from the coronary ring, had been formed, and the foot looked remarkably healthy. 'It will be seen that the accident occurred on June 20, a fortnight after which time I observed the horny crust to be forming from the coronet, and the insensitive laminæ at the same time, in which on every visit an increase of growth was perceptible, and it soon attained a thickness exceeding that of the other hoof, but which at the same time presented a more upright appearance. It was not until three weeks after our first visit that any formation of new sole or frog was to be seen. Of the two the sole was the first, being secreted by the sensitive sole, the growth proceeding from the heels. In like manner the insensitive frog was being produced by the sensitive. [Illustration: FIG. 115.--HOOF TORN FROM THE FOOT BY ACCIDENT.] 'During the last week in October the mare, having her foot protected with a bar shoe plated at the bottom, and so formed as to open without necessity of removing the shoe, in order to facilitate the applications of the tinctures, was put to light work, which has since been gradually increased, and she now performs her usual labour equal to any other horse. 'The growth of the wall or crust and insensitive laminæ is not yet quite complete, nor is the sole, there being wanting about an inch of the horny substance of it, the entire completion of which I should rather doubt, as I mentioned in my former communication that the sensitive laminæ and a small portion of the sole were lacerated, and it is in these parts that the imperfections exist. 'The yet imperfectly-formed wall not admitting of the insertion of nails all around it, the shoe is held on partly by nails and partly by a strap attached to it bound round the coronet.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. iv., p. 182 (B. Cartledge).] 3. 'This case is related by Mr. A. Rogerson, F.R.C.V.S. It occurred to an animal regularly engaged in shunting, and happened through the corner of the shoe becoming "trapped" between a line of metal and the wheel of a truck. It is particularly interesting on account of the photograph accompanying it, and which we here reproduce in Fig. 115. 'The photograph shows plainly the manner in which the holding of the "clinches" on the left side of the hoof has resulted in drawing it off from the foot. Had these clinches, as Mr. Rogerson suggests, been left unfastened, then the accident in all probability would not have occurred. The animal was destroyed.'[A] [Footnote A: _Ibid_., vol. xiii., p. 2.] CHAPTER IX INFLAMMATORY AFFECTIONS OF THE KERATOGENOUS APPARATUS A. ACUTE. ACUTE LAMINITIS. _Definition_.--The term 'laminitis' is used to indicate a spontaneous and diffuse inflammation of the whole of the sensitive structures of the foot, more particularly the sensitive laminæ. Usually it occurs in the two front feet, often in all four, and occasionally in the hind alone. _Causes_.--In dealing with the causes of laminitis, we will first dispose of those coming under the heading of _traumatic_. Correctly speaking, however, lesions of the laminæ thus occurring do not present the same symptoms, nor run an identical course with the disease we now purpose describing, and for which we would prefer to entirely reserve the term 'laminitis.' The fact, however, that traumatic causes are detailed in other works on the same subject compels us to give them mention here. Strictly traumatic causes giving rise to a limited inflammation of the sensitive laminæ are violent blows upon the foot, either purely accidental, or self-inflicted by violent kicking. A similar limited laminitis is to be found in the conditions we have described under 'Nail-bound and Punctured Foot.' It is met with also in the injuries resulting from tread and overreach, and in the tissue-changes accompanying corn. The tenderness following upon excessive hammering in the forge, or of too long an application of the shoe in hot-fitting has also been described as laminitis. With either of the conditions we have mentioned, it goes without saying that there is either a simple congestion or an actual inflammation, localized or general, of the laminæ of the injured foot. In neither case, however, can the resulting mischief be closely compared with the lesions attending an attack of laminitis proper, a disease which appears to have an almost specific cause, and to run a course peculiarly its own. The specific cause we have indicated as existing can, in the present state of our knowledge, be only vaguely described as a poisoned state of the blood-stream. This, as clinical evidence teaches us, may result from a variety of causes. Among these, by far the most common is that state of the circulation induced by excessive feeding with too stimulating or too irritating a diet. In any case, where the use of old oats as a staple diet is departed from, and where the quantity and manner of using the substitute is left to the discretion of careless or unskilled attendants, trouble is likely to ensue. The food more prone, perhaps, than any other to bring about an attack is wheat improperly prepared--that is, uncooked or unground. So much so is this the case that one full meal of this provender to an animal unused to it is sufficient to lead to a train of symptoms often ending fatally. Beans, peas, barley, rye, new maize, or even new oats, are all liable, if carelessly used, to have the same effect. It is the laminitis following feeding on new oats that has caused us to apply to the food the adjective 'irritating.' Here, more often than not, the peristaltic action of the bowels is found to be abnormally in evidence, and the excessive use of the diet is always accompanied by a more or less fluid discharge of the intestinal contents. In addition to the foods we have mentioned, many others might be enumerated, more especially the numerous 'made-up' feeding materials now on the market. Many are composed of substances that may be regarded as absolutely opposed to the correct feeding of a horse, and their use can only be followed by this and other evil results. Another most fruitful cause of laminitis is a severe and continued inflammatory condition of the system elsewhere. It is the laminitis known to veterinary surgeons as 'metastatic,' and perhaps the two most notable examples of it are the laminitis following a prolonged attack of pneumonia, and the 'Parturient Laminitis' occurring as a concomitant of septic metritis. Parturient laminitis it is that offers us the most striking illustration of the truth that a poisoned state of the blood-stream is a sure factor in the causation of an attack. From the direct evidence of our senses (namely, manual exploration of the infected womb, and the stench of the exuding discharge) we know that we have in the interior of the womb matter in a state of putrescence. From the experience of previous post-mortems we know, further, that the putrescent matter thus originating often gains the blood-stream, and forms foci of septic lesions elsewhere--liver or lung. When, therefore, during an attack of septic metritis a condition of laminitis supervenes, we are justified in attributing it to the escape of septic matter from the already infected uterus. In the same category of laminitis from metastasis may also be placed the laminitis occurring as a result of an overdose of aloes. The enteritis thus set up is often followed by laminitis, and that of a serious type. Prolonged and excessive work upon a hard road is also apt to induce an attack. When this occurs it in many cases resolves itself into a case of cruelty. (See reported case, No. 1, p. 279.) Laminitis from this cause was frequent among coach and carriage horses in the pre-railroad period, and resulted from attempting to obtain from the animal a faster pace and a greater number of miles than he was physically capable of giving. In our day, however, it is more often a result of gross feeding, combined with only that amount of work which the horse, if ordinarily fed, would be easily able to perform. An excellent example of this is the laminitis occurring in the Shire stallion when commencing his rounds of service in the spring and early summer. At this season these animals are constantly supplied with a more than sufficient supply of a highly stimulating and nutritious diet. In this case the blood is already in that state in which it is predisposed to the disease. Add to this the unwonted exercise--for during all the winter the animals are idle--and congestion of the venous apparatus of the extremities is not to be wondered at. Passing from these, the more common, we may consider other and less frequent causes of the disease. Congestion of the laminal blood-vessels and consequent laminitis occurs when animals are made to maintain a standing position for prolonged periods, as, for instance, when making sea voyages. A long and painful disease of one foot, necessitating the whole of the weight being borne by the other, ends often in laminitis of the second member. It may thus occur as a sequel to quittor, complicated sand-crack, suppurating corn, and punctured wounds of the feet. Laminitis has also been known to occur as a result of septic infection of the blood-stream consequent on the operation of castration. (See recorded case, No. 2, p. 281.) A sudden lowering of the surface circulation at a time when the animal is excessively perspiring is also said to favour an attack, as also is the giving to drink of cold water to an animal just in from a long and tiring journey. Also, according to Zundel, 'the influence of the season cannot be denied, and it is during the summer months that laminitis is more frequent, while it is rare in winter, as well as in the spring and autumn.' Further, laminitis has been described as occurring when the animal is at grass, and when all causes--at any rate, active ones--have appeared to be absent. (See reported case, No. 3, p. 282.) Regarding heredity, we may safely say that, as a cause of laminitis, it may be almost totally disregarded. That a bad form of foot, either a flat-foot or a foot with heels contracted, and already thus affected with a mild type of inflammation, did not offer a certain predisposition, we should not like to assert. There must, however, be an exciting cause--namely, a poisoned condition of the blood-stream. This latter cannot, of course, be in any way regarded as hereditary. In short, the dietetic cause is by far the most common, and, in prosecuting inquiries as to the starting-point of an attack, the veterinarian's attention should be directed in the main to that particular. _Symptoms_.--Laminitis is always ushered in by a set of symptoms indicative of a high state of fever. The pulse is raised from the normal to as many as 80 or 90 a minute, muscular tremors are in evidence, the respirations are short and hurried, and the temperature rises to 105°, 106°, or 107° F. The visible mucous membranes are injected, that of the eye, in addition to the hyperæmia, often tinged a dirty yellow. The mouth is dry and hot, the urine scanty, and the bowels frequently torpid. As yet, however, the walk is sound. Called in during this early stage, the veterinarian is often puzzled as to the exact significance of the symptoms. Enteritis, lymphangitis, or pneumonia he knows to be often heralded in the same manner. In this connection, Zundel says: 'Laminitis, in most instances, is preceded by certain general symptoms, such as are premonitory of the invasions of ordinary inflammatory diseases, but of an uncertain significance.' So far we agree with him, but to what we have already said we would add that, even in this early stage, there is an additional symptom, unmentioned by Zundel, which often leads one to an exact diagnosis. The feet are in turn lifted a short distance from the ground, and almost immediately replaced. This movement ('paddling,' we may term it) is constant, the animal appearing to obtain ease in no one position for more than a few moments at a time. Seen but a few hours later, when the swelling caused by the hyperæmia and outpouring of the inflammatory exudate has led to compression of the sensitive structures within the horny box, the symptoms presented admit of no misreading, save by the most casual and careless observer. The patient now stands as though fixed to the ground. The pulse is hard and frequent, the respirations tremendously increased in number, the body wet with a patchy perspiration, and the countenance indicative of the most acute suffering. Only with difficulty, and often only at the instigation of the whip, can the animal be induced to move. This he does by throwing his weight, so far as he is able, on to the heels of the feet affected, and putting the feet slowly forward in a shuffling and feeling manner. The feet themselves give to the hand a sensation of abnormal heat, percussion upon them with the hammer is followed by painful attempts at withdrawal, while any effort we may make to remove one foot from the ground is useless, so great an aversion does the animal show to placing a greater weight upon the opposite foot. According as the front-feet alone, the hind-feet alone, or all four feet are affected, the symptoms will vary. With all four feet diseased, the animal stands with the two front-feet extended in front of him, while the hind-limbs are at the same time propped as far beneath him as is possible. The horse is, in fact, standing upon the extreme hindermost portions of the feet. Why the animal should thus distribute his weight is easily explained. Standing in the normal position, the body-weight is borne by the sensitive laminæ, the sole, of course, sharing in the burden, but the laminæ taking by far the greater part of the pressure thus exerted. With the vessels of the laminæ gorged with blood, and the laminal connective tissue infiltrated with a profuse inflammatory exudate, the most excruciating pain is bound to result by reason of the compression of the diseased tissues within the non-yielding structures. In some little measure the suffering animal may afford himself relief by partly removing pressure from the fore-parts of the hoof. When placing the body-weight behind, the pressure, instead of falling upon the highly sensitive laminæ, is directed to the follicular and fatty tissues of the plantar cushion: from there, with only a small portion of the sensitive sole intervening, to the horny frog, and from thence to the ground. The same distribution of weight also places the foot in a position of greatest expansion, thus, by giving greater room to the diseased parts, again affording relief of pressure on the inflamed lamina, while it at the same time relieves of weight the foremost portions of the sensitive sole. With the fore-feet alone attacked, the animal affects exactly the same position of standing as that just described. The fore-feet are again extended, and the hind propped far beneath him. The fore extended, in order to obtain the relief occasioned by standing on the heels; the hind in this case carried forward in order to take a greater share of the body-weight, and thus relieve the congested members in front. With the hind only attacked, then the fore and the hind feet are more closely approximated than in the normal position. The reason, of course, is that the hind-feet are carried forward in order to be placed upon the heels, while the fore are taken backwards to relieve the hind of the body-weight. In like manner the movements of the animal will vary with the feet affected. With only the front-feet diseased the animal is, comparatively speaking, comfortable. The hind-feet take the weight, and the animal stands for long periods together, resting alternately first one fore-foot and then the other, moving often in a circle of which his body is the radius, and his hind-limbs the centre. If urged to move forward, then immediately his countenance and movements manifest the pain to which he is put. Only with reluctance does he cause the fore-feet to take weight. They are shuffled forward quickly one after the other, so that weight may not be placed upon them for one instant longer than is necessary, and the hind-limbs immediately brought again with two short, awkward movements beneath the body. Progress thus takes place in a succession of movements 'half hobble,' 'half jump.' Painful though this may appear, progress is still more difficult when the hind-feet alone are diseased. Afraid that, in placing his fore-members freely forward, he will add to the pain in his hind, the walk takes place in a series of extremely short steps, with the feet more or less closely approximated. The gait is thus rendered extremely awkward, and Zundel, by saying that 'the animal appears as if treading on sharp needles,' most fitly describes it. Movement with all four feet affected, though less awkward in appearance, is doubtless more painful than in either of the other conditions. Here the animal can hardly be induced to shift his position at all. Only by flogging, and that severe, can he be made to go forward. When so induced to move, the agonizing pain to which the patient is subjected may be gathered by noting his countenance and manner of progression. With each movement forward, muscular tremors affect the limbs; each step is short, jerky, and convulsive; the respirations and pulse are almost immediately greatly quickened, and the lower lip is hung pendulous, and moved almost unconsciously up and down with a flapping noise against the upper. A patchy perspiration breaks out about the body and quarters, and the tail is outstretched and quivering. At the same time the lines of the face become drawn, the commissures of the lips pulled upwards, the eyes staring and haggard, the eyelids puckered, the nostrils extended, and the whole expression indicative of the intense and agonizing pain of the disease. One can perhaps better give one's client some vague idea of the patient's suffering by likening the pain to the throbbing sensation of a festered finger-nail. Tell him that each hoof of the horse is similarly, or, if anything, more delicately, constructed, that in each foot the same process of 'festering' is going on, and that upon them the animal has perforce to stand. As one might expect, the position of greatest ease is the decumbent. Strange to say, though, in many cases of laminitis the animal persists in maintaining a standing posture. Once down, however, one has sometimes the greatest difficulty in persuading him again to rise. The lying position is so long maintained that bedsores begin to make their appearance, and the animal rapidly loses flesh, not only by reason of the fever and the pain, but by giving to rest the time he should normally give to feeding. Difficulty in rising is greatest when all four feet are affected; is _nearly_ as great when the hind-limbs only are in trouble, but is least when the disease exists alone in the two fore-feet. THE COURSE OF THE DISEASE AND ITS PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY.--As with most inflammations of any severity, so with this we may consider the pathological changes taking place in the foot under three headings: (a) The period of Congestion; (b) the period of Exudation; (c) the period of Suppuration. (a) _Congestion_.--In the early stages of laminitis there is a state of engorgement of the vessels of the keratogenous apparatus generally, but more particularly the laminal portion of it. With the hoof removed at this stage the sensitive laminæ are found to be swollen, dark red in colour, and affording a distinct feeling of increased thickness when pressed between the fingers, Incised, there escapes from the cut surface a large flow of dark venous-looking blood. At this stage hæmorrhages of the laminal vessels occur. The escaping blood infiltrates the surrounding connective tissue, and in many cases destroys the union between the horny and sensitive laminæ. This change is most noticeable in the region of the toe and the commencement of the quarters, the os pedis appearing as though pushed backwards by the escaping fluid collected between the wall and the bone. In severe cases, fortunately but rarely seen, the blood so escaping continues to infiltrate, and separate the tissues until it is seen to be freely oozing at the region of the coronet. (See reported case, No. 1, p. 279.) (b) _Exudation_.--The period of exudation marks the outpouring of the inflammatory fluid. This, even more than the hæmorrhages attending the stage of congestion, tends to destroy the intimacy between the sensitive and the horny laminæ, leading finally to their complete separation at the region of the toe. Fig. 116 illustrates this state of affairs after laminitis has existed for a week. The sensitive and horny laminæ are here shown to be distinctly separated from each other, a well-marked cavity existing between them, which cavity is greatest in extent at the toe of the os pedis. With the sensitive structures thus detached from the wall, it is evident that very much that formerly held the os pedis in normal position has been destroyed. What then happens is that the whole of the body-weight is placed upon the sole. Never intended to bear the strain thus imposed, it naturally sinks. With the sinking is a corresponding 'dropping' of the pedal bone--in fact, of the whole of the bony column. Seeing that the structures _above_ the hoof are still normally adherent to the bones, it follows that they must, as the os pedis sinks, be carried with it. As a consequence we get a marked depression at the coronet (see Fig. 117, _a_), which depression may be often noticed after the second or third week of a severe attack of the disease. [Illustration: FIG. 116.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A FOOT WITH LAMINITIS OF EIGHT DAYS' STANDING. The separation between the sensitive structures and the hoof is indicated by a dark line. The cavity is filled with exudate. It will be noted that as yet there is little change in the position of the os pedis.] Here, again, though to a greater extent than that caused by the hæmorrhage alone, the os pedis appears to be pushed backwards, the space at the toe between the bone and the horny box being closely filled with the yellow, slightly blood-stained exudate. This condition is well depicted in Fig. 117. [Illustration: FIG. 117.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A FOOT WITH LAMINITIS OF FOURTEEN DAYS' STANDING. _a_, The depression at the coronet caused by the dropping of the bony column within the horny-box: _b_, a portion of the sensitive sole pushed downwards and forwards by the descending os pedis.] With the descent of the os pedis we get in many cases a penetration of the horny sole (see Fig. 117), leading always to serious displacement of the sensitive sole (see Fig. 117, _b_), and often to caries of the exposed bone. The backward displacement of the os pedis may be accounted for in two ways. Firstly, the greater vascularity of the membrane covering its front leads to a greater outpouring of inflammatory fluid in that particular position. Here, therefore, loss of adhesion with the wall is greatest, while into the cavity so formed is poured a large quantity of a fluid that is practically incompressible. The os pedis _must_ be pushed backwards. Secondly, the manner in which the animal distributes his weight--namely, upon the heels--is calculated to aid in the bone's backward movement, for with his feet in this position tension upon the extensor pedis is relaxed, while that upon the flexor perforans is greatly increased. (c) _Suppuration_.--Should the animal survive the pain and exhausting calls made upon his system by the accompanying fever of the foregoing conditions, the case ends either in resolution or suppuration. When suppuration occurs it is found, as a rule, at the sole, leading to almost entire separation of the sensitive and horny structures. The pain, if possible, is even worse than in either of the foregoing stages, and relief for the suffering patient is only obtainable by the natural exit of the pus at the coronet, or by giving it escape with the knife at the sole. As a rule, suppuration in laminitis is rare, and then only occurs when the disease has been of some several days' duration. It has been the author's experience, however, to meet with it in a case but three days' old. This particular animal had laminitis restricted to the hind-feet. The condition was diagnosed and pus liberated at the sole of one foot during the third day of the lameness. The animal was cast on the fourth day, and pus obtained from the sole of the opposite foot. _Complications_.--In a moderate case, carefully treated, laminitis terminates at the end of three or four days in resolution. The general symptoms of fever gradually subside, the appetite returns, and the walk becomes easier. Cases thus terminating fortunately leave behind them no change of serious importance, either in the sensitive tissues or in the horny envelope. Should resolution, however, be longer delayed, then the case, although eventually terminating successfully so far as soundness in gait is concerned, leaves more or less evidence behind in the shape of rings about the wall and alterations in the build of the sole. When the happy ending of rapid resolution is denied us, then, in addition to the condition we have described as suppuration, we may meet with one or other of the following complications: _(a) Metastatic Pneumonia_.--This complication is not uncommon, and, when occurring, more often than not ends fatally. It may be accounted for indirectly by the greater work the lungs are called upon to perform in carrying out the increased number of respirations occasioned by the general fever and pain, and directly by the poisonous materials circulating in the blood-stream. _(b) Metastatic Colic_.--This may be either a subacute obstruction of the bowel or an enteritis accompanied by an offensive purge. A striking case of the former is related in the _Veterinary Journal_ (vol. xvi., p. 180) by H. Thompson, of Aspatria. Here no evacuation of the bowels occurred for three days, and the pains of laminitis were added to by the usual pains of intestinal obstruction. The colic of enteritis is in some cases caused by the nature of the food, giving rise to laminitis. In our opinion, however, it is more often occasioned by the drastic action of the aloes nearly always resorted to in the treatment of the disorder. As does the pneumonia, the enteritis thus brought about nearly always has a fatal termination. _(c) Gangrene of the Structures within the Hoof_.--This complication is the one most to be dreaded. It occurs as a result of the great pressure exerted by an excessive exudation, and doubtless affects first the laminæ and softer structures. Once commenced, however, it rapidly extends to death of the other structures (ligament, tendon, and even bone), and gives a fatal ending to the case. That gangrene of the tissues ("mortification" as our older writers called it) has occurred is soon made evident to the veterinarian by the symptoms shown by the patient. The agonizingly acute pains suddenly subside, the feet are placed firmly and squarely to the ground, and the animal walks with ease. Perhaps but the night before the patient is seen racked with excruciating pain; the morning sees the astounding change of apparent absolute recovery. Too well, however, the eye of the experienced veterinary surgeon sees that such is not the case. Even before proceeding to take a record of the other symptoms, he knows that it is but the commencement of the end. Methodically, however, he notes the other conditions. The pulse he finds small and imperceptible, save at the radial. The thermometer registers a subnormal temperature, the extremities are cold, and cold sweats bedew the body. To the same experienced eye the countenance of the animal is almost suggestive of what has occurred. The drawn and haggard expression, to which we have previously referred, becomes more marked, and the angles of the lips are drawn back in what has been described by some writers as a 'sardonic' grin. We can best express what the whole look of the animal's countenance indicates to us by saying that it gives us the impression that the animal himself knows that some serious change, and a change fatally inimical to his chances of life, has taken place in his feet. It may be that in some odd cases, although it has not yet been our lot to meet with them, gangrene may terminate in the casting off of one or more hoofs. Needless to say, there can still be but one termination to the case. _(d) Periostitis and Ostitis_.--This complication is referred to by other writers under the term of 'Peditis.' It signifies, of course, that the periosteum and the bone have become invaded by the inflammatory process. It is our opinion that these two conditions, even including an actual arthritis, always exist, even in an attack of laminitis that ends favourably. We do not claim, however, to be able to relate any means, save that of post-mortem examination, by which it may be singled out from the other changes occurring in the foot. The high fever and pain occasioned by the inroads of the inflammation into the other sensitive structures serves to effectually mask whatever evidence of it we might otherwise obtain. It may be sometimes only small in degree, but we feel confident that inflammation, at any rate of the _outer_ layer of the periosteum, is in laminitis constant even, we repeat, in a mild case. [Illustration: FIG. 118.--SHOWING CHANGES IN THE OS PEDIS WITH LAMINITIS OF LONG STANDING, (_a_, Viewed from the front; _b_, viewed from the side.) The porous condition of the bone, which is here shown, is a result of a rarefying or rarefactive ostitis. This specimen also illustrated (what the photograph cannot show) an accompanying condition of condensation of bone, or osteoplastic ostitis. (For a fuller description of the changes occurring in these forms of ostitis, see Chapter XI.)] When the case is a serious one we have ample evidence to show that ostitis exists, and exists in a severe form. The bones become vastly altered in shape, a process of absorption leads to the formation of large, irregular cavities within their substance, and what of the bone is left is rendered hard and ivory-like (condensed) near what was the original centre, while the edges and other portions show often a tendency to become brittle and porous. Fig. 118 illustrates the effects of a severe ostitis in pedal bones removed from hoofs with laminitis of several weeks' standing. _(e) Chronic Laminitis_.--The most common complication--or, perhaps, rather we should term it 'sequel'--to acute laminitis is the chronic form of the disease. For this condition we have reserved a separate section of our work. It will be found described in Section B 1 of this chapter. _Diagnosis and Prognosis_.--One is almost tempted to state that the diagnosis of laminitis offers no difficulty. In the very early stages, however, it may, as we have already indicated, be mistaken for the oncoming of Enteritis, Lymphangitis, or even Pneumonia. The paddling of the feet may help us. If this is absent, however, nothing but a most careful examination, or, if necessary, the withholding of our opinion until the following visit will prevent a blunder being made. Even when well established, laminitis has been mistaken for paralysis, for tetanus, for rheumatic affections of the loins, or even for some undiscovered affection of the muscles of the arms and chest. This latter is no doubt suggested to the uninitiated by the reluctance the animal shows to move the muscles _apparently_ of that region, and led the older writers to give to the disease its name of 'Chest-founder.' It is only fair to add, however, that these blunders in diagnosis are nearly always committed by persons without a veterinary training. Thus warned, the veterinary surgeon of average ability should have no difficulty in establishing a distinction between the diseases we have enumerated as likely to be confounded with it, and the one this chapter is describing. The prognosis in laminitis should, in our opinion, always be guarded. No advice given in a work of this description can be of any real use, for every case must be judged entirely on its merits. The severity of the symptoms, the cause of the attack, the complications, and the idiosyncrasies of the patient, have all to be taken into account. These the veterinarian must be left to judge for himself. _Treatment_.--The treatment of acute laminitis in its early stage must be based upon the fact that we have to deal with a congested state of the circulatory apparatus of the whole of the keratogenous membrane. This fact was well enough known to the older veterinarians. It is not surprising, therefore, to learn that jugular phlebotomy was at once resorted to as the readiest means of relieving the overcharged vessels of their blood. As a matter of fact, bleeding from the jugular is still advocated by modern authorities. We cannot say, however, that we unhesitatingly recommend it. Mechanically, of course, the removal of a large quantity of blood is bound to result in a lowering of the pressure in the vessels. The effect, however, is but transient. Blood removed in this way is again quickly returned to the vessels so far as its fluid matter is concerned, and the pressure, removed for a time, is again as great as before. With the other and more vital constituents of the blood-stream--namely, the corpuscles--restoration is not so rapid. We have, in fact, a weakened state of the system, in which it is probable it will not so successfully combat the adverse conditions the disease may induce. With these prefatory remarks, we may advise bleeding under certain conditions. The quantity removed must be moderate (7 to 8 pints), and the pulse and other conditions must show no signs of weakness or collapse. Local bleeding, either from the toe or the coronet, is also advised. In the former situation the sole is thinned down until a sufficient flow is obtained, while at the coronet scarification is the method adopted. Bleeding locally, however, is far less effectual than the jugular operation. Neither must it be forgotten that wounds in these situations, more particularly at the toe, are extremely liable, especially with the existing poisoned state of the blood-current, to take on a septic character. What might possibly have remained a comparatively simple inflammation is induced by the operation itself to terminate in the more complicated and serious condition of suppuration. Other means of combating the congested state of the membrane are principally those of local applications. With many veterinary surgeons warm poulticing is still largely advocated and practised. We do not believe in it. Warmth, as a means of removing local congestion, can only be successful when applied _widely_ round the congested area, and so dilating surrounding bloodvessels and lymphatics. Applied to the congested area itself, and to that alone, it is almost worse than useless. With the foot, both around and below it, a surrounding area is denied us. The only vessels we are able to dilate with the warmth, and so enable them to carry off the fluid from the congested foot, are those in the limb above. That poulticing cannot be successfully there applied is self-evident. Apart from that, it is an open question whether poultices may not do actual harm in inducing suppuration in cases where, probably, it would not otherwise occur. For these reasons we hold to the opinion that when a local application is determined on it should be a cold one. Various methods of applying cold are in vogue. Cold swabs are perhaps most in favour. They must, however, be _kept_ cold. When a suitable water-course, pond, or other expanse of shallow water is at hand, then the animal may be kept standing therein, or preferably walked about in it. When suitable apparatus is obtainable, a constant stream over each foot from a rubber hosepipe is most beneficial. Astringent baths, containing solutions of alum, of copper sulphate, of iron sulphate, or of common salt, or composed of a mixture of two or more of the salts mentioned, may also be used with advantage. In addition to the fact that such solutions are for a time below the temperature of simple water, we have the advantage that they have also a more or less antiseptic property. While on the subject of the relief of the congestion, we must not forget to mention a treatment which we ourselves have practised with considerable success--namely, that of forced exercise. It appears to have been first brought into prominence by Mr. Broad, of Bath, and the two terms 'Forced Exercise and Rocker Shoes' and 'Broad's Treatment' have come to be synonymous. The Broad shoe is a shoe with a web of quite twice the thickness of the animal's ordinary shoe, and has this web gradually thinned from the toe backwards until at the heels the shoe is at its thinnest (see Fig. 119). The excessive thickness of the shoe serves two purposes. It allows of the requisite amount of slope being given to the web, and so enables the animal readily to throw himself back on to his heels, a position in which, as we have already indicated, he obtains the greatest ease. It also minimizes to some extent the effects of concussion. [Illustration: FIG. 119.--SEATED ROCKER BAR SHOE (BROAD'S) FOR TREATMENT OF LAMINITIS.] With forced exercise, as practised by Mr. Broad, this shoe is first applied, and the animal afterwards made to walk upon soft ground, or even upon the roadway, for a half an hour to an hour and a half three times a day. For our own part, we consider the shoe to be almost if not quite superfluous, so far as its influence upon the progress of the disease is concerned. We therefore dispense with it, and have the animal exercised in his ordinary shoes. To do this, the patient has sometimes to be severely flogged into taking the first few steps. After that progress gradually becomes easier. It has been said to be cruel. In so far as we knowingly, and of set purpose, occasion the animal pain, cruel it undoubtedly is; but it is cruelty with an aim that is truly benevolent, and the object of our benevolence is the animal upon whom the cruelty is practised. One word of advice is needed. The forced exercise must be commenced early. In the later stages, when the stage of congestion has passed from that to the acuter stages of the inflammation and the outpouring of the inflammatory exudate, then forced exercise cannot be safely commenced. The loss of adhesion between the pedal bone and the horny box, which we know to be then existent, negatives its advisability. By many it is advised to always remove the shoes. From what we have already said, it will be seen that this is not our practice. But one argument in favour of so doing appears to us to carry weight, and that is that 'dropping' of the sole is probably prevented from becoming so marked. That condition, however, is entirely dependent upon the changes occurring within the horny box. It is bound to occur with the animal shod or unshod, and to reach a stage when only contact with the ground prevents its further descent. The complication then sometimes following--namely, penetration of the sole by the bone, is not prevented by having the shoes removed. It may, in fact, be thus rendered more likely. Internal treatment consists in the exhibition of suitable febrifuges and the administration of a dose of aloes. With regard to the wisdom of the latter proceeding, opinion seems to be divided. Personally, we hold an open mind concerning it. This much is certain: in many cases of laminitis--those cases which have their origin in overfeeding with an irritating food--there is already a strong predisposition to enteritis. The administration of aloes in this case is extremely apt to induce a fatal super-purgation. Aloes is, again, contra-indicated when the laminitis is a result of excessively long journeys, and the patient is already greatly exhausted. Neither can it be advocated in the laminitis occurring as a sequel to septic metritis or to pneumonia. On the other hand, when the disease has occurred as a result of long standing in the stable and an overloaded condition of the bowels, or where one full meal of some constipating food, such as whole wheat, pea or bean meal, wheat or barley meal, has occasioned the attack, then a dose of aloes at the commencement of the treatment is productive of good. Suitable febrifuges are found in potassium nitrate, potassium chlorate, sodium sulphate, or magnesium sulphate, either of which or a mixture of two or more of them, the animal will readily take in his drinking-water. The administration of sedatives is also indicated. In this connection aconite will be found most useful. More especially in the early stages of the disease, when pain is excessive and the temperature high, will its good effects be noticed. This also the animal will often take in his drinking-water. We have been in the habit of so prescribing the B.P. tincture in 1/2-dram doses three times daily. By its use the temperature is rapidly lowered, the pulse reduced in number and in fulness, and the pain in some instances perceptibly diminished. With others hypodermic injections of morphia and atropine have given equally satisfactory results. Needless to say, good nursing is a _sine quâ non_. During the first stages of the fever a light and easily digested diet should be allowed--bran-mashes, roots and grass when obtainable, and a carefully regulated supply of water. The animal should be warmly clothed and the box well ventilated, even to the opening of the doors and windows. Only in this way is pneumonia as a sequel sometimes prevented. The patient's comfort should be attended to in providing him with a suitable bed. Anything in the shape of long litter should be avoided. When nothing else is at hand, litter that has already been broken and shortened by previous use is best. With this the box floor should be thickly covered, and matting of the material prevented by constant turning. A good bed for the horse with laminitis is peat-moss mixed with short straw. This, without being dragged into irregular heaps, remains springy and elastic with but little attention. Better than all, however, especially with good weather, is an open crewyard. Here the animal has an abundance of fresh air, has a bed that is always soft, and has plenty of room in which to get up and down with some degree of ease. Leaving the dietetic and medicinal, we may consider other treatments of laminitis that come more particularly under the heading of operative. The first matter that here demands our attention is that of allowing the exudate to escape at the sole. If after the expiration of three or four days pain and other symptoms of distress continue, then it may be judged that the inflammatory exudate has made its appearance. Operative measures allowing of its escape, though not giving absolute ease, do undoubtedly relieve the more marked expressions of suffering, and should be at once determined on. To do this completely it is necessary to cast the animal. The sole is then thinned at the toe with the drawing-knife until the sensitive structures are reached. A flow of yellow and sometimes blood-stained discharge is immediately obtained, and the sole itself found to be underrun to a considerable extent. An opening sufficiently large to admit of free drainage (about the size of a half a crown-piece) is made, the wounds antiseptically dressed, and the hobbles removed. If showing an inclination to do so, the animal should then be allowed to remain and rest. In one instance in which we so operated (a case of laminitis in the hind-feet alone), the relief given was at once manifested. For three days previously the animal had remained standing in agonizing pain. On the fourth he was cast, and the discharge--partly inflammatory exudate, and partly a sanious foetid pus--liberated. The hobbles were removed, and the animal allowed to remain down while our attention was drawn to another case. This attended to, we walked back to the field where, our first patient was lying. His breathing, but a short time before distressedly short and catching, was now so slow and deeply regular that for one brief moment the thought flashed across our mind that he was dead. He was in a _profound_ sleep. Other operators sometimes give the exudate escape while making the grooves in what is now known as 'Smith's Operation.' In this operation the hoof is so grooved as to allow of its expansion, so relieving the pressure on the sensitive structures within it. Incidentally, the inflammatory exudate is given exit. [Illustration: FIG. 120.--DIAGRAM OF HOOF SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE THREE GROOVES MADE IN THE TREATMENT OF LAMINITIS.] The animal is cast, the shoes removed, and three vertical grooves made in the wall. The first is cut down the centre of toe, extending from the coronet to the ground surface. The second is made to the right of this, and the third to the left, each following the direction of the horn fibres, and each distant about 2 inches from the first (see 1, 2, and 3, Fig. 120). Each of the grooves must run completely from the coronary margin to the ground surface, and each should be carried through the substance of the horn until the horny laminæ are reached. This done, the underneath surface of the foot is grooved at the white line (see curved groove 4, Fig. 121) in such a manner as to entirely isolate the two pieces of horn _a_ and _b_ from the remainder of the hoof. Expansion of the horny box is thus brought about, while at the same time the semicircular groove at the toe is made deep enough to allow of the escape of the exudate. If thought wise by the operator, the two pieces of horn _a_ and _b_ may be isolated, and the exudate given exit by making the fourth groove in the position of the dotted lines in Fig. 120--that is to say, at the lowermost portion of the sensitive structures. By this means the sole will be left intact. [Illustration: FIG. 121.--LOWER SURFACE OF FOOT SHOWING POSITION OF THE GROOVES MADE IN THE TREATMENT OF LAMINITIS.] Fuller instruction for making the grooves and the instruments required will be found described in Section C of Chapter X. The animal should be afterwards shod, and the bearing on the portions _a_ and _b_ of the wall removed. Almost immediate relief is afforded the patient. _Recorded Cases_.--1. 'On the evening of September 28 last, I was called rather hurriedly to attend a posting-horse which had just arrived from a twenty-one miles' journey, and was said to be "very ill." I lost no time in proceeding to the spot, and found my patient "very ill" indeed. No need for long consideration as to diagnosis; the symptoms showed at once that I had an uncommonly severe case of acute founder before me. On examination I found the pulse was 120, the respirations 100, and the thermometer 106° F. The poor brute could not move, the fore-legs were well out before, and the hind-legs thrown back behind; in fact, he was, as one might say, propping himself up with his four legs! 'On examining his feet, I discovered what I had never either seen or heard of before--namely, _blood freely oozing out_ at the coronet of all four feet; if anything, the hind-feet were the worst, and, showing that this bloody discharge at coronets had commenced during progression and before he was stabled, the inside of the thighs were all shotted over with blood, which had been thrown up by his feet while he was trotting or walking. He was completely soaked all over with perspiration. 'My prognosis could not well be otherwise than unsatisfactory. I resolved, however, to do all I could to relieve the poor suffering brute. As a matter of course, jugular phlebotomy was utterly impracticable; so, to relieve the pressure in the feet, I had him (after, with extreme difficulty, removing the shoes) bled, or rather opened, at all four toes, and hot poultices applied. On opening the off-side toe, in both hind and fore feet, I found an escape of very dark-coloured blood, with a great many bubbles of gas, thus showing that the destructive process was fairly established in the two bony extremities mentioned. The near fore and near hind feet showed no signs of gas-bubbles on being opened at the toe. 'I gave a laxative in combination with a diffusible stimulant, and ordered doses of aconite and potassium iodide; I also applied strong sinapisms to each side, immediately behind the shoulders. After three hours I found my patient rather easier; respiration about 90, and temperature 104°; willing to take a little water, and even attempted to take some hay. Ordered continued applications of hot water to the poultices at feet, and clothed him up for the night. Next morning there was little improvement; respirations over 80, and temperature 103.5°. Continue same treatment. Second morning, horse apparently easier; temperature 102.5°, but very difficult respiration; laxative had operated during the night; ordered diffusible stimulants. About two hours and a half after my last visit, the horse turned round in his stall and dropped down dead! '_History of the Horse_.--He belonged to an extensive horse-hiring establishment; was purchased a short time before for £60--a long price for a post-horse--had recently suffered and been off work from some "severe cold"; was taken out, and did forty-seven miles of a journey the day _before_ I saw him; on forenoon of the day on which he was attacked he did two or three short turns, and then twenty-one miles of a journey in the afternoon, during which he became so ill as scarcely to be able to conclude the twenty-one miles; this was the last turn he was to do. He was a grand stepper, and no doubt was pushed a little during this final journey, as the driver intended, after a short rest, to finish off with the twenty-six miles between this and home. With the short turns on the second forenoon, this would have been over 100 miles in less than two days, with a horse just out of a _severe cold_.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xvii., p. 314 (A.E. Macgillivray).] 2. 'Whilst attending a patient on a farm on September 5 last my attention was called to a cart-horse, five years of age, that had been castrated in the standing position by a travelling castrator about ten days previously. 'I found the animal presenting the following symptoms: Head down, blowing hard, very dull, and disinclined to move, temperature 105° F., hard, rapid, slightly irregular pulse, membranes injected, appetite lost; scrotum, sheath, and penis tremendously swollen, castration wounds unhealthy, and exuding a thin, reddish-brown discharge of a most foetid odour. 'The next day well-marked symptoms of laminitis were present. I finally ceased attending him about the middle of October, and at the end of that month he was turned out for the winter.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiv., p. 649 (Charles A. Powell).] 3. 'On July 8 an interesting case of laminitis came under my notice. The subject was a mare, eight years old, which had been running on the common here for some months, and was taken up on the night of July 2 by a boy, who did not observe anything amiss with her. The following morning, on the owner going to the stable, he found the animal in great pain, and at once sent for me. I discovered her to be suffering from laminitis, and saw her again in the evening, when she was much worse. The attack proved to be a most severe one. 'The owner informed me that she had not been allowed any corn for two months, and that she had no distance to travel on the road from the common. 'Though on such a poor pasture, the mare was very fat; she had never been unwell before this attack. 'This is the first case I have seen of laminitis occurring when the animal was on grass.'[A] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. ix., p. 176 (W. Stanley Carless).] B. CHRONIC. 1. CHRONIC LAMINITIS. _Definition_.--A low and persisting type of inflammation of the sensitive structures of the foot, characterized by changes in the form of the hoof, and incurable pathological alterations within it. _Causes_.--Chronic laminitis more often than not is a sequel to the acute form we have just described. With an attack of acute laminitis that defies treatment, and does not end in resolution in from ten days to a fortnight, then the chronic form may be expected. The brittle horn, convex sole, and other changes we have described under Pumiced Foot may, however, be regarded as a chronic laminitis, and this condition, as we have already indicated in Chapter VI., may run a course slow and insidious from the onset. _Symptoms_.--When the disease arises without previous acute symptoms, the first thing noticeable is an alteration in the gait. The animal begins to go feelingly, especially when first moved out from the stable. Our opinion is asked as to the cause of the lameness, and an inspection is made. With the changes in the form of the hoof as yet wanting, we have nothing to guide us, and other causes for the lameness suggest themselves, probably corns. Evidence of these is not forthcoming, and we in all probability withhold our opinion until a later visit. On the second or a subsequent call we are perhaps lucky enough to find our patient down. Diagnosis is then rendered easier. Made to rise, the animal stands in the attitude we have described as indicative of laminitis. We have him walked and trotted out. The symptoms of tenderness disappear, and the animal soon goes fairly sound. He is, in fact, workable--that is, by anyone who is careless as to the comfort of his beast. When following an acute attack, we have the most marked symptoms of pain and distress, somewhat abating after the second or third week. The walk, however, is still painful, and, for a short time after rising from the ground, even difficult. In short, in both cases we have the horse going on his heels, with a walk that is painful, and with symptoms of pain that are most apparent when moved on after a rest. Later, the changes in the form of the hoof begin to appear. It seems to have lost its elasticity, and is seen to be dry and chippy, and to have become denuded of its varnish-like outer covering. In addition, it is of largely altered shape. The toe, by reason of the animal walking on his heels, and by reason of an increased growth of horn, becomes elevated, so that the front of the wall, instead of forming an obtuse angle with the ground, comes to run very nearly horizontal with it. The horn of the heels, as compared with that of the toe, takes on an increased growth. The same thing we have already indicated as happening at the toe, though in lesser degree. Taken together, this increased growth of horn at the toe and at the heels has the result of lengthening the diameter of the foot from before backwards, the transverse diameter remaining more or less normal. The hoof thus loses its circular build, and comes to approach nearer an elongated oval. [FIG. 122.--FOOT BADLY DEFORMED AS A RESULT OF CHRONIC LAMINITIS.] At this stage, too, the pathological 'ribbing' of the hoof is observable. The outer surface of the wall becomes marked with a series of ridges encircling the hoof from heel to heel (see Fig. 81, which illustrates a moderate deformity of the hoof occurring after laminitis). In the badly laminitic hoof, however, this deformity is largely increased, until in some cases the shapeless mass can hardly be likened to a foot at all (see Fig. 122). The inferior or solar surface of the foot also offers certain changes for our consideration. The first thing that strikes one is the convexity of the sole. This, as we have already pointed out, is due to descent of the os pedis, and the highest point of the convex portion is that immediately in front of the apex of the frog. Here the horn is sometimes found to be quite yielding to the finger, is excessively thin, and is more or less granular and inclined to break up under manipulation. As a consequence, any rough use of the drawing-knife, or an accidental wounding with sharp flints or stones, leads to exposure of the sensitive structures and local gangrene. With the horn of the sole thus deteriorated by reason of excessive and continued pressure upon the parts secreting it, it is not surprising to find that, in many cases, actual penetration of it with the os pedis occurs. It is the anterior portion of the inferior margin of the bone that makes its appearance, and shows itself as a small semicircular white or dark gray line on the sole. [Illustration: FIG. 123.--SOLAR ASPECT OF FOOT WITH CHRONIC LAMINITIS, SHOWING ITS ABNORMAL OVAL SHAPE FROM BEFORE BACKWARDS, AND THE EXCESS OF HORN GROWING FROM THE WHITE LINE IN THE REGION OF THE TOE.] Exposure of the bone is soon followed by its necrosis, in which case the wound takes on an ulcerating character. From it there is a discharge of pus, black in colour and offensive in smell, and, protruding from the opening, are excessive granulations of the remains of the sensitive sole. The 'white line,' so apparent when a normal foot is cleaned with the knife, can no longer be sharply distinguished from the surrounding horn, while in some cases the horn composing it takes on an abnormal growth at the toe (see Fig. 123). This adds still further to the abnormal lengthening of the antero-posterior diameter of the foot already mentioned. In other cases horn in this position is altogether wanting, and in its place is a well-defined cavity, into which the blade of a knife can be readily passed. This cavity is bounded in front by the original wall of the hoof, and is here lined by a degenerated and hypertrophied growth of the horny laminæ. Posteriorly the cavity is bounded by the front of the os pedis, and is lined by a thin growth of horn secreted by the keratogenous membrane covering the bone. Superiorly the cavity is quite narrow, and extends to near the lower surface of the coronary cushion, while inferiorly, at its open portion, it is often 1/2 inch to 1 inch wide. Laterally it extends on each side of the toe to the commencement of the quarters. [Illustration: FIG. 124.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A FOOT WITH LAMINITIS OF THREE WEEKS' STANDING. On the anterior face of the cavity, in front of the os pedis, are thickened horny laminæ. Due to the sinking of the bony column, the os pedis has perforated the horny sole.] Exploration with a director, or with the blade of a scalpel, removes from the opening a dry detritus. This is composed of the solid constituents of the escaped blood, the dried remains of the inflammatory exudate, and broken-down fragments of cheesy-looking horn. The size to which the cavity may sometimes extend is illustrated in Fig. 124. The thickened horny laminæ forming the anterior boundary of the cavity are here depicted, together with commencing perforation of the horny sole by the os pedis. It is this cavity which, when opened at the bottom and discharging its mealy-looking contents, is known as seedy-toe, for a further description of which see p. 293. The lameness occurring with chronic laminitis does not always persist. As time goes on the sensitive structures accommodate themselves to the altered form and conditions of the horny box. In certain situations--namely, where pressure is greatest--the softer structures become atrophied, and sometimes even wholly destroyed; while in other positions the changes in form of the hoof tend to increase in size of its interior, with a consequent diminution of pressure upon, and increased growth of the structures within it. _Pathological Anatomy_.--In detailing the changes to be observed in chronic laminitis, we take up the description where we left it when dealing with the pathological anatomy of the acute form. The alterations to be met with are best observed by taking a foot so diseased and making of it two sections--one longitudinal, from before backwards; the other horizontal, and in such a position as to cut the os pedis through at its centre. These sections will expose to view the cavity formed by the pouring out of the exudate, and its full extent may be noticed by examining the sections alternately. Taking the horizontal section first, it will be seen that the hollow space extends wholly round the toe, and as far back as the commencement of the quarters. In the latter position one is able to observe laminæ still in their normal positions and condition. At the toe, however, the horny and secretive laminæ are widely separated, and the space between them filled with a yellow, semi-solid material, the remains of the inflammatory exudate and new horn secreted by the keratogenous membrane. The laminæ, both horny and sensitive, are greatly enlarged. This is a hypertrophy, resulting from the continued effects of the inflammation, and leads in time to the formation of laminæ quite three or four times their normal size. It is this hypertrophy of the laminæ and the pressure of the exudate that causes the bulging and increased growth of the horn at the toe (see Fig. 125), and contributes towards the oval formation of the foot we have mentioned before. [Illustration: FIG. 125.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A FOOT WITH LAMINITIS OF SEVERAL YEARS' DURATION.] In the longitudinal section the first thing noticeable is the change in position of the bones, more especially in that of the os pedis. The circumstances we have mentioned before--pressure of the exudate upon it in front and tension of the perforans on it behind--have caused it to assume a more upright position than is normal, so much so that in a bad case the front of the bone becomes quite vertical. This vicious direction the other bones of the digit follow (see Fig. 125). Consequent upon the displacement of the bone, the plantar cushion, by reason of the continued pressure thus put upon it, becomes atrophied, while its hinder half is, as it were, squeezed into taking up a position more posterior and higher in the digit than normally it should. The horn-secreting papillæ covering its inferior face thus become directed backwards sooner than downwards, in which way we account in some measure for the noticeable increase of horn at the heels. _Treatment_.--Chronic laminitis is incurable. Treatment must therefore be directed towards the palliation of such conditions as are present, with the object of rendering the the animal better able to perform work. When perforation of the sole has occurred, with the attendant formation of pus and necrosis of the os pedis, it is doubtful whether treatment of any kind is advisable. There are on record cases of this description, where careful curetting of the exposed and necrotic portions and the after application of antiseptic dressings, held in position by a plate shoe or a leather sole, has been followed by good results, and the animal restored for a time to labour. In our opinion, however, early slaughter is the most economical course to adopt, and certainly the wisest advice to give to the ordinary client. When perforation of the sole is absent, and when serious alteration in the shape of the horny box has not occurred, then the most simple treatment is to put the animal straight away to slow work, with the feet protected by suitable shoes. Here, again, the most useful shoe is the Rocker Bar (Fig. 119). The broad web and deep seating gives ample protection to the convex sole, and with the ease in distributing his weight that this shoe affords the animal is able to perform slow work on soft lands with some degree of comfort. Should the growth of the horn at the toe and at the heels be unduly excessive, then our attention may be directed towards reducing it to some approach to the normal. This is accomplished by removing with the rasp and the knife those portions indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 127. Here it will be seen that the bulk of the horn removed is that protruding at the toe. After this the animal should again be suitably shod. In this connection it should be noted that the fact of the animal walking largely on the heels tends to a forward displacement of the shoe. This must be prevented by providing each heel of the shoe with a clip, after the manner shown in Fig. 128; or, in the case of a bar shoe, supplying it with a clip at the centre of the bar. [Illustration: FIG. 126.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE ABNORMAL GROWTH OF HORN AT THE TOE AND HEELS OF THE FOOT WITH CHRONIC LAMINITIS.] [Illustration: FIG. 127.--THE SAME FOOT AS IN FIG. 126. The dotted lines show the excess of horn removed preparatory to shoeing.] Among other treatments to be noted we may mention one or two to be found chiefly in Continental works on this subject. The method of Gross consists in thinning down with a rasp about 1-1/2 inches of the horn of the wall immediately below the coronet, the thinned portion extending from heel to heel. The groove made is filled with basilicon ointment,[A] and the coronet stimulated with a cantharides ointment, In this way there is induced to grow from the coronet a new wall of nearly normal dimensions. [Footnote A: Basilicon ointment is made by heating together resin 8 parts, beeswax 8 parts, olive oil 8 parts, and lard 6 parts. Allow to cool without stirring.] By other operators (Bayer, Imminger, Meyer, and Gunther) this treatment has been modified by enlarging upon it and removing the whole of the adventitious horn. [Illustration: FIG. 128.--THE SHOE WITH HEEL-CLIP.] This is done by means of the drawing-knife and the rasp, the ugly-looking pumiced foot being carefully cut and trimmed until, so far as outward appearances are concerned, it is perfectly normal. This done, the whole foot is treated with a suitable hoof ointment, and a shoe applied that affords protection to the sole without imposing pressure upon it. The shoe indicated is either an ordinary shoe with an unusually broad and well-seated web, or the seated Rocker Bar of Broad. With either it is well to additionally protect the sole by means of a leather or rubber pad and tar stopping, or by using the Huflederkitt described on p. 148. In every case the nails must be kept well back in order to avoid the weakened and degenerated horn at the toe, and to take advantage of the greater growth of horn at the heels. The wisdom of thus removing the whole of the adventitious horn may be questioned. Although a foot of a nearly normal shape is obtained, it must be remembered that the grave alterations within it are unchanged, and that in certain positions the operation must have carried us nearer the sensitive structures than is advisable. All other treatments failing, the operation of neurectomy has been advised. This we do not think wise. One would imagine that, with degenerative processes already going on in the foot, the tendency to gelatinous degeneration, always to be looked for in neurectomy, would be increased. This, as a matter of fact, is the case, and is borne out by the statements of those who have tried this method of treatment. In many cases the lameness even is not got rid of. Even where it is, the operation is afterwards followed by a great tendency to stumble, by sloughing of the hoof, or by a marked increase in the adventitious horn, and a consequent greater deformity of the foot. Sooner than risk neurectomy, it seems to us wiser to give a trial to the operation advocated by M.G. Joly, namely, that of ligaturing one of the digital arteries on each affected foot. This operation is performed in the same position as is the higher operation of plantar neurectomy, and may be either internal or external. The vessel is exposed, and a double ligature, preferably of silk, placed on it. The artery is then divided between the two ligatures. The immediate effect of the operation is to cause a considerable diminution in the arterial pressure, and so lessen the intensity of the ostitis in the os pedis. Its consequences are not so serious as those of neurectomy, and it decongests tissues which neurectomy congests. In cases related by M. Joly this operation, practised both in conjunction with removal of the excess of horn and without it, has resulted in a marked improvement in the gait, the animal going to work one month after the treatment, and remaining sound for some time afterwards. 2. SEEDY-TOE. _Definition_.--A defect in the horn of the wall, usually at the toe, but occurring elsewhere, resulting in loss of its substance in either its internal or external layers (see Figs. 129, 130, and 131). _Causes_.--The most common factor in the causation of this defect is undoubtedly disease of the sensitive laminæ. We have, in fact, just given an excellent example of the formation of a seedy-toe in the sections of this chapter devoted to laminitis (see pp. 265 and 286). The cavity here formed by the outpouring of the inflammatory exudate and the separation of the sensitive and horny laminæ persists. It becomes filled with the dried remains of the exudate and perverted secretions from the horny and sensitive laminæ (see p. 287). As yet, however, the cavity is closed below, and its existence only surmised. Later, with successive visits to the forge, the layer of solar horn forming its floor is cut away, and the cavity exposed to view. Its mealy-looking contents are removed, and the case reported by the smith. Although occurring in this way with an acute attack of laminitis, it must be remembered that seedy-toe may arise without previous noticeable cause. The first intimation the owner has is a report from the forge that seedy-toe is in existence. To refer to cases so arising a probable cause is far from easy. At one time it was believed to be due to parasitic infection of the horn. Others have blamed the pressure of the toe-clip, excessive hammering of the wall, or pressure from nails too large or driven too close. Others, again, say that seedy-toe may result from a prick in the forge, from hot-fitting of the shoe, from standing on a dry and sandy soil, or from the use of high calkins on the front shoes. In these cases--cases with an insidious onset--we are inclined to the opinion that the disease of the horn commences from below, and that the sensitive laminæ become implicated later. Holding this view, one must account for the commencing disease of the horn by giving, as causes, firstly, those factors (as, for instance, alternate excessive dampness and dryness) leading to disintegration of the horn tubules; secondly, the penetrating into and between the degenerated tubules of parasitic matter from the ground; and, thirdly, the final breaking up of the horn, and spread of the lesion under the invasion thus started. [Illustration: FIG. 129.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING POSITION OF SEEDY-TOE (INTERNAL). 1, The horn of the wall; 2, the horn of the sole; 3, the cavity of the seedy-toe; 4, the os pedis; 5, the keratogenous membrane.] _Symptoms_.--Lameness sometimes attends seedy-toe, and sometimes does not. This is an important point to be carried in mind by the veterinary surgeon who is accustomed in his practice to have many animals pass through his hands for examination as to soundness. An animal with advanced seedy-toe--a condition constituting serious unsoundness--may walk and trot absolutely sound, and may give no indication, either in the shape of the wall or the condition of the sole, that anything abnormal is in existence. Later, however, after the veterinary surgeon has passed him, the purchaser lodges the complaint that the horse has a bad seedy-toe, which, so he is told, must have been there for some time. In this case, culpable though he may appear, there is every excuse for the veterinary surgeon. Once the cavity is opened at the toe in the neighbourhood of the white line, then diagnosis is easy. A blunt piece of wood, the farrier's knife, or a director may be easily passed into it, sometimes as far up as the coronary cushion (see Fig. 129). Issuing from the opening is seen occasionally a little inspissated pus; more often, however, the dry, mealy-looking detritus to which we have before referred. This form of the disease we may term 'Internal Seedy-Toe.' for, plainly enough, it has had its origin in chronic inflammatory changes in the keratogenous membrane. [Illustration: FIG. 130.--EXTERNAL SEEDY-TOE COMMENCING AT THE PLANTAR BORDER OF THE WALL.] [Illustration: FIG. 131.--EXTERNAL SEEDY-TOE COMMENCING ON THE ANTERIOR FACE OF THE WALL.] Disease of the horn and loss of its substance may, however, also commence from without. A report on this condition, under the title of 'External Seedy-Toe,' is to be found in vol. xxix. of the _Veterinary Journal_, from which we borrow Figs. 130 and 131. In Fig. 130 it will be seen that the disease commences at the plantar surface of the toe, and extends upwards and inwards. The same condition may also appear anywhere between the coronet and the ground, gradually extending into the substance of the wall, as shown in Fig. 131. According to the writer, Colonel Nunn, the progress of the disease in this latter case appears to be faster in a downward than in an upward direction. This, however, is more apparent than real, as the rate of growth of the horn downwards detracts from the progress of the disease upwards, although it spreads over the horn at the same rate. Before concluding the symptoms, we may again allude to the fact that, although usually occurring at the toe, the same condition may be met with in other positions--namely, at either of the quarters. In appearance and in other respects it is identical with that occurring at the toe. When the animal is lame and the existence of seedy-toe is surmised, or when the cause of the lameness is altogether obscure, a little information may perhaps be gathered from noting the wear of the shoe. If the animal has been going lame for any length of time as a result of disease in the sensitive laminæ, then the shoe will be greatly thinned at the heels, and the toe but little worn. _Treatment_.--As with diseased structures elsewhere, the most rational treatment, when possible, is that of excision. The entire portion of the wall forming the anterior boundary of the cavity is thinned down with the rasp and afterwards removed with the knife, wholly exposing the hypertrophied, but usually soft layer of horn covering the sensitive structures. These hypertrophied portions are also removed, and every particle of the dust-like detritus cleaned away. After-treatment consists in dressing the parts with a good hoof ointment, protecting them, if necessary, with a pad of tow and a stout bandage. It may be that the removal of a large portion of the wall may for some time throw the animal out of work. Acting on Colonel Fred Smith's suggestion, this may be avoided by having made a thin plate of sheet-iron, slightly larger in circumference than the portion of horn removed, and shaped to follow the contour of the foot. This made, it is sunk flush with the wall by hot-fitting it, and kept in position by several small steel screws fixed into the sound horn, just as in the treatment for sand-crack (see p. 174). This will serve the useful purpose of maintaining in position any dressing that may be thought necessary, of acting as a support to the horn left on each side of the portion removed, and of keeping the exposed structures free from dirt and grit. Practical points to be remembered in fitting plates of this description to the feet are: The plate must never quite reach the shoe, or it will participate in the concussion of progression, and so loosen the screws that hold it in place. For the same reason, that portion of the sole adjoining the piece of horn removed must have its bearing on the shoe relieved. The screws holding the plate should be oiled to prevent rusting, and should take an oblique direction in order to obtain as great a hold as possible on the wall. When excision is deemed unwise or unnecessary, treatment should be directed towards maintaining the cavity in a state of asepsis. To this end it should be thoroughly cleaned of its contents, and afterwards dressed with medicated tow. The ordinary tar and grease stopping is as suitable as any. This, together with the tow, is tightly plugged into the opening and kept in position by a wide-webbed shoe. Instead of the tar stopping and the tow, there may be used with advantage the artificial hoof-horn of Defay (see p. 152). Before using this the cavity should again be thoroughly cleaned out, and should in addition be mopped out with ether. The latter injunction is important, as unless the grease is thus first removed, the composition will fail to adhere to the horn. With the cavity thus cleaned and prepared, the artificial horn, melted ready to hand, is poured into it and allowed to set. In every case, no matter what else the treatment, the bearing of the horn adjacent to the lesion should be removed from the shoe. Whether practising the method of plugging the cavity or that of excision of the wall external to it, attempts to quickly obtain a new growth of horn from the coronet should be made. To further that, frequent stimulant applications should be used. Ointment of Biniodide of Mercury 1 in 8, of Cantharides 1 in 8, or the ordinary Oil of Cantharides, either will serve. 3. KERAPHYLLOCELE. _Definition_.--By this term is indicated an enlargement forming on the inner surface of the wall. In shape and extent these enlargements vary. Usually they are rounded and extend from the coronary cushion to the sole, sometimes only as thick as an ordinary goose-quill, at other times reaching the size of one's finger. Often they are irregular in formation and flattened from side to side. [Illustration: FIG. 132.--A PORTION OF THE HORN OF THE WALL AT THE TOE REMOVED IN ORDER TO SHOW A KERAPHYLLOCELE ON ITS INNER SURFACE.] _Causes_.--Keraphyllocele is very often a sequel to the changes occurring at the toe in laminitis. Probably, however, the most common cause is an injury upon, or a crack through, the wall. It may thus occur from excessive hammering of the foot, from violent kicking against a wall or the stable fittings, and from the injury to the coronet known as 'tread.' It may also occur as a sequel to complicated sand-crack, and to chronic corn. That fissures in the wall are undoubtedly a cause has been placed on record by the late Professor Walley, who noticed the appearance of these horny growths following upon the operation of grooving the wall.[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. iii, p. 170.] This gentleman had a large Clydesdale horse under his care for a bad sand-crack in front of the near hind-foot, and, as the lameness was extreme, he adopted his usual method of treatment--viz., rest, fomentations, poulticing, and the making of the V-shaped section through the wall, and subsequently the application of an appropriate bar shoe to the foot, and repeated blisters to the coronet. In a short time the lameness passed off, and the horse was put to work. A few days later the animal met with an accident, and was killed. On examining a section of the hoof it was found that a vertical horny ridge corresponding to the external fissure had been formed on the internal surface of the wall, and that a well-marked cicatrix extended upwards through the structure of the hoof at the part forming the cutigeral groove; furthermore, _a similar ingrowth had been taking place in the line of the oblique incisions made for the relief of the sand-crack_. This case has an important bearing on the operation of grooving the wall, which operation we have several times in this work advocated for the relief of other diseases. It teaches us that the incisions should not be carried so completely through the horn as to interfere with and irritate the sensitive laminæ, and so set up the chronic inflammatory condition leading to hypertrophy of the horn. From the position on the os pedis of the indentation made in it by the keraphyllocele (see Fig. 133) it has been argued that pressure of the toe-clip is a cause of the new growth. This, we should say, cannot be a very strong factor in the causation, for, while we admit that the continual pressure of the clip, and the heavy hammering that sometimes fits it into position, is likely to set up a chronic inflammatory condition of the sensitive laminæ in that region, we must still point out that the rarity of keraphyllocele, as compared with the fact that clips are on every shoe, does not allow of the argument carrying any great weight. _Symptoms_.--Except under certain conditions this defect is difficult of detection. As a rule, lameness is not produced by it. In making that statement we are led largely by the conclusion arrived at by Professor Walley. This observer noted the fact that ingrowths of horn such as we are describing nearly always take place in false quarter, or after a sand-crack has been repaired, and that they commonly occur after the operation of grooving the wall in the manner we have just shown. Now, we know that quite often under these circumstances the horse goes perfectly sound. Thus, while we know that in all probability keraphyllocele is in existence, we have ocular demonstration that the animal is quite unaffected by it. In some cases, however, lameness is present. During the early stages of the growth's formation it is but slight, increasing as the keraphyllocele enlarges. Should this be the case, other symptoms present themselves. The coronet is hot, and tender to the touch, sometimes even perceptibly swollen, and percussion over the wail is met with flinching on the part of the animal. In other cases one is led to suspect the condition by the prominence of the horn of the wall of the toe. This is distinctly ridge-like from the coronet to the ground, while on either side of it the quarters appear to have sunk to less than their normal dimensions. We believe this to be an illusion, as a ridge of any size at the toe readily gives one the impression of atrophy behind it, without this latter condition being actually present. Should this ridge-like formation and the accompanying symptoms of pain and lameness occur after repair of a sand-crack, then keraphyllocele may, with tolerable certainty, be diagnosed. When these outward signs are wanting, however, and the true nature of our case is a matter of mere conjecture, a positive diagnosis may still be made at a later stage--that is, when the abnormal growth of horn reaches the sole. In this case either there is met with when paring the sole a small portion of horn, circular in form, distinctly harder than normal, and indenting in a semicircular fashion the front of the white line at the toe, or solution of continuity between the tumour and the edge of the sole and the os pedis takes place, and the lameness resulting from the ingress of dirt and grit thus allowed draws attention to the case. _Pathological Anatomy_.--With the sensitive structures removed from the hoof by maceration or other means, these growths are at once apparent. They may occur in any position, but are usually seen at the toe, and they may extend from the coronary cushion to the sole, or they may occupy only the lower or the upper half of the wall. In places the tumour (or 'horny pillar' as the Germans term it) is roughened by offshoots from it, and does not always exhibit the smooth surface depicted in Fig. 132. Commonly, the horn composing the new growth is hard and dense. Sometimes, however, it is soft to the knife, and is then found to be itself fistulous in character, a distinct cavity running up its centre, from which issues a black and offensive pus. In a few cases the sensitive laminæ in the immediate neighbourhood are found to be enlarged, but in the majority of cases atrophy is the condition to be observed. Not only are the sensitive structures found to be shrunken and absorbed, but the atrophy and absorption extends even to the bone itself (see Fig. 133). This latter is a result of the continued pressure of the horny growth, in a well-marked case ending in a sharply-defined groove in the os pedis in which the keraphyllocele rests. The fact that the softer structures, and even the bone, thus accommodate themselves to the altered conditions is, no doubt, the reason that lameness in many of these cases is absent. _Treatment_.--It is doubtful whether anything satisfactory can be recommended. When we have suspected this condition ourselves, it has been our practice to groove the hoof on either side of the toe, after the manner illustrated in Fig. 120, and, at the same time, point-firing the coronet and applying a smart cantharides blister. Certainly, after this operation, lameness has often disappeared--whether, however, as a result of the treatment adopted or by reason of the structures within accommodating themselves to the condition, we would not care to say. [Illustration: FIG. 133.--OS PEDIS SHOWING THE GROOVE IN IT CAUSED BY ATROPHY AND ABSORPTION INDUCED BY PRESSURE OF A KERAPHYLLOCELE.] Other writers advocate the removal of that portion of the wall to which the tumour is attached, after the manner described on p. 182, and illustrated in Fig. 98. This, however, should be a last resource, and should be adopted only when weighty reasons, such as excessive and otherwise incurable lameness, appear to demand it. 4. KERATOMA. In our nomenclature the terms 'Keratoma' and 'Keraphyllocele' are both used to indicate the condition we have just described. There are some, however, who reserve the term 'Keratoma' for horny tumours occurring only on the sole, and for that reason we draw special attention to the word here. Keratoma may thus be used to describe what we have called keraphyllocele directly that growth makes its appearance at the sole, and is there able to be cut with the knife. Similar hard and condensed growths may, however, make their appearance on the sole in other positions quite removed from the white line, plainly being secreted by the villous tissue of the sensitive sole, and having no connection whatever with the sensitive laminæ. They appear as circular patches, varying in size from a shilling to a two-shilling piece. Compared with the surrounding horn, they stand out white and glistening, while in structure they are dense and hard, and offer a certain amount of resistance to the knife. They are of quite minor importance, and, beyond keeping them well pared down, need no attention. Keratoma probably offers us the best analogy we have to corn of the human subject. 5. THRUSH. _Definition_.--A disease of the frog characterized by a discharge from it of a black and offensive pus, and accompanied by more or less wasting of the organ. _Causes_.--The primary cause of this affection is doubtless the infection of the horn, and later the sensitive structures, with matter from the ground. Those factors, therefore, leading to deterioration of the horn, and so exposing it to infection, may be considered here. Such will be changes from excessive dampness to dryness, or _vice versâ_; work upon hard and stony roads; prolonged standing in the accumulated wet and filth of insanitary stables, or long standing upon a bedding which, although dry, is of unsuitable material. In this latter connection may be mentioned the harm resulting from the use of certain varieties of moss litter. This we find pointed out by J. Roalfe Cox, F.R.C.V.S.[A] Tenderness in the foot was first noticed, and, on examination, the horn of the sole and of the frog was found to be peculiarly softened. It afforded a yielding sensation to the finger, not unlike that which is imparted by indiarubber, and on cutting the altered horn it was almost as easily sliced as cheese-rind. The outer surface being in this way slightly pared off, the deeper substance of the horn was discoloured by a pinkish stain. The horn of the frog was in many instances found detaching from the vascular surface, which was very disposed to take on a diseased action, somewhat allied to canker, and became extremely difficult to treat. [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xvi., p. 243.] Conditions such as these, although not constituting the disease itself, certainly lay the frog open to infection, especially if afterwards the animal is called upon to work in the mud of the streets of a large town, or to stand in a badly drained and damp stable. A further cause of thrush is to be found in the condition of the frog, brought about by contraction of the heels (see p. 118). We have already seen that one of the most prominent factors in the causation of contraction is the removal of the frog from the ground by shoeing, with its consequent diminution in size and deterioration in quality of horn. This leads to fissures in the horny covering, and favours infection of the sensitive structures beneath. Thrush is, in fact, nearly always present in the later stages of contracted foot. By some thrush is believed to be but the commencement of canker. With this, however, we do not hold. We believe both to be due to specific causes as yet undiscovered, but that the cause of thrush is not the one operating in canker. In arriving at this conclusion we are guided by clinical evidence. The two conditions are quite dissimilar, even in appearance, and, while one is readily amenable to treatment, the other is just as obstinately resistant. _Symptoms_.--The symptoms of thrush are always very evident. Probably the first thing that draws one's attention to it is the stench of the puriform discharge. The foot is then picked up and the characteristic putrescent matter found to be accumulated in the median, and often in the lateral, lacunæ. The organ is wasted and fissured, the horn in the depths of the lacunæ softened and easily detachable, and portions of the sensitive frog often laid bare. With a bad thrush lameness is present, the frog itself is tender to pressure, and often there is considerable heat and tenderness of the heels and the coronet immediately above. More especially is this noticeable after a journey. It is, perhaps, more common in the hind-feet than in the fore, and more often met with in heavy draught animals than in nags. The hind-feet are, of course, more open to infection by reason of their being constantly called upon to stand in the animal discharges in the rear of stable standings, while it is a well-known fact that heavy animals have their stables kept far less clean, and their feet less assiduously cared for, than do animals of a lighter type. In a nag-horse with thrush of both fore-feet lameness becomes sometimes very great. The gait when first moved out from the stable is feeling and suggestive of corns, while progress on a road with loose stones is sometimes positively dangerous to the driver. _Treatment_.--When this condition has arisen, as it often does, from want of counter-pressure of the frog with the ground, this pressure must be restored after the manner described when dealing with the treatment of contracted foot (see p. 125) either by the use of tip or bar shoes, or by suitable pads and stopping. So far as direct treatment of the lesion itself is concerned, the first step is to carefully trim away all diseased horn and freely open up the lacunæ in which the discharge has accumulated. Good results are then often arrived at by poulticing, afterwards followed up by suitable antiseptic dressings. With us a favourite one is the Sol. Hydrarg. Perchlor. of Tuson, used without dilution. Others use a dry dressing, and dust with Calomel, with a mixture of Sulphate of Copper, Sulphate of Zinc and Alum, or with Subacetate of Copper and Tannin. With restoration, so far as is possible, of the frog functions, and with careful dressing, a cure is nearly always obtained. 6. CANKER. _Definition_.--Under this unscientific, yet expressive term, is indicated a chronic diseased condition of the keratogenous membrane, commencing always at the frog, and slowly extending to the sole and wall, characterized by a loss of normal function of the horn secreting cells, and the discharge of a serous exudate in the place of normal horn. _Causes_.--The exact cause of canker has still to be discovered. Therefore, before expressing an opinion as to what the _probable_ cause may be, we may state here that such opinion can only be based upon clinical observation. Such being the case, we are almost duty bound to give the views of older authors before those of more modern writers. From the mass of material ready to hand we may select the following as serving our purpose. The earliest opinion appears to have been that canker, as the name indicates, was of a cancerous or cancroid nature. This was also believed by Hurtrel D'Arboval, who looked upon canker as carcinoma of the recticular structure of the foot. The same theory we find enunciated in the _Veterinary Journal_ so late as 1890. Although the word 'cancer' or 'carcinoma' is not there used, the author employs the terms 'Papilloma' and 'Epithelioma' with the evident intention of expressing his belief in the malignant nature of the disease. Another early opinion was that the disease was a _spreading ulcer_, gradually extending and changing the tissues which it invaded. A further early theory, and one which if not still believed in, has died a hard death, is the constitutional theory. This was believed in by nearly all the older writers, and is mentioned so late as 1872 by the late Professor Williams. In his 'Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery,' he says: 'Canker is a constitutional disease due to a cachexia or habit of body, grossness of constitution, and lymphatic temperament.' This, we believe, is credited to-day by some, and yet, quite 100 years before the date of the 1872 edition of Williams's work--in 1756, to be exact--we find a veterinary writer when talking of grease (a disease, by-the-by, very closely allied to canker) exclaiming against this habit of referring everything which we do not rightly understand to some ill-humour of the body. The wisdom his words contain justifies us in giving them mention here. 'It is a very foolish and absurd Notion,' he says, 'to imagine a Horse full of Humours when he happens to be troubled with the Grease. But such Shallow Reasoning will always abound while Peoples' Judgments are always superficial. Therefore, to convince such unthinking Folks, let them take a thick Stick and beat a Horse soundly upon his Legs so that they bruise them in several Places, after which they will swell, I dare say, and yet be in no danger of Greasing. Now, pray, what were these offending Humours doing before the Bruises given by the Stick?' At the present day it is safe to assert that neither the ulcerative, the cancerous, nor the constitutional theory is believed in widely, and, among the mass of contrary opinions as to the cause of this disease, we may find that even quite early many of the older writers had discarded them. Quoting from Zundel, we may say that Dupuy in 1827 considered canker as a hypertrophy of the fibres of the hoof, admitting at the same time that these fibres were softened by an altered secretion; while Mercier in 1841 stated that canker was nothing more than a chronic inflammation of the reticular tissue of the foot, characterized by diseased secretions of this apparatus. Saving that they make no mention of a likely specific cause, these last two statements express all that we believe to-day. As early as 1851, however, the existence of a specific cause was hinted at by Blaine in his 'Veterinary Art.' We find him here describing canker as a _fungoid_ excrescence, exuding a thin and offensive discharge, which _inoculates_ the soft parts within its reach, particularly the sensitive frog and sole, and destroys their connections with the horny covering. The use of the word 'fungoid,' and particularly that of 'inoculate,' is suggestive enough, and is evidence sufficient that either Blaine or his editor recognised, simply through clinical observation, the working of a special cause. Four years later, Bouley is found holding the opinion that canker was closely allied to tetter, thus recognising for it a local specific cause. The same observer also pointed out that the secretion of the keratogenous membrane instead of being suspended was greatly increased, taking care to explain, as did Dupuy, that the products of the secretion were perverted and had lost their normal ability to become transformed into compact horn. In 1864 this slowly growing recognition of a specific cause received further impetus from the statements of Megnier. This observer claimed to have discovered in the cankerous secretions the existence of a vegetable parasite (namely, a cryptogam, as in favus), which he termed the keraphyton, or parasitic plant of the horn. Modern research, though failing to substitute anything more definite, has not confirmed this. The exact and exciting cause of canker is therefore still an open question, and a matter for research. We may, however, sum the matter up by briefly discussing the causes, so far as clinical observation teaches us. This we shall do under two headings--namely, _Predisposing_ and _Exciting_. _Predisposing Causes_.--Starting with the assumption that the disease is due to local infection, we may relate as predisposing causes anything having a prejudicial effect upon the horn, disintegrating it, and so laying the tissues beneath open to attack. The most prominent in this connection is certainly a continued dampness of the material on which the animal has to stand. Particularly is this the case when the material is also excessively foul and dirty, contaminated with the animal discharges, and presumably swarming with the lower forms of animal and plant life. We shall therefore find bad cases of canker in stables where the "sets" are irregular, or where no paving at all is attempted, where the drainage is defective, and where darkness and want of proper ventilation favours organismal growth. The fact that with modern drainage and a general hygienic improvement in stabling, canker has to a large extent died out, supports this contention. Again, as with thrush, anything removing the counter-pressure of the frog with the ground and throwing that organ out of play, may be looked upon as a predisposing cause. The atrophy of the frog thus occurring, the deterioration in the quality of its horn and the fissures in its surface lay it specially open to infection. That one of the principal factors in the treatment of canker is a restoration of ground-pressure to the frog and the sole is sufficient proof of this. Further, it is well to note that, although playing no part in the actual causation, certain constitutional conditions may in some measure predispose the foot to attack. Clinical observation teaches us that animals of a lymphatic nature, with thick skins and an abundance of hair, with flat feet and thick, fleshy frogs, are far more liable to attack than are animals with reverse points. _Exciting Causes_. Those who give this subject careful consideration cannot fail to arrive at the conclusion that canker is most certainly due to local infection with a specific poison, and that poison a germicidal one from the ground. The symptoms arising may be due to the action of a single germ, or to two or more germs acting in conjunction. As to whether the parasitic invasion is single or multiple we cannot feel certain, but that it _is_ parasitic we feel absolutely assured. It is simply the light that bacteriological advance has made during the last two decades that enables us to make the statement with such feelings of assurance. We arrive at our conclusions by reasoning from analogy. Here we have a disease always exhibiting the same symptoms, more or less peculiar to one class of animal, always with a similar characteristic appearance and smell, always obstinately refractory to treatment, showing always a tendency to spread to the other feet of the same animal, and often to the feet of other animals _near enough to become_ infected, and always cured--when cured it is--by a treatment which may be summed up in two words as 'rigid antisepsis.' Other diseases, with points in common with this, have been directly proved to be due to a specific cause. Common regard for logic compels us to admit the same for canker. [Illustration: FIG. 134.--A FOOT, THE SUBJECT OF CANKER, SHOWING DESTRUCTION OF THE HORNY FROG, AND A FUNGOID-LOOKING HYPERTROPHY OF THE TISSUES BENEATH.] _Symptoms and Pathological Anatomy_.--The symptoms of canker are seldom noticeable at the commencement of an attack. The disease is slow in its progress; for some time confines its ravages to the sub-horny tissues unseen, and is quite unattended with pain. It is not observed, therefore, until considerable damage has been done, and the disease is far advanced. What is usually first seen is a peculiar softening and raising of the horn of the frog. The infective material has set up a chronic inflammation of the keratogenous membrane, leading to abnormal secretion, and, in place of the horny cells it should normally secrete, is thrown out an abundance of a serous fluid. This upraised and softened horn once thrown off is not again renewed, and the whole of the sensitive frog and perhaps a portion of the sensitive sole is left uncovered. In place of the normal horn, however, is often found a hypertrophy of the elements of the keratogenous membrane leading to huge fungoid-looking growths with a papillomatous aspect, damp in appearance and offensive in smell, and readily bleeding when injured (see Fig. 131). The horn immediately surrounding the lesion is loose and non-adherent to the sensitive structures. This indicates, of course, that the disease has spread further beneath the horny covering than is at first sight apparent. Portions of this loose horn removed reveal beneath it a caseous foetid matter, easily removed by scraping (the perverted secretion of the keratogenous membrane). When this is carefully scraped away, the sensitive structures appear to be covered with a thin, smooth membrane, gray in colour and almost transparent, while beneath it may be seen the red appearance of normal sensitive structures. If the horn surrounding the lesion is not touched with the knife, but little is seen of the extent of the disease, for that removed by natural means is often very small in quantity. To all intents and purposes the disease appears to be confined to the frog. This appearance is misleading, especially if the disease has been in existence for some time, for it may have easily spread to the whole of the sole, and even to the greater portions of the laminæ secreting the wall. It is, in fact, not until the pressure exerted by the normal horn is removed by its breaking away that the vascular structures of the keratogenous membrane begin to swell, and the perverted secretions to enlarge in size. Once the pressure is removed, however, this quickly comes about, and the characteristic fungoid growths rapidly make their appearance. This tendency to spread is highly indicative of canker. The serous matter exuding from the diseased keratogenous membrane appears, in fact, to be highly infective. Once its flow is commenced, it slowly, but surely, invades the sensitive structures near it, appearing, as Elaine has put it, to 'inoculate' them. What is really the case, of course, is not that the discharge itself is infective, but that it is contaminated with infective material. The fungoid-looking growths to which we have before referred are, in reality, nothing more than the villi of the sensitive frog and sole greatly hypertrophied and irregular in shape. At times the hypertrophy is as a huge and compact enlargement occupying the position of the frog. Sometimes, however, it occurs as numerous elongated and twisted fibrous bundles, separated from each other by deep clefts, and the clefts filled with the offensive cankerous discharge (see Fig. 134). [Illustration: FIG. 135.--LOWER ASPECT OF CANKERED FOOT, SHOWING DESTRUCTION OF WALL.] At a very advanced stage canker leads to destruction of much of the horny sole and frog; or even parts of the wall may become separated from the tissues beneath, and break away from the foot (see Fig. 135). At other times the disease brings about a deformity of the whole of the foot. Its longitudinal and transverse diameters become enormously increased, and the whole foot apparently flattened from above to below (see Fig. 136). This indicates that not only has the horny sole been entirely destroyed, but that the destructive process has also extended to the greater part of the lower half of the wall, with a consequent hypertrophy of exposed soft structures, and a sinking of the bony column, similar to that which occurs in laminitis, but not so pronounced. [Illustration: FIG. 136.--FOOT WITH ADVANCED CANKER.] A further aspect of the badly-cankered foot is to be found in an apparently enormous increase in the length of the wall. This we have seen protruding for quite 5 inches beyond the plane of the sole. It simply indicates that, in order to keep the animal at work, the smith has at every shoeing spared the wall, so that the diseased structures might be kept from contact with the ground. As we have said before, pain and other symptoms of distress are quite absent. Animals affected with canker for a long time maintain their condition, feed well, and are quite capable of performing work under ordinary conditions. _Differential Diagnosis and Prognosis_.--Perhaps the only disease with which canker may be confounded is thrush. They should, however, be easily distinguishable. The discharge from thrush is not so profuse, and is thicker and darker in colour, while the loosening of the horn is almost entirely absent. Furthermore, thrush shows no tendency to spread, and, even when left untreated, may remain confined to the frog for months, and even years. Canker, on the other hand, is slowly progressive, and soon shows the characteristic fungoid excresences, which growths are in thrush never seen. A further point of difference is discovered when treatment is commenced. Canker is found to be refractory to a point that is absolutely disheartening, while thrush, with careful attention, is soon got under hand, and a permanent cure effected. The prognosis must be guarded. By many canker has been said to be incurable. This, however, has been clearly shown to be wrong. When the animal is young, and treatment may reasonably be judged to be economical, then a favourable prognosis may be indulged in, provided the veterinary surgeon intends to put into that treatment a more than ordinary amount of individual care and attendance. Even then, however, he will have to be very largely guided by the condition of his case. He should see that it is not too far advanced, and that a great deformity of the hoof, or actual exploration, does not indicate disease of the greater part of the wall. _Treatment_.--From what has gone before, it will be seen that the eradication of canker is no easy task, that it is, in fact, a most difficult matter, and one not to be lightly undertaken. At the risk of recapitulating what we have said before, we may mention here the two points which the veterinarian must bear in mind. (1) That there is no actual disease or alteration in structure of the deep layers of the keratogenous apparatus. It is only the superficial, or horn-secreting, layer that concerns us. (2) That the disease of this superficial layer is infection with a material that may reasonably be presumed to be infective. Put thus, treatment of canker would at first sight appear to be easy. One would imagine that a simple and long-continued soaking of the entire foot in a strong enough antiseptic would be all that was needed. Clinical observation, however, shows that this is not so, and for this there must be reasons. The reasons are these: (1) Between us and the diseased layer upon which our attention must be directed is often a layer of normal horn, effectually protecting the tissues beneath from any dressing which we might consider beneficial. (2) Anything applied with the object of destroying septic material, but strong enough, or caustic enough, to injure the membrane upon which we are working, only makes the case worse. The superficial layer of the keratogenous membrane in which we have judged the disease to exist is, after all, but a delicate structure. When attacked by the application of too potent a drug its horn-secreting layer is easily destroyed, and thus, although we may succeed in establishing asepsis, we cannot expect at the point of injury a growth of horn. In its place we are confronted with large outgrowths of inflammatory fibrous tissue. (3) Shedding of the diseased horn and removal of the pressure exerted by the hoof faces us with hypertrophy of the exposed villi. The difficulty of meeting this with an adequate and evenly-distributed pressure is well enough known, and we find in that a further reason that the treatment of canker is superlatively difficult. (4) The material on which the animal has to stand is a distinct bar to the maintaining of a strict asepsis. When we have said this, it is easy to understand that canker is not to be successfully met with any so-called specific--that it makes but little difference what the application may be so long as it is antiseptic, and is used by a man thoroughly conversant with the difficulties he has to contend with, and with his mind firmly set upon surmounting them. With this point established, we will not devote more of our space to a consideration of the various dressings that have at different times been highly advocated in the treatment of the disease. It is interesting, however, to note that intensely irritating and caustic applications have been greatly in favour. Nitric acid, sulphuric acid (either alone or its action reduced by the addition of alcohol, oil, or turpentine), arsenic, butter of antimony, creasote, chromic acid, carbolic acid, arsenite of soda, and the actual cautery, have all been used. Without dwelling further on that, we may say at once that a correct treatment consists in (1) the removal of all horn overlying infected portions of the keratogenous membrane, (2) the application of an antiseptic not too powerfully caustic in its action, (3) frequent changes of the dressings in order to insure a maintenance of antisepsis, and (4) the application of an adequate pressure to the exposed soft structures. Thus combated, canker is curable. The man who, at the expense of much time and trouble, has demonstrated the truth of these axioms is Mr. Malcolm, of Birmingham. The determination with which he clung to his point that canker was, with correct treatment, in every case curable, was some years ago provocative of much discussion in veterinary circles. That he was successful in proving his contention is more to our point here. It is his method of treatment, therefore, that we shall give, and this we shall do by liberal extracts from Mr. Malcolm's own writings. 'On the first occasion of operating upon and dressing the cankered foot, it is usually necessary to cast the horse, and this may have to be done at intervals for a second or even third time; but in most cases once is sufficient, subsequent dressing being usually accomplished without much difficulty, frequently even without the aid of a twitch. After the horse has been secured, the drawing-knife is first employed; and if the frog alone is affected, it is unnecessary even to pare the sole, the removal of all frog horn not intimately adherent to its secreting surface being all that is required. But if both sole and frog be involved, the whole of the sound horn should be first thinned until it springs under the thumb, and then, using a sharp knife, every particle of diseased horn must be carefully removed from both sole and frog, a process much more easily, and with far greater certainty, secured by the previous thinning of the horn. 'The removal of diseased horn should always commence at the most dependent part of the foot, so that any hæmorrhage produced may be below the parts still to be operated on, a matter of considerable moment for effective treatment. But with due care there will be little hæmorrhage, as, except in the initial stage, there is no real union between the diseased horn and the diseased vascular secreting surface. 'After all apparently diseased horn has been removed by the knife, any still remaining should be at once destroyed by the actual cautery, by which it can be identified. All the diseased secreting surface should be _carefully scraped with a thin hot iron_,[A] fungoid growths excised and cauterized, and, indeed, every particle of cankered tissue should, if possible, be eradicated. In securing this more reliance can be placed on the actual cautery than on any other, whether liquid or solid: it is more under control in application, more decisive in effect, and its results can be anticipated with a far greater certainty. Moreover, its aid in diagnosis is of immense value; applied to the thinned horn or secreting surface it unmistakably demonstrates the presence or absence of canker. Healthy tissue chars black; cankered tissue, on the contrary, bubbles up white under the hot iron, and presents an appearance not unlike roasted cheese. 'Although this test is certain for horn thinned to the quick, it is not to be relied upon with thick horn, the outside of which may be practically healthy and char black, while its underlying surface may be cankered. With this exception the test is an infallible one, as by it the demarcation between cankered and healthy tissue can be clearly traced, and as a result we can with equal confidence radically _remove_[A] all cankered tissue, and conserve all healthy. As the object of that abominably cruel and barbarous operation of stripping the sole is the exposure of all canker, and as this can be done with equal certainty with the aid of the hot iron, there can be no necessity for performing it. The pain of cauterizing cankered tissue, which is a necessary operation, is infinitesimal (canker largely destroying sensation), compared with the pain produced in the totally unnecessary process of tearing healthy horn from a highly sensitive tissue. [Footnote A: The words in italics are alterations in the original article made by Mr. Malcolm in a private letter to the author (H.C.K.).] 'Having by means of the knife and cautery removed every known particle of disease, the next procedure is to pack the surface of the sole and frog thus exposed with a _mild dressing, such as vaseline; but if the cankered surface has not been efficiently, scraped, than there is required a more_ [A] powerful astringent or caustic dressing, which may vary considerably according to the individual fancy. A great favourite of mine consists of equal parts of sulphates of copper, iron, and zinc, mixed with strong carbolic acid, a very little vaseline being added to give the mass cohesion. The dressing, covered by a pledget of tow, is held in position by a shoe with an iron or leather sole, and the dressing and tow together should be of sufficient bulk to produce slight pressure on the sole when the nails of the shoe are drawn up. This insures contact between the dressing and the exposed surface, as well as any benefit derivable from pressure. [Footnote A: The words in italics are alterations in the original article made by Mr. Malcolm in a private letter to the author (H.C.E.).] 'The dressing of the foot and nailing of the shoe can usually be more expeditiously performed when the horse is on his feet than when prone. If only the frog, or the frog and a small part of the sole, be involved, the horse should be kept at work, but if a large part or the whole of the sole a few days' rest may be necessary; but as soon as the condition of the foot will allow, work should be resumed, and it is simply marvellous how sound a horse will walk while minus the greater part of his sole from canker. 'On the second day following the shoe should be removed, and the foot redressed. To effect this it is necessary to recast the horse. Commencing at the edge of the sound horn, at the most dependent part of the foot, all new horn, no matter what its condition, must be pared to the quick, especial care being taken to effectually remove any lingering disease. Want of success is frequently attributable to neglect of this precaution. A small particle of canker remains undetected, forms a new centre of infection, and just when success is anticipated, much to your chagrin you have to deal with a fresh outbreak of canker, instead of a rapidly-healing foot. Parenthetically, I may here remark that the amount of more or less imperfect new horn produced by a cankered surface after an effective but not too destructive cauterization is almost incredible, and one cannot fail to be struck with the very active proliferation here compared with the meagre production of new horn by the healthy surface. 'After all disease has been excised, carefully clean the foot with waste, thoroughly protect any raw surface resulting from overcauterization by some mild agent, such as a saturated calomel ointment, reapply an astringent dressing over the whole affected surface, and nail on the shoe. This method of procedure should now be thoroughly carried out daily for a time, and as it is proceeded with a successful issue soon becomes assured in nearly every case. Where, in spite of these efforts, the disease still persists, depend upon it the fault is with the operator, who has failed to eradicate some centre of infection. Under these circumstances it may be necessary to recast the patient, repare the foot, and by the aid of eye, knife, and cautery, endeavour to find the cause, and having found it, which can invariably be done, remove it. The usual treatment will then speedily become successful. As the case proceeds dressing every other day will soon be sufficient, then twice a week, and finally, once a week until sufficiently cured. 'During this healing process, and after the complete eradication of canker it may be again repeated, no agent seems to have a more beneficial effect than calomel, and for this purpose it is best used as a dry powder. Under this dressing any remaining spot of canker is readily detected by the wet condition of the calomel when the shoe is removed the next day. In dealing with such a spot, a very good plan, after all apparently diseased tissue has been excised, is to touch the cankered part with solid nitrate of silver, or a feather dipped in one of the strong mineral acids, and then reapply calomel over the surface. The result of this treatment is frequently very gratifying. 'In successful treatment the shoe must be removed each time--an adjustable plate will not do, as no man can thoroughly pare and examine a foot with the shoe on, and imperfect dressings are worse than useless. Indeed, it is better not to pare or thin the horn at all, than to imperfectly pare, since canker, if undestroyed, develops far more rapidly under thin horn than under thick. 'In conclusion, I would again urge the necessity, at the very first operation, when the horse is down, of removing _every single particle_ of the diseased tissue, either by excision or effectual cauterization, but at the same time taking very great care to guard against the latter being too destructive. The cautery should be laid aside as soon as the tissue cauterized ceases to _burn white_. The moment at which the canker has thus been eradicated without destroying sound tissue is indicated by the appearance of healthy horn, by the intimate union of that with the secreting surface, and by the healthy aspect of the exuded blood when paring has been carried to the quick. 'Should subjacent healthy structures be destroyed during the process, that is shown by the production of a raw sore, or of a sore to which a "sit-fast," coextensive to the injury, is firmly attached. This seriously retards recovery. The secreting surface having been destroyed, no new horn can be produced directly from the part, and a new secreting surface and new horn have now to grow inwards from the surrounding undestroyed tissue, and that is a slow process. At the same time, on the principle of choosing the least of two evils, practical experience teaches that it is better to produce a small sore or a "sit-fast" than to leave a part of the canker undetected; but, on the other hand, it is better to leave a small part of canker undetected, which can be recognised and removed at the next examination, than to cause a large slough. The object of the skilful surgeon is, naturally, to avoid both extremes; and if trouble be taken to carry out the procedure described, there need be no fear of the result.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. iv., p. 24.] Treated in this way, the horse with cankered feet may be usually kept at work during the whole time that treatment is carried out, and a cure is obtainable in periods varying from six weeks to six or even twelve months. The same essentials in treatment--namely, removal of diseased horn, antiseptic dressings, and pressure--are insisted on by other writers. Bermbach,[A] in 1888, treats canker as follows: The horse having been cast, the undermined hoof-horn is removed with the knife, and the hypertrophied sensitive structures, if necessary, reduced in the same manner. The chief difficulty in removing the latter is experienced in the lateral lacunæ of the frog, where it is most conveniently scraped away with a spoon or sharp curette. Professors Hoffmann and Imminger also operate in the same way, applying an Esmarch's hæmostatic bandage, and using the knife and curette freely.[B] [Footnote A: _Ibid_., vol. ii., p. 68.] [Footnote B: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xxxv., p. 433.] Hæmorrhage is afterwards arrested, and a dressing of perchloride of mercury (a solution, 1/2 per cent., in equal parts of alcohol and water) applied. The after-dressings succeeding best are those of _slightly_ caustic and astringent agents, preferably in the form of a powder, and held in position by carbol-jute pads and linen bandages applied with a certain amount of pressure. The same author draws attention to the fact that caustic agents such as nitrate of lead, chloride of zinc, etc., act too powerfully if the bleeding has been arrested and the wound disinfected. They then form a thick crust, under which profuse suppuration takes place. The same agents are likewise contra-indicated when hæmorrhage is still present. In this latter case they combine with the blood to form metallic albuminates, which lie as an impenetrable layer on the surface of the wound, and so hinder the action of drugs on the tissue below. During his after-treatment, Bermbach advocates removal of the dressings every second day, all cheesy material to be scraped away with the knife, and the sublimate lotion to be used again. He also insists on the animal being kept standing in a _dry stable_,--nothing but a stone pavement kept clean--and put to regular work in a plate shoe after the first or second week. Cure of advanced cases is said to be obtainable in from four to six weeks. As illustrative of the value of pressure in the treatment of canker, we may also draw attention to a treatment advocated by Lieutenant Rose.[A] This observer holds that adequate pressure is unobtainable by packing the foot, and, to obtain it, removes the wall from heel to heel, much after the manner of preparing the foot for the Charlier shoe, so that the _whole_ of the weight is taken by the sole and the frog. Tar and tow is then lightly applied, the foot placed in a boot, and the patient turned into a loose-box. The dressing is repeated at intervals of four or five days until the animal is cured. [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xi., p. 435.] Those who have followed this method of treatment have modified it by actually shoeing the animal Charlier fashion, and keeping him at work, attention, of course, being at the same time given to a proper antiseptic dressing. _Reported Cases_.--1. (Malcolm's Treatment[A]). The subject was a five-year old horse belonging to a client of Mr. Giver's, of Tamworth. The case was an exceptionally bad one, for not only was the whole of the frog and sole of the near hind-foot cankered, but the disease on the outside quarter extended to within 1/2 inch of the coronet, and on the inside quarter to within 2 inches of it. As the owner, a farmer, had not proper convenience for Mr. Olver to treat the case, the latter asked me, while visiting him, if I would care to undertake the treatment, saying at the time it would be a very good test-case, as the disease was so far advanced. I readily agreed, and, after the necessary arrangements, had the horse removed to Birmingham on July 2. In this case it was found necessary to cast the animal and cauterize the foot a second time before a healthy granulating surface was secured; but after this the progress towards recovery was uninterrupted, although necessarily slow, on account of the large amount of new secreting surface which had to be formed. [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. v., p. 48.] The horse was finally discharged, after inspection by Mr. Olver, absolutely cured and free from canker, on January 7. The illustration (Fig. 135, p. 312) is from a photograph, and it gives a somewhat imperfect representation of the state of the foot two months after it came under my care. 2. (Rose's Treatment.[A]) This was a bad case of canker, which had been for two or three months treated in the ordinary manner, with but little sign of ultimate success. Commenced in June and carried on until the end of September, the ordinary treatment consisted in burning down the fungus growth with the hot iron, and dressing with copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, and boracic acid. The cauterization was repeated every five days. [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. xi., p. 435.] The treatment of Lieutenant Rose was commenced at about the end of September, at which date the disease extended from the toe on one side of the foot right back to the heel, involving the sole, half of the frog, and the bulb of the heel. One week after treatment the diseased surface was drier, and granulations were more healthy. At the expiration of a fortnight the new horn had commenced to grow from the wall, and also from the frog, right round the diseased surface, the diseased part of the bulb of the heel being divided from the sole by new horn. Three to four weeks later the diseased surface was gradually getting smaller, while in about six weeks it was quite healed up, the last place to heal being a strip outside the bar, between it and the wall, and a smaller spot on the bulb of the heel. These healed up simultaneously, and left the animal sound. 3. (Treatment by Pressure, H. Leeney [A]). I was consulted in the early part of last summer, before the dry weather had begun, as to a farm-horse with canker in three feet. Her shoes were in the 'disgruntle' condition we so often find on farms, that, to give her a level bearing until I should call another day with a farrier to help me to pack the foot up in the old-fashioned way, I had the remaining shoes pulled off. The case somehow dropped out of my list, and I neglected to call, until asked one day to see something else. [Footnote A: _Veterinary Records_, vol. xi., p. 447] I then found that, under a pressure of work, the animal had been used in the shafts of a farm-cart on tolerably level ground, and when the dry weather had already set in. There was a distinct improvement in all the diseased feet, and as she was badly wanted I contented myself with rasping off some broken crust, and supplied some caustic dressing for use at night. Without shoes she worked continuously on the dry and hard meadow-land for several weeks, and was practically cured in something less than three months. My astringent or caustic lotion may have had something to do with the cure of the deep-seated parts, but the bare recital of the case should be sufficient to show that it is all a question of bearing, or nearly so. 7. SPECIFIC CORONITIS. _Definition_.--In describing this condition under the above heading, we are following the lead of Mr. Malcolm. We may define it as a chronic inflammatory condition of the keratogenous membrane, usually confined to that of the coronary cushion, the ergots and the chestnuts, but sometimes extending to that of the frog and the sole, characterized by a malsecretion of the affected membrane similar to that observed in canker. _Causes_.--The cause which we have indicated for canker--namely, a local specific one, is in all probability the one operating here. Apparently there is a variance of opinion as to whether the condition is actually canker or not. We think, however, that the character of the secretion of the affected membranes, the appearance of the growths, the manner in which they react to the hot iron, the comparative absence of pain, and other points of similarity, point to the fact that the two conditions are actually identical. In other words, the cause is precisely the same, and the only point of difference is the alteration in the point of attack. _Symptoms_.--Like canker, the disease is insidious in onset. In precisely similar manner the horn, and in this case the skin of the coronet, is underrun. Later there is the partial shedding and fissuring of the undermined horn and the exuding of the characteristic discharge--in this case not so watery as that of canker. The caseous material of canker is also present, as is a disposition to hypertrophy of the exposed sensitive structures. What horn is left becomes rough and irregularly fissured, and has been likened by some observers to deeply-wrinkled bark of an old tree. A peculiar characteristic of this condition is the state of the ergots and chestnuts. Here the keratogenous membrane participates in the diseased process, and their horn becomes dry and brittle, and readily splits into small fibrous bundles very similar to the fibroid growth described in canker. These excrescences are easily separated from the sensitive structures beneath, and the exposed surface is seen to be more or less moist, or even exhibiting a slight oozing of blood. Again, as in canker, the deeper layers of the sensitive structures appear to be normal, the horn-secreting layers being the only ones affected. According to Malcolm, the disease is in its nature equally as inveterate as canker, but it is easier to treat, on account of its more exposed position. _Treatment_.--This is exactly that as described for canker. [Illustration: FIG. 137.--SPECIFIC CORONITIS OF ALL FOUR FEET.] [Illustration: FIG. 138.--OFF FORE-FOOT AFFECTED WITH SPECIFIC CORONITIS.] _Recorded Case_.--The subject of this case was a young black cart gelding. The disease is reported as having begun as thrush, and then extended to the coronet. When I saw him he had been in a similar condition to that depicted in Fig. 137 for, it was said, two or three months, the driver of the horse meanwhile endeavouring to effect a cure by some potent drug of his own. The animal was in good condition, but walked with difficulty owing to the pain. The coronary bands were swollen to two or three times their natural size, and this caused the hair immediately above to curl upwards. Just below the coronary bands there was a line of separation between them and the wall. They themselves were covered with the cheesy substance typical of canker, and they bled on friction. Down the wall of the off fore-foot some blood had trickled, which may be seen in Fig. 138. The frogs of all four feet bulged backwards, and were badly affected. The soles were covered with normal horn, but I did not resort to paring to see if they were affected. One very curious feature about the case was the fact that all the callosities (ergots and chestnuts) seemed to participate in the morbid process, and they, too, were covered with a thin layer of soft cheesy horn. The animal used to bite at his coronets and also the callosities above the knees and hocks until they bled, which they did quite easily. The owner would not go to the expense of having him treated, so he was destroyed.[A] [Footnote A: Henry Taylor, _Veterinary Record_, vol. xvii., p. 311.] CHAPTER X DISEASES OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES A. WOUNDS OF THE CARTILAGES. To a consideration of this we shall devote but little space. It is sufficient to say that any wound in the region of the coronet should always be given the most careful attention. More particularly should this be so when it is ascertained that the wound has involved one of the lateral cartilages. Wounds of non-vascular bodies such as these are always slow to heal, and, by reason of their slowness, invite septic infection. In many cases, in fact, it happens that they do not heal at all. Instead, the injured part becomes necrotic, is unable to cast itself off, and remains as a centre of infection in the depths of the wound, thus constituting what is known as a quittor. Apart from this, it will be remembered that the internal face of the cartilage is in intimate contact with the pedal articulation, especially anteriorly. Wounds in this situation are, therefore, likely to penetrate the joint, giving us as a complication of the injury the conditions of synovitis and arthritis. Immediately a wound is inflicted in this position, attempts should be made to insure thorough asepsis of the part. When possible, by far the better way of accomplishing this will be to wholly immerse the foot in a tub of cold antiseptic solution, and keep it there for an hour three times daily. During the time the foot is out of the solution the wound should be protected with a pad of carbolized tow or other suitable dressing, and wrapped in a linen bandage or clean bag. If unable to use the bath, then antiseptic solutions of more than moderate strength should be freely applied to the wound and the adjacent parts, a carbolized or other antiseptic pad placed over it, and the bandage adjusted as before. Repeated injuries to the cartilages, even if not attended with an actual wound, are apt to bring about their ossification and end in the formation of side-bones. B. QUITTOR. _Definition_.--A fistulous wound of the foot, usually opening at the coronet, and variously complicated according to the structures invaded by its contained pus. For the reason that quittor is in every-day veterinary nomenclature _usually_ associated with necrosis or other abnormal condition of the lateral cartilage, we include its description in this chapter. _Classification_.--It has been customary with Continental authors to classify quittor according to the extent and position of the diseased process. There were thus distinguished: _(a)_ The _Simple_ or _Cutaneous Quittor_, in which had occurred nothing more than necrosis of a portion of the coronary skin and the structures immediately underlying it--that is, the superficial portion of the coronary cushion. _(b)_ The _Tendinous Quittor_, in which not only the immediately subcutaneous tissues were attacked, but also portions of tendon and of ligament. _(c)_ The _Sub-horny Quittor_, in which the diseased process had invaded the deeper portions of the coronary cushion, and continued a downward course until the laminal tissue below the upper margin of the wall was involved, or any other case, no matter what the starting-point, in which pus existed within the horny box and was discharging itself by a fistulous opening. _(d)_ The _Cartilaginous Quittor_, in which a portion of the lateral cartilage had become attacked and rendered necrotic. We believe that--in this country, at any rate--the word 'quittor' is usually held to indicate one or other of the two latter conditions, and probably the last of these; and that the two first are held of small account, or hardly of sufficient gravity to allow of the word 'quittor' being applied to them. In fact, by defining quittor as a 'fistula,' or little pipe, we have ourselves already indirectly restricted the use of the word to the two latter conditions, for in those varieties known as Simple or Cutaneous and Tendinous, the wound is generally broad and open, or, at any rate, superficial, and can scarcely be strictly described as 'fistulous.' In the two latter, however, a true fistula exists. These, however, have only one essential difference, and that consists simply in the position of the lesion and the structures it has attacked. In the main the symptoms will be the same, the disease in each case about equally serious, and in each the same essentials of treatment will have to be regarded. In our opinion, therefore, a lengthy classification serves no useful end, and we think matters will be simplified by considering quittor under two headings only--namely, 'Simple or Cutaneous' and 'Sub-horny,' and discussing the other varieties as simply complications of either of these two. 1. SIMPLE OR CUTANEOUS QUITTOR. _Definition_.--This condition is simply a sloughing of a portion of the skin of the coronet, together with a portion of the immediately underlying soft structures. _Causes_.--This form of quittor has its origin more often than not in contusions, punctures, or wounds of the region severe enough to cause death of a small portion of the tissues. In this case the low vitality of the parts does not allow of the dead portion being removed piecemeal by a process of phagacytosis, as is usually the case with similar injuries elsewhere. Instead, the tissues around, aided by a process of suppuration, cast the offending portion off as a slough. It is the wound remaining after the slough which we may really regard as a quittor. In this connection may be considered as causes blows from falling shafts, self-inflicted treads, or treads from other horses, overreach, etc. On the other hand, simple or cutaneous quittor may occur without ascertainable cause. In this case we can only explain its appearance, as we did that of simple coronitis (see p. 231), by attributing it to septic infection through a wound or a blow that is able to inoculate the skin, yet which is insufficient to cause pain, or in any other way attract the attendant's notice. Meanwhile, the spot of infection thus started spreads, and the end result is an abscess in the coronary region, again accompanied with necrosis and sloughing of more or less skin and other tissue, which terminates by discharging its contents and leaving behind a wound which again constitutes a cutaneous quittor. Thus, as with simple coronitis, anything lowering the vitality of the parts, and so favouring infection of the skin, may bring about a quittor. Walking through much water in the winter months, through the dirt and mud of our streets, through melting ice and snow, or through anything in the nature of a chemical irritant, may be looked upon as a cause. _Symptoms_.--Whether commencing from an ascertainable injury, or beginning at first unnoticed, cutaneous quittor is characterized sooner or later by the appearance of an inflammatory swelling, usually confined to the seat of injury. Heat and tenderness are present, and the animal is lame. Later the inflammatory swelling becomes more profuse, the animal is fevered, and the symptoms of lameness increased. Poulticing is at this stage perhaps resorted to. By its means the process of suppuration is aided, and the swelling (at first tense and hard) either becomes gradually softened, its contents discharged, and a simple abscess cavity left behind, or the suppuration runs immediately round the necrosed structures, and casts them off bodily as a slough. This latter condition is always manifested, where the hair does not hide it, by the colour of the skin. At first this is only red in colour--the angry red of an inflamed spot. As its intention to slough away becomes evident, the red gradually gives way to a gray, or even blue-black appearance, while from around it oozes a slight discharge of pus, yellow in colour and non-offensive, or blood-stained and dark in appearance, and foetid to the smell. Almost invariably these symptoms are added to by a more or less diffuse and oedematous swelling of the lower portion of the limb, extending in some cases to as high as the fetlock or the upper third of the cannon. With the casting off of the slough the phenomena of inflammation to a great extent subside, the pain ceases, and the case under ordinary conditions commences to mend. _Pathological Anatomy_.--In its early stages the condition of simple or cutaneous quittor is really a condition of acute coronitis (see p. 229), and consists in an inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue, and the more superficial portions of the coronary cushion. The tissues implicated are destroyed outright, become infiltrated with the inflammatory exudate and escaped blood, and act as a source of irritation to the still living tissues around. Under the irritation the latter, as we have said before, cast the necrosed portion away by a process of sloughing. Always, however, it is found that the portion to be sloughed off, while easily separated from the tissues adjacent to its sides, is closely connected on its lowermost or deeper face with the structures below, and cannot be torn away without hæmorrhage and the causing of acute pain. _Prognosis_.--With wounds about the feet our forecast should always be guarded. Even with this, the most simple form of quittor, no decided opinion should be given until the progress of the case warrants one in reasonably assuming that complications are absent. Once this point is decided, a favourable prognosis may be given. _Complications_.--With cutaneous quittor various complications may arise, according to the extent of the invasion of the septic matter. Necrosis of tendon, of ligament, or of cartilage, caries of the bone, or a condition of synovitis and arthritis may be met with. As these complications are equally common to sub-horny quittor, we shall reserve their description until dealing with that condition. _Treatment (Preventive)_.--Immediately after the infliction of an injury in this position, more especially if it is such as to lead one to judge that necrosis will follow to any large extent, the patient should be rested. Ill effects may then be probably warded off by having the foot immersed in a cold antiseptic solution, and afterwards bound with an antiseptic pad and bandage. _Curative_.--When the condition has gone undiscovered until commencing necrosis and suppuration are plainly discernible, then the wisest course we can follow is to do all we can to hasten removal of the necrosed portion. This is best done by promoting the suppurative process by means of warmth or stimulant applications. To this end hot poultices, or, better still, hot baths, should be resorted to. Under their influence a greater supply of blood is directed to the still healthy tissues enabling them to actively continue the inflammatory processes necessary to the detaching of the portion necrosed, while, at the same time, the pus organisms, stimulated by the heat, are stirred into greater activity, and the readier accomplish their purpose of destroying the adhesion still existing between the necrotic portion and the surrounding living tissues. When prolonged poulticing or bathing cannot be practised, then the swelling should be stimulated with a sharp cantharides blister, repeated, if the case demands it, at intervals of a few days. Should the swelling show distinct signs of pointing, and an abscess is plainly the condition to be dealt with, its contents should be liberated by a free use of the knife. In this connection it is important to insist on the fact that the opening should be made large enough. One bold incision from the uppermost limit of the swelling down to the coronary margin of the wall is usually sufficient. Even when pointing is not very evident, and suppuration is plainly more or less diffuse, benefit may still be derived from the use of the knife. In this case a deep scarification of the part is indicated. Three, four, or more vertical incisions are made in the swelling, and from them obtained a flow of blood mingled with a small quantity of pus from several different centres. By this means sloughing of the diseased portion is quickly obtained, and nothing but an ordinary open wound left for treatment. It should be mentioned, however, that when sloughing can be in any way induced to take place naturally it is better to allow this to take place. Even when the necrosed portion is freely movable, and only adherent by its base, it should not be forcibly removed, but left to the slower but more effectual action of the tissue reactions. If torn forcibly away, we in all probability leave in the bottom of the wound remnants of the dead tissue, which, being small and consequently less productive of inflammatory phenomena, are not so readily sloughed as the larger portion. These remain as centres of infection, and prolong the case. Once a suitable slough has occurred, the after-treatment is simple. It consists in dressing the wound with reliable antiseptics, and maintaining the parts in a healthy condition until Nature completes the cure by repairing the breach. Solutions of carbolic acid, of perchloride of mercury, of zinc chloride, or of moderately strong solutions of copper sulphate, are all of them useful (see also treatment of coronitis on p. 236). It is sometimes found that even with careful attention the wound left by the removal of the slough shows a marked disinclination to heal. The greater portion of the cavity becomes filled with granulation tissue, and the epidermis gradually closes round until all is covered except a spot of perhaps the size of half a crown or a crown piece. Here the regenerative process stops, and the wound obstinately refuses to effectually close. In such cases we have derived excellent results with the actual cautery. The animal is cast, the foot firmly secured by fastening it upon the cannon of another limb, and the animal chloroformed. A practical point to be remembered in this connection is that all necessary fixing of the limb is easier performed if the chloroform is administered first. With the patient thus secured we first of all ascertain by means of the probe whether or no the non-healing of the wound is due to the presence of a fistula. Decided in the negative, we take an ordinary flat firing-iron, and with it cut away a portion of the skin immediately around the still open wound, carrying our incisions deep enough to 'scoop' out a large portion of the new inflammatory tissue beneath. With the loss of pressure from beneath, occasioned by the removal of so much of the cicatricial tissue, the epidermis the more readily closes over the wound. To a large extent also this new growth of epidermis is helped by the renewal of the inflammatory phenomena brought into being with the cauterization. 2. SUB-HORNY QUITTOR. _Definition_.--A fistulous wound of the foot in which the lower and blind end of the fistula is situated below the level of the coronary margin of the wall. _Causes_.--These, again, will be practically the same as those mentioned in the cause of cutaneous quittor--namely, bruises, punctures, wounds--in fact, any injury upon the coronet severe enough to cause death of tissue and a suppurating wound. We may thus expect sub-horny quittor to follow upon treads, overreach, accidental injuries with the stable-fork, and kicks from other animals. Sub-horny quittor may also arise without original injury at all to the coronet. Either from a violent blow upon the hoof, or from the animal himself kicking violently against a wall, death of a portion of the sensitive structures takes place within the hoof, suppuration ensues, and the formation of quittor commences. With the escape of the pus at the coronet the quittor is fully formed. Any other diseased condition of the foot in which suppuration is present may in like manner terminate in quittor. In complicated sand-crack, suppurating corn, or in ordinary pricked foot quittor may be a sequel. In these conditions the pus formation either goes unnoticed or is neglected, and after seriously invading the sensitive structures within the hoof, breaks out at the coronet. Again, too, as with the simpler form of quittor, and as with coronitis, we may always regard as a predisposing cause the action of excessive cold in promoting septic infection of the wound when occurring at the coronet. _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--Where the fistulous wound has had its starting-point in an injury to the coronet diagnosis is, of course, easy. The history of the case explains it. Nothing in this instance remains but to probe the opening, and ascertain its direction, depth, and extent. An animal with the wound thus open at the coronet, and freely discharging its contents, may, if no serious complications exist, walk tolerably sound. It is only when put to the trot that symptoms of lameness are apparent. It may so happen, however, that we first see the case when the symptoms are wholly those arising from a painful suppuration within the horny box. This occurs when the original injury has taken place at a more dependent position than the coronet. Either from violent blows upon the hoof, puncture from below, from corn or from sand-crack, or any other causes we have enumerated, suppuration is occurring deeply within the hoof, with as yet no opening upon the coronet. Even when an opening has already occurred on the coronet, the same condition of sub-horny suppuration may be met with in cases when the opening of the fistula has by some means or other become occluded. Granulation tissue, for instance, may have temporarily closed the mouth of the fistula. The pus, instead of continuing its discharge thereat, is made to burrow in other directions. In either of these cases pain is excessive, the animal walks on three legs, the foot is painful to percussion, and grave constitutional disturbance is noticeable. The presence of pus is immediately suspected, and, in the absence of any indication of an opening having existed at the coronet, searched for at the sole. It may or may not be found. If found it is given exit, and the case ends as one of ordinary pricked foot, of suppurating corn, or some other condition equally simple when compared with quittor. In those cases where the pus is not discovered at the sole, one adopts the expectant treatment of poulticing. This, if pus is present, is followed by a painful swelling of the coronet. At one point there forms a hot and tender enlargement, with the hairs on it standing straight up from the skin, which latter is seen below red and inflamed in appearance. Later, the abscess--for abscess it is--discharges its contents, the opening is explored, and we find that in extent it is not confined to the coronary region, but that it is deep enough to constitute a true sub-horny quittor. This discharge of the abscess contents may take place at a well-defined spot on the coronet, or it may ooze out at the junction of the wall with the skin. In appearance the discharged pus varies. When the softer structures only are attacked it is thick, and yellow or white in colour; when bone is involved it is ichorous; and when attacking the horn itself black or gray. It may or may not be extremely foetid, and often it is mingled with blood. When evidence of a previous opening upon the coronet is plain, then it is not considered wise to attempt a paring of the sole. Instead, poulticing is at once resorted to, to induce the discharge of the pus through its original channel. Once this has occurred a fistulous wound remains, which is open for treatment upon one or other of the lines we shall afterwards indicate. COMPLICATIONS--_(a) Necrosis of the Lateral Cartilage_.--This is the so-called 'cartilaginous quittor' of other writers. In all probability it is the condition generally understood when the word 'quittor' is used by one practitioner to the other. Its tendency to keep the disease existing in a chronic form renders it of grave importance, and for that reason we give it first mention among the complications. It may occur as a sequel either of cutaneous or of sub-horny quittor, and may result either from actual wounding and infection of the cartilage, or from an attack on it of septic matter originating elsewhere. Unless there has been discovered a fistula, which on probing is seen to lead direct to the position in which we know the cartilage to be, we know of no precise means by which the existence of this condition may be diagnosed. When free from other complications, the horse with his foot in this state may travel fairly sound. This is so when the necrosis is situate in the posterior half of the cartilage, in which case the irritation set up by the disease is confined to the comparatively non-sensitive tissues of the cartilage itself and the fibrous mass of the plantar cushion. When attacking the anterior half of the cartilage, the close contiguity of the joint renders the disease of a more serious nature. It is then that we have acute pain, and with it extreme lameness, for in this position it is more than likely that we have involved either the synovial membrane of the articulation or the tops of the sensitive laminæ. It will be remembered that here the synovial membrane protrudes as a small sac between the antero- and postero-lateral ligaments of the joint. More or less easily then it is bound to come into intimate contact with the septic matter attending the necrosis of the cartilage, and so share in the inflammatory processes, afterwards communicating them to the interior of the articulation. With necrosis of the lateral cartilage is always swelling and thickening of the skin and subcutaneous structures of the coronet. This is the greater the longer the disease has been in existence. Upon the swelling is seen the mouth of the fistula, or it may be the mouths of several, and from them all a discharge of pus. The mouth of each fistula is generally filled with a mulberry-like granulation tissue, standing above the level of the skin, and bleeding easily if touched. The exuding pus is thin and pale gray in appearance, gritty to the touch, and generally free from pronounced smell. At other times its colour is reddened with contained blood, and floating in it are tiny particles of a pale-green substance, which when picked up and rubbed between the fingers are seen to be small fragments of the diseased cartilage. Should the mouth of a fistula become occluded with the granulations filling it, and the discharge prevented from escaping, it soon happens that we have close to the fistula that has closed a tender fluctuating swelling. This points and breaks, and pus is again discharged from another opening. In this manner is accounted for the multiplicity of scars and fistulas seen on the swelling of an old-standing quittor. The continued, inflammation thus kept in existence has the effect of rendering the skin and subcutaneous tissues in the neighbourhood greatly thickened and indurated. This in time leads to a tumour-like enlargement, and causes the structures of the coronet to greatly overhang the hoof. At the same time the constant inflammation has made its stimulant effects noted in a great increase in the growth of the horn of the wall. Although more abundant, however, the quality of the horn is deteriorated. The perioplic ring has become obliterated, and the varnish-like appearance of the healthy wall destroyed. Cracks and fissures in its surface are numerous, and sometimes deep enough to lead to exposure of the sensitive structures beneath, complicating the quittor with a sand-crack of a peculiarly objectionable type. _Pathological Anatomy of the Diseased Cartilage_.--The bulk of observers appear to agree in the statement that in quittor the necrotic cartilage is pea-green in colour, and recognise it by that characteristic. In size the necrotic portion thus recognisable varies from the tiniest speck to a portion the size of a horse-bean. Commonly, however, it is about as large only as a pea. It is seen to be more or less detached from the rest of the cartilage, to which it is adherent by one of its extremities only. In general appearance we can best liken it to the split half of a green pea, whilst others have compared it with the green sprouting of a seed. The portions of cartilage nearest the necrotic piece are also slightly green in colour, thus indicating that here also the diseased process has commenced. This peculiar change of colour in the affected cartilage is of great importance to the surgeon. It enables him when operating to distinguish with some degree of certainty those portions of the cartilage which are healthy and those which are not. _(b) Necrosis of Tendon and of Ligament_.--This complication of quittor is, as we have said before, treated by other writers as a distinct form of the disease, and described by them under the heading of Tendinous Quittor. This simply means, of course, that the diseased process has extended to either of the flexor tendons, to the tendon of the extensor pedis, or, perhaps, to the ligaments of the pedal articulation. Of the flexor tendons, the perforans is the one commonly attacked, by reason, of course, of its more superficial position. At times, however, especially when its aponeurotic expansion is diseased, the necrosis of the perforans spreads until the aponeurosis is eaten through and the phalangeal sheath penetrated. Septic materials gain entrance thereto, and commence to multiply. In this way the flexor perforatus is invaded, and comes to share in the diseased process. The extensor pedis is usually attacked by extension of the disease from a necrotic cartilage, or results from the infliction of a severe tread in a hind-foot. In this case the diseased structure has nothing between it and the articulation, the synovial membrane in one position actually lining its inner face. The result is that a condition of synovitis is easily set up, and the case aggravated by that and by arthritis. With the flexor tendons attacked pain is always very great, and lameness is excessive. This, however, is not sufficiently characteristic to enable us to determine the precise seat of the necrotic changes. Later, however, a tender but hard enlargement made its appearance in the hollow of the heel, which enlargement, later still, became soft and fluctuating. At this stage there is also considerable swelling along the whole course of the tendons, as high up as the knee or the hock. The foot is carried forward with all the phalangeal articulations flexed, and in many cases the limb is unable to take weight at all. Manipulated after the manner of examining the tendons for sprain, this swelling is found to be extremely painful. The animal flinches from the hand, and shows every sign of acute suffering. This condition may, in fact, be mistaken for sprain, and is only to be distinguished from it by carefully noting the history of the case--first, the appearance of the swelling in the hollow of the heel, and, secondly, the _after_-swelling of the upper portions of the tendons. The formation of the abscess, the after-discharge of its contents, and the final establishing of a fistula, are processes greatly prolonged in this form of quittor. It will readily be understood why this should be so when one remembers the depth at which the suppurative process is going on, the thickness of the metacarpo-phalangeal sheath, and the resistant nature of the material of which this latter is made, and which must be penetrated before the condition becomes observable. After the opening of the abscess, which usually takes place in the hollow of the heel, there is left the fistulous wound which obstinately refuses to heal. Or it may be, again, that there are several of these fistulas, each opening in the heel, and the mouth of each marked by a small, ulcer-like projection. The discharge continually oozing from these keeps the heel constantly wet with a thick purulent discharge, which is nearly always blood-stained, and very often foetid. This constitutes what is known as tendinous quittor in its worst form, for more often than not there is associated with it inflammation of the navicular bursa, caries of the bones, or arthritis of the pedal articulation. With the extensor pedis attacked matters are not quite so grave, in spite of the fact that the articulation is closely situated thereto, for in this case the more superficial position of the diseased structure allows both of readier exit of the discharges and of easier removal of the necrosed portion and after-treatment of the wound. _(c) Caries of the Bones_.--Portions of the os pedis, more especially of its wings, and therefore usually occurring in conjunction with necrosed cartilage, become carious in quittor. In many cases it is impossible to say with certainty when this has occurred. In a few instances, however, the exuding discharge gives evidence of what has happened. It is thin, but extremely offensive, with the characteristic odour of decayed bone or tooth, and with a feel that is gritty with contained particles of broken-up bone. If, with a discharge of this nature present, the probe also conveys to the fingers the sensation that bone is reached, then diagnosis may be sure. _(d) Ossification of the Cartilage_.--This may take place in part or in whole. It, of course, constitutes Side-bone, a fuller description of which will be found in a later portion of this chapter. _(e) Penetration of the Articulation_.--This may occur either as a result of the suppurative changes or as an accident in excision of the diseased cartilage. Unless it is followed by a severe purulent arthritis, it is not so grave a complication as at first sight it would appear. _(f) Synovitis and Arthritis (Purulent)_.--Should this complication arise, the case is a most serious one. Beyond here mentioning the fact that it may occur, we shall not dwell on it. Fuller consideration is given to it in Chapter XII. _Treatment_.--The various treatments adopted for the cure of sub-horny quittor offer the veterinary surgeon a large number to select from. We will describe them in the order in which they are, perhaps, most commonly practised. _Poultices and Hot Baths_.--As in cutaneous quittor, and as in coronitis, when the pus formation is only suspected, and has not yet broken out at the coronet or elsewhere, then the first indication in treatment is the use of warm poultices or of hot baths. Their application is in most cases productive of pointing at the coronet. Directly this appears it is a wise plan to thin the wall down with the rasp immediately below the swelling. To some extent it relieves the pressure of the inflammatory products within, and at the same time paves the way for operative measures which may be necessary later on. With the breaking of the abscess and the discharging of its contents, we may in some measure ascertain the condition we have to deal with. The probe is used, and the abscess cavity explored. The size of the wound, its depth below the upper margin of the wall, the structures involved, and other information, may be thus obtained. At first, however, the nature of the wound, and the character of the discharges, must largely guide us as to the treatment we adopt. In many cases, even where the abscess cavity is far below the upper margin of the wall, and is presumably in an unfit position to drain and heal, a a regular application of an astringent and antiseptic dressing is sufficient to bring about resolution. If, however, the discharge from the wound continues to be liquid, and the wound itself at one spot refuses to heal, it may be judged that a portion of necrotic tissue is situated under the wall, and affecting the laminæ, the cartilage, or ligament, as the case may be. If this is so, then operative measures must be determined on (see Removal of the Wall, p. 349). _Blisters_.--Instead of the poultice and hot baths, the pointing of the abscess and the casting off of the slough may be brought about by the application of a sharp cantharides blister. We have, in fact, seen many cases where this treatment was adopted prior to the formation of a fistula, and also in cases where one or more fistulous openings already existed, where repeated blisters to the coronet have alone been sufficient to effect a cure. We are bound to admit, however, that the treatments of poulticing and blistering are only expectant--we might almost say empirical. At any rate, we admit to ourselves that what we have advised and carried out is not in itself curative, but only a means of assisting Nature to satisfactorily work her own ends. Empirical or not, however, we believe that in every case of quittor it is wise in practice to at first adopt some such simple measure, for in nearly every instance where operative measures are practised, the patient must be laid aside for at least several weeks, whereas in this way he may be kept at work and a cure effected at the same time. _The Actual Cautery_.--Largely of the same empirical nature, yet doing something a little more calculated to destroy necrotic tissue and bring about its sloughing is the use of the cautery, both actual and potential. The actual cautery may be beneficially employed for the relief of sub-horny quittor in at least two ways. In the first place, it is often used--a blunt 'point-firing' iron being the instrument--instead of the knife as a means of evacuating the contents of the coronary abscess. Those who use it for this purpose are able to say this in its favour: it brings about the opening of the abscess without the unsightly hæmorrhage attending the use of the knife, and at the same time just as effectually empties it. The opening made is not nearly so likely to close prematurely--that is, before a proper course of treatment of the wound has been carried out--and so leave necrotic tissue at its bottom. The intense tissue reaction it sets up is productive of a large slough, cast off by highly active inflammatory phenomena, which means that the remaining wound is one in which no dead tissue is left, and which is more amenable to treatment. We have also seen the actual cautery used in sub-horny quittor, where that disease has reached a chronic fistulous stage, as a means of cauterizing the whole length of the lining of each fistulous passage. At the present day this method is regarded as barbarous, and savouring too largely of the methods and practice of the old empirics. There is no denying the fact, however, that it is at times followed by a speedy and complete cure of what has for months been an intractable and apparently incurable quittor; and, honestly speaking, we ourselves can see nothing very greatly against the operation in certain cases save its appearance. In that it is certainly rough, and is not calculated to favourably impress the more critical of our clientele. With the animal chloroformed, however, much of what can really be urged against it disappears, and on farms and other places where a skilled and competent dressing of an operation wound cannot be looked for, it is sometimes wise to advise this method of treatment in preference to more advanced methods of operating. So far as we can judge, the after-effects are very little worse than those following other operative measures, more especially when a suitable case has been chosen. This method of treatment is particularly applicable to cases of chronic sub-horny quittor in the more posterior parts of the foot. Here, if one or more fistulas exist, their openings are probed and the direction of the sinuses determined. In all probability they are burrowing down along-side the wall to the sole, where, for want of outlet, they are invading the substance of the plantar cushion or the plantar aponeurosis. Should this preliminary probing demonstrate that neither of the fistulas run dangerously near the joint, then the operation may be decided on. The animal is cast and chloroformed, the foot firmly fixed, and the horn of the quarter rasped away quite thin. The sole of the same side is also pared with the knife until the horn of both the quarter and the sole yields easily to pressure of the thumb. All that is then needed is three or four long, round, and pointed irons (about 1/4 to 3/8 inch in diameter) heated to redness. These are inserted into the fistulas, and the false mucous coat of these passages thus destroyed. When the iron, on being directed into the fistulous opening at the coronet, is found to travel alongside the wall, and to easily reach the sole, it should be made to go further still. The sole is penetrated, and a dependent opening thus made for the escape of the discharge that afterwards accumulates. What happens now, of course, is that an intense and acute inflammation is set up along the whole track of the fistula, in which position the inflammatory changes were heretofore chronic. The whole lining of the fistula, and with it, we hope, all necrotic tissue, is cast as a slough, leaving nothing but healthy tissue behind. This, with a suitable dressing, heals and gives no further trouble. The after-treatment consists in the application of hot poultices. These tend to greatly ease the pain, and at the same time to facilitate the removal of the slough. The poulticing should be continued, therefore, until the sloughing comes about, which happens, as a rule, at about the fifth or seventh day. Immediately the slough is cast off, the poultices may be discontinued and dressing of the wound carried out. This consists of injections of solutions of zinc chloride 1 in 200, perchloride of mercury 1 in 1,000, carbolic acid 1 in 20, of Villate's solution, or of such other antiseptic as the surgeon may think fit. The dependent orifice at the sole should be kept open for as long as possible, being occasionally trimmed round with the drawing-knife, and scooped out with a sharp-edged director. Directly a healthy and pink-looking granulation is observed along the track of the iron, and the discharge therefrom takes on a thick and yellow appearance, the strength of the antiseptic solutions should be gradually diminished. This point, in fact, is of great importance in treating all wounds of the foot. There is a great temptation, on account of the known excessive liability of the parts to septic infection, to use an antiseptic solution unduly strong. What must be remembered is that used _too_ strong they themselves give rise to dead tissue, or to impermeable layers consisting of compounds of the discharges with themselves, and so create substances that prove a source of irritation and subsequent trouble. _The Potential Cautery_.--This is employed in the treatment of sub-horny quittor, either in the solid form (in sticks, in lumps, or in the powder), or in the liquid form, when it is injected with a quittor syringe. In the former method such drugs as perchloride of mercury in the lump, or nitrate of silver, chloride of zinc, and caustic potash or soda in the stick, are introduced into each of the sinuses present. This is done by means of a director or a probe. A better method, however, when the dressing lends itself to the purpose, is to use it in the form of a powder, wrapped in the form of small cubes in extremely thin paper, such, for instance, as is used for rolling cigarettes. It is then conveniently inserted into each fistula. Introduced in this more finely divided form the drug is, perhaps, a little more active in bringing about the desired result. This method of 'plugging,' although practised by many, we cannot recommend in preference to the use of the hot iron or of liquid injections. Our reasons are these: the action of the drug is a protracted one. Almost immediately after its introduction into the fistula there is formed about it an almost impermeable layer of a metallic albuminate, which effectively prevents further rapid action of the caustic. In addition to thus preventing further action of the dressing, this combination of the tissue albumin with the metal of the salt, together with much necrotic tissue that it has caused, is extremely hard to remove from the healthy tissues. This we explain by pointing out that the action of the caustic, prolonged as it is, sets up a tissue reaction which partakes largely of the type of a chronic rather than an acute inflammation. With a chronic inflammation there is sooner a tendency to the production of fibrous tissue (and thus the firmer attachment of the necrosed portions) rather than an active phagocytosis and the casting-off of a slough. Again, careful though we may be with the probe, it is extremely difficult to be certain that we have discovered the whole extent of any fistula. An equal difficulty, therefore, exists in being certain that we have placed the caustic in the position in which it is most wanted--namely, at the furthermost end of the fistula where the necrotic tissue is to be found. When a caustic is used at all, it is far better to employ it in the liquid form, when either of the drugs we have just mentioned may again be used. In the first place, the liquid is far more likely to be brought into contact with the diseased structures than is the solid salt. Also, its action may be regulated by altering the strength of the solution, and the liability to form impermeable albuminates thus diminished. Probably the best solution for use in this way is the old-fashioned Villate's solution (see p. 199). This liquid should be injected at least every day, and, in a bad case, even two or three times daily. Practical hints to be borne in mind when attempting to cure quittor by means of injections are these: If the fistulas are numerous, the fluid should be injected into their various orifices. In order to force the fluid to the bottom of each diseased track, it is necessary, when injecting one opening, to firmly close all others. Several injections should be made at each time of injection. In other words, we must not be content with just forcing fluid in. It must be forced in, and again forced out by a further syringeful. The fistulous tracks must, in fact, be washed in the liquid. The effect of the injection during the first eight or ten days is to render suppuration more abundant and whiter. After two weeks of the treatment sloughing of the inside of the sinuses occurs, and healing of the wound commences. Signs that this is occurring are--slight hæmorrhage at the end of each injection, and a gradually increasing difficulty in forcing in the fluid. _The Making of Counter-openings to the Fistulas_.--Although Villate's solution or any other caustic used in the manner we have described often effects a cure, many practitioners insist on the fact that a counter-opening to the fistula must also be made. The probe is used and the direction and depth of the fistula ascertained. Through the wall is then made an opening at exactly opposite the lowest point found by the probe, or through the sole if the probe should there lead us. This opening is best made with a sharp-pointed iron, and may afterwards be kept large enough by an occasional trimming with the knife. Many of the older authors, and with them writers of the present day, declare that unless this is done the ordinary injection is likely to fail in a great many instances where it would otherwise have been successful. Where a counter-opening is thus made it is found that it very readily closes with granulation tissue, and the purpose for which it was made defeated. This may be avoided by the use of a seton. In preference to the seton, however, we ourselves would advise that the opening be kept free by the occasional use of a sharp-edged director or a fine scalpel. An interesting modification of the practice of making a counter-opening is that related by Veterinary-Captain S.M. Smith.[A] In point of severity it runs a middle course between the making of a simple counter-opening and the removal of a wedge-shaped portion of the coronary band and the wall, a method which we shall later describe. [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol ii., p. 157.] To perform this operation, the animal is cast and chloroformed. The foot is fixed and the parts thoroughly cleansed. The horn of the wall is then sawed through in a direct line from the coronary margin to the solar edge, the saw-line running exactly over the seat of the sinus. A strong scalpel is now introduced at the coronary opening, with its cutting-edge outwards, and is gradually passed down the opening made by the saw. In this way the sinus is completely destroyed, and from end to end converted into an open wound. The parts are then washed in a perchloride of mercury solution, covered with a mixture of powdered iodoform and boracic acid, over which a pledget of carbolized tow is placed, and then a bandage over the whole. This dressing should be left on three or four days, after which the injury should be treated as an ordinary wound. In conclusion, the author says: 'I can safely recommend this line of treatment to any practitioner having an obstinate case under treatment.' _Removal of the Wall and Excision of the Necrotic Tissue_.--This we may term the radical operation for sub-horny quittor, for it is often productive of a successful issue when all other means have failed. No matter in what position the sinus is, whether at the extreme anterior portion of the coronet, or whether in the region of the heels, it is to be thoroughly opened up. To do this, the fistula is carefully explored with the probe and a knowledge of its exact dimensions arrived at. This is carefully noted, and the horn of the wall for some little distance around it then rasped down quite thin. Immediately over the sinus, and for a short distance on either side of it, the horn is stripped away to the sensitive structures. The cavity of the fistula is then opened up with a scalpel, and every particle of diseased tissue removed with this instrument and a pair of forceps. After-dressing consists simply in the application of suitable antiseptics. _When the Complication of Necrosed Tendon or Ligament exists_.--We may take it as an axiom that wherever this exists, whether it is in the extensor pedis, in the lateral ligaments of the joint, or in portions of the flexors, all diseased structures should, where possible, be removed. This is done either with a scalpel or with a curette. When septic matter has gained the sheath of the perforans, and the formation of pus therein is indicated by inflammatory swellings in the hollow of the heel, it is sometimes advisable to lay the sheath open for 1 to 2 inches along the course of the tendons. This, if a fistula is present, may be best done with a blunt-pointed bistoury, or with a cannulated director and a scalpel. With the pus thus given exit, and an antiseptic dressing regularly applied, the case sometimes ends in rapid resolution. More often than not, however, it is found that the pus has been liberated too late, and that it has gravitated in the sheath to the extent of affecting the plantar aponeurosis. Or it may be, of course, that it was in the plantar aponeurosis the disease commenced. Whichever may have been the case, we have in the hollow of the heel one or more fistulous openings, or an opening we have made ourselves, leading down to a necrosed portion of the terminal expansion of the perforans. In such cases we ourselves have derived benefit from a regular flushing of the sinuses with a 1 in 2,000 solution of perchloride of mercury, introduced by means of a glass syringe, followed later by flushing in the same manner with a 1 in 40 solution of carbolic acid, the hollow of the heel meanwhile being kept clean with an antiseptic pad and bandage, or by liberal applications of an antiseptic powder. The septic materials are in this way destroyed, and the wound heals without further complication. We must admit, however, that the cure of the lesion is generally at the expense of slight lameness, due, in all probability, to inflammatory tissue adhesions between the flexor perforans and the perforatus, and to a partial destruction of the synovial membrane of the sheath. If, in spite of the antiseptic irrigations, the fistula persists, then nothing remains but to resort to excision of the aponeurosis, as described on p. 222. _When Necrosis of the Lateral Cartilage is present_.--In this case we may at first try the ordinary treatments of poulticing; and blistering, of antiseptic caustic injections, and of plugging. In some cases a cure is effected. Should these fail, however, and we intend to see the finish of our case, then operative measures must be determined on. This means cutting down upon the diseased cartilage, and either removing the necrosed portion, or excising the cartilage in its entirety. The latter method is seldom practised in this country. As it is the most radical of the two, however, we shall describe it here first. _Extirpation of the Lateral Cartilage_.--The operation of extirpating the lateral cartilage is by no means a new one, being introduced, according to Zundel, by the senior Lafosse in 1754. It consisted in removing a portion of the wall by grooving and stripping it, and of excising the exposed cartilage by means of a sage-knife. As to what portion of, and how much of the horn of, the quarter should first be removed, and as to what particular direction each groove should take, opinion among the older writers varied considerably. This we know now is not an important matter, and it is sufficient to say that the first preliminary is a thinning down of the horn of the quarter with the rasp over the position occupied by the cartilage. At the present time there are two or three modifications of the operation as originally introduced. In all, however, the preliminary steps are the same. We shall therefore describe them collectively, as applying correctly to either of the three methods of operating we are about to show. _Preparation of the Subject and Preliminary Steps in the Operation_.--On the day previous to the operation the horn of the wall immediately over the cartilage must be so thinned with a rasp as to yield readily to pressure of the thumb in any position. It should be so thin as to only just avoid wounding the sensitive structures below. The whole of the foot must then be thoroughly cleansed, and rendered as nearly aseptic as possible. The use of warm water, soap, and a stiff brush is the readiest means of removing the surface dirt. Afterwards the foot should be soaked for some time in a reliable antiseptic solution, a 1 in 1,000 solution of perchloride of mercury being the most suitable. When removed from the solution the foot must be packed round with wool or tow impregnated with corrosive sublimate, and then bandaged, the whole afterwards wrapped in a thick cloth, or protected with a boot. On the following day the animal is brought out and cast, and the foot desired to be operated on firmly secured, after the manner described on p. 81. The bandages and sublimate pads are then removed, and the skin of the coronet over the seat of operation shaved of hair. An Esmarch rubber bandage is next run up the limb, and the tourniquet applied, thus rendering the operation a nearly bloodless one. This done, the animal is chloroformed, and an antiseptic douche played over the foot. So far, the steps in the operation are common to all methods. There are now, however, three slightly differing modes of extirpating the cartilage, which modes vary simply according to the structures severed by the knife. _First Method_.--This is the oldest method of the three, and consists in making (1) a horizontal incision through the sensitive laminæ along the lower border of the cartilage, and (2) a vertical incision through the skin of the coronet, the coronary cushion, and a portion of the sensitive laminæ (see Fig. 139). The flaps (Fig. 139, _a, a_) are now held back by tenaculæ, and the whole of the cartilage, or only the necrosed portion, carefully excised by means of right- and left-handed sage-knives. Fistulous openings in either of the flaps _a, a_ must now be carefully curetted and dressed, and the flaps allowed to fall into position. They are then sutured with carbolized gut, and the wound finally dressed as to be described later (p. 357). [Illustration: FIG. 139.--EXCISION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGE (OLD METHOD). The wall covering the lateral cartilage first thinned and stripped off; the two flaps (_a, a_) of skin and the coronary cushion made by the vertical incision turned back. _a_, The operation flaps; _b_, the exposed cartilage; _c_, the sensitive laminæ; _d_, the coronary cushion.] _Second Method (after Holler and Frick_[A]).--These operators deem it wise to leave untouched the skin of the coronet and the coronary cushion. They therefore make their first incision along the lower border of the coronary cushion (see Fig. 140), afterwards exposing the lower half of the cartilage by removing a half-moon-shaped portion of the thinned horn and underlying sensitive laminæ (see Fig. 140, _b_). [Footnote A: Two cases of quittor successfully treated by this method are reported by R. Paine, M.R.C.V.S., in the _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. xv., p. 81.] [Illustration: FIG. 140.--EXCISION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGE. (AFTER MOLLER AND FRICK.) _a_, The thinned horny wall covering the coronary cushion; _b_, the lateral cartilage exposed by stripping off the thinned wall; _c_, the sensitive laminæ.] This done, the external face of the cartilage is separated from the skin of the coronet. To do this a double sage-knife is run flatwise between the coronary cushion and the cartilage, with the convex surface of the blade towards the skin. The knife is then passed backwards and forwards until the necessary separation is accomplished. During these movements of the knife a finger of the unoccupied hand should follow the knife, and guard the coronary cushion against injury. Following this, the inner surface of the cartilage must be also separated from the structures lying beneath it. To this end a sage-knife (right- or left-handed, according as to whether the anterior or posterior portion of the cartilage is to be first removed) is again passed into the incision. With the cutting-edge of the knife forward, it is gradually reached round and under the hindermost end of the cartilage, and theposterior half of the cartilage separated from underlying structures, and at the same time excised by one clean cut forwards. Using the second sage-knife in a similar manner, the cutting-edge this time backwards, it is reached in front of the cartilage, whose anterior half is then excised by a careful cut backwards. Any small portions of cartilage remaining after this are sought for with the finger, and carefully removed by means of a scalpel and a tenaculum. The fistulous opening or openings in the skin of the coronet should now be thoroughly curetted, and the whole of the wound dressed as to be described later. In removing the anterior half of the cartilage it is highly important to remember the close contiguity to it of the synovial membrane of the pedal articulation. This projects as a small sac between the antero- and postero-lateral ligaments of the joint. Risks of injury to it may be diminished by having the foot secured with a line, and pulled forward by an assistant while the cut is being made. _Third Method (after Bayer)_.--This operator recommends that, after stripping a half-moon-shaped piece of horn from the seat of operation, instead of raising the skin of the coronet and the attached coronary cushion in two flaps (as Fig. 139, a, a), that the cartilage be exposed by raising up one flap only (Fig. 141, a), consisting of a portion of the sensitive laminæ, the coronary cushion, and the skin and underlying structures of the coronet. With the horse cast and the preliminary steps over, the thinned horn of the quarter is incised in a semicircular fashion, and the half-moon-shaped piece thus separated from its surroundings stripped off. At about 1/4 inch from the incision in the horn, a second incision of similar shape is made through the sensitive structures, which incision is also carried up into the skin and structures of the coronet. This incision severs, from bottom to the top, (1) the sensitive laminæ covering a portion of the pedal bone and a portion of the lateral cartilage, (2) the coronary cushion, and (3) the skin of the coronet and such structures as lie between it and the cartilage. [Illustration: FIG. 141.--EXCISION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGE. (AFTER BAYER.) The horny wall is stripped off over the seat of operation. _a_, Semicircular flap of sensitive laminæ, coronary cushion, and skin; _b_, the lateral cartilage; _c_, the sensitive laminæ; _d_, the coronary cushion.] That this incision of the sensitive structures should be kept at 1/4 inch from the one in the horn has a reason. It is that when this flap is again placed into position (as later it will have to be) we have round its circumference a rim of soft structures into which to place the sutures. And in this connection it is well to advise the operator that the thinness of the keratogenous membrane (the laminal portion of it) should warn him that the portion of it to be turned up--namely, that forming the tip of the flap--should be _scraped_ away quite close to the os pedis. Unless this is done, there will not be a sufficient thickness left to afterwards bring into position and suture. The half-moon-shaped piece of tissue incised is now carefully dissected away from the external face of the cartilage, until it may be turned up as a flap (see Fig. 141, _a_), and held from off the cartilage by a tenaculum. The exposed cartilage is now carefully removed by the aid of a sage-knife and a stout pair of forceps, the same precaution of holding the foot well forward being again taken in order to avoid wounding of the articular capsule. At this stage in the operation considerable care is required. The operator must remember that close beneath him, and more particularly in front, is the pedal articulation. It is better, therefore, to excise the cartilage piecemeal, and to do it carefully, than to attempt, at the risk of injury to the joint, to make the operation 'showy.' During removal of the cartilage, the terminal branches of the digital arteries are wounded, as also are the veins of the coronary plexus. Should either of these stand out with extra prominence from the others, it should be picked up with a pair of forceps, and ligatured with either carbolized gut or silk. Attention should then be given to the flap of skin and coronary cushion. Wherever a sinus has existed in it, it is to be carefully scraped, and all dead portions of tissue removed. This done, the flap is allowed to fall into position, and is there carefully sutured, not only at the skin of the coronet, but along the whole circumference of the incision. _Dressing of the Wound and After-Treatment_.--The whole secret of the success of this operation is in afterwards maintaining a strict asepsis of the wound. Unless there is reasonable room for belief that this may be done, the operation had far better not be advised, for if the wound is afterwards suffered to get into a suppurating and dirty condition, the last stage of the case may be worse than the first Synovitis and arthritis, with certain anchylosis of the joint, and a probable loss of our patient, is almost bound to follow. We cannot, therefore, too strongly insist upon the advice that the whole of the preliminary antisepticising of the foot that we have described, and the after maintaining of asepsis that we are now about to relate, _must_ be methodically and thoroughly carried out. It is of even _more_ importance than little details in the operation itself. In the first and second methods of operating, directly the actual operation is over, the surface of the wound and both surfaces of the skin-flaps should first be thoroughly douched with a 1 in 1,000 solution of perchloride of mercury. Bayer prefers a 1 in 5 solution of iodoform in ether. Next, either iodoform or chinosol in the powder should be dusted over the whole surface, including again both inner and outer faces of the reverted skin-flaps. This done the flaps are allowed to fall into position and sutured there with carbolized silk or gut. Another liberal application of an antiseptic dressing follows this. Iodoform, iodoform and boracic acid, or chinosol, is freely dusted over the wound and for some distance around it. Bayer, however, again prefers a dressing of the wound, and especially the moistening of the line of sutures with the 1 in 5 solution of iodoform in ether. Over the wound is then placed a protective layer of gauze, impregnated either with boric acid, with a mercuric salt, or with iodoform. Finally, numerous small and lightly-rolled balls of dry carbolized tow are packed regularly over the whole of the operation wound, and the foot bandaged. Practical points to be remembered in this after-dressing are: (1) The balls[A] of tow should be numerous enough to exercise pressure upon the sutured flap when the foot is finally bandaged. (2) The bandage should be run on from the coronet downwards, in order to insure pressure being exerted in the exact position over the sutured flap. (3) Bandages should be used in abundance, commencing always from the coronet, and carefully applied so as to exert an even and uniform pressure. (4) The bandages should be of clean, unused linen. [Footnote A: Bayer recommends that the tow be rolled into cylindrical tampons, each long enough to cross the wound. These are placed on the wound in alternate horizontal and vertical layers, so that when rolled round by a bandage they are pressed into an even and compact pad.] Once the bandages are adjusted, the hobbles may be removed, and the tourniquet loosened. Directly the tourniquet is removed there is a steady oozing of blood through the bandages, no matter how many we have put on. This should occasion no alarm, as experience has taught that the careful attention to antiseptic measures observed throughout the operation has the effect of maintaining the lowermost dressings, those next to the wound, in a state of asepsis. The bandaged foot should now be wrapped in a piece of thick clean cloth or placed in a boot. If our antiseptic precautions have been thorough, the dressings and bandages so adjusted may be allowed to remain without disturbance for from eight to fourteen days. In this, however, the veterinary surgeon must be largely guided by the symptoms of his patient. If, at the end of the first three or four days, the animal maintains a vigorous appetite, if he commences to place a little weight on the foot, and if the thermometer gives no indication of a rise beyond the one or two degrees of ordinary surgical fever, then the surgeon may know that things are proceeding satisfactorily. Pawing movements with the foot, inability to place weight upon it, loss of appetite, an increase in the number of respirations, and a serious rise of temperature, denote the opposite state of affairs. The wound is in all probability suppurating. The bandages and dressings should therefore be removed, and the wound either redressed and bandaged, or treated as an ordinary open wound. Ordinarily, however, if the operation has been properly performed, healing takes place by first intention, and the wound when the bandages are removed at the end of the first or second week appears clean and _dry_. Having assured ourselves that such is the case, we dress the foot in exactly the same manner as before, save that so many bandages are not put on. A similar dressing is repeated weekly until such time as the wound shows sufficient growth of horn--quite a thin pellicle--to act as a protective. It may then be left undressed, except for some simple hoof dressing and a bandage. Complete healing of the wound takes from about four to eight weeks, at the end of which time the animal can be again gradually put into work. The labour, however, should be light, and quite three or four months should be allowed to elapse before any attempt is made to put him to heavy work. Should the second method of operating have been the one adopted, then there is one slight difference in the after-dressing that needs attention calling to it. In this case we have more or less of a _hidden_ cavity left to deal with rather than the broad and _open_ wound left in either of the other methods. This cavity, left by the extirpation of the cartilage, must be thoroughly dressed with iodoform or chinosol, or with Bayer's iodoform in ether. The packing with carbolized tow and the bandaging may then be proceeded with as before. In conclusion, we may say that the operation is one of some delicacy, and needs a good surgeon for its successful performance. Furthermore, no one of the antiseptic precautions we have advised can be omitted. It is, perhaps, these two considerations (and in justice to the English surgeon we should say most probably the latter of them) that have prevented this operation from being generally adopted. That it is successful there is no gainsaying. Professor Bayer, of the Vienna School, with whose name is associated the last of the three methods of operating we have described, is enthusiastic in praise of the operation, and says: 'The favourable results that I have got by this operation have caused me wholly to abandon the medicinal treatment, and to prefer in all cases the surgical operation as being the best means to the end.' _Partial Excision of the Lateral Cartilage_.--Discarding the somewhat elaborate methods we have just described, there are English operators who removed the necrosed portion only of the cartilage, and do so in what appears at first sight a comparatively rough-and-ready manner. The apparent roughness is that they do not concern themselves with conserving the coronary cushion, and hesitate but little in cutting portions of it bodily away. One would imagine that in this case the quarter of the side operated on would be always more or less bare of horn. Such, however, is not the case. To perform this operation the animal is again cast and chloroformed. Some operators, however, use the stocks and dispense with the anæsthetic. The foot is first well cleaned with soap and water and a stiff brush, and the hair of the coronet over the seat of operation shaved. Again, too, the horn of the affected quarter is rasped until it yields easily to pressure of the thumb, and the whole of the foot washed in an antiseptic solution. A probe is now inserted into the opening at the coronet, and the direction of the fistula noted, after which the foot is firmly secured, and an Esmarch bandage and tourniquet applied to the limb. This done, a triangular or wedge-shaped portion of skin, coronary cushion, and thinned horn is removed with a strong sage-knife or scalpel. The base of the wedge-shaped portion removed contains the opening of the fistula, and the apex of the wedge should reach to the bottom of the sinus (see Fig. 142). After the horn is removed and the fistula followed up, it is sometimes found that what we at first thought was its end, it may now be continued in an altogether different direction. It is again followed up with the probe, and the horn and sensitive structures excised until we are quite certain we have reached its furthest extent. Attention should next be paid to the cartilage. Wherever spots of necrosis are found, as indicated by the pea-green colour of the affected parts, they must be _carefully_ excised. Care should be taken in so doing to carry the line of excision some little distance around the visibly affected parts. This is done that we may be quite certain nothing at all remains calculated to give rise to further trouble. It goes without saying that, in addition to the necrosed cartilage, all other diseased and necrotic tissues should also be removed. The os pedis is occasionally found necrotic just where the cartilage joins it, or it may be that a small portion of the sensitive laminæ, by reason of its _liver-red_ or even gray coloration, gives evidence of death of the part. The former must be well curetted, and the latter cleaned carefully with a scalpel and forceps. [Illustration: FIG. 142.--PARTIAL EXCISION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGE BY REMOVING A PORTION OF THE CORONARY CUSHION. The dotted lines show the outline of the wedge-shaped portion of structures to be removed, including skin, coronary cushion, horn, and sensitive laminæ. _a_, The opening of the fistula.] The operation finished, the foot is again douched in an antiseptic solution, the wound mopped dry with carbolized tow, dressed with either of the dressings described on page 358, and finally bandaged. The dressing should be changed every three days only, unless in the meanwhile pawing movements and other symptoms of distress indicate their removal. The length of coronary cushion removed in this operation is from 1/4 to 1/2 inch (we ourselves, however, have seen it more), and yet its loss seems to occasion no serious after-trouble beyond a slight deformity of the parts beneath. The sensitive structures become sufficiently covered with horn, and the animal in nearly every case is returned to work, while in a great many instances he may also trot perfectly sound. Simple though the operation may appear, and apparently rough in its method, it is nevertheless successful in effecting a cure in cases where blisters, plugging, injections, and other means have failed. Mr. W. Dacre, M.R.C.V.S.,[A] after reading an article on the operation before the members of the Lancashire Veterinary Medical Association, says: 'My observations have not been based on a single case, and having had nine of them, and all of them successful, I felt it to be my duty to bring this subject before the Society.' [Footnote A: _Veterinary Record_, vol. v., p. 407.] Mr. T.W. Thompson, M.R.C.V.S.,[A] says: 'In a great number of cases I have removed a 1/2 inch of the coronary band.... I have performed the operation a great number of times, and have never seen a foot that has been damaged by it.' [Footnote A: _Ibid_.] Professor Macqueen[A] says: 'I do not spare the coronary band or sensitive laminæ when I find those parts diseased. I do not unnecessarily damage those structures. At the same time, I am confident that excision of a piece of the coronary band or removal of a few sensitive laminæ has not the untoward consequences so much dreaded in former days.' [Footnote A: _Ibid_., p. 714.] Mr. John Davidson, M.E.C.V.S.,[A] says: 'The treatment described, if carefully carried out and details attended to, will be found a success in dealing with the majority of cases of quittor. If I may be permitted to say so, without being considered boastful, I have yet to see the first case that has resisted the treatment.' [Footnote A: _Ibid_., vol. xiv., p. 769.] Should our case of quittor be complicated by caries of the bone, this must, where possible, be scraped or curetted until the whole of the diseased portion is removed, and a healthy surface is left. After-dressing must then be carried out as in other cases. The treatment of ossified cartilage will be found under treatment of side-bones, and the methods of dealing with penetrated articulation and purulent arthritis are treated of in Chapter XII. _Surgical Shoeing in Quittor_.--In the case of simple or cutaneous quittor, no alteration in the shoeing is necessary. When the condition becomes sub-horny, however, and particularly when it is situated in the region of the quarters, ease is afforded to the diseased parts by removing the bearing of the shoe in that position. Should there be no dependent opening at the sole, then the best shoe for the purpose is an ordinary bar shoe (Fig. 68), with the bearing eased under the affected quarter. If, however, there is a dependent orifice, or one is expected, then it will be necessary either to leave the animal unshod or to provide him with a shoe that admits of dressing the lesion. In the latter case the most suitable shoe will be found to be either a three-quarter shoe (Fig. 102) or a three-quarter bar shoe (Fig. 103). Many operators, however, keep the animal unshod. We must say ourselves that we consider a shoe useful after either of the operations for removal of the cartilage, if only to assist in maintaining the bandages and dressings in position. In this case a very useful shoe will be the three-quarter bar shoe. With a little manipulation the bandages are easily run under the bar portion of the shoe, and a few of their turns every now and again wrapped round the bar in order to keep the whole firmly in position. In connection with tendinous quittor, when septic matter has gained the sheath of the flexor tendons, there is, for a long time after healing of the fistula, a marked tendency for the animal to go on his toe. To a large extent we judge this to be due to slight adhesions between the two tendons brought about by the growth of inflammatory fibrous tissue. In such cases benefit is sometimes derived from the application of a shoe with an extended toe-piece (see Figs. 84 and 108). C. OSSIFICATION OF THE LATERAL CARTILAGES, OR SIDE-BONES. _Definition_.--An abnormal condition of the lateral cartilages, in which the substance of the cartilage becomes gradually removed and bone formed in its place. [Illustration: FIG. 143.--OSSIFIED LATERAL CARTILAGES (SIDE-BONES).] _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--Side-bones are nearly always met with in heavy draught animals, and are rarely seen in the feet of nags. They are, moreover, nearly always confined to the fore-feet. In the ordinary way little need be said concerning their characteristics, and the way in which they may be detected. Neither need any concern be ordinarily manifested with regard to the effect they may have on the animal's gait and future usefulness. Seeing, however, that side-bone constitutes one of the recognised hereditary diseases, and that at the various agricultural and horse shows its existence or otherwise in a certain animal is a matter of great importance, some little attention must be given to these two points. With a side-bone anywhere approaching full development, diagnosis is easy. The thumb is pressed into the coronet over the seat of the cartilage, when, in place of the elasticity we should normally meet with, we have the solid resistance offered by bone. In some instances diagnosis is even easier still. We refer to those cases in which the side-bone stands above the level of the coronet with such prominence as to be readily _seen_ and recognised without manipulation, and where its growth has caused distinct enlargement and bulging of the wall of the affected quarter. It seems that in such cases the bone-forming process does not end with simply depositing bone in place of the removed cartilage, but that, after that is accomplished, the bone still continues to be produced, as in the case of an exostosis elsewhere. Although diagnosis in cases such as these is easy, it becomes a very different matter when we are called upon to give an opinion in cases where ossification of the cartilage is only just commencing. Whether the result of our examination is to decide the sale or purchase of an animal, to determine his fitness or otherwise to enter the show-ring, or to merely advise a client as to whether or no a side-bone is in course of formation, our position is equally difficult, and in either case our examination must be searching. Perhaps the best advice we can give is to say that the whole of the cartilage must be manipulated both with the foot _on_ and _off_ the ground. What the reason may be we do not pretend to say, but it is a well-known fact that in many instances the cartilage, with the foot bearing weight, is so rigid as to at once convey the impression that ossification has commenced or is even far advanced. And yet that same cartilage, with the foot removed from the ground, is as pleasantly yielding to pressure of the thumb as the most exacting of us could wish for. In any case, then, where doubt exists, the foot should be lifted to the knee, and the cartilage carefully examined with the foot in that position. If, then, at any spot above the normal contour of the os pedis we meet with hardness or rigidity, we are to look upon that foot with suspicion. Nevertheless, providing our conscience is sufficiently elastic, the animal may be passed _sound_ so far as the _existence_ of a side-bone is concerned. We know, however, that with commencing rigidity we may ere long expect one, and if our opinion is asked with regard to that particular, it must be admitted that with rigidity of the cartilage once commenced it is usually not long afterwards before a fully-developed side-bone makes its appearance. As is only to be expected, the first noticeable hardening of the cartilage is to be found near the normal bone. We may thus look for it more particularly in the lower portions of the cartilage. We think we may say, too, that in the vast majority of cases the ossification of the cartilage commences in its anterior half. It is thus brought about that often we are called upon to examine and report on the condition when we have _anteriorly_ a side-bone in course of formation, and _posteriorly_ a perfectly normal cartilage. It is to the latter half of the cartilage that dealers and others mainly, if not wholly, devote their attention. A horse with the cartilage in this transition state will therefore pass muster, and a nice little point of ethics has again to be decided by the veterinary surgeon before giving his signature to a certificate of examination of an animal in this condition. With regard to alteration in gait, we may say at once that side-bones in heavy animals are not often the cause of lameness. In fact, where the foot is well developed, when neither the foot as a whole nor the phalangeal bones give evidence of disease, and where the pasterns are fairly oblique and well formed, this alteration of the cartilages may be looked upon as of no serious import at all. Neither is the side-bone due to blows or other injuries likely to be productive of lameness--that is, always supposing, of course, that the foot in other respects is of good shape. If lameness is met with at all, then it is where we have a foot that is in other respects unsound, with badly contracted heels and upright 'stumpy' hoof, or where side-bones have occurred in a young animal, and have already reached a large size before the horse is put to labour. In this latter case, the added effects of concussion and the evil influences of shoeing are sufficient to turn the scale. Directly the animal, previously sound, is asked to work, lameness is the result. It follows, therefore, that side-bone in the feet of young animals is of far more serious import than when occurring in older horses. In a nag animal they constitute a positive unsoundness, and lameness in this case is more often than not an accompanying symptom. _Causes_.--To commence with, we may remark that, although met with sometimes in very early life, side-bones are seldom, if ever, congenital, and that more often than not they may be looked for in animals of three years old, or older, seldom earlier. They appear, in fact, only when the animal is shod and commences work. This at once suggests two of the principal factors in their causation--namely, concussion and loss of normal function. Directly the horse is put to work he has for a great part of his time to travel upon roadways--either macadamized roads or town sets--where everything is calculated to bring concussion about. In addition to that he has the lateral cartilage itself thrown largely out of action by shoeing. We explained in Chapter III. (p. 66) that the chief function of the cartilage was to take concussion received by the plantar cushion and direct the greater part of it outwards and backwards. Now, with the animal shod, the plantar cushion does not itself, as normally it should, receive concussion. By the shoeing the frog is lifted from the ground, and the plantar cushion, together with the cartilage, taken largely out of active work. In other words, the normal outward and inward movements of the cartilage are enormously reduced. It is fair, we think, to take it that the mere fact of the lateral cartilage persisting _as_ cartilage is due in large measure to its constant movement. Directly, therefore, it is placed in a state of comparative idleness, then it commences to ossify, more particularly if there should at the same time be a tendency to a low type of inflammation of the parts. Does this latter exist? We may safely say that it does. It is in this way: The secondary effect of loss of ground-pressure upon the frog and plantar cushion is to bring about contraction of the heels. With this we get compression of the parts within, with a certain amount of irritation and the exact low type of inflammatory phenomena calculated to assist in the bone-forming process. The fact that concussion acts as a cause explains in great measure how it is that side-bones are more frequent in cart animals than in nags, and also why they should be more common in the fore-feet than in the hind. Taking, in both animals, a rough calculation as to the weight of body carried by feet of a certain size, we notice at once that the cart animal has proportionately more weight to carry than has the nag. Concussion to the foot is therefore greater. The greater part of the body-weight is borne by the fore-limbs. Concussion is therefore greater to the fore-feet than to the hind. This, however, does not explain altogether the comparative immunity of the nag animal from this defect. He, too, must also be subject to the effects of concussion, especially when his higher and faster action is taken into account. To our minds there is only one explanation to be offered here. We point at once to the years of constant and judicious breeding of the nag. Compare that with the relatively few minutes that have been devoted to a more careful selection of the cart animal, and we at once see a possible explanation. That the explanation holds some amount of truth is borne out by the fact that, since a greater attention has been paid to the selection of our cart animals, side-bone has grown a great deal less common. Is side-bone hereditary? We can best answer that by saying that, some several years ago, the Council of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, at the request of the Royal Commission on Horse Breeding, drew up a list of those diseases 'which by heredity rendered stallions so affected unfit as breeding sires,' and that in that list was included side-bone. Side-bones, therefore, are hereditary. We think, however, the statement needs qualifying. It is in this way: side-bones occur only at a certain, usually well-defined, time after birth, and we might say are _never_ congenital. They occur only after the animal has been put to work, and are more or less plainly due to mechanical causes--namely, the ill effects of shoeing and concussion. The cause of their appearance, in short, is more plainly extrinsic than intrinsic, and side-bone in the horse is, as Professor McCall puts it, about as much due to heredity as is corn on the human foot. Between these two opinions--that they are plainly hereditary, and that they just as plainly are not--it is well to strike a middle course. They are, we will say, hereditary in this way: So long as a cart animal is bred, to put it vulgarly, 'top-heavy' (that is, with a body out of reasonable proportion to the feet that have it to support), so long will the foot be subjected to a greater concussion, and so long will side-bones in such animals commence to make their appearance at about middle life. In addition to the causes we have now mentioned, side-bones are often the result of other diseases of the foot. They thus occur as a sequel to sub-horny quittor, to suppurating corn, to complicated quarter sand-crack, or to the inflammation of the parts occasioned by a prick. They also arise in many instances from the effect of a prick or injury to the coronet. Among the latter we may mention treads from other animals, and treads inflicted by the animal himself with the calkin of an opposite shoe, or the repeated injury occasioned by the shafts being carelessly allowed to drop on to the foot. In severe cases of laminitis, too, the cartilages are nearly always affected. In this instance the inflammatory phenomena in the os pedis no doubt give rise to an abnormal activity of bone-forming cells. The cartilage is invaded, and the side-bone formed (see Fig. 118). _Treatment_.--In the ordinary way the 'treatment' of side-bone is a thing but rarely mentioned. The explanation lies, of course, in the fact that side-bones are so rarely the cause of lameness. When lameness does occur with a side-bone, and we have reason to believe that the said side-bone is the cause of the lameness, it is well before talking of treatment to question ourselves thus: 'In what way does the side-bone cause lameness?' The now generally-accepted answer to that query is the explanation put forward several years ago by Colonel Fred Smith--namely, that the pain, and therefore the lameness, was due to the compression of the sensitive laminæ between the ossified and enlarged cartilage and the non-yielding and often contracted wall of the quarters. That, in fact, constitutes the basis upon which Smith's operation for side-bone (that of grooving the wall of the quarters) is founded. Before describing the operation, however, we may say that we are now able to understand that older operators who claimed success for other methods of treatment, were to a very great extent justified in so doing. For instance, take the combined treatments of firing and blistering, and the use of a bar shoe. Here the beneficial action of the cautery and the blister may be largely problematical. The bar shoe, however, would be almost certain to give good results. Frog-pressure with the ground would be again restored, and the contraction of the heels removed. Pinching of the sensitive structures would be diminished, and the lameness cured. Take, again, the treatment of 'unsoling.' It was barbarous, we know barbarous, because unnecessary and easily avoidable. It was practised, however, certainly very little more than two decades ago, and practised by men of standing in the profession. Without dragging the case to light again by mentioning the names of those concerned, we may mention that not many years ago a highly respected member of the profession was, at the instigation of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, prosecuted for practising unsoling for the relief of side-bone. Practically only one other member of the profession was able to come forward and defend the operation on the score of its utility. We see now, however, that--as does Smith's operation--unsoling does permit of the greater expansion of the heels. The contraction is done away with, the pressure on the sensitive laminæ again diminished, and the lameness relieved. Not that we are attempting to defend the operation--far from it. We simply mention it as interesting, and quote this and the use of the bar shoe (with both of which methods older operators have claimed success) merely as evidence that the operation of Smith is based on a logical foundation. When treatment is decided on, therefore, we may first advise blistering and the use of a bar shoe. After that, should the lameness continue, and should we still judge the side-bone to be the cause of it, the operation may be advised. As we have said before, the operation consists in so grooving the wall as to allow of the quarters widening sufficiently to relieve pressure on the parts within. In one or two previous portions of this work we have considered operations involving this procedure. Before detailing the operation here, therefore, we will first describe the instruments necessary, and the most satisfactory methods of incising the horn. To begin with, it must be remembered that all methods of hoof section have for their object the after-expansion of the horny box, and that this can only be brought about by making each groove complete from coronary margin to solar edge of the wall, and carrying it, throughout its length, _deep enough to reach the commencement of the sensitive structures_. To this end, therefore, the operator must bear in mind the comparative thickness of the various parts of the wall, and must, in particular, remember the relative thinness of that portion of horn forming the outer boundary of the cutigeral groove, and accommodating the coronary cushion. For the making of the incisions there is the special saw devised for this operation by Colonel F. Smith, A.V.D., and which we illustrate in Fig. 144. With this the wall is sawn through _until the depth arrived at is equal to what is indicated by a previous examination of the thickness of the crust as viewed from the solar surface_. Here Colonel Smith says: 'I strongly advise everyone to use a metal gauge (a thin piece of material) to introduce into the incision made by the saw, and run it up and down to ascertain whether the wall is properly divided throughout. The depth to which this should be done we know from the previous measurements of our gauge on the crust.' [Illustration: FIG. 144.--SMITH'S SIDE-BONE SAW (EARLY PATTERN).] Should the saw be of a pattern in which the set of its teeth makes only a narrow incision,[A] it should, while operating, be kept well oiled, and should be withdrawn every few seconds in order that the horn-dust lying in its teeth may be examined. If this is getting slightly blood-stained, we know, of course, that the sensitive structures are reached, and the incision has been carried far enough. In so judging the depth of the incision, however, care must be taken to see that the top of the coronary cushion is not injured with the saw, for if this is done the blood trickling into the depth of the incision will tinge the horn-dust, and give the false impression that the incision is sufficiently deep. [Footnote A: That is Smith's older pattern. The newer pattern (Fig. 145) has the teeth so set as to make an incision wide enough to be looked into. In this case the depth arrived at is to be judged by the appearance of the bottom of the incision.] If the operator has had no previous experience of the use of the saw in this operation, he must also be careful to avoid placing too great a pressure on the teeth of its lower third. This is done by keeping the hand too greatly depressed. Again, this leads to wounding of the sensitive structures (this time at the lower end of the incision), and again the operator is confused by the blood thus allowed to run into the groove. The only portion of horn difficult to operate on is that immediately under the coronet. This is best severed with a succession of downward movements, and is easier performed with Smith's later pattern of side-bone saw (Fig. 145) in which the set of the foremost teeth is reversed. [Illustration: FIG. 145.--SMITH'S SIDE-BONE SAW (IMPROVED PATTERN).] In making these grooves we must say that we think the use of the special saw may be dispensed with, and the incisions just as easily, or, at any rate, just as successfully, made with the knife. Those who select to use this instrument should choose a narrow-topped and sharp searcher, or a modern shaped drawing-knife of suitable size, such as those depicted in Fig. 46, _a_ and _b_, and they will find their work much easier if they will make the first steps in the incisions with an ordinary flat firing-iron. By the use of the latter instrument the grooves are made conveniently open along their tops, and room left for nicely finishing the more delicate manner of removing with the knife the softer horn near the sensitive structures. Those whose leaning is towards the use of special instruments, but who, at the same time, do not care to use the saw, will find their wants supplied in the hoof plane (Smith's), Fig. 146, or the hoof chisel (Hodder's), Fig. 147. With the hoof plane the groove in the wall is made by a succession of downward scraping movements, while with the chisel the cut in the wall is made either from below upwards, or from above downwards, according as the foot is held forward or backward--whichever, in fact, comes most convenient. [Illustration: FIG. 146.--HOOF PLANE (SMITH'S).] When using the knife or the hoof plane it is not often that the sensitive structures are injured. In all cases, however, no matter what the instrument used, the metal gauge should be employed when the sensitive structures have been touched, and the operation obscured by blood. [Illustration: FIG. 147.--HOOF CHISEL (HODDER'S).] Our instruments at hand, the operation may be proceeded with. The first step is to ascertain the extent of the side-bone, and to determine the position of the incisions. To do this the coronet is felt with the thumb, and the anterior extremity of the side-bone noted. This is marked on the horn with a piece of chalk, and a vertical line dropped from this position to the inferior margin of the wall (Fig. 148,1). The line crosses the horn fibres obliquely, and is purposely made in that direction in order that its inferior end may be far enough back to avoid the last nail-hole. Should the side-bone reach very far forwards, it may be wise to cause this line to slant from before backwards (see dotted line _a_, Fig. 148). Unless this is done, it is found that in some feet so much of the wall is isolated at the bottom that insufficient is left to nail the shoe to. The next line to be made is the rear one. Its correct position is ascertained by first noting the junction off the wall with the bar (see groove 2, Fig. 149); and its inferior end must be just anterior to the inflexion of the wall. This is done that we may avoid cutting the bar. The position of the lower end of the rear line thus ascertained, it is run upwards with the chalk in the direction of the horn fibres. [Illustration: FIG. 148.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE POSITION OF THE GROOVES IN THE WALL IN COLONEL SMITH'S OPERATION FOR SIDE-BONE. 1,2, and 3, mark the grooves in the order in which they are made; the dotted line _a_ marks the position taken by the anterior line when the side-bone, is one reaching far forward, while the dotted lines _b_ and _c_ mark the position of the additional grooves to be made if thought necessary.] The third line is made in such a position as to divide into two equal portions the wall between lines 1 and 2. Here, however, some operators prefer to make two, or even three, lines, adding those as at _b_ and _c_, Fig. 148; and Smith himself says that a multiplicity of lines is an advantage rather than not. In any case, having once determined the position of the lines, they should be plainly marked out with chalk, and then viewed from a distance with the foot on the ground, in order to judge of their regularity. If we are satisfied with them, we then lightly mark them with the saw, with the hot iron, or with the knife, whichever instrument we may be intending to use. Unless the details are methodically carried out as here described, it is probable that more of the foot will be isolated than is necessary, and that as a consequence very little is left to which to nail the shoe. [Illustration: FIG. 149.--DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE POSITION OF THE GROOVES MADE IN THE HOOF IN COLONEL SMITH'S OPERATION FOR SIDE-BONES. 1, 2, and 3, show the grooves in the wall in the order in which they are made; 4 shows the groove made at the junction of the sole with the wall.] The incisions are then made with the saw or the knife, with the foot held in a convenient position by an assistant. That usually found most comfortable for the first incision is with the foot held forwards and placed on an assistant's thigh in the position adopted for 'clenching up' when shoeing, while that for the rear incision is with the animal's knee flexed, and the foot held well up to the elbow. In this, however, each operator will suit himself. Should the preliminary steps in making the incisions be performed with the iron, it will be easiest done with the foot on the ground. When the incisions through the wall are complete, our attention must be given to the sole. A drawing-knife is here used, and a further incision made over the white line so as to destroy the union of the sole with the wall between incisions 1 and 2, and so completely isolate the portions of wall included within the four grooves (see groove 4, Fig. 149). When this is done it should be found that the portions of the isolated wall spring readily to pressure of the thumb. The inferior or wearing margin of the isolated wall must now be so trimmed that it takes no bearing on the ground when the opposite limb is held up by an assistant and full weight placed upon the foot. For a day or two after the operation lameness is intense. This is to be treated with hot poultices or hot baths, and and soon disappears. Three to four days later a bar shoe is nailed on (taking care that the bearing of the quarters is still eased), and the hot poultices still continued. Four days later still walking exercise may be commenced, to be followed shortly afterwards by trotting. At about the twelfth day some animals may conveniently be put to work, while in other cases a fortnight, or even a month, must elapse before this can be done. When put to work early, it is wise to fill in the fissures made in the wall with hard soap, with wax, or with a suitable hoof dressing, in order that irritation of the sensitive structures with outside matter may be prevented. This operation is soon followed by remarkable changes in the shape of the foot. At about the third week the coronet shows signs of bulging, and the upper part of the wall operated on is often so protruding as to render the foot wider here than at the ground surface. This is a sign that the case is doing well. Should no improvement be noticed at the end of three weeks or a month, or should the grooves become filled from the bottom (which they do remarkably fast), then the incisions must be deepened, the exercise reduced, and the fomentations or poulticing repeated. So treated, many cases of side-bone lameness will be relieved, if not entirely cured, and, should the worst happen, and no alteration in the lameness is noticeable, no harm will have been done to the foot. In this connection, the originator of the treatment says: 'I may assure those induced to doubt either their diagnosis or the value of hoof section that no harm is done to the foot, even should the operation be of no value. It may do much good; it cannot do harm. The operation will never succeed until the inherent timidity of sawing or cutting into the wall is overcome. The _incisions must be deep, and of the same depth from the coronet to the ground_.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. iii., p. 313.] It is well to remark here that the operation of hoof section cannot be expected to succeed in every case. The last man in the world to claim that for it would be its originator. Failure to relieve the lameness may be accounted for in a variety of ways. First, of course, will come errors in diagnosis. No one of us is infallible, and the lameness we have judged as resulting from side-bone may arise from another cause. There are, too, complications to be reckoned with, the existence or absence of which cannot always be definitely ascertained. Such are: Ringbone, especially that form of ringbone known as 'low'; bony deposits on the pedal bone, either on its laminal or plantar surface, or even changes in the navicular bursa. CHAPTER XI DISEASES OF THE BONES A. PERIOSTITIS AND OSTITIS. We head this section, Periostitis _and_ Ostitis, for the reason that in actual practice it is rare for one of these affections to occur without the other. The periosteum and the bone are so intimately connected that it is difficult to conceive of disease of the one failing to communicate itself in some degree to the other. Pathologically, however, and for purposes of description, it is more convenient to describe separately the abnormal changes occurring in these two tissues. With the main phenomena of inflammation occurring elsewhere we presume our readers are aware. Briefly we may put it, that under the action of an irritant, either actual injury, chemical action, or septic infection, the healthy tissues around react in order to effect repair of the parts destroyed. Also that this reaction involves the distribution of a greater blood-supply to the part, with an abundant migration of leucocytes, and the outpouring of an inflammatory exudate, together with symptoms of heat, pain, redness, and swelling of the affected area. And that in chronic inflammations, owing to persistence of the cause, the process of repair thus instituted does not stop at mere restoration of lost tissue, but continues to the extent of forming an abnormal quantity of such tissue as normally exists in the parts implicated. The process of inflammation in bone is essentially the same. It takes place along the course of the bloodvessels, and is only modified in its attendant phenomena by the structure of the parts involved. Swelling, for instance, cannot take place in the centre of compact bone tissue. Otherwise, other changes occur exactly as in inflammations of other structures. When the causal irritant has been excessively severe and the migration of leucocytes abundant, actual formation of pus may occur, the bony tissue being broken down and mingled with it, and an abscess cavity formed. In milder cases, affected and necrotic tissue is removed by a process of phagocytosis, and new tissue (this time osseous) formed in its place. In the periosteum we may take it roughly that inflammation runs a course similar to that occurring in soft tissues elsewhere. There is but one exception, and that, as we shall mention shortly, is connected with its deeper layer. As we know, the periosteum consists of two layers, an outer fibrous and an inner yellow elastic, and is extremely vascular. Numerous bloodvessels ramify in it, and, with their attendant nerves, break up to enter the numberless canals of the Haversian system. This extreme vascularity, of course, favours abundant exudation. The exudate, however, is, as it were, shut in by the dense fibrous layer of the membrane, and the result is that in periostitis it collects between the membrane and the bone, causing swelling and raising of the membrane, and giving rise to excruciating pain from pressure upon the nerves. Should the periostitis be complicated by the formation of pus, then the vessels entering and supplying the bone are, in the suppurative area, destroyed. With their destruction it may happen that we get also death of a portion of the osseous tissue. This, however, when the suppuration is abundant, cannot commonly occur, as the bloodvessels within the bone--those of the medulla--commence to supply blood to the affected part. In cases of trouble with the bones of the foot, these last few remarks have a special significance. Here we have three bones whose medullary cavity is extremely small--almost nil, in fact--which explains in some measure how easy it is when suppuration exists to get necrosis and exfoliation of, say, portions of the os pedis. Necrosis and sloughing of the periosteum itself may also happen, but as the extreme vascularity of the membrane is a fairly strong safeguard against that it is of only rare occurrence. In connection with the deep layer of the periosteum, and forming part of it, are found numerous bone-forming cells (_osteoblasts_). These, under ordinary conditions, are relatively quiescent. Under the slightest irritation or stimulation, however, their bone-forming functions are stirred into abnormal activity, thus explaining how easy it is (especially with bones so open to receive slight injuries as are those of the foot) to get ossific deposits, the starting-point of which we are quite unable to account for. With this brief introduction we will now describe such pathological changes as occur in the separate structures, and which we are likely to encounter in the various diseases of the foot. While so doing, we shall draw attention to such diseases as we have previously described in which the pathological conditions we are considering may be met with. 1. PERIOSTITIS. This we shall consider under _(a)_ Simple Acute Periostitis, _(b)_ Suppurative Periostitis, _(c)_ Osteoplastic Periostitis. _(a) Simple Acute Periostitis_.--This is the periostitis that follows on the infliction of a slight injury to the membrane--an injury without an actual wound and free from infective material. It is one, therefore, which we always judge as existing in those cases where we have distinct evidence or history of injury, but in which the injury has not been severe enough to lead to fracture or to the infliction of an actual wound. Such cases may be those of lamenesses persisting after violent blows upon the foot--cases where the animal has been kicking against the stable fittings, or where the foot has been partially passed over by the wheel of a waggon. It may be, too, that in a case of 'nail-bound' a great deal of the pain and lameness is due to a simple periostitis caused by pressure of the bulged inner-layer of horn upon the sensitive structures. Simple acute periostitis may also occur in cases where an actual wound is in existence, but where such wound, fortunately, remains aseptic. We may thus have this condition accompanying ordinary cases of pricked foot, of treads in the anterior region of the coronet, and of accidental injuries of other kinds. In simple acute periostitis the membrane is thicker and redder than normal, and is easily stripped from the bone. As it is pulled off it is noticed that there are numerous fibril-like processes hanging to its inner surface, and which draw out from the substance of the bone. These are simply the vessels (bloodvessels and nerves) which, loosened by the inflammatory exudate, are readily detached and drawn from the Haversian canals into which they normally run. In addition to its increased redness, the membrane has a swollen and gelatinous appearance owing to its infiltration with the inflammatory discharges. Simple acute periostitis may and often does end in resolution. On the other hand, it may end in suppuration or may become chronic. If the latter, then the osteoblasts of the innermost layer become active, and abnormal deposits of bone are the result. _(b) Suppurative Periostitis_.--This condition simply indicates that the inflammation is complicated by the presence of pus organisms. It is, therefore, a common termination of the simple acute form attending the infliction of a wound. The wound becomes contaminated, and the case of simple periostitis is soon changed into the suppurative form. Once having gained entrance to the wound, the pus increases in quantity, and slowly runs between the membrane and the bone. This, however, it does not do to any large extent, showing rather a tendency to penetrate the outer fibrous layer and gain the outside of the membrane. Suppurative periostitis is met with in foot cases, commonly in connection with punctured foot. It occurs, too, as a complication in suppurating corn, in severe tread, in complicated sand-crack, as a result of the spread of suppurative matter in acute coronitis, and in sub-horny quittor. In ordinary cases of suppurative periostitis the pus formed is yellow in colour, creamy thick, and free from pronounced odour--the so-called 'laudable' pus of the older writers. It so happens in many cases of foot trouble, however, that putrefactive organisms gain entrance side by side with those of pus. In this case the characters of the discharge are very different. It is distinctly more fluid, is of a pink or even light chocolate colour, and extremely offensive. In these instances the pus shows a marked tendency to spread, strips the periosteum from the bone, perforates the outer layer of the membrane, and finally infiltrates the surrounding tissues. This forms a near approach to what is known in human surgery as an _infective_ periostitis, and in our subjects is nearly always met with in cases of severe prick. Its rapidly spreading character makes it always a dangerous condition, and a punctured foot exuding a discharge of this nature should always be regarded as serious. The close contiguity of the joint (it can never be _far_ distant in foot cases), the spreading character of the disease, and the rapidity with which the horse succumbs to arthritis, are all factors to be taken into consideration, and to lead to a warning-note being struck when attending a case of such kind. A further instance of infective periostitis is that met with in acute laminitis. The discharge obtained from the sole in these cases very often bears the character we have just described, and when one considers the thinness of the keratogenous membrane, one is bound to admit that changes so grave occurring in it cannot fail to spread and infect the periosteum. _(c) Osteoplastic Periostitis_.--This is more particularly a chronic process, and is, as the suffix '_plastic_' indicates, associated with bone-forming changes in the membrane. It may occur as a consequence of slight but continued irritation, often without ascertainable origin (see Case 2, p. 392), or it may be the sequel of acute disease. In this form of periostitis the membrane is again swollen and more vascular than in health, and is also easily separable from the bone. The exposed bone is generally rough, in some cases even spicular, and the inner layer of the removed membrane is rough and gritty to the touch--characters imparted to it by numerous minute fragments of bone that have been torn away with it from the more compact osseous tissue beneath. The results of an osteoplastic periostitis are frequently met with in the bones of the foot, and are described by veterinary writers under such headings as 'Pedal Exostoses,' 'Ossifying Ostitis,' and 'Pedal Ossification' (see Figs. 152, 153, 154, and 155). In many of these cases the disease is purely chronic, and the original cause nearly always wanting. When the foot has been subjected to laminitis of some weeks' duration, the same condition is also met with, being at the same time associated with rarefactive osteoplastic ostitis, conditions which we shall shortly describe. Cases we have examined have undoubtedly shown this condition of osteoplastic periostitis, the rarefactive and osteoplastic changes in the bone itself, met with in older cases, occurring no doubt as a result of non-expansion of the horny box. So far as we are able to ascertain, there is every reason to believe that in chronic laminitis the accompanying periostitis leads to the formation of bone, and would, if it were possible, lead to increase in the size of the os pedis. If proof were wanted of this, it is only necessary to point out the increased growth at points where resistance is nil--namely, along the upper margin of the bone (see Fig. 118). However, increase in size elsewhere is prevented by the resistance of the hoof, so that, as the bone-forming process progresses, as it inevitably _must_ under the inflammatory changes going on, it is, as it were, compensated for by rarefaction or bone-absorption changes occurring simultaneously with it. 2. OSTITIS. We shall next deal with the inflammatory changes occurring in the bones themselves, and shall consider them under (_a_): Rarefying or Rarefactive Ostitis, (_b_): Osteoplastic Ostitis, and (_c_): Caries and Necrosis. Inflammatory changes occurring in the medulla we may pass without consideration, for in the bones of the foot the medullary cavity is so small, and the changes taking place in it of such minor importance, that we may do this without in any way seriously prejudicing our work. _(a) Rarefying or Rarefactive Ostitis_.--By this term is indicated an inflammation of the bone attended by its absorption, the absorption being due to the action of certain cells, termed _osteoclasts_. This condition may be due to the pressure of tumours, may occur as the result of injury when a piece of bone is stripped of periosteum, or may be the result of an inflammation occurring in the periosteum elsewhere. A piece of bone undergoing rarefactive ostitis is redder than normal, and the openings of the Haversian canals are distinctly increased in size. As a result a greater number of them become visible. Their increase in size is due to the inflammatory absorption of the bony tissue forming them, and in the larger of them may be seen inflammatory granulation tissue surrounding the bloodvessels. This enlargement of the Haversian canals is well seen when the bone is macerated, the whole then giving the appearance of a piece of very rough pumice-stone. This process of rarefaction or absorption of bone tissue may be confined to quite a small portion, or it may be spread over the whole of the bone, rendering it more porous than is normal, but stopping short of complete destruction of the bone tissue (a condition which is sometimes known as inflammatory osteoporosis (see Fig. 118)). In this latter case the condition is a chronic one, and the bone tissue remaining often appears to be strengthened by a compensatory process of condensation. For an example of rarefactive ostitis as met with in cases of disease of the feet, we refer the reader to laminitis (see Fig. 118). The osteoplastic or condensing process that appears to exist simultaneously with it explains, no doubt, how it is that bones so affected do not more commonly fracture. A further example of this process is illustrated in Fig. 133. The pressure of a tumour (in this case a keraphyllocele) has led to rarefactive changes in the bone, forming a neat indentation in the normal contour of the bone which serves to accommodate the tumour. _(b) Osteoplastic Ostitis, Osteosclerosis, or Condensation of Bone_.--This, too, is essentially a chronic process. It may occur as a result of, or, as we have just shown, exist simultaneously with the condition of, diffuse rarefactive ostitis. In this case there is a formation of new bone in the connective tissue surrounding the vessels in the Haversian canals. As a consequence the bone affected is greatly increased in density, and many of the Haversian canals by this means obliterated. The end result is an increase in size of the bones in such positions as the horny box admits of it, and a peculiar ivory-like change in their consistence. For an example of this, we again refer the reader to the changes occurring in chronic laminitis. _(c) Caries and Necrosis_.--_Caries_ is a word which appears to be used with a considerable amount of looseness. In addition to the meaning implied by necrosis (namely, 'death' of the part), caries is generally used to indicate that there is also a condition of rottenness, decay, and stench. It is particularly applied, in fact, when the death of the bone is slowly progressive, and is due to the inroads made upon it by putrefactive or septic matter. _Necrosis_ of bone may be the result of any injury, such as severe blows, or pricks and stabs. In such cases it would appear that it is loss of a portion of periosteum that is the starting-point. With death of a portion of this membrane the vascular supply to a portion of the bone is cut off, and necrosis ensues. It may also result from the extension of inflammatory affections of the structures adjoining it, as, for instance, the spread of the infective material in severe tread, or the encroaches made by pus in cases of quittor, suppurating corn, or complicated sand-crack. When the necrosed portion of bone is small, and is free from infective properties, it is quite possible that it may, as is the case with small spots of necrosis in softer tissues, be removed by a process of absorption. It must be remembered, however, that where the necrosis has occurred as a result of septic invasion this cannot be looked for, for in every case such reparative changes are worked solely by healthy tissue. If the tissues around the necrosis are engaged in dealing with organismal invasion and the poisonous products thus poured into their working area, their state of health is so weakened that they are unable to successfully combat with the two conditions simultaneously. As a consequence, the necrotic piece of bone persists, and acts as a permanent source of irritation. It must be remembered, too, that if the dead portion of bone--even though it be free from septic matter--is very large, that it may itself act as a continual irritant, in which case it again persists, and cannot by natural means be removed. In our cases necrosis of bone may be met with in punctured foot, in severe cases of tread, in cases of complicated crack, and in suppurating corn. It is met with, too, in navicular disease, in the extension of irritating discharges in cases of quittor, and in cases of chronic laminitis where the solar margin of the os pedis has penetrated the sole. In this latter case the protruding portion of bone is quickly denuded of its periosteum. Its blood-supply is destroyed, and necrosis follows. _Treatment_.--In simple cases of periostitis, those caused by a blow but free from an actual wound, the most beneficial treatment is the continued application of cold by means of a hose-pipe or by swabs. If by these means we are successful in holding the inflammatory phenomena in check, any large formation of new bone is prevented, and the case does well. When the case is complicated by a wound, then antiseptic measures, such as those described in the treatment of punctured foot, will at the same time have to be practised. It must be admitted, however, that in all but the most simple cases ordinary treatment such as this is of very little use; for with only a slight exostosis in almost any position in the foot, excessive lameness presents itself and remains. In such cases nothing is left to us but the operation of neurectomy. When the periostitis and ostitis is the result of a wound, and is complicated by caries or necrosis of the bone, the diseased portion of bone must in every case be laid bare and removed. It so happens that the majority of cases of this kind occur in positions where the diseased bone is easily got at. The lower margin of the os pedis or portions of the wings are commonly the seat of such changes. We meet with the former in cases of pricked foot, and with the latter in severe cases of tread, or as a complication in suppurating corn or in quittor. In such cases the animal must be cast and the foot secured. The wound is then followed up, the horn if necessary removed, and the bone curetted with a Volkmann's spoon; or, if showing itself as a sequestrum, removed with a scalpel and a strong pair of forceps. Care must be taken that every particle of the diseased bone is removed, and that no part of it is left to act as an after-source of irritation. With removal of the diseased portion and a strict attention to antisepsis healing soon takes place. _Reported Cases of Periostitis and Ostitis_.--1. 'Figs. 150 and 151 represent the phalangeal bones of the off fore-leg of a thoroughbred horse named Osman, who was well known as a hunt steeplechaser of considerable merit in the Midland counties some twenty years ago. I may say that this horse was under my observation pretty regularly during the whole of his career, and up to the time of his death, from ruptured aorta, when eight years old. My attention was called to him as a yearling by his owner, who told me that he sometimes fancied the colt was lame. I went over to see him, and found that he was unmistakably lame on the off fore-leg. Careful examination showed no heat or enlargement anywhere. I advised rest and the colt became pretty sound, though not quite so--in fact, he never did become quite sound, and sometimes he was very lame indeed. [Illustration: FIG. 150.--EFFECTS OF PERIOSTITIS ON THE PEDAL AND NAVICULAR BONES.] 'Every imaginable sort of treatment was tried short of neurectomy, without avail. The curious part of the case was that there never was much heat or any apparent change of structure, nor was "pointing" a very noticeable feature. The foot always remained a good-looking one. As the horse won a good number of races he was of some value, and was seen by a good many members of the profession, who were by no means unanimous as to the cause of lameness. The favourite theory was that it was a sequence of "split pastern." A post-mortem examination showed that there was no fracture. There was no adherence of the tendon to the navicular bone nor any ulceration. The morbid changes consisted entirely of osseous deposit as shown in the photographs. The under surface of the navicular bone was much enlarged and roughened by this bony deposit, which extended on to the os pedis, causing complete anchylosis at each extremity of the navicular. The lateral cartilages were healthy. The interesting points in connection with the case are the insidious commencement of osseous disease, its extensive development, and the entire absence of any external manifestation, through its being confined entirely within the limits of the hoof. [Illustration: FIG. 151.--EFFECTS OF PERIOSTITIS ON THE PEDAL AND NAVICULAR BONES.] 'It should also be noted that the animal was able to undergo a severe course of training for some years, and to gallop successfully over some of the most trying courses in England. During the whole of this time he walked and galloped apparently sound, but trotted always lame, and generally dead lame.'[A] [Footnote A: W. E Litt, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Record_, vol. viii., p. 527.] [Illustration: FIG. 152.--EFFECTS OF PERIOSTITIS ON THE OS PEDIS.] 2. 'I herewith send you photographs of three cases of the above disease, occurring in the internal surfaces of the wings of the os pedis. The photos were kindly done for me by Dr. A. Lingard, Imperial Bacteriologist to Government of India. It is a cause of many cases of obscure foot lameness in India, and frequently accounts for the numerous entries on veterinary medical history sheets under the heading "Contused Foot." 'The course of the disease is as follows: The disease makes its appearance very soon after arrival in India, the animal being admitted to hospital suffering with undoubted foot lameness, generally slight. One is soon led to suspect this disease by negative symptoms of other disease being in existence. No coronary enlargement or flinching on pressure to the coronet, no shrinkage or wiring in of the heels, neither is the characteristic pointing of navicular present. In the early stages one has false hopes of recovery by finding gradual improvement for a time by fomentation and poultices, followed by irrigation and stimulants to the coronet, and perhaps the animal is discharged from hospital, to be returned after a few days worse than ever. The disease then becomes insidious and more pronounced, the nodding of the head, even at a walk, more exaggerated, and, in fact, the animal seems afraid to put his foot to the ground, and much resembles a horse with an abscess in his foot, either from prick or picked up nail. He absolutely nurses his foot. There is a certain amount of heat always present. The disease being now well developed, pressure is caused by the ends of the navicular bone, and they become involved at their points by bony deposits. The causes of this disease I attribute, firstly, to hereditary predisposition; and, secondly the exciting cause, standing confined on board ship, where no doubt pedal congestion takes place. And perhaps some subjects start it in their marches in mobs down country in Australia. Concussion may be the cause among older horses, but the specimens photographed were taken from remounts, that had either done no work or only very gentle work, in a deeply littered riding school. [Illustration: FIG. 153.--EFFECTS OF PERIOSTITIS ON THE OS PEDIS.] '_Treatment_.--It is obvious from the position of this disease that treatment will be of no avail in producing a cure. As already stated, the disease is insidious and progressive, and it is hopeless to expect to arrest the growths once they are started. Unnerving would no doubt remove the symptom (lameness) of the disease, but an unnerved horse is not of much good for army purposes. I therefore consider that once the disease becomes firmly established it is an unfortunate and incurable one. [Illustration: FIG. 154, 155--EFFECTS OF PERIOSTITIS ON THE OS PEDIS.] 'Post-mortem reveals the small nodular growths on the inner surfaces of the wings of the pedal bone, and if long established the ends of the navicular bone are also involved. Exudation and gradual growth of false material around the nodules takes place, which also serves to increase pressure.'[A] [Footnote A: Captain L.M.Smith, A.V.D., _Veterinary Record_, vol. xi., p. 229.] 3. 'This case was brought for my opinion. The horse was lame, and walked similar to one that had had laminitis, putting the heel down first upon the ground. I ordered the patient to be destroyed. You will note the ossification of the flexor pedis at its attachment to the pedal bone. I enclose photos of the ground, also of the articular, surfaces of the bone.'[A] [Footnote A: F.B.Jones, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Record_, vol. xi., p. 230.] B. PYRAMIDAL DISEASE, BUTTRESS FOOT, OR LOW RINGBONE. _Definition_.--A condition of periostitis and ostitis in the region of the pyramidal process of the os pedis, usually preceded, but sometimes followed, by fracture of the process, and characterized by deformity of the hoof and an alteration in the normal angle of the joint. _Causes_.--In the majority of cases buttress foot is brought about by fracture of the pyramidal process. Thus, although distinct evidence of such is nearly always wanting, we may assume that the original cause is violent injury to the part in question. Properly, therefore, one would say that this condition should be described under Fractures of the Os Pedis. It appears, however, that other cases of the kind arise in which fracture is altogether absent, or in which it is plainly seen to be subsequent to the diseased processes in the bone. For that reason, and also for the reason that the condition has come to be known by the name we have given, we give it special mention. _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--Even when the condition arises as the result of fracture, the ordinary manifestations of such a lesion are absent. By reason of the situation of the parts within the hoof we are unable to detect crepitation, and the resulting lameness is perhaps--in fact, nearly always is--neglected until such time as any heat or swelling caused by the injury has disappeared, in which case we are denied what evidence we might have obtained from that. All that is presented is lameness, and lameness that is at times excessive. But with the lameness there is nothing distinctive. The foot is tender on percussion, and the gait suggestive of foot lameness, that is all. We are unable, therefore, to make an exact diagnosis, and the condition goes for some time undetected. Later, however, changes in the form of the hoof and the coronet begin to appear. The skin of the coronet, especially in the region of the toe, becomes more or less thickened and indurated, and the same remark applies to the subcutaneous tissues. The most marked change, however, is the alteration in the shape of the hoof. The wall protrudes at the toe in a manner that has been termed 'buttress-like,' and has given to the condition one of its names. This, of course, entirely alters the contour of the horny box. From being more or less U-shaped, it approaches nearer the formation of the letter V, the point of the V being at the toe. In the later stages the coronary enlargement is plainly seen to be due to an extensive formation of bone. It is, in fact, a reparative callus, and the reason it reaches so large a size is probably to be accounted for by the pull of the extensor pedis upon the detached pyramidal process. As might be expected, this displacement of the fractured portion, with its effect of giving greater length to the extensor pedis, leads to a backward displacement of the os coronæ upon the pedal bone. As a result there is a marked depression at the coronet, the depression being heightened in effect by the exostosis in front. Pyramidal disease is, as a rule, met with in the hind-feet, but occurs also in the fore. _Pathological Anatomy_.--When occurring without fracture, the first observable change is a thinning of the articular cartilage of the pyramidal process, through which the bone beneath appears abnormally white. Later the thinning of the cartilage progresses until at last it becomes entirely obliterated. This destruction of the cartilage commences first at the highest point of the articular surface of the pyramid, and gradually reaches further backward into the joint. While this is taking place the new bone is being formed on the front of the os pedis, below and around the process, until, as we have already seen, an exostosis is formed, large enough to be noticeable at the coronet. This, of course, partly implicates the joint and the points of the insertion of the extensor tendon. Finally, fracture may, or may not, take place. When it does, the exostosis is larger, and the general deformity of the hoof greater. _Treatment_.--Ordinary treatment, such as point or line firing, repeated blisters, or hoof section, each of which we have tried, appears to be utterly useless. So far as we have been able to gather from the writings of other practitioners, however, neurectomy returns the animal for a time to usefulness. If the fore-limb is the seat of trouble, either plantar or median neurectomy may be practised; if the hind, then the best results are obtained by section of the posterior tibial. _Reported Cases_.--1. This animal, a mare, had been rested for lameness behind for two or three weeks, and then sent out to work, going sound. This was repeated several times, and each time the coachman reported, "Goes very lame behind after she has been at work about fifteen to twenty minutes." She always pulled out sound when I saw her in a halter on the following day, so I had her ridden, and after about seven or eight minutes she began to go lame in a hind-limb. Her lameness got rapidly worse as she was being ridden, and within a quarter of mile of her first showing lameness, she dropped and carried the lame foot in a way that suggested a badly fractured pastern. There was no recognisable disease in the limb to account for this lameness. 'I divided the posterior tibial nerve, and she went back to work moving sound, and continued to work sound up to her death from one of the regularly fatal bowel lesions twist or rupture. 'She worked nearly two years after unnerving, and developed the usual thickening at the coronet.'[A] [Footnote A: W. Willis, M.K.C.V.S., _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. xv., p. 366.] 2. 'The subject of this note was a chestnut mare, nine years old, and used for omnibus work. '_History_.--For about two months the mare was lame on the off fore-leg, and in spite of treatment the condition became steadily worse. The off fore-foot was rather long and narrow, and the fetlock-joint was inclined to be bowed outwards, but the degree of lameness was out of proportion to these defects, and the diagnosis was obscure. 'Median neurectomy was performed on May 10, 1902, and reduced the lameness to about half of what it was before. On June 5 ulnar neurectomy was performed, with the result that the mare became sound, and went to work three weeks later. She continued to work soundly and well, being inspected from time to time. 'During February of 1903 the coronet began to enlarge in front and slightly to the outer side, and gradually a ridge of bone grew down from the coronet to the toe. The case, in fact, became a typical one of so-called "buttress foot," which my friend Mr. Willis has described as diagnostic of disease of the pyramidal process of the pedal bone. Meanwhile the swelling of the coronet, which appeared to be mainly composed of fibrous tissue, increased in size, until the whole of the front and sides became involved, assuming the appearance shown in Fig. 156. 'In spite of the coronary enlargement the mare worked well, and remained free from lameness till June 8, 1903, on which day the limb became swollen up to the site of the median operation. The appearance of the limb closely simulated an attack of lymphangitis. The mare was kept under observation till the 13th of the same month, during which time the swelling increased, as did also the lameness to a slight degree. During progression she brought the heel to the ground and "rocked the toe," as in a case of rupture of the perforans tendon. The mare was killed on June 13. [Illustration: FIG. 156.--A CASE OF BUTTRESS FOOT.] [Illustration: FIG. 157.--FRACTURE OF THE PYRAMIDAL PROCESS IN BUTTRESS FOOT.] '_Post-mortem_.--In trying to pull away the hoof from the sensitive structures with a pair of farrier's pincers, the tendons and ligaments of the corono-pedal articulation gave way, leaving the pedal bone _in situ_. The flexor perforans tendon showed inflammatory softening, and was very nearly ruptured through at the level of the navicular bone. There was slight evidence of navicular disease. The articular cartilage of the corono-pedal joint had been almost completely removed, and there was sclerosis of the opposed bony surfaces, which by unequal wear had brought about deformity of the os coronæ and os pedis. There was very old-standing fracture of the pyramidal process (see Fig. 157), with the formation of a false joint between the process and the pedal bone. There was also a recent fracture of the part of the pedal bone which carries the articulation for the navicular bone, and this and the tendon lesions probably accounted for the final symptoms of 'break-down.' Neurectomy enabled us to get a year's useful work out of what would otherwise have been a hopeless cripple.[A] [Footnote A: A.R. Routledge, M.R.C.V.S., _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. xvi., p. 371.] C. FRACTURES OF THE BONES. More or less by reason of the protection afforded them by the hoof fractures of the bones of the foot are rare. When occurring they are more often than not the result of direct injury, as, for example, violent blows, the trapping of the foot in railway points, the running over of the foot with a heavily-laden waggon, or violent kicking against a gate or a wall. They occur also as a result of an uneven step upon a loose stone when going at a fast pace, and as a result of sudden slips and turns, in which latter case they are met with when animals have been galloping unrestrained in a field, or when an animal, ridden or driven at a fast pace, is suddenly pulled up, or just as suddenly turned. At other times fractures in this region take place without ascertainable cause, and cases are on record where animals turned overnight into a loose box in their usual sound condition have been found in the morning excessively lame, and fracture afterwards diagnosed. 1. FRACTURES OF THE OS CORONÆ. Fractures of the os coronæ result from such causes as we have just enumerated, and are nearly always seen in conjunction with fractured os suffraginis. When this latter bone is also fractured diagnosis is comparatively easy, a certain amount of crepitus, even when the suffraginis is only split, being obtainable. When the os corona alone is fractured then diagnosis is extremely difficult, the smallness of the bone and the comparative rigidity of the parts rendering manipulation almost useless, and effectually preventing the obtaining of crepitus. It is, in fact, only when the bone is broken into many pieces that crepitus may be detected, and even then it is slight. _Reported Cases_.--1. 'The subject was a four-year old hunter. While at exercise in the morning of August 10 he bolted, got rid of his rider, and ran about in a mad fashion, came into contact with a wheelbarrow in a narrow passage, and finally came into violent contact with a wall, which had the effect of throwing him down. The rider stated that the animal suddenly put down his head and managed to get off the bridle; he then bolted, and the only chance for the rider was to throw himself off. 'On examination I found the horse unable to place any weight on the off fore-leg, the pastern was swollen and painful, the hollow of the heel was also swollen, and there was marked constitutional disturbance. 'After a short time he would place the heel on the ground and elevate the toe to a slight degree. On manipulating the pastern slight crepitation could be discovered, and there was abnormal mobility in the corono-pedal articulation. On the near fore-leg there were extensive wounds in the region of the knee, and great laceration of the tissues. The animal was destroyed. 'On examining the leg I found the subcutaneous tissues infiltrated from below the knee to the foot, large masses of gelatinous blood-stained material being present along the flexor tendons and in the hollow of the heel. The inferior articular surface of the os suffraginis was denuded of cartilage anteriorly; the os coronæ was fractured into eight moderate sized, irregular fragments, and ten minute pieces. The surface of the perforans tendon as it glides over the smooth surface at the back of the os coronæ was lacerated, and minute portions of the bone were found embedded therein.'[A] [Footnote A: E. Wallis Hoare, F.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiv., p. 133.] 2. 'Here, again, fracture was the result of the animal bolting with his rider. Trying to avoid collision with a conveyance coming towards him, the animal slipped on a wooden pavement, sliding along until his near fore-leg came in contact with the wheel of a standing cab. There was considerable swelling from the knee downwards, great pain, and evidence of fracture in the region of the pastern. 'Post-mortem revealed the os suffraginis broken into about thirty pieces, and the os coronæ with a piece broken off the inside of its proximal end.[A] [Footnote A: A.F. Appleton, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xiii., p. 411.] 3. 'The patient was a brown mare used for heavy van work in London. About January 10 she was lame, and as she had a cracked heel, was treated by poulticing for a day, and then by antiseptic lotions. In a week she was sent to work, but the following day lameness returned, and continued till about February 15. No special symptom was detected which indicated the exact position of any cause of lameness. Then the lameness increased in severity, and some swelling around the coronet began to show itself. 'In consultation with another veterinary surgeon, two possible causes of this intense lameness were discussed: one, that we had septic infection of the coronet, and that probably the swelling of this part would soften, and sloughs occur; the other, that a fracture of the os pedis or os coronæ existed. The enlargement of the coronet was hard and firm, not particularly sensitive. It was decided to do nothing for a few days. In a week the pain abated, and the mare would put her foot on the ground, and ceased to "nurse" the limb as she had done. When moved over in the box she put a little weight on the foot, but limped very decidedly. 'Another week passed, and the pain and lameness further abated, but the swelling around the coronet continued. Perhaps it was a little less in front, but it had not decreased on the inside. It remained firm, and was not painful on pressure. It showed no soft places, and the upper part of the leg remained free from oedema. [Illustration: FIG. 158.--FRACTURE IN SITU (OS CORONÆ).] 'The diagnosis was now that a fracture existed, and it was proposed to send the mare to grass for a few months. The consulting veterinary surgeon suggested that before doing so a blister might be applied to the coronet. This was done. The mare was found next day again on three legs. She had apparently been down during the night. In a few days the coronet increased again in size, and within a week "broke out" in two places. 'The opinion now formed was that, with a fracture and this additional cause of inflammation around the joint, it would be most economical for the owner to have her killed. This was done, and a post-mortem examination was made by Mr. Hunting and Mr. Willis. [Illustration: FIG. 159.--WITH BROKEN PORTION REMOVED.] '_Post-mortem_.--The foot, cut off at the fetlock-joint, showed extensive swelling all round the coronet. There were two wounds on the skin--one on the front of the coronet, the other on the inner side. From both pus and blood had escaped. They both communicated under the skin with a large abscess cavity. The abscess did not communicate with the joint. The pastern bone was sound. On separating the pastern from the coronet bone the articular surfaces were of a healthy colour, but the soft tissues immediately surrounding them were inflamed. On the centre of the articular surface of the coronary bone a thin red ring was noticed, and the portion of cartilage within it seemed raised. With the point of a scalpel this portion was lifted, and was found to be not only cartilage, but a layer of bone completely detached from the os coronæ. On removing the bones from the hoof the rest of the bone was quite normal, as was the pedal bone. 'Fig. 158 shows the articular surface of the coronet with the fracture _in situ_; and Fig. 159 the surface from which the broken portion is removed and laid to the side of the foot. 'Some interesting questions arise. How was the fracture caused? When did it occur? Between the broken portion and the main bone there was a layer of granulation tissue, so that it is certain the injury existed before the blister was applied, and it may possibly have existed from the commencement of the lameness.'[A] [Footnote A: R. Crawford, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Record_, vol. viii., p. 478.] 2. FRACTURES OF THE OS PEDIS. These also are a result of the causes we have before given. The os pedis is also liable to fractures from pricks, from treads in the region of the wings, and from the malnutrition and careless use of the foot sometimes following neurectomy. It is interesting to note that, with fracture of this bone, lameness is nearly always excessive, but that at times it may be entirely absent. Crepitus is, of course, denied us, and in nearly every instance the case is only diagnosed when the lameness persists and pus commences to form, or when grave changes in the normal shape of the foot compel our attention to the parts. When it is the continued formation of pus that draws our notice to something more than ordinarily grave, it is in giving exit to the pus that the fracture is nearly always discovered. _Reported Cases_.--Two interesting cases of fractured os pedis are reported by Mr. Gladstone Mayall, M.R.C.V.S., in the _Veterinary Record_, vol. xiv., p. 54: 1. 'The horse was brought in markedly lame on the off hind-foot, knuckling at the fetlock, and taking a long stride with the injured limb. There was a punctured wound at the toe. The horn was pared, and antiseptic poultices applied. Notwithstanding the antiseptic treatment pus continued to form. At the end of a week sufficient horn was removed to ascertain the cause of the constant suppuration. A movable object was found at the bottom of the wound, and a piece of bone as large as a sixpence finally removed. Recovery was uneventful.' [Illustration: FIG. 160.--FRACTURED OS PEDIS.] 2. 'A filly was attended for a discharging fistula at the coronet. Externally it had all the appearances of a quittor. At first no history was given. The filly went scarcely lame at all, and had never been shod. Treatment with poultices and caustic injections was useless. Finally the filly was cast and the foot examined. A piece of bone, apparently part of the wing of the os pedis, was removed, and the case made a good recovery. Subsequent inquiries elicited the fact that the animal had kicked at and hit a gate-post, and it was judged that then the injury had occurred.' 3. 'The subject was a bay horse, nine years old, used for railway shunting. On August 7 he was found to be intensely lame of the near hind-limb, and, after inquiries, there was no evidence bearing on the cause, as is often the case, and at times this comes to light when least expected. 'I was called in consultation on September 2, and found him suffering acute pain, with great swelling around the coronet. The foot was examined thoroughly, and the diagnosis was fracture of the pedal bone, and immediate slaughter was recommended. However, that was not carried out, and he died on September 22. 'The post-mortem inspection revealed a complete fracture of nearly the whole of the articulating surface and the left wing of the pedal bone (as shown in Fig. 160).'[A] [Footnote A: J. Freeman, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xxxi., p. 324.] 4. A further interesting case is reported by Mr. William Hurrell.[A] Here the cause was presumably galloping in the field, for the subject, a cart mare running out at grass with her foal, was suddenly found to be lame. [Footnote A: _Ibid_., vol. v., p. 408.] As the lameness continued to increase in severity, Mr. Hurrell was called in on August 1, and diagnosed the case as one of foot lameness. On this date the foot was pared out, and a large accumulation of pus discovered, Poulticing and antiseptic dressings were continued until August 16, when a movable piece of the os pedis was found at the toe. On August 25 this detached portion of the bone was removed, and turned out to be the whole of the anterior margin of the os pedis, measuring 3-1/2 inches long, and varying in width from 1/2 inch to 1-1/2 inches. On September 20 the mare was working without lameness. 3. FRACTURES OF THE NAVICULAR BONE. Hidden within the wings of the os pedis, and protected as it is by its tendinous covering and the yielding substance of the plantar cushion, the navicular bone is even less liable to fracture than either of the other bones of the foot. The most common cause of fracture of the navicular is that of stabs or deep pricks in the region of the point of the frog (see p. 216). Following that, the next most common cause is violent injury. We thus find the navicular bone fractured, together with one or both of the other bones of the foot, when the foot is run over by a heavy vehicle. One such case is reported by Mr. J.H. Carter, F.R.C.V.S., where the horse's foot was run over by a tram-engine, in which the os pedis and the navicular were fractured in several places.[A] A further case is on record where a sharp blow on the front of the hoof was the cause. In this case the os pedis and other structures were uninjured, but the navicular bone was fractured into three large, and about half a dozen small, pieces.[B] [Footnote A: _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xxxi., p. 246.] [Footnote B: _Veterinarian_ for 1857, p. 73.] Fractures of the navicular may occur, however, in which history of a prick or of a violent injury is absent. See reported case below. As with fractures of the os pedis and the os coronæ, so with this exact diagnosis is difficult--we may say almost impossible. With a history of violent injury, however, some little regard may be paid to a continued heat and tenderness of the foot, and a distinct inclination on the part of the animal to go on the toe. Even when the fracture is the result of a prick, and the bone is plainly felt with the probe, we still cannot be positive as to fracture. _Reported Case_.--'The animal was a Hungarian, a troop-horse in the 3rd Hussars (G. 15). On November 22, 1881, on the march from Norwich to Aldershot, the horse suddenly made a violent stumble, very nearly coming on to his knees. The rider declared that he put his foot on a stone. The accident caused great lameness in the near fore-leg, and the horse had to be led the remainder of that day's march. On the following day he was also led; but, after going some sixteen or eighteen miles, he was so lame that he was left at the nearest billet (in Edmonton). He was here attended by Mr. Stanley, M.R.C.V.S., of Edmonton, who pronounced it a case of navicular disease. I first saw the animal on December 1, 1881, and quite agreed with Mr. Stanley that it was a case of foot lameness, though, from the horse's former history, I could not think it a case of ordinary navicular disease. I diagnosed it a case of fracture, without displacement, either of the os coronæ or the navicular bone, but was more inclined to the former than the latter. This was after a full hour's examination. I failed to find any heat in, or any flinching by manipulation of, any part of the limb; but, in walking, the horse was excessively lame, going on the toe, and, indeed, trying if possible to keep the foot entirely off the ground. 'On December 6 the horse was sent on to Aldershot by rail. He was then walking better, though still very lame. My only treatment for a short time was to apply cold water constantly to the coronet and foot. For two hours daily this was done by a hose, the remainder of the time by a cold swab. On December 14 I applied a strong blister over the coronet, reaching up to the fetlock. This was washed off about the end of December. The horse was then not nearly so lame. I then resumed the cold-water treatment, and he got gradually better, and was sent to light duty on February 18, 1882. He, however, only attended one field-day, and was taken into the Horse Infirmary again on March 8, very lame. Again, there was an entire absence of heat or pain on pressure, but the same action, viz., going on the toe. I forgot to remark that he always pointed the toe of the affected leg when standing in the stable, and this symptom continued. I put him under the cold-water treatment for a short time, and about the middle of March again applied a strong blister over the coronet up to the fetlock. This was washed off about the end of the month, and was succeeded by the cold water again. Towards the end of April there was no improvement at all, and I applied for permission to destroy the horse. This was carried out on April 27, at the recommendation of Mr. Gudgin, I.V.S., Aldershot, and a Board of veterinary surgeons. 'On making the post-mortem examination I first thought the bone was only partly fractured or cracked, but on manipulating it, after its being in hot water a short time, I saw the fracture was complete.'[A] [Footnote A: S.W. Wilson, M.R.C.V.S., A.V.D., _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xv., p. 12.] _Treatment of Fractures of the Bones of the Foot_.--It will be seen at once that in most cases anything in the way of bandaging is well-nigh useless. When the os coronæ is fractured, however, a little more may be added to the natural rigidity of the parts by enclosing the region of the pastern and the foot in a plaster-of-Paris bandage. The main treatment, however, in every case, will be a continual use of the slings for at least seven to eight weeks, by that means compelling the animal to give to the injured parts the necessary amount of rest. With fracture of the os pedis, when such is caused by pricks and complicated by a flow of pus, then attention must be given to removal of the displaced piece of bone. The pus track is to be followed up with the searcher, sufficient horn removed with the knife, and the broken piece of bone removed with a scalpel and a pair of strong forceps, the operation to be afterwards followed up by antiseptic dressings to the opening. Until this is done the wound refuses to heal. Fracture of the navicular bone, if in any way diagnosed with certainty, offers us an almost hopeless case, for it appears to be a commonly reported fact that attempts at reunion are rare. This, in all probability, is due to the pressure put upon it every now and again, when the animal's weight presses the bone between the os coronæ and the os pedis above and the perforans tendon below. Even should reunion take place, the resulting callus, interfering as it does with the movements of the perforans, leaves us a case of incurable lameness. When the fracture is complicated by the formation of pus, as in the case of prick, then the case, with the attendant purulent synovitis and arthritis, is even more hopeless still. Diagnosis of fracture of either of the bones of the foot is, as we have said before, extremely difficult. It so happens, therefore, in those cases caused by violent blows, that anything approaching an accurate opinion cannot be given until some months after the injury. After some time we are met with unmistakable changes in the form of the foot, and are able to assume that the persisting lameness is due to pressure of a reparative callus within the hoof. In such cases the only treatment of any use is that of neurectomy. CHAPTER XII DISEASES OF THE JOINTS[A] [Footnote A: Properly speaking, we have in the foot of the horse but _one_ joint--namely, the corono-pedal articulation. Although not a joint in the strict sense of the word, we, nevertheless, intend here to consider the navicular bursa as such. In this apparatus, although we have no articular cartilage proper, and no apposition of bone to bone, we still have a large synovial cavity, and in close proximity to it bone. We may, in fact, and do get in it exactly similar changes to those termed 'synovitis' and 'arthritis' elsewhere. Therefore, we include the changes occurring in it in this chapter, and hence the plural use of the word to which this note refers.] A. SYNOVITIS. _Definition_.--By the term 'synovitis' is indicated an inflammation of the synovial membrane. It may be either (_a_) _Simple_ or _Acute_, or it may be (_b_) _Purulent_ or _Suppurative_. In the simple form there is little or no tendency for the affection to implicate the other structures of the joint, whereas in the suppurative form the joint capsule, the ligaments, and the bones soon come to participate in the diseased processes, giving us a condition which we shall afterwards describe as acute arthritis. (_a_) SIMPLE SYNOVITIS. 1. _Acute--(Causes)_.--Simple or acute synovitis is nearly always brought about by injury to the joint--by blows or bruises, or by sprains of the ligaments. At other times it occurs without ascertainable cause, and is then put down to the influence of cold, or to poisonous materials (as, for example, that of rheumatism) circulating in the blood-stream. _Pathology_.--Uncomplicated acute synovitis never causes death. The pathological changes in connection with it have therefore been studied in cases purposely induced, and the animal afterwards slaughtered. It is then found that, as in inflammation elsewhere, the synovial membrane is showing the usual inflammatory phenomena--that it is thick and swollen as a result of the inflammatory hyperæmia and commencing exudation. Later, the synovial fluid becomes increased in quantity, is thin and serous, and after a time is seen to be mixed with the inflammatory exudation poured into it. We then find that it has lost its clear appearance, has become thick and muddy, and has floating in it flakes of fibrin. If the case progresses favourably these materials are soon absorbed and resolution occurs. In rarer cases the thickening and congestion of the membrane increases, and the articular capsule becomes so distended with the increased synovia and accumulated inflammatory discharges that a kind of chemosis occurs. In other words, there oozes through, without actual rupture of the membrane, a thin, blood-stained, and purulent-looking discharge. It is an important point to note that in cases of synovitis the fringes of the synovial membrane become swollen and blood-injected, forming noticeable red elevations at the margins of the cartilages. It is then that the diseased condition soon spreads and runs into arthritis. Further, it is important, especially with regard to the question of the degree of pain and lameness likely to be caused, to note that often granulations are thrown out upon the looser folds of the membrane. As these increase in size they come to form fringed and villous membranous projections inserting themselves between the bones forming the articulation. In such cases there is no doubt that the intense pain sometimes observed in these cases is due to pinching of these prolongations of the synovial membrane by the opposing bones of the joint. _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--Acute synovitis of a joint leads to heat of the parts, pain, distension of the capsule, and, where the joint may be easily felt, fluctuation. In the articulation with which we are dealing, however, these last two symptoms are not easily detected, for the surrounding structures--namely, the lateral and other ligaments of the joint, the extensor pedis tendon in front, and the perforans behind, together with the dense and comparatively unyielding nature of the skin of the parts--are such as to prevent distension and fluctuation becoming marked to a visible extent. We are able to diagnose the case as one of foot lameness, and, with a history of a severe blow or other injury, are able to assume that this condition, perhaps attended with periostitis, is in existence. When other symptoms present themselves diagnosis may be more certain. The animal becomes slightly fevered, throbbing pains in the joint manifest themselves by irregular pawing movements on the part of the patient. The animal comes out from the stable stiff, even dead-lame, and the limb is carried with the lower joints semiflexed. The breathing is hurried and the pulse firm and frequent, while in a bad case patchy perspiration breaks out at intervals on various parts of the body. If with this we get a puffy and tender swelling in the hollow of the heel, our diagnosis may be certain at any rate as to the existence of joint trouble, although, from reasons we have given, we may not be able to mark its exact nature. 2. _Chronic_.--Simple synovitis may in many instances become chronic. In this case we have simply a pouring into the synovial capsule of serous fluid, and with it an increased quantity of synovia--this time with an absence of the usual inflammatory phenomena. Beyond the swelling of the capsule there is little to be noticed. The joint becomes perhaps a little weaker, but pain or tenderness and heat are entirely absent. Such a condition, by reason of the natural rigidity of the parts, is not to be observed in the foot, although at times it must most certainly occur. Examples of such a condition are to be found in bog-spavin, in hygroma of the stifle, and sometimes in the fetlock. From a study of these, we know that they may be induced by frequent attacks of acute synovitis, from repeated slight injuries or bruises, or from strains to the ligaments of the joint; or that they may be chronic from the outset. We know, too, that in such cases the synovial membrane becomes thickened, and that in places it may have extended somewhat over the edges of the articular cartilages. It is only fair to suppose that such changes occur also in the pedal articulation. In that case we may take it for certain that the natural rigidity of the surrounding structures has the effect of pushing the thickened membrane further between the bones of the joint than occurs in a like condition elsewhere, leading, of course, to a lameness that is marked in degree but occult as to cause. In our minds there is no doubt that many of the occult and chronic forms of foot-lameness we meet with in practice are in this way to be accounted for. We may, in fact, explain them by suggesting either a chronic synovitis alone, or a synovitis complicated with periostitis. _Treatment of Synovitis_.--If a joint has been injured, as we have suggested, by slight blows or other causes--in other words, if the injury is subcutaneous, and no wound is in existence--then there is no treatment which offers better results than does the continued application of cold. At the same time, the animal should be slung, or, if non-excitable and inclined to rest, allowed at intervals to lie on a thick and comfortable straw bed, the cold fomentations during such intervals being discontinued. When the case is a marked one and the animal valuable, benefit will be derived from the application of crushed ice. The animal's condition must be watched, and the case helped as far as is possible by the administration of a mild dose of physic, by saline drinks, and, when necessary, by the giving of small but repeated doses of Fleming's tincture of Aconite in order to relieve the pain. In a chronic case the repeated application of a blister is indicated. (b) PURULENT OR SUPPURATIVE SYNOVITIS. In this condition we have synovitis complicated by the presence of pus. Unlike the simple form, it shows a marked disposition to spread, and quickly involves the surrounding structures. Very soon the ligaments of the joint, the periosteum, the articular cartilages, and the bones are implicated. This, of course, constitutes a condition of acute purulent arthritis. Under that heading, therefore, the condition will be later discussed. B. ARTHRITIS. (a) SIMPLE OR SEROUS ARTHRITIS. With an attack of simple synovitis it may be always assumed that the changes commenced in the synovial membrane, communicate themselves more or less readily to the surrounding tissues, and are not confined to the synovial membrane alone. We may thus have the inflammatory phenomena asserting themselves in the surrounding ligaments, in the periosteum, in the bone, and in the articular cartilages. It depends, in fact, upon the severity of our case whether we call it synovitis or arthritis. The two conditions merge so the one into the other that no hard-and-fast rule may be laid down whereby they may with certainty be differentiated. Such symptoms, therefore, as we have given for synovitis may be also read as indicating a condition of simple arthritis. The course of the case will be very similar, and the treatment to be followed identical with that just given. (b) ACUTE ARTHRITIS. _Causes_.--An attack of acute arthritis may commence with the affection of the synovial membrane, and spread from that to the other structures. In other cases the disease of the synovial membrane, and after it the disease of the joint, may be secondary to diseases commencing in the structures around the joint. This affection may therefore follow on a case of acute coronitis, a case of suppurating corn, a case of quittor, a severe case of tread, or may attend a case of laminitis. _Symptoms_.--In our cases we get very little beyond a magnification of such symptoms as we have described under acute synovitis. The heat and the pain is perhaps greater, and the lameness more marked. It is rather to the constitutional disturbance we must look, however, for a confirmation of our opinion that arthritis is in existence. This is always severe, and of an acute febrile nature. The pulse is fast, thin, and thready, the respirations enormously increased, and the temperature high. The appetite is in abeyance, the animal quickly becomes what is termed 'tucked-up,' or greyhound-like, in the body, and patchy perspirations break out about him. The limb is held with the joints all semiflexed, and severe and intense throbbing pains are indicated by the frequent pawing movements the animal makes in the air. Manipulation of the foot is resented, and the agonizing intensity of the pain so caused is shown by the drawn and haggard appearance of the eyes. In a favourable case the symptoms from now onwards may gradually subside. The appetite returns, the breathing and other signs of disturbance show a return to the normal, weight is placed on the limb, and resolution slowly but surely takes place. In many of these, our favourable cases, however, resolution is incomplete, and recovery only takes place at the expense of anchylosis of the joint, a condition we shall refer to later. In unfavourable cases, and these unfortunately are only too common, the condition terminates in suppuration. (c) PURULENT OR SUPPURATIVE ARTHRITIS. _Definition_.--By this term we indicate an arthritis complicated by the formation of pus within the joint. _Causes_.--The organisms of pus may infect the joint by extension of a suppurating process from without. For example, in the case of a suppurating corn, in quittor, in tread, or in the case of a suppurating wound caused by a prick, the pus formed may in many instances be very near the capsular ligament of the articulation. Under such circumstances, unless there is a free and unhindered flow of the pus from an outside opening, inroads will be made by it upon the thin capsule. The latter is quickly penetrated, and pus is admitted to the interior of the joint. In other cases infection of the joint may proceed from within, from a poisoned state of the blood-stream. The condition occurs, for instance, in bad attacks of laminitis. We ourselves, too, have seen two cases where suppuration of the pedal articulation occurred in the septic pyæmia of foals, a disease known commonly as 'joint-ill,' and characterized by an infected state of the circulation. Cases have also come under our notice where this condition has resulted from slight injuries in the region of the insertion of the extensor pedis inflicted by the animal himself when galloping away. Perhaps, however, the most common cause of suppurative arthritis in the foot is direct penetration of the articulation in the case of pricks. The penetrating object is nearly always dirty--bacterially dirty, at any rate--and suppuration only too readily commences. Even should such a wound be inflicted by an aseptic body, infection would quickly ensue as a result of the wound gathering dirt from the ground, or even from admission to the joint of impure and bacilli-laden air. _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--This is one of the most serious conditions we are called upon to face when dealing with diseases of the foot, for in many cases it quickly ends in exhaustion and death of the patient, while in even the most favourable cases nothing better than a condition of complete and bony anchylosis is to be expected. The owner, therefore, should be warned accordingly. As in the other joint affections, so here, we get all the symptoms of acute febrile constitutional disturbance. The pulse, the temperature, the respirations, and the general haggard, 'tucked-up,' and distressed appearances of the animal all tell too plain a tale. Our patient is in constant pain, and the seat of the trouble is clearly enough shown by the constant pawing movements of the affected foot. If he has room to get up and down in comfort the animal adopts for long periods at a stretch the recumbent position, and is not upon his legs long enough to take the necessary amount of food to keep him going. Even when down, it is plain to see that the animal is not at rest. The pawing movement is still maintained with the foot, and every now and again the eyes are opened and the headed lifted to give a troubled look round. The appetite, too, is capricious, and in many cases almost entirely lost. In some slight degree the condition is less to be feared in a fore than in a hind foot--that is, so far as absolutely fatal results are concerned. With the condition confined to one fore-foot, the animal is able to get up and down with a moderate degree of comfort. At intervals, therefore, he rises to take nourishment, and as soon as his wants are satisfied again lies down. With the disease in a hind-foot matters are not taken so comfortably. The patient finds that with each day's increasing weakness the difficulty that at first he had to raise himself with only one sound hind-foot becomes enormously increased. The consequence is that he fears to go down, and the standing position is maintained until sheer weakness overcomes him, and he goes down, not to rise again without assistance. If judiciously attended he is, of course, put in slings before this stage is reached; but there are instances, as in the case of a cart-mare heavy with foal, where the use of slings is most decidedly contra-indicated. If doubt before existed as to the nature of the case, it is at a later stage dispelled by the appearance, generally in the hollow of the heel, of a hot and painful swelling. This at first is hard, but later fluctuates. Finally it breaks at one or more spots, and there exudes from the opening or openings a purulent and oftentimes sanious discharge, which coagulates about each fistula after the manner of ordinary synovia. With the discharge of the abscess contents there is some slight improvement in the symptoms. Here, with a suitable treatment, and with a patient of a particularly robust constitution, the case appears to turn, and slowly but surely progresses towards the only end we can hope for--namely, a more or less painless anchylosis of the articulation. In less favourable cases the purulent discharge continues, and (always a bad sign) becomes more or less chocolate-like in colour, distinctly thin, and stinking. The diseased process spreads until the ligaments of the joint, both by reason of their infiltration with the inflammatory discharges, and also on account of the ravages made on them by the invading pus, either greatly stretch or altogether rupture. The joint, after its ligaments have been destroyed in this manner, is loosened, and the bones are now freely movable. Their manipulation gives to the touch a sickening, grating sound--in other words, we have crepitus. This, of course, indicates that the articular cartilages have become greatly eroded by the inflammatory process, and so left what we may term 'raw' surfaces of bone to rub together. When the animal is put to the walk the toe of the foot is elevated, and the extreme mobility of the foot gives one the idea of fracture. With every step there is a peculiar sucking noise, comparable to that of a foot moving in a boot of water, and putrescent matter is squeezed from every opening each time the foot is put to the ground. Although we have seen cases even advanced thus far recover, it is questionable whether it is now wise to attempt to prolong life. Slaughter is far more humane, and, in our opinion, except with a valuable brood animal, more economical. If the animal is allowed to linger, other symptoms will nearly always present themselves before death occurs. Whether in slings or not, a careful watch should be kept upon the sound limb. For some time the patient stands upon it incessantly, but sooner or later it happens that a farther visit show us the animal standing with full weight on the diseased foot, and making painful pawing movements with what before was the sound. We immediately jump to the conclusion 'laminitis.' And so it is, but it is a laminitis brought about by pyæmia. This is indicated by the swollen and oedematous nature of the lymphatics of the limb. Plainly enough they indicate the road by which the poison has travelled. It is in this way: Pus and putrefactive organisms have gained entrance to the lymphatics of the original diseased limb. From these they have rapidly gained the blood-stream and set up infection elsewhere. In this particular instance it is demonstrated by the laminitis and lymphangitis of the previously sound limb. With the poison thus circulating in the blood-stream, we often also get spots of infection commenced in one or other of the more vital organs--notably the lungs or the kidneys. The end of our case is then either a gangrenous pneumonia or complications induced by a condition of widespread pyæmia. With the animal in slings there are one or two other symptoms that call for attention. In many cases, especially with animals of a lymphatic and indolent nature, the use made of them is inordinate. The patient rests so continually in them that alarming swellings commence to make their appearance about the rectum, or in the case of a mare about the vulva. The animal must then be let down at regular intervals and again raised when rest is obtained. A more alarming symptom still is when the animal, instead of resting in the slings by his buttocks, casts his weight bodily into the belly-rest and hangs with a heavy head into the head-stall. This indicates complete exhaustion and a wish for death. Matters should therefore be explained to the owner, and his consent obtained for immediate destruction. _Pathology_.--The pathological changes occurring in suppurative arthritis we shall pass over briefly. It is almost sufficient, in fact, to say that the whole of the joint becomes completely disorganized. The synovial membrane becomes so tremendously thickened and injected as to be scarcely recognisable as such, the thickening in the later stages being due to large growths of granulation tissue which entirely alter the appearance of the membrane as we know it normally. In the early stages the contents of the joint are composed of thin pus and synovia. Later, as destruction of the synovial membrane proceeds, the flow of synovia is stopped, while the pus formation goes on until finally nothing but pus and dead tissue products fill the cavity. If the suppurative process has commenced from within, the pus that is formed is, as a rule, thick and creamy, comparatively unstained, and free from marked odour. If, on the other hand, air has gained access to the joint, or the suppurative process has started from the materials introduced by a foreign body, the joint contents are thin, blood-stained, and stinking. The inflammatory changes in the joint soon spread to the ligaments, and to the soft structures in contact with them. This means that the ligaments become infiltrated with inflammatory exudate, that the fibrous bundles composing them become separated, and that the ligaments are weakened and easily stretched. As a consequence, a certain amount of displacement or dislocation of the bones is allowed. In like manner the inflammatory changes keep spreading until we have the periosteum next the ends of the bones affected. The periostitis thus set up invariably takes the osteoplastic form, and as a result of this we have growths of new bone in the near neighbourhood of the joint. It is in the later stages of the disease--that is, when the pus has been evacuated and reparative changes commenced--that this osteoplastic periostitis is most marked, and it plays a large part in bringing about the condition of anchylosis, which we shall afterwards describe. Grave changes also occur in the articular cartilages. They quickly lose their peculiar glistening polish, their semitransparency is lost, and the natural tint of a pearl-like blue gives way to a dirty yellow. Later this is followed by erosion of the cartilages at such points as they happen to be in greatest contact. The ends of the bones are thus exposed, and their medullary cavities exposed to infection. As a result we get in them the changes we have already described under Ostitis. _Treatment_--_(a) Preventive_.--Seeing that many of these cases have their starting-point in stabs or penetrating wounds of the sole, we shall be concerned first with a consideration of the correct treatment to be adopted when we know the wound to have reached the articulation. Only too frequently the treatment practised is that of poulticing. In other portions of this work we have pointed out the advantages that a continued antiseptic bathing has over the application of a poultice, the greater readiness with which the solution comes into contact with the deeper parts of the wound, and the far greater chance there is of maintaining water in an antiseptic condition than there is of keeping a poultice in the same state. There is no doubt, that in this case also, the cold or warm antiseptic bath is to be preferred to the poultice. It is questionable, however, whether even the bath is sufficient for our purpose here. We have in this case a deep punctured wound, and a wound that in every probability is infected with the organisms of pus or of putrefaction. It is a wound, moreover, which is likely to impede the thorough access to it of the solution in which the foot is fomented, on account of the flakes of coagulated fibrin which fill it. The most rational treatment, therefore, if we get to the case early enough, is to irrigate the wound freely with a solution of carbolic acid in water (1 in 20), or with a solution of perchloride of mercury (1 in 1,000), injected by means of a glass syringe, or the pattern of syringe devised for quittor. This injecting should be done thoroughly, and by that we mean that several syringefuls of the solution should be injected, the joint after each injection being manipulated so as to distribute the solution as far as possible over it. When this is done the opening in the sole may be plugged with a little perchloride of mercury, or, better still, with a little piece of tow saturated with a concentrated solution of perchloride of mercury or a solution of iodoform in alcohol and an antiseptic pad of tow or lint placed over all. The foot should then be bandaged and encased in a boot or sacking protective. The bandage should be removed daily and the antiseptic pad changed. At each visit the animal's condition must be carefully noted. So long as constitutional disturbance is slight, the foot appears comfortable, is free from marked heat and tenderness, and pawing movements are absent, and so long as the discharge on the pad appears non-purulent, free from marked odour, and small in quantity, then this dressing may be persisted in. This treatment of open joint, preventive as it is of arthritis, is also indicated in the case of open navicular bursa. In several instances we have practised this treatment for the dressing of wounds implicating the bursæ of tendons and the capsules of joints. It is also spoken of favourably by Mr. C.H. Flynn in the _American Veterinary Review_ for June, 1888, whose treatment is as follows: 'Place the patient in a clean, well-ventilated, and drained stable. Have all the litter removed, and insist on the stall being kept clean. Either place the animal in slings, or tie the head so as to prevent lying down. Clip the hair and cleanse the parts well. He prefers the corrosive sublimate solution (1 in 1,000). Should the wound be of two or more days' standing, inject the joint with the corrosive sublimate solution. Now dry the parts with a clean towel and sprinkle the wound with iodoform. Over this place a thick layer of absorbent cotton-wool, filled with iodoform, bandage securely, and keep the patient on a moderate diet, preserving the utmost quietude possible. Should the bandage remain in position and the animal free from pain, leave the bandage and dressing in place from five days to a week. Then change it, and should the discharge be little, do not disturb it, but renew the iodoform and cotton dressing, leaving it on for another week.' Other treatments for the same condition are practised, in which the wound is dusted with powdered iodoform, with potassium permanganate, or with corrosive sublimate, or where the wound, instead of being dusted, has the corrosive sublimate applied in the form of a plug. In each case the preliminary irrigation with the corrosive sublimate solution is dispensed with. This, however, should on no account be omitted. In our opinion it constitutes the very essence of the rationality of the treatment. _(b) Curative_.--It may happen, however, and often does, that this first injection of an antiseptic is unsuccessful in preventing organismal infection of the wound. In this case grave constitutional disturbance and other untoward symptoms such as we have already described quickly make their appearance. The animal should now be placed in slings and preparations made for actively treating the wound with antiseptics. Whether we fail or not, we have the satisfaction of knowing that we have given to the patient the best and the only chance of recovery. It should be remembered, however, and should be pointed out to the owner, that with purulent arthritis fully developed, with the grave constitutional changes it occasions, and with the ever-present danger of a general septic invasion of the blood-stream, that the human surgeon under such circumstances offers to his patient the alternatives of amputation or probable death. With us no such alternative is possible. It is either return the joint to some semblance of its former usefulness, or destroy the patient. In this case we advise the injection of the original wound, and also such fistulous openings as may have formed, with the 1 in 1,000 sublimate solution. Also, in order to avoid the sometimes abortive attempts of the antiseptic pad, to maintain a condition of asepsis around the wound, we advise the continual soaking of the whole foot in a cold antiseptic bath. This may be either carbolic acid 1 in 20, or--what is less volatile, perhaps more effectual, and certainly more economical--perchloride of mercury 1 in 1,000. It has been our good fortune, even when we have seen the foot almost detached from the limb by the devastating inroads of the pus, to see the suppurative process by this means gradually overcome, a reparative anchylosis set in, and the animal restored to good health and usefulness, if not to soundness. Once the suppurative process is checked and anchylosis commences, it is good treatment to smartly blister the whole of the region of the coronet, the pastern, and the wound itself with a mixed blister of cantharides and biniodide of mercury, repeated at intervals of a fortnight. This prevents to some extent further infection of the wound, and assists also in promoting the changes that tend to anchylosis. _(d)_ ANCHYLOSIS. The word anchylosis signifies the stiffening of a joint. When one has read the serious changes occurring within the joint in the more serious forms of arthritis, it is easy to understand how it comes about. In suppurative arthritis, for instance, we have the synovial membrane destroyed, the articular cartilages partly or wholly obliterated, and the former boundaries of the joint entirely lost. If the animal lives, nature is bound to make repair of a sort. The synovial membrane and the articular cartilages utterly destroyed, as we have described, cannot again be replaced. Nature can only build again from such materials as are left to her. In this case the material is bone. It must be remembered, however, that often the bone has been so diseased that spots of necrosis or caries within it are bound to remain unless moved by operative interference. Such diseased portions, when dealing with the foot, are beyond reach of the surgeon's knife, and we have no alternative but to allow them to remain. We get, therefore, in many cases, a condition of rarefactive ostitis occurring side by side with a slowly progressive caries within the bone, while outside is occurring an osteoplastic periostitis. The concurrence of these conditions leads in time to great increase in size of the parts, together with increasing anchylosis and deformity. C. NAVICULAR DISEASE. _Definition_.--Chronic inflammatory changes occurring in connection with the navicular bursa, affecting variously the bursa itself, the perforans tendon, or the navicular bone, and characterized by changes in the form of the hoof and persisting lameness. The disease is commonly noticed in thoroughbreds or in horses of the lighter breeds, and is but seldom observed in heavy cart animals. Usually it is met with in one or both fore-feet. Although of extremely rare occurrence, it has been noticed in the hind. _History_.--To English veterinarians appears to belong the credit of discovering navicular disease. As early as 1752 we find one, Jeremiah Bridges, in 'No Foot, No Horse,' drawing attention to 'coffin-joint lameness,' and advocating for its treatment setoning of the frog. It appears, too, that Moorcroft, prior to his departure for India in 1808, was acquainted with what was then known as coffin-joint[A] lameness, having drawn attention to it in 1804 in a letter to Sir Edward Codrington.[B] In 1819 Moorcroft made it even plainer still that he was fully acquainted with what we now know as navicular disease. This we learn from a letter written by him to Sewell, in which he laid claim to being the originator of neurectomy. In this letter he says: [Footnote A: The coffin-joint at this time included the navicular bursa.] [Footnote B: Percival's 'Hippopathology,' vol. iv., p. 132.] 'On dissecting feet affected with these lamenesses, the flexor tendon was now and then observed to have been broken, partially or entirely, but more commonly to have been bruised and inflamed in its course under the navicular or shuttle bone, or at its insertion into the bone of the foot. Sometimes, although seldom, the navicular bone itself has been found to have been fractured; at others its surface has been deprived of its usual coating, and studded with projecting points or ridges of new growth, or exhibiting superficial excavations more or less extensive.'[A] [Footnote A: _Ibid_.] _Pathology and Point of Commencement of the Disease_.--The exact position in which the diseased process starts has for a long time been a subject of discussion, and even now it is doubtful whether the point has been definitely settled. To mention but a few among many: We find Mr. Broad, of Bath, strenuously insisting on the fact that the disease commences in the interior of the navicular bone. Just as strenuously we find the editor of the journal in which the matter is being discussed, the late Mr. Fleming, asserting that the disease commences in the bursa.[A] Others, too, hold that the disease commences primarily in the tendon. Wedded to this view was the discoverer, Mr. Turner, of Croydon; while Percival commits himself to the statement that it is either the central ridge or the postero-inferior surface of the navicular bone, or the opposed concavity in the perforans tendon, that shows the earliest signs of the disease. The observations made by Dr. Brauell, the first Continental writer to fully describe the disease, led him to the statement that neither the bone nor the bursa was the _invariable_ starting-point of the trouble, but that usually it commenced in inflammation of the bursa itself. [Footnote A: Percival's 'Hippopathology,' vol. iv., p. 132.] Without, therefore, committing ourselves to an expression of opinion as to the precise starting-point of the affection, we shall describe the pathological changes occurring in navicular disease as noted in (1) the bursa, (2) the cartilage, (3) the tendon, and (4) the bone. 1. _Changes in the Bursa_.--Upon the internal surface of the bursal membrane is first noticed a slight inflammatory hyperæmia, accompanied by more or less swelling and tumefaction, owing to its infiltration with inflammatory exudate. The portion covering the hyaline cartilage of the navicular bone has lost its peculiar pearl-blue shimmer, and become a dirty yellow. Remembering that the bursal membrane is a synovia-secreting one, and bearing in mind what happens in ordinary synovitis and arthritis (with which, of course, this may be very closely compared), we shall first expect changes in the bursal contents. It is highly probable, though difficult of proof, that in the very early stages the chronic inflammatory stimulus has the effect of increasing the flow of synovia. In every case, however, where it can with any certainty be said that navicular disease exists, it is too late to meet with this condition. The disease has then progressed until destruction of the secreting layer of the bursal membrane has been seriously interfered with, and in this case we find a distinct deficiency in the quantity of synovia in the bursa. In advanced cases it is even found that the bursa is _absolutely dry_. 2. _Changes in the Cartilage_.--Directly that portion of the bursal membrane covering the cartilage is the subject of inflammatory change, the cartilage itself, by reason of its low vitality, soon suffers. Under a process, which we may term 'dry ulcerative,' the cartilage covering the ridge on the lower surface of the bone commences to become eroded, and in appearance has been likened, both by English and Continental writers, to a piece of wood that has been worm-eaten (see Fig. 161). [Illustration: FIG. 161.--NAVICULAR BONE (POSTERO-INFERIOR SURFACE) SHOWING THE 'WORM-EATEN' APPEARANCE CAUSED BY EROSION OF THE HYALINE CARTILAGE, AND COMMENCING RAREFACTIVE ARTHRITIS.] 'At this stage, or much earlier'--we are quoting Colonel Smith, A.V.D.--'may be found calcareous deposits in the fibro-cartilage and the bone. They are scattered like fine sand here and there, generally across the inferior half of the face of the bone; they are sometimes numerous, frequently scanty, occasionally entirely absent. The amount of calcareous degeneration depends upon the lesions present. If much destruction of bone exists, there will be but few calcareous deposits; whilst if there are many calcareous deposits, there may be but slight ulceration of bone tissue, and perhaps none at all. In fact, I have held the opinion, and see no reason to modify it, that calcareous deposits are safeguards against caries.'[A] [Footnote A: _Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics_, vol. vi., p. 195.] 3. _Changes in the Tendon_.--The effect of these calcareous deposits on the under surface of the bone is to produce a certain amount of roughness. Seeing that with every movement of the foot the perforans tendon is called upon to glide over this surface, it is clear that a secondary effect must be that of inducing erosion and destruction of the tendon. The point at which this usually commences is at the bottom of the depression that accommodates the ridge on the bone. With erosion of the cartilage and of the tendon at points exactly opposite each other, we have two surfaces come together that are prone to readily unite, and fibrous tissue adhesions often take place between the bone and the tendon. In some measure this accounts for the torn and ragged appearance of the tendon. Adhesions take place, and, under some small strain, are broken down. This may happen more than once or twice, and with each breaking of the adhesion between the bone and tendon, fibres from the latter are lacerated and torn from their place (see Fig. 162). 4. _Changes in the Bone_.--The changes occurring in the bone are essentially those of a rarefactive ostitis. These changes are described by many writers, and, whether originating primarily in the bone or not, it seems certain that extensive changes may have occurred within the bone, with but little or nothing to be noted on its outer surface. It would seem that the first change is one of congestion of the vessels of the bone's cancellous tissue. With the cause, whatever it may be, in constant operation, the congestion persists until a low type of inflammation is set up, interfering, not only with the flow of synovia in the adjoining bursa, but with the nutrition of the bone itself. As the disease progresses, there is softening and enlarging of the cancellated tissue towards the centre of the bone. The cells break up, and absorption takes place. This goes on until a large portion of the interior of the bone is in a state of dry necrosis, with, in many cases, but slight signs of mischief on the exterior of the bone. In other cases, however, the changes in the interior of the bone are accompanied by well-marked lesions on its gliding or postero-inferior surface, and by evidences of an osteoplastic periostitis along its edges. That an osteoplastic periostitis has been in existence is witnessed by the appearance along the edges of the bone of numerous outgrowths of bone, termed osteophytes (see Fig. 163). [Illustration: FIG. 162.--A FOOT WITH THE SEAT OF NAVICULAR DISEASE EXPOSED. On the anterior surface of the perforans fibres of the tendon are seen to be torn away from their abnormal adhesion with the navicular bone, while others are seen to be still attached thereto. The surface of the navicular bone itself exhibits small defects in the bony substance, which have been brought about by a rarefactive ostitis. _a_, The perforans tendon cut through and reflected; _b_, the sole.] The interosseous and postero-lateral ligaments of the articulation often participate in the inflammatory changes, and in many cases become completely ossified. The true articulatory surface of the bone, that articulating with the os pedis and with the os coronæ, is never affected. _Causes_.--In enumerating the causes of navicular disease, we shall follow the example of Colonel Smith and classify them under certain headings--namely, (1) _Hereditary Predisposition_; (2) _Compression_; (3) _Concussion_; (4) _A Weak Navicular Bone_; (5) _A Defective or Irregular Blood-supply to the Bone_; and (6) _Senile Decay_. [Illustration: FIG. 163.--THE NAVICULAR BONE FROM A CASE OF LONG-STANDING NAVICULAR DISEASE. The erosion of the cartilage on its central ridge is most marked, and the porous appearance of the bone thus uncovered points to the existence within it of a rarefactive ostitis. Along its edges large osteophytic outgrowths speak of the effects of an osteoplastic periostitis.] 1. _Hereditary Predisposition_.--That navicular disease is hereditary is a fact that has for a long time been insisted on, and has come to be so generally admitted that we do not intend to dwell on it here. As we have said before, it is found in the lighter breeds of horses (and, according to Zundel, especially in the English breeds), and is there seen to be frequently transmitted from parent to offspring. 2. _Compression_.--By this is meant the compression of the navicular bone between the os pedis and the os coronæ in front, and the perforans tendon behind. In order to appreciate this explanation of the causation of navicular disease at its true value, it will be well to consider briefly the physiology of the parts in question. The navicular bone is what we may term a complement of the os pedis. It exists, in fact, simply in order that the os coronæ may have a sufficiently large articulatory surface to play upon. One wonders at first that Nature did not arrive at this by originally placing a larger bone below. Colonel Smith explains this by suggesting that this would in all probability have meant its fracture. In progression the hind part of the foot comes to the ground first, and upon the hinder portion of the articulation would fall the first effects of concussion, together with the greater part of the body-weight. A yielding joint was in this position necessary, and that formed by the navicular bone fills all requirements. In this connection one next considers the part played by the front limbs during progression. As Zundel expresses it, they are columns of support rather than of impulsion, and, as the body-weight is thrown forward by the hind-limbs, it is the duty of the fore-limbs to receive it. The shock or concussion of the body-weight thus thrown forwards is first received by the muscles uniting the limb to the trunk, and a great part of it there minimized by their sling-like attachment. It is further absorbed by the shoulder-joint, and from there passed on to the almost vertical bony column represented by the radius and ulna, the knee, and the metacarpus. On reaching the first phalanx, a portion of the remaining force is passed on to the front of the phalanges and loses itself in front of the hoof, while the other portion is transmitted to the flexor tendons, finally to the perforans, and to the posterior parts of the foot. During progression, therefore, the navicular bone is constantly pushed downwards and backwards by the bony column, and is just as constantly pushed forwards and upwards by the resistance of the perforans tendon. This means, of course, that the navicular bone is more or less constantly subject to compression, and constant pressure, as we know full well, is a pretty sure factor in bringing about malnutrition of the parts, with atrophy or chronic inflammatory changes as an end result. Even with the limb at rest the pressure on both sides of the navicular bone is still constant. The only circumstances under which we can conceive of it being entirely absent, in fact, are when the tension on the tendon is relaxed, and the body-weight altogether removed by the animal adopting the recumbent position. The compression theory as to the causation of navicular disease was, we believe, first originated by Colonel Smith. He, at any rate, has laid much stress on it in his writings. If we accept it, and we see every reason that we should, then we must, with the author, admit the possibility of navicular disease arising from long standing in one position. 3. _Concussion_.--This we are bound to admit as a cause, and in so doing partly explain the comparative, almost total, immunity of the hind-feet from the disease. The fore-limbs, as we have already pointed out, are little more than props of support, and the force of the propelled body-weight is transmitted largely down their almost vertical lines, to end largely in concussion in the foot. With the hind-limbs matters are different. 'These,' as Percival explains it, 'have their bones obliquely placed, so as to constitute, one with the other, so many obtuse angles, to the end, that by forming powerful levers, and affording every advantage for action to the muscles attached to them, they may be fitted for the purpose of propulsion of the body onward.' The effect of these several obtuse-angled joints in the limb is to absorb the greater part of the force exerted by the body-weight before it reaches the foot. When with this we take the facts that the fore-limbs have to carry the head and neck, and that they have to bear this added weight, plus a propelling force from behind, we see why it is that they should be so subject to the disease, and the hind-limbs so exempt. As pointing out the part that concussion plays in its causation, we may mention that navicular disease is a disease of the middle-aged and the worked animal. It is interesting to note, too, that it occurs in animals with well developed frogs--in feet in which frog-pressure with the ground is most marked. This at first sight appears to flatly contradict what we have said with regard to frog-pressure in other portions of this work. With this, however, must be reckoned other predisposing causes. In this case it is not to frog-pressure alone we must look, but to the condition of the frog itself, and that of the neighbouring parts. It is when we have a frog which, though well developed and apparently satisfying all demands as to size and build, is at the same time composed of a hard, dry, and non-yielding horn that we must look for trouble. The foot predisposed to navicular disease is the strong, round, short-toed or clubby foot, open at the heels, with a sound frog jutting prominently out between them. Here is a frog exposed to all the pressure that might be desired for it, bounded at its sides by heels thick and strong, and indisposed to yield, and itself liable, from its very exposure, to become, in the warm stable, hard and dry, and incompressible' (Percival). Here, instead of acting, as normally it should, as a resilient body, and an aid to the absorption of concussion, it seems rather to play the part of a foreign body, and to bring concussion about. Seeing, then, that the navicular bursa is in very near contact with it, it is conceivable that this joint-like apparatus should suffer, and the pedal articulation be left unaffected, the more so when we take into consideration the compression theory just described. 4. _A Weak Navicular Bone_.--When the disease commences first in the bone--and there is no denying the fact that sometimes, although not invariably, it does--it may be explained by attributing to the structure of the bone an abnormal weakness in build. The navicular bone consists normally of compact and cancellated tissue arranged in certain proportions, the compact tissue without, and the cancellated within. These proportions can only be judged of by the examinations of sections of the bone, and when it is found in any case that the cancellated tissue bulks more largely in the formation of the bone than normally it should, we have what we may term a weak navicular bone. In this connection Colonel Smith says: 'Though it is far from present in every case of the disease, still I consider it a factor of great importance.' 5. _A Defective or Irregular Blood-supply to the Bone_.--This, Colonel Smith considers, is brought about by excessive and irregular work, and by the opposite condition--rest. The author points out that the bloodvessels passing to and from the navicular bone run in the substance of the interosseous ligaments, or in such proximity to them that it is conceivable that under certain circumstances mechanical interference may occur to the navicular circulation. He further points out a fact that is, of course, well known to every veterinarian, that in periods of work the circulation of the foot is hurried, and that in rest there is always a tendency to congestion; and he says in conclusion: 'I cannot help thinking that irregularities in the blood-supply in a naturally weak bone must be a factor of some importance, especially when the kind of work the horse is performing is a series of vigorous efforts followed by rest.' 6. _Senile Decay_.--With approaching age the various tissues lose their vigour, and are prone to disease. The navicular bone and surrounding structures are not exempt. With the other and more active causes we have described acting at the same time it is not surprising that navicular disease is seen as a result. In conclusion, it is well, perhaps, to say that, no matter to which particular theory of causation we may lean, we should make up our minds to consider them as a whole. While one cause may be exciting, the other may be predisposing, and the two must act together before evil results are noticed. It may be that even more than two are concerned in bringing on the disease, and to each the careful veterinarian will give due consideration. _Symptoms and Diagnosis_.--In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms are obscure. Pointing of the affected limb is the first evidence the animal gives. This, however, more often than not, goes unnoticed, and the first symptom usually observed by the owner or attendant is the lameness. Even this is such as to at first occasion no alarm, being intermittent and slight, and only very gradually becoming marked. In a few cases, however, lameness will come on suddenly, and is excessive from the commencement. It is the lameness, slow in its onset, intermittent in its character, and gradual in its progress, however, that is ordinarily characteristic of navicular disease. The animal is taken out from the stable sound, with just a vague suspicion, perhaps, that he moved a bit stiffly. While out he is thought by his driver or rider to be going feelingly with one foot or with both. Even this is not marked, and the driver has some difficulty in assuring himself whether or no he really observed it, or whether it was but imagination. On the return home the limb is examined, and nothing abnormal is to be found. The leg is of its normal appearance, and neither heat nor tenderness is to be observed in it or in the foot. On the following day the animal again is sound, and the lameness of the previous day is put down to a slight strain or something equally simple. The patient is then, perhaps, rested for a day or two. When next he is worked he again moves out from the stable sound, but again during the going gives the driver the unpleasant impression that something is amiss; and so the case goes on. One day the owner fears the animal is becoming seriously enough affected to warrant him in calling in his veterinary surgeon; the next he is confidently assuring himself that nothing is wrong. Perhaps the animal is now rested for a week or two, or even for a month or two, hoping that this will put him sound. Immediately on commencing work, however, the same symptoms as before assert themselves, and the veterinary surgeon is called in. With a history such as we have given the veterinarian's suspicions are aroused. He has the animal trotted, and may notice at this stage that there is an inclination to go on the toes, that the lame limb or limbs are not put forward freely, and that progression is stilty and uncertain; it is such, in fact, as to at once suggest the possibility of corns being present. In some cases there is just the suspicion of a limp with one limb, and this only at intervals during the trot. At one moment the veterinarian is positive that he sees the animal going lame; at another he is just as confident he sees him coming towards him sound. Nothing is found in the limb--neither heat, tenderness, nor swelling. There is nothing in the gait (either a limited movement of the radius, or a circular sweep with the leg) to indicate shoulder or other lameness, and the veterinary surgeon, by eliminative evidence, is bound to conclude that the trouble is in the foot. The foot is then examined--pared, percussed, pinched, and in other ways manipulated--but nothing further is forthcoming. In such a case the veterinary surgeon is wise to declare the abortive result of his examination, to hint darkly of his suspicions, and to suggest a second examination at some future date. It may be that two, three, four, or even more, such examinations are necessary before he can justly pronounce a positive verdict. Later he is enabled to do this by an increase in the severity of the symptoms, and by the changes that take place in the form of the foot. The lameness is now more marked, and the 'pointing' in the stable more frequent. With regard to the latter symptom, it has been seriously discussed whether the horse with navicular disease points with the heel elevated or with it pressed to the ground. In either case, of course, the limb is advanced; but while some hold that the phalangeal articulations are flexed and the heel slightly raised, in order to relieve the pressure of the perforans tendon on the affected area, and so obtain ease, there are others who hold that the heel is pressed firmly to the ground in order to deaden the pain. It may be, and most probably is, that both are right; but, in our opinion, there is no doubt whatever that pointing with the heel elevated is by far the most common. The lameness is now excessive, and is especially noticeable when the animal is put to work on a rough or on a hard ground. Even now, however, heat of the foot or tenderness is so slight as to be out of all proportion to the alteration in gait. With the case thus far advanced, evidence of pain may be obtained by pressing with the thumb in the hollow of the heel. Evidence of pain may also be obtained by using the farrier's pincers on the frog. These methods, however, are never wholly satisfactory, as a horse with the soundest of feet will sometimes flinch under these manipulations. Extreme and forcible flexion of the corono-pedal articulation also sometimes gives evidence of tenderness. In this case the foot is held up, the animal's metacarpus resting on the operator's knee, and the toe of the hoof pushed downwards with some degree of force. The same movement of the joint is given by causing the animal to put full weight upon the diseased limb, a small wedge of wood being first placed under the toe. In this manner the pressure of the perforans tendon upon the bursa is greatly increased, and the animal is caused to show symptoms of distress. The lameness may also be increased, and diagnosis helped, by paring the heels, so as to leave the frog prominent and take the whole of the body-weight. The same end is also obtained by applying a bar shoe. This was originally pointed out by Brauell, and is quoted by Zundel and by Möller. The changes in the form of the hoof may now be noticed. These are largely dependent on the fact that more or less constantly the patient saves the heel. The horn of the walls in this region, and the horn of the frog, is thereby put out of action and induced to atrophy. The hoof gradually assumes a more upright shape, and the heels contract. We thus get a hoof which is visibly narrowed from side to side, with a frog that is atrophied and often thrushy, and with a sole that is abnormally concave, hard, and affected with corns. When occurring in the hind-feet--a condition that is rare, but which has been noticed by Loiset, and quoted by Zundel--the animal is stiff behind, walks on his toes, and gives one the impression that he is suffering from some affection in the region of the loins. One such case is reported by an English veterinary surgeon, and we quote it here: 'A gray gelding, and a capital hunter, the property of a gentleman in this neighbourhood, became lame in the near fore-foot after the hunting season of 1859. The lameness was believed to be due to navicular disease. The operation of neurectomy was ultimately had recourse to. The horse subsequently did his work as well as ever, and was ridden to hounds regularly till the end of the year 1861, when he went lame of the off fore-foot. From this date he also showed very peculiar action behind, and was at times lame of both hind-limbs without any apparent cause. 'In the year 1862, from the groom's indiscreet use of physic, superpurgation was brought on which caused the animal's death. On a post-mortem examination being made, the horse was found to have _navicular disease of all four feet_. It is worthy of note that this horse had always "extravagant" action behind, but was a remarkably quick and good jumper.'[A] [Footnote A: F. Blakeway, M.R.C.V.S., _Veterinarian_, vol. ii., p. 21.] _Differential Diagnosis_.--Navicular disease may be mistaken for ordinary contracted foot. It will be remembered, however, that in the early stages of navicular disease contraction is absent, and that it is only when the disease in the bursa is of long standing that contraction comes on. With ordinary contracted foot, too, careful paring and suitable shoeing soon sees a diminution in the degree of lameness, and a return to the normal in shape (see Treatment of Contracted Foot, p. 125). With navicular disease, however, such shoeing as is beneficial in the treatment of contracted foot (notably the various methods of giving to the frog counter-pressure with ground) soon brings on an aggravation of the lameness. It is, perhaps, even more likely to be confounded with contraction when we have with the contraction a state of atrophy and thrush of the frog. With a frog in this condition pressure will give rise to pain, and navicular disease be erroneously judged to be present. In such a case we must rely wholly upon either extreme flexion or extreme extension of the joint to guide us, when, if contraction _only_ is the offending condition, no symptom of pain will be shown. Navicular disease may also be confused with rheumatic affections, with sprain of the posterior ligaments of the first interphalangeal articulation, and with sesamoid lameness. Mistakes are sometimes made, too, especially with a hasty observer, in confounding it with shoulder lameness. In rheumatism the constant changing of the seat of pain, the sometimes elevated temperature, and the appearance of symptoms of heat, tenderness, and swelling in the affected area should guide one to a right conclusion. In sprain of the posterior ligaments of the coronet and in sesamoid lameness, nothing but a careful examination and manipulation of the parts will ward off error, for in each of these cases there is 'pointing' and resting of the limb, and considerable disinclination to put weight firmly upon it. If at the same time manipulation gives distinct evidence of pain, all doubt may be set at rest. Roughly speaking, sesamoid lameness is a condition of the gliding surface of the sesamoids, and the face of the tendon playing over them, similar to that found in navicular disease. All symptoms of pointing, the constant maintaining of the limb in a state of flexion, and a feeling manner of progression are again all present. It is plain from this that in all cases where an animal with a gait at all suggestive of navicular disease is brought for our examination, the manipulation of the limb should be thorough. The character of the lameness is almost sure to deceive us; and it is not until we are able to obtain local symptoms pointing to the one or the other of the conditions we have enumerated that a decisive opinion may be given. In sesamoid lameness the local symptoms are those of heat and pain in the fetlock on palpation, and a swelling of the affected parts, such swelling being at first slight, yielding, and barely distinguishable, and afterwards larger, bony and hard, and more marked. Later still there is distinct evidence of 'knuckling' over at the fetlock and inability to fully flex it. In cases of shoulder lameness the gait alone should be sufficient to render liability of error small, for with nearly every case there is a manifest inability to 'get the limb forward', and this is best seen at a side view when the animal is trotting past the observer. When trotting towards one, there is a further and unmistakable symptom common to most shoulder lamenesses that serves to distinguish it at once, and that is the peculiar 'sweeping' outwards with the affected limb. Lastly, with either of the conditions we have just mentioned, it is the exception to get contracted foot follow on. With navicular disease it sooner or later makes its appearance. _Prognosis_.--The prognosis of navicular disease (once diagnosed with certainty) must almost of necessity be unfavourable. The facts that the disease has made serious progress before it is really noticeable, that the situation of the parts prohibits operative interference, and that the disease is one of a chronic and slowly progressive type, all point to an unfavourable termination. _Treatment_.--We have seen from the pathology of this disease that it may commence either as a rarefactive ostitis, or as a synovitis and tenositis in connection with the bursa. With the former condition in existence, or when this and the synovitis has led to erosion of the cartilage, treatment is probably of no avail, on account of the more chronic nature of these two conditions. When, however, the condition is simply that of synovitis or tenositis, a more or less acute condition, we may assume that suitable treatment and a long rest will bring about resolution. The first indications in treatment are those of what we may term 'nursing' the foot. It should have sufficient rest, should be placed so as to minimize as far as possible compression of the parts, and should have its posterior half treated so as to render it softer and less liable to concussion. The period of rest required cannot be satisfactorily advised, and the practitioner is wise who makes it a long one. Best should be advised, in fact, long after symptoms of lameness have disappeared and recovery is judged to have taken place. Compression of the parts may be somewhat minimized, if the animal be kept in the stable, by allowing the floor upon which the front-feet are to stand to be slightly sloping from behind forwards. The same effect, though not so marked, is obtained by removing the shoes, and considerably lowering the wall at the toe, while allowing that of the heels to remain. It may here be remarked that it is a good practice to allow the shoes to remain on, and this even when the animal is at grass. They should, however, be frequently removed, and the foot trimmed as we have directed. With the foot thus trimmed so as to most suitably adjust the angles of the articulations, it should next be thoroughly pared and rasped in its posterior half, so as to render the horn of the sole and the frog and the horn of the quarters as thin as possible. The heels, however, should not be excessively lowered, _if at all_. We now have the foot in a soft condition, and easily expanded. It should, if possible, be kept so; and this may be done either by the use of poultices, by tepid baths, or by standing the animal upon a bedding that may easily be kept constantly damp. Such materials as tan, peat moss, or sawdust, are either of them suitable. All this, of course, calls for keeping the animal in the stable. It is far better, however, more especially if a piece of marshy land is at hand, to turn him out in that. A moderate amount of exercise is beneficial rather than not, and the feet are thus constantly kept damp without trouble to the attendants. The second indication in the treatment is that of applying a counter-irritant as near to the diseased parts as possible. Regarding its efficacy we must confess to being somewhat sceptical. The treatment has been constantly practised and advised, however, and we feel bound to give it mention here. A smart blister may, therefore, be applied to the whole of the coronet, and need not be prevented from running into the hollow of the heel. Instead of blistering the coronet (or in conjunction with that treatment), the counter-irritant may be applied by passing a seton through the plantar cushion or fibro-fatty frog. Setoning the frog appears to have been introduced by Sewell. In many cases great benefit is claimed to have been derived from it, especially by English veterinarians of Sewell's time, and by others on the Continent. Percival, however, was not an advocate for it, and, at the present day, it is a practice which appears to have dropped out of use altogether. [Illustration: FIG. 164.--FROG SETON NEEDLE.] To perform this operation a seton needle of a curved pattern is needed (see Fig. 164). This is threaded with a piece of stout tape dressed with a cantharides, hellebore, or other blistering ointment, and then passed in at the hollow of the heel, emerging at the point of the frog. The course the needle should take will be understood from a reference to Fig. 165. The seton may be passed with the horse in the standing position. Previously the point of the frog should be thinned, and the animal should be twitched. After-treatment consists simply in moving the seton daily, and dressing it occasionally with any stimulating ointment, or with turpentine. If, in spite of these treatments, the disease persists, then nothing remains but neurectomy. D. DISLOCATIONS. The firm and rigid manner in which the bones of the pedal articulation are held together renders dislocation of this joint an exceedingly rare occurrence, and then it is only liable to happen under the operation of great force. In the literature to our hand we have only been successful in discovering one reported instance, and, strange to say, in this, a well-marked case, the cause was altogether obscure. We quote the case at the end of this section. [Illustration: FIG. 165.--DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COURSE TAKEN BY THE NEEDLE WHEN SETONING THE FROG. This is shown by the dotted curved line _a, b_. 1, The navicular bone; 2, the plantar cushion; 3, the os pedis; 4, the perforans tendon.] A partial dislocation of this articulation is the condition met with in 'Buttress Foot.' In this case the fracture of the pyramidal process, and the consequent lengthening of the tendon of the extensor pedis, allows the os coronæ to occupy upon the articulatory surface of the os pedis a more backward position than normally it should. It is quite probable, too, that slight lesions of the other restraining ligaments and tendons of the articulation may bring about a similar though less marked condition. We may be quite sure of this--that whenever such lesions (as, for example, sprain and partial rupture of the lateral ligaments) do occur, and the normal position of the opposing bones is changed, if only slightly, that great pain and excessive lameness must be the result, and this with but little to show in the foot. Many of our cases of obscure foot lameness might, if capable of demonstration, turn out to be cases of sprain and partial dislocation of the pedal articulation. _Recorded Case_.--'The animal, a trooper of the 8th Hussars, was found on the morning of April 17 unable to bear any weight on the limb (the near hind). Cause not known--the heel-rope I thought at first; but on investigation I found the heel-rope had been on the other leg. _Diagnosis_.--Dislocation of the left os coronæ from the articulating surface of the os pedis in a backward direction. 'Every devisable means were unsuccessful in reducing the limb to its natural position. The horse was thrown, and a strong rope, with four men pulling at it, was fastened round the hoof, whilst I put my knee to the back of the pastern, using all possible force, with one hand to the foot and the other to the fetlock, but all to no purpose. Next day other means were tried. First by throwing the horse and placing him on his belly, with the fore-legs stretched out forwards, and the hind-legs backwards. This I did so as to get the injured limb placed as nearly flat on the ground as possible, with its anterior aspect downwards. Then a very heavy man, with his boots off, was made to jump on the back of the pastern, where the prominence showed most; and afterwards, when these means failed, a strong piece of wood, well covered with leather, was placed (where the hollow of the heel ought to have been) on the most prominent part, and hit several times with a heavy hammer; but all efforts were futile. '_Prognosis_.--Unfavourable. During the latter operations I had a very strong pressure applied to the hoof, and the horse firmly fastened in every way, and it appeared as though no amount of force would ever reduce the dislocation. '_Tautological_.--The case was destroyed on April 30, being of no further use to the service. '_Post-mortem_.--The os coronæ was found to have slipped out of the articulating cavity of the os pedis, backwards and past the lateral ligaments. These last-named structures prevented the bone being forced forward into its proper position, being firmly locked over the lateral prominences. The capsular ligament was considerably lacerated and inflamed, causing slight effusion and swelling about the region of the coronet.'[A] [Footnote A: T. Flintoff, A.V.D., _Veterinary Journal_, vol. xix., p. 74.] _Treatment_.--After the forcible means of reduction related by Mr. Flintoff, we may add that when they are successful, they should be followed by suitable bandaging of the parts, and rest. The first is effected by applying plaster of Paris and linen, and the second by having the animal put in slings. INDEX Accidental tearing off of the entire hoof Acute arthritis causes of symptoms of treatment of Acute laminitis causes of complications in congestion in course of definition of diagnosis in exudation in pathological anatomy of prognosis in suppuration in symptoms of treatment of Acute periostitis simple Acute simple coronitis causes of definition of symptoms of prognosis of treatment of Acute simple synovitis Advantages of neurectomy Amputational neuroma after neurectomy Anatomy, pathological, of corn Applying poultices, method of Arteries of the foot Arthritis, acute causes of symptoms of treatment of Arthritis, simple or serous Arthritis, suppurative causes of definition of diagnosis of pathology of symptoms of treatment of Articulation, the first interphalangeal Articulation, the second interphalangeal Bar pad and a half-shoe in the treatment of contracted feet Bar shoes in the treatment of contraction Bayer's treatment for chronic laminitis Bermbach's treatment for canker Bind Bone, caries of Bones, fracture of the, after neurectomy Bones, fracture of the Bones, necrosis of Bones, the Brittle hoof causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Broad's treatment of laminitis Broué's expansion shoe Bruised sole, chronic Buttress foot Canker Bermbach's treatment of causes of definition of differential diagnosis in history of Hoffmann's treatment of Imminger's treatment of Malcolm's treatment of pathological anatomy of prognosis in Rose's treatment of symptoms of treatment of Caries of bone Caries of the os pedis in pricked foot Cartilage, the lateral Cartilaginous quittor Causes of acute laminitis of acute simple coronitis of brittle hoof of canker of chronic coronitis of chronic laminitis of club-foot of corn of contracted feet of coronary contraction of the foot of crooked foot of curved hoof of false quarter of flat-foot of keraphyllocele of nail-bound of navicular disease of pumiced foot of punctured foot of ringed hoof of sand-crack of seedy-toe of side-bone of simple chronic coronitis of simple cutaneous quittor of specific coronitis of sub-horny quittor of thrush of weak heels Caustic solution, Villate's Changes in the bone in navicular disease in the bursa in navicular disease in the cartilage in navicular disease in the internal structures of the foot in contraction in the tendon in navicular disease Charlier shoe, the Charlier shoeing for contracted foot Chemical properties of horn Chronic coronitis, simple causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Chronic bruised sole treatment of Chronic laminitis Bayer's treatment of causes of definition of Gross's treatment of Gunther's treatment of Imminger's treatment of Joly's treatment of Meyer's treatment of pathological anatomy of surgical shoeing for symptoms of treatment of treatment of, by ligaturing the digital arteries Chronic oedema of the leg after neurectomy Chronic synovitis Clamp, sand-crack, Koster's McGill's Vachette's Clamping sand-cracks, methods of Classification of corns of punctured foot according to the situation of the wound of sand-crack of quittor Club-foot causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Cocaine injections as an aid to diagnosis in foot lamenesses Colic, metastatic, in laminitis Commencement, point of, in navicular disease Common situations of the wound in punctured foot. Complicated sand-crack, operations for Complications in coronitis in laminitis in pricked foot in sand-crack in simple or cutaneous quittor in sub-horny quittor Compression as a cause of navicular disease Concussion as a cause of navicular disease Conformation, faulty Congestion in laminitis Contracted foot causes of changes in the internal structures of definition of local or coronary prognosis of surgical shoeing for symptoms of treatment of Contraction of the foot, a bar pad and a half-shoe in the treatment of bar shoes in the treatment of expansion shoes in the treatment of Corn causes of classification of definition of pathological anatomy of prognosis in surgical shoeing in symptoms of the dry the moist the suppurating treatment of Coronary contraction of the foot causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Coronary cushion, the Coronary edge of the wall, expansion and contraction of the Coronitis acute simple causes of complications in definition of prognosis of symptoms of treatment of Coronitis, simple chronic causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Coronitis, specific causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Course of acute laminitis Crooked foot causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Curved hoof causes of definition of treatment of Cushion the coronary the plantar Cutaneous or simple quittor De Fay's expansion shoe. Defective or irregular blood-supply to the bone a cause of navicular disease Definition of acute laminitis of acute simple coronitis of brittle hoof of canker of chronic coronitis of chronic laminitis of club-foot of contracted foot of corn of coronary contraction of the foot of crooked foot of curved hoof of false quarter of flat-foot of keraphyllocele of nail-bound of navicular disease of pumiced foot of punctured foot of pyramidal disease of quittor of ringed hoof of sand-crack of seedy-toe of side-bone of simple chronic coronitis of specific coronitis of spongy hoof of sub-horny quittor of thrush of weak heels Development of the hoof Diagnosis of acute laminitis of canker of foot lameness by injections of cocaine of navicular disease of punctured foot of pyramidal disease of side-bone of sub-horny quittor Differential diagnosis in canker in navicular disease Diseases arising from faulty conformation Dislocation of the os coronæ recorded case of Dislocations Dry corn Einsiedel's expansion shoe Examining the foot method of Exercise, forced, in the treatment of laminitis Expansion and contraction of the coronary edge of the wall of the hoof under the body-weight of the solar edge of the wall of the sole Expansion shoe Broué's De Fay's Einsiedel's Hartmann's Smith's Expansion shoes in the treatment of contraction Extensor pedis tendon, the Extirpation of the lateral cartilage in quittor of the lateral cartilage, after Moller and Frick of the lateral cartilage, after Bayer Exudation in laminitis False quarter causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Faulty conformation diseases arising from Feeding a cause of laminitis Flat-foot causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Flexor pedis perforans tendon, the Flexor pedis perforatus tendon, the Foot, buttress Foot, changes in the internal structures in contraction of the Foot, contracted causes of definition of prognosis of symptoms of treatment of Forced exercise in laminitis Fractures Fractures of the bones after neurectomy of the navicular bone of the os coronæ of the os pedis Frog, the Functions of the lateral cartilages Gangrene of the sensitive structures in laminitis Gathered nail Gelatinous degeneration after neurectomy Grooving the wall in laminitis (Smith's operation) in treatment of sand-crack in treatment of side-bone (Smith's operation) Gross's treatment of chronic laminitis Growth of hoof, rate of Gunther's treatment of chronic laminitis Hartmann's expansion shoe Heels, weak causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Heredity as a cause of navicular disease as a cause of side-bone Histology of horn History of canker of navicular disease of neurectomy Hind-feet, navicular disease in the Hind-limb with the side-line, method of securing Hoffmann's treatment of canker Hoof, the accidental tearing off of expansion and contraction of development of rate of growth of Horn chemical properties of histology of Hutlederkitt Imminger's treatment for chronic laminitis for canker Immobilizing a sand-crack by grooving the wall, methods of Infection of the limb, septic Injections of cocaine as an aid to diagnosis in foot lameness Interphalangeal articulation the first the second Instruments required in plantar neurectomy in operations on the foot Irregular blood-supply to the bone as a cause of navicular disease Joly's treatment of chronic laminitis Koster's sand-crack clamp Keraphyllocele causes of definition of pathological anatomy of symptoms of treatment of Keratoma Lameness, cocaine injections as an aid to diagnosis in Laminæ, the sensitive Laminitis acute Broad's treatment of causes of complications in congestion in course of definition of diagnosis in exudation in feeding, a cause of forced exercise in the treatment of gangrene of the sensitive structures in grooving the wall in the treatment of local applications in the treatment of local bleeding in the treatment of metastatic colic in metastatic pneumonia in neurectomy in opening the sole in the treatment of parturient pathological anatomy of periostitis and ostitis in phlebotomy in the treatment of prognosis in rocker bar shoes in the treatment of Smith's operation in suppuration in symptoms of symptoms of, in the four feet symptoms of, in the fore-feet alone symptoms of, in the hind-feet alone treatment of Laminitis chronic Bayer's treatment of causes of definition of Gross's treatment of Gunther's treatment of Imminger's treatment of Joly's treatment of Meyer's treatment of pathological anatomy of surgical shoeing for symptoms of treatment of Laminitis, parturient Lateral cartilage, the extirpation of, in quittor, after Holier and Frick extirpation of, in quittor, after Bayer functions of necrosed, pathological anatomy of necrosis of ossification of wounds of Leg, chronic oedema of the, after neurectomy Length of rest required after neurectomy Ligaments, the Ligaturing the digital arteries, in chronic laminitis Limb, septic infection of Local applications in laminitis Local bleeding in laminitis Local or coronary contraction of the foot Low ringbone Malcolm's treatment of canker McGill's sand-crack clamp Median neurectomy Metal plates in the treatment of sand-crack Metastatic colic in laminitis Metastatic pneumonia in laminitis Methods of applying poultices of examining the foot of immobilizing sand-crack by grooving the wall Methods of restraint of securing a hind-limb with the side-line of securing the foot to the cannon of another limb Meyer's treatment of chronic laminitis Moist corn Nail-bound causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Nail-tread Navicular bone, the fracture of Navicular bursa, puncture of the, in pricked foot Navicular bursa punctured, treatment of Navicular disease causes of changes in the bone in changes in the bursa in changes in the cartilage in changes in the tendon in definition of diagnosis of differential diagnosis of history of in the hind-feet point of commencement of prognosis of symptoms of treatment of Necrosed lateral cartilage pathological anatomy of Necrosis of bone of tendon and ligament in sub-horny quittor of the lateral cartilage (cartilaginous quittor) Necrotic plantar aponeurosis, treatment of Nerve, reunion of, after neurectomy Nerves, the Neurectomy advantages of amputational neuroma in fracture of the bones after gelatinous degeneration after history of instruments required in in laminitis length of rest required after persistent pruritus after pricked foot after reunion of divided nerve after sequelæ of stumbling after use of the horse after Neurectomy median plantar Neuroma, amputational, after neurectomy Oedema of the leg after neurectomy Opening the sole in the treatment of laminitis Operation for complicated sand-crack for laminitis for necrosed lateral cartilage in quittor for necrosed plantar aponeurosis for side-bone Operations on the foot, instruments required in Operations on the horn, treatment of contracted foot by Os coronæ, the dislocation of fracture of Os pedis, the caries of, in pricked foot fracture of Osteoplastic ostitis Osteoplastic periostitis Ostitis in laminitis Ostitis, rarefying osteoplastic Ossification of the lateral cartilages (side-bone) Overreach shoeing for treatment of Parturient laminitis Pathological anatomy of acute laminitis of canker of chronic laminitis of corn of keraphyllocele of necrosed lateral cartilage of pyramidal disease of simple cutaneous quittor of navicular disease Pedal articulation, puncture of the Perforans tendon, the flexor pedis Perforates tendon, the flexor pedis Periople, the Periostitis and ostitis in laminitis Periostitis, osteoplastic Periostitis, recorded cases of Periostitis, simple acute suppurative Periostitis, treatment of Persistent pruritus after neurectomy Phlebotomy in laminitis Plantar aponeurosis, wounds of the treatment of necrosed Plantar cushion Plantar neurectomy history of instruments required in operation of Pneumonia in laminitis metastatic Point of commencement of navicular disease Poultices, methods of applying Preventive treatment of cutaneous quittor Pricked foot after neurectomy complications of Prognosis in acute simple coronitis in canker in contracted foot in corn in laminitis in navicular disease in punctured foot in sand-crack in simple cutaneous quittor Properties of horn, chemical Protection of sand-crack by metal plates Pruritus after neurectomy Pumiced foot causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Punctured foot causes of classification of common situation of the wound in complications in definition of diagnosis of prognosis of symptoms of treatment of Puncture of the navicular bursa treatment of Puncture of the pedal articulation Purulent synovitis Pyramidal disease Quittor classification of definition of Quittor, simple or cutaneous causes of complications in curative treatment of definition of pathological anatomy of preventive treatment of prognosis of symptoms of treatment of sub-horny causes of complications in definition of diagnosis of extirpation of the lateral cartilage in, after Moller and Frick extirpation of the lateral cartilage in, after Bayer necrosis of the lateral cartilage in (cartilaginous quittor) necrosis _of_ tendon and ligament in (tendinous quittor) surgical shoeing in symptoms of treatment of Rarefying ostitis Recorded case of dislocation of the os coronæ of navicular disease in both hind-feet of periostitis of pyramidal disease Rest required after neurectomy, length of Restraint, methods of Reunion of the divided nerve after neurectomy Ringbone, low Ringed hoof causes of definition of treatment of Rocker bar shoes in laminitis Rose's treatment of canker Sand-crack causes of clamp Koster's McGill's Vachette's clamping, methods of classification of complications in definition of operations for complicated prognosis in surgical shoeing for symptoms of treatment of treatment of, by grooving the wall treatment of, by wedging the fissure Second interphalangeal articulation, the Securing a hind-limb with the side-line, method of Securing the foot to the cannon of another limb, method of Seedy-toe causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Senile decay as a cause of navicular disease Sensitive laminæ, the Sensitive structures, gangrene of, in laminitis Septic infection of the limb Sequelæ of neurectomy Serous arthritis Shoe, bar Charlier's Charlier's tip expansion Broué's De Fay's Einsiedel's Hartmann's Smith's for overreach plate rocker bar slipper, Broué's slipper and bar-clip, Einsiedel's three-quarter three-quarter bar thinned tip tip with 'dropped' heel with extended toe-piece with extended toe-piece (Nunn's) with heel-clip with 'set' heel Side-bone causes of definition of diagnosis of heredity a cause of Smith's operation for symptoms of treatment of Side-line, the Simple acute coronitis Simple acute periostitis Simple coronitis acute chronic Simple or cutaneous quittor causes of complications in curative treatment of definition of pathological anatomy of preventive treatment of prognosis of symptoms of treatment of Simple serous arthritis Simple synovitis, acute Smith's expansion shoe operation for laminitis operation for side-bone Solar edge of the wall, expansion and contraction of the Sole, chronic bruised Sole, expansion and contraction of the Sole, the Specific coronitis causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Spongy hoof definition of symptoms of treatment of Stumbling after neurectomy Sub-horny quittor causes of complications in definition of diagnosis of necrosis of the lateral cartilage in (cartilaginous quittor) necrosis of tendon and ligament in (tendinous quittor) symptoms of treatment of surgical shoeing for Suppurating corn Suppuration in laminitis Suppurative arthritis causes of definition of diagnosis of pathology of symptoms of treatment of Suppurative periostitis Suppurative synovitis Surgical shoeing for corn for chronic laminitis for laminitis, acute for sand-crack for quittor Symptoms of acute simple coronitis of brittle hoof of canker of chronic coronitis of chronic laminitis of club-foot of contracted foot of corn of coronary contraction of the foot of crooked foot of false quarter of flat-foot of keraphyllocele of laminitis of laminitis in all four feet of laminitis in the fore-feet alone of laminitis in the hind-feet alone of nail-bound of navicular disease of pumiced foot of punctured foot of pyramidal disease of sand-crack of seedy-toe of side-bone of simple chronic coronitis of simple cutaneous quittor of specific coronitis of spongy hoof of sub-horny quittor of synovitis, chronic of synovitis, purulent or suppurative of synovitis, simple acute of thrush of weak heels Synovitis, acute simple causes of treatment of Tearing off of the entire hoof, accidental Tendon the extensor pedis the flexor pedis perforans the flexor pedis perforatus Tendons, the Thrush causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Tight-nailing Tip-shoes Tissue, the velvety Tread, See Overreach Treatment of acute laminitis of acute simple coronitis of brittle hoof of canker of canker Bermbach's Hoffmann's Imminger's Malcolm's Rose's of chronic bruised sole of chronic coronitis of chronic laminitis of chronic laminitis by ligaturing the digital arteries of club-foot of contracted feet of contracted feet by expansion shoes of contracted feet by operations on the horn of corns of coronary contraction of the foot of crooked foot of curved hoof of cutaneous quittor of false quarter of keraphyllocele of nail-bound of navicular disease of necrotic plantar aponeurosis of periostitis of pumiced foot of punctured foot of punctured navicular bursa of pyramidal disease of ringed hoof of sand-crack of sand-crack by clamping the fissure of sand-crack by grooving the wall of sand-crack by wedging the fissure of seedy-toe of side-bone of simple chronic coronitis of specific coronitis of spongy hoof of sub-horny quittor of synovitis of thrush of weak heels Use of the horse that has undergone neurectomy Vachette's sand-crack clamp Veins, the Velvety tissue, the Villate's caustic solution Wall, the Weak heels causes of definition of symptoms of treatment of Wedging the fissure in the treatment of sand-crack Wound in punctured foot, common situations of the Wounds of the lateral cartilages Wounds of the plantar aponeurosis THE END 
26903	----	DETERMINING THE AGE OF CATTLE BY THE TEETH GEORGE W. POPE Quarantine Division [Device] FARMERS' BULLETIN 1066 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. August, 1919 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1919 PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO CATTLE. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Vesicular Stomatitis of Horses and Cattle. (Department Bulletin 662.) Hemorrhagic Septicemia. (Department Bulletin 674.) Breeds of Beef Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 612.) The Feeding of Dairy Cows. (Farmers' Bulletin 743.) Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and Young Dairy Stock. (Farmers' Bulletin 777.) Contagious Abortion of Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 790.) Breeds of Dairy Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 893.) Dehorning and Castrating Cattle. (Farmers' Bulletin 949.) Cattle Scab. (Farmers' Bulletin 1017.) DETERMINING THE AGE OF CATTLE BY THE TEETH. The age of cattle can be approximated closely by the appearance, development, and subsequent wear of their second incisor teeth. Cattle have eight incisor teeth, all in the lower jaw. In the calf at birth two or more of the temporary or first incisor teeth are present. With the first month the entire eight incisors have appeared. [Illustration: FIG 1.--Internal face of incisors of the calf.] As the animal approaches 2 years of age the center pair of temporary incisor teeth or pinchers are replaced by the permanent pinchers which at 2 years attain full development. [Illustration: FIG 2.--Internal face of incisors at 2 years.] At from 2-1/2 to 3 years the permanent first intermediates are cut and are usually fully developed at 3 years. [Illustration: FIG 3.--Internal face of incisors at 3 years.] At 3-1/2 years the second intermediates or laterals are cut. They are on a level with the first intermediates and begin to wear at 4 years. [Illustration: FIG 4.--Internal face of incisors at 4 years.] At 4-1/2 to 5 years the corner teeth are replaced, the animal at 5 years having the full complement of incisors with the corners fully developed. [Illustration: FIG 5.--Internal face of incisors at 5 years.] At 5 to 6 years there is a leveling of the permanent pinchers, the pinchers usually being leveled at six and both pairs of intermediates partially leveled and the corner incisors showing wear. From seven to eight the pinchers are noticeably worn; from eight to nine the middle pairs, and by ten years the corner teeth. After 6 years the arch gradually loses its rounded contour and becomes nearly straight by the twelfth year. In the meantime the teeth have gradually become triangular in shape, distinctly separated, and show the progressive wearing to stubs. [Illustration: FIG 6.--Internal face of incisors at 12 years.] 
27065	----	A MANUAL OR AN EASY METHOD OF MANAGING BEES, IN THE MOST PROFITABLE MANNER TO THEIR OWNER, WITH INFALLIBLE RULES TO PREVENT THEIR DESTRUCTION BY THE MOTH. BY JOHN M. WEEKS, Of Salisbury, Vt. SECOND EDITION. MIDDLEBURY: ELAM R. JEWETT, PRINTER. 1837. Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1836. By John M. Weeks, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Vermont. PREFACE. It appears to the writer of the following pages, that a work of this description is much needed in our country. The cultivation of the bee (Apis Mellifica) has been too long neglected in most parts of the United States. This general neglect has unquestionably originated from the fact, that the European enemy to the bees, called the moth, has found its way into this country, and has located and naturalized itself here; and has made so much havoc among the bees, that many districts have entirely abandoned their cultivation. Many Apiarians, and men of the highest literary attainments, as well as experience, have nearly exhausted their patience, in examining the peculiar nature and habits of this insect; and have tried various experiments to devise some means of preventing its depredations. But, after all that has been done, the spoiler moves onward with little molestation, and very few of our citizens are willing to engage in the enterprize of cultivating this most useful and profitable of all insects, the honey-bee. The following work is comprised in a set of plain, concise rules, by which, if strictly adhered to and practised, any person, properly situated, may cultivate bees, and avail himself of all the benefits of their labors. If the Apiarian manages strictly in accordance with the following rules, the author feels confident that no colony will ever materially suffer by the moth, or will ever be destroyed by them. The author is aware of the numerous treatises published on this subject; but they appear to him, for the most part, to be the result not so much of experience as of vague and conjectural speculation, and not sufficiently embodying what is practical and useful. This work is intended as an accompaniment to the Vermont hive, and will be found to be the result of observation and experience, and it is thought comprises all that is necessary to make a skilful Apiarian. THE AUTHOR. INDEX CHAPTER Rule I. On the construction of the hive, 5 Rule II. On swarming and hiving, 11 Rule III. On ventilating, 23 Rule IV. On preventing robberies, 24 Rule V. On equalizing colonies, by doubling, trebling, &c, 26 Rule VI. On removing honey, 30 Rule VII. The method of compelling swarms to make extra Queens, and keep them for the use of their owner, 33 Rule VIII. On supplying swarms with Queens, when necessary, 38 Rule IX. On multiplying colonies to any desirable extent, without swarming, 42 Rule X. On preventing the depredations of the moth, 43 Rule XI. On feeding, 56 Rule XII. On wintering, 60 Rule XIII. On transferring bees from one hive to another, 60 XIV. General Observations, 65 MANUAL, &c. RULE I. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A BEE-HIVE. A bee-hive should be made of sound boards, free from shakes and cracks; it should also be planed smooth, inside and out, made in a workmanlike manner, and painted on its outside. REMARKS. That a bee-hive should be made perfect, so as to exclude light and air, is obvious from the fact, that the bees will finish what the workman has neglected, by plastering up all such cracks and crevices, or bad joints, as are left open by the joiner. The substance they use for this purpose is neither honey nor wax, but a kind of glue or cement of their own manufacturing, and is used by the bees to fill up all imperfect joints and exclude all light and air. This cement or glue is very congenial to the growth of the moth in the first stages of its existence. The moth miller enters the hive, generally, in the night--makes an incision into the glue or cement with her sting, and leaves her eggs deposited in the glue, where it remains secure from the bees; it being guarded by the timber on its sides. Thus, while a maggot, (larva) the moth uses the cement for food until it arrives so far towards a state of maturity as to be able to spin a web, which is more fully explained in remarks on Rule 10. The size of a hive should be in accordance with the strictest rules of economy, and adapted to the peculiar nature and economy of the honey-bee, in order to make them profitable to their owner. The lower apartment of the hive, where they store their food, raise their young bees, and perform their ordinary labors, should hold as much as a box thirteen inches and one half or fourteen inches square in the clear. If the hive is much larger than the one described above, with the chamber in proportion, which should hold about two-thirds as much as the lower apartment, the bees will not be likely to swarm during the season. Bees in large hives never swarm; and those in hives much less than the one already described, do but little else than raise young bees and lay up a sufficient quantity of food to supply them through the coming winter, and are more liable to be robbed. All hives of bees that swarm are liable to swarm too much, and reduce their colonies so low in numbers as to materially injure them, and is frequently the cause of their destruction by the moth, which is more particularly explained in remarks on Rule 2. The changer of the hive should be made perfectly tight, so as to exclude all light from the drawers. Drawers should be small like No. 2, for all purposes except such as are used for multiplying colonies and transferring, which should always be large like No. 1. Hives should have elects on their sides, so as to suspend them in the air some distance from the floor of the apiary, the better to secure the bees from destruction by mice, reptiles, and other vermin. The back side or rear of the lower apartment of the hive should slant forward, so as to render the same smallest at the bottom, the better to secure the combs from falling when cracked by frost or nearly melted in hot weather. No timbers or boards should be placed very near the lower edge of the hive, because it facilitates the entrance of depredators. That the back side should slant forward, is obvious from the fact, that bees generally rest one edge of their combs on that side, and build towards the front in such a manner as to enter upon the same sheet where they intend to deposit their stores, when they first enter the hive, without being compelled to take any unnecessary steps. The bottom of the hive should slant downward from rear to front, so as to afford the greatest facility to the bees to clear their tenement of all offensive substances, and let the water, which is occasioned by the breath and vapor of the bees, run off in cold water. It also aids the bees very much in preventing the entrance of robbers. The bottom board should be suspended by staples and hooks near each corner of the hive, in such a manner as to afford a free entrance and egress to the bees on all its sides, which will better enable them to keep their tenement clear of the moths. There should be a button attached to the lower edge of the rear of the hive, so as to enable the apiarian to govern the bottom board in such a manner as to give all the air they need, or close the hive at pleasure. The hive should have two sticks placed at equal distances, extending from front to rear, resting on the rear, with a screw driven through the front into the end of the stick, which holds it fast in its place, and a ventilator hear the top of the lower apartment of the hive, to let off the vapor which frequently causes the death of the bees in the winter by freezing. The door to the chamber should be made to fit in the rabitings of the same against the jambs, in such a manner as to exclude the light from the windows of the drawers, and also to prevent the entrance of the little ants. It should also be hung by butts, or fastened by a bar, running vertically across the centre of the door, and confined by staples at each end. There should be three sheet-iron slides, one of which should be nearly as wide as the chamber, and one or two inches longer than the length of the chamber. The other two should be the same length of the first, and half its width only. All hives and all their appendages should be made exactly of a size and shape in the same apiary. The trouble of equalizing colonies is far less than it is to accommodate hives to swarms. Much perplexity and sometimes serious difficulties occur, where the apiarian uses different sized hives and drawers. But this part of the subject will be more fully discussed under its proper rule. RULE II. ON SWARMING AND HIVING. The apiarian, or bee-owner, should have his hives in readiness, and in their places in the apiary, with the drawers in their chambers bottom up, so as to prevent entrance. When a swarm comes forth and has alighted, cut off the limb if convenient--shake it gently, so as to disengage the bees, and let them fall gently on to the table, board, or ground, (as the case may be,) place the hive over them before many rise into the air, taking care at the same time to lay one or more sticks in such a manner as to raise the hive so as to give the bees rapid ingress and egress. If the bees act reluctantly in taking possession of their new habitation, disturb them by brushing them with a goose-quill or some other instrument, not harsh, and they will soon enter. In case it is found necessary to invert the hive to receive the bees, (which is frequent, from the manner of their alighting,) then, first secure the drawers down to the floor by inserting a handkerchief or something above them; now invert the hive and shake or brush the bees into it; now turn it gently right end up on the table, or other place, observing the rule aforesaid. REMARKS. Bees swarm from nine o'clock in the morning to three o'clock in the afternoon on a fair day, differing in the season according to the climate. In Vermont they generally swarm from the middle of May to the fifteenth of July; in late seasons some later. I have known them to swarm as early as seven in the morning and as late as four in the afternoon. I have also known them to come forth when it rained so hard as nearly to defeat them by beating down many to the ground which were probably lost from their colony; and I once had a swarm come forth on the sixteenth day of August. Experience and observation have taught that the Queen leaves the old stock first, and her colony rapidly follow. They fly about a few minutes, apparently in the greatest confusion, until the swarm is principally out of the hive. They then alight, generally on the limb of some tree, shrub, or bush, or some other place convenient for them to cluster in a bunch not far from the old stock, and make their arrangements for a journey to a new habitation. Perhaps not one swarm in a thousand knows where they are going until after they have left the old stock, alighted, and formed into a compact body or cluster; and not then until they have sent off an embassy to search out a place for their future residence. Now if the bees are hived immediately after they have alighted, before they send off their embassy to seek a new tenement, they will never fly away, admitting they have sufficient room, (for it is want of room that makes them swarm in the first place,) and their hive is clear of every thing that is offensive to them. The old custom of washing hives with salt and water and other substances, to give them a pleasant effluvia, should be speedily abolished. Nothing but bees should ever be put into a hive. When bees die, the hive should be cleared of its contents, and scraped out clean, and the chamber rubbed with cloth wet in clean water; then set it in its place in the apiary, and there let it stand until wanted for use. An old hive, thus prepared, is as good as a new one for the reception of a swarm. The apiarian should examine before using to see that the hive is free from spiders and cobwebs. When bees are not hived immediately after they have clustered in a body, they should be removed to the apiary, or several rods from the place where they alighted, as soon as they can be hived, to prevent their being found on the return of the embassy. Since I have thus practised, I have never lost a swarm by flight. Experience has taught that it is best to remove the new swarm to the place where it is intended to stand during the season, immediately after hiving. Fewer bees are lost by a speedy removal, than when permitted to stand until evening, because they are creatures of habit, and are every moment establishing themselves in their location. It also prevents their being found by the embassy when they return. The longer bees stand in the place where they are hived, the greater will be the number lost when removed. But more of this hereafter. When bees are collected in drawers for the purpose of equalizing colonies, by doubling, &c., they should be permitted to stand until evening before they are united, it being a more favorable time for them to become acquainted with each other by degrees; and the scent of the bees in the lower apartment will enter through the apertures during the night so much that there is a greater degree of sameness in the peculiar smell of the two colonies, which takes off their animosity, if they chance to have any. No confusion or noise which is uncommon to the bees should ever be made during their swarming or hiving. The only effect of noise, ringing of bells, &tc., that I could ever discover, was, to render them more hostile and unmanageable. When bees are treated in accordance with their true nature, they are sometimes hostile, which originates from two causes: First, some of them lie out of the hive before swarming and some of them, in consequence of their confusion in swarming, are not apprised of the intention of the Queen to leave the old stock and seek a new habitations and they sally forth with the swarm without filling their sacks with stores, which always makes them more irritable than when their stomachs are rilled with food. The Vermont hive possesses advantages in this respect, as well as others, far superior to the old box. Instead of lying out before swarming, as in the old box, they go up into the drawers, and are constantly employed in depositing the delicious fruits of their labors; and being in the hive, where they can hear and observe all the movements of the Queen, they go forth well stored with provisions suited to the peculiar exigency of the case; which ordinarily prevents all feelings of hostility. The second reason why bees are sometimes irritable, and are disposed to sting when they swarm, is, the air is forbidding to them, by being cold or otherwise, so as to impede them in their determined emigration. In all such cases, the apiarian should be furnished with a veil, made of millinet, or some light covering which may be worn over his hat, and let down so low as to cover his face and bosom, and fixed in such a manner as to prevent their stinging. He should also put on a pair of thick woolen gloves or stockings over his hands, thus managing them without the least danger. A clean hive is all that is needed for a swarm of bees, with careful and humane treatment. A cluster of bees should never be shook or jarred any more than merely to disengage them from the limb or place where they are collected, nor should they fall any great distance, because their sacks are full when they swarm, which renders them both clumsy and harmless, and harsh treatment makes them irritable and unmanageable. I know of no rule by which the exact day of their first swarming can be known with certainty. The apiarian will estimate near the time by the number of bees in and about the hive, as it will become very much crowded. The day of second swarming, and all after that during the same season, may be most certainly predicted as follows: Listen near the entrance of the hive in the evening. If a swarm is coming forth the next day, the Queen will be heard giving an alarm at short intervals. The same alarm may be heard the next morning. The observer will generally hear two Queens at a time in the same hive, the one much louder than the other. The one making the least noise is yet in her cell, and in her minority. The sound emitted by the Queens is peculiar, differing materially from that of any other bee. It consists of a number of monotonous notes in rapid succession, similar to those emitted by the mud-wasp when working her mortar and joining it to her cells, to raise miss-wasps. If, after all, the weather is unfavorable to their swarming two or three days while in this peculiar stage, they will not be likely to swarm again the same season. Two reasons, and two only, can be assigned why bees ever swarm. The first is, want of room, and the second, to avoid the battle of the Queens. It is indeed true that there are exceptions. Perhaps one in a hundred swarms may come forth before their hive is filled with comb; but from nearly forty years experience in their cultivation, I never saw an instance of it, where the hive was not full of bees at their first swarming. When bees go from the old stock to the tree without alighting, it is when they lie out of the hive before swarming, and the embassy are sent forth before the swarm leaves the old stock. When the first swarm comes forth, eggs, young brood, or both, are left in the combs, but no Queen; for the old Queen always goes forth with the swarm, and leaves the old stock entirely destitute. Not a single Queen, in any stage of minority, is left in the hive. The bees very soon find themselves destitute of the means of propagating their species, (for the Queen is the only female in the hive,) and immediately set themselves to work in constructing several royal cells, (probably to be more sure of success,) take a grub (larva) from the cell of a common worker, place it in the new-made royal cell, feed it on royal jelly, and in a few days they a Queen. Now as the eggs are laid in about three litters per week, the bees, to be still more sure of succeeding in their enterprize, take maggots, differing in age, so that if more than one Queen is hatched, one will be older than the others. This fact accounts for hearing more than one Queen at the same time, because one comes out a perfect fly, while the other is a nymph, or little younger, and has not yet made her escape from the cell where she was raised; and yet both answer the alarm of the other, the youngest more feebly than the elder. Bees will never swarm but once the same season unless they make more than one Queen, immediately after the departure of the first swarm; and not then, if the bees permit the oldest Queen to come in contact with the cell where the young ones are growing. Queens entertain the most deadly animosity towards each other, and will commence an attack upon each other the first moment opportunity offers. The old Queen will even tear all the cradles or cells to pieces where young ones are growing, and destroy all the chrysalis Queens in the hive. If the weather becomes unfavorable to swarming, the next day after the alarm of the Queen is heard, and continues so for several days, the oldest Queen may come in contact with the others, or gain access to their cells; in either case the life of one of them is destroyed by the other, and the colony will not be likely to send forth another swarm the same season. If the old Queen succeeds in taking the life of the younger, or _vice versa_, the remaining nymphs will be likely to share the same fate of their martyred sisters, by the hand of the reigning Queen, who considers all others in the same hive as her competitors. Second swarms would be as large and numerous as any others, if it was not the fact that they come forth to avoid the battle of the Queens. Bees are very tenacious to preserve the lives of their sovereigns, particularly those of their own raising; and when they find they have more than one in the hive, they will guard each so strong as to prevent, if possible, their coming within reach of each other. They being thus strongly guarded to prevent the fight, is unquestionably the cause of their giving the alarm, as described in the foregoing article. The knowledge of the existence of another Queen in the same hive inspires them with the greatest uneasiness and rage; and when the oldest one finds herself defeated in gaining access to her competitor, she sallies forth with as many as see fit to follow her, and seeks a new habitation. Bees will not swarm but once in a season, if the second one does not come forth within seventeen days from the departure of the first, unless they swarm for want of room, in which case no Queen will be heard before swarming. The drawers should be turned over, so as to let the bees into them as soon as they have built their combs nearly to the bottom of the hive. If the swarm is so large that the lower apartment will not hold all of them, they should be let into one or both of the drawers, at the time of hiving; otherwise they may go off for want of room. Bees should be let into the drawers in the spring as soon as blossoms are seen. RULE III. ON VENTILATING THE HIVE. Graduate the bottom board and ventilator at pleasure, by means of the button or otherwise, so as to give them more or less air, as the circumstances may require. REMARKS. Bees require more air in order to enable them to endure the heat of summer and the severity of winter, than at any other time. If they are kept out in the cold, they need as much air in the winter as in the heat of summer. It is in a mild temperature only, that it is safe to keep them from the pure air. If placed below frost in a dry sand-bank, they seem to need scarcely more than is contained in their hive at the time they are buried, during the whole winter. If kept in a clean, dry cellar, the mouth so contracted as to keep out mice, gives them enough. But if they are kept in the apiary, there should be a slow current of air constantly pressing in at the bottom and off at the top thro' the ventilator. RULE IV. ON PREVENTING ROBBERIES. At the moment it is observed, that robbers are within, or about the hive, raise the bottom board so near the edge of the hive as to prevent the ingress or egress of the bees, and stop the mouth or common entrance and ventilator. At the same time take care that a small space on all sides of the hive be left open, so as to afford them all the air they need. Open the mouth only at evening, and close early in the morning, before the robbers renew their attack. REMARKS. Bees have a peculiar propensity to rob each other, and every precaution necessary to prevent it, should be exercised by the cultivator. Families in the same apiary are more likely to engage in this unlawful enterprize than any others, probably because they are located so near each other, and are more likely to learn their comparative strength. I never could discover any intimacy between colonies of the same apiary, except when they stood on the same bench; and then, all the social intercourse seems to subsist between the nearest neighbors only. Bees are not likely to engage in warfare and rob each other, except in the spring and fall, and at other times in the season, when food is not easily obtained from blossoms. Bees do not often engage in robbery in the spring, unless it is in such hives as have had their combs broken by frost or otherwise, so as to cause the honey to drip down upon the bottom board. Much care should be exercised by the apiarian to see that all such hives are properly ventilated, and at the same time closed in such a manner as to prevent the entrance of robbers in the day-time, until they have mended the breach, so as to stop the honey from running. Clear water should be given them every day, so long as they are kept in confinement. I have known many good stocks to be lost in the spring, by being robbed; and all for want of care. Bees rob each other when they can find but little else to do; they will rob at any time when frost has destroyed the flowers, or the weather is so cold as to prevent their collecting honey from them. Cold, chilly weather prevents the flowers from yielding honey without frost, as was the case in the summer of 1835, in many places. Bees need but little air at any time when they rob, and yet more is necessary for them when confined by compulsory means, than otherwise. When deprived of their liberty, they soon become restless, and use their best efforts to make their way out of the hive--hence the importance of leaving a small space all around the bottom, to admit air and to prevent their melting down. RULE V. ON EQUALIZING COLONIES. Hive one swarm in the lower apartment of the hive; collect another swarm in a drawer, and insert the same in the chamber of the hive containing the first. Then, if the swarms are small, collect another small swarm in another drawer, and insert the same in the chamber of the hive containing the first, by the side of the second. In case all the bees from either of the drawers, amalgamate and go below with the first swarm, and leave the drawer empty, then it may be removed, and another small swarm added in the same manner. REMARKS. It is of prime importance to every bee cultivator, that all his colonies be made as nearly equal in numbers and strength, as possible. Every experienced bee-master must be aware that small swarms are of but little profit to their owner. Generally, in a few days after they are hived, they are gone;--no one can trace their steps: some suppose they have fled to the woods--others, that they were robbed: but after all, no one is able to give any satisfactory account of them. Some pieces of comb only are left, and perhaps myriads of worms and millers finish off the whole. Then the moth is supposed to be their destroyer, but the true history of the case is generally this: The bees become discouraged, or disheartened, for want of numbers to constitute their colony, abandon their tenement, and join with their nearest neighbors, leaving their combs to the merciless depredations of the moth. They are sometimes robbed by their adjoining hives, and then the moths finish or destroy what is left. Second swarms are generally about half as large as the first, and third swarms half as large as second ones. Now if second swarms are doubled, so as to make them equal in number with the first, the owner avails himself of the advantage of a strong colony, which will not be likely to become disheartened for want of numbers, nor overcome by robbers from stronger colonies. It is far less trouble, and less expense, for the bee-owner lo equalize his colonies, than to prepare hives and drawers of different sizes to fit colonies. When colonies and hives are made as near alike as possible, many evils are avoided, and many advantages realized: every hive will fit a place in the apiary--every drawer a hive, and every bottom board and slide may in any case be used without mistakes. Swarms may be doubled at any time before they become so located as to resume their former hostility, which will not be discovered in less than three or four days. Bees are provided with a reservoir, or sack, to carry their provision in; and when they swarm, they go loaded with provision suited to their emergency, which takes off all their hostility towards each other; and until these sacks are emptied, they are not easily vexed, and as they are compelled to build combs before they can empty them, their contents are retained several days. I have doubled, at a fortnight's interval in swarming, with entire success. The operation should be performed within two or three days--at the farthest four days. The sooner it is done, the less hazardous is the experiment. As a general rule, second swarms only should be doubled. Third and fourth swarms should always have their Queen taken from them, and the bees returned to the parent stock, according to Rule 10. RULE VI. ON REMOVING HONEY. Insert a slide under the drawer, so far as to cut off all communication between the lower apartment and the drawer. Insert another slide between the first slide and the drawer. Now draw out the box containing the honey, with the slide that is next to it. Set the drawer on its window end, a little distance from the apiary, and remove the slide. Now supply the place of the drawer, thus removed, with an empty one, and draw the first inserted slide. REMARKS. Care must be exercised in performing this operation. The apertures through the floor into the chamber must be kept closed by the slides during the process, so as to keep the bees from rushing up into the chamber when the box is drawn out. The operator must likewise see that the entrances into the drawer are kept covered with the slide, in such a manner as to prevent the escape of any of the bees, unless he is willing to be stung by them. If the bees are permitted to enter the chamber in very warm weather, they will be likely to hold the occupancy of it, and build comb there, which will change the hive into one no better than an old-fashioned box. I have succeeded best in removing honey by the following method, to wit:--Shut the window-blinds so as to darken one of the rooms in the dwelling-house--raise up one casement of a window--then carry the drawer and place the same on a table, or stand, by the window, on its light or glass end, with the apertures towards the light. Now remove the slide, and step immediately back into the dark part of the room. The bees will soon learn their true condition, and will gradually leave the drawer, and return home to the parent stock; thus leaving the drawer and its contents for their owner; not however until they have sucked every drop of running honey, if there should chance to be any, which is not often the case, if their work is finished. There are two cases in which the bees manifest some reluctance in leaving the drawer. The first is, when the combs are in an unfinished state--some of the cells not sealed over. The bees manifest a great desire to remain there, probably to make their stores more secure from robbers, by affixing caps to the uncovered cells, to prevent the effluvia of running honey, which is always the greatest temptation to robbers. Bees manifest the greatest reluctance in leaving the drawer, when young brood are removed in it, which never occurs, except in such drawers as have been used for feeding in the winter or early in the spring. When the Queen has deposited eggs in all the empty cells below, she sometimes enters the drawers; and if empty cells are found, she deposits eggs there also. In either case, it is better to return the drawer, which will be made perfect by them in a few days. Special care is necessary in storing drawers of honey, when removed from the care and protection of the bees, in order to preserve the honey from insects, which are great lovers of it, particularly the ant. A chest, made perfectly tight, is a good store-house. If the honey in the drawers is to be preserved for winter use, it should be kept in a room so warm as not to freeze. Frost cracks the combs, and the honey will drip as soon as warm weather commences. Drawers should be packed with their apertures up, for keeping or carrying to market. All apiarians who would make the most profit from their bees, should remove the honey as soon as the drawers are rilled, and supply their places with empty ones. The bees will commence their labors in an empty box that has been filled, sooner than any others. RULE VII. THE METHOD OF COMPELLING SWARMS TO MAKE AND KEEP EXTRA QUEENS, FOR THEIR APIARIAN, OR OWNER. Take a drawer containing bees and brood comb, and place the same in the chamber of an empty hive; taking care to stop the entrance of the hive, and give them clean water, daily, three or four days. Then unstop the mouth of the hive, and give them liberty. The operator must observe Rule 6 in using the slides. REMARKS. The prosperity of every colony depends entirely on the condition of the Queen, when the season is favorable to them. Every bee-master should understand their nature in this respect, so as to enable him to be in readiness to supply them with another Queen when they chance to become destitute. The discovery of the fact, that bees have power to change the nature of the grub (larva) of a worker to that of a Queen, is attributed to Bonner. But neither Bonner nor the indefatigable Huber, nor any other writer, to my knowledge, has gone so far in the illustration of this discovery as to render it practicable and easy for common people to avail themselves of its benefits. The Vermont hive is the only one, to my knowledge, in which bees can be compelled to make and keep extra Queens for the use of their owner, without extreme difficulty, as well as danger, by stings, in attempting the experiment. The idea of raising her royal highness, and elevating and establishing her upon the throne of a colony, may, by some, be deemed altogether visionary and futile; but I will assure the reader, that it is easier done than can be described. I have both raised them, and supplied destitute swarms repeatedly. When the drawer containing bees and brood comb is removed, the bees soon find themselves destitute of a female, and immediately set themselves to work in constructing one or more royal cells. When completed, which is commonly within forty-eight hours, they remove a grub (larva) from the worker's cell, place the same in the new-made Queen's cell, feed it on that kind of food which is designed only for Queens, and in from eight to sixteen days they have a perfect Queen. As soon as the bees have safely deposited the grub in the new-made royal cell, the bees may have their liberty. Their attachment to their young brood, and their fidelity to their Queen, in any stage of its minority, is such, that they will never leave nor forsake them, and will continue all their ordinary labors, with as much regularity as if they had a perfect Queen. In making Queens in small boxes or drawers, the owner will not be troubled by their swarming the same season they are made. There are so few bees in the drawer, they are unable to guard the nymph Queens, if there are any, from being destroyed by the oldest, or the one which escapes from her cell first. In examining the drawer, in which I raised an extra Queen, I found not only the Queen, but two royal cells, one of which was in perfect shape; the other was mutilated, probably by the Queen which came out first. Now when there are so few bees to guard the nymphs, it would not be very difficult for the oldest Queen to gain access to the cells, and destroy all the minor Queens in the drawer. When a drawer is removed to an empty hive, for the purpose of obtaining an extra Queen, it should be placed some distance from the apiary, the better to prevent its being robbed by other swarms. When it is some distance from other colonies, they are not so likely to learn its comparative strength. There is but little danger however, of its being robbed, until after the bees are out of danger of losing their Queen, which generally occurs in the swarming season. The Queen is sometimes lost, in consequence of the young brood being too far advanced at the time of the departure of the old Queen with her swarm. If the grubs had advanced very near the dormant or chrysalis state, before the bees learnt their necessity for a Queen, and the old Queen neglected to leave eggs, which is sometimes the case, then it would be impossible for the bees to change their nature, and the colony would be lost, unless supplied with another. RULE VIII. ON SUPPLYING SWARMS, DESTITUTE OF A QUEEN, WITH ANOTHER. Take the drawer from the hive, which was placed there according to Rule 7, and insert the same into the chamber of the hive to be supplied; observing Rule 6 in the use of the slides. REMARKS. Colonies destitute of a Queen may be supplied with another the moment it is found they have none; which is known only by their actions. Bees, when deprived of their female sovereign, cease their labors; no pollen or beebread is seen on their legs; no ambition seems to actuate their movements; no dead bees are drawn out; no deformed bees, in the various stages of their minority, are extracted, and dragged out of their cells, and dropped down about the hive, as is usual among all healthy and prosperous colonies. Colonies that have lost their Queen, when standing on the bench by the side of other swarms, will run into the adjoining hive without the least resistance. They will commence their emigration by running in confused platoons of hundreds, from their habitation to the next adjoining hive. They immediately wheel about and run home again, and thus continue, sometimes for several days, in the greatest confusion, constantly replenishing their neighbor's hive, by enlarging her colony, and, at the same time, reducing their own, until there is not a single occupant left; and remarkable as it is, they leave every particle of their stores for their owner or the depredations of the moth. Colonies lose their Queens more frequently during the swarming season than any other. In the summer of 1830, I lost three good stocks of bees in consequence of their losing their Queens, one of which was lost soon after the first swarming--the two others not many days after the second swarming--all of which manifested similar actions, and ended in the same results, which will be more particularly explained in remarks on Rule 10. The Queen is sometimes lost, when she goes forth with a swarm, in consequence of being too feeble to fly with her young colony; in which case the bees return to their parent stock in a few minutes. In fact all occurrences of this kind originate in the inability of the Queen. If she returns to the old stock, the swarm will come out again the next day, if the weather is favorable. If the Queen is too feeble to return, and the apiarian neglects to look her up, and restore her to her colony again, (which he ought to do,) the bees will not swarm again until they have made another, or are supplied, which may be done immediately by giving them any spare Queen, I have done it with entire success, and never failed in the experiment. The Queen, when lost in swarming, is easily found, unless the wind is so strong as to have blown her a considerable distance. A few bees are always found with her, which probably serve as her aids, and greatly assist the apiarian in spying her out. She is frequently found near the ground, on a spire of grass, the fence, or any place most convenient for her to alight, when her strength fails her. I once had quite a search for her majesty, without much apparent success. At the same time there were flying about me a dozen or more common workers. At last her royal highness was discovered, concealed from my observation in a fold of my shirt sleeve. I then returned her to her colony, which had already found their way home to the parent stock. The Queen may be taken in the hand without danger, for she never stings by design, except when conflicting with another Queen; and yet she has a stinger at least one third longer, but more feeble than a worker. The Queen is known by her peculiar shape, size, and movements. She differs but little in color from a worker, and has the same number of legs and wings. She is much larger than any of the bees. Her abdomen is very large and perfectly round, and is shaped more like the sugar-loaf, which makes her known to the observer the moment she is seen. Her wings and proboscis are short. Her movements are stately and majestic. She is much less in size after the season for breeding is over. She is easily selected from among a swarm, at any season of the year, by any one who has often seen her. RULE IX. ON MULTIPLYING COLONIES TO ANY DESIRABLE EXTENT, WITHOUT THEIR SWARMING. This large drawer, No. 1, should always be used for this purpose. Insert slides, as in Rule 6, and remove the drawer containing bees and brood-comb; place the same in the chamber of an empty hive; stop the entrances of both the new and old hives, taking care to give them air, as in Rule 4. Give clean water daily, three or four days. Now let the bees, in both hives, have their liberty. REMARKS. This operation is both practicable and easy, and is of prime importance to all cultivators, who wish to avoid the necessity of hiving them when they swarm; and yet it will not prevent swarming, except in that part of the divided colony which contains the Queen at the time of their separation. The other part being compelled to make another Queen, (and they generally make two or more) will be likely to swarm to avoid their battle, as explained in remarks on Rule 2. The hive containing the old Queen may swarm for want of room; but, at any rate, in performing the operation, it has saved the trouble of hiving one swarm, and prevented all danger of their flight to the woods. Multiplying colonies by this rule is a perfectly safe method of managing them, admitting they are not allowed to swarm themselves so low as to leave unoccupied combs, which will be explained in remarks on Rule 10. RULE X. ON PREVENTING THE DEPREDATIONS OF THE MOTH. All such stocks as are infested with the moth, will manifest it as soon as warm weather commences in the spring, by dropping some of the worms upon the bottom board. Let the apiarian clean off the bottom board every other morning; at the same time strew on a spoonful or two of fresh, pulverized salt. Immediately after a second swarm has come forth from a hive, the same season, the old stock should be examined; and if swarming has reduced their numbers so low as to leave unoccupied combs, the apiarian should take the Queen from the swarm, and let them return to the old stock. In case they remain in a cluster, hive them in a drawer, and return them immediately. Third and fourth swarms should always have their Queens taken from them and the bees returned to the parent stock. REMARKS. "This insect (the moth) is a native of Europe; but has found its way into this country, and naturalized itself here."--THATCHER. This unwelcome visitor has interested the attention and called forth all the energies of the most experienced apiarians of our country, and of many of the greatest naturalists in the world. Their movements have been observed and scrutinized by the most learned--their nature has been studied; various experiments have been tried to prevent their depredations; but after all, the monster in gaudy hue marches onward, committing the greatest havoc and devastation, with but little molestation. I have lost my whole stock at least four times since 1808, as I supposed by the moth. I tried all the experiments recommended in this and other countries, that came to my knowledge; but after all, I could not prevent their ravages. In 1830, I constructed a hive (which has since been patented) which I supposed would afford all the facilities for managing bees in every manner that their nature would admit of, and at the same time render their cultivation most profitable to their owner. By constructing windows of glass, on every side of the hive, nearly the size of its sides, and darkening them by closing doors on the outside of the windows, which may be opened at pleasure, I have been able to discover many important facts, both in relation to the nature and economy of the bee, and its enemy the moth; but, probably, much yet remains to be learned concerning both. The moth, when first discovered by the common observer, is a white worm or maggot, with a reddish crusted head, and varies in size according to its living. Those which have full and unmolested access to the contents of a hive, will frequently grow as large as a turkey-quill, and an inch and a half in length. Others are scarcely an inch in length when full grown. They have sixteen short legs, and taper each way from the centre of their bodies to their head and exterior or abdomen. The worms, like the silk-worm, wind themselves into a cocoon, and pass the dormant (chrysalis) state of their existence, and in a few days come out of their silken cases perfect winged insects or millers, and are soon ready to deposit their eggs, from which another crop will be raised. The miller, or perfect moth, is of a grayish color, from three-fourths of an inch to an inch in length. They usually lie perfectly still in the day time, with their head downwards, lurking in and about the apiary. They enter the hive in the night, and deposit their eggs in such places as are uncovered, of course unguarded by the bees. These eggs hatch in a short time, varying according to circumstances, probably from two or three days to four or five months. At an early stage of their existence, while yet a small worm, they spin a web, and construct a silken shroud, or fortress, in which they envelope themselves, and form a sort of path, or gallery, as they pass onward in their march; at the same time being perfectly secure from the bees, in their silken case, which they widen as they grow larger, with an opening in their front only, near their head, they commit the greatest havoc and devastation on the eggs, young bees and all, that come in their way as they pass. When the moth has arrived to his full state of maturity, he makes preparation to change to a miller, by winding into a cocoon, as has been already explained. The miller is surprisingly quick in all its movements, exceeding by far the agility of the quickest bee, either in flight or on its legs. Hence the enemy becomes so formidable that the bees are easily overcome and soon fall a sure prey to him. Now, in order to remedy the evils of the moths, and prevent their ravages, and at the same time aid the bees in their prosperity, and make them profitable to their owner, I found it necessary to use a hive differing materially from the old box, and commenced operations in the one already referred to, (called the Vermont hive,) in a course of experiments which have produced results perfectly satisfactory. From six years experience in its use, I have not the least doubt that bees may be managed to the best advantage, and without ever being materially injured by the moths. A bee-hive should be made in a perfect workmanlike manner, so as to have no open joints; the boards should be free from shakes and cracks, because the bees will make their tenement perfectly tight, so as to exclude light and air, by plastering up all such places as are left open by the workman, with a kind of mortar, or glue, of their own make, which is neither honey nor wax, but is very congenial to the growth of worms in the first stages of their larva state, and being secured from the bees by the timber, in a short time they are able to defend themselves by a silken shroud. Now the miller enters the hive and makes an incision into the bee-glue, or cement, with her sting, and leaves her eggs. These eggs hatch there, and the brood subsist on the glue until they have arrived so far toward maturity as to enable them to encase themselves in a silken shroud; and then they move onward. Now unless the bees chance to catch him by the collar, or nape of his neck, while feeding, and drag him out of his place of concealment, they will be compelled to cut away the combs all around his silken path, or gallery, and drag out the worm and his fortress all together. At the same time, the bees are compelled to cut away the combs so far as to destroy many of their young brood in making room to remove the annoyance. I have known them to cut away their combs from four to eight or ten inches to re move this silken shroud, and have known them to cut and drag out their only remaining Queen before she was transformed to the perfect fly, which occasioned the entire loss of the whole colony. Repeated experiments have demonstrated the fact, that placing bees on the ground, or high in the air, is no security against the moths. I have lost some of my best stocks by placing them on the ground, when those on the bench were not injured by them. I have made a groove in the bottom board, much wider than the thickness of the boards to the hive, and filled the same with loam: I then placed the hive on the same, in such a manner as to prevent any crack or vacancy for the worms; and yet in raising the hive four weeks afterwards, I found them apparently full grown all around the hive in the dirt. I have found them very plenty in a tree ninety feet from the ground. The best method, in common practice, to prevent the depredations of the moth, is, to suspend the bottom board so far below the lower edge of the hive as to give the bees free entrance and egress all around the same during the moth season, or to raise the common hive, by placing under it little blocks at each corner, which produces nearly the same effect. But I know of but one rule, which is an infallible one, to prevent their depredations, and that is this: keep the combs well guarded by bees. See Rule 10. Large hives, that never swarm, are never destroyed by the moth, unless they lose their Queen, melt down, or meet with some casualty, out of the ordinary course of managing them. They are not often in the least annoyed by them, unless there are bad joints, cracks, or shakes, so as to afford some lurking places for the worms. The reason for their prosperous condition is obvious. The stock of bees are so numerous that their combs are all kept well guarded during the moth season, so that no miller can enter and deposit her eggs. Hives made so small as to swarm, are liable to reduce their colonies so small as to leave combs unguarded, especially when they swarm three or four times the same season. All swarms, after the first, sally forth to avoid the battle of the Queens; constantly making a greater draft, in proportion to the number left, until the combs are partly exposed, which gives the miller free access to their edges.--The seeds of rapine and plunder are thus quickly sown, and soon vegetate, and fortify themselves by their silken fortress, before the bees are aware that their frontiers are invaded. While the moths are thus engaged in establishing their posts on the frontiers of the bees, the latter are constantly and indefatigably engaged in providing themselves with another Queen, to supply the place of the old one, which has departed with a swarm, and raising young bees to replenish their reduced colony. Now as the moths have got possession of the ground on their frontiers, it requires a tremendous effort on the part of the bees to save their little colony from a complete overthrow. If late, or second and third swarms are always returned immediately, according to the rule, the combs are kept so guarded that the moths are compelled to keep their distance, or be stung to death before they can accomplish their purposes. Hives made so large as not to swarm may lose their Queen, and then they will abandon their habitation and emigrate into the adjoining hive, leaving all their stores to their owner, which, unless immediately taken care of, the moths will not fail to destroy. The moths are often complained of when they are not guilty. Hives are frequently abandoned by their occupants, in consequence of the loss of their Queen, unnoticed by any observer, and before any thing is known of their fate, the hive is destitute of bees, and filled with moths. In the summer of 1834, one of my neighbors had a very large hive that never swarmed, which lost their Queen; and in the course of a few days the bees entirely vacated their tenement, and emigrated into an adjoining hive, leaving the whole of their stores, which amounted to 215 lbs. of honey in the comb. No young bees or moths were discovered in the hive. Instances of this kind frequently occur, and the true cause is unknown, from inattention. The Queen may be superannuated, or may become diseased in the breeding season, so as to render her unfruitful; or she may die of old age. In either case, the colony will be lost, unless supplied with another Queen, as explained in remarks on Rule 8; for when the Queen becomes unfruitful by either of the foregoing causes, the bees are not apprized of the loss which will in future be sustained by them, until after the means of repairing the same are gone beyond their reach. All the grubs may have passed the various stages of their transformation, or at least advanced so far towards the perfect insect, that their nature cannot be changed to a Queen. The Queen is much more tenacious of life than any other bee, and may live to a great age. But one Queen exists in the same hive any great length of time. When there are more than one, the peculiar sound of each, as explained in remarks on Rule 2, is heard by the other, which always results in a battle between them, or the issue of a swarm in the course of a day or two. Bees, when placed in a dark room in the upper part of the house, or some out-house, are easily cultivated a short time with little trouble, and are sometimes made profitable to their owner; but as they are liable to some of the same casualties as those kept in swarming hives, they cannot be as profitable. Large colonies never increase their stock in proportion to the swarming colonies. There is but one female in a large colony, and they can do but little more in raising young bees than to keep their stock good by replenishing them as fast as they die off or are destroyed by the birds, reptiles and insects, which are great admirers of them, and sometimes swallow them by dozens. Now if it requires five swarming colonies to be equal in number to the one first described, it is not difficult to imagine that five times as many bees may be raised by the swarming colonies: for one Queen will probably lay as many eggs as another. The swarming hives are no more liable to be destroyed by the moth during the swarming season, than others, if the hives are kept well replenished with bees according to Rule 10. RULE XI. ON FEEDING BEES. If it is found that a swarm need feeding, hitch on the feeder, well stored with good honey, while the weather is warm in October. The apiarian should use the same precaution in feeding, as directed in Rule 4, to prevent robberies. REMARKS. The best time to feed is in the fall, before cold weather commences. All hives should be weighed, and the weight marked on the hive before bees are hived in them. Then, by weighing a stock as soon as frost has killed the blossoms in the fall, the apiarian will be able to form a just estimate of their necessities. When bees are fed in the fall, they will carry up and deposit their food in such a manner as will be convenient for them in the winter. If feeding is neglected until cold weather the bees must be removed to a warm room, or dry cellar, and then they will carry up their food, generally, no faster than they consume it. A feeder should be made like a box with five sides closed, leaving a part of the sixth side open, to admit the bees from their common entrance with its floor level, when hitched on the front of the hive. It should be of sufficient depth to lay in broad comb, filled with honey. If strained honey without combs is used for feeding, a float, perforated with many holes, should be laid over the whole of the honey in the box, or feeder, so as to prevent any of the bees from drowning; and at the same time, this float should be so thin as to enable them to reach the honey. It should be made so small that it will settle down as fast as the honey is removed by the bees. As soon as warm weather commences in the spring, the feeder may be used. Small drawers cannot be depended on as feeders, except in the spring and summer, unless they are kept so warm that the vapor of the bees will not freeze in them. It would be extremely hazardous for the bees to enter a frosty drawer. They will sooner starve than attempt the experiment. Drawers may be used without danger from robbers, but when the feeder is used, robbers must be guarded against as directed in Rule 4. Care should be exercised, in fall-feeding, to supply them with good honey, otherwise the colony may be lost before spring by disease. Poor honey may be given them in the spring, at the time when they can obtain and provide themselves with medicine, which they only best understand. Sugar dissolved, or molasses, may be used in the spring to some advantage, but ought not to be substituted for honey, when it can be obtained. Bees sometimes die of starvation, with plenty of honey in the hive at the same time. In cold weather they crowd together in a small compass in order to keep warm; and then their breath and vapor collect in frost, in all parts of the hive, except in the region they occupy. Now, unless the weather moderates, so as to thaw the ice, the bees will be compelled to remain where they are located until their stores are all consumed that are within their reach. One winter we had cold weather ninety-four days in succession, during which time the bees could not move from one part of the hive to another. I examined all my hives on the eighty-third day, and on the ninetieth day I found four swarms dead. I immediately examined for the cause, which was as already stated. I then carried all my hives into a warm room and thawed them, so that the bees could move. Some hives that I supposed were dead, revived; some few swarms I found nearly destitute of stores, which I carried into the cellar, turned them bottom up, cut out a few of the combs, so as to make room to lay in combs filled with honey, which served as good feeders. RULE XII. ON WINTERING BEES. On the near approach of winter, as soon as the bees have receded from the drawers and gone below, insert a slide, take out the drawers, and supply their places with empty ones, bottom up. Suspend the bottom board at least one eighth of an inch below the lower edge of the hive, and open the ventilator.--Clean off the bottom board as often as the weather changes from cold to warm. Close no doors upon them, unless they are kept in a spacious room, and in such a place that the breath and steam of the bees will not freeze. REMARKS. Various methods have been practised by different individuals. Some have buried them in the ground, others kept them in the cellar, chamber, &c. One course only will be observed in this place. RULE XIII. ON TRANSFERRING SWARMS. This operation should never be effected by compulsion. FIRST METHOD. Insert drawer No. 1 into the chamber of the hive, to be transferred as early as the first of May. If the bees fill the drawer, they will recede from the lower apartment and winter in the drawer. As early in the spring as the bees carry in bread plentifully on their legs, remove the drawer, which will contain the principal part of the bees, to an empty hive. Now remove the old hive a few feet in front, and place the new one containing the drawer where the old one stood. Now turn the old hive bottom up. If there are any bees left in the old hive, they will soon return and take possession of their new habitation. SECOND METHOD. Take drawer No. 1, well filled by any hive the same season, insert the same into the chamber of the hive, to be transferred in September, (August would be better.) If the bees need transferring, they will repair to the drawer and make the same their winter quarters. Then proceed in the spring as directed in the first method. REMARKS. This management should excite a deep interest in every cultivator, both in a temporal and moral point of view. Temporal, because the lives of all the bees are preserved; moral, because we are accountable to God for all our acts. We are not to be justified in taking the lives of animals or insects, which are but lent blessings, unless some benefit to the owner can be derived from their death, which will outweigh the evils resulting from such a sacrifice. Duty compels me to protest in the strongest terms and feelings, against the inhuman practice of taking the lives of the most industrious and comforting insects to the wants of the human family by fire and brimstone. When bees have occupied one tenement for several years, the combs become thick and filthy, by being filled up with old bread and cocoons, made by the young bees when transformed from a larva to the perfect fly. Bees always wind themselves in their cells, in a silken cocoon, or shroud, to pass their torpid and defenceless (chrysalis) state.--These cocoons are very thin, and are never removed by the bees. They are always cleaned immediately after the escape of the young bees, and others are raised in the same cells. Thus a number of bees are raised, which leaves an additional cocoon as often as the transformation of one succeeds that of another, which often occurs in the course of the season. Now in the course of a few years the cells become so contracted, in consequence of being thus filled up, that the bees come forth but mere dwarfs and sometimes cease to swarm. Combs are rendered useless by being filled up with old bread, which is never used except for feeding young bees. A greater quantity of this bread is stored up yearly than is used by them, and in a few years they have but little room to perform their ordinary labors.--Hence the necessity of transferring them, or the inhuman sentence of death must be passed upon them, not by being hung by the neck until they are dead, but by being tortured to death by fire and brimstone. It is obvious to every cultivator that old stocks should be transferred. I have repeatedly transferred them in the most approved manner, by means of an apparatus constructed for that purpose; but the operation always resulted in the loss of the colony afterwards, or a swarm which would have come from them. When it is necessary to transfer a swarm, insert drawer No. 1 into their chamber in the spring, say the first of May. If they till the drawer, let it remain there; if they need to be changed to a new hive, they will recede from the lower apartment and make the drawer their winter quarters, which should remain until warm weather has so far advanced as to afford them bread. Then they may be removed to an empty hive, as directed in the Rule. Now the drawer contains no bread, and should remain in the old stock until the bees can provide themselves with a sufficient quantity of that article to feed their young bees with; for bread is not collected early enough and in sufficient quantities to feed their young as much as nature requires. If the bees fail in filling the drawer, one should be used that is filled by another swarm. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The reader might have expected many things demonstrated in this work, which are omitted by design. The structure of the worker is too well understood by every owner of bees to need a particular description. So also of the drone; and the Queen has already been sufficiently described to enable any one to select her out from among her subjects. If any further description is desired, the observer can easily satisfy himself by the use of a microscope.--Every swarm of bees is composed of three classes or sorts, to wit: one Queen or female, drones or males, and neuters or workers. The Queen is the only female in the hive, and lays all the eggs from which all the young bees are raised to replenish their colony. She possesses no authority over them, other than that of influence, which is derived from the fact that she is the mother of all the bees; and they, being endowed with knowledge of the fact that they are wholly dependent on her to propagate their species, treat her with the greatest kindness, tenderness and reverence, and manifest at all times the most sincere attachment to her by feeding and guarding her from all danger. The government of a hive is nearer republican than any other, because it is administered in exact accordance with their nature. It is their peculiar natural instinct, which prompts them in all their actions. The Queen has no more to do with the government of the hive than the other bees, unless influence may be called government. If she finds empty cells in the hive, during the breeding season, she will deposit eggs there, because it is her nature to do so; and the nature of the workers prompts them so take care and nurse all the young larvae, labor and collect food for their sustenance, guard and protect their habitations, and do and perform all things, in due obedience, not to the commands of the Queen, but to their own peculiar instinct. The drone is probably the male bee, notwithstanding the sexual union has never been witnessed by any man; yet so many experiments have been tried, and observations made, that but little doubt can be entertained of its truth. That the sexual intercourse takes place high in the air, is highly probable from the fact, that other insects of the fly tribe do copulate in the air, when on the wing, as I have repeatedly seen. That the drone is the male bee, is probable from the fact that the drones are not all killed at once; but at least one in each hive is permitted to live several months after the general massacre. I examined four swarms, whose colonies were strong and numerous, three months after the general massacre of the drones, and in three hives I found one drone each; the other was probably overlooked, as the bees were thrown into the fire as fast as they were examined. But there are many mysterious things concerning them, and much might be written to little purpose; and as it is designed to go no further in illustrations than is necessary to aid the apiarian in good management, many little speculations have been entirely omitted in the work, and the reader is referred to the writings of Thatcher, Bonner, and Huber, who are the most voluminous and extensive writers on bees within my knowledge. Bees are creatures of habit, and the exercise of caution in managing them is required. A stock of bees should be placed where they are to stand through the season before they form habits of location, which will take place soon after they commence their labors in the spring. They learn their home by the objects surrounding them in the immediate vicinity of the hive. Moving them, (unless they are carried beyond their knowledge,) is often fatal to them. The old bees forget their new location, and on their return, when collecting stores, they haze about where they formerly stood, sad perish. I have known some fine stocks ruined by moving them six feet and from that to a mile and a half. It is better to move them before swarming than afterwards. The old bees only will be lost. As the young ones are constantly hatching, their habits will be formed at the new stand, and the combs will not be as likely to become vacated, so as to afford opportunity to the moths to occupy any part of their ground. Swarms, when first hived, may be moved at pleasure without loss of bees, admitting they are all in the hive; their habits will be formed in exact proportion to their labors.--The first bee that empties his sack and goes forth in search of food, is the one whose habits are first established. I have observed many bees to cluster near the place where the hive stood, but a few hours after hiving, and perish. Now if the swarm had been placed in the apiary, immediately after they were hived, the number of bees found there would have been less. Bees may be moved at pleasure at any season of the year, if they are carried several miles, so as to be beyond their knowledge of country. They may be carried long journeys by travelling nights only, and affording them opportunity to labor and collect food in the day time. The importance of this part of bee-management is the only apology I can make for dwelling so long on this point. I have known many to suffer serious losses in consequence of moving their bees after they were well settled in their labors. Bees should never be irritated, under any pretence whatever. They should be treated with attention and kindness. They should be kept undisturbed by cattle and all other annoyances, so that they may be approached at any time with safety. An apiary should be so situated, that swarming may be observed, and at the same time where the bees can obtain food easily, and in the greatest abundance. It has been a general practice to front bee-houses either to the east or south. This doctrine should be exploded with all other whims. Apiaries should be so situated as to be convenient to their owner, as much as any other buildings. I have them front towards all the cardinal points, but can distinguish no difference in their prosperity. Young swarms should be scattered as much as convenient during the summer season, at least eight feet apart. They should be set in a frame and so covered as to exclude the sun and weather from the hive. It is not surprising that this branch of rural economy, in consequence of the depredations of the moth, is so much neglected.--Notwithstanding, in some parts of our country, the business of managing bees has been entirely abandoned for years, I am confident they may be cultivated in such a manner as to render them more profitable to their owners, than any branch of agriculture, in proportion to the capital necessary to be invested in their stock. They are not taxable property, neither does it require a large land investment, nor fences; neither does it require the owner to labor through the summer to support them through the winter.--Care is, indeed, necessary, but a child, or a superannuated person can perform most of the duties of an apiarian. The cobwebs must be kept away from the immediate vicinity of the hive, and all other annoyances removed. The management of bees is a delightful employment, and may be pursued with the best success in cities and villages, as well as towns and country. It is a source of great amusement, as well as comfort and profit. They collect honey and bread from most kinds of forest trees, as well as garden flowers, orchards, forests, and fields; all contribute to their wants, and their owner is gratified with a taste of the whole. Sweet mignonette cannot be too highly recommended.--This plant is easily cultivated by drills in the garden, and is one of the finest and richest flowers in the world from which the honey-bee can extract its food. The Vermont hive is the only one I can use to much advantage or profit, and yet there are some other improvements, which are far superior to the old box. In the summer of 1834, I received in swarms and extra honey from my best stock, thirty dollars; and from my poorest, fifteen dollars. My early swarms afforded extra honey which was sold, amounting to from five to ten dollars each hive; and all ray late swarms which were doubled, stored a sufficient quantity of food to supply them through the following winter. The rules in the foregoing work, perhaps, may be deemed, in some instances, too particular; yet, in all cases, they will be found to be safe and unfailing in their application, though liable to exceptions, such as are incident to all specific rules. SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS. ON RULE FIRST.--The underside of the chamber floor should be planed smooth; then scratched with a sharp scratch, so as to enable the bees to hold fast; otherwise they may fall suddenly upon the bottom board, which may induce them to leave the hive and flee to the woods. That the inside of the hive should be made smooth, is evident from the fact, that comb adheres much more firmly to a smooth board than it doss to the small fibres or splinters which are left by the saw, and is less likely to drop. These remarks were omitted in the work by mistake. RULE SECOND--ON SWARMING AND HIVING,--The Drawers should be turned, so as to let the bees into them at the time of hiving; unless the swarm is so small that they can locate in a drawer. REMARKS.--Bees commence making comb, where the whole colony have room to work. Now if the bees can all get into the drawer, they will begin there; of course they will raise young bees and deposit bread in the drawer. If the swarm is so large as to be unable to work in the drawer, there is no danger of letting them in. At the same time there may be danger if they are prevented from entering, because they sometimes go off for want of room in the lower apartment. I therefore, recommend letting the bees into the drawers at the time of hiving them, in all cases, except when the swarms are small, then the rule should be strictly adhered to. Notwithstanding I have hived hundreds of swarms in eight years last past, and have not lost a single swarm by flight to the woods, yet I frequently hear of losses of this kind, which appears to render these remarks necessary. My practice in hiving, is to get the bees into the hive as quick as possible, hang on the bottom board, fasten the same forward by means of the button so as to prevent the escape of any of the bees, except through the mouth of the hive; place the hive immediately where I intend it shall stand through the season. Let the bottom board down 3/8ths of an inch, on the third day after swarming. REMARKS ON RULE 10.--Small swarms should have the Queens taken from them and the bees returned to the parent stock, so as to keep the old hive well replenished with bees during the moth season; likewise to avoid the loss of the old stock by freezing in the winter. Too much swarming frequently occasions the loss of the old stock the winter following, because their numbers are so reduced that the necessary animal heat cannot be kept up to prevent them from perishing by cold. There may be more than one queen in all swarms after the first[1], as in all cases when bees make one queen they make a plurality of them, and if more than one is hatched at the time of swarming, in the confusion which takes place in the hive, during swarming, all the queens which are hatched will sally forth with the swarm; hence, in taking away queens, the bee master should look for them until the bees begin to return to the parent stock. Cut off a limb and shake the bees on a table to find the queens. ----- [1] Large colonies sometimes loose their queen and have been known to make more, in which case, in order to avoid the conflict of the queens, they have been known to swarm out several bushels of Bees. 
22771	----	(This file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) Transcriber's Note: The spelling in this text has been preserved as in the original. Obvious printer's errors have been corrected. A list of the corrections can be found at the end of this e-text. * * * * * CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES EMBRACING THEIR HISTORY AND BREEDS, CROSSING AND BREEDING, AND FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT, AND THE REMEDIES BEST ADAPTED TO THEIR CURE. TO WHICH IS ADDED A LIST OF THE MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE. BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S., PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES," ETC., ETC. [Illustration: With Numerous Illustrations.] PHILADELPHIA: John E. Potter and Company, 617 Sansom Street. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by JOHN E. POTTER, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE. A marked interest has of late years been manifested in our country relative to the subject of breeding and rearing domestic cattle. This has not been confined to the dairyman alone. The greater portion of intelligent agriculturists have perceived the necessity of paying more attention than was formerly devoted to the improvement and perfection of breeds for the uses of the table as well. In this respect, European cattle-raisers have long taken the precedence of our own. The gratifying favor with which the author's former publication, "The Horse and his Diseases," has been received by the public, has induced him to believe that a work, similar in spirit and general treatment, upon Cattle, would not be without interest for the agricultural community. In this belief, the present treatise has been prepared. The author has availed himself of the labors of others in this connection; never, however, adopting results and conclusions, no matter how strongly endorsed, which have been contradicted by his own observation and experience. In a field like the one in question, assuredly, if anywhere, some degree of independent judgment will not be censured by those who are familiar with the sad consequences resulting from the attempted application of theories now universally exploded, but which in the day and generation of their originators were sanctioned and advocated by those who claimed to be magnates in this department. To the following works, especially, the author acknowledges himself indebted: American Farmer's Encyclopædia; Stephens's Book of the Farm; Flint's Milch-Cows and Dairy Farming; Laurence on Cattle; Allen's Domestic Animals; Youatt and Martin on Cattle; Thomson's Food of Animals; Allen's Rural Architecture; Colman's Practical Agriculture and Rural Economy; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; and Prof. Gamgee's valuable contributions to veterinary science. Particular attention is requested to the division of "Diseases." Under this head, as in his former work, the author has endeavored to detail the symptoms of the most common ailments of cattle in such a manner that every farmer and cattle-owner can at once understand them, and also to suggest such procurable remedies as a wide experience has proved to be most efficacious. A generous space has been devoted to the consideration of that fatal epidemic, now generally known as "Pleuro-Pneumonia," as it has manifested itself in Europe and this country, in the belief that a matter of such vital importance to the stock-raiser ought to receive a complete exposition in a work like the present. As the author's personal experience in connection with the treatment of this peculiar disease has been, perhaps, as large and varied as that of any American practitioner, he is not without the hope that his views upon the matter may prove productive of some benefit to others. Should the present volume prove as acceptable to those interested as did his former work, the author will be abundantly satisfied that he has not mistaken in this instance the wants of the public. CONTENTS. HISTORY AND BREEDS OF CATTLE, 13 THE BRITISH OX, 15 AMERICAN CATTLE, 21 The Ayrshire, 23 The Jersey, 30 The Short-Horns, 32 The Dutch, 36 The Hereford, 38 The North-Devon, 41 Native Cattle, 43 NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE, 50 Gestation, 51 Formation of Teeth, 51 Points of a Good Cow, 57 THE MILK-MIRROR, 61 CROSSING AND BREEDING, 77 PREGNANCY, 92 TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING, 93 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT, 97 SOILING, 118 CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER, 122 THE BARN, 146 MILKING, 155 RAISING OF CALVES, 168 POINTS OF FAT CATTLE, 183 DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING, 188 DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES, 205 Abortion, 206 Apoplexy, 215 Black-Water, 215 Bronchitis, 216 Consumption, 217 Coryza, 217 Cow-pox, 218 Diarrhoea, 219 Dysentery, 220 Enteritis, 222 Epizoötics, 224 Epizoötic Catarrh, 234 Fardel, 236 Foul in the Foot, 237 Garget, 237 Gastro-enteritis, 238 Hoose, 238 Hoove, 239 Hydatids, 240 Inflammation of the Bladder, 241 Inflammation of the Haw, 241 Inflammation of the Kidneys, 242 Inflammation of the Liver, 242 Laryngitis, 243 Lice, 244 Mange, 244 Murrain, 246 Navel-ill, 247 Obstructions in the Oesophagus, 247 Open Joints, 248 Parturition, 248 Free Martins, 251 Cleansing, 253 Inversion of the Uterus, 253 Phrenitis, 254 Pleurisy, 255 Pleuro-pneumonia, 256 Pneumonia, 300 Protrusion of the Bladder, 302 Puerperal Fever, 302 Quarter Evil, 303 Rabies, 304 Red Water, 305 Rheumatism, 307 Strangulation of the Intestines, 308 Thrush in the Mouth, 308 Tumors, 308 Ulcers about the Joints, 312 Warbles, 313 Worms, 315 Worms in the Bronchial Tubes, 316 SURGICAL OPERATIONS, 316 Castration, 316 Tracheotomy, 319 Spaying, 320 LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE, 330 DOSES OF VARIOUS MEDICINES, 336 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE A Prize Bull, 13 The Well-fed Beasts, 19 An Ayrshire Bull, 23 A Short-horn Bull, 33 A North Devon Steer, 41 Draft Oxen, 45 Skeleton of the Ox, 50 Teeth at Birth, 52 Teeth at Second Week, 52 Teeth at Three Weeks, 53 Teeth at a Month, 53 Teeth at Five to Eight Months, 53 Ten Months Teeth, 53 Twelve Months Teeth, 54 Fifteen Months Teeth, 54 Eighteen Months Teeth, 55 Teeth at Two Years Past, 55 Teeth at Three Years Past, 56 Teeth at Four Years Past, 56 Teeth at Five Years Past, 56 Teeth at Ten Years Past, 56 A Good Milch Cow, 58 Milk-Mirror (A), 62 Milk-Mirror (B), 63 Milk-Mirror (C), 63 Milk-Mirror (D), 64 Milk-Mirror (E), 65 Milk-Mirror (F), 66 Milk-Mirror (G), 69 Milk-Mirror (H), 70 Milk-Mirror (K), 72 Milk-Mirror (L), 74 Cow and Calf, 77 Ready for Action, 83 A Sprightly Youth, 89 Feeding, 97 The Family Pets, 102 Buying Cattle, 107 Calling in the Cattle, 112 "On the Rampage", 117 Patiently Waiting, 123 A Chance for a Selection, 129 A West Highland Ox, 139 Barn for Thirty-four Cows and Three Yoke of Oxen, 150 Transverse Section, 152 Room over the Cow-Room, 153 The Preferable Method, 159 Maternal Affection, 168 Frolicksome, 177 Points of Cattle, 185 A Frontispiece, 190 Scotch Mode of Cutting up Beef, 195 English Mode of Cutting up Beef, 197 Diseases and Their Remedies, 205 A Chat on the Road, 218 The Mad Bull, 230 An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull, 244 Taking an Observation, 256 The Twins, 268 A Rural Scene, 285 Taking it Easily, 299 Home Again, 313 [Illustration] History and Breeds It is quite certain that the ox has been domesticated and in the service of man from a very remote period. We are informed in the fourth chapter of Genesis, that cattle were kept by the early descendants of Adam; Jubal, the son of Lamech--who was probably born during the lifetime of Adam--being styled the father of such as have cattle. The ox having been preserved by Noah from the flood of waters, the original breed of our present cattle must have been in the neighborhood of Mount Ararat. From thence, dispersing over the face of the globe--altering by climate, by food, and by cultivation--originated the various breeds of modern ages. That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly appreciated, we have ample evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and Hindostan, seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities; and, judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have been selected whose value to mankind is greater. The traditions, indeed, of every Celtic nation enroll the cow among the earliest productions, and represent it as a kind of divinity. In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labor, for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa they are as much the associates of the Caffre as the horse is of the Arab. They share his toils, and assist him in tending his herds. They are even trained to battle, in which they become fierce and courageous. In central Africa the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen upon the backs of cattle. In all ages they have drawn the plough. In Spain they still trample out the corn; in India they raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate the thirsty soil of Bengal. When Cæsar invaded Britain they constituted the chief riches of its inhabitants; and they still form no inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's riches. The parent race of the ox is said to have been much larger than any of the present varieties. The Urus, in his wild state at least, was an enormous and fierce animal, and ancient legends have thrown around him an air of mystery. In almost every part of the continent of Europe and in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known. As the various breeds of cattle among us were introduced into this country from Great Britain, we propose, before going into the details of the leading American breeds, to glance somewhat briefly at the history of THE BRITISH OX. In the earliest and most reliable accounts which we possess of the British Isles--the Commentaries of Cæsar--we learn that the ancient Britons possessed great numbers of cattle. No satisfactory description of these cattle occurs in any ancient author; but, with occasional exceptions, we know that they possessed no great bulk or beauty. Cæsar tells us that the Britons neglected tillage and lived on milk and flesh; and this account of the early inhabitants of the British Isle is corroborated by other authors. It was such an occupation and mode of life as suited their state of society. The island was divided into many little sovereignties; no fixed property was secure; and that alone was valuable which could be hurried away at the threatened approach of the invader. Many centuries after this, when--although one sovereign seemed to reign paramount over the whole of the kingdom--there continued to be endless contests among the feudal barons, and therefore that property alone continued to be valuable which could be secured within the walls of the castle, or driven beyond the assailant's reach--an immense stock of provisions was always stored up in the various fortresses, both for the vassals and the cattle; or it was contrived that the latter should be driven to the domains of some friendly baron, or concealed in some inland recess. When the government became more powerful and settled, and property of every kind was assured a proportionate degree of protection, as well as more equally divided, the plough came into use; agricultural productions were oftener cultivated, the reaping of which was sure after the labor of sowing. Cattle were then comparatively neglected and for some centuries injuriously so. Their numbers diminished, and their size also seems to have diminished; and it is only within the last century and a half that any serious and successful efforts have been made materially to improve them. In the comparatively roving and uncertain life which the earlier inhabitants led, their cattle would sometimes stray and be lost. The country was at that time overgrown with forests, and the beasts betook themselves to the recesses of these woods, and became wild and sometimes ferocious. They, by degrees, grew so numerous as to be dangerous to the inhabitants of the neighboring districts. One of the chronicles asserts that many of them harbored in the forests in the neighborhood of London. Strange stories are told of some of them, and, doubtless, when irritated, they were fierce and dangerous enough. As, however, civilization advanced, and the forests became thinned and contracted, these animals were seen more rarely, and at length almost disappeared. A few of them, however, are still to be found in the parks of some of the leading English noblemen, who keep them for ornament and as curiosities. The color of this wild breed is invariably white, the muzzle being black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the outside, from the tips downward, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upward; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane, about an inch and a half or two inches long. The beef is finely marbled and of excellent flavor. At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel around and come boldly up again in a menacing manner; on a sudden they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, forming a shorter circle; and, again returning with a more threatening aspect than before, they approach probably within thirty yards, when they again make another stand, and then fly off; this they do several times, shortening their distance and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within such short distance that most persons think it prudent to leave them. When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some retired situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any persons come near the calves they clap their heads close to the ground to hide themselves--a proof of their native wildness. The dams allow no one to touch their young without attacking with impetuous ferocity. When one of the herd happens to be wounded, or has grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest set on it and gore it to death. The breeds of cattle which are now found in Great Britain, are almost as various as the soil of the different districts or the fancies of the breeders. They have, however, been very conveniently classed according to the comparative size of the horns; the _long-horns_, originally from Lancashire, and established through most of the midland counties; the _short-horns_, generally cultivated in the northern counties and in Lincolnshire, and many of them found in every part of the kingdom where the farmer pays much attention to his dairy, or where a large supply of milk is desired; and the _middle-horns_, a distinct and valuable breed, inhabiting, principally, the north of Devon, the east of Sussex, Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire; and of diminished bulk and with somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and Welsh mountains. The Alderney, with its _crumpled horn_, is found on the southern coast; while the polled, or _hornless_, cattle prevail in Suffolk, Norfolk, and Galloway, whence they were first derived. These leading breeds, however, have been intermingled in every possible way. They are found pure only in their native districts, or on the estate of some wealthy and spirited individuals. Each county has its own mongrel breed, often difficult to be described, and not always to be traced--neglected enough, yet suited to the soil and the climate; and among small farmers, maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at improvements by the intermixture or the substitution of foreign varieties. Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle. The battle has been sharply fought between the advocates of the middle and of the long-horns. The short-horns and the polls are out of the lists; the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time immemorial, being probably an accidental variety. The weight of argument appears at present to rest with the middle horns; the long-horns being evidently of Irish extraction. [Illustration: THE WELL-FED BEASTS.] Great Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than they been overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the natives retreated they carried with them some portion of their property, consisting, in the remote and early times, principally of cattle. They drove along with them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of North Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous region of Wales, or when they took refuge in the retirement of East Sussex; and there, retaining all their prejudices, manners, and customs, were jealous of the preservation of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded to a foreign yoke. In this way was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle. Difference of climate produced some change, particularly in their bulk. The rich pasturage of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of Devon produced a smaller and more active animal; while the privations of Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh Stock. As for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They were proud of their country, and of their cattle, their choicest possession; and there, also, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and undegenerated. Thence it has resulted, that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in Scotland, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial; while in all the eastern coasts and through every district of England, the breed of cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of animals brought from all the neighboring, and some remote districts, mingled in every possible variety, yet conforming to the soil and the climate. Careful observations will establish the fact, that the cattle in Devonshire, Sussex, Wales, and Scotland are essentially the same. They are middle horned; not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the quality rather than the quantity of their milk; active at work, and with an unequalled aptitude to fatten. They have all the characters of the same breed, changed by soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by man. The color, even, may be almost traced, namely: the red of the Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford; and where only the black are now found, the recollection of the red prevails. As this volume is intended especially for the farmers of our own country, it is deemed unnecessary in this connection to present any thing additional under the present head, except the names of the prominent species of British cattle. These are, commencing with the middle horns, the North Devon, the Hereford, the Sussex, the Welsh (with the varieties of the Pembrokeshire, the Glamorganshire, the Radnor black, the Anglesea and some others); and the Scotch with its chief varieties, the West Highlanders, the North Highlanders, the North Eastern, the Fife, the Ayrshire, and the Galloways. As to the long horns, which came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, it may be remarked that this breed has been rapidly disappearing of late, and has everywhere given place to better kinds. Of this species there are--or perhaps were--two leading classes, the Lancashire and the Leicestershire improved. Of the short horns, the leading breeds are the Dutch, the Holderness, the Teeswater, the Yorkshire, the Durham, the Northumberland, and some others. AMERICAN CATTLE. The breeds of cattle which stock the farms of the United States are all derived from Europe, and, with few exceptions, from Great Britain. The highest breeds at the present time are of comparatively recent origin, since the great improvements in breeding were only commenced at about the period of the American Revolution. The old importations made by the early settlers, must consequently have been from comparatively inferior grades. In some sections of the Union, and more particularly in New England, the primitive stock is thought to have undergone considerable improvement; whilst in many parts of the Middle, and especially of the Southern States, a greater or less depreciation has ensued. The prevailing stock in the Eastern States is believed to be derived from the North Devons, most of the excellent marks and qualities of which they possess. For this reason they are very highly esteemed, and have been frequently called the American Devon. The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of this breed, which also contributes so largely to the best displays of beef found in the markets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. By means of this domestic stock, and the importations still extensively made of selections from the short horns, and others of the finest European breeds, the cattle, not only of New England, but of other sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and Western States. A brief sketch of the principal breeds of American cattle, as well as of the grades or common stock of the country, will be of service to the farmer in making an intelligent selection with reference to the special object of pursuit--whether it be the dairy, the production of beef, or the raising of cattle for work. In selecting any breed, regard should be had to the circumstances of the individual farmer and the object to be pursued. The cow most profitable for the milk dairy, may be very unprofitable in the butter and cheese dairy, as well as for the production of beef; while, for either of the latter objects, the cow which gave the largest quantity of milk might be very undesirable. A union and harmony of all good qualities must be secured, so far as possible. The farmer wants a cow that will milk well for some years; and then, when dry, fatten readily and sell to the butcher for the highest price. These qualities, often supposed to be utterly incompatible, will be found united in some breeds to a greater extent than in others; while some peculiarities of form have been found, by observation, to be better adapted to the production of milk and beef than others. It is proposed, therefore, to sketch the pure breeds now found in America. THE AYRSHIRE. [Illustration: AN AYRSHIRE BULL.] This breed is justly celebrated throughout Great Britain and this country for its excellent dairy qualities. Though the most recent in their origin, they are pretty distinct from the Scotch and English races. In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red and white, spotted or mottled, not roan like many of the short horns, but often presenting a bright contrast of colors. They are sometimes, though rarely, nearly or quite all red, and sometimes black and white; but the favorite color is red and white brightly contrasted; and, by some, strawberry-color is preferred. The head is small, fine and clean; the face long and narrow at the muzzle, with a sprightly, yet generally mild expression; eye small, smart and lively; the horns short, fine, and slightly twisted upward, set wide apart at the roots; the neck thin; body enlarging from fore to hind quarters; the back straight and narrow, but broad across the loin; joints rather loose and open; ribs rather flat; hind quarters rather thin; bone fine; tail long, fine, and bushy at the end; hair generally thin and soft; udder light color and capacious, extending well forward under the belly; teats of the cow of medium size, generally set regularly and wide apart; milk-veins prominent and well developed. The carcass of the pure bred Ayrshire is light, particularly the fore quarters, which is considered by good judges as an index of great milking qualities; but the pelvis is capacious and wide over the hips. On the whole, the Ayrshire is good looking, but wants some of the symmetry and aptitude to fatten which characterize the short horn, which is supposed to have contributed to build up this valuable breed on the basis of the original stock of the county of Ayr, which extends along the eastern shore of the Firth of Clyde, in the southwestern part of Scotland. The original stock of this country are described as of a diminutive size, ill fed, ill shaped, and yielding but a scanty return in milk. They were mostly of a black color, with large stripes of white along the chine and ridge of their backs, about the flanks, and on their faces. Their horns were high and crooked, having deep ringlets at the root--the surest proof that they were but scantily fed; the chine of their backs stood up high and narrow; their sides were lank, short, and thin; their hides thick and adhering to the bones; their pile was coarse and open; and few of them gave more than six or eight quarts of milk a day when in their best condition, or weighed, when fat, more than from a hundred to a hundred and sixty pounds avoirdupois, rejecting offal. A wonderful change has since been made in the condition, aspect, and qualities of the Ayrshire dairy stock. They are now almost double the size, and yield about four times the quantity of milk that the Ayrshire cows formerly yielded. A large part of this improvement is due to better feeding and care, but much, no doubt, to judicious crossing. Strange as it may seem, considering the modern origin of this breed, all that is certainly known touching it is, that about a century and a half ago there was no such breed as Ayrshire in Scotland. The question has therefore arisen, whether these cattle came entirely from a careful selection of the best native breed. If they did, it is a circumstance without a parallel in the history of agriculture. The native breed may indeed be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be incalculably increased; some good qualities, some of its best qualities, may be developed for the first time; but yet there will be some resemblance to the original stock, and the more the animal is examined, the more clearly can be traced the characteristic points of the ancestor, although every one of them is improved. Youatt estimates the daily yield of an Ayrshire cow, for the first two or three months after calving, at five gallons a day, on an average; for the next three months, at three gallons; and for the next four months, at one gallon and a half. This would give eight hundred and fifty gallons as the annual average; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, he estimates the average of a dairy at six hundred gallons a year for each cow. Three gallons and a half of the Ayrshire cow's milk will yield one and a half pounds of butter. Some have estimated the yield still higher. One of the four cows originally imported into this country by John P. Cushing, Esq., of Massachusetts, gave in one year three thousand eight hundred and sixty-four quarts, beer measure, or about nine hundred and sixty-six gallons, at ten pounds the gallon; being an average of over ten and a half beer quarts a day for the entire year. The first cow of this breed, imported by the Massachusetts Society, for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1837, yielded sixteen pounds of butter a week for several successive weeks, on grass feed only. It should be borne in mind, in this connection that the climate of New England is less favorable to the production of milk than that of England and Scotland, and that no cow imported after arriving at maturity can be expected to yield as much, under the same circumstances, as one bred on the spot where the trial is made, and perfectly acclimated. On excellent authority, the most approved shape and marks of a good dairy cow are as follows: Head small, long, and narrow toward the muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and long, tapering toward the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore quarters light and thin; hind quarters large and broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short, with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward, thin skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small, pointing outward, and at a considerable distance from each other; milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh, handsome and well proportioned. If this description of the Ayrshire cow be correct, it will be seen that her head and neck are remarkably clean and fine, the latter swelling gradually toward the shoulders, both parts being unencumbered with superfluous flesh. The same general form extends backward, the fore quarters being, light the shoulders thin, and the carcass swelling out toward the hind quarters, so that when standing in front of her it has the form of a blunted wedge. Such a structure indicates very fully developed digestive organs, which exert a powerful influence on all the functions of the body, and especially on the secretion of the milky glands, accompanied with milk-veins and udder partaking of the same character as the stomach and viscera, being large and capacious, while the external skin and interior walls of the milk-glands are thin and elastic, and all parts arranged in a manner especially adapted for the production of milk. A cow with these marks will generally be of a quiet and docile temper, which greatly increases her value. A cow that is of a quiet and contented disposition feeds at ease, is milked with ease, and yields more than one of an opposite temperament; while, after she is past her usefulness as a milker, she will easily take on fat, and make fine beef and a good quantity of tallow, because she feeds freely, and when dry the food which went to make milk is converted into fat and flesh. But there is no breed of cows with which gentle gentleness of treatment is so indispensable as with the Ayrshire, on account of her naturally nervous temperament. If she receives other than kind and gentle treatment, she will often resent it with angry looks and gestures, and withhold her milk; and if such treatment is long continued, will dry up; but she willingly and easily yields it to the hand that fondles her, and all her looks and movements toward her friends are quiet and mild. The Ayrshires in their native country are generally bred for the dairy, and for no other object; and the cows have justly obtained a world-wide reputation for this quality. The oxen are, however, very fair as working cattle, though they cannot be said to excel other breeds in this respect. The Ayrshire steer maybe fed and turned at three years old; but for feeding purposes the Ayrshires are greatly improved by a cross with the short horns, provided regard is had to the size of the animal. It is the opinion of good breeders that a high-bred short horn bull and a large-sized Ayrshire cow will produce a calf which will come to maturity earlier, and attain greater weight, and sell for more money than a pure-bred Ayrshire. This cross, with feeding from the start, may be sold fat at two or three years old, the improvement being most noticeable in the earlier maturity and size. In the Cross with the short horn, the form ordinarily becomes more symmetrical, while there is, perhaps, little risk of lessening the milking qualities of the offspring, if sufficient regard is paid to the selection of the individual animals to breed from. It is thought by some that in the breeding of animals it is the male which gives the external form, or the bony and muscular system of the young, while the female imparts the respiratory organs, the circulation of the blood, the organs of secretion, and the like. If this principle be true, it follows that the milking qualities come chiefly from the mother, and that the bull cannot materially alter the conditions which determine the transmission of these qualities, especially when they are as strongly marked as they are in this breed. Until, however, certain mooted questions connected with breeding are definitively settled, it is the safest plan, in breeding for the dairy, to adhere to the rule of selecting only animals whose progenitors on both sides have been distinguished for their milking qualities. It may be stated, in conclusion, that for purely dairy purposes the Ayrshire cow deserves the first place. In consequence of her small, symmetrical, and compact body, combined with a well-formed chest and a capacious stomach, there is little waste, comparatively speaking, through the respiratory system; while at the same time there is very complete assimilation of the food, and thus she converts a very large proportion of her food into milk. So remarkable is this fact, that all dairy farmers who have any experience on the point, agree in stating that _an Ayrshire cow generally gives a larger return of milk for the food consumed than a cow of any other breed_. The absolute quality may not be so great, but it is obtained at a less cost; and this is the point upon which the question of profit depends. The best milkers which have been known in this country were grade Ayrshires, larger in size than the pure bloods, but still sufficiently high grades to give certain signs of their origin. This grade would seem to possess the advantage of combining, to some extent, the two qualities of milking and adaptation to beef; and this is no small recommendation of the stock to farmers situated as American farmers are, who wish for milk for some years and then to turn over to the butcher. THE JERSEY. These cattle are now widely known in this country. Many of them have been imported from an island of the same name in the British Channel, near the coast of France, and they may now be considered, for all practical purposes, as fully acclimated. They were first introduced, upward of thirty years ago, from the channel islands, Alderney, Guernsey, and Jersey. This race is supposed to have been originally derived from Normandy, in the northern part of France. The cows have been long celebrated for the production of very rich milk and cream, but till within the last twenty-five or thirty years they were comparatively coarse, ugly, and ill-shaped. Improvements have been very marked, but the form of the animal is still far from satisfying the eye. The head of the pure Jersey is fine and tapering, the cheek small, the throat clean, the muzzle fine and encircled with a light stripe, the nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, but not very thick at the base, tapering and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; barrel hoofed, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the setting of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; fore legs short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide apart, and milk-veins very prominent. The color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less of white, and the fine head and neck give the cows and heifers a fawn-like appearance, and make them objects of attraction in the park; but the hind quarters are often too narrow to work well, particularly to those who judge animals by the amount of fat which they carry. It should be borne in mind, however, that a good race of animals is not always the most beautiful, as that term is generally understood. Beauty in stock has no invariable standard. In the estimation of some, it results mainly from fine forms, small bones, and close, compact frames; while others consider that structure the most perfect, and therefore the most beautiful, which is best adapted to the use for which it is destined. With such, beauty is relative. It is not the same in an animal designed for beef and in one designed for the dairy or for work. The beauty of a milch cow is the result of her good qualities. Large milkers are very rarely cows that please the eye of any but a skillful judge. They are generally poor, since their food goes mainly to the production of milk, and because they are selected with less regard to form than to good milking qualities. The prevailing opinion as to the beauty of the Jersey, is based on the general appearance of the cow when in milk--no experiments in feeding exclusively for beef having been made public, and no opportunity to form a correct judgment from actual observation having been furnished; and it must be confessed that the general appearance of the breed would amply justify the hasty conclusion. The bulls are usually very different in character and disposition from the cows, and are much inclined to become restive and cross at the age of two or three years, unless their treatment is uniformly gentle and firm. The Jersey is to be regarded as a dairy breed, and that almost exclusively. It would not be sought for large dairies kept for the supply of milk to cities; for, though the quality would gratify the customer, the quantity would not satisfy the owner. The place of the Jersey cow is rather in private establishments, where the supply of cream and butter is a sufficient object; or, in limited numbers, to add richness to the milk of large butter dairies. Even one or two good Jersey cows with a herd of fifteen or twenty, will make a great difference in the quality of the milk and butter of the whole establishment; and they would probably be profitable for this, if for no other object. THE SHORT HORNS. No breed of cattle has commanded more universal admiration during the last half century than the improved short horns, whose origin can be traced back for nearly a hundred years. According to the best authorities, the stock which formed the basis of improvement existed equally in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Northumberland, and the adjoining counties; and the pre-eminence was accorded to Durham, which gave its name to the race, from the more correct principles of breeding which seem to have obtained there. There is a dispute among the most eminent breeders as to how far it owes its origin to early importations from Holland, whence many superior animals were brought for the purpose of improving the old long horned breed. A large race of cattle had existed for many years on the western shores of the continent of Europe. As early as 1633, they were imported from Denmark into New England in considerable numbers, and thus laid the foundation of a valuable stock in farming at a very early date in Holland, and experience led to the greatest care in the choice and breeding of dairy stock. From these cattle many selections were made to cross over to the counties of York and Durham. The prevailing color of the large Dutch cattle was black and white, beautifully contrasted. [Illustration: A SHORT HORN BULL.] The cattle produced by these crosses a century ago were known by the name of "Dutch." The cows selected for crossing with the early imported Dutch bulls were generally long horned, large boned, coarse animals, a fair type of which was found in the old "Holderness" breed of Yorkshire--slow feeders, strong in the shoulder, defective in the fore quarter, and not very profitable to the butcher, their meat being coarse and uninviting. Their milking qualities were good, surpassing those, probably, of the improved short horns. Whatever may be the truth with regard to these crosses, and however far they proved effective in creating or laying the foundation of the modern improved short horns, the results of the efforts made in Yorkshire and some of the adjoining counties were never so satisfactory to the best judges as those of the breeders along the Tees, who selected animals with greater reference to fineness of bone and symmetry of form, and the animals they bred soon took the lead and excited great emulation in improvement. Importations of short horns have been frequent and extensive into the United States within the last few years, and this famous breed is now pretty generally diffused over the country. The high-bred short horn is easily prepared for a show, and, as fat will cover faults, the temptation is often too great to be resisted; and hence it is not uncommon to see the finest animals rendered unfit for breeding purposes by over-feeding. The race is susceptible of breeding for the production of milk, as several families show, and great milkers have often been known among pure-bred animals; but it is more common to find it bred mainly for the butcher, and kept accordingly. It is, however, a well-known fact, that the dairies of London are stocked chiefly with short horns and Yorkshires, or high grades between them, which, after being milked as long as profitable, feed equal, or nearly so, to pure-bred short horns. It has been said, by very good authority, that the short horns improve every breed with which they cross. The desirable characteristics of the short horn bull may be summed up, according to the judgment of the best breeders, as follows: He should have a short but fine head, very broad across the eyes, tapering to the nose, with a nostril full and prominent; the nose itself should be of a rich flesh color; eyes bright and mild; ears somewhat large and thin; horns slightly covered and rather flat, well set on; a long, broad, muscular neck; chest wide, deep, and projecting; shoulders fine, oblique, well formed into the chine; fore legs short, with upper arm large and powerful; barrel round, deep, well-ribbed horns; hips wide and level; back straight from the withers to the setting on of the tail, but short from hips to chine; skin soft and velvety to the touch; moderately thick hair, plentiful, soft, and mossy. The cow has the same points in the main, but her head is finer, longer, and more tapering; neck thinner and lighter, and shoulders more narrow across the chine. The astonishing precocity of the short horns, their remarkable aptitude to fatten, the perfection of their forms, and the fineness of their bony structure, give them an advantage over most other races when the object of breeding is for the shambles. No animal of any other breed can so rapidly transform the stock of any section around him as the improved short horn bull. It does not, however, follow that the high-bred short horns are unexceptionable, even for beef. The very exaggeration, so to speak, of the qualities which make them so valuable for the improvement of other and less perfect races, may become a fault when wanted for the table. The very rapidity with which they increase in size is thought by some to prevent their meat from ripening up sufficiently before being hurried off to the butcher. The disproportion of the fatty to the muscular flesh, found in this to a greater extent than in races coming more slowly to maturity, makes the meat of the thorough-bred short horn, in the estimation of some, less agreeable to the taste, and less profitable to the consumer; since the nitrogenous compounds, true sources of nutriment, are found in less quantity than in the meat of animals not so highly bred. In sections where the climate is moist, and the food abundant and rich, some families of the short horns may be valuable for the dairy; but they are most frequently bred exclusively for beef in this country, and in sections where they have attained the highest perfection of form and beauty, so little is thought of their milking qualities that they are often not milked at all, the calf being allowed to run with the dam. THE DUTCH. This short horned race, in the opinion of many--as has been previously remarked--contributed largely, about a century ago, to build up the Durham or Teeswater stock. It has been bred with special reference to dairy qualities, and is eminently adapted to supply the wants of the dairy farmer. The cows of North Holland not only give a large quantity, but also a very good quality, so that a yield of sixteen to twenty-five quarts, wine measure, at every milking, is not rare. The principles upon which the inhabitants of Holland practise, in selecting a cow from which to breed, are as follows: She should have, they say, considerable size--not less than four and a half or five feet girth, with a length of body corresponding; legs proportionally short; a finely formed head, with a forehead or face somewhat concave; clear, large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no expression of wildness; tolerably large and stout ears, standing out from the head; fine, well curved horns; a rather short, than long, thick, broad neck, well set against the chest and withers; the front part of the breast and shoulders must be broad and fleshy; the low-hanging dewlap must be soft to the touch; the back and loins must be properly projected, somewhat broad, the bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh; the animal should have long curved ribs, which form a broad breast bone; the body must be round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging belly; the rump must not be uneven, the hip-bones should not stand out too broad and spreading, but all the parts should be level and well filled up; a fine tail, set moderately high up and tolerably long, but slender, with a thick, bushy tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the hocks; the legs must be short and low, but strong in the bony structure; the knees broad, with flexible joints; the muscles and sinews must be firm and sound, the hoofs broad and flat, and the position of the legs natural, not too close and crowded; the hide, covered with fine glossy hair, must be soft and mellow to the touch, and set loose upon the body. A large, rather long, white and loose udder, extending well back, with four long teats, serves also as a characteristic mark of a good milch cow. Large and prominent milk-veins must extend from the navel back to the udder; the belly of a good milch cow should not be too deep and hanging. The color of the North Dutch cattle is mostly variegated. Cows with only one color are no favorites. Red or black variegated, gray and blue variegated, roan, spotted and white variegated cows, are especially liked. THE HEREFORD. These cattle derive their name from a county in the western part of England. Their general characteristics are a white face, sometimes mottled; white throat, the white generally extending back on the neck, and sometimes, though rarely, still further along on the back. The color of the rest of the body is red, generally dark, but sometimes light. Eighty years ago the best Hereford cattle were mottled or roan all over; and some of the best herds, down to a comparatively recent period, were either all mottled, or had the mottled or speckled face. The expression of the face is mild and lively; the forehead open, broad, and large; the eyes bright and full of vivacity; the horns glossy, slender and spreading; the head small, though larger than, and not quite so clear as, that of the Devons; the lower jaw fine; neck long and slender; chest deep; breast-bone large, prominent, and very muscular; the shoulder-blade light; shoulder full and soft; brisket and loins large; hips well developed, and on a level with the chine; hind quarters long and well filled in; buttocks on a level with the back, neither falling off nor raised above the hind quarters; tail slender, well set on; hair fine and soft; body round and full; carcass deep and well formed, or cylindrical; bone small; thigh short and well made; legs short and straight, and slender below the knee; as handlers very excellent, especially mellow to the touch on the back, the shoulder, and along the sides, the skin being soft, flexible, of medium thickness, rolling on the neck and the hips; hair bright; face almost bare, which is characteristic of pure Herefords. They belong to the middle horned division of the cattle of Great Britain, to which they are indigenous, and have been improved within the last century by careful selections. Hereford oxen are excellent animals, less active but stronger than the Devons, and very free and docile. The demand for Herefords for beef prevents their being much used for work in their native county, and the farmers there generally use horses instead of oxen. It is generally conceded that the qualities in which Herefords stand pre-eminent among the middle-sized breeds are in the production of oxen and their superiority of flesh. On these points there is little chance of their being excelled. It should, however, be borne in mind that the best oxen are not produced from the largest cows; nor is a superior quality of flesh, such as is considered very soft to the touch, with thin skin. It is the union of these two qualities which often characterizes the short horns; but Hereford breeders--as a recent writer remarks--should endeavor to maintain a higher standard of excellence--that for which the best of the breed have always been esteemed--a moderately thick, mellow hide, with a well apportioned combination of softness with elasticity. A sufficiency of hair is also desirable, and if accompanied with a disposition to curl moderately, it is more in esteem; but that which has a harsh and wiry feel is objectionable. In point of symmetry and beauty of form, the well bred Herefords may be classed with the improved short horns, though they arrive somewhat more slowly at maturity, and never attain such weight. Like the improved short horns, they are chiefly bred for beef, and their beef is of the best quality in the English markets, commanding the highest price of any, except perhaps, the West Highlanders. The short horn produces more beef at the same age than the Hereford, but consumes more food in proportion. The Herefords are far less generally spread over England than the improved short horns. They have seldom been bred for milk, as some families of the latter have; and it is not very unusual to find pure-bred cows incapable of supplying milk sufficient to nourish their calves. They have been imported to this country to some extent, and several fine herds exist in different sections; the earliest importations being those of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in 1817. The want of care and attention to the udder, soon after calving, especially if the cow be on luxuriant grass, often injures her milking properties exceedingly. The practice in the county of Hereford has generally been to let the calves suckle from four to six months, and bull calves often run eight months with the cow. But their dairy qualities are perhaps as good as those of any cattle whose fattening properties have been so carefully developed; and, though it is probable that they could be bred for milk with proper care and attention, yet, as this change would be at the expense of other qualities equally valuable, it would evidently be wiser to resort to other stock for the dairy. THE NORTH DEVONS. [Illustration: A NORTH DEVON STEER.] This beautiful race of middle horned cattle dates further back than any well established breed among us. It goes generally under the simple name of Devon; but the cattle of the southern part of the country, from which the race derives its name, differ somewhat from those of the northern, having a larger and coarser frame, and far less tendency to fatten though their dairy qualities are superior. The North Devons are remarkable for hardihood, symmetry and beauty, and are generally bred for work and for beef, rather than for the dairy. The head is fine and well set on; the horns of medium length, generally curved; color usually bright blood-red, but sometimes inclining to yellow; skin thin and orange-yellow; hair of medium length, soft and silky, making the animals remarkable as handlers; muzzle of the nose white; eyes full and mild; ears yellowish, or orange-color inside, of moderate size; neck rather long, with little dewlap; shoulders oblique; legs small and straight, with feet in proportion; chest of good width; ribs round and expanded; loins of first-rate quality, long, wide, and fleshy; hips round, of medium width; rump level; tail full near the setting on, tapering to the tip; thighs of the bull and ox muscular and full, and high in the flank, though in the cow sometimes thought to be light; the size medium, generally called small. The proportion of meat on the valuable parts is greater, and the offal less, than on most other breeds, while it is well settled that they consume less food in its production. The Devons are popular with the Smithfield butchers, and their beef is well marbled or grained. As working oxen, the Devons perhaps excel all other races in quickness, docility, beauty, and the ease with which they are matched. With a reasonable load, they are said to be equal to horses as walkers on the road, and when they are no longer wanted for work they fatten easily and turn well. As milkers, they do not excel--perhaps they may be said not to equal--the other breeds, and they have a reputation of being decidedly below the average. In their native country the general average of the dairy is one pound of butter a day during the summer. They are bred for beef and for work, and not for the dairy; and their yield of milk is small, though of a rich quality. Several animals, however, of the celebrated Patterson herd would have been remarkable as milkers even among good milking stock. Still, the faults of the North Devon cow, considered as a dairy animal, are too marked to be overlooked. The rotundity of form and compactness of frame, though they contribute to her remarkable beauty constitute an objection to her for this purpose: since it is generally admitted that the peculiarity of form which disposes an animal to take on fat is somewhat incompatible with good milking qualities. On this account, Youatt--who is standard authority in such matters--says that for the dairy the North Devon must be acknowledged to be inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, and yields more than the average proportion of cream and butter; but it is deficient in quantity. He also maintains that its property as a milker could not be improved without producing a certain detriment to its grazing qualities. Distinguished Devon breeders themselves have come to the same conclusion upon this point. The improved North Devon cow may be classed, in this respect, with the Hereford, neither of which has well developed milk-vessels--a point of the utmost consequence to the practical dairyman. NATIVE CATTLE. The foregoing comprise the pure-bred races in America; for, though other and well-established breeds--like the Galloways, the long horns, the Spanish, and others--have, at times, been imported, and have had some influence on our American stock, yet they have not been kept distinct to such an extent as to become the prevailing stock of any particular section. A large proportion, however--by far the largest proportion, indeed--of the cattle known among us cannot be included under any of the races to which allusion has been made; and to the consideration of this class the present article is devoted. The term "breed"--as was set forth in the author's treatise, "The Horse and his Diseases"--when properly understood, applies only to animals of the same species, possessing, besides the general characteristics of that species, other characteristics peculiar to themselves, which they owe to the influence of soil, climate, nourishment, and the habits of life to which they are subjected, and which they transmit with certainty to their progeny. The characteristics of certain breeds or families are so well marked, that, if an individual supposed to belong to any one of them were to produce an offspring not possessing them, or possessing them only in part, with others not belonging to the breed, it would be just ground for suspecting a want of purity of bloods. In this view, no grade animals, and no animals destitute of fixed peculiarities or characteristics which they, share in common with all other animals of the class of which they are a type, and which they are capable of transmitting with certainty to their descendants, can be recognized by breeders as belonging to any one distinct race, breed, or family. The term "native" is applied to a vast majority of our American cattle, which, though born on the soil, and thus in one sense natives, do not constitute a breed, race, or family, as correctly understood by breeders. They do not possess characteristics peculiar to them all, which they transmit with any certainty to their offspring, either of form, size, color, milking or working properties. But, though an animal may be made up of a mixture of blood almost to impurity, it does not follow that, for specific purposes, it may not, as an individual animal, be one of the best of the species. Indeed, for particular purposes, animals might be selected from among those commonly called "natives" in New England, and "scrubs" at the west and south, equal, and perhaps superior, to any among the races produced by the most skillful breeding. There can be no objection, therefore, to the use of the term "native," when it is understood as descriptive of no known breed, but only as applied to the common stock of a country, which does not constitute a breed. But perhaps the entire class of animals commonly called "natives" would be more accurately described as grades; since they are well known to have sprung from a great variety of cattle procured at different times and in different places on the continent of Europe, in England, and in the Spanish West Indies, brought together without any regard to fixed principles of breeding, but only from individual convenience, and by accident. The first importations to this country were doubtless those taken to Virginia previous to 1609, though the exact date of their arrival is not known. Several cows were carried there from the West Indies in 1610, and in the next year no less than one hundred arrived there from abroad. [Illustration: DRAFT OXEN.] The earliest cattle imported into New England arrived in 1624. At the division of cattle which took place three years after, one or two are distinctly described as black, or black and white, others as brindle, showing that there was no uniformity of color. Soon after this, a large number of cattle were brought over from England for the settlers at Salem. These importations formed the original stock of Massachusetts. In 1725, the first importation was made into New York from Holland by the Dutch West India Company, and the foundation was then laid for an exceedingly valuable race of animals, which, subsequent importations from the same country, as well as from England, have greatly improved. The points and value of this race in its purity have been already adverted to under the head of the Dutch cattle. In 1627, cattle were brought from Sweden to the settlements on the Delaware, by the Swedish West India Company. In 1631, 1632, and 1633, several importations were made into New Hampshire by Captain John Mason who, with Gorges, had procured the patent of large tracts of land in the vicinity of the Piscataqua river, and who immediately formed settlements there. The object of Mason was to carry on the manufacture of potash. For this purpose he employed the Danes; and it was in his voyage to and from Denmark that he procured many Danish cattle and horses, which were subsequently scattered over that entire region, large numbers being driven to the vicinity of Boston and sold. These Danish cattle are described as large and coarse, of a yellow color; and it is supposed that they were procured by Mason as being best capable of enduring the severity of the climate and the hardships to which they would be subjected. However this may have been, they very soon spread among the colonists of the Massachusetts Bay, and have undoubtedly left their marks on the stock of the New England and the Middle States, which exist to some extent even to the present day, mixed in with an infinite multitude of crosses with the Devons, the Dutch cattle already alluded to, the black cattle of Spain and Wales, and the long horn and the short horn--most of which crosses were accidental, or due to local circumstances or individual convenience. Many of these cattle, the descendants of such crosses, are of a very high order of merit; but to which particular cross this is due, it is impossible to say. They generally make hardy, strong, and docile oxen, easily broken to the yoke and quick to work, with a fair tendency to fatten when well fed; while the cows, though often ill-shaped, are sometimes remarkably good milkers, especially as regards the quantity which they give. Indeed, it has been remarked by excellent judges of stock, that if they desired to select a dairy of cows for milk for sale, they would make their selection from cows commonly called native, in preference to pure-bred animals of any of the established breeds, and that they believed they should find such a dairy the most profitable. In color, the natives, made up as already indicated, are exceedingly various. The old Denmarks, which to a considerable extent laid the foundation of the stock of Maine and New Hampshire, were light yellow. The Dutch of New York and the Middle States, were black and white; the Spanish and Welsh were generally black; the Devons, which are supposed to have laid the foundation of the stock of some of the States, were red. Crosses of the Denmark with the Spanish and Welsh naturally made a dark brindle; crosses of the Devon often made a lighter or yellowish brindle while the more recent importations of Jerseys and short horns have generally produced a beautiful spotted progeny. The deep red has long been a favorite color in New England; but the prejudice in its favor is fast giving way to more variegated colors. Among the earlier importations into this country were also several varieties of hornless cattle, which have been kept measurably distinct in some sections; or where they have been crossed with the common stock there has been a tendency to produce hornless grades. These are not unfrequently known as "buffalo cattle." They were, in many cases, supposed to belong to the Galloway breed; or, which is more likely, to the Suffolk dun, a variety of the Galloway, and a far better milking stock than the Galloways, from which, it sprung. These polled, or hornless cattle vary in color and qualities, but they are usually very good milkers when well kept, and many of them fatten well, and attain good weight. The Hungarian cattle have also been imported, to some extent, into different parts of the country, and have been crossed upon the natives with some success. Many other strains of blood from different breeds have also contributed to build up the common stock of the country of the present day; and there can be no question that its appearance and value have been largely improved during the last quarter of a century, nor that improvements are still in progress which will lead to satisfactory results in the future. But, though we already have an exceedingly valuable foundation for improvement, no one will pretend to deny that our cattle, as a whole, are susceptible of it in many respects. They possess neither the size, the symmetry, nor the early maturity of the short horns; they do not, as a general thing, possess the fineness of bone, the beauty of form and color, nor the activity of the Devons or the Herefords; they do not possess that uniform richness of milk, united with generous quality, of the Ayrshires, nor the surpassing richness of milk of the Jerseys: but, above all, they do not possess the power of transmitting the many good qualities which they often have to their offspring--which is the characteristic of all well established breeds. It is equally certain, in the opinion of many good judges, that the dairy stock of the country has not been materially improved in its intrinsic good qualities during the last thirty or forty years. This may not be true of certain sections, where the dairy has been made a special object of pursuit, and where the custom of raising the best male calves of the neighborhood, or those that came from the best dairy cows, and then of using only the best formed bulls, has long prevailed. Although in this way some progress has, doubtless, been made, there are still room and need for more. More attention must be paid to correct principles of breeding before the satisfactory results which every farmer should strive to reach can be attained. Having glanced generally at the leading breeds of cattle in Great Britain, and examined, more in detail, the various breeds in the United States, the next subject demanding attention is, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CATTLE. [Illustration: SKELETON OF THE OX AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 1. The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The lachrymal bone. 4. The malar, or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. 6. The horns, being processes or continuations of the frontal. 7. The temporal bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The grinders. 12. The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, and its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the eye. 18. The vertebræ, or bones of the neck. 19. The bones of the back. 20. The bones of the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail. 23. The haunch and pelvis. 24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs, with their cartilages. 26. The sternum. 27. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 29. The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The ulna, its upper part forming the elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large metacarpal or shank bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The sessamoid bones. 45. The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. 46. The two smaller pasterns to each foot. 47. The two coffin bones to each foot. 48. The navicular bones. 49. The thigh bone. 50. The patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The tibia, or proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. 53. The small bones of the hock. 54. The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The pasterns and feet.] DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud. FAMILY. With horns. GENUS. _Bovidæ_--the ox tribe. Of this tribe there are eight species: _Bos urus_, the ancient bison. _Bos bison_, the American buffalo. _Bos moschatus_, the musk ox. _Bos frontalis_, the gayal. _Bos grunniens_, the grunting ox. _Bos caffer_, the South African buffalo. _Bos bubalus_, the common buffalo. _Bos taurus_, the common domestic ox. GESTATION. The usual period of pregnancy in a cow is nine calendar months, and something over: at times as much as three weeks. With one thousand and thirty one cows, whose gestations were carefully observed in France, the average period was about two hundred and eighty-five days. FORMATION OF TEETH. It is of the utmost importance to be able to judge of the age of a cow. Few farmers wish to purchase a cow for the dairy after she has passed her prime, which will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years, varying, of course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part of her life. The common method of forming an estimate of the age of cattle is by an examination of the horn. At three years old, as a general rule, the horns are perfectly smooth; after this, a ring appears near the nob, and annually afterward a new one is formed, so that, by adding two years to the first ring, the age is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of judging. The rings are distinct only in the cow; and it is well known that if a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little before or after that time, a change takes place in the horn and the first ring appears; so that a real three-year-old would carry the mark of a four-year-old. [Illustration: TEETH AT BIRTH.] The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until five, or they cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do not appear till he is five years old, and then are often very indistinct. In addition to this, it is by no means an uncommon practice to file the horns, so as to make them smooth, and to give the animal the appearance of being much younger than it really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide, and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of confidence desired. [Illustration: SECOND WEEK.] The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, is given by the teeth. The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front teeth--in some cases just appearing through the gums; in others, fully set, varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, her regular time of calving. If she overruns several days, the teeth will have set and attained considerable size, as appears in the cut representing teeth at birth. During the second week, a tooth will usually be added on each side, and the mouth will generally appear as in the next cut; and before the end of the third week, the animal will generally have six incisor teeth, as denoted in the cut representing teeth at the third week; and in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have appeared, as seen in the next cut. [Illustration: THREE WEEKS.] [Illustration: MONTH.] [Illustration: FIVE TO EIGHT MONTHS.] [Illustration: TEN MONTHS.] [Illustration: TWELVE MONTHS.] [Illustration: FIFTEEN MONTHS.] These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. Their edge is very sharp; and as the animal begins to live upon more solid food, this edge becomes worn, showing the bony part of the tooth beneath, and indicates with considerable precision the length of time they have been used. The centre, or oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often become somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight weeks, the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They appear worn not so much on the outer edge or line of the tooth, as inside this line; but, after this, the edge begins gradually to lose its sharpness, and to present a more flattened surface; while the next outer teeth wear down like the four central ones; and at three months this wearing off is very apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn, but the inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to diminish in size by a kind of contraction, as well as wearing down, and the distance apart becomes more and more apparent. [Illustration: EIGHTEEN MONTHS.] From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will usually appear as in the cut of the teeth at that time; and at ten months, this change shows more clearly, as represented in the next cut; and the spaces between them begin to show very plainly, till at a year old they ordinarily present the appearance of the following cut; and at the age of fifteen months, that shown in the next, where the corner teeth are not more than half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller. [Illustration: TWO YEARS PAST.] The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and preparing to take the place of the milk-teeth, which are gradually absorbed till they disappear, or are pushed out to give place to the two permanent central incisors, which at a year and a half will generally present the appearance indicated in the cut, which shows the internal structure of the lower jaw at this time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central ones protruding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. These changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will usually appear as in the cut, where four of the permanent central incisors are seen. After this, the other milk-teeth decrease rapidly, but are slow to disappear; and at three years old, the third pair of permanent teeth are but formed, as represented in the cut; and at four years the last pair of incisors will be up, as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones are not yet fully grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the age of four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years old the whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top, and on the two centre ones a darker line appears in the middle, along a line of harder bone, as appears in the appropriate cut. [Illustration: THREE YEARS PAST.] [Illustration: FOUR YEARS PAST.] [Illustration: FIVE YEARS PAST.] [Illustration: TEN YEARS PAST.] Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when the teeth do not so clearly indicate the exact age, and the judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark middle lines are worn. This will depend somewhat upon the exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years these lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption begins with the two central incisors--slow at first, but perceptible--and these two teeth become smaller than the rest, while the dark lines are worn into one in all but the corner teeth, till, at ten years, four of the central incisors have become smaller in size, with a smaller and fainter mark, as indicated in the proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are smaller than the corner ones; and at twelve, all become smaller than they were, while the dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum. POINTS OF A GOOD COW. After satisfaction is afforded touching the age of a cow, she should be examined with reference to her soundness of constitution. A good constitution is indicated by large lungs, which are found in a deep, broad, and prominent chest, broad and well-spread ribs, a respiration somewhat slow and regular, a good appetite, and if in milk a strong inclination to drink, which a large secretion of milk almost invariably stimulates. In such a cow the digestive organs are active and energetic, and they make an abundance of good blood, which in turn stimulates the activity of the nervous system, and furnishes the milky glands with the means of abundant secretion. Such a cow, when dry, readily takes on fat. When activity of the milk-glands is found united with close ribs, small and feeble lungs, and a slow appetite, often attended by great thirst, the cow will generally possess only a weak and feeble constitution; and if the milk is plentiful, it will generally be of bad quality, while the animal, if she does not die of diseased lungs, will not readily take on fat, when dry and fed. [Illustration: A GOOD MILCH COW.] In order to have no superfluous flesh, the cow should have a small, clean, and rather long head, tapering toward the muzzle. A cow with a large, coarse head will seldom fatten readily, or give a large quantity of milk. A coarse head increases the proportion of weight of the least valuable parts, while it is a sure indication that the whole bony structure is too heavy. The mouth should be large and broad; the eye bright and sparkling, but of a peculiar placidness of expression, with no indication of wildness, but rather a mild and feminine look. These points will indicate gentleness of disposition. Such cows seem to like to be milked, are fond of being caressed, and often return caresses. The horns should be small, short, tapering, yellowish, and glistening. The neck should be small, thin, and tapering toward the head, but thickening when it approaches the shoulder; the dewlaps small. The fore quarters should be rather small when compared with the hind quarters. The form of the barrel will be large, and each rib should project further than the preceding one, up to the loins. She should be well formed across the hips and in the rump. The spine or back-bone should be straight and long, rather loosely hung, or open along the middle part, the result of the distance between the dorsal vertebræ, which sometimes causes a slight depression, or sway back. By some good judges, this mark is regarded as of great importance, especially when the bones of the hind quarters are also rather loosely put together, leaving the rump of great width and the pelvis large, and the organs and milk-vessels lodged in the cavities largely developed. The skin over the rump should be loose and flexible. This point is of great importance; and as, when the cow is in low condition or very poor, it will appear somewhat harder and closer than it otherwise would, some practice and close observation are required to judge well of this mark. The skin, indeed, all over the body, should be soft and mellow to the touch, with soft and glossy hair. The tail, if thick at the setting on, should taper and be fine below. But the udder is of special importance. It should be large in proportion to the size of the animal, and the skin thin, with soft, loose folds extending well back, capable of great distension when filled, but shrinking to a small compass when entirely empty. It must be free from lumps in every part, and provided with four teats set well apart, and of medium size. Nor is it less important to observe the milk-veins carefully. The principal ones under the belly should be large and prominent, and extend forward to the navel, losing themselves, apparently, in the very best milkers, in a large cavity in the flesh, into which the end of the finger can be inserted; but when the cow is not in full milk, the milk-vein, at other times very prominent, is not so distinctly traced; and hence, to judge of its size when the cow is dry, or nearly so, this vein may be pressed near its end, or at its entrance into the body, when it will immediately fill up to its full size. This vein does not convey the milk to the udder, as some suppose, but is the channel by which the blood returns; and its contents consist of the refuse of the secretion, or of what has not been taken up in forming milk. There are also veins in the udder, and the perineum, or the space above the udder, and between that and the buttocks, which it is of special importance to observe. These veins should be largely developed, and irregular or knotted, especially those of the udder. They are largest in great milkers. The knotted veins of the perineum, extending from above downwards in a winding line, are not readily seen in young heifers, and are very difficult to find in poor cows, or those of only a medium quality. They are easily found in very good milkers, and if not at first apparent, they are made so by pressing upon them at the base of the perineum, when they swell up and send the blood back toward the vulva. They form a kind of thick network under the skin of the perineum, raising it up somewhat, in some cases near the vulva, in others nearer down and closer to the udder. It is important to look for these veins, as they often form a very important guide, and by some they would be considered as furnishing the surest indications of the milking qualities of the cow. Full development almost always shows an abundant secretion of milk; but they are far better developed after the cow has had two or three calves, when two or three years' milking has given full activity to the milky glands, and attracted a large flow of blood. The larger and more prominent these veins the better. It is needless to say that in observing them some regard should be had to the condition of the cow, the thickness of skin and fat by which they may be surrounded, and the general activity and food of the animal. Food calculated to stimulate the greatest flow of milk will naturally increase these veins, and give them more than usual prominence. THE MILK-MIRROR. The discovery of M. Guénon, of Bordeaux, in France--a man of remarkable practical sagacity, and a close observer of stock--consisted in the connection between the milking qualities of the cow and certain external marks on the udder, and on the space above it, called the perineum, extending to the buttocks. To these marks he gave the name of milk-mirror, or escutcheon, which consists in certain perceptible spots rising up from the udder in different directions, forms and sizes, on which the hair grows upward, whilst the hair on other parts of the body grows downward. The reduction of these marks into a system, explaining the value of particular forms and sizes of the milk-mirror, belongs exclusively to Guénon. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [A.]] He divided the milk-mirror into eight classes, and each class into eight orders, making in all no less than sixty-four divisions, which he afterward increased by subdivisions, thus rendering the whole system complicated in the extreme, especially as he professed to be able to judge with accuracy, by means of the milk-mirror, not only of the exact quantity a cow would give, but also of the quality of the milk, and of the length of time it would continue. He endeavored to prove too much, and was, as a matter of consequence, frequently at fault himself. Despite the strictures which have been passed upon Guénon's method of judging of cows, the best breeders and judges of stock concur in the opinion, as the result of their observations, that cows with the most perfectly developed milk-mirrors are, with rare exception, the best milkers of their breed; and that cows with small and slightly developed milk-mirrors are, in the majority of cases, bad milkers. There are, undoubtedly, cows with very small mirrors, which are, nevertheless, very fair in the yield of milk; and among those with middling quality of mirrors, instances of rather more than ordinary milkers often occur, while at the same time it is true that cases now and then are found where the very best marked and developed mirrors are found on very poor milkers. These apparent exceptions, however, are to be explained, in the large majority of cases, by causes outside of those which affect the appearance of the milk-mirror. It is, of course, impossible to estimate with mathematical accuracy either the quantity, quality, or duration of the milk, since it is affected by so many chance circumstances, which cannot always be known or estimated by even the most skillful judges; such, for example, as the food, the treatment, the temperament, accidental diseases, inflammation of the udder, premature calving, the climate and season, the manner in which she has been milked, and a thousand other things which interrupt or influence the flow of milk, without materially changing the size or shape of the milk-mirror. It has, indeed, been very justly observed that we often see cows equally well formed, with precisely the same milk-mirror, and kept in the same circumstances, yet giving neither equal quantities nor similar qualities of milk. Nor could it be otherwise; since the action of the organs depends, not merely on their size and form, but, to a great extent, on the general condition of each individual. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [B.]] [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [C.]] The different forms of milk-mirrors are represented by the shaded parts of cuts, lettered A, B, C, D; but it is necessary to premise that upon the cows themselves they are always partly concealed by the thighs, the udder, and the folds of the skin, which are not shown, and therefore they are not always so uniform in nature as they appear in the cuts. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [D.]] Their size varies as the skin is more or less folded or stretched; while the cuts represent the skin as uniform or free from folds, but not stretched out. It is usually very easy to distinguish the milk-mirrors by the upward direction of the hair which forms them. They are sometimes marked by a line of bristly hair growing in the opposite direction, which surrounds them, forming a sort of outline by the upward and downward growing hair. Yet, when the hair is very fine and short, mixed with longer hairs, and the skin much folded, and the udder voluminous and pressed by the thighs, it is necessary, in order to distinguish the part enclosed between the udder and the legs, and examine the full size of the mirrors, to observe them attentively, and to place the legs wide apart, and to smooth out the skin, in order to avoid the folds. The mirrors may also be observed by holding the back of the hand against the perineum, and drawing it from above downward, when the nails rubbing against the up-growing hair, make the parts covered by it very perceptible. As the hair of the milk-mirror has not the same direction as the hair which surrounds it, it may often be distinguished by a difference in the shade reflected by it. It is then sufficient to place it properly to the light in order to see the difference in shade, and to make out the part covered by the upward-growing hair. Most frequently, however, the hair of the milk-mirror is thin and fine, and the color of the skin can easily be seen. If the eye alone is trusted, we shall often be deceived. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [E.]] In some countries cattle-dealers shave the back part of the cow. Just after this operation the mirrors can neither be seen nor felt; but this inconvenience ceases in a few days. It may be added that the shaving--designed, as the dealers say, to beautify the cow--is generally intended simply to destroy the milk-mirror, and to deprive buyers of one means of judging of the milking qualities of the cows. It is unnecessary to add that the cows most carefully shaven are those which are badly marked, and that it is prudent to take it for granted that cows so shorn are bad milkers. Milk-mirrors vary in position, extent, and the figure which they represent. They may be divided according to their position, into mirrors or escutcheons, properly so called, or into lower and upper tufts, or escutcheons. The latter are very small in comparison with the former, and are situated in close proximity to the vulva, as seen at 1, in cut E. They are very common on cows of bad milking races, but are very rarely seen on the best milch cows. They consist of one or two ovals, or small bands of up-growing hair, and serve to indicate the continuance of the flow of milk. The period is short, in proportion as the tufts are large. They must not be confounded with the escutcheon proper, which is often extended up to the vulva. They are separated from it by bands of hair, more or less large, as in cut marked F. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [F.]] Milk-mirrors are sometimes symmetrical, and sometimes without symmetry. When there is a great difference in the extent of the two halves, it almost always happens that the teats on the side where the mirror is best developed give more milk than those of the opposite side. The left half of the mirror, it may be remarked, is almost always the largest; and so, when the perinean part is folded into a square, it is on this side of the body that it unfolds. Of three thousand cows in Denmark, but a single one was found, whose escutcheon varied even a little from this rule. The mirrors having a value in proportion to the space which they occupy, it is of great importance to attend to all the rows of down-growing hairs, which diminish the extent of surface, whether these tufts are in the midst of the mirror, or form indentations on its edges. These indentations, concealed in part by the folds of the skin, are sometimes seen with difficulty; but it is important to take them into account, since in a great many cows they materially lessen the size of the mirror. Cows are often found, whose milk-mirrors at first sight appear very large, but which are only medium milkers; and it will usually be found that lateral indentations greatly diminish the surface of up-growing hair. Many errors are committed in estimating the value of such cows, from a want of attention to the real extent of the mirror. All the interruptions in the surface of the mirror indicate a diminution in the quantity of the milk, with the exception, however, of small oval or elliptical plates which are found in the mirror, on the back part of the udders of the best cows, as represented in the cut already given, marked A. These ovals have a peculiar tint, which is occasioned by the downward direction of the hair which forms them. In the best cows these ovals exist with the lower mirrors very well developed, as represented in the cut just named. In short, it should be stated that, in order to determine the extent and significance of a mirror, it is necessary to consider the state of the perineum as to fat, and that of the fullness of the udder. In a fat cow, with an inflated udder, the mirror would appear larger than it really is; whilst in a lean cow, with a loose and wrinkled udder, it appears smaller. Fat will cover faults--a fact to be borne in mind when selecting a cow. In bulls, the mirrors present the same peculiarities as in cows; but they are less varied in their form, and especially much less in size. In calves, the mirrors show the shapes which they are afterwards to have, only they are more contracted, because the parts which they cover are but slightly developed. They are easily seen after birth; but the hair which then covers them is long, coarse, and stiff; and when this hair falls off, the calf's mirror will resemble that of the cow, but will be of less size. With calves, however, it should be stated, in addition, that the milk-mirrors are more distinctly recognized on those from cows that are well kept, and that they will generally be fully developed at two years old. Some changes take place in the course of years, but the outlines of the mirror appear prominent at the time of advanced pregnancy, or, in the case of cows giving milk, at the times when the udder is more distended with milk than at others. M. Mayne, who has explained and simplified the method of M. Guénon, divides cows, according to the quantity which they give, into four classes: first, the very good; second, the good; third, the medium; and fourth, the bad. In the FIRST class he places cows, both parts of whose milk mirror, the mammary--the tuft situated on the udder, the legs and the thighs--and the perinean--that on the perineum, extending sometimes more or less out upon the thighs--are large, continuous, and uniform, covering at least a great part of the perineum, the udder, the inner surface of the thighs, and extending more or less out upon the legs, as in cut A, with no interruptions, or, if any, small ones, oval in form, and situated on the posterior face of the udder. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [G.]] Such mirrors are found on most very good cows, but may also be found on cows which can scarcely be called good, and which should be ranked in the next class. But cows, whether having very well developed mirrors or not, may be reckoned as very good, and as giving as much milk as is to be expected from their size, food, and the hygienic circumstances in which they are kept, if they present the following characteristics: veins of the perineum large, as if swollen, and visible on the exterior--as in cut A--or which can easily be made to appear by pressing upon the base of the perineum; veins of the udder large and knotted; milk-veins large, often double, equal on both sides, and forming zig-zags, under the belly. To the signs furnished by the veins and by the mirror, may be added also the following marks: a uniform, very large, and yielding udder, shrinking much in milking, and covered with soft skin and fine hair; good constitution, full chest, regular appetite, and great propensity to drink. Such cows rather incline to be poor than to be fat. The skin is soft and yielding; short, fine hair; small head; fine horns; bright, sparkling eye; mild expression; feminine look; with a fine neck. Cows of this first class are very rare. They give, even when small in size, from ten to fourteen quarts of milk a day; and the largest sized from eighteen to twenty-six quarts a day, and even more. Just after calving, if arrived at maturity and fed with good, wholesome, moist food in sufficient quantity and quality, adapted to promote the secretion of milk, they can give about a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay, or its equivalent, which they eat. They continue in milk for a long period. The best never go dry, and may be milked even up to the time of calving, giving from eight to ten quarts of milk a day. But even the best cows often fall short of the quantity of milk which they are able to give, from being fed on food which is too dry, or not sufficiently varied, or not rich enough in nutritive qualities, or deficient in quantity. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [H.]] The SECOND class is that of _good cows_; and to this belong the best commonly found in the market and among the cow-feeders of cities. They have the mammary part of the milk-mirror well developed, but the perinean part contracted, or wholly wanting, as in cut G; or both parts of the mirror are moderately developed, or slightly indented, as in cut H. Cut E belongs also to this class, in the lower part; but it indicates a cow, which--as the upper mirror, 1, indicates--dries up sooner when again in calf. These marks, though often seen in many good cows, should be considered as certain only when the veins of the perineum form, under the skin, a kind of network, which, without being very apparent, may be felt by a pressure on them; when the milk-veins on the belly are well-developed, though less knotty and less prominent than in cows of the first class; in short, when the udder is well developed, and presents veins which are sufficiently numerous, though not very large. It is necessary here, as in the preceding class, to distrust cows in which the mirror is not accompanied by large veins. This remark applies especially to cows which have had several calves, and are in full milk. They are medium or bad, let the milk-mirror be what it may, if the veins of the belly are not large, and those of the udder apparent. The general characteristics which depend on form and constitution combine, less than in cows of the preceding class, the marks of good health and excellent constitution with those of a gentle and feminine look. Small cows of this class give from seven to ten or eleven quarts of milk a day, and the largest from thirteen to seventeen quarts. They can be made to give three-fourths of a pint of milk, just after calving, for every ten ounces of hay consumed, if well cared for, and fed in a manner favorable to the secretion of milk. They hold out long in milk, when they have no upper mirrors or tufts. At seven or eight months in calf, they may give from five to eight quarts of milk a day. The THIRD class consists of _middling cows_. When the milk-mirror really presents only the mammary or lower part slightly indicated or developed, and the perinean part contracted, narrow, and irregular--as in cut K--the cows are middling. The udder is slightly developed or hard, and shrinks very little after milking. The veins of the perineum are not apparent, and those which run along the lower side of the abdomen are small, straight, and sometimes unequal. In this case the mirror is not symmetrical, and the cow gives more milk on the side where the vein is the largest. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [K.]] These cows have large heads, and a thick, hard skin. Being ordinarily in good condition, they are beautiful to look at, and seem to be well formed. Many of them are nervous and restive, and not easily approached. Cows of this class give, according to size, from three or four to ten quarts of milk. They very rarely give, even in the most favorable circumstances, half a pint of milk for every ten ounces of hay which they consume. The milk diminishes rapidly, and dries up wholly the fourth or fifth month in calf. The FOURTH class is composed of _bad cows_. As they are commonly in good condition, these cows are often the most beautiful of the herd and in the markets. They have fleshy thighs, thick and hard skin, a large and coarse neck and head, and horns large at the base. The udder is hard, small and fleshy, with a skin covered with long, rough hair. No veins are to be seen either on the perineum or the udder, while those of the belly are slightly developed, and the mirrors are ordinarily small, as in cut L. With these characteristics, cows give only a few quarts of milk a day, and dry up in a short time after calving. Some of them can scarcely nourish their calves, even when they are properly cared for and well fed. Sickly habits, chronic affections of the digestive organs, the chest, the womb, and the lacteal system, sometimes greatly affect the milk secretion, and cause cows troubled with them to fall from the first or second to the third, and sometimes to the fourth class. Without pushing this method of judging of the good milking qualities of cows into the objectionable extreme to which it was carried by its originator, it may be safely asserted that the milk-mirror forms an important additional mark or point for distinguishing good milkers; and it may be laid down as a rule that, in the selection of milch cows, as well as in the choice of young animals for breeders, the milk-mirror should, by all means, be examined and considered; but that we should not limit or confine ourselves exclusively to it, and that other and long-known marks should be equally regarded. There are cases, however, where a knowledge and careful examination of the form and size of the mirror become of the highest importance. It is well known that certain signs or marks of great milkers are developed, only as the capacities of the animal herself are fully and completely developed by age. The milk-veins, for instance, are never so large and prominent in heifers and young cows as in old ones, and the same may be said of the udder, and of the veins of the udder and perineum; all of which it is of great importance to observe in the selection of milch cows. Those signs, then, which in cows arrived at maturity are almost sufficient in themselves to warrant a conclusion as to their merits as milkers, are, to a great extent, wanting in younger animals, and altogether in calves, as to which there is often doubt whether they shall be raised; and here a knowledge of the form of the mirror is of immense advantage, since it gives, at the outset and before any expense is incurred, a somewhat reliable means of judging of the future milking capacities of the animal; or, if a male, of the probability of his transmitting milking qualities to his offspring. [Illustration: MILK-MIRROR [L.]] It will be seen, from an examination of the points of a good milch cow that, though the same marks which indicate the greatest milking qualities may not always indicate the greatest aptitude to fatten, yet that the signs which denote good fattening qualities are included among the signs favorable to the production of milk; such as soundness of constitution, marked by good organs of digestion and respiration fineness and mellowness of the skin and hair, quietness of disposition--which inclines the animal to rest and lie down while chewing the cud--and other marks which are relied on by graziers in selecting animals to fatten. In buying dairy stock the farmer generally finds it for his interest to select young heifers, as they give the promise of longer usefulness. But it is often the case that older cows are selected with the design of using them for the dairy for a limited period, and then feeding them for the butcher. In either case, it is advisable, as a rule, to choose animals in low or medium condition. The farmer cannot commonly afford to buy fat; it is more properly his business to make it, and to have it to sell. Good and well-marked cows in poor condition will rapidly gain in flesh and products when removed to better pastures and higher keeping, and they cost less in the original purchase. It is, perhaps, superfluous to add that regard should be had to the quality of the pasturage and keeping which a cow has previously had, as compared with that to which she is to be subjected. The size of the animal should also be considered with reference to the fertility of the pastures into which she is to be put. Small or medium-sized animals accommodate themselves to ordinary pastures far better than large ones. Where a very large cow will do well, two small ones will usually do better; while the large animal might fail entirely where two small ones would do well. It is better to have the whole herd, so far as may be, uniform in size; for, if they vary greatly, some may get more than they need, and others will not have enough. This, however, cannot always be brought about. [Illustration] Crossing and Breeding The raising of cattle has now become a source of profit in many sections,--to a greater extent, at least, than formerly--and it becomes a matter of great practical importance to our farmers to take the proper steps to improve them. Indeed, the questions--what are the best breeds, and what are the best crosses, and how shall I improve my stock--are now asked almost daily; and their practical solution would add many thousand dollars to the aggregate wealth of the farmers of the country, if they would all study their own interests. The time is gradually passing away when the intelligent practical farmer will be willing to put his cows to any bull, simply because his services may be had for twenty-five cents; for, even if the progeny is to go to the butcher, the calf sired by a pure-bred bull--particularly of a race distinguished for fineness of bone, symmetry of form, and early maturity--will bring a much higher price at the same age than a calf sired by a scrub. Blood has a money value, which will, sooner or later, be generally appreciated. The first and most important object of the farmer is to get the greatest return in money for his labor and his produce; and it is for his interest to obtain an animal--a calf, for example--that will yield the largest profit on the outlay. If a calf, for which the original outlay was five dollars, will bring at the same age and on the same keep more real net profit than another, the original outlay for which was not twenty-five cents, it is certainly for the farmer's interest to make the heavier original outlay and thus secure the superior animal. Setting all fancy aside, it is merely a question of dollars and cents; but one thing is certain--and that is, that no farmer can afford to keep poor stock. It eats as much, and requires nearly the same amount of care and attention, as stock of the best quality; while it is equally certain that stock of ever so good a quality, whether grade, native, or thorough-bred, will be sure to deteriorate and sink to the level of poor stock by neglect and want of proper attention. How, then, is our stock to be improved? Not, certainly, by that indiscriminate crossing, with a total disregard of all well-established principles, which has thus far marked our efforts with foreign stock, and which is one prominent reason why so little improvement has been made in our dairies; nor by leaving all the results to chance, when, by a careful and judicious selection, they may be within our own control. We want cattle for distinct purposes, as for milk, beef, or labor. In a large majority of cases--especially in the dairy districts, at least, comprising the Eastern and Middle States--the farmer cares more for the milking qualities of his cows, especially for the quantity they give, than for their fitness for grazing, or aptness to fatten. These latter points become more important in the Western and some of the Southern States, where much greater attention is paid to breeding and to feeding, and where comparatively slight attention is given to the productions of the dairy. A stock of cattle which would suit one farmer might be wholly unsuited to another, and in such particular case the breeder should have some special object in view, and select his animals with reference to it. There are, however, some well-defined general principles that apply to breeding everywhere, and which, in many cases, are not thoroughly understood. To these attention will now be directed. The first and most important of the laws to be considered in this connection is that of _similarity_. It is by virtue of this law that the peculiar characters, properties, and qualities of the parents--whether external or internal, good or bad, healthy or diseased--are transmitted to their offspring. This is one of the plainest and most certain of the laws of nature. The lesson which it teaches may be stated in five words:--Breed only from the best. Judicious selection is indispensable to success in breeding, and this should have regard to every particular--general appearance, length of limb, shape of carcass, development of chest; in cattle, to the size, shape, and position of the udder, thickness of skin, touch, length and texture of hair, docility, and all those points which go to make up the desirable animal. Not only should care be exercised to avoid _structural defects_, but especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_; as both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities. There is, oftentimes, no obvious peculiarity of structure or appearance which suggests the possession of diseases or defects which are transmissible; and for this reason, special care and continued acquaintance are requisite in order to be assured of their absence in breeding animals; but such a tendency, although invisible or inappreciable to careless observers, must still, judging from its effects, have as real and certain an existence as any peculiarity of form or color. In neat cattle, hereditary diseases do not usually show themselves at birth; and sometimes the tendency remains latent for many years, perhaps through one or two generations, and afterward breaks out with all its former severity. The diseases which are found hereditary in cattle are scrofula, consumption, dysentery, diarrhoea, rheumatism, and malignant tumors. As these animals are less exposed to the exciting causes of disease, and less liable to be overtasked or subjected to violent changes of temperature, or otherwise put in jeopardy, their diseases are not so numerous as those of the horse, and what they have are less violent, and generally of a chronic character. With regard to hereditary diseases, it is eminently true that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." As a general and almost invariable rule, animals possessing either defects or a tendency to disease, should not be employed for breeding. If, however, for special reasons it seems desirable to breed from one which has some slight defect of symmetry, or a faint tendency to disease--although for the latter it is doubtful whether the possession of any good qualities can fully compensate--it should be mated with one which excels in every respect in which it is itself deficient, and on no account with one which is near of kin to it. There is another law, by which that of similarity is greatly modified--the law of _Variation_ or divergence. All animals possess a certain flexibility or pliancy of organization, which renders them capable of change to a greater or less extent. When in a state of nature, variations are comparatively slow and infrequent; but when in a state of domestication they occur much oftener and to a much greater extent. The greater variability in the latter case is doubtless owing, in some measure, to our domestic productions' being reared under conditions of life not so uniform as, and different from, those to which the parent species was exposed in a state of nature. Among what are usually reckoned the more active causes of variation may be named _climate_, _food_, and _habit_. Animals in a cold climate are provided with a thicker covering of hair than in warmer ones. Indeed, it is said that in some of the tropical provinces of South America, there are cattle which have an extremely rare and fine fur, in place of the ordinary pile of hair. The supply of food, whether abundant or scanty, is one of the most efficient causes of variation known to be within the control of man. A due consideration of the natural effects of climate and food is a point worthy the careful attention of the stock-husbandman. If the breeds employed be well adapted to the situation, and the capacity of the soil be such as to feed them fully, profit may be safely anticipated. Animals are to be regarded as machines for converting herbage into money. The bestowal of food sufficient, both in amount and quality, to enable animals to develop all the excellencies inherent in them, and yield all the profit of which they are capable, is something quite distinct from undue forcing of pampering. The latter process may produce wonderful animals to look at, but neither useful nor profitable ones, and there is danger of thus producing a most undesirable variation, since in animals the process may be carried far enough to produce barrenness. Instances are not wanting, particularly among the more recent improved short-horns, of impotency among the males and of barrenness among the females; and in some cases where the latter have borne calves, they have failed to secrete sufficient milk for their nourishment. Impotency in bulls of various breeds has, in many instances, occurred from too high feeding, especially when connected with a lack of sufficient exercise. A working bull, though perhaps not so pleasing to the eye as a fat one, is a surer stock-getter; and his progeny is more likely to inherit full health and vigor. _Habit_ has a decided influence toward producing variations. We find in domestic animals that use--or the demand created by habit--is met by a development or change in the organization adapted to the requirement. For instance, with cows in a state of nature, or where required only to suckle their young, the supply of milk is barely fitted to the requirement. If more is desired, and the milk is drawn completely and regularly, the yield is increased and continued longer. By keeping up the demand there is induced, in the next generation, a greater development of the secreting organs, and more milk is given. By continuing the practice, by furnishing the needful conditions of suitable food and the like, and by selecting in each generation those animals showing the greatest tendency toward milk, a breed specially adapted for the dairy may be established. It is just by this mode that the Ayrshires have, within the past century, been brought to be what they are--a breed giving more good milk upon a certain amount of food than any other. [Illustration: READY FOR ACTION.] It is a fact too well established to be controverted, that the first male produces impressions upon subsequent progeny by other males. To what extent this principle holds, it is impossible to say. Although the instances in which it is known to be of a very marked and obvious character may be comparatively few, yet there is ample reason to believe that, although in a majority of cases the effect may be less noticeable, it is not less real; and it therefore demands the special attention of breeders. The knowledge of this law furnishes a clue to the cause of many of the disappointments of which practical breeders often complain, and of many variations otherwise unaccountable, and it suggests particular caution as to the first male employed in the coupling of animals--a matter which has often been deemed of little consequence in regard to cattle, inasmuch as fewer heifers' first calves are reared, than those are which are borne subsequently. The phenomenon--or law, as it is sometimes called--of atavism, or _ancestral influence_, is one of considerable practical importance, and well deserves the careful attention of the breeder of farm stock. Every one is aware that it is by no means unusual for a child to resemble its grandfather, or grandmother, or even some ancestor still more remote, more than it does either its own father or mother. The same occurrence is found among our domestic animals, and oftener in proportion as the breeds are crossed or mixed up. Among our common stock of neat cattle, or natives--originating, as they did, from animals brought from England, Scotland, Denmark, France, and Spain, each possessing different characteristics of form, color, and use, and bred, as our common stock has usually been, indiscriminately together, with no special object in view, with no attempt to obtain any particular type or form, or to secure adaptation for any particular purpose--frequent opportunities are afforded of witnessing the results of this law of hereditary transmission. So common, indeed, is its occurrence, that the remark is often made, that, however good a cow may be, there is no telling beforehand what sort of a calf she may have. The fact is sufficiently obvious, that certain peculiarities often lie dormant for a generation or two and then reappear in subsequent progeny. Stockmen often speak of it as "breeding back," or "crying back." The lesson taught by this law is very plain. It shows the importance of seeking thorough-bred or well-bred animals; and by these terms are simply meant such as are descended from a line of ancestors in which for many generations the desirable forms, qualities, and characteristics have been _uniformly shown_. In such a case, even if ancestral influence does come in play, no material difference appears in the offspring, the ancestors being all essentially alike. From this standpoint we best perceive in what consists the money value of a good "pedigree." This is valuable, in proportion as it shows an animal to be descended, not only from such as are purely of its own race or breed, but also from such individuals of that breed as were specially noted for the excellencies for which that particular breed is esteemed. Probably the most distinctly marked evidence of ancestral influence among us, is to be found in the ill-begotten, round-headed calves, not infrequently dropped by cows of the common mixed kind, which, if killed early, make very blue veal, and if allowed to grow up, become exceedingly profitless and unsatisfactory beasts; the heifers being often barren, the cows poor milkers, the oxen dull, mulish beasts, yielding flesh of very dark color, of ill flavor and destitute of fat. _The relative influence_ of the male and female parents upon the characteristics of progeny has long been a fruitful subject of discussion among breeders. It is found in experience that progeny sometimes resembles one parent more than the other--sometimes there is an apparent blending of the characteristics of both--sometimes a noticeable dissimilarity to either, though always more or less resemblance somewhere--and sometimes the impress of one may be seen upon a portion of the organization of the offspring, and that of the other parent upon another portion; yet we are not authorized from such discrepancies to conclude that it is a matter of chance; for all of nature's operations are conducted in accordance with fixed laws, whether we be able fully to discover them or not. The same causes always produce the same results. In this case, not less than in others, there are, beyond all doubt, certain fixed laws; and the varying results which we see are easily and sufficiently accounted for by the existence of conditions or modifying influences not fully open to our observation. It may be stated, on the whole--as a result of the varied investigations to which this question has given rise--that the evidence, both from observation and the testimony of the best practical breeders, goes to show that each parent usually contributes certain portions of the organization to the offspring, and that each has a modifying influence upon the other. Facts also show that the same parent does not always contribute the same portions, but that the order is at times, and not rarely, reversed. Where animals are of distinct species or breeds, transmission is usually found to be in harmony with the principle, that the male gives mostly the outward form and locomotive system, and the female chiefly the interior system, constitution and the like. Where the parents are of the same breed, it appears that the proportions contributed by each are governed, in a large measure, by the condition of each in regard to age and vigor, or by virtue of individual potency or superiority of physical endowment. This potency or power of transmission, seems to be legitimately connected with high breeding, or the concentration of fixed qualities, obtained by continued descent for many generations from such only as possess in the highest degree the qualities desired. Practically, the knowledge obtained dictates in a most emphatic manner that every stock-grower use his utmost endeavor to obtain the services of the best sires; that is, the best for the ends and purposes in view--that he depend chiefly on the sire for outward form and symmetry--and that he select dams best calculated to develop the good qualities of the male, depending chiefly upon these for freedom, from internal disease, for hardihood and constitution, and, generally, for all qualities dependent upon the vital or nutritive system. The neglect of the qualities of the dam, which is far too common--miserably old and inferior animals being often employed--cannot be too strongly censured. With regard to the laws which regulate the sex of the progeny very little is known. Many and extensive observations have been made, without reaching any definite conclusion. Nature seems to have provided that the number of each sex; produced, shall be nearly equal; but by what means this result is attained, has not as yet been discovered. It has long been a disputed point, whether the system of _breeding in-and-in_, or the opposite one of frequent crossing, has the greater tendency to improve the character of stock This term, in-and-in, is often very loosely used and as variously understood. Some confine the phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, as brothers and sisters, while others include in it breeding from parents and offsprings; and others still employ it to embrace those of a more distant relationship. For the last, the term breeding-in, or close breeding, is generally deemed more suitable. The current opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any near relatives; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy, although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects follow, in a majority of cases, is not to be doubted; but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon quite other grounds. Perhaps, however, the following propositions may be safely stated: That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals common in the country, _close-breeding should be scrupulously avoided_ as highly detrimental. It is better _always_ to avoid breeding from near relatives whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view--as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the breed--and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect in health and development, close breeding may be practised with advantage. The practice of _crossing_, like that of close breeding, has its strong and its weak side. Judiciously practised, it offers a means of providing animals _for the butcher_, often superior to, and more profitable than, those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well-considered attempt to establish a new breed. But when crossing is practised injudiciously and indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of procuring _breeding animals_, it is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and-in breeding. [Illustration: A SPRIGHTLY YOUTH.] The profitable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to adopt, is neither to cross nor to breed from close affinities--except in rare instances, and for some specific and clearly understood purpose--but to _breed in the line_; that is, to select the breed or race best adapted to fulfil the requirement demanded, whether it be for the dairy, for labor, or for such combination of these as can be had without too great a sacrifice of the principal requisite, and then to procure a _pure-bred_ male of the kind determined upon, and breed him to the females of the herd; and if these be not such as are calculated to develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to another _pure-bred_ male of the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let this plan be faithfully pursued, and, although we cannot, without the intervention of well-bred females, procure stock purely of the kind desired, yet in several generations--if proper care be given to the selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon the points gained by his predecessor--the stock, for most practical purposes, will be as good as if thorough-bred. If this plan were generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchanging males established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons, and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief. A brief summing-up of the foregoing principles may not be inappropriate here. The law of similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and best combination. Regard should be had, not only to the more obvious characteristics, but also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation. From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad, we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities _thoroughly inbred_; or, in other words, so firmly in each generation that the next is warrantably certain to present nothing worse--that no ill results follow from breeding back to some inferior ancestor--that all undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible, _bred-out_. So important is this consideration, that, in practice, it is decidedly preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance--provided his ancestry be all which is desired--rather than a grade, or cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty. A knowledge of the law of variation teaches us to avoid, for breeding purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose in view; to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained; as well as to secure, as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to induce or continue any improvement, such as general treatment, food, climate, habits, and the like. Where the parents do not possess the perfections desired, selections for coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellencies in the other. To correct defects, too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing those very unlike oftener results in loss than gain. Avoid all extremes, and endeavor by moderate degrees to attain the end desired. Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals for the shambles, may be advantageously practised to a considerable extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general rule, cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males. In ordinary practice, breeding from near relatives is to be scrupulously avoided. For certain purposes, under certain conditions and circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be practised with advantage--but not otherwise. In a large majority of cases--other things being equal--we may expect in progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together with the internal qualities, constitution, and nutritive system of the dam; each, however, modified by the other. Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health. Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never be fat but once. In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also, with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets. No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, no amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better care they deserve. PREGNANCY The symptoms of pregnancy in its early stage were formerly deemed exceedingly unsatisfactory. The period of being in season--which commonly lasts three or four days, and then ceases for a while, and returns in about three weeks--might entirely pass over; and, although it was then probable that conception had taken place, yet in a great many instances the hopes of the breeder were disappointed. It was not until between the third and fourth month, when the belly began to enlarge--or, in many cases, considerably later--and when the motions of the foetus might be seen, or, at all events, felt by pressing on the right flank, that the farmer could be assured that his cow was in calf. That greatest of improvements in veterinary practice, the application of the ear to the chest and belly of various animals, in order to detect by the different sounds--which after a short time, will be easily recognized--the state of the circulation through most of the organs, and consequently, the precise seat and degree of inflammation and danger, has now enabled the breeder to ascertain the existence of pregnancy at as early a stage as six or eight weeks. The beating of the heart of the calf may then be distinctly heard, twice, or more than twice, as frequent as that of the mother; and each pulsation will betray the singular double beating of the foetal heart. This will also be accompanied by the audible rushing of the blood through the vessels of the placenta. The ear should be applied to the right flank, beginning on the higher part of it, and gradually shifting downward and backward. These sounds will thus soon be heard, and cannot be mistaken. TREATMENT BEFORE CALVING. Little alteration needs to be made in the management of the cow for the first seven months of pregnancy; except that, as she has not only to yield milk for the profit of the farmer, but to nourish the growing foetus within, she should be well, yet not too luxuriantly, fed. The half-starved cow will not adequately discharge this double duty, nor provide sufficient nutriment for the calf when it has dropped; while the cow in high condition will be dangerously disposed to inflammation and fever, when, at the time of parturition, she is otherwise so susceptible of the power of every stimulus. If the season and the convenience of the farmer will allow, she will be better at pasture, at least for some hours each day than when confined altogether to the cow-house. At a somewhat uncertain period before she calves, there will be a new secretion of milk for the expected little one; and under the notion of somewhat recruiting her strength, in order better to enable her to discharge her new duty--but more from the uniform testimony of experience that there is danger of local inflammation, general fever, garget in the udder, and puerperal fever, if the new milk descends while the old milk continues to flow--it has been usual to let the cow _go dry_ for some period before parturition. Farmers and breeders have been strangely divided as to the length of this period. It must be decided by circumstances. A cow in good condition may be milked for a much longer period than a poor one. Her abundance of food renders a period of respite almost unnecessary; and all that needs to be taken care of, is that the old milk should be fairly gone before the new milk springs. In such a cow, while there is danger of inflammation from the sudden rush of new milk into a bag already occupied, there is almost always considerable danger of indurations and tumors in the teats from the habit of secretion being too long suspended. The emaciated and over-milked beast, however, must rest a while before she can again advantageously discharge the duties of a mother. If the period of pregnancy were of equal length at all times and in all cows, the one that has been well fed might be milked until within a fortnight or three weeks of parturition, while a holiday of two months should be granted to the poorer beast; but as there is much irregularity about the time of gestation, it may be prudent to take a month or five Weeks, as the average period. The process of parturition is necessarily one that is accompanied with a great deal of febrile excitement; and, therefore, when it nearly approaches, not only should a little care be taken to lessen the quantity of food, and to remove that which is of a stimulating action, but a mild dose of physic, and a bleeding regulated by the condition of the animal, will be very proper precautionary measures. A moderately open state of the bowels is necessary at the period of parturition in the cow. During the whole time of pregnancy her enormous stomach sufficiently presses upon and confines the womb; and that pressure may be productive of injurious and fatal consequences, if at this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food, or the manyplus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally subject. Breeders have been sadly negligent in this respect. The springing of the udder, or the rapid enlargement of it from the renewed secretion of milk--the enlargement of the external parts of the bearing (the former, as has been said by some, in old cows, and the latter in young ones)--the appearance of a glaring discharge from the bearing--the evident dropping of the belly, with the appearance of leanness and narrowness between the shape and the udder--a degree of uneasiness and fidgetiness--moaning occasionally--accelerated respiration--all these symptoms will announce that the time of calving is not far off. The cow should be brought near home, and put in some quiet, sheltered place. In cold or stormy weather she should be housed. Her uneasiness will rapidly increase--she will be continually getting up and lying down--her tail will begin to be elevated and the commencement of the labor-pains will soon be evident. In most cases the parturition will be natural and easy, and the less the cow is disturbed or meddled with, the better. She will do better without help than with it; but she should be watched, in order to see that no difficulty occurs which may require aid and attention. In cases of difficult parturition the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon may be required. [Illustration] Feeding and Management No branch of dairy farming can compare in importance with the management of cows. The highest success will depend upon it, whatever breed be selected, and whatever amount of care and attention be given to the points of the animals; for experience will show that very little milk comes out of the bag, that is not first put into the throat. It is poor economy, therefore, to attempt to keep too many cows for the amount of feed one has; for it will generally be found that one good cow well-bred and well fed will yield as much as two ordinary cows kept in the ordinary way; while a saving is effected both in labor and room required, and in the risks on the capital invested. If an argument for the larger number on poorer feed is urged on the ground of the additional manure--which is the only basis upon which it can be put--it is enough to say that it is a very expensive way of making manure. It is not too strong an assertion, that a proper regard to profit and economy would require many an American farmer to sell off nearly half of his cows, and to feed the whole of his hay and roots hitherto used into the remainder. An animal, to be fully fed and satisfied, requires a quantity of food in proportion to its live weight. No feed is complete that does not contain a sufficient amount of nutritive elements; hay, for example, being more nutritive than straw, and grains than roots. The food, too, must possess a bulk sufficient to fill up to a certain degree the organs of digestion of the stomach; and, to receive the full benefit of its food, the animal must be wholly satisfied--since, if the stomach is not sufficiently distended, the food cannot be properly digested, and of course many of the nutritive principles which it contains cannot be perfectly assimilated. An animal regularly fed eats till it is satisfied, and no more than is requisite. A part of the nutritive elements in hay and other forage plants is needed to keep an animal on its feet--that is, to keep up its condition--and if the nutrition of its food is insufficient for this, the weight decreases, and if it is more than sufficient the weight increases, or else this excess is consumed in the production of milk or in labor. About one sixtieth of their live weight in hay, or its equivalent, will keep horned cattle on their feet; but, in order to be completely nourished, they require about one thirtieth in dry substances, and four thirtieths in water, or other liquid contained in their food. The excess of nutritive food over and above what is necessary to sustain life will go, in milch cows, generally to the production of milk, or to the growth of the foetus, but not in all cows to an equal extent; the tendency to the secretion of milk being much more developed in some than in others. With regard, however, to the consumption of food in proportion to the live weight of the animal, it must be taken, in common with all general principles, with some qualifications. The proportion is probably not uniform as applied to all breeds indiscriminately, though it may be more so as applied to animals of the same breed. The idea of some celebrated stock-raisers has been that the quantity of food required depends much upon the shape of the barrel; and it is well known that an animal of a close, compact, well-rounded barrel, will consume less than one of an opposite make. The variations in the yield of milch cows are caused more by the variations in the nutritive elements of their food than by a change of the form in which it is given. A cow, kept through the winter on mere straw, will cease to give milk; and, when fed in spring on green forage, will give a fair quantity of milk. But she owes the cessation and restoration of the secretion, respectively, to the diminution and increase of her nourishment, and not at all to the change of form, or of outward substance in which the nutriment is administered. Let cows receive through winter nearly as large a proportion of nutritive matter as is contained in the clover, lucerne, and fresh grass which they eat in summer, and, no matter in what precise substance or mixture that matter be contained, they will yield a winter's produce of milk quite as rich in caseine and butyraceous ingredients as the summer's produce, and far more ample in quantity than almost any dairyman with old-fashioned notions would imagine to be possible. The great practical error on this subject consists, not in giving wrong kinds of food, but in not so proportioning and preparing it as to render an average ration of it equally rich in the elements of nutrition, and especially in nitrogenous elements, as an average ration of the green and succulent food of summer. We keep too much stock for the quantity of good and nutritious food which we have for it; and the consequence is, that cows are, in nine cases out of ten, poorly wintered, and come out in the spring weakened, if not, indeed, positively diseased, and a long time is required to bring them into a condition to yield a generous quantity of milk. It is a hard struggle for a cow reduced in flesh and in blood to fill up the wasted system with the food which would otherwise have gone to the secretion of milk; but, if she is well fed, well housed, well littered, and well supplied with pure, fresh water, and with roots, or other _moist_ food, and properly treated to the luxury of a frequent carding, and constant kindness, she comes out ready to commence the manufacture of milk under favorable circumstances. _Keep the cows constantly in good condition_, ought, therefore, to be the motto of every dairy farmer, posted up over the barn, and on and over the stalls, and over the milk-room, and repeated to the boys whenever there is danger of forgetting it. It is the great secret of success; and the difference between success and failure turns upon it. Cows in milk require more food in proportion to their size and weight than either oxen or young cattle. In order to keep cows in milk well and economically, regularity is next in importance to a full supply of wholesome and nutritious food. The animal stomach is a very nice chronometer, and it is of the utmost importance to observe regular hours in feeding, cleaning, and milking. This is a point, also, in which very many farmers are at fault--feeding whenever it happens to be convenient. The cattle are thus kept in a restless condition, constantly expecting food when the keeper enters the barn; while, if regular hours are strictly adhered to, they know exactly when they are to be fed, and they rest quietly till the time arrives. If one goes into any well-regulated dairy establishment an hour before feeding, scarcely an animal will rise to its feet; while; if it happens to be the hour of feeding, the whole herd will be likely to rise and seize their food with an avidity and relish not to be mistaken. With respect to the exact nurture to be pursued, no rule could be prescribed which would apply to all cases; and each individual must be governed much by circumstances, both regarding the particular kinds of feed at different seasons of the year, and the system of feeding. It has been found--it may be stated--in the practice of the most successful dairymen, that, in order to encourage the largest secretion of milk in stalled cows, one of the best courses is, to feed in the morning, either at the time of milking--which is preferred by many--or immediately after, with cut feed, consisting of hay, oats, millet, or cornstalks, mixed with shorts, and Indian linseed, or cotton-seed meal, thoroughly moistened with water. If in winter, hot or warm water is far better than cold. If given at milking-time, the cows will generally give down their milk more readily. The stalls and mangers should first be thoroughly cleansed. [Illustration: THE FAMILY PETS.] Roots and long hay may be given during the day; and at the evening milking, or directly after, another generous meal of cut feed, well moistened and mixed, as in the morning. No very concentrated food, like grains alone, or oil-cakes, should be fed early in the morning on an empty stomach, although it is sanctioned by the practice in the London milk-dairies. The processes of digestion go on best when the stomach is sufficiently distended; and for this purpose the bulk of food is almost as important as the nutritive qualities. The flavor of some roots, as cabbages and turnips, is more apt to be imparted to the flesh and milk when fed on an empty stomach than otherwise. After the cows have been milked and have finished their cut feed, they are carded and curried down, in well-managed dairies, and then either watered in the stall--which, in very cold or stormy weather, is far preferable--or turned out to water in the yard. While they are out, if they are let out at all, the stables are put in order; and, after tying them up, they are fed with long hay, and left to themselves till the next feeding time. This may consist of roots--such as cabbages, beets, carrots, or turnips sliced--or of potatoes, a peck, or--if the cows are very large--a half-bushel each, and cut feed again at the evening milking, as in the morning; after which, water in the stall, if possible. The less cows are exposed to the cold of winter, the better. They eat less, thrive better, and give more milk, when kept housed all the time, than when exposed to the cold. A case is on record, where a herd of cows, which had usually been supplied from troughs and pipes in the stalls, were, on account of an obstruction in the pipes, obliged to be turned out thrice a day to be watered in the yard. The quantity of milk instantly decreased, and in three days the diminution became very considerable. After the pipes were mended, and the cows again watered, as before, in their stalls, the flow of milk returned. This, however, must be governed much by the weather; for in very mild and warm days it may be judicious not only to let them out, but to allow them to remain out for a short time, for the purpose of exercise. Any one can arrange the hour for the several processes named above, to suit himself; but, when once fixed, it should be rigidly and regularly followed. If the regular and full feeding be neglected for even a day, the yield of milk will immediately decline, and it will be very difficult to restore it. It may be safely asserted, as the result of many trials and long practice, that a larger flow of milk follows a complete system of regularity in this respect than from a higher feeding where this system is not adhered to. One prime object which the dairyman should keep constantly in view is, to maintain the animal in a sound and healthy condition. Without this, no profit can be expected from a milch cow for any considerable length of time; and with a view to this, there should be an occasional change of food. But, in making changes, great care is requisite in order to supply the needful amount of nourishment, or the cow will fall off in flesh, and eventually in milk. It should, therefore, be remembered that the food consumed goes not alone to the secretion of milk, but also to the growth and maintenance of the bony structure, the flesh, the blood, the fat, the skin, and the hair, and in exhalations from the body. These parts of the body consist of different organic constituents. Some are rich in nitrogen, as the fibrin of the blood and albumen; others destitute of it, as fat; some abound in inorganic salts, phosphate of lime, and salts of potash. To explain how the constant waste of these substances may be supplied, a celebrated chemist observes that the albumen, gluten, caseine, and other nitrogenized principles of food, supply the animal with the materials requisite for the formation of muscle and cartilage; they are, therefore, called flesh-forming principles. Fats, or oily matters of the food, are used to lay on fat, or for the purpose of sustaining respiration. Starch, sugar, gum, and a few other non-nitrogenized substances, consisting of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, supply the carbon given off in respiration, or they are used for the production of fat. Phosphate of lime and magnesia in food principally furnish the animal with the materials of which the bony skeleton of its body consists. Saline substances--chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphate and phosphate of potash and soda, and some other mineral matters occurring in food--supply the blood, juice of flesh, and various animal juices, with the necessary mineral constituents. The healthy state of an animal can thus only be preserved by a mixed food; that is, food which contains all the proximate principles just noticed. Starch or sugar alone cannot sustain the animal body, since neither of them furnishes the materials to build up the fleshy parts of the animal. When fed on substances in which an insufficient quantity of phosphates occurs, the animal will become weak, because it does not find any bone-producing principle in its food. Due attention should, therefore, be paid by the feeder to the selection of food which contains all the kinds of matter required, nitrogenized as well as non-nitrogenized, and mineral substances; and these should be mixed together in the proportion which experience points out as best for the different kinds of animals, or the particular purpose for which they are kept. Relative to the nutrition of cows for dairy purposes, milk may be regarded as a material for the manufacture of butter and cheese; and, according to the purpose for which the milk is intended to be employed, whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the cow should be differently fed. Butter contains carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and no nitrogen. Cheese, on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food which contains much fatty matter, or substances which in the animal system are readily converted into fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream in milk. On the other hand, the proportion of caseine or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food. Those, then, who desire much cream, or who produce cream for the manufacture of butter, select food likely to increase the proportion of butter in the milk. On the contrary, where the principal object is the production of milk rich in curd--that is, where cheese is the object of the farmer--clover, peas, bran-meal, and other plants which abound in legumine--a nitrogenized organic compound, almost identical in properties and composition with caseine, or the substance which forms the curd of milk--will be selected. And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of butter in the milk, depends on the kind of food consumed and on the general health of the animal. Cows fed on turnips in the stall always produce butter inferior to that of cows living upon the fresh and aromatic grasses of the pastures. Succulent food in which water abounds--the green grass of irrigated meadows, green clover, brewers' and distillers' refuse, and the like--increases the quantity, rather than the quality, of the milk; and by feeding these substances the milk-dairyman studies his own interest, and makes thin milk without diluting it with water--though, in the opinion of some, this may be no more legitimate than watering the milk. But, though the yield of milk may be increased by succulent or watery food, it should be given so as not to interfere with the health of the cow. Food rich in starch, gum, or sugar, which are the respiratory elements, an excess of which goes to the production of fatty matters, increases the butter in milk. Quietness promotes the secretion of fat in animals and increases the butter. Cheese will be increased by food rich in albumen, such as the leguminous plants. [Illustration: BUYING CATTLE.] The most natural, and of course the healthiest, food for milch cows in summer, is the green grass of the pastures; and when these fail from drought or over-stocking, the complement of nourishment may be made up with green clover, green oats, barley, millet, or corn-fodder and cabbage-leaves, or other succulent vegetables; and if these are wanting, the deficiency may be partly supplied with shorts, Indian-meal, linseed or cotton-seed meal. Green grass is more nutritious than hay, which always loses somewhat of its nutritive properties in curing; the amount of the loss depending chiefly on the mode of curing, and the length of exposure to sun and rain. But, apart from this, grass is more easily and completely digested than hay, though the digestion of the latter may be greatly aided by cutting and moistening, or steaming; and by this means it is rendered more readily available, and hence far better adapted to promote a large secretion of milk--a fact too often overlooked even by many intelligent farmers. In autumn, the best feed will be the grasses of the pastures, so far as they are available, green-corn fodder, cabbage, carrot, and turnip leaves, and an addition of meal or shorts. Toward the middle of autumn, the cows fed in the pastures will require to be housed regularly at night, especially in the more northern latitudes, and put, in part at least, upon hay. But every farmer knows that it is not judicious to feed out the best part of his hay when his cattle are first put into the barn, and that he should not feed so well in the early part of winter that he cannot feed better as the winter advances. At the same time, it should always be borne in mind that the change from grass to a poor quality of hay or straw, for cows in milk, should not be too sudden. A poor quality of dry hay is far less palatable in the early part of winter, after the cows are taken from grass, than at a later period; and, if it is resorted to with milch cows, will invariably lead to a falling off in the milk, which no good feed can afterward wholly restore. It is desirable, therefore, for the farmer to know what can be used instead of his best English or upland meadow hay, and yet not suffer any greater loss in the flow of milk, or in condition, than is absolutely necessary. In some sections of the Eastern States, the best quality of swale hay will be used; and the composition of that is as variable as possible, depending on the varieties of the grasses of which it was made, and the manner of curing. But, in other sections, many will find it necessary to use straw and other substitutes. Taking good English or meadow hay as the standard of comparison, and calling that one, 4.79 times the weight of rye-straw, or 3.83 times the weight of oat-straw, contains the same amount of nutritive matter; that is, it would take 4.79 times as good rye-straw to produce the same result as good meadow hay. In winter, the best food for cows in milk will be good sweet meadow hay, a part of which should be cut and moistened with water--as all inferior hay or straw should be--with an addition of root-crops, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, mangold-wurtzel, with shorts, oil-cake, Indian meal, or bean meal. It is the opinion of most successful dairymen that the feeding of moist food cannot be too highly recommended for cows in milk, especially to those who desire to obtain the largest quantity. Hay cut and thoroughly moistened becomes more succulent and nutritive, and partakes more of the nature of green grass. As a substitute for the oil-cake, hitherto known as an exceedingly valuable article for feeding stock, there is probably nothing better than cotton-seed meal. This is an article whose economic value has been but recently made known, but which, from practical trials already made, has proved eminently successful as food for milch cows. Chemists have decided that its composition is not inferior to that of the best flaxseed cake, and that in some respects its agricultural value surpasses that of any other kind of oil-cake. It has been remarked by chemists, in this connection, that the great value of linseed-cake, as an adjunct to hay, for fat cattle and milch cows, has been long recognized; and that it is undeniably traceable, in the main, to three ingredients of the seeds of the oil-yielding plants. The value of food depends upon the quantities of matters it contains which may be appropriated by the animal which consumes the food Now, it is proved that the fat of animals is derived from the starch, gum, and sugar, and more directly and easily from the oil of the food. These four substances, then, are fat-formers. The muscles, nerves, and tendons of animals, the brine of their blood and the curd of their milk, are almost identical in composition with, and strongly similar in many of their properties to, matters found in all vegetables, but chiefly in such as form the most concentrated food. These blood (and muscle) formers are characterized by containing about fifteen and a half per cent. of nitrogen; and hence are called nitrogenous substances. They are, also, often designated as the albuminous bodies. The bony framework of the animal owes its solidity to phosphate of lime, and this substance must be furnished by the food. A perfect food must supply the animal with these three classes of bodies, and in proper proportions. The addition of a small quantity of a food, rich in oil and albuminous substances, to the ordinary kinds of feed, which contain a large quantity of vegetable fibre or woody matter, more or less indigestible, but, nevertheless, indispensable to the herbivorous animals, their digestive organs being adapted to a bulky food, has been found highly advantageous in practice. Neither hay alone nor concentrated food alone gives the best results. A certain combination of the two presents the most advantages. Some who have used cotton-seed cake have found difficulty in inducing cattle to eat it. By giving it at first in small doses, mixed with other palatable food, they soon learn to eat it with relish. Cotton-seed cake is much richer in oils and albuminous matters than the linseed cake. A correspondingly less quantity will therefore be required. Three pounds of this cotton-seed cake are equivalent to four of linseed cake of average quality. During the winter season, as has been already remarked, a frequent change of food is especially necessary, both as contributions to the general health of animals, and as a means of stimulating the digestive organs, and thus increasing the secretion of milk. A mixture used as cut feed and well moistened is now especially beneficial, since concentrated food, which would otherwise be given in small quantities, may be united with larger quantities of coarser and less nutritive food, and the complete assimilation of the whole be better secured. On this subject it has been sensibly observed that the most nutritious kinds of food produce little or no effect when they are not digested by the stomach, or if the digested food is not absorbed by the lymphatic vessels, and not assimilated by the various parts of the body. Now, the normal functions of the digestive organs not only depend upon the composition of the food, but also on its volume. The volume or bulk of the food contributes to the healthy action of the digestive organs, by exercising a stimulating effect upon the nerves which govern them. Thus the whole organization of ruminating animals necessitates the supply of bulky food, to keep the animal in good condition. Feed sweet and nutritious food, therefore, frequently, regularly, and in small quantities, and change it often, and the best results may be confidently anticipated. If the cows are not in milk, but are to come in in the spring, the difference in feeding should be rather in the quantity than the quality, if the highest yield is to be expected from them during the coming season. The most common feeding is hay alone, and oftentimes very poor hay at that. The main point is to keep the animal in a healthy and thriving condition, and not to suffer her to fail in flesh; and with this object, some change and variety of food are highly important. [Illustration: CALLING IN THE CATTLE.] Toward the close of winter, a herd of cows will begin to come in, or approach their time of calving. Care should then be taken not to feed too rich or stimulating food for the last week or two before this event, as it is often attended with ill consequences. A plenty of hay, a few potatoes or shorts, and pure water will suffice. In spring, the best feeding for dairy cows will be much the same as that for winter; the roots in store over winter, such as carrots, mangold wurtzel, turnips, and parsnips, furnishing very valuable aid in increasing the quantity and improving the quality of milk. Toward the close of this season, and before the grass of pastures is sufficiently grown to make it judicious to turn out the cows, the best dairymen provide a supply of green fodder in the shape of winter rye, which, if cut while it is tender and succulent, and before it is half grown, will be greatly relished. Unless cut young, however, its stalk soon becomes hard and unpalatable. All practical dairymen agree in saying that a warm and well-ventilated barn is indispensable to the promotion of the highest yield of milk in winter; and most agree that cows in milk should not be turned out, even to drink, in cold weather; all exposure to cold tending to lessen the yield of milk. In the London dairies, in which, of course, the cows are fed so as to produce the largest flow of milk, the treatment is as follows: The cows are kept at night in stalls. About three A. M. each has a half-bushel of grains. When milking is finished, each receives a bushel of turnips (or mangolds), and shortly afterward, one tenth of a truss of hay of the best quality. This feeding occurs before eight A. M., when the animals are turned into the yard. Four hours after, they are again tied up in their stalls, and have another feed of grains. When the afternoon milking is over (about three P. M.), they are fed with a bushel of turnips, and after the lapse of an hour, hay is given them as before. This mode of feeding usually continues throughout the cool season, or from November to March. During the remaining months they are fed with grains, tares, and cabbages, and a proportion of rowen, or second-cut hay. They are supplied regularly until they are turned out to grass, when they pass the whole of the night in the field. The yield is about six hundred and fifty gallons a year for each cow. Mr. Harley--whose admirable dairy establishment was erected for the purpose of supplying the city of Glasgow with a good quality of milk, and which has contributed more than any thing else to improve the quality of the milk furnished to all the principal cities of Great Britain--adopted the following system of feeding with the greatest profit: In the early part of the summer, young grass and green barley, the first cutting especially, mixed with a large proportion of old hay or straw, and a good quantity of salt to prevent swelling, were used. As summer advanced, less hay and straw were given, and as the grass approached ripeness, they were discontinued altogether; but young and wet clover was never given without an admixture of dry provender. When grass became scarce, young turnips and turnip leaves were steamed with hay, and formed a good substitute. As grass decreased, the turnips were increased, and at length became a complete substitute. As the season advanced, a large proportion of distillers' grains and wash was given with other food, but these were found to have a tendency to make the cattle grain-sick; and if this feeding were long-continued, the health of the cows became affected. Boiled linseed and short-cut wheat straw mixed with the grains, were found to prevent the cows from turning sick. As spring approached, Swedish turnips, when cheap, were substituted for yellow turnips. These two roots, steamed with hay and other mixtures, afforded safe food till grass was again in season. When any of the cows were surfeited, the food was withheld till the appetite returned, when a small quantity was given, and increased gradually to the full allowance. But the most elaborate and valuable experiments in the feeding and management of milch cows, are those made, not long since, by Mr. T. Horsfall, of England, and published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society. His practice, though adapted more especially, perhaps, to his own section, is nevertheless of such general application and importance as to be worthy of attention. By his course of treatment he found that he could produce as much and as rich butter in winter as in summer. His first object was to afford a full supply of the elements of food adapted to the maintenance, and also to the produce of the animal; and this could not be effected by the ordinary food and methods of feeding, since it is impossible to induce a cow to consume a quantity of hay requisite to supply the waste of the system, and keep up, at the same time, a full yield of the best quality of milk. He used, to some extent, cabbages, kohl rabi, mangolds, shorts, and other substances, rich in the constituents of cheese and butter. "My food for milch cows," says he, "after having undergone various modifications, has for two seasons consisted of rape cake five pounds, and bran two pounds, for each cow, mixed with a sufficient quantity of bean-straw, oat-straw, and shells of oats, in equal proportions, to supply them three times a day with as much as they will eat. The whole of the materials are moistened and blended together, and, after being well steamed, are given to the animal in a warm state. The attendant is allowed one pound to one pound and a half per cow, according to circumstances, of bean-meal, which he is charged to give to each cow in proportion to the yield of milk; those in full milk getting each two pounds per day, others but little. It is dry, and mixed with the steamed food on its being dealt out separately. When this is eaten up, green food is given, consisting of cabbages, from October to December, kohl rabi till February, and mangold till grass time, with a view to nicety of flavor. I limit the quantity of green food to thirty or thirty-five pounds per day for each. After each feed, four pounds of meadow hay, or twelve pounds per day, is given to each cow. They are allowed water twice a day, to the extent which they will drink." Bean-straw uncooked having been found to be hard and unpalatable, it was steamed to make it soft and pulpy, when it possessed an agreeable odor, and imparted its flavor to the whole mass. It was cut for this purpose just before ripening, but after the bean was fully grown, and in this state was found to possess nearly double the amount of albuminous matter, so valuable to milch cows, of good meadow or upland hay. Bran or shorts is also vastly improved by steaming or soaking with hot water, when its nutriment is more readily assimilated. It contains about fourteen per cent. of albumen, and is rich in phosphoric acid. Rape-cake was found to be exceedingly valuable. Linseed and cotton-seed cake may probably be substituted for it in this country. Mr. Horsfall turned his cows in May into a rich pasture, housing them at night, and giving them a mess of the steamed mixture and some hay morning and night; and from June to October they had cut grass in the stall, besides what they got in the pasture, and two feeds of the steamed mixture a day. After the beginning of October the cows were kept housed. With such management his cows generally yielded from twelve to sixteen quarts of milk (wine measure) a day, for about eight months after calving, when they fell off in milk, but gained in flesh, up to calving-time. In this course of treatment the manure was far better than the average, and his pastures constantly improved. The average amount of butter from every sixteen quarts of milk was twenty-five ounces--a proportion far larger than the average. [Illustration: "ON THE RAMPAGE."] How widely does this course of treatment differ from that of most farmers! The object with many seems to be, to see with how little food they can keep the cow alive. From a correct point of view, the milch cow should be regarded as an instrument of transformation. The question should be--with so much hay, so much grain, so many roots, how can the most milk, or butter, or cheese, be made? The conduct of a manufacturer who owned good machinery, and an abundance of raw material, and had the labor at hand, would be considered very senseless, if he hesitated to supply the material, and keep the machinery at work, at least so long as he could run it with profit. Stimulate the appetite, then, and induce the cow to eat, by a frequent change of diet, not merely enough to supply the constant waste of her system, but enough and to spare, of a food adapted to the production of milk of the quality desired. SOILING. Of the advantages of soiling milch cows--that is, feeding exclusively in the barn--there are yet many conflicting opinions. As to its economy of land and feed there can be no question, it being generally admitted that a given number of animals may be abundantly fed on a less space; nor is there much question as to the increased quantity of milk yielded in stall feeding. Its economy, in this country, turns rather upon the cost of labor and time; and the question raised by the dairyman is, whether it will pay--whether its advantages are sufficient to balance the extra expense of cutting and feeding, over and above cropping on the pasture. The importance of this subject has been strongly impressed upon the attention of farmers in many sections of the country, by a growing conviction that something must be done to improve the pastures, or that they must be abandoned altogether. Thousands of acres of neglected pasture-land in the older States are so poor and worn out that from four to eight acres furnish but a miserable subsistence for a good-sized cow. No animal can flourish under such circumstances. The labor and exertion of feeding are too great, to say nothing of the vastly inferior quality of the grasses in such pastures, compared with those on more recently seeded lands. True economy would dictate that such pastures should either be allowed to run to wood, or be devoted to sheep-walks, or ploughed and improved. Cows, to be able to yield well, must have plenty of food of a sweet and nutritious quality; and, unless they find it, they wander over a large space, if at liberty, and thus deprive themselves of rest. If a farmer or dairyman unfortunately owns such pastures, there can be no question that, as a matter of real economy, he had better resort to the soiling system for his milch cows; by which means he will largely increase his annual supply of good manure, and thus have the means of improving, and bringing his land to a higher state of cultivation. A very successful instance of this management occurs in the report of the visiting committee of an agricultural society in Massachusetts, in which they say: "We have now in mind a farmer in this county who keeps seven or eight cows in the stable through the summer, and feeds them on green fodder, chiefly Indian corn. We asked him his reasons for it. His answer was: 1. That he gets more milk than he can by any other method. 2. That he gets more manure, especially liquid manure. 3. That he saves it all, by keeping a supply of mud or mould under the stable, to be taken out and renewed as often as necessary. 4. That it is less troublesome than to drive his cows to pasture; that they are less vexed by flies, and have equally good health. 5. That his mowing land is every year growing more productive, without the expense of artificial manure.--He estimates that on an acre of good land twenty tons of green fodder may be raised. That which is dried is cut fine, and mixed with meal or shorts, and fed with profit. He believes that a reduced and worn-out farm--supposing the land to be naturally good--could be brought into prime order in five years, without any extra outlay of money for manure, by the use of green fodder in connection with the raising and keeping of pigs; not fattening them, but selling at the age of four or five months." He keeps most of his land in grass, improving its quality and productiveness by means of top-dressing, and putting money in his pocket--which is, after all, the true test both for theory and practice. Another practical case on this point is that of a gentleman in the same State who had four cows, but not a rod of land on which to pasture them. They were, therefore, never out of the barn--or, at least, not out of the yard--and were fed with grass, regularly mown for them; with green Indian corn and fodder, which had been sown broadcast for the purpose; and with about three pints of meal a day. Their produce in butter was kept for thirteen weeks. Two of them were but two years old, having calved the same spring. All the milk of one of them was taken by her calf for six weeks out of the thirteen, and some of the milk of the other was taken for family use, the quantity of which was not measured. These heifers could not, therefore, be estimated as equal to more than one cow in full milk. And yet from these cows no less than three hundred and eighty-nine pounds of butter were made in the thirteen weeks. Another pound would have made an average of thirty pounds a week for the whole time. It appears from these and other similar instances of soiling, or stall-feeding in summer on green crops cut for the purpose, that the largely increased quantity of the yield fully compensates for the slightly deteriorated quality. And not only is the quantity yielded by each cow increased, but the same extent of land, under the same culture, will carry double or treble the number of ordinary pastures, and keep them in better condition. There is also a saving of manure. But with us the economy of soiling is the exception, and not the rule. In adopting this system of feeding, regularity is required as much as in any other, and a proper variety of food. A succession of green crops should be provided, as near as convenient to the stable. The first will naturally be winter rye, in the Northern States, as that shoots up with great luxuriance. Winter rape would probably be an exceedingly valuable addition to the plants usually cultivated for soiling in this country, in sections where it would withstand the severity of the winter. Cabbages, kept in the cellar or pit, and transplanted early, will also come in here to advantage, and clover will very soon follow them; oats, millet, and green Indian-corn, as the season advances; and, a little later still, perhaps, the Chinese sugar-cane, which should not be cut till headed out. These plants, in addition to other cultivated grasses, will furnish an unfailing succession of succulent and tender fodder; while the addition of a little Indian, linseed, or cotton-seed meal will be found economical. In the vicinity of large towns and cities, where the object is too often to feed for the largest quantity, without reference to quality, an article known as distillers' swill, or still-slop, is extensively used. This, if properly fed in limited quantities, in combination with other and more bulky food, may be a valuable article for the dairyman; but, if given--as it too often is--without the addition of other kinds of food, it soon affects the health and constitution of the animals fed on it. This swill contains a considerable quantity of water, some nitrogenous compounds, and some inorganic matter in the shape of phosphates and alkaline salts found in the different kinds of grain of which it is made up, as Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, and the like. Where this forms the principal food of milch cows, the milk is of a very poor quality--blue in color, and requiring the addition of coloring substances to make it saleable. It contains, often, less than one per cent. of butter, and seldom over one and three-tenths or one and a half per cent.--while good, saleable milk should contain from three to five per cent. It will not coagulate, it is said, in less than five or six hours; while good milk will invariably coagulate in an hour or less, under the same conditions. Its effect on the system of young children is, therefore, very destructive, causing diseases of various kinds, and, if continued, death. So pernicious have been the consequences resulting from the use of this "swill-milk," as it is called, in the largest city of this country, that the Legislature of the State of New York, at a recent session (1861-2), interfered in behalf of the community by making the sale of the article a penal offence. CULTURE OF GRASSES FOR FODDER. As has been already stated, the grasses in summer, and hay in winter, form the most natural and important food for milch cows; and, whatever other crops come in as additional, these will form the basis of all systems of feeding. The nutritive qualities of the grasses differ widely; and their value as feed for cows will depend, to a considerable extent, on the management of pastures and mowing-lands. Some considerations bearing upon the subject of the proper cultivation of these leading articles of food are, therefore, proposed in this article. [Illustration: PATIENTLY WAITING.] If the turf of an old pasture is carefully examined, it will be found to contain a large variety of plants and grasses adapted for forage; some of them valuable for one purpose, and some for another. Some of them, though possessing a lower percentage of nutritive constituents than others, are particularly esteemed for an early and luxuriant growth, furnishing sweet feed in early spring, before other grasses appear; some of them, for starting more rapidly than others, after having been eaten off by cattle, and, consequently, of great value as pasture grasses. Most grasses will be found to be of a social character, and do best in a large mixture with other varieties. In forming a mixture for pasture grasses, the peculiar qualities of each species should, therefore, be regarded: as the time of flowering, the habits of growth, the soil and location on which it grows best, and other characteristics. Among the grasses found on cultivated lands in this country, the following are considered as among the most valuable for ordinary farm cultivation; some of them being adapted to pastures, and others almost exclusively to mowing and the hay-crop: Timothy, Meadow Foxtail, June or Kentucky Blue Grass, Fowl Meadow, Rough-stalked Meadow, Orchard Grass, Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Redtop, English Bent, Meadow Fescue, Tall Oat Grass, Sweet-scented Vernal, Hungarian Grass, Red Clover, White or Dutch Clover, and some others. Of these, the most valuable, all things considered, is TIMOTHY. It forms a large proportion of what is commonly called English, or in some sections meadow, hay, though it originated and was first cultivated in this country. It contains a large percentage of nutritive matter, in comparison with other agricultural grasses. It thrives best on moist, peaty, or loamy soils, of medium tenacity, and is not well suited to very light, sandy lands. On very moist soils, its root is almost always fibrous; while on dry and loamy ones it is bulbous. On soils of the former description, which it especially affects, its growth is rapid, and its yield of hay large, sometimes amounting to three or four tons the acre, depending much, of course, upon cultivation. But, though very valuable for hay, it is not adapted for pasture, as it will neither endure severe grazing, nor is its aftermath to be compared with that of meadow foxtail, and some of the other grasses. JUNE GRASS, better known in some sections as Kentucky Blue Grass, is very common in most sections of the country, especially on limestone lands, forming a large part of the turf, wherever it flourishes, and being held in universal esteem as a pasture grass. It starts early, but varies much in size and appearance, according to the soil; growing in some places with the utmost luxuriance, and forming the predominant grass; in others, yielding to the other species. If cut at the time of flowering, or a few days after, it makes a good and nutritious hay, though it is surpassed in nutritive qualities by several of the other grasses. It starts slowly after having been cut, especially if not cut very early. But its herbage is fine and uniform, and admirably adapted to lawns, growing well in almost all soils, though it does not endure very severe droughts. It withstands, however, the frosts of winter better than most other grasses. In Kentucky--a section where it attains its highest perfection and luxuriance, ripening its seeds about the tenth of June--and in latitudes south of that, it sometimes continues green through the mild winters. It requires three or four years to become well set, after sowing, and it does not attain its highest yield as a pasture grass till the sod is even older than that. It is not, therefore, suited to alternate husbandry, where land usually remains in grass but two or three years before being ploughed up. In Kentucky, it is sown any time in winter when the sun is on the ground, three or four quarts of seed being used to the acre. In spring the seeds germinate, when the sprouts are exceedingly fine and delicate. Stock is not allowed on it the first year. The MEADOW FOXTAIL is also an excellent pasture grass It somewhat resembles Timothy, but is earlier, has a softer spike, and thrives on all soils except the dryest. Its growth is rapid, and it is greatly relished by stock of all kinds. Its stalks and leaves are too few and light for a field crop, and it shrinks too much in curing to be valuable for hay. It flourishes best in a rich, moist, and rather strong soil, sending up a luxuriant aftermath when cut or grazed off, which is much more valuable, both in quality and nutritive value, than the first crop. In all lands designed for permanent pasture, therefore, it should form a considerable part of a mixture. It will endure almost any amount of forcing, by liquid manures or irrigation. It requires three or four years, after soiling, to gain a firm footing in the soil. The seed is covered with the soft and woolly husks of the flower, and is consequently light; weighing but five pounds to the bushel, and containing seventy-six thousand seeds to the ounce. The ORCHARD GRASS, or ROUGH COCKSFOOT, for pastures, stands pre-eminent. This is a native of this country, and was introduced into England, from Virginia, in 1764, since which time its cultivation has extended into every country of Europe, where it is universally held in very high estimation. The fact of its being very palatable to stock of all kinds, its rapid growth, and the luxuriance of its aftermath, with its power of enduring the cropping of cattle, have given it a very high reputation, especially as a pasture grass. It blossoms earlier than Timothy; when green, is equally relished by milch cows; requires to be fed closer, to prevent its forming tufts and growing up to seed, when it becomes hard and wiry, and loses much of its nutritive quality. As it blossoms about the same time, it forms an admirable mixture with red clover, either for permanent pasture or mowing. It resists drought, and is less exhausting to the soil than either rye grass or Timothy. The seed weighs twelve pounds to the bushel, and when sown alone requires about two bushels to the acre. The ROUGH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS is somewhat less common than the June grass, but is considered equally valuable. It grows best on moist, sheltered meadows, where it flowers in June and July. It is readily distinguished from June grass by its having a rough sheath, while the latter has a smooth one, and by having a fibrous root, while the root of the other is creeping. It possesses very considerable nutritive qualities, and comes to perfection at a desirable time, and is exceedingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For suitable soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in mixture with other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above the average of grass usually sown on a similar soil. It should be cut when the seed is formed. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will make a good sward. The grass loses about seventy per cent. of its weight in drying. The nutritive qualities of its aftermath exceed very considerably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed. FOWL MEADOW GRASS is another indigenous species, of great value for low and marshy grounds, where it flourishes best; and, if cut and properly cured, makes a sweet and nutritious hay, which, from its fineness, is eaten by cows without waste. According to Sinclair--who experimented, with the aid of Sir Humphrey Davy, to ascertain its comparative nutritive properties--it is superior in this respect to either meadow foxtail, orchard grass, or tall meadow oat grass; but it is probable that he somewhat overrates it. If allowed to stand till nearly ripe, it falls down, but sends up innumerable flowering stems from the joints, so that it continues green and luxuriant till late in the season. It thrives best in mixture with other grasses, and deserves a prominent place in all mixtures for rich, moist pastures, and low mowing-lands. RYE GRASS has a far higher reputation abroad than in this country, and probably with reason; for it is better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate than to a dry and hot one. It varies exceedingly, depending much on soil and culture; but, when cut in the blossom to make into hay, it possesses very considerable nutritive power. If allowed to get too ripe, it is hard and wiry, and not relished by cows. The change from a juicy and nutritious plant to a woody fibre, containing but little soluble matter, is very rapid. Properly managed, however, it is a tolerably good grass, though not to be compared to Timothy, or orchard grass. REDTOP is a grass familiar to every farmer in the country. It is the Herd's grass of Pennsylvania, while in New York and New England it is known by a great variety of names and assumes a great variety of forms, according to the soil in which it grows. It is well adapted to almost every soil, though it seems to prefer a moist loam. It makes a profitable crop for spending, in the form of hay, though its yield is less than that of Timothy. It is well suited to our permanent pastures, where it should be fed close, otherwise it becomes wiry and innutritious, and cattle refuse it. It stands the climate of the country as well as any other grass, and so forms a valuable part of any mixture for pastures and permanent mowing-lands; but it is, probably, rather over rated by us. ENGLISH BENT, known also by a number of other names, is largely cultivated in some sections. It closely resembles redtop, but may be distinguished from it by the roughness of the sheaths when the hand is drawn from above downward. It possesses about the same qualities as redtop. MEADOW FESCUE is one of the most common of the fescue grasses, and is said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. It is an excellent pasture grass, forming a very considerable portion of the turf of old pasture lands and fields; and is more extensively propagated and diffused from the fact that it ripens its seeds before most other grasses are cut, and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle. It is rarely sown in this country, notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a pasture grass. If sown at all, it should be in mixture with other grasses, as orchard grass, and rye grass, or June grass. It is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when the seed is ripe. [Illustration: A CHANCE FOR A SELECTION.] THE TALL OAT GRASS is the Ray grass of France. It furnishes a luxuriant supply of foliage, is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields and hedges, woods and pastures, and is sometimes very plenty in mowing-lands. After having been mown it shoots up a very thick aftermath, and, on this account, partly, is regarded of nearly equal excellence with the common foxtail. It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It has been cultivated to a considerable extent in this country, and is esteemed by those who know it mainly for its early, rapid, and late growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It will succeed on tenacious clover soil. The SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS is one of the earliest in spring and one of the latest in autumn; and this habit of growth is one of its chief excellencies, as it is neither a nutritious grass, nor very palatable to stock of any kind, nor does it yield a very good crop. It is very common in New England and all over the Middle States, coming into old worn-out fields and moist pastures spontaneously, and along every roadside. It derives its name from its sweetness of odor when partially wilted or crushed in the hand, and it is this chiefly which gives the delicious fragrance to all new-mown bay. It is almost the only grass that possesses a strongly-marked aromatic odor, which is imparted to other grasses with which it is cured. Its seed weighs eight pounds to the bushel. In mixtures for permanent pastures it may be of some value. HUNGARIAN GRASS, or millet, is an annual forage plant, introduced into France in 1815, and more recently into this country. It germinates readily, and withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green when other grasses are parched and dried up. It has numerous succulent leaves which furnish an abundance of sweet fodder, greatly relished by stock of all kinds. It attains its greatest luxuriance on soils of medium consistency and richness, but does very well on light and dry plains. RED CLOVER is an artificial grass of the leguminous family, and one of the most valuable cultivated plants for feeding to dairy cows. It flourishes best on tenacious soils and stiff loams. Its growth is rapid, and a few months after sowing are sufficient to supply an abundant sweet and nutritious food. In the climate of New England, clover should be sown in the spring of the year, while most of the natural grasses do far better when sown in the fall. It is often sown with perfect success on the late snows of March or April, and soon finds its way down into the soil and takes a vigorous hold with its root. It is valuable not only as a forage plant, but as shading the ground, and thereby increasing its fertility. The introduction of clover among the cultivated plants of the farm has done more, perhaps, for modern agriculture than that of any other single plant. It is now considered indispensable in all good dairy districts. WHITE CLOVER, often called Honeysuckle, is also widely diffused over this country, to which it is undoubtedly indigenous. As a mixture in all pasture grasses it holds a very high rank, as it is exceedingly sweet and nutritious, and relished by all kinds of stock. It grows most luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist seasons, but easily accommodates itself to a great variety of circumstances. With respect to the mixtures of grass-seeds most profitable for the dairy farmer, no universal rule can be given, as they depend very much upon the nature of the soil and the locality. The most important point to be observed, and the one as to which, probably, the greatest deficiency exists, is to use a large number of species, with smaller quantities of each than those most commonly used. This is Nature's rule; for, in examining the turf of a rich old pasture, a large number of different species will be found growing together, while, if the turf of a field sown without two or three species is examined, a far less number of plants is found to the square foot, even after the sod is fairly set. In the opinion of the most competent judges, no improvement in grass culture is more important than this. As an instance of what he would consider an improvement on the ordinary mixtures for _permanent pastures_, Mr. Flint, in his "Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," suggests the following as likely to give satisfactory results, dependent, of course, to a considerable extent, on the nature and preparation of the soil: Meadow Foxtail, flowering in May and June, 2 pounds Orchard Grass, " " " " 6 " Sweet-scented Vernal, " " April and May, 1 " Meadow Fescue, " " May and June, 2 " Redtop, " " June and July, 2 " June Grass, " " May and June, 4 " Italian Rye Grass, " " June, 4 " Perennial do., " " " " 6 " Timothy, " " June and July, 3 " Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, " " 2 " Perennial Clover, flowering in June, 3 " White Clover, " " May to September 5-40 " For mowing-lands the mixture would, of course, be somewhat changed. The meadow foxtail and sweet-scented vernal would be left out entirely, and some six or eight pounds added to the Timothy and red clover. The proper time to lay down lands to grass in the latitude of New England is August or September, and no grain crop should be sown with the seed. Stiff or clayey pastures should never be overstocked, but when fed pretty close the grasses are far sweeter and more nutritious than when they are allowed to grow up rank and coarse; and if, by a want of sufficient feeding, they get the start of the stock, and grow into rank tufts, they should be cut and removed, when a fresh grass will start up, similar to the aftermath of mowing-lands, which will be eaten with avidity. Grasses for curing into hay should be cut either at the time of flowering, or just before, especially if designed for milch cows. They are then more succulent and juicy, and, if properly cured, form the sweetest food. Grass cut in the blossom will make more milk than if allowed to stand later. Cut a little before the blossoming; it will make more than when in blossom, and the cows prefer it, which is by no means an unimportant consideration, since their tastes should always be consulted. Grass cut somewhat green, and properly cured, is next to fresh, green grass in palatable, nutritive qualities. Every farmer knows the milk-producing properties of rowen, or second crop, which is generally cut before it ripens. No operation on the farm is of greater importance to the dairyman than the cutting of his grass and the manner of curing hay; and in this respect the practice over the country generally is susceptible of very marked improvement. The chief object is to preserve the sweetness and succulence of the grass in its natural state, so far as possible; and this object cannot be attained by exposing it too long to the scorching suns and drenching rains to which our climate is liable. As a general thing, farmers try to make their hay too much. As to the best modes of curing clover, the following, among others, is adopted by many successful farmers: What is mown in the morning is left in the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four o'clock, or while it is still warm, it is put into small cocks with a fork, and, if the weather is favorable, it may be housed on the fourth or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day in which it is to be carted. By this method all the heads and leaves are saved, and these are more valuable than the stems. For new milch cows in winter scarcely any food is better. It will cause them to give as great a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good rowen. INDIAN CORN makes an exceedingly valuable fodder, both as a means of carrying a herd of milch cows through our severe droughts of summer, and as an article for soiling cows kept in the stall. No dairy farmer will neglect to sow an extent in proportion to the number of cows which he keeps. The most common practice is, to sow in drills from two and a half to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making the drills from six to ten inches wide with the plough, manuring in the furrow, dropping the kernels about two inches apart, and covering with the hoe. In this mode of culture, the cultivator may be used between the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and, unless the ground is very weedy, no other after culture is needed. The first sowing usually takes place about the middle of May, and this is succeeded by other sowings, at intervals of a week or ten days, till July, in order to have a succession of green fodder; but, if it is designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is generally preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in August or early in September. Sown in this way, about three or four bushels of corn are required for an acre; since, if sown thickly, the fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and the waste less. The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this purpose, and after the methods just spoken of, arises from the fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the dews heavier, than when the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing of corn cut up green so easy and simple as that of the drying of stalks of Indian corn cut above the ear, as in the common practice of topping. The plant is then riper, less juicy, and cures more readily. The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after it is somewhat wilted, and then to stook upon the ground, where it is allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of weather, with only the protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound into small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over. The arms are thrown around the tops to bring them as closely together as possible, when the tops are broken over or twisted together, or otherwise fastened, in order to make the stook "shed the rain" as well as possible. In this condition they remain out until they are sufficiently dried to be put in the barn. Corn fodder is very excellent for young dairy stock. COMMON MILLET is another very valuable crop for fodder in soiling, or to cure for winter use, but especially to feed out during the usual season of drought. Many varieties of millet are cultivated in this country, the ground being prepared and treated as for oats. If designed to cut for green fodder, half a bushel of seed to the acre should be used; if to ripen seed, twelve quarts, sown broadcast, about the last of May or early in June. A moist loam or muck is the best soil adapted to millet; but very great crops have been grown on dry upland. It is very palatable and nutritious for milch cows, both green and when properly cured. The curing should be very much like that of clover, care being taken not to over-dry it. For fodder, either green or cured, it is cut before ripening. In this state all cattle eat it as readily as green corn, and a less extent will feed them. Millet is worthy of a widely-extended cultivation, particularly on dairy farms. Indian millet is another cultivated variety. RYE, as a fodder plant, is chiefly valuable for its early growth in spring. It is usually sown in September or October--from the middle to the end of September being, perhaps, the most desirable time--on land previously cultivated and in good condition. If designed to ripen only, a bushel of seed is required to the acre, evenly sown; but, if intended for early fodder in spring, two or two and a half bushels of seed per acre should be used. On warm land the rye can be cut green the last of April or the first of May. Care should be taken to cut early; since, if it is allowed to advance too far towards maturity, the stalk becomes hard and unpalatable to cows. OATS are also sometimes used for soiling, or for feeding green, to eke out a scanty supply of pasture feed; and for this purpose they are valuable. They should be sown on well-tilled and well-manured land, about four bushels to the acre, towards the last of April or the first of May. If the whole crop is to be used as green fodder, five bushels of seed will not be too much for good, strong soil. They will be sufficiently grown to cut by the first of July, or in some sections earlier, depending upon the location. The CHINESE SUGAR-CANE also may deserve attention as a fodder plant. Experiments thus far made would seem to show that when properly cultivated, and cut at the right time, it is a palatable and nutritious plant, while many of the failures have been the result of too early cutting. For a fodder crop the drill culture is preferable, both on account of the larger yield obtained and because it is thus prevented from becoming too hard and stalky. Of the root crops the POTATO is the first to be mentioned. This produces a large quantity of milk, though the quality is inferior. The market value of this root is, at times, too great to allow of feeding extensively with it, even in milk dairies, where it is most valuable as a food for cows; still, there are locations where it may be judicious to cultivate this root for dairy feed, and in all circumstances there is a certain portion of the crop of unmarketable size, which will be of value fed to milch cows or swine. It should be planted in April or May, but in many sections in June, on good mellow soil, first thoroughly plowed and harrowed, then furrowed three feet apart, and manured in the furrows with a mixture of ashes, plaster of Paris, and salt. The seed may be dropped in the furrows, one foot apart, after the drill system--or in hills, two and a half or three feet apart--to be covered with the plough by simply turning the furrows back, after which the whole should be rolled with the field-roller, when it can be done. If the land is not already in good heart from continued cultivation, a few loads of barnyard manure may be spread, and plowed under, by the first plowing. Used in this way it is far less liable to cause the rot, than when it is put in the hill. If a sufficient quantity of wood-ashes is not at hand, sifted coal-ashes will answer the purpose, and these are said to be valuable as a preventive of rot. In this way, one man, two boys, and a horse can plant from three to four acres a day on mellow land. By another method two acres a day on the sod have been planted. The manure is first spread upon the grass, and then a furrow made by a yoke of oxen and one man, another following after and dropping, a foot apart, along the outer edge of the furrow on the grass. By quick work, one hand can nearly keep up with the plow in dropping. When arrived at the end of the piece, a back furrow is turned up to the potatoes, and a good plowman will cover nearly all without difficulty. On the return furrow, the man or boy who dropped follows after, covering up any that may be left or displaced, and smoothing off the top of the back-furrows when necessary. Potatoes thus planted have come out finely. The cost of cultivation in this mode, it must be evident, is but trifling, compared with the slower method of hand-planting. It requires a skillful ploughman, a quick, active lad, and a good yoke of oxen, and the extent of the work will depend somewhat upon the state of the turf. The nutritive equivalent for potatoes in a hundred pounds of good hay is 319 pounds; that is, it will take 3.19 pounds of potatoes to afford the same amount of nourishment as one pound of hay. The great value of roots is as a change or condiment calculated to keep the animal in a healthy condition. [Illustration: A WEST HIGHLAND OX.] The CARROT is somewhat extensively fed, and is a valuable root for milch cows. This, like the potato, has been cultivated and improved from a wild plant. Carrots require a deep, warm, mellow soil, thoroughly cultivated, but clean, and free from weed-seed. The difference between a very good profit and a loss on the crop depends much upon the use of land and manures perfectly free from foul seeds of any kind. Ashes, guano, seaweed, ground bones, and other similar substances, or thoroughly-rotted and fermented compost, will answer the purpose. After plowing deep, and harrowing carefully, the seed should be planted with a seed-sower, in drills about eighteen inches apart, at the rate of four pounds to the acre, about the middle of May. The difference between sowing on the fifteenth of May and on the tenth of June in New England is said to be nearly one-third in the crop on an average of years. In weeding, a little wheel hoe is invaluable, as with it a large part of the labor of cultivation is saved. A skillful hand can run this hoe within a half an inch of the young plants without injury, and go over a large space in the course of a day, if the land was properly prepared in the first place. The American farmer should always plan to economize labor, which is the great item of expense upon a farm. By this is not meant that he should strive to shirk or avoid work, but that he should make the least amount of work accomplish the greatest and most profitable results. Labor-saving machinery on the farm is applied, not to reduce the number of hours of labor, or to make the owner a man of leisure--who is, generally, the unhappiest man in the world--but to enable him to accomplish the greatest results in the same time that he would be compelled to obtain smaller ones. Carrots will continue to grow and increase in size late into the fall. When ready to dig, plow around as near to the outside rows as possible, turning away the furrow from the row. Then take out the carrots, pulling off the tops, and throw the carrots and tops into separate heaps on the plowed furrows. In this way a man and two boys can harvest and put into the cellar upwards of a hundred bushels a day. The TURNIP, and the Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, are also largely cultivated as a field crop to feed to stock; and for this purpose almost numberless varieties are used, furnishing a great amount of succulent and nutritious food, late into winter, and, if well-kept, late into spring. The chief objection to the turnip is, that it taints the milk. This may be remedied--to a considerable extent, if not wholly--by the use of salt, or salt hay, and by feeding at the time of milking, or immediately after, or by steaming before feeding, or putting a small quantity of the solution of nitre into the pail, and milking upon it. Turnips may be sown any time in June, in rich land, well mellowed by cultivation. Very large crops are obtained, sown as late as the middle of July, or the first of August, on an inverted sod. The Michigan, or double-mould-board plow leaves the land light, and in admirable condition to harrow, and drill in turnips. In one instance, a successful root-grower cut two tons of hay to the acre, on the twenty-third of June, and after it was removed from the land spread eight cords of rotten kelp to the acre, and plowed in; after which about three cords of fine old compost manure were used to the acre, which was sown with ruta baga seed, in drills, three feet apart, plants thinned to eight or ten inches in the drill. No after cultivation was required. On the fifteenth of November he harvested three hundred and seventy bushels of splendid roots to the acre, carefully measured off. The nutritive equivalent of Swedish turnips as compared with good meadow hay is 676, taking hay as a standard at 100; that is, it would require 6.76 pounds of turnips to furnish the same nutriment as one pound of good hay; but fed in connection with other food--as hay, for example--perhaps five pounds of turnips would be about equal to one pound of hay. The English or round turnip is usually sown broadcast after some other crop, and large and valuable returns are often obtained. The Swede is sown in drills. Both of these varieties are used for the production of milk. The chief objection to the turnip crop is that it leaves many kinds of soil unfit for a succession of some other crops, like Indian corn, for instance. In some sections, no amount of manuring appears to make corn do well after turnips or ruta bagas. The MANGOLD WURTZEL, a variety of the common beet, is often cultivated in this country with great success, and fed to cows with advantage, furnishing a succulent and nutritive food in winter and spring. The crop is somewhat uncertain. When it does well, an enormous yield is often obtained; but, not rarely, it proves a failure, and is not, on the whole, quite as reliable as the ruta baga, though a more valuable crop when the yield is good. It is cultivated like the common beet in moist, rich soils; three pounds of seed to the acre The leaves may be stripped off, towards fall, and fed out, without injury to the growth of the root. Both mangolds and turnips should be cut with a root-cutter, before being fed out. The PARSNIP is a very sweet and nutritious article of fodder, and adds richness and flavor to the milk. It is worthy of extended culture in all parts of the country where dairy husbandry is pursued. It is a biennial, easily raised on deep, rich, well-cultivated and well-manured soils, often yielding enormous crops, and possessing the decided advantage of withstanding the severest winters. As an article of spring feeding, therefore, it is exceedingly valuable. Sown in April or May, it attains a large growth before winter. Then, if desirable, a part of the crop may be harvested for winter use, and the remainder left in the ground till the frost is out, in March or April, when they can be dug as wanted, and are exceedingly relished by milch cows and stock of all kinds. They make an admirable feed at the time of milking, and produce the richest cream, and the yellowest and finest-flavored butter, of any roots used among us. The best dairy farmers on the Island of Jersey often feed to their cows from thirty to thirty-five pounds of parsnips a day, in addition to hay or grass. Both practical experiment and scientific analysis prove this root to be eminently adapted to dairy stock, where the richness of milk or fine-flavored butter is any object. For mere milk-dairies, it is not quite so valuable, probably, as the Swedish turnip. The culture is similar to that of carrots, a rich, mellow, and deep loam being best; while it has a great advantage over the carrot in being more hardy, and rather less liable to injury from insects, and more nutritive. For feeding and fattening stock it is eminently adapted. To be sure of a crop, fresh seed must be had, as it cannot be depended on for more than one year. For this reason the largest and straightest roots should be allowed to stand for seed, which, as soon as nearly ripe, should be taken out and spread out to dry, and carefully kept for use. For field culture, the hollow-crowned parsnip is the best and most profitable; but on thin, shallow soils the turnip-rooted variety should be used. Parsnips may be harvested like carrots, by plowing along the rows. Let butter or cheese dairymen give this crop a fair and full trial, and watch its effect in the quality of the milk and butter. The KOHL RABI is also cultivated to a considerable extent in this country for the purpose of feeding stock. It is supposed to be a hybrid between the cabbage and the turnip and is often called the cabbage-turnip, having the root of the former, with a turnip-like or bulbous stem. The special reason for its more extensive cultivation among us is its wonderful indifference to droughts, in which it seems to flourish best, and to bring forth the most luxuriant crops. It also withstands the frosts remarkably, being a hardy plant. It yields a somewhat richer quality of milk than the ordinary turnip, and the crop is generally admitted to be as abundant and profitable. Very large crops of it have been produced by the ordinary turnip or cabbage cultivation. As in cabbage-culture, it is best to sow the seed in March or April, in a warm and well-enriched seed-bed; from which it is transplanted in May, and set out after the manner of cabbages in garden culture. It bears transplanting better than most other roots. Insects injure it less than the turnip, dry weather favors it, and it keeps well through winter. For these reasons, it must be regarded as a valuable addition to our list of forage plants adapted to dairy farming. It grows well on stronger soils than the turnip requires. LINSEED MEAL is the ground cake of flaxseed after the oil is pressed out. It is very rich in fat-forming principles, and given to milch cows increases the quality of butter, and keeps them in condition. Four or five pounds a day are sufficient for cows in milk, and this amount will effect a great saving in the cost of other food, and at the same time make a very rich milk. It is extensively manufactured in this country, and largely exported, but it is worthy of more general use here. It must not be fed in too large quantities to milch cows, for it would be liable to give too great a tendency to fat, and thus affect the quantity of the milk. COTTON-SEED MEAL is an article of comparatively recent introduction. It is obtained by pressing the seed of the cotton-plant, which extracts the oil, when the cake is crushed or ground into meal, which has been found to be a very valuable article for feeding stock. From analysis it is shown to be equal or superior to linseed meal. Practical experiments only are needed to establish it. It can be procured in market at a reasonable price. The MANURES used in this country for the culture of the above named plants are mostly such as are made on the farm, consisting chiefly of barnyard composts of various kinds, with often a large admixture of peat-mud. There are few farms that do not contain substances, which, if properly husbanded, would add very greatly to the amount of manure ordinarily made. The best of the concentrated manures, which it is sometimes necessary to use, for want of time and labor to prepare enough upon the farm, is, unquestionably, Peruvian guano. The results of this, when properly applied, are well known and reliable, which can hardly be said of any other artificial manure offered for the farmer's notice. The chief objection to depending upon manures made off the farm is, in the first place, their great expense; and in the second--which is equally important--the fact, that, though they may be made valuable, and produce at one time the best results, a want of care in the manufacture, or designed fraud, may make them almost worthless, with the impossibility of detecting the imposition, without a chemical analysis, till it becomes too late, and the crop is lost. It is, therefore, safest to rely mainly upon the home manufacture of manure. The extra expense of soiling cattle, saving and applying the liquid manure, and thus bringing the land to a higher state of cultivation, when it will be capable of keeping more stock and furnishing more manure, would offer a surer road to success than a constant outlay for concentrated fertilizers. THE BARN. The farm barn, next to the farm house, is the most important structure of the farm itself, in the Northern and Middle States; and even at the South and Southwest, where barns are less used, they are of more importance in the economy of farm management than is generally understood. Indeed, to the eyes of a person of taste, a farm or plantation appears incomplete, without good barn accommodations, as much as without good household appointments--and without them, no agricultural establishment can be complete in all its proper economy. The most _thorough_ barn structures, perhaps, to be seen in the United States, are those of the State of Pennsylvania, built by the German farmers of the lower and central counties. They are large, and expensive in their construction; and, in a strictly economical point of view, are, perhaps, more costly than is required. Yet, there is a substantial durability about them, that is exceedingly satisfactory, and, where the pecuniary ability of the farmer will admit, they may well furnish models for imitation. In the structure of the barn, and in its interior accommodation, much will depend upon the branches of agriculture to which the farm is devoted. A farm cultivated in grain chiefly requires but little room for stabling purposes. Storage for grain in the sheaf, and granaries, will require its room; while a stock farm requires a barn with extensive hay storage, and stables for its cattle, horses, and sheep, in all climates which do not admit of such stocks living through the winter in the field, as is the case in the great grazing districts west of the Alleghanies. Again, there are wide districts of country where a mixed husbandry of grain and stock is pursued, which require barns and outbuildings accommodating both. It may be well here to remark that many designers of barns, sheds, and other outbuildings for the accommodation of farm stock, have indulged in fanciful arrangements for the comfort and convenience of animals, which are so complicated that when constructed, as they sometimes are, the practical, common-sense farmer will not use them; and by reason of the learning which is required for their use, they are altogether unsuitable for the treatment and use which they generally receive from those who have the daily care of the stock for which they are intended, and for the rough usage which they experience from the animals themselves. A very pretty and plausible arrangement of stabling, feeding, and all the other requirements of a barn establishment may be thus got up by an ingenious theorist at the fireside, which will work charmingly as he dilates upon its good qualities, untried; but, which, when subjected to experiment, will be utterly worthless for practical use. There can be no doubt that the simplest plan of construction, consistent with an economical expenditure of the material of food for the consumption of stock, is by far the most preferable. Another item to be considered in this connection, is the comparative value of the stock, the forage fed to them, and the labor expended in feeding and taking care of them. To illustrate: Suppose a farm to lie in the vicinity of a large town or city. Its value is, perhaps, a hundred dollars an acre. The hay cut upon it is worth fifteen dollars a ton, at the barn, and straw and coarse grains in proportion, and hired labor ten or twelve dollars a month. Consequently, the manager of this farm should use all the economy in his power, by the aid of cutting-boxes and other machinery, to make the least amount of forage supply the wants of his stock; and the internal economy of his barn should be arranged accordingly, since labor is his cheapest item, and food his dearest. Therefore, any contrivance by which to work up his forage the closest--by way of machinery, or manual labor--so that it shall serve the purposes of keeping his stock, is true economy; and the making and saving of manures are items of the first importance. His buildings and their arrangements throughout should, for these reasons, be constructed in accordance with his practice. If, on the other hand, lands are cheap and productive, and labor comparatively dear, a different practice will prevail. The farmer will feed his hay from the mow without cutting. The straw will be stacked out, and the cattle turned to it, to pick what they like of it, and make their beds of the remainder; or, if it is housed, he will throw it into racks, and the stock may eat what they choose. To do this requires but one-third, or one-half of the labor which is required by the other mode, and the saving in this makes up, and perhaps more than makes up, for the increased quantity of forage consumed. Again, climate may equally affect the mode of winter-feeding the stock. The winters may be mild. The hay may be stacked in the fields when gathered, or put into small barns built for hay storage alone; and the manure, scattered over the fields by the cattle, as they are fed from either of them, may be knocked to pieces with the dung-beetle, in the spring, or harrowed and bushed over the ground; and with the very small quantity of labor required in all this, such practice will be more economical than any other which can be adopted. In latitudes, however, in which it becomes necessary to stall-feed during several months of the year, barns are indispensable. These should be warm, and at the same time well ventilated. The barn should be arranged in a manner suitable to keeping hay and other fodder dry and sweet, and with reference to the comfort and health of the animals, and the economy of labor and manure. The size and finish will, of course, depend on the wants and means of the farmer or dairyman; but many little conveniences, it should not be forgotten, can be added at comparatively trifling cost. The accompanying cut of a barn is given merely as an illustration of a convenient arrangement for a medium-sized dairy, and not as being adapted to all circumstances or situations. This barn is supposed to stand upon a side-hill or an inclined surface, where it is easy to have a cellar, if desired; and the cattle-room, as shown in the cut, is in the second story, or directly over the cellar, the bottom of which should be somewhat dished, or lower in the middle than around the outer sides, and carefully paved, or laid in cement. [Illustration: BARN FOR THIRTY-FOUR COWS AND THREE YOKE OF OXEN.] On the outside is represented an open shed, _m_, for carts and wagons to remain under cover, thirty feet by fifteen, while _l l l l l l_ are bins for vegetables, to be filled through scuttles from the floor of the story above, and surrounded by solid walls. The area of this whole floor equals one hundred feet by fifty-seven. _k_, is an open space, nearly on a level with the cow-chamber, through the door _p_. _s_, stairs to the third story and to the cellar, _d d d_, passage next to the walls, five feet wide, and nine inches above the dung-pit. _e e e_, dung-pit, two feet wide, and seven inches below the floor where the cattle stand. The manure drops from this pit into the cellar below, five feet from the walls, and quite around the cellar. _c c c_, plank floor for cows, four feet six inches long. _b b b_, stalls for three yoke of oxen, on a platform five feet six inches long, _n n_, calf-pens, which may also be used for cows in calving. _r r_, feeding-troughs for calves. The feeding-boxes are made in the form of trays, with partitions between them. Water comes in by a pipe, to cistern _a_. This cistern is regulated by a cock and ball, and the water flows by dotted lines, _o o o_, to the boxes; each box being connected by lead pipes well secured from frost, so that, if desired, each animal can be watered without leaving the stall, or water can be kept constantly before it. A scuttle, through which sweepings and refuse may be put into the cellar, is seen at _f_. _g_ is a bin receiving cut hay from the third story, or hay-room, _h h h h h h_, bins for grain-feed. _i_ is a tunnel to conduct manure or muck from the hay-floor to the cellar. _j j_, sliding-doors on wheels. The cows all face toward the open area in the centre. This cow-room may be furnished with a thermometer, clock, etc., and should always be well ventilated by sliding windows, which at the same time admit the light. The next cut is a transverse section of the same cow-room; _a_ being a walk behind the cows, five feet wide; _b_, dung-pit; _c_, cattle-stand; _d_, feeding-trough, with a bottom on a level with the platform where the cattle stand; _k_, open area, forty-three feet, by fifty-six. [Illustration: TRANSVERSE SECTION.] The story above the cow-room--as represented in the next cut--is one hundred feet by forty-two; the bays for hay, ten on each side, being ten feet front and fifteen feet deep; and the open space, _p_, for the entrance of wagons, carts, etc., twelve feet wide. _b_, hay-scales. _c_, scale beam. _m m m m m m_, ladders reaching almost to the roof. _l l l_, etc., scuttle-holes for sending vegetables directly to the bins, _l l l_, etc., below. _a a b b_, rooms on the corners for storage. _d_, scuttles; four of which are used for straw, one for cut hay, and one for muck for the cellar. _n_ and the other small squares are eighteen-feet posts. _f_, passage to the tool-house, a room one hundred feet long by eighteen wide. _o_, stairs leading to the scaffold in the roof of the tool-house. _i i_, benches. _g_, floor. _h_, boxes for hoes, shovels, spades, picks, iron bars, old iron, etc. _j j j_, bins for fruit. _k_, scuttles to put apples into wagons, etc., in the shed below. One side of this tool-house may be used for plows and large implements, hay-rigging, harness, etc. Proper ventilation of the cellar and the cow-room avoids the objection that the hay is liable to injury from noxious gases. [Illustration: ROOM OVER THE COW-ROOM.] The excellent manure-cellar beneath this barn extends only under the cow-room. It has a drive-way through doors on each side. No barn-cellar should be kept shut up tight, even in cold weather. The gases are constantly escaping from the manure, unless held by absorbents, which are liable not only to affect the health of the stock, but also to injure the quality of the hay. To prevent this, while securing the important advantages of a manure-cellar, the barn may be furnished with good-sized ventilators on the top, for every twenty-five feet of its length, and with wooden tubes leading from the cellar to the top. There should also be windows on different sides of the cellar to admit the free circulation of air. With these precautions, together with the use of absorbents in the shape of loam and muck, there will be no danger of rotting the timbers of the barn, or of risking the health of the cattle or the quality of the hay. The temperature at which the cow-room should be kept is somewhere from fifty to sixty degrees, Fahrenheit. The practice and the opinions of successful dairymen differ somewhat on this point. Too great heat would affect the health and appetite of the herd; while too low a temperature is equally objectionable, for various reasons. The most economical plan for room in tying cattle in their stalls, is to fasten the rope or chain, whichever is used--the wooden stanchion, or stanchel, as it is called, to open and shut, enclosing the animal by the neck, being objectionable--into a ring, which is secured by a strong staple into a post. This prevents the cattle from interfering with each other, while a partition effectually prevents any contact from the animals on each side of it, in the separate stalls. There is no greater benefit for cattle, after coming into winter-quarters, than a systematic regularity in every thing pertaining to them. Every animal should have its own particular stall in the stable, where it should always be kept. The cattle should be fed and watered at certain fixed hours of the day, as near as may be. If let out of the stables for water, unless the weather is very pleasant--when they may be permitted to lie out for a short time--they should be immediately put back, and not allowed to range about with the outside cattle. They are more quiet and contented in their stables than elsewhere, and waste less food than if permitted to run out; besides being in every way more comfortable, if properly bedded and attended to, as every one will find upon trial. The habit which many farmers have, of turning their cattle out of the stables in the morning, in all weathers--letting them range about in a cold yard, hooking and annoying each other--is of no possible benefit, unless it be to rid them of the trouble of cleaning the stables, which pays more than twice its cost in the saving of manure. The outside cattle, which occupy the yard--if there are any--are all the better that the stabled ones do not interfere with them. They become habituated to their own quarters, as do the others, and all are better for being, respectively, in their proper places. MILKING. The manner of milking exerts a more powerful and lasting influence on the productiveness of the cow than most farmers are aware. That a slow and careless milker soon dries up the best of cows, every practical farmer and dairyman knows; but a careful examination of the beautiful structure of the udder will serve further to explain the proper mode of milking, in order to obtain and keep up the largest yield. The udder of a cow consists of four glands, disconnected from each other, but all contained within one bag or cellular membrane; and these glands are uniform in structure. Each gland consists of three parts: the _glandular_, or secreting part, _tubular_ or conducting part, and the _teats_, or receptacle, or receiving part. The glandular forms by far the largest portion of the udder. It appears to the naked eye composed of a mass of yellowish grains; but under the microscope these grains are found to consist entirely of minute blood-vessels forming a compact plexus, or fold. These vessels secrete the milk from the blood. The milk is abstracted from the blood in the glandular part; the tubes receive and deposit it in the reservoir, or receptacle; and the sphincter at the end of the teat retains it there until it is wanted for use. This must not be understood, however, as asserting that all the milk drawn from the udder at one milking is contained in the receptacle. The milk, as it is secreted, is conveyed to the receptacle, and when that is full, the larger tubes begin to be filled, and next the smaller ones, until the whole become gorged. When this takes place, the secretion of the milk ceases, and absorption of the thinner or more watery part commences. Now, as this absorption takes place more readily in the smaller or more distant tubes, it is invariably found that the milk from these, which comes last into the receptacle, is much thicker and richer than what was first drawn off. This milk has been significantly styled afterings, or strippings; and should this gorged state of the tubes be permitted to continue beyond a certain time, serious mischief will sometimes occur; the milk becomes too thick to flow through the tubes, and soon produces, first irritation, then inflammation, and lastly suppuration, and the function of the gland is materially impaired or altogether destroyed. Hence the great importance of emptying these smaller tubes regularly and thoroughly, not merely to prevent the occurrence of disease, but actually to increase the quantity of milk; for, so long as the smaller tubes are kept free, milk is constantly forming; but whenever, as has already been mentioned, they become gorged, the secretion of milk ceases until they are emptied. The cow herself has no power over the sphincter at the end of her teat, so as to open it, and relieve the overcharged udder; neither has she any power of retaining the milk collected in the reservoirs when the spasm of the sphincter is overcome. Thus is seen the necessity of drawing away the last drop of milk at every milking; and the better milker the cow, the more necessary this is. What has been said demonstrates, also, the impropriety of holding the milk in cows until the udder is distended much beyond its ordinary size, for the sake of showing its capacity for holding milk--a device to which many dealers in cows resort. Thus much of the internal structure of the udder. Its external form requires attention, because it indicates different properties. Its form should be spheroidal, large, giving an idea of capaciousness; the bag should have a soft, fine skin, and the hind part upward toward the tail be loose and elastic. There should be fine, long hairs scattered plentifully over the surface, to keep it warm. The teats should not seem to be contracted, or funnel-shaped, at the inset with the bag. In the former state, teats are very apt to become corded, or spindled; and in the latter, too much milk will constantly be pressing on the lower tubes, or receptacle. They should drop naturally from the lower parts of the bag, being neither too short, small, or dumpy, or long, flabby, and thick, but, perhaps, about three inches in length, and so thick as just to fill the hand. They should hang as if all the quarters of the udder were equal in size, the front quarters projecting a little forward, and the hind ones a little more dependent. Each quarter should contain about equal quantities of milk; though, in the belief of some, the hind quarters contain rather the most. Largely developed milk-veins--as the subcutaneous veins along the under part of the abdomen are commonly called--are regarded as a source of milk. This is a popular error, for the milk-vein has no connection with the udder; yet, although the office of these is to convey the blood from the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal vein, yet a large milk-vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system--one favorable to secretions generally, and to that of the milk among the rest. Milking is performed in two ways, stripping and handling. _Stripping_ consists in seizing the teat firmly near the root between the face of the thumb and the side of the fore-finger, the length of the teat passing through the other fingers, and in milking the hand passes down the entire length of the teat, causing the milk to flow out of its point in a forcible stream. The action is renewed by again quickly elevating the hand to the root of the teat. Both hands are employed at the operation, each having hold of a different teat, and being moved alternately. The two nearest teats are commonly first milked, and then the two farthest. _Handling_ is done by grasping the teat at its root with the fore-finger like a hoop, assisted by the thumb, which lies horizontally over the fore-finger, the rest being also seized by the other fingers. Milk is drawn by pressing upon the entire length of the teat in alternate jerks with the entire palm of the hand. Both hands being thus employed, are made to press alternately, but so quickly following each other that the alternate streams of milk sound to the ear like one forcible, continued stream. This continued stream is also produced by stripping. Stripping, then, is performed by pressing and passing certain fingers along the teat; handling, by the whole hand doubled, or fist, pressing the teat steadily at one place. Hence the origin of both names. [Illustration: THE PREFERABLE METHOD.] Of these two modes, handling is the preferable, since it is the more natural method--imitating, as it does, the suckling of the calf. When a calf takes a teat into its mouth, it makes the tongue and palate by which it seizes it, play upon the teat by alternate pressures or pulsations, while retaining the teat in the same position. It is thus obvious that handling is somewhat like sucking, whereas stripping is not at all like it. It is said that stripping is good for agitating the udder, the agitation of which is conducive to the withdrawal of a large quantity of milk; but there is nothing to prevent the agitation of the udder as much as the dairymaid pleases, while holding in the other mode. Indeed, a more constant vibration could be kept up in that way by the vibrations of the arms than by stripping. Stripping, by using an unconstrained pressure on two sides of the teat, is much more apt to press it unequally, than by grasping the whole teat in the palm of the hand; while the friction occasioned by passing the finger and thumb firmly over the outside of the teat, is more likely to cause heat and irritation in it than a steady and full grasp of the entire hand. To show that this friction causes an unpleasant feeling even to the dairymaid, she is obliged to lubricate the teat frequently with milk, and to wet it at first with water; whereas the other mode requires no such expedients. And as a further proof that stripping is a mode of milking which may give pain to the cow, it cannot be employed, when the teats are chapped, with so much ease to the cow as handling. The first requisite in the person that milks is, of course, the utmost _cleanliness_. Without this, the milk is unendurable. The udder should, therefore, be carefully cleaned before the milking commences. Milking should be done _fast_, to draw away the milk as quickly as possible, and it should be continued as long as there is a drop of milk to bring away. This is an issue which cannot be attended to in too particular a manner. If any milk is left, it is re-absorbed into the system, or else becomes caked, and diminishes the tendency to secrete a full quantity afterward. Milking as dry as possible is especially necessary with young cows with their first calf; as the mode of milking and the length of time to which they can be made to hold out, will have very much to do with their milking qualities as long as they live. Old milk left in the receptacle of the teat soon changes into a curdy state, and the caseous matter not being at once removed by the next milking, is apt to irritate the lining membrane of the teat during the operation, especially when the teat is forcibly rubbed down between the finger and thumb in stripping. The consequence of this repeated irritation is the thickening of the lining membrane, which at length becomes so hardened as to close up the orifice at the end of the teat. The hardened membrane may be easily felt from the outside of the teat, when the teat is said to be _corded_. After this the teat becomes _deaf_, as it is called, and no more milk can afterward be drawn from the quarter of the udder to which the corded teat is attached. The milking-pail is of various forms and of various materials. The Dutch use brass ones, which are brilliantly scoured every time they are in use. Tin pitchers are used in some places, while pails of wood in cooper-work are employed in others. A pail of oak, having thin staves bound together by bright iron hoops, with a handle formed by a stave projecting upward, is convenient for the purpose, and may be kept clean and sweet. One nine inches in diameter at the bottom, eleven inches at the top, and ten inches deep, with an upright handle or leg of five inches, has a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends; and a sufficient height, when standing on the edge of its bottom on the ground, to allow the dairymaid to grasp it firmly with her knees while sitting on a small three-legged stool. Of course, such a pail cannot be milked full; but it should be large enough to contain all the milk which a single cow can give at a milking; because it is undesirable to rise from a cow before the milking is finished, or to exchange one dish for another while the milking is in progress. The cow being a sensitive and capricious creature, is, oftentimes so easily offended that if the maid rise from her before the milk is all withdrawn, the chances are that she will not again stand quietly at that milking; or, if the vessel used in milking is taken away and another substituted in its place, before the milking is finished, the probability is that she will _hold_ her milk--that is, not allow it to flow. This is a curious property which cows possess, of holding up or keeping back their milk. How it is effected has never been satisfactorily ascertained; but there is no doubt of the fact that when a cow becomes irritated, or frightened from any cause, she can withhold her milk. Of course, all cows are not affected in the same degree; but, as a proof how sensitive cows generally are, it may be mentioned that very few will be milked so freely by a stranger the first time, as by one to whom they have been accustomed. There is one side of a cow which is usually called the _milking side_--that is the cow's left side--because, somehow custom has established the practice of milking her from that side. It may have been adopted for two reasons: one, because we are accustomed to approach all the larger domesticated animals by what we call the _near side_--that is, the animal's left side--as being the most convenient one for ourselves; and the other reason may have been, that, as most people are right-handed, and the common use of the right hand has made it the stronger, it is most conveniently employed in milking the hinder teats of the cow, which are often most difficult to reach on account of the position of the hind legs and the length of the hinder teats, or of the breadth of the hinder part of the udder. The near side is most commonly used in this country and in Scotland; but in many parts of England the other side is preferred. Whichever side is selected, that should uniformly be used, as cows are very sensitive to changes. In Scotland it is a rare thing to see a cow milked by any other person than a woman, though men are very commonly employed at it in this country and in England. One never sees a man milking a cow without being impressed with the idea that he is usurping an office which does not become him; and the same thought seems to be conveyed in the terms usually applied to the person connected with cows--a dairy-_maid_ implying one who milks cows, as well as performs the other duties connected with the dairy--a dairy-_man_ meaning one who owns a dairy. There can be but little question that the charge of this branch of the dairy should generally be entrusted to women. They are more gentle and winning than men. The same person should milk the same cow regularly, and not change from one to another, unless there are special reasons for it. Cows are easily rendered troublesome on being milked; and the kicks and knocks which they usually receive for their restlessness, only render them more fretful. If they cannot be overcome by kindness, thumps will never make them better. The truth is, restless habits are continued in them by the treatment which they receive at first, when, most probably, they have been dragooned into submission. Their teats are tender at first; but an unfeeling, horny hand tugs at them at stripping, as if the animal had been accustomed to the operation for years. Can the creature be otherwise than uneasy? And how can she escape the wincing but by flinging out her heels?--Then hopples are placed on the hind fetlocks, to keep her heels down. The tail must then be held by some one, while the milking is going on; or the hair of its tuft be converted into a double cord, to tie the tail to the animal's leg. Add to this the many threats and scoldings uttered by the milker, and one gets a not very exaggerated impression of the "breaking-in." Some cows, no doubt, are very unaccomodating and provoking; but, nevertheless, nothing but a rational course toward them, administered with gentleness, will ever render them less so. There are cows which are troublesome to milk for a few times after calving, that become quite quiet for the remainder of the season; others will kick pertinaciously at the first milking. In this last case the safest plan--instead of hoppling, which only irritates--is for the dairymaid to thrust her head against the flank of the cow, and while standing on her feet, stretch her hands forward, get hold of the teats the best way she can, and send the milk on the ground; and in this position it is out of the power of the cow to hurt her. These ebullitions of feeling at the first milking after calving, arise either from feeling pain in a tender state of the teat, most probably from inflammation in the lining membrane of the receptacle; or they may arise from titillation of the skin of the udder and teat, which becomes the more sensible to the affection from a heat which is wearing off. At the age of two or three years the milking glands have not become fully developed, and their largest development will depend very greatly upon the management after the first calf. Cows should have, therefore, the most milk-producing food; be treated with constant gentleness; never struck, or spoken harshly to, but coaxed and caressed; and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, they will grow up gentle and quiet. The hundredth had better be fatted and sent to the butcher. Harshness is worse than useless. Be the cause of irritation what it may, one thing is certain, that gentle discipline will overcome the most turbulent temper. Nothing does so much to dry a cow up, especially a young cow, as the senseless treatment to which she is too often subjected. The longer the young cow, with her first and second calf, is made to hold out, the more surely will this habit be fixed upon her. Stop milking her four months before the next calf, and it will be difficult to make her hold out to within four or six weeks of the time of calving afterward. Induce her, if possible, by moist and succulent food, and by careful milking, to hold out even up to the time of calving, if you desire to milk her so long, and this habit will be likely to be fixed upon her for life. But do not expect to obtain the full yield of a cow the first year after calving. Some of the very best cows are slow to develop their best qualities; and no cow reaches her prime till the age of five or six years. The extreme importance of care and attention to these points cannot be overestimated. The wild cows grazing on the plains of South America, are said to give not more than three or four quarts a day at the height of the flow; and many an owner of large herds in Texas, it is said, has too little milk for family use, and sometimes receives his supply of butter from the New York market. There is, therefore, a constant tendency in milch cows to dry up; and it must be guarded against with special care, till the habit of yielding a large quantity, and yielding it long, becomes fixed in the young animal, when, with proper care, it may easily be kept up. Cows, independently of their power to retain their milk in the udder, afford different degrees of pleasure in milking them, even in the quietest mood. Some yield their milk in a copious flow, with the gentlest handling that can be given them; others require great exertion to draw the milk from them even in streams no larger than a thread. The udder of the former will be found to have a soft skin and short teats; that of the latter will have a thick skin, with long rough teats. The one feels like velvet; the other is no more pleasant to the touch than untanned leather. To induce quiet and persuade the animal to give down her milk freely, it is better that she should be fed at milking-time with cut feed, or roots, placed within her easy reach. If gentle and mild treatment is observed and persevered in, the operation of milking, as a general thing, appears to be a pleasure to the animal, as it undoubtedly is; but, if an opposite course is pursued--if at every restless movement, caused, perhaps, by pressing a sore teat, the animal is harshly spoken to--she will be likely to learn to kick as a habit, and it will be difficult to overcome it ever afterward. Whatever may be the practice on other occasions, there can be no doubt that, for some weeks after calving, and in the height of the flow, cows ought, if possible, to be milked regularly three times a day--at early morning, noon, and night. Every practical dairyman knows that cows thus milked give a larger quantity of milk than if milked only twice, though it may not be quite so rich; and in young cows, no doubt, it has a tendency to promote the development of the udder and milk-veins. A frequent milking stimulates an increased secretion, therefore, and ought never to be neglected in the milk-dairy, either in the case of young cows, or very large milkers, at the height of the flow, which will commonly be for two or three months after calving. There being a great difference in the quality as well as in the quantity of the milk of different cows, no dairyman should neglect to test the milk of each new addition to his dairy stock, whether it be an animal of his own raising or one brought from abroad. A lactometer--or instrument for testing the comparative richness of different species of milk--is very convenient for this purpose; but any one can set the milk of each cow separately at first, and give it a thorough trial, when the difference will be found to be great. Economy will dictate that the cows least to the purpose should be disposed of, and their places supplied with better ones. THE RAISING OF CALVES. It has been found in practice that calves properly bred and raised on the farm have a far greater intrinsic value for that farm, other things being equal, than any that can be procured elsewhere; while on the manner in which they are raised will depend much of their future usefulness and profit. These considerations should have their proper weight in deciding whether a promising calf from a good cow and bull shall be kept, or sold to the butcher. But, rather than raise a calf at hap-hazard, and simply because its dam was celebrated as a milker, the judicious farmer will prefer to judge of the peculiar characteristics of the animal itself. This will often save the great and useless outlay which has sometimes been incurred in raising calves for dairy purposes, which a more careful examination would have rejected as unpromising. [Illustration: MATERNAL AFFECTION.] The method of judging stock which has been recommended in the previous pages is of practical utility here, and it is safer to rely upon it to some extent, particularly when other appearances concur, than to go on blindly. The milk-mirror on the calf is, indeed, small, but no smaller in proportion to its size than that of the cow; while its shape and form can generally be distinctly seen, particularly at the end of ten or twelve weeks. The development of the udder, and other peculiarities, will give some indication of the future capacities of the animal, and these should be carefully studied. If we except the manure of young stock, the calf is the first product of the cow, and as such demands our attention, whether it is to be raised or hurried off to the shambles. The practice adopted in raising calves differs widely in different sections of the country, being governed very much by local circumstances, as the vicinity of a milk-market, the value of milk for the dairy, the object of breeding, whether mainly for beef, for work, or for the dairy, etc.; but, in general, it may be said, that, within the range of thirty or forty miles of good veal-markets, which large towns furnish, comparatively few are raised at all. Most of them are fattened and sold at ages varying from three to eight or ten weeks; and in milk-dairies still nearer large towns and cities they are often hurried off at one or two days, or, at most, a week old. In both of these cases, as long as the calf is kept it is generally allowed to suck the cow, and, as the treatment is very simple, there is nothing which particularly calls for remark, unless it be to condemn the practice entirely, upon the ground that there is a more profitable way of fattening calves for the butcher, and to say that allowing the calf to suck the cow at all is objectionable on the score of economy, except in cases where it is rendered necessary by the hard and swollen condition of the udder. If the calf is so soon to be taken away, it is better that the cow should not be suffered to become attached to it at all: since she is inclined to withhold her milk when it is removed, and thus a loss is sustained. The farmer will be governed by the question of profit, whatever course it is decided to adopt. In raising blood-stock, however, or in raising beef cattle, without any regard to economy of milk, the system of suckling the calves, or letting them run with the cow, may and will be adopted, since it is usually attended with somewhat less labor. The other course, which is regarded as the best where the calf is to be raised for the dairy, is to bring it up by hand. This is almost universally done in all countries where the raising of dairy cows is best understood--in Switzerland, Holland, some parts of Germany, and England. It requires rather more care, on the whole; but it is decidedly preferable, since the calves cost less, as the food can be easily modified, and the growth is not checked, as is usually the case when the calf is taken off from the cow. Allusion is here made, of course, to sections where the milk of the cow is of some account for the dairy, and where it is too valuable to be devoted entirely to nourishing the calf. In this case, as soon as the calf is dropped the cow is allowed to lick off the slimy moisture till it is dry, which she will generally do from instinct, or, if not, a slight sprinkling of salt over the body of the calf will immediately tempt her. The calf is left to suck once or twice, which it will do as soon as it is able to stand. It should, in all cases, be permitted to have the first milk which comes from the cow, which is of a turbid, yellowish color, unfit for any of the purposes of the dairy, but somewhat purgative and medicinal, and admirably and wisely designed by Nature to free the bowels and intestines of the new-born animal from the mucous, excrementitious matter always existing in it after birth. Too much of this new milk may, however, be hurtful even to the new-born calf, while it should never be given at all to older calves. The best course would seem to be--and such is in accordance with the experience of the most successful stock-raisers--to milk the cow dry immediately after the calf has sucked once, especially if the udder is painfully distended, which is often the case, and to leave the calf with the cow during one day, and after that to feed it by putting the fingers into its mouth, and gently bringing its muzzle down to the milk in a pail or trough when it will imbibe in sucking the fingers. No great difficulty will be experienced in teaching the calf to drink when taken so young, though some take to it much more readily than others. What the calf does not need should be given to the cow. Some, however, prefer to milk immediately after calving; and, if the udder is overloaded, this may be the best course, though the better practice appears to be, to leave the cow as quietly to herself as possible for a few hours. The less she is disturbed, as a general thing, the better. The after-birth should be taken from her immediately after it is dropped. It is customary to give the cow, as soon as convenient after calving, some warm and stimulating drink--a little meal stirred into warm water, with a part of the first milk which comes from her, seasoned with a little salt. In many cases the calf is taken from the cow immediately; and before she has seen it, to a warm, dry pen out of her sight, and there rubbed till it is thoroughly dry; and then, when able to stand, fed with the new milk from the cow, which it should have three or four times a day, regularly, for the first fortnight, whatever course it is proposed to adopt afterwards. It is of the greatest importance to give the young calf a thrifty start. The milk, unless coming directly from the cow, should be warmed. Some object to removing the calf from the cow in this way, on the ground of its apparent cruelty. But the objection to letting the calf suck the cow for several days, as they do, or indeed of leaving it with the cow for any length of time, is, that she invariably becomes attached to it, and frets and withholds her milk when it is at last taken from her. She probably suffers much more, after this attachment is once formed, at the removal of the object of it, than she does at its being taken at first out of her sight. The cow's memory is far more retentive than many suppose; and the loss and injury sustained by removing the calf after it has been allowed to suck her for a longer or shorter period are never known exactly, because it is not usually known how much milk the calf takes; but it is, without doubt, very considerable. If the udder is all right, there seems to be no good reason for leaving the calf with the cow for two or three days, if it is then to be taken away. The practice in Holland is to remove the calf from its mother even before it has been licked, and to take it into a corner of the barn, or into another building, out of the cow's sight and hearing, put it on soft, dry straw, and rub it dry with some hay or straw, when its tongue and gums are slightly rubbed with salt, and the mucus and saliva removed from the nostrils and lips. After this has been done, the calf is made to drink the milk first taken as it comes from the mother. It is slightly diluted with water, if taken last from the udder; but, if the first of the milking, it is given just as it is. The calf is taught to drink in the same manner as in this country, by putting the fingers in its mouth, and bringing it down to the milk, and it soon gets so as to drink unaided. It is fed, at first, from four to six times a day, or even oftener; but soon only three times, at regular intervals. Its food for two or three weeks is clear milk, as it comes warm and fresh from the cow. This is never omitted, as the milk during most of that time possesses certain qualities which are necessary to the calf, and which cannot be effectually supplied by any other food. In the third or fourth week the milk is skimmed, but warmed to the degree of fresh milk; though, as the calf grows a little older, the milk is given cold, while less care is taken to give it the milk of its own mother, that of other cows now answering equally well. In some places, calves are fed on buttermilk at the age of two weeks and after; but the change from new milk, fresh from the cow, is made gradually, some sweet skimmed milk and warm water being first added to it. At three weeks old, or thereabouts, the calf will begin to eat a little sweet, fine hay, and potatoes cut fine, and it very soon becomes accustomed to this food. Many now begin to give linseed-meal mixed into hot water, to which is added some skim-milk or buttermilk; and others use a little bran cooked in hay-tea, made by chopping the hay fine and pouring on boiling-hot water, which is allowed to stand awhile on it. An egg is frequently broken into such a mixture. Others still take pains at this age to have fresh linseed-cake, broken into pieces of the size of a pigeon's egg; putting one of these into the mouth after the meal of milk has been finished, and when it is eager to suck at any thing in its way. It will very soon learn to eat linseed-meal. A little sweet clover is put in its way at the age of about three weeks, and it will soon begin to eat that also. In this manner the feeding is continued from the fourth to the seventh week, the quantity of solid food being gradually increased. In the sixth or seventh week the milk is by degrees withheld, and water or buttermilk used instead; and soon after this, green food may be safely given, increasing it gradually with the hay to the age of ten or twelve weeks, when it will do to put them upon grass alone, if the season is favorable. A lot as near the house as possible, where they can be easily looked after and frequently visited, is the best. Calves should be gradually accustomed to all changes; and even after having been turned out to pasture, they ought to be put under shelter if the weather is not dry and warm. The want of care and attention relative to these little details will be apparent sooner or later; while, if the farmer gives his personal attention to these matters, he will be fully paid in the rapid growth of his calves. It is especially necessary to see that the troughs from which they are fed, if troughs are used, are kept clean and sweet. But there are some--even among intelligent farmers--who make a practice of turning their calves out to pasture at the tender age of two or three weeks--and that, too, when they have sucked the cow up to that time--and allow them nothing in the shape of milk and tender care. This, certainly, is the poorest possible economy, to say nothing of the manifest cruelty of such treatment. The growth of the calf is checked, and the system receives a shock from so sudden a change, from which it cannot soon recover. The careful Dutch breeders bring the calves either skimmed milk or buttermilk to drink several times a day after they are turned to grass, which is not till the age of ten or twelve weeks; and, if the weather is chilly, the milk is warmed for them. They put a trough generally under a covering, to which the calves may come and drink at regular times. Thus, they are kept tame and docile. In the raising of calves, through all stages of their growth, great care should be taken neither to starve nor to over-feed. A calf should never be surfeited, and never be fed so highly that it cannot be fed more highly as it advances. The most important part is to keep it growing thriftily without getting too fat, if it is to be raised for the dairy. The calves in the dairy districts of Scotland are fed on the milk, with seldom any admixture; and they are not permitted to suck their dams, but are taught to drink milk by the hand from a dish. They are generally fed on milk only for the first four, five, or six weeks, and are then allowed from two to two and a half quarts of new milk each meal, twice in the twenty-four hours. Some never give them any other food when young except milk, lessening the quantity when the calf begins to eat grass or other food, which it generally does when about five weeks old, if grass can be had; and withdrawing it entirely about the seventh or eighth week of the calf's age. But, if the calf is reared in winter, or early in spring, before the grass rises, it must be supplied with at least some milk until it is eight or nine weeks old, as a calf will not so soon learn to eat hay or straw, nor fare so well on them alone as it will on pasture. Some feed their calves reared for stock partly with meal mixed in the milk after the third or fourth week. Others introduce gradually some new whey into the milk, first mixed with meal; and, when the calf gets older, they withdraw the milk, and feed it on whey and porridge. Hay-tea, juices of peas and beans, or pea or bean-straw, linseed beaten into powder, treacle, etc., have all been sometimes used to advantage in feeding calves; but milk, when it can be spared, is, in the judgment of the Scotch breeders, by far their most natural food. In Galloway, and other pastoral districts, where the calves are allowed to suck, the people are so much wedded to their own customs as to argue that suckling is much more nutritious to the calves than any other mode of feeding. That it induces a greater secretion of saliva, which, by promoting digestion, accelerates the growth and fattening of the young animal, cannot be doubted; but the secretion of that fluid may likewise be promoted by placing an artificial teat in the mouth of the calf, and giving it the milk slowly, and at the natural temperature. In the dairy districts of Scotland, the dairymaid puts one of her fingers into the mouth of the calf when it is fed, which serves the purpose of a teat, and will have nearly the same effect as the natural teat in inducing the secretion of saliva. If that, or an artificial teat of leather, be used, and the milk be given slowly before it is cold, the secretion of saliva may be promoted to all the extent that can be necessary; besides, secretion is not confined to the mere period of eating, but, as in the human body, the saliva is formed and part of it swallowed at all times. As part of the saliva is sometimes seen dropping from the mouths of the calves, it might be advisable not only to give them an artificial teat when fed, but to place, as is frequently done, a lump of chalk before them to lick, thus leading them to swallow the saliva. The chalk would so far supply the want of salt, of which cattle are often so improperly deprived, and it would also promote the formation of saliva. Indeed, calves are very much disposed to lick and suck every thing which comes within their reach, which seems to be the way in which Nature teaches them to supply their stomachs with saliva. [Illustration: FROLICKSOME.] But though sucking their dams may be most advantageous in that respect, yet it has also some disadvantages. The cow is always more injured than the calf is benefited by that mode of feeding. She becomes so fond of the calf that she does not, for a long time after, yield her milk freely to the dairyman. The calf does not when young draw off the milk completely, and when it is taken off by the hand, the cow withholds a part of her milk, and, whenever a cow's udder is not completely emptied every time she is milked, the lactic secretion--as before stated--is thereby diminished. Feeding of calves by hand is also, in various respects, advantageous. Instead of depending on the uncertain, or perhaps precarious supply of the dam, which may be more at first than the young animal can consume or digest, and at other times too little for its supply, its food can, by hand-feeding, be regulated to suit the age, appetite, and the purposes for which the calf is intended; other admixtures or substitutes can be introduced into the milk, and the quantity gradually increased or withdrawn at pleasure. This is highly necessary when the calves are reared for stock. The milk is in that case diminished, and other food introduced so gradually that the stomach of the young animal is not injured as it is when the food is too suddenly changed. And, in the case of feeding calves for the butcher, the quantity of milk is not limited to that of the dam--for no cow will allow a stranger-calf to suck her--but it can be increased, or the richest or poorest parts of the milk given at pleasure. Such are, substantially, the views upon this subject which are entertained by the most judicious farmers in the first dairy districts of Scotland. In those districts--where, probably, the feeding and management of calves are as well and as judiciously conducted as in any other part of Great Britain--the farmers' wives and daughters, or the female domestics, have the principal charge of young calves; and they are, doubtless, much better calculated for this duty than men, since they are more inclined to be gentle and patient. The utmost gentleness--as has been already remarked, in another connection--should always be observed in the treatment of all stock; but especially of milch cows, and calves designed for the dairy. Persevering kindness and patience, will, almost invariably, overcome the most obstinate natures; while rough and ungentle handling will be repaid in a quiet kind of way, perhaps, by withholding the milk, which will always have a tendency to dry up the cow; or, what is nearly as bad, by kicking and other modes of revenge, which often contribute to the personal discomfort of the milker. The disposition of the cow is greatly modified, if not, indeed, wholly formed, by her treatment while young; and therefore it is best to handle calves as much as possible, and make pets of them, lead them with a halter, and caress them in various ways. Calves managed in this way will always be docile, and suffer themselves to be approached and handled, both in the pasture and in the barn. With respect to the use of hay-tea--often used in this country, but more common abroad, where greater care and attention are usually bestowed upon the details of breeding--Youatt says: "At the end of three or four days, or perhaps a week, or near a fortnight, after a calf has been dropped, and the first passages have been cleansed by allowing it to drink as much of the cow's milk as it feels inclined for, let the quantity usually allotted for a meal be mixed, consisting, for the first week, of three parts of milk and one part of hay-tea. _The only nourishing infusion of hay is that which is made from the best and sweetest hay, cut by a chaff-cutter into pieces about two inches long_, and put into an earthen vessel; over this, boiling water should be poured, and the whole allowed to stand for two hours, during which time it ought to be kept carefully closed. After the first week, the proportions of milk and hay-tea may be equal; then composed of two-thirds of hay-tea and one of milk; and at length, one-fourth part of milk will be sufficient. This food should be given to the calf in a lukewarm state _at least three, if not four times a day, in quantities averaging three quarts at a meal_, but gradually increasing to four quarts as the calf grows older. Toward the end of the second month, beside the usual quantity given at each meal--composed of three parts of the infusion and one of milk--a small wisp or bundle of hay is to be laid before the calf, which will gradually come to eat it; but, if the weather is favorable, as in the month of May, the beast may be turned out to graze in a fine, sweet pasture, well sheltered from the wind and sun. This diet may be continued until toward the latter end of the third month, when, if the calf grazes heartily, each meal may be reduced to less than a quart of milk, with hay-water; or skimmed milk, or fresh buttermilk, may be substituted for new milk. At the expiration of the third month, the animal will hardly require to be fed by hand; though, if this should still be necessary, one quart of the infusion given daily--which, during the summer, need not be warmed--will suffice." The hay-tea should be made fresh every two days, as it soon loses its nutritious quality. This and other preparations are given, not because they are better than milk,--than which nothing is better adapted to fatten a calf, or promote its growth,--but simply to economize by providing the simplest and cheapest substitutes. Experience shows that the first two or three calves are smaller than those which follow; and hence, unless they are pure-bred, and to be kept for the blood, they are not generally thought to be so desirable to raise for the dairy as the third or fourth, and those that come after, up to the age of nine or ten years. Opinions upon this point, however, differ. According to the comparative experiments of a German agriculturist, cows which as calves had been allowed to suck their dams from two to four weeks, brought calves which weighed only from thirty-five to forty-eight pounds; while others, which as calves had been allowed to suck from five to eight weeks, brought calves which weighed from sixty to eighty pounds. It is difficult to see how there can be so great a difference, if, indeed, there be any; but it may be worthy of careful observation and experiment, and as such it is stated here. The increased size of the calf would be due to the increased size to which the cow would attain; and if as a calf she were allowed to run in the pasture with her dam for four or five months, taking all the milk she wanted, she would doubtless be kept growing on in a thriving condition. But taking a calf from the cow at four or even eight weeks must check its growth to some extent; and this may be avoided by feeding liberally, and bringing up by hand. After the calf is fully weaned, there is nothing very peculiar in the general management. A young animal will require for the first few months--say up to the age of six months--an average of five or six pounds daily of good hay, or its equivalent. At the age of six months, it will require from four and a half to five pounds; and at the end of the year, from three and a half or four pounds of good hay, or its equivalent, for every one hundred pounds of its live weight; or, in other words, about three and a half or four per cent. of its live weight. At two years old, it will require three and a half, and some months later, three per cent. of its live weight daily in good hay, or its equivalent. Indian-corn fodder, either green or cured, forms an excellent and wholesome food at this age. The heifer should not be pampered, nor yet poorly fed or half starved, so as to receive a check in her growth. An abundant supply of good healthy dairy food and milk will do all that is necessary up to the time of her having her first calf--which should not ordinarily be till the age of three years, though some choose to allow them to come in at two, or a little over, on the ground that it early stimulates the secretion of milk, and that this will increase the milking propensity through life. This is undoubtedly the case, as a general rule; but greater injury is at the same time done by checking the growth, unless the heifer has been fed up to large size and full development from the start--in which case she may perhaps take the bull at fifteen or eighteen months without injury. Even if a heifer comes in at two years, it is generally deemed desirable to let her run barren for the following year, which will promote her growth and more perfect development. The feeding which young stock often get is not such as is calculated to make good-sized or valuable cattle of them. They are often fed on the poorest of hay or straw through the winter, not infrequently left exposed to cold, unprotected and unhoused, and thus stinted in their growth. This is, surely, the very worst economy, or rather it is no economy at all. Properly viewed, it is an extravagant wastefulness which no farmer can afford. No animal develops its good points under such treatment; and if the starving system is to be followed at all, it had better be after the age of two or three years, when the animal's constitution has attained the strength and vigor which may, possibly, enable it to resist ill treatment. To raise up first-rate milkers, it is absolutely necessary to feed on dairy food even when they are young. No matter how fine the breed is, if the calf is raised on poor, short feed, it will never be so good a milker as if raised on better keeping; and hence, in dairy districts, where calves are raised at all, they ought to be allowed the best pasture during the summer, and good, sweet and wholesome food during the winter. POINTS OF FAT CATTLE. Whatever theoretical objections may be raised against over-fed cattle, and great as may be the attempts to disparage the mountains of fat,--as highly-fed cattle are sometimes designated,--there is no doubt of the practical fact, that the best butcher cannot sell any thing but the best fatted beef; and of whatever age, size, or shape a half-fatted ox may be, he is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, a well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound than one imperfectly fed, and the parts selected as the primest beef are precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits of fat. The rump, the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite cuts,--which always command from twenty to twenty-five per cent. more than any other part of the ox,--are just those parts on which the largest quantities of fat are found; so that, instead of the taste and fashion of the age being against the excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically, exactly the reverse. Where there is the most fat, there is the best lean; where there is the greatest amount of muscle, without its share of fat, that part is accounted inferior, and is used for a different purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is a condition of muscle, necessary to its utility as food,--a source of luxury to the rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing a nourishing and healthy diet for their families. Fattening is a secretive power which grazing animals possess, enabling them to lay by a store of the superfluous food which they take for seasons of cold or scarcity. It collects round the angular bones of the animal, and gives the appearance of rotundity; hence the tendency to deposit fat is indicated, as has been stated, by a _roundness_ of form, as opposed to the _fatness_ of a milk-secreting animal. But its greatest use is, that it is a store of heat-producing aliment, laid up for seasons of scarcity and want. The food of animals, for the most part, may be said to consist of a saccharine, an oleaginous, and an albuminous principle. To the first belong all the starchy, saccharine, and gummy parts of the plants, which undergo changes in the digestive organs similar to fermentation before they can be assimilated in the system; by them also animal heat is sustained. In indolent animals, the oily parts of plants are deposited and laid up as fat; and, when vigor and strength fail, this is taken up and also used in breathing to supply the place of the consumed saccharine matter. The albuminous, or gelatinous principle of plants is mainly useful in forming muscle; while the ashes of plants, the unconsumable parts, are for the supply, mainly, of bone, hair, and horn, but also of muscle and of blood, and to supply the waste which continually goes on. Now, there are several qualities which are essentially characteristic of a disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, been any book-rules laid down, as in the case of M. Guénon's indications of milking-cows; but there are, nevertheless, marks so definite and well understood, that they are comprehended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are by no means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the grazier acquires his knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; observation, judgment, and experience, powerful perceptive faculties, and a keen and minute comparison and discrimination, are essential to his success. [Illustration: POINTS OF CATTLE.] The first indication upon which he relies, is the _touch_. It is the absolute criterion of _quality_, which is supposed to be the keystone of perfection in all animals, whether for the pail or the butcher. The skin is so intimately connected with the internal organs, in all animals, that it is questionable whether even our schools of medicine might not make more use of it in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological tendencies in cattle, however, it is of the last and most vital importance. It must neither be thick, nor hard, nor adhere firmly to the muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult and obstinate feeder--no skillful man will purchase it--such a creature must go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low as to tempt him to become a purchaser. On the other hand, the skin must not be thin, like paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in the hand, nor flabby. This is the opposite extreme, and is indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh, and, possibly, of inaptitude to retain the fat. It must be _elastic_ and velvety, soft and pliable, presenting to the touch a gentle resistance, but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand--a skin, in short, which seems at first to give an indentation from the pressure of the fingers, but which again rises to its place by a gentle elasticity. The _hair_ is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A hard skin will have straight and stiff hair; it will not have a curl, but be thinly and lankly distributed equally over the surface. A proper grazing animal will have a _mossy_ coat, not absolutely curled, but having a disposition to a graceful curl, a semifold, which presents a waving inequality; but as different from a close and straightly-laid coat, as it is from one standing off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom of disease. It will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here and there with its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing its functions. There must be, also, the full and goggle _eye_, bright and pressed outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a part where Nature always provides fat, an animal capable of developing it to any considerable extent, will have its indications here, at least, when it exists in excess. So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their conformations indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come such formations of the animal itself as are favorable to the growth of fat, other things being equal. There must be _size_ where large weights are expected. Christmas beef, for instance, is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol of festivity should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is so much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier, that profit alone will be his guide. The axiom will be, however, as a general rule, that the better the grazing soil the larger the animal may be; the poorer the soil, the smaller the animal. Small animals are, unquestionably, much more easily fed, and they are well known by experienced men to be best adapted to second-rate feeding pastures. But, beyond this, there must be _breadth_ of carcass. This is indicative of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifications. If rumps are favorite joints and produce the best price, it is best to have the animal which will grow the longest, the broadest, and the best rump; the same of crop, and the same of sirloin; and not only so, but breadth is essential to the consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary to the development of a large amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a deep, wide chest, favorable for the respiratory and circulating functions, enables it to consume a large amount of food, to take up the sugary matter, and to deposit the fatty matter,--as then useless for respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full level crop will be of the same physiological utility; while a broad and open framework at the hips will afford scope for the action of the liver and kidneys. There are other points, also, of much importance; the head must be small and fine; its special use is indicative of the quick fattening of the animal so constructed, and it is also indicative of the bones being small and the legs short. For constitutional powers, the beast should have his ribs extended well towards the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave as little unprotected space as possible. There must be no angular, or abrupt points; all must be round, and broad, and parallel. Any depression in the lean animal will give a deficient deposit of flesh and fat at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus deteriorate its value; and hence the animal must be round and full. But either fancy, or accident, or skill--it is unnecessary to decide which--has associated _symmetry_ with quality and conformation, as a point of great importance in animals calculated for fattening; and there is no doubt that, to a certain extent, this is so. The beast must be a system of mathematical lines. To the advocate of symmetry, the setting-on of a tail will be a condemning fault; indeed the ridge of the back, like a straight line, with the outline of the belly exactly parallel, viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness when viewed from behind,--which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather than a vital economy,--may be said to be the indications of excellence in a fat ox. The points of excellence in such an animal are outlined under the subsequent head, as developed in the cutting up after slaughter. Now, these qualities are inherent in some breeds; there may be cases and instances in all the superior breeds, and in most there may be failures. DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. It is necessary that cattle which have been disposed of to the dealer or butcher, or which are intended to be driven to market, should undergo a preparation for the journey. If they were immediately put to the road to travel, from feeding on grass or turnips, when their bowels are full of undigested vegetable matter, a scouring might ensue which would render them unfit to pursue their journey; and this complaint is the more likely to be brought on from the strong propensity which cattle have to take violent exercise upon feeling themselves at liberty after a long confinement. They in fact, become light-headed whenever they leave the barn or enclosure, so much so that they actually "frisk and race and leap," and their antics would be highly amusing, were it not for the apprehension that they may hurt themselves against some opposing object, as they seem to regard nothing before them. On being let out for the first time, cattle should be put for awhile into a larger court, or on a road well fenced with enclosures, and guarded by men, to romp about. Two or three such allowances of liberty will render them quiet; and, in the mean time, to lighten their weight of carcass, they should have hay for a large proportion of their food. These precautions are absolutely necessary for cattle which have been confined in barns; otherwise, accidents may befall them on the road, where they will at once break loose. Even at home serious accidents sometimes overtake them, such as the breaking down of a horn, casting off a hoof, spraining a tendon, bruising ribs, and heating the whole body violently; and, of course, when any such ill luck befalls, the animal affected must be left behind, and become a drawback upon the value of the rest, unless kept for some time longer. Having the cattle prepared for travel, the drover takes the road very slowly for the first two days, not exceeding seven or eight miles a day. At night, in winter, they should be put into an open court, and supplied with hay, water, and a very few turnips; for, if roots are suddenly withdrawn from them,--since it is taken for granted that these have formed a staple portion of their food,--their bellies will become shrunken up into smaller dimensions--a state very much against favorable appearance in market. After the first two days they may proceed faster, say twelve or thirteen miles a day, if very fat; and fifteen, if moderately so. When the journey is long and the beasts get faint from travel, they should have corn to support them. In frosty weather, when the roads become very hard, they are apt to become shoulder-shaken, an effect of founder; and if sleet falls during the day, and becomes frozen upon them at night, they may become so chilled as to refuse food, and shrink rapidly away. Cattle should, if possible, arrive the day before in the neighborhood of a distant market, and be supplied with a good feed of roots and hay, or grass, to make them look fresh and fill them up again; but if the market is at but short distance, they can travel to it early in the morning. [Illustration: A FRONTISPIECE.] In driving cattle the drover should have no dog, which will only annoy them. He should walk either before or behind, as he sees them disposed to proceed too fast or to loiter upon the road; and in passing carriages, the leading ox, after a little experience, will make way for the rest to follow. On putting oxen on a ferry-boat the shipping of the first one only is attended with much trouble. A man on each side should take hold of a horn, or of a halter made of any piece of rope, should the beast be hornless, and two other men, one on each side, should push him up behind with a piece of rope held between them as a breeching, and conduct him along the plank into the boat; if it have low gunwales, a man will be required to remain beside him until one or two more of the cattle follow their companion, which they will most readily do. From neglecting this precaution in small ferry-boats, the first beast sometimes leaps into the water, when it becomes a difficult task to prevent some of the rest doing the same thing. Whatever time a lot of cattle may take to go to a market, they should never be _overdriven_. There is great difference of management in this respect among drovers. Some like to proceed upon the road quietly, slowly, but surely, and to reach the market in a placid, cool state. Others, again, drive smartly along for some distance, and then rest to cool awhile, when the beasts will probably get chilled and have a staring coat when they reach their destination; while others like to enter the market with their beasts in an excited state, imagining that they then look gay; but distended nostrils, loose bowels, and reeking bodies are no recommendations to a purchaser. Good judges are shy of purchasing cattle in a heated state, because they do not know how long they may have been in it; and to cover any risk, will give at least five dollars a head below what they would have offered for them in a cool state. Some drovers have a habit of thumping at the hindmost beast of the lot with a stick while on the road. This is a censurable practice, as the flesh, where it is thumped, will bear a red mark after the animal has been slaughtered,--the mark receiving the appropriate name of _blood-burn_--and the flesh thus affected will not take on salt, and is apt to putrefy. A touch up on the shank, or any tendonous part, when correction is necessary, is all that is required; but the voice, in most cases, will answer as well. The flesh of overdriven cattle, when slaughtered, never becomes properly firm, and their tallow has a soft, melted appearance. A few large oxen in one lot look best in a market on a position rather above the eye of a spectator. When a large lot is nearly alike in size and appearance, they look best and most level on a flat piece of ground. Very large fat oxen never look better than on ground on the same level with the spectator. An ox, to look well, should hold his head on a line with the body, with lively ears, clear eye, dewy nose, a well-licked hide, and should stand firmly on the ground on all his feet. These are all symptoms of high health and good condition. Whenever an ox shifts his standing from one foot to another, he is _foot-sore_, and has been driven far. Whenever his head hangs down and his eyes water, he feels ill at ease inwardly. When his coat stares, he has been overheated some time, and has got a subsequent _chill_. All these latter symptoms will be much aggravated in cattle that have been fed in a barn. Cattle are made to fast before being slaughtered. The time they should stand depends upon their state on their arrival at the shambles. If they have been driven a considerable distance in a proper manner, the bowels will be in a tolerably empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice; but if they are full and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be required. Beasts that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks, or in any degree infuriated, should not be immediately slaughtered, but allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, until the symptoms disappear. These precautions are absolutely necessary that the meat may be preserved in the best state. The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different countries. In the great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, they are slaughtered by bisecting the spinal cord of the cervical vertebræ; and this is accomplished by the driving of a sharp-pointed chisel between the second and third vertebræ, with a smart stroke of a mallet, while the animal is standing, when it drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues, and the blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of the neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to bring the ox down on his knees, and place his under-jaw upon the ground by means of ropes fastened to his head and passed through an iron ring in the floor of the slaughterhouse. He is then stunned with a few blows from an iron axe made for the purpose, on the forehead, the bone of which is usually driven into the brain. The animal then falls upon his side, and the blood is let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is apparently the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make them fall. Some butchers, however, allege that the separation of the spinal cord, by producing a general nervous convulsion throughout the body, prevents the blood from flowing as rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is stunned in the forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when the legs are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then hung up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and tackle, worked by a small winch, which retains in place what rope it winds up by means of a wheel and ratchet. After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should be cut down by the back-bone, or chine, into two _sides_. This is done either with the saw, or chopper; the saw making the neatest job in the hands of an inexperienced butcher, though it is the most laborious; and with the chopper is the quickest, but by no means the neatest plan, especially in the hands of a careless workman. In London, the chine is equally divided between both sides; while in Scotland, one side of a carcass of beef has a great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous processes of the vertebræ being left upon it. The bony is called the _lying_ side of the meat. In London, the divided processes in the fore-quarters are broken in the middle when warm, and chopped back with the flat side of the chopper, which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the joints above the hind knee, and, by making some incisions with a sharp knife, cuts the tendons there, and drops the flesh of the hind-quarter on the flank and loins, which causes it to cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In opening the hind-quarter he also cuts the aitch bone, or pelvis through the centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in the north of England score the fat of the _closing_ of the hind-quarter, which has the effect of making that part of both heifer and ox look like the udder of an old cow. There is far too much of this scoring practised in Scotland, which prevents the pieces from retaining--which they should, as nearly as possible--their natural appearance. In cutting up a carcass of beef the London butcher displays great expertness; he not only discriminates between the qualities of its different parts, but can cut out any piece to gratify the taste of his customers. In this way he makes the best use of the carcass and realizes the largest value for it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of customers. A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a carcass of beef will at once show the difference; and upon being informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can be formed as to whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feeding possess the properties which will enable him to demand the highest price for them. [Illustration: SCOTCH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.] The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very handsome dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of two portions, the Scotch and English sides; the former is above the lumbar bones, and is somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle; the latter consists of the muscles under these bones, which are generally covered with fine fat, and are exceedingly tender. The better the beast is fed, the larger is the under muscle, better covered with fat, and more tender to eat. The hook-bone and the buttock are cut up for steaks, beefsteak pie, or minced collops, and both these, together with the sirloin, bring the highest price. The large round and the small round are both well known as excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are eaten cold with great relish. The hough is peculiarly suited for boiling down for soup, having a large proportion of gelatinous matter. Brown soup is the principal dish made of the hough, but its decoction forms an excellent _stock_ for various dishes, and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable time. The thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it may seem, makes a soup of a very fine flavor. Hotel-keepers have a trick of seasoning brown soup or rather beef-tea, with a few joints of tail, and passing it off for genuine ox-tail soup. These are all the pieces which constitute the hind-quarter; and it will be seen that they are valuable both for roasting and boiling, not containing a single coarse piece. In the fore-quarter, is the spare rib, the six ribs of the back end of which make an excellent roast, and when taken from the side opposite to the _lying_ one, being free of the bones of the spine, it makes a large one; and it also makes excellent beefsteaks and beefsteak pie. The two runners and the nineholes make salting and boiling pieces; but, of these, the nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat and lean without any bone; whereas the fore parts of the runners have a piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece connected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained. The brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth, and may be cooked and eaten with boiled greens or carrots. The shoulder-lyar is a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling fresh to make into broth or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is analogous to the hough of the hind-leg, but not so rich and fine, there being much less gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on account of the pieces of rich fat in it. It makes an excellent stew, as also sweet barley-broth, and the meat eats well when boiled in it. These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will be seen that they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of them none of the finest--the roasting-piece being confined to the six ribs of the spare rib, and the finest boiling-piece, corned, only to be found in the nineholes. [Illustration: ENGLISH MODE OF CUTTING UP BEEF.] The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the favorite steak-piece; the aitch-bone, the favorite stew; the buttock, the thick flank, and the thin flank are all excellent boiling-pieces when corned; the hock and the shin make soup and afford stock for the various requirements of the culinary art; and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup--a favorite English luncheon. These are all the pieces of the hind-quarter, and they are valuable of their respective kinds. In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle-rib are all roasting-pieces, not alike good; but in removing the part of the shoulder-blade in the middle-rib, the spare-ribs below make a good broil or roast; the neck makes soup, being used fresh, boiled; the back end of the brisket is boiled, corned, or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece is coarse, but is as frequently stewed as boiled; the shin is put to the same use as the shin and hock of the hind-quarter. On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be observed that in the English there are more roasting-pieces than in the Scotch, a large proportion of the fore-quarter being used in that way. The plan, too, of cutting the loin between the rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter, lays open the steak-pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch bullock. Extending the comparison from one part of the carcass to the other, in both methods, it will be seen that the most valuable pieces--the roasting--occupy its upper, and the less valuable--the boiling--its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that lays on beef more upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than one that lays the same quantity of flesh on its lower parts. It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the modes of cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is a needlessly great want of uniformity. Of the qualities of beef obtained from the different breeds of cattle in England, there is no better meat than from the West Highlanders for fineness of grain and cutting up into convenient pieces for family use. The Galloways and Angus, when fattened in English pastures, are great favorites in the London market. The Short Horns afford excellent steaks, being thick of flesh, and the slice deep, large and juicy, and their covered flanks and nineholes are always thick, juicy, and well-mixed. The Herefords are somewhat similar to the Short Horns, and the Devons, may, perhaps, be classed among the Galloways and Angus, while the Welsh cannot be compared to the West Highlanders. Taking, then, the breeds of Scotland as suppliers of good beef, they seem to be more valuable for the table than those of England. There are, perhaps, not sufficient data in existence to determine the true proportion of offal of all kinds to the beef of any given fat ox; but approximations have been made, which may serve the purpose until the matter is investigated by direct experiment, under various circumstances. The dead weight bears to the live weight a ratio varying between .571 and .605 to 1; and on applying one or the other multiplier to the cases of the live weight, a pretty correct approximation is reached. The tallow is supposed to be eight one-hundredths of the live weight; so that the multiplier is the decimal .08. The hide is supposed to be five one-hundredths of the live weight; so to obtain its weight, a multiplier, .05, is used. The other offals are supposed to be in a proportion of about one-fourth of the live weight; so that the multiplier, .28, is as near as can be proposed under existing experience. Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it is used in various states--fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and boiled. When intended to be eaten fresh, the _ribs_ will keep the best, and with care will keep five or six days in summer, and in winter ten days. The middle of the _loin_ is the next best, and the _rump_ the next. The _round_ will not keep long, unless it is salted. The _brisket_ is the worst, and will not keep more than three days in summer, and in winter a week. In regard to the power of the stomach to digest beef, that which is eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty-five minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely-roasted, and a beefsteak broiled, takes three hours to digest; that fresh, and dry-roasted, and boiled, eaten with mustard, is digested in three and a half hours. Lean fresh beef fried, requires four hours, and old hard salted beef boiled, does not digest in less than four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled takes five and a half hours. The usual mode of preserving beef is by salting; and, when intended to keep for a long time, such as for the use of shipping, it is always salted with brine; but for family use it should be salted only with good salt; for brine dispels the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to make the meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color. Various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt otherwise than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of time, and also to preserve it from putrefaction by other means than salt. Some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a vacuum within it, thereby extracting all the air out of the meat; then brine is pumped in by pressure, which, entering into every pore of the meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state of preservation in a few minutes. The carcass of an ox was preserved, in France, for two years from putrefaction by injecting four pounds of saline mixture into the carotid artery. Whether any such contrivance can be made available for family purposes, seems doubtful. Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in various other ways than by affording food from their flesh,--their offal of tallow, hides, and horns, forming extensive articles of commerce. Of the _hide_, the characteristics of a good one for strong purposes are strength in its middle, or _butt_, as it called, and lightness in the edges, or _offal_. A bad hide is the opposite of this--thick in the edges and thin in the middle. A good hide has a firm texture; a bad one, loose and soft. A hide improves as the summer advances, and it continues to improve after the new coat of hair in autumn until November or December, when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season, and the hide is then in its best state. It is surprising how a hide improves in thickness after the cold weather has set in. The sort of food does not seem to affect the quality of the hide; but the better it is, and the better cattle have been fed, and the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the better the hide. From what has been said of the effect of weather upon the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is better from an ox that has been fed in the open air, than from one that has been kept in the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures it, particularly in stall-fed animals; and any thing that punctures a hide, such as warbles arising from certain insects, is also injurious. The best hides are obtained from the West Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides, the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same breed, the ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are applied to various uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as valuable as that of the ox. The bull's hide is the least valuable. Hides are imported from Russia and South America. Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted into _leather_ by an infusion of the astringent property of bark. The old plan of tanning used to occupy a long time; but, such was the value of the process, that the old tanners used to pride themselves upon producing a substantial article--which is more than can be said in many instances under modern improved modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury of the article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brittle; one hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion, produce one hundred and thirty-seven pounds of leather; while a weak infusion produces only one hundred and seventeen and a half,--the additional nineteen and a half pounds serving only to deteriorate the leather, and causing it to contain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus highly charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of those who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning lasts a year, or a year and a half, according to the quality of the leather wanted and the nature of the hides. A perfect leather can be recognized by its section, which should have a glistening marbled appearance, without any white streaks in the middle. The hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is employed to mix with plaster, and is often surreptitiously put into hair-mattresses. The principal substances of which _glue_ is made are the parings of ox and other thick hides, which form the strongest article and the refuse of the leather-dresser. Both afford from forty-five to fifty-five per cent. of glue. The tendons, and many other offals of slaughter-houses, also afford materials, though of an inferior quality, for this purpose. The refuse of tanneries--such as the ears of oxen and calves--are better articles. Animal skins also, in any form, uncombined with tannin, may be worked into glue. _Ox-tallow_ is of great importance in the arts. Candles and soap are made of it, and it enters largely into the dressing of leather and the use of machinery. Large quantities are annually exported from Russia. Ox-tallow consists of seventy-six parts of stearine and twenty-four of oleine, out of one hundred parts. The _horns_ of oxen are used for many purposes. The horn consists of two parts: an outward horny case, and an inward conical-shaped substance, somewhat intermediate between indurated hair and bone, called the _fluid_ of the horn. These two parts are separated by means of a blow upon a block of wood. The horny exterior is then cut into three portions by means of a frame saw. The lowest of these, next the root of the horn, after undergoing several processes by which it is rendered flat, is made into combs. The middle of the horn, after having been flattened by heat, and its transparency improved by oil, is split into thin layers, and forms a substitute for glass in lanterns of the commonest kind. The tip of the horns is used by makers of knife-handles and of the tops of whips, and for other similar purposes. The interior, or core of the horn, is boiled down in water. A large quantity of fat rises to the surface; this is put aside, and sold to the makers of yellow soap. The itself is used as a kind of glue, and is purchased by the cloth-draper for stiffening. The bony substance remaining behind is then sent to the mill, and, after having been ground down, is sold to farmers for manure. Besides these various purposes to which the different parts of the horn are applied, the clippings which arise in comb-making are sold to the farmer for manure, as well as the shavings which form the refuse of the lantern-makers. Horn, as is well known, is easily rendered soft and pliant in warm water; and by this peculiarity and its property of adhering like glue, large plates of horn can be made by cementing together the edges of small pieces rendered flat by a peculiar process, as a substitute for glass. Imitation of tortoise-shell can be given to horn by means of various metallic solutions. Horn, also, when softened, can be imprinted with any pattern, by means of dies. [Illustration] Diseases and their Remedies Under this head it is proposed to notice such diseases as are most common among cattle, together with their symptoms, and to suggest such treatment of the same as has been found in the practice of the author, in the main, effective. He is aware that much more space might have been appropriated to this head, as has been the case in other treatises of this class; but he doubts the propriety of multiplying words about diseases which are of very rare occurrence, deeming it more fitting to leave such instances exclusively to the intelligent consideration of the reliable veterinary practitioner. For convenience of reference, the diseases here noticed have been arranged in alphabetical order; the whole concluding with information as to two or three operations which cannot be uninteresting to, or unprofitable for, the reader. ABORTION. The cow is, more than any other animal, subject to abortion, or slinking, which takes place at different periods of pregnancy, from half of the usual time to the seventh, or almost to the eighth month. The symptoms of the approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much among his stock, are not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are concealed by the person in charge, lest he should be accused of neglect or improper treatment. The cow is somewhat off her feed--rumination ceases--she is listless and dull--the milk diminishes or dries up--the motions of the foetus become more feeble, and at length cease altogether--there is a slight degree of enlargement of the belly--there is a little staggering in her walk--when she is down she lies longer than usual, and when she gets up she stands for a longer time motionless. As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs from the vagina (this is a symptom, which rarely, or never, deceives) her breathing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive. The belly has for several days lost its natural rotundity, and has been evidently falling,--she begins to moan,--the pulse becomes small, wiry, and intermittent. At length labor comes on, and is often attended with much difficulty and danger. If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence, whether from brutality, or the animal's having been teased by other cows in season, or by oxen, the symptoms are more intense. The animal suddenly ceases to eat and to ruminate--is uneasy, paws the ground, rests her head on the manger while she is standing, and on her flank when she is lying down--hemorrhage frequently comes on from the uterus, or when this is not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically contracted. The throes come on, are distressingly violent, and continue until the womb is ruptured. If all these circumstances be not observed, still the labor is protracted and dangerous. Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular districts, or on particular farms, appearing to assume an epizoötic or epidemic form. This has been accounted for in various ways. Some have imagined it to be contagious. It is, indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but this is probably to be explained on a different principle from that of contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative animal, and highly irritable during the period of pregnancy. In abortion, the foetus is often putrid before it is discharged; and the placenta, or after-birth, rarely or never follows it, but becomes decomposed, and, as it drops away in fragments, emits a peculiar and most noisome smell. This smell seems to be peculiarly annoying to the other cows: they sniff at it and then run bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence is exercised on their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or less number of those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises the rapidity with which the foetus is usually taken away and buried deeply, and far from the cows; and hence the more effectual preventive of smearing the parts of the cow with tar or stinking oils, in order to conceal or subdue the smell; and hence, too, the inefficacy, as a preventive, of removing her to a far-distant pasture. The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is most prevalent are those on which the cows oftenest slink their calves. Whatever can become a source of general excitation and fever is likely, during pregnancy, to produce inflammation of the womb; or whatever would, under other circumstances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has at that time its injurious effect determined to this particular one. Every farmer is aware of the injurious effect of the coarse, rank herbage of low, marshy, and woody countries, and he regards these districts as the chosen residence of red water; it may be added, that they are also the chosen residence of abortion. Hard and mineral waters are justly considered as laying the foundation of many diseases among cattle, and of abortion among the rest. Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abortion to disproportion in size between the male and the female. Farmers were formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown bull to serve their dairy or breeding cows, and many a heifer, or little cow, was seriously injured; and she either cast her calf, or was lost in parturition. The breeders of cattle in later years are beginning to act more wisely in this matter. Cows that are degenerating into consumption are exceedingly subject to abortion. They are continually in heat; they rarely become pregnant, or if they do, a great proportion of them cast their calves. Abortion, also, often follows a sudden change from poor to luxuriant food. Cows that have been out, half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned on rich pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the undue general or local excitation that is set up. Hence it is, that when this disposition to abort first appears in a herd, it is naturally in a cow that has been lately purchased. Fright, from whatever cause, may produce this trouble. There are singular cases on record of whole herds of cows slinking their calves after having been terrified by an unusually violent thunder-storm. Commerce with the bull soon after conception is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells--other than those already noticed--and the use of a diseased bull. Besides these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency of the atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is strangely frequent, and fatal; while at other times it disappears in a manner for several successive years. The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a very serious nature; and even when the case is more favorable, the results are, nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very soon goes again to heat, but in a great many cases she fails to become pregnant; she almost invariably does so, if she is put to the bull during the first heat after abortion. If she should come in calf again during that season, it is very probable that at about the same period of gestation, or a little later, she will again abort: or that when she becomes in calf the following year, the same fatality will attend her. Some say that this disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that if she does miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and that, in about three or four years, she may be depended upon as a tolerably safe breeder. He, however, would be sadly inattentive to his own interests who keeps a profitless beast so long. The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is born dead or putrid. If there should appear to be any chance of saving it, it should be washed with warm water, carefully dried, and fed frequently with small quantities of new milk, mixed, according to the apparent weakness of the animal, either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the bowels should, if occasion requires, be opened by means of small doses of castor-oil. If any considerable period is to elapse before the natural time of pregnancy would have expired, it will usually be necessary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand. The treatment of abortion differs but little from that of parturition. If the farmer has once been tormented by this pest in his dairy, he should carefully watch the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and as soon as he perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture to a comfortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, but not offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead; he will be assured of this by the motion of the foetus, and then it is possible that the abortion may still be avoided. He should hasten to bleed her, and that copiously, in proportion to her age, size, condition, and the state of excitation in which he may find her; and he should give a dose of physic immediately after the bleeding. When the physic begins to operate, he should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great debility, he should allow nothing but gruel, and she should be kept as quiet as possible. By these means he may occasionally allay the general or local irritation that precedes or causes the abortion, and the cow may yet go to her full time. Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will be that the foetus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as speedily as possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite if much fever exists; or, perhaps, if there is debility, some stimulating drink may not be out of place. In other respects the animal must be treated as if her usual time of pregnancy had been accomplished. Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of abortion among cows. _The foetus must be got rid of immediately._ It should be buried deep, and far from the cow-pasture. Proper means should be taken to hasten the expulsion of the placenta. A dose of physic should be given; ergot of rye administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort made, cautiously and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence, however, should be carefully avoided; for considerable and fatal hemorrhage may be speedily produced. The parts of the cow should be well washed with a solution of the chloride of lime, which should be injected up the vagina, and also given internally. In the mean time, and especially after the expulsion of the placenta, the cow-house should be well washed with the same solution. The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened and sold. This is the first and the grand step toward the prevention of abortion, and he is unwise who does not immediately adopt it. All other means are comparatively inefficient and worthless. Should the owner be reluctant to part with her, two months, at least, should pass before she is permitted to return to her companions. Prudence would probably dictate that she should never return to them, but be kept, if possible, on some distant part of the farm. Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breeding cows should be carefully watched. Although they should be well fed, they should not be suffered to get into too high condition. Unless they are decidedly poor and weak, they should be bled between the third and fourth months of pregnancy, and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If the pest continues to reappear, the owner should most carefully examine how far any of the causes of abortion that have been detected, may exist on his farm, and exert himself to thoroughly remove them. An interesting paper upon this subject may be found in the Veterinary Review, vol. 1., p. 434, communicated by Prof. Henry Tanner, of Queen's College, Birmingham, England. As it suggests a theory as to the origin of this disease which is, to say the least, quite plausible, we transfer the article:-- "I shall not go into any notice of the general subject of abortion, but rather restrict my remarks to a cause which is very much overlooked, and yet which is probably more influential than all other causes combined. I refer to the growth of ergotized grass-seeds in our pastures. "The action of ergot of rye (_secale cornutum_) upon the womb is well known as an excitant to powerful action, which usually terminates in the expulsion of the foetus. We have a similar disease appearing on the seeds of our grasses, but especially on the rye grass, and thus we have an ergot of the seeds of rye grass produced, possessing similar exciting powers upon the womb to those produced by the ergot of rye. "Two conditions are necessary for the production of this ergot upon the seed of rye grass. The first is, the grass must be allowed to run to seed; and the second is, that the climate must be favorable for encouraging the development of the ergot. "In practice, we find that on land which has been fed on during the summer, unless it has been grazed with unusual care, much of the grass throws up seed-stalks and produces seed. In districts where the climate is humid and rain abundant, as well as in very wet seasons, these seeds become liable to the growth of this ergot. Cattle appear to eat it with a relish, and the result is that abortion spreads rapidly through the herd. Heifers and cows, which, up to the appearance of the ergot, have held in calf, are excited to cast their calves by consuming it in their food. The abortion having once commenced, we know that the peculiarly sensitive condition of the breeding animal will cause its extension, even where the original cause may not be in operation; but their combined action renders the loss far more serious. If we add to this the tendency which an animal receives from her first abortion, to repeat it when next in calf, we see how seriously the mischief becomes multiplied. "A somewhat extended observation, added to my own experience, has led me to the conviction that very much of the loss arising from abortion in our cows may be traced to the cause I have named. I feel assured the influence is even more extended than I have stated; for not only would the foetus be thrown off in its advanced stage, but also in its earlier growth, thus causing great trouble to breeders of high-bred stock, the repeated turning of cows to the bull, and at most irregular intervals. "The remedy differs in no respect from the ordinary mode of treatment, except that it compels a removal of the stock from the influence of the cause. Much, however, may be done by way of prevention; and this I shall briefly notice. "It simply consists in keeping breeding cows and heifers upon land free from these seeds. Grass which has been grazed during the summer, will very generally, in a humid climate, have some of this ergotized seed; but I have not observed it produced before the end of July, or early in August; and I doubt its existence, to any injurious degree, up to this time. We may, therefore, consider such ground safe up to this period. If the breeding stock are then removed to grass land which, having been mown for this operation is a guaranty against any seeds remaining, it will seldom, if ever, happen that any injury will result from the production of ergotized grass later in the season. "I will not venture to say that such will not appear in some cases where the grass has been cut early and has been followed by a rapid growth; but, at any rate, we have grazing land free from this excitant from July until September; and in the grass which has been mown late, I do not consider that there is the least fear of ergot's being again formed in that season. In this manner a farmer may keep grass land for his breeding stock entirely free from ergotized grass; and, consequently, so far as this cause is concerned, they will be free from abortion. How far young heifers may be prejudicially influenced, before they are used for breeding, by an excitement of the womb, appears to me to be a subject worthy of some attention on the part of the veterinary profession." APOPLEXY. This is a determination of blood to the head, causing pressure upon the brain. Animals attacked with this disease are generally in a plethoric condition. The usual symptoms are _coma_ (a sleepy state), eyes protruding, respiration accelerated; finally, the animal falls, struggles, and dies. In such cases, bleeding should be resorted to at an early period; give in drink one pound of Epsom-salts. BLACK WATER. This is simply an exaggerated stage of the disease known as Red Water,--to which the reader is referred in its appropriate place,--the urine being darker in color in consequence of the admixture of venous blood. The symptoms are similar, though more acute. There is constipation at first, which is followed by diarrhoea, large quantities of blood passing away with the evacuations from the bowels; symptoms of abdominal pain are present; the loins become extremely tender; and the animal dies in a greatly prostrated condition. The treatment does not differ from that prescribed in case of Red Water. BRONCHITIS. The trachea and bronchial tubes are frequently the seat of inflammation, especially in the spring of the year,--the symptoms of which are often confounded with those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is frequently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often present for a long time before the more acute symptoms are observed. Bronchitis occasionally makes its appearance in an epizoötic form. _Symptoms._--A peculiarly anxious expression of the countenance will be observed; respiration laborious; a husky, wheezing, painful cough; on placing the ear to the windpipe a sonorous _râle_ is heard; symptomatic fever also prevails to a greater or less extent. _Treatment._--Counter-irritation should be early resorted to; strong mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of hartshorn and water, and made into a thin paste, should be applied all along the neck, over the windpipe, and to the sides, and should be well rubbed in; or, the tincture of cantharides, with ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce, applied in the same manner as the former, will be found equally effective. Give internally ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite every four hours, until five or six doses have been given; after which give one of the following powders twice a day: nitrate of potash, one ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce; pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide into eight powders. If necessary a pound of salts may be given. CONSUMPTION This affection--technically known as _phthisis pulmonalis_--is the termination of chronic disease of the lungs. These organs become filled with many little cysts, or sacks, containing a yellowish or yellowish-white fluid, which in time is hardened, producing a condition of the lungs known as tuberculous. These tubercles in turn undergo another change, becoming soft in the centre and gradually involving the whole of the hardened parts, which, uniting with adjoining ones, soon forms cysts of considerable size. These cysts are known as abscesses. No treatment will be of much service here. It is, therefore, better, if the animal is not too poor in flesh, to have it slaughtered. CORYZA In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affections are quite common, occurring frequently in a epizoötic form. Coryza, or nasal catarrh,--commonly called a cold in the head,--is not very common among cows. As its name implies, it is a local disease, confined to the lining membrane of the nose; and, consequently, the general system is not usually disturbed. _Symptoms._--The animal will be observed to sneeze; the Schneiderian membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened in color; cough sometimes accompanies; there is also a muco-purulent discharge from the nose. Neglect to attend to these early symptoms frequently occasions disease of a more serious nature; in fact, coryza may be regarded as the forerunner of all epizoötic pulmonary disorders. [Illustration: A CHAT ON THE ROAD.] _Treatment._--The animal should be kept on a low diet for a few days; the nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of the following powders given night and morning, which, in most cases, will be all the medicine required: nitrate of potassa, one ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and tartrate of antimony, of each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. Should the disease prove obstinate, give for two or three days two ounces of Epsom-salts at a dose, dissolved in water, three times a day. COW-POX. Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in the form of pustular eruptions. They first appear as small vesicles containing a purulent matter, and subsequently assume a scabby appearance, or small ulcers remain, which often prove troublesome to heal. This latter is the cow-pox, from which Jenner derived the vaccine matter. _Treatment._--Foment the teats well with warm water and Castile-soap; after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with citrine ointment. The preparations of iodine have also been recommended, and they are very serviceable. DIARRHOEA. Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, particularly in the spring of the year when the grass is young and soft. Occasionally it assumes a very obstinate form in consequence of the imperfect secretion of gastric juice; the _fæces_ are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by very great prostration of the animal. The symptoms of diarrhoea are too well known to require any detailed description. _Treatment._--If in a mild form, the diet should be low; give two ounces of Epsom-salts, twice a day. In a more obstinate form, give two drachms of carbonate of soda in the food. Oak-bark tea will be found very useful in these cases; or one of the following powders, twice a day, will be found very advantageous: pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a half ounces; prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in the feed. Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often proves fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizoötic form, when it is generally of a mild character. So long as the calf is lively and feeds well, the farmer should entertain no fear for him; but if he mopes about, refuses his food, ceases to ruminate, wastes in flesh, passes mucus and blood with the _fæces_, and exhibits symptoms of pain, the case is a dangerous one. In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three ounces of Castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts at a dose, followed with small draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, twice a day, one of the following powders: pulverized catechu, opium, and Jamaca ginger, of each half an ounce; prepared chalk, one ounce; mix, and divide into twelve powders. Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, with plenty of salt. DYSENTERY This disease is very frequently confounded with the foregoing. A distinction, however, exists,--since inflammation appears in this disease, while it is absent in the former. In this affection, inflammation of the large intestines takes place, which is attended with diarrhoea. The _fæces_ are covered with blood; the animal rapidly becomes prostrated, and death frequently comes to his relief. Youatt says: "It is, however, with dysentery that the practitioner is most loth to cope,--a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This, also, may be either acute or chronic. Its causes are too often buried in obscurity, and its premonitory symptoms are disregarded or unknown. There appears to be a strong predisposition in cattle to take on this disease. It seems to be the winding-up of many serious complaints, and the foundation of it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the most trifling nature. It is that in cattle which glanders and farcy are in the horse,--the breaking up of the constitution. "Dysentery may be a symptom and concomitant of other diseases. It is one of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; it is the destructive accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. It is produced by the sudden disappearance of a cutaneous eruption; it follows the cessation of chronic hoose; it is the consequence of the natural or artificial suspension of every secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly selected, the repression of which would produce dysentery, it would be that of the milk. How often does the farmer observe that no sooner does a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she begins to purge! There may not appear to be any thing else the matter with her; but she purges, and, in the majority of cases, that purging is fatal. "It may, sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, exclusive of previous disease. Unwholesome food--exposure to cold--neglect at the time of calving--low and marshy situations--the feeding in meadows that have been flooded, where it is peculiarly fatal--the grazing (according to Mr. Leigh, and our experience confirms his statement) upon the clays lying over the blue lias rock--the neighborhood of woods and of half-stagnant rivers--the continuation of unusually sultry weather--overwork, and all the causes of acute dysentery, may produce that of a chronic nature; an acute dysentery--neglected, or badly, or even most skillfully treated--may degenerate into an incurable chronic affection. Half starve a cow, or over-feed her, milk her to exhaustion, or dry her milk too rapidly--and dysentery may follow. "The following will, probably, be the order of the symptoms, if they are carefully observed: There will be a little dullness or anxiety of countenance, the muzzle becoming short or contracted; a slight shrinking when the loins are pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the hair a little rough; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and shivering that scarcely attracts attention; then--except it be the degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery--constipation may be perceived. It will be to a certain extent, obstinate; the excrement will voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and expelled in small quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging will be present from the beginning; the animal will be tormented with _tenesmus_, or frequent desire to void its excrement, and that act attended by straining and pain, by soreness about the _anus_, and protrusion of the _rectum_, and sometimes by severe colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those of a chronic form, few of these distressing symptoms are observed, even at the commencement of the disease; but the animal voids her _fæces_ oftener than it is natural that she should, and they are more fluid than in a state of health; while at the same time she loses her appetite and spirits and condition, and is evidently wasting away." _Treatment._--Give one drachm of the extract of belladonna, three times a day, dissolved in water; or calomel and powdered opium, of each one drachm three times daily. As soon as the inflammatory stage passes by, give one of the following three times daily, in their gruel: nitrate of potash pulverized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce; pulverized Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; pulverized caraway, or anise-seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter given once or twice a day, will be found of very great advantage. ENTERITIS. This is an inflammation of the external or internal coat of the intestines, sometimes attended with violent purging, especially when it is confined to the internal coats. Oxen in good condition are more subject to this disease than are cows. It most frequently occurs in dry, hot weather. It is sudden in its attacks, and often fatal in its termination. _Symptoms._--The animal is dull, and not disposed to move about; the muzzle is dry, and the coat staring; the animal yields, on pressure of the _loins_; a weak, staggering gait, when forced to move; respiration hurried; pulse accelerated but small; eyes red, full and fiery; head protruding; mouth, ears, and horns hot; appetite bad; rumination ceases; the bowels become constipated; the animal moans continually, and froths at the mouth. These symptoms violently increase as the disease advances. The animal becomes more depressed and feeble, grinds his teeth, and appears half unconscious, and dies in convulsions. Of the causes of this disease, Youatt, who is almost the only authority we have upon this subject, says: "It seems occasionally to be epidemic; for several instances of it occur, of the same character, and in the same district. M. Cruzel gives an illustration of this in his description of the disease that destroyed so many cattle, in the years 1826 to 1827, in the Department _de la Nievre_. Out of two hundred and eighteen cattle belonging to three farmers, one hundred and thirteen were attacked by this disease, and eighty-three of them died. One farmer in a neighboring district had nineteen head of cattle, all of which sickened, but only three were lost. These were unusually hot summers. The upland pasture was burnt up, or what remained of it was rendered unusually stimulating; and the acrid plants of the marshes and low grounds acquired additional deleterious agency. "When isolated cases occur, they may generally be attributed to mismanagement. Exposure to cold, or the drinking of cold water when overheated with work; too hard work in sultry weather; the use of water stagnant, impure, or containing any considerable quantity of metallic salts; the sudden revulsion of some cutaneous eruption; the crowding of animals into a confined place; too luxuriant and stimulating food generally; and the mildewed and unwholesome food on which cattle are too often kept, are fruitful sources of this complaint." _Treatment._--In the early stage of the disease, give an active purge, and follow it with ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite, four times daily, for two days; then give drachm doses of the extract of belladonna; give no food for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, according to circumstances. Bleeding, if done early, is often beneficial. Counter-irritants to the belly are also recommended; the best are mustard, hartshorn, and water, mixed together--or tincture of cantharides, with one drachm of croton-oil added to every ounce. EPIZOÖTICS. Diseases of this class have the same relation to the inferior animals that epidemic diseases have to man. Of course, they assume a very pestilential character. Scarcely a year passes away without diseases of this nature making their appearance in some parts of the world. They occur at all seasons of the year, but more generally prevail in the spring and fall. The period of their duration varies from months to years. They are, at times, mild in their attacks, and yield readily to proper treatment; at other times, they become painful pestilences, destroying every thing in their course. The causes are generally sought for in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere. The use of the milk and flesh of diseased cattle has frequently been productive of malignant diseases in the human family. Silius Italicus describes a fearful epizoötic, which first attacked the dog, then the feathered biped, then horses, and cattle, and, last of all, the human being. "On mules and dogs the infection first began, And, last, the vengeful arrows fixed in man." Epizoötics, occurring in rats, cats, dogs, horses, and cattle, which were followed in the succeeding years by more fearful ones which attacked the human family, are numerously recorded. These scourges have appeared in all ages of the world; but, as time and space will not allow our entering upon an extended consideration of them,--however interesting they might be to the general reader,--we shall content ourselves by quoting, somewhat in brief, from the lectures of the late William Youatt on these fatal maladies:-- "In the year 801, and at the commencement of the reign of Charlemagne, an epidemic disease devastated a great portion of his dominions. This was attributed to the villainy of the Duke of Benevento, who was said to have employed a great many persons in scattering an enchanted powder over the fields, which destroyed both the cattle and the food of the cattle. M. Paulet seems inclined to give full credence to this, and says that history offers many proofs of this destructive and diabolical practice. He affirms that many persons were punished in Germany, France, and, particularly, at Toulouse, for the commission of this crime. Several of the suspected agents of these atrocities were put to the torture and made full confession of their crime. "Of the occurrence of these diseases from the year 800 to 1316,--an interval of mental darkness, and of horrors and calamities of every kind,--history records twenty cases, more or less destructive, and extending, with greater or less devastation, over France and Germany, Italy and England. Of these twenty, four date their origin from an excessive moisture in the air, accompanied by almost continual rains, and flooding the country to a considerable extent. One was supposed to be the consequence of long-continued drought and excessive heat; one was traced to the influence of an eclipse of the sun; another, to a comet; and a fourth, to a most unusually stormy winter. The reader will have the kindness to remember that we are here expressing the opinions of the writers of the day, and by no means, our own belief of the matter. "Of the four which trace their origin to extreme wet and its consequences, the first occurred in France, in 820, after a long continuance of rain; and it was equally fatal to men and cattle. The second, which was equally fatal to both, appeared in Lorraine, in 889. The third broke out among the cavalry of the army of Arnoul, in its passage over the Alps, on its return to Italy. The fourth pervaded the whole of England in 1125, and was equally fatal to the biped and the quadruped. "That which followed excessive heat and drought, was generally prevalent throughout Europe, but especially so in Germany. It attacked oxen, sheep, and pigs. It appeared in 994, and lasted six months. "The one which was attributed to the comet, and which principally attacked cattle, appeared in France in 943 Almost every animal perished. "Another, that was supposed to be connected with an eclipse of the sun, was prevalent throughout the greater part of Germany, among men and animals, in 989. "The disease, which was the consequence of a cold and boisterous winter, was principally prevalent in France, in 887, and committed sad ravages among the herds of cattle and sheep. "Of the twelve others, of which, authors do not indicate the cause, the first was in France, in 810, and principally among cattle. The second was also in France, in 850, and almost depopulated the country of cattle. The third, in 868, was common to all animals in France. The fourth, in 870, was in the same country, and caused severe loss among cattle. The fifth prevailed on the Rhine and in Germany, and destroyed an almost incalculable number of cattle. The sixth attacked the horses of the army of Arnoul in Lorraine, in 888. The seventh, in 940, destroyed a vast number of cattle in France, Italy, and Germany. The eighth and ninth were in France, in 941 and 942, and almost all the cattle in the country perished. The tenth pestilence broke out in England, in the year 1041, and frightful was its devastation among all animals, and, particularly, horned cattle. The eleventh also devastated our country, in 1103, and the ravages were dreadful. The twelfth was chiefly fatal in Germany, and particularly in Gueldres, in 1149. "These twenty pestilences occurred in the space of 506 years. Five or six of them were most prevalent among cattle; two were almost confined to horses; twelve included, to a greater or less degree, almost every species of quadrupeds; and four extended to the human being. Among these the ravages of eight were most destructive in France; as many in Germany; and four in Italy and England. "As far as we have hitherto proceeded, it will also appear that cattle are more subject to these diseases than any other species of domesticated animals, and that the pestilence is always most fearful among them. It is also evident that the maladies which proceed from cold or humidity are more frequent in the temperate and southern parts of Europe than those which depend upon drought, or almost any other cause. "The malady lingers in different countries, in proportion to its want of power to accomplish at once all its devastation. "After this time, there are few satisfactory accounts of these diseases for more than five centuries. We only know that, occasionally suspending their ravages,--or, rather, visiting new districts when they had ceased to desolate others--they have continued to be objects of terror and instruments of devastation, even unto the present day; and it is only within a few years that they have been really understood, and have become, to a certain degree, manageable." In the United States, epizoötic diseases have been of frequent occurrence; but, owing to the want of properly qualified veterinary surgeons, they have not, until within a very recent period, been properly described or understood. The day however, is fast approaching when this void will be filled, and when epizoötic and other diseases will be correctly noted and recorded. The necessity for this must have been forcibly impressed upon the minds of the inhabitants of our country from the experience of the last ten or twelve years. Respecting the late epizoötic among cattle in Portage County, Ohio, William Pierce, V.S., of Ravenna, thus describes the symptoms as they appeared, in a letter to the author: "A highly-colored appearance of the sclerotic coat of the eye, also of the _conjunctiva_ (a lining membrane of the eyelid) and the Schneiderian membrane of the nose; a high animal heat about the head and horns; a highly inflammatory condition of the blood; contraction of all the abdominal viscera; hurried respiration; great prostration and nervous debility; lameness; followed by gangrene of the extremity of the tail, and the hind-feet; terminating in mortification and death." Mr. Pierce is convinced that these symptoms are produced by the continued use of the ergot, or spur of the June grass,--the effects being similar to those produced upon the human family by long-continued use of ergot of rye. This disease assumes both an acute and chronic form. The same gentleman also says: "Ordinary observers, as well as those who claim to be scientific, have entertained very conflicting opinions as to its general character; some regarding it as epizoötic, others as contagious; some attributing it to atmospheric influence, others to foulings in the stable or yard. Others, again, attribute it to freezing of the feet in winter. Cattle-doctors in a majority of cases, fail to cure it. I have, however, by a simple course of treatment, effected many signal cures. Some parties are so confident of the contagious character of the disease that they refuse to drive cattle along a road where it is known to exist. They even, oftentimes, wash their boots previous to entering their barnyards, after walking over the ground where such diseased cattle have been running. "Caution is both proper and commendable. I do not, however, regard it as a contagious disease, nor can it be transmitted by inoculation. The calf is carried during the progress of the disease, and delivered in apparently good health. The milk of the cow appears to be unaffected and harmless. I call this disease _sphacial fever_, or _gangrenous fever_. [Illustration: THE MAD BULL.] "The ergot, or spur of the hay, is confined to the June grass, as far as my observation extends; owing, probably, to its early maturity. Most other kinds of grass are cut before the seeds have matured sufficiently to produce the spur. I was suspicious of the foulness of the feed before I examined any hay, and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found. "Mr. Sanford, of Edinburgh, Ohio, purchased one half of a mow of hay from Mr. Bassett, of Randolph, which was removed to his farm in Randolph, eight miles distant. Of this hay, Mr. Sanford fed eleven cows some six or eight weeks. Mr. Bassett had been feeding the same to four cows. At about the same time, both heads began to show lameness. I visited Mr. S. after he had lost six cows, and examined the remaining five, four of which were lame and the other showed symptoms of the disease. He had two other cows, one of which was loaned to a neighbor, and the other was fed upon different hay, for convenience. The loaned cow was returned about the first of March,--the two then running with the ailing ones until the 24th of April, when I saw them sound and in good health. "I then visited Mr. Bassett's stock, which I found infected with the same disease,--he having lost one, and the remaining three being lame, and much debilitated. The hoofs were sloughing off. Some of the same hay remained in the snow, which, upon examination, exhibited an abundance of the spur. Upon inquiry, I found that no such disease existed between the two farms, or in the neighborhood of either Mr. S. or Mr. B. The peculiarity of this circumstance at once swept away the last vestige of doubt from my mind. Mr. E. Chapman, of Rootstown, accompanied me, and can vouch for the correctness of these statements. "He hooted at my opinions, asserting that he understood the disease, and that it was caused by the freezing of the feet. He has since, however, abandoned that idea, and honestly 'acknowledged the corn.' This ergot is regarded by some as a parasitic fungus, formed in other grains, an abundant vegeto-animal substance, and much disposed to putrefaction. We appear to be in the dark regarding its real composition. The little which has been written upon the subject, appears to be founded upon hypothesis, and that the most obscure. The articles to which I refer may differ in quality or property to a considerable extent, and we may forever remain in the dark, unless chemical investigation be instituted. "In this particular disease, there appears to be singularity in the symptoms through all its various stages, which is likely to originate in the peculiarity of the cause which produces them. The effects and symptoms arising from the continued use of the ergot of rye, as manifested in the human system, have been but briefly hinted at by authors, and, probably, some of them are only reasonable conjectures. All they say is, that it produces violent headache, spaculation in the extremities, and death. Hitherto, its effects upon the inferior animal have been subjected to no investigation, and its peculiarity in the symptoms, differing from like phenomena by other causes, may yet be demonstrated. I am not alone in my opinion of this disease. I have taken counsel of those whose judgment cannot be questioned. Whatever difference of opinion exists is attributable to a want of investigation, and it will continue to exist until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for. Every opinion should be thoroughly criticized till facts are obtained. Every man's opinion is sacred to himself, but we should yield to conviction. "Two classes of this disease are exhibited: one, of irritation, and the other, of debility; one, an acute, the other, a chronic form. The point at which it assumes the chronic form is between congestion and gangrene. By close observation we can discover these to be different and higher degrees of the same disease. All subsequent degrees are dependent upon the first. "The first symptom, or degree, is, probably, an attack upon the systematic circulation, produced by a certain medicinal and deleterious property existing in the ergot, and communicated to the blood through the absorption of the tongue. This is more evident from the fact that the digestive organs retain their normal condition till the last stages of the chronic form. The blood in the first two stages is healthy, and the peculiar influence is only apparent in the subsequent stages; as evidenced by the fact that the muscles and general good appearance, as well as life itself, last longer than could be possible, if this deleterious influence were exhausted upon the digestive organs and the blood, in its first stages. And, as we suppose that fever and congestion constitute an attack upon the red blood, which is exhibited by hurried pulsation, we might rationally infer that the next degree would be gangrene of the globule, causing sloughing, the same as if it were carried to the muscles, or surface. This sloughing of the globule would be the same as if exhibited on any other part of the organization, for the fibrin is identical with muscle, as albumen is identical with the white of an egg; and since congestion is the forerunner of gangrene at the extremities, or on the surface, so fever and quick pulsation are the forerunners of congestion of the blood. Gangrene cannot ensue without obstruction in the blood-vessels; and congestion cannot take place without obstruction in that which sustains the globule. As gangrene, then, is the first stage of decomposition of animal matter, so is congestion the first stage of decomposition of the globule; and as mortification is death in the organized body, so is congestion death in the organized globule. "It appears evident that this disease, in all its forms and degrees of intensity, seeks vent or release; in other words, Nature conflicting with it, throws it off its track, or balance, and offers means of escape, or shows it a door by which it may make its exit. In the first stage of the disease, the dermoid (skin) tissues make the effort. In the inflammatory, the serous, and the congestive, the mucous gangrene seeks vent; if obtained, mortification is prevented; if not, mortification directly supervenes, and death terminates the case. "In the case to which I refer, observation confirms my opinion that absolute mortification without vent determines the gangrene of the blood, and is hardly curable; but that gangrene's finding vent determines it to be curable, and the recovery highly probable." EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH. Catarrh frequently assumes an epizoötic form of a very virulent character, originating spontaneously and extending over a large section of country at or about the same time. A cold spring succeeding a mild winter, is peculiarly productive of malignant catarrh. This is one of the most distressing and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject. _Symptoms._--The animal appears dull, and unwilling to move about, staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costiveness is usually one of the earliest symptoms, succeeded by diarrhoea, which is equally difficult of management; sometimes, however, diarrhoea is present from the first; the animal loses flesh rapidly; the coat is staring; appetite is lost; tumors form about the head, neck, back, and joints, which appear to be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a crepitating sound; saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very fetid as the disease progresses. The animal always dies of putrefaction. _Treatment._--This disease should be treated early, or not at all. Good nursing is very essential. When costiveness is present, give Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; mix together; or give one pint of linseed-oil, to which add from ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If the bowels are not open in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of sulphate of magnesia every six hours until they are opened. Follow this with tincture of aconite, ten drops in water, every four hours, until the fever has abated. Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the author has failed to experience any benefit from resorting to it, but, on the contrary, has seen much injury result from the use--or, rather, the abuse--of the lancet. He is, indeed, inclined to attribute much of the fatality attending this disease to indiscriminate blood-letting. When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained by tonics and stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether and half an ounce of tincture of opium, given in a little water, will be found beneficial. It should be given twice a day. Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce; pulverized cloves, half an ounce; mixed, and divided into four powders, one to be given at night and at morning; will be found useful, in place of the opium and ether. FARDEL. This disease is properly known by the name of clue-bound. The manyplus, or omasum (third stomach), frequently becomes so choked up with food that it is hard and dry, and the operation of the digestive organs is very seriously impaired. The animal eats voraciously, for a time, but stops suddenly and trembles; the countenance assumes a peculiarly haggard appearance; there is a wild expression of the eye; a foaming at the mouth; a tendency to pitch forward, and at times a falling head-foremost to the ground. Occasionally, the symptoms are very active, speedily terminating in death. There are few diseases of a constitutional character in which the stomach is not, more or less, sympathetically involved. "Toward the end of September, 1746, a great number of cows died at Osterwich, in the principality of Halberstadt. Lieberkuhn, a celebrated physician,--there were no veterinary surgeons at that time,--was sent to examine into the nature of the disease, which was supposed to be one of the species of murrain that was then committing such ravages among the cattle in various parts of the Continent. There were none of the tumors, or pestilential buboes, that, in an earlier or later period of the malady, usually accompanied and characterized murrain; but upon inspection of the dead bodies, considerable peritoneal inflammation was found; the first and second stomachs were filled with food, but the third stomach was the palpable seat of the disease; its leaves were black and gangrened. The mass contained between the leaves was black, dry, and so hard that it could scarcely be cut with a scalpel. It intercepted the passage of the food from the first two stomachs to the fourth; and this latter stomach was empty and much inflamed. Neither the heart, nor the lungs, nor the intestines exhibited any trace of disease. Twelve cows were opened, and the appearances were nearly the same in all of them." _Treatment._--Give one and a half pounds of Epsom-salts, dissolved in three pints of water; or one quart of potash, three times daily, dissolved in water, will be found useful in this disease. FOUL IN THE FOOT. This is caused by hard or irritating substances making their way in between the claws of the foot, causing inflammation, and sometimes ulceration, in the parts. The pasterns swell, and the animal becomes lame. The foot should be thoroughly washed, and all foreign substances removed. A pledget of tow, saturated with tar and sprinkled with powdered sulphate of copper, should be inserted between the claws. This usually requires but one or two applications. GARGET. This is a hard, knotty condition of the udder, which sometimes follows calving, in consequence of the sudden distention of the bag with milk; and the inflammation which supervenes causes a congealed or coagulated condition of the milk to take place, of which, if neglected, suppuration and abscesses are the result. _Treatment._--Let the calf suck the dam as speedily as possible, and, if the hardness is not then removed, foment the udder with warm water; after which, wipe it dry, and apply to the entire surface melted lard as hot as the animal will bear. This is, generally, all that is required, the most obstinate cases yielding to it. If abscesses form, they should be lanced. GASTRO-ENTERITIS. This disease--otherwise known as wood-evil, or moor-ill--arises from eating the buds of oak, young ash, and other trees, which are of a very highly stimulating or irritating character. As the intestinal canal is liable to inflammatory action from irritant substances admitted into it, animals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of these vegetable substances. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; mouth hot; skin dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and pain of the belly; obstinate constipation; fæces hard and covered with blood; urine of a strong odor, highly colored, and voided with difficulty. _Treatment._--The animal should be bled, and a strong purgative administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as in enteritis. Injections of Castile-soap and water should be freely used; the application of the mustard, hartshorn, and water to the belly will also be found very beneficial. HOOSE. This disease--known also as catarrh--is occasionally the sequence of coryza, but more frequently it arises from an impure atmosphere; consequently, in cow-houses where animals are crowded together in numbers, it is most frequently found. Scanty provender, and of an inferior quality, is among the exciting causes of hoose, producing, as it does, a debilitated state of the system, which, upon exposure of the animal to cold, or wet, hastens the disorder. Some breeds of cattle are peculiarly liable to this disease, which, if not arrested in its early stage, runs on, involving the lungs, and frequently terminating in consumption. Of all our domestic animals, neat cattle are most subject to pulmonary diseases. This is attributable to the neglect and exposure which are far too often their lot. Butchers will testify that a large portion of all cattle slaughtered have abscesses and other diseases of the lungs. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; muzzle dry; coat rough, or staring; respiration quickened; horns hot; ears, nose, and legs cold; husky cough; pulse from sixty to seventy, small and thready; bowels frequently constipated. _Treatment._--Give one ounce of the following powders every six hours, until the bowels are opened: Barbadoes aloes, one and half ounces; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce; ginger, six drachms; mix and divide into six powders. Setons in the dewlap are often of great benefit. HOOVE. Hoove, or blown, so common, and often so speedily fatal in cattle, is the result of fermentation in the _rumen_, or paunch, in consequence of the animal's having eaten large quantities of wet grass, luxuriant clover, turnips, etc. An accumulation of gas is the result of this fermentation, which greatly disturbs the haunch and left side of the belly, causing much pain to the animal, and frequently threatening suffocation. _Treatment._--Drench the animal with one ounce of spirits of hartshorn in one quart of water, the object being to neutralize the gas which is present in the rumen; or, two ounces of table salt dissolved in one quart of water will be found very effectual. If these do not speedily give relief, an active purge should be given. Injections of soap and water should be freely used. If the case still proves obstinate, and the life of the animal is threatened, the paunch should be punctured. For this purpose, the trochar--an instrument specially adapted--should be used; but, in the absence of an instrument, an ordinary pocket-knife may be employed, taking care not to make a large opening. The proper point to operate is midway between the last rib and the prominent point of the hip-bone, about twelve inches from the centre of the back or loins. Few cases have a fatal termination where this operation has been properly performed. HYDATIDS. Worms in the brain occasionally occur, causing great uneasiness to the animal and generally proving fatal. The symptoms are, loss of appetite; suspended rumination; a fevered condition of the system; horns and ears hot; respiration disturbed; coat staring, etc. No course of treatment will prove efficacious in this disease. Pressure on the brain may occur from an accumulation of water, tumors, bruises, etc., in the cranial case. In either case, the same effects are produced as are observed in apoplexy. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. Inflammation of the bladder generally accompanies inflammation of the kidneys, though it is sometimes found disconnected and alone. It is occasionally caused by calculous concretions in the bladder,--which should be removed,--causing very acute abdominal pain to the animal. She makes frequent efforts to stale, passing but a few drops of urine at a time. The pulse is full and rapid; mouth clammy; nose dry; eyes bloodshot; appetite lost; moaning, and walking with a staggering gait. _Treatment._--Inject into the bladder one quart of tepid water, and from one to two ounces of tincture of opium mixed together. Give internally one of the following powders every hour until relieved; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; tartrate of antimony, and pulverized digitalis leaves, each one drachm; mix, and divide into six powders. Mucilaginous draughts should be freely given. Rupture of the bladder sometimes occurs, but there are no symptoms by which it may be known; and, if there were, no service could be rendered in the way of repairing the injury; the animal must die. INFLAMMATION OF THE HAW. The ox, like the horse, has a membrane of semilunar form in the inner corner of the eye, which is capable of being thrown over the entire eyeball, for the purpose of cleansing the eye from any foreign substance which may get into it. This membrane is commonly called the haw, and is susceptible of attacks of inflammation, which cause it to swell, frequently even closing up the eye. _Treatment._--Give a dose of physic, and, if the animal is plethoric, extract a little blood from the vein on the same side as the affected eye. Apply to the eye either of the following washes: tincture of opium, one ounce; rain-water, one pint; or, tincture of aconite, one drachm, to one pint of water. Bathe two or three times a day. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. This disease--sometimes called nephritis--occurs occasionally in cattle in consequence of their eating bad or unwholesome food, or of the abuse of diuretics, etc. The symptoms are very insidious in their approach. The loins are very tender upon pressure; the urine is voided in small quantities. As the disease advances, the symptoms become more marked and acute. The animal is dull, and feeds daintily; the evacuation of urine is attended with increased pain, and the urine is highly colored and bloody; the nose is dry; the horns, ears, and extremities are cold; respiration hurried; the pulse full, hard, and throbbing. _Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil and ten drops of castor-oil, mixed together; follow this with small doses of salts once a day, for three or four days; give injections of water, one half a gallon to two ounces of tincture of arnica. Mustard applications to the loins are also very useful. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. Diseases of the liver are of very common occurrence,--a fact with which all beef-butchers are familiar. Perhaps no organ in the animal economy is so liable to disease. The obscurity of the symptoms and the good condition of the animal prevent its discovery, as a general thing, during its lifetime. When, however, the disease assumes an active form,--known as the yellows, jaundice, or inflammation of the liver,--the symptoms are more readily detected. _Symptoms._--A yellowish color of the eye will be observed; skin, urine, etc., highly colored; soreness, on pressure, on the right side; loss of appetite; dullness; constipation of the bowels, etc. _Treatment._--Calomel is the most reliable medicine known to practitioners for diseases of the liver. Its abuse, however, has brought it into disrepute. Yet, as with ordinary care it may be advantageously used, we will prescribe it as that upon which the most dependence is to be placed, and in doing so, will endeavor to have it used safely. Bleeding has been recommended: but the author has never found any benefit resulting. Give Epsom-salts, in doses of four ounces each, every night, with one scruple of calomel, until the animal is relieved. Mustard and water should be frequently applied to the right side, and well rubbed in. LARYNGITIS. This disease is of rare occurrence in cattle. In it, the mucous membrane lining the larynx is in a very irritable condition; the least pressure upon the parts affected causes intensely excruciating pain; the respiration becomes quick, painful, and laborious; the animal often appears to be hungry, yet does not eat much, in consequence of the pain occasioned by the act of swallowing. _Treatment._--Apply to the throat externally strong mustard, mixed, with equal parts of aqua ammonia and water, to a thin paste, every hour, until it produces an effect upon the skin; sponging the parts each time with warm water before applying the mustard. The animal should not be bled. Give upon the tongue, or in drink, half-drachm doses of nitrate of potassa, every three or four hours, until relief is obtained. If suffocation threatens, the operation of tracheotomy is the only resort. [Illustration: AN ABERDEENSHIRE POLLED BULL.] Cloths saturated with cold water, wrapped around the neck so as to cover the larynx, frequently afford relief. A purgative will also be found useful. LICE. Cattle are very subject to lice, particularly when they are neglected, half-starved, and in poor condition. Good care and good feeding--in connection with the treatment recommended in mange, to which the reader is referred--will comprise all that is requisite. MANGE. Mange, or leprosy, is one of the most unpleasant and difficult diseases to manage of all the ailments to which cattle are subject requiring the nicest care and attention to render it easy of cure. An animal badly nursed will not, under the most skillful treatment, quickly recover. Its causes are in the main, due to poor food, which produces a debilitated condition of the system, and in connection with a want of cleanliness, causes a development of the _acari_, or minute insects, exciting very great irritation upon the skin and causing the cow to rub herself against every object with which she comes in contact. The hair falls off; a scurfy appearance of the skin is perceptible; and the animal is poor in condition and in milk. The great trouble in treating this disease springs from its contagious character; for, no sooner is the animal, oftentimes, once free from the _acari_ than it comes in contact with some object against which it has previously been rubbing, when the _acari_ which were left upon that object are again brought in contact with the animal, and the disease is reproduced. If, immediately after the proper applications are made, the animal is removed to other quarters, and not allowed to return to the former ones for six or eight weeks, there is, generally speaking, but little trouble in treating the disease. Take the animal upon a warm, sunny day, and with a scrubbing-brush cleanse the skin thoroughly with Castile-soap and water; when dry, apply in the same manner the following mixture; white hellebore, one ounce; sulphur flower, three ounces; gas-water, one quart; mix all well together. One or two applications are, generally, all that will be required. Give internally one of the following powders in the feed, night and morning: flowers of sulphur, two ounces; black antimony, one ounce; nitrate of potassa, one ounce; mix, and divide into eight powders. MURRAIN. This is one of the most malignant diseases to which cattle are liable. Fortunately, however, true murrain is comparatively rare in this great stock-raising country. The entire system seems to partake of the disease. The first indication of its approach is a feverish condition of the system, attended with a frequent and painful cough; the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the disease advances, the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave; vesicular eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the horns are cold; the animal is sometimes lame; constipation and, sometimes, diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms; _fæces_ black and fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen; great tenderness along the spine; a brown or bloody discharge from the nose and mouth; the animal moans incessantly, grinds his teeth, rarely lies down, but to get up again quickly; finally, the breath becomes very offensive; tumors make their appearance in various parts of the body, which, in favorable cases, suppurate, and discharge a fetid matter. _Treatment._--Give one fourth of a pound of Epsom-salts, with one drachm of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or three days. A bottle of porter, twice a day, will be found serviceable. Very little medicine is required internally in this disease, but much depends upon good nursing. External applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, or a solution of the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; or, of sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a pint of water; or pulverized charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful. NAVEL-ILL. Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally occurs, causing redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part affected. This disease, if not promptly attended to, speedily carries off the creature. _Treatment._--Foment the part well with warm hop-tea; after which, the application of a cloth, well saturated with lead-water and secured by bandages, should be applied. Internally, doses of Epsom-salts, of two ounces each, dissolved in half a pint of water, should be given until the bowels are acted upon. After the inflammation has subsided, to counteract the weakness which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or three times a day. OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE OESOPHAGUS. Choking in cattle is of common occurrence, in consequence of turnips, potatoes, carrots, or other hard substances, becoming lodged in the oesophagus, or gullet. These obstructions can sometimes be removed by careful manipulations with the hand; but, where this can not be accomplished, the flexible probang should be employed. This is a long India-rubber tube, with a whalebone stillet running through it, so as to stiffen it when in use. This instrument is passed down the animal's throat, and the offending substance is thus pushed down into the stomach. OPEN JOINTS. Opening of the joint generally results from accidents, from puncturing with sharp substances, from kicks, blows, etc. These injuries cause considerable nervous irritation in the system, and sometimes cause lock-jaw and death. _Treatment._--Close up the wound as speedily as possible. The firing-iron will sometimes answer the purpose very well. The author depends more upon the application of collodion--as recommended in his work upon "The Horse and His Diseases" for the same trouble--than upon any other remedy. It requires care in its application, in order to make it adhere firmly. Shoemakers'-wax, melted and applied, answers a very good purpose. PARTURITION. In natural labor--as has been suggested in a former part of this work--the aid of man is rarely required in bringing away the calf. But it not infrequently happens that, from malformation or wrong presentation, our assistance is required in order to deliver the animal. The brute force, which has been far too often heretofore resorted to, should no longer be tolerated, since the lives of many valuable animals have been sacrificed by such treatment. Very often, by gentle manipulation with the greased hand, the womb can be so dilated as to afford a comparatively easy exit for the _foetus_. If, however, the calf is presented wrong, it must be pushed back and placed in its proper position, if possible. In natural labor, the fore-legs, with the head lying between them, are presented; in which position--unless deformity, either in the _pelvis_ of the cow, or in the _foetus_, exists--the calf is passed with little difficulty, and without assistance. It sometimes happens that the head of the foetus is turned backward. When this happens, the attendant should at once strip himself to the waist, bathe his arms, and hands with a little sweet-oil, or lard, and introduce them into the _vagina_, placing a cord around both fore-feet, and then, pushing them back, search for the head, which is to be brought forward to its proper position. The feet are next to be brought up with it. No force should be used, except when the cow herself makes the effort to expel the calf; otherwise, more harm than good may be done. A case of this kind recently occurred in the author's practice, being the third within a year. The subject was a cow belonging to William Hance, Esq., of Bordentown, New Jersey. After she had been in labor for some twenty hours, he was called upon to see her. Upon inquiry, he found that several persons had been trying, without success, to relieve her. She was very much prostrated, and would, doubtless, have died within two or three hours, had no relief been afforded. The legs of the _foetus_ protruded as far as the knees; the head was turned backward, and with the body, pressed firmly into the _vagina_, so that it was impossible to return it, or to bring the head forward. The operation of embryotomy was, therefore, at once performed, by cutting away the right shoulder, which enabled the operator, with the aid of his appropriate hooks, to bring the head forward, when the calf came away without further trouble,--the whole operation not requiring fifteen minutes. The _uterus_ was then washed out, and the animal placed in as comfortable a position as possible, and a stimulating draught given, composed of two ounces of nitric ether, one ounce of tincture of opium, and a half pint of water. This was followed with a few doses of Fleming's tincture of aconite, ten drops in a little water, every few hours. In a few days the animal had entirely recovered. Occasionally, the head comes first, or the head and one leg. In such cases, a cord should be slipped around the jaw and leg, and these then pushed back, so as to allow the other leg to be brought up. When this cannot be done, the _foetus_ can, in most cases, be removed in the original position. Breech, side, back, and other presentations sometimes occur; in all of which instances, the _foetus_ must be turned in such a position that it can be brought away with as little trouble as possible. When this cannot be accomplished, the only resort is embryotomy, or cutting up of the _foetus_, which operation can only be safely performed by the qualified veterinary surgeon. Since writing the above, another case has occurred in the author's practice. The cow--belonging to Samuel Barton, Esq., near Bordentown, New Jersey--had been in labor some eighteen hours; upon an examination of the animal, the calf was found to be very much deformed, presenting backwards,--one of the hind-legs having been pulled off by the person or persons assisting her previous to the author's arrival. Finding it impossible to deliver her in the usual way, embryotomy was in this instance employed. By this means, after taking out the intestines, lungs, etc., of the _foetus_, and cutting away its hind-quarters, the fore-parts were brought away. The head presented a singular appearance; the under jaw was so twisted as to bring the front teeth on the side of the face; the spinal column or back-bone, was turned twice around, resembling a spiral string; the front legs were over the back; the ribs were much contorted; the hind-parts were as much deformed; and, taken altogether, the deformity was the most singular which has been brought under the author's observation. FREE MARTINS.--It has long been supposed by stockbreeders, that if a cow produce twins, one of which is a male and the other a female, the female is incapable of producing young, but that the male may be a useful animal for breeding purposes. Many instances have occurred when the twin sister of a bull has never shown the least desire for the male. This indifference to sexual commerce arises, doubtless, from the animal's being but imperfectly developed in the organs of generation. This fact has been established by the investigations of Mr. John Hunter, who had three of these animals slaughtered for anatomical examination. The result is thus reported: "The external parts were rather smaller than is customary in the cow. The _vagina_ passed on, as in the cow, to the opening of the _urethra_, and then it began to contract into a small canal, which passed on into the division of the _uterus_ into the two horns; each horn passed along the edge of the broad ligament laterally toward the _ovaria_. "At the termination of these horns were placed both the ovaries and the testicles. Both were nearly of the same size, which was about as large as a small nutmeg. To the _ovaria_, I could not find any Fallopian tube. "To the testicles were _vasa deferentia_, but they were imperfect. The left one did not come near the testicle; the right one only came close to it, but did not terminate in the body called the _epididymis_. They were both pervious and opened into the _vagina_, near the opening of the _urethra_. "On the posterior surface of the bladder, or between the _uterus_ and the bladder, were the two bags, called _vesiculæ seminales_ in the male, but much smaller than they are in the bull. The ducts opened along with the _vasa deferentia_. This animal, then, had a mixture of all the parts, but all of them were imperfect." Well-authenticated cases have, however, occurred where the female has bred, and the offspring proved to be good milkers. There are several instances on record of cows' giving birth to three, four, and even five calves at a time. There were on exhibition, in 1862, at Bordentown, New Jersey, three free martins, two sisters and a brother, which were beautiful animals. These were from a cow belonging to Mr. Joab Mershon, residing on Biles Island, situated in the Delaware River, a short distance above Bordentown. They were calved November 1st, 1858, and were therefore nearly four years of age. They had never shown the least desire for copulation. Their aggregate weight was 4300 pounds. We extract the following from the London Veterinarian, for 1854:--"A cow, belonging to Mr. John Marshall, of Repton, on Wednesday last, gave birth to _five, live healthy calves_, all of which are, at the time I write, alive and vigorous, and have every appearance of continuing so. They are all nearly of a size, and are larger and stronger than could be supposed. Four of them are bull-calves. "The dam is by no means a large one, is eleven years old, of a mongrel breed, and has never produced more than one offspring at any previous gestation. I saw her two days after she had calved, at which time she was ruminating, and did not manifest any unusual symptoms of exhaustion. I may mention that the first four calves presented naturally; the fifth was a breech-presentation." CLEANSING.--The _placenta_, or after-birth, by which the _foetus_ is nourished while in embryo, should be removed soon after calving. Generally, it will come away without any assistance. This is what is called "cleansing after calving." When, however, it remains for some time, its function having been performed, it becomes a foreign body, exciting uterine contractions, and therefore injurious. The sooner, then, it is removed, the better for the animal as well as the owner. To accomplish this, the hand should be introduced, and, by pulling gently in various directions, it will soon yield and come away. Should it be allowed to remain, it rapidly decomposes, producing a low, feverish condition of the system, which greatly interferes with the general health of the animal. INVERSION OF THE UTERUS.--The _uterus_ is sometimes turned inside out after calving. This is, generally, the result of debility, or severe labor. The _uterus_ should be replaced as carefully as possible with the hands, care being taken that no dirt, straw, or other foreign substance adheres to it. Should it again be expelled, it would be advisable to quiet the system by the use of an anæsthetic, as chloroform, or--which is much safer--chloric ether. As soon as the animal is under the influence of this, the _uterus_ may be again replaced. The hind-quarters should be raised as high as possible, in order to favor its retention. The animal should have a little gruel and a bottle of porter given to her every five or six hours, and the _vulva_ should be bathed frequently with cold water. PHRENITIS. Inflammation of the brain is one of those dreadful diseases to which all animals are liable. It is known to the farmer as frenzy, mad staggers, etc. The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; the animal stubbornly stands in one position; the eyes are full, red, and fiery; respiration rapid; delirium soon succeeds; the animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and seems bent on mischief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its way. The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, a plethoric condition of the system, and too stimulating food. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, relates a case resulting from the presence within the external _meatus_ of a mass of concrete cerumen, or wax, which induced inflammation of the ear, extending to the brain. _Treatment._--As this is attended with considerable risk, unless it is taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to fainting should be resorted to, and followed by a brisk purge. Take one ounce of Barbadoes aloes, and ten to fifteen drops of Croton-oil; mix the aloes with one pint of water and the oil, using the mixture as a drench. One pound of Epsom-salts will answer the purpose very well, in cases where the aloes and oil cannot be readily obtained. Application of bags of broken ice to the head, is very beneficial. Spirits of turpentine, or mustard, together with spirits of hartshorn and water should be well rubbed in along the spine, from the neck to the tail. PLEURISY. This is an inflammation of the _pleura_, or the serous membrane which lines the cavity of the chest, and which is deflected over the lungs. Inflammation of this membrane rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more generally associated with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If this disease is not attended to at an early period, its usual termination is in hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes which produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, and of the other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy. _Symptoms._--The respiration is quick, short, and painful; pressure between the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, painful cough is present; the respiratory murmur is much diminished,--in fact, it is scarcely audible. This condition is rapidly followed by effusion, which may be detected from the dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to the lower part of the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal for a few days appears to improve, but soon becomes weak, languid, and often exhausted from the slightest exertion. _Treatment._--The same treatment in the early stage is enjoined as in inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will consult--counter-irritation and purgatives. Bleeding never should be resorted to. When effusion takes place, it is necessary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and draw away the fluid, giving internally one of the following purges three times a day: rosin, eight ounces; saltpetre, two ounces, mix, and divide into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of the iodide of potash, dissolved in water, to be given three times daily, will be found useful in this disease. PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. This disease, as its name implies, is an inflammatory condition of the lungs and the _pleura_, or the enveloping membrane of the lungs and the lining membrane of the chest. It is sometimes called contagious, infectious, and epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia,--contagious or infectious, from its supposed property of transmission from the diseased to the healthy animal. [Illustration: TAKING AN OBSERVATION.] A contagious character the author is not ready to assign to it,--contagious, as he understands it, being strictly applicable to those diseases which depend upon actual contact with the poison that it may be communicated from one animal to another. This does not necessarily imply the actual touching of the animals themselves; for it may be communicated from the poison left in the trough, or other places where the diseased animal has been brought in contact with some object, as is often the case in glanders in the horse; the matter discharged from the nose, and left upon the manger, readily communicating that disease to healthy animals coming in contact with it. Contagious diseases, therefore, travel very slowly, starting, as they do, at one point, and gradually spreading over a large district, or section of country. This disease is, however, regarded by the author as infectious; by which term is meant that it is capable of being communicated from the diseased to the healthy animal through the medium of the air, which has become contaminated by the exhalations of poisonous matter. The ability to inoculate other animals in this way is necessarily confined to a limited space, sometimes not extending more than a few yards. Infectious diseases, accordingly, spread with more rapidity than contagious ones, and are, consequently, more to be dreaded; since we can avoid the one with comparatively little trouble, while the other often steals upon us when we regard ourselves as beyond its influence, carrying death and destruction in its course. The term by which this disease is known, is a misnomer. Pleuro-pneumonia proper is neither a contagious, nor an infectious disease; hence, the denial of medical men that this so-called pleuro-pneumonia is a contagious, or infectious disease, has been the means of unnecessarily exposing many animals to its poisonous influence. In the _Recuéil de Médécine Vétérinaire_, for 1833, will be found a very interesting description of this fatal malady. The author, M. Lecoy, Assistant Professor at the Veterinary School of Lyons, France, says: "There are few districts in the _arrondissement_ of Avesnes where more cattle are fattened than in that of Soire-le-Chateau. The farmers being unable to obtain a sufficient supply of cattle in the district, are obliged to purchase the greater part of them from other provinces; and they procure a great number for grazing from Franche Comté. The cattle of this country are very handsome; their forms are compact; they fatten rapidly; and they are a kind of cattle from which the grazer would derive most advantage, were it not that certain diseases absorb, by the loss of some of the animals, the profits of the rest of the herd. Amongst the diseases which most frequently attack the cattle which are brought from the North, there is one very prevalent in some years, and which is the more to be dreaded as it is generally incurable; and the slaughter of the animal, before he is perceptibly wasted, is the only means by which the farmer can avoid losing the whole value of the beast. "This disease is chronic pleuro-pneumonia. The symptoms are scarcely recognizable at first, and often the beast is ill for a long time without its being perceived. He fattens well, and when he is slaughtered the owner is astonished to find scarcely half of the lungs capable of discharging the function of respiration. When, however, the ox has not sufficient strength of constitution to resist the ravages of disease, the first symptom which is observed is diminution, or irregularity of appetite. Soon afterwards, a frequent, dry cough is heard, which becomes feeble and painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portion of the spine (loins) grows tender; the animal flinches when the part is pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan, or grunt, which the graziers regard as decisive of the malady. "Quickly after this, the movements of the flanks become irregular and accelerated, and the act of respiration is accompanied by a kind of balancing motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest become as tender as the loins, or more so; for the animal immediately throws himself down, if pressed upon with any force. The elbows become, in many subjects, more and more separated from the sides of the chest. The pulse is smaller than natural, and not considerably increased. The muzzle is hot and dry, alternately. The animal lies down as in a healthy state, but rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The _fæces_ are harder than they should be; the urine is of its natural color and quantity; the mouth is often dry; and the horns and ears retain their natural temperature. "This first stage of the disease sometimes continues during a month, or more, and then, if the animal is to recover, or at least, apparently so, the symptoms gradually disappear. First of all, the appetite returns, and the beast begins to acquire a little flesh. The proprietor should then make haste and get rid of him; for it is very rare that the malady, however it may be palliated for a while, does not reappear with greater intensity than before. "In most cases, the disease continues to pursue its course toward its termination without any remission,--every symptom gradually increasing in intensity. The respiration becomes more painful; the head is more extended; the eyes are brilliant; every expiration is accompanied with a grunt, and by a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips; the cough becomes smaller, more suppressed, and more painful; the tongue protrudes from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly discharged; the breath becomes offensive; a purulent fluid of a bloody color escapes from the nostrils; diarrhoea, profuse and fetid, succeeds to the constipation; the animal becomes rapidly weaker; he is a complete skeleton, and at length he dies. "Examination after death discloses slight traces of inflammation in the intestines, discoloration of the liver, and a hard, dry substance contained in the manyplus. The lungs adhere to the sides and to the diaphragm by numerous bands, evidently old and very firm. The substance of the lungs often presents a reddish-gray hepatization throughout almost its whole extent. At other times, there are tubercles in almost every state of hardness, and in that of suppuration. The portion of the lungs that is not hepatized is red, and gorged with blood. Besides the old adhesions, there are numerous ones of recent date. The pleura is not much reddened, but by its thickness in some points, its adhesion in others, and the effusion of a serous fluid, it proves how much and how long it has participated in the inflammatory action. The trachea and the bronchia are slightly red, and the right side of the head is gorged with blood. "In a subject in which, during life, I could scarcely feel the beating of the heart, I found the whole of the left lobe of the lungs adhering to the sides, and completely hepatized. In another, that had presented no sign of disease of the chest, and that for some days before his death vomited the little fodder which he could take, the whole of that portion of the oesophagus that passed through the chest was surrounded with dense false membranes, of a yellowish hue, ranging from light to dark, and being in some parts more than an inch in thickness, and adhering closely to the muscular membrane of the tube, without allowing any trace to be perceived of that portion of the mediastinal pleura on which this unnatural covering was fixed and developed. "The cattle purchased in Franche Comté are brought to Avesnes at two periods of the year--in autumn and in the spring. Those which are brought in autumn are much more subject to the disease than those which have arrived in the spring; and it almost always happens that the years in which it shows itself most generally are those in which the weather was most unfavorable while the cattle were on the road. The journey is performed by two different routes,--through Lorraine and through Champagne,--and the disease frequently appears in cattle that have arrived by one of these routes. The manner in which the beasts are treated, on their arrival, may contribute not a little to the development of the malady. These animals, which have been driven long distances in bad weather, and frequently half starved, arrived famished, and therefore the more fatigued, and some of them lame. Calculating on their ravenous appetite, the graziers, instead of giving them wholesome food, make them consume the worst that the farm contains,--musty and mouldy fodder; and it is usually by the cough, which the eating of such food necessarily produces, that the disease is discovered and first developed. "Is chronic pleuro-pneumonia contagious? The farmers believe that it is, and I am partly of their opinion. When an animal falls sick in the pasture, the others, after his removal, go and smell at the grass where he has lain, and which he has covered with his saliva, and, after that, new cases succeed to the first. It is true that this fact is not conclusive, since the disease also appears in a great number of animals that have been widely separated from each other. But I have myself seen three cases in which the cattle of the country, perfectly well before, have fallen ill, and died with the same symptoms, excepting that they have been more acute, after they have been kept with cattle affected with this disease. This circumstance inclines me to think that the disease is contagious; or, at least, that, in the progress of it, the breath infects the cow-house in which there are other animals already predisposed to the same disease. I am induced to believe that most of the serious internal diseases are communicated in this manner, and particularly those which affect the organs of respiration, when the animals are shut up in close, low, and badly-ventilated cow-houses." [_Rec. de Méd. Vét. Mai, 1833._] No malady can be more terrible and ruinous than this among dairy-stock; and its spread all over the country, together with its continuance with scarcely any abatement, must be attributed to the combination of various causes. The chief are: _first_, the very contagious or infectious nature of the disorder; _second_, inattention on the part of Government to the importation and subsequent sale of diseased animals; and, _third_, the recklessness of purchasers of dairy or feeding cattle. This disease may be defined as an acute inflammation of the organs of the chest, with the development of a peculiar and characteristic poison, which is the active element of infection or contagion. It is a disease peculiar to the cattle tribe, notwithstanding occasional assertions regarding observations of the disease among horses, sheep, and other animals,--which pretended observations have not been well attested. The infectious, or contagious nature of this virulent malady is incontestibly substantiated by an overwhelming amount of evidence, which cannot be adduced at full length here, but which may be classified under the following heads: _first_, the constant spreading of the disease from countries in which it rages to others which, previously to the importation of diseased animals, had been perfectly free from it. This may be proved in the case of England, into which country it was carried in 1842, by affected animals from Holland. Twelve months after, it spread from England to Scotland, by means of some cattle sold at All-Hallow Fair, and it was only twelve months afterward that cattle imported as far north as Inverness took the disease there. Lately, a cow taken from England to Australia was observed to be diseased upon landing, and the evil results were limited to her owner's stock, who gave the alarm, and ensured an effectual remedy against a wider spread. Besides, the recent importation of pleuro-pneumonia into the United States from Holland appears to have awakened our agricultural press generally, and to have convinced them of the stubborn fact that our cattle have been decimated by a fearfully infectious, through probably preventable, plague. A letter from this country to an English author says: "Its (pleuro-pneumonia's) contagious character seems to be settled beyond a doubt, though some of the V.S. practitioners deny it, which is almost as reasonable as it would be to deny any other well-authenticated historic fact. Every case of the disease is traceable to one of two sources; either to Mr. Chenery's stock in Belmont (near Boston, Massachusetts), into which the disease was introduced by his importation of four Dutch cows from Holland, which arrived here the 23d of last May; or else to one of the three calves which he sold to a farmer in North Brookfield, Massachusetts, last June." _2dly._ Apart from the importation into countries, we have this certain proof--to which special attention was drawn several years ago--that cattle-dealers' farms, and public markets, constitute the busy centres of infection. Most anxious and careful inquiries have established the proposition that in breeding-districts, where the proprietors of extensive dairies--as in Dumfries, Scotland, and other places--abstain from buying, except from their neighbors, who have never had diseases of the lungs amongst their stock, pleuro-pneumonia has not been seen. There is a wide district in the Vicinity of Abington, England, and in the parish of Crawford, which has not been visited _by_ this plague, with the exception of two farms, into which market-cattle had been imported and thus brought the disease. _3dly._ In 1854 appeared a Report of the Researches on Pleuro-Pneumonia, by a scientific commission, instituted by the Minister of Agriculture in France. This very able pamphlet was edited by Prof. Bouley, of Alfort, France. The members of the commission belonged to the most eminent veterinarians and agriculturists in France. Magendie was President; Regnal, Secretary; besides Rayer, the renowned comparative pathologist; Yvart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Renault, Inspector of the Imperial Veterinary Schools; Delafond, Director of Alfort College; Bouley, Lassaigne, Baudemont, Doyére, Manny de Morny, and a few others representing the public. If such a commission were occasionally appointed in this country for similar purposes, how much light would be thrown on subjects of paramount importance to the agricultural community! Conclusions arrived at by the commission are too important to be overlooked in this connection. The reader must peruse the Report itself, if he needs to satisfy himself as to the care taken in conducting the investigations: but the foregoing names sufficiently attest the indisputable nature of the facts alluded to. In instituting its experiments, the commission had in view the solving of the following questions:-- _1stly._ Is the epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia of cattle susceptible of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation? _2dly._ In the event of such contagion's existing, would all the animals become affected, or what proportion would resist the disease? _3dly._ Amongst the animals attacked by the disease, how many recover, and under what circumstances? How many succumb? _4thly._ Are there any animals of the ox species decidedly free from any susceptibility of being affected from the contagion of pleuro-pneumonia? _5thly._ Do the animals, which have been once affected by a mild form of the disease, enjoy immunity from subsequent attacks? _6thly._ Do the animals, which have once been affected by the disease in its active form, enjoy such immunity? To determine these questions, the commission submitted at different times to the influence of cohabitation with diseased animals forty-six perfectly healthy ones, chosen from districts in which they had never been exposed to a similar influence. Of these forty-six animals, twenty were experimented on at Pomeraye, two at Charentonneau, thirteen at Alfort, and eleven, in the fourth experiment, at Charentonneau. Of this number, twenty-one animals resisted the disease when first submitted to the influence of cohabitation, ten suffered slightly, and fifteen took the disease. Of the fifteen affected, four died, and eleven recovered. Consequently, the animals which apparently escaped the disease at the first trial amounted to 45.65 per cent., and those affected to 21.73 per cent. Of these, 23.91 per cent. recovered, and 8.69 per cent. died. But the external appearances in some instances proved deceptive, and six of the eleven animals of the last experiment, which were regarded as having escaped free, were found, on being destroyed, to bear distinct evidence of having been affected. This, therefore, modifies the foregoing calculations, and the numbers should stand thus:-- 15 enjoy immunity, or 32.61 per cent. 10 indisposed, " 21.73 " 17 animals cured, " 36.95 " 4 dead, " 8.98 " Of the forty-two animals which were exposed in the first experiments at Pomeraye and Charentonneau, and which escaped either without becoming affected, or recovering, eighteen were submitted to a second trial; and of these eighteen animals, five had, in the first experiment, suffered from the disease and had recovered; five had now become affected; and four had been indisposed. The four animals submitted to the influence of contagion a third time, had been affected on the occasion of the first trial. None of the eighteen animals contracted the disease during these renewed exposures to the influence of contagion. From the results of these experiments, the commission drew the following conclusions:-- _1stly._ The epizoötic pleuro-pneumonia is susceptible of being transmitted from diseased to healthy animals by cohabitation. _2dly._ All the animals exposed do not take the disease; some suffer slightly, and others not at all. _3dly._ Of the affected animals, some recover and others die. _4thly._ The animals, whether slightly or severely affected, possess an immunity against subsequent attacks. These are the general conclusions which the commission deemed themselves authorized to draw from their experiments. The absolute proportion of animals which become affected, or which escape the disease, or of those which die and which recover, as a general rule, cannot be deduced from the foregoing experiments, which, for such a purpose, are too limited. The commission simply state the numbers resulting from their experiments. From these it transpires that forty five of the animals became severely affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and twenty-one per cent. took the disease slightly, making the whole sixty-six per cent. which were more or less severely attacked. Thirty-four per cent. remained free from any malady. The proportion of animals which re-acquired their wonted appearance of health amounted to eighty-three per cent., whereas seventeen per cent. died. Many minor points might be insisted on, but it is sufficient here to say, that the most careful analysis of all facts has proved to practical veterinarians, as well as to experienced agriculturists, and must prove to all who will calmly and dispassionately consider the point, that pleuro-pneumonia is pre-eminently an infectious, or contagious disease. [Illustration: THE TWINS.] _Symptoms._--From the time that an animal is exposed to the contagion to the first manifestation of symptoms, a certain period elapses. This is the period of incubation. It varies from a fortnight to forty days, or even several months. The first signs, proving that the animal has been seized, can scarcely be detected by any but a professional man; though, if a proprietor of cattle were extremely careful, and had pains-taking individuals about his stock, he would invariably notice a slight shiver as ushering in the disorder, which for several days, even after the shivering fit, would limit itself to slight interference in breathing, readily detected on auscultation. Perhaps a cough might be noticed, and that the appetite and milk-secretion diminished. The animal becomes costive, and the shivering fits recur. The cough becomes more constant and oppressive; the pulse full and frequent, usually numbering about eighty per minute at first, and rising to upwards of one hundred. The temperature of the body rises, and all the symptoms of acute fever set in. A moan, or grunt, in the early part of the disease indicates a dangerous attack, and the _alae nasi_ (cartilages of the nose) rise spasmodically at each inspiration; the air rushes through the inflamed windpipe and bronchial tubes, so as to produce a loud, coarse respiratory murmur; and the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles indicates the difficulty the animal also experiences in the act of expiration. Pressure over the intercostal (between the ribs) spaces, and pressing on the spine, induce the pain so characteristic of pleurisy, and a deep moan not infrequently follows such an experiment. The eyes are bloodshot, mouth clammy, skin dry and tightly bound to the subcutaneous textures, and the urine is scanty and high-colored. Upon auscultation, the characteristic dry, sonorous _râle_ of ordinary bronchitis may be detected along the windpipe, and in the bronchial tubes. A loud sound of this description is, not infrequently, detected at the anterior part of either side of the chest; whilst the respiratory murmur is entirely lost, posteriorly, from consolidation of the lungs. A decided leathery, frictional sound is detected over a considerable portion of the thoracic surface. As the disease advances, and gangrene, with the production of cavities in the lungs, ensues, loud, cavernous _râles_ are heard, which are more or less circumscribed, occasionally attended by a decided metallic noise. When one lobe of the lungs is alone affected, the morbid sounds are confined to one side, and on the healthy side the respiratory murmur is uniformly louder all over. By carefully auscultating diseased cows from day to day, interesting changes can be discovered during the animal's lifetime. Frequently, the abnormal sounds indicate progressive destruction; but, at other times, portions of the lungs that have been totally impervious to air, become the seat of sibilant _râles_, and gradually, a healthy respiratory murmur proves that, by absorption of the materials which have been plugging the tissues of the lungs, resolution is fast advancing. Some very remarkable cases of this description have been encountered in practice. Unfortunately, we often find a rapid destruction of the tissues of the lungs, and speedy dissolution. In other instances, the general symptoms of hectic, or consumption, attend lingering cases, in which the temperature of the body becomes low, and the animal has a dainty appetite, or refuses all nourishment. It has a discharge from the eyes, and a fetid, sanious discharge from the nose. Not infrequently, it coughs up disorganized lung-tissue and putrid pus. Great prostration, and, indeed, typhus symptoms, set in. There is a fetid diarrhoea, and the animal sinks in the most emaciated state, often dying from suffocation, in consequence of the complete destruction of the respiratory structures. _Post mortem_ appearances.--In acute cases, the cadaverous lesions chiefly consist in abundant false membranes in the trachea, or windpipe, and closure of the bronchial tubes by plastic lymph. The air-vesicles are completely plugged by this material, and very interesting specimens may be obtained by careful dissection, in the shape of casts of the bronchial tubes and air-vesicles, clustered together like bunches of grapes. On slicing the lungs in these cases, hepatization is observed, presenting a very peculiar appearance, which is, in a great measure, due to the arrangement of the lung-tissue in cattle. The pulmonary lobules are of a deep-red or brown color, perfectly consolidated, and intersected or separated, one from the other, by lighter streaks of yellowish-red lymph, occupying the interlobular, areolar tissue. In the more chronic cases, the diseased lobes and lobules are found partly separated from the more healthy structures. This occurs from gangrene, and putrefactive changes, or in some instances, from the ulcerative process, so constantly observed in the segregation of dead from living tissues. Abscesses are not infrequently found in different parts of the lungs. Sometimes circumscribed, at others connected with bronchial tubes, and not infrequently communicating with the pleural cavity. True empyema is not often seen; but, at all times, the adhesions between the costal and visceral pleura are extensive, and there is much effusion in the chest. In dressed carcasses of cows that have been slaughtered from pleuro-pneumonia, even though the disease has not been far advanced, it will be found that the butcher has carefully scraped the serous membrane off the inner surface of the ribs, as it would otherwise be impossible for him to give the pleura its healthy, smooth aspect, from the firm manner in which the abundant false membranes adhere to it. The diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight. They have been known to weigh as much as sixty pounds. _Treatment._--The veterinary profession is regarded by many who have sustained heavy losses from pleuro-pneumonia, as deeply ignorant, because its members cannot often cure the disease. Persons forget that there are several epidemics which prove equally difficult to manage on the part of the physician, such as cholera, yellow fever, etc. The poison in these contagious, epizoötic diseases is so virulent that the animals may be regarded as dead from the moment they are attacked. Its elimination from the system is impossible, and medicine cannot support an animal through its tardy, exhausting, and destructive process of clearing the system of so potent a virus. All antiphlogistic means have failed, such as blood-letting and the free use of evacuants. Derivatives, in the form of mustard-poultices, or more active blisters, are attended with good results. Stimulants have proved of the greatest service; and the late Prof. Tessona, of Turin, strongly recommended, from the very onset of the disease, the administration of strong doses of quinine. Maffei, of Ferrara, states that he has obtained great benefit from the employment of ferruginous tonics and manganese in the very acute stage of the malady, supported by alcoholic stimulants. Recently, the advantages resulting from the use of sulphate of iron, both as a preventive and curative, have been exhibited in France. It would appear that the most valuable depurative method of treatment yet resorted to is by the careful use of the Roman bath. Acting, like all other sudorifics in cases of fever and blood diseases, it carries off by the skin much of the poison, without unduly lowering the vital powers. _Prevention._--The rules laid down in Denmark, and indeed in many other places, appear the most natural for the prevention of the disease. If they could be carried out, the disease must necessarily be stopped; but there are practical and insuperable difficulties in the way of enforcing them. Thus, a Dr. Warneke says, prevention consists in "the avoidance of contagion; the slaughter of infected beasts; the prohibition of keeping cattle by those whose cattle have been slaughtered, for a space of ten weeks after the last case occurring; the disinfection of stalls vacated by slaughtering; the closing of infected places to all passing of cattle; especial attention to the removal of the dung, and of the remains of the carcasses of slaughtered beasts; and, finally, undeviating severity of the law against violators." Dr. Williams, of Hasselt, suggested and carried out, in 1851, the inoculation of the virus of pleuro-pneumonia, in order to induce a mild form of the disease in healthy animals, and prevent their decimation by the severe attacks due to contagion. He met with much encouragement, and perhaps more opposition. Didot, Corvini, Ercolani, and many more accepted Dr. Williams's facts as incontestable, and wrote, advocating his method of checking the spread of so destructive a plague. The first able memoir which contested all that has been said in favor of inoculation, appeared in Turin, and was written by Dr. Riviglio, a Piedmontese veterinary surgeon. This was supported by the views of many others. Prof. Simonds wrote against the plan, and, in 1854, the French commission, whose report has been before mentioned, confirmed, in part, Riviglio's views, though, from the incompleteness of the experiments, further trials were recommended. Inoculation is performed as follows: A portion of diseased lung is chosen, and a bistoury or needle made to pierce it so as to become charged with the material consolidating the lung, and this is afterward plunged into any part, but, more particularly, toward the point of the tail. If operated severely, and higher up, great exudation occurs, which spreads upward, invades the areolar tissue round the rectum and other pelvic organs, and death soon puts an end to the animal's excruciating suffering. If the operation is properly performed with lymph that is not putrid, and the incisions are not made too deep, the results are limited to local exudation and swelling, general symptoms of fever, and gradual recovery. The most common occurrence is sloughing of the tail; and in London, at the present time, dairies are to be seen in which all the cows have short-tail stumps. Dr. Williams and others have gone too far in attempting to describe a particular corpuscle as existing in the lymph of pleuro-pneumonia. All animal poisons can be alone discovered from their effects. In structure and chemical constitution, there is no difference, and often the most potent poisons are simple fluids. The Belgian Commission, appointed to investigate the nature and influence of inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia, very justly expressed an opinion that Dr. Williams had not proved that a specific product, distinguished by anatomical characters, and appreciable by the microscope, existed in this disease. The all-important question, "Is inoculation of service?" has to the satisfaction of most been solved. The Belgian and French commissions, the observations of Riviglio, Simond, Herring, and many others, prove that a certain degree of preservative influence is derived by the process of inoculation. It does not, however, arrest the progress of the disease. It certainly diminishes to some extent--though often very slightly so--the number of cases, and, particularly, of severe ones. This effect has been ascribed to a derivative action, independent of any specific influence, and, indeed, similar to that of introducing setons in the dewlap. In London, some dairymen have considerable faith in inoculation, though its effect is uncertain, and the manner of its working a mystery. The best counsel, in the premises, which can be given to the keeper of dairy stock is, to select his own animals from healthy herds, and strictly to avoid public markets. In many instances, a faithful observance of these injunctions has been sufficient to prevent the invasion of this terrible disease. [Gamgee.] The existence of this disease in the United States was not generally known until the year 1859, when Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston, Massachusetts, imported several cows from Holland, which arrived in the early part of the spring of that year. Some of the animals were sick when they arrived, but the true nature of the disease was not at that time suspected. Several of them were so bad that they were carried in trucks to Mr. Chenery's barn. Some two months passed away before the character of the disease was discovered. Upon the facts becoming known, the citizens of Massachusetts became panic-stricken, as the disease was rapidly spreading over that State. An extra session of the Legislature was speedily convened, when a Joint Special Committee was appointed, to adopt and carry out such measures as in their judgment seemed necessary for the extirpation of this monster, pleuro-pneumonia. The Committee met in the Hall of the House of Representatives, Thursday, May, 31, 1860, to receive evidence as to the contagious or infectious character of the disease, in order to determine concerning the necessity of legislative action. Mr. Walker, one of the commissioners appointed by the Governor, made the following statement: "The disease was introduced into North Brookfield from Belmont. Mr. Curtis Stoddard, a young man of North Brookfield, went down, the very last of June, last year, and purchased three calves of Mr. Chenery, of Belmont. He brought these calves up in the cars to Brookfield. On their way from the depôt to his house, about five miles, one of the calves was observed to falter, and when he got to his house, it seemed to be sick, and in two or three days exhibited very great illness; so much so, that his father came along, and, thinking he could take better care of it, took the calf home. He took it to his own barn, in which there were about forty head of cattle; but it grew no better, and his son went up and brought it back again to his own house. In about ten days after that, it died. His father, who had had the calf nearly four days, in about a fortnight afterward observed that one of his oxen was sick, and it grew worse very fast and died. Two weeks after, a second also sickened, and died. Then a third was attacked and died, the interval growing wider from the attack of one animal to that of another, until he had lost eight oxen and cows. Young Stoddard lost no animal by the infection,--that is, no one died on his hands. Prior to the appointment of this Commission, about the first of November,--for reasons independent of this disease, which I don't suppose he then knew the nature of,--he sold off his stock. He sold off eleven heifers, or young animals, and retained nine of the most valuable himself; which shows that he did not then know any thing was the matter with them. "These nine were four oxen, and five young cattle. The four he took to his father's, three of the others to his uncle's, and the remaining two to his father-in-law's; distributing them all among his friends,--which furnishes another proof that he did not suppose he was doing any mischief. He disposed of his herd in that way. From this auction, these eleven animals went in different directions, and wherever they went, they scattered the infection. Without a single failure the disease has followed those cattle; in one case, more than two hundred cattle having been infected by one which was sold at Curtis Stoddard's auction, when he was entirely ignorant of the disease. "When the commission was appointed, they went and examined his cattle, and were satisfied that they were diseased,--at least, some of them. They examined his father's herd, and found that they were very much diseased; and when we came to kill Curtis Stoddard's cattle, seven of the nine head were diseased. Two were not condemned, because the law says, 'Cattle not appearing to be diseased, shall be appraised.' Nevertheless, it proved that these animals were diseased; so that his whole herd was affected. "In regard to Leonard Stoddard's cattle, he lost fourteen of his animals before the commissioners went to his place. They took eighteen more, all of which were diseased,--most of them very bad cases,--indeed, extreme cases. That left eight heads, which were not condemned, because not appearing to be diseased. Here I remark, that when this disease is under the shoulder-blade, it cannot be detected by percussion. The physicians did not say that the animal was not diseased, but that they did not see sufficient evidence upon which to condemn. Such animals were to be paid for, upon the ground of their not appearing to be diseased. Nevertheless, it is proper to state that the remaining eight which were not condemned, were suspected to be diseased, and we told Mr. Stoddard that we had the impression that they were diseased, notwithstanding appearances. He said, 'There is a three-year-old animal that has never faltered at all. She has never manifested the slightest disease. If you will kill her, and she is diseased, I shall make up my mind that I have not a well animal in my stalls.' We killed the animal, and found her to be badly diseased. "Thus, the first two herds were all infected by the disease; and in the last of Curtis Stoddard's oxen which we killed, we found a cyst in the lungs of each. One of these lungs is now in this building, never having been cut open, and medical men can see the cyst which it contains. I have said in what manner Mr. Curtis Stoddard's cattle spread the infection. "In regard to Mr. Leonard Stoddard's: in the first place, he kept six or eight oxen which he employed in teaming. He was drawing some lumber, and stopped over night, with his oxen, at Mr. Needham's. Needham lost his whole herd. He lost eight or ten of them, and the rest were in a terrible condition. Seven or eight more were condemned, and his whole herd was destroyed, in consequence of Mr. Stoddard's stopping with him over night. Mr. Stoddard sold an animal to Mr. Woodis of New Braintree. He had twenty-three fine cows. It ruined his herd utterly. Seven or eight animals died before the commissioners got there. Mr. L. Stoddard also sold a yoke of cattle to Mr. Olmstead, one of his neighbors, who had a very good herd. They stayed only five days in his hands, when they passed over to Mr. Doane. In these five days they had so infected his herd that it was one of the most severe instances of disease that we have had. One third were condemned, and another third were passed over as sound, whether they were so, or not. They did not appear to be diseased. The cattle that were passed from Mr. Stoddard through Mr. Olmstead to Mr. Doane, were loaned by Mr. D. to go to a moving of a building from Oakham to New Braintree. They were put in with twenty-two yoke of cattle, and employed a day and a half. It has since been proved that the whole of these cattle took the contagion. They belonged to eleven different herds, and of course, each of these herds formed a focus from which the disease spread. Now, in these two ways the disease has spread in different directions. "But, when the commissioners first commenced, they had no idea that the disease extended further than those herds in which there were animals sick. Hence, their ideas and the ideas of those who petitioned for the law, did not extend at all to so large a number of herds as have since been proved to be diseased, because they only judged of those who manifested disease. As soon as we began in that circle, we found a second circle of infection, and another outside of that; and by that time it had branched off in various directions to various towns. It assumed such proportions that it was very evident that the commissioners had not the funds to perform the operations required by the law. The law confines the commissioners to one operation,--killing and burying. No discretionary power is given at all. The commissioners became entirely dissatisfied with that condition of things, because other measures besides merely killing and burying, are quite as necessary and important. When they arrived at that point and discovered to what extent the infection had spread, they stopped killing the herds, and I believe there has not been a herd killed for twenty days. "The policy was then changed to circumscribing the disease, by isolating the herds just as fast as possible and as surely as possible. A man's herd has been exposed. There is no other way than to go and examine it, and take the diseased animals away. Then he knows the animals are diseased, and his neighbors know it. That has been the business of the commissioners for the last twenty days; and the facts that they have no discretionary power whatever, and that they were entirely circumscribed in their means, and that it was hard for the farmers to lose their stock and not be paid for it,--induced them to petition the Governor, in connection with the Board of Agriculture, for the calling of a session of the Legislature, to take measures for the extinction of the disease." In response to a question, "Whether any animals that had once been affected, had afterward recovered?"--the same gentleman stated that instances had occurred where cattle had been sick twice, and had, apparently, fully recovered; they ruminated readily, and were gaining flesh. Upon examination, however, they were pronounced diseased, and, when killed, both lungs were found in a hopeless case, very badly diseased. Dr. George B. Loring, another of the commissioners, stated that eight hundred and forty-two head of cattle had, at that time, been killed, and that, from a careful estimate, there still remained one thousand head, which should either be killed, or isolated for such a length of time as should establish the fact that they had no disease about them. Twenty thousand dollars and upwards had already been appraised as the value of the cattle then killed. As to disinfecting measures, the farmers who had lost cattle were requested to whitewash their barns thoroughly, and some tons of a disinfecting powder were purchased for the advantage of the persons who wished to use it. An early application was advised, that the barns might be in readiness for hay the then coming season. The practice adopted by the commissioners was, to appraise the cattle whenever a herd was found which had been exposed, and a surgeon was appointed to pass judgment upon the number of diseased animals. After that judgment, the remaining animals that were pronounced sound were killed and passed to the credit of the owner, after an appraisement made by these persons. The fair market-prices were paid, averaging about thirty-three dollars a head. At the time of the meeting of the committee, some seventy cattle had died of the disease. An examination was made of some of the animals killed, and the following facts obtained:-- Case 1.--This cow had been sick for nineteen days; was feeble, without much appetite, with diarrhoea, cough, shortness of breathing, hair staring, etc. Percussion dull over the whole of the left side of the chest; respiration weak. Killed by authority. Several gallons of serum were found in the left side of the chest; a thick, furzy deposit of lymph over all the _pleura-costalis_. This lymph was an inch in thickness, resembling the velvety part of tripe, and quite firm. There was a firm deposit of lymph in the whole left lung, but more especially at its base, with strong adhesions to the diaphragm and _pleura-costalis_ near the spine. The lung was hard and brittle, like liver, near its base. No pus. Right lung and right side of chest healthy. Case 2.--This cow was taken very sick, January 30th. In fourteen days, she began to get better. April 12th, she is gaining flesh, breathes well, hair healthy, gives ten quarts of milk a day, and in all other respects bids fair for a healthy animal hereafter, except a slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung, near the spine, and respiration feeble in the same regions. Autopsy.--Left lung strongly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; the long adhesions well smoothed off; _pleura-costalis_ shining and healthy. Also, the surface of the lung, when there were no adhesions, sound and right; all the lung white, and free for the entrance of air, except the base, in which was a cyst containing a pint or two of pus. Loose in this pus was a hard mass, as large as a two-quart measure, looking like marble; when cut through its centre, it appeared like the brittle, hardened lining in case 1. It appeared as though a piece of lung had been detached by suppuration and enclosed in an air-tight cyst, by which decomposition was prevented. The other lung and the chest were sound. It is to be inferred, as there were adhesions, that there had been pleurisy and deposit of lymph and serum, as in case 1, and that Nature had commenced the cure by absorbing the serum from the chest, and the lymph from the free pleural surface, and smoothed off every thing to a good working condition. The lump in the cyst was brittle and irregular on its surface, as though it was dissolving in the pus. No good reason can be given why Nature should not consummate the work which she had so wisely begun. Case 3.--This cow had been sick fourteen days; was coughing and breathing badly; percussion dull over both chests and respiration feeble. Killed. Autopsy.--Both chests filled with water; deposits of lymph over all the _pleura-costalis_, presenting the same velvety, furzy appearance as in Case 1. Both lungs were hardened at the base, and the left throughout its whole extent, and firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near the spine. The right lung had nearly one-third of its substance in a condition for the entrance of air; but this portion, even, was so compressed with the water, that a few hours longer would have terminated the case fatally without State aid. This case had not proceeded far enough for the formation of the cyst or pus. In Mr. Needham's herd, about twenty-eight days intervened between the first and second case of disease, instead of about fourteen, as in Mr. Olmstead's. Case 4.--A nice heifer, in fair condition, eating well, only having a slight cough. Percussion dull over base of the left lung. Autopsy.--Base of left lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; lung hardened. On cutting into base, found ulceration and a head of Timothy grass, four or five inches long. Animal in every other way well. Case 5.--This cow was taken, January 1st, with a cough, difficulty of breathing, and the other symptoms of the disease, and continued sick till March 1st. On taking her out, April 12th, to be slaughtered, she capered, stuck up her tail, snuffed, and snorted, showing all the signs of feeling well and vigorous. Autopsy.--Right lung firmly adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura, near the spine. Base of lung hardened, containing a cyst with a large lump, of the size of a two-quart measure, floating in pus; outside of the lump was of a dirty yellow-white, irregular, brittle, and cheesy; the inside mottled, or divided into irregular squares; red like muscle, and breaking under the finger, like liver. Costal pleura smooth, shining; adhesions where there was motion; card-like and polished; no serum; lung apparently performing its functions well, except for a short distance above the air-tight cyst, where it was still hardened. It would seem as though Nature was intending to dissolve this lump, and carry it off by absorption. She knows how, and would have done it, in the opinion of the writer, had she been allowed sufficient time. Case 6.--Was taken December 18th, and was very sick; in three weeks she was well, except a cough, quite severe, and so continued till about the first of March, when she coughed harder and grew worse till seven days before she was killed, April 12th, when she brought forth a calf, and then commenced improving again. Autopsy.--Right lung adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura. At its base, was a flabby, fluctuating cyst. In cutting into it, the lump was found to be breaking up by decomposition, and scenting badly. Every thing else normal. Was not the cyst broken through by some accident, thus letting in the air, when she grew worse? Would she not, probably, have overcome this disagreeable accident, and recovered, in spite of it? This cow's hair did not look well, as did that of those in which the cyst was air-tight; but still she was beginning to eat well again, and appeared in a tolerable way for recovery. Case 7.--This heifer had coughed slightly for six weeks, but the owner said he thought no one going into his herd would notice that any thing was the matter with her. [Illustration: A RURAL SCENE.] Autopsy.--Slight adhesions of lung to diaphragm. Near these adhesions are small cysts, of the size of a walnut, containing pus and cheesy matter; about the cysts a little way the lung was hardened, say for half an inch. There were several cysts, and they appeared as though the inflammation attacked only the different lobes of the lungs, leaving others healthy between,--Nature throwing out coagulable lymph around the diseased lobe, and forming thereby an air-tight cyst, cutting around the diseased lobe by suppuration, so that it could be carried off by absorption. In the herd to which this animal belonged, nine days after the first cow died, the second case occurred. First cow was sick five weeks. The time of incubation could not have been over six weeks,--probably not over three weeks. Of these cows, one improved in eight weeks, the other in three weeks. Case 8.--This cow had been sick three weeks. Killed. Autopsy.--Large quantities of serum in left chest; lung adherent, and hardened at base. On cutting into the hardened lung, one side of the lump was found separated from the lung, with pus between the lines of separation, and the forming coat of the cyst outside of the pus; the other side of the lump was part and parcel of the hardened lung which had not yet had time to commence separation. The costal pleura was covered with organized lymph to the thickness of an inch, with the usual characteristics. The right chest contained a small quantity of serum, and had several small, hardened red spots in that lung, with some tender, weak adhesions; but most of the right lung was healthy. Case 9.--Sick four weeks. Killed. Autopsy.--Right lung hardened at base; adherent to diaphragm and costal pleura; lump separated on one side only. Cyst beginning to form, outside of separation; pus between cyst and lump, but in a very small quantity. These two cases settle the character of the lump, and the manner of the formation of the cyst; the lump being lung and lymph, cut out by suppuration,--the cyst being organized, smoothed off by suppuration, friction, etc. Case 10.--Killed. Hair looked badly; but the cow, it was said, ate, and appeared well. This case, however, occurred in a herd, of which no reliable information, in detail, could be procured. Autopsy.--Base of lung hardened, adherent to diaphragm; containing a cyst, in which was a lump, of the size of a quart measure, but little pus. This lump had air-tubes running through it, which were not yet cut off by suppuration; and in one place, the cyst was perforated by a bronchial tube, letting in the external air to the lump, which was undergoing disorganization, and swelling badly. When cut into, it did not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts. Quite a number of other cases were examined, but these ten present all the different phases. One or two cases are needed of an early stage of the disease, to settle the point, whether, in all cases, the primary disease is lung fever, and the pleurisy a continuation, merely, of the primary disease; together with some six or eight cases, during five, six, seven, eight months from attack, and so on till entire, final recovery. Some cases were sick almost a year since, and are now apparently quite well; perhaps all the lump and pus are not yet gone. Many practitioners think that no severe case will ever recover, and some think that none ever get entirely well. Others, however, can see no reason why, as a general rule, all single cases should not recover, and all double cases die. The disease was the most fatal in Mr. Chenery's (the original) herd, although it was the best-fed and the warmest-stabled. He attributed the fatality, in part, to a want of sufficient ventilation. The other herds, in which all the fatal cases occurred in two hours, consisted, originally, one of forty-eight head, of which thirteen died, or were killed, to prevent certain death; of twenty-three head, of which seven died; of twenty-two head, of which eight died; of twenty-two head, of which eight also died; and of twenty-one head, of which four died. A little less than thirty per cent., therefore, of these herds died. This estimate excludes the calves. Most of the cows which had not calved before being attacked, lost their calves prematurely. The probable time of incubation, as deduced from those Massachusetts cases, is from two to three weeks; of propagation, about the same time; the acute stage of the disease lasting about three weeks. The author's attention was first directed to this disease, upon its appearance in Camden and Gloucester counties, New Jersey, in the year 1859, at about the same time it made its advent in Massachusetts. The singularity of this coincidence inclined him for the time to regard the disease as an epizoötic--having its origin in some peculiar condition of the atmosphere--rather than as a contagious, or infectious disease, which position was at that time assumed by him. This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that no case occurring in New Jersey could be traced to a Massachusetts origin, in which State it was claimed that the disease never had existed in this country previous to its introduction there. It was, therefore, denied by the veterinary surgeons in the Eastern States, that the disease in New Jersey was the true European pleuro-pneumonia, but it was called by them the swill-milk disease of New York City, and it was assigned an origin in the distillery cow-houses in Brooklyn and Williamsburg. In 1860 it found its way across the Delaware River into Philadelphia, spreading very rapidly in all directions, particularly in the southern section of the county, known as The Neck,--many of the dairymen losing from one third to one half of their herds by its devastating influence. In order to save themselves--in part, at least--from this heavy loss, many of them, upon the first indications of the malady, sent their animals to the butcher, to be slaughtered for beef. In 1861 the disease found its way into Delaware, where its ravages were severely felt. So soon, however, as it became known that the disease was infectious or contagious, an effort was made to trace it to its starting-point; but, in consequence of the unwillingness of dairymen to communicate the fact that their herds were affected with pleuro-pneumonia, all efforts proved fruitless. In 1860 the disease found its way up the Delaware to Riverton, a short distance above the city of Philadelphia. A cattle-dealer, named Ward, turned some cattle into a lot, adjoining which several others were grazing. The residents of this place are chiefly the families of gentlemen doing business in the city, many of whom lost their favorite animals from this destructive malady. The first case occurring at this place, to which the author's attention was called, was a cow belonging to Mr. D. Parrish, which had been exposed by coming in contact with Ward's cattle, had sickened, and died. An anxiety having been manifested to ascertain the cause of the death, the author made an examination of the animal, which, upon dissection, proved the disease to be a genuine case of the so-called pleuro-pneumonia. This examination was made August 20th, 1860, at the time of the Massachusetts excitement. Two cows, belonging to Mr. Rose, of the same place, had been exposed, and both had taken the disease. His attention having been called to them, he placed them under the author's treatment, and by the use of diffusible stimulants and tonics, one of these animals recovered, while the other was slaughtered for an examination, which revealed all the morbid conditions so characteristic of this disease. The next case was a cow belonging to Mr. G. H. Roach, of the same place, which had been grazing in a lot adjoining that of Mr. Parrish. This cow was killed in the presence of Charles Wood, V.S., of Boston, Mass., and Arthur S. Copeman, of Utica, N. Y., who was one of a committee appointed by the New York State Agricultural Society for the purpose of investigating the disease. Both of these gentlemen having witnessed the disease in-all its forms, as it appeared in Massachusetts, were the first to identify this case with those in that State. Upon opening the cow, the left lung was found to be completely consolidated, and adhered to the left side, presenting the appearance usual in such cases. As she was with calf, the lungs of the foetus were examined, disclosing a beautiful state of red hepatization. The author's attention was next called to the herd of Mr. Lippincott, a farmer in the neighborhood, who had lost several cattle by the disease; but as he had been persuaded that treatment was useless, he abandoned the idea of attempting to save his stock in that way. From Riverton it soon spread to Burlington, some ten miles farther up the river, where it carried off large numbers of valuable cattle, and it continued in existence in that neighborhood for some time. The disease was not then confined to these localities alone, but has spread over a large extent of country,--and that, too, prior to its appearance in Massachusetts, as will be shown by extracts from the following letters, published in the _Country Gentleman_:-- "We have a disease among the cattle here, I will class it under these names,--congestion of the lungs, terminating with consumption, or dropsy of the chest. Now, I have treated two cases; one five years since, as congestion,--and the first is still able to eat her allowance, and give a couple of pails of milk a day,--and the other, quite recently. The great terror of this disease is, that it is not taken in its first stages, which are the same in the cow as in the man--a difficulty in breathing, which, if not speedily relieved, terminates in consumption or dropsy. I have no doubt that consumption is contagious; but is that a reason why every one taken with congestion should be killed to check the spread of consumption? So I should reason, if I had pleuro-pneumonia in my drove of cattle. J. BALDWIN. "NEWARK, N. J., June 11, 1860." "I notice that a good deal of alarm is felt in different parts of the country about what is called the cattle-disease. "From the diagnosis given in the papers, I have no doubt this is pleuro-pneumonia, with which I had some acquaintance a few years ago. If it is the same, my observation and experience may be of some service to those suffering now. "It was introduced into my stock, in the fall of 1853, by one of my own cows, which, in the spring of that year, I had sent down to my brother in Brooklyn, to be used during the summer for milk. She was kept entirely isolated through out the summer, and in November was sent up by the boat. There were no other cattle on the boat at the time, nor could I learn that she had come in contact with any in passing through the streets on her way to the boat; and she certainly did not, after leaving it, until she mingled with her old companions, all of whom were then, and long afterward, perfectly well. After she had been home about two weeks, we noticed that her appetite failed, and her milk fell off: she seemed dull and stupid, stood with her head down, and manifested a considerable degree of languor. "Soon her breathing became somewhat hurried, and with a decided catch in it; she ground her teeth; continued standing, or, if she lay down, it was only to jump up again instantly. Her cough increased, and so, too, a purulent and, bloody discharge from her nostrils and mouth. The excrement was fetid, black, and hard. "In this case, we twice administered half a pound of Epsom-salts, and afterward, a bottle of castor-oil. Very little, but a temporary effect was produced by these doses. "The symptoms all increased in intensity; strength diminished; limbs drawn together; belly tucked up, etc.; until the eight day, when she partly lay, and partly fell down, and never rose again. "In a _post-mortem_ examination, the lungs were gorged with black, fetid blood; the substance of them thickened and pulpy. The pleura and diaphragm also showed a good deal of disease and some adhesion. This cow, on her arrival here, was put in her usual place in the stable, between others. She remained there for two or three days after she was taken sick, before we removed her to the hospital. "In about three weeks from the time she died, one and then the other of those standing on either side of her were attacked in the same way, and with but two days between. This, certainly, looks very much like contagion; but my attention had not before been called to this particular disease, and to suppose inflammation or congestion of the lungs contagious was so opposed to my preconceived notions, that I did not even then admit it; and these animals were suffered to remain with the others until their own comfort seemed to require the greater liberty of open pens. "One of them was early and copiously bled twice, while Epsom-salts were administered, both by the stomach and with the injective-pump. The other we endeavored to keep nauseated with ipecacuanha, and the same time to keep her bowels open by cathartic medicine. All proved to be of no avail. They both died,--the one in ten, the other in thirteen days. Before these died, however, others were taken sick. And thus, later, I had eight sick at one time. "The leading symptoms in all were the same, with minor differences; and so, too, was the appearance after death, on examination. "Of all that were taken sick (sixteen) but two recovered; and they were among those we did the least for, after we had become discouraged about trying to cure them. In all the last cases we made no effort at all, but to keep them as comfortable as we could. In one case, the acute character of the disease changed to chronic, and the animal lived six or eight weeks, until the whole texture of the lungs had become destroyed. She had become much emaciated, and finally died with the ordinary consumption. "At the time the first case appeared, I had a herd of thirty-one animals, all valuable Ayrshires, in fine condition and healthy. In all the first cases, I had a veterinary surgeon of considerable celebrity and experience, and every ordinary approved method of treatment was resorted to and persevered in. The last cases--as before intimated--we only strove to make comfortable. "After I had paid the third or fourth forfeit, I began to awake up to the idea that the disease was, in a high degree, contagious, whether I would have it so or not; and that my future security was in prevention, and not in remedy. I therefore separated all the remaining animals; in no instance having more than two together, and generally but one in a place. "All were removed from the infected stalls, and put into quarantine. Isolated cases continued to occur after this for some weeks, but the spread of the disease was stayed; nor did a single case occur after this, which we did not think we traced directly to previous contact. "It is impossible to account for the first case of which I have spoken. But, as the cow in that case was put into a sale-stable in New York while waiting for the boat,--though there were no cattle then present,--yet I have supposed it not unlikely that diseased animals had been there, and had left the seeds of the disease. "But, account for this case as we may,--and I have no doubt it is sometimes spontaneous,--I feel convinced it is very highly contagious; and that the only safety to a herd into which it has been introduced, is in complete isolation,--and in this I feel as convinced that there is safety. My cattle were not suffered to return to the barnyard or to any part of the cattle-barns, except as invalids were sent to 'the hospital' to die, until late the next fall, _i.e._, the fall of 1854. In the mean time, the hay and straw had all been removed; the stables, stalls, cribs and all thoroughly scrubbed with ashes and water, fumigated, and white washed with quicklime. I have had no case since, and am persuaded I should have avoided most of those I had before, if I had reasonably admitted the evidence of my senses in the second and third cases. E. P. PRENTICE. MOUNT HOPE, June 14th, 1860." The author's experience with the disease, during the last year in New Jersey, proves the efficacy of remedial agents when applied in the early stages of the disease. Late in the spring of 1861, Mr. J. E. Hancock, of Burlington County (residing near Columbus, N. J.), purchased some cattle in the Philadelphia market, which, after they were driven home, he turned in with his other stock. Soon after this purchase, one of the animals sickened and died. This was in August; after which time Mr. H. lost eight cows,--having, at the time of the death of the last animal, some five others sick with the same disorder. The author was called in, December 8th, 1861, and the five animals then placed under his treatment. On the 12th of December, in the same year, one of these cows, at his suggestion, was killed, which, upon the _post-mortem_ examination, beautifully illustrated the character of the disease. The right lung was comparatively healthy; the left one completely hepatized, or consolidated, and so enlarged as to fill up the left cavity of the chest to it's utmost capacity. This lung weighed thirty pounds. There was no effusion in the chest, but there was considerable adhesion of the _pleura-costalis_ and _pleura-pulmonalis_. All the other tissues appeared to be healthy. To the remaining animals, was administered the following: aqua ammonia, three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, half an ounce; mixed with one quart of water, and drenched three times a day. The last thing at night was given a teaspoonful of phosphate of lime, mixed in a little feed, or in gruel. Setons, or rowels, in the dewlap are also very beneficial. Under this treatment they all did well. Soon after the introduction of the disease into this herd, it found its way to the herd of William Hancock, a brother of the former gentleman, who had an adjoining farm. In this herd one cow died, and the disease was found by the author developed in four more cows and two oxen, all of which--with a single exception--did well under the above treatment. The disease afterward showed itself in the herd of John Pope, half a mile distant, who lost nine animals by it. Thursday, December 19th, was selected for the purpose of making an examination of the Hancock herds; but, after some ten or twelve animals had been examined and all pronounced tainted with the disease, the owners concluded to stop the investigation, expressing themselves dissatisfied with the result, as not one of the animals examined had shown any symptoms of disease. In order to convince them of the correctness of the diagnosis, a cow was selected and destroyed, which the Hancocks believed to be in perfect health. Upon opening the animal, several small patches of hepatized lung were brought into view. Upon making a longitudinal section of the lump, as both were involved, they presented a red, speckled appearance. All the other tissues were healthy. The symptoms in these cases were quite different from any which had been previously seen in an experience of three years with the disease in and about Philadelphia, inasmuch as they were not preceded by cough; in fact, cough did not appear in many of the animals at any time during the progress of the disease. The animals looked, ate, and milked well, previously to the development of the disease, so that the owners were thrown completely off their guard by these deceptive symptoms of health. Knowing the uncertain character of this disease, and wishing to stay its ravages, a suggestion was made by the author as to the propriety of having the entire herd killed for beef. This was done the more readily, as the sale of the meat is legalized in Europe, it being regarded as uninjured, and therefore wholesome meat. This suggestion was acted upon, and thus these two farms were rid of this dreadful scourge at one blow. Mr. A. Gaskill, of Mount Holly, N. J., purchased a cow from one of the Hancocks, for his own family use, which was sent to Mr. Frank Lippincott's to pasture and turned in with Mr. L.'s own herd. Soon after, this cow sickened and died. This was soon followed by the loss of six of Mr. L.'s own cattle,--three oxen, two cows, and one steer. From this herd, it was communicated to the Widow Lippincott's, who occupied a neighboring farm; as also to Mr. Cleavenger's, who lost four animals; and to Mr. Smith's, who had, at one time, seven animals sick; and from Cleavenger's to Noaknuts, who lost two cows. Some two or three cows, belonging to Mr. Logan, in the same neighborhood, got upon the road and broke into Mr. Lippincott's pasture, mixing with his herd. As soon as Mr. Logan was informed of the fact, he isolated these cows by enclosing them in a pen at some distance from his other cattle; but they managed to break out, and mingled with his other stock. It could scarcely be expected that his herd could escape the disease, considering the exposure to which they had been subjected. The disease manifested itself in the herds of several other farmers in the country, but space will not allow a more extended notice of the subject. The treatment which has been found most successful in this country is as follows, all of which has been tested by the author upon various occasions: In the acute, inflammatory stage of the disease, give ten drops of Flemming's tincture of aconite in water, every four hours, until a change takes place; follow this with aqua ammonia, three drachms; nitric ether, one ounce; pulverized gentian-root, one half an ounce; water, one quart. Drench three times a day, and give, late in the evening, a tablespoonful of phosphate of lime, in a little feed, or drench with gruel. Put setons, or rowels in the dewlap, so as to have a dependent opening. This course has been found very advantageous. Or, the following will be found quite satisfactory; nitrate of potash, two drachms; camphor, half a drachm; tartrate of antimony, half a drachm; mix, and give in a little gruel, night and morning. Or, the following: Glauber-salts, four ounces; water, one pint; give twice a day. A gill of cold-drawn castor-oil, added to the above, would be beneficial. Continue until the bowels are freely opened. The following has also been found efficacious: sulphate of magnesia, eight ounces; nitrate of potash and pulverized Jamaica ginger-root, of each one ounce. Repeat as often as may be required. Apply externally the following ointment to the sides; biniodide of mercury, four drachms; castor-oil, half an ounce; lard, four ounces; mix for use. Preventive measures.--1st. The complete isolation of all herds in which the disease has made its appearance. 2d. Such animals as show symptoms of the disease should be placed under proper treatment. 3d. In England, it is recommended that animals recovering from the disease should be fattened and slaughtered for beef, as they are not safe even after their apparent recovery. 4th. All animals beyond medical treatment should be killed and buried; recompense in part, at least, being made to the owners. 5th. No animal, healthy or diseased, should be allowed to run at large upon the public highway so long as the disease may exist in its neighborhood. [Illustration: TAKING IT EASILY.] The united action of all those interested would soon rid the country of a disease which has smitten all Europe. The author takes this occasion to acknowledge the receipt of two very ably written articles upon this subject, which, in consequence of their length and the comparatively limited space allotted, he is reluctantly compelled to omit. One is from the pen of R. McClure, V.S., and the other from Isaiah Michener, V.S. For the benefit his readers, however, he desires to make a single extract from the last-named communication, without being considered as endorsing the opinion advanced therein:-- "I am inclined to favor the hypothesis that pleuro-pneumonia is produced by animalculæ, and that these enter the lungs by myriads, and thereby set up irritation and inflammation, which lead to all the phenomena and pathological conditions which are to be found upon dissection. This is my opinion of the cause of the malignant pleuro-pneumonia which has existed in the United States for the last seven years." After writing the foregoing, the author was informed that this disease had made its appearance in Mr. Logan's herd, already mentioned as exposed. He was called to visit the herd of Mr. G. Satterthwaite, who likewise lost two cows, and had two cows and a calf sick at the time of sending for him. PNEUMONIA. There are two conditions of the lungs known as pneumonia,--one, the inflammatory, and the other, the congestive stage. The former may follow an attack of bronchitis, or it may have a spontaneous origin. The congestive is generally the result of cold suddenly applied to an overheated animal, causing a determination of blood to the lungs, which sometimes causes death by suffocation. _Symptoms._--The disease is preceded by a shivering fit; dry skin; staring coat; clammy mouth; short cough; Schneiderian membrane (of the nose) very much reddened; respiration hurried or laborious. In the congestive stage, upon applying the ear to the sides, no sound will be detected; While in the inflammatory stage, a crackling or crepitating sound will be distinctively heard. _Treatment._--In the congestive stage, plenty of pure air will be necessary. Bleed freely; and give in drench one pound of Glauber-salts, with two drachms of Jamaica ginger. Nothing more will be required by way of treatment. In the inflammatory stage, bleeding should seldom be resorted to, except where the animal is in full condition. Apply the following blister to the sides, well rubbed in: oil of turpentine, one ounce; croton-oil, twelve drops; aqua ammonia, half an ounce; linseed-oil, four ounces; mix all together. Give internally one pound of salts in drench, and follow with one of the following powders every four hours: nitrate of potash, one ounce; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis leaves, of each, one drachm; mix all together, and divide into eight powders. Or the following may be given with equal advantage: nitrate of potash, one and a half ounces; nitrate of soda, six ounces; mix, and divide into six powders; one to be given in wash or gruel every six hours. PROTRUSION OF THE BLADDER. This sometimes occurs during the throes in difficult cases of parturition in cows, and the aid of a skillful veterinary surgeon is requisite to replace the inverted bladder. PUERPERAL FEVER. This disease--milk fever, or dropping after calving--rarely occurs until the animal has attained mature age. The first symptoms make their appearance in from one to five or six days after parturition. It appears to be a total suspension of nervous function, independent of inflammatory action, which is suddenly developed, and, in favorable cases, as suddenly disappears. It is called dropping after calving, from its following the parturient state. _Symptoms._--Tremor of hind legs; a staggering gait, which soon terminates in loss of power in the hind limbs; pulse rises to sixty or eighty per minute; milk diminishing in quantity as the disease progresses; the animal soon goes down, and is unable to rise, moans piteously; eyes set in the head; general stupor; and slow respiration. _Treatment._--This disease, though generally regarded as a febrile disorder, will not yield to the general practice of taking blood, as a large majority of the cases so treated die. The bowels must be opened, but the veins never. Give Epsom-salts, one pound; Jamaica ginger, two ounces; dissolve in warm water, one quart, and drench. The author usually gives with good effect, some five or six hours after the salts, two ounces of nitric ether and one ounce of tincture of opium, in half a pint of water. Rub well in, along the back and loins, the following: strong mustard, three ounces; aqua ammonia and water, each one and a half ounces. Some modifications in the treatment of this disease, as well as of most others, will be necessary under certain circumstances, which can only be determined by the veterinary practitioner. QUARTER EVIL. In some sections of the country, this disease--known by the other names of black quarter, and joint murrain--is quite common among young cattle, and is generally fatal in its termination. There is little or no warning of its approach. The first animals in a herd to be attacked are generally those in a full, plethoric condition. _Symptoms._--The joints suddenly become swollen, and so painful as to produce severe lameness, particularly in the hind parts. General irritative fever exists in the system, attended with great tenderness of the loins; the head is poked out; eyes red and bulging; the roots of the horns, as well as the breath, are hot; the muzzle dry, and nostrils expanded; pulse rises to seventy or eighty, full and hard; respiration is hurried; the animal is constantly moaning, and appears to be unconscious of surrounding objects; the swelling of the limbs extends to the shoulder and haunch; the animal totters, falls and dies in from twelve to twenty-four hours. _Treatment._--Early bleeding is requisite here, to be followed by active purgatives; after which, give one of the following powders every half hour: nitrate of potassa, two ounces; tartrate of antimony and pulverized digitalis, of each one and a half drachms; mix, and divide into eight powders. These should not be renewed. Cold linseed tea should be freely given. RABIES. Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of a rabid dog, from which bite no animal escapes. The effects produced by the wound made by the teeth of such an animal, after the virus is once absorbed into the circulation of the blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is useless. The proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, nine out of every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects resulting from this dreadful disorder, without resorting to any applications to prevent it. It is a well-established fact, that men, when bitten by dogs, are generally wounded in some part protected by their clothing, which guards them from the deleterious effects of the saliva which covers the teeth, and which, at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth, in passing through the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is not introduced into the blood; hence the comparatively few cases of rabies occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made upon an exposed surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the face, this fatal disease is developed in spite of every precaution, unless such precautions are immediately taken. For this reason, cattle when bitten, do not escape the disease. _Symptoms._--The animal separates itself from the rest of the herd, standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; respiration natural; pulse quickened; temperature of body and limbs natural; the slightest noise agitates, causing the eyes to glare and exciting bellowing; the bark of a dog produces the most violent effects; the animal foams at the mouth and staggers as it walks; if water is offered, the muzzle is plunged into it, but the victim cannot drink; in making the effort, the most fearful consequences are produced. The animal now seeks to do mischief,--and the quicker it is then destroyed, the better. _Treatment._--This must be applied quickly, or not at all. The moment an animal is bitten, that moment the wound should be searched for, and when found, should be freely opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic potash, or the permanganate of potash at once applied to all parts of the wound, care being taken not to suffer a single scratch to escape. This, if attended to in time, will save the animal. RED WATER. This disease derives its name from the color of the urine voided in it. It is one of the most common complaints of horned cattle, and one of the most troublesome to manage. _Symptoms._--Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a high degree of fever presented; the animal moans, arches the back, and strains in passing the urine, which is tinged with blood, or presents the appearance of pure blood. Prof. Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College, says: "The cause is almost invariably feeding on turnips that have grown on damp, ill-drained land; and very often a change of diet stops the spread of this disease in the byre. Other succulent food, grown under similar circumstances, may produce the same symptoms, tending to disturb the digestive organs and the blood-forming process. "In the course of my investigations as to the cause of various cattle-diseases, and of red water in particular. I have found that it is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies where turnips are used only in a moderate degree. The lands of poor people furnish the roots most likely to induce this disorder; and I can confirm the statement of the late Mr. Cumming, of Elton, who, in his very interesting essay upon this subject, says, particularly in reference to Aberdeenshire, that it is 'a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow; and to be seen and studied, requires a practice extending into the less favorably situated parts of the country. On large farms, where good stock is well kept, and in town dairies, where artificial food is used to supplement the supply of turnips, it is seldom now seen.' "_Symptoms._--General derangement attracts the dairyman's attention, and, upon observing the urine which the animal has voided, it is seen to be of a red, or of a reddish brown, or claret color; sometimes transparent, at others clear. The color increases in depth; other secretions are checked; the animal becomes hide-bound, and the milk goes off. Appetite and rumination are suspended; the pulse becomes extremely feeble and frequent, though--as in all debilitating, or anæmic, disorders--the heart's action is loud and strong, with a decided venous pulse, or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of the neck. "In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be withdrawn, the animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, the visible mucous membranes are blanched, and the extremities cold, indicating the languid state of the blood's circulation and the poverty of the blood itself. Constipation is one of the most obstinate complications; and many veterinary surgeons--aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the animal is cured--have employed purgatives in quantities far too large, inducing at times even death. Occasionally, diarrhoea is one of the first, and not of the unfavorable, symptoms." _Treatment._--Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap and water should be freely used; and give plenty of linseed-tea to drink. When the urine is abundant, give one ounce of tincture of opium, with one drachm of powdered aloes, three times, at intervals of six or eight hours. RHEUMATISM. This is a constitutional inflammatory affection of the joints, affecting the fibrous tissue and serous, or synovial membrane. It is caused by exposure to cold and wet; being quite common in low, marshy sections. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to move, every joint seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; constipation is also an attendant symptom; the joints, one or more, become swollen and painful. This may be regarded as a metastic, or shifting disease; first one part, and then another, seems to be affected. _Treatment._--Mild purgatives should be used; one-half-ounce doses of colchicum-root pulverized will be found useful; one-ounce balls of pine-tar may also be given with advantage. As a local application, the author has found nothing to equal kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces of aqua ammonia, well rubbed in, two or three times a day. STRANGULATION OF THE INTESTINES. This disease in cattle,--popularly styled Knot, or Gut-tie,--in consequence of the peculiar arrangement of the abdominal viscera, is of very rare occurrence. When, however, it does occur, the symptoms accompanying are those of inflammation of the intestines. No kind of treatment will be successful, and the poor brute must suffer until death comes to its relief. THRUSH IN THE MOUTH. Aptha, or thrush in the mouth, is a vesicular disease of the mouth, sometimes occurring as an epizoötic. It is often mistaken for blain,--inflammation of the tongue, or black tongue,--and usually occurs in the winter, or early in the spring. It appears in the form of vesicles, or pustules all over the mouth, occasionally extending to the outside of the lips. These pustules break, discharging a thin, sanious fluid, leaving minute ulcers in their places. This disease yields readily to treatment, when it is properly applied. Three ounces of Epsom-salts, once a day for three or four days, should be given in drench; wash the mouth well with a solution of alum, tincture of myrrh, or vinegar and honey, and it will disappear in a few days. TUMORS. These enlargements so common in cattle, have been so admirably described, in the Veterinarian for 1843, by John Ralph, V.S.,--who has been so successful in the treatment of these morbid growths, that the benefit of his experience is here given. He says: "Of all the accidental productions met with among cattle, with the exception of wens, a certain kind of indurated tumor, chiefly situated about the head and throat, has abounded most in my practice. "The affection often commences in one of the thyroid glands, which slowly but gradually increases in size, feels firm when grasped, and evinces very little tenderness. Generally the attendant is alarmed by a snoring or wheezing noise emitted by the animal in respiration, before he is aware of the existence of any tumefaction. This continues to increase, embracing in its progress the adjacent cellular and muscular tissues, and frequently the submaxillary and parotid glands. It becomes firmly attached to the skin through which an opening is ultimately effected by the pressure of pus from the centre of the tumor. "The swelling often presents an irregular surface, and various centres of maturation exist; but the evacuations only effect a partial and temporary reduction of its bulk, in consequence of the continued extension of the morbid growth and ulcerative process which often proceed towards the pharynx, rendering respiration and deglutition still more difficult, until at length the animal sinks from atrophy or _phthisis pulmonalis_. "In the early part of my practice, having been frustrated in my attempts to establish healthy action in these ulcers, and referring to the works that I had on surgery for information, I concluded that they bore some resemblance to cancer in the human being, and determined to attempt extirpation. Subsequently, numerous cases have occurred in which I have successfully carried that determination into effect. I have had some instances of failure, which failure always arose from some portion of the morbid growth having been left. "In the first stage, I have reason to believe that the tumor may be dispersed by the general and topical use of the iodurets. After the suppuration, I have tried them in vain. "As soon as the nature of the tumor is clearly developed, I generally attempt its removal, and, when most prominent by the side of the larynx, I proceed in the following manner:--Having cast the beast, turned the occiput toward the ground, and bolstered it up with bundles of straw, I proceed to make an incision through it, if the skin is free, parallel with, and over, and between the trachea and _sterno-maxillaris_, extending it sufficiently forward into the inter-maxillary spaces. If I find it firmly attached to the apex of the tumor, I then enclose it in a curvilinear incision and proceed to detach the healthy skin to beyond the verge of the tumor. "Its edges being held by an assistant, the knife is directed downwards through the subcutaneous parts, and all those that exhibit the slightest change from healthy structure are removed. "By tying any considerable blood-vessel before dividing it, and by using the handle of the scalpel and the fingers in detaching the portion of the parotid gland towards the ear the hemorrhage was always inconsiderable. "The wound is then treated in the ordinary way; except that detergents and even antiseptics are often needed to arouse healthy action, and the addition of some preparation of iodine is often made to the digestive. In directing the constitutional treatment, our chief aim must be to support the animal system with plenty of gruel until rumination is restored. "I need not note that the operation should be performed after the animal has fasted some hours. "As the success of the operation depends on an entire removal of the diseased parts, and as the submaxillary and parotid glands, with important branches of nerves and blood-vessels, are often enveloped therein, we must not hesitate to remove the former, nor to divide the latter. It has occasionally happened that a rupture has been made in the oesophagus, or pharynx, during the operation. In that case, a portion of the gruel with which the animal is drenched escapes for a few days; but I always found that the wound healed by granulation, without any particular attention. "The weight of these tumors varies from a few ounces to some pounds. One that I removed from a two-year-old Galloway bullock, weighed six pounds and a quarter. A considerable portion of the skin that covered it was excised and included in the above weight. It comprehended one of the parotid glands, and I had to divide the trunk of the carotid artery and jugular vein. "This affection may be distinguished from parotiditis and other _phlegmasiæ_ by the action of constitutional disturbance, and heat, and tenderness, and by the lingering progress it makes. I was once called to a bull laboring under alarming dyspnoea that had gradually increased. No external enlargement was perceptible; but on introducing my hand into the mouth, a large polypus was found hanging from the _velum palati_ into the pharynx, greatly obstructing the elevation of the epiglottis and the passage of food. After performing tracheotomy, to prevent suffocation, I passed a ligature around its pedicle in the way suggested by the old anatomist, Cheselden. "A section of one of these tumors mostly displays several abscesses, with matter varying in consistency and often very fetid, enclosed in what seems to me to be fibro-cartilaginous cysts, the exterior of which sometimes gradually disappears in the surrounding more vascular abnormal growth. Osseous matter (I judge from the grating of the scalpel upon it) occasionally enters into the composition of the cysts. "I have treated this affection in cattle of the Long-horned, Short-horned, Galloway, and Highland breeds; and from the number of bulls in this class of patients, have reason to conclude that they are more liable to it than the female. "About twelve months ago, I examined the head of a cow, on the right facial region of which there existed an enormous tumor, extending from the eye to the lips, and which I mistook during life for a periosteal enlargement. On cutting into it, my mistake was evident. There was scarcely a trace of the original bones beneath the mass; even those forming the nasal sinuses on that side were replaced by a formation much resembling the cysts before alluded to, and full of abscesses. The progress of the disease was decisively marked in the inferior rim of the orbital cavity, where the osseous matter was being removed, and the morbid structure deposited." ULCERS ABOUT THE JOINTS. Occasionally, the joints assume a tumefied appearance, generally ulcerating, and causing painful wounds. _Treatment._--The application of one part of alum to two parts of prepared chalk, powdered and sprinkled upon the parts, is usually all that is required. WARBLES. It has been a prevalent opinion among farmers, that warbles are so many evidences of the good condition of their cattle. It must, however, be borne in mind that the warbles are the _larvæ_ of the _oestrus bovis_, which is said to be the most beautiful variety of gad-fly. This fly, judging from the objects of its attack, must be particularly choice in its selection of animals upon which to deposit its eggs, as it rarely chooses those poor in flesh, or in an unhealthy condition. From this circumstance, probably, has arisen the opinion above-mentioned. [Illustration: HOME AGAIN.] These warbles--or _larvæ_ of the _oestrus bovis_--so nearly resemble bots in the horse--or _larvæ oestrus equi_--that, were it not for their increased size, they might readily be mistaken the one for the other. There is, however, one other difference, and that is in the rings which encircle the body; those of the former being perfectly smooth, while those of the latter are prickly, and from one third to one half smaller. The author was called, in the year 1856, to see the prize cow, Pet, belonging to James Kelly, of Cleveland, Ohio, whose extraordinary yield of butter and milk had been reported in the _Ohio Farmer_, a short time previous to his visit. This animal was found by him in rather poor condition; the causes of which he could only trace to the existence of these worms, comfortably located, as they were, beneath the animal's hide, and forming small tumors all along the spinal column, each being surrounded by a considerable quantity of pus. A number of these were removed by means of a curved bistoury and a pair of forceps, since which time--as he has been informed--the animal has rapidly improved, regaining her former good condition. Some may urge that this is an isolated case; but an examination of cattle for themselves, will convince them to the contrary. It may be added, that two other cows, belonging to the same gentleman, were also examined at the same time,--one of them being in good condition, and the other, out of condition. From the back of the latter several of these insects were removed, since which time she also has much improved. The former was entirely free from them. These cows were all kept in the same pasture, received the same care, and were fed on the same food, and at the same time; and as the removal of these larvæ has been productive of such beneficial results, have we not a right to infer that these insects are injurious? If we go further and examine, in the spring of the year, all cattle which are subject to them, instead of finding them in the fine condition which one would naturally expect,--considering the abundance of fresh young grass whose vigorous life they may incorporate into their own,--they are out of condition, and out of spirits, with a laggard eye, a rough coat, and, in some cases, a staggering gait, as though their strength had failed in consequence. How shall such attacks be prevented? During the months of August and September this gad-fly is busily engaged in depositing its eggs. Some are of the opinion that they are placed on the hairs of the animal; others, that the skin is perforated, and the egg deposited in the opening, which would account for the apparent pain manifested by cattle at and after the time of such deposit. Be this as it may, it is certain that the maggot works its way into the muscular fibre of the back, and depends upon the animal's blood for the nourishment which it receives. The author has been informed, by persons in whom he ought to have confidence, that the _free use of the card_, during the above-named months, is a specific protection against the attacks of the _oestrus bovis_. He repeats this information here, not without diffidence; since so large a majority of stock-owners evince, by their lack of familiarity with the practical use of this convenient and portable instrument, an utter disbelief in its reliability and value. WORMS. Cattle are not so subject to worms proper as are the other domestic animals; nor, when these parasites do exist, is any injurious effect apparent, except it be in the case of young calves of a weakly constitution. Worms are most commonly located in the small intestines, and cause there considerable irritation, and consequently, general emaciation, or at least a tendency to it. The cause, however, is easily removed by administering doses of sulphate of iron, one-half drachm each, in molasses once or twice a day. WORMS IN THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. Inflammation of the bronchial tubes is often caused by worms of the _strongylus_ species. Upon examination after death, the bronchial passages are completely blocked-up by these hangers-on. _Symptoms._--A rough, staring coat; hide-bound; painful cough; respiration hurried, etc. _Treatment._--But little can be done by way of treatment in this disease. The administration of small doses of spirits of turpentine has, in some instances, proved successful. SURGICAL OPERATIONS. CASTRATION. The period most commonly selected for this operation is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the expiration of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of a dose of physic; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly practised was simple enough:--a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suffered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or they were cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and to make an incision in one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and of sufficient length to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the cord, half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, however, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a great deal of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it will immediately retract, or be drawn back, into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wound. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily heal. There will rarely be any occasion to make any application to the scrotum, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding follows; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has occasionally ensued, and the beast has been lost. The application of _torsion_--or the twisting of the arteries by a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them--has, in a great degree, superseded every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissue, the forceps are turned around seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found to be perfectly closed; a small knot will have formed on its extremity; it will retract into the surrounding surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow from it; the cord may then be divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron, nor of the wooden clamps, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years since, for this purpose, called the _acraseur_,--so constructed as to throw a chain over the cord, which is wound up by means of a screw working upon the chain, and at the same time the cord is twisted off. No bleeding follows this method of operating. This instrument is constructed upon the same principle as the _acraseur_ for use in the human family, for the removal of hemorrhoids, etc., the dimensions of the two only varying. The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument over all other methods are, that the parts generally heal within a week,--the operation is not so painful to the animal,--it is less troublesome to the operator,--also to the owner of the animal,--and lastly, it is a safer and more scientific operation. Its success in France soon gave it a reputation in England, and recently it has been introduced by the author into this country, and with the best results. Contractors, hearing of the success attending this new mode of operating, have visited him from all parts of the country to witness its performance, and not one has returned without leaving an order for this instrument,--so well convinced have they been of its decided superiority over all other methods. TRACHEOTOMY. In consequence of the formation of tumors about the throat in cattle, from inflammation of the parotid gland, blain, etc., so characteristic of this species of animals, it sometimes becomes necessary to perform this operation in order to save their lives. It never fails to give instant relief. After the animal has been properly secured,--which is done by an assistant's holding the nose with one hand, and one of the horns with the other,--the operator draws the skin tight over the windpipe with the thumb and fingers of his left hand; then, with the scalpel in his right, cuts through the skin, making an incision about three inches long, dissecting up the skin on each side, which brings the _trachea_, or windpipe, in full view. He then cuts out a piece of the cartilaginous rings, about two inches long and about half an inch wide. This simple operation has saved the lives of very many valuable animals. The wound readily heals, and seldom leaves any perceptible blemish, if the work is properly performed. SPAYING. To secure a more uniform flow and a richer quality of milk, cows are sometimes spayed, or castrated. The milk of spayed cows is pretty uniform in quality; and this quality will be, on an average, a little more than before the operation was performed. In instances where the results of this operation have been carefully noted,--and the operation is rarely resorted to in this country, in comparison with the custom in France and other continental countries,--the quality of the milk has been greatly improved, the yield becoming regular for some years, and varying only in accordance with the difference in the succulence of the food. The proper time for spaying is about five or six weeks after calving, or at the time when the largest quantity of milk is given. There seems to be some advantages in spaying for milk and butter dairies, where attention is not paid to the raising of stock. The cows are more quiet, never being liable to returns of seasons of heat, which always more or less affect the milk, both in quantity and quality. They give milk nearly uniform in these respects, for several years, provided the food is uniformly succulent and nutritious. Their milk is influenced like that of other cows, though to a less extent, by the quality and quantity of food; so that in winter, unless the animal is properly attended to, the yield will decrease somewhat, but will rise again as good feed returns. This uniformity for the milk-dairy is of immense advantage. Besides, the cow, when old and inclined to dry up, takes on fat with greater rapidity, and produces a juicy and tender beef, superior, at the same age, to that of the ox. The following method of performing this operation is sanctioned by the practice of eminent veterinary surgeons in France:-- Having covered the eyes of the cow to be operated upon, she is placed against a wall, provided with five rings firmly fastened and placed as follows: the first corresponds to the top of the withers; the second, to the lower anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little distance from the angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the anterior and superior part of the lower region; and the fifth, which is behind, answers to the under-part of the buttocks. A strong assistant is placed between the wall and the head of the animal, who firmly holds the left horn in his left hand, and with his right, the muzzle, which he elevates a little. This done, the end of a long and strong-plaited cord is passed, through the ring which corresponds to the lower part of the breast, and fastened; the free end of the cord is brought along the left flank, and through the ring which is below and in front of the withers. This is brought down along the breast behind the shoulder and the angle of the fore-leg in order to pass it through the third ring; then it must be passed around against the outer angle of the left hip, and fastened after having been drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple bow-knot. The cow being thus firmly fixed to the wall, a cord is fastened by a slip-noose around her hocks, to keep them together in such a manner that she cannot kick the operator, the free end of the cord and the tail being held by an assistant. The cow thus secured cannot, during the operation, move forward, nor lie down, and the operator has all the ease desirable, and is protected from accident. The operator next--placed opposite to the animal's left flank, with his back turned a little toward the head of the animal--cuts off the hair which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference (the French _centimetre_ is rather more than thirty-nine one hundredths of an inch); a convex bistoury is placed, opened, between his teeth, the edge out, the joints to the left; then, with both hands, he seizes the hide in the middle of the flank, and forms of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, running lengthwise of the body. The assistant seizes with his right hand the right side of this wrinkle; the operator takes the bistoury and cuts the wrinkle, at one stroke, through the middle; the wrinkle having been suffered to go down, a separation of the hide is presented, of sufficient length to admit the introduction of the hand; the edges of the hide are separated with the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand, and in like manner the abdominal muscles are cut through, for the distance of a centimetre from the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide,--the _iliac_ slightly obliquely, and the _lumbar_ across; a puncture of the peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound, is then made with the straight bistoury; the buttoned bistoury is then introduced, and moved obliquely from above to the lower part, up to the termination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles. The flank being opened, the right hand is introduced into the abdomen, and directed along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind the paunch, and underneath the rectum, to the matrix; after the position of these viscera is ascertained, the organs of reproduction, or ovaries, are searched for, which are at the extremity of the matrix; when found, they are seized between the thumb and fore-finger, detached completely from the ligaments which keeps them in their place, and by a light pull, the cord and the vessels, the uterine or Fallopian tube, are separated at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the thumb and fore-finger, which present themselves at the point of touch, thus breaking the cord and bringing away the ovary. The hand is again introduced into the abdominal cavity, and the remaining ovaries brought away in like manner. A suture is then placed of three or four double threads, waxed at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound, passing it through the divided tissues; a movement is made from the left hand with the piece of thread; having reached that point, a fastening is made with a double knot, the seam placed in the intervals of the thread from the right, and as the lips of the wound are approached, a fastening is effected by a simple knot, with a bow, care being taken not to close too tightly the lower part of the seam, in order to allow the suppuration, which may be established in the wound, to escape. The wound is then covered up with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four threads passed through the stitches, and the operation is complete. It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles before mentioned, one or two of the arteries are severed. Should much blood escape, a ligature must be applied before opening the peritoneal sac; since, if this precaution is omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, which may occasion the most serious consequences. For the first eight days succeeding, the animal should have a light diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should be cold, cover with a woollen covering. She must be prevented from licking the wound, and from rubbing it against other bodies. The third day after the operation, bathe morning and evening about the wound with water of mallows lukewarm, or anoint it with a salve of hog's lard, and administer an emollient glyster during three or four days. Eight days after the operation, take away the bandage, the lint, the fastenings, and the thread. The wound is at that time, as a general thing, completely cicatrized. Should, however, some slight suppuration exist, a slight pressure must be used above the part where it is located, so as to cause the pus to leave, and if it continues more than five or six days, emollients must be supplied by alcolized water, or chloridized, especially in summer. The animal is then to be brought back gradually to her ordinary nourishment. In some cows, a swelling of the body is observable a short time after having been spayed, attributable to the introduction of cold air into the abdomen during the operation; but this derangement generally ceases within twenty-four hours. Should the contrary occur, administer one or two sudorific draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or a half-glass of brandy, in a quart of warm water,--treatment which suffices in a short time to restore a healthy state of the belly,--the animal at the same time being protected by two coverings of wool. The only precaution, in the way of management, to be observed as a preparative for the operation is, that on the preceding evening not so copious a meal should be given. The operation should also be performed in the morning before the animal has fed, so that the operator may not find any obstacle from the primary digestive organs, especially the paunch, which, during its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent operating with facility. The advantages of spaying milch-cows are thus summed up by able French writers: First, rendering permanent the secretion of milk, and having a much greater quantity within the given time of every year; second, the quality of milk being improved; third, the uncertainty of, and the dangers incident to, breeding being, to a great extent, avoided; fourth, the increased disposition to fatten even when giving milk freely, or when, from excess of age or from accidental circumstances, the secretion of milk is otherwise checked; fifth, the very short time required to produce a marketable condition; and sixth, the meat of spayed cattle being of a quality superior to that of ordinary cattle. This operation would seem to have originated in this country. The London Veterinary Journal of 1834 contains the following, taken from the United States Southern Agriculturist:--"Some years since, I passed a summer at Natchez, and put up at a hotel there, kept by Mr. Thomas Winn. During the time that I was there I noticed two remarkably fine cows, which were kept constantly in the stable, the servant who had charge of the horses, feeding them regularly three times a day with green guinea grass, cut with a sickle. These cows had so often attracted my attention, on account of the great beauty of their form, and deep red color, the large size of their bags, and the high condition in which they were kept, that I was at length induced to ask Mr. Winn to what breed of cattle they belonged, and his reasons for keeping them constantly in the stable in preference to allowing them to run in the pasture, where they could enjoy the benefit of air and exercise, and at the same time crop their own food, and thereby save the labor and trouble of feeding them? Mr. Winn, in reply to these inquiries, stated that the two cows which I so much admired were of the common stock of the country, and he believed, of Spanish origin; but they were both spayed cows, and that they had given milk either two or three years. Considering this a phenomenon (if not in nature at least in art), I made further inquiries of Mr. Winn, who politely entered into a very interesting detail, communicating facts which were as extraordinary as they were novel. Mr. Winn, by way of preface, observed that he, in former years, had been in the habit of reading English magazines, which contained accounts of the plowing-matches which were annually held in some of the southern counties of England, performed by cattle, and that he had noticed that the prizes were generally adjudged to the plowman who worked with spayed heifers; and although there was no connection between that subject and the facts which he should state, it was, nevertheless, the cause that first directed his mind into the train of thought and reasoning which finally induced him to make the experiments, which resulted in the discovery of the facts which he detailed, and which I will narrate as accurately as my memory will enable me to do it, after the lapse of more than twenty years. Mr. Winn's frequent reflections had (he said) led him to the belief "that if cows were spayed soon after calving, and while in a full flow of milk, they would continue to give milk for many years without intermission, or any diminution of quantity, except what would be caused by a change from green to dry, or less succulent food." To test this hypothesis, Mr. Winn caused a very good cow, then in full milk, to be spayed. The operation was performed about one month after the cow had produced her third calf; it was not attended with any severe pain, or much or long continued fever. The cow was apparently well in a few days, and very soon yielded her usual quantity of milk, and continued to give freely for several years without any intermission or diminution in quantity, except when the food was scarce and dry; but a full flow of milk always came back upon the return of a full supply of green food. This cow ran in the Mississippi low grounds or swamp near Natchez, got cast in deep mire, and was found dead. Upon her death, Mr. Winn caused a second cow to be spayed. The operation was entirely successful. The cow gave milk constantly for several years, but in jumping a fence stuck a stake in her bag, that inflicted a severe wound, which obliged Mr. Winn to kill her. Upon this second loss, Mr. Winn had two other cows spayed, and, to prevent the recurrence of injuries from similar causes with those which had occasioned him the loss of the first two spayed cows, he resolved to keep them always in the stable, or some safe enclosure, and to supply them regularly with green food, which that climate throughout the greater part of, if not all, the year enabled him to procure. The result, in regard to the last two spayed cows, was, as in the case of the first two, entirely satisfactory, and fully established, as Mr. Winn believed, the fact, that the spaying of cows, while in full milk, will cause them to continue to give milk during the residue of their lives, or until prevented by old age. When I saw the last two spayed cows it was, I believe, during the third year that they had constantly given milk after they were spayed. The character of Mr. Winn (now deceased) was highly respectable, and the most entire confidence could be reposed in the fidelity of his statements; and as regarded the facts which he communicated in relation to the several cows which he had spayed, numerous persons with whom I became acquainted, fully confirmed his statements." In November 1861, the author was called to perform this operation upon the short-horn Galloway cow, Josephine the Second, belonging to Henry Ingersoll, Esq., of this city. This cow was born May 8th, 1860. The morning was cold and cloudy. About ten o'clock the cow was cast, with the assistance of R. McClure, V.S., after which she was placed under the influence of chloric ether. He then made an incision, about five inches in length, through the skin and walls of the abdomen, midway between the pelvis bone and the last rib on the left side, passing in his right hand, cutting away the ovaries from the Fallopian tubes with the thumbnail. The opening on the side was then closed by means of the interrupted suture. The animal recovered from the influence of the anæsthetic in about fifteen minutes, when she was allowed to rise, and walk back to her stall. Upon the morning of the second day succeeding the operation, the animal was visited and found to be in good spirits, apparently suffering very little pain or inconvenience from the operation, and the wound healing nicely. Since that time, he has operated upon some twenty cows, all of which, with a single exception, have thus far proved satisfactory. Several of these cows are under the direction of a committee from the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture, whose duty it is to have a daily record kept of each cow's yield of butter and milk, for one year from the time of spaying. Their report will be perused by the agricultural community with much interest. The author's own experience will not justify him in speaking either in favor of, or against, this operation; as sufficient time has not as yet elapsed to satisfy him as to its relative advantages and disadvantages. He, however, regards the operation as comparatively safe. The French estimate the loss at about fifteen per cent., and the gain at thirty per cent. Of those upon which he has operated, not a single animal died. A LIST OF MEDICINES USED IN TREATING CATTLE. The medicines used in the treatment of the diseases of cattle, are essentially the same as those in vogue for the diseases of the human being and the horse,--the only difference being in their combination and the quantities administered. ABSORBENTS.--Medicines which destroy acidities in the stomach and bowels; such as chalk, magnesia, etc. ALTERATIVES.--Medicines which restore the healthy functions of secretion, by gradually changing the morbid action in an impaired constitution. Those in most common use are Æthiops mineral, antimony, rosin, sulphur, etc., which form the principal ingredients in all condition-powders, and are chiefly useful in diseases of the skin, such as hide-bound, mange, surfeit, etc. ALTERATIVE POWDER.--Sulphur pulverized, one pound; black antimony, one half a pound; nitrate of potassa, four ounces; sulphate of iron, one half a pound; linseed meal, one pound; mix well; dose, one half an ounce, night and morning. ANTACIDS.--Agents which neutralize, by their chemical action, acids in the stomach; as ammonia, carbonate of potassa, chalk, lime-water, magnesia, and soda. ANTHELMINTICS.--Remedies used for the expulsion of worms from the stomach and intestines. These may act chemically or by their cathartic operation. The most reliable are Æthiops mineral, nux vomica, preparations of mercury, wormwood, etc. ANTHELMINTIC POWDERS.--Nux vomica, in one half-drachm doses, two or three times daily, to an ox or cow; for calves, the dose must be diminished, according to age. ANTIDOTES.--Medicines which neutralize the effects of poisons by a chemical union, forming an insoluble compound, or a mild, harmless one. Alkaline solutions are antidotes for the mineral acids; as soap in solution, a simple remedy, and always at hand. Lard, magnesia, and oil are antidotes for poisoning by arsenic; albumen,--in the form of the white of an egg,--milk, etc., for corrosive sublimate, and other mercurial preparations. ANTISEPTICS.--Medicines which prevent putridity in animal substances, and arrest putrefaction, when already existing. These are used both externally and internally. The chief specifics of this class are the acids, alcohol, ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, charcoal, chloride of lime, cinchona, ether, and opium. ANTISPASMODICS.--Medicines which exert their power in allaying inordinate motions or spasms in the system, arising from various causes, such as debility, worms, etc. Those most generally in use are ammonia, asafoetida, camphor, cinchona, ether, lactacarium, mercury, and opium. ANTISPASMODIC DRAUGHT.--Tincture of opium, one ounce; nitric ether, two ounces; water, one-half pint. Mix for drench; if repeated, it should be followed by a purgative, as soon as the spasms have subsided. Or, use the following: sulphuric ether, one to two ounces; water, one-half pint Mix for drench; repeat every hour, if necessary. AROMATICS.--Medicines possessing a grateful, spicy scent, and an agreeable, pungent taste; as anise-seed, cardamoms, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, etc. They are principally used in combination with purgatives, stomachics, and tonics. ASTRINGENTS.--Medicines which serve to diminish excessive discharges, as in diabetes, diarrhoea, etc. The principal agents of this class are the acids, alum, chalk, lime-water, opium, and the sulphate of copper, lead, iron, or zinc. ASTRINGENT POWDER.--Opium, one drachm; prepared chalk, half an ounce; Jamaica ginger, six drachms. Mix, and divide into four powders; one to be given every hour, in a little flour gruel. Or, the following: opium, one drachm; catechu, two drachms; prepared chalk, one ounce. Mix, and divide into four powders; to be given as before. CARDIACS.--Cordials--so termed, from their possessing warm and stimulating properties--given to invigorate the system. CATHARTICS.--Medicines--also known as purgatives--which cause free evacuations of the bowels. The only purgatives used by the author in his cattle practice, as a general rule, are aloes, cream of tartar, Epsom-salts, lard and linseed-oil. These answer all the indications, where purgatives are useful; indeed, no better purgative for cattle can be found than Epsom-salts, combined with a carminative or aromatic drug, such as ginger. CAUSTICS.--Substances which burn or destroy parts, by combining with them and causing their disorganization; used to destroy unhealthy action, or morbid growths, such as foul ulcers, foul in the foot, warts, etc. The most powerful remedial of this class is actual cauterization with a red-hot iron; caustic potash, lunar caustic, nitrous and sulphuric acids, permanganate of potash, etc., are also used. CORDIALS.--Best brandy, three ounces; orange peel, one drachm; tepid water, one pint. Mix all together, for one dose. Or, this for a single dose: ale, one pint; Jamaica ginger, two drachms. Or, the following, also a single dose: allspice, three drachms; ginger, one drachm; caraway seeds, two drachms. DEMULCENTS.--Mucilaginous medicaments, which have the power of diminishing the effects of stimulating substances upon the animal system. Of this class, garden rue, or marsh-mallow, gum-arabic, and gum-tragacanth are the most useful. DETERGENTS.--Agents which remove foulness from ulcers. DETERGENT POWDER.--Prepared chalk, two ounces; alum, one ounce. Mix; to be sprinkled on the part, after washing with Castile-soap and water. This powder is also an admirable application for foot-rot in sheep. DIAPHORETICS.--Agents which increase the natural discharge through the pores of the skin, and in some animals induce perspiration. DIGESTIVES.--Medicines which promote suppuration. DIGESTIVE OINTMENT.--Mix together equal portions of spirits of turpentine and lard. Or, mix together with a gentle heat the following: Venetian turpentine, one ounce; lard, one ounce; pulverized sulphate of copper, two drachms. Or this, mixed: rosin, two ounces; spirits of turpentine, one ounce; red precipitate, one-half an ounce; lard, two ounces. DIURETICS.--Medicines that stimulate the action of the kidneys, and augment the secretion of urine. These are very useful in swellings of the legs, or body. Take of nitrate of potash and rosin, each six drachms; mix, and divide in three powders; one to be given daily. Or, the following: spirits of turpentine, half an ounce; Castile-soap, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one drachm; opium, one drachm. Mix: and divide in two balls; one to be given each day. EMOLLIENTS.--Medicines which relax the lining tissues, allay irritation, and soften the parts involved,--generally of a mucilaginous, or oily character. Lard, linseed meal, and marsh-mallows are chiefly used. LITHONTRIPTICS.--Medicines possessing the power of dissolving _calculi_, or stones in the urinary passages; composed principally, according to the researches of modern chemists, of lithic or uric acid. The preparation most successfully employed by the author in such cases is muriatic acid, in doses of from one to two drachms, in a pail of water, once or twice a day. NARCOTICS.--Medicines that stupefy, and produce sleep. Belladonna, camphor, hyoscyamus and opium, are among the narcotics in common use. NAUSEANTS.--Agents which cause loss of appetite, and produce the sensation of vomiting, without affecting it. For this purpose, aloes, tartrate of antimony, white hellebore, etc., are used. PARTURIENTS.--Agents which act upon the uterus. In cases of difficult parturition, or calving, resort is occasionally had to them. Ergot of rye is the most powerful. REFRIGERANTS.--Cooling applications, which reduce the temperature of the blood and body; as cold water, ether, lead-water, etc. RUBEFACIENTS.--Medicines which gently irritate the skin, producing redness on white surfaces. Of this class, are aqua ammonia, creosote, mustard, turpentine, etc. SEDATIVES.--Agents which depress the vital energies, without destroying life; as aconite, digitalis, hellebore, hydrochloric acid, hyoscyamus, opium, and tartrate of antimony. TONICS.--Medicines which increase the action of the muscular system, giving strength and vigor to the animal. These are among the most useful remedies known to man, and are beneficial in all cases of debility, toning up the stomach, and improving the appetite and condition of the animal. TONIC POWDER.--Pulverized gentian-root, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, one half an ounce; anise-seed, six drachms. Mix, and divide in eight powders; one to be given night and morning. TRAUMATICS.--Medicines which excite the healing process of wounds; as aloes, friar's balsam, myrrh, rosin, sulphate of copper or zinc, tar, etc. TRAUMATIC LOTION.--Mix tincture of aloes, one ounce; tincture of myrrh, two ounces. Or, melt together, tar, one ounce; rosin, two ounces; lard, four ounces. Or, mix sulphate of zinc, one drachm; rain-water, one half pint. Or, use the following, the celebrated friar's balsam; benzoin, in powder, four ounces; balsam of Peru, two ounces; Socotrine aloes, one half ounce; rectified spirits, one quart. Digest for ten or twelve days; then filter for use. DOSES OF VARIOUS REMEDIES USED IN CATTLE PRACTICE. ACONITE.--[_Monk's hood_; _Wolf's bane_.] An active poison. Used as a sedative in tincture; ten to twenty drops in water. ÆTHIOPS MINERAL.--[_Hydrargyri Sulphuretum._] One to two drachms. ALCOHOL.--A stimulant; three to six ounces. ALLSPICE.--[_Pimento berries._] Aromatic; two to four drachms. ALOES.--Cathartic and tonic; tonic dose, one half to one drachm--cathartic, one to two ounces. ALUM.--[_Alumen._] Irritant, astringent, and sedative; two to four drachms. AMMONIA.--[_Aqua ammonia_; _Liquor ammonia_; _Hartshorn_.] Principally used in combination with mustard, as an external irritant, and internally, as a diffusible stimulant; two to six drachms. Of carbonate of ammonia, three to six drachms. ANISE-SEED.--[Fruit of the _Pimpinella Anisum_.] One to two drachms. ANTIMONY.--[_Sulphate of Antimony._] Used in condition-powders; one to three drachms. Muriate of antimony. [_Oil, or butter, of antimony._] Caustic; very good in foul in the foot. Tartarized antimony. [_Tartar emetic._] One to four drachms. The author, in the last instance, varies from the dose prescribed by veterinary authors, never giving it in more than one-half-drachm doses, believing its action thus more certain and satisfactory. ASAFOETIDA.--Stimulant; two to four drachms. AXUNGE.--[_Hog's Lard._] Ointment, principally; may be used as purgative in doses of from one to one and a half pounds. BALSAM OF PERU.--Stimulant, and tonic; two to four drachms. BELLADONNA.--[_Deadly Nightshade._] Narcotic, anti-spasmodic, and irritant poison; one to two drachms. BENZOIN.--[_Gum Benjamin._] Ointment; see Traumatics. CALOMEL.--[_Hydrargyri Chloridum._] One half to one drachm. CAMOMILE.--[_Anthemis._] Stomachic, carminative, and tonic; one to two ounces. CAMPHOR.--[_Camphora Officinarum._] Narcotic and irritant; in small doses, sedative and stimulant; one to four drachms. CANTHARIDES.--[_Spanish Flies._] Internally, stimulant and diuretic; twenty to thirty grains. Externally, vesicant; used in form of ointment, or tincture. CARAWAY.--[Fruit of the _Carum Carisi_.] Used chiefly for flavoring purposes. CARDAMOMS.--[Fruit of the _Elettaria Cardamomum_.] Used to communicate an agreeable flavor to other medicines. CATECHU.--[_Acacia Catechu._] Astringent, and antiseptic; three to six drachms. CHALK.--[_Carbonate of Lime_; _Calcis Carbonas_.] Two to three ounces. CHARCOAL.--[_Carbo Ligni._] Antiseptic; one half to one ounce. CINCHONA.--[_Peruvian Bark._] Astringent and tonic; one to two ounces. COPPER, SULPHATE OF.--[_Blue Vitriol._] Tonic and astringent; two to four drachms. CREOSOTE.--[_Creosotum._] A sedative, anodyne, astringent, narcotic, and irritant poison; fifteen to twenty drops. CROTON OIL.--[_Crotonis Oleum._] Internally, as a cathartic, six to ten drops in linseed-oil; externally, as a counter-irritant. DIGITALIS.--[_Fox Glove._] Sedative and diuretic; one to two scruples. EPSOM-SALTS.--[_Sulphate of magnesia._] Cathartic; one pound, combined with ginger. ERGOT.--[_Spurred rye._] Parturient; two to six drachms. ETHER.--Stimulant, narcotic, and anæsthetic; one to two ounces. GENTIAN.--[Root of _Gentiana lutea_.] Stomachic and tonic; one to two ounces. GINGER.--[_Zengiber officinale._] Stomachic, carminative, and slightly tonic; one to two ounces. GUM-ARABIC.--[_Gummi Acaciæ._] Demulcent and emollient; one to two ounces. GUM-TRAGACANTH. Same action and same doses as the former. HELLEBORE.--[_Helleborus._] Irritant poison, and sedative; twenty to thirty grains. HYOSCYAMUS.--[_Henbane._] Narcotic, anodyne, and anti-spasmodic; ten to twenty grains. IODINE.--[_Iodineum._] Internally, as a tonic; two to three scruples; also as a tincture, and in ointments for reducing enlargements of the soft tissues. IRON, SULPHATE OF.--[_Ferri Sulphas_; _Green Vitriol_, _Coppera_.] Irritant, astringent, and tonic; two to four drachms. KOOSSO. Anthelmintic; two to four drachms. LIME, CHLORIDE OF.--Antiseptic; dose internally, one to two drachms. LINSEED OIL.--Cathartic; one pint. LUNAR CAUSTIC.--[_Nitrate of Silver._] Used as a caustic. MAGNESIA.--[See EPSOM-SALTS.] MARSH-MALLOW.--[_Altheæ Radix._] Demulcent and emollient; principally used for poultices and fomentations. MURIATIC ACID.--[_Hydrochloric Acid_; _Spirit of Salt_.] Tonic, irritant, and caustic; dose internally, one to two drachms. MUSTARD.--[_Sinapis._] Counter-irritant; used principally as an external application. MYRRH.--Stimulating tonic to unhealthy sores; seldom used internally. NITRIC ACID.--[_Aqua fortis._] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms in water. Used also as a caustic. NUX VOMICA.--[Seeds of _Strychnos_.] In large doses, a deadly poison; in medicinal doses, a powerful tonic and anthelmintic; one half to one drachm. OPIUM.--[_Papaver Somniferum._] Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, stimulant, and anti-spasmodic; two to four drachms. POTASH, CARBONATE OF.--[_Potassæ Carbonas._] Antacid and diuretic; three to six drachms. POTASH, CAUSTIC.--[_Potassa fusa._] Used only as a caustic. POTASSA, PERMANGANATE OF.--Used externally as a caustic. ROSIN.--Diuretic; two to three ounces. SALT, COMMON.--[_Chloride of Sodium._] Irritant, cathartic, stimulant, and antiseptic; one to one and a half pounds. SALTS, GLAUBER.--[_Sulphate of Soda._] Cathartic and diuretic; one to one and a half pounds. SALTPETRE.--[_Nitrate of Potassa._] Diuretic, febrifuge, and refrigerant; one half to one ounce. SUBLIMATE, CORROSIVE.--[_Protochloride of Mercury._] Seldom used internally; externally, caustic and stimulant. SULPHUR.--[_Brimstone._] Stimulant and laxative; three to four ounces. SULPHURIC ACID.--Irritant, caustic, and astringent; two to three drachms. TARTAR, CREAM OF.--[_Potassæ Tartras._] Cathartic; three to four ounces. TURPENTINE.--Stimulant, anthelmintic, diuretic, and laxative; one to two ounces. ZINC, SULPHATE OF.--[_White Vitriol._] Astringent and tonic; one to two drachms. NEW AND LATE BOOKS FURNISHED BY THE Publishers of this Volume. 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List of Illustrations: "Frolicksome" was spelled "Frolicsome" as opposed to the illustration In color, the pure Ayrshires are generally red "Ayrshires" was printed as "Aryshires" Some packers put meat in a copper which is rendered air-tight "meat" was printed as "meal" The principal substances of which _glue_ is made "substances" was printed as "subtances" degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery "disentery" was printed as "dystentery" It most frequently occurs in dry, hot weather. "frequently" was printed as "freqently" acquired additional deleterious agency "acquired" was printed as "accquired" and have found the spur in the hay wherever the disease is found. "disease" was printed as "diesase" differing from like phenomena by other causes "phenomena" was printed as "phenonema" until this singular phenomenon is clearly accounted for "phenomenon" was printed as "phenonemon" embryotomy was in this instance employed "embryotomy" was printed as "emrbyotomy" The diseased lungs sometimes attain inordinate weight. "diseased" was printed as "direased" supported by alcoholic stimulants. "alcoholic" was printed as "alcholic" When cut into, it did not present the red, mottled, organized appearance of those cases with air-tight cysts. "present" was printed as "prevent" It comprehended one of the parotid glands "comprehended" was printed as "comprehened" drawn tightly to the posterior ring, by a simple bow-knot. "knot" was printed as "not" must be supplied by alcolized water "alcolized" was printed as "alcotized" 
28090	----	[Illustration: _Photographed from Life by Maull & C^{o}. London._] HINTS ON DRIVING. BY C. S. WARD, THE WELL-KNOWN "WHIP OF THE WEST," PAXTON STABLES, OPPOSITE TATTERSALL'S. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR, 74, LITTLE CADOGAN PLACE, BELGRAVIA. 1870. HINTS ON DRIVING. BY C. S. WARD, THE WELL-KNOWN "WHIP OF THE WEST," _Paxton Stables (opposite Tattersall's)._ It has been said, and not, perhaps, without reason, that a man who is conscious that he possesses some practical knowledge of a science, and yet refrains from giving the public the benefit of his information, is open to the imputation of selfishness. To avoid that charge, as far as lies in my power, I purpose, in the course of the following pages, to give my readers the benefit of my tolerably long experience in the art of driving four horses--an art which I acquired under the following circumstances.-- My father was a coach proprietor as well as a coachman, and, I am proud to say, one of the best whips of his day. He gave me many opportunities of driving a team. I will not, however, enter into all the details of my youthful career, but proceed to state, that at the early age of seventeen I was sent nightly with the Norwich and Ipswich Mail as far as Colchester, a distance of fifty-two miles. Never having previously travelled beyond Whitechapel Church, on that line of road, the change was rather trying for a beginner. But Fortune favoured me; and I drove His Majesty's Mail for nearly five years without an accident. I was then promoted to the "Quicksilver," Devonport Mail, the fastest at that time out of London. It must be admitted that I undertook this task under difficult circumstances--involving as it did, sixty miles a night--since many had tried it ineffectually, or at all events were unable to accomplish the duty satisfactorily. It is gratifying to me to reflect, that I drove this coach more than seven years without a single mishap. Getting at length rather tired of such incessant and monotonous nightly work, I applied for a change to my employer, the well-known and much-respected Mr. Chaplin, who at that time had seventeen hundred horses employed in coaching. His reply was characteristic. "I cannot find you all day coaches," said he; "besides, who am I to get to drive your Mail?" I must say, I thought this rather severe at the time, but, good and kind-hearted man as he was, he did not forget me. Not long after this interview, the Brighton Day Mail being about to start, he made me the offer, to drive the whole distance and horse the coach a stage, with the option of driving it without horsing. Like most young men I was rather ambitious, and closed with the former conditions. The speculation, however, did not turn out a very profitable one, and, the railway making great progress, I sold my horses to Mr. Richard Cooper, who was to succeed me on the box. I was then offered the far-famed Exeter "Telegraph," one of the fastest and best-appointed coaches in England. My fondness for coaching still continuing, and not feeling disposed to settle to any business, I drove this coach from Exeter to Ilminster and back, a distance of sixty-six miles, early in the morning and late at night. After driving it three years, the railway opened to Bridgewater; this closed the career of the once-celebrated "Telegraph." But those who had so long shared its success, were not inclined to knock under. My brother coachman and myself, together with the two guards, accordingly started a "Telegraph" from Devonport to London, a distance of ninety-five miles by road, joining the rail at Bridgewater, thus making the whole journey two hundred and fifty miles in one day. At that time there was a coach called the "Nonpareil," running from Devonport to Bristol. The proprietors of this vehicle, thinking that our's would take off some of their trade, made their's a London coach also, and started at the same time as we did. We then commenced a strong opposition. I had a very good man to contend against--William Harbridge, a first-class coachman. We had several years of strong opposition, the rail decreasing the distance every year, till it opened to Exeter. The "Nonpareil" was then taken off, and they started a coach called the "Tally Ho!" against the poor old "Telegraph." Both coaches left Exeter at the same time, and this caused great excitement. Many bets, of bottles of wine, dinners for a dozen, and five-pound notes, were laid, as to which coach would arrive first at Plymouth. I had my old friend Harbridge again, as my competitor. The hotel that I started from, was a little farther down the street than the one whence the "Tally Ho!" appeared, so that as soon as I saw my friend Harbridge mounting the box, I did the same, and made the running. We had all our horses ordered long before the usual time. Harbridge came sailing away after me; the faster he approached, the more I put on the steam. He never caught me, and, having some trifling accident with one of his horses over the last stage, he enabled me to reach Plymouth thirty-five minutes before he came in. My guard, who resided in St. Albans-street, Devonport, hurried home, and as the other coach passed, he called out and asked them to stop and have some supper; they also passed my house, which was a little farther on, in Fore-street. I was sitting at the window, smoking, and offered them a cigar as they passed--a joke they did not, of course, much relish. The next night they declared they would be in first; but it was of no use, the old "Telegraph" was not to be beaten. Thus it went on for several weeks; somehow they were never able to get in first. We did the fifty miles several times in three hours and twenty-eight minutes (that is, at the average rate of a mile in four minutes and nine seconds, including stoppages), and for months together, we never exceeded four hours. Still, in every contest, one party must ultimately give in; that one, however, was not the "Telegraph." We settled our differences, and went on quietly for the remainder of the time, occasionally having a little "flutter," as we used to call it in those days, but we were always good friends. Should this narrative chance to meet the eye of some of those who used to travel with us in bygone times, they will doubtless well remember the pace we used to go. After a few years, the railway opened to Plymouth, and many gentlemen asked me to start a fast coach into Cornwall, promising to give it their patronage; I accordingly started the "Tally Ho!" making it a day coach from Truro to London, joining the rail at Plymouth; this was a very difficult road for a fast coach, but we ran it, till Government offered the contract for a Mail; we then converted the "Tally Ho!" into a Mail, and ran it till the rail opened to Truro. It will have been seen that I kept to coaching nearly as long as there were any coaches left to drive. I had for some years given up driving regularly, having taken the Horse Bazaar at Plymouth, where I used to supply officers of the garrison with teams, and give them instructions in driving; this I still continue to do, and in every variety of driving. It gives me, indeed, much pleasure to see many of my pupils daily handling their teams skilfully; not a few of them giving me good reason to be really proud of them, as I know they do me credit. In my description of my driving career, I stated that I had never had an accident; I ought to have said, no serious casualty, never having upset or injured any one; but I have had many trifling mishaps, such as running foul of a waggon in a fog, having my whole team down in slippery weather; on many occasions I have had a wheel come off, but still nothing that could fairly be termed a bad accident. During the last twenty-five years I have been engaged keeping livery stables and breaking horses to harness, and in that period I have had some very narrow escapes. In one instance, the box of a new double break came off and pitched me astride across the pole between two young horses; I once had the top of the pole come off when driving two high-couraged horses; a horse set to kicking, and ran away with me in single harness. As I was of course pulling at him very hard, my feet went through the bottom of the dog-cart, he kicking furiously all the time. Fortunately I escaped with only a few bruises. On another occasion, in single harness, a mare began kicking, and, before I could get her head up, she ran against the area railings of a house in Princess Square, Plymouth, broke both shafts, and split the break into matches; myself and man nearly went through the kitchen window, into the arms of the cook; she did not, however, ask us to stop and dine. I could mention many little events of a similar kind, and consider myself very fortunate in having never had anything more serious than a sprained ankle or wrist during my tolerably long career. I will now commence my instructions. RULE I. SELECTION OF THE TEAM. The first thing the pupil should do, is to select four horses as nearly as possible of the same temper. Never keep a puller, for it takes your attention from things that require all your care, makes your arm ache, in fact, does away with all pleasure. I should recommend hiring or purchasing four horses that will give you no trouble, and when you can pull them about, and do nearly as you please with them, you can then get your permanent team, which will require a very judicious selection, particularly if you intend to pride yourself upon colour as well as action. I was told by a gentleman, that he was ten years, getting a perfect team of black browns; he did not confine himself to price, and he certainly now has a very nice team--and they ought indeed to be perfect, after all the time, labour and expense that have been bestowed upon them. RULE II. MOUNTING THE BOX. Put the forefinger of your right hand through the leading reins, and the third finger between the wheel reins, feel your wheel horses' mouths lightly, take your near side reins a little shorter than your off, so that in case your horses attempt to start before you are properly seated, you have the reins all of the same length, and, being properly separated, you can put them into your left hand as quickly as possible, and at once have your horses under control; this will, if attended to, always prevent accidents. Some gentlemen get on the box and have the reins handed to them by a groom, who does not know how to separate them; this is not only an unbusiness-like, but a dangerous practice. RULE III. THE SEAT. Place yourself well on the box, sit upright, but easily, with your knees a little bent. Some gentlemen almost stand, with a thick cushion reaching above the rail of the box, and their toes several inches over the foot-board. This is not only unsightly, but attended with risk, for if you came in contact with the curbstone, or any trifling obstruction, you might very readily, and most likely would, be thrown from your seat. The rail of the box, ought always to be a few inches above the cushion. RULE IV. TURNING. In going round a corner, "point" your leader--that is, take hold of your leading rein, and get your leaders well round; then take hold of your wheel rein as well, all four horses will come round as evenly as though they were on a straight road. Most persons are careless about the mode of going round a corner; as long as they get round safely, they think it quite sufficient; they take hold of both reins and haul away; the consequence is, they get the fore part of the carriage and the wheel horses round before the leaders are square. This, I think, looks very bad, for it is a really pretty sight, to see four horses coming round straight, and thus showing that they are under perfect control. Always steady your carriage before attempting to turn, in case you should chance to meet anything coming in the opposite direction. Besides, there is no object in going fast round a corner. Even if pressed for time, always use precaution, for in driving, as in other phases of life, you will find it much easier to keep out, than to get out, of grief! RULE V. DESCENDING A HILL. In going down a hill, steady and feel the weight of the carriage you have behind you; go off the top as quietly as you can, for you will discover before you get half way down, if it is at all a steep hill, the impetus will be so much increased, that you will have quite enough to do, to keep your coach steady and your horses under control. The patent drag is a great boon, which we had not in the old coaching days. I have many times gone off the top of a hill, and, before I got half way down, wished that I had put on the shoe; but another coach coming behind, with perhaps a lighter load than I had, they would have passed me while I was putting on the drag; this was the reason we sometimes neglected it, but you can always go faster down hill, with the drag, than without it. RULE VI. POSITION OF THE HANDS. Keep your left hand up, within about ten or twelve inches of your chest, with your arm and wrist a little bent; you will then have your reins in such a position, that your right hand will be able to assist the other, without throwing your body forward to reach them. Many, instead of putting their right hand just in front of the left, and drawing the reins back towards them, put the right hand at least a foot before the other, and push the reins, consequently they lose nearly all power over the horses, and draw the reins away from the left hand. Besides being unskilful, this has a very ugly appearance. RULE VII. UNIFORMITY OF DRAUGHT. To drive slowly, is much more gentlemanlike, and, at the same time, more difficult than going fast. Keep your horses well together; to do this properly, you must know how to arrange their couplings. I think I cannot better explain this, than to ask my readers to notice the working of the horses. If you see one a little in front of the other, you may judge that he is either stronger or more free, consequently his coupling requires shortening, or that of the other horse lengthening. To shorten it, you must bring the buckle towards you; and to let it out, put the buckle towards the horse's head. Most inexperienced persons resort to the whip, not knowing what is the cause of the fault they wish to remedy; this will make the strong or free horse, throw himself more into his collar; the other, meanwhile, cannot get up to him, however much he may try; the result is, he becomes more and more disheartened. If you use the whip at all, it must be very lightly and quietly, so that the freer or stronger horse may not hear it. At the same time, hold them both well together; if he is not a sluggard, he will gradually work up to the other. Again, if you notice one horse carrying his head unpleasantly, you may judge there is some cause for it; perhaps he is curbed too tightly, or his coupling is too short, or his rein ought to be over that of the other horse instead of under it, for, as may be supposed, all horses do not carry their heads alike; but all these little matters require watching and studying, and, with practice, they will all become familiar enough; and you will notice whether or not, all your horses go pleasantly together, for, depend on it, the more pleasantly they go, the more pleasure and comfort you will experience in driving them; and, as the old coaching term expressed it, when you can "cover them over with a sheet," you may conclude they are going about right. RULE VIII. THE USE OF THE WHIP. I will now come to the whip, the use of which, most young beginners want to acquire in the first instance. Let me advise them to practice the art of "catching it" in their sitting or bed-room, for if they try to learn it when they are driving, they annoy their horses. A gentleman, whom I was teaching, said it was so simple, he would not go to bed till he could catch it properly. I saw him a fortnight afterwards, but he had not even then succeeded; he told me he had not been to bed; but I will not vouch for the accuracy of this part of the anecdote. The art, like many others, is very easy when you know how to do it. The turn of the wrist, with a slight jerk of the elbow, is the proper way to accomplish it. The less the whip is used while driving, the better, for it will only get you into trouble if used improperly. If a horse shies, never flog him for it; timidity is generally the cause of shying, unless his eyes are defective. Of course whipping can do no good in that case; speak kindly to him, that is the best way, if he be young; as he becomes better acquainted with objects and gains confidence, he will most likely give up the trick. I will make a few more observations on the whip. If you can use it well, use it seldom, and before you strike a horse, always take hold of his head; if you do this, you will find the slightest touch will have the desired effect. It is a pretty art, to be able with certainty, to touch a leader under the bar, without making a noise with the lash or letting any of the other horses know anything about it. The near leader is the most difficult one to reach, as you must completely turn your wrist over. Very few can do it well; in fact, many of the old professionals could never do it neatly. I trust that some will benefit from these instructions, for there are really few more agreeable sights than that of a good-looking team handled neatly by a gentleman, who sits well, with, perhaps a lady beside him on the box. I am much pleased to find that the taste for four-in-hand driving is increasing of late, and am glad to say, some gentlemen drive very well. It is easy enough, to detect those who are self-taught from those who have received instruction from a professional man. Many think that driving can be acquired without teaching. I wonder if any gentleman would like to dance in a ball-room without first taking lessons; and yet some, do not hesitate to drive four horses--a feat attended with much danger, not only to the public generally, but to themselves and those who accompany them, if undertaken without due knowledge. Before concluding, I will relate some of the difficulties we had to encounter in foggy weather. We were obliged to be guided out of London with torches, seven or eight Mails following one after the other, the guard of the foremost Mail lighting the one following, and so on till the last. We travelled at a slow pace, like a funeral procession. Many times I have been three hours going from London to Hounslow. I remember one very foggy night, instead of my arriving at Bagshot (a distance of thirty miles from London, and my destination) at eleven o'clock, I did not get there till one in the morning. I had to leave again at four the same morning. On my way back to town, when the fog was very bad, I was coming over Hounslow Heath when I reached the spot where the old powder-mills used to stand. I saw several lights in the road, and heard voices, which induced me to stop. The old Exeter Mail, which left Bagshot thirty minutes before I did, had met with a singular accident; it was driven by a man named Gambier; his leaders had come in contact with a hay-cart on its way to London, which caused them to turn suddenly round, break the pole, and blunder down a steep embankment, at the bottom of which was a narrow deep ditch filled with water and mud. The Mail Coach pitched on to the stump of a willow tree that over-hung the ditch; the coachman and outside passengers were thrown over into the meadow beyond, and the horses went into the ditch; the unfortunate wheelers were drowned or smothered in the mud. There were two inside passengers, who were extricated with some difficulty; but fortunately no one was injured. I managed to take the passengers, with the guard and mail-bags, on to London, leaving the coachman to wait for daylight before he could make an attempt to get the Mail up the embankment. They endeavoured to accomplish this, with cart-horses and chains. They had nearly reached the top of the bank when something gave way, and the poor old Mail went back into the ditch again. I shall never forget the scene; there were about a dozen men from the powder-mills trying to render assistance, and, with their black faces, each bearing a torch in his hand, they presented a curious spectacle. This happened about thirty years ago. Posts and rails were erected at the spot after the accident. I passed the place last summer; they are still there, as well as the old pollard willow stump. I recollect another singular circumstance occasioned by a fog. There were eight Mails that passed through Hounslow. The Bristol, Bath, Gloucester and Stroud, took the right-hand road from Hounslow; the Exeter, Yeovil, Poole, and "Quicksilver," Devonport (which was the one I was driving), went the straight road towards Staines. We always saluted each other when passing, with "Good night, Bill," "Dick," or "Harry," as the case might be. I was once passing a Mail, mine being the faster, and gave my wonted salute. A coachman named Downs was driving the Stroud Mail; he instantly recognised my voice, and said, "Charlie, what are you doing on my road?" It was he, however, who had made the mistake; he had taken the Staines, instead of the Slough, road out of Hounslow. We both pulled up immediately; he had to turn round and go back, which was a feat attended with much difficulty in such a fog. Had it not been for our usual salute, he would not have discovered his mistake before arriving at Staines. This mishap was about as bad as getting into a wrong train. I merely mention the circumstance to show that it was no joke driving a night Mail in those days. November was the month we dreaded most, the fogs were generally so bad. A singular event happened with the Bath Mail that ran between Bath and Devonport. Its time for arriving at Devonport was eleven o'clock at night. One eventful evening, they had set down all their outside passengers except a Mrs. Cox, who kept a fish-stall in Devonport Market. She was an immense woman, weighing about twenty stone. At Yealmpton, where the coachman and guard usually had their last drain before arriving at their destination, being a cold night, they kindly sent Mrs. Cox a drop of something warm. The servant-girl who brought out the glass, not being able to reach the lady, the ostler very imprudently left the horses' heads to do the polite. The animals hearing some one getting on the coach, doubtless concluded that it was the coachman; at the same time finding themselves free, and being, probably, anxious to get home, started off at their usual pace, and performed the seven miles in safety, passing over the Laira Bridge and through the toll-bar, keeping clear of everything on the road. Mrs. Cox meanwhile sat on the coach, with her arms extended in the attitude of a spread-eagle, and vainly trying to attract the attention of those she met or passed on the road. She very prudently, however, abstained from screaming, as she thought she might otherwise have alarmed the horses. They, indeed, only trotted at their ordinary speed, and came to a halt of their own accord at the door of the "King's Arms" Hotel, Plymouth, where they were in the habit of stopping to discharge some of the freight of the coach. The boots and ostler came running out to attend to their accustomed duties, but, to their astonishment, beheld no one but the affrighted Mrs. Cox on the coach and two passengers inside, who were happily, wholly unconscious of the danger to which they had been exposed! The coachman and guard soon arrived in a post-chaise. Poor Mrs. Cox drank many quarterns of gin to steady her nerves before she felt able to continue her journey to Devonport, where she carried on a prosperous trade for many years. Many people patronised her, on purpose to hear her narrate the great event of her life. I often used to chaff her, and hear her repeat the history of her memorable adventure. * * * * * I will add a little anecdote of Bob Pointer, who was on the Oxford road. Giving his ideas on coaching to a young gentleman who was on the box with him, on his way to college, he said:--"Soldiers and sailors may soon learn to fight; lawyers and parsons go to college, where they are crammed with all sorts of nonsense that all the Nobs have read and wrote since Adam--of course, very good if they like it--but to be a _coachman, sir_, you must go into the stable almost before you can run alone, and learn the nature of horses and the difference between corn and chaff. Well can I remember, the first morning I went out with four horses; I never slept a wink all night. I got a little flurried coming out of the yard, and looking round on the envious chaps who were watching me--it was as bad as getting married--at least, I should think so, never having been in that predicament myself. I have escaped that dilemma, for," he concluded, "when a man is always going backwards and forwards between two points, what is the use of a wife, a coachman could never be much more than half married. Now, if the law--in the case of coachmen--allowed two wives, that would be quite another story, because he could then have the tea-things set out at both ends of his journey. Driving, sir, is very like life, it's all so smooth when you start with the best team, so well-behaved and handsome; but get on a bit, and you will find you have some hills to get up and down, with all sorts of horses, as they used to give us over the middle ground. Another thing, sir, never let your horses know you are driving them, or, like women, they may get restive. Don't pull and haul, and stick your elbows a-kimbo; keep your hands as though you were playing the piano; let every horse be at work, and don't get flurried; handle their mouths lightly; do all this, and you might even drive four young ladies without ever ruffling their feathers or their tempers." My readers will not, perhaps, deem it altogether an inappropriate conclusion to this very humble little treatise, if I annex for their amusement, if not for their edification, "The last Dying Speech of the Coachmen from Beambridge," and some two or three other mementoes of a period and of an institution which have both, alas! long since passed away--and for ever. THE LAST DYING SPEECH OF THE COACHMEN FROM BEAM BRIDGE. The _days_, nay, the very _nights_ of those who have so long "_reined_" supreme over the "Nonpareils" and the "Brilliants," the "Telegraphs" and the "Stars," the "Magnets" and the "Emeralds," are nearly at an end, and the final way-bill of the total "Eclipse" is made up. It is positively their last appearance on this stage. In a few weeks they will be unceremoniously pushed from their boxes by an inanimate thing of vapour and flywheels--by a meddling fellow in a clean white jacket and a face not ditto to match, who, mounted on the engine platform, has for some weeks been flourishing a red hot poker over their heads, in triumph at their discomfiture and downfall; and the turnpike road, shorn of its glories, is left desolate and lone. No more shall the merry rattle of the wheels, as the frisky four-in-hand careers in the morning mist, summon the village beauty from her toilet to the window-pane to catch a passing nod of gallantry; no more shall they loiter by the way to trifle with the pretty coquette in the bar, or light up another kind of flame for the fragrant Havannah fished from amongst the miscellaneous deposits in the depths of the box-coat pockets. True, the race were always a little fond of _raillery_, and therefore they die by what they love--we speak of course of professional demise--but no doubt they "hold it hard," after having so often "pulled up" to be thus pulled down from their "high eminences," and compelled to sink into mere landlords of hotels, farmers, or private gentlemen. Yet so it is. They are "regularly booked." Their "places are taken" by one who shows no disposition to make room for them; even their coaches are already beginning to crumble into things that have been; and their bodies (we mean their coach bodies) are being seized upon by rural loving folks, for the vulgar purpose of summer-houses. But a few days and they will all vanish-- "And like the baseless fabric of a vision, Leave not a _trace_ behind." No, not even a buckle, or an inch of whipcord; and if, some years hence a petrified whipple tree, or the skeleton of a coachman, should be turned up, they will be hung up side by side with rusty armour and the geological gleanings of our antediluvian ancestors. We cannot part with our civil, obliging, gentlemanly friends of the road without a feeling of regret, and an expression of gratitude for the benefits they have done us. It was pleasant, after a warm breakfast, to remove our heels from the hob, and ensconce oneself by the side of our modern whip--to establish a partnership in his cosy leathern apron--to see him handling his four spirited bays as though his reins were velvet--and having, with a few familiar words and a friendly cigar, drawn the cork from the bottle of his varied information, to learn, as we slapped along at ten miles an hour, whose park it was, stretching away to the left, to listen to his little anecdotes of horse and flesh, and his elucidation of the points of the last Derby. "Peace to the _manes_ and to the names" of our honest coachmen, one and all of them, and of their horses too--we speak of their whippish names, for in the _body_ we hope they may long tarry, and flourish to _boot_, in other departments of the living. AN OLD FRIEND AND A NEW FACE. _To the Editor of the_ "_Exeter and Plymouth Gazette_." SIR, You will oblige me by inserting the following in your paper, which may be amusing to some of your readers:-- It is a fact well known that when the subscription coaches started, in the year 1812, William Hanning, Esq., a magistrate of the county of Somerset, residing near Ilminster, was a strenuous advocate for their support, and it was in great measure owing to his exertions that they were established. This gentleman, from some motive or other, or perhaps from his known fondness for new speculations, is now the avowed supporter of a new coach, called, above all other names, the "Defiance," and it is professedly meant as an opposition to the subscription coaches. It started from Exeter for the first time on Sunday, April 13th, 1823. One really would have supposed that under such patronage a name better calculated to keep the peace of his Majesty's liege subjects, and to preserve harmony and good-will among men, would have been adopted for this coach, and that some other day might have been selected for its first appearance. However, the "Defiance" started on the Sunday afternoon, amidst the shouts and imprecations of guards, coachmen, and ostlers, contending one against the other, and having one ill-looking outside passenger, whose name was _Revenge_. An interesting occurrence took place at Ilminster. The new "Defiance" was expected to arrive there, on its way from town, between nine and ten on the Sunday morning, and it was determined to honour it with ringing the church bells. The heroes of the belfry were all assembled, every man at his rope's end, "their souls on fire, and eager for the fray;" the Squire was stationed about a mile from Ilminster, and seeing the coach, as he thought, coming at a distance, he galloped through the street in triumph, gave the signal, and off went the merry peal. Every eye was soon directed to this new and delightful object, when, guess the consternation that prevailed upon seeing, instead of the _new_ "Defiance," the poor _old_ Subscription trotting nimbly up to the George Inn door, and Tom Goodman, the guard, playing on the key-bugle, with his usual excellence, "Should auld acquaintance be forgot?" The scene is more easily imagined than described; it would have been a fine subject for Hogarth. The bells were now ordered to cease; the Squire walked off and was seen no more. Honest Tom was not accustomed to this kind of reception; he had enlivened the town with his merry notes a thousand times, but now every one looked on him with disdain, as if they did not know him. He could scarcely suppress his feelings; but after a few minutes' reflection he mounted his seat again, and, casting a good-tempered look to all around him, went off, playing a tune which the occurrence and the sublimity of the day seemed to dictate to him--"Through all the changing scenes of life." Some of the good people of Ilminster who were going to church admired Tom's behaviour, and said it had a very good effect. Tom arrived safe with his coach at Exeter about one o'clock, having started from London one hour and a half after the "Defiance," and performed the journey in nineteen hours and a half. The "Defiance" arrived about an hour after the Subscription; but the proprietors of the latter did not approve of this system, and gave Tom a reprimand, directing him in future to keep on his regular steady pace,[21-*] and not to notice the other coach, which he promised to attend to, but said he only wished to show them, on their first journey, the way along. This, under all the circumstances, was admitted as an excuse. Tom went away much pleased with the adventures of his journey, and said he should never meet the Squire again without playing on his bugle "Hark to the merry Christ Church bells." I beg leave to remain, Mr. Editor, Your obliged Servant, A FRIEND TO THE SUBSCRIPTION COACHES. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 21-*: The regular time is to perform the journey in twenty-two hours--to leave London at six in the evening, and arrive in Exeter at four the following afternoon.] "ALL THE WORLD IS A STAGE COACH: IT HAS ITS INSIDES AND OUTSIDES, AND COACHMEN IN THEIR TIME SEE MUCH FUN."--_Old Play._ _Tune--"The Huntsman Winds his Horn."_ Some people delight in the sports of the turf Whilst others love only the chace, But to me, the delight above all others is A good Coach that can go the pace. There are some, too, for whom the sea has its charms And who'll sing of it night and morn, But give me a Coach with its rattling bars And a Guard who can blow his horn. But give me a Coach, &c. When the Coach comes round to the office door, What a crowd to see it start, And the thoughts of the drive, cheer up many who leave Their friends with an aching heart. The prads are so anxiously tossing their heads, And a nosegay does each one adorn, When the Dragsman jumps up, crying out "sit fast," While the shooter blows his horn. When the Dragsman jumps up, &c. Now merrily rolls the Coach along, Like a bird she seems to fly, As the girls all look out from the roadside Inns, For a wink from the Dragsman's eye, How they long for a ride with the man who's the pride Of each village through which he is borne, On that Coach which he tools with so skilful a hand, While the Guard plays a tune on his horn. On that Coach, &c. How the girls all dote on the sight of the Coach, And the Dragsman's curly locks, As he rattles along with eleven and four, And a petticoat on the box. That box is his home, his teams are his pride, And he ne'er feels downcast or forlorn, When he lists to the musical sound of the bars, And the tune from the shooter's horn. When he lists, &c. I have sung of the joys one feels on a Coach, And the beauty there is in a team, So let us all hope they may ne'er be destroyed By the rascally railroads and steam. There are still some good friends who'll stick by the old trade, And who truly their absence would mourn, "So here's a health to the Dragsman, success to the bars, And the Guard who blows his horn." So here's a health, &c. _Tune--"The Queen, God bless her."_ 1. See that splendid fast Coach, well-named "TALLY HO," With prads that can come the long trot; Do their twelve miles an hour--like flashes they go, Spinning smoothly along as a top. 2. With _Ward_ and _John Hex_, or _Hardcastle_ and _Judd_, How devoted they are to the fair; In their vests there you find the red rose in the bud, Perfuming the Summer soft air. Tally Ho, &c., &c. 3. Four within and twelve out, see they usually start, And the horn sounding right merrily; Good humour and glee do these gay lads impart, And their management's right to a T. 4. But, how shall we grieve, when the fam'd "Tally Ho," Shares the fate of those now long gone by? Yet--we'll toast its fond mem'ry wherever we go, For the sound of its name shall ne'er die. Tally Ho, &c., &c. Printed by Jas. Wade, 18, Tavistock-street, Covent-garden. 
22603	----	page images generously made available by Kentuckiana Digital Library (http://kdl.kyvl.org/) Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 22603-h.htm or 22603-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/2/6/0/22603/22603-h/22603-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/2/2/6/0/22603/22603-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through Kentuckiana Digital Library. See http://kdl.kyvl.org/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kyetexts;cc=kyetexts;xc=1&idno=B98-49-42334752&view=toc RATIONAL HORSE-SHOEING. by WILDAIR. PREFIX. Since the publication of this little volume we have made changes in our horse shoe with a view to adapt it especially to Army use. Our design has been to make a shoe that any Army farrier can apply in a cold state without the use of any other tool than a knife to prepare the hoof, and a hammer to drive the nails. Our success in this attempt has been so complete that we are now using the pattern designed especially for Army use in all our contract work. The shoe is rolled without a heel calk, so that the frog-pressure may be readily secured without heating and drawing the iron:--the nail holes are punched so that the nail furnished by us with the shoe may be driven, without the use of the pritchel to punch out the holes. The shoe, being made of the best quality of iron, may be bent cold to adapt it to the shape of the hoof. Officers will at once see what a vast saving there is in the transportation of shoes--requiring no forge with its heavy outfit--and which are less than half the weight of the clumsy old patterns. [Illustration: THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH.] RATIONAL HORSE-SHOEING. by WILDAIR. With Illustrations. New York: Published by Wynkoop and Hallenbeck, No. 113 Fulton Street. 1873. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by Wynkoop & Hallenbeck, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. INTRODUCTION. In presenting the observations contained in the following pages, we are aware that we appeal to practical men who judge by results, and have but slight patience with mere theory. We wish, therefore, to state clearly at the outset, that the system of horse-shoeing herein advocated, and the shoe offered by us to accompany it and accomplish its purpose, are the result of years of patient study of nature, and actual experiment; and that although we have had to contend with ignorance and interest on the part of the farriers, and indifference and prejudice on the part of owners of horses, we have finally succeeded in interesting the most practical and capable men in America, England, and France in the matter; and, at the time of this publication, thousands of horses, engaged in the most arduous labors of equine life--upon railways, express wagons, transfer companies, and other similar difficult positions--are traveling upon our shoes, their labors lightened by its assistance, their feet preserved in a natural, healthy state, and their lives prolonged to the profit of their owners and the advancement of that cause--one of the evidences of the progress of our age in true enlightenment--which has for its beneficent object the prevention of cruelty to the dumb and helpless companions of our toil. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The first application of the Goodenough shoe is almost invariably to the feet of horses suffering from some one of the forms of foot disease, induced by the unnatural method of shoeing. Our system is intended for sound horses, to supply the necessary protection to the feet, and to keep them in a healthy condition. Our rules for shoeing, embodied in our circular of instructions, are applicable to sound horses, and disease must be provided for as exceptional. Men are careless and, as a rule, unobservant; they go on in the old way until the horse flinches in action or stands "pointing" in dumb appeal to his owner, telling with mute but touching eloquence of his tight-ironed, feverish foot, the dead frog, and the insidious disease, soon to destroy the free action characteristic of health. It is when this evidence brings the truth home to him that the neglectful master, eager to relieve the animal, tries our system. To such masters we must say, do not expect that the imprudence and neglect of years can be remedied in an instant. The age of miracles long ago passed away. We do not propose to cure by formula, or bell and book. There is no "laying on of hands"--no magical touch of an enchanter's wand. Remember always that pain is the warning cry of a faithful sentinel on the outpost, that disease is at hand. Disease is the punishment following a violation of the laws of nature, and can only be escaped by restoring natural conditions. Remember also, that "Nature," so called by Hippocrates, the earliest systematic writer upon medicine, never slumbers nor fails in duty, but strives with unerring, active intelligence to prevent disease, or to cure it when it can not be prevented. When the measures and processes of the physician are in harmony with the natural intention, disease may be cured; when they are adverse in application, the patient dies, or recovers in spite of art. A great French philosopher powerfully remarked: "Nature fights with disease a battle to the death; a blind man armed with a club--that is, a physician--comes in to make peace between them. Failing in that, he lays about him with his club. If he happens to hit disease he kills disease; if he hits nature he kills nature." We wish to be understood that in all things we would assist and facilitate the action of nature, under the artificial restraints of the horse. If we fail in this, or offer obstruction, our occupation is gone. The world has no time to listen to our theory, no use for our practice. And we hope that the thoughtful readers of these pages will see in our intention, an earnest, honest purpose and belief, and that, without affectation of science or pretense of superior knowledge, we base all our efforts upon nature and common sense. In following our instructions and attempting to use our method, _have patience_, and note the result from day to day. The horse will quickly tell you. His action will expose quackery and unmask pretension. He will be no party to a fraud, no advocate of an advertisement. SOUND HORSES. A sound horse is, after man, the paragon of animals. "In form and moving how express and admirable!" His frame is perfect mechanism, instinct with glowing life, and guarded by the great conservative and healing powers of nature from disease and death. His vitality is surpassed by that of man, because man has the endowment of soul, and in his human breast hope springs eternal and imagination gives fresh powers of resistance. Like man, the horse conforms cheerfully to all climates and to all circumstances. He is equally at home-- "Whether where equinoctial fervors glow Or winter wraps the polar world in snow." Amid the sands of Arabia his thin hide and fine hair evidence his breeding; in the frozen north his shaggy covering defends him from the cold storms and searching winds. The disadvantages under which he will work are in no way so clearly illustrated as in his efficiency when exposed to the evils of shoeing. Placed upon heel-calks, to slip about and catch with wrenching force in the interstices of city pavements, or loaded with iron-clogs, to give him "knee-action" and to "untie his shoulders," he bravely faces his discomforts and does to the best of his ability his master's will. How quickly his active system responds to intelligent care and shows its beneficial results! And when relieved from the abuses of ignorance, his recuperative powers re-establish the springing step of youth. CHAPTER I. EVILS OF COMMON SHOEING. Every horseman finds his chief difficulty in the fact that he has to protect the natural foot from the wear incident to the artificial condition in which the horse is placed in his relation to man. In those important industries where great numbers of horses are used, and the profit of the business depends upon the efficiency of the animal, the question becomes a very serious one, and the life term of the horse, or the proportion of the number of animals that are kept from their tasks by inability, make the difference between profit and loss to the great transportation lines that facilitate the busy current of city life. But notwithstanding the importance of this subject, upon the score equally of economy and humanity, the world is, for the most part, just where it was a thousand years ago, possibly worse off, for the original purpose of shoeing was only to protect the foot from attrition or chipping, and but little iron was used, but, as the utility of the operation became apparent, the smith boldly took the responsibility of altering the form of the hoof to suit his own unreasoning views, cutting away, as superfluous, the sole and bars, paring the frog to a shapely smoothness, and then nailing on a broad, heavy piece of iron, covering not only the wall but a portion of the sole also, thus putting it out of the power of the horse to take a natural, elastic step. In a short time the hoof, unbraced by the sole and bars, begins to contract, the action of the frog upon the ground, which in the natural foot is threefold--acting as a cushion to receive the force of the blow and thus relieve the nerves and joints of the leg from concussion, opening and expanding the hoof by its upward pressure, quickening the circulation and thereby stimulating the natural secretions,--this all important part of the organization, without which there is no foot and no horse, becomes hard, dry, and useless. Then follows the whole train of natural consequences. The delicate system of joints inclosed in the hoof feel the pressure of contraction, the knees bend forward in an attempt to relieve the contracted heel. In this action the use of the leg is partially lost. The horse endeavors to secure a new bearing, interferes in movement, or stands in uneasy torture. Nature frequently seeks relief by bursting the dry and contracted shell, in what is known as quarter or toe crack, and the miserable victim becomes practically useless at an age when his powers should be in their prime. Every horseman will acknowledge that his experience has a parallel in the picture here presented. Many men have at various times attempted reform, but the difficulty heretofore encountered has been that the mechanical application was in the hands, not of the owners and reasoners, but in those of a class of men who are, for the most part, ignorant, prejudiced, and, consequently, apt to oppose any innovation upon the old abuses in which they have had centuries of vested right; and it was not until the studies of Mr. R. A. Goodenough that there were brought to bear veterinary knowledge, mechanical skill, and inventive faculty, to overcome the stolidity and interest which have been the lions in the way of true reform. CHAPTER II. FROG PRESSURE. That portion of the hoof called the "frog," performs the most important visible function in the economy of the movement of the horse. It is intensely vital and vigorous. The greater its exposure and the severer its exertion, the more strenuous is the action of nature to renew it. It is the spring at the immediate base of the leg, relieving the nervous system and joints from the shock of the concussion when the Race Horse thunders over the course, seeming in his powerful stride to shake the solid earth itself, and it gives the Trotter the elastic motion with which he sweeps over the ground noiseless upon its yielding spring, but, if shod with heavy iron, so that the frog does not reach the ground to perform its function, his hoofs beat the earth with a force like the hammers of the Cyclops. With the facility to error characteristic of the unreasoning, it has been one of the opinions of grooms and farriers that this callous, india-rubber-like substance would wear away upon exposure to the action of the road or pavement, and it has been one of their cherished practices to set the horse up upon iron, so that he could by no possibility strike the frog upon the ground. In addition to this violation of nature, they pare away the exfoliating growth of the organ, and trim it into the shape that suits their fancy. Without action, muscular life is impossible, the portion of the body thus situated must die, paralyzed or withered. Motion, use, are the law of life, and the frog of the horse's hoof with a function as essential and well-defined as any portion of his body is subject to the general law. Without use it dries, hardens, and becomes a shelly excrescence upon a foot, benumbed by the percussion of heavy iron upon hard roads. This is a loss nature struggles in vain to repair, the horse begins to fail at once. The elastic step, which in a state of nature spurned the dull earth, becomes heavy and stiff, and the unhappy brute experiences the evils partially described in the previous chapter. To restore the natural action of the foot by putting the bearing on the frog, is the chief object of the system we advocate, and the Goodenough shoe is designed especially to provide for that first and last necessity. If this is accomplished with a sound horse, he will avoid the thousand ills that arise from the usual method, and, so far as his feet are concerned, he will remain sound. If the shoe is adopted as a cure for the unsoundness already manifested in animals that have been deprived of the proper use of their feet, it will cure them, not by any virtue in the iron itself, nor by any magic in its application, but simply by giving beneficent nature an opportunity to repair the ruin that the ignorance of man has wrought upon her perfect handiwork. This part of our subject is so important that we shall return to it again in subsequent chapters, and enforce it at every point. [Illustration: GOODENOUGH SHOE--FRONT.] CHAPTER III. DESCRIPTION OF THE GOODENOUGH SHOE. From the representation of the shoe in the cut, its peculiar conformation will be observed, and the reason for these changes from the common form we shall endeavor to explain as clearly as possible. In the first place, it is very light, scarcely half the weight of the average old-fashioned shoe. The foot surface is rolled with a true bevel, making that portion of the web which receives the bearing of the hoof, the width of the thickness of the wall or crust. This prevents pressure upon the sole, and makes the shoe a continuation of the wall of the foot. The ground surface of the shoe has also a true bevel, following the natural slope of the sole, and bringing the inner part of the shoe to a thin edge. The outer portion is thus a thick ridge, dentated, or cut out into cogs or calks, allowing the nail-heads to be countersunk. This arrangement gives five calks--a wide toe-calk, the usual heel-calks, and two calks, one on each side, midway between the toe and heel--thus putting the bearing equally upon all the parts of the foot. This calking has a double object. In the common system of shoeing, to avoid slipping in winter upon the ice, and in the cities upon the wet, slimy surface of pavement, or to assist draft, it is customary to weld a calk upon the toe of a shoe, and to turn up the heels to correspond. In this motion the horse is placed upon a tripod, his weight being entirely upon three points of his foot, and those not the parts intended to bear the shock of travel or to sustain his weight. The position of the frog is of course one of hopeless inaction, and the motion of the unsupported bones within the hoof produce inflammation at the points of extreme pressure, so that, in case of all old horses accustomed to go upon calks, there is ulceration of the heels, in the form of "corns," which the smith informs the owner is the effect of _hard roads_ bruising the heel from the outside; he usually "cuts out the corn," and puts on more iron in the form of a "bar shoe." Or the same action which produces corns, acting upon the dead, dry, unsupported frog and sole, breaks the arch of the foot so that a "drop sole" is manifest, or "pumiced foot," for both of which a "bar shoe" is the unvarying, pernicious prescription. In the Goodenough shoe, the calks are supplied, and the weight so distributed that the objection to the old method does not exist. COUNTERSINKING THE NAILS. This is a point to which we call attention as of great importance. In shoeing a horse for light or rapid work with a common flat shoe, seven or eight nail-heads protrude, and take the force of his blow on the ground. The foot has just been pared, and those nails, driven into the wall and pressing against the soft inside horn and sensitive laminæ, vibrate to the quick, and often cause the newly-shod horse to shrink, and show soreness in traveling for a day or two. No matter how skillfully shod, the horse will be all the better in escaping this unnecessary infliction. THE BEVEL OF THE FOOT SURFACE Is to keep the shoe a continuation of the crust or wall of the hoof, and to avoid percussion upon the sole. THE BEVEL ON THE GROUND SURFACE Is to follow the natural concavity of the foot and to give it the form which will have no suction on wet ground, will not pick up mud, or retain snow-balls. THE CALKS Have a use fully explained. When the shoe thus described is set so as to secure _frog-pressure_, as hereinafter directed, a horse may be shod without violation of nature's laws; foot disease, under fair conditions, will become almost impossible, and the useless refuse-stock, broken down by the old method, may be restored to usefulness. [Illustration: GOODENOUGH SHOE--BACK.] CHAPTER IV. HOW TO SHOE SOUND FEET. If a foot came to the farrier in a perfectly normal condition, never having been subjected to the destructive process of common shoeing, the directions for putting on the Goodenough shoe would be simply, to dress the foot by paring or rasping the wall until a shoe of proper size laid upon the prepared crust would give an even bearing with the frog all over the foot; then, as the calk wore away, the pressure would come more and more upon the frog and the foot would retain its natural state during the life-time of the horse. A colt thus shod could not have a corn, for a corn is an ulcer caused by the wings of the coffin-bone pressing upon a hard, unelastic substance. When the horse raises his foot the coffin-bone is lifted upward by the action of the flexor tendon; when his foot touches the earth the weight of the animal is thrown upon the same bone, and, if unsupported by the natural cushion of the foot, the action of the bone pressing the sensitive sole upon iron causes the bruise which, for lack of another name, is called a corn. The horse thus shod would never have a quarter crack, for that is the immediate effect of contraction caused by the absence of the expanding action of the frog and the consequent dead condition of the hoof from want of circulation and proper secretions. The horse would be equally free from "drop" and "pumiced" sole, seedy toe, thrush, and kindred complaints. INCIPIENT UNSOUNDNESS. [Illustration: FOOT, SHOWING SHOE AND FROG.] It is almost impossible to find a horse perfectly sound in his feet, unless one looks (strange as it may seem) into the stables of the Third Avenue Railroad Company, or those of Adams' Express, or Dodd's Transfer Company, or into some of the other stables where our shoe and system are in faithful use; we will therefore call attention to such a case as will be generally presented at the forge: A good young horse, shod for several years upon the common plan, and in the early stages of contraction. We find he has on wide-web shoes, weighing about twenty ounces each; these may be smooth in front and calked behind; they bear upon the sole and heel. In place of a frog, we discover a point of hard, shrunken, cracked substance, neither frog nor sole. We cut the clenches and take off the relic of ignorance and barbarism, throwing it with hearty good-will into the only place fit to receive it--the pile of scrap-iron. We examine carefully to see that no stub of nail is left in. The heels will be found long and hard. Our object being _frog-pressure_, to get the vivifying action of this tactile organ upon the ground, we pare down the whole wall; we soon come to signs of a corn--perhaps a drop of blood starts; but as we do not intend to put the weight upon the heels, we are not alarmed. Having cut all we can from the heels and still finding that the frog, when the shoe is laid on, can not touch the ground, _we knock down the last two calks and draw the heel of the shoe thin_; this must give us a bearing upon the frog and the sound part of the foot. We use the lightest shoe, truly fitted with the rasp, not burned on. The horse should then be worked regularly, and he will experience at once the benefit of a return to "first principles" and natural action. [Illustration: FOOT, WITH SHELL REMOVED.] CHAPTER V. SIMPLE CASES OF CONTRACTION. Contraction, in a greater or less degree, is exhibited by all horses, of every grade, that have been shod in the common way, except in those more unfortunate cases that have resulted in a breaking of the arch of the foot, from lack of the natural frog support, when the phenomena of "dropped sole" are found, and the usual accompaniment of "pumiced feet." It may seem superfluous to say that the power and action of the horse are greatly restricted by contraction. The cartilaginous fibre that forms the bulk of the substance of the foot behind the great back sinew is squeezed into narrow space, the working of the joints compressed, and inflammation at the joints, or at the wings of the coffin-bone, is excited; in worse cases navicular disease is established, or, from inadequate circulation, thrush holds possession at the frog, or scratches torment the heels. When simple contraction--shown in the narrow heel, dried and shrunken frog, and "pegging" motion of the horse--is the case, our design is at once to restore the natural action of the foot. This must be done by expansion, and that is to be had from frog-pressure, according to the directions in the preceding chapters. If navicular disease has commenced, and the animal is decidedly lame, we have a difficult case. The membrane of this important bone, in some cases of contraction, becomes ulcerated, and the bone itself may be decayed, or adhesion between the coffin-bone and the navicular and pastern may take place. Without expansion there is no possibility of relief; local bleeding, poulticing, and all the drastic drugs of the veterinary will be invoked in vain. QUARTER AND TOE CRACK. [Illustration: QUARTER CRACK--FULL SHOE.] This disease, usually attributed to "heat," "dry weather," "weak feet," etc., is one of the common symptoms of contraction, and can be entirely cured with the greatest ease; nor will it ever recur if the hoof is kept in proper condition. If the case is recent, shoe as advised in our paragraph upon "Incipient Unsoundness," being sure to cut the heel well down, putting the bearing fully upon the frog and three-quarters of the foot. If the hoof is weak from long contraction and defective circulation, lower the heels and whole wall, until the frog comes well upon the ground, and shoe with a "slipper," or "tip," made by cutting off a light shoe just before the middle calk, drawing it down and lowering the toe-calk partially. This will seem dangerous to those who have not tried it, but it is not so. The horse may flinch a little at first, from his unaccustomed condition, and from the active life that will begin to stir in his dry, hard, and numb foot, but he will enjoy the change. The healing of the crack will be from the coronet down, and it is good practice to cut with a sharp knife just above the split, and to clean all dirt and dead substance out from the point where you cut, downwards. Soaking the feet in water will facilitate a cure by quickening the growth of the hoof; or, a stimulating liniment may be applied to the coronet, to excite more active growth. Bear in mind that expansion is not from the sole upwards, but from the coronet downwards. TOE CRACKS. The cause of this defect is the same as in quarter crack. It appears in both fore and hind feet. Clean the crack well, cutting with a sharp knife the dead horn from each side of it; shoe as advised for quarter crack, or for the purpose of getting expansion and natural action of the dead, shelly hoof. The dirt and sand may be kept out of the crack by filling it with balsam of fir, or pine pitch. Keep the horse at regular work. [Illustration: QUARTER CRACK--HALF SHOE.] CHAPTER VI. DROP SOLE AND PUMICED FOOT. This miserable condition of the abused animal is Nature's fiercest protest against the ignorance and carelessness of man. A horse set upon heavy shoes, and those armed with calks at toe and heel, such as are usually inflicted upon large draft-horses, has his whole weight placed upon the unsupported sole. The frog never comes in contact with the earth in any way, inflammation of the sensitive frog and sole takes place, and the arch of the sole bends down under the pressure until the ground surface of the hoof becomes flat or convex, bulging down even lower than the cruel iron that clamps its edge. This is the condition of a drop sole. This degenerate state of the foot has other complications. Active inflammation is often present and all the wretchedness of a pumiced foot--the despair of owner and veterinary--is experienced. The smith, whose clumsy contrivance has been the cause of all the woe, has abundant reasons to offer for the disease, and his unfailing resort of the "_Bar Shoe_." This atrocious fetter is supplemented with leather pads, sometimes daubed with tar, and the horse hobbles to his task. Not unfrequently the crust at the front of the hoof sinks in, adhering to the sole; circulation being cut off, SEEDY TOE is then manifest. The only possible relief from these complications is in natural action. Contraction is not present, but we want circulation, new growth and absorption; we obtain it by dressing the foot smoothly with the rasp and putting the bearing evenly upon the frog and a light shoe, which should be merely a continuation of the wall of the foot. Many very bad cases shod in this way have been relieved. No grease or tar should ever be used. CONTRACTION, OR DROP SOLE, WITH SORENESS AT THE TOE. Shoe as previously directed, and rasp or cut the sole and wall at the toe into a slightly hollow shape, so that you could pass a knife-blade between the hoof and shoe. The object of this is to relieve the hoof from pressure at this point. In cases where the toe is thin and weak, or where there is inflammation extending to the point of the frog, remove as much of the sole pressing against the frog as seems feasible, and level the toe-calk, so that the horse will bear upon the frog and side-calks. It is often well to free a shrunken frog from the binding growth of sole that has closed in upon it, and in cases of contraction, where this is done, a horse will recover the action of the frog with less difficulty than where that organ is sole-bound. THRUSH. This is a filthy, fetid disease of the frog. By many veterinary writers it is attributed entirely to damp stables, general nasty condition of stall, yard, etc. Mayhew ingenuously remarks, in addition, that it is usually found in animals that "step short or go groggily," and that the hoof is "hot and hard." Youatt comes to the point at once in saying that it is the effect of contraction, and, when established, is also a cause of further contraction. It is manifest in a putrid discharge from the frog. The matter is secreted by the inner or sensible frog, excited to this morbid condition by pressure of contraction. Its cure is simple and easy if the cause is removed. A wash of brine, or chloride of zinc, three grains to the ounce of water, is generally used to correct the foulness. CHAPTER VII. BENT KNEES INTERFERENCE, AND SPEEDY CUT. The knee of a horse is a most complicated and beautiful mechanical arrangement, singularly exempt from strain or disease in any form. Bony enlargement, inflammation of the ligaments, do not attack it. The ravage of the shoeing-smith--the horse's direst enemy--seems to be exhausted upon the feet and the sympathetic pasterns; the concussion of iron and pavement, uncushioned by the frog, will destroy the lower system of joints before the knee can be shaken. Notwithstanding this perfection and strength, many horses bend the knee, and stand, or travel with it bent, until the flexor muscles shrink from lack of use. This "over in the knees" condition is invariably caused by imperfect use of the feet. The effect of heel-calks and their accompaniment of corns, making a sore in each heel, is often indicated by the horse to his regardless owner by bending his knee. The owner asks the smith why he does it, and the smith, who never fails to give a reason, says he has always noticed that horse had "weak knees." We know of a shoer in Worcester County, Massachusetts, who has a wide local reputation for "doctoring" weak knees. He holds that the muscles of the leg in such cases are _too short_, and have to be lengthened with thick iron heels and calks. It is a favorite theory of this class of shoers that they are able to correct the errors of Providence in the horse's construction, and piece him out with heel-calks and bar-shoes! INTERFERING AND SPEEDY CUT. If horses were not shod, they would not interfere; it therefore follows that shoeing is the cause of this defect. A contracted hoof, pain from corns, or any inflammation causes a horse to seek a new bearing. In doing this he strikes himself. Blacksmiths make "interfering shoes," welding side-pieces and superfluous calks upon their clumsy contrivances, and sometimes succeed in preventing the symptom, but they never remove the cause. Few horses with natural feet, good circulation, and shod with a light shoe, will ever interfere. In all such cases, take off the heavy shoe, cure the contraction, get an even bearing, and let nature have at least a momentary chance. WORKING UP HORSES. It is a common practice of large proprietors, engaged on railroad or city work, to buy up horses with unsound feet, unfitted for speed or gentle service, and use them up, as old clothes are put through a shoddy-mill for what wool there is left in them. This cruel policy, under an intelligent system of shoeing, would be impossible, because the vast aggregate of foot diseases would be so abated that horses, sound in general health but creeping upon disabled hoofs, could not be found in droves, as at present, and the speculator in equine misfortune would better serve his selfishness by buying young horses and keeping them sound by a natural system of shoeing. STUMBLING HORSES. This annoyance is frequently caused by undue use of the toe, when the heel is lame and sore from contraction and corns. When the horse has the frog well on the ground and uses his heel without shrinking he is not apt to stumble. TO INCREASE COMFORT. In dry weather, or when a horse with a hard, lifeless hoof is shod with the Goodenough shoe, and shrinks from the unaccustomed pressure of the frog on the ground, nothing is so grateful to his feet as cold water. The hose turned on them is a delicious bath; or if he can stand for an hour in a wet place, or in a running brook, he will get infinite comfort from it. We have sometimes rapidly assisted the cure of contraction, in the city, by manufacturing a country brook-bottom in this simple way: Put half a bushel of pebbles into a stout tub, with or without some sand, let them cover the bottom to the depth of two or three inches, pour on water and you have a good imitation of a mountain brook. Put the horse's forefeet into this, and let him bear his weight upon the frog. The first time he will grow uneasy after a few minutes, but when his frog becomes natural in its function he will be glad to stand there all day. Do not carry this treatment to excess. Moderation is the most satisfactory course in all things. Abjure utterly all oils and greasy hoof dressings, they are pernicious recommendations of unreasoning grooms. They fill the pores of the wall, and injure in every way. Nature will find oil, if you will allow circulation and secretion, through the action of the frog. "Stuffing the feet," is another wretched, groom's device. A horse has a dry, feverish hoof from contraction, so his hollow sole, denuded of its frog, is "stuffed" with heating oil-meal, or nasty droppings of cows. When this sort of thing is proposed, remember _Punch's_ advice to those about to be married, "Don't do it." CHAPTER VIII. ECONOMY OF THE GOODENOUGH SHOE. A horse-shoe that the united voices or the shrewdest and ablest managers in the country commend--inasmuch as it enables cripples to work, frequently restores them, and maintains soundness where that quality exists--need not be recommended on the ground of economy. Such a horse-shoe could not be dear. But it takes all sorts of people to make a world, and the pressure to the square inch of mean men is not to be governed by safety-valves or regulated by gauges. There are too many men who will use the thing that costs the least outlay, even if it tortures or kills the horse. On the point of first cost we may say that if our shoe had no advantage over the hand-made shoe in preserving the natural action and growth of the foot, thereby retaining the powers of the animal in full vigor, it would still be cheaper than the common shoe. It is sold slightly higher than the clumsy pieces of bent iron called horse-shoes by mere courtesy, and its lightness gives one-third more shoes to the keg, while there is no expense of calking, which, in labor and material, is equal to three cents per pound. Upon the point of durability, it is well settled that the heavy shoe will not last so long as the light one with frog-pressure. A horse set upon heavy shoes grinds iron every time he moves. The least interposition of the frog will reduce the wear very materially, and if the frog is well on the ground, a horse will carry a shoe until he outgrows it. A horse-railroad superintendent said to the writer, "We don't wear iron nowadays, we wear _frog_ and _cobble-stones_; nature provides frog and Boston finds cobble-stones." When the Goodenough shoe is put for the first time upon a dry, half-dead foot, and the frog brought into lively action, growth is generally very rapid. We have often been compelled to reset the shoe, cutting down the wall, in ten days after shoeing. Many horses that have been used upon pavements and horse-railroads, have acquired a habit of slipping and sliding along, catching with heel-calks in the space between the stones; such horses do not at once relinquish the habit, and wear their first set of our shoes much more rapidly than the subsequent set, after they have assumed the natural action of their feet. But, economical as a light shoe that will long outlast a heavy one may be, the great saving is in the item of horse-flesh. The value of the horses employed in the actual labor of the country reaches a startling sum total. The vast importance of the horse in the movement of business, was never so fully understood and deeply felt as during the year past, when the epizoötic swept over the continent, paralyzing all movement and every form of human industry. Even the ships that whiten the seas would furl their sails and steamers quench their fires but for the labors of the horse. During the epidemic the canal-boats waited idly for their patient tow-horses and railroads carried little freight; the crops of the West lay in the farmers' granaries and the fabrics of the Eastern loom and varied products of mechanical industry crowded the warehouses; even the ragpicker in the streets suspended his humble occupation, for the merchant, unable to transport rags, refused to buy them of the gatherer. The investment of national wealth in horses being so enormous, any means that adds to the efficiency of the horse greatly enhances the general prosperity. [Illustration: PERFECT SHOE AND HOOF.] [Illustration: IMPERFECT SHOE AND HOOF.] It is an old English saying, that "a good horse will wear out two sets of feet." The meaning of this adage is obvious: a good horse's feet are useless at the time when his other powers are in the prime. Mr. Edward Cottam, of London, in his "Observations upon the Goodenough System," states that London omnibus-owners use up a young horse in four years; that is, a horse of seven years of age goes to the knackers at eleven, _pabulum Acherontis_; and the only noticeable cause of their failure is from diseases of the feet. A horse properly shod and cared for should endure five times as long. In this country horses fail in the feet, and are called old at an age when they should be in the fullest activity. This is a double loss, for every horseman of experience knows that if an old horse is sound and vigorous he has some great advantages over a young one. He is safer in every respect, "way-wise," seasoned, steady, and reliable. He and his owner are old friends and companions and can not part but with a pang of regret. A good horse, well cared for, should work cheerfully until he is thirty years of age; yet how few are able to perform genteel service after fifteen! It is a sad sight that of the high-mettled, noble animal, once the petted darling of wealth, caressed by ladies and children, and guarded so that even the winds of heaven might not visit him too roughly, fallen through the successive grades of equine degradation, until at last he hobbles before a clam-wagon or a swill-cart--a sorry relic of better days. The question is so plain that we hesitate to argue with intelligent people to prove that, if the old system of shoeing destroys the value of a horse in middle life, half his money value is sacrificed to ignorance--a waste that might be saved were nature's laws regarded. That part of the argument which demands that the faithful, devoted servant merits humane treatment and the best intelligence of the master in securing his health and comfort can not be forgotten and need not be urged upon the attention of the true horseman. FINAL OBSERVATIONS. To be _rational_ in any course of action is, primarily, to follow the leading of reason, and by that guidance to arrive at correct conclusions. It is the opposite to the method which is _irrational_--regardless of reason, and therefore leading to conclusions erroneous and absurd. Rationalism is opposed to ultraism, to vehement, officious and extreme measures--while it would seek more excellent ways, it holds fast to that which is good. Rationalism in medicine is the method which recognises nature as the great agent in the cure of disease, and employs art as an auxiliary to be resorted to when useful or necessary, and avoided when prejudicial. In our treatment of the hoof, we would seek to know the cause of the horse's troubles, firmly believing that he is endowed by nature with strength to perform the service man demands of him, and that he is not necessarily a helpless prey to torturing diseases of the minor organs; and, indeed, subject only to that final, unavoidable sentence, which in some form nature holds suspended over all animate existence. Having by the aid of reason ascertained the cause of defects, we would assist nature to relieve them; we have therefore called this little hand-book of suggestions from our experience, RATIONAL HORSE-SHOEING. OPPOSING FORCES. Having taken upon ourselves to reform evils, rooted deep in old customs, and to abolish abuses older than our civilization, we have to meet with discouragement and opposition in various forms. Even the enlightened and well-intentioned hold back incredulous. This form of opposition finally examines, being led thereto from motives of economy and the promptings of humanity; it usually approves and assists, but is often carried back by indolence, when it discovers that it must join us in the loud battle we are forced to wage all along the line against fierce interests and bitter prejudices. We attack with slender array, but unflinching purpose, the gloomy powers of ignorance that are allied to doubt and indifference. These contend under the prestige of a thousand years of possession. Ignorance and Prejudice are twin giants that renew their life upon each other; they are as old as chaos, and are invulnerable to the weapons of ordinary warfare. Like the fallen angels, they are-- "Vital in every part, And can but by annihilation die." One of the Greek fables, typifying the struggle of man against circumstances, was a story of the battle between Hercules and Antæus, son of the Earth. The fight was long and doubtful, for whenever the mortal was felled to the ground by the power of the vigorous god, his force was renewed by contact with the breast of his mother Earth, and he sprang to his feet and recommenced the never-ending strife. This contest between the god, and the mortal born of earth and sea, is the poetical type of the unceasing toil of man in the Valley of the Nile, against the sandy waves of the Lybian desert, always encroaching upon the cultivated soil, and demanding year by year new exertions to repress their advance. So, in our attempt to establish a better system of utilizing the powers of the horse in the service of man, we have each day to meet the same enemy, renewed by contact with the sources that foster and reinforce ignorance. But as persistent labor conducted the beneficent waters of the Nile in irrigating channels through the arid plain of the desert, until upon the inhospitable edge gardens bloomed, fields of grain waved in the breeze, and the date-palm cast its grateful shade upon the husbandman--so we make healthful progress, and enjoy a widely increasing triple reward--first, in the thankful esteem of our fellow men; secondly, in the relief we afford to a noble animal; and last, in the substantial return which the highest authority has adjudged to honest labor. REGULAR WORK. We wish all readers of this book to understand that the directions herein given for shoeing apply to horses whose owners expect them to work regularly after shoeing--from the very hour in which the shoes are set. We do not propose to "lay up" horses, or to put them to rest in "loose boxes," nor yet to "turn them out to grass." One of the chief difficulties we have had with wealthy owners has been from the tendency to keep the horse _out of work_ when we have got him into a condition where we want exercise to stimulate the alterative process we propose. A cure of any foot disease we have described, will be much more rapidly effected if the horse has his regular work upon the roads or pavements to which he is accustomed, no matter how hard they are. We hope that it has also been noticed, that we do not propose to cure spavins, splints, navicular disease, or to restore the natural action of a horse where ossification of cartilage is well established. 
29248	----	Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of corrections is found at the end of the text. THE YOUNG LADY'S EQUESTRIAN MANUAL. [Illustration] [Illustration] [Illustration: THE YOUNG LADY'S EQUESTRIAN MANUAL.] E.LANDELLS.S. LONDON. WHITEHEAD AND COMP^Y. 76, FLEET STREET. MDCCCXXXVIII. [Illustration] PREFACE. The following pages contain a Treatise on the Art of Riding on Horseback, for Ladies, which originally appeared in the Publishers' well-known Manual of elegant feminine Recreations, Exercises, and Pursuits, THE YOUNG LADY'S BOOK; with, however, various additions to the Text, and a number of new Illustrations and Embellishments. In offering the Treatise, thus improved and adorned, in a separate form, the Publishers, it need scarcely be said, have been influenced, materially, by that high and most extensive patronage, which, under Royal auspices, has been conferred by the ladies of this country, since the commencement of the present reign, on the Art of which it is the subject. [Illustration] [Illustration] CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION 7 EQUESTRIAN TECHNICALITIES 23 THE LADY'S HORSE 26 PERSONAL EQUIPMENTS 31 ACCOUTREMENTS FOR THE HORSE 33 RULES OF THE ROAD 34 MODE OF MOUNTING 36 MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS 41 THE SEAT AND BALANCE 44 AIDS AND DEFENCES 51 SOOTHINGS AND ANIMATIONS 55 CORRECTIONS 58 VICES 60 EXERCISES IN THE PACES 71 THE WALK 73 THE TROT 79 THE CANTER 81 THE GALLOP 84 STOPPING AND BACKING 85 LEAPING 87 DISMOUNTING 91 CONCLUDING REMARKS 95 [Illustration] THE YOUNG LADY'S EQUESTRIAN MANUAL. [Illustration] Our Virgin Queen, peerless Elizabeth, With grace and dignity rode through the host: And proudly paced that gallant steed, as though He knew his saddle was a royal throne. INTRODUCTION. Riding on Horseback is, confessedly, one of the most graceful, agreeable, and salutary of feminine recreations. No attitude, perhaps, can be regarded as more elegant than that of a lady in the modern side-saddle; nor can any exercise be deemed capable of affording more rational and innocent delight, than that of the female equestrian. Pursued in the open air, it affords a most rapid, and, at the same time, exhilarating succession of scenic changes, at a degree of personal exertion, sufficient to produce immediate pleasure, without inducing the subsequent languor of fatigue. Nor is riding on horseback attended with that danger to ladies, attributed to it by the indolent, the melancholy, and the timid. Accidents, indeed, in the side-saddle, are of extremely rare occurrence. Strange as it may seem, it is, however, an incontrovertible fact, that horses, in general, are much more docile and temperate, with riders of the fair sex, than when mounted by men. This may be attributed, partially, to the more backward position, in the saddle, of the former than the latter; but, principally, perhaps, to their superior delicacy of hand in managing the reins. As an active recreation, and a mode of conveyance, riding on horseback appears to have been of very remote usage among our fair countrywomen. During a long period, indeed, it was the only one known to, or, adopted by them, for the performance of journies. Such, too, appears to have been the case (with some modifications) in other European countries. The only _voiture_ of the French, says Garsault, until the reign of Charles the Sixth, was the back of the horse or mule: neither Kings, Queens, Princes, nor subjects were acquainted with any other. In the time of that monarch, litters, borne by two horses, first appeared; but these were uncovered, and used, only, by ladies of the court. Froissart describes Isabel, the second wife of Richard the Second of England, as having been borne "en une litière moult riche, qui etoit ordonnèe pour elle;" and this kind of vehicle, during the reigns of several succeeding Monarchs, appears to have been used by women of distinction in this country, but, only, it is to be observed, in cases of illness, or on occasions of ceremony. For example,--when Margaret, daughter of Henry the Seventh, went into Scotland, she generally rode "a faire palfrey;" while, after her, was conveyed "one vary riche litere, borne by two faire coursers, vary nobly drest; in the which litere the sayd Queene was borne in the intrying of the good townes, or otherwise, to her good playsher." Towards the end of the thirteenth century, vehicles with wheels, for the use of ladies, were first introduced. They appear to have been of Italian origin, as the first notice of them is found in an account of the entry of Charles of Anjou into Naples; on which occasion, we are told, his queen rode in a _careta_, the outside and inside of which were covered with sky-blue velvet, interspersed with golden lilies. Under the Gallicised denomination of _char_, the Italian _careta_, shortly afterwards became known in France; where, so early as the year 1294, an ordinance was issued by Philip the Fair, forbidding its use to citizens' wives. Nor was England far behind in the adoption of the vehicle; for, in "The Squyr of Low Degree," a poem supposed to have been written anterior to the time of Chaucer, we find the father of a royal lady promising that she shall hunt with him, on the morrow, in "_a chare_," drawn by "Jennettes of Spain that ben so white, Trapped to the ground with velvet bright." "It shall be covered with velvet red, And clothes of fine gold all about your head; With damask white and azure blue, Well diapered with lilies blue." However richly ornamented, the _careta_, _char_, or _chare_--and there is little, if any, doubt, to be entertained as to their identity--may have been, it was, probably, a clumsy, inelegant, and inconvenient structure; for its employment appears to have been far from general among high-born ladies, even on occasions of ceremony and pomp. During the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, the French Princesses usually rode on donkies; and so late as the year 1534, a sacred festival was attended by Queen Eleonora, and the females of the blood royal of France, on horseback. Nor did the superior and more recent invention of coaches, for a long period, tend materially to supersede, among ladies, the use of the saddle. These vehicles, according to Stow, became known, in England, in 1580; but, many years after, Queen Elizabeth herself is described as having appeared, almost daily, on her palfrey. In the time of Charles the Second, the fashion, among ladies, of riding on horseback, declined; during subsequent reigns, it gradually revived; and the exercise may now be regarded as firmly established, among our fair countrywomen, by the august example of their illustrious Queen. [Illustration] The present graceful, secure, and appropriate style of female equestrianism is, however, materially different from that of the olden time. In by-gone days, the dame or damosel rode precisely as the knight or page. Of this, several illustrations occur in an illuminated manuscript of the fourteenth century, preserved in the Royal Library. In one of these, a lady of that period is depicted on horseback, enjoying the pastime of the chase. In another, are represented two gentlewomen of the same period, on horseback, with an individual of the other sex, engaged (as is shewn by some parts of the design, which it would be needless, for our present purpose, to copy) in the once much-favoured diversion of Hawking. [Illustration] Queen Elizabeth, says a writer in the Encyclopædia Londinensis, "seems to have been the first who set the ladies the more modest fashion of riding sideways. Considerable opposition was, at first, made to it, as inconvenient and dangerous: but, practice, in time, brought it into general use; particularly when ladies found they could ride a-hunting, take flying leaps, and gallop over cross roads and ploughed fields, without meeting with more accidents than the men: besides, it was not only allowed to be more decorous, but, in many respects, more congenial to the ease and comfort of a female rider." Our author is, however, wrong in ascribing the fashion of riding sideways, by women in this country, to Elizabeth; by whom it could only have been confirmed, or, at the most, revived;--the honour of its introduction being clearly attributable to another Queen of England, who lived at a much more early period of our history. Ann of Bohemia, consort of Richard the Second, is the illustrious personage to whom we allude. She, it was, according to Stow (whom Beckman follows on this point), that originally shewed the women of this country how gracefully and conveniently they might ride on horseback sideways. Another old historian, enumerating the new fashions of Richard the Second's reign, observes, "Likewise, noble ladies then used high heads and cornets, and robes with long trains, and seats, or _side-saddles_, on their horses, by the example of the respectable Queen, Ann, daughter of the King of Bohemia; who first introduced the custom into this kingdom: for, before, women of every rank rode as men do" (T. ROSSII, _Hist. Re. Ang._ p. 205). In his beautiful illustrative picture of Chaucer's Canterbury Pilgrims, Stothard appears to have committed an anachronism, in placing the most conspicuous female character of his fine composition sideways on her steed. That the lady should have been depicted riding in the male fashion, might, it strikes us, have been inferred, without any historical research on the subject, from the poet's describing her as having, on her feet, "_a paire_ of spurrés sharpe." Neither the original example of Ann of Bohemia, nor that, in later days, of Elizabeth, as female equestrians, however extensively followed, had sufficient force, entirely to abolish, among our countrywomen, the mode of riding like the other sex. In the time of Charles the Second, it appears, from a passage in the Duke of Newcastle's great work on Horsemanship, to have still, at least partially, subsisted. Another writer of the seventeenth century, whose manuscripts are preserved in the Harleian collection, speaks of it, as having been practised, in his time, by the ladies of Bury, in Suffolk, when hunting or hawking; and our venerable contemporary, Lawrence (a voluminous writer on the horse), it is worthy of remark, states, that at an early period of his own life, two young ladies of good family, then residing near Ipswich, _in the same county_, "were in the constant habit of riding about the country, in their smart doe-skins, great coats, and flapped beaver hats." [Illustration] Although entirely relinquished, at present, perhaps in this country, the mode of female equestrianism under notice continues to prevail in various other localities. In the following sketch, taken from Charles Audry's magnificent "Ecole d' Equitation," a Persian lady is delineated as just about to start on a journey, in the saddle; and, in the next, which is engraved from an original drawing, "done from the life," a lady and gentleman of Lima are represented on horseback. "I have endeavoured," the artist says, in manuscript, on the reverse of his sketch, "to depict the horses '_pacing_;' as they are almost universally taught to do, in Peru: that is, to move both the legs, of one side, forward together. It resembles an English butcher's trot in appearance; but, it is so easy, that one might go to sleep on the horse: and, after riding '_a pacer_,' it is difficult to sit a trotter at first. It is, also, excessively rapid;--good _pacers_ beating other horses at a gallop. The ladies of Lima do not always ride with the face covered: but, only, when the sun is powerful. They, sometimes, ride in _ponchos_, like the men: in fact, it is excessively difficult, at first sight, to determine whether a person on horseback be male or female." [Illustration] The side-saddle introduced to this country by Ann of Bohemia, differed, materially, from that now used by British ladies; having, no doubt, been a mere pillion, on which the rider sate, as in a chair. [Illustration] [Illustration] At what period our fair countrywomen first began to ride with the knee over the pommel, we are not enabled to state: it is, however, clear, according to the original of the above sketch, which occurs in one of the historical illustrations of equestrianism, given by Audry, that the courtly dames of England did so, about the middle of the seventeenth century. Our author describes the figure, as being that of the Countess of Newcastle. [Illustration] It may be conjectured, that a single crutch, only, for the advanced leg, was at first used; and this, it is not improbable, was fixed on the centre of the pommel, as in the lady's saddle, now, or at least very lately, common in some parts of Mexico; where the women, it would seem, ride with the left hand towards the animal's head. This, also, appears to have been, sometimes, the case, down to a recent period, in our own country; for, in rather a modern description of the side-saddle, the crutches are spoken of as being moveable, in order to afford a lady, by merely changing their relative positions, the means of riding, as she might please, on either side of her horse.[18-*] That a second crutch was used about the middle of the last century (we are unable to state how much earlier), in France, at least, is evident from a plate of the lady's hunting saddle, at that period, given by Garsault; in which, it is curious, a sort of hold-fast is provided for the fair equestrian's right hand. But, even so recently as Garsault's time, the saddle in ordinary use, by French women, was, we learn from his work on equitation, still, a kind of pillion, on which the rider sate, diagonally, with both feet resting on a broad suspended ledge or stirrup. The pillion in this country has not yet become obsolete; being still, frequently, to be seen, on the backs of donkies and hack ponies, at watering places. During the early part of the present century, its employment continued to be general. It was fixed behind a man's saddle, on the croup of a steady horse, trained to go at an easy though shuffling pace between a walk and a trot. The groom, or gentleman, equipped with a broad leathern belt buckled about his waist--by which the lady secured her position, in case of need--first mounted; and his fair companion was then lifted, backwards, and behind him, into her seat. In an old work on horsemanship, written by one William Stokes, and published at Oxford, it is not, perhaps, unworthy of notice, directions are given for vaulting into the saddle, _after_ the lady has been placed on the croup; together with a plate illustrative of so exquisitely nice and marvellously absurd an operation. In Mexico "they manage these things," if not "better," at all events, with more gallantry, than our forefathers did, for with them, "the _pisana_, or country lady," we are told, "is often seen mounted _before_ her _cavaliero_; who, seated behind his fair one, supports her with his arm thrown around her waist." Our illustrative sketch of this custom (in the preceding page) is taken from a beautiful model,--the work of a native Mexican artist. [Illustration] [Illustration] Having, now, offered our fair readers a slight and unpretending historical sketch of female equestrianism, we shall proceed, after a few preliminary remarks, to the practical details of the art. Its various advantages, inducements, and attractions, as an exercise, have, already, been noticed. Much, however, as we wish to interest our fair countrywomen, in its favour, it is proper, on our part, to tell them, frankly, that equestrianism is far from being an intuitive art:--there is no "royal road" to it. To be enjoyed and appreciated, it must be learnt. That ease and elegance,--that comparative safety in the side-saddle, of which we have spoken,--it is impossible to achieve, without considerable practice, based upon proper principles. Many young ladies, however, feel a delicate repugnance to passing through the ordeal of a riding-school; some, again, do not reside in situations, where the benefit of a teacher's directions can be procured; while others, erroneously flatter themselves, that they are in possession of every needful acquirement, as regards equestrianism, when they have discovered how to retain a seat on the saddle, and guide a horse by means of the bridle. To such of our readers as happen to be comprised within either of these classes,--and to those, also, who, after having received a professor's initiative instructions, are desirous of further improvement, the following pages, if carefully perused, will, the writer most zealously hopes, prove beneficial. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [18-*] Since writing the above, we have been assured by a friend, that, within a few weeks past, he has seen several ladies, at Brighton, seated on the wrong side of the horse. Side-saddles, with moveable crutches, indeed, are now far from uncommon (to our own knowledge), in saddlers' shops. EQUESTRIAN TECHNICALITIES. A few, among the most generally adopted, of these, it will be expedient, in the first place, to notice and explain. Most parts in the external structure of the horse are known by names of obvious signification: but such is not, exactly, the case with all. [Illustration] To commence with the anterior limb:--_a_ is the fore pastern; _b_, the fetlock; _c_, the leg; and _d_, the arm. In the hind limb, _e_ is the hind pastern; _f_, the hock; _g_, the stifle; and _h_, the haunch. The upper surface of the neck, _i_, is denominated the crest; _k_, the withers, and _l_, the croup. [Illustration] In the bridle, supposing it to be double-reined, _a_ is the double head-stall; _b_, the front; _c_, the nose-band; _d_, the throat-lash; _e_, _e_, the snaffle rein; and _f_, _f_, the curb rein. At _g_, _g_, is the martingale. [Illustration] In the saddle, _a_, is the near crutch; _b_, the off crutch; _c_, the cantle; _d_, the crupper; _e_, the safe; _f_, the skirt; _g_, the stirrup; _h_, the near side half of the surcingle; and _i_, _i_, the girths. A lady's right hand is termed the _whip_-hand, and her left, the _bridle_-hand. The _near_ side of a horse is that which is on the _left_ of the rider; and the _off_ side that which is on her _right_. The height of a horse is always estimated in _hands_, of four inches each: it is always measured at the tip of the shoulder. A horse is never spoken of as being so many hands _tall_, but so many hands _high_. [Illustration] THE LADY'S HORSE. Although the lady usually has a horse selected for her, by some gentleman, either of her own family or her acquaintance, it may not be inexpedient to inform the fair reader of those qualities which, combined in the same animal, may be said to constitute a complete lady's horse. Such a creature, however, we must observe, is exceedingly difficult to be procured, even by those possessed of the nicest judgment on the subject; and, to whom, the usually important question of price is not an object of consideration. The beau ideal of this kind of horse is superlatively elegant in form, exquisitely fine in coat, and unexceptionably beautiful in colour; of a height, in the nicest degree appropriate to the figure of the rider; graceful, accurate, well-united, and thoroughly safe in every pace; "light as a feather" in the hand, though not at all painfully sensitive to a proper action of the bit; bold in the extreme, yet superlatively docile; free, in every respect, from what is technically denominated "vice;" excellent in temper, but still "though gentle, yet not dull;" rarely, if ever, requiring the stimulus of the whip, yet submitting temperately to its occasional suggestions. [Illustration] In some, though not in all respects, the form should approach closely to that of a thorough-bred animal. The head should be small, neat, "well-set" on the neck, and gracefully "carried." The nostrils should be wide; the eyes large, rather protruding, dark, yet brilliant; the ears erect, and delicately tapering towards their tips. The expression of the countenance should be lively, animated, noble, and most highly intelligent; the neck rather arched and muscular; the ridge of the shoulders narrow and elevated; the chest full and fleshy; the back broad; the body, round or barrel-like; the space between the hips and tail, long, and very gradually depressed towards the latter organ, which, it is essential, should be based high on the croup. The fore and hind limbs should be distant, the one pair from the other; the "arms" muscular; the knees broad, the hocks (laterally) wide; the legs flat and sinewy; the pasterns rather long; and the hoofs large, and nearly round. A rough, or, what is technically termed, a "staring" coat, considerably deteriorates the appearance of a horse, however perfect in other conditions. Its surface, on a well-bred, healthy, and properly groomed animal, is not only smooth, but brilliantly polished. The mane, if too long and thick, will interfere with that delicate management of the reins so desirable to a lady on horseback; and the tail, if of immoderate length, will, by the animal's whisking it towards his sides, prove inconvenient, to the fair rider, at all times; but, especially so, in dirty weather. Neither of these appendages, however, on the other hand, should be ungracefully brief or scanty. Of all colours presented by the horse, none is so rich, and, at the same time, so elegant and chaste, as a bright bay; provided the mane, tail, and lower parts of the legs, be black. A small white star on the forehead, and a white speck on one of the heels, are to be considered, rather, as beauties, than defects: but much white, either on the face or legs, whatever be the general hue, is quite the reverse of desirable. After bright bay, chestnut, perhaps, deserves to rank next in the scale of taste; provided it be not, as is very frequently the case, accompanied with white legs. Some of the various shades of grey, however, are, in the opinion of many, entitled to be placed above it: of these, the silver grey, with black mane and tail, claims the highest place. Brown is rather exceptionable, on account of its dulness. Black is not much admired; though, as we think, when of a deep jet, remarkably elegant. Roan, sorrel, dun, piebald, mouse, and even cream colour (however appropriate the latter may be for a state-carriage-horse) are all to be eschewed. The height of her horse should be in harmonious proportion with that of the rider. A very young or short lady is in no less false a position, as regards grace, on a lofty steed, than a tall, full-grown woman, on a diminutive pony. For ladies of the general stature, a horse measuring from fifteen to fifteen and a half hands, at the point of the shoulder, is usually considered, as regards height, more desirable than any other. In paces, the lady's horse should be perfect; or, at all events, so far as regards the walk and canter. The former should be fast, bold, firm, and lively, without being unsteady; and, the latter, light, easy, well-combined, and graceful: so, too, should the hand-gallop; although, it is true, a lady's horse is rarely put to this pace, unless used for the field. The trot, again, is but little practised: still the complete lady's horse is expected to be capable of performing it with great precision of step, and but little concussion to the rider:--many ladies regarding it,--however discountenanced by the majority, perhaps,--as preferable, from its vigour, liveliness, and dash, to any other pace. To expatiate on the absolute necessity of the lady's horse being safe on his limbs, would be needless. The mouth should be sensible of the most delicate hint of the rider's will, communicated to it by means of the bit. A horse that pulls hard, or hangs heavily upon the reins, is very unsuitable for a lady's use: so, again, is one having the mouth so tender as to suffer from moderate pressure, either by the snaffle or the curb. The former is no less fatiguing to, than the latter is distressed by, the bridle hand. [Illustration] PERSONAL EQUIPMENTS. In the selection of these, a lady has a fair opportunity for the proper display of a refined and judicious taste. All that is gaudy, needless, or even elaborate, is vulgar. Perfect simplicity, indeed, as regards, not only her own costume, but "the trappings of her palfrey," is expected, at the present day, on the part of every well-bred female equestrian. The habit should fit the bust, without a crease: but, beneath the waist, it ought to be, not only long, but, somewhat full and flowing. Its colour should be dark as possible, without being positively black. The hair should be plaited; or, if otherwise dressed, so arranged and secured, that it may not be blown into the rider's eyes; nor, from exercise, or the effect of humid weather, be liable to be so discomposed, as to become embarrassing. To ride in a bonnet is far from judicious. A hat, or neat undress military cap, is indispensable to the female equestrian. It should be secured most carefully to the head: for, the loss of it would not merely be inconvenient, but, perhaps, dangerous, from the startling effect which its fall might produce on the sensitive temperament of the horse. A veil is the reverse of objectionable, provided it be of moderate length, and safely tied to the hat or cap; which, it is proper to state, should have no other ornament or appendage. The whip should be exquisitely neat and highly finished; but with little, if any, decoration. [Illustration] ACCOUTREMENTS FOR THE HORSE. Every accoutrement for the horse, however ornamental and pictorial, beyond the mere saddle and bridle, is to be rejected, as being in bad taste. The crupper and breast-band are now almost obsolete; the saddle-cloth has nearly disappeared; nettings are, generally speaking, abandoned; and the martingale itself, valuable as it may be for horses of a certain character, is rarely to be seen. Simplicity, indeed, as regards female equestrianism, is now imperatively (and, strange to say, most judiciously) enjoined, by "that same fickle goddess, Fashion," in obedience to whose sovereign behest, a lady's horse, in the olden time, was disguised, as it were, "in cloth of gold most curiously wrought." [Illustration] RULES OF THE ROAD. Without a knowledge of these, the fair equestrian, when riding in public, would be exposed to considerable inconvenience, and, often, to no slight degree of danger. By a generally understood compact, persons, whether riding or driving, when proceeding in opposite directions, pass, each on his or her own _near_, or left-hand, side, of the road; and when on a parallel course, the faster party goes by the other, on the _off_, or right. In other words, when the former is the case, the right hands of the parties meeting, are towards each other; and, in the latter, the left hand of the faster, is towards the right hand of the slower. It follows, therefore, that when the rider is about to meet horses or carriages, she should take her ground on her _near_, or left, side of the road; and, when about to pass those travelling in the same direction with, though at a less speedy pace than, herself, on her right, or _off_. In meeting one rider, or vehicle, and, at the same time, passing, by superior speed, another, she must leave the first, on her right, and the second, on her left. It will not be inexpedient, under the present head, to make some observations as to which side the lady should take, when riding in company with a gentleman. Adams, a teacher of equitation, and the author of a work on the subject, remarks, that the only inducements for a gentleman to ride on the left of a lady, would be, that, by having his right hand towards her, in case of her needing assistance, he might, the more readily and efficiently, be enabled to afford it, than if he were on the opposite side; and, should any disarrangement occur in the skirt of her habit, he might screen it until remedied. On the other hand, our author observes, with great good sense, though in terms somewhat homely,--addressing, it is to be noticed, his remarks to gentlemen,--"the inconvenience of riding on the left of the lady, is, that if you ride near, to give her any assistance, you are liable to rub, or incommode, the lady's legs, and alarm her; and the spur is liable to catch, or tear, the lady's habit: if the roads are dirty, your horse, likewise, bespatters the lady's habit. On the right hand of the lady, these inconveniences do not occur, if you ride ever so close; and you are situated next the carriages, and the various objects you meet, which, in narrow roads, or, passing near, might intimidate a lady. For these reasons, I think it most proper to take the right hand of a lady." [Illustration] MOUNTING. On approaching a horse, the skirt of the habit should be gracefully gathered up, and the whip be carried in the right hand. [Illustration] [Illustration] It is the groom's duty, when the rider approaches, to gather up the reins with his left hand, smoothly and evenly, the curb rein between, and somewhat tighter than the bridoon, properly dividing them with his fore-finger. The lady advancing, on the near side of the horse, to the saddle, receives them a little more forward than the point of the horse's shoulder, with her right hand, which still retains and passes the whip over the saddle to the _off_ or right side. On taking the bridle in this manner, her fore-finger is placed between the reins: the groom then removes his hand, and the lady draws her own back, suffering the reins to glide gently and evenly through her fingers, until she reaches the near crutch of the saddle, which she takes with her right hand, still holding the whip and reins, and places herself close to the near side of the horse, with her back almost turned towards him. The groom now quits his former post, and prepares to assist her to mount. The horse being thus left to the lady's government, it is proper, that, in passing her hand through the reins she should not have suffered them to become so loose as to prevent her, when her hand is on the crutch, from having a light, but steady bearing on the bit, and thus keeping the horse to his position during the process of mounting. She next places her left foot firmly in the right hand of the groom, or gentleman, in attendance, who stoops to receive it. The lady then puts her left hand on his right shoulder; and, straightening her left knee, bears her weight on the assistant's hand; which he gradually raises (rising, himself, at the same time) until she is seated on the saddle. During her elevation, she steadies, and even, if necessary, partly assists herself towards the saddle by her hands; one of which, it will be recollected, is placed on the crutch, and the other on her assistant's shoulder. It is important that she should keep her foot firm and her knee straight. [Illustration] If these directions be well attended to, she will find herself raised to her saddle with but a trifling exertion, either, on her own part, or that of the assistant. Should the latter be a lad only, or a groom not much accustomed to this part of his business, he should use both hands instead of one;--joining them by the fingers: indeed, this, generally speaking, is the safer mode. The lady, in all cases, should take care that her weight be well balanced on her left foot, from which she should rise as perpendicularly as possible; above all things taking care not to put her foot forward, but keeping it directly under her. The assistant should not begin to raise her until she has removed her right foot from the ground, and, by strengthening her knee, thrown her weight completely into his hand. [Illustration] Having reached the saddle, while her face is still turned to the near side of the horse, and before she places her knee on the pommel, the assistant puts the lady's left foot in the stirrup, while she removes her hand from the near to the off crutch of the saddle, holding the whip and reins as before directed. She now raises herself on the stirrup by the aid of her right hand, while the assistant, or the lady herself, with her left hand, draws the habit forward in its place. She then places her right knee between the crutches, and her seat is taken. Should the back part of the habit at this time, or afterwards, in the course of the ride, require any arrangement, the lady raises herself in the stirrup, by strengthening her knee, and, with her left hand, disposes her habit to her satisfaction. [Illustration] THE REINS. Pupils, during their first lessons, may arrange the reins in the following manner:--The right hand is removed from the crutch of the saddle; the reins are separated, and one is held in each hand, passing up between the third and fourth fingers, the ends being brought over the fore-fingers, and held in their places by closing the thumbs upon them, and shutting the hands: these should be on a level with each other, at a little distance apart, three inches from the body, or thereabouts, with the knuckles of the little fingers in a line with the elbow. By slightly advancing the hands, or even relaxing the hold of the reins, the horse, if well trained, will go forward. The left hand is raised to turn to the near or left side, and the right hand to turn in an opposite direction. By slightly raising and approaching both hands toward the body, the horse may be made to stop. When either rein is acted on, to turn the horse, the other should be a little slackened, or the hand which holds it relaxed. As soon as the pupil has passed her noviciate in the art, she holds both reins in the left hand. Some ladies separate them by the third and fourth fingers; others, by one of these fingers only; and many, by the fourth and little finger: but the greater number use the latter alone for this purpose, passing the off or right rein over it, and bringing the near or left rein up beneath it. The reins are carried flat upon each other up through the hand, near the middle joint of the fore-finger, and the thumb is placed upon them so that their ends fall down in front of the knuckles. The elbow should neither be squeezed close to the side, nor thrust out into an awkward and unnatural position; but be carried easily and gracefully, at a moderate distance from the body. The thumb should be uppermost, and the hand so placed that the lower part of it be nearer the waist than the upper; the wrist should be slightly rounded, the little finger in a line with the elbow, and the nails turned towards the rider. With the reins in this position, the lady, if she wish her horse to advance, brings her thumb towards her, until the knuckles are uppermost, and the nails over the horse's shoulder: the reins, by this simple motion, are slackened sufficiently to permit him to move forward. After he is put in motion, the rider's hand should return to the first position, gradually; or it may be slightly advanced, and the thumb turned upwards immediately. To direct a horse to the left, let the thumb, which in the first position is uppermost, be turned to the right, the little finger to the left, and the back of the hand brought upwards. This movement is performed in a moment, and it will cause the left rein to hang slack, while the right is tightened so as to press against the horse's neck. To direct the horse to the right, the hand should quit the first position, the nails be turned upwards, the little finger brought in towards the right, and the thumb moved to the left: the left rein will thus press the neck, while the right one is slackened. To stop the horse, or make him back, the nails should be turned, from the first position, upwards, the knuckles be reversed, and the wrist be rounded as much as possible. [Illustration] THE SEAT AND BALANCE. The body should always be in a situation, as well to preserve the balance, as to maintain the seat. [Illustration] One of the most common errors committed by ladies on horseback, who have not been properly taught to ride is hanging by the near crutch, so that, instead of being gracefully seated in the centre of the saddle, with the head in its proper situation, and the shoulders even, the body is inclined to the left, the head is brought to the right by an inelegant bend of the neck, the right shoulder is elevated, and the left depressed. To correct or avoid these and similar faults, is important. All the rider's movements should harmonize with the paces of the animal: her position should be at once easy to herself and to her horse; and alike calculated to ensure her own safety and give her a perfect command over the animal. If she sit in a careless, ungraceful manner, the action of her horse will be the reverse of elegant. A lady seldom appears to greater advantage than when mounted on a fine horse, if her deportment be graceful, and her positions correspond with his paces and attitudes; but the reverse is the case, if, instead of acting with, and influencing the movements of the horse, she appear to be tossed to and fro, and overcome by them. She should rise, descend, advance, and stop _with_, and not _after_ the animal. From this harmony of motion result ease, elegance, and the most brilliant effect. The lady should sit in such a position, that the weight of the body may rest on the centre of the saddle. One shoulder should not be advanced more than the other. Neither must she bear any weight on the stirrup, nor hang by the crutch towards the near side. She ought not to suffer herself to incline forward, but partially backward. If she bend forward, her shoulders will, most probably, be rounded, and her weight thrown too much upon the horse's withers: in addition to these disadvantages, the position will give her an air of timid _gaucherie_. Leaning a little backward, on the contrary, tends to bring the shoulders in, keeps the weight in its proper bearing, and produces an appearance of graceful confidence. The head should be in an easy, natural position: that is, neither drooping forward nor thrown back; neither leaning to the right nor to the left. The bust should be elegantly developed, by throwing back the shoulders, advancing the chest, and bending the back part of the waist inward. The elbows should be steady, and kept in an easy, and apparently unconstrained position, near the sides. The lower part of the arm should form a right angle with the upper part, which ought to descend almost perpendicularly from the shoulder. The position of the hands, when both are occupied with the reins, or when the reins are held in one only, we have already noticed: the right arm and hand, in the latter case, may depend, easily, from the shoulder, and the whip be held in the fingers, with the lash downward, between two fingers and the thumb. The whip may also be carried in the right hand, in the manner adopted by gentlemen: the lady is not restricted to any precise rules in this respect, but may vary the position of her whip arm as she may think fit, so that she do not permit it to appear ungraceful. She must, however, take care that the whip be so carried, that its point do not tickle or irritate the flank of the horse. The stirrup is of very little use except to support the left foot and leg, and to assist the rider to rise in the trot: generally speaking, therefore, as we have already remarked, none of the weight of the body should be thrown upon the stirrup. The left leg must not be cramped up, but assume an easy and comfortable position: it should neither be forced out, so as to render the general appearance ungraceful, and the leg itself fatigued; nor, should it be pressed close to the horse, except when used as an aid; but descend gracefully by his side, without bearing against it. Although hanging by the left crutch of the saddle, over the near side, is not only inelegant, but objectionable in many important respects, the near crutch, properly used, is a lady's principal dependence on horseback. The right knee being passed over the near crutch, the toes being slightly depressed, and the leg pressed against the fore part of the saddle, the pommel is grasped, and the rider well secured in the possession of her seat. It is said, that when a lady, while her horse is going at a smart trot, can lean over, on the right side, far enough to see the horse's shoe, she may be supposed to have established a correct seat; which, we repeat, she should spare no pains to acquire. In some of the schools, a pupil is often directed to ride without the stirrup, and, with her arms placed behind her, while the master holds the long rein, and urges the horse to various degrees of speed, and in different directions, in order to settle her firmly and gracefully on the saddle,--to convince her that there is security without the stirrup,--and to teach her to accompany, with precision and ease, the various movements of the horse. Nothing can be more detrimental to the grace of a lady's appearance on horseback, than a bad position: a recent author says, it is a sight that would spoil the finest landscape in the world. What can be much more ridiculous, than the appearance of a female, whose whole frame, through mal-position, seems to be the sport of every movement of the horse? If the lady be not mistress of her seat, and be unable to maintain a proper position of her limbs and body, so soon as her horse starts into a trot, she runs the risk of being tossed about on the saddle, like the Halcyon of the poets in her frail nest,-- "Floating upon the boisterous rude sea." If the animal should canter, his fair rider's head will be jerked to and fro as "a vexed weathercock;" her drapery will be blown about, instead of falling gracefully around her; and her elbows rise and fall, or, as it were, flap up and down like the pinions of an awkward nestling endeavouring to fly. To avoid such disagreeable similes being applied to her, the young lady, who aspires to be a good rider, should, even from her first lesson in the art, strive to obtain a proper deportment on the saddle. She ought to be correct, without seeming stiff or formal: and easy, without appearing slovenly. The position we have described, subject to occasional variations, will be found, by experience, to be the most natural and graceful mode of sitting a horse:--it is easy to the rider and her steed; and enables the former to govern the actions of the latter so effectually, in all ordinary cases, as to produce that harmony of motion, which is so much and so deservedly admired. The balance is conducive to the ease, elegance, and security of the rider:--it consists in a foreknowledge of the direction which any given motion of the horse will impart to the body, and a ready adaptation of the whole frame to the proper position, before the animal has completed his change of attitude or action;--it is that disposition of the person, in accordance with the movements of the horse, which prevents it from an undue inclination, forward or backward, to the right or to the left. By the direction and motion of the horse's legs the balance is governed. If the animal be either standing still, or merely walking straight-forward, the body should be preserved in the simple position which we have directed the lady to assume on taking her seat. Should it be necessary to apply the whip, so as to make the animal quicken his pace, or to pull him in suddenly, the body must be prepared to accommodate itself to the animal's change of action. When going round a corner at a brisk pace, or riding in a circle, the body should lean back rather more than in the walking position: to the same extent that the horse bends inward, must the body lean in that direction. If a horse shy at any object, and either turn completely and suddenly round, or run on one side only, the body should, if possible, keep time with his movements, and adapt itself so as to turn or swerve with him; otherwise, the balance will be lost, and the rider be in danger of falling, on the side from which the animal starts. In no case, let it be remembered, should the rider endeavour to assist herself in preserving her balance, by pulling at the reins. [Illustration] AIDS AND DEFENCES. All such motions of the body, the hands, the legs, and the whip, as either indicate the rider's wishes, or, in some degree, assist the horse to fulfil them, are, in the art of riding, denominated _aids_; and those movements of the rider which tend to save the animal from disuniting himself, or running into danger, may, properly enough, be classed under the same title: while such as act for the preservation of the rider, against the attempts of the horse, when headstrong or vicious, are termed _defences_. The aids of the hand are considered the most important: all the other actions of the rider tending, principally, to assist the bridle-hand and carry its operations into complete effect. There should be a perfect harmony in the aids; and all of them ought to be governed by those of the rein. In many instances, the power of a movement performed by the hand may be destroyed by the omission of a correct accompanying aid or defence, with the body, or the leg. Thus:--if a horse rear, it is useless for the rider to afford him a slack rein, if she do not also lean forward, in order, by throwing her weight on his fore-parts, to bring him down, and also to save herself from falling backward over his haunches. Should the rider, when her horse rises, slacken the reins, but retain her usual position on the saddle, if he rear high, she must necessarily be thrown off her balance; and then, if she hang on the bit, in order to save herself from falling, there is great danger of her pulling the horse backward. The aids and defences of the body are numerous: we shall attempt to describe a few of them; the residue must be acquired by practice, and the lady's own observation. When the rider indicates by her hand that she wishes the horse to advance, the body should be inclined forward in a slight degree; and the left leg (with the whip, also, if the animal be sluggish, or not well trained) pressed to his side. Should she, by pulling the rein towards her, or turning the wrist in the manner we have before directed, communicate her desire to stop, her body ought, at the same time, to be thrown back, with gentleness, or otherwise, in proportion to the severity of the action of the hand against the horse's inclination to increase his speed contrary to the will of his rider, or when he leaps, kicks, or plunges. If a horse rear, the rider should lean forward more than in the aid for the advance: but care must be taken, in this case, to perform the defence with discretion, especially with a pony, or galloway; for, should the animal rise suddenly, and the rider throw herself abruptly forward, it is not improbable that he might give her a violent blow on the face with the top of his head. We have already mentioned, in a previous part of our treatise, the direction which the body should take when riding in a circle, turning a corner, or acting as a defence against the danger attendant upon a horse's shying. In the first case, the aid of the body, if properly performed, will carry with it the aid of the hand, the leg, and even the whip, if it be held near the horse's side. We will explain this by an example:--Suppose the rider wishes to turn a corner on her left; she inclines a little towards it, drawing her left shoulder in, and thrusting her right shoulder rather forward: the bridle-hand will thus be drawn back on the near side, the off rein will consequently act on the horse's neck, and the left leg be pressed close against the near side; so that all the necessary aids for effecting her object, are performed by one natural and easy movement. The aids of the whip, on one side, correspond with those of the leg, on the other: they are not only used in the manner we have already mentioned, when the rider wishes her horse to advance, or increase his pace, but also in clearing a corner, &c. If the lady be desirous of turning to the left, she may materially aid the operation of the hand, which directs the fore-parts of the horse to the near side, by pressing him with her stirrup leg, so as to throw his croup in some degree to the right, and thereby place it in a more proper position to follow the direction of his shoulders. In turning to the right, the whip may be made equally useful by driving out his croup to the left. The power of these aids, especially that of the whip, should be increased as circumstances require. The aid which is sufficient for some horses, may not be powerful enough by half for others: and even with, the same animal, while the slightest pressure will produce the desired effect in some cases, a moderate, or, even, a rather severe, lash with the whip is necessary in others. [Illustration] SOOTHINGS, ANIMATIONS, &c. The voice and the hand, the leg, and the whole body, may be employed to soothe and encourage. High-mettled or fretful horses, it is often necessary to soothe, and timid ones to encourage. A spirited animal is frequently impatient when first mounted, or, if a horse or a carriage pass him at a quick rate; and some horses are even so ardent and animated, as to be unpleasant to ride when with others. In either of these cases, the rider should endeavour to soothe her horse, by speaking to him in a calm, gentle tone. She should suffer the whip to be as motionless as possible, and take even more than usual care that its lash do not touch the flank. Her seat should be easy, her leg still, and her bridle-hand steady. The bit should not be made to press on the horse's mouth with greater severity than is necessary to maintain the rider's command; and, as the horse gradually subsides from his animation, its bearing should be proportionately relaxed. The perfection of soothing consists in the rider's sitting so entirely still and easy, as not to add in the least to the horse's animation;--at the same time being on her guard, so as to be able to effect any of her defences in an instant, should occasion render them needful. There is scarcely any difference between soothings and encouragements; except that, in the latter, it is advisable to _pat_, and, as it were, caress the horse with the right hand, holding the whip in the left. A shy or timid horse may often be encouraged to pass an object that alarms him, to cross a bridge, enter a gateway, or take a leap, when force and correction would only add to his fear, and, perhaps, render him incorrigibly obstinate. Animations are intended to produce greater speed, or, to render the horse more lively and on the alert, without increasing his pace. Some animals scarcely ever require animations; while others are so dull and deficient in mettle as to call them frequently into use. The slightest movement of the body, the hand, or the leg, is enough to rouse the well-bred and thoroughly-trained animal; but it is necessary for the animations to be so spirited and united, with sluggish horses, as almost to become corrections: in fact, what is a mere animation to one horse, would be a positive correction to another. The aids of the hand, the whip, the leg, and the body, which we have before described, are animations; so, also, are _pattings_ with the hand, the tones of the voice, &c. Animations should be used in all cases, when the horse, contrary to the rider's inclination, either decreases his speed, droops his head, bears heavily and languidly on the bit, or, begins to be lazy or slovenly in the performance of his paces. A good rider foresees the necessity of an animation before the horse actually abates his speed, or loses the _ensemble_ of his action, and the grace and spirit of his deportment. It is much easier to keep up, than to restore, a horse's animation: therefore, the whip, the leg, the hand, or the tongue, should do its office a few moments before, rather than at, the moment when its movements are indispensable. A slight motion of the fingers of the bridle-hand serves as an excellent animation: it reminds the horse of his duty, awakens the sensibility of his mouth, and preserves a proper correspondence between that and the hand. [Illustration] CORRECTIONS. Ladies certainly ought not to ride horses which require extraordinary correction. For numerous reasons, which must occur to our readers, a lady should never be seen in the act of positively flogging her steed: such a sight would destroy every previous idea that had been formed of her grace or gentleness. Moderate corrections are, however, sometimes necessary; and the fair rider should make no scruple of having recourse to them when absolutely needful, but not otherwise. Astley, in his work on the management of the horse, after very properly recommending all quarrels between the steed and his rider to be avoided, observes, that too much indulgence may induce the horse to consider "that you are afraid of him;" and, our author adds, "if he should once think you are really so, you will find he will exercise every means to convince you that he considers himself your master, instead of acknowledging, by implicit obedience, that you are his." Those, who imagine that a horse is to be corrected only with the whip, are very much mistaken. The aids and animations of the leg, the bridle-hand, the body, and the voice, may be made sufficiently severe to correct and render a horse obedient in all ordinary cases. Severe flogging seldom produces any good effect; and, in most contests between a horse and his rider, when both get out of temper, the former usually gains some important advantage. The best way to correct a horse is to dishearten, and make him do what he would fain avoid;--not so much by force and obstinate resolution, in contesting openly and directly with him, when he is perfectly prepared to resist, as, by a cool opposition and indirect means. There are different methods of attaining the same end; and those which are the least obvious to the animal should be adopted: a lady cannot rival him in physical strength, but she may conquer him by mere ingenuity, or subdue him by a calm, determined assumption of superior power. [Illustration] VICES. Some horses are addicted to a very troublesome and vicious habit of turning round suddenly,--we do not here allude to shyness, but restiveness,--without exhibiting any previous symptom of their intention. A horse soon ascertains that the left hand is weaker than the right, and, consequently, less able to oppose him; he, therefore, turns on the off side, and with such force and suddenness, that it is almost impossible, even if the rider be prepared for the attack, to prevent him. In this case, it would be unwise to make the attempt: the rider would be foiled, and the horse become encouraged, by his success in the struggle, to make similar endeavours to have his own way, or dismount his rider. The better plan is, instead of endeavouring to prevent him from turning, with the left hand, to pull him sharply with the right, until his head has made a complete circle, and he finds, to his astonishment, that he is precisely in the place from which he started. Should he repeat the turn, on the rider's attempting to urge him on, she should pull him round, on the same side, three or four times, and assist the power of the hand in so doing, by a smart aid of the whip, or the leg. While this is doing, she must take care to preserve her balance, by an inclination of her body to the centre of the circle described by the horse's head. The same plan may be pursued when a horse endeavours to turn a corner, contrary to the wish of his rider; and, if he be successfully baffled, three or four times, it is most probable that he will not renew his endeavours. On the same principle, when a horse refuses to advance, and whipping would increase his obstinacy, or make him rear, or bolt away in a different direction, it is advisable to make him walk backward, until he evinces a willingness to advance. A runaway might, in many instances, be cured of his vice by being suffered to gallop, unchecked, and being urged forward, when he shewed an inclination to abate his speed, rather than by attempting to pull him in: but this remedy is, in most situations, dangerous, even for men; and all other means should be tried before it is resorted to by a lady. Should our fair young reader have the misfortune to be mounted on a runaway, she may avoid evil consequences, if she can contrive to retain her self-possession, and act as we are about to direct. She must endeavour to maintain her seat, at all hazards, and to preserve the best balance, or position of body, to carry her defences into operation. The least symptom of alarm, on her part, will increase the terror or determination of the horse. A dead heavy pull at the bridle will rather aid him, than otherwise, in his speed, and prevent her from having sufficient mastery over his mouth and her own hands to guide him. She must, therefore, hold the reins in such a manner as to keep the horse _together_ when at the height of his pace, and to guide him from running against anything in his course; and, it is most probable that he will soon abate his speed, and gradually subside into a moderate pace. _Sawing_ the mouth (that is, pulling each rein alternately) will frequently bring a horse up, in a few minutes. Slackening the reins for an instant, and then jerking them with force, may also produce a similar effect: but, if the latter mode be adopted, the rider must take care that the horse, by stopping suddenly, do not bring her on his neck, or throw her over his head. In whatever manner the runaway be stopped, it is advisable for the lady to be on the alert, lest he should become so disunited, by the operation, as to fall. Our readers may think, perhaps, that this advice, however easy to give, is difficult to follow: we beg leave, however, to tell them, that although it is not so easy as drawing on a glove, or replacing a stray curl, it is much more practicable than they may imagine; though, we trust, they may never have occasion to put it to the proof. There is another situation, in which it is advisable to force the horse, apparently, to have his own way, in order to baffle his attempts. Restive horses, or even docile animals, when put out of temper, sometimes endeavour to crush their riders' legs against walls, gates, trees, posts, &c. An inexperienced lady, under such circumstances, would strive to pull the horse away; but her exertions would be unavailing: the animal would feel that he could master the opposition, and thus discovering the rider's weakness, turn it to her disadvantage on future occasions. We cannot too often repeat, that, although a rider should not desist until she have subdued her horse, she must never enter into an open, undisguised contest with him. It is useless to attack him on a point which he is resolute in defending: the assault should rather be directed to his weaker side. If he fortify himself in one place, he must proportionately diminish his powers of defence in another. He anticipates and prepares to resist any attempt to overcome him on his strong side; and his astonishment at being attacked on the other, and with success, on account of his weakness in that quarter, goes far to dishearten and subdue him. If he plant himself in a position of resistance against being forced to advance, it is a matter of very little difficulty to make him go back. If he appear to be determined not to go to the right, the rider may, on account of the mode in which he disposes his body and limbs, turn him, with great facility, to the left. If he stand _stock-still_, and will not move in any direction, his crime may be made his punishment: the rider, in such case, should sit patiently until he shew a disposition to advance, which he probably will in a very short time, when he discovers that she is not annoyed by his standing still. Nothing will subdue a horse so soon as this mode of turning his attacks against himself, and making his defences appear acts of obedience to the rider's inclination. When, therefore, a horse viciously runs on one side towards a wall, pull his head forcibly in the same direction and, if, by the aid of the leg or whip, you can drive his croup out, you may succeed in backing him completely away from it. It is by no means improbable, that when he finds that his rider is inclined to go to the wall as well as himself, he will desist. Should he not, his croup may be so turned, outward, that he cannot do his rider any mischief. In shying, the same principle may be acted upon, more advantageously, perhaps, than in any other case. Should the lady's horse be alarmed at any object, and, instead of going up to, or passing it, turn round, the rider should manage him as we have recommended in cases where the horse turns, through restiveness. He should then be soothed and encouraged, rather than urged by correction, to approach, or pass, the object that alarms him: to attempt to force him up to it would be ridiculous and dangerous. If the horse swerve from an object, and try to pass it at a brisk rate, it is useless to pull him towards it; for, if you succeed in bringing his head on one side, his croup will be turned outward, and his legs work in an opposite direction. This resistance will increase proportionately to the exertions made by the rider. A horse, in this manner, may fly from imaginary, into real danger; for he cannot see where he is going, nor what he may run against. Pulling in the rein, therefore, on the side from which the horse shies, is improper; it should rather be slackened, and the horse's head turned away from the object which terrifies him. By this mode, a triple advantage is gained: in the first place, the horse's attention is diverted to other things; secondly,--the dreaded object loses half its terror when he finds no intention manifested on the rider's part to force him nearer to it; and, lastly,--he is enabled to see, and, consequently, avoid any danger in front, or on the other side of him. A horse may be coaxed and encouraged to go up to the object that alarms him; and, if the rider succeed in making him approach it, a beneficial effect will be produced: the horse will discover that his fears were groundless, and be less likely to start again from any similar cause. After the first impulse of terror has subsided, the animal, if properly managed, will even manifest an inclination to approach and examine the object that alarmed him: but, while he is so doing, the rider must be on her guard; for the least movement, or timidity, on her part,--the rustling of a leaf, or the passing of a shadow,--will, in all probability, frighten him again, and he will start round more violently than before. After this, it will be exceedingly difficult to bring him up to the object. Astley, however, whom we have before quoted, says, that should the first trial prove unsuccessful, it must be repeated, until you succeed; adding, that the second attempt should not be made until the horse's fears have subsided, and his confidence returned. A horse that is rather shy, may, in many cases, be prevented from starting, by the rider turning his head a little away from those objects, which, she knows by experience, are likely to alarm him, as well before she approaches as while she passes them. A lady, certainly, should not ride a horse addicted to shying, stumbling, rearing, or any other vice: but she ought, nevertheless, to be prepared against the occurrence of either; for, however careful and judicious those persons, by whom her horse is selected, may be, and however long a trial she may have had of his temper and merits, she cannot be sure, when she takes the reins, that she may not have to use her defences against rearing or kicking, or be required to exercise her skill to save herself from the dangers attendant on starting or stumbling, before she dismounts. The quietest horse may exhibit symptoms of vice, even without any apparent cause, after many years of good behaviour; the best-tempered are not immaculate, nor the surest-footed infallible: it is wise, therefore, to be prepared. Stumbling is not merely unpleasant, but dangerous. To ride a horse that is apt to trip, is like dwelling in a ruin: we cannot be comfortable if we feel that we are unsafe; and, truly, there is no safety on the back of a stumbling nag. The best advice we can offer our reader, as to such an animal, is never to ride him after his demerits are discovered: although the best horse in the world, may, we must confess, make a false step, and even break his knees. When a horse trips, his head should be raised and supported, by elevating the hand; and the lady should instantly throw herself back, so as to relieve his shoulders from her weight. It is useless to whip a horse after stumbling (as it is, also, after shying); for, it is clear, he would not run the risk of breaking his knees, or his nose, if he could help it. If a horse be constantly punished for stumbling, the moment he has recovered from a false step, he will start forward, flurried and disunited, in fear of the whip, and not only put the rider to inconvenience, but run the risk of a repetition of his mishap, before he regains his self-possession. It being generally the practice,--and a very bad practice it is,--for riders to correct horses after having made a false step, an habitual stumbler may be easily detected. When a horse, that is tolerably safe, makes a false step, he gathers himself up, and is slightly animated for a moment or two only, or goes on as if nothing had happened; but if he be an old offender, he will remember the punishment he has repeatedly received immediately after a stumble, and dash forward in the manner we have described, expecting the usual flagellation for his misfortune. When a horse evinces any disposition to kick, or rear, the reins should be separated, and held by both hands, in the manner we have described in a previous page. This should also be done when he attempts to run away, grows restive, or shies. The body should also be put in its proper balance for performing the defences: the shoulders should be thrown back, the waist brought forward, and the head well poised on the neck. Every part of the frame must be flexible, but perfectly ready for action. [Illustration] The principal danger attendant on the horse's rearing is, that the rider may fall over the croup, and, perhaps, pull the horse backward upon her. To prevent either of these consequences, immediately that a horse rises, slacken the reins, and bend the body forward, so as to throw its weight on his shoulders; and the moment his fore-feet come to the ground,--having recovered your position, gradually, as he descends,--correct him smartly, if he will bear it; or, endeavour to pull him round two or three times, and thus divert him from his object. The latter course may also be adopted to prevent his rearing, if the rider should foresee his intention. A horse that displays any symptoms of kicking, should be held tight in hand. While his head is well kept up, he cannot do much mischief with his heels. [Illustration] If, however, when the rider is unprepared, in spite of her exertions he should get his head down, she must endeavour, by means of the reins, to prevent the animal from throwing himself; and also, by a proper inclination of her body backward, to save herself from being thrown forward. Should an opportunity occur, she must endeavour to give him two or three sharp turns: this may also be done, with advantage, if she detect any incipient attempts in the animal to kick. A horse inclined to rear seldom kicks much: but he may do both alternately; and the rider should be prepared against his attempts, by keeping her balance in readiness for either of the opponent defences. She must also take care, that, while she is holding her horse's head up and well in hand to keep him from kicking, she do not cause him to rear, by too great a degree of pressure on his mouth. [Illustration] EXERCISES IN THE PACES. Although our limits will not permit us to enter into an elaborate detail of the lessons taken by a pupil in the riding school, it is right that we should give the learner a few useful hints on the rudiments of riding, and not devote our whole space to the improvement of those who have made considerable progress. While we endeavour to correct bad habits in the self-taught artist,--in the pupil of a kind friend, an affectionate relative, or of a mere groom,--to confirm the regularly educated equestrian in the true principles and practice of the art,--to remind her of what she has forgotten, and to improve upon the knowledge she may have acquired,--we must not forget those among our young friends, who, having never mounted a horse, are desirous of learning how to ride with grace and propriety, and who dwell at a distance, or do not feel inclined to take lessons, from a master. To such, one-third, at least, of our preceding observations are applicable; and we recommend an attentive perusal of what we have said, as to Mounting, the Aids, &c., before they aspire to the saddle. Our other remarks they will find useful when they have acquired a little practice. A quiet and well-trained horse, and a careful attendant, should, if possible, be procured. A horse, that knows his duty, will almost instruct his rider; and if a friend, who is accustomed to horses, or a careful servant, accompany the pupil, there is little or nothing to fear, even in the first attempts. The friend, or groom, may also, by his advice, materially assist the learner in her progress. It would be needless for us to repeat our advice as to the manner of mounting, holding the reins, making the horse advance, stop, turn, &c., or the proper disposition of the body and limbs: all these, in her early lessons, the pupil should gradually practise. [Illustration] THE WALK. Let the pupil walk the horse forward in a straight line, and at a slow rate, supporting his head in such a manner as to make him keep time in the beats of his pace; but not holding the reins so tight as to impede the measurement of his steps, or to make him break into a trot on being slightly animated. The hand should be so held, that it may delicately, but distinctly, feel, by the operation of the horse's mouth on the reins, every beat of his action. If he do not exert himself sufficiently, he should be somewhat animated. Should he break into a trot, he must be checked by the reins; but the pull must neither be so firm nor continued as to make him stop. The moment he obeys the rein and drops into a walk, the hand is to be relaxed. Should he require animating again, the movement for that purpose must be more gentle than before, lest he once more break into a trot. [Illustration] After walking in a straight line for a short time, the lady should practise the turn to the right and to the left; alternately using both hands in these operations, in the manner directed in a previous page. She must observe, that when she pulls the right rein in order to turn the horse on that side, the other hand must be relaxed and lowered, or advanced, to slacken the left rein and ease the horse's mouth, and _vice versá_. If the horse do not readily obey the hand in turning, or bring forward his croup sufficiently, he must be urged to throw himself more on the bit, by an animation of the leg or whip. The animations, during the first lessons, should be commenced with great gentleness, and the rider will easily discover, by a little experience, to what degree it is necessary to increase them, in order to procure obedience. This observation should be attended to, were it only for the pupil's safety; for, if she begin with her animations above the horse's spirit, his courage will be so raised as to endanger, or, at least, alarm her, and thus render what would otherwise be an agreeable exercise, unpleasant. After the pupil has practised walking in a straight line, and turning on either side, for a few days, she may walk in a circle, and soon make her horse wheel, change, demi-volt, &c. The circle should be large at first; but when the pupil has acquired her proper equilibrium, &c., it must, day by day, be gradually contracted. In riding round a circle, the inner rein should be rather lowered, and the body inclined inward. This inclination must be increased during succeeding lessons, as the circle is contracted, and the pupil quickens the pace of her horse. She must practise in the large circle, until she is able, by her hands and aids, to make the horse perform it correctly. The inside rein must be delicately acted upon; if it be jerked, at distant intervals, or borne upon, without intermission, the horse, in the former case, will swerve in and out, and, in the latter, the rider's hand, and the animal's mouth, will both become, in some degree, deadened; and thus their correspondence will be decreased. In order to procure correct action, the inner rein should be alternately borne on in a very slight degree, and relaxed the next instant,--the hand keeping exact time in its operations with the cadence of the horse's feet. The direction is to be frequently changed; the pupil alternately working to the right and the left, so as to bring both her hands into practice. [Illustration] As soon as the rider becomes tolerably well confirmed in her seat and balance, and in the performance of the simple aids and animations, as well in large as small circles, she should begin to ride in double circles; at first of considerable diameter, but decreasing them, by degrees, as she improves. Riding in double circles, is guiding the horse to perform a figure of 8; and this, in the language of the riding-school, is effecting the large and narrow change, according to the size of the circles. The number of the circles may be increased, and the sizes varied, with great advantage both to the rider and the horse. They may be at some distance from each other, and the horse be guided to work from one to the other diagonally. Thus, suppose he starts from _a_, he may be made to leave the upper circle at _e_, and enter the lower one at _d_; leave it at _c_, and enter the first again at _b_; and so continue for some time: then, beginning at _f_, to quit the lower circle at _c_, enter the upper one at _b_, leave it at _e_, and enter the lower circle again at _d_. Thus, the position of the rider and horse are alternately changed, from working from the right to a straight line, thence to the left, thence to a straight line, and thence again to the right. To give an instance of riding in a greater number of circles, of different diameters, let the horse start from _a_ (see figure, p. 77), and leave the upper circle at _b_, traversing to the outer small circle at _c_, passing round, so as to enter the inner circle at _e_, and going round, by _f_, to _g_; quitting it at _g_, and entering the lower circle at _h_; quitting the latter again, after passing round _i_, at _k_, and thence proceeding towards the outer small circle; entering at _l_, going round and entering the inner circle at _e_, passing round, and quitting it at _f_, to return again to _a_, by entering the upper circle at _m_. These exercises may be diversified in various ways; the pupil, for instance, may perform the upper circle, and one or both of the pair below, return to the upper circle, cross from that, diagonally, to the lower circle, quit it, at _h_ or _k_, to perform one of the middle circles, return to the lower circle again, pass thence to the other middle circle, and quit it at _c_ or _f_ (as the case may happen), to return to the upper circle again. Nothing can be more beneficial than this variety of action; it tends at once to confirm the pupil in her seat; to exercise her in her balance and aids; and to render the horse obedient: while, if he be kept in only one direction, he will perform the figure mechanically, without either improving his own mouth and action, or the rider's hands, aids, or balance. [Illustration] In the art of riding, working on a circle is called a _volt_; in angles, or a zig-zag direction, _changes reverse_; and on half a circle from a line, a _demi-volt_. These figures may first be performed separately; but there can be no objection to the demi-volt and changes reverse being afterwards embodied in the exercises on circles. As in the last figure, the lady may work from _a_ in the mode directed, for some time; then perform the variations, by going across from _a_ to _b_, and describe a demi-volt round by _c_ _e_ to _a_; then return from _a_ to _b_, and work a demi-volt, in an opposite direction, from _b_ to _a_: thence, the lady may proceed in a line, enter the lower circle at _d_, and re-commence riding in circles. The change reverse may at any time be performed, by quitting the upper circle at _e_ or _f_, and working on the traversing lines, so as to cross the lower circle at _g_ or _h_, and enter it at _i_ or _k_. In fact, these exercises may be varied, _ad libitum_; and the more they are diversified, the greater advantage the lady will derive from them, provided she persevere until she can perform one figure with accuracy, before she enter upon another that is more complicated. Should the horse, in changing, yield his head, but withhold his croup so as to destroy the union of his action, or mar the perfection of the change, the rider should bring it to the proper position, or sequence, by an aid of the whip or leg, as the case may be. [Illustration] THE TROT. [Illustration] The lady should begin to practise this pace as soon as she is tolerably perfect in the walking lessons. It will be as well for her, at first, to trot in a straight line: she may then work in the large circle, and proceed, gradually, through most of the figures which she has performed in a walk. To make the horse advance from a walk to a trot, draw upwards the little finger of each hand (or that of the left hand only, when the pupil has advanced enough to hold the reins in one hand), and turn them towards the body: an animation of the leg or whip should accompany this motion. The trot should be commenced moderately: if the horse start off too rapidly, or increase the pace beyond the rider's inclination, she must check him by closing the hands firmly; and, if that will not suffice, by drawing the little fingers upwards and towards the body. This must not be done by a jerk, but delicately and gradually; and, as soon as the proper effect is produced, the reins are again to be slackened. If the horse do not advance with sufficient speed, or do not bring up his haunches well, the animations used at starting him are to be repeated. When the horse proceeds to the trot, the lady must endeavour to preserve her balance, steadiness and pliancy, as in the walk. The rise in trotting is to be acquired by practice. When the horse, in his action, raises the rider from her seat, she should advance her body, and rest a considerable portion of her weight on the right knee; by means of which, and by bearing the left foot on the stirrup, she may return to her former position without being jerked; the right knee and the left foot, used in the same manner, will also aid her in the rise. Particular attention must be paid to the general position of the body while trotting: in this pace, ordinary riders frequently rise to the left, which is a very bad practice, and must positively be avoided. The lady should also take care not to raise herself too high; the closer she maintains her seat, consistently with her own comfort, the better. THE CANTER. The whole of the exercises on circles should next be performed in a canter; which may be commenced from a short but animated trot, a walk, or even a stop. If the horse be well trained, a slight pressure of the whip and leg, and an elevation of the horse's head, by means of the reins, will make him strike into a canter. Should he misunderstand, or disobey these indications of the rider's will, by merely increasing his walk or trot, or going into the trot from a walk, as the case may be, he is to be pressed forward on the bit by an increased animation of the leg and whip;--the reins, at the same time, being held more firmly, in order to restrain him from advancing too rapidly to bring his haunches well under him; for the support of which, in this position, he will keep both his hind feet for a moment on the ground, while he commences the canter by raising his fore feet together. [Illustration] The canter is by far the most elegant and agreeable of all the paces, when properly performed by the horse and rider: its perfection consists in its union and animation, rather than its speed. It is usual with learners who practise without a master, to begin the canter previously to the trot; but we are supported by good authority in recommending, that the lady should first practise the trot, as it is certainly much better calculated to strengthen and confirm her in the balance, seat &c. than the canter. The lady is advised, at this stage of her progress, to practise the paces, alternately, in the various combinations of the figures we have described; performing her aids with greater power and accuracy in turning and working in circles, when trotting or cantering, than when walking. She should also perfect herself in her aids, the correspondence, and balance, by alternately increasing and diminishing the speed in each pace, until she attain a perfect mastery over herself and her horse, and can not only make him work in what direction, and at what pace, but, also, at what degree of speed in each pace, she pleases. The horse ought to lead with the right foot: should he strike off with the left, the rider must either check him to a walk, and then make him commence the canter again, or induce him to advance the proper leg by acting on the near rein, pressing his side with the left leg, and touching his right shoulder with the whip. His hind legs should follow the direction of the fore legs, otherwise the pace will be untrue, disunited, and unpleasant, both to horse and rider: therefore, if the horse lead with his near fore leg (unless when cantering to the left--the only case when the near legs should be advanced), or with his near hind leg, except in the case just mentioned--although he may lead with the proper fore leg--the pace is false, and ought to be rectified. [Illustration] THE GALLOP. No lady of taste ever gallops on the road. Into this pace, the lady's horse is never urged, or permitted to break, except in the field: and not above one among a thousand of our fair readers, it may be surmised, is likely to be endowed with sufficient ambition and boldness, to attempt "the following of hounds." Any remarks, on our part, with regard to this pace, would, therefore, be all but needless. [Illustration] STOPPING AND BACKING. The lady must learn how to perform the perfect stop in all the paces. The perfect stop in the walk, is a cessation of all action in the animal, produced instantaneously by the rider, without any previous intimation being given by her to the horse. The slovenly stop is gradual and uncertain. The incorrect stop is a momentary and violent check on the action in the middle, instead of the conclusion, of the cadence, while the fore legs are coming to the ground. The proper movements should be performed, by the rider, so that the stop may conclude correctly with the cadence. The firmness of the hand should be increased, the body be thrown back, the reins drawn to the body, and the horse's haunches pressed forward by the leg and whip, so that he may be brought to bear on the bit. [Illustration] The stop in the trot is performed as in the walk: the rider should operate when the advanced limbs of the animal, before and behind, respectively, have come to the ground, so that the stop may be perfected when the other fore leg and hind leg advance and complete the cadence. The stop in the canter is performed by the rider in a similar manner: the time should be at the instant when the horse's fore feet are descending;--the hind feet will immediately follow, and at once conclude the cadence. In an extended canter, it is advisable to reduce the horse to a short trot, prior to stopping him, or to perform the stop by a _double arrêt_;--that is, in two cadences instead of one. It is necessary that the lady should learn how to make a horse _back_, in walking: to do this, the reins must be drawn equally and steadily towards the body, and the croup of the horse kept in a proper direction by means of the leg and whip. LEAPING. In riding-schools, ladies who never intend to hunt, are frequently taught to leap the bar. The practice is certainly beneficial; as it tends to confirm the seat, and enables the rider more effectually to preserve her balance, should she ever be mounted on an unsteady or vicious horse. [Illustration] Leaps are taken, either standing or _flying_, over a bar, which is so contrived as to fall, when touched by the horse's feet, if he do not clear it: it is placed at a short distance from the ground, at first; and raised, by degrees, as the rider improves. The standing leap, which is practised first, the horse takes from the halt, close to the bar. The flying leap is taken from any pace, and is easier than the standing leap, although the latter is considered the safer of the two to begin with; as, from the steadiness with which it is made by a trained horse, the master or assistant can aid the pupil at the slightest appearance of danger. [Illustration] The position of the rider is to be governed in this, as in all other cases, by the action of the horse. No weight is to be borne on the stirrup; for, in fact, pressure on the stirrup will tend to raise the body, rather than keep it close to the saddle. The legs--particularly the right one--must be pressed closely against the saddle, and the reins yielded to the horse, so that the rider can just distinguish a slight correspondence between her own hand and the horse's mouth. The animations thus produced, and the invitation thus given, will make the horse rise. As his fore quarters ascend, the lady is to advance forward; the back being bent inward, and the head kept upright and steady. A moment before the horse's hind legs quit the ground, the body should be inclined backward; the rider taking care not to bear heavily on the reins, lest the horse force her hand, and pull her forward on his neck, or over his head, as he descends. When the leap is cleared, the rider should bring the horse together, if at all disunited, and resume her usual position. In the flying leap, the seat is to be preserved as in the standing leap; except, that it is needless, and, indeed, unwise, to advance the body as the horse rises: because, in the flying leap, the horse's position, especially in a low leap, is more horizontal than when he rises at the bar from a halt; and there is great danger of the rider being thrown, if she lean forward, in case the horse suddenly check himself and refuse the leap; which circumstance occasionally happens. The waist should be brought forward, and the body suffered to take that inclination backward which will be produced by the spring forward of the horse. The horse's head is to be guided towards the bar, and the reins yielded to him as he advances. The proper distance for a horse to run previous to the leap, is from ten to fifteen yards. If he be well trained, he may be suffered to take his own pace; but it is necessary to animate an indolent animal into a short, collected gallop, and urge him, by strong aids, to make the leap. [Illustration] DISMOUNTING. The first operation, preparatory to dismounting, is to bring the horse to an easy, yet perfect, stop. If the lady be light and dexterous, she may dismount without assistance, from a middle-sized horse: but, it is better not to do so if the animal be high. The right hand of the lady, when preparing to dismount, is to receive the reins, and be carried to the off crutch of the saddle. The reins should be held sufficiently tight to restrain the horse from advancing; and yet not so firm as to cause him to back or rear; nor uneven, lest it make him swerve. The lady should next disengage her right leg, clearing the dress as she raises her knee; remove her right hand to the near crutch; and then take her foot from the stirrup. Thus far the process is the same whether the lady dismount with or without assistance. If the lady be assisted, the gentleman, or groom, may either lift her completely off the saddle to the ground; or, taking her left hand in his left hand, place his right hand on her waist, and, as she springs off, support her in her descent. She may also alight, if she be tolerably active, by placing her right hand in that of the gentleman (who, in this case, must stand at the horse's shoulder), and descend without any other support. Should there be any objection to, or difficulty found in alighting by either of these modes, the gentleman, or groom, may place himself immediately in front of the lady, who is then to incline sufficiently forward for him to receive her weight, by placing his hands under her arms, and thus easing her descent. [Illustration] If the lady dismount without assistance, after the hand is carried from the off to the near crutch, she must turn round so as to be able to take, in her left hand, a lock of the horse's mane; by the aid of which, and by bearing her right hand on the crutch, she may alight without difficulty. In dismounting thus, without assistance, she must turn as she quits the saddle, so as to descend with her face towards the horse's side. [Illustration] By whatever mode the lady dismounts, but especially if she do so without assistance, she should--to prevent any unpleasant shock on reaching the ground--bend her knees, suffer her body to be perfectly pliant, and alight on her toes, or the middle of her feet. She is neither to relinquish her hold, nor is the gentleman, or groom, if she make use of his ministry, to withdraw his hand, until she is perfectly safe on the ground. In order to dismount with grace and facility, more practice is required than that of merely descending from the saddle after an exercise or a ride. It is advisable to mount and dismount, for some days, several times, successively, either before or after the ride;--commencing with the most simple modes, until a sufficient degree of confidence and experience is acquired to perform either of these operations in a proper manner, with the mere aid of the assistant's hand. [Illustration] CONCLUDING REMARKS. The lady should perform her first lessons with a snaffle bridle, holding the reins in both hands, and without a stirrup. When she has acquired some degree of practice in the balance, aids, and general government of the horse, she may use a bridle with double reins, and hold them in the left hand, managing them as we have directed in some of the preceding pages. If the lady be but in her noviciate in the art, we strongly advise her not to place too much reliance on her own expertness, or to attempt too much at first; but, rather, to proceed steadily, and be satisfied with a gradual improvement; as it is utterly impossible to acquire perfection in the nicer operations of riding, before the minor difficulties are overcome. The lady, in all cases, should recollect that her horse requires occasional haltings and relaxation. The time occupied in each lesson should be in proportion to the pace and animation in which it has been performed. If the exercise be varied and highly animated, the horse should rest to recruit himself at the expiration of twelve or fifteen minutes; when refreshed, by halting, he may be made to go through another of the same, or rather less duration, and then be put up for the day. It would be still better to make two halts in the same space of time;--the exercise taken in such a lesson being equal to three hours' moderate work. When the lessons are less animated, they may be made proportionally longer; but, it is always better, if the pupil err in this respect, to do so on the side of brevity, than, by making her lessons too long, to harass her horse. [Illustration] WHITEHEAD AND COMP^Y. PRINTERS, 76, FLEET STREET, LONDON. Transcriber's Note The following typographical errors have been corrected. 29 diminutive poney changed to diminutive pony 47 dependance changed to dependence 75 inner rein is be changed to inner rein should be 
25527	----	None 
31957	----	Transcriber's Note A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a [+] and a description may be found in the complete list at the end of the text. Irregular and non-standard spelling has been maintained as printed. LECTURES ON HORSEMANSHIP, Wherein is Explained EVERY NECESSARY INSTRUCTION FOR BOTH LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, In the Useful and Polite ART OF RIDING, WITH EASE, ELEGANCE, AND SAFETY, BY T. S. Professor of Horsemanship. _LONDON_: 1793. LECTURE ON HORSEMANSHIP. Address to the Audience. LADIES AND GENTLEMEN. Permit me to observe that the Horse is an animal, which, from the earliest ages of the world, has been destined to the pleasure and services of Man; the various and noble qualities with which nature has endowed him sufficiently speaking the ends for which he was designed. Mankind were not long before they were acquainted with them, and found the means of applying them to the purposes for which they were given: this is apparent from the Histories and traditions of almost all nations, even from times the most remote; insomuch that many nations and tribes, or colonies of people, who were entirely ignorant, or had but very imperfect notions, of other improvements and arts of life; and even at this day[3-*] are unacquainted with them, yet saw and understood the generous properties of this creature in so strong a light as to treat him with fondness and the greatest attention, sufficiently to declare the high opinion they entertained of his merit and excellence; nay in various regions, and in the most distant ages, were so far from being strangers to the many services of which the Horse was capable, as to have left rules and precepts concerning them, which are so true and just, that they have been adopted by their successors; and as all art is progressive, and receives additions and improvements in its course, as the sagacity of man at different times, or chance and other causes happen and concur: so that having the Ancient's foundation to erect our building, it is natural to suppose that the structure has received many beauties and improvements from the experience and refinement of latter times. It is generally supposed that the first service in which the Horse was employed, was to assist mankind in making war, or in the pleasures and occupations of the chase. _Xenophon_, who wrote three hundred years before the Birth of _Christ_, says, in an express treatise which he wrote on Horsemanship, that Cyrus hunted on Horseback, when he had a mind to exercise himself and horses. Herodotus speaks of hunting on Horseback as an exercise used in the time of _Darius_, and it is probably of much earlier date. He particulatly[+] mentions a fall which Darius had from his horse in hunting, by which he dislocated his heel: these and thousands of quotations more, which might be produced as proofs of the utility of the Horse, in remote ages, are truths so indisputably attested that to enlarge farther upon it would be a superfluous labour, and foreign to my present undertaking. ON MOUNTING YOUR HORSE. First we will suppose your horse properly saddled and bridled. Take your Bridoun-rein (if you have Bit and Bridoun) your right-hand, shifting it till you have found the center of the rein; then with your switch or whip in your left-hand, place your little finger between the reins, so that the right rein lies flat in your hand upon three fingers, and your thumb pressing your left rein flat upon the right, keeping your thumb both upon right and left rein, firm upon your fore-finger; and in this position you ease your hand a little and slide it firmly down the reins upon your horse's neck, taking a firm hold of a lock of his mane, which will assist you in springing to mount: remember that when you attempt to mount, that your reins are not so tight as to check your horse, or to offend his mouth, so as to cause him to _rear_, or _rein_ back, but that your action is smooth and light as possible. Your horse being firmly stayed, you next take your Stirrup-leather in your Right-hand, about four inches from the stirrup-iron, and fix one third of your foot in the stirrup, standing square with your horse's side; next take a firm hold with your right hand on the Cantlet or back part of the saddle, rather on the off side of it, and with your left knee prest firm against the horse's side, spring yourself up perpendicularly, bending the small of your back and looking chearfully up rather than down. The next move you make is to remove your right-hand from the Cantlet and place it firm upon the Pummel, or front of your saddle, bearing your weight upon it, at the same time bend your right knee, and bring your body round, looking strait over your horse's head, letting yourself firmly and easily down into your seat, with the shoulders easily back, bent well in your waist or loins, and your chest well presented in front, with a pleasant uncontracted countenance. You of course next recover or take your switch, which is done by putting your right-hand over your left, and with a quick firm motion take it in your right hand, holding the same perpendicularly. Proceed us next to the adjusting the Reins, which is of the utmost use. Supposing you ride with Bit and Bridoun, being four in number, place them all even and flat in your left hand, exactly in the same manner as described in taking the Bridoun in mounting; that is to say, your four reins placed even, the one upon the other, remembering always to place your Bridouns on the outsides, so that you may any time lengthen or shorten them at pleasure, without putting the whole into confusion, and cause the Bit to act alone, or Bridoun alone, or both Bit and Bridoun to act together. I have observed before that only your little finger should be between the reins when only two, it is the same now four, so now your two reins on the right side of your horse's neck lie flat upon your three fingers in your left-hand, your two left reins placed flat upon the right, and your thumb pressed flat upon all four. This is the only sure method to keep your reins firm, free from confusion, and to cause them to act properly; which any lady or gentleman will be convinced of if they will only give themselves the pleasure to practise, as I cannot call it a trouble. If it should be demanded why the horse would not ride as well with only the Bridoun, without the Bit? my answer is that suppose your horse becomes hard and heavy in hand, on being rode by both Bit and Bridoun, where they have both acted together: you on this shorten your Bit-reins whereby they act alone the Bridouns becoming slack, your horse instantly becomes light in hand, as though touched by a _magick stick_, reining his neck properly, is immediately light before, gathers himself upon his haunches, and what appeared, but _now_ a _garronly_ sluggish beast wears the appearance of a well dressed horse. Well and thorough broke horses with mouths made fine and to answer the nicest touch of feeling, are in general rode by the Bit alone, the Bridouns hanging loose and seem more for ornament than use; but yet in the hand of a skillful horseman are of the greatest utility; for by handling your right Bridoun-rein lightly with your whip hand at proper times; you can always raise your horse's head if too low, you may take the liberty of easing your Bit-reins at times, so that playing upon his mouth, as it were an _Instrument of musick_, you will always keep his mouth in tune. I cannot find a juster simile than, that the Horse is the Instrument and the Rider the Player; and when the horse is well broke and tuned properly, and the rider knows how to keep him in that state, he is never at a loss to play upon him; but if suffered to go out of tune, by the want of skill in the horseman, and to imbibe bad habits, the horseman not being able to screw him up, and tune him as before: the Instrument is thrown by as useless, or may be sold for a trifle, and by chance falling into able hands, that know how to manage and put him once more together; he again becomes as good as ever: and this I have often been a witness to. Thus much for the adjustment of the Reins in the Hand. THE HORSEMAN'S SEAT: The principles and rules which have hitherto been given for the horseman's seat are various, and even opposite, according as they have been adopted by different masters, and taught in different countries, almost by each master in particular; and every nation having certain rules and notions of their own. Let us see, however, if art has discovered nothing that is certain and invariably true.--The Italians, the Spaniards, the French and, in a word, every country where Riding is in repute, adopt each a posture which is peculiar to themselves: the foundation of their general notions is the same, but each country has prescribed rules for the placing the man on the saddle. This contrariety of opinions which have their origin more in prejudice than in truth and reality, has given rise to many vain reasonings and speculations, each System having its followers; and as if truth was not always the same, and unchangeable, but at liberty to assume various and even opposite shapes; sometimes one opinion prevailed, sometimes another, insomuch that those who understand nothing of the subject, but yet are desirous of being informed, by searching it to the bottom, have hitherto been lost in doubt and perplexity. There is nevertheless a sure and infallible method, by the assistance of which it would be very easy to overturn all these systems; but not to enter into a needless detail of the extravagant notions, which the Seat alone has given rise to; I will here endeavour to trace it from principles by so much the more solid, as their authority will be supported by the most convincing and self evident reasons. In order to succeed in an art where the mechanism of the body is absolutely necessary, and where each part of the body has its proper functions, which are peculiar to that part; it is most certain that all and every part of the body should be in a natural posture: were they in an imperfect situation they would want that ease and freedom which is inseparable from grace; and as every motion which is constrained being false in itself, and incapable of justness, it is clear that the part so constrained and forced would throw the whole into confusion; because each part belonging to and depending upon the whole body, and the body partaking of the constraint of its parts, can never feel that fixed point, that just counterpoise and equality, in which alone a fine and just execution consists. The objects to which a master, anxious for the advancement of his pupil, should attend, are infinite. To little purpose will it be to keep the strictest eye upon all the parts and Limbs of his pupil's Body; in vain will he endeavour to remedy all the defects and faults which are found in the posture of almost every scholar in the beginning, unless he is intimately acquainted with the close dependance[+] and connexion there is between the motions of one part of the body with the rest; a correspondence caused by the reciprocal action of the muscles, which govern and direct them: unless, therefore, he is master of this secret, and has his clue to the labyrinth, he will never attain the end he proposes; particularly in his first lessons, upon which the success of the rest always depend. These principles being established we may reason in consequence of them with clearness. In horsemanship, the Body of man is divided into three parts; two of which are moveable, the third immoveable. The first of the two moveable parts is the Trunk or Body, down to the Waist; the second is from the Knees to the Feet; so that the immoveable part is between the waist and the knees. The parts then which ought to be without motion are the Fork, or Twist of the horseman, and his thighs; now that these parts should be kept without motion, they ought to have a certain hold and center to rest upon, which no motion that the horse can make can disturb or loosten; this point or center is the basis of the hold which the horseman has upon his horse, and is what is called the SEAT; now if the seat is nothing else but this point or center, it must follow, that not only the true grace, but the symmetry and true proportion of the whole attitude depend upon those parts of the body that are immoveable. Let the horseman then place himself at once, upon his Twist, sitting exactly in the middle of the saddle; let him support this posture, in which the Twist alone seems to sustain the weight of the whole body, by moderately leaning upon his buttock. Let the Thighs be turned inward, and rest flat upon the sides of the saddle; and in order to this let the turn of the thighs proceed directly from the hips, and let him employ no force or strength to keep himself in the saddle, but trust entirely to the weight of his body and thighs; this is the exact equilibrio: in this and this only consists the firmness and support of the whole _building_; a firmness which young beginners are never sensible of at first, but which is to be acquired, and will always be attained by exercise and practise. I demand but a moderate stress upon the buttocks, because a man that sits full upon them can never turn his thighs flat to the saddle; the thighs should always lay flat to the saddle, because, the fleshy part of them being insensible, the horseman would not otherwise be able so nicely to feel the motions of his horse: I insist that the turn of the Thigh must be from the Hip, because it can never be natural, but as it proceeds from the hollow of the hip bone. I insist farther that the horseman never avails himself of the strength or help of his thighs, except he lets his whole weight rest upon the center, as before described; because the closer he presses them to the saddle, the more will he be lifted above the saddle on any sudden or iregular[+] motion of the Horse. Having thus firmly placed the immovable parts, I now pass on to the first of the _Movables_, which is as I have already observed the body as far as to the waist. I comprehend in the Body, the Head, the Shoulders, the Breast, the Arms, Hands, Reins and Waist of the Horseman. The head should be free, firm and easy, in order to be ready for all the natural motions that the horseman may make in turning to one side or the other. It should be firm, that is to say, strait, without leaning to the right or left, neither advanced nor thrown back; it should be easy because if otherwise it would occasion a stiffness, and that stiffness affecting the different parts of the body, especially the back bone, the whole would be without ease and constrained. The shoulders alone influence by their motions that of the breast the reins and waist. The horseman should present or advance his breast, by that his whole figure opens and displays itself; he should have a small hollow in his reins, and push the waist forward to the pommel of the saddle, because this position corresponds and unites him to all the motions of the horse. Now only throwing the shoulders back, produces all these effects, and gives them exactly in the degree that is requisite; whereas if we were to look for the particular position of each part seperately[+] and by itself, without examining the connection that there is between the motions of one part with those of another, there would be such a bending in his reins that the horseman would be, if I may so say, hollow backed; and as from that he would force his breast forward and his waist towards the pommel of the saddle, he would be flung back, and must sit upon the rump of the horse. The arms should be bent at the elbows, and the elbows should rest equally upon the hips; if the arms were strait, the consequence would be, that the hands would be too low, or at too great a distance from the body; and if the elbows were not kept steady, they would of consequence, give an uncertainty and fickleness to the hand, sufficient to ruin it for ever. It is true that the _Bridle-hand_ is that which absolutely ought to be steady and immoveable; and we might conclude from hence, that the left elbow only ought to rest upon the hip; but grace consists in the exact proportion and symmetry of all the parts of the body, and to have the arm on one side raised and advanced, and that of the other kept down and close to the body would present but an aukward and disagreeable appearance. It is this which determines the situation of the hand which holds the whip; the left hand being of an equal heighth with the elbow; so that the knuckle of the little finger, and the tip of the elbow be both in a line, this hand then being rounded neither too much nor too little, but just so that the wrist may direct all its motions, place your right hand, or the whip hand, lower and more forward than the bridle hand. It should be lower than the bridle hand because if it was upon a level with it, it would restrain or obstruct its motions; and were it to be higher, as it cannot take so great a compass as the bridle hand, which must always be kept over against the horseman's body: it is absolutely necessary to keep the proportion of the elbows, that it should be lower than the other. The legs and feet make up the second division of what I call the moveable parts of the body: the legs serve for two purposes, they may be used as aids or corrections to the horse, they should then be kept near the sides of the horse, and in a perpendicular line with the horseman's body; for being near the part of the horse's body where his feeling is most delicate, they are ready to do their office in the instant they are wanted. Moreover, as they are an apendix[+] of the thighs if the thigh is upon its flat in the saddle, they will by a necessary consequence be turned just as they ought, and will infallibly give the same turn to the feet, because the feet depend upon them, as they depend upon the thighs. The toe should be held a little higher then[+] the heel, for if the toe was lowest the heel would be too near the sides of his horse and would be in danger of touching his horse with his spurs at perhaps the very instant he should avoid such aid or correction. Many persons notwithstanding, when they raise their toe, bend and twist their ankle as if they were lame in the part. The reason of this is very plain; because they make use of the muscles in their legs and thighs, whereas they should only employ joint of the foot for this purpose,[+] Such is in short the mechanical disposition of all the parts of the horseman's body. These ideas properly digested the practitioner will be able to prescribe rules for giving the true and natural Seat, which is not only the principles of justness, but likewise the foundation of all grace in the horseman, of course, the first endeavour of those who wish to become horsemen, should be to attain a firm and graceful seat: the perfection of which, as of most other arts and accomplishments depend upon the ease and simplicity with which they are executed, being free from affectation and constraint as to appear quite natural and familiar. Therefore the immoveable parts as before observed ought to be so far without motion as not to wriggle and roll about so as to disturb the horse, or render the seat weak and loose: but the thighs may be relaxed to a certain degree with propriety and advantage, when the horse hesitates and doubts whether he shall advance or not; and the body may likewise, upon some occasions, become moveable and change its posture to a certain degree, as when the horse _retains_ himself, it may be flung back more or less as the case requires; and consequently inclined forward when the horse rises so high as to be in danger of falling backwards; what keeps a ship on the sea steady? BALLAST, by the same rule, what keeps the horseman STEADY? trusting to the weight of his body: it is for this reason that beginners are first made to ride without stirrups; for were they allowed to use them before they had acquired an equilibrio and were able to stretch their legs and thighs well down, so as to set firmly in the saddle, and close to it, they would either loose their stirrups by not being able to keep their feet in them; or the stirrups must be taken up much too short, in which case the rider would be pushed upwards from the saddle, and the Seat destroyed throughout; as the parts of the body like the links of a chain depending upon one another, safety likewise requires they should ride without them at first, as in case of falling tis less dangerous. It is the general practice of those who undertake to teach horsemanship, when they put a scholar upon a horse, to mix and confound many rules and precepts together, which ought to be distinct and seperate;[+] such as making him attend to the guidance of the horse, demanding an exactness of hand, and other particulars, which they croud[+] upon him before he is able to execute, or even understand half of them. I would recommend a slower pace at first being likely to gain more ground at the ending post, and not to perplex the scholar with _Aids_, of the effects of the _Hand_, and more nice and essential parts of the ART: till the SEAT is gained and CONFIRMED. For this purpose let the seat alone be cultivated for some time, and when the scholar is arrived at a certain degree of firmness and confidence so as to be trusted, I would always advise the master to take hold of the longeing rein and let the pupil intirely leave the governing of his horse to him, going sufficiently to both hands holding his hands behind him. This will, I insist upon it very soon settle him with firmness to the saddle, will place his head, will stretch him down in his saddle, will teach him to lean gently to the side to which he turns so as to unite himself to his horse and go with him and will give that firmness ease, and just poize of body, which constitute a perfect _Seat_, founded in truth and nature and upon principles so certain, that whoever shall think fit to reduce them to practise will find them confirmed and justified by it. Nor would it be improper to accustom the scholar to mount and dismount on both sides of his horse, as many things may occur to make it necessary, as well as that he cannot have too much activity and address, for this reason tis a pity that the art of _Vaulting_ is discontinued.--And there is another duty too essential to be omitted, but hitherto not performed by matters, which is to instruct their pupils in the _principles_ and theory of the _Art_, explaining how the natural paces are performed, wherein they differ from each other, and in what their perfection consists; which, by not joining theory with practice, are unknown to many, who may shine in a menage, but work as mechanically and superficially as the very horse thay[+] ride. Having thus far said what with practice will be sufficient to form the seat of the Horseman, I shall next endeavour to describe the use of the bridle hand and its effects, &c. OF THE BRIDLE HAND. The knowledge of the different characters, and different natures of horses, together with the vices and imperfections, as well as the exact and just proportions of the parts of a horse's body, is the foundation upon which is built the theory of the art of horsemanship; but this theory will be useless and even unnecessary if we are not able to carry it into execution. This depends upon the goodness and quickness of feeling; and in the delicacy which nature alone can give, and which she does not always bestow. The first sensation of the hand consists in a greater or less degree of fineness in the touch or feeling; a feeling in the hand of the horseman, which ought to communicate and answer to the same degree of feeling in the horse's mouth, because there is as much difference in the degrees of feeling in men as there is in the mouths of horses. I suppose then a man, who is not only capable to judge of a horse's mouth by theory, but who has likewise by nature that fineness of touch which helps to form a good hand; let us see then what are the rules which we should follow in order to make it perfect, and by which we must direct all its operations. A horse can move four different ways; he can _advance_, go _back_, turn to the _Right_ and to the _Left_; but he cannot make these different movements except the hand of the Rider permits him, by making four other motions which answer to them; so that there are five different positions for the hand. The first is that general position from which proceed the other four. Hold your hand three inches breadth from your body, as high as your elbow, in such a manner that the joint of your little-finger be upon a right line with the tip of your elbow; let your wrist be sufficiently rounded so that your knuckles may be kept directly above the neck of your horse; let your finger nails be exactly opposite your body, the little finger rather nearer to it than the others; your thumb quite flat upon the reins, separated as before described, and this is the general _Position_. Does your horse go forwards, or rather would you have him go forwards? yeild to him your hand, and for that purpose turn your nails downwards, in such a manner as to bring your thumb near your body, and your little-finger then from it, and bring it to the place where your knuckles were in the first position. Keeping your nails directly above the neck of your horse.--This is the second Position. Would you make your horse go backwards, quit the first position; let your wrist be quite round, your thumb in the place of the little finger in the second position, and the little-finger in that of the thumb, turning your nails quite upwards, and towards your face, and your knuckles will be towards your horse's neck.--This is the third Position. Would you turn your horse to the Right? leave the first position; carry your nails to the right, turning your hand upside down, in such a manner that your thumb be carried out to the left, and the little-finger brought in to the Right.--This is the fourth Position. Lastly, would you turn your horse to the Left? quit again the first position, carry the back of your hand a little to the left, so that the knuckles come under a little, that your thumb may incline to the right, and the little-finger to the left.--This makes the fifth Position. These different Positions, however, alone are not sufficient; we must be able to pass from one to the other with readiness and order. Three qualities are necessary to the hand. Viz. FIRM, GENTLE, and LIGHT: I call that a firm hand, or steady hand whose feeling corresponds exactly with the feeling in the horse's mouth, and which consists in a certain degree of steadiness, which constitutes that just correspondence between the hand and the horse's mouth, which every horseman wishes to find. An easy or gentle hand. I call that which, relaxing a little of its strength and firmness, eases and mitigates the degree of feeling between the hand and horse's mouth, which I have already described. Lastly, the light hand is that which lessens still more the feeling between the rider's hand and the horse's mouth, which was before moderated by the GENTLE HAND. The hand, therefore, with respect to these properties must operate in part, within certain degrees, and depends upon being more or less felt, or yeilded to the horse, or with-held. It should be a rule with every horseman not to pass from one extreme to another; from a firm hand to a slack one; so that in the motion of the hand on no account jump over that degree of sensation which constitutes the EASY OR GENTLE HAND: were you once to go from a firm strong hand to a slack one, you then entirely abandon your horse; you would surprise him, deprive him of the support he trusted to, and precipitate him on his shoulders; supposing you do this at an improper time. On the contrary, were you to pass from the slack to the tight rein, all at once, you must jerk your hand, and give a violent shock to the horse's mouth; which rough and irregular motion would be sufficient to falsify and ruin a good mouth; it is indispensably necessary, therefore, that all its opeperations[+] should be gentle and light, and in order to this, it is necessary that the WRIST alone should direct and govern all its motions, by turning and steering it as it were, through every motion it is to make[+] In consequence then of these principles, I insist that the wrist be kept so round that your knuckles may be always directly above the horse's neck, and that your thumb be always kept flat upon the reins. In reality were your wrist to be more or less rounded than in the degree I have fixed, you could never work with your hand but by means of your arm, and besides it would appear as though you were lame; again were your thumb not to be upon the flat of the reins, pressed hard upon your fore finger, they would be constantly slipping away, and lengthened, and in order to recover them you would be obliged every minute to raise your hand and arm, which would throw you into disorder and make you lose that justness without which no horse will be obedient and work with readiness and pleasure to himself. It is nevertheless true, that with horses well dressed one may take liberties; these are motions called descents of the hand; either by dropping the knuckles directly and at once upon the horse's neck, or by taking the reins in the right hand about four inches above the left, letting them slide through the left, dropping your right hand at the same time upon the horse's neck, or else by putting the horse under the button as it is called: that is by taking the end of the reins in your right hand, quitting them intirely with your left hand and letting the end of them fall upon your horse's neck, these motions however, which give grace to the horseman, never should be made but with great caution, and exactly when your horse is well together and in hand; and take care in counterbalancing by throwing back your body, that the weight of the body lie upon his haunches. The Bit and Snaffle were they to be kept constantly in one place in his mouth, would of course dull the sense of feeling, and become benumbed and callous; this shews the necessity of continually yeilding and drawing back the hand to keep the horse's mouth fresh and awake. It is therefore self evident that a heavy handed horseman can never break a horse to any degree of nicety, or ride one which is already broke to any degree of exactness. Besides these rules, there are others not less just and certain; (but whose niceness and refinement is not the lot of every person to taste and understand) my hand being in the first position, I open my two middle fingers, I consequently ease and slacken myright[+] rein; I shut my hand, the right rein operates again, resuming its place as before, I open my little finger and carrying the end of it upon the right rein, I thereby slacken the left and shorten the right; I shut my hand entirely and immediately open it again, I thereby lessen the degree of tension and force of the two reins at the same time; again I close my hand not quite so much, but still I close it. It is by these methods and by the vibration of the reins, that I unite the feeling in my hand with that in the horse's mouth, and thus I play with a fine and MADE mouth, and freshen and relieve the two bars in which the feeling resides. Therefore, it is that correspondence and sensation between the horse's mouth and the hand of the rider, which alone can make him submit with pleasure to the constraint of the bit. Having thus explained the different positions and motions of the hand, permit me in a few words to shew the effects which they produce in horsemanship? The hand directs the reins, the reins operate upon the branches of the bit; the branches upon the mouth-piece and the curb, the mouth-piece operates upon the bars, and the curb upon the chin of the horse. So far for the management of the bridle hand upon thorough-broke and well-dressed horses. But in breaking young horses for any purpose, the reins in all cases ought to be separated, nothing so unmeaning, nothing so ineffectual as the method of working with them joined or held in only one hand, this is very evident in the instances of colts, and of stiff necked, and unworked horses of all kinds, with them it is impossible to do anything without holding a rein in either hand, which rein operates with certainty and governs the side of the neck to which it belongs, and surely this is a shorter way of working than to make, or rather attempt to make the left rein determine the horse to the right, and the right guide him to the left. In the above instances of stiff awkward horses this can never be done; and altho it is constantly practised with those which are _Drest_, yet it is certain they obey, and make their _Changes_ more from _docility_ and _Habit_, than from the influence of the _outward_ rein, which ought only to act, to balance and support, while the inner bends, inclines, and guides the horse to the hand to which he is to go. This can never be done so fully and truly with the reins joined, as when they are separated into each hand, and if double or _Running_ reins were used instead of single as with a snaffle or[24-*] _Meadow's_ bit, they would afford more compass and power to the horseman to bend and turn his horse. The manner of holding the reins high as condemed[+] by some writers, possessing themselves with a notion that they ruin the hocks of the horses. For my own part I do not know what those writers mean, unless by them we are to understand the haunches; and then this method instead of ruining, will work and assist them, for the head and fore quarters are raised up, his weight of course is thrown upon his haunches, for one end being raised the other must be kept down. It is nothing more than a natural cause, which will always produce a natural effect, for instance, ballance a pole upona[+] wall so that it acts in equilibrium, only raise one end, the other of course must be lowered, it is the same with a horse, as you cannot rise his fore parts but by bringing his haunches more under him. I would here wish to remark that horses should never be compelled by force untill[+] they know what you wish from them, for let them be however disobedient in their disposition, yet are all of them more or less sensible of good and bad usage from their masters; the best method then to convey your intention to them so that they shall understand you, is to reward them when they do well, and to punish them when disobedient, this rule though contained in few words yet is of universal use in horsemanship. And Xenophon, who wrote a treatise on Horsemanship, more than two thousand years ago, among other notable remarks, when speaking on horse-breaking, wherein he concludes thus: "But there is one rule to be inviolably observed above all others; that is, never approach your horse in a passion; as anger never thinks of consequences and forces us to do what we afterwards repent." Begging pardon for this short but useful digression, I again observe that such are the principles upon which the perfection and justness of the aids of the hand depend; all others are false and not to be regarded.--Thus far for the bridle hand, and its effects. LECTURE ON HORSEMANSHIP. Addressed to the Ladies. Among all the various writers on the art of horsemanship, notwithstanding, side-saddles have been known and in use in England more then[+] six hundred years ago, even in Richard's time, for in the reign of this prince side-saddles were first known here, as it will appear from the following anecdote, by a Warwick historian, in which he says. "And in his days also began the detestable custom of wearing long pointed shoes, fastened with chains of silver, and sometimes gold, up to the knees, likewise noble ladies then used high heads, and robes with long trains, and seats or side-saddles on their horses, by the example of the respectable queen Anne, daughter of the king of Bohemia, who first introduced this custom in this kingdom: for before, women of every rank rode as men do, with their legs astride their horses." Thus says our Warwick historian, so that side saddles appear to have been used many centuries ago, and that formerly the female sex took the fashion of riding like men, for which they are reprehended, by a Greek historian, and hard indeed is the equestrian situation of the ladies, for if they are to be accused of indelicacy for riding after the manner of men, they are greatly to be pitied in hazarding their safety as they do, in riding after the _manner_ of _Women_. However as no one hath ever yet lent a helping hand in putting pen to paper on the subject, by way of adding, if possible, to the ladies, elegance, ease and safety on horse back; I shall without any other apology then assuring those ladies who may please to read what I write on the matter, is well meant, and are such ideas that have occured[+] to me in many years study, and practice in the manage.[+] DIRECTIONS IN MOUNTING. Let the ostler or servant being on the off side the horse, with right hand holding the bridoun reins, to properly stay the horse, and his left hand on the part of the saddle called the crutch, by this method both horse and saddle will be kept firm and steady, it is the riding master's duty to examine the bridle whether it is properly placed, the curb, chain, or chin chain in due order, the saddle in a proper place, and the girths sufficiently tight, &c. Direct the lady then to take her whip, or switch in the right hand, the small end of it turned towards the horse's croup, then with the right hand take a firm hold of the pommell of the saddle standing upright with her right shoulder square, and in a line with the horse's left, she then bending the left knee pretty much, the master or gentleman who asists[+] her standing facing the lady, he stooping a little receives the lady's left foot in his hands being clasped firm together, the lady must then be directed to straiten her knee, being now bent, with a firmness and elasticity pressing her left hand on the man's left shoulder, making a little spring at the same time, by which the riding-master, gentleman, or servant, if permitted, by paying due attention to these rules will spring the lady on the saddle with the greatest ease and safety. _The method of adjusting the petticoats_; I then place the lady's foot in the stirrup tho' it is a wonder if a proper length, being guess work, as we are now to suppose this to be the first lesson, and the stirrup cannot be properly fixed, till the lady is in her seat, I say I then give her the stirrup, directing she may take a firm hold with the left hand of a lock of the horse's mane, at the same time she having a firm hold of the crutch with the right, by which means she rises herself up from the saddle, standing firm in the stirrup, looking rather over the off side of the horse's neck, the intention of this is that the attendant shall adjust the coats so as they sit smooth and easy, by pulling them round a little to the right, then on returning to the saddle, or seat, and while in coming down she must put her right knee over the pommel of the saddle, and by these simple rules she will find all comfortable and easy; in regard to the adjustment of the bridle reins, and the managing and directing the horse by them, pay strict attention to those set down in the first lecture addressed to the gentlemen; let the whip be placed firm and easy in the right hand, with the taper or small end downwards, and the arm hanging carelessly down without contraction, and when the whip is made use off, let it be by means of the wrist, without lifting the arm from the body, and be careful not to touch the horse with the whip too backward as many of them will kick on their being flogged in that part, which if it should not occasion a fall, would much alarm the young scholar, before she has acquired any degree of ballance. DIRECTIONS FOR THE LENGTH OF THE STIRRUP. The Stirrup should be such length as when the lady sits upright and properly on her seat, with the knee being easily bent, the heel kept back, with the toe raised a little higher than the heel, so that the heel, hip and the shoulder, are in a line and as upright as when walking along, for if otherwise it is unjust and not agreeable to nature; for suppose you are riding along the road with the foot stuck out and so forward as the horses front of his shoulder, as is not uncommon to see girls riding in this manner along the road in the country, as tho' they were directing with their foot which road their horse should take, I say this method is not only very unbecoming but very unsafe, for instance if riding carelessly along the road with the foot and leg in this attitude being to pass some stubborn or inflexible object on the left or near side, perhaps before you are aware or apprised of the danger you might have your foot and leg sorely bruised, nay even dragged from your horse, I have seen similar instances to this, happen more than once, even when the foot has been in a good situation by ladies who unthinkingly have endeavoured to pass objects to the left when they could as easily have passed those objects to the _right_, which ladies should make an invariable rule so to do at all times, if possible; for reasons which must be plain to any one, who will think one minute on the matter; another inconvenience will frequently arise by suffering the leg and foot to be in this horrid form, which is, the stirrup leather will frequently press against the leg, so as to hurt it very much, this I have often had beginners complain of, by saying the buckle of the stirrup hurt them, when behold I never use a buckle to my stirrups on the left side, as they are always fastened and buckled on the off side, for _two_ particular good advantages which arise from it; the principal of which is, that as the pressure or bearing coming from the off side, it greatly assists in keeping the saddle even, especially with those ladies through a bad habit who accustom themselves to bear hard on the stirrup which is nothing more then[+] a habit, and want of learning to ride the right way at first. The other reason is, you can lengthen or shorten the stirrup at pleasure, without disturbing the lady at all, and without even dismounting yourself, if you are riding on the road, as the business is done on the off side the horse, nay I have altered the stirrup often without stopping at all. I insist upon it therefore if the stirrup does not hang perpendicular, or the same as when left to itself and no one on horseback, the end is totally destroyed, for what the stirrup was designed; which is in the _first_ place to carry the weight of, and only the weight of the rider's leg, without which support it would soon become fatigued and tired: and _secondly_, if you accustom yourself to carry your foot properly, as before directed, that is your heel in a line with your hip and shoulder, letting your foot rest even in the stirrup, carrying only the weight of your leg, with the toe a little raised, it will never fail to assist you in your balance, if you happen to lose it to the left, it is also ready to save you if you should happen to lose your balance to the right, by pressing the calf of your leg strongly and firmly to the side of your horse, and being always near your horse's side it is a quick aid in supporting him, and to force him forward, it is also of the greatest use, by pressing it strongly to his side, in assisting to turn your horse to the left, and likewise in throwing your horse's croup off when you wish to make him go into a canter, by which means he will be forced to go off with the right leg foremost. And _lastly_, it is of the utmost utility in supporting you in the continuance of the Spring Trot, a pace now greatly in fashion, and should be practised by all who accustom themselves to ride any length of journies, as it enables them to make some degree of speed, and by changing their paces often from walk, to trot, and gallop, their journey becomes less tedious to them. OF THE SEAT, And Form of the Side Saddle. In the first place I would strongly recommend a large seated Saddle, very high on the cantlet or back part, and a regular sweep from thence to the front or pommell, for some saddles, more shame be it spoken, are so small, and the seat so rounded in the middle, that to sit on them is next to balancing themselves on a round pole, a comfortable situation truly for a lady! I say again let me recommend a large seated saddle; I mean let it be large in proportion to the size of the lady, and high in the cantlet, nay I am confident that they might be contrived to advantage, were they constructed with peaks, and the peak carried on from the back part of the saddle to within four inches of the front on the off side; this with the addition of a Burr, as it is called, to support the left knee, would greatly assist the lady in keeping the body on a good balance and sufficiently back: which might prevent many accidents. If these hints should strike any lady or gentleman as being reasonable, and should they be inclined to have a saddle so constructed, I should think myself happy in explaining myself more fully on the subject. _Now in regard to the Seat for a Lady_, I sincerely wish I was able to prescribe a more firm _one_ than the present fashion will admit of, however I will do my endeavour to handle it in the best manner I can; and first let the whole weight of the body rest firmly upon the center of the saddle, leaning nei her[+] to one side or the other, with the shoulders easily back, and the chest presented well forward; a lady cannot be too nice and circumspect, in accustoming herself to sit upright, without contraction, in any part, _nothing so graceful, nothing so safe as ease_ of _action_; do not let the stirrup carry more than the weight of the leg, except in case of the Swing Trot, or when assisting to keep the Ballance,[+] Two material disadvantages arise from Ladies accustoming themselves to bear heavy in the stirrup, and loll about, constantly twisting themselves to the near or left side of the horse: first it destroys their whole figure, making the same appear deformed and crooked; and if they were to continue in the habit of riding would confirm them in such deformed attitude, in its becoming second nature, by constant use; this is a truth too frequently witnessed, by practising without the right method. Secondly, the other disadvantage most materially affects the horse; for by their so constantly leaning themselves to the near side, the side-saddle being so pulled and pressed against the withers or shoulder of the horse on the off side, keeping up a continual friction, and this being the case, I defy all the Sadlers in the kingdom to prevent the saddle from wringing and galling the poor beast, especially in the heat of the summer; the only remedy is to take away the cause, by sitting properly, and the effect ceases of course. The notions which some Ladies have entertained, as to fear to let their daughters be taught to Ride, least it should make them grow crooked and awry, I insist that they are false, and quite the reverse; the cause is, as before observed, by their contracting bad habits of their own, and not being instructed on approved principles, so that the effect is caught hold of, while the cause lies unsought for; from my own knowledge and experience I could relate several instances wherein young Ladies instead of growing crooked by learning to ride, have been greatly relieved from those complaints, and even quite eradicated by the practice of riding, I will here beg leave to mention an instance or two which will serve to prove what good effects may arise from this pleasant and healthful exercise. A young Lady about Seventeen years of age who had been afflicted for twelve months with a stiffness in her neck and shoulders, and it was observable that the right shoulder was grown much larger than the left. She on coming to the riding house to observe her fellow scholars take their lessons, of which she became much pleased, and wished much to learn to ride.--The governess consulted me on the matter, but said she feared it might make her grow worse as she had been told that riding sometimes caused Ladies to become crooked, however, by my reasoning the matter with her she was convinced in her own opinion and caused the young Lady to write to her parents in Jamaica, and had permission by return of packet to ride according to my directions, which were briefly as follows, being in the month of March, and of course rather a cold piercing air, I advised new unwashed flannel every time she took a lesson to be worn next the skin on the part affected, _she rode_, of course a strong perspiration took place, she was much fatigued for the first six or seven Lessons, however after then as she began to be acquainted with the use of her bridle hands, as I made her use both; and give great part of the Lessons, in small circles to right and left; the consequence was that by persevering in this method for two successive months the parts became naturally relaxed and pliable, and by continuing to practice she entirely recovered her alacrity and spirits, and also became acquainted with the art of Riding, which I hope she may long live to practice with ease and safety to herself in her native country. Another young Lady from the same school had a particular habit of leaning her shoulders and neck forward, I have frequently heard it called pokeing, and all the dancing-master's instructions had for years been ineffectual. I believe she was more fond of riding than dancing instructions, for the governess of the young lady before-mentioned often asserted that the Riding Master had done more in setting her scholar upright and keeping her shoulders easily back, in the space only of two months, than the Dancing Master, though capable in his profession, had been able to accomplish in three years. I hope to be pardoned for this little digression, not doubting but those Ladies who will give themselves time to consider the foregoing, will be convinced that it is agreeable to reason and nature. Now to say some little more of the SEAT, which cannot be too much attended to, being in a great measure the foundation of safety to a lady when on horseback, and as such I would strongly recommend the lady being in the menage, or in any proper place, the horse being very quiet and to be trusted to; then let the lady seat herself properly on the saddle as before directed, _only_ without the stirrup, and not to take the reins, leaving the direction of the horse to the Riding Master, or to whoever she can with safety trust the government to; and in this manner take half an hour's practice every day, as nothing will so greatly assist in acquiring a good and just balance. I do not advise this method to be gone rapidly about, as she may make use both of stirrup and reins at first, and when she has acquired a firmness and ballance in some degree, may first quit the stirrup, and in a lesson or two, the reins.[+] remembering to go to right and left circle alternately and progressively.[+] viz. from _Walk_ to Trot and Gallop; I hope I need not say that the horse should be remarkably steady, and properly broke to go in circles to right and left by the longeing rein. I say this method will settle and give the scholar a firmness not to be acquired by any other means, will teach them to unite themselves with their horse, and go along with him, it will bring about that confidence, firmness, ease, and just poize of body which serves to constitute what is called a perfect _Seat_, acquired by the rules of art, and agreeable to nature, and I here beg leave to quote a few lines which the great Berringer observes applicable to this subject, "It is astonishing to think how this work so immediately necessary could have been deferred so long, that while rewards were given, public trials appointed, and laws enacted to promote an useful and generous breed of horses, no step should have been taken on the other hand to qualify and instruct the youth of the kingdom, of both sex in the superior art of riding; for the getting on the back of an horse to be conveyed from one place to another without knowing what the animal is enabled by nature, art and practice to perform, is not _Riding_, the knowledge and utility of which consists in being able to discern and dexterous to employ the means by which the horse may be brought to execute what the rider requires of him with propriety, readiness and safety, and this knowledge in the rider and obedience in the horse should be so intimately connected as to form one _perfect whole_, this union being so indispensably necessary that where it is not, there is no meaning, the rider and horse talk different languages, and all is confusion, while many and fatal mischiefs may ensue, the rider may be wedged in the timber which he strives to rend, and fall the victim of his own ignorance and rashness." I have now observed such rules which with practice will form as good and perfect a _Seat_ as the customary mode of riding will admit of. It remains now with practice and perseverance to make perfect. WHEN RIDING ON THE ROAD. When a lady has taken sufficient practice in the menage or elsewhere, so as to be able to steer and guide her horse, and particularly can stop him firm and well upon his haunches, and also knows by practice how to unite herself to the horse, provided he should stop suddenly by his own will, an instance which frequently happens, therefore it is essential that the rider should become sensible of every action of the horse by that kind of sympathy of feeling which should subsist between them, so as to know his intentions as quick as thought, in this and all other actions he may be inclined to, which are likely to offend and endanger the rider, or himself; I would earnestly recommend the lady to make herself acquainted with every help so as to gaurd[+] and defend herself on all occasions, such as her horse stumbling, shying, starting, running away, running back, rearing, kicking, and plunging; yet horses addicted to any of those vices are by no means fit, or should have ladies set upon knowingly, but as a lady cannot always be so fortunate as to get the possession of one of those hackneys we call a nonpareil, tho' every dealer you enquire of for one will say he can sell it you, therefore place not too much confidence in him you purchase your horse from, or the horse himself, even after you have rode him some time, for you scarce ever can be certain but he may play you some of those tricks, especially if his keep is above his work, as I have always found the best lady's hackneys require constant practice to keep them in tune. It is necessary the lady should have a sharp eye upon the road she is travelling, taking care by the gentle assistance of the bridle hand to steer and guide her horse into the best, to avoid all stones and uneven places, and never to ride near the edge of any deep ditch or sudden precipice, for altho, heaven be praised, accidents very seldom happen, yet if for the want of a little care and due management one should happen in one hundred years, that one would be one too many: the lady should pay great attention to the horse when going down a steep hill, and endeavour to put him together and upon his haunches, and to perform this, she must feel his mouth lightly and firmly with the bridle hand, at the same time making use of some of the helps used to force him to go forward, such as clicking with your voice, a gentle touch with the whip, or the heel, so she stays him a little by the bridle hand at the same time he is forced forwards by the other helps or aids and if properly timed, by doing enough without over doing, he will be put together, and of course kept on a light proper action which must be in the real action of a trot, that is with his two corner legs in the air at one time and two on the ground, by such means the horse will always be kept on a sure ballance and never be in danger of falling, on the other hand if the horse is sufferd to go loose and unasisted[+] by the bridle hand, and the other aids as before described, when going down a steep hill he will most commonly go into that unnatural pace called the amble which is moving his side legs together instead of his corner legs, this pace is very unsafe notwithstanding the ancients used arts in breaking the horse to the amble, on account of its being so much easier than the trot, but as it is a known maxim in physic that giving ease and performing a cure are two different things, so here an easy pace and a safe one are as diametrically opposite, and that the amble is an unsafe pace is easy to be conceived by the horse losing so large a portion of his ballance, to prove which only try these simple experiments. Take a wooden horse[+] let his two corner legs be taken away and he will stand, but take away his two sides leg and he falls, again one often sees at a farrier's shop when a horse is wanted to be shod in haste, two smiths can work at the same time, by taking each of them a corner leg, therefore how careful should we be to keep our hackneys on a safe action, and awake under us on all occasions. The lady should endeavour to make herself acquainted with those objects which horses are most subject to be alarmed at, and first of all is a windmill in full sail, next some can never be brought to go comfortably by a tilted waggon, especially if meeting it, others dislike asses very much, some dislike to face a man wheeling a barrow or an umbrella extended, an arch drain which is frequently seen to carry the water away thro the banks in a turnpike road, its laying low and of course presents itself very suddenly, will sadly alarm some, and any object suddenly presenting itself is almost sure to affright and alarm any horse in spirits,[+] I once saw a lady get a fall, by a cow suddenly presenting its head over a hedge, yet a more steady animal never was, as I used her four years and never knew her start either before or after; let it be remembered that horses are more apt to be shy or start in the dusk of the evening than in broad day light, horses with bad eyes are almost sure to start, yet starting is not a sure sign of bad eyes, as many imagine it, I mention these few observations in regard to starting because horses which are most free from those faults, it may happen to some times; as horses like men are not alway in the same temper: never ride on a fast pace by any lane's end, or in turning any sudden or short turn, for two reasons; first, that it is unsafe as the horse might be subject to fall for want of being supported, and put together by shortening his pace, and secondly by your not being able to discern the objects which might present themselves to you so as to disturb and alarm your horse: these little hints kept well in mind may be the means of preventing many accidents. FINIS. FOOTNOTES: [3-*] Such as the Wild Arabs, Indians, &c. [24-*] Used by Sir Sidney Meadows. Transcriber's Note The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained. Page Error 4 particulatly should read particularly 10 dependance should read dependence 11 iregular should read irregular 12 seperately should read separately 14 apendix should read appendix 14 higher then should read more than 14 purpose, should read purpose. 16 seperate; should read separate 16 croud should read crowd 17 thay should read they 20 opeperations should read operations 21 to make should read to make. 22 myright should read my right 24 condemed should read condemned 24 upona should read upon a 24 untill should read until 26 more then should read more than 27 occured should read occurred 27 manage should read menage 28 asists should read assists 30 more then should read more than 33 nei her should read neither 33 Ballance, should read Ballance. 36 the reins. should read the reins, 36 progressively. should read progressively, 38 gaurd should read guard 39 unasisted should read unassisted 39 wooden horse should read wooden horse, 40 spirits, should read spirits. 
33371	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) Raising P. V. Squabs for Profit JOHN S. TRECARTIN Caldwell New Jersey RAISING P. V. SQUABS FOR PROFIT _By_ JOHN S. TRECARTIN A Manual of Instruction from My Personal Experience in Building, Stocking and Managing the Largest Successful Squab Plant in New Jersey Tells how we market squabs for twelve dollars per dozen, wholesale. Details of necessary requirements for a successful business. How to house, feed, market and care for pigeons. Importance of good foundation stock. Profits and how secured. COPYRIGHT 1920, JOHN S. TRECARTIN. CALDWELL, N.J. CONTENTS Page Introduction 3 CHAPTER I. Is There Profit in Raising Squabs? 5 CHAPTER II. Description of Passaic Valley Squab Farm and Housing in General 7 CHAPTER III. The Fundamental Requirements for Successful Squab Raising 10 CHAPTER IV. The Utility Pigeon 17 CHAPTER V. Habits and Peculiarities 20 CHAPTER VI. Squabs for Market 24 CHAPTER VII. Selecting Breeders 28 INTRODUCTION The squab business in America has too long been looked upon as a pastime and game for children's amusement. Raising squabs is not child's play, but a real scientific business with unlimited possibilities for development. Success in this business as in any other, depends largely on a proper start. In the following pages I will endeavor to present with great simplicity the right way to start in the squab business and the results I have obtained in raising squabs for market. The information contained herein, may, I trust, be of as much benefit to the reader as it is my pleasure to impart. JOHN S. TRECARTIN. [Illustration: PASSAIC VALLEY SQUAB FARM, CALDWELL, N.J.] CHAPTER I. IS THERE PROFIT IN RAISING SQUABS? Of the question of profit in squab raising, there is no doubt. Squabs are coming into use more and more every day, not only as a delicacy for invalids, but also for hotels, restaurants, catering establishments, and household use. The first question is naturally of the market for them. The Hebrews, who entertain lavishly, are among our largest customers. They buy the squabs alive, as their poultry has to be prepared according to the Jewish Dietary Laws. The hotels in all large cities use enormous quantities of squabs, and we have had to freeze large quantities for them in the summer in the past few years, so as to insure them a steady supply through the winter months. We have frozen as high as 5,000 squabs for a single hotel in one year, and now we make a practice of always keeping a reserve of frozen squabs, to meet the winter demands. The prices of squabs are for the most part regulated by the large cities in the vicinity. Commission merchants are always anxious to buy in any quantity and they send out weekly quotations as to what they are paying for squabs. The prices to butchers, hotels, and consumers of all classes, are based on these quotations and naturally the direct sale to the consumer, cutting out the commission man, commands a much higher price. The following table is made up of the quotations Conron Bros., New York City, paid for squabs during the first week in January in the following years:-- 1912 Squabs weighing 9 lbs. to the dozen $ 4.75 1913 " " 9 lbs. " " 4.75 1914 " " 9 lbs. " " 4.75 1916 " " 9 lbs. " " 5.50 1919 " " 9 lbs. " " 9.25 1920 " " 9 lbs. " " 11.00 Squabs are graded according to the weight of one dozen. That is, one dozen squabs weighing twelve ounces each, would weigh nine pounds to the dozen. We have taken that weight squab as a basis, as that is the average weight squab produced from good breeders. The cost of raising squabs depends entirely on the price of feed and the number of squabs produced during a given period. Before the war, it cost $1.25 a year for feed for one pair of pigeons. At present, the cost per pair for feed is $3.00, according to our records. Now, how many squabs will a pair of pigeons produce in a year? That question we cannot answer, but we know how many squabs we have produced from our breeders. In 1919, we raised an average of 14.3 squabs per pair, for our entire plant. Our average pen production ran from 10 to 16 squabs per pair a year, and as we always select our breeders for their fast breeding qualities and plump squab, we fully expect to average 15 squabs per pair in 1920. Considering the useful breeding life of a pigeon, which continues for five years, the question of profit in raising squabs should answer itself. The selecting of breeders will be treated in full, further in the book. CHAPTER II. DESCRIPTION OF PASSAIC VALLEY SQUAB FARM AND HOUSING IN GENERAL. The Passaic Valley Squab Farm, I feel, is an ideal plant in an ideal location. It embodies all the best points and has few detriments. I am going to describe it rather carefully, pointing out its advantages and how it might be improved upon. The diagram will give a general idea of the floor plan, and photo in beginning of book gives a view of entire plant and water tower. The plant is situated in a valley, protected from the full sweep of the wind. The buildings cover about one acre of land and consist of 86 pens combined into one large connecting building. (A) is granary and stock house. (B) is picking and packing room. (C) is office. The granary has entrance to sections 1, 2, 3 and 4, by halls. Each section is divided into 20 pens, each 10 feet by 12 feet, with entrance on hall. Each pen has its own aviary, 10 feet by 20 feet, for the pigeons to exercise. The pigeons nest and raise their young inside, but bathe and exercise outside, where they have running water. Each pen accommodates 50 pairs of pigeons, so the plant capacity is over 8,000 birds. Water is supplied by an artesian well and electric driven pump, that pumps to tower shown in picture. Each section is watered by one pipe running full length of building and perforated at each pen. The pan at each pen fills and when full runs down an overflow pipe into a drain under building. In this way a whole section of 20 pens is watered with one shut-off and the supply is always fresh. All pipes in this system slope to one low point, so that even in zero weather, we can water and drain the pipes without difficulty. The bathing system is worked on the same plan in the aviaries, but we disconnect this part of the system in the extreme weather. The entire plant is raised about 18 inches off the ground at all points, as a protection against rats. All entrances have heavy screen doors as well as wooden ones, which work with weights to always keep them shut. In this way, rats are kept out, and any pigeons which may get loose inside the halls, are always caught. Rats are the greatest menace to successful squab raising and too great precautions cannot be taken. [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF PASSAIC VALLEY SQUAB FARM] You will note on looking over diagram of plant that sections 1, 2, 3 and 4 are connected by granary only. This feature could be considerably improved by a hall connecting the four sections at the other end. Then again, there are no windows on the north side of all four sections, and although this was done to keep out cold, it could be improved with a few windows for greater light. Altogether I feel that the plant is as near to a model plant as can be found, and being within 20 miles of New York City and eight miles of Newark, the best markets are always available. I am not describing this plant to discourage any one starting in a small way in a back yard, barn, or outhouse; but I wish to show the possibilities within the grasp of any one to establish a real profitable business of his own. In the next chapter, I will handle the situation from the beginner's standpoint. CHAPTER III. THE FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL SQUAB RAISING. Good squabs can be raised in any structure, free from dampness, that has sunlight and can be protected from rats. Any shed, outbuilding, or chicken coop can be turned into a first-class pigeon pen with little difficulty. First, the building must be made habitable by patching all cracks and leaks in roof. If the locality is subject to cold wind, snow and ice, attention must be given to sides and floors. The floors, particularly, should have no holes, and double floors are a decided asset for the northern breeder. Making the house rat-proof, is very important, and the best method I know is to raise the building on posts, not less than 15 inches from the ground at all points. Line the posts with tin or put a can over the top, as is done with corn cribs, and you will be well protected. A window must now be put in the southern side of house to allow the pigeons to reach the flying pen or aviary. The door also must be tight, and it is safest to have a screen door on the inside, with a spring to always keep it in place. If this is lined with one-half-inch mesh wire, it will serve as a protection from rats, and allow for good ventilation. Equipping the house is easily and cheaply accomplished by the use of egg crates turned on the side, with opening facing out. These should have a three-inch strip nailed across front at bottom of crate, to keep the squabs and eggs from falling out, or better still, make an inside rectangle of three-inch lumber that just fits inside the crate. By this, I mean a draw three inches high and eleven and one-half inches in width and length, but without a bottom, as the lower side of the crate completes the bottom. [Illustration: Figure 3. CRATE IN POSITION AND NEST] With this draw in place, the squabs are protected with a three-inch partition in front, and to clean, simply pull the draw out and have a basket beneath to catch the nest in. In making the so-called draw, care should be taken to cut two pieces eleven-and-one-half inches and two ten-and-one-half inches. The eleven-and-one-half-inch pieces are to run all the way to the rear of box, and the shorter pieces comprise the front and rear pieces. The longer pieces overlap the front and rear pieces and are nailed securely. By having the front and rear pieces short and the side pieces long, the draw will always pull out without breaking. If made the other way, the nails may pull out when you clean house. The ten-and-one-half-inch pieces are figured on the basis of using lumber that is five-eighths-inch in thickness. Figure No. 3 shows crate in position and nest ready to put in place. One pair of pigeons uses both sides of one egg crate as they like to alternate in breeding. Sometimes they have squabs in one side and commence a nest in the other side. By the time the squabs are three weeks' old, there will often be eggs in the other side of box. After crates and nests are ready, arrange in east and west side of pen, piling as high as necessary to accommodate the number of pairs. The north side of house may also be used for nest boxes, or, if the east and west sides of house are piled near the roof, it is well to have a landing board or perch on the north end. A shelf should always be put above the southern window and two openings cut through the side, to let the birds into the aviary, when the window is closed. Outside, there must also be a corresponding shelf for the pigeons. One hole is not sufficient, as a cock bird will often block the one opening and keep other birds off their eggs until they are chilled. To complete the inside equipment, you need a drinking fountain or pan, so protected that the pigeons can only put their heads into the water. A small box will do for grit and this should be placed near the floor in a clean spot, protected from all droppings. The feed, I believe, is best handled by spreading in a long, narrow trough about one-and-one-half inches high and long enough so that all the pigeons can get a chance at the food at the same time. In a pen of 50 pairs, this is not practical, but I have the trough six feet long, ten inches wide, and two inches deep, for a large number like this. [Illustration: Figure 4. ONE OF OUR AVIARIES] The aviaries, except for being on the southern side of building, can vary according to available space and number of birds. Pigeons, for best results in housing, should never be crowded into less than one square foot to a bird and one-and-one-half or two square feet is best. The aviaries should have two to three square feet to a bird and should be from six to ten feet in height. Our pens are 10 by 12 feet inside and 10 by 20 by 10 outside. These pens accommodate 40 to 50 pairs comfortably. Two-inch mesh wire is all that is required, although some breeders use one-inch mesh. In ordering wire, specify galvanized after weaving, or galvanized before and after. It pays to do this, as good wire lasts eight or nine years. The posts or uprights for aviary should be two by four lumber with the sunken end well tarred, or any fairly heavy posts available. If the fly is to accommodate more than five or ten pairs of pigeons, nothing smaller than two by four should be used in the frame work, provided that the winters are severe. A heavy snow will sometimes hold on the wire, and is apt to break the supports and release the birds. Particularly watch the fastening of your wire to the coop along the top edge. The outside equipment consists of a bathing pan about 24 to 36 inches in diameter and four to six inches in depth. A door should be provided in aviary and a few perches or landing boards, along the sides. This, I believe, completes the necessary house to make a successful start, and the only exceptions I would make are for the breeders in warm climates, who can best be advised to follow the example of neighboring chicken and pigeon raisers. In southern California, I saw fine squabs raised with a northeastern exposure, no floors, and only a three-sided shed. Here one side was open entirely and nest boxes were built high enough to protect from rats. The aviaries were constructed of slats instead of wire, so as to furnish greater protection. In Jacksonville, Fla., I went through a large plant very similar in construction to the northern breeders, and the feeding was about the same as mine. Each locality has a few distinguishing features, so if you combine these instructions with a little observation and thought, you cannot go far wrong as to proper housing. In the next chapter I will deal with the breeders, and it cannot too often be said, that no matter how fine the plant and equipment, it will all be wasted unless you start with foundation stock, that has been scientifically perfected. CHAPTER IV. THE UTILITY PIGEON. From my experience in true utility breeding, or squab breeding for market, there is one basic bird that stands for hardy, plump, even-sized squabs, and plenty of them. That bird is the homing pigeon. The homer will breed more squabs in a year and use less feed, per pair, a year, than any bird I have ever handled. The birds are very hardy, can stand extreme cold and breed well through the winter months. Unfortunately, even these birds have a slight failing. The true homer breeds a squab a little small for the best market price. The squabs run six, seven and eight pounds to the dozen, and the best demand is for eight, nine and ten pounds to the dozen squabs. We experimented carefully with many of the larger breed of birds, but they all had a failing, some would breed well in summer, but not in winter; some ate too much for the number of squabs produced; some would breed one large squab and the other very thin; and some would breed nice twelve-pound squabs, but we could not get a proportionately high price for them to warrant the extra food required and extra time required for them to mature. After seven years of experimenting, we believe we have now the best utility bird in the country, namely the P. V. Special Homer. These birds breed squabs the marketable size: eight, nine and ten pounds to the dozen. Less than 15 per cent. ran under eight pounds to the dozen last year. They breed plump, broad-breasted squabs and do not eat more than the average homer. The squabs are ready for market in four weeks from the time hatched, and if kept for breeding, they commence mating in three months; being one of the quickest birds to mature. A small start with good birds is the foundation of success. A fine flock can be built up from a few good pairs, but poor stock will soon discourage anyone and do harm to the business. Next to P. V. Homers, we believe the P. V. Carneaux are the best. These birds breed a nine, ten, eleven and twelve pound to the dozen squab, and always a beautifully-shaped and white-meated squab. Of course, these fine, large birds will eat more than homers and the squabs will take a little longer to mature, but if you are in a locality to command a high price or sell them retail, you cannot go wrong in having a few pairs. These birds are particularly tame and can easily be made into pets. I believe firmly, that for profitable squab raising these two breeds of pigeons are decidedly the best choice, although there are other good birds for squab raising, such as Mondaines, Royal Whites, White Kings, and Maltese Hen Pigeons. We have most of these birds for show purposes, but we will not go into detail, as we feel that P. V. Homers and Carneaux are really the best utility breeders. A word of caution might well be put in here against buying cheap birds. They are never worth any more than you will pay for them, and many are only fit for eating purposes along with common pigeons. Our method of shipping birds enables them to arrive in first-class condition over very long distances. The birds are packed in strong, light cases with a partition to separate the males and females. A bag of feed and drinking cup go with each case. Instructions are sent with each order for feeding and watering while in transit. Your attention must now be given to preparing the pen for the pigeons:-- Close all openings into the aviary and see that the drinking pan or fountain is filled with fresh water. Shake a few tobacco stems loosely in a pile under the window or else in a corner. The grit box should be half filled with a good prepared pigeon grit; Red Cross grit is as good as any and contains all the necessary ingredients for the birds. A little feed should now be put in trough. A small handful for each pair, is sufficient at first. You are now ready to release the birds. The males are marked with a color band on the right leg and the females on the left leg. Keep a record as you let the birds go to see that each male has a female with a corresponding band. That is, a male bird with a blue band on the right leg must have a female also with a blue band on the left leg. The next chapter will explain the habits of the birds and why they are banded. CHAPTER V. HABITS AND PECULIARITIES. In the first place, pigeons are monogamous. They must always be kept in even pairs, because they select their mate and very seldom ever change, unless forced to select another mate in a mating coop. Even pairs of pigeons will soon settle down quietly in various nest boxes. They usually keep the same nest boxes and alternate, having squabs first in one side and then the other. After the birds have become accustomed to their quarters and have selected in which nest they are going to start housekeeping, it will not be many days, before they begin to carry stems from the pile on the floor and start their nest. They need no assistance and should not be unnecessarily disturbed until they commence laying. This should occur in about two weeks and then it is advisable to look over the nests twice a week, and see that all new nests are well made and do not resemble a golf tee. Birds sometimes will build a high nest and lay the eggs on the top without any support. It is best to spread out a nest of this kind, after removing the eggs, so as to give a good foundation. Make a slight hollow in the centre of the stems and then replace the eggs, but be sure and see that the nest is firm enough to keep the eggs from sinking in, under the stems. It is advisable for the beginner to mark very lightly with pencil, on eggs, the date laid. In this way it is very easy to learn the appearance of an egg at different ages, and soon you will be able to discern a bad egg at a glance and remove it, so that the old birds will not waste time sitting on it. Fresh laid eggs are semi-transparent and have a slightly dull appearance. They gradually grow opaque and solid white, with only an air space discernable unless candled. During the third week, the shell will begin to chip and the baby squab will chip a complete circle, in end of egg and gradually work out. One egg will usually hatch a day in advance of the other. This is accounted for by the fact that there is from one to two days between the time the hen lays the eggs. The birds always lay the eggs in pairs, but once in a while two pairs of birds will lay in the same nest and give the impression that four eggs have been laid. Bad eggs are discernable easily with a little practice. At a week or ten days' old, bad eggs will have almost the appearance of a fresh laid egg, only they are shiny instead of dull on the outside, and are semi-transparent. If eggs like these are shaken gently, you can feel that they are loose and watery inside. On being held to the light and turned, the air space will shift all over. In good eggs, the air space is stationary. An egg, two or three weeks' old, having decided dark lines through it, is a sign that the squab has died in the shell. If uncertain as to an egg, it is best to leave till it develops definite signs of being bad. Young squabs do not need assistance to get out of shell, but the empty shell can be removed later. The young squabs should not be handled too much and I do not advise any artificial feeding at all, as the old birds will give their young the best care. After eating and drinking, the old birds will fly to the nest and feed the young from their bills, just the right proportions of grain, formed into a substance called pigeon milk. The so-called pigeon milk varies according to the size of squabs and later contains whole grains and water. The squabs should never leave the nest till fully feathered, this takes about four weeks, and at that time the squabs are ready for market. To determine the exact age for marketing, look beneath the wings, as they feather out here last. The feeding I have not gone into before, as it is contingent on the squabs. Of course, every locality has peculiarities of its own and certain grains are cheaper in certain places. Your local dealer, no doubt, has a good pigeon feed to start with. Later you can improve and economize by mixing your own feed. Our formula for winter feeding, is as follows:-- Argentine Corn 30% Red Wheat 10% Kaffir Corn 25% Buckwheat 20% Peas 15% Summer feeding is:-- Argentine Corn 25% Red Wheat 15% Kaffir Corn 30% Peas 30% Using these two formulas as a basis, you can easily arrange the best formula for yourself. Corn and buckwheat are very heatening, and the latter can be entirely dispensed with in warm localities. The corn should either be Argentine Corn or small American Corn with a part cracked corn. The amount of cracked corn is determined by the quality. If you can get a good recleaned steel-cut cracked corn, fairly free from loose fibre, it is all right to use half-and-half with the whole American Corn. Otherwise use 25% cracked to 75% whole corn. All grains must be reasonably cured and dried. Do not buy new crops of grains until well seasoned. Inferior grains like heated corn, or wheat that has sprouted, are all to be avoided. Scratch feed is not to be recommended as a steady diet, but will serve for a while. Most scratch feeds contain rye, barley and oats, all three of which I do not recommend as pigeon feed. Scratch feed also lacks peas, and these are the finest fattening and strengthening food that squabs can get. See that the birds get fed regularly twice a day and that they clean up all the food given them, within an hour. The morning feeding should be between 7:30 and 8:30, and in summer, not later than 8 o'clock. Afternoon feeding should be around 3 o'clock in winter and 4 o'clock in summer. If the birds can only be fed once a day, feed in the morning and see that some feed lasts until 3 o'clock in the afternoon. It is easy to judge by the way the birds fly for the grain whether they are fed too heavily or too lightly. Fig. 5 illustrates the card we use to regulate feeding. A circular piece of card board, mounted with a thumb tack through centre, just outside the door, shows how much feed was given at last feeding. The top of card indicates the amount. Always setting the card the amount fed, avoids waste and having too much feed standing around, which may become mouldy and cause sickness. CHAPTER VI. SQUABS FOR MARKET. Squabs are ready for market at from four to four-and-one-half weeks from the time hatched. As soon as the squabs are fully feathered, they should be removed from the nest, as they will soon jump from nest and run on the floor, thereby losing weight until killed. If squabs are to be killed at once, care should be taken to remove from pen just before feeding time, so that their crops will not be full of grain. They may even be taken the night before, if kept in a warm place. [Illustration: Figure 5. REVOLVING FEED REGULATOR] To kill squabs properly, they should be hung up by the feet. Two nails driven partially into a board about an eighth of an inch apart will serve nicely to clamp the feet. The wings should now be twisted over each other twice, so that they cannot flap. Killing the squab requires a little knack. First, take the small blade of a penknife and after grasping the head of the squab firmly with thumb and forefinger, just over eyes, put the blade down the throat at least one inch, and then pull up through the top of head. If squab does not die in thirty seconds, repeat as it is difficult for a novice to cut the wind pipe and brain the first time. Plucking is easy and should be done while the squab is still warm. Start with the wings, which are the hardest, and end with the tail feathers. Picking against the feathers is quickest and is less likely to tear the skin. After picking, the squab should be dropped into cold water to cool and harden. It is best for them to soak for at least three hours, and over night will not harm them, if the water is cold and something is put over top so as to keep squabs entirely below the surface. Grading squabs as to size depends on whom you are selling to. Small, medium, and large, is usually sufficient grading, but if you desire to grade by pounds to the dozen accurately, the following table shows just what grade various weight squabs come under. 6 Pound to the dozen Squabs 8 ozs. to 9-1/3 ozs. 7 " " " " 9-1/3 ozs. to 10-2/3 ozs. 8 " " " " 10-2/3 ozs. to 12 ozs. 9 " " " " 12 ozs. to 13-1/3 ozs. 10 " " " " 13-1/3 ozs. to 14-2/3 ozs. 11 " " " " 14-2/3 ozs. to 16 ozs. 12 " " " " over 16 ozs. It is not necessary to weigh each squab individually. A half-dozen about the same size will show the approximate weight per dozen. In packing squabs to ship by express, they should be laid side by side or feet up and tight enough so as not to shake around. In warm seasons ice should be used between each layer and newspapers will help to hold cold and avoid bruising. Mark every shipment "PERISHABLE--RUSH," and always send an invoice in all shipments sent to commission merchants. In sending squabs alive, care must be taken to get the birds out with full crops, so that they will not loose weight in transit. The crate for shipment should be fairly open to allow for plenty of ventilation. Over-crowding must be avoided as the squabs huddle in groups and smother easily. A regular spindle coop, about 24 inches by 36 inches and 1 foot high, will hold 30 live squabs for shipping; more than that is risky. All shipments of live squabs should also be marked, "PERISHABLE--RUSH," the number of birds in shipment, and also the value. If squabs are to be sold for breeding purposes, they should not be shipped till they are at least eight weeks' old, and preferably ten weeks. Only strong birds should be shipped and no shipments should be made in extremely cold weather. CHAPTER VII. SELECTING BREEDERS. Selecting squabs for breeding purposes must be done with great care and understanding. If the right kind of birds are not selected your flock will gradually deteriorate. With careful selection, although slow, you will constantly be adding profitable breeders to your stock. This is, of course, if you start with P. V. Breeders, so as to have the nucleus of a good flock to start with. Remember, good breeders will breed plump, white squabs at a fast rate, while poor breeders will grow small, dark squabs that have not the vitality to ever be first-class breeders. Even with P. V. breeders you must use care in selecting the young, and it is wise when starting with a few of our breeders to sell your squabs for a time and buy more of our breeders until your flock is large enough to have a good selection to choose from. The months when squabs should be saved for breeders are, February, March, April and May. The birds are in the best of condition then and the squabs will be strong and vigorous. June and July squabs are good, but are more expensive to raise, as they are at mating age in September, October and November, when they are subject to moult and are difficult to mate at this time. I do not recommend saving squabs during the other months, as I have found from experience that they will breed well for two or three years, and then, there is a falling off in squabs and a heavy death rate among the hens. [Illustration: Figure 6. THE HOME OF P. V. BREEDERS] When ready to select your squabs for breeders, get some light pigeon bands. We use a celluloid coil band that wraps around the leg and stays in position without fastening. By using a different color band every month, we know at a glance the age of the youngster. Always take your squabs in pairs and unless there are two good healthy squabs in the nest do not take them. They do not have to be of unusual size, but they should both be well fed and weigh eight, nine or ten pounds to the dozen if dressed. Band one bird on the right leg and the other on the left and put back in the nest again. This banding is merely to keep from inbreeding and marking so as not to kill, and has nothing to do with their being males or females. It is impossible to tell with certainly the sex of a pigeon without noting its actions. With squabs it is still harder, and although after becoming experienced, it is possible to make accurate guesses, one is apt to make a mistake even with old birds. The squabs banded should be left with the parent birds till they are eight weeks' old. Then remove to separate pens. The birds banded on the right leg should go in one pen and the youngsters banded on the left leg in a separate pen. This will prevent nest mates going together and avoid inbreeding. The feeding and care for these birds should be the same as for old breeders, except that they should not have large American Corn and only five per cent. peas. The grit should have a little olive oil mixed with it once a week. The birds will thrive satisfactorily for about one month in their new quarters and then care has to be taken to see that they do not get out in rainy weather, as they undergo a moult and are very subject to cold. This moulting time lasts for about three weeks, and when they get past this stage you will see signs of the birds mating. Do not be in any hurry to mate them, as their first eggs are usually bad and they sometimes will break their matings when taken out too young. The safest way to mate young pigeons is to catch the birds sitting on eggs. Color band the hen on the left leg, who usually sits in the morning till around 11 o'clock. The corresponding band should be fastened somewhere on the nest, and when you see the mate sitting on the eggs, in the afternoon, you must catch him, and band on the right leg. Catching pigeons is usually done with a landing net or crab net with a short handle. The birds should always be caught from behind, if flying, so as not to injure them. After you have caught the pair, they should be removed to a separate pen so that they can start to breed without interference. If the eggs are good that they were sitting on, they can be placed under other birds that have eggs of about the same age, and sometimes are raised satisfactorily. Do not make the mistake of just leaving all your youngsters alone and trusting they will form even pairs, for if you do, there are sure to be odd cocks that will interfere seriously with their breeding. Night mating with a flash light is the quickest method, but requires a dark night and considerable skill to always pick out the mated pairs. Mated pairs will often sit together on the front of their nest at night or the hen on the eggs or squabs and the cock on the front. These birds can be readily caught but great care must be exercised lest the other birds fly off their nests and spoil their eggs. Driving pairs, that is, when one bird continually chases another around pecking at it, are usually mated but not always, so be careful to watch them closely if you select mated pairs this way. As a closing remark I would say, I have found raising squabs is one of the pleasantest, most interesting, and profitable ways of employing spare time, and whether you are a man or woman, if you apply this motto, you can succeed in the squab industry. Good Breeders, Good Feed, and Good Care, Then You Will Get Good Squabs, Good Prices, and Good Profits, Namely, SUCCESS. 
33084	----	[Illustration: C. P. BAILEY, One of the founders of the Angora Goat Industry in America.] Practical Angora Goat Raising C. P. BAILEY & SONS COMPANY SAN JOSE, CALIFORNIA 1905. PREFACE. For several years beginners in the Angora goat industry were without text books, and even to-day there are very few practical treatises. From our forty years of experience in farming Angoras, and from the personal observations of our Dr. W. C. Bailey, while in the interior of Asia Minor, we have tried to select the essential points in the successful management of Angora flocks, and to present these points so that they may be used. We have given a brief outline of the history of the Angora goat, but we have devoted several pages to consideration of detail in breeding and kidding. It has been our aim to make this a practical text book for the beginner in the Angora industry, and if it proves of value to him, it has fulfilled its mission. The Authors. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE ANGORA GOAT. As to the origin and early history of the Angora goat little is known. It is supposed that the Angora variety descended from one of the classes of wild goats, and different writers have contended that different genera were the foundation of the Angora species. They have based these claims upon the characteristics of the horns, the covering of the body, shape and size of the animal, and various other details. Several agree that Capra Ægagrus is the class of goat from which the Angora species has developed. KNOWN FACTS. Present history traces the Angora goat to the vilayet of Angora, in Asia Minor, and to the country immediately surrounding this vilayet. Some have set a date over two thousand years ago, claiming that the Angora goat was introduced into Asia Minor at that time, but the only authentic history is that given by Tournefort, a French naturalist, employed by his government, who explored Asia Minor about two hundred and fifty years ago, and who described and pictured the Angora goat about as he appears to-day and by Evliya Effendi, a Turk, who wrote in 1550 of the goats, and by a few other writers. That they have not changed more is due to the fact that the Turk is quite content as he is, and he has no ambition to breed a different goat from what he has had for at least the past three centuries. ASIA MINOR. Before we consider the migrations of the Angora goat, we will investigate the physical conditions of their native province. The interior of Asia Minor, or the Angora goat country, is from one to four thousand feet above the sea level. Low, rolling hills and broad plains, treeless and almost waterless; dry, hot and desolate in the summer, and covered with more or less snow in the winter, form the habitat of the Angora. A small fine fibered sage brush is the principal diet of the goat, both summer and winter, but in the spring this diet is supplemented with weeds and some grass, and in the summer some of the goats are driven to the higher mountains, where there are some scrub pines and other varieties of brush. There is no winter feeding. The goats make their own living on the tops of the sage brush, which protrude through the snow. The indolent Turks do make some provision for the shelter of themselves and the goats in the winter. If a cave can be found it is divided so that the goats share the quarters with the humans. Sometimes an adobe house is so arranged that the goats and other livestock occupy the lower part of the house and the natives the upper part, or if there be but one floor, a low fence is run across to keep the livestock out of the living quarters. Great greyish-white wolfish looking dogs, wearing formidable collars of sharpened spikes go with the shepherds during the day and watch the flocks during the night. They are used as a means of protection from thieves, and not as an aid in herding. The flocks camp around the cave or hut, and are not confined in corrals. Fences are almost unknown in the Angora country. There are probably four or five million Angora goats in Asia Minor. Much of the central plateau region of the United States is very similar to the Angora region of Turkey. A peculiar fact is that the mohair produced in the different sections of Asia Minor varies a little, and the mohair merchants of Constantinople readily recognize an appreciable difference in its market value. Even the smaller merchants in the country recognize a difference in the mohair grown within a few miles of their town. Some try to explain this by a difference in food, others by slight climatic changes, and still others by the soil formation. Some of the goats from the locality of Geredeh, in the province of Kastamouni, have fleeces which are filled with grease. They are as black and gummy as merino sheep. This mohair, however, scours white. The most marketable mohair comes from Beibazar and Eskischehr. That this difference in the quality of the mohair is not entirely due to climate or food conditions is evidenced by the fact that Angoras taken from Beibazar to California still retain the same qualities in the mohair after four years in California. However, it has been noticed that different parts of the United States produce different qualities of mohair. [Illustration: SCENE IN ASIA-MINOR. Turkish owner, his herder, holding an Angora buck kid and the grey-wolfish-looking dogs wearing collars of sharpened spikes. This picture was taken on the range and one can see the fine fibered sage brush on which the goats feed. Photo taken by Dr. Bailey, 1901.] ANGORA GOATS IN THE UNITED STATES. The history of the Angora goat in the United States dates from 1849, when Dr. James B. Davis, of Columbia, South Carolina, was presented with nine choice animals by the Sultan. The Sultan had requested President Polk to send a man to Turkey who understood the culture of cotton. Dr. Davis was appointed, and upon his return to America the Sultan, as a courtesy, presented him with the goats. For many years after their arrival in the United States these goats were considered cashmeres. Early reports about the fleeces and the goats were erroneous, and many were led to believe that the fleeces from these goats were worth $8 per pound, and that the goats would shear from six to eight pounds per year. Dr. Davis did not do very well with the goats. He crossed his Angora buck onto some of the native common goats, and sold some of the cross-bloods and possibly some of the original importation to various parties, but in 1854, Col. Richard Peters, of Atlanta, Georgia, secured most of the Davis goats. To Col. Peters really belongs the credit of keeping the Angora breed in existence in the United States up to the early sixties. Col. Peters was very fond of his Angoras, and he continued to own and run them up to the time of his death. He made a very creditable exhibit at the New Orleans World's Fair in 1885. THE CHENERY IMPORTATIONS. W. W. Chenery of Belmont, near Boston, Massachusetts, is supposed to have made the next two importations in 1861. No one seems to know exactly how many goats Mr. Chenery imported or what became of these lots. Mr. Thompson quotes the Massachusetts Ploughman as saying, "The first of the two lots, consisting of thirty nine animals, was shipped from Constantinople on the 26th of March, 1861, and arrived at Boston on the 15th of May, except two animals which died on the passage. The second lot consisting of forty one head, left Constantinople on the 6th of October, 1861, and arrived at Boston on the 25th of November with the loss of only one on the voyage. In the whole flock, eighty in all, there were about a dozen males, and all the animals wintered well." It is generally supposed that Mr. Chenery made another importation in 1866, of about twenty head. [Illustration: ANGORA GOAT. Brown and Diehl Importation, about 1868 or 1869.] THE BROWN AND DIEHL IMPORTATION. The next importation of practical importance, although it was claimed that nine head were received about 1861, by one Stiles, was made by Israel S. Diehl, a former U.S. consul and C. S. Brown, of Newark, New Jersey, about 1868. Mr. Diehl was commissioned by the United States government to investigate the industry in Turkey, and he secured a lot of Angoras, variously estimated at from one hundred to one hundred and sixty head. Mr. C. P. Bailey furnished the money for the transportation of these goats to California. He says, "Some were fairly good and some were only ordinary. They were of medium size, and with the exception of the neck, tolerably well covered with fleece, which however had a scattering of kemp throughout. They were conceded to be the best brought to California up to that time." Some of these bucks had been tampered with and were sterile. EUTICHIDES IMPORTATION. This shipment followed the Brown and Diehl importation, and consisted of between one hundred and fifty and two hundred animals. A. Eutichides, was a native of Turkey, and claimed that he had some fine goats, but he had an immense amount of trouble with his Angoras, and lost a good many. They were held in Virginia for some time, and then were sent to Sacramento, California, and were afterwards sold by the express company, at public auction, at very low prices. This was about 1873. It was generally believed by old California breeders that some of the goats offered at this sale were cross-bloods of California origin. The blood of this importation, however, has been widely scattered over the Pacific Coast. THE HALL AND HARRIS IMPORTATION. In 1876, John S. Harris, of Hollister, California, returned from a perilous journey around the world in quest of new Angoras. He found the Thibet goats in the Himalaya Mountains, and finally succeeded in getting some goats at Angora, in Asia Minor. He secured two bucks and ten does, and brought them safely to California. That was really the first time an American had entered Asia Minor to study the Angora industry, as it was understood Mr. Diehl had secured Turks to go into the interior for him. THE JENKS IMPORTATION. This was a small importation of Angoras, supposed to have been three animals, made by C. W. Jenks of Boston, and sold to Col. Peters of Georgia. They were supposed to have come from Geredeh, in the interior of Asia Minor, and they arrived in the United States in 1880. The mohair from these goats was not considered very good, and the importation was not regarded as very important. THE SHULTS IMPORTATION. This was the first importation made from South Africa to the United States and arrived in 1886. There were two bucks and two does, and they went to Fink & Company, of Texas. There was a great deal of question about this importation, and so far as is known it was of no value to American flocks. THE C. P. BAILEY & SONS CO. IMPORTATIONS. In 1893, the first importation of Angora goats from South Africa, which was of value to American flocks, arrived. The two bucks, Pasha and Dick, which were secured by C. P. Bailey from R. Cawood, were sired by the great buck Sam. Mr. Schreiner says, "Sam was born in 1888, and sheared as a three year old, at twelve month growth, 15 pounds 2 ounces. He was exhibited for many years at all chief Agricultural shows and was never beaten but once, a judgment reversed at a subsequent show in the same year. Sam was the most famous goat in South Africa; with splendid weight of fleece, he combined a fineness of fiber rarely seen in an old ram." Pasha developed into a great sire and his get has been distributed into nearly every State in the Union, Canada, Mexico and Australia. Without doubt Pasha's blood courses through the veins of more Angoras than any sire ever imported. He was acknowledged by every one to be the best individual ever brought to America. Mr. Landrum, who had seen most of the Angoras brought from Turkey and who saw Pasha at San Jose, California, in 1899, pronounced him the most perfect goat he had ever seen and a much better goat than any which had ever come to America from Turkey. He bought some of Pasha's get for his own flock. [Illustration: ANGORA BUCK PASHA. Bailey South Africa Importation 1893.] In 1899, the buck Capetown was imported by Mr. Bailey from South Africa to secure certain points. Size and a little "yolk," together with the covering, fineness, freeness from kemp, ringlets and evenness were especially desired. Capetown has been a great sire and is still in fine condition on the Bailey farms. THE ASIA MINOR GOATS. In 1901, Dr. W. C. Bailey, armed with an honorary commission from the United States Department of Agriculture, personally visited every goat-raising section of Asia Minor, and after seeing hundreds of thousands, and examining minutely hundreds, secured and succeeded in exporting two bucks and two does. The Sultan had passed an edict in 1881, prohibiting the export of these animals, as he hoped to keep the industry for Asia Minor. The undertaking was a hazardous one, and the expedition was fought with many and almost insurmountable difficulties. Asia Minor is alive with bandits, and to hold a foreigner for ransom is a favorite pastime. Then, too, a Christian's life is not considered of much value by a Mohamedan. The goats were transported for miles on mule and camel back, carried across the Bosphorus under a boat load of hay, disfigured by shearing and powdered with coal dust, transported through the streets of Constantinople in closed carriages protected from police molestation by the "golden wand," and finally condemned by the Italian Government because no health certificate accompanied them from point of shipment, but eventually landed in California in 1901. The bucks Beibazar and Kjutiah, and the does Moholitch and Eskischehr find the climate of California suited to their wants. These four goats cost over $5,000 landed in California. [Illustration: BUCK BEIBAZAR AND DOE MOHOLITCH. Bailey Asia Minor Importation 1901. Photo taken by Dr. Bailey on the plains of Asia Minor, March 7, 1901, while the goats were held by a Turkish guide.] Beibazar impresses his qualities markedly on his offspring. His get won the Sweepstake prizes at the California and Oregon State Fairs in 1904, and the championship for two-year-old buck at the World's Fair at St. Louis, U. S. A., in 1904. THE LANDRUM IMPORTATION. In 1901, Wm. M. Landrum imported two bucks from South Africa. Their get has been quite widely distributed in America, and has been of considerable value. THE HOERLE IMPORTATION. In 1904, G. A. Hoerle imported about one hundred and thirty head from South Africa. A few of these goats were exhibited at the St. Louis World's Fair, and some of them have been distributed to American breeders. A large part of them are now in New Jersey, and just what their effect will be on American flocks remains to be seen. [Illustration: BEIBAZAR. Bailey Asia Minor Importation, 1901.] ANGORA GOATS IN SOUTH AFRICA. In 1838, Col. Henderson made the first importation of Angora goats into South Africa, but while the number reaching the Cape was fourteen, yet only two proved to be perfect animals, a doe and her kid. The twelve bucks seem to have been tampered with, and they would not breed. Mr. Schreiner says: "But for the fact that there were several million Boar goats, thoroughly accustomed to the country, to furnish innumerable ewes for grading up purposes, the industry would still have been in its infancy." It was years before any more Angoras were imported into South Africa. The second importation into Cape Colony was made by Messrs. Mosenthal in 1856, and thirty Angoras reached their destination. Mr. Schreiner reports that some of these goats were sold at public auction and brought about $350 to $400 each. The third importation was made by Sir Titus Salt, the English manufacturer of mohair, and arrived in South Africa in 1857. Dr. White had charge of these after they reached the colony. [Illustration: CAPETOWN. Bailey South African Importation, 1899.] The fourth importation consisted of about thirty-five animals, and was made about 1858 by Mr. W. R. Thompson. These were considered very fine animals, and were quite different from any previously imported. Ten years later in 1868, another importation was made by South Africa and from then on to 1880 between twelve and fifteen more lots were secured, some of them consisting of hundreds of animals. In the twelve years, up to 1880, over three thousand goats were received in South Africa from Asia Minor. Some of them brought as high as $2,200 each. During the next fourteen years there was a lack of importations into the Colony. In 1894, the first lot of American Angora goats, six head, were secured from C. P. Bailey of San Jose, California. They were sold to the Cape farmers by the importers at satisfactory prices, and in June, 1895, another lot of twenty bucks were secured from Mr. Bailey for $1000 cash. These bucks had a hard trip, and shed their fleece, but they were sold by the importer later. In 1895, another importation of one hundred and sixty-five head were secured by consent of the Sultan from Asia Minor. In 1896 another importation of sixty-three head were landed and sold to the Cape farmers. The highest priced buck of this lot brought about $1,850, and the highest priced doe about $1,000. These goats were not considered extra, with the exception of a few of the tops. They were not uniform, the breeches were bad, bellies deficiently covered, and they carried considerable kemp. ANGORAS IN OTHER COUNTRIES. Even before the arrival of Angora goats in South Africa they had been tried in Holland, France and England. Australia also imported some in 1856, but the industry has not grown to any extent in any of these countries. There have been some Angoras exported to Australia from America since 1900. Canada, Mexico, Alaska, and some of the Pacific Islands, have small flocks of Angora goats at the present time. The start has been obtained largely from California. [Illustration] MOHAIR. That part of the fleece of the Angora goat, which at a year's growth is composed of long, lustrous, elastic fibers, is called Mohair. It may be more or less curled, but it is readily distinguishable from that part of the fleece of the Angora which is composed of short, stiff fibers, known as kemp. The word mohair probably has its origin in modern times, as the Turkish word for mohair is tiftick. A theory which is advanced by Mr. George Gatheral of Constantinople, and which is tenable, is that the early Dutch traders who visited Angora, found the native clergy wearing a gown made of mohair. The Turks called the cloth "mahr," and it is possible that the traders applied this word to the raw material. If this be so, the English have corrupted the word into the present term mohair. The color of mohair varies in different localities and on different individuals. In the vilayet of Koniah, in Asia Minor, is a breed of goats producing a brownish colored mohair. This material is sold upon the market as Koniah mohair. The Koniah goat, however, has been rapidly disappearing, as the herdsmen found that the foreign demand was for white mohair, and they have been crossing the white Angora bucks on the brown Koniah does. There are still over one hundred thousand pounds of Koniah mohair produced each year. In the Angora flocks of Asia Minor one always finds some colored goats. Black, blue, brown or red, usually with an admixture of white, are the common colors. The same thing may be said of the American flocks of Angoras. One may have been breeding white Angoras for years when, without apparent cause, a colored kid is dropped. Then color of the soil may give the mohair a peculiar tinge, but this usually scours out. The kemp in Asia Minor is sometimes a different color from the mohair. The kemp may be red or black and the mohair white. White mohair is what the manufacturer wants. If he wishes to make colored goods, he can dye white whatever color he wishes, but a colored mohair can only be used for certain colored goods. GRADES AND GRADING OF MOHAIR. In Turkey, after the fleece is shorn, the owner packs each fleece separately in sacks. He picks out the tag locks, colored fleeces or objectionable mohair, and after washing it, or making it more fit for market, he packs this in a sack by itself. Every village has its buyers, usually Greeks or Armenians, and there are a few traveling buyers. These men gradually collect the mohair. Men who have more money than they need put that money into mohair, as mohair is always salable, and it is so bulky that there is not much danger of it being stolen. There are so many robbers in Turkey that nothing is absolutely safe. One coffee house keeper in a small village sent about six dollars down to a larger place, as he was afraid to keep so much money in his house. When the mohair is collected in the larger towns it is again sorted, care being taken not to mix lots from different sections of the country. It is then forwarded to Constantinople of Ismidt, which is on the Sea of Marmara, near Constantinople. Here expert sorters go over the lots again. They do not break up the fleece, but they collect fleeces which are about the same and from the same district--for instance, Beibazar, Kjutiah, Kastamonia, Eskischehr, etc. These fleeces are then packed in bags and marked x - xx- xxx, or lettered a, b, AA, or numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. The mohair is then ready for exportation. It can be readily seen that a manufacturer who wants a particular kind of mohair can get exactly what he wants, if he knows the kind of mohair which comes from the different districts, and the grade of mohair which is put up under a certain mark by a certain firm. He can order of Mr. B. one hundred bags XX Beibazar mohair, and he knows what he is going to find when he opens the bags. There is a large room in Constantinople where a gang of men are almost constantly at work sorting mohair. The commission men have their store rooms around this central room; when the sorters finish with Mr. A's lot they commence to sort for Mr. B. Thus the same men sort all the mohair, and this insures a uniformity of grade. In America the plan of handling is somewhat different. It will be easier to tell what should be done than what is done. Until each grower becomes something of an expert sorter, or until we have central depots, where the mohair can be properly graded, the grower should roll the fleeces separately; they should not be tied, and put them in a bag or bale. He should pick out the tag locks, mohair discolored or clotted with urine or fæces, the colored fleeces, burry mohair or very kempy fleeces, and after preparation, put them in a separate parcel. Any kind of a bur or seed which sticks in the mohair must be picked out by hand. If the manufacturer has to do this, he puts a price on the mohair which will leave him plenty of margin. That is, he pays the grower about one-half as much as the mohair would be worth if it were free from this foreign material. If the mohair is very burry, it has to be treated chemically, and this spoils the luster. Sometimes the grower can make good wages by having the burs picked out before the animals are shorn. One man can pick the burs out of from fifteen to twenty-five animals a day, if there are not too many burs in the mohair. If the tag locks can be cleaned sufficiently by washing, they are of some value; but if not, they are hardly worth the expense of shipping. The mohair shorn from kids should be kept in parcels by itself, as it is usually finer and worth top prices. That of the does, if it differs from that of the wethers, should be packed separately. When the mohair is received by the mill it is sent to the sorting room. SORTING BY THE MANUFACTURER. Each goat's fleece is made up of a variety of different grades of mohair. Before a fleece can be spun it must be separated into these different grades as nearly as possible, and this is done by expert sorters, who select from the raw material about seven different degrees of fineness of fiber. They also take into consideration freeness from kemp and color. In separating the fleece much dust is liberated, and as some mohair is liable to carry the bacillus of anthrax, or other dangerous material, this dust, if allowed to circulate in the air, would become a serious menace to the health of the sorters. Wool sorters' disease is by no means uncommon, and one of the American mill owners reported that his sorters had such a dread of a foreign mohair which came packed in a distinctive package, that he had to stop handling this particular lot, although it was profitable stuff to spin. [Illustration: MOHAIR TRANSPORTATION IN CONSTANTINOPLE, TURKEY. Photo taken by Dr. Bailey.] To obviate this danger as far as possible each man opens the fleeces on a table covered with wire screen, under which circulates a strong exhaust current of air which is mechanically generated. Thus small foreign particles and dust in the fleeces are drawn downward. When the fleece is opened the sorter selects that part of the fleece which is known to be the coarsest, _i. e._, the breech and a strip along the center of the back, and puts this in one lot. Next he selects a narrow strip along the side of the fleece, which is known to be the finest part of the fleece, and puts this in another lot. Now the neck and the belly are separated and thrown into their classes. If the whole fleece were a fine one, and free from kemp, it would be sorted in the same way, but different parts of the fleece would go into proportionately higher classes. The lots which these sorters make are known to spin comparatively definite qualities of yarn. Thus the low breech and the back of most fleeces will not spin over No. 20 to No. 24 yarns, and the sides of good fleeces are fine in fiber and will spin No. 40 to No. 60 yarn. The quantity of mohair which one man can sort varies considerably, according to the class of mohair which he is given to work upon. One mill estimated that experts can sort between two and three hundred pounds of domestic mohair a day, and that it costs about a cent a pound to thus separate the fleece. After the fleeces are graded, the mohair is ready to be sent to the mill proper for scouring and spinning. SCOURING. To-day the process of washing or scouring the fleece is done by machinery. The mohair is fed into a machine in which revolve paddles, which thoroughly mix the fiber with the liquid in this machine. At the opposite end from where it was fed in, the mohair is rolled out over warm rollers, and it is ready to be spun. It is claimed, and with some justice, that American mohair loses or shrinks about 12% to 20% while passing through this washing machine, and that Turkish mohair only shrinks about 13%. This may be due to the fact that some of the Turkish hair had been washed before it was shipped to market, and that by previous sorting some of the dirt had fallen out of the mohair. Then, too, some of the American growers are not very careful to keep the fleeces clean. Straw, sticks, hats, and even stones have been found in some domestic stuff. MIXING. After the mohair is thoroughly cleaned it is ready for spinning or carding. In order to spin the fibers most economically, evenly and to the best advantage, some of the mills mix different qualities of mohair of about the same fineness. For instance, Turkish mohair is mixed with Texas and California stuff, or Oregon is mixed with Iowa material. The spinning qualities of mohair from different sections varies, and this mixing tends to give uniformity. After the fibers have been mixed to suit, the mohair is run through straightening machines in preparation for the combing process. FIRST OR NOBLE COMB. This comb is so arranged that about two and a half inches of the base of all of the mohair fibers, and any other fibers which may be mixed with them, are held, the ends of the fibers which are longer than two and a half inches, hang freely and are caught in a revolving machine and dragged loose from the combs which hold the base of the fiber. Thus only those fibers two and a half inches long, or less, are left in the first comb. The longer fibers, or tops as they are now called, to distinguish them from the noil, or short fibers, are collected and are again passed through a second comb. SECOND OR LISTER COMB. Much the same process as was gone through with in the Noble comb, is repeated, except that now only the Noble top is combed, and as all of the fibers, less than two and a half inches, have been removed from this mohair, the comb is set so that any fibers shorter than four or five inches, shall be held as noil, and only those fibers which are longer than four or five inches shall be included in the top. This combing completed, we have a collection of mohair fibers none of them less than about five inches in length. This top is now ready to spin. This combing is rendered necessary by the fact that all of the mohair contains an admixture of kemp, and kemp cannot be spun with the finer grades of mohair. In getting this kemp out of the mohair many of the short mohair fibers are lost, so that combing is an expensive process. It costs in time, labor and mohair. SPINNING. Many strands of this Lister top are now drawn down into a single thread. This thread, if the fibers comprising it are coarse, may have some projecting ends, which give it a rough, uneven appearance, and if so, these ends are burned off. The thread is passed through a gas flame at a given rate of speed by machinery, and the projecting ends are singed. This is called genapping. The yarn is now ready for manufacturing. In Bradford, England, there are mills which only spin the yarn. Their trade is with the manufacturers, both at home and abroad, and it is a known fact that, while France and Germany manufacture much plush and braid, they buy all of their yarn from Bradford. CARDING. Short mohair, that is, mohair less than six inches long, is not run through combs, as above described. It is run over a carding wheel, or a large metal cylinder covered with small brads, which mix all the mohair and kemp. After passing over a number of these wheels, which revolve in different directions, the material thus carded is ready to spin. NOIL. Some of the noil collected by the combing process is composed of a large percentage of short mohair. This noil has a considerable value and is sometimes carded. The lower grade noil is sold to carpet manufacturers and various users of low grade stuff. Noil usually brings from twelve to twenty cents a pound. USES OF MOHAIR. As yet mohair has been used for only a limited number of things. Its possibilities have not been developed. New uses for the fiber are being discovered, and it seems probable that there will be many things made of mohair in the future. The yarn has a beautiful luster and is very durable. When ladies' lustre goods are in fashion a large amount of mohair goes into these fabrics. Much mohair is used in dress goods and men's goods. There is a steady demand for mohair plushes and braids. There is no plush made which will give the service, present the luster and retain a standing pile as long as mohair. One may crush the nap of a mohair plush as often or as long as he pleases, but the pile immediately resumes its upright position upon being released. Then, too, the dust shakes out of a mohair plush very easily. One rarely sees a dusty railroad car seat, although the country through which the car is passing may be very dusty. The rich effect produced by a heavily upholstered palace car is due to the mohair plush. Nothing has been found which will take its place. For furniture upholstering there is nothing more elegant and durable than mohair plush. The amount of plush thus used is governed by fashion. In countries where large military forces are retained there is always a heavy demand for mohair braids. There is no braid made which has the luster, combined with the durability, which mohair braid possesses. Here it may be stated that a coarse yarn can be used in making braids, so that when there is a heavy demand for braids there should be a proportionately high price paid for coarse long mohair. Mohair braids are always in demand, and will continue to be used upon ladies' clothing, as well as for military ornamental purposes. The variety of uses to which mohair is adapted is almost innumerable. In the manufacture of hats it plays an important part, and recently the demand for long fiber for the manufacture of wigs, ladies' hair nets and other toilet articles has been created. WORLD'S SUPPLY AND CONSUMPTION. At present Asia Minor and South Africa can be regarded as the two leading producers of mohair. The Asia Minor exports vary considerably, according to the price allowed, and as no manufactured stuff is exported, one gets a fair idea of the amount produced. It may be broadly stated that the Asia Minor clip amounts to about nine million pounds annually. That of South Africa amounts to about ten million pounds, and the United States now produces about one million pounds annually. Of this production a very large percentage of that coming from all these countries may be regarded as inferior stuff. We mean by this, that the Angora goat raising industry is yet in its infancy, and that much of the mohair produced is sheared from goats which have been bred from the common hair variety. Many of the characteristics of the fleece of the common goat still persist in the mohair. From the foregoing estimate the world's supply of mohair may be stated as twenty million pounds annually. Australia is as yet producing only a very small amount. Practically eighty-five to ninety per cent. of the world's supply of mohair is handled in Bradford, England. Nearly all of the South African and Turkish stuff is shipped directly to Bradford, a small amount of the Constantinople export coming to America, but a large part of the American import comes from Liverpool, England. At Bradford the raw material is manufactured, some of the manufactured stuff being exported as yarn, but the larger part is used to produce the finished article. The remaining ten or fifteen per cent. is manufactured in the United States. At times the demand for mohair goods stimulates the demand for raw material, and the United States has been known to use from twenty to twenty-five per cent. of the world's supply. To recapitulate, the United States produces five per cent. of the world's annual supply of raw mohair, and manufactures from ten to twenty-five per cent. of the world's annual production. MOHAIR PRICES. The price of mohair has fluctuated with the caprice of fashion. Supply and demand are the essential factors in its valuation, but demand has been so influenced by the requirements of fashion in the past that one finds a wide range in price for the raw material. In a report issued by the Bradford _Observer_ we find the price ranging from fifty cents a pound in 1856, to eighty cents in 1866, ninety cents in 1876, and then down to thirty cents in 1886 and 1896. In 1903 the average price in the United States was about thirty-five cents a pound, and for 1904 about thirty cents a pound. [Illustration: READY FOR THE SHEARERS.] To-day there is a demand for mohair, regardless of fashion. During the past two years the price of raw material has been low, but there has been a margin of profit in the industry, and considering the fact that fashion's decree has eliminated the manufacture of luster fabrics for the present, the mohair producer can feel assured that there will be a steady market for his material. With the occasional good times when luster goods are in demand, the mohair grower should do well. SHEARING AND PACKING MOHAIR. The goat should be shorn before he commences to shed, as the mohair loses its weight and luster after the shedding process begins. There are a few goats, which, under certain kinds of food and climatic conditions, will not shed their fleeces, but most goats will shed, and even goats which have carried their fleeces over a year in one section, may shed if they are moved a few miles and the food is changed. A class of non-shedders would be very valuable, but so far a distinctive class of non-shedders, under any and all conditions, and which transmit this peculiarity, has not been identified. The Angora goat will usually commence to shed early in the spring, or as soon as a few warm bright days come. In some sections of the country it is thought advisable to shear twice a year. Many points in favor of this method are advocated. It is claimed that the price realized for the two medium length, or short stapled fleeces, together with the increased number of pounds shorn in the two clippings a year, pays much better than the one long staple fleece which can be shorn from the same animal for a year's growth. There are many reasons both for and against shearing twice a year. The mills prefer long mohair, or at least fiber more than six inches in length (combing length). They pay the best price for this class of mohair, and it must be left to the individual to decide whether it pays him best to shear once or twice a year. At present possibly one-third of the Angoras in the United States are shorn twice a year, and the remaining two-thirds only once. In Asia Minor one finds the goat shearer using a pair of long bladed scissors to cut the mohair. The goats are shorn in the spring, and only once during the year. The animal's feet are tied, and then by using both hands, one at either end of the scissors, the goat is shorn. Recently some Englishman has introduced an ordinary spring sheep shear, but most of the natives prefer the scissors. To-day one finds the hand shearer and the machine shearer at work in America. The hand shearer should use a pair of short bladed (about five inch blade) sheep shears. This is to prevent the point of the shear from cutting mohair, which is not intended to be clipped with that particular stroke of the shear. If, for instance, the shearer is clipping the mohair along the sides of the animal, and the point of the shear cuts some of the mohair at least three inches out from the body, this stubble is shorn again (double cut) when the shearer gets to this place, and this three-inch mohair is too short to be of much value. It will be combed out at the mill as noil. An expert shearer can clip about the same number of range goats that he can range sheep--from ninety to one hundred and twenty a day. The machine shear is rapidly taking the place of the hand shear. It clips the mohair close to the skin and almost does away with double cutting. It requires less skill to shear with a machine shear, and it does the work more uniformly. There is also less danger of cutting the animal. The machines do the work very rapidly. After the goat is shorn the fleece should be collected and rolled into a bundle, "bump," and placed in a sack or bale. It should not be tied, as the mill men object to the particles of string which remain in the mohair and disfigure the manufactured product. Any colored fleeces, discolored mohair, or mohair containing objectionable features, such as burrs, straw, etc., can be placed in separate parcels. The kid mohair can be kept by itself, and the wether and doe mohair can be separately packed. The long mohair should be kept separate from short stuff. Thus one grades the mohair to some extent on the farm, and he has a better idea of what the clip should bring. If the mohair is to be shipped a long distance, it will pay to bale the fleeces, as compact bales occupy much less space than sacks. The freight rates are usually less upon baled mohair than they are upon the sacked material. The cost of baling the mohair is a little less than the cost of sacking. [Illustration] BREEDING OF THE ANGORA GOAT. One can learn very little about breeding the Angora goat from the Turk. As we know from Tchikacheff's work, which was published over fifty years ago, cold winters often killed many of the Angoras in Asia Minor, and the Turk then imported from more favored districts common bucks or does to breed to the Angora. This was before the great demand for mohair, occasioned by the increase in manufacturing plants at Bradford, England, caused the Turkish mohair raisers to resort to all manner of means to increase the supply of raw material. To-day the Turk is treading in the paths of his forefathers. What was good enough for them, certainly ought to be good enough for him, so he reasons. He eats with his fingers, cooks on a brazier, sits on the floor, eats, drinks, sleeps and works all in the same room, and keeps his wives in seclusion. When he comes to breeding the Angora he leaves that to his servants, if he be wealthy enough to have any. Most of the breeders cannot read or write. They have never traveled. They have no ambition, and they know nothing of the principles of selective breeding. As a natural consequence the Angora goat of to-day has not improved, nor is he likely to improve under Turkish management. One large breeder who supplied bucks to some tributary country, said that he thought that it was a shame to castrate a buck, no matter how bad he might be. The Turk separates the bucks from the does at breeding season, as Asia Minor has cold weather late in the spring, and the danger of losing kids, if they come too early, is great. When the bucks are turned with the flock they are allowed to run until the next breeding season, and all of the bucks, regardless of quality or quantity, are allowed to run with the does. When the first few Angoras arrived in America the natural procedure was to cross them upon the common short-haired goat of this country. It was a new industry, and many wanted to try the Angora. Very slowly the Angora, or the cross-bred animals were scattered over the United States. Stories were told of the wonderful things for which the mohair was used, and some supposedly reliable authorities quoted mohair at $8.00 a pound, as has been stated. Companies were started, and of course the supply of good Angoras, that is, goats which would shear about four pounds of mohair (worth at that time about seventy-five cents or a dollar a pound), was limited. Men bought any goat which had a trace of Angora blood in him as a thoroughbred Angora. A few years, however, demonstrated the fact that a common goat, with a little admixture of Angora blood, did not produce either the quality or the quantity of fleece wanted. Only a few of the more persistent breeders continued the experiment and their investigations. They sent and went to the home of the Angora, and brought more of the original animals to America. It took the American breeders about thirty years to find out just what the Angora goat was and how he should be handled. During that thirty years large flocks of common goats, which had been crossed with the Angora, and which might be properly termed "grade flocks," had been formed. Only a few thoroughbred flocks, that is, flocks of the original Angora, as he came from Turkey, were in existence. CROSSING WITH THE COMMON SHORT HAIRED GOAT. By experience we have learned that the common short coarse haired goat can be crossed with the Angora goat, and that after sufficient crosses have been made, the cross-bred Angora so nearly resembles the thoroughbred that for all practical purposes he is an Angora. We have also learned that certain kinds of common goats respond rapidly to the infusion of Angora blood, and that others retain certain peculiarities of the common goat for generations. The Angora will not cross with sheep. For instance, a common goat with a long mane on the back, or tuft of long hair behind the foreleg, or on the flank or the hip, will continue to perpetuate this long coarse hair on the offspring for generations, even though the best of Angora blood be infused. The color of the common goat is of some importance. A brown or reddish brown goat retains the reddish cast at the base of the mohair much longer than one of a bluish or bluish black color. It is equally true that a pure white mother may drop a colored kid occasionally. In Constantinople the mohair is graded into parcels containing red kemp, black kemp, etc. There it is the kemp which retains the color. As has been stated, there is also a breed of brown Angora goats, or at least mohair-producing goats, in Koniah in Asia Minor. Presuming, then, that one has a suitable common doe and a good Angora buck as a basis, the following may be deduced as relative changes in the different crosses: [Illustration: PASHA V--A True Breeder.] The first cross, or half-blood Angora, will have a covering of short coarse common hair and a thin covering of mohair, which does not grow very long. If the animal were to be shorn, possibly a half pound of hair of a very inferior grade might be yielded. If this hair were to be offered to a manufacturer, he would class it as noil, and refer it to a carpet manufacturer, who would possibly pay ten or twelve cents a pound for it. The skin of the animal will be a little fluffy, and not suitable for fine goat skin trade. It will not take a good polish after tanning, and it is not desirable for shoe leather. It will be worth about half as much as common goat skin. The meat of the animal will be a little better than that of the common goat, but it will be inferior to Angora venison. The animal will still be as prolific as the common goat. Twins and triplets will be a common occurrence. The kids will also be hardy. If one were to stop at this stage in breeding, he would have decreased the value of the skin of his goat without increasing the value of the animal. The second cross, or the three-quarter blood Angora, will have a covering of short coarse common hair, especially noticeable on the back, belly, neck and hips. The mohair will now be fairly thickly set upon the sides of the animal, and of medium length, about seven inches long for a year's growth. If the animal were to be examined by a novice, he would be called an Angora from his general appearance. If shorn, he will yield about one, or one and a half pounds of hair, and the mohair manufacturer will pay about twelve or fifteen cents a pound for the material. The skin is valueless for rug, robe or trimming purposes, because of the coarse back and the scanty covering of mohair. It is fit for glove leather after tanning, but its value for this purpose is less than that of the common goat. The meat is more like Angora venison, and can be sold on the market as mutton. The animal is still prolific. From the second cross on, the grade goat rapidly assumes the characteristic of the Angora goat, but if for any reason poor bucks are used (an occasional animal without apparent reason retrogrades), the animal as rapidly resumes the characteristic of the common goat. Quite a percentage of colored kids will be dropped by does which are themselves white. The third cross, or seven-eighths blood Angora, will still have the coarse back, a partially bare belly, coarse hips, and the neck will be insufficiently covered. The sides will be covered with good quality, long staple mohair, comparatively free from the coarse, dead underhair, or kemp. The animal will shear about two or three pounds of fair mohair, which will be worth from twenty to thirty cents a pound. This mohair will be fit to run through the combs, and the "top," or long mohair, free from kemp, will be used in the manufacture of plushes, braids, etc. The skin will have some value for rug, robe and trimming purposes. The meat will be juicy, palatable and salable as mutton. The fourth cross, or fifteen-sixteenths blood Angora, will be hardly distinguishable from the average thoroughbred Angora. The coarse back will persist to some extent, and the hip will be plentifully covered with kemp. A good many of this grade will be poorly covered on the belly, and an occasional bare necked or off colored animal will be dropped. The animal will shear from two and a half to five pounds of mohair of good quality, which will be worth from twenty-five to thirty-five cents a pound. It will be from eight to twelve inches long at a year's growth, and it will be combed at the mill. It is fit for manufacturing into any of the goods for which mohair is used. The meat of the animal is rich, juicy, and free from the disagreeable qualities so often noticeable in mutton. If the animal be fed upon browse, the meat will have the flavor of venison. The tendency of the mothers to drop twins will be lessened, and it will be rather the exception for twins to be born. The kids will be rather delicate when dropped. Subsequent crosses will tend to reduce the amount of kemp upon the animal and to improve the back. The question will now resolve itself into one of breeding for points. Bucks must be selected which cover the points the does need most, and by careful selection the grade flock will soon be indistinguishable from the thoroughbreds. METHODS USED IN AMERICA TO-DAY. By gradual steps the original Angoras imported into America have been so improved, and the cross-bloods have been so highly graded that some of the American flocks equal the best Turkish flocks. America has many high-grade flocks, which, if it were not for the remaining coarse hair of the common goat, would be upon a par with the Turkish flocks. There are enough good goats in the country for a foundation stock, and a few years more of the careful, painstaking, selective breeding which is in progress throughout the United States to-day, will bring forth an Angora superior to the Turkish stock. Sections of the country modify the characteristics of the Angora. Probably climatic conditions, varieties of food and water, and certainly mental vigor of the owners is largely responsible for this. One man selects large, well formed, rapidly maturing goats and breeds for this type. It is surprising how soon his flocks assume this type. Another breeder works for fineness of fleece, regardless of size or shape of the animal, and he gets his points. There has been much vagueness as to what points the breeder should try to produce. Some have claimed that the most profitable animal to raise was one producing heavy ringletty fleece, regardless of the quality of the fleece, except of course that it should be as free from kemp as possible. This day has passed. We know what the mohair is used for, and know how it is prepared for manufacturing. The future may change these uses or methods, but we know what we want now, and we know how to breed our goats to produce the most money per head for the present at least. Fashions vary, and the fashions vary the demand for certain grades of mohair. Coarse fibered, long staple, fine luster mohair possessing a great amount of tensile strength and elasticity will make good braid yarns, but if braid yarns are not in demand, such fiber is not the best for plush or dress yarns. Fine fibered, long staple, pliable, lustrous, easily spun yarn can be used for braid stuff, or at least part of the fleece will be heavy enough for this purpose, and the finer parts have such a variety of uses that they spin yarns which are always in demand. Looking at the question from the manufacturing standpoint, we see that the most staple product is the fine-fibered mohair. But a producer might have animals which would shear two and a half pounds average (the average of the Turkish flocks) of very fine mohair, while another grower might have animals which would shear four or five pounds average of coarse mohair. And even though the value per pound of the coarse mohair may be considerably less than that of the fine mohair, the grower owning the coarse haired heavy shearing Angoras will realize more money per head for his clip. The value also of the carcass and skin of the Angora is of importance. A heavy carcass and a large skin are of more value than a light carcass and a small skin. If the Angora breeder would produce the animal which will yield the most money per head, he should aim to produce an animal which will shear the heaviest fleece of the most marketable mohair, regardless of fashions, and one which, when put upon the market, will dress the most possible pounds of desirable meat, and yield a readily marketable skin. There are not many such animals on the market to-day, but the time when there will be plenty is coming. We have the fineness of fiber; we have the density of weight of fleece; we have the covering of the animal and the size and stamina of the individual, and we have breeders who are endeavoring to unite combinations to produce the Angora of the future. But while we are without the ideal, one should choose that point which is hardest to attain, most necessary for the best paying animal, and work especially for that. That point is fineness of fiber, always remembering freeness from kemp. There are many large goats, many heavy shearing goats, but there are very few fine fibered comparatively free from kemp goats. One should not make the mistake of neglecting size and weight of fleece. There are few animals which will respond more rapidly to careful crossing than the Angora goat. A buck will usually stamp his individuality upon every kid, hence the necessity of carefully selecting breeding stock. GESTATION. The period of gestation varies slightly with the individual, but the average may be approximately stated as one hundred and forty-seven days, or about five months. Both the bucks and the does have a breeding season, but this season may be changed or varied by different elements. As a rule the bucks commence to rut about July or August here in America, and the does soon after the time the bucks commence. Some bucks which have been allowed to run with the does all of the time, never cease rutting, and the does conceive about every six months. The does come in heat about every fourteen days, and remain in this condition for about three days. If the bucks are allowed to run with the does, one buck should be used for about every fifty does. If the buck is only allowed to serve the doe once, a grown animal will serve one hundred and fifty does in forty days without permanent injury to himself. The does conceive at about the age of seven months, and the bucks breed at about the same age, but the wise breeder will not sacrifice the individual by interfering with its development. Both the buck and the doe should not be bred until they are at least a year old. The bucks should be fed at breeding season, and if one has a sufficient number of bucks, it is well to turn the bucks with the does in relays. It is advisable to have the kids start coming slowly, so that one may get new men trained to handle them properly. One or two bucks turned with a flock of a thousand does for a few days, and then removed and allowed to rest, and a new relay of three or more bucks turned with the does, to be removed in a few days, and a new relay being introduced into the flock, will do more satisfactory work than they would if all of the bucks were turned in at one time. The same principle can be applied to smaller flocks. The does should be protected from cold storms or rough handling when they are heavy with kid, else they are liable to abort. If for any unusual cause the doe aborts one season, there is no reason why she will not carry her kid until full term another time, and experience has proven that she will. [Illustration: PASHA V AND BISMARCK. American bred bucks, Bismarck shearing 12 pounds, was the sire of the grand champion buck at the St. Louis World's Fair, 1904.] BREEDING OF REGISTERED STOCK. The breeding of registered stock, or stock of known ancestry, requires much care and quite different handling. Both the does and the bucks must be marked with an ear tag, brand, tattoo number, or some other permanent individual mark, and the kids should be marked at birth. Fifty known does may be put in a pasture or pen and a known buck put with them. He should be allowed to run with them at least forty days. After this the does may be collected into a flock and several bucks turned with them, but only the kids which are dropped from a known buck are fit for record. A more accurate method, and one which can be used with a large flock, is to place the bucks in a corral adjoining the one used by the does at night. The does should be brought into their corral early in the evening, and all of those in heat will work along the fence next to the bucks. The doe in heat can be caught and the number taken and recorded in a book. She is then placed in a small pen with a buck and his number is recorded with hers, together with the date. If the doe does not conceive, she can be put with the same buck again at a later date, and one has approximate knowledge of when she should drop her kid. In this manner a buck will serve about two or three does in the evening, and one or two in the morning. The kid is marked at birth and the number recorded after that of the mother. The breeding of recorded stock is of value only for special reasons, and is not advisable with large flocks, as it is expensive. [Illustration] ANGORA VENISON. Angora venison is the name which should be given to the flesh of the Angora goat. At the present time it is usually sold in the markets as mutton. The term goat meat should be applied to meat of the common goat, and the term mutton belongs to sheep. Because the Angora goat feeds largely upon that material which nourishes the deer, the meat of the Angora is flavored like venison. The fat is well distributed, and the healthfulness of the animal renders this an especially desirable meat. The Turk has long recognized Angora venison as an important element in his diet. Angora kid is above comparison, and it occupies the principle place on the menu at private as well as state affairs in the Orient. As one passes through the market places in Asia Minor he sees the carcasses of the Angora hanging in every shop. There is no mistaking the animal, as the skin still remains on the goat. One takes his choice, and as a rule more Angora venison than mutton is sold. Some of the Turks keep their wethers until they become coarse-haired and too old to pay to keep longer, eight or ten years old. This class of meat ranks with old mutton, and sells at a discount. Young wethers and does are in good demand. There has existed in America some prejudice against the flesh of the goat. To-day thousands of goats are being consumed annually, but most of them are sold as mutton. Packers and butchers still insist that Angora venison must be sold as mutton. They pay about one-half a cent to a cent a pound less for the goat than for sheep. The goat never fattens as well along the back as the sheep, and hence the carcass does not look so well. The fat is more evenly distributed throughout the animal in the goat. An expert once said that to know whether a goat was fat one should feel the brisket, and if there was a considerable layer of adipose tissue between the skin and the breast bone, the animal was fat. Some of the American breeders do not send their wethers to market until they get too old to produce valuable fleeces. The animals are then slaughtered when they have grown a half year's fleece, and the skins are reserved by the breeder. These skins are valuable, and help to bring up the average price of the goat. At present some of the packers recognize no difference between shorn and unshorn goats. The price is the same, so it pays to shear the goats before bringing them to market. There is absolutely no strong flavor in prime Angora venison, and this is where the meat differs from that of the common goat. The goat is a slow grower, and not until the second year do the bones ossify. Therefore, a two-year-old can be sold for lamb, as he has a "soft joint." Grown Angora wethers do not average much more than one hundred pounds as a rule, although there are occasional bands sold which average one hundred and fifteen pounds. It is safe to say that Angora venison will never supplant mutton, but it will have its place among the edible meats. [Illustration: ANGORA BUCK--Early Importation.] ANGORA GOAT SKINS. An Angora goat skin differs considerably from the skin of the common goat. In the first place the Angora skin is covered with more or less mohair; and in the second place, the texture of the skin itself is different. The skin of the common goat is firm, and the different layers are so closely united that they cannot be separated. The layers of the Angora skin are not so closely united, and the skin is slightly fluffy. The outer layer of this skin peels off when it is used. The Angora skin is valuable both with the fleece on and without it. Its principle value, however, is with the fleece on. After the skins have been properly tanned, they are used for rugs, robes, trimmings, and imitating various furs. When ladies' and children's Angora furs are in style, these skins become very valuable for this purpose. One skin has cut $17.00 worth of trimming at wholesale. Of course, the value of the skins depends upon the quality and character of the mohair with which the skins are covered, and their size. Large, well covered skins are always scarce and command good prices. They are worth from $1.00 to $2.00 each. Most of the Asia Minor skins are sent to Austria, and the prices paid for the raw skins are about the same as in America. The skins which have had the mohair removed are valuable for the manufacture of gloves and morocco leather. They do not make as fine leather as the common goat skins, but they are as extensively used. All skins should be carefully handled. The skin should be carefully removed from the carcass. Goats do not skin as easily as sheep, and the careless operator is liable to cut the inner layers of the skin if he is not careful. These cuts are called "flesh-cuts," and skins badly "flesh-cut" are comparatively valueless, because "flesh-cuts" can not be removed by the tanner. A sharp knife should be used, and the operator should avoid cutting the skin. The skin should be well salted, care being taken to see that the salt penetrates every portion of the raw surface. The skins can be cured in the shade without the use of salt, but sun-dried skins are worthless. If the edges of the skin are allowed to roll, so that raw surfaces come together, the part so affected will heat and the hair pull out. It is not necessary to stretch the skins while curing them. Goats should be killed when their fleece is suitable for robe and rug purposes. Those carrying a six month's fleece, if it is six inches long, have about the right kind of skins. There are some Angora skins imported from Turkey and South Africa. [Illustration: Prize winners at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893.] BY-PRODUCTS OF ANGORA GOATS. The Angora goat should not be classed with milch animals. As a rule the does give a sufficient amount of milk to nourish the kid or kids. The more common blood there is in the goat the better milch animal she is. However, some Angoras have been milked, and the milk is as rich as that of the common goat. A quart of milk a day may be considered a fair average for a fresh milch Angora doe. It has been suggested that because the milk of the goat contains a heavy percentage of fat, it is a proper substitute for mothers' milk for babies. This is probably a mistake, as that part of the milk which is the hardest for the baby to digest is the protein, and it will be observed that in the following table of analysis submitted, the percentage of protein in goat's milk and in cow's milk is about the same, and that it is considerably larger than in mother's milk. A very desirable feature in goat's milk is that the fat is distributed throughout the milk, and that it does not readily separate from the milk. This would assist in the assimilation of the fat by an infant. Some experiments made with coffee demonstrate that it requires half the quantity of goat's milk to produce the same effect upon this beverage which cow's milk produces. This may be partially explained by the quantity of fat in goat's milk, and partially by the fact that the fat does not readily separate from the milk. The bottom of the can is as good as the top. ANALYSIS OF MILK. MOTHER'S COW'S GOAT'S AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE Fat 4.00 3.50 7.30 Sugar 7.00 4.30 4.10 Proteid 1.50 4.00 4.18 Salts .20 .70 1.21 Water 87.30 87.50 83.21 ------ ------ ------ 100.00 100.00 100.00 Persons in poor health have been greatly benefitted by the use of goat's milk. This is probably due to the fact that the fat in the milk is so distributed that a large percentage of it is taken up by the digestive apparatus. Angora goats are docile, and it is possible that some of them could be developed into good milch animals. FERTILIZER. It is a known fact that packers of the present day utilize all of the carcass of most food animals, but it is not the fertilizer which the packer makes from the blood and offal of the goat which we shall consider here. Sheep's manure has been used for years on orchards and vegetable gardens, and in the last few years goats' manure has been in demand, selling at from $6 to $7.50 a ton, depending upon the purity of the fertilizer. It must be remembered that only a small portion of this manure is dropped at the night bed-ground, the balance is evenly distributed over the land upon which the goats are feeding. The goats not only rid the farm of objectionable weeds and brush, but they help to furnish a rich soil in which grass will grow. This fact has been so thoroughly demonstrated that western farmers, who have large tracts of wheat or barley stubble to rent during the summer, are always anxious to get goats upon this land. OTHER PRODUCTS. The horns of the goats are used to make handles for pocket knives, etc. The hoofs are used in the manufacture of glue. [Illustration] FOOD, CLIMATE AND PROTECTION. On the mountains and in the valleys of the United States the Angora has had a variety of food. He is a natural browser, and will live almost entirely on brush, if this kind of food is to be found, but he readily adapts himself to circumstances, and will live and do well upon an exclusively grass diet. The fact that the goat is a browser has been made use of in clearing farms of brush and objectional weeds. If a sufficient number of goats are confined upon a limited area for a period of time, they will kill most of the brush upon this land. They will eat almost every kind of brush, but they have their preferences and enjoy especially blackberry vines and those kinds of brush which contain tannic acid, such as scrub oak. They do not poison easily, and if there is a variety of food they rarely eat enough of any kind of poisonous plant to prove fatal. If, however, they are hungry, and have access to places where there are poisonous plants, they will eat enough to kill themselves. KILLING BRUSH. If one wishes to clear brush land, he should confine the goats to a comparatively small tract. The goats kill the shrubs by eating the leaves and by peeling the bark from the branches and trunks of the trees. The brush thus deprived of lungs, soon dies and the roots rot. As fast as the leaves grow they must be consumed, so it is well to allow the goats to eat most of the leaves off of a limited tract, and then in order to give the goats plenty of feed, they should be moved to another field. As soon as the leaves on the first tract have regrown the goats should be again confined to this land. In this way the leaves are continually destroyed. This process can be continued as fast as the leaves regrow. By this method it is estimated that a bunch of one hundred to one hundred and fifty goats will clear forty acres of thick brush in about two years. In countries where the grass grows as the brush dies, goats will eat some of this grass, but they prefer the browse. On some of the older goat ranches, where the Angora has been raised exclusively for the mohair and mutton, it has become quite a problem to prevent the goats from killing out the brush. The goats have done well where other kinds of livestock would have starved, but as soon as the brush is killed the land produces almost nothing, and even the goats cannot make a living. To prevent as far as possible their killing the brush the flocks are moved frequently from one range to another, so that the shrubs have a chance to recuperate between visits. In this way brush can be kept almost indefinitely for the goats. On some of the western ranges, where cattle and sheep have, by continual cropping, killed much of the grass, good browse remains. These ranges would have to be abandoned if it were not for the goat. Goats do not in any way interfere with the pasturage of cattle or other livestock. Cattle feed contentedly on the same range with the goats, and this fact has led many southern cattle men to invest in goats. The goats are herded on the brushy lands, and the cattle range over the same territory and eat the grass. Horses have a great fondness for goats. SALT. Goats, like other livestock, should have a small amount of salt. The salt should be kept where they can get it at liberty, or else it should be fed at regular intervals. If ground salt is given, care should be taken to see that individuals do not eat an oversupply of the salt. WATER. While Angoras do not require as much water as sheep, yet they should be given a quantity sufficient at least once a day. In winter goats will live upon snow. Men have reported that their goats have gone for a week at a time, and all summer long, without any more moisture than they could get from browse and weeds, but even if Angoras should stand this treatment, they will thrive better with water once daily. It is estimated that under normal conditions a goat will consume about one-ninetieth of its body weight (about a pint of water for a grown animal) in a day. On hot days, when the animals are on dry feed, they will frequently drink two quarts of water. SHEDS. To raise Angora goats most profitably one should really be provided with sheds. These sheds should be about the same as those which are provided for sheep in the same locality. For years southern and western breeders have made a success of the Angora industry, and very few of them have had any artificial protection for their goats. But even these breeders find that they can raise a larger percentage of increase, and get through the year with a smaller percentage of loss if they have sheds. Grown goats rarely need much shelter, even in the winter, if the weather is dry, but during cold, damp storms the fleece wets through and the animal chills. Just after shearing, or just before kidding season, one is liable to lose some grown animals, or to have many kids slunk, if the goats are not protected from cold storms. Young kids also require attention, and proper sheds more than pay for themselves by preventing excessive mortality. Whether the shed should be closed on all sides, or whether it may be left open, depends upon the locality. Do as one would for sheep, under the same conditions, will be a fairly safe rule to follow. Allow at least four or five square feet of shed room to each mature animal, and the danger of the goats crowding together in the corners and smothering the animals on the underside of the pile, should never be forgotten. On very cold nights large numbers, especially of the kids, may be killed by smothering, if they are not carefully watched. FENCES. The question of fencing for the Angora goat is not such a serious matter as the beginner would imagine. If the goats have not been raised as pets and taught to jump, there will be little trouble with the animals going over a perpendicular fence of ordinary height. They will, however, go through or under the fence, if it is possible. They are natural climbers, and if the fence offers projecting steps, upon which they can climb, they will soon find their way to the outside of the enclosure. Some of the old stone and rail fences will not hold goats. Any perpendicular fence, three feet high, with transverse spaces not wider than three or four inches for the lower two feet, and not wider than six inches for the upper foot, will hold goats. If the spaces in the fence are perpendicular, they will necessarily have to be narrower, as small kids will crawl through the spaces. A woven-wire fence, two feet high, with a perpendicular stay, at least twelve inches apart, so that the goats will not get their heads caught in the fence, surmounted by a couple of plain or barbed wires, six inches apart, will hold goats, and if barbed wire is used, will prevent cattle from breaking the fence. If plain or barbed wire is used, the first three wires nearest the ground should be placed not more than three inches apart, and close enough to the ground to prevent kids from crawling under the lowest wire. The space between the next wires may be increased to four, five and six inches, and so on to the desired height of the fence. A board fence composed of three boards four inches wide, with a space between the ground and the first board of about three inches, and a three or four inch space between the boards, the whole being surmounted by a barbed or plain wire or two makes a very satisfactory goat fence. If pickets or posts are used, they should be set closely enough together, say about two inches apart, to prevent small kids from crawling between them. An objection has been raised to barbed wire, on account of the mohair which the barbs pull out. The amount of mohair lost in this way is inconsiderable. As has been stated, it hurts the goat to pull the mohair, and the goat soon learns to avoid the barbs. Many breeders use barbed wire corrals and find them satisfactory. Probably woven wire is the best fence under ordinary conditions. HERDING. In mountainous countries, where it is not practical to fence the range, the flocks should be watched by herders. The Angora has a natural tendency to return home, or to a known camping ground at night, and in some places this tendency is relied upon to bring the flock home, and they are not herded. Of course, in countries where there is no danger from loss by depredations of wild animals, and where food is so plentiful that the goats must find a sufficient amount, the flock may be turned loose. One shepherd should tend from one to two thousand head, as goats flock together well. Of course, during kidding season the flocks will have to be more closely watched. Goats travel rapidly and cover a considerable amount of territory in a day. A flock may travel from ten to twelve miles from the time they leave camp in the morning until they return to camp in the evening. The herder should walk ahead of the leaders of the flock, so that they will not travel too fast, or he may walk upon a nearby elevation, so that he can see that the flock does not separate. A flock will sometimes string out over a mile. The goats should be given freedom. Too often a zealous herder overworks himself and keeps his flock poor by crowding them together. A good sheep herder soon learns the nature of the goat, and when he understands the animal he would rather herd goats than sheep. [Illustration: Prize winners at the St. Louis World's Fair, 1904.] DOGS. In some sections of the country sheep-killing dogs have proven a great nuisance to sheep-breeders. To say that the Angora goat will prevent dogs from killing sheep, and that they will drive the dogs away, would be a misstatement. Bucks and grown goats will protect themselves to some extent. If a strange dog attacks a flock in a field, the goats will usually huddle together and the bucks and grown animals will keep the dog at bay. A mother will fight bravely to protect her kid. [Illustration] KIDDING ANGORAS. An experience of years has taught the Turk that if he wishes to save many kids, he must have them come late in the season. The changeable weather of the Turkish spring, the frequent cold rains and the lack of proper shed accommodations, have more than once not only destroyed the increase, but also killed the grown goats. The Turkish methods of handling kids are of little practical value. They know how delicate the kids are when they are born, and they usually bring the kid and its mother to the house as soon as it is dropped. The Turkish Angora goat men usually range small flocks, and they also have a surplus of help, so that this is a comparatively easy method. The kids are allowed to go with the flocks as soon as they are old enough to travel. The principal objection to letting young kids go with the flock is that the kids go to sleep, and sleep so soundly that the flock feed away from them. When the youngsters awake they are lost. If there be wild animals about, the kids may be killed, or they may starve before they are found. The Turk, however, has so many herders with one flock that they usually discover the kids before the flock has strayed. In America the kidding season is the most important time of the year for the Angora breeder. If he would raise a large increase, he must be properly prepared, and he must be constantly alert. If the weather be fair, with bright sunshiny days and temperate nights, the kids will do well without much care, but if it be cold, stormy and muddy, some of the kids will be lost in spite of all care. After the kids are born the mothers should have such food as will produce the greatest amount of milk. Well-fed mothers make strong healthy kids. Green feed is desirable. The proper season, then, for the kids to come will depend upon the climate and range conditions. Allowing for the period of gestation, which is about five months, the bucks can run with the does as early or as late as one wishes. One can be guided somewhat by the time sheep men allow ewes to lamb. When the first warm weather comes the goats usually commence to shed their mohair, and as it is too early in the season for the kids to be dropped, the does must be shorn before kidding or the mohair lost. Care should be exercised in handling the does heavy with kid. For the first few days after shearing the doe should not be allowed to chill, as she may abort. In some countries it is possible to kid before shearing, but there is no practical objection to shearing before kidding, provided proper care be exercised. HANDLING OF KIDS. There are various methods in use of handling the young kids, and all of them are intended to save as large a percentage of increase as possible with the least possible expense. Almost every man who has handled goats has some individual idea which experience has taught him. The locality and surroundings of the flock make a vast difference in the way they should be kidded. The method which works best with fifty or one hundred does in a fenced brush pasture in Oregon or Iowa, would be useless with a flock of a thousand or fifteen hundred in the mountains of Nevada or New Mexico, where there is often no corral to hold the goats. With a bunch of from fifty, to two hundred and fifty, and a shed big enough to hold the entire lot, it is not difficult to raise a very large percentage of kids. If the does are kept in a ten or twenty-acre pasture, they should be allowed to run out and take care of themselves as much as possible. The doe may drop her kid wherever she may happen to be, and she will almost invariably take care of it and coax it to the shed at night. The refusal of a young doe to own her kid must be overcome, especially if the weather is unfavorable. The mother must be caught and the milk forced into the kid's mouth until he learns to suckle. After he has been sufficiently fed, place them together in a box stall and leave them for a day or two. Then, in all probability, the mother will take care of her kid. The box stall is about three feet square and three feet high, with a little door on hinges to save lifting the animal. A row along the inside of the shed next to the wall is a great convenience. A doe with her kid should be disturbed as little as possible, because, as a rule, she knows how to care for her kid better than a herder. When goats are handled on a larger scale, with no pasture available, entirely different methods should be adopted--for the mother must go out to feed every day and the kid cannot go. Probably the most extensively used methods are the "corral method" and the "staking method," either used individually or combined. THE CORRAL METHOD. In the corral method, two or three large corrals and numerous smaller ones are necessary. First, the does should be separated from the wethers, if they have been running together, and a "wether band" made. Then every morning the "doe band" must be looked over carefully for does that will kid during the day. Such does must be put in a corral by themselves and allowed to kid in this corral. They should be fed some hay, or if that is not possible, they should be herded near by for a few hours. It has been our experience that most of the kids will come between the hours of ten in the morning and four in the afternoon. The more does which one can pick out in the morning the better it is, for the doe, after dropping her kid, is allowed to stay with it the rest of the day and all night. In this way she learns to know it. If one has hay to feed the doe, so that she may be left with her kid for one or two days, it is a great advantage. After all the does have been selected which can be found, still some will be overlooked, and they will go out on the range with the rest. The best way to handle these is to have the herder make a straight drive to a certain point where the feed is good, and then stay around this one place, allowing the kids to come within as small a radius as possible without starving the goats. If it is necessary, quite a distance can be covered in this way, and yet the kids will not be scattered over a large section of the country. As a kid is dropped, the doe should be allowed to remain with her kid and take care of it until evening. The herd will gradually feed from them, but it should be kept as near as possible to protect the kids from wild animals. Towards evening one must go out and gather up the kids and drive the mothers to the corral. The large herd should be driven home in advance, keeping a little apart from the does with kids so as not to coax the "wet does" away with the "dry herd." When the wagon with the kids reaches the ranch, the kids should be put in a small corral. They should be placed a few feet apart, and the mothers should be allowed to select their own kids. They also should be allowed to remain in the corral for the night at least. In case a doe will not take her kid she should be placed in one of the box stalls and a kid which has no mother placed with her and fed. When plenty of small corrals and good hay are available, each day's kids should be left in a separate corral until the mothers have been with the kids one or two days. It will be found that the kids are always given a very good start in this way. When it is deemed advisable, the kids are put together in a large corral, and as soon as the mothers in the smaller corrals are thought to know their kids sufficiently well, they are added to this wet band in the large corral. Thus the round is completed from the dry band to the wet band, the small corral being simply an intermediate step to insure familiarity between the doe and her kid. The dry band rapidly diminishes while the wet band increases. The mothers are now ready to go on the range during the day to feed, but the kids should be kept in the corral until they are at least six weeks old. The does may be turned out over a "jump board" placed across the gate. A jump board is a two-inch plank, eighteen inches high, with a four-inch strip nailed on the top for the does to put their feet on as they jump over. The kids come to the board but cannot get over. If some of the larger kids bother by trying to get over, some one can stand at the gate to scare them back by pounding on the board with a stick. The does will soon learn to pay no attention to the noise. [Illustration: THOROUGHBRED ANGORA DOE.] Even now there will be a few kids which will not be mothered. Every morning, before the wet band is allowed to go over the jump board, one should walk through the herd, pick out the kids that have not been nourished during the night, and select does that are not suckling kids. These does should be held until the kids have been fed. A row of small stantions is a convenient thing for holding them. After a kid gets a good start he will steal a living from different does if necessary. To kid a band of from one thousand to fifteen hundred does by the corral method, will require at least three men--one man to herd the dry band, one the wet band, and a man to look after the kids and assist where needed. Often the wet band is divided, or when one wet band has reached the number of from five hundred to seven hundred animals, another is started. THE STAKING METHOD. The staking method is quite commonly used, and in certain localities it is probably the best way to handle kids. The apparatus necessary is a smooth piece of half-inch board, two inches wide and four inches long, with a hole bored in each end. Through the hole in one end a piece of rope eight inches long is passed, and knotted so that it cannot pull out. The loose end of this rope is then made fast to a stout stake which is to be driven into the ground. Through the hole in the other end a piece of rope eighteen inches long is passed and knotted as in the first end, in such a way that the loose end of the rope, which is to be fastened to the kid's leg, draws away from the stake. When the apparatus is in use the small stick with the holes in the ends acts as a swivel to keep the rope from tangling. It is important to select a proper place to tie the kid. He is to stay in this place for about six weeks, and he needs protection from winds and wild animals, and should have some sunshine and some shade. Usually a small tree, a bush, a fence, or a post will offer a good place to stake. The does which are expected to kid during the day are separated from the flock as in the corral method. The balance of the band are herded, so that the kids dropped on the range can be more easily handled. Just as soon as a kid is dropped, it is taken to a convenient place to stake, and the mother coaxed to follow. One of the kid's legs is securely fastened to the loose end of the rope, and the kid and its mother are left together. The mother is thus free to go and feed, and on returning will know exactly where to find her kid. Many owners allow the does which have kidded to herd themselves, as they usually return to their kids, often coming in several times during the day. Of course this necessitates having plenty of food and water within access of the staking ground. The wet band could be herded as in the corral method. In this staking method if a mother refuses to own her kid, or if she dies, the kid has no chance to steal milk from some other wet doe, and unless closely watched, quite a number of kids will starve. The rope should be changed from one leg to the other occasionally to allow symmetry of development. The preparation of ropes and stakes for a thousand kids is quite a task, and it keeps the energetic herder busy during his spare moments getting ready for kidding time. For the first few days the Angora kid is full of life and vigor as any animal of like age. If he be well nourished, he will frisk and play at all kinds of antics, until he is so tired that he must forget everything. The sleep which comes is so sound that any usual amount of noise does not disturb him. It is this characteristic which makes it unsafe to take kids on to the range with a flock. The kids are liable to hide behind some bush, go to sleep and be lost. CASTRATING. Before the kids are allowed to go out with the flock the males should be castrated. The Turk does not alter the males until they have developed sexuality and the male horn, _i. e._, the heavy characteristic buck horn. He then castrates by either removing the testicles, or by twisting or destroying the spermatic cord. When the latter method is used the testicles and cord undergo an inflammatory process which destroys the regenerative power of the animal. The testicles remain in the scrotum apparently unchanged. The animal thus treated presents to the casual observer the physical characteristics of a buck. The Turk claims that an animal treated in this manner is less liable to die than one whose testicles are removed. This is probably true, as the initial lesion produced by the operation is very small, and there is less liability of infection. The usual method employed in this country is to remove the testicles before the regenerative power of the animal is developed. This gives the wether a feminine appearance, and there is comparatively little danger of death if the operation is properly performed. It will be easiest to castrate the kids between the age of two and four weeks. The kids should be driven into a small clean corral, and after undergoing the operation they should be turned into a large clean enclosure. The operator stands on the outside of the small corral, and the assistant catches the kids and turns them belly up before the operator, onto a board which has been fastened to the fence. A pair of clean scissors, or a sharp knife, which may be kept in a five per cent. carbolic acid solution when not in use, serve to cut off the distal end of the scrotum. The testicles are then seized with the fingers and drawn out. The operator drops the castrated kid into the large enclosure and the assistant presents another kid. Two men can operate on sixty kids an hour. The testicles are slippery and some herders prefer to use the teeth instead of the fingers to extract the testicles. Under no circumstances should any unclean thing be put into the scrotum. Death usually results from infection, and infection from uncleanliness. A little boracic acid might be sprinkled over the cut surface as an additional precaution, but this is unnecessary if ordinary cleanliness is observed. If after a few days the kid's scrotum swells, and does not discharge, the scrotum should be opened with a clean instrument. Less than one-half of one per cent. of the kids will die from this operation. RIDGLINGS. While castrating the kids the operator will discover that some of the kids have but one descended testicle. When these animals are found the descended testicle should be removed, and they should be recognized by some distinctive ear mark or brand. These animals will develop like bucks. It is a disputed question as to whether they are able to exercise regenerative power, but they will cover the does, and in some cases they probably get kids. The undescended testicle can be removed, but as the testicle usually lies close to the kidney, and is hard to distinguish from that organ in the young animal, it is best to delay the operation until the ridgling is at least six months old. The instruments necessary for this operation are a stout rope to suspend the animal, a clean sharp knife, scissors to remove the mohair from the place to be incised, and sharp needles threaded with silk. The knife, scissors and silk should be immersed in a hot 5% carbolic acid solution, and they should be kept in this solution except when actually in use. The rope is fastened to the hind legs of the animal and he is suspended in midair. An assistant steadies the body of the goat. The operator selects a place on the loin of the goat, about two or three inches away from the backbone, below the ribs and above the hip bone, on the side opposite to that which the descended testicle occupied. He then shears the mohair from this part of the goat. The mohair should be removed from a space at least eight inches square. A lengthwise incision is then made through the skin and muscles, or after the skin is cut, the muscles can be separated with the fingers and the testicle is found. It usually lies close to the backbone, to the lower and inner side of the kidney. It is usually undeveloped and much smaller than the kidney. Its surface is smooth and not indented like the kidney. When it is discovered it can be withdrawn through the opening, and adherent tissue clipped with the scissors. The muscles and skin should be brought together with the silk thread. The needles should pierce the muscles as well as the skin, and the edges of the skin should approximate. No hair should be allowed to remain between the cut surfaces, as the wound will not heal rapidly. After the wound is closed some boracic acid powder may be dusted over the wound, and the goat allowed his freedom. After ten days or two weeks the silk threads should be cut and drawn out, as they will not absorb, and they will irritate the wound. If this operation is carefully performed, and strict cleanliness adhered to, less than 2% of the animals operated upon will die. GROWTH. A kid at birth is usually small and weak, possibly weighing from four to six pounds. For the first few days of life he grows slowly, but as the organs adapt themselves to the new life, the kid becomes strong and grows rapidly. When the kid is born he is covered with a coarse hair, and it is not until he is from three to five weeks old that the fine mohair fibers appear growing between the coarser hairs. The kid continues to grow gradually, and at three or four months he weighs from twenty to forty pounds. The mohair may now be from two to four inches long. At a year old the Angora goat will weigh from fifty to eighty pounds, and the mohair may be as long as twelve inches, or sometimes longer. WEANING. When does are bred once a year the kid should be weaned before the doe is rebred. This allows the doe time to recuperate before her maternal powers are again brought into active service. Then, too, a doe nursing a kid through the winter, enters the spring with a depleted system and produces a poor quality and small quantity of mohair. The kids should be weaned when they are about five months old, as this allows the mother at least two months rest before she is rebred. MARKING. There are various reasons for marking goats, and the methods employed vary as widely as the reasons therefor. The object in view is to put some mark of identification either permanent or temporary upon the animal. The ears may be cropped in certain ways, a brand may be placed upon the nose, or tags or buttons placed in the ears, or characters tattooed into the ears. Probably the most permanent mark is the tattoo, and if it be placed on the inner hairless surface of the ear, it is as lasting as the tattoo so often seen in a man's arm. [Illustration] DISEASES. Some of the older breeders supposed that the Angora was not subject to any disease, but as goats have been introduced into new territory, they have become affected by some of the same troubles which bother sheep, but usually to a less degree. Some of the worst sheep diseases, such as scab, do not bother goats, but the goat has some special complaints which do not affect sheep. Very few carcasses are condemned by the government meat inspectors at the large packing centers. Tuberculosis is almost unknown. LICE. Nearly all goats are infested with lice, a small reddish louse, a goat louse. Lice rarely kills the animal infested, but they do annoy the goat greatly. Goats will not fatten readily, and the mohair is usually dead (lusterless), if the animals are badly infested. It is an easy matter to discover the lice. The goats scratch their bodies with their horns and make the fleece appear a little ragged. On separating the mohair the lice can easily be seen with the naked eye. The best means of ridding the goats of this annoyance is with almost any of the sheep dips. A dip which does not stain the mohair should be selected. The goats should be dipped after shearing, as it does not take much dip then to penetrate to the skin. One dipping will usually kill the lice, but the albuminous coat covering the nits (eggs of the louse), are not easily penetrated, and it is usually necessary to dip again within ten days, so that the nits, which have hatched since the first dipping, will not have a chance to mature and deposit more eggs. Goats can be dipped at almost any time, but if in full fleece they will require a larger quantity of liquid, and if the weather is very cold, there is some danger. STOMACH WORMS. Stomach worms affect goats, and in some instances their ravages prove fatal. There are a variety of these worms, but the general effect on the animal is about the same. They are usually worse in wet years. The goats affected become thin and weak. They usually scour. Sometimes the worm, or part of the worm, can be found in the feces. These same symptoms are caused by starvation, so the two should not be confounded. There are many drenches in use for the treatment of this trouble, and some of the proprietary remedies have given some relief. Goats running on dry, high land are rarely affected. Verminous pneumonia of sheep may also occur in goats. FOOT ROT. Foot rot is a disease which affects both goats and sheep, if they are kept on low wet land. It rarely proves fatal, and can be cured if the cause is removed, but it sometimes causes a good deal of trouble. The goats' feet swell between the toes and become so sore that the animals are compelled to walk on their knees. It can be cured by carefully trimming the feet and using solutions of blue stone. Goats should not be put on wet land. Sometimes the glands of the neck enlarge, a condition known as goitre. This is sometimes fatal with kids, but usually cures itself. There is no known remedy for it, but it is comparatively rare. Anthrax, tuberculosis, pleuro-pneumonia and meningitis, will affect goats, but these diseases are very rare. Some of the southern goats have swollen ears, but what the cause of this trouble is no one has yet determined. POISONS. There are several plants which will poison goats, but very little is known about them. Some of the laurel family are responsible for the death of a good many goats yearly, and some milk-weeds will kill if taken in sufficient amount at certain times of the year. These plants should be avoided as much as possible. Treatment has been rather unsatisfactory. If the poisoned animal is treated at once, an active purgative may rid the system of the irritant. Epsom salts and crotin oil have given relief. Mr. Schreiner describes an epidemic of pleuro-pneumonia which destroyed many flocks of Angora goats in South Africa. The disease was effectually stamped out in that country, and it has never appeared in American flocks. Mr. Thompson has described a disease called Takosis, which was supposed to have caused the death of many goats in the Eastern States, and along the Missouri River Valley. Some claimed that this trouble was caused by change of climate, others thought that it was starvation or lack of proper care. There is very little evidence of it now in the United States. All in all, the Angora goat is the healthiest of domestic animals. [Illustration] Our Own Flocks. In 1865, Mr. C. P. Bailey started in the Angora goat industry. There were then very few Angora goats in the United States, and those in California had originated from two thoroughbred bucks secured from Col. Peters of Atlanta, Georgia. In 1866, Mr. Bailey secured a pair of Angoras from W. W. Chenery of Boston, Mass. There were two other pairs secured at this time for other parties, and these three does were the _first thoroughbred does_ brought to California. The first two goats cost Mr. Bailey $1000. _The first thoroughbred Angora kid_ dropped in California was by Mr. Bailey's doe. In 1869, Mr. Bailey furnished money to bring the Brown & Diehl importation to California, with the understanding that he was to have first choice. The Angoras secured from this lot were _the best goats_ which had been brought to California up to that time. In 1876, Mr. Bailey selected the best buck of the Hall & Harris importation, and paid seventy-five dollars service fee for three of his Brown & Diehl does. Later he purchased forty-one head from Hall & Harris. Some of these were the Brown & Diehl goats, and some from the Hall & Harris importation of 1876. Twelve years after Mr. Bailey commenced breeding Angoras, he moved his entire grade-flock, consisting of about 1000 animals, to Nevada, and maintained his thoroughbred flocks in California. By careful selection, rigid culling, and strict attention given his flocks, Mr. Bailey had brought them by 1892, to an excellence beyond any of the imported stock. In 1893, Mr. Bailey imported two fine bucks from South Africa. An account of the buck Pasha will be found in this book. In 1899, another direct importation from South Africa was made, and the great sire Capetown was secured. In 1901, Dr. W. C. Bailey secured four of the best Angoras obtainable in Asia Minor, by personal selection, and added them to the Bailey flocks. This was the first importation made in America from Asia Minor for twenty-five years. During all these years, since 1865, Mr. Bailey had been constantly at work with his Angora flocks. There were many hardships to overcome, and most of the original Angora breeders gave up the struggle. We honestly believe that if it had not been for his perseverance the Angora industry would not be in its present prosperous condition. Register. We have been keeping a register of our stock, and this register is the oldest in the United States, or the world. Animals registered in the Bailey Angora Goat Record have a universal standing. Manufacturers of Gloves, Robes and Trimmings. The Angora Robe and Glove Company was established in 1875, with C. P. Bailey as president. Later Mr. Bailey secured sole control of this company. We have been using goat skins and mohair in large quantities for the last thirty years, and to-day WE PAY THE HIGHEST CASH PRICES FOR GOAT SKINS AND MOHAIR. Buck Selections. From the above history it will be seen that we have several different strains of bucks to offer, and the fact that we have taken the Grand Prizes and highest awards at the New Orleans World's Fair, 1885, Chicago World's Fair, 1893, St. Louis World's Fair, 1904, and sweep stakes at State Fairs and National Meetings for the last thirty years, should put these bucks on the top. We have sold thousands in United States, and they have given almost universal satisfaction. Does. Our thoroughbred does trace their ancestry to the best stock obtainable. We always have a good many grade Angora does on the range, and we are prepared to quote prices on carloads, or small lots. We gladly furnish information. C. P. BAILEY & SONS CO., San Jose, California. [Illustration: PERSIAN FAT TAIL SHEEP In 1892, we received the first importation of Persian Fat-Tailed Sheep. They are very hardy, rapid growers (the lambs often gaining a pound a day for the first one hundred days,) good rangers almost free from disease, and to cross onto fine wooled sheep for mutton and wool, we consider them of much value.] 
34044	----	BEE HUNTING A BOOK OF VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR BEE HUNTERS--TELL HOW TO LINE BEES TO TREES, ETC. BY JOHN R. LOCKARD Published by A. R. HARDING, Publisher Columbus, Ohio Copyright 1908 By A. R. HARDING PUB. CO. CONTENTS I. Bee Hunting II. Early Spring Hunting III. Bees Watering--How to Find Them IV. Hunting Bees from Sumac V. Hunting Bees from Buckwheat VI. Fall Hunting VII. Improved Method of Burning VIII. Facts About Line of Flight IX. Baits and Scents X. Cutting the Tree and Transferring XI. Customs and Ownership of Wild Bees XII. Benefactors and Their Inventions XIII. Bee Keeping for Profit SOME MEMORIES OF BEE HUNTING I was born in a little valley, hemmed in by mountains running north and south on either side. It varies in width from one to three miles from the foot of one range to the other. From my home I have a clear view of these beautiful Mountains and, as these mountains and lowlands teemed with game of all kind, and being heavily timbered, made an ideal location for the home of the wild bee. From early youth I loved to lure the wild turkey, stalk the deer and line the bee to his home. Is it any wonder that after forty years of undiminished passion for sports of this kind that I can truthfully say there is scarcely a square rod of these mountains that is not indelibly impressed on my mind in connection with some of the above mentioned sports or pastimes? I will confine myself in this work to the subject of Bee Hunting, believing it to be one of the most fascinating and beneficial of pastimes. PREFACE In the preparation of this work, it has been my aim to instruct the beginner in the art of bee hunting, rather than offer suggestions to those who have served an apprenticeship at the fascinating pastime. I do not wish to leave the impression that I think others who have made this a study do not know enough on the subject to give suggestions; far from it. But to be candid with each other, as lovers of nature and her ways should be, even though we be veterans in the business, by an exchange of ideas we can always learn something new and of value. Many books on sports of various kinds have been written, but outside of an occasional article in periodicals devoted to bee literature, but little has been written on the subject of bee hunting. Therefore, I have tried, in this volume, Bee Hunting for Pleasure and Profit, to give a work in compact form, the product of what I have learned along this line during the forty years in nature's school room. Brother, if in reading these pages you find something that will be of value to you, something that will inculcate a desire for manly pastime and make your life brighter, then my aim will have been reached. I am very truly yours, JOHN R LOCKARD. BEE HUNTING CHAPTER I. AN OLD BEE HUNTER. The bee hunters in my early days used one of two methods in hunting the bee. The hunter would select a clear day, generally during buckwheat bloom, and after determining on a course, sun them to the tree. This was done by placing the hat or hand between the eye and sun as close to the light as the eye would permit. If the hunter knew the difference between the flight of a loaded bee and an unloaded one he would keep on the course until the tree was located. This method must undoubtedly be injurious to the eyes and I do not follow this plan nor advise others to do so. The other method was what was termed burning or baiting. A fire was built near where the bee tree was supposed to be, large flat sand stones were placed on the fire and heated. One of these was removed to some place clear of trees and underbrush, some bee-comb, dampened with water, was then placed on the stone, and when the fumes of the comb would go off into the air any bees flying near were apt to be enticed to the bait, which was sprinkled on a bunch of bushes and laid near the stone. Many bees were found in this way, but if they went any great distance two or more fires had to be built. This would require much time and often the hunter, not being careful in extinguishing the fire, the surrounding leaves would catch fire and a destructive forest fire would result. Therefore it shall be my aim to eliminate anything of an injurious or objectionable nature in the work I lay before the reader. On a calm morning in the early part of November, I went to the top of the mountain west of my home. The day was an ideal one. The trees had shed their leaves, making a thick carpet over the earth. It seemed that all nature was getting ready for a long winter sleep. All flowers except a few bunches of mountain goldenrod were dead. The bees seemed to be aware that their labors were about ended and were eagerly looking for anything in shape of sweets that would add to their store of supplies and thus help to tide over the long winter. After arriving at the top of the mountain I built a fire, heated a large flat stone and took some bee comb and proceeded to follow the example before mentioned. After watching quite a long time and not seeing any bees I was on the point of giving it up, at this place at least, when that sound so delightful to the ear of the bee hunter, the silvery tone of the bee in flight, came to my ear. Several times the sound was repeated but so far I had not got a sight of it. On looking over the top of the bushes I saw two bees flying slowly, sometimes coming near the bait, then darting away, then returning and finally settling down on the bait. All was anxiety! I must be sure to see these two bees take their homeward flight. In a very short time one of them slowly raised from the bait, circled a time or two, and then darted away so quickly that I knew not where. Now the other one won't escape me so easily. But when I turned to look, she, too, was gone. In a short time they were back and lots of others close behind. In a half hour there must have been a quart of bees on the bait. By this time I had seen a number of bees fly due west and some due east. So taking another hot stone and going some distance on the course west, I put the stone down, burnt more comb, and in a few minutes had lots of bees. They still continued westward. The next time I stopped where a swamp extended from the top of the mountain back some two hundred yards. There were many large gum trees growing in this swamp. After a while I was convinced that the bees flew at right angles from the former course. Leaving the bait I went into the swamp and found them going into a large gum tree about twenty feet from the ground. My spirits were high, this being the first bee I had ever found entirely by myself. Taking out my knife and going up to the tree to put my initials thereon, my spirits fell as suddenly as they had risen. There in plain view were the letters I. W. The spirit of selfishness then showed itself. What right had anyone to take this bee from me? I had almost come to the point of thinking I had a monopoly in the bee hunting business and that others had no right to intrude. I trust others do not show this spirit and am sure I have got rid of it myself. If there is any pleasure or benefit to be derived from anything, God certainly intends it for all. The initials would not correspond with the name of anyone I knew, but supposed that some time I would find out who I. W. was. Now the bee that flew east could be looked for, but what was the use? Hadn't the best bee hunters in the country tried to find it and failed? Beyond a certain point all trees disappeared. This was the only Italian bee known to be in a radius of ten miles and it was not a great while after their introduction into this country. So taking my way to the top of the mountain near the edge of the swamp, I was surprised to find a cabin, and from indication it had just been built. On going up to the door my eye fell on the occupant, a man well up in years. In one corner was a number of steel traps. In another a rifle of the then modern type. These signs told me that a new hunter had taken up his abode among us. He told me to be seated and moved over on the rude bench to make room for me. He began by asking me what I was doing out on the mountain, and as I was so young, no doubt had an idea that I was lost. I told him that I was bee hunting and had found one but some one had found it before I had, and that the initials I. W. were cut on the tree. Turning to me he said, "You don't know who that stands for? Well, young man, I kin tell you. I. W. stands for Ike Ward, and that's me. The little fellers come sippin' around my cabin and I give 'em a little sweet water and found 'em in a jiffy." I then told him of the Italian bee. He asked me why I didn't find it. The reply was that the very best bee hunters in the country had tried it and failed and I supposed it would be of no use for me to try it. "Well, they must be great bee hunters; why, young man, I would rather undertake to find a bee than ketch a rabbit in a good trackin' snow. The rabbit might jump up and run away, but after I get my bee started, he's mine." It was getting well along in the afternoon and I told him I must go home. "Well, your folks might think something has happened to you and I won't ask ye to stay any longer; but come up again and we will find that yaller bee." I thanked him and asked when it would suit him to go. "You kin come any time you keer to, but ye'd better come early when you do come, fer I might be out scoutin' round and not be home." That proposed bee hunt was the only thing thought of on my way home, the only thought that went with me to my bed, and in my dreams I saw the most beautiful yellow bees in the world on combs of snowy whiteness, some of them as large as a door. Early the next morning, before the sun had shown himself to the people down in the valley, I was far on my way up the mountain on my way to the hunter's cabin. Great drops of sweat were standing all over my face, but I never slackened my pace until I heard the cheering "Good morning" from the old hunter at the cabin. "Jist come and rest yerself. It's a little too early fer bees to fly yit." I replied that I wasn't tired. "When I was your age I didn't get tired either, but if you get to be as old as me you won't walk so fast up hill; you're all a lather of sweat." About an hour later we went out to where I had first baited the bees. I began to gather wood to start a fire and burn for them again. "What are ye goin' to do with that wood?" was his inquiry. On being informed that this was the way I got them to bait, he chuckled to himself and said he would show me a better and easier way. He then took a handkerchief from his pocket, then a small bottle containing something that was of a fluid form, and sprinkled the handkerchief with it. He then got a pole eight or ten feet long and put the cloth on one end, raised it as high in the air as he could, moving it back and forth in the breeze. Very soon hundred of bees were darting through the air. The pole was slowly lowered until the handkerchief rested on the ground, sweetened water was sprinkled on some bushes, and in a few minutes the yellow bees were flying east and the black ones found previously flying west. This was a very simple, but a new departure from the mode followed in those days. He explained to me that the little vial contained water, with a few drops of the oil of anisseed added, and there were other scents perhaps better, but this being the only kind he had at that time was the reason for using it. We went directly east on the course four or five hundred yards. This brought us to the top of the mountain and to a large rock that was fully one hundred feet from the ground at the base to the top. From this rock we had a clear view of the valley below. The eastern side of the mountain was very hilly, and covered with a dense growth of trees, and farther down, this forest never hearing the sound of the woodman's ax, became so dense that the sun could scarcely find an opening to the earth. The cloth was sprinkled with more of the scent, waved a few times in the air, and laid beside the bait, which was composed of sugar and water, on the rock. Bees came in abundance. Very soon we could see some bees, heavily loaded, circle around and dart off down, down, until lost to our sight. Others would fly both north and south along the top, making three distinct courses. The old hunter watched these different flights for a considerable time, then going some distance along the top, and after a short time came back saying, "Just as I expected. These fly out there, make a turn, and come back to join the course that flies straight down. Now come with me out the other way and we will see if the others don't do the same." Sure enough! Taking our station some fifty yards from the bait we could see them coming heavily loaded, bend down and back toward the main course. "I have found many bees in my time, young man, an' never saw one act this way unless the tree was close. They act like they don't want to leave that rock; but we will go down and look at some of that timber." As all the timber far below had been looked at many times in the past I thought it useless but did not say so. After looking at the nearest trees below, those farther down were examined. The morning had been cloudy but now the sun was bright and clear. The hunter placed his hand before his eyes and gazing up at the sun said he "never saw sich actin'; they seem to come right toward the ground. I have found 'em in queer places but never in the ground." Just then a bee lit on some leaves in front of me. I called his attention to it. "Now ain't it a beauty? Poor little fellow; got too heavy a load an' has to rest. Now watch sharp; when he goes he will likely fly straight." In a short time he slowly raised, made a half circle, darted down the mountain, and was lost to me. Not so with my companion. Stooped low, his arm thrust forward as though guiding the bee in its flight, he slowly turned his arm, still following, until he was pointing straight up the hill. "As sure as my name is Ike Ward that bee flew up the hill, and just as sure its home is there, too." Up the hill he went, looking more carefully at every tree, until the last tree below the rock had been reached. I was on the upper side of this tree and was almost sure that it must be in this one. The old hunter was on the lower side, gazing intently up the hill toward the rock. For some time he stood thus, then said, "You had better look behind you if you want to find the yaller bee." On turning round I saw a steady stream of bees going in and coming out from the very base of the rock. The mystery was a mystery no longer. They had baffled all the bee hunters in the community for three years, but at last they gave up the secret of their hidden home to Ike Ward. Taking a piece of paper and writing thereon these words: "This bee was found by Ike Ward and pard; if any person find it please don't mislest it." He laid the paper above the entrance of the bees, and, laying a stone on it to keep it in place, we ended this our first bee-hunt together. This was only one of the many delightful trips which I took with the hunter, only one of the many valuable lessons received from him on this fascinating pastime. He has long since passed away, but the book of nature was open to him at all times and with a spirit that had no taint of selfishness in it, was always ready to impart knowledge to others. CHAPTER II. EARLY SPRING HUNTING. Bees are very fond of salt in the early spring, and, in fact, in all parts of the season when brood rearing is in progress. Now we will start out some fine spring morning, take a hatchet or an ax and a polk of salt, and we will go up on the side of the mountain and chop out a little trough large enough to hold a quart or more, then sprinkle a little water, scented with oil of anise or bergamont, on the outside of this trough, then put a few corncobs and a handful of salt in the trough and place the trough in the fork of a small tree out of the way of any stock that may be pasturing in the woods. Our work is now done at this place. We can go on and put out several of these baits along the mountain. The first rain that comes will fill the trough, dissolve the salt, which will soak into the corncobs, and the scent which we placed on the outside of the trough will entice any bees that may be flying. After this we go home and a day or so after the first good rain that comes, we will go back and the chances are that we will have several good courses. Now we will cover the trough over with a bunch of leaves--green boughs--and sprinkle these freely with sweetened water. Take a pint bottle, fill it one-fourth full of granulated sugar and fill up with water. This is better than more sugar, for when the syrup is too thick it requires more time for the bees to load up and if too thick, in a short time the bushes become sticky. After several bees have loaded up and gone home, we will take a cloth and saturate it with the same scent used on the trough, then take the bait--bunch of bushes--with us on the course, hunt a place as free from timber as possible and lay out bait on the top of a bush, the cloth beside it, and in a short time we should have plenty of bees. After determining on the course the same tactics are pursued until we arrive at the tree, or, if we have good reason to believe the bee stands in any certain group of trees and we fail to find the tree, to make sure that our ideas are correct we will move our bait off to one side of the original course and thus get a cross course, and at the junction of the first line of flight and this second line, the bees must certainly have their home. We must look at every tree with the utmost care, for it is a very easy matter to overlook a bee tree, even experienced bee hunters have done this. But if we take time to examine a tree from all sides we should always be able to locate them. CHAPTER III. BEES WATERING. HOW TO FIND THEM. As soon as the bees begin to stir in the spring they go searching around for water, for this is one essential element in brood-rearing. Early in the season the ground is generally so full of water that bees are not confined to any certain place in order to get the amount needed. But later in the season, when the ground has dried off and wet weather springs have dried up, if we go into the woods along the mountain and visit the never-failing springs sure to be found in the hollows and low flat places, we will be pretty sure to find bees at some of these places. It is not often that bees are numerous enough at these springs to make what would be termed a strong course, but by following the plan which I here give, you can, in a short space of time, have all the bees necessary, with no danger of having bees from other trees or from our neighbors' stands, which would make a mix-up, and make it much harder for us to follow the bee that is watering. When we go on a trip of this kind first we will provide ourselves with a small glass tumbler; a cover, made of some dark heavy material, long enough so that when slipped over the glass it will come within one-fourth of an inch of the open end. Then we will take a few drops of honey in a small vial, the scent, cloth, and bait of sugar and water mentioned previously. When we find the bees watering we take the glass, without cover, and place it over the bee, which will immediately try to fly and finding himself a prisoner, will crawl around the upper part of the glass. Previous to this a few drops of the honey were placed on a piece of cardboard or large leaf. Then we lift the glass and place the hand under to prevent the bee escaping and place it on the cardboard or leaf. Now place the black hood over it and watch the result. There is but one place for light to enter and this is the narrow opening at lower end of cover. In a moment the bee can be seen crawling around the bottom, sometimes reaching down to the cardboard. Now he has found a drop of the honey and seemingly forgets his sad plight of a moment ago and proceeds to take a meal. The glass is lifted gently off, the dark thick cover preventing him from seeing our hand. As soon as he is loaded he starts and circles many times and then goes home, and in some manner that we can't explain, tells others of what delicious sweets he has found. No more water for that bee; he is bound to come back and search for more honey. We can go and catch as many bees as we think it necessary, but generally five or six would be ample. Then the scented cloth is placed on the ground, a bunch of green bushes laid on the spot where the cardboard had been sprinkled freely with sweetened water, and we are soon ready to start on the course, following the instructions given in previous chapter. CHAPTER IV. HUNTING BEES FROM SUMAC. Sumac begins to bloom about the first of July and continues through the month. It is unquestionably the greatest source of honey in the country in which I live. From the time the dew is off until dusk the bee is busy on it. Every old worn-out field is plentifully supplied with it and a different variety is found growing in small patches all over the mountains. I have found more bee trees by the plan now given than perhaps any other. We will visit some of these places and select a spot where there are a few bunches near together, if no more than a half dozen bunches the better. Now having our bottle containing bait prepared, let us select two or three bunches standing close together and sprinkle them freely with the bait, then break off all others standing near. At first the bees will fly around as if they don't like to light on the wet bushes but the ones that were used to getting honey from these flowers may visit other flowers and fly away, but they are sure to come back, and, after taking a sip, finding it a quicker method of getting a load of sweets, settle down to business and in a short space of time adapt themselves to the new order of things and are soon on their way home, never failing to return, bringing others along. Keeping the bushes well supplied with bait, we will soon discover a course and perhaps two or more. Then take the scented cloth, lay it near the bait, and after ten or fifteen minutes break these bushes off a foot or more below the flowers and we are ready to start on the course. After going two or three hundred yards, select a place clear of trees so that they can fly on their course without being compelled to fly around timber, lay the scent cloth near by, and in five or ten minutes you will have plenty of bees, or, we may be going on the line of flight and find the bees suddenly cease to come to bait. This is an unfailing sign that we have passed the tree or are very close to it. CHAPTER V. HUNTING BEES FROM BUCKWHEAT. During buckwheat bloom, which occurs in the month of August and early part of September, many bees are found. Some hunters line them to the tree by sunning. This method requires a very clear day and unless the hunter thoroughly understands this art, knows an unloaded bee from a loaded one, he is not apt to be very successful. Besides this fact I have known many hunters to so injure their eyesight as to become, in old age, partially blind and perhaps altogether so. I, myself, have found many bees in this way and feel certain that my eyesight has been injured, but am very thankful that I discarded this method many years ago. Bees do their work on buckwheat from the time the dew is leaving until near noon; and on a hot, clear day but few bees, if any, will be found working on it after 12 M. One of the greatest elements of success in hunting bees by the baiting method is to use a scent that is the same as the flower the bee is working on. Therefore, gather some of the flowers of the buckwheat and have them distilled, or, if this is out of the question, put some of the flowers in a quart jar, say half full, well packed down, then just cover with diluted alcohol and let it stand a few days and you have an ideal scent to use at this particular time. After getting a course from a field of buckwheat, about ten or half-past ten go on the course, and when you come to a place clear of underbrush and no large trees to bother the flight of bees, sprinkle some of the scent mentioned above on some leaves and near the scent place a bunch of bushes sprinkled with bait made by filling a pint bottle one-fourth full of honey, one-fourth of granulated sugar and one-half water. Many bees, at this time of day, are going to and fro from the field. Some of them find nectar harder to get than it was an hour before and some fly on the homeward journey lightly loaded. They are beginning to lose faith in the buckwheat field and these are the very ones that detect the scent first. Others are becoming dissatisfied as these first ones did--one rubs against another, and in bee language tells that he has found something mighty good down in the bushes, and by the time the bait is licked up we should have a direct course from this location and be ready to repeat the operation farther on the course. The next time the bait is put down we should have plenty of bees in not more than ten minutes, and if they are tardy about coming, providing we had a fair amount at the first location, we have either passed the tree, are nearly under it, or have gone far off the course. CHAPTER VI. FALL HUNTING. The main sources of the honey supply are now over, and if the methods given in the preceding chapters are followed it is necessary for us to get out on the mountains or fields far distant from home apiaries and look for the few flowers that have escaped killing frosts. A few bunches of mountain goldenrod are found here and there scattered over the mountain-side. A white flower, growing on a stem about two feet in height, is also found in many locations. I am unable to give the botanical name of this latter flower, but every bee hunter who has had much experience has seen many bees on it when other flowers have ceased to exist or have been rendered useless by frosts, as a source of honey. If but a few of these flowers are found growing together and a few bees are seen on them, sprinkle freely with bait before described, and in a short time you will find ten bees to where there was one at first. Now if you start them from goldenrod, scent of almost anything used in bee hunting will serve to draw them on the course; but essence of goldenrod is far superior at this season of the year. As I have before stated, a scent should be used to conform as nearly as possible to the scent of the flower the bee is working on at any particular time. It would be a superfluity to explain any farther, as the same tactics must be followed as described earlier in this work. CHAPTER VII. THE LATEST IMPROVED METHOD OF BURNING. We now come to the time of the year when all flowers, by the laws of nature, cease to bloom. Indian summer is here with its nice balmy days. Just right--not too warm not yet too cool. The very time when even those of us who are getting up in years begin to feel young again. How sad it would be to the one who loves nature and her ways to be obliged to lay aside all thought of sport until nature unfurled her robes again! Some of the happiest moments of my life have come during this part of the year, and I hope to be able to convince my readers that we should always say "welcome" to the aged year. Well do I remember when I used to go along with the old hunter in search of the bee. A fire would be made, some large fiat stones heated and carried to a convenient place, then bee comb moistened with water, placed on them and soon bees would be seen darting through the air. Some might settle on the bait, but if not enough to satisfy the hunter, another hot stone was brought, and the process repeated until there were enough bees working on the bait to give a strong course. Then taking another hot stone and going a long ways on the course we would proceed to burn again. Perhaps the stone had cooled off by this time and the bee failed to come quickly or in sufficient numbers. Then we had to either go back, replenish the fire, heat more stones, or build another fire at the new location. Carrying the hot stones from place to place was the work generally assigned to me. Sometimes stones of a slaty nature would be heated and when becoming quite hot would burst with a loud report and fly in all directions. At that time I would just about as soon approach a loaded cannon. After twisting a stick around the stone it was carried at arm's length to the new location and with sweat streaming down my face I was glad when the time came to lay it down. This was undoubtedly laborious, but the excitement connected with the sport was at such a pitch that the thought of labor being in any way connected with bee hunting never entered my mind. But as time wore on I got to thinking that there might be other plans much easier and quicker than the one described, and I feel sure that those who love the sport will agree that the plan laid before the readers is in every way superior to the old method. First get a small tin pail, holding about a half gallon. Cut out, from the bottom upwards, a hole four or five inches up and down and two inches wide. Have a pan made so that it will fit down inside the pail just deep enough to come down to upper edge of the hole cut out of pail. There should be a rim on top part of the pan to prevent it working lower down than the hole in the pail. Now get a miner's lamp, which will not cost more than from fifteen to twenty-five cents. Coal oil can be used but lard oil is much better, and better than either of these is alcohol. A small lamp suitable for burning this can be purchased at a small cost. Now you are ready to start out. Take some refuse honey and your bottle of bait, get far out on the mountains, so there will be little danger of drawing bees from apiaries that may be situated in the valleys. When a suitable place is found, clear of underbrush and no large trees to bother the bees when starting for home, set pail down, put some of the honey in the upper part of the pail (or pan), strike a match, touch it to the wick of the lamp. The spout of the lamp should come within about two inches of the bottom of the pan. The honey begins to boil immediately and sends its scent out over the mountains. A few drops of the oil of anise and bergamont mixed can be dropped into the pan, and a bunch of bushes held over the fumes until it is scented. This is then laid on the top of a bush or stump close by and sprinkled with bait. By this time bees may be heard darting through the air or seen hunting slowly through the bushes in search of something to eat. It is a very good plan to blow the lamp out when the first bees are flying around. The scent is strong all around and when the lamp is blown out the scent soon dies out except near the bait and the bees find the bait much sooner than if the lamp was kept burning. There may be plenty of bees to start with from the first burning and if not, all we have to do is to light the lamp again. If you have your course and are about to start, it only requires a second of time to pick up the burning apparatus and the bunch of bushes and start on the course. But for fear you may be only a beginner and make a mistake which might discourage you, I want to have a little talk with you before starting from the first location. In reading articles relating to bee hunting, some of the writers tell how, after loading up, the bees would circle round and round before starting on the homeward journey. I believe I have seen a few bees make a complete circle. I have seen hundreds of thousands that did not. As a rule when a bee raises from the bait it will act as though it intends to circle, but watch closely and you find before coming around to the place of starting it will quickly turn in the opposite direction, repeating this several times--always widening out. It will seem to fall far back with a downward motion, then gather up and come slowly back, often passing to the opposite side of the bait and making a sudden motion, is lost to sight. This fact might make you think the bee really went in this direction. I want to stake my reputation as a bee hunter of years of experience, that when a bee is seen to make these half circles on one side of the bait and seem to fall off in any direction, bearing down toward the earth, that this is the general direction in which the tree stands, and if I can see a bee make a few of these half circles (though it may be the first one on the bait), it settles the matter in my mind as to the general direction of the tree. But even if our minds are made up in regard to this line of flight, it is wise to take more time and watch closely, for there is no good reason why we should not get two or possibly more courses from this first location. Then go on the strongest course until we find the tree and then come back and start on the others. In going on the course don't fail to look well at every tree, for sometimes they are found in very small trees when there are lots of large ones standing all around. I will give my experience in finding a bee that has taught me to look at every thing on the course, not even discarded stumps, logs and bushes, for I have found bees in the two former and hanging on the latter. In early November I had a strong course from bait. They flew directly up on the side of the mountain. The course flew over a large barren thicket and after looking at the timber on the lower edge of the barrens, the bait was moved across the thicket. There were a few chestnut trees standing between the upper edge and the place I selected to bait them again. Soon they came and flew back down. I was sure they must be in one of the trees mentioned, for there was nothing growing in the thicket large enough for a bee to go in. After looking at the few trees spoken of and not finding them, I went back down to the lower edge and could see them fly nearly half way across the thicket. I was puzzled, and proceeded to look at the few logs that were laying down and still failed to locate them. My next move was to hang my burning bucket on a limb and burn. In no time there were bees by the quart on the bait, flying in all directions. Singling out some of the steady flying ones, they seemed to fly a short distance, and drop into the brush. On investigating, I found them hanging on a little bush, working away as though they had the best place in the world to store their honey. They had evidently been there for a long time as they had several good sized combs fastened to the bush. I knew they were bound to perish, for cold weather was coming on, so I told a friend where to find it, and gave it to him with the understanding that he was to hive it, putting the combs and brood in the hive. The above is mentioned to prove that bees are sometimes found in places out of the ordinary, and in closing this part of my work I want to impress you with the fact that it always pays to go slow and look well while on the course. * * * NOTE--If not convenient and a vessel of the kind described (for burning) cannot be had, any small tin pail will do without cutting out the hole for lamp. A couple of stones laid on the ground a few inches apart will make a place for the lamp and the bucket placed over it on the stones, although the first mentioned will be found more convenient. CHAPTER VIII. SOME FACTS ABOUT LINE OF FLIGHT. You have all heard the term "bee line" used, and naturally infer that it means a straight line. This was what I believed it to be in my earlier days, but from numerous observations I am led to believe that the terms "bee line" and "straight line" are in some cases incompatible. If the line of flight is over ground unbroken by hills and hollows, a bee will fly as straight home after loading up as anything having wings can. But in following a course through a wooded country, along the side of hills or mountains containing ridges and deep hollows, the line of flight deviates far from a straight line. To illustrate and prove the above assertion, I will here give an incident in connection with bee hunting that occurred not many years ago, and which goes to prove that bees do not always fly in a perfectly straight line. East of my home about one mile there is a mountain extending north and south. Along the foot of this mountain, a stream, known as Sideling Hill creek, runs the entire length of the valley. The mountain extending up from this creek is made up of ridges and hollows. A friend of mine, one day in July, found bees watering along the creek and nearly east of my home. The bees flew south with the creek along the foot of the mountain. After trying to find them, (consuming two days' time in the attempt), he came for me to help him out, telling me that he had looked at every tree near the course for a distance of a mile. It was a very finely marked Italian bee, and being anxious to find and hive it, offered to pay me for my time whether we found the bee or not. I asked him if he had baited them at the water. He said he had tried but not a bee could be induced to take bait. My time being limited just then, I told him I would get them to bait for him and after this he certainly could find it himself. "Oh, yes, that's all I ask," he replied. Going with him, I used the method described in an early chapter entitled "Hunting the Bee from Water." In a short space of time I had lots of them loading up and flying south along the creek. About a half mile on the course an old clearing ran up some distance on a ridge, and the course seemed to go about midway through it. My instructions were to put the bait on this place, as it was clear of all bushes that might bother him from getting a direct course, and after giving all necessary instruction I went home and awaited results. The next evening he told me he had gone into the old field and, as the bees were a little slow in coming to the bait, he built a fire and proceeded to burn and got bees in abundance, still flying on the same course; then moving the bait much farther on the course to another old field, found that they continued on the same line of flight; and from this last location followed them in sight of a house, the owner having thirty stands of bees, thus convincing him that the bees all had come from this apiary. But I was convinced he had overlooked the bees started with, for these reasons: This apiary was two miles from where the bees watered; the same stream flowed near by the apiary--there were many springs near and water in abundance all along the course. Then the clearing first mentioned had lots of sumac growing in it; many bees from the apiary were working on this and other flowers, and by burning, these bees were enticed to the bait in such numbers that the few that may have been on bait from the tree were not noticed by an inexperienced hunter. After telling him of my suspicions, he was the more anxious that I should go along with him again and see for myself that there was no wild bee on the course. I was equally anxious to prove to him that there was. So the following morning found us in the old field where he had first placed the bait. Taking my bottle containing bait. I sprinkled some on a bunch of bushes left there the day previous. This was all that was required and the bees that had been having a feast at this location the day before soon found it out and eagerly settled down for another feast. It seemed that the whole apiary had swarmed out and come to the bait--hundreds were soon flying towards this apiary. Here my friend ventured to ask if I was not convinced that they went to the apiary. I had been watching very close and knew very well that the majority of the bees did go there, but I had also seen a few bees fly a short distance on the course and bear off to the left. I said nothing about this at the time, thinking it best to be positive before giving a final opinion. There was a deep hollow running up from the opposite side of the clearing and getting in a more favorable position I could see many bees bear off from the main course and go up to the hollow. Now I was ready to tell him he had been outwitted by the bees. Calling him to me, I showed him the bees flying up the hollow. We then moved the bait about one hundred yards farther up and found that they still went on up. We left the bait and proceeded to look at the timber. Finally one hundred yards above this last place there was a large white pine standing on the left side of the hollow and not over ten feet from the ground they were pouring in, in a steady stream, pure golden Italians. Was he convinced this was the bee we had started with from the watering place? No, not at all. It was too far from the course. I told him we would cut it and take it home, and if bees still continued to water at the same location I would give in. The bee was cut next day and taken home and all watering ceased at that place. This was evidence enough for him and proved to him, as it must to every one, that under certain conditions bees will vary very much from a straight line of flight. CHAPTER IX. BAITS AND SCENTS. In rambling through the woods and over the mountains I have seen bee hunters using bait with the oil of anise in it, or perhaps a bait containing several different scents. They did not seem to know, nor care, that bait containing these oils was injurious to bees; but the fact is well known that they are injurious--not to our neighbor's bees alone, but to the ones we are trying to find. Therefore, never combine baits with scents of any kind. The former is intended to furnish feed for the bee, and when loaded will always start for the home. The latter is used as a means of getting them to come to bait. There are many different scents used for enticing the bee to bait. Some hunters prefer oil of anise, others use bergamont; then some combine these or other scents. But bear in mind that what should be used ought to conform as nearly as possible in scent to the main source of nectar at any particular season of the year. In preparing these scents, take an ounce of the oil you may prefer, put it into a pint bottle and fill bottle one-fourth full of alcohol; let it stand a few days and then fill up with water. This would make sufficient scent to last any one for several years. A small vial can be filled and taken along--even an ounce vial will last several trips; or a few drops of the oil can be put into a bottle and water added, but as water will not cut the oil, it remains insoluble and when the bottle is turned in order that the mixture will run out, it often happens that our scent (after using a time or two) is no good, the oil having disappeared. But by cutting the scent with alcohol, the last drop will be just as strongly scented as the first. I have used about all the different scents known to bee hunters and oil of anise was my standby for many years. I found bergamont to be good. Horse mint, goldenrod, and many other oils and scents were used at some particular time of the year, but the most powerful and lasting scent I ever used was oil of sweet clover. Having run out of the oil and not knowing where to get it without sending to some drug house, I bought a toilet preparation labled "essence of sweet clover," and found it filled the bill. A few drops were spilled on my sleeve and in going on a course this was all that was needed. If I stopped but a moment, my arm was covered with bees. I don't advocate the use of the hunting-box for bee hunting. I tried them long ago and found the method slow and uncertain. In carrying my box from one location to another and releasing the imprisoned bees I would always see them circle around and light on a leaf and consume from five minutes to a half hour in cleaning themselves up and when they did depart, there was no assurance that they would come back. However, some hunters must meet with better success than I have had in hunting by the box method, and to those I would say, if bringing the bees to your box is what you want, just rub a few drops of the oil of sweet clover on the side of your box and that part of finding the bee is done. It is hardly necessary to say more about baits. My views have been given in the earlier chapters on bee hunting. A few drops of pure honey is perhaps the best that can be used in starting the bees on bait, but as soon as several have loaded with the honey, sprinkle your bunch of bushes which you intend to carry on the course with a bait made by filling a bottle one-fourth full of pure granulated sugar, then a little honey and filling the bottle up with water. This will make the bait sweet enough and it will not become so sticky as if more sugar or honey were used. CHAPTER X. CUTTING THE TREE AND TRANSFERRING. I hope those who read this book may find something in its pages that will be beneficial. In your excursions through the forests you are unconsciously getting the benefit of the greatest source in the world of physical perfection--God's pure air--and, at the same time there are no reasons why one with reasonable tact cannot be benefited financially. When should a bee tree be cut and transferred to the hive? There is a difference of opinion in regard to the time of the year and also to the manner in which it should be done. I respect the opinions of those who have expressed themselves on the subject, but after trying nearly all the methods described I found nothing in them that came up to my ideal of a perfect plan of transferring the bee from the tree to the hive. My first plan was to cut the tree and, if not too large, saw it off both above and below the bees, keep them in with smoke, and tack screen over the place of entrance. Then hire someone to help carry it home. It was set up on end and left to take care of itself and if a swarm would issue from it and we were successful in hiving it in the old box hive (the kind mostly in use in my boyhood days), we thought the last chapter of bee-keeping had been learned. Then, after the movable frame hive came into use the tree would be cut, the bees drove into a box, the honey taken from the tree and with a few pieces of brood all was taken home. The small bits of comb were tied in the central frames for the bees to cluster on and the bees shaken from the box in front of the hive. This plan was certainly superior to the first mentioned but had one serious drawback--the brood that was in the tree was left to perish. After seeing the serious defects in the described methods, my next move was to take a hive with me on going to cut the tree. All comb containing brood was placed in the frames, the bees run into the hive, which was left at the tree for a week or more in order that the bees might have all the combs joined to the frames, and then brought home. This was another advance in the method of transferring, for the thousands of young bees about to emerge from their cells were saved, and the colony having its brood and strength undiminished should be able to fill at least one super of honey besides all stores needed for themselves. Taking it for granted that we cut the bee in the early part of the summer, one super would be a low estimate, but even this would pay all expenses connected with the cutting, buying a hive and fixtures, and as the bee is now in an ideal hive we can hopefully look forward to the next year when our profits are coming in. There could be other plans given, some of them having virtue, but I will now lay a plan before the reader which if followed will prove more remunerative, and with less expense, than the former methods. To carry a hive and tools necessary to cut a bee tree will require the service of an assistant and when, after a week or so, we return to bring the bee home, more help is needed. A man is worthy of his hire and of course is paid. Carrying a hive over rough and uneven ground is hard work. So by the time we have the bee home and sum the matter up, the financial part of bee hunting don't impress us very strongly. I have been in the habit of hunting bees during the fall months, but if I need a day's outing, no month from early spring, until late fall fails to find me on my tramps through the forest in search of a bee tree. No difference what time of the year I find my bee nor how many may be found in any particular season, they are always left stand over winter and cut the following spring, but not before May, for I want the bee to be strong in bee with abundance of brood. About this time of year I take a box eight inches square at the end and two feet in length. Over the one end some wire screen is nailed and a lid, the center being cut out and replaced with wire screen, serves as a covering for the other end. With bucket, ax, and this box we will go to the tree, cut it, being careful to fell it as easy as possible. When it falls the bees should be smoked at once to prevent them rising in the air. For good reasons I prefer to cut the tree about nine or ten o'clock in the forenoon. After blowing a little smoke in at the entrance, proceed to chop a hole in the tree low down on the side, then another hole farther up or down the tree, depending on whether the bee works up or down from the place of entrance. After this is done, split the piece out, blow more smoke on the bees and take the combs out. Brush the bees off, lay them on the log some distance from the bees, place the forcing box over the main body of the bees and by brushing and smoking drive them into it. The box should be in an elevated position, say forty-five degrees or more, as bees will go on the upper end much more readily when the box is in this position. Be sure the queen is in, which can generally be determined by the manner in which the bees enter the box. If they are inclined to run back out after being forced in, it is a pretty sure sign the queen is not with them. When you are sure the queen is with them, and there is a sufficient number of bees with her, lift the box gently off, turn it upside down and place the lid on and fasten with a couple of tacks taken along. Now place the brood combs back in the tree. First a comb then a couple of small sticks crosswise to form a bee space. Continue this until all the combs are back in the tree, and as the top part of the log was not split off, the piece split from the side can be fit in, bark and flat stones can be used to form a covering that will keep the rain from getting in. By cutting the tree at this time of day thousands of bees are out in search of nectar and when they come home and find their home gone, will fly around in the air until becoming exhausted, and will then settle on the leaves and bushes in bunches and knots by the hundreds. If there was any nice white honey we have it in the bucket and picking up the box start on the homeward journey. Presuming we have a movable frame hive at home with an inch of starter in the frames or, what would be better, a hive filled with comb from the year previous, we place the hive on its permanent stand and take the lid from the box and shake the bees down at the entrance. For fear the queen has been left in the tree it would be well to have an entrance guard placed on the hive, as this would exclude the queen and as soon as the queen is seen the guard can be removed. In a short time we can tell whether they take kindly to their new home. The queen is a laying one and some pollen should be taken in the following day. I always made sure I had the queen and never had a bee so treated to swarm out after being hived. Now what about the bee in the tree? When we left it there were thousands flying around and settling on the leaves and bushes, other thousands in all stages of development in the combs. The ones that are hanging on the bushes begin to make further investigation and finding their brood soon cover it and with the bees hatching out every hour soon make the colony almost as populous as it was before the tree was cut. In taking the combs out we may have seen some queen cells started. If so, so much the better. If not, there certainly were eggs in some of the combs and in sixteen days at the most they can rear a queen from these eggs. When this time has elapsed, take your box and smoker. Take the combs out as before; drive the bees into the box, and as the brood is nearly all hatched out by this time you will have nearly as many bees as you got the first time. These are brought home and treated as the first swarm and the combs can be placed in the log again for the few remaining bees that may have been left, to cluster on and these can be brought home later and joined to the second swarm. By this method you get two strong colonies from one tree. There is no help needed; no heavy lifting and carrying of hives to and from the tree. By following this plan you can soon have quite an apiary and be on your way to enjoy the profits as well as the pleasures of bee hunting. This plan is original with me and I believe it to be the very best plan given so far, and I expect to follow it until someone gives us something superior. The profits of bee hunting will depend on the ability of the man to manipulate the bees after taking them from the tree. You must agree with me that in cutting the tree, there is nearly always some of the combs containing honey broken up and covered with dirt, and this honey can never be classed as salable. Therefore, if we hunt bees merely for what honey may be in the tree and leave the bees to perish from starvation and cold, it were far better, from a moral and financial point of view, to let the tree stand. CHAPTER XI. CUSTOMS AND OWNERSHIP OF WILD BEES. There are customs in vogue among sportsmen that have been handed down from generation to generation, that have almost become laws. Indeed, we have heard it said that custom becomes law. A hunter may wound a deer, follow it for a distance and find that another hunter has shot and killed it. The question might arise as to whom the deer belonged. A bee hunter may find a bee tree and mark it and some other hunter might find it afterwards and cut it. The same question might arise as to whom it legally belonged. If sportsmen were to settle the disputes they would refer back to custom and say the deer belonged to the one first wounding it, providing the wound was of such nature that the one first wounding it would have been pretty sure of getting it, by following on, and they would also decide that the bee belonged to the one who first found and marked it. A custom that may seem to be founded on justice is pretty apt to be followed by laws that may coincide with the custom. But we must remember there are statute laws relating to the ownership of wild animals and bees, and though we all band together as sportsmen, we cannot abrogate nor set aside these laws already formed. In my boyhood days, when I would find a bee, I was very slow to tell any one just where it was for fear they might cut it. Was this true sportsmanship? I think not. Some other bee hunter might hunt for that bee a day or more and finding it would have reason to say that I had deceived him and he could hardly be blamed if he cut it. I have been used just this very way more than once, and felt like retaliating by cutting a bee that was found prior by another party. But am glad to say that I never did. Since I became more mature in years I have had more confidence in my fellow sportsmen and now after finding a bee tree the first time I see any one who is likely to look for the bee, he is told its exact location, thus probably saving him much valuable time in not looking for a bee that is found. As a fitting close to this work it might be well to quote the statute laws relating to the ownership of wild bees. "Bees while unreclaimed, are by nature wild animals. Those which take up their abode in a tree belong to the owner of the soil, if unreclaimed, but if reclaimed and identified, they belong to the former owner. If a swarm leave a hive they belong to the owner as long as they are in sight and are easily taken; otherwise they become the property of the first occupant. Merely finding a bee on the land of another and marking the tree does not vest the property of the bees in the finder. _They do not become private property until they are in a hive."_ This is a statute law. But true sportsmen do not think of going to law for adjustment of these matters, but rather depend on that fraternal spirit by which all questions relating to ownership are settled amicably. CHAPTER XII. SOME OF OUR BENEFACTORS AND THEIR INVENTIONS. Bee keeping as a source of revenue dates far back in ancient history. With the advent of the movable frame hive and the increased demand for honey all over the world as a source of food supply, it received a new impetus and there are many bee keepers in this and other countries who are not only making an honest living in the pursuit, but have become wealthy as well. Over half a century ago, Rev. L. L. Langstroth invented the movable frame hive and became the benefactor of the bee-keeping fraternity. Prior to this time there was no way of telling the condition of a bee except what could be learned from an external diagnosis. If from their actions we were led to believe the colony was diseased, or that the bee moth was holding sway, there was no way by which we could remedy the evil. But this invention gives us access at all times to the brood chamber and we are able to see just what is wrong and apply the proper remedy. Perhaps it is fair to add that all bee keepers do not agree that the movable frame was invented by Father Langstroth. This honor is conceded by many to belong to Huber or Dzierzon, German bee keepers. Be this as it may, the movable frame hive of today, used throughout America and many foreign countries, is the product of the inventive genius of this great benefactor of the bee-keeping fraternity. The invention of many accessories since the death of Father Langstroth, many years ago, would almost make us believe that there is nothing further to be desired, that perfection has been reached. But well we know that perfection cannot be reached on this earth, and so we will look forward, knowing as time goes on that other great minds will add to the store of knowledge now possessed by the bee keeper, and bee keeping of the future will be as far in advance of the present as the present is of the past. With the help of appliances and the instruction given by able writers in many magazines and bee papers anyone with a fair amount of ability should be able to make a success at this vocation. There are many men who, while they have proved to be benefactors to us, have at the same time become wealthy. There are many instances of this, but I will mention The A. I. Root Co., of Medina, O. A. I. Root, the senior member of this firm, was an apiarist of note while I was still a little boy. After a while he began the manufacture of hives and appliances. He invented the pound section box, the extractor and many other accessories that could not be dispensed with at the present day. Many of his inventions were never patented, thus saving that cost to those whom he wished to befriend, and by honest dealing, selling the best of everything needed by the apiarist at the lowest possible cost consistent with superior workmanship, he has today, the most extensive manufacturing establishment in America, and possibly the world. In connection, the firm publishes, "Gleanings in Bee Culture," a monthly magazine, devoted to the interest of bee keeping. The ablest writers, men who have made this their life work, contribute regularly and give us advice which, if followed will lead to success. Therefore, when the bee history is completed, and the names of many who have been our benefactors are recorded, the names of L. L. Langstroth and A. I. Root will shine with lustre. CHAPTER XIII. BEEKEEPING FOR PROFIT. It is not generally known that beekeeping is quite an industry in the United States and that this country maintains a lead over all other lands both as to the quantity and quality of the honey it produces. This is the case, however, and America is recognized by other countries as the honey-land par excellence, where beekeepers turn out honey by the carload and this is so, for California, in one lone year, produced 800 carloads, and of this 500 were shipped out of the state. Texas is also a heavy producer and year in and year out will actually outrank California. Although produced in such vast quantities it must not be inferred that quality is neglected; on the contrary we cannot be excelled when merit is considered. Our apiarists are scientific to a very high degree and possibly no branch of American farming has been worked up to so great a pitch of excellence, only dairying and horsebreeding can be compared with it, but American apiculturists lead the world, whereas, our horsemen or dairymen do not. This proud position is owing to the splendid discoveries and inventions of the Rev. L. L. Langstroth of Oxford, Ohio, who has been dead for some years, but whose spirit still lives. Previous to his time beekeeping was only an amusement or pastime, or more accurately speaking, a hobby. Now, the industry is founded on a sound scientific basis and bids fair to grow at a lively rate in the years that are to come. At present, the amount of money invested in bees and bee appliances is not less than one hundred million dollars. The annual income from this source cannot be much less than $20,000,000, and in a good year all over the country, it would approximate $50,000,000 though it is very seldom that there is a good season for bees all over this vast country. Beekeeping is a branch of agriculture and like other pursuits belonging to that science there are fat years and lean years. It is not an uncommon event for a beekeeper to clean up a sum of money for his crop which will more than equal the value of his bees and all the appliances he uses. Other years may be total failures, but year in and year out no industry pays larger returns on the labor and money expended. The wise beekeeper is not deterred by a bad season but simply bides his chance. He knows that in course of time the bees will make good all losses and give in addition a handsome profit to the owner for his kind attention and thoughtful consideration. There are still many opportunities for bee-keepers in this country. This is particularly true of West Virginia, Tennessee and Kentucky, where the conditions for beekeeping are almost ideal and where, as a usual thing, the market for honey is good. All through the South there are openings for beekeepers and it will be a long time yet before all openings are filled. Southwest Texas is a sort of beekeeper's paradise and only a part of it has been occupied as yet. Arkansas is a particularly good state for bees, but it has only been partially developed by up-to-date beekeepers. Parts of Pennsylvania are open to good beekeepers and so are portions of Michigan, one of the leading states of the Union. Ontario and Quebec are excellent for bees--none better. Nearly all the western states are good for bees and some of them rank high as honey producers. This is true of Colorado and Utah. Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Wyoming, New Mexico, Arizona, Washington and Oregon offer excellent openings for first-class beekeepers. In the West, beekeepers, usually select an irrigated region where alfalfa and sweet clover are common, so that during the long dry summers the bees are kept busy storing honey of a very high quality. Successful beekeepers are found in every state, and it would be hazardous for anyone to say just what state is best for bees. Ohio, Indiana and Illinois produce large quantities of fine honey, but this is nearly all consumed within their own borders at fair prices so that beekeepers do fairly well. What hinders beekeeping more than any other fault is the neglect of the beekeepers in not providing adequate shelter for the bees during cold weather, and also from the heat of summer. In the Northern and Central states good protection must be provided against zero weather. Our bees originally came from the tropics, and for that reason they require ample protection. The ordinary hives must have an outer case placed around them and then leaves, straw or sawdust well packed around them. Fixed in this way they will withstand the rigors of an arctic winter. Lack of adequate winter protection is the weakest point in American bee culture, and yet is easily provided. This accounts for the saying of many who have tried it, "Beekeeping doesn't pay." Perhaps at no time is protection more necessary than in early spring when the hives are full of young and tender brood. The hives may also be covered with layers of thick paper or asbestos board. A small hole will allow all of the fresh air necessary for bees in a state of sleep. These points are first mentioned because neglect of them accounts for most of the failures we often hear of. No success can be anticipated unless one uses the best hives made on the Langstroth principle. We have no space here in which to give a complete account of the hives now made on that plan. The better way would be for anyone interested to write for a sample of "Gleanings in Bee Culture" Medina, Ohio, or to American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Illinois, so as to get in touch with the publishers, who issue books adapted to the wants of beginners. These magazines also issue supply catalogues and in other ways are quite helpful. Splendid books can be purchased at a low price giving complete information with regard to the bee industry. Many persons have learned the whole art of beekeeping by a careful study of a good book on bee culture supplemented of course by observation. Nothing very important, however, can be learned about bees unless one possesses a colony of bees in a movable comb hive. In fact it is useless to attempt to obtain a knowledge of bees without a hive to work with. I, therefore, earnestly recommend any beginner to obtain a colony at the earliest opportunity. Very often an ordinary box hive can be secured for a "song." This will do to begin with. Next send for two complete standard Langstroth hives, a smoker, a veil and a bee book; also a swarm-catcher. If the box hive is of a medium size it will probably east two swarms in spring about fruit-bloom time or a little later. When the swarms emerge they may be quickly taken down by means of the swarm-catcher, if they happen to lodge in a branch of a tree, as they usually do. If the hives are in readiness it is no great feat to safely place the swarms in their new homes and all will go well. The parent colony may be disposed of in a week or ten days (not later) after the second swarm issues, by drumming the bees out of the box into the hive which holds the second swarm. This is done by giving them smoke from the smoker and then battering on the hive with a stick, which so alarms the inmates that they rush over the side of the upturned hive into the new one. What is left is simply a lot of dirty combs fit only for the melting pot. This is probably, the neatest, cleanest and cheapest method of making a start in beekeeping. It is well within the ability of most men and the cost is comparatively small. If the bees are native blacks, later on they may be changed to Italians simply by purchasing young pure bred queens for about a dollar each. The old queens are killed and new ones introduced in a cage till the bees make her acquaintance, when she is automatically released. In two months' time very few of the original bees will be found, all having died from hard work and old age, and their places taken by rich golden yellow Italian bees. It may be well to add this caution, "Do not experiment with any other race of bees." 
33972	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) FLORIDA An Ideal Cattle State Copyrighted 1918 by THE FLORIDA STATE LIVE STOCK ASSOCIATION P. O. Box 1181 Jacksonville, Florida Foreword _By W. F. Blackman, Ph. D., LL. D._ _President of the Florida State Live Stock Association, Member of the Florida State Live Stock Sanitary Board._ Requests for authentic information as to the advantages and possibilities of Florida for the growing of live stock, and in particular of beef cattle, have been coming of late, and in constantly increasing numbers, from all parts of the country. This booklet has been compiled for the purpose of providing this information. The gentlemen who have contributed to the volume are men of ability, long and successful experience in the live stock and kindred industries, and the most trustworthy character. Several of them have been engaged for many years in the growing and marketing of cattle on a very large scale in Texas, and have recently made a prolonged and close study of Florida conditions. The report of their findings is of the utmost interest. Prof. C. V. Piper, agrostologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, is recognized as the foremost authority on Southern grasses and forage crops. We are indebted to him for permission to make use of the valuable address on this important subject which was made by him at the recent annual meeting of the Florida State Live Stock Association. A study of these papers will make it evident, I believe, that Florida possesses a number of advantages for the profitable growing of live stock greater than those to be found elsewhere; among these are a mild, equable and healthful climate, comparative freedom from animal diseases, a long grazing season, vast areas of cheap lands, a soil adapted to the growing of numerous improved grasses and forage crops (especially such legumes as the velvet bean, the cow pea, the soy bean, the vetches, the indigenous beggar-weed, the peanut, and certain clovers), a copious and well-distributed rainfall, and countless springs, streams and lakes, providing almost everywhere an abundant and unfailing supply of pure water. There can be no doubt, I believe, that Florida will take a leading place in the near future among the important live stock states of the Union. What she needs is additional thousands of intelligent, energetic, thrifty and experienced farmers, who will take advantage of the opportunities she offers and develop to the full her immense and latent resources. Lake Monroe, February, 1918. POSSIBILITIES OF BEEF PRODUCTION IN FLORIDA. _By Frank S. Hastings, Manager of the S. M. S. Ranch, Stamford, Texas, who spent two weeks studying conditions in Florida just previous to the Sixth Annual Convention of the Florida State Live Stock Association, at which he was one of the speakers. These impressions have been prepared by Mr. Hastings for the benefit of the cattle men of Florida._ Before coming to the State I asked that I might see as many classes of cattle as possible and in as many different parts of the State as possible. My first trip was through the Everglades. I then made a trip near Gainesville, and visited the registered Hereford herd owned by Mr. N. A. Callison; also the grade herd of both Herefords and Shorthorns owned by Mr. A. L. Jackson of Gainesville, and the pure-bred and graded Shorthorn herd owned by Mr. S. H. Gaitskill of McIntosh. Then followed a four days' careful trip over the properties and herd of the Kissimmee Island Cattle Company, where I saw Brahma cattle, Hereford cattle and Shorthorn cattle in various grades, and their herd of Florida cattle bought last year. Then over the Indian Prairie country, the Osceola prairie country, including Halpatioka Flats, the marsh country of Okeechobee, with an unusually good opportunity for seeing the cattle scattered over the open range and to observe conditions on the open range. Incident to this great expanse, comprehending over six hundred miles in actual auto driving, I did not see a single windmill, or other artificial means of furnishing water, although I am told that on not a single acre of that entire property is there any difficulty in finding water at a depth of from ten to fifty feet. I shall come back to this item, only pausing here to call your especial attention to the fact that over this vast area of undeveloped water conditions, water can be supplied at a very small cost sufficient to increase the carrying capacity of the range at least several hundred per cent, and as against developing a similar water supply over the average Texas pasture country, it can be done at twenty-five per cent of the cost in Florida as against the Texas cost. Probably the most important thing that I saw in Florida was the registered Hereford herd of Mr. Callison. I recall that he boasted that in eight years they had never been given any winter help, and there were no evidences on his property that the cattle were in any way pampered. He had about thirty or forty of last spring's calves, which he was just weaning, and they were as good, on the average, as any bunch of calves I have ever seen in the great registered Hereford producing districts. I saw his yearlings and twos and his cows, and the entire herd shows in general development and quality a very favorable comparison with anything in the great breeding districts outside of distinct show herds. If the climate of Florida can produce these registered cattle without help and have them make a favorable comparison with cattle in the great registered breeding grounds of other parts of America, there is no reason why beef cattle can not be produced which, in turn, will form a favorable comparison with those of the great pasture breeding grounds, which, in turn, are furnishing the feeder cattle for the corn belt. On Mr. Jackson's place we found both graded Herefords and Shorthorns in the third generation, with splendid development and quality, and we found in his registered or pure-bred herd of Shorthorns good quality and development. At the home of Mr. Gaitskill we found both pure breds and grades of good development, and a splendid object lesson in a half-bred cow known as "Old Blue," her dam one of the primitive Florida cows and her sire a pure-bred Shorthorn bull. She is what might be called a blue roan, with the blue almost black. Then we saw her daughters and their daughters, and I think we saw a fourth generation, but either in this third or fourth generation, I remarked to Mr. Gaitskill that he could lie a little about that heifer, as she had absolutely every appearance and all development of an absolutely pure-bred Shorthorn. In this same district we learned from Mr. Jackson that graded cattle all the way from half-breeds up to seven-eighths and in the mixed threes and fours ages, all by registered bulls, weighed 900 pounds off grass last fall. As near as I can obtain information, the same ages in the native Florida steers and under most favorable conditions would probably not weigh to exceed 600 pounds. On this same trip Mr. Edwards of McIntosh told me that he got about half the gain on the native steers that he does from three-quarter-bred grades, on the same feed. The foregoing is a practical demonstration that as far as climate, general feeds and ordinary normal conditions are concerned, graded cattle thrive in Florida. It is important that I should have seen them, because I am working on well defined and demonstrated general principles of breeding and beef production, and they respond in every way to the foregoing. From this time on we must reckon with the world's supply of live stock. Without attempting to go into details, there has been a very material decrease in it during the past ten years. We know that Europe must be re-stocked after the war, and that the American supply is freer from disease than that of any other country. We know that under normal conditions the beef production of America has not kept pace with the population, and that even without the influence of war values of beef, stock cattle values have shown a steady increase for the past ten years. There is, therefore, every reason to believe that for a very long period in the future, even taking into consideration reduced beef consumption as the result of substitutes or every other influence, there is a reasonable expectation for strong values and a profit on production under normal expense. I think that we may go beyond the favorable general market and say that there will be a better market in proportion for the intermediate grades of beef, for grass produced beef, than for the very extreme corn-fed finish, and that in the evolution of the Florida beef problem, the grades produced will at least be in as great demand, and probably greater demand, than the ultra finished class. It is, therefore, fair to argue that the market is with the producer. You are singularly fortunate in having a Legislature which seems in every way disposed toward doing everything in its power to help develop the resources of the State. The Government believes that live stock production is its second greatest problem, and in every possible way that it can give co-operation is pledged to do so. In fact, I do not think that I would have been here at all unless a high official in the Bureau of Animal Industry had not urged me to come, in line with their work of general development throughout the South. Another thing, I find that Florida is very much in the public eye, and that all the live stock journals are anxious to have anything which touches upon increased beef production anywhere, but in the South particularly. With the knowledge that I might be here some time this winter, I talked to two of the great packers about the development of the beef industry in the South, and they both said that they thought the South was going to come to the front very rapidly, and that either they or some one else would undoubtedly keep pace with the development by enlarging their present facilities or building new packing houses. In that connection a packer loves a hog country to work in conjunction with cattle. Without giving the topic any more than this general statement, I can see where hog production is going to be one of the great things in Florida, and that while in Texas we do not attempt to produce any hogs along with our cattle, that hogs will be to some extent a part of the great pasture problems. In a general way, conditions are very similar in Florida now to those of some thirty-five years ago in Texas, at which time that State was an open range proposition. Today, with the exception of a very small strip along the Gulf Coast, the entire State of Texas is under fence, and in a general way has been under fence for nearly twenty years. There has never been a time in the State of Texas in the past twenty years when practically all of the grazing area of the State has not been occupied, and as against the cattle carried on the open range with practically no water development, the pastures of Texas, which are known as the range (but the word range in Texas means large bodies of inclosed land), are carrying several hundred per cent more cattle than at that time. The thing which in Texas led to great hardships alike to the large pasture owner and to the settler himself was the fact that so much of the land did not lie in solid bodies. I judge that in the main there is much less of this in Florida than in Texas, and that either by partition, or purchase, or auxiliary lease, the great bulk of that complication can be handled. And that brings me to the principle of fencing, which I think may be covered under the general heading of Control. First, it means defined ownership, which is always recognized. It means fire control, because it eliminates the wantonness which we now find all over your open range, each man working out his problem and firing the range for various causes. Fencing means that an area may be developed to its capacity. For instance, on your ranges fire kills the various varieties of the carpet or blanket grass and kills the little blue cane, as well as any number of other grasses, all of which, however, come back where an area is protected, and as they are among your very best feeds, the carrying capacity of a pasture is materially increased. Water may be developed through the windmill process directly in proportion with the needs of the cattle and concentrated to them as against any water development on the open range. It is a scientific fact that eradication of the tick may be accomplished by resting a pasture for a certain time. Fencing means the concentration of that area to the best bulls as against not only their mixture with the scrub bulls on the open range, but the fact that the old Spanish fighting blood in the scrub bull materially reduces the effectiveness of the higher class bull. Fencing means that if on any favorable areas you wish to introduce any of the wonderful grasses which the Department of Agriculture is showing can be spread very rapidly, it can be done concentrating to ownership. Fencing means that lands which are now being occupied by some one else without revenue, but at an expense, may be made to either pay a fair interest on the investment of land, improvements and cattle, or at least a rental revenue which will take care of taxes, interest on improvements and become a net economy, as against the open range. I believe, too, that the principle will stand that a property defined by fences immediately takes on increased value; that the buyer would pay more for it per acre defined than looking at it in the abstract as part of the open range. I do not think that in the whole State of Texas you will find a single land owner, who has fenced his ranches, who does not know that it has been done at a splendid profit. You begin your problem with a tick-wide eradication law, which Texas has only had a very short time. You begin it at a time when the Government and most of the tick-infested states are releasing thousands of square miles every year, and at a time when both science and every practical observer understands it as an economic measure, which may be pursued with practically no detriment or danger to the cattle. I think that we probably dipped in the neighborhood of a million cattle, considering the number of times that they were dipped, and we did not lose a total of fifty head from all causes. Eradication means larger cattle in better condition on the same feeds and a less mortality. It means that they can go anywhere in America without restriction; or, in other words, a broader market and no punishment just before shipment. I do not think that the perpetuity of the tick can be defended from any economic standpoint. I want to take up the breeding section, first with reference to what your cattle represent and a comparison with primitive cattle in other countries. I am advised on reliable authority that forty years ago the only ready money in this country came from the cattle men who either topped their bulls and took them to Cuba, or the Cubans came here and topped them, taking the very best sires that you produced for sport and slaughter. You have, therefore, for forty years been grading down, as far as the sire is concerned. In the matter of the cows, there has been no culling, added to which there has been in-breeding, and on both the sire and dam side following out the law that evil qualities intensify in posterity, the tendency has been down instead of up in the breeding of native cattle for forty years, to which the only relief has been a very limited introduction of the beef strains. In addition to this, the cattle have been infested with ticks, and every evil influence that could arrest their development seems to have had a good chance at them, and yet in spite of all this I find them on the whole much better than I had expected. I have been trying to make a comparison between them and the primitive cattle of Texas, which I have known for fifty years, as they were pastured next to my father's farm in great quantities when I was only seven years old and long before there was any process of improvement. I think the Texas cattle had greater scale, but from all I can learn I do not believe they had any greater vitality. I think, on the whole, though, that in evolving a race of cattle you have a little further to go than Texas had. Mr. Alvin Sanders, Editor of the Breeders' Gazette, in his book, "The Story of the Herefords," traces very carefully the first introduction of blooded bulls to the Texas and Western ranges, and forty years, certainly forty-five, is as far back as that influence began. My own people began on primitive Texas cattle in 1882, but from that time used only full-blooded sires, about ninety per cent Hereford and about ten per cent Shorthorn, and only about three years after I went with them sixteen years ago, I took selected calves from their herd to Chicago and won grand sweepstakes for feeder cattle with them against all competition from all sections of the United States. When I went to the S. M. S. herd I found a wonderful lot of breeding cows, the bulk of them at least fifteen-sixteenths and only requiring a vigorous culling process to bring them to a remarkably high standard. I was identified with Mr. Kirk Armour during the great progress in grading up Texas herds in the '90's, and it was noticeable in the stock yards that in a short space of about six years there was an absolute change in the general run of cattle from the ranges to the yards from primitive cattle to cattle showing very appreciable improvement, and in twelve years the longhorn had become a scarcity; he was practically extinct in 1900. Argentina during the same period evolved from a primitive race of cattle one which will compare very favorably to that of America in its up-grading. The other South American Republics have been slower, but between Argentina and America two demonstrations have been given within my own lifetime of a race of cattle absolutely redeemed from the primitive to practically full-bloods, and that the first twelve years of that work has resulted in animals showing fifty per cent increase in weight under the same conditions, a much higher degree of meat in the rib and loin and round, with an immense improvement in their instinct for putting on weight on the same feed over the primitive cattle. I am simply taking these generally demonstrated laws of breeding to apply to your conditions. I am sure that by using good sires you will find an immense improvement in three years; that in six years it will be a revelation, and that in twelve years you will have a race of cattle for which the world will make a path to your door. To arrive at this process I must first disclaim any thought of urging any particular breed upon you. On the other hand, I could not be fair to the problem without calling your attention to the fact that the Hereford has been the redeemer of the great Western ranges. I am sure, however, that the greater the degree of purity that you use in him, up to at least a seven-eighths, will be shown in the result. I find that there is some prejudice against the Hereford in Florida, but as far as I can follow it they apparently got a very low grade of bulls--I am inclined to think not over half-breeds, and then, too, they found they didn't get any more at that time for the better grades than they did for the others. The limitation of the Hereford is that in the first cross between a pure-bred and any of the primitive cattle ninety per cent will show white faces or dominant characteristics, and just so in the use of bulls, the animal may not have the intensification of blood that he should have simply because he has a white face, and the bull peddler has, as a proposition, bought something that he could sell at a profit, rather than in following out any visions of cattle improvement. I can not urge you too strongly to know absolutely the breeding strength of anything you buy, and that means in a general way that you must buy known cattle. I realize, too, that there is a great shortage of bulls, and probably the only way that you can get what you want, because it goes without saying that you can not afford to pay the price for registered bulls in all your work, is to work in some way through a central community of interests, go to Texas and buy the bull calf crop of some herd of cattle that will show fifteen-sixteenths or better breeding. I urge this freely, because you must go below the line and none of our own cattle are available. I believe that if you bring these calves over here, say in November at weaning time, at the age of about six months, and give them some good winter help, that they will acclimate quickly, and will give you very fair returns in the yearling period, although, of course, you can not expect from them a real usefulness until the two-year-old period. While the Hereford has been the redeemer of the ranges, practically every ranch man in Texas has felt that an undercurrent of Shorthorn is of the greatest advantage. We have used it persistently in our own work, and feel that it has given a most appreciable contribution to the weight and general quality of our cattle. In the last few years the Brahma cattle have come into prominence, and every investigation that I have made shows that they will undoubtedly prove a great factor in the evolution of Florida cattle. They seem to be immune to most of the pests and do not require as much in the way of acclimatization. They show a wonderful growth in yearlings and they mark their progeny with size and distinct characteristics in a most decided way. The packers seem to like them; they kill out a large per cent of beef, and while I have never had any experience with them, all my observation has been in their favor, and I urge you to go as far as you can in utilizing them in Florida. I am, however, convinced that you are going to need both the Shorthorn and the Hereford to combine with them. I am also convinced that both the Shorthorns and the Black cattle are going to prove very valuable adjuncts in your eventual work in the State, particularly as applied to small areas where the cattle are not asked to live as much upon their own resources. The experience, however, in Texas has been that the calf crop is not as great from either of these breeds as from the Herefords. For your information, on the S. M. S. Ranch we have averaged better than eighty percent calf crop for the last ten years. I think that perhaps you will find the Brahma cattle even more prolific than the Herefords. I think, too, that in every possible way you should encourage the breeders of full-blood cattle in all of these breeds, and that you give them every encouragement in purchasing their progeny. The introduction of good bulls is a comparatively simple matter, because they can be purchased, but a great cow herd can only be produced by accumulation, probably by a culling of at least ten per cent of all females every year during the process of up-grading. The yearling heifers should not be bred. We always cull them when about eighteen months old, cutting them ten per cent. Culling should be done both from an individual standpoint and from the standpoint of "Get." The culling process is the most important element in beef evolution. The process of culling will not be extravagant, because looking to the next few years it would seem that canner cattle will probably be as strong as any other branch of the industry, and these culls are usually not only splendid canners, but furnish quite an element of cutters, which means cattle producing very fair meat for regular consumption. I believe, too, that on any range of appreciable dimensions you will find it an economy to produce your own bulls, and in starting any good sized property I urge that you keep that in mind. Get your cows just as good as you can get them; of course pure-breds will be better, and then use only the best registered sires in that herd. I think advisable, too, in your branding, to put the year brand on all heifers, as it will be of material assistance to you in the matter of knowing the intensification of blood during the early process. It will not be so important later on when the cattle are all very high grade. The use of the scrub bull is an economic crime; therefore no matter what you use in the way of a sire you are pointed upward, but I feel that it will be a distinct economy to try to get seven-eighths, or at least fifteen-sixteenths sires. Another thing which offers a great economy in your country is the possibility of dropping calves an average of about two months earlier than they do in Texas. We do not like to have a calf come before the 1st of April. I believe that you can drop yours during January and February without any trouble, judging from the average condition of your cattle in a winter said to be from early October, the most severe you have ever had. Dropping a calf at that time will have him old enough to eat your young grasses when they begin to come. He will have a two months' pull over the Texas calf; will have at least two months longer to combine nursing and grazing to deliver him the first of November. As a summary of your breeding problem, I regard it as the simplest thing you have to deal with. There seems to be a sure result by comparison with other countries; there can be little argument as to its economic value, and it is simply a matter of disposition and making the proper investment in inclosures, in bulls and water development to accomplish a good business result. I only want to add this fragment as to breeding. Since dictating this section I chanced to meet at lunch today Mr. Will Goodwin, for thirty years one of the officers and managers of the Breeders' Gazette and one of the best authorities in the world on cattle. His winter home is near Ocala, Florida, and he has seen enough of your ranges to convince him of their great utility in beef production. He agrees with me that the evolution of your cattle is simply a matter of disposition. I find, however, that he has no use for the Brahma bull, although he joins me in the belief that you can not do anything to hurt the present breeding process, and he rather grudgingly admits that the Brahma bull may have a place in scale. I reviewed with him at some length what has preceded and asked him what he thought about my comparison with the Texas primitive cattle as to having more scale. He thinks I am right in that connection, but says that he believes the Florida cow is more shapely; that she has a better hindquarter than the old Texan cattle, and is, in a sense, a miniature Shorthorn, and that he believes that a cross between a Shorthorn and a primitive Florida cow will give you the best basis. I called his attention to the fact that in range experience neither the Blacks nor the Shorthorns seem to be able to make their own living as well as the Herefords and do not get the calf crop, and he was quite free to say that it had a little force. On the other hand, he confirms fully my belief that where a better class of protection can be offered than the vast ranges, the Shorthorn cross and the cross with the Blacks either on primitive cows or their cross will have splendid results. He also called my attention to the prominence that Blacks are getting in Florida. There is, therefore, a very wide range of possibilities in your breeding problem, all of it pointed upward, and there may be something in your experience here which will show that the Shorthorn and Black have a greater mission on the open range than they had in Texas. There certainly can be no question about the value of the blood. And here I might add that the Government is not asking any one to increase beef production from a patriotic standpoint, but rather that it offers a splendid investment. And perhaps I might add that when our boys who have gone into the army come back again they will practically all be trained athletes; men seasoned to the out-of-doors and loving it; men who have obtained an earnestness in life and a new vision as to usefulness, and when you stop to reflect that we have been sending the flower of the world to the front, when it comes back to us we will not only have the attributes I have described, but the flower of the world to apply them, and I look for an increased interest in all of the out-of-door lines of business such as America has never seen before. I thought I knew something of my own country and something of the possibilities of land available for cattle production, but seeing your ranges has been a revelation. They are off the track of the tourist. There is sparse settlement, and they are known to very few. In fact, they might be, in a sense, called a hidden country, but the whole of America is interested in everything that offers a good agricultural or stock-raising possibility, and when our boys come back, not only the boys of the South, but the boys of America are going to investigate your properties. I promised to come back to water development. Practically every question that I have asked in the main about water has been covered by the reply, "Water everywhere." Much of your area is watered by rivers and lakes, and where good surface water is not easily available for stock, your well water is so easily obtainable and at such small investment you can afford to have it every two miles over the entire country. I am told that the windmill will furnish ample production, and at that narrow depth the light mills, which go well in a light wind, are available. We have found it very valuable, however, to use the one and a half horsepower gasoline engines, and from that pumping supply as our live stock demanded, because you must keep water constantly before the cattle. Cattle become accustomed to watering at one place, and if there is no water they will stand around and wait for the mill to pump. Without attempting to go into details, you should have a proper water storage at each mill. It is small expense, and with a storage tank and a windmill it would be cheaper than a gasoline engine. It is always customary in our country to put salt around the water holes. I find, as a proposition, your cattle do not have salt at all, and it is very much needed in their development. Over some areas there is no lime, and there it would probably be wise to combine salt and lime, which can be very easily done by using a compressed cake, not rock salt. It may take these primitive cattle some time to learn how to lick the salt, but the next generation will be there all right, and it will have its influence in their development. It is my observation that under a proper development of water, a fenced area and proper subdivision fences permitting the protection of one pasture for winter purposes, forcing the cattle out in summer upon areas best adapted to that season, that Florida lands will carry from two to three times the number of cattle that the average Texas range does. I find, too, that a great deal of the range offers a splendid hog feed from the cabbage palm, the seed of the palmetto and from the mast found in the shinnery. It would seem, therefore, that an appreciable number of hogs may be produced without extra cost on most Florida ranges. While they will not sell for the top prices unless fattened on some concentrate, they bring a very fair figure as against combined result and overhead charges, and should be a big factor in revenue and one that we do not have in Texas. Your lands are singularly free from pests. To illustrate, it cost us something over $75,000 to kill prairie dogs on about 450,000 acres of Texas lands, and outside of the shinnery lands the great bulk of Texas lands have been populated with prairie dogs, which in bad times take at least one-third of the grass. You do not seem to have the screw worm, which bothers us a great deal in very wet weather. You can own your posts at a comparatively small cost and with normal prices of wire I should say could construct your fences for three-fourths of what it costs us. You have no very long drives for your cattle when shipping them, and in the matter of winter help to your cattle it will cost very little as compared with what we have to spend in Texas. To give you an idea, we are buying $50,000 worth of feed to winter a herd of 25,000 head of cattle. While your season here will permit you to get through with very little extra cost, if any, I think that you should make a provision for some concentrate, so as to have it. In Texas, when the grass is all gone, the use of cotton seed cake is limited when not taken in conjunction with a good filler, and there is never a time when you at least don't have a good filler. It is simply a matter of getting a little concentrate on it and cutting out the weak cattle and concentrating them to such winter help. You are right where we were in '82--large areas of land, in which our problem was to make them carry themselves without cost, or pay a small interest until such time as they would sell at good value. We had very low values on cattle, long distances from the railroads--in fact, every possible disadvantage, but these lands have always paid for taxes and overhead expenses and have always given us a little something in addition, and are at a point now where they pay us a very good net interest on $10.00 land and $70.00 cows. We probably could sell every acre that we own at a price which would give us more net money than we get from the cattle business, but our people consider it a mighty good back-log to have lands which were almost without value brought up to that value and to their earning capacity. I think that if you go into the cattle business you should study very carefully the possibility of disposing of the calf at weaning time. That is something you will have to grow to. The Government is authority for the statement that the economical production of beef is the calf, taken at weaning time, not allowed to go back, but kept coming in the matter of feeding, and if this calf is to be taken at that age, you can run twenty per cent more cows on your range, producing an average of fifteen per cent more calves, as against developing a steer to the three or four year old period, in which his individual gain is your revenue in the matter of a carrying charge. I believe, too, you will find it an economy to dehorn these calves at branding time. It can be done with practically no loss of blood. The animal is well in a very short time. I think he develops better and he certainly sells quicker. Packers have immense contracts, and if the war continues they must have lots of tinned beef. On the other hand, if the war stops the world must stock up again with tinned beef. We know that they expected to pay an average of at least one cent per pound more for their canners the past year, but that the great drought has forced so many cattle in, the owners were very thankful to take what they got and the packers were forced to their capacity to attempt to handle them in such quantities. We know that the calf crop of Texas next year will probably show a decrease of twenty-five per cent, and that if rain comes in time to give good spring grass that a farmer will pay anywhere from ten to twenty-five per cent more in Texas than any other part of America. It would not surprise me at all to see your Florida cattle shippped over to Texas. We know, too, that next year, instead of the normal number of cows coming in in the culling process, which find their average market as canners, it will be the disposition of every ranchman to hold back cows which would ordinarily go into the culls in order that his ranch may be brought up sooner to re-stocking. I would urge all of you to get your fences up and buy as many cattle as you can handle, because the she-stuff is going to be higher. This is particularly true of the she-stuff which has been selling at the values of Florida primitive cattle. FORAGE CROPS FOR FLORIDA. (_Address delivered before the Florida State Live Stock Association, January 9, 1918, by Prof. C. V. Piper, Agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C._) For many years I have been interested in the problem of more and better forage for the South, because it has long been evident to students of agriculture that sooner or later there would be an important live stock industry developed in the South. The present greatly increased interest of Florida, and, indeed, of the entire South, marks, I believe, the beginning of this epoch. Several economic incentives have conspired to bring about the present active interest and development. Chief among them, perhaps, were: First, changes necessitated by the spread of the cotton boll weevil; and, second, the present high range of prices for live stock--prices that in all probability will be little, if any, reduced for many years to come. Another incentive that must, however, be recognized was the desire of enterprising men to develop the latent resources of the South, not only as an attest of their economic faith, but also from the patriotic motive of helping the nation in this period of stress. As an indication of the extent of this movement I may state that within the past two years over thirty extensive live stock enterprises have been launched, all in the piney woods region of the Southern States. Most of these companies have ample capital, and most of them are proceeding along conservative lines. The future development and prosperity of this industry must rest upon a thorough knowledge and proper utilization of the forage crops adapted to the region. In very large measure these forages are quite different from those used in the portions of the United States where animal husbandry is most developed. From a practical standpoint we cannot use in the South the forages of the North and West, with the important exception of corn. The other great forages--timothy, red clover, alfalfa, blue grass and white clover--can never become important in Florida. This fact needs emphasis, because the newcomer in Florida is often carried away with the idea that these forages may be made to succeed. In the beginning of this active live stock development it is unfortunate that there is not a larger body of exact data concerning both the culture and feeding value of the more important forages available. There is a large amount of such information concerning corn, timothy, red clover, alfalfa, blue grass and white clover, not only in America, but also in Europe. Furthermore, countless live stock farms exist where the practical utilization of these forages has been worked out in detail. In comparison, our stock of knowledge concerning Southern forages, both from experimental investigations and from practical experience, is relatively small. This is not surprising, because the experiment stations have very properly been compelled to devote their energies mainly to assisting agricultural industries in proportion to their existing importance, rather than to industries in which there was relatively little interest. In this matter of Southern forages I have long advocated much more generous support on the part of the State and Federal agricultural agencies, because I have great faith in the future possibilities. With the magnificent start that has now been made in live stock farming in the South, we may hope for much more generous support to live stock and forage investigations, but this hope will be realized only if we are insistent in our demands. The knowledge thus to be obtained is fundamental, and the progress that is made in live stock raising will be conditioned in an important measure on the accurate investigations that can be conducted only at properly equipped experiment stations. One other angle of these general considerations must not be overlooked. The northern or western man who may be considering developing a live stock ranch in the South naturally wants to see developed ranches in which the practical problems have been worked out. In all the South there are very few cattle ranches which have reached a finished state of development--where the concrete demonstration exists of a type of management that can be duplicated. Now, of course, I am fully aware that Florida and all the South has long had an extensive cattle industry based on the natural grasses of the prairies and of the piney woods. In general, this has been a profitable industry, especially on free range. Without hurting anyone's feelings, we will, I think, agree that this has not been a very high grade of live stock ranching. Indeed, the ordinary Northern or Western man, who is, of course, a superficial observer, has gotten the idea from the scrub cattle and razorback hogs that he saw, that there is something in the South that is inimical to good live stock. Usually he has decided it is the climate. Fortunately we know from the work of every Southern experiment station, as well as of a few good live stock ranches, that the South can raise just as good cattle and hogs as the North. It isn't a matter of climate, at all, but purely one of _breed_ and _feed_. I have spoken thus candidly because I feel that I am a friend among friends, and because I have very much faith in the industry you represent. If I were not so optimistic as to the future of the live stock industry in Florida I should be afraid to lay bare any weak factors that exist. I believe with Huxley in the wisdom of facing things as they are, rather than indulging in make believe. Perhaps it will be most helpful in discussing the forages adapted to Florida to proceed from the viewpoint of the man starting a cattle ranch. The basis, of course, of any profitable cattle ranch is permanent pasturage, the cheapest of all feeds, and, to supplement this, a supply of feed, which may be hay, ensilage, or in Southern Florida, green feed, to bridge over the season of short pastures. If one is to produce highly finished beef, grain feeds and other concentrates must be raised or purchased. In discussing pasturage it will be convenient to recognize three types of lands, namely, piney woods, prairie, and mucks, realizing, of course, that this is a very rough classification. Piney Woods Lands. In the piney woods the natural pasturage is composed mainly of broom sedge and wire grasses. During the growing season, from spring till late fall, these grasses furnish fair pasturage, but through the rest of the year they merely enable animals to exist. What can be done towards converting these poor native pastures into good permanent pastures? There are three possibilities in the light of our present knowledge. On better soils good Bermuda pastures can be developed, or where the lands are moist, as on most flatwood areas, carpet grass may be used. On the drier and poorer soils, Natal grass is the only one that has given much success. How can Bermuda or carpet grass pasture best be established? The sure method is to stump your land and plow it, and then plant the Bermuda by the vegetative method in spring, or any time thereafter in summer, during the rainy season. At the McNeill station in Mississippi, located on land much like that of the northern tier of counties in Florida, they have developed the following method: Plow furrows about ten feet apart between the stumps in spring, and stick in a root or sprig of Bermuda about every ten feet. At McNeill it is found necessary to use a little fertilizer to insure the growth of these Bermuda plants. During the following winter the stumps are removed, and then in spring the land is plowed and Lespedeza seed sown. Enough Bermuda has grown in the furrows to insure a stand of Bermuda, and this is supplemented by the Lespedeza. Indeed, the first season the Lespedeza will furnish more pasturage than the Bermuda. Lespedeza is rather a tricky plant in Florida and is hardly worth consideration except in the northern part of the State. On most of the Florida flatwood soils carpet grass is much more aggressive than Bermuda, and in time will, if left alone, completely replace the Bermuda. To a large extent this can be obviated by plowing the pastures whenever the carpet grass seems to be obtaining the upper hand. Unfortunately, we do not know the relative values of equal areas of Bermuda grass and of carpet grass where the latter is most aggressive. Carpet grass does not grow so tall, but is green for a longer period. It may, indeed, be found more economical not to try to save the Bermuda after the carpet grass crowds it. From observations, I am inclined to believe that neither the carrying capacity nor the feed values per acre of the two grasses is greatly different on most flatwood soils. If this be true, it would not be economy to go to any particular trouble to retain the Bermuda instead of the carpet grass. At McNeill the pasturage on areas that have long been closely grazed is carpet grass. Unfortunately, no experiments have been conducted to compare these two grasses as to ease of establishment and as to carrying capacity. Carpet grass produces abundant good seed, and therefore spreads much more rapidly than Bermuda, which rarely produces seed in humid regions. It is found necessary to remove the stumps at McNeill, because for the first year or two on the plowed ground, weeds, especially "fennel" or "Yankee weed," appear abundantly, and must be mowed or they will kill the grasses by shading. Mowing with the stumps on the land is impracticable, as the weeds conceal many of the stumps. Whether it is practicable to establish good permanent pastures without stumping and plowing the land is yet an unsolved problem. About every Florida settlement where the town cattle graze, there is good pasture, commonly carpet grass. You will find just this on the outskirts of Jacksonville. Such pasturage has been established by heavy continuous grazing, under which conditions the broom sedge and wire grass are exterminated, while the creeping carpet grass comes in and persists. It may be that the manure of the animals is also a factor, and there can scarcely be a question that the trampling helps. As an example of this kind occurs about nearly every Florida town, it would seem as if it could be duplicated on cattle ranches. I have suggested to several cattlemen that it is worth trying on a scale by three methods: (1) Simply burning the native grass in winter; (2) burning, followed by disking or harrowing; and (3) plowing among the stumps. If possible, carpet grass seed should be scattered on each area, and in all cases close grazing should be practiced. Unfortunately, carpet grass seed cannot be secured commercially, except in small quantities at high prices, but it is easy to cut the mature carpet grass in fall from a pasture and cure the hay. The carpet grass can then be sown simply by scattering the hay. Whether any of these schemes will work out satisfactorily still remains to be determined. As to Natal grass, I have already mentioned that this succeeds better on the poorer and drier pine lands than any other grass yet introduced. Thus far it has been exploited purely as a grass for market hay. On this basis many hundred acres were planted in Lake County and elsewhere. Grass culture purely for market hay is a very precarious proposition. The proper agricultural economy is grass for live stock, selling only the surplus to the market. Notwithstanding the very large acreage planted to Natal, I have been quite unable to secure satisfactory data as to its value for pasturage, measured in carrying capacity and satisfactory gains. It seems to me, from the slender data I have been able to secure, fairly probable that Natal will prove a valuable grass for combined hay and pasture on the soils to which it is so well adapted, but of course it can hardly be expected to yield enough to justify the extravagant prices paid for land planted to Natal. Prairie Lands. On the prairies of Florida there is much better natural pasturage than in the piney woods, and, indeed, it is on the prairies that the old type of cattle industry reached its highest development. The prairies are in reality wet meadows. Their grass cover is due to water relations, most of them being periodically overflowed--conditions that are inimical to pines and palmettos. On the other hand, the period of overflow is too brief to meet the conditions necessary for cypress and other swamp trees. These prairies stretch from the border of the pine woods and palmettos on relatively high ground to permanently wet swamps. The best natural pasturage consists of various species of paspalum and related flat-leaved grasses on the soils fairly moist during a large part of the year; and maiden cane on still moister land, or even in shallow water. Generally speaking, the moisture relations of the more extensive prairies are nearly ideal for continuous pasturage in the varying seasons. There is grave danger in any extensive drainage operations, as palmettos and pines will quickly invade such drained land, and thus destroy the grass. For improved pasture on these lands, particularly on those reasonably moist, Para grass offers great possibilities. The remarkably rapid growth and high yield of this grass, combined with its palatability and nutritiousness, make it of prime importance in connection with better live stock. Para succeeds well also on the better uplands, but, generally speaking, it is a grass for moist lands. The farther south, the more valuable it is, as after frost it is of little value. Another grass that is likely to be very valuable on the prairies, and, indeed, on the flatwoods and better uplands, is _paspalum dilatatum_, native to Argentina. This is perhaps the best of the paspalums, and it is now widespread in the Southern States. Unfortunately, with us the seeds are largely destroyed by a fungus, but good commercial seed is obtainable in quantity from Australia. Muck Lands. On the muck lands the problem of pasturage is easy. At least four grasses, namely, Para, Carib, Rhodes and Bermuda, especially Giant Bermuda, yield wonderfully. The enormous area of muck lands in Florida, especially in the Everglades, can, it would seem, be utilized only with the aid of livestock. While there may be some fairly difficult problems to solve in handling live stock on muck soils, especially in the wet season, there can be little doubt that grass and live stock will insure the permanency of these lands. Under continuous cultivation there is a constant shrinkage in muck soils, but with grass and live stock this is nearly, if not quite, counterbalanced. Carib grass on muck soils is, from limited data, superior to Para grass both in yield and quality. On other types of soil Para will outyield Carib. Rhodes grass does wonderfully on muck soil, and, indeed, on most rich soils. Giant Bermuda is far coarser and more vigorous than ordinary Bermuda. It will succeed wherever ordinary Bermuda will grow, and, in addition, seems much better able to withstand flooding. Temporary or annual pasture crops are mainly important in connection with swine raising. Various systems of such crops have been devised to furnish successive pastures. Florida has a long list of such crops that can be utilized. Among them are oats, rye, rape, sorghum, peanuts, cow peas, chufas, sweet potatoes, corn and velvet beans. Under certain conditions the cattleman may have to utilize one or more of these crops, but corn and velvet beans is the one that is the most important. The story of the velvet bean is really one of the romances of agriculture. Introduced into Florida about 1875 from some unknown source, it first attracted attention as a forage about 1890. Until 1914 it was but little grown outside of Florida. In 1915 the crop was certainly less than 1,000,000 acres. In 1916 it had increased to 2,500,000, and in 1917 to about 6,000,000 acres. The explanation of this remarkable increase was the finding of earlier "sports." Three of these appeared independently--one in Alabama, two in Georgia. These early varieties immensely increased the area over which the velvet bean can be grown, so that now it embraces practically all of the cotton belt. These early sports of the old Florida are most grown, but the Chinese velvet bean, introduced by the Department, and the hybrids developed by the Florida Experiment Station, are important. In spite of vigorous search, the native home of the Florida velvet bean yet remains unknown, but it is probably in the Indo-Malayan region of Southern Asia. The importance of the velvet bean to the live stock industry now developing in the South can scarcely be over-estimated. Grown with corn, it increases the corn crop year after year, and besides furnishes a large amount of nutritious feed to be eaten by the animals when the grass pasture season is over. It reduces greatly the cost of finishing of beef animals for market. This year the velvet bean has been no small factor in helping out the great shortage of foodstuffs, quantities of them having been shipped to Texas. Finally, it has resulted in a new industry for the South, namely, the manufacture of velvet bean meal, which has already won for itself a large demand. Hay Plants. The problem of producing hay in Florida is made particularly difficult by frequent rains, except in the fall of the year. The bulk of the hay now produced is from the crab grass that volunteers in cultivated fields. In recent years much Natal hay has been grown for market. Para grass hay is of good quality, and Rhodes grass of very fine quality. Other hays are made from cow peas, cow peas and sorghum mixed, Mexican clover, beggar-weed, oats, millet, etc. The subject of hay, however, is vital only to the city market. To the live stock man it is of minor importance, as silage furnishes so satisfactory a substitute. Ensilage Crops. Corn is, of course, the standard crop for ensilage, and its relative importance in Florida is not far different from that in other States. Under certain conditions sorghums will yield greater tonnage than corn, and the resulting silage is but slightly inferior. Florida possesses, in addition, a unique silage plant in Japanese sugar cane. The perennial nature of this plant and its high yielding capacity make it a cheap fodder to grow. It may be utilized as green feed, as silage, as dry fodder, or for pasture. Your own experiment station has published the best information we have on this forage. As a feed for dairy cows there can be no question of its high value, either green or as silage. There still seems to be question, however, as to the relative value of Japanese cane silage as compared with corn silage. In Southern Florida the cane stays green all winter, as a rule, so that there is no necessity for ensiling it for winter feed. It may well prove, however, that a supply of Japanese cane silage will prove good insurance against periods of shortage even in South Florida. You may have noted that all the pasture plants I have mentioned are grasses. Very unfortunately we have not as yet any good perennial pasture legume adapted to Florida. I say "unfortunately" because, as is well known, the true grasses are nutritious in proportion to the fertility of the land. That is, the better the land the more nutritious the pasture. But with legumes no such relations exist, because legumes are not dependent on the soil for their nitrogen supply. While we have no satisfactory perennial pasture legume, we have one summer annual, lespedeza, that helps to some extent in North Florida. There are also two winter annuals that reproduce themselves in which I have considerable confidence, namely, burr clover and narrow-leaf vetch. I believe that on many of the better pasture soils, especially in North Florida, that these legumes can be established and that they will re-seed themselves year after year. Of course due care must be taken to secure inoculation, preferably by the soil method. The Outlook for New Forages. What the future may hold in store for us in the way of new forages does not assist at the present time, but it is worth considering. It is well to bear in mind that the agriculture of the North, with the single important exception of corn, is mainly a direct inheritance from European agriculture. Substitute root crops for corn and you have in essence the European practice. Southern agriculture, on the contrary, is almost purely an American development--cotton, corn, tobacco, sweet potatoes, from the American Indian; cow peas, Rhodes grass, Natal grass and sorghum from South Africa; soy beans, lespedeza, Japanese cane from Japan; carpet grass and Para grass from the West Indies; Bermuda from India; velvet beans from Southern Asia. Northern forage plants have been pretty thoroughly studied both in Europe and America, because European conditions are fairly like those of our Northern States. But there yet remains hosts of grasses and legumes adapted to sub-tropical climates concerning which we know practically nothing. Out of very numerous grasses and legumes at present under test are several that possess promise, and these I shall discuss briefly. Kudzu. Kudzu is not particularly new, but it seems to me destined to a much greater importance than at present. It is the only perennial forage legume that has in any sense made good in Florida. It is much better adapted to clayey soils than to sandy soils, but it also succeeds remarkably well on the limestone soils about Miami. On the better sandy soils it would also seem to be valuable, but on the poorer sandy soils and poorly drained lands it is doubtful if it has a place. On clay soils at Arlington Farm, Va., we have consistently gotten two cuttings, totaling five tons of hay per acre--double what we can get from cow peas or soy beans. I believe kudzu is entitled to a fair trial by every Florida cattleman. Napier Grass. You have doubtless seen some of the numerous references recently in Florida papers to "Japanese bamboo grass" or "Carter's grass" as grown about Arcadia. These names rest upon a misconception. The grass is a native of South Africa, properly known as Napier grass, or _Pennisetum macrostachyum_, introduced by the Department in 1913. This is a perennial much like Japanese cane, and in our tests is found hardy as far north as Charleston. It does well on rather poor soil and yields heavy crops. In chemical analysis it is richer than corn in protein and carbohydrates, but also contains three times as much fiber. It is this high fiber content or woody character that makes me dubious about its silage value, in which opinion Professor Rolfs concurs. When two or three feet high it is greedily eaten by animals, and so may be a pasturage possibility. As a green feed crop it could be cut three or more times each season, when three or four feet high, and I am sure will prove a very valuable forage for the man with one or two cows. Whether it is a crop for the stockman is still doubtful. In 1916 we introduced a very similar species, _Pennisetum merkeri_, which is perhaps a little superior, though it is hard to tell the two apart. Metake. The name "Japanese bamboo grass" leads me to mention a true Japanese bamboo, the _metake_. This is a bamboo that spreads by rootstocks and forms dense thickets ten to fifteen feet high, much like cane brake, and, like our native cane, a valuable winter pasture plant. Mr. P. K. Yonge has grown it with marked success about twenty miles north of Pensacola. It seems to me a valuable plant to furnish a supply of pasturage in winter, when pasturage is practically gone. It is worthy of careful trial on all well-drained Florida soils. Tripsacum Laxum. Last year we secured from Guatemala a new perennial grass which, if it proves winter hardy, will, I am certain, be of enormous value to South Florida. This grass grows much like teosinte, but is stouter and very much more leafy. The stem is tender, sweet and juicy, and all the leaves remain green. It is an ideal silage plant. So far as I am aware, our trial at Miami is the first time this grass has ever been cultivated. The few live stock men who have seen it went into ecstasies. It may prove valuable, however, only for frostless regions. Creeping Pasture Grasses. At the present time we have under trial five creeping pasture grasses, more or less like Bermuda in a general way. You are, of course, aware that a pasture grass to be valuable should be able to spread naturally and must be able to hold the ground. Naturally it takes time to determine all these facts. The five grasses I refer to are as follows: Blue Couch (_Digitaria didactyla_). This is much like Bermuda, but produces abundant good seed. For lawns and pastures it promises to be about equally as valuable as Bermuda. Manilla Grass (_Osterdamia matrella_). This is especially adapted to rather moist sandy lands. It grows very dense, and where it thrives should be valuable. Lovi-lovi (_Chrysopogon aciculatus_). This furnishes much pasturage in India, the Philippines, and South China. The seeds are very abundant, and each sticks into the clothing like a pin. But about Hongkong it is used generally as a lawn grass. It is well adapted to dry sandy soils. If it proves well adapted to Florida we can, I think, chance its becoming a nuisance, because if it does thrive it will give much pasture. Nilghiri Grass (_Andropogon emersus_). This is the only creeping grass of the genus Andropogon (which includes our broom sedges) that we have yet found. I secured it in the Nilghiri Hills of South India. It looks promising. Kikuyu Grass (_Pennisetum sp._). This is native to the highlands of Uganda, in British East Africa, and in South Africa has created great interest. It looks much like St. Augustine grass. At Biloxi, Miss., it has succeeded well. It looked very fine at Arlington, Va., but could not stand the winter. This grass is said to be very nutritious, and I believe that on the better soils of Florida it will prove a real acquisition. I mention these new things to give you some idea of what we are doing. I might mention several others that look good to us, but it will be time to speak when we have tried them further. In brief, we are scouring the earth to find grasses and legumes to meet Florida's needs. We have faith that the grasses and legumes exist, if we only can find them. Gentlemen, in closing I must say one thing more. Our country is at war--a war that will tax our energies and resources to the uttermost. No more dangerous idea can be entertained than to minimize the task, or to delude ourselves with the prospect of an early peace. One important factor is food, especially meat and wheat. Only an unusually favorable season can produce for us as much wheat as last year. Our meat and forage supplies are low, because in times of food scarcity, grass crops are necessarily sacrificed. Gentlemen, you can do much to help increase the meat supply. In developing your ranches to increase your output, I want to urge as a patriotic duty that you increase your good pasturage and your winter feed supply as rapidly as you can. I could not urge this in peace times, because rapid development is never the most economical. But in this time of stress you cattlemen can help the nation most by increasing your output to the maximum. There is no other way for you to give to the nation that will count so much. I therefore urge that you brush aside all questions as to the economically best method of increasing pasturage and forage, and to devote all your capital and all your energy to doing this along any lines that are sure. FLORIDA AS SEEN FROM A TEXAS STANDPOINT. _Address by W. N. Waddell of Fort Worth, Texas, before the Florida State Live Stock Association, January 9, 1918._ _Mr. Waddell started to working cattle on the Texas ranges in 1875, and has been in the cattle business for himself since 1881._ _He was chairman of the Live Stock Sanitary Commission of Texas for four years, and for a number of years has been the Texas representative of the Live Stock Exchange National Bank of Chicago, and of the Chicago Cattle Loan Company._ _After spending a week in Florida during August of 1917, Mr. Waddell returned to the State in November and spent considerable time investigating the opportunities for raising cattle. This address gives his views on the advantages Florida possesses as a cattle-producing state._ In order to understand or to be able to appreciate a proposition of almost any character it is necessary to approach it by comparison, and in making comparisons touching Florida I wish to state that I have traveled over the range of the five northern states of old Mexico; I have traveled over the southern part of the range belt of Arizona; I have traveled over about half of the state of New Mexico and virtually all of Texas, and I find in Florida conditions favorable to the production of live stock that do not exist in any of the states I have named, which constitute the great range belt of the Southwest. In Mexico there is very little water, and water is very hard to get by digging, the wells averaging from 150 to 1,000 feet deep, and in a great many instances no water at all. In Mexico they also have a great many animals that prey on the live stock, such as panthers, lobo wolves, bears, as well as the common, ordinary coyote. None of these have to be contended with here. In Arizona and New Mexico about the same conditions prevail as do in northern Old Mexico. In Texas we have bears and sundry pests to prey on our live stock. The prairie dog infests a great many of our ranches, destroying the grass, digging holes in the ground, and making it dangerous for the cowboy to ride over in the pursuit of his range endeavors. We have wolves of all species. In Texas we have also the screw worms that are a tax on the live stock producer to the extent of from two to five per cent of the calves born on his ranch, and I am sorry to say that worst of all we have periodical droughts. None of these adverse conditions I find prevail in Florida. Here I find the country covered with a thick, heavy coat of grass, streams running with plenty of water and I understand where natural water is not available that it is only about from twenty to one hundred feet to an abundant supply of water under the ground, making the proposition of watering the ranches in Florida, where artificial water is necessary, a very simple matter. The climate in Florida is temperate and mild, rainfall is regular and abundant, and, so far as the production of forage for live stock on the range is concerned, your rainfall and your soils all seem to combine in favor of the producer of live stock. I never was more amazed in my life than I was last summer, when, in company with a committee of other cattle men from Texas, I visited this state. At that time I was shown over the southern middle part of Florida; was shown a great domain of country lying out of doors, as it were and as we term it in Texas, furnishing free range for hundreds of thousands of cattle. I did not believe my ears when I was told those conditions existed here, and I can't understand yet why a state as old as Florida, with as many surface indications of possibilities for the production of live stock, should remain unfenced, unoccupied, and non-revenue producing to the men who own the land. Another surprise that met us when we came to Florida in the summer was the absolute lack of any improvement in the live stock that we found here. In fact, it is my judgment that the cattle in Florida today, from what I have read of the history of Florida, are not as good as they were thirty years ago, and I am surprised, when I think of the facilities furnished the cattle men of Florida by the land owners for the grazing of their cattle, that they haven't taken any more interest in their cattle than they have and tried to improve them. Florida today, as never before, is attracting national attention as a possible beef-producing state. The eyes of the investing public are turned toward Florida, and it is my judgment that within the next five years Florida will make greater strides in the development of the live stock industry than it has ever made before. And I want here and now to issue a warning to you gentlemen who are running your cattle on the open ranges of Florida that you had better get busy and get control of what land you expect to use as a cattle ranch, for if I mistake not, outsiders are coming into this state who will buy or lease these lands, put them under fence and inaugurate a system of live stock production on an improved basis as compared to the present methods being pursued in this state. And in this connection I wish to state that I have discussed this open range proposition with some of the largest land owners in Florida. They tell me that they want to see Florida developed; they tell me they are in line to lend their energies, their time and their money to anything that will develop the State of Florida. After listening to them talk this line of earnest progressiveness, I have put the proposition to them just like it was put to us in Texas, and that is, formulate an equitable leasing proposition, one that will safeguard the interests of the land owner, and at the same time lend protection to the vested rights of the lessee, and advertise that to the world. Let the people not only of Florida, but the people outside of the State of Florida, know that they can come to Florida and at a small rental cost, lease as many acres of good grazing land as they have money to get cattle with which to stock it, assuring the prospective lessee that they will fence the land according to his desires and will build him a ranch house to live in; that they will fence him a horse pasture to keep his saddle horses in; will build him a dipping vat on the land, and where necessary will bore wells and equip them with windmill and pump sufficient to furnish plenty of water for the live stock on the land so leased. There was never any marked development or marked improvement in the live stock industry in the State of Texas as long as the cattle ranged on the free grass, but in 1884 the Legislature passed what was known as a Lease Law. Then it was, gentlemen, that the fencing up of the State of Texas began in earnest. No man was willing to pay lease on land and let somebody else's cattle graze on it. And that is the first step needed to be taken in the evolution of better cattle in Florida. The land owners should fence up their lands, cut them up in pastures to suit the men who want to run their cattle on them, making the lands of Florida revenue-producing, instead of being a liability, and put the cattle of Florida under fence and under control wherein individual effort may develop in a desire to excel. I can not stress this proposition too strongly. I haven't the language to express the importance of putting the lands of Florida under fence and the cattle under control in order that better cattle and more cattle may be raised. The most important step looking to better cattle in Florida has already been taken in the creation of a Live Stock Sanitary Board and the work incident thereto of tick eradication. This work and the efforts of the Florida State Live Stock Sanitary Board will be much more effective and easier of accomplishment when you get the ranges of Florida fenced and the cattle under control. It seems to me that Florida has been overlooked. I am led to the belief that the Florida cowmen have been lulled to sleep, as it were, by the fact that they haven't been bothered by any outside influences. In discussing the breeding up or improving of the cattle with a good many breeders whom I have met in this State, I find that all voice the sentiment that they would like to raise better cattle; that the State ought to produce better cattle; and that it is a good cattle country. Florida is wasting approximately enough good pasture to produce a meat supply sufficient to feed several states by confining the quality of the herds to the little native cattle we saw on the ranges. True, we saw lots of cattle, more than I supposed existed in the entire State, but the opportunity before the cattle men is to breed up the quality and size. That this can be done was demonstrated by some herds we visited, and the reports on those herds show that this is a better cattle breeding country than Texas, for your owners are branding a larger proportion of calves to breeding cows in herds than we are able to get. I am sure that good cattle can be raised in Florida because I have seen them. I am sure that good hogs can be raised in Florida because I have seen them, and on the question of the hog, I wish to state that on the open range country of Florida, especially the southern part in the prairie country, where there are hard wood and cabbage hammocks, is the ideal country in which to grow hogs. I made the statement when I was here in the summer that I believed a man could fence up a range of ten or twenty or thirty thousand acres in Florida, stock it with cattle and stock it with hogs, and that I believed the hogs would pay the overhead charges of running the ranch, and my observations here for the past thirty days traveling over the State have convinced me that that statement was not very much exaggerated. There is no reason why cattle men should not make dividends on investments while breeding up the quality of their herds, for this is a great cattle country. I am very much surprised to find that sheep are not more generally handled on the ranges with the cattle. The absence of coyotes make sheep raising particularly attractive, and they will not injure the cattle pasturage if properly proportioned. There ought to be several hundred thousand sheep on the Kissimmee River Valley ranges. We handle large numbers of sheep and cattle together, although our ranges are not nearly so good as those in Florida. * * * * * In conclusion, I will state that I think Florida offers the best field for live stock production along improved lines of any State in America. That is, cattle can be raised here cheaper and with less uncertainty than any place I know. A GLANCE BACKWARD AND FORWARD. _Annual Address before the Florida State Live Stock Association, January 8, 1918, by Dr. W. F. Blackman, President of the Association._ Never before have we met in circumstances so extraordinary and under the stress of thoughts and emotions so many, so various, so conflicting and perplexing as today. Our minds are engrossed and appalled by the world catastrophe into which we have been plunged. Since our last meeting, life for every man and woman of us has been changed in all its major aspects and fallen into disorder. All the peaceful routine of our thoughts and habits has been upset. Our sons and neighbors are on their way to the hideous and heroic and bloody work abroad to which they have been summoned. * * * But disquieting as are the times, the business of the stock raiser in America, and particularly in Florida, was never on so sound a basis as today, never so full of promise. The exhaustion of domestic animals throughout Europe and the increasing shortage in our own country are creating a demand which will insure for many years to come a profitable market for all the beef, pork, mutton and dairy products which we can supply. Definitely, I think it can be said that there can be no danger of overproduction in these lines for a long time to come. And for this industry, which we may perhaps properly call the most ancient, fundamental, necessary, stable, wholesome, honorable and delightful of all the occupations in which men are engaged, Florida has advantages of soil, climate, rainfall and location greater, on the whole, than those enjoyed by any other state of the American union. This is being recognized in increasing measure, far and wide. The eyes of discerning and experienced men are being turned this way as never before. Inquiries by mail and visits of exploration from the North, the West and the Southwest have never before been so numerous as during the year which we are reviewing, and our own people are awakening to the opportunities which lie all about them, unused and inviting. There are vast areas of cheap and hitherto waste lands in every part of the State, lying open the year round to the genial and fructifying rays of a semi-tropical and sub-tropical sun, which need only the expenditure upon them of money and labor to fit them for the support of herds and flocks greater than any other region can maintain. We have every reason, as we face the new year, to take courage and to gird ourselves for the task of turning into reality these gracious possibilities which nature has spread about us with a lavish hand. The past year has been signalized by one great achievement, carrying two others in its train. The great achievement to which I refer, the greatest by all odds ever accomplished in this State, is the creation by the Legislature of a State Live Stock Sanitary Board and the appropriation of public monies for the carrying on of its work; and the two consequent achievements are the beginning of definite, determined, statewide, co-operative and adequately supported efforts to eradicate the pestilent cattle tick from all our borders and to control hog cholera. * * * And I venture now to say--and I say it with pardonable pride and great pleasure--that no state in the Union has a more carefully considered, better balanced and guarded, and more rigid and effective law, covering the matter of live stock sanitation, than has Florida. Perhaps a detail here and there needs to be amended and strengthened, but, on the whole, the measure was a good one and is working well. * * * I may add, finally, that the State Live Stock Sanitary Board, in the two great undertakings to which, for the present and the immediate future, it will, of necessity, chiefly devote its energies, the eradication of the cattle tick and the control of hog cholera, we are leaning heavily on two co-operative agencies. The first of these is the Federal Government, through its Bureau of Animal Industry, and the States Relations Service. In Dr. E. M. Nighbert, inspector in charge of the work of tick eradication; Dr. A. H. Logan, inspector in charge for hog cholera control; Dean P. H. Rolfs of the University, director of the Experiment Station, in charge of the work in Florida of the States Relations Service, and the numerous assistants placed by the Federal Government, under the direction of these three gentlemen, we have a large body of capable, trained and energetic experts, whose co-operation with our Board is of inestimable value to the State, and whose maintenance costs us nothing. The members of the State Live Stock Sanitary Board serve without remuneration, so that we have in Florida approximately thirty men who are engaged in promoting the work of live stock sanitation without expense to the taxpayers of the State. It is fitting, I think, that this Association should be reminded of this very great and very costly, but nevertheless wholly gratuitous, service which is being rendered to the interests which we represent. * * * So much for the past year; now for a glance forward. What I have just been saying indicates clearly the special work to which we ought, in my judgment, to devote ourselves in the immediate future--I mean the complete and final eradication of the tick in every county in Florida and the largest possible measure of control of hog cholera. If we see clearly, we see that these tasks are preliminary to all others. * * * Fortunately the tick is a very weak and vulnerable enemy, though so mischievous. Put all the cattle of Florida through the dipping vat once a fortnight for five or six months, and there would be no more ticks left in this State than there are snakes in Ireland. Let us consecrate ourselves here in this meeting to the doing of this thing, and doing it _soon_. Hog cholera is not so simple and manageable an affair. In the micro-organism which causes this disease, we face an enemy far subtler, more cunning, more elusive, more persistent and more swiftly fatal than is the tick. It escapes observation by the most powerful microscope; it laughs at quarantine lines; it flows in the stream; it lurks in the pool; it rides upon the foot of beast and bird, the shoe of man, the wagon's wheel; it soars aloft on the buzzard's wing; you can not catch and dip it. I earnestly advise the formation of local live stock associations throughout the State, at least one in each county affiliated with the State Association, and having special committees on Tick Eradication and Hog Cholera Control, composed of the ablest, the most energetic and the most influential men in the various communities. Let these associations hold meetings at regular intervals for the free exchange of views and experiences; let expert and interesting speakers from abroad bring to these meetings fresh information and impetus; let there be added such social and entertaining features as may be available--music, barbecues, moving pictures, boat excursions, what-not--to attract the multitude, relieve the monotony of farm life, and increase neighborliness and good community feeling. Let the co-operation of the banks of the region be secured, for the generous financing of pig clubs and corn clubs. * * * There is one other matter of prime importance to which I invite your attention. If the live stock industry of Florida is to be put on the most stable basis and developed with reasonable rapidity, immense sums of money will be required. Fences must be built; drainage canals and ditches must be dug; improved and more nourishing grasses must be introduced over vast areas; other great areas must be planted with forage crops; silos must be built; plows, harrows and other expensive implements must be purchased; horses, mules and tractors, herdsmen, farmers and laborers must be secured and put to work in great numbers; a multitude of pure-bred bulls and cows, boars and sows, rams and ewes, stallions, jacks and mares must be imported for the improvement of our native stock. Where are the necessary funds coming from for the financing of those enterprises? Perhaps the large ranch owners can take care of themselves, but what our State needs above all things else is thrifty farmers by the thousand, now on the ground or drawn from other states by our surpassing advantages of soil and climate; where shall these secure the funds necessary for the development of their more modest holdings? Florida is a relatively new and scantily populated State; there are here no great reserves of cash and securities, accumulated and bequeathed by generations of toiling and thrifty ancestors, as in some parts of the country. Many of the banks are doing their best to care for our live stock interests, but the ability of our local banks--and I speak now as a banker--is strictly limited in this direction. What we need in Florida, in my judgment, as the very next step to be taken, is one or more strong cattle loan companies, such as flourish in the West, whose sole business it will be to provide the funds necessary for the developments which I have mentioned, so far as cattle are concerned. This is a matter which will occupy us during one entire session of this meeting, and I need not, therefore, deal with it further now, except to say that the present time seems especially propitious for the securing of such funds as we need for this business. Men are asking how they may make safe investment of their savings in these troubled times; the future of the railways, now under Government control, is uncertain; industrial enterprises have been largely thrown into abnormal condition by the war; stocks, bonds and other similar securities have in them today a considerable speculative element which gives pause to conservative investors. But amid all this flux and uncertainty, here lies the land, as from of old, unchanging, peaceful, fruitful, a mother's full breast, and upon the land feed and grow, enriching and renewing it forever even as they feed upon it, the friendly animals, whose flesh and milk support our life from the cradle to the grave. There is nothing speculative here, and I am confident that investors, perplexed now by the unheard of aspect of the world's affairs, will be disposed to put their funds more and more into the soil and its products, if they are shown the way; and the cattle-loan company, organized and administered by experienced and careful men, can show them the way and lead them safely in it. And now, gentlemen, we will proceed to the program our Executive Committee has provided. I hope that our meeting together, the messages which will be brought us from abroad, and the various discussions in which we ourselves shall engage, will serve to hearten us for our work and help us to feel, amid the toil and perplexities of our daily task, that in providing a more copious supply of food for the world, in causing two blades of grass to grow where one grew before, and in transforming these blades of grass by the mysterious and wonderful processes of nature into the thoughts and loves of men and women, the orator's speech, the poet's song, the statesman's wisdom, the soldier's fierce energy, the mother's brooding care, and the babe's new life, we are doing our part to support and render more rich and worthy this wondrous human drama and are partners with God in the work of his earthly kingdom. FLORIDA SUITED TO EXTENSIVE CATTLE RAISING. Texas Ranchmen Declare Conditions Ideal for Cattle, Sheep and Goats. The impression made upon a prominent Texas ranch owner who recently visited the great cattle ranges of Florida was that Nature has been too good to the cattle industry in this State to encourage improvement in the crude methods of breeding and handling stock which have been in vogue for years, for the cattle owners have made money without trying. Among those who spent a week during the latter part of August inspecting range conditions were M. Sansom of Fort Worth, president of the Cassidy-Southwestern Commission Co., director of the Federal Reserve Bank and owner of large cattle ranch interests. * * * Mr. Sansom expressed his impression of Florida's opportunity for raising cattle in these words: "The only trouble you have in Florida, Nature has been too good to you. If it had done half as much for Texas the Government officials would not now be worrying about the future meat supply for the United States and our Allies. I have seen Texas when the cattle were no better than the grade I have seen on this trip. We started twenty-five years ago to improve our herds and stayed with it, until today we furnish some of the best breeding and feeding cattle for the Northern States. "Florida now has very great advantage over pioneer Texas, as you can get some of our good breeding stock and make rapid progress breeding up your herds. The Osceola Cattle Co., in Osceola County, has started along right lines, and the manager gave me some figures on calf production which show that his herd are producing a larger percentage of calves than we get in Texas. "But your luxuriant range grasses and abundance of stock water are almost unbelievable. Your range will carry from three to ten times as many cattle per section as the Texas land in a normal year. And when I say normal year I want you to remember that sometimes the rain clouds forget all about Texas for months at a time, and then our ranges suffer from drought, as large sections of them are doing at this time. "You have a sheep country as good as exists, and a goat country better than any other. It is too bad that you do not raise more sheep on your ranges, for they do not hurt the cattle pastures, eating only the tender blades down under the more mature grass. We run thousands of sheep on our cattle ranges in Texas. The goats will be a distinct benefit to the Florida ranges, as they do not eat much grass when they can get underbrush, briars and weeds. By having those cleaned out of the pastures the grass will have a better chance to grow. "I am informed that Florida does not have to combat coyotes, which are our worst sheep enemies, so you really have no serious losses to anticipate on your sheep investments. And yet there are very few sheep on the ranges we have visited. It is to be hoped that your cattlemen will use more sheep on the ranges. "The range country should become the calf incubator for the Southeastern States, the offspring being sold at weaning time or as yearlings. That will give your ranges a larger carrying capacity for breeding stock and let the grain-producing sections do the finishing."--_From the Manufacturers' Record, Sept. 13, 1917._ CATTLE RAISING IN FLORIDA. As I Saw it on a Thousand-mile Tour of the Central Part of the State. _By A. C. Williams._ Wasn't it Saul who went out in search of asses and found a kingdom? You men who are familiar with the Bible can answer that. But I can testify that I, while not in search of asses, duplicated Saul's experience during the past month, when, in company with M. Sansom, W. N. Waddell, Caesar Kleberg and Tom T. East of Texas, Dr. L. J. Allen of Oklahoma, Geo. M. Rommel of Washington, P. L. Sutherland, C. L. Gaines and J. G. Boyd of Florida, I had the pleasure of a thousand-mile trip through the central part of the State of Florida. Nature has been very kind to Florida, providing delightful climate, fertile lands and adequate rainfall for farming purposes; broad prairies, carpeted with succulent grasses and watered by running streams for live stock raising; timber galore for sawmills, and countless beauty spots beckoning to tourists. But the citizens of that State have been slow to take advantage of their opportunities. Agriculture in many sections has been a neglected art. Practically all of the foodstuffs, including grain, meat, butter and eggs, have been produced outside the State. Colonization companies have devoted their energies to boosting orange orchards and truck gardens (the "poker game of agriculture"), and little organized effort has been made to attract farmers and stockmen of tireless energy--the backbone of any community. Among the neglected industries, none stand out more conspicuously than stock raising. The native cattle, inbred, stunted specimens of doubtful origin, have been turned loose on the free, open range to rustle for themselves, and little effort has been made in most sections toward breed improvement. Due to the mild climate, good range, adequate water supply and absence of screw worms, coyotes and other pests, they have survived. And with open range and no expense they have been very profitable. In our entire trip we saw only two or three flocks of sheep and goats. They were of better quality than I had expected--fairly good for mutton, but light on wool. A new era is dawning for the cattle business of Florida. The war has forced a reduction in the exports of turpentine and rosin, and the large land owners are turning their attention to improved stock raising. A packing house has been erected at Jacksonville. Systematic tick eradication is being carried on. Large tracts of land have been fenced and stocked. Hundreds of well-bred Texas cows and registered Hereford, Angus, Shorthorn and Brahma bulls are being purchased, and the work of breed improvement is growing in popularity. Good feed and forage crops can be grown in most sections, and with this new movement for improved live stock will come deeper interest in agriculture. The chief forage crops now produced in that State are corn, velvet beans, Japanese cane, sorghum, cow peas and beggar-weed. The first three perhaps take the lead. The corn and velvet beans are planted together, in rows from four to six feet apart. The beans grow very rank, producing an abundance of good hay, and beans which are high in feeding value. The beans may be left on the vines for pasturage, or gathered and ground into bean meal, which is excellent for cattle feeding. Japanese cane resembles our Texas ribbon cane. It makes good silage, keeps well and is highly relished by cattle. The Florida beggar-weed grows as a volunteer in old fields of a light sandy soil. If cut at the right time it makes good hay, and, while it is rather bulky for silage alone, it is said to add greatly to the fattening value of silage. Corn and cow peas need no introduction to our readers. The most common grasses are several varieties of paspalum or carpet grass, switch grass, wire grass, little blue maiden cane and Bermuda. Crab and Natal grass are volunteers which follow crops on sandy soils. Both Guinea and Para grasses thrive in South Florida, where less liable to injury by frost. Fort Thompson grass, which resembles giant Bermuda, with larger joint, stem and leaf, is a native of Florida, which will some day be recognized as one of their very best pasture grasses. With their open range and native cattle--a poorer grade than our old-time longhorn--the cattle business of Florida today may be compared to that of Texas twenty years ago. What they need is more bulls and experienced cattlemen who will apply the intelligence, energy and persistence that know not failure. Leaving Kenansville at 8:15, we were soon out on the Kissimmee prairie of thousands and thousands of acres of open range. Here, where the grass was very luxuriant, resembling a hay meadow, we saw several hundred more of the small native cattle, followed by the common scrubby bulls. The fat four-year-old steers weighed around 550 pounds, and are valued at $30 per head. The cows weighed around 500 pounds. The range herds of mixed ages and classes are valued at $20 per head. We soon left the public highway, circling marshes and dodging palmettos. Our next stop was on Gum Slough Ranch, where we were told that on a pasture of 10,000 acres there were 6,000 cattle. The ground was well covered with carpet and a variety of other grasses, and did not show the effects of close grazing. The cattle were in good condition and of better quality than most of the others which we had inspected.--_From The Cattleman, September, 1917._ 
28686	----	Transcriber's Note The punctuation and spelling from the original text have been faithfully preserved. Only obvious typographical errors have been corrected. WILD DUCKS [Illustration: _W.L. Colls. Ph. Sc._ "_The Fleet at Flight time._"] WILD DUCKS HOW TO REAR AND SHOOT THEM BY CAPTAIN W. COAPE OATES WITH 4 PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES FROM DRAWINGS BY G.E. LODGE, AND 12 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1905 All rights reserved TO MY WIFE PREFACE The main object of this book is to assist those who are anxious to rear wild ducks on economical lines. The Author is not without hope that the pages which it contains may even be of some use to old hands at the game. CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. SELECTION OF STOCK AND THEIR HOME 13 II. LAYING AND SITTING 25 III. HATCHING AND REARING 41 IV. SHOOTING 61 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PHOTOGRAVURE PLATES _From Drawings by_ G.E. LODGE THE FLEET AT FLIGHT TIME _Frontispiece_ ON GUARD _To face p._ 25 A TIDY MOTHER 33 QUITE TALL ENOUGH 61 FROM PHOTOGRAPHS COMING IN TO FEED 16 THE CAGE 20 THE REARING PADDOCK 41 A SMALL RUN 46 WARE WIRE! 48 WIRED IN ON THE WATER 51 AN INEFFECTIVE CRIPPLE STOPPER 64 BEFORE THE EVENING MEAL 67 A RIGHT AND LEFT 69 AT THE END OF THE DAY 70 COMING ON A SIDE WIND 73 LADIES IN WAITING 74 SELECTION OF STOCK AND THEIR HOME WILD DUCKS CHAPTER I SELECTION OF STOCK AND THEIR HOME The first point to be decided by the would-be owner of wild-fowl is the locality where he intends to turn down his stock. Wild-fowl can undoubtedly be reared far from any large piece of water, but I am strongly of opinion that birds do better on a good-sized stretch of water with a stream running into it and out of it. Given these advantages, the running water must be constantly bringing a fresh supply of food, especially after a fall of rain sufficiently heavy to cause a rise of water; further, if the stream which runs out of our lake empties itself into a large river, the latter will, when it floods or rises rapidly, cause our stream to back up and bring in a further supply of food from the main river. Some morning the ducks are absent from their accustomed haunts, and if we walk up to the spot where the stream enters the lake, ten to one we shall find our birds there thoroughly enjoying some duck-weed or other food swept down by a rise in the water. This supply of fresh food is a gratifying source of economy to the grain bill at the end of the year, and it is most fascinating to watch the birds "standing on their heads" in their endeavours to reach this change of diet. Another great advantage, too, is that a far higher percentage of fertile eggs will be obtained if the ducks have a large piece of water at their disposal. Given these advantages, it is, however, most necessary for the birds to have some shelter near the lake, both as a protection against the weather and to serve as suitable nesting places. Nothing, for instance, could be better than a stackyard or paddock in the vicinity of the water, and if the paddock is bounded by a flood bank or tall hedge, giving shelter from the prevailing wind, so much the better. Ducks love to nest in stacks, and I have known a pinioned bird work her way up the side of a stack and make her nest fifteen feet from the ground. In stacks birds can burrow so deep that no weather, however inclement, can damage the eggs. Outhouses too are very favourite places for ducks to lay in; also old stick heaps and the bottom of thick hedges. My main point is this, that if you take the trouble to regularly feed your wild ducks morning and evening and keep them quiet, you will soon find that you can get them _to lay where you want them to lay_, and the places you select will naturally be those where they are secure, or nearly so, from their natural enemies, such as rats, cats, weasels, moles, and other vermin. This is the first secret of success. I have seen wild ducks so tame that within a fortnight from the time they first joined my own birds they were eating maize close to my feet. Having obtained my piece of water and decided on the spot where I mean to feed my birds, the next step is to get the breeding stock. I consider that the best time to purchase the stock is December, as this gives ample time for the birds to pair and get used to their surroundings before the breeding season commences; one is almost sure to get some cold weather in January, and the cold will make the birds more dependent on the food given to them, and therefore more easily managed. Next as to the stock and where to get it. I advise you to obtain your birds from different places, two or three birds from each place, taking care to get fairly young birds, and not older than, say, two years. By this means you will get a certain amount of change of blood, particularly during the second season, when the different broods, which have been well mixed at hatching time, pick their mates and breed. [Illustration: COMING IN TO FEED] I believe that this method is more satisfactory than buying eggs in the first instance, as in the latter case you cannot tell for certain how long the eggs you purchase have been laid, nor what the birds are like which laid them. We next come to the question of the proportion of drakes to ducks. On a small piece of water, one drake to every three ducks will do very well, but if you have at your disposal a large lake, I am strongly in favour of plenty of drakes, say fifteen drakes to every twenty ducks. Most of the birds will pair, though occasionally one finds as many as three drakes paying court to one duck, and one drake taking away two or even three ducks. It will generally be found, however, that if any of your ducks are without mates, wild birds will soon come and pair with them, and this is, of course, just what you want. I have adopted this principle for some time, and practically all the eggs collected are fertile. It will be found that at times--particularly whilst the ducks are sitting--the drakes are a great nuisance, but at this period one can always catch them and shut them up. The next point to be considered is as to what food is best for breeding birds, and I say unhesitatingly maize. There is practically no waste, and you have not the mortification of seeing crowds of sparrows swoop down on your ducks' food as you turn away. Better still, ducks lay capitally on maize, and you may calculate on obtaining an average of twenty-three to twenty-four eggs apiece from your ducks if fed carefully. You will find that strange ducks when they first join your own will not eat maize, though they soon take to it when they see your own birds feeding. It is easy to tell the advent of a stranger by this peculiarity, and by his generally alert and suspicious manner. I am a strong believer in the infusion of fresh blood each year, and this is easily done by catching a few stranger drakes and pinioning them. These birds, if kept up until their wound is healed, and then enlarged in good time, will pair with your own birds and often become very tame. I did not find that pinioning strange ducks answered so well, as they were very prone to stray and lay their eggs at a distance, and their young were always shy and difficult to tame; moreover, the ducks never bred the first year after pinioning, whereas the drakes did. It is quite a simple matter to catch these wild birds; you have only to construct an ordinary wire-covered cage, somewhere near the water, and with the face nearest the water closed by a door; you then accustom your own birds to feed inside this cage, and you will soon find that in winter they will come for food as soon as it is light, or rather just as day is breaking, always provided that you feed them at that time. You have been careful to leave the door of the cage open over night, and have put some maize inside the cage. A strong cord attached to the door is passed across the doorway and round a wooden "runner" on the opposite post, and then to the back of the cage, where your man lies concealed. Often during severe weather, which is always the best for this kind of work, your own birds will be followed by one or two strangers, who in the half light come inside the cage before realising their mistake. Once you get them inside the cage with their heads away from the entrance, pull the string and shut the door. Care should be taken that the string is fairly high up, so as not to catch the duck's eye. Having got your birds safely inside, catch them quietly and quickly, and having pinioned them, take them, if possible, to a cage with some part of it projecting out into the water. You, of course, feed them regularly, and are careful to give them some artificial cover to skulk in, as for some time the pain of the wound and the fright they have had makes them terribly shy. This cage, once constructed, is most useful for such work, and can be built at trifling cost, and the size I would recommend is about fifteen yards long by five yards wide, with a height of five or six feet. Your own birds soon get used to their part of the business, and, if you are quiet and quick, soon get over their nervousness. The advantage of confining your captives for a short time is obvious. They get used to their surroundings and recognise the lake as their new home, and soon take to their diet of maize, so that when you liberate them they rarely give much trouble, and readily mate with your own birds. [Illustration: THE CAGE] One very important point which I have omitted to mention is the necessity to kill down all rats, hedge-hogs, moles, and weasels in the vicinity of your breeding places. Rats are the ducks' worst enemies, and I have known one old doe rat which had no less than sixteen wild ducks' eggs in her larder when she was dug out and killed. All these eggs had a small hole in them, and were of course spoilt. We proved conclusively that she had no partner in her crimes, as we never lost another egg after her death. Rats are a perfect curse to young ducks, and they will carry them off even when they are half-grown, occasionally killing two or three ducklings in a single night without even taking the trouble to remove them. On another occasion I remember a rat killing a duck whilst sitting on her nest; the unfortunate bird had allowed herself to be killed apparently without moving. Moles do a good deal of damage by burrowing under the nests, thus forming a cavity into which the eggs fall; they are then carried off by the mole. More than this, many a duck is either put off laying or induced to desert her nest when sitting owing to the restless movements of this little pest. A last word as regards the numbers you should retain as a breeding stock. This largely depends on the size of the piece of water you own and the amount of food it can supply to your birds. If your stock is too large, your birds will do a lot of harm to the meadows adjoining the water, and you must bear in mind that the possession of the goodwill of the farmers round is the second secret of success. Ensure this, and you don't get eggs stolen, and, better still, you are informed of the whereabouts of any truant ducks that may be nesting away from home. A present of a couple of fat wild ducks will cover a multitude of their sins. LAYING AND SITTING [Illustration: _W.L. Colls. Ph. Sc._ "_On Guard._"] CHAPTER II LAYING AND SITTING We now come to the time when the ducks, having paired, show an inclination to look for suitable nesting places. The drake takes the lead in this, and you may be sure that when you see birds peering about in hedge bottoms, stick heaps, &c., that eggs will soon be laid. At this time, too, they use a different note, and to quote a very apt term used by a friend of mine, they "begin to talk." About the beginning of February it is advisable to hint to the ducks where you want them to lay. If you have any large trees in your paddock, place a number of sticks up against the trees in the form of a circle, leaving one or two clear spaces inside the heap. Then make some circular holes, one in each of the spaces, and about five or six inches deep, and shelving gradually from rim to centre. It is best to scatter some sand in these holes, so that the birds can more easily work the nests to the dimensions that suit them. Don't make the nests too small or too shallow, as they may have to contain fourteen or fifteen eggs. It is advisable to put some short dry grass or old hay near the nest, and a very little in it, so that the duck can manipulate it at her pleasure. The principal thing to remember is, that the nest must be sheltered as much as possible from draughts, and be made well in the middle of the cover, as ducks like darkness when they are sitting. Broom is about the best cover you can use for sheltering a nest, and is most adaptable. Practical experience, and one's early failures, teach one more than anything else how a nest should be made, and yet often when you are satisfied that you have selected a most suitable spot for nesting purposes, you will find a duck occasionally preferring a miserably draughty position for her nest within a yard of the snug retreat you have devised for her. The only thing then to be done is to leave her alone until she has settled down to lay steadily, when you can gradually introduce pieces of broom, &c., so as to shelter her nest as much as possible from wind and rain, taking care to leave the entrance to the nest clear. Young ducks as a rule are the most shy, and you will generally find the older birds only too glad to avail themselves of the well-sheltered nests that you have provided for them. Nothing can be better for ducks to nest in than the corners of an outhouse or old stable, always provided that you have killed off the rats. In such places wind and rain can do no harm, and practically every egg hatches out. The roots of hollow willow trees are favourite nesting places, but a bit dangerous if too near the water's edge. Many birds delight in straw stacks, and if disturbed will simply go up higher, so as to be out of the way of cattle or human beings. I believe that if you can get your birds to nest in outhouses or stacks, you will get a much better hatch out than elsewhere. Last year one of my ducks took off all her sixteen eggs safely from the corner of a stable, and a bird sitting close to her hatched eleven, without a single bad egg; and we had almost as good results from birds nesting in stacks. One bird, after being disturbed from her nest in the side of a stack, built at the top, and quite twenty feet from the ground. One fine morning we found her with fourteen young ducklings, and she appeared much annoyed at the assistance which we gave to the family to descend. If the weather is dry and your nests are well situated, your birds nesting outside may do as well as those described above; but given a week of cold wind and penetrating wet, down goes your average at once. Last season was a particularly favourable one, and from the first five nests (all sat upon by ducks) no less than sixty-five ducklings hatched out--a highest possible. Naturally this extraordinary percentage was not maintained. We will now suppose that the ducks have begun to lay, an event which may take place any time from the middle of February to the middle of March, after which date they ought to be laying steadily. As they will lay many more eggs than they can successfully hatch, pick up some eggs at intervals from the nests, taking care always to leave two or three in each nest. These eggs should be placed on a large tray or shallow box, lined with hay, sawdust, or other suitable material. It is not advisable to place them touching each other, and care should be taken to turn them daily; if this is done the eggs will keep well for three weeks, by which time you have collected a sufficient number to put under hens, however small your stock may be. Eggs left in the nest will, of course, not require turning, as the duck does this herself. When you have collected a number of eggs, place them under hens, having first satisfied yourself that the hens are good sitters. Eight to ten sittings of twelve eggs each is a good number to put down as a start, as from this number you ought to get about a hundred ducklings, and these, when old enough, can be divided into two runs of about fifty each. I have found by experience that it is unwise to put a larger number than this together until the birds are about six or seven weeks old. Naturally, the number of eggs you can put down will depend on the size of your stock and the number of sitting hens at your disposal. A certain amount of care is necessary in preparing the nest for the hens, as ducks' eggs are very fragile, and much more easily broken than hens' eggs. The following is the method which I recommend. Get any square box of sufficient depth, and having cut some pieces of sod, build up the corners of the box with them: then cut a square sod to fit the size of the box, and having removed some of the earth underneath the centre of the sod, place it grass upwards in the box. By this means you will obtain the proper shape for the nest, viz., a gradual slope down from the sides to the centre; this will prevent your hens accidentally kicking eggs from under them, as owing to the shape of the nest any eggs which are displaced must roll towards the centre or lowest part of the nest; there is consequently little danger of any of the eggs getting cold. After this, line the nest with dry moss. The sod underneath has the advantage of producing greater heat, and gives a more satisfactory hatch out than nests made of other material, and being firm does not lose its shape. Don't forget to give your sitting hen some ventilation, but be careful that _no draught can reach the eggs_. The sitting hens will, of course, be taken off to feed regularly every day, and you will find them give you less trouble if you take care to tether them on the same leg each day. And now to return to the laying ducks. As time goes on you must leave more eggs in the nest, as the birds will soon want to sit. A duck shows signs of this by lining her nest with down from her breast, and in a short time you will find the whole nest, sides and bottom, lined with a thick covering of down; while the eggs are covered by what I can best describe as a thick movable quilt, which protects them from the cold, and the prying eyes of carrion crows and other poachers. At this time you will observe the old duck staying longer and longer on her nest each day as she lays the last egg or two, and you may be sure that she has fairly begun to sit if you find her still on her nest about 6 or 7 P.M. A day or two before she begins to sit, her nest should be made up to its proper complement of eggs, and it is always wise to keep a few eggs in hand for such contingencies. The number of eggs a duck can sit on depends largely on the size of the duck and also the depth and breadth of the nest; given favourable conditions a duck can manage sixteen or seventeen eggs, and I knew of one nest, consisting of sixteen eggs, all of which hatched off. There is, however, this risk, that should bad weather come it is practically impossible for a duck to successfully brood so large a number as sixteen ducklings, even when her coop is turned away from the wind and rain; and it is here that large brooding hens such as the Bufforpington score their strongest point as mothers to young ducks. Of one thing you may be sure, a duck will not retain any more eggs in her nest than she can conveniently cover. I know of one case where a duck belonging to me was sitting on fifteen eggs. All appeared to be going well, until one morning a friend of mine, on whose veracity I can absolutely rely, saw the duck fly from her nest, close to where he was standing, _with an egg in her bill_. [Illustration: _W.L. Colls. Ph. Sc._ "_A tidy Mother._"] She flew to the water, about 150 yards away, apparently without breaking the egg; but unfortunately my friend could not get up in time to see what she did with it. She hatched out the rest of her eggs satisfactorily. I presume that either the egg in question was cracked and she removed it for the sake of cleanliness, or because she felt herself unable to sit on so many eggs. On many occasions I have noticed an egg left bare on the top of the downy covering which ducks are so careful to leave over their eggs when they go off to feed, and these eggs, if taken away and placed under a hen, have invariably hatched. To the best of my recollection I have never known eggs disappear from a nest containing eggs up to thirteen in number; but over that I could quote many instances of one or two eggs going. This has led me to believe that the bird above alluded to had removed an egg from her nest, as she felt herself unable to sit on so many. A good number of eggs to leave under a duck is thirteen, and under a hen twelve. I have satisfied myself that hens, however small and light, break many more eggs than ducks, and for this reason I do not care to give a hen too many--one broken egg frequently leads to more. It is advisable when once the ducks have begun to sit, to catch their mates, if possible, and shut them up in some convenient place during incubation, as otherwise they bully the sitting ducks when they come off to feed, and you may have the annoyance of seeing a duck desert her nest just at hatching time, as nature has warned her that she must shortly lay again. I had one instance of this kind, when a duck which had been sitting very steadily left her nest when the eggs were actually "spretched" (cracked previous to hatching), and as later in the day she showed no signs of returning we had to put them under a hen. The duck in question never returned to her nest, but soon made another. She had not been disturbed in any way. Should a duck forsake its nest, place the eggs under a good hen as quickly as possible, even if they are stone cold. I had one case last year, which I thought hopeless. The eggs had been sat on for about a fortnight. They were stone cold, and we knew the duck had been off her nest for at least twelve hours, probably much longer. Eventually twelve out of the thirteen hatched. If you are unable to catch the drakes, the best plan is to put food and water near the nest of the sitting birds, the pan containing the water being large enough to allow her to wash herself thoroughly, as it is the daily tub which generates heat, and assists most materially the successful hatching of the young birds. I will now deal with the vexed question as to the best kind of hens to be employed. Personally I have strong leaning towards "Bufforpingtons"; they are, of course, heavy, and do break a few eggs--ducks' eggs being particularly brittle--but, on the other hand, they are very staunch sitters, quiet and easy to handle, and not likely to get excited when other hens are hatching in close proximity to them. I have tried lighter hens of several breeds, and I find that they break as many eggs, and trample on as many young ducklings as the Buffs, whereas taking them all round, they are not so easy to handle, do not sit so steadily, and have nothing like the wonderful brooding capacity of the Buffs. Many people put all their wild ducks' eggs under hens, and do not allow the ducks themselves to sit. I think this is a mistake, as nature gives to ducks far greater powers to hatch their own eggs than she gives to hens. The daily bath, already alluded to, and the mass of warm soft feathers, greatly assist in generating heat, and in preventing the eggs from getting chilled. The old duck treads more lightly when going on to her nest, and certainly breaks far fewer eggs than the hen does. On the other hand, ducks are not such good "brooders" as hens, and are far more likely to get dirty when kept under coops, however often you may change the ground, owing to the fact that they do not get to the water for the daily bath which is essential to them; and if you leave a bath for them in the coop, the young ducklings will be sure to get to it and probably contract cramp. Another strong point in favour of hens is the fact that when you have a large number of cletches of ducks in the wired run the hens do not kill them when they make a mistake and go to the wrong coop, whereas ducks frequently do. If, therefore, a considerable number of broody hens are available, the best plan is to let the ducks sit on the eggs until they are "spretched" (cracked), and then transfer them to hens which have been sitting for some time. This, however, is a cruel business at best. The plan I always adopt is to note down carefully the day on which a duck should hatch, and having satisfied myself that the young ones are dry after hatching and ready to move, I catch the old duck on the nest, and remove her and her whole family to a coop and run. Care of course should be taken to see the bars in front of the coop are not sufficiently far apart to allow the duck to escape. Ducks' eggs take from twenty-four to twenty-nine days to hatch as a rule, though occasionally a lot of eggs that have been put down soon after being laid will hatch in twenty-three days, if set under a good hen. I should put twenty-six days as the usual period of incubation. If the ducks are well and regularly fed, they should lay an average of twenty-three eggs apiece during the nesting season. We generally feed ours on maize, as it is less wasteful than smaller grain, and the birds lay well on it. One can, I think, count on 80 per cent. of the eggs hatching, and of birds actually hatched you ought, in a fair season, to rear 85 per cent. Having taken my reader as far as the hatching out of the young birds, I propose in my next chapter, which I consider the most important in the book, to deal with the question of their food, up to the time they are fit to shoot. HATCHING AND REARING [Illustration: THE REARING PADDOCK] CHAPTER III HATCHING AND REARING The time is now approaching when the ducklings may be expected to hatch out. Care has been taken to plentifully sprinkle the eggs with tepid water, two or three times a week, whilst the hens are off for their daily feed, and everything is ready for the young birds. The first sign of approaching hatching is a curious opaqueness which affects the eggs. This is speedily followed by chipping, and by placing the egg close to the ear the young birds can easily be heard endeavouring to obtain their liberty. If all the eggs chip and hatch together it is a sure sign of healthy birds; but should they be hatching out patchily, remove the earliest birds at intervals from the different hens and put them in a basket lined with flannel, in a warm corner of a room, but not too near the fire. When the birds are quite dry and lively, remove them eleven or twelve together and place them in a coop, with a small wire run attached. Always place the coops facing the sun, if possible, and with their backs to the wind. Wind and rain must be kept out and the sun admitted. The latter will bring on young birds quicker than anything. During very bad weather coops may have to be shifted two or three times a day if the wind keeps changing. A matter of considerable importance is the nature of the soil on which the ducks are to be reared. Let it be light and well drained, and the ground undulating, so that it may be always possible to shelter the young birds from a harsh wind. A high bank, such as that alluded to in Chapter I., is often of the greatest assistance in sheltering them, particularly when they get a little older. The ducklings must be put on some grass, as otherwise the hens will scratch for food, and generally damage one or two of their brood. The young hopefuls require scarcely anything to eat or drink for the first twenty-four hours, and do little else but brood underneath the hen, though little patches of brown and yellow with a bright eye here and there form a fascinating picture for any passer-by. The first food given should be a little fine wild duck meal, scalded in the usual way, and put on a _shallow_ plate outside the coop, and inside the small wire run attached to the coop. To start with, a little food may be scattered over the grass inside the coops to attract the little birds to their meal; they should, however, be taught to feed as soon as possible outside for the sake of cleanliness. It is most important at this early stage that the food be not of too sloppy a nature, otherwise the birds soon get in a terrible state, and absolutely coated with their food. This always leads to their heads, eyes, and often their backs becoming sticky, and in the end spells a big death roll. Very little water, and that pond water, should be given during the early stages; the colder the weather the less they ought to have to drink, and it is often a good plan to take the chill off what little is given them. Don't forget to give the hens food and water twice a day. A busy time is now before the keeper, or whoever is responsible for the feeding. The earliest meal should be given at about 4 A.M. or as soon as it is light, and then regularly throughout the day, every four hours. Be careful to feed more frequently during inclement weather, and move the coops prior to feeding. The ducklings are now fairly started on their journey, and before following them I propose to describe the method to be adopted in the case of ducks sitting on their own eggs. Visit the sitting birds pretty regularly, so that they lose their shyness on seeing you, and when the birds have been sitting twenty-five days, go in the early morning and late in the evening to satisfy yourself that the eggs have not hatched. An experienced eye can generally tell, by the unusually elevated appearance of the duck on her nest, when she has hatched, and sometimes by creeping quietly forward the little birds may be heard chirping, though they instantly cease on receiving a warning from their mother. Should you have doubt as to the hatching having taken place, a blunted stick put under her breast will generally reveal the state of affairs, and if she knows you the old bird will not mind this. Directly it is ascertained that the brood is dry enough, the old bird should be caught and the little ones put in a warm basket, and the lot transferred to a coop and run, after which they are treated in exactly the same manner as those under a hen. I do not, however, think it wise to give the duck as many young ones to look after as are given to the hen; very often, however, there is no option in the matter. Ducks are very cunning at hatching time, and unless the keeper is quick and observant, will frequently give him the slip, and get off with their brood to the water, where more than half of them will probably fall a prey to rats and pike. I remember on one occasion being unable until late afternoon to go and look at a nest which was due to hatch in the morning. I found fourteen empty shells and the family gone. It was a very cold day, and after a prolonged search the party were found snugly ensconced under a willow tree. They were speedily captured and brought home. The young ducks are now three or four days old, and have got into the way of running out of the coop and into the run for their food and water. They have overcome their early shyness, and on the appearance of the keeper speedily show themselves. A little fine crissel and flint grit can now with advantage be added to the meal, and some sand, which acts as a digestive, placed in the water and on the grass. Never give them more than they can eat. Nothing is worse than stale food left about; it leads to diarrhoea, &c., and gives the youngsters a distaste for their food. The food can be placed in long shallow troughs or on the grass in one long line. I prefer the former plan, as less is left about to become stale and sour. Care should be taken to see that the troughs are thoroughly washed after each meal. When about ten days old the ducklings require more room to roam about in, and unless you give it them they will begin to go back. [Illustration: A SMALL RUN] Place five or six coops, hens inside, in a line, and about a foot apart, and wire in a piece of ground about ten yards square round the coops; it is better to give them too much room than too little. It will generally be necessary to move on to fresh ground every four or five days during this stage, but much depends of course on the state of the weather. It is a good plan to leave the small wire runs inside the larger runs, as they give a certain amount of shelter in bad weather. It is delightful to see the little chaps appreciating their new liberty and dashing about in all directions in chase of flies, &c. Nothing seems to hurt them at this time, and I once remember seeing three of my young ducks devour a bee apiece after first crippling it. I have noticed a bird swallow a bee alive, and have also seen one stung, but no ill effects resulted. It is a good plan now to give the birds a little boiled rabbit, chopped up fine; it makes a change from the crissel, and ducklings must have some animal food as a substitute for the slugs, worms, and many etceteras that they pick up in their natural state. The chopped rabbit should be mixed with the meal. One word of advice before going farther. Previous to placing a number of coops containing the old ducks close together, ascertain carefully whether there are any vicious ones amongst them--some are very savage, and will immediately peck to death any unwary little one which enters a coop not its proper home. It is best in these cases to isolate the old bird and her brood altogether, if you have plenty of room, or, failing that, to place her by herself in one corner of the run. If bad weather comes on, a pinch of "Cardiac" (a kind of tonic sold by Messrs. Spratt) may be added to the food, but I only advocate its use occasionally. The chief point I am anxious to impress on my readers is, don't let your birds get cold and wet; if you do, ground is lost which can never be recovered. A capital plan is to cover some portion of the run with sacking or a waterproof sheet to form a shelter against excessive heat or a sudden hail-storm. The most delicate time, in my opinion, is just when they are getting their shoulder feathers, and if you get them safely through this period the worst is over. [Illustration: WARE WIRE!] When they are about a fortnight old begin to give them some wheat in their drinking water; that known to farmers as "seconds" is best. I am a strong advocate of steeping the wheat before feeding, as I think it renders it more digestible, though this is not so necessary if one uses "seconds." The ducks having got to eat wheat nicely, introduce a little barley, and by the time they are seven weeks old you can afford to do without meal entirely, and it will be time to take the birds down to the water which is to be their home. The greatest obstacle to success in rearing during the early stages of a young wild duck's life is the extraordinary knack they have of getting their heads and backs dirty. This is a most serious matter, and causes great mortality unless attended to. It is generally caused by the food adhering to their heads and cheeks; being of a sticky nature, it will often, if neglected, cause inflammation to the eyes and eventually blindness. If once their heads get dirty, their backs soon follow suit, as the act of "preening" soon transfers the dirt from the head to the back. This curse to young ducks is most prevalent in wet weather, and it is therefore most necessary to constantly change the ground so as to keep the birds as clean as possible; if once the old bird gets dirty, it is good-bye to the general good health of her brood. The only remedy, if matters become serious, is to get some tepid water and soap, and carefully wash the affected places with a soft sponge, taking care to free the down or feathers which have adhered to the skin. A hot sunny day is the best for the purpose, as the young birds then have every chance of getting dry. If the old bird is dirty, try to allow her a good wash in a tub or small tank; she must, however, be watched, otherwise she may leave her young ones in the lurch. If your ducks are pinioned it is easy to manage this bath, and to prevent the birds straying afterwards from their young. When the ducklings are seven weeks old choose a nice warm day, and take them down to the water: I say a warm day, as owing to their delight at getting to their natural element, they are very liable to overdo their bathing at first, and, should the day be cold, the casualty list will be a big one next morning. [Illustration: WIRED IN ON THE WATER] At this time it is best to wire off a piece of land and water, making the whole into one large run, and taking care that there is some shelter on land for the young birds. It is a good plan to bring down the old birds, coops and all, to their temporary home, keeping the mothers shut up in the coops for the present. Their presence gives confidence to the ducklings, and their sharp warning "quacks" tell them when danger is about, and also emphasise the fact that there do exist such things as gulls, carrion crows, cats, dogs, &c., and that in future the young hopefuls must look out for themselves. Willow trees planted at the water's edge and kept about five to six feet high form admirable protection from bad weather and winged vermin, and also give welcome shelter from the heat of the sun, whilst they undoubtedly add to the amount of insect life in the run. If you wish to study economy in feeding, an excellent plan is to mix barley meal with your duck meal; commence in the proportion of four parts duck meal to one of barley meal, and increase the proportion of the latter until the mixture is half and half. Too much barley meal is, I feel sure, a bad thing, and causes indigestion, and if expense is no object it is best to stick to the wild duck meal until the ducks are weaned to corn; if, however, you do decide to feed on barley meal, it is a good plan to mix a little bran with it, in the proportion of one part bran to four of barley meal. You should get the ducks on to corn as soon as possible, and teach them to eat it in shallow water; they don't eat it so fast if this plan is adopted, are less liable to get indigestion, and in searching for the food are constantly drinking water at the same time as the food, as well as a certain amount of grit, sand, &c. Ducks must have water with their food, and the sooner they are trained to take corn and water together, the better will their meals be digested; moreover, if fed in this way birds certainly require less, and there is consequently a gratifying reduction in the grain bill at the end of the year. To return to the run at the water's edge, let it be assumed that the birds have been ten days to a fortnight in their new home, have become thoroughly accustomed to it, and naturally look upon it as the place where food is to be obtained at stated times. It is now time to enlarge them altogether, but before doing so liberate a few of the least vicious of the old ducks. These birds very soon take charge of a certain number of young ones, and directly the wire is pulled up will teach them where to look for food. It is a very pretty sight to see an old bird swimming at the head of twenty or thirty young ducklings, who form a compact mass behind her, and always accompany her in foraging expeditions. She it is who warns them that it is nearly feeding time; it is her eye which has detected a well-known figure hovering overhead, and her voice which warns them to make for the nearest shelter. By this time I am sure that my readers will be getting impatient because I have said so little as to the cost of food. A golden rule is to give your ducklings all they will eat during the first seven or eight weeks, and after that make them hunt for their natural food, giving them just sufficient to keep them fairly fat and prevent them from straying. It is quite possible to get them fat enough for the larder by increasing the supply of maize during the last fortnight or so before your shoot takes place. I am of opinion that, provided a man feeds and looks after his ducks himself, is in possession of a supply of coops and runs, and is fortunate enough to have a suitable piece of water of his own, as well as a bit of ground to rear them on, that he can make his accounts balance at the end of the year. In other words, he will be able to give his friends some very enjoyable shooting, and supply himself with a hobby of which he will never be tired, at no expense to himself. In support of my statement I propose to give a few figures. The breeding stock has of course to be purchased, and for the sake of simplicity let us put it at twenty ducks and fifteen drakes, making an initial cost of about £7. In an experience of some years, however, I have found that my stock at the end of the season numbers practically the same as at the commencement, and I found it always possible to fill up any casualties by catching and pinioning wild birds which join my own. On these grounds I consider that my stock at the end of the season is of the same value as at the beginning, and that one side of my account balances the other. The stock fed on maize will cost about 12s. 6d. a month, and, supposing that the first birds are hatched out about the middle of April, and practically all, except a very few retained for breeding purposes and some immature birds, are killed the first week in September, this calculation brings the price of feeding the breeding stock for seven and a half months to £4, 13s. 9d. Now for the food of the young birds. I assume that from the above-mentioned stock about 250 ducklings will be reared, and, taking an average of several years, their food from the date of hatching (mid April) to early September works out roughly at £16. This includes wild duck meal, wheat, barley, and barley meal, a little maize, and the many etceteras, such as crissel, grit, and cardiac. To this should be added a little extra for the feeding of the immature birds, which are not quite ready for killing. Put this at 15s. In addition there is still the expense of sitting hens: if twenty hens are purchased at 3s. each and afterwards sold at 2s., this item will work out as an expenditure of £1. They have of course to be fed, but their food--maize is the best--has been taken from the food purchased for the ducks, so that no further amount has to be charged under this heading. The debit side of the account will now work out as follows:-- Food for ducklings £16 0 0 Food for old birds 4 13 9 Extra food alluded to above 0 15 0 Expenses for sitting hens 1 0 0 --------- £22 8 9 As against these figures there are 250 young ducks for sale: deduct from this number fifteen for casualties of various kinds, such as dead birds unpicked at the shoot, odd birds that may stray and be killed, &c., and this gives 235. If the birds are properly fed a game-dealer will be glad to give 2s. each for them, especially if the shoot is timed to fit some popular function, such as Doncaster Races; so that the credit side of the account shows a sum of £23, 10s. for the sale of 235 birds, giving a small surplus of rather over £1, which can be used to meet incidental expenses, such as purchase of wire, &c. Each young bird will cost about 1s. 3-1/2d. to rear, and will sell for 2s., leaving 8-1/2d. a bird profit with which to meet the other expenses. Many of my readers may think the margin of fifteen birds set apart as casualties far too small, but I can assure them that, so far with me, it has never reached that number, and need not do so provided the birds are kept at home by proper feeding, and the right people propitiated. Naturally one does not sell all one's ducks, or anything like it. Some are given to the friends who come to the shoot, and many are given to the farmers round, but in considering accounts, I think I am justified in including the value of birds given away as one of the assets. In any case I have made an honest attempt to help those who wish to look before they leap. Ducks are very fond of maize; it certainly brings them on quicker than anything else, and I have had young drakes of the year in full plumage on August 1, when maize has been the only corn used. It is, however, too fattening, I think, and a bit apt to make the birds lazy. I do not believe that birds fed solely on maize fly so well or are as good for the table as those whose diet is composed of a mixture of wheat, barley, and maize. The birds must be encouraged to seek their natural food, as only by this means will the wild duck's flavour be retained. The birds must be fed at regular hours, as this is the only guarantee that they will be at home when wanted. I hope that in this chapter I have succeeded in showing how wild ducks can be fed in the best and also most economical manner, and I shall endeavour in the concluding one to give my readers some hints as to how the birds can be made to show reasonably good sport. SHOOTING [Illustration: _W.L. Colls, Ph. Sc._ "_Quite tall enough._"] CHAPTER IV SHOOTING The chief difficulty confronting a host who desires to give his guests good sport lies in the fact that it is no easy matter to get young hand-reared wild ducks to fly well, and I propose in this chapter to endeavour to show how it can best be done. I say _young_ birds, as I think it will be admitted that wild duck, if shot in late October or November, will nearly always fly well. Many sportsmen will, however, for various reasons, not want to keep their birds so long, either on the score of expense or for fear of their straying from home. Young wild ducks hatched about the second week in April should, if properly fed, be in good plumage and fit to shoot by the first week in September; and why, their owner naturally asks, should they go on eating their heads off when they are ready to be shot and eaten themselves. Partridge driving has not begun and the first edge has been taken off the grouse, so why should not the ducks be shot now; moreover, if fed well they will fetch a good price in the market at this time, as they will be in the nature of a treat so early in the season. The methods of shooting hand-reared wild ducks may be divided into four:-- 1. Posting the guns at different spots on the margin of a lake or near it, and flushing the ducks by means of dogs and beaters. 2. Teaching the ducks to take a particular line of flight by means of a horn, and then, without using the horn on the day of the shoot, intercepting them during their flight. 3. Catching the ducks beforehand, liberating them in convenient numbers, and then driving them over the guns. 4. Flight shooting. To deal first of all with No. 1 method. Let it be imagined that the host is fortunate enough to possess a lake or piece of marshy ground of considerable extent, and bordered by reeds or flags, which form good cover. Possibly the lake may narrow at some part, and if so our host's dispositions are easy; he places his guns on either shore at the "neck," and if there is room he fastens a punt in the water, midway between the guns on land. A second line of guns might, of course, be placed farther back. If the lake winds about a good deal the ducks will probably cut across country, and in any case can be easily made to do so by being flagged in or by being fed in a certain direction; there will very likely be some belt of trees in their line of flight, and if so some delightful sport may be had at high birds, the guns being placed in the open and well back from the trees, unless the birds are very shy. When the dispositions of the host are made, spaniels and keepers will beat the rushes on either side of the lake, driving the ducks over the guns, and the dogs can then be taken to the farther end and a return drive given when the ducks have been over the guns once; the latter will probably have to conceal themselves for this return drive, as the birds will now be more wary, and many that have not settled at the farther end of the lake may be circling high overhead. After a time it will probably be necessary to rest the birds for an hour or two for fear of driving them clean away. Don't forget when the shoot is over to have a thorough hunt for dead birds and cripples; the "pick up" is always a big one, as very few birds are missed entirely. The best time to shoot at a high-flying duck is just after he has passed overhead, as then the shot gets behind the feathers and penetrates more easily. The best shot to use is, I think, No. 4. The disadvantages of the above plan are: (_a_) all the birds are frightened badly, and some are sure to be lost; (_b_) some birds, which strictly speaking are barely ready, are certain to be shot. [Illustration: AN INEFFECTIVE CRIPPLE STOPPER] Many a good day's sport have I enjoyed with the ducks in India. In the North-West Provinces, where I was once quartered, there are a number of "jheels" or huge lakes, and during the cold weather these are tenanted by countless wild-fowl of nearly every variety. The plan usually adopted is to post the guns some distance apart and where they can best command the favourite feeding grounds of the birds; natives are then sent to different parts of the lake to stir the fowl and afterwards to keep them on the move, should they settle at a distance from where the guns are placed. Well I remember the keen pleasure, not unmixed with anxiety, with which I received an invitation to shoot a celebrated "jheel" which had not been disturbed that season. Ten guns, I was told, were coming. Now I knew that there were not more than half-a-dozen really safe guns in the immediate neighbourhood, and I determined that in my case discretion should be the better part of valour. I accepted the invitation with certain mental reservations. Arrived at the rendezvous, I found an old friend and good shot; in addition several good fellows, some of whom, though charming from a social point of view, plainly showed by the rather defiant manner in which they handled their guns that they were best avoided on the present occasion. Fortunately for my friend and myself we were rather short of boats, so with apparent good nature we insisted on staying on shore, where we could get well out of range if necessary. We speedily secreted ourselves amongst some tall reeds, and well away from the direction towards which the fleet of boats was making. One of these, strongly resembling a three-decker, had three guns on board, all of whom stood upright throughout the action. Her we christened the _Man of War_. The smaller craft skirmished in her vicinity, and for two hours the battle raged furiously. No distance was too great, no waterfowl too small or insignificant for their attention; but endurance has its limits, and at last we noticed that even the _Man of War_ was silenced, having fired upwards of 600 rounds. Slowly and solemnly the "Fleet" worked its way back to tiffin. [Illustration: BEFORE THE EVENING MEAL] In the meantime my friend and I had some capital sport, killing several pintail before these birds, always the first to leave, had finally departed. In addition we got some grey duck, gadwall, and a number of garganey and pochard. Later, when the boats had all left the "jheel," the fowl slowly began to return, and we now realised with satisfaction that we were well placed. Never have I had better sport or enjoyed myself more, and when at length we were peremptorily informed that the return train was shortly due (and even Indian trains don't wait for one more than half-an-hour), we staggered into the little wayside station, followed by our coolies, carrying enough ducks to feed the station for a week. The second method has now to be dealt with. Nothing is easier than to accustom the ducks to come to feed at stated times. At first a horn may be used and then gradually dropped, and in a very short time the birds will know the time of day as well as their feeder does; the latter must be stern with them, absolutely declining to feed them except at the regular hours, one of which will be timed to suit the hour it is intended to commence the shoot. Before commencing this tuition the host will have to select the place from which he wishes the birds to fly, and also the feeding ground which is the end of their journey. Ducks prefer to rest during the day, and are very fond of shade; provide them, therefore, if possible, with a plantation on some sloping ground fairly near water, where they can get shelter from sun and wind. I have found willows excellent for this purpose, as by topping they can always be kept at the required height. Such a spot will do admirably as jumping-off place, and here the birds may regularly be expected to rest after their night's wandering in search of food. The next step is to select the feeding ground, which should be some little distance from the spot described; preferably it should be on high ground, so that the ducks in their flight have to pass over some sort of valley situated between the two places. In this valley the guns are placed shortly before the feeding hour, and as that time approaches small detachments of ducks will wing their way across the valley for their meal, and give most sporting shots. It is, of course, essential that the resting-place by day and the feeding ground are not too close together, as if this is the case many birds hearing the firing close at hand may be scared from coming to their food. [Illustration: A RIGHT AND LEFT] After this the birds may be driven back the reverse way, though naturally this practice cannot be repeated more than once or twice in the year, or the birds will be scared away from the feeding ground altogether. If the host has a piece of water at right angles to the flight of the birds many will scatter after passing the guns and settle; and later on these birds can be driven up and down the water as described in the first method. One great advantage of the first stage of this plan is that the birds mostly fall on dry land and are easily retrieved. If the ground does not lend itself favourably for high birds the difficulty can be largely overcome by planting a belt of trees and then placing the guns in the open a little distance back; birds inclined to break out at the sides can easily be flagged in. It is a good plan to run some wire along the slope of the ducks' resting place, as it facilitates their rising at once, and they get into the habit of flying the whole distance instead of walking part of it. The third system has now to be considered. It is the most artificial of all, and is most suitable in cases where the ground does not lend itself well for high birds, or the host is not a man of unlimited means, but is fortunate enough to have the shooting rights over a fine stretch of water. The ducks probably vary considerably in size and age, as the owner, not having a large breeding stock, has not been able to put down a large number of eggs at once. The time has, however, come, when he has sufficient to give his friends a very nice shoot. It is, of course, undesirable to frighten or damage either the pinioned or immature birds, and these latter will have to be sorted from those which are fit to kill. The first step will be to accustom the birds to feed inside a wire enclosure, with some dark building, such as a barn or stable, at one end of the enclosure, and connected with it by means of a door. The birds all having been coaxed inside the enclosure to feed, shut the door of the enclosure quietly, and gradually drive the birds into the dark building. Here the birds will be left all night, and owing to the darkness will not damage themselves. A certain amount of ventilation and some water will be necessary. [Illustration: AT THE END OF THE DAY] It is a bad plan to give them any food beyond a light meal the evening they are caught, and certainly nothing next morning, as otherwise they will fly badly and heavily when liberated. Next morning, those ducks that are fit to shoot will be separated from the pinioned birds and those that are immature, and these latter can be conveyed in hampers to any convenient building, and fed. They will be kept in confinement during the shoot. Now for the shoot itself. The man who feeds the ducks has for a considerable time trained the ducks to fly in and out of the paddock or yard, in which the enclosure is situated. This is easily done by stretching a piece of wire, which can be gradually increased in height, across the boundary of the paddock into which the ducks come for their food. They soon get accustomed to this wire, and realise they will get no supper if they don't take the trouble to fly. As has already been mentioned, the owner of the ducks has the shooting rights over a fine piece of water, and on this water, and in the cover which grows round it, the birds pass the time between their feeding hours. There is sure to be a line of willow trees of some sort or other near the water's edge, and it is over these the ducks must be made to fly. Provided that a small clump of low willows, or other cover, is planted some distance from the rearing field, with the high willow trees standing between the two, it is quite easy, by occasionally feeding in this little cover, to accustom the birds to look on it as their sanctuary, and when liberated from their enforced confinement they will make straight for it, and over the tops of the intervening trees. All that has to be done now is to place the guns between the tall willow trees and the little cover, but well in the open, so that the ducks may see them and be induced to rise higher in consequence. A little false cover can now be put along the wire before alluded to at the edge of the rearing field, to make the birds rise better, and to prevent the guns from getting any inkling of your plan of operations. [Illustration: COMING ON A SIDE WIND] All is now ready, and at a given signal the birds which have been shut up all night will be liberated in detachments of varied numbers, first from the dark building, and secondly from the wire enclosure. Thoroughly frightened with their unaccustomed imprisonment, they take wing at once, and make the best of their way to the sanctuary, giving the guns most sporting shots. Should the wind be across their line of flight to the sanctuary, you will of course have to flag them in, as ducks always rise up wind, and love to fly against it; nothing they detest so much as getting their feathers ruffled. It will be found that they always fly best on a dull stormy day. The piece of water behind the guns should preferably run at right angles to the line of flight of the birds from the paddock to their sanctuary, as after the birds have passed the guns they will split up right and left, and settle at one end or the other. The guns will next be placed so as to command the water from bank to bank, one of them being placed, if necessary, in a boat moored for the purpose in midstream. The ducks are now driven over the guns again, down wind for choice, and this can be followed by a return drive, which ends the day's sport. An hour later some one must search the lake thoroughly for cripples, and when this has been done the breeding stock and immature birds should be released. A modification of this plan may be tried, though I do not recommend it. Instead of the birds being liberated from the enclosure as already described, they are caught, placed in hampers, and conveyed to some convenient spot at a distance from home, and then liberated in the numbers required. The birds naturally fly straight home, and sometimes fly well. Care must be taken to set them free amongst surroundings they know, otherwise they are cowed like a rabbit liberated away from its burrow. It is also advisable to place some obstacle across their line of flight, and about sixty yards in front of the guns, so as to make the birds rise well. The last plan has the obvious disadvantage that the ducks must be cramped to a certain extent by their imprisonment in the hampers, and it savours too much of the artificial to ever prove a complete success. On the other hand, the method described as the third works well; the birds are not crowded, but on being liberated are glad to escape; they are frightened and mean to fly well: but best of all your breeding stock and immature birds will, if this principle be adopted, know nothing of the shoot, and on being let go, will settle down in a very few hours and will assist in taming those birds which have been shot at but escaped. Whatever you do be careful to conceal all your plans from your guns, when artificial methods are adopted; the day is always more enjoyable if the guests cannot see how their host manages matters. [Illustration: LADIES IN WAITING] Ducks are extraordinarily good barometers, and by their behaviour on the water invariably give warning of coming rain or storm. No one who has kept wild ducks long has failed to notice their peculiar uneasiness before bad weather. Suddenly one bird with outstretched wings will dash madly on the surface of the water, and behaving much in the same way as a flapper chased by a dog, throw itself into the air, and dive suddenly on alighting again: in a moment this is taken up by every bird on the water, until one sees the extraordinary sight of two or three hundred ducks behaving just as if they were mad. They dash in all directions and appear quite unable to control themselves. When all this is noticed there is pretty sure to be rain within twelve hours. The last but by no means least sporting form of duck shooting must now receive a little attention. I allude to Flight Shooting. As winter comes on the ducks' natural instincts have begun to assert themselves, and regularly at dusk, heads will go up, and a peculiar uneasiness manifest itself: very shortly the birds will fly off, after one or two preliminary circles round, to the feeding ground they have selected, though if properly fed they will not go far. All that has to be done is to observe where the ducks feed, and place the guns either in the line of flight between the birds' home and their feeding ground or round the feeding ground itself. No sport is more fascinating than this--the absolute solitude, the dull red glow of the light fading in the west, gradually getting fainter and fainter, the light shiver of the reeds, as a breath of wind rustles through them, and best of all the whistle of beating pinions high overhead, betokening the welcome intelligence that birds are circling round, and making a full inspection of the feeding ground before alighting. Don't move now whatever you do, your retriever, sitting close at your side, will move his head quite enough, without your stirring as well: if you watch him you will soon get a pretty good idea as to where the birds are. Presently the noise becomes louder, and then with a loud "swish" the birds come right at you. Throw up your gun quietly and quickly and fire at once--don't dwell on your aim, and let us hope that the dog has no difficulty in retrieving a bird that was evidently cleanly killed. Ducks, like other birds, always alight facing the wind, and this fact must be borne in mind when selecting the stand. Should there be no wind to speak of, it is best to face the fading light, unless the ducks are known to make a practice of coming from one particular direction. They are most capricious birds, here to-day, and gone to-morrow, but this all adds to the fascination of the sport. I remember once killing eight ducks at a particular spot one evening, and not even getting a shot the next, although there were hundreds of ducks in the neighbourhood. Very different sport to this does one get in the East. The man who goes Flight Shooting there is almost certain of good sport, provided he knows what he is about. Well I remember a certain evening in Upper Burmah. It was at Alon on the river Chindwin, and during the last Burmese war. We were not supposed to go far from the Fort, but if we took an armed escort with us, no objection was raised. There was a large "jheel" about two miles from the Fort, which was much overshot by the small garrison quartered there, and during the day little could be seen on its surface besides a few whistling teal, a duck that gives poor sport, and is only just worth eating. I discovered, however, that at dusk hundreds of ducks returned to the "jheel" from all directions, remaining there probably until dawn. Followed by my soldier servant as an escort, I made my way to the "jheel," and having made our passage in one of the frail boats, known as "dug-outs," we eventually arrived at a small island which I had selected for my stand. Never shall I forget that evening. For about twenty minutes I shot nearly as fast as I could load, and not too well, I am afraid. Ducks of several different varieties were coming fast, and at all angles and elevations. Many an old sportsman will understand my difficulties. I had of course no second gun, no ejector, and at times I utterly forgot the motto "Festina lente." At last it was over, and I went home moderately satisfied with about five-and-twenty ducks, leaving, alas! a large number unpicked, as we had no dog. When your shoot is over, and the season is drawing to its close, the only work left amongst the ducks is to select the breeding stock for next season. The best to keep are long and well-furnished birds, as they always fly better, and lay more eggs than the short thick-set variety: they should have rakish-looking heads, with long bills, chrome yellow tinged with green in the case of the drake, and dull brown fringed with bright orange in the case of the duck. The eyes should be set high in the head, and the head itself _appear_ to be slightly angular in appearance, and not too round at the crown. I believe in fairly light coloured birds, as I have always noticed that any strange birds that arrive appear lighter in colour than my own, and I think that the darker and coarser birds do not fly so well. In any case get rid of all short thick-set birds--they will do for the table, but not for sport. In taking leave of my readers, I hope that I may have been fortunate enough to secure a little of their interest, and that this book may prove of some assistance to those who, like myself, love wild duck, and consider a few hours spent daily in their company an education and a treat. Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. Edinburgh & London 
33029	----	produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) Transcriber's Note This Plain Text version uses the Latin-1 character set. The figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance as the plates in the original, but moved to follow the section which each illustrates. Minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original. Where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references added, these are listed at the end of this book. Bold and small capital typeface in the original is represented in the Plain Text version by UPPER CASE. Italic typeface in the original is indicated in the Plain Text version by _underscores_. * * * * * [Illustration: _Frontispiece._ General view of water yards and ducklings on a large Long Island duck farm. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] DUCKS AND GEESE BY HARRY M. LAMON SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND ROB R. SLOCUM POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE _Authors of "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" and "Turkey Raising"_ ILLUSTRATED NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., LIMITED 1922 COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY _All Rights Reserved_ PRINTED IN U. S. A. PREFACE Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is unique in that it lends itself to the greatest degree of specialization and intensification along lines which are purely commercial. On a comparatively small area thousands of ducklings can be reared and marketed yearly. The call for information concerning the methods used by these commercial duck raisers has been considerable, and since such information is not available in complete concise form the present book has been prepared partly to furnish just this information. The methods used by successful Long Island duck raisers differ widely in some particulars and since in the space at command, it has been impossible to describe all the methods used, the plan has been adopted of detailing in the main the methods of one successful grower. This it is believed will prove to be more helpful and less confusing than to attempt to give the method of several different men. Much space has been given to the operations of the commercial duck raisers but the fact is recognized that the great bulk of the ducks entering into the trade of the country is the product of small flocks kept on general farms. For this reason a chapter has been added dealing with duck raising on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact that most of the information given under commercial duck raising can be readily adapted to use in connection with the farm flock. Detailed, complete information on goose raising is even more fragmentary than is the case with ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a few geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and call for information is quite general. It is for this reason that a section of this book has been devoted to goose raising and in that section all the good reliable information available on the subject is given. The special attention of the women of the farm is directed to the opportunity which goose raising offers to make a good profit on a small side line with the minimum of initial investment and of labor. The greatest care has been taken to make the information on both duck and goose raising as complete and clear as possible. However, the authors appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations in making clear methods and operations which are more difficult to grasp from a word description, and have therefore assembled a set of illustrations for this book, the completeness and excellence of which have never before been approached in any book on the subject. The illustrations alone are an education. In preparing and presenting this book to the public, the authors take pleasure in acknowledging their deep indebtedness to the following persons for help and information furnished: Roy E. Pardee John C. Kriner Charles McClave Stanley Mason Dr. Balliet William Minnich George W. Hackett Dawson Brothers Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle for the manner in which he threw open his duck plant to the authors and for the most generous amount of time which he gave in furnishing information. Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for information secured from his Farmers' Bulletins on duck raising and goose raising. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface List of Illustrations. PART I--DUCKS Chapter. Page. I. Extent of the Industry--Opportunities 3 Present Extent of the Industry--Different Types of Duck Raising--Opportunities for Duck Raising--Prices for Breeding Stock--Ducks for Ornamental Purposes. II. Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and Handling 9 Breeds of Ducks--Classification of Breeds--Marking the Ducks--Nomenclature--Distinguishing the Sex--Size--Popularity of Breeds--Egg Production--Size of Duck Eggs--Color of Eggs--Broodiness--General Considerations in Making the Mating--Making the Mating--The Pekin--The Aylesbury--The Rouen--The Cayuga--The Call--The Gray Call--The White Call--The Black East India--The Muscovy--The Colored Muscovy--The White Muscovy--The Blue Swedish--The Crested White--The Buff--The Runner--The Fawn and White Runner--The White Runner--The Penciled Runner--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and Handling Ducks--Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs. III. Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business 42 Distribution--Stock Used--Location of Plant--Making a Start in Duck Farming--Equipment, Capital, etc. Required--Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant--Land Required--Number of Breeders required--Housing Required for Breeders--Incubator Capacity--Brooder Capacity--Fattening Houses or Sheds--Feed Storage--Killing and Picking House--Resident--Horse Power--Feeding Track--Electric Lights--Water Supply--Fences--Labor--Invested Capital--Working Capital--Profits. IV. Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock 55 Age of Breeders--Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks--Selection of Breeding Ducks--Number of Females to a Drake--Securing Breeding Drakes--Houses and Yards for Breeders--Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses--Cleaning the Breeding Yards--Water Yards for Breeders--Feeding the Breeders--Egg Production--Time of Marketing Breeders--Disease--Insect Pests--Dogs. V. Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation 70 Kinds of incubators used--Incubator Cellar--Incubator Capacity Required--Age of Hatching Eggs--Care of Hatching Eggs--Selecting the Eggs for Hatching--Temperature--Position of Thermometer--Testing--Turning the Eggs--Cooling the Eggs--Moisture--Fertility--Hatching--Selling Baby Ducks. VI. Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the Young Stock 80 Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder House--Brooder Houses Required--Brooder House No. 1--Construction of House--Heating Apparatus--Pens--Equipment of the Pens--Grading and Sorting the Ducklings--Cleaning and Bedding the Pens--Ventilation--Other Types of Brooder Houses--Length of Time in Brooder House No. 1--Brooder House No. 2--Brooder House No. 3--Yard Accommodations for Ducklings--Shade--Feeding--Lights for Ducklings--Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck--Water for Young Ducks--Age and Weight when Ready for Market--Cripples--Cleaning the Yards--Critical Period with Young Ducks--Disease Prevention--Gapes or Pneumonia--Fits--Diarrhoea--Lameness--Sore Eyes--Feather Eating or Quilling--Rats--Cooperative Feed Association. VII. Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing 102 Proper Age to Market--Weights at Time of Marketing--The Last Feed for Market Ducks--Sorting Market Ducklings--Killing--Scalding--Picking--Dry Picking--Cooling--Packing--Shipping--Cooperative Marketing Association--Prices for Ducks--Shipping Ducks Alive--Saving the Feathers--Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers--Marketing Eggs. VIII. Duck Raising, on the Farm 120 Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising--Size of Flock--Making a Start--Selecting the Breed--Age of Breeding Stock--Size of Matings--Breeding and Laying Season--Management of Breeders--Housing--Feeding--Water--Yards--Care of Eggs for Hatching--Hatching the Eggs--Brooding and Rearing--Feeding the Ducklings--Water for Ducklings--Distinguishing the Sexes--Marketing the Ducks--Diseases and Insect Pests. PART II--GEESE IX. Extent of the Industry--Opportunities 141 Nature of the Industry--Opportunities for Goose Raising--Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women--Geese as Weed Destroyers--Objections to Geese. X. Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and Handling 147 Breeds of Geese--Nomenclature--Size--Popularity of the Breeds--Egg Production--Size of Goose Eggs--Color of Goose Eggs--Broodiness--Size of Mating--Age of Breeders--Marking Young Geese--General Considerations in Making the Mating--Making the Mating--The Toulouse--The Embden--The African--The Chinese--The Brown Chinese--The White Chinese--The Wild or Canadian--The Egyptian--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and Handling Geese--Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs--Prices for Breeding Stock. XI. Management of Breeding Geese 164 Range for Breeders--Number of Geese to the Acre--Water for Breeding Geese--Distinguishing the Sex--Purchase of Breeding Stock--Time of Laying--Housing--Yards--Feeding the Breeding Geese. XII. Incubation 172 Care of Eggs for Hatching--Methods of Incubation--Period of Incubation--Hatching with Chicken Hens--Hatching with Geese--Breaking Up Broody Geese--Hatching with an Incubator--Moisture for Hatching Eggs--Hatching. XIII. Brooding and Rearing Goslings 178 Methods of Brooding--Brooding with Hens or Geese--Length of Time Brooding is Necessary--Artificial Brooding--General Care of Growing Goslings--Feeding the Goslings--Percentage of Goslings Raised--Rapidity of Growth--Diseases. XIV. Fattening and Marketing Geese 187 Classes of Geese Marketed--Markets and Prices--Prejudice Against Roast Goose--Methods of Fattening Geese for Market--Pen Fattening--Noodling Geese--Methods Used on Fattening Farms--Selling Geese Alive--Killing--Picking--Packing for Shipment--Saving the Feathers--Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers. Index 215 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Frontispiece. Water Yards and Ducklings. 1. Mule Ducks and Blue Swedish Ducks 10 2. Mallard Ducks 11 3. Goose, Duck and Hen Eggs 18 4. Young Pekins for Breeders and Aylesbury Drake 19 5. Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks 24 6. Rouen Drake in Summer Plumage and Rouen Duck 25 7. Cayuga Ducks 26 8. Gray Call Ducks 27 9. White Call Ducks 28 10. Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Drake 29 11. Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy Showing Black on Head 32 12. Wing of Blue Swedish Duck 33 13. Pair of Buff Ducks 36 14. Penciled Runner Drake and White Runner Drake 37 15. Methods of Carrying Ducks 40 16. Power Feed Mixer 41 17. Duck Houses 58 18. House for Breeding Ducks 59 19. Another Type of Breeding House 62 20. Feeding the Breeders 63 21. Interior of Breeding House 74 22. Incubator Cellar 75 23. Interior of No. 1 Brooder House 82 24. Watering Arrangement in Brooder Pens 83 25. Another Type of No. 1 Brooder House 86 26. Brooder House No. 2 87 27. Brooder House No. 3 88 28. Long Brooder House and Yards 89 29. Pekin Ducklings 3 Days and 2 Weeks Old 90 30. Pekin Ducklings 3 Weeks and 6 Weeks Old 91 31. Interior of Cold Brooder House 92 32. Yard Ducks 93 33. Duck Sheds 94 34. Feeding and Watering Arrangements 95 35. Green Feed for Ducks 96 36. Feeding from Track 97 37. Yard Ducks at Rest 98 38. Artificial Water Yards 99 39. Catching Pens for Fattening Ducklings 104 40. Carrying Ducklings to Slaughter 105 41. Hanging Ducklings and Cutting Throat Veins 106 42. Bleeding Ducklings 107 43. Washing Heads 108 44. Ducklings Ready for the Pickers 109 45. Scalding 110 46. Picking Ducks 111 47. Dressed Duckling 112 48. Weighing Out Ducklings for Packing 113 49. Curing Duck Feathers 148 50. Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose 149 51. Toulouse and Embden Ganders 154 52. Canadian and African Ganders 155 53. Brown and White Chinese Ganders 158 54. Methods of Handling Geese 159 55. Geese Fattening in an Orchard 198 * * * * * DUCKS PART I Chapter I Present Extent of the Industry Duck raising while representing an industry of considerable value to the United States when considered from a national standpoint, is one of the minor branches of the poultry industry. According to the 1920 census there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United States with a valuation of $3,373,966. As compared with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly greater number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably less being only $1,567,164. In the ten years between the census of 1900 and that of 1910 there was a decrease in the number of ducks of nearly 40%. According to the 1920 census the more important duck raising states arranged in their order of importance were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South Dakota, Indiana, Nebraska and Kentucky. The number reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for Kentucky 99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East North Central, the West North Central, the Mountain and the Pacific states showed an increase, while the South Atlantic, East South Central and West South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of the existence of quite a number of large commercial duck farms, the great bulk of ducks produced are those which come from the general farms where only small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion of farms have ducks on them. The comparatively small number of ducks is distributed over practically the entire United States, being more common in some sections than others, particularly along the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific Coast, with fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle West. _Different Types of Duck Raising._ The conditions under which ducks are kept and the purpose for which they are kept fall under four heads: First, commercial duck raising for the production of duck meat; second, duck raising as a by-product of the general farm; third, duck raising for egg production; fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition or the sale of breeding stock. _Opportunities for Duck Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity for profitable duck growing lies under the first of these heads, namely, commercial duck raising. Where the conditions of climate, soil and land are favorable and where the location is good with respect to market there exists an excellent opportunity for one skilled in duck growing to engage in that business in an intensive manner for the purpose of putting on the market spring or green ducklings. Where these are in demand they bring a good price and since the output per farm is large they pay a good return even with a small margin of profit per pound. The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly consists of duck raising as a by-product of the general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture land easily accessible, and particularly where there is a stream or pond to which the ducks can have access, a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females, can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The cost of maintaining them will not be great and they will not only provide a most acceptable variety in the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers' table but they will also produce a surplus which can be sold at a profit. It must be remembered, however, that where only a small flock is kept it is generally impracticable for the farmer to give his ducks the attention necessary to cater to the market for green ducklings. As a result he usually keeps them until fall and sells them on the market at a considerably lower price than is obtained by the commercial duck grower. There also exists an opportunity which has not been developed to any great extent to keep some one of the egg producing breeds of ducks such as the Indian Runner for the primary purpose of egg production. A few ventures of this sort seem to have been successful but it must be remembered that the market for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that for hens' eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption. Before engaging in duck raising primarily for the production of market eggs it would therefore be necessary to investigate and consider carefully the market conditions in the neighborhood so as to know whether the eggs could be marketed to advantage. While the Runner ducks are prolific layers there is no advantage in keeping them in preference to fowls as egg producers. The eggs are larger in size but it takes more feed to produce them, while they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any higher price than can be secured for hens' eggs. For baking purposes duck eggs can be readily sold on account of their larger size. There is always an opportunity to produce fine stock of any kind, whether it be ducks, chickens, turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited to the same extent as are chickens and the competition in the shows is not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless many persons are interested in producing and exhibiting good stock and there exists a very definite market for birds of quality. There is also a probability that a good business could be worked up by one who would pay special attention to producing a strain of ducks of early maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply breeding drakes to many of the commercial duck farms. These farms usually secure drakes for breeding from sources outside their own flocks each year but the usual practice is to exchange drakes with some other commercial grower. While very good birds are to be found on these duck farms there is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic breeding, the selection of the breeding stock being of rather a hurried nature during certain seasons of the year when the ducks are being marketed. Moreover, the long continued custom of exchanging drakes with the neighboring farmers has in most cases led to the blood being so largely confined within one circle that no great percentage of new blood is obtained by these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity along breeding lines for this purpose is limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which is kept upon all the large commercial duck farms in the United States. _Prices for Breeding Stock._ Duck breeders who make a specialty of selling breeding stock or eggs for hatching find a steady and quite a wide demand for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings of 11 and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting depending on the quality of the stock. The prices received for the birds themselves depend of course upon their quality and may run anywhere from about $5 to $25 per bird. _Ducks for Ornamental Purposes._ On estates or in parks where natural or artificial ponds are included in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept for ornamental purposes. Any breeds may be used, and often the gay colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or some one of the small breeds such as the Calls, Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this purpose. It is said that these small ducks will absolutely destroy the mosquito larvae in any such ponds or lakes. CHAPTER II Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and Handling _Breeds of Ducks._ There are 11 standard breeds of ducks. All of these breeds with the exception of the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a single variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the Gray and the White; the Muscovy consists of two varieties, the Colored and the White; and the Runner consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White, the White and the Penciled. Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the birds for fancy or for profit, keep one of the standard breads or varieties. Frequently, also, the farm flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many farms, probably a great majority, the flock consists of the common or so-called "puddle" duck. In certain parts of the South there is a duck known as the "mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy and the common duck. This is a duck of good market quality but will not breed from which characteristic it gets its name. Most of the common or "puddle" ducks which are found on farms are of rather small size, are indifferent as layers, and do not make a desirable type of market duck. They have arisen simply from the crossing of standard breeds with resultant carelessness and indifference in breeding. Because of the care with which they have been selected and bred for definite purposes, the standard breeds are decidedly superior to the common "puddle" ducks and should by all means be kept in preference since they will yield better results and greater profits. In addition to the standard breeds and varieties flocks of Mallards are also kept to a limited extent. The Mallard is a common small wild duck which has lent itself readily to domestication and which thrives with proper care under confined conditions. In weight, the drakes will run from 2½ pounds to 3 pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average about 2¼ pounds with a variation of from 1 pound 12 ounces to 2 pounds 8 ounces. By selecting the large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding, it is easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent that they resemble small Rouens rather than wild Mallards. The plumage of the Mallard is very similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade. Another small wild duck known as the Wood or Carolina duck, which is a native of North America, has been domesticated and on account of the great beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever ornamental waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin duck is a small duck of about the same size as the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the Wood duck is generally kept for ornamental purposes. This duck is said to be a native of China. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Upper--Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower--Pair of Blue Swedish Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 2. Upper--Mallard Duck. Lower--Mallard Drake. The Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Classification of Breeds So far as the standard breeds and varieties are concerned they may be divided into three classes according to the purpose for which they are kept and for which they are best suited. First is the meat class which consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue Swedish. These breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks for they are quite good layers in addition to producing excellent table carcasses and are therefore well suited for general farm use. They are, however, kept more particularly for meat production. The second class is known as the egg class and consists of the three varieties of the Runner Duck, formerly known as the Indian Runner. The Runner Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the meat class, is longer in leg and more active, and is not so well suited for the production of table ducks but is a very prolific layer. With proper feeding and management the Runner ducks will compare favorably with hens as egg producers. The third class is known as the ornamental class and is composed of the ducks which are kept and bred principally for ornamental purposes. This class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties, the Black East India duck and the Crested White duck. Both the Call and East India ducks are small in size being really the bantams of the duck family. While they make good table birds, their small size handicaps them as commercial meat fowl. The Crested White duck is of larger size, possesses a crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl. _Marking the Ducks._ The duck raiser who is breeding his ducks for exhibition quality has need for knowledge of the breeding of the birds he may contemplate using in his matings. In order that this information may be available, the young ducks as they are hatched can be marked by toe punching them on the webs of their feet in the same manner that baby chicks are toe punched. A different set or combination of marks is used for each mating so that the breeding of the different ducks can be distinguished. Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg banded in order to furnish a distinguishing mark. Nomenclature Before taking up a description of the matings of the different standard breeds and varieties it is well to indicate the common nomenclature which is used in connection with these fowls and which differs from that used for chickens. The male duck is called drake, the female duck is termed duck, and the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In giving the standard weights for the different breeds of ducks, weights are given for adult ducks and adult drakes, and for young ducks and young drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird which is over one year old. By young duck or drake is meant a bird which is less than one year old. The horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being termed beak as in chickens are called bill, and the separate division of the upper bill at its extremity is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb or wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of the terms ducklet and drakerel. Ducklet is used to signify a female during her first laying season just as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel is used to signify a young drake as contrasted with an older drake just as the word cockerel is used in comparison to cock in chickens. _Distinguishing the Sex._ The sex of mature ducks can be readily told by their voices and also by a difference in the feathering. The duck gives voice to a coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic "quack" usually thought of in connection with this class of fowl. The drake on the other hand utters a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but which is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this means can be made after the ducklings are from 4 to 6 weeks old. Before this age, both sexes make the same peeping noise. Mature drakes are also distinguished from the ducks by the presence of two sex feathers at the base of the tail. These are short feathers which curl or curve upward and forward toward the body of the bird. In ducks these feathers are absent. Size An idea of the size of the different standard breeds can best be obtained by giving the standard weights. They are as follows:-- Adult Drake. Adult Duck. Young Drake. Young Duck. Pekin 9 8 8 7 Aylesbury 9 8 8 7 Rouen 9 8 8 7 Cayuga 8 7 7 6 Muscovy 10 7 8 6 Blue Swedish 8 7 6½ 5½ Crested White 7 6 6 5 Buff 8 7 7 6 Runner 4½ 4 4 3½ There are no standard weights for the Call duck and for the Black East India duck but these are all small in size, being really bantam ducks. The drakes will weigh from 2½ to 3 pounds and the ducks from 2 to 2½ pounds. Popularity of Breeds In the meat class by far the most popular duck in this country is the Pekin. It is the breed which is used exclusively on the large commercial duck farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably comes the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in some sections of the country, particularly in the South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved to be very popular in the United States perhaps due to its white bill and skin, although it is the popular market duck of England. The other breeds included in the meat class are kept more or less commonly but do not approach in popularity either the Pekin or the Muscovy. Any of the breeds in this class will prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock, although the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage when dressed due to their dark pin feathers. In the _egg_ class there is included only the Indian Runner and this of course is the breed which is kept wherever the production of duck eggs is the primary object. The Fawn and White is the most popular variety of this breed. In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding breed, since the ducks belonging in this class are kept very largely to satisfy the pleasure of the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a matter of personal preference. Egg Production While the conditions under which ducks are kept and the care they are given will affect their egg production greatly, there are certain rather definite comparisons that can be made between the different breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce from 80 to 120 eggs. The Aylesbury and the Rouen are about alike in laying ability, neither being quite as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer ranking with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between these and the Pekin. The Muscovy is an excellent layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The Blue Swedish is about equal to the Cayuga in laying ability. The Buff duck is an excellent layer comparing favorably with the Pekin or even with the Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of the duck family and if given proper care and good feed will compare favorably with hens in egg producing ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly good layer. The Calls and the Black East India ducks will lay from 20 to 60 eggs per year, approaching the latter number if the eggs are collected as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which will induce some of them to continue to lay for quite a portion of the year. Extremely large ducks of any breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized birds. _Size of Duck Eggs._ The eggs of the different meat breeds will run about the same in size with the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run a little larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative flocks show Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga eggs to average about 2½ pounds per dozen although there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller. Muscovy eggs weigh about 3 pounds per dozen with selected large eggs weighing as high as 3¼ pounds. Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably larger than average hens' eggs or about the size of large Minorca eggs. They weigh about 2 pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of ducks, the Calls and the Black East India, together with those of the Mandarin and Wood ducks will weigh from one pound to 1½ pounds per dozen depending upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs of the Mallard duck will run from 26 to 32 ounces to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks, especially the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be increased somewhat by liberal feeding. Average hens' eggs should weigh about 1½ pounds per dozen. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Upper--Comparison of size of goose egg on the left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center and a hen egg on the right. Lower--Duck eggs--At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black egg laid by a Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of green color and on the extreme right the egg of a Runner duck. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Color of Eggs._ The color of duck eggs ranges from white to a polished black. Pekin eggs run mostly white although some show a decided blue or green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly white. The color of Rouen eggs varies from white to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few white eggs, most of them being green or black, some being as black as though polished. Muscovy eggs run from a white to a greenish cream in color. The eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually run white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a rule while the Crested White duck lays eggs which range in color from white to green. The eggs of the Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs of the Black East India, like the Cayuga, for the most part run from green to black. A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the same female may lay eggs which are widely different in color. It is likewise true that the color of the shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks on range will lay darker colored eggs than those which are yarded. There is also a tendency for the eggs to run darker in color when laying first begins and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A peculiarity in regard to duck eggs with a dark colored shell is that a thorough washing will lighten up the shell color decidedly. _Broodiness._ The Muscovy, the Call and the Black East India ducks are broody breeds. The ducks of these breeds will make their nests, hatch their eggs and are good mothers. All the other breeds are classed as non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain percentage of them will go broody and show a desire to sit but they do not make reliable sitters and mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose. Considerations in Making the Mating[1] Since ducks are kept for different purposes there will of course be certain fundamental differences in the different classes in the selection of the individuals to make up the mating. Whatever the purpose, however, the first consideration in selecting the breeders must be to secure those which possess excellent vigor and general health and which meet insofar as possible the standard requirements for size. Where the Call duck and the Black East India are concerned the selection for size must be for smallness since that is a characteristic greatly desired. In the other breeds the selection for size must be to see that they come up to the standard weights for the particular breed in question. As in other classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of the plumage and the general appearance and actions of the birds are good indications of their health and thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a valuable indication of good health while a watery eye is usually a sign of weakness. It is necessary to guard against birds which show any tendency toward crooked or roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or twisted wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard against any breeders which show down on the shanks or between the toes as this sometimes occurs. [Footnote 1: For a more detailed discussion of the principles of breeding as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to ducks, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.] In selecting the mating for any one of the meat breeds use birds which have good length, width and depth of body so that they will have plenty of meat carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks, birds which are active, well matured and which are not extreme in size for the breed are preferable as the fertility is likely to run better than with the extremely large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition purposes, it frequently happens that it is desirable to use large breeders and to hold them for breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding condition. Where this is the case it becomes necessary to mate a smaller number of females to a drake than would be the case with smaller and younger breeders. Where old birds are used as breeders better results will be secured by mating old ducks to a young drake or vice versa than by mating together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any of the meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production, it is essential that the egg production be good throughout the breeding season in order to raise as many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible. Selection of the females as breeders should be made therefore on the basis of good egg production as well as good meat type if the conditions under which the ducks are kept are such as to make it possible to check this in any manner. In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is necessary to keep in mind that the general type of body is quite different from that of the meat breeds, being much slimmer and much more upright in body carriage. For this mating select thrifty, healthy birds and those which are active. Some breeders trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other means of checking up the better layers. As in chickens, it is of course desirable to use these better layers as breeders since the purpose in keeping this kind of duck is primarily egg production. In selecting the mating in the Call and East India breeds it is necessary to use the smaller ducks since the object here is to keep the size small. In addition, with these breeds or with any other breeds kept and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes, it is necessary to conform just as closely as possible to the standard requirements[2] both insofar as size and type are concerned, and also with respect to color. [Footnote 2: For a complete and official description and list of disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks, the reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by the American Poultry Association, and obtained by Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.] Breeds of Ducks _The Pekin._ While this variety wants to be of good size and to have length, breadth and depth of body it is somewhat more upstanding than some of the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of body downward from shoulders to tail. The back line of the Pekin should show a slight concavity from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of the bill is likewise slightly concave between the point where it joins the head and its extremity. The shoulders should be broad and any tendency toward narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a good depth of keel is desired, the standard does not call for so deep a keel as in the Aylesbury. As a matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as seen in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage as called for by the standard illustration, there being a tendency to get them almost if not quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact, some breeders seem to strive for a low down keel approaching a condition where they are nearly as low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin type. Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that is, the feathers on the back of the neck will be crossed or folded over showing a tendency to curl. These birds should be avoided as breeders since there is a tendency for them to produce ducks having a crest. Sometimes a green or a greenish spotted bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be avoided particularly as they are likely to produce birds having greenish or olive colored legs. The shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange. Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur in birds of either sex but is more common in the ducks than in the drakes. In the drake black in the bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a serious defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The color of the plumage is white or creamy white throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use, however, of yellow corn and of foods very rich in oil tends to increase the creaminess of the plumage and should not be used to excess for birds which are to be exhibited. [Illustration: FIG. 4. Upper--Young Pekins which on account of their size, thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to be killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower--Aylesbury Drake--Notice the depth and development of the breast. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Aylesbury._ This breed is particularly noted for its deep keel. It differs from the Pekin in type in that it is more nearly level in body. There is a decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short in body which has probably come about by extreme selection for deep keel. It is well, therefore, in making the mating to select breeders with good length of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic of this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders which show any tendency toward a flat breast. As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which have green or olive colored bills. The back line of the Aylesbury should be straight, showing no tendency toward a slight concavity as in the Pekin. Birds showing this shape back should be avoided. As in the Pekin black on the bill or bean of the drake will disqualify and in the duck is a serious defect. The color of plumage should be white throughout and should show no tendency toward creaminess. The bill in this breed is flesh colored instead of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin. _The Rouen._ The Rouen duck is a parti-colored breed and is therefore much more difficult to secure in perfection of color and marking than is the case with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin feathers make the ducks more difficult to dress than in white breeds. In type these birds are very level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal of meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of body or depth of keel or which are too flat in breast. The back of the Rouen should have a slightly convex or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary to guard against birds which have a flat or a concave back. The body of the Rouen should be carried practically horizontal. The upper line of the bill should be slightly dished or concave. The white ring about the neck of the drake is an important part of the marking. This should not be too wide but should run about a quarter of an inch in width. It should be as distinct and clean cut as possible but should not quite come together in the rear. Any approach to a ring in the female is a disqualification. White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is a serious defect since it constitutes a disqualification. It must therefore be carefully avoided. White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another color defect which must be guarded against. _Breast of Drake._ The farther the claret color on the breast of the drake extends down the better will be the females secured from the mating. Drakes which are deficient in the amount of claret on the breast should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A purple rump in drakes must be avoided as must black feathers over the rump as they tend to keep up too dark a body color in the female. On the other hand too bright or light a color in the male or exhibition female will produce females which are too light in color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must be avoided as these will have a tendency to produce offspring which show too much yellow in the females' bills, and clear yellow bills constitute a disqualification. In the females solid yellow bills, fawn colored breasts and absence of penciling must be avoided. Females which are dark or nearly black over the rump are good breeders as they tend to keep up the ground color of the body and tail. The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color. This is evidenced first on the tips of the wings. The fading will also show in the fluff of drakes. The drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call and the Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect to the color of their plumage. About June 1 the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male adult plumage and the new plumage is practically that of the female. This female plumage is retained until about October when they gradually regain their normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both sexes have female plumage until the last moult which occurs at about four or five months of age, when the drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex of the young Rouens can, however, be told by the difference in the color of the bills. [Illustration: FIG. 5. Upper--Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly horizontal body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower--Pair of Black East India Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 6. Upper--Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite closely that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the normal male plumage. Lower--Rouen Duck. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Cayuga._ The Cayuga is much like the other breeds of the meat class in general type or shape of body showing good length, breadth and depth. It is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks. The body carriage is slightly more upright than the Rouen but not so much so as the Pekin. The back line should be straight and any tendency toward an arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller than the Pekin, Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging about a pound less. In making the mating, size is important and breeders should be selected which are up to standard weights if possible. While this breed is not kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless it is an excellent market duck, dressing out into a very plump yellow carcass in spite of its black plumage which is a disadvantage in dressing. The color should be a lustrous greenish black throughout, being somewhat brighter in the drake than in the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish cast of plumage, particularly as she grows older. It is hard to hold good black color with age. Moreover, white or gray is apt to occur in the breast of females. With age also a little white sometimes develops on the back of the neck, around the eyes and underneath the neck at the base of the bill. The white which occurs in breast is more likely to come in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes. In the drakes on the other hand, there is a tendency for the white to come on the throat under the bill. Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their color better than do the ducks. Where the white mottling occurs in plumage with age one need not hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of good black color as young birds. The drakes of the best color do not as a rule fade or become mottled to any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown lacing on the breast and under the wings, also those which have a wing-bow laced with brown. There is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should be black, to be too light or olive in color and this tendency increases with age. Drakes with bills of this color should be avoided as breeders. When Cayugas are first hatched the baby ducks all show a white breast. [Illustration: FIG. 7. Upper--Cayuga Duck. Lower--Cayuga Drake. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Call._ The Call ducks are the bantams of the duck race. There is always a tendency for them to grow too large and this is especially true when they have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example when they are fed with the larger ducks. They should not be fed too liberally and should be given wheat or some other solid grain rather than any mash. If there is a good pond of water to which the Call ducks can have access they do not need to be fed much of anything. In breeding, the smallest individuals which are suitable in other respects for breeders, should be selected in order to keep down the size and offset the tendency to breed larger in successive generations. In type the Calls are practically miniature Pekins except that they should have a very short, rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and short bill and the round short head give the head an appearance which is often described by the term "button headed". In this breed avoid birds which show arched backs. The body should have what is known as a flatiron shape, that is, should be broad at the shoulders and taper toward the tail. Too deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided as should also too long bills. Call ducks, together with East Indias and Mallards should have their wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying away. _The Gray Call._ The plumage of the Gray Call is practically that of the Rouen although they are not quite as good in color as a breed. There is more of a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and others, especially the males, to run too light in color. While they are likely to be well penciled the shade of color is apt to be wrong. White in the flights and under the wings must be guarded against as must also absence of ribbon or wing bar in females. The color of the plumage is likely to fade with age but after the birds moult and secure their new plumage, the color is usually higher again. In general the same color characteristics hold true as with the Rouen and the same defects must be guarded against. [Illustration: FIG. 8. Upper--Gray Call Drake. Lower--Gray Call Duck. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture_.)] _The White Call._ This variety is, both in type and color, practically a miniature Pekin except for the short, rather broad head and bill. They breed very true in color and should be free from creaminess. The same general defects must be watched for and avoided as in the Pekin. [Illustration: FIG. 9. Upper--White Call Duck. Lower--White Call Drake. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Black East India._ This is a black breed which is small in size being a bantam duck like the Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature Cayuga. The color should be black throughout and the same color characteristics hold true as in the case of the Cayuga. The same color defects must therefore be guarded against, the worst one being white in the breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from a drake with a black bill as in this respect the breed differs from the Cayuga since the bill of the duck should be black but that of the drake should be very dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected against. _The Muscovy._ This breed differs in certain respects very markedly from the other standard breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body which is carried in a horizontal position but are not so deep in keel as the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen. The longest bodied young ducks will make the largest individuals. The head should have feathers on the top which can be elevated at will to form a crest. Guard against breeders having smooth heads, or in other words, lacking a crest. The face is covered with corrugations or caruncles and should be red in color. At the base of the upper bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the drake which serves as one of the distinguishing characteristics between the duck and drake of this breed. The more prominent the knob and the more wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the specimen in this respect. The wings are long and strong and these birds fly very well. They will also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious and fight one another badly at times. They are especially pugnacious when they have young. This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like chickens or in the trees or on the barn. They do not quack like other ducks and unlike other domesticated breeds which moult two or three times a year, they moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually about 90 days, although the female may complete her moult a little sooner. The period of incubation for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to 35 days as compared to 28 days for other breeds. In size the male and female differ considerably as will be seen from the standard weights given (See Page 14), the male being considerably larger. These ducks lay well, the fertility runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks are hardy and easily raised. They are a broody breed. The ducks will make their nests and hatch out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their nests in a hollow tree. A Muscovy duck can cover properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the fact that they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes about two years for the males of this breed to fully mature although the ducks get their full size when one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the best general purpose breed for a farm flock. The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases up to maturity and the redder the face the better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as downy or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder. For this reason the birds are more apt to become water soaked and to drown as a result when they have not been accustomed to water in which to swim. This is especially true of the drakes on account of their large size and long wing feathers. Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin, and therefore make a good market duck, although the difference in size of the duck and drake and the dark pin feathers of the Colored variety are disadvantages from a market standpoint. Select against breeders which run small in size as there is more or less of a tendency for this breed to decrease in size. The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having been known to breed until they were eight or ten years of age. _The Colored Muscovy._ Although the standard calls for more or less white in different sections of this variety, as a matter of fact breeders desire to get the birds as dark as possible except for a very small patch of white on the breast and a small patch of white on the center of the wing. Indeed, birds without the white on the breast and with very little on the wing are valuable breeders since there is a tendency for too much white to occur in the plumage. Occasionally all black birds occur and these can be used to advantage in breeding when there is a tendency toward too much white in plumage. Plumage more than half white is a disqualification. The dark plumage birds such as are wanted are very likely to show considerable black or gypsy color in the face which should be a good red. This must be selected against insofar as possible. The nearly black or the darkest birds are quite likely to show some white or grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled feathers sometimes occur in various parts of the plumage and must of course be guarded against as the markings should be distinctly black and white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt to show considerable white although the best of them come yellowish black. This variety tends to run a little larger in size than the white variety although the standard weights are the same for both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks sometimes come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies can be produced by crossing the Colored and the white varieties. [Illustration: FIG. 10. Upper--Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower--White Muscovy Drake. Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated face. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The White Muscovy._ This variety should have pure white plumage throughout. Young Muscovies of both sexes often have a patch of black on top of the head up to the time they moult at maturity. Since black disqualifies it is impossible to show young ducks in this condition but these black feathers usually come in white after the moult and such birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders. When it is desired to show young White Muscovies which have black on the head it is customary to pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before the show so that the white feathers which come in their place will have time to grow out. There is little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this variety. [Illustration: FIG. 11. Upper--Crested White Drake. Lower--Young White Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an unusual occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its mature plumage in the fall. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Blue Swedish._ In type and size this breed is about the same as the Cayuga although perhaps slightly more upstanding. In selecting the mating it is important to use birds which are close to standard weight as there is somewhat of a tendency for the size to be too small. As its name indicates the color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped patch or bib which should be present on the breast. Sometimes this white extends along the underside of the body from the under-bill almost to the vent. Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they show too much white. On the other hand birds lacking a prominent white bib must also be avoided. Two of the flight feathers should be white and birds lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any red, gray or black in any part of the plumage. Sometimes, however, birds having more or less black throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the purpose of strengthening the blue color. Avoid any tendency toward a ribbon on the wing-bow and also birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the blue color. Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers around the eyes and over the head and these should be selected against as breeders as they are likely to cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or greenish bills must likewise be avoided since the first of these is a disqualification. In general this variety in breeding behaves insofar as color is concerned, very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.[3] The young ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy blue and from blue matings there are also produced black and white ducklings. As in other colored breeds and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat of a disadvantage from a market standpoint. [Footnote 3: For a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the Blue Andalusian in breeding, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.] [Illustration: FIG. 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers. The Standard calls for only two white flights, but there is a decided tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Crested White._ Although not so large, this breed is much like the Pekin but with body carried more nearly horizontal and with a crest on the head. The type varies considerably however, the principal selection practiced having been for crest. The plumage is white in color throughout. What is desired in the crest is to have as large a one as possible, round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the head. Not infrequently crooked crests occur and also double or split crests, that is to say, where the crest is parted or divided. In some cases the crests may even come treble, that is, split into three parts. Entire absence of crest is by no means uncommon. In fact, it is considered a pretty good proportion if one half of the ducks hatched have crests although the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally one producing practically 100% of the offspring with crests. Avoid as breeders birds with small crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing an absence of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled or green bills in females and black bean in the bill of drakes. _The Buff._ In type this breed is similar to the Swedish. As will be seen from the standard weights it is one of the medium sized breeds and makes a very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice round fat carcass and is a good layer. In color the birds of both sexes should be as uniform a buff as possible except that the head and upper part of the neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full plumage. Color defects which are likely to be encountered and which should be avoided are the tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut color and for his neck to be too light or faded out in color. Sometimes the head of the drake runs too dark in color approaching a greenish black like the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable. The wings of both sexes are apt to run to light or even in some cases, pure white flights. Blue wing bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully avoided. Penciling such as is found in the Fawn and White Runner sometimes occurs and since it is a serious defect must be rigidly guarded against. Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring around the neck of both sexes must likewise be avoided. Greenish or mottled bills must be avoided in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not much trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as a rule comes good. Any blue cast in the feathers on the rump and back of both sexes must be selected against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to be better colored than the males. At certain periods of the moult the head coloring of the drakes becomes a good buff color and later when the moult is complete, it changes to a copper color. When hatched the ducklings are a creamy yellow. [Illustration: FIG. 13. Pair of Buff Ducks--Drake on the right (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Runner._ The type of this breed is quite different from that of the other breed of ducks and type is very important. The Runner wants to be decidedly upstanding and to be very reachy. It should have very slim slender lines. The neck should be straight and the head should be carried at right angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly straight on top and on a line with the skull showing absolutely no tendency to be dished. The legs of this breed are longer than those of other ducks and this accounts for the fact that they run rather than waddle when they move about. It is from this fact that they get their name. They are very active and are troublesome about crawling through fences. They are good layers and non-sitters and they have often been called the Leghorns of the duck family. It must be remembered, however, that while they have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they will do this only when they receive proper feed and care. It is quite useless to expect a high egg yield from them when they are carelessly fed and improperly housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks of both sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other words, are too heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which are too short in legs. Avoid crooked or sharp backs. Round heads must likewise be avoided. _The Fawn and White Runner._ In this variety the markings must be very distinct and definite. There is a tendency which must be avoided for the head to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in males. It is likewise necessary to avoid females which tend to show penciling on the sides of the breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt to be associated with colored flight feathers which is also a defect to be avoided. Guard against too much fawn extending up the neck from the body to the head as the neck should be white in color. Too dark tail coverts approaching a greenish black sometimes occur and are undesirable. In type this variety will not average quite as good as the White. _The White Runner._ This variety is best in type and it likewise runs good in color which should be white throughout. Sometimes foreign color will be shown in the back of females and this of course must be avoided. Also avoid birds as breeders with green or mottled bills. [Illustration: FIG. 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner Drake on right. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _The Penciled Runner._ In type this variety runs about the same as the Fawn and White. The color combination is rather difficult to breed as it is hard to get the good penciling desired in the female together with the white markings. In general, in breeding this variety there is a tendency to pay more attention to type than to color. The penciling is like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting of a brown penciling on a fawn colored ground. Avoid any grayish stippling on the breast of the drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects are likely to be associated with colored flights which are undesirable. The colored portion of the head of the drake is darker than that of the duck in this variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both sexes and avoid females which are lacking in penciling. _Preparing Ducks for the Show._ Aside from selecting the individuals which most nearly approach the standard requirements there is very little which can be done in the way of preparing the birds for the show as these fowls are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before they are shipped to the show those intended for exhibition should be given access to a grass range and also if possible to running water. The grass range will keep them in good condition and the running water will allow them to clean themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown in order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out again. It must be remembered that most ducks after getting in a good condition of flesh do not tend to hold this for a very long period but soon grow thinner again and will not take on fat the second time for some little period. Often there will be a difference in weight as high as 3 pounds when a duck is in good condition and after it has thinned. In order to have the ducks in top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up to flesh at the proper time. In order to bring ducks which are to be exhibited up to standard weight, they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one part corn and two parts oats. Give them all they will eat of this mixture. With Runners and the small breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on too much weight if corn is used in the ration and it is therefore best to give them oats alone. When the birds are shipped to the show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey. When this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. Then as the ducks are taken out of the shipping coops take three of them at a time, put them in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them for a few minutes. When they are taken out they will usually be clean. Catching and Handling Ducks Ducks should never be caught by the legs which are short and weak and are very likely to be injured. For the same reason they should never be carried by the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck, grasping them just below the head. They can be carried short distances without injury in this way but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck for any considerable distance. The best way to handle them is to catch them by the neck, then carry them on the arm with the legs in the hand just as one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net about 18 inches in diameter and with a six foot handle can also be used to excellent advantage in catching ducks. [Illustration: FIG. 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh as duck eggs tend to deteriorate in quality quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long distances. Shipment may be made either by express or by Parcel Post. In order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment, they must be carefully packed. One of the best methods is to use an ordinary market basket. Line the basket well on the bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will be a good thick cushion of excelsior between the eggs and they will not be allowed to come in contact with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely standing them on end so that they cannot move or shift around. Cover the top of the eggs with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over the top sew a piece of strong cotton cloth. Instead of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up under the outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this being quicker and equally as effective as sewing. CHAPTER III Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business _Distribution._ Commercial Duck farming is confined very largely to the sections within easy shipping distance of the larger cities. A great majority of these farms are located about New York City, particularly on Long Island. Some duck farms are located on the Pacific Coast and a few commercial plants are scattered about here and there throughout the country. The size of these farms ranges all the way from plants with an output of 5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output around 100,000 yearly. _Stock Used._ The stock used on the commercial duck plants of the United States consists exclusively of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of this particular breed are the fact that it has white plumage and therefore dresses out well, that it is of good size, that its egg production is good, and that it makes quick growth. _Location of Plant._ On Long Island the commercial duck plants are located along the streams, especially those on the southern shore of the Island, which empty into the various bays. Locations along these streams are not easy to secure at the present time owing to the fact that duck farms are not allowed in many sections where summer homes have been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable, although not absolutely essential, since it provides water yards for the breeding ducks and for the fattening ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor and cost of equipment materially since the ducks always have access to water and no additional provision need be made to provide them with drinking water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage clean. Usually these locations are on fresh water streams but some of them are further out toward the bay where the water is salty or at least brackish. The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water and do not have to be furnished with fresh drinking water in addition. For the young ducks, however, with a salt water location it is necessary to provide fresh drinking water. A few farms in other sections of the country are what are known as dry land farms, that is to say, they are not situated on the bank of a stream. In such locations running water is carried through the yards so that the ducks have an ample supply of drinking water and in some cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide water in which the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly the idea was universally held that swimming water was essential for the breeders in order to secure good fertility, and many duck farmers still believe that better results can be secured in this way. On some of the dry land duck farms, however, breeding ducks are successfully kept without such swimming places. The young market ducklings do not require water to swim in although some raisers prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where readily available. On the dry land farms provision is made simply for a continuous supply of fresh drinking water for the fattening ducklings. Ducklings kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise and, in consequence, fatten a little more readily. Making a Start in Duck Farming Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on a considerable scale at the beginning, the plans being carefully laid by some experienced duck man. In these cases, operations at the start may be of sufficient magnitude so that the output will amount to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings in a year. In most cases, however, these places have been the result of a more gradual growth from a small beginning, a condition made necessary either by the inexperience of the grower or by lack of capital. Not infrequently men engaged in other forms of farming but possessing a suitable location will keep 200 or 300 breeding ducks and from this gradually build up a good sized duck plant. _Equipment, Capital, etc. Required._ The estimates given as to the amount of equipment and capital required are based on the assumption that a plant is to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly output of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood in this connection that location and various other conditions or circumstances will influence the cost of different items of equipment and for this reason these estimates must not be considered as absolute but should rather serve as a guide or basis on which to figure. The figures here given contemplate the building up of an establishment which is efficient but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings and other equipment being as simple and inexpensive as possible. _Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant._ The plant must be carefully planned so as to make the best possible use of the land and particularly of the water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange the buildings in such a manner as to cut down labor as much as possible. If there is any expectation of enlarging the capacity at some future time, this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement of the various buildings and yards. The incubator cellar should be convenient to the No. 1 brooder house and the various brooder houses to one another. The brooder house must likewise be convenient to the growing and fattening houses and yards and these in turn to the killing house. The feed room should be centrally located so as to save labor as much as possible in feeding the ducks. _Land Required._ For a duck plant of the size indicated 10 acres of land should be ample. This, however, means that no effort would be made to grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with the exception of green feed. In some cases where the lay of the land is unusually favorable so that the plant can be laid out to the very best advantage, a smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient but it is not well to figure on less than 10 acres. _Number of Breeders Required._ With the usual methods of management and with good success, one may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed each year from each breeding female. This is a good average although in some good years duck raisers will do a little better than this. On the other hand in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant having an output of 30,000 market ducks there would therefore be needed in the neighborhood of 800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes. _Housing Required for Breeders._ In figuring on the amount of housing required for this number of breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on 2½ to 3 square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet being better than 2½. This would require a housing space 20 feet deep by 120 feet long. However ducks are not usually housed in one building of this size, and in fact it is better not to do so since the smaller the flock of breeders kept together the better they will do. In no case should a duck raiser run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very much better to run them in pens of 100 each. In fact, some breeders do not place more than 25 to 50 breeding ducks in a pen. _Incubator Capacity._ Incubators are used exclusively for hatching the eggs. At the present time in practically all cases some form of hot water mammoth incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment is required both in incubators and in a cellar in which to operate them. In figuring on the incubator capacity necessary to take care of a proposition of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate on the number of eggs produced during the season of flush production. The duck raiser figures on incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather than to sell any of them for other purposes as there is a greater profit in rearing and marketing the ducklings. For that reason he must have incubator capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at any time of the year. During the season of flush production the yield will ordinarily run in the neighborhood of 80%. The period of incubation is 28 days but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for cleaning out the machines, etc., before starting another hatch. This means that there would be 30 days between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an 80% production for 30 days an incubator capacity of around 19,200 eggs would be required. _Brooder Capacity._ A brooder house capacity, where artificial heat can be supplied, sufficient to take care of about half of the total output of the plant at one time is necessary. This means there would have to be on this plant a heated brooder house capacity for 15,000 ducklings. About half of this number or 7500 would need accommodations in the number 1 or warmest brooder house where the heat can be kept up to 65 or 70 degrees in the house itself, and warmer of course under the hover. The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the number 2 house, that is, a house where heat could be supplied in the early spring and where the temperature could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in such a house are not really needed but it is common to cover the hot waterpipes with a platform in order to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the number 2 brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3 weeks old when they go into the number 2 house and they stay there for about 2 weeks depending on the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is supplied by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning stove such as are used in brooder houses for chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder house is also needed where ducklings can be housed and can be driven in at night and in cold weather after they have graduated from the number 2 house. From the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are taken directly to the yards where they are housed in open front sheds. _Fattening Houses or Sheds._ In addition to the brooder houses, there are required fattening houses or sheds for the ducks when they are moved from the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable houses for this purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet long. In front they are 5 feet high and in the rear 3½ feet. They are set on posts with a base board around to make them tight. The fronts are entirely open and provided with curtains which are used only in the winter to keep out the snow. The ducklings are shut in these houses when desired by means of wire panels which close the lower part of the front. Houses such as described are divided into two parts and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings. _Feed Storage._ Considerable feed storage room is necessary as it is very desirable to be able to buy feed in quantity and also to carry a considerable stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not being able to secure feed at any time. There should be storage capacity for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still greater capacity than this is desirable. In connection with the feed storage there should be a place where the feed can be mixed and where feed can be cooked. Two power operated feed mixers are required as one is not sufficient during the busy season to allow the mixing and feeding of the mash for both the breeders and the young stock at the same time. A feed cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed which is mixed in the mash. The usual type of kettle feed cooker is commonly used for boiling fish and preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a small four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good advantage as this makes it possible to cook the feed right in the mixer by using a steam hose. _Killing and Picking House._ A killing and picking house where the ducks can be prepared for market is another necessary building but this need not be an expensive building. It must be located with reference to its convenience to the rest of the plant. It is also desirable to locate it over a spring if one is available for the spring water can be used to excellent advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings. When a spring is not available water must be piped to this building. The killing house is usually built with at least one side open or partly open. A place is provided outside the picking room where the ducks can be hung and bled. Inside room is required for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating water to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are also tanks in which to place the ducks after they are picked. Additional room is needed where the ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment. _Residence._ In addition to the other buildings enumerated, a residence would of course be necessary. The size and elaborateness of this and consequently its cost depends entirely upon the owner's needs and wishes. _Horse Power._ One horse and wagon for the purpose of drawing the feed about the plant and for certain other necessary work would be required. If the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed from the railroad and the other necessary trucking he would, of course, have to keep more horses, a team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only one horse is kept, this trucking must be hired done. _Feeding Track._ On many of the larger duck farms, a feed track is employed in feeding the stock. Such a track consists of a framework of sufficient strength to support a car filled with mash which is pushed along the track by hand. The track leads from the feed mixer across the various yards where the ducks to be fed are located, including both the breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in yards. This involves a considerable amount of trackage which must be fairly level and which runs over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards so that the feed can be shoveled directly from the car into the feeding trays in the yards. The use of a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but its construction is quite expensive. Where a track is not used, the feed as mixed is dumped into a low wagon which is driven along the yards, or through them by removing movable panels in the fences and the feed shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays. [Illustration: FIG. 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Electric Lights._ Most duck farms at the present time are located where electric lighting is available. It is desirable and in fact almost necessary to have the various houses wired so that lights can be turned on when desired. In addition, lights are usually provided in the yards for fattening ducks and are used at night and especially during storms to keep the ducks from stampeding. _Water Supply._ An adequate water supply is essential. This will consist of a well or spring furnishing an ample amount of water, a power pump and a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must be piped to the incubator cellar, the brooder houses, the killing house, the feed house and to any of the yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural supply of good water. In addition, of course, the water from the same tank is usually used to supply the residence. _Fences._ Not a great deal of investment is necessary in fences since the yards are rather small and the fences are low. Two-foot fences of two-inch mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the little ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used. The biggest items of expense connected with the fences are the cost of the stakes or posts used in their construction and the labor used in this work. The portion of the yards extending into the water are the most troublesome and most expensive to build. In some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences are used in the water yards. These are more permanent but are more expensive to build. _Labor._ For a plant of the size indicated there would be required in addition to an active working proprietor three other men. One man would be needed to operate the incubators, one man would devote his time to the brooder houses, one man would feed the yard ducks and the fattening pens, and one man would do the killing and packing, take care of the feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course, there would be periods when these men would not have their entire time taken up with their particular duties and this would permit them to turn in and help with the miscellaneous work on the plant. In addition to the regular men employed, additional labor would be necessary to do the picking. For this purpose pickers are usually brought in and work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these pickers received six cents per duck and they will average about 75 ducks a day, beginning work at 6 in the morning and finishing by noon or a little later. Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a day. In the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will be marketed per week and the usual practice is to kill and pick not over three days a week, usually during the first part of the week. _Invested Capital._ Investment in the business exclusive of working capital, that is to say, the money in the land and buildings and other equipment would require under present conditions about $1,000 for each thousand ducks marketed. In other words, in a plant of this size, close to $30,000 would be invested. The amount of invested capital depends to some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness of the buildings and other equipment but with a well laid out economical plant an investment of the size indicated should be sufficient. _Working Capital._ In addition to the capital invested in the plant there would be required a considerable amount of working capital. From the first of November to the beginning of the marketing of the ducks there would be required from $6,000 to $8,000 with which to purchase feed, meet the pay roll, and for other running expenses. Even after the marketing begins there would be a period of from a month to six weeks when the expenses will continue to be greater than the receipts so that some additional capital might be necessary. However, returns would begin to come in which could be used to take care of the more pressing current obligations so that additional working capital which might be needed over that indicated would not be large. _Profits._ The profits in commercial duck raising vary widely, as must be expected, depending upon the management, upon the season and upon prices received. After deducting all overhead charges and interest on the investment, the net return per duck should be at least 10 cents per duckling marketed. In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide much inducement to engage in the business. Some seasons the returns will run greater than this but on the other hand, there is always the chance of occasional big losses. CHAPTER IV Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock _Age of Breeders._ On most large commercial duck plants the entire breeding stock is renewed each year. In other words, the breeders are kept only through their first laying season. This makes it necessary to select from the young stock reared and save for breeders as many head as it is desired to carry for the coming year. This practice is used for the reason that ducks lay best during their first year. Therefore, since it is desired to keep up the maximum egg production in order to raise as many market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered better. Some raisers, however, keep a part of their breeding ducks for two years and occasionally for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual practice. Recent comparison made between young and two year old ducks as breeders would seem to indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of the latter live a little better. _Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks._ In this connection it is of interest to know how young ducks can be readily distinguished from the older birds. The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills while the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a considerable amount of the yellow from these sections. In addition, soon after the ducks begin to lay, their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with black. Young ducks can also be told from the old ducks by feeling of the end of the breast bone which runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and bends easily. The windpipe of an old duck is hard and rather difficult to compress or dent while in the young duck it is softer and easily dented. _Selection of Breeding Ducks._ The breeders are usually selected from the ducklings which reach market age from the last week in June through July. As these lots become ready for market and are driven into the pens to be slaughtered each duck is handled and any especially good birds which the proprietor thinks will make good breeders are thrown out at this time. In making selection of breeders those are chosen which are healthy and thrifty and which have good wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with crooked wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are rejected for this purpose. After the young ducks for breeders are selected they are put in a yard or fattening pen until the number which the owner expects to keep is complete. These young breeders generally begin to moult soon after they are selected and from this time on they are fed whole corn and plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding the laying ration. Some of the breeding ducks will usually begin to lay about December 1 although they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying ration described later should be begun about that time or a couple of weeks earlier. _Number of Females to a Drake._ As a rule on commercial duck farms the birds are mated in the proportion of about one drake to seven ducks. This proportion will vary to some extent under different methods of management and weather conditions and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8. The smaller number of drakes should be used late in the season while the larger number will give better fertility early in the breeding season. Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings can be made. Better results will be obtained from smaller flocks than from large flocks and there will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty eggs from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let out in the morning there is a tendency for them to run back and forth through the pens, and in this way they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere about the floor. The larger the flock the more cracked and dirty eggs will result. While the drakes do not fight each other they do at times injure and kill the ducks to some extent when three or four drakes may chase one duck. In this way they may injure the ducks' backs and often pick their eyes and necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured she should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of this sort is most prevalent about the 1st of March. If the trouble gets very bad it can be stopped to some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the drakes about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip or by reducing the proportion of drakes. _Securing Breeding Drakes._ It is common practice on duck plants to avoid inbreeding by securing drakes from some other flock each year. This is usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright from some neighboring duck farmer. It may also be accomplished by purchasing a few eggs for hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular community there is a tendency for the duck farmers to trade breeding drakes among themselves for a period of years with the result that they all have much the same blood and not a great deal of benefit is obtained from securing the drakes from some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly good practice to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of breeding drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood be sure that it is as good as the home stock and better if it can be found. It will do no good to purchase and use inferior stock and may do much harm. Houses and Yards for Breeders The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding yards. The size of these yards depends upon the size of the breeding flock but large yards are not required. A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule larger than 100 by 200 feet including the water part of the yard. Houses and yards should be located on sand if possible as this is easier to keep clean and therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their liberty but this is not common practice nor is it good practice unless the surroundings are clean and the ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse in which they can work. If ducks work too much in this kind of material they will eat more or less of it which injures the eggs for hatching purposes. Many different styles of houses are used for breeders, some of which are decidedly more elaborate than is necessary. A very satisfactory economical house is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed of tongue and groove material or may be made of unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A house of this proportion makes a good light house and it can be carried in length according to the size of the flock. For a breeding unit of 200 ducks, which is a good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40 feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house but it should be well filled up with dirt so that the water will not come in. One or more good sized openings are left in the front of the breeding house for ventilation, or windows may be placed in the front which can be used for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary. Additional ventilation is secured from the doors. If the weather is mild the doors are left partly open, if cold they are nearly closed, while when the weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good scheme is to use a sort of Dutch door so that the bottom or top half can be opened independently. In this way the top part of the doors can be left open so as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks in the house or the top may be left closed and the bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to go in or out and still cut down the amount of ventilation. When the weather is warm the doors may be left entirely open except for a board 18 inches to 2 feet wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is desired to keep the ducks in. Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided naturally by trees must be supplied by means of artificial shelters. [Illustration: FIG. 17. Upper--Rear and end view of house or shed used for fattening ducks. Lower--General view on a duck plant, showing open front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for breeders in the background. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet in the rear and will accommodate 200 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses._ Usually straw, meadow hay, or swale hay is used for bedding. Shavings make good material for this purpose if they do not contain too much sawdust. The principal objection to shavings is that it takes longer to bed with them. Often a few joists are laid at the back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will serve as an emergency supply available for bedding the house in stormy days. The houses should be bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean and dry and so as not to allow the ducks' feet to get cold. The frequency with which bedding is necessary will depend upon the weather. In winter it may at times be necessary to bed every day. In May it may be necessary only twice a week and still later in the season only once a week. In wet weather the ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent bedding helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses are cleaned out only once a year and this is usually done after the ducks have stopped laying. To clean out the houses while the ducks are laying would disturb them and tend to stop their egg production. _Cleaning the Breeding Yards._ The yards should be cleaned whenever they need it, that is, whenever they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary. The character of the soil influences this, as sandy yards absorb the droppings better and do not need cleaning as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as a rule not be over 2 or 3 times a season. In dry weather cleaning is accomplished by sweeping the yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings spread over the yard and are packed down by the ducks' feet until they form a layer of putty-like material which cannot be swept off but is scraped off by means of a hoe. _Water Yards for Breeders._ Formerly it was the consensus of opinion that breeders needed water in which they could swim in order to keep in good breeding condition and to give the best results in fertility of the eggs. At present it is not considered necessary to have sufficient water to permit swimming although many breeders prefer to do this and feel that they get better results from it. However, breeding ducks have been and are being kept successfully in dry yards where water is supplied to them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to drink and to clean themselves. Where water yards are provided this should not be on stagnant water but there should be some circulation of the water so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of the land is such that it is not possible to run all the yards down to a stream for this purpose it is sometimes possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the water. Where the yards can extend into the water it saves a great deal of labor or considerable expense in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide the ducks with drinking water by means of some artificial arrangement such as a concrete gutter or ditch extending through the yards or by means of artificial ponds. If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is necessary to cut holes in the ice so that the ducks can get water for drinking purposes. Sometimes the ducks will go into these water holes and after getting their plumage wet will come out and sit down in the yard and freeze fast to the ground. During such weather conditions it is necessary to make the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen any ducks that have frozen fast. If they are left in that condition they are apt to injure themselves in trying to pull free and if left too long will die. [Illustration: FIG. 19. Another successful type of house for breeding ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into two pens each of which will accommodate 100 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 20. Meal time for the breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Feeding the Breeders._ Breeding ducks are fed twice a day, in the morning and at night. It is usual practice to feed the breeders last in the morning and first at night. The reason for feeding them last in the morning is that they are usually fed in the yards rather than the house and they should be kept in until they are through laying which will be after daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the following, the proportions being given by measure in bushels. 1 bushel bran. 1 bushel low-grade flour. 1 bushel corn meal. 1 bushel green feed. ½ bushel either raw or cooked vegetables. 1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap. ½ bushel in 10 of cooked fish. This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good flesh but there will be no difficulty in their getting too fat. It is also a good laying ration and will promote good egg production. The vegetables used in this ration usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets, potatoes, etc. However, if potatoes are used the amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets, when used, are fed raw cut up and mixed in the feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in the feed are more valuable as they have a greater food value than beets. Some duck growers feed fish entirely, using no beef scrap. This is done where a plentiful supply of fish can be secured by going out into the bay after them. However, this is not very good practice for a sufficient supply of fish may not always be available and the ducks are so fond of the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap used as a substitute for the fish, until they have become used to it. Fish is prepared for feeding by boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker. The available land on the plant is used to grow a supply of green feed. Rye is used for this purpose early in the spring as soon as it is high enough to mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a lawn. At this stage it does not have to be cut up. Oats are used in the same way. During the summer fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the purpose but is as a rule the only one available at that time. Rape is sowed in August and its use begun about the time of the first frost and kept up until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under the snow. Creek grass which is secured from the fresh water streams on Long Island by going out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished by the ducks and is used whenever it is available. However, the supply of this material is not as plentiful as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get. When it is available it can be used either in winter or summer. Good field clover cut up and boiled with the potatoes or with the fish makes a good green feed. All of these green materials for use in the ration, unless they are already in short lengths, are cut up by means of a power feed cutter before they are mixed in the mash. When no other form of green feed is available ground alfalfa is used but only half as much of this material is mixed with the ration as is used of any of the other kinds of green feed. Wherever possible the various duck yards should be used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or rye as this not only helps out on the supply of green feed but also helps to sweeten the soil. The growing of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for ducks is especially important as such soils are more likely to become contaminated from the droppings. The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power feed mixer which works much on the principle of a power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are used on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water should be added to bring the material to a consistency where it will hold together when squeezed in the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between crumbly and sticky, but should never be sloppy. The feed is dumped from the mixer into a low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the various yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed troughs or trays. On some large duck plants a track is provided which runs over the yards and over this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the feed shoveled into the feed trays. The breeders should be fed in the same place. If feeding is begun in the house this practice should be continued. If feeding is begun in the yards it should be continued there. To change disturbs the ducks and interferes with their egg production. Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn should be kept before the breeders all the time in boxes where they can help themselves. A flock of 700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds a week of this material. Unless sand is available in the yards where they can get it, ducks should also have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit need be furnished. The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat troughs on which the feed is shoveled. Only as much feed should be given at the regular feeding time as the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary to watch the feeding carefully and to regulate the amount accordingly. It is good practice to gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that it will not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed is bad for the birds. Egg Production The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept under commercial farm conditions will run from 80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This will vary somewhat from year to year and also with the management and feed given the ducks. The laying begins to a small extent about December 1 and gradually increases until the ducks are laying freely in February. As the hot weather of summer begins to come on the laying drops off until about July 1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a rule to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often many ducks will stop laying considerably before this, especially those which have started laying early and it may not pay to keep such pens later than May. Laying takes place early in the morning and practically all the eggs are laid soon after daylight. It is for this reason that the ducks are usually shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured as some of them would otherwise be lost by their being laid around in the yard or in the water. In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m., as the laying will be pretty well over by that time, but in winter they must be kept shut up later in order to secure all the eggs. After the ducks start laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous layers and will miss fewer days than most hens. After the breeding ducks are first put in the breeding pens and shut in the houses at night it is common practice to use electric lights for the first 2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding as ducks in strange surroundings are quite nervous and are quite likely to stampede and to run over one another thus causing cripples. Electric lights have also been used to some extent during the late fall and winter for the purpose of inducing egg production earlier than the natural season. As a rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4 weeks after turning on the lights but the average production under this system is not likely to run more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they moult quite early in the spring. A single 25 watt light is sufficient for a house or pen 16 × 24 feet and the lights are left turned on all night. The object in feeding and caring for the breeding ducks is to keep them from moulting and to keep them laying as long as possible. It must be remembered that any radical change in feed or manner of feeding, shutting them up too closely, change of temperature, or other disturbing conditions are likely to cause moulting and to check egg production. Any change in feed must be made carefully and gradually, not suddenly. It must also be remembered that ducks are excitable birds and must be handled and driven carefully so as to disturb them as little as possible. Time of Marketing Breeders The breeders should be turned off to market whenever their egg production drops off so decidedly that it no longer pays to hold them. In most cases this will be about the 1st of July but it may range considerably earlier than this, especially with pens of ducks that have started laying early. When the ducks finish laying their eggs they begin to moult and it is at this time that they should be marketed. If marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition as the moulting progresses and will therefore be held at a loss. Diseases and Pests _Disease._ Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are practically free from disease. Of course, there will be a certain amount of loss in the breeding stock from various causes but this should not run for the entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks do not become egg bound, but sometimes, especially during heavy laying, they become ruptured. _Insect Pests._ Ducks are remarkably free from lice and other insect pests and those which they do have do not trouble them much. It is unnecessary therefore to take any precautions in the way of treating the ducks to keep them free of insects. _Dogs._ Occasionally trouble may be experienced from dogs. If these animals get into the yards with the breeders or the fattening ducks, they may kill a good many and in addition will seriously injure the rest by chasing them and by the fright which the ducks are given. CHAPTER V Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed. It, therefore, becomes necessary to resort to incubators for the purpose of hatching the eggs. Occasional ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not the practice on commercial duck farms to allow them to sit and hatch their young. No special means are taken to break them of broodiness other than not to allow them eggs to sit on. _Kinds of Incubators Used._ Both the smaller kerosene lamp heated incubators and the large or mammoth hot water heated incubators are used for hatching duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot water machines are those which are in principal use due largely to the lessened labor required to operate them. _Incubator Cellar._ It is necessary to provide some room in which the incubators can be installed and operated. This may take the form of a cellar, or the incubators may be operated in rooms above the ground. Many of the incubator cellars on duck farms are only partially under ground and not a few of them are built entirely out of ground. The particular size and shape of the cellar or incubator room will, of course, depend upon the number of incubators to be installed and upon their make and shape. Usually these buildings are constructed with rather thick walls so that the temperature of the room will fluctuate less with changes in outside temperature. Provision is also necessary by means of windows or other ventilating devices to provide for good ventilation in the room. The cellars are usually constructed with cement floors as moisture is used freely and wooden floors would rot out quickly. _Incubator Capacity Required._ The aim on commercial duck farms is to hatch all of the eggs produced which are suitable for the purpose. Practically no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or those which would not give good results in the incubator such as too large or too small eggs. Occasionally, of course, there will be sales of duck eggs in comparatively large lots for incubation purposes where someone is starting a duck farm. Occasionally also duck farmers buy from each other a few eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood. On the whole, however, practically all of the eggs laid are incubated and it is necessary to have an incubator capacity sufficient to take care of the eggs as they are produced during the flush season. Since the egg production at this time will run around about 80% and since the period of incubation is 28 days and a couple more days must be allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines and to clean up the machines, it is necessary to figure on 30 days between hatches. To take care of the flush production at this time there would be required an incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs per head of breeding ducks. The latter figure is a safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not put in the machines at any one time but different lots are put in as soon as a sufficient number is obtained to make it worth while. There will be, therefore, eggs in various stages of incubation in different sections of the machines at the same time. While Pekin duck eggs will run about ½ heavier in weight than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately greater amount of space in the incubator. An incubator tray will accommodate about 5/6 as many Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs. _Age of Hatching Eggs._ Duck eggs should be set as often as enough are secured to fill one or more trays in the incubator or enough to produce a sufficient number of ducklings to utilize brooding space to advantage. Since duck eggs deteriorate more rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be kept so long before they are set. It is best not to save them for longer than one week. During the season of flush production it is not, of course, necessary to save them that long since enough eggs will be secured to set each day if desired. The usual practice at this time is to set twice a week. During the early part of the season when the production of eggs is low and the temperature cool the eggs are often saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably bad results. _Care of Hatching Eggs._ Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool place. Any place suitable for keeping hens' eggs for hatching is a suitable place for duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50° to 70° Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept longer than one week, it is not necessary to turn them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day or once in two days, handling them carefully so as not to crack any or to injure their hatching qualities. _Selecting the Eggs for Hatching._ Medium sized eggs are preferred for this purpose. Therefore, the extremely large eggs and the very small ones are thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with crooked or deformed shells are likewise thrown out since they are not likely to hatch well. Eggs that are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily are washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs intended for incubation purposes are sounded by striking them gently against one another in order to detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection is made on the basis of color. The eggs may be white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish green in color. At the present time a considerably less proportion of the eggs show a blue tint than formerly. As the egg laying season advances the eggs laid by the ducks tend to get a little larger. _Temperature._ Up to the time of testing, that is, about the fifth day, the incubator is run at a temperature of from 101 to 102 degrees. After the fifth day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible. The most sensitive period for a duck egg is during the first 3 or 4 days of incubation. If they are allowed to get too warm during this time the germ may be killed while if the temperature is too low, development will be retarded. _Position of the Thermometer._ In figuring on the proper temperature at which to run the incubator, the thermometer should be so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably touching a fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb rests on an infertile egg the temperature recorded will be lower than the actual temperature of fertile eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the animal heat of the developing embryos, with the result that the machine would be operated at too high a temperature. _Testing._ It is common practice to make only one complete test. This is done on the evening of the fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an ordinary candling device such as is used with hens' eggs, each egg being examined separately. To save time a piece of apparatus may be used which is simple in construction and which simplifies the process of candling considerably. This may be termed a testing table. It consists of a table the same width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray. In the table there is an opening the size of a row of eggs and beneath this are placed several electric light bulbs with reflectors back of them so as to throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the tray along the table each row of eggs is brought over the lights and their condition can be quickly noted. At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out as well as any eggs in which the germs have died. The infertile eggs after a careful retest are then packed in cases and sent to market where they are usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second test is made of the eggs left in the machines the experienced incubator operator is constantly on the watch for and is constantly removing any eggs which die at a later time. To the experienced eye the color of the egg indicates that it has died as it takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish tint. Duck eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must be removed promptly as the odor which they throw off is very strong and will prove harmful to the other eggs. The inexperienced operator can readily locate dead eggs by smelling over the tray. [Illustration: FIG. 21. Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the heavy bedding and the feeding track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of eggs set out to turn and cool. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Turning the Eggs._ The eggs are neither turned, cooled nor otherwise disturbed after they are put in the incubator until after they are tested on the fifth day. From this time on they are turned twice a day, morning and night, until they begin to pip. _Cooling the Eggs._ There is a considerable difference in the practice of incubator operators with regard to cooling. No cooling should be done until after the first test. After this some incubator men cool the eggs by dropping the doors of the machine. Others take the trays of eggs out and put them on top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a day. The amount of cooling which the eggs require seems to vary greatly and here again the judgment of the operator comes into play. About the best general rule which can be given is that the eggs should be cooled until they do not feel warm to the face but they should never be cooled to the extent that they feel cold to the face or hands. The length of time to bring this about varies with the age of the eggs and the temperature of the room. _Moisture._ A good deal of moisture is used in incubating duck eggs. It is usual to begin to spray the eggs with water the next day after testing. However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to the tenth day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly, some men using water enough so that it runs out of the bottom of the machine. No particular care is taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary water just as it comes from the pipes is commonly used and is applied by means of a spray nozzle attached to a hose. However, extremely cold water should not be used for this purpose. This spraying is done once or twice a day as the operator may think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In many cases even then if the ducklings seem to be drying too fast after they come out of the shell, or to be having difficulty to get out it is well to open the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly. _Fertility._ The fertility varies with the season that is, with the weather. At the beginning of the laying season when the weather is cold the fertility usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at the end of the laying season when the heat of summer sets in. During the interval between these two times of low fertility there will usually be one or more periods during which the fertility will go down and then come back again. This seems to occur even though the weather remains about the same and though there is no change in the method of feeding. Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs about 85%. When the fertility is running poor the hatching of the eggs left in the machines after testing will usually be poor also. _Hatching._ It takes longer as a rule from the time that the ducklings pip the eggs until they hatch than it does with chicks. To retain the moisture which is so necessary during hatching, the machines are usually shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching is pretty well completed unless it becomes necessary to add more moisture as indicated above. The little ducklings should be left in the incubator until the hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off. As soon as the hatching is completed, the ventilators in the machines are opened to hasten the drying process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant it is an indication that they are not getting enough ventilation and this should be supplied by fastening the machine door open a little way. If the ducks are not ready to be taken out of the machines by noon or soon after, it is best to leave them until the next morning before removing them to the brooder house. In the meantime, however, the old eggs and shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually the hatch is completed in time so that the ducklings can be removed to the brooder house on the afternoon of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch is completed the better are the ducklings. Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire season on Long Island duck farms indicate that as a whole the duck raisers will not average much over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may run as high as 60% or even more and in some seasons the average percentage will run higher than 40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure considerably better average results than this. It is quite a common practice on the part of duck farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus on all ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This bonus may range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand ducklings. Such an arrangement serves to give the incubator man a greater incentive to give the machines good attention and to secure just the best results of which he is capable. _Selling Baby Ducks._ Within the last two or three years there has sprung into existence a small but increasing trade in baby ducks. They are handled and shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks are ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly dry, usually about 12 hours after the hatch starts to come off. They are neither fed nor watered before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes used in shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping boxes will accommodate about half the number of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the outside temperature very largely governs the matter of the number to a compartment. In warm summer weather, a two compartment box intended for 50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well ventilated at the sides and top. They are shipped by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within a radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require more than 36 hours. For best results the ducklings should not be allowed to go much beyond this length of time before they are fed. On receipt they should be placed immediately in a brooder already prepared for them. CHAPTER VI Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the Young Stock Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks. They seem to learn more quickly where the source of heat is and they are less likely to cause trouble from crowding. They are also less subject to disease. _Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder House._ The ducklings should be left in the incubator until they are thoroughly dried off. Usually they will be dried so that they can be moved on the afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If, however, they are not ready early in the afternoon it is best to leave them in the machine until the next morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in boxes, baskets or other suitable carriers and cover them with burlap or cloth to avoid any danger of the ducklings becoming chilled. _Brooder Houses Repaired._ There are many different types and styles of brooder houses which are used with success. For this reason only one type of each class of brooder house needed is described in detail. These particular houses have been in successful use for a considerable period of time and are given because they embody all the necessary requisites for such houses and at the same time utilize the space to good advantage and are economical in construction. In general there are required three different brooder houses. The first of these requires sufficient heating capacity so that the temperature of the house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees even in the cold weather of winter or early spring. In addition, hovers are required in this house under which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to 90 degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken of as brooder house No. 1. A second brooder house which can be called brooder house No. 2 will be required which is equipped with heating apparatus so that the temperature can be run up to 60 degrees when required. The third brooder house known as brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the young ducks where they can be driven in at night and during the day in cold weather. As the ducklings pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are housed in sheds or shelters with yards which usually extend into the water but which may not do so in all cases. Brooder House No. 1 The length of this house determines its capacity, the required amount of which will depend upon the output of any particular plant. There should be brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for approximately ¼ of the total output for the year at one time. _Construction of House._ A suitable house which has been in practical use for some time consists of one 20 feet wide and running east and west with windows in the south or front side. If the location were right such a house could be run north and south to good advantage and should then have windows on each side so as to let in the sunlight from both directions. The front wall of this house is 7 feet high, the back wall 4 feet. The ridge of the house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the front slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while the back slope has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters are 2 × 4's placed every two feet. The studs and plates are likewise 2 × 4. The walls are made of matched material. The roof is constructed of 1 × 2 inch strips placed every 4 inches and these covered with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend from front to rear plates. This particular brooder house is not ceiled but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the walk or runway would make it easier to keep the house clean and would also render it somewhat easier in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired. The house is built on a concrete wall or foundation and a dirt floor is used but the dirt must be filled in well above the level of the ground outside so that there is no danger of water coming into the house or the floors becoming damp or sloppy. Windows are placed in the front wall, one to each pen. In every other pen there is a small door in the back of the house to facilitate cleaning out the pens. A window can be substituted for this door to good advantage as it makes the house lighter. [Illustration: FIG. 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and hover combined in the middle of the house and pens on each side. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Heating Apparatus._ Heat is furnished by means of a coal burning stove which heats water and causes it to circulate through pipes run the length of the house. The heater must always be placed in the windward end of the building as otherwise it is hard to get the heat down to the other end as the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes are carried down the center of the house and the return pipes are located in the same place. A low partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing the pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending from the center to the front and half from the center to the rear of the house. The pipes and the partition between them is covered over with boards making a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes, which comes into most convenient use as a place to convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or other material needed in the house, and as a convenient place from which to care for the ducklings in the pens on each side. This board covering over the pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms hovers. It is advisable to partition off the first third of the house, that is, the portion in which the heater is located, with a solid partition. Then by having suitable valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned off end used as a separate and independent section of the brooder. This is especially useful when only a small number of ducklings are being hatched early in the spring when the weather is cold and it may be difficult to heat the whole building properly. It is also economical in fuel under such conditions. If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings hatched during the cold weather is so large that all or nearly all of the house capacity is needed to care for them, it will usually pay to install an additional heater, the pipes from which can be run along the rear wall of the building, in order to keep up a proper house temperature when the weather is severe. _Pens._ Having the hovers in the center of the house, makes it possible to have double sets of pens, one running from the center to the front wall and the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens are divided off by means of partitions made of one foot boards. These are high enough to confine the ducklings to their own pen and at the same time are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20 feet, with 4 feet in the center taken up by the double hovers or walk, each pen is 8 feet long in the clear or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The pens in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide, in the next third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet wide. When the ducklings are first brought from the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat higher there than in the portions of the house more remote from the heater. These 5 × 10 foot pens will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better results will be obtained by placing only 100 in a pen if sufficient room is available. Some duck growers use boards which can be slipped into slots made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different distances from the hover and which serve to confine the baby ducklings close to the hover for the first few days or until they learn to go under the hover to get warm. As additional ducklings are hatched later and brought to the brooder house, the ducklings already there are moved along the necessary number of pens in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens nearest the heater. For this purpose, a small door is made in each partition next the outside wall of the house through which the ducklings can be driven. A broom is a handy implement to use in driving the ducklings as they can be pushed along in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings just after they have been fed as they are not so nervous and afraid at that time. The increased width of the pens in the second and third portions of the house is for the purpose of taking care of the growth of the ducklings as they are moved along the house. Pens of the same width as those in which they were started become too crowded as the ducklings increase in size. _Equipment of the Pen._ The equipment of the pens is quite simple. Water is piped through the house along both walls so that it is available to each pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under this is placed the drinking dish, which consists of a round metal pan about a foot in diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used as the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in the corners. One quarter inch mesh wire netting is bent in a circle and placed in the drinking dish as a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the pan. This guard should be made of such size that there is a space between the wire and the edge of the dish of about 1½ inches all around. This guard should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself is set upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches square under which is dug a pit 4 or 5 inches deep to drain away any water which the ducklings slop out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens from becoming sloppy and damp. Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on which to place the feed for the little ducks. Metal pans are better than wooden feeding trays as they are easier to keep clean. In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with fine sharp creek sand to which the ducklings have access at all times. Some duck growers prefer to mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in hoppers. After the ducklings are allowed to run in the yards, sand need not be furnished if the yards are sand as the ducklings will help themselves. If the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is necessary to continue to furnish this material. [Illustration: FIG. 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for young ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the hovers are along the back of the house and the work is done from an alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is used in carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar to the brooder house. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Grading and Sorting the Ducklings._ As the ducklings are moved from pen to pen through this house as well as the other houses, they are constantly graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller, less thrifty individuals being left with younger lots. Some ducklings do not grow as quickly as others, and these if left with ducklings larger than themselves will not get their share of the feed and will not do as well. In this connection it should be noted that when young ducks are not fairly clean it is a good indication that they are not doing as well as they should. _Cleaning and Bedding the Pens._ Careful attention must be given to keeping the pens and the ducklings themselves clean if they are to do well. Therefore the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment of the brooder man must decide how often this is necessary but it will be at least once a week. When cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out from the front pens through the windows and from the back pens through the door provided in the rear wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be done more frequently, usually about every other day. Fresh bedding will help to absorb the droppings and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale hay or any other suitable material available should be utilized. _Ventilation._ Plenty of ventilation is required in the brooder house in order to take out the ammonia odor which arises from the droppings. Properly managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient means of ventilation but some duck growers prefer to have roof ventilators in addition. _Other Types of Brooder Houses._ Many other types of brooder houses are used, some of them being shed roof construction and many of them being built narrower than this house, that is to say, 14, 16 or 18 feet wide with an alleyway along the front or rear side of the house from which the work is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the pens when the alley-way is in the front, otherwise, they are placed next to the alley-way. The disadvantages of these houses are that only single pens are provided and that valuable brooding space is used up by the alley-way. The advantages of the house described above lie in the fact that the hovers are in the center of the house with the pens on each side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by making use of a walk over the hover pipe no room is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens on each side also lessens the labor of taking care of the ducklings to some extent as the arrangement is more compact. Length of Time in Brooder _In House No. 1._ As a rule the ducklings are kept in the No. 1 house until they are from 2 to 3 weeks old, this of course depending somewhat upon the time of year and the weather and also upon the number of ducklings for which accommodations must be provided at any particular time. As the ducks are moved down through the house and eventually reach the last pens they are taken from this house and placed in brooder house No. 2. _Brooder House No. 2._ This is a heated house like brooder house No. 1 but in which it is not necessary to maintain so high a temperature. Sufficient heating apparatus should be installed to make it possible to maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if this becomes necessary in the early spring. The particular brooder house described is 14 feet wide and has a shed roof. It is provided with a window in the front of each pen. No openings are required along the back since this is not a double pen house. The space in such a house could undoubtedly be used to better advantage if it were constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot water pipes and walk put through the middle of the house so as to provide double pens. In this house the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a walk is constructed over the pipes in order to save space and provide a convenient place from which to do the work, and this forms hovers. Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the No. 2 house. The pens in this house are 12 feet wide and they are equipped with feeding and watering arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the ducklings are moved to this house from the No. 1 house from 150 to 200 are placed in each pen. They are moved through the house from pen to pen in the same manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for new arrivals. As a rule they stay in this house about two weeks depending somewhat on the weather and upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards are used in connection with this house which are the same width as the pens and 50 feet in length. As in the No. 1 house the pens in this house should be cleaned at least once a week and they should be bedded with straw or other bedding material every other day. As soon as the ducks have been moved through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder house No. 3. [Illustration: FIG. 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish fine shade for the growing ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Brooder House No. 3 This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped with single pens. No heat is required in this house. Yards of the same width as the pens and 50 feet deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside the house from a wagon driven along a roadway just in front of the yards. The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number of ducks is used in them as in the No. 2 house. As a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2 weeks and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters with the larger yards which may or may not have water. From this point on the ducks are termed yard ducks. In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks are supplied with their drinking water from pipes through the houses. They are not given access to water until they are moved to the yards. [Illustration: FIG. 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture was taken there were no ducklings in the house and advantage was taken of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and droppings, which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 29. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower--Pekin ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 30. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower--Pekin ducklings 6 weeks old. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low partitions can easily be stepped over. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Yard Accommodations for Ducklings As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can stand ordinary weather conditions and it is not absolutely necessary to have houses for them. However, it is common and good practice to provide shelter where they can be housed at night and can take refuge from storms. A suitable house for this purpose consists of a building 16 × 24 feet divided into two parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This house is 5 feet high in front and 3½ feet in back. It is set on posts with a baseboard around it to make it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched stuff covered with paper. The front is left open but curtains are placed on the front which can be used to close the openings so as to keep out the snow. These are used only in the winter. When the ducklings are first started in these sheds they are shut in when desired by means of wire panels fitted into the lower part of the open front. The ducklings are left in these yards and fed there until they are ready for market. [Illustration: FIG. 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die. Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house or shelter used. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Shade._ Shade is important for the ducklings as soon as the sun gets hot. Exposure to the sun without shade will cause quite a heavy loss in ducklings. If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial means must be adopted to supply the shade. This may take the form of shelters or low frames covered with boards, brush or burlap. _Feeding._ The first feed and water is given as soon as the ducks are placed in the No. 1 brooder house or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are fed 3 times a day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at night about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding should be regular, and fairly early in the morning but not any earlier in the afternoon than one can help so that the time between the evening and the morning feed will not be too long. Some growers prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for the first week or two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean up at each feeding and if any feed is left it should be gathered up so that it will not sour and cause digestive troubles. The first feed consists of the following:--One measure corn meal, one measure bran, one measure ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one measure in 6 of creek grass or other very fine green stuff. Green rye or oats should never be used for this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed is mixed up with cold water about ½ measure of low-grade wheat flour should be used to cause it to stick together. If hot water is used in the mixing this is not needed. Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent of about 3% of the ration or the sand can be fed separately in hoppers as previously described. This same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings go to the yards, or ration No. 2 given below may be substituted either at the start or after a week or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the following fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds low-grade flour, 100 pounds bran, 1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels of green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300 pounds of corn meal instead of 200 pounds. This ration like the other is fed 3 times a day. Of course, there are many different rations in use with good results, every grower having more or less personal preferences in this matter. A proper proportion of animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is very important as the ducklings will not grow and make normal gains if this is omitted or reduced in amount. Much has been written about the feeding of celery seed to fattening ducklings for the purpose of improving the flavor of the flesh and formerly ducklings were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As a matter of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was small and it is questionable how much influence it had on the flavor of the birds. At the present time, celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on most of the large duck farms of Long Island. A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two different rations is shown in the following table. Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening ration given above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran, 100 pounds corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50 pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap. The ducks used were three days old at the first weighing and there were 27 in each lot. After the second weighing the number in each lot was reduced to 24 ducks. Feed No. 1 Feed No. 2 Total Weight Average Weight Total Weight Average Wt August 14 4¾ lbs. 0.176 4¾ lbs. 0.176 August 21 10 " 0.37 9½ " 0.352 August 28 16½ " 0.687 17½ " 0.729 September 5 25 " 1.041 27 " 1.125 September 13 44½ " 1.854 48½ " 2.02 September 19 50 " 2.083 56½ " 2.354 September 27 64 " 2.666 67 " 2.62 October 4 78½ " 3.27 82½ " 3.437 October 11 99½ " 4.145 103½ " 4.312 October 18 115½ " 4.812 119 " 4.958 October 25 126 " 5.25 135 " 5.62 _Lights for Ducklings._ Often when the ducks are about one-third grown or about 4 weeks old they will stampede at night at any unusual noise or any other disturbance. In doing this, especially when they are in fairly large lots, they surge back and forth in the pens, running over one another with the result that their backs are torn and scratched while not infrequently more serious injuries result and may cause cripples. To keep them quiet it is common to use lights at night. Formerly lanterns were used but now on most duck plants electric lights are available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet long, six 15-watt lights scattered at equal intervals will be sufficient, and these can be used in like proportion for houses of other lengths. The lights are left on all night. Even when the ducks are half grown and may be out on the yards it is still necessary to use lights on stormy nights so that they will stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the rain. With a 16 × 24 foot house such as described previously, a single 25 watt light is sufficient. Ducklings are especially likely to be stampeded during thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well to turn on the lights and to shut the ducklings in their shelters when they are first placed in the yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving among the ducklings at night as this will cause moving shadows which are very likely to frighten and stampede the birds. [Illustration: FIG. 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of the feeding track runs a water pipe with spigots and pans at frequent intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck._ It is stated by long established duck growers that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required, this including the feed given to the breeding ducks for the season, to produce a pound of market duck. _Water for Young Ducks._ Drinking water is provided to the ducklings while in the brooder houses by means of a piped supply. The drinking pans are filled at each feeding time but at no other time. Water is not left before them continuously while they are in the brooder houses as they would be working in it all the time and this would keep them dirty and make the house sloppy. After they are put out on the yards they may or may not be provided with water in which they can swim. Most duck growers on Long Island allow them to have access to water. While it is undoubtedly true that swimming in the water induces them to take more exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the rapidity of fattening, at the same time it lessens the labor very materially as they do not need to be provided with a supply of drinking water other than the water in which they swim. Ducklings can be grown very successfully with only a limited amount of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which to wash themselves. _Age and Weight When Ready for Market._ Ducklings are usually marketed when they are 10 to 12 weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast occurs about this time giving them a somewhat rough look. This indicates that they are in proper condition to kill. If killing is not done within a week after this moult starts they will begin to lose flesh and it will be some time before they will fatten again. Ducks when ready to ship will average from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer 5 than 6 pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven up to the killing house and into a pen where each one is caught up and examined to see if it is in good condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so that the breastbone is not felt when handled and is well fleshed on the back it is ready to kill. If it is not in this condition it is thrown out and these thin ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening or are utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks are generally used for live shipments as they will not shrink as much as well fattened ducks. [Illustration: FIG. 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable for mixing in the feed. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Cripples._ There will always be found in the flocks more or less crippled ducks and those with crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a rule ducks with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition and can be killed about as soon as any of the others. The crippled ducks are sorted out into a lot by themselves where they are held until they can be put into condition to market. It is doubtful whether it pays the duck growers to bother with these ducks since they are rather difficult to condition and it would probably pay better to kill them. However, it is quite common practice to carry them until they can be marketed. _Cleaning the Yards._ The yards must be cleaned whenever they need it. It is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary but they must be cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The weather will have a considerable influence upon the frequency of cleaning which may be necessary once in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos. 2 and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry weather the yards are cleaned by sweeping up the droppings and carting them away. In wet weather the ducks in running about over the yard pack down the droppings until they form a sort of putty-like layer which has to be scraped off with a hoe. _Critical Period with Young Ducks._ The critical period with young ducks is the first week of their existence. With good management after they have passed this point not many are lost. The loss in young ducks from the time they are hatched until they are ready for market will range all the way from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average more than 10% for the season this is considered good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a greater percent than 10. [Illustration: FIG. 37. Yard ducks at rest. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that not all of the yards could be run down to the stream. So a shallow canal was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural water frontage. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Disease Prevention Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe although there is a greater loss from this source than in the case of mature ducks. The aim of the grower should be to use such methods of management and feeding as will keep the ducklings in good health and reduce the losses to a minimum. To accomplish this care must be taken to see that the brooding temperatures are correct, that the feed used contains what the ducklings need, that they are not overfed and that the house and yards are clean and dry and the feed and water dishes are clean. Remember that green feed and animal feed are essential ingredients in the ration. _Gapes or Pneumonia._ One of the principal troubles is a disease which is called "pneumonia" by some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is not the same disease which is called gapes in chickens. In fact, it is a form of cold which approaches pneumonia. The little ducks stretch their necks up and breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively short time. This disease may affect either the baby ducks or ducks which are old enough to kill. All that can be done is to make sure that the housing and brooding conditions are such as to correct the trouble which causes the colds. _Fits._ In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or 4 days may be more or less subject to a disease which is called "fits" by some duck growers. With this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It is probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The feeding of plenty of green stuff or the turning of the ducks out on grass will usually stop this trouble. _Diarrhoea._ This is a fairly common trouble. It may be due to improper feeding, or to too high or low temperature in the brooder. The obvious treatment is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble. _Lameness._ Not infrequently growers, particularly beginners, experience difficulty from a fairly large proportion of their ducklings becoming lame. This may grow worse until a considerable number of the birds will die. This trouble may be due to a lack of animal matter and mineral matter in the ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by poor rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather up feed not eaten by the ducklings and leaving it to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed and water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become damp and sloppy this may also cause some lameness. _Sore Eyes._ Occasionally duck growers complain that their ducklings suffer from sore eyes. This may be due to a cold causing a discharge from the eyes or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which adheres to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected birds should be placed in a separate pen from the others and the eyes should be bathed with an antiseptic solution. _Feather Eating or "Quilling"._ This is a bad habit which is apt to cause more or less trouble when the ducklings are about two-thirds grown. It is much more likely to occur when the birds are kept in cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or a few individuals but when the feathers are injured so that they begin to bleed, which they will very quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole flock and serious damage will occur. It is therefore necessary to be on the lookout for this trouble, and as soon as detected, the birds responsible should be removed. If the culprits are placed with older birds which are already feathered, they will not trouble by trying to eat the feathers. It is the blood in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the habit has become general, it is more difficult to check. About the best thing that can be done, is to turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a growing green crop, if available, where they will be so busy as to stop the feather eating of their own accord. _Rats._--Rats are very destructive if they get into the brooder house. A single rat has been known to kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings in one night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore of the utmost importance that it be hunted down and killed without delay. Otherwise serious losses will result. Cooperative Feed Association A very large proportion of the feed used on a duck plant is that which is fed to the market ducks. By purchasing feed in considerable quantities the duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some extent. A number of the duck raisers on Long Island have developed this idea further by forming a cooperative feed organization. Stock in this concern is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders but is controlled by the duck growers. The feed association maintains a feed warehouse, purchases feeds in quantity and does business both with the duck growers and with other persons in the market for feed. The existence of a cooperative feed purchasing association of this sort not only cuts down to some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance of securing the supply which is so necessary to them during the growing season. CHAPTER VII Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing On commercial duck farms, the business consists mainly of producing large quickly grown ducklings which are marketed before they are mature. Because of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly termed green ducks. The business has also become so highly specialized on Long Island and this is such a center of the industry, that the birds are commonly quoted on the New York market as Long Island ducklings. _Proper Age to Market._ It is important that the ducklings be marketed as soon as they have reached the proper age and stage of development. When the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin to shed their first growth of feathers. This is apparent first on the neck and breast, giving them somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings must be marketed within one week after they begin this moult. If they are allowed to go longer than this they will begin to get thin and as it will take them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of feathers it will be a considerable period before they get back in market condition again and any additional weight which they may attain will not be sufficient to pay for the feed eaten during this period. _Weights at the Time of Marketing._ Well grown ducklings should average in weight from 5 to 6 pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will weigh closer to 5 pounds than they will to 6. The vast majority of ducklings are marketed at this age as it does not pay to keep them past the time they reach prime market condition. On commercial duck farms practically the only ducks which are marketed at an older age than this are the breeders which are turned off at the end of the laying season and the ducklings which by reason of their being crippled or less thrifty are not in suitable market condition at this time and are held longer until they are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed from early spring until late fall. The time at which ducklings are first available for market in any quantity depends upon the earliness with which the breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends upon how late the breeders continue to lay at a profitable rate. _The Last Feed for Market Ducks._ It is important in order to have the dressed ducklings appear to the best advantage and also in order to insure their keeping qualities as much as possible that they should have no feed in their crops when they are killed. This means that if they are to be killed in the morning, which is the usual practice, they should be fed for the last time the previous night. If, however, they are not to be killed until afternoon they can be fed lightly in the morning. _Sorting Market Ducklings._ When a pen of ducklings which are being fattened are deemed ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing house and a few of them at a time driven into a small pen where it is easy to catch and examine them. Each duck as it is caught is examined to make sure that it is in proper market condition. The examination consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it has a good smooth breast so that the breast bone cannot be readily felt. If it is in that condition it is ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition are thrown out and returned to the yards where they are fed for a longer period unless it is desired to ship them alive. At the proper season of the year when breeders for the next season are to be selected, suitable birds for that purpose are picked out from the market lots as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will be found some cripples. It is common practice to sort these out and group them together in a pen by themselves where they are held until they are in suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful whether it pays to hold these cripples as they are hard to get in good condition and in many cases are probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings will show twisted wings but as a rule they are thrifty and will fatten readily and be in good market condition. [Illustration: FIG. 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are driven into these catching pens. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to the killing place. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Killing._ As the ducklings suitable for killing are selected, 10 or 12 of them, depending upon the capacity of the killing room, are hung up by their feet, the head being fastened down by means of a hook or else weighted down by means of a blood can hung from a hook inserted through the bill. By means of a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to cause free bleeding. The blood flows either into the blood can or into a trough above which the birds are hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule stunned by hitting them on the head before bleeding. In some states, however, the law requires that all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner. The bleeding of the ducks causes their death and they are allowed to hang until they are thoroughly bled out. They are then taken down, the blood washed off of their heads and placed on a table or on the floor convenient to the pickers, other ducks being hung in their places. [Illustration: FIG. 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause free bleeding. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The blood is caught in the trough below. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the blood washed from their heads and mouths before they are picked. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are laid in the picking room ready for the pickers. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Scalding._ The picker selects a duck from the table where they are placed after being taken down and carries it to a large kettle of water which is maintained at a temperature just below boiling. They are thoroughly soused in this water holding them by the head and feet so as to allow the water to penetrate into the feathers until they can be readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with which the feathers come out by plucking a few from the breast or body and thus determines whether the scalding is sufficient or whether more is required. Care is taken not to dip the feet or head in the water as this might discolor these parts. Practically all market ducks from Long Island are scald picked at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded in some markets such as Boston makes a somewhat better looking carcass and also increases the value of the feathers, but is generally considered too slow and too highly skilled a process for use on the average duck farm. [Illustration: FIG. 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the other, the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling point and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they pluck easily. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Picking._. After scalding the picker starts removing the feathers. In doing this the duck is held either on the lap or on a board nailed to the side of the feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the feathers with the grain. The soft body feathers as plucked are thrown into the feather box, the coarser feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing and tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of the feathers of the neck next the head. The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing the down. This may be removed to some extent by rubbing with the hand although care must be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some cases the down is shaved off with a sharp knife. In some of the commercial packing houses the duck's body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then dipped into the hot water. This melts the rosin so that the down and rosin can be rubbed off easily with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers are usually removed by grasping them between the thumb and a dull knife. In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before picking. Where this is done they are picked clean and the wing and tail feathers are pulled before steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which have been bled are hung at the same time in the top of a steam box or barrel which can be made air-tight and the steam turned on until the soft feathers of the breast come off easily. The length of time to steam depends on the temperature of the steam itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes. In some cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the heads outside so as to prevent the steam from coming into contact with the heads, possibly discoloring them. On Long Island women are used very largely for picking and they secure for this service 6 cents per duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or even more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly more than pay for the cost of picking. Picking usually begins early in the morning about 6 o'clock and is generally finished by noon or soon after. Most duck raisers figure on doing their killing and picking during the first half of the week and do not like to kill if they can help it during the latter days of the week. [Illustration: FIG. 46. Picking the ducks. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Dry Picking._ Where the market requires it, the ducks must be dry picked. In doing this the procedure is the same as in dry picking chickens. After the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until it reaches the brain when it is turned to cause a paralysis of the muscles which enables the feathers to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck on the back of the head with a club to stun it and make it easier to handle when picking. The picker seats himself by the feather box, with the duck on his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside of the box and held there by the picker's leg. He then proceeds immediately and as quickly as possible to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to accomplish this without delay, for the feathers soon set and are then much harder to pluck and are more likely to result in tears in the skin. When removing the down, the hand is moistened when much of the down can be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed by grasping them between the thumb and the edge of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After picking, the carcasses are cooled in cold water the same as the scalded birds. _Cooling._ After the birds are plucked they are thrown into cold water and are left there for several hours or until the body heat is entirely removed. It is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished for if any body heat is left in the carcasses they are almost sure to become green-struck when packed. The length of time that they must be left in the water depends upon the weather conditions. If the weather is warm so that the water is not very cool it is necessary to add ice in order to hasten the cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling in water also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat. _Packing._ After the ducks are thoroughly cooled they are removed from the water and packed. Long Island ducklings are usually packed in barrels. Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33 in a flour barrel. The proper number for the barrel used is placed on hanging spring scales and weighed before being packed. The best method of packing is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed on their backs or bellies, the ice used between the layers is apt to cause a cutting or bruising of the soft abdomens and injure the appearance of the carcasses. Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of cracked ice is used although in cool weather it may only be necessary to use half a scoop of ice. After the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel is piled up with cracked ice and covered with burlap. On the side of the barrel is marked the number of ducks and their weight. Later a card is tacked alongside of this showing the consignee's and the shipper's names as well as the number of ducks and their weight. [Illustration: FIG. 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail and wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head to the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of ducks to fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice depending upon the weather. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Shipping._ The barrels should be packed and shipped the same evening. Shipping may be done either by express or by automobile truck. A good many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped into New York City by truck. _Cooperative Marketing Association._ The duck growers on Long Island have formed a cooperative marketing association. This association maintains its own house in New York City and sells practically the entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling probably 90%. During the year 1919 there were in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks marketed through this house. Practically all of the capital stock of this concern is held by the duck growers and they are not allowed to sell any of their stock without first offering it to the association. _Prices for Ducks._ Early in the season the ducklings bring the best prices, that is to say from March 1 to May 1. Then as the output of ducks increases prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur in June, July and August. In September as the output of ducks begins to drop off the price begins to climb a little. The following prices as quoted in the New York Produce Review show the range from March, 1920, to June, 1921. Long Island Ducklings--Fresh Dressed 1920 March 31 45c per lb. April 21 45c " " " 28 38c " " May 5 35c " " " 12 35c " " " 26 35c " " June 2 35c " " " 9 35c " " " 16 35c " " " 23 35c " " " 30 35c " " July 7 35c " " " 14 35c " " " 21 35c " " " 28 35c " " August 4 36c " " " 11 36c " " " 18 36c " " " 25 36c " " September 1 36c " " " 8 37c " " " 15 37c " " " 22 38c " " " 29 38c " " October 6 38c " " " 13 38c " " " 20 39c " " " 27 39c " " November 3 40c " " 1921 March 30 48c per lb. April 6 46c " " " 13 38c " " " 20 38c " " " 27 38c " " May 4 35c " " " 11 32c " " " 18 28c " " " 25 28c " " June 1 28c " " The following quotations from the same source give the prices for frozen Long Island ducklings. 1920 January 7 41c per lb. " 14 41c " " " 21 41c " " " 28 41c " " February 4 41c " " " 11 41c " " " 18 41c " " " 25 41c " " March 3 41c " " " 10 41c " " " 17 41c " " November 10 40c " " " 17 40c " " " 24 40c " " December 1 40c " " " 8 40c " " " 8 40c " " " 15 40c " " " 22 40c " " " 29 40c " " 1921 January 5 40c per lb. " 12 40c " " " 19 40c " " " 26 40c " " February 2 41c " " " 9 41c " " " 16 41c " " " 23 41c " " March 2 41c " " " 9 41c " " " 16 41c " " " 23 41c " " Quotations from the same source are given below to give some idea of the range in price of the live Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of live old Long Island ducks or breeders. Long Island Spring Ducklings--Live. 1920 March 3 50c per lb. " 24 50c " " " 31 55c " " May 5 40c " " " 12 40c " " " 19 36 @ 40c per lb. " 26 40 @ 41c " " June 2 40c per lb. " 9 36 @ 38c per lb. " 16 36c per lb. " 23 37c " " " 30 38c " " July 7 38c " " " 14 38c " " " 21 40c " " " 28 40c " " August 4 38c " " " 11 34 @ 36c per lb. " 18 38c per lb. " 25 38c " " September 1 40c " " " 8 42 @ 45c per lb. " 15 45c per lb. " 22 45c " " " 29 40c " " October 6 42c " " " 13 42c " " " 27 42c " " November 3 42c " " " 10 42c " " " 17 44c " " " 24 44c " " December 1 44c " " " 15 42 @ 46c per lb. 1921 March 2 55c " " " 9 55c " " " 16 52c " " " 23 50c " " " 30 55c " " April 6 50c " " " 13 40c " " " 20 45c " " " 27 38 @ 42c per lb. May 4 38c per lb. " 11 38c " " " 18 33c " " " 25 33c " " June 1 32c " " Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders--Live 1920 March 17 45c per lb. " 31 45c " " May 19 30c " " " 26 35c " " June 9 30 @ 32c per lb. " 16 32c per lb. " 23 32c " " " 30 35c " " July 7 35c " " " 14 35c " " " 28 30c " " August 4 35c " " April 6 42c " " " 13 36c " " " 20 39c " " " 27 33 @ 37c per lb. May 11 33c per lb. " 25 30c " " _Shipping Ducks Alive_. While the great majority of ducks are shipped dressed there is some shipment of live ducks. This is particularly true during the Jewish holidays in March and in September and October when the demand for live ducks and the price paid for them is excellent. As a rule it pays better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to be a little thin rather than to ship those which are in top market condition. This is due to the fact that fat ducks will shrink very considerably when cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running from one-half to three-quarters of a pound per head where they are cooped not to exceed 12 to 15 hours. The ducks which are in the fattest condition will shrink the most. At the season of the year when live ducks are in best demand it often pays to ship alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not being in the best condition rather than to hold them for further fattening. _Saving the Feathers._ The feathers from the ducks form quite an important source of revenue to the duck farmers. As stated before the value of the feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of picking and since this is a considerable item of expense the grower cannot afford to neglect the feathers. The soft body feathers are kept separate from the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the floor as they are plucked. These coarser feathers are later swept up and are commonly spoken of as sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are superior in quality and bring a better price but most of the duck feathers now marketed from commercial duck farms are scalded feathers. The feathers after each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3 or 4 inches deep. This should be an airy place so as to give the feathers a good place to dry out. On the second day they are scraped up in a pile and then spread out again, thus turning them over and changing their position. They are then left until they are dry enough to sack which should be in a little over a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried out they will heat when sacked and this will seriously hurt their market quality. When dry they are packed either in the large special feather sacks made for this purpose or in smaller sacks, about as big as two bran sacks, which will hold from 60 to 80 pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to regular feather dealers or manufacturers. [Illustration: FIG. 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of picking. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers._ The soft body feathers and the coarser feathers often called "sweepings" should be kept and sold separate. While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry picked feathers, the former if properly dried out or cured will find a ready sale. Feathers packed before they are thoroughly dried out, are likely to arrive at their destination in a matted and musty or heated condition. This, of course, injures their quality and the price paid for them is discounted according to their condition. The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost entirely for bedding purposes, that is, are put in pillows and feather beds. White feathers are preferred and usually bring a somewhat higher price. The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely at different times of the year, and in different sections of the country, and also of course with the condition of the feathers themselves. The quotations given below represent the prices paid in June, 1921. Duck Feathers Cents Per Pound Pure white, dry picked 50 " " Stained and scalded white 40 " " Dark or mixed, dry picked 33 " " Dark or mixed, scalded 20 to 25 " " _Marketing Eggs._ On commercial duck farms very few eggs are marketed. This is due to the fact that the duck growers find it more profitable to incubate all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and market the ducklings rather than to sell the eggs. There are always, however, a certain number of cracked eggs and others which may be too large or too small to use for hatching and which are therefore marketed. In addition the infertile eggs tested out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be packed in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for hens' eggs, utilizing a special filler 5 cells square. With these fillers a case holds 20 5-6 dozen duck eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6 cells square like the fillers used for hens' eggs. The cells in these fillers are 2 inches square and 2¼ or 2½ inches deep. CHAPTER VIII Duck Raising on the Farm Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general farm consists of the keeping of a comparatively small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on the general farm may be kept for the production of meat and eggs, for egg production, or mainly as a breeding proposition where the idea is to produce birds of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of the rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental purposes. _Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising._ A small flock of ducks on the farm can be kept to best advantage where they can be separated from the other poultry and where they can have access to a pasture or an orchard which will provide them with a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks stand confinement quite well but if they are closely confined it is necessary to provide for them the green feed which they cannot secure for themselves. On many farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at liberty and under these conditions the cost of maintaining them is much lower since they pick up a considerable part of their feed. An enclosed run or yard, however, should be available where they can be confined when desired. It is also necessary to provide a house or shed in which they can be shut at night and during the early morning. Otherwise, many of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the place or in the water with the result that some of them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the ducks can have access and in which they can swim is a great advantage since it helps to keep them in good breeding condition. It is a common but mistaken idea that low, wet land is best suited for ducks. _Size of Flock._--The average farm flock of ducks is small, rarely running over 15 to 20 head. In many cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with one or two drakes will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or for sale in addition to more or less eggs which can either be used at home or sold. _Making a Start._ In making a start with a farm flock of ducks it is probably best to figure on keeping only a few head. If the farmer begins with 4 or 5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at small expense and from this number he will be able to increase the size of his flock if he finds that results warrant it. Probably the best way to make a start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the fall. This will give the ducks a chance to get settled and to be in good condition and accustomed to their quarters by spring so that they will begin to breed and lay. Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired and the young ducklings hatched and reared with chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in making a start as are baby chicks. _Selecting the Breed._ Any one of the breeds forming the so-called meat class will prove satisfactory for a farm flock. This class includes the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue Swedish. The birds of any of these breeds are of good size and therefore produce a suitable table fowl. At the same time they are layers and will produce eggs for the table or for market as well. Where the purpose in keeping the ducks is mainly that of producing eggs for market the Runner is undoubtedly the breed to select. While these ducks are smaller in size the ducklings will make good carcasses of broiler size for the table being killed for this purpose when about 2½ to 3 pounds in weight. In addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and by many persons is considered to be equal in its egg producing qualities to any of the breeds of chickens. Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or egg classes and especially the selection of a breed or variety for ornamental purposes or for the pleasure of breeding will depend upon the individual preference of the owner for body shape, color of plumage and other characteristics. A pure breed of some kind should by all means be kept in preference to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not only will the pure breeds give greater uniformity in the carcasses produced but the results in egg production will likewise be better. _Age of Breeding Stock._ The best results in breeding are secured from ducks during their first laying season. Not only is egg production better but they are less likely to become so fat and large as to interfere with the fertility and hatchability of the eggs. In fact, on commercial duck farms the breeding stock is entirely renewed each year. However, ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3 years old, and it is common practice in a farm flock to hold over some of the breeders after they have finished their first year. Of course, where the duck breeder has some especially fine stock which will produce just the quality he desires in the offspring, he holds and utilizes these birds just as long as they are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is best not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished their second laying season. _Size of Matings._ The proper number of ducks which should be mated to a drake varies with the different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks. In the Rouen mate 4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In the Muscovy as high as 10 females may be mated with one male. In the Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion of 6 or 7 ducks to one drake. In the Call and East India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated to one drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and in the Runner 6 to 8 ducks to a drake. Where young drakes are used more ducks can be mated to them than is the case with old drakes. It is also true that where especially large exhibition birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a drake as otherwise the fertility is very likely to run lower with these older heavier ducks. _Breeding and Laying Season._ Under ordinary farm conditions where the ducks receive only fairly good care and feed the laying does not begin to any extent until February or March. With exceptional care the ducks will begin to lay in January and a few may even lay in December. The ducks lay very persistently and continue their laying until hot weather sets in or usually about the first of July. They gradually let up in their laying until it ceases almost entirely soon after that date. The breeding season is at its height in the months of April and May. At this time the fertility will run best and the results in hatching will be most satisfactory. However, it is possible to continue to hatch the duck eggs which are produced with fair results as long as the ducks continue to lay. Management of Breeders. _Housing._ Some sort of house or shelter must be provided for the breeding flock. Any available shed or a part of the poultry house may be utilized for this purpose. No special requirements are necessary except that the house should provide sufficient ventilation. This is best furnished by means of a window and in addition, an opening in the front of the house should be provided which can be closed by means of a curtain during severe winter weather. A board floor is not necessary if the dirt floor is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside the house. The floors should be provided with an abundance of litter which is usually changed only once or twice during the year. As the litter tends to become dirty more litter must be added. No equipment is necessary in the houses as the birds rest on the floor and lay their eggs anywhere about the house or wherever they may make their nests. The house should be so arranged that the ducks can be shut in at night and can be kept there until they have finished laying in the morning. As most of the duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be let out by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out earlier than this they are likely to lay some of their eggs in the pond or stream to which they have access and these would be lost. _Feeding._ On many farms the breeding flock of ducks is fed on the same ration which is given the farm fowls. However, better results will be obtained if they are given special feeds. After the laying season is over the breeding ducks can be fed sparingly on a mash consisting of one part by weight corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat flour, 1 part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell. This mash is mixed up with water until it has a consistency just between sticky and crumbly. It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed of this mash should be given in the morning and at night and during the long days of summer it is well also to give a light feed of cracked corn or mixed grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment must be used in feeding ducks especially if they have range over which they can roam where they can pick up more or less animal feed and other material. In this case it is not necessary to feed nearly so much. Another mash which may be used instead of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat flour, three-fourths part beef scrap and 2 parts green feed with a supply of oyster shell. Along about December 1 the feed should be changed with the idea of inducing egg production. A feed consisting of one part by weight corn meal, 1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran, 15% beef scrap, 15% vegetables or green feed together with oyster shell should be fed morning and evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn and wheat may be given at noon in a quantity of about one quart for each 30 ducks. As much mash should be given them at the morning and evening feed as they will clean up. Another good mash feed which may be used consists of 2 parts by weight of bran, 2 parts middlings, 2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part ground oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition, of course, green feed must be added to the ration if it is not available at all times in the yard. This mash is fed in the morning and in the evening. The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn and 2 parts oats. Where green feed is not available and must be supplied, cut clover, alfalfa, rye, oats and corn may be utilized cut up into short pieces and mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either to breeding stock or to ducklings on flat trays or boards rather than in troughs as the ducks can get at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind that while ducks are good egg producers during the laying and breeding season they will not lay any great number of eggs unless they are fed for this purpose. For rations used on commercial duck farms see Chapter IV. _Water._ It is important that a plentiful supply of drinking water be available to the ducks. A fresh supply must be provided at each feeding time before the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to eat and drink alternately when feeding. Where the breeding ducks have access to a stream or pond of fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other supply of drinking water. Where water is available in which the ducks can swim it is essential to see that provision is made so that the ducks can get in and out of the water easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted and unable to climb out or they may become partially cramped when the water is very cold with the result that they will drown. If given access to water in which they can swim during cold weather it is necessary to be on the look-out to see that the ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when they come out of the water. _Yards._ Where yards are provided for ducks poultry netting about 2 feet high is ordinarily used. This will confine most of the breeds but higher fences even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the breeds which fly readily such as the Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood and Mandarin. In some cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out or to pinion the birds, that is, to cut off the outermost joint of one wing. The netting used for yards should be strung on posts set in the ground and the lower edge should be pegged down so that the birds cannot get under it. _Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Duck eggs for hatching must be gathered each day and should be put in some cool place to be held until they are set. They should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and the general care is exactly similar. It does not, however, pay to keep duck eggs as long before setting them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not over a week old if this can be arranged. _Hatching the Eggs._ The period of incubation for duck eggs ranges from 26 to 28 days for all of the breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it takes from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch as most of the commonly kept breeds are not very broody and therefore do not make reliable hatchers and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize incubators. Either one of these methods can be used with good success. With the small farm flock it is very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen will be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending on her size and upon the season of the year. In cold weather the smaller number should be used rather than the larger number. Before setting the hen she should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder to free her from lice. Several hens can be set in the same room but they should be confined on their nests allowing them to come off only once a day for feed and water. Cracked corn makes an excellent feed for sitting hens. If desired Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be allowed to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as they are reliable sitters and good mothers. After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses a longer period of time before the ducklings get out of the shell than is the case with chicks. For this reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and water when the first eggs are pipped returning them to the nest as quickly as possible and confining them there until the hatch is over. During the last week of incubation it is desirable to sprinkle the eggs daily with water using quite a liberal amount as duck eggs seem to require more moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well. All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should be washed before they are set. Washing does not seem to injure their hatching qualities. In fact, some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether dirty or not, feeling that this opens up the pores and causes a better hatch. This belief is based upon the idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under natural conditions they have access to water in which they swim and in coming back on the nest their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs. Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs are placed in the machine just as hens' eggs. For the first week the temperature is kept about 102 degrees and for the rest of the period is maintained as close to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the thermometer being on a level with the tops of the eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little higher than this at hatching time but this does not do any harm. An incubator will accommodate from four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck eggs as it will hens' eggs. About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are tested and all infertile and dead germs removed. From this time on eggs are turned twice a day and usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second test may be made about the fifteenth or sixteenth day when any eggs which have died are removed. If dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil very quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it necessary to remove them. During the last week or ten days and in some cases for a longer period than this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the machine. This is usually provided by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water which has been warmed to about the temperature of the machine. However, if warm water is not available, water of ordinary temperature may be used although it is not well to use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs begin to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the machine should be tightly closed up and left so until the hatching is over. In case moisture seems to be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard time to get out of the shell the machine can be opened and the eggs sprinkled again. If there seems to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it takes ducklings from 24 to 48 hours to hatch after the pipping first begins. It is advisable to leave the ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried off before removing them to the brooder. As a rule the hatching will be entirely over by the twenty-eighth day. _Brooding and Rearing._ Ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of chicken hens. In this case the ducklings which the hen hatches should be given to her and she should be confined to some kind of a coop which will allow the ducklings to run at liberty. If the hen is given her liberty she goes too far and takes too much exercise for the little ducks. Where artificial brooders are used any type of brooding apparatus can be utilized which is used with success for chickens. It must be remembered, however, that ducklings do not require as high a degree of heat as do baby chicks and should be started off at a temperature of about 90 degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather rapidly until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of age. The length of time that the ducklings require heat after this depends upon the season and the weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not need any heat after they are 5 or 6 weeks old. It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in order to do this they must be cleaned out frequently and new litter supplied. While the ducklings are small the brooders should be cleaned at least every other day and as they get larger, cleaning once a week with the addition of fresh litter between times will be sufficient. _Feeding the Ducklings._ Ducklings do not need to be fed until they are from 24 to 36 hours old. At this time they may be given a mixture composed of equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread crumbs with 3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed. This may be given them five times daily although some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the start. About the third day this feed is changed to equal parts of bread, rolled oats, bran and corn meal. After the seventh day the ration may consist of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour and corn meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with about 3% of sand mixed in. The ducklings should be fed four times daily after the seventh day until they are two or three weeks old. After that time they need be fed only three times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand may be given to the ducklings either by mixing it in the mash or by feeding it in a hopper where they can help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared for the ducklings is mixed with water until it has a consistency a little wetter than crumbly but not exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used. As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef scrap can be increased until it consists of 15% of the ration by the end of the third week. The proportion of corn meal can likewise be increased and simultaneously the amount of bran decreased until the ducklings are on a fattening ration. Unless they have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards to which they have access it is necessary to provide this to the extent of about 10% of the feed and it should consist of tender green stuff rather finely chopped and mixed in with the mash. About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be marketed they should be put on a ration consisting of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half part beef scrap, 10% green feed and about 3% oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three times daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening purposes consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part low-grade wheat flour, 1 part bran, 5% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in addition. Where fish is available it can be substituted for the beef scrap but on most farms this is impractical. The fish where fed is boiled and mixed in the mash. However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks before the ducks are killed as there is danger of giving a fishy taste to the carcass. For additional information as to feeding methods used on commercial duck farms which could be utilized to advantage for the farm flocks, see Chapter VI. Birds which are to be reserved for breeders should be selected out and taken away from the ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding birds should be carried along on the ration which they have been receiving until about December 1 when they should be put on a laying ration. It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have a plentiful supply of drinking water. It is especially important to renew this supply just before the ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water while they are consuming their feed. The water should be given in dishes deep enough so that the ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables them to wash the sand out of their nostrils. _Water for Ducklings._ In addition to the drinking water provided duck raisers sometimes allow the growing ducklings access to water in which they can swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly and turn them off on the market as green ducks many raisers do not consider this advisable as it induces the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it more difficult to fatten them. However, access to water in which they can swim makes it unnecessary to provide any other supply of drinking water and for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless it is easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the water there is danger of some of them drowning as they are likely to get tired and unable to climb out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold water are subject to cramp and may be drowned as a result. _Distinguishing the Sexes._ It is difficult to distinguish the sexes of growing ducks until they begin to reach maturity. There is, however, a difference in their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker and more masculine in appearance showing this especially about the head and neck. Also as they secure their mature plumage the drake shows curled feathers on top of the tail which are often referred to as sex feathers. In addition, the voice of the duck is harsher and coarser than that of the drake. _Marketing the Ducks._ Most of the ducks produced on farms are marketed alive. This is because the farmer has no special market and he does not find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks with the chance that they might spoil. In fact, most of the farm raised ducks are not turned off as green ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial duck plants but are held until fall and then sold as spring ducks. They will weigh somewhat more at that time but as a rule the price received per pound will be lower than that obtained for green ducks during the spring and summer. Where there is a special demand for ducklings which the farmer can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the ducks. If it is desired to dress the ducks, the directions given under Chapter VII can be modified to suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers should be saved in accordance with the directions given on page 106, as they can be used at home in making pillows or can be sold. Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either be utilized on the home table or sent to market. As a rule duck eggs are not in great demand except at certain seasons such as at Easter and during the Jewish holidays in the spring and fall when they bring somewhat higher prices than hens' eggs. The larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at any time in a city of any size at prices as good as those received for hens' eggs. Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary 30-dozen hen egg cases by using special fillers which hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of hens' eggs. See page 119. A farmer with a small flock of ducks will usually not have eggs enough to fill a case frequently and for this reason he usually finds it more convenient to market the few eggs he has by taking them into town in a basket. _Disease and Insect Pests._ Ducks are very little troubled by insect pests, nor are they greatly troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties encountered along this line are those discussed under this head in Chapter VI. Losses are often experienced as the result of predatory animals. Rats will cause a great amount of havoc among the young ducks if they are able to get at them. A single night's work on the part of one rat may practically clean out a small flock of ducklings. It is necessary to make sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that rats cannot get at them. GEESE PART II. CHAPTER IX Extent of the Industry--Opportunities Geese can be raised successfully in practically all parts of the United States and are in fact scattered in small flocks over a considerable portion of the country being most abundant in the South and in the Middle West. The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois with 195,769 geese to be the leading state in numbers, closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose raising states come Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota, North Carolina and Texas. The census figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease in the number of geese from 4,431,980 to 2,939,203. The only groups of states which showed an increase in the number of geese during this period were the North Atlantic and the Mountain states. Of the total farms in the United States only a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any geese and the number of geese per farm would not average over 4 to 10 depending on the section. _Nature of the Industry._ Geese are kept almost wholly in small flocks as a side line on general farms. The purpose of goose raising is primarily one of the production of meat although in the past flocks of geese have been kept to some extent, particularly in the south for the purpose of plucking them to secure the feathers. This practice of plucking live geese is decreasing and is much less common than formerly. The eggs of the geese do not enter to any extent into the egg trade of the country. As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for the purpose of rearing young geese and it is only occasionally that goose eggs are used for culinary purposes. _Opportunities for Goose Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity along the line of goose raising lies in the small flock kept on the general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where there is an abundance of suitable pasture land together with some water to which the geese can have access, a small flock can be most profitably kept. They can be reared very cheaply as both the young and old geese will secure practically their entire living during the summer from pasture if an abundant supply of suitable green material is available. The cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition both the young and old geese are very hardy and require comparatively little care. They are little subject to disease and therefore losses are small. Geese live and breed for a long time and this makes it possible to turn off to market a larger proportion of the young stock reared than is the case with most other classes of poultry. For all of these reasons, therefore, a small flock of geese will return a good profit to the farmer without having to supply any great amount of equipment or without having to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In addition to the geese which can be marketed, the maintenance of a small flock also helps to provide a variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving and Christmas. In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in small flocks on general farms there likewise exists a definite opportunity to specialize along this line somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a more important activity on some farms than merely that of a by-product. Larger numbers are reared and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing them for market either by means of pen fattening or by means of hand fattening or noodling the geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special price and allow a good profit to the raiser for the time which he has put into them. An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which has been worked to a limited extent consists of the gathering together of the geese raised in any particular portion of the country on one farm and the feeding of them there in large flocks in the fields so as to fatten them for market. There are not many of these special fattening farms but several persons in different sections of the country who have made a practice of gathering together and marketing the geese in this way have found it very profitable. Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain other sections where goose raising on the farms in small numbers is common and where no one has yet made the effort to collect and fatten the geese before marketing them. While geese are not exhibited to the same extent as chickens, still there will always be found a market for birds of good quality, both for the purpose of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving the stock of other goose raisers. _Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women._ Like turkey raising goose raising as a side line on the farm offers an excellent money making opportunity for the farm women. Without any great outlay of capital to get a start and without its being necessary to provide much in the way of buildings or other equipment, a flock of geese can be started which will allow a nice profit to the farm woman for the care and attention which she gives them. In this connection it should be remembered that while the opportunities for profit may not be so large as in turkey raising, yet the care required is much less and the chances of serious difficulties due to disease and to inability to raise the young stock are relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a most profitable side line employment for the farm woman. _Geese as Weed Destroyers._ As stated before geese are close grazers. In fact, during the growing season of the year green vegetation forms most and in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation which they will eat readily is quite varied and in many cases geese will be found to be very valuable in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept on farms where cotton is raised for the purpose of keeping the cotton fields free from weeds. Objection to Geese An objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for other stock. This is not true if the pasture is not overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a field they will eat the grass down so close that there will be none for other animals to get. Similarly the idea that other animals will not eat grass grown where goose droppings have fallen is not true except where the birds are too thick so that the grass is soiled badly by the droppings. The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes them undesirable to some persons. It is true that they make a good deal of noise and that their cry is of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person with bad nerves they may be annoying but this is no valid or weighty objection to the normal, healthy farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and consequently the greatest offenders in this particular. A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of their rather ugly disposition. Ganders, especially as they grow older and during the breeding season, are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to attack human beings. They strike heavy formidable blows with their wings and with their strong bills they inflict most painful bites. Where there are children about the house it may be necessary to dispose of ugly ganders to safeguard the children from serious injury. CHAPTER X Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and Handling _Breeds of Geese._ There are six standard breeds of geese consisting of the following: Toulouse, Embden, African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and Egyptian. All of these breeds consist of a single variety with the exception of the Chinese which is composed of two. The Toulouse is known as the Gray Toulouse, the Embden as the White Embden, the African as the Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese as the Brown Chinese and the White Chinese, the Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as the Colored. The first four of these breeds are the ones which are commonly kept in domestication. In a general way it may be said that these breeds are meat breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for the production of meat. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian are more in the nature of ornamental breeds since they are not so commonly kept and are principally to be found where ornamental water-fowls are maintained. The Chinese are sometimes classed as ornamental geese on account of their smaller size but they are much more commonly kept than either the Canadian or the Egyptian and make a good market fowl where the demand is not for such a large carcass. In addition to the standard breeds there are several other rare breeds among which is the Sebastapol which is kept purely as an ornamental breed by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol is a white goose in which the feathers of the upper part of the body show a twisted or frizzled condition which gives it much the general effect of the feathers being curled. In addition to the standard breeds of geese there are kept on a great majority of farms ordinary common geese of no definite breed or variety. These geese in general are of smaller size than the larger standard breeds and have probably arisen as the result of the crossing of the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration in size and color marking is due to careless breeding and selection. In some sections and for certain special purposes definite crosses of standard breeds are made for the production of table geese having certain desired qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are very popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some extent there is produced and marketed a goose known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent table quality and is in good demand on account of its superior eating qualities and its rapid growth. It is produced by using the Wild or Canadian gander upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result of this cross is a hybrid goose which has much the appearance of the Wild goose but which will not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a rule Toulouse or African females are used for the cross rather than Embden as from the latter there is a greater tendency to get a lighter cross which would not resemble its Wild father so closely and might not therefore be so readily recognized as genuine mongrel geese. _Nomenclature._ The term geese is used to indicate the birds of both sexes taken as a whole and also as a plural form for the word goose. The term goose is used to distinguish the female of the species. The male is given the specific name of gander to distinguish it from goose. The young of both sexes are termed goslings. In giving the standard weights for the different breeds of geese the birds are classified as adult ganders and young ganders and as adult geese and young geese. By adult goose or gander is meant a bird which is over one year old, by young goose or gander is meant a bird which is less than one year. Not infrequently in connection with market reports use will be made of the term "green geese". This indicates birds which are marketed when they are of large size but still young and immature, the green referring to this immature condition. _Size._ An idea of the size of the different standard breeds of geese can best be secured by giving the standard weights. They are as follows: Breed Adult Adult Young Young Gander Goose Gander Goose Toulouse 26 lbs. 20 lbs. 20 lbs. 16 lbs. Embden 20 " 18 " 18 " 16 " African 20 " 18 " 16 " 14 " Chinese 12 " 10 " 10 " 8 " Wild or Canadian 12 " 10 " 10 " 8 " Egyptian 10 " 8 " 8 " 6 " _Popularity of the Breeds_. Of the different standard breeds kept the Toulouse is undoubtedly the most popular in this country probably due to its large size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows the Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese geese are probably third most numerous in numbers while the African ranks fourth. In certain sections the African seems to be very popular and one would expect to find more of this breed than seem to be present on farms. Neither the Canadian nor the Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the latter in particular being very rare. Egg Production It must always be remembered in speaking of the egg production of any breed of poultry that there will be a considerable variation in individuals within a breed and that egg production will also be affected very largely by the conditions under which the birds are kept. For this reason any attempt to give an average egg production for a breed is at best only an approximation. These approximations often serve, however, to show some well established contrast between the different breeds with respect to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly prolific breed of geese and individuals should average from 12 to 36 eggs, the majority laying about 20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the Toulouse in laying ability although probably on the whole not quite so good a layer. The African is generally considered a good layer and is said to average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state that the pure African are not as good layers as this, being about equal to the Embden and that the better laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese blood in them which has been introduced to increase prolificacy. The Chinese is the most prolific breed. The birds of either the White or Brown variety should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid by the Chinese are smaller than those of the Toulouse, Embden or African. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They rarely lay more than one sitting during a season and the eggs will as a rule range from 4 to 8 in number. _Size of Goose Eggs._ Goose eggs are decidedly larger than duck eggs. There is a considerable variation in size, depending upon the breed. The eggs of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about the same size and will vary from 6½ to 8 ounces each. The eggs of the Chinese are smaller and will weigh from 5½ to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian and Egyptian are the smallest of the standard breeds, running from 5 to 5½ ounces each. _Color of Goose Eggs._ In general goose eggs are whitish in color but may shade to a gray or buff tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay eggs which are off the white, showing a considerable green tinge. About Geese and Matings _Broodiness._ All of the breeds of geese with the exception of the Toulouse may be classed as broody breeds, that is to say, they will make their nests and hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will do this also but as a rule they are not dependable for this purpose. _Size of Mating._ In making the mating it is usual in order to secure best results to use one gander with from two to four geese in the Toulouse, Embden and African breeds. In fact, better results will be secured in these breeds where not over 3 geese are used and in many cases the geese are mated in trios or even in pairs. In the Chinese geese a somewhat larger mating can be employed, one gander being used with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian geese in most cases pair only. _Age of Breeders._ Geese can be retained and will give good results as breeders for a longer period than most other classes of poultry. While the young geese will often lay during their first year the results from the eggs produced by them are not as a rule very satisfactory. It is sometimes claimed that the eggs of young geese will not hatch but this is untrue and goslings have been raised from such eggs. Canadian and Egyptian geese do not lay until they are 3 years old. Females may be kept for breeding purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should give good results during this time. If they continue to lay longer than this and are valuable breeding individuals they should of course be retained just so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances are reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were still giving good results as breeders. As a rule ganders cannot be successfully kept for breeding purposes as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders are often used but they are at their best for breeding purposes when from 3 to 5 years old and it is not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or 7 years old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will not breed before they are 2 years old. In general it is good practice to mate young ganders to older geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders as this seems to get better results both in fertility and in hatching. _Marking Young Geese._ It is often desirable to mark young geese in some way so that their breeding can be told or so that a record can be kept of their age. This can be readily accomplished by punching various combinations of holes in the webs between the toes at the time the goslings are hatched. _Considerations in Making the Mating._[4] In making the mating in breeding geese it must be kept in mind that it is of primary importance to select the breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality. Without these qualities no matter what else the breeding geese may be there is scant chance of satisfactory results. Having selected birds which are of suitable size and vitality those should then be utilized for breeding which approach most nearly both in type and color to the requirements as given in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule, a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected and shutting them up together in a pen away from the other birds and out of sound of the voices of their former mates. As a rule about a month of this treatment will suffice to bring about the new matings desired and the birds can then be allowed to range at liberty. [Footnote 4: For a more detailed description of the principles of breeding as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to geese, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Co., New York, N. Y.] Some ganders are very troublesome about mating. This is particularly true as they get older. In some cases it is impossible to get ganders to mate at all while frequently they will refuse to mate with more than one goose. As a rule, matings once made are permanent from year to year unless changed by the breeder on account of poor results. Where new matings are to be made or where changes are to be made this should be done in the fall so that the birds will have been mated for several months before the breeding season begins in order to insure good results. After the matings are made the geese can be allowed to run together in larger flocks but the practice is frequently employed of keeping the different matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the fighting which will otherwise occur between the ganders. During the breeding season the ganders are quite savage and will fight fiercely. Breeds of Geese[5] _The Toulouse._ This breed is characterized by its very low down deep broad massive body. The body should come well down in front and should be so deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the ground when the bird walks. The skin of the rear portion of the body should have folds. The appearance or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal upon the condition of flesh which a bird may be in at the time as a fat well fleshed condition will improve type very materially. A dewlap, that is to say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired but comparatively few birds show a well developed dewlap. It is more likely to appear with age than it is in the younger birds. In color the Toulouse breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is encountered is the occasional appearance of one, two or three white flight feathers in the wing. These white flights constitute a disqualification and must of course be avoided in the breeding. It is necessary also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length, breadth or depth of body, particularly depth in front. Birds of this breed are of large size and make quick growth and for this reason are a fine market goose although the dark colored pin feathers are somewhat of a drawback from a market point of view. [Footnote 5: For a complete and official description and list of disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of geese, the reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by the American Poultry Association, obtainable from Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.] _The Embden._ This breed is of good size but somewhat smaller than the Toulouse. It has not quite so long a keel or underline as the Toulouse and while deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no dewlap in this breed. The plumage should be pure white throughout, the only difficulty of any importance occurring here being the occasional appearance of slate on the backs of young geese. This, however, is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult. Embden geese are rapid growers and mature early which together with the fact that their plumage is white makes them an excellent market bird. _The African._ In type the African is much the same as the Toulouse although not quite as large being about the size of the Embden. What is desired is a low down body which is flat in keel and without any folds of skin. The neck should be short. This bird unlike the Toulouse is characterized by a knob or protuberance extending out from the head at the base of the upper bill. This knob should be black in color and should show no tinge of yellow on the top or about the base. If the knob gets scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing likewise is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds of this breed both young and old should show dewlaps, the absence of these in adult specimens constituting a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid any white flight feathers. The African makes an excellent market goose being like the Embden and Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The ganders are especially in favor for use in crossing with other varieties for the production of market geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese blood has been crossed into the Africans on various occasions probably for the purpose of increasing the prolificacy of the African as the Brown Chinese is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses between the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are sometimes shown for Africans but as a rule this cross results in too dark a bird and such crosses should never be used for breeding purposes since they would not continue to give the uniformity and other qualities obtained in the first generation. _The Chinese._ The Chinese is quite different in type from the three preceding breeds. It is much smaller and higher set on legs and has a body much more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender and the head has a large knob. An important part about the type is to secure a very slender neck, another important point being to secure a very large knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however, a decided tendency for the knob to run small when the neck is slender and it is difficult to secure in perfection the combination of a very slender neck and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in good condition but should not be too fat when shown as too good a condition of flesh injures the type materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for the birds to bag down behind which is undesirable. The Chinese geese are the best layers but the egg which they lay is smaller. On account of their smaller size they do not make as good market geese where large sized carcasses are desired but where smaller carcasses suitable for family use are in demand the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed. _The Brown Chinese._ In this variety the knob should be dark brown or black. As in the African, injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow which is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown shade of color, a faded gray color being very undesirable. The stripe down the back of the neck should be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in the primaries or secondaries must be avoided. _The White Chinese._ The knob in this variety should be orange and any tendency toward yellow should be avoided. The plumage should be pure white throughout. Occasional young females may show slate in the back but this is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult. _The Wild or Canadian._ Contrary to expectation this breed when domesticated is very peaceable and very tame. There is often, however, a tendency for them to grow uneasy when the migratory season comes. To keep the birds from flying away it is necessary to clip the flight feathers of one wing or what is safer still to pinion the bird. Pinioning consists of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This may be done when the birds are small or may be done at any time and does not seem to bother them much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is to break the joint and then cut it off by using a chisel and hammer. Not much bleeding will result but it is well to put a little iodine on the cut. These birds breed very true in type and color and progress in the mating simply consists of continuing to select those birds for breeders which show markings in the greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose is quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned. It is smaller, set much higher on legs and its body is neater and trimmer, and is oblong and carried in a horizontal position. The neck is long and slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule and the females do not mature and lay until they are three years old. The ganders often breed when they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting of eggs is laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually, however, all of these eggs will hatch and the young prove to be strong and easily reared. _The Egyptian._ This is the smallest of the standard breeds of geese. In type it more nearly approaches the Canadian than any other breed but it is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the thigh beneath the body. The body is not carried in quite such a horizontal position as the Canadian but slopes downward slightly from the breast to the tail. The neck is neither so long nor quite so slender as that of the Canadian. This breed is the brightest colored of any of the geese and breeds fairly true in color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian goose is likely to become uneasy at times and one wing should therefore be pinioned or the flight feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying away. Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only and lay but one sitting during the year. The females do not lay until they are three years old. Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese should be closely confined or no eggs will be laid. The goose should be allowed to make her own nest and hatch her eggs. [Illustration: FIG. 50. Left--Egyptian Gander. Right--Sebastapol Goose. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 51. Left.--Toulouse Gander. Right--Embden Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 52. Left--Wild or Canadian Gander. Right--African Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] [Illustration: FIG. 53. Left--Brown Chinese Gander. Right--White Chinese Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Preparing Geese for the Show The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively a simple matter. It requires first of all that individuals shall be selected which approach nearest to the standard requirements both in type and in color. As to the actual preparation for exhibition the geese are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before they are shipped to the show they should be given access to a grass range and to running water. The grass range tends to put them in good condition while the running water will give them an opportunity to clean themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown so as to give them an opportunity to grow in new ones. Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the exception of the Chinese, should be shown in a fat condition in order to give them their best type they should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a period of at least ten days before the show in order to get them in good flesh and to bring them up to standard weight. This ration should consist of one part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese where it is desired to have them in good condition of flesh but without showing any tendency toward bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt to put on too much fat when corn is fed as well. When the birds are shipped to the show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. As the geese are taken from the shipping coops place two of them at a time in the barrel, cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then take them out and they will usually be clean. Catching and Handling Geese Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and are easily broken or injured. For the same reason they should never be carried by the legs. In catching geese grasp them by the neck just below the head. Often a crooked stick is of value in getting hold of the birds by the neck. Geese can be carried short distances by the neck without injury but it is not advisable to carry them for any considerable distance in this manner, particularly if they are fat. The best way to handle the geese is to catch them by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders and around the bird's body thus holding the wings in place while both legs are grasped with the hand. The neck should be held with the other hand to keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in a pen or shipping coop do not let go of the neck until the bird is placed where it is wanted. [Illustration: FIG. 54--Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese with the head and neck under the arm. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh if they are to be received in good condition and are to give good results in hatching. They can be shipped long distances either by express or by parcel post. In order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment they should be carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable receptacle. The same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page 137. Prices for Breeding Stock While the demand for breeding stock is not so broad with geese as it is with some other classes of poultry, there does exist a steady and profitable demand for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching are usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price varies somewhat depending upon the variety. As a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from 60 cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will bring from 40 cents to $1 each while the eggs of the African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each. Of course the price of eggs for hatching like that of breeding birds depends on the quality of the stock. The prices for the birds themselves for breeding purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10 apiece for good birds suitable for breeding on farm flocks, to $25 or even $50 each of birds of especially fine quality. CHAPTER XI Management of Breeding Geese _Range for Breeders._ Since grass or other vegetation, when plentiful, will furnish practically the entire living both for breeding and growing geese, it is by all means desirable to have suitable range for the breeding stock. Aside from economy of production range is desirable from the fact that the breeders keep in better condition and better results in breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for breeding geese should therefore consist of grass land or pasture. Often rather low wet land can be used for this purpose, particularly if some higher land is also available to provide a more favorable kind of grass. Often geese can be ranged on the same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the season after the harvest, both breeding and growing geese can be given the range of the stubble fields to good advantage as they will glean most of the shelled grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally allowed to run together but the flock may be divided if desired, or each mating may be kept in a colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders proves troublesome. _Number of Geese to the Acre._ The number of geese which can be kept or run to the acre depends of course upon the nature of the land available for the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore the more green feed available throughout the summer and fall, the more geese can be run. In general, the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an acre; ten is a fair average under normal conditions. _Water for Breeding Geese._ While water to which the geese can have access for swimming is not absolutely essential for their well being, they like it and it is well to provide water if possible especially during the breeding season. It not only takes care of the problem of supplying drinking water, but in the opinion of many goose raisers, increases the fertility of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such as a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable, but if none is available an artificial pond or tank can be furnished to good advantage. _Distinguishing the Sex._ It is difficult to distinguish the sex of geese. It is, of course, necessary to know the sex so as to provide the proper number of ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together in making a mating. Once the sex of a bird is determined it is well for the novice to mark it by means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be easily distinguished in the future. It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young than of old geese. The gander is generally slightly larger and coarser than the goose, with a longer, thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has a shriller cry than the goose whose cry consists of a harsher sound. Some goose raisers claim that they can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the body shape, the underline of the body of the gander from the tail to the point where the legs join the body being nearly straight, while in the goose this line tends to round out with the fuller development of the abdomen. This difference is more marked during the laying season than at other times. Considerable experience is necessary in order to distinguish sex by any of the means described and the really sure way is by an examination of the sexual organs or by observing the actions of the geese when mating. Upon examination the sphincter muscle which closes the anus of the female when stretched will be found to have a folded appearance. If the gander is placed upon his back and pressure applied around the anus, the penis will protrude. This test is more easily made on a mature than on an immature gander and is also easier to make during warm than during cold weather. _Purchase of Breeding Stock._ Geese when mated usually stay mated permanently. Matings are not, therefore, changed from year to year as a rule so long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If it becomes necessary to make new matings or to break up old matings, this should be done in the fall, so that the birds will be thoroughly used to the new order of things by the time the breeding season arrives, and the results in eggs laid and young stock grown will not, therefore, be adversely affected. For this reason, any breeding stock purchased should be secured in the fall rather than to wait until just before the breeding season opens. As a rule, also, a better selection of breeding stock to choose from is available to the purchaser in the fall. _Time of Laying._ Geese start laying in the early spring and continue to lay throughout the spring. With special attention given to the feeding, they should begin in the northeastern part of the United States about February 1 and should continue to lay until about June 1 when geese of the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will generally be pretty well through. Some individuals will lay later than this and the Chinese geese also have a rather longer laying season extending further into the summer. The length of the laying season is also affected by whether the geese are broken up when they become broody or whether they are allowed to sit. The latter practice, of course, stops the layings. It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs during the season. As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon. The frequency of laying varies, some geese laying every other day while others lay more or less often. _Housing._ Geese withstand the weather very well and do not need much in the way of houses or shelter except during winter and during severe storms. In the North it is the usual practice and good practice to provide shelter for the geese, which may take the form of a poultry house, or of any shed or barn available for the purpose. A shed with openings on the south side makes an ideal goose shelter or house. Most breeders in the South who give their flocks good attention also provide shelter for them during the winter although geese are also successfully kept in that section without shelter. The houses provided for the breeders must be kept clean and as dry as possible. The best way to do this is to bed them liberally with straw, shavings or some similar material, especially during the winter. As the bedding becomes soiled, more should be added and the house should be cleaned out from time to time and fresh litter put in. No equipment for the houses is necessary. The geese will lay their eggs in nests which they make on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is provided, the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large boxes, barrels, or similar shelter provided with an abundance of nesting material may be scattered about the range to provide places in which the geese may make their nests. _Yards._ Usually no yards are provided for geese as they are allowed the range of a pasture or are allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any ordinary woven wire stock fence such as might be used to fence a pasture will serve to keep the geese confined as well as the other stock. If for any reason it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort should be made to provide yard enough so that the geese will have a constant supply of green feed. In a small yard this is impossible. A 2½ or 3 foot fence is high enough to confine any of the common breeds of geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian geese if they have been pinioned which should always be done. _Feeding the Breeding Geese._ While the flock of geese may be allowed to pick most of their living from a good grass range during the summer and fall, it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In fact during the summer it may be necessary to feed them lightly on grain or wet mash if the pasture gets short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose depends upon the condition of the pasture and must be judged by the condition of the birds. During the winter, they must be fed regularly. The feed given them should consist of both grain and some form of roughage. It is necessary to be careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become too fat, for while they should be in good condition of flesh at the beginning of the breeding season, if they are too fat, poor fertility and poor hatches will result. _Feed._ Oats makes the best feed for breeding geese as it is not too fattening. Corn, wheat or barley fed alone is likely to prove too fattening but a limited quantity should be fed for variety. The grain should be fed twice a day throughout the winter and should be given rather sparingly, depending on roughage to make up the bulk of the feed. Vegetables, clover or alfalfa hay, chopped corn stover or silage make good roughage for this purpose. Corn silage is a fine feed if it is not moldy and does not contain so much corn as to be too fattening. About three weeks or a month before it is desired to have the geese commence laying, which should be at such a time that the first goslings hatched will have good grass pasture, a mash should be added to the feed to stimulate egg production. This mash is generally fed in the morning with the vegetables or roughage and may consist of three parts bran or shorts, one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat scrap. If available buttermilk or skim milk can be used to mix the mash and replace the meat scrap. Another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal one-fourth part, bran two parts, and ground oats one part, mixed up with skim milk or buttermilk. Grit and oyster shell should be kept where the geese can help themselves particularly during the laying season. Drinking water must be available at all times and if a natural supply is not available, must be given in drinking fountains or dishes which should be so arranged that the geese cannot get their feet into the water. When they can get into the drinking water, they will quickly get it into a filthy condition. When the geese are running in a field with horses or cattle a small enclosure should be fenced in to which the geese can gain access by means of suitable openings but which will keep the other stock out. In this should be placed the drinking fountain for the geese and in this enclosure the geese should be fed. Otherwise the cattle or horses will get most of the feed intended for the geese and in addition, some of the geese may be stepped on or kicked and injured when the stock crowds around at feeding time. CHAPTER XII Incubation _Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Since egg production usually begins early in the spring while the weather is still cold, it is necessary to gather the eggs at frequent intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming chilled. Later in the season daily collection will be satisfactory. The eggs as collected should be kept in a cool place and where the evaporation of the egg contents will not be too great. If set at fairly frequent intervals, there will be no difficulty on this score. If they are to be kept for some time, they may be stored in bran to prevent evaporation. It is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date they are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving too long any eggs for hatching. Some goose raisers think that it is best to wash goose eggs before setting them. This belief is based on the fact that when a goose makes her own nest and has access to water in which to swim she comes on the nest with her feathers wet. It is to simulate this condition that the eggs are washed. Certainly any dirty eggs should be washed. _Methods of Incubation._ The most usual methods of hatching goose eggs are by means of the chicken hen and the goose. Incubators may also be used but do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they do with hen or duck eggs. Turkey hens may also be utilized for this purpose but are not commonly available although they make good mothers. Probably the most common method of hatching is the use of chicken hens. Next common is to allow the goose to hatch her own eggs. Goose eggs hatch well under hens or geese. During the height of the season nearly every fertile egg should hatch if the breeding geese are managed and fed so that they are in good condition. Early in the season the eggs may not run as fertile or hatch as well as later. _Period of Incubation._ The period of incubation of goose eggs is approximately 30 days, but may vary from 28 to 33 or occasionally even 35 days. _Hatching with Chicken Hens._ Chicken hens are used very commonly to hatch goose eggs both because they give good results and are readily available and also because it is desirable to take the first eggs laid by the geese away and not to let them get broody and sit so that they will lay more eggs. For the latter reason practically all the eggs laid early in the season are hatched by chicken hens. The nest can be prepared for the hen either in a suitable place in a poultry house or in a shed or other building or in a box or barrel on the ground. As soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by staying on the nest, in which has been placed a nest egg or two, for a couple of nights in succession, she may be given a sitting of eggs. Four to 6 goose eggs will constitute a sitting for a common hen. The hen should be confined to the nest being let off only once a day for exercise, feed and water. The sitting hen must be given good care, being even more particular in this respect than when she is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of incubation is longer. In addition to being careful to see that the hen comes off her nest for food and water she should be dusted 2 or 3 times during the hatch with some good insect powder to keep her free from lice and therefore contented to stay on the nest. Two or 3 days before the goslings hatch she should be dusted with especial care so that the goslings will be free from vermin. On account of the large size of the eggs the hen should not be depended upon to turn them and this should be done by hand once or twice daily. _Hatching with Geese._ All breeds of geese will hatch their eggs although some are more persistently broody than others while there is a considerable difference in individuals in this respect. Toulouse and Chinese are perhaps the least broody of the breeds and are sometimes termed non-broody. The eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as laid. If this were not done they will become broody and stop laying quicker than they do under this treatment. The goose should be allowed to make her own nest. Often she will do this in a barrel, box or other shelter if these are conveniently available. When she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying she should be given a sitting of eggs which will consist of 10 or 11. Geese are often difficult to manage when they have young. Wild and Egyptian geese should always be allowed to make their own nests which they like to do on dry ground near the water, using straw leaves or similar material to make the nest. They should not be disturbed as they are ugly during this time. They will hatch practically every egg. _Breaking Up Broody Geese._ A goose which shows a desire to sit, can be broken up quite easily by confining her to a slat-bottomed coop without any feed, but with plenty of water to drink, for from 2 to 4 days. After being broken up she will generally commence laying again after an interval of a few days. _Hatching with an Incubator._ While it is more difficult to hatch goose eggs in incubators than it is hen or duck eggs, this can be done by an experienced operator with a fair degree of success. The incubator should be operated at a temperature of 101.5 to 102.5 degrees F., with the thermometer so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs. Beginning with the third day, the eggs should be turned twice a day as with hens' eggs. Beginning about the tenth day, the eggs should be cooled once a day, and they need more cooling than hens' eggs require. They should be cooled down to a temperature of about 80 to 85 degrees. All goose eggs whether in incubators or under hens or geese should be tested once during the hatch. The best time to do this is sometime between the tenth and fourteenth days, when any infertile eggs or dead germs should be thrown out. _Moisture for Hatching Eggs._ Where eggs are being hatched in an incubator, there is need for the use of considerable moisture. It should be added first at about the end of the first week of incubation and should be repeated a couple of times during the second week. This can best be done by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water heated to about 100 degrees. Beginning with the 15th day and until 2 or 3 days before the eggs are ready to hatch soak them in warm water for from one-half a minute to a minute once every 2 or 3 days. For the last 2 or 3 days do this daily. When the eggs are being hatched by chicken hens or geese in nests indoors or in boxes or barrels and in dry weather, moisture should be added in the same manner and with the same frequency and amount as in the incubator. When the nest is on damp ground, it is not necessary to use any moisture on the eggs. _Hatching._ Goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly and somewhat unevenly, especially when under hens. For this reason it is well to remove each gosling as it hatches from under the hen or goose and place it in a covered, cloth-lined box or basket and keep near the stove until the hatch is completed. As soon as the hatch is over, the goslings that have been removed from the nest can be put back under the hen or goose which is to be allowed to assume the duties of motherhood. CHAPTER XIII Brooding and Rearing Goslings When the hatch is completed all the goslings which have been removed from the nest should be returned; and the hen or goose removed to the coop which she is to occupy while brooding them. At this time, if hatched with a hen the goslings should be examined carefully on the head and neck to see whether there are any head lice present. If any are found the heads and necks of the goslings must be greased with a little lard or vaseline. Not too much grease should be used as it may prove harmful to the goslings. _Methods of Brooding._ The most common methods of brooding goslings are the use of geese, of chicken hens or of artificial means. Geese make the best mothers but are not always available especially during the early hatches. Geese may also prove rather unruly when they have young and for this reason are not in favor with some goose raisers. When hatching is done simultaneously with geese and hens it is the practice of some raisers to give all the goslings hatched to the geese to rear. Hens can be used very successfully for rearing goslings especially if they are confined to a coop for the first week or two so that they cannot range too far and too fast and tire the goslings out. Not over 6 or 8 goslings should be given to a hen to brood. Artificial methods are very successful with goslings much more so in fact than are artificial methods of hatching the eggs. Some goose raisers prefer to use artificial means of brooding, especially if they have only a few goslings and are brooding at the same time some chicks or ducklings. _Brooding with Hens or Geese._ A suitable roomy coop should be provided to which the goslings with their mother, either hen or goose, can be moved when the hatch is completed. The coop should be so constructed by means of a slatted front or otherwise, that the hen can be confined and the goslings allowed to range. It is very desirable to get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible. A goose with goslings is often allowed to have her liberty but many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the same as when a hen is used. The coop should have a board floor well bedded with straw, shavings or similar material. This will not only help to keep the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them from their enemies during the night. For this same reason the coop should be so constructed that it can be closed at night by means of a wire covered door so as to shut out marauders, and at the same time allow plenty of ventilation. The coop must be cleaned often so as to keep the goslings clean and dry. _Length of Time Brooding Is Necessary._ The time that goslings need brooding will, of course, depend upon the weather. During mild weather 10 days is usually sufficient, after which they can do without any brooding. Early in the season, brooding must be extended over a longer period. This may mean anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks or even longer. _Artificial Brooding._ For this purpose any brooder utilized for chicks or ducks can be used for goslings. To start with they should have a temperature of about 100 degrees but this can be reduced in a few days until in a week or ten days it is only 70 to 80 degrees or if the weather is mild artificial heat may be dispensed with entirely. Where there are only a few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks as long as they need heat. It does not work so well to put them with chicks both because they do not require a high temperature so long as the chicks and also because they are so large as to be likely to tread on and injure some of the chicks. Brooders should be well bedded with straw, shavings or some similar material and should be cleaned out every 2 or 3 days so as to be kept clean and dry. Do not crowd the goslings; give them plenty of room. Some goose raisers do not depend upon heated brooders at all, especially when only a few goslings are to be brooded. For the first day or two the goslings are kept in a covered basket or box in the house near a fire and after this are put out during the warmth of the day but brought into the house and put in the basket or box at night until they are two or three weeks old. The same practice should be followed with goslings reared in brooders, these being used only during the night after the first 2 or 3 days, the goslings being put out-doors during the day in good weather. When goslings which are being artificially brooded are put out during the day on the grass, they should be confined at first. This can be easily accomplished by building a triangular enclosure, formed of 3 boards, 1 foot wide or wider, placed up on edge. This enclosure can be easily shifted to a new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh ground and fresh grass. General Care of Growing Goslings Goslings should be kept dry and for this reason should be kept shut up until the dew is off the grass in the morning. For the same reason they should not be allowed access to water in which to swim until they are at least 3 or 4 weeks old. When allowed to swim, care should be taken to see that they can get out of the water easily. Goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome and apparently dead. Frequently they can be revived and saved by wrapping them in a heated cloth and placing them near a warm fire. While they are still young, goslings should be driven under shelter whenever a rain storm comes up. When allowed to run at liberty, goslings must be kept track of to some extent. They may become lost and have to be driven back to their shelter at night. Or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences and corners and must be released. When allowed to run with larger stock they are more or less liable to injury from being stepped upon or kicked. A growing coop or shelter of some sort should be provided for the growing goslings although this is not always done after they are pretty well feathered out. Such a coop should be large enough so that the goslings are not crowded, and should be well ventilated. It should have a board floor and be capable of being closed so as to protect the goslings from their enemies, but without cutting off ventilation. If natural shade is not available where the goslings range, artificial shade of some sort must be provided during the hot weather. Growing goslings are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not make as good growth if not provided with shade. Artificial shade of boards or brush can be easily provided. If for any reason it is necessary to confine growing goslings, they should be provided with good grass yards or runs and their coops or shelters should be moved to a fresh location frequently. It is better, if possible, to keep the growing stock separate from the old breeding stock as they will do better and make more rapid growth under these conditions. Usually, however, where only a few geese are reared each year, old and young stock are allowed to range together. _Feeding the Goslings._ Like chicks or ducks, goslings do not need to be fed as soon as hatched, the yolk of the eggs providing all the nourishment they need for at least 36 hours. They should, however, be furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is completed. The first feed should consist of stale bread, soaked in milk or water. With this material should be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine. The goslings should be fed 3 or preferably 4 times daily until they are 2 or 3 weeks old. Chopped grass or some other green feed should be added to the feed, the quantity fed being increased steadily. It is important to get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible, which should be after the first 2 or 3 days if the weather is good, so that they will be able to graze for themselves. Five per cent of fine grit or sharp sand should likewise be added to the feed. Some growers prefer to feed the grit or sand in a hopper to which the goslings have constant access and from which they can help themselves. A constant supply of fresh drinking water is essential and this should be provided in drinking fountains or dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or bodies in them. When a good grass range is available, the goslings, after they are 2 or 3 weeks old, will need only one light feed of mash daily in addition to the grass they eat. Such a mash will consist of 2 parts shorts and 1 part corn meal, ground oats or ground barley. Where the pasture is good many goslings are raised from the age of 2 or 3 weeks until they are ready to be fattened without any other feed than the grass and other material which they get for themselves. However, the feeding of one light feed of mash a day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for their need and promotes quicker growth. After the goslings are 6 weeks old, if they are still fed, the mash should be changed to equal parts shorts, corn meal and ground oats with 5% meat scrap. This same mash can be continued until fattening time. Whole grains are not generally fed to goslings until they are well feathered and often not until it is desired to fatten them. _Percentage of Goslings Raised._ Goslings are for the most part quite hardy and are comparatively easy to brood. This coupled with the fact that they are relatively free from disease and are not much troubled with insect pests makes it possible to raise a large per cent of the thrifty goslings hatched. With good care and with good strong healthy stock, it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of 90% of the goslings hatched. _Rapidity of Growth._ Goslings make a very rapid growth. When marketed as green geese they are usually turned off at from 12 to 16 weeks of age. At this age they should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds, depending upon the breed and upon the rapidity of growth. Many, probably most, young geese are not marketed at as early an age as this but are held until the Christmas season or later and marketed at heavier weight. The best grown Toulouse goslings should attain a weight of 16 to 18 pounds by Christmas or when 6 to 8 months old. Other breeds will weigh proportionately less. Special attention or special feeding will, of course, increase the weight over that attained without such feeding. As a rule the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse do not get their full growth until they are about 18 months old. After this as geese of both sexes grow older, they will, of course, fill out more and attain greater weight. _Disease._ Goslings are remarkably free from disease and a very large percentage of all strong goslings hatched should be reared. One of the principal difficulties is diarrhoea. This is usually caused by faulty feeding. It may be due to feeding too great a quantity of soft feed or to giving soft feed in too sloppy a condition. Access to stagnant water, unclean enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may also cause diarrhoea. When partly grown goslings which are being given soft feed are troubled with diarrhoea, this may sometimes be checked by substituting a light feed of corn daily for a part of the soft feed. Goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness. This is usually caused by faulty feeding also, particularly by feeding a ration which is lacking in something needed, such as some form of animal feed like beef scrap which may cause a lack of mineral matter in the ration. If the goslings cannot secure it for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be placed at their disposal. There is an infectious disease of geese which sometimes causes trouble known as goose septicemia or hemorrhagic septicemia. This is a disease similar to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature geese. It is not often found on farms where the geese are raised in small lots, but sometimes proves troublesome on farms where a large number of geese are gathered together for fattening. The geese are often found dead when one goes to feed them without having shown much preliminary sickness. The disease is usually fatal. Shortly before they die the affected geese may acquire an uncertain gait and may twist the head about and burrow it in the dirt. Treatment is of no avail. If the disease occurs in a flock, the affected birds should be removed and killed, while the rest of the flock should be moved to new ground if possible. The ground which they previously occupied should be plowed and any houses, shelter, feed troughs, and drinking vessels should be thoroughly disinfected. CHAPTER XIV Fattening and Marketing Geese _Classes of Geese Marketed._ The market geese consist principally of the surplus young ganders not required for breeding purposes and such of the old geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable to get rid of. Some young females, when the number raised is in excess of the number required for breeders also find their way to market. While these geese are marketed in the largest numbers during the Thanksgiving and Christmas holiday season, particularly the latter, some geese of course find their way to market practically throughout the year. There is also a rather limited trade in "green geese" which corresponds to the trade in spring or "green" ducklings. Green geese are goslings about 12 to 16 weeks old, generally of the larger breeds, which are forced for rapid growth and are made to weigh in the neighborhood of 10 pounds at that age. These bring a good price and yield a good profit where there is demand for this class of geese. _Markets and Prices._ As with most classes of poultry, the large cities offer the best market for geese. Especially the cities which have a large foreign population make good markets as many foreigners are more in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish than are native Americans. The most favorable market usually occurs at Christmas when roast goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor. Considerable numbers of geese are also used at Thanksgiving time and in recent years as the price of turkeys has steadily increased there has been an increasing tendency to substitute goose for turkey on that day. Following are prices paid for various classes of geese on the New York wholesale market from May 1920 to June 1921 as reported by the New York Produce Review. Quite a wide variation in price will be noted in many cases which reflects the difference in condition of the geese as received. In the case of express receipts of live geese where a wide variation in prices occurs the high quotations represent the receipt of especially fattened geese from nearby farms. WESTERN GEESE, FROZEN 1920 May 5 25 @ 31c per lb. 12 25 @ 31c " " 19 25 @ 31c " " 26 25 @ 31c " " June 2 25 @ 31c " " 9 25 @ 31c " " 16 25 @ 31c " " 23 25 @ 31c " " 30 23 @ 29c " " July 7 23 @ 29c " " 14 21 @ 27c " " 21 21 @ 27c " " 28 21 @ 27c " " Aug. 4 20 @ 25c " " 1921 Jan. 26 26 @ 34c " " Feb. 2 26 @ 34c " " 9 26 @ 36c " " 16 26 @ 36c " " 23 26 @ 36c " " Mar. 2 26 @ 36c " " 9 25 @ 35c " " 16 25 @ 35c " " 23 25 @ 35c " " 30 25 @ 35c " " Apr. 6 25 @ 35c " " 13 25 @ 35c " " 20 25 @ 35c " " 27 25 @ 35c " " May 4 25 @ 35c " " 11 25 @ 35c " " FRESH DRESSED GEESE 1920 Nov. 17 34 @ 43c per lb. 24 30 @ 38c " " Dec. 1 25 @ 36c " " 8 30 @ 36c " " 15 30 @ 39c " " 22 30 @ 40c " " 29 30 @ 40c " " 1921 Jan. 5 30 @ 37c " " 12 25 @ 35c " " 19 25 @ 34c " " 26 25 @ 34c " " FRESH DRESSED GEESE 1921 Feb. 2 25 @ 34c per lb. 9 26 @ 36c " " 16 26 @ 36c " " 23 26 @ 36c " " Mar. 2 26 @ 36c " " 9 25 @ 35c " " 16 25 @ 35c " " 23 25 @ 35c " " LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT 1920 May 5 18 @ 20c per lb. 12 22c " " 19 20 @ 22c " " 26 20 @ 22c " " June 2 20 @ 22c " " 9 20 @ 22c " " 16 20 @ 22c " " 23 18 @ 20c " " 30 18 @ 20c " " July 7 18 @ 20c " " 14 18 @ 20c " " 28 25c " " Aug 4 25c " " 18 25c " " 25 25c " " Sept. 1 25c " " 22 26c " " 29 26c " " Oct. 20 25 @ 28c " " 27 27 @ 30c " " Nov. 3 32c " " 10 32c " " 17 32c " " 24 28 @ 32c " " Dec. 1 28 @ 30c " " 8 30 @ 34c " " 15 28 @ 35c " " 22 25 @ 30c " " 29 27 @ 32c " " 1921 Jan. 5 26 @ 32c " " 12 26 @ 30c " " 19 25 @ 29c " " 26 25 @ 29c " " Feb. 2 27 @ 33c " " 9 28 @ 33c " " 16 26 @ 32c " " 23 25 @ 26c " " LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT 1921 Mar. 2 25c per lb. 9 18 @ 20c " " 16 18 @ 20c " " 23 20c " " 30 20c " " Apr. 6 15 @ 18c " " 13 15 @ 18c " " 20 15 @ 18c " " 27 15 @ 18c " " May 4 14 @ 16c " " 11 14 @ 16c " " 18 14 @ 16c " " 25 14 @ 16c " " June 1 14 @ 16c " " LIVE GEESE--VIA EXPRESS 1920 Nov. 24 30 @ 33c per lb. Dec. 1 30 @ 32c " " 8 32 @ 35c " " 15 30c " " 22 30c " " 29 28 @ 35c " " 1921 Jan. 5 29 @ 38c " " 12 28 @ 38c " " 19 28 @ 36c " " 26 27 @ 37c " " Feb. 9 28 @ 40c " " 16 28 @ 42c " " 23 26 @ 28c " " Mar. 2 25 @ 28c " " 9 20 @ 23c " " 16 18 @ 22c " " 23 18 @ 22c " " 30 20 @ 23c " " Apr. 6 17 @ 20c " " 13 17 @ 20c " " 20 17 @ 21c " " 27 16 @ 20c " " May 4 15 @ 18c " " 11 15 @ 18c " " 18 15 @ 18c " " 25 15 @ 18c " " _Prejudice Against Roast Goose._ There exists on the part of some persons a prejudice against goose on the grounds that it is too greasy a dish. When improperly cooked, goose will prove to be too greasy to suit many fastidious palates but this condition is not so much the fault of the fowl as it is of the method of preparation and cooking. When dressed if the goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat, as it usually does and should, a large part of this should be removed. This fat when tried out is highly esteemed by many cooks and by other persons is treasured as an efficacious treatment for croup in children. Also while the goose is roasting, a part of the fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be removed. Treated in this way one need have no fear that the roast goose will prove too greasy but instead one will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses. _Methods of Fattening Geese for Market._ Many geese are sent to market without any special treatment or effort to fatten them, being taken right off pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at best with only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them by feeding a little corn or some other grain for a short period. When a real effort is made to fatten geese for the market it is generally done in one of three ways. First is pen fattening which is the method best adapted to small lots of geese on the average farm. Second is by noodling which is only attempted in sections where the goose raisers are somewhat of specialists and where the effort is made to turn out geese of superior quality. Third is fattening in large flocks which is practiced only by a very limited number of farmers in scattered sections who take the unfattened geese raised on the general farms and finish them for market. _Pen Fattening._ For this purpose the geese are put in pens large enough to hold them comfortably but without any yards. Not over 20 to 25 geese should be penned together for this purpose. To get the best results the geese should be kept as quiet as possible and to accomplish this the pens are partly darkened and the geese disturbed only at feeding time. The geese are fed three times daily; in the morning, at noon and at night, being given all they will clean up. One feed should consist of a moist mash composed of one part shorts and two parts corn meal. This mash should not be sloppy. The other two feeds consist mainly of corn with some oats or barley. Some roughage such as vegetables or hay should also be supplied. The pens should be deeply bedded with good oat straw. The geese will eat a considerable amount of this which thus helps to supply the roughage which they need. The straw also, of course, serves to keep the pen and the birds clean. A plentiful supply of good drinking water is also necessary. The usual period of fattening is three to five weeks and a gain of from 4 to 6 pounds per bird can be secured. This method of fattening is commonly used by goose raisers in Wisconsin and the geese from this state are noted for their fine quality. A less intensive form of pen fattening is often used by farmers where a small yard is provided in addition to the pen itself and where no effort is made to darken the pen. If no other means for fattening are available, a small yard can be built, a few boards arranged for a shelter at one end and the birds fed in this enclosure as described above. _Noodling Geese._ Noodling geese is a method of hand feeding which has for its purpose the production of the best fattened geese. It is not employed to any extent except in the section about Watertown, Wisconsin, where the farmers specialize to some extent on goose fattening. It is a method requiring long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably carried on unless a special price can be obtained for the product. In noodling geese, 8 or 10 geese are placed in a pen about 8 by 12 feet which is heavily bedded with straw. A partition extends halfway across the pen and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they are fed. Young ganders and any old ganders or geese which are to be marketed are used for noodling. The pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed only at feeding time. The first feed is given at 5 o'clock in the morning and five feeds are given daily at about 4 hour intervals, the last feed coming at 11 p. m. However, when the geese are first put on feed they are noodled only 3 times a day this being gradually increased to 5 times. The feeder sits on a box or stool in a corner of the pen, grasps each goose in turn holding it between his legs to keep it from struggling as he stuffs it with noodles. The goose is handled by its neck, never by its legs which are easily injured, and is held with its back toward the feeder. The feeder usually wears gloves to protect his hands from the severe bites which the birds will inflict. The feeder must also handle the birds as carefully as possible, especially as killing time approaches for the flesh bruises easily and the discolored patches spoil the appearance of the dressed goose. The feeder at the start usually gives each goose from 3 to 5 noodles, gradually increasing this to 6 or 7 noodles if the birds will stand it, the number of noodles fed depending upon the size and condition of each bird, the feeder being obliged to use his judgment in this matter. In general if any feed can be felt in the craw, no noodles are given until the next feeding time. Failure to observe this is likely to cause the bird to go off feed. If any geese are noticed which are off feed they should be taken out and marketed. The noodles are made of scalded corn meal, ground oats, ground barley and ground wheat or wheat flour, using equal parts of each. This material is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would bread and is then put through a sausage stuffer. The product as it comes from the stuffer is cut into noodles about 2½ or 3 inches long and these are boiled for 10 or 15 minutes or until they float. A wash boiler with a wire rack forming a false bottom about 1½ inches above the boiler bottom is used for this purpose. When cooked the noodles are dipped in cold water and then rolled in flour to keep them from sticking together. A supply of noodles is made which will last for 2 or 3 days' feeding. Just before feeding, hot water is poured over the noodles to make them warm and slippery. The mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles are put in, one at a time, and worked down by using the fingers on the outside of the neck. As each goose is fed it is placed on the other side of the partition until all in the pen have been fed. It is important that plenty of drinking water be kept before the geese. The feeding period where geese are noodled usually extends from 3 to 4 weeks. Gains of 6 to 10 pounds per bird can be secured and often an increased price of 10 to 15 cents a pound can be secured for such specially fattened geese. Noodled geese will average about 25 pounds and some individuals have been made to weigh nearly 40 pounds. One man can noodle from 50 to 100 geese but has to put in long hours. Noodled geese should be dressed where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would shrink badly if shipped alive. Fattening methods similar to the noodling described are used in parts of Europe for the production of the enlarged goose livers which are employed in making "patte de fois gras". Methods Used on Fattening Farms As previously mentioned, a few farmers make a specialty of buying the geese in their section of the country in the fall when it is too late for serious trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia, a disease similar to fowl cholera, and to fatten or finish them in large flocks for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Methods are employed in different sections which differ quite widely. On a farm in the Middle West the geese are collected from the general farms where they are produced in small flocks and brought to the farm where they are kept in flocks as large as 1,000 or even more, and are allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard. They are fattened for about a month. Corn on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the geese all the time and if they are running in a cornfield they eat the leaves off the corn stalks for roughage. Roughage is supplied if not available otherwise and straw, hay or vegetables are utilized for this purpose. No shelter is provided during mild weather, the geese getting such protection as they can from the trees or corn stalks. If the weather turns unusually severe, the geese are generally driven into sheds or barns. When fattened the geese are usually shipped to some large market alive. Several farms in the neighborhood of Boston make a specialty of finishing geese each fall, and the methods used are quite different from those described above. No geese are raised on these farms, the operation being confined to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing and dressing them for the market. Some of these goose fatteners also have stalls or stands in the Boston markets where they are enabled to dispose of their fattened geese to the best advantage. [Illustration: FIG. 55. Large flock of geese fattening in an orchard. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)] _Fatteners._ In previous years these fatteners depended largely upon the geese produced on the Rhode Island farms for their supply. In the past few years, however, the supply from this source has dwindled greatly and the bulk of the geese for fattening are now shipped from Prince Edward Island, Canada, in carload lots. Such summer geese as are now fattened still come from Rhode Island and are brought in by truck. The fattening season begins in September and lasts until Christmas. Some early goslings are bought in June but there is not as good a profit from the summer geese, the demand and prices being adversely affected by the supply of spring ducklings available at that time. Experience and good judgment will benefit the goose fattener greatly when purchasing his supply of geese for fattening. What he wants are goslings, not older geese, which have made a good growth and which have a large frame but which are in poor flesh rather than fat. Such geese will make more rapid and more profitable gains. When geese are bought for shipment by the carload from Prince Edward Island, they should be penned and fed at the point of shipment for 3 or 4 days before they are loaded in the cars, so as to put them in shape to stand the journey well. On the farms from which they come, the goslings are not fed much and in consequence are not in shape to stand shipment. _The Goslings_ which are secured from the farms for fattening are mainly common geese of no particular breed. Some pure bred geese are also obtained as are some first crosses between the pure breeds. A class of geese which is obtained in some numbers from Prince Edward Island and which is much desired is the so-called "Mongrel" goose. These are obtained by breeding a Wild or Canadian gander to geese of dark plumage similar to the Toulouse or African. The mongrel geese much resemble the wild gander in type and color and are in demand on the market because of their wild or gamy flavor. They bring about 10 cents per pound more than common geese. The market, however, is somewhat limited. These geese will not breed although the females will lay eggs. Where the wild gander is mated with light colored or white geese the offspring will have more or less light colored feathers and will not as closely resemble the wild parent and for this reason are not as desirable. _Shipping._ The geese are loaded into stock cars into which three separate decks are built to accommodate them. From 1200 to 1400 geese can be loaded into a car thus arranged. The journey usually takes about 5 or 6 days and some fatteners send a man along with the car to feed and water the geese 2 or 3 times during the trip. If a man does not accompany the car, buckets of corn should be placed in the car for feed and some potatoes should also be supplied as these will serve in place of drinking water. If the car is not subjected to unusual delay, the geese should come through in good shape, but if much delayed there may be 25 to 100 geese dead when the car arrives at its destination. When the car arrives at the end of its journey, the geese are unloaded and driven to the farm where they are turned into the fields together in a large flock. The fields in which they are thus kept should have a supply of growing green feed or grass and a good supply of fresh drinking water. They are kept here until they are wanted for the fattening pens which may be from a week to 20 days after their arrival at the farm. While in this large supply flock they are fed on corn and grass which they can get for themselves. _Summer Geese_ to be fattened are placed only about 50 in a pen or enclosure; and are provided with a few boards set on posts to protect them from the hot sun. The later geese are fattened in lots of 3 or 4 hundred or even more, depending upon how many pickers are available to be kept busy. It is for this reason also that the geese are not all put on the fattening ration at the same time, but are started at intervals so as to have a continuous supply coming along to keep the pickers busy. The geese not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in the fields to grow and develop until they are needed. The enclosures in which the geese are penned for fattening are small lots or fields enclosed by stone walls or board fences 2½ to 3 feet high. These lots should be dry and well-drained, a location on a side hill being good for this purpose. The fattening lots must be kept clean and stagnant water must not be allowed to stand in the lots as this is likely to cause sickness, especially diarrhoea. These yards should be plowed up each spring and planted to oats, corn or some other growing crop to sweeten them. No houses or shelters are provided for these geese but some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a measure of protection from the wind. _Feeding._ When the geese are placed in the fattening lots, some fatteners prefer to fast the geese for from 3 to 5 days, giving them no feed but plenty of water to drink. This gives them a good appetite and puts them in good shape for fattening. The geese are fed three times a day, in the morning, at noon and at night. The morning and night feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed fed in troughs; while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on the ground. The use of one feed of corn a day is supposed to check any tendency toward diarrhoea. In very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed feed at noon and the corn at night. At first the geese are not given all they will eat but are worked up gradually, increasing the amount each day until they are getting all they want. As a rule the geese will drop back a little in feed consumption after they reach the point where they get all they want and from this time on, the feeding must be very carefully watched to see that they are not given so much that they will leave some to sour which would cause diarrhoea. The morning and noon feeds are lighter, the heaviest feed being given at night. The bird's appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best to make the rounds twice in feeding to make sure that they have enough and that none is left. If any is left it must be gathered up and carried away. No provision is made for furnishing the fattening geese with green feed or roughage. The practice with respect to drinking water varies. Some fatteners keep a supply before the birds in troughs which must be washed out each day to keep them clean. Others furnish no water except that used in mixing up the feed. _Corn Meal_ is the principal ingredient of the fattening mixture. To a sack of corn meal is added 10% beef scrap and five good shovels of grit or medium sized gravel. In addition some fatteners add 10% of flour to bind the mixture together. This material should be thoroughly mixed up in a dry state as a better mix can be obtained in this way. It is then mixed up with water, the practice here varying. Some fatteners mix in a trough with boiling water a short time before feeding, while others mix it with cold water letting it soak over night and adding more water in the morning if it is too dry at that time. It should be mixed until it can be shoveled readily but should be quite solid, never in a sloppy condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea. A little salt may be added, if desired, as an appetizer. While corn meal is generally used, hominy may take its place. After the geese are started on the fattening ration, this must be given throughout the fattening period. Changing to some other feed will throw the geese off feed and cause a loss. _Feeding._ When the mixed feed is ready it is shoveled into boxes or barrels on a low wagon and driven to the fattening lots where it is shoveled into the troughs for the geese. Ordinary V-shaped troughs are favored instead of flat troughs as the latter afford hiding places for rats which may cause damage in addition to the feed which they eat by frightening the geese. Geese are easily frightened and must therefore be handled rather carefully and gently as a severe fright will interfere with the gains they will make. Some fatteners provide electric lights where the geese rest at night so that they can see and will not be so likely to become frightened. When the geese are ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing house and into a pen where they may be easily caught. Each goose as caught is examined to see whether it is in condition for killing. If it is not it is put back with a later lot for additional fattening. Good condition in a goose is judged by its weight when handled and also by the condition of its breast and the fat on its back. A good place to test geese for fat is on the side of the body just below the point where the wing joins the body. If fat can be seized between the thumb and finger at that point, the goose is in good condition. _Dry Picking._ All fattened geese for the Boston market are dry picked. The goose is held between the knees of the picker with the wings held fast against the sides of the body. The head is grasped by the left hand, the mouth forced open and the veins in the back of the throat just beyond the skull severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding the bird. If the bird is to be stuck, which is not always done, the point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the brain. The legs are then seized in the left hand, together with the ends of the wings to prevent the goose from struggling and the goose is struck once or twice sharply on the back of the head with a club held in the right hand. This is for the purpose of stunning the bird. The geese may also be bled by sticking the knife through the neck from the outside just below the head. The picker then takes his seat beside the feather box, holding the goose on his lap with the head held between his knee and the outside of the box. He proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible, removing all the feathers except the main wing feathers or those of the first joint of the wing and the feathers of the neck half way from the head to the body. All the soft body feathers are thrown in the box and saved. The coarser feathers are thrown on the floor. The down is removed by rubbing the moistened hand over the skin. To save the hands, ordinary rubber heels dipped in water are often used. Sharp knives are also used to shave off the pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down not removed by rubbing. The dry picked goose presents a much better appearance than a scalded goose and the feathers are more valuable. The skin of a dry picked bird is not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down. _The Value of the Feathers_ is sufficient to pay for the cost of the picking or perhaps a little more. The cost of picking in the fall of 1920 ranged from 15 to 20 cents per goose where the picker was boarded and 24 cents without board. A good man can pick about 40 geese in a day. Women are not employed for this work as the geese are too big and too strong for them to handle. After the geese are picked, the blood is washed from the head and the feet washed if that is necessary. They are then thrown into barrels of cold water to cool and must be left there until the body heat is entirely removed. The wings are tied in place by means of a string or tape tied around the body and wings and the legs may also be crossed over the back and tied. The geese when ready for market are either shipped in by express or are taken in by automobile truck. _Gain in Weight._ In fattening according to the methods described above a gain in weight is secured of from 6 to 8 pounds per goose. This does not represent the total gain in value, however, for the fattened geese will bring more per pound as a result of their finished condition. The fattened geese when ready for market will weigh from 12 to 20 pounds. Weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese showed an average weight of 14 pounds. On December 2, 1920, fattened geese from these farms were bringing 42 cents per pound on the Boston market while the mongrel geese were worth 50 cents or a little better. The question may arise as to the size of farm necessary to carry on a business of this sort. Using the methods employed about Boston a farm of 30 acres would be sufficient to handle 20,000 geese in a season. In selecting a farm for such a purpose, a location should be chosen where there are no close neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is offensive to most persons. _Selling Geese Alive._ Most farmers who raise only a few geese ship them alive, either sending them to some commission house or selling them to someone who makes a specialty of fattening. Such geese are often in poor condition and bring the lowest quotation. Large coops similar to those used for turkeys should be used in shipping geese. _Killing._ Where geese are killed on the farm for shipment to market they are usually hung up by means of a cord about the legs. When geese are to be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are first severed with a long bladed knife such as used for killing turkeys to cause good bleeding and the point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing the stick which serves to make the feathers come out more easily as with other classes of poultry. Since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese, they are usually scalded or steamed and where this is done, the stick is not made but after the veins in the throat are cut, the goose is stunned by a blow on the back of the head with a short club. A blood can or weight is then hooked through the lower bill which keeps the neck straightened out and prevents the blood from being thrown about the room or on the birds. The birds are allowed to hang until they are dead and thoroughly bled out. _Picking._ When geese are dry picked, the feathers are removed just as soon as the birds are stuck for the longer the delay the harder the feathers pull. The wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers of the neck half-way to the head. The soft pin feathers and fine down may be removed by shaving the skin or rubbing the body with moistened hands will partially remove them. Usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking. For steaming a wash boiler three-quarters full of boiling water and with a burlap sack tightly stretched over its top can be used. The goose is simply laid on the sack and the steam coming through the burlap steams the feathers and makes them easy to remove. The breast should be steamed first, then the back and then each side. Two or three minutes will be time enough to complete the steaming. The feathers are steamed until they pull out easily. The goose must be kept moving to prevent the flesh from becoming scalded and since the breast is especially tender it is usual to lay the head under the breast to prevent the latter from scalding. After steaming the body feathers are removed and the bird is then singed over a flame furnished by alcohol burned in shallow tin plates, in order to remove the down. The down may also be removed by sprinkling powdered rosin over the goose's body which is then dipped into hot water. The hot water melts the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and rosin can then be rubbed off together. Geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in hot water and then wrapping tightly in burlap or some other cloth. They are kept wrapped for about five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly through the feathers which can then be plucked easily. Exactly the same methods can and often are employed in dressing geese as are used with ducks. The reader is therefore also referred to the material in Chapter VII. There seems to be no great insistence on the part of most markets for dry picked geese. Some will pay slightly more for the dry picked birds but others make no difference. _Packing for Shipment._ After picking, the geese are washed and then placed in cold water to cool. Ice water is best for this purpose and is essential in warm weather. The carcasses must be allowed to remain in the water until they are thoroughly cooled, which will take at least one to two hours. If any animal heat is left in the bodies, they will spoil very quickly. Often the carcasses are dipped in hot water, before being thrown in the cold water, to plump them. After they are thoroughly cooled, the geese are packed in barrels for shipping. If the weather is cool they may be packed in well ventilated barrels without ice, but if the weather is warm, cracked ice must be used in packing, proceeding in the same way as when packing ducks as described on page 109. It is always risky to pack without ice. _Saving the Feathers._ Goose feathers are valuable and should therefore be saved when the geese are plucked. The soft body feathers and the coarser feathers should be kept separate. The feathers should be cured by spreading them out in a thin layer on the floor of a loft or room, stirring them up occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out, when they can be sacked and sold. Failure to dry the feathers thoroughly will result in their heating and molding with the result that they will arrive at their destination in bad shape and will be worth less money. The soft body feathers of geese are practically all used in making beds and pillows while the quills are sometimes utilized in making toothpicks and cigarette holders. Prices for goose feathers in June 1921 were as follows: Pure White dry picked 75c per lb. Good average white " " 65c " " Largely gray " " 55c " " Largely gray scalded 40c " " Long goose quills 5c " " These prices were for good dry feathers. Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers In the days of feather beds and home-made pillows the practice of plucking live geese for their feathers was very common. Now, however, with the demand for goose feathers less and with the opinion of some breeders that plucking geese is both cruel and injurious, the practice seems to be decreasing. Many goose raisers in the South and a less number in the Middle West and North however still pluck the feathers from the live geese prior to the time of moulting. The frequency with which the picking is done varies greatly, some picking as often as every six weeks during the spring, summer and early fall while others pick twice, once in the spring and once in the fall, or once in the spring only. Geese should never be picked during the late fall or winter when the weather is cold or during the breeding season. Both young and old geese are plucked and the average yearly production of feathers per goose is about one pound. When the quills of the feathers are dry and do not contain any blood, the feathers are ripe for picking. In plucking, a stocking is placed over the head of the goose and the goose held on the lap and between the legs during the process. An assistant to hold the goose during the plucking simplifies the work greatly. In plucking, part of the soft feathers of the breast, sides, abdomen and back are taken but these sections should not be plucked clean. It is especially important that enough short feathers be left to support the wings. After plucking, the feathers must be cured before they are shipped. This may be done by spreading them out on a floor as described for the feathers taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed loosely in burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or loft. Hanging in this way and in the loosely woven sacks, they are subjected to a good circulation of air and will dry out without heating. Sacks of feathers should not be piled or packed closely together, on top of one another or even be allowed to lie on the floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they are almost sure to heat and mold. INDEX A Absence of crest in Crested White Duck, 34 African Goose, 156, 157 Age of breeding ducks, 55, 123 breeding geese, 152 duck eggs for hatching, 72 ducklings for market, 96, 102, 136 green geese, 187 Muscovy duck, 31 Amount of feed per pound of market duck, 95 for noodled geese, 197 Amount of land for duck plant, 46 for goose fattening farm, 208 Arrangement of cars for shipping live geese, 202 Arrangement of duck plant, 45 Artificial water yards for ducks, 62 Aylesbury duck, 23 B Baby ducks, selling, 78 Bantam ducks, 27, 29 Bean, definition of, 13 black in, 22, 23, 35 Bedding brood coop for goslings, 180 duck breeding houses, 60 duck brooder houses, 87 goose breeding houses, 168 pens for fattening geese, 195 Beef scrap, feeding, to ducks, 64 Bib in Blue Swedish ducks, 33 Buff ducks, 36 Bill, definition of, 13 black in, of Black East India, 29 Black East India duck, 29 Black in bean of Aylesbury, 23 Crested White Duck, 35 Pekin, 22 Black bill in Black East India drakes, 29 Black head, greenish, in Buff drakes, 35 head, in Fawn and White Runners, 37 in face of Muscovy, 32 plumage of Blue Swedish, 33 on head of young White Muscovy, 32 tail coverts, greenish, in Fawn and White Runners, 37 Bleeding ducks, 105 geese, 206, 209 Blue cast in Buff ducks, 36 Muscovy, 32 Swedish ducks, 33 wing bar in Buff ducks, 35 Body shape in breeding ducks, selecting for, 19 Braining geese, 206, 209 Breaking up goose matings, 154 broody geese, 175 Breast-bone as index of age in ducks, 56 Breeding drakes, securing, 58 ducks, opportunity to produce, 6 ducks, prices for, 7 season for ducks, 124 Breeds of ducks, 9 Aylesbury, 23 Blue Swedish, 33 broodiness of, 18 Buff, 35 Call, 27 Cayuga, 25 common or puddle, 9 Crested White, 34 East India, 29 egg, 11 egg production of, 15 Mallard, 10 Mandarin, 10 meat, 11 mule, 9 Muscovy, 29 ornamental, 11 Pekin, 21 popularity of, 14 Rouen, 23 Runner, 36 size of, 14 Wood, 10 Breeds of geese, 147 African, 156 Canadian, 159 Chinese, 158 common, 148 Egyptian, 160 Embden, 156 mongrel, 148 Sebastapol, 148 Toulouse, 155 Wild, 159 Brood coop for goslings, 179 Brooder capacity on duck plants, 47 houses for ducklings, 80-90 Brooders for goslings, 180 Broodiness of ducks, 18 geese, 152 geese, breaking up, 175 Brooding ducklings, 80-90, 131 goslings, 178 by artificial means, 180 with geese, 179 with hens, 179 without artificial heat, 180 Brown Chinese goose, 158 Brownish color in Cayuga ducks, 26 Buff Ducks, 35 Button head in Call ducks, 28 Buying geese for fattening, 200 C Call ducks, 27 Canadian goose--see Wild Capacity of car for geese, 202 farm for fattening geese, 208 incubator for duck eggs, 130 Capital, invested, for duck plant, 53 working, for duck plant, 54 Care of duck eggs for hatching, 73, 128 goose eggs for hatching, 172 growing goslings, 181 hen sitting on goose eggs, 174 Carrying ducks, 39 geese, 162 Caruncles on face of Muscovy, 29 Cases, shipping, for duck eggs, 119, 137 Catching ducks, 39 geese, 162 Cayuga duck, 25 Celery seed, feeding, to fattening ducks, 93 Changing feed for fattening geese, 205 Chestnut colored head in Buff drakes, 35 Chilling of goslings by rain, 181 Chinese goose, 158 Chocolate colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32 Claret in breast of Rouen drakes, deficiency of, 24 Classification of breeds of ducks, 11 Cleaning brood coops for goslings, 179 duck breeding houses, 60 brooder houses, 87 yards, 61, 97 goose breeding houses, 168 Cleanliness of plumage as indication of health, 19 Color of duck eggs, 17 goose eggs, 152 Colored flights in Fawn and White Runners, 37 Penciled Runners, 38 Colored Muscovy, 31 Commercial duck farming, opportunity for, 4 distribution of, 42 Condition of breeding geese, 169 ducks ready to kill, 96 geese for fattening, 200 geese ready to kill, 206 Conditioning exhibition ducks, 38 Conditions for duck raising on the farm, 120 Confining goslings to yards, 181 Considerations, general, in making duck matings, 18-21 goose matings, 154 Consistency of feed for ducks, 65, 126, 133 fattening geese, 205 Construction of brooder houses for ducks, 82 Cooking geese to overcome greasiness, 194 Cooling duck carcasses, 108 eggs during incubation, 75, 131 Cooling goose carcasses, 207, 211 eggs during incubation, 175 Coop, growing, for goslings, 182 Cooperative feed buying, 101 marketing, 110 Copper colored head of Buff drakes, 36 Cost of picking ducks, 107 geese, 207 Creaminess in plumage of Aylesbury, 23 Pekin, 23 Crest, tendency toward, in the Pekin, 22 of Muscovy, 29 of Crested White, 34 Crested White duck, 34 Crippled ducks, 97, 104 Critical period with young ducks, 98 Crooked back in ducks, 19 in Runner ducks, 37 Crooked crest in Crested White, 34 Crooked tail in ducks, 19 Crossed feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22 Crossing African and Brown Chinese geese, 157 Curing duck feathers, 117 goose feathers, 211, 213 D Darkening pens for fattening geese, 195 for noodling geese, 196 Dewlap in Toulouse geese, 155 African geese, 157 Diarrhoea of ducklings, 99 of goslings, 185 Diseases of ducklings, 98-100 of goslings, 185 of mature ducks, 69 prevention of, 98 Dished bill in Rouen, 24 Distinguishing sex in ducks, 13, 135 in geese, 165 young from old ducks, 55 Distribution of duck raising, 3 Dogs a source of loss in ducks, 69 Double crest in Crested White ducks, 34 Down, removing, from market ducks, 108 from market geese, 207, 210 Drake, definition of, 12 adult, meaning of, 13 young, meaning of, 13 Drakerel, definition of, 13 Drinking dishes for ducklings, 86 for goslings, 183 Driving geese from railway to farm, 202 Drowning ducks, 31, 128, 135 Dry, keeping goslings, 181 Dry land duck farms, 44 Dry picking ducks, 107 geese, 206 Duck, definition of, 12 adult, meaning of, 13 young, meaning of, 13 Duck raising as a side line, 120 distribution of, 3 for egg production, 5 for ornamental purposes, 7 kinds of, 4 on the general farm, 5 opportunities for, 4, 120 Ducklet, definition of, 13 Duckling, meaning of, 12 Ducks, number of, in leading states, 3 in U. S., 3 value of, in U. S., 3 Dun colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32 E Egg class of ducks, 11 Egg production, duck raising for, 5 of breeds of ducks, 15 of breeds of geese, 150 of Pekins on commercial plants, 66 selection of breeders for, 21 Eggs, duck, color of, 17 for hatching, age of, 72 care of, 73, 128 frequency of setting, 72 packing and shipping, 40 prices of, 7 selection of, 73 washing, 130 marketing, 118 size of, 16 Eggs, goose, care of, for hatching, 172 color of, 152 size of, 151 washing for hatching, 172 Egyptian goose, 160 Electric lights for breeding ducks, 67 for duck plants, 51 for ducklings, 94 for fattening geese, 205 Embden goose, 156 Equipment of pens in duck brooders, 86 Examining geese to determine sex, 165 fattened geese for market condition, 206 Extent of duck industry, 3 goose industry, 141 Eye as indication of health in ducks, 19 F Faded gray in Brown Chinese geese, 158 Fading of color in Buff ducks, 35 Cayuga ducks, 27 Gray Call ducks, 28 Rouen ducks, 25 Fasting geese before fattening, 203 Fattening farms for geese, 199 Fattening geese, by noodling, 196 methods of, 194 on farms in the east, 200 on farms in the middle west, 199 on large fattening farms, 199-208 pen, 195 Fattening houses or sheds for ducklings, 48 Fattening summer geese, 202 Fawn and White Runner, 37 Fawn colored breasts in Rouen females, 25 Fawn on neck, too much, in Fawn and White Runner, 37 Feather eating in ducklings, 100 Feathered legs in ducks, 19 Feathers, saving duck, 117 saving geese, 207, 211 plucking from live geese, 212 Feed, cooperative buying of, 101 Feed cooker for ducks, 49 cutter for ducks, 49 last, for market ducklings, 103 mixer for ducks, 49 storage for duck plant, 49 troughs or trays for ducks, 66 troughs for fattening geese, 205 wagon for ducks, 65 for geese, 205 Feeding breeding ducks, 63 breeding geese, 169 Call ducks, 27 ducklings, 92, 132 fattening geese, 195, 196, 203 geese during shipment, 202 goslings, 183 growing and fattening ducklings, 92-94, 132 noodles to geese, 198 show ducks, 39 show geese, 161 supply geese on fattening farms, 202 track on duck plants, 51, 65 Fences for ducks, 52, 128 for fattening geese, 203 for geese, 168 Fertility of duck eggs, 20, 77 Fireless brooding goslings, 180 First feed for ducklings, 92 for goslings, 183 Fish, feeding, to ducks, 63, 92, 134 Fits in ducklings, 99 Flat breast in Aylesburys, 23 Flatiron shape in Call ducks, 28 Folded feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22 Foreign color in back of White Runner ducks, 37 Free range for ducks, 120 for geese, 168 for goslings, 182 Freezing of ducks to the ground, 62, 128 Frequency of plucking live geese for feathers, 212 of setting duck eggs, 72 Frightening breeding ducks, 67 ducklings, 94 fattening geese, 205 G Gains in weight made by ducklings, 94 secured in noodling geese, 198 secured in pen fattening geese, 195 secured on goose fattening farms, 208 Gander, definition of, 149 Gapes in ducklings, 99 Geese as weed destroyers, 145 Goose eggs for hatching, care of, 172 washing, 172 Goose fattening farms, 199 Goose raising, as a business for farm women, 144 as a side line, 141 distribution of, 141 on general farms, 142 opportunities for, 142 Goose septicemia, 186 Gosling, definition of, 149 Grading growing ducklings, 87 Grass yards for goslings, 182 Gray Call duck, 28 Gray, faded, in Brown Chinese geese, 158 in plumage of Blue Swedish ducks, 33 stippling on Penciled Runner drakes, 38 Greasing heads of goslings for lice, 178 Green bill in Aylesbury, 23 in Buff ducks, 36 in Crested White ducks, 35 in Pekin, 22 in White Runner, 37 Green ducks, 102 Green feed for breeding ducks, 64 for breeding geese, 169 for ducklings, 92, 133 for fattening geese, 204 for goslings, 183 Green geese, 149, 187 Grit for breeding geese, 170 for fattening geese, 204 for goslings, 183 Growing green feed for ducks, 64 Growth of goslings, rapidity of, 184 Gypsy face in Muscovy ducks, 32 H Handling ducks, 39 geese, 162 geese during noodling, 197 Hatches of duck eggs, 78 Hatching duck eggs with an incubator, 70, 130 with hens, 129 Hatching eggs, duck, packing and shipping, 40 Hatching goose eggs with chicken hens, 173 with geese, 174 with incubators, 175 Health, selection of breeding ducks for, 19 indications of, in ducks, 19 Heating apparatus for duck brooder house, 83 Heavy bottoms in Runner ducks, 37 Hemorrhagic septicemia of geese, 186 Horse power required on a duck plant, 50 House capacity for breeding ducks, 46 for fattening ducks, 48 Houses for breeding ducks, 59 for breeding geese, 167 Hump back in ducks, 19 I Identification of ducks by toe punching, 12 Incubation, period of, for ducks, 47, 129 for geese, 173 Incubator capacity on duck plants, 47, 71 Incubator cellar, 70 Incubators, kinds of, for duck eggs, 70 Injury to ducks, 57, 62 to goslings, 182 Insect pests of ducks, 69 K Keel, deep, in Aylesbury, 23 in Call, 28 in Pekin, 22 in Rouen, 24 Killing ducks, 105 geese, 206, 209 house for duck plants, 50 Knob on head of African geese, 157 of Chinese geese, 158 of Muscovy drake, 29 L Labor required on duck plants, 52 in noodling geese, 198 Lameness of ducklings, 99 of goslings, 185 Land required for duck plants, 46 Laying ration for ducks, 126 for geese, 169 Laying season for ducks, 66, 124 for geese, 167 Lay-out of duck plant, 45 Length of time in brooder house for ducklings, 88 brooding necessary for goslings, 180 Lights for breeding ducks, 67 for ducklings, 94 for fattening geese, 205 Live ducks, shipping to market, 116 Live geese, shipping to market, 208 plucking for feathers, 212 Location of duck plant, 42 of goose fattening farm, 208 Lopped crest in White Crested ducks, 35 Loss in ducklings, 98 in geese during shipment, 202 Lost, goslings becoming, 182 Lots, fattening, for geese, 203 M Making a start in duck raising, 121 Making new goose matings, 154 Mallard duck, 10 summer plumage of males, 25 Mandarin duck, 10 Marketing duck eggs, 118, 136 ducks, 102, 135 Markets for geese, 187 Marking ducklings, 12 goslings, 153 Mating ducks, general considerations in, 18 geese, general considerations in, 154 Meat class of ducks, 11 Mixing feed for ducks, 65 for fattening geese, 204 Moisture for duck eggs during incubation, 76, 131 for goose eggs during incubation, 176 Molt of ducklings as indication of market condition, 102 Mongrel goose, 148, 201 Mortality of breeding ducks, 69 of geese during shipment, 202 Mosquito larvae, destruction of, by ducks, 8 Mule ducks, 9 Muscovy duck, 29 N Narrow shoulders in Call ducks, 28 in Pekin ducks, 22 Nest, preparing the, for hatching goose eggs, 173 Nomenclature of ducks, 12 of geese, 149 Noodles, making, for fattening geese, 197 Noodling geese, 196 Number of breeding ducks required, 46 of ducklings marketed per breeding duck, 46 of ducklings to a pen, 85, 90 of ducks in leading states, 3 of ducks in U. S., 3 of ducks to a drake, 57 of geese carried on fattening farms, 208 of geese in leading states, 141 of geese in U. S., 141 of geese noodled by one man, 198 of geese to the acre, 164 of times ducklings are fed, 92 geese are fed on fattening farms, 203 noodled geese are fed, 197 pen fattened geese are fed, 195 O Objections to duck farms, 43 to geese, 145 to goose fattening farms, 208 Odor from goose fattening farms, 208 Opportunities for duck raising, 4 for goose raising, 142 Ornamental purposes, ducks for, 7 class of ducks, 11 Output of duck plants, 42, 45 Oyster shell, feeding, to breeding ducks, 66 to breeding geese, 170 P Packing dressed ducks for shipment, 109 geese for shipment, 211 Packing duck hatching eggs, 40 goose hatching eggs, 162 Pasturing geese, 164 goslings, 183 Patte de fois gras, 199 Pay for picking ducks, 107 geese, 207 Pekin duck, 21 Pekin duck on commercial plants, 42 Penciled Runner duck, 37 Penciling in Buff ducks, 35 Fawn and White Runner females, 37 Rouen females, 25 Penciling, lack of, in Penciled Runner females, 38 Pen fattening geese, 195 Pens for fattening geese, 203 for noodling geese, 196 in brooder house for ducklings 84, 89 Percent hatch of duck eggs set, 78 loss in ducklings, 98 in goslings, 184 Period of incubation for duck eggs, 129 for goose eggs, 173 for Muscovy duck, 30 Period of feeding noodled geese, 198 pen fattening geese, 195 Picking house for duck plants, 50 Picking market ducks, 106 market geese, 206 Pin feathers, removing, from ducks, 107 Pinioning ducks, 28 wild geese, 159 Pneumonia in ducklings, 99 Popularity of breeds of ducks, 14 of geese, 150 Pounds feed to produce pound of market duck, 95 Prejudice against roast goose, 194 Preparing ducks for the show, 38 geese for the show, 161 Prevention of disease in ducklings, 98 Prices of duck breeding stock and eggs, 7 of duck feathers, 118 of goose breeding stock and eggs, 163 of goose feathers, 212 of market ducks, 110 of market geese, 188 of mongrel geese, 208 of specially fattened geese, 208 Prince Edward Island geese, 201 Production, yearly, of feathers from live geese, 213 Profits from duck farming, 54 Protecting feed of geese from other stock, 171 Puddle ducks, 9 Pulling broken feathers in ducks, 38 in geese, 161 Purple barring in Black East India ducks, 29 Purple rump in Rouen drake, 24 Q Quilling in ducklings, 100 R Range for fattening geese, 199 for geese, 164 Rapidity of growth of goslings, 184 Rations for breeding ducks, 63, 125 for breeding geese, 169 for ducklings, 92, 132 for fattening geese, 195, 197, 203 for goslings, 183 Rats as source of loss in ducklings, 101 Red in plumage of Blue Swedish, 33 Removing baby ducks to the brooder, 80 newly hatched goslings from the nest, 176 Reviving goslings chilled by rain, 181 Rhode Island geese, 200 Ribbon or wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call, 28 Ring, white, in Buff ducks, 36 in Rouen, 24 width of, in Rouen, 24 Roach back in ducks, 19 Rouen duck, 23 Roughage for fattening geese, 195, 199, 204 in rations for geese, 170 Round head in Runner ducks, 37 Runner duck, 36 S Sand, feeding, to breeding ducks, 66 to ducklings, 86, 93 to goslings, 183 Scalding market ducks, 105 geese, 209 Sebastapol goose, 148 Selection of breeding ducks, 19 on commercial plants, 56 on general farms, 134 Selection of breeding geese, 154 Selection of duck eggs for hatching, 73 Selecting the breed of ducks, 122 Separating growing goslings from old stock, 182 Septicemia, goose or hemorrhagic, 186 Sex in ducks, distinguishing, 13, 135 in geese, distinguishing, 165 Shade for breeding ducks, 60 for fattening summer geese, 202 for goslings, 182 for growing ducklings, 92 Sharp backs in Runner ducks, 37 Shaving market geese to remove down, 209 Shelter for fattening geese, 199, 203 for growing goslings, 181 Shipping dressed ducks, 109 dressed geese, 208 hatching eggs, duck, 40 geese, 162 Shipping live geese for fattening, 201 Short legs in Runner ducks, 37 Shrinking in shipping ducks alive, 116 Size of breeding ducks, 19 of breeds of ducks, 14 of breeds of geese, 150 of duck eggs, 16 of duck farms, 42, 44, 46 of flocks of breeding ducks, 46 of flocks of ducks on general farms, 121 of flocks of fattening geese, 195, 196, 199, 202 of goose eggs, 151 of male and female Muscovy, 30 of mating in ducks, 20, 123 of mating in geese, 152 of sitting of duck eggs, 7, 129 of sitting of goose eggs, 163, 174 Slate on backs of young Embden geese, 156 of young White Chinese geese, 159 Smooth head in Muscovy duck, 29 Sore eyes in ducklings, 100 Sorting growing ducklings, 87 market ducklings, 104 Split crest in Crested White ducks, 34 Steaming ducks for picking, 107 geese for picking, 210 Sticking or braining geese, 206, 209 Stippling, gray, on Penciled Runner ducks, 38 Stunning geese, 206, 209 Summer geese, fattening, 202 Summer plumage of Rouen drakes, 25 Swimming, preventing goslings from, 181 Temperatures, incubation, for duck eggs, 74 for goose eggs, 175 Temperatures, brooder, for ducklings, 81 for goslings, 180 Testing duck eggs, 74, 130 table for candling duck eggs, 75 Time of feeding breeding ducks, 63, 126 geese on fattening farms, 203 noodled geese, 196 pen fattened geese, 195 Time of first feed for ducklings, 92 for goslings, 183 Time of laying with ducks, 67 with geese, 167 Time of marketing breeding ducks, 68 of plucking live geese for feathers, 212 to purchase breeding ducks, 121 breeding geese, 166 Toulouse goose, defects in, 155 Tray, feed, for ducks, 66 Triple crest in Crested White ducks, 34 Trough, feed, for ducks, 66 Turning duck eggs during incubation, 75 goose eggs during incubation, 174, 175 Twisted wings in ducks, 19 U Uses for duck feathers, 118 for goose feathers, 212 V Value of duck feathers, 117 of ducks in the U. S., 8 of goose feathers, 207 Vegetables, feeding, to ducks, 63 Ventilation for goslings, 179 of brooder houses, 88 of incubator cellars, 71 of incubators when hatching, 77 Vigor, selection of breeding ducks for, 19 W Washing duck eggs for hatching, 130 goose eggs for hatching, 172 show ducks, 39 show geese, 162 Water for breeding ducks, 61, 127 for breeding geese, 165 for ducklings, 96, 135 for fattening geese, 195, 198, 204 for geese during shipment, 202 for goslings, 183 Water site for duck plants, 42 Water supply for duck plants, 52 Water yards for breeding ducks, 61 for growing and fattening ducklings, 96, 135 Weed destruction by geese, 96, 103 Weight of ducklings when ready for market, 96, 103 of geese from fattening farms, 208 of goslings when ready for market, 185 of green geese, 184, 187 of noodled geese, 198 Weights of Black East India ducks, 14 of Call ducks, 14 of duck eggs, 14 of goose eggs, 151 of Mallard ducks, 10 of standard breeds of ducks, 14 of standard breeds of geese, 150 White around eyes of Blue Swedish, 34 of Cayuga, 26 White bib in Blue Swedish, 33 in Buff ducks, 36 White Call duck, description of, 28 White Chinese goose, 159 White in breast of Black East India, 29 of Cayuga, 26 White in fluff of Rouen drake, 24 White in wings of African geese, 157 of Blue Swedish ducks, 33 of Brown Chinese geese, 159 of Buff ducks, 35 of Gray Call ducks, 28 of Rouen ducks, 24 of Toulouse geese, 156 White Muscovy duck, description of, 32 black on head of young, 32 White on head of Colored Muscovy, 32 White on neck of Cayuga, 26 White Runner duck, 37 Wild or Canadian goose, 159 Windpipe as indication of age in ducks, 56 Wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call females, 28 Wood duck, 10 Y Yards for breeding ducks, 58, 128 for breeding geese, 168 for fattening ducklings, 91 for fattening geese, 203 for goslings, 181 Yellow bills in Blue Swedish, 34 in Rouen females, 25 Yellow, loss of, legs and bills of Pekin with laying, 56 Yellow on knob of African geese, 157 of Brown Chinese geese, 158 of White Chinese geese, 159 Yield of feathers from live geese, 213 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Apart from minor changes to formatting, table alignment and punctuation, the only changes made to the text from the original are as follows: Preface (2nd page): "minumum" changed to "minimum" (... with the minimum of initial investment and of labor.) "Sebastapool" changed to "Sebastapol" in List of Illustrations (Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose) Figure 50 caption, and twice in the index. This is consistent with the use of "Sebastapol" in the text. Page 20: "neccessary" changed to "necessary" (... it becomes neccessary to mate a smaller number of females ...). Page 30: missing page reference added (See Page 14). Page 72: comma deleted after "Of" (Of course, eggs sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity ...). Fig 28 caption: "yords" changed to "yards" (Long brooder house and yards with feeding track.) Page 107: duplicate word "the" deleted (... hung in a steam box with the heads outside ...) Page 131: "chickens" changed to "chicken" (Ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of chicken hens.) Page 136: missing page reference added (... in accordance with the directions given on page 106). Page 137: missing page reference added (See page 119). Page 141: "1920" changed to "1910" (The census figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 ...) Page 145: "in" changed to "is" (An objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for other stock.) Page 154: "Ameriacn" changed to "American" (... the American Standard of Perfection.) Page 155 Footnote: "standard" changed to initial upper case "Standard" (American Standard of Perfection). Page 163: missing page reference added (The same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page 137.) Page 165: "thoughout" changed to "throughout" (... green feed available throughout the summer and fall ...) Page 166: "penus" changed to "penis" (... the penis will protrude.) Page 182: "close" changed to "closed" (It should have a board floor and be capable of being closed ...) Page 194: "pleasanty" changed to "pleasantly" ( ...one will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.) Page 211: missing page reference added ( ... in the same way as when packing ducks as described on page 109.) Page 222 (Index): "stipling" changed to "stippling" (Gray stippling on Penciled Runner drakes). 
33830	----	FUR FARMING. [Illustration: SOME YOUNG BLACK AND SILVER FOX.] FUR FARMING A BOOK OF INFORMATION ABOUT FUR BEARING ANIMALS, ENCLOSURES, HABITS, CARE, ETC. _BY_ A. R. HARDING Published By A. R. HARDING PUBLISHING CO. Columbus, Ohio. Copyright, 1909 By A. R. HARDING PUB. CO. CONTENTS. CHAPTER. PAGE I. SUPPLY AND DEMAND 15 II. WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE 27 III. ENCLOSURES 38 IV. BOX TRAP TRAPPING 53 V. FOX RAISING 63 VI. SKUNK RAISING 83 VII. MINK RAISING 97 VIII. OPOSSUM RAISING 107 IX. MUSKRAT RAISING 115 X. RACCOON RAISING 129 XI. THE BEAVER AND OTTER 137 XII. KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING 146 XIII. DEER FARMING 152 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Some Young Black and Silver Fox Frontispiece Enclosure in Thick Woods 32 Corner of Enclosure 39 Fence with Wire Turned in at Top 41 Fence Showing Sheet Tin 43 Plan for Combined Enclosures 46 Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive 55 Box Trap with Swing Gate 58 Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive 60 Another Box Trap 62 Northwestern Fox Skins 66 Map Showing Where Fox Farming is Feasible 72 Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards 74 Box Shelter for Female and Young 75 Corner of Fox Yard 77 Fox Yard, Showing Outer Fence 78 Yards of a Maine Fox Farm 81 Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm 90 Mink Enclosure in Detail 103 Ideal Location for an Opossum Farm 112 Fur Farm Near a Farmhouse 117 Muskrat House in a Marsh 122 Barrel Shelter for Female and Young 134 Fur Farm on Open Ground 135 Elk in Enclosure 163 Tame Deer Eating Watermelon 178 [Illustration: [G. R. Harding.]] INTRODUCTION. Ever since Columbus discovered America, furs have been an important article of commerce, but at the rate of the catch during recent years, the supply drawn from the natural sources--forest, field and stream--will soon prove inadequate if not entirely depleted in some species. Less than 30 years ago, there were countless thousands of Buffalo upon the Western Plains. Where are they today? In the 70's and early 80's they were slain by tens of thousands by hide and robe hunters. Does or does not such a condition face some of the American fur bearing animals at the present time? Many hunters and trappers must think that the supply will not long be equal to the demand, judging from the hundreds of letters written the Editor of HUNTER-TRADER-TRAPPER, asking information about raising fur bearing animals. This work has been hastily gotten out to meet this demand, yet the sources of information from which the work has been gathered, are authentic. Much of the habits, nature, etc., of the various animals has been furnished by Mr. E. Kreps, a trapper of wide experience. Facts have also been furnished by those that have to a certain extent followed "Fur Farming" and as well some information has been added from the United States Government Bulletins. A. R. HARDING. Columbus, Ohio, April 1, 1909. FUR FARMING. CHAPTER 1. SUPPLY AND DEMAND. For years there has been a belief that the supply of fur-bearing animals would soon be inadequate to the demand. This belief is well founded and is apparent when the fact is known that the natural haunts and homes of the fur-producing animals are becoming less each year. The draining of swamps and marshes is destroying the homes and breeding places of muskrat and to a certain extent coon and mink. The saw mill and clearing of the land is rapidly lessening the natural resorts of coon, bear, wild cat and opossum in the South and Central States, while in the North, marten, fisher and lynx are being deprived of their natural homes. Beaver and otter do not like civilization and leave on signs of man and his works. This is especially true of beaver; otter linger in waters fringed with timber longer even if settled. Some animals, it is true, do well in fairly thickly-settled sections. Among animals of this kind are red fox, skunk, mink and muskrat. Yet no fur bearer can hold its numbers against the ever-increasing number of trappers and the persistency with which they now seek the fur producers. North America furnishes a large per cent. of the furs of the world--foxes, mink, otter, beaver, skunk, marten, lynx, coon, opossum, muskrat, wolves, etc. Considerable quantities of fine furs are still secured in parts of Russia, in Europe and Siberia in Asia; Australia furnishes great quantities of opossum, while from parts of South America, the trade in chinchilla is large. Yet North America has been for centuries, the great fur-producing continent and now that trapping is being pressed harder than ever and the natural haunts of the animals are becoming less each year, the question is,--where will the future supply come from? In this connection the following article on The Fur Markets is reproduced from the April issue of _The Hunter-Trader-Trapper_: The Spring or March London Sales began March 22 and ended April 2. During that time American Raw Furs were offered by Hudson's Bay Company; C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt. In face of the fact that prices on some articles have advanced so materially that American manufacturers have bought sparingly, the outcome of the sales was awaited with much interest by the trade. A year ago in giving the quantity of goods offered by the Hudson's Bay Company, this magazine said: "The quantity seems to be decreasing as the offering this year is less than 1907, and 1907 less than 1906." The offerings this year are still less than 1908, and for ready comparison the Hudson's Bay Company offerings at the March Sales for three years are given: 1909 1908 1907 Otter 5,341 4,968 6,933 Fisher 2,671 3,224 3,228 Cross Fox 1,445 2,678 4,490 Red Fox 2,987 6,598 10,200 Silver Fox 344 526 896 Blue Fox 14 63 88 White Fox 2,058 6,703 11,409 Marten 21,577 29,808 43,798 Mink 10,966 13,091 32,817 Ermine 15,314 14,280 20,737 Lynx 8,856 31,892 56,611 Wolf 3,756 4,207 2,771 Wolverine 718 865 734 Skunk 1,478 5,023 11,430 Bear, Black 3,943 3,740 4,042 Bear, Brown 387 353 432 Bear, Grey 108 123 94 Bear, White 89 59 137 Badger 125 169 322 Raccoon 140 243 600 The combined offerings of C. M. Lampson & Co., and A. & W. Nesbitt were as follows at the Spring Sales in 1907, 1908 and 1909: 1909 1908 1907 Mink 82,575 134,200 75,600 Skunk 545,284 416,000 615,900 Muskrat 1,238,257 1,015,000 1,018,000 Raccoon 203,155 316,000 69,726 Opossum 225,671 267,000 225,350 Marten 8,168 15,000 18,600 Lynx 1,500 7,550 11,727 Fox, Red 25,600 36,660 31,870 Fox, Cross 1,585 5,021 5,080 Fox, Silver 539 728 1,015 Fox, Grey 13,600 23,270 8,961 Fox, Kitt 1,670 388 655 Fox, White 3,310 14,000 4,785 Fox, Blue 3,630 2,600 3,600 Otter 5,211 9,000 2,916 Fisher 2,914 3,440 1,705 Beaver 14,282 6,800 11,900 Bear 7,240 6,980 5,770 Badger 4,070 4,475 5,905 Cat, Wild 6,925 5,800 7,072 Cat, House 20,344 15,800 17,000 Wolf 21,365 24,150 12,100 Wolverine 350 450 323 Ermine 77,600 77,000 100,580 Civet 19,200 33,000 53,800 The noticeable falling off in the Hudson's Bay Company offerings can be accounted for from the fact that more "free traders," as the Great Company calls them, are yearly encroaching upon their territory. The offerings of Lampson and Nesbitt is short of a year ago with the exceptions of beaver, muskrat and skunk. The advanced price of muskrat, no doubt, caused more trapping of these animals than ever before. Again the fact of the dry fall in many localities bunched the rats, so that they were much easier caught. The rats offered at the recent sales are largely fall and winter. From reports, the collection of spring rats will be very light--in many localities not more than one-fourth of an average collection. While the offerings now show some 200,000 in excess of March, 1908, and also March, 1907, indications are that before the year 1909 ends there will be a shortage in the total rat catch for the year. Considerable anxiety is felt regarding skunk, as the number offered was 545,280 compared with 416,000 in March, 1908, which is nearly 130,000 more. This is hardly a fair test. The offerings at March Sales 1908 were light from the fact that skunk were not in demand at the beginning of the fall season of 1907, when a good per cent. of skunk are caught for the following March Sales. Go back another year, that is March, 1907, and see what the offerings of skunk were; you perhaps will be surprised to learn that it was 615,900 or 70,000 more than at this spring's sale. The offerings of beaver were larger than a year ago, but with these exceptions, there appears a decided falling off--note the quantity of fox, coon, marten, lynx--all much less. Furs are fashionable throughout the entire civilized world, and the catch seems inadequate on many articles. This is probably responsible for the high prices. At any rate, some articles have advanced beyond all previous high record. Prices for wolf, fox, lynx, wild cat and muskrat are very high, as well as many other American raw furs. Skunk reached a price that no one expected the past season. Since early in March or shortly after, too late to get goods into the London Sales, prices were lowered on skunk, opossum, raccoon and some grades of mink, especially Southern and Southwestern, but at the same time it should be taken into consideration that the quality is not so desirable as during the midwinter months. Many believe that by far the most of the furs come from the Far North. This is erroneous. It is true that the most valuable furs, such as silver, black and cross foxes, lynx and marten, come from that section. Some of the best otter, red fox and mink are also secured in the far northern country. Yet fully one-half of the value of the American catch of raw furs is comprised in the three following articles--skunk, mink and muskrat. In the Far North there will be foxes, otter, mink, and marten for some time to come. But what about that part of the country, say south of the Great Lakes, west of the Allegheny Mountains, north of the Tennessee and Arkansas Rivers and east of the Rocky Mountains?--a section which has been producing about half of the furs. This section is the great skunk producing one and as well as one of the best mink and muskrat sections. It also furnishes from the Southern States within the area outlined, great quantities of coon and opossum. When those interested in the fur business consider that half the value of the annual catch is skunk, mink, and muskrat and that the best producing section has hitherto been the section as outlined, one can easily see that the supply will not long be equal to the demand. During recent years, owing to persistent trapping, the fur producers have been greatly reduced and if not practically exterminated in parts of the country, are destined to become nearly so. The fact that skunk, mink and muskrat have been so greatly reduced in the past few years has caused those interested in the fur industry to ask,--"what of the future?" with the settlement of the country and the draining of the swamps, clearing of the forests, etc., which deprives many species of fur producers of their natural homes, how can it be expected that the supply will last? That skunk, mink and muskrat do well in settled sections, there is no question, but since their pelts are so valuable, more trappers are after them than ever before. In addition, magazines and books on the subject are more plentiful than in former years, so that the inexperienced hunter and trapper has far better success than in past years. There is always a cash market for raw furs and since the discovery of America, raw furs have been an important article of commerce. In the early days, beaver was the leading article and even at this date thousands of skins are secured annually by the professional trapper in the swamps of the south and along the streams and lakes of the north. Scattered thruout the South, Rocky Mountain sections, Northern Canada and parts of the East, are several thousand professional hunters and trappers whose annual catch amounts to several hundred dollars each. The aggregate of these men, footing up to perhaps $3,000,000 or $4,000,000. In the settled sections are tens of thousands of boys and amateur trappers with here and there a professional. The annual catch of these foot up to perhaps $6,000,000 to $8,000,000, or double the catch of the professionals who leave civilization in September and are not seen again until May or June. It is this class (boys and amateurs) that secures the greatest quantities of fur and as the number of trappers is so large and the grounds necessarily limited, here is where the animals are rapidly decreasing and at the present rate are in danger of extermination. In some sections there has been a wonderful falling off in the catch of late years, altho the number of trappers is larger. An industry paying the hunter and trapper probably $15,000,000 yearly is one that should receive attention. At the present rate of extermination, some of the fur bearers are destined to soon follow in the wake of the buffalo. The demand for furs is increasing as the population of the world is becoming more and more. Again furs are being put to more uses than ever. While the demand for furs are increasing, what of the supply? The day, perhaps, is not far in the distance when the demand will call for two or three times as many furs as today. Where are they to come from? The natural supply is surely diminishing. The matter of 'Supply and Demand' is one that there is considerable difference of opinion upon. Hunters and trappers, as a rule, are of one opinion and that is that the number of pelts secured upon a certain territory is becoming less each year. Trappers going over their lines are surely the ones who know whether the fur is holding out or not. The number of persons seeking fur is larger each year. In localities furnishing as much fur as ever, the chances are that the number of animals left for breeding is less each year. If such is true the day when these localities will show a falling off in the receipts is not far in the distance. Until recently, many dealers and manufacturers believed that the supply of wild fur-bearing animals was practically inexhaustible--that when wanted, trappers would go out into the "wilds," catch, skin and send the pelts to market. These people are beginning to awaken to the true situation and while they send out price lists, circulars, and traveling buyers after raw furs, they say it is much harder to secure the goods wanted than formerly. A well known dealer in Minneapolis in sizing up the situation, says: "With the vast fund of information about trapping being sent out and with improved traps for catching and the great stimulus to trapping owing to high prices, in five to ten years, there will not be one-fourth to one-half the fur bearers that there are now, unless stringent laws are enacted to curtail the trapping." "Under proper conditions, with intelligent care, no doubt, raising fur animals can be made to pay. The raiser starting on a small scale and increasing as their knowledge increases. Most all successful business is built up by starting small." The dealer who wrote the above advertises quite extensively for furs. The territory tributary to that city has always been considered a good fur producing one. During recent years, the supply has fallen off materially in face of the fact of improved trapping methods and a greatly increased number of persons seeking the fur bearers. The same conditions are true to a greater or less degree in many parts of the country. The American people, however, can be depended upon to meet all emergencies. They have already set about to provide for the future raw fur supply by raising the animals. As early as 1884, experiments were made at raising foxes on the islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean, along the coast of British Columbia and Alaska. The experiments, as a rule, proved successful and there has been for years a number of successful fox raisers on the islands of the North Pacific. More will be said about them elsewhere. In various parts of North America, experiments have been made, principally with skunk, altho a few have tried mink and other animals but only in a small way, or by men who expected to get rich quick and who did not give the enterprise the care and attention that is necessary to make a success at any business. CHAPTER II. WHAT ANIMALS TO RAISE. There is a bright future to "Fur Farming." The person who knows something of the habits of the animal or animals that they expect to raise, will be the successful ones. A person who has always lived in the city would not be apt to make a success at general farming or fruit raising. The same applies to "fur farming." The person who has followed hunting and trapping or the farmer who has given attention to fur bearing animals are the ones most apt to be successful. Foxes, no doubt, will be the animals that the majority would like to begin with, especially the more valuable species, as black, silver and cross. These for breeding purposes of course can be secured, but the present raisers do not seem to care to sell any of their stock unless at good round figures. They want to further increase their own numbers. A good many attempts were made at raising skunk a few years ago, most of which were failures. Some entered the business on a large scale, knowing nothing of the animal, and of course failed; others "penned up" a few skunk and as they were not properly cared for resulted in failures. The recent advanced price for skunk skins has caused a revival in their raising. This time, an entirely different class of people are taking up their raising, and they are going to succeed, why? Because they know something of the animal and are going at the business in a calm and business-like way. Mink, at present prices, look good to the fur-farmer. They are small animals but yield a pelt worth from $3 to $7, depending upon the size and color. Raccoon and opossum are compared with many fur-bearing animals as producers of cheap furs. This is true, but at the same time, they offer the most promising future for the fur-farmer in many localities. They are easily raised, and in addition to their fur, the carcass finds a ready sale in most cities. Opossum and coon will not dig deep seeking escape, but are good climbers and considerable precaution should be taken to see that the wire netting is either extended in several feet at the top, or that a strip of tin a couple of feet wide is fastened to the posts some three feet from the ground. The "fur-farmer," should the market be low for certain animals, can keep over; or the better plan would no doubt be to kill off the surplus males and perhaps some females. At such times do not make the mistake of killing off too closely, as some will do, claiming that the fur is low and that there is no need of trying to increase. Nine times in ten, this is the time to raise as many as possible, for by another season, that particular article is apt to be in demand. To illustrate: skunk were low in 1907, yet had the raisers gone ahead, they would have had a supply to kill during the Winter of 1908-9, at prices that were indeed satisfactory. Had the opossum raiser, during the low prices for this fur in 1907 and 1908, sold off his breeding stock at low prices, as he would have been compelled to do, he would not had a supply when the prices advanced in January, 1909. Some farmers make the mistake of selling off all their stock when prices ease up, expecting to go into the raising again when a reaction takes place. This is not the way to make the most money; when a reaction comes, other farmers who have continued raising this certain animal, reap the harvest, selling to the market or to their neighbors at high prices. The prices paid for the various articles shows about what the grower may expect for his "crop." The demand, of course, will have much to do with the price. Fashion is constantly changing but indications are that owing to diminishing supply and increased consumption, prices will be on a fairly high level always. Trappers and hunters often catch fur too early and as a consequence have blue pelts which are graded down. In the spring shedders and rubbed skins are secured which are sold as No. 2 or lower. With the "fur farmer," there will be no early caught blue skins or late caught spring and shedders. The animals will be killed when "prime," and will bring best prices. Some reports from those that have experimented in a small way at raising fur animals is to the effect that they do not fur properly. This is true in regard skunk, when kept in a box or a small enclosure for weeks and fed largely on meat. The writer when a fur buyer has bought skunk that had been kept in a "pen" or small enclosure for weeks and in addition to being thinly furred, the hide was much thicker than it should have been. Indians and professional hunters and trappers of the north say that they can notice a difference in the fur of foxes, lynx, marten, etc., when the food supply is abundant. The fur is thicker and has a healthier, silkier and glossier appearance. The secret, no doubt, is to give the animals plenty of room and feed should be varied. Here is where the person who knows the habits of the animal or animals he is raising is valuable. When cattle, sheep and hogs are fed properly they take on fat readily and produce a healthy coat of hair or wool. The same applies to the fur bearing animals. What animals offer the best inducement to raise? This is a question that each individual going into the business must largely decide. The place you have in view for the starting of the "farm" will have much to do with this. Is the location one best adapted to skunk, mink, coon, fox, muskrat or some other fur bearer? Again, your experience should be taken into consideration,--what fur bearers you are most familiar with. If you live near a large city which offers a market for coon and opossum carcasses, this should be considered as these animals are easy to raise and opossum especially are very prolific, producing from six to twelve at a litter. While the fur of coon and opossum will never be very valuable, yet, as both fur and carcass have a cash value, they will prove greater money makers than many believe. Muskrat are another animal that should not be overlooked as they increase rapidly and their flesh is now being sold in many of the larger cities. Marten and silver fox should not be raised in the south, as these are animals that do best in the cold sections. Otter and mink are two animals that the sun fades the fur and as the darker the fur, the more valuable, it is important that as little sun as possible shines upon them. For this reason it is advisable to have the enclosure for these animals in the woods or thicket. In fact some trees should be in enclosures for all animals. If raising coon or opossum, they will be "at home" in the trees while other animals will enjoy the shade in the summer and will make use of the leaves in the dens for winter. [Illustration: Enclosure in thick woods.] There are some animals such as marten, fisher, wild cat, weasel, badger and wolves that do not seem promising to us to raise for various reasons. Marten do best in the high mountain sections; fisher and wild cat would be hard to keep in an inclosure; weasel and badger are not valuable and would both be difficult to keep in; wolves are not valuable for fur and would require considerable attention and food, hence, not desirable to raise. In most states there is a bounty on wolf and coyote scalps but the raising of them for the purpose of the bounty would not work--the bounty would not be paid if county officials knew from what source they came. Among the animals promising the best for raising are the black, silver, cross and red fox, skunk, mink, coon, opossum and muskrat. The otter, beaver, bear and lynx under certain conditions may be well worth considering, especially lynx at present value. Do you think present prices for furs will continue? Generally speaking, yes. In fact, some articles are liable to go higher. On the other hand some furs may go lower but are sure to sooner or later react. The chances are that raw furs will not soon sell at the low figures of past years. Suppose thousands engaged in the business of raising fox, skunk, mink, coon, opossum and muskrat, what effect would it have upon the market? Would they overstock it? How many hundreds of thousands of persons are today raising cotton and wool to furnish clothing to the millions of people and there has always been a market. The same will be the case with fur. In fact, unless thousands engage in the fur raising business, the demand is going to far exceed the supply at no distant day. Furs in the north are a necessity as no cloth will repel the piercing winds. Teamsters and others much out of doors wear fur overcoats, caps and use fur laprobes. Farther south, say in the latitude of New York, Pittsburg, Denver, etc., while furs are not an absolute necessity, yet they are much worn for comfort. In all the cities of the north, furs are worn eight or nine months in the year; in the central sections perhaps six months; while in the south only a few months. In addition to this, American furs are worn in all civilized countries of the world. The farmer or stock raiser, as a rule, who is making the most money, is the one who raises not horses, cattle, sheep or swine alone, but often two or more of them. The same can be applied to fur farming. Suppose an enclosure of a few acres is made for skunk, why not take in a pond and raise muskrat, coon, fish and frogs. There is a ready market in all cities for fresh fish and frogs. The farmer that raises sheep not only sells the wool but fattens and sells some of the lambs, wethers or old ewes from time to time. The farmer is in the business to make the most out of it and such will be the case with the fur farmer. In the cities there is a demand for the carcasses of coon and opossum at prices ranging from 25 to 75 cents for coon and 10 to 50 cents for opossum, depending upon the size of the carcass, as well as the city in which you are marketing. In New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, there is a ready sale for all coon and opossum carcasses at good prices. Other cities that use large quantities are Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Detroit, Chicago, and Milwaukee. There is no city of any size north of the Ohio River but offers a market. St. Louis, Louisville and other southern cities being near the coon and opossum producing sections does not offer so good a market. Muskrat are now served as "marsh rabbit" in Baltimore and other cities. The trapper realizing from 5 to 10 cents each. With the exception of muskrat, fur bearing animals breed only once a year, unless the first litter are killed or die, when another is sometimes born and it might be said, such is frequently the case. The number that the various animals produce at a litter is given in the chapter dealing with that animal. It is not all that are successful bee raisers who have gone into that business, yet how few failures are there among men who began in a small way, learning more of the business and gradually increasing the number of hives in their apiary. One thing is important and that is, get the animals accustomed to their keeper as soon as possible. The old will be wild for some time but the young soon become tame. Skunk and coon are easily tamed and even beaver, otter and mink have become so tame when secured young, that children have safely handled them. A man who has been in the "fur farming" industry for years, in response to the inquiry, "Will the business pay," says: "Yes, it will pay the right man big dividends on the capital invested." The right man is one who has "natural aptitude" for this sort of work, and who is "cut out" for "fur farming." If he has an "inkling" for this sort of work, he will study the nature and requirements of the animals and attend carefully to their every want. Fur farming as an industry is only in its infancy, in fact, not begun. The future looks bright to those who engage in the business in a business way. To those who expect to make a fortune at the business in a year or two, we predict failure, but to all who are willing to go at the industry, building a substantial enclosure, paying the same careful attention to the feed and care of their fur animals, that they would to other "stock," to get best results, far more than ordinary profits should result. CHAPTER III. ENCLOSURES. This is indeed, one of the important things in connection with "fur-farming." Some of the first experimenters in raising skunk and other fur animals, dug a trench from 2 to 3 feet deep, putting in rocks or boards edgewise to keep them from digging out, on top of which they constructed an upright fence of boards from 4 to 7 feet. On top of this fence was fastened a wide board to keep the animals from climbing out. The enclosure should be an acre in extent and 2 to 5 would be better. The "ranch" should be located where the water will drain off quickly, so that the dens will be dry, making a good place to burrow. The ground should not be level, or at any rate, should have good drainage. Skunk and perhaps other animals are liable to disease, if kept in damp and crowded quarters, such as sore throat or similar diseases, which may cause death. [Illustration: Corner of enclosure, showing sheet tin at top and stones at bottom.] Galvanized wire, No. 14 or 16, with about one-inch mesh, seems to be the proper material for fencing. Posts should be of locust, cedar, or some other long lasting wood. They should be fully 10 feet long and put in the ground 3 feet or more, depending upon how firm the earth is; they should be set about 8 feet or not more than ten apart, as your fence should be about 7 feet above ground. A trench two feet deep is dug, into which your wire is put. From this it will be seen that you need woven wire 9 feet high to make your fence 7 feet above ground, as two feet are under. After your wire is in place, fill up the trench with dirt, or if there are flat stones, it would be well to place a layer about a foot wide, extending inward from the fence or bottom of wire. Should any of the animals dig downward from the bottom of the wire, striking the stone they would become discouraged and give up, as the stone would cause them to dig in the wrong direction to escape. On top of the wire fence, a sheet of tin roofing about 18 inches wide, should extend around the enclosure, on the inside, to keep the animals from climbing out, for skunk as well as coon can easily climb out of your enclosure. Instead of placing the tin around the top some turn the fence in as shown in the illustration. If this is done to make the fence 7 feet high, a 10-1/2 foot meshed wire is required as two feet are under ground and at least 18 inches should be used for turning in--2 feet would be best. [Illustration: Showing Fence with Wire Turned in at Top.] The "turning in" method has some advantages over the tin; one being that dogs cannot get in so easily, and another is that the fence will stand up better; the wide strip of tin or sheet-iron catching wind or snow which helps to sag the wire or cause the fence to lean. The tin or sheet-iron, however, seems to be the best in preventing any animal's escape. The enclosure can be enlarged at any time, but do not make the mistake of beginning with too small an enclosure, as some have. Also have your fence about 7 feet high to keep dogs out, as well as to keep the fur-bearers in. Just how much the enclosure will cost depends upon several things: The cost of 9 foot, 1 inch mesh No. 16 galvanized wire is about $1.50 per rod. This price, of course, will vary some, depending upon where you are located. In some of the smaller cities you perhaps cannot get the kind you want and will be compelled to send to some of the larger cities or catalogue houses. Perhaps you can not get wider than 5 feet. If such is the case buy in two widths--5 feet and 4 feet. This will give you the desired height. Posts as already mentioned should be of locust or some other long lasting wood, as cedar, and should be thoroughly seasoned before putting in the ground. The posts should be fully 6 inches in diameter. If from larger locust and split, so much the better, as the older the tree the longer it will last. The cutting and setting of the posts, putting up of the fence, can be done by the "fur-farmer" in those sections where locust and cedar grow, so that all the cash outlay necessary in building the enclosure, will be for galvanized wire, some staples and sheet tin for the top. Instead of placing the tin around the top, it may be fastened on the inside of the wire (as shown), about four feet from the ground. The corner posts should be two or three times larger than the others; they should be set more firmly in the ground, five feet being about right. This will necessitate these posts being two feet longer than the rest. They should be firmly braced in both ways. [Illustration: Fence with Sheet Tin Four Feet from Ground.] The cost of fencing an acre, varies, of course. An acre contains 160 square rods or about 12-1/2 rods each side--equal to 50 rods of fence. If the wire costs $1.50 a rod, and posts 40 cents each, the cost of material required to enclose an acre will be $95.00. We are figuring on two posts to the rod. Add to this staples, gates, etc., and the cost will perhaps be about $100.00. Of course a much cheaper wire could be used, poorer posts, etc., so that the cost would be greatly reduced--but it generally pays to do a thing well. To enclose a certain amount of ground with the smallest number of rods of fencing possible, the plat or ground to be enclosed should be in a square. The additional cost to enclose an acre, say 20 rods long by 8 wide, would be material for 6 additional rods. To fully illustrate, an acre fenced in a square would be 12-1/2 rods on each side, or 50 rods; if 20 rods long, the two sides would be 40 rods, and the ends 8 each or 16 rods, making a total of 56 rods. While the cost of enclosing an oblong piece of ground would be a few dollars more than if square, this should not stand in the way if the oblong piece of ground would make a better home for your fur-bearing animals. The persons who expect to make "fur-farming" a business, can begin in a small way and same need not interfere with other work to a great extent. Year after year, as they learn more of the business, they can enlarge, etc. Trappers, hunters and others who from experience know much of the animals, will no doubt be the most successful from the start. One party writes to know if skunk, fox, opossum and mink can be successfully raised in the same enclosure. If he means allowed to run together, they can not. If he means the same outside enclosure, with separate apartments for the various animals, there is no reason why such a place should not be successful as there will be advantages in such a plan. First, an enclosure of four acres can be built much cheaper than four separate enclosures of one acre each. To enclose four one-acre enclosures would require 200 rods of fencing--50 rods for each. The four acres in one enclosure would be only about half or 100 rods. A square 25 rods on each side would be almost 4 acres. Should the fur-farmer wish to subdivide this into four tracts, a fence thru the middle each way would take 25 rods additional or 50 rods for both ways. This fencing need not be so high or so secure as the outside one. Should animals manage to get into another part of the four-acre enclosure, they would still not be at liberty, altho they might kill or injure some of the other species before being discovered by the owner. If possible have a small stream of running water in the enclosure. [Illustration: Plan for Combined Enclosures.] Without labor the cost of material will vary from $2.00 to $3.00 per rod. The greatest variation in expense will be for posts. Those living where posts can be had, having considerable the advantage. This estimate being for galvanized one-inch mesh wire No. 14, per rod, smaller wire of course being cheaper. This is by far the best material in making enclosures, yet found. Some of the first experimenters used boards, but where there were cracks, or the sap or bark on edges rotted, affording the animals a place to gnaw, they soon found a way out. This had to be guarded against where the boards extended into the ground they often rotted so that there was always danger of the animals escaping. Where stones were set up edgewise or cement used, it was rather expensive and as galvanized wire lasts well either in the ground, where not exposed to the air, or being galvanized, it stands the elements well, it seems to meet the requirements of the fur farmer for fencing or enclosure purposes. Where is the farmer who would expect to make a success at raising horses, cattle or sheep, by keeping them in a small pen and feeding them foods not to their liking or nature? Yet, such has been the case with some of those who tried "fur animal raising." They made a failure of it and no one who is at all familiar with fur-bearing animals is surprised. Those who will be successful at "fur-farming" are trappers, hunters and farmers who know something of the animal or animals they expect to raise--those who love the animal and have a desire for the business. The ox, horse and sheep were all wild at one time, but have become domesticated. Why not the same with the fur-bearers? This is exactly what should be done. Skunk, especially, are very easily domesticated, and other fur-bearers, such as coon, mink and opossum, soon lose much of their fear. When the raiser learns this and furnishes a large enclosure with dens and food similar to their wild state, they will be on the road to success. As one raiser says: "They do well in a semi-wild state." If the enclosure is too small, fleas, seed ticks, and other parasites are a great enemy to the animals. In a large enclosure the animals are more "at home" although at first they are restless and will walk around seeking a way to escape; that is they try to escape at night. They are seldom, if ever, seen during the day when first let loose in the enclosure; they generally go in the first den that has been prepared for them. Water is important. If you are raising skunk, fox or opossum, water for drinking is all that they require; the same is the case with the coon, although they will do best where they have water to wade, play and search for food. Muskrat, otter, beaver and mink must have water to swim and play in, as well as to drink or they cannot be raised. The enclosure for mink and muskrat should include a stream of running water if possible, or a pond of pure water. The same conditions apply to otter and beaver, but of course the wire should be of larger size than for mink and muskrat. Several different species of fur-bearers can be successfully raised in the same enclosure. Coon, opossum, and skunk will all do well together. Beaver and otter, apparently, live peaceably for weeks in the same beaver lodge or house. The thousands of small lakes, ponds, etc., offer a splendid opportunity for the successful raising of muskrat. While many owners of such, today, in their natural condition, or without any fence, are reaping a profitable and furry harvest; yet there are additional hundreds that by building a fence around, would soon have a muskrat lake or pond worth a great deal. Muskrat are fond of their homes and often remain at the same location for years. If a wire fence three feet high were built around this lake or pond, (with one foot underground), it would keep the rats at home, as some would leave, especially as soon as the increase became large. Such a fence would also keep out mink, which kill muskrat, often. Muskrat, in their wild or natural homes, seldom leave the water more than a rod or two, so that a pond a considerable distance from any stream, would be a comparatively safe place to raise them, without any enclosure. The danger would be, mainly, that after the animals became quite plentiful, some would perhaps leave, for instinct seems to teach them that some should seek homes not so crowded. This has happened in their natural breeding places where they became very plentiful. How large and where to build enclosures for fur farming, must be decided by each individual. One party may have a creek, pond or lake, perhaps a swamp, already inhabited by muskrat, and all that is necessary is to keep other hunters and trappers off. On navigable rivers or lakes having an inlet and outlet, we believe in most states any one can trap so long as he is upon the water. In other words, the water does not belong to the land owner and he cannot keep others off; but any small lake or pond may be enclosed. On this point it would be well to see some lawyer in your county, as different states may have different laws. A wooded bluff containing some den trees for coon, and hollow logs, stumps, etc., for opossum and skunk, would be an ideal place for a fur-farm. The location of the farm should be within sight of the home of the raiser, in case a dog should get within or a thief should visit the farm. To guard against stealing at night your dog would give the alarm, or you could have an electric appliance connect the farm with the house. Islands in large lakes offer a splendid place to begin raising fur-bearing animals, and especially those that do not like to get their "fur wet" or that naturally are not swimmers. In this class are the various kinds of foxes, skunk and opossum; marten, it is true, are not included in the swimming class, but the successful marten raiser perhaps will be found, if at all, in the higher altitudes where the snow gets several feet deep during the winter months, and the ground is covered with snow eight or nine months each year--such is the ideal and natural home of the marten. Skunk and opossum are two animals that do not travel much in extreme cold weather, so that an island in a lake or large river, could be used with no fencing. It perhaps would be best to put up a wire fence but it need not be so substantial as if it were not surrounded by water. Of course islands in rivers that overflow, would not be suitable. There are, however, islands in the Great Lakes and elsewhere, that can be used for raising both skunk and opossum with little or no cash outlay at the start. If islands are used for foxes (except in salt water where the water does not freeze), the same precaution in fencing must be taken as elsewhere. Foxes travel during all kinds of weather and the first night the ice formed sufficient to bear their weight, they would be very apt to leave. Coon could not be successfully raised on an island. They do not travel much during severe weather, but unless the island happened to be some distance from the mainland, they would likely swim to shore. Mink would be at home on an island where there was fish, frogs, etc., with drift and log piles to wander through, but as they are good swimmers, there would be nothing gained by starting with this animal on an island. Skunk and opossum seem to be the only animals that can be safely raised on an island without the same precaution taken in fencing and enclosing, as upon the mainland. These two animals, while not the highest priced furred ones, for various reasons will prove to be as profitable, or more so, where conditions favor, than many other fur-bearers. CHAPTER IV. BOX TRAP TRAPPING. I was born in Central Pennsylvania and spent the greater part of my early life among the mountains of that part of our country, writes Mr. A. C. Williams, a well known trapper. From my early boyhood, I had a decided liking for the wilder class of literature, and took special interest in tales of hunting and trapping adventures; but at that time, did not know that there were many who still followed hunting and trapping for profit. When I did learn of it, I naturally became even more interested, and tried to find a partner among my boy friends, intending, if I could find some person to accompany me, to make an extended hunting and trapping trip into some one of the wilder portions of the West or North. Of course I was no more fitted for such a trip than any other country boy of the same age, and knew nothing of the wilderness; but being a boy, and having read so many tales of boy hunters traversing the wilderness as they would their own back yards, I naturally thought that life in the forests was a very simple thing, and that there was no reason why I should not go. As I grew older I learned that there was still some fur to be found in Pennsylvania, and not only that but that there were parties who made trapping a business, in season. I was interested, and decided to try my hand on the fur-bearing animals found near my own home, before going farther, but I had no traps and knew nothing about the various sizes and grades; as a consequence, I sought out one of the trappers that I had heard of, and asked his advice regarding different traps for the various animals. He gave me the desired information, very willingly, and also remarked that he had been very successful in trapping mink and other small animals with box-traps. After he had mentioned it, I remembered that my father had, on one occasion, caught a mink in a box trap, after it had been paying nightly visits to our chicken coop for a week or more, killing a hen each night; but for all of that I did not know that these traps could be used successfully when trapping for profit. It was not very long after my conversation with this trapper, that I had an opportunity of examining one of these wooden traps and studying its construction. I will give here a description of the trap used in that section: A plain box, size 10 by 10 by 24 inches, is made of one-inch lumber, hardwood preferred, and is left open on one end and the top (see A) another part (B) the cover, is fitted in top and end, and hinged at back by driving a nail in each side, being careful to get both nails same distance from the end of board. This cover should work freely, and when dropped down in place, should fill the opening neatly, leaving no cracks for the captured animal to gnaw at. [Illustration: Box Trap for Catching Animals Alive.] Now nail two strips (CC) on opposite sides of the box and about three inches from the mouth of the trap. These strips should extend about ten inches above the top of the box, and should have the tops notched to hold stick (D). Stick (E) is tied at one end to a nail driven in the end of cover, and at the other end, is attached the trigger (F). One end of this trigger fits into a notch cut into the end of the box, and the other end fits into a similar notch cut in the bait-stick (G). The bait-stick, as will be noticed in the drawing, is slipped through a hole in the end of the box, just below the trigger notch, and is kept in place by means of a nail driven through on the inside of the box. A small trip board (H), rests under the bait-stick on the inside of the trap. This trip board doubles the value of the trap, as by its use many an animal which merely enters the trap to smell at the bait, will be caught; which would not occur if the board were not used. To complete the trap, a snap catch (I) is fastened to one side of the trap in front of upright strip (C) and its purpose is to catch and hold the cover when the trap is sprung. This snap is made of springy wood, beveled on the top, and the falling cover presses it outward; but as soon as the trap is fully closed, it springs back to the original position holding the cover securely. In making this trap it is advisable, always, to use old, weather-beaten lumber. As a result of my investigation, I made a number of these traps and was successful with them, from the start. In that part of the country there had been many saw-mills and logging camps, at one time or another and at such places I could always find old boards from which to construct the traps. The only tools required being a saw, a hatchet, and a half-inch auger, I would go to these places during the summer, whenever I had a day to spare, and make a few traps, hiding them near the places where I wished to set them. The trap described above is of the size used for mink, skunk and opossum, but I made most of mine on a larger scale, and by baiting with fish, I caught many coons. On one occasion I caught three coons in one night, with only three traps set, and in another trap, set by the side of a small stream, in a gap of the mountains, I caught three mink and two coons in one fall season. At another time I caught a large bob-cat in such a trap. As I said before I baited with fish when I could get them; but those trappers who used them for mink alone, never used bait, but attracted the mink into the trap by means of mink musk rubbed on the trip board. I caught quite a lot of skunks in box traps, and it is a nice way to catch these animals, for the trap may be carried to the nearest water and the catch drowned by holding the trap beneath the surface. It is advisable always, to place a weight--a few stones or wet chunks--on the cover, as this will make it more certain in its action. These traps are specially suitable for catching animals alive and uninjured, for breeding purposes, and now, that so many people are interested in raising fur-bearing animals, there is a ready sale for live animals, and this matter should be given attention. [Illustration: Box Trap with Swing Gate.] I have used another style of box-trap for muskrats, but is not intended for catching the animals alive, and the muskrats are always drowned. It is a simple box or square tube of boards, 6 x 6 x 24 or 26 inches, open at both ends. A wire screen is fastened over one end, and a loosely hinged gate of pointed wires is hung in the other end. I used for the gate, pieces of umbrella ribs, cut about eight inches long and the ends filed sharp. With the wires cut this length the gate will hang at an angle of forty-five degrees, or more, and will push in easily, allowing the animal to enter the trap without effort; but once inside, escape is impossible, as the gate cannot be pushed out, and even if the captured animal should raise the gate and attempt to creep under it, the pointed wires will catch in its back and prevent escape. They are set in the dens, under water, and if the mouth of the den is too large, the space around the trap should be closed with sods. Set in this way, it will catch any muskrat that attempts to leave the den, and I have caught three at one time in such a trap. While muskrats caught in this way are always drowned, other animals, such as: mink, skunk and opossum, may be taken alive by setting the trap in the mouth of the den, blocking up all side openings. The width of the trap as shown in the cut, is considerably out of proportion, when compared with its length--it being drawn this way to show more clearly the working of the swing gate. A very effective skunk trap may be made from an old barrel. The barrel is pivoted to a pair of stakes, driven firmly into the ground along a bank or hillside, where skunks are found, and the bait is fastened on the bottom of the inside of the barrel. This trap is shown plainly in the illustration. It will be apparent to all that when the skunk, in approaching the bait, passes the center, where it is hinged to the stakes, the barrel tips over, and it will be impossible for the animal to escape. Muskrats are sometimes taken with a wire net. To hunt them successfully in this way, two persons are required. While one holds the net over the mouth of the den, the other hunter drives the inmates from the burrow by prodding the ground with a pointed pole. A wire cage with a cover must be used to carry the captured animals, and each individual must be shaken into the cage as soon as captured, and the cage closed immediately to prevent their escape. [Illustration: Barrel Trap for Catching Animals Alive.] When box traps are used, no difficulty whatever will be encountered in transporting the animals, as trap and catch may be carried into the enclosure before the animal is liberated. Even the skunk may be carried along in this way without any danger of scenting. The trap should be handled carefully--not thrown about. Muskrats may be handled with perfect safety if grasped by the end of the tail and held at arm's length. Trappers, as a rule, know just what time of year the young of each species of animal are born and I would advise, when trapping animals for breeding purposes, to catch them before this time, or at such a length of time after the birth of the young, that there will be no danger of their starving in case they are not captured along with the mother. Even if the very young animals are taken from the den, there is danger of them suffering from careless handling, or from not receiving proper care. It is better to catch the female animals before the young are born. * * * * * Another box trap that is a good one, is described by an Illinois trapper as follows: "I here enclose a sketch for making a trap for catching mink which I have used for years, and think it can't be beat. Make a box 22 inches long, 5 inches wide, and 6 inches high out of inch lumber; bore a hole at the back for the string (D) to pass through, which is tied to a bait at (E) and fastened at the other end to a heavy wire (C), on top of the box, which holds the sliding door (A), when set. A couple of strips (B) are nailed on each side to hold the door in place. This is a good trap for mink that are afraid of steel traps. For bait use a rabbit's head tied securely to the string, also a few drops of good scent put on the bait, and set near the mouth of some tiles or wherever mink abound." [Illustration: Another Box Trap.] This trap, as well as all the box-traps in this chapter, are recommended for catching such animals as skunk, coon, mink, and opossum, alive and uninjured, for stocking "fur-farms." Muskrat can be caught in these traps by baiting and setting where they feed, or on runways from one pond to another. Animals caught in these traps can be carried with safety to both catcher and animal, to the enclosure, before taking out of the trap. CHAPTER V. FOX RAISING. The foxes of North America are divided by naturalists into only three distinct groups or species, namely, the red, the gray and the Arctic foxes. Of these, the red species is divided into a number of varieties, among which are the Nova Scotia Red Fox, the Newfoundland Red Fox and the Western Kit or Swift Fox, etc. The black, cross and silver foxes are commonly supposed to be only color varieties of the red, there being no difference whatever, except in the fur. While naturalists all agree on this subject there is considerable difference of opinion among others who give as proof that they are of a different species, the fact that the black, cross and silver are only found in the northern districts while the red variety is found well down into the south. There are, however, certain facts which go to prove that they are all of the same variety or if different that they interbreed, the most convincing of these being the fact that the various colors are sometimes found in the same litter. But, be this as it may, the matter is of little importance to the prospective fox breeder as it has become a well known fact that the red color can be entirely eliminated by careful breeding. The red fox is found throughout the greater part of Canada and the United States except in the far south where it is replaced by the gray species and in the extreme northern portions of Canada and Alaska, where it gives place to the Arctic fox, also they are not found in the far western states nor on the Pacific coast, being replaced here by the gray. They are perhaps most abundant in the New England States, Newfoundland and the eastern provinces of Canada, but are also found in good numbers in parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia and the mountainous and hilly sections of the South. The silver and black foxes are found but rarely in the most northern tier of states and are probably found in the greatest numbers in Newfoundland, Labrador, northern Quebec and northern Ontario, but an odd specimen is occasionally met with in all parts of Canada. They appear also to be quite plentiful in the interior of Alaska and the Yukon Province of Canada. The range of the cross fox is the same as that of the silver and black except that it probably extends somewhat farther southward into the United States. Of the gray foxes, several varieties are recognized, all however, being very much alike. They are found throughout the Southern and South Central States--in the east being found as far north as Connecticut and on the Pacific Coast are found in California and Oregon. The Arctic fox, also known as the blue fox and the white fox, is found only in northern Canada and Alaska. In the most northern parts of their range they are a bluish color in summer, changing to white in winter, but in the lower latitudes they retain the blue color throughout the year. There is an immense difference in the value of the various varieties of foxes. While the fur of the gray variety is seldom worth more than a dollar or a dollar and a half, that of the fine silver and black foxes will range from several hundred to a thousand dollars, and more if the skin is an exceptionally fine one. The Arctic fox comes next in value to the silver, while the cross is as a rule of less value, depending mostly on color, and the red variety sells for from three to five dollars each and upwards for prime skins. [Illustration: Northwestern Fox Skins--Silver, Cross and Red.] The various members of the red fox family are practically the same as regards habits, being influenced to a certain extent by environments, differences in climate and food, etc., but on the whole very much alike. They are all of a cunning, wary and suspicious nature and it is owing to this fact alone that they have been enabled to live and thrive in the face of the persistent hunting and trapping. They are hardy animals and while they generally have a den somewhere on the side of a gravelly or sandy hill, they spend comparatively little of their time in the dens and prefer to spend the day in a bunch of grass or weeds, a clump of brush, or, curled up on top of a stump. In their search for food they sometimes start out quite early in the evening, but are probably most active in the early morning when all animal life is on the move. Then it is that the rabbits and other nocturnal animals are seeking their places of rest and the birds, etc., are commencing to move about and the fox stands a better chance of securing some article of food. Their food consists principally of small animals and birds, such as rabbits, partridge, quail, chipmunks and mice, but they also eat fruit, such as apples, wild grapes and nuts. However, they are more strictly carnivorous than the gray fox. They are fond of eggs and often rob the nests of ground building birds, of eggs and young, and in the settled sections have acquired a decided liking for poultry of all kinds. The food of the gray fox is practically the same as that of the red variety but they are more given to eating fruit and feed extensively on grapes, apples, etc., and in some sections they feed on green corn. All foxes will eat fish with a relish when they can get them and will refuse scarcely anything in the line of flesh, being especially fond of muskrat, skunk and opossum. In captivity they take very kindly to a vegetable diet. The Arctic foxes live chiefly on lemmings, small animals which are found quite plentifully in the far north, but in captivity they thrive on fish and cooked corn meal. The mating season of the red fox comes mainly in February and the beginning of March and the young, from five to eight or nine, are born in April or early in May. The young of the gray fox are born in May, the mating season of this species being somewhat later than that of the red fox. The breeding dens of the fox are usually located on some gravelly hillside but in places where the country is broken and rocky. They use natural dens in the rocks. It is only during the breeding season and while the young foxes are still quite small that these dens are regularly inhabited. At other times they may spend an occasional day there or seek safety in the dens when hard pressed by hounds, but for the most part they prefer to rest out of doors. Foxes prefer the rough hilly countries and are usually found in good numbers in the hilly farming sections where there are old pastures and an occasional patch of woodland. The gray fox is most at home in the wooded districts but the red species, including the silver, cross and black prefer the more open stretches of country. In the north they will be found most plentiful in the barrens and sections where second-growth timber prevails. The two species do not appear to be on very friendly terms and not given to mixing one with the other. In some sections where red foxes were once numerous and the gray variety were unknown, the grays now predominate, having driven out the red variety. In other parts the reds have supplanted the grays. This, however, is only in the central and southern districts, as the gray fox is never found far north. FOX FARMING.--Fox farming has been attempted by various parties from time to time and those who have given the business considerable study and have persevered have generally been successful. Many of the parties, however, were men who have had practically no knowledge of nature, having gone into the business too deeply in the start and being ignorant of the nature and habits of the animals when found in a wild state, have as a consequence, failed. Very few of those who have made a success of breeding the valuable silver foxes have gone into this business in the start, but have first experimented with the less valuable red fox, and as the silver and red foxes are of the same variety their nature and habits are also the same, and the knowledge of their habits gained by experimenting with one is of equal value as applied to the other. The Arctic foxes are being raised successfully on many of the islands off the coast of Alaska. As the seas never freeze over there, no enclosures are necessary and the business has proved comparatively easy from the start. Such islands are not within the reach of the average fox farmer and other means must be resorted to. The breeding of silver foxes has, thus far, been carried on mainly in the Canadian Maritime Provinces and the state of Maine, but it has also been undertaken to some extent in Michigan, Alaska, Labrador and Newfoundland. We are certain that if one will give the matter sufficient study, learn the habits and nature of the animals thoroughly and act accordingly, success is sure to follow and that the red, cross and silver foxes may be bred and raised successfully. Experiments should be conducted on a small scale, for otherwise failure would mean a great loss. We would advise that the amateur conduct his experiments with red foxes, learning their habits thoroughly before attempting the breeding of the valuable silver-gray. FAVORABLE LOCALITIES.--It is a well known fact that the finest furs are produced in northern localities and fox farming should not be attempted in the far south. The accompanying map, which is taken from the bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, will show the area most suitable for silver fox farming. The plainly lined portions show the most suitable country, and conditions in those parts are most excellent and the cross-hatched parts show the area where silver fox raising is possible and conditions favorable. The red fox will do well somewhat farther south, but as before stated, the warm climate of the south is detrimental to fine furs, and it will be wise to not locate too far south of the shaded portions shown on the map. [Illustration: Map of life zones in which fox farming is feasible in the United States, showing the Canadian zone where conditions are excellent, and the Transition zone, in parts of which conditions are favorable.] Having decided on a favorable section of country the next step is to find a suitable location. It is not necessary or even advisable to have a large enclosure. For the beginner a half-acre to an acre will be sufficient, and a space of four or five acres is ample for extensive operations. If the enclosure is too large the animals will be wild and unmanageable, and on the other hand if too small they will become nervous and restless and will not breed well, and it is advised also that the foxes be not disturbed by visitors and be allowed to live as quietly as possible. A sandy soil is recommended, and there should be some trees for shade, but a thick woods is not desirable. ENCLOSURES.--Fences should be made of galvanized woven wire of two-inch mesh,--number 14 or 16 wire being best. The fence should be ten feet in height and should be sunk in the ground two feet and turned in two feet at the top. The overhang at the top is easily adjusted by means of cross strips on the top of the posts. Care in making the fences is essential, and if there is much snow in winter the drifts must not be allowed to become high enough to allow the animals to leap over. It is advisable to have a set of inside enclosures, and as it is necessary that the animals are not annoyed by visitors. It is a good plan to have the space between the inside and outside fences filled with trees and clumps of brush so as to obstruct the view. The inner enclosures are small and designed for single animals and pairs and should be about thirty or forty feet in size. There should also be several larger enclosures for the males and females, for, except during the breeding season it will do no harm to allow the males to run together. Each separate enclosure should be provided with a gate so that it will be an easy matter to remove the foxes from one enclosure to another. The plan for the arrangement of the yards as shown here is a good one and is taken from the Government Bulletin. [Illustration: Plan for Arrangement of Fox Yards.] Each compartment should be provided with small kennels, for although the fox will usually dig a den, the nature of the ground is not always suitable and they take kindly to these artificial dens. They are usually made four or five feet square and two or three feet high. If desired, shelters may be made of boxes as shown in the cut. No bedding is required, as the old foxes will do well without or will provide one themselves. [Illustration: Box Shelter for Female and Young.] FEEDING.--Many fox raisers have failed to recognize the fact that the fox is almost omnivorous and give a strictly meat diet according. While this does not always have disastrous results, it is better to give them a mixed food, including besides meat, table scraps, bread and milk, etc. Overfeeding is a common trouble and should be avoided. Of course they must have sufficient, but should not be allowed to become too fat, as this spoils them for breeding purposes; also feeding should be at regular intervals. The weight of a healthy fox is from six to nine pounds, and when an animal weighs more than ten pounds it is almost certain that it is too fat. When a number of animals are kept together in one enclosure the boldest and strongest will usually get more than its share of the food. Of course fresh drinking water must be provided regularly. One of the most successful breeders feeds a quarter of a pound of meat and a quart of skim milk daily. A quarter of a pound of meat and a handful of scraps is a fair daily allowance. Another fox farmer feeds along with the meat a hoecake made of corn meal and sour milk. Beef, mutton, fish, horseflesh, etc., are all good food for the fox. Old worn-out animals may be secured in any rural district, but it is absolutely necessary that the animals be healthy and the meat should be kept on ice. One breeder claims that if everything were purchased, his foxes would not cost him more than one cent each a day, but as he feeds considerable table scraps the cost is even less. BREEDING.--In the wild state the male fox mates with a single female but in captivity one male will answer for two or even three females but it is best to have all animals in pairs. It has been found best to place the male with the female in December or January and leave them in company until the last of March when the males should be removed. The females should be kept in the small enclosures continuously and the young foxes removed when weaned. They breed the first season, when less than a year old, but as a rule the litters are small. [Illustration: Corner of Fox Yard showing Stones to Prevent Escape by Digging.] As before stated it is absolutely necessary to prevent the animals from becoming nervous from too frequent visits of strangers. This nervousness has a bad effect on their breeding qualities. It is especially bad after the young foxes are born, as the mother fearing for the safety of her young, will move them about continuously until they are badly injured or die of exposure. The keeper also should not disturb the young but should keep away from them as much as possible. In raising silver foxes, only the most perfect specimens should be kept for breeding purposes. However, if there is a tendency to show some red among the fur this may be bred out entirely by using care in selecting the breeding stock. [Illustration: Fox Yards, Showing Detail of Outer Fence.] As there is considerable difference in the disposition of individuals this should also be kept in mind and those animals showing the least aversion to man should be selected, providing, of course, that they are prolific and otherwise perfect. A party in Ohio who has been raising foxes for some time writes as follows: Two years ago I added foxes to my game preserve and last spring my red gave birth to five young foxes. My black male fox got to the young and killed the three males. I now have three cross foxes, one black and four red. I expect to have a big increase in the spring. Should I get a lot of black pups next spring I will surely do well with my foxes. I find that foxes are not strictly carnivorous (flesh eating) animals. I feed them stale bread, milk and any kind of a dead fowl, rats, mice, stale meats, muskrat, coon or any other carcass. I aim to give them all they will eat, yet I often have thought that I feed them too much at one time and not enough at other times. I think foxes should be fed morning and evening only about what they will eat. They should be given fresh water twice a day during the summer months and the water should not be given them in a shallow vessel, nothing lower than an ordinary bucket. They are sure to foul the water if they can get over or in it. Allow me to suggest to any one who contemplates raising foxes that one of the essential things to do is to first build a kennel in such a way that they will not gnaw or dig out. A safe fox pen can be built by putting a stone wall or concrete two feet down, setting posts first, then build wall around posts. Don't use any netting over two-inch mesh and the poultry netting should be made of No. 17 wire. Fox will tear the ordinary two-inch poultry netting as fast as you can put it on. My kennel is 50 feet by 25 feet and 7 feet high, covered over the top with ordinary poultry netting. One of the essential things to do after kennel is built is to see that it is properly underdrained and to see that plenty of dry leaves are put in kennel. Straw will do if leaves cannot be gotten. A mound of earth would be an excellent thing in each apartment of your kennels. Foxes are great to be constantly digging in the ground. Keep plenty of boxes in your kennel with a nice smooth hole in each box, as a rough hole destroys their fur. [Illustration: Yards of a Successful Maine Fox Farm.] A summary of the whole shows that the points most necessary of consideration for success is in proper feeding, in giving particular attention to the animals during the breeding season, in using special care to prevent them from being frightened and in the keeper winning the confidence of the captive animals. A careful study of their nature is advised and it should always be kept in mind that foxes are wild animals and therefore should have far more attention than is necessary with domestic animals. CHAPTER VI. SKUNK RAISING. There are but two species of skunk found in North America, namely, the common striped skunk and the small spotted skunk of the Central States,--commonly known as the "civet cat." This latter name is wrong as the real civet cat is an entirely different animal. It is with the true skunk that this article has to deal, and of this animal naturalists recognize several varieties, the only difference being in size and markings. They are found in all parts of the United States, with the exception of the bunch-grass plains and the mountainous district of the West. They occur again to the west of the mountain ranges and also are found in most parts of Southern Canada. They are found in the prairie country and in the hilly and mountainous districts of the East, and are at home in the "wilds" as well as in the thickly settled districts, however, they seem to thrive best in the farming sections and especially if the country is of a hilly nature. Their dens are located along the gravelly hillsides, quite often under the roots of trees and stumps but in the prairie they den along the washouts and creek banks. In thickly settled sections they frequently make their home under houses and outbuildings, showing practically no fear of man and often appropriate the den of the woodchuck. They are nocturnal animals and as a rule do not wander far from the den but in the fall they travel farther, looking for a good den in which to spend the winter. Again, in early spring during the mating season, the males travel considerably. While they are not a hibernating animal, they stay in the dens during cold weather, also when the snow is loose and deep, but are sure to be out on the first nice night. The mating season of this animal is in February and early March and the young are born mostly in May, although some will be born in April. There are usually from four to ten young in a litter but occasionally there will be a larger number. The value of a skunk skin depends mainly on its size and markings, they being graded by the buyers entirely by the amount of black fur, providing, of course, that the skin is prime and well handled. There is a considerable difference in respect to sizes and markings of the average catches of the various sections. From some parts of the country they will run quite large, in other parts small, and while in one section they will run perhaps ninety per cent. long stripes, in other parts of the country the black and short stripe grade predominates. Of course the skunks of the South are not as well furred as those found farther north. Being slow moving animals, they can not catch the more active animals and birds as do the other members of the weasel family and their food consists mainly of mice, insects and grubs, also on the eggs and young of such birds as nest on the ground. They are very fond of poultry and frequently visit the poultry houses, killing the young birds. They also feed on carrion. When they can get it they will eat almost any kind of animal food. Even in the wild state the skunk is not, strictly speaking, a carnivorous animal as they will eat and in fact are fond of sweet corn when in a milky state, also sweet potatoes, melons and wild fruits. They have no means of defense other than their scent, but this is sufficient in many cases and the majority of people will give them a wide berth. This scent is only used when alarmed or frightened and in captivity there is no trouble whatever from this source as they soon learn that there is no occasion for alarm and become quite tame. PAST EXPERIMENTS.--Beyond all doubt the skunk has been given more consideration by raisers of fur-bearers than any other animal, with the exception of the fox. There are many who have tried raising these animals with more or less success and where the experimenters have used good judgment and have given the subject all of the attention it deserves, they have been reasonably successful. Most of these people have started in on a small scale, having perhaps only a dozen or two of skunks to start with; in fact, nowhere has the business been carried on as extensively as some newspaper articles would lead one to believe; the majority of these parties having at the most only two or three hundred animals. One of the largest ranches was located in Eastern Pennsylvania, but for various reasons this venture was a failure. It is the smaller experimenters, in other words, those who have begun on a small scale, who have been most successful. They are for the most part trappers who had even before venturing into the business a fair knowledge of the nature and habits of the skunk and therefore were more qualified for making the business a successful one. Trappers naturally take an interest in all nature and are most likely to give the proper amount of attention to the animals, also learn their habits readily and act accordingly and these qualities are absolutely necessary for the successful raising of all fur-bearing animals. The most successful stock breeders are those who make a special study of their animals and take a great interest in them and those who do not are almost certain to fail and really deserve failure. If so much care is necessary in breeding domestic animals, how much more important the care in handling the wild creatures, knowing so little of them as the average man does. But even handicapped by lack of knowledge the experimenters have been fairly successful from the start if they were the right men for the business. Without exception they all report that the animals breed well in captivity and are easily kept; in a short time becoming quite tame and losing their fear of man. The skunk is an animal which is despised and feared by many people because of its readiness to make use of its powerful scent, the only means of defense with which nature has provided it, but it is only when frightened that it uses this scent and once they have become tame and learn that they will not be harmed they are practically harmless. We will say, however, to those who are afraid of the scent do not attempt to raise skunks, but devote your time to some other calling for which you are more fitted. It is true that the scent glands may be removed from the young animals but many of them will die from the operation and there is practically nothing gained; therefore, this practice is not advised. Those who have failed were for the most part people who knew nothing regarding the habits of the animal and its care when in captivity. They were men with capital, who began on a large scale expecting to make a fortune in a short time, but in this they were mistaken, for many of them lost all that they invested. These parties have had trouble from the older animals killing and eating the young, also from depredations of owls, but mainly from the first reason. It is our opinion that this cannibalistic tendency is caused by improper feeding, as those parties who have used care in that respect have had no trouble whatever. To those who are thinking of embarking in the business of skunk farming, we would say,--start on a small scale with only a small number of animals, say two dozen females and six males. Give them every possible attention and study them under all conditions. Do not expect to make a fortune in a short time. ENCLOSURES.--After you have decided on this business the first thing is to find the proper location and make a suitable enclosure. There should be a spring on, or a small stream crossing the ground to be inclosed, but at the same time the ground must not be wet; in fact, it should be of rather dry nature, so that there will not be too much dampness in the dens. There should be banks of earth for the animals to den in and the ground should have a gradual slope so that it will drain readily. If it is of a sandy nature it will be all the better. Some who have tried skunk farming have located the yards on the shore of a small lake or pond and have included a portion of the pond in the enclosure. This is a good idea and it will not be necessary to extend the fence very deep into the water, as the skunk is not a water animal and will not dive under; however, where the fence crosses a stream of running water the fence should reach to the bed of the stream as the water will fall considerably during dry weather. The enclosures should be large. When the animals are inclosed in small yards or pens they become infested with fleas, ticks, etc., and they do not do well. Such small enclosures will answer for a short time but as soon as possible they should be placed in a large roomy yard. For fencing material, galvanized wire netting of one-inch mesh is advised, as the young animals will escape through a two-inch mesh. The fence should be seven feet in height. Under ordinary conditions the skunk would not escape over a four-foot fence, but there is danger in winter from drifting snow, and dogs and other animals must be kept out at all times; therefore, the fence should be of the height mentioned and it must be turned in at the top or a sheet of tin placed along the edge to prevent the animals from climbing out. [Illustration: Corner of an Ohio Skunk Farm.] The interior of the enclosure should be divided into compartments, using the same material for the fences but they need not be so high. The largest compartment would be for the females and there should be a smaller one for the males, also one for the young animals after they have become large enough to take care of themselves. Some also make small yards in which to place the females, two or three together, after the young animals are born. The most of those who have tried skunk breeding, however, have not found this necessary, but there should always be a separate enclosure for the males. When the number of animals increases it will be necessary to have a few small breeding yards, large enough for ten or twelve animals. One need not, however, make such an elaborate enclosure in the start but can enlarge it as needed, adding more compartments. In each compartment a number of dens should be made by digging a trench and covering afterwards. While the animals will dig dens if necessary, they prefer even while in a wild state to use dens already made. Boxes, barrels or pens with board floors should not be used. Some of the successful ones claim that this has a tendency to cause a thick pelt and thin fur and say that it is absolutely necessary that they have natural dens in the ground. The dens should be made quite deep so that there will be no danger from frost in winter. FEEDING.--Skunks should have plenty of food especially during the summer and they should be fed at regular intervals, giving just enough for a meal each time. It is advisable to give a mixed diet, partly animal and partly vegetable. They will eat almost all kinds of flesh and fish, table scraps, fruits, especially if very ripe, melons, sweet potatoes, berries, etc. One of the most satisfactory foods is bread and milk, but it is considered too expensive by some people. However, it could be given occasionally. They are very fond of carrion, but such food should not be given, for it is likely to cause disease. If near a slaughter house one can get plenty of offal and in the country one can buy old, worn-out horses, etc., but one should remember that the skunk will consume an amazing amount of food. One party claims that three hundred skunk will eat two horses in a week. In the fall especially, when they are laying on fat for winter, they should have plenty of food. In winter they do not require so much. It should be remembered that it is a lack of food that causes them to eat their young and one should feed well during the spring and summer. Skunks feed largely on insects, grubs, etc., and it is to be regretted that one can not supply this food. They are fond of eggs, either fresh or spoiled, and should be given a feed of this kind occasionally if possible. They also have a fondness for poultry of all kinds. The matter of providing sufficient food is not as difficult as it would appear at first glance. If the farm is located near a large town or city, hotel and restaurant keepers will generally save table scraps, stale bread, etc., on request, if one will make a regular habit of calling for it. Even in the country the neighbors will help out. The farmers will be only too glad to have you take the dead stock, poultry, etc., thus saving them the time and labor of otherwise disposing of it. BREEDING.--As before stated the mating season comes late in February and in March and the young animals make their appearance in May. The period of gestation being about nine weeks. One male animal will easily serve eight or ten females and he should be left in their company a number of days. After that he should be removed and to make certain, another male should be installed for a few days. Two males should never be allowed with the females at one time or they will fight and one or both may be seriously injured. This is the plan which is used by the most successful skunk farmers and is recommended. Great care should be exercised in the selection of the males for breeding stock. Only the large and healthy animals of good color should be used and all others should be killed and their skins marketed while they are in good condition. While the animals do not always breed strictly true to color, the white markings may be greatly reduced and the general stock improved by selected breeding. One should, each year secure fresh breeding stock from other localities and related animals should not be allowed to breed together or in a few years the result will be disastrous. One can not be too careful in this respect for it is very important. After the mating season the females should be separated, placing three or four together in small enclosures and they should be well fed or otherwise they may kill and eat the young. They should be allowed to remain in these small enclosures until the young animals are large enough to take care of themselves, when they should be separated and the females may again be placed in the large enclosure. GENERAL INFORMATION.--From the commencement of the breeding season until late in the fall the animals require a larger amount of food than during the winter and especially during the breeding season and while the mother is still nursing the young they will require plenty of nourishing food. They require fresh drinking water at all times and the enclosures should be so arranged that each compartment will be supplied. As before stated one should use care in selecting animals for breeding purposes as it is in this way that the quality of the fur will be improved and the business made to be a profitable one. All small and weak animals and those showing considerable white fur, especially males should be killed off while the fur is in good condition. If you wish to increase the number of animals do not be tempted for the sake of the higher prices realized for the finer skins to kill off animals that should be kept for breeding. The animals should never be allowed to become frightened by the intrusion of dogs into the enclosure--dogs should be kept away at all times. The skunk raiser must watch closely at all times to see that the enclosure fences are in good shape so that the animals do not escape. If they are found digging holes near the fence, these holes should be filled up so as to discourage the workers. Fleas and other parasites are likely to bother the animals and they should have plenty of room so that they can change dens when the old habitations become infested with vermin. On the whole, one should study the habits of the animals on every opportunity and attend to their wants. If one will give the proper attention to the animals and take an interest in them there is no reason why he should not succeed. CHAPTER VII. MINK RAISING. There is only one species of mink found in North America, altho there are a number of varieties differing in size, color and quality of fur. Thus we find in Northern Maine and New Brunswick a very small variety having a fine silky fur of a very dark shade; farther west and south a somewhat larger variety, paler in color, and thruout the Mississippi valley and parts of the south, also parts of Western Canada, a very large mink is found, but running quite pale, and the fur somewhat coarser than the northeastern varieties. Again, on parts of the Pacific Coast, a very small and poorer quality are found, and the mink from the lower Yukon River of Alaska are said to be of very poor quality. One or more varieties are found in almost every part of the United States, Canada and Alaska. Wherever there is running water their tracks may be seen; but they seem to prefer the smaller streams, as a rule, and they will be found as plentiful in the thickly settled parts as in the wilderness. Mink are great travelers, but each individual animal has his regular route and seldom ventures far out of his course. While they travel streams and lake shores as much as possible, they do not hesitate to leave the stream and cut across country in order to reach some other water-course. During the mating season they also wander away from the streams more than at other times. While they are always found in the neighborhood of fresh water, they are not a water animal, and in following a stream, always run on the bank, but usually as near to the water as possible. In the thickly settled districts where the most valuable fur-bearing animals, such as the silver foxes, otters, etc., are not to be found, the mink is the most valuable and is eagerly sought by the trappers. The fur is at its best during the first two months after it becomes prime, which in the north will be about November 1st, and in the south perhaps a month later. After the first two months, the fur commences to fade, especially where the country is open and the animal is exposed to the bright light, for the mink is not, strictly, a nocturnal animal. The darkest skins come, as a rule, from the timbered parts of the country. While the female is smaller than the male, she is also darker, and the skins have about an equal value. The food of the mink consists mostly of rabbits, partridges, quail, squirrels, muskrats, mice, fish, frogs, birds' eggs, etc. While they will eat stale meat, if hungry, they prefer strictly fresh food. Occasionally they will pay a visit to the poultry house, for like most animals of the weasel family, they have a decided liking for the domesticated birds. They are very fond of fish, and when same may be secured easily, they will kill large numbers, merely for the sake of killing. They are active and hardy little animals, apparently almost tireless, as they will travel long distances in a night. They are perhaps most active during the fall months, and in the north they travel very little during the cold part of winter. The burrow or den of the mink is usually located in the high bank of some stream, but they frequently inhabit deserted dens of other animals, but always near the water. It is in these dens that the female and her offspring spend the summer months, never straying far from home. The first two weeks of March is the minks' season for mating, and the young--from four to six--are born about six weeks later. When confined in enclosures where the diet, water and temperature are similar with each animal, there is so little difference in the time of mating and bearing their young, that five or six litters may make their appearance within twelve hours of each other. The young are blind from four to five weeks, but are very active and as playful as kittens. The mother weans them when they are eight or ten weeks old. At about four weeks the mother begins to feed them meat, and they learn to suck at it before they have teeth to eat it. The young are fed by the mother on frogs, fish, mice, etc., until they are three or four months old, when she leaves them to shift for themselves. The young soon separate and do their hunting alone. They do not pair and the male is a rover and "free lover." Mink are extremely cleanly and as soon as the den becomes foul, the mother moves the family to some other nest. MINK BREEDING.--There are a great many readers of the H-T-T who live in the city, that long for some way to profitably spend their idle time. I will give a successful way of breeding mink, according to Mr. Boughton's Guide: "Wild adult mink are almost untamable, but young ones readily submit to handling and are easily domesticated. The time to secure young mink is in May or June when they begin to run with their dams. The streams must be quietly watched for mink trails, and these, if possible, tracked to the nest. When they leave the hole, the young ones may be secured, or they may be dug out. Those who own a breeding stock of mink ask very high prices for them, but if the aforesaid plan is carried out, it is an easy matter to get the young wild ones. "MANAGEMENT OF MINK.--Mink being by nature solitary, wandering animals, being seldom seen in company except in mating season, it is impossible to rear them successfully if large numbers are kept together constantly; therefore, their enclosure should be a large one. The male and the female should be permitted to be together frequently from the middle of February until the middle of March. At all other times keep them entirely separate. "About this season the mink should be allowed plenty of fine grass, which they will carry into their boxes to make their nests out of. A box 3 or 4 feet long and 18 inches wide is the shape they prefer. It should be placed as far as possible from the water to prevent the mink from carrying mud and water into it. The young mink, when first born, are small and delicate, destitute of any kind of fur and much resemble young rats. If the old mink is tame, the young ones may be taken out of the nest and handled when they are three weeks old. They will soon learn to drink milk, and may be fed every day. At three weeks of age they may be taken from their mother and put into a pen by themselves, and then they will soon become very playful, are pretty, and make much better mothers than they would if allowed to run with the old one." The shelter should be in the shape of a long box, 5 or 6 feet wide and 3 or 4 feet high, set upon legs, with a good floor and roof. Divide into separate apartments 6 feet long (longer would be better), the front of each apartment to be furnished with a swinging door of strong screen wire, with hinges at the top, and a latch on the bottom. A trough 6 inches square, should run the entire length of pen at rear side; one end of the trough should be made several inches lower than the other, so that the water could be drawn off. With this arrangement the water can be turned in at one end of trough, and be drawn off and changed as often as desired. The lower end of the trough should be a little deeper than the other end to prevent the water from running over. Each apartment is furnished with a box 3 feet long and 13 inches wide. On one side of the box, and near one end is made a round hole about 4 inches in diameter, and provided with a sliding cover, so by means of a stick it can be opened or closed from the outside. This is so the mink can be closed up while the pen is being cleaned. [Illustration: Mink Enclosure in Detail.] On the top of the box and at the other end should be a door large enough to put in grass, straw, etc., for the nest, and take out young. It is necessary that they have an abundance of pure soft water, fresh air, desirable shade and plenty of exercise. These conditions secure for the mink a good quality of dark fur and good health. Brush, weeds, etc., are allowed to grow up in the yard, but not near enough to the fence to admit of their climbing up and out. The fence for the enclosure should be of poultry netting of one-inch mesh. If of larger mesh the young animals will escape. The general plan for the fence should be the same as described under the heading, "Enclosures." There should be separate apartments for the males and females, and also some smaller breeding pens. As it is not advisable to attempt handling the animals, each compartment should be provided with a small gate so that the animals may be driven from one pen to the other. During the breeding season, and afterwards, while the young animals are under the care of the mother, the same general methods of handling as is recommended in skunk raising, should be adopted. At all times, plenty of fresh water must be provided, and the enclosures should be so arranged that the water will be distributed to all parts. While the mink is always found near the water, it is not a water animal, as is the muskrat, and a large body of same is not needed. A spring or a small stream is all that is needed; and a pond may be dug in each of the large enclosures. Careful and regular feeding is advised. The mink is strictly a carnivorous animal, and always prefers fresh food. The matter of supplying sufficient food will be more difficult than in the case of the skunk and muskrat. As they are fond of fish, if one is near a place where they may be obtained, the feeding will be comparatively easy. They should not, however, be fed on fish alone. An occasional fowl will be acceptable, also rabbit, muskrat, etc. The natural home and breeding place of the mink is near the water. Their den is often under an old stump, tree or in some drift pile. The nest where the young are born generally being in the ground. When the animals become tame enough, the raiser should provide dens similar to those used in their wild state. These can be made by burying tile in the ground and in other ways making artificial burrows. A few hollow logs placed in the enclosure would be enjoyed by the animals. Many report that the males kill the young. This should be guarded against by keeping the males separate. Some hesitate about starting a "minkery" for fear that the animals will not fur properly. There is no danger on that point if properly fed, watered and given homes in keeping with those they lived in when roving at their own free will. This only brings out more forcibly the fact that those who are going to be the most successful mink raisers should have a natural aptitude for the business--trappers, hunters, animal lovers, etc. Who has made the greatest success at raising stock in your neighborhood--the man who loves stock or someone who thought they saw a fortune in the business but neither loved animals or knew anything about them? We venture the answer, without fear of contradiction, that it has been the party who loves and delights in stock. Remember, this applies to fur animals as well as horses, sheep and cattle. CHAPTER VIII. OPOSSUM RAISING. The opossum is a southern animal and is found in abundance in most parts of the Southern States. In late years they have been moving farther northward and are now found, though not numerous, as far north as Central Pennsylvania; but are found most plentifully in the wooded portions of the South, where they are such a common animal as to be well known to all. They are slow moving and inoffensive, having no means of defense whatever. When approached, they make a great show by opening the mouth, and present a rather fierce appearance, but when touched by man or animal, they pretend to be dead, and this very characteristic habit has given rise to the expression, "playing 'possum." While the opossum is a nocturnal animal, it is sometimes seen in daylight, but this is of rare occurrence. They do not hibernate but will remain in the dens during cold weather, and do not like to roam about when the leaves are dry and rustly. The dens are, as a rule, located in the ground, under a rock, log or tree, and are quite shallow; the nest at the extremity being lined with leaves or grass. They also den in hollow logs and stumps occasionally, and in natural openings in rock bluffs. The young of this animal are born in the last half of April and the beginning of May, the number of young varying from six to twelve, and sometimes even more. When born they are very small and imperfectly formed and are immediately placed by the mother in the pouch on her belly, where they remain until they have attained a perfect form and have become large enough to walk about. After being placed in the pouch, they attach themselves to the teats of the mother, and remain in that condition until they have become large enough to move about. On leaving the pouch, they quite often ride about, when tired, on the mother's back, holding fast by winding their tails about that of the parent. They will reach their full growth within a year, if the conditions are favorable--that is, if they have plenty of food, etc. In captivity, when well cared for, they attain considerable size by midwinter. The opossum is omnivorous, feeding alike on animal and vegetable food, but it prefers flesh to fruit. They feed on carrion, and on any small animal which their slow movements will allow of capturing, also on eggs and young birds, for they are good climbers. They are quite fond of wild fruits, such as persimmons, polk berries, apples and paw-paws; also of certain vegetables, especially onions. They also eat mice, insects, etc. Opossums are hunted extensively in the South, and when pursued they usually climb the nearest tree, unless they are close to the den. As an article of food they are highly esteemed, especially by the colored people, and find a ready sale in the market. While the fur of this animal is not, strictly speaking, a valuable one, to the prospective fur-farmer it is well worth considering, especially if located near a market. At present prices the young animals by midwinter, will average a dollar each in value, when selling both the skin and carcass. The ease with which they may be raised is also an important factor, so that on the whole, in many sections, they will be found to be a profitable animal to handle. Opossums are fairly good climbers and the enclosure should have a wide strip of tin around, as described elsewhere in the chapter on Enclosures. They will also gnaw out of wooden enclosures if there is a crack or any chance to get a start. They will readily climb out of the enclosure if made of wood unless covered or at least partially covered. There has been no better or cheaper material found for constructing fences for opossum raising purposes than galvanized wire. They are not much given to digging and the wire need not be buried very deep in the earth. If the ground is solid, 18 inches will be deep enough. The animals, if properly fed, watered and cared for, will soon become accustomed to their quarters, and make little or no effort to escape. The young will become tame and quite playful. The natural home of the opossum can be described as south of a line drawn west from New York City through Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio and Indiana, south of Chicago, through Iowa near Des Moines, and into Nebraska near Omaha, extending about half way into Nebraska, then South through Kansas, all of Oklahoma and the lowlands or the Eastern half of Texas. The opossum is not a cold weather animal, and in its wild state would freeze if it inhabited territory much farther north than the northern boundary of the line shown. A severe winter a few years ago, is said to have frozen large numbers in their dens in Southern Ohio, Pennsylvania, and parts of West Virginia, Indiana and Illinois. In their natural or wild state, they often hole up in shallow dens, old logs, trees, etc., and while they are endowed with the instinct of "playing 'possum" when injured, their instinct along other lines seems very shallow, as they do not always know enough to "get in out of the cold;" in other words, on the approach of severe winter weather, they do not all seek deep dens where the ground does not freeze. While the natural home of the opossum is in the section as outlined, there is no reason why they cannot be successfully raised hundreds of miles north of their northern limit. The thing to guard against will be freezing. The raiser must see that they have good and deep burrows--deep enough that the ground will never freeze to their nest. They should have plenty of leaves in their nest. If the enclosure is in a thicket, and there are trees within and leaves near, the animals will no doubt carry an abundance of leaves into their dens for nests. If there are no trees in the enclosure, see that a supply is furnished each den before freezing weather in the Fall. The opossum is going to become one of the important animals in fur-farming for various reasons: They are prolific breeders, bringing forth from 6 to 12 at a litter; grow rapidly; are easily fed and eat a great variety of food. [Illustration: Ideal Spot for an Opossum or Raccoon Fur Farm.] The opossum raiser has two sources of revenue--fur and carcass. There is a ready market for the carcasses in all cities. The grower should make arrangements with butchers and others to take so many carcasses on a certain date. The fur is at its best from about Thanksgiving to the middle of February. Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Years are three holidays when the fur will be prime and the meat in demand. In cities like New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Columbus, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Chicago, Milwaukee, Omaha, Des Moines, Kansas City, St. Louis, etc., a market can be had in each for large quantities at each of these holidays, as well as considerable quantities each week during the winter months. In the smaller places, from 5000 up, there will be found a demand for the meat, so that the market for the carcasses as well as fur, is one that will always be open. Prices at which the carcasses sell will of course vary, depending to some extent upon the supply of other meats, as well as the times, etc. When it is taken into consideration that the litters are large; that they eat cheap food; their growth is rapid and that the pelt is extra, does not this animal promise to lead as a money maker over some of the other and higher priced fur-producers? In the latitude of West Virginia, the young are born about the middle of April. In two months, or by June fifteenth, they are about the size of rats and always "gaining." Six months later, or December fifteenth, if well fed and cared for, they will weigh from nine to fifteen pounds. By this it will be seen that at only eight months old--born April fifteenth and killed December fifteenth--they have attained sizes ranging from medium to large. The males should be kept by themselves, at least from the time the young are born, until they are two months of age or older. The female, with her large family, should be given plenty of food from the time the young are a few days old until weaned, as she requires a great deal of food to satisfy her cravings and to supply the numerous young. As the severe weather is over by the time the young are born, very good places for the old can be made in boxes, old logs and the like. These should be so placed and constructed that food can be given to the female handily, so as not to disturb her and the young more than necessary. CHAPTER IX. MUSKRAT RAISING. The muskrat is one of our most common fur-bearing animals and is found in greater numbers than any other animal, notwithstanding its fur is very popular and is gradually increasing in value. Muskrats are found throughout the greater part of the United States and Canada, but for various reasons are more plentiful in certain sections. Being water animals they are found in greater numbers in marshy places, on ponds and lakes and sluggish rivers, but also thrive and are found in fair numbers on the smaller and more rapid streams. They are very plentiful in Western Canada and especially in the marshy country lying west of Hudson's Bay. In the salt water marshes of Delaware and Maryland they are probably found in greater numbers than in any other part of the world. There, hundreds of the houses of these little creatures may be seen in every direction. It is said that the value of the catch from Dorchester County, Md., will usually run to $20,000 a year and in some seasons reaches almost to $50,000. The number of animals required to reach such a figure must necessarily be very large and the number of muskrats found in that locality may be judged from the fact that the open season for these animals and the only time of year when they are trapped, is during the months of January, February and March. They are also very plentiful in the marshes along the western shore of Lake Erie and about Lake Champlain. They are not found on parts of the Pacific Coast and portions of the South and never range south of the State of Arizona. While there is only one species of the muskrat, naturalists find several varieties differing mainly in size and color. For instance, there is the southern muskrat, which is comparatively small and is dull sooty in color, found in the lower Mississippi Valley and along the coasts of Mississippi and Alabama; then there is the Dismal Swamp Muskrat of the Dismal Swamp, Va., which is larger, darker and richer colored than the common variety and has larger teeth. In Labrador a small and very dark variety is found. The muskrat of the Northwest, while of the same variety as those of the Central and Eastern districts, are small and thin skinned and as a consequence are less valuable. What causes this difference in size is not known, but it is supposed to be due either to the presence of alkali in most of the Northwestern waters or to the scanty and poor quality of its natural food. [Illustration: Fur Farm on Open Ground near a Farmhouse.] The popularity of muskrat fur is on the increase, while large numbers are exported to foreign countries, it is being more and more used in the United States and Canada. At present it is much used for lining ladies coats and its rich appearance when used in this way seems certain to increase its popularity. It is also dyed and is then known as electric seal and French seal. The great demand for the fur during the past two seasons has resulted in such persistent hunting and trapping that the number of animals in many sections has decreased visibly and as a consequence the spring catch has been comparatively light. Just before this book went to press, considerable inquiry was made about the supply of raw fur the past season. The general report was that the catch of Spring Rats in 1909 was perhaps not more than 25% what it was the year prior. The fall catch of 1908 and the winter catch of 1908-9 was quite heavy. From this it appears that the high prices of muskrat during the months of October, November and December, 1908, caused an unusual number of hunters and trappers to seek these animals. The consequence being that they were caught off much closer than ever before. To further bear this out, dealers say that in many of the Central States where last year they collected 20,000 during March and April, this year they only secured 4000 or 5000. Trappers say that there are very few muskrats left in certain localities. This shows that continued trapping will practically exterminate the muskrat. Along the Atlantic Coast south from New York for hundreds of miles the marshes along the coast, bays, rivers and creeks are literally alive with muskrats. The marsh owners farm out the "rat catching" privileges, usually on the halves. The State of Delaware protects the rats some eight or nine months each year. There are laws in several other states protecting these animals. A few states prohibit the destroying of rat houses at all times. While hundreds of people follow rat catching along the marshes the owners and state see that enough are left for breeding and replenishing the marshes. They get their food from the flags and other weeds largely, which flourish in these swamps. Fifty acres of "swamp" has been known to furnish 2000 rats or fifty per acre year after year. In this section black muskrats are not uncommon, the catch some seasons running as high as 40% black, but as a rule it is lower. What causes this strange color phase is unknown. Black muskrats are met with occasionally in other sections but nowhere is the proportion as large as along the East Coast. What nature in a way does for the muskrat in the Eastern swamps, fur raisers can help to accomplish in hundreds of localities throughout America. There are scores of ponds, small lakes, swamps, etc., in practically all states where the muskrat is found that can be made to yield large profits from muskrats. They are easily raised, in fact, will raise themselves if given "half a chance." There is no doubt whatever that the fur of this animal will steadily increase in value. While there will be fluctuations as in the past, we do not believe that prices will ever go as low as they were some years ago. Our conclusions in this are based on the fact that the catch is growing smaller and the popularity of furs for wearing apparel and especially muskrat fur, is steadily increasing, also the population of all countries grows larger each year and there is bound to be a steady demand for furs. Another thing worthy of consideration is the fact that the flesh of the muskrat has become a very popular dish in many of the Eastern cities and there is a market for the carcass of the animal. The trappers of Maryland and Delaware find ready sale for the flesh. The muskrats found on the East Coast as well as those found in the marshes and the shallow lakes and ponds of other parts of the country are of the house building kind. It should be understood, however, that the muskrat living in houses and those living in burrows in the banks of streams are the same variety, their different, styles of habitation being due to the different conditions of their respective locations. Where streams are swift or where there is danger of the houses being carried away by freshets, they dig burrows in the bank, making the entrance below the surface of the water. These burrows extend sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet into the bank and the interior chamber is sometimes quite large. Along the streams of the farming sections, much damage is done by muskrats because of these burrows. The houses of the marsh-dwellers are composed of grass and flags, grass roots, mud, etc. They are of cone shaped structure and to those unacquainted with the animals, they are simply piles of grass and weeds in the water, for that is what they resemble. The entrances to these houses are always deep under water. It is said that the muskrats build their houses with thicker walls when they feel instinctively that an unusually severe winter is approaching. [Illustration: Muskrat House in a Marsh.] In addition to the house the animals build small feeding places near by. These feed beds as they are called, are constructed in the same way as the houses, but only rise to the level of the water. These beds are the dining rooms of the muskrats, for to them they bring all of their food so that they may have a place to rest while they are enjoying their meal. They also have like the raccoon, a habit of washing their food before they will eat it. The muskrat is a vegetarian and seldom eats any animal food. In the wild state their natural food is grass and roots, fruit, grain and clams or mussels. They are also fond of parsnips, carrots, artichokes, white flag roots, wild rice, pond lily roots, sweet corn and pumpkin, and will eat almost all kinds of vegetables. It will be seen that in captivity the food problem would be easily solved. They are very fond of wild rice, and those who have ponds suitable for muskrats and are contemplating the raising of these animals would do well to sow them with wild rice. The rice may be obtained from almost any of the seed houses and it will grow in six or eight feet of water. They are also fond of pumpkins and it is a cheap and satisfactory food. Some of them will lay up stores of food for winter, but they do not all do this. Where the streams are rapid they can get out to hunt for food at almost all times, and where they are located on lakes and marshes that freeze over in winter they can find plenty of food in the water under the ice. This food is taken to the feed bed to be eaten. In early spring the warmth from their bodies will sometimes thaw a hole through the ice over the bed and the muskrat stops this hole with grass roots, etc. The trapper is looking for just such places and it is the bunch of grass roots on the ice that gives them away. The steel trap is soon in place, awaiting the coming of the animal, and many of them are trapped in this way. The breeding habits of the muskrat are different from those of other fur-bearing animals, as they will have three litters in a season. The first are born in April, and there will be from six to nine young. It is claimed that the female of the first litter will also bear young that season and this accounts for the small rats, or kits, caught during the fall season. It would appear from this that the animals should increase in numbers very rapidly, but they have many enemies other than man, and perhaps one-half of the muskrats born in a season never reach maturity. With the exception of man, their greatest enemies are the birds of prey, such as owls, hawks, buzzards, etc., but chiefly the owl, as it is a nocturnal bird and has a fine opportunity to capture the unwary. The fox frequently makes a capture, as does also the mink and otter. It is a deplorable fact that there is a large proportion of small animals in the trapper's catch. These are the young muskrats, for while they grow rapidly the first summer, it requires several years for them to attain full size, yet they class as No. 1 the first season. The old animals are larger and their fur is more valuable than that of the young. For those who raise the animals there would be less trouble from catching young and immature rats. Muskrats do not become fully prime until midwinter and many of them are not strictly number one until March. When fully prime the skin will be of a cream or pink color, with no dark spots showing. Winter caught skins will have a number of dark spots, while those taken in the fall have a very pronounced stripe or two on the back. Along the Atlantic Coast for many years land owners have rented the rat catching privileges to "ratters" on shares, which is generally one-half of the catch. The "ratters" only trap when the fur is at its best, so that the supply is holding out. On lands "free for all" the rats are thinned out. During recent years, property owners in various rat producing sections have awakened to the fact that their "swampy land" is of more value for the animal fur harvest than for any other purpose. Muskrats are easily raised and increase rapidly. They often make their homes in the banks of canals, fish ponds, etc., coming from nearby waters of their own accord. These places seem to be ideal places for muskrats and instead of their leaving they remain year after year, even though they are trapped and the property owners resort to other means endeavoring to get rid of them. Muskrats are not afraid of civilization, and do well in thickly settled sections where there are rivers, creeks, lakes, ponds, marshes, etc. They seem to do well in their natural state where they have water and feed and on some ponds hundreds are caught annually. As already mentioned, these animals need little care. If the waters where the animals are is naturally productive of muskrat food, the animals will take care of themselves unless the numbers are too large and they consume the entire food supply. The raisers should guard against this by feeding, as the natural supply should be protected so as to help furnish the food supply year after year. Lakes, ponds, etc., that abound in wild rice, flags, lilies, etc., make an ideal home for muskrats, as they are fond of both the wild rice seed and roots, as well as the roots of flags and lilies, on which they feed when the surface is frozen over. Artichokes should also be started, as muskrats are fond of them. Those who expect to raise this fur-bearer should take into consideration that little or no fencing is required on lakes, ponds and creeks if proper feed grows there. If the feed is not there the prospective raiser should see that it is started at once by sowing wild rice seed, transplanting some flags and lily roots to his muskrat waters. In fact, the prospective muskrat raiser should have the food supply well under way before the rats are brought or secured or they will destroy it. There are no doubt hundreds of places that can be converted into ideal "muskrat preserves" by a little work. Low, marshy land on which the water is not deep enough to be dammed. Such a place would require a wire fence around it. Perhaps the best way would be to place the fence several rods back from the water, as there would then be no danger of the animals burrowing under. The fence should be of five-foot wire, one foot in the ground. Where the fence crosses any inlets or outlets, the wire should be put much deeper for two rods or more on each side and it would be well to place flat stones in the bottom of the trench, as shown and described in the chapter on Enclosures. CHAPTER X. RACCOON RAISING. The raccoon is closely allied to the bears, although much smaller. Like them it possesses an omnivorous appetite, is plantigrade, and hibernates during cold weather. It is found throughout the Southern, Central and Eastern States, and in Southern Ontario and Nova Scotia. It is also found in good numbers on the Pacific coast, northward into British Columbia; but they are found in greatest numbers in the extreme South of the United States, and especially in Florida, Louisiana and the lowlands of Arkansas and Texas. Their natural home is in the heavily timbered parts, but they are also found in the sparsely wooded bottom lands of the Central States. They den, as a rule, in hollow trees, well up from the ground, and seldom if ever in a tree which has a continuous hollow and an opening at the bottom, preferring a hollow, broken off limb, or a hole in the trunk, high up on the tree. In some places they den in natural caves in the rocks, and in the western part of their range, it is said that they sometimes occupy dens in some high and dry bank of earth. During the mating season the males travel considerably, and will, when daylight approaches, seek a place of rest in any hollow tree that is to be found, or failing to find this, may spend the day in a hollow log or under a stump. The mating season comes mainly, late in February or early in March, and the young, from four to six in number, are born in April and the beginning of May. They remain with the parents for some time during the summer, but will find a den for themselves as soon as possible. However, they will be found, the first season, in the near vicinity of the parents' den. The food of the coon is variable, to conform with conditions of different sections, but wherever found, they feed on both vegetable and animal food. Fish, frogs, crawfish, clams, eggs of birds, and turtles; water snails, wild fruits, such as grapes and berries, nuts, acorns, etc., are all eaten with a relish. They are especially fond of corn when in the milky state, and in late summer they feed on it extensively. They are fond of poultry, also of honey, and will dig out the nests of bumble bees when they find them, for the sake of the little bit of "sweet" which is found therein. They are nocturnal animals and are seldom seen by daylight. In their travels they follow the streams mostly, and catch fish by feeling under the stones in shallow water. Whenever possible, they wash their food before eating. The raccoon has a peculiar cry, which is heard sometimes, on still nights, during the summer. It is a quavering note somewhat resembling that of the screech owl, but lower and softer, and seems to come from a distance, though really close by. To one inexperienced in the ways of this animal, the cry would not be recognized. The fur of the raccoon meets with ready sale at fair prices, and there is also sale for the flesh in many markets. There is considerable difference in color in individual animals, some of them being very dark, and others quite pale. Of course the northern animals are more heavily furred than those of the south. The darker and larger specimens, as a rule, are secured in the northern states--New York, Pennsylvania, Northern Ohio, Northern Indiana, Northern Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Northwest. The greatest numbers, but smaller and lighter colored, are secured from the southern states, those bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, and Kentucky. While raccoon can be raised in nearly all parts of America, the best furred specimens can only be raised where the climate is productive of good fur,--say north of 40 degrees. This would be on a line passing through Philadelphia, south of Pittsburg, just north of Columbus, through Central Indiana and Illinois, northern Missouri, boundary between Kansas and Nebraska, north of Denver, and on to the Pacific Ocean. It is not meant that coon cannot be profitably raised south of this line indicated, for they can. The chances, however, are that far south of the line mentioned, the skins would not be as valuable and being nearer the coon-producing section, there would not be as ready a market for the carcasses. The coon raiser should secure good dark males and females for breeding purposes, from northern sections. If unable to do this, a good male or two crossed with the females, would help to produce larger and darker animals. This is important, as the larger and darker the pelt, the more valuable, and the larger the carcass the more it brings. That raccoons do well in captivity is well known from the many kept in zoos, parks, etc. Countless numbers have been caught while young, when they soon become tame and interesting pets. Even those caught when grown, soon become accustomed to their owners and keepers. They can be handled and become amusing pets. They know strangers and will often put their paws over their eyes and look between their toes, thinking perhaps, that the stranger cannot see them, while their paws are over their eyes. Large numbers of raccoons could be raised by fencing in a piece of woods, embracing a few acres, with a creek running through. If the fence was considerable distance from the edge of the woods, it is doubtful if the animals would make much effort to escape. The places they would be apt to frequent the most, would be where the stream entered and left the enclosure. At these places the fence should be extra high, strong and secure. The raccoon and opossum farmer have a double advantage where their "farm" is situated near a city. First, if the fur farm is one containing a large number of animals, the supplying of food will be quite a problem and the city offers a means of plenty and cheap food for your animals, such as offals from slaughter houses and other feed. Second, the city offers a market for the meat at "killing time". While raccoon will eat decayed meat to some extent, it should be furnished them fresh, in which condition it is much better for them. Most animals will eat carrion, yet it is doubtful if it is advisable to feed when in such condition. Putrid flesh is unhealthy and some claim, causes fur-bearing animals to become affected with mange. Raccoon are naturally a clean animal, and in their wild state are particular that their food is clean. They seldom, if ever, eat left-over food or flesh that has become tainted. [Illustration: Barrel Shelter for Female and Young.] That raccoon raising promises well is borne out from the fact that they are easily handled, eat a variety of food easily secured, and their fur and meat both have a ready cash market. The pelt of a full grown and dark raccoon is worth from $1.00 to $2.00, depending upon the section; to this add from 40c to 75c for the carcass and it will be seen that the raccoon brings to its owner $1.40 to $2.50 or upwards. This price is for the better grade. The smaller and lighter colored skins from the more southerly sections, will perhaps only bring two-thirds as much--75 cents to $1.50 for the pelts and 25 to 50 cents for the carcass. At what other "branch of farming" is there greater profit? No one is going to become immensely rich "at coon raising" in a few years, but if they enter the business and give the same attention and care to it that they would to poultry, sheep, horses and cattle, there is reason to believe that the profits will be as large if not larger. Again, the person who loves the handling of fur-bearing animals will be making his living at the business he enjoys most. [Illustration: Fur Farm on Open Ground.] Those who expect to raise coon in a small enclosure, should have the wire turned in several feet at the top, or the chances are they will follow along the under side to the edge and thus escape. In the enclosure for raccoon, the strip of tin around the fence some three or four feet high is strongly recommended. There should be some logs, dens, and low, branchy trees for the animals to play in is to their liking. The more homelike their enclosure, the sooner they become contented. This means that they grow faster, which is all to the financial interest of the coon raiser. An enclosure of several acres for coon, taking in trees suitable for dens, could be used for fox raising as well. The coon would raise their young in the "den trees" and therefore would not bother the foxes, as those having young would be in pens. The male foxes having access to the entire enclosure might steal the feed for the female coon left at the roots of the den trees. Should there be trouble on this point, the food could be placed on a platform against the body of the tree out of reach of the foxes. CHAPTER XI. THE BEAVER AND OTTER. These two very important fur-bearing animals were once quite numerous throughout practically the whole of the United States and Canada, but because of the persistency with which they were hunted, have become rare in many of the sections where they were once found in abundance. Especially is this true of the beaver. Almost all of the states in which beavers are still found, as well as the various provinces of Canada, have made laws to protect these animals, but they are still hunted and trapped, and the day is not far distant when the beaver will be extinct. The otter is a more wary animal than the beaver, and as a consequence will linger within the bounds of civilization long after the beaver has disappeared, but for all this they are becoming very rare in most of the settled sections. As these animals both belong to different orders and their habits are entirely different, it will be necessary to take up each separately. THE BEAVER.--As before mentioned, the beaver has become extinct in many sections where it was once found, and at present they are practically confined to Canada, Alaska, the Northern States and the Western mountain regions. A few are still found in the more isolated portions of the South, but there they are quite rare except in a few small sections. Thruout the Central and many of the Eastern and Southern States, they have entirely disappeared. There is only one species of the beaver, but there are several varieties, all of which are very much alike in appearance and the habits of all are the same, except where it is changed because of difference in food, climate, etc. The beaver has always been an interesting animal, not only to those directly interested in furs, but to all others, and practically everybody knows something regarding the habits of the animal. One of their most remarkable habits is that of building dams on the stream, or at the outlet of the pond or lake on which they are located. These dams are intended to regulate the height of the water. They will vary from two to five feet in height, and from twenty to one hundred yards in length, according to the size of the stream and the nature of the shores. The dams are composed of sticks and chunks of wood, stones, sods, etc. They always watch the dam closely and keep it in repair, and each fall it is strengthened by adding new material. In addition to the main dam there are, as a rule, one or more smaller dams built lower down stream. What these small dams are for is not known for a certainty, but sometimes, when the lower dam backs the water up to the large one, the beavers will, in the fall after the ice has formed, dig a passage through the upper dam, which allows the water to fall and leaves an air space between the water and the ice, and it is perhaps for this reason that the smaller dams are constructed. Somewhere on the edge of the pool where the water is not too deep, the beavers make their lodge, or house. These houses sometimes rise eight feet above the water and will measure fifteen feet in diameter. They are constructed of the same materials as used for the dam, and are always repaired and strengthened before freezing weather comes. There are two entrances to the house and they are always located deep under water. The food of the beaver consists principally of bark of poplar, birch, willow, cottonwood, alder and wild cherry. They are also fond of the roots of the water lily. In the South it is said that they quite often feed on corn, when located near the farms. They would doubtless eat many kinds of roots and vegetables if same could be procured. In some few sections, where the nature of the stream is such that houses and dams are not a success, the beavers live in holes in the bank of the stream and are called "bank beavers"; however, they are the same variety as the house building kind. In the Northern districts, where the ponds are covered with ice six months of the year, the beavers spend the entire winter under the ice. For this long period of imprisonment they must lay up a large store of food. This food consists of small, green saplings and brush, cut into suitable lengths and stored under water, in front of the house. They eat only the bark and the peeled sticks are used to repair the house and dam. The young beavers are born in April and May and there are usually only two at a birth, but sometimes there will be three. These young animals remain two years with the parents, so that a full family will consist of the two old ones, two or three medium size and two or three small beavers. However, there are "bachelor beavers", old males who always live alone, and have a small house somewhere along the shore of a stream or pond. It was the beaver that was most sought by the early trappers, for the fur was more in demand than the fur of any other animal. At present it is not as popular as in days of old, but we do not believe that its value will decrease, as the catch becomes lighter each succeeding year. The skins do not become prime as early as those of some other animals, but are in good condition in advance of the muskrat. The fur of the beaver, otter, muskrat and bear remains in good condition until late in the spring. During the summer months many of the beavers travel about on the streams and if a house is found at this time it may be deserted, or at the best, only one or two animals will be found there. As fall approaches, they all return to the lodge and from that time until the water is frozen they will be hard at work laying up the winter's store of food. THE OTTER.--The otter is occasionally met with in almost all parts of North America, in some places fairly plentiful, in others very rare, but they are found in greatest numbers in the swamps of some of the Southern States, and in the wilder portions of Canada, Alaska and Newfoundland. There are two species, the common otter and the sea otter, which latter is only found in the North Pacific and is now quite rare. Of the common otter there are some three or four varieties, differing only in size and color. The habits of the otter are very little known by the average man, and many of the trappers know little about this animal. They are rambling animals, traveling the streams and lakes for great distances. They will travel sometimes ten or fifteen miles to visit some certain lake and perhaps will only stay there over night. Again, if undisturbed, they may remain for a month or more on some small pond. They are on very friendly terms with the beaver and will frequently spend several weeks or months with a beaver family, apparently living in the same house. If an otter knows the location of two or more families of beavers, it will spend practically all of its time with one or other of the beaver families, or may make frequent visits from one to the other. The otter is an exceedingly active animal and is so much at home in the water that it is able to catch fish with ease, and they are its principal food. Where fish are plentiful, they will kill them merely for pleasure, and what they can not eat, they will store up in some little bay or inlet along the shore. These, however, are not placed there for future use, as the otter will only eat food that is strictly fresh. Besides fish, they also eat large numbers of frogs, which are easily secured. They also eat muskrats and sometimes surprise these animals by coming up into the houses from below, thus preventing the inmates from escaping. The otter does not travel much on land, except when crossing country from one lake or stream to another. Their bodies being long and their legs short, walking is, for them, rather difficult and their mode of locomotion is a series of plunging leaps. On the snow or ice they move along rapidly by throwing themselves forward, sliding on their bellies. They are very playful animals and sometimes amuse themselves by sliding down a slippery bank. They also have landing places where they go to roll in the leaves and grass. In the spring they often lay for hours on some old log by the side of the stream, basking in the warm sun. They can remain a long time under water, and in winter travel long distances under the ice,--in fact, they prefer to travel this way whenever possible. The home of the otter is a burrow in the bank of a stream, the entrance under water. At the end of the burrow is a nest lined with leaves and grass. They also, sometimes, den in hollow logs and the trunks of hollow trees. The dens are always located in the most secluded places, as far as possible removed from danger of discovery. The young are born in April or May and the number is from two to four. With regard to raising the beaver and otter for profit, we will say that there has been comparatively few attempts at the business and we are unable to get any authentic data with regard to these experiments. However, the animals do well in captivity, in zoos, and when kept by private individuals, as pets, and it is our opinion that if one will but go slowly and learn the habits and nature of the animals, a fair degree of success may be attained. It should be understood that conditions must be favorable and the animals should be given a range as nearly like their natural home as possible. Of course, one could not make a success of raising beavers in an open field. They must have wooded land where their natural food, quaking aspen (sometimes poplar), birch, willow, cottonwood, alder, is plentiful. A pool on some quiet little stream, bordered by a large tract of forest, would be the proper place. Beavers are not given to roaming, except during the summer months, and in such cases they always return to their home before cold weather comes. We believe that the animals could not be raised successfully by any of the plans recommended for the rearing of other fur-bearing animals, but should simply be placed in a large enclosure, in the proper location, and allowed to take care of themselves. The animals will breed perfectly without any attention and there will be no danger of them killing their offspring, as is the case with other fur bearers. There is no doubt that the beaver and the otter will do well in the same enclosure, for in the wild state they are very sociable and are fond of one another's company. If otters are kept in an enclosed pond, it will be necessary to keep them supplied with food, and perhaps the best way would be to keep the ponds stocked with live fish and frogs. With the beaver the matter of providing food is more simple, as it will only be necessary to make the enclosure where their natural food is found in abundance. CHAPTER XII. KILLING, SKINNING AND STRETCHING. When "killing time" comes, care should be taken to not frighten the animals left for breeding purposes more than is absolutely necessary. All animals that are tame enough should be driven into a separate enclosure and out of sight of the others before being killed. Perhaps as good a method of killing as any is to use a good club, striking on the head just over the eyes or ears. The above method is not for skunk, as they should be killed without the enclosure becoming so strongly scented. A pole several feet long with a strong loop on the end can be slipped over their head and well back on the neck. The animal can now be lifted clear off the ground and carried wherever the killing is desired. If the killer does not mind a little perfume he knocks them on the head, or if a barrel of water is handy they can be drowned and few scent. The drowning, however, is not recommended, as it takes the fur hours to dry and is therefore extra work. Some even claim that the water spoils the luster of the fur to a certain extent. Some animals, such as coon and skunk, do not leave their dens during severe weather, so that it is advisable to begin selecting those that are to be killed days and even weeks in advance of the time decided upon. These should be placed in an enclosure or pen by themselves so that the remaining ones will not be disturbed. Even those animals that come out to their feed regularly during the cold days should be handled in a similar manner so as not to disturb those to be kept. The animals that are to be kept for breeding purposes need not be fed so heavily during the winter months or after those that were intended for market have been killed. Of course in the spring after the females have young, they must be fed heavily. Some raisers, as soon as the young are weaned, select those that are to be killed the coming winter, keeping them separate from the breeding stock so that they can be fed properly. That is a great saving of food, as those for market should be fed much more than the breeders at this season--say during the months of September, October and November. Much importance should be attached to the skinning and stretching of all kinds of skins so as to command the highest commercial value. The otter, foxes, marten, mink, opossum, civet and skunk should be cased, that is, taken off whole. Commence with the knife in the center of one hind foot and slit up the inside of the leg, up to and around the vent and down the other leg in a like manner. Cut around the vent, taking care not to cut the lumps or glands in which the musk of certain animals is secreted; then strip the skin from the bone of the tail with the aid of a split stick gripped firmly in the hand while the thumb of the other hand presses against the animal's back just above. Make no other slits in the skin, except in the case of the skunk or otter, whose tails require to be split, spread, and tacked on a board. Turn the skin back over the body, leaving the pelt side out and the fur side inward, and by cutting a few ligaments, it will peel off very readily. Care should be taken to cut closely around the nose, ears and lips, so as not to tear the skin. The beaver and raccoon should be skinned open; that is, ripped up the belly from vent to chin after the following manner: Cut across the hind leg as if to be "cased" and then rip up the belly. The skin can then be removed by flaying as in skinning a beef. Many inexperienced trappers stretch coon skins too long and draw out the head and neck. This can be avoided. Coon can be cased but most dealers prefer to have them stretched open. You should have about three sizes of stretching boards for mink and fox. For mink they should be 4-1/2 inches down to 3 inches and for fox from 6-1/4 inches down to 5 inches wide; in length the fox boards may be 4 feet and the mink boards 3 feet. The boards should taper slightly down to within 8 inches of the end for fox, and then rounded up to a round point. The mink boards should be rounded at 4 or 5 inches from this point. You will vary the shape of the board in proportion to the width. Stretching boards should not be more than 3/8 inch thick. Have the boards smooth and even on the edges. Other stretching boards should be made in proportion to the size and shape of the animal whose skin is to be stretched. You should not fail to remove all the fat and flesh from the skin immediately after the skin is on the board. If a skin is wet when taken from the animal, it should be drawn lightly on a board until the fur is quite dry. Then turn the skin flesh side out and stretch. Do not dry skins at a fire nor in the sun, nor in smoke. It often burns them, when they will not dress and are of no value. Dry in a well-covered shed or tent where there is a free circulation of air, and never use any preparation, such as alum and salt, as it only injures them for market. Never stretch the noses out long, as some trappers are inclined to do, but treat them as above described, and they will command better values. Fur buyers and dealers are inclined to class long nosed skins as "southern" and pay a small price for them, as southern skins are so much lighter than those of the north, in fur. Foxes of the various kinds should be cased and put on boards fur side in for a few days, or until dry. As the pelt is thin, they soon dry, when they must be taken off and should be turned fur side out. In shipping, see that they are not packed against furs flesh side out. Skunk should be cased fur side in, and stretched on boards for several days. The white stripe cut out, blackened, etc., reduces the value. Mink should be cased fur side in and stretched on boards for several days or until dry. Muskrat should be stretched fur side in, and a few days on the board will be sufficient. They are left as taken off, that is, fur side in. Cut the tails off when skinning--they are worthless. Opossum are stretched on boards fur side in and are left in that condition after removing the boards. Cut the tails off when skinning--they have no value. Raccoon should be stretched open (ripped up the belly), and nailed on boards or the inside of a building. Some dealers allow as much for coons cased, from any section, while others prefer that only Southern coon, if any, be cased. Otter are cased and stretched fur side in. The pelt being thick and heavy, takes several days to dry properly. They are shipped flesh side out. Beaver are split but stretched round and should be left in the hoop or stretcher for several days. CHAPTER XIII. DEER FARMING. This chapter is from Farmers' Bulletin 330, issued July 28, 1908, by United States Department of Agriculture and written by D. E. Lantz, Assistant, Biological Survey. The term "deer" is here used in its general sense, in which it includes the elk, the reindeer or caribou, the moose and other species, besides those usually referred to as deer. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY, _Washington, D. C., June 3, 1908._ SIR: I have the honor to transmit the accompanying manuscript on the subject of Deer Farming in the United States, and to recommend its publication as Farmers' Bulletin No. 330. As a result of the growing scarcity of game animals in this country the supply of venison is wholly inadequate to the demand, and the time seems opportune for developing the industry of deer farming, which may be made profitable alike to the state and the individuals engaged therein. The raising of venison for market is as legitimate a business as the growing of beef and mutton, and state laws, when prohibitory, as many of them are, should be so modified as to encourage the industry. Furthermore, deer and elk may be raised to advantage in forests and on rough, brushy ground unfitted for either agriculture or stock raising, thus utilizing for profit much land that is now waste. An added advantage is that the business is well adapted to landowners of small means. Respectfully, C. HART MERRIAM, _Chief Biological Survey._ HON. JAMES WILSON, _Secretary of Agriculture._ INTRODUCTION. The present bulletin discusses briefly the economic possibilities of raising deer and elk in the United States. It is believed that when the restrictions now imposed by State laws are removed this business may be made an important and highly profitable industry, especially since it will be the means of utilizing much otherwise unproductive land. The raising of venison should be, and is naturally, as legitimate a business as the growing of beef or mutton, and State laws should be so modified as to permit the producer, who has stocked a preserve with deer at private expense, to dispose of his product at any time, under reasonable regulations, either for breeding purposes or for food. The growing scarcity of game mammals and birds in the United States and the threatened extinction of some of them over large parts of their present ranges make the preservation of the remnant highly important. Very important also is the increase of this remnant so as to make game once more abundant. It is believed that by means of intelligent game propagation, both by the states and by private enterprise, many of our depleted ranges can be restocked with big game. IMPORTANCE OF THE DEER FAMILY. The members of the deer family (Cervidæ) rank next to the cattle and sheep family (Bovidæ) in general utility, and are the most important of the big game animals of America. Wherever obtainable in quantity the flesh of deer of different kinds has always been a staple article of diet, and under present market conditions it is hardly necessary to say that venison is perhaps the most important game, being a favorite with epicures and also having a wide use as a substitute for beef and mutton, which meats it resembles in texture, color, and general characteristics. Its flavor is distinctive, though it suggests mutton rather than beef. In chemical composition it is very similar to beef, though, judging from available data, it is not so fat as stall-fed cattle. The following figures show how it compares with beef and mutton: A lean venison roast before cooking has been found to contain on an average 75 per cent of water, 20 per cent of protein or nitrogenous material, and 2 per cent of fat; a lean beef rump, some 65 to 70 per cent of water, 20 to 23 per cent of protein, and 5 to 14 per cent of fat; a lean leg of mutton, 67 per cent of water, 19 per cent of protein, and 13 per cent of fat. Venison, beef, and other common meats are very thoroughly digested, whatever the method of cooking. Venison may be roasted, broiled, pan-broiled, or used for making stews, in much the same way as beef. Venison, particularly steak, to be at its best, should be eaten as soon as possible after it is cooked. The general popularity of venison is so great and the demand for it so widespread that over-production is improbable. The other products of the deer--skins and horns--are of considerable importance, and in countries where deer are abundant and especially where large herds are kept in semi-domestication, the commerce in both is very extensive. THE DOMESTICATION OF DEER. A number of species of the deer family have been proved to be susceptible to domestication. The reindeer, however, is the only one that has been brought fully under the control of man. The fact that the European red deer and the fallow deer have been bred in parks for centuries without domestication does not prove that they are less susceptible to the process than the reindeer. The purposes for which they have been held captive and the environment given them have been markedly different. It must be remembered, also, that few attempts have been made to rear and domesticate deer under intelligent management. The work has been largely a matter of chance experiment. If they had been as long under careful management as cattle, they would now, probably, be equally plastic in the hands of a skillful breeder. But raising deer for profit does not necessarily imply their complete domestication. They may be kept in large preserves with surroundings as nearly natural as possible and their domestication entirely ignored. Thus the breeder may reap nearly all the profit that could be expected from a domestic herd, while the animals escape most of the dangers incident to close captivity. But the breeder who aims at the ultimate domestication of the animals, and whose herd approaches nearest to true domesticity, will in the end be most successful. SPECIES TO BE SELECTED FOR BREEDING. The number of species of deer suited for breeding in inclosures in the United States is great, though the chances for success are by no means the same for all. As a rule those native to America are to be preferred, since they are already acclimated. In selecting any species, similarity between its natural habitat and that to which it is to be transferred must be considered. Important, also, is its adaptability to varied conditions, as shown by former attempts to acclimatize it. Unless they have shown a peculiar adaptability to such change, deer should not be taken from arid parts of the United States to humid parts. To a disregard of this principle are probably due many of the failures that have attended experiments in breeding the American antelope, the Columbia blacktail deer, the moose, and other animals in places differing widely from their natural ranges. The history of attempts to acclimatize the several kinds of deer shows that some readily adapt themselves to a great variety of conditions, and efforts to introduce them into new countries have been almost uniformly successful. Such has been the experience with the axis deer, the Japanese and Pekin sikas, the red and the fallow deer of Europe, and especially with the wapiti, or Rocky Mountain elk, and the Virginia deer. While experiments with the foreign species named offer every promise of success to the owners of American preserves, there are obvious reasons for recommending the two native animals just mentioned as best suited for the production of venison in the United States. THE WAPITI, OR ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK. The Wapiti (_Cervus canadensis_), including two related species and a geographic race, and known in America as the elk, is, next to the moose, the largest of our deer. It was once abundant over the greater part of the United States, whence its range extended northward to about latitude 60° in the Peace River region of the interior of Canada. In the United States the limits of its range eastward were the Adirondacks, western New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania; southward it reaches the southern Alleghenies, northern Texas, southern Mexico, and Arizona; and westward the Pacific Ocean. For the practical purposes of this bulletin all the forms of the wapiti are treated as a single species. At the present time the range of these animals has so far diminished that they occur only in a few scattered localities outside of the Yellowstone National Park and the mountainous country surrounding it, where large herds remain. Smaller herds still occur in Colorado, western Montana, Idaho, eastern Oregon, Manitoba, Alberta, British Columbia, and the coast mountains of Washington, Oregon, and northwestern California. A band of the small California valley elk still inhabits the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. The herds that summer in the Yellowstone National Park and in winter spread southward and eastward in Wyoming are said to number about 30,000 head, and constitute the only large bands of this noble game animal that are left. Although protected in their summer ranges and partially safeguarded from destruction in winter by the State of Wyoming, there is yet great danger that these herds may perish from lack of food in a succession of severe winters. Partial provision for winter forage has been made within the National Park, but the supply is inadequate for the large number of animals. Further safeguards are needed to place the Wyoming elk herds beyond the reach of winter starvation. In addition to the wild herds, there are a considerable number of elk in private game preserves and parks, as well as in nearly all the public zoological parks and gardens of this country. The herds in captivity form the nucleus from which, under wise management, some of the former ranges of this animal may be restocked and from which a profitable business of growing elk venison for market may be developed. At the present time this species affords a most promising field for ventures in breeding for profit. _Habits of Elk._ The elk is both a browsing and a grazing animal. While it eats grasses freely and has been known to subsist entirely upon pasture, it seems to prefer a mixture of grass and browse. The elk is extremely polygamous. The adult bulls shed their antlers annually in March or April, and new ones attain their full size in about ninety days. The "velvet" adheres until about August. While the horns are growing the bulls usually lead solitary lives; but early in September, when the horns are fully matured, the rutting season begins. Fights for supremacy then take place, and the victor takes charge of as many cows as he can round up and control. The period of gestation is about 8-1/2 months. The female does not usually breed until the third year, and produces but one calf at a time. Although the elk is less prolific than the common deer and some other species that have been bred in parks, it increases fully as rapidly as the common red deer of Europe. Moreover, it makes up for any lack of fecundity by its superior hardiness and ease of management. It has been acclimatized in many parts of the world, and shows the same vigor and hardiness wherever it has been transplanted. In Europe it has been successfully crossed with Altai wapiti and the red deer, and in both instances the offspring were superior in size and general stamina to the native stock. _Elk Venison._ The flesh of the elk, although somewhat coarse, is superior in flavor to most venison. That of the bulls is in its best condition about the time the velvet is shed. By the time the rut is over, in October, their flesh is in the poorest condition. As the open season for elk is usually in October and November, and only bulls are killed, it follows that hunters often obtain the venison when it is poorest. The meat is not best when freshly killed, but should be left hanging for four or five days before it is used. Of course fat elk are better eating than lean, and it is said that venison from castrated bulls is superior to any other. _Domestication of Elk._ With few exceptions the early attempts to domesticate elk were made by men who were wealthy enough to disregard all thought of profit in raising them. They were usually placed under the care of servants and the bucks were left uncastrated until they became old and unmanageable. Soon the serious problem of controlling them outweighed the novelty of their possession, and one by one attempts at domestication were abandoned. A desire to preserve this important game animal has caused a renewal of attempts to breed it in confinement, and at present there are small herds under private ownership in many places in the United States. The Biological Survey has recently obtained much information from owners of herds in regard to their experience in breeding and rearing the animals, and also their opinions as to the possibility of making the business of raising them profitable. Of about a dozen successful breeders, nearly all are of the opinion that raising elk for market can be made remunerative if present laws as to the sale of the meat are modified. [Illustration: Elk in Enclosure. Shelter in Background.] One especially important fact has been developed by the reports from breeders. It is that the elk readily adapts itself to almost any environment. Even within the narrow confines of the paddocks of the ordinary zoological park the animal does well and increases so that periodically the herds have to be reduced by sales. The fullest reports that have been received by the Department of Agriculture from breeders of elk are from George W. Russ, of Eureka Springs, Ark., through H. N. Vinall, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Mr. Russ has a herd of 34 elk. They have ample range in the Ozarks on rough land covered with hardwood forest and abundant underbrush. The animals improve the forest by clearing out part of the thicket. They feed on buds and leaves to a height of 8 feet, and any growth under this is liable to be eliminated if the range is restricted. If not closely confined, elk do not eat the bark from trees, nor do they eat evergreens. In clearing out underbrush from thickets they are more useful than goats, since they browse higher. Goats, however, eat closer to the ground; and as the two animals get along well together, Mr. Russ recommends the use of both for clearing up brushy land and fitting it for tame grasses. The increase of elk under domestication is equal to that of cattle. Fully 90 per cent. of the females produce healthy young. An adult male elk weighs from 700 to 1,000 pounds; a female from 600 to 800 pounds. The percentage of dressed meat is greater than with cattle, but, owing to hostile game laws, experience in marketing it is very limited. An offer of 40 cents a pound for dressed meat was received from St. Louis, but the law would not permit its export. Mr. Russ says: "From the fact that as high as $1.50 per pound has been paid for this meat in New York City and Canada, and that the best hotels and restaurants pronounce it the finest of all the meats of mammals, we are of the opinion that if laws were such that domesticated elk meat could be furnished it would be many years before the supply would make the price reasonable compared with other meats. Elk meat can be produced in many sections of this country at less cost per pound than beef, mutton, or pork." Mr. Russ thinks that large areas of rough lands in the United States not now utilized, especially in localities like the Ozarks and the Alleghanies, could be economically used to produce venison for sale, and he regards the elk as especially suited for this purpose. Another feature of Mr. Russ's report is of more than passing interest. He says: "We find from long experience that cattle, sheep, and goats can be grazed in the same lots with elk, providing, however, that the lots or inclosures are not small; the larger the area the better. We know of no more appropriate place to call attention to the great benefit of a few elk in the same pasture with sheep and goats. An elk is the natural enemy of dogs and wolves. We suffered great losses to our flocks until we learned this fact; since then we have had no loss from that cause. A few elk in a thousand-acre pasture will absolutely protect the flocks therein. Our own dogs are so well aware of the danger in our elk park that they can not be induced to enter it." Judge Caton, in his Antelope and Deer of America, also remarks on the animosity of elk toward dogs, and says that the does always lead in the chase of dogs that get into the elk park. If elk will attack and vanquish dogs and coyotes and thus help to protect domestic animals grazing in the same pastures, a knowledge of the fact may be of great advantage to stockmen who desire to give up herding sheep and resort to fenced pastures instead. The addition of a few elk in the pasture may be an efficient protection from dogs, coyotes, and wolves. However, outside of fenced pastures elk do not always show themselves hostile to dogs and coyotes. _Management of Elk in Inclosures._ Lorenzo Stratton, of Little Valley, Cattaraugus County, N. Y., began experiments in breeding elk about sixty years ago. His plan of management consisted essentially in taming the calves when very young and continuing the petting process with the entire herd. He visited the animals daily in the pasture and always carried dainties to feed them. As the bulls became old and developed signs of viciousness, they were castrated, younger animals being used for breeding. He thus developed a thoroughly domesticated herd. For economic reasons, it is not always possible to follow Mr. Stratton's plan. Those who grow the animals for venison and in large preserves would find it impracticable to tame all the calves. However, if elk or deer are grown for stocking parks or private preserves, the tamer they are the easier it will be to handle and ship them. RANGE.--In choosing a range for elk, the natural food supply is important. They thrive best in preserves having a variety of food plants--grasses, bushes, and trees. Rough lands, well watered with clear streams and having some forested area, are well adapted to their needs. About as many elk can be kept on such a range as cattle on an equal area of fair pasture. There should be thickets enough to furnish winter browse, but this should be supplemented by a supply of winter forage. FOOD.--Except when deep snows cover the ground, elk will keep in good condition on ordinary pasture and browse; but a system of management that provides other food regularly will be found more satisfactory. Hay and corn fodder are excellent winter forage; but alfalfa hay has proved to be the best dry food for both elk and deer. A little oats or corn--whole or chopped--may be fed each day. Elk are fond of corn, and feeding it affords excellent opportunities for winning their confidence and taming them. The same may be said of salt, which should be furnished liberally to all deer kept in inclosures. Running water, although not essential, is of great importance in maintaining elk in good condition. FENCE.--Elk are much less nervous than ordinary deer, and less disposed to jump fences. When they escape from an enclosure they usually return of their own accord. If tame, they may be driven like cattle. Ordinarily, a 5-foot fence of any kind will confine elk. Henry Binning, of Cora, Wyo., writes us that a 4-foot woven-wire fence is ample for these animals. A small enclosure in which a vicious bull elk is to be kept should be higher and of stronger material. Mr. Russ's report, already partly quoted, states that where lumber for posts is cheap a good elk fence may be built for $200 a mile. But the actual cost will, of course, vary greatly according to style, price of labor, nearness to market, and other circumstances. COST OF STOCK.--The cost of stocking an elk preserve is not great. Usually surplus stock from zoological parks or small private preserves may be obtained at low cost, varying with the immediate demand for the animals. At times they have sold for less than $20 a head, and with the present restrictions on sale, low prices are likely to continue. A few years ago T. J. Wilson, of Lewisburg, Ohio, paid $165 for three animals. A Michigan breeder recently offered to deliver a dozen head, sex and age not given, all fine specimens, for $500. This is, of course, a low price, not more than cattle would bring and less than the venison would be worth if it could be sold. If restrictions on the sale and shipment of venison from private preserves were removed, prices of the stock would, of course, soon advance, and necessitate a greater outlay in starting the business. VICIOUS MALE ELK.--The male elk is ordinarily docile, but in the rutting season the older ones often become ill-tempered and dangerous. Several tragedies connected with attempts to domesticate elk are matters of history. One was recorded by Judge Caton in his Antelope and Deer of America as having occurred in his own park. Another took place at Bull City, Osborne County, Kans., in October 1879, and resulted in the instant death of Gen. H. C. Bull, the mortal wounding of two other men, and the serious injury of another, from the attacks of an infuriated bull elk that had previously been regarded as extremely gentle. Wild and unconfined deer and elk flee from man under nearly all circumstances, but when wounded and closely pressed they have been known to attack hunters. It is unlikely that, even in the rutting season, a wild bull elk would attack a human being. But the tame or partially tame animals that have become familiar with man are to be feared and should not be approached in that season without extreme caution. A male elk or deer that has once shown viciousness can not again be trusted. The remedy for viciousness in the male elk is castration. It is unsafe to keep an uncastrated male elk over 4 years old, unless he is in a strongly fenced inclosure from which visitors are excluded. The effects of castration are to make the animal docile and to greatly enhance his value for venison. This is in accord with observed results in the production of beef, pork, and mutton. Venison grown in domestication under a system in which the male animals intended for slaughter are castrated should be uniformly of the highest grade and far superior to that obtained in the wild state during the usual open season for hunting. This consideration is of the greatest importance in fixing the final status of venison grown under domestication. _Breeding the Virginia Deer._ The Virginia, or whitetail deer (_Odocoileus virginianus_) is the common deer of the United States. Including the half dozen geographic races that occur within our borders, it is distributed over most of the country, except Nevada and the major portions of Utah, Arizona, Washington, Oregon, and California. It is extinct in Delaware and practically so in a number of States in the Middle West. South of our borders a number of closely related species occur. In view of the wide natural range of the whitetail deer, its adaptability to nearly all sections of the United States can not be doubted. Testimony as to its hardiness in parks and preserves is not so unanimous as that concerning the wapiti; but the general experience of breeders is that with suitable range, plenty of good water, and reasonable care in winter, raising this deer for stocking preserves or for venison may be made as profitable as any other livestock industry. Not only do deer thrive on land unsuited for cattle or horses, but, like elk, they may be raised to great advantage in brushy or timbered pastures fully stocked with cattle or horses, as the food of deer rarely includes grass. Advocates of the Angora goat industry state that within the United States there are 250,000,000 acres of land not suited to tillage or to the pasture of horses, cattle, or sheep, which are well adapted to goats. Much of this land is suited also to deer and elk, and can be utilized for these animals with less injury to the forest cover than would result from its browsing by goats. The whitetail deer has often been the subject of experiments in domestication. The beauty of these animals, especially the fawns, appeals to every admirer of wild life, and early settlers of the country soon learned how easily they could be tamed and how promptly they attached themselves to the persons who fed them. The dangerous character of the same pets, especially the males, when grown up was soon learned also. It followed that the domesticating process usually ended with the maturity of the first subject, which was soon disposed of or banished to a safe inclosure. The propagation of the Virginia deer has seldom been undertaken in a systematic way. The animals have often been bred in parks for pleasure or in large preserves for sport, but the economic possibilities in raising them have received little attention. Recently breeders have recognized the fact that they are profitable under proper management and would be much more so were conditions for marketing live animals and venison more favorable. _Experiences of Breeders._ The Biological Survey has reports of successful experience in raising Virginia deer from more than a dozen persons, located in different parts of the country, who are now engaged in the business. The management of the herds varies slightly with the surroundings and the object for which they are kept. Thomas Blagden, of Washington, D. C., began raising deer in 1874. After an experience of over a third of a century he is confident that the business can be made profitable. In his own herds he has carefully avoided in-breeding by securing new bucks from time to time. His stock is vigorous and of the large size characteristic of the Adirondack and other northern deer. Consequently the animals are in demand for breeding purposes, the bucks bringing $50 each and the does, $75. He feeds grain, using corn and a mixture of bran and meal, and during the summer cuts as much wild forage as possible. He finds that the animals prefer the rankest weeds to the choicest grass. Of the various kinds of hay, they prefer alfalfa. He provides abundant water at all times. John W. Griggs, of Goodell, Iowa, writes that he has been engaged in raising deer for about fourteen years. Until two years ago he sold all his surplus stock for parks, but since then has disposed of about half of it for venison. For park purposes he gets $20 to $30 a head, but they bring fully as much or more when fattened for venison. As to management of deer, Mr. Griggs writes: "In raising a large herd the park should be divided into two or three lots, and one plowed each year and sown to red clover, mustard, rape, and seeds of different kinds of weeds. Bluegrass and timothy are useless. Corn is the principal grain I feed. I feed it winter and summer. In winter I feed also clover hay, oat straw, and weedy wild hay. Deer when rightly handled are very prolific, and from 50 does one can count on 75 fawns. They can be raised profitably for venison--very profitably until overdone; but I would not advise one to go into it on a large scale without previous experience with deer." The report received from C. H. Roseberry, of Stella, Mo., although less enthusiastic than others, is quoted because his herd approaches more nearly a state of true domestication. Under date of January 13, 1908, Mr. Roseberry wrote as follows: "My experience in breeding the common or Virginia deer covers a period of seventeen years, beginning in March, 1891, when, as a boy of 16, I built a small inclosure of 1-1/2 acres to confine a single doe that was captured as a fawn in the neighboring forest. "A buck and other does were secured from year to year, until in 1900, by purchase and natural increase, my herd numbered 25 head of all ages. "From 1891 to 1901 I lost every year from disease an average of 20 per cent. The climax came in the drought year of 1901, when my loss was 50 per cent from the disease known as "black tongue." "I am convinced that, like cholera in swine, individuals recovering from this disease are immune from further attack. Apparently all of my herd were afflicted. The survivors and their progeny constitute my present breeding stock. I have made no purchases since 1901, nor have I suffered any loss from disease. "For the last seven years my herd has averaged 70 per cent increase, all of which I have sold at satisfactory prices. I began selling at $20 per pair of fawns at 4 months of age and $30 per pair of adults. I now get $40 and $60, respectively. I sell almost exclusively for pets and for propagating purposes, although a few surplus bucks have been sold for venison, averaging me 15 cents per pound gross weight. "If we except the goat, I know of no domestic animal common to the farm that requires so little feed and attention as the deer. My herd has a range of only 15 acres, two-thirds of which are set to white clover, bluegrass, and orchard grass. I provide also a small plat of wheat or rye for winter pasture. With the above provision, in this latitude, no feed is required between April 15 and November 15. During the rest of the year a ration of corn, bran, or other mill feed somewhat smaller than that required for sheep, in connection with a stack of clover or pea hay to which they have free access, is sufficient to keep them in good condition. Deer eat with relish nearly all of the common coarse weeds, and for clearing land of brush they are, I think, second only to the common goat. "Probably the greatest expense connected with the business of raising deer is the fencing. Another item of trouble and expense, when the animals are raised for pets, requiring that they be handled and shipped alive, is the fact that the fawns must be taken from the does when 10 days old and raised by hand on cow's milk. They are quite easily raised in this way, with but slight percentage of loss, but require frequent and careful attention for the first month. When they are allowed to run with the does their natural wildness can not be overcome, no matter how gentle the does may be. "I have found the business profitable on the lines indicated. I believe they could be profitably bred for venison alone--certainly with less trouble and expense, since the fawns could be reared by the does and the trouble and expense of raising by hand would be eliminated. "My experience does not coincide with that of some other breeders in respect to the weakening of reproductive powers of deer by the confinement in parks. I have no barren does. Usually they produce a single fawn at two years of age; afterwards twins, and in rare cases triplets." [Illustration: Tame Deer Eating Watermelon.] _Management of Virginia Deer._ As to the management of deer little need be added to the statements from practical breeders already given. Virginia deer are polygamous, like cattle; the rutting season is in November; the period of gestation is about seven months, and the fawns are born in May or June. Young does usually breed when about 17 months old and have but one fawn the first time; afterwards they commonly produce twins. The fawns are spotted until the first shedding of the hair in the fall. While deer are chiefly browsing animals, in captivity they eat nearly every kind of vegetation, including most kinds of garden stuff. They are fond of acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and other mast. Lily pads, leaves, lichens, and mosses are freely eaten. With plenty of range and an abundant variety of plants there need be, therefore, no apprehension concerning the deer's food. A good supply of running water must be provided, and the animals should have access to rock salt. If the browse and pasturage are scant, a small ration of grain should be fed. Of the grains, corn is generally recommended as a food; there is no waste, as the deer pick up every grain. Coarse hay full of weeds is preferable to timothy or other tame hays, except alfalfa. Of clover hay, deer usually eat the blossom heads greedily, but waste the other parts. In winter feeding is necessary everywhere, and in the northern half of the United States shelter of some kind should be provided. The remarks about castrating elk apply as well to the common deer. A number of vigorous bucks, however, must be kept with any considerable herd of does, for a single buck can not serve an unlimited number. Frequent changes of blood by introducing new bucks should be practiced to avoid in-breeding. _Wild Deer in Private Game Preserves._ Individual owners, as well as associations, have established large private preserves in many parts of the country and stocked them with deer and other big game. The objects have been to preserve the animals and to provide sport for the owners. In the free life under the protected conditions generally provided, deer do remarkably well, the increase being even more rapid than in small parks. There can be no doubt of the success of ventures in propagating the Virginia deer under natural conditions as wild game, as is proved by the experience of a large number of hunting clubs and private owners. Deer in Buckwood Park, a New Jersey preserve of 4,000 acres, belonging to Charles S. Worthington, increased in the ten years between 1892 and 1903 from 19 to about 400 head, and the number was then lessened because it was thought too large for the permanent sustaining capacity of the park. The St. Louis Park and Agricultural Company have about 1,000 deer and 400 elk in their 5,000-acre preserve in Taney County, Mo. The Otzinachson Rod and Gun Club six years ago placed about 90 deer, mostly does, in their 4,000 acre park in Clinton County, Pa. These have multiplied to nearly 2,000 head, and a further increase of about a thousand fawns is expected during the present season (1908). Doubtless these experiences are not exceptional. The good effect of such preserves on the supply of game in the State should not be overlooked. While they may temporarily restrict the hunting privileges of a few citizens, they ultimately become a source of game supply secondary in importance only to State preserves or game refuges. Already a number of private reserves have become overstocked, and game has escaped or been turned over to the State to become the property of the people. The success of private enterprise in propagating large game in inclosures has thus become an object lesson for State game commissioners and others, and suggests the feasibility of the State's undertaking a similar work for the people. GAME LAWS IN RELATION TO DEER FARMING. The chief obstacle to profitable propagation of deer in the United States is the restrictive character of State laws governing the killing, sale, and transportation of game. Many of the States, following precedent, lay down the broad rule that all the game animals in the State, whether resident or migratory, are the property of the State. A few States except game animals that are "under private ownership legally acquired." A few others encourage private ownership by providing a way in which wild animals--deer and the like--may be captured for domestication. Generally, when private ownership of game is recognized by law, the right to kill such game is granted, but the owner is hampered by the same regulations as to season, sale, and shipment that apply to wild game. One by one, however, State legislatures are coming to recognize the interests of game propagators, and game laws are gradually being modified in accordance with the change of view. The chief source from which deer and elk may be obtained for stocking preserves is from animals already in captivity. These must be transported from place to place or there can be no commerce in them, yet the laws of many States absolutely forbid their shipment. The laws as to possession and transportation of deer carcasses make the shipping of venison also illegal. General export of venison is legal from only six of the States, and three of these have no wild deer left to protect. The laws concerning the season for killing and the sale of deer are often equally embarrassing to those who would produce venison for profit. The owner of domesticated deer can not legally kill his animals except in open season. Owners of private preserves are similarly restricted and are limited to the killing of one or two animals in a season. More than half the States and territories absolutely forbid the sale of venison. A few forbid the sale of venison produced within the State, but permit the sale of that imported from other States, a most unjust discrimination against home industry. The following States have recently modified their laws so as to provide, under regulations, for the sale of deer from private preserves. Transportation and even export are included in some of them. ARKANSAS.--Possession, sale, and shipment of deer or fawns is permitted when they have been raised in captivity for domestic purposes and are accompanied by an affidavit from the raiser. COLORADO.--Owners of private preserves under a license are permitted to sell and ship deer or other quadrupeds that are accompanied by an invoice. A fee is required for each animal sold. ILLINOIS.--Any person who raises deer for market may kill and sell them at any time in the same manner as other domestic animals. INDIANA.--The provisions of the law as to possession and sale do not apply to persons who have under ownership or control any deer raised in a deer park. MASSACHUSETTS.--The owner may sell his own tame deer kept on his own grounds. MINNESOTA.--Persons who desire to domesticate deer, moose, elk, or caribou may secure a permit to do so from the State board of game and fish commissioners by paying a fee of 50 cents for each animal in captivity and a like fee for each animal added later by natural increase or otherwise. The animals kept in captivity may be sold or shipped within or without the State, by permission of the commissioners. MISSOURI.--Deer or elk, alive or dead, may be shipped from any private preserve and sold in the markets of the State when accompanied by a tag furnished by the game warden of the county, showing whose property it is, where killed and to whom shipped. NEW HAMPSHIRE.--The Blue Mountain Forest Association may kill elk, deer, or moose in their preserve for one month after the open season, and at any time may transport them outside the State. NEW YORK.--Deer may be sold during the open season; and moose, elk, caribou, and antelope from private parks may be sold during the same period. Common carriers may transport animals into the State for breeding purposes, but may not transport venison unless it is accompanied by the owner. NORTH CAROLINA.--Seventeen counties permit the owner and keeper of an inclosed game preserve, who raises deer for use or sale, to kill, sell, or use those raised or kept in said inclosure. PENNSYLVANIA.--Owners of game preserves who hold a game propagating certificate may sell and transport deer or fawn alive for propagating purposes only, after securing the written consent of the president of the board of game commissioners. In three or four other States game "under private ownership, legally acquired," is supposed to be exempt from general provisions of the game law; but in a test case as to its sale or export it is doubtful whether the courts would so hold without more specific provision legalizing such commerce. SUMMARY. The domestication of deer and elk offers an interesting field for experiment, as well as remunerative returns for the investment of capital. The wapiti and the Virginia deer can be raised successfully and cheaply under many different conditions of food and climate. The production of venison and the rearing of both species for stocking parks may be made profitable industries in the United States. Instead of hampering breeders by restrictions, as at present, State laws should be so modified as to encourage the raising of deer, elk, and other animals as a source of profit to the individual and to the State. Safeguards against the destruction and sale of wild deer in place of domesticated deer are not difficult to enforce. For this purpose a system of licensing private parks, and of tagging deer or carcases sold or shipped, so that they may be easily identified, is recommended. It is believed that with favorable legislation much otherwise waste land in the United States may be utilized for the production of venison so as to yield profitable returns, and also that this excellent and nutritious meat, instead of being denied to 99 per cent of the population of the country, may become as common and as cheap in our markets as mutton. * * * * * [Illustration: The above illustration shows the front cover of Hunter-Trader-Trapper, a monthly magazine, published by The A. R. Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, Ohio, who are also publishers of books on Trapping and Out-o-Door Sports, bringing out new ones continually. Their latest booklet descriptive of their magazine and books published will be sent free upon application. See following pages.] * * * * * Hunter Trader Trapper As its Name Indicates is a Magazine of Information for Hunters, Traders, Trappers and Out-o-Door People. If you are interested in hunting, trapping, raw furs, ginseng, raising wild animals, taxidermy, etc., you will find this magazine of interest and value. The magazine is published monthly and treats on the following subjects: Steel Traps, Where and How to Set; Baits and Scents; Proper Season to Trap; How to Skin, Stretch and Handle Furs; New Ways to Capture Mink, Fox, Wolf, Marten, Beaver, Otter and Other Shy Animals; Raising Fur Bearing Animals; Growing Ginseng and Golden Seal; Training Night Hunting Dogs; Leading Fur Markets; London Raw Fur Sales; Fox Hunting and Hounds; Coon Hunting; Letters From Old Hunters and Trappers, etc. The Editor is a man of long experience in handling raw furs and trapping. The articles published and photos used are largely from those who have had actual experience with trap, gun and dog--you will enjoy them. The magazine contains from 128 to 200 pages each month, averaging about 160 each month or 2000 pages a year. About 700 illustrations are used each year. The magazine is printed on good quality paper and the subscription price is only $1.00 a Year Single Copy TEN CENTS A. R. Harding Publishing Co., Columbus, O. * * * * * [Illustration: GINSENG PLANT. Showing Root, Stock, Leaves and Seed.] This is only one of about 75 illustrations shown in "Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants" as described on opposite page. The illustrations are of actual "gardens," as well as some fifty of the most valuable medicinal plants true to life. After reading this book and looking closely at the illustrations you should be able to distinguish the various plants. The paper used is of good quality so that the illustrations are clear and distinct. * * * * * Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants This book contains about 300 pages and 75 illustrations (see opposite page for one of them) with chapters on the following: The Story of Ginseng; Something About Ginseng; Cultivation of Ginseng; Marketing Ginseng; Seeds and Roots; Letters From Ginseng Growers; Government Reports; Ginseng in China; General Information; Habits of Ginseng; Ginseng Prices; Diseases of Ginseng; Medicinal Qualities; Golden Seal Cultivation; Plants as a Source of Revenue; List of Plants Having Medicinal Value; Gigantic Mint Farm in Michigan. The publishers say--A Book of Valuable Information for Growers and Collectors of Wild Medicinal Plants--Tells How to Grow, Medicinal Uses, Value, Etc. 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Price, cloth bound, postpaid, $1.00 * * * * * Land Cruising and Prospecting Is a valuable book for homesteaders, hunters, trappers, guides, etc. The writer--Mr. A. F. Wallace, an experienced surveyor, land cruiser and prospector--in his introduction says: "To the men who follow the compass, the trap and the trail this work is inscribed. It is not intended for the "Professors" who can tell you all about things after they are done (by somebody else)." The publishers say: A book of Valuable Information for hunters, trappers, land cruisers, prospectors and men of the trail--tells how to locate one's self on the map, etc. This book contains about 200 pages 5 � 7 inches, is printed on good quality paper, with nearly 40 illustrations and contains 20 chapters as follows: I. Maps. II. The Compass. III. Examining and Locating. IV. Early Surveys. V. Corner Marks. VI. Miscellaneous Information. VII. Points for Homesteaders. VIII. Prospecting for Gold. IX. Sampling Ore. X. How to Locate a Claim. XI. Poor Man's Ore Mill. XII. Prospecting for Fur. XIII. Prospecting for Pearls. XIV. Prospecting for Bees. XV. Rations and Camp Cookery. XVI. Camp Kits. XVII. Guns, Axes and Pack-straps. XVIII. Building Cabins, Tanning, Etc. XIX. Getting Lost. XX. The Red River Trapper. This book is practical and may be worth many times the price to you. Remember it is written by one who has had many, many years of experience. Price, Cloth Bound, Postpaid, 60 Cents A. R. Harding Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio * * * * * Bee Hunting A BOOK OF VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR BEE HUNTERS. Tells How to Line Bees to Trees, Etc. _The following is taken from the Author's Introduction to BEE HUNTING_ [Illustration] Many books on sports of various kinds have been written, but outside of an occasional article in periodicals devoted to bee literature, but little has been written on the subject of Bee Hunting. Therefore, I have tried in this volume--Bee Hunting for Pleasure and Profit--to give a work in compact form, the product of what I have learned along this line during the forty years in nature's school room. Brother, if in reading these pages, you find something that will be of value to you, something that will inculcate a desire for manly pastime and make your life brighter, then my aim will have been reached. _The book contains 13 chapters as follows_: I. Bee Hunting. II. Early Spring Hunting. III. Bee Watering--How to Find Them. IV. Hunting Bees from Sumac. V. Hunting Bees from Buckwheat. VI. Fall Hunting. VII. Improved Mode of Burning. VIII. Facts About Line of Flight. IX. Baits and Scents. X. Cutting the Tree and Transferring. XI. Customs and Ownership of Wild Bees. XII. Benefactors and Their Inventions. XIII. Bee Keeping for Profit. _This book contains 80 pages, paper cover._ _Price, postpaid, only 25 cents._ A. R. Harding Pub. Co., Columbus, Ohio 
35258	----	UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 152 CONTAGIOUS ABORTION OF COWS BY W. J. MACNEAL IN COÖPERATION WITH HERBERT W. MUMFORD [Illustration] URBANA, ILLINOIS, NOVEMBER, 1911 SUMMARY OF BULLETIN NO. 152 1. The existence of a specific contagious disease causing abortion in cows has been recognized for a long time, and it is certain that the disease known abroad as infectious or contagious abortion is also prevalent in the United States. 2. The infectious agent is a bacterium first described by the Danish investigators, Bang and Stribolt. This microörganism has been isolated from aborting cows in various European countries and in the United States. 3. Bacteriological examination of afterbirths from aborting cows at this Station revealed the presence of this germ. 4. To eradicate the disease from a herd, the affected cows should be isolated, and their genital passages cleansed once or twice daily with an antiseptic solution until all discharge has ceased, when they may be returned to the herd; all infectious material (afterbirth and discharges) should be burned; infected stalls should be cleaned and disinfected; the sheath of the herd bull should be cleansed with a disinfectant solution before and after service, and a separate, clean bull should be used for heifers and clean cows. CONTAGIOUS ABORTION OF COWS BY W. J. MACNEAL, ASSISTANT CHIEF IN BACTERIOLOGY, IN COÖPERATION WITH HERBERT W. MUMFORD, CHIEF IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY INTRODUCTION The premature discharge of the products of conception from the uterus is a not infrequent occurrence among domestic animals, and doubtless various factors may from time to time operate in its causation. For a long time, however, practical husbandmen have recognized an epizoötic or contagious kind of abortion, a definite transmissible disease in which the loss of the fetus is the most prominent characteristic. The transmissibility of contagious abortion of cows appears to have been demonstrated experimentally for the first time by Brauer. Experimental transmission has been performed by a number of investigators subsequently, the work of Nocard (1886) furnishing conclusive evidence upon this point. It is certain that a disease, or possibly more than one disease, of this nature is a source of serious loss to the live stock industry in the United States, and there can no longer be any doubt that a considerable part of this loss is due to the definite specific disease prevalent on the continent of Europe and in England, and known as Contagious, Infectious, or Epizoötic Abortion. The purpose of this bulletin is the brief presentation of some of the facts concerning the cause, prevention and restriction of this disease, which have been established by modern investigation, for the information of men engaged in live stock production. BACTERIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ELSEWHERE Nocard carried out the first extensive bacteriological investigation of contagious abortion. In microscopic preparations of the diseased placenta he was able to recognize numerous short bacilli and micrococci. These were also found in the amniotic fluid. He obtained pure cultures of these two organisms, but failed to induce abortion upon inoculating these cultures into other animals. Neither of the germs obtained in culture could therefore be regarded as the causative agent in the disease. In 1895 Bang and Stribolt undertook the investigation of this disease, and their results are now generally regarded as the most important of all the contributions to the study of this subject. A cow showing all the symptoms of impending abortion was purchased and slaughtered. The unopened uterus was removed to the laboratory where it was opened with special precautions to avoid all contamination. An abundant, grayish yellow, odorless exudate was found between the ovum and the inner wall of the uterus. Upon standing this exudate separated into two layers, a reddish yellow serum above, and a grayish yellow partly solid layer below. In microscopic preparations of this exudate, stained with Loeffler's methylene blue, numerous very small bacilli were found, apparently in pure culture, some of them lying free, but large numbers of them crowded together inside cells. These latter appeared at first to be micrococci, but more careful examination proved them to be really short rods. Bang and Stribolt were able to cultivate this organism in tubes of a gelatin-agar-serum medium, the germ developing only in a particular zone beginning about 5 mm. beneath the surface of the medium and extending downward 10 to 15 mm. After considerable work with cultures, they concluded that the bacillus is neither an aerobe nor an anaerobe, in the ordinary sense, but exhibits a very peculiar behavior in respect to oxygen, requiring for its development a partial pressure of oxygen somewhat less than that present in the atmosphere. They were unable to obtain growth of the germ in the presence of the ordinary atmosphere, nor in the absence of oxygen (Pyrogallol method). Curiously enough, by placing their tube cultures in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, they obtained cultures developing in two zones, one near the top and the other near the bottom of the tube, indicating that there are two optima in the oxygen requirement of the organism. This very interesting character of the organism received great attention at their hands, but nevertheless Bang points out that typical development such as he has pictured was not always obtained, a number of factors seeming to cause variation in the position and extent of the developmental zones in these tube cultures. By exhausting the air above the medium in the tube, the growth was made to extend to the surface. In this way they were able to obtain growth of the bacillus on plates, but they did not work out a reliable plate method, preferring to employ the dilution tube cultures for separation in all their work. Bang and Stribolt subsequently examined pieces of placenta from a large number of cases of contagious abortion, and found the bacillus microscopically in practically all cases. Sometimes they were abundant, in other instances very scarce. Most of this material was badly contaminated, yet, from that sent in during the colder season they successfully isolated the bacillus in pure culture in a majority of the cases. In three fetuses the bacillus was found in the intestinal contents in pure culture; in one fetus it was isolated from the blood. Two cows with mummified fetus _in utero_ were examined _post mortem_. These fetuses had been dead 9 months and 5 months respectively but the surrounding exudate still contained the abortion bacillus and pure cultures of it were obtained from each case. Uterine exudate kept in the refrigerator still contained living abortion bacilli after seven months. Having found the same bacillus microscopically in a series of cases of abortion, and having obtained it in pure culture from a number of them, it now remained for Bang and Stribolt to produce the disease by inoculation of these cultures into healthy animals. Four pregnant cows were obtained without knowledge of their previous history. Two of them were inoculated by intravaginal application of pure cultures, and two by intravaginal application of pieces of afterbirth from aborting cows. No abortion resulted in any of the cows and at slaughter 19 to 29 days after inoculation, there was no evidence of the disease. This result was surprising, as Brauer had induced abortion by the second of the above-mentioned procedures in from 9 to 21 days, Lehnert in from 12 to 20 days, and Trinchera in 9 to 13 days. The authors thought that the animals may have been immune on account of a previous attack of the disease, or that possibly the interval between innoculation and slaughter (19 to 29 days) may have been too brief for the disease to have developed. For the next experiment two cows were purchased from a region where abortion was unknown. Pregnancy began January 14 and January 16, 1896. On April 14, a rich culture of the abortion bacillus was injected well up into the anterior end of the vaginal canal of each of these cows. The inoculation was repeated in the same way on May 23, and again on June 4. One cow aborted June 24, the fetus evidently having been dead some days. The abortion bacillus was isolated from the afterbirth. The other cow showed the signs of impending abortion on June 23, and was slaughtered on June 24. The condition inside the uterus resembled in every respect that observed in the cow from which the original culture had been isolated, and the bacillus was present in pure culture. In these cows the disease had appeared 10 weeks after the first inoculation. A third cow was inoculated by intravaginal application January 19, 1897, and subcutaneously March 6, in both instances with pure cultures of the bacillus. Premature delivery of a living calf occurred April 9, 80 days after the first inoculation. Abortion was also caused in sheep by intravaginal application and by intravenous injection of pure cultures. Inoculation by the latter method proved to be more certain in these animals, and the incubation period after intravenous injection was only 7 days in one case and 12 days in another. Intravenous inoculation of a mare resulted in a premature delivery after 28 days. In all these cases the bacillus was recovered from the afterbirth. In 1902, Preisz at Budapest isolated the same bacillus from two cases of contagious abortion in cows. He confirmed the findings of Bang in respect to the oxygen requirements of the organism, and was able to obtain cultures by a variety of methods on ordinary media. Apparently his cultures were less vigorous than those of Bang, for they soon died out, their resistance to germicides was slight, and all his inoculations into animals, including two pregnant cows, two pregnant guinea pigs, and one pregnant rabbit, as well as a number of other small animals, were without positive result. Preisz named the organism "_Corynebacterium abortus endemici (s. infectiosi)_." In 1908, Nowak at the University of Krakau in Austria made a very important contribution to the study of this disease. He found the culture method of Bang and Stribolt very useful for the identification of the organism when obtainable in pure culture, and when the contaminating bacteria were few in number. When other bacteria were numerous, as is frequently the case in material obtained for examination, he found this method difficult. The pyrogallol method of Preisz also proved to be unreliable in his hands. Eventually he devised a method of plate culture which proved to be very useful. Ordinary agar was melted and cooled to 50° C. then mixed with about one fourth its volume of naturally sterile blood serum, and poured into sterile Petri dishes where it was allowed to solidify. The piece of placenta or other material to be examined was then streaked over several of these plates in succession, and the plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37° C., to allow contaminating bacteria to develop. The plates were next placed in a glass jar together with a culture of _Bacillus subtilis_, one square centimeter of culture surface of the latter organism being provided for each 15 cc. capacity of the jar. The jar was sealed and placed at 37° C. for three days, at the end of which time excellent surface colonies of Bang's bacillus were obtained. By the application of this method Nowak has succeeded in isolating the bacillus from the blood and intestinal contents of a number of fetuses, and from uterine discharge, when other methods failed. He has also observed that one could gradually decrease the amount of culture surface of _B. subtilis_ employed in succeeding cultures and eventually get the bacillus of Bang to grow in the presence of atmospheric air, altho the cultures were relatively poor ones. Nowak also confirmed Bang by obtaining cultures in an atmosphere of nearly pure oxygen, as well as in ordinary air under a pressure of three atmospheres. His cultures were evidently vigorous for some of them were successfully transplanted after two years. Nowak used ordinary agar as a medium with considerable success, and found glucose agar to be almost as favorable to the growth of the bacillus. For the detection of the germ in pathological material, however, these media proved to be inferior to the serum-agar mixture in several cases. Cultures were obtained in broth and in milk without coagulation, contrary to the statement of Preisz. No gas was produced in sugar broth. Nowak inoculated a number of pregnant laboratory animals, and produced abortion with great regularity in guinea pigs and rabbits by subcutaneous, intravenous and intraperitoneal injection. He did not succeed in producing abortion by intravaginal application nor by feeding. No tests were made upon larger animals much to his regret, as in his opinion the experiments of Bang upon cows still left something to be desired in the way of experimental evidence. McFadyean and Stockman (1909) have investigated the contagious abortion of cattle in Great Britain, and have found it to be identical with that studied by Bang in Denmark. They were able to produce the disease in cows by intravenous injection of natural virus and of active pure cultures, without a failure in eight experiments. By intravaginal application they caused the disease twice with cultures and three times with natural virus, but also failed to obtain any result in three trials with the natural virus. Subcutaneous inoculation was successful three times in five trials. By feeding they produced the disease three times in four trials. These authors consider ingestion to be an important mode of contracting contagious abortion in nature. Zwick (1910) has made a preliminary report of the bacteriological investigation of contagious abortion at the German Imperial Health Office. By a comparative study of cultures, the unity of the disease in Denmark, Germany, England, and Holland has been established. Certain individual differences were detected in the various culture strains examined, and it was found that the bacillus could be readily cultivated upon various ordinary laboratory media, and that it could also adapt itself to an aerobic existence, thus confirming the work of Nowak. In one instance the bacillus grew aerobically immediately upon isolation from the animal body. Abortion was induced in sheep, goats, and rabbits by intravenous injection, intravaginal application, and also by feeding. Work upon the use of abortin (analogous to tuberculin) for diagnosis, and upon the agglutination and complement fixation tests, was in progress at the time the report was made. BACTERIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS AT THIS STATION In the United States contagious abortion is widespread, and has been recognized for a number of years by practical husbandmen as an important economic factor in animal industry. Epidemiological studies have recently been reported from Arizona and Connecticut. At the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station the beef cattle herd has suffered considerable loss from abortion for several years past, and the presence of contagious abortion had been recognized by Professor Mumford, altho this diagnosis was disputed by other authorities. In order to settle the question it seemed best to undertake a bacteriological study of the disease. This seemed the more desirable because, so far as we have ascertained, there was no known microörganism generally recognized and accepted as the cause of the disease in this country, the bacillus described by Bang having been found only in Europe and his work having failed to be confirmed by American investigators. Altogether eighteen parturient cows have been examined bacteriologically. Ten of these calved at term and the births appeared to be normal. The abortion bacillus was not found in any of these. Eight were cases of premature delivery, and of these, six appeared clinically to be cases of contagious abortion. Placental tissue from two of these cases was examined by the Nowak plate method and a bacillus isolated, apparently identical with that isolated by Bang in Denmark and by Nowak in Austria. The organism is a very small short rod, usually oval in shape, from 0.8µ to 2.0µ long by 0.7µ wide, practically always single, rarely in short threads of two to four cells. It is not motile, and does not form spores. It stains with moderate rapidity with the ordinary anilin dyes, and is decolorized by Gram's method. The colonies on serum-agar are raised, with smooth circular borders, appearing almost like drops of dew. They are transparent and very clear, with a bluish gray color by transmitted light. Under the microscope a few coarse granules may be seen near the center of the colony but the greater part of it appears very homogenous and almost water-clear. The appearance of the colony is really a very characteristic feature of the organism and enables one to distinguish readily the colony of the abortion bacillus from other colonies on the serum-agar plates. The behavior toward oxygen is another character upon which considerable reliance may be placed in the identification of strains recently isolated from the animal body. This is tested by transplanting the colonies from the serum-agar plates to two series of agar streak sub-cultures, of which one series is incubated in the atmospheric air and the other in the closed jar together with cultures of _B. subtilis_. Unless the growth under the latter condition is much better than the growth outside the jar, the culture may be discarded as one not belonging to this species. A final important test in identification is that of pathogenicity. Nowak induced abortion in pregnant guinea pigs with great regularity by subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, and intravenous injection of pure cultures of the abortion bacillus. So far, four pregnant guinea pigs have been inoculated subcutaneously with the pure cultures isolated by us, and the inoculation has been followed by premature evacuation of the uterus with death of the fetuses in 3-½ 8, 6, and 7 days respectively. In the first guinea pig the two fetuses were practically fully developed and covered with hair. In this instance the abortion bacillus was isolated only from the subcutaneous tissue of the mother at the point of inoculation, the cultures from the uterus, the placenta, and the fetuses remaining negative. In the other three cases the fetuses were undeveloped and the condition was that of a true abortion. In these instances the abortion bacillus was demonstrated by culture tests at the point of inoculation in pure culture in two, in mixed culture in the other one; in the interior of the uterus in pure culture in all three; in each of the four placentæ of two cases in mixed culture, as these placentæ had been passed some time before they were found, and in the three placentæ of the other case in pure culture; in the livers of all three fetuses of the one case in pure culture, but not in the other four fetuses; in the heart blood of the mother in pure culture in one case, but not in the other two cases. In all these tests the mother guinea pig was killed by chloroform soon after the abortion had occurred. From the results of these tests we have concluded that the bacillus isolated by us from aborting cows is identical with that isolated by Bang and by Nowak. Further, the investigations of Bang, Preisz, Nowak, McFadyean and Stockman, and Zwick, seem to justify the acceptance of this organism as the infectious agent in the contagious abortion of cattle. The principles of bacteriological nomenclature have not as yet been universally adopted, and most of the investigators quoted in this paper have avoided the use of a specific name for the abortion bacillus. Bang himself seems not to have given it a binomial designation, but he repeatedly employed the term "Abortusbacillus" as a specific term. Chester (1901) has named the organism "_Bacterium abortivum_" with the synonym "Bacillus of contagious abortion in cows, Bang." Preisz (1902) suggested the name "_Corynebacterium abortus endemici (s. infectiousi)_." This generic name Corynebacterium appears to be incorrect, as the organism is very different from those to which this name has been previously applied. It would seem best to employ the more general term Bacillus (or Bacterium) as a confessedly temporary generic name until a more definite generic nomenclature of bacteria shall have been developed and generally adopted. In determining the specific name it would seem that the term "Abortusbacillus" employed by its discoverer as early as 1907 should receive first consideration. We[1] have therefore suggested the name _Bacillus_ (or _Bacterium_) _abortus_, Bang, for this organism. The term "_abortus_," being in the genitive case, may be employed with either generic term. FOOTNOTE: [Footnote 1: MacNeal and Kerr, 1910.] RESTRICTION AND ERADICATION OF THE DISEASE Reliable methods for restricting the spread of contagious abortion and for eradicating it from a herd may be expected as the result of more complete and accurate knowledge of the nature of the disease and its mode of spread. Some of these methods, such as that of artificial immunization, are being tested experimentally by the Departmental Committee appointed by the British Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to inquire into Epizoötic Abortion. Until these methods have been developed beyond the experimental stage, the older more or less empirical methods will have to be relied upon. Fortunately these older methods can now be subjected to careful scrutiny in the light of modern knowledge of the disease, and they have been studied in this way by the British Committee mentioned above. The following summary has been copied, with only slight abridgment and very few alterations, from the report of this Committee. "The methods which have been relied upon in the past for the prevention of abortion and its eradication from a herd are:-- (1) Periodical spraying of the external genital organs and hind quarters with disinfectant solutions. (2) Isolation of animals as soon as they show the premonitory signs of abortion. (3) Internal administration of carbolic acid to animals supposed to be infected or exposed to infection. (4) Irrigation of the genital organs of animals which have aborted with antiseptic solutions. (5) Removal and disposal of animals which have aborted. (6) The keeping of a special bull for serving animals which have aborted, or, what is based on the same idea, the disinfection of the external genital organs of the bull with antiseptic solutions after he has served such a cow. (7) Destruction of the abortion membranes, and disinfection of the parts of the buildings, litter, etc., with which the infective material has come in contact. (8) The keeping of a goat, especially a male goat, in a byre with the cows." It cannot be said of the above measures that either singly or collectively they have brought about any material improvement in the general condition of our herds in relation to abortion. According to reports, decided improvements have been effected in individual herds by the adoption of isolation and disinfection, while in others very little has been accomplished. Some of the above methods are founded on nothing more than ignorant empiricism, while others are based upon pathological and physiological considerations which are only partially correct in their applications. Since most of them have obtained a certain amount of hold, at least on the minds of stockowners, it may be useful to discuss each measure separately in the light of our recent investigations. _Spraying of the External Genital Organs._--This is a procedure which probably has little or no value. (_Abridged._) _Isolation of Animals as soon as they show Signs of Abortion._--The necessity for this measure is obvious, and its importance cannot be too much insisted on. An infected animal only becomes infective to others immediately before the act of abortion, and may remain so for some weeks afterwards. However, only a proportion of the affected animals show premonitory signs, and quite a number may abort amongst their companions without warning. Under such conditions, then, measures of immediate isolation lose much of their undoubted theoretical value, owing to the difficulty in the way of carrying them out in practice. There is not likely to be any serious difficulty in diagnosing the bacterial disease after an act of abortion, even in an isolated case, if the membranes are available in a reasonably fresh state. (_Abridged._) Isolation of the affected animals, however, must be complete before and after the act to be of any real value. Having regard to what appears to be the most common form of infection, viz., by ingestion, we do not think that anything material is to be gained by merely putting all the cows about to abort and those which have aborted at the lower end of a byre, so that the infective discharges may not come in contact with the external genital organs of their fellows, unless we assume that infection frequently takes place by an animal licking virulent material from a part of its body where it has been deposited by flicks of the tail which has been contaminated by lying in the gutter behind the stalls. _Internal Administration of Carbolic Acid._--The uselessness of carbolic acid and other antiseptics as curative agents has already been referred to. As a preventive agent by internal administration we believe carbolic acid to be equally useless. Even if it were possible to administer very large doses of this poisonous substance, one could not expect to be able to give enough to destroy the bacilli which have been swallowed and mixed with the contents of the enormous stomachs and intestines, and it would be equally hopeless to expect to destroy in this way the bacilli which have already reached the womb. This alleged measure of prevention must be regarded as an absurdity which has gained a certain amount of support owing to observations carelessly collated and carelessly interpreted. _Irrigation of the Genital Passages after Abortion._--With the act of abortion the greater part of the uterine exudate is immediately ejected. That some of it remains behind for a short period is certain, since we were able to demonstrate abortion bacilli in material obtained from the vagina of a heifer three days after she had aborted. On the other hand, no abortion bacilli could be found in the uterus of another heifer a month after she had aborted. It seems probable that, as a rule, the genital organs cleanse themselves by natural means a comparatively short time after abortion has taken place. Almost immediately after abortion and expulsion of the membranes the uterus contracts, and its internal surfaces come into apposition. Its condition is such that it would not be possible to force fluid into it with a pump from the vagina. Apart then, from the probability that disinfection of the uterus by antiseptics is not necessary to rid the organ of abortion bacilli, we are of opinion that it is futile to attempt it by irrigation methods. So long as a discharge continues to come from the genital passages, we think that for hygienic and therapeutic reasons they ought to be cleansed once or twice by the intravaginal injection of tepid antiseptic solutions, such as a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a 1 in 3,000 solution of corrosive sublimate, but not on the ground that the injections will disinfect the uterus. We are of opinion that it will seldom be necessary to continue the injections for more than a month, and that after three months there should be small risk in putting the cow to the bull, provided she is afterwards protected from fresh infection. _Removal and disposal of Animals which have aborted._--It is quite a prevalent custom to feed for the butcher cows which have aborted. It is also customary to sell such cows alive in the open market. The second custom we consider likely to introduce disease to other establishments, unless the animals have ceased to discharge; they should, we think, be kept for at least three months after abortion before being sent for sale. The first custom is less objectionable than the second, but we think that a breeder will be more likely to get rid of abortion from his herds by keeping such animals than by disposing of them and bringing in new ones before his entire herd is free from the disease. There can be no doubt that in most cases an attack of the disease greatly increases an animal's resistance to future attacks, and that in a large proportion of the affected, probably in the majority, this resistance is sufficient to fortify them against infection during their next pregnancy. It is beyond doubt that a considerable proportion may abort twice in succession, but it is not improbable that inoculation methods may now be successfully employed to exalt their resistance. In the midst of infection there is no better guarantee against the disease than the possession of an immune stock, and for this reason we consider that on infected premises the animals which have already aborted are to be looked upon as valuable assets for purposes of eradication, much more valuable than the new and susceptible animals brought in. We find, however, that a small proportion of cows will not hold to the bull for an indefinite period after abortion, and it may be found better to fatten off such animals, unless they are of high value. _The Keeping of a Special Bull for Cows which have aborted._--We have already stated that we do not consider the bull a factor of the first importance in the dissemination of abortion but that infection by means of a contaminated bull must be looked upon as a distinct possibility. We think, therefore, that there is something to be said in favor of keeping a bull for the service of cows which have aborted, and, when that is not possible, of disinfecting the external genital organs of the bull after he has served such cows. Of course, if the cows can be immunized the same bull might be used for all. We do not think that cows from a clean establishment should be sent even to a clean bull on infected premises, and it is also inadvisable that cows from infected premises should be sent to a bull on a clean establishment. _Destruction of Virulent Material and disinfection of everything contaminated by it._--The immediate disinfection of the virulent materials and contaminated objects is of great importance, more especially as it appears that the natural virus may remain active for a long time outside the body. The soiled litter, dung, exudate, membranes, and fetus should all be removed at once, preferably after they have been treated with caustic lime. After removal they should be soaked in paraffin and burned, or buried in a deep pit, preferably the former. On no account should the fetus and membranes be fed to pigs or dogs. When a fetus is aborted alive, as sometimes happens, it seldom survives long, and it is advisable to kill and destroy it, since it may excrete abundance of virulent material from its intestines if allowed to live. If, however, it be decided not to kill it, it should immediately be isolated. The walls of the stall and the floor should be washed or strewn thickly with caustic lime, or drenched freely with boiling water. The temperature necessary to kill the bacillus is not great, and this simple method of disinfection should prove efficacious. Lastly, the boots, clothing, and hands of attendants should be disinfected by making use of any reliable disinfectant, such as 3 or 4 per cent solution of carbolic acid. _The keeping of a Goat amongst the Cows._--This, we believe can only have had its origin in ignorant superstition, but we feel bound to mention it, as the question of its efficacy has quite frequently been seriously put to us. We would point out that goats themselves can be infected with cattle abortion, and that both male and female goats were on our premises during the greater part of the time occupied with the cattle experiments, and their presence did not prevent animals from aborting. _Preventive Inoculation._--This is still in the experimental stage and definite results are hoped for. (_Abridged._) The Committee refrained from making any recommendations in regard to measures to be taken by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries for the prevention of the disease. Experience in connection with the beef cattle herd at the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station with the methods of isolation, careful disposal of infected material, cleaning and disinfection of infected stalls, antiseptic irrigation of the genital passages of cows which had aborted, and antiseptic irrigation of the bull before and after service, together with the use of a special bull for heifers and clean cows, has been very satisfactory. These measures were applied under the direction of Professor H. W. Mumford and Mr. H. O. Allison. During the year previous to the inauguration of these measures a large percentage of the calves were lost by abortion. A decided improvement in respect to the number of calves saved was coincident with the use of the procedures mentioned above. They were applied to each case of abortion as it occurred, until in the course of two years abortions have become very infrequent and the herd is now considered free from the disease. It should be noted, however, that those cows which had aborted were not necessarily disposed of, but after local irrigation treatment until the discharge had ceased, they were bred again. Some of the improvement in the herd has, therefore, doubtless been due merely to the retention of relatively immune cows. Altho the experience here has been rather fortunate and the results obtained seem to bear some relation to the employment of the measures deemed worthy by the British Committee, we hesitate to state that there was any necessary relation between them, because cattle men have observed somewhat similar improvement in herds without the use of any treatment at all. In other words, there appears to be a tendency for the disease sometimes to die out in a herd or to become quiescent for a year or two. On the other hand, the recommendations of the British Committee supported as they seem to be by our local experience, certainly warrant the recommendation of these measures for use in combating contagious abortion. In any event good results cannot be expected without intelligent, careful, and painstaking work, and it may be that some of the failures in applying these measures have resulted from lack of efficiency in applying them rather than from insufficiency of the measures themselves. References 1. =Bang.= Die Aetiologie des seuchenhaften ("infectiösen") Verwertens. Ztschr. f. Thiermed. 1: 241-278. 1897. 2. =Board of Agriculture and Fisheries= (Great Britain). Report of the Departmental Committee to inquire into Epizoötic Abortion. Part 1. Epizoötic Abortion in Cattle. London, 1909. 3. =Chester.= A Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. 1901. 4. =McFadyean and Stockman.= Epizoötic Abortion. Report. Dept. Com. Bd. Agr. and Fisheries. (Gt. Brit.), Appendix to Part I, 1909. Review in Expt. Sta. Record =22=: 584-586. 1910. 5. =MacNeal= and =Kerr=. Bacillus abortus of Bang, the cause of contagious abortion in cattle. Jour. Infect. Diseases =7=: 469-475 (1910). 6. =Nocard,= Review by =Bang=. Ztschr. f. Thiermed, =1=: 243-246. 1897. 7. =Nowak.= Le bacille de Bang et sa biologie. Annales de l'Institut Pasteur =22=: 541-546. 1908. 8. =Preisz.= Der Bacillus des seuchenhaften Verwerfens. Centralbl. f. Bakt. etc., I Abt. Orig. =33=: 190-196 (1903). 9. =Zwick.= Ueber den Erreger des infectiösen Abortus des Rindes. Centralbl. f. Bakt. etc., Beilage zu I Abt. Ref. =47=: 219-220. 1910. * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Bold text is marked =like so= in the text version of this | | document. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * 
36565	----	produced from images generously made available by The Kentuckiana Digital Library) [Illustration: The Welsh Pony] THE WELSH PONY [Illustration: HERD OF WELSH MOUNTAIN PONIES GRAZING Brecon, Wales] THE WELSH PONY DESCRIBED IN TWO LETTERS TO A FRIEND By OLIVE TILFORD DARGAN BOSTON: PRINTED PRIVATELY FOR CHARLES A. STONE: 1913 Copyright, 1913, by Charles A. Stone PINKHAM PRESS, BOSTON _To_ ANNE WHITNEY ILLUSTRATIONS HERD OF WELSH MOUNTAIN PONIES GRAZING Frontispiece MY LORD PEMBROKE xii A MORNING RIDE xiv IMPORTED WELSH STALLION RAINBOW 4 SEARCHLIGHT--PONY MARE 6 THE FAMOUS WELSH STALLION GREYLIGHT 8 A FULL BROTHER OF DAYLIGHT 10 LONGMYND FAVORITE AND HER FOAL MANOMET WHITE STAR 12 MY LORD PEMBROKE WHEN THREE YEARS OLD 14 LONGMYND ECLIPSE ON A RAINY DAY 16 A WELSH COB 18 MARE AND FOAL 20 LONGMYND 22 LONGMYND COMMONS 24 IMPORTED WELSH STALLION MY LORD PEMBROKE 26 LONGMYND ECLIPSE AND GROVE RAINBOW 28 LONGMYND CASTOR 32 LONGMYND ECLIPSE AND MY LORD PEMBROKE 34 BRECON 36 THE BEACONS 38 LONGMYND POLLOX 40 FOREST LODGE PASTURES 42 MY LORD PEMBROKE 44 KNIGHTON SENSATION, LONGMYND ECLIPSE AND MY LORD PEMBROKE 46 KNIGHTON SENSATION 48 MY LORD PEMBROKE IN HARNESS 50 INTRODUCTION While living in Devon about a year ago, I first became acquainted with the Welsh pony and found great pleasure in riding and driving with my children through the charming lanes and by-ways of Southwestern England. I was so fortunate as to have at that time an attractive little gray mare which was loaned to me by a friend who was spending the winter in France. This little mare, partly Welsh, was so cheerful and friendly, and seemed so much to enjoy our excursions into the country, that I felt sorry to leave her behind when I left Devon. The following spring, at the London Horse Show, I saw some splendid specimens of thoroughbred Welsh mountain ponies ridden by children, and my wife and I were so attracted by them that we determined to get four or five and bring them to America. Later during the same season, at the Royal Agricultural Show, which is the best fair of its kind in the world, I saw many splendid ponies of the Welsh breed, and had an opportunity to find out more particularly about them. A trip to Wales was then planned with a view of visiting the ponies on their native hills and arranging with some owners and breeders to help me select a small herd for shipment to Boston. On this trip I found the Welsh country so charming and the ponies so attractive and so different from any ponies I had known before, that I spent altogether several weeks in Wales and the border counties selecting a herd which finally amounted to about twenty-five of the best of the true mountain type that I could obtain. [Illustration: MY LORD PEMBROKE Welsh Mountain Pony Stallion. Winner of First Prize at Brockton Fair, 1912, for best pony thirteen hands or under shown under saddle] I have been pondering ever since, not only how I might improve and add to my own somewhat superficial knowledge of the remarkable qualities of the Welsh pony, but also how I might bring him to the favorable notice of my countrymen. In this endeavor I was fortunately able to enlist the interest of my cousin, Miss Whitney, whose friend, Mrs. Olive Tilford Dargan, was at that time journeying through England and Wales. Miss Whitney saw the opportunity that lay before me provided Mrs. Dargan could be won to a study of the pony problem, and promised to set herself at once to the attainment of this object--although she did say that such a call upon her friend was about as nearly related to that lady's real vocation as a yokel's whistle to Pan's pipes. I think, however, that the author of the following letters has shown a true idea of the dignity inherent in the mission to which she was summoned, and has indeed written up to it; responding to the request of her friend with a whole-souled heartiness which makes me her grateful beneficiary. C. A. S. December, 1912. [Illustration: A MORNING RIDE] THE WELSH PONY--HIS PEDIGREE LETTER NUMBER ONE _London, England, July 15, 1911._ Dear A----: Some months ago you asked me to tell you all that I knew or could discover about the Welsh pony. I will tell you if you will stand the listening. For since you bade me I have taken the subject to heart and can talk on it from dawn to dusk. We have travelled--pony and I--from Arabia to the Lybian sands and from Scandanavia to the midland seas; and on my recent journey through Wales--that land, as you know, of old adventure and anguish of endless battle--I kept but half an eye in pursuit of the vanishing skirts of Romance; the other eye and a half swept along the vista in search of the mountain lady who trips so handsomely on her four feet that Sir Phenacodus Primaevus, could he behold her from his fossil retreat, would acknowledge his success as an ancestor, whatever may have been his discouragements in prehistoric society. At first, aware of my weakness for the equine, I was afraid that I had succumbed to my charmer with regrettable haste, but association only fixed my loyalty and sustained the credentials that he wears on every inch of him. Let me parenthesize here and have done with it, that if I use my genders in hopeless interchange, or am forced to the apologetic "it," you must extricate the sex as best you can, and re-register your old vow to reform the English language. "She" will apply but ludicrously to the gallant entires that were asked to exhibit their best steps before me; and "he" does not come naturally to my pen if I have in mind some of the graceful mares whose acquaintance I made as they drew me through pass and over bryn, almost coquetting with the task laid upon them, yet modest withal, for the Welsh pony, be the pronoun what it may, never forgets manners. [Illustration: IMPORTED WELSH STALLION RAINBOW Winner of many prizes in England and Wales. Under twelve hands] Later, at the Olympia, during the International Horse Show, I spent a fatuously happy time in the stables. Many pony types were exhibited, and nobly they represented their kind, but I found none so love-inspiring as the little conqueror from Cymric, "Shooting Star," owned by Sir Walter Gilbey. He is a dapple-gray, eleven hands high, of perfect shape and brim-full of spirit, not of the self-conscious kind, eager for gratuitous display, but unabashed, careful of the amenities, and avowing with all the grace in him that he will be your friend if you choose to be _his_. If he has one defect it is a parsimony of tail, though I heard none of his thousands of admirers make that criticism; and he carries it up and out in true Arabian style. In the arena, when all of the horses came in for the general parade--the big Clydesdales first, followed by representatives of nearly every breed in the world, the procession ending with a wee Shetland, whose mistress is the little Princess Juliana of Holland--it was Shooting Star that received the most impulsive greeting--an applause of love evoked by his irresistible dearness, billowing where he passed until he completed the great circuit. I had the assurance of others who daily haunted the Show that this triumph was a feature of every general parade; and it was then that I began to ask a certain Why? Why is the Welsh pony gifted with a symmetry that subjugates at sight, while his congeners too often show an _ensemble_ whose mild ungainliness must be admitted by their best of friends? Why, with the hardihood of the half-wild forager, and unflagging endurance, does he display the grace and bearing that we associate with carefully tended animals of pedigree? The Exmoor and Dartmoor types only in a moderate degree show signs of high descent, and the ponies of the Fells (though I mind me well of the lovable traits of some of my neighbors among them up in the shires of Cumberland and Westmoreland) are indubitably plebian, while the Welsh pony is a patrician on his wildest hill. Even those who hold a brief for other breeds confess his superiority in points that stamp him "of the blood." Parkinson proclaims him the perfect pony of the kingdom, and Lord Lucas, who for some years has been engaged in improving the New Forest pony, says, after an excursion in search of desirable strains to introduce into the Forest, that he found the best ponies in Wales; and he has confirmed his judgment by the purchase of "Daylight," a young Carmarthenshire pony of prepotent promise, for alliance with the Forest stock. [Illustration: SEARCHLIGHT--PONY MARE] The breeder of Daylight seems particularly able in adding "lights" to a constellation whose first impulse to shine came from Dyoll Starlight, a sire who cannot be accused of any desire to hide his light under a bushel. It gleams not merely from one hill, but a hundred, and the breeder so happy as to own a bit of this strain rarely fails to advertise his good fortune in the name he gives to his prize. The result is a confusion of Starlights, Greylights--even Skylights!--in repeated series distinguished as Starlight II, III, etc., until the dazzled investigator prays for an eclipse. I take it, however, as a hopeful sign that one of the latest comers to the circle is yclept Radium. But to know these ponies makes one lenient to the pride that clings to the family name. I send you a photograph of Searchlight, a daughter of Dyoll Starlight, and granddaughter of Merlyn Myddfai, who was sold into Australia. She is a sister to Daylight, bought by Lord Lucas, and also to Sunlight, a three-year old pony mare, undoubtedly with a scintillating future, who will be exhibited for the first time at Swansea during the National Pony Show, whither I intend to go just to have sight of some of the exquisite young things that are springing up all over Wales since the recent awakening of Taffy the Thrifty to the fact that the pony is one of the most profitable assets of his country. The photograph of Searchlight is somewhat unfair to her beauty. The slight turn of the head coarsens the nose and widens the lower jaw with an unpatrician suggestion of which there is no hint when she is before you in vivid substance. Her brother, Greylight, poses more successfully, but I send you Searchlight also, partly because she is a lady, and of a more retired life, but mainly because she illustrates, so far as may be in a photograph, that indefinable thing called "pony character," which you will find me dilating on later. Just now I want to get back to my Why. [Illustration: THE FAMOUS WELSH STALLION GREYLIGHT] What in the history of the Welsh pony will explain this union of hardy wilderness qualities with a form as perfect as that produced in Arabia after two thousand years of jealous breeding? I asked the question of dealers and breeders and oldest inhabitants. I went to the hills to ask it of the pony himself; and to the British Museum to ask it of relics and tomes; following my "Why" to Arabia, to Libya, and back to the "elephant bed" of the Brighton Pleistocene, where I stopped; for there, it seemed to me, the Welsh pony began, so far as research permits him to have a beginning. To follow him beyond neolithic man into the paleozoic ages, when he was merely an old father Hipparion puzzling as to whether he should remain in his bog and unenterprisingly evolve into a tapir, or go into deeper and wetter regions and be a spiritless rhino, or step bravely onto dry land, turn his five flabby toes into a fleet and solid hoof, and become the noble _equus caballus_,--to pursue him thus far would keep me wandering in a region of timorous conjecture where he was neither Welsh nor a pony. So I begin with the Brighton deposit, where was found the skeleton of a small horse supposed, without successful contradiction, to be an ancestor of a species which Professor James Cossar Ewart has named the Pony Celticus, and which once overspread Western Europe. The tribe was gradually driven to the wall, meaning in this case the sea, and their descendants, certainly considerably modified, are even now to be found in the outer Hebrides and the Faroes. They lingered long in North Wales, that little nest of undisturbed peaks, and it was with the descendants of this species that the Romans mated their military animals and produced the packhorse so necessary in rugged West Britain. This packhorse was not the heavy creature that his name suggests, but a sure-footed, light-bodied animal, capable, however burdened, of going nimbly up and down the hills. In East Britain and the midlands there was no incentive to breed him, as the numerous heavier types sprung from the Forest horse were more serviceable there. But in Wales at this time we have the first authentic infiltration of alien blood, and this blood was undoubtedly of the Orient. The Romans, we know, were patrons of the East in matters equestrian, and in their files of leadership there could have been "no lack Of a proud rider on so proud a back" as that of the Arabian courser. But of more importance than such occasionally distinguished pedigrees was the fact that their army horses in general were Gallic; and the Gallic horse was of Eastern origin. So the Romans left to Wales not only a heritage of legendary stone, such as the old camp, Y Caer Bannau, which is shown you in Breconshire, but a far more valued legacy which is yet animate in the veins of the Welsh pony. The invaders were busy in Wales for four hundred years, during which time the packhorse became a domestic type, and gradually the acclimated Arabian blood crept up the hills and among the wildest herds--a slow infusion that left the pony still a pony, retaining all the hardihood that made life possible on the scanty-herbaged peaks. [Illustration: A FULL BROTHER OF DAYLIGHT Taken At Llandilo] The ponies of the southern moors, no doubt, were also marked by this early cross; and they, too, still held at the time something of their heritage from the Pony Celticus; but their position had left them liable to mixture with the Forest Horse, or what represented him in the low-countries, and it was by just that mixture that the packhorse of Wessex, which was the "gentleman's horse" in Devon down to two hundred years ago, became different from that of Wales. It is very unlikely that the Forest Horse was ever in the Cambrian hills, and the active little Pony Celticus on his remote slopes escaped any alliance with that phlegmatic blood. For this reason, in the Welsh descendants of the species, the Eastern horse found a comparatively unmixed strain which was probably as old as his own. The frequent absence of ergots and callossities (those vestigial signs, near knee and fetlock, of vanished digits) would indicate in the Pony Celticus a development as ancient at least as that of the Libyan ancestors of the Arabian horse. Professor Ridgeway, of Cambridge University, thinks that he may even be a related northern branch of the horse of Libya, and that both the North African species and the Pony Celticus may claim the bones of the small horse found in the Brighton Pleistocene as ancestral. If this be true, then when Roman met Welsh in equine society, the two oldest breeds of the world were united, and, as you know, the older the breed the more ineradicable are its characteristics. If originally congeneric, that too would be in favor of the type produced by such a union, and may be a key to the persistence and potency of the Welsh mountain stock. In the Pony Celticus, wherever his modified posterity is least changed, the dorsal and lateral marks indicating equatorial origin are reproduced with little difficulty. [Illustration: LONGMYND FAVORITE AND HER FOAL MANOMET WHITE STAR The mare was imported in 1911 and shows her remarkable breeding in every way] And we have another reason for suspecting the pony ancestor of our Welsh variety to be of North African kinship rather than allied to the Asiatic horse, with large ergots and heavy callossities, which came by the northern route into Scandinavia. This horse, by tradition and record, was of an intractable disposition. It was in upper Asia that the bit originated, while the Libyan horse was of so gentle a nature that his descendant is yet ridden on the Arabian plains with no more guidance than can be given by a simple noseband. Of this horse Mohammed could say, "God made him of a condensation of the southwest wind"; the consummate simile for fleetness and mildness. But I don't accuse the Asiatic horse of being the first sinner. Though the callossities are against his being as old as the Libyan, he may have originally possessed as gentle a temper, which became lost through association with brutal races (see Herodotus) who insisted on being masters instead of friends. The horse resents mastery, as you know, and resentment is peculiarly poisonous to his character. Make him a comrade or nothing. His ascent may have been more dignified than our own, and in one way at least he prehistorically showed more gentle intentions; 'twas we who kept the claws! But while I leave the question of responsibility open in the case of the Asiatic horse, I am glad to think that our pony did not come by way of his blood, whether corrupted by man or tainted with original sin. Certain it is that the Pony Celticus possessed a docility and fair-mindedness that indicated a blameless descent, and there is no evidence that his Welsh offspring were ever handled by man in a way to warp his character. It is true that in his wild state, after the sheep-dog was introduced into Wales (which was comparatively late), the pony was much harried, and driven to the more barren regions; but whenever brought down to the farms he was at once admitted to family privileges that gave him confidence in humanity. As early as the days of the good king, Howell Dha, laws for his care and protection were recorded, and these seem to have been but a codification of rules that had long been in general practice. We read that if a man borrowed a horse and fretted the hair on his back he was to pay a fine to the owner; but such a law as we find among the ancient statutes of Ireland, "Quhasoever sall be tryet or fund to stow or cut ane uther man's hors tail sall be pwunschit as a thief," seems to have had no call for existence in Welshland. [Illustration: MY LORD PEMBROKE WHEN THREE YEARS OLD Taken at Shrewsbury, England] I have said that there was no danger of invasion by the larger British horse on the eastern side. His big feet would not have been at home on the rocky Welsh passes. On the fen side of England the horses developed a softness of hoof and sponginess of bone whose gradual alteration in later days to a close, dense texture, was one of the difficulties that had to be overcome in the production of the English thoroughbred; but, fortunately, the mountain pony was never troubled by such an inheritance. On the channel side of Wales there was a smaller breed of attractive neighbors, and the question of invasion was different. Just a short space across the water lay a nation of kindred Celts, and that they exchanged horses as well as wives with their Welsh cousins--not always by consent--literature gives us sufficient proof. And the horses of Ireland, happily bred on a soil of limestone formation, developed such compactness, strength, and fineness of bone, that when their hard, clean, flat legs brought them into Welsh camps and pastures they were always welcome to the unseen genius attendant on the mountain pony. The once noted Irish hobbie was often brought into Wales and left his mark there. [Illustration: LONGMYND ECLIPSE ON A RAINY DAY Ridden by a young lady of eight] The records left by the admirers of this animal are pleasant reading. Says old Blundevill: "These are tender-mouthed, nimble, light, pleasant, apt to be taught, and for the most part they be amblers and therefore verie meete for the saddle and to travel by the way." And this desirable creature was produced by a union of the Spanish-Arabian horse with the Irish pony, the descendant of the yet prevailing Celticus; for the Irish isle, as the Welsh hills, was one of his last strongholds. But long before the introduction of Spanish stallions into Ireland, this pony had become modified by the Gallic breed--the same Eastern strain that the Romans brought into Wales. In the three horse skulls with finely preserved Arabian features, recently discovered in a peat-buried crannog, Professor Ridgeway finds proof that the Eastern horse was in Ireland possibly as early as the sixth century; and the description of the horses in the oldest Irish saga support the claim that the warhorse and charger of the Irishman in his epic days were of Eastern importation. Breton was an open way of the Gallic horse to Ireland, for there was much compliment, combat, and barter, between the Irish and Breton Celts. And the horse of Breton was particularly suitable for union with Irish stock, the Arabian in him being already modified by a hardy breed of the hills. Now let me get back to Wales, taking with me this augmentation of the Arabian strain, pony-diluted, through the Irish port--another infusion most happily chosen by the beneficence that seems to have guided the Welsh pony in his evolution. Not too much of this visiting blood either; for there were always wild herds that kept much to themselves; "companys of beesties" content to come only occasionally to the valleys, when they would lure away some gallant or coquette of the lowlands, glad to sniff the air of a fuller freedom. It was the slowness of these infusions, filtering through centuries, and always the same inexpungeable strain, that has made the cross so lastingly successful. [Illustration: A WELSH COB] Now to rush down to the modern period. As population grew, the making of roads, reclamation of slopes, and increase in local valley traffic, made the larger horse more attractive to the eyes of the Welshman; and some praiseworthy types, notably the Cob, were produced by the introduction of well-bred English sires. But there were unwelcome by-products in the process, and the importations from the Shires were often ill-judged and indiscreet. The light, graceful-bodied carthorse, of miraculous endurance, the descendant of the early packhorse, and very different from the clumsy, sluggish carthorse of the Shires, has suffered deterioration in beauty, bone and spirit. As a sage of Radnorshire puts it, there is a touch too little of the Arab and a touch too much of Flanders. And as I cannot claim that all the good blood brought into Wales made its way to the pony on the hills, while all the bad blood staid below, I must admit that he _has_ been affected by these later introductions; but in far less degree, for time has not been left to have its final way, nor is the coarser strain of Eastern potency. We must also remember that two centuries ago, when these adventures in breeding began, the English had commenced those prudent experiments with the Arab cross which has fixed the thoroughbred in his sovereign place. There had been occasional importations of the Arab ever since the Roman days, but the English horses were of such numerous and diffused types, and so unlike the Eastern horse in build and nature, that such spasmodic introductions had no permanent effect. The great improvement came with the determined enthusiasm and patience of the eighteenth century breeders; and it seems providential again that as the ways of breeding between England and Wales became promiscuously open, the Eastern blood was becoming prevalent in England. From this source the Welsh breeders began renewing the beneficent strain in the slow, best manner. Merlin, a descendant of the Brierly Turk, after his brilliant years on the turf, was brought to Wales and turned out with the ponies on the Ruabon hills to become the founder of a famous and prolific line. Mr. Richard Crashaw secured for his county the Arab sire of Cymro Llwd; and in Merioneithshire, the half-Arab, Apricot, of multiple progeny, became an imperishable tradition. Seventy or eighty years ago, Mr. Morgan Williams put Arab sires with his droves on the hills behind Aberpergwm; and it was in this region that in recent years Moonlight was discovered, roving and unshod, by Mr. Meuric Lloyd, and this dam of certain Arabian descent gave Wales her Dyoll Starlight, to whose paternity I have referred. [Illustration: MARE AND FOAL At Llandilo] Notwithstanding this reinforcement of his aristocracy, there were too many doors left carelessly open. The larger pony of the lower lands was becoming mixed with the Cardinganshire cob; and some owners were guilty of letting half-bred Shire colts have the run of the hills. In time the only safe place for the mountain pony would have been the topmost crests, but for an event of happy effect upon his destiny. This was the organization of the Welsh-Pony- and Cob-Society in the Royal Show Yard at Cardiff one springtime eleven years ago. Lord Tredegar was the first president, and after him the Earl of Powys. King George became a patron, and the society acquired an impetus that proved it had not been born too soon. Not only are all the Shires of Wales represented in its council, but also the border counties of Monmouth, Shropshire and Hereford. The formation of a Stud Book was the initial practical business of the Society, and its first volumes derive special value from the fact that Wales has always tended to the patriarchial system, and her traditions, whether of horses or families, can be relied upon. There have always been wise and prudent breeders in the land; men who could, in some degree, counteract indifference and hold to ideal aim. [Illustration: LONGMYND] The Society went to its work with "ears laid back"; but I will mention only two of its achievements. One of these, which will affect the pony's future, so long as ponies be, was an Act of Parliament that enables breeders to clear the Commons of all stallions which a competent committee decides are undesirable. The Common Lands of Wales are so extensive, and comprise so many tracts, that improvement by selection other than nature's is a farce so long as the pasturage is free to any and all. Nature long ago accomplished her best for the Welsh pony, and while he was practically an isolated type it was easy to maintain her standard. But with multifarious breeds and half-breeds in proximity, the carelessness of man was beginning to undo her work, and Wales might have followed Ireland in the deterioration of her pony stock and the loss of a fixed type, if the Society had not actively intervened. The struggle over the Act was discouragingly prolonged, for Taffy is sometimes stubborn, and he could not see that the right to use the Commons would still be a right if it were limited by consideration for one's neighbors. His beast might be as poor a thing as he pleased--sickle-hocked, goose-rumped, tucked up in the brisket, as some of the larger valley-bred ponies were, and, alas, are--but if it could successfully beguile the feminine portion of his neighbor's carefully sorted drove, the helpless neighbor, injured in heart and pocket, had no redress. Finally, after many difficulties, unwearying effort, and a constant display of good nature, the committee secured the passage of the Act and put an end to what one of the overworked members, exasperated to humor, termed the "unlimited liability sire system." I have mentioned two sections where this system had been brought to a close some years before the passage of the Act. One of these is the Longmynd Range, lying back of Church Stretton, in Shropshire. Though beyond the March, it is practically Welsh in all that concerns its pony interests. The Range covers about seventy square miles, and at the top is a plateau, two thousand feet high, which was a stronghold of the pony before England began to write her history. Deep gullies cut the slopes and widen into ravines, then into valleys. There are crags to climb, and boggy dongas to be avoided. The heather in places is girth-deep, and altogether it is a typical breeding spot of the wild mountain pony. Here we understand how he came by his agility and hardiness, and realize how persistent must be the qualities bred into him by centuries of such environment. In this region it has been the custom for the last twenty-five years to have an annual drive and round-up, when all the ponies are brought down, selected, sorted, the undesirables cast out, and the others, excepting those picked for market, or exchanged for ponies of another run, sent back to freedom. The ponies are not eager to leave their heights, and they give the riders that bring them down an anxious as well as exhilarating time. The "drives" take place in September, and I hope to be at the next one, but whether for the sake of poetry or ponies I don't yet know. I am beginning to believe that they are not unrelatable. [Illustration: LONGMYND COMMONS] The other section where practically the same system was adopted years ago, is Gower Common, on the Peninsula near Swansea. In this region, as in Longmynd, the standard has been raised in a manner very attractive to the contemplative purchaser; but I would not sound the merits of their ponies above all others, for here and there throughout Wales are breeders who, with difficulty and expense, have individually practiced a system of sorting; and now that the Commons Act has been passed, every one, be he breeder or pony, will have an opportunity to do his best for his country. The Society's other achievement which I wish to note connects itself with the United States and the mystifying evolution of a new order regulating the certification of those recognized breeds to be accorded exemption from import duty "on and after January 1, 1911." The only thing clear to me in regard to the international reactions involved, is that without the establishment of a Stud Book, and the vigorous registrative activity of the Society's Council, the new order, which recognizes the Welsh pony as a pure breed exempt from duty, would not be in existence, and the same mysterious "rules" and "exceptions" that bewildered breeders previous to 1911 would still be a discouragement to exportation. Whereas all is now plain sailing. And here is the end of my prologizing. Having finished with his history, I shall be ready in my next to tell you something of the pony himself. In this letter I have only tried to uncover some of the influences that have made him what he is to-day--in beauty an Arab, in constitution an original pony. There was, first, his early purity of type as a descendant of the true pony that homed in these lands. It has been said that when Henry the Eighth passed his law for the extermination of all horses below an approved stature, some of the lowland ponies, scenting danger and led by equine Tells and Winkelrieds, retreated to the mountain fastnesses, defied the throne of England, and became the Welsh mountain pony. This is a mistake. The ponies scattered through the Shires were weedy stunts of horse breeds from which all trace of the Pony Celticus had long disappeared; and if any of the persecuted beasts gained the regions of safety that lay cupped in the lofty hollows of the Welsh slopes, they found native occupants before them. But I cannot believe that the mountain stock ever received this dreggy mixture from the Shires. In spite of his ancient and resisting lineage, such adulteration would have left its mark on the pony's conformation, as, for instance, the large ears of the Dartmoor, or the coarse heads of the Fell ponies. Doctor Johnson suggested (not confidently, I admit) that the word "pony" came from "puny," and was applied to the creatures so stigmatized because they were puny degenerates of a nobler breed. Though he was wrong philologically, we have no reason to doubt that he knew the lowland pony of his times; and when I come across the implication that these "degenerates" escaped hostile hands, scaled unaccustomed heights, and became the ancestors of the Welsh pony, with all his invincibilities, it simply puts my back up. [Illustration: IMPORTED WELSH STALLION MY LORD PEMBROKE Winner of First Prize at Chestnut Hill Horse Show 1912. Twelve hands] But I was recapitulating. The second salient factor in the production of our pony was the manner in which the Eastern blood was introduced--those repeated infusions from the earliest times in a form most favorable for mingling with his own. And a third influence was his remote, mountain home. Perhaps this ought to be put first, as it made possible the other two. It kept him a Pony Celticus long after the species in other parts of Britain had become mixed with the Forest tribe; and it prevented the rapid introduction of alien blood which, even when it is of the best, will if too liberally applied turn the hardy and valuable pony into an indifferent small horse. These are the influences which, working together for seventeen hundred years (from the first to the eighteenth centuries), produced the precious and unexcelled foundation pony-stock of the Welsh mountains. I suspect that this compression into stark outlines of my delectable wanderings after facts and conclusions has made me too prosy for your patience,--but if I make any apology it will be to the pony; remembering, as I do, one Sunday morning in Brecon, when I sallied out unmoved by the church-bells, which chime so indefatigably in Welshland, and climbed the highest, craggiest hill in sight. [Illustration: LONGMYND ECLIPSE AND GROVE RAINBOW As shown in double harness at a Boston Horse Show] On the top of it I found a small herd of ponies, living without bluff or boast the simple life. There were several mares with young foals, and some colts of poetic promise, which led me to press for entrance into the family circle; but with retreating dignity they let me know that I was a mere inquisitive bounder, and I was reduced to the old trick that used to work so successfully with the cows in the high meadow above the red cottage in Shelburne. I laid myself down, my hands over my eyes and my fingers craftily windowed, and in a few moments was surrounded by a group investigating me with scientific detachment. Then I found myself looking into eyes, very different from unimaginative Bossy's. Through their unguarded limpidity I was admitted to a realm where it seemed for the moment, at least, that "beast, as man, had dreams, And sought his stars." Cardinal Newman said that we knew less of animals than of angels. A severer modicum of knowledge could not be imputed to mortals. But we must admit the truth of the maxim. Such then and so bottomless being the depth of our ignorance, how can we bestow his just dues upon our "brother without hands," the creature that Huxley called the finest piece of animal mechanism in existence? O. T. D. THE WELSH PONY--HIS QUALITIES LETTER NUMBER TWO _London, England, August 1, 1912._ Dear A----: I have just returned from a day in Epping Forest, whither I was drawn by a rumor of primeval beeches to be seen there. And I found them--groves of the great trees, each as large as the largest oak of my memory. But my interest was soon divided, for our pony was there too--very lovely and very Welsh--tripping along the forest roads and drawing the mind away from a reverie of the old Saxon days, for it was in these very woods that the pious Confessor impartially exercised his two passions for praying and hunting, and here that his devotions were so disturbed by the multitudinous nightingales that he besought God to banish them; and history records that the birds had to go. But I suspect that the arrows of Edward's obedient henchmen assisted a too complaisant deity in the work of banishment. This, too, is the forest through which the mourning Githa brought the body of "Haroldus infelix" to be interred in the abbey founded by him in the woods he had loved. But such faded memories yielded to the modern picture as soon as I saw that my little gallant from the Welsh hills formed a lively part of it. He was there in numbers, attached to carts full of children, to ladies' traps, and sometimes to a more ambitious vehicle. I saw one noble fellow, barely eleven hands high, drawing two fat men, each weighing, to my indignant eyes, at least seventeen stone. In my first rashness I should have protested, but the men were lolling back in such a haze of bliss, pipes in their mouths, and beaming with contentment, that I felt it would be irreverent to disturb a happiness so rare in this rough world. I also saw that the little Welsher was in good fettle and would probably be the first to resent a protest involving an impeachment of his powers. [Illustration: LONGMYND CASTOR Imported Welsh Pony] The carts that pleased me most were those that overflowed with chirruppy, glowing children. They usually took the by-ways denied to the motors, and as they bubbled out of sight into a leafy world, I felt renewedly grateful to the gentle servitor that makes such intimacy between childhood and woodland possible. Little feet cannot get far unassisted, but give them such a helper as the pony and their explorations need hardly be limited. The ideal creature for this purpose is the mountain pony of about eleven hands. Sagacious and docile, he is the safest of companions, and is just as happy under saddle as in harness. The Welsh-Pony- and Cob-Society recognizes two classes of the pony, one this smaller animal of the mountains, not exceeding twelve hands in height, and the larger pony, usually lowland bred, which may be as high as thirteen hands. But the mountain pony is held to be the foundation stock of all the ponies of Wales; furnishing the indestructible material from which is bred the little hunter, saddler and harness pony, or the dear, obliging factotum who will equably plough your garden in the morning and high-step in the park in the afternoon. Whatever his family leanings, toward the Arab, thoroughbred, or more cobby-built type, you will find his "pony character" unaffected. I have already alluded to this attribute, so evident in the pony and so elusive in definition. It is a quality made up of so many others that a full description would be mere endless analysis. Even the all-charitable word, "temperament," will not shelter inadequacy here. To know it one must know the pony. A hint of it is found in his warm, quick sympathy. The horse, however faithful, can at times be cold and judicial in friendship. The pony accepts you without reserving his judgment. He must love wholly, by virtue of the romance that is in him--a tinge of imagination that enables him to idealize rather than criticise, and not an inferior mentality as some students of horse psychology would mistakenly have it. But, though the latchstring of welcome is always out, he will never toss it in your face, for he, too, has a dignity that awaits approach. He serves you, but he is not your underling. If you are so cruel as to be simply the master, ignoring the higher calls of companionship, he does not retreat into indifference, as the horse will, but remains hopeful, expectant, until he wins an understanding or breaks his heart. I do not exaggerate. Wait till you know him; and then you will not more than feebly doubt the story of the pony who came to his aged master, Saint Columba, on the day he was to die, and foremourned their parting. [Illustration: LONGMYND ECLIPSE AND MY LORD PEMBROKE] "Character" is also found in the way the pony uses his eye--the manner of his outlook on the world. In the horse's eye one may sometimes read a slight suggestion of boredom. He is disillusioned. But the pony does not confess to a finished experience; there may be surprises ahead. He is blithely ready for the unusual; and this brings us to another element of "character" which is peculiarly the pony's; that is, a shrewd understanding which gets him out of a difficulty while the horse is still pondering. The latter has had his nose in the mangers of civilization so long that he has lost the mental independence which his pre-domestic life fostered. Unstimulating, derivative knowledge he has in plenty from his association with man; but the Welsh pony of the hilltops, to this day pressed by the necessity of looking out for himself, has a capable initiative which the horse does not possess. Through ages on his sequestered peaks he fought for life against an enemy armed with sleet and snows and dearth, and the record of his struggle is writ in his fibre. He knows where he may climb and where he may not, the slopes that will let him live and the steeps where starvation waits. The colt, though he has never been in a bog, will avoid its treachery, and needs no warning where the gully is ugly, the pool deep, or the ice too thin to bear him. And there has been much hiding and flying, for the sheep-dogs of Wales have been merciless to the pony. Some call here, you see, for a usable mind! [Illustration: BRECON] I must mention one more ingredient of this composite "character"--his indomitable spirit. Match him against a horse of equal strength and the latter will be out of heart while the pony is confidently forging on. At Forest Lodge, the home of a gentleman who owns the largest herd in Wales, I saw a mare of less than twelve hands just after she had taken four men down the long hills to Brecon and _up_ again--fourteen miles--and she was not drooping apart waiting to be washed and rubbed down, but frisking over the yard as if she were quite ready to be off again. This spirit that unconsciously believes in itself is an unfailing mark of the mountain ponies. If ever they are guilty of jibbing, or like "poor jades Lob down their heads," investigation is sure to reveal an injudicious cross too recent to be obliterated by the persistent pony strain. Of this blitheness of spirit I will give another instance. So far as I am involved I do not look back upon the incident with pride, but the pony in the case shall have his due. At Beddgelert I slept late, and was not fully dressed when informed that the coach was at the door. Being anxious to get to Port Madoc in time for the Dolgelly train, I rushed down and out, leapt to a seat, and was off before I realized that the "coach" was a sort of trap drawn by a single pony. There was a cross seat for the driver, and behind it two lengthwise seats arranged so that the occupants must sit facing, with frequent personal collision. We started six in all, and a snug fit we were. I would have descended and tried to secure a private conveyance, in the hope of saving the pony my own weight at least, but we were fairly out of the village before I was fully awake--and there was my train to be caught! However, I soon found that the pony would not have profited by any tenderness on my part, for all along the road there were would-be passengers waiting to be "taken on." The first we met was helped up and made a third in the driver's seat, and the second pinned himself somehow into the seat opposite me. I was congratulating myself on the Welsh courtesy that had left me, a stranger, unmolested, when we rounded a curve and I saw that the gentle consideration had been unavailing. A man stood by the way signaling--a man of unqualified depth and breadth. I thought that he alone might fill the cart. As that astounding driver halted and the man approached my instinct for self-preservation came basely uppermost. I had observed the middle passenger on the other seat to be quiet, elderly and lean. I coveted a seat beside him, and hastily, on the pretext of being a stranger, desiring a better view of the landscape, asked an exchange of seats with the opposite end, which was courteously granted--all to no purpose. My lean neighbor, all at once, took on alarming latitude. I had reckoned without disestablishment. It seemed the man was a bitter opponent of Lloyd George. If some one dropped a word of advocacy he was straightway a tempest of opposition. His shoulders threatened, his elbows flung dissent, his fingers snapped, his arms, compassing the visible area, were not dodgeable, as he defied the world, the bill and the devil in the shape of the Chancellor of the Exchequer--ah well, there was nothing left for me but resignation and nine in a donkey cart. Thus it was I journeyed through the wonderful Pass of Aberglaslyn with its dripping cliffs, walls of crysoprase, and bowlders of shattered dawn--beauty of which I wrote you, with care at the time not to trench upon circumstances here disclosed. And thus I passed by beautiful Tanyrallt, once the home of Shelley, but I did not lift my eyes to the slope where the house stood. I kept them on the roots of the mighty trees that border the foot of the hill, for I felt that if I looked up I should see my poet's passionate apparition confronting me. Such an angel as he was to the poor beasts! How I came back afterwards to make my apology to his spirit need be no part of this letter. When we reached Port Madoc, dissevered, and dropped ourselves out, I crept around to the pony with commiserating intent, and found him to be the only unwilted member of the party. He had lost neither breath nor dignity, and his happy air and the tilt of his lovely head seemed almost an affront to one in my humbled state. He was under thirteen hands, and he had drawn nine of us eight miles over an uneven road at an unflagging trot; and here he was almost laughing in my face, and barely moist under his harness. [Illustration: LONGMYND POLLOX Imported Welsh Pony. Twelve hands] It is his sureness of himself that keeps him cool, being neither anxious nor fearful of failure. Of course this confident spirit has its source in his physical hardiness. In mere bodily endurance he is the equal of the pony of Northern Russia, while much his superior in conformation. But I should never use the phrase I so often heard, "You _can't_ tire him out." It is wrong to suppose that he can be pushed without limit, or kept constantly at the edge of his capacity, and be none the worse for it. Too often the pony that might have lived usefully for thirty or forty years is brought to his death at twenty. He will give man his best for little enough. On half the food that a horse must have, he will do that horse's work; and when not in service, all he asks is a nibbling place, barren as may be--no housing, blanketing, coddling. I know of a pony mare who has spent every winter of her life unsheltered on the hills of Radnorshire, and has not missed foaling a single year since she was four years old. The last account I have reports her as forty-one and with her thirty-seventh foal. And I have come across other instances of longevity that make me believe that the pony that dies at twenty dies young and has not been wisely used. Formerly the ponies on the hills had no help from man, however long the snows lay or the winds lashed; but now, if severe weather persists, they are brought down to the valleys, or rough fodder is taken to them. At Forest Lodge I saw four hundred ponies freshly home from a winter sojourn on the hills near Aberystwyth. They still wore the shaggy hair put on against a pinching February and stinging March under open skies. A little later they would shed these protective coats and be trim and sleek for the summer. I had been repeatedly told that the Welsh pony was remarkably free from unsoundness, but among so many that had not been sorted for the year, and were at the worn end of their hardest season, I expected to find some of the lesser blemishes, if not defects of the more serious kind. But if I did, it was with a rarity that effectually argued against them. And I found this true all through Wales. Occasionally I would see low withers, a water-shoot tail, or drooping quarters. But predominantly the quarters were good, not with the roundness that denies speed, burying the muscles in puffy obscurity, but displaying the strong outline which is a plump suggestion of the gnarled and bossy hip-bone beneath. As for the high withers that are always to be desired, the Welsh pony is better off in this respect than the other breeds of Britain, unless it be the pure Highland type. You who remember Belmont days full of equine significances, need not be told how much the horse is affected in anatomical free play by the withers. If they are high the interlacing fibres attaching the shoulder-bone to the trunk may rise freely, and the shoulder arm be long and sloping--a position which gives easy movement and power to the forearm and the structures below it--the pony moves gracefully, without strain, with good action and sure speed. But low withers limit propulsion from the shoulder, and while there may be good knee action the pony must pay out strength to get it. There is, besides, a strain on the cervical muscles which makes natural grace impossible. Dealers can often persuade buyers that the upright shoulder is stronger for harness work, and here in London parks I have seen horses of this type dash strainingly along, expending their strength in fashionable action, and with the unavoidable pull on the neck "corrected" by the bearing-rein; the average owner not guessing the difficulty of his creatures, or the torture that in years too few will bring them to a coster's cart or the dump-heap. Having seen and mourned such things, I was happy to find high withers the rule in Wales, and to learn that wise breeders were laying stress on this point and breeding for it. [Illustration: FOREST LODGE PASTURES Brecon] Although, as I have said, there has been some imprudent crossing with heavier breeds, these unsuccessful types are being weeded out, and methods of improving the Welsh pony are now, for the most part, confined to individual selection within his own breed, or to the careful introduction of thoroughbred and Arab blood. Of course the door is not entirely closed to other comers, and I talked with one breeder of thirty years' experience who believed in mating his ponies with any sire of fine type that had the points he was trying for. But this gentleman possesses a sixth sense in regard to horses, and can safely indulge in latitude that might prove disastrous in the case of an equally conscientious but less intelligent breeder. Such a method heightens interest and is an open invitation to adventurous possibilities; but it is just as well, I think, that there are others who go to the opposite extreme and are ready to preach on all occasions against bringing alien blood into the mountains. From the shades of Ephraim a poser was once flung to the world--"Can two walk together unless they be agreed?" In this instance, one might surprise hoary Amos with an affirmative, for these two classes of breeders do walk and work together for the good of the Welsh pony; one a barrier to harmful laxity, the other a protest against overcautious restriction. But while guarding him from invasion on his mountains, the most rigid of the "shut-the-door" advocates will permit him to go forth and conquer where he may. It is partly to strengthen him for these expeditions that they insist on keeping the mountain stock unmixed; and it is true that in recent years he has grown much in favor as a factor in the improvement and modification of other pony breeds. [Illustration: MY LORD PEMBROKE] The Polo pony is profiting much by his blood. It seems that the mountain habits practiced by the Welsh pony, in family seclusion and without applause, such as climbing ledges like a fly, turning and twisting himself out of physio-graphical difficulties, not to speak of his leaping powers (his tribe has furnished a champion jumper of the world) and his quick mental reaction upon the unexpected, have produced just the virtues which figure most brilliantly on the polo field. As the game has grown in complexity, the ponies of the plains, Argentine, Arabian, American, have given place to those of hill-bred ancestry. To get the requisite height and weight-bearing power, yet keep the pony qualities, the hardihood, the astuteness, the thought-like instancy of motion--a wit that can _almost_ prophesy--is a problem that is being patiently worked out. I cannot follow the mystical ways which lead to the production of the unparagoned Polo pony; but it is not until the third or fourth generation that the breeder arrives at the nonpareil, the heart's desire of the polo player. In the first generation a thoroughbred cross with the mountain stock is more satisfactory than the Arab, but the advantage is soon lost, as a type with a pedigree covering something over two hundred years cannot compete in persistence with one that has been established for five times that period. [Illustration: KNIGHTON SENSATION, LONGMYND ECLIPSE AND MY LORD PEMBROKE Three well-bred and well-behaved Ponies] But to get back to the pony on his hill-tops. Careful breeding from the finest of the native stock is now doing more for him than any crossing. While close in-breeding tends to bring out latent defects in any strain, the mountain families are so numerous, and the points to be kept down are so few, that this gives little trouble to breeders. I have spoken of the low withers, which are being eliminated, and sometimes there is a badly set-on head--a more serious matter that, if beauty only were involved--but an angular junction is not often seen, and the head in every case is finely formed, with the large, wide brow of the Arab, tapering face-bones, small, sensitive ears, delicate, silken mouth that needs only a touch in guidance, and roomy underchannel between the branches of the lower jaw. There is never a fiddle-head, heavy jaw, leathered nose, or anything suggestive of the coarse-bred animal in these little creatures that may proudly trample on parchment pedigrees. But now they are to have their parchments too. I have heard it said that the arching crest is not easy to secure in conjunction with high withers, but the combination is often found in the Welsh pony. As I mentioned in my previous letter, in all points of grace he has more to be thankful for than his neighbors to the north and south of him. Lord Arthur Cecil suggests as an explanation of the ungainliness of Fell ponies, that by long huddling against winter storms on treeless slopes, they have become hunched and heavy, both fore and aft, while their middle shows only a discouraged development. But, though the winds of the Welsh peaks may be less keen, they are keen enough to furnish ample incentive to the huddling spirit; yet the Welsh pony has the head I have described, fine, well-placed shoulders, a deep, round barrel, and quarters that, in general, break no rule of proportion. Therefore, I think the difference is one of origin. The Fell pony is probably a descendant of dwarf horses that escaped to the Pennines during seasons of persecution, and being unestablished as to type was more easily modified by environment. I should like to think this because it supports me in the belief that I have taken the right track in pursuing the Welsh pony's ancestry. [Illustration: KNIGHTON SENSATION Imported Welsh Cob] I have not spoken of his adaptiveness to other climates, but he is little affected by transplantation. A breed formed of the two oldest races known, and having in its own type a genealogical history of a thousand years, is apt to persist under any sky, and this is probably why he thrives so well apart from his native heath. I am told that even in Canada he does not object to wintering out; but I should like to interview a pony that has tried it before proffering the information as fact. However, if any ill reports have come back from the numbers shipped to Australia and America, they have been successfully concealed from me. I want you to know that the mountain pony's hocks are a feature not to be passed lightly by. They never fail to bring him commendation from the horseman who _knows_. The curby hocks sometimes found in the larger type of South Wales are unknown to him. His own are always of the right shape, having plenty of compact bone showing every curve and denture under thin, shining skin, and with clean-cut, powerful back sinews at an unhampered distance from the suspensory tendons. "His hocks do send him along," as one admirer said. The limbs themselves, whether fore or hind, are handsomely dropped and clear of all blemish--no bubbly knees, soufflets about the ankles, puffy fetlocks, or contracted heels. The pasterns are of the approved gentle obliquity--neither short and upright, betraying stubborn flexors, nor long enough to weaken the elasticity of the support that must here guard the whole body from concussion. The pastern is a debatable point, but I refer all advocates of the "long" and "short" schools to the golden mean which the Welsh pony has evolved for himself in those much-mentioned disciplinary years on his problematic hills. The hoof is always round, never the suspicious bell shape, and blue, deep and dense. One need not look there for symptoms of sand-crack, seedy-toe, pumice-foot, or any of the pedal ills that too often beset the lowland horse. The centuries of unshod freedom among his crags have given the hoof a resisting density coupled with the diminutive form that agility demands; and this happy union the smithies of man have not yet been able to sever or vitiate. Even the thoroughbred must sometimes find a downward gaze as fatal to vanity as did the peacock of our venerated spelling-book; but not the Welsh pony. He may look to earth as to Heaven with unchastened pride. [Illustration: MY LORD PEMBROKE IN HARNESS] And now that the hoof has brought me to the ground I will not mount again. If I have ridden my pony too hard, bethink you who it was that set me upon him. You remember Isaac Walton's caution when instructing an angler how to bait a hook with a live frog:--"And handle the frog as if you loved him." However infelicitously I may have impaled the pony on my pen, I hope you will own that I have done it as if I loved him. Though I am not ready to say that the "earth sings when he touches it," be assured that he will gallantly carry more praise than I have laid upon him. I have no quarrel with the motor, though it has made me eat dust more than once. As a means of transporting the body when the object is _to arrive_, I grant it superlative place. But as a medium between man and Nature it is a failure. It will never bring them together. The motor is restricted to the highway, and from the highway one can never get more from Nature than a nod of half recognition. She remains a stranger undivined. But on a ramble with a pony, adaptive, unobtrusive, all the leisurely ways are open--the deepwood path, or the trail up the exhilarating steep. As self-effacing as you wish, he saves you from weariness and frees the mind for its own adventure. There will be pause for question, and if Nature ever answers at all, you will hear her. There will be the placid hour that is healing-time with her woods, her skies and waters; and that communion with her divinity which means rest and--haply--peace. O. T. D. [Illustration] * * * * * [=Transcriber's Note:= The photo titled "The Beacons" in the list of illustrations is consistently absent in all available copies from multiple sources. Presumably this is the result of a publisher's error where the illustration was omitted from the final version, but not removed from the listings.] 
36645	----	[Illustration] LOUISIANA BEEF CATTLE WILLIAM CARTER STUBBS, PH.D. Formerly Professor of Agriculture Louisiana State University and Director of State Experiment Stations COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY THE LOUISIANA COMPANY NEW ORLEANS FOREWORD The following remarks relative to Louisiana Beef Cattle are proffered the public to show the marvelous advantages possessed by the alluvial lands of Louisiana, for the growing of cattle. An intelligent use of these advantages will bring wealth to the individual, the State and the Nation. WILLIAM CARTER STUBBS, PH.D. [Illustration] LOUISIANA BEEF CATTLE The wealth-producing possibilities of cattle-raising are written into the history, literature and art of every race; and with every nationality riches have always been counted in cattle and corn. We find cattle mentioned in the earliest known records of the Hebrews, Chaldeans and Hindus, and carved on the monuments of Egypt, thousands of years before the Christian era. Among the primitive peoples wealth was, and still is, measured by the size of the cattle herds, whether it be the reindeer of the frigid North, the camel of the Great Sahara, or herds of whatsoever kind that are found in every land and in every clime. The earliest known money, in Ancient Greece, was the image of the ox stamped on metal; and the Latin word _pecunia_ and our own English "pecuniary" are derived from _pecus_--cattle. Although known to the Eastern Hemisphere since the dawn of history, cattle are not native to the Western Hemisphere, but were introduced into America during the sixteenth century. Cortez, Ponce de Leon, De Soto and the other _conquistadores_ from Old Madrid, who sailed the seas in quest of gold, brought with them to the New World the monarchs of the bull ring, and introduced the national sport of Spain into the colonies founded in Peru, Mexico, Florida and Louisiana. The long-horned, half-wild herds encountered by the pioneers, and by the "Forty-niners," who three centuries later trekked across the continent in quest of gold in California, were descendants of the bull pens of Mexico City, St. Augustine and New Orleans. A different type of cattle was brought over to Jamestown, the first English colony, in the seventeenth century; these were strictly utilitarian, designed for the triple service of enriching the larder with dairy products, supplementing the abundant meat supply of buffalo, deer and other game and providing the ox as the draft animal. The pioneers, striking out from the Atlantic seaboard, carried with them their domestic cattle, which were introduced and fostered wherever settlements were made in their progress across the continent. It was not until after the Revolutionary War that wealthy planters of Virginia imported Herefords from England, Jerseys from the Isle of Jersey, and the flower of other Old World herds. Even then, extensive breeding of high-grade animals languished for years, owing to the unprogressive farming methods; and at a later period on account of the dominancy of the Western cattle ranges. The public domain of the West and Southwest, owing to the vast areas of grazing land which cost the cattlemen nothing, became the controlling factor in the American cattle industry, reaching its climax about 1880. Subsequently these great feeding grounds were invaded by the sheep-grower, whose flocks destroyed the pastures and drove out the cattle wherever they appeared. The death knell of the national cattle range was sounded by the United States Government in throwing open the public lands to settlers. During the romantic period of the cattle outfit--the cowboy with his bucking broncho, lariat and six-shooter--many of the important cities and towns of today came into existence as humble adjuncts of the live stock industry. There are men living today who have witnessed the beginning, the rise, and almost the extinction, of the Western cattle range. A complete revolution has been brought about in the cattle industry within a lifetime. The change has been a rapid one from the free range to the fenced pasture; the open ranges turned into farms and settlements. With the advent of changed conditions, the rancher of restricted territory and reduced herds ceased to be an important factor in directly supplying the market, as he was forced to utilize the land that was not desirable for homesteaders, and the pasturage being insufficient to suitably fatten stock, he was compelled to ship his cattle to the feeders of the Middle West to prepare them for market. Meanwhile, the Middle West, or corn-belt states, being unable to raise cattle in an economical way, developed into a feeding station, where young cattle from the Western ranges were shipped to be fattened and prepared for the market. With the decrease of range cattle, year by year, fewer Western beeves reach the corn belt to be finished and made ready for market. The early settlers of Southern Louisiana raised cattle after the fashion that prevailed on the plains of Texas; that is, great herds without care or attention of any kind increased and multiplied and were annually rounded up and marketed; the returns were virtually all profit, as the cattle found their sustenance entirely in the luxuriant natural pasturage. With the change of conditions in the cattle-growing world, Louisiana began the improvement of its herds, so that today there are thousands of highly bred cattle in the state, equal to the best that can be found anywhere. In a consideration of any branch of the live stock industry, a review of the world-wide conditions becomes necessary to establish a standard of comparison between the industry in a given locality as against all other localities, and such a review at the present time shows an international shortage of beef cattle that even threatens famine. The day of nondescript cattle of inferior quality is rapidly passing. Through breeding, they are being steadily supplanted by higher grade, perfectly developed animals which yield the proper proportions of lean and fat, whose meat is tender, nutritious and palatable. The Old World breeds have been improved and perfected, through the skill of the American grower, until American stock has become the standard of the whole world, from the standpoint of excellence in every particular. There are a multitude of reasons why it will never be possible for the growers of the Eastern Hemisphere, with the exception of Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, to successfully compete with the United States in bringing the standard of their beef cattle up to the high point already attained in this country. No longer ago than ten years, cattle were not acceptable as collateral except by banks in the Western cattle centers. Today, cattle are standard collateral for loans, approved by the Treasury of the United States Government and acceptable everywhere, as cattle are as good as gold all over the world; and a cattle enterprise managed with ability and integrity is the safest business known. There are diseases to which cattle are subject; but these, like the diseases to which mankind is subject, are now controlled by science, and can be quickly eradicated, even though a foothold is once gained; and that a foothold should be gained at all is as much beyond the bounds of reason as that the cities of New York and Chicago should, in this advanced age, be devastated by a scourge of cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, or what not. According to official estimates of the United States Government, in 1910 there were 41,178,000 head of beef cattle in the United States, having a value of $785,261,000, while on January 1, 1917, there were 40,849,000 head of beef cattle, having a value of $1,465,786,000; a decrease in supply, but an increase in value, within seven years, of 86.66 per cent. In addition to superior natural conditions, the United States, on account of the great distance to other countries where cattle can be raised successfully, is protected against competition, at all times and under all conditions. The United States for a quarter of a century was the world's greatest export nation, and this trade has fallen off only in recent times, because of the shortage at home. Our export business well illustrates the changing conditions in the cattle industry, and the record of live cattle exported from Chicago is a notable example, namely: Cattle Exports in 1905 321,301 Exports in 1912 23,006 Exports in 1913 260 Exports in 1914 182 This table shows that the export trade was virtually extinct a year before the European War began; and if revived, it will be because of exorbitant prices brought about by the abnormal European demand, due to the depletion of the cattle herds abroad. Official statistics show that prior to the European War 90.55 per cent of all the European cattle were within the boundaries of the now-belligerent countries. The records at that time, covering both beef cattle and dairy-herds, were as follows: Russia 36,237,000 Germany 20,944,000 Austria-Hungary 17,787,883 France 12,286,849 United Kingdom 12,030,789 Turkey 6,726,000 Italy 6,198,861 Rumania 2,667,000 Belgium 1,831,000 Even prior to the war, the world-supply of cattle was diminishing, and now the herds of these nations, representing nine-tenths of the European supply, are depleted as never before, while the one-tenth remaining supply of the neighboring neutral nations is reduced by the drafts of the warring powers. The immense demand in recent years has caused the marketing of vast numbers of the best improved cattle in the United States, including great inroads upon the breeding herds, as cattle growers have marketed their stock without regard to the future, looking solely to the large immediate profits. The depletion and deterioration of the breeding herds is a source of great danger, as it cannot fail to result in a still further decrease in production, and threatens to seriously impair the meat supply of the American people. As an infinitely worse condition prevails in the other cattle-producing countries of the world, it is obvious that we cannot look to any outside source of supply, either to replenish our herds, or to provide our meat food requirements. The increased cost of production in the North has resulted in the great advancement of the dairying industry, to meet the American food requirements. In 1850 the milch cows on American farms numbered about 6,000,000. This number was increased to 8,500,000 in 1860, and to about 13,000,000 in 1880; and the census of 1900 showed 17,100,000. In 1907, they numbered 20,625,000, and January 1, 1917, 22,768,000, or more than one-third of our entire cattle herds. The change from beef-cattle raising to dairying is most noticeable in the Eastern and the North Central States, where the lack of pasturage and the increased cost of forage make the production of beef less profitable than formerly, while the proximity to large centers of population and great cities has greatly stimulated the demand for dairy products. In some sections of the country dairying has encroached to such an extent on the beef cattle industry that the latter has ceased to be a factor of importance in those localities. The beef cattle industry of the North is divided into two departments: first, producing in the Far West; second, preparing for market in the Middle West. The Western producer can only provide grazing, and must then ship to the Middle West feeder, who raises the corn with which he prepares the cattle for market. The shortness of the grazing season makes it impossible to put a thousand-pound beef on the market in a year; consequently the stock must be shipped to the Middle West in September, October or November, to be fattened and prepared for the market. The breeding herds and the stock not ready for shipment to the feeders of the Middle West exist on the thin grasses, through eight months--from September to June. These sections of arid soil and thin vegetation are further handicapped by the winters of intense cold, and of enforced housing and feeding; for, during six or seven months, and even eight months, of each year, there is scant vegetation to support animal life, and the struggle is a severe one to sustain life itself against the encroachments of the bitter temperature which so long prevails. If the Middle West farmer should go into cattle-raising, his position would be almost identical with that of the cattle grower of the Far West, as his pasturage would be exhausted in October, and it would be necessary to feed the cattle until May; otherwise, his loss would be tremendous through partial starvation and exposure to inclement weather, and he could not count upon the survival of more than 75 per cent of his herd from one pasturing season to the next. The farmer of the Middle West has six months of open weather, which must be devoted exclusively to planting, cultivating and harvesting his corn crop, and this crop takes up his land, leaving no acreage available for summer pasturage. He produces corn in the summer, and begins feeding in the fall. According to the quality of cattle received from the Far West, he feeds 60, 90, and up to 120 days, when they are ready for market, and, according to the old saying, are "corn sold on the hoof." Even the adoption of intensive methods does not enable the Northern grower to successfully compete with the Southern grower, because production in the North is limited to one-half the year, and the other half is wholly unproductive, during which period his stores are being consumed, without any returns whatever. To house cattle during the winter is scarcely better than to leave them exposed to the rigors of climate, as confinement brings the scourge of tuberculosis; whereas in the South, and wherever life is spent in the open, cattle enjoy immunity from this plague. Furthermore, the year-round supply of green food in the South is naturally conducive to the health and well-being of all animals, whereas in the North, for several months in the year, only concentrated food is available. "The South, with her short, mild winters, and her abundance of grasses, can grow young cattle cheaper than the North."--W. J. Spillman, Chief of the Bureau of Farm Management, United States Department of Agriculture. A mild climate, luxuriant pastures, a great variety of forage crops, a year-round supply of green food, and living outdoors all the year, are the factors that make Southern Louisiana the ideal cattle-raising section of the United States. James Wilson, former Secretary of the United States Department of Agriculture, at the National Live Stock Show held in New Orleans in 1916, said: "You have as fine domestic animals in the State of Louisiana today as you will find anywhere; the finest breeds of cattle--Holstein and others, as well as American breeds of Herefords, which are an improvement over the English Hereford." In the corn belt the lands are not so productive in grains and pasture crops as the alluvial lands of Louisiana. In the North the growing season for crops does not exceed six months; in Louisiana the productive period is twelve months. In Northern states, animals can be pastured in the fields during six or seven months only; in Louisiana the animals may pasture in the open the whole year. In the North, extensive and costly barns and equipment are essential for winter shelter and feeding, and vast quantities of grain, hay, ensilage, and other foods, must be raised and stored, as the period of winter-feeding extends over six months; in Louisiana, open sheds facing south provide all the shelter needed, as aside from cold rains at intervals during February or March, there are no rigors of climate. Careful estimates by farm experts, and by authorities on cattle, place the cost of production in Louisiana at less than 60 per cent of the cost in the most favored corn-belt states. There is no winter here, as understood in the North. Frost is a rarity, frequently being absent for several years, and is never severe; the rainfall is well distributed and averages 60 inches a year; extremes of temperature are very rare; the average for January is 59 degrees, and for July, 82 degrees, over the Gulf Coast area of Southern Louisiana; and vegetation flourishes the year round. The cost of summer feeding in Southern Louisiana, as compared with summer feeding in the corn-belt states, shows a difference of about 25 per cent in favor of the former. In winter feeding, the difference is altogether in favor of Louisiana. Furthermore, practically none of the food consumed here is required to keep up the animal heat, whereas 30 per cent of the food given Northern cattle during the winter is absorbed by this requirement alone. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the cost of ensilage in the Northern states ranges from $1.50 to $4 per ton, and it is generally conceded that corn ensilage in the Middle West costs an average of $2.50 per ton. On the alluvial lands of Southern Louisiana it has been proved that ensilage can be produced at 50 cents to $1.50 per ton, and the yield per acre is two crops of ten to twenty tons each, as against one crop of five to ten tons in the North. According to the Bureau of Plant Industry, the best bluegrass pastures of the North will carry only one head of cattle to two acres for about six months of the year; whereas on the alluvial lands of Louisiana, Bermuda grass and lespedeza combined forms permanent pasture which will carry several head of cattle ten months on a single acre. With a network of waterways and railroads, nearer the great consuming markets of the East than any other important cattle-growing section, and but a short distance from Chicago and the important markets of the Middle States, Southern Louisiana occupies a strategic commercial position of great money-value to those who raise cattle, as well as other products. Out of six thousand members of the American Hereford Society, a grower from the Gulf Coast took the greatest number of prizes for a herd of Hereford cattle, and also took the grand championship prize for a Hereford bull, against the whole of the United States, which shows the merit of this section of country. The market today requires quality, and experience has proved that the greatest profit comes through producing quality. The day of the inferior, lightweight animal, which was marketed at two to three and one-half years old, has passed. The requirement now is for high-grade, one-year-old stock, weighing an average of 1,000 pounds. This stock can be produced in Louisiana under organized methods, at a cost of 4½ cents per pound, delivered at the market, and will bring a price of 10 cents per pound. Prior to the Civil War the best talent in America was devoted to agricultural pursuits, which offered the greatest opportunity for making large wealth--as wealth was counted in those days. Afterward came the manufacturing era, which attracted the genius of the country and brought about the perfection of methods and combinations in almost every known line, with the result that no longer is there any general field of opportunity therein. Another era has now arrived, which again focuses the minds of thinking men upon the greatest of all problems--supplying the human race with food--because of the imperative need of increasing the world's food supply, and because of the large profit therein. In the United States today, the production of live stock is the greatest field of opportunity open to men of brains and capital; and it is, above all, the one industry that now attracts the genius of men of large affairs, and the great aggregations of capital. In 1895 the average price of beef cattle in the principal markets of this country was $4.40 per hundredweight; in 1900, it had increased to $5.80; in 1907 the average was $7.60; in 1910, $8.85; in 1911, $9.35; in 1912, $10.25; in 1915, $11.60; and in 1916, about $11.90 per hundredweight. The foregoing market prices tell the story of the cattle industry from a financial standpoint. The following prices paid in 1901 and in 1916 for prize-winning exhibition beeves--at the International Live Stock Exposition held annually in Chicago, at the Union Stock Yards--well illustrate the trend of the cattle market: In 1901, the Grand Champion carload of fat cattle was two-year-old stock, weighing an average of 1,497 pounds, and sold in the auction ring at $12 per hundredweight. In 1916, the Grand Champion carload of fat cattle was one-year-old stock, weighing an average of 1,146 pounds, and sold in the auction ring at $28 per hundredweight. In 1901, the Grand Champion Steer was two years old, weighed 1,600 pounds, and sold in the auction ring at 50 cents per pound. In 1916, the Grand Champion Steer was one year old, weighed 1,120 pounds, and sold in the auction ring at $1.75 per pound. The following top prices were paid in the auction ring of the Exposition for "show cattle" of various weights: Cattle Weighing Price in Per Hundredweight 900 to 1050 pounds 1901 $ 8.70 900 to 1050 pounds 1916 17.75 1050 to 1200 pounds 1901 9.50 1050 to 1200 pounds 1916 28.00 1200 to 1350 pounds 1901 8.75 1200 to 1350 pounds 1916 20.00 1350 to 1500 pounds 1901 12.00 1350 to 1500 pounds 1916 18.50 1500 to 1900 pounds 1901 9.30 1500 to 1900 pounds 1916 15.75 [Illustration] Transcriber's Notes: Text in italics is enclosed with underscores: _italics_. 
37041	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | | | | * Transcription used in this e-text: | | _text_ indicates italics; | | =text= indicates bold-face text; | | ^{text} indicates superscript text; | | _{text} indicates subscript text. | | * Lettered footnotes (with anchors [A], [B], etc.), explaining | | the text, have been moved to directly below the paragraph or | | table they refer to. Footnotes with anchors [1], [2], etc. | | refer to references, that are listed towards the end of the | | text. | | * The original text has not been modified, except that some minor| | typographical errors have been corrected silently. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ PRESERVATION OF BULL SEMEN AT SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES By N. L. VanDemark W. J. Miller W. C. Kinney, Jr. Carlos Rodriguez M. E. Friedman Bulletin 621 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION CONTENTS Page EARLY WORK ON FREEZING SEMEN 5 SELECTION OF SEMEN FOR FREEZING 6 Predicting freezability 6 Freezability of first and second ejaculates 7 Freezability of several consecutive ejaculates 7 Freezability of epididymal sperm 9 Freezability of washed sperm 10 EXTENDERS FOR FREEZING BULL SEMEN 10 Proportion of egg yolk in final diluent 10 Citrate level in final diluent 11 Storing and freezing diluent 12 Other diluents 13 DILUTION RATES 14 Effect of further dilution and refreezing 14 GLYCEROL ADDITIONS 17 Effect of glycerol on sperm survival at 5° C. 17 Glycerol levels for freezing semen 18 Rate, temperature, and method of adding glycerol 18 Allowing sperm to equilibrate with glycerol 20 Sugar additions and equilibration time 20 Substitutes for glycerol 22 FREEZING RATE 22 Effect of freezing rate on sperm survival 22 Rate of cooling in plastic and in glass 23 STORAGE TEMPERATURE 24 Storage at -23° to -79° C. 24 Use of higher glycerol levels and storage at -20° C. 25 THAWING 26 Comparison of thawing at 5° C. and at 38° C. 27 Thawing rate in plastic and in glass 29 EFFECTS OF FREEZING PROCEDURES ON METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF SPERM 30 Effect of glycerol additions on oxygen uptake of diluted semen at 37° C. 30 Effect of glycerol-plus-catalase on oxygen uptake of diluted semen 32 Effect of freezing procedures on oxygen utilization 33 Effect of freezing procedures on methylene-blue reduction time 33 PRACTICAL FREEZING PROCEDURE 35 Collection of semen 35 Preparation of extender 35 Dilution after collection 36 Adding the glycerol 36 Equilibration 36 Freezing 37 Thawing 37 LITERATURE CITED 38 TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLE 39 Urbana, Illinois October, 1957 Publications in the Bulletin series report the results of investigations made or sponsored by the Experiment Station ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance given to the Department of Dairy Science in support of these investigations by the Southern Illinois Breeding Association of Breese, Illinois, and the Northern Illinois Breeding Co-op of Hampshire, Illinois, through the Illinois Dairy Breeding Federation. THE PRESERVATION OF BULL SEMEN AT SUB-ZERO TEMPERATURES By N. L. VANDEMARK, W. J. MILLER, W. C. KINNEY, JR., CARLOS RODRIGUEZ, and M. E. FRIEDMAN[A] [A] This publication was prepared by N. L. VANDEMARK, Professor of Dairy Physiology. Research reported herein was carried out cooperatively by the senior author and W. J. MILLER, W. C. KINNEY, JR., CARLOS RODRIGUEZ, and M. E. FRIEDMAN, formerly members of the Department of Dairy Science. The first announcement in 1951 of the successful impregnation of a cow with bull semen that had been frozen stimulated much interest and research in freezing as a method of preserving bull semen. Research during the years following 1951 resulted in considerable progress and success in using freezing as a means of holding semen for long periods of time without loss of fertility. Between 1952 and 1957, research on many aspects of the preservation of bull semen at sub-zero temperatures was carried out in the Department of Dairy Science at the University of Illinois. Many of these investigations have aided in perfecting the freezing technique that has been adapted for practical use. Some of these findings have been published, but many items have gone unreported except for general references at scientific meetings. It is the purpose of this bulletin to bring together the results of several experiments carried out in connection with the freezing of bull semen and to present a practical freezing procedure based on the results of these experiments and findings at other institutions. Persons interested in the development of the procedures and the reasons why certain steps are necessary in freezing semen will find the details in the first part of this bulletin. Those interested only in the freezing procedure may turn to page 35 where a practical method of freezing semen is described. EARLY WORK ON FREEZING SEMEN While it has been known for a long time that various types of tissues and organisms can withstand freezing and are even preserved by freezing, the first attempts at freezing sperm cells were made before the turn of the century. In 1897, Davenport[1][B] found that human sperm would withstand freezing. For thirty to forty years after that, little attention was paid to freezing as a possible means of preserving semen. An excellent review of the early attempts to freeze sperm has been assembled by Polge and Parkes.[2] These investigators also gave a good account of their work at the British National Institute of Medical Research in London, where in 1949 they demonstrated that glycerol would protect fowl sperm so that it would survive freezing. The next year they found that bull sperm and the sperm of several other species were protected by glycerol during freezing. During the same year, Emmens and Blackshaw[3] showed that ram and bull sperm would survive freezing. In 1951 frozen semen was used to produce a calf in England and a lamb in Australia. [B] These numbers refer to literature citations on page 38. The highlights in the development of frozen semen have been covered by other reviews and reports. Interested persons will find the articles of Polge and Parkes[2] and Smith[4] especially good on the early history and theoretical aspects of freezing sperm. Later progress on the freezing procedure has been reviewed and covered in a number of detailed reports.[5],[6],[7] Many items not covered in those articles have been assembled here. SELECTION OF SEMEN FOR FREEZING One of the first considerations in freezing semen is that of deciding which semen samples are to be frozen. Since preservation of the semen--the maintenance of the potential motility and especially the fertility of the sperm--is the primary aim, some attention should be directed to the kind of semen sample that will withstand freezing. Do the initial characteristics of the sample indicate whether the sperm will withstand freezing? Does maturity of the sperm affect their freezability? =Predicting freezability.= Estimates of semen quality in the past have been based in part on the numbers of sperm present in a fresh sample and on the percentage and rate of motility shown by the sperm. These characteristics were used to determine the relationship between the original concentration of sperm (in the fresh, undiluted sample), the percentage and rate of sperm motility in the diluted samples just prior to freezing, and the percentage and rate of sperm motility following freezing and thawing. From data collected before and after freezing and thawing 54 ejaculates, it was found that there was not a significant correlation between the number of sperm present in the original sample and the percent of motile sperm present after freezing and thawing (r = 0.03). A highly significant correlation (r = 0.45) was found, however, between the percentages before freezing and after thawing. While this correlation coefficient was highly significant, its magnitude indicates that only about one fifth of the variation in percentage of motile sperm observed after freezing was accounted for by the motility of the sperm prior to freezing. =Freezability of first and second ejaculates.= In the early days of artificial breeding in this country, it was commonly believed that a second ejaculate collected a few minutes after the first resulted in a larger ejaculate containing more sperm. With the development of the procedure of stimulating sexual excitement by restraint prior to collecting semen, this difference between first and second ejaculates has been greatly reduced. Still it was noted that second ejaculates frequently withstood freezing better than first ejaculates, even though restraint and stimulation of the bull occurred prior to collection of the first ejaculate. During the course of a number of experiments, it was possible to compare the freezability of 2 ejaculates that were collected a few minutes apart from the same bull. Two consecutive ejaculates were obtained one or more times from 24 bulls so that a total of 58 comparisons could be made. The mean prefreezing and post-thawing percentages of motile sperm in first and second ejaculates are presented in Table 1. An analysis of variance showed that in this comparison the differences between first and second ejaculates in sperm survival during freezing were highly significant. A later comparison of 27 first and second ejaculates from 26 bulls did not show as great a difference between first and second ejaculates in their ability to withstand freezing (Table 1). Table 1.--Comparison of the Freezability of First and Second Ejaculates Taken a Few Minutes Apart From the Same Bull ===================================================================== Number Number Prefreezing Post-thawing of of Ejaculate motility motility Survival bulls ejaculates (percent) (percent) (percent) --------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 58 1st 60 39 65 2d 62 45 74 26 27 1st 60 36 60 2d 65 40 61 --------------------------------------------------------------------- =Freezability of several consecutive ejaculates.= The fact that second ejaculates sometimes withstood freezing better than first ejaculates suggested that the maturity of the sperm might be a factor affecting freezability. An opportunity to check this idea came when 20 consecutive ejaculates were collected from each of 6 bulls within a 4-hour period. The sperm in samples collected in this manner might be expected to be less mature with each additional collection. The results obtained in freezing several consecutive ejaculates are shown in Figure 1 as averages for the ejaculates from 6 bulls. In same instances, there was an insufficient quantity of semen available to test the freezability. (Procedure: Diluted to 30 × 10^{6} sperm per ml. with 1:1 yolk-citrate, then cooled and glycerolated with an equal volume of 14 percent glycerol (percent by volume) in 2.9 percent sodium citrate. Final sperm concentration, 15 × 10^{6}. Equilibration time, 15 hours. Freezing rate, 2° C. per minute from +5° to -19° C. then 4° C. per minute from -19° to -79° C. Held frozen for 5 or more hours then thawed in water at 5° C. and checked for motility.) [Illustration: Percent of motile sperm before and after freezing consecutive ejaculates collected within a 4-hour period from each of 6 bulls (Fig. 1)] In general, the motility before freezing improved slightly from the first to the fourth to sixth ejaculate and then declined until about the 12th or 14th ejaculate, at which point the prefreezing motility seemed to level off through the 20th ejaculate (Fig. 1). The percentage of motile sperm found after freezing and thawing followed the same trend at an average level 10 to 15 percent lower than the prefreezing level. As is readily seen from the trend lines in Fig. 1, the difference between the prefreezing motility and the post-thawing motility increased gradually after about the fifth ejaculate. Although the absolute difference did not increase greatly, the percentage of survival after freezing dropped from 81 percent on the first 5 ejaculates to 26.5 percent on the last 5 (Table 2). Table 2.--Comparison of the Freezability of 20 Consecutive Ejaculates Collected Within a 4-Hour Period (Weighted averages for 6 bulls) =================================================================== Number Prefreezing Post-thawing Ejaculate of motility motility Survival ejaculates (percent) (percent) (percent) ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1st to 5th 29 53.3 43.2 81.0 6th to 10th 26 43.8 30.2 69.0 11th to 15th 23 28.6 14.5 50.7 16th to 20th 19 18.1 4.8 26.5 ------------------------------------------------------------------- =Freezability of epididymal sperm.= Since the freezability of bull semen seemed to be better in second than in first ejaculates and some improvement in freezability was evident through the first 4 to 6 ejaculates taken consecutively, the question of whether epididymal sperm would withstand freezing seemed to be important. Although when 20 collections were made, the later ejaculates no doubt contained fewer mature sperm, the lowered freezability could have been due to accessory gland secretions rather than changes in the sperm themselves. Removing sperm directly from the epididymis would eliminate any effect that the accessory gland secretions could be exerting. Further, if epididymal sperm could be frozen, obtaining and using semen from a bull shortly after his death should be possible. Table 3.--Freezability of Sperm in Samples Taken From the Epididymides ================================================= Prefreezing Post-thawing Bull motility motility Survival (percent) (percent) (percent) ------------------------------------------------- 1 50 40 80 2 40 13 32 3 60 15 25 4 30 15 50 5+6 40 25 62 Average 44 22 50 ------------------------------------------------- To determine whether epididymal sperm would withstand freezing, the 12 epididymides (cauda only) of 6 slaughtered bulls were flushed with saline (0.9 percent) and the sperm obtained were frozen using the same procedure as was used with the 20 consecutive ejaculates discussed earlier. Averages of the 2 epididymides from each bull are given in Table 3; the samples from bulls 5 and 6 were combined. From the data in Table 3, it is obvious that motile sperm were present after freezing and thawing epididymal samples. It is likely that further experience in handling epididymal sperm may lead to improved results. Using frozen epididymal sperm from 2 bulls, Canadian workers have produced confirmed pregnancies in 8 out of 12 cows.[8] =Freezability of washed sperm.= In the laboratory it is frequently desirable to study sperm free of the seminal plasma in which they are ejaculated. Sperm can be separated from the seminal plasma by centrifugation, removal of the supernatant plasma, and resuspension in a salt solution of known composition. Sometimes it is desirable to repeat the process. This tends to wash the sperm with the salt solution and sperm handled in this way are called washed sperm. Sperm cells centrifuged three times and washed twice in 0.9 percent sodium chloride solution withstood freezing well when finally resuspended and frozen in yolk-citrate diluent. The percentage of survival in three samples subjected to this treatment was 60 percent. Thus it appears that the seminal plasma itself is not essential for ejaculated sperm to survive the rigors of freezing. This is not surprising, since it had already been found that epididymal sperm, which also are free of accessory gland secretions, can withstand freezing and thawing. EXTENDERS FOR FREEZING BULL SEMEN Both of the extenders that are widely used in routine storage of bull semen at 5° C. are used for freezing semen. These are the egg yolk-sodium citrate and whole or skimmilk extenders. Most of the research with extenders for freezing bull semen in this laboratory has been done with the yolk-citrate diluents. =Proportion of egg yolk in the final diluent.= Some early experiences with a diluent consisting of one part yolk and one part 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate in distilled water showed poor sperm survival following freezing. The final mixture with this diluent consisted of about 45 percent yolk. In other attempts at adding glycerol in order to freeze semen, the final proportion of yolk was diminished and better sperm survival was obtained. Several experiments were carried out to test the effect of varying levels of egg yolk. In the first efforts to find the optimum level of egg yolk, the level of yolk in the final frozen mixture was varied from about 6 to 46 percent. These levels were obtained by varying the proportion of yolk to 2.9 percent citrate solution in the original extending media and also in the media added in glycerolating the samples. Split portions of 20 semen samples were frozen in each of the extender combinations indicated in Table 4. The mean percentages of motile sperm found before and after freezing and thawing are shown also. The highest percentages were found with extenders containing 23 and 24 percent yolk. The highest percentage of yolk, resulting when a 1:1 (yolk to citrate) extender was used for both extending and glycerolating, proved to be most detrimental to sperm survival during freezing. The lowest percentage of yolk used (6 percent) was not as effective in protecting sperm during freezing as the intermediate levels tested (Fig. 2). Table 4.--Effect of Egg-Yolk Level in Diluent on Freezability of Semen (Average of 20 semen samples) ========================================================================= Medium Yolk in Pre- Post- Sur- ---------------------------- final freezing thawing vival Diluent Extending Glycerolating[C] mix- motility motility (per- ------------ ---------------- ture[D] (percent) (percent) cent) yolk:citrate yolk:citrate (percent) ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1:1 1:1 45.7 65 5 8 2 1:1 1:3 34.9 64 27 42 3 1:3 1:1 33.6 63 33 52 4 1:1 0:1 24.2 64 39 61 5 1:3 1:3 22.8 63 37 59 6 1:3 0:1 12.1 59 33 56 7 1:7 1:7 11.4 56 35 62 8 1:7 0:1 6.0 52 26 50 9 1:15 1:15 5.7 49 25 51 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- [C] This mixture included 14 percent glycerol. [D] The average initial sperm concentration was 900 × 10^{6}/ml. Sufficient extender was added to give 30 × 10^{6}/ml. at the first extension. Thus the final concentration was 15 × 10^{6} sperm/ml. after glycerolization. Since rather large changes in the percentages of yolk were used in this experiment, two further trials were conducted in which 16, 24, and 32 percent yolk in the final mixture were compared, with the final citrate percentages held constant. In these tests, 16 and 24 percent yolk maintained sperm better at all citrate levels tried than 32 percent yolk. The 16 percent level was slightly better at most of the levels of citrate tested (Fig. 3). =Citrate level in the final diluent.= The early work of the British indicated that a final citrate level near 2 percent in the diluent was satisfactory for freezing bull sperm. Later, in a personal communication, Polge of the British group suggested that a citrate level of about 2.35 percent might be best with a final glycerol concentration of 7 percent. Some of the first attempts in this laboratory at establishing the optimum yolk-to-citrate ratios are shown in Fig. 3. In these experiments, the optimum levels of citrate appeared to be lower than anticipated from the British work. Thus a more complex experiment was set up to test a wider range of citrate levels using 16 and 24 percent egg yolk in the final freezing mixture. The average percentages of motile sperm found after freezing 10 semen samples at each of the citrate and yolk levels in this experiment are shown also in Fig. 3. Little difference in freezability was found between citrate percentages of 1.55 and 1.95. When the rate of sperm motility following freezing and thawing was considered along with the percent of motile sperm, a slight advantage was found with 16 percent yolk and a citrate concentration of 1.55 percent. [Illustration: Percent of motile sperm after freezing and thawing semen in diluents containing various levels of egg yolk (Fig. 2)] From the results of these experiments, and from several reports in the literature,[5],[6],[7],[9],[10] it appears that a diluting medium resulting in a final concentration of 16 to 25 percent yolk and 1.55 to 2.2 percent sodium citrate dihydrate is highly satisfactory for freezing. =Storing and freezing diluent.= In some instances it would be advantageous to have prepared diluent on hand for use at any time. The suitability of stored diluent was tested with a yolk-citrate (equal parts yolk and citrate without antibiotics added) diluent prepared and stored at 5° C. for 0, 2, 5, 7, and 9 days. Seven semen samples were diluted and frozen in these diluents. No difference was noted in the survival of sperm that could be attributed to the age of the diluent. [Illustration: Percent of motile sperm after freezing and thawing semen in diluents containing various levels of egg yolk and various percentages of sodium citrate (Fig. 3)] In another trial, a similar diluent (1:1 yolk to citrate with 1000 units of penicillin and 5000 units of streptomycin) was prepared and stored in the freezer compartment of a refrigerator at -15° C. Upon thawing, it was whitish in color and more viscous than freshly prepared diluent. Except for the fact that the viscosity seemed to reduce the rate of sperm motility, this frozen diluent stored for 65 days compared favorably with freshly prepared diluent for freezing semen. =Other diluents.= Without the protective action of egg yolk or milk, few bull sperm will survive freezing. Several diluents were compared on a limited scale for freezing bull sperm. The results of these trials are compiled in Table 5. In this trial the yolk-citrate extender served best in maintaining sperm motility during freezing. Yolk-phosphate and homogenized whole milk were slightly less protective and yolk-saline seemed to furnish the least protection to sperm during freezing. A number of investigations in other laboratories have now proven that milk can be used as effectively as the yolk-citrate diluent for freezing bull sperm.[6],[7] Table 5.--Comparison of the Freezability of 4 Semen Samples in Different Extenders ====================================================================== Dilution Pre- Post- Motility Extender rate freezing thawing Survival after (semen: motility motility (percent) storage[E] extender) (percent) (percent) (percent) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Yolk-citrate 1:1 60 49 82 46 1:10 53 45 85 36 Yolk-saline 1:1 57 29 51 28 1:10 60 31 52 24 Yolk-phosphate 1:1 55 33 64 25 1:10 60 43 72 25 Whole milk 1:1 60 40 67 35 1:10 60 35 58 16 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [E] Stored at 5° C. for 7 hours after thawing. DILUTION RATES The first trials by the British at freezing bull semen were made with samples containing many millions of sperm cells. In routine artificial breeding, it is common to add extenders to semen so that one milliliter of diluted semen may contain only 10 million living sperm cells. (This number still insures optimal fertility.) Frequently the addition of 100 or more parts of the yolk extender to each part of the original semen sample is possible without reducing the sperm numbers below 10 million per milliliter. No one knew if this process of dilution would affect the resistance of bull sperm to freezing. The effect of various rates of dilution on the freezability of bull sperm was tested with 10 semen samples. The results, presented in Table 6, show that the numbers of sperm between 10 and 90 million per milliliter did not influence the percentage of sperm that survived freezing. In a later trial it was found that sperm survival was slightly better at lower dilution rates than in the same samples frozen following dilution to 15 million sperm per milliliter. However, field trials with frozen semen carried out by others, using sperm numbers as low as 15 million per milliliter of semen inseminated or even lower, have been highly satisfactory.[11],[12] During the early studies in the Illinois laboratory, the effects of glycerol level were also tested.[13] These effects are discussed in the section on glycerol additions beginning on page 17. =Effect of further dilution and refreezing after the initial freezing.= Under some circumstances it might be advantageous to freeze semen with a high concentration of sperm cells and then extend it further after thawing. With such a procedure less storage space is needed than when dilution is carried to the maximum before freezing. Two experiments were conducted to test the effects of dilution and storage at 5° C. and dilution and refreezing following an initial freezing of concentrated samples. Table 6.--Effect of Sperm Numbers and Glycerol Level in Final Mixture on Freezability of Bull Sperm at -79° C. (Average of 10 ejaculates) ================================================================ Post-thawing motility (percent)[F] --------------------------------------------- Glycerol level Number of sperm (millions/ml.) (percent) -------------------------------- 90 30 10 Average ---------------------------------------------------------------- 5 36.0 34.0 36.0 35.0 10 22.0 24.0 23.0 23.0 15 3.2 0.9 0.2 1.4 Average 20.3 19.8 19.9 20.0 ---------------------------------------------------------------- [F] Mean initial motility of sperm before freezing was 55 percent. Four semen samples were split and extended at rates of 1:1 (semen to extender) and 1:10. These were frozen, then thawed and halved. One half was further extended to a level of 15 million sperm per milliliter; the sperm numbers in the other remained unchanged. Each of these halves was split again, and one portion of each was stored at 5° C. for 3 to 7 hours. The other two portions were refrozen. Table 7.--Effect of Further Dilution and Refreezing on Sperm Motility After the Initial Freezing of Bull Semen ======================================================================== Post-thawing motility Dilution Pre- --------------------------------------------------- of freezing After After storage[G] After refreezing[H] semen motility first ------------------- -------------------- (semen: (percent) freezing No Diluted No Diluted extender) further to 15 further to 15 dilution million/ml dilution million/ml ------------------------------------------------------------------------ First trial: 4 samples 1:1 60 49 46 34 31 6 1:10 53 45 36 30 25 5 Second trial: 7 samples 1:9 67 47 41 35 28 11 15 million/ml 67 30 32 .. 18 .. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [G] Stored at 5° C. for 3 to 7 hours after first thawing. [H] Refrozen following first thawing. Table 8.--Effect of Glycerol Level and Storage at 5° C. on Motility of Sperm in Yolk-Citrate Extender ==================================================================== Sperm motility -------------------------------------------------------- Post- After storage at 5° C. Glycerol thawing ---------------------------- Average level 1 day 3 days 7 days (percent) --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- per- rate per- rate per- rate per- rate per- rate cent cent cent cent cent -------------------------------------------------------------------- Control[I] 56 2.5 55 1.9 46 1.8 38 1.4 48 1.90 0 54 2.4 44 1.9 46 1.8 36 1.4 45 1.87 5 52 2.2 50 1.9 46 1.7 32 1.4 45 1.80 10 52 2.3 46 1.8 42 1.7 28 1.6 42 1.85 20 52 2.1 50 1.7 44 1.6 38 1.1 46 1.62 30 50 0.7 44 0.5 42 0.4 30 0.4 42 0.51 Average 53 2.03 47 1.62 44 1.50 34 1.22 .. .... -------------------------------------------------------------------- [I] The control differed from the 0-glycerol treatment in that no additional citrate or glycerol solution was added. A similar trial was carried out with seven samples; one portion was diluted 1:9; the other was extended at the outset to 15 million sperm per milliliter. Results for both tests are summarized in Table 7. From Table 7 it can be seen that refreezing following an initial freezing further reduced the number of surviving sperm. The second freezing was more detrimental to the portion of the samples extended to 15 million sperm per milliliter than to the portion that was refrozen at a higher sperm concentration. The percentage of motile sperm remained fairly high in the portions that were diluted to 15 million sperm and stored at 5° C. However, in all cases, survival was best in the samples at the lower dilution levels. GLYCEROL ADDITIONS When the British procedure for freezing bull semen was first tried in this country, many of the refinements of the technique still had not been defined. It was known that glycerol worked well in protecting sperm during freezing. The effects of glycerol on sperm at 5° C., the appropriate levels to use in freezing, and the manner of adding it were not well established. Therefore, a number of trials were conducted in an attempt to establish the best procedures. =Effect of glycerol on sperm survival at 5° C.= Since early work indicated the need for adding glycerol to diluted semen in order to protect the sperm during freezing, it was considered important to determine the levels of glycerol that sperm would tolerate at 5° C. Ten semen samples were extended 1:9 (semen to diluent) in a 1:1 yolk-citrate diluent (yolk to 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate). Each sample was then split into 6 portions and an equal volume of citrate solution containing glycerol was added slowly to each to bring the glycerol in the final mixture to 0, 5, 10, 20, or 30 percent (by volume). These samples were stored at 5° C. and examined for motile sperm after 1, 3, and 7 days. The effects of glycerol levels on the percentage of sperm surviving and the rate (or speed) of their forward motion (0 = no forward motion; 4 = extremely rapid progressive motility) are presented in Table 8. The percentage of motile sperm decreased slightly at the higher levels of glycerol. The most noticeable effect of the increase in glycerol level was the reduction in the rate of forward motion of the sperm. At the 30-percent level, the sperm moved slowly and could be seen to rotate as they moved forward. Some samples were checked after slowly bringing the diluent up to a level of 40 percent glycerol; the sperm seemed to be immobilized completely in this solution. =Glycerol levels for freezing semen.= The British procedure called for the use of 10 percent glycerol in the final mixture of semen and extender prior to freezing. Yet, as shown in Table 6, in our laboratory 5 percent glycerol resulted in the survival of a higher percentage of sperm than did 10 or 15 percent. In order to define more clearly the optimum glycerol level, several ejaculates of semen were subsampled and portions were frozen after the addition of yolk-citrate extender and glycerol in varying quantities. From Table 9 it can be seen that glycerol levels of 6 and 8 percent in the final mixture resulted in maximum sperm survival during freezing. These results were confirmed in tests on the survival of sperm at 5° C. storage for 3 days following freezing and thawing with varying glycerol levels (see Table 10). The results shown in Tables 9 and 10 were confirmed also in later experiments. Thirty-six samples were subjected to various levels of glycerol and no significant difference in freezability was found between 6 and 8 percent. Based on these findings, a glycerol level of 7 percent was adopted for use in all experiments described in this bulletin, unless otherwise indicated. Results in a number of other laboratories have agreed with our findings regarding the use of approximately 7 percent glycerol with the yolk-citrate diluent.[5],[6],[7],[9],[10] With milk as the extender, 10 to 13 percent glycerol has been preferred by some.[5],[6],[7] Table 9.--Effect of Glycerol Level on Sperm Motility After Freezing to -79° C. and Thawing ========================================================== Glycerol Number Pre- Post- Survival level of freezing thawing (percent) (percent) samples motility motility (percent) (percent) ---------------------------------------------------------- 2 10 53 2 4 4 19 55 29 53 6 19 55 34 62 8 19 55 35 64 10 19 55 24 44 12 10 53 13 25 ---------------------------------------------------------- Table 10.--Effect of Glycerol Level and Storage at 5° C. After Thawing on Sperm Motility (Average of 13 ejaculates) ================================================ Sperm motility (percent) Glycerol ---------------------------------- level Post- After storage at 5° C. (percent) thawing ----------------------- 1 day 3 days ------------------------------------------------ 4 29 22 20 6 38 34 24 8 42 33 17 10 33 18 6 ------------------------------------------------ Table 11.--Effects of Temperature, Rate of Addition of Glycerol, and Equilibration Time on Sperm Motility (Average of 12 ejaculates) =================================================================== Temperature Post-thawing motility (percent) during Equilibration ---------------------------------- addition time Glycerol additions of glycerol (hours) ---------------------------------- (° C.) 5 3 1 Average ------------------------------------------------------------------- 4.5 2 48 48 45 47.4 6 49 51 47 48.8 18 46 47 46 46.3 Average 47.8 48.6 46.0 47.5 10.0 2 44 43 45 43.9 6 48 50 46 47.9 18 43 46 42 44.0 Average 45.0 46.5 44.3 45.3 15.5 2 41 38 38 39.1 6 42 45 43 43.6 18 42 43 42 42.5 Average 42.0 41.8 41.4 41.7 ------------------------------------------------------------------- =Rate, temperature, and method of adding glycerol.= Closely associated with the question of how much glycerol should be added is that of how the additions should be made. Originally it was believed that the glycerol should be added in stages so that changes would occur gradually. However, there would be a saving in time if the entire amount could be added at once. Also, if the glycerol addition could be made soon after the dilution with egg yolk-citrate extender at room temperature, time would be gained in processing the semen for use. Since aging _in vitro_ is known to reduce the fertilizing ability of sperm, every effort should be made to keep the processing time at a minimum. The results of an experiment involving these items, along with that of how much time should be allowed after the additions before freezing (equilibration time), are presented in Table 11. One can see that sperm survived freezing better when the diluted semen was cooled to 4.5° C. before the glycerol was added. The survival at 10° and 15.5° C. was reduced with each rise in temperature. Thus, it appears that cooling to refrigerator temperature (4-5° C.) before adding the glycerol should be a part of the routine procedure. A comparison of the results from adding the glycerol in 5, 3, and 1 equal portions is given also in Table 11. Little difference in survival during freezing was noted between the three rates of addition. Using 3 equal additions resulted in slightly better results, but the advantage was not statistically significant. While little difference was evident from adding the glycerol in 3 portions as compared to 1, many still use 3 additions in the hope of obtaining a slightly better sperm survival. In fact, some have gone to a procedure of adding the glycerol dropwise with constant gentle agitation. This method has not been tested in this laboratory. =Allowing sperm to equilibrate with the glycerol.= Allowing sperm to stand in the presence of glycerol is considered by some to be necessary in order that the glycerol penetrate the sperm heads before freezing. From the first successful attempts at freezing bull sperm came the practice of allowing 12 to 20 hours for this process of equilibration. A long equilibration time results in aging the sperm. Data from a number of sources indicate that a drop of approximately 5 percent in fertility in the field occurs with each 24 hours of aging in the test tube. Thus it would seem desirable to reduce the equilibration time to a minimum commensurate with good freezability in order to reduce the effects of aging (at 5° C.). Results of attempting to reduce equilibration time are given in Table 11. At 4.5° C., little variation in motility following freezing and thawing was found after equilibration times of 2, 6, and 18 hours. At the higher temperatures of 10° and 15.5° C., the shortest equilibration time--2 hours--was slightly more detrimental with the differences significant at the 5-percent level at 15.5° C. For all temperatures combined, 6 hours was significantly better than 2 or 18 hours. =Sugar additions and equilibration time.= Early in their experiences in freezing semen, the Australian workers found a short equilibration time--30 minutes--to be satisfactory if sugars were added to the diluent.[5] This protective action of sugars during the equilibration period was confirmed in our investigations. The results of one phase of this study are shown in Table 12. From these data it can be seen that the presence of glucose or rhamnose at a level of 1.25 percent improved sperm survival during the period of equilibration. In another trial these sugars and two others, arabinose and xylose, were tested for their protective action in freezing semen. The percentages of surviving sperm remaining after the various steps in the freezing procedure with and without the presence of these sugars are shown in Table 13. Table 12.--Effect of Adding Sugars to Yolk-Citrate Diluent on Sperm Motility During Equilibration With Glycerol[J] ============================================================ Sperm motility (percent) ------------------------------------- Stage when observed Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol only and glucose and rhamnose ------------------------------------------------------------ Fresh diluted semen 56 56 56 After glycerolization 54 54 54 After equilibration 2 hours 51 53 53 6 hours 48 52 53 12 hours 46 50 51 18 hours 40 46 46 ------------------------------------------------------------ [J] Glycerol level in the final frozen mixture was 7 percent. Sugars were added to a level of 1.25 percent. Three of the sugars--glucose, arabinose, and rhamnose--protected the sperm during equilibration and freezing. Xylose was less effective, but its addition resulted in slightly better sperm survival than glycerol alone. It was found also that the methylene-blue reduction time (metabolic test for semen quality) was faster in samples to which the sugars had been added--after glycerolization, after equilibration, and after freezing the samples. This is confirming evidence for the presence of more living and actively metabolizing sperm in the portions to which sugars had been added. Table 13.--Effect of Adding Sugars to Yolk-Citrate Diluent on Sperm Motility During the Freezing Procedures[K] (Average of 10 ejaculates) ====================================================================== Sperm motility (percent) ------------------------------------------------- Stage of Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol observation only and and and and glucose arabinose xylose rhamnose ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Fresh diluted semen 63 63 63 63 63 After glycerolization 54 55 54 57 60 After 18 hours equilibration 39 43 44 39 46 After freezing to -79° C. and immediate thawing 28 34 34 29 24 After 4 days at -79° C. 23 26 26 25 27 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- [K] Glycerol level in the final frozen mixture was 7 percent. Sugars were added to a level of 1.25 percent. =Substitutes for glycerol.= Since glycerol was so effective in protecting sperm during freezing, many have assumed that related compounds might be even better. Several compounds, some related to glycerol and some not, have been tried as substitutes for glycerol in the freezing procedure. They include ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, trimethylene glycol, mannitol, sorbitol, dextrans, and seminal-plasma proteins. None of these materials has been as effective as glycerol in protecting sperm during freezing. In fact, several of the materials proved to be injurious to sperm prior to attempts to freeze the samples. While the work in our laboratory with these substances as glycerol substitutes was by no means finally conclusive, because of the many possible interactions of experimental conditions, sufficient data were gathered to lead us to abandon further study until greater promise of success might be evident. FREEZING RATE =Effect of freezing rate on sperm survival.= Reports by one group of British workers in early trials on freezing bull semen indicated that the rate of cooling in freezing should not exceed 2° C. per minute between +5° and -15° C., although below -15° C. the rate could be faster. Another group expressed the view that semen could be plunged into dry ice at -79° C. after it had been cooled to -15° C. To clarify this part of the freezing procedure, 11 samples of semen were subdivided and portions of each were frozen at rates of 0.25°, 0.5°, 1.0°, 2.0°, and 4.0° C. drop per minute between +5° and -20° C. and then twice these rates between -20° and -79° C. Vials of each ejaculate at +5° C. were also plunged directly into an alcohol bath at -79° C. The samples which were cooled at the rates of 0.25°, 0.5°, 1.0°, 2.0°, and 4.0° C. per minute had the following percentages of motile sperm after thawing: 30, 40, 46, 44, and 44. A mean of 32 percent of the sperm in the samples that were plunged directly into an alcohol bath at -79° C. were motile after thawing. There were no statistically significant differences among the samples frozen at 1.0°, 2.0° or 4.0° C. per minute. All of the others had significantly lower survival rates. Thus, it is obvious that too slow a cooling rate and plunging the samples directly into a -79° C. bath from a temperature of +5° C. cause greater harm to the sperm than cooling at a rate between 1.0° and 4.0° C. per minute. Some investigators have suggested that rapid cooling below -20° C. is not detrimental to frozen semen. This idea was tested in conjunction with other experiments. Twenty-five samples cooled slowly (2° C. per minute to -28° C., then 4° C. per minute to -79° C.) showed 62 percent sperm survival compared with only 45 percent when cooled rapidly below -28° C. (2° C. per minute to -28° C. then plunged into bath at -79° C.). Thus, rapid cooling was detrimental even after the critical temperature range of +5° C. to -20° C. had been passed. [Illustration: Cooling rates of diluted semen samples in plastic vials and in glass ampules (Fig. 4)] =Rate of cooling in plastic and in glass.= Plastic vials do not conduct the cold as rapidly as glass ampules do. The temperature in both glass and plastic containers tends to lag behind the change in the bath in which they are immersed as is shown in Figure 4. Temperatures in the immersion bath were recorded in a 2-milliliter glass ampule containing 1 milliliter diluted semen and in an 8-milliliter plastic vial containing 2.5 milliliters of diluted semen. A second plastic vial and glass ampule filled to capacity with diluted semen showed a cooling rate almost identical to that shown in Figure 4. It was obvious from the comparison that samples in the plastic vials cooled slower than those in glass and that the volume of semen (at least the small volumes used) in the vials had little effect on the rate of cooling. In another experiment, it was shown that the volume of diluted semen in the ampule to be frozen (0.2, 1.0 or 5.0 ml.) had little or no effect on the survival of the sperm. STORAGE TEMPERATURE In freezing and storing bull sperm, an alcohol bath containing dry ice at a temperature of -79° C. has been used as a cooling agent. In many areas, the availability of dry ice is limited and the cost is rather high. Mechanical means are available for obtaining temperatures as low as, or lower than, -79° C. but for the most part they are expensive. If warmer temperatures were suitable for storing frozen semen, the ordinary deep-freeze, which operates at -15° to -25° C., might be used. =Storage at temperatures from -23° to -79° C.= In testing the effects of storage temperatures on the survival of frozen bull sperm (in a diluent containing 7 percent glycerol), 9 ejaculates were frozen and kept at -23°, -37°, -51°, -65°, and -79° C. The desired temperatures were maintained by dropping pieces of dry ice into ethyl alcohol baths as needed. Samples were thawed after 1 hour, 1 day, 3 days, and 5 days. After 1 hour, the samples maintained at the various temperatures exhibited approximately equal motility (Fig. 5). [Illustration: Effect of freezing and storing bull sperm at various temperatures on the sperm motility at thawing (average of 9 ejaculates) (Fig. 5)] At the end of 1 day, samples stored at -79° C. exhibited approximately the same motility as did similar samples stored for 1 hour. The samples stored at -65° C. had declined slightly in motility and those maintained at -51° C. had only one-third the motility which they had displayed at 1 hour. The samples at -23° and -37° C. exhibited practically no motility after 1 day in storage. After 5 days, only 3 of the 8 ejaculates stored at -51° C. showed motility upon thawing. Apparently detrimental changes take place more rapidly when the samples are stored at temperatures warmer than -65° C. The nature of these changes has not been determined. Reports from other laboratories indicate that storage temperatures much lower than -79° C. are just as satisfactory as -79° C. No tests of the effects of storage at -79° C. for periods longer than 51 days have been conducted in this laboratory. Portions of 12 ejaculates were frozen and stored at -79° C. for various periods. One portion of each of these was examined on the second, ninth, 16th and 51st day of storage. The percent of motile sperm and rate of motility at each of these examinations were as follows: Day 2 9 16 51 Percent of motile sperm 49 46 40 38 Rate of motility 2.5 2.3 2.2 2.2 The average prefreezing motility percentage for the above samples was 58, with an average rate of motility of 2.9. It is apparent from these results that the loss in motility was greatest due to the initial freezing, and after that the drop was most pronounced during the first 16 days of storage. The British and the Australians have both reported the successful maintenance of fertility in frozen semen stored at -79° C. for over two years.[5] =Use of higher glycerol levels and a -20° C. storage temperature.= In 1953, a report from Arkansas suggested that warmer storage temperatures could be used if a high percentage of glycerol were included in the freezing mixture.[7] To test the effectiveness of various glycerol levels on protecting sperm stored at deep-freeze temperatures, glycerol levels of 3.5, 5.5, 7.5, and 9.5 percent were used with portions of 4 semen samples. Survival in the portions frozen and stored at -20° C. was poor compared with the portions reduced and held at -79° C. In a second experiment, 4 samples were subdivided and frozen with a final concentration of 7, 11, 15, and 19 percent glycerol in the semen-diluent mixture. In this trial, poor results were obtained at -20° C. except that glycerol at a level of 19 percent protected the sperm more effectively than at lower levels. Maximal survival at -79° C. was obtained at the 7-percent glycerol level. A final trial was run, using glycerol levels of 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, and 31 percent. The percentages of motile sperm present after storage at -79° C. and -20° C. are shown in Table 14. Table 14.--Effect of Glycerol Level and Storage Temperature on Freezability of Semen (Average of 8 ejaculates) ================================================================ Storage Glycerol Sperm motility after storage (percent) temperature level -------------------------------------- (°C.) (percent) 18 hours 42 hours ---------------------------------------------------------------- -79 7 61 61 -20 7 2 1 11 3 1 15 14 10 19 30 22 23 29 19 27 25 18 31 21 12 ---------------------------------------------------------------- While survival was fair over a short period of time with 19 percent glycerol at -20° C., deterioration was rapid during storage. After 18 hours of storage, the samples at -20° C. (19 percent glycerol) contained only one half as many motile sperm as were still present in the samples at -79° C. (7 percent glycerol). After 42 hours of storage, the best samples at -20° C. contained only one-third the number of motile sperm still present in the samples stored at -79° C. These trials leave little doubt that under the present system of freezing and storing, storage at ordinary deep-freeze temperatures is far inferior to storage at dry-ice temperatures. THAWING The importance of carefully controlled cooling and storage has been emphasized in the foregoing sections. The need for controlling thawing rates and the temperature of thawing was not clearly defined in the early work on freezing bull semen. The British used a thawing temperature of 40° C., which was satisfactory. If there is a need to hold the semen for a time after thawing, then a lower thawing temperature might be more desirable so that cooling again will not be necessary. =Comparison of thawing temperatures of 5° C. and 38° C.= The effects of thawing at temperatures of 38° (body temperature) and 5° C. (refrigerator temperature) were investigated. The first trial involved thawing as rapidly as possible by dropping glass ampules of frozen semen into water baths at the two temperatures. The frozen semen samples contained glycerol levels of 4, 6, 8, and 10 percent. The mean percentages of motile sperm found after thawing thirteen diluted semen samples treated in this manner are shown in Figure 6. [Illustration: Effect of glycerol percentage and thawing temperature on sperm motility after freezing and thawing (Fig. 6)] The 5° C. thawing temperature resulted in a higher percentage of sperm survival at all the glycerol levels than 38° C., with the difference in favor of 5° C. becoming greater as the glycerol level increased. The reason for the interaction between glycerol level and thawing temperature is not known. It may be that the presence of the higher levels of glycerol at 38° C. brought about harmful metabolic activity. The difference in survival of sperm in semen thawed at 5° C. and at 38° C. continued during storage at 5° C. (Table 15). It was also evident that the interaction between glycerol level and thawing temperature continued during storage (Fig. 7). [Illustration: Effect of thawing temperature on sperm motility during storage at 5° C. following freezing and thawing (Fig. 7)] Table 15.--Effect of Glycerol Level, Thawing Temperature, and Storage at 5° C. After Thawing on Sperm Motility (Average of 13 ejaculates) ===================================================================== Thawing Glycerol Sperm motility (percent) temperature level ------------------------------------------- (° C.) (percent) Post- After storage at 5° C. thawing ---------------------- Average 1 day 3 days --------------------------------------------------------------------- 38 4 28.5 17.3 5.1 17.0 6 31.5 22.4 9.2 21.1 8 33.1 15.0 4.6 17.6 10 19.5 3.6 0.8 8.0 Average 28.2 14.6 4.9 12.2 5 4 29.2 21.7 19.8 23.9 6 37.7 33.8 23.5 31.7 8 41.5 33.1 17.3 30.6 10 33.1 18.5 6.0 19.2 Average 35.4 26.8 16.6 20.6 --------------------------------------------------------------------- It is obvious that motility falls off rapidly after the semen is thawed. In a field trial in which the initial intent was to test the effect of glycerol levels on fertility of frozen semen, the semen was thawed in the morning and used during the same day. Survival of the sperm with 4 percent glycerol was so poor that only a few breedings were made with these samples. Even at 7 and 10 percent, the fertility results were much lower than with semen that had not been subjected to freezing. At that time it was felt that thawing the samples and using them throughout the day may have caused the low fertility results. Since then, a large-scale experiment by Cornell University investigators, in cooperation with the New York Artificial Breeders' Cooperative, has shown definitely that thawing should be delayed until a few minutes prior to breeding.[11] If the semen is used immediately, a thawing temperature of either 5° or 38° C. appears to be suitable. However, there is less danger of cold shock due to recooling if 5° C is used. =Thawing rate in plastic and in glass.= Glass ampules transmit cold or heat more readily than plastic ones. The temperature rise is rapid in both glass and plastic when samples are taken from the storage box at -79° C. and placed in water at 5° C. However, complete thawing occurs more rapidly in glass than in plastic ampules. The changes in temperature that occurred when glass and plastic ampules were thawed in a water bath at 5° C. are shown in Figure 8. The initial temperature rise for the first minute or two was about the same, then the rate of warming in the plastic slowed and actual melting of the frozen sample occurred a little over a minute later in the plastic than it did in the glass. Both were thawed in less than four minutes. [Illustration: Warming rates of diluted semen samples in plastic vials and in glass ampules (Fig. 8)] EFFECTS OF FREEZING PROCEDURES ON METABOLIC ACTIVITY OF BULL SPERM By finding how methods of handling affect the sperm cells, one can sometimes improve the procedures to avoid harmful effects. Some attempts have been made in this laboratory to determine the effects of the freezing procedures on the metabolic activity of bull spermatozoa. These investigations have been limited in scope, involving the measurement of oxygen-consumption and estimates of sperm motility during and after incubation at 37° C. in a Warburg apparatus. =Effect of glycerol additions on oxygen uptake of diluted semen at 37° C.= The effect of adding glycerol to diluted semen on oxygen consumption of the sperm was tested in a Warburg apparatus, using semen diluted with an extender consisting of one part egg yolk and one part 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate. The yolk-citrate extender was added to the semen at a rate which brought the sperm concentration in 0.5 milliliter to 200 million to 500 million. An exact count was used to calculate the oxygen uptake per 10^{8} sperm per hour (ZO_{2}). [Illustration: Effect of glycerol additions on oxygen consumption of sperm at 37° C. (Fig. 9)] Glycerol in various percentages in 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate solution was placed in the sidearm of the Warburg flasks. The diluted semen was held in the main compartment. After a 60-minute preliminary run, in which the rate of oxygen uptake of the sperm in yolk-citrate diluent was determined, the contents of the sidearm were tipped into the main compartment. The resulting glycerol percentages after mixing the sidearm and main compartment contents were 0, 4, 8, and 12 percent. Ten samples of semen were subsampled and the oxygen uptake of each was determined at all four levels of glycerol. Oxygen uptake was increasingly stimulated during the first 20-minute interval by each increase in the amount of glycerol added (Fig. 9). After the first 20 minutes, the rate of oxygen utilization decreased at the two higher levels of glycerol but persisted at 4 percent. The rate of oxygen consumption for the first 20-minute period at the 4-percent glycerol level was 130 percent that of the control to which only sodium citrate had been added. At 8 and 12 percent the values for the period were 144 and 192 percent, respectively, of the control rate. [Illustration: Effect of glycerol and glycerol-plus-catalase additions on sperm motility during incubation at 37° C. (Fig. 10)] With each increase in glycerol level, motility was reduced during the incubation period. This is shown in Figure 10 along with the effect on motility of adding catalase, which is discussed in the next section. =Effect of glycerol-plus-catalase on oxygen uptake of diluted semen.= Certain bacteria have been shown to break glycerol down, forming hydrogen peroxide as follows: Glycerol + oxygen --> lactic acid + hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is known to be detrimental to sperm. The addition of glycerol to diluted semen first increased oxygen uptake and then reduced it. Since a reduction in sperm survival followed, some harmful action must have taken place with the addition of glycerol at 37° C. To test whether this action could be due to the release of hydrogen peroxide as occurs in certain bacteria, glycerol with catalase--the enzyme which breaks down hydrogen peroxide--was added to a portion of 8 diluted semen samples and the oxygen uptake was recorded. Comparison of the resulting oxygen uptake with glycerol and with glycerol plus catalase is shown in Figure 11. [Illustration: Effect of additions of glycerol-plus-catalase on oxygen consumption of sperm at 37° C. (Fig. 11)] Oxygen consumption was increased by the presence of added catalase at all glycerol levels and in the control. Sperm survival during the 3-hour period at 37° C. also was improved by the presence of catalase (Fig. 10). However, the general trend in oxygen consumption produced by the addition of glycerol was not changed greatly. The higher levels of glycerol still stimulated oxygen uptake during the first 20-minute period after the additions and then slowed the rate of oxygen utilization. The rate of utilization was generally higher during the test period in the presence of catalase than without added catalase. It appeared that a part of the harmful effect of glycerol might be due to the formation of hydrogen peroxide. Still, the detrimental effects of the higher levels of glycerol were not completely removed. Table 16.--Effect of Freezing Procedures on Oxygen Utilization of Bull Sperm in Yolk-Citrate Extender (Average of 5 ejaculates) ===================================================================== Microliters of oxygen Semen sample tested utilized per 10^{8} sperm -------------------------- First hour Second hour --------------------------------------------------------------------- Fresh diluted semen 10.3 8.1 Fresh diluted semen glycerol tipped in at end of first hour 9.7[L] 12.9[L] Aged 20 to 24 hours at 5° C. 11.2 8.3 Aged 20 to 24 hours at 5° C. glycerol tipped in at end of first hour 11.8[L] 12.9[L] After 20 hours equilibration with glycerol 11.7[L] 7.8[L] After freezing and thawing 9.7 6.3 -------------------------------------------------------------------- [L] Average of 3 ejaculates. =Effect of freezing procedures on oxygen utilization by sperm.= Limited data have been obtained on the effects of some of the freezing procedures on the oxygen utilization of bull sperm. The results obtained in these experiments confirmed the earlier findings that tipping glycerol directly into the diluted semen at 37° C. caused an increase in oxygen consumption (Table 16). All other steps in the freezing procedure had little effect on oxygen consumption by the sperm. Except where glycerol was added during the determination, the rate of oxygen utilization was lower the second hour than during the first. The oxygen uptake of semen that had been frozen and thawed seemed to drop faster than that of unfrozen samples. =Effect of freezing procedures on methylene-blue reduction time.= The methylene-blue reduction test has been used as a means of measuring semen quality and is dependent on the metabolic activity of the sperm. The effects of various freezing procedures on the ability of samples to decolorize methylene blue were determined with 10 semen samples. Sperm numbers were standardized to 300 × 10^{6} cells per milliliter and the time required for these cells to reduce a 1:40,000 solution of methylene blue was determined on freshly diluted semen, after the addition of glycerol, after equilibration, and after freezing and thawing. Portions of each diluted sample were tested at these stages of the procedure with glycerol alone added and with glycerol and various sugars added. A marked increase in the time required for the sperm to reduce methylene blue occurred when the glycerol was added (Table 17). This increase was greatest in the portions with glycerol alone and with glycerol and glucose. The time increase was less pronounced in the presence of the three pentose sugars used. Following equilibration, the samples regained the ability to reduce methylene blue at a rate only slightly slower than when they were fresh. Freezing and storage of semen resulted in slower reduction of the methylene blue than was shown after equilibration with glycerol. Since freezing usually kills some of the sperm, a slowing of the reduction time after freezing would be expected. Table 17.--Effect of Freezing Procedures on the Methylene-Blue Reduction Time of Bull Semen With and Without the Addition of Sugars[M] (Average of 10 ejaculates) ====================================================================== Methylene-blue reduction time (minutes) ------------------------------------------------ Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol Glycerol only and and and and glucose arabinose xylose rhamnose ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Fresh semen 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 5.2 After glycerolization 26.4 25.2 17.3 14.3 19.4 After 18 hours equilibration 7.4 6.5 6.4 5.3 6.2 Thawed immediately after freezing 11.5 10.5 9.4 9.0 9.4 Thawed 48 hours after freezing 14.3 10.2 11.3 10.1 9.5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [M] Glycerol level in the final frozen mixture was 7 percent. Sugars were added to a level of 1.25 percent. PRACTICAL FREEZING PROCEDURE Good results usually can be obtained in freezing bull semen if care is taken in collecting, diluting and processing the semen. Occasionally the semen from certain bulls will not withstand freezing well. The reason for this is not understood at present. However, carefully following the directions and suggestions given below will usually produce satisfactory results with semen samples that are of good quality at the start. Experience in the field has shown that fertility results with frozen semen are usually slightly lower during the first few months than with liquid semen stored at 5° C. (41° F.). Most units that have worked with frozen semen over a period of a few months are able to improve and do get fertility results as good as, or better than, obtained in their liquid semen program. =Collection of the semen.= In order to obtain the best possible semen for freezing, care and cleanliness should be exercised in making the collection. The artificial vagina, and the glassware used should be clean and dry. The underline of the bull should also be clean and dry. The bull should be restrained near the teaser cow for a minute or two prior to collection in order to excite the flow of secretions prior to ejaculation. Allowing the bull to mount the teaser once without serving the artificial vagina is a good practice to use in properly stimulating the bull before collection of the semen. If the bull has not been used for three or four days, the collection of a second ejaculate for freezing may be advisable. The second ejaculate seems to withstand freezing better than the first in many instances. A clean, dry artificial vagina should be used for each ejaculate collected. Repeated collections in the same artificial vagina may result in contamination of the semen with bacteria, lubricating jelly and minute particles of dirt. The semen sample should be protected from contamination and from sudden temperature drops (cold shock). =Preparation of extender.= A suitable egg yolk-citrate extender for freezing bull semen can be prepared by the following procedure. One part egg yolk (free of egg white and the membrane surrounding the yolk) is mixed with 4 parts 2.4 to 2.9 percent sodium citrate dihydrate solution. The citrate is prepared with distilled water and then boiled or autoclaved. The citrate solution should be cooled before it is mixed with the egg yolk. After the egg and citrate are mixed, 1000 units of penicillin and 1000 micrograms of streptomycin are added per milliliter of extender. Sulfanilamide should not be added. This extender can be prepared 12 to 24 hours before use if it is stored at refrigerator temperature. The portion of the extender needed for the original dilution of the semen should be warmed to room temperature before it is mixed with the semen. =Dilution after collection.= As soon as possible after collection, the semen sample should be diluted with the extender. The extender must be at the same temperature as the semen (room temperature) when the two are mixed together. At this time the semen can be partially diluted (1 part semen to 4 parts of extender) or diluted to a sperm concentration twice the final desired concentration (later in adding the glycerol for freezing, the semen is diluted further with an equal volume of glycerol containing extender). The diluted semen is slowly cooled (1-1/2 to 2-1/2 hours) to 5° C. (41° F.). Some units using frozen semen now allow the semen to stand at 5° C. for 5 to 6 hours before glycerolization to allow the antibiotics to be more effective against any vibrio fetus organisms that may be present. This step is taken because it has been shown that glycerol inhibits the effectiveness of the antibiotics.[6] After cooling, semen can be further diluted to twice the desired sperm concentration if that were not done at the start. (Caution: Be sure semen and diluent are at the same temperature.) =Adding the glycerol.= The glycerol solution is prepared by adding 14 volumes of glycerol (reagent grade) to 86 volumes of yolk-citrate diluent (same as yolk-citrate used for original dilution). This solution may be added dropwise with constant gentle mixing to the already diluted semen, or one-third at a time at 10-minute intervals with gentle mixing during each addition. Either method should take about 20 to 30 minutes. The total volume of glycerol-yolk-citrate solution added should be equal to the volume of the original diluted semen. In this way a concentration of 7 percent glycerol is obtained in the final mixture that is to be frozen. Care must be taken to keep the temperature at 5° C. (41° F.) during the time the glycerol is being added. (A cold room is best for maintaining a temperature of 5° C., but with care the operation can be carried out at room temperature by using pans of ice water and a refrigerator.) =Equilibration.= The results presented in this bulletin suggest that little or no time need be allowed after the glycerol is added before freezing. However, results obtained by other workers show improved fertility with at least 12 hours equilibration. Some units getting good fertility results with frozen semen also are allowing the semen to stand at 5° C. for 12 to 18 hours before freezing. After the semen has equilibrated with the glycerol, 1-milliliter portions of the mixture are placed in 1.2- to 2-milliliter vials or ampules which are then sealed. Ampuling can be done with an automatic syringe or pipette, provided a large gage needle is used. Also, it is important not to force the fluid mixture rapidly through the syringe or the sperm may be injured. =Freezing.= The vials or ampules of diluted semen are placed in a bath of isopropyl alcohol which has been cooled to 5° C. (41° F.). This bath can be a wide-mouth thermos bottle or an insulated container of almost any sort with a large opening at the top. The size needed depends on the number of ampules being frozen. Some sort of convenient tray for holding the ampules in an orderly fashion and enabling the samples to be completely submerged is desirable. A few ampules can be kept together easily by placing them in a polyethylene freezer bag that has had many small holes cut in it to let the alcohol of the bath contact the ampules. The ampules must be completely covered by the alcohol to insure uniform cooling. The alcohol of the bath and the ampules of semen are cooled by adding chipped or ground dry ice in sufficient amounts to lower the temperature of the bath 2° C. (3.6° F.) per minute from +5° to -20° C. From -20° down to -79° C., the rate of cooling can be doubled (4° C. or 7.2° F.). Electrical equipment that regulates the cooling rate to the desired temperatures is available commercially, but the cost may be too high for some small operations. The samples should be held at -79° C. (-110° F.) until they are thawed. This can be done by using an alcohol bath and dry ice or by special mechanical refrigerating equipment. At no time prior to thawing should the samples be exposed to warmer temperatures. =Thawing.= The ampules of frozen semen can be thawed by removing them from the dry ice storage box and dropping them into a water bath at 5° C. (41° F.). Thawing temperatures up to body temperature, 38° C. (100° F.), can be used but extreme care must then be taken not to pass the semen through a cold inseminating tube; for this would subject the sperm to cold shock. The semen should be used for breeding within a few minutes after thawing. LITERATURE CITED [1] DAVENPORT, C. B. Effect of chemical and physical agents upon protoplasm. Macmillan and Co., New York. 1897. [2] POLGE, C., and PARKES, A. S. Possibilities of long-term storage of spermatozoa at low temperatures. Anim. Breeding Abs. =20=:1-5. 1952. [3] EMMENS, C. W., and BLACKSHAW, A. W. The low temperature storage of ram, bull, and rabbit spermatozoa. Austral. Vet. Jour. =26=:226. 1950. [4] SMITH, AUDREY W. Effects of low temperatures on living cells and tissues. In biological applications of freezing and drying. Ed. R. J. C. Harris. Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1954. [5] EMMENS, C. W., and BLACKSHAW, A. W. Artificial insemination. Physiol. Rev. =36=:277-306. 1956. [6] Proceedings of the National Association of Artificial Breeders, 1953, 1954, and 1955. [7] Proceedings of the American Dairy Science Association, 1953, 1954, and 1955. Published in the June issue of the Journal of Dairy Science for each year. [8] BARKER, C. A. V. Low temperature preservation of bovine epididymal spermatozoa. Canad. Jour. Comp. Med. =18=:390-393. 1954. [9] SAROFF, JACK, and MIXNER, J. P. The relationship of egg yolk and glycerol content of diluters and glycerol equilibration time to survival of bull spermatozoa after low temperature freezing. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:292-297. 1955. [10] CRAGLE, R G., MYERS, R. M., WAUGH, R. K., HUNTER, J. S., and ANDERSON, R. L. The effects of various levels of sodium citrate, glycerol, and equilibration time on survival of bovine spermatozoa after storage at -79° C. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:508-514. 1955. [11] BRATTON, R. W., FOOTE, R. H., and CRUTHERS, JOAN C. Preliminary fertility results with frozen bovine spermatozoa. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:40-46. 1955. [12] HAFS, H. D., and ELLIOTT, F. I. The effects of methods of adding egg yolk and monosaccharides on the survival of frozen bull spermatozoa. Jour. Dairy Sci. =38=:811-815. 1955. [13] MILLER, W. J., and VANDEMARK, N. L. The influence of glycerol level, various temperature aspects, and certain other factors on the survival of bull spermatozoa at sub-zero temperatures. Jour. Dairy Sci. =37=:45-51. 1954. TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS °C. °F. +38 +100 +35 +95 +30 +86 +25 +77 +20 +68 +15 +59 +10 +50 +5 +41 0 +32 -5 +23 -10 +14 -15 +5 -18 0 -20 -4 -25 -13 -30 -22 -35 -31 -40 -40 -45 -49 -50 -58 -55 -67 -60 -76 -65 -85 -70 -94 -75 -103 -79 -110 
34259	----	Hunting Dogs Describes in a Practical Manner the Training, Handling, Treatment, Breeds, Etc., Best Adapted for Night Hunting as Well as Gun Dogs for Daylight Sport BY OLIVER HARTLEY Published by A. R. HARDING PUBLISHING CO. Columbus, Ohio Copyright 1909 By A. R. Harding Pub. Co. CONTENTS. PART I--HUNTING DOGS. I. Night Hunting II. The Night Hunting Dog--His Ancestry III. Training the Hunting Dog IV. Training the Coon Dog V. Training for Skunk, Opossum and Mink VI. Wolf and Coyote Hunting VII. Training for Squirrels and Rabbits VIII. Training the Deer Hound IX. Training--Specific Things to Teach X. Training--Random Suggestions from Many Sources PART II--BREEDING AND CARE OF DOGS. XI. Selecting the Dog XII. Care and Breeding XIII. Breeding (Continued) XIV. Breeding (Continued) XV. Peculiarities of Dogs and Practical Hints XVI. Ailments of the Dog PART III--DOG LORE. XVII. Still Trailers vs. Tonguers--Music XVIII. The Dog on the Trap Line XIX. Sledge Dogs of the North PART IV--THE HUNTING DOG FAMILY. XX. American Fox Hounds XXI. The Beagle, Dachshund and Basset Hounds XXII. Pointers and Setters. Spaniels XXIII. Terriers--Airedales XXIV. Scotch Collies. House and Watch Dogs XXV. A Farmer Hunter--His Views XXVI. Table of Technical Terms LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The Fruits of Night Hunting The Court Jester of the Nocturnal Tribe A Pure and a Cross-bred Coon Dog Veteran Coon Detectives Descendants from Jamestown Imported Hounds A Lover of Good Dogs "The Fox Hound is a Composite Animal" Fox Hounds--Graduates From the Training School Typical Coon Hounds Capable Cross-bred Cooners Good Catch in Which the Shepherd Dog Figured Prominently Opossums are Easily Caught Alive for Training Purposes North Dakota Wolf Hounds Typical Western Wolf Hounds Termination of a Successful Chase Good Dogs Make Good Luck The Fair Sex are More and More Becoming Practical Nimrods The Deer Seeks Refuge in Deep Water Well Trained Hounds Good Friends Get Along Best Co-operation Between the Man and His Dogs Brings Results Some Ideals Embryo Trailers A Versatile Ontario, Canada, Dog Family One-half English Bloodhound Pups Fox Hounds Some Young Hunters He Was Here a Moment Ago Here He Is A Group of Typical Sledge Dogs Sledge Dog--Photo from Life Rough and Ready Sledge Dog Worthy of the Name, Foxhounds Good Specimens Bloodhound "As Pretty As a Picture" (Beagles) True Dachshund Specimens A Pure Pointer Royal Sports--Pointers in Action Setter The Fox Terrier--Useful in Many Ways Airedale Collie Shepherd Puppies Outline Figure Diagram [Illustration: Oliver Hartley.] INTRODUCTION. As if hunting for profit, night hunting for either pleasure or gain and professional hunting generally had no importance, writers of books have contented themselves with dwelling on the study and presentation of matters relating solely to the men who hunt for sport only. Even then the Fox Chase and Bird Hunting has been the burden of the greater percent of such books. It remained for the A. R. Harding Publishing Co. (publishers of the Hunter-Trader-Trapper magazine and a number of helpful and practical books on hunting topics), to appreciate the demand for books and reading matter adapted especially to the tens of thousands of hunters who make, or partially make, their livelihood from hunting and trapping, as well as a million casual hunters and farmers of the United States and Canada. The keynote of success was struck in this direction by obtaining articles and letters from these very men themselves, written and printed in their own language, depending for favor on their explicitness and practical value, borne of actual experience, rather than flowing language, high sounding conventionalities and impressive technicalities so dear to the hearts of the Bench Show enthusiasts. The title of this book quotes its object. To tell something of night hunting, and especially to suggest how the ever necessary dog can best be selected, trained, maintained and utilized, is the consideration of first importance. To round out the subject all forms of hunting will receive some notice, and the various breeds of dogs will be so far dealt with, that their value and usefulness in their given fields may be determined. Best of all, the contents of this volume are based on the opinions and declarations of men who have had years of experience in the matters on which they presume to write. The Compiler does not assume authorship, the matter herein being very largely from articles which have appeared in Hunter-Trader-Trapper and elsewhere. Credit is hereby extended and our thanks offered to all writers whose efforts contribute to the sum total of this volume. If this book contributes to the success in handling of dogs or opens new avenues of recreation, sport and profit for any of its readers, we shall consider its mission has been fulfilled. Oliver Hartley. [Illustration: The Fruits of Night Hunting.] HUNTING DOGS. CHAPTER I. NIGHT HUNTING. Night hunting is a favorite form of hunting sport the continent over. Prime factor of the joyous, though strenuous night quest is the 'coon, the court jester and wit of the nocturnal tribe of small fur bearers. Owing to the scarcity of other game and general distribution of raccoon the country over, 'coon hunting is gaining in popular favor, winning over many of the wealthy, city-dwelling red-bloods who formerly were content with more or less pleasant and successful sallies to the fields in the day-time. Consequently there is an increased demand for properly bred and trained dogs to afford the maximum of success and pleasure in this pursuit. With the ownership of dogs go the care, maintenance and proper methods of handling these willing helpers. Surprising is the meagerness of the information available to the average hunter, though night hunting is an institution as old as the settlement of Jamestown. The craft of developing dogs and using them to the best advantage in this connection, has been by precept and example handed down from generation to generation. Much has been lost in this way and not so much accomplished as might have been attained by aid of the printed and pictured methods of today. Most certainly more attention will hereafter be paid to night hunting, and more painstaking records made and kept for the up-growing practical sportsmen, in which direction the present volume is a long and definite step. [Illustration: The Court Jester of the Nocturnal Tribe.] Our task is to offer guidance and advice as to the dogs. Yet to do this clearly, the reader must know something of the nature and habits of the animals to be hunted and the effort involved. A southern gentleman of experience and training has the following to say about 'coon hunting: The 'coon is a wily little animal, and his habits are very interesting to note. He is a veritable trickster, compared with which the proverbial cunning fox must take a back seat. One of the 'coon's most common tricks employed to fool the hound is known among hunters as "tapping the tree," and which he accomplishes in this way: When he hears the hound's first note baying on trail, he climbs up a large tree, runs to the furthest extremity of one of the largest branches and doubling himself up into a ball, leaps as far as possible out from the tree. This he repeats several times on different trees, then makes a long run, only to go thru the same performances in another place. Onward comes the hound, till he reaches the first tree the 'coon went up, and if it is a young and inexperienced hound, he will give the "tree bark" until the hunters reach the tree, fell it, and find the game not there. [Illustration: A Pure and A Cross Bred Coon Dog.] All this time Mr. 'Coon is quietly fishing and laughing in his sleeve, perhaps a mile away. But not so with the wise old coon hound. The old, experienced cooner, with seemingly human intelligence, no sooner reaches the tree Mr. 'Coon has "tapped" than he begins circling around the tree, never opening his mouth--circling wider and wider until he strikes the trail again. This he repeats every time the 'coon takes a tree, until finally, when he has to take a tree to keep from being caught on the ground, the hound circles as before and, finding no trail leading away, he goes back to the tree, and with a triumphant cry proclaims the fact that he is victorious. He is not the least bit doubtful. He knows the coon went up the tree and he knows he has never come down so he reasons (?) that the coon is there, and with every breath he calls his master to come and bag his game. When the tree is felled the fun begins. The 'coon is game to death. He dies fighting--and such a magnificent fight it is! The uninformed might suppose there would not be much of a fight between a 50-pound 'coon hound and a 20-pound 'coon. Well, there is not, if the 'coon hound is experienced and knows his business. Of course, the 'coon will put up a masterly fight, and some time is required to put him out of business; but the old 'coon dog will finally kill any 'coon. But if the fight is between a young or inexperienced dog and a full grown 'coon the chances are that you will suffer the mortification of seeing your dog tuck his tail between his legs and make for home at a very rapid and unbecoming rate of speed. To prove this, get a good 'coon hound and let him tree a 'coon; have along your Bull-dogs, Bull Terriers, Pointers, Setters, Collies, or any other breed you believe can kill a 'coon; tie your 'coon hound, cut the tree, and let your fighters on to the 'coon, one at a time or in a bunch, and see them clay him. You will see the old 'coon slap the faces off your dogs, and the shortest route home will be all too long for them. Killing a 'coon appears to be an art with a dog, and, of course, much more easily acquired by a natural born 'coon hound than by a dog of any other breed. A year-old hound of good breeding and from good 'coon hound parents, can kill a 'coon with less ado about it than half a dozen of any other breed. It is in swimming that the 'coon is most difficult to handle. I have known several hounds to be drowned by 'coons in deep water. The dog goes for the 'coon, and the 'coon gets on top of the dog's head. Down they both go, and, of course, the dog and 'coon both let go their hold on each other. Again the dog grabs the 'coon, and under the water they both go. This is repeated, until the dog becomes exhausted, his lungs fill with water, and old Mr. 'Coon seems to understand the situation exactly and seats himself firmly on top of the dog's head, holding him under the water, till outside assistance is all that will save him from a watery grave. As there is but little chance--practically none--to kill a 'coon while he is swimming, the wise old 'cooner, on to his job, will seize the 'coon, strike a bee line to the bank, and kill him on terra firma. I once saw a big old boar 'coon completely outdo and nearly drown a half dozen young hounds in Hatchie River, when an old crippled hound, with not a tooth in his head, arrived on the scene, plunged into the river and brought Mr. 'Coon to the bank, where the young hounds soon killed him. Another of the tricks Mr. 'Coon uses to advantage when closely followed by the hounds, is to follow the meanderings of a stream until he comes to a log reaching across to the other bank; then he runs to the middle of the log and leaps as far as he can out into the water, usually swimming down stream, as if he is not making for a den or a tree in some other direction. This ruse invariably delays even the best of 'coon hounds, as, being at about full speed, they will run on across the log, and if the dogs know their job they will circle out until they again find the trail; but during this momentary bother, the 'coon is not waiting to see what they are going to do about it. He keeps moving and I want to say that a 'coon is a much swifter traveler than many persons suppose. He delays no time, but keeps everlastingly at it, and it takes a speedy hound to force him up a tree. The 'coon may be defined as being a dwarf bear. They have many points in common. The 'coon can lie up in his den for weeks at a time during severely cold weather, without food or water. The only difference between the foot prints of the 'coon and those of the bear is the size. In shape and appearance they are exactly alike. The flesh, when cooked, tastes similar, and not one in a thousand could tell any difference between cooked 'coon and cooked bear, if served in same size pieces. By nature the 'coon is a very selfish individual. He deserts Mrs. 'Coon when his children are a day old and lets her provide for them as best she can. The young 'coons grow rapidly, and at the tender age of from six to eight weeks old they begin to accompany their faithful mother in search of food. Fishes, birds, rabbits, nuts, acorns, berries and green corn are the principal dishes on the 'coon family's bill of fare. At first the little 'coons stay close to their mother's heels, but they grow more venturesome as they grow older, and soon begin to make little journeys on their own account. This often proves their undoing when dogs are about. Any sort of an old dog can tree or catch on the ground a baby 'coon, but this is an advantage no true sportsman will knowingly take. That a mother 'coon will even brave death herself to save her babies is evident to one who has studied the habits of the 'coon. When closely pursued by the hounds and she and her young are all compelled to go up the same tree, as soon as the hounds begin to bark fiercely and the hunters arrive and begin to chop on the tree or to try to shine their eyes, old mother 'coon picks an opening and jumps out of the tree and is usually caught, or run up another tree close by and then caught. But she has again saved her young, as in all likelihood the hunters will not go back to the tree where the little coons are serenely sitting on the leafy boughs, or never think of there being any more coons there. There are many reasons why the 'coon hunt is fast becoming one of the most popular of the manly sports. The 'coon is found in many sections of the United States. Other game is becoming very scarce. The wealthy business man, the man of affairs who is tied to his desk six days out of the week, can own a 'coon hound and in the stilly hours of the night, after the day's turmoil of business, can enjoy a few hours of the most strenuous sport now left to us and witness a battle royal between his faithful hound and the monarch of the forest, the wily 'coon. Nothing that I can contemplate is more exhilarating or more soothing to the nerves than the excitement of the 'coon hunt. From the first long drawn note when the trail is struck until the hound's victorious cry at the tree, it is one round of excitement and anticipation. What or whose hound is leading? What direction will Mr. Coon take? What dog will be first to tree? And then the fight! It is simply great! And then showing the hide to the boys who didn't go, and telling them about it for days to come. The 'coon hunt calls for manhood. Tender weaklings cannot endure the exertions necessary to enjoy this sport. It is too strenuous for the lazy man or the effeminate man to enjoy. They shudder at the thoughts of donning a pair of heavy hip boots and tramping thru swamps and slashes, crossing creeks and barbed wire fences, thru briars and thickets, maybe for several miles, and the probability of getting lost and having to stay all night. But to the man with nerve and backbone this is one of the enjoyable features. It affords great fun to get a tenderfoot to go out for the first time and initiate him into the "'coon hunters' club." The tenderfoot will use every cuss word ever invented and will coin new ones when the supply of old ones becomes worn out and ineffective. He will cuss the briars, cuss the ditches, cuss the creek, cuss the fences, cuss the swamps, cuss the slashes, cuss the man who persuaded him to go, and finally cuss himself for going. But when the excitement of the chase is on and when the fight commences he becomes reconciled; and if good luck is had he is very likely to be the next man to propose another "'coon hunt." A half dozen hunts will make an enthusiastic 'coon hunter of any able bodied man--and I might suggest that a half a thousand 'coon hunts will make an able bodied man out of any man. It will throw off the waste matter and dead tissues of the body, cause deep breathing, arouse torpid and sluggish livers, promote digestion, and is a general panacea for all human ailments of both mind and body. (The foregoing contains much of value but is overdrawn even tho from the pen of a "Southern Gentleman" who should be well versed in 'coon hunting. Now and then a 'coon will go up a tree and come down or even run out on a limb and jump off or may leap from a log across a stream into the water. Such instances, however, are rarely done to fool the dog. Generally when such happens, the 'coon has been feeding, going up and down trees, etc. When a 'coon does go up a tree, jump to another and similar tricks to fool a dog, that animal has been trailed before and is apt to be an "old timer.") [Illustration: Veteran Coon Detectives.] Added to this is the promise of other game, if the hunter is desirous of combining sport and profit. The skunk and opossum are common to many sections of this country. They are less resourceful and gritty than the 'coon, and their taking is simply a matter of choice and method, rather than concern for opportunities. A dog trained to hunt 'coon will have no trouble attending to opossum and skunk, if his owner desires it. Very frequently the trainer does not desire that his dog pay attention to anything save 'coon. Still another profitable animal taken by night hunters is the mink. There is not so much sport in this branch, however, as the dogs simply trail or locate them in their dens, and are captured by digging or frightening them out, when they are dispatched by the dogs. A good mink dog will often locate a mink in the den during the day. If the den has more than one entrance, is not very deep in the ground, the animal will often run out by stamping or striking a few licks with a mattock. The mink generally comes out at the entrance nearest the water (quite often under water) when it can be shot, if you are quick enough, or if the dog is an active one, caught. When hunting at night along streams, or places frequented by both mink and 'coon, it is sometimes difficult to tell, at first, which your dog is after. These two animals travel about the same along streams. Some dogs will not run mink unless especially trained while others take naturally to mink hunting. Unless a dog is not afraid of water, he will never make a good mink dog (or 'coon dog either for that matter), as mink go into a great many dens both on the bank and in the water. Where the hunting is done in woods, considerable distance from streams or ponds and mink seldom travel, your dog may "pass them by" but if you should catch one in a trap and let him kill it, the chances are that you will have a mink dog. Again by hunting certain stretches of creek where mink frequent, your dog will soon learn that you wish him to hunt these animals. A mink holed is far from caught, especially after night. If holed in the creek bank, the chances are that the animal will dart out into the water and escape to another den. The most successful mink hunting is done during the day by having your dog along and following the banks of creeks, lakes, ponds, etc. The dog locates the game and the animal is gotten out by methods already described. [Illustration: Descendants From Jamestown Imported Hounds.] CHAPTER II. THE NIGHT HUNTING DOG--HIS ANCESTRY. Dogs of almost any breed, from the nondescript mongrel to the bred and developed hound may be taught to hunt in the woods at night. However, their success is, in a general way, in proportion to their adaptability for the work and the plentifulness of game. For instance, take a country raised dog of hound parentage, and he is as apt to make as good a night dog as a pedigreed, handsome hound which has grown up in the city, without opportunity to verify by experience his instinctive notion of things. Everything else being equal, the well bred hound should prove by far the better raw material for a good night hunter. The ideal coon dogs of most experienced night hunters are the half bred fox hounds. Thus is enlisted the training of centuries to match the wits of the 'coon which was born wily, and develops stratagem from experience and necessity, affording as exciting and pretty a contest (dog vs. coon) as sport provides. The more one knows of the hound he follows, the greater will be his enjoyment and success. He will avoid blaming the dog with his own mistakes, and wisely refrain from trying to exact from the dog what by physique and breeding he was not intended by nature to do. How the modern fox hound descended from the blood hound and the coon hound from the fox hound is an interesting study of more or less importance in striking an estimate of the coon dog's prowess and abilities. It is not such a far cry from the exciting man hunt of other days to the coon hunt of the present. What we call the native American fox-hounds are descended from dogs brought over from England, Ireland and France. The settlers at Jamestown imported the hounds that spread out over the southern frontier, originating the superb packs to be found throughout the South to-day. The imported dog has never proven a good performer in the chase, owing to very widely different conditions encountered. His value has been in cross breeding to give bone and substance to native breeds. Says one authority: By selection and a different character of work, we have produced a lighter, faster hound than the ancestral type. Our hounds are required to go and search for a fox. That quality has become instinctive in them and it is an extremely necessary natural quality. What we have really done in this country with the fox-hound is, we have created a new type. Our native hounds which are without any near English or Irish hound crosses are not only faster than their ancestors, but they get about in rough country, quicker and with greater ease. The American bred dog, long accustomed to hunting, may be readily developed to night hunting. There are some strains of native hounds that train easier than others. Hounds that have come down through an ancestry which have long been in large packs have certain fixed notions or instincts about hunting that are more difficult to change than are hounds which have grown up singly or in couples. Whatever manner of hound the trainer may undertake to develop it is well for him to consider the dog's ancestry and the way in which they have been hunted. He will find if his hound is well bred that the ancestral influence will tend to assert itself. Knowing what is in his hound, the trainer will know better how to handle him to bring him up to the highest possible degree of efficiency. There were many different breeds of the hound family existing in England, when the fox hound, the great grandfather of the typical night hunter under consideration, began to assume a fixed type and receive recognition. "A popular error" writes another authority, "into which many writers have fallen is to associate the fox hound with any one or two breeds of hounds for his common ancestry, for the fact is that both the English and American fox hound is a composite animal, descended from many different varieties of hounds which have existed in the past." There are a number of breeds of hounds in France to-day that cannot be intelligently traced to any peculiar origin and there have been a greater variety of hounds in the past, which have found the way into the kingdom by different roads. It will never be known exactly what hunting qualities the hounds of our crude forefathers possessed or with what melody of tongue, accuracy of scent, or fleetness of foot they pursued game, which consisted, with now and then an exception, of the stag, wild boar and wolf, until the gradual advance of civilization drove the larger animals from denuded forest and left the cunning fox as the logical object of especial attention to huntsmen, who have spared neither time nor expense to accomplish his death legitimately for nearly two centuries. Summing up we are impressed with the fact that the perfect fox or coon hound is a superb physical being of most versatile and capable properties, subject to our beck and call, if we learn the language of the chase, before we attempt to tell him what is wanted. Let us go to the next important topic. Training the Night Hunter, with due respect and humility. Success in training a fine performer is a credit to a man; failure is a discredit. Heed well the advice of experienced men, and profit by their mistakes. [Illustration: A Lover of Good Dogs.] CHAPTER III. TRAINING THE HUNTING DOG. In training hounds, one should remember that they will always have a hobby for the first game they learn to hunt; therefore, we should be careful to start them first at the right kind as for instance: If you desire to have an all around hound that will hunt coon, fox and rabbit and to hunt each game well, and in order to succeed you must break him in on coon first, then when he knows the "A, B, C," of Mr. Coon, you can break him on foxes and then on rabbits in the day time and when you will hunt coon he will pay no attention to the fox or rabbit even if he would see one in front of him, providing there are coons in that bush. If you desire to have a true deer hound, train him first on deer, then on foxes, but you must in all cases train them well on one kind before you start on another; therefore, a hound thus trained will always hunt deer in preference to fox. The same would exist if the dog was first trained on the fox. Some people claim that it takes from three to five years to train a hound right. Well, this is not always the case. Young hounds twelve to fifteen months old are often taken from the city into the bush and in three days would hunt deer as well as other dogs of five and six years' training. The reason for this is that these dogs take as naturally to hunting as ducks do to water. These dogs are born with the hunting instinct in them and being very intelligent, will start at once to beat a bush as well as an old timer, as soon as they have seen the game once they will remember it all their life and you can train them to hunt any kind whether it is a bear, deer, fox, etc. Of a necessity in treating on the general subject of training hunting dogs, some suggestions are applicable to all kinds, while others have individual bearing. Under the subject of this chapter will be given subdivisions relating to specific training for specific hunting in so far as required. There are some fundamental lessons that all hunting dogs should be taught to do and some things which he is not to do. Let him begin to follow you when he is three or four months old; take him through herds of sheep and cattle, and if he starts after them, scold him; if he continues chasing them, whip him. I do not believe in whipping where it can be avoided, but if compelled to, do not take a club or a No. 10 boot, but a switch; and I never correct a dog by pulling his ears for fear of hurting his hearing, as a dog that is hard of hearing is not an A No. 1 dog. Never set your dog on stock of any kind nor allow him to run after other dogs or house-cats. [Illustration: "The Fox Hound is a Composite Animal."] By the time he is four months old, he will likely begin to run rabbits, but some do not commence until older. Let him run them as it will teach him to trail and harden his muscles, and, should you have more than one, it will teach them to depend on each other, and they will soon learn to go to other dogs when they start a trail or pick up a loss. If you have a fox or coon hide to drag or a pet to lead, it will not do any harm, though I do not think it of much value as they soon learn to associate your tracks with those of the fox or coon, and I greatly prefer letting them run rabbits as a mode of training them. By the time they are eight months old, take them out with a slow dog that runs and barks a great deal, both trailing and running, and as soon as the fox is running, let your pup go, but do not let him go until the old dog has passed with the fox. Should you let him go meeting the old dog he may take the back track, but if you wait until the old dog has passed your pup, he will come in behind, and, if he is bred right, will go in and stay as long as he can find a trail to follow. If he should come out after a short run, keep him until the fox is tired; then let him go again, and if he still continues to come out after a few times, don't fool with him, but try him for something else. If your pup has been in good trim, and has come out three times on fair trials, there is very little chance of making a fox dog out of him. I have had pups of this kind which I kept until they were two years old; have bought pet foxes, and let them catch and kill them, but never yet made a runner out of a dog that it was not born in. [Illustration: Fox Hounds.--Graduates From the Training School.] Should your pup go in and stay, don't run him too often unless he is near a year old. Never take him out unless he is well fed, and in good shape to run. After a race or two let him go as soon as the trail is struck, and after a few races, catch the old dog, after the fox is going, and see what the pup will do alone. Then take them out on a good day, let the old dog pick up the trail, and after the pups have started, catch the old dog and let the pups go alone, and if they trail, start and run that fox to a finish, that is all the pedigree they will ever need. When you turn your dog loose, don't run and yell and get him so excited that he doesn't know what to do, just unbuckle his collar and let him go. If he does not understand going into a race, it will not help matters to excite him, just walk to where the fox has passed and he will likely take the trail, and will know better what to do the next time. When your dogs are running and happen to lose the trail near you, do not run and call, trying to help them get started, for if let alone they are far more apt to pick it up and go on in good shape; by getting them excited and running wild the chase would likely end right there. My rule is this: Whenever I pull a dog's collar, he must look out for No. 1 without my going to show him. Should you not have an old dog to help train your pup, you can train him alone, but it is more trouble. If you have snow, lead your dog until you find a fox trail, then follow it, still leading your dog; if there happens to be considerable scent in the trail, he may want to follow it, if so turn him loose, but follow him up and help him to start his fox. If there is no scent in the trail, lead your dog until you start the fox, then let him go and let him work for himself. Should you have neither snow nor trained dog, you will have more trouble, but I have made No. 1 dogs without either. If you know where foxes stay, go there, turn your dog loose, and he will start to running rabbits; this will scare the fox up and your dog will likely cross its track; if he is a born fox dog, he will leave the rabbit for the fox every time. You may have to make several trips, but after you get one race, your dog will be looking for a fox chase, and will soon take a cold fox trail in preference to a rabbit. After you have trained your dog to running foxes or coon, you will wish to break him of running rabbits; this is generally an easy matter, for a genuine dog prefers the fox or coon and some will quit it of their own accord. If not, try scolding him when he starts a rabbit. If that fails, whip him, but where foxes are plentiful, you will seldom have to do this. My pups are accustomed to the crack of a 22 rifle, as I shoot near them while young, so never have any gun-shy dogs. There is just as much in feeding a running dog, as a running horse. Some say a light feed just before starting and I have heard some say, don't feed at all. Now for a grey fox, it does not make so much difference, as the chase will only last an hour or two, and sometimes not ten minutes, but where it comes to an old red fox,--one that you start Saturday night and return just in time to accompany your wife to church next morning, it is quite different. A dog to do his best should be used to running. He should have a few days' rest, and if his feet are sore, grease once each day with salty grease. At least three days before the race, drop all sloppy food and give rye or corn-bread with scraps from the butcher shop mixed in before baking. Feed liberally twice each day and if your race promises to be a hard one, feed extra before starting, some food that will give the greatest amount of strength, with the least possible bulk. Then arrange to give your dog a good heavy feed as soon as he returns home, and he will be ready for the next race sooner than if compelled to go to rest hungry. Before closing, I will say something more with regard to breeding:--We often see where someone has pure bred Walker, Williams, Redbone or Buckfield Blues. Now to my understanding, these are strains of dogs, bred by southern fox hunters, 50 or 75 years ago, and to keep them pure, there must have been a lot of inbreeding, a thing I do not approve of. Now why would it not have been better for Mr. Walker to have selected one of his very best bitches and bred her to one of Mr. Williams' best dogs, then called the pups the "American Fox Hounds"--as grand a dog as ever put his nose to a trail? [Illustration: Typical Coon Hounds.] CHAPTER IV. TRAINING THE COON DOG. In training, we have been told to drag a 'coon hide, lead a pet 'coon, etc., but your pup soon learns to associate your tracks with the trail of the drag, and when you carry the 'coon hide he simply follows your track to where you start the drag again. Should you have a 'coon so tame that it will follow you, start out and tramp through the woods, along streams and just such places as 'coons frequent. Your 'coon will run logs, go up on the side of trees, in and out of the water, in fact will do just about as a wild 'coon would. After you have been gone for some time, have someone turn your pup on the trail and if he runs it, keep him a little later each time, and you will soon have a trailer out of him anyway. Should you have neither 'coon nor old dog, you can train your pup without. In nearly all places where there are 'coons, squirrels and woodchucks (groundhogs) may be found also. Teach your dog to lead and when he is about eight months old, attach a light cord to his collar; then some good morning for squirrels, take him to the woods. Keep him until he gets sight of a squirrel, then drop the cord and let him go; he will likely see it run up a tree, and perhaps he will bark, but if not, do not urge him, but give him plenty of time; then take him to find another and if he does not get to barking, get one in small timber, where you can make it jump from tree to tree; if he does not bark then, he will never be much of a 'coon dog. If he barks after he has learned to tree squirrels, take him to a woodchuck country. He will soon get to working after woodchucks and while they won't all tree, some of them will. Should he get one in a hole, hollow log or tree, get it for him if possible and let him kill it, and see that he doesn't get hurt much. If he trees one, shoot it out for him, and after he has gotten a few, and trees another, go to where you can see him, but do not let him see you, and watch until he starts to leave; then go to him and by so doing, he will learn to stay and wait for you. After you have a good dog for woodchucks, you may rest assured that he will tree a 'coon if he finds a trail. If it happens to be summer time, take him where 'coons abide and turn him loose. He will likely run rabbits, but when he strikes a 'coon trail, he will take it. As soon as you know he is after a 'coon, keep after him as near as possible, but let him have his own way. If he trees it and barks, get to him as soon as you can, but do not urge him, for he will get to lying as soon as you want him to without any help from you. After he has barked awhile, encircle the tree with him; then if the 'coon has been up and gone on again, he will strike his trail, and, after a few times, he will learn to circle before barking. If the 'coon is up and it is summer time or early fall, when 'coon hides are not prime, take your dog back from the tree, keep still, and unless it is a den tree, you won't have long to wait, for another 'coon chase, and by keeping your dog longer each time, you will soon have a cold trailer out of him. This may seem considerable work for some, but it takes work and time to make even a fair 'coon dog. Should you have a good dog to train with, it saves lots of work, but even then it is a good plan to work early in the season, and tree your 'coon several times in one night, as you do not have far to go after the first tree. In breeding 'coon dogs, the same rule applies as in fox dogs--if your dog is bred from a line of 'cooners, he will take to it naturally. Some one will say, I will take a house cat to teach my dog to tree. Well I have done that myself, but after cutting several good trees, only to get a house cat, I learned better. It is just as easy to break a dog from running cats, as rabbits, and more so. I do not consider a dog that will run and tree every house cat he strikes the trail of, a No. 1 'coon dog, no matter what his other good qualities may be. Years ago, when timber was more plentiful than now, I always trained my dog to take care of himself, when a tree was cut for 'coons, and I never had a dog get hurt, nor had many 'coons to get very far from the tree. They are easily taught by cutting small trees in the day time and making them keep back until the tree is down; but now, timber is getting rather scarce and valuable to cut for 'coons. When a dog is trained for 'coon so that he is first class, he is valuable in dollars and cents as well as satisfaction. One of our good friends sets the value in this way, and we agree with him, except that where one is training a dog for his own use, love of the pursuit and woods repays him in a measure for his trouble: "A man ought not to expect to get a first class 'coon dog for five or ten dollars. In fact, one can't be trained for that price, not saying anything about his feed. In the first place stop and consider how many nights one has to be taken out to get him to understand running them, and to learn their tricks and to tree and stay treed. They may do this in a reasonably short time with another older, well trained dog to show them how to find the tree and keep them out there, but then take him out by himself and when Mr. 'Coon goes in the creek or around an old pond or bog your young dog lacks experience and a year's work or more. Then there is the rabbit which he must be broken not to run, and a dog can always find their tracks before he can a 'coon. Now here is where the right kind of judgment must be used, as all dogs cannot be handled alike, and one may spoil a pup in trying to break him from rabbits. So taking everything into consideration, it is worth far more to train a dog for a first class 'coon dog than most people consider,--what it requires to train a dog, and what he should be worth when properly broken. Of course, it is not so much work to train a dog to run fox, as there is generally a lot of fox dogs one can turn in with, and that way get a young dog started and he will take to running them naturally." I think a good dog, either a fox hound, or one that has never run foxes, makes the best dog, altho curs or 'coon dogs are not to be kicked out, that is if they are good, true hunters. I wouldn't advise trying to train a hound with a cur unless he is an old 'coon dog. Try and get your dog on a 'coon right in the start, and do not let him fight too much the first time, unless he is an extra fighter. Do not let your dog stay out hunting when the other dogs have treed a 'coon; make him come in and bark up the tree. Always climb the tree for your dog and get what he has, no matter if it takes until daylight. When I own young dogs, I always train them myself. I never permit a stranger to handle them. It is all right for strangers to handle the old dogs once they are trained but the hunter who wishes to have good dogs should train them himself or have a man who thoroughly understands the proper way to use young dogs. It is a very easy matter to spoil a dog when you do not know exactly how to proceed. [Illustration: Capable Cross-bred Cooners.] On the question of the proper age at which to begin training a hound, a successful Minnesota trainer takes issue with those who advise taking the pup to field at eight or ten months of age. He writes in part: "I disagree with those who advise the early initiation of the pup. Any kind of fairly well bred pup will run, not only at 10 months, but at 5, 6 or 7 months, but the point to consider is, will a dog put at hard work at such age, become a hardy one? Will he develop himself as well as if he had been given a chance to grow some bones? I say no; put a colt at hard work at 2 or 3 years old, will he ever be the horse which he would have been, if he had only been broken at 4 or 5 years old? Every horse breeder knows that if he wants a good roadster, he must give him a chance to grow, then he will not be afraid to cover 60 or more miles in a day with that horse; not only this but he will get many times the price for that horse as for his brother which was put to work two years earlier. I have bred horses and know of what I speak. There are many reasons why a sportsman should not start to train his dog to hunt before he is full grown, that is at least not until he is 12 to 15 months old. Before that age, a pup may have the will but he has not the strength to cover the ground of an old dog. A man who has a valuable pup should wait until he is capable to stand hardships, and until he has also a good knowledge box. In allowing a pup of 6, 7, 8 or 10 months to hunt, he will learn more bad tricks than good ones, such as to remain in the bush longer than necessary, and soon become a long record dog. The risk is great that he will get lost, or if not, will return with swollen feet and legs if he ran at all, also be chilled and be rewarded with a fine dose of distemper. This is often the cause why so many young dogs die with distemper or of some other lingering death, but if a man gives time to his dog to develop and get strong, the chance is, should he ever get distemper, it would be but a slight attack from which he will soon recover." We take it, however, that our well informed friend does not mean to imply that a pup should not be taken afield and given a kindergarten course earlier than a year old. His contention is, no doubt, that the pup should not be permitted to over exert himself or to be thrown too much on his own resources. [Illustration: Good Catch in Which the Shepherd Dog Figured Prominently.] CHAPTER V. TRAINING FOR SKUNK, OPOSSUM AND MINK. All the foregoing has more or less application to the present topic. We are still dealing with the nocturnal wanderers. Occasionally any of the above may be discovered abroad in the full glare of day. Some hunters successfully locate them, by the aid of dogs, in their dens or burrows and capture them in the day-time. This is a cut and dried operation that requires none of the resourceful tactics of man and dog in the chase, and is, therefore, dismissed from the discussion. Now, what are the dog's duties? The matter of still hunters vs. tonguers, being of such variance of opinion, it will be discussed in a subsequent and separate chapter. Having impressed your dog with the fact that you want him to look out for skunk, possum and mink, as well as 'coon, the next point of importance is to insist on the dog staying with the quarry and barking until you arrive; also not to take hold until the word is given as the hide is apt to be all chewed up and full of holes if the dog is too long and too vigorous in the task. Many hunters pick up many of the skunk on the field, without even being touched by the dogs. In this connection a contributor writes: "We walk right up to the skunks and pick them up by the tails; then hit them on the head with a club and kill them or put them in the bag and take them home alive, as the occasion may suit." "Now I won't tell that I can catch skunks without getting scented, but will say this, we have caught hundreds by the tail, and after lifting them clear off the ground, never have been scented by them. As I said before, I go for the business end of it, and am not afraid to get some scent on me as long as I don't get it in my eyes. If you get it in your eyes, it feels about as if you had horse-radish or hot water in them for the next ten minutes, which is not altogether pleasant." The skunk is a foolish, unresourceful animal and were it not for its natural, unique means of defense, would be utterly at the mercy of dogs and hunters. Many dogs object to the scent and will trail and bring to bay a skunk only with reluctance. Only those who hunt for profit, care to take the skunk, and he must needs learn the finer points by experience. The Scotch Terrier and Beagle should be mink dog. The steel trap is more generally relied upon to bag the sly mink and his capture with dog and gun is oft-times very unproductive. [Illustration: Opossums Are Easily Caught Alive for Training Purposes.] A Pennsylvania hunter contributes the following to the general fund: a good cross for mink as well as rabbit. This combination gives the requisite agility needed in coping with mink. Some even advise a strain of water Spaniel with the above breed for ideal. "Before taking him out you can teach the young dog when 8 or 10 months old, what to do by catching an animal that you wish to train your dog on and leading it around. If it is a 'coon or opossum, then put up a tree or on a fence. Loose your dog and let him trail until he finds it. Teach the dog to bark by hissing him on and clapping, whooping to him and such like. If for skunk, kill one and drag it around, place it out of pup's reach, and teach him to bark when he comes upon his game. You can teach the habit of tongueing after night or silence on the trail as you prefer. Let your young dog shake and chew at the game you are training him to hunt for. After he has found it and he fails to bark by hissing him, tie a rope three feet long to it and keep throwing it toward him and pulling it quickly away to teach him to grab at it and hold on, and also bark. A live skunk generally gives a young dog such a lesson the first time that he is always afraid of one afterwards, unless he is an Irish terrier or bull dog or beagle crossed. These two breeds are good ones for any kind of night hunting. Take a live animal, a 'coon or something, and lead it past your young dog's box where he is tied and let him see it and take notice how he will want it, but all you want is to teach him the scent and how to tongue when he comes up on the game. I believe what I have told will generally break any dog. A good dog, well broken to hunt 'coon, skunk or opossum is worth scores of traps. Don't be afraid to switch a young dog some, to make him learn good from bad, like tonguing track and rabbit. Always pet him and be friendly after chastising him, and a good scolding with a couple of light smacks with open hand will take the place of a whipping. Don't use a stick unless necessary. Use judgment, the same as you would want some one to use you, and in a few nights' training your dog will be catching game. It is easy sailing after a few are caught, and your dog is your greatest friend you have. He will make you from $5.00 to $15.00 a night, where if you were trapping for the same game, you would be lucky if you got a dollar's worth of fur, and besides what is finer sport than a day's gunning, to hear your old dog up on yonder hill or in some woods talking to you to come his way?" [Illustration: North Dakota Wolf Hounds.] CHAPTER VI. WOLF AND COYOTE HUNTING. In training a dog to run wolves, it is unsafe to allow a young dog to go alone, as some wolves prefer fighting to running, and if a young dog is whipped back a few times, he will become afraid, or will be perhaps, spoiled altogether. Training a dog to hunt young wolves is a harder task, and unless your dog is born for it, you will fail to make anything like a first class dog out of him. Almost any good fox dog will hunt old wolves, but very few will hunt pups, and my experience has been that a bitch will hunt quicker than a dog. There are a great many dogs that will trail and hunt a wolf to a finish, but will pay no attention to the pups whatever; but if you succeed in finding one that is inclined to hunt them, remember that practice makes perfect. Speaking of brush wolves: The kind of dog needed is a good ranger, extra good cold trailer and an everlasting stayer. Then if he will only run a short distance after starting the wolf and come back and hunt the pups, and then bark at them when found, you have a good, valuable dog. There are plenty of dogs that will hunt and trail wolves all right, but very few that will hunt the pups. Sometimes when your dog trails in near the pups you will get a fight, and sometimes they will jump out and run for it. Sometimes if the pups are quite young you will find the mother in with them and for the first few days she will be found near them, but as they grow older she will be found farther away. A Minnesota wolfer who averages 35 wolves a year pins his faith in the long eared variety of hounds, with features of strength, endurance, good tonguers and stayers. From another source we are advised that the best dogs ever for coyotes, are part English blue and Russian stag. English blue are very fast and the stag are long winded and have the grit to make a good fight. Another admired and capable dog is the one-half Scotch stag hound and one-half grey hound. A Wisconsin hunter writes that the best breed to catch and kill coyotes are one-half shepherd and one-half hound. They are faster than a hound and trail just as well on a hot trail. Another fast breed for coyotes is a one-fourth English bull, one-fourth blood hound and one-half fox hound. [Illustration: Typical Western Wolf Hounds.] A Kansas hunter contributes some first hand discussion of wolf hunting as follows: I have been hunting wolves with dogs for eight or nine years and have caught my share. I only hunt in spring and late in fall, but any time is good when you can find them. But don't take your dogs out in summer, as it will be sure to be the time when you will find a hard race, and there is where you will hurt some of your best dogs. I use a pack of from three to five, but the more the better. I have tried most all kinds of dogs and have found a cross with stag hound and English greyhound suits me the best. I don't have any use for a full blood English greyhound--they cannot stand the cold weather and are too easily hurt in a fight. I want a dog that will weigh 75 pounds, with long legs and short back so he can gather himself up quickly. I don't think foxhounds are any good for wolves. I have seen thirty-five of them start after the same wolf, in good weather and four hours afterward there were only two, the smallest of the pack, still in the race. I have no doubt but that they could have taken the wolf several times in the race, but all they could do was to bark. I will not say a full blood stag hound is not all right, in a level, unobstructed country, but in many parts of the country many large dogs would not be able to get thru the fences or over the rough ground with the ease that the smaller ones do. I have never seen the big dog that could catch and kill a wolf by himself. I have killed them with two, but would rather have four or five. I always hunt on a horse, and they should be the best of horses, well broken and not afraid of wire. I never carry a gun of any kind, but always have a hammer, and if I want to succor the dogs in the race, I will ride up to the dogs and kill the wolf for them. THE IRISH WOLFHOUND. The Irish wolfhound of history is no more, the breed having become extinct years ago. There has been a determined effort, however, to approximate him with a present day breed. The modern Irish wolfhound is a cross between the Scottish deerhound and the Great Dane. Other combinations have also been tried, with more or less good effect. According to the idea of the American-Irish Wolfhound Club, the Irish wolfhound should be "not quite so heavy or massive as the Great Dane, but more so than the deerhound, which in general type be should resemble. Of great size and commanding appearance, very muscular, strongly though gracefully built; movements easy and active, head and neck carried high; the tail carried with an upward sweep, with a slight curve toward the extremity. The minimum height and weight of dogs should be 31 inches and 120 pounds; bitches 28 inches and 90 pounds. Anything below this should be debarred from competition. Great size, including height and shoulder and proportionate length of body is the desideratum to be aimed at, and it is desired to firmly establish a race that shall average from 32 to 34 inches in dogs, showing the requisite power, activity, courage and symmetry." "The coat should be rough and hard on body, legs and head; especially wiry and long over the eyes and under the jaws. The recognized colors are gray, brindle, red, black, pure white, fawn or any color that appears in the deerhound." THE RUSSIAN WOLFHOUND. The Russian wolfhound has a reputation for being a most capable wolf-catcher in his native country, but so far the pure bred hound of that family has not held his own with the American wolf. He has the speed and capacity for catching the wolf, but is unable to cope with him or detain him long enough for the hunter to arrive. Admirers of the dog say he lacks training and adaption and that he will with a generation or two of careful training and practice become the most available dog for the purpose. [Illustration: Termination of a Successful Chase.] Others get good results by crossing in some fiercer and stronger blood. The Russian Wolfer has somewhat the clean cut appearance of the greyhound, though more stockily built, and has a long, silky coat of wavy or curly hair. "In general appearance" says an authority, "he is an elegant, graceful aristocrat among dogs, possessing courage and combining great muscular power with extreme speed, weighing from 75 to 105 pounds." [Illustration: Good Dogs Make Good Luck.] CHAPTER VII. TRAINING--FOR SQUIRRELS AND RABBITS. Here is my way for training squirrel and coon hounds, which I think is best, writes a Texas Hunter. First, select good healthy pups, raise them up friendly and don't whip or cow them in any way until about ten or twelve months old, for if pups get cowed when young they will never get over it. When about ten months old, take them out hunting with one or two squirrel dogs and then when the old dogs tree in small trees or any place where you can make them jump out, jump the squirrel out and get your pups after them. Then if the squirrel gets up another tree your pups will bark up the tree at him. Then when they bark well up the tree at the squirrel, pet, sick and yell to let the pups know that you are trying to help them catch the squirrel. Keep jumping the squirrel out until they catch him, and if they don't catch him and it gets away up a big tree where you can't jump him, then shoot him and they will wool him when he falls out. Clean the squirrel and give the pups some of it to eat, and you won't be but a few times out hunting squirrels and jumping them out for the pups and trying to help them catch the squirrel until they will start out hunting and treeing squirrels as good as any old dog. If the dogs won't bark up the tree when you get through all of this and they see the squirrel run back up the tree, you might as well kill them or take them and run deer, for they will never make tree dogs. The following directions for perfecting the rabbit dog, are from the pen of an experienced and successful Ohio hunter. Get your pup some day while young, if possible, keep him by you, and when you see a sparrow or something alive, shoot it, pick it up and show him what you shot at; do this at home. Shoot all you please while he is young, so when you go hunting with him and shoot at game he won't be afraid and make a bee line for home. Most dogs will soon take a liking to guns. Now to training a beagle dog to be a good one on rabbits, I warn you never to take another dog along, but for a common hound you may use your own way. I have seen good beagle dogs spoiled by other dogs. Now, some frosty morning take your pup to where you most think there are rabbits; scare one out, and then if he is not near, give three good sharp whistles which you ought to keep as your signal for him to come. If you train your pup to a regular code of whistles, he will know what you want. So here is a good code, which if kept in rule, will become very handy. When you have scared up game let three sharp whistles be the calling; if you only want him to come to go another way, give three long ones. Motion your hand in what direction you want to go and he will soon learn to understand. I have often let the dog decide the way to go. Now to go back to the old subject, when he comes you must be all excited and showing him that you are greatly in need of him. Then show him three of four places where the rabbit hopped; when he gets a start you go and stand where you most think he will come around, but again I warn you never to jump and run away while your pup is near enough to see or even hear you, for if you do, he will leave the track and follow you. Also, you will do a fine piece of work to shoot the first rabbit he brings around. Now when you shoot the game, pick it up and wait until your dog comes, then show it to him, but never let him eat one, for if you only cripple one he will catch and eat it. Teach him in the start to hold game until you come to him. Now to get him to start to hunt another rabbit may be your trouble. He may want to stay with you and try to steal your rabbit. The best way to start him out is to start walking through the brush and stamping on brush piles, at the same time telling him to "hunt 'em up." Keep a piece away from him and he will soon start to hunt again. Now if he runs one into a den, what should you do? Dig 'im out and be a "Johnny-dig-'em-out" or let him go. Better examine the first den, and if not over 2 or 3 feet deep and only a small hole, you may dig it out, if it is one of your dog's first hunts, but don't dig very big dens, for by the time you dig one out, you may get a shot at another. The way to get your pup away from a den is to look the situation over and then give up, telling him to give it up; we can't get it; he will soon come away. There are other things to be careful of; first you should never hurry your dog; walk slow and when he gets used to hunting let him scare up the most of the game or he will get lazy and want you to be the dog. Never whip your dog for a mistake, or you may spoil him. Then when you come home you may give him the rabbit heads. Let him in the house, and when you eat your rabbit, give him all the bones. This will teach him why and for what you take your game home. One great thing is, if your dog scares up game and is following on the trail, don't change your standing place too often; judge the point where the game will come around and stay there until it does come. Some fellows will run, jump and halloo after his dog while running a rabbit; there is where you spoil him, for you must be cool in mind. Then when your dog is running a rabbit and night is coming on, don't go home until your dog comes to you, or right there is where your dog will be discouraged. So when the day's hunt is over you can go home with your dog by your side. While you are showing him what good he did for you, if he is wet and cold call him near the stove and dry him. For if a dog must lay outside all wet, he will soon become stiff in his limbs, and rheumatism will be seen at an early age. Always after the day's hunt, give him all he wants to eat. Don't have him too fat in hunting season, because he will tire out too easily. [Illustration: The Fair Sex are More and More Becoming Practical Nimrods.] CHAPTER VIII. TRAINING THE DEER HOUND. On all things there is a main point, also certain rules which should never be forgotten in training hounds, especially the age and the way to train them. My experience has taught me that it is a big mistake to allow a young deer hound to go in the woods before he is 12 to 15 months old, says a Canadian hunter. At a year old a hound should know how to lead well, that is not to pull on the chain for all he is worth ahead of his master but to follow behind him through every place he passes, if between, under or over logs as well as fences, to follow exactly the same trail as his master. A dog or a pair coupled together, so trained, can be easily led in any bush without any bother whatever. It is not at all necessary that a dog should lead in front of his master to find a trail. A dog with a keen nose can pick a trail from the air several yards before reaching it. He will then pull you in the direction of the same and if the scent is fresh, he will be anxious to follow it, then if the hunter is a man who understands his business, he will examine the track by following it 100 yards or so and if suitable and going (if it is a deer) in the right direction and if the wind is also right, will then allow his hound to go. A dog which knows his business will not open the minute he gets the scent but will cover the ground fast and save his steam until he has jumped the deer or fox, then open his value and if he is a flyer he will water more deer in five hours than another which gives tongue as soon as he takes the scent in five days for the reason that a dog which opens the very instant he finds a trail will have to cover 20 times more ground to bring his deer to water, than the one which does not. [Illustration: The Deer Seeks Refuge in Deep Water.] A hound should not be gun or water shy but should be shy of strangers, traps and of poisoned baits. He should know how to swim across a river or lake and where to land. He should have but one master and obey him to the word and this without the use of the whip. He should know how to ride in a canoe. All this can be taught to him in about 3 months and he should know all these things before he is broken to hunt. The next thing is to accustom your dog to the gun. This is easily done. All you have to do is to take your gun and dog into a field and once there to tie your dog say five or six feet from you, then to shoot the gun and after every shot to speak kindly to your dog and make him smell the gun. In a day or so repeat as before and the moment you see that your dog is not afraid let him loose and shoot again and always pet him. He will then know what a gun is. So when your young hound knows the gun, the canoe and water, he may be taught to be shy of strangers, traps and of poisoned baits. To break a dog to hunt, you must not allow him to go in the bush whenever he likes. A dog that hunts without being in the company of his master will never be a well trained dog. Therefore, you must lead him in the bush and if you have a well trained dog, you may couple him with the young one and walk until you find a good trail then follow it with the dogs till you see that the young one has caught scent right, then let go the young hound first and the "old timer" last. If the hound comes from hunting stock, he will hang to the trail with the other dog and he will only turn up with him but for some reason or another, should the young hound come back to you, "don't get mad and kick or beat him." No, this is a great error and many are the dogs which have been spoiled that way. Instead of beating, speak kindly to him and pet him a few seconds and keep moving towards where the chase is going. Don't excite your dog, pay no attention to him. If he wants to follow you at your heels, let him do so and once you reach a place where likely the other dog is going to pass, stay there and when the old dog comes along, the young one will again join and may stay this time with him, as the scent will be hot and the chances are ten to one that the young hound will take a hand in the music. But if after ten, or twenty minutes, he should again return, treat him as before. Be always kind to him. If you have no old dog to train your young one, go with your dog and show him the game you want him to hunt, lead him until you kill one, then blood him. The blooding is the "A, B, C" of training. Allow him to smell the game all he likes, speak kindly to him even if he bites the game, don't kick him off or use a stick on him, as I have often seen done by some fellows who pretend that to teach a hound you must abuse him. If you want a foolish dog, that is the way to use him but if you desire an intelligent one, you must encourage him. After a dog has been well blooded (the blooding is done by rubbing the hot blood of the game on the front legs, as well as on the sides of the dog), you may turn him loose or you may lead him until you find another trail. He will at once be anxious to follow. Let him lead for a hundred yards and once you are sure that he has the scent in the right direction, let him go and if that hound comes from trained stock, he will run that scent immediately and should he only be away for five, ten or more minutes and come back to you, speak kindly to him and tell him to hunt. Always mention his name and keep moving in the direction where you suppose the game is. It is a good thing that a young dog backs his own tracks at first, as it teaches him that he can find you when he likes and a hound that does this after each chase will never get lost no matter where you may go. In deer hunting, it has many advantages in so far, that when you are several miles from camp, after your dog has a start you keep moving and if you find where a deer has just passed, you can just sit there and wait for the return of the dog and as soon as he returns, you just tie him and allow him to rest for fifteen or twenty minutes and then you start him again. I have often had two and sometimes four chases in one forenoon and this without bother. Hounds thus trained, will always return to camp every night for their feed and will be ready for the next day. [Illustration: Well Trained Hounds.] Some hunters say that their dogs are so good that when they turn them loose, they always stay away for three or four days and they even go so far as to say, that they hunt night and day during the whole time they are away. Well, this is not the case at all. The reason is that they will chase a deer or fox for three or four hours or more and when they have watered the deer or holed their fox, will then start to ramble around and start after another and after watering their second deer, they will be so far away that they are unable to find their way back, and they will walk until they can go no more. They will then lie down for a long time and walk around and howl until they find somebody's trail, which they will follow to the end or until they land at a settler's house or at some shanty and will remain there. Now how many dogs like these will a party of ten or twelve men require to hunt, during ten or fifteen days in a strange country? When a hound has been away three or four days, is he in condition to run the next day after his return? No, it will take him as many days to recover and often he will be of no use for the remainder of the hunt. Dogs like these may suit men living in the country where there is game. Their dogs after having been lost several times will, through time, know the lay of the country and be fairly good dogs at home, but take these hounds in a strange country, of what use and how many will a hunting party require to hunt every day of their outing? Well, they will require a car-load and besides several men to hunt the dogs. Such dogs as these don't stay with me, as I consider them a nuisance, especially for city sportsmen, who are so busy during the whole year that they can only take a few weeks holiday every year, they require a strain of hounds on which they can depend every day of their hunt. I want a dog to be a flyer and to back track after every chase and to find me in the bush and not make for camp after his chase or wait at the shore until some "Johnny Sneakum" comes along with his canoe and says, "Get in Jack," and that Jack is only too glad to jump in and the next thing is that you don't see Jack for the balance of the season, but you will learn later on that Jack has been half starved that it will cost you $5.00 to $10.00 for the board if you desire to get Jack. I will say here that I owe my life to two of my hounds. I was lost once in the woods in a blinding snow storm. This was in Western Ontario amongst a range of sappy pine hills. I was about five miles from camp. In the morning when I left the weather was very fine but it soon started to snow and the storm lasted until about 9 P. M. I was soaking wet and I had left my compass at camp, my matches were all wet and I slept in the bush. At 10 A. M. I had started my two hounds and about 11 A. M. they came back to me. It was just commencing to snow heavily but thinking it would not last long, I made for another hill where I was aware, if any deer started from there it was a sure run for our men, so I arrived there in due time and got a start. It was still snowing very heavily. I then pointed for home. I had about five miles more to reach our camp when I came to a place where a deer had just left his nest, so I thought that I could get a shot at him but after having followed him for about an hour, I gave him up and I tried to make for camp. Well, instead of making for camp, I made a circle and came back to the same place where I had left the deer's track. It was 4 P. M., when my dogs came back to me. I knew then that I was completely turned so I decided to spend the night right there. I looked for a sheltered place and after removing all the snow I could I lay down with my back against a big flat stone and with my two dogs lying near me. We were quite comfortable and early in the morning, I pointed for camp. Now if these dogs had not returned to me, I really believe that I would not be able to write this, as their heat preserved me from freezing to death. CHAPTER IX. TRAINING--SPECIFIC THINGS TO TEACH. To teach the dog to bark treed, it is best, of course, to take him out with an old dog, but if you have no old dog, you can train him without one. This can be done by catching a live ground hog, 'coon or opossum. Take the animal you have to some small tree, a dogwood for instance, and let it climb from the ground up. It would be better if you could lead it or even drag it a short distance--ten feet, say, at first, to a tree. Don't let your dog look on while doing this. After you have your animal treed, get your dog and bring him to the tree and give him the scent on the ground. If he is new at the business, he will not likely look up the tree, but will hunt for trail. If he finds where the animal is himself, try to get him to bark, but if he doesn't find it, then show him. Try to make him bark. That is one of the objects at this point as well as to find where the animal is. Have your gun along, and as soon as you get your dog to bark, shoot into the air and at the same time, pull the animal out of the tree by the string by which he is tied. But whatever you do, don't let the animal get the best of your young dog or you will have a spoiled dog. I always liked a possum for this work because they are easy to handle and don't fight your dog. [Illustration: Good Friends Get Along Best.] You must remember that, at this point, you are not training your dog to fight. The object is first to find where the animal goes and second to get your dog to "bark up." Continue this practice for some time; then put your animal in a larger tree out of sight but don't put in the same tree each time, After you have your dog trained so he will trail and bark up in the manner just described, the chances are that he will tree 'coon, if he gets a fresh trail. Of course, he will not be a good 'coon dog at once; that comes by experience. Next to a good dog in the 'coon hunting business, is a good gun and lantern. Don't try to hunt 'coon with a common open lantern. A good kind of lantern to find their eyes with is a dark or police lantern, as you don't have to put them on your head to find their eyes. But whatever kind you use, have one with a good bulls-eye and a reflector. Use a good shot gun. I generally use No. 2 shot. Having prepared ourselves with a good dog, gun and lantern, we are now ready for business. We will go out first on a cloudy night. We will go into the woods and walk slowly, giving the dog plenty of time to hunt and if we don't see him pretty soon, we will sit down on a log and wait a while. Don't go thru the woods as if some one were after you or as if you were in a hurry and then call your dog as soon as you get thru the woods. You will never have a good 'coon dog if you do so, especially if he is new at the business. If you want a dog that will stay by the trail, you want to stay with him. If you use your dog properly that is, if you hunt slow and sit down on a log or wait for your dog until he comes in and then move on as soon as he does come in, you will find that your dog will soon "catch on" to this and will always come in as soon as he has a woods or a portion of a woods hunted over, unless he "trees." Another brother offers the following suggestions: "Let me give you a few pointers in regard to breaking them to hunt 'coon. When the pup is five or six months old, teach him to speak or bark by holding up a piece of meat or bread, and when you get him so he will bark, take him into the woods where there are squirrels. Be sure and take your gun along and chase every squirrel or cat up a tree and shoot the squirrel. Be sure and make the dog help to chase the squirrel then skin the squirrel. Cut it up in small pieces and feed it to your dog. Do this as often as possible and you will be surprised how quickly he will learn. Commence early in the fall to hunt 'coon, and keep away as much as possible from the haunts of the rabbit with your dog, but if he gets after a rabbit, get him off as soon as possible and scold him. I wouldn't advise anyone to hunt rabbits with dog until thoroughly broken to hunt 'coon." TEACHING THE DOG HOW TO SWIM. As for swimming, we are aware that all dogs when thrown in the water can swim, but the question is, will they swim right and take to water at once. I say no, they all need training before they will take to water when told, swim and float right and remain in the water for hours when necessary, and also return game from water when required whether it be for fur or feathers. To teach a dog to swim, take him often to a nice shore and let him play at the edge of the water and say nothing to him. After you have done this during three or four days, tie him and row about thirty yards from shore. Use a flat bottom boat or a good safe one and place him gently in the water, hold his head above the water till he floats, then row to the shore. He will follow and as soon as you land, get out of the boat and call him to the shore. This will teach him to land because should you stay in the boat, he will try to get in the boat with you. Now allow him to play for five or ten minutes, then repeat the same tactics but row a little further. After two or three days lessons such as these, the dog will take the water. To make him do this, row a few yards from the shore and call him. He will at once follow you. Row slowly away and the moment you see he is getting tired, pull him on board or row to shore. Never train your dog to swim during cold weather but when it is warm and sunny. A nice sunny morning is the best time to teach them to swim. Once he knows how to swim right, take him across a small river or lake and then come back and make him swim back. He will then never be afraid of water. To teach a hound to properly ride in a canoe, tie him and have a whip or a small switch and make him lie down. Always speak to him kindly. Mention the dog's name and say lie down. If he does not obey, whip but do so carefully. "Avoid whipping," because there has been many dogs that would have been good hunters that have been completely spoiled by the whip. Always speak to your dog, then give one single stroke; if he does not obey give another stroke and so on until he does so. As soon as he lies down, you can allow him to put up his head and look above the boat and row across the river or lake. Once on the other side, order him off and hold your rope which must be a long one. If he goes to jump, give him a good check and make him walk off easily. Once he is landed, hold him and pet him. Stay there five minutes or so, then get in the boat again, hold the boat and order your dog to get in the boat. I use the word "Board." Mention the dog's name and say "board" and to order him out, say "move." As soon as the dog gets in the boat say, "Lie down" or just "down" and if he does not obey, show him the whip and command him, then whip. As soon as he is down, get in and row a few hundred yards further and repeat the same a dozen of times. The moment the dog obeys, you must pet him so as to make him understand that what he does is right. If you will repeat the same tactics for three or four days, the dog will soon know how to balance himself and will be very steady--you will never have any bother with him. Thus a dog trained to water and canoe is a very handy thing for you as well as for the dog. Should you have no room in the canoe, he will swim. If you have room, just for him he will be as safe for you to take on board as a stone. A pair of hounds so trained will just balance your canoe right. It is a good thing to put some hay, straw or a bag in the bottom of the boat or canoe for the dog to lie down on. They will soon know their place to lay. A QUICK METHOD. Having many years of experience in the breeding and training of hounds to hunt nearly all kind of game, a Canadian brother hunter tells how to train dogs for 'coon when he has no old dog to teach the young one. 1st. Set a trap where you see 'coon signs as follows: Take the skin or part of a good sized green codfish, tie it to a string and drag it along the bank of a creek or place where you see their signs, to the place you wish to set your trap. 2nd. Take a good sized stick about 4 feet long, drive it well on a nice flat piece of land, then tie what you have dragged to this stick about 20 inches from the ground. Have the bait well tied so that Mr. 'Coon will have a hard job to pull a piece off. 3rd. Take three No. 1 1/2 or larger size steel traps, but not very stiff spring, set them 8 inches from the stick and arrange in such a way as to form a triangle. Have the chains well secured so that Mr. 'Coon will only be caught in one of the traps. Dig holes for four traps and cover chain and traps with dry grass or leaves. Be careful not to put anything to interfere with the jaws of your traps and make things look as natural as possible. Visit your traps the next morning and the chances will be that you will have one or two 'coons waiting you. I have often found three waiting me in one setting as above. When you have a coon or two, take one at a time to an open field about 400 yards from the bush, then tie a long clothes line to the ring of the chain in such a way that it will not slip off. At the other end of the line, tie something white, and allow Mr. 'Coon to make for the bush. Have a friend with you that will keep an eye on Mr. 'Coon. Then take your dog to the spot in the field where the coon started from, and make him take the scent, and once he has it in the right direction and commences to pull, turn him loose and follow him. If the hound comes from good stock, he will soon find Mr. 'Coon and will bark at him. Encourage him and have your friend pull on the line in order to make the 'coon move. The dog will then catch him; after the hound has pinched the 'coon a couple of times, throw the line over a branch of some good sized tree and help the 'coon to climb. Allow the dog to bark for a while. Shoot the coon, open him at once and blood your dog well by rubbing the blood on his front legs and over his body. If you have another coon, repeat the same with the second as you have done with the first, but in another direction of the field and bush. Always allow the 'coon to go far enough so that your dog will not see him. When you take him where the coon scent is, after the 'coon is dead and your dog well blooded, go home with your dog and 'coon. Chain your dog and put the 'coon near him for three or four hours before skinning and while doing this, have your dog near you. The next day, take your dog where 'coons are moving and he will soon have one for you. Repeat the blooding every time and you will soon have a No. 1 'coon dog. [Illustration: Co-operation Between the Man and His Dogs Brings Results.] CHAPTER X. TRAINING--RANDOM SUGGESTIONS FROM MANY SOURCES. Summing up we find much pointed and valuable information relating to the training of dogs omitted thru lack of space. From this we present a chapter of "nuggets" in paragraph form, which will no doubt prove interesting and beneficial to those interested in training hunting dogs. Here are a few things not to do: Don't allow your dogs to run into every farmyard as you pass along the road. Don't allow them to be used with which to run stock. Don't let them get into the habit of running other dogs. Don't let them run house-cats. Don't teach him to be called by shooting. Don't, when out hunting, keep urging him all the time. Don't let every one have him to hunt with or he will soon be everybody's dog. Don't allow them to come into the house and get into every pan and kettle, if your wife is good-natured. Don't correct him by pulling his ears, for a fox dog needs his hearing. Don't feed but twice a day, and don't stint him on his feed before starting on a race. Don't allow him to run loose when you are not using him. * * * Did you ever try using a sheep bell on a still trailer on windy, stormy nights? It's a such bells on sheep and disregard them until the dog but 'coon usually become accustomed to sheep bells on sheep and disregards them until the dog gets too close for them to escape. Then, where not accustomed to the bell, their curiosity overcomes their fear. The best pair of 'coon dogs I ever owned was Sport, a fox hound and collie, half and half, a slow semi-mute trailer, and Simon, a full blood fox terrier, a fast mute trailer. I used a bell on Sport. This and his occasional barks on the trail kept the attention of the 'coon while Simon cut across lots and invariably took him unawares. I have learned at considerable expense that the best at most any price is the cheapest. If you want a good, cheap 'coon dog, get a half pup collie and half fox hound. Never give him a taste of nor let him see a rabbit, teach him a few tricks (to make him pay for his meals), such as jumping over a stick, then a pole, then a fence. This is to teach him to obey every word. Never scold or whip him, gain his confidence, teach him to speak for bits of meat so when the time comes to hunt 'coon you can get him to bark up; get him to catch and carry and he will often catch an opossum or maybe a mink or 'coon and kill it when away from you, and if you teach him to bring everything (rats, woodchucks) home to you, he will do the same in the woods after night. Never let him get whipped by another dog or woodchuck, 'coon or even a big rat. Always help him kill or whip everything he jumps on to or that jumps on to him. A defeat will discourage him. When your young dog is ready for a night hunt in the woods or cornfield, choose the best and most favorable night for the first trip. Feed no meat nor milk for 24 hours previous to the first or any subsequent trip, for that matter, for the best dogs, full of meat or milk, cannot do good work on the most favorable night. Feed him a good dinner of vegetables, but no supper until you return from the hunt, then give him anything. Choose a dark and cloudy night, the darker the better, not too still, as usually on very still nights the atmosphere is heavy and smoke settles to the earth, so likewise does the scent of the 'coon trail, and many a fine dog has been condemned for failing to locate his 'coon when started under such a condition as this. * * * Do not return home and leave your hounds in the woods, rather walk a mile or two to catch them and they will be in better shape to hunt the next day than if you had allowed them to run all night. * * * I notice so many of the boys in telling of their 'coon hunting say when Old Jack or Trailer, or whatever his name might be, strikes a trail they follow him as fast as they can run until out of wind, then as soon as he barks treed, they go to him on the double quick, over logs, brush, barb wire fences, thru brier patches, swamps and so on. Now, this may be all right, I am not condemning any one else's method of hunting, but just want to exchange ideas. When my dog strikes a trail or I have reason to think there is anything doing, I just wait right where I am until they tree or come back to me. If they bark treed, I just take my time and if I know of a way around that will save going thru some thicket or up some very steep hill, I just go around and save those hardships. And another thing I never do is whoop and hallo at my dogs when they are working. I think that has spoiled many a good dog, and never run to a dog as soon as he barks up, but give him time to think it over and circle the tree a few times; then, when he settles down again you can go to him and depend upon the 'coon being there. PART II. BREEDING AND CARE OF DOGS. [Illustration: Some Ideals.] CHAPTER XI. SELECTING THE DOG. Different hunters have different ideas as to the style of dog best suited to their purposes. We can only approach the subject, by giving views of experienced breeders, and the reader may choose as he is inclined. From a Canadian Hunter comes the following: This question of the right kind of dogs to select is a matter on which many sportsmen differ in opinion. Some prefer the small, some the medium and others the large hound. For me I like a hound to be from 24 to 27 inches high at the shoulder and well put together, with a lot of bones, straight front legs with strong and compact feet, "but not too large" with good strong nails well set in, the body to be long and not short of flank with a wide chest and a moderate deep chest and with a strong broad back, hind legs with the right kind of bend, that is neither straight or too much curved in, with well furnished thighs. Dogs with straight hind legs cannot run and jump over logs and fences with the same ease as those having a marked bend. These dogs can buckle and unbuckle with more quickness and power, such as is required in the gallop than dogs having a round barrel shaped chest, with both the front and hind legs straight. Dogs having a nearly round chest cannot stand any length of hard running, such as those having a narrow chest because a dog with a moderate deep and narrow chest has better wind as he is able to alter the cubic contents of his chest more rapidly and thus inhale and expire a larger volume of air. Therefore, a dog with a deep or flat chest will always have a greater speed than one with a round one. This is a well known fact in all animals remarkable for their speed, such as deer, wolf and greyhound. I like dogs with good muscular thighs with a fine long tapering and graceful wavering stern, ears to be well set and not too long and not thick and slabby, neck to be long and well set between the shoulders, the head and muzzle, this is only a matter of taste. Those I prefer are those having a long and narrow forehead and a fairly square muzzle, ears from 7 to 9 inches long, lips loose but not hanging low, throat loose and roomy in the skin and a good coat of hair so they can stand cold and water, and with a good loud tongue and keen nose. The color has nothing to do, the main point is the staying quality, the speed, scent and endurance; the intelligence and the particular style of ranging or beating the ground for trail as well as to run it once found, with great speed. Some say a fine looking hound should be a good hunter. Well, any hunter of experience in the handling of hounds is fully aware that it is not always the dog which carries the prizes at the shows that is the best dog in the field. The same thing exists with the horse. Some people claim that it all depends on the breeding, others on the training. The fact is that both are required as well as the right shape the dog should have to be able to stand hard work day after day. * * * The most essential thing to the value and working capabilities of fox hounds is purity of blood, declares another. Too much care, therefore, cannot be taken in selecting and breeding fox hounds. Hounds for running the red fox should be selected from the best possible blood that can be obtained. I like a hound with a long clear voice--one that can be heard at least two miles away on an ordinary calm day--and one that gives tongue freely when running and trailing but not one that gives tongue when he has run over the trail and lost scent. * * * In selecting a night hunting dog I prefer one that is three-quarters or at least one-half fox hound. The reason is, the fox hound has a good nose, also a good voice and speed. While I do not condemn a dog that is bred in any other way, I prefer one bred as I have stated for the reasons given above. Some prefer a dog that is part beagle, but if any reader of this book has ever tried to train a dog with good beagle blood in his veins to hunt coon, he has been up against the real thing. The trouble is, the beagle has it bred right in him to run rabbits, and blood will tell. The only point in favor of the beagle is his nose. With the exception of the bird dog the beagle has the finest scent of the whole dog family. I know this to be true by observation. A fox gives off more scent than a rabbit, so does a coon and all the other animals. During the "nesting season" birds give scarcely any. This is a wise provision of Nature to protect them from their enemies during this important period. One day I saw a fine English setter almost step on a grouse that was sitting on her nest. He never scented her until she went whirling out the ridge right in front of his nose. That dog's actions told more plainly than words could have done, how deeply he regretted the incident. I have also seen a beagle run a rabbit after a heavy rain, the rabbit, to my knowledge, having run before the rain fell. * * * Many writers say that a dog's pedigree and his being registered, does not amount to the paper it is written on. Now I do not wish to criticize any of my brother sportsmen, but I think it is the only way to know if one's dog is well bred, and to have a well bred dog means much less trouble in training him. Do not get discouraged if your dog does not train as easily as he should, and always remember that much depends upon you. Stay with your dog if you want him to be a good sticker. Many a dog has been spoiled by leaving him to run for nothing. In selecting a dog to hunt all kinds of game, get a good bred hound. I have no use for mongrels or curs. They are dear at any price. Get a thick, hard, round-footed, long ears coming out of head low down, well developed chest, shortish tail, large at root or next to body, long from hip to gamble joint, with broad strong back, wide nostrils and long pendant lip. Now this is my idea of a good all around hunting dog. I don't expect you to find all of these qualifications in any one dog. * * * Have decided that for my use, a full blooded hound. That is a good, fast and reliable trailer, one that will stay with the trail, cold or hot, and never think of giving up until asked to. One that will bark treed on a cold trail just the same as if he had run him up a sight chase. One that should he in cold trailing run across a hot trail and tree, will after catching go and take up cold trail again and tree. * * * When it comes to large hounds for coon, fox, etc., a cross of the right kind of American fox hounds and the right kind of blood hounds fills the bill to perfection. The blood hound has the keenest scent of any dog living. The American fox hound has the speed. If a man has a combination of the two he is starting on the right trail. I prefer a fox hound bitch bred to bloodhound dog. How many ever saw a thoroughbred bloodhound? They are a heavy built hound, medium size heavy head, long ears, square deep muzzle, with heavy rolls of wrinkles on head just over the eyes, which gives him a surly look. I have seen what were called and sold for bloodhounds to a sheriff to trail man. They would trail fairly well, but they came a long ways from being thoroughbred bloodhounds. Any hound trained when young can be taught to trail man or beast. Hunters differ as to the kind of dog to use for coon hunting. The best coon dog I ever had (and I've had a good many) was a half Scotch terrier and I don't know what the other half was. He was black and white spotted with curly hair and weighed but thirty-two pounds. Some hunters prefer the shepherd dog and again some would hunt with nothing else but a hound. I don't know as it makes much difference what kind of a dog one uses, just so it is one of the hunting kind, a good trailer and thoroughly well trained. Of course, not every dog, even of the hunting kind, will make a good coon dog; about the only way to tell is to try. * * * As to picking a pup for a coon hound, it is very hard to do, but I want a full bloodhound, one that tongues on trail and a free barker at tree. I want the old style hound, as the modern fox hounds are too nervous for good coon hounds, although you may get one once in a while that will work a cold trail very well. A cross between the old style, long eared hound and the fast trailing hound with large, heavy shoulders, deep chest, a large fore leg, large broad head, long ears, rather short coupled back, slightly roached back, with a good square nose, rather large neck, set well down in the shoulders. While this is my kind of hound for coon, do not understand me to say that I want an extra slow trailer, for I do not, but I want him to be steady, and when he has a trail he can work it fast. This is my kind of a dog for coon, but he would not be in it with an up to date fox hound on a fox chase, but running fox and coon are different, and I want a different kind of a hound. * * * We have made a success in raising bear hounds, and find the only way to get a good pup with the hunting habit, is to have it bred in them first, says a California Brother. One has to have good parent hounds, and while the mother dog is carrying the pups she must be worked on whatever you want your pups to run. For instance, we have a black and tan long eared bitch, bred her to a good hound, one quarter stag. Before she had these puppies we caught three bears with others, letting her get in and fight hard. These puppies when a month old would crawl on a bear hide rug, chew and shake at it, and when three months old, would track, bark and fight. Now they are five months old and know considerable about it. We treed an old bear, and these pups kept right on and treed two cubs, and barked up and stayed until we found them after we had the old one skinned and cut up. They have the instinct in them, and are beauties with just enough stag in them to have a good crop of whiskers. [Illustration: Embryo Trailers.] CHAPTER XII. CARE AND BREEDING. As we must raise the dog before concerning ourselves with his culture, let us begin with the pup. I commence to care for the pups by giving the bitch plenty of exercise before they are born. Then as soon as they are born, put them in a clean, dry place, where they will be comfortable,--if in winter, where cold winds cannot reach them; if in summer, in a cool place out of the hot sun. Feed the bitch well on good food of different varieties; do not chain her, but rather shut her up in a park of something of the kind, where she can exercise but not get out to run, for if she should run she gets hot and you may loose some if not all of your puppies. By the time the pups are three weeks old, you will need to commence feeding some milk twice each day, gradually increasing the amount as the bitch becomes dry, and when she weans them, feed three times a day, until about six months old; after which I only feed twice a day. In this connection we quote from an article in a current magazine, the truth of the contentions being borne out to a greater or less extent by our own observations: After her puppies are about five weeks of age a bitch will begin to vomit the contents of her stomach for the puppies. I have known many breeders of experience argue that but few bitches do so. Over and over again have I been able to convince persons who, having immediate care of the bitch and her litter, deny that the bitch ever vomits to her puppies, that they are wrong. Many bitches never vomit when the attendant is about, and only appear to do so at night; hence the belief that they do not do so at all. It is the natural manner in which the bitch feeds her whelp with partially digested food, after her milk supply ceases to suffice for their requirements. If the bitch is of good constitution and in good health, the puppies flourish remarkably on the diet thus provided, and in such cases my experience leads me to believe that puppies left with their dams do better than when separated from them and, strange to say, bitches who are in the habit of picking up all sorts of apparently undesirable odds and ends do not seem to do their puppies less well under these circumstances than cleaner feeders do. Many bitches eat the young soon as they come if not closely watched, especially the first time. There should be an attendant at time of whelping. Whelps must be removed to a basket of warm cloths and kept away till all have come and then place to matron for nursing. There is no danger of her devouring them thereafter. To resume: This is what I feed pups: grind rye without bolting and sometimes oats ground very fine; then run through a coarse sieve, and bake into bread without soda or baking powder, or make into a thick mush and feed it with plenty of milk if convenient. As they grow older add cornmeal and scraps from the butcher shop to the feed, and give them enough to keep them nice and sleek, but do not overfeed. By the time they are three weeks old they will be running everywhere, and let them have plenty of room to run and play. Change their beds as often as needed, which is a good way to prevent fleas. Should fleas get on them as they are sure to do, put a tablespoonful of oil of tar in a quart of warm water, take a fine tooth comb, dip in tar water, and comb them until the hair is thoroughly saturated; repeating as often as needed. For bedding, the best is leaves from the woods; straw will answer, but I prefer the leaves to anything I have ever tried, but whatever is used it should be changed often and kept dry. For the dog with a damp place to sleep, will soon have the mange, and it is far easier to keep a dog healthy than to cure him after he has become diseased. In warm weather I use no bedding as it is only a harbor for vermin. The best place by far, to keep your dogs, is in a park, where there is shade in summer, with running water, and slope enough to the land, to allow it to be well washed whenever it rains. Then provide dry, comfortable quarters to sleep, and you have an ideal home for dogs. In case you cannot have a place of this kind nor even a small park, and must keep your dog chained, attach a good heavy wire to the dog house and the other end to a tree, where your dog can get to a shade if possible; then attach a chain to the wire so your dog can travel along the wire; but be sure that he cannot get tangled up and have to lay out some wet night. Some are situated far better than others for taking care of dogs and I am sorry to say there is an occasional sportsman (or at least he owns a dog or two), who is inclined to let his dogs shift for themselves. I pity the dog that is unfortunate enough to have such an owner. My experience is that too much meat is not good for the foxhound, and if they get a mess of old stale meat just before you want to run them, the chances are that they can't make the race. I have seen good dogs that couldn't run an hour, simply because they were filled up with old dead hog or horse. If you want to make a good race with your dog, keep him tied two or three days before you intend to run him, feed him corn bread (well baked) and sweet milk. If you run at night, give your dog a good feed at noon and very little at night when you start, and if your hound has the "stuff" in him he is good for all night. I think rotten meat will affect the smelling of a dog as well as heat them up, so they can't make a good race. To let your dog run loose until you are ready for a chase, where he can find slop and such stuff to be filled up on, and have your friend meet you with his hounds in fine shape and lead your hound all the time, well you know how you would feel. Some say you must have it bred in a hound to run. That is all true enough, but a well bred hound with all grit can't make a good race if he isn't in shape to do it. The foregoing is borne out and added detail given in the following contribution from New York State: I find that fox hounds which I feed on old stinking pork or stinking meat of any kind are quite stupid and very careless about hunting. They cannot keep on the trail, neither do they wish to run fast or continue running long. Old stinking pork seems to be the worst I could feed to a fox hound, and corn bread and some milk on it seems to be the best. When my dogs are fed on cornbread and milk they display the most activity, and can follow a fox or rabbit more accurately and accordingly run faster. When I want to make my hound run slow I feed him some meat, and the more it stinks the less he can smell anything but the fumes of this in his stomach. I can easily tell by the smell of my dog's breath whether he has eaten fresh mutton or rotten horse recently, and I think any healthy person can easily. Here are another hunter's views on this same subject: In rearing hounds, to have them hardy and intelligent you must feed them right and provide them with a lot of good fresh water as well as to give them daily exercise. When I feed beef, I have a small axe with which I chop all the bones into fine pieces. They also get scraps from the table with some vegetables mixed with cooked rolled oats. I feed the old ones once a day with raw meat and once with porridge. I see that they get just enough to keep them always in good running condition, that is neither fat nor thin. I like a dog with a good rolling skin. I never take a skeleton dog in the woods as I have often seen hunters going deer hunting with dogs which you could read a newspaper through. Now of what use are such animals as these? Some say that a thin dog will run better than a fat one. Yes, if the fat one is hog fat; but a dog with about one-half inch of hard fat on the ribs will out-do a dozen of these starved dogs of which you can count the bones at one hundred yards from them. No, a dog with just the skin and bones cannot stand any work for the reason that he has no bottom. Young pups should be fed at the very least three times daily, four times is still better. Never give them more than what they can eat, and in the meantime see that they just get enough so as to clean the dish well at every meal and in no case should the pan containing the food be left in the intervals with the puppies if they have not cleaned it out as they will become disgusted with it and next time refuse to feed. Keep everything clean and dry and always feed at the same hour daily. It is much easier to rear a pair of pups than a single one. Before weaning the dew-claw should always be removed. These are of no use but only serve to bother the dogs and hounds should always have them cut off. Worm medicine should always be given to all young dogs and kennels should be lime washed at least three times a year and never allow your dogs to sleep near the stove and then turn them out in the cold. If you desire a lazy hound allow him to burn himself at the stove, but if on the contrary you wish a lively dog, provide him with a good dry kennel and if you keep several dogs see that each one has his own stall. This has the advantage of preventing them from fighting and from the risk of taking cold by lying out of the kennel. When your dogs return from the hunt always examine their feet and legs and if you find any sore spots attend to them at once. If the dogs return wet to camp always allow them to dry near a stove before turning them to their kennel which should be a good dry one. If you desire your dogs to stand hard work day after day you must look after them with as much care as a jockey attends to his horse. The very moment you notice your dog is looking dull ascertain at once what is the cause, and if you are of the opinion that it is a cold or distemper, don't wait until you see his eyes and nose running, to doctor him, but attend to him immediately. [Illustration: A Versatile Ontario, Canada, Dog Family.] CHAPTER XIII. BREEDING. The main and most important question in breeding race horses as well as hounds is to get always the very best and to do this, one has to be on the move and watch the hunting and staying quality as well as the style of looking for trails, etc.; and a breeder should always be ready to pay the price for a good sire or dam. And he should always bear in mind that there is no more trouble or bother and that it does not cost more to raise a pair of dogs from well known hunting stock than from unknown stock but where it tells is when the dogs are of age for training. It is here where the great difference exists and where a sportsman is willing to look at the right side of the matter finds his mistake and where he regrets not having paid a few dollars more for the right stock. Some say that if pedigreed dogs were trained they would beat the other dogs. The question is to train them. Hounds which come from untrained or from partly or badly trained stock will always be poor hunters. They will never be the dogs that they would have been had they come from highly trained stock, that is that their sire and dam and grand sire and grand dam were all trained by persons who thoroughly understood the way of breeding and rearing as well as the age and proper way of training. A hound coming from such selected stock will learn and pick up in a day what will take others months and probably a whole season to learn. I never kept a hound which after having shown him the game and also blooded him once or twice would not at once start to hunt because I consider that the sooner a sportsman will shoot such dogs the better. There are plenty of fox dogs that are good coon dogs, and a great many coon dogs will run a fox to a finish, but the fox and coon dogs are two very different dogs. There is also a greater difference in the opinions of hunters, in regard to the coon dog than in any other dogs. Some want the full blooded hound, and some a cross with a foxhound; here they differ again as to what dog to cross with; others want no hound blood at all, but a shepherd; one wants a collie and another just a dog. Then here is a hunter who insists on a silent dog; and the next one says the silent trailer doesn't camp with him. Now as I am not looking for trouble, I will agree with all of you. Where coons are plentiful and you are likely to strike a coon track in every cornfield, the half hound or even a cur dog, will get coons; but where they are scarce and you may tramp until near morning, and then strike a trail five or six hours old, if you get that coon, you will need a dog with a good nose and one that tongues on a trail. But there is one point on which you will all agree--if your dog does not stay at a tree and bark good and plenty, he isn't much of a coon dog. Consequently in breeding for coon dogs, this is the most important point. Get as many other coon points as you can, but be sure his ancestors have been good tree dogs, as far back as you can trace them. The very reason that there are so many culls in this country, is because many hunters think a dog is a dog, and that any dog with long ears is a hound. Ears count for nothing but looks; bent legs, ditto; the only way that you can perfect the breed, which in your estimation, is the ideal, is by choosing the dogs of the best particular kind which you prefer. For instance, how could a hunter expect to produce a strain of dogs with good, loud voices, if he chooses as his breeders the poorest squallers in the lot? Nature is nature, and it is only by studying her laws that we are able to produce our ideal of any kind; also, if he wants an intelligent dog, he must pick out the one with the most desired good points, and then he is on the fair way to success. In short, in order to have a hound that will repay you for his training, he must be bred right in every detail or the hunter is doomed to disappointment. If the hunter does not own a first class pair to breed from and cannot secure a good strain in his locality, he should buy from a reliable dealer, one whom he knows has made a success of breeding this class of dogs. It is also advisable to buy a young pup as the chances of securing the best are alike to all, or even though the parent dogs are No. 1 in every respect, there will be some in the litter that will be weak in points before they have reached the age of eight months, the breeder himself will have difficulty in choosing any one as the best. There is a standard for judging the so-called high class pedigree show dogs but which does not cut much ice with a fox and coon hunter. Regardless of color, the qualities most desirable in an all around fox hound are: 1st, staying qualities and powers of endurance. 2d, voice, feet and general make up. [Illustration: One-half English Bloodhound Pups.] Personally, I like a hound that stands from 20 to 24 inches at shoulder, long in body, deep chested, heavy boned with a coat of rather long hair, the feet should be round in shape with a good covering of hair to protect the soles or pads. A foxhound should not have a second claw on the hind leg for this shows a cross in his breeding. A dog that has these claws will not stand much hard running in crust for by rubbing against trees, etc., they will gradually become sore and bleeding, and the hound although willing enough is handicapped with a pair of sore legs. Some hunters cut these claws off while young. In the pure strain of fox dogs this would be unnecessary as they would not have them on. The first cost of a young hound is nothing compared with the time and trouble it takes to bring him to a hunting age. Therefore, it is advisable to buy the best obtainable for even though the price be high at first cost, the hunter will be better satisfied for his time and money when the dog has fully developed for the chase. In making a choice for breeding, select a pair that has been thoroughly tried and are known to have no weak points, such as poor voice, quitters, back trackers, etc. It is also advisable to hunt with the bitch as much as possible up to the very time the pups are whelped. The pups will be stronger and better in every way than if the mother had been housed in all the time, and a hunter will find that a pup so bred will take to hunting almost as soon as he can run. Do not breed a pair of young dogs, rather select if possible, an old dog for a young bitch for by breeding two young dogs their pups are apt to be hot-headed, over-anxious and these qualities are not wanted in a foxhound. To be sure of a strain of dogs the breeder must know their ancestors three generations back for it is surprising how far back a pup will breed from, not only in color but in characteristics, habits, etc. [Illustration: Fox Hounds.] [Illustration: Some Young Hunters.] CHAPTER XIV--BREEDING (Continued). Crossing for Coon Dogs. My experience has been that the crossing of an English pointer dog and American fox hound slut for 'coon dogs, are the best I ever saw, writes an Ohio night hunter of rare judgment and experience, and I will illustrate by relating the accomplishments of a certain dog of the breeding. I will say further that the sire of this dog I mention was the most remarkable I ever heard of--a fine large pointer, and often when hunting quails or pheasants in the woods he would bark up and had done it many times before they found out the cause. One day while hunting pheasants he began to bark up a hollow beech stub, and when called, refused to leave his post, and his hair was slightly raised, which excited the hunter's curiosity and they procured an axe and felled the stub. To their surprise, two large 'coons came rolling out and were dispatched. This solved the problem, and after that, he was the cause of many 'coons losing their life, as he located them in the den and trees where they had not stepped a foot on the ground. I for one can surely recommend this cross to make good 'coon dogs. * * * A few points in regard to a stud dog for fox. Pick a dog with a deep chest, good strong loin, long head and stands with his feet well under him. About the feet--take the foot in your hand, press gently, and if it feels firm and springy like a piece of rubber, that dog has a good foot, which is very necessary in a fox dog, but if he has a soft, mushy foot, let that dog alone, no matter how good he looks, for he will not stand long chases, and the old adage that like begets like, will surely show itself in this case. * * * There are a great many worthless dogs, but the dogs are not to blame. I am writing on fox dogs, but it holds good on all dogs. There is always a worthless bitch, and sometimes several of them to be had for nothing, and some fellow who wants a dog but don't want to pay a fair price says, "I'll get that bitch and breed her to that dog down at Graysville. They say he's a crackerjack, and I'll get some good dogs and they won't cost me anything either." Well, when the time comes to breed it's five miles to Graysville, and the roads are awful muddy, and he concluded to breed to Jim Jones' dog just over the way, saying he ain't much of a dog, and a cousin to the bitch, but his great-grandmother got more foxes than any dog over in these parts, and some of the pups will breed back. He gets eight or ten pups, which he gets perhaps $1.00 a piece for, and it costs just as much to raise a poor one as a good one. The owners spend a lot of time trying to make dogs of them and have nothing at last. In a running dog these are the qualities I think are needed. First, endurance, because no dog can make a race after a red fox without it. Then speed, a good nose, lots of ambition, good sense and the more of that the better; and will need to be able to hear well to enable him to cut corners if he happens to get behind, as any dog is liable to do. After the pups are born, don't let the bitch run until they are weaned, for it will hurt both mother and puppies. Should she get very hot and then get to her pups you would likely lose some or perhaps all of them. Here we have still another favorite breed for 'coon hunting, advanced by an old and tried hunter. Says he: My choice of a breed of coon dog is a grade hound crossed on a bull or one-half hound, one-fourth rat terrier and one-fourth Scotch collie or shepherd or fox hound and beagle. Says another: A hound to be a fine ranger does not require many years of training if he comes from a sire and dam that were both good rangers and which their own sire and dam and grand sire and grand dam were all good and highly trained dogs. He is sure to hang from them and any sportsman having dogs of that strain will enjoy the use of his dog at once, but where it takes three or five seasons and sometimes more to make a good dog, is when they come from exhibition stock or from stock that have never been broken right. If a hound is wrongly taught to hunt he will always be a crazy dog and will, if bred, give poor hunters exactly like himself. An Ohio Fox Hunter goes on record thus: In breeding hounds some seem to expect great work on any line they wish to see the hound, not stopping to think everything to its kind and everything to be perfect must be true to his nature. The bloodhound is true to his nature with reasonable opportunity. He is a man trailer, a large, strong dog, built for strength and endurance but not for fleetness which all breeders concede the 'coon dog should be built upon. Strong in my opinion with strong jaws, good size and a good muzzle, a good scent with as much speed and determination as you can inject into their blood. I am now speaking of coon dogs. They may be bred almost any way and yet be good coon dogs but I find it is just as necessary to have them bred from coon hunting stock as for any dog or animal to be trained for any specific or especial purpose. It must be bred with that object in view and as much of that blood and disposition injected into the veins as is possible to get. The fox hound is a special or specific type or breed of dog. He is bred for it, built for it, trained for it and if a true type of hound, is it. Not all well bred dogs are fox dogs nor are all well bred horses fast. Only one in many. But in order to have grounds to expect speed, we must have breeding, as the saying goes, "Blood will tell." Some are daffy on pedigree, others must have everything registered, others ask only for the swing and staying qualities of their ancestors, etc. All breeds of hounds have some worthless, yet some may be fairly good along some particular line and very much at fault in others. Some have speed but cannot be got to use it, will not get in with a pack and run to a finish. Some will run with a slow pack all right but put them in with a fast pack and they will have their gallop out in from one to two hours. They seem to have all the courage necessary but not the speed. Some will go after the first fox trail they ever smell of and others you have to train to follow. I think this difference largely between the dog that is allowed to run at large and one raised in a corral. One is fearful of everything, the other fearless and full of self-confidence. Confidence is worth much in both dog and man. So many cannot run unless they have their noses directly over the trail and have no driving instinct. If they lose the trail, go back and get it and bring it up to where they lost it before. So for several times, perhaps, before getting away, the dog running all the time, Mr. Fox sitting down waiting, resting. You never hear of such dogs catching or holding a fox. They seem to be willing but lack the tact and fox sense. I would say to breeders there are only a few characteristics necessary for good foxhounds and every breeder should see to this with careful study and tests. First--Courage. Do not breed a dog on either side that has not got it. It will crop out to make you ashamed of your dog some time. Second--Speed. It is just as natural for the lover of a chase to want to be ahead, as for the lover of the horse race, but we cannot all be so; often we find it easy to beat our slow packs in the neighborhood and how we swell up and think we can best anybody until we get away from home and get that bubble pricked. Other qualifications as to form and shape. A dog should be compact enough to be strong. He should be just as long as he can be to gather quickly. A dog too long turning on all kinds of ground is like a horse with a very long stride trying to go fast on a short track. His stride is too long for the lay of the ground. Another qualification and not in the least,--is voice. The dog that has no voice holds not the highest place in his owner's pride. A good hound, one prized by his owner and loved by the lover of the chase must do three things at once, run fast, carry the trail and tongue well. These requisitions make a good fox dog and if his shape and symmetry is good, he is a valued dog. Breeders should look to it that these qualities are bred for at the sacrifice of everything else. There may be places, especially in very hilly country, that a small hound is best. In this section, give me a good, medium large dog, say from 22 to 24 inches at shoulder and built in proportion with from 16 to 18 inches earage. Color is a matter of taste. I believe that our English cousins breed them so straight that the spots and marks are stamped on all alike. I have heard it said so much that a stranger could hardly see any difference in a pack and when the American breeder gets to giving so much attention to their breeding, then we will soon have a true type of hound. Then I will say courage, driving with courage goes largely, speed and voice, good sound chest and body, good wide head and long muzzle, good bone and heavy forearm, good long back, good sound feet, well padded, with black upper mouth, a hazel eye, a strong loin and not too much flank. Regardless of color you have my ideal fox hound. CHAPTER XV. PECULIARITIES OF DOGS AND PRACTICAL HINTS. Never purchase a dog from an unknown party unless the said party can supply good references and testimonials regarding the square dealing and the merits of his strain of dogs. If a man cannot give you this, wait until you find one who can. Some people are inclined to believe that a big dog cannot compete with a smaller one. Most of them have to come to this conclusion because they have seen some big sloppy and lazy hound, but take a big, well built, lively, fleet and nervous hound, and full of grit and he will hold his own and more. It is just like trying to make a pony cover the same ground as a roadster, declares a lover of hounds. A pup of most any large breed of dogs will make a good watch dog if properly brought up. If fondled and played with while young by everybody that happened to come to the house, then the dog will be playful and friendly with people always later on. If to be made cross and shun strangers, the pup should be reared in a lot with high board fence to prevent him seeing what goes on outside. The owner, in disguise, or better still some other person, should now and then pound against the fence, look over the top so the dog gets a glimpse at supposed intruders; partly open the gate and peek in, let the dog make a rush towards him but slam gate shut before quite coming up, etc. Such practice will make any dog watchful and cross towards all strangers, and will never make friends with any but his master. For an imposing, powerful and the best of watch dogs get a Mastiff or a Great Dane. It is not wise to expect too much of a new dog. Some of them will fret and worry after their friends and home for a long time, will hardly eat or drink, and it takes the best of care and attention to bring good results. Eventually they will become acquainted and regain their old form, if properly encouraged. I never pet my dogs while hunting except after killing game which in my opinion is pretty good policy as a dog like a man likes to have credit for what he had done. Remember also, though contrary to the old fashioned theory that it is just as unreasonable to ask a dog to hunt without food as it would be to hitch up a horse and drive him all day without either hay or grain, there has been many a good dog called a "quitter" simply because he was weak from the lack of food. As for a quitter, in my opinion a vast majority of them have never commenced, not because they had a "yellow streak," as most hunters say, but because like the Irishman's pig, they have too many streaks of lean. As your dog is a better friend to you than most people of the J. Sneakum caliber, why not treat him right? In some journals there is considerable criticism and complaints, and sometimes one feels like steering shy of many advertisements of fox hounds. One publication invites all persons to inform its editor where any dog has been misrepresented and sold through its columns. No doubt in many instances it may be the fault of the purchaser handling a strange dog. I purchased a dog that followed at my heels for several trips and would not leave me until one day he put his nose in a fresh trail. The other dog was out of hearing when he went out in a good race, tongueing in good shape, and was a No. 1 fox hound. When a sportsman wishes to purchase a strange hound if he desires to get a good one he must pay the price and the way for him to not be fooled is to deposit his money at the express office and then have the dog sent on trial and if not satisfactory, he returns the dog and pays the express charges one way. This is the only safe way to get a good dog, as a man that will accept these conditions will most certainly send you the right stuff at once and not a "cull", that he has scraped somewhere for $5.00 and sells you from $15 to $30. It's detrimental to allow a bird dog to roam and go self-hunting. Not being restricted he gets in all sorts of mischief. Keeping at home is the only remedy. To give ample exercise arrange a trolley in the yard by driving two stakes into ground without projecting; fasten a strong wire to top of posts and on this slip a ring to slide on; to this snap the chain and the dog can run up and down the full length of wire. Within a few days he will learn the extent of run and chase up and down the full length for hours at a time, then be content and restful. By nature dogs are cleanly and will not soil their bed or kennel if to be avoided. Being shut up in a small place may cause them to be uncleanly and soil the floor, making it disagreeable, as by rolling in play all the dogs will constantly present soiled appearance. However, even in a small kennel this can be regulated as follows: Thoroughly clean out the place and scrub; in one corner bore some holes into floor and spread sawdust over this part only; litter the rest of space with clean straw and besprinkle this with some strong disinfectant. Turn in the dogs. At once one or more will go to sawdust portion,--this done the ice is broken and henceforth all the dogs will use this part only as retiring place, leaving the remainder perfectly clean. Teach your hound not to be afraid of water, and to circle the tree and to keep an eye on the coon and to bark treed, but never allow him to get whipped by any coon at first as this will discourage him. Not only this, but the coon may blind him should he strike him in the eye. It is better always to hold or tie the dog before shooting the coon, and when he drops to make sure that he cannot fight much more before allowing the dog near him. CHAPTER XVI. AILMENTS OF THE DOG. Dogs as well as people sometimes fall ill. Proper care and sanitary lodgings will reduce the danger, but sickness will occasionally occur, no matter how great the precautions. Dog owners should therefore acquaint themselves with the commoner forms of ailment to which dogs are subject and thus be in a position to quickly administer such relief as is possible, thereby frequently stopping a sick spell promptly that might otherwise result seriously if not fatally. The dog is very similar to man in his ailments as well as in his susceptibility to drugs. As a general thing medicine that is good for a human being is good for a dog under similar circumstances. "While no definite rule can be laid down" says an eminent authority, "it may be said that a dose suitable for an adult person is correct for the largest dogs, such as St. Bernards; for dogs from forty to fifty pounds the dose should correspond with that given to a child twelve to fourteen years of age, and so on down." Few veterinarians make a study of the dog, and they rarely are of any use when called. However, those who have made a special study may be consulted with advantage and saving. We have not the space here to go into an exhaustive recitation of dog diseases, symptoms, treatment and remedies. If you are at a loss concerning your dog, write to one of the Dog Doctors, whose advertisements appear in sporting magazines, and he can no doubt diagnose the case and forward the medicine you require at a minimum cost. In nearly all cases he will forward you a free booklet describing the prevalent diseases and his remedies applicable to same. The following from the pen of H. Clay Glover, V. S., will no doubt give many readers some light on one of the common afflictions that prove so troublesome. INDIGESTION IN DOGS. Eczema is a frequent symptom, and let me state right here that I find more cases of eczematous eruptions arising from a disordered condition of the digestion than any other cause. Doubtless many who will read this will recognize the fact that at some time some certain dog has had some obstinate skin trouble, all kinds of which are by the layman diagnosed as "mange", and that, after trying various mange cures to which the trouble has not yielded, the blood has been treated with no better results. To any one who have, or may have in the future, indigestion cases, let me advise the following treatment, viz.: Feed rather sparingly three times a day on raw or scraped beef, this being the most readily accepted and most easily digested of all foods when the digestion is disordered, allowing no other diet, and giving immediately after each meal one of the digestive pills. Add to the drinking water lime water in the proportion of one to thirty. By following this treatment as laid down, many cases of eczema will disappear. Some probably, may be accelerated by the use of a skin lotion in conjunction. Eczema in these cases is merely a symptom appearing in evidence of disordered digestion. Indigestion may be considered as a mild form of gastritis, which if not corrected, will be followed by true gastritis, the stomach then being in such condition that nothing is retained, even water being returned immediately after drinking. This will be accompanied by fever, colic, emaciation and only too often followed by death. DISTEMPER. We quote further from Dr. Glover's booklet, some practical information on another of the more common dog ailments: The term distemper is particularly applied to animals of the brute creation; to the dog when afflicted with that disease somewhat resembling typhus fever in the human race. We have now become quite familiar with the nature of the disease and the remedies indicated; consequently the loss by death is comparatively small when proper treatment and attention are employed. In early days, those dogs that were fortunate enough to survive this disease did so merely through strength of constitution and not from the assistance of any remedial agent, as utter ignorance of the subject then prevailed. The disease doubtless then appeared in a much milder form than that with which our present highly bred animals are afflicted. Owing to more or less inbreeding that has been indulged in to intensify certain forms and characteristics in dogs of most all breeds, constitution has to some extent been sacrificed. Animals bred in this way are in consequence less able to resist or combat disease than those with less pretentious claims to family distinction. CAUSES--Bad sanitary conditions, crowded or poorly drained kennels, exposure to dampness, insufficient or over feeding, improper diet, lack of fresh air and exercise, all conduce to the development of distemper. It is contagious, infectious, and will frequently appear spontaneously without any apparent cause in certain localities, assuming an epidemic form. Age is no exemption from distemper, though it more frequently attacks young animals than adults. Very few dogs pass through life without having it at some period. SYMPTOMS--In early stages, dullness, loss of appetite, sneezing, chills, fever, undue moisture of the nose, congestion of the eyes, nausea, a gagging cough accompanied by the act of vomition, though rarely anything is voided (if anything, it will be a little mucous), thirst, a desire to lie in a warm place, and rapid emaciation. This is quickly followed by mucopurulent discharge from the eyes and nose; later, perhaps, ulceration of either eyes or eyelids. Labored respiration, constipation or obstinate diarrhoea, usually the latter, which frequently runs into inflammation of the bowels. In some cases many of the above symptoms will be absent, the bowels being the first parts attacked. The following, which sometimes, but not necessarily, occur with distemper, I classify as complications, viz.: Fits, Chorea, Paralysis, Pneumonia or Bronco-Pneumonia, Jaundice, and Inflammation of the Bowels, and will require treatment independent of any one remedy that may be given. TREATMENT--The animal should be placed in warm, dry quarters, and hygienic conditions strictly observed. With puppies, at the start give vermifuge, as nearly all have worms which add greatly to the irritation of stomach, bowels and nervous system. The bedding should be changed daily and the apartment disinfected twice a week. Feed frequently on easily digested, nutritious diet, such as beef tea or mutton broth, thickened with rice. Let all food be slightly cool, and keep fresh cold water at all times within reach of the animal. If constipation be present give warm water and glycerine enemas, and an occasional dose of castor oil if necessary. Should the bowels become too much relaxed with any tendency to inflammation, feed entirely upon food, such as arrowroot, farina or corn starch with well boiled milk, as even beef tea is somewhat of an irritation to the stomach and bowels. In the treatment of distemper, one great object is to keep up the general strength, so in case of extreme debility a little whisky in milk or milk punches may be allowed. If your efforts are not successful and you are in danger of losing one or more good dogs, write a specialist. It would require fifty pages of this book to go into the subject fully. RHEUMATISM. Acute rheumatism in the dog is similar to that in the human body, effecting the joints. Muscular rheumatism settles in the muscles. If given early 5 to 15 grains, twice a day, of salicate of sodium is a most excellent preventative measure. A severe case demands more elaborate care. RICKETS. Those accustomed to dogs have seen cases of rickets. It is a constitutional or inherited affliction, and attacks puppies most frequently. Nothing can be done save kill the sufferer if the attack is severe, or build up the health generally, toward outgrowing the trouble, if mild. These are only a few of the ailments the faithful dog is heir to; yet in a general way, a healthy dog is no more subject to disease than a healthy person, and in many cases the old family watch dog will pass a long and useful life with no more serious trouble than he can readily cope with, with the assistance of nature. We add some practical advice from Mr. Amer Braley of Dade Co., Florida, as to what will cure canker in the ears of dogs, a prevalent and aggravating trouble: Will say I have cured cases of it of long standing by working boracic acid well into their ears, usually a few applications does the work. There is a disease that kills more dogs in Florida than all the other causes put together. It is called sore mouth, black tongue, new disease and other names. I lost some fine hounds of this disease, usually dying from six to eight days from the time of showing disease. Symptoms of it are generally languor, dullness about the eyes, little or no appetite, sometimes feverish and a dryness about the mouth and at other times slobbers hang down from the mouth. They seem anxious to drink water but are unable to swallow it. Their tongues seem to be somewhat paralyzed, they can hardly pick up anything. They usually want to roam around where they will not be molested. I will give a remedy that I have which has cured several cases of this disease with the only ones I ever knew to survive it. I will give it for it may be the means of saving the lives of some good dogs. "A gelatin coated pill or capsule of quinine containing five grains twice a day for two days, then one each day for a week." Also swab out their mouth with the following: "Chlorate potassium half ounce, murvate tincture iron half ounce. Put into one pint of water and shake well. Tie rag or cotton to stick, letting it protrude over the end, and swab out the mouth two or three times a day." You want to go right at once to giving the remedy for if the disease runs 36 hours I don't think there is any cure for it. The size doses mentioned here are for good-sized dogs as grown hounds. Smaller ones and pups reduce accordingly. There is another disease that dogs are sometimes taken with in this country. Some say it is caused by ticks. It is called "staggers" as the dog that is affected with it staggers as he walks. It seems as though they can't manage their hind parts. Sometimes they break down and have to drag their hind parts (sled fashion.) A remedy that I have never known to fail yet for that is: Lard and spirits of turpentine about equal parts mixed and bathe in well across the kidneys and also across the back of head where it joins to neck. Usually two or three applications makes a cure. PART III. DOG LORE. CHAPTER XVII. STILL TRAILERS VS. TONGUERS. MUSIC. Perhaps no more mooted question enters in for so widely separated opinion as the comparative superiority of the Still Trailing dog and the Tonguers. The still or mute trailer is the deer, rabbit or night dog which does not give tongue on the trail. He keeps his silence, until his game is treed or in sight and about to tree. The tonguer gives forth a joyous and lusty cry as soon as he makes a strike, and continues to do so until the chase terminates. When treed he changes his bark, so that usually the hunter can distinguish between the signals. We shall withhold personal opinion as to the preferable style, and present the arguments of a number of adherents on both sides of the question, allowing the reader to come to his own conclusion. A West Virginia 'coon expert says, in favor of the tonguer: I have had several good 'coon dogs, both tonguers and silent trailers. This is a hilly, brushy country, with lots of deep hollows. The best 'coon dog I ever had was a three-fourths fox hound, one-fourth bull dog. He was very fast with a good nose and a wide hunter. He never struck a cold trail and went straight ahead all the time. He has started a 'coon half a mile away from me and would go right out of hearing of me, and I would follow the way I would judge the 'coon to travel and would be hours finding him barking treed. If he had been a mute trailer I would have left him in the woods without the slightest idea where he was and that is no fun when you have gone three or four miles walk from home to get a 'coon chase. Another brother puts it this way: Some hunters prefer a still trailer on a cold trail. I have handled both kinds but it is an advantage to the hunter in keeping in touch with his hound if the hound will "wind his horn" occasionally on a cold trail for very often a wide hound will travel a couple of miles on a cold trail before starting the game. In windy weather, the hunters might be at a loss to know in which direction his dog was working, if he did not hear him. I like a dog with a loud, clear voice and one that keeps the music going steady once the game is afoot. Still another gives voice to his sentiment thus: I want a good tonguer, one that will give me no trouble in keeping the direction they are going. One that is a courser, that is, that never foots around trying to find every track a 'coon makes, but keeps on finding ahead anywhere from a hundred yards to a quarter of a mile. That kind of a dog keeps you awake when cold trailing, and is apt to warm up at any time. A Western tonguer adherent says: For 'coon I like the cold trailer that lets you know where he is going, and don't believe they will hole any sooner for him than a still trailer, and I never saw a full blooded hound still track. My hounds give a long whoop every few rods on cold trail, and will "back brush" a 'coon or wolf that is many hours old but will find him, and you can follow up so as to keep in hearing. My dogs are quite fast but I do not go back on a moderately slow dog to shoot after. I think they circle better. From Indian Territory comes this addition to the testimony: The thoroughbred hound for 'coon is my view after 40 years' experience. A good many are giving their idea as to which is best, the still trailer or the dog that gives tongue. I have never known a thoroughbred hound fail to give tongue on trail. The thoroughbred has the greatest powers of scent and this is very important as you do not have to travel so much ground to find a trail that he can run. What we want when we go after 'coon is to start and catch all we can. If we cannot start one we cannot catch him, sure. I have followed behind over the same ground with my hound that another party had been over with their still trailers and caught more 'coon than they. And again if you are out on a windy night and your still trailer gets a 'coon treed to the windward of you, you might as well go home as there will be no more fun for you if he is a good tree dog. Now just one thing more in regard to still trailers catching 'coon on the ground. That has not been my experience, for you all know when you go a rabbit hunting with a still trailer, how soon the rabbit will hole. He has no warning where the dog is, so in trailing 'coon, the 'coon will wait and listen to the hound and if he is a fast runner, Mr. 'Coon has waited too long. He must make for the nearest tree or get caught. With the still trailer, the 'coon hears the leaves and brush snapping and without any more warning makes for his home tree. Hundreds of hunters take this view, that is, favor the dog which barks from the time he takes up the trail. The principal advantage as has been pointed out, is that the hound and hunter may thus keep in closer touch, and that the hunter is treated to "music," so sweet to the ear of the average enthusiast. Another considerable following, however, at once take issue and present an array of argument in favor of the dog which keeps his silence. Let us first consider the views of a conservative Pennsylvania brother, in favor of the still trailer: I see a good many 'coon hunters disagree on 'coon dogs, still trailers vs. tongueing dogs. Now in my experience, I have used nearly all kinds of 'coon dogs, some good ones and some not so good. I think the difference is in the kind of country to be hunted, for hunting in a very rough country that is cut up by long hollows and large tracts of timber I prefer a tongueing dog. For hunting in this locality where it is all cut up into small fields with principally all rail fences and timber in small blocks, mostly cut over by lumbermen and nothing left but hollow trees and brush, I prefer a still trailer by long odds, as the noisy dog gives the 'coon warning as soon as he strikes the trail, then Mr. 'Coon takes to the rail fence or a jungle of briers and old tree tops and begins to get busy and is soon in one of those hollow trees, where he is perfectly safe as far as I am concerned, for I never cut down any den trees. The still trailer does his work quietly and is right on to the 'coon before it is aware that the dog is after it. So Mr. 'Coon is obliged to climb whatever kind of a tree there is handy and very often is taken on the ground. From a Central States hunter's letter: I used to be a dear lover of a dog that would bark on trail and raise some of them, but now my choice is a still trailer, as a quiet trailer suits this locality best on account of the thickly populated country and the great amount of stock raised, and a great many farmers claim the constant barking of dogs frightens their sheep. For that reason fox chasing is fast losing its interest and foxes are becoming quite a nuisance in the destruction of quail, pheasant, rabbit and such like game. A brother of conviction on this question writes: It takes patience, perseverance and skill to properly train a hound for 'coon. First, the dog must be silent until he finds the hot scent, so as not to give Mr. Coon time to commence his sunny ways, as the 'coon has a good knowledge box and lots of strings to his bow which he uses to evade Mr. Hound. He will swim down and sometimes up stream and often crosses them. Will never miss a hollow log and comes out at the other end, and will climb leaning trees and leap from them to others and may return to the stream for a good long swim before he will make quietly for his den. This is what an old 'coon will often do with a noisy dog, but with a swift and silent one he will have to climb at once and stay there. Another telling stroke for silence: Regarding silent trailers: By silent trailer I mean a dog that will not tongue the very instant he finds an old trail when there is yet some scent, but that will work it quietly until he starts the game. I have often seen hounds roar on an old scent as well as on a new one. These dogs have generally a special gait, which they keep steady whether the trail is cold or hot, and give the full cry the whole time, and also often come to a full stop to blast away a few louder roars. These dogs dwell too long on the scent for me. My strain of dogs will open only when they are on a hot scent; if cold, they will cover the ground silently and fast. A swift dog cannot keep up the full cry, but will give a roar now and then and not bark often as it takes a lot of wind to roar. Therefore, a dog cannot be a flyer and a roarer in the meantime, and a deer, fox, lynx or 'coon, chased by a fleet and silent dog as above mentioned, will have to point at once for safety, and will have no spare time for tricks. The lynx or 'coon will have to climb in a hurry the first tree he finds, while with a noisy dog Mr. 'Coon will commence with his tricks as soon as he will hear the music, and I maintain and stand ready to prove that a silent trailer as I have described will water more deer in five hours in this country than a noisy one will in five days. [Illustration: "He Was Here a Moment Ago!"] THE MUSIC OF THE HOUND. The term "music" as applied to the barking of trailing hunting dogs, is to the uninitiated a gross misnomer. "Isn't that music grand!" exclaimed an enthusiast afield. "I can hear no music for the noise those dogs are making," replied the other. And so it goes. The hound is the master orator, with a command of language that varies from uncertainty, joy, anxiety, conviction, eagerness with great clearness and truth. His shades of meaning are accurately intonated and perfectly comprehendible to the well versed hunter. The hound is looked upon with disdain by people who know not his capabilities, and is considered in the nature of the dunce of the tribe. Well do the well informed know that he is the most delicately strung and the most highly emotional type we have. Every note that he utters is an expression of emotion. Because emotion is more susceptible to music than any other agency, his code of expression is likened unto notes of music, and with more fidelity than some instrumental sound producers committed in the name of music. A student of this pure and undefiled language says: "Each note represents a particular feeling, and the whole harmoniously blended, tells a simple story in a pleasing way." Now the hound takes up the cold trail. He signals his master--there are notes of expectancy and hope in the tone. As the scent grows warmer, his tone of hope rises. He makes a loss. Could anything express regret and chagrin any more plainly than his doleful cry? Back on the trail. Then joy again. Then comes the excited, imperative, anxious yet joyous fortissimo scale running when the quarry trees. [Illustration: "Here He Is!"] He who has not been schooled in classical music sits bored and alone at the production of an opera, or yawns and wishes he were at home in bed, as the vigorous long haired performer spells out his emotions on the piano key board. So it is that one with no ear for music of the hound is disgusted thruout the sally to the woods at night, or the fields by day. He can dwell upon nothing save the scratches, falls and efforts required, all of which another forgets in fixing his attention on the action and music of the chase. Some hounds are better singers than others, just as is the case with people. Also he must be trained to perform pleasingly and truly. If he is well trained and is certain in his movements it will be reflected in his music. If he is faulty in foot and head work he will also betray these faults in his voice. Anxious to cover his own shortcomings, he takes to guessing and guesses wrong. He becomes a liar, and his singing is like unto the fellow with a cracked voice who insists on singing in the church choir, thereby annoying everybody. An experienced hunter can tell by the song of a hound how capable he is, even if there were not many other ways of fixing values. Bring up a hound under proper training methods, and he is almost certain to prove a rare musician. If you are not versed in music of this kind, you are unfortunate, and should join the fox or 'coon hunters and take a course of lessons. It is well worth while. CHAPTER XVIII. THE DOG ON THE TRAP LINE. Some trappers will take issue in regard to the advantages and disadvantages of the dog on the trap line. The subject holds sufficient interest, however, to warrant a chapter, and if some lonesome trappers benefit thereby, our effort shall stand justified. Now, we will say first that there is as much or more difference in the man who handles the dog as there is in the different breeds of dogs. We have heard men say that they wanted no dog on the trap line with them, and that they didn't believe that any one who did want a dog on the trap line knew but very little about trapping at the best. Now those are the views and ideas of some trappers, while my experience has led me to see it otherwise. One who is so constituted that they must give a dog the growl or perhaps a kick every time they come in reach, will undoubtedly find a dog of but little use on the trap line. We have known some dogs to refuse to eat, and would lay out where they could watch in the direction in which their master had gone and piteously howl for hours, waiting the return of the master and friend. I have seen other dogs that would take for the barn or any other place to get out of the way at the first sight or sound of their master. This man's dog is usually more attached to a stranger than to his master. The man who cannot treat his dog as a friend and companion will have good cause to say that a dog is a nuisance on the trap line. I have seen men training dogs for bird hunting, who would treat the dog most cruelly and claim that a dog could not be trained to work a bird successfully under any other treatment. Though I have seen others train the same breed of dogs to work a bird to perfection and that their most harsh treatment would be a tap or two with a little switch. I will say that one who cannot understand the wag of a dog's tail, the wistful gaze of the eye, the quick lifting of the ears, the cautious raising of a foot, and above all, treat his dog as a friend, need expect his dog to be but little else than a nuisance on the trap line. Several years ago I had a partner who had a dog, part stag hound and the other part just dog, I think. One day he (my partner) asked if I would object to his bringing the dog to camp, saying that his wife was going on a visit and he had no place to leave the dog. I told him that if he had a good dog I would be glad to have him in camp. In a day or two pard went home and brought in the dog. Well, when he came the dog was following along behind his master with tail and ears drooping, and looking as though he never heard a kind word in his life. I asked if the animal was any good and he replied that he did not know how good he was. I asked the name of the dog. He said, "Oh, I call him Pont." I spoke to the dog, calling him by name. He looked at me wistfully, wagging his tail. The look that dog gave me said to me as plainly as words that this was the first kind word he had ever heard. We went inside and the dog started to follow, when his master in a harsh voice said, "get out of here." I said, "where do you expect the dog to go?" I then took an old coat that was in the camp, placed it in the corner and called gently to Pont, patted the coat and told him to lay down on the coat, which he did. I patted him saying that is a good place for Pont, and I can see that wistful gaze the dog gave me, now. After we had our supper I asked my partner if he wasn't going to fix Pont some supper. "Oh, after a while I will see if I can't find something for him." I took a biscuit from the table, spread some butter on it, called the dog to me, broke the biscuit in pieces, and gave it to the dog from my hand; then I found an old basin that chanced to be about the camp and fixed the dog a good supper. After the dog had finished his supper I went to the coat in the corner, spoke gently to Pont, patted the coat, and told him to lay down on the coat. That was the end of that, Pont knew his place and took it without any further trouble. The next morning when we were about ready to start out on the trap line I asked Pard what he intended to do with Pont. He said that he would tie him to a tree that stood against the shanty close to the door. We were going to take different lines of traps. I said, "What is the harm of Pont's going with me?" "All right, if you want him, I don't want any dog with me." I said, Am, (that was Pard's given name, for short) I don't believe the dog wants to go with you any more than you want him to. Am's reply was that he guessed he would go all right if he wanted him. I said. Am, just for shucks, say nothing to the dog and see which one he will follow. So we stepped outside the shack and the dog stood close to me. I said, "Go on Am, and we will see who the dog will follow." He started off and the dog only looked at him. Am stopped and told the dog to come on. The dog got around behind me. Am said, "If I wanted you to come, you would come or I would break your neck." I said, "No, Am, you won't break Pout's neck while I am around; it would not look nice." I started on my way, Pont following after I had gone a little ways. I spoke to Pont, patting him on the head and told him what a good dog he was. He jumped about and showed more ways than one how pleased he was, and from that day until we broke camp, Pont stayed with me. He showed plainly the disgust he had for his master. It so happened that the first trap I came to was a trap set in a spring run, and it had a 'coon in it. I allowed Pont to help kill the 'coon, and after the 'coon was dead, I patted Pont and told him what great things he had done in capturing the 'coon. Pont showed what pride he took in the hunt, so much so that he did not like to have Am go near the pelt. I saw from the very first day out that all that Pont needed was kind treatment and proper training to make a good help on the trap line. I was careful to let him know what I was doing when setting a trap, and when he would go to smell at the bait after a trap had been set, I would speak to him in a firm voice and let him know that I did not approve of what he was doing. When making blind sets, I took the same pains to show and give him to understand what I was doing. I would sometimes, after giving him fair warning, let him put his foot into a trap. I would scold him in a moderate manner and release him. Then all the time I was resetting the trap I would talk trap to him, and by action and word teach him the nature of the trap. Mr. Trapper, please do not persuade yourself to believe that the intelligent dog cannot understand if you go about it right. In two weeks Pont had advanced so far in his training that I no longer had to pay any attention to him on account of the traps. The third day Pont was with me he found a 'coon that had escaped with a trap nearly two weeks before. My route called me up a little draw from the main stream. I had not gone far up this when Pont took the trail of some animal and began working it up the side of the hill. I stood and watched him until the trail took him to an old log, when Pont began to sniff at a hole in the log. He soon raised his head and gave a long howl, as much as to say he is here and I want help. After running a stick in the hole I soon discovered that the log was hollow. I took my belt axe and pounded along on the log until I thought I was at the right point and then chopped a hole in the log, and as good luck would have it, I made the opening right on to the 'coon, and almost the first thing I saw on looking into the log was the trap. Pont soon had the 'coon out, and when I saw it was the 'coon that had escaped with our trap, I gave Pont praise for what he had done, petting him and telling him of his good deed, and he seemed to understand it all. Not long after this Am came into camp at night and reported that a fox had broken the chain on a certain trap and gone off with the trap, saying that he would take Pont in the morning and see if he could find the fox. In the morning when we were ready to go Am tried to have Pont follow him, but it was no go, Pont would not go with him. Then Am put a rope on to him and tried to lead him, but Pont would sulk and would not be led. Then Am lost his temper and wanted to break Pont's neck again. I said that I did not like to have Pont abused and that I would go along with him. When we came to the place where the fox had escaped with the trap Am at once began to slap his hands and hiss Pont on. Pont only crouched behind me for protection. I persuaded Am to go on down the run and look at the traps down that way while I and Pont would look after the escaped fox. As soon as Am was gone I began to look about where the fox had been caught and search for his trail, and soon Pont began to wag his tail. I merely worked Pont's way and said, "Has he gone that way?" Pont gave me to understand that the fox had gone that way and that he knew what was wanted. The trail soon left the main hollow and took up a little draft. A little way up this we found where the fox had been fast in some bushes but had freed himself and left and gone up the hillside. Pont soon began to get uneasy, and when I said hunt him out Pont, away he went and in a few minutes I heard Pont give a long howl and I knew that he had holed his game. When I came up to Pont he was working in a hole in some shell rocks. I pulled away some loose rocks and could see the fox, and we soon had him out, and Pont seemed more pleased over the hunt than I was. There was scarcely a week that Pont did not help us out on the trap line. Not unfrequently did Pont show me a 'coon den. I had some difficulty in teaching Pont to let the porcupines alone, but after a time he learned that they were not the kind of game that he wanted, and he paid no more attention to them. I have had many different dogs on the trap line with me, and I can say to any one who can understand dog's language, has a liking for a dog and has a reasonable amount of patience and is willing to use it, will find a well trained dog of much benefit on the trap line, and often a more genial companion than some partners one may fall in with. But if one is so constituted that he must give his dog a growl or a kick every time he comes in reach, and perhaps only give his dog half enough to eat and cannot treat a dog as a friend, then I say, leave the dog off the trap line. [Illustration: A Group of Typical Sledge Dogs.] CHAPTER XIX. SLEDGE DOGS OF THE NORTH. Not a hunting dog in a strict sense of the word, yet most important in that connection, is the sledge dog, in transportation of hunters and their outfits to and from the hunting and trapping scenes. Following is a first hand, specially written article by Colonel F. H. Buzzacott, the intrepid Arctic explorer. That he writes from experience is evident, which necessarily adds interest and value to his highly interesting contribution. What the Indian pony is to the plain Indian, the Pack Horse or Mule is to the White Settler, Hunter or Trapper, the Sledge Dog or Reindeer is to natives of the distant and Far North. An old saying among frontiersmen is that a white man will abandon a horse as broken down and utterly unable to go when a Mexican will take that same horse and make him go a hundred miles further, while an Indian after all of this will mount and ride him for a week still. With all Indians, natives of the north or Esquimaux, knives are luxuries, ponies and dogs, necessities. Yet, for all that, they are never stabled, curried, washed, blanketed, shod, seldom protected or even fed. When the icy cold wintry blasts sweep the drifting snows over plain and valley and buries under his white mantle his food he either digs for it, finds and eats what he can, or starves. In my plains experience with the Indians or in the Polar Regions with the natives of the north or Esquimaux, I have observed that the love of an Indian for his ponies, an Esquimaux for his dogs or Laplander for his reindeer consists in seeing how much he really can get out of them with the least trouble or effort to him. I have seen the Indians or natives of the northwest and the Esquimaux of Hudson's and Baffin's Bay, Greenland, etc., drive half starved dogs to the sledge until they fell or froze, only to be eaten by their masters or mates, whom for a lifetime they had pulled with or served faithfully. Necessity recognizes no law--man is but an animal himself--and in the struggle for life or gain it is everywhere but the "Survival of the Fittest" or strongest and passing of the weak, be it white man or Indian. The best of the "Sledge Dogs of the North" are to be found in Greenland or Siberia, "Samoyed" dogs or its Esquimaux cousin, the "Immit Dog", used by explorers and Esquimaux generally. Those with short, thick hair, medium build, size and full breed are considered the best for all around work. They will exist and work well on one pound of food per day, or a big feast once a week. Their food consists mostly of dried and fresh fish, carrion or fresh, or, if with explorers, dog biscuit added. They closely resemble a wolf and howl like one. Are of various colors and sizes, iron grey predominating. They average about two feet four inches in height by three feet six inches in length, of unusually light weight for their size, owing to the bristle out appearance of their hair which adds to their real size. As a rule females are killed at birth, except those few to suffice for breeding. Commence training at six months to a year old and when two or three years old and seasoned to work are considered prime and preferable for long heavy distant sledging and hunting. The best trained of the team (eight, twelve or more in number) is selected as a leader. They are guided by voice and whip, a loud "Brr-Brr" taking the place of our "Gee" in starting and the word "Sass-Sass" used as "Whoa." "Hi" and "He" for right and left, "Ho" to correct, or speed, as they are trained, of course. A good leader possesses the quality of rarely failing to lead one safely over any route once traveled by them, bringing you safely to the place even if buried under the snow. They eat each other's flesh wolf-like with gusto and will tear their fellows to pieces in fight or injury, unless beaten, torn apart or separated by a man of whom they are afraid. They hate water in winter as much as they love it in summer when they frequent the salmon streams and support themselves by fishing, pounce upon nearing fish of any size that approach them, much as does the bear, two of them even tackling an immensely big fish and fighting to secure and bring it to shore. As bear, muskox, or reindeer, dogs, a pack of them will invariably round up, hold or drive anything sighted within reasonable distance so long as the hunters will follow on, needing but little urging, as they realize the prospect of a "good big feast," hence get busy to the end; younger dogs often paying the penalty with their lives but seldom older ones. As a rule, rawhide or seal harness is used in the far north, Alaska and Greenland and by the Esquimaux but with the explorers these consist mostly of canvas collar like attachments made of fourfold strips, two of which pass or slip over the critter's back, the other two between the forelegs, the whole united to a trace and this in turn fastened by a toggle, hook or ring to the sledge or drag rope. The dogs are hitched to this, either side of the drag, or alternately single or double, distant a few feet from each other. The guiding dog or leader is ahead leading while the others follow. Where canvas harness or steel wire rope is used on the drag by "Expeditions" it is because it lessens the chances of the harness being stolen, chewed or eaten, when rations become scarce. In heavy traveling they are used and hitched double for fast travel, alternate and single as exigencies require and will travel from 10 to 50 miles a day according to conditions of road, load, snow, ice, etc. When hitched or prior to it, they are usually lightly fed so as to bring them to reach their destination and "Tether," loafers soon learn that they must earn their food. At times when worked hard, they get off feed, so to speak, sulk and refuse to come up to a drag. In which case the remaining dogs must do the work and rarely do they fail to whine, show their contempt for such action and punish "His Nibs" at the first chance later on, even pining to get at him, sled and all, as they observe him following behind alone. On hard pulls, or uneven drags, they play out easily, act mulish, refusing to budge until the sled is started or at variance with each other. Otherwise, the start is a steady pull until well under way. A good team double will pull easily a load of 1,000 pounds or more, single about one-half, depending largely on condition of themselves and the road they travel. The Esquimaux seldom spares them or the whip, "Brring" them on and "Hi-ying" if needs be. About eight hours' work constitutes a day's travel or they go until played out, the latter case most likely. When traveling they are fairly obedient and preserve a steady equal pulling that occasionally is relieved by a jerky, gallop-like pace. Well trained dogs preserve their pace and tug on the harness for hours at a time. Usually they stop every hour or so for breathing spells as the atmosphere in those regions winds them easily. If traveling fast on ice and one falls or slips, he is dragged along, half strangled, until he regains his feet, place and position in line again, or, becoming tangled he is loosened up. By this time he has been snapped a few times by the dogs about him as if to punish him for his carelessness. Ordinarily, the leader responds promptly to the driver's voice, guiding, turning, halting or increasing speed at the given command. When, however, they scent game, they become difficult to manage, requiring utmost application of the whip to keep the trail or direction and this invariably ends in confusion, hopeless tangle and upset sledge. Handling, feeding, training calls for more judgment and patience than skill, driving especially. They refuse to cross apparently weak yet tested ice, pressure ridges, ice or snow cracks and mule-like, will make a plunging jump over a depression (when in trace) which ordinarily would not call for a leap at all. They require watchfulness on the part of the driver over cross country or when not following the trail, lest they sheer off from a given direction or straight line. [Illustration: Sledge Dog.--Photo From Life.] When following the trail much confidence is vested in the leader and should perchance it strike a blind or cross trail, it will howl to attract the attention of the driver and by these means verify directions, as if to ask if it is leading right. In case it loses the track it will slow up, whine, run up or criss-cross its tracks, sniffing and smelling in an anxious, expectant way, until it finds or is led correct, when it howls with delight and pulls off "like blazes" again. They have strange likes and dislikes. As entire pack will punish one who incurs the displeasure at times to an extent of crippling or killing each other. If a strange dog comes amongst them he is pretty sure to get "mauled" or his scraping abilities put to test, which usually ends in a free-for-all fight, catch as catch can rules predominating. When in harness training a young dog gets punished frequently by its mates for any awkwardness it shows. Old dogs especially show contempt for a new or strange dog which takes its mate's place, be it pup or otherwise, and will often sulk if their place is changed. Each seems to think his place is best, the leader especially being particularly proud of his honored position in "Dogdom." As a rule, existing difficulties or arguments in harness are stored up until that day's march is over, because of fear of punishment from the driver, but as soon as turned loose, they settle the difficulty of the day by another scrap, in which often one bunch will participate in, "take sides," and chew up each other, until all pitch in, aiming to settle things somehow. If too tired, they await the morrow. As a rule, the best sledge dogs are the poorest scrappers (so we have to be partial at times) especially to the leader who is usually the most intelligent; hence favored. In a pinch, when game and rations are scarce, they make good eating, of course, being sacrificed. At these times, their peculiar savage nature asserts itself, when you kill one for food, by signs of joy, rather than fear for they seem to be devoid of sympathy or unaffected by the scene. Their flesh is pale, tender and tasteless much like rabbit, bloodless and poor, and they will eat anything from a tin can label to Kipling's "Rag, Bone or Hank of Hair." When meat is plenty, they take on flesh and fatten quickly but seldom does this happen as the Esquimaux says, "Him no good, lazy, much fat." Wolf-like, stolen food tastes better and one will leave his own ration to steal a fellow's equal share and risking by his greediness both, as it is stolen in turn by another. Their thieving propensities are great, a tin can of meat, skin boots, oil lamp, old soup kettle, or their own harness if sealskin or rawhide. [Illustration: Rough and Ready Sledge Dog.] Tied, penned up or left harnessed any length of time, they assert their belief in "Liberty and Equality" by chewing their way to freedom if it takes a week to do it. As a rule, the dogs respect a female and will seldom molest her. These give birth to a litter of from 4 to 8 pups which are generally killed at birth, unless a scarcity of them, fat "puppy dog" being with the paunch of the reindeer considered a regular "Delmonico" dish. The average usefulness of their existence is about 6 to 8 years, the old dogs following the same road as fat puppies, after their usefulness has seen the limit. Fall bred dogs are best. Alaskan dogs are larger and heavier and the same rule applies to Labrador species, but as they are of mixed breed, lazier and require more food they are only used to advantage where they belong--at home. As a rule, they exist, breed and sleep in the open, the soft side of a drifting snow bank being a luxury, especially if it drifts about them up to the muzzle, and it is only vacated when dangerous. They seek the warmest spots they can find, a rope coil, rag or paper, or even a tin can to lie on, in preference to ice or hard snow. Failing in this, they will dig a hole in the soft snow and bury themselves in this, lying one on top of the other in bitter weather. The best of Arctic or Polar dogs, while they withstand cold to surprising degree, nevertheless, suffer with the cold and danger of freezing, especially in winter time when food is scarce or frozen and snow serves to quench thirst, a wet foot or crippled limb being the first to suffer. In bitter weather I have seen them roll and run to maintain circulation. They huddle together, shivering, hold up their paws and whine pitifully and appealingly. They receive a kind word by a show of teeth instead of a wag--indeed, are anything but friendly, except at "chuck" time and then limit it to the grub with a few exceptions, of course. Most of them, however, Indian-like, believe in the old maxim "Familiarity breeds contempt" and thus they treat kindness with suspicion and turn tail as if it preceded work or a licking and perhaps both. If left alone any length of time, one will start up a coyote-like howl and all join in one after the other in the chorus that takes the appearance of a man with a "big stick" to quell. If left alone they will keep it up for hours, stopping as it commenced by degrees, apparently without reason. They are fed when circumstances permit and if permitted, will gorge themselves to the point of bursting, eating enough to last a week and camping alongside of it until even the bones are cleaned up and not enough left to feed a fly. Indian-like, however, they are always on hand for the next meal, hungry again. When traveling, they are fed a little daily, but when not, exist on wind, bones and kicks, fish offal and refuse thrown out, or hunt for themselves like wolves, after Arctic hares, lemmings or anything they can find. In winter time, dogs are often the main food of the Esquimaux and as fat or oil is generally scarce, are eaten raw instead of cooked, oil being too valuable at this time to be wasted on dog. Its taste to the white man largely depends on one's hunger or digestive cravings. If half-starved, it is voted "just excellent." If not, it is "just dog," that's all. Yet, if the pangs of hunger gnaw one's vitals, repugnance, position in life, creed, superstition, opinions, likes and dislikes, self-respect, all give way to the cravings of an empty stomach; especially in that trackless great white desert called the "Distant Polar Regions." Such is the life and existence of these, the sledge dogs of the north. PART IV. THE HUNTING DOG FAMILY. [Illustration: Worthy of the Name, Fox Hounds.] CHAPTER XX. AMERICAN FOX HOUNDS. Those who make a science of breeding and training fox hounds, and indulge in the chase for sport only, have a nearly identical standard of the ideal the country over. Even he who chases the fox for profit may find valuable information and interest in such a standard, even though they may be convinced that their hounds, though without pedigree, are capable dogs. At a gathering of the foremost sportsmen of this country, in 1905, the following standard was fixed as ideal: The American foxhound should be smaller and lighter in muscle and bone, than the English foxhound. Dogs should not be under 21 nor over 23 1/2 in., nor weigh more than 57 pounds. Bitches should not be under 20 nor over 22 1/2 inches nor weigh more than 50 pounds. The head (value 15) should be of medium size with muzzle in harmonious proportions. The skull should be rounded cross-wise with a slight peak, line of profile nearly straight, with sufficient stop to give symmetry to the head. Ears should meet to within one inch of end of muzzle, should be thin, soft in coat, low set and closely pendant. Eyes soft, medium size, and varying shades of brown. Nostrils slightly expanded. The head as a whole should denote hound character. The neck (value 5) must be clean and of good length, slightly arched, strong where it springs from the shoulders and gradually tapering to the head, without trace of throatiness. The shoulders (value 10) must be of sufficient length to give leverage and power, well sloped, muscular, but with clean run and not too broad. Chest and back ribs (value 10). The chest should be deep for lung space, narrower in proportion to depth than the English hound, 28 inches in a 23 1/2 inch hound being good. Well sprung ribs, back ribs should extend well back, a three-inch flank allowing springiness. Back and loin (value 10) should be broad, short and strong, slightly arched. The hindquarters and lower thighs (value 10) must be well muscled and very strong. The stifle should be low set, not too much bent, nor yet too straight, a happy medium. The elbows (value 5) should set straight, neither in nor out. Legs and feet (value 20) are of great importance. Legs should be straight and placed squarely under shoulder, having plenty of bone without clumsiness, strong pasterns well stood upon. Feet round, cat like, not too large, toes well knuckled, close and compact, strong nails, pad thick, tough and indurated by use. Color and coat (value 5). Black, white and tan are preferable, though the solids and various pies are permissible. Coat should be rough and course without being wiry or shaggy. Symmetry (value 5). The form of the hound should be harmonious thruout. He should show his blood quality and hound character in every aspect and movement. If he scores high in other properties, symmetry is bound to follow. The stern (value 5) must be strong in bone at the root, of a medium length, carried like a sabre on line with the spine and must have a good brush. A docked stern shall not disqualify, but simply handicap according to extent of docking. SUMMARY. Head 15, neck 5, shoulders 10, chest and back ribs 10, hindquarters and lower thighs 10, back and loin 10, elbows 5, legs and feet 20, color and coat 5, stern 5, symmetry 5. Total 100. THE GREY HOUND. Without doubt, the grey hound, bred almost solely for speed, is the fleetest runner on earth. In a general way it may be said that the grey hound pursues by sight only, yet some experienced hunters will contend that they can follow a fairly warm trail successfully, if trained to it. It is not natural for them, however, to take and follow an old track until the game is started, but what they lack in that way is made up in speed. [Illustration: Good Specimens.] It has been a favorite practice for decades to take advantage of his speed, by crossing with other strains, resulting in courage, tenacity and trailing powers, very useful in several kinds of hunting. This type of dog, either pure bred or crossed lends himself readily to deer, wolf, fox or rabbit chasing, and is especially successful if hunted in company with good trailers. The latter start the game when the grey hound goes forward and effects a capture, or so interferes with progress, that the other dogs come up and finish the work. A bit of practical talk on the subject from the pen of a grey hound enthusiast is appended: I have always had grey hounds. If they are let run with the track hounds when they are young they soon learn to take a track, run away from the pack and catch the game. I have some one-half grey hound and one-half bloodhound or fox hound. No better dogs living. Great fighters, stay as long as the game runs. This kind are good bear dogs. I keep live 'coon to train pups on and commence to train them at 4 or 5 months old. The older they get the longer races I give them. SCOTCH DEER HOUND. An excellent deer hound is half scotch deer hound and one-half grey hound, and I will say there is no breed called stag hound, writes a well informed Canadian deer hunter. All that claim that name are overgrown fox hounds used in England for that purpose. Thompson Gray in "Dogs of Scotland," written in 1890, says that the first mention of the Scotch deer hound was in "Pitcotts History of Scotland." It is of the same family as the grey hound and has been spoken of by early writers as the Rough Scotch Grey Hound. He is more massive, is about three inches taller than the grey hound and has a rough coat. His vocation is to course the stag and the deer. He, like the grey hound must not use his nose when hunting his quarry and for this reason great speed is absolutely necessary. His head is somewhat longer and wider across the skull than that of the grey hound and the hair on the sides of the lip form a mustache. Small ears are a sign of good breeding. They should be set on high and at the back of the skull and be semi-erect when at attention. The coat is hard in texture, without any silkiness. The color most admired is blue grizzle with its various shades but brindle and fawn, either light or dark are admirable. There should be no white on any part of the body. As to formation, he should be made on the same lines as the grey hound. THE BLOOD HOUND. The original and oldest of the hound family is the blood hound. He takes his name from having originally been used to track wounded animals to their lairs. Their fame to the public is based on their use as man trailers, which gained more notice at about the time of the Civil War than before or since. There is considerable question as to their infallibility and powers in this direction. While nearly any dog can, if he wishes, trail a human being, and while the blood hound is the best scented of the dog family, it is rather doubtful if all the things that have been written about the blood hounds and slave fugitives are true. [Illustration: Blood Hound.] Bloodhounds are known under several names, such as, Cuban, Siberian, St. Hubert blood hounds, etc. Civil authorities and detectives, the country over, employ the blood hounds to trail criminals, or rather ostensibly to bring them to justice. Rarely do they succeed in actually capturing a fleeing culprit, however, if he has passed over sections trampled over by many other people. The blood hound, as has been mentioned before, is quite useful in breeding hunting dogs for specific purposes. Some light of experience is furnished us by a Pennsylvania breeder, as follows: In regard to blood hounds or a cross between the blood hound and fox hound, they are good hunters on wolf, fox, 'coon and bear. In fact, they are all around good dogs, great fighters on game. They are tough, active, will stand a long run and come home and not seem to be tired. The blood hound is a good man as well as an animal hunter. They will stand the longest races and not tire. In fifty years breeding from the best, these dogs are all that are needed in a hound dog. On the same subject a Western brother says: I have bred dogs for 55 years from most of the kennels in this country, England and other countries. I like English blood hound or one-half hound and one-half fox hound. They are sharp scented, fast runners, good stayers, good fighters and game for fox and wolf hunting. [Illustration: "As Pretty as a Picture." (Beagles.)] CHAPTER XXI. THE BEAGLE DACHSHUND AND BASSET HOUNDS. "A few years ago I gave up the large hound for the beagle hound, as I hunt rabbit a good deal now and I find it good sport with the right kind of beagles," writes a beagle enthusiast of the middle west, "but, of course, they are just like fox hounds or any other breed of dogs, many of them would be better training themselves in the happy hunting grounds. The main thing is to get the right strain of beagles, of which there are several. Champion Bannerman, imported by J. Crane, Esq., about 1884, has had a great influence towards producing the smaller size. Of course every man to his opinion as to size. Some prefer the small, while others the larger size. The importation by General Rowett, of Carlinsville, Ill., which has been known since as the Rowett strain, when it comes to beauty and hunting qualities combined, are very good, in fact, are among the best. The blue cap strain imported into the country by Captain William Ausheton from the kennels of Sir Arthur Ashburnham along in the seventies. This strain seems to have a stronger love for the scent of the rabbit than anything else. By crossing strains it is possible to get beagles with a fierce hunting disposition, that will hunt and fight anything that wears fur, keen scent (remember the beagle is strong in the blood hound blood) wide chest, heavy bone, round fat feet that can put up a hard day's work every day. THE DACHSHUND. We are indebted to Mr. William Loeffler for the following comprehensive, entertaining special article on the little understood Dachshund: Of the many breeds of dogs in existence, none have gained more friends and won more hearts and a stronger hold in American home in a comparative short time than the Dachshund. Those who have not seen a single specimen and are entirely ignorant regarding his characteristics, know him by continued caricature. For centuries back he was the most favored pet of German aristocracy, carefully guarded and upheld in his purity, and it was only occasionally that an outsider received a specimen. A gift of a Dachshund was considered a token of high esteem. [Illustration: True Dachshund Specimens.] Though he has not lost a particle of his prestige in this respect, and has strong admirers in the royal families of Europe, he is rapidly becoming a cosmopolitan; with his little crooked legs he now travels over many lands, making friends wherever he lands. At all times Dachshunde were in charge of professional hunters, who developed their instinct for hunting wonderfully, and the courage, endurance and strength exhibited in pursuing their game is astonishing and marvelous. The long body, short and muscular legs, the entire strength being centered in his deep chest, indicate that he is intended for work under ground. To attack a badger or a fox in his own burrow requires bravery of a high degree, especially as the dog is in most cases much smaller than his game. He relies upon the strength of his jaws and his wonderfully developed set of teeth for his work and does not snap or bite at random, but his attack is usually well aimed and effective. The game-keeper's duty is to destroy all enemies of the game entrusted to his care, consequently foxes, badgers, minks and other vermin are at all times subject to extermination, and the Dachshund is his untiring and able assistant in this work. His scenting power is of the keenest and he will locate his prey very quickly when he strikes a trail. A fox generally leaves his burrow when the dog enters his domain and falls a victim to the gunner's aim; not so with the badger, who crawl into a corner of his burrow, and two dogs in most cases attack him from different entries, and finally crowd him so that he will stay at bay. The location of the badger can easily be given by the barking of the dogs, and the hunter digs down with pick and spade, when the ground permits such work, until the badger can be seen. By means of a fork pushed over his neck the badger is held and captured. The Dachshund is also invaluable for finding wounded deer; for which purpose the hunter usually chains the dog, who then leads his master over the trail to locate the game. At home the Dachshund's disposition changes entirely; he is now a most affectionate and docile animal, and shows by his every expression his attachment for his master and his family. His intelligence is surprising; as a watch or house dog he has few equals, the slightest disturbance will not escape his keen senses and the alarm is given. Most always one member of the family he selects as his special idol, in many cases a child, and it is amusing to watch him, how he does everything in his power to show his affection, following every step taken by his beloved friend. He will frolic for hours and never seem to tire or lose his good temper, and he is always on hand when wanted. He knows the friends of the family and never molests them, but he will not tolerate tramps. The color of the Dachshund is of great variety, the original stock being black and tan, from which later developed chocolate and tan, gray and tan and single color red, ranging from fawn to dark mahogany red. The spotted Dachshund, such as black and tan as a ground color showing silver gray patches of irregular sizes throughout the black field is of comparatively recent development. Most all have short and glossy coats. The unusual shape of this dog, combined with a beautiful color, the graceful and dignified walk, the aristocratic bearing, will draw the attention and admiration of every one who sees him. THE BASSET HOUND. The American beagle has a brother in France, called the Basset. He is slow, acute scenter and in general has characteristics in common with the beagle. Those few dogs in this country erroneously called Basset hounds, (aside from a very few imported for bench show purposes) are doubtless resulted from beagle and mongrel crossed. [Illustration: A Pure Pointer.] CHAPTER XXII. POINTERS AND SETTERS.--SPANIELS. It is not within our province to dwell at length upon the subject of "bird" dogs. We will content ourselves with briefly pointing out some more salient points of appearance and character. Those who wish to make a study and follow extensively wing shooting, and raise and train suitable dogs for the purpose, may obtain books relating exclusively to that subject. While adapted to the same purposes in the field, there are differences in the appearance and methods of pointers and setters that give rise to two distinct classes. In the field, if we may take for granted the claims of men long schooled in wing shooting, we may say in a general way, that the pointer excels in woods--heavy cover, and brushy sections. In such places a slower dog is required as well as one that willingly hunts close to the shooter. For work in open fields or over prairie land, the setter is perhaps better suited, because he, as a rule, "has greater speed, wider range, greater endurance and staying qualities. If retrieving from water came into play, the setter also would have the preference. As to which of the two breeds has the best nose, and which is the better bird finder, nothing can be said with a degree of certainty--they are equal, but there is a vast difference in individuals. The same is true as to retaining inculcated training." [Illustration: Royal Sports.--Pointers in Action.] The pointer is the older breed, being a product of the middle ages. He bobs up, ever and anon, in the history of hunting down to the present. There has been now and again some inclination to cross the pointer and fox hounds, among huntsmen, some claiming even in this day that it improves either type of dog for his given duties. Purists, however, insist on keeping them pure and undefiled. In appearance the pointer is larger than the setter, and gives one an impression of solidity and strength; his coat should be soft and mellow, but not absolutely silky. The hair is short and straight. The setter's coat should be long, straight and silky (a slight wave is admissible) which should be the case with the breeches and fore legs, which, nearly down to the feet, should be well feathered. The color may be either white and black, white and orange, white and lemon, white and liver, or black, white and tan; those without heavy patches on the body, but flecked all over, called Belton, preferred. There is, as in most other questions of hunting and shooting experiences, wide difference of opinion as to the relative values of the two breeds for practical field work and bench purposes. The casual field shooter will not go wrong in selecting either kind, so long as he secures a creditable and really representative individual. [Illustration: Setter.] A distinct setter strain is the black and tan Gordon. Writes an authority: "The Gordon is a much heavier dog in all his parts than the English setter; coarser in skull, thicker in shoulders and usually carrying lots of useless lumber. As a consequence he lacks the speed of his English brethren, and for this reason he is not a desirable field trial candidate, but as a steady, reliable dog, with more than average bird finding ability, he will always have a number of admirers." The Irish setter is another interesting one of the setter family. He is not as popular in America as the others, though a handsome and capable performer. His color is red, with white on chest, throat or toes, or a small star on the forehead. The manner of judging pedigreed field dogs has been reduced to an almost exact science. After all, however, all this is not for the casual hunter and many an embryo sportsman tramps the fields after capable, though not so high-toned dogs, and enjoys it all more than the nervous owner watching his dog in the field trial. SPANIELS. Spaniels are not utilized to any extent as hunting dogs in this country, although they are sometimes crossed to good advantage with other hunting dogs. About the water, the water spaniel is well adapted. For instance some spaniel blood in a mink dog is well worth considering. All of the spaniels, readily develop into retrievers, and this is their principal use at present, although they can be taught to hunt with considerable effect and judgment, where too much is not expected of them. They are lively, happy little workers, and on grouse in dense coverts, no dog possesses a better nose for the purpose. Their size, too, is against them for most practical purposes. CHAPTER XXIII. TERRIERS--AIREDALES. Practical hunters have no interest in the numerous Terrier family, save perhaps two types. We find those who urge the use of the terrier for some purposes. For instance, a Canadian brother has the following to say as to the Fox Terrier: I like the hound, but give me a well trained fox terrier as his companion, and I will get most every fox. They have no trouble to hole in less than six hours, there is where the terrier shines and puts in his work. He will enter the hole and that is the end of Mr. Fox. Sometimes he will bring him out of the hole to kill him, but more often he will kill him, then bring him out. There are times when he kills one that he cannot get out, owing to a short bend or other obstruction in the hole. No doubt there will be many of the readers think this is a far-fetched claim, nevertheless it is true and many in this section can vouch for this statement. [Illustration: The Fox Terrier--Useful in Many Ways.] The dozens of types of this interesting, though generally impracticable terrier family we pass over, permitting us to give wider attention to the one or two types that have earned recognition. The ugly, little Irish terrier is sometimes used to good advantage for crossing, where heedless, reckless pluck is sought. These dogs are very game, yet remarkably good tempered with man. But they dearly love a fight, and have earned their commonly used nick-name "Dare-devils." Thus lightly skipping over the whole family we come to a type that has earned notice in the hunting world, and is rapidly growing in popular favor. [Illustration: Airedale.] THE AIREDALE. First we cite a bit of practical testimony on the matter, from a gentleman who knows whereof he speaks: I have found out that the pure Airedale terrier and the hound make the very best dogs for coon, lynx, mink, etc. Get a good Airedale and a good hound and you will have a pair of hounds hard to beat. The airedale are great water dogs and very hard workers and easily trained to hunt any kind of game. They are full of grit and they fear nothing and are always ready to obey your command. I have hunted with them and found this breed of dog away ahead of the water spaniel, collie, etc. Once you own one you will never be without it. "The Airedales were first imported into this country in 1897 or 1898, from England, and as companion and guard dogs, as well as hunters and retrievers have made wonderful strides, and are becoming more popular as they become better known. In disposition and intelligence they are unexcelled. They will guard their master's family night and day, but on the other hand are affectionate and kind to children. They are natural hunters of both large and small game, in which they need but little training, and have been used and worked as hunters and retrievers with much success, as they are easily taught and very intelligent. In size, the standard calls for males 45 pounds, females a little less. Color, black and badger gray with tan extremities. We should name the Airedale as a promising bear dog. His grit, courage, staying Quality and strength are all points of advantage in a dog that is expected to try conclusions with the hard-swatting bruin. Also we frequently hear of noteworthy success of the Airedale in hunting and dispatching coyotes, coons, badger and bay-lynx, any one of which is capable of putting up a good fight. Also he is a hunter, retriever, trailer of coon, 'possum, bear, wildcat, mink, coyote, deer, lynx, fox or small game. The tendency nowadays is to produce larger Airedales, which shall retain the terrier qualities. The practical callings upon the breed's usefulness seems to justify that he be bred over 50 pounds, rather than between 45 and 50 pounds, which has in the past been the aim. One writer says that it was in the valley of the Aire river that the Otter hound was crossed with the Bull Terrier, that product was the Scotch terrier, that with the Scotch collie, that with the Pointer, and that with the Setter dog and then the standard having been secured, the crossing was discontinued. In that dale of the Aire, then, was the great breed of dogs first experimented upon, that made the Airedale. CHAPTER XXIV. SCOTCH COLLIES. HOUSE AND WATCH DOGS. The Scotch collie dog will make the best friend of all the dogs in the canine race, writes a collie admirer. Of all useful animals God gave to man what can excel the dog, at least with the stockmen; in affection no other dog can compare with him, he is a dog that every farmer needs. He has almost human intelligence, a pure bred collie can always be depended upon in sunshine or adversity. He can do his work in a manner that should put the average boy to shame. The pure bred Scotch Collies are of a kind and affectionate disposition and they become strongly attached to their master. There can be no friend more honest and enduring than the noble, willing and obedient thoroughbred Scotch Collie. As a devoted friend and faithful companion he has no equal in the canine race, he will guard the household and property day and night. The Scotch Collies are very watchful and always on the alert, while their intelligence is really marvelous. [Illustration: Collie.] At one year old they are able to perform full duty herding sheep, cattle and other stock, attending them all day when necessary, keeping them together and where they belong and driving off all strange intruders. They learn to know their master's animals from others in a very short time, and a well-trained dog will gather them home and put each into its right stall. They have a dainty carriage and line style, profuse silky hair of various colors. Others incline to the conviction that practical purposes have been lost sight of in breeding, and that appearances have been sought to such an extent that the present day pure bred collies lack some of the attributes of intelligence and hardihood that made the collie famous. In view of this fact it is quite likely that for general purposes and certainly for hunting purposes, a dash of alien blood is advantageous. The crossed collie, or the well-known shepherd dog, so common to the farm, are very often used with success in all forms of night hunting. There are some who go so far as to maintain that the shepherd or a cross of shepherd and fox hound are ideal for coon, rabbit and squirrel hunting. The use of these dogs as sheep herders has deteriorated in this country, although they are still bred for practical purposes with marked success in parts of England. HOW TO TRAIN A COLLIE. The best way to make a start is to get a pure-bred puppy from a good working strain. To gain the best results and secure the full worth of a Collie as a stock dog, I would say, take him as a little puppy. There are many reasons why we favor the little puppy to the dog nearly or quite grown. Most collies are sensitive and suspicious and of fine temperament and this characteristic often makes them appear rather more cowardly than brave. A Collie that has been properly cared for and considerably handled during his puppyhood up to maturity should have plenty of courage. A puppy should never be permitted to have a place of refuge where he can run away and hide on hearing a slight noise or unusual disturbance of any kind, or at the sight of a stranger. If he is kept under conditions where he can see all that may be going on, and in that way become familiar with active life, learning that noises and strange persons do not harm him, he will develop plenty of courage, without which there is but little hope of great usefulness. First, teach him his name, and to come when you call him. Teach him to mind but always by kind methods. Let him love and trust you, gaining his affection by gentle treatment. He should be accustomed to the collar and chain when young, though it is much better to keep him in the yard than confined by a chain while he is growing. Teach him one thing at a time--to lie down and remain in that position until excused; to follow at your will, and stop at the word, to come in at once at command, and to turn to the right or left. All these lessons can be easily managed by use of a small cord and always using the appropriate word with emphasis. He should always be made to keep at your heels when out for a walk with you. In that way, after telling him to go to heel whenever he tries to run away, he will understand the word better when he goes with you to drive the cattle for the first time. Let him keep back of the stock with you, while you drive the cattle to and from the field or pasture without undertaking to teach him, for as he learns by observation, he must have the example made plain. He will quickly show a desire to help and then you may take advantage of this act, encouraging him to help you, and after he has been with you a time or two, he will soon become a driver at the heel. Give him plenty of practice, and when he becomes a good driver at the heel, taking a positive interest in his work, he can then be easily taught to turn the cattle to the right or left, to head them off, stop them or go alone into the distant fields and bring the cattle to the stable. He should never be allowed to drive the cattle fast for if once allowed to run them, he will become careless and develop a disposition to worry them. [Illustration: Shepherd Puppies.] Do not weary him with over-commanding nor notice every little mistake which unnoticed may not occur again. If you gain his affection and do not forget to tell him that he has been a good dog when he has done well for you, he will learn fast for he has a wonderful memory and never forgets the things he has learned to do. Thus we are amply repaid for the care and time used in making the lesson plain. I might say a few words about feeding the puppy, as he should have good food when young. The first few months he should be fed on bread and milk, never giving him any meat at any time, and as he grows older, give him the bread dry and the milk as a drink. A comfortable sleeping place should also be given him. The best place is in the house or stable and he should be kept in at night at all times of the year. You will find that a well looked after Collie is a valuable and life-long friend and helper. HOUSE AND WATCH DOGS. The Great Dane, Mastiff, St. Bernard, Newfoundland, Poodle, Dalmatian Chow-Chow, English and French Bulldog have their places and purposes, but are entirely outside the province of hunting dogs. Most hunters admire these noble beasts, but inasmuch as they have no practical importance or use to the hunter, detailed description is omitted. CHAPTER XXV. A FARMER HUNTER--HIS VIEWS. I am a farmer by trade and a raccoon hunter for sport, and nothing but a fox hound for me, and the better his breeding is the better I like it. I don't care how much noise he makes if he is fast. I like a good tonguer. I only have four hounds at this writing. I have caught 27 'coon and 10 opossum. On the night of November 9th, some friends of mine went out 'coon hunting with me. They had three 'coon dogs and I had four, seven hounds in all. We went about two miles south of where I live to where we sometimes hunt the 'coon. The first thing when we got there the dogs struck a trail and treed on top of a hill with an old coal entry just below it. We got up to the tree all right and could hear one of the dogs barking "treed" about one-half mile south, so I left the boys to attend to that tree and I went to the lone hound. He was barking up a large black oak in the corn field. I soon spied an eye up the tree and shot him out and down came Mr. 'Coon. I looked up in the tree again and saw two eyes. The little 20-gauge spoke again and down came 'coon No. 2. The other fellows did not have such good luck, as their coon got into the coal entry. We then started on and the dogs caught another trail and gave us some music for about twenty minutes. When they barked treed we went over to them and there were six of the dogs barking up a bushy oak and the lone dog was barking about eighty rods west of there. One of the boys started up the tree and got only part way up when out jumps Mr. 'Coon. The dogs all went for him and out comes another 'coon and into the corn field he went just about at the top of his speed, and I guess he had no slow orders either by the way he was going the last time I saw him. We got a couple of the dogs after the runaway 'coon but he made a hole, so we then went to the lone dog and he had one up. We got that and started west. We had not gone far when the dogs struck another trail and they circled to the northwest of us, came around west and south and turned east. Just across the hollow from us was a large tree that Mr. 'Coon was trying to make but he couldn't get speed enough to make it, so the dogs caught him as he got to the bottom of the tree. The lone dog was with them on that chase. We left our 'coon at a farmer's and started on. The dogs struck another trail and that 'coon got into a hole and he was safe, so we ate our lunch, rested a little while and started on west. The dogs hit another trail and went south about a mile and barked but not treed. We went to them and they had run this 'coon into a shallow hole in the corn field. We tried to get one of the dogs to pull him out but the 'coon got first hold every time, so we got a stick and dug in a little ways. We could then see Mr. 'Coon's eyes down in the hole. We sent three dogs in after him but they came out without him. I had an old speckled hound we called Teddy. He went in and when he backed out he had company with him, and he seemed to think a great deal of his company, for he was hanging right on to him just as though he thought his company might leave him if he got a chance. Ted was doing all he could, but he got him up so the other dogs could see Mr. 'Coon's back and then he had plenty of help and the 'coon's troubles were soon over. We then started northwest. The dogs were working a trail and they were puzzled on it; did not seem able to get away. There were a black oak and hazel bush where we were then, so we sat down to let the dogs work it out if they could. We were sitting within 10 feet of an oak tree, the lone dog came up, circles the tree and barks up, then three of the other dogs come up and start to bark. One of the boys says there might be a 'coon up that tree but I doubt it. Well, I said, when four good 'coon dogs bark up a tree at the same time, there is liable to be something up there, so up went one of the boys and down came Mr. 'Coon. We got him and the dogs were not long in starting another trail. They started south but it was a cold one, but they struck right after Mr. 'Coon, and I guess they must have taken us a mile and a half on that trail to another patch of timber, and we were about a half a mile behind them when they barked treed. They had Mr. 'Coon up a tall red oak. We shot him out and soon had another trail going. They took this one south, and it was a warm one, right out into a corn field, and they caught him on the ground. We could hear the fracas and went to them as quick as possible, but we were not quick enough for they had killed Mr. 'Coon and we met them coming back. We went to where we thought they were when they caught the 'coon but we did not find the right place for we did not find that coon. The dogs soon had another trail going and gave us some fine music for a little while and barked treed. We went to them and they had two 'coons up. We shot them out, and they soon had another one going south. It was getting pretty frosty about that time and they worked that trail about one hour south and west. We followed their music and they barked treed. We shot him out. That makes eleven 'coon and one killed in the field that we could not find. Now there may be some of the trappers that will think I have added a few 'coon to this hunt, but I have not. I have given you this 'coon hunt as near as it happened as I can remember, but we had seven as good 'coon dogs as you generally run across. I do not say seven of the best dogs ever went into the woods or the best in the United States, but they were 'coon dogs and fast ones. It seems that about every man that has a 'coon dog or dogs and they tree a few 'coons, gets it into his head that nobody has a dog quite as good as his. I have one pair of hounds from a Williams bitch and a dog owned by Mr. Williams--Hodo is his name--but he is a pure Trigg dog. His pedigree runs back over forty years. One of Haiden C. Trigg's dogs, Trigg, is the most successful hound breeder in the United States today. He started on the old original American fox hound, these long eared fellows with a deep mellow voice, called by some nigger chasers, as they used them in the south for that purpose, and some dealers are selling the old American Fox Hound today for American Blood Hounds. The only genuine blood hound we have is the English. See what the Trigg dog is today, short ears or much shorter than the dog Mr. Trigg started to improve on, with narrow muzzle, and stands up well with good feet and built on speedy lines, a red fox dog, and when he started on there were few of them that could hole a red fox inside of eight hours, and the Trigg dog of today will hole a red fox in a comparatively short time. Of course the fox they are running and the kind of country they have to run in, have a great deal to do with it. I run fox myself sometimes, or my hounds do rather. Now I see some of the hunters like a still trailer, but I want to hear my dogs work and I want to know which way they are going, and when they begin to get away I can follow and keep in hearing of my dogs. I can tell by their baying just about what they are doing, if the trail is cold or warm, and can tell which way they are going. I wouldn't give a cent to hunt with dogs that couldn't make a little music when on the trail. I see some of the brothers think nothing but a still trailer catches his 'coon on the ground. If you have fast trailers they will catch 'coon on the ground if they tongue every other jump. My dogs are all good tonguers and I often have them catch 'coon on the ground and big 'coon, not little young 'coon any more than old ones. A young 'coon will take to a tree quicker than an old one. I have got to see my first well bred 'coon hound that will still trail. I have never seen him yet, that is, a fox hound. I have tried shepherd and hound cross, bull dog and hound cross, and beagle and fox hound cross, but give me the pure bred fox hound every time for a 'coon dog, and I don't care how long his pedigree is either. Let me tell you, you cannot get a fox hound too fast for 'coon, the faster he is the better. I read where a brother made the statement that you wanted a slow hound for a 'coon dog. Well, he may want a slow one, yet I am sure I do not. He goes on to say that a fast dog will run over the trail if the 'coon makes a short or square turn, the fast hound will run by and lose too much time finding the trail again. Let me tell you right here, the fast hound can't help but run over, but he knows right where he lost that trail. If he happens to circle the right way he only has to make a half circle and he is off again. On the other hand, if he circles the other way he makes a full circle and hits the trail and is going just as fast as ever. If he has a good nose on him he has not lost four seconds. A fast hound will make that turn in a trail quicker every time than a slow one will. I have had both slow and fast and have hunted 'coons about 23 years. Am now a man 38 years old, and if I don't know what a hound is I sure never will. I don't claim to know it all, for a man never gets too old to learn. He could learn something every day if he lived a thousand years, or for all time to come. There is no dog that will work a cold trail out like a good hound. He will work out a trail and tree a 'coon when a cur dog would pass right over the trail and pay no attention to it whatever. It must be the brothers that like the still trailers that never had a good 'coon hound, for I have never seen good 'coon dogs but I have seen the best ones wrapped up in a fox hound hide. I have a black and tan hound that will fight for me at any time. I can't scuffle with any one outside of my own family for he will bite them just as quick as he can get close enough to them. I had to give him several hard whippings to make him quit rabbits. Now they don't bother him any when he is looking for 'coon with me at night. His father was the hardest dog to break off of rabbits that I ever broke, but when he was three years old he would not notice a rabbit at night but would trail them in the day time. He turned out to be a very valuable hound. He would retrieve as good as a retriever on land or in water, would catch any hog that I told him to catch and hold it until I told him to let it go. I could point out any chicken I wanted him to catch and he would get it for me and would not hurt the chicken any. Some people think a hound don't know anything but trail, but a good hound is a very smart dog and a poor hound is about as worthless a dog as you can find. Take the hound as a breed and I must say they are a noble breed. The fox hound requires, I think, more exercise than any other breed of dogs. I have a 25 gallon caldron. I put most any kind of meat that I can get, beef, horse flesh, 'coon, when there is one that is pretty badly bruised up, pork or any kind of meat that is not decomposed, and put it into this caldron. Of course, I put water in first then put in my meat and boil until it will all stir off the bone. I then take all the bones out and stir in corn meal until I have enough so that when the meal is done it will be a very stiff mush. When it is done and cooled off you can take it out in chunks. Use no salt, if any, very little, as a very little salt will physic a dog. I sometimes bake corn bread for the dogs for a change, which makes a good food for them but not so strong a food as the other. I think a hound will do more running and keep in better order on that mush with meat than any food you can give them. Of course, if a person has but one dog, he can generally get enough from the house scraps from the table, but when you have a dozen or so you will have to get your dog food elsewhere. In warm weather this mush will sour in a few hours, but in cold weather it will keep sweet. I feed my dogs once a day when they are idle, but when I am hunting them I feed them twice a day. Feed each dog by himself. Now as to their sleeping places, if you can let your dogs run loose, and they will find warm places to sleep, with plenty of bedding in the barn or other out buildings where the ventilation is good, but no drafts of air to blow on them, that is the best place for them. I keep part of my dogs tied up, as they would be off hunting if I let them run loose. For those I use on the chain I use a 20-foot chain. Build a good, warm dog house with a shingle roof, an individual house for one dog. Cut a hole that he can get thru easily and then tack some burlap just above the hole and let it hang down over the hole. When it is cold weather I leave it down, but when it is pleasant I fasten it up so that it leaves the hole open. The air can get thru the burlap but it breaks the wind off of the dog and keeps the snow from blowing in on his nest, or rain if it is raining. He can go out and in when the burlap is down. Another easy way to make a good place for a dog is cut a hole in the side of a building that has a good roof, and put a box large enough so that it will give your dog plenty of room right tight up against the inside of the building where you cut the holes thru. Knock one side of your box out and put it to the hole on inside of building. Put your burlap on the outside at the hole as before described, and you have a fine place for your dog. Make the hole just large enough so he can get thru it easily, and cut it high enough so that when he lays down in the box, the bottom of the hole will be above the dog. Give your dog good, clean bedding at least once a week. Twice a week is not too often. Use some disinfectant about two or three times a month inside of dog house. The best cure for mange that I have ever used, or for sores to heal them is black gun powder, powdered sulphur and lard, mixed and well rubbed in. It is a sure cure for mange. It will soon kill the germs, if properly applied. I notice where a brother, in telling how to break a young dog to tree 'Coon said, to let the 'coon chew the dog for a while, help the 'coon, let him eat the dog for about 20 minutes and the dog would go to hunting them to get revenge, or something to that effect. Now it is my opinion that the dog would not want any more revenge as he would get a plenty right there, and the chances are that he would ever after be afraid of a 'coon, if he were a pup and got that kind of treatment. Help your dog kill a 'coon whenever you can, if you can do it without danger to the dog. I never let my dogs kill a 'coon when it can be avoided. If I can find the 'coon with my light in the tree I shoot him out, and then sometimes he has plenty of fight in him when he comes down. Other times he is dead when he hits the ground. Any one of my dogs will kill a 'coon if necessary, but they don't get the chance very often. There has been a few times that I let them kill the 'coon, when I could have killed him myself, when there were some of the boys with me that wanted to see them kill the 'coon, but it is tiresome work on a dog to kill a 'coon, harder a great deal than treeing one. My dogs will not stay at a hole unless the 'coon is very close to the top of the ground, as where I hunt there are a great many old coal entries and it would be a nuisance to have them bark at such places as you could not get them out, so I never encourage them to stay at a hole when they run one in. I have seen some discussion about the size of 'coons. The largest 'coon I ever caught weighed 30 pounds. He measured from the tip of his tail to the end of his nose, 4 feet and 4 inches. I caught another one last winter that weighed 25 pounds and measured four feet and 2 inches from his nose to the end of his tail. I catch a good many that weigh over 20 pounds. Another thing I want to tell you is this, in over 20 years of 'coon hunting I have never cut a tree down to get a 'coon. There is too much of that kind of work done. Where are all of the 'coons going to stay when you get all of the den trees cut down? I want to ask you where is the land owner that wants 'coon hunters cutting his timber down? Think of cutting a fine, large tree down because it has a hole in it with a 'coon inside. If I get a 'coon in such a tree and can't climb it, I just call the dogs away from the tree and let him go until some other time. I make it my business to go that way again some night, and the chances are I get that same 'coon in such a tree and can't climb it, I just tree a head of Mr. 'Coon if I can, and he goes up some tree that I can get him out of when he sees he is cut off from his den tree, and the tree is left for the next 'coon that comes along. So, brothers, please cut the tree cutting out, as it is for your own good to let those kind of trees stand if you want to hunt 'coon. When you go around thru the timber destroying it, some one is going to call a halt on YOU, and on the other hand it is not at all necessary to cut the timber to get the 'coon, and the tree is undoubtedly worth more to the man that own the land than the 'coon is to you. Of course, if the owner of the tree gives you permission to cut the tree, that clears you on that score, but after the tree is down, you will never find another 'coon in that tree. CHAPTER XXVI. DESCRIPTIVE TABLE OF TECHNICAL TERMS AS APPLIED TO THE DOG. The following table of definitions are used descriptive of the parts of the dog's anatomy, and are used and understood generally by professionals: [Illustration: (The numbers refer to the picture.)] Apple-headed.--Skull round instead of flat on top. 1. ARM. Blaze.--A white mark up the face. Brush.--The tail of a Collie, or any bushy tail. 2. BRISKET.--The part of the body between the chest and the neck. Front part of chest. Butterfly-nose.--A spotted nose. Button-ear.--An ear which falls over in front, concealing the inside, as in Fox-Terriers. Broken-up Face.--Refers more particularly to the face of the Bulldog or Toy Spaniel, and comprises the receding nose, or lay-back, deep stop, and wrinkle. Burr.--The inside of the ears. Breeching.--The tan-colored hairs on the back of the thighs of a Black-and-tan Terrier. Beefy.--Big, beefy hind-quarters. Cat-foot.--A short, round foot, with the knuckles high and well developed; like a cat's, short, round and compact. 3. CHEST.--The chest of a dog must not be confounded with the brisket; the breast or chest extends between the fore-legs from the brisket to the belly. Cheeky.--When the cheek bumps are strongly defined; thick in cheek. Chaps or Chops.--The pendulous lips of the Bulldog; the foreface of a Bulldog. Cobby.--Well ribbed up; short and compact. Cloddy or Cobby.--Thick-set, short-coupled and low in stature. Couplings.--The length or space between the tops of the shoulder-blades and tops of the hip-joints, or buckle-bones. A dog is accordingly spoken of as long or short "in the couplings." Cow-hocked.--The hocks turning inward; hocks that turn in, like those of a cow. Cushion.--Fulness in the top lips. Crook-tail.--The crooked tail of a Bulldog. Crank-tail.--Same as above. Culotte.--The feather on the thighs, as in the Schipperke and Pomeranian. Character.--The combination of points contributing to the whole make-up and giving to a dog that which is desired in his particular variety. Corky.--Compact and active looking; springy and lively in action. Dew-claws.--The extra claws found occasionally on the legs of all breeds, but especially of the St. Bernard; the superfluous claws inside the hind-leg just above the foot. Dewlap.--Pendulous skin under the throat as in case of Blood-hound. Dish-faced.--This term describes a dog whose nasal bone is higher at the nose than at the stop--a feature not infrequently seen in pointers. Dudley-nose.--A flesh-colored nose. Domed Skull.--Round skull. Deep in Brisket.--Deep in chest; deep from withers to point where chest and brisket meet. 4. ELBOW.--The joint at the top of the forearm. Elbows Out or "Out at Elbows."--This term defines itself. Bulldogs and Dachshunde are desirable with elbows so shaped, but it may occur as a fault through weakness. Expression.--The expression of a dog is largely but not wholly determined by the size, angular position, and degree of prominence of the eye. For instance in a St. Bernard the eye is small, somewhat sunken, showing a little haw. This gives a dignified and rather benevolent expression. "Collie expression" depends largely on the angle at which eyes are set to each other. Feather.--The fringe of hair on the back of legs of some breeds, notably Setters, Spaniels, and Sheep-dogs. The feathering on legs, as in the Setter and Spaniel. Flag.--The tail of a Setter. Flews.--The chops, or overhanging lips of the upper jaw. The term is chiefly applied to hounds or other deep-mouthed dogs. The lips. 5. FOREARM.--This makes the principal length of the fore-leg and extends from elbow to pastern. Frill.--The long hair on the brisket of some dogs, and especially of the Collie. The profuse hair under the neck. Frog-face or Down-face.--Nose not receding. Flat-sided.--Flat in ribs; opposite of well-ribbed up. Grizzle.--A bluish-gray color. Hare-foot.--Foot like that of a hare, long and narrow. Haw.--The red inside eyelid, usually hidden, but visible in Bloodhounds and St. Bernards; the red membrane inside the lower eyelid. 6. HOCKS.--The lower joint of hind-leg. Height.--The height of a dog is measured at the shoulder, bending the head gently down. The proper method is to place the dog on level ground close by a wall, and to lay a flat rule across his shoulders so as to touch the wall; then measure to the point touched by the rule. 7. HUCKLE-BONES.--Tops of the hip-joints. The space between these and the tops of the shoulders is called the couplings. Harlequin.--Pied, mottled, or patchy in color. 8. KNEE.--The joint attaching the fore-pasterns and the forearm. Kink-tail.--A tail with a single break or kink in it. Leather.--The ears i. e., the loose visible part of them. Layback.--Receding nose. Loins.--That part of the anatomy of the dog between the last rib and hindquarters. Long in Flank.--Long in back and loins. Lumber.--Superfluous flesh. Mask.--The dark muzzle of a Mastiff or Pug. Mane.--The profuse hair on top of neck. Merle.--A bluish-gray color splashed with black. Monkey-faced.--See Dish-faced. 9. NASAL BONE. Occiput.--The prominent bone at the back or top of the skull; particularly prominent in Bloodhounds; the bony bump on the top of the head. Overshot.--The upper teeth projecting over the lower. This fault in excess makes a dog pig-jawed. The top jaw protruding beyond the lower jaw. Out at Shoulders.--Shoulders set on outside, as in the Bulldog. Out at Elbows.--Elbows turning out. 10. PASTERN.--The lowest section of the leg, below the knee or hock respectively, usually only applied to those joints on front legs. Pig-jawed.--The upper jaw protruding over the lower, so that the upper incisor teeth are in advance of the lower, an exaggeration of an over-shot jaw. Pily.--A peculiar quality of coat found on some dogs, which show on examination a short woolly jacket next the skin, out of which springs the longer visible coat. This short woolly coat is "pily." When an ordinary coat is described as pily, it means that it is soft and woolly, instead of hard. Prick Ear,--(See Tulip ear). An erect ear; not turned down or folded. Plume.--The tail of a Pomeranian. Pad.--The under portion or sole of the foot. Penciling.--The black marks or streaks divided by tan on the toes of a Black-and-tan Terrier. Rose-ear.--An ear of which the tip turns backward and downward, so as to disclose the inside of the ear. 13. RUMP-BONE. Ring-tail.--A tail curving round in circular fashion. Roach Back or Arched Loins.--The arched or wheel formation of loin, as in a Greyhound, Dachshunde, Dandie Dinmont Terrier, and Bulldog. Racy.--Slight in build and leggy, as in the Greyhound or Whippet. Septum.--The division between the nostrils. 11. SHOULDERS.--Top of the shoulder-blades, the point at which the height of a dog is measured. Splay-foot.--A flat, awkward front foot, usually turned outward; and the opposite of "Cat-foot." Stern.--The tail. 12. STIFLE-JOINTS.--Stifles. The joints of hind-leg next above the hocks. Stop.--The indentation across the skull between the nose and the eyes. This feature is strongly developed in Bulldogs, Pugs and short-faced Spaniels, and considerably so in many other dogs. The step or indentation between the forehead and nose. Snipy.--Too pointed in muzzle. Semi-prick Ear.--An erect ear of which the end falls over forward. Sickle-tail.--A tail forming a semicircle, like a sickle. Short-coupled.--Short in back and loins. Shelly.--Too narrow and light in body. Second Thighs.--The muscular development between stifle-joint and hock. Style.--Showy, spirited, or gay demeanor. Tulip-ear.--An upright or prick ear. Topknot.--The hair on top of the head, as in the Irish Water Spaniel, Dandie Dinmont, and Bedlington Terrier. Throatiness.--Overmuch loose skin or flesh under throat. Twist.--The curled tail of a Pug. Trace.--The dark mark down the back of a Pug. Tucked-up.--Tucked-up loin, as in the Greyhound. Tricolor.--Black, tan and white. Thumb Marks.--The round, black spots on the forelegs of a Black-and-tan Terrier. Timber.--Bone. Undershot.--The lower incisor teeth, projecting beyond the upper, as in Bulldogs. The under jaw protruding beyond the upper jaw. Upright Shoulders.--Shoulders that are set in an upright, instead of an oblique position; not laid back. Vent.--The tan colored hair below root of tail. Varmint Expression.--As in the eye of the Fox Terrier, which is free from Haw, is not Sunken, is round but rather small than large, and set horizontally, not obliquely, giving a keen, rather "cussed" look. Wall-eye.--A blue mottled eye. Wrinkle.--Loose-folding skin over the skull. Wheaten.--Pale yellowish color. Withers.--Same as 11. END OF HUNTING DOGS 
32189	----	The Raising and Care of Guinea Pigs A Complete Guide to the Breeding Feeding, Housing, Exhibiting and Marketing of Cavies by A. C. SMITH Published by A. C. SMITH 712 West 74th Street KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI Copyright 1915 by A. C. SMITH CONTENTS CHAPTER I. Introduction Page 5 CHAPTER II. Varieties Page 6 CHAPTER III. Uses of Guinea Pigs Page 9 CHAPTER IV. Food and Feeding Page 12 CHAPTER V. Housing Page 14 CHAPTER VI. Breeding Page 20 CHAPTER VII. Exhibiting Page 23 CHAPTER VIII. Selling and Shipping Page 26 CHAPTER IX. Diseases Page 28 CHAPTER X. Profits in Cavy Raising Page 31 [Illustration: Guinea Pigs or Cavies] GUINEA PIGS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION. The Guinea Pig or Cavy belongs to the rabbit family and is a native of South America. Why they are called Guinea Pigs, no one seems to know, unless their shape suggests a small pig and the name Guinea is a corruption of Guiana, a country in South America. In size, shape and texture of fur they resemble a squirrel or rabbit. They have large bodies, short legs, small feet, no tails and a wide range of colors. A full grown Cavy weighs between two and three pounds, which weight it attains at about 18 months of age. The males are usually larger than the females. When white people first visited the Andean region of South America they found the Cavy domesticated and living in the houses of the Indians, by whom they were used for food. They were introduced into Europe in the 16th Century and since that time have spread all over the world. In South America there are still several species of wild Cavies. These are hunted as game and are considered a great delicacy. Cavies are wholly vegetarian in diet, eating about the same things as a rabbit. They are very easily tamed, are very healthy and hardy, are not noisy, are clean in their habits, and have no offensive odor. There is probably no animal in the world that is easier to handle. They easily adapt themselves to conditions and seem to do equally as well in city or country, in large or small quarters and a few of them together do as well as a large number of them. They are practically free from the diseases and epidemics that make the raising of poultry and rabbits so uncertain. Some of them get sick and die, of course, but it is usually due to some local cause or to the fact that they have been neglected or improperly fed or housed, but contagious diseases such as will often wipe out whole flocks of poultry or a pen of rabbits are unknown among Cavies. All of these things make the raising of Guinea Pigs a very pleasant as well as a very profitable occupation. CHAPTER II VARIETIES. English. There are several varieties of Cavies, distinguished mainly by their fur. The ones most commonly raised and most widely known are the English or smooth-haired. These are the ones you should raise for commercial purposes. They may be in color: white, black, red, fawn, cream, gray, brindle, brown, or a mixture of these colors. The whites are usually albinos and have pink eyes. [Illustration: Abyssinian Cavy] Peruvian. The Peruvian has long silken hair and may be called the aristocrat of Cavydom. They are raised principally by fanciers and for general purposes are no more valuable than the short haired ones, are not as hardy and are more trouble to handle as their coat needs careful attention. Abyssinian. This, like the Peruvian, is also a fancy breed. It has longer hair than the short-haired, and it stands out in curious little rosettes. These are more hardy than the Peruvian and are more common. The Kind to Raise. If you expect to raise Cavies for commercial purposes the English is the kind that should pay you best. They are easier to take care of than the long-haired varieties. For laboratories, experimental purposes, etc., it is the smooth-haired Cavy that is in most demand. If you are a Guinea Pig fancier or are raising them for pet purposes it is merely a matter of taste and choice. The long-haired ones are usually more expensive and sell for more, as they are scarcer and are generally sold for pet and fancy purposes. It is usually well to have a few Abyssinian among your stock if you are raising many, as many people prefer them for pets. CHAPTER III USES OF GUINEA PIGS. There are three main uses to which Guinea Pigs are put, as food, as pets and for experimental purposes in laboratory and medical research. By far the largest demand is in the last named field. Scientific Uses. There is possibly no animal so well adapted for scientific experiments as the Guinea Pig. In the testing and analyzing of serums and antitoxins and for experimental purposes generally the demand is enormous, thousands and thousands of them being used every year. Many of the large hospitals and laboratories have been compelled to establish breeding pens of their own in order to be sure of a constant supply. The demand here is steadily increasing and many more would be used if they could be obtained at a reasonable price. A United States Bulletin says, "Guinea Pigs sell at various prices dependant on supply and demand. The average price for several years has been about 75c, but laboratories now report that suitable stock is short and that they have been paying from $1.00 to $1.50 for their supply of animals." For these purposes they are used all the way from nine weeks to six months or more old or when they weigh from 9 ounces and up. The cost of rearing them to this age is very little and a good profit is therefore assured the raiser. As Pets. The demand for Guinea Pigs as pets is very large. They are so widely used in the medical field that the pet stores have a hard time keeping enough on hand to supply the local demand for pets. They are very interesting and perfectly harmless little animals. They do not bite or scratch and young children can play with them. They are not as common as the ordinary pet, and being more of a novelty, attract more attention. When sold as pets they usually bring more than when sold to the hospitals and raisers are assured of a very large demand for this purpose. In England and Europe the Guinea Pig is more widely raised than in America and there are more fanciers who show and exhibit them extensively. They are becoming more popular in this country and are being exhibited more and more in Pet Stock Shows. A good show animal is worth all the way from $10 to $100. As a hobby the raising of Guinea Pigs is most interesting and instructive as there are so many experiments that can be made in the breeding. As Food. For food purposes Guinea Pigs are admirable, although not many are eaten in this country at the present time. However, many of the newspapers and magazines have run articles suggesting that they be raised for this purpose and there is really no reason why they should not be. The United States Government indorses them as food animals and advises that they be used in this connection. In a few years we will possibly see Guinea Pigs sold in the stores as rabbits and poultry are now. Certainly no animal could be cleaner and being a vegetarian exclusively, its flesh is of the best. They can be prepared just as a rabbit or squirrel. In soups, stews, pies, or roasted, broiled or baked the young Cavy is equal to any other animal. For this purpose the animal should be about one-half grown. [Illustration: English Cavies] CHAPTER IV FOOD AND FEEDING. The feeding of Guinea Pigs is a very simple matter. Their main food is good hay or dried grass. This should be before them all the time, as they will not eat too much of it. Be sure, however, that it is not musty or mouldy. In addition to hay, they should have at least once a day, a feeding of green food. This is essential in keeping them from becoming constipated. By green food we mean such things as lawn clippings, green clover, spinach, green corn stalks, lettuce, celery tops, plantain, dandelion, grasses, etc., which is, of course, very plentiful in the summer. In the winter when you cannot get these, carrots, beets, apples, cabbage, mangle beets, yellow turnips, etc., will take their place. The grains such as oats, wheat, corn, bran, chops, etc., should be fed them, as it makes flesh and gives them strength. Oats is probably the best of them all. Stale bread is also good, but it should not be greasy or mouldy. A good plan is to feed in the morning hay and grain or a bran or chops mash instead of the grain. At noon some green stuff or roots and at night hay. Give them all the hay they can eat. Keep it before them all of the time, but only feed as much green stuff as they can clear up in a few hours. They are also not apt to overeat grain, which should be fed in an earthen or wooden vessel. If you feed only twice a day, give them the green food in the morning with the hay. Guinea Pigs drink but little water when eating green food, but they should have a vessel of fresh water in the hutch or pen every morning. It is also well to keep a piece of rock salt in each hutch. In the spring or summer you can feed more green stuff than in the winter, in fact, we have raised them in the summer on an exclusive green food diet by moving the hutches from place to place on the lawn. But in the winter and fall, when greens are scarce and they are not used to them, a sudden over-feeding might result in severe loss. Avoid a sudden change of diet. In the spring and summer there is but little food to buy for them. Even the city raiser, by saving his own and his neighbors' lawn clippings, can be well supplied. By curing these clippings a good grade of hay is obtained. A little grain, especially for the pregnant mothers, is all that need be bought. Bread and milk is a good flesh producer and should be fed any weak ones, also nursing mothers. In the winter it should be warmed. The feeding of Cavies, you see, is a very simple matter, even for a city man. The commission houses every day throw away enough lettuce, cabbage, celery, etc., to feed a large number. Stale bread can always be bought very cheaply from the bakeries. On the farm nothing whatever need be bought at any time. Doubtful Foods. Breeders differ so as to doubtful foods that it is hard to advise what not to use. We get good results from alfalfa, but some breeders say it is too rich and gives them kidney trouble. We feed alfalfa hay in the winter with good results, but have had but little experience with it green. We would advise you to go light on it, however. Many breeders feed cabbage, while others say not. All are agreed, however, that potatoes, white turnips and parsnips are to be avoided. Of course, meat or greasy food must not be fed. CHAPTER V HOUSING. Guinea Pigs do not require either large or elaborate quarters and the average man or boy can easily prepare a suitable place for them. There are two methods of housing usually used, namely, hutches and pens. Hutches. Among breeders generally the hutch method is preferred. They occupy less room, are easier to keep warm in the winter, and are easier handled. We illustrate several types. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 are the kind used by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in the Bureau of Animal Industry. They are about 20 inches wide, 3-1/2 feet deep and 18 inches high. They will accommodate a male and three or four females and young ones until weaned. [Illustration: Figures 1 and 2. Front and Rear Views of Government Type of Hutch.] The door covers nearly the whole front and is made of wire netting. In the back is a screened opening for ventilation. Each hutch should have a shelf about four inches high in the back as they like to get on and under it. These hutches are made to stack one on another to utilize small space and are kept indoors. Fig. 3 shows a type of hutch that can be built against the side of the wall. It is not best to have the wall of the house serve as the back of the hutch, it might be too cold. These can be built in tiers of three, each tier about 18 inches or two feet high. The size of each hutch can vary, depending on the number of Guinea Pigs you have. The entire front should be of wire with large doors so as to allow ventilation and to be easily cleaned. In the winter a small box can be put in each one for sleeping quarters and this box kept full of straw. Pens. Some breeders prefer pens and the pen system does have some advantages. In the first place, it gives the animals more room, has to be cleaned out less frequently and is more economical. If you have a suitable place for making pens it will be all right to use them. Of course, it is harder to protect them from cats, rats and dogs in pens, and it is also harder to keep them warm in winter. In summer the pens are really to be preferred. If you have space in a barn, wood shed, attic, basement or any place that is protected from wind and rain and cats, rats and dogs, you can easily fix up a place for them. A place six by ten feet will accommodate from 30 to 50 Guinea Pigs. Your space should be divided into several different pens with 12 to 18 inch board or wire netting. Guinea Pigs do not burrow, so a board floor is not necessary. The floor should be covered with litter of some sort. Saw dust is good for a bottom layer. Hay or straw can be put on the saw dust. In the winter, if the place is not heated, boxes with a small hole for them to run in and out of and which should be filled with hay or straw, should be supplied for sleeping quarters. Heat in the winter is not considered necessary by many very successful breeders, but we think it best they should have some protection, especially in very bitter weather, and the warmer you can keep them the better. They thrive better when the temperature does not fall below freezing. If given well protected, tight quarters with plenty of bedding they will get by all right without heat. However, the females that are about to litter should be kept in a warm place, as the little ones will freeze if the weather is very cold. After they get about a month old, you can, during a warm spell, move them out with the others. One of the most successful breeders in the West, whose stock brings fancy prices, opposes artificial heat and says they are better without it. Other breeders use oil stoves in the severe weather and some of the largest Caviaries have elaborate heating arrangements. Out Door Hutches. In the summer you can build a pen of wire netting for them to run in with a small tight box for sleeping quarters and protection from storm. Use small mesh chicken wire for the sides. The top can be of netting or boards. The size of the pen will of course depend on how many Cavies you have. These pens can be moved from place to place on the lawn, giving them good green grass. Very little other food then will be required. General Instructions. Give your stock all the room you can spare. Do not see how little room you can use, if you have room to waste. Be sure that they have ventilation, even in the winter. Animals, like humans, need fresh air. See that your hutches are kept clean and dry. Do not let your Cavies get wet. There is no need to build expensive and elaborate hutches, especially at the start. When you get a larger herd you can decide on some uniform style of hutch or pen and make them all alike. This makes them easy to handle and enlarge. Local conditions and circumstances will determine how you will keep your Cavies. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Practical Type of Indoor Hutch.] CHAPTER VI BREEDING. Guinea Pigs are very prolific, having about five litters a year, and from two to five at a litter. Three is a safe average. The females are sexually mature at a month, but, of course, should not be bred at that age. Three months is plenty early enough and some breeders wait until they are even older. The period of gestation is from 65 to 70 days. The young ones are fully developed when born and in a few hours are able to run around. They begin eating other food in a day or two. They should be weaned when about three weeks old and placed in separate pens, separating the young males from the females. It is then well to let the mother rest two or three weeks before being placed in the breeding pen again. It is best to let each female have not over four litters a year. The young ones are apt to be stronger and there will be more of them in a litter. You will get about as many of them per year with four litters as with five and have better stock. Some breeders, especially for show stock, get only three litters a year. When your young females are about four months old, they should be placed in the breeding pen. Best results and surer are obtained by keeping one male with four or five females and letting them stay together until you are sure each female is bred. They begin to show that they are with young in about 30 days or sooner and get to be very large before giving birth. It is best to have several females with young together in the same pen, as they will nurse each other's young indiscriminately and the little fellows seem to know no difference. While the males do not kill the little ones, still they should never be left in the pen with nursing mothers, as they will bother them. Many breeders do not have special breeding pens, but keep all of the females together and put males in with them. This is hardly the best plan, however. The females must not be allowed to litter in the big pen, but always in special pens or hutches. It is best to have different breeding pens or hutches, so you can get young stock that is unrelated. You will have many chances to sell breeding stock and it does not do to supply males and females that are full brother and sister. By using care you can so breed your stock that you can keep different batches of them that are not very closely related. Line Breeding. By line breeding, we mean breeding the same stock without getting new males. It is the method used by breeders of fancy stock to get any special color or marking. It is not inbreeding in the true sense of the word. In line breeding you breed the father to his daughter and the son to his mother. This arrangement is all right and gets splendid results. You must avoid, however, breeding full brothers and sisters. It is also well to breed pigs that are similar in color and marking. For instance: Breed whites with whites and blacks with blacks, etc. By line breeding you can get almost any color you want. If you wanted to get solid red, say, out of a mixed lot, you should breed your reddest male to your reddest female. Then breed the father to his reddest daughter and the reddest son to his mother. Continue in this way and eventually you will get solid reds. For commercial purposes, however, we think it is best to get new males every now and then. If you have only one male at the start, you should get a new one when the young ones of your first litter are old enough to breed. This will permit you to get stock not closely related and that you can sell for breeding and pet purposes. It is best to breed males and females of different ages. Have one older than the other. The females should not be handled too much when they are with young, as it is apt to injure them, and, of course, no animal thrives as well when fondled. Always keep your strongest and best males for breeders. Too frequent littering tends to weaken both the mother and the little ones. If you have a female that gives weak young that are dead at birth or die soon after, give her a rest of several months before breeding her again. It is best to have fewer litters and stronger stock. The old males will sometimes fight when in the pen together, but it is seldom that the females do not get along well together. If you have a fighting male keep him in a place to himself, as he is apt to injure the other males. Good young breeding stock is to be preferred by one beginning to raise Cavies, because they have a longer life before them and if you get old stock you cannot tell how old they are. Guinea Pigs live to be about seven or eight years old and if you buy young stock you have them for their entire breeding age. CHAPTER VII EXHIBITING CAVIES. The showing or exhibiting of Guinea Pigs is rapidly becoming more popular and in nearly all pet stock and poultry shows you will find several pens of Guinea Pigs. There are many fanciers in the country who make a specialty of show animals and fancy stock. In judging Cavies, the size, shape, condition, and color are the main things to take into consideration. The selfs or solid colors must have every hair of the same color. Any white whatever will disbar a pig that is otherwise red. In the broken colors the different patches should be uniform in size and the colors not run into each other. Fancy stock is nearly always line bred and great pains should be taken in breeding. To secure the best stock the females are only bred twice or three times a year and every care is taken of them from birth. They are bred for size, shape and color. Even if you are not breeding for fancy stock, it will often pay you to enter your best specimens in local poultry and pet stock shows, as it gives you some good advertising and you will often take good prizes. It lets people know you have stock and you can always get good prices for your prize winners. Always enter as near a uniform lot as possible in singles, pairs or trios, or even larger pens. While it costs more to produce fancy stock, still the higher prices you can get for it makes it pay. If you are raising only comparatively few pigs it might pay you to go in for fancy stock. Even if you have a large stock you can keep a few of your best specimens separate and give them little better attention. Of course, many of the large commercial raisers never bother about fancy stock as it does not pay when you are raising large numbers of them. Most of the shows are under the auspices of some pet stock association and a book of the standards can be secured from the secretary. We are giving below some of the classes under which stock is shown. Selfs. Solid colors throughout with no odd colored hairs. Tortoise Shells. Black and red colors with patches clear and distinct and as nearly as possible equal in size. Tortoise and White. Red, black and white patches, each clear cut with no running in of colors. The more patches and the more uniform in size the better. Dutch Marked. Blazed face of wedge shape. A band of white straight hair around the middle with no blending of colors. Feet white. Very rare. Brindle. Red and black evenly intermixed and perfectly brindled. Agouti. They are two shades, golden and gray. The golden should be rich brown undercolor with even ticking and belly of deep red. The gray should be a light shade with even ticking and belly of silver hue. The eyes of all English Cavies should be large and bold. Head and shoulders heavy, nose roman, ears drooping. In the Abyssinians the rosettes should be as plentiful as possible and the coat rough and wiry. In the Peruvian the main thing to be considered is the length and silkiness of the coat. A book giving the standards as adopted by the National Pet Stock Association of America can be obtained for 50c from its secretary, C. S. Gibson, 1045 W. Warren Ave., Detroit, Mich. CHAPTER VIII SELLING AND SHIPPING. Guinea Pigs are in such wide demand that it is not a hard matter to sell them if you let people know you have them. There are dealers in various sections of the country that buy in wholesale lots but the prices obtained are usually not so high as if you find your own customers and develop your own trade. The hospitals, medical colleges, agricultural schools, veterinary colleges, laboratories, pet stores, etc., are the heaviest users. You can get in touch with them by writing them and telling them you have Guinea Pigs for sale. The names of the hospitals and medical colleges can be gotten from any doctor and you, of course, know your own state University and Agricultural College. Prices obtained for stock for experimental purposes are not as high as when they are sold for pets and breeding purposes. You can build up a good mail order business by putting a small classified advertisement in the poultry and pet stock columns in the Sunday issue of some large city newspaper near you. A classified ad in some of the poultry papers or farm papers in your state will usually find you good customers. In shipping to hospitals and laboratories always send your males first and keep the females as when selling breeding stock you always have calls for more females than males. The prices you get, of course depend on circumstances. 50c is a fair price for the general run of stock for experimental purposes. For pets and breeding purposes you should get from $1.50 per pair and up. Prices depend on supply and demand. $1.00 for females and 50c for males enable you to make a good profit with them. For experimental purposes they are usually sold by weight and are salable from 9 ounces and up or when they are around six weeks old. Shipping. Guinea Pigs ship very easily. They go by express. Use a light but strong box; in the summer have plenty of ventilation. Wire netting on the top or sides of the box is good but slats and holes in the sides will do. In the winter not so much ventilation is needed. For food use plenty of hay together with some green food or carrots, beets, etc. No water is necessary. Do not ship out during a real cold spell in winter or a real hot spell in summer. Do not have your box larger than necessary as it means added weight and at the same time do not have it so small that they are crowded all over each other. CHAPTER IX DISEASES. Guinea Pigs are singularly free from disease and the breeder has little to fear along this line. Of course improper food, irregular feeding hours, poorly ventilated or exposed quarters will often cause trouble but it is almost an unknown thing for an epidemic to get in a herd and kill them off. As long as they are fed judiciously and their quarters are kept sweet and clean and well protected from wind, rain and snow, you will have little trouble. They are remarkably healthy little animals but of course will not stand neglect or improper care. Do your share and you will but seldom lose a Cavy. Diarrhoea. This is one of the most common troubles that a Cavy raiser has to contend with. Too much green food, mouldy and half cured hay and a sudden change of food is usually the cause. Give them plenty of good sweet hay and cut out the green food for a while. A small spoon of olive oil or a little castor oil is good to clean out the bowels. Constipation. Caused by not enough green food. This trouble is not apt to occur except in winter when greens are scarce. Give them apple parings, any green stuff you can get and a little olive oil. Always try and feed at least once a day a little green stuff and you will have no trouble. Premature Birth. Females are occasionally lost when giving birth prematurely to little ones and sometimes the young ones when born are so weak that they do not live long. This is caused by too frequent littering, by fright, over fatness or physical weakness. Over crowding in a cold drafty hutch in severe weather may so weaken the mother that she bears weak ones. Take especially good care of the pregnant females. Give them the choice food and the best quarters. Do not let them breed too often or start too young. Do not allow them to be handled or frightened. Worms. If a Guinea Pig is a good feeder and still does not grow, if he looks unhealthy and his coat is not glossy he may have worms. Give a half teaspoonful of any kind of worm medicine such as children use. Feed lightly and not at all until the medicine has taken effect. Going Light. Sometimes in spite of all you can do a Guinea Pig goes light. If the treatment for worms has no effect it may be tuberculosis. Separate at once from the others. Give special diet of milk and bread or bran and oats. If it does not get better destroy it as it does not pay to have such stock around. Colds, Pneumonia. When they have pneumonia there is usually no help for them. Cold, damp and drafty quarters are usually the cause. About the only thing to do is to move them to warmer quarters, give warm milk and a few drops of any good cold remedy that you may have in the house. As an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure you should use every care to see that they do not catch cold. Lice. Use any good insect powder or any poultry lice killer. Clean out the hutches or pens and disinfect with any good disinfectant. They are not often bothered if kept in good condition. Wounds. Males sometimes hurt each other in fights. Cleanse the wound with warm water, remove the hair around it with sharp scissors and apply any good healing salve. Running at the Eyes. This is often caused by a cold. Wash the eyes in a solution of boric acid that you can get any druggist to put up for you. Paralysis. Cavies sometimes have dragging of the hind limbs. Some say alfalfa will cause it, but it is usually from some disorder of the kidneys. Give about 25 drops of sweet spirits of nitre three times a day and rub the limbs with a good liniment. Feed carefully for several days and they will often get over it. General Instructions. It is much easier to keep Cavies well than to cure a sick one, therefore, try and prevent trouble. Sick ones should be separated from the others and placed in comfortable quarters. Feed only choice food. Keep their quarters clean, sweet and well ventilated. Give them all air and sun you can and all the room for exercise you can. Feed no mouldy, wet or half cured hay or grass. Do feed grass that is wet with dew or rain. Just give your Cavies half a chance and you will find that disease will bother your Caviary but little. CHAPTER X PROFITS IN CAVY RAISING. This industry in America is in its infancy. There are in several sections of the country large Cavy farms but they raise nothing like enough to supply the demand. Either as a side line with only a dozen or two females or whether raised as a business, Guinea Pigs offer a safe, sure and pleasant method of making money. There is no danger that the business will be overdone as the demand is growing much more rapidly than the supply and as the supply increases more will be used. The hospitals in most cases use them in preference to any other animal for experimental purposes but at this time they cannot get them in sufficient quantities. There is and always will be a great demand for them as pets. When the people get educated to the food value, this end of the industry will come in for its share. The present high cost of meat and the decreasing supply of cattle indicate that in a few years the people of this country will have to make other preparations for their fresh meat and the Cavy offers the solution to the meat problem. All of these facts make it plain that there is no danger of there getting to be too many Cavies. Inexpensive to Keep. The profits in raising Guinea Pigs are large. The price for them on the open market runs all the way from 50c to several dollars each. The cost of raising them to the age when they are to be sold differs, of course with conditions and circumstances. The man on the farm or in the small town who has access to plenty of food for them without paying for it of course, can raise them cheaper than the man in the city. Even in the city, however, very little has to be bought and that only in the winter time as in the summer lawn clippings and vegetables from the table will feed them and all that will have to be bought is some grain or hay. By saving and curing the lawn clippings there will be no need of buying hay. They are far more profitable than poultry as they not only cost less to feed and keep but are not subject to the diseases that make poultry raising so unprofitable. They occupy smaller space and are not dirty, noisy or objectionable in any way. Many large Poultry Farms have been turned into Caviaries as their owners have seen that it is easier to make money with Guinea Pigs than with chickens. Easy to Raise. Anyone with ordinary intelligence should be able to raise Guinea Pigs successfully. Women do especially well with them as they require less attention and work than chickens. Boys and girls find the raising of them not only a pleasure but profitable and it is a splendid occupation for them as it requires no hard or laborious work. Youngsters from 10 to 17 or 18 years old need a responsibility of some kind and the experience gained in the raising and selling of Guinea Pigs will be very valuable to them in addition to the money they will make. Parents will do well to give their children a chance to raise them. To start with Guinea Pigs does not require a large outlay of capital. By starting with just a few and by keeping the young females it does not take long to build up a herd of breeders that are valuable. As each female produces about 15 young a year and as these young are worth from 50c to several dollars each, you can readily see there is a big opportunity for profit. Big Profits. Suppose you begin with six females. In one year they should produce about 90 young and the young females of the first one or two litters should be producing before the end of the year. Therefore, it is pretty safe to assume that from the six females and their litters you should get every year about 120 pigs. If sold at a price of 50c each these six females would be producing about $60 a year. These figures will show you what 100 females should do. Starting. Almost anyone can start raising Guinea Pigs without having to make any very special preparations or a large investment. In any new business it is always best to start in a small way. From a dozen to 25 females will give you an opportunity to learn their habits and you can increase your quarters as your herd increases. It would not be advisable for anyone to start with 100 or more right at once unless he has especially good place for them and a plentiful supply of food. However, by beginning in a small way no risk is taken and you can learn the business as you go along, and you can get extra stock as you make preparation for it. Selection of Stock. You cannot be too careful in the selection of your stock. Get good healthy animals to start with as on them depends your success. Scrub Guinea Pigs will pay no better than scrub poultry or cattle. Those found in pet stores are frequently unfitted for breeding purposes as they may have been experimented on or the descendants of such animals. Hospitals are very careful of whom they buy and must be assured of the purity of the stock. Therefore, you cannot be too careful in the selection of your original stock. Just as no one would start a live stock farm with the cheapest animals that can be bought, so no one should start a Cavy farm with the cheapest Cavies that can be bought. There are many reliable dealers in the country who have good stock for sale. Buy of a well known breeder or dealer and you will have no trouble. Young breeders are to be preferred as they have a longer life before them and are more valuable. From our own experience with Guinea Pigs we would advise anyone who is interested in this work to take up the raising of them. Whether you have only a few for making a little money on the side or a large number as a real business you will find them very profitable. Certainly a great deal of pleasure can be gotten out of it and there is a wide sale for all you raise. If you will follow the instructions laid down in this little book we do not believe you will have any trouble making a success of the work. GUINEA PIGS For breeding, pet and experimental purposes. Any number, age, size or sex supplied promptly. When you have Guinea Pigs for sale, write us, as we are always in the market. Quote price, giving number, size and sex. CAVIES DISTRIBUTING CO. The World's Largest Dealers in Guinea Pigs 712 West 74th Street KANSAS CITY, MO. BELGIAN HARES RABBITS SQUAB PIGEONS Write me your wants and I will supply you. My =White Kings= are the most profitable squab breeders in the world, raising squabs weighing from a pound to a pound and a half. Mature quickly and always command top price. I can supply mated pairs. Write me today for particulars and price on pigeons, rabbits and Belgian Hares. EDWARD F. TOBENER 2828A Woodland Ave. KANSAS CITY, MO. _Redmon Printing Co., Kansas City_ 
34175	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) Transcriber's Notes This plain text version of the book has been prepared using the Latin-1 character set. Italic typeface is represented by the use of _underscores_. Small capital typeface is represented using ALL CAPS. The oe ligature is indicated by [oe] and [OE]. Inconsistent spellings, hyphenation, formatting etc. are retained as in the original, except where typographical errors have been corrected: these are listed at the end of the book. * * * * * [Illustration: frontispiece] DOMESTIC ANIMALS. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION OF THE HORSE, MULE, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, POULTRY, AND FARM DOGS. WITH DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, CROSSING, REARING, FEEDING, AND PREPARATION FOR A PROFITABLE MARKET ALSO, THEIR DISEASES, AND REMEDIES. TOGETHER WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. BY R. L. ALLEN, AUTHOR OF "COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGRICULTURE," ETC. NEW-YORK: ORANGE JUDD, 41 PARK ROW. AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER. 1865. Entered according to an Act of Congress in the year 1847 By RICHARD L. ALLEN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. INTRODUCTION. The object of the following work, on the History, Breeding, Management, Diseases, &c., of Domestic Animals, is to afford the Stock-breeder and Grazier a connected view of the entire subject in which he has so deep an interest. The writer has endeavored to compress within the limited space assumed as necessary to secure a general circulation and perusal, such principles and practice, and give to each that relative prominence, which it becomes the practical man to observe, to realize the greatest amount of value for the labor and capital devoted to his pursuits. Their history is essential, as it shows their introduction into the United States, their progress during the various stages of their improvement, and the comparative value of the improved and ordinary breeds. A knowledge of the best mode of breeding and management is of still higher importance. The first will enable the breeder to preserve the high character of the animals in his hands, or perhaps still farther to advance them; while proper management and feeding will prevent that deterioration and loss from disease, which frequently subtract so much from his profits. A larger space has been purposely devoted to the last topics, in preference to the subject of diseases, as prevention is not only less troublesome than cure, but much more economical. Feeding and management, after breeding, are really the important objects in view to the Stock-breeder and Grazier, for if these be judiciously attended to, disease among the herds will rarely be known. The subject of animal diseases is complicated and little understood; and to be properly comprehended, requires years close, intelligent study, under every advantage for obtaining the necessary information. Nearly every disorder assumes various shades of difference, and to remove it effectually a corresponding change of treatment is required. How absurd then the idea, that a compilation of formal remedies, administered by an unskilful or inexperienced manager, will be of material service in rescuing his herds or flocks from the ravages of disease. All that can consistently be done, is to give a few simple remedies for the most common and well-known ailments, and leave to nature or a professional farrier, such as are more complex or unusual. This work (with many subsequent and important additions) constitutes a small part of the "Compend of American Agriculture," the favorable reception of which, though but recently given to the public, has induced the writer to offer this important division of the subject in its present detached form. New York, November, 1847 INDEX. PAGE Animals, domestic, reared in the U. States 9 their number and value 9 their improvement 10 adaptation to various objects 10 general form and characteristics 13 the lungs 14 respiration 14 effects of 17 perspiration 18 food which supplies respiration 18 circumstances which augment respiration 19 food 21 purposes fulfilled by food 22 nutritive qualities for various animals 23 profit of feeding 23 See CATTLE, SHEEP, &c. Ass, the 181 varieties 181 characteristics 182 breeding in the U. States 182 as a beast of burden 183 Breeding--principles of 11 See CATTLE, SHEEP, &c. Cattle--neat or horned 26 various domestic breeds 26 native cattle 27 Devons 29 short horns 30 Herefords 35 Ayrshire 38 management of calves 39 breeding 41 breaking steers 42 management of oxen 42 fattening and stall-feeding 45 Diseases 41, 50 hoven 50 choking 52 inflammation of stomach 52 mange or scab 52 horn-ail--jaundice 53 mad-itch--bloody murrain 54 hoof-ail 55 loss of cud--scours or diarrh[oe]a--warbles or grubs--wounds--puerperal or milk-fever 56 caked bags--garget--sore teats--warts 57 Cows for dairy 60 management of 61 milking 61 See DAIRY. Comparative value of oxen and horses 190 Churns 69 Dairy, the 60 Dairy--selection and management of cows 60, 61 milking 61 properties of milk 62 variations in 63 cream--clouted ditto 65 Making butter from sour, sweet, and clouted cream 66, 67 sourness of cream 68 quickness in churning 68 over-churning 69 temperature of milk and cream 69 advantages of churn'g the whole 69 cleanliness in churning 70 premium butter, how made 70 Orange county do. do. 71 Making cheese, how effected 72 creamed and uncreamed 73 buttermilk cheese 73 whey do. 74 vegetable substances added 74 preparation of rennet 75 different qualities of cheese 77 warming the milk 77 quality of rennet 78 quantity of rennet 78 treatment of curd 79 separation of whey 80 cheese, salting 81 addition of cream 81 size of cheese 81 mode of curing 82 ammoniacal cheese 82 inoculating do. 82 premium cheese, how made 83 Ducks--see POULTRY. Farm dogs 207-214 Feeding defined 21 See CATTLE, SHEEP, &c. Food, comparative nutritive qualities of 22 how given, purposes fulfilled by it 22 changes in 24 See ANIMALS, PRODUCTS, &c. Geese--see POULTRY. Guinea-hen--see ditto. Hens--see POULTRY. Hinny--see ASS. Horse--the Arabian and Barb 138 the English 139 American 141 Arabians in America 139, 140 Ranger, the Barb--Bussorah--Narraganset pacers--Messenger, imported 140 Morgan horses 142 Canadian and Spanish 143 Conestoga 143 Norman 144 Cart, Cleveland bay, Belfounder 145 Eclipse, American 141 points of 146 habits 147 breeding 148 management of colts 149 breaking 150 longevity, feeding 151 Diseases 154 glanders 154 lampas, heaves, &c. 155 catarrh or distemper, spasmodic colic 156 flatulent colic 158 inflammation of bowels 159 physicking 162 worms 164 bots 164 wind-galls 165 the fetlock 166 cutting 166 sprain of the coffin-joint--ringbone 167 enlargement of the hock 168 curb 168 bone-spavin--swelled legs 170 grease 171 setons 173 founder--poison from weeds 174 inflammation of the eyes 175 stings of hornets, &c. 175 sprain 175 bruises--fistula 176 wounds--galls 176 shoeing, contraction of the foot 176 corns 177 over-reach, forging or clicking 178 the bearing-rein 178 the bit 179 stables 180 comparative labor with oxen 190 Mule, the--breeding in the U. S. 183 rearing and management 184 advantages over horse labor 185 valuable qualities 185 enduringness of 186 in California 188 economy of mule-labor 189 Poultry--their value 214 Hens--constituent of eggs 214 food 215 general management 216 the poultry-house 218 varieties 220, 221 diseases 222 Turkey, the 223 breeding and management 223 Peacock, the 224 Goose, the--varieties--breeding 225 feeding and food 225 Ducks--feeding--varieties 226 breeding and rearing 227 Sheep, the 84 uses of--importance of 85 varieties of wild--domesticated 87 native 89 Merino, the, history of 90 exportation from Spain 92 importation into the U. States 93 varieties 94 Saxon, the 96 Rambouillet, the 99 history of Merino in U. States 101 improvements of 102 peculiarities of 103 breeding 104 localities for rearing 106 South-Down, the, history of 106 Cheviot, the 109 Long-wools, the 110 improvement of the Bakewell 110 improvement of Cotswold and Lincolnshire 112 peculiarities of the Long-wools 113 importation into the U. States 113 breeding sheep 113 Winter management 116 sheep-barns and sheds 116 racks, mangers, and troughs 117 food 118 management of ewes, yeaning 119 management of lambs 119 castrating and docking 120 tagging or clatting 121 Summer management and food 121 washing 122 shearing 124 smearing and salving 125 weaning 126 drafting 126 stall feeding--management on the prairies 127 Diseases 128 diarrh[oe]a or scours 129 looseness in lambs, dysentery 130 hoven, braxy 130 costiveness, stretches, poison, inflammation of lungs, rot 131 foot-rot 132 flies, maggots, gad-fly 133 swollen mouth, foul noses, weakness, scab 134 ticks, pelt-rot, staggers or sturdy 135 abortion, garget, bleeding 136 wounds 137 to protect from wolves and foxes 138 Shepherd's dog 209 Swine 192 various breeds 194 breeding and rearing 198 rearing and fattening, large weights 199 treatment of food 201 products of the carcass 202 lard oil, how made 203 slearine and oleine 203 curing pork and hams 203 Diseases 204 coughs and inflammation of the lungs, costiveness, itch, kidney-worm 205 blind staggers 206 Wild Boar 193 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS--GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING, NUTRITION, MANAGEMENT, &c. The principal domestic animals reared for economical purposes in the United States, are Horned or neat cattle, the Horse, the Mule, Sheep, and Swine. A few Asses are bred, but for no other object than to keep up the supply of jacks for propagating mules. We have also goats, rabbits, and the house domestics, the dog and cat; the two former, only in very limited numbers, but both the latter much beyond our legitimate wants. There have been a few specimens of the Alpaca imported, and an arrangement is now in progress for the introduction of a flock of several hundred, which, if distributed among intelligent and wealthy agriculturists, as proposed, will test their value for increasing our agricultural resources. We shall confine ourselves to some general considerations, connected with the first-mentioned and most important of our domestic animals. Their number as shown by the agricultural statistics collected in 1839, by order of our General Government, was 15,000,000 neat cattle; 4,335,000 horses and mules, (the number of each not being specified;) 19,311,000 sheep; and 26,300,000 swine. There is much reason to question the entire accuracy of these returns, yet there is doubtless an approximation to the truth. Sheep have greatly increased since that period, and would probably number, the present year, (1848,) not less than 30,000,000; and if our own manufactures continue to thrive, and we should moreover become wool exporters, of which there is now a reasonable prospect, an accurate return for 1850, will undoubtedly give us not less than 33,000,000 for the entire Union. There has been a great increase in the value of the other animals enumerated, but not in a ratio corresponding with that of sheep. This is not only manifest in their augmented numbers, but in the gradual and steady improvement of the species. It may be safely predicted, that this improvement will not only be sustained, but largely increased; for there are some intelligent and spirited breeders to be found in every section of the country, whose liberal exertions and successful examples are doing much for this object. Wherever intelligence and sound judgment are to be found, it will be impossible long to resist the effects of a comparison between animals, which, on an equal quantity of the same food, with the same attention and in the same time, will return 50, 20, or even 10 per cent. more in their intrinsic value or marketable product, than the ordinary class. This improvement has been, relatively, most conspicuous in the Western and Southern states; not that the present average of excellence in their animals surpasses, or even reaches that of the North and East; but the latter have long been pursuing this object, with more or less energy, and they have for many years had large numbers of excellent specimens of each variety; while with few exceptions, if we exclude the blood-horse or racing nag, the former have, till recently, paid comparatively little attention to the improvement of their domestic animals. The spirit for improvement through extensive sections, is now awakened, and the older settled portions of the country may hereafter expect competitors, whose success will be fully commensurate with their own. Before going into the management of the different varieties, we will give some general principles and remarks applicable to the treatment of all. _The purpose for which animals are required_, should be first determined, before selecting such as may be necessary either for breeding or use. Throughout the Northeastern states, cows for the dairy, oxen for the yoke, and both for the butcher, are wanted. In much of the West and South, beef alone is the principal object; while the dairy is neglected, and the work of the ox is seldom relied on, except for occasional drudgery. Sheep may be wanted almost exclusively for the fleece, or for the fleece and heavy mutton, or in the neighborhood of markets, for large early lambs. The pastures and winter food, climate, and other conditions, present additional circumstances, which should be well considered before determining on the particular breed, either of cattle or sheep, that will best promote the interest of the farmer. The kind of work for which the horse may be wanted, whether as a roadster, for the saddle, as a heavy team horse, or the horse of all work, must be first decided, before selecting the form or character of the animal. The range of pig excellence is more circumscribed, as it is only necessary to breed such as will yield the greatest amount of valuable carcass, within the shortest time, and with the least expense. PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. All breeding is founded on the principle, that _like begets like_. This is, however, liable to some exceptions, and is much more generally true when _breeding down_ than when _breeding up_. If two animals (which can never be exactly similar in all respects) are requisite to the perpetuation of the species, it necessarily results, that the progeny must differ in a more or less degree from each parent. With wild animals, and such of the domestic as are allowed to propagate without the interference of art, and whose habits, treatment, and food are nearly similar to their natural condition, the change through successive generations is scarcely perceptible. It is only when we attempt to improve their good qualities, that it is essential carefully to determine, and rigidly to apply, what are adopted as the present scientific principles of breeding. We cannot believe that we have penetrated beyond the mere threshold of this art. Unless, then, we launch into experiments, which are necessarily attended with uncertainty, our duty will be, to take for our guide the most successful practice of modern times, until further discoveries enable us to modify or add to such as are already known and adopted. We may assume, then, as the present rules for this art, 1st. That the animals selected for breed, should unite in themselves all the good qualities we wish to perpetuate in the offspring. 2d. These qualities, technically called _points_, should be inbred in the animals as far as practicable, by a long line of descent from parents similarly constituted. The necessity for this rule is evident from the fact, that in mixing different species, and especially mongrels, with a long-established breed, the latter will most strongly stamp the issue with its own peculiarities. This is forcibly illustrated in the case of the Devon cattle, an ancient race, whose color, form, and characteristics are strikingly perpetuated, sometimes to the sixth or even a later generation. So far is this principle carried by many experienced breeders, that they will use an animal of indifferent external appearance, but of approved descent, (_blood_,) in preference to a decidedly superior one, whose pedigree is imperfect. 3d. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment, and food, should be favorable to the object sought. 4th. As a general rule, the female should be relatively larger than the male. This gives ample room for the perfect development of the f[oe]tus, easy parturition, and a large supply of milk for the offspring, at a period in its existence, when food has a greater influence in perfecting character and form, than at any subsequent time. 5th. Exceptions to this rule may be made, when greater size is required than can be obtained from the female, and especially when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are desirable. For this purpose, strong masculine development in the sire is proper, and if otherwise unattainable, something of coarseness may be admitted, as this may be afterwards corrected, and nothing will atone for want of constitution and strength. 6th. Pairing should be with a strict reference to correcting the imperfections of one animal, by a corresponding excellence in the other. 7th. _Breeding in-and-in_, or propagating from animals nearly allied, may be tolerated under certain circumstances, though seldom; and only in extreme cases between those of the same generation, as brother and sister. When the animal possesses much stamina and peculiar merit, which it is desired to perpetuate in the breed, it may be done either in the ascending or descending line, as in breeding the son to the parent, or the parent to his own progeny. This has been practised with decided advantage, and in some cases has even been continued successively, as low as the sixth generation. 8th. It is always better to avoid close relationship, by the selection of equally meritorious stock-getters of the same breed, from other sources. 9th. Wholesome, nutritious food, at all times sufficient to keep the animals steadily advancing, should be provided, but they must never be allowed to get fat. Of the two evils, starving is preferable to surfeit. Careful treatment, and the absence of disease, must be always fully considered. 10th. Animals should never be allowed to breed either too early or too late in life. These periods cannot be arbitrarily laid down, but must depend on their time of maturity, the longevity of the breed, and the stamina of the individual. 11th. No violent cross, or mixing of distinct breeds, should ever be admitted for the purposes of perpetuation, as of cattle of diverse sizes; horses of unlike characters; the Merino and the long-wools, or even the long, or short, and the middle-wools. For carcass and constitution, these crosses are unexceptionable; and it is a practice very common in this country, and judicious enough where the whole produce is early destined for the shambles. But when the progeny are designed for breeders, the practice should be branded with unqualified reprehension. GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. Within certain limits, these may be reduced to a common standard. All animals should have a good head, well set up; a clean fine muzzle, and a blight, clear and full, yet perfectly placid eye. With the exception of the dog and cat, whose original nature is ferocity, and whose whole life, unless diverted from their natural instincts, is plunder and prey; and the jockey racehorse, which is required to take the purse, at any hazard of life or limb to the groom; a mild, quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of the domestic brute. The neck should be well formed, not too long, tapering to its junction with the head, and gradually enlarging to a firm, well-expanded attachment to the back, shoulders, and breast. The back or chine should be short, straight, and broad; the ribs springing out from the backbone nearly at right angles, giving a rounded appearance to the carcass, and reaching well behind to a close proximity to the hip; tail well set on, and full at its junction with the body, yet gradually tapering to fineness; thighs, fore-arms, and crops well developed; projecting breast or brisket; the fore-legs straight, and hind ones properly bent, strong and full where attached to the carcass, but small and tapering below; good and sound joints; dense, strong bones, but not large; plenty of fine muscle in the right places; and hair or wool, fine and soft. The chest in all animals should be full, for it will be invariably found, that only such will do the most work, or fatten easiest on the least food. The Lungs. From the last-mentioned principle, founded on long experience and observation, Cline inferred, and he has laid it down as an incontrovertible position, that the lungs should always be large; and Youatt expresses the same opinion. This is undoubtedly correct as to working beasts, the horse and the ox, which require full and free respiration, to enable them to sustain great muscular efforts. But later physiologists have assumed, perhaps from closer and more accurate observations, that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of the smallness of the lungs. Earl Spencer has observed, that this is fully shown in the pig, the sheep, the ox, and the horse, whose aptitude to fatten and smallness of lungs, are in the order enumerated. This position is further illustrated by the different breeds of the same classes of animals. The Leicester sheep have smaller lungs than the South Down; and it has been found, that a number of the former, on a given quantity of food, and in the same time, reached 28 lbs. a quarter, while the South Downs with a greater consumption of food, attained in the same period, only 18 lbs. The Chinese pigs have much smaller lungs than the Irish, and the former will fatten to a given weight, on a much less quantity of food than the latter. (_Playfair._) The principle would seem to be corroborated by the fact, that animals generally fatten faster in proportion to the quantity of food they consume, as they advance towards a certain stage of maturity; during all which time, the secretion of internal fat is gradually compressing the size, by reducing the room for the action of the lungs. Hence, the advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced point, by which not only the quality of carcass is improved, but the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food consumed. These views are intimately connected, and fully correspond, with the principles of RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. From careful experiments, it has been found that all animals daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the aggregate of what may have been retained in the system, added to what has been expelled in the f[oe]ces and urine, and what has escaped by perspiration. Boussingault, who combines the characteristics of an ingenious chemist, a vigilant observer, and a practical agriculturist, made an experiment with a "milch-cow and a full-grown horse, which were placed in stalls so contrived that the droppings and the urine could be collected without loss. Before being made the subjects of experiment, the animals were ballasted or fed for a month with the same ration that was furnished to them, during the three days and three nights which they passed in the experimental stalls. During the month, the weight of the animals did not vary sensibly, a circumstance which happily enables us to assume that neither did the weight vary during the seventy-two hours when they were under especial observation. The cow was foddered with after-math, hay, and potatoes; the horse with the same hay and oats. The quantities of forage were accurately weighed, and their precise degree of moistness and their composition were determined from average samples. The water drunk was measured, its saline and earthy constituents having been previously ascertained. The excrementitious matters passed, were of course collected with the greatest care; the excrements, the urine, and the milk were weighed, and the constitution of the whole estimated from elementary analyses of average specimens of each. The results of the two experiments are given in the table on the next page. The oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in the sum of the products have not disappeared in the precise proportions requisite to form water; the excess of hydrogen amounts to as many as from 13 to 15 dwts. It is probable that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water by combining during respiration with the oxygen of the air." FOOD CONSUMED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. Key to columns: [F] = Forage. [W] = Weight in the wet state [D] = Weight in the dry state -----+---+-------+----------------------------------------------------------- | | | Elementary Matter in the Food. [F] |[W]| [D] |-------+------------+------------+------------+------------ | | | | | | |Salts and | | |Carbon.| Hydrogen. | Oxygen. | Azote. | Earths. -----+---+-------+-------+------------+------------+------------+------------ |lb.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt. Hay |20 |17 4 | 7 11 | 0 10 7 | 6 8 8 | 0 3 2 | 1 6 14 Oats | 6 | 5 2 | 2 7 | 0 3 18 | 1 10 14 | 0 1 7 | 0 2 10 Water|43 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0 0 8 Total|69 |22 6 |10 6 | 1 2 5 | 8 7 2 | 0 4 9 | 1 9 12 -----+---+-------+-------+------------+------------+------------+------------ PRODUCTS VOIDED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. -----------------+------------+------------+ ... | | | | Weight in | Weight in | [P]=Products. | the wet | the dry | | state. | state. | -----------------+------------+------------+ |lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.| [U]=Urine | 3 6 15 | 9 9 14 | [E]=Excrements |38 2 2 | 9 5 6 | -----------------+------------+------------+ [T]= Total |71 8 17 |10 3 0 | [F]=Total matter}|69 0 0 |22 6 0 | of the food}| | | +------------+------------+ [D]=Difference |27 3 3 |12 3 0 | -----------------+------------+------------+ ... ----+---------------------------------------------------------------- | Elementary Matter in the Products. +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [P] | | | | |Salts and | Carbon. | Hydrogen. | Oxygen. | Azote. | Earths. ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ |lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt. [U] | 0 3 10 | 0 0 7 | 0 1 2 | 0 1 4 | 0 3 10 [E] | 3 7 17 | 0 5 15 | 3 6 14 | 0 2 10 | 1 6 10 ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [T] | 3 11 7 | 0 6 2 | 3 7 16 | 0 3 14 | 1 10 0 [F] |10 6 0 | 1 2 5 | 8 7 2 | 0 4 9 | 1 9 12 | | | | +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [D] | 6 6 13 | 0 8 3 | 4 11 6 | 0 0 15 | 0 0 12 ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ WATER CONSUMED BY THE HORSE |WATER VOIDED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS. | IN 24 HOURS. ------------------+---------------+--------------------+------------ | lbs. oz. | | lbs. oz. With the hay | 2 3 |With the urine | 2 6 With the oats | 0 14 |With the excrements | 23 8 Taken as drink | 35 3 | | +---------------| |------------ Total consumed | 38 4 | Total voided | 25 14 |Water consumed | 38 4 | |------------ Water exhaled by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration | 12 6 -------------------------------------------------------+------------ * * * * * FOOD CONSUMED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. -------------------+------------+------------+ ... | | | [F]=Fodder. | Weight in | Weight in | | the wet | the dry | | state. | state. | -------------------+------------+------------+ |lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.| [P]=Potatoes | 40 2 5 |11 2 1 | [H]=After-math hay | 20 1 2 |16 11 0 | [W]=Water |160 0 0 | ... | +------------+------------+ [T]= Total |220 3 7 |28 1 1 | -------------------+------------+------------+ ... ----+---------------------------------------------------------------- | Elementary Matter in the Food. [F] +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ | | | | |Salts and | Carbon. | Hydrogen. | Oxygen. | Azote. | Earths. ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ |lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt. [P] | 4 11 2 | 0 7 15 | 4 10 17 | 0 1 12 | 0 6 13 [H] | 7 11 11 | 0 11 7 | 5 10 17 | 0 4 17 | 1 8 6 [W] | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0 1 12 +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [T] |12 10 13 | 1 7 2 |10 9 14 | 0 6 9 | 2 4 11 ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ PRODUCTS VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. ------------------------+-------------+------------+ ... | | | | Weight in | Weight in | [P]=Products. | the wet | the dry | | state. | state. | ------------------------+-------------+------------+ | lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.| [E]=Excrements | 76 1 9 |10 8 12 | [U]=Urine | 21 11 12 | 2 6 17 | [M]=Milk | 22 10 10 | 3 1 0 | +-------------+------------+ [T]=Total |120 11 11 |16 4 9 | [F]= " matter of food |220 3 7 |28 1 1 | +-------------+------------+ [D]=Difference | 99 3 16 |11 8 12 | ------------------------+-------------+------------+ ... ----+---------------------------------------------------------------- | Elementary Matter in the Products. +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [P] | | | | |Salts and | Carbon. | Hydrogen. | Oxygen. | Azote. |Earths. ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ |lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt.|lb. oz. dwt. [E] | 4 7 0 | 0 6 13 | 4 0 9 | 0 2 19 | 1 3 8 [U] | 0 8 7 | 0 0 16 | 0 8 3 | 0 1 3 | 1 0 6 [M] | 1 8 3 | 0 3 3 | 0 10 6 | 0 1 9 | 0 1 16 +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [T] | 6 11 10 | 0 10 12 | 5 6 18 | 9 5 11 | 2 5 10 [F] |12 10 13 | 1 7 2 |10 9 14 | 0 6 9 | 2 4 11 +------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ [D] | 5 11 3 | 0 8 10 | 5 2 16 | 0 0 18 | 0 0 19 ----+------------+------------+------------+------------+------------ WATER CONSUMED BY THE COW | WATER VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS. | IN 24 HOURS. ------------------------+------------+----------------------+----------- | lbs. oz. | | lbs. oz. With the potatoes | 23 12 |With the excrements | 53 10 With the hay | 2 9 |With the urine | 15 14 Taken as drink | 132 0 |With the milk | 16 3 +------------+ +----------- Total consumed | 158 5 | Total voided | 85 11 |Water consumed | 158 5 +----------- Water passed off by pulmonary and cutaneous transpiration | 79 2 We here perceive a large loss of water, carbon, hydrogen, &c. Nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped by respiration, while most of the water, oxygen, nitrogen, and salts, passed off in perspiration. In further illustration of the subject of respiration, Liebig says, "from the accurate determination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system in the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out of the body in the f[oe]ces and urine, _unburned_, that is, in some form uncombined with oxygen, it appears that an adult taking moderate exercise, consumes 13.9 oz. of carbon daily." The foregoing are facts in the animal economy, capable of vast practical bearing in the management of our domestic animals. But before following out these principles to their application, let us briefly examine The Effects of Respiration. We have seen from the experiment of Boussingault, that there is a loss of 6 lbs. 6 oz. of carbon, and 8 oz. 3 dwt. of hydrogen in the food of the horse, and something less in that of the cow, every 24 hours, which has not been left in the system, nor has it escaped by the evacuations. What has become of so large an amount of solid matter? It has escaped through the lungs and been converted into air. The carbon and hydrogen of the food have undergone those various transformations which are peculiar to the animal economy, digestion, assimilation, &c., which it is not necessary, nor will our limits permit us here to explain; and they appear at last in the veinous blood, which in the course of its circulation is brought into the cells of the lungs. The air inhaled is sent through every part of their innumerable meshes, and is there separated from the blood, only by the delicate tissues or membranes which enclose it. A portion of the carbon and hydrogen escapes from the blood into the air-cells, and at the instant of their contact with the air, they affect a chemical union with its oxygen, forming carbonic acid and the vapor of water, which is then expired, and a fresh supply of oxygen is inhaled. This operation is again repeated, through every successive moment of animal existence. Besides other purposes which it is probably designed to subserve, but which have hitherto eluded the keenest research of chemical physiology, one obvious result of respiration is, the elevation of the temperature of the animal system. By the ever-operating laws of nature, this chemical union of two bodies in the formation of a third, disengages latent heat, which taking place in contact with the blood, is by it diffused throughout the whole frame. The effect is precisely analogous to the combustion of fuel, oils, &c., in the open air. Perspiration Is the counteracting agent which modifies this result, and prevents the injurious effects, which, under exposure to great external heat, would ensure certain destruction. And this too, it will have been seen, is provided at the expense of the animal food. When from excessive heat, caused by violent exercise or otherwise, by which respiration is accelerated and the animal temperature becomes elevated, the papillæ of the skin pour the limpid fluid through their innumerable ducts, which in its conversion into vapor, seize upon the animal heat and remove it from the system, producing that delicious coolness so grateful to the laboring man and beast in a sultry summer's day. These two opposing principles, like the antagonistic operations of the regulator in mechanics, keep up a perfect balance in the vital machine, and enable that entire division of the animal creation, distinguished as warm-blooded, including man and the brute, all the feathered tribes, the whale, the seal, the walrus, &c., to maintain an equilibrium of temperature, whether under the equator or the poles; on the peaks of Chimborazo, the burning sands of Zahara, or plunged in the depths of the Arctic Ocean. The connection between the size of the lungs, and the aptitude of animals to fatten, will be more apparent from the fact, that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted, constitute two of the only three elements of fat. The larger size, the fuller play, and the greater activity of the lungs, by exhausting more of the materials of fat, must necessarily diminish its formation in the animal system; unless it can be shown, which has never yet been done, that the removal of a portion of the fat-forming principles accelerates the assimilation of the remainder. The Food which supplies Respiration. This, in the herbivorous animals, after they are deprived of the milk, which furnishes it in abundance, is the starch, gum, sugar, vegetable fats, and oils that exist in the vegetables, grain, and roots which they consume; and in certain cases where there is a deficiency of other food, it is sparingly furnished in woody and cellular fibre. All these substances constitute the principal part of dry vegetable food, and are made up of three elements, _which in starch, gum, cane-sugar, and cellular fibre, exist in precisely the same proportions_, viz: 44 per cent. of carbon, 6.2 of hydrogen, and 40.8 of oxygen. Grape sugar, woody fibre, and vegetable and animal fats and oils are made up of the same elements, but in different proportions, the last containing much more carbon and hydrogen than those above specified. In the fattening animals, it is supposed the vegetable fats and oils are immediately transferred to the fat cells, undergoing only such slight modification as perfectly adapts them to the animal economy, while respiration is supplied by the other enumerated vegetable matters. If these last are taken into the stomach beyond the necessary demand for its object, they too are converted by the animal functions into fat, and are stored up in the system for future use. But if the supply of the latter is insufficient for respiration, it first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in the food; if this is deficient, it draws on the accumulated stores of animal fat already secreted in the system, and when these too are exhausted, it seizes upon what is contained in the tissues and muscle. When the animal commences drawing upon its own resources for the support of its vital functions, deterioration begins; and if long continued, great emaciation succeeds, which is soon followed by starvation and death. The carnivorous animals are furnished with their respiratory excretions, from the animal fat and fibre which exist in their food, and which the herbivoræ had previously abstracted from the vegetable creation. Circumstances which augment Respiration. These are, exercise, cold, and an abundant supply of food. Exercise, besides exhausting the materials of fat, produces a waste of fibre and tissue, the muscular and nitrogenized parts of the animal system; and it is obvious from the foregoing principles, that cold requires a corresponding demand for carbon and hydrogen to keep up the vital warmth. The consumption of food to the fullest extent required for invigorating the frame, creates a desire for activity, and it insensibly induces full respiration. The well-fed, active man, unconsciously draws a full, strong breath; while the abstemious and the feeble, unwittingly use it daintily, as if it were a choice commodity not to be lavishly expended. If the first be observed when sleep has effectually arrested volition, the expanded chest will be seen, heaving with the long-drawn, sonorous breath; while that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose of the infant on its mother's breast. The difference between the food of the inhabitants of the polar and equatorial regions, is strikingly illustrative of the demands both for breathing and perspiration. The latter are almost destitute of clothing, and subsist on their light, juicy, tropical fruits, which contain scarcely 12 per cent. of carbon, yet furnish all the elements for abundant perspiration; while the former are imbedded in furs, and devour gallons of train oil or its equivalent of fat, which contains nearly 80 per cent. of carbon, that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a necessary warmth. The bear retires to his den in the beginning of winter, loaded with fat, which he has accumulated from the rich, oily mast abounding in the woods in autumn. There he lies for months, snugly coiled and perfectly dormant; the thickness of his shaggy coat, his dry bed of leaves, and well-protected den, effectually guarding him from cold, which in addition to his want of exercise, draw slightly upon respiration to keep up the vital heat. When the stores of carbon and hydrogen contained in the fat are expended, his hunger and cold compel him to leave his winter-quarters, again to wander in pursuit of food. Many of the swallow tribes, in like manner, hybernate in large hollow trees, and for months eke out a torpid, scarcely perceptible existence, independent of food. Activity and full respiration, on the return of spring, demand a support, which is furnished in the myriads of flies they daily consume. The toad and frog have repeatedly been found in a torpid state, imbedded in limestones, sandstones, and the breccias, where they were probably imprisoned for thousands of years without a morsel of food; yet when exposed to the warmth of the vital air and the stimulus of its oxygen, they have manifested all the activity of their species. This they are enabled to sustain only by an enormous consumption of insects. Dr. Playfair states, that in an experiment made by Lord Ducie, 100 sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 pounds of Swedes turnips each per day; another 100 were placed in the open air, and ate 25 pounds per day; yet the former, which had one-fifth less food, weighed, after a few weeks, three pounds more per head than the latter. He then fed five sheep in the open air, between the 21st November and 1st December. They consumed 90 pounds of food per day, the temperature being at 44°, and at the end of this time, they weighed two pounds less than when first exposed. Five sheep were then placed under a shed, and allowed to run about in a temperature of 49°. At first they consumed 82 pounds per day; then 70 pounds, and at the end of the time they had gained 23 pounds. Again, five sheep were placed under a shed as before, and not allowed to take any exercise. They ate at first, 64 pounds of food per day, then 58 pounds, and increased in weight 30 pounds. Lastly, five sheep were kept quiet and covered, and in the dark. They ate 35 pounds per day, and increased eight pounds. Mr. Childers states, that 80 Leicester sheep in the open field, consumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil-cake. On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able to consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 25, being only half the quantity required before, and yet they fattened as rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. The minimum of food, then, required for the support of animals, is attained when closely confined in a warm, dark shelter; and the maximum, when running at large, exposed to all weathers. THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. This should be regulated by a variety of considerations. The young which may be destined for maturity, should be supplied with milk from the dam until weaning-time. No food can be substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent, which is so safe, healthful, and nutritious. If from any cause there is deficiency or total privation, it must be made up by that kind of food, meal-gruel, &c., which, in its composition, approaches nearest in quality to the milk. At a more advanced age, or the time for weaning, grass, hay, roots, or grain, may be substituted, in quantities sufficient to maintain a steady but _not a forced growth_. Stuffing can only be tolerated in animals which are speedily destined for the slaughter. Alternately improving and falling back, is injurious to all stock. _An animal should never be fat but once._ Especially is high feeding bad for breeding animals. Much as starving is to be deprecated, the prejudicial effects of repletion are still greater. The calf or lamb intended for the butcher, may be pushed forward with all possible rapidity. Horses or colts should never exceed a good working or breeding condition. Purposes fulfilled by different Kinds of Food. The objects designed to be answered by food, are to a certain extent the same. All food is intended to meet the demands of respiration and nutrition, and fattening to a greater or less degree. But some are better suited to one object than others, and it is for the intelligent farmer to select such as will most effectually accomplish his particular purposes. The very young animal requires large quantities of the phosphate of lime for the formation of bone; and this is yielded in the milk in larger proportions than from any other food. The growing animal wants bone, muscle, and a certain amount of fat, and these are procured from the grasses, roots, and grain; from the former when fed alone, and from the two latter when mixed with hay or grass. Horses, cattle, and sheep need hay to qualify the too watery nature of the roots, and the too condensed nutritiveness of the grain. Animals that are preparing for the shambles, require vegetable oils or fat, starch, sugar, or gum. The first is contained in great abundance in flax and cotton-seed, the sun-flower, and many other of the mucilaginous seeds. Indian corn is the most fattening grain. The potato contains the greatest proportion of starch, and the sugar-beet has large quantities of sugar, and both consequently are good for stall-feeding. The ripe sugar-cane is perhaps the most fattening of vegetables, if we except the oily seeds and grain. The Swedes turnip is a good food to commence with fattening cattle and sheep; but where great ripeness in animals is desired, they should be followed with beets, carrots or potatoes, and grain. The table of the average composition of the different crops, which we subjoin from Johnston, shows the comparative qualities of various kinds of food, and it will be found a valuable reference for their nutritive and fattening qualities. He says, "In drawing up this table, I have adopted the proportions of gluten, for the most part, from Boussingault. Some of them, however, appear to be very doubtful. The proportions of fatty matter are also very uncertain. With a few exceptions, those above given have been taken from Sprengel, and they are, in general, stated considerably too low. It is an interesting fact, that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under the husk of the grains of corn, is generally much greater than in the substance of the corn itself. Thus I have found the pollard of wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the fine flour obtained from the same sample of grain. The four portions separated by the miller from a superior sample of wheat grown in the neighborhood of Durham, gave of oil respectively: fine flour, 1·5 per cent.; pollard, 2·4; boxings, 3·6; and bran, 3·3 per cent. Dumas states that the husk of oats sometimes yields as much as five or six per cent. of oil." The columns under starch, &c., and fatty matter, denote the value for respiration or sustaining life, and the fattening qualities; that under gluten, the capacity for yielding muscle and supporting labor; and saline matter indicates something of the proportions which are capable of being converted into bones. Water. Husk or Starch, Gluten, Fatty Saline woody gum, and albumen, matter. matter fibre. sugar. legumen, &c. Wheat, 16 15 55 10 to 15 2 to 4 J. 2·0 Barley, 15 15 60 12? 2·5 J. 2·0 Oats, 16 20 50 14·5? 5·6 J. 3·5 Rye, 12 10 60 14·5 3·0 1·0 Indian corn, 14 15? 50 12·0 5 to 9 D. 1·5 Buckwheat, 16? 25? 50 14·5 0·4? 1·5 Beans, 16 10 40 28·0 2 + 3·0 Peas, 13 8 50 24·0 2·8? 2·8 Potatoes, 75? 5? 12? 2·25 0·3 0·8 to 1 Turnips, 85 3 10 1·2 ? 0·8 to 1 Carrots, 85 3 10 2·0 0·4 1·0 Meadow hay, 14 30 40 7·1 2 to 5 D. 5 to 10 Clover hay, 14 25 40 9·3 3·0 9 Pea straw, 10 to 15 25 45 12·3 1·5 5 Oat do. 12 45 35 1·3 0·8 6 Wheat do. 12 to 15 50 30 1·3 0·5 5 Barley do. do. 50 30 1·3 0·8 5 Rye do. do. 45 38 1·3 0·5 3 Indian corn do. 12 25 52 3·0 1·7 4 This table, it will be perceived, is far from settling the _precise_ relative value of the different enumerated articles. An absolute, unchanging value can never be assumed of any one substance, as the quality of each must differ with the particular variety, the soil upon which it is grown, the character of the season, the manner of curing, and other circumstances. An approximate relative value is all that can be expected, and this we may hope ere long to obtain, from the spirit of analytical research, which is now developed and in successful progress. More especially do we need these investigations with _American products_, some of which are but partially cultivated in Europe, whence we derive most of our analyses. And many which are there reared, differ widely from those produced here, as these also differ from each other. What, for instance, is the character of _meadow hay_? We know that this varies as four to one, according to the particular kinds grown; and our Indian corn has certainly a less range than from five to nine. The Changes in the Food of Animals. Potatoes, when first ripe, are estimated to be worth, for feeding purposes, nearly twice as much as when old; and the relative value of the different kinds, varies greatly at the same age and under similar conditions of growth. Perrault ascertained by careful experiment, that hay, clover, and lucerne lost much of their nutritive qualities by drying, and in lucerne this loss amounted to about thirty-five per cent. This is an important consideration in the feeding of green and dry forage. Oats are among the best feed, both for young and working animals; but it has been found that they are greatly improved for the latter, and perhaps for both, by allowing the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter, before feeding. The improvement by steaming and cooking food, is seldom sufficiently appreciated. Food properly managed, can never be made worse by cooking for any stock; although it has not been considered so essential for working, and generally, for ruminating animals, as for swine, and such as were stall-feeding. But the alteration produced in cooking, by fitting it for a more ready assimilation, must, as a general rule, add much to the value of the food, and the rapid improvement of the animal. The effect of slight fermentation, or souring the food, produces the same result. Animals accustomed to this acid food, will reject what is unprepared when they can get at the former; and we have no doubt, from our own experience, that there is a saving in thus preparing it, from 20 to 40 per cent. A mixture of food should be supplied to all animals. Like man, they tire of any constant aliment. For such, especially, as are fattening, and which it is desirable to mature with the greatest rapidity, a careful indulgence of their appetite should be studied. They should be provided with whatever they most crave, if it be adapted to the secretion of fat. Cutting, crushing, and grinding the food; cooking, souring, and mixing it, are each by themselves an improvement for feeding; and frequently two or more of these preparations combined, are of great utility in effecting the object proposed. The Profit of Feeding. It is evident, that this consists in a valuable return from the animal of the food consumed. In the horse, this can only be received in labor or breeding; in the ox, from labor and flesh; in the cow, from the milk, the flesh, and her young. In the sheep, it may be returned in its fleece, its carcass, or its progeny; and in the swine only by its progeny and flesh. The manure we expect from all; and if this be not secured and judiciously used, few animals about the farm will be found to yield a satisfactory profit for their food and attention; though it is evident, it should form but a small part of the return looked for. Animals are only profitable to the farmer, when they yield a daily income, as in their milk or labor; or annually, by their young or fleece; unless it be in a course of regular improvement, either in their ordinary growth or preparation for the butcher. The animal must consume a certain amount of food merely to keep up its stationary condition, and to supply the materials for waste, respiration, perspiration, and the evacuations. These must first be provided for in all cases, before the farmer can expect any thing for the food. Frequent observation has shown, that an ox will consume about two per cent, of his weight of hay per day, to maintain his condition. If put to moderate labor, an increase of this quantity to three per cent., will enable him to perform his work, and still maintain his flesh. If to be fattened, he requires about 4½ per cent. of his weight daily, in nutritious food. A cow to remain stationary and give no milk, eats two per cent. of her weight daily; and if in milk, she will consume three per cent. If these statements are correct, which it is certain they are in principle, though they may not be entirely in degree, it will require the same food to keep three yoke of cattle in idleness, as two at work; and the food of every two that are idle, will nearly support one under the most rapid condition of fatting. Two cows may be kept in milk, with the same feed that will keep three without. No practice is more impolitic, than barely to sustain the stock through the winter, or a part of the year, as is the case in too many instances, and allow them to improve only when turned on grass in summer. Besides subjecting them to the risk of disease, consequent upon their privation of food, nearly half the year is lost in their use, or in maturing them for profitable disposal; when if one-third of the stock had been sold, the remainder would have been kept in a rapidly improving condition, and at three years of age, they would probably be of equal value, as otherwise at five or six. It is true that breed has much to do with this rapid advancement, but breed is useless without food to develop and mature it. CHAPTER II. NEAT OR HORNED CATTLE. The value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of the domestic animals in the United States. They are as widely disseminated, and more generally useful. Like sheep and all our domestic brutes, they have been so long and so entirely subject to the control of man, that their original type is unknown. They have been allowed entire freedom from all human direction or restraint for hundreds of years, on the boundless pampas of South America, California, and elsewhere; but when permitted to resume that natural condition, by which both plants and animals approximate to the character of their original head, they have scarcely deviated in any respect, from the domestic herds from which they are descended. From this it may be inferred, that our present races do not differ, in any of their essential features and characteristics, from the original stock. Various Domestic Breeds. Cultivation, feed, and climate, have much to do in determining the form, size, and character of cattle. In Lithuania, cattle attain an immense size, with but moderate pretensions to general excellence, while the Irish Kerry and Scotch Grampian cows but little exceed the largest sheep; yet the last are compact and well-made, and yield a good return for the food consumed. Every country, and almost every district, has its peculiar breeds, which by long association have become adapted to the food and circumstances of its position, and when found profitable, they should be exchanged for others, only after the most thorough trial of superior fitness for the particular location, in those proposed to be introduced. More attention has been paid to the improvement of the various breeds of cattle in England, than in any other country; and it is there they have attained the greatest perfection in form and character for the various purposes to which they are devoted. We have derived, directly from Great Britain, not only the parent stock from which nearly all our cattle are descended, but also most of those fresh importations, to which we have looked for improvement on the present race of animals. A few choice Dutch cattle, generally black and white, and of large size, good forms, and good milkers, with a decided tendency to fatten, have been occasionally introduced among us, but not in numbers sufficient to keep up a distinct breed; and in the hands of their importers, or immediate successors, their peculiar characteristics have soon become merged in those herds by which they were surrounded. Some few French and Spanish cattle, the descendants of those remote importations, made when the colonies of those kingdoms held possession of our northern, western, and southern frontiers, still exist in those sections; and although possessing no claims to particular superiority, at least in any that have come within our notice, yet they are so well acclimated, and adapted to their various localities, as to render it inexpedient to attempt supplanting them, except with such as are particularly meritorious. Native Cattle. This is a favorite term with Americans, and comprehends every thing in the country, excepting such as are of a pure and distinct breed. It embraces some of the best, some of the worst, and some of almost every variety, shape, color, and character of the bovine race. The designation has no farther meaning, than that they are indigenous to the soil, and do not belong to any well-defined or distinct variety. The best native cattle of the Union are undoubtedly to be found in the Northeastern states. Most of the early emigrant cattle in that section were from the southern part of England, where the Devon cattle abound; and though not at the present time bearing a close resemblance to that breed, unless it has been impressed upon them by more recent importations, yet a large number have that general approximation in character, features, and color, which entitles them to claim a near kindred with one of the choicest cultivated breeds. They have the same symmetry, but not in general the excessive delicacy of form, which characterizes the Devons; the same intelligence, activity, and vigor in the working cattle, and the same tendency to fattening; but they are usually better for the dairy than their imported ancestors. Some valuable intermixtures have occasionally been made among them. Among these, there have been many brindled cattle widely disseminated, of great merit as workers, and not often surpassed for the dairy and shambles. The Herefords have in a few instances been introduced among the eastern cattle, and apparently with great improvement. The importation made by Admiral Coffin, of four choice Hereford bulls and cows, which were presented to the State Agricultural Society of Massachusetts, nearly thirty years since, is especially to be mentioned, as resulting in decided benefit wherever they were disseminated. Some of the old Yorkshire, or as they are sometimes styled, the long-horned Durhams, have been introduced, though these have been isolated individuals and never perpetuated as a separate breed. A few small importations have been made of the Short Horns and Ayrshires, but neither of these have been bred in the New England states in distinct herds, to any extent. Their _native breed_ has hitherto, and generally with good reason, possessed claims on the attention of their owners, which, with some slight exceptions, it has not been in the power of any rivals to supplant. With entire adaptedness to the soil, climate, and wants of the farmer, an originally good stock has, in frequent instances, been carefully fostered, and the breeding animals selected with a strict reference to their fitness for perpetuating the most desirable qualities. As a consequence of this intelligent and persevering policy, widely, but not universally pursued, they have a race of cattle, though possessing considerable diversity of size and color, yet coinciding in a remarkable degree in the possession of those utilitarian features, which so justly commend them to our admiration. In proceeding southwestwardly through New York, New Jersey, and elsewhere, we shall find in this branch of stock, a greater diversity and less uniform excellence; though they have extensive numbers of valuable animals. Here and there will be found a choice collection of some favorite foreign breed, which emigrants have brought from their native home, as did the Pagan colonists their penates or household gods; the cherished associates of early days, and the only relics of their father-land. Such are an occasional small herd of polled or hornless cattle, originally derived from Suffolk or Galloway, excellent both for the dairy and shambles; the Kyloe, or West Highland, (Scottish,) a hardy animal, unrivalled for beef; the Welsh runt; the Irish cattle; the crumpled-horn Alderney, and some others. The Devon Is among the oldest distinctly cultivated breeds in this country, as it undoubtedly is of England, and probably it is the most universal favorite. This popularity is well deserved, and it is based upon several substantial considerations. They are beautifully formed, possessing excessive fineness and symmetry of frame, yet with sufficient bone and muscle to render them perfectly hardy; and they are among the most vigorous and active of working cattle. They have great uniformity of appearance in every feature, size, shape, horns, and color. The cows and bulls appear small, but the ox is much larger; and both he and the dam, on cutting up, are found to weigh much beyond the estimates which an eye accustomed only to ordinary breeds, would have assigned to them. The flesh is finely marbled or interspersed with alternate fat and lean, and is of superior quality and flavor. The cows invariably yield milk of great richness, and when appropriately bred, none surpass them for the quantity of butter and cheese it yields. Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of the late Lord Leicester's estate at Holkham, has, by careful attention, somewhat increased the size, without impairing the beauty of their form, and so successful has he been in developing their milking properties, that his average product of butter from each cow, is 4 lbs. per week for the whole year. He has challenged England to milk an equal number of cows of any breed, against 40 pure Devons, to be selected out of his own herd, without as yet having found a competitor. Although this is not a test of their merits, and by no means decides their superiority, yet it shows the great confidence reposed in them by their owner. The Devon ox, under six years old, has come up to a nett dead weight of 1,593 lbs.; and at three years and seven months, to 1,316 lbs., with 160 lbs. of rough tallow. _Description._ The Devon is of medium size, and so symmetrical, as to appear small. The color is invariably a deep mahogany red, with usually a white udder and strip under the belly; and the tuft at the end of the tail is red while they are calves, but white in the older animal. The head is small, broad in the forehead, and somewhat indented. The muzzle is delicate, and both the nose and the rings around the eye, in the pure breed, are invariably of a bright, clear orange. The cheeks and face are thin and fleshless; the horns clear, smooth, and of a yellowish white, handsomely curved upward. The neck is small and delicate at its junction with the head, but is well expanded in its attachment to the breast and shoulders. The last has the true slant for activity and strength, in which it excels all other breeds of equal weight. The barrel is round and deep, with a projecting brisket. The back is broad and level; the flank full; hips wide; the rumps long; the quarters well developed, and capable of holding a great quantity of the most valuable meat. The tail is on a level with the back, and gracefully tapers like a drum-stick, to the tuft on the end. The legs are of peculiar delicacy and fineness, yet possess great strength. The skin is of medium thickness, of a rich orange hue, pliable to the touch, and covered with a thick coating of fine, soft, curly hair. The Devon is intelligent, gentle, and tractable; is good for milk, and unsurpassed for the yoke and for fattening. No animal is better suited to our scanty or luxuriant hill pastures than the Devon, and none make a better return for the attention and food received. They ensure a rapid improvement when mixed with other cattle, imparting their color and characteristics in an eminent degree. Several importations have been made into this country within the last 30 years, of the choicest animals, and though not yet numerous in the United States, we possess some of the best specimens that exist. The Short Horns, or Durhams. Are decidedly the most showy among the cattle species. They are of all colors between a full, deep red, and a pure creamy white; but generally have both intermixed in larger or smaller patches, or intimately blended in a beautiful roan. Black, brown, or brindled, are colors not recognised among pure-bred Short Horns. Their form is well-spread, symmetrical, and imposing, and capable of sustaining a large weight of valuable carcass. The horn was originally branching and turned upward, but now frequently has a downward tendency, with the tips pointing towards each other. They are light, and comparatively short; clear, highly polished, and waxy. The head is finely formed, with a longer face but not so fine a muzzle as the Devon. The neck is delicately formed without dewlap, the brisket projecting; and the great depth and width of the chest giving short, well-spread fore-legs. The crops are good; back and loin broad and flat; ribs projecting; deep flank and twist; tail well set up, strong at the roots and tapering. They have a thick covering of soft hair, and are mellow to the touch, technically termed, _handling well_. They mature early and rapidly for the quantity of food consumed, yielding largely of good beef with little offal. As a breed, they are excellent milkers; though some families of the Short Horns surpass others in this quality. They are inferior to the Devons, in their value as working oxen, and in the richness of their milk. [Illustration: A Short-Horn Bull.] The Short Horns are assigned a high antiquity, by the oldest breeders in the counties of Durham and Yorkshire, England, the place of their origin, and for a long time, of their almost exclusive breeding. From the marked and decided improvement which they stamp upon other animals, they are evidently an ancient breed, though much the juniors of the Devon and Hereford. Their highly artificial style, form, and character, are unquestionably the work of deeply studied and long-continued art; and to the same degree that they have been moulded in unresisting compliance with the dictation of their intelligent breeders, have they departed from that light and more agile form of the Devon, which conclusively and beyond the possibility of contradiction, marks the more primitive race. THE IMPORTATION OF SHORT HORNS INTO THIS COUNTRY. This is claimed to have been previous to 1783. They are the reputed ancestors of many choice animals existing in Virginia, in the latter part of the last century, and which were known as the _milk breed_; and some of these, with others termed the _beef breed_, were taken into Kentucky by Mr. Patton, as early as 1797, and their descendants, a valuable race of animals, were much disseminated in the West, and known as the _Patton stock_. The first authentic importations we have recorded, are those of Mr. Heaton, into Westchester, N. Y., in 1791 and '96, from the valuable herds of Messrs. Culley and Colling, which consisted of several choice bulls and cows. These were for many years bred pure, and their progeny was widely scattered. (_American Herd Book._) They were also imparted into New York, by Mr. Cox, in 1816; by Mr. Bullock, in 1822; by the late Hon. S. Van Rensselaer in 1823; and immediately after, by Mr. Charles Henry Hall, of Harlem. Some small importations were made into Massachusetts between 1817 and '25, by several enterprising agriculturists, Messrs. Coolidge, Williams, and others; into Connecticut by Mr. Hall and others; into Pennsylvania by Mr. Powell; and into Ohio and some other states, by various individuals early in the present century. [Illustration: Fig. 2. Short-Horned Cow.] Since the first importations, larger accessions from the best English herds have been frequently made; and with the nice regard for pedigrees which the introduction of the herd book, and careful purity in breeding has produced, the Short Horns have become the most extensive pure-bred family of cattle in the United States. During the speculative times of 1835 to 1840, they brought high prices, frequently from $500 to $1000, and sometimes more. The following years of financial embarrassment, reduced their market price below their intrinsic value; but the tide is again turning, and they are now in demand, but still at prices far below their utility and merits. They have from the first, been favorites in the rich, corn valleys of the West, their early maturity and great weight giving them a preference over any other breed. The only drawback to this partiality, is their inability, from their form and weight, to reach remote eastern markets in good condition; an objection now in a great measure remedied, by the recent remission of duties on foreign beef in the English market, which makes them of nearly equal value where fed, to pack for exportation. On light lands and scanty pastures, they will probably never be largely introduced. All heavy animals require full forage within a limited compass, so as to fill their stomachs at once, and quietly compose themselves to their digestion. The weights reached by the Short Horns in England, as given by Mr. Berry, have been enormous. Two oxen, six years old, weighed nett, 1820 lbs. each. A heifer of three years, and fed on grass and hay alone, weighed 1260 lbs. A four-year-old steer, fed on hay and turnips only, dressed 1890 lbs. A cow reached the prodigious weight of 1778 lbs. A heifer, running with her dam, and on pasture alone, weighed at seven months, 476 lbs. An ox, seven years old, weighed 2362 lbs. From their comparatively small numbers in this country, most of them have been retained for breeders; few, as yet, have been fattened, and such only as were decidedly inferior. Such animals as have been extensively produced by crossing this breed upon our former stocks, have given evidence of great and decided improvement; and the Short Horns, and their grade descendants are destined, at no distant day, to occupy a large portion of the richest feeding grounds in the United States. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Hereford Cow] Herefords. This is the only remaining pure breed, which has hitherto occupied the attention of graziers in this country. Like the Devons, they are supposed to be one of the most ancient races of British cattle. Marshall gives the following description. "The countenance pleasant, cheerful, open; the forehead broad; eye full and lively; horns bright, taper, and spreading; head small; chap lean; neck long and tapering; chest deep; bosom broad, and projecting forward; shoulder-bone thin, flat, no way protuberant in bone (?) but full and mellow in flesh; chest full; loin broad; hips standing wide, and level with the chine; quarters long, and wide at the neck; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor standing high and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired; barrel round and roomy; the carcass throughout deep and well spread; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, the hindmost large and full of length; round-bone small, snug, and not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering; legs upright and short; bone below the knee and hock small; feet of middle size; flank large: flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle; coat neatly haired, bright and silky; color, a middle red, with a bald face characteristic of the true Herefordshire breed." [Illustration: Fig. 4. Hereford Bull.] Youatt further describes them as follows: "They are usually of a darker red; some of them are brown, and even yellow, and a few are brindled; but they are principally distinguished by their white faces, throats, and bellies. In a few the white extends to the shoulders. The old Herefords were brown or red-brown, with not a spot of white about them. It is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has been the fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought of the change of color, the present breed is certainly far superior to the old one. The hide is considerably thicker than that of the Devon, and the beasts are more hardy. Compared with the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the carcass; higher, and broader, and heavier in the chine; rounder and wider across the hips, and better covered with fat; the thigh fuller and more muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser. They are not now much used for husbandry, although their form adapts them for the heavier work; and they have all the honesty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, if not his activity. The Herefordshire ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore more advantageous to the farmer, and perhaps to the country, that he should go to market at three years old, than be kept longer as a beast of draught. They are not as good milkers as the Devons. This is so generally acknowledged, that while there are many dairies of Devon cows in various parts of the country, a dairy of Herefords is rarely to be found. To compensate for this, they are even more kindly feeders than the Devons. Their beef may be objected to by some as being occasionally a little too large in the bone, and the fore-quarters being coarse and heavy; but the meat of the best pieces is often very fine-grained and beautifully marbled. There are few cattle more prized in the market than the genuine Herefords." There have been several importations of the Herefords into the United States, which by crossing with our native cattle, have done great good; but with the exception of a few fine animals at the South, we are not aware of their being kept in a state of purity, till the importation of the splendid herd. within the last six years, by Messrs. Corning and Sotham of Albany, N. Y. These Herefords are among the very best which England can produce, and come up fully to the description of the choicest of the breed. Mr. Sotham, after an experience of several years, is satisfied with the cows for the dairy; and he has given very favorable published statements of the results of their milking qualities, from which it may be properly inferred, that Youatt drew his estimates from some herds which were quite indifferent in this property. They are peculiarly the grazier's animal, as they improve rapidly and mature early on medium feed. They are excelled for the yoke, if at all, only by the Devons, which, in some features, they strongly resemble. Both are probably divergent branches of the same original stock. The Ayrshire Is a breed that has been much sought after of late years, from their reputation for fine dairy qualities. The milk is good both in quantity and quality, yielding, according to a recent statement of Mr. Tennant, of Scotland, who owns a large herd, fifteen quarts per day during the best of the season, twelve of which made a pound of butter. The product of the latter averages about 170 pounds per annum to each cow. Another authority says, on the best low-land pasture, a good cow yields nearly 4000 quarts per year. This is a large quantity, and implies good cows and extra feed. Mr. Cushing, of Massachusetts, who imported several select animals, without regard to their cost, informed us, after three or four years' trial, that he did not perceive any superiority in them, over the good native cows of that state, for dairy purposes. A large number have been imported in detached parcels, and scattered through the country. They are good animals, but seem to combine no valuable properties in a higher degree than are to be found in our own good cattle, and especially such as are produced from a cross of the Short Horn bull of a good milking family, on our native cows. They are evidently a recent breed, and do not therefore possess that uniformity of appearance and quality, which attaches to one of long cultivation. Mr. Aiton, of Scotland, gives the following account of them. "The dairy breed of Scotland have been formed chiefly by skilful management, within the last 50 years; and they are still improving and extending to other countries. Till after 1770, the cows in Cunningham were small, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and gave but little milk. Some cows of a larger breed and of a brown and white color, were about that time brought to Ayrshire from Teeswater, and from Holland, by some of the patriotic noblemen of Ayrshire; and these being put on good pasture, yielded more milk than the native breed, and their calves were much sought after by the farmers." We may fairly infer from the foregoing, which is deemed indisputable authority; from the locality of their origin, in the neighborhood of the Short Horns; and from their general resemblance, both externally and in their general characteristics to the grade animals, that they owe their principal excellence to this long-established breed. MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. The safest and least troublesome manner of raising calves, is at the udder of the dam; and whenever the milk is converted into butter and cheese, we believe this to be the most economical. The milk of one good cow is sufficient, with a run of fresh, sweet pasture, to the feeding of two calves at the same time; and if we allow the calves to arrive at three or four months of age before weaning, we may safely estimate, that one good cow will yield a quantity of milk in one season, fully equivalent to bringing up four calves to a weaning age. By keeping the calf on the fresh milk, whether he take it directly from the udder, or warm from the pail, all risk of disordered bowels is avoided. The milk is precisely adapted to the perfect health and thrift of the young, and whenever we substitute for it any other food, we must watch carefully that not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder, lest more is lost by disease or want of improvement, than is gained by the milk of which they are robbed. The first milk of the cow after calving, is slightly purgative, which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf. It is, moreover, perfectly worthless for two or three days, for any other purpose except for swine. The calf will seldom take all the milk at first, and whatever is left in the bag should be thoroughly removed by the hand. If the calf is destined for the butcher, he must have all the milk he wants for at least six weeks, and eight or ten is better; and if the cow does not furnish enough, he ought to be fed gruel or linseed tea. He must be closely confined in a snug, but clean and airy stable, and the darker this is, and the more quiet he is kept, the more readily he will fatten. If designed to be reared, the safest and least troublesome method, is to keep the calf on new milk. If saving the milk be an object, it is still doubtful whether it is not better that he should have a part of it fresh from the cow, and depend for his remaining food on a good grass or clover pasture, meal, or roots. Some farmers never allow the calf to approach the dam, but take it when first dropped, and put a handful of salt in its mouth, which is daily repeated till he is put to grass. This has a purgative effect, similar to the first milk. Flaxseed is then prepared, by boiling a pint in four to six quarts of water, and diluted with hay tea till it is rather thicker than milk, and fed at blood heat. _Hay tea_ is made, by boiling a pound of sweet, well-cured clover, in one and a half gallons of clean water. As the calf becomes older, oat, barley, rye, or Indian meal may be scalded and added to the flaxseed. When the skim-milk is of little consequence, a better way is to withdraw him from the cow after three or four days, then scald the milk, adding a little oat meal, and cool to the natural temperature of the milk, and feed it. Oats, either crushed or ground, is the best and safest grain for all young stock. The milk should not stand more than half a day before feeding to young calves. As they advance in age, it may be fed rather older, but should never be allowed to become sour; nor should it ever be fed cold. Connected with this feed, should be a good range of short, sweet pasture, and shelter against both sun and storms. If expedient, at about 10 weeks old, he may be safely weaned, but four months' nursing is better for the calf. If allowed too much milk for several months, it is injurious to the future development of the young. It does not distend the stomach properly, nor call into use its ruminating habits. Calves thus brought up, have often proved light-bellied, indifferent feeders, and decidedly inferior animals. When the calf is removed from the cow, they should be effectually separated from sight and hearing, as recognition creates uneasiness, and is an impediment to thrift in both. If there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf, a small rack and trough should be placed under the shed in his range, and fine hay put in the former, and wheat bran or oat meal with a little salt in the latter. Diseases and Remedies. For _disordered bowels_, mix 2 dr. rhubarb, 2 oz. castor oil, and ½ dr. ginger, with a little warm milk or gruel; or give 2 oz. castor oil alone; or 3 oz. of Epsom salts. For _scours_ and _diarrh[oe]a_, a homely remedy is, to administer half a pint of cider, with an equal quantity of blood drawn from the calf's neck. Or, add a little rennet to its food. A good remedy is, 1 oz. powdered canella bark; 1 oz. laudanum; 4 oz. prepared chalk; and one pint water. Mix together, and give a wine-glass full or more, according to the size of the calf, three times a day. _Costiveness_ is removed by giving pork broth. Or, give 3 to 4 oz. Epsom salts, dissolved in 3 pints of water, injected into the stomach; and repeat part of this dose every 3 or 4 hours, till the desired effect is produced. Calves, like all young stock, should be allowed to change their feed gradually, from new milk to skimmed, or from the latter to other food. Their stomachs are delicate, and need gentle, moderate changes, when necessary to make them at all. Much depends on the care and attention they receive. It is well to have a little resin within its reach. A comfortable shelter, with a dry, warm bed, suitable food, regularly given three times a day, at blood heat, and keeping the stomach in proper order, will do much to bring them forward rapidly, and with a small expenditure of food. The calf requires to be supplied through the winter with an abundance of fine, sweet hay and roots, the latter either chopped or mashed by a roller, with the addition of a trifle of meal or oats, and a full supply of salt and pure water. When there are larger animals on the premises, the calves ought to be kept by themselves. They should be sustained on their winter feed through the following spring, until the grass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod. The change from hay to grass must be gradual, unless the latter is considerably matured. The extreme relaxation of the bowels from the sudden change, frequently produces excessive purging. A slight and temporary relax from the early spring grass, is not objectionable. Breeding. The young animals should never be put to breeding under 15 months old, so as to bring their first calf at two years old nor then, unless they have large size and good feed. Much depends on the progress towards maturity, and the supply of food in selecting the proper time for breeding. Some are as ready for this at a year and a half as others are at three. Early breeding gives delicacy and symmetry to the form of the heifer, but it checks its growth; and when it is found to put her back too much, she may be allowed to rest for a few months, or even a year, to brings her up to the desired standard. These remarks apply principally to choice breeders, or as they are sometimes termed, _fancy stock_. For ordinary milch cows which have been moderately fed, three years is a proper age to come in, after which they must be milked as regularly, and as late before drying as possible. Breaking Steers Should be commenced when two or three years old. Some begin with the calf, accustoming him to a light yoke and occasional training. This practice will do as a pastime for trustworthy boys, as it makes them gentle and manageable afterwards, but is hardly worth a man's time. If always carefully handled when young, they will be found tractable. They should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke cattle, nor should they be put to hard labor until quite grown, strong, and perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly managed, cattle may be trained with all the docility, intelligence, and much of the activity of the horse. That they are not, is more frequently the fault of their masters. Management of Oxen. To procure perfect working cattle, it is necessary to begin with the proper breed. Many parts of the country furnish such as are well suited to this purpose. A strong dash of Devon or Hereford blood is desirable, when it needs to be improved. A well-formed, compact, muscular body; clean, sinewy limbs; strong, dense bones; large, well-formed joints, with a mild expressive eye, are essential for good working oxen. After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught before they are required to perform their task; and never put to a load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by prolonging exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome. A generous diet is necessary, to keep up the spirit and ability of cattle, when there is hard work to be done. The horse and mule are fed with their daily rations of grain when at hard service, and if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he should be equally well fed, when as fully employed. Great and permanent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and severe toil, exacted from the uncomplaining animal. His strength declines, his spirit flags, and if this treatment be continued, he rapidly becomes the stupid, moping brute, which is shown off in degrading contrast with the more spirited horse, that performs, it may be, one half the labor, on twice his rations. The ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping, as by stinted feed and overtasked labor. Loud and repeated hallooing, or the severe use of the lash, is as impolitic as it is cruel and disgraceful. We never witness this barbarity without wishing the brutes could change places, long enough at least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings which his reason and sensibility have failed to inspire. Clear and intelligible, yet low and gentle words are all that are necessary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. The stick, or whip, is needed rather to indicate the precise movement desired, than as a stimulant or means of punishment. The ox understands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous one, for all sounds become indistinct as they increase. It is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to _backing_. They may soon be taught, by beginning with an empty cart on a descent; then on a level; then with an increasing load, or uphill, till the cattle will back nearly the same load they will draw. Some oxen have a bad trick of _hauling_ or _crowding_. Changing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes, and more than all, gentle treatment, are the only remedies, and those not unfrequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this habit, in the hands of a judicious, careful driver. _The yokes_ should be carefully made, and set easy, and the bows fitted to the necks and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable to sore necks if used in a storm; and when subject to this exposure, they must be well rubbed with grease, where the yoke chafes them, and respite from work should be allowed till the necks heal. Management of Bulls or Vicious Animals. If inclined to be vicious, the bulls should have rings thrust through the cartilage of their nose when young. They are to be found at the agricultural warehouses; and are made of round iron, three-eighths of an inch diameter, with a joint in one side to open, and when thrust through the nose, are fastened in a moment, by a rivet previously prepared. [Illustration: Fig. 5. Cattle-Handler.] Fig. 5 is a _cattle-handler_, consisting of a bar of iron A, eight inches long, with a ring for a man's hand, which turns on a swivel at B, and at the other end is a pair of calliper-shaped legs, one stationary, and the other opening on a joint. The fixed leg is inserted against one side of the nostril, and the other is pressed upon the opposite side, and there fastened by a slide, C, when the animal is firmly held for administering medicine or performing any operation. [Illustration: Fig. 6. Fig. 7. For taming savage Animals.] Figs. 6 and 7, for _taming a bull_; b, in Fig. 6, is a cap screwed on to the tip of the horn; a c, an iron rod hanging on a pivot in the cap, with a chain reaching to the ring in the nose. The effect of his attempting to hook, is illustrated by the various positions of the chain in Fig. 7. If the rod at a, is pushed in either direction, it jerks up the nose in a manner that cures him of his inclination. [Illustration: Fig. 8. Cattle-Tie.] Fig. 8, shows a _cattle-tie_.--This is a much more convenient and comfortable mode of fastening cattle in the stable, than the common stanchions. The proper time for turning off Cattle. This must depend on their previous feeding and management, the breed, and the purposes required. The improved breeds and many of their crosses, will mature for the butcher as fully at three or four, as inferior cattle at five to seven years old. If pushed rapidly with proper food, they will of course be _ripe_ much sooner than if stinted. When cattle have to be purchased for work, or cows for the dairy, it becomes an object to keep them as long as they can be made profitable, and yet be turned off for fattening at a fair price. We have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke at 16 or 17; but they seldom do as well after 12 or even 10 years. Old cattle are liable to more diseases than young; are less hardy; and they recover more slowly when exposed to scanty feed or hard usage. They also fatten with more difficulty, and their meat is inferior. When they can be sold advantageously to the feeder, and replaced without inconvenience, it is found to be most profitable to turn them off at seven or eight years. They will by that time have attained full maturity; they will feed rapidly, and make the largest amount of good beef. If there are extraordinary milkers among the cows, or superior workers among the oxen, it is better to keep them as long as they maintain their full vigor. Fattening Cattle. Such as are designed for the shambles the ensuing fall or winter, may be allowed to do their spring's labor; or if cows, they may be milked into summer after calving, or go farrow during the previous year. They should early be put on the best summer feed, and it is better to be occasionally changed, to give variety and freshness, and keep the animal in good appetite. Let the fattening animals have the best, and after they have cropped it a while, give them a fresh field; and the other animals or sheep can follow and clear off the remaining herbage, preparatory to shutting it up for a new growth. Some prefer an extensive range of rich feed, which is unchanged throughout the season; and when it is not necessary to divide the pasture with the other animals, this is a good practice. [Illustration: Fig. 9.] [Illustration: Fig. 10.] [Illustration: Fig. 11.] Three cuts of improved forms, Nos. 9, 10, and 11. The above cuts illustrate the forms which the most improved beef-cattle should possess. The selection of Animals for Stall Fattening. This is a nice point, and none without a practised eye and touch, can choose such as will make the best return for the food consumed. The characteristics of choice animals, heretofore enumerated, are particularly essential in those intended for profitable fattening. But the most important of all, is that firm mellowness, and quick elasticity of touch, which unerringly mark the kindly feeder and profitable bullock. When other means for ascertaining fail, it is a safe rule to select the best-conditioned animals, out of a herd of grass-fed; for if all were of equal flesh and health, when turned out, those which have thriven most on their summer pasture, will generally fatten quickest on their fall and winter keep. Only the best should be selected. The remainder, after consuming the coarser forage, may be at once disposed of for early use. From repeated trials, it is found that the carcass of stall-fed animals will barely return the value of the materials consumed, and their manure is generally the only compensation for the time and attention bestowed. None but choice, thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention, and all others will make their best returns, by an immediate disposal, after the surplus fodder is gone. [Illustration: Fig. 12. Points of Cattle Illustrated. EXPLANATION.--A, forehead; B, face; C, cheek; D, muzzle; E, neck; F, neck vein; G, shoulder point; H, arm; I, shank; J, gambril, or hock; K, elbow; L, brisket, bosom, or breast; M, shoulder; N, crops; O, loin; P, hip, hucks, hocks, or huckles; Q, crupper bone, or sacrum; R, rump, or pin-bone; S, round bone, thurl, or whirl; T, buttock; U, thigh, or gaskit; V, flank; W, plates; X, back, or chine; Y, throat; Z, chest.] Stall-Feeding. This ought to be commenced early in the season. An ox may be fed in a box-stall, or if accustomed to a mate, they do better by tying together with sufficient room, yet not so near as to allow of injuring each other. The building should be warm, but not hot; well ventilated, yet having no current of cold air passing through; and as dark as possible. The stall ought to be kept clean and dry, and a deep bed of clean straw is of decided advantage. The ox should be first fed the inferior and most perishable roots with his grain and dry forage, and his food should be gradually increased in richness, as he advances towards maturity. The food and water should be given three times a day, from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs. The animal likes a change of food, in which he should be indulged as often as may be necessary. If he refuses his food, a temporary privation, or variety is essential. When the food is changed, he should be moderately fed at first, till he becomes accustomed to it, as there is otherwise danger of cloying, which is always injurious. The moment the animal has done feeding, the remainder of the food ought to be at once removed. He then lies down, and if undisturbed, rests quietly till the proper hour induces him again to look for his accustomed rations. Regularity in the time of feeding, is of the utmost consequence. An animal soon becomes habituated to a certain hour, and if it be delayed beyond this, he is restless and impatient, which are serious obstacles to speedy fattening. [Illustration: Fig. 13. Ox cut up. Fig. 13--Shows the London method of cutting up the carcass--Fig. 1, is the loin; 2, rump; 3, aitch or adz-bone; 4, buttock; 5, hock; 6, thick flank; 7, thin flank; 8, fore-rib; 9, middle rib; 10, cuck-rib; 11, brisket; 12, leg of mutton piece; 13, clod or neck; 14, brisket.] [Illustration: Fig. 14. Skeleton of an Ox. 1. Temporal bone.--2. Frontal bone, or bone of the forehead.--3. Orbit of the eye.--4. Lachrymal bone.--5. Malar, or cheek bone.--6. Upper jaw bone.--7. Nasal bone, or bone of the nose.--8. Nippers, found on the lower jaw alone.--9. Eight true ribs.--10. Humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder.--11. Sternum.--12. Ulna, its upper part forming the elbow.--13. Ulna.--14. Radius, or principal bone of the arm.--15. Small bones of the knee.--16. Large metacarpal, or shank bone.--17. Bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot.--18. Sesamoid bones.--19. Bifurcation of the pasterns.--20. Lower jaw and the grinders.--21. Vertebræ, or bones of the neck.--22. Navicular bones.--23. Two coffin bones to each foot.--24. Two smaller pasterns to each foot.--25. Smaller or splint-bone.--26. False ribs, with their cartilages.--27. Patella, or bone of the knee.--28. Small bones of the hock.--29. Metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg.--30. Pasterns and feet.--31. Small bones of the hock.--32. Point of the hock.--33. Tibia, or proper leg-bone.--34. Thigh-bone.--35. Bones of the tail.--36, 37. Haunch and pelvis.--38. Sacrum.--39. Bones of the loins.--40. Bones of the back--41. Ligament of the neck and its attachments.--42. Scapula, or shoulder-blade.--43. Bones of the back.--44. Ligament of the neck.--45. Dentata.--46. Atlas.--47. Occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head--48. Parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa.--49. Horns, being processes or continuations of the frontal bone.] DISEASES IN CATTLE. Hoven, or Swelling of the Paunch, Is a temporary ailment, caused by eating too freely of fresh and generally wet clover, or other succulent food. The animal gorges the first stomach with so much food, that its contents cannot be expelled. Inflammation of the membrane takes place, and decomposition of the food soon follows. This is known by the distension of the paunch, and difficulty of breathing, and unless speedily relieved, suffocation and death will ensue. Both sheep and cattle are subject to it. _Remedies._[1]--In its early stages, when not too severe, it has been removed by administering some one of the following remedies. A pint of gin poured down the throat. From one to two pints of lamp or other oil. Strong brine. New milk with one-fifth its bulk of tar mixed. An egg-shell full of tar forced down the throat, followed by a second, if the first fails. A tablespoonful of volatile spirit of ammonia, diluted with water. A wine-glass full of powder, mixed with cold lard and forced in balls into the stomach. A teaspoonful of unslaked lime dissolved in a pint of warm water, shaken and given immediately. A pint of tolerably strong lye. [1] Besides his own experience, the writer has drawn from the N. E. Farmer, the Albany Cultivator, the American Agriculturist, and other reliable American and English works, some of the remedies for diseases herein mentioned. The Proper Mode of giving the above Remedies Is for a person to hold the horn and cartilage of the nose, while another seizes and draws out the tongue as far as possible, when the medicine is thrust below the root of the tongue. If liquid, it must be inserted by the use of a bottle. _The probang_ is used when the former remedies are ineffectual. This consists of a tarred rope, or a flexible whip-stalk, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, with a swab or bulbous end. Two persons hold the head of the animal, so as to keep the mouth in a line with the throat, while a third forces it into the stomach, when the gas finds a passage out. A stiff leather tube with a lead nozzle pierced with holes, is best for insertion, through which the gas will readily escape. Some one of the above purgatives should be given after the bloat has subsided, and careful feeding for some days must be observed. Light gruels are best for allaying inflammation, and restoring the tone of the stomach. When no other means are available, the paunch may be tapped with a sharp penknife, plunging it 1½ inches forward of the hip bone, towards the last rib in the left side. If the hole fills up, put in a large goose-quill tube, which to prevent slipping into the wound, may remain attached to the feather, and the air can escape through a large hole in the upper end. _Prevention_ is vastly better than cure, and may be always secured, by not allowing hungry cattle to fill themselves with clover, roots, apples, &c. When first put upon such feed, it should be when the dew and rain are off, and their stomachs are already partially filled; and they should then be withdrawn before they have gorged themselves. [Illustration: Fig. 15.] [Illustration: Fig. 16. The Stomach Pump.] This is a convenient instrument for extracting poisonous substances from the stomach. It is also highly useful for administering medicines and injections, and if fitted with several tubes, one may suffice for animals of any size. It consists of a syringe, _a_, with a side opening at _b_, and another at the bottom _d_, as shown in Fig. 16. For injections, Fig. 15 is used, and the end of the syringe is placed in a vessel containing the fluid, when a probang or injection-tube is screwed on to the side opening at _b_, through which the fluid is forced into the stomach or rectum, as may be required. The probang should be a tube of thick but elastic leather, and it may be passed into the mouth, through an aperture in a block, placed on edge between the teeth, which is easily done while a person holds the head of the animal firmly. Choking Is frequently relieved by some of the following expedients. The use of the probang or whip-stock, mentioned under the head of _remedies for Hoven_, by which the root is forced into the stomach. A soft root may be crushed so as to allow of swallowing, by holding a smooth block against it, and striking with a mallet on the opposite side. If within arms-length, the root may be removed by hand. It is said this can be done, by tying up the fore-leg with a small cord, close to the body, and giving the animal a sudden start with a whip; or by jerking the fore-leg out forward. Or pour down the throat a pint bottle full of soft soap, mixed with sufficient hot water to make it run freely. _Prevention_ consists in cutting the roots; not feeding them when the animals are very hungry, and not disturbing them while eating. Inflammation of the Stomach. This is frequently produced by a sudden change from dry to green food, and some other causes. Epsom salts, castor oil, sulphur, and carbonate of soda, in sufficient quantity to purge freely, are good remedies. It may be prevented by changing the food gradually. Mange, or Scab. This is denoted by the animal rubbing the hair off about the eyes and other parts. The skin is scaly or scabby, sometimes appearing like a large seed-wart. _Remedies._--Rub the spots with sulphur and lard, after scraping and washing with soap. When the skin is cracked, take sulphur, 1 lb.; turpentine, ¼ lb.; unguentum, (or mercurial ointment,) 2 ounces; linseed oil, 1 pint. Melt the turpentine and warm the oil, and when partly cooled, stir in the sulphur; when cold, add the unguentum, mixing all well. Rub this thoroughly with the hand on the parts affected. We have no doubt this, like scab in sheep and itch in the human species, will be found, on close investigation, to be caused by minute insects located in the skin. Salt and water ought, in that case, to be a good remedy. Hollow Horn, or Horn Ail. This is not unfrequently _hollow stomach_, and very often follows stinted fare, hard usage, and exposure to cold. We have noticed this as most prevalent among oxen that have done a severe winter's work. _Symptoms._--Bloody urine; swollen udder; shaking the head; eyes and head swollen; standing with the head against a fence or barn; eyes dull and sunken, and horns cold. _Remedies._--Bleed and physic, shelter and feed properly. Take a half pint of good vinegar, two tablespoonfuls of salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, and mix and pour into each ear, holding the head on one side for two minutes. Bore with a large gimlet on the under side of the horn, three or four inches from the head; and if hollow, bore nearer the head and let out all the matter, and syringe two or three times a day with salt and water, or soap-suds, or salt and vinegar. Spirits of turpentine rubbed in around the base of the horns, will arrest the disease in its incipient stages. Pour a spoonful of boiling hot brimstone into the cavity between the horns. Pour a teakettle of boiling water on the horns, holding so as to prevent injury to the other parts. Soot and pepper given internally are good. Jaundice, or Yellows. This is owing to gall-stones or calculi, which occasionally accumulate in large numbers, and is sometimes owing to increased or altered quality of the bile. It is manifested by the yellowness of the eye and skin, and high color of the urine, and poor appetite. _Remedies._--Bleed, and purge with Epsom salts. If taken in season, 2 ounces of ground mustard may be mixed with a liquid, and given twice a day. Green food is a good preventive. Mad Itch. This disease exists in some of the Western states, and shows itself by jerking of the head, and itching around the nose and base of the horns. They will lick their sides and backs, and jerk and hiccup till they fill themselves with wind; afterwards they froth at the mouth, and in 24 hours die raving mad. _Remedy._--Give as much soot and salt as the animal will eat; soon after, give ¾ or 1 lb. of brimstone or sulphur; and 8 hours after, as many salts. Bloody Murrain, or Red Water. This disease first shows itself in a cough, then heaving of the flanks, with bloody, black, and f[oe]tid evacuations, tenderness over the loins, and coldness of the horns. Tumors and biles sometimes appear. The animal holds down the head, moans, is restless, and staggers when walking. _Causes._--We have lost several animals by this fatal disease, and are not aware of having cured any when severely attacked. In repeated instances, we have seen large flukes taken out of the liver, strongly resembling the common leech, which abounds in many of our swampy lands. It is certain that on new, low swamps and clay lands, cattle are most liable to it; and when they have been subject to repeated attacks in such localities, clearing and draining have checked it. Youatt attributes it to certain kinds of forage, which are peculiar to the above situations. We are rather inclined to ascribe it to exposure, to excessive dampness, and especially to miasma; for although the brute creation are perhaps less sensitive to these influences than man, yet, as they are governed by the same unvarying laws of nature, when subjected to conditions totally unsuited to their economy, they must suffer equally in kind, though probably not in degree, with the more refined human frame. But it is evident the disease, its causes, and remedies, are as yet imperfectly understood. _Remedies._--However intelligent men may differ as to its causes, all agree that the animal should first be bled, and then thoroughly purged. In obstinate cases, this last is a difficult matter. We have given repeated doses of powerful cathartics without producing any effect; and whenever the medicine is inoperative, death speedily follows. Large doses of common salt, or Epsom salts dissolved in water, are good purgatives, and if the animal neglects drinking after taking them, he should be drenched with copious draughts of water. These should be repeated every few hours, if ineffectual. Injections are sometimes useful, when medicine fails to act. These may be made of soap and water; or take 2 or 3 gills of oats boiled, 3 drachms saltpetre, 1½ oz. linseed oil, mix and use them when warm. The opening of the bowels may be followed with a pint of linseed oil, as an additional and gentle laxative. When the animal begins to recover, gentle astringents and tonics may be given. _Preventives._--We have more confidence in preventives than in remedies. Good keep, shelter, dryness, and clean pastures, will generally prevent attack. The cattle should at all times be supplied with two or three troughs under cover, on the sides and bottoms of which tar should be plentifully spread. Let equal portions of salt and slaked lime be in one; salt and wood ashes in another; and salt and brimstone in a third. Many farmers have entirely avoided this disease while using one or more of these, when they annually lost many by it previously. Hoof Ail Is indicated by lameness, fever, and a soft swelling just above the hoof. _Remedies._--Carefully wash the foot in warm soap-suds, and while still damp, apply between the claws on the affected part from one to three grains of corrosive sublimate. If it does not fully adhere, it must be mixed with hog's lard, but it should be so applied as to be out of the reach of the animal's tongue, as it is a powerful poison, and the extreme irritability of the feet will induce him to lick them. The claw is efficiently cleansed, by drawing a cord briskly through it, when either of the above applications, or blue vitriol put on two or three times a day, or spirits of turpentine, will effect a cure. It is sometimes cured by putting the animals in the stanchions, and applying a sharp chisel three-fourths of an inch from the toe, and striking it with a mallet till it is cut off. If it does not bleed freely, cut off shavings till it does. If the animal is refractory, let a person hold up the opposite foot. Keep them in the stable two or three days, and out of the mud for a week. Loss of Cud Is loss of appetite, prostration, and general ill-health. _Remedies._--Give a warm bran mash, with good hay, and warm water with salt. An aloe tincture, made with brandy and ginger, is good. Afterwards give good, dry, nourishing food; and bitter infusions, chamomile flowers, hoarhound, oak bark, &c., in beer. Scours, or Diarrh[oe]a. A common remedy, is to boil the bark of white oak, white pine, and beech, and give a strong infusion in bran. If they refuse to eat it, pour it down. The oak is astringent, and the pine and beech soothing and healing. Warbles Are grubs, the egg of which is deposited in the back of cattle by the gad-fly, (_[OE]strus bovis._) They are discernible by a protuberance or swelling on the back. They may be pressed out by the thumb and finger; or burnt out by plunging a hot wire in them; or a few applications of strong brine will remove them. Wounds In cattle are readily healed, when the animal's blood is in good order, by applying a salve made of 1 oz. green copperas; 2 oz. white vitriol; 2 oz. salt; 2 oz. linseed oil; 8 oz. molasses. Boil over a slow fire 15 minutes in a pint of urine, and when almost cold, add 1 oz. oil of vitriol, and 4 oz. spirits turpentine. Apply it with a feather to the wound, and cure soon follows. Milk, or Puerperal Fever, Is a common disease with cows in high condition, at the time of calving. It may, in almost every case, be avoided, by keeping them in moderate feed and flesh. _Remedies._--Bleed freely, say 6 to 10 quarts, according to the circulation of the blood; then give 1 to 1½ lbs. of Epsom salts, according to the size of the beast, to be repeated in half lb. doses every six hours, till she purges freely. Injections should always be given when purgatives are tardy in their operation. Caked Bag May be removed by simmering the bark of the root of bitter-sweet in lard, till it becomes very yellow. When cool, apply it to the swollen udder once in 8 or 10 hours; or wash it several times a day in cold water. A pint of horseradish, fed once a day, cut up with potatoes or meal, is useful for the same purpose. This is also a tonic, helps the appetite, and is good for oxen subject to heat. Garget Is a more intense degree of inflammation than exists in caked bag and sore, swollen teats, and shows itself in hard bunches on the udder. The cow should be bled, and take a large dose of physic; then wash the udder as in caked bag. Repeated doses of sulphur is a good remedy. Garget, or scoke root, given of the size of a large finger, grated and fed in their food, is a general application with farmers. The garget plant grows from three to six feet high, with a purple stalk, and strings of berries hanging down between the branches. Sore Teats May be healed by rubbing with goose oil, cream, new milk; or make the same applications for it as for caked bag. The bag and teats should be well cleansed with warm soft water, if to be followed by any ointment. The following application is recommended by Youatt: One ounce of yellow wax and three of lard; melt together, and when cooling, rub in one quarter ounce of sugar of lead, and a drachm of alum finely powdered. Warts Are of two kinds; the first, on the outer skin, may be removed by rubbing with camphorated olive oil. The others penetrate into the flesh, and may be removed by a ligature of fine twine, or silk, or india-rubber drawn into a string, and tied tightly around the wart, which falls off in a few days. _Remedies._--Nitrate of silver, (lunar caustic,) applied to the wart, will remove it, but it produces a sore. Apply a strong wash of alum. Rub with the juice of milk-weed. Poultice with grated carrot. Cut off the wart with sharp scissors, when the cow is dry. It will bleed little, and soon heal. Sore Necks on Working Oxen. These occur when worked in wet weather, or with bad yokes. The _remedy_ is, rub with a healing application. The _preventive_ is, good yokes; the application of grease; or a decoction of white or yellow oak bark applied to the affected parts. Or, a better preventive is a canvass or leather cap to protect the neck entirely from the storm. The Bite of Poisonous Snakes May be cured by shaking together equal parts of olive oil and hartshorn, and rubbing the wound and adjacent parts three or four times a day. For a full-grown animal, one quart of olive oil and an ounce of hartshorn should be administered internally, in addition to the above. For Stings of Bees, Hornets, &c. Apply warm vinegar and salt, rubbing the parts thoroughly. For a Forming Tumor. Rub thoroughly with strong brine, or a solution of sal ammoniac dissolved in eight times its weight of water. If the tumor comes to a head, open it near the bottom with a lancet; or place a seton in it so as to admit the escape of purulent matter. Lice and Vermin Sometimes abound on cattle during the latter part of winter and spring. These are generally the result of _mange_, which is itself the effect of ill-feeding and ill-condition. They are removed with the cause. We doubt if they can be permanently kept off, where the animal is losing flesh and health. _Remedies._--Restore the health and condition, and sprinkle sand, ashes, or dirt plentifully around the roots of the horns, and along the ridge of the neck and back. A liberal application of train or other oil has nearly a similar effect. Never apply an ointment containing corrosive sublimate or other poison, as it may be licked by the animal or its fellows, who may thus become seriously poisoned. The Trembles, Producing _milk sickness_ (a most fatal disease) in the human family, from eating the milk or flesh of animals affected by it. This disease, which exists principally in the region of the Wabash River, is supposed by Dr. Drake to be owing to the _poison oak_, (Rhus Toxicodendron,) or _poison vine_, (Radicans,) which the animals eat. _Symptoms._--The animal mopes, is feverish and costive, but apparently preserves its appetite. The next stage of the disease is faintness and vertigo, which is shown when the animal is put upon exertion, being followed by excessive _trembling_ and entire prostration. _Remedy._--Almost every cathartic has been tried in vain. Indian corn, both dry and green, has been fed to all animals accustomed to eating it, and when they can be induced to feed upon it freely, purging is generally secured. Rest of the animal is absolutely essential while the disease continues, and is itself an effectual remedy in mild cases. * * * * * Besides the diseases enumerated, there are occasional epidemics, such as _black tongue_, _black foot_, or _foot root_, _&c._, which carry off great numbers of animals. Remedies for these are frequently not discovered, and the epidemic is allowed to run its course unchecked. The only preventives are such care, food, and management as the experienced herdsman knows to be best suited to the maintenance of the health and thrift of his stock. _Note._--Some ailments will be found under the head of _diseases_ of the other animals mentioned in this work, the general resemblance of which to each other will justify nearly a similar treatment. If intelligent _farriers_ are at hand, they may sometimes be called in with advantage; though we acknowledge our distrust of the quackery of most of those passing under this title. There is little science or intelligent study in the composition of this class, the world over; and much of their practice is the merest empiricism. The owner should see to it, if he employs one of whose attainments he is doubtful, that neither medicines nor operations be used, unnecessarily severe or hazardous to the animal. Especially, should the diabolical practice be interdicted, of the abundant and indiscriminate use of poisons, boiling oils, turpentine, and tar, and the hot iron applied to the sensitive wound or naked flesh. If certain or effectual remedies for the removal of disease cannot he applied, such as augment the suffering or endanger the life of the poor dumb things, may at least be avoided. CHAPTER III. THE DAIRY. Cows for the Dairy. From what has been said on the various characteristics of the different breeds of cattle, it must be evident, that no very definite criteria of excellence can be given for all good dairy cows. But there are certain points in a good milker, that can hardly be mistaken. She should be descended from the best milking stock; her head should be small or of medium size, muzzle fine, and nostrils flexible and expanded; face long, slender, and dishing; cheeks thin; eyes full, mild, and prominent; horns delicate and waxy, and they may be either branching, lopped, crumpled, or hornless; long, thin, lively ear, and the inside of an orange color; neck thin and small at its junction with the head; deep chest, but not too heavy before; back level and broad; well ribbed; belly large; low flank; wide thighs, but thin; short legs, and standing well apart; large milking veins; loose, capacious udder, coming well out behind; good teats; loose, mellow skin, of a deep yellow; and a fine, thick coat of glossy hair; and she must be of a good disposition, and free from tricks. Yet, with all the skill of a well-practised taste in the selection of animals, the dairyman will frequently find his theories and results at sad variance. One may sometimes select a fine animal, with every appearance of good milking qualities, which is but a medium cow at the pail; and another, that hardly seems worthy of notice, and which sets at defiance many established milking points, and all preconceived notions of symmetry, may yet prove a good milker. A cow that runs to flesh while in milk, is generally an indifferent animal for the dairy. Perfection in a cow, consists in converting all she eats into milk while yielding it, and when dry, in turning all she consumes into valuable meat. Management of Dairy Cows. A cow may have her first calf when between two and three years of age, according to her size and development. After calving, she should be stinted in her food for two or three days, and not fed freely for a week. Avoid fat in a breeding cow. Too high feeding is the cause of milk-fever, caked bag, garget, and a host of evils; and very poor feed is almost equally objectionable. The average time of a cow with young, is from 40 to 41 weeks; but they sometimes go only 34, and occasionally overrun 44. A dry, unoccupied stall or yard is best for her to calve in; and if there is any serious delay or difficulty in the operation, she may be assisted by placing the f[oe]tus in the right position, and gently pulling it, with every throe of the dam. After the calf has drawn all he wants at morning and evening, the bag should be thoroughly and quickly emptied of all the milk. If strong and vigorous, the calf is the best doctor for garget or caked bag. He may be allowed to suck the cow or not, at the option of the owner; there are reasons for and against the practice, as will be seen under the head of rearing calves, and each person must determine in his own case on which side the balance lies. Milking. This is an important operation, and on its proper performance depends much of the success of the dairyman. A cow regularly, gently, yet quickly and thoroughly milked, will give much more than if neglected. If a herd of cows be separated into two divisions, each yielding the same quantity of milk, and one is given to a good milker, and the other to a shiftless or lazy one, the latter will speedily reduce his milk much below the quantity obtained by the former; and if the milkers then exchange cows, they will be found to change quantity too, those before affording the least, soon giving the most. An indifferent milker ought never to be tolerated in a herd, good ones are cheaper at double the price. It is best to milk at intervals of about 12 hours; which may be done when pastures are convenient, or cows are soiled or fed in the yard. But as this is not often the case in the season of green food, they should be milked early in the morning and turned into pasture, to fill themselves before the sun is oppressive; and if they are to be kept up at night, let them browse in the pasture as long as possible, before they are brought to the yard. MILK Is produced from the females of all the warm-blooded animals, which are enumerated among the mammaliæ. The milk of several animals is employed for domestic purposes, among different nations. That of the camel is used by the Arabs; the milk of the ass by the Spaniards, the Maltese, and the inhabitants of the Levant; that of the mare by the Cossacks, the Kirgheez, and other Tartars; and that of the goat, the ewe, and the cow, by most of the ancient, and with few exceptions, by every modern European nation. Within the last century, however, the use of all excepting cow's milk has been almost entirely discarded, among the most highly civilized people. If we except some few Welsh and Swiss, or other emigrants, who resort to the goat and ewe for their dairy materials, for the first few years of their residence here, the cow is the only animal which is employed in America for producing milk. For this, she is pre-eminently fitted, and the modern improvement of this invaluable animal has carried her product of milk almost as far as can be reasonably looked for from a given amount of food; and although this is of about the average richness of the goat and ewe, and before that of the ass, the quantity she yields is frequently as 60 to 1, in favor of the cow, over the first two competitors. As a milk-giving animal, the cow is the best fitted for the purposes of civilized man; and she is made to contribute, not only to his health, his comfort, and his economy, but to many of his choicest luxuries. Milk contains every element of nutrition necessary to animal existence; and man can subsist, with unimpaired health and strength, if limited to this food alone. The Constituents of Milk Are butter, which varies from 2 to 6 per cent.; casein or cheese, usually 4 to 5, but sometimes varying from 3 to 15 per cent.; (the last excessive quantity, yielded only by the first milk after calving;) milk-sugar, 4 to 6; salts or saline matter, 0.2 to 0.6; and water, 80 to 89. _There is much diversity in the product and quality of milk_ from cows of the same breed, the same food, and other circumstances and conditions, apparently equal. Thus, of a herd of 22, chiefly Ayrshire, one gave 84 quarts in one week, which afforded 3½ lbs. of butter; two others in the same time gave 86, yielding 5½ lbs.; and a fourth gave 88 quarts, making 7 lbs. The amount of butter, however, which a given quantity of milk will produce, is not the only criterion of the value of the milk, except for this purpose alone. Some cows will yield more butter, others will produce more cheese; while for consumption, another may partially compensate, in the increased quantity of milk-sugar, and the saline matters, for a deficiency of both the other ingredients. But for dairy purposes, butter and cheese are the only measure of the value of milk; and a cow is esteemed good or indifferent, as she gives one or the other in the greatest abundance. Circumstances which modify the Quantity and Character of Milk. Besides the accidental variation in the quantity and quality of milk in different animals, before adverted to, there are many reliable causes which influence both. Of these, parentage has a most decided and uniform influence, frequently modified, however, in the particular individual, by some personal and controlling causes. But a cow, whose maternal ancestry on both sides are choice milkers, is almost certain to resemble them. Food influences the quantity, rather than the quality. Boussingault tried numerous experiments, with cows fed on various kinds of food, and found the difference hardly appreciable in the quality of milk. Its true benefit is to be looked for in the increased quantity, through which, the valuable ingredients are distributed in nearly the same proportion, as when the product is materially lessened. By quality we mean to be understood, the amount of the ingredients, _valuable for nutrition only_; for it is certain, that there is a rich aromatic flavor, not only in milk, but in butter and cheese, which is afforded in various articles of food, and especially by the fresh green herbage which abounds in the pastures from spring to autumn. Activity or rest has a great effect on both quantity and quality. The less action, and the more quiet and rest, the greater the amount of milk and butter. But exercise is absolutely essential to the production of cheese. Butter may be made from cows confined in a stable, but cheese can only be profitably made from animals at pasture. It is supposed by physiologists, that the exercise in gathering their food, rather than any peculiarity in its character, is necessary to convert the nitrogenized tissues into the nitrogenized principle of caseum or cheese. The time from calving, has also its effect. The first milk drawn from a cow after calving, has been found to yield over 15 per cent. of casein, while in its ordinary state it gives only three to five and a half. As the quantity of milk diminishes in a farrow cow, the quality improves within certain limits. Pregnancy affects the quality injuriously, and especially towards its latter stages; and a cow that is predisposed to giving milk, should be dried off a few weeks before its expiration, as it is then unfit for use. Fat cows give poorer milk than such as are moderately lean; and young animals do not come up to the maximum of their quality, till after their third or fourth calving. The milk first drawn from the udder, will yield only an eighth, and sometimes even a much less proportion of cream, than the strippings; and the milk which is drawn three times a day, is greatly inferior to such as is taken but once, though the latter is less abundant. Excitement, or fretfulness; change of locality, or to a different herd, with new companions; separation from her calf; periodical heat; annoyance from flies, or worry from dogs; exposure to storms, severe cold, or an oppressive sun, and many similar causes, diminish the quantity of milk and butter; but some of these may reasonably be expected to increase the proportion of its casein. Dr. Playfair found that the quantity of butter in the evening milk, after the cow had been at pasture all day, was 3.7 per cent., while the casein was 5.4; after lying quietly all night, the milk from the same cow, on the following morning, contained 5.6 per cent. of butter, and only 3.9 of casein. In stabling the cow, the butter was invariably in greater proportion than when allowed to ramble in the pasture; and the casein, with a single exception, was equally diminished. [Illustration: Fig. 17. Lactometer, or Cream Guage.] Fig. 17, is a number of glass tubes of equal size, set in a frame called a _lactometer_ or _cream guage_. If milk from different cows be set in these, the depth of the cream will indicate their comparative richness. Cream. If milk be immediately set away in shallow vessels, after being taken from the cow, the cream rises to the surface, carrying with it most of the butter contained in the milk, and much of its casein also. Hence, the great nutritive properties of buttermilk, which retains the casein in very large proportions, much of it being rejected by the butter in its separation from the cream. A temperature below 34°, will prevent the cream from rising in any considerable quantity, and preserve the milk unaltered for some weeks. Coagulating the milk from any cause, will equally prevent the separation of the cream. The elevation of temperature within certain limits, hastens the separation. Thus, at 50°, the cream will mostly have risen in 36 hours; at 55°, in 24; at 68°, in 18 or 20; and at 77°, in 10 or 12 hours. Heating the milk near the boiling point, and then setting it away and allowing it to remain undisturbed, will soon cause the cream to rise. In the celebrated Orange dairy, near Baltimore, Md., this system was practised, by which, not only most of the cream was secured for butter, but in consequence of its rapid separation, the skimmed milk was sent to market within a few hours after being drawn; and the scalding imparted to it an agreeable flavor and apparent richness, which it did not really possess. The celebrated clouted cream of Devonshire, England, and the butter made from it, contains an unusual quantity of casein, the consequence of heating the milk. "It is prepared by straining the warm milk into large shallow pans into which a little water has previously been put, allowing these to stand from six to twelve hours, and then carefully heating them over a slow fire, or on a hot plate, till the milk approaches the boiling point. The milk, however, must not actually boil, nor must the skin of the cream be broken. The dishes are now removed into the dairy, and allowed to cool. In summer the cream should be churned on the following day; in winter it may stand over two days. The quantity of cream obtained is said to be one-fourth greater by this method, and the milk which is left is proportionably poor."--[_Johnston._] BUTTER. Electricity Has much to do with the changes in milk, as in all other substances. Glass milk-pans might, therefore, be supposed to be the best vessels for keeping the milk unchanged and sweet. It may possibly not afford any practical result, yet intelligent experiments for introducing a stream of electricity might well be justified, to aid in the separation of the butteraceous particles in the operation of churning. Sour Cream. Cream, for the purpose of churning, is usually allowed to become sour. It ought to be at least one day old, but may with advantage be kept several days in cool weather, if it be previously well freed from milk, and be frequently stirred to keep it from curdling. This sour cream is put into the churn, and worked in the usual way until the butter separates. This is collected into lumps, well beat and squeezed free from the milk, and in some dairies is washed with pure cold water as long as the water is rendered milky. In other localities the butter is not washed, but after being well beat, is carefully freed from the remaining milk by repeated squeezings and dryings with a clean cloth. Both methods, no doubt, have their advantages. In the same circumstances, the washed butter may be more easily preserved in the fresh state, while the unwashed butter will probably possess a higher flavor. Sweet Cream May be put into the churn and the butter be obtained, but in most cases it requires more labor and longer time, without, in the opinion of good judges, affording in general a finer quality of butter. In all cases the cream becomes sour during the agitation, and before the butter begins distinctly to form. Clouted Cream The churning of the clouted cream of this and other countries, forms an exception to the general rule just stated, that more time is required in the churning of sweet creams. Clouted cream may be churned in the morning after it is made, that is, within twenty-four hours of the time when the milk was taken from the cow; and from such cream it is well known that the butter separates with very great ease. But in this case, the heating of the cream has already disposed the oily matter to cohere, an incipient running together of the globules has probably taken place before the cream is removed from the milk, and hence the comparative ease with which the churning is effected. There is something peculiar in butter prepared in this way, as it is known in other countries by the name of Bohemian butter. It is said to be very agreeable in flavor, but it must contain more cheesy matter than the butter from ordinary cream. Churning the whole Milk Is a much more laborious method, from the difficulty of keeping in motion such large quantities of fluid. It has the advantage, however, of giving a larger quantity of butter. At Rennes, in Brittany, the milk of the previous evening is poured _into the churn_ along with the warm morning's milk, and the mixture is allowed to stand for some hours, when the whole is churned. In this way it is said that a larger quantity of butter is obtained, and of a more delicate flavor. In the neighborhood of Glasgow, according to Mr. Aiton, the milk is allowed to stand six, twelve, or twenty-four hours in the dairy, till the whole has cooled, and the cream has risen to the surface. Two or three milkings, still sweet, are then poured together with their cream, into a large vessel, and are left undisturbed till the whole has become quite sour, and is completely coagulated. The proper sourness is indicated by the formation of a stiff _brat_ upon the surface _which has become uneven_. Great care must be taken to keep the brat and curd unbroken until the milk is about to be churned, for if any of the whey be separated, the air gains admission to it and to the curd, and fermentation is induced. By this fermentation, the quality of the butter may or may not be affected, but that of the buttermilk is almost sure to be injured. In Holland the practice is a little different. The cream is not allowed to rise to the surface at all, but the milk is stirred two or three times a day, till it gets sour, and so thick that a wooden spoon will stand in it. It is then put into the churn, and the working, or the separation of the butter is assisted by the addition of a quantity of cold water. By churning the sour milk in one or other of these ways, the butter is said to be "rich, sound, and well-flavored." If it be greater in quantity, it is, according to Sprengel, because the fatty matter carries with it from the milk a larger quantity of casein than it does in most cases from the cream alone. Sourness of the Cream. For the production of the best butter, it is necessary that the cream should be sufficiently sour before it is put into the churn. Butter made from sweet cream (not clouted) is neither good in quality, nor large in quantity, and longer time is required in churning. It is an unprofitable method. [Illustration: Fig. 18.] Fig. 18 is a _Cylindrical Thermometer Churn_, of any required size, with false metal bottom to hold cold or hot water for bringing the cream to the proper temperature. A thermometer, permanently set in the side, indicates the heat. Quickness in Churning. The more quickly milk or cream is churned, the paler, the softer, and the less rich the butter. Cream, according to Mr. Aiton, may be safely churned in an hour and a half, while milk ought to obtain from two to three hours. The churning ought always to be regular, slower in warm weather, that the butter may not be soft and white, and quicker in winter, that the proper temperature may be kept up. A barrel-churn, lately introduced into this country, being placed in a trough of water of the proper temperature, readily imparts the degree of heat required by the milk or cream without the necessity of adding warm water to the milk, _and churns the whole in ten or twelve minutes_. It is said also to give a larger weight of butter from the same quantity of milk. If the quality be really as good by this quick churning, the alleged inferiority in the quality of butter churned quickly in the common churn cannot be due to the mere rapidity of churning alone. Over-churning. When the process of churning is continued after the full separation of the butter, it loses its fine yellowish, waxy appearance, and becomes soft and light-colored. The weight of the butter, however, is considerably increased; and hence, in Lancashire, over-churning is frequently practised in the manufacture of fresh butter for immediate sale. Temperature of the Milk or Cream. Much also depends upon the temperature of the milk or cream when the churning is commenced. Cream when put into the churn should never be warmer than 55° Fahrenheit It rises during the churning from 4° to 10° F. above its original temperature. When the whole milk is churned, the temperature should be raised to 65° F., which is best done by pouring in hot water into the churn _while the milk is kept in motion_. In winter, either of these temperatures may be easily attained. In cold weather it is often necessary to add hot water to the cream to raise it even to 55°. But in summer, and especially in hot weather, it is difficult, even in cool and well-ordered dairies, (without the use of ice,) to keep the cream down to this comparatively low temperature. Hence, if the cream be then churned, a second-rate butter, at best, is all that can be obtained. The alleged advantages of Churning the entire Milk. The proper temperature can be readily obtained both in winter and summer. A hundred gallons of entire milk, will give, in summer, five per cent. more butter than the cream from the same quantity of milk. Butter of the best quality can be obtained without difficulty, both in winter and summer. No special attention to circumstances, or change of method, is at any time required. The churning in winter and summer is alike simple and easy. The butter is not only of the best quality while fresh, but is also best for long-keeping, when properly cured or salted. Cleanliness in all the operations of the Dairy. This is peculiarly necessary to the manufacture of good butter. Cream is remarkable for the rapidity with which it absorbs and becomes tainted by any unpleasant odors. It is very necessary that the air of the dairy should be sweet, that it should be often renewed, and that it should be open in no direction from which bad odors can come. (_Johnston and other authorities._) The statement of J. T. Lansing, who received the first premium for butter from the New York State Agricultural Society, is as follows:-- _Keep the cows stabled through the inclement season_; feed them from three to four times per day with good hay or green stalks; when near coming in, add some oats, barley, or corn cracked. In summer, good pasture, with living water accessible at all times, and plenty of salt. _Treatment of milk and cream before churning._--Strain the milk in tin pans; place them in a cool cellar for the cream to rise. When sufficiently risen, separate the cream from the milk; put in stone jars, well prepared before churning. _The mode of churning in summer._--Rinse the churn with cold water; then turn in the cream, and add to each jar of cream put in the churn, full one-fourth of the same quantity of cold water. The churn used is a patent one, moved by hand with a crank, having paddles attached, and so constructed as to warm the milk (if too cold) with hot water, without mixing them together. The milk and cream receive the same treatment in winter as in summer; and in churning, use hot instead of cold water, if necessary. _The method of freeing the butter from the milk_, is to wash the butter with cold water, till it shows no color of the milk, by the use of a ladle. _Salting the butter._--Use the best kind of Liverpool sack-salt; the quantity varies according to the state in which the butter is taken from the churn; if soft, more; if hard, less; always taking the taste for the surest guide. Add no saltpetre, nor other substances. _The best time for churning_ is the morning, in hot weather, and to keep the butter cool till put down. _The best mode of preserving butter_, in and through the summer and winter, is as follows:--The vessel is a stone jar, clean and sweet. The mode of putting it down is to put in a churning of butter, and put on strong brine; let it remain on until the next churning is ready to put down, and so on till the jar is filled; then cover it with fine salt the same to remain on till used. Mr. McWilliams, of Orange county, the celebrity of whose butter is unsurpassed, thus details his method of butter-making: "Our practice is not to churn the milk until it becomes thick or loppered, the milk and cream is then churned together. The temperature of the milk is about fifty degrees. In warm weather about a quart of cold water is put in each pan before the milk is strained, so as to keep it sweet as long as possible. The cellar-floor is brick. This in warm weather is daily cleansed with cold water. A drain from the cellar carries off the water thus applied. The churn is filled about half full with milk, with the addition of two pails of cold water before starting the churn. In cold weather the same quantity of warm water is applied. When the churning is finished, which usually occupies about two hours of time, there are then two more pails of cold water applied to raise the butter and cool it. The butter is then taken out of the churn and put in a large tray; this is immediately filled with cold water, and the butter carefully washed; after which the water is thrown off. The butter now undergoes the process of salting; it is then placed in a cool situation, where it stands about an hour, and is worked carefully over. This finished, it is placed in the same situation as before, where it stands three or four hours, and is again worked over; again replaced for five or six hours, when it is worked over for the third time. It is now replaced, where it stands till the next morning, and worked over for the fourth time. A small quantity of nitre is then put in the butter. Thus finished, it is placed in firkins holding about eighty-five pounds. Previous to packing, the firkin is scalded with hot water, rinsed and cooled with cold water, then rubbed all around with fine salt; this prevents the butter from adhering to the sides of the firkin. When the firkin is full, a linen cloth is placed over the top of the butter; on this cloth a covering of salt is put one inch deep, and cold water enough added to it to form a brine. It then stands till it is to be sent to market, when the cloth and salt are removed, the firkin turned down, the top of the butter in the keg washed with cold water, and the pickle drained off. The firkin is now neatly headed up and sent to market." The salt added to the butter should be from 1-24th to 1-28th of its weight, or about two-thirds of an ounce to a pound, and this must be of the best quality. All the buttermilk must be thoroughly extracted by repeated washings; and when completed, the butter should be immediately packed, and not a particle of air allowed to come in contact with it till opened for the table. CHEESE. The Circumstances affecting the Quality of Cheese. "All cheese consists essentially of the curd, mixed with a certain portion of the fatty matter, and of the sugar of milk. But differences in the quality of the milk, in the proportion in which the several constituents of milk are mixed together, or in the general mode of dairy management, give rise to varieties of cheese almost without number. Nearly every dairy district produces one or more qualities of cheese peculiar to itself. Natural Differences in the Milk It is obvious that whatever gives rise to natural differences in the quality of the milk, must affect also that of the cheese prepared from it. If the milk be poor in butter, so must the cheese be. If the pasture be such as to give a milk rich in cream, the cheese will partake of the same quality. If the herbage or other food affect the taste of the milk or cream, it will also modify the flavor of the cheese. Milk of Different Animals. So the milk of different animals will give cheese of unlike qualities. The ewe-milk cheeses of Tuscany, Naples, and Languedoc, and those of goats' milk made on Mont Dor and elsewhere, are celebrated for qualities which are not possessed by cheeses prepared from cows' milk in a similar way. Buffalo milk also gives a cheese of peculiar qualities, which is manufactured in some parts of the Neapolitan territory." Other kinds of cheese are made from mixtures of the milk of different animals. Thus the strong-tasted cheese of Lecca and the celebrated Roquefort cheese are prepared from mixtures of goat with ewe milk, and the cheese of Mont Cenis from both of these mixed with the milk of the cow. Creamed or Uncreamed Milk. Still further differences are produced, according to the proportion of cream which is left in or is added to the milk. Thus, if cream only be employed, we have the rich _cream-cheese_ which must be eaten in a comparatively recent state. Or, if the cream of the previous night's milking be added to the new milk of the morning, we may have such cheese as the _Stilton_ of England, or the small, soft, and rich _Brie_ cheeses, so much esteemed in France. If the entire milk only be used, we have such cheeses as the _Cheshire_, the _Double Gloucester_, the _Cheddar_, the _Wiltshire_, and the _Dunlop_ cheeses of Britain, the Kinnegad cheese of Ireland, and the Gouda and Edam cheeses of Holland. Even here, however, it makes a difference, whether the warm milk from the cow is curdled alone, as at Gouda and Edam, or whether it is mixed with the milk of the evening before, as is generally done in Cheshire and Ayrshire. Many persons are of opinion that cream, which has once been separated, can never be so well mixed again with the milk, that a portion of the fatty matter shall not flow out with the whey and render the cheese less rich. If the cream of the evening's milk be removed, and the skimmed milk added to the new milk of the next morning, such cheeses as the _Single Gloucester_ are obtained. If the cream be taken once from _all_ the milk, the better kinds of skimmed-milk cheese, such as the Dutch cheese of Leyden, are prepared; while if the milk be twice skimmed, we have the poorer cheeses of Friesland and Groningen. If skimmed for three or four days in succession, we get the hard and horny cheeses of Essex and Sussex, which often require the axe to break them up. Buttermilk Cheese. But poor or butterless cheese will also differ in quality according to the state of the milk from which it is extracted. If the new milk be allowed to stand to throw up its cream, and this be then removed in the usual way, the ordinary skimmed-milk cheese will be obtained by adding rennet to the milk. But if, instead of skimming, we allow the milk to stand till it begins to sour, and then remove the butter by churning the whole, we obtain the milk in a sour state, (_buttermilk_.) From this milk the curd separates naturally by gentle heating. But being thus prepared from sour milk, and without the use of rennet, buttermilk cheese differs more or less in quality from that which is made from sweet skimmed-milk. The acid in the buttermilk, especially after it has stood a day or two, is capable of coagulating new milk also; and thus, by mixing more or less sweet milk with the buttermilk before it is warmed, several other qualities of mixed butter and sweet-milk cheese may readily be manufactured. Whey Cheese. The whey which separates from the curd, and especially the white whey, which is pressed out towards the last, contains a portion of curd, and not unfrequently a considerable quantity of butter also. When the whey is heated, the curd and butter rise to the surface, and are readily skimmed off. This curd alone will often yield a cheese of excellent quality, and so rich in butter, that a very good imitation of Stilton cheese may sometimes be made with alternate layers of new-milk curd and this curd of whey. Mixtures of Vegetable Substances with the Milk. New varieties of cheese are formed by mixing vegetable substances with the curd. A green decoction of two parts of sage leaves, one of marigold, and a little parsley, gives its color to the _green cheese_ of Wiltshire; some even mix up the entire leaves with the curd. The celebrated Schabzieger cheese of Switzerland, is made by crushing the skim-milk cheese after it is several months old to fine powder in a mill, mixing it then with one-tenth of its weight of fine salt, and one-twentieth of the powdered leaves of the mellilot trefoil, (_trifolium melilotus cerulea_,) and afterwards with oil or butter, working the whole into a paste, which is pressed and carefully dried. Potato Cheeses, As they are called, are made in various ways. One pound of sour milk is mixed with five pounds of boiled potatoes and a little salt, and the whole is beat into a pulp, which, after standing five or six days, is worked up again, and then dried in the usual way. Others mix three parts of dried boiled potatoes with two of fresh curd, or equal weights, or more curd than potato, according to the quality required. Such cheeses are made in Thuringia, in Saxony, and in other parts of Germany. In Savoy, an excellent cheese is made by mixing one of the pulp of potatoes with three of ewe-milk curd; and in Westphalia, a potato cheese is made with skimmed milk. Preparation of Rennet. Rennet is prepared from the salted stomach or intestines of the sucking calf, the unweaned lamb, the young kid, or even the young pig. In general, however, the stomach of the calf is preferred, and there are various ways of curing and preserving it. The stomach of the newly killed animal contains a quantity of curd derived from the milk on which it has been fed. In most districts, it is usual to remove by a gentle washing the curd and slimy matters which are present in the stomach, as they are supposed to impart a strong taste to the cheese. In Cheshire, the curd is frequently salted separately for immediate use. In Ayrshire and Limburg, on the other hand, the curd is always left in the stomach and salted along with it. Some even give the calf a copious draught of milk shortly before it is killed, in order that the stomach may contain a larger quantity of the valuable curd. Salting the Stomach. In the mode of salting the stomach, similar differences prevail. Some merely put a few handfuls of salt into and around it, then roll it together, and hang it near the chimney to dry. Others salt it in a pickle for a few days, and then hang it up to dry; while others pack several of them in layers, with much salt both within and without, and preserve them in a cool place, till the cheese-making season of the following year. They are then taken out, drained from the brine, spread upon a table, sprinkled with salt which is rolled in with a wooden roller, and then hung up to dry. In some foreign countries, the recent stomach is minced very fine, mixed with salt and bread into a paste, put into a bladder, and then dried. In Lombardy, the stomach, after being salted and dried, is minced and mixed up with salt, pepper, and a little whey or water into a paste, which is preserved for use. In whatever way the stomach or intestine of the calf is prepared and preserved, the almost universal opinion seems to be, that it should be kept for 10 or 12 months, before it is capable of yielding the best and strongest rennet. If newer than 12 months, the rennet is thought to make the cheese heave or swell, and become full of eyes or holes. Making the Rennet. In making the rennet, different customs also prevail. In some districts, a bit of the dried stomach is put into half a pint of lukewarm water, with as much salt as will lie upon a shilling, is allowed to stand over night, and in the morning the infusion is poured into the milk. For a cheese of 60 lbs. weight, a piece of the size of a dollar will often be sufficient, though of some skins as much as 10 square inches are required to produce the same effect. It is, however, more common to take the entire stomach, and to pour upon them from one to three quarts of water for each stomach, and to allow them to infuse for several days. If only one has been infused, and the rennet is intended for immediate use, the infusion requires only to be skimmed and strained. But if several be infused, or as many as have been provided for the whole season, about two quarts of water are taken for each, and, after standing not more than two days, the infusion is poured off, and is completely saturated with salt. During the summer it is constantly skimmed, and fresh salt added from time to time. Or a strong brine may at once be poured upon the skins, and the infusion, when the skins are taken out, may be kept for a length of time. Some even recommend, that the liquid rennet should not be used until it is at least two months old. When thus kept, however, it is indispensable that the water should be fully saturated with salt. In Ayrshire, and in some other countries, it is customary to cut the dried stomach into small pieces, and to put it, with a handful or two of salt and one or two quarts of water, into a jar, to allow it to stand for two or three days, afterwards to pour upon it another pint for a couple of days, to mix the two decoctions, and when strained, to bottle the whole for future use. In this state it may be kept for many months. In making rennet, some use pure water only, others prefer clear whey, others a decoction of leaves, such as those of the sweetbrier, the dog-rose, and the bramble, or of aromatic herbs and flowers; while others again, put in lemons, cloves, mace, or brandy. These various practices are adopted for the purpose of making the rennet keep better, of lessening its unpleasant smell, of preventing any unpleasant taste it might give to the curd, or finally of directly improving the flavor of the cheese. The acidity of the lemon will, no doubt, increase also the coagulating power of any rennet to which it may be added. The rennet thus prepared is poured into the milk previously raised to the temperature of 90° or 95° F., and is intimately mixed with it. The quantity which it is necessary to add varies with the quality of the rennet, from a tablespoonful to half a pint for 30 or 40 gallons of milk. The time necessary for the complete fixing of the curd varies also from 15 minutes to an hour or even an hour and a half. The chief causes of this variation, are the temperature of the milk, and the quality and quantity of the rennet employed. Different Qualities of Cheese. The temperature of new or entire milk, when the rennet is added, should be raised to about 95° F.; that of skimmed milk need not be quite so high. If the milk be warmer the curd is hard and tough, if colder, it is soft and difficult to obtain free from the whey. When the former happens to be the case, a portion of the first whey that separates may be taken out into another vessel, allowed to cool, and then poured in again. If it prove to have been too cold, hot milk or water may be added to it; or a vessel containing hot water may be put into it before the curdling commences; or the first portion of whey that separates may be heated and poured again upon the curd. The quality of the cheese, however, will always be more or less affected, when it happens to be necessary to adopt any of these remedies. To make the best cheese, the true temperature should always be attained as nearly as possible, before the rennet is added. Mode in which the Milk is warmed. If, as is the case in some dairies, the milk be warmed in an iron pot upon the naked fire, great care must be taken that it is not singed or _fire-fanged_. A very slight inattention may cause this to be the case, and the taste of the cheese is sure to be more or less affected by it. In Cheshire, the milk is put into a large tin pail, which is plunged into a boiler of hot water, and frequently stirred till it is raised to the proper temperature. In large dairy establishments, however, the safest method is to have a pot with a double bottom, consisting of one pot within another, after the manner of a glue-pot; the space between the two being filled with water. The fire applied beneath, thus acts only upon the water, and can never, by any ordinary neglect, do injury to the milk. It is desirable in this heating, not to raise the temperature higher than is necessary, as a great heat is apt to give an oiliness to the fatty matter of the milk. The time during which the Curd stands. This is also of importance. It should be broken up as soon as the milk is fully coagulated. The longer it stands after this, the harder and tougher it will become. The quality of the Rennet. This is of much importance, not only in regard to the certainty of the coagulation, but also to the flavor of the cheese. In some parts of Cheshire, it is usual to take a piece of the dried membrane and steep it overnight with a little salt for the ensuing morning's milk. It is thus sure to be fresh and sweet, if the dried _maw_ be in good preservation. But where it is customary to steep several skins at a time, and to bottle the rennet for after-use, it is very necessary to saturate the solution completely with salt, and to season it with spices, in order that it may be preserved in a sweet and wholesome state. The quantity of Rennet added. This ought to be regulated as carefully as the temperature of the milk. Too much renders the curd tough; too little causes the loss of much time, and may permit a larger portion of the butter to separate itself from the curd. It is to be expected also, that when rennet is used in great excess, a portion of it will remain in the curd, and will naturally affect the kind and rapidity of the changes it afterwards undergoes. Thus, it is said to cause the cheese to heave or swell out from fermentation. It is probable, also, that it will affect the flavor which the cheese acquires by keeping. Thus it may be, that the agreeable or unpleasant taste of the cheeses of certain districts or dairies may be less due to the quality of the pastures or of the milk itself, than to the quantity of rennet with which it has there been customary to coagulate the milk. The way in which the Rennet is made. This, no less than its state of preservation and the quantity employed, may also influence the flavor or other qualities of the cheese. For instance, in the manufacture of a celebrated French cheese, that of Epoisse, the rennet is prepared as follows:--Four fresh calf-skins, with the curd they contain, are well washed in water, chopped into small pieces, and digested in a mixture of 5 quarts of brandy with 15 of water, adding at the same time 2½ lbs. of salt, half an ounce of black pepper, and a quarter of an ounce each of cloves and fennel seeds. At the end of six weeks, the liquor is filtered and preserved in well-corked bottles, while the membrane is put into salt-water to form a new portion of rennet. For making rich cheeses, the rennet should always be filtered clear. On Mont d'Or, the rennet is made with white wine and vinegar. An ounce of common salt is dissolved in a mixture of half a pint of vinegar with 2½ pints of white wine, and in this solution a prepared goat's stomach or _a piece of dried pig's bladder_ is steeped for a length of time. A single spoonful of this rennet is said to be sufficient for 45 or 50 quarts of milk. No doubt the acid of the vinegar and of the wine aid the coagulating power derived from the membrane. The way in which the Curd is treated. It is usual in our best cheese districts, carefully and slowly to separate the curd from the whey, not to hasten the separation, lest a larger portion of the fatty matter should be squeezed out of the curd, and the cheese should thus be rendered poorer than usual. But in some places, the practice prevails of washing the curd with hot water, after the whey has been partially separated from it. Thus at Gouda in Holland, after the greater part of the whey has been gradually removed, a quantity of hot water is added, and allowed to remain upon it for at least a quarter of an hour. The heat makes the cheese more solid and causes it to keep better. In Italy, the pear-shaped _caccio-cavallo_ cheeses and the round _palloni_ cheeses of Gravina, in the Neapolitan territory, are made from curd, which after being scalded with boiling whey, is cut into slices, kneaded in boiling water, worked with the hand till it is perfectly tenacious and elastic, and then made into shapes. The water in which the curd is washed, after standing twenty-four hours, throws up much oily matter, which is skimmed off and made into butter. The Separation of the Whey Is a part of the process, upon which the quality of the cheese in a considerable degree depends. In Cheshire, more time and attention is devoted to the perfect extraction of the whey than in almost any other district. Indeed, when it is considered that the whey contains sugar and lactic acid, which may undergo decomposition, and a quantity of rennet which may bring on fermentation, by both of which processes the flavor of the cheeses must be considerably affected, it will appear of great importance that the whey should be as completely removed from the curd as it can possibly be. To aid in effecting this, a curd-mill, for chopping it fine after the whey is _strained_ off, is in use in many of the large English dairies, and a very ingenious and effectual pneumatic cheese-press for sucking out the whey, was lately invented. But the way in which the whey is separated is not a matter of indifference, and has much influence upon the quality of the cheese. Thus, in Norfolk, according to Marshall, when the curd is fairly set, the dairy-maid bares her arm, plunges it into the curd, and with the help of her wooden ladle, breaks up minutely, and intimately mixes the curd with the whey. This she does for ten or fifteen minutes, after which the curd is allowed to subside, and the whey is drawn off. By this agitation, the whey must carry off more of the butter and the cheese must be poorer. In Cheshire and Ayrshire, the curd is cut with a knife, but is gently used and slowly pressed till it is dry enough to be chopped fine, and thus more of the oily matter is retained. On the same principle, in making the Stilton cheese, the curd is not cut or broken at all, but is pressed gently and with care till the whey gradually drains out. Thus the butter and the curd remain intermixed, and the rich cheese of Stilton is the result. Thus, while it is of importance that all the whey should be extracted from the curd, yet the quickest way may not be the best. More time and care must be bestowed in order to effect this object, the richer the cheese we wish to obtain. The quality of the milk or of the pastures, may often be blamed for the deficiencies in the richness or other qualities of cheese, which are in reality due to slight but material differences in the mode of manufacturing it. _The kind of salt_ used, is considered by many to have some effect upon the taste of the cheese. Thus the cheese of Gerome, in the Vosges, is supposed to derive a peculiar taste from the Lorena salt with which it is cured. In Holland, the efficacy of one kind of salt over another for the curing of cheese is generally acknowledged. The Mode in which the Salt is applied. In making the large Cheshire cheeses, the dried curd, for a single cheese of sixty pounds, is broken down fine and divided into three equal portions. One of these is mingled with double the quantity of salt added to the others, and this is so put into the cheese-vat as to form the central part of the cheese. By this precaution, the after-salting on the surface is sure to penetrate deep enough to cure effectually the less salted parts. In the counties of Gloucester and Somerset the curd is pressed without salt, and the cheese, when formed, is made to absorb the whole of the salt afterwards through its surface. This is found to answer well with the small and thin cheeses made in those counties, but were it adopted for the large cheeses of Cheshire and Dunlop, or even for the pine-apple cheeses of Wiltshire, there can be no doubt that their quality would frequently be injured. It may not be impossible to cause salt to penetrate into the very heart of a large cheese, but it cannot be easy in this way to salt the whole cheese equally, while the care and attention required must be greatly increased. Addition of Cream or Butter to the Curd. Another mode of improving the quality of cheese, is by the addition of cream or butter to the dried and crumbled curd. Much diligence, however, is required fully to incorporate these, so that the cheese may be uniform throughout. Still this practice gives a peculiar character to the cheeses of certain districts. In Italy, they make a cheese _after the manner of the English_, into which a considerable quantity of butter is worked; and the _Reckem_ cheese of Belgium is made by adding half an ounce of butter and the yolk of an _egg_, to every pound of pressed curd. Size of the Cheese. From the same milk, it is obvious that cheeses of different sizes, if treated in the same way, will, at the end of a given number of months, possess qualities in a considerable degree different. Hence, without supposing any inferiority, either in the milk or in the general mode of treatment, the size usually adopted for the cheeses of a particular district or dairy, may be the cause of a recognised inferiority in some quality, which it is desirable that they should possess in a high degree. The Method of Curing. This has very much influence upon the quality of the cheese. The care with which they are salted, the warmth of the place in which they are kept during the first two or three weeks, the temperature and closeness of the cheese-room in which they are afterwards preserved, the frequency of turning, of cleaning from mould, and rubbing with butter; all these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the after-qualities of the cheese. Indeed, in very many instances, the high reputation of a particular dairy district or dairy farm, is derived from some special attention to some or to all of these apparently minor points. In Tuscany, the cheeses, after being hung up for some time at a proper distance from the fire, are put to ripen in an underground, cool, and damp cellar; and the celebrated French cheeses of Roquefort, are supposed to owe much of the peculiar estimation in which they are held, to the cool and uniform temperature of the subterranean caverns in which the inhabitants of the village have long been accustomed to preserve them. Ammoniacal Cheese. The influence of the mode of curing, is shown very strikingly in the small ammoniacal cheeses of Brie, which are very much esteemed in Paris. They are soft unpressed cheeses, which are allowed to ripen in a room, the temperature of which is kept between 60° and 70° Fahrenheit, till they begin to undergo the putrefactive fermentation, and emit an ammoniacal odor. They are generally unctuous, and sometimes so small as not to weigh more than an ounce. Inoculating Cheese. It is said that a cheese, possessed of no very striking taste of its own, may be inoculated with any flavor we approve, by putting into it with a scoop a small portion of the cheese which we are desirous that it should be made to resemble. Of course, this can apply only to cheeses otherwise of equal richness, for we could scarcely expect to give a Gloucester the flavor of a Stilton, by merely patting into it a small portion of a rich and esteemed Stilton cheese. [_Johnston and various other authorities._] [Illustration: Fig. 19. Cheese-Press.] Fig. 19 is a _self-acting cheese-press_, light yet strong. The cheese itself gives a pressure of twelve times its own weight; and if this is insufficient, additional weight may be added as required. The following statements were made by those receiving premiums from the New York State Agricultural Society: "Number of cows kept, eleven. Cheese made from two milkings, in the English manner; no addition made of cream. For a cheese of twenty pounds, a piece of rennet about two inches square is soaked about twelve hours in one pint of water. As rennets differ much in quality, enough should be used to coagulate the milk _sufficiently_ in about forty minutes. No salt is put _into_ the cheese, nor any on the outside during the first six or eight hours it is pressed; but a thin coat of fine Liverpool salt is kept on the outside during the remainder of the time it remains in press. The cheeses are pressed forty-eight hours, under a weight of seven or eight cwt. Nothing more is required but to turn the cheeses once a day on the shelves." "The milk is strained in large tubs over night; the cream stirred in milk, and in the morning strained in same tub; milk heated to natural heat; add color and rennet; curd broke fine and whey off, and broke fine in hoop with fast bottom, and put in strainer; pressed twelve hours; then taken from hoop, and salt rubbed on the surface; then put in hoop, without strainer, and pressed forty-eight hours; then put on tables, and salt rubbed on surface, and remain in salt six days, for cheese weighing thirty pounds. The hoops to have holes in the bottom; the crushings are saved, and set, and churned, to grease the cheese. The above method is for making one cheese per day. As in butter-making, the utmost cleanliness is required in every part of the cheese-making premises." CHAPTER IV. SHEEP With the exception of the dog, there is no one of the brute creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, covering, and general appearance, which characterizes the sheep, and none which occupies a wider range of climate, or subsists on a greater variety of food. In every latitude between the equator and the arctic, he ranges over the sterile mountains, and through the fertile valleys. He feeds on almost every species of edible forage, the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals and roots; he browses on aromatic and bitter herbs; he crops the leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs, and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh during their long and rigorous winters, and if reduced to necessity, he eats his own wool. He is diminutive like the Orkney, or massive like the Teeswater. He is policerate or many horned; he has two large or small spiral horns like the Merino, or is polled or hornless like the mutton sheep. He has a long tail like our own breeds; a broad tail, like many of the eastern; or a mere button of a tail, like the fat-rumps, discernible only by the touch. His coat is sometimes long and coarse, like the Lincolnshire; short and hairy, like those of Madagascar; soft and furry, like the Angola; or fine and spiral, like the silken Saxon. His color, either pure or fancifully mixed, varies from the white or black of our own country, to every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue, and gray, like the spotted flocks of the Cape of Good Hope and other parts of Africa and Asia. This wide diversity is the result of long domestication, under almost every conceivable variety of condition. Uses. Among the antediluvians, sheep were immolated for sacrificial offerings, and their fleeces probably furnished them with clothing. Since the deluge, their flesh has with all nations been used as a favorite food for man. By many of the rude, roving nations of the East, they are employed in carrying burdens. Their milk is generally used by the uncivilized, and to some extent by the refined nations of Europe, not only as a beverage, but for making into cheese, butter, and curds. Job refers to its use, as do Isaiah and other of the Old Testament writers. Most of the Greek and Roman authors describe its general use and manufacture. The ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow, but is generally thicker, and yields a pale, yellowish butter, that is always soft and soon becomes rancid. Culley remarks, "the cheese from their milk is exceedingly pungent, and for that reason is preferred by many to that from the cow." In Wales, the milk is mixed with that of the dairy, and makes a tart, palatable cheese. We have never seen it appropriated for dairy purposes in the United States, except by a few Welsh and Highland emigrants. The sheep is frequently employed in the dairy regions of this country, at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump the water, churn the milk, or perform other light domestic work. The dignity and importance of the shepherd's vocation have ever been conspicuous. Abel, the supposed twin-brother of the first-born of the human race, was a "keeper of sheep;" and from this, it may be fairly inferred, that there is no animal which has so long been under the immediate control of man. Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs, were shepherds. Job had 14,000 sheep. It is said of Rachel, the favored mother of the Jewish race, "she came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian, "came and drew water for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, who "was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, kept the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law;" and David, the future monarch of Israel, the hero, poet, and divine, was a keeper of sheep. It was to shepherds, while "abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night," that the birth of the Saviour was announced. The root of the Hebrew name for sheep, signifies fruitfulness, abundance, plenty; as indicating the blessings they were destined to confer on the human race. With the sacred writers, they were the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues; they were the victims of propitiatory sacrifices; and finally, they became the type of redemption to fallen man. These may not be considered accidental allusions in a book, whose every feature is full of design. Nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and attention with profane writers. Among these, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, introduced them with evident delight in their pastoral themes; while their heroes and demigods, Hercules and Ulysses, �neas and Numa, carefully perpetuated them throughout their regal domains. In modern times, they have commanded the attention of the most enlightened nations; and their prosperity has in no instance been independent of those useful animals, wherever wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain and Portugal, for more than two centuries, were the most enterprising nations of Europe, and during that period, they excelled in the production and manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, was before England in the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life, and _England then sent the little wool she raised to that country to be manufactured_. Her politic sovereigns soon found this a losing game, and offered large bounties for the importation of artists and machinery. By a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and woollens, she has carried their production beyond any thing the world has ever seen. The small islands of Great Britain and Ireland, in addition to the support of their 26,000,000 of people, 15,000,000 of cattle, 2,250,000 horses, 18,000,000 swine, and innumerable smaller domestic animals, maintain over 40,000,000 sheep, worth $250,000,000; and besides manufacturing nearly all their fleeces, annually import nearly an equal amount from abroad. The sumptuary law for burying the dead in woollen, still occupies its place in their statute book. And beyond all question, England is the leading power of the nineteenth century, in the combination of all those qualities which constitute national greatness, civilization, and strength. VARIETIES. Naturalists have divided the wild sheep into four varieties. The _Musimon_, (_Ovis Musimon_,) inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, and other islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts of Spain and Greece, and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea, have been frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. The _Argali_, (_O. Ammon_,) ranges over the steppes, or elevated plains of Central Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They are larger, more hardy, and more untameable than the Musimon. The _Rocky Mountain Sheep_, (_O. Montana_,) frequently called the _Big-horn_ by our western hunters, is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi, and throughout the wild mountainous regions, extending through California and Oregon to the Pacific. They are larger, but in other respects resemble the Argali, of which they are probably descendants, as they could easily cross upon the ice at Behring's Straits, from the northeastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught young they are easily tamed; but we are not aware that they have ever been bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country was overrun by the white man, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the Mississippi. Father Hennepin, a French Jesuit, who wrote nearly two hundred years ago, often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through what is now the territory embraced by Illinois and Wisconsin. The wild, clambering propensities of these animals, occupying the giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller, and the outer coating of hair (supplied underneath, however, with a thick coating of soft wool) gives to them much of the appearance of that animal. In summer they are generally found single; but when they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders. The _Bearded Sheep of Africa_ (_O. Tragelaphus_) inhabit the mountains of Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a soft, reddish hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck, and large locks of hair at the ankle. The Domesticated Sheep (_O. Aries_) Embraces all the varieties of the subjugated species. Whether they have descended from any one of the wild races, is a question yet undetermined among naturalists; but however this may be, many of the varieties apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each other. The _fat-rumped_ and _the broad-tailed sheep_ are much more extensively diffused than any other. They occupy nearly all the southeastern part of Europe, Western and Central Asia, and Northern Africa. They are supposed to be the varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, the Jewish race. This is inferred from various passages in the Pentateuch, Exodus xxix. 22; Leviticus iii. 9; viii. 25; ix. 19, and some others, where "the fat and the rump" are spoken of in connection with offerings, in which the fat was always an acceptable ingredient. Dr. Boothroyd renders one of the foregoing passages, "the large, fat tail entire, taken clear to the rump." It is certain this variety gives indisputable evidence of remote and continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or recently-domesticated race. This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, &c., with quite as many and marked shades of distinction as the modern European varieties. In Madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of Africa, with coarse wool; in the Levant, and along the Mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the exquisite Cashmere shawls are manufactured. Both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely 30 lbs., while others have weighed 200 lbs. dressed. The tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of breeding; some are less than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third the entire dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is considered a great delicacy, and in hot climates resembles oil, and in colder, suet. The broad-tailed sheep were brought into this country, about 50 years since, by Commodore Barron and Judge Peters, and bred with the native flocks. They were called the Tunisian mountain sheep. Some of them were subsequently distributed by Col. Pickering, of Massachusetts, among the farmers of Pennsylvania; and their mixed descendants were highly prized as prolific and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large weights, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The principal objection brought against them, was the difficulty of propagation, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black; but all excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes having the entire head tawny or black. The few which descended from those originally imported into this country, have become blended with American flocks, and are now scarcely distinguishable from them. Native or Common Sheep of the United States. Strictly speaking, there are no sheep indigenous to North America, excepting the _Ovis Montana_, or Rocky Mountain sheep. Before the introduction of the improved European breeds, during the present century, our sheep were generally a hardy, long-legged, coarse, open-fleeced animal, which yielded, according to attention and feed, from 1½ to 4 lbs. of indifferent wool. We have seen numerous flocks within the last 20 years, of the pure-bred native, whose bellies were entirely destitute of wool, and sometimes the whole carcass was bare, excepting a mere strip or ridge like a mane, reaching from the head to the tail. The wool which was retained on the neck, back, and sides, was frequently matted almost as firmly as a leather apron; and that on the thighs, and sometimes on the sides, was often composed almost wholly of long hair. Although indifferently formed in comparison with the best breeds of the present day, being thin in the breast and back, light quartered, and slow in coming to maturity, they yet possessed some good qualities. They were prolific, excellent nurses, tallowed well, and yielded good mutton. There were, occasionally, some smutty-nosed or brockle-faced sheep among them, distinguished by their additional size, superior merits, and courage. These were usually the leaders of the flock, in their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's domains; and in common with the others, they were eminently adapted to purvey for themselves on the frontier settlements. There were, besides, some black or dark chocolate-brown members in every flock, which were much valued by the thrifty housewife for their wool, which afforded an economical mixture for jackets, hose, and trousers, known as sheep's gray. Our original stock were principally derived from England, where their counterparts may be seen at the present day, in the refuse breeds of that country. When these sheep were well selected and properly bred, there was rapid and satisfactory improvement, and from such flocks, mixed with some of the more recently improved varieties, have sprung many valuable animals. There was but one exception to this general character of the native flocks, so far as our observation extended, which was a considerably numerous, and, probably, accidental variety, known as the _Otter breed_, or _Creepers_. These were an excessively duck-legged animal, with well-formed bodies, full chest, broad backs, yielding a close heavy fleece of medium quality of wool. They were deserved favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed, as their power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their mutton was equal, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior to their longer-legged contemporaries. They are probably now nearly or quite extinct. An excellent variety was produced by General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram, upon the Bakewell, which bore wool 14 inches in length, soft and silky, and admirably suited to combing. They were called the Arlington sheep, but they have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of the country. The Merino. This is undoubtedly one of the most ancient race of sheep extant. The loose descriptions and indefinite generalities of the ancient writers, leave much to conjecture on this point; yet we have a few passages from Pliny, Columella, and some other Roman authors, which leave little doubt that the Merino was bred in their age, and had even been introduced into Italy from Greece. It is a matter of history, that the Greeks had choice breeds of sheep at an early day, which they might have derived from Egypt, Tyre, and Asia Minor, as they were intimately connected in commerce with those countries, where the woollen manufacture early reached great perfection. It is supposed that the celebrated Argonautic expedition, in quest of the golden fleece, undertaken by the Greeks nearly 1300 years before Christ, resulted in procuring a valuable race of sheep from Colchis, in the Euxine. However this may be, it is certain that when Augustus extended his peaceful sceptre over half the known world, the Romans were in possession of some flocks, bearing fleeces of exceeding fineness and beauty. They had been reared in the province of Apulia, on the southeast coast of Italy, and were called Tarentine, from Tarentum, the capital of the province. Here, then, may have been one branch of the Merino family. Another is undoubtedly described by Pliny, who says, "the _red fleece of Bætica_ was of still superior quality, _and had no fellow_." All the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, of which Bætica formed a considerable part, comprising the modern Spanish provinces of Jaen, Cordova, Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, was early colonized by the enterprising Greeks; and this _red fleece that had no fellow_, was probably introduced by them at an early day, and by their descendants had been carried to a still higher degree of perfection than that of Apulia. Columella, the uncle of the writer on agriculture, a wealthy emigrant to Spain from Italy, A. D. 30, carried with him some of the Tarentine sheep, and thus added to the fine-woolled sheep of Spain. These two ancient streams, united perhaps with a third from the more ancient stock of the Euxine, (for Strabo asserts that some of the finest-woolled sheep were brought from that region in his time, and sold for the enormous sum of $750,) flowed on in an uninterrupted current over that broad country, and brought down to modern times the unrivalled race of the Merino. The limited region of Italy, overrun as it repeatedly was by hordes of barbarians during and after the times of the late emperors, soon lost her pampered flocks; while the extended regions of Spain, intersected in every direction by almost impassable mountains, could maintain their more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change. Whatever distrust may be attached to these scraps of history, which apparently establish the remote antiquity of the Merino, this much is absolutely certain, that they are a race whose qualities are inbred, to an extent surpassed by no others. They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet; in the uniformity and excessive fineness of fibre, as in the Saxons; and in their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but there has never yet been deterioration either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass, wherever transported, if supplied with suitable food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped; while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. This we conceive affords conclusive evidence of long-continued breeding among themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently established; and this property is transmitted to a great extent even among the crosses, thus marking them as an ancient and peculiar race. The conquest by the Moors of a part of those fine provinces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served rather to encourage the production of fine wool. They were not only enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to different countries. After their expulsion in the 15th century, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spaniards preserved these manufactures in part, and sedulously cherished their fine flocks; and knowing the incomparible advantage they had in them, their sovereigns, except in a few isolated instances, strictly prohibited their exportation. Exportation of Merinoes from Spain. History asserts that Henry VIII. of England, by permission of Charles V., imported 3,000 Spanish sheep; but of what kind is not mentioned, they having numerous varieties in Spain. If of the true Merino, it will explain the superior quality of the English middle-wools, the Ryeland, South Downs, and some others. The first well-authenticated exportation of the Spanish Merino, was made to Sweden in 1723, by Alstroemer, which solved the problem of their capacity for sustaining their character, on rough fare and in a high northern latitude. Lasteyrie, who wrote fifty years after the experiment had been tried, speaks of their improvement, both in carcass and the quality and quantity of fleece. The next exportation was made to Saxony, in 1765, and consisted of 105 rams and 114 ewes, but from what flocks they were taken, history nowhere mentions. A second exportation to that country was made in 1778, of 110 that were variously selected, from the best flocks in Spain. From these have descended the high-bred, silken-fleeced Saxons, whose wool stands confessedly without a rival. In 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported 300 Merinoes into Germany, and placed them on the imperial farm in Hungary. In 1786, an importation was made into Denmark and her provinces; and again, in 1797, another flock of 300 was brought into the kingdom, and placed at Esserum, about eight leagues from Copenhagen. In 1786, 100 rams and 200 ewes were imported into Prussia, most of which were allowed to perish from neglect and disease; but their places were fully made up by later importations. The same year, 400 ewes and rams were selected from the choicest Spanish flocks, and placed on the royal farm of Rambouillet, in France, which laid the foundation of the celebrated flock which bears that name. A small flock of inferior animals was clandestinely procured by George III., of England, in 1788, which attracted little attention. In 1791, a small but choice flock was presented to that monarch by the Cortes of Spain, which soon acquired high favor among many intelligent breeders. A part of these were kept pure, and their descendants furnished the superb flock of 700 Nigrettis, which procured for their owner, Mr. Trimmer, in 1829, the gold medal from the London Society of Arts. Others were mixed with different flocks in the kingdom, to the evident improvement of their fleeces. The first importation of Merinoes into the United States, Which resulted in the propagation of a pure breed,[2] was made by Chancellor Livingston, then minister at the court of Versailles, who sent two choice rams and ewes from the Rambouillet flock, in 1802, to Claremont, his country seat on the Hudson. In the latter part of the same year, Col. Humphreys, our minister in Spain, sent out nearly one hundred Merinoes, which were followed by more numerous flocks from the same and other sources. The largest importations of the Merino, however, were made through Mr. Jarvis of Vermont, in 1809, then U. S. Consul in Spain, and immediately thereafter. He first shipped, as he states, "200 Escurial, afterwards 1400 Paulars, 1700 Aqueirres, 100 Nigrettis, and about 200 Montarcos. 2700 Montarcos were sent out by a Spaniard and a Portuguese, and about 300 Guadaloupes by others; also 200 to 300 Paulars, by Gen. Downie, to Boston. Of the Montarco flock shipped by others, about 2500 came to Boston, Providence, New York, and other ports. All were imported in the latter part of 1809 and '10, and early in 1811, and were the only Leonese Transhumantes, if we include Humphreys' and Livingston's, (which I have no doubt were of the same stock,) that were ever shipped to the United States." [2] One or more pure Merinoes were imported into Massachusetts, in the latter part of the last century, by a citizen of that state, but they were soon mixed with other flocks, and resulted in the perpetuation of no distinct breed. Fig. 20 is a spirited cut of a variety of the Merino without dewlap, and with a long and somewhat open fleece. [Illustration: Fig. 20. Merino Buck.] Varieties of the Spanish Sheep. Besides several other breeds of sheep in Spain, consisting of long, coarse wool, and that of a medium staple, embraced under the different names of _Chorinoes_, _Choaroes_ or _Chunahs_, the Merino is distinguished by two general divisions; the _Transhumantes_ or travelling, and the _Estantes_ or stationary flocks. The former are subdivided, according to the Provinces they occupy, into Leonese, Segovian, and Sorian. Many of the Estantes were of the best quality in respect to carcass, constitution, and fleece; and such as were highly bred and in the hands of intelligent breeders, were not surpassed by any of the Spanish flocks. There were also many choice sheep among the Segovian and Sorian Transhumantes, but in general they were decidedly inferior to those of Leon. These last were universally regarded as the prime flocks of Spain. They comprised the Escurial, the Paular, the Nigretti, the Aqueirres or Muros, the Montarco, the Guadaloupe, Infantado, and some others. There is much contradictory testimony as to the comparative merits of the last-mentioned flocks, as they were found in Spain; which is owing in part, doubtless, to the difference in the specimens subjected to examination. We subjoin some of the most reliable authorities on this subject. M. Lasteyrie, who investigated this matter closely, says, "The Guadaloupe have the most perfect form, and are likewise celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool. The Paular bear much wool of a fine quality, but they have a more evident enlargement behind the ears, and a greater degree of _throatiness_, and the lambs have a coarse hairy appearance, which is succeeded by excellent wool. The lambs of the Infantado have the same hairy coat when young. The Nigretti are the largest and strongest of all the travelling sheep in Spain." Mr. Livingston says, "The Escurial is the most perfect of all the travelling flocks in Spain; the Guadaloupe for form, fineness and abundance of the fleece; the Paular with similar fleeces are larger bodied. Those of Castile and Leon have the largest, with the finest coat. Those of Soria are small, with very fine wool; and those also of Valencia, which do not travel, and like the last have fine wool, but of a very short staple." Mr. Jarvis, who spent many years in Spain, under every advantage for studying them closely, and who also imported, and has since bred large numbers of them on his estate in Vermont, gives their characteristics with more particularity, and at much greater length: "The Paulars were undoubtedly one of the handsomest flocks in Spain. They were of middling height, round-bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the neck of the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers to the setting on of the head, their head handsome, with aquiline curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the face, and generally hair on the legs, the skin pretty smooth, that is, not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body, as in some other flocks; the crimp in the wool was not so short as in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but it was close and compact, and was soft and silky to the touch, and the surface was not so much covered with gum. This flock was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of Paular, who were the best agriculturists in Spain, and was sold by that order to the Prince of Peace when he came into power. The Nigretti flock were the tallest Merinoes in Spain, but were not handsomely formed, being rather flat-sided, roach-back, and the neck inclining to sink down from the withers; the wool was somewhat shorter than the Paular, and more crimped; the skin was more loose and inclined to double, and many of them were woolled on their faces and legs down to their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had large dewlaps. The Aqueirres were short-legged, round, broad-bodied, with loose skins, and were more woolled about their faces and legs than any other flock I ever saw; the wool was more crimped than the Paular, and less than the Nigretti, but was thick and soft. This flock formerly belonged to the Moors of Spain, and at their expulsion was bought by the family of Aqueirres. The wool in England was known as the Muros flock, and was highly esteemed. All the bucks of these three flocks had large horns. The Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but not quite so round and broad, being in general rather more slight in their make; their wool was crimped, but not quite so thick as the Paular or Nigretti, nor were their skins so loose as the Nigretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so much wool on the face and legs. The Montarco bore a considerable resemblance to the Escurials. The Escurial flock had formerly belonged to the crown, but when Philip II. built the Escurial palace, he gave them to the friars, whom he placed in a convent that was attached to the palace, as a source of revenue. These four flocks were moderately gummed. The Guadaloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than the two preceding, about the same height; but not quite so handsomely formed; their wool was thick and crimped, their skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially different from the two latter flocks, but in general they were more gummed than either of the other flocks. In point of fineness, there was very little difference between these six flocks; and as I have been told by well-informed persons, there is very little difference in this respect among the Leonese Transhumantes in general. The Escurials, the Montarcos, and the Guadaloupes, were not, in general, so heavy-horned as the other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks were without horns." The Saxon, We have before seen, is one of the varieties of the pure-bred Merino, the foundation of which was laid by an importation of some of the choicest animals into Saxony, in 1765. The great care and attention bestowed upon these sheep by the Elector, the nobility, and the most intelligent farmers, soon carried them to a point of uniformity and excellence of fleece, never exceeded by the best of the original flocks. The breeders were selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece. Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year, and they were housed on every slight emergency. The consequence of this course of breeding and treatment has been to reduce the size and weight of fleece, and partially to impair that hardiness and vigor of constitution, which universally characterized the original Transhumantes. In numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the character of their flocks, which America has severely felt in several importations of worthless animals, and which a too great eagerness for improvement induced her flockmasters to use with the Spanish Merinoes and their descendants, as a means for this object, but which has resulted in the introduction of fatal diseases and serious deterioration in their flocks. [Illustration: Fig. 21. Saxon Ram.] The first Importation of Saxons into this Country Was made in 1823, of four good rams, two of which went to Boston and the others to Philadelphia. The next was made the following year, and consisted of 75 rams and ewes, which were brought to Boston, and sold at public auction, and were afterwards scattered over the country. Another lot of 180 followed the next year, to the same place, and was sold in the same manner, but at an increased price, some selling as high as $450 each. These prices excited the spirit of speculation, and the following year witnessed the importation of near 3,000, many of which were decidedly inferior. These were all thrown upon the market for the most they would command; and in many instances, the sales not half covering the cost of importation, the enterprise was abandoned as a speculation, or commercial operation. The late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, New York, a native of Germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, accompanied some of the best early importations to this country. He selected 105 choice animals for his own breeding, which he imported in 1827, and 70 more equally good, in 1828, and with these he formed the flock from which he bred to the time of his decease, in 1844. The average weight of fleece from the entire flock of Mr. Grove, nearly all of which were ewes and lambs, as stated by him to the writer, in 1842, was 2 lbs. 14 ounces, thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed by actual weight 1½ lbs. per day, except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just before and after lambing. This treatment was attended with no disease or loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for every ewe. In a flock of pure Saxony sheep owned by Mr. Smith of Connecticut, as stated in a letter from the owner, published in the American Shepherd, 104 ewes raised 101 lambs, and yielded 341 lbs. of wool, which sold at 70 cents per lb. For the 18 months preceding, he lost but three animals out of 300, from ordinary casualties. But some flocks of pure Saxony do not, in good condition, average 2 lbs. per head. A recent importation, (May, 1846,) made by Mr. Taintor of Connecticut, consisting of four bucks and four ewes, from the celebrated Saxon flock of Baron de Spreck, show a size and apparent vigor of constitution, equalling any of their Merino progenitors. [Illustration: Fig. 22. Rambouillet Buck.] The Rambouillet Flock. This flock was founded in 1786, by Louis XVI., from a selection of 400 of the best Spanish sheep, which were placed on the royal farm at Rambouillet. These, like the Saxon, received all the attention which intelligence and wealth could bestow, and the consequence was soon manifest in their larger size, and the increased weight and uniformity in the fineness of their fleece; the last improvement being particularly evident, from the absence of the coarse wool, which in many cases infested the quarters; and the jarr or hair, which frequently abounds on the flanks, legs, and thighs of the original Merino. Besides the crown flocks at Rambouillet, they are found in equal perfection on several other of the royal farms, especially those of Malmaison, Perpignan, Arles, Clermont, and some others. These flocks have been bred for hardy constitution, large carcass, and heavy fleece, and of as much fineness as is consistent with large weights, and as uniform in quality throughout, as possible. Mr. Gilbert, who was particularly familiar with them, says, "almost all the fleeces of the rams, from two years old and upwards, weigh (unwashed) from 12 to 13 lbs.; but the mean weight, taking the rams and the ewes together, has not quite attained to 8 lbs., after deducting the tags and the wool of the belly." The French pound is about one-twelfth heavier than the English; but from the general custom of folding the sheep in France, feeding them in fallows, and wintering them in houses, the fleece becomes very dirty. The loss in washing (fit for manufacturing) is about 60 per cent., so that the clean fleece of the ram will average about 6 lbs., and that of the whole flock something under 4 lbs. The first Importation of the Rambouillets to this Country. This was in 1801, by M. Dellesert, of Paris, for M. Dupont, then in New York, and consisted of four choice rams, only one of which, Don Pedro, reached this country. He was used among the native ewes near Kingston, N. Y., for three years, and then transferred to Delaware, where he effected great improvement among the native flocks. The second was that made by the late Chancellor Livingston, before alluded to. There was another in 1840, by Mr. Collins, of Connecticut, comprising 30 select ewes and 2 rams. All these sheep possessed the characteristics peculiar to the variety as described. A still more recent importation has been made by Mr. Taintor, at the same time with that of the Saxons previously mentioned, consisting of 23 ewes and 3 bucks, variously selected from the choicest flocks of the descendants of the Spanish Merino. The rams, though young, are the most promising animals of their breed, and when full grown, will weigh from 225 to 250 lbs. each. The sire of one was sold the past season for $500. He sheared 23 lbs. of unwashed wool. The ewes measured after they were shorn, from 25½ to 29 inches in height over the withers. The height of the under side of their bodies from the ground, was from 9½ to 12 inches, which is in the proportion of good American Merino sheep. Their weights varied, after shearing, from 124 to 153 lbs. Some of them were quite thin in flesh, the largest especially, which, if in fine condition with her fleece on, would weigh at least 200 lbs. The following is the weight of their fleeces unwashed. The scales used did not mark less than one-quarter of a pound, which will account for the absence of odd ounces. No. 17 13 lbs. " 27 15 " " 64 16¾ " " 71 14½ " " 84 16½ " " 87 16¼ " " 94 17 " " 100 12¼ " " 109 17 " " 110 17 " " 117 16¾ " " 118 15¾ " " 133 14¾ " " 195 13½ " It was the unbiased opinion of several wool-dealers present, that the shearing above would yield at least 35 lbs. of _cleansed_ wool, fitted for manufacturing without further loss, out of every 100 lbs. shorn. The fourteen ewes yielded 216 lbs. unwashed, which would be equivalent to 75 lbs. 10 oz. thoroughly cleansed, or an average of 5 lbs. 6 oz. per head. One-third may be safely added to bring this up to _clean washed_. This would make the average, as wool-growers usually dispose of their fleeces, 7 lbs. 3 oz. per head, a yield totally unprecedented in this country. The Progress of the Merino in the United States. Though reaching back but half a century, the Merino flocks of this country have been very fluctuating as to their value, increase, and improvement. When first introduced, they were viewed with distrust by the majority of our farmers; and it was not till after several years' experience of their paramount merits, that they were generally disseminated. But the confidence of our flock-masters having once been secured, it has never been withdrawn, and they have ever since been cherished favorites. The prices for choice Merinoes rapidly increased after their character was fully established, and Livingston states the average price for rams, in 1811, at $1,000, and some were sold at a much higher rate. This was the period of the embargo, when our infant manufactures were just starting into life; and being followed by war with the greatest commercial nation of the world, we were thrown entirely on our own resources for the supply of our woollen and other fabrics, and wool and sheep maintained their full value till after the return of peace, in 1816. The flooding of our country with foreign goods, under low duties, which succeeded this event, either broke down or effectually paralyzed our woollen manufactures; and wool, of course, felt the full weight of this crushing influence. The Merino rapidly declined in value, till its price nearly approximated to that of the native sheep. Their merits had, however, become so conspicuous, that the low prices produced a more general diffusion, and they and their crosses were thus sown broadcast over the country. The introduction of the Saxons, in great numbers, in 1826, many of which were excessively diminutive and diseased, and their indiscriminate use with our pure-bred Merinoes, was a serious interruption to the career of improvement in many of our flocks. Their mixture with the best Saxons was no further detrimental, than to reduce the quantity of fleece, and, to a certain extent, lessen the peculiar hardiness of the original Transhumantes, which had been fully preserved by their descendants in this country. The use of well-selected Saxon rams with Merino flocks, was extensively practised, and it is still persisted in by many intelligent flock-masters, after twenty years' experience, who are satisfied that they find it for their interest to continue this style of breeding. The animals being smaller, consume less; and they probably produce a quantity of wool in proportion to their food, which, from its improved and uniform quality, commands a higher price in the market. Wherever they are not sufficiently hardy, they can be bred back towards the Spanish Merino standard, by the use of some of the stouter rams. Their natures are intrinsically the same. They are only divergent streams from the same original fountain, and when again united, they readily coalesce and flow onwards, without violence or disorder. The Merino, as might reasonably have been anticipated, when properly managed, has improved from a variety of causes. Though kept scrupulously pure in Spain, they were seldom bred with that refinement of taste or nice judgment, which distinguishes the accomplished modern breeder. Their management was too entirely intrusted to ignorant shepherds or careless agents, to secure that close attention which is essential to improvement. The sheep had to perform a journey of several hundred miles twice in a year, to and from their distant Sierras; and it was absolutely essential that strong animals should be selected for breeding; and to secure this object, those were frequently used which were deficient in the most profitable qualities. They were also closely bred in-and-in, seldom or never departing from a particular flock to procure a fresh cross. Their wild, nomadic life, approaching nearly to that of their natural state, and their peculiarly healthful pasturage, alone prevented a serious deterioration from this cause. When brought into the United States, the flocks were soon mingled with each other, and for many years past, probably, not an unmixed descendant of any distinct original flock could be traced. Abundance of appropriate food has been given them, without the labor of long and fatiguing journeys; and lastly, there has been much care used in the selection of the most profitable animals for breed. The spirit of improvement has been recently awakened to this important branch of American husbandry, and as we already have all the elements within ourselves for its attainment, if not arrested by any untoward national policy, it will soon result in giving us numerous flocks of as choice sheep as the world affords. Peculiarities of the Merino. The prominent peculiarities of the Merino, are the abundance and fineness of its fleece; the tenacity with which it is held; its crimped or spiral form; its felting properties; and the excessive quantity of yolk, giving to it that softness which distinguishes it from all others. Their large horns are common to several other varieties. Their hoofs are sometimes singularly long, reaching 8 or 10 inches when allowed to grow. The horns, hoofs, and wool scarcely differ in their chemical constituents; and the peculiar development of the two former, is justly considered as an additional evidence of their wool-bearing properties. The yolk, in most of the sheep, forms, with the dust which adheres to it, a firm crust on the exterior, and together with the compactness of the fleece, it offers considerable resistance to the open hand on being pressed, giving the impression of rigidity. This outer covering repels the rain, the snow, and the wind like a coat of mail, thus fitting the Merino to endure exposure beyond any other sheep. On opening the crust, the wool is found of a brilliant, golden hue, sparkling with yolk, and firmly held together in masses, hardly distinguishable from the cocoon of the silk-worm. The wool closely covers every part of the body, and frequently the entire legs and head, excepting a part of the face. Still another peculiarity of the Merino is its longevity. They attain a great age when properly managed, and, in healthy localities, sometimes breed till 20 years of age. The Merino may be described, generally, as a small-boned, closely made, medium-sized sheep, varying from 80 lbs. of live weight, for a small ewe, to 160 lbs. for good-sized wethers and rams, in ordinary condition. They are light in the shoulders and chest, and altogether are more deficient in form than the best mutton sheep. This apparent difference is materially lessened when both are denuded of their fleece; as the longer pile of the latter covers defects, which would manifest themselves under the closer covering of the Merino. Yet, with this seeming deficiency, Young found, in feeding the Merino and Bakewell, that the latter ate the most, and gained the least, in the ratio of two to three. We give the statement as we find it, though it apparently contravenes a fundamental principle, which a knowledge of all the circumstances of the trial, the peculiarities of the particular animals, &c., might probably explain satisfactorily. The mutton is excellent, and it is probably not surpassed by that of any other sheep. Lord Somerville claims it as a rule, that the quality of the flesh in each class of sheep follows that of the wool, and that the flesh of the short and fine-woolled sheep is closer in the grain and more highly flavored than the long-woolled. Sir Joseph Banks says, the London butchers, after having some of the Merinoes, eagerly sought for more, from its popularity with their best customers; and it is certain that the flavor of our mountain-fed Merino does not suffer in comparison with the choicest breeds. Breeding Merinoes. The general principles of breeding cattle and sheep, as laid down by the most approved authorities, must be taken with some exceptions, when applied to the Merino. Good form and feeding qualities are desirable in this breed, but they are not as essential as with the others. _Wool_ is the great object, and if this be sufficiently fine, even, and abundant, something may be abated in the perfection of form. Early maturity, so much sought after in the mutton sheep, cannot be reconciled with the great longevity, and the prolonged productive powers of the Merino. We must content ourselves, therefore, with slowly engrafting such improvements on the breed, as can be effected without prejudice to his other good qualities, and look to his crosses with others for such qualities as are irreconcilable with his nature. It is considered indispensable to the improvement of the Merino, that it be not bred too young. A vigorous ewe may bring her first lamb at two years old, but it is better that it be deferred till three. The ram should never be used till his second year, and then but sparingly. From 2½ to 6 years old is deemed the most vigorous age, though many may be safely used till 8 or 10, and occasionally later. Both ewes and rams have been known to breed till 20 years old. The _ram_ should be large, stout, and well made, carrying his weight as compactly as possible. The nose should be convex; the face covered with a soft velvety hair; the eye lively and prominent; the veins near the lachrymal glands, of a clear red; the horns rough; short neck; pendent dewlap not objectionable; full chest; broad shoulders; broad, level back; large quarters; tail large and well set up; good legs, and sound hoofs; with a firm, easy, regular gait; the head carried high, with a look of boldness and decision, without in any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity. The _ewe_ should possess these characteristics generally, with such modifications as are suited to the sex. Great care should be taken to breed from such as are most perfect in all the essential points of constitution, form, and size; and weight, uniformity, and fineness of fleece. The closest observation is requisite, to select the best in all respects. In-and-in breeding should be avoided where practicable, which can be done where there is a careful registry of the sheep through successive generations. Excessive use of rams can never be permitted without decided injury to them and their progeny. In Spain, four rams are supplied to every hundred ewes. This limited number is proper enough, where they undergo so much fatigue in travelling, and kept too, as they are, entirely on grass. But if moderately grained before and during their use, and especially if kept up, and allowed to serve the ewes once only, as they come in heat, this number may be largely increased. A vigorous ram will suffice for 35 to 40 ewes, when running with the flock; yet his powers would not be more taxed by double or even treble this number, if admitted to each but once. Bread is a convenient food for the ram while running with the sheep. If he is gentle, which he should always be, he will come up readily and eat from the hand, without exciting the attention of the other sheep, which crowd, and not unfrequently injure each other when grain is placed before him; or he may be stabled at night and fed with grain. If young ewes have stolen lambs, they should be taken away immediately after yeaning, and the nourishment supplied to the lamb from the milk of a cow. The tax of nursing is nearly equal to that of gestation, and farther injury to the dam may be avoided by this practice. Merino ewes have had the reputation of being indifferent nurses in Spain. This is owing to their fatigue in travelling, and scanty pasturage, rather than to any constitutional deficiency. It is a frequent practice there, to kill a part of the lambs, and put one on to two ewes. This has never been found necessary in the countries where they have been transplanted, as generous feed for the dams has invariably been found entirely adequate to their support of the young. The localities in which Merino Sheep can be profitably kept in the United States, Are wherever the pastures are sweet and dry; the climate not excessively hot; and the land not too valuable for other purposes. Wool is generally the great object in the sheep husbandry of this country, and when sheep farms are remote from the large markets, the Merino will make much the most profitable returns. In the neighborhood of cities, where large and fat sheep and early lambs bear a high price, the mutton sheep may be substituted. The South Down. This valuable sheep has been known and bred for a long time on the chalky downs of England, where it has always maintained the character of a hardy animal, yielding a medium quality of wool, and furnishing mutton of a superior flavor. It was not, however, till within the last 70 years, that any considerable attention was devoted to its improvement. Since that period, its fine points have been remarkably developed, which is shown in its improved size and form, and its early maturity and productiveness. The late Mr. John Ellman, of England, was the first who took them thoroughly in hand; and so eminent was his success, that he founded a flock which has been the source whence all the best blood has been since derived. [Illustration: Fig. 23. South Down Buck.] The form and characteristics of the South Downs. His criteria of a good South Down, are as follows:--"The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and neither too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow. The under jaw, or chap, fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide, and well covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly. The eye full and bright, but not prominent. The orbits of the eye--the eye-cap, or bone,--not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. The neck of a medium length, thin towards the head, but enlarging towards the shoulders, where it should be broad and high, and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forwards between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution, and a disposition to thrive. Corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than the others; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump long and broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level with the spine. The hips wide; the space between them and the last rib on either side as narrow as possible, and the ribs, generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel. The belly as straight as the back. The legs neither too long nor too short. The fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot; not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart both before and behind; the hocks having a direction rather outward, and the twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee, and to the hock; the wool short, close, curled, and fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres." [Illustration: Fig. 24. South Down Ewe.] Other breeders have commenced where Ellman left off, and have apparently pushed their improvement to its utmost capacity; and especially has this been done by Messrs. Grantham and Webb, the latter of whom, while preserving all the essential merits of the sheep, has carried the live weight of breeding rams to 250 lbs., and well-fattened wethers to 200 lbs. dressed weight. Many of the choicest animals have been imported into this country, and they are now to be found, in limited numbers, in almost every state of the Union. The wool was formerly short, and used only for cloths, flannels, &c. It has been considerably lengthened in many of the late flocks, and with the improvements in the combing machinery, is now much used in England as a combing wool. The quantity produced is nearly equal to that of the Merino flocks when well kept, varying, according to the size and style of breeding, from 3 to 4 lbs. of clean washed wool, which in quality does not differ materially from half-blood Merino, and sometimes rather exceeds it. The larger animals, of course, produce fleeces of much greater weight, sometimes reaching to 8 or 9 lbs. The South Down will subsist on short pasture, but well repays full feeding. It attains early maturity, is hardy and prolific, frequently producing two at a birth. Like all highly-improved English breeds, it is not a long-lived sheep. It may be considered in its prime at three. The wethers may be fattened at 18 to 30 months, and the ewes at 3 to 5 years, when first required as breeders. The last are sometimes allowed to come in with a lamb at a year, but they cannot be sustained in vigor if put to breeding before two. The Cheviot Is thus described by Blacklock: "They have a bare head, with a long jaw and white face, but no horns. Sometimes they have a shade of gray upon the nose, approaching to dark at the tip; at others, a tinge of lemon color on the face, but these markings scarcely affect their value. The legs are clean, long, and small-boned, and covered with wool to the hough, but there is a sad want of depth at the breast, and of breadth both there and on the chine. A fat carcass weighs from 12 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, and a medium fleece about 3 lbs. The purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, provided the pasture resembles the Cheviot hills, in containing a good proportion of rich herbage." They are eminently adapted to high lands and a severe climate, though less so than the Black-faced or Heath sheep of Scotland. They have become an American sheep, by their repeated introduction into this country. A late importation of several choice sheep was made by Mr. Carmichael of New York. The wool on these is from 5 to 7 inches long, coarse, but well suited to combing. Like the Downs, it has heretofore been classed among the middle-wools, but these specimens would seem to indicate that they are verging towards the long-wools. The Bakewell or Leicester, the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, Possess several qualities in common, and it is only a practiced eye that can readily detect the difference. This resemblance arises from a recent, common origin. They are all large and hornless; of a pure white; with long, coarse, and heavy fleeces; excellent mutton sheep; coming early to maturity, and capable of carrying enormous quantities of fat. There have been from time immemorial numerous flocks of these large, coarse-woolled sheep, existing in certain parts of England, under a variety of names, and partaking of some slight peculiarity of features, according to the district in which they are bred. Thus, besides those above-mentioned, there were the Teeswater, the Romney-Marsh, the Kentish, the Bampton, the Exmoor, &c., all of which were deficient in form, slow-feeders, and late in coming to maturity. Improvement of the Long-Wools. The late Robert Bakewell first commenced a decided improvement with the Leicesters, nearly a century since. He began by selecting the choicest sheep in England, which possessed the essential qualities; and by judicious feeding and management throughout, he soon brought them up to a character widely differing from the original with which he started. So eminent was his success, that in 1787 he let three rams, for a single season, for 1250 pounds, (about $6,200,) and was offered 1050 pounds (about $5,200) for 20 ewes. Soon after this, he received the enormous price of 800 guineas, or $4,000, for the use of two-thirds of a ram for one season, reserving the other third for himself. [Illustration: Fig. 25. Long-wool Buck.] He reduced the bone and offal or worthless parts of the carcass, and increased the weight of the valuable parts, and especially their tendency to fatten and early maturity. This was effected mainly by a nice discrimination, which has probably never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled. He selected medium sizes for the breed, with as much evenness and perfection of form as possible, for he found that excellence and profitable feeding qualities were seldom connected with extra size, large bones, or imperfect form. He also observed the disposition to fatten in individuals, and used only such as were conspicuous in this respect. He relied more than all upon their quality of _handling_ well, depending even more upon the elastic, mellow touch, than upon the most symmetrical figure. He used only the choicest rams, a little under size, while the ewes were of full medium weight. The progeny were pushed with a full supply of nutritious food, and systematically brought to early maturity. Connected with this, was his practice of _in-and-in breeding_, or breeding the parent upon the progeny, for several successive generations, which had the tendency still further to refine the bone and offal, and impress most effectually the desirable characteristics of the race. It is even credibly asserted, that he produced rot in such of his fattening sheep as he wished to mature early for the shambles, as in the first stages of that loathsome disease the fat-secreting organs accomplish their office more rapidly than in a state of perfect health; and it at least secured them against breeding when they left his own hands. It is certain, that Bakewell carried his refining system to such an extent, as partially to destroy the procreative powers; and he was subsequently obliged to introduce new animals, to reinvigorate and continue his flock. The general system of Bakewell, however, was attended with complete success. He produced a race of animals, not only far beyond what England had ever before seen, but which, in all the qualities he endeavored to establish, have not been since exceeded; and his _improved Leicesters_ have come down to the present day as perfect as he left them, showing conclusively, that he not only formed, but stamped the peculiarities of the breed, with a permanence which yet bears witness to his genius. One of these attained the enormous live weight of 368 lbs., and dressed 248 lbs. The Cotswold and Lincolnshire. Other breeders were not slow in following in Bakewell's footsteps with different breeds, and the Cotswold and Lincolnshire especially, have become the subjects of an equally decided improvement, while the errors of Bakewell were entirely avoided. They possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, in some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters; but they are more hardy and less liable to disease. They attain as large a size, and yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value. These breeds scarcely differ more from each other, than do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for several generations. They are prolific, and when well fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for which they provide liberally from their udder till the time for weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from 4 to 8 lbs. per head. Peculiarity of long Wool and its Uses. The striking peculiarity of the long-wools, is in the production of a fleece, which is perfectly adapted, by its length and the absence of the felting property, to the manufacture of worsted stuffs, bombazines, mousseline de laines, &c. This is a branch of manufactures, for which we had little material that was suitable, till the introduction of the long-wools; and its rapid extension in the United States, within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. Besides its uses for combing, it is extensively manufactured into blankets, carpeting, and many other fabrics. Importation of Long-Wools. Several of the Bakewells were imported during the last century; and many flocks, containing some of the best specimens, have been introduced and scattered over every section of the country. The largest of any single importation of the long-wools, was made by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, in 1842, and immediately preceding, and consisted of 70 or 80 choice Cotswolds. Breeding the Long-Wools. Some information on this subject will be found under the head of _breeding Merinoes_, and _improvement of the Long-Wools_. The ram and ewe should be selected from the best specimens of the breed which is to be perpetuated. There are peculiarities of form or appearance in each, which should be carefully observed. A _violent cross_ should never be permitted for the purpose of perpetuation, as suggested under the head of _principles of breeding_, in a previous chapter; such as between those possessing totally opposite properties, as the Merino and long-wools; and there is no conceivable advantage in mixing the middle-wools, South Downs, &c., with either. Lord Western has long experimented on the blending of the Merino and long-wools, through several generations, without any well-defined results, nor is it believed to be attainable. There is no evenness or integrity of character, either in the animal or fleece, from such mixtures; nor is it possible to foretel the character of progeny from these bastard crosses. The general rule, that like begets like, will not hold true here, for the animal comes large or small, with a long or short fleece, fine or coarse, or intermixed; and this, too, is repeated through numerous generations, when the immediate parents exhibit properties altogether unlike the offspring, and which they derive from some remote ancestry. This practice will do to produce lambs for the butcher, as the consequence of a fresh cross is greater stamina and thrift; and it is found that lambs thus bred attain an early and full development. Thousands of such are annually bred on the banks of the Hudson, Long Island, and around our large cities, and in the worst possible way, as the large, coarse ram is used on the delicate Saxon ewe; yet the lambs thrive and command a good price in the market, and the owner is satisfied to pocket the result. But nothing could be more absurd than to propagate from such progeny for any other purpose than to make early and profitable mutton. The mixture of breeds of similar character, is attended with the best consequences. Such was the intermingling of the improved Leicesters with the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, by which their former coarseness was removed; and such was the use of the latter with the Leicesters, when they became impotent and almost worthless, from over-refinement in breeding. Good results have followed the mixture of the South and Hampshire Downs. A marked improvement in the Merino in this country, has been claimed by Mr. Jarvis and several others, from the mixture of the various flocks, which for ages had been kept distinct in Spain; and the same result is known to have followed a similar course with the Rambouillet and Saxon flocks. The ewe goes with young About five months, varying from 145 to 162 days. Each flock-master will of course determine what is the proper lambing time. For early market, or when there are few sheep, and those well looked after, the lambs may come while the ewes are in the yards, and provision can be made for them, by placing such as are heavy in warm stalls. Both the dam and young thus receive a closer attention than they would in the field; and after a week's housing, in severe weather, the lamb may be turned out into the dry yard, where he will suffer no more, apparently, than the full-grown sheep. But with large flocks, early lambing is attended with much trouble, and it is generally avoided, by deferring it till the weather has become more settled, and a full bite of grass will afford the dam a plentiful supply of milk. Yet in this case, the young sheep must daily be under the eye of the shepherd, who should see that they are well supplied with food, and especially that they are brought under cover, in severe or stormy weather. _A ram will serve_ from 20 to 100 ewes in a season, according to his age, health, feed, and management. A South Down or long-woolled lamb, of 7 or 8 months, is sometimes used; and when this is done, he should be well fed, and allowed to run only with a very few ewes. If full-grown rams are turned into a lean pasture to remain with the ewes, not less than four should be put in for every hundred. But if a well-fed ram, in full health and vigor, is kept up, and led out to the ewe as she comes into heat, and allowed to serve her once only, he will suffice for one hundred, without injury to himself or progeny. For this purpose, the ram should be prepared, not by being fat, for this, neither he nor the ewe should ever be; but by being fed with grain for a short time before, and during the continuance of the season. The ewes are more likely to come quickly into heat, and prove prolific, if lightly fed with stimulating food at the time. It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation, and the first period of gestation, takes place in cold weather, the f[oe]tus will subsequently be fitted for the climate, which rules during the early stages of its existence. If this be so, and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of nature, fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence, by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement of cold weather; and in the Northern states, this is done about the first of December, which brings the yeaning time in the last of April or first of May, when the early grass will afford a large supply and good quality of feed. Winter Management and Food. Sheep should be brought into winter-quarters soon after the severe frosts occur, as these diminish the feed, and materially impair its nutritious qualities. They ought also to be removed from the grass-lands, before they become permanently softened by the rains, as they will injuriously affect their comfort and health; and allowing them to remain is equally objectionable, from their poaching the sod. If the number be large when brought to the yards, they must be divided into flocks of 50 to 100, according to the size of the yards and sheds. The young and feeble ought to be separated from the others, and the ailing ones placed by themselves; and that no one may suffer from the others, all should be classed as uniformly as possible as to strength. The yards must be dry, well supplied with a trough of fresh water, and with comfortable sheds, to which they can retire when they choose. Shelters. These, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable sheep-raising, and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico they would be advantageous. There is policy as well as humanity in the practice. An animal eats much less when thus protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure is richer and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under cover in severe storms. The shelters for sheep are variously constructed, to suit the taste or circumstances of the flock-master. A sheep-barn, built upon a side hill, will afford two floors; one underneath, surrounded by three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the urine; and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds overhead. Or they may be constructed with twelve or fifteen feet posts on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored above. In all cases, however, _thorough ventilation should be provided_, for of the two evils of exposure to cold or too great privation of air, the former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement without injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed closely boarded on three sides, with a tight roof, is sufficient protection; especially, if the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-enclosed yard. If the floors above are used for storage, they should be made tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece. Racks or Mangers. These are indispensable to economical feeding. If the hay is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost wholly lost; and when wet, the sheep, in their restlessness while feeding, will tread much of it into the mud. To make an economical box or rack, take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of pine or hemlock, 12 or 15 feet long and 12 or 14 inches wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends, 2½ feet long. Boards 12 inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space of 9 to 12 inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which completes the rack. The edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. The largest dimensions above given, are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for the Saxon, and still smaller are proper for their lambs. These should be set on dry ground, or under the sheds, and they can easily be removed wherever necessary. Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the form of the usual horse-rack. There is no objection to this, but it should always be accompanied by a board trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding. These may be attached to the side of a building, or used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding; and at least this amount of room should be provided around the racks for every sheep. Troughs. They may be variously constructed. The most economical are made with two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. Nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both into a two or three inch plank, fifteen inches long and a foot wide, notched in its upper edge in the form required. Food. There is no better food for sheep, than well-ripened, sound, timothy hay; though the clovers, and nearly all the cultivated grasses, may be advantageously fed. Bean and pea straw are valuable, and especially the former, which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well adapted to the production of wool. All the other straws furnish a good food, and sheep will thrive on them without hay, when fed with roots or grain. Roots ought to be given them occasionally for a change, and especially to the ewes after lambing, if this occurs before putting them on to fresh pasture. They keep the stomach properly distended, the appetite and general health good; and they render their winter forage nearly equal to their summer feed. Much grain is not suited to store-sheep. It is too rich, and should be given sparingly except to the lambs, the old ewes, or feeble sheep, or to restore the rams after hard service. For the above purposes, oats are the best; and if any other grain, beans or peas are given, it should be in small quantities. When there is a deficiency of hay and roots, grain may be used with straw. The flock ought to be so fed as to receive the same amount of nourishment throughout every part of the year. The evenness and value of the fleece depends much upon this. When the amount of nutrition is great, the wool-secreting organs are distended, and the fibre becomes enlarged; when limited, they necessarily contract, and the fibre is small. This produces a want of trueness, which the experienced stapler readily detects, and which he does not fail to estimate against the value of the fleece. Sheep ought to have a full supply of salt, and if accessible, sulphur, ashes, tar, and clay would frequently be nibbled by them when their stomach required either. Pine or hemlock boughs are a good substitute for tar, and afford a most healthful change in the winter-food of sheep. Entire cleanliness and dryness are also essential to the health of the flock. The smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two pounds of hay, but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to four, or even five pounds per day. Sheep, like all other animals when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well protected, or than during a warmer season. The Care of the Ewes with Young Is an important consideration, as the lamb is sometimes the only profit yielded by the flock; for when fodder is high, or wool low, the fleece will barely pay for the food and attention. Pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times; but caution is necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is often the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored health and generous food. Sudden fright, as from dogs or strange objects; long or severe journeys; great exertions; unwholesome food; blows in the region of the f[oe]tus, and some other causes, produce abortion. Yeaning. Most flocks are turned into the pasture before yeaning time, and the ewe is then left to nature, which is a good practice, if she is healthy and the weather good. But a larger number of lambs will be reared by a careful oversight of the ewes, and the use of proper precautions. As their time approaches, which may be known by the springing of the udder and the enlargement of the natural parts, they should be put by themselves at night, in a warm stable or with others in the same condition, and well looked after, late and early in the day. They seldom need any assistance, nor should any be rendered, except in case of wrong presentation, or feebleness in expelling the f[oe]tus. In the former case, the shepherd may apply his thumb and finger, after oiling, to push back the young, and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear and for the latter, only the slightest aid should be rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. Management of Lambs. When lambing in the field, only a few should be together, as the young sometimes get changed, and the dams refuse to own them. This difficulty is generally obviated, by holding the ewe till the lamb has sucked two or three times; or they may be shut up together, and the lamb rubbed with a little fine salt. The lamb does not require nourishment for some hours after its birth; but if the dam refuse to lick it as soon as it appears, it must be carefully wiped dry. If the weather be cold and the lamb is dropped in the field, the shepherd should be furnished with large pockets or a well-lined basket, in which it must be placed till the ewe is brought to the shed. After the first day or two, the udders ought to be completely drained of their milk by the hand, so as to prevent swollen or caked bag. In case of deficiency of milk, the lamb may be supplied from a new milch cow, by means of a sucking-bottle with an air vent, or it may draw a part of its nourishment from another ewe, which can be held while the lamb is sucking. It is sometimes necessary to substitute a foster-mother, in which case, the ewe may be made to own the lamb, by milking from her udder over the lamb and under his tail, rubbing it on well; or rub the adopted lamb with the entrails and contents of the stomach of the dead lamb, or cover it with the skin. If the ewe proves a bad nurse, or it is desirable to bring the lambs forward rapidly, they may be early taught to eat boiled oats or other grain, cabbage, roots, and tender hay. Lambs should be well fed, as this is important to produce size, constitution, and perfection of form. The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. Some careful shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs, and allow them to suck two or three times a day; by which they suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. But this is troublesome and injurious, as the exercise is essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing. It is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market, and by those who rear them for this purpose, it is a common practice. Castrating and Docking Lambs. After selecting enough of the choicest rams for stock-getters, the castrating may be performed at any time between two and six weeks old, when the lamb is in good health. A cool day should be chosen; or if warm, it must be done early in the morning. The best method is for one person to hold the lamb firmly between his legs, on an inclined plank upon which he rests, while another with a sharp knife cuts off about two-thirds of the lower part of the scrotum. The testicles are then drawn out till the spermatic cord is reached, which is divided by the thumb nail; or it is pulled out and cut with a sharp knife. It is sometimes done by simply opening the scrotum, when the testicles and spermatic cord are jerked out. The wound should then be rinsed with cold water, after which apply lard. The operation of docking is by many deferred till a late period, from apprehension of too much loss of blood; but if the weather be favorable, and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at this time with the least trouble and without injury. The tail should be laid upon the plank, the person holding him in the same position as before. With one hand he draws the skin towards the body, while the other person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a blow, between the bone joints, leaving it one and a half to two inches long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound and is soon healed. Ewe lambs should be docked closer than the rams. To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the proportions of four pounds of the former to one quart of the latter. This is also a good application for the scrotum. The lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they are perfectly well. Tagging, or Clatting, Is the removal of such wool as is liable to get fouled, when the sheep are turned on to the fresh pastures, and of course it should be done just before leaving their winter quarters. It is most easily accomplished by placing the animal on a low table, and then holding it as in shearing, till the operation is performed. All the wool near the extremity of the sheath, and the scrotum of the males; from the udder of the ewes; and from below the dock, the inside of the thighs, and the legs of the sheep, should be removed. Summer Management. As soon as the warm weather approaches, and the grass appears, sheep become restive and impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for the change of food, by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. It would also check the tendency to excessive purging, which is induced by the first spring feed, if they were housed at night, and fed for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. They must be provided with pure water, salt, &c., as in winter, for though they may sometimes do tolerably well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention. Dry, sweet pastures, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which are rejected by the horse and the ox, and which are even essential to their own wants. In this respect, they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdocks, thistles, marsh-mallows, milkweed, and various other offending plants; and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the variety of his selections. Many prepare artificial pastures for their flocks. This may be done with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without injury to the crop; and in the following spring, the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields, or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is a valuable crop for this purpose. To give sheep sufficient variety, it would be better to divide their range into smaller ones, and change them as often at least as once a week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. By removing them from this for a few days, rains will cleanse, or the sun dry it, so as again to make it suitable for them. More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same pasture. Washing Sheep. In most of that portion of the Union north of 40°, the washing is performed from the middle of May till the first of June, according to the season and climate. When the streams are _hard_, which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it is better to do this immediately after an abundant rain, by which the lime derived from the springs is proportionally lessened. The practice of a large majority of our farmers, is to drive their sheep to the washing-ground early in the morning on a warm day, leaving the lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure; from which they are taken, and if not too heavy, are carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down. A good practice is to lead the sheep into the water and saturate the fleece, after which they are taken ashore. When they commence _steaming_, they are again led into the water, and washed clean. This insures thorough cleansing, where the water is pure. Others make use of a boat, one end of which rests on a bold shore, and the other is in deep water. The operator stands in the boat and plunges the animal over the side, when the washing is performed. It is sometimes done by sinking a tight hogshead or large box in the water, with heavy weights, in which a man stands, and the sheep are brought or led to him by another person, who walks on a platform reaching from the bank to the hogshead. Either of the last methods obviates the necessity of standing for a long time in water, by which colds, rheumatism, &c. are frequently contracted. In parts of Germany, and sometimes in this country, sheep are forced to swim across a narrow stream several times, by which the fleece is tolerably cleaned, if all the water be pressed out when they get to the land. The yolk being a saponaceous compound, and not an oily matter as is generally supposed, it readily combines with the water and passes out of the wool. An excellent practice, when streams are not convenient, is to lead a small ripple of soft water into a tub. To this, a little soap is added, after which the sheep are immersed and thoroughly cleansed. Perfect whiteness and purity of the fleece is readily secured afterwards, by throwing over the sheep a jet of water. This practice has a good effect, in preventing or removing cutaneous disorders, and destroying ticks or other vermin. Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, from its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which sheep are particularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the wool is always more saleable, and if carefully done, need not be attended with injury. Warm settled weather, however, is indispensable to washing with safety to the general health of the sheep. Fig. 26 shows a ewe, with lines indicating the usual method of sorting wool; number 1 indicating the refina or picklock; 2 and 3, the second and third qualities. [Illustration: Fig. 26. Wool Sorting] Shearing. The manner of shearing varies with almost every district; but as this is an art to be acquired under a skilful master, we shall omit particular details on the subject. First clip all the tags and filth, if any remains or has been accumulated after the tagging in the spring; then take off the fleece and spread it with the outside uppermost on a smooth bench or table, and push the wool carefully together, to render it more compact; double the sides over to the centre; throw the clean loose locks into the middle, and roll together from each end. This makes a smooth, dense package, which is secured by passing a stout twine one or more times around the sides and ends. All the wool from the extremities, should be closely sheared and saved by itself, before dismissing the sheep, but not put up with choice fleeces. _If wounds are made_, which is sometimes the case with unskilful operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied. After shearing, such horns and hoofs as are likely to be troublesome, should be sawed and pared. The _branding_, or _marking_, is essential to distinguish them from other flocks, and this is done on the shoulder, side, or buttock. A brush or marking-iron is used for this purpose, with paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil. If the weather be cool, and especially, if severe storms occur after washing or shearing, the flock should be housed. If sultry, they should have a cool, shady retreat, where they will be shielded from the flies and the heat. Blisters and permanent injury to the skin and fleece, are frequently the result of such exposure. Shade trees in their pastures, contribute much to the comfort of sheep, when exposed to a blazing sun. A close examination of the skin should be made at shearing, for the detection of disease or vermin. For remedies, see article _diseases_. Smearing or Salving Sheep Is a custom little practised in this country. For cold, elevated, and bleak exposures, it may be necessary, and it is, therefore, generally adopted in Scotland. The object is, to prevent cutaneous diseases and vermin, and furnish additional warmth and protection to the fleeces of such breeds as are deficient in yolk. It is usually performed in the latter part of October, but is sometimes done immediately after shearing. The mixture or salve consists of tar and butter or grease, in different proportions; 1 gallon of the former to 12, or sometimes 20 lbs. of the latter; the greater proportion of tar being required for the younger sheep, or for more exposed situations. The grease is melted over the fire, and the tar stirred in, and when sufficiently cool, it is applied to the whole body of the sheep, by carefully parting the wool and rubbing it on the skin with the fingers. The above quantity is sufficient for 30 or 50 sheep, according to their size and the character of the wool. This application is not required for fine-woolled sheep, whose fleeces are more appropriately protected by a natural secretion of yolk; and it is better to omit it in all cases, where the health and comfort of the animal do not render it absolutely essential. Mr. Stewart, an experienced Scotch shepherd, uses only tallow and train oil, mixed in equal proportions. He asserts, that the improvement in the growth and quality of the wool is at least one-third, and it materially benefits the condition of the sheep. Weaning. The lambs may be weaned from 3½ to 4 months old. They should be put upon rich, sweet feed, but not too luxuriant; while the dams are turned upon the poorest, and so remote from their young, as to be out of sight and hearing. The ewes ought to be carefully examined after a day or two, and if necessary, the milk removed with the hand. If it continues to accumulate, the ewe may be fed on hay for a few days. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and wintering. The fall is a critical period to lose flesh, either for sheep or lambs; and if any are found deficient, they should be at once provided with extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtakes them poor or in ill-health, they will scarcely outlive it; or if by chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, and scant fleece, will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost. The time for taking Sheep from the Pastures. This must depend on the state of the weather and food. Severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, and they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, will rapidly reduce their condition. The only safe rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad. Drafting the Flock, For the purpose of ridding it of the supernumeraries, should be done at an earlier day. Such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it, ought to be withdrawn soon after shearing, provided with the best feed, and rapidly fitted for the shambles. If they have been properly pushed on grass, they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it; and if not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they are then disposed of the better. Stall-Feeding. This will be lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty beast. The perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition, which characterize the thrifty one, indicate too plainly to be misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their owner. The selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fattening, whether cattle or sheep, will inevitably be attended with loss. Such ought to be got rid of when first brought from the pasture, for the most they will bring. Management of Sheep for the Prairies. When destined for the prairies, sheep ought to commence their journey as early after shearing as possible. They are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and retain as much dust, as when driven later. Feed is also generally better, and the roads are dry and hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, with early lambs; or if the latter are too young, and the distance great, they should be left and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With good care, a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of 12 or 14 miles a day. Constant watchfulness is requisite, to keep them healthy and in good plight. One-half the expense of driving, may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-dogs. When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases they may have contracted, which, if discovered, should be promptly removed. A variety of suitable food and good shelter must be provided, for the autumn, winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given them. This would be necessary if indigenous to the country; how much more so, when they have just undergone a campaign, to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed! Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, and proper attention; and from a false system of economy, hitherto attempted by many, losses have occurred from disease and mortality in the flocks, sufficient to have made ample provision for the comfort and security of twice the number lost. More especially do they require proper food and attention, after the first severe frosts set in, which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the _fog_, (the frostbitten, dead grass,) they are inevitably subject to constipation, which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, &c., is alone sufficient to remove. Roots, grain, and good hay; straw, or corn-stalks, pea or bean vines, are essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the winter, everywhere north of 39°. In summer, the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shall have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses. The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced into the United States; and of such are the flocks made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners. Shepherd-dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in those unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a defence against the small prairie-wolf, which prowls around the sheep, but which are rapidly thinning off by the settlers; and also as assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the open ground. DISEASES OF SHEEP. The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to sheep, than most of the northern and some of the southern parts of our own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of management is necessarily in the highest degree artificial, consisting frequently in early and continued forcing the system, folding on wet, plowed grounds, and the excessive use of that watery food, the Swedes turnip, there are numerous and fatal diseases. Hence the long list which lumbers the pages of foreign writers on sheep. The most destructive of these are the rot, and epidemics which are scarcely known in America, except by report. The diseases incident to our flocks may generally be considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising from the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely asserted, that with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream; sufficient shade and protection against severe storms; a constant supply of salt, tar, and sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in winter; young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never get diseased on American soil. The few diseases which it may be necessary here to mention, will be treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of general application, to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application. A sheep which the owner has reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its owner. The wool and pelt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcasses of other animals will be worthless except for manure. The loss of sheep from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle. Yet humanity, equally with interest, dictates the use of such simple remedies for the removal of suffering and disease, as may be within reach. Diarrh[oe]a or Scours, When light and not long continued, calls for no remedy. It is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expulsion of some offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to disease. It is generally owing to improper food, as bad hay or noxious weeds; to a sudden change, as from dry food to fresh grass; or to an excess, as from overloading the stomach; and sometimes, from cold and wet. The _remedies_ are obvious. Change to suitable food in the first two cases; enforce abstinence after repletion; and provide warm, dry shelter, with light diet, if owing to the latter causes. When severe or long continued, a dose of castor oil may be given, and after its operation, give four grains of opium and one ounce chalk, and put them on dry food. Wheat-bran or shorts, and oat-meal or flaxseed ground, are both good for ailing lambs and sheep; as are also ripe oats or wheat, fed in the sheaf, with well cured, sweet hay, and plenty of salt. Fresh boughs of the juniper, or pine and hemlock, help to check the disorder. _Looseness in the larger lambs_ is prevented by having chalk within their reach; or if they refuse it, administer it in their food. When it happens soon after birth, place it with the ewe in a warm place, and feed the latter with plenty of oats, or other sound grain. If the milk be deficient, give the lamb cow's milk scalded, or let it suck the cow. The tail is sometimes glued on to the buttocks, while the scours continue. Separate it immediately by the use of warm water, and rub the parts with dry loam or clay. Dysentery. This is a different and frequently a fatal disease, but resembles the former in its general symptoms. It is owing to prolonged diarrh[oe]a, unwholesome or meager food, and other causes. Bleeding and physic should be resorted to, after which give warm, nourishing gruel. Hoven. _For description and remedies, see hoven in cattle._ Braxy. This is manifested by uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent drinking, carrying the head down, drawing the back up, swollen belly, feverish symptoms, and avoidance of the flock. It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be induced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when hot, and especially by constipation brought on by feeding on frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. _Remedies_ are not often successful, unless promptly applied. Bleed freely, and to effect this, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood, immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary. Then give two ounces Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster made with a pipe-full of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer half, and if this is not effectual, follow with the remainder. Then bed the animal in dry straw and cover with blankets, and assist the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative provender till well.--(_Blacklock._) Thousands of sheep have died on the prairies from braxy, induced by exposure and miserable forage. Entire prevention is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, digestible food. Costiveness. This is removed by giving two tablespoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours, till the difficulty is removed; or give one ounce Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm, weak suds and molasses. Stretches. Sheep sometimes stretch out their noses on the ground, and around their sides, as if in severe pain. This may be caused by an involution of one part of the intestine within another. When owing to this cause, the difficulty is frequently removed by jerking the animal by the hind-legs several times, when the pain disappears. But it is generally occasioned by _costiveness_, which see above. This may be prevented by using green food, roots, &c., once a week, or by allowing them to browse on the evergreens, pines, hemlock, and firs. Poison, From laurel and other plants, is cured by pouring a gill of melted lard down the throat, or boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash, and give half to one gill of the strong liquor immediately; to be repeated if not successful. Inflammation of the Lungs. This is produced by improper exposure to cold and wet. The remedy for slight affections, is warm, dry shelter, and light food. When severe, resort must be had to bleeding and purging freely, then to light bran or linseed mashes. Rot. This sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep in a single year in England, yet it is a disease almost unknown in this country. Foreign authorities ascribe it entirely to excessive humidity of climate, wet pastures, or too watery food. The preventives are therefore obvious. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the best is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, early bleeding, followed by a dose of two ounces Epsom salts, to be repeated if necessary, with a change of diet and location, is all that can be done. Foot-Rot. This is frequently a prevalent disease among American sheep. It is sometimes spontaneous, but more often produced by contagion. In the former case, it is caused by soft, rich, or moist pastures. A dry gravelly or rocky range, will of course be an effectual preventive when owing to this cause. The disorder is communicated by the absorbents of the foot coming in contact with the suppuration which has been left on the ground from the diseased part. Absolute safety against this contagion is secured only by a total avoidance of the walks of the infected animals, till repeated rains, or what is better, frosts, have disarmed the virus of its malignity. _Remedies_ are variously compounded, of blue vitriol, verdigris, tar, spirits of turpentine, alum, saltpetre, salt, lime, copperas, white-lead, antimony, alcohol, urine, vinegar, &c., all of which have proved effectual. The hoof should first be pared and thoroughly scraped. Then apply a wash made of three parts of blue vitriol, one of verdigris pulverized finely, with scalding (not boiling) vinegar; stirring briskly till it is of the consistence of thin cream, and put it upon the affected part with a paint brush. It is a good preventive, to apply this to the sound feet of the affected animal. Another remedy is to use spirits of turpentine after scraping; and if the disease is of long standing, add to the turpentine a strong decoction of blue vitriol dissolved in water. The foot should be examined every week, and the remedy repeated till perfect soundness is restored. A feather dipped in muriatic or nitric acid, and applied to the parts after scraping and cleansing, is a good remedy. When put upon the soles of _foot-sore_ sheep, it hardens the hoofs, and enables them to travel better. Sheep are sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface, and driving over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with quicklime. It may also be cured by dryness, and repeated washing with soap-suds. The above ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the cause; or if it continues, apply white paint or tar, after thorough washing. Corrosion of the Flesh by Flies or Maggots, May be cured by first removing the vermin; then wash with Castile soap and warm soft water, after which apply white-lead with linseed oil. Tar put on the festering wound corrodes it; but this, or spirits of turpentine placed on the sound parts near it, keep off the flies by their strong effluvia. If the wound be slight, and the weather moderate, apply a little spirits of turpentine with a strong decoction of elder bark. Flies on Sheep May be prevented by smearing with a composition made of two pounds lard or soft grease, one pound sulphur, half pint oil of amber, or oil of tar, or tar alone. A small spoonful is sufficient for a sheep.--_Genesee Farmer._ Protection from the Gad-Fly. In July, August, and September, in the Northern states, the _gad-fly_ (_[OE]stus ovis_) attacks the nostrils of the sheep, and there deposites its eggs, which, on being hatched, immediately crawl up and make a lodgment in the head. They are frequently repelled by laying a thick coat of tar on the bottom of the troughs, and sprinkling it with salt. The smell of the tar adhering to the nose will drive off the fly. A more effectual remedy is to apply it thoroughly with a brush to the external part of the nose. If a few furrows of loose earth are turned up in their pastures, the sheep will hold their noses to them, and thus keep off the fly. The symptoms of grubs in the head, are drooping of the head and ears, discharge of bloody and watery matter from the nostrils, and loss of strength in the limbs. If worms have made a lodgment, take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts boiling water: stir, and let it stand till cold. Inject about a tablespoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril, with a syringe. Repeat this three or four times at intervals, from the middle of October till January: the grubs are then small, and will not have injured the sheep. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased, by adding half an ounce assaf[oe]tida, pounded in a little water. The effect on the sheep is immediate prostration and apparent death, but they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco will afford a substitute for snuff.--_N. Eng. Far._ Blacklock's remedy is, to half fill the bowl of a pipe with tobacco, light it, and then hold the sheep, while a person inserts the stem some distance into the nostril, and blows a few whiffs into the nose. The operation is then repeated with the other nostril. Swollen Mouth Is sometimes fatal. It is said to be cured by daubing the lips and mouth plentifully with tar.--_Albany Cultivator._ Foul Noses. Dip a small swab into tar, then roll in salt. Put some on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity.--_American Far._ A disease indicated by drooping, running at the eyes, weakness in the back and loins, inability to use the hind legs, was removed by turning the sheep into a pasture containing lobelia, (_Indian tobacco._) Dried lobelia was also given, and produced the same effect.--_Cultivator._ Scab. This loathsome disease, to which fine-woolled sheep are particularly liable, is caused, like itch in the human subject, by a small insect, a species of the _acari_. It is first manifest by the rubbing of the sheep, and soon after by one or more tufts of wool, which is loosened at the roots. On feeling the skin, a hard, dry tumor is perceptible. To prevent contagion, remove the infected sheep to a separate pasture or yard as soon as discovered. _Remedies._--The Spanish shepherds dissolve a little salt in their mouth, and drop it upon the infected part. When the tumor has become enlarged, the wool should be removed closely to the skin, the scab scraped with a curry-comb, then wash with strong soap-suds or ley, and afterwards rub thoroughly with sulphur or brimstone, mixed with lard or grease. An effectual remedy is prepared by taking one pound of tobacco, which add to 12 quarts ley from wood ashes of sufficient strength for washing, and four quarts urine; to this add another mixture of a gill high-wines; ¼ oz. camphor; ¼ oz. Spanish brown, and ½ gill spirits of turpentine. A small quantity of this applied to the sore will never fail. Immediately after shearing, scab may readily be cured by immersing the sheep, (excepting the head,) in a strong decoction of tobacco liquor, adding a gill of spirits of turpentine for the first, and making a slight addition of fresh liquid for each sheep, enough to keep up the strength of the tobacco and turpentine, and taking care to rub the affected part thoroughly. For lambs, this liquor should be diluted, but yet left strong enough to kill ticks in one or two minutes, which may be ascertained by experiment. Scab is also removed by using a composition of one pound plug tobacco to three gallons of water, with lime-water and oil of vitriol added; or a decoction of hellebore with vinegar, sulphur, and spirits of turpentine.--(_H. D. Grove._) Scab is propagated more by using the same rubbing posts, than by contact with each other. Sheep in low condition are more subject to it than others. Ticks and Lice Sometimes infest sheep. Good feeding and shelter is a partial preventive, but when they have made their lodgment, they must be dipped in a decoction of tobacco water. The most effectual time for their destruction, is a few days after shearing, when they will have left the naked bodies of the old ewes, to hide in the fleeces of the lambs. The dipping in tobacco water, with the addition of a small quantity of turpentine, is an effectual remedy. After dipping the sheep or lambs, the liquor should be pressed out from the wool, upon an inclined plane, so arranged as again to run into the vessel. Pelt-rot Will be recognised as one of the staple diseases of our _native sheep_, described on page 89. The wool in this case falls off, leaving the sheep partially or almost wholly naked; but this is not accompanied with soreness or apparent disease. The animal must be provided with a warm stall and generous feed, and the naked skin should be anointed with tar and grease. The preventive is good keeping and shelter. Staggers or Sturdy, and Water in the Head, Sometimes affect sheep, but more especially lambs under a year old. The first is caused by the _hydatid_. It is considered as an almost incurable disorder, but is sometimes removed by trepanning. Chancellor Livingston carefully supplied two thus attacked, with food for three months, when nature effected a cure. Removal to dry lands and purging, is a good precaution when they are first taken. An English lad lately cured one which had been given up, by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. A correspondent of the Albany Cultivator asserts, that ½ a pint of melted lard poured down the throat, will cure blind staggers in ten minutes. Abortion Occurs sometimes, and is usually caused by excessive fright or exertion, and sometimes by severe exposure and poor feed. It is seldom fatal, except to the lamb. The Uterus Is occasionally protruded after lambing. It should be immediately returned, first washing it in warm milk and water, if any dirt adheres to it. For this, the hand only should be used. After rubbing it with lard or oil, hold up the hind legs, and gently replace the protruded parts, then keep the ewe quiet till fully recovered. For Garget, or Caked Bag. Keep the bag thoroughly drained of milk, for which purpose the lamb is the most efficient. If it is lost, another may be temporarily substituted. Purge freely with Epsom salts, and wash the udder repeatedly with very warm water. If matter forms, it should be opened with the lancet. Bleeding. "Nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of the blood from a large orifice. Little _impression_ can be made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accommodate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do, as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly, or not at all. The nearer the commencement of an ailment, in which you employ bleeding, the operation is resorted to, the greater the chance of its doing good. Bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail, does very well, where no great deal of blood is required, but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened. These are to be taken in preference to a vein on the leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vein commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw, where it may be felt within two inches of the angle, or opposite the middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made: the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make it _rise_. Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which commences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. This vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, being better covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or made to swell. _Stringing_ is the mode commonly resorted to for this end; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round the neck close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circulation through the vein, and render it perceptible to the finger. A lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding, though a well-pointed penknife will do at a pinch. The opening must always be made obliquely; but before attempting this, the animal must be secured, by placing it between the operator's legs, with its croup against a wall. The selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand, so as to prevent its rolling or slipping before the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein. _A prescribed quantity of blood should never be drawn_, for the simple reason that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms are urgent, as in all likelihood they will be, your best plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool."--(_Blacklock._) Large cuts are healed By first sewing and then covering with salve. Smaller ones may be secured with an adhesive plaster or bandage. To protect lambs from wolves and foxes, Smear the neck plentifully with a mixture of tar and sulphur. Bells are also said to guard the flock, as both are excessively wary, and have a great dislike to any thing artificial. Large dogs will keep them at bay. A better remedy is to kill the marauders, which may be done by inserting strychnine in fresh meat and leaving it in their haunts. CHAPTER V. THE HORSE. In nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the devoted servant, and the object of the pride and affection of man. Among the semi-civilized Tartars of Middle and Northern Asia; the aborigines of our remote Western prairies, reaching even beyond the Rocky Mountains, and many other rude nations, his flesh is used for food. Most of the tribes among the former use the milk for domestic purposes, and especially when fermented and changed to an unpleasantly sour and intoxicating beverage. But throughout the civilized world, with some slight exceptions, the horse is useful only for his labor. For this purpose he is pre-eminently fitted by his compact, closely-knit frame; his sinewy, muscular limbs; his easy, rapid stride; his general form, and entire structure and habits. He is found in his wild condition in Central Asia, Siberia, and the interior of Africa; and for 300 years he has been turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitable pampas of South America, and the wide-spread prairies of Mexico and California. In all these regions he closely resembles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse; but as the natural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and spirit than any other, except the blood-horse. Arabia is generally claimed as the original native locality of the horse, and as the only source from which he is to be derived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement of the race. But Strabo, who wrote more than 1,800 years ago, asserts that the horse did not then flourish in Arabia, and it was not till some centuries later that he attained any decided superiority there. Great attention, however, has been paid in that country, since the era of Mahomet, to breeding a light, agile, and enduring frame; intelligence and tractability of character; and the perpetuation of these qualities by the most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood. This is equally true of the Barb or pure-bred horse of Morocco, and those of the northern coast of Africa, in Egypt, among the Turks, and indeed wherever the followers of the Prophet are to be found. It is unquestionable, that the influence of the Eastern blood among the choicest animals of modern Europe, has been followed by great improvements in racing stock. Yet it is equally certain, that the race-horse, both of England and the United States, has accomplished what has never been demonstrated as within the ability of their progenitors; and on repeated trials with the Eastern horses, he has shown himself confessedly their superior in speed, strength, and endurance. In 1825, two English horses ran against the two fleetest Cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region of their best blood, and in a continued race of 47 miles, the European took the stakes; Sharper, the most successful, performing the distance in 2 hours and 48 minutes. About the same time, Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India. The Leeds, the Darley, and the Godolphin Arabian; the Lister and D'Arcey's White Turk, and other noted Eastern horses, would not compare in performance with many of their descendants. But these, with some other choice Arabians, on the best mares, and with every advantage for obtaining celebrity, have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has been enduring. Yet it must at the same time be remembered, that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have been tried in Europe, a few only have rescued their names from oblivion. The experience of Eastern blood in this country, in comparison with the best English, is decidedly in favor of the latter. We have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence, which a fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous to 1770. This was the white Barb _Ranger_, which was presented by the Emperor of Morocco, as the choice of his stud, to an English naval officer for some distinguished service. On his route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise at an intermediate port, where in his gambols he broke three of his legs, and thinking him worthless, his owner gave him to the commander of a New England merchantman, then present. He was readily accepted, and placed in slings on board of his vessel, and recovered. This animal stood for many years, in the eastern part of Connecticut; and on their good mares, produced a numerous progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered invaluable services in the troop commanded by that consummate partisan, Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the Revolution. It is said the favorite white field-horse of General Washington was of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain Lindsey, as a special favor, and taken, to Virginia, where he produced some good racers. Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into this country in 1819, from the head of the Persian Gulf, got many choice roadsters, though no racers of celebrity. The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Northern states, but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long time an unrivalled reputation for spirit, endurance, and easy rapid motion under the saddle. They are said to have originated from a Spanish horse, many of which are pure descendants of the Barb. As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this country, we have numerous instances of the importation of the best Orientals, which have been extensively used on some of our superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer to three prominent importations only. The first consisted of two choice Arabians, or Barbs, selected in Tunis by General Eaton, and sent to his estate in Massachusetts. The second was a present of four choice Barbs, from the Emperor of Morocco to our government, in 1830; and the third consisted of two Arabians, sent by the Imaum of Muscat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government in 1840. These were all claimed to be, and no doubt were, of the pure Kochlani, the unadulterated line royal; yet none have earned any distinguished reputation, either by their own performances or those of their descendants. It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great improvement in our blood, road, and farm horses. A numerous race of fine horses was reared on that island, long previous to its authentic history; for, in his first invasion Julius Caesar took many of them to Rome, where they immediately became great favorites, although she had already plundered every region of some of their best breeds. What might have been the particular merit of the English horse at the time of the Norman invasion, is not known, but it is certain that the Saxon cavalry under Harold were speedily overpowered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which at once secured the throne to the Conqueror. History first informs us of the improvement of British horses, by importations from abroad during this reign, which consisted of a number of Spanish stallions. These were supposed to be strongly imbued with the Arabian blood, which had been brought over to that country by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic empire in the Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a century later, John made some importations from Flanders, to give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses. The improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pursued, with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British monarchs, till they reached their highest excellence during the middle of the last century. Flying Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and others on the course, have probably exceeded in speed anything ever before accomplished; while the draught-horse, the roadster, the hackney, the cavalry-horse, and the hunter, attained a merit at that time which some judicious authorities claim has not been since increased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serviceable breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of the blood; while the almost universal absence of long heats on the turf has tended to the improvement of speed rather than bottom in the race-horse. The improvement of the horse in this country has not been a matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity, been going forward for more than a century, till we have obtained a race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle states at least, which probably equal those of any other country for adaptedness to draught, the road, and the saddle. This improvement has been mainly brought about by the importation of some of the _best and stoutest of the English blood_. In breeding from these for purposes of utility, particular reference has been paid to strength, enduringness, and speed. No horses surpass our best four-mile bloods; none equal our trotters; and though much inequality exists in those bred for various other uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region above indicated. It would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all the imported horses that have contributed to this improvement. Each good animal has done something. But among the earlier horses which may be named with distinction, as having effected much for our useful beasts, are Lath, Wildair, Slender, Sourkrout, Tallyho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baronet, and a host of others. Pre-eminent among these, was imported Messenger. He was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died in 1808. He stood in different places in New Jersey, and in Dutchess, Westchester, and Queens counties in New York; and upon the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses, he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of these we may name those capital stallions, Potomac, Hamlintonian, Bay Figure, Engineer, Mambrino, Tippoo Saib, Columbus, Gunn's, and Bushe's Messenger, and many others, which were extensively disseminated over the Northern and Middle states; and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his merits to that nonpareil of horses, his grandson, American Eclipse. His posterity were so numerous and widely spread, that it may be safely asserted, that of the best horses bred in the above states, scarcely one can now be found which does not trace one or more crosses to this distinguished sire. His success in producing roadsters, besides his blood qualities of speed and endurance, consisted in his great strength, and the peculiar formation of his limbs, large forehand and deep quarters, in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods. As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judicious breeding with the present materials in our hands, we mention one family of the American roadster, which is strongly tinctured with blood, and which has attained an enviable notoriety among the choicest of the Northern horses. They are derived from the _Morgan horse_ of Vermont, that was foaled in Springfield, Mass., in 1793. He was got by True Britton, supposed to have been bred by Gen. Delancey of New York, and got by imported Wildair, (or one of his sons,) a horse of such distinguished excellence, as to have been re-exported to England, for the benefit of his stock. The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till his death, at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares of Vermont, descended many excellent colts; and his merits were inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons, which stood in the same state and continued the career of improvement commenced by the sire. The result has been the production of a family of roadsters, of much similarity of appearance[3] and uniformity of character, unsurpassed by any others for serviceable qualities. [3] Many of the Morgan horses have the steep rump and heavy breast and neck, which indicate a Norman cross on the side of their dams. These have been largely imparted through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settlements, but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the race. They are of medium size, from 13½ to 15 hands high; with a well-formed head and neck; high withers; deep chest; round body; short back; long quarters; broad flat legs; moderately small feet; long wavy mane and tail; presenting altogether the beau ideal of the road horse. They are spirited, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an easy, rapid trot, and glide along with a good load, without clatter or apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour. This family of horses has not of course been bred long enough within themselves, to have attained to the eminence of a distinct breed. They are mentioned, merely as a type of what the serviceable roadster ought to be, and what he may become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding. And if the materials already in our hands are intelligently and perseveringly used, we can produce all we require of horse-flesh. Besides our unsurpassed blood-horses, we have others derived from various sources, and especially from the different English breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with the first and with each other. On our northeastern frontier, the _Canadian_ prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race, made up of the French Norman and the English or American. At the extreme South and West, we have the _horse of Spanish origin_, obtained in his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana; and from another branch of the Spanish, are descended the wild horses of Mexico and the more northern prairies. These are diversified in character, and generally possess medium size and merit. The _Conestoga_, a heavy roadster, is principally reared in Pennsylvania, and is used for the team and truck. He is an amalgamation of several breeds, but probably owes a share of his character to the Flemish horse, for which there was a decided partiality among the numerous German emigrants of that state. Several varieties of _ponies_ are to be found in different sections, but principally among the French, the half-breed, and the Indians upon the frontiers, who have bred a stunted race from the Canadian or wild-horse, and such others as could survive the hard usage and scanty winter food afforded by nature and their rude husbandry. Many of these have considerable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy, and spirited. [Illustration: Fig. 27. Norman Horse.] The _modern Norman_, or mixture of the old French Norman draught-horse, (heavy-framed, big-limbed, but stout and hardy,) and the Andalusian, a descendant of the Moorish barbs, has been introduced within a few years, and will unquestionably become a very popular horse for many purposes. He exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the proper proportions for farm service. He has a thick head; lively, prick ears; short, heavy neck; large breast and shoulders; strong limbs; well-knit back; large quarters, with much wavy mane, tail, and fetlock. Like his French progenitor, he frequently stands low in the withers, which enables him to throw great weight into the collar; and the diminished, flattened leg, the wind and game derived from his Moorish blood, give him much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred. The _English cart-horse_ has for a long time made up some of the best, heavy dray-horses in the country, and late importations have refreshed the breed with additional choice specimens. The _Cleveland bay_ has been introduced of late, and promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread, sizeable mares. The _Norfolk trotter Belfounder_ was imported many years since, and with our high-bred mares, has produced many choice roadsters and trotters. The remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice, is chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood. The improvement in the American horse, from this source, is conspicuous and decided. Judicious breeders still look for qualities in the descendants, which they sought for in their imported sires, and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock. Our intelligent agriculturists should look to this subject closely, and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses, as has been done in some portions of England and our Southern states. There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the right kind; but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stoutness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition, which are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work. Yorke says truly, that "the road-horse may possess different degrees of blood, according to the nature of the country and the work required of him. [He might have added with propriety, _and according to the character of the blood_.] His legs will be too slender; his feet too small; his stride too long, and he will rarely be able to trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse of all work, even less than that, will make a good and useful animal." For the saddle only, the high-bred, if not disposed to be vicious, is never objectionable to an enterprising and accomplished rider. His long elastic pasterns, giving easy, flexible motions; his quick and almost electrical obedience when under thorough discipline; his habitual canter and high spirit, always commend him for this purpose. [Illustration: Fig. 28. Points of a Horse. 1. Muzzle.--2. Race.--3. Forehead.--4. Poll.--5. Crest.--6. Withers.--7. Back.--8. Loins.--9. Hip.--10. Croup.--11. Dock.--12. Quarter.--13. Thigh, or Gaskin.--14. Ham-string.--15. Point of the Hock.--16. Cannon.--17. Fetlock.--18. Large Pastern.--19. Small Pastern.--20. Hoof.--21. Coronet.--22. Ham, or Hock.--23. Sheath.--24. Flank.--25. Girth.--26. Elbow.--27. Heel.--28. Hoof.--29. Small Pastern.--30. Large Pastern.--31. Fetlock.--32. Cannon.--33. Knee.--34. Arm.--35. Breast, or Bosom.--36. Point of the Shoulder.--37. Windpipe.--38. Gullet.--39. Jowl.] Some of the prominent external points of a fine Saddle or Gig Horse, Are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness; fine muzzle and expansive nostrils; broad at the throat and wide between the eyes, which denotes intelligence and courage; a dished face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness; a convex or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse; the ears rather long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and playing quickly like those of a deer; the eyes clear, full, and confident, with a steady forward look. Glancing them backward or askance with a sinister expression, and with none or only a slight movement of the head, is indicative of a mischievous temper. The neck should be handsomely arched, and fine at the junction with the head, while the lower extremity must be full and muscular, and well expanded at the breast and shoulders. The latter ought to be high and run well back; the withers strong, firmly knit, and smooth; the breast neither too prominent nor retreating, too wide nor too narrow, and supported by a pair of straight fore-legs, standing well apart. The chest should be deep, and the girth large; the body full, and not drawn up too much in the flank; the back short, and the hips gathered well towards the withers; the loins wide and rising above the spine; the ribs springing nearly at right angles from the back, giving roundness to the body. The hips ought to be long to the root of the tail, and the latter may approach to near the line of the back, which is a mark of good breeding. Both the thigh and hock should be large and muscular; and between the hock or knee and pastern, the legs should be broad, flat, and short; the hind legs properly bent, and all well placed under the body; the pasterns of moderate length, and standing slightly oblique; the hoof hard, smooth, round before, and wide at the heel; the frog large and sound; and the sole firm and concave. A white hoof is generally tender, easy to fracture and to lame, and difficult to hold a shoe. The _draught-horse_ ought to differ from the foregoing, in possessing a heavier and shorter neck; a wider and stouter breast, and low withers, so as to throw the utmost weight into the collar; a heavier body and quarters; larger legs and feet; and more upright shoulders and pasterns. Considerations which affect the Value of the Horse. The color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy. No better color for horses can be found than the dark bay or brown, with black mane, tail, and legs. But most of the other colors are frequently found with the best horses. Hard-mouthed horses, when accompanied with great spirit, are objectionable, as they require peculiar bitting and the utmost vigilance. The paces and action of a horse are important, for if good they give a much greater capacity for performance. Some of these depend on form and structure, and are unchangeable; others are the result of breaking. All horses should be taught to walk fast, as it is their easiest and most economical pace, and it will help them over a great deal of ground in a day, even with a heavy load, and with comparatively little effort. A horse that steps short and digs his toes into the ground, is worthless as a traveller, and suited only to a ferry-boat or bark-mill. It is important that a horse be good-tempered. If inclined to viciousness, he should be gently yet firmly managed when it is first apparent. A resort to great severity will be justified, if necessary to conquer him; for if once allowed to become a habit, it will be difficult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous stable-boys, frequently do much injury by their idle tricks with horses; and when detected, they should be discharged at once. Some horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every unusual noise or object. Others are restive and fretful, and ever anxious to be on the move. Kindness, and firm, yet mild treatment, by which their motions and will are at all times controlled, and their confidence secured, are the only remedies. Others are inclined to sluggishness. These should have stimulating food, and never be overloaded or overworked, and then kept well to their paces. Whatever they are capable of performing, can be got from them in this way only. Habit has great influence with animals, as with man; and when within the compass of his ability, he may be habituated to any reasonable physical exertion. Breeding. Agreeably to the general principles before enumerated, such animals should be selected, as most eminently possess those points which it is desired to propagate, and these, they should not only exhibit in themselves, but should inherit as far as possible, from a long line of ancestry. For the perpetuation of particular points in progeny, it would be safer to rely on the latter quality than the former. The selection of a mare, relatively larger than the horse, is an important rule in breeding, and it is believed that much of the success of Arabian and other Eastern horses as stock-getters, has resulted from the application of this principle. They possess valuable traits, but condensed within too small a compass. When such an animal is put to a well-bred, larger mare, the f[oe]tus has abundance of room and nourishment to develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of the male parent, and acquire for itself increased volume and character. The horse ought not to be less than four or five, and the mare one year older, before being put to breeding. It would be still better to defer it for two or three years, or till the frame is fully matured. The Gestation of the Mare Sometimes varies from 44 to 56 weeks, but she usually goes with young from 47 to 50; and it is advisable she should take the horse at a time which will ensure the foaling when the weather is settled, and there is a fresh growth of grass. She will be the better for light working till near the time of foaling, if well, but not too abundantly fed. In a few days after this, she may resume moderate labor; and if not in the way or troublesome, the foal may run with her; but if she is exposed to heating, it should be confined till she cools, as suckling then is decidedly injurious to it. The mare is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and over-exertion, the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or offensive objects or smell; and when this has once occurred, which happens usually in the fourth or fifth month, she should afterwards be generously fed at that period, and only moderately worked, to prevent a recurrence of the casualty. When liable to slinking, the mare should be removed from others in foal, lest a peculiar sympathy should excite an epidemic. The Mare comes in Heat From nine to eleven days after foaling, when she should be put to the horse, if it be desirable to have a colt the following season. She comes round at intervals of about nine days. Management of the Colt. The colt may be weaned when five to seven months old; and preparatory to this, while with the mare, may be taught to feed on fine hay, meal, or oats. When taken away, he should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam, and plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay, crushed oats, or wheat shorts. It is economy to provide a warm shelter through the inclement season for all animals, and especially for colts, which, with all other young, should have an abundance of nutritious food. They will thus grow evenly and rapidly, and attain a size and stamina at two years old, they would not otherwise have acquired at three. Castrating. The colt should be altered at about one year, but if thin in the neck and light before, the operation may be deferred to such time as the requisite development is secured. Few of the French diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the Oriental, are ever castrated. They are thought to be more hardy and enduring; but the slight advantage they may possibly possess in this respect, would hardly compensate for the trouble and inconvenience too frequently arising from their management. The operation should be performed late in the spring or early in autumn, while the weather is mild. If in high condition, the animal must first be bled and physicked. If large and fractious, he must be cast. Some back him into the angle of a worm fence, where he is firmly held by the head with a bridle, and the operator accomplishes the object without any trouble or material restiveness from the animal while standing. The scrotum should be opened on both sides, and the testicles cut, or rather the cord scraped off, which prevents much bleeding. The wound may be dressed with a little lard; then turn him loose in a pasture which has a shelter from sun, wind, or rain. Another method of castrating is by _torsion_, or twisting. Docking Is practised by many, but merely to gratify an absurd and cruel caprice, without a single advantage, and the animal is better in every respect with the tail unmutilated. If done at all, it should be when young, and with a single stroke of the knife, or chisel and mallet; and if the weather be favorable, no further attention is necessary. Nicking. This inhuman custom is now getting unfashionable, and we omit any description of it. Breaking. While feeding in the stable, the colt should be gently treated, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which prepares him for breaking. If permitted to run with the others while at work, he becomes familiarized to it, and when harnessed by the side of some of his well-trained mates, he seems to consider his discipline rather a privilege than a task. The colt may be taken in hand for breaking at three years of age, and thoroughly broken to light work at four, but should not be put to hard service till six or eight. A due regard to humanity and sound judgment, in thus limiting the burden in his early years, would save much disease and suffering to the animal, and profit to the owner, by his unimpaired strength and prolonged life. The annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enormous, which might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to grasp the substance, while as yet the shadow only is within reach. Many animals are thus broken down at twelve, and are in their dotage at fifteen, while others of good constitution, if well treated, perform hard service till thirty. Longevity of the Horse. Mr. Percival mentions one that died at 62. Mr. Mauran, of New York, has a fine gig and saddle horse, now in his 45th year, sound, spirited, and playful as a kitten. He is of a dark brown, with a tanned nose. We never yet saw a horse with a buff or bear muzzle, that had not great endurance. American Eclipse was successfully covering mares in Kentucky at the age of 32, the result of late and light service till his sinews became fully matured. We have frequently seen a large, compact, flea-bitten horse at work, dragging a heavy load in a single cart, which was formerly used as one of Governor Maitland's coach-horses, and though upwards of 30, he was apparently as sound and vigorous as an overtasked colt of seven or eight. Feeding. The vigor and duration of the horse depend much on proper feeding. Like the cow and sheep, he may be made to subsist on animal food, fish, and almost every species of nutritious vegetable. But his natural and proper aliment is the grasses, grain, and roots. In the middle and northern sections of this country, his dry forage is almost invariably good meadow-hay, generally timothy, which is the richest of the cultivated grasses. At the South, this is often supplied by the blades of Indian corn. But in all the states, a great variety of the grasses and clover are used. When put to hard labor, grain ought always to accompany hay in some form. Of the different kinds of grain, oats are peculiarly the horse's food, and they are always safe, digestible, and nutritive. Barley is the best substitute for it. Wheat and Indian corn are sometimes given, but both are unsuitable; the first is too concentrated, and the last too heating. They ought to be sparingly used, and only when ground and mixed with chaff. The offal of wheat is never objectionable. Grain is always more advantageously fed when ground or crushed, and wet some time previous to eating; and it is still better when cooked. On both sides of the Mediterranean, in the Barbary States, in Spain, France, and Italy, much of the food is given in small baked cakes, and the saving in this way is much greater than the expense of preparing it. When confined to dry food, roots or apples fed once a day are always beneficial. They keep the bowels open, the appetite and general health good, and contribute largely to the nutriment of the animal. Carrots are the best of the roots, as besides giving muscle and working power, they, more than any other, improve the wind and prevent all tendency to heaves. They have even been found effectual in removing an obstinate cough. By many of the keepers of livery stables, they are always used, for which purpose they command the same price as oats. Potatoes, parsnips, beets, and Swedes turnips, in the order mentioned, are next to be preferred. Potatoes are improved by cooking. Mixtures of food are best, as of cut hay, meal, and roots. Old horses, or such as are put to hard labor, will do much better if their food be given in the form easiest of digestion. No inconsiderable part of the vital power is exhausted by the digestion of dry, raw food. Horses ought to be fed, and if possible, exercised or worked regularly, but never on a full stomach. This is a frequent cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. If their food is given at the proper time, and the horse be allowed to finish it at once, without expecting more, he will lie down quietly and digest it. This will be much more refreshing to him, than to stand at the rack or trough, nibbling continually at his hay or oats. What remains after he has done feeding, should be at once withdrawn. They should have water in summer three times, and in winter twice a day. Soft or running water is much the best. While working, and they are not too warm, they may have it as often as they desire. Neither should they be fed when heated, as the stomach is then fatigued and slightly inflamed, and is not prepared for digestion till the animal is again cool. Salt should always be within reach, and we have found an occasional handful of clean wood-ashes, a preventive of disease and an assistance to the bowels and appetite. [Illustration: Fig. 29. Skeleton of a Horse. A The Head.--_a_ The posterior maxillary or under jaw.--_b_ The superior maxillary or upper jaw. A little lower down than the letter is a foramen, through which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part of the face.--_c_ The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.--_d_ The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.--_e_ The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital bones above.--_f_ The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper incisor teeth.--B The Seven Cervical Vertebræ, or bones of the neck.--C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebræ, or bones of the back.--D The Six Lumbar Vertebræ, or bones of the loins.--E The Five Sacral Vertebræ, or bones of the haunch.--F The Caudal Vertebræ, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen.--G The Scapula, or shoulder-blade.--H The Sternum, or fore-part of the chest.--I The Costæ or ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the _true ribs_; and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called the _false ribs_.--J The Humerus, or upper bone of the arm.--K The Radius, or upper bone of the arm.--L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon.--M The Carpus, or knee, consisting of seven bones.--N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or cannon or shank in front, and the smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind.--_g_ The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffraginis, or the upper and larger pastern bone, with the sesamoid bones behind, articulating with the cannon and greater pastern; the Os Coronæ, or lesser pastern; the Os Pedis, or coffin-bone; and the Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and articulating with the smaller pastern and coffin-bones.--_h_ The corresponding bones of the hind-feet.--O The Haunch, consisting of three portions: the Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubis.--P The Femur, or thigh.--Q The stifle joint with the Patella.--R The Tibia, or proper leg bone; behind is a small bone called the fibula--S The Tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part is the Os Calcis, or point of the Hock.--T The Metatarsals of the hind leg.] DISEASES. The list is long and fearful, and even the brief one subjoined, will be found sufficiently great to inculcate the utmost caution in their management. The horse in his natural condition is subject to few ailments. It is only in his intensely artificial state, and when made the slave of man, that he becomes a prey to disease in almost every shape. A careful and judicious attention to his diet, water, exercise, stable, and general management, will prevent many of those to which he is subject. Glanders. This is one of the most alarming. The first and most marked symptom is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character. The disease produces inflammation there and in the windpipe, and in aggravated cases passes down to the lungs, which are soon destroyed. _It is propagated_ by contagion, by exposure in humid stables, and is induced by hereditary indisposition and great exhaustion. Youatt says, there is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders. The poison resides in the nasal discharge, not in the breath. When exposed to it, the mangers should be thoroughly scraped, washed with soap and water, and afterwards with chloride of lime. All the clothing and harness, which may have received any of the contagious matter, must be thoroughly cleansed and baked. _The best preventives_ are dry, clean, and well-ventilated stables, proper exercise, green food in summer, and roots in winter. _The disease may be arrested_ in its early stages, by turning the animal on a dry pasture, but it is liable to return on subsequent confinement. Iodine has lately been announced as a remedy, but of the certainty of its effects, we are not aware. It is generally considered incurable, and when thoroughly seated, it may be deemed an act both of humanity and economy to terminate the existence of its victim at once. This course becomes a duty, from the fact that many grooms, by their attendance on glandered horses, have been affected, and though the disease is, in their case, more manageable, yet it is frequently fatal. Farcy. This is intimately connected with glanders, and the diseases frequently run into each other. Lampas. This consists in the swelling of the bars of the mouth to a level or even above the teeth. It may occur from inflammation of the gums; shedding of the teeth; a febrile tendency, and from over-feeding or want of exercise. It will generally subside by low dieting and proper exercise; or it may be at once relieved by lancing the bars with a sharp penknife. Poll-evil. This arises from some contusion or injury to the head, which produces a swelling that eventually suppurates. The inflammation may be abated, in its earliest stages, by a blister; and in its later, by bleeding, physic, and cold lotions applied to the part. If these are ineffectual, and the swelling continues, it should be hastened by poultices, and warm, stimulating lotions; and when fully formed, the tumor must be opened, so as to permit all the matter to run out. Repeated applications of salt will sometimes cure it. Heaves. All those affections, distinguished in the English veterinary works as _pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs_, _chronic cough_, _thick and broken wind_, _consumption_, _&c._, are popularly designated as _heaves_. To some or all of these the horse may have an hereditary or constitutional tendency. Their incipient stages are also induced by a sudden transition from heat to cold, and sometimes from cold to close and hot stables; and by a chilly wind or damp stables, especially after severe exercise. Feeding on musty, dry hay, or on straw, will produce an irritation which may lead to heaves. _Inflammation of the lungs_ is frequently dangerous, and requires the immediate and full use of the lancet. After the inflammation is decidedly allayed, by copious bleeding, small doses of aloes may be given, and frequent injections of warm soap and water, which should be omitted the moment the feces become soft and approaching to the fluid state. Blistering the sides and brisket, to be often repeated if otherwise ineffectual, must be resorted to. Convalescence should be followed with sedative medicines, and during all the severe stages of the disease, withhold all food, except light gruels after protracted abstinence. As health returns, put the animal out to grass. Inflammation of the lungs is sometimes succeeded by a _chronic cough_, and the other maladies enumerated. When firmly seated, it is incapable of removal. Its effects can be alleviated, and with suitable food and treatment, the horse may be made to do much moderate labor for many years, but he can never become sound or sustain great exertion. Equal and proper temperature, moist, stimulating food, and especially carrots or potatoes, and moderate exercise, (but never on a full stomach,) and dry, clean stables, are all the remedies that can be prescribed. Catarrh or Horse Distemper. This sometimes attacks the horse in the spring or fall, and is shown by soreness and swelling in the glands of the throat, a cough; difficulty of swallowing; discharging at the nose; and general prostration. It is seldom fatal, if properly managed. Give light bran-mashes, purge thoroughly, and keep warm. If he is violently attacked, he may be bled while fever exists; and blisters or setons may be applied, to reduce the swelling, if extreme. The disease is contagious, and the animal should be at once placed where he cannot communicate it. Spasmodic Colic. _Symptoms._--The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the slightest warning. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, strike his belly with his feet, and crouch in a peculiar manner, advancing his hind limbs under him; he will then suddenly lie, or rather fall down, and balance himself upon his back, with his feet resting on his belly. The pain now seems to cease for a little while, and he gets up and shakes himself, and begins to feed; the respite, however, is but short--the spasm returns more violently--every indication of pain is increased--he heaves at the flanks, breaks out into a profuse perspiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax, and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm; the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and inflammation and death supervene. The pulse is but little affected at the commencement, but it soon becomes frequent and contracted, and at length is scarcely tangible. Among the _causes_ of colic are, the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated. There is not a surer origin of violent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to produce this effect. Colic will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green food, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse, yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and small, are not unfrequent causes of colic. In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predisposition to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed to unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of the alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of calculi, are frequent causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of colic is occasionally the duodenum, but oftener the ileum or the jejunum; sometimes, however, both the cæcum and colon are affected. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these spasms; and the disease often ceases as suddenly as it appeared. _Remedies._--Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. A solution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpentine and opium. If relief is not obtained in half an hour, it will be prudent to bleed, for the continuance of violent spasm may produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first, and it is far from bad practice; for although the majority of cases will yield to turpentine, opium, and aloes, an early bleeding may occasionally prevent the recurrence of inflammation, or at least mitigate it. If it is clearly a case of colic, half of the first dose may be repeated, with aloes dissolved in warm water. The stimulus produced on the inner surface of the bowels by the purgative, may counteract the irritation that caused the spasm. The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth, but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over it, with all their strength, by two great fellows. The horse should be walked about or trotted moderately. The motion thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine over the other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop might speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic. Clysters of warm water, or containing a solution of aloes, should be injected. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly useful. A clyster of tobacco-smoke may be thrown up as a last resort. When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse, saturated with perspiration, should be removed, and fresh and dry clothes substituted. He should be well littered down in a warm stable or box, and have bran mashes and lukewarm water for the two or three next days. Some persons give gin, or gin and pepper, or even spirit of pimento, in cases of gripes. This course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objectionable. It may be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases of colic; but if there should be any inflammation, or tendency to inflammation, it cannot fail to be highly injurious. Flatulent Colic. This is altogether a different disease from the former. It is not spasm of the bowels, but inflation of them, from the presence of gas emitted by undigested food. Whether collected in the stomach, or small or large intestines, all kinds of vegetable matter are liable to ferment. In consequence of this fermentation gas is evolved to a greater or less extent--perhaps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This may take place in the stomach; and if so, the life of the horse is in immediate danger, for the animal has no power to expel this dangerous flatus by eructation. _The symptoms_, according to Professor Stewart, are, "The horse suddenly slackening his pace, preparing to lie down, or falling down, as if he were shot. In the stable he paws the ground with his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, starts up all at once, and throws himself down again with great violence, looking wistfully at his flanks, and making many fruitless attempts to void his urine." _The treatment_ is considerably different from that of spasmodic colic. The spirit of pimento would be here allowed, or the turpentine and opium drink; but if the pain, and especially the swelling, do not abate, the gas, which is the cause of it, must be got rid of, or the animal is inevitably lost. This is usually, or almost invariably, a combination of hydrogen with some other gas. It has a strong affinity for chlorine. Then if some compound of chlorine--the chloride of lime--dissolved in water, is administered in the form of a drink, the chlorine separates from the lime as soon as it comes in contact with the hydrogen, and muriatic gas is formed. This gas, having a strong affinity for water, is absorbed by any fluid that may be present, and, quitting its gaseous form, either disappears, or does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk. All this may be very rapidly accomplished, for the fluid is quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the intestinal canal. Where these two medicines are not at hand, and the danger is imminent, the _trochar_ may be used, in order to open a way for the escape of the gas. The trochar should be small, but longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture should be made in the middle of the right flank, for there the large intestines are most easily reached. It is only when the practitioner despairs of otherwise saving the life of the animal, that this operation should be attempted. Much of the danger would be avoided by using a very small trochar, and by withdrawing it as soon as the gas has escaped. The wound in the intestines will then probably close, from the innate elasticity of the parts. Inflammation of the Bowels. There are two varieties of this malady. The first is inflammation of the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever, and usually costiveness. The second is that of the internal or mucous coat, and almost invariably connected with purging. The muscular coat is that which is oftenest affected. Inflammation of the external coats of the stomach, whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very frequent and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is of great consequence that its early symptoms should be known. _Symptoms._--If the horse has been carefully observed, restlessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack. In many cases a direct shivering fit will occur; the mouth will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, looking wildly at his flanks, groaning, and rolling. The pulse will be quickened and small; the ears and legs cold; the belly tender, and sometimes hot; the breathing quickened; the bowels costive; and the animal becoming rapidly and fearfully weak. _The causes_ of this disease are, first of all and most frequently, sudden exposure to cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm stable, is heated with exercise, and has been during some hours without food, and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely of cold water, or is drenched with rain, or have his legs and belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse, subjected to severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs were previously weak, will probably be attacked by inflammation of them; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected or wrongly treated will terminate in it. _Remedies._--The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs, should be prompt and energetic. The first and most powerful means of cure will be bleeding. From six to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as much as the horse can bear, should be abstracted as soon as possible; and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more, if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease, should not deter from bleeding largely. That weakness is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts; and if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear. The bleeding should be effected on the first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that more quickly runs its course. A strong solution of aloes should immediately follow the bleeding, but, considering the irritable state of the intestines at this period, guarded by opium. This should be quickly followed by back-raking, and injections consisting of warm water, or very thin gruel, in which Epsom salts or aloes have been dissolved; and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up. The horse should likewise be encouraged to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel; and draughts, each containing a couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, with a little opium, should be given every six hours, until the bowels are freely opened. It will now be prudent to endeavor to excite considerable external inflammation, as near as possible to the seat of internal disease, and therefore the whole of the belly should be blistered. In a well-marked case of this disease, no time should be lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at once resorted to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirits of wine or turpentine, should be thoroughly rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged, in order to restore the circulation in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed part; and, for the same reason, the horse should be warmly clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be cool. No grain or hay should be allowed during the disease, but bran mashes, and green food if it can be procured. The latter will be the best, and may be given without the slightest apprehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, a handful of grain may be given two or three times in the day; and, if the weather is warm, he may be turned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters of gruel should be continued for three or four days after the inflammation is beginning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs. The second variety of Inflammation of the Bowels Affects the internal or mucous coat, and is generally the consequence of physic in too great quantity, or of an improper kind. The purging is more violent and continues longer than was intended; the animal shows that he is suffering great pain; he frequently looks round at his flanks; his breathing is laborious, and the pulse is quick and small, and the mouth is hot and the legs and ears are warm. _Remedies._--Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain and distress great, the surgeon should hesitate at giving any astringent medicine at first; but he should plentifully administer gruel or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by clyster, removing all hay and grain, and particularly green food. He should thus endeavor to soothe the irritated surface of the bowels, while he permits all remains of the purgative to be carried off. If, however, twelve hours have passed, and the purging and the pain remain undiminished, he should continue the gruel, adding to it chalk, catechu, and opium, repeated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, and gradually discontinued. Bleeding will rarely be necessary, unless the inflammation is very great, and attended by symptoms of general fever. The horse should be warmly clothed, and placed in a comfortable stable, and his legs should be hand-rubbed and bandaged. _Violent purging_, and attended with much inflammation and fever, will occur from other causes. Green food will frequently purge; and a horse worked hard upon it will sometimes scour. The _remedy_ is change of diet, or less labor. Young horses will often be strongly purged, without any apparent cause. Astringents should be used with much caution here. It is probably an effort of nature to get rid of something that offends. A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and the purging will cease without astringent medicine. Many horses that are not _well ribbed home_ (having too great space between the last rib and the hip-bone) are subject to purging, if more than usual exertion is required from them. They are recognised by the term of _washy_ horses. They are often free and fleet, but destitute of continuance. They should have rather more than the usual allowance of grain, with beans, when at work. A cordial ball, with catechu and opium, will often be serviceable either before or after a journey. Physicking. When a horse comes from grass to dry food, or from the cool, open air to a heated stable, a dose, or even two doses, of physic may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflammation, which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and great a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has surfeit, grease, or mange, or that is out of condition from inactivity of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is often most serviceable. A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or three bran mashes given on that or the preceding day, are far from sufficient when a horse is about to be physicked, whether to promote his condition, or in obedience to custom. Mashes should be given until the dung becomes softened. A less quantity of physic will then suffice, and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be more readily diffused over them. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been softened, will act more effectually and much more safely than seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened feces. On the day on which the physic is given, the horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day; but after the physic begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. Exercise would then produce gripes, irritation, and, possibly, dangerous inflammation. A little hay may be put into the rack. As much mash should be given as the horse will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to drink warm water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any fluid; but in such case he should not be suffered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval of at least an hour between each draught. When the purging has ceased, or _the physic is set_, a mash should be given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken, between which and the _setting_ of the first, there should be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the languor and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious motions, will be perfectly sufficient to answer every good purpose, although the groom may not be satisfied unless double the quantity are procured. The consequence of too strong purgation will be, that weakness will hang about the animal for several days or weeks, and inflammation will often ensue from the over-irritation of the intestinal canal. Long-continued custom has made ALOES the almost invariable purgative of the horse, and very properly so; for there is no other at once so sure and so safe. The Barbadoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to seven drachms. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, effectually, and safely. The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the CROTON. The farina or meal of the nut is generally used; but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, and without the nausea which they produce; but it causes more watery stools, and, consequently, more debility. LINSEED OIL is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound to a pound and a half. OLIVE OIL is more uncertain, but safe; but CASTOR OIL, that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe. EPSOM SALTS are inefficacious, except in the immense dose of a pound and a half, and then they are not always safe. Worms. The long white worm (_lumbricus teres_) much resembles the common earth-worm, and being from six to ten inches in length, inhabits the small intestines. It is a formidable looking animal; and if there are many of them, they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or the mucus of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their presence. They are then, however, voided in large quantities. _Remedies._--A dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently given as a vermifuge. The seldomer this drug is administered to the horse, the better. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is concerned. But a better medicine, and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with linseed meal and treacle, and given every morning, half an hour before the horse is fed. A smaller, darker colored worm, called the needle-worm, or _ascaris_, inhabits the larger intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense quantities have been found in the c[oe]cum. These are a more serious nuisance than the former, for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered by a small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering to the anus. _Remedies._--Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms; but when there is much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have descended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. Bots. While they inhabit the stomach of the horse, cannot give the animal any pain, for they have fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat. They cannot stimulate the stomach and increase its digestive power, for they are not on the digestive portion of the stomach. They cannot, by their roughness, assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food, for no such office is performed in that part of the stomach--the food is softened, not rubbed down. They cannot be injurious to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and their presence is not even suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not in that part of the stomach in which medicine is usually conveyed; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine, that can be safely administered, to affect them; and, last of all, in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself with picking them off when they collect under the tail and annoy the animal. Wind-galls. In the neighborhood of the fetlock, there are occasionally found considerable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than the fore one, which are denominated _wind-galls_. Between the tendons and other parts, and wherever the tendons are exposed to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suffering to ooze slowly from them, a mucous fluid to lubricate the parts. From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused by violent action and straining of the tendons, or often from some predisposition about the horse, these little sacs are injured. They take on inflammation, and sometimes become large and indurated. There are few horses perfectly free from them. When they first appear, and until the inflammation subsides, they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness; but otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not interfere with the action of the animal, or cause any considerable unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wind--hence their name, wind-galls; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. _Remedies._--A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment; but if these tumors are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion of the limb, they may be attacked first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound down tightly upon them. The bandage should also be wetted with warm water, two or three times a day, for half an hour each time. The wind-gall will often diminish or disappear by this treatment, but will too frequently return, when the horse is again hardly worked. A blister is a more effectual, but too often temporary remedy. _Firing_ is still more certain, if the tumors are sufficiently large and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so severe; for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by contracting the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumor. The iodine and mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage, in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter. Inflammation of the Fetlock. The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and from the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew, that are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this joint; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up, are simple affections of the fetlock. It requires a great deal of care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat about the part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the principal guides. _Remedy._--Occasionally, by the application of cooling lotions, the inflammation may be subdued, but at other times, the horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable to stand. A serious affection of the fetlock-joint demands prompt treatment. Cutting. The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients used to be tried to remove this; the inside heel has been raised and lowered, and the outside raised and lowered; and sometimes one operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary; and there was no point so involved in obscurity or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner. _Remedy._--The most successful remedy and that which in the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is Mr. Turner's shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having but one nail, and that near the toe, on the inside of the shoe; care being taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond the edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little at the quarters. Sprain of the Coffin-Joint. The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet. _Remedy._--Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and blisters, are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily removed, even by a blister; and if removed, like sprains of the fetlock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in the foot. Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very serious affair. Not being always attended by any external swelling, and being detected only by heat round the coronet, the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom and the farrier; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed before its nature is discovered. Ringbone. This is a deposite of bony matter in one of the pasterns, and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot, and spreading around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its name. When the first deposite is on the lower pastern, and on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of the ligaments of the joints, it is recognised by a slight enlargement, or bony tumor on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet. Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and high action, are oftenest, as may be supposed, the subjects of this disease, which is the consequence either of concussion or sprain of the pastern-joints. It is also more frequent in the hind foot than the fore, because, from the violent action of the hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are more subject to ligamentary injury behind than before; yet the lameness is not so great there, because the disease is confined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not been injured by concussion; while, from the position of the fore limbs, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to be added to that of the ligaments. _Remedy._--In its early stage, and when recognised only by a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint, or in a few cases on one side only, the lameness is not very considerable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by active blistering, or by the application of the cautery; but there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone rapidly spread. The pasterns first become connected together by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint. From this joint the disease proceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between the lower pastern, and the coffin and navicular bones. The motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the whole of the foot becomes one mass of spongy bone. Enlargement of the Hock. First, there is inflammation, or _sprain of the hock-joint generally_, arising from sudden violent concussion, by some check at speed, or over-weight, and attended with enlargement of the whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness. _Remedy._--This, however, like all other diffused inflammations, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circumscribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance, firing, the limb recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit for ordinary work. The swelling, however, does not always subside. Enlargement, spread over the whole of the hock-joint, remains. A horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded with suspicion. In truth, he is unsound. The parts, altered in structure, must be to a certain degree weakened. The animal may discharge his usual work during a long period, without return of lameness; but if one of those emergencies should occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disorganized and weakened part will fail. He may be ridden or driven moderately for many a year without inconvenience, yet one extra hard day's work may lame him forever. Curb. There are often injuries of particular parts of the hock-joint. _Curb_ is an affection of this kind. It is an enlargement at the back of the hock, three or four inches below its point. It is either a strain of the ring-like ligament which binds the tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendons; oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may produce it, and therefore horses are found to throw out curbs after a hardly-contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe gallop over heavy ground, or a sudden check in the gallop. Young horses are particularly liable to it, and horses that are _cow-hocked_, whose hocks and legs resemble those of the cow, the hocks being turned inwards, and legs forming a considerable angle outwards. This is intelligible enough; for in hocks so formed, the annular ligament must be continually on the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. Curbs are generally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first appearance, but the swelling is not always great. They are best detected by observing the leg sidewise. _Remedies._--The first object in attempting the cure, is to abate inflammation, and this will be most readily accomplished by cold evaporating lotions, frequently applied to the part. Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and vinegar, will afford an excellent application. It will be almost impossible to keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considerable, it will be prudent to give a dose of physic, and to bleed from the subcutaneous vein, whose course is near it; and whether the injury is of the annular ligament, or the sheath of the tendon, more active means will be necessary to perfect a cure. Either a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part, consisting of a vinus or turpentine tincture of cantharides, and this daily applied until some considerable swelling takes place; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair should be cut off, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been subdued. The blister should be repeated, until the swelling has disappeared, and the horse goes sound. In severe cases it may be necessary _to fire_; but a fair trial, however, should be given to milder measures. If the iron is used, it should be applied in straight lines. There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-continued rest is more requisite. It leaves the parts materially weakened, and, if the horse is soon put to work again, the lameness will frequently return. No horse that has had curbs, should be put even to ordinary work in less than a month after the apparent cure; and, even then he should very gradually resume his former habits. A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound, or generally condemned as unsound. Curb is also an hereditary complaint; and therefore a horse that has once suffered from it, should always be regarded with suspicion, especially if either of the parents have exhibited it. Bone Spavin. This is an affection of the bones of the hock-joint. Spavined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are equal to the greater part of the work of the farm, and therefore they should not always be rejected by the small farmer, as they may generally be procured at a small price. These horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but they generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree abates, and even the bony tumor to a certain degree lessens. There is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to rouse the absorbents to action, and cause them to take up a portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to renew or prolong inflammation. It cannot be said that the plow affords a _cure_ for spavin, but the spavined horse often materially improves while working at it. For fast work, and for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses are not well calculated; for this lameness behind produces great difficulty in rising, and the consciousness that he will not be able to rise without painful effort, occasionally prevents the horse from lying down at all; and the animal that cannot rest well, cannot long travel far or fast. _Remedies._--The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but far from being always effectual. The owner of the horse will neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of humanity, if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the pointed iron, or arsenic to be used; yet measures of considerable severity must be resorted to. Repeated blisters will usually cause either the absorption of the bony deposite, or the abatement or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as a last resource, the heated iron may be applied. Swelled Legs. The fore-legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in coarse horses, are sometimes subject to considerable enlargement. Occasionally, when the horse does not seem to labor under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent shifting of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly swell to an enormous degree from the hock, and almost from the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive and very peculiar lameness. The pulse likewise becomes quick and hard, and the horse evidently labors under considerable fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent n its degree, and therefore attended by the effusion of a considerable quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane. It occurs in young horses, and in those which are over-fed and little exercised. _Remedies._--Fomentation, diuretics, or purgatives, or, if there is much fever, a moderate bleeding, will often relieve the distention almost as suddenly as it appeared. Mild cases will generally yield to their influence; but, if the animal has been neglected, the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied by bleeding; but if there are any symptoms of debility, bleeding would only increase the want of tone in the vessels. Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables, very speedily have swelled legs, because the difference of food and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of the circulating fluid, while the want of exercise takes away the means by which it might be got rid of. The remedy here is sufficiently plain. Swelled legs, however, may proceed from general debility. They may be the consequence of starvation, or disease that has considerably weakened the animal; and these parts, being farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here the means of cure would be to increase the general strength, with which the extremities would sympathize. Mild diuretics and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated. Horses in the spring and fall are subject to swelled legs. The powers of the constitution are principally employed in providing a new coat for the animal, and the extremities have not their share of vital influence. Mingled cordials and diuretics are indicated here; the diuretic to lessen the quantity of the circulating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate the frame. Grease. Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a disease that is apt to degenerate into it. Grease is a specific inflammation of the skin of the heels, sometimes of the fore-feet, but oftener of the hinder ones. Bad stable management is the true cause of it. Grease is a local complaint. The heel should be well but gently washed with soap and water, and as much of the scurf detached as is easily removable. An ointment should be applied, to supple, cool, and heal the part. When _cracks_ appear, the mode of treatment will depend on their extent and depth. If the cracks are deep, with an ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it will be necessary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be generally effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive, when an ounce of finely-powdered charcoal should be mixed with the linseed meal; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft and mashed. After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs will sometimes continue gorged and swelled. A flannel bandage, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will be very serviceable; or should the season admit of it, a run at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed. The feeding should likewise vary with the case, but with these rules, which admit of no exception; that green food should be given, and more especially carrots, when they are not too expensive; and mashes, if the horse will eat them; and never the full allowance of grain. Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse is able to bear it, and this by degrees may be increased to a gentle trot. From bad stable-management at first, and neglect during the disease, a yet worse kind of grease occasionally appears. The ulceration extends over the skin of the heel and the fetlock, and a fungus springs from the surface of both, highly sensible, bleeding at the slightest touch, and interspersed with scabs. By degrees portions of the fungus begin to be covered with a horny substance, protruding in the form of knobs, and collected together in bunches. These are known by the name of _grapes_. A f[oe]tid and very peculiar exudation, proceeds from nearly the whole of the unnatural substance. The horse evidently suffers much, and is gradually worn down by the discharge. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here indispensable. Some horses are more subject to grease than others, particularly draught-horses, both heavy and light, but particularly the former, and if they have no degree of _blood_ in them. It was the experience of this, which partly contributed to the gradual change of coach and other draught-horses to those of a lighter breed. In the great majority of cases, grease arises from mismanagement and neglect. Every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation in the skin of the heel is a cause of grease. Therefore want of exercise is a frequent source of this disease. When high feeding is added to irregular or deficient exercise, the disease is evidently still more likely to be produced. Want of cleanliness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease. When the heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened by the constant moisture surrounding them. The absurd practice of washing the feet and legs of horses when they come from their work, and either carelessly sponging them down afterwards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is, however, the most common origin of grease. When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share in the warmth, the momentary cold of washing may not be injurious, if the animal is immediately rubbed dry; yet even this would be better avoided; but to wash out the heels, and then leave them partially dry or perfectly wet, and suffering from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation from a moist and wet surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and injurious practice that can be imagined. It is worse, when the post-horse or the plow-horse is plunged up to his belly in the river or pond immediately after his work. Cutting the Hair from the Heels. Custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm-horses. Nature would not have given it had it not been useful. It guards the heel from being injured by the inequalities of the plowed field, and prevents the dirt, in which the heels are constantly enveloped, from reaching, and caking on, and irritating the skin. When the horse is carefully tended after his work is over, and his legs quickly and completely dried, the less hair he has about them the better, for then both the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evaporation begins, or proceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their heat. Grease is the child of negligence and mismanagement. Setons Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instrument resembling a large needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and the muscular or other substances beneath. They are retained there by the ends being tied together, or by a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in the day, and occasionally wetted with spirits of turpentine, or some acrid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation which it produces, or the discharge which is intended to be established. _In abscesses_, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swelling, setons are highly useful by discharging the purulent fluid, and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to flow out; and, by the degree of inflammation which they excite on the interior of the tumor, stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations, which gradually occupy and fill the hollow. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for except some channel is made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the healing process will never be accomplished. On these accounts, a seton passing through the base of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is so beneficial. "Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the neighborhood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and carrying away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload the vessels of that part; thus, a seton is placed with considerable advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much inflamed."--(_Youatt._) Founder, Or inflammation of the foot, arises from various causes; excessive exertion, great heat, and particularly when followed by drinking cold water, or overloading the stomach in any way, sudden transition from great cold to excessive heat, and change of inflammation from some other part. _Remedies._--When the attack is severe and confined to the fore-feet, Youatt recommends removing the shoe and paring the hoof as much as possible, taking four quarts of blood from each toe, placing the feet in warm water, and afterwards applying soft poultices of linseed meal to the whole foot and pastern. If this is ineffectual, take three quarts of blood from each foot the succeeding day. It may then be necessary to blister the foot and coronet. The animal should be kept on green food or light mashes, and allowed to run on grass without labor. An effectual cure has followed from taking off the shoe, and applying lard, raised to the boiling point, to every part of the foot. Poison From weeds, sometimes gives to horses ulcerated tongues and lips, and swollen legs and sheath. If there be much inflammation, bleeding should be resorted to, then give daily bran mashes, with Glauber salts in doses of ½ to 1½ pounds, according to the size of the horse, with half a teaspoonful of saltpetre. Washing the ulcerated parts with warm soap-suds, copperas, and sugar-of-lead may follow. Epidemics among Horses, Sometimes occur, producing great mortality. One of these was prevalent in the neighborhood of New York, in 1846, termed a _malarious congestive fever_, staggers, or apoplexy, which destroyed many valuable animals. It occurred during the heat of summer, and was principally confined to such as were at pasture. By many it was attributed to excessive heat and exposure at night. The animals that were opened, appeared sound in all respects excepting the brain, which exhibited one mass of clotted blood. The _remedy_ found to be the most effectual, consisted in taking about one quart of blood from the head, swathing it with cloths saturated with cold water, and giving two drachms daily of calomel. The horse should be kept in a cool stable. A similar disease in Spain is cured by copious bleeding, and swathing the head in blankets constantly wet with hot water. Inflammation of the Eyes. Shut up in a dark stable, and feed on fresh-cut grass and bran mashes. Bleed freely from the mouth, and give 1½ lbs. Glauber salts, 2 drachms nitre, and 15 grains tartarized antimony, dissolved in a bucket of water, which the animal will drink when thirsty. This to be repeated daily till purging is effected. If it fails, bleed from the large veins just below the eye, taking 15 to 20 ounces of blood.--(_Dr. Campbell._) The Sting of Hornets, Bees, or snakes, may be relieved by immediate external application of strong spirits of hartshorn: salt and vinegar are also good. For Sprains, Take a mixture of one ounce sweet oil, four ounces spirits of hartshorn, half an ounce oil of thyme, and rub with it frequently. The remedies mentioned below are also effectual for sprains. For a Bruise or Blow. Apply hot water a long time with wet cloths. Beef brine is an excellent lotion for both sprains and bruises. A veteran among horses, claims, that it will almost set a joint or heal a fracture. Wormwood or tansy lotions are also good. Fistula. This is frequently cured by repeated applications of salt. Wounds Should be washed twice a day with clean, soft water, or with a little Castile soap added, and then rub with whale-oil. This answers for all seasons, keeps off flies, restores the hair, and of the original color. Galls, Or wounds on the back from the saddle, are most effectually healed by white-lead, moistened with sweet-oil or milk. The saddle ought always to fit easily and be well padded, and it should be taken off and the animal's back washed at every baiting. Shoeing. This is an important operation, and should never be attempted but under the supervision of an experienced person; nor ought the shoes to remain so long as to produce contraction of the hoof, which is followed by lameness and corns. They should be reset as often as every five or six weeks. Contraction of the Foot. This is also caused by standing on the dry stable for some days. In this case, the hoof should be stopped with fresh cow-manure and clay, or with a thick felt, soaked in water, and cut to suit the foot. This is also a good application over night, for horses that have accomplished a hard day's work on a dry road. Litter. This is not objectionable to the feet, if clean and not too damp. Some suppose this the cause of contraction, but it is the reverse. It is besides of great benefit when shook out for a bed, by inducing the horse to rest himself. He is thus enabled to do more work, and with a less expenditure of food. Corns. In the angle between the bars and the quarters, the horn of the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more spongy and softer than at any other part. The horse flinches when this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional or permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foot is termed _corns_; bearing this resemblance to the corn of the human being, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause of lameness. When corns care neglected, so much inflammation is produced in that part of the sensible sole, that suppuration follows, and to that, _quittor_ succeeds, and the matter either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the coronet. _Remedies._--The cure of old corns is difficult; for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of when once contracted; recent corns, however, will yield to good shoeing. The first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and the bars. Two objects are answered by this; the extent of the disease will be ascertained, and one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife must be used for this purpose. The corn must be pared out to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the matter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the course and extent of the sinuses explored, and introduce into them a _saturated solution of sulphate of zinc_, by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing the common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the application every twenty-four hours. Three or four such applications complete a cure. Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of the corn, after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. In bad cases, a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be worn for one or two shoeings, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that would bear the constant pressure of the bar-shoe; and the want of pressure on the heel, generally occasioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness. Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent should, at every shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out, and the butyr of antimony applied. An Over-reach Is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot, by the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. _The preventive treatment_ is the bevelling, or rounding off of the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. _The cure_ is the cutting away of the loose parts, the application of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt. Forging, or Clicking, "Is a singular species of over-reaching. The horse, in the act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the fore one. This noise of the clicking is unpleasant, and the trick or habit is not altogether free from danger. It is most frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too great activity, or length of stride in the hind legs. _Remedies._--The rider may do something by keeping the head of the horse well up; but the smith may effect more by making the hind shoes of clicking horses short in the toe, and having the web broad. When they are too long, they are apt to be torn off; when too narrow, the hind foot may bruise the sole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe."--_Youatt._ The Bearing Rein Is a matter of much controversy; some claiming that it should be entirely abolished, while others as strenuously contend for its almost universal use. Nimrod, who is deemed perfectly competent authority, insists on its use with fast roadsters and coach-horses. With team-horses, it may generally be dispensed with, and always should be in ascending hills, as it materially diminishes their capacity for exertion. The fault in its use is its excessive tightness, and when standing, the horse ought never to be tormented with it. [Illustration: Fig. 30. Safety Rein illustrated.] _Directions for use of Safety Rein._--In putting on the rein for a gig, keep the buckle to the left hand, or near side; that will place the loop, which is on the middle of the rein, below the hook or head of the bridle, which prevents it from being thrown out by the motion of the horse's head. For a pair of horses, keep the two short chapes outmost, and the loops on the middle downward. For saddle, keep the buckle to the left hand. When the rein is used either for running, rearing, kicking, or going backward, it should be applied suddenly with a strong arm, keeping up the pressure until the horse is still; it should then be relieved suddenly, at the same time motioning the horse to go on. If he is only a runaway he will obey it at once, such horses being generally of a willing, good temper. After the horse has been a few times firmly gripped with it, use it occasionally, instead of the bit-rein, to stop him on ordinary occasions; this will remind the horse of his subjection, and will accustom the rider or driver to the ready and accurate use of it in case of an emergency. The Bit Is a frequent cause of injury to the mouth of the horse, fretting and teasing him, and in many cases inducing permanent injury and viciousness. It should never be made annoying to the horse beyond the absolute necessity for his proper restraint. An Unruly Stud may be controlled By passing the rein from the ring on the off-side over the head and through the left ring. This gives a purchase to the groom which the horse cannot resist. Blinds Have for a long time been fashionable, but in few cases are necessary, while in nearly all they are decidedly injurious. [Illustration: Fig. 31. The Crib Biter.] The Crib Biter. This small instrument is made entirely of iron, and riveted firmly to the head-stall. It answers the threefold purpose, to prevent biting, crib-biting, and wind-sucking. All of the foregoing are bad habits for horses, for which there is no effectual cure, but in adopting the use of the above implement. The Stable Is an important matter connected with the proper management of horses. This should be as much as possible of a uniform temperature, cool in summer, warm in winter, and always clean, dry, and well-ventilated. But no air must be allowed to blow directly upon the animal. The horse is a native of a warm climate, and ought to be well protected against cold. The stable should be neither too light nor too dark, nor must the light ever be admitted before the eye of the horse. For judicious and extended arrangement of stables, and management of horses, the inquiring reader is referred to _Stewart's Stable Economy_. CHAPTER VI. THE ASS, THE MULE, AND THE COMPARATIVE LABOR OF WORKING ANIMALS. THE ASS Is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the central parts of Asia and Africa. Like the horse, he goes in troops and displays great natural sagacity, activity, and courage. Job says, "He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth the crying of the driver." Like the horse, too, he has from time immemorial been tamed, and become the faithful servant of man; but unlike him, he is subject to few maladies, is hardy and enduring, and subsists and even thrives on coarse and scanty forage. Thus Job says of his natural haunts, "Whose house I have made the _wilderness_, and the _barren land_ his dwellings; the range of the _mountains_ is his pasture, and he searcheth after _every green thing_." Xenophon, in his Anabasis, a thousand years later, says of one of the Asiatic deserts through which he passed with the army of Cyrus, "that it was full of wormwood; if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there, they had all an aromatic smell; but no trees appeared. Of wild creatures, the most numerous are _wild asses_, which our horses sometimes chased; but the wild asses exceeded them much in speed." Varieties. The different breeds of asses are supposed to be quite as numerous as those of the horse. Four distinct races are mentioned in the earliest scriptures. In modern times we find a similar diversity. There are two kinds in Persia, the largest a slow, heavy brute, used only for burdens; the other smaller and more spirited, and used for the saddle. In Egypt, a considerable though less marked difference exists, those near the Delta being inferior to those which are bred in Upper Egypt and Nubia. In Spain, a difference in size and spirit prevails, greater even than in Persia. The _Zebra_ is nearly allied in size, shape, and character to the wild ass, but his untameable ferocity has hitherto effectually bid defiance, alike to the scourges and caresses, the frowns and the favors of man. Arabia produces some of the most spirited and hardy asses, but their size, like that of their horses, is too small for purposes of the greatest utility. The Maltese Jack is by American breeders deemed the choicest animal from which to propagate. He is evidently of Arabian descent, and possesses all the good qualities of his ancestry, with considerable additional size. We have several varieties, all of which are imported, as there are no natives of the Western Continent. The early importations were principally made from the Azores, and Cape de Verd Islands, and were mostly of an inferior character. A superior Maltese Jack was presented to Gen. Washington, in 1787, by La Fayette, and is believed to be the first ever sent to this country. Mr. Custis describes him as of moderate size, clean-limbed, possessing great activity, the fire and ferocity of a tiger, of a dark brown and nearly black, with white belly and muzzle, and manageable only by one groom, nor then safely. He lived to a great age. His mules were all active, spirited, and serviceable, and when from stout mares, attained considerable size. A Spanish Jack and Jennet were also presented to Washington about the same time, by the King of Spain. The first is characterized by the same authority, as a huge, ill-shapen animal, nearly 16 hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs, and to all appearance little calculated for active service; he was of a gray color, and not much valued for his mules, which were unwieldy and dull. From the Maltese Jack and Spanish Jennet, which approach the size of the large Spanish Jack, was bred a valuable animal, _Compound_, which partook of all the good qualities of the sire, with the weight of the dam. From him descended many of the best mules of Mount Vernon. Many other valuable importations followed these animals, and it is believed we have for many years had as fine specimens of the ass as the world affords. Jennets, or she-asses, are used among us principally for breeding Jacks, and of course are not numerous. They are sometimes, though seldom, bred to the horse. It is difficult to induce the horse to notice them, and the produce, which is called a _hinny_, is less hardy and useful than the mule. The milk of the she-ass is lighter and more digestible than that of any other animal, and in former times was in great request for invalids. The ass is occasionally used in the cart, or as a beast of burden. Such as are employed for these purposes are generally of an inferior kind, and are only used for the lightest work. They may sometimes be seen among the fishmongers and small vegetable dealers about our city markets, but little larger than a Newfoundland dog or Shetland pony, trundling along a light cart with a wheelbarrow load. In ancient times they have been, and in foreign countries--even at the present time, they are extensively used. But the most enlightened of the moderns have adopted the mule as the proper and almost exclusive substitute for the ass; and it would show a still greater intelligence and economy, if it much more extensively took the place of the horse. THE MULE Is the hybrid produced by the ass with the mare. How early this animal was bred, is uncertain, but we know he was in high repute in the reign of David, near 3,000 years ago, for he was rode by Absalom, the favorite prince of Israel, on the field of battle. They have from time immemorial been bred in various parts of the East, on the borders of the Mediterranean, and throughout Spain, Portugal, and other countries, many of them being of splendid appearance and of fine qualities. In these countries, they are frequently used by the grandees and nobles, and indeed by royalty itself; and however much they may be undervalued elsewhere, when they are finely bred and trained, and richly caparisoned, they exhibit a stateliness and bearing, that few of the highest bred horses can match. Breeding Mules in the United States, Was commenced with much spirit in some of the New England states, soon after the American revolution. The object was not to breed them for their own use, but only as an article of commerce. They were at first shipped exclusively to the West Indies; and afterwards to the South and West, for employment in the various work of the plantation. Indifferent animals, both as sires and dams, were used at first, as any thing which bore the name of mule, then commanded a ready sale. The progeny were necessarily inferior brutes, and viewed with almost universal derision; and being considered the type of their race, a prejudice was excited against them, which more than half a century has not been sufficient to dispel. Among a few thinking men at the North, they have been adopted and made highly useful in the various duties of the farm. They have been largely introduced at the South and West, but principally in the slave states, where the management of the team devolves upon the ignorant and heedless. It is there, and in other and hotter climates, that the superior merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring animal, are peculiarly manifest. In many instances they are indifferently fed, hardly worked, and greatly neglected by their drivers; yet they sustain themselves for years, in defiance of usage that would annihilate two generations of horses. Their powers have been largely increased and their merits improved, by the introduction of some of the best Maltese and Spanish Jacks, and the use of large, blood mares. The propriety of this course is seen in the value of the product; for while some of the inferior are unsaleable at $50, others of the same age, and reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition, could not be purchased for $150. The Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Mules Is similar to that of colts. They will be found, equally with horses, to repay generous keep and attention, by their increased and rapid growth. But they should not be pampered by high feed, as it not only has a tendency to produce disease, but to form habits of fastidiousness, which materially lessens their economical feeding in after life. The diseases to which mules are subjected, (which are always few, and if properly managed will seldom or ever occur,) require a treatment like that of horses. _The breeding from mules_ has sometimes been questioned, but it has been demonstrated in several instances. Neither the sexual development nor propensities are wanting, but they are seldom indulged with effect. Mr. Kilby, of Virginia, states in the Farmer's Register, that a mare mule brought two colts from a young horse, which they closely resembled. The first was a male, and died, apparently with staggers, which no treatment could arrest, at six months old. The second was a female, 16 months younger than the first, marked like the sire, being jet-black, excepting a white foot and star in the forehead, and died at a year old, after two days' illness, notwithstanding the utmost care was bestowed upon it. Successful propagation of this hybrid, however, beyond the first cross, seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature. With a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for a part of the horses now employed in American husbandry, we give the following testimony from experienced individuals, of great intelligence and careful observation. ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR. The official report of an agricultural committee in South Carolina, in 1824, says:--"The annual expense of keeping a horse is equal to his value. A horse at four years old would not often bring more than his cost. Two mules can be raised at less expense than one horse. The mule is fit for service earlier, and if of sufficient size, will perform as much labor as the horse; and if attended to when first put to work, his gait and habits may be formed to suit the owner." Mr. Pomeroy, who used them near Boston for 30 years, and to such an extent as to have had more labor performed by them probably than any person in New England, says:--"I am convinced the small breed of mules will consume less in proportion to the labor they are capable of performing than the larger race, but I shall confine myself to the latter in my comparison, such as stand 14½ to 16 hands, and are capable of performing any work a horse is usually put to. From repeated experiments, I have found that three mules of this description, which were constantly at work, consumed about the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the provender, which was given to two middling-size coach-horses, only moderately worked. I am satisfied a large-sized mule will not consume more than three-fifths to two-thirds the food to keep him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse performing the same labor. The expense of shoeing a mule the year round, does not exceed one-third that of the horse, his hoofs being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, that shoes require no removal, and hold on till worn out; and the wear from the lightness of the animal is much less. Mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn meal; in no other instance have I known disease in them, except by inflammation of the intestines, caused by the grossest exposure to cold and wet, and excessive drinking cold water, after severe labor, and while in a high state of perspiration. It is not improbable a farmer may work the same team of mules for twenty years, without having a farrier's bill presented to him. In my experience of thirty years, I have never found but one mule inclined to be vicious, and he might have been easily subdued while young. I have always found them truer pullers and quicker travellers, with a load, than horses. Their vision and hearing are much more accurate. I have used them in my family carriage, in a gig, and under the saddle; and have never known one to start or run from any object or noise, a fault in the horse, that continually causes the maiming and death of numerous human beings. The mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to waste his strength than the horse, hence more suitable to work with oxen; and as he walks faster, he will habituate them to a faster gait. In plowing among crops, his feet being small and following each other so much more in a line, he seldom treads down the ridges or crops. The facility of instructing him to obey implicitly the voice of the driver is astonishing. The best plowed tillage land I ever saw, I have had performed by two mules tandem, without lines or driver. The mule is capable of enduring labor in a temperature of heat that would be destructive to a horse. Although a large mule will consume something over one-half the food of a horse, yet the saving in shoeing, farrying, and insurance against diseases and accidents, will amount to at least one-half. In addition, the owner may rely with tolerable certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty years; whereas the horse owner must, at the end of fifteen years, look to his crops, his acres, or a bank for the renewal of his. The longevity of a mule is so proverbial, that a purchaser seldom inquires his age. Pliny mentions one 80 years old; and Dr. Rees, two in England, that reached the age of 70. I saw one performing his labor in a cane-mill in the West Indies, which the owner assured me was 40 years old. I have now a mare-mule 25 years old, that I have had in constant work for 21 years. She has often within a year taken a ton weight in a wagon to Boston, five miles, and manifests no diminution of her powers. A neighbor has one 28 years old, which he would not exchange for any horse in the country. One in Maryland, 35 years old, is now as capable of labor as at any former period." Mr. Hood of Maryland, in the American Farmer, estimates the annual expense of a horse for 12 months, at $44, and that of a mule at $22, just half price, and his working age at more than twice that of the horse, and that too after 30 years' experience in keeping both. A correspondent of the Baltimore Patriot, asserts that "Col. John E. Howard had a pair of mules that worked 30 years, after which they were sold to a carter in the city, and performed hard service for several years longer. Many mules 25 years old, and now in this country, perform well. Many have been at hard work for 12 or 15 years, and would now sell for $100 each. They are not subject to the colt's ailments, the glanders, heaves, yellow-water, and colic, like horses; and seldom are afflicted with spavin, ringbones, or bots; and they will not founder." General Shelby says, "he has known mules to travel 12 miles within the hour in light harness, and has himself driven a pair 45 miles in six hours, stopping an hour by the way." Four match mules have been sold in this country for $1,000. They were of course superior animals, and made elegant coach-horses. These animals were driven 80 miles in a day without injury; and they proved a first-rate team for many years. Mr. Ellicott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, asserts that, "out of about 100 mules at the works, we have not lost on an average one in two years. Bleeding at the mouth will cure them of nearly every disease, and by being turned out on pasture, they will recover from almost every accident. I do not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one. They are scarcely ever defective in the hoof, and though kept shod, it is not as important as with the horse. Their skin is tougher than that of the horse, consequently they are not as much worried by flies, nor do they suffer so much with the heat of summer." To the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late Judge Hinckley of Massachusetts; a shrewd and close observer through a long life of 84 years. He bred mules at an early day, and always kept a team of them for his farm work, much preferring them to horses for this purpose, after an experience of 50 years. He had a pair nearly 30 years old, which, with light pasturage in summer, and with a moderate supply of hay with little grain in winter, and no grooming, performed all the drudgery, though he kept his stable full of horses besides. They outlived successive generations of horses, and though the latter were often sick and out of condition, the mules never were. One from his stock, 45 years old, was sold for the same price paid for a lot of young mules, being at that mature age perfectly able to perform his full share of labor. For the caravans that pass over the almost inaccessible ranges which form the continuation of the Rocky Mountains, and the extensive arid plains that lie between and west of them, on the route from Santa Fé to California, mules are the only beasts of burden used in these exhausting and perilous adventures. Their value may be estimated from the comparative prices of mules and horses; for while a good horse may be bought for $10 to $20, a good mule is worth $50 to $75. Dr. Lyman, who recently passed through those regions, informs us that their caravan left Santa Fé with about 150 mules, 15 or 20 horses, all beasts of burden, and two choice blood-horses, which were led and treated with peculiar care. On the route, all the working-horses died from exhaustion and suffering; the two bloods that had been so carefully attended, but just survived; yet of the whole number of mules but 8 or 10 gave out. A mule 36 years of age was as strong, enduring, and performed as hard labor, as any one in the caravan. When thirst compelled them to resort for successive days to the saline waters, which are the only ones furnished by those sterile plains, the horses were at once severely, and not unfrequently fatally affected; while the mules, though suffering greatly from the change, yet seldom were so much injured as to require any remission of their labor. The mules sent to the Mexican possessions from our western states, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, are considered of much more value than such as are bred from the native (usually wild) mares. The difference probably arises, in part, from the Mexicans using jacks so inferior to most of the stock animals used by the citizens of those states. Mare mules are estimated in those regions at one-third more than horse mules. The reason assigned for this is, that after a day's journey of excessive fatigue, there is a larger quantity of blood secreted in the bladder, which the female, owing to her larger passage, voids at once, and without much apparent suffering, while the male does not get rid of it, frequently, till after an hour of considerable pain. The effect of this difference is seen in the loss of flesh and strength in the male to an extent far beyond that of the female. _The method of reducing refractory mules_ in the northern Mexican possessions, is for the person to grasp them firmly by the ears, while another whips them severely on the fore-legs and belly. _Estimated annual saving to the United States from the employment of mules in the place of horses._--To sum up the advantages of working mules over horses, we shall have as advantages: 1. They are more easily, surely, and cheaply raised. 2. They are maintained, after commencing work, for much less than the cost of keeping horses. 3. They are not subject to many of the diseases of the horse, and to others only in a mitigated degree, and even these are easily cured in the mule. 4. They attain a greater age, and their average working years are probably twice that of the horse. In 1840, there were reported to be 4,335,669 horses and mules in the Union, no discrimination having been made between them. Suppose the total number at the present time is 4,650,000, and that of these 650,000 are mules. If we deduct one-fourth, supposed to be required for the purposes of breed, fancy-horses, &c., we shall have 3,000,000 horses, whose places may be equally well supplied by the same number of mules. We have seen that Mr. Hood, of Maryland, estimates the expense of a working horse at $44 per annum, (not an over estimate for the Atlantic states,) while that of the mule is $22. The difference is $22, which it is proper to reduce to meet the much lower rate of keeping at the West. If we put the difference at $10, we shall find the saving in the keep, shoeing, farriery, &c., by substituting mules for the 3,000,000 horses that can be dispensed with, will be $30,000,000 per annum. But this is not all. The working age of the horse will not exceed an average of eight years, while that of the mule is probably over sixteen. To the difference of keep, then, must be added the annual waste of the capital invested in the animal. A mule is more cheaply raised to working age than a horse, but allowing them to cost equally, we shall have the horse exhausting one-eighth of his capital annually for his decay, when the mule is using up but one-sixteenth; and if we allow $48 as the first cost of both animals, we shall find the horse wasting $6 annually for this item, while the mule deteriorates but $3, making an additional item of $9,000,000. This will give an aggregate of $39,000,000, as the annual saving to the United States by substituting good mules for three-fourths of the horses now used in this country. When will our farmers have the good sense to make this change? It may be fairly answered, when they shall prefer utility, interest, and a just taste, to a diseased fancy; for though we admit the superiority in appearance of the race of horses over mules, we deny that a bad horse looks better or even as well as a good mule; and with the same keep and attention, a good mule will outwork and outlook most horses of any breed. The comparative Economy of Horse and Ox Labor. This is a question which has been often discussed, and when with candor, the conclusion has generally been in favor of ox-labor. The different employments, the variety of situation, the season, and the kind of stock reared on the farm, are all questions which should be fully considered in arriving at their true comparative advantages. Most farmers would find it for their interest to keep teams of each, where there is employment for more than one; or if this be not the case, the preference should be given to that which is best suited in all respects to their particular position. If work upon the road is required, a horse team will generally be best. Their superiority will consist principally in their greater speed; for even with a heavy load, they will be able to trot occasionally, and when driven without it, they may increase their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox. This will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the driver when steadily employed. The same is true when removing manures or crops on the farm to remote distances, over a smooth surface, which admits of trotting with the empty wagon. Harrowing ought always to be done with a quick team, as a violent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods and pulverizes the earth much better than when slowly dragged. But we should assume in this comparison, that oxen shall not only be well adapted to their work by their natural formation, like the Hereford, the Devon, and others equally good, but also that they be well trained, well managed, accustomed to quick movements, and as well fed and looked after as horses. We shall then find their walk equal to a quick horse team, and that in this case the horse will have no advantage over the ox in harrowing. For plowing, the teams are on a par, as a good ox team will do as much in a day in cool weather as horses. _The situation of the farm_ may materially affect this estimate. In a warm climate, horses, and more especially mules, would be more serviceable than oxen, as they are capable of enduring much greater heat with impunity. If the farm be small and convenient to market, the labor may, in general, be best accomplished by oxen, as little travelling will be required. So, too, if the land be stony or rough, the plowing and harrowing will be more kindly and patiently done by oxen than by spirited horses. Other considerations will suggest themselves as affecting the comparative economy of this labor. _The time of work_ is to be fully considered. If much and heavy work be required in summer, as is often the case in plowing extensive wheat farms, horses are to be preferred; yet if the ox-team be started at early dawn, and worked briskly four or five hours, and then turned out to rest with a supply of suitable food, they may again commence when the extreme heat has abated, and accomplish a day's work that few horses will exceed. During the season of muddy roads, the horse, with his broad, compact foot, and longer leg, has a decided advantage over the ox. If the ox draws by the yoke, (which on the whole is the best mode,) he is liable to a sore neck when working in wet or snowy weather, and at such times he is overmatched by his competitor. _The kind of stock raised on the farm_ has an important bearing on this question. Some farms are devoted to rearing horses, and some exclusively to rearing cattle. These occasionally remain on hand after they are fit for market, from the want of a profitable demand. They can then be employed not only without injury, but in consequence of the thorough training thus secured, with positive benefit to their future value. Even if intended for the shambles, the well-developed ox may advantageously be put to light work at three, after which it may be gradually increased till he is six or eight, and during all this time he will be improving. After doing an early spring's work, he may then be turned on to good pasture, and if followed with proper stall-feeding, he will in the latter part of the winter or spring yield a tender, better-flavored, and more profitable carcass, than can be procured by any other mode of fattening. The first cost of oxen is less than that of horses, and they are at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the farm. The expense of working-gear, tackle, and shoeing, is much less than with horses. They are subject to fewer diseases, and these are more within the reach of ordinary medicines. The cost of food is also less, and while the horse is depreciating, the ox is increasing in value till eight or nine years old. Accidents are less frequent with oxen, from their slower movements; and when they occur, the ox may be turned out to fatten, and still be worth as much for this purpose as for the yoke. A permanent injury to the horse is perhaps a total loss of the beast, with a large farrier's bill in addition, for which there is nothing to liquidate it but the hide. The small farmer can make out a most serviceable team, by putting a single horse before a yoke of cattle. If well trained, they will soon accommodate themselves to each other's pace, and work as advantageously together as an entire team of either class would do alone. Bulls are frequently put to the draught, and when they have not other services that fully test their powers, they cannot be better employed. Heifers and cows are sometimes worked, but hitherto they have not been used to any extent in this country. In the absence of other animals, they might perform light work to advantage, but severe labor would stint their growth or impair their milk beyond the benefit derived from it. The _spayed heifer_ is an exception to the foregoing remark, and by many is esteemed even more useful than an ox of equal weight. We have no definite statements of the comparative money value of the labor of oxen and horses. But in England repeated trials have been made, and while some have discovered no advantage in the employment of oxen over horses, others have proved them decidedly superior. One Anglesey farmer found in an experience of three years, with 12 horses and 20 oxen, which accomplished an equal amount of work, that he had saved by the latter, $1150. The foregoing facts prove the subject to be one of sufficient importance, to justify the closest investigation of every farmer to determine for himself the comparative value of ox, horse, or mule labor. CHAPTER VII. SWINE. The hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though his natural haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals, are in warm climates. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the immense range of islands which extends over the whole Southern and Pacific Oceans; but they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic. [Illustration: Fig. 32. The Wild Boar.] In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market could be found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. For near twenty years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon after the organization of our national government, it was a comparatively large article of commerce; but from that time, exports have not been justified to any extent, till within the last two years, since which, a material reduction in the British import duty on pork, lard, and hams, has again brought it up as a prominent article of trade with that country. The recent use which has been made of the carcass in converting it into lard oil, has still further increased its consumption. Swine are reared in very part of the Union, and when properly managed, always at a fair profit. At the extreme North; in the neighborhood of large markets; and on such of the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard, as with little additional food besides what is thus afforded, they can be put into good condition for the butcher. But it is on the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, where Indian corn is raised in profusion, and at small expense, that they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Sciota, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining states, have for many years taken the lead in the production of swine; and it is probable the climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them forever to remain the leading pork-producers of the North American continent. Breeds of Swine. The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous, and like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst to be found among the species. Great attention has for many years been paid to their improvement in the Eastern states, and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers who make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. Fig. 33, represents an English breed of hogs, a century or more ago: though coarse and slouch-eared, it is yet the portrait of a tolerable hog, and far before many of the swine that still maintain their ascendency in various parts of the European continent. This breed is nearly extinct, having been crossed successively by the Chinese and other good breeds, thus diminishing the size and materially improving its thrift and tendency to fattening. We have few such animals in the United States, though we have many that are worse. [Illustration: Fig. 33. Old English Hog.] The _Byefield_, some 30 years ago, was a valuable hog in the Eastern states, and did much good among the species generally. They are white, with fine curly hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and at 15 months attaining some 300 to 350 lbs. net. The _Bedford_ or _Woburn_ is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the China hog, on some of the best English swine. A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to Gen. Washington, but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger in Maryland, in which state and Pennsylvania they were productive of much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through different states. Several other importations of this breed have been made at various times, and especially by the spirited masters of the Liverpool packet ships, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. They are an exceedingly valuable hog, but are nearly extinct both in England and this country, as a breed. The _Leicesters_ are a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some varieties of this breed differ essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with smaller compact breeds, are generally thrifty, desirable animals. _Other large breeds_ deserving commendation in this country, are the large _Miami white_, the _Yorkshire white_, and the _Kenilworth_, each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of 600 to 800 lbs. [Illustration: Fig. 34. China Hog.] The _Chinese_ is among the smaller varieties, and without doubt is the parent stock of the best European and American swine. They necessarily vary in appearance, size, shape, and color, from the diversity in the style of breeding, and the various regions from which they are derived. The Fig. represents the pure China pig, and is a striking likeness of many of the imported and their immediate descendants that we have seen in this country. They are too small an animal for general use, and require to be mixed with larger breeds to produce the most profitable carcass for the market. For the purpose of refining the coarse breeds, no animal has ever been so successful as this. They are fine-boned, short, and very compact, with bellies almost touching the ground, light head and ears, fine muzzle, of great docility and quietness, small feeders, and producing much meat for the quantity of food consumed. From the rapidity with which generations of this animal are multiplied, the variety of other breeds on which they are crossed, and the treatment to which they are subjected, it is not surprising that their descendants should rapidly assume distinct features. They furnish not only a strong dash of blood in the best class of large breeds, but in such of the smaller as have any pretensions to merit, they constitute the greater part of the improvement. Such are the _Neapolitan_, the _Essex half-black_, the _Grass breed_, and some others. [Illustration: Fig. 35. Berkshire Hog.] The _Berkshires_ are an ancient English breed, formerly of large size, slow feeders, and late in maturing. Their color was a buff or sandy ground, with large black spots, and the feet, lower part of the legs, and tuft on the tail, buff. The latter color has given place, in most of the modern age, to white in the same parts. This variation, with the more important ones of early maturity and good feeding properties, are by Professor Low ascribed to a Chinese cross, which has added the only characteristic in which they were before deficient. They were first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in this country by Mr. Brentnall, of Orange Co., and Mr. Hawes, of Albany, N. York. In their hands, and those of other skilful breeders, their merits were widely promulgated. No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, since 1832, and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh variously, from 250 to 400 lbs. net, at 16 months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some full-grown have dressed to more than 800 lbs. They particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are under the necessity of importing most of what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and mild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. Breeding. Swine should not be allowed to breed before 12 or 15 months old, unless the animals are large and coarse, when they may be put to it somewhat younger. Not only choice individuals, but such as are well descended, should be selected for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in good condition, but not fat, nor approaching to it; and a proper degree of exercise is essential to the development of the f[oe]tus and the health of the parent; for which reason, she should have an extended range connected with her pen. The sow goes with young about 114 days. A week before the time comes round, a comfortable, quiet place should be prepared for her under cover, and well-protected from cold, if the weather be severe; or if warm, a range in a pasture with an open shed to retire to, is sufficient. Too much litter for bedding must be avoided, and no change or disturbance of the sow permitted, till two or three weeks after pigging, as the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of the pigs. The sow should be fed only with a small quantity of the lightest food or thin gruel, for two or three days, nor put on full feed for a week. If inclined to eat her pigs, she should be fed two or three times with raw pork or fresh meat. The pigs may be taught to crack oats or soaked corn after three weeks, and if provided with a trough inaccessible to the dam, they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food, preparatory to weaning. This may take place when they are 8 or 10 weeks old; and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or two remain with her a few days longer, and when finally removed, if her bag appears to be full, they may be allowed to drain the milk after 20 or 30 hours. The sow should be restricted to a light, dry diet for a few days at this period. Management and Fattening. There are but two objects in keeping swine, for breeding and for slaughter, and their management is consequently simple. Those designed for breeding, should be kept in growing condition, on light food, and have every advantage for exercise. Such as are destined exclusively for fattening, ought to be steadily kept to the object. It is the usual, though a bad practice in this country, to let spring pigs run at large for the first 15 months, with such food as is convenient; and if fed at all, it is only to keep them in moderate growth till the second autumn. They are then put up to fatten, and in the course of 60 or 90 days are fed off and slaughtered. During this brief period, they gain from 50 to 100 per cent. more of dressed weight than in the 15 or 18 months preceding: nor even then do they yield a greater average weight than is often attained by choice, thrifty pigs, which have been well-fed from weaning to the age of 8 or 9 months. Three pigs of the Bedford breed, when precisely 7½ months old, dressed 230, 235, and 238½ lbs. Two of the Berkshire and Leicester breeds, at 9 months, dressed 304 and 310 lbs. Three others of the Berkshire and Grass breeds, 7 months and 27 days old weighed 240, 250, and 257 lbs. net. Innumerable instances could be adduced of similar weights, gained within the same time, with a good breed of animals under judicious treatment. We have no one accurate account of the food consumed, so as to determine the relative profit of short or long feeding. But that an animal must consume much more in 18 or 20 months to produce the same quantity of dressed meat, which is made by others of 8 or 9 months, does not admit of a doubt. We have seen that an ox requires but little more than double the quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting existence. If we apply this principle to swine, and state the quantity of food which will fatten the pig rapidly, to be three times as great as for the support of life, we shall find that the pig will fatten in 7 months, on the same food he would consume to keep him alive for 21. This is based on the supposition that both animals are of equal size. But the pig that matures and is slaughtered at 7 months, has only a moderate capacity for eating. During the early stages of his growth, his size and the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs, prevent the consumption of the same quantity which the larger animal requires; and his accumulating fat, his limited respiration, consequent upon the compression of his lungs, and his indisposition to exercise, all conspire to keep the consumption of food within the smallest possible limit. This result, in the absence of any experiment, must be conjectural entirely; but we believe that experiments will show, that of two thrifty pigs from the same litter, one of which is properly fed to his utmost capacity for 7 months, and the other fed with precisely double the quantity of similar food for 21 months, the first will yield more carcass and of a better and more profitable quality than the latter, which has consumed 100 per cent. the most. The food is only one item in this calculation. The oldest requires the most attention, is liable to more accidents and disease, besides the loss of interest. We are necessarily forced to the conclusion, that by far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs is in the pork-barrel. We can readily anticipate one objection to this practice, which is the want of food at the requisite season of the year to fatten them. This can be obviated, by reserving enough of the previous year's grain, to keep the animal in a rapidly thriving state, till the next crop matures sufficiently to feed. In the rich corn regions, on its beginning to ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in that region of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by them, leaner droves which follow, will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, they will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will require less attention; and generally, early pork will command the highest price in market. It is most economical, to provide the swine with a fine clover pasture to run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, and sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to swine, is saved by grinding and cooking or souring. Yet care must be observed that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel, and exposure to a temperature between 68° and 77° will produce immediate fermentation. In this process there are five stages. The _saccharine_, by which the starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are converted into sugar; the _vinous_, which changes the sugar into alcohol; the _mucilaginous_, sometimes taking the place of the vinous, and occurring when the sugar solution, or fermenting principle is weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the _acetic_, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the _putrefactive_, which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most profitable for feeding, has not yet been satisfactorily determined; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. The roots for fattening animals ought to be washed, and steamed or boiled; and when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded with the roots. A small quantity of salt should be added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian; sugar beets; mangel-wurzel; ruta-bagas; and the white turnips, in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused through so large a bulk, that we doubt if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain lift when fed to them uncooked. There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. It is better indeed to have it always before them. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion, and it should be the object of the farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate conversion into fat and muscle. Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and provided with a warm shelter, to which they can retire at pleasure. This will greatly hasten the fattening and economize the food. They thrive better and are generally less subject to disease, when long confined in yards, by having a clear running stream always accessible, to wallow in. This is one of the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases. A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and evacuations, of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried into the first two as possible. They must be regularly fed three times a day, and if there is a surplus, it should be removed at once. If they are closely confined in pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat. This corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal. Graves, scraps, or cracklings, as they are variously called, the residuum of rough lard or tallow, after expressing the fat, are a good change and an economical food. Some animal food, although not essential, is always acceptable to swine. When about to finish them off, many feed for a few weeks on hard corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent food has been given, and meal cannot be conveniently procured; but when fattened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful practice, as the animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth. It is better to give him an occasional feed of the raw grain, for a change, and to sharpen his appetite. _The products furnished by the carcass of swine_ are numerous. Every part of the animal is used for food, and it admits of a far greater variety of preparation for the table, than any other flesh. From the remotest antiquity to the present time, and in every grade of barbarous and civilized life, it has been esteemed as one of the choicest delicacies of the epicure. _Lard-oil_ (_oleine_) has, within a few years, given to pork a new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased. At some of the large pork-packing depots of the West, one-third of the whole quantity has been thus disposed of. This has withdrawn a large amount of pork from the market, and prevented the depression which must otherwise have occurred. Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one perforated with holes, on which the pork is laid, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the fat is extracted and falls upon the lower bottom. The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, worth about three cents per pound, which is valuable for various purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat carefully scraped off. The oily, viscid matter of the skin is thus avoided. When tanned, the skin makes a valuable leather. An aggregate weight of 1790 lbs. from four well-fattened animals, after taking out the hams and shoulders, say about 400 lbs., gave within a fraction of 1200 lbs. of the best lard. _Stearine and Oleine._--Lard and all fatty matters consist of three principles, of which stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, both of which, when separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in American commerce, is known as _lard-oil_. It is very pure, and extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are used. Curing Hams and Pork. After dressing, the carcass should be allowed to hang till perfectly drained and cool, when it may be cut up and salted. The usual way is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be dry salted, by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured; or it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are occasionally rolled to bring the salt into contact with every part. Hams and Shoulders May be cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle, but with differently arranged materials. The following is a good pickle for 200 lbs. Take 14 lbs. of Turk Island salt; ½ lb. of saltpetre; 2 qts. of molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown sugar, with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to the scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be perfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed; and if not sufficient to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers in Cincinnati and elsewhere, who send choice hams to market, add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves. The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from 10 to 20 days, according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. This is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet-birch, corn-cobs, white-ash, or beech. The smoke-house is the best place to keep hams till wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. A canvass-cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A common method is to pack in dry oats, baked sawdust, &c. DISEASES OF SWINE. Mortifying as the fact may be to human pride, it is nevertheless certain, that the internal arrangements, the viscera, digestive organs, omnivorous propensities, and the general physiological structure of the hog and the bear, more nearly resemble man, than any other animal. Many of their diseases may therefore be expected to be a modification of those of the human species, and require a similar treatment. [Illustration: Fig. 36. Skeleton of a Pig. A Maxilla inferior, vel posterior; lower jaw.--B Dentes; the teeth.--C Ossa nasi; the nasal bones.--D Maxilla superior, vel anterior; upper jaw.--E Os frontis; the frontal bone.--F Orbiculus; the orbit or socket of the eye.--G Os occipitis; the occipital bone.--H Atlas; the first vertebra of the neck.--I Vertebræ colli, vel cervicales; the vertebræ of the neck.--J Vertebræ dorsi, vel dorsales; the vertebræ of the back.--K Vertebræ lumborum, vel lumbales; the vertebræ of the loins.--L Ossa coccygis; the bones of the tail.--_a_ Scapula; the shoulder-blade.--_b_ Humerus; the round shoulder-bone.--_c_ Sternum; the breastbone.--_d_ Ulna; the elbow.--_e_ Radius; the bone of the fore-arm.--_f_ Os naviculare: the navicular bone.--_g_ Phalanges vel ossa pedis; the first and second bones of the foot.--_h_ Phalanges, vel ossa pedis; the bones of the hoof.--_i_ Pelvis, (ossa innorninata;) the haunch bones.--_j_ Os femoris; the thigh-bone.--_k_ Patella; the stifle-bone.--_l_ Tibia; the upper bone of the leg--_m_ Tarsus, (one of which is the (N) os calcis;) the hock-bones.--_n_ Os naviculare; the navicular bone.--_o_ Digiti, vel phalanges, (ossa pedis;) the first digits of the foot.--_p_ Digiti, vel phalanges, (ossa pedis;) the second digits of the foot.] Pulmonary Affections, Colds, Coughs, and Measles. To each of these, swine are peculiarly liable, and, as with most other evils, prevention of disease in swine is more easy and economical than cure. A dry warm bed, free from winds or storms, and suitable food, will most effectually prevent any injuries, or fatal attacks. The hog has little external covering to protect him against cold. Nature has provided this immediately within the skin, in the deep layer of fat which surrounds the full, plump hog. Fat is one of the best non-conductors of heat, and the pig which is well-fed bids defiance to the intense cold, which would produce great suffering, and consequent disease, in the ill-conditioned animal. By the observance of a proper medium between too much fat or lean, for the store or breeding swine, and providing them with comfortable beds and proper feed, nearly all diseases will be avoided. For _Coughs and Inflammation of the Lungs_, bleeding should immediately be resorted to, after which give gentle purges of castor oil, or Epsom salts; and this should be followed with a dose of antimonial powders--2 grains, mixed with half a drachm of nitre. For _Costiveness_ or loss of appetite, sulphur is an excellent remedy, given in a light mess. _Itch_ may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard and brimstone. Rubbing-posts, and a running stream to wallow in are preventives. The _Kidney Worm_ is frequently fatal; and always produces weakness of the loins and hind legs, usually followed by entire prostration. A pig thus far gone, is hardly worth the trouble of recovering, even where practicable. _Preventives_, are general thrift, a range in a good pasture, and a dose of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fortnight in their food. A small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of turpentine, or tar, will effect the same object. When attacked, apply spirits of turpentine to the loins, and administer calomel carefully; or give half a tablespoonful of copperas daily for one or two weeks. Blind Staggers. This is generally confined to pigs, and manifests itself in foaming at the mouth, rearing on their hind legs, champing and grinding their teeth, and apparent blindness. The proper remedies are bleeding and purging freely, and these frequently fail. Many nostrums have been suggested, but few are of any utility. It is important to keep the issues on the inside of the fore-legs, just below the knee, thoroughly cleansed. The _tails_ of young pigs frequently _drop_ or _rot off_, which is attended with no further disadvantage to the animal than the loss of the member. The _remedies_ are, to give a little brimstone or sulphur in the food of the dam; or rub oil or grease daily on the affected parts. It may be detected by a roughness or scabbiness at the point where separation is likely to occur. _Bleeding._--The most convenient mode, is from an artery just above the knee, on the inside of the fore-arm. It may be drawn more copiously from the roof of the mouth. The flow of blood may usually be stopped, by applying a sponge or cloth with cold water. The diseases of swine, though not numerous, are formidable, and many of them soon become fatal. They have not been the subject of particular scientific study, and most of the remedies applied, are rather the result of casual or hap-hazard suggestion, than of well-digested inference, from long-continued and accurate observation. CHAPTER VIII. FARM-DOGS. No grazing farm is complete without one or more intelligent, well-trained dogs, adapted to the various wants of their owners; and the general taste has made their presence almost universal in every rural household. The dog is peculiarly the friend of man. Many other animals have a temporary though feeble attachment to him, which seems the result rather of constant companionship, or the selfishness of dependence, than any well-settled affection towards a master. The dog alone, of all the brute creation, seems capable of a disinterested, self-sacrificing affection; and this, united with his usefulness and adaptedness to all climes and countries, has made him a favorite in every quarter of the globe. Since this animal is the habitual tenant of the farm, and, when suited to his peculiar duties, can be made of great utility by the assistance he is capable of affording in its management, we deem it entirely appropriate to our subject to indicate such of the species as are deserving the farmer's attention. Discarding all ideas of fancy or sportsmanship, and looking to utility alone, we may safely affirm that the farmer needs only such as may be found in the four breeds of the Newfoundland, the Shepherd's and Drover's dog, and the Terrier. [Illustration: Fig. 37. Newfoundland Dog.] The Newfoundland Dog. This dog, of which we give a portrait, is always above medium height, and frequently is of the largest size. He is long-haired and shaggy, and has a thick coat of fine, soft fur, beneath the outer covering, which is almost impenetrable by water. His color is most frequently black; often spotted and partially flecked or grayish; and occasionally buff. The Newfoundland is of the Spaniel family, but derives its name from the island where it has been bred for centuries, to the great advantage of its inhabitants. There are two varieties: the large, used in the north, called the Labrador; and the smaller, more docile and intelligent, of the south, called the St. John's. They are employed by the islanders, and the people of the neighboring coast, in drawing their sleds and carts loaded with fish, wood, &c. They aid them in various ways in their fishing operations; they are strong, courageous, and watchful; and with slight training, they are scarcely inferior to the best hunting-dogs in pursuing the wild game that abounds in those high northern latitudes. These estimable qualities, coupled with their uniform good-nature, have always made them favorites with the farmer. The Newfoundland is an excellent watch-dog; sagacious in discriminating between a friend and a foe, and with courage and strength to follow out his prompt and judicious conclusions. He is easily trained for the drover, to whom he is frequently a great assistant; and with a scent sufficiently acute to pursue game, he is readily broken in as a useful companion to the sportsman. He can also be made serviceable in the various duties of the farm: destroying noxious vermin, taking the cattle and horses to the field or water, drawing a light load, churning the butter, &c. It is true, he has not all the sagacity of the Poodle, whose intelligence approaches nearer to human reason than any other of the brute creation. But if he has not that quick apprehension, which too often leads, as in the case of forward children, to the attainment of every worthless accomplishment and the indulgence of every loaferish habit, he seems to have a sedate, well-formed judgment, which makes all his wit available for some useful purpose. He is unsurpassed as a water-dog; and his courageous efforts, wherever an opportunity has been afforded, in rescuing numberless human beings from a watery grave, together with his unswerving fidelity and devotion, commend him as the prince of the canine family. The Shepherd's Dog. This animal, of which we give a beautiful portrait on the next page, of the long-haired Scottish breed, belongs to the same family as the Newfoundland and Poodle, which embraces the most intelligent and useful of the canine species. There are two classes of these dogs, which differ widely in their size and characteristics. The larger is of great size and courage, and when protected by a stout leather collar studded with spikes, is a full match for the wolf. These are used by the Spanish and Mexican shepherds, on their wild sierras, as effective guards against the attacks of all marauders, and are essentially the same race as the far-famed dogs of Mount St. Bernard. They are not sufficiently gentle for guides, and the shepherds who employ them rely on some well-trained wethers or goats to lead the flock at their call. Some have been imported into this country, but on account of their headstrong and ferocious character, and occasional depredations upon the flocks, they have been found unsuited to our wants, except on the borders of the wilderness. The Colley or Scottish sheep-dog, the English, and those extensively used upon the continent, differ much in their form and appearance, but agree in their intelligence, docility, and usefulness. They are of medium size, with a sharp nose, broad forehead, and small upright ear; they are both shaggy and smooth-haired, with a bushy tail, and much hair about the neck; variously colored, though more frequently inclined to black or darkly spotted and gray; and one branch of the family is entirely destitute of a tail. They possess an instinctive sagacity for the management of sheep; and in company with a well-trained dog, under the direction of the shepherd, they soon become entirely competent to the control of the flock. They perceive his wishes by a word or sign, and with almost the speed of the greyhound, dart off to execute them. Accounts of their performances have been frequently related, which seem almost incredible to those unacquainted with their peculiar character. The following anecdote, often told by the gifted poet, Mr. James Hogg, more generally known by the soubriquet of the Ettrick Shepherd, will show their capacity more fully than any description. [Illustration: Fig. 38. Shepherd's Dog] "On one night, a large flock of lambs that were under the Ettrick Shepherd's care, frightened by something, scampered away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of all that he could do to keep them together. 'Sirrah,' said the shepherd, 'they're a' awa!' It was too dark for the dog and his master to see each other at any considerable distance, but Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The night passed on, and Hogg and his assistant traversed every neighboring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs; but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he was returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he had lost all his lambs. 'On our way home, however,' says he, 'we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ravine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the indefatigable Sirrah standing in front of them, looking round for some relief, but still true to his charge. We concluded that it was one of the divisions which Sirrah had been unable to manage, until he came to that commanding situation. But what was our astonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock was missing! How he had got all the divisions collected in the dark, is beyond my comprehension. The charge was left entirely to himself from midnight until the rising sun; and, if all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted him, they could not have effected it with greater promptitude. All that I can say is, that I never felt so grateful to any creature under the sun as I did to my honest Sirrah that morning.'" They are quiet and good-natured, never inclined to roam or neglect their duties, and as little disposed to injure the animals intrusted to their keeping. They have almost the intelligence of the shepherd in discerning the vagaries of the flock, and ten times his efficiency in driving it. No extensive sheep-walks, unless closely hemmed in by impassable fences, should be without one or more of these useful animals. The Drover's Dog. This animal is shown in the annexed figure. He is closely allied to the sheep-dog, from which he derives all his intelligence and capacity, differing only in being somewhat larger and heavier, which is essential to his controlling the sturdier bullocks under his charge. His additional size is acquired by crossing with some of the stouter races, such as the Newfoundland or the pointer, and even the bull-dog and large shaggy terrier have sometimes been resorted to for a strain of that indomitable courage and game, which is frequently requisite to the proper discharge of his duties. He requires more training than the sheep-dog, as his peculiar instincts are rather to the management of the flock than the herd; but when fairly broken in, he is equally expert in its management. The drover's dog may also be useful for watching, if crossed with a reference to this object, which the sheep-dog seldom is. [Illustration: Fig. 39. Drover's Dog.] The Terrier. This, in addition to the foregoing, is the only dog necessary to the farm. He is needed principally for his great sagacity and indefatigable perseverance in exterminating rats and other vermin, that frequently congregate in swarms around the farmer's premises, producing such an aggregate of annoyance and devastation. Other dogs may occasionally be good ratters, but the terrier takes to them from instinct, as the Newfoundland does to the water, or the sheep-dog to his flock. He has great ingenuity and activity in ferreting out and capturing his prey, and whenever a fair opportunity is afforded, he seldom fails of success. The famous English terrier, Billy, on two occasions, killed 100 rats in a ring at each time, in an average of less than six and a half minutes. The terrier is usually below the medium size, but sometimes fully comes up to or even exceeds it. He is smooth-haired or rough according to the breed, of which there are several, each claiming to be equally pure. Besides his capacity for the destruction of small game, his innate love for the sport renders him a valuable assistant in keeping off vagrant cattle from the premises; and his quick ear, habitual watchfulness, and prompt courage, fully qualify him, to the extent of his size, for an excellent watch-dog. The fancy of country residents may incline them to keep a variety of other dogs than are herein enumerated, some of which, with good training, can be made partial assistants to their masters. But it is unnecessary to specify the various breeds that may possibly be of some use on the farm, as the slight crossing they will be likely to have, equally with their opportunities and the attention bestowed upon them, will serve materially to develop or obscure their peculiar instincts. The Spaniel family and its crosses will be found to combine the greatest intelligence, fidelity, and aptitude to learn; the hound has the keenest scent and greatest endurance in the pursuit of game; while the bull-dog has the most courage, sullen ferocity, and strength. Each may occasionally be wanted for a strain of blood for some particular objects; and this is especially necessary from the bull-dog in the management of refractory cattle, or to give the terrier greater stoutness and courage. The absurd custom of keeping from one to a dozen dogs, untrained for any valuable purpose, or supernumeraries even if capable of rendering occasional service, ought to be abandoned by every rational man. Besides the great annual cost, the danger of communicating rabies or madness is sufficient to justify a legal restraint on their numbers. The sad havoc they commit on the flocks, demands the extermination by law of every dog that is guilty, whether Mongrel, puppy, whelp, or hound, Or cur of low degree. And even if it includes the _fides Achates_, or parlor companions, Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart, the work of extirpation should proceed, to the extent of curtailing this branch of farm-stock to its wholesome and legitimate proportions. CHAPTER IX. POULTRY. Choice varieties of fowls add a pleasant feature to the farm premises. They engage the attention and sympathy of the juvenile farmers, and the time bestowed in the poultry yard keeps them from mischief: it is an agreeable and salutary relief from toil and study, and elicits the taste, the judgment, and the kindlier feelings of humanity, which are to be matured in the future accomplished breeder. When properly managed, poultry are a source of considerable profit, yielding more for the food they consume, than any other stock, although their value is not often considered. The agricultural statistics of the United States, for 1839, give us over $12,000,000 in poultry, and it probably exceeds $15,000,000 at the present time. It is estimated by McQueen, that the poultry of England exceeds $40,000,000, and yet McCulloch says she imports 60,000,000 eggs annually from France, (McQueen states it at near 70,000,000;) and from other parts of the continent, 25,000,000; besides 80,000,000 imported from Ireland. Poultry, then, ceases to be an unimportant object of agricultural attention, and assumes its appropriate place among the other staples of the farmer. Hens Are the most numerous and profitable, and the most generally useful of the feathered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an egg-producing bird. She has the same predisposition for laying, that the cow has for secreting milk. Some breeds are better adapted for this object than others: but in all that have ever come within our notice, the proper food and circumstances are alone wanting, to produce a reasonable quantity of eggs. The _egg_ consists of three distinct parts; the shell, the white, and the yolk. A good-sized egg will weigh 1,000 grains, of which about 107 are shell, 604 are white, and 289 are yolk. Of the shell, 97 per cent. is carbonate of lime, 1 per cent. phosphate of lime and magnesia, and 2 per cent. albumen. The white consists of 12 per cent. of albumen, 2.7 of mucus, 0.3 of salts, and 85 of water. The yolk has about 17.4 per cent. of albumen, 28.6 of yellow oil, 54 of water, with a trace of sulphur and phosphorus. The foregoing are the constituents of eggs, which have been formed when the bird has free access to the various articles which constitute her natural food. But they vary with circumstances. When full-fed and denied all access to lime, she will form an egg without the shell, and deliver it enclosed in the membrane or sack which always surrounds the white, when covered by the shell. When scantily fed, they will frequently lay; but from a deficiency of nutriment, the egg will be meager and watery, and possess but a small portion of the nutritious qualities peculiar to them. To produce the largest number of good eggs, several conditions are important; and they must especially have an abundance of the right kind of food. This is the most readily obtained in part from animal food. In warm weather, when they have a free range, they can generally supply their wants in the abundance of insects, earth-worms, and other animal matters within their reach. The large proportion of albumen contained in their eggs, requires that much of their food should be highly nitrogenized, and when they cannot procure this in animal matter, it must be given in grains containing it. If to the usual qualities of hens, a breed of peculiar elegance, of graceful form, and beautiful plumage, be added, together with entire adaptation to the economical purposes required, good layers and good carcass, we have a combination of utility, luxury, and taste in this bird, which should commend them as general favorites. They can everywhere be kept with advantage, except in dense cities. A hen that costs a shilling or two, if provided with a suitable range, will consume 30 or 40 cents worth of food, and produce from 80 to 150 eggs per annum, worth three or four times the cost of feed and attention. The Food Of hens may consist of different kinds of grain, either broken, ground, or cooked; roots, and especially boiled potatoes, are nutritious and economical; green herbage as clover and most of the grasses, chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, &c., will supply them with much of their food, if fresh and tender. Fig. 40, is a Food fountain. The grain is placed in the hopper, which is closely covered, and the grain falls into the bottom below. It is accessible on four sides by spring doors, which are thrown open by the weight of the fowl on the connecting spring. One is shown as opened by the fowl in stepping up to feed. This is a protection against dirt and vermin. [Illustration: Fig. 40. Food Fountain.] Though not absolutely essential to them, yet nothing contributes so much to their laying, as unsalted, animal food. This is a natural aliment, as is shown by the avidity with which they pounce on every fly, insect, or earth-worm which comes within their reach. It would not of course pay to supply them with valuable flesh, but the blood and offal of the slaughter-houses, refuse meat of all kinds, and especially the scraps or cracklings to be had at the inciters' shops, after soaking for a few hours in warm water, is one of the best and most economical kinds of food. Such with boiled meal is a very fattening food. Grain is at all times best for them when cooked, as they will lay more, fatten quicker, and eat much less when fed to them in this state; and it may be thus used unground, with the same advantage to the fowls as if first crushed, as their digestive organs are certain to extract the whole nutriment. All grain is good for them, including millet, rice, the oleaginous seeds, as the sun-flower, flax, hemp, &c. It is always better to afford them a variety of grains where they can procure them at their option, and select as their appetite craves. They are also fond of milk, and especially when it has become curdled; and indeed scarcely any edible escapes their notice. They carefully pick up most of the waste garbage around the premises, and glean much of their subsistence from what would otherwise become offensive; and by their destruction of innumerable insects and worms, they render great assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever-busy propensity for scratching, is indiscriminately indulged just after the seeds have been sown and while the plants are young, which renders it necessary that they be confined in some close yard for a time; yet this should be as capacious as possible. [Illustration: Fig. 41. Water Fountain.] Water is placed in the cask as represented in the Fig., and it is then closely stopped, except an opening through a tube leading into a vessel below. As the water is exhausted from this, it descends from the cask above, and a supply is thus at all times within reach of the poultry. Their food is better when given to them warm, not hot, and there should always be a supply before them to prevent gorging. It is better to be placed on shelves or suspended boxes or hoppers, which are variously and cheaply constructed, to keep it clean and out of the reach of rats. Besides their food, hens ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with clean water, egg or pounded oyster shells, old mortar or slacked lime. If not allowed to run at large, where they can help themselves, they must also be furnished with gravel to assist their digestion; and a box or bed of ashes, sand, and dust, is equally essential to roll in for the purpose of ridding themselves of vermin. [Illustration: Fig. 42. Poultry House] The Hen-house May be constructed in various ways to suit the wishes of the owner, and when tastefully built it is an ornament to the premises, It should be perfectly dry throughout, properly lighted, and capable of being made tight and warm in winter, yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season. In this, arrange the nests in boxes on the sides, in such a manner as to humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts to them. When desirable to set the hen, these nests may be so placed as to shut out the others, yet open into another yard or beyond the enclosure, so that they can take an occasional stroll and help themselves to food, &c. This prevents other hens laying in their nests, while setting; and it may be easily managed, by having their boxes placed on the wall of the building, with a moveable door made to open on either side at pleasure. Hens will lay equally well without a nest-egg, but when broken up, they ramble off and form new nests, if they are not confined. They will lay if kept from the cock, but it is doubtful if they will thus yield as many eggs. Hens disposed to set at improper times, should be dismissed from the common yard, so as to be out of reach of the nests, and plentifully fed till weaned from this inclination. [Illustration: Fig. 43. Egg-Hatcher, or Eccalobeon.] Fig. 43 represents an egg-hatcher or Eccalobeon, made of different sizes, with shelves so arranged as to hold from 200 to 800 eggs without touching each other. The outer box is a non-conductor, so as to retain the heat conveyed to every part by water tubes, connected by a reservoir below, the bottom of which is heated by the flame from a spirit-lamp. The temperature is indicated by a thermometer on the door inside, which should be made equal to that of the hen, say about 106° Fahrenheit. Her natural temperature is somewhat elevated by the feverish condition of the bird at the period of incubation. _Chickens_ require to be kept warm and dry, for a few days after hatching, and they may be fed with hard-boiled eggs, crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk or water, and allowed to scratch in the gravel in front of the hen, which should be confined in a coop for the first three or four weeks. After this, they may be turned loose, when they will thrive on any thing the older ones eat. Many use them for the table when they are but a few weeks old; but they are unfit for this purpose, till they have attained full maturity. The white-legs are preferred by some, from the whiteness and apparent delicacy of the meat; but the yellow-legged are the richest and most highly-flavored. The color of the feathers does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their character for laying. If we consider the chemical principles of the absorption and retention of heat, we should assume the white coat to be best, as it is coolest in summer when exposed to the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the white breeds are delicate, and do not bear rough usage or exposure. [Illustration: Fig. 44. The Dorking] Varieties. These differ materially in their sizes, shapes, and colors. The _Dorking_ is esteemed one of the best, being large, well formed and hardy, good layers and nurses, and yielding an excellent carcass. They are both white and speckled, and generally have five toes. The _Poland_ is both white and black, with a large tuft, generally of white feathers, on the head. They are of good size, and excellent layers, but are seldom inclined to set, which makes them peculiarly desirable for such as wish eggs only. The _Dominique_ is a speckled fowl, of barely medium size, compact, hardy, good layers, and valuable for the table. The _Bucks county fowls_, heretofore principally reared near Philadelphia, possess but moderate pretensions to notice, except in their immense size, a brace of capons having been fattened to 19¼ lbs. when dressed. [Illustration: Fig. 45. The Bantam.] The _Bantam_ is but little larger than a pigeon, and is usually of a pure white, but is sometimes speckled. It is generally feathered to the toes, but may be bred with clean legs. It is very domestic, and a pleasant little bird around the premises, and is not unprofitable. The _Game cock_ is of medium weight, and yields good flesh, but is a poor layer, and an undesirable tenant for the farm-yard. Besides these, there are many fanciful varieties, as the _Creeper_, with excessively short legs; the _Rumpless_, without a tail; the _Frizzled_, with irregular feathers turned towards the head; the _Silky_ or _Merino_ fowl, with brown or buff down, instead of feathers; the _Negro_, with its black crest, wattles, skin, legs, and feathers; the _Java_ and _Cochin China_, of great size; several varieties of the _Top-knot_, and others. The Diseases of Hens. These are not numerous or complicated, and may be mostly avoided by proper treatment and food, which are indicated with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations. _Gapes_ or _Pip_ is generally owing to drinking unwholesome or dirty water. Remove the white blister on the tip of the tongue, and wash with sharp vinegar, diluted with warm water; or compel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh butter, mixed with Scotch snuff. It has been cured by opening the mouth and forcing a pigeon feather, with a tuft of the feathers left on the end, (the others having been stripped off,) down the windpipe, and gently turning it as withdrawn, to be repeated the following day if necessary. This detaches large numbers of a slender red worm, collected in the larynx of the throat, which impedes respiration and swallowing. A little spirits of turpentine mixed with the food is a preventive; as are also clean, whitewashed premises, and good food. After these attacks, feed for a few days with light food, soaked bran and cabbage, or lettuce chopped fine. _Roup_, _Catarrh_, or _swelled head_, is shown by feverish symptoms, swollen eyelids, frequently terminating in blindness, rattling in the throat, and temporary strangulation. These are accompanied with a highly offensive watery discharge, from the mouth and nostrils, loss of appetite, and much thirst. They should be placed near the fire; their head bathed in warm Castile soap-suds, or milk and water. Stimulating food, as flour or barley-meal, mustard and grated ginger, mixed and forced down the throat, Boswell says, has been effectual in their speedy restoration. This, like many other diseases, is contagious, and when it appears, the bird should be at once separated from the flock. _Flux_ is cured by the yolk of an egg boiled hard; and boiled barley soaked in wine. _Costiveness_ is removed by giving bran and water with a little honey; or give a small dose of castor oil. _Vermin_ are destroyed by giving them clean sand and ashes to roll in, adding a little quicklime if necessary. _Entire cleanliness_ is necessary for the avoidance of this and other diseases. A perfectly dry range is also essential, nor should there be too many together, as this is a fruitful source of disease. THE TURKEY. This bird was unknown to the civilized world till the discovery of this Continent. It was found here both in its wild and domesticated state; and still occupies the whole range of the western hemisphere, though the wild turkey disappears as the country becomes settled. The wild is larger than the domesticated bird, sometimes weighing over 30 lbs. dressed. The color of the male is generally a greenish brown, approaching to black, and of a rich, changeable, metallic lustre. The hen is marked somewhat like the cock, but with duller hues. Domestication through successive generations dims the brilliancy of their plumage, and lessens their size and hardiness. It also produces a variety of colors, though they are mostly of a black, buff, pure white, or speckled. They give evidence of the comparative recency of their domestication, in the instinct which frequently impels the cock to brood and take care of the young. Nothing is more common than for the male bird to supply the place of the hen, when any accident befalls her, and to bring up a family of young chicks with an equally instinctive regard for their helplessness and safety. The flesh of this bird, both wild and tame, is exceedingly delicate and palatable; and though not possessing the high game flavor of some of the smaller wild-fowl, and especially of the aquatic, as the canvass-back duck, &c., it exceeds them in its digestibility and healthfulness. The turkey is useful principally for its flesh, as it seldom lays over a nest-full of eggs in one season, when they brood on these and bring up their young. If full-fed, and their first eggs are withdrawn from them, they frequently lay a second time. Breeding. Those intended for breeders should be compact, vigorous, and large, without being long-legged. They should be daily, yet lightly fed through the winter, on grain and roots, and some animal food is always acceptable and beneficial to them. They are small eaters, and without caution will soon get too fat. One vigorous male will suffice for a flock of 10 or 12 hens, and a single connection is sufficient for each. They begin to lay on the approach of warm weather, laying once a day, or every other day, till they have completed their litter; which in the young or indifferently fed, may be 10 or 12, and in the older ones, sometimes reaches 20. The hen is sly in secreting her nest, but usually selects a dry, well-protected place. She is an inveterate setter, and carefully hatches most of her eggs. The young may be allowed to remain for 24 hours without eating, then fed with hard-boiled eggs made fine, or crumbs of wheat bread. Boiled milk, curds, and buttermilk afford an excellent food. As they get stronger, oat or barley-meal is suitable, but Indian-meal, uncooked, is hurtful to them when quite young. They are very tender, and will bear neither cold nor wet, and it is of course necessary to confine the old one for the first few weeks. When able to shift for themselves, they may wander over the fields at pleasure; and from their great fondness for insects, they will rid the meadows of innumerable grasshoppers, bugs, and beetles, which often do incalculable damage to the farmer. Early chickens are sufficiently grown to fatten the latter part of autumn or the beginning of winter, which is easily done on any of the grains or boiled roots. Both are better for being cooked. They require a higher roosting-place than hens, and are impatient of too close confinement, preferring the ridge of a barn, or a lofty tree, to the circumscribed limits of the ordinary poultry-house. When rightly managed and fed, turkeys are subject to few maladies; and even these, careful attention will soon remove. THE PEACOCK AND GUINEA-HEN. The _Peacock_ is undoubtedly the most showy of the feathered race. It is a native of the southern part of Asia, and is still found wild in the islands of Java and Ceylon, and some parts of the interior of Africa. They are an ornament to the farm premises, and are useful in destroying reptiles, insects, and garbage; but they are quarrelsome in the poultry-yard, and destructive in the garden. Their flesh is coarse and dark, and they are worthless as layers. The brilliant silvery green and their ever-varying colors give place to an entire white, in one of the varieties. The _Guinea-hen_ is a native of Africa and the southern part of Asia, where it abounds in its wild state. Most of them are beautifully and uniformly speckled; but occasionally they are white on the breast, like the Pintados of the West India Islands, and some are entirely white. They are unceasingly garrulous; and their excessively pugnacious character renders them uncomfortable inmates with the other poultry. Their flesh, though high-colored, is delicate and palatable, but, like the peacock, they are indifferent layers. Both are natives of a warm climate, and the young are tender and rather difficult to rear. Neither of these birds is a general favorite, and we omit further notice of them. THE GOOSE. There are many varieties of the goose. Main enumerates twenty-two, most of which are wild; and the tame are again variously subdivided. The _common white_ and _gray_ are the most numerous and profitable. The _white Bremen_ is much larger, often weighing over 20 lbs. net. It is of a beautiful snowy plumage, is domestic and reared without difficulty, though not as prolific and hardy as the former. The _China Goose_ is smaller than the gray, and one of the most beautiful of the family, possessing much of the gracefulness and general appearance of the swan. It is prolific and tolerably hardy, but has not thus far been a successful rival with the first. The _Guinea_ or _African goose_ is the largest of the species, and equals the size of the swan, often dressing over 25 lbs. It is a majestic and graceful bird, and very ornamental to water scenery. Several other varieties are domesticated in the United States. Breeding. Geese pair frequently at one year old, and rear their young; but with some kinds, especially of the wild, this is deferred till two and sometimes three. They require a warm, dry place for their nests, and when undisturbed, they will sit steadily; and if the eggs have not been previously chilled or addled, they will generally hatch them all, if kept on the nest. To insure this, it is sometimes necessary to withdraw the first hatched, to prevent the old ones wandering before all are out. The young should be kept in a warm sheltered place till two or three weeks old, if the weather be cold or unsettled. The best food for the goslings, is barley or oat, or boiled Indian meal and bread. Milk is also good for them. They require green food, and are fond of lettuce, young clover, and fresh tender grass; and after a few weeks, if they have a free range on this, they will forage for themselves. Geese are not a profitable bird to raise, unless in places where they can procure their own subsistence, or at least during the greater part of the year. This they are enabled to do, wherever there are extensive commons of unpastured lands, or where there are streams or ponds, lakes or marshes with shoal sedgy banks. In these, they will live and fatten throughout the year, if unobstructed by ice. They may be fed on all kinds of grain and edible roots, but it is more economical to give them their food cooked. The well-fattened gosling affords one of the most savory dishes for the table. Geese live to a great age. They have been known to exceed 100 years. If allowed a free range on good food and clean water, they will seldom get diseased. When well fed, they yield nearly a pound of good feathers in a season, at three or four pluckings; and the largest varieties even exceed this quantity. DUCKS Are more hardy and independent of attention than the goose, and they are generally the most profitable. They are omnivorous, and greedily eat every thing which will afford them nourishment, though they seldom forage on the grasses like the goose, when they can procure other food. They are peculiarly carnivorous, and devour all kinds of meat, putrid or fresh; and are especially fond of fish, and such insects, worms, and other creeping things, as they can find imbedded in the mud or elsewhere. They will often distend their crop with young frogs, almost to the ordinary size of their bodies. Their indiscriminate appetite often renders them unfit for the table, unless fattened out of the reach of garbage and offensive matters. An English admiral used to resort to well-fattened rats for his fresh meat when at sea, and justified his taste by saying, they were more cleanly feeders than ducks, which were general favorites. The most profitable for domestic use, is undoubtedly the _common black duck_. They lay profusely in the spring, when well fed, often producing 40 or 50 eggs, and sometimes a greater number, if kept from setting. They are much larger than those of the hen, and equally rich and nourishing, but far less delicate. They are careless in their habits, and generally drop their eggs wherever they happen to be through the night, whether in the water, the road, or farm-yard; and as might be expected from such prodigality of character, they are indifferent setters and nurses. The _ducklings_ are better reared by setting the eggs under a sedate, experienced hen, as the longer time necessary for hatching, requires patience in the foster-mother to develop the young chick. They should be confined for a few days, and away from the water. At first they may be fed with bread, or pudding made from boiled oat, barley, or Indian meal; and they soon acquire strength and enterprise enough to shift for themselves, if afterwards supplied with pond or river water. They are fit for the table when fully grown, and well fattened on clean grain. This is more economically accomplished by feeding it cooked. _The varieties_ of ducks are almost innumerable. Main describes 31, and some naturalists number over 100. Besides the black duck above described, several others, as the _light gray_, the _white duck_, and some of the _tufted_, are prolific, hardy, and profitable. We omit further notice of other varieties; and of the swan, brant, pigeons, &c., as not profitable for general rearing, and only suited to ornamental grounds. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Page 49; Figure 14 caption: "Sessamoid" changed to "Sesamoid" (18. Sesamoid bones.) Page 59: "he" changed to "be" (effectual remedies for the removal of disease cannot be applied) Page 174: added missing open quotes ("Setons are sometimes useful ...) Page 215: "When-full fed" changed to "When full-fed" (When full-fed and denied all access to lime, ...) 
26318	----	Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of corrections is found at the end of the text along with a list of inconsistently spelled words. Oe ligatures have been expanded. THE HORSEWOMAN [Illustration: Alice M. Hayes] THE HORSEWOMAN A Practical Guide to Side-Saddle Riding BY ALICE M. HAYES AUTHOR OF "MY LEPER FRIENDS." EDITED BY M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. (_Late Captain "The Buffs"_) AUTHOR OF "POINTS OF THE HORSE," "VETERINARY NOTES FOR HORSE-OWNERS," "RIDING AND HUNTING," ETC. _Second Edition, revised, enlarged and 133 photographic illustrations added._ LONDON HURST AND BLACKETT, LIMITED 13 GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET 1903 _All rights reserved_ PRINTED BY KELLY'S DIRECTORIES LTD., LONDON AND KINGSTON. PREFACE. The first edition of this book was the result of seven years' experience of riding hundreds of horses in India, Ceylon, Egypt, China and South Africa; the most trying animals being those of which I was the rough-rider at my husband's horse-breaking classes. Since that edition came out, I have hunted a good deal, chiefly, in Leicestershire and Cheshire, and have taught many pupils, both of which experiences were of special advantage to me in preparing this new edition; because English ladies regard riding, principally, from a hunting point of view, and the best way to supplement one's education, is to try to teach. The directions about side-saddles and seat are the outcome of practical work and fortunate opportunities; and I hope they will be as useful to my readers as they have been to my pupils. Although I have ridden, when abroad, some of the worst buckjumpers that could be found in any country, I have never "cut a voluntary," thanks to the adoption of a seat and saddle which gave the necessary grip. Of course I have had "purls," when horses have "come down" with me out hunting; and on one occasion in China, when a horse which I mounted for the first time, reared and came over. I have taken Figs. 32 to 51, 71 to 78 and Fig. 90 from _Riding and Hunting_, and Figs. 147 and 148 from _Points of the Horse_. My husband has written Chapter XXII. I have omitted the chapter on my _Riding Experiences_, as I thought it out of place in a purely teaching book. Knowing the immense value of photographs in explaining technical subjects, I have gladly availed myself of the expert help of my husband and son in that form of illustration. I am greatly obliged to Miss Harding, Miss Burnaby, Miss Neil, the Rev. G. Broke, the Rev. R. J. Gornall, Mr. Clarence Hailey of Newmarket, the Editor of _Country Life_ and the Editor of _The Queen_, for the admirable photographs and blocks they most kindly lent me. I regret that I inadvertently omitted to place the names of Mr. Clarence Hailey and the Gresham Studio, Adelaide, South Australia, under the excellent photographs which are respectively reproduced in Figs. 2 and 3. This edition is practically a new book. _Yew Tree House, Crick, Rugby, 25th March, 1903._ CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. BEGINNING TO RIDE 1 to 7 CHAPTER II. HORSES FOR LADIES 8 to 24 CHAPTER III. SIDE-SADDLES 25 to 69 CHAPTER IV. BRIDLES 70 to 88 CHAPTER V. RIDING DRESS 89 to 124 CHAPTER VI. MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING 125 to 135 CHAPTER VII. HOW TO HOLD THE REINS 136 to 144 CHAPTER VIII. THE SEAT 145 to 159 CHAPTER IX. HANDS, VOICE, WHIP AND SPUR 160 to 184 CHAPTER X. FIRST LESSONS IN RIDING 185 to 218 CHAPTER XI. RIDING ACROSS COUNTRY 219 to 226 CHAPTER XII. HACKING 227 to 232 CHAPTER XIII. RIDING WITHOUT REINS 233 to 243 CHAPTER XIV. NERVE 244 to 247 CHAPTER XV. FENCES, COUNTRY AND GATES 248 to 303 CHAPTER XVI. HUNTING 304 to 380 CHAPTER XVII. RIDING AND HUNTING ABROAD 381 to 393 CHAPTER XVIII. WALKING FOXHOUND PUPPIES 394 to 413 CHAPTER XIX. KINDNESS TO HORSES 414 to 425 CHAPTER XX. CROSS-SADDLE RIDING FOR LADIES 426 to 430 CHAPTER XXI. RIDING DIFFICULT HORSES 431 to 464 CHAPTER XXII. NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE 465 to 473 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Frontispiece--Alice M. Hayes. FIG. PAGE 1. Man riding a horse over a fence in a side-saddle 3 2. Miss Burnaby's Butterfly 9 3. Miss Neil's Jackeroo 11 4. Mr. Vansittart's Romance 13 5. Irish mare, Salary 15 6. Polo pony, Pat 17 7. Arab pony, Freddie 19 8. Side view of saddle tree 26 9. Underneath view of saddle tree 27 10. Front view of saddle tree 29 11. Underneath view of saddle tree and its webs 31 12. Grip with improved leaping head 35 13. " ordinary " 37 14. Hook for stirrup leather 39 15. Leaping head too low down 40 16. Side view of a properly made saddle 41 17. Champion and Wilton's extra stirrup case 43 18. Capped stirrup-iron 44 19. Slipper stirrup 44 20. The Christie stirrup 44 21. Foot caught 45 22. Latchford stirrup 46 23. Scott's stirrup 46 24. " " open 47 25. Cope's stirrup 48 26. Foot released by Cope's stirrup 49 27. Scott's stirrup 50 28. Foot caught on off side 51 29. Child mounted 61 30. Child jumping without reins 63 31. Foot caught, on account of its having been put into the stirrup from the wrong side 67 32. "Head" of a single bridle: _a_, crown-piece; _b_, _b_, cheek-pieces; _c_, throat-latch; _d_, front or brow-band 71 33. Unjointed snaffle 72 34. Chain snaffle 72 35. Ordinary snaffle with cheeks 72 36. Nutcracker action of jointed snaffle on horse's mouth 73 37. Action of unjointed snaffle on horse's mouth 73 38. Action of a curb as a lever 73 39. Properly constructed curb for ordinary hunter. Side view 74 40. Ward Union curb bridle with half-moon snaffle 75 41. Curb chain covered with india-rubber tube 76 42. Chin-strap unbuckled 76 43. Chin-strap buckled 76 44. Curb reversed by horse throwing up his head, in the absence of a chin-strap 77 45. Cavasson nose-band 79 46. Standing martingale attached to rings of the snaffle 80 47. Lord Lonsdale's registered running martingale 81 48. Maximum length of standing martingale 83 49. Side view of horse's lower jaw 85 50. Angle made by the cheeks of a curb, when the reins are taken up 86 51. View of under-surface of lower jaw 87 52. The Hayes' Safety Skirt open for mounting 91 53. Off side of the Hayes' Safety Skirt 93 54. The Hayes' Safety Skirt closed for walking 95 55. Apron skirt open for mounting 97 56. The apron skirt closed for walking 99 57. Riding dress for child 101 58. Loose riding coat, too long 103 59. Front view of good riding coat 105 60. Back view of good riding coat 107 61. Terai hat and Norfolk jacket 109 62. Pith hat and drill jacket 109 63. Good driving coat 111 64. Top of boot catching on safety bar flap 119 65. Front view of riding under-bodice 121 66. Back view of riding under-bodice 123 67. Foot raised for mounting 127 68. Ready to mount 129 69. Dismounting without help 133 70. " with help 135 71. A rein in each hand 137 72. Single reins crossed in one hand 138 73. " " " " " 138 74. Double reins held separately in two hands 139 75. Holding double reins crossed in one hand 140 76. Double reins in left hand: one crossed, the other hooked up on middle finger 141 77. Reins held in one hand in military fashion 142 78. Off rein taken up by right hand from position shown in Fig. 77 143 79. Position of rider's legs at the walk 147 80. Hooked back leg, the direction of the pressure of which is shown by the fore finger of the left hand 151 81. Seat at the walk 153 82. Length of stirrup 155 83. Correct position of legs 157 84. Leaning back 158 85. Hunting whip 171 86. Thong properly put on 173 87. " " " 173 88. " incorrectly put on 175 89. " not quite right 175 90. A practical bullfinch 177 91. Spur-carrying whip used for high school riding 181 92. Thorough-bred mare at a walk 187 93. Preparing to rise at the trot, with stirrup at correct length 191 94. Rising at the trot, with stirrup at correct length 193 95. Preparing to rise at the trot, with stirrup too long 195 96. Rising at the trot, with stirrup too long 197 97. Canter, with right leg hooked back, and stirrup too long 199 98. Good seat at canter or gallop 201 99. " " " " 203 100. " " " " 205 101. Bad seat; right leg hooked back, stirrup too long, and foot "home" 207 102. Miss Emmie Harding jumping wire 211 103. Maximum amount of pressure on leaping head 213 104. Position of legs in jumping 215 105. Driving horse over jumps 235 106. A cut-and-laid fence 251 107. " " " during construction 253 108. A stake and bound fence 255 109. Post and rails to close gap in hedge 257 110. Posts and rails 259 111. " " " with ditch 261 112. Midland stile 263 113. An oxer 265 114. Wire in front of bullfinch 267 115. Galway bank 271 116. Side view of bank shown in Fig. 115 273 117. Galway bank 275 118. "Cope and dash" wall 277 119. Loose stone wall 279 120. Low bank with ditch on both sides 281 121. View of country between Yelvertoft and Crick 283 122. Grass on each side of the road 285 123. Ordinary five-barred gate 289 124. Bridle gate 291 125. Gate with wooden latch 293 126. " " spring " which has to be drawn back 295 127. " " " " " " " pushed forward 297 128. Double gate 299 129. A puzzle in gate-opening 301 130. Ridge and furrow 317 131. " " " in the distance 321 132. Haystack and gate 329 133. Brook 337 134. Pollard willows in the next field 339 135. The Cottesmore drawing a covert 355 136. Wire board 359 137. Red flag 363 138. "'Ware wire" 365 139. Iron hurdle 367 140. Wire on top of gate 369 141. Pytchley puppy, Mottley 401 142. Front view of kennel coat 403 143. Back view of kennel coat 405 144. Puppies with bicycle 407 145. Pytchley puppy, Monarch 409 146. Riding mountain zebra 457 147. External parts of horse 467 148. Measurements of horse 471 THE HORSEWOMAN. CHAPTER I. BEGINNING TO RIDE. Instruction based on experience assists us in the attainment of all arts, and hastens the process of learning. Although a specially gifted individual who has not been taught, may be able to sing in a pleasing style, no one has ever become an accomplished pianist without competent instruction; the former being somewhat in the position of a man, the latter in that of a lady, as regards riding. In all countries we find good untaught horsemen who have got "shaken into their seats" by constant practice, with or without a saddle, which in most cases is chiefly a protection to the animal's back. A side-saddle, on the contrary, is as artificial a production as a musical instrument, and a full knowledge of its peculiarities often cannot be acquired during a lifetime. Here the great difference between men and women is that the former ride the horse; the latter, the saddle. The tyranny of the side-saddle would not be so marked as it is, if this article of gear were of a uniform pattern of the best possible kind. Unfortunately it is generally built according to the fantastic ideas of fashionable makers who have no practical experience of side-saddle riding. Unaided learners have such difficulty in acquiring security and grace of seat and good hands, that many ladies who have ridden all their lives, and have lots of pluck, are poor performers, particularly in the hunting-field. A beginner who is put on a properly made saddle and suitable horse, and is taught the right principles of riding, will make more progress in a month than she would otherwise do in, say, five years. The artificiality of side-saddle riding extends even to the horse, which must be free from certain faults, such as unsteadiness in mounting, that would not render him unsuitable to carry a male rider. Competency in the instructor is of the first importance. Nothing is more absurd than for a man who cannot ride well in a side-saddle, to try to unfold to a lady the mysteries of seat. Such men, instead of getting into a side-saddle and showing their pupils "how to do it," generally attempt to conceal their ignorance by the use of stock phrases. If asked "Why?" they invariably reply, "Because it's the right thing to do," or words to that effect. I have never heard of women venturing to teach men how to ride. Davis, a young groom we had, was a rare instance of a man who was thoroughly competent to teach ladies how to ride, because he had lots of practice in side saddles, and had ample opportunities of learning the theory of the art, while I was teaching pupils in a riding school, where I rode and jumped horses without a skirt. Fig. 1 shows Davis riding in a side saddle over a gate, on my grey horse Gustave. The fact of his not hanging on to the horse's head is a good proof that he had a strong seat. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Man riding a horse over a fence in a side-saddle.] The first lessons in balance and grip should be given by a competent horsewoman, and the riding-skirt should either be taken off or pinned back (for instance, with a safety-pin), in order that the lady instructor may be able to see and at once correct faults in the position of the legs, which is hardly a task fit for a man, even were he competent to perform it. After the pupil has acquired a good seat at the various paces and over small fences, her further education in the guidance and control of her mount might be entrusted to a competent horseman, preferably to a good cross-country rider, and not, as is frequently the case, to an ex-military riding-master, who, having been taught that a cavalryman's right hand has to be occupied with a sword or lance, considers that ladies should also adopt the one-handed system of riding! As a rule, the services of a good horseman are desirable when the pupil is fit to ride in the open, because he is more helpful than a lady rider in rendering prompt assistance on an emergency. Besides, riding men usually know more about the bitting and handling of horses than women, and are therefore better able to impart instruction in this branch of equitation. It is as impossible to lay down a hard-and-fast rule as to the age at which a girl may be allowed to mount a pony or donkey, as it is to control the spirits and daring of a foxhound puppy. Those who possess the sporting instinct and the desire to emulate the example of their hunting parents or friends, should certainly be encouraged and taught to ride as soon as they manifest their wish to do so. Many hunting women allow their children to occasionally attend meets in a governess car or other suitable conveyance, and the budding sportsmen and sportswomen in the vehicle keenly follow the hounds, as far as they can do so, by the roads. On non-hunting days during the season, it is no uncommon sight in hunting districts to see ladies walking by the side of their tiny daughters who are mounted on ponies, and giving them instruction in riding. In cub-hunting time we may often see the good results of such lessons, when parent and daughter appear together, and the little girl on her pony follows the lead over small fences which "mother" knows can be negotiated by both with safety. Twenty years ago, infants were often carried in panniers or baskets, one on each side of a led pony or donkey, with the supposed object of initiating them to horse exercise. The pannier training was followed by the little girls being placed on a pilch, and conducted about by a mounted groom with a leading-rein. This leading-rein system is absolutely worthless as a means for teaching horse-control to children, and should be used only as a safeguard with an animal which the young rider may be unable to hold. At whatever age a child is taught to ride, we should bear in mind that the exercise always entails a certain amount of fatigue, and should be taken in moderation. The many lamentable accidents which have occurred to young girls from being "dragged," show the vital necessity of supplying the small horsewoman with the most reliable safety appliances in saddlery and dress. The parent or guardian often overlooks this all-important point, and devotes his or her entire attention to securing a quiet animal. Girls who do not possess any aptitude or desire to ride should not be compelled to practise this art, for, apart from the cruelty of subjecting a highly nervous girl to the torture of riding lessons, such unwilling pupils never become accomplished horsewomen. In the same way, a child who has no ear for music, and who is forced against her wish to learn the piano, never develops into a good player. The same remark applies to older ladies, who, with the usual angelic resignation of my sex, try their best to obey the command of their lords and masters by learning to ride. I fear that success in this art is seldom attained by ladies over thirty years of age, for by that time they have generally lost the dashing pluck of their youth; their figures have become set and matronly; and, as a rule, they find great difficulty in mastering the subtleties of balance and grip. Also, a state of nervous anxiety is apt to add to the general stiffness of their appearance, and to suggest discomfort and irritability. We read from time to time alarming rumours of "spinal curvature" as a result of side-saddle riding, but I have never known a case of this to occur, either to old or young, although the near-side position of the leaping-head has a tendency to develop the muscles of the left leg more than those of the right leg, a fact which I discovered as soon as I began to ride a bicycle, after having had many years' experience on horses. Riding alternately on a saddle with the leaping-head on the near side and on one with the leaping-head on the off side, would help to save the back and legs of a lady's horse. In cantering or galloping, the animal puts more weight on the leading fore leg, which is consequently more liable to suffer from the injurious effects of work than the non-leading leg; and, as we all know, to canter or gallop comfortably, a lady's horse has to lead with his off fore when the leaping-head is on the near side; and _vice versâ_. Also, the vulnerable side of the back and withers of an animal which carries a side-saddle, is the one which is opposite to that on which the leaping-head is fixed. I am afraid that these practical considerations would not outweigh the dictates of fashion and the expense of having two saddles for one horse. The _Young Lady's Equestrian Manual_, which was published in 1838, tells us that in the early part of the last century, a plan which was similar to the one in question was adopted of having movable crutches, "in order to afford a lady, by merely changing their relative positions, the means of riding, as she might please, on either side of her horse," and that this change of crutches was found advantageous. I do not think that a side-saddle built on this principle would look neat enough for modern requirements. CHAPTER II. HORSES FOR LADIES. A hunter suitable for a lady should be temperate, sound, strong, safe and clever over fences, and fast enough for his country. As extra fatigue is entailed on a lady's mount by the side position of his rider, he should be quite 21 lbs. above the weight he has to carry. As a rule, he should not be younger than seven, and should have had, at least, two seasons' hunting in which to learn his business. Fig. 2 shows us a typical high-class Leicestershire hunter; and Fig. 3, a good Australian hunter. Mr. Vansittart's Romance (Fig. 4) was one of the nicest of the many Australian horses I rode, during my sojourns in India, between the years 1885 and 1891. He was thoroughbred and was the winner of several races on the flat and across country. In those days, the idiotic custom of docking horses had not found favour in Australia. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Miss Burnaby's Butterfly.] The requirements of the various hunting countries differ greatly. For the Shires, a lady would want a well-bred galloper which can "spread himself out" over his fences, because there is almost always a ditch or a rail on one side or the other of the Midland hedges. Temperate he must be, because the fields in Leicestershire, for instance, are so large that there is often a crowd of riders waiting their turn at the only practicable place in a jump, filing through a gate, or waiting _en masse_ in a cramped space at the covert side, and a horse who displays temper on such occasions is naturally regarded as a nuisance and danger by the rest of the field. Besides, it must be remembered that nothing tends to spoil the nerves of any rider, man or woman, more than attempting to hunt in a big country like Leicestershire on a bad-tempered horse, and especially on a refuser which has a tendency to rear. On no account should a lady ride a roarer, although the artful dealer may assure her that the "whistle" which the animal makes, will be a secret unknown to any one except herself and the horse. In the large majority of cases, roaring is a disease which increases with time, and the accompanying noise is distressing to all lovers of horses who hear it. Kickers, even with red bows on their tails, should on no account be ridden; for they are a danger to man, woman, horse, and hound, and are the cause of many accidents every hunting season. It would appear that ladies--not those of the present day, let us hope--were not sufficiently careful in insisting on this last-mentioned requirement in their hunters; for Captain Elmhirst, writing in 1883, says, "Horse dealers, farmers, and--we are sorry to add--ladies must especially be avoided; for who ever saw a vicious kicker that was not ridden by one of these three?" [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Miss Neil's Jackeroo.] Apart from the danger to others, it is obvious that no sane woman would ride a horse which would be likely to kick her in the event of a fall. When I was in India, I had to get rid of a horse because of his vicious tendency in this respect. He was a good-looking Australian, a clever fencer, and had a nice mouth, but so vicious that when we first got him, he used to rush open-mouthed at any one who went near him, except his syce. My husband took him in hand, and he became sufficiently civilised to take carrots from me. When I rode him, I found he was always looking out for an excuse to "play up," or to lash out at other horses. In order to test his jumping, a lightweight gentleman rider one day rode him over a made course. The animal blundered badly at one of the fences, threw his rider, and while the man was lying on his back on the ground the horse deliberately put a fore foot on him, and would have doubtless broken his back, if my husband, who was standing near the fence, had not pulled the vicious brute off. We got rid of him, and I heard shortly afterwards that he had killed his jockey, a native, in a hurdle race at Calcutta, by the adoption of similar vicious tactics. It would have been criminal to have taken such a horse as that into any hunting-field. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Mr. Vansittart's Romance.] A hunter should have good shoulders (long, flat, and oblique) and a comparatively high forehand; for horses which are lower in front than at the croup are uncomfortable to ride, and there is generally some difficulty in retaining the side saddle in its place on their backs. The height of a hunter will depend greatly on that of his rider. For instance, a tall woman with a "comfortable" figure would be suitably mounted on a horse 16 hands or more high, whereas a light girl of medium height would find an animal of say 15-2 as much as she could comfortably manage; for we must remember that big horses, as a rule, take a good deal of "collecting." A small horse generally stays better, can come out oftener, is handier, and not so likely to hurt one if he falls. For the Shires I do not think a lady's hunter should be much under 15-2, and he must be a big jumper and well bred. Hunting women, as a rule, do not pay much attention to the good looks of their horses, for hunting is not a church parade, and the finest performer over a country is always admired and coveted whatever his appearance may be. The same may be said about colour; although, as a grey horse is conspicuous enough to be singled out of a crowd of bays and browns, a lady who is at all "impartial" in her seat would do well to select a horse wearing a less noticeable tint of coat. As rearing is the worst vice a lady's mount can possess, no horse who has a tendency to rear should be ridden by a woman, as from her position in the side-saddle she is far more helpless than a man on such an animal. A lady's hunter should not have too light a mouth, but should go nicely up to his bridle, and not resent the use of the curb, which is sometimes necessary in avoiding danger. He should on no account be inclined to pull. A perfect hunter is like a thorough good sportsman, who regards his share of bangs and blows as all in the day's work. As the majority of hunters have their own likes and dislikes about jumping certain kinds of fences, a lady should know precisely what to expect from her mount and what his jumping capabilities are, before taking him into the hunting-field, which is not the place for experiments. I had many pleasant days out hunting with the Quorn, Belvoir, Cottesmore, and North Cheshire on the Irish mare, Salary (Fig. 5). In summing up the requirements of a hunter for either man or woman, I cannot do better than to quote the following sound advice from Whyte Melville: "People talk about size and shape, shoulders, quarters, blood, bone and muscle, but for my part, give me a hunter with brains. He has to take care of the biggest fool of the two, and think for both." [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Irish mare, Salary.] To be capable of safely crossing a stiff country, a horse requires at least a few falls--which had best be shared by a man--and much experience, which cannot be obtained without time. Hence, I would advise no lady, however well she may ride, to hunt on a young horse, who will always require a good deal of time in which to learn his business. It is certainly no pleasure to be on the back of a horse who is inclined to drop his hind legs in the ditch on the other side, or to "chance" a post and rails. Many young horses are so reluctant in going at a fence, and in "spreading themselves out," that they are no good except when ridden by a man who can use his legs, which is a feat that a woman is unable to accomplish. A perfect _hack_, whether for man or woman, is far more difficult to find at the present time than a good hunter, and when found will command a fancy price. The ideal hack is a showy, well-bred animal of the officer's charger type, which has been thoroughly well "made" in all his paces. Such an animal appears at his best when executing a slow, collected canter, with arched neck and looking full of fire and gaiety, though ridden with an almost slack rein, and intent only on rendering prompt obedience to the slightest indication of his rider. In Germany and France the hacks ridden in the Tiergarten and Bois, for instance, are thoroughly "made," and compare very favourably with the pulling, half-broken brutes on which many ladies appear in the Row. In former times, before the introduction of the leaping-head made hunting possible for women, more attention was paid to the breaking and training of hacks than at present, on account of the great demand for "complete ladies' horses." The advent of the bicycle for ladies has almost abolished hacking as a pastime and means of exercise, and hence the difficulty in finding a well-broken animal for this work. The best substitute is, I think, a good polo pony, because the requirements of that game demand that the animal should be temperate, handy, and capable of being ridden with a slack rein. The polo pony Pat (Fig. 6) is a perfect hack, with a snaffle-bridle mouth, and so steady and clever that he can canter round the proverbial sixpence. He has played well in several polo matches. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Polo pony, Pat.] Although many ladies in this country have never enjoyed the luxury of riding a high-caste Arab, we occasionally see these animals in the Row and hunting-field. The sight of an "Arabi tattoo" to an old Indian like myself, revives many pleasant memories of delightful equine friends in the East. The Arab is _par excellence_ the most perfect hack for a lady, and I think it would be ungrateful of me in this new edition to omit the portrait of my Arab pony Freddie (Fig. 7), even though the cut of the riding-habit is out of date. Although a good horsewoman may be satisfied with any animal which is fit for a man, provided he is steady to mount and does not require an unusual amount of collecting; it is not safe to put an inexperienced or nervous rider on a horse that has not been taught to carry a habit, which a groom can do by riding the animal with a rug or dark overcoat on the near side, and letting it flop about. Horses rarely object to the presence of a skirt, though I have known cases in which the animal went almost wild with terror when the right leg was put over the crutch. It is, therefore, wise to accustom a horse to the skirt and leg by means of a groom. The fact of a lady having to ride in a side-saddle, puts her under the following three disadvantages as compared to a man in a "cross-saddle": she is, as a rule, unable to mount without assistance; she cannot apply the pressure of the right leg to the side of the horse; and it is difficult for her "to drop her hands" in order to pull him together. The judicious application of a crop or ash-plant (my husband, though an Irishman, swears by a Neilgherry cane) may partly make up for the absence of a leg on the off side; but, however well a woman may ride, she should not have a horse which "plays up" when he is being mounted, or sprawls about and requires constant pulling together when she is in the saddle. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Arab pony, Freddie.] The style of hack should be in thorough keeping with that of the rider. A slight lady has a greater range of choice in horseflesh than a portly dame, who would be best suited with a weight-carrying hunter or compact cob. The height might vary from 14-2 to 15-3. I hardly think that even a small woman would look well on a pony which is less than 13-3. A beginner should be put on a lazy animal, whether horse or pony, that will condescend to trot or canter for only a short distance, which will be quite far enough for its inexperienced rider. Many parents who are supervising the riding instruction of their children, look too far ahead when selecting a mount. Instead of purchasing a steady, plodding, though not unwilling slave, they invest in a second- or third-stage animal, which is absolutely useless to a beginner, because it wants more riding than she can give it. Such a young lady needs a thoroughly steady animal, no matter how old or ugly it may be, and she will probably learn more about riding on it in a month, than she would in a year on a horse which would have to be led by a groom, on account of its unsteadiness. A good donkey is a most useful conveyance for young girls, as he can generally be trusted to take things quietly, and will not unduly exert himself without being called upon to do so. For the benefit of inexperienced riders, I must not omit to mention that the measurement of horses is taken from the highest point of the withers to the ground. A horse is measured by hands and inches, not, as in humans, by feet and inches. A hand is 4 in., therefore an animal of 15 hands is 5 ft. in height; 16 hands, 5 ft. 4 in.; 17 hands, 5 ft. 8 in.; and one of 17-2--which would be a gigantic height in a saddle horse, but not in a cart horse--would be 5 ft. 10 in. high. A woman of medium height, like myself, who stands 5 ft. 3 in. in "stocking feet"--a height, by-the-bye, which is accorded to the Venus de Medici (we might make use of that fact on being termed "little")--would find a horse of 15-1 or 15-2 a very nice, useful height; though she need by no means limit herself to height with any horse which is springy and active, does not require a great amount of collecting, is easy in his paces, and has a good mouth. The bigger a horse is, the more fatiguing do we find him to ride, if his mouth, manners, and paces are not thoroughly "made." The late Esa bin Curtis, a celebrated Arab horse dealer, in speaking of big buck-jumping Walers, said, "God hath not made man equal unto them," and, however well a woman may ride, it is no pleasure to find herself breathless and exhausted in her efforts to control such animals. On the other hand, many small horses which play up are most difficult to sit, for, although they may not take their rider's breath away by their display of physical power, they are like quicksilver on a frying-pan, and highly test our agility in the matter of balance and grip. I cannot conclude this chapter on ladies' horses without expressing my strong condemnation of the senseless and cruel practice of docking riding horses, which has nothing in its favour except its conformance to fashion, and which in this case is disgusting cruelty. Thoroughbred horses are never docked, whether they be used for racing, steeplechasing or hunting, and it is a monstrous thing to mutilate unfortunate half-breds, especially mares, and condemn them to be tortured by flies, and to have the most sensitive parts of their bodies turned into a safe camping ground for insects, simply because these poor animals have a stain in their pedigree. In summer time, when flies are troublesome, we may often see a long-tailed brood mare at grass protecting both herself and her suckling foal from these irritating pests by the free use of her tail; but docked mares are deprived of this means of driving away insects, and have been known to unwittingly injure their young by kicking and plunging violently in their efforts to rid themselves of attacking flies. The unfortunate foal is unable to take its natural nourishment in peace, and consequently does not thrive so well as does the offspring of an unmutilated mother. One of the feeble arguments set forth in favour of docking is, that it prevents a hunter from soiling the coat of his rider by his tail; but, as my husband truly says in his new edition of _Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners_, "This idea is an absurdity, because an undocked horse cannot reach his rider with his tail, if it is banged short, which is a fact known to all military men. Besides, mud on a hunting coat is 'clean dirt.'" The actual pain caused by the operation is trivial as compared with the life-long misery to which tailless horses are subjected, for we deprive them for ever of their caudal appendage, and the ridiculous stump sticking up where the tail ought to be, is as ungraceful as it is indecent, especially in the case of mares. Our friend, the late Dr. George Fleming, says in _The Wanton Mutilation of Animals_, "nothing can be more painful and disgusting to the real horseman and admirer of this most symmetrically formed and graceful animal than the existence of this most detestable and torturing fashion; and those who perform the operation or sanction it are not humane, nor are they horsemen, but rather are they horse-maimers and promoters of the worst form of cruelty to animals. Let anyone go to Rotten Row during the season, and satisfy himself as to the extent to which the fashion prevails, and the repulsive appearance which otherwise beautiful horses present. The astonishing and most saddening feature of the equestrian promenade is the presence of ladies riding mares which are almost tailless. Surely a plea might be entered here for the use of a fig-leaf to clothe the nude." I feel sure that if my sex had a voice in the matter, this wholesale mutilation of mares would soon cease. Dr. Fleming, writing in the _Nineteenth Century_ over twenty years ago, said: "I hope and believe that when the horse-loving public and the friends of animals begin to realise how cruel and degrading some of these mutilations are, they will not be long in having them suppressed"; but the horse-lovers do not appear to have done much in this matter so far. This writer tells us that "the ancient Welsh laws protected it" (the horse's tail) "from harm at the hands of man," and that "an ecclesiastical canon was issued in order to prevent it from being damaged in the eighth century." Cannot our laws do something to protect mares, at any rate, from the cruelty of docking in the twentieth century? Dr. Fleming, in reviewing the history of docking from its earliest times, tells us that he saw an old print "which represented a very emaciated horse, with a fashionable tail, standing in a luxuriant meadow, his body covered with flies, which prevented him from grazing, and from which he could not free himself; a notice board in the field announced that horses were taken in to graze, those with undocked tails at six shillings a week and docked ones at eighteenpence." When Voltaire visited this country in the first quarter of the eighteenth century, he was so impressed with our barbarity, especially in the cutting off the tails of our horses, that he could not refrain from giving vent to one of his pungent sarcasms in the following epigram:-- "Vous fiers Anglois Barbares que vous êtes Coupez la tête aux rois Et la queue à vos bêtes; Mais les François, Polis et droits, Aiment les lois, Laissent la queue aux bêtes Et la tête à leurs rois." CHAPTER III. SIDE-SADDLES. Description of a Side-Saddle--Saddle Tree--Covering of a Side-Saddle--Panel--The Leaping Head--Stirrup Leather--Safety Bars--Safety Stirrups--Girths--Balance Strap--Breast-plate--Weight of a Side-Saddle--Shape of the Seat of a Side-Saddle--The Saddle must Fit the Rider--Crupper--Numdahs and Saddle Cloths--Side-Saddles for Children--Saddling a Horse--Prevention of Sore Backs--Cleaning a Side-Saddle. DESCRIPTION OF A SIDE-SADDLE. A properly made side-saddle consists of the following parts:-- 1. A _tree_, which is a wooden frame that is strengthened with steel and iron, and is provided with an _upper crutch_ (_near head_) and _webs_. 2. A _leather covering_, which comprises the _seat_, _off flap_, and _safe_, which is the trade term for the near flap. 3. A _panel_ (or cushion), which is placed underneath the tree, so as to protect the animal's back from the hurtful pressure of the unprotected tree. 4. A _leaping head_, which helps the lady to obtain security of seat. 5. A _stirrup leather_. 6. A _stirrup iron_. 7. A _stirrup bar_ for the stirrup leather. 8. _Girths._ 9. _Balance strap._ To these ordinary components of a side-saddle, a _breast-plate_ and _saddle cloth_ or _numdah_ are sometimes added. On rare occasions a _crupper_ is used. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Side view of saddle tree.] SADDLE TREE. The tree (Figs. 8, 9, 10, and 11) consists of two _bars_ (side boards), which are connected together in front by the _pommel_, and behind by the _cantle_. The pommel is made up of a _gullet plate_, which is a steel arch that goes over the withers, and its coverings. The _points of the tree_ are connected, one on each side, to the front ends of the bars and to the gullet plate, and they point downwards. The _stirrup bar_, which should be of a safety pattern, is attached to the near bar, a little lower down than the leaping head. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Underneath view of saddle tree.] The _webs_ (Fig. 11) of a tree are strong hempen bands which cover the open space down the centre of the tree, and are nailed, at one end, to the pommel, and at the other end to the cantle. They are tightly stretched, in order to give the rider a comfortable seat, and to keep her weight off the horse's backbone. The _office of the bars of the tree_ is to evenly distribute the rider's weight, by means of the panel, over the muscles which run along each side of the horse's backbone, and which form the only suitable bearing surfaces for the purpose in question. No weight should fall on the animal's backbone, because it is very sensitive to pressure, even when the pressure is well distributed. In order to obtain this indispensable condition of evenly-distributed pressure, the bars of the tree of a saddle which is to be made for a particular horse, should accurately fit the bearing surfaces of the back upon which they rest, and should be well away from the backbone; in fact, the distance between the bars should not be less than four inches. When the rider is in the saddle, a fair amount of space should exist between the gullet plate and the withers, so that no injurious pressure may fall on the top or sides of the withers, which are particularly susceptible to inflammation from this cause. In order to avoid giving an undue height to the pommel, with the object of keeping it off the withers, it should be "cut back" (Fig. 11), although this cutting back need not be carried to the excessive extent that is sometimes practised. In a man's saddle, the pommel is generally straight. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Front view of saddle tree.] The _points of the tree_ should accurately fit the parts upon which they rest, so as to prevent any "wobbling" of the saddle. The near point of the tree (Fig. 10) is usually made long, with the idea of helping the saddle to keep in its place; but if this is done, the off point should be comparatively short, because, if both points be long, they will be apt to become pulled further apart in the event of the horse turning round sharply, as he would have to do in a narrow stall, or even when refusing a jump. The _upper crutch_, or, as it is called by saddlers, the _near head_, is a more or less upright projection which is placed on the near side of the pommel, in order to give support to the rider's right leg. The slope and bearing surface of this near head should be regulated, so that (as we shall see further on) the lower part of the rider's right leg may extend downwards along the shoulder of the horse, and that the lady may be able to exert full pressure against the near head, by the inward rotation of her thigh (p. 157). The height of the near head depends on the thickness of the rider's thigh, because a fat leg will require a higher crutch than a thin one. If the upper crutch be unduly long, it will push the skirt up and give it a bad appearance. We must, however, bear in mind that if it is too short for its legitimate purpose, it will afford an insecure grip to the right leg, which is a consideration that must not be neglected. Before the leaping head (p. 33) was invented, side-saddles were provided with an _off crutch_, which was placed on the off side of the pommel. In a very old saddle which I saw, it took the form of an upright handle, which was placed parallel to the direction of the withers, and which apparently was intended to be grasped by the right hand of the rider in case of emergency. In a saddle of mine, which is about 100 years old, the off crutch projects horizontally to the right. Fifty years ago, the off crutch was almost always upright, and was often placed so close to the near crutch that the rider was able to get a fairly firm support for her right leg by jamming it between these two crutches. As the great utility of the leaping head received increasingly wide recognition, the off crutch underwent a gradual process of decadence, because it is of no benefit to a rider who understands the use of a leaping head. Indications of its previous existence may occasionally be seen, especially abroad, in the form of an entirely useless thickening of the off side of the pommel. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Underneath view of saddle tree and its webs.] COVERING OF A SIDE-SADDLE. The seats of good saddles are generally of pigskin, and the flaps of cow-hide. The fact of the seat being of buckskin or other rough leather will increase the lady's security in the saddle, but may somewhat detract from the smartness of her appearance, especially if the leather is white. I can see no objection to the seat of the saddle being of rough brown leather. Formerly, all side-saddles had a "stuffed safe," in which the front part of the near flap is padded, but nowadays it is rarely, if ever, used by smart hunting people. It is evidently the surviving remains of the voluminous pad, upon which ladies used to rest the lower part of their right leg in the days before the leaping head was invented. Ornamental stitching about the seat and safe of a saddle is equally out of date. PANEL. It is all important that the panel should be so carefully stuffed, that the rider's weight will be evenly distributed over the bearing surfaces of her animal's back. Even if this is done to perfection, the desirable arrangement will last for only a short time, if the stuffing is of the wrong kind of material. Instead of using fine wool (best flock), incompetent or unduly economical saddlers often employ flock which is largely composed of cotton waste, and, consequently, when they stuff or re-stuff a saddle, lumps, from the absorption of perspiration, are apt to form in the panel, with the frequent result of a sore back. Although the stuffing of side-saddles is too technical a subject to attack in these pages, I would fail in my duty to my readers if I omitted to advise them always to go to a first-class saddler for a new saddle, or to get an old one re-stuffed, which should be done as may be required, preferably, before the beginning of the hunting season, supposing that the saddle has seen a good deal of service. It is often thought that expert saddlers are to be found only in London; but if a saddler is clever at his trade, the fact of his having a shop in a good hunting district, must be a great advantage to him in studying the requirements of riding people. THE LEAPING HEAD was invented about 1830 by M. Pellier, who was well known in Paris as a riding master. Its object is to help the rider to obtain security of seat by a fixed surface against which she can press the front and lower part of her left thigh. Before the invention of the leaping head, ladies had to rely entirely on the right leg for grip, and consequently few, if any of them, were able to hunt. Mr. John Allen, who wrote _Modern Riding_, in 1825, tells us that "the left leg is nearly, if not wholly useless; for though a stirrup is placed on the foot, the only use of it is to ease the leg a little, which, for want of practice, might ache by dangling and suspension." The following are the chief points to be considered about a leaping head:-- * * * * * 1. Its curve should be so arranged that the harder a lady presses against it, the more will her left leg be carried inwards, so that the flat (inside) of her knee may be brought in contact with the flap of the saddle (Fig. 12). An ordinary leaping head is curved, as a rule, in such a manner that when a rider seeks to obtain support from it by the pressure of her left leg, this limb is carried outwards, and she is able to get a _point d'appui_ only at the extreme end of this projection (Fig. 13). It is evident that the closer the left leg is to the saddle, the firmer will be the seat. Besides, the more the left leg is brought outwards, the more weight will be put on the near side, which, as we shall see further on, is the very thing a rider ought to avoid. 2. The leaping head should be close to the upper crutch (Figs. 12 and 16). The usual plan of putting it much lower down (Fig. 15) tends to bring the weight to the near side, a fact which can be easily tested, especially in trotting, by trying the improvement in question, which was suggested to me by Mr. Ford of Rugby, who is a very competent and experienced saddler. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Grip with improved leaping head.] 3. Usually, the leaping head is attached to the tree by means of a screw, which is an arrangement that has the disadvantage of not allowing the leaping head to be placed close to the upper crutch. If the leaping head is riveted on to the tree (as in Figs. 10 and 16), which is the better plan, it can be placed as near as we like to the upper crutch, and it will have no tendency to wobble about, as it would be apt to do, if it was fixed by a screw. As the screws of the leaping heads of cheap saddles are almost always made of annealed iron, which is a form of cast-iron, it is not an uncommon occurrence for the screw of one of these saddles to break, which is more apt to occur at a critical moment, as for instance when the horse is jumping or "playing up," than when he is going quietly. On the only occasion I ever rode over a fence in one of these cheap Walsall saddles, the screw broke, but luckily I "remained." 4. When the leaping head is a fixture, the bearing surface which it presents to the rider's left leg should be in the same direction as the upper part of that limb, so that the pressure on it may be evenly distributed. By placing a straight stick under the leaping head, and holding it in the direction which the left thigh would occupy, when the rider is mounted, we can easily see if the bearing surface is in the proper position. 5. As an aid to security of seat, it is well to have the under surface of the leaping head and the off side of the upper crutch covered with rough brown leather, which, we should bear in mind, is concealed from view, when the lady is in the saddle, and consequently it will not detract from the smartness of her appearance. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Grip with ordinary leaping head.] STIRRUP-LEATHER. The stirrup-leather, which is on the near side, should always be attached to a bar, and not, as is sometimes done, to the balance strap (p. 53); because, in this case, its length will be subject to frequent variation, not only when the saddle is put on different animals, but also when the horse gets slack in his girth from work. When it is fixed to a bar, which should always be of the safety kind, no alteration in the correct length of the leather will take place. The arrangement for undoing the stirrup-leather is in the most convenient position when it is close to the iron, and not in proximity to the stirrup-bar, as is the case in a man's hunting saddle. If the leather is used in the latter manner, the buckle will be apt to hurt the inside of the lady's left leg, when she brings the knee close to the flap of the saddle; and it will be more inconvenient to alter the length of the leather, when the lady is mounted, than if the buckle or hook was low down. The hook (Fig. 14) is better than a buckle, because it lies flatter and is easier to arrange. [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Hook for stirrup leather.] SAFETY BARS. A safety bar is a bar which will release the leather, in the event of the rider falling from the saddle, and at the same time getting her foot caught in the stirrup-iron. To be reliable, it should do this, whether the lady falls on the near side, or on the off side. The best safety bar which has up to the present been put before the public, is undoubtedly Champion and Wilton's latest pattern. It releases with absolute certainty on both sides, and can be fitted in such a manner that it will allow the flat of the left leg to be brought close to the saddle. As safety bars and safety stirrups are the only means for ensuring a lady from being dragged by her stirrup, and as Champion and Wilton's safety bar is more reliable in this respect than any safety stirrup, it stands to reason that it should be used with every side-saddle. With this bar on a saddle, there is of course no objection to the use of a safety stirrup, in order to make "doubly sure." It is usually fitted with a thick flap (Fig. 15), which prevents the left leg from being brought close to the saddle; but this objection can be removed by the adoption of Mr. Ford's plan of greatly reducing the size of the flap of the bar, and making it fit into an opening cut out of the near flap of the saddle (Fig. 16). I have found this arrangement a great improvement on the old clumsy flap, the lower edge of which is unpleasantly apt to catch on the rider's boot, especially when trotting. I shall discuss the failings of safety stirrups further on. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Leaping head too low down.] [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Side view of a properly made saddle.] Owing to the position which a lady occupies in a side-saddle, she is often inclined to draw her foot back to such an extent that she would pull the leather out of the bar, if the action of the bar was similar to that of a man's saddle; but a Champion and Wilton's bar is so devised that it will free the leather, only when the pressure of the left leg is removed from the flap of the bar, in which case the lady will have quitted the saddle. Hence, as long as she keeps her seat, she cannot pull the leather out of the bar by drawing back her left leg. The only thing which prevents this safety arrangement from being absolutely perfect, is the liability the leather has of falling out of the bar and becoming lost, in the event of the rider severing her connection with the saddle, in which case the retaining action of the flap on the bar will cease. For this emergency, Messrs. Champion and Wilton provide side saddles with a small leather case which contains an extra stirrup, and which is attached to the near side of the saddle, so that it is concealed from view, when the lady is mounted (Fig. 17). The weight of the stirrup and case is only half a pound. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Champion and Wilton's extra stirrup case.] SAFETY STIRRUPS, both for men and ladies, have been in existence for hundreds of years. Apparently the first variety of this contrivance was the capped stirrup-iron, either simple (Fig. 18) or in the form of a slipper (Fig. 19), which was provided with an arrangement on its sole that prevented the toe of the slipper from yielding to downward pressure, but allowed it to revolve upwards, and thus to facilitate the release of the foot, in the event of a fall. The simple capped stirrup was used by ancient Spanish Cavaliers, and is still employed by many of their descendants in America. In apparent oblivion of these facts, the Christie stirrup (Fig. 20), made on the same principle, was patented about four years ago. Besides its undue weight (1-1/4 lb. as compared to the 1/2 lb. of the slipper stirrup), it has the further disadvantage of allowing the possibility of the toe being caught between its bars (Fig. 21). Want of neatness appears to have been the only cause of the abandonment of the capped stirrup, which is certainly safer than any of its successors, the first English one of which appears to have been the Latchford safety stirrup (Fig. 22). It consists of two irons; the small one, which is placed within the large one, being made to come out the moment the foot gets dragged in it, in which case it parts company with its fellow, and is then liable to get lost. The Scott safety stirrup (Figs. 23 and 24) has not this fault, for its inner iron always retains its connection with the outer one, and can be replaced without delay, if the lady after her tumble desires to remount. The Latchford, Scott ordinary, and Cope safety stirrup (Figs. 25 and 26) open only one way, so that the foot, when correctly placed in any of them, may not be liable, as in the event of a fall, to be forced through the outer iron, in which case the lady would almost to a certainty get hung up if her saddle was not provided with a safety bar. In these stirrups, the side of the "tread,"[46-*] which ought to be to the rear, is generally indicated by the fact of its being straight, while the other side is curved (Fig. 24). This is done in Fig. 27, by the word "heel." [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Capped stirrup-iron.] [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Slipper stirrup.] [Illustration: Fig. 20.--The Christie stirrup.] [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Foot caught.] [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Latchford stirrup.] [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Scott's stirrup.] [Illustration: Fig. 24.--Scott's stirrup open.] * * * * * The _chief faults of so-called safety stirrups_ are as follows:-- 1. They may catch on the foot, on account of getting crushed by coming in violent contact with a tree, wall or other hard object, or by the horse falling on his near side. When I was living in India, I had a Scott safety stirrup jammed on my foot in this manner, by a horse which I was riding, making a sudden shy and dashing against a wall. The iron was so firmly fixed to my foot by this accident, that it could not be taken off until, after much pain and trouble, my foot was freed from both boot and stirrup. Had I been unseated, I would probably have been killed, because my saddle had not a safety bar. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Cope's stirrup.] 2. Those which open only when the foot is put into them in one way, are apt to cause a fatal accident if put in the wrong way, which may easily happen from carelessness or ignorance (p. 64). The methods (straight edge of "tread," or word "heel") used with these stirrups, to indicate the proper side on which to put the foot into the iron, may convey no meaning to persons who are not well acquainted with the details of side-saddle gear, and in moments of hurry and excitement may be easily overlooked. 3. Any ordinary safety stirrup which is used without a safety bar may cause a lady to get "hung up," if she is thrown to the off side and her heel gets jammed against the saddle in the manner shown in Fig. 28. [Illustration: Fig. 26.--Foot released by Cope's stirrup.] 4. If the outer iron is small in comparison to the size of the foot, the rider may easily get dragged. 5. If the outer iron of a Scott's reversible safety stirrup is large in comparison to the size of the foot (as in the case of a young girl), the rider may get dragged in the event of a fall, by the foot going through the stirrup. Accidents caused by a foot going through a stirrup have often occurred to men from falls when hunting and steeplechasing. [Illustration: Fig. 27.--Scott's stirrup.] Some ladies think it "smart" to ride with a man's ordinary stirrup iron, or (madder still) with a small racing stirrup, attached to a leather which does not come out. I once saw a lady who adopted this senseless plan fall and get dragged. By an extraordinary piece of good luck she was saved from a horrible death by her boot coming off. All that can be said in favour of safety stirrups, is that they are less liable to cause accidents than ordinary stirrups. The fact remains, that the danger of being dragged by the stirrup can be entirely obviated only by the use of an efficient safety bar. [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Foot caught on off side.] GIRTHS. In referring to this subject, I cannot do better than give the following extract from _Riding and Hunting_:-- "Girths, while fulfilling their duty of efficiently keeping the saddle on a horse's back, should be as little liable as possible to hurt the surface on which they press. Hence they should be broad, soft, and constructed so that their tendency to retain sweat between them and the horse's skin may be reduced as far as practicable. They can best fulfil the last-mentioned important condition when they are absorbent and open in texture. It is evident that sweat retained between the girth and the skin will have the effect of the moisture of a poultice in rendering the part soft and unusually liable to injury from pressure or friction. "As a material for girths, wool is superior to cotton or leather, because it is softer, more absorbent, and does not become so hard on drying after having become wet. The only drawback to ordinary woollen girths is that they are not sufficiently ventilated, an objection which has been overcome in specially constructed woollen girths that are sold by many good saddlers. "The plan of giving ventilation by slitting up a broad leather girth into several narrow straps, or by using a number of cords of cotton or of plaited or twisted raw hide often acts well; but its adoption may give rise to girth-galls, if care is not taken to smooth out, when girthing up, any wrinkles there may be in the skin underneath the girth. It is evidently more difficult for the pressure to be evenly distributed by these cords, than by a broad girth which consists of one piece. "Great care should be taken to keep girths clean and soft, and to oil them from time to time, if they be of leather. "I prefer a broad girth attached at each side by two buckles to two narrow girths. The Fitzwilliam girth, which consists of a broad girth with a narrow one over it, is handy with a martingale or breast-plate, through the loop of which the narrow girth can be passed." In a Fitzwilliam girth, the pressure of the narrow one on the centre of the broad one, makes the edges of the broad girth incline outwards, and thus apparently helps to save the horse from becoming girth-galled. Girths should always be buckled high up on the near side, in order to prevent their buckles hurting the rider's left leg, by making an uncomfortable bump in the flap of the saddle; and also to allow plenty of space on the girth straps of the off side, for shortening the girths as may be required. BALANCE STRAP. This is a leather strap which is attached to the off side of the rear part of the saddle, at one end; and to a strap close to the girth straps of the near side, at the other end. Before the days of safety bars, its near side end was usually buckled on to the stirrup leather, which was a faulty arrangement, not only as regards the leather (p. 36), but also because its degree of tightness was a constantly varying quantity which entirely depended on the amount of pressure that the rider put on her stirrup. The presence of a properly tightened balance strap helps to prevent lateral movement on the part of the saddle. Also it counteracts, to some extent, the excess of weight which almost every rider puts on the near side of her saddle; this good effect being due to the fact that the off attachment of the balance strap is farther away from the centre line (axis) of the animal's body than the near attachment; and consequently the pull of the balance strap on the off side acts to greater mechanical advantage than the pull on the near side. BREAST-PLATE. The breast-plate is attached at one end to the girth or girths, and at the other end to the staples of the saddle. Its use is to prevent the saddle shifting backwards, as it might do if the girths were slack, especially if the animal was very narrow waisted. Even with a well-shaped horse, a breast-plate is often useful on a long day and in a hilly country. It is much in favour with hunting ladies. Staples are small metal loops which are fixed to the front part of the saddle-tree. WEIGHT OF A SIDE-SADDLE. In order to avoid giving a horse a sore back and consequently disabling him for the time being, it is essential to have the tree rigid, so that the weight may remain evenly distributed over the bearing surfaces of his back, which rigidity cannot be obtained without having the tree fairly heavy. The necessary width and length of saddle and strength of upper crutch and leaping head are also questions of weight. Hence if we require a saddle for rough and dangerous work like hunting, we must not entertain the ridiculous idea of having a light saddle, so that it may look particularly smart. A fair weight for a side-saddle is one-seventh of the weight of the rider, that is to say, two pounds for every stone she weighs, with a minimum weight of 18 lbs. SHAPE OF THE SEAT OF A SIDE-SADDLE. The level-seated fad which some fashionable saddlers try to impress on their inexperienced customers is an absurdity from a hunting point of view, because no one out of an idiot asylum would care to sit for several hours on a perfectly level surface, whether it was a saddle or a chair. The discomfort which such an attempt would entail, is due to the fact that the nature of our anatomy requires a certain amount of dip in that portion of the seat upon which most of the weight falls. The level-seated idea is purely theoretical, because no saddles are made in conformance with it. For hunting we must have comfort, without, of course, any undue violation of smartness. Besides, a certain amount of dip in the seat, similar to that shown in Fig. 16, is an aid to security. A cutback pommel (Fig. 11) improves the look of a side-saddle without diminishing the rider's grip. The seat on the near side should be eased off, so as to allow the rider's left leg to get close to the horse; and the near side, close to the cantle, should be made a little higher than the off side, in order to correct any tendency there may be to sit too much over on the near side. The saddles which I used on Romance (Fig. 4), and Freddie (Fig. 7), about fifteen years ago, were not called "level seated," but we may see that they are quite as neat and smart as those of the present time, which fact shows that very little change has been made in the shape of side-saddles since the eighties. THE SADDLE MUST FIT THE RIDER. The two great points in this requirement are that the upper crutch and leaping head should be in a suitable position, and the saddle sufficiently long, so as to be about a couple of inches clear of the back of the rider's seat. The right position of the upper crutch and leaping head can be determined only by experiment. If the tree is so short as to allow any undue weight to fall on the cantle, the horse will naturally run the risk of getting a sore back. The height of the upper crutch and the length of the leaping head will vary according to the thickness of limb. We shall see on pages 150 to 152, that the position of the upper crutch which will suit a lady who hooks back her right leg, will not be applicable to one who carries her right foot forward; and _vice versâ_. A saddle which suits a rider's style of equitation will invariably fit her, if its tree and its crutches are long enough. Hence, if more than one member of a family wants to ride and there is only one horse, a saddle which will fit the biggest will suit all the rest. CRUPPER. The office of a crupper is to prevent the saddle working forward on the horse's back, which it will not do if the animal is of a proper shape and the girths sufficiently tight. In ancient days, when riding-horses were more rotund than they are now, and saddles were not so well made, cruppers were generally used, but within the last forty years they have gone entirely out of fashion. A crupper is not to be despised in out-of-the-way parts abroad, when we have to ride animals of all sorts and sizes, and when we have only one saddle. NUMDAHS AND SADDLE-CLOTHS. As the principles which regulate the use of these appliances with cross saddles are the same as those with side saddles, I cannot do better than give the following extract from _Riding and Hunting_, with one or two additions: "Saddle-cloths are generally made of felt, and their primary object is to prevent the panel from soaking up sweat and becoming thereby soiled and more or less spoiled. The term numdah or numnah, which is applied to felt saddle-cloths, is derived from a Hindustani word that signifies 'felt.' A saddle-cloth should be as thin as efficiency in serving its purpose will allow it to be, so that it may give as little play as possible to the saddle. Although the fitting of the saddle should as far as practicable be limited to the adjustment of the shape of the tree and to regulating the amount of stuffing in the panel; the use of a numdah with a saddle which does not fit the horse or which is not sufficiently stuffed, is often a valuable makeshift when necessity gives no other choice. The employment of an ordinary saddle-cloth is accompanied by the slight disadvantage, that the middle line of the back which is covered by the saddle is deprived of the benefit of air circulating along it, by the fact of the saddle-cloth resting on it. An attempt to remedy this objection is sometimes made by cutting a longitudinal piece out of the centre of the saddle-cloth. Here the cure is worse than the complaint, because injurious pressure will be exerted by the edges of the aperture thus made, especially if the edges are bound with tape, to preserve them from fraying out. "A saddle-cloth should extend about two inches beyond the bearing surfaces of the saddle, so that its edges may not give rise to unequal pressure on the back, which would occur if the saddle-cloth was shorter than the tree. "Saddle-cloths made of one thickness of leather admirably answer the purpose of saving the panel from injury; but for hunting and other long-continued work they have the objection of retaining perspiration, instead of soaking it up, as felt ones do. It is a good plan before using a new saddle-cloth, to rub a little neat's-foot oil into its rough (upper) surface, which is much more absorbent than its smooth side. If neat's-foot oil is not at hand, cod liver oil or castor oil may be used. The oily application can be repeated, according as the leather gets dry." As a substitute for a panel, Messrs. Champion and Wilton have devised a numdah lined with spongio-piline and covered with linen, to be used with a saddle, the underneath part of the tree of which is covered with leather. The chief advantage of this numdah is that a saddle which is provided with two or more of them, can always present a dry bearing surface to the horse's back. A stout numdah of this kind can be used with a high withered animal, and a thin one with a horse which has thick withers. Its inventors claim that it distributes the weight better and keeps the saddle steadier than a panel. SIDE-SADDLES FOR CHILDREN. As children are unable to take the necessary precautions against accident, no considerations of fashion or smartness should outweigh those of safety for the little ones. Even the old handle at the off side of the saddle (p. 30) might be a valuable help to a very young beginner. The seat of the saddle and the bearing surfaces of the upper crutch and leaping head had best be of rough leather, and particular attention should be paid to the construction of the upper crutch and leaping head, so that a maximum of grip may be obtained, which is a point that is deplorably neglected by many of the makers of side-saddles for children. Children can ride in any comfortable saddle, supposing that it is not too small. I have taught very small girls to ride in my saddle and jump without reins on a horse 15-3 high. A lady who attended one of these lessons, which were held in Ward's riding-school in London, made two sketches of her little friends which, by the kind permission of the Editor of the _Queen_, in which paper they appeared, I am able to reproduce. We may see that the small horsewoman is sitting well over her hurdle and is riding with comfort in a saddle that is far too large for her. The lady friend of the two little girls wrote about our work in the _Queen_ of June 17, 1893, as follows: "I made the acquaintance of the authoress of _The Horsewoman_ one morning in Ward's Manège, where I went to see two little friends taking their riding lesson from her. It was a novel and pretty sight. Mrs. Hayes has inaugurated a method of instruction hitherto unpractised, and which must recommend itself to any one who sees the extraordinary progress which accompanies it. The children are dressed in gymnastic costume (Fig. 29) and it was the third time only that they had been put on a horse--a large horse it was too, and as patient and kindly as it is possible to be. The first thing Mrs. Hayes teaches is how to sit. By the pupils wearing no skirt she can see at a glance whether the position of the legs is right, and this is all-important. [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Child mounted.] "By the time I saw the children they were galloping gaily round and round, with radiant faces and flying hair, sitting better into the saddle, even at this early stage, than many a woman who considers herself a complete rider. They are not allowed to hold the reins; the hands lie in the lap, holding the whip across the knees, which accustoms them from the first to keep their hands low, besides teaching them to keep their seat without 'riding the bridle,' as so many people do. The horse is driven with long reins, like those used in breaking by Captain Hayes, and managed by him with the dexterity of a circus master. After a few turns at the canter, wicker hurdles are put up, and, to my astonishment, the children, without the slightest fear or hesitation, settled themselves down, leaned well back, and popped over without raising their hands or altering the position of their legs (Fig. 30). They had been over the same hurdles at the second lesson, and too much can hardly be said in praise of a system that has such results to offer in so short a space of time. Mrs. Hayes herself, as may be supposed, looks every inch a 'workman' in the saddle. She has ridden in most quarters of the globe; and, as if she sighed for other worlds to conquer, and were _blasée_ about all sorts and conditions of horses, she rode a zebra at Calcutta which was broken within an hour by her husband sufficiently to be saddled and bridled. Her experiences on his back are entertainingly set forth in her book _The Horsewoman_, which is well worth the reading, not only for its hints on horsemanship, but for the many amusing sporting anecdotes. Her other book is one which one would hardly have expected from a woman whose life has been in so great a measure devoted to horses and sport. It is called _My Leper Friends_. A friend indeed they must have thought her, with her devoted sympathy and repeated endeavour to alleviate the sufferings from the most distressing and repulsive malady in the world. Another book is now on the stocks, the preparation of which keeps Captain and Mrs. Hayes for the present in England. That done, they will soon start again on their travels, England being a place that never holds their roving spirits long. The curiosities, and beautiful stuffs and feathers, which they have gleaned in many lands will have to disappear into big boxes and be warehoused, until some fresh store of adventures recalls the wanderers home. "Meanwhile she teaches the art, of which she is indeed a past mistress, in a way which it is a pleasure and profit to see; and I can most conscientiously advise any mother to send her girls to her if she wishes them to at once become perfect horsewomen while remaining perfect ladies." [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Child jumping without reins.] We had so many charming pupils during our short stay in London, that I shall always regard this teaching period as one of the pleasantest events of my life. I often think about them all, and wonder how they are getting on with their riding, and, as their various difficulties have been present in my mind while writing this book, I have done my best to solve them all as clearly as possible. We put up small hurdles and got our tiny pupils to ride over them, because I saw that they had grasped my explanation and demonstrations of balance and grip, and it made them mightily proud of themselves, and keen on learning all they could about riding, when they found that they could sit over fences with ease. Although the school hurdles were small, our grey horse which they rode was a big jumper, which could negotiate a five-foot posts and rails with ease, so the children who rode him were unconsciously carried a far greater height than they imagined, for we all know that a big jumper makes a fine leap, even over small fences. In teaching children to ride we should always provide them with saddles in which they can obtain the grip that we ourselves require, and should see that the length of the stirrup-leather is correct. We should remember that the young horsewoman, however tiny she may be, requires to be provided with the best and safest appliances in the matter of stirrup, safety bar, and safety skirt, that we can give her; and I may say that if I had a daughter I would never allow her to ride unless her saddle was provided with Champion and Wilton's safety bar, which I use, and unless she wore my skirt or the safe little coat shown in Fig. 57. If reliance has to be placed on a safety stirrup in the absence of Champion and Wilton's safety bar, only the capped stirrup-iron (Fig. 18) or the slipper stirrup (Fig. 19) should be employed. I have no faith in one-sided safety stirrups for young girls, for we cannot put old heads on young shoulders in the matter of careful attention about placing the foot in the safety stirrup from the proper side. A groom may put the stirrup correctly on the foot of his young mistress before starting out with her for a quiet ride, but these men naturally know nothing about the correct length of the stirrup leather, and during the ride the stirrup may come out of the foot and be caught haphazard by the rider, with the result that, should she become unseated and thrown from her saddle by her horse suddenly shying with her, she may be dragged and killed. I therefore cannot too strongly recommend all mothers to see that their daughters' saddles are provided with reliable safety bars, and of course that the children are provided with safety skirts, for a safety bar is useless if the rider's skirt catches on the upper crutch and holds her suspended. In July 1897 a young daughter of a well-known nobleman was dragged by her stirrup and killed while exercising her pony in a paddock. As the stirrup was of a one-sided pattern, it must have been negligently placed the wrong way (Fig. 31) on the foot of the poor girl, who was only fifteen years old. I heard that rider, saddle, and pony were all buried on the same day. I would not be inclined to blame the groom if he were inexperienced, as many are, in the one-sidedness of so-called safety stirrups. Another equally terrible accident occurred in September 1893, when a young lady was dragged by her stirrup and killed while hacking along a road at Kilhendre, near Ellesmere, with her groom in attendance. As far as I could gather from the newspaper report of this sad accident, a butcher's cart driven rapidly round a corner caused the lady's pony to shy suddenly and unseat her, with the result that she was dragged by her stirrup and killed. At the inquest which was held on the body of this poor girl, the jurymen devoted their entire attention to the character of the animal she was riding, and as the father of the young lady, who had bred the pony himself, was able to show that it was a staunch and reliable animal, the usual verdict of accidental death was given. These twelve good men and true absolutely ignored the stirrup, which had been the sole cause of this awful occurrence, and concentrated their entire attention on the innocent pony she rode. SADDLING A HORSE. As a horse's loins are ill fitted to bear weight, the saddle should be placed as far forward as it can go, without interfering with the action of his shoulder-blades, the position of the rearmost portion of which is indicated by the "saddle muscle," which is a lump of muscle below the withers. The saddle can be placed about three inches behind it. Instead of putting the saddle on the exact part of the back it is to occupy, it is best to place it a few inches too far forward, and then to draw it back, so as to smooth down the hair under it, and thus make it comfortable for the animal. The front girth is first taken up, and then the next one, which is passed through the loop of the martingale or breast-plate, supposing that two girths of equal width are used. To prevent any wrinkles being made in the skin under the girths, and to make the pressure even, the groom should shorten the girths to about half the required extent on one side, should finish the tightening on the other side, and should run his fingers between the girths and skin in order to smooth out any wrinkles, the presence of which would be liable to cause a girth-gall. As girthing up, when the lady is mounted, will have to be done on the off side, sufficient space for that purpose will have to be left on the girth-straps of that side. After the rider has been put up, the girths should be again tightened, and it is generally advisable to repeat this operation after she has ridden her horse for a short time, especially if the animal has the trick of "blowing himself out." With a Fitzwilliam girth, the narrow girth which goes over the broad one is passed through the loop of the martingale or breast-strap, supposing that one or both of these appliances are used. The balance strap should be tightened to a fair extent, though not quite so much as the girths, because the portion of the ribs over which it passes, expands and contracts far more than that encompassed by the girths. [Illustration: Fig. 31.--Foot caught, on account of its having been put into the stirrup from the wrong side.] If a saddle-cloth be used, the groom, before girthing up, should bring the front part of the cloth well up into the pommel with his forefinger or thumb, so as to prevent it from becoming pressed down on the withers by the saddle. PREVENTION OF SORE BACKS. The chief causes of sore backs brought on by side-saddles are:-- 1. Badly fitting saddles. The fitting of saddles has already been discussed in this chapter. 2. Neglect in girthing up sufficiently tight. As the tightness of the girths diminishes according to the duration and severity of the work, the girths should be taken up after the lady has ridden for some time. For ordinary hacking, tightening the girths after, say, five minutes' riding will generally be sufficient; but this operation should be repeated, for instance at the meet, when out hunting. Knowledge of the necessity of having the girths tight enough, to prevent the saddle wobbling, will enable the rider to take the necessary precautions against putting her animal on the sick list from this cause. 3. Undue weight on the near side, which is generally caused by too long a stirrup, by the leaping head being placed too low down, and by rising at the trot for too long a time. 4. Mismanagement of the horse after his return to the stable, which is a subject I will allude to further on. CLEANING A SADDLE. The leather work of a saddle should be kept clean and soft, with the stitches clearly defined, and not clogged up by grease or dirt. No stain should be left on a white pocket-handkerchief or kid glove, if it be passed over any portion of the leather. Beeswax may be used to give the saddle a polish; but it should be sparingly applied and should be well rubbed in, for it is apt to make the leather very sticky. Nothing but specially prepared or good white soap (made into a thick lather) should be employed to clean the leather work, except a little lime-juice or lemon-juice to remove stains. The use of soft soap permanently darkens leather. A small amount of saddle dressing may be put on once a month, in order to keep the leather soft and pliable. The steel work should, of course, be kept bright. FOOTNOTES: [46-*] The "tread" is the part of the stirrup-iron on which the sole of the rider's boot rests. CHAPTER IV. BRIDLES. Description of a Bridle--Varieties of Bits--Snaffles--Curbs--Pelhams-- Nose-bands--Reins--Martingales--Adjustment of the Bridle. As there is no difference between the bridles used by men and those employed by ladies, I have compiled this chapter from my husband's _Riding and Hunting_, to which I beg to refer my readers for any further information they may require. DESCRIPTION OF A BRIDLE. A bridle consists of a bit, head-stall and reins. The _bit_ is the piece of metal which goes into the animal's mouth; the _head-stall_ or "_head_" is the leather straps which connect the bit to the horse's head; and the _reins_ enable the rider to use the bit. Some persons incorrectly restrict the term "bit" in all cases to a curb. This particular application of the word is from custom allowable in the expression "bit and bridoon," in which the bit signifies a curb, and the bridoon a snaffle. [Illustration: Fig. 32.--"Head" of a Single Bridle: _a_, Crown-piece; _b_, _b_, Cheek-pieces; _c_, Throat-latch; _d_, Front or Brow-band.] [Illustration: Fig. 33.--Unjointed Snaffle.] [Illustration: Fig. 34.--Chain Snaffle.] [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Ordinary Snaffle with Cheeks.] [Illustration: Fig. 36.--Nutcracker action of Jointed Snaffle on Horse's Mouth.] [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Action of Unjointed Snaffle on Horse's Mouth.] [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Action of the Curb as a Lever.] The _names of the different leather parts of a bridle_ (Fig. 32) are as follows:-- The _crown piece_ (_a_) passes over the horse's poll. The _cheek pieces_ (_b_ _b_) connect the crown-piece with the bit. The _throat-latch_ (_c_), which is usually pronounced "throat-lash," passes under the animal's throat, and serves to prevent the bridle from slipping over his head. [Illustration: Fig. 39.--Properly constructed Curb for ordinary Hunter. Side View.] The _front_, _forehead-band_ or _brow-band_ (_d_) goes across the horse's forehead, and has a loop at each end, for the crown-piece to pass through. "Front" is the trade name for this strap. The _head-stall_ or _head_, which is the trade term, is the name given to all this leather work. VARIETIES OF BITS. Bits may be divided into snaffles, curbs and Pelhams. SNAFFLES. A _snaffle_ is a bit which acts on a horse's mouth by direct pressure, and not by leverage. [Illustration: Fig. 40.--Ward Union Curb Bridle with Half-moon Snaffle.] A _bridoon_ is the term applied to the snaffle of a _double bridle_, which is a bridle that has a curb and a snaffle. A double bridle is often called a "bit and bridoon." [Illustration: Fig. 41.--Curb Chain covered with India-rubber Tube.] [Illustration: Fig. 42.--Chin-strap unbuckled.] [Illustration: Fig. 43.--Chin-strap buckled.] The best kinds of snaffles are the half-moon snaffle which has an unjointed and slightly curved mouth-piece (Fig. 33); and the chain snaffle (Fig. 34). The objection to the jointed snaffle (Fig. 35), which is the kind generally used, is that it has a nut-cracker action on the animal's mouth, instead of exerting a direct pressure, as shown respectively in Figs. 36 and 37. A chain snaffle should always have a Hancock's "curl bit mouth cover," which is a roll of india-rubber that curls round the mouth-piece, and prevents it hurting the mouth. In the absence of this india-rubber arrangement, we may cover the mouth-piece with two or three turns of wash-leather, which can be kept in its place by sewing. [Illustration: Fig. 44.--Curb reversed by horse throwing up his head, in the absence of a chin strap.] In all cases a snaffle should be thick and smooth, so that it may not hurt the horse's mouth. CURBS. A curb is a bit which acts as a lever, by means of the curb-chain that passes under the animal's lower jaw (Fig. 38). Fig. 39 shows a properly constructed curb for a horse with an ordinary sized mouth. The best curb which is in general use is the Ward Union (Fig. 40). The curb-chain should have broad and thick links, so that it may not hurt the lower jaw. This precaution can be supplemented by a leather guard or by passing the curb-chain through a rubber tube (Fig. 41). A chin-strap (Figs. 42 and 43) is necessary to keep the curb in its place (Fig. 44). PELHAMS. A Pelham is a bit which can act either as a curb or a snaffle, according to the reins which are taken up. Unless a lady thoroughly understands the handling of the reins, she should not use a Pelham, because her tendency when riding will be to feel both reins, in which case the snaffle reins will pull the mouth-piece high up in the mouth, which, as we shall see further on, is the wrong position for the action of the curb. Hence, only one pair of reins (either those of the snaffle or those of the curb) should be brought into play when using a Pelham. NOSE-BANDS. The use of a nose-band is to keep the horse's mouth shut, in the event of his holding his jaws wide apart, so as to resist the action of the bit. To be effective, it should be fixed low down. The cavasson nose-band (Fig. 45) is neat and serviceable. [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Cavasson Nose-band.] REINS. Reins should be fairly broad (say, 7/8 inch) and moderately thin, so that they may be handled with efficiency and ease. With a double bridle, the curb reins are sometimes made a little narrower than the snaffle reins, which is an arrangement I like, because it greatly helps the rider to distinguish one pair of reins from the other. With the same object, I like the snaffle reins to be connected by a buckle, and the curb reins by sewing. [Illustration: Fig 46.--Standing Martingale attached to rings of the Snaffle.] [Illustration: Fig. 47.--Lord Lonsdale's registered Running Martingale.] MARTINGALES. The only kinds of martingales which we need consider are the _standing martingale_ which is buckled on to the rings of the snaffle (Fig. 46) and the _running martingale_ (Fig. 47). Following in the footsteps of that high priest of Irish horsemanship, Mr. John Hubert Moore, I pin my faith to the standing martingale, as it has enabled me on many occasions to ride, in peace and quietness, horses which without it would have been most dangerous "handfuls." Its great virtue, when properly put on, is to prevent the animal getting his head too high. If he be allowed to do this and is unruly, whether from vice or impetuosity, our power over him will more or less vanish, and besides he will not be able to accurately see where he is going, in which case we will be lucky if we escape without an accident. The famous steeplechase horse, Scots Grey, would never win a race without one of these martingales to keep his head in proper position. When lengthened out to its maximum effective length (Fig. 48), it cannot possibly impede the horse in any of his paces or in jumping. It is, of course, well to accustom a horse to its use before riding him in it over a country. It at least doubles one's power over a puller, and is invaluable for controlling and guiding a "green" animal. [Illustration: Fig. 48.--Maximum length of Standing Martingale.] It is a common idea that the chief use of a running martingale is to prevent a horse raising his head too high. We find, however, that when our best flat race and steeplechase jockeys and other good horsemen ride with this martingale, they almost invariably have it so long, that it has little or no effect in keeping the head down. When a horse is prevented from raising his head too high by a standing martingale attached to the rings of the snaffle, he is punished by the tension of the martingale being transmitted to the mouth-piece of the snaffle, if he tries to get his head in the air; but the moment he brings his head down and bends his neck, cessation of the painful pressure will reward him for his obedience. This automatic means of dispensing punishment and reward is so accurate in its working, that a horse soon learns the lesson set before him. But with a running martingale, the rider, in order to reward the horse for bringing his head into proper position, would have to slacken out the reins with a promptness that would be seldom attainable, and with an entire disregard of control over the animal. In fact, with a running martingale, adjusted so as to prevent the horse from getting his head too high, the reins would have to perform the dual office of keeping down the head, and of regulating the speed, which duties could seldom be successfully combined. With a standing martingale, however, the rider can safely relinquish the adjustment of the height of the animal's head to the martingale, and consequently he is not forced to check the horse's speed, when he wants to get his head down. Some good horsemen, on finding that the running martingale did not perform its supposed office efficiently, have discarded it altogether, and thenceforth have trusted to their hands to act as their martingale. In this they were right not to use a running martingale to keep a horse's head down; but they were wrong in thinking that keeping the head down was the only, or even the principal, use of this article of gear. If we closely examine its action, we shall find that the great value of this martingale is to aid the rider in turning a horse by keeping his neck straight, when cantering or galloping, which object is greatly facilitated by the opposite rein exerting a strong pressure on the neck. [Illustration: Fig. 49.--Side view of Horse's lower jaw.] In regulating the length of the running martingale, we should carefully guard against making it so short that it would interfere with the horse's mouth, when he is not carrying his head unnaturally high; for such interference could have no good result, and would probably impede the animal's movements. Although it is impossible to determine with mathematical accuracy the exact length of this martingale, we find in practice that it should not be shorter than a length which will allow it, when drawn up, to reach as high as the top of the withers. Lengthening it out another three or four inches will generally be an improvement. The use of a running martingale shorter than the minimum I have just laid down, more or less irritates the horse; because, even when he holds his head in correct position, he cannot escape from its disagreeable pressure. The employment of a short running martingale for 'cross country work is a very dangerous proceeding; for if the rider does not leave the reins loose when jumping, the horse will be almost certain to hurt his mouth, and consequently he will be afraid to face his bit, or will become unmanageable from pain, either eventuality being highly dangerous to horse and rider. [Illustration: Fig. 50.--Angle made by the Cheeks of a Curb, when the Reins are taken up.] ADJUSTMENT OF THE BRIDLE. The bit is placed in the horse's mouth, because there is a vacant space (of about four inches in length) on the gums of his lower jaw, between his back teeth and tushes (canine teeth or eye teeth), as we may see in Fig. 49. A mare has no tushes, or possesses them in only a rudimentary form. The tushes of a horse begin to appear through his gums when he is about 4 years old. If horses had not this convenient gap (interdental space) in their rows of teeth, we would probably have to guide and control them by means of reins attached to a nose-band, which is a method practised by many American cow-boys when breaking in young horses. Owing to the fact that their nose-band (hackamore) does not hurt the animal's mouth, and that it gives all the necessary indications, excellent results, I believe, are obtained with it. [Illustration: Fig. 51.--View of under-surface of Lower Jaw.] As the pressure of the bit should be an indication of the wishes of the rider and not a means of inflicting pain, the bit should rest on the least sensitive portion of the interdental space, namely, on the part just above the tushes; because there the jaw-bone is broader than higher up, and is consequently better able to bear pressure. Hence, with a double bridle, the mouth-piece of the curb should be just clear of the tushes of the horse or gelding (Fig. 49), and about one inch above the corner front teeth of the mare; in fact, as low as possible without making the curb-chain liable to slip over the animal's chin. The fact of the mouth-piece of the curb being in this position has the further advantage, that it prevents the curb-chain from working up on the sharp edges of the lower surface of the jaw. The curb-chain in Fig. 50 rests in what is called the "chin-groove," which is the depression that covers the bone immediately below the point at which the lower jaw divides into two branches (Fig. 51). The edges of these branches are sharp, but that portion of the bone which is between their point of separation and the front teeth, is smooth and rounded. The snaffle, whether by itself or in conjunction with a curb, should be placed sufficiently low, so as not to wrinkle the corners of the mouth. The tightness of the curb-chain should in no case exceed that which will allow the cheeks of the curb the amount of "play" shown in Fig. 50. With a light mouthed horse, the curb-chain might be let out another hole or two. The throat-latch should be loose, so that it may not exert any pressure on the animal's wind-pipe. CHAPTER V. RIDING DRESS. Habits and Safety Skirts--Breeches--Underclothing--Hats--Boots--Gloves-- Riding Under-Bodice, Hunting Ties, Collars, Cuffs, and Ties. HABITS AND SAFETY SKIRTS. The choice of the material for a riding habit is naturally limited to the price which the purchaser intends to pay for the garment. I would, however, strongly counsel the selection of the best possible cloth, as only from it can a really successful habit be constructed. Tailors who make a habit for five guineas, doubtless give the best value they can for that sum; but when we consider that a good Melton cloth costs about a guinea a yard, we can understand that it is impossible to get material of that class in a cheap garment. All good habit makers will admit--though in most cases very reluctantly--that Melton is by far the best material for riding habits which are intended for hard wear, as in hunting; but it possesses, in their eyes, the very grave fault of longevity, for a good Melton habit lasts for several years. Rough-faced cloths, such as cheviot, frieze, and serge, retain moisture like a blanket, and shrink after exposure to much rain; but Melton, which is of a hard and unyielding texture, and has a smooth surface, is almost impervious to wet. The virtues of this material are much appreciated by experienced hunting women for hard wear. There is "a something" about the hang of a perfectly-fitting Melton habit which no other material seems to possess; and whatever the elements may be doing, it never appears out of place. On the other hand, if it is badly cut, it exposes the shortcomings of its maker in the most ungenerous manner, and is so obstinate that all the altering in the world will not make it forgive the insult to its cloth. A Melton habit, therefore, requires to be cut by one who is an artist at his trade. Another advantage possessed by this cloth is that it is far easier to clean than any rough-faced material. An experienced saddler has drawn my attention to the fact that the dye from skirts made of cheap shoddy material, is apt to come off and seriously injure the leather of the saddle. The colour of a habit is a matter of taste on which I can offer no advice, except that a lady who requires to wear her habit until it exhibits signs of old age, would do well to select an inconspicuous tint. I have always found dark blue the most serviceable shade, because it does not fade, even in tropical climates, nor does it, like black, turn green and rusty-looking before it is worn out. Besides, it admits of a new skirt or new coat, as the case may be, without emphasising the disparity in age of its companion so much as is the case with lighter shades, such as grey for instance. Some years ago, various shades of green, brown, and claret colour were worn, but they seem to have been superseded by dark grey and dark blue, at least in the Shires, though since the death of our lamented Queen Victoria, black has been greatly used. [Illustration: Fig. 52.--The Hayes' Safety Skirt open for mounting.] In selecting a Melton habit, a heavy make called treble Melton should be chosen for the skirt, and a lighter one of the same material, which all good habit makers keep in stock, for the coat; because, in order to hang well, a skirt must be of heavy cloth, which would, of course, be too hard and unyielding for a riding coat. We require a "kind," pliable cloth for our coats, to allow us absolute ease and freedom of movement, but our skirts, even for wear in the tropics, should be of a thick, heavy make. When I went out to India in 1885, safety skirts were unknown, or, at least they were not constructed by Creed, of Conduit Street, who made my habits, and who was in those days regarded as the best habit maker in London. He told me that my thick Melton skirt would be of no use to me in that hot country, and recommended a habit of khaki-coloured drill, for which I paid sixteen guineas, as he would not make any kind of riding habit for less than that sum. I soon found that my investment was a failure, for the skirt flapped about like a sheet in the wind, and the marks of perspiration on my coat looked most unsightly, so I handed over my drill habit to my _ayah_, a gift which I know she did not appreciate at anything approaching its cost. I found myself more comfortably garbed in my Melton skirt, for heat in riding is not felt to any appreciable extent below the waist, and I provided myself with jackets of white drill, on which marks of perspiration are not so unsightly as on a coloured material. [Illustration: Fig. 53.--Off side of The Hayes' Safety Skirt.] As safety in the saddle is the first consideration, and as no article of riding dress has proved such a death-trap as the skirt, no lady should ride in one of the old-fashioned, dangerous pattern. I am thankful to say I was never dragged in any of those ancient garments, but I was fully aware of this danger, and devised, as I explained in the first edition of this book, a means of lessening it by buttoning "the under and outer part" of the skirt just above the knee to the breeches, by means of large flat cloth buttons, the same colour as the skirt, being sewn on the breeches, and corresponding button-holes being made in the skirt. The idea was a practical one, but I was by no means satisfied with it, and I began to evolve a safety skirt of my own. While I was experimenting with a pair of scissors on an old skirt in which a groom was seated on a side-saddle, a habit maker sent me and asked me to wear and recommend what he called a "perfectly-fitting skirt." This awful thing had glove-like fingers, which were made to fit the upper crutch and the leaping head! I hope no lady ever risked her neck in such a death-trap as that. In puzzling out my safety skirt, I desired to attain two objects, namely, absolute safety in the saddle, and a decent covering for my limbs when out of it, so that I might be able to dismount and walk exposed to the gaze of men at any time or place, without my dress, or rather want of it, being made the subject of remark. I had a nice quiet horse, who allowed me to thoroughly test my invention by falling off his back in every conceivable direction, my husband being present to prevent my voluntary fall from degenerating into a "cropper." Mr. Tautz, the well-known breeches maker of Oxford Street, witnessed these acrobatic feats, and after we had all been perfectly convinced of the absolute safety of the garment, he took it on a royalty. My skirt has now been on the market for several years, and I am glad to have this opportunity of thanking the numerous ladies who have shewn their appreciation of it. Fig. 52 gives the appearance of the "Hayes' Safety Skirt," when its wearer is ready to mount, Fig. 53 shows the off side when in the saddle, in Fig. 54 we see the side opening, from which the cloth near the crutches is cut entirely away, closed for walking, and Fig. 6 shows the hang of the skirt when the wearer is mounted. Since this skirt was invented, I have had several opportunities of further testing its merits, especially when riding young horses which have fallen with me in Leicestershire, and I would not care to ride in any other kind. There are several safety skirts, but it is obvious that the best kind is one that is safe to ride in, presentable when dismounted, and easily arranged, which conditions are thoroughly fulfilled by my patent. There are riding women who object so much to the indecency of apron skirts (Figs. 55 and 56) that they adopt the dangerous closed pattern. My skirt would commend itself to those of my sex who are sufficiently old-fashioned in their ideas to desire a safe and, at the same time, decent and graceful covering. Some ladies consider it "smart" to expose their limbs, if we may judge from the free exhibitions to be seen in the hunting field, while others, who are aware of the unbecoming effect, have their breeches made extra baggy behind! [Illustration: Fig. 54.--The Hayes' Safety Skirt closed for walking.] The apron skirt is an extremely cold, comfortless garment for winter wear, because it is merely a left-side covering for the limbs, while the right side being entirely unclothed, the lines and rotundity of the figure are, when the wearer rises in trotting, displayed to the wondering gaze of those who ride behind her. As, in the apron skirt, there is no covering of Melton cloth to sit on and take off some of the wear and tear of the breeches, these garments become quickly worn out at the seat, and necessitate a double thickness of cloth at that part. There is another kind of safety skirt which is a combination of breeches and skirt in one; but I consider this a very unsanitary arrangement, for it is obvious that the undergarment must be kept clean, and handed over when necessary to the laundress to be carefully washed, before sending it to a tailor to be pressed and repaired as may be required. It is part of a groom's duty in small households to attend to the cleaning of his mistress's hunting boots and skirt, but a combination garment should not be cleaned by a male servant. [Illustration: Fig. 55.--Apron skirt open for mounting.] Any skirt which ensures safety in the saddle is preferable to the old-fashioned shape, with its dangerous bundle of cloth over the crutches, a fact which is so well understood by hunting women that none who hunt in Leicestershire, or I hope in any other place, appear in those early Victorian atrocities. Provision of this kind does not appear to be insisted on for the safety of young ladies; for I saw a girl dragged in Leicestershire, and Lord Lonsdale, who fortunately stopped her horse, sent her home, and told her not to hunt with his hounds until she had provided herself with a safety skirt. The young and inexperienced, who, with the fearlessness of ignorance, are prone to rush headlong into difficulties, ought surely to be safeguarded in every possible manner. Fig. 57 shows a safe and comfortable riding dress for a very young girl. For winter wear, the coat and leggings should be made of Melton; and the breeches of elastic cloth or knitted wool to match. It is well to have the coat buttoned over the right leg, so as to protect that limb from cold and wet. For summer use, a linen coat is worn. We may notice that the sweet little horsewoman has a good seat, and is capable of taking sole charge of her nice pony. The safest and most comfortable length for a riding skirt is when it just covers the rider's left foot when she is seated in the saddle with her stirrup at its usual length. It is best for a lady to use her own saddle when having her habit fitted, as her stirrup will then be at the length she rides in, and the crutches will also receive the necessary consideration from the fitter. Care should be taken that the skirt fits well over the right knee, when the wearer is seated in her saddle. Creed and other good makers of the past always padded this knee part, which gave not only a nice, rounded appearance to the knee, especially in the case of a very thin lady, but ensured the skirt being put on straight with a minimum of trouble. Present day skirts have not this small round pad for the right knee to fit into, but its omission is far from being an improvement on the old fashion. [Illustration: Fig. 56.--The apron skirt closed for walking.] Whatever shape a lady may select for her riding coat, she should pay particular attention to the fit of the sleeves, which must not in any way hamper the movements of her arms. Before trying it on, its wearer should procure a good pair of riding corsets, which must allow free play to the movements of her hips, and, above all, she must not lace them tightly. Wasp waists have luckily gone out, never, I hope, to return. The size of a woman's waist, if she is not deformed, is in proportion to that of the rest of her body. Therefore, a pinched waist, besides rendering the tightly girthed-up lady uncomfortable, to say nothing of its probable effect on the tint of her nose, deceives no one. It is impossible to ride with ease and grace in tight stays, a fact which we should remember when trying on a habit coat, for the fitter will follow the shape, or mis-shape, of the corsets, and the coat will be built on those lines. The back of the garment should be quite flat, and padding may be needed in the case of hollow backs, as there should be no high water line across the back defining where corset ends and back commences. The collar should fit nicely into the neck at the back, and not gape open from being cut too low. There should be no fulness at the top of the sleeves, for nothing looks more unsightly than "bumpy shoulders" on horseback. It would be well for the wearer when trying on, to lean back and extend her arms, as she would do when giving her horse his head over a fence, in order to find out if the sleeves are likely to hamper the movements of the arms, as they sometimes do, from the coat being cut too narrow across the chest. It is no use fitting on a coat once or twice, and then leaving it to chance; for, to secure a perfect fit, the garment will require to be tried on until there are no further alterations to be made in it. Whatever shape may be chosen, the coat should not be made too long, or it will flap and flop about in a most ungraceful manner. Fig. 58 shows a loose-fitting coat which is not smart, because it is too long, and as it rests on the horse's back, it will wrinkle up when its wearer sits down in trotting and will look ugly. If this coat was a good four inches shorter at the back, and graduated off to just cover the right knee, it would be clear of the horse's back and present a far neater and less sloppy appearance. Many habit makers who run apron skirts of their own, insist on making riding coats far too long, of course with the object of hiding the indecency of the apron skirt when its wearer is on foot. Ladies who do not adopt that kind of skirt, should not allow tailors who have had no practical experience in side-saddle riding, to dictate what _they_ consider best, to experienced horsewomen. I find that young habit makers who are new at their business are far more trying in this respect, than their more experienced elders. [Illustration: _Photo. by_ THE REV. G. BROKE. Fig. 57.--Riding dress for child.] [Illustration: Fig. 58.--Loose riding coat, too long.] We have only to look at fashion plates to see that no dress is suggested for ladies who are inclined to be stout, for in them, only slim figures appear to receive consideration. I would recommend the loose-fitting coat as the most becoming for portly persons, because with a loose garment there is no abrupt accentuation of bulk, a fact which many stout ladies who adopt the Eton jacket style of dress, fail to recognise. On the stage, a slim actress may look well in tights, but this skin-like covering on a bulky figure would be ridiculously ugly. As the same lady draped in loose flowing robes may present a graceful and dignified appearance; those who are inclined to be portly would do well to wear loose-fitting riding coats, being careful to see that they are made to just reach the saddle and not flop on the back of the horse, or they will not be smart or comfortable to ride in. In Fig. 58 I have shown how unnecessarily bulky a woman with a 25-inch waist may be made to look in a loose coat which is too long. Tailors do not like making these articles of dress, especially when they are of Melton cloth, because they are extremely difficult to manipulate, and the "hang" of such a garment will be hideous if its cutter be not a true artist at his business, for a loose coat is nothing if not graceful in outline. It is impossible to tell, when seated on a wooden horse, how a loose coat will hang when ridden in, so the finishing touches, such as pockets, &c., should never be made until the wearer has tried the coat on her own horse, with a critical friend to ride with her and tell her if anything is amiss with it. The little extra trouble this precaution may involve, is nothing as compared with the disappointment of having to "put up" with an ill-fitting garment. Some tailors have a Mayhew saddle on their block horse for fitting skirts; because in that kind of saddle, the crutches give them no trouble as regards "poking up"; but if a lady uses a saddle with ordinary crutches, she should be wary and take her own saddle for the fitting of her skirt. There are habit makers who recommend tight-fitting coats for stout figures, because, they argue, the bulk is there and must go somewhere; but a deaf ear should be turned to such arguments, as an ample figure should be concealed; not accentuated. Naturally these gentlemen are prejudiced against loose coats, for apart from the difficulty in making them, they cut into a much larger amount of valuable cloth than tight-fitting ones. Tailors will readily admit that this shaped coat is the best for young girls, because tight-fitting ones would give them too much of a "grown-up appearance," but not for the stout girl, who has far more need to conceal her "grown-up appearance"! [Illustration: Fig. 59.--Front view of good riding coat.] Twenty years ago tailors were much more particular over their work than they appear to be at the present time. Creed always insisted on a lady bringing her own saddle, before he would fit a habit, and, if the garment did not please him, it would be discarded and another cut out ready for her when she next came to be fitted. This generous method of dealing was amply repaid; because it soon became known that the old man would not allow an imperfect garment to leave his shop. For hunting, it is best to have a coat which will afford us protection from cold and wet, and therefore its fronts should be made to cover the right knee, the buttons being concealed under the "skirt" of the coat. This shape is in every way good, because there are no floppy fronts to trouble us by blowing back on windy days, and when the rain drips from the hat, the coat-covering helps to keep our right knee dry. In the old-fashioned habits, great care was taken that nothing could become displaced, to spoil the effect, as an old lady friend puts it, of "the beautiful gliding motion of a ship in full sail." I fear now-a-days we allow our sails to flop about far too much, and destroy that "beautiful gliding motion." What could be more ugly than a coat with tails which reach nearly to a horse's hocks, and no front covering whatever to protect the knee in bad weather? Wind, which is no respecter of persons, seizes these long tails and hurls them over the back of the rider's head, as she stands in a wild blast at the covert side looking very "tailly" and cold. Besides covering the right knee, the coat should have a collar that will turn up and fasten at the throat with a button and strap, to keep out wet, and cuffs that will turn down over the hands. [Illustration: Fig. 60.--Back view of good riding coat.] Clad in a sensible garment of this kind, which should be smart and well-fitting, we can defy the elements without running any undue risks. Fig. 59 shows a coat which is made to cover the right knee. Fig. 60 gives the back view, and is a useful length. Fashion, whoever he or she may be, invents more or less fearful and wonderful coats, which appear every season in the hunting field; but these curiosities "go out" suddenly, and the end of the season generally sees us all garbed in the old motley; for the newcomers have been tried and found wanting. The best way to clean a mud-stained habit is to dry it thoroughly and brush the mud off. Any white marks of perspiration from the horse which may remain after a skirt has been thoroughly brushed and beaten, may be removed by benzine collas, or cloudy ammonia diluted with water, or they may be sponged with soft soap and water, care being taken to remove all the soap from the cloth. For riding during the hot weather in India and other tropical countries, a very useful garment is a Norfolk jacket in cream stockinet, which can be purchased ready-made. It fits the figure closely, and has three pleats in front and behind, which are sewn to the garment, the buttons being concealed under the front pleat (Fig. 61). The best kind of belt, I think, for wearing with this jacket is one made like a girth, of ordinary cream girth webbing, as it is easy to wash when soiled. Jackets in white drill, which may be worn open with soft-fronted shirts (Fig. 62), are also to be commended, as they wash well and always look clean and cool. Some ladies dispense with a jacket, and ride with a shirt and belt; but that style is not generally becoming, and is suggestive of forgetfulness in dressing. In Ceylon I obtained very smart checked flannel for riding jackets. In China and Japan a fine crêpe flannel, which does not shrink in washing, may be had for this purpose, but I have been unable to procure it in other countries. [Illustration: Fig. 61.--Terai hat and Norfolk jacket.] [Illustration: Fig. 62.--Pith hat and drill jacket.] A lady who intends to hunt will find a driving coat necessary when travelling by rail, or driving to and from a hunt. Fig. 63 shows a comfortable coat in Melton cloth, with "storm" collar and cuffs of astrakan. A good driving coat is a costly garment, but it can be utilised as a winter or travelling coat. The collar of the subject of this illustration was made specially high for use in Russia, where, during winter, the cold is so intense that I often found my pocket-handkerchief frozen hard in my pocket, although this thick Melton coat was wadded throughout. The Hayes' Safety skirt worn under this coat is looped up from the right knee button to a tab of elastic attached to the waist of the skirt, which obviates the necessity of holding up the skirt. [Illustration: Fig. 63.--Good driving coat.] BREECHES. I shall not say anything about trousers, because I do not think they are worn by riding women of the present time, and also for the very good reason that I have never worn them. I think they would be uncomfortable to use for hunting, for, unlike breeches, they do not fit the knees closely. Trousers went out of fashion about thirty years ago, before safety skirts came into general use. It used to be extremely difficult for ladies to get a properly-fitting pair of riding breeches, as no correct measurement for them was taken, and it was not pleasant to be obliged to interview male fitters respecting the cut of these garments. Messrs. Tautz and Sons, of Oxford Street, solved the difficulty by providing us with a competent female fitter, who takes careful measurements for breeches, and rectifies any faults there may be in their fit. The best kind of material for breeches is elastic cloth, which is specially made for that purpose. It is both strong and porous, and can be obtained in any shade to match the riding-habit, which, of course, is necessary. The breeches should be fitted while the wearer is seated on a wooden horse, and special attention should be devoted to their cut at the knees; for if the cloth at the right knee does not lie flat and fit that part like a glove, the wearer will suffer discomfort from being "rubbed" by the friction of the superfluous material. Following the senseless custom adopted by men, many of whom hate it themselves, we have our breeches to button on the shin bone. I would recommend ladies who experience discomfort, from the combined pressure of boot and breeches buttoned on the shin bone, either to revert to the old style of buttoning the breeches a little to the outside of the leg, or to have their riding boots made shorter, see page 117. Besides, there is no necessity for us to ape men's fashions in either boots or breeches, because these garments are not seen, and we require them to be thoroughly comfortable. For hunting and winter use I like what are called "continuations" fixed to breeches, as these gaiter-like pieces of cloth cover the leg to a certain distance below the swell of the calf, and keep it warm, besides preventing the knee of the breeches from working round, which men obviate by using garter-straps. Leather breeches for ladies' use are too unsanitary to merit consideration. For use in the tropics, a lady would require breeches of a very thin make of elastic cloth, and, if continuations were liked, it would be best to have them made detachable, as they could not be worn with comfort during the hot weather. UNDERCLOTHING. Ladies who hunt should always carefully protect themselves against chill by the adoption of warm underclothing, for they are frequently exposed for hours to bitter cold, wind, snow, sleet, hail and fog, and if one is thinly clad, and, as often happens, there is a long wait at a covert side, a dangerous chill may be contracted. An under-vest of "natural" wool should be worn next the skin, and a pair of woollen combinations--which button close to the throat, and are provided with long sleeves, will be found very comfortable and warm. Combinations are better for riding use at any time than ordinary underclothing, as there is no superfluous material in them to become displaced and cause discomfort. They can be had in very thin material for use in the tropics and for summer wear. Warm woollen stockings are to be recommended for hunting, and especially for ladies who suffer from cold feet. Those who find woollen garments irritating to the skin may remove the difficulty by wearing them over thin silk. Any trouble in keeping the stockings in place can be best overcome by the use of plain sewn elastic garters, which have no buckles or straps, being placed below the knees, and the upper part of the stockings turned back over them and pulled down the leg as far as they will go, so that each stocking may lie perfectly flat on the leg. The elastic bands should be of the usual garter width, and should be sufficiently roomy not to hurt the legs. As I found chamois leather, with which breeches are usually lined, unsatisfactory, I invented a comfortable substitute for it in the form of a removable pad, which has met with the approval of several hunting women. I would be happy to give privately any particulars concerning this invention to ladies who may be interested in it. HATS. The tall silk hat has, during recent years, been largely superseded by the more comfortable if less elegant-looking bowler. On hunt full-dress occasions, such as a Quorn Friday, the ladies of the hunt generally wear tall hats, but I notice that bowlers have as a rule been worn during the rest of the week. The high hat is said to be the more becoming of the two, but it takes a lot of trouble to keep in order, and a bowler is more comfortable and useful for rough work. A lady who is wearing a tall hat for the first time, should not forget to lower her head well in passing under trees, as this kind of head-gear requires more head room than a bowler. The best arrangement for keeping a riding hat firmly fixed on the head is to have a small piece of velvet sewn inside the front, so that it comes on the forehead, and to have for the back, a piece of elastic an inch wide sewn to the hat, well to the front. Care should be taken that the elastic is not too tight, in which case it might cause a nasty headache, as well as a ridge on the forehead from the pressure of the hat. In selecting a bowler, a lady should be careful to choose a becoming shape, as these hats vary greatly in form. To my mind, the kind most generally becoming has a low crown and rather broad brim. High-crowned hats with closely turned-up brim are trying to most faces. Although it is not usual for hunting women in the Shires to wear hat-guards, I would strongly recommend their adoption, because, however well a hat may be secured by elastic, an overhanging branch at a fence may knock it off, and it is as well to be able to recover it without assistance. When hunting this season, I lost my hat at a fence, and my long-suffering husband had to give up a good place in a run to go back and fetch it, whereas, if I had had a hat-guard, this tiresome occurrence would have been prevented. It is best to attach the cord of the hat-guard to a button-hole of the habit-jacket, for then, if the hat comes off, the cord can be more easily caught than if it is fastened inside the back of the collar of the coat. On windy days the advantage of a hat-cord is obvious. Ladies who object to its use may say that overhanging branches should be avoided, but when hounds are running, and one is mounted on a tall horse, it is impossible to always steer clear of stray twigs, and therefore men find a hat-guard very useful. For tropical climates the pith hat or _sola topee_ (Fig. 62) is best for the hot weather. Helmets, besides being apt to give one a headache on account of their weight, do not afford sufficient protection to the rider's temples from the sun. The double Terai hat of grey felt (Fig. 61) is becoming, but it is very heavy. Pith is lightest and most suitable for wear during intense heat. In the cool weather a bowler or straw sailor may be worn; but even in the cold season ladies should avoid wearing a small hat when the sun is above the horizon, for its rays are treacherous. I have had many a splitting headache from disregard of this precaution. In trying on a riding hat, the hair should be dressed low down, as it will be worn when riding, in order to obtain a comfortable fit; for the hat must fit the head and not be perched on the top of it, or it will not "remain" if the horse goes out of a walk. The old arrangement of dressing the hair in a coil of plaits at the nape of the neck has quite gone out, but it was a far neater one for riding than the "tea-pot handle" and other curious knobs and buns of the present time. The pulled-out style, in bad imitation of Japanese hair dressing, gives a dirty and untidy appearance, and looks perfectly hideous on horseback, and especially when the place where the back hair ought to be, is adorned with a round brooch! If ladies who adopt this bad style could only see how much it vulgarises an otherwise nice appearance, they would at once abjure it. A neat way to arrange the hair for hunting is to coil it firmly round the head, and fasten it with plenty of hairpins--those bent in the centre and with ball points are, I think, the most reliable--and to pin over the hair an "invisible" silken net the same colour as the hair, which will keep it tidy. BOOTS. I wish to lay particular stress on the necessity of riding boots having thin pliable soles, and being easy over the instep; because I once saw a lady dragged by her stirrup and only saved from death by her boot coming off and thus releasing her. I do not think that sufficient attention is paid either by ladies or bootmakers to the fact that a loose riding boot may be the means of saving its wearer's life: I never devoted much thought to the subject before witnessing this accident. The use of tight boots in winter has the great disadvantage of keeping the feet very cold, even when warm stockings are worn. Saddlers have invented safety bars and stirrups, habit makers have provided safety skirts, but bootmakers have not yet thought out a hunting boot which would release the foot in the event of a safety bar failing to act, or of a safety or other stirrup being crushed in a fall. A thin pliable sole and plenty of room over the instep to allow of the left foot being easily pulled through the boot, would greatly minimise the danger in question. We seldom hear of a jockey being dragged, although flat races are ridden in saddles that have no releasing bars, and even steeplechases are often ridden in these saddles, when a rider has a difficulty in getting down to the weight; but all jockeys wear boots which have thin, and, consequently, very pliable soles. Fashion dictates that ladies' top-boots should be as high as those worn by men, which is very absurd; because they are not seen, and the hard, unyielding leather of a high top-boot pressing either on the breeches buttons, or on the under part of the right leg is apt to cause great pain and discomfort. Then, again, when a Champion and Wilton saddle with safety bar flap is used, the top of the left boot is liable to catch in the flap when its wearer is rising at the trot and is thus apt to release the stirrup leather. Fig. 64 shows the top of the boot in position to raise the safety bar flap in the manner mentioned. I have obviated these inconveniences and have ridden in comfort by wearing boots made two inches shorter than the regulation height, and by wearing breeches with "continuations," no stockings are exposed to view, even when one gets a fall. With boots of this length there is no possibility of the left leg being hurt by pressure of boot and breeches buttons on the shin bone. Fashionable bootmakers who build boots for ladies on the pattern of those worn by men, seem to be unaware of the fact that a woman's grip in a side-saddle is entirely different from that of a man in a cross-saddle, and many ladies suffer unnecessary discomfort by meekly accepting what they are told is "the proper thing." Our friend Mr. James Fillis, in his interesting work, _Breaking and Riding_, says that for ladies' wear he prefers "ordinary boots to long boots, which are too hard, and are consequently apt to cut the wearer under the knee, and to prevent her feeling the horse with her leg;" but as ordinary boots would not be considered sufficiently smart for hunting, or even hacking in the Row, the compromise I advocate will be found to answer all requirements. In ordering a pair of riding boots we should go to a good maker and have them of patent leather, which is smarter and cleaner than blacking leather. For wear in tropical countries, I found that boots which have the foot part of patent leather and the leg of morocco, with a thin leather lining to stiffen and keep the leg part in place, are cooler and more comfortable than any other kind. A pair of boot-hooks will be required for putting them on, and a boot-jack for taking them off. A little Lucca oil used occasionally prevents patent leather from cracking. The dry mud should be brushed off soiled boots with a soft brush that will not scratch the leather, and they should then be sponged over with a damp sponge and polished with a selvyt or chamois leather. Patent leather, which has lost its brightness from wear, can be polished with Harris's Harness Polish or any similar preparation which does not cake on the leather or injure it in any way. We should remember that boots will last much longer and retain their shape to the end if they are always kept, when not in use, on trees. It is best to wear new riding boots in the house before they are ridden in, so as to make them pliable to the "tread" in walking, and to work off their stiff and uncomfortable feeling. [Illustration: Fig. 64.--Top of boot catching on safety bar flap.] GLOVES. Antelope-skin or dog-skin gloves are, I think, the best for hunting. I prefer the former, as they are very soft and pliable. Whatever kind of gloves are chosen, care should be taken to have them sufficiently large to allow perfect freedom to the hands; for tight gloves make the hands cold, and greatly impede their action in the management of the reins. In selecting gloves, a careful measurement of the fingers should be taken, so that they may not be too short. Although gloves of the best quality are somewhat expensive, they are well cut, they wear better and are altogether more satisfactory than cheap imitations. On very cold days, I prefer white woollen gloves to any other kind. In wet weather they are indispensable, for a better grip of slippery reins can be got with them than with leather ones. I agree with Jorrocks that "Berlin gloves are capital for 'unting in, they keep your 'ands warm, and do to rub your nose upon in cold weather," though I have not tried their effect in this respect! During a winter which I spent in Russia, I derived the greatest comfort from the use of woollen gloves, which I found far warmer than any other kind. For the tropics, kid or suède gloves may be worn in the cold weather, but in the hot months I found white cotton the most comfortable kind, as they are cool, thin and soft, and wash and wear better than silk, which the reins quickly destroy. Perspiration from the hands will show through leather gloves, which, on drying, will become as stiff as a board. It should be remembered that rings worn when riding, especially those containing stones, hamper the action of the fingers, and are very destructive to gloves. [Illustration: Fig. 65.--Front view of riding under-bodice.] RIDING UNDER-BODICE, HUNTING-TIES, COLLARS, CUFFS AND TIES. A garment which I have thought out, and which I believe will fill a want, is a riding under-bodice with long sleeves and wristbands, to which cuffs can be attached, and also a stud at the throat for the attachment of a hunting-tie or collar. This bodice is in stockinet, and fits closely, without, as in the case of ordinary shirts, any superfluous material marring the outline of the figure (Figs. 65 and 66). Ladies generally have so much difficulty in fastening cuffs, that they will doubtless welcome a close-fitting garment of this description, and it will do away with the tiresome habit-shirts and dickeys which have an irritating trick of following one's neck about, instead of remaining in a fixed position. Besides, collars which cannot be kept firmly in place generally necessitate the use of pins, which should never be employed with any article of riding attire. [Illustration: Fig. 66.--Back view of riding under-bodice.] A hunting-tie or stock, which is a combination of collar and tie, the collar part being either starched or soft, according to choice, is the warmest and most becoming kind of neck arrangement for hunting. It is not easy to put on neatly, and it would be well for a novice when purchasing these ties to get the shopman to initiate her into their mysteries, and to take one home correctly tied, to be kept as a copy until its somewhat intricate manipulation has been mastered. My husband's directions for the arrangement of a hunting-tie are as follows:--"The centre of the stock is placed on the front of the neck, the ends are passed in opposite directions round the back of the neck, brought in front, tied in a reef knot, crossed in front of this knot, and finally secured, as a rule, by means of a pin or brooch of the safety or horse-shoe or fox pattern. A gold safety pin is often used. A brooch pin is naturally safer than an ordinary pin. Nowadays, hunting ties are nearly always made of white cotton material" (_Riding and Hunting_). If a collar is preferred to a hunting-tie, it should not be too high, for nothing is more uncomfortable in riding than a collar which compels its wearer to preserve a stiff neck and runs into her whenever she tries to turn her head. The best kind of cuffs are those which have button holes for links or solitaires in the centre, as they allow room for thick gloves to be passed under them. The necktie to be worn is a matter of choice, but white and black ties are always becoming, the former for preference, as they brighten up a dark habit. It is always well to abjure startling colours; for the dress, saddlery and gear of a horsewoman should be characterised by simplicity and neatness. On this point I can offer no sounder advice than that given to Laertes by his father, who said: "Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy, But not express'd in fancy; rich not gaudy; For the apparel oft proclaims the man;" and also the woman. CHAPTER VI. MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. MOUNTING. Supposing, as is usually the case, that there is a groom to hold the horse, and a gentleman to put the lady up; the groom, after the reins are placed on the animal's neck just in front of the withers, should stand in front of the horse, and should keep the animal's head up by holding the snaffle reins, one in each hand, close to the rings. If a double bridle be employed, as is usually the case, he should on no account hold the bit reins, lest an accident may happen from the curb hurting the horse's mouth. If there be no snaffle, the cheek-pieces of the headstall of the curb or Pelham should be held. With a strange or uncertain tempered animal, it is best for the lady to approach him from his "left front," and she will do well to speak kindly to him and pat him on the neck, for these two forms of conciliation are greatly appreciated by horses. Having arrived alongside her mount, she should stand just behind his near foreleg, close to, but not touching him, and facing to the front, with her shoulders at right angles to his side. She now places her right hand, with the whip in it, on the upper crutch, and raises her left foot about twelve inches from the ground, while keeping the leg, from knee to ankle, in a more or less vertical position (Fig. 67). The whip should be held as in this illustration, so as to avoid alarming the horse. The gentleman who is to put her on her horse, places himself close to, and in front of her, bends down, and places the palm of one hand (generally the left one) under the ball of her left foot, while he supports that hand by putting the palm of the other hand under it. The lady then places her left hand--with the elbow turned out a little, so as to be able to utilise that arm in raising herself--on his right shoulder (Fig. 68). [Illustration: Fig. 67.--Foot raised for mounting.] Having finished the "prepare to mount" stage, she straightens her left knee by lightly springing upwards off the ground by means of her right foot, and at the same time pressing on her cavalier's shoulder so as to straighten her left arm. The moment he feels her weight on his hands, he should raise himself into an erect position, so as to bring her on a level with the saddle, on which she places herself by turning to the left while she is being raised, and bearing on the upper crutch with her right hand. It will be difficult for the gentleman to do this lift properly, unless the lady keeps her left knee and left elbow straight during the ascent. The gentleman's task will be greatly facilitated if he takes advantage of the lady's spring; but even if he lets that helpful moment pass by, he can do the lift in a satisfactory manner with the small drawback of an extra expenditure of muscular effort. The fact of the lady exerting a strong downward pressure on the gentleman's left shoulder, makes the lift much easier for him than if he had to do it entirely by his arms. It is most important for the beginner to understand this extremely simple method of mounting, so that, if failure results, she may know who is in fault. Her only serious error is that of neglecting to straighten her knee. His crimes in this respect are many. _First_, he may catch hold of the heel of her boot in the preliminary stage, and will thus prevent her utilising the play of her left ankle joint in her spring. Experiment will show that this trick of catching the heel hampers a lady's movements in mounting much more than might at first be thought possible. _Second_, from knowing no better, or from a desire to show off his strength, he may use only one hand to lift the lady, and will then almost always have cause to regret his superfluity of self confidence. _Third_, he may stand too far away from her, and thus bring her left foot too much forward, in which case it will be almost impossible for her to straighten her left knee. _Fourth_, he may also prevent her from doing this indispensable part of the performance, by trying to raise her before she has put her weight on his hands. _Fifth_, he may stand too far away from the side of the horse, in which case he is liable to throw her over to the off side of the horse (as happened once to me), by giving her an oblique instead of a vertical propulsion. A minor form of this mistake is attempting to put the lady on the saddle, instead of raising her to the height at which she can easily take her seat. After a lady has suffered from clumsy attempts to put her up, it is not to be wondered at if she regards the feat of mounting as one which requires some peculiar knack to accomplish; and, as failure in mounting is particularly ungraceful, she naturally becomes nervous about attempting it. If she has any doubts as to her capability to mount easily, she might make some preliminary attempts to stand and support herself for a few seconds on a gentleman's hands, with her left hand on his shoulder and her right hand on the upper crutch. When she finds that she can do this successfully, she may, when her leg is again straight, give him a signal (or take one from him) to raise her to the necessary height, so that she may sit in the saddle. If she be very timid, she may practise mounting indoors, with her right hand on the top of an upright piano, and her left on a gentleman's shoulder as before. Although it is usual for the gentleman to give the words, "One, two!" as a signal for her to make her spring and straighten her knee before he raises her, no such caution is necessary; for he will know, by feeling her weight on his hands, when she is in a proper position to be raised. [Illustration: Fig. 68.--Ready to mount.] Having arrived on the saddle, the lady places her right leg over the crutch, while her attendant puts her left foot in the stirrup, adjusts any elastic loops that may be present, and straightens her skirt, as may be required. She then takes up the reins. It is advisable for the lady not to touch the reins until she is securely placed in the saddle and is ready to use them, because the act of placing her right hand on the crutch while holding the reins in it, is liable to render the horse unsteady, and the reins are of no use to her until she is firmly seated. If there is only one man to help the lady to mount, he should place his left arm through the snaffle reins, so as to prevent the animal from getting away while putting her up. I think all hunting men should know how to put a lady up, because accidents in the field are constantly occurring, and some poor Diana who has had a tumble is always grateful to any good Samaritan who renders her this small service. A well-meaning sportsman who kindly offered me his help on such an occasion, knew so little about the mysteries of side-saddle riding, that he attempted to give me a "leg up," as if I were a man! It would be well for every school where riding is taught to be supplied with a wooden horse, on which pupils could learn the method of getting into the saddle, and would thus avoid becoming flurried or nervous when mounting, especially if the horse is a stranger. Also, a dummy horse would be an admirable subject on which to do preliminary practice in other details of riding, such as grip, length of stirrup, leaning back (as when going over fences), position of the hands, holding and handling the reins, etc. In this way, beginners would learn what they had to do, before getting on a horse. _Mounting from the ground unaided_ depends for its success chiefly on the respective heights of horse and rider, although a lady can be helped considerably in this attempt by letting out the stirrup leather, which she will have to shorten after climbing into the saddle. Unless a lady is tall and athletic, it will be almost impossible for her to perform this feat on a full-sized horse. This method of mounting should, as a rule, be avoided, because, apart from its not being very graceful, it is apt to disarrange the position of the saddle, by pulling it to the near side, and the animal would then be liable to get a sore back, especially if he had to go through a long day with hounds. [Illustration: Fig. 69.--Dismounting without help.] _Mounting from a block_, low wall, or other suitable object, may be done without help, if the animal is "confidential" and accustomed to the work. If a man be present, he may stand in front of the horse and hold him in the way already described for the groom to do (page 125). If the animal shows unwillingness to approach the mounting-block, the man should hold the off cheek-piece of the headstall of the bridle with his right hand, and, with the flat of his left hand, prevent the horse from swinging his hind quarters out. When the horse is sufficiently close, the lady should take the whip and reins in her left hand, put her left foot in the stirrup, take the upper crutch with her left hand and the cantle with the right, and spring lightly between both hands into the saddle. The right leg is then put over the upper crutch and the skirt arranged. DISMOUNTING, in the days of voluminous skirts, was a far more serious business than it is now; for the "knee recess" had to be carefully freed from the crutches of the saddle, and the skirt gathered up in the hands of the rider, so that she might not tread on it. Riding women of to-day generally prefer to dismount without assistance, for they are no longer hampered with an early Victorian skirt. While a man holds the horse, the rider releases her foot from the stirrup and loop, removes her right leg from the crutch, and placing her right hand on it and her left hand on the leaping head to steady herself (Fig. 69), springs lightly to the ground. If help is required from a male attendant, it is best for him to offer his right arm, on which the rider places her left hand (Fig. 70), as she leaves the saddle. If there is only one man present, he should take the snaffle reins in his left hand, before offering his right arm to the lady. Another plan is for the lady to give her hands to the man who assists her to dismount, but that would not be pleasant in the case of an ordinary groom. An old-fashioned way of helping a lady to dismount, was to put an arm round her waist and lift her from the saddle! [Illustration: Fig. 70.--Dismounting with help.] CHAPTER VII. HOW TO HOLD THE REINS. Principles--Holding Single Reins in Both Hands--Holding Single Reins in One Hand--Holding Double Reins in Both Hands--Holding Double Reins in One Hand--Shortening the Reins--Military Method of Holding the Reins--Respective Merits of One-Handed and Two-Handed Riding. As there is but little difference between the respective ways men and women should use their reins, I have taken the most of this chapter from _Riding and Hunting_. PRINCIPLES. The following are the usual principles to be observed in holding the reins:-- 1. A secure grip of the reins should be maintained, with as little stiffness as possible, because stiffness implies continued muscular contraction, and consequent defective manipulation from fatigue. 2. When both hands are used, we should hold the reins so that we can freely use our hands, either separately or together, in any required direction. 3. When both hands are used, the manner of holding the reins by one hand should be the same as that by the other, so that the feeling of the hands on the reins may be the same on both sides. 4. When a horse which has an "even" mouth is going in a straight direction, the action of one rein should be the same as that of the other rein. [Illustration: Fig. 71.--A rein in each hand.] HOLDING SINGLE REINS IN BOTH HANDS. Pass the near rein between the little finger and the ring finger of the left hand, bring it out between the forefinger and thumb, and take up the off rein in the same manner in the right hand (Fig. 71). The reins thus held will be in the best position for general use, especially as the hands can then be readily separated, if we wish to turn the horse to one side or the other. [Illustration: Fig. 72.--Single reins crossed in one hand.] [Illustration: Fig. 73.--Single reins crossed in one hand.] HOLDING SINGLE REINS IN ONE HAND. While holding the reins as in Fig. 71, pass the off rein into the left hand between its forefinger and thumb, and across the portion of the near rein that is in the palm of the left hand (Fig. 72). On letting go the off rein with the right hand, we close the fingers of the left hand, turn the left hand inwards, and let it fall from the wrist in an easy manner (Fig. 73). When holding the reins in one hand, we should not keep the knuckles in a vertical position, because, by doing so, one rein will come up higher on the horse's neck than the other rein. On the contrary, both in one-handed and two-handed riding, the knuckles should be held more or less horizontally, as they would be when the hand is allowed to fall without stiffness from the wrist. [Illustration: Fig. 74.--Double reins held separately in two hands.] Whether the reins are held in one hand or in two, we should avoid "rounding the wrists," not only on account of the consequent stiffness imparted to these joints, but also because that action tends to make us carry the elbows outwards, and thus diminishes the force which the arms are capable of exerting on the reins. [Illustration: Fig. 75.--Holding double reins crossed in one hand.] HOLDING DOUBLE REINS IN BOTH HANDS. We may hold double reins in both hands in the same way as we hold single reins, except that the little fingers separate the reins on each respective side (Fig. 74). The question as to which rein should be on the outside may be decided by the amount of control which is required to be obtained over the horse; because, by the rotation of the hand, we can work the outward rein more effectively than the inward rein. If the snaffle is to be the predominant bit, its reins should be on the outside, and the curb-reins slack. HOLDING DOUBLE REINS IN ONE HAND. The forefinger of the left hand separates the two off reins, the little finger divides the two near ones, and the reins are crossed in the palm of the hand (Fig. 75), as with single reins. It is convenient to have the reins on which we want to have the stronger pull on the outside. If the rider wishes to use only one rein, she may hold it crossed in her hand, and may hook up the other on the middle finger, and let it loose (Fig. 76), or draw it up to a greater or less extent. [Illustration: Fig. 76.--Double reins in left hand: one crossed, the other hooked up on middle finger.] SHORTENING THE REINS. In shortening the reins we should alter the feeling on them as little as possible, and should carefully keep them at the same length, so as not to interfere with the horse's mouth. If a rein is in each hand (Fig. 71), we had best pass the off rein into the left hand (Fig. 72); close the left hand on both reins (Fig. 73); slip the right hand forward on the off rein till the proper length is obtained; take up both reins in the right hand; let go the slack of the reins with the left hand; take up the near rein with the left hand; and separate the hands. [Illustration: Fig. 77.--Reins held in one hand in military fashion.] If the reins are held in one hand (the left, for instance), take them up in the right hand; slip the left hand forward on the near rein; and, when the desired length is obtained, take up both reins with the left hand. MILITARY METHOD OF HOLDING THE REINS. In almost all riding schools, ladies are taught to hold the reins in military fashion, which enacts that they should be held in the left hand, with the little finger dividing them, and their ends brought up between the finger and thumb (Fig. 77). Thus, the hold on the reins is chiefly maintained by the lateral pressure of the fingers and by the downward pressure of the thumb on them. As the muscles which draw the fingers laterally together, are far weaker than the muscles which cause the hand to become clenched, it follows that this method of holding the reins is much less secure and a good deal more tiring than the crossed plan (Fig. 73), which has the further advantage of utilising the friction between the opposing surfaces of leather. This method is also unsuitable for two-handed riding, because it violates the principle laid down on pages 136 and 137, that the manner of holding the reins by one hand should be the same as that by the other hand (compare Figs. 71 and 78). [Illustration: Fig. 78.--Off rein taken up by right hand from position shown in Fig. 77.] RESPECTIVE MERITS OF ONE-HANDED AND TWO-HANDED RIDING. All good horsewomen, especially when out hunting, ride with both hands on the reins, because, even with the quietest animal, the two hands may be needed for control or guidance. Besides, an even feeling on the reins when they are held in one hand, can be maintained only by keeping the hand in the centre-line of the horse's body, which is naturally a more or less irksome task for the rider. With only one hand on the reins, the rider's available strength is reduced by nearly one-half, and the reins have to be held much shorter than if both hands were on them. One-handed riding is all right for military men, who have to wield a sword or lance, and polo players, who have to use a polo-stick, but it is ridiculous for ladies. CHAPTER VIII. THE SEAT. Theory of the Seat--Practical Details. THEORY OF THE SEAT. The best seat for all practical purposes is evidently one which affords security and comfort to the rider and freedom from injury to the horse. The lady should sit (not lean) forward in the saddle, so as to get a good grip of the crutches; and should bring her seat well under her ("sit well into the saddle"), in order to bring the centre of gravity of her body well back, as regards her base of support, and thus to increase her stability, which will depend almost entirely on her power to resist forward propulsion, when the horse suddenly stops or swerves to the left. Her hold of the reins will in any case prevent her from toppling backwards over the animal's tail, in the event of his making an unexpected movement forward from the halt, or suddenly increasing his speed when in motion. The faulty practice of riding the crutches, instead of sitting down in the saddle, brings the weight forward, and places the lady in the best possible position to fall off. The greater difficulty which a rider has in keeping her seat when her mount abruptly swerves to the left, than when he goes to the right, is due to the fact that in the former case, the upper crutch is drawn away from the right thigh; but in the latter case, it forms a more or less effective obstacle to the forward movement of the right thigh, and thus helps the rider to retain her seat. To explain this subject more fully, I may point out, that if a person is standing on the foot-board of the right side of a rapidly moving train which suddenly turns to the left, he or she would be far more inclined to fall off, than if a similar change of direction had been made to the right, in both of which instances the side of the train would play the part of the upper crutch. The fact that the lower part of the rider's right leg rests against the horse's near shoulder, as in Fig. 79, will materially help her in keeping her seat, in the event of an abrupt swerve to the left. The side position of the seat, combined with the fact that the head has to be kept more or less in the direction the horse is proceeding, causes more weight to be placed on the near side than on the off. Although the rider cannot entirely remove this disadvantage, she may lessen this unequal distribution of weight, (1) by avoiding the use of too long a stirrup leather, for the longer it is, the more inclined will she be to bring her weight to the near side, in order to obtain the assistance of her stirrup; (2) by sitting a little over on the off side, so as to place her weight as much as possible on the middle line of the seat of the saddle, namely, over the backbone of the horse; and (3), as already pointed out (p. 34), by having the leaping head close to the upper crutch. In order to meet the second requirement, she should rest her weight on her right leg, which in any case will have less fatigue to bear than the left one. Putting the weight on the right leg has the further advantage of lessening the tendency of the right shoulder to go forward, and of diminishing the pressure of the left foot on the stirrup. [Illustration: Fig. 79.--Position of rider's legs at the walk.] The preponderance of weight on the left side of the saddle is liable to cause undue pressure on the off side of the withers, and also, though to a lesser extent, on the off side of the backbone, under the cantle of the saddle, with the result that ladies' horses frequently get sore backs at these places. As this unequal distribution of weight on the near side varies more or less at each stride of the horse; the saddle has a strong inclination, during movement, to keep working from one side to the other, and consequently, in order to check this hurtful tendency, a lady's saddle has to be girthed up much tighter than a man's saddle, and also to be provided with a balance strap (p. 53). The only means by which the rider can maintain her position in the saddle are balance and grip, both of which are accomplished by muscular action, though in different ways. What is popularly known as "grip," is effected by continued muscular contraction, which speedily gives rise to fatigue, and consequently can be kept up for only a comparatively short time. The balance required for holding the body more or less erect, as in walking, standing and sitting, is, on the contrary, preserved by the alternate contraction and relaxation of a large number of muscles, the work of which, being intermittent and more or less evenly distributed, can be maintained for a long period without fatigue. It is therefore evident that a lady should ride as much as possible by balance, and that she should use grip only when its aid is demanded for keeping her secure in the saddle. It is obvious that grip is the riding function of the legs; and balance, that of the body. As grip has generally to be put in action at a moment's notice, the legs should be kept in such a position as to enable them to apply the necessary grip with promptness and precision. Hence the rider should not move about in the saddle, as some are inclined to do, in the attempt to "sit back" when going over a fence. While keeping the legs in a uniform position, the rider will obtain all the _balance_ she needs, by the play of her hip joints and by that of the joints of the body above them, and will thus be enabled to sit erect, lean back or forward, or bring her weight to one side or the other, as may be required. _Grip_ from the left leg is obtained by pressure against the leaping head, which can be effected either by certain muscles of the thigh or by those of the ankle joint. The amount of pressure which can be obtained by the former method is far less than by the latter, for which a short stirrup leather is necessary. The comparative feebleness of this action of the thigh muscles can be readily seen by the small resistance which they can make against downward pressure, when the knee is raised with the foot off the ground. If, however, the foot is on the ground, the muscles which straighten the ankle joint will enable the knee to be raised, even against strong downward pressure. It might be objected to this mode of obtaining grip, that the powerful pressure thus exerted on the stirrup iron, would cause a downward pull on the (near) left side, which is, however, counterbalanced by the upward pressure of the left leg on the leaping head, and consequently it has no displacing effect on the saddle. It is evident that this action of the ankle joint can be performed effectively, only when the ball of the foot rests on the stirrup. If the foot is put "home," the ankle joint will have little or no play. When using the leaping head, we should bear in mind that the action of the muscles which straighten the ankle joint, should be independent of the body. If this condition is not observed, the tendency will be to put undue weight on the stirrup, and to bring the body forward. It is evident that placing weight on the stirrup, without at the same time exerting counterbalancing pressure against the leaping head, will not only put undue weight on the near side, but will also bring the body forward. [Illustration: Fig. 80.--Hooked back leg, the direction of the pressure of which is shown by the fore finger of the left hand.] The right leg can help in obtaining grip, either by bending the knee and bringing the calf of the leg round the upper crutch, or by lateral pressure of the knee against that crutch. The former method is entirely wrong, because it cannot be fully carried out, except by bringing the body forward,[150-*] which action is incompatible with firmness of seat, when going over fences, or when the horse makes any abrupt and disconcerting movement. This "hooked-back" seat also predisposes a lady to fall over the off shoulder of an animal which suddenly swerves to the near side; the reason being that in such a case, the upper crutch acts as the pivot of revolution. On account of causing the weight to be brought forward, this hooked-back style also tends to make her bump up and down in her saddle. The lateral method, which is effected by the inward rotation of the right thigh, is free from the foregoing objections; and by causing the lower part of the right leg to be placed against the horse's shoulder, it affords the rider valuable indications of the animal's movements. Also, as the lateral pressure is as nearly as practicable in a direction opposite to that of the pressure of the left leg against the leaping head; it will act to the best advantage, and it will allow the body full freedom to be drawn back by the play of the hip joints. The pressure of the hooked-back leg is, on the contrary, nearly at right angles to that of the left leg (Fig. 80), and consequently it affords very little help in the attainment of grip. The hooked-back style of riding induces fatigue by continued muscular contraction, and is a fertile cause of ladies becoming cut under the right knee, which fact is fully proved by the numerous devices which have been brought out by saddlers with the view of obviating this injury. [Illustration: Fig. 81.--Seat at the walk.] It is easy to prove by experiment, that when we sit in an unconstrained position on a chair or saddle for instance, the direction of our shoulders will be at right angles to that of our legs, or, more correctly speaking, at right angles to a line bisecting the angle formed by our legs. Hence, when riding, we cannot continue to sit absolutely "square" (having our shoulders at right angles to the direction of our mount) without keeping our body in a stiff position, which in a short time will be productive of discomfort and fatigue. Although the maintenance of a twisted position of the body to the right is incompatible with ease, no discomfort will arise from looking more or less straight to the front, because the muscles which regulate the direction of the neck and eyes are gifted with great mobility, and their respective periods of contraction and relaxation are comparatively short, when we are looking to the front. Even when walking at ease, the direction of the shoulders, which alters at every step, in no way affects that of our line of sight; and it certainly would not do so, when we are riding. The continued maintenance of a perfectly square seat entails so much muscular rigidity, that it is unsuitable for 'cross-country work, or for the riding of "difficult" horses. In any case, it causes the body to assume a twisted and therefore an unnatural position; because the fact of the right hip joint being more advanced than the left one, will prevent the lower and posterior part of the trunk (the pelvis) from being parallel, as it ought to be, with the line connecting the shoulders. To facilitate the attainment of a "square seat," some saddlers incline the upper crutch a good deal towards the off side, and thus curtail the space between that crutch and the near side of the horse's shoulder and neck so much, that the rider is unable to get her right leg into proper position, and is consequently obliged to "hook it back." I need hardly say that such saddles do not suit good horsewomen. An absurd fallacy of some of the "square seat" school is that the right thigh (from hip joint to knee) should be kept parallel to the horse's backbone, a position which would put a great deal more weight on the near side of the saddle than on the off, and would consequently be liable to give the horse a sore back. On the contrary, the even distribution of the rider's weight is an essential condition of comfort to the animal and of security of seat to the rider, and is of infinitely greater importance than the attainment of a conventional and unnatural attitude. [Illustration: Fig. 82.--Length of stirrup.] The majority of riding-masters are such admirers of the "square seat," that when giving a lady her first few lessons, they will as a rule keep constantly telling her to keep her right shoulder back, which she cannot do without twisting and stiffening her body. For practical requirements, as out hunting or on a long journey, the seat should be free from all constraint and rigidity, so that it can be maintained without undue fatigue for several hours, during which time the rider should be able at any moment to utilise the grip of her legs with promptness, precision and strength. A lady, with a good seat and properly made saddle, will ride quite square enough (Fig. 81) to avoid any lack of elegance in her appearance without having to adopt a conventional twist. PRACTICAL DETAILS. The first thing for a rider to do is to place herself in a thoroughly comfortable position on the saddle. She should sit well down in it, in the same manner as she would sit on a chair in which she wished to lean back, and would thus get her seat well under her, and would be able to obtain, when required, a strong grip of the crutches. In this position she will be able to increase her stability by bringing her shoulders back, which she could not do with the same facility, if, instead of leaning back, she sat back. In order to see where she is going, she should sit more or less erect. Her left foot should be placed in the stirrup only as far as the ball of the foot, so as to allow the ankle joint full play. The stirrup leather should be long enough to enable the left thigh to clear the leaping head, when the lady rises at the trot; and short enough for it to exert full pressure against the leaping head, by the action of the ankle joint. A correct compromise between these two opposing conditions is obtained when the length of the leather will just allow the flat of the hand to be easily placed between the leg and the leaping head (Fig. 82). [Illustration: Fig. 83.--Correct position of legs.] The rider should obtain her grip of the leaping head just above the point of the left knee, as shown in Fig. 83; and by rotating the right thigh inwards, she should press the flat of that knee against the upper crutch, as if she were trying to bring her two knees together. While gripping in the manner described, the portion of the right leg which is below the knee, should rest in an easy position against the horse's near shoulder, as in Fig. 79. [Illustration: Fig. 84.--Leaning back.] When the beginner has learned how to sit in the saddle, she should practise leaning back, which she can best do by gripping the crutches, while keeping her legs in proper position (Fig. 84), and leaning her body back until she can almost touch the horse's croup. When doing this for the first few times, her teacher should support her, in order to give her confidence, and the groom, if necessary, should hold the horse, which should of course be a quiet animal. The object of this practice is to show her that the movements of her body are entirely independent of her grip of the crutches, and that the forward and backward motion of her body is regulated by the action of her hip joints, and not by altering her seat, which should remain fixed, and, as it were, glued to the saddle, at the walk, canter, gallop and jump; the trot being the only movement at which she should rise. Having learned the meaning of grip and leaning back, she can take a snaffle rein in each hand, as in Fig. 71, while keeping her hands low and well apart; she can then "feel" the horse's mouth by drawing her hands towards her through a distance of a few inches, and then keeping them in a fixed position. FOOTNOTES: [150-*] The muscles of our limbs are attached at each end to bones, between which there are one or more joints; and they act by their power of contraction, which enables them to become shortened to about two-thirds of their length. The full effect of this contraction can be obtained by a muscle only when its points of attachment are separated to their utmost extent, and it becomes diminished in proportion as the distance between them is shortened by the bending of the intermediate joint or joints, up to a length equal to that of the muscle in a fully contracted state, at which limit the muscle is out of "play." The muscles which bend the knee are attached, at one end, to the back of the shin bone, close to the knee; and at the other extremity, to the end of the ischium (lower part of the pelvis), which is below the hip joints. Consequently, the more the knee is bent and the more the upper part of the body is drawn back by the play of the hip joints, the nearer are the opposite points of attachment of these respective muscles brought together, and the less power will they have to hook back the knee. Hence the more a lady leans back, when going over a fence for instance, the less firmly will she be able to hook her leg round the upper crutch. Therefore, ladies who adopt this hooked-back seat, are invariably prompted by the requirements of this position, to bend forward, and have more or less difficulty in bringing the upper part of the body back. CHAPTER IX. HANDS, VOICE, WHIP AND SPUR. HANDS. Nearly every writer on the subject of riding is of opinion that "good hands" are inborn and cannot be acquired. This may be so, but the worst of hands may be greatly improved by good teaching and practice. Continental horsemen do not, as a rule, learn how to ride across country, but the majority of them devote much study to the various methods of bitting and handling horses, and, as far as hacking is concerned, their horses are better broken and better handled than they are in this country. I am not alluding to the question of seat, as I think Britons, and especially our Colonial cousins, can beat them on that point; but it is evident, as can be seen any day and in any hunting field, that more study should be devoted to the acquirement of good hands. A course of school riding, especially on a made "school" horse, which is a very light-mouthed animal, would greatly lessen the clumsiness of heavy hands; or, if such instruction were unobtainable, good practice might be had on a young horse which had been carefully broken by a competent horseman. No young horse will pull until he is taught to do so by bad handling, and a lady who wishes to improve her hands might ride a young animal, in the company of an old steady horse, and ascertain in this way what the natural condition of a horse's mouth really is and how easily it may be controlled. I do not think that many ladies have heavy hands with horses--their chief fault lies in their want of control over their mounts. Many ride with the reins so loose that their horses get out of hand and go in an uncollected manner, and accidents not unfrequently occur from this cause. As horses which are not well in hand in the hunting field will, sooner or later, bring their riders either to grief or to disgrace, this slipshod method of handling should be avoided. Although the grip which a lady obtains in a side-saddle should render her entirely independent of the reins as a means of support, she is handicapped by being unable to lower her hands to the same extent as a man. I have found that with horses which carry their heads too high, and throw them up if the rider tries to lower them, a standing martingale attached to the rings of the snaffle affords considerable help in obtaining perfect control, especially with young horses. But I would not recommend a lady to use a standing martingale with a horse which has not previously been accustomed to it, nor indeed at all, unless she rides chiefly on the snaffle; for although it is perfectly safe to use the curb with a standing martingale in steadying and collecting a horse, it would be highly dangerous to touch it when the animal is jumping. The majority of riding men regard the standing martingale as dangerous--and rightly, for only men with good hands can safely use it. If any sudden snatch or jerk were made at the curb, and the horse in throwing up his head found himself caught by the standing martingale, a very serious accident might happen. The standing martingale in no way impedes a horse's jumping, for horses do not jump with their heads in the air, unless they fear the curb. Fig. 48 shows its maximum length. It may be said that ladies ought not to ride horses which carry their heads too high, but many of us have to make the best of what we can get in the matter of horseflesh, and employ the surest methods at our command for keeping such animals under perfect control. The standing martingale is dangerous in hunting only when going through gates, as it is liable to catch in a gate post and cause trouble. The faster a horse goes at any particular pace in a natural and unconstrained manner, the more will he try to extend his head and neck, so as to bring the centre of gravity of his body forward, and also to aid the muscles of the neck in drawing the fore limbs to the front. The pulling in of the head and neck by the reins will, therefore, be a direct indication to the animal to slacken his speed. If he be well broken he will not only go slower, but will also signify the fact of his obedience by yielding to the bit by the play of the joints of his head and neck. When he keeps these joints (namely, those which connect the lower jaw to the head, and the head to the neck, and the joints of the neck themselves) free from all rigidity and bears lightly on the bit, he is what is called "well in hand," in which state every horsewoman should endeavour to keep her mount, as it is the _beau idéal_ one that admits of full control by the rider and of perfect freedom of movement on the part of the horse. Having the horse well in hand, the rider should be careful to keep the reins _at one unaltered length_ for the particular rate of speed at which she is going. If she desires to increase it, she should give her horse a signal which he understands, and should lengthen the reins as may be required. If she wishes to go slower, she should proportionately shorten them; but she should _always_ preserve uniformity of speed at any pace by keeping a fixed length of reins. Nothing is worse for a horse's mouth than the constant "give and take" (in Ireland they call it "niggling" at a horse's mouth) which is practised by almost every bad rider. This fact is so well recognised by our jockeys that "Keep your hands steady" is the chief order which competent trainers of racehorses give to their lads. When a rider keeps shifting the position of her hands, her bewildered animal will be unable to know at what speed she wants him to travel. All this reads very simple, but sometimes we find that horses, especially when excited by hounds, insist on going at their own pace. If the coast is clear in front, and the horseman in advance has got safely over and away from the fence to which a lady is approaching, it would not be wise for her to interfere with her hunter, because, if he knows his business, he won't fall if he can help it. But if, on the other hand, the only practicable place in a fence is not free, the keenness of the animal must be checked by a judicious use of the curb. If he is so headstrong as to refuse to obey this command by slackening speed, he should be turned round either to right or left, whichever may be the easier for his rider. When we find ourselves in such a tight corner we must, for our own safety as well as for that of our neighbours, exercise a certain amount of force in controlling our horses. The "silken thread" method of handling, which is, or should be, employed at any other time, stands us in poor stead in the face of this difficulty. There are horses which will neither slacken speed nor turn for their riders, and a runaway in the hunting field is by no means rare. If any lady has a hunter who takes charge of her in this manner, I would strongly advise her to ride him in a standing martingale (p. 82), because with its aid she will generally be able to turn him, even if she cannot stop him in any other way. A horse which will neither slacken speed nor turn in any direction gallops on, as a rule, with his head up, and, having succeeded in shifting the snaffle from the bars to the corners of his mouth, he is impervious to the action of the curb, because his head is too high for the curb to act with advantage. On such an animal the standing martingale is valuable, because it makes him keep his head in a proper position. A great deal of sound sense has been written by different horsemen on the subject of "hands." Sam Chifney tells us to use the reins as if they were silken threads which any sharp pull would break, and Mr. John Hubert Moore always gave the advice to take a pull at the reins as though you were drawing a cork out of a bottle without wishing to spill one drop of its contents. I have often, in my own mind, likened a horse's mouth to a piece of narrow elastic which is capable of expansion up to a certain point. When vigorously tugged at, it is no longer elastic, but as unyielding as ordinary string. Good hands maintain its elasticity, bad ones convert it into string. A sympathetic touch on a horse's mouth can only be made by "good hands." A musician, if he is an artist, will accompany a weak-voiced singer so sympathetically that the sweet though not robust notes of the voice are heard to the best advantage: he is a man with good hands. A heavy-fisted player, desiring to show his command over the instrument, will try to turn the accompaniment into a pianoforte solo, and the nice notes of the struggling singer will be entirely drowned by noise. He is like the heavy-handed, unsympathetic rider. VOICE. For pleasant riding, it is essential that the horse should understand his rider's orders, which are usually given to him only by the reins and whip. However efficiently a lady may use these "aids," the fact remains that a good understanding between herself and her mount is better established by the voice than by any other means. With a little vocal training any ordinary horse, when going fast, will pull up more promptly and with greater ease to his mouth and hocks, by a pleasantly uttered "whoa," than by the action of hands and reins. Young horses, like foxhound puppies which are taken out for the first time, show great reluctance to pass moving objects; but if the rider speaks encouragingly to her mount in a tone of voice that means he must go on, he will try his best to obey her, although his attention may be divided betwixt fear and duty. As a reward, his rider should give him a few pats on the neck and speak encouragingly to him, and she will doubtless find that he will make a bolder effort to obey her voice when he again finds himself confronted with a similar difficulty; because he will associate his first escape from apparent disaster with her voice, and will in time have such confidence in her guidance that a word from her will be quite sufficient to assure him that all is well. When riding bad horses at my husband's breaking classes abroad, I found it best not to speak to them; for a bond of friendship had not been established between us, and I noticed that the sound of my voice often stirred up their angry passions by reminding them, I suppose, of some former rider who had scolded them while ill-treating them. It was unsafe even to pat and try to be friendly with such spoiled horses. I remember a very violent animal in Pretoria which showed resentment in this respect by rushing at me after I had dismounted, simply because I endeavoured to pat and say a kind word to him. I have no doubt that he would have accepted my well-meant advances if we had had time to mutually understand each other. A show jumper named Mons Meg was so terrified of the man who used to ride her that, on hearing his voice, even from a distance, she would break out in a perspiration and stand trembling with terror. The mare was really so kind that we had her for a time at Ward's Riding School, and she was ridden without reins over jumps by several of our pupils. I took her to ride in a jumping competition at the Agricultural Hall; but, unfortunately, the rider she disliked came to her stall and spoke to her, with the usual result, and when I got on her back she was violently agitated, and refused the second fence, which was a gate. At one moment it seemed as though she would have brought us both to grief, for she tried to jump out of the ring among the people--a feat, I was afterwards told, she had performed on more than one occasion. She would always jump kindly when away from the hated show ring, where she must at some time or other have been badly treated. When animals get into a state of nervous excitement, a few pats on the neck and a soothing word or two often act like magic in calming them down. A mare which was lent me in Calcutta by a horse importer, and on which I won a cup in an open jumping competition, was in such a state of nervousness that she would not let me take the trophy until I patted and spoke to her, and the presentation was then effected without a scene. This animal, which was a well-bred Australian, was a stranger to me, and had never carried a lady before that day. Nevertheless, she passed successfully through a terribly trying ordeal, and I am certain that she would not have made the great efforts she did in jumping, if I had not soothed and encouraged her with my voice. She was only 14-2 in height, and was competing against big horses, some of which were ridden by steeplechase jockeys. The competition took place at night in a circus which was lighted by electricity, and which was open at each end. The object to be jumped was a white gate placed midway across the arena, and raised each time that it had been successfully cleared. From the glare of electric light in this crowded place, we had to go into outer darkness and carefully avoid the tent pegs and ropes in finding our way to the other entrance. While we were waiting our turn to jump, we had to stand near a cage of lions which growled savagely during the whole time, and also in the vicinity of two camels. My mount disliked the camels far more than the lions; in fact, she hated the sight of them, and would have done her best to escape, if I had not turned her head away from them and patted and soothed her. Mr. Frank Fillis, who was the proprietor of the circus, told me that horses have such an antipathy to camels that they will not drink, however thirsty they may be, from a bucket which has been used by one of these long-necked animals. By-the-bye, my acquisition of this cup caused me to be branded as a "circus rider" by the ladies in a Little Pedlington village in this country; for when the local society leader called on me, I was out, and my son, by way of entertaining her, showed her "the cup that mother won in a circus!" In order for the voice to be effective, the word of command must be given at the moment when a horse is about to play up in any way, not after he has committed a fault, and therefore a knowledge of horses and their ways is necessary before we can use the voice properly. It is always advisable to keep an eye on our mount, because if we do not do so, we shall be unable to seize the generally brief moment which exists between the thought of evil in the animal's mind and its execution. Those who have lived much among horses must have frequently noticed this preparatory period before a horse plays up, and no doubt have profited by the warning their experienced eyes gave them; for if we see what is about to come, and know how to avert it, we are often able to save ourselves from disaster. In order that the animal may thoroughly understand our words of command, we should have as few of them as possible, employ them only when necessary, and always in the same respective tone of voice, whether it be a soothing word of encouragement accompanied by a few pats on the neck, or the word "steady" given in a determined tone, and accompanied by a restraining pull on the reins as may be necessary. The word "whoa" is best uttered in rather a high key and in a drawling tone, when we begin to pull up a horse during movement; but we should reserve "steady," like the curb, for use in emergency, and should utter it in a threatening tone of voice. The words of command which an inexperienced rider will find most useful are a click of the tongue for a walk, trot, and canter; "whoa" to pull up; "steady" when he is going too fast, or indulging in unnecessary leaps and bounds; "go on," with a few pats on the neck, if he is nervous about passing any object, or shying; and a quiet word or two of encouragement, with more pats on the neck, when he is in a state of nervous excitement, as, for instance, on his first day with hounds. [Illustration: Fig. 85.--Hunting whip.] When visiting a horse in his stable to give him a carrot or other tit-bit, his mistress should call him by his name, and he will soon neigh on hearing her voice, if she always gives him something nice; for horses, like poor relations, don't appreciate our visits unless they can get something out of us. Lady Dilke had a horse which she had trained to lick her hand. On going up to him in his box she would put out her hand and say "Lick her, dear," and the animal would give her his mute caress like a dog: it was very pretty to see how well the pair understood each other. We may see the power of the voice exemplified in cart horses, which will turn to right or left, go faster or slower, or pull up, according as they receive the word of command from the wagoner who walks beside them. The voice is also greatly used by polo players. Horses are very catholic in their admiration for tit-bits. They like all kinds of sweets and fruit, and will even crunch up the stones of plums and peaches, which require good teeth to crack. An old favourite of mine was particularly fond of chocolate and jam tarts! WHIP. The chief uses of a hunting whip are to help the rider to manipulate gates, and to be cracked; the former being much more necessary to a horsewoman than the latter. The crop should therefore be of a serviceable length. It is the very silly fashion at present to have hunting whips that are less than two feet long. Many are made of whalebone, and are covered with catgut, their special advantage being that their flexibility greatly facilitates the process of cracking. A more serviceable crop for a lady is one of stiff cane, the thick end of the handle of which is made rough, as in Fig. 85, or is provided with a metal stud, so that the handle may not slip when it is pushed against a gate. Formerly, two feet three inches was the usual length of a hunting crop for both sexes. Three feet is a much better length for ladies, who cannot "get down into their saddle" like men. Besides, a fairly long crop is very useful for keeping a horse straight by the rider touching him with it on the off flank when he wants to run out to the left, which is his favourite side for refusing in the large majority of cases. A short crop is useless for this purpose, as the right hand will be fully occupied on such trying occasions in keeping the animal's head toward the obstacle, and the crop should be able to perform its share of the work by a turn of the wrist, care being taken that no jerk is communicated to the rein. [Illustration: Fig. 86.--Thong properly put on.] [Illustration: Fig. 87.--Thong properly put on.] The thong is about three feet ten inches long, is furnished with a lash, which is about a foot long, and is attached to the keeper, which is a leather loop at the end of the crop. Men generally like a thong of white pipe-clayed leather, but as the colour is apt to come off and soil one's habit, a brown leather thong is best for ladies. The keeper of the modern hunting whip has a slit, near its end, through both thicknesses of leather. In attaching the thong, the loop at its upper end is placed over the end of the keeper, and it is then passed through the slit and drawn tightly (Fig. 86). The old-fashioned keeper, which is still greatly in use, is a simple loop of leather, over which the loop of the thong is put, and the remainder of the thong is threaded through the opening at the end of the keeper (Fig. 87). A wrong way to put on the thong is, in the first instance, to pass the loop of the thong through (instead of over) the keeper (Fig. 88). Some authorities might take exception to the way the thong is put on in Fig. 89. To facilitate the use of the thong, it is well to have a long keeper, as in Fig. 86. The keeper of the whip which is shown in Fig. 85, and also in Fig. 87, is too short. [Illustration: Fig. 88.--Thong incorrectly put on.] [Illustration: Fig. 89.--Thong not quite right.] The chief use of the thong in hunting is to recover the crop if it happens to be pulled out of the hand when opening a gate, before doing which, one or more turns of the thong are consequently taken round the hand. It also enables us to warn off hounds who approach too near our horses' legs, on which occasions the whip should be held at arm's length, with thong and lash vertical. A touch of the lash may aid in encouraging a friend's horse to go through something to which he objects, but a man would doubtless be handy to do the needful in such a case. It would be well for a lady to know how to crack her whip, if her help were required in turning hounds, or in hurrying up a laggard hound; but this art should first be learnt on foot, under the tuition of a competent man, in much the same way as Mr. Frank Ward teaches his pupils to catch the thong with precision for four-in-hand driving; and the lady's hunter must also be trained to stand having a whip cracked on his back, before any experiment of that kind is performed in the hunting field. It is a good plan to first accustom hunters to the cracking of a whip in or near their stables, letting them see the performance, and, after a ridden horse will quietly stand the whip being flicked, his rider may safely crack it, supposing, of course, she is able to wield her flail correctly, and without touching the animal; hence the necessity of acquiring precision in this art before attempting it on horseback. An experienced hunting woman tells me that women should be as useful in the field as men; but I fear that is impossible, for we cannot get on and off our horses as easily as men, to render prompt help in cases of emergency; hold open a gate on a windy day, or perform the numerous kindly acts which fall to the lot of the mere male. Besides, however active and well-intentioned we may be, we are hampered by our dress, and still more so by the want of it, in the case of an apron skirt. If a crop is used for hacking, say in the Row, the thong should be taken off, for it would look as much out of place there as a pink hunting coat. The whip should be always carried handle downwards, on the off-side, as if we were trying to conceal its presence, and not as though we were riding with "a rein in each hand, and a whip in the other." In a country of hedges, like the Shires, it is well to acquire the habit of holding the whip in such a way that the handle of the whip will point directly backwards; for if it is inclined outwards, it will be apt to catch in a branch or twig, when going through a bullfinch (Fig. 90) or straggling hedge. [Illustration: Fig. 90.--A practicable Bullfinch.] SPUR. The spur is inapplicable to the requirements of ordinary side-saddle riding; because, in order to use it properly, it should be applied, as nearly as practicable, at right angles to the side of the horse, so as to touch him only on one spot, in which case the knee would have to be brought well away from the flap of the saddle, and the toe of the boot turned outwards. This would necessitate the use of a long stirrup leather, which would bring the rider's weight too much to the near-side, and would also render her seat insecure; because, instead of being able to get grip by the play of her left ankle joint (p. 149), she would have to draw back the left foot, and press the upper part of the thigh against the leaping head. Her forced adoption of this feeble attempt to obtain firmness of seat is due to the fact that if she raised her left knee to put pressure on the leaping head, her foot, in all probability, would come out of the iron, owing to the long leather being slack at that moment. Besides, with a leather at that length, it would be impossible for her to press her leg strongly against the leaping head by the action of the ankle joint. A lady who rides with her stirrup leather at the correct length (Fig. 79), can use the spur only in a more or less parallel direction to the animal's side, in which case, the spur, if it is sharp, will be almost certain to tear the skin, instead of lightly pricking it. The entirely wrong system of handling, feeding, and leading horses almost always on the near side, teaches them to turn much more easily as a rule to that side, which is a lady's weak side, than to the right. Consequently, when they "run out" at a fence, they almost invariably swerve to the left. In such a case, a man has his hands to turn the animal's head and neck, and his drawn back right leg to straighten the hind quarters; but the handicapped lady can supplement the action of her reins only by the whip, which she cannot use very effectively, owing to her perched-up position on the saddle. If she used a spur she would be at a still greater disadvantage, because, in order to escape the pain of the "persuader," the animal would naturally swing his hind quarters round to the right, and would consequently bring his fore-hand still more to the left, by the action of this misapplied "aid." If the lady's whip is not sufficiently long to give her mount the requisite reminder on the off flank, either by being pressed closely against it, or by the administration of a sharp tap, it will be useless for straightening him. Lady Augusta Fane, who is one of the best horsewomen in Leicestershire, and who certainly rides a greater variety of hunters during a season than any other lady in the Shires, is strongly opposed to the use of the spur. She tells me that "if a horse is so sticky as to require a spur, he is no hunter for this country; and if he is a determined refuser, no woman, spur or no spur, can make him gallop to these big fences and jump. I consider a spur a very cruel thing, and feel certain that many men would find their horses go better, and jump better, if they left their spurs at home, and many accidents would be avoided." Lord Harrington, who is well known as a fine horseman, also dislikes spurs, and has advocated their abolition in the Yeomanry. In this he should receive the support of all good riders, as they know that placid-tempered horses have better paces, higher courage, superior staying power, and greater cleverness and tact in times of danger than excitable ones. In polo, where the legs are far more required for guiding the horse than in hunting, the use of sharp spurs is forbidden, except by special permission. Whyte-Melville points out that my sex are unmerciful in the abuse of the spur. He says:--"Perhaps because they have but one, they use this stimulant liberally and without compunction. From their seat and shortness of stirrup every kick tells home. Concealed under a riding habit, these vigorous applications are unsuspected by lookers on." I have seen more than one poor animal's side badly torn and bleeding from a lady's spur. A lady who rides a horse in the ordinary way with this instrument of torture, which she is unable to use correctly, brands herself in the eyes of her more experienced sister as an incompetent horsewoman. I have heard hunting men advocate the spur for ladies; but they would probably change their opinion if they were to try the effect of riding with one spur, and that on the left foot, especially in a lady's hunting saddle. Very few men who wear spurs are able to use them properly; Whyte Melville says not one in ten, and "the tenth is often most unwilling to administer so severe a punishment." The late George Fordham wholly repudiated "the tormentors," and said they made a horse shorten his stride and "shut up," instead of struggling bravely home. My husband, in _Riding and Hunting_, says it is the fashion to wear spurs with top-boots, but many good horses go much better without them. Whyte Melville remarks that "a top-boot has an unfinished look without its appendage of shining steel; and although some sportsmen assure us that they dispense with rowels, it is rare to find one so indifferent to appearances as not to wear spurs." Men wear spurs in hunting because it is fashionable to do so, but there is no such arbitrary law laid down for ladies, and the presence of the spur certainly adds to the danger of dragging by the stirrup; for, as Whyte Melville points out, its buckle "is extremely apt to catch in the angle of the stirrup iron, and hold us fast at the very moment when it is important for our safety we should be free." [Illustration: Fig. 91.--Spur-carrying whip used for high school riding.] In Continental high school riding, a spur is a necessity, as, without its aid, the _écuyères_ would not be able to perform many of their _airs de manège_. These ladies, in order to apply the spur with freedom, have the stirrup leather so long that they are deprived of the immense advantage, which the play of the ankle-joint gives us, of applying pressure with the leg against the leaping head, and with the flat of the knee against the saddle flap. The "school" rider seeks to strengthen her weak seat by the employment of a very long and greatly curved leaping head, which serves to support her leg while her knee is removed from the flap of the saddle when using the spur. This leaping head, which almost encircles the left leg, would, of course, be a most dangerous thing to use when hunting. The spurred lady also has a spur clamped on to her whip, in order that she may be able to prod her horse equally on both sides. The whip-spur (Fig. 91) is like a wheel with sharp spokes and no tyre. The application of the spur by Continental _écuyères_, especially in obtaining the more difficult _airs_, is more or less constant, so as to keep the animal in a continued state of irritation. I went behind the scenes in a well-known circus in Paris, where I saw a lady mounted and waiting to go on and give her performance. A man was holding her horse's head, and a second attendant, with a spur in his hand, was digging the unfortunate animal on the near side under her habit, which he was holding up for the purpose. He took care to inflict the cruel punishment on a part of the horse's body which would not be seen by the public! The animal, being unable to advance, was lifting his legs up and down (doing the _piaffer_), and sighing and groaning in agony. When the circus doors were opened and relief thus came to him, he bounded into the arena like a fury, amidst the thunderous applause of the audience! I should have liked to have seen that spur-man punished for cruelty to animals, for if the performance went on, as I believe it did, every night, that horse's near side must have been in a shocking condition! It is by no means an unusual occurrence for high school lady riders to be securely tied to their saddles. We must remember that a hunter has to carry his rider for several hours. Hunting is not steeplechasing, and if a reluctant fencer cannot be sufficiently roused by a touch of the whip, I fail to see what is to be gained by spurring him on the near side, and thus giving him a direct incentive to refuse to the left. Besides, as it is the opinion of some of our best horsemen that nine out of every ten men who hunt would be better and more safely carried if they rode without spurs, I certainly think that no lady should subject her hunter to "the insult of the spur," especially as she can inflict the punishment only on the near side, and thus provoke a defensive attitude which she has no compensating power to successfully resist. Some years ago I rode in a jumping competition at Ranelagh. There were about twenty men and one lady besides myself among the competitors. The lady found at the last moment that she had forgotten her spur, and a servant was sent to her trap for it, as she said she could not ride without it. She used her spur, but was unable to get her horse over even the first fence! Lufra, a well-known prize winner at the Agricultural Hall and elsewhere, won the Cup, after a strong contest against my horse Gustave, who was given a red rosette for being second. Gustave had never jumped in a competition before. He was ridden in a plain snaffle, and the only mistake he made was in just tipping the raised gate with his hind legs. He was evidently unaware that it had been raised, for when I took him at it again, just to show the ladies that he could jump it, he cleared it beautifully, and his temperate style of fencing was greatly admired. CHAPTER X. FIRST LESSONS IN RIDING. The walk--Turning--The halt--The trot--The canter--The gallop--Jumping-- Reining back. THE WALK. A horse which is held by a groom for a lady to mount, will generally start off at a walk without any given signal to do so, when the servant leaves his head, unless his rider desires him to remain at the halt, when she would give him a command, by saying "whoa!"; and when she wants him to proceed on his journey, she should say "go on," or click with the tongue. It is best to put a beginner on an animal which has been trained to await the commands of his rider, in order that she may from her very first lesson in riding, learn the rudiments of horse control. She should never jerk the reins as a signal to start, because this practice is very apt to confuse and consequently to irritate the animal, especially as the perpetrator of this _bêtise_ will, in all probability, use the same means for stopping him. Before she gets on his back, the instructor should show how the reins should be held, and how the horse should be given the order to walk. It is the custom in many riding schools to place the curb and snaffle reins in the rider's left hand and leave her to find out their use as best she can, but as the lady will require to devote almost the whole of her attention to her seat, and as in hunting she will ride with both hands on the reins, it is better to give her a snaffle rein to hold in each hand, and not introduce the curb until she is sufficiently secure in her seat to be able to manipulate it properly. The unusual feeling of sitting on the back of a moving animal will often cause a lady to lean forward and grip her crutches, in order to retain her seat, especially at the turns in the school or enclosure, where she may be receiving her lesson, but the instructor should watch her carefully, and should call a halt when the pupil is observed to be riding her crutches instead of sitting well down in her saddle, and obtaining the necessary steadying power without bringing the weight of her body forward. The rider will not require to grip her crutches while proceeding in a forward direction at a walk, although their aid may be necessary when executing a turning movement, and she should also be ready to apply grip at any moment of emergency. She will at first experience some difficulty in being able to dissociate balance from grip, and as her efforts to do so may be somewhat fatiguing to her, her first lessons should be of short duration. Fig. 92 shows an easy, comfortable position when riding at a walk. After the rider has mastered the art of sitting comfortably and firmly in her saddle at a walk, she should be given a whip to hold in her right hand, which should also hold the right rein. I think the best kind of flail for a beginner is a long cane. A cutting whip is not sufficiently stiff to be used as an indication, and it is apt to tickle the horse's sides, and make him unsteady. [Illustration: Fig. 92.--Thorough-bred mare at a walk.] TURNING. A lady should not be initiated in the mysteries of any other pace, until she is able to turn her horse at a walk, in any direction, while maintaining a correct balance of her body, and applying only sufficient grip to aid the movement. In turning a horse to the right, she should lower her right hand and carry it well away from his shoulder, while "feeling" the right rein, so as to give him as clearly as possible, the indication to turn; she should press the left rein against his neck, by moving her left hand to the right; she should grip her crutches, and lean to the right; and should resume her erect position when the turn is completed. If the animal answers these indications only by turning his head to the right, and does not bring his hind quarters round to the left, she should touch him lightly with the whip on the off flank, so as to make him bring his hind quarters round. In turning to the left, the opposite indications are employed; the only difference being that the whip cannot be used on the animal's left side, owing to the presence of the skirt. This inability to employ the whip on the left side is not of much consequence as a rule, because almost all horses readily bring their hind quarters round to the right, when they are turned to the left. Having turned to the right, she may ride her horse in a circle to the right, while inclining her body slightly inwards, and keeping a nice feeling of the right rein, and a firm grip of her crutches round the circle, which at first should be large, as the smaller the circle the more difficult it will be to ride and guide one's mount. The reversed aids are used when circling to the left. THE HALT. In pulling up a horse from a walk, or any other pace, the rider should say "whoa," should lean back, and at the same time draw in the reins with an even, steady feeling, while keeping her hands low. If she has any difficulty in halting with precision, she should practise walking her horse short distances and stopping him at the word "whoa," which should be given to him in a tone that he can understand, for he cannot obey orders unless he knows their meaning. THE TROT. When learning to ride, ladies should endeavour to be thorough, and should not proceed to study a new pace, before the previous one has been entirely mastered. If the body is nicely balanced at sharp turns at the walk, with the weight evenly distributed on the saddle, and both legs kept perfectly steady and in their right position, a great deal will have been done towards acquiring a firm seat. When the pupil is able to ride with ease and grace at the walk, she may receive a lesson in trotting. I think it is best to teach the trot before the canter, because the majority of horses trot a few steps before they strike off into the canter. [Illustration: Fig. 93.--Preparing to rise at the trot, with stirrup at correct length]. As an ounce of practice is worth a ton of theory, the instructor should first of all show her pupil how the trot is correctly executed, either without a skirt or with one pinned back, so that the position of her legs may be seen. She should try to make her practical demonstrations perfectly clear, and should encourage her pupil to question her concerning any points in this difficult pace which she does not understand. It is a good plan to trot both with and without a stirrup, in order to show that the weight of the body during the rise should be placed on the right leg, and not on the stirrup. Reference to Figs. 79, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 102 and 104 will show that the right leg remains in precisely the same position at the walk, trot, canter, and leap. The great difficulty in trotting is to keep this leg absolutely steady, and to prevent it from working backwards and forwards with the motion of the body, which can be done only by maintaining a steady pressure against the upper crutch with the right knee. When this has been obtained, and the rise can be made with the right leg held motionless, the rider will find herself able somewhat to relax this pressure, but in a mild form it is always necessary to press the right knee against the upper crutch in trotting, so as to aid the balance and to avoid putting too much weight on the stirrup. The right leg from the knee down should lie flat and in a slanting position against the horse's shoulder (Fig. 79), the movement of the animal's limb being distinctly felt by the rider's leg which is resting against it. Having ascertained that the stirrup is sufficiently long to admit of the flat of the hand being placed between the left leg and the leaping-head when the rider is not exercising grip (Fig. 82)--which will allow the lady to clear the leaping-head when rising at the trot--she should take rather a short hold of her horse, and induce him to bear on the snaffle to aid her to rise; for a horse which will not bear on the reins is not a comfortable animal to trot with. A lady should lean slightly forward and rise when the animal's near fore leg comes on the ground. In Fig. 93 we see the horse's off fore on the ground and the lady preparing for the rise with her body inclined forward. Fig. 94 gives us the position of the rider at the rise, and that of the horse's near fore leg. As a well-executed trot can be acquired only after a great deal of practice, a lady should not be disheartened if she makes but slow progress. She will find it difficult to time the rise accurately, and until she can do this it is best for her to sit down in the saddle and bump up and down _à la militaire_, keeping her seat by the aid of her crutches, and occasionally making an effort to rise. If she rises at the wrong time, her effort will be productive of a churning movement, which should at once be discontinued, for that slipshod style of trotting is not only incorrect, but is liable to give the horse a sore back, and will prove very tiring to the rider. In making the rise she should straighten her left knee as in mounting, and bear slightly on the stirrup, executing her upward movement by the aid of the ankle-joint and by simultaneously pressing the upper crutch with her right knee, when she will return to her former position without being in any way jerked during the movement. The stirrup should always be kept in one fixed position at the ball of the foot, and both foot and stirrup should act with automatic precision, without the slightest jerk or wriggle, exactly as though the lady were making an upward step from the ground. The pressure of the foot should be directed on the inner side of the stirrup-iron, in order that the leg may lie close to the flap of the saddle. She will not require to lift herself from the saddle, for the horse will put her up to the necessary height, if she straightens her left knee and prepares to rise at the right moment. The height of the rise will vary according to the size and action of the horse. An animal of, say, 15-3, with a long, swinging trot, will cause his rider to rise higher in the saddle than a smaller horse with a short, shuffling gait. Many ponies have a short, quick trot requiring a hardly perceptible rise from the rider; but they are not, as a rule, comfortable trotters. The lady, as I have already remarked, rises when the animal's near fore leg is placed on the ground, and remains seated while the off fore leg rests on the ground, but the height and duration of the rise will depend on his power of forward reach. Some ladies exert themselves far too much in rising, and flop down on their saddles with a noise which attracts attention to their faulty riding, and which must be very uncomfortable both to them and their mounts. The chief cause of this faulty style is the adoption of a long stirrup (Figs. 95 and 96), by which the weight of the body is brought so much to the near side that the rider can rise only with great muscular exertion, and with the risk of giving her mount a sore back, by the downward drag of the saddle to this side. If the horse were to break into a canter, the lady with a long stirrup would obtain her grip by bringing back the left leg as in Fig. 97 and pressing against the leaping-head high up on the thigh, which would give her a very insecure and ungraceful seat. I have seen ladies trying to trot with the left leg, from hip to foot, swinging about like the pendulum of a clock, as if they had no knee-joint at all. When we see an effort to trot with a stiff left leg swinging along the horse's shoulder, we may safely conclude that the rider has her stirrup too long, and knows nothing about the art of trotting, or that the leaping-head of her saddle is placed so low down on the near side that she is unable to ride in it, and has to stick on as best she can. As we do not use the leaping-head in trotting, its position on the saddle may appear unimportant, but this is not the case; for, even if a lady has her stirrup at its correct length, the fact of the leaping-head being placed low down on the near side, compels her to ride with her stirrup longer than she would have to do if this crutch were properly placed. The farther it is away from the upper crutch, the greater difficulty will a lady have in rising at the trot. I have tried to ride in saddles in which I have found trotting such a tiring business, and requiring so much muscular exertion on my part, that it was much more comfortable for me not to rise, but to bump in military fashion. Many ladies, probably from the same reason, never rise in the trot. It is both wrong and unkind to put girls on bad saddles and then reproach them for not sitting straight at the trot, for I have found it absolutely impossible to do so in some saddles. Much of the soreness and misery which ladies suffer in their efforts to trot, would be obviated if the leaping-head of their saddles were placed as in Fig. 16. [Illustration: Fig. 94.--Rising at the trot, with stirrup at correct length.] [Illustration: Fig. 95.--Preparing to rise at the trot, with stirrup too long.] Although a well-executed trot looks nice, it should be only sparingly indulged in, because it is more fatiguing to the rider than the canter and is particularly liable to give a horse a sore back; for, do what the lady will to sit "square," the saddle, supposing she rises, cannot fail to have some side motion. Of course the rider should walk or trot, and not canter, on metalled roads and hard ground, but she should always take advantage of any bit of soft "going" and indulge in a nice easy canter on it. A lady learning to trot will require to do her hair up securely with plenty of hair-pins, pay attention to the fit of her hat, and see that it is provided with elastic an inch wide (p. 114), because she will find her head jerked about a good deal during her first lessons. The trot should be properly studied in a school or enclosure before a lady is taken out on the roads, for she can learn nothing by "slithering" along anyhow, and will be liable to contract a bad method of riding, which will probably prevent her from ever becoming a good horsewoman. We must remember that the trot is the most difficult of all paces, and can be correctly acquired only after much patient practice; but it is worth doing well. Very few ladies excel in this art, for the simple reason that they do not care to go through the drudgery of it. Some ladies are so impatient that they give up the study of a pace as soon as they can stick on their saddles. How few who hunt can really ride well! In Leicestershire a fine horsewoman remarked to me that several ladies ride hard who are indifferent horsewomen--a fact which I think we may see demonstrated in every hunting-field; but what is worth doing at all is surely worth doing well, and a lady should strive to be a good horsewoman as well as a plucky rider. When a horse increases his pace without being ordered to do so, he should be at once checked by a pull, not a jerk, on the reins, which should be accompanied by a word, such as "steady," uttered in a warning, determined tone that he will understand; because he should never be allowed to take the initiative, which he would do by breaking into a canter. The trot should be slow at first, until the rider is secure in her seat, when it may be increased gradually to its fullest limit. The faster a horse trots, the stronger bearing should we have on the reins, but when we find the pace degenerating into a rocking movement, the animal should be steadied and collected, because he is exceeding the limit of his speed, and is probably trotting with his fore and cantering with his hind legs, as we may frequently see with horses which are being overdriven in harness. After practice has been acquired in trotting in a forward direction, and the rider is able to sit with ease and grace, she should trot in a circle to the right, taking care to keep a good grip, incline her body inward, and guide her horse with precision. The circle, which should be large, may then be made to the left, which will more strongly test the rider's seat, and particularly her command of her right leg. If she does not ride correctly, this circling should be stopped, and the mistake rectified by more practice in a forward direction. [Illustration: Fig. 96.--Rising at the trot, with stirrup too long.] If a horse, during the trot, suddenly breaks off into a canter, the rider should sit down in her saddle as in the walk, and grip her crutches as may be required. She should not be the least bit alarmed at this new pace, supposing that she has not been taught to canter, for all she will have to do will be to sit down and allow her body to follow the movements of the horse by the play of her hip joints, as explained in the first lesson (p. 159). The lady who has practised leaning back (p. 158) will be able almost at once to adapt herself to the requirements of the canter; but as the trot is the subject of her study, the horse should be instantly pulled up. In order to do this safely, she should lean slightly back in her saddle, and stop him gradually, employing her usual word of command, and, while keeping her hands low down and well apart, exert a firm and fixed pressure on the reins. The rider must never allow herself, however disobedient her mount may be, to "job" his mouth with the reins, or to use them at any time as a means of punishment. Also she must not try to pull him up suddenly, but always gradually, in order that he may not strain the ligaments or tendons of his legs. If a horse hears and understands his rider's word of command, he will pull up in a manner most easy to himself. In practising the trot, the pupil should try to look between her horse's ears, and should keep her elbows as close to her sides as is comfortable, for she would lose power over her mount by turning them out. If she interferes with the horse's mouth, and does not keep her reins at one fixed length, the animal will naturally become unreliable in his paces. If she feels a pain in her side or gets a headache while trotting, the lesson for that day should be at once stopped, because she will not be able to ride properly if she is enduring any kind of discomfort. Parents should pay great attention to this matter, especially if the riding instructor is a man, because a girl would naturally be disinclined to mention any personal ailment to him. Whoever the teacher may be, he or she should always humour a nervous pupil, and not, as many do, start with the idea of getting her "shaken into her seat," at the risk of ruining her riding nerve for ever and causing her to loathe her lessons. If a pupil during her first trotting lesson suffers from nervousness, it is best to discontinue the trot and finish the lesson at the walk, in order to settle her nerves and not frighten her out of her wits. Her next trotting lesson should be commenced at the walk, and an occasional effort be made to trot a short distance, so that she may gradually obtain the necessary confidence, and an encouraging word should always be given her when she does well. [Illustration: Fig. 97.--Canter, with right leg hooked back, and stirrup too long.] THE CANTER. After the pupil has mastered the difficulties of the trot, she will appreciate the enjoyable motion of an easy canter, which is the lady's pace _par excellence_. In the canter a horse should lead with his off fore leg, except when he is turning or circling to the left, and a beginner should be given a horse or pony which has been trained to canter correctly. As the majority of horses are not taught to start from a walk to a canter, the pupil should proceed at a smart trot, and, while holding the reins somewhat slack, turn her horse's head slightly to the left, and touch him on the right shoulder with her whip, to make him break into a canter with his off fore leading. [Illustration: Fig. 98.--Good seat at canter or gallop.] She should sit firmly into her saddle, should lower her hands (Fig. 98) more than in the trot, and should fix the speed at which she wishes her horse to proceed, while keeping an easier feeling on his mouth than when trotting. She should indulge in no snatches at the reins, but should always preserve one fixed length of rein, unless she requires to alter the pace. The legs should remain perfectly still as in the walk, the knees should be kept ready to grip the crutches at any required moment, and the body from the hips upward should conform to the motion of the horse. Figs. 98, 99 and 100 show a nice easy position in the different phases of the canter. It is absolutely essential for a lady to acquire a good strong seat at this pace, because it is practically the same as in the gallop and jump, and must therefore be regarded as her hunting seat. One of the first things to remember in the canter is to allow no movement of the seat, which should remain nailed as it were to the saddle, the hip joints supplying all the necessary motion to the body, and, as I have already said, the legs should be kept perfectly steady. To increase the adherence of the left knee against the flap of the saddle, the left foot should be carried a little outwards away from the horse's side, and its pressure chiefly applied to the inner side of the stirrup-iron, which will consequently be more depressed than the outer side. It has been remarked that an ugly seat at the canter is a sight that would spoil the finest landscape in the world, so a lady who desires to ride well should not be satisfied if she can merely stick on, like the lady in Fig. 101, but should try to ride correctly. Her head will perhaps at first be jerked to and fro like a "vexed weathercock," but practice will enable her to overcome the tendency to fix the muscles of her neck and to allow her head to follow the motion of her body. She should take care that her elbows do not flap up and down like the pinions of an awkward nestling learning to fly, but should keep them close to her sides, where they will be of more assistance to her in controlling her horse. In cantering on a circle to the left, a horse should of course lead with his near fore, for if he then leads with his off fore he will be liable to cross his legs and fall. If the canter is false--that is to say, if a horse is leading with the wrong leg--the movements of the limbs will be disunited, and the rider will find the motion rough and unpleasant, in which case she should pull him up and make him lead with the correct leg. When the pupil feels herself becoming tired or unsteady in her seat, she should give the horse her verbal signal to stop, at the same time taking an even and gradual pull at the reins. As I have already said, a horse should be gradually pulled up from a canter into a trot or walk. Although a beginner's mount will, or at least should, allow a certain amount of liberty to be taken with his mouth, it must be remembered that every horse will go better with a rider who tries to save his mouth as much as possible when conveying her orders to him by means of the reins. When he is going too fast, the warning word "steady" should always accompany any restraining action of the reins, until the horse is accustomed to his rider's handling, when the pull may be taken in silence. As the voice is a valuable "aid" in riding, I would strongly advise the inexperienced horsewoman never to speak to her horse when he is at work, except when giving him an order. He will then be able to understand the meaning of her words of command. Particular attention should be paid to the observance of this rule, for a lady who is incessantly talking to her horse, reproving or caressing as the case may be, renders him more or less indifferent to the voice as a means of control on an emergency. After he has carried her well, a few pats on the neck will establish a feeling of good fellowship between horse and rider, and the animal will always regard these caresses, and the kindly words that accompany them, as a sure sign of his mistress's approval. After she has dismounted she may "make much" of him, but while on his back it is wiser to reserve her voice for giving orders. A "funky" rider as a rule keeps continually talking to her mount, and the animal gets to know that she is nervous, and soon becomes the master. A horse, like a domestic servant, will not be obedient and respectful unless he thoroughly understands that his first duty is to obey. Neither a horse nor a servant who fails to recognise this fact is worth his keep. Every girl who is learning to ride, naturally desires to establish a feeling of friendship between herself and her mount, because she knows that he can get rid of her off his back any time he likes; but she should remember that a horse, like a servant, is always ready to take a liberty, and therefore any kindness she may bestow on him should be tempered with discretion and forethought as to its future results. She may pet him as much as she likes, but she should never allow him to have his own way, in opposition to her expressed command. The adoption of a conciliatory method with horses which deliberately refuse to obey orders is fatal, because the lady who takes that course literally allows the reins of authority to slip through her fingers. [Illustration: Fig. 99.--Good seat at canter or gallop.] [Illustration: Fig. 100.--Good seat at canter or gallop.] GALLOP. An experienced hunting man remarked to me that a large number of ladies who hunt, fail in ability to make their horses gallop, which is a pace never taught by riding masters. The gallop is not only necessary to acquire, especially by a lady who intends to hunt, but it improves the strength of seat more than any other gait. Besides, a rider who is unaccustomed to it, is always in danger of coming to "grief," if her horse breaks away with her, either from being startled or from mere "light-heartedness." For a lady's first lesson in galloping, a piece of nice soft smooth ground, free from stones and holes, and, say, a quarter of a mile or three furlongs in length, should be selected. The pupil should be provided with a rather sluggish horse, which requires some "riding up to his bridle," and should be told to canter her horse at his highest speed, for the canter and gallop merge imperceptibly into each other. The seat in the canter is precisely the same as that in the gallop, except that when the horse is going very fast, a lady will find it easier to lean slightly forward, take a good steady hold of the reins, and keep her hands in one fixed position, as low down as possible. If she has any difficulty in getting her mount to extend himself, the instructor should ride with her and set the pace. When the lady's horse is really galloping, he should slacken speed a little, and let the animal pass him, in order that the pupil may learn to ride a gallop without a lead. The chances are that her horse will want to follow the example of his companion and go slower; but she should keep him going at the same fast pace by a touch with the whip and a click of the tongue, until she has arrived at the end of the specified distance. As a fast gallop is very trying to a horse's legs, it should be limited to occasional short spins on soft and smooth ground. In the next lesson the instructor should assume the lead, and tell his pupil to pull her horse up at a given distance, while he gallops away from her. This would be excellent practice for testing her power of horse control, because in hunting it is of vital importance that she should always have her mount in hand, and be able to stop him when necessary, even if a crowd of horses are galloping away in front of her. To do this when riding at a fast gallop, she should gradually slacken his speed, using the word "steady," and taking an even pull on the reins. It may be necessary for her to ride at this pace with a double bridle (curb and snaffle). Fig. 100 shows how the curb and snaffle reins should be held. I have not advocated giving a beginner a bit and bridoon, because in hunting she should always ride with the snaffle, and reserve the curb for use in cases of emergency, such as steadying her mount when galloping over plough or heavy ground, or in slackening his speed. The pupil who is learning to gallop should try the effect of the curb in stopping her horse while another horse is galloping away from her. As it is a severe bit, she would be wise to "feel" her horse's mouth with it only just enough to induce him to slacken his speed according to her indication. It should be used with the object of reminding him that it is in his mouth. If he does not obey the hint, the lady should take a stronger pull, and be ready to release her pressure when she feels her horse restrained by its influence, and then she should ride on the snaffle. My husband, in _Riding and Hunting_, says:--"With a double bridle we may ride on the snaffle as much as we like, and keep the curb for emergencies; although, from not knowing how to hold the reins properly, men frequently get into the habit of always riding on both reins, and then they blame the double bridle for being too severe.... A curb is indispensable with many horses for crossing an English hunting country in good style. We must also remember that out hunting, and with large fields, like what we see with the Quorn and Pytchley, the ability to obtain instant control over one's mount, even in the midst of exciting surroundings, is essential for the safety of one's self, one's horse, and one's companions, and for avoiding interference with sport.... I have known some horses, whose mouths had evidently been spoiled by injudicious, if not cruel, treatment, that would go quietly only in a snaffle." Whyte Melville, discussing the merits of the snaffle, says:--"This bit, the invention of common-sense going straight to its object, while lying easily on the tongue and bars of a horse's mouth, and affording control without pain, is perfection of its kind." Of the double bridle he says:--"I need hardly explain to my reader that it loses none of the advantages belonging to the snaffle, while it gains in the powerful leverage of the curb a restraint few horses are resolute enough to defy. In skilful hands, varying, yet harmonising, the manipulation of both, as a musician plays treble and bass on the pianoforte, it would seem to connect the rider's thought with the horse's movement, as if an electric chain passed through wrist, and finger and mouth, from the head of the one to the heart of the other." [Illustration: Fig. 101.--Bad seat; right leg hooked back, stirrup too long, and foot "home."] JUMPING. After the pupil has mastered the art of trotting, cantering, and galloping, and understands how to handle and control her mount with correctness and precision at these paces, she should be given a lesson in riding over fences. We may put up a small hurdle, or some easy obstacle, in an enclosed place, and tell her to canter her horse straight to the centre of it and jump it. All that she need be instructed to do, is to give the horse his head when he is rising at the jump, and to lean well back when he is about to land over it. By giving her horse his head, I mean that she is to extend her arms to their utmost length, and bring them again into position after he has landed. Fig. 102 shows a lady leaning back and extending her arms at a fence. The pupil will not require to alter the length of her reins when riding over fences, presuming, of course, that she has been taught from the first to keep a nice easy feel on her horse's mouth. She should be careful to leave the curb alone, and always ride over fences on the _snaffle_. The lady in Fig. 102 is riding only with a snaffle, and with a nice easy length of rein. I must pause here to draw attention to the fine riding of the lady, Miss Emmie Harding, of Mount Vernon, New Zealand, who is jumping this formidable wire fence on her hunter Marengo. Our hard riding Colonial sisters have nothing to learn from us in the matter of sitting over stiff fences, even high wire barricades that would certainly stop a whole field in the Shires. Some critical ladies may consider that her left foot is carried too far back, but this is not the case, as she is riding with her stirrup at the ball of the foot and obtaining her grip of the leaping head without depressing the left knee. When we require to obtain the maximum amount of grip, as in jumping, we instinctively draw back the left foot, as shewn in Fig. 102, in order that the ankle joint may exert its utmost power in pressing the leg against the leaping head. In Fig. 104 the position of the legs is identical with Fig. 102. We can see that Miss Harding rides with her right leg forward, in the manner I have advocated. The rider should take a good grip of her crutches, and keep her legs perfectly steady and close to her horse. She should always ride him straight, not sideways, at his fences. There should not be the slightest movement of her seat in the saddle. As I have already explained, she should try to imagine that she is nailed down to the saddle and cannot be shifted, and that the movement of her body must come from the play of the hip joints. [Illustration: Fig. 102.--Miss Emmie Harding jumping wire.] If her small brother possesses a rocking-horse, she should mount it and rock herself on it, if she does not entirely understand what is meant by "the play of the hip joints." If she rides over her first fence incorrectly, she should not be allowed to do so a second time without being put right. It would, therefore, be advisable for her to have her skirt pinned back, in order that the instructor, who should be standing by the fence at the near side, may see exactly how she obtains her grip. It is obvious that this lesson in jumping should be given either by, or under the supervision of a person experienced in side-saddle riding. The pupil may be allowed to hold a whip, but she should not use it, for she might acquire the bad habit of hitting her horse every time he jumps a fence. The whip in hunting should be kept for use at specially big fences, and as a reminder to the horse that he must exert his best efforts to clear them with safety. Even then it is employed as an aid, but not as a means of inflicting punishment. No good horsewoman cuts her horse about the body with a whip. If the fence has been nicely jumped, the pupil extending her arms properly and keeping her hands low, we may "make much of her," and that will recompense her for any uncomplimentary things we may have said about her riding. After the small fence has been jumped nicely, it may be replaced at the next lesson by one somewhat higher; and when the lady has had practice over it on her steady horse, she may ride another mount who is a bigger jumper. No extra instructions need be given to her except that the higher the fence, the more must she lean back on landing. This jumping practice will probably teach her to always lean back when riding over a drop fence, or going down a steep hill. Some ignorant people shout, "Sit back," when a lady is riding at a fence; they should say, "Lean back," which means quite another thing. [Illustration: Fig. 103.--Maximum amount of pressure on leaping head.] If a lady, when taking her riding lessons, finds herself in any way uncomfortable in her saddle, she should at once stop and have the fault, whatever it may be, rectified. She should always be careful, when dressing for riding, to see that all her garments are put on correctly, so that nothing may get displaced and cause discomfort when she is in the saddle. If this does happen, she should dismount, if possible, and arrange matters without delay; otherwise she may be severely cut or rubbed and be unable to ride again for some time. After she has been taught to ride, she should be given a nice horse and a safe jumper, for she well deserves one, and will be able to ride him. She should hack him along quiet roads and bridle paths and learn to open gates and go through them nicely, always shutting them after her. [Illustration: Fig. 104.--Position of legs in jumping.] REINING BACK. As a lady will be unable to open gates correctly unless her horse will rein back readily, it will be necessary for her to obtain practice in this useful exercise. A horse which has to carry a woman should have previously been taught to rein back, chiefly by word of command and with only slight indications of the reins, because in the rein back a lady is greatly handicapped by her want of control over the animal's hind quarters. In this movement we should above all things avoid leaning back and putting an equal feeling on both reins, for that would be the very thing to prompt him to rear. It is evident that as a horse has to be light in front when going forward, he should be light behind when reining back. Therefore, the rider should lean forward. Also, she should feel the reins alternately, turning the horse's head towards the fore leg which is more advanced than the other fore leg. When she takes a steady pull with her right rein and finds that the horse draws back his off-fore, she should slacken the right rein and take a similar steady pull with the left rein to induce him to bring back his near fore, and so on. During this alternate feeling of the reins she should keep her hands as low as practicable, so that the horse may lower his head and put weight on his forehand, and consequently facilitate the movements of his hind legs. For each step the lady should use the words of command, "rein back," in a decided tone of voice, supposing of course that the animal has been taught the meaning of this verbal order. However well a lady may carry out these directions, she may not effect her purpose with precision, because the side pulls of the respective reins will prompt the horse, if he has not had previous training, to bring round his hind quarters in the opposite direction. The rider can prevent him doing this to the right by pressure of the whip on his off-flank; but owing to the necessary shortness of her stirrup, she will not be able to prevent him from swinging his hind quarters round to the left. Here, the fact of a man having a leg on each side of his horse and fairly long stirrups, makes him far more capable of reining back a horse properly, than a lady seated on one side of the animal. A man obtains command of a horse's hind quarters by the pressure of his legs, especially when the feet are drawn back. As horses very much dislike reining back, I would caution the rider not to disgust her animal by continuing it for too long a time. He should be occasionally reined back a couple of times for four or five paces, and after each rein back should be allowed to go forward, and he should be rewarded for his obedience by a few pats on the neck and some words of encouragement. If the animal's temper be upset by too much reining back, he will probably adopt the dangerous habit of running back, when he would be very liable to fall, or he may rear. As inconsiderate people will persist in taking kickers into the hunting field, every lady who desires to hunt should be able to rein back her horse, in order to remove him, if possible, from the dangerous vicinity of an animal whose tail is adorned with a red bow, which is a sign that he is a kicker, and not that he has been recently vaccinated. Her next lessons should be devoted to obtaining practice in jumping various kinds of fences, and in riding up and down hill, over ridge and furrow and difficult ground, which we will deal with in another chapter. A lady should remember to always keep an eye on her mount, and never let her attention be diverted from the order of his going, however much she may be otherwise occupied. To people who have had much practice in riding various horses, this forward outlook becomes almost automatic. I would advise my imaginary pupil to learn the following ancient rhyme by heart, and to observe its teaching, although it is not entirely applicable to ladies-- "Your head and your heart keep boldly up, Your hands and your heels keep down, Your knees keep close to your horse's sides And your elbows close to your own." CHAPTER XI. RIDING ACROSS COUNTRY. "Made" fences--Practice over natural fences. "MADE" FENCES. It is necessary for a lady who intends to hunt, to obtain as much practice as possible over the various kinds of fences which she may have to negotiate when hunting, before she appears in the field. Although ladies living in the country may have an opportunity of obtaining practice over natural fences of gradually increasing size, it is generally more convenient, and perhaps safer, to utilise "made" fences in a field or paddock. These obstacles need not be very high to commence with, but they should assume various forms, due prominence being given to the most common kind of fence encountered in the country in which the rider desires to hunt. Two or more specimens of this particular obstacle may be included in the artificial collection. To imitate Leicestershire fences we may make, for the first jump, the nearest approach we can to an ordinary hedge; the second, a hedge with a ditch on the taking-off side; the third, a post and rail fence; and the fourth, another hedge, with a ditch on both sides. We may follow that with a "cut-and-laid" fence with a ditch on the take-off side; and a stone wall, made up of loose stones or bricks. In the middle of the field, where the rider can obtain a good run at it, we may construct a water jump. The other fences should be built by the side of the boundary fence of the paddock or field, which may have to be artificially heightened for the purpose, but not supplied with wings; for in hunting, fences are not protected for us in that way. The pupil should first learn to jump them riding from left to right, as horses generally refuse to the left, and that side being blocked by the boundary fence, the horse will be more liable to go straight. The animal should, of course, first be ridden over them by the teacher in the presence of the pupil, who will see exactly at which jump her mount may be likely to give trouble. She should also observe the pace at which the animal is ridden, especially at the water jump. If he is sluggish, it would be wise for the lady to give him a touch with the whip when riding at timber, which he must not chance, and at cut-and-laid fences, which must also be jumped cleanly; for if a horse gets a foot in the top binder, the chances are that he will fall. Besides, he must exert himself to clear the ditch on one or both sides. He should be ridden over the course at a canter, and allowed to jump the fences without interference from his rider, for he will try his best to avoid falling. He should be ridden fast at water, as a certain amount of speed is necessary for jumping length; but he should not be taken at full gallop, as he would then be too much extended to raise himself in his spring. If the correct pace could be gauged to a nicety, I should say it is just a shade faster than a hand gallop. Horses, as a rule, jump water badly, perhaps for the very good reason that they seldom get schooled at this kind of obstacle. A line of "made" fences in a field or paddock would have to be comparatively close together, say, with intervals of not less than 30 yards between them; although double that distance would be much better. A lady riding over these obstacles could hardly help going at the same speed, and, therefore, there would be but little opportunity for teaching her how she ought to regulate her pace for each of them, which would not be the case if they were a quarter of a mile or so apart. One advantage of riding over a line of "made" jumps is, that it strengthens a rider's seat, for no sooner has she landed over one fence, than she must be ready to negotiate the next one. She should remember to keep her hands low down and as steady as possible, carefully avoiding shifting in the saddle, flourishing her whip, checking her mount with the reins, shouting to him, or committing any other act which is likely to distract his attention from the fence in front of him. The horse given to the pupil to ride should be an experienced hunter, and, in that case, she may safely trust him to carry her over the various leaps without any interference whatever. If he takes them a shade faster than did the animal on which she rode over her first fence, she should not try to check him. As it is impossible for her to know the exact moment he is going to take off, she should give him his head, when he is coming up to the obstacle, and be ready to lean well back as he is landing over it. If a lady is riding with her reins too short, and the horse, in jumping, makes a sudden snatch to get more rein, she should at once let them slip through her fingers, and learn, from that experience, to ride with the reins sufficiently long to enable her to have an easy feel of her horse's mouth, without in any way hanging on to his head. Some inexperienced ladies get alarmed when a horse is about to take off, and check him with the reins, which is a most dangerous proceeding. I have known the safest of jumpers pulled into their fences and caused to fall by the adoption of such tactics. A lady should remember that when her mount is going straight for a fence, with the intention of getting safely to the other side, any interference on her part will cause him to either blunder badly, or, if the jump is a fixture, to fall. If a horse slackens speed when near a fence, and suddenly runs out, his rider should let him refuse and take him at it again. I once got a very bad fall through turning a horse quickly at a fence which he was in the act of refusing. We were close to the jump, he had no time to take off properly, so he breasted the obstacle, a stiff timber jump, and blundered on to his head. That taught me a salutary lesson, and therefore I would warn all ladies to let their horses run out when the animals have taken the first step in the wrong direction, as it is then too late to keep them straight with safety, and a sudden turn, with the object of trying to do so, is very apt to make a horse blunder. When a touch with the whip is given to remind a horse that he has to clear a big ditch on the landing side, or when riding at timber, it should be used on the off flank by a turn of the wrist, but without jerking the reins. The whip, as I have before remarked, should be employed as an aid and not as a means of inflicting pain. A lady should not bustle her horse at his fences, except perhaps at water, for every horse has his own pace at which he prefers to jump, and the clever sort will always manage to put in a short stride, or take a longer one at the last moment, if they find that the strides they are using will not bring them up to the correct spot from which to take off. In hunting, the fences are generally taken at a canter, and the pace is increased in galloping over the open ground. Horses are thus what is called "steadied" at their fences, but the pull should not be made nearer the fence than 30 yards. When a lady has made up her mind to ride at a fence, she should think of nothing else but getting over it. Some women go at their fences in such a half-hearted, irresolute manner that their horses learn to refuse. Too much practice over "made" fences is monotonous to the rider and hateful to her horse, who is only too apt to become "reluctant" in such cases. Hence, if the lady has ridden over the fences nicely, from left to right and from right to left, and taken her artificial brook at a good pace, she should not be required to do any more jumping on that occasion. The ground near the fences should be laid down with tan, stable litter, or anything else which will make the falling soft, in the event of the pupil having a tumble. It would be better for a lady not to be given a lead in riding over these "made" obstacles, because it is necessary for her to have as much practice as possible, at first, in controlling her mount without assistance. PRACTICE OVER NATURAL FENCES. A lady who has gone through the hard drudgery of learning to sit well, will be repaid for her efforts on finding herself able to ride with ease over natural fences. Her companion should select the obstacles, and give a lead, but the pupil should not send her horse at a fence until she has seen her pilot safely landed and going away from it. She should occasionally assume the lead, in order that she may not always rely on the guidance of others. Unless there is a paucity of obstacles, no fence should be jumped twice, and the companion or attendant should be a man who knows the country, so that he may direct his pupil to obstacles without going out of the way to meet them. The more these fences are treated as adventitious circumstances, and not the main object of the ride, the steadier and more safely will a horse jump them. A lady should ride as many different horses as she can, and in company, for when four or five horses are cantering together, the lady's mount will, doubtless, be sufficiently excited to require steadying in approaching his fences, and she may then learn to gauge the distance at which to take a pull at him. Those who are riding with her should require her to wait her turn at the only practicable place in a fence, as she would have to do when hunting, to pull her horse up to a halt, and to send him at his fence with a run of only a few strides. She should also practise trotting her horse up to a fence to see what is on the other side of it, and, if it is negotiable, she should turn him away from it, give him a short run at it, and jump it. After she has obtained as much practice as possible, on different horses, over various kinds of natural fences, and has shown ability to control her mount at a gallop, and when excited by the presence of other horses galloping in front of him, she should be considered competent to commence her hunting career, and take her place in the field at the beginning of the cub-hunting season. She should remember on all occasions of difficulty and danger to keep a cool head and trust to the honour of her mount. A good horsewoman, even if she has had no experience in hunting, will not be likely to incur disgrace by wild and incompetent riding, for, having been accustomed to keep her mount under thorough control, she will carefully avoid spoiling the sport of others, while seeing as much of it as she can in a quiet, unobtrusive manner. A lady should remember that strangers are not hailed with delight in any English hunting field; but when they are found to be competent to take care of themselves and their horses, they are far more kindly received, than if they go there as recruits in the great slipshod brigade. CHAPTER XII. HACKING. It is necessary for a lady to acquire a knowledge of the rules of the road before riding in public, especially if she be attended by a groom, who would of course ride behind her. Persons, whether riding or driving, when proceeding in opposite directions, pass each other on the near (left-hand) side of the road, and when going in the same direction, the more speedy party goes by the other on the off (right) side. A male companion would ride on her off side. In military riding, the rule when meeting a rider proceeding in the opposite direction is "bridle hand to bridle hand." When the young horsewoman assumes charge of her mount in the open, she should always keep a watchful eye on the road in front of her, in order to avoid as far as possible dangerous ground and approaching vehicles. Her eyes and ears should enable her to mentally note objects coming behind her, as well as those on either side, such as, for instance, loose horses or cattle in fields, the approach of trains, etc., in order that she may be prepared for any sudden movement on the part of her animal. Loose horses which we meet in fields have such a playful way of galloping up behind, and frequently taking great liberties, that it is often necessary to get into the next enclosure as quickly as possible. Even when quietly cantering on grass by the side of the road, the vagaries of loose horses or cattle, or even the sudden flight of birds on the other side of the dividing boundary, may cause a rider to be taken by surprise, if she has not previously made a mental note of her neighbourhood. Also, she should always have reassuring words on the tip of her tongue for her animal in case of momentary alarm. The quietest horse in the world may occasionally exhibit fear, but if his rider uses her eyes and ears, she will generally be prepared for any sudden flight of fancy on his part, and will not be likely to lose her head. A lady should avoid trotting on broken or uneven ground, or on a road which is covered with loose stones, as her horse would be liable to fall and perhaps cut his knees. Unless in a hurry to reach her destination, she should not, like a butcher's boy, trot her horse at his fastest speed. The ground chosen for a canter should be soft and, if possible, elastic, and she should, of course, avoid the "'ammer, 'ammer on the 'ard 'igh road," which is a fruitful cause of lameness. Any soft parts at the side of a road may be used for the canter, or if the ground is very hard and dry, as it sometimes is in summer, and also in frosty weather, only quiet trotting and walking exercise could be taken with safety to the horse. A lady should always study her mount, and carefully select the "going." It is best to ride down-hill at a walk. If a horse stumbles he should never be hit or jobbed in the mouth, because he takes no pleasure in making false steps, or even in breaking his knees. A lady should always give any passing vehicle as much room as possible. If her animal is afraid to pass any object on the road, the groom or attendant should at once ride in advance and give him a lead. If he still evinces fear, his rider should speak encouragingly to him, pat him on the neck, and tell him to go on. If this fails, and he shows an inclination to turn in an opposite direction, she should check him at once, and order him to go on in a severe tone of voice. It will be on such occasions as these that a rider who has never acquired the silly habit of constantly talking to her mount, will find the voice a powerful factor in horse control. Unfortunately, many people, when a horse shies, lose their heads, clutch at the reins, hit the horse, and commit other foolish acts which only irritate the animal, without in any way allaying his fear, supposing, as we do, that the horse is good-tempered, and is not shying from vice. The voice of his rider will inspire him with confidence, and, therefore, when he has made an anxious and fearful step in the right direction, he should be patted and spoken to in an encouraging tone, so that his mind may not be wholly occupied with the terrifying object in front of him. It is a good plan to incline his head away from it as much as possible. I have ridden young horses who have shied at almost everything, but have never worried them to go up to and smell the object of their aversion, as some recommend, because it is not always practicable to do so, as, for instance, in the case of a motor car. It is not wise to give undue importance to comparative trifles. The voice has always stood me in good stead with shying horses, who soon get to regard it as a sure sign that they have nothing to fear. A lady who has been properly taught to ride, and sits correctly, should remember that whatever her horse may do in plunging about from one side of the road to the other, he cannot unseat her, so she need feel no alarm on that point. The greatest danger is that the horse may dash into something which in his fright he has not seen, but that, fortunately, is a very rare occurrence, even with young horses. However frightened a lady may herself feel, she should never reveal her secret to her horse by speaking to him in a terrified tone of voice, or by otherwise displaying fear; and above all things, she should never lose her temper and hit him, no matter how obstinate he may be, as doing so will only make him shy on the next occasion, with a display of temper thrown in, and he will then be more difficult than ever to manage. The best way to act with a horse which shies from desire to "play up," is to take as little notice as possible of his antics, give him more work, and less corn. A lady should always ride slowly round a corner, and keep a good look out in front of her. Many things may happen during the course of a ride to try the nerve of both horse and rider, but if anything should startle a horse, his rider should keep her head cool, sit tight, and do her best to pull him up. She will have doubtless accustomed him to the meaning of the word "steady," or other verbal order which she may have employed when slackening speed. This word, accompanied by a steady and vigorous pull on the reins, should succeed in stopping him before he has had time to get up much speed. If, however, a lady finds she cannot pull him up, she should try to turn him to the left, as that will be the easier, supposing, of course, she has sufficient room in which to turn. If not, she should saw his mouth with the bit by working it from side to side. The groom, or attendant, should on no account gallop after her, as doing so will only tend to make the lady's horse go all the faster. I remember riding a very hard puller belonging to Mr. Wintle, of Shanghai. One day this animal bolted with me, and the stupid native _mafoo_ behind galloped on after me. I managed to stop the animal by turning him to the left, and pointing his head away from the homeward direction in which we were proceeding, but I was greatly hampered by my mount hearing the footfalls behind him. The native groom was frightened, and no doubt thought he could help me, which he could best have done by pulling up. I cannot too strongly impress on all ladies who ride the necessity of using a safety-bar on their saddles (p. 38), and wearing a safety skirt, even when hacking; for a sudden cause of fright may make the animal unseat his rider, and it is no uncommon thing for a horse to fall when going over apparently level ground, even at a walk, in either of which cases she might get dragged by her stirrup or skirt, if it is of the non-safety pattern. In any case of difficulty with a horse, a lady should contrive at all hazards to retain her self-possession and her seat, remembering that the least symptom of alarm on her part will increase the terror or obstinacy of the animal. My advice for stopping a runaway is not so easy to follow as drawing on a glove, but it has extricated me on many occasions from a dangerous position and, therefore, I know it to be practicable; but I hope no lady may ever have occasion to put it to the proof. Although all quarrels between horse and rider should be avoided, a woman should never, by over-indulgence, induce her mount to consider that she is afraid of him, because if he once gets that idea into his head, he will exert every means to convince her that he is the master, and will end by doing precisely what he likes, instead of implicitly obeying her commands. By watching my husband reduce to subjection vicious horses in various parts of the world, I have seen that although equine demons cannot be conquered by physical strength, they can be controlled by coolness, patience and knowledge, which is a fact that every riding woman should bear in mind. CHAPTER XIII. RIDING WITHOUT REINS. Undoubtedly the best and quickest way for a lady to learn to ride well is the one which I shall now describe, and which I believe I have been the first to practise. Before putting up the pupil, it is well to teach the horse the work he has got to do, which should be performed, if possible, in an enclosure not less than 17 yards in diameter: 20 yards would be a better size. The track should be soft. A thick, smooth snaffle having been put on, the leather reins are taken off, and others (the best are of "circular" or "pipe" webbing, 1-1/2 inches broad) about 22 feet long are substituted. If circular webbing cannot be obtained, ropes or ordinary leather reins, if of the proper length, will do. The animal is made to circle round the driver by the outward rein (the left rein if he is going to the right) passing round his quarters, while the inward rein (the right in this case) leads him off and bends him in the direction he has to go (Fig. 105). The horse should be made to circle in a thoroughly well-balanced manner, so that the circle described by his fore feet will be the same as that made by his hind feet, and he should be taught to turn smoothly and collectedly. The driver should stand partly to one side of the horse and partly behind him, as in Fig. 105, but should on no account keep following the animal; for, if he does so, he will throw too much of his weight on the reins. This should, of course, be avoided; for the lighter the feeling on the reins, the better, so long as the horse goes up to his bridle. The pressure of the outward rein should act like that of the outward leg of a man who is riding a horse on a circle, in keeping his hind quarters "supported"; so that the circle described by the hind feet may not be greater than that made by the fore feet. In order to give adequate command over the horse, a standing martingale, put at a proper length, will be required for this driving on foot. This method of mouthing horses is fully described in my husband's _Illustrated Horse Breaking_. When the horse circles and turns equally well on both reins and jumps cleverly, the beginner may be put on the saddle without giving her any reins to hold. In order to keep her hands down and occupied, she may hold a whip or stick in both hands resting on her lap, as shown in the illustration, or she may fold her arms in front of her. Whatever may be the pace, if the pupil begins to lose her balance, to be frightened, to sit awkwardly, or to become tired, the driver should at once halt the horse and should try to rectify matters as far as possible. [Illustration: Fig. 105.--Driving horse over jumps.] The lesson should be commenced by the driver starting the horse into a steady walk, on a circle to the right, as that will be easier than going to the left. After a few circles, and when the rider has acquired some confidence, the driver may give her the "caution" that he is going to turn the horse, which he does by turning him to the "left-about" by means of the left rein, while "supporting" the hind quarters by the right rein. After the required number of circles has been made to the left, the caution may be repeated, and a "right-about" turn done. When the pupil has become sufficiently advanced, a steady trot on the right circle may be attempted; the turns being executed as before. Subsequently, a canter may be tried. As the rider gains expertness, the turns may be made without giving any caution, and the sharpness with which they are done may be gradually increased. When the rider has acquired a good firm seat, she may get a jumping lesson. The best kind of fence is a round thick (at least 6 inches in diameter) log of wood. It should be of good substance and weight, so that, if the horse hits it once, he will not care to repeat the experiment. It should be free from any sharp points or edges that might blemish the animal, if he "raps" it. This log should be at least 15 feet long, should have one end a little outside the circumference of the circle on which the animal works, and the other end pointing towards the centre of the circle. The log, at each extremity, may be propped up on empty wine or beer cases (Fig. 105). No wing or upright pole which might catch in the reins should be placed at the inner end of the log. If a log such as I have described be not procurable, a hurdle or gate might be employed. It is well to begin this lesson by placing the log on the ground, and first walking the horse, who carries his rider, over the log, which might then be raised 5 or 6 inches. The bar need not be put up higher than 3 feet. The whole of this jumping practice should at first be given while circling to the right. As the capabilities of all are not alike, the teacher, who ought also to be the driver, should exercise his judgment in apportioning the work done. As a rough approximation, I should say that an apt pupil who had never been previously on a horse, ought to do in fairly good style, after a dozen lessons, all I have described. These lessons, which had best be given daily, ought not to exceed half an hour in duration. Great care should be taken that the rider gets neither fatigued nor "rubbed." As a rule, a man will be required to drive the horse on foot with the long reins; for few women would be able to do this work, and teach at the same time. If the instructor be a lady, she might get an experienced man to drive for her, while she gives the cautions and orders. While receiving her first lesson in riding without reins, the pupil should try to keep her seat by the combined help of balance and grip, and should not attempt to hold on to the saddle with her hands, which, subsequently, will be required solely for the manipulation of the reins and whip. As a rider can manage a horse in a moment of danger twice as well with two hands as with one, it is impossible for her to become a fine horsewoman if she acquires the fatal habit of clutching hold of the saddle, which she inevitably will do the instant she feels insecure in her seat, or becomes nervous, if she be that way afflicted. To guard against this evil, the learner should be taught to ride in a modern English saddle, which, as we all know, has got no off pommel. By allowing her body to be perfectly lissom from the waist upward, she will be able to conform to the movements of the horse, and will not feel herself violently jerked from side to side by any quick turn or untoward movement he may make. If she stiffens her body and assumes an awkward position in her saddle, she will find herself, on the animal being sharply turned, unable to retain her seat with ease. As it is difficult, even for an accomplished horsewoman who is not accustomed to riding without reins, to do this when mounted on a light-mouthed horse, and without a signal from the driver of his intention to turn sharply in the trot or canter to "right" or "left" as the case may be; the pupil, until she has acquired the knack of conforming to every movement of the animal, should receive due warning from the driver. When he signifies his intention to turn the horse, she should grip the crutches with her legs, and incline her body in the direction to be taken by her mount. By watching the animal's ears, she will soon learn to become independent of the driver's signal. She will find, until she has acquired practice in riding without reins, that it is far more difficult to retain her balance in the saddle during these turns, than in riding over a fence; for when an obstacle has to be negotiated, she is made aware beforehand of the intended movements, but in turning without a signal she has not that advantage. If the lessons are given, first at a walk, and the pace gradually increased according as she becomes secure in her saddle, she will soon acquire a good firm seat, and will have no tendency to be displaced by her horse shying with her, or by making a sudden plunge to right or left. I have described in Chapter VIII. how a lady should sit in her saddle, so I need not repeat these directions. While being driven with the long reins, the rider should endeavour to sit as upright as she can, without any stiffness, and leaning neither to the front nor back, except when rising at the trot, when the body should be inclined a little forward, so as to make the movement smooth. The _walk_ requires no special mention. At the _trot_, before she has learned when and how to rise in her stirrup, it is best for her not to make any attempt to do so, but to let herself be bumped up and down until she feels that, although the movement may be unpleasant, it does not render her seat insecure. While doing this, she should be careful not to put any weight on the stirrup. After she has thus learned to trot without rising, she should try to feel her stirrup just before her body is bumped upward by the horse, and she will soon become able to time her movements, so as to rise in her stirrup with grace and ease. To do this, her effort should be strictly confined to aiding the upward lift which the horse gives to her body, and should be free from any jerk or wriggle. She should have her weight well on her right leg, and should keep her stirrup in one unaltered position (p. 192). The ankle acts here as a spring to take away any jerk that might occur during the movement. The stirrup, as I have said on page 192, should be at the ball of the foot, and the left knee should be kept steady and close against the flap of the saddle. If the horse, during the trot, suddenly breaks off into a canter, the rider should sit down in her saddle, and be ready to grip her crutches with both legs, if necessary. When _cantering_, the lady should try as much as possible to ride by balance and not by gripping her crutches tightly the whole time. She will thus be able to sit in a nice, easy position, and will be ready to grip the moment she requires to do so, as when turning, or if she feels she is losing her balance. Whenever the pupil gets displaced in her saddle or frightened, the horse should at once be pulled up; for the lesson will be of no use to her, if she feels forced to adopt a stiff, awkward position in her saddle for the sake of safety. It is well to know that an almost infallible sign of a rider being frightened of her horse is a tendency to unduly bend or "crane" forward. Hence, the instant this sign becomes apparent either to learner or teacher, the lesson should be discontinued, or the pace, if that was the cause of the nervousness, should be decreased as might be required. This "funky" seat on horseback looks bad, is particularly unsafe, and is hard to correct when once acquired. In _riding up to a fence_ the lady should in no way alter her position, but should merely grip the crutches firmly, while keeping her body perfectly lissom, with her head and shoulders slightly back. Many persons have a notion that the proper way to sit over all jumps is to bend forward when the animal is rising, and to lean back when he is descending. This is quite wrong; for, as the horse, before propelling himself forward and upward by his hind legs, has to raise his forehand off the ground by the straightening out of one or both of his fore legs, it is evident that it would be inadvisable to put any additional weight, at that moment, on the forehand. As most persons have a natural tendency to bend forward too much when going at a fence, I have advised the rider to bring her head and shoulders a little back, just sufficient to correct such a tendency. When a horse is in the act of taking off at a standing jump, the rider should lean forward, and bring her head and shoulders back, when he is landing. It is always sound practice to lean well back when landing over a fence, so as to take the weight off the horse's fore legs as much as possible. An experienced rider solves all these problems automatically. The fact of a side saddle giving the very strong grip it does, induces many ladies who find they can sit over a fence without falling off, to become so well satisfied with their own riding, that they neglect to acquire a good seat over a country. Their slipshod style is neither graceful, nor does it enable them to give their horse any assistance, if he happens to make a mistake; for they are certain to tumble off, if they receive any unusual provocation. The hold the lady has on the crutches should prevent her falling, if the animal stops dead when coming up to a fence. A lady who has acquired a good firm seat ought never to be displaced from her saddle while her mount remains on his legs. Though progress in the art of riding without reins must of necessity be slow and somewhat tedious at first, still, I would strongly recommend all ladies who are able to do so to practise this method, for they will find it the best and most rapid by which they can acquire a good and firm seat on horseback. The great difficulty in this work is to find a man who can use the long reins and manage a horse with correctness and precision in the various paces, and in jumping. It would be most dangerous for a lady to allow herself to be driven by the long reins by any man who was not a thorough master of this difficult art of horse guidance and control. Even with such a man, the horse to be ridden and jumped without reins should be previously trained for this work, and should be taught to stop dead the instant he receives the word of command. As a lady who is inexperienced in this kind of riding, may get a toss when being turned, especially if she tries to hook back her right leg, it is obvious that the "falling" should be soft and that the pupil be supplied with a safety bar and a safety skirt. It will be seen by the extract from the _Queen_, page 60, that even small girls who were taught to sit their horses in the manner that I have described in this book, were able to ride well over fences without reins after two lessons. CHAPTER XIV. NERVE. No lady can enjoy riding, or become proficient in that art, unless she has good nerve. Luckily, the large majority of girls who learn to ride possess abundance of nerve and pluck, an excess of which is often a danger to safety in the hunting field. It may be noticed, however, that the finest horsewomen do not make any showy display of their prowess, for they ride to hunt, and do not hunt to ride. Pluck is an admirable quality as far as it goes, but it must be supported by nerve. It is the custom to laugh at people who are suffering from temporary loss of nerve, but it is heartless to do so, as we have all, I believe, felt, more or less, what Jorrocks would term, "kivered all over with the creeps," at some period or other of our lives. Bad horses and bad falls are apt to ruin the strongest nerve, and there must be a cause to produce an effect. For instance, I never feared a thunderstorm until our house was struck by lightning; but now, when a storm comes, I feel like the Colonel to whom a Major said on the field of Prestonpans: "You shiver, Colonel, you are afraid." "I _am_ afraid, Sir," replied the Colonel, "and if you were as much afraid as I am, you would _run away_!" It may, however, be consoling to ladies who are battling against loss of nerve, to hear that I have known brilliant horsemen lose their nerve so utterly that they were unable to take their horses out of a walk. With quiet practice their good nerve returned again, and they have ridden as well as ever. Nerve in riding is recoverable by practice on a very confidential horse. Some men give their wives or daughters horses which are unsuitable for them, and which they are unable to manage. Is it any wonder that such ladies have their nerve entirely shattered in their efforts to control half-broken, violent brutes of horses? It is customary to blame ladies who are unable to control their horses in the hunting field; but the men who supply them with such animals are, in many cases, the more deserving of censure. There are men, not many, I hope, who consider it unnecessary for their womenkind to learn to ride before they hunt; but no one has a right to thus endanger the lives of others. Such ladies possess plenty of pluck, but not the necessary knowledge to guide their valour to act in safety. A Master of hounds told me that his nerve was so bad that he positively prayed for frost! At the end of one season he gave up the hounds; but he is again hunting them, so his nerve must have become strong. Mr. Scarth Dixon, writing on this subject, says: "It is a curious quality, that of nerve. A man's nerve, by which I mean his riding nerve, will go from him in a day; it will sometimes, but not frequently, come back to him as suddenly as it departed. Everyone who has hunted for any length of time and kept his eyes open must be able to call to mind many a man who has commenced his hunting career with apparent enthusiasm, who has gone, like the proverbial 'blazes,' for two or three seasons, taking croppers as all in a day's work, and then all at once has given up hunting altogether because his nerve has gone. He has, perhaps, tried to 'go' for a season, enduring unknown tortures in the attempt, and then he has given up altogether. He has never joined the skirting brigade, not, perhaps, as some would suggest, because he was too proud to do so after having once been a first-flight man, but because he did not care sufficiently for hunting." This writer knew a man who gave up riding to hounds because he had lost his nerve, and yet he continued to ride in steeplechases, which may be explained by the fact that the rider on a "flagged course" knows what is in front of him, and has little or nothing to fear from bad ground. Mr. Otho Paget considers that "a failing nerve may be always traced to the stomach," and recommends moderation in eating, drinking, and smoking. Frank Beers, the famous huntsman of the Grafton, had his hunting career closed by a severe illness, which apparently deprived him of all his former dash. Mr. Elliot says: "At the commencement of the season (1890-91) an attempt was made by the poor man to resume his duties, but one hour's trial proved to Mr. Robarts and those present that all hope had vanished, and the above-named gentleman, being in charge during Lord Penrhyn's absence, sent the hounds home." Huntsmen, like other riding men, generally lose some of their nerve after forty. Mr. Otho Paget tells us that the late Tom Firr was the only huntsman he ever knew who retained his riding nerve to the end. He was riding brilliantly at fifty-eight, in his last season with the Quorn, when he met with an accident which compelled him to resign his post. With Lord Lonsdale as Master, and Tom Firr as huntsman, the Quorn possessed two of the most perfect horsemen who ever crossed Leicestershire. I think the best treatment for a lady suffering from loss of nerve is, first of all, to attend to her health, which will probably be out of order; then get a steady horse or pony and ride him quietly for a time, and the chances are that the good nerve will all come back again. It grieves people who have been unable, from various causes, to keep up their riding practice, to think that they have lost their nerve, and they brood over it until they often imagine they are past hope of recovery, but that is a great mistake. This feeling can be struggled against, and, in most cases, conquered, by quiet measures. Nothing but the most "confidential" animal will help to do it, so I would warn my riding brethren not to make matters worse for their womenkind by providing any other kind of mount. CHAPTER XV. FENCES, COUNTRY AND GATES. From a hunting point of view, the chief value of fences lies in the fact that they retard the hounds more than the horses, and help the foxes to save their brushes. On arable land, fences as a rule are used merely as boundaries; but on grazing land, they are needed to prevent stock from roving beyond their assigned limits. Hence, in a grass country, the obstacles are generally much more difficult to negotiate than on tilled ground. Also, the nature of grazing stock demands variation in the stiffness and height of the fences, which, in the Midlands, have to restrain the migratory propensities of frisky young bullocks; but in dairy-farming counties like Cheshire, much smaller and weaker ones amply serve their purpose in acting as barriers to placid bovine matrons. Farmers in the Shires have found that hawthorn hedges make the most serviceable fences under old time regulations. When these hedges are allowed to grow in a natural manner, they take the form of a bullfinch (Fig. 90), which, though impossible at many places, often leaves a gap at others. Consequently, bullfinches are gradually going out of fashion in the Shires, and are generally converted into cut-and-laid fences, of which there is an example in Fig. 106. This alteration is usually made in winter, and is effected by cutting with a bill-hook about half way through the small trunks of the hawthorn shrubs, turning them to the left, and interlacing their tops and their branches, as we may see in Fig. 107, which shows us the appearance Fig. 106 presented during its construction. A cut-and-laid is usually about 3 feet 9 inches high, and is the wrong kind of obstacle to "chance," because it is very stiff. Some hunting people who know very little about country life, call a cut-and-laid fence a "stake-and-bound fence," which (Fig. 108) is an artificial barrier made by putting a row of stakes in the ground and twisting brushwood between them. Stake-and-bound fences are common in Kent, and are not nearly so dangerous to "chance" as a cut-and-laid, because the ends of their stakes are only stuck in the ground. The practice of cutting and laying hedges is so general in the Midlands, that we rarely see a bullfinch which does not show signs of having been tampered with in this manner. Even the height to which the hawthorn bushes in Fig. 90 have attained, does not entirely conceal the traces left by the bill-hook, some years before this photograph was taken. Posts and rails are often used in the Shires to strengthen decrepit fences (Fig. 109), and to take their place when no hawthorn bushes are present (Fig. 110). Their difficulty of negotiation is naturally increased by the presence of a ditch on the taking off or landing side, as in Fig. 111. As a rule, they are about 3 feet 6 inches high. A not uncommon form of posts and rails is a Midland stile (Fig. 112). A familiar combination of a hedge and posts and rails is an oxer (Fig. 113). The gap in this illustration has been repaired by wire, and I am much indebted to the ox who kindly allowed us to take his portrait, as well as the fence which owes its name to his family. Although the Whissendine is a prominent feature of the Cottesmore country near Stapleford Park, I need not dwell upon brooks as a form of hunting obstacle in the Shires, for they are seldom jumped; not from faintheartedness on the part of riders, but because the ground on the taking-off or landing side is often treacherous, and the presence of posts and rails or wire on one or both of the banks is a frequent occurrence. Also, the width of these brooks and bottoms varies greatly according to the amount of rainfall. People whose experience of leaping is limited to that of fences on firm and level ground, like those in a jumping competition, are naturally apt to overlook the severe manner in which a hunter is handicapped when coming up to an unknown fence, after a long and fast run through heavy, rough and hilly ground. [Illustration: Fig. 106.--A cut-and-laid fence.] [Illustration: Fig. 107.--A cut-and-laid fence during construction.] [Illustration: Fig. 108.--A stake and bound fence.] [Illustration: Fig. 109.--Post and rails to close gap in hedge.] [Illustration: Fig. 110.--Posts and rails.] [Illustration: Fig. 111.--Posts and rails with ditch.] [Illustration: Fig. 112.--Midland stile.] [Illustration: Fig. 113.--An oxer.] [Illustration: Fig. 114.--Wire in front of bullfinch.] Wire (Fig. 114) is terribly common in some parts of the Shires, and often makes any attempt to ride straight impossible. In countries where it is prevalent, speed is a much more valuable attribute of a hunter than cleverness in jumping, because the main object of the rider will then be, as a rule, to get over fields and through gates with a minimum of "lepping." Some of our Colonial sisters might taunt us for not trying to leap wire in the brave manner done by Miss Harding (Fig. 102) and other New Zealand and Australian horsewomen, but their conditions of country are entirely different from ours. In the Shires, for instance, wire, as a great rule, is visible only from one side of the fence which it contaminates, and often takes the form of a concealed trap. Hence it is carefully avoided both by horses at grass and by riders. My husband tells me that banks, stone walls and "stone gaps" are the chief fences in Ireland; that hedges are seldom encountered, except in the form of furze on the top of banks; and that he has rarely seen posts and rails in his native land. While enjoying a very pleasant visit last winter with Mr. Arthur Pollok, the Master of the East Galway Hounds, he took the photographs of Figs. 115 to 120. Fig. 115 shows a broad bank about 4 feet high, with a deep ditch on each side, and a tall man standing on the top of it, so as to give an idea of its dimensions. Fig. 116 is a side view of Fig. 115. In Fig. 117, Mr. Pollok, who is also tall, is standing beside a higher and more upright bank which has the usual accompaniment of broad ditches. In Fig. 118, the very popular Master of the East Galway is close to a typical Galway stone wall of the "cope and dash" order and close on 5 feet in height. This formidable obstacle derives its name from the fact that the stones on its top are firmly cemented together by a dash of mortar. The Masters, hunting men, hunting ladies, and horses of the East Galway and Blazers think nothing of "throwing a lep" over a cope and dash of this kind. Ordinary second flighters in the Shires would probably prefer the Galway "loose stone wall" depicted in Fig. 119 or the small bank shown in Fig. 120. He also tells me that although there is wire in East Galway, it is used only for fencing-in large spaces of ground, and as it stands out alone by itself, it is no source of danger to horse or rider. My husband returned to Crick delighted with the people in County Galway, especially because, when he went out hunting, almost everyone of the small field, both ladies and men, seeing that he was a stranger, were glad to meet him, and went up and spoke to him in a very friendly manner. Over there, hunting is evidently a sport, and not a social function. Fig. 121, which was very kindly taken from the top of Yelvertoft Church for this book by the Rector of that nice parish, gives a good idea of the country over which we hunt in Northamptonshire. In that county, the grass fields are smaller and the country more wooded than in Leicestershire, which has the inestimable advantage of possessing so many bridle paths, that people who hunt in it have very little road tramping to do. Even that trying infliction is mitigated to some extent in most parts of the Shires, by the presence of grass on the sides of country roads, as in Fig. 122. [Illustration: Fig. 115.--Galway bank.] [Illustration: Fig. 116.--Side view of bank shown in Fig. 115.] [Illustration: Fig. 117.--Galway bank.] [Illustration: Fig. 118.--"Cope and dash" wall.] [Illustration: Fig. 119.--Loose stone wall.] [Illustration: Fig. 120.--Low bank with ditch on both sides.] [Illustration: _Photo. by_ REV. R. J. GORNALL. Fig. 121.--View of country between Yelvertoft and Crick.] [Illustration: Fig. 122.--Grass on each side of the road.] When hunting in England, gates are hardly ever jumped, for two very good reasons. First, because it would take a Manifesto or a Cloister to negotiate a series of them safely during a long run; and second, because the habit of leaping gates would be almost certain to unfit a horse for the task of steadily going through the various phases of opening and shutting these means of ingress and egress. Besides, gates are often in such positions, as regards taking off and landing, that it would be impossible to fly them safely, even if the way were clear of hunting companions, which is seldom the case in large fields. Every horsewoman should remember that nothing is more apt to spoil a horse than allowing a brace of alternative ideas to occupy his mind at the same time. Hence, when a hunter sees a gate during a run, his thoughts should be solely occupied in doing his best to aid his rider to open, get through and shut it, or hold it open, if necessary. Gates, as a rule, may be divided into five-barred gates (Fig. 123) and bridle gates (Fig. 124). Variety in gates is chiefly limited to their form of fastening, which is generally on the left-hand side of the rider when the gate opens towards her (Figs. 125, 126 and 127); and on her right-hand side, when it opens away from her (Fig. 129). In Fig. 125, we see the old-fashioned wooden latch. In Fig. 126, the spring latch has to be pulled towards the hinges of the gate; and in Fig. 127, away from them. In the double gate shown in Fig. 128, the upper fastening consists of a moveable D; the lower one being a very common supplementary latch, which in Fig. 129, is cunningly secured by a curved piece of iron that renders the gate impossible to be opened, except by a person on foot. Another form of craft that we sometimes encounter, is an arrangement by which the gate hangs so heavily on its latch, that the would-be passer-through has to lift up the gate before he or she can open it, and often at an expenditure of strength of which many women are incapable. To perform this feat, a rider would of course have to dismount, which would be very awkward, if a lady was by herself. I have met gates of this annoying description on bridle paths on which the public have a right-of-way. [Illustration: Fig. 123.--Ordinary five-barred gate.] [Illustration: Fig. 124.--Bridle gate.] [Illustration: Fig. 125.--Gate with wooden latch.] [Illustration: Fig. 126.--Gate with spring latch which has to be drawn back.] [Illustration: Fig. 127.--Gate with spring latch which has to be pushed forward.] [Illustration: Fig. 128.--Double gate.] [Illustration: Fig. 129.--A puzzle in gate-opening.] A gate is opened either with the hand or hunting crop, the former being more efficient than the latter, if the latch is within reach, which would seldom be the case if the rider was on a tall horse. When the fence at the side of the fastening of a gate is low enough to allow the rider to place her horse's head over it, she usually can, by doing so, open the fastening by whip or hand, draw the gate back or push it forward, as the case may be, and pass through. If the hedge at the side of the fastening is too high for this to be done, she will have to place herself alongside the gate, with the horse's tail towards the hinges, and then open the latch, by means of the hand (with or without a whip) which is next to the latch. If the gate opens away from her, she may have to push it forward by hand or crop, unless she is on a well instructed animal, who will be always ready to save her this trouble, by pushing the gate open with his breast. If the gate opens towards her, the horse should be so trained, that when she has undone the latch, and has begun to draw the gate towards her, he will turn his hind quarters round (make a _pirouette renversée_, as the French call it), move his fore quarters a little to one side, so as to get them clear of the gate, and pass through, the moment he sees that his rider has opened the gate sufficiently for him to perform that final manoeuvre. For instance, if a mounted lady wants to get through the gate shown in Fig. 126, she should pull back the latch with her right hand (with or without a whip), and on drawing the gate towards her, the horse should bring his hind quarters round to the left; move his fore legs a little to the left; and, if need be, rein back a step or two, so as to be in the proper position to move forward, as soon as he has plenty of room to do so. As a lady has not a leg on each side of her mount, to enable her to turn his hind quarters to whichever side she likes, she will have far more difficulty than a man in teaching a horse these very useful movements. At the same time, when a horse is anxious to get through a closed gateway, as he will generally be when his head is turned towards his stable, he will very quickly learn how to ably assist his rider in this process. CHAPTER XVI. HUNTING. When ladies began to hunt--Hunt subscriptions--In the field-- Cub-hunting--Blood--Coming home--Rider's Physical Condition--Tips and thanks--The Horn--Hirelings--Farmers and Wire--Pilots-- Propriety--Falls. WHEN LADIES BEGAN TO HUNT. Although the hunting field is nowadays graced by the presence of many good horsewomen who ride well to hounds and are capable of taking care of themselves and their mounts, it is only within about the last seventy years that ladies have ridden across country. Mr. Elliott in his book _Fifty years of Fox-hunting_ tells us that in 1838 "Mrs. Lorraine Smith and her two daughters, with Miss Stone from Blisworth, were the only ladies who hunted then. The Misses Lorraine Smith rode in scarlet bodices and grey skirts. The improved side-saddle was not then invented to enable a lady to ride over fences." We learn from the same writer that in 1841 "a lady named Miss Nellie Holmes was out, topping the fences like a bird to the admiration of all; and when she came to the brook, over she went.... That was the first lady whom I saw go over a country. There is one certainty about ladies, what one does another will do, if it be worth the doing. Very soon others were at the game, and many have played it well since." In a pleasant little book entitled _The Young Ladies' Equestrian Manual_, written by a lady and published in 1838, we read, "No lady of taste ever gallops on the road. Into this pace the lady's horse is never urged, or permitted to break, except in the field; and not above one among a thousand of our fair readers, it may be surmised, is likely to be endowed with sufficient ambition and boldness, to attempt the following of hounds." The saddle given in a drawing in this book has no leaping head, but the writer mentions, as I have previously noted, that movable crutches were being introduced to enable a lady to ride on either side of her horse. The leaping head (p. 33), third crutch, or third pommel, as it was first called in England, came into use in this country in the forties, and with its aid ladies felt themselves endowed with sufficient ambition and boldness to follow hounds. Captain Elmhirst, writing in 1877, says: "It will, I think, be admitted by everyone that the number of ladies who hunt now is at least tenfold as compared with a dozen years ago," and every year since that was written, has seen a steady increase in the ranks of hunting women. HUNT SUBSCRIPTIONS. Perhaps it may not be out of place to say something about what a lady should do if she desires to join a hunt and has no menkind to arrange such business matters for her. Every woman who hunts should (and usually does, I believe,) contribute her share of payment towards the sport in which she participates. If a lady is well off, and intends to hunt regularly, she would probably not give less than £25; but the Quorn and some other fashionable hunts lay down no hard and fast rule concerning the amount to be subscribed, which varies according to individual circumstances. The minimum subscription to the Pytchley is £25 for a man and £10 for a lady. Lord North, who is Chairman of the Committee of the Warwickshire Hunt, states (_The Field_, 20th December, 1902), in a very generous manner, that "fox-hunting must never be allowed to become the sport of the rich alone. It is a national sport, and must be open to all--to rich and poor alike." There is, however, a recognised sum which qualifies the donor for hunt membership; for instance: the Craven minimum subscription, with membership, is £10; the Crawley and Horsham, 15 guineas; while subscribers of £25 to the Meynell hunt are privileged to wear the hunt button. In several hunts--Lord Fitzwilliam's, Mr. Bathurst's, the Belvoir, when hunted by the Duke of Rutland, and others--the Master hunts the country at his own expense, subscriptions being accepted only for Covert, Wire, Poultry, or Damage Funds, as the case may be. The Vale of White Horse (Cirencester) requires a subscription from ladies of "£5 per day, per week." Strangers who hunt occasionally with a subscription pack where capping is not practised, are expected to contribute towards the Poultry or Damage Fund. In some hunts a cap is taken from non-subscribers, from whom a certain fixed sum is expected; the Essex and Suffolk requires five shillings a day, the Burstow a sovereign, and the Pytchley and Warwickshire two pounds. The usual "field money" in Ireland is half-a-crown. The Blackmore Vale, although a subscription pack, does not fix any sum, but sensibly expects people to subscribe according to the number of horses they keep, and the amount of hunting they do. An old and sound rule is £5 for each horse. As subscriptions vary in different hunts, the best plan for a lady who has to arrange her own business matters, is to write to the secretary of the hunt which she desires to join, and obtain from him the required information. She will find _Bailey's Hunting Directory_ a most useful book of reference. IN THE FIELD. Under this heading, I shall try to give practical advice to those who are commencing their hunting career, and explain several things that I would have liked to have known myself when I first rode to hounds. As we may learn something from the failings of others before entering the expensive school of experience, it would be wise, before we hunt, to study certain complaints which experienced hunting men have published anent our sisters in the field. Mr. Otho Paget says: "I am not one of those who think that women are in the way out hunting, and in my experience I have always considered they do much less harm than the men, but the time when they do sin is at a check. They not only talk themselves, but they encourage men to talk as well, and I have repeatedly seen a woman lead a whole field over ground where the pack intended to cast themselves. The woman, instead of attending to what hounds are doing, enters into a conversation with a man and together they talk on without paying heed to the damage they may do. My dear sisters, forgive me for calling you to order, but if you would only keep silent when hounds are at fault, and stand quite still, you perhaps might shame your admirers into better behaviour, and thereby be the means of furthering the interests of sport." This rebuke means that when a gallop is suddenly stopped by hounds losing the scent of their fox and being obliged to puzzle out the line, the ladies of the hunt should remain silent, should pull up and not impede the huntsman who will do his best to aid his hounds in recovering the lost scent. Mr. Paget's remark about the lady who led the field over ground where the pack intended to cast themselves, means that the hounds were trying to recover the lost scent without the assistance of the huntsman, but their efforts had been spoiled by the people who rode over the ground and thus foiled the line. It is obvious that to spoil the sport of others in this negligent manner is to cover ourselves with humiliation, and other unbecoming wraps. It must be remembered that hunting, unlike other forms of sport, has no written rules of its own for the guidance of the uninitiated. Every indulgence should therefore be shown to the hunting tyro who innocently commits errors; for in nine cases out of ten it is probable she does so, from ignorance of the unwritten laws which govern the conduct of the experienced hunting man and woman. On this subject Mr. Otho Paget writes: "The lady novice comes in for her share of blame, and though she may not get sworn at, black looks will soon explain the situation. For her I would also crave indulgence, and if she becomes a regular offender, you can ask her male friends to tell her in what way she is doing wrong. In whatever way we may treat them, there is no excuse for the novice, male or female, embarking on a hunting career, without having ascertained the customs and observances which are considered necessary by those who have had considerable experience.... Anyone who comes out hunting without knowing the rules of the game, is a constant source of danger to those who are near." This is all very true of course; but the aspiring Diana may well ask "what are these said rules, and where can I obtain them?" I feel sure that all hunting novices would greatly appreciate and study an orthodox code of hunting laws, as it would be far pleasanter for a lady to avoid mistakes by their guidance, than to have "her male friends to tell her in what way she is doing wrong," possibly _after_ she has received "black looks" from the whole of the field. Hunting is a science which has to be learnt, and every game of science should have its published code of regulations, or it cannot be played without grave blunders by those who have to pick it up at haphazard. In justice to my sex it must be allowed that they do not holloa on viewing a fox, a fault that is often committed by men, especially in the Provinces. Colonel Alderson quoting from an old pamphlet on hunting which was reprinted in 1880 by Messrs. William Pollard and Co., Exeter, says: "Gentlemen, keep your mouths shut and your ears open. The fox has broken cover, you see him--gentlemen, gentlemen, do not roar out 'Tally-ho'! do not screech horribly. If you do, he will turn back, even under your horses' feet, in spite of the sad and disappointed look on your handsome or ugly faces. Do not crack your infernal whips, be silent." Whyte Melville says: "I do not say you are never to open your mouth, but I think that if the inmates of our deaf and dumb asylums kept hounds, these would show sport above the average and would seldom go home without blood. Noise is by no means a necessary concomitant of the chase, and a hat held up, or a quiet whisper to the huntsman, is of more help to him than the loudest and clearest view holloa that ever wakened the dead, 'from the lungs of John Peel in the morning.'" As this chapter is written with the desire to help the inexperienced huntress, she will, I feel sure, be grateful to the writers who have advised her what not to do, so we will study the next complaint which comes from that experienced sportsman Captain Elmhirst, who describes a hunting run better, I think, than any other writer on the subject. He says: "When ladies cast in their lot with the rougher sex, lay themselves out to share in all the dangers and discomforts incidental to the chase, and even compete for honours in the school of fox-hunting, they should in common fairness be prepared to accept their position on even terms, nor neglect to render in some degree mutual the assistance so freely at their command, and that men in a Leicestershire field so punctiliously afford to each other. The point on which they so prominently fail in this particular is, to speak plainly, their habitual, neglect--or incapacity--at gateways. Given the rush and crush of three hundred people starting for a run and pressing eagerly through a single way of exit--to wit, an ordinary gate swinging easily and lightly, and requiring only that each passer through should by a touch hinder its closing after him or her. Of these three hundred, in all probability thirty are ladies; and I commit myself to the statement that not more than five of that number will do their share towards preserving the passage for those who follow them. The bulk of them will vaguely wave what they, forsooth, term their hunting-whips towards the returning gate; while others merely give their mounts a kick in the ribs and gallop onwards, with no look behind at the mischief and mortification they have caused. The gate slams, the crowd press on to it, a precious minute or two is lost and scores of people are robbed of their chance in the forthcoming gallop. And yet these are our sisters whose arms and nerves are strong enough to steer an impetuous horse over a most difficult country and who turn away from nothing that we can dare to face. The intense annoyance entailed by a gate being dropped into its intricate fastenings through want of ability or of consideration on the part of the fair Amazon immediately preceding him, has brought into the mouth of many a chivalrous sportsman a muttered anathema of the feminine taste for hunting that scarce any other provocation would have availed to rouse. It is only quite of late that a certain number of ladies have supplied themselves with whips at all capable of supporting a gate; and not many of these can use them even now. I make bold to say that not only every lady who hunts should be armed with a sufficient hunting-crop (with of course a lash to guard against its loss in a gateway), but that no lady ought to deem herself qualified to take her place in the field until she has learned how to use it. Were such a rule adhered to, we should hear none of the sweeping remarks indulged in by sufferers who have over and over again writhed under disappointments, that if inflicted by our own sex, would have quickly called forth direct charges of inconsiderateness and want of courtesy." From this admonition the tyro may learn two things which will be of great service to her in hunting. First, the necessity of providing herself with a strong hunting crop, which should be sufficiently long and stiff to stop a gate easily, with a good handle to it capable of opening or stopping a gate, and the orthodox thong and lash attached to prevent the whip from falling on the ground if she loses her hold of it at a gateway. Provided with this serviceable crop, a lady, before she appears in the hunting field, should ride through as many different varieties of gates as she can find, and should thoroughly master the art of opening and shutting them herself, and of giving the necessary push with her crop as she passes through for the assistance of imaginary riders behind her. In Leicestershire there are so many bridle roads that a lady may obtain any amount of this practice when hacking. It would be well for her to ride the horses on which she intends to hunt, as she will be teaching them to go steadily through gates while she is perfecting herself in the art of opening and shutting them, and her hunters will also learn the important accomplishment of being able to push a gate when it opens from her. She should be careful to securely shut every gate through which she may pass, because farm stock are apt to stray through gates which are left open and cause great inconvenience to their owners. If a lady is the last to pass through a gate when hunting, she should always remember to shut it. Men are often far greater culprits than women at gates, apart from their holloaing propensities. Many men seem to regard the sport as provided for them alone, and look upon my sex as being in the hunting field on sufferance. Most of us have met the entirely selfish male who gallops up to a gate, rushes through it and lets it bang behind him, well knowing that a lady is making for the same means of exit, and is only a few lengths away. Considering that women pay for their hunting and are not on the free list, it seems rather superfluous for men to assure them that they do not object to their presence in the hunting field, an announcement which appears in print so often that it sounds like protesting too much. We never hear of hunting women recording the fact that they do not object to the presence of men: even ladies who carry the horn themselves are free from prejudice in this respect. Hunting men, in assuring us of their distinguished toleration, almost appear to copy each other in their charming manner of expressing that fact. For instance, Whyte Melville says: "Far be it from me to assert that the field is no place for the fair; on the contrary, I hold that their presence adds in every respect to its charms." Then why does he suggest such a thing? Captain Elmhirst assures us that he is "one of those who, far from cavilling selfishly at their presence, heartily admit the advantages direct and indirect in their participating in a pursuit in which we men are too often charged with allowing ourselves to be entirely absorbed." Mr. Otho Paget says: "I am not one of those who think that women are in the way out hunting, and in my experience I have always considered they do much less harm than the men." Nice, truthful man, and great favourite as he deserves to be. The celebrated Beckford appropriately gives as a frontispiece, in his _Thoughts on Hunting_, a portrait of Diana, the goddess of hunting, having her sandals girded on for the chase, and explains the picture by saying: "You will rally me perhaps on the choice of my frontispiece; but why should not hunting admit the patronage of a lady? The ancients, you know, invoked Diana at setting out on the chase, and sacrificed to her at their return; is not this enough to show the propriety of my choice?" How much nicer the ancients must have been than many moderns are! They often provoke poor Diana when setting out for the chase, and sacrifice her to their bad tempers on their return! According to Jorrocks, hunting men must be vainer than we are, for we do not wear pink. That great sportsman found that "two-thirds of the men wot come out and subscribe, wouldn't do so if they had to ride in black!" Another admonition which should receive the serious attention of the hunting tyro comes from Whyte Melville, who says: "Now I hope I am not going to express a sentiment that will offend their prejudices and cause young women to consider me an old one, but I do consider that in these days ladies who go out hunting ride a turn too hard.... Let the greatest care be taken in the selection of their horses; let their saddles and bridles be fitted to such a nicety that sore backs and sore mouths are equally impossible, and let trustworthy servants be told off to attend them during the day. Then, with everything in their favour, over a fair country fairly fenced, why should they not ride on and take their pleasure? "But even if their souls disdain to follow a regular pilot (and, I may observe, this office requires no little nerve, as they are pretty quick on a leader when he gets down), I would entreat them not to try 'cutting out the work,' as it is called, but rather to wait and see at least one rider over a leap before they attempt it themselves.... What said the wisest of kings concerning a fair woman without discretion? We want no Solomon to remind us that with her courage roused, her ambition excited, all the rivalry of her nature called into play, she has nowhere more need of this judicious quality than in the hunting field." Possibly the writer was thinking of two rival Dianas who ride to cut each other down, and who are a nuisance and danger to the entire field. One, if not both of them, has generally to be picked up as the result of this jealous riding. [Illustration: Fig. 130.--Ridge and furrow.] As it is in Leicestershire that many of our finest horsewomen may be seen, I would strongly recommend the lady who has done some preliminary hunting with harriers, can ride well, and who is supplied with suitable hunters which she can thoroughly control, to learn to hunt in that country. She will there get the best possible instruction in hunt discipline and see the game correctly played, which is far better for her than graduating in a country where people ride to holloas, where the Master is unable to control his field, and where hounds are interfered with in their work by ignorant or careless sportsmen. Besides, if she made her _debût_ in a country which is badly hunted, she would learn a great deal that she would have to unlearn, if she should ever desire to hunt in Leicestershire. A Leicestershire field may be divided into four classes: the first flight people who show the way, ride comparatively straight and require no lead; the second flighters, who use the first flighters as their skirmishers and follow them as straight as they can; the third flighters (to which class the hunting tyro ought to belong while getting to know the country), who ride through gates and gaps and over small fences; and the fourth flighters, or macadamisers, who, like Jorrocks, "are 'ard riders, because they never leave the 'ard road." The lady who is a capable horsewoman, which I need hardly say she ought to be before she attempts to hunt in any country, should, if she wishes to ride in Leicestershire, get as much practice as possible over ridge and furrow (Fig. 130), in order that she may be able to gallop easily and comfortably over it when hunting; for those who are unaccustomed to deep ridge and furrow are apt to tire themselves and their horses unnecessarily. The lines of snow in Fig. 131 show the presence of ridge and furrow in the distance. As it is requisite for a lady to know how to ride on the flat and over fences, it is equally important that she should obtain all the practice she can in negotiating difficult ground, so that the hunting field may have no unpleasant surprises in store for her. A very steep incline will stop many people. There is one in the North Cheshire country, near Church Minshull I think, which is like riding down the side of a house to get to the valley below. The passage from the high ground to the Belvoir Vale is also quite steep, enough to give us pause. The best and safest way to ride down such places is for the rider to lean back and take her horse very slowly and perfectly straight down the incline. He should never be taken sideways; because if he makes a mistake and his hind quarters are not under him, he will be very liable to roll over on his rider. If he is kept perfectly straight and misses his footing, he will try to save himself by putting his weight on his hind quarters, and will probably find himself sitting on his haunches until he recovers his balance. The rider, by leaning back, removes weight from his forehand and is prepared for any mistake he may make. She should remember to lower her head in passing under trees and not hurry her mount in the least, even though she may see the whole field streaming away from her in the valley below. In going up hill, if the ascent be very steep, the rider would do well to lean forward and catch hold of her horse's mane, if he has one, or of the breastplate, so as to avoid letting her weight make the saddle slip, and also to put her weight well forward and thus assist the horse. She should let him take a zigzag course, and should on no account interfere with his head by pulling on the reins. We may notice that a waggoner with a heavy load always takes his horse in a zigzag direction up a steep hill, as it is easier for the animal, and allows him occasional intervals for rest, if necessary. We should ride slowly and save our mount as much as possible on such occasions. [Illustration: Fig. 131.--Ridge and furrow in the distance.] When we go a-hunting we should not forget to provide ourselves with a pocket-handkerchief of a useful size; for a dab of mud on the face is a common occurrence. Our noses and often our eyes require "mopping" on a cold day, and as the small square of lace bedecked or embroidered cambric which usually does duty as a handkerchief, is totally unable to meet the various calls made upon it, it is ridiculously out of place. If a watch is needed, it is most conveniently carried in a leather wristlet made for the purpose, as it can then be consulted at any moment, by merely raising the hand, without having to fumble for a watch-pocket. I must not omit mention of the necessary flask and sandwich case, which are generally given into the charge of the second horseman; but if a one-horse lady goes home at the change of horses, she will not require a "snack." As one of the first principles of hunting is to spare both ourselves and our horses any unnecessary fatigue, a lady should, if possible, always drive to the meet, or go by rail. If she has to ride, she should undertake no distance beyond ten miles. I have ridden twelve, but I think that is too far. If she rides her hunter, she should take him quietly, alternating the pace between a walk and a slow canter on the soft side of the road, the orthodox pace being six miles an hour. She should trot as little as possible, in order to avoid the risk of giving her mount a sore back; for trotting, if she rises in the saddle, is the pace most likely to cause trouble in this respect. On arriving at the meet, she should never neglect the precaution of having her girths tightened as may be required, for her horse will have thinned down somewhat from exercise, and the girths will allow of another hole or two being taken up. One of the most fruitful causes of sore back is occasioned by thoughtlessly hunting on a horse which is slackly girthed up, as the friction of the saddle will soon irritate the back, with the result, generally, of a swelling on the off side of the withers, and on the off side of the back, near the cantle. I wish to draw particular attention to the necessity of tightening the girths of a side-saddle, even when a horse has been led to a meet; because I have found from long experience of riding young horses with tender backs, as well as hunters in hard condition, that, given the most perfectly-fitting saddle, trouble will arise sooner or later if this precaution is neglected. Some ladies are so careful about the fit of their saddles, that they have a separate saddle for each of their hunters. I know of a lady who has fourteen hunters so equipped. When hounds move off to covert, a lady should be sufficiently watchful to secure a good place in the procession, as it sometimes happens that a field is kept waiting in a road or lane while a covert is being drawn, and, if she be at the tail end of it, she will get a bad start. In taking up her position she should, of course, be careful not to interfere with others. Mr. Otho Paget gives the following good advice, which we should all endeavour to follow: "When we go a-hunting, I think we should forget all the petty squabbles with our neighbours, and meet for the time on terms of cordiality. Anything approaching a quarrel will spoil the day's sport for you. Everyone should try to be genial and good-tempered, so that, even if there is only a moderate run, you return home feeling happier for the exercise and the good fellowship. There are many things to try one's temper in the hunting field, when everybody is excited, but one should control one's feelings and be invariably courteous in speech. You should apologise, even when you think you are in the right, for the other man may be equally certain he is in the right, and it would be difficult to say who was in the wrong. At the same time, when a man apologises and is evidently sorry, you ought to accept his apologies in a kindly spirit, even though he has jumped on the small of your back." It is almost superfluous, perhaps, to tender advice of this kind to my gentle sex, but still, sometimes--very rarely, of course--we find ourselves uttering impatient remarks in the excitement of the chase, which we feel, on mature reflection, that we would have preferred to have left unsaid. A lady will require to keep a very clear head when the fox breaks covert and the huntsman sounds the well-known "Gone away," which is the signal to start. In a field of three or four hundred horsemen and women all galloping off at once with a whiz like the sound of a flock of startled birds, there must be neither hesitation nor recklessness on the part of the young Diana, who should ride with discretion and judgment in order to steer clear of danger, especially at the first fence. There are generally a few left on the wrong side of it, and the chances are that there will not be so great a crowd at the next one. At the start, a judicious use of the curb will doubtless be necessary for keeping an excited hunter under control, and allowing the rider in front plenty of room to jump and get clear away from his fence. When horses have settled down to the required pace, which will be regulated by the hounds and according to scent, a lady should ride on the snaffle, keep her hands in a steady fixed position, as low down as comfortable, and should maintain a good look out in front of her, so that she may, after jumping into one field, see the shortest and best way into the next. Jorrocks speaks truly in saying "to 'unt pleasantly two things are necessary--to know your 'oss and know your own mind.... Howsomever, if you know your horse and can depend upon him, so as to be sure he will carry you over whatever you put him at, 'ave a good understanding with yourself before you ever come to a leap, whether you intend to go over it or not, for nothing looks so pusillanimous as to see a chap ride bang at a fence as though he would eat it, and then swerve off for a gate or a gap." If there is a crowd at the only practicable place in a fence, a lady must wait her turn, and should her horse refuse, she must at once give place to any rider who may be behind her, and wait until her turn comes again before having a second attempt to clear the obstacle. As precious time is lost by refusing horses, it is generally wiser if possible to find some other means of exit than to argue with a refuser. Remember that there is always a gate which can be opened, near a haystack, as the farmer places his hay where he can easily get at it (Fig. 132). A lady should save her horse as much as possible, jump only when she is obliged, for hunting is not steeplechasing, and try to keep within sight of hounds. She should remember to shut any gate she may use, and to carefully avoid riding over winter beans, wheat, clover, roots, turnips, or any crops, or ground newly sown with seed. A lady should take a pull at her horse when going over ploughed land or down-hill in order to keep him well collected, and should always ride slowly over ground that is deep and holding, if she values her hunter's soundness. Ladies who know every fence and covert in a country have a great advantage over strangers, because foxes frequently make a point from one covert to another, and experienced hunting women will generally have a good idea where they are going. Like Surtees' Michael Hardy, they know their country and the runs of its foxes. There are people that have hunted in Leicestershire all their lives, who manage to keep comparatively near hounds and see good sport without jumping a single fence. They know the country, generally ride to points, and act as admirable pilots to the uninitiated. I owe them a deep debt of gratitude for showing me the way, when I rode young horses who were getting their first lessons in hunting. Croppers never came to me under their wise guidance, but only when tempted by the keenness and excitement of my over-sanguine youngster, I essayed lepping experiments which were not always successful. [Illustration: Fig. 132.--Haystack and gate.] A lady should never put her mount at a fence which she is not certain he is able to jump, for it is better to be a coward than a corpse, and even if she is pounded and loses a run, both she and her horse have plenty more good hunting days in store. Some hunters will refuse a fence at which they see the horse in front of them come to grief, and as it is only natural that any horse with brains should feel more or less frightened at such times, his rider should sympathise with him and encourage him to make an effort, in much the same way as we would coax a child to take a dose of medicine. Few horses like jumping. Whoever saw animals at liberty larking over fences from sheer delight in leaping? It takes a deal of time and patience to make a good fencer, although, of course, some horses learn the art much more quickly than others. Although few horses enjoy jumping, they, luckily for us, detest falling, and I feel sure that if people would only leave their mouths alone and regard the use of the curb at fences as a death-trap, we should hear of far fewer falls in the hunting field. Captain Elmhirst truly says: "Horses are very sage at saving themselves and consequently you. They care little for the coward on their back; but for their own convenience they won't fall if they can help it." To prove this I may relate the following interesting and instructive fact: Some years ago I was giving, at Ward's Riding School, Brompton Road, London, practical demonstrations of riding over fences without reins, my husband driving on foot a horse which he had taught to jump, with the long reins. When my part of the show ended, a single pole was raised to a height of five feet, and Gustave, which was the name of this amiable grey horse, was asked to go and jump that fence by himself. He was allowed only a short run at it, as the school is not a large one, but in his desire to obey orders he would canter up to the pole, and if he considered that he had misjudged his correct distance for taking off, he would go back of his own accord and take another run at it. My husband was as much surprised as I was when we first saw the horse do this, as we had not credited him with so much intelligence. Therefore, when I hear people talking about "lifting" and "assisting" horses over their fences, I cannot help thinking that if they lifted themselves off their backs they would see how much better horses are able to jump without their assistance. Many of my readers doubtless saw the Grand National of 1900, and how poor Hidden Mystery, who, after he had fallen and had unshipped his rider, jumped the fences with safety to himself and the field. Such sights must show how necessary it is for us to interfere as little as possible with our horses when riding them over fences. If most horses dislike jumping, it is certain that they love hunting and will exert every effort to keep in touch with hounds. Those who doubt this should ride a young horse, and note how anxious he is to try and keep with hounds and how, with the fearlessness of ignorance he would charge any fence and probably kill both himself and his rider, if he were permitted to urge on his wild career. Blow a hunting horn near a stable where there are hunters, and then listen to the snorting, kicking and excitement which your action has aroused; but it is unwise to repeat the experiment, for the chances are that the excited war horses inside may do some damage in their frantic efforts to get out and follow the music. Watch farmers' horses loose in a field when hounds are in the vicinity, and you will see them careering madly up and down, as if they too would like to join in hunting the fox, although their avocation in life dooms them to the placid work of drawing a plough or heavy cart. As in horses so in men, and those who possess the sporting instinct will run many miles in the hope of catching a glimpse of a hunt, even though they may never be able to follow hounds on horseback. These foot people are not welcomed in any hunting field, but there is no denying that they are keen on the sport, or they would not tire themselves as they do, in their efforts to see something of it. Jorrocks says: "I often thinks, could the keen foot-folks change places with the fumigatin' yards o' leather and scarlet, wot a much better chance there would be for the chase! They, at all events, come out from a genuine inclination for the sport, and not for mere show sake, as too many do." If a lady has the misfortune to own a hunter who, on refusing a fence, shows an inclination to rear on being brought up to it again, my advice would be to sell him, as rearing is of all equine vices the most dangerous, and a woman in a side-saddle is unable to slip off over the tail of a horse who is standing on his hind legs, a feat I have seen accomplished by men. Besides, a horse who will try to rear at a fence instead of jumping it, will be sure to revert to the same form of defence, whenever the will of his rider does not coincide with that of his own. It is very unwise to lend a hunter to anyone who is not a thoroughly good rider. I had in Calcutta a clever Australian horse which I used to ride in the paper-chases that are run over a "made" course. He had never refused or made the slightest mistake with me until I lent him to a friend. When I again rode the horse, he refused with me at the first fence. I spoke to him, took him again at it and he jumped it, but I had a similar difficulty at another obstacle, and was entirely out of the chase. I was subsequently told by those who knew the horse that the man to whom I had lent him was very noisy, had cut the animal about with his whip, and had treated the surprised onlookers to scenes with him at every fence. The horse had a light snaffle mouth, and would quickly resent any undue interference with it. It is unwise, also, to lend a hunter to even an expert rider, if he or she is afflicted with a bad temper. I heard of a case of a brilliant hunter being lent to an accomplished horsewoman who returned him after a day's hunting with large wheals on his body, showing how cruelly she had used her whip on him. The lady to whom the animal belonged was greatly distressed on seeing the condition of her favourite hunter, who was one of the best that ever crossed Leicestershire. A whip, as I have said, should never be used with the object of inflicting pain, but as an "aid." It is a good plan to always give a hunter a touch with the whip when sending him at an exceptionally big fence, as a reminder that he must exert his best efforts; but in order that the horse may thoroughly understand its meaning, it should be used only at stiff fences; the touch should not be so severe as to hurt him, and should be given on his off flank. A horse must bring his quarters to the right before he can run out to the left, and a touch on the off flank will help to keep him straight. If a lady finds herself on dangerous or difficult ground, as for instance, land intersected with rabbit holes, her best plan will be to slacken the pace into a trot or walk, if necessary, and leave the rest to her horse, who will do his best to keep a firm footing. Parts of the South African veldt are dangerous to ride over because of meerkat holes, but the horses in that country are marvellously clever in avoiding them, if they are left alone. Rabbit holes are responsible for many bad accidents in hunting. I was out one day with the Belvoir on a young mare who put her foot into one while going at a smart pace over ridge and furrow. She wrenched off a fore shoe and pecked so badly that I thought she must fall, but I had the sense to lean back and leave her mouth alone, and she appeared to save herself with a spare leg at the last moment, recovering her balance by the aid of the ridge which she had breasted. Minus a fore shoe, I had to take her home at a walk, and I smiled to myself when I saw her make a vicious stamp at a rabbit who was in the act of disappearing into another hole. A lady should send her horse at a good pace at a brook (Fig. 133), but not at top speed, as he will not be able to collect himself to take off at a long jump if he is sent at it at full gallop. We may see in jumping competitions, especially at the Agricultural Hall, that a clever horse can clear a fair expanse of water when allowed a run of only a few lengths. The water jump at the Richmond Show is placed in such a position that a horse cannot be given a long run at it, and yet many horses clear it easily. It measures, I believe, about 14 feet, and is so narrow that a horse I once rode over it showed his sense by clearing the width instead of the length, and landing near the stand. I do not think that out hunting it is usual to expect a horse to negotiate a water jump of say over 12 feet in width. Some horses, like some men, possess a special aptitude for jumping width, although they would doubtless be poor performers at height, the style of jumping being entirely different. The hunter who is equally proficient at both styles of fencing, is as rare as he is valuable. Captain Elmhirst records an instance of "a whole Leicestershire field pounded by 12 feet of water," and how the difficulty was at last overcome by a shallow spot being discovered, a rail broken down and the field "slink pitifully through.... How we hug ourselves as we gallop under a railway arch, to find we have bridged a bit of water that would frighten no one outside the vaunted Midlands." I believe the reason why the majority of hunting people dislike water is that they do not care to ride fast at it, for fear of being crumpled in a fall. I do not agree with the statement that a hard funker rushes at his fences. Ignorance and enthusiasm may lead people into doing that, but funk oftener than not either pilots them away from fences entirely, or incites them to pull their horses off them, and then abuse the animals for refusing! When the funky rider does make up his mind to take a jump, he generally lets everybody near know it by the noise he makes, ostensibly to encourage his horse, but in reality to keep his heart in the right place, and not in his mouth. The ignorant horsewoman, as pointed out by the Duchess of Newcastle, rushes her horse at difficult obstacles, because she is fearless of dangers unknown to her; but a wholesome fall generally teaches her to temper valour with discretion. If a lady finds herself on a horse which is pulling too hard to be within perfect control, she should stop him as soon as possible and take him home, for very obvious reasons. If there is difficulty in stopping him, the best way is to try and keep him on the turn until he obeys the rein. [Illustration: Fig. 133.--Brook.] The presence of a line of pollard willows in the distance (Fig. 134) is a certain sign that a brook is flowing past their roots. In going through woodland country, a lady should be careful to lower her head in passing under trees and to ride slowly. It is essential for her to decide at once the direction which she intends to take, to keep her horse well collected, and not allow him to deviate from it by going the wrong side of a tree or opening, or to take the initiative in any other way. A good horsewoman is seen to great advantage in riding through woodland country. CUB-HUNTING. A lady intending to hunt should obtain as much practice in the cub-hunting season as she possibly can; for she will be helping to get both herself and her hunters into condition, and, as the season goes on, will gain experience of what fox-hunting will be like. In the early days she must not look forward to having a gallop, for hounds are being taught to hunt and kill a cub in covert, and the most useful service she can render at such times is to stand by the covert side and prevent any foxes from breaking away. I believe that only people who are really fond of hunting take part in the morning and dress by candle, lamp, or gas-light. When they are ready to ride perhaps a long distance to covert, there is often only sufficient daylight to see with, rain drizzling down steadily and everything looking cheerless. A light meal, if it be only a cup of cocoatina and a slice of bread and butter, should be taken before starting, and if it is wet or threatening, a good rain coat should be worn. Towards the end of September and throughout October there will be galloping and jumping, and often the pace will be fast enough for the condition of both horse and rider, as we may see by steaming animals and flushed faces at the end of a run. I have so greatly enjoyed these cub-hunting runs with their freedom from crowding and crush, that I can heartily endorse the opinion of Captain Elmhirst, who says: "Call it cub-hunting, or call it what you like, there will be few merrier mornings before Xmas than that of the Quorn on the last days of September." It seems like the breaking up of a family party when the cubbing ceases and all the pomp and circumstance of fox-hunting commences. I often wonder if people who take no interest whatever in cub-hunting, but who regularly appear on the opening day of the season, really ride to hunt, or hunt to ride? Jorrocks tells us that, "Some come to see, others to be seen; some for the ride out, others for the ride 'ome; some for happetites, some for 'ealth; some to get away from their wives, and a few to 'unt." Our tyro who is enjoying her cubbing will be wise to take a back place on the opening day of the season, and thus avoid being jostled by the mighty crowd she will see on a Kirby Gate day. She will doubtless find her mount far more excited and difficult to manage than ever before, and will require to exert a good deal of tact and patience in restraining his ambition to catch the fox. The opening day is always the most trying one of the season. All the world and his wife seem to be at the meet. There are people in vehicles of every kind, on foot, on bicycles and tricycles, as well as about four hundred horsemen, and many things happen on this day of crowding and discomfort which must sorely tax the patience of the most angelic tempered Master. [Illustration: Fig. 134.--Pollard willows in the next field.] A lady who has had a good season at cub hunting, ought to be able to take her place among the third-flight people, where she will gradually gain experience and a knowledge of the country, which will enable her to pass into the second rank, and finally into the first; but she must work her way up by degrees, and remember that no one can ride safely over Leicestershire in the first flight who is not mounted on an accomplished performer, and is not thoroughly well acquainted with the country. KICKERS AND RED BOWS. Unless a lady is perfectly certain that her mount will not lash out at hounds, she should keep well away from them, and should never ride into a covert where they are. I once had a mare of this description who never kicked horses, but who would try to get a sly kick at even our own wow-wows during a hacking ride. We had some foxhound puppies at walk, but I never allowed her to get near them, and our own dogs got so artful that they always managed to evade her kicks. I do not believe that mare would ever have been safe with hounds, so I took good care to give her no opportunity of disgracing the pair of us in the hunting field. In every other respect she was most amiable. As there are inconsiderate people who ride kickers, a lady should carefully avoid getting near a horse whose tail is adorned with a red bow. If this is impossible, and it often is in crowds, she should try and keep to the left of the kicker, so that if he lashes out he may not be able to break her legs. Scrutator in his book on _Foxhunting_ points out that "the risks men encounter in the chase are great enough without being subjected to the chance of having their legs broken by a bad-tempered brute at the covert side." I once had the misfortune to see a man's leg broken by a vicious kicker in Leicestershire. Another case happened while I was in Cheshire, and yet these dangerous be-ribboned animals can still be seen in almost every hunting field. We must here draw a sharp line of distinction between horses which kick from vice, and those, especially young ones full of corn and short of work, which throw up their heels from exuberance of spirits. Many mares, particularly in springtime, are apt to kick from causes which I need not discuss. Hence, geldings are more free from this baneful habit than their female relations, and are consequently, as a rule, more reliable mounts. Great care should be observed in gradually accustoming a young horse to placidly bear the excitement of being surrounded by a large number of his equine companions, and he should thoroughly learn this part of his education before he is required to quit the outskirts of the field, and take his place as a hunter. This preliminary training of course comes under the heading of breaking and not of hunting. A young horse "turned out" in the open, not unfrequently gives a companion a playful kick, which very seldom inflicts any injury, because it has no "venom" in it, and the hoof that administers the tap is unshod. I have even seen mares with a foal at foot, give the young one a slight push with the hind hoof, to make him get out of the way. The motives of such taps are of course entirely different from the dangerous malevolence that prompts a confirmed kicker to "lash out" at horse or man who comes within striking distance. We should bear in mind that a touch behind is very apt to provoke a kick, whether of the vicious, playful or get-out-of-the-way kind. Hence a rider should always be careful never to allow her horse's head to touch the hind quarters of an animal in front, which is a precaution that is of special application in crowds of pulled-up horses. Also, on such occasions, she should keep him straight and should prevent him from reining back. Any man or woman who knowingly rides a kicker in a large hunting field, is guilty of disgraceful conduct; because it is impossible for everyone to get out of reach of this bone-breaker's heels, during the frequent stoppages which occur out hunting. Some persons have a red bow put on their animal's tail, or they place a hand at the small of their back, with the palm turned to the rear, as a sly device to get more elbow-room in crowds. It is evident that such artful tricks are unworthy of imitation. BLOOD. With full consideration of the importance of blood for making hounds keen, I must say that the digging out of foxes is a phase of hunting that I greatly dislike to witness. I do not think that any writer has put this question more fairly than Captain Elmhirst, who says:--"We must grant that hounds are glad to get hold of their fox; but we cannot grant that it is at all necessary that they should do so. In a well-stocked country he must be a very bad huntsman who cannot find them blood enough by fair killing; while in a badly stocked one it is very certain you cannot afford wanton bloodshed. Moreover, it is almost an allowed fact that hounds well blooded in the cub-hunting season do not require it to any extent afterwards; and many authorities maintain that a good 'flare up' of triumph and excitement over the mouth of an earth is just as effectual and satisfactory to hounds as an actual worry. "And what do the field think of it? They hate and abominate it, each and every one of them. They neither sympathise with the feeling that prompts the act, nor hold with the expediency of its commission. To them it represents no pleasure, and certainly coincides with none of their notions of sport. They would find much greater fun in seeing rats killed in a barn, and derive from the sight a much higher sense of satisfaction. Condemned, probably, to stand about in the cold, unwilling witnesses of what they heartily detest, they spend the time in giving vent to their annoyance and contempt.... Finally, fox-digging, in the sense we refer to, is a crying enormity, a disgrace to a noble sport, and should be put down as rigorously as vivisection." Tearing a poor fox to pieces is a sight which very few women would care to watch, except those manly ones who take a delight in killing wild animals themselves. Such persons would be able to look unmoved at a bullock being pole axed, without losing a particle of their appetite for a cut off his sirloin. COMING HOME. We are accustomed to associate hunting with pleasant runs; but there are days when covert after covert is drawn blank and a fox not found until late. Sometimes, but very rarely, we have an entirely blank day. A lady with only one hunter out should use her own judgment about participating in a late run. A great deal would depend on the distance the animal has travelled and the length of the journey home. Some people ignorantly imagine that a hunter should be kept out until he has had a run, unless the day proves entirely blank, however tired he may be. If it is necessary for people who stay out all day to ride second horses, it is equally important that the one-horse lady should know when her mount has had enough. It is always a safe plan for her to retire at the "change of horses"; for there is no pleasure in continuing to hunt on a tired animal, and there is certainly danger in so doing. Old-time sportsmen were content with one horse a day. "Scrutator" tells us that in the time of Mr. Meynell "it was not the fashion to have second horses in the field." If I may express an opinion, I think that many ladies are inclined to regard horses as machines, and expect too much from them. This is probably due to that unfortunate saying "as strong as a horse," estimating the standard of mechanical power as "horse power," and so forth. I have no doubt that our domestic cat would dislike the person who said that cats have nine lives. A horse is, in reality, by no means as strong as many of us imagine, and his legs are a continual source of anxiety. Ladies who hunt should get a veterinary book, preferably _Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners_, and when they have read it through, they will not be likely to overtax the powers of their hunters. I once saw in an old _Graphic_ a picture of Lady Somebody's mare which that worthy dame had ridden to death. The animal had, it was explained, gone brilliantly with her ladyship that day and had fallen dead while passing through a village. The artist had drawn the poor mare stretched out, surrounded by an inquisitive field, and the owner posed as the heroine of a great achievement, instead of one who had rendered herself liable to prosecution for cruelty to animals. I feel sure that no woman would knowingly commit such a heartless action. When a horse begins to show signs of distress, his rider should instantly pull up, and, if necessary, walk him quietly home. His "state of condition" should always be taken into account at such times. The hurried and distressed state of a horse's breathing, and his laboured action, are sure signs to the experienced horsewoman that the animal has had enough. To persons who know little or nothing about horses, the fact of their usually free-going mount ceasing to go up to his bridle and to answer an encouraging shake of the reins or touch of the whip, are valuable indications that he should be pulled up, either into a trot or walk. If he is in hard condition, a respite from exertion, for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, will make him all right for another gallop, which should be given with due circumspection. If the horse is not in thorough galloping condition he should be taken home at a quiet walk. Keeping a horse standing, especially in a cold wind, after a fatiguing run, is not an unfrequent means of giving the animal congestion of the lungs. A wise woman will take care of a good hunter, for such animals are not easy to replace, and, as Jorrocks says, "We know what we 'ave, but we don't know what we may get." If a lady intends to ride her hunter home, it would greatly conduce to his comfort, and possibly her own, especially if she has been several hours in the saddle, to dismount for, say, a quarter of an hour, have her horse quietly led about, and then ride him home at a walk. If she is using a second horse, it is always wise to get her second horseman to take the saddle off her first horse and rub his back well with the hand, especially at the off side of the withers and of the back, under the cantle, in order to restore the circulation of the part before taking him home. The animal ought to be given an opportunity of refreshing himself by drinking at a brook or trough on his homeward way. No harm can arise from a horse drinking cold water when at work, however hot he may be, if his exercise be continued at a slow pace for a short time. A lady's hunter should always be examined, if possible by his mistress, or by one of the male members of her family, on his return from a day with the hounds, and his back and legs should receive special attention. The chief accidents which are liable to happen by such work, are sprains of tendons and ligaments below the knees, over-reaches, cuts, punctures from thorns, and injuries from the saddle. It is not within the province of this book to deal with such subjects, and few ladies would go through the bother of studying them. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions, as we may see by the comparatively large number of lady doctors, and by the fact that only the narrow-minded policy of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons prevented Miss Custance, who had studied at the Edinburgh New Veterinary College, from obtaining her diploma, to which she was fully entitled by her scientific attainments and practical experience. Those of my readers who wish to understand the treatment of horses in health and disease, cannot do better, as far as books are concerned, than to study my husband's _Stable Management and Exercise_, and _Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners_. One point about the examination of a hard-ridden hunter which is within the comprehension of even an inexperienced girl, is the detection and proper treatment of lumps on his back which have been produced during the ride by hurtful pressure of the saddle, and which almost always appear on the off side of the withers, and on the off side of the back, near where the cantle rested. If these swellings be neglected, they will probably become developed into abscesses, which will incapacitate the animal from work for a month or longer. An admirable way of treating them, as soon as the saddle is removed, is to pour some whiskey, brandy or other spirit into the hollow of the hand, apply it to the lump, and rub the swelling briskly with the palm of the hand for at least five minutes. I have often seen a large swelling of this kind visibly decrease in size during this process, which, in the many cases I have witnessed, always caused the lump to disappear by the following morning. In applying this form of massage, no delay should occur, after removing the saddle, which should always be taken off the moment the animal returns to his stable, and his back well rubbed with the hand or with a dry whisp of straw or hay. When entrusting the carrying out of this treatment to the groom, care should be taken that the spirit is administered externally to the horse, and not internally to the man. If spirit be not available, careful friction with the palm of the hand will generally be sufficient to ensure the desired result. This treatment should not be applied, if the skin over the part is broken, for in that somewhat rare case the friction would irritate the wound. RIDER'S PHYSICAL CONDITION. The young or old Diana, especially if she is not in hard riding condition, is very apt to get rubbed, generally by the cantle of the saddle. If the skin is cut, a dry dressing of tannoform, which is a powder that can be got from a chemist, will be found a good and speedy remedy; and is also useful for cuts in horses. It would be injudicious to ride again, or to have an injured hunter ridden again, until such an abrasion has healed. It is essential for a lady who intends to hunt, to be able to ride a fast gallop without becoming "blown." Some hunting ladies do preparatory work cubbing or with the Devon and Somerset Staghounds. Those who are obliged to forego these pleasant methods of "getting fit," would do well to get into fairly good condition by long walks or bicycle rides. I would warn my young readers that all fast exercise should be taken gradually and in moderation, and that they should never disregard symptoms of fatigue; because when muscles are tired, they are unable to act with strength and precision. TIPS AND THANKS. We should always remember to carry some small change in our pockets to be given as tips to gate-openers and any poor persons whose services we accept. And now, gentle ladies, let me remind you never to forget to render thanks to every person, gentle or simple, who may, by the performance of some kindly act, have helped to contribute towards your day's enjoyment. We should also try to be as useful as possible to each other; for we all admire that "nice pleasant woman" who, instead of attempting to hold us up to ridicule if our "back hair" is falling down, or anything has happened which ruffles our appearance, rides up and quietly brings the fact to our notice. I have heard female voices audibly "picking holes" in a lady's mount, which is very unkind; for their poorer sister was doubtless riding the best horse she could get, and the hearing of such rude remarks may entirely spoil her day's pleasure. THE HORN. Mr. J. Anstruther Thompson in his most instructive book, _Hints to Huntsmen_, gives the following horn notes and explanation of their meaning. Ladies who intend to hunt should study the music of the horn in order that they may understand what hounds are doing in covert (Fig. 135), and be ready to start off as soon as they hear the recognised signal. "To call hounds on when drawing a covert." [Illustration: Music] "A prolonged swelling note to call them away." [Illustration: Music] "A long single note when all are away." [Illustration: Music] "A double note when on a scent (called doubling the horn)." [Illustration: Music] "Two short notes and a long one for 'Gone away.'" [Illustration: Music] "'Tally-ho! back,' on horn and crack of whip." [Illustration: Music] "A rattle for 'Whoo, whoop.'" [Illustration: Music] From the foregoing it will be seen that it is necessary to be on the alert for short notes, because they mean business, while the long ones denote a covert drawn blank. HIRELINGS. The large majority of hunting women ride their own animals, or mounts lent them by friends; but some less fortunate ones have to content themselves with hirelings, many of which are unreliable conveyances, because they pass through so many hands, that they run a great risk of being spoiled by bad riders, and in that respect, horses have unfortunately very retentive memories. From two to three guineas is the usual charge for a day; and from £12 to £20 for a month. In both cases, the job-master has to bear all reasonable risks. A person who hires a horse for longer than a day, has to keep the animal and pay for his shoeing. £15 a month is a reasonable charge for the loan of a good hunter. When wishing to hire by the month, it is well to go to a job-master who has a large collection of hirelings, like Mr. Sam Hames of Leicester, so that the hirer may get a change of mounts, in the event of the first not being suitable. [Illustration: _Photo. from_ "_Country Life._" Fig. 135.--The Cottesmore drawing a covert.] I have ridden a few hirelings, but hunting on them gave me no pleasure; because I was entirely ignorant of their capabilities, and it is not a pleasant feeling to ride at a nasty fence with a big note of interrogation sticking in one's heart. "Scrutator" in his interesting book, _Foxhunting_, says he "never could find any pleasure in riding strange horses. They neither understand your way of doing business, nor you theirs, so there must of necessity be doubts and drawbacks until both become more intimately acquainted." I have seen so many bad accidents happen to men who were riding hired hunters, that I cannot too strongly impress on my readers the necessity of letting caution mark the guarded way, by testing a strange mount at small fences to see how he shapes, before taking unwise risks. Last season, a young man who was hunting with the Pytchley on a hireling came a cropper at the first fence, staked his mount and got a kick in the head. He was greatly distressed about the poor horse which the dealer had assured him could "jump anything," a feat that no hunter in the world can perform. An accident of this kind with a hired hunter is a most unpleasant occurrence; because, if the bruised and mud-stained horseman happens to be a stranger to the dealer, the latter will naturally blame his riding, while the injured one who has to break the news as gently as possible, will consider that he has been misled concerning the animal's jumping capabilities. Jorrocks's advice, "know your horse," should be engraved in capital letters on the heart of everyone who hunts, as its observance would prevent many distressing accidents both to humans and equines. FARMERS AND WIRE. There is very little wire in Leicestershire, though it is far too common in other parts of the Shires. Fences where the warning red board (Fig. 136) or red rag (Fig. 137) is seen, should be avoided, as these signals denote the presence of wire. As these death-traps bear no warning notice in some places (Fig. 138), it behoves people hunting in such countries to keep a sharp look-out for unmarked wire and iron hurdles (Fig. 139). [Illustration: Fig. 136.--Wire board.] Some farmers appear to use wire in an unnecessary manner. For instance, placing it on the top of a gate (Fig. 140) seems to have no _raison d'être_, except to hurt unfortunate hunters which in breasting such a gate to push it open, are apt to get badly pricked and run suddenly back to avoid it, with the possible result of injury to both horses and riders behind them. Also, I have seen wire put up in fields in which there were no cattle, and removed after the hunting season, to duly appear again in the following one. Other tricks, such as sending sheep-dogs to head foxes, and stationing farm hands to shout "wire!" where there is none, have also come under my personal notice. Indeed it is impossible to live in the country, without observing such acts of hostility on the part of farmers towards "hunting people." I cannot help thinking that much of this tension might be removed, if every hunt secretary followed the example of Colonel Francis Henry, the Hon. Secretary of the Duke of Beaufort's Hunt, of whom we read in _Baily's Magazine_ of March, 1902:--"Colonel Henry, who, in the opinion of his numerous friends, seems to possess the secret of eternal youth, contrives to enquire personally into every complaint that is sent to him, whether relating to damaged fences, loss of poultry or, rarely, 'wire offences.' There is no better known figure in Gloucestershire than that of Colonel Henry on his hack, one of his own breeding by the way, which carries him on his long rides; he is wont to say that in dealing with a grievance 'one visit is worth a dozen letters.' His geniality, and the painstaking care with which he investigates every matter to which his attention is called, dissipate at their beginning many difficulties which, handled with less sympathetic diplomacy, would 'come to a head' and produce the friction which tells against sport. Landowners, farmers, and business men alike in the Badminton country are keen supporters of fox-hunting, and their attitude towards the sport is due in no small degree to the unremitting attention and care for their interests displayed by the honorary secretary both in winter and summer." The truth of Colonel Henry's remark that one visit is worth a dozen letters, was exemplified to me the other day by an old lady, a farmer's wife, who regretted the sad change in "hunting people" since her young days, when they "used to come in and chat with me as affable as could be." She mentioned the name of Mr. Wroughton, who partook of some of her "cowslip wine," and so much was she impressed with the visit that every small detail of it, even the year, month, day and hour, and also where he sat in her parlour, remains a treasured memory. He made a friend who will always speak of him in the highest terms, because he was nice and civil to her, and it seems to be a matter for regret that this friendly feeling is not more generally cultivated than it is in hunting districts. [Illustration: Fig. 137.--Red flag.] Unfortunately, the old-fashioned motherly, hardworking farmer's wife is a type of woman which is rapidly dying out, and the modern specimen belongs to that large and useless brigade of "perfect ladies" who are above their position and who regard work as undignified. I recently saw an advertisement from a farmer's daughter who said in it that she had offers of plenty of mounts, but wanted some lady to give her a riding habit! Surely it would have been far better for her to have worked and earned one, instead of cadging in such a manner for her amusement? Proverbially bad as our fresh butter in the Midlands is, I fear the time is approaching when butter making will entirely cease, for, with few exceptions, farmers' daughters are not trained to do dairy work. A modern "young lady" from a farm, who had been educated in a Board school, applied to a well known lady of title for a situation as governess; but her ladyship pointed out that her educational attainments did not qualify her for such a post, and suggested that she should obtain employment as a parlourmaid. Needless to say that the farmer's daughter scorned the idea of thus "lowering" herself! Even the daughters of farm labourers nowadays ride their bicycles, instead of going out to service as their mothers and grandmothers did before them, and dress themselves ridiculously out of keeping with their position and surroundings. It seems very incongruous to see such girls living in indolence in country villages, while the daughters of their parson, as frequently happens in large families, turn out and earn their own livelihood. [Illustration: Fig. 138.--"'Ware wire."] It would cost very little to give an annual ball, say, after the Hunt ball and before the decorations were taken down, to farmers and their wives and any local residents who help towards the support of hunting, and I feel sure that an entertainment of this kind would be productive of beneficial results. In order to make it a success, it would have to be attended by some of the members of the local Hunt, and not in any way bear the stamp of a charity ball; for untravelled middle-class people in this country are, as a rule, very "select," and eaten up with social ambition, and many who would not think of attending a subscription dance, would be attracted by "an invitation Hunt ball." Besides, after all, even if local residents and farmers pay their guinea to be present at an annual Hunt ball, they feel themselves rather "out of it," if they are not personally acquainted with anyone in the room, and wisely avoid such dreary functions. It is recorded of Mr. Conyers that he once presented every farmer's wife in his hunting district with a silk dress, saying that the ladies must be propitiated if hunting is to flourish. [Illustration: Fig. 139.--Iron hurdle.] One of the reasons why hunting is unpopular among farmers is the selfish and reckless manner in which many followers of a hunt ride over arable land; the greatest sinners in this respect being those who reside in towns, and who, knowing nothing about agriculture, err more from ignorance than indifference. Unless vegetation stares them in the face, they evidently think there is no harm in riding over ploughed land, no matter how distinctly the smoothly-harrowed surface and carefully prepared drains indicate the presence of seed underneath. In such a case, our best plan would be to skirt along, as near as possible, the hedge or other boundary, even if we have to go a little out of our way. Riding over cultivated "heavy" (clay) land, especially if its surface is wet, is particularly hurtful to the crop, because each imprint of a horse's foot will form a small pool of water, which will rot the seed inside it. In "light" (sandy) land, the water in such holes will quickly drain off, and little or no injury will be done. While hoping that young horsewomen will not allow their enthusiasm for hunting to outweigh their sense of prudence when steering their horses over farmers' land, I would entreat them to also "hold hard" when approaching allotment ground, for this land is rented, as a rule, by the poorest of the poor, who have no gardens in which to grow vegetables, etc., for their use, and a small field of, say, a few acres may be cultivated by several villagers and their children in their "spare time of evenings." Each tenant has his own patch of allotment land on which he grows what he requires for his use. In winter we may frequently see the entire field under wheat cultivation, as many poor families grow their own grain, which the local miller grinds into flour, and in this way they save the baker's bill, as they make their own bread. To ride over and destroy their small crops is a sin which I am sure no lady would knowingly commit, and, therefore, it behoves us all to exercise due circumspection when we find ourselves on arable land. [Illustration: Fig. 140.--Wire on top of gate.] Also, on pasture land we have need to temper valour with discretion, and especially after Christmas, when ewes and cows are heavy with young, and are not in a fit state to safely endure the dual evil of fright and violent exercise. Later on, when lambs have appeared, it is cruel to gallop so near these mothers and their young, as to cause suffering. Sheep are such stupid animals that they appear to have no idea of evading a crowd; and cattle, as a rule, lose their heads from fright, and career madly about their fields, sometimes for two or three days after the sudden passing of a hunt. When a gate is negligently left open, and the terrified animals avail themselves of this method of escape, the unfortunate farmer will generally have great trouble in finding and bringing them back, because they often go long distances, and he has seldom any means of knowing what route they have taken. Horses give him far more trouble than cattle in this respect, because they can travel faster and farther. I have seen ladies who have the interests of hunting deeply at heart--Mrs. James Hornsby, for instance--ride back and fasten gates which have been carelessly left open. One grievance which lies very near the heart of a farmer, because I suppose it frequently touches his pocket, is the damage done to his fences, especially during a check, by people who unnecessarily potter through small gaps, which, after they have finished, resemble open spaces. The farmer who has to get them mended speaks very bitterly about fox-hunting, especially if he has to do the repairing at his own expense, as he argues that if it was necessary to work a passage in this manner through his hedge, the field might have been content with one open door instead of making several. A farmer in the North Cheshire country was so irate on this point that on one occasion when the hunt wanted to cross his land, he and his men gave us a welcome with pitchforks! A kind of farmer whom I despise is the man that hunts on the free list and pretends to support fox-hunting, while he keeps his land encompassed by wire during the entire season! I have known some of these men enjoy unmerited popularity with the Master, and even take charge of Hunt wire boards. Their non-hunting neighbours who take down wire and over whose land they ride with safety, are obviously the better supporters of hunting, although they may not be able to afford a nag, even if they had time to devote to the sport. The farmer who takes down his wire is naturally displeased with a Hunt which favours an individual who keeps it up; but I think if all Hunt secretaries were like Colonel Henry, such delinquents would soon be brought to book, for no Master would care to see with his hounds, a farmer who kept his land wired during the hunting season. Some of the illustrations of wired fences in this book have been photographed on the land of so-called "hunting farmers." An even worse class of man than the double-dealing farmer is the wealthy landowner who preserves his coverts, shoots foxes, lets his shooting at a big profit, and then goes off to hunt in some fashionable centre, like Melton Mowbray. In Leicestershire he would be regarded as a hunting man, while in his own district he is known as a vulpicide, for Reynard is seldom, if ever, found in his coverts. One has only to live in the country, and pretend indifference about fox-hunting, to see the tricks which some farmers perform in order to prevent people from riding over their land. I remember in the North Cheshire country a big covert, which was always considered a certain find, being drawn blank, much to the huntsman's surprise. As he called off his hounds, after a thorough investigation, a farmer said, with a smile: "I knew they wouldn't find a fox here, for Mr. ----'s foxhound puppy, which he is walking, has been rummaging about this covert all morning!" It appears that Mr. Blank was a farmer whose land adjoined the said covert, and who had found his foxhound puppy more useful in driving away foxes than his sheepdogs. Instead of doling out compensation to farmers as a form of charity, it would be much better for our hunting authorities to meet them on a level footing, get them to appoint a committee of their own, and pay that official body, every year, a certain proportion of the hunt subscriptions, to be applied according to the wishes of the Farmers' Committee. PILOTS. I have not enlarged on the subject of hunting pilotage, because, truth to tell, I have never indulged in the luxury of a pilot, as I have preferred to know the capabilities of my mount and to see and act for myself. I believe that any woman who can ride and manage her horse with intelligent forethought, has no more need of a paid pilot than has the small boy who takes his chance on his pony. If a lady has no male companion to remain with her during the day's hunting, she should provide herself with a groom, whose services will be very useful to her, in the event of anything going wrong, and in helping her in various ways. It would be absurd for her to expect casual aid at every turn, in a large field composed chiefly of strangers, especially when its giver would be deprived of his place in a run. Pilots seem to be going out of fashion, if we may judge by the large number of women who hunt safely without their assistance. The inexperienced huntress generally has her father, brother, husband, or some male friend or servant to show her the way, which is the safest and best method of learning to hunt, because they would know both the capabilities of the young lady and her mount, and could be trusted to keep her out of harm's way. If a paid pilot is engaged, his horse should not be a better fencer than that of his charge. He should also know her riding form, and over what kind of jumps she intends him to lead her. I would strongly impress on an inexperienced lady the necessity of learning to judge pace, that is to say, to know at what speed her horse is going. The chief duty of a pilot is to set the pace for her, and to select such fences as he knows her horse is capable of jumping, the former being more important than the latter, as it is far more difficult to learn. She should see that her pilot is safely over a fence before sending her horse at it. Only practice and natural aptitude can teach a lady to judge pace: it cannot be learnt from any book. A lady should not deceive her pilot, any more than we should withhold the truth from our doctor or lawyer. If she feels more in skirting trim than in hard hunting nerve, she should not hesitate to say so; for we all like to take things easy at times, whether it be in hunting or in anything else, according as we feel fit or otherwise. There is no gainsaying that the human barometer is regulated to a great extent by the weather, as we may see by the big fields which greet the Master on a fine hunting morning. The unpleasant disclosures which have been recently made in our Law Courts, concerning the free and easy conduct of a certain set of hunting men and women, may prejudice many mothers against hunting as a fitting pastime for their daughters; but the indiscretions of a few idle fast people should not be taken as a sample of the behaviour of an entire field. In the crowd and bustle of hunting, the large majority of the people are seriously engaged in the business of the day, and have no time to indulge in flirtations. Certainly no sane man would choose a meet or covert side, where he is surrounded by a crowd of people, to do his love-making. If the usual discretion is observed in the choice of a companion for a young lady going to and returning from a hunt, she would have far less opportunity for "frivol," than in any ordinary ball room or theatre. We need only watch hunting men and women passing through a crowded gateway, to see that each one goes in turn, and that there is very little consideration for sex. FALLS. Although the subject of falling is not a pleasant one to discuss, still we cannot ignore it, for even the best horsewoman occasionally gets hurt by her horse falling with her. Accidents sometimes occur over the most trivial obstacles, and when least expected; and are not confined to jumping, for some of the worst falls have happened on the flat. I remember Captain King-King breaking three ribs and a collar-bone--a pretty good dose in one gulp--by his mount coming down with him on the flat when hunting in Leicestershire. The late Whyte Melville met his death by a similar accident; and poor Archbishop Wilberforce was killed while quietly hacking, by his horse putting his foot in a hole and throwing him on his head. Unfortunately, we are unable to learn the art of falling correctly, because we have only one neck, and, if we break that, our experiments must abruptly cease. We may, however, minimise the danger of its fracture by leaning well back at our fences, and by ducking our chins into our chests when we feel ourselves coming the inevitable cropper. The worst kind of fall is when a horse breasts a stiff fence and either turns a complete somersault, or falls violently on to his head. In the former case, the accident generally means severe internal injuries, to say the least of it; in the latter, a broken collar-bone or concussion of the brain. Such bad accidents are happily rare; for, if a horse can jump, he will certainly do his best to clear an obstacle with his fore legs, and if he catches his hind ones and comes down, our chances of either being killed, or crippled for life, are far smaller. In Leicestershire I once saw a stranger send his mount at a posts and rails fence about five feet high, which the animal breasted and went over with a sickening fall; but I could not help thinking that the man must have been either riding a hireling, or must have imagined that his horse was a wonderful jumper to have sent him at such a forbidding thing, especially as it had been avoided by the first flight people, and what they can't jump, strangers may be perfectly certain ought to be left alone. In this case, the animal, which may have been easily able to take the jump, went at it unwillingly, for he saw it was not the line taken by other horses, and he was doubtless annoyed at being asked to incur what must have appeared to him an unnecessary risk. A similar thing occurred when a well-known Leicestershire lady broke her collar-bone. Horses were filing through the gate, and the lady, who was anxious to get forward, put her horse at a stiff posts and rails by the side of it. He apparently regarded the act as unnecessary, for he went at it in a half-hearted fashion, struck the fence, fell, and hurt his rider. It is the custom to say that the first flight people who ride safely over Leicestershire are mounted on the best horses that money can buy; but at the same time, we should remember that they seldom deceive their mounts by asking them to jump anything which is either impossible or unnecessary. Mr. Hedworth Barclay, who is one of the finest horsemen in Leicestershire, always rides with great judgment. If he did not, he would not have been safely carried for fourteen seasons by his brilliant hunter Freeman, and for an almost equally long time by Lord Arthur and Franciscan. A great deal of ignorant nonsense has been written about people (and even horses!) taking "their own line," but such scribes ought to go to Leicestershire and show how that can be done! Ladies who try to follow the teaching of such people, do so at great personal risk; for it is absurd for a stranger, however well she may ride or be mounted, to think that she can safely take her own line over an unknown country, and especially such a one as Leicestershire, which is in many parts entirely unjumpable. As it requires several seasons to learn the "lie of the land," most people wisely prefer to hunt in a county they know. Some ladies make a great boast of their numerous falls. One recently told me that she had had fourteen croppers in a hunting season; but when I hear such talk, I cannot help thinking that there is something radically wrong with their riding, for our best horsewomen very seldom fall. I have noticed that horses have been staked in hunting, through being taken sideways instead of straight, at their fences. It is most dangerous to ride an animal in this manner; because, if he makes a mistake and falls, he will come down on his side and may roll over on to his rider in his efforts to regain his feet. We may observe that when a horse is lying on his side he invariably makes a preparatory half roll in rising from that position. The first thing to do when a horse comes down, is to try to get clear as soon as possible, and to let go the reins, unless the rider can retain them without any risk. She is so encumbered by her skirt, even if it is only an apron, that she will probably get kicked or trodden on, if she hangs on to the reins. "Scrutator" wisely remarks that "so long as there is a chance of holding him together, the pigskin should not be abandoned, but when that chance is gone, by your horse's fore-legs getting into the ditch on the other side, throw yourself clear of him to avoid a pommelling." In such times of difficulty and danger, a lady should remember to leave her horse's mouth alone, and not frighten him, at a moment when her life may depend on his remaining quiet. Whatever happens, she should never utter a startled cry, for that will do no good and may lead to disastrous results. Professor Sample, the American "Horse Tamer," once found himself underneath a cart, while breaking a horse to harness with the long reins. Enveloped as he was in his driving reins, a bad accident might have resulted if he had not kept his presence of mind, while his faithful "Jo," whom he called to his assistance as if nothing had happened, came and helped him out of his dangerous position. He then turned to the audience and calmly told them that he was showing them "how not to do it!" When a lady gets a bad fall out hunting, and we see her attended by men only, we should at once go to her assistance, whether we know her or not; because it is always better for a woman to have one of her own sex to help her and, if necessary, unloosen any garments which are matters that men know nothing about. CHAPTER XVII. RIDING AND HUNTING ABROAD. I now turn to the pleasant subject of riding and hunting abroad, with special reference to India, where almost all our fellow countrymen and women ride and own horses. Even in lonely up-country stations which contain only a few white residents, gymkhanas are often got up by officers who train and ride their own horses and ponies. Nothing seems to give these good sportsmen greater pleasure than lending their equine favourites to their lady friends. Therefore, a visitor who is fond of riding, need never be at a loss for a mount, as I found during my four years' residence in that hospitable land. I can truly say that I did not understand what real hospitality is, until I went to India, and shall always remember the great kindnesses my husband and I received from Native Princes. For instance, the late Maharajah of Vizianagram, who was devoted to horses, invited us to visit him, placed a furnished house, servants, horses, carriages, food, wines and every other comfort at our disposal, and considered our month's stay much too short. Ladies in India who ride, obtain so much practice as a rule on various kinds of animals, that they soon become expert horsewomen. It is the custom there to ride twice a day: In the early morning after _choti haziri_ (little breakfast), which usually consists of a cup of tea, a boiled egg, bread and butter; and in the evening. There is no law of trespass in India, and it is delightful to canter for miles while sharing the freedom of the Son of the Desert who is carrying you. There is nothing like these lonely scampers as a cure for petty worries, for you can put them so far behind you, that on your return you have forgotten their existence. Calcutta is an ideal riding city, with its beautiful _maidan_ (plain), where there are miles of springy turf for galloping, a large race-course with well-kept training and hacking tracks, and hurdles for those who desire jumping practice. There is also a Red Road, which is the Rotten Row of the place, for afternoon hacking among the beauty and fashion, so what more could the heart of man or woman desire? During the misnamed "cold weather," women who are fond of cross country work, can ride once a week over made fences in the paperchases. The course is usually about three miles long, well supplied with fences, chiefly hurdles and stiff mud walls from three feet six to four feet six high. As the start takes place at about seven in the morning, and as the meets are some distance from the town, the devotees of sport have to be up at about five o'clock, dress by lamplight, send on their chasers, and drive or hack to the trysting place. Two "hares" carry the paper in bags slung across their shoulders and receive a quarter of an hour's grace in which to plant their burden, where they know the coloured slips will take some finding. The hares ride over the fences, and by distributing their landmarks sparsely and in places where their pursuers can follow only in single file, they often make it difficult for the leading division to keep the line. Those who over-run the paper, of course imperil their chance of being among the first six, which is the number of "placed horses" in these paperchase records. A writer in _Ladies in the Field_, while discussing this form of sport, says: "Any old screw, country-bred pony or short-shouldered Arab may be brought out on these occasions." That author evidently had no experience of Calcutta paperchasing, because a horse for this work must not only be a fast galloper and clever jumper, but also must have a good mouth and temper, and be fit and well. In fact, the ideal paperchaser is a cross between a steeplechaser and a hunter, for he has to possess the speed and quick jumping qualities of the former, and the amiability and brains of the latter. Unless a lady has such a mount, it will be almost impossible for her to secure a coveted place among the first half dozen. Also, there are so many horses, say, forty or more, all galloping at the same fences, which are not broad enough for a quarter of that number to take abreast. Consequently, those behind have to see that the coast is clear, before they can proceed. Falls frequently occur, but serious accidents are happily rare. It is true that two men have been killed in these chases; but although ladies have taken part in them since the early days when that fine horsewoman, Mrs. "Jim" Cook, set the example, I have not heard of any woman getting badly hurt. Mrs. Cook, who was known in India as the "Mem Sahib," holds the record of being the only woman who has won the Paperchase Cup when competing against men. She won in 1881, was the only lady in about twenty starters, and her mount was appropriately named Champion. The late Lord William Beresford was second, and General Cook, her husband, was third. After I left India, Lord William gave a cup to be competed for by ladies only, which must have acted as a strong stimulant to those who had vainly tried to beat the "mere male." Mrs. Murray was a most plucky rider, and made more than one good bid for the Paperchase Cup, which she well deserved to win. I had a very good Australian horse named Terence, by Talk of the Hills, which got placed in these chases, but when I hoped to do great things with him, I got typhoid fever and exchanged my residence to the General Hospital. The first time I took Terence, who was a beautiful jumper, to a paperchase, two horses fell in front of him at the first jump. A horse ridden by that good sportswoman, Mrs. Saunders, refused a hurdle in front of us, and Terence followed suit. After I had got him sailing away again, a horse ridden by Mr. Garth, a well known horseman, fell over a big blind ditch just in front of Terence, who luckily cleared the lot. Captain Turner was walking about minus horse and hat, and that famous G.R., Captain "Ding" Macdougal, had a nasty purl. In fact, that chase was a chapter of accidents. Mr. "Tougal," who had helped to lay the paper, told me afterwards that two of the unbreakable mud walls were four feet three inches high, which is a very formidable height, considering that the horses had to jump out of deep mud. That chase took place on 2nd January, 1890, and I think it was a far higher test of 'cross country cleverness, than hunters in the shires have to go through. Mr. Clark, who lived and paperchased for several years in Calcutta, and who was a large horse dealer in Hilmorton, near Rugby, tells me that he frequently measured the mud walls which were built for these chases, and often found them full five feet high. The large majority of horses ridden in these events are well bred Australians, which, taking them all round, are the best jumpers I have ever seen. Some "country-breds" are fine fencers, but Arabs, delightful as they are for hacking, rarely distinguish themselves across country. The Calcutta natives were always on the look-out for squalls, like the Irish "wreckers" of olden days. It was no uncommon sight to see a black man, with nothing on but a _kummerbund_, running away to his lair, with a stirrup leather, hat, or even a pair of spurs belonging to some dethroned sportsman. The horse ridden by Mrs. Saunders in the paperchase I have alluded to, was a powerful "Waler" which, according to his importer, Mr. Macklin, had won nearly all the jumping prizes in Australia! He had evidently been spoiled at the competition business, like many other horses, for despite the careful handling of his mistress, he was useless as a paperchaser. We had, while living at Melton Mowbray, a black Irish horse which also had won prizes at show jumping, but he was a most determined refuser in the open, and had many other tricks of temper, so we soon got rid of him. On off days, during the cold weather in Calcutta, Mr. Milton, who was a dealer and owner of large livery stables, used to invite the riding community to hunt jackals with his "bobbery pack." The meet took place at the stables before daylight, and the "hounds" were carried to covert in a sort of water-cart. They were a most ferocious lot, to judge by the scuffling, squealing and snarling that took place _en route_. When they were let out, they appeared to lose their heads; the greyhounds, whippets, fox-terriers, bull-terriers, pariahs and nondescripts scampering off in various directions and requiring a good deal of keeping in order. Naturally, the greyhounds and whippets did the coursing, and having sighted a jack, they soon put an end to him. Our huntsman's chief anxiety, as far as I could see, was to arrive in time to secure a bit of the prey for the small fry. It was very interesting to watch the work of these "hounds," and to note that the small terriers used their noses to advantage, and often put their speedier companions on the right track. I had many enjoyable scampers with Mr. Milton's bobbery pack, which I believe is still going strong in the City of Palaces. At Lucknow, paperchasing was nearly allied to steeplechasing, for the course was flagged, and there was no paper to disturb the galloping. Few ladies took part in those functions, but I enjoyed my gallop on Mr. McAndrew's pony, Suffolk Punch, which, after floundering a bit at the double, came down at the last fence, luckily without damaging either of us. The great drawback to the paperchasing at the capital of Oudh, was the blinding dust which was raised by the leading animals, and which almost obscured the fences in front of their followers. As I was only on a pony, all I could see in front of me was flitting shadows in a brown fog, so I left everything to my game little mount, who was galloping his hardest. For the same reason, dust thrown up by the leaders, is not unfrequently the cause of accidents at steeplechasing in India. Near Bombay and Mozufferpore, jackals are hunted during the cold season by foxhounds sent out from England. In 1889, Mr. Rowland Hudson, Master of the Mozufferpore pack, had seventeen couple of foxhounds, nine of which were supplied by himself, and eight by subscription. These hounds were selected by the late Tom Firr, from the Quorn, Cottesmore, and Pytchley, and they accounted for fifteen brace of jackals from November to March, hunting only two days a week, and after having had several good runs. Foxhounds stand the heat of India badly, and most of them out there die of liver disease, despite the precaution taken of sending them to the hills during the hot months. At Singapore, drag-hunting provides good sport in which ladies participate, and show their fine horsewomanship to admiring friends, when the run finishes over the fences on the racecourse. At Shanghai we can go paperchasing on China (Mongolian) ponies, which, despite their want of pace and somewhat three-cornered appearance, are very clever over bad ground. The ladies whom I had the pleasure of meeting in Shanghai, like those in India, were all devoted to riding, and I had many merry scampers across country with them. In the country round Tientsin, we had often to jump over ponderous coffins, for John Chinaman has a provoking way of omitting to bury his relations, after he has stowed them away in their long homes. Having to stay for a month at Suez, I was greatly disappointed to find no better mounts than the very knowing Egyptian donkeys. As I had never ridden that kind of animal before, I sent my syce, Motee, to hire a couple for the day. To my surprise, the donkey owner came to tell me that I could not ride any of his animals unless he accompanied me! I assured him that I was capable of managing an ass, and would take every care of the beast entrusted to me. He smiled, apparently at my presumption, and as I saw that he would not let me have my way, I consented to the infliction of his company. At the appointed time he appeared on foot, leading two mokes and armed with a long thick stick. As he was evidently going to walk, I whispered to Motee to gallop after me as hard as he could, and give the stick man the slip. This I found far easier said than done, because my donkey utterly ignored my commands, even when they were backed up by force, and would take orders only from his master. I saw the man trying to conceal a smile, as I whacked my placid mount with the energy of one who meant business, so impatiently asked him if he had fulfilled the promise he had given Motee to bring me his best donkeys. He assured me that I was sitting on the back of Mrs. Langtry, who was well known as the fastest animal in Suez, and by far the handsomest. He said he had Mrs. Cornwallis West, Ellen Terry, Mary Anderson, Mrs. Kendal, and other good mounts; but Mrs. Langtry was the pick of the basket for speed and endurance. I asked the name of Motee's moke, which he said was his next best one, and found that it was called Mr. Gladstone! The pair were excellent friends, and insisted on walking side by side, although Motee did all he could to keep Mr. Gladstone behind. Disliking this aspect of affairs, I dealt Motee's mount a couple of sharp cuts with my whip over the quarters, with the object of inducing him to set the pace. This resulted in such high kicking on the part of Mr. Gladstone, that Motee nearly fell off, and the man behind ran up yelling in such an angry tone, that I almost feared he would chastise me in a similar manner. He cooled down and then patronisingly told me that when I had grown older and had gained more experience in riding, I would not be guilty of cruelty to dumb animals. Having failed in my tactics, and paid for my ride, I resigned all further activity in the proceedings, and submitted to having the speed of my mount regulated by the stick from behind. When pursued, Mrs. Langtry would go off with a rush, pausing at intervals to listen for footsteps behind, and assure herself that the stick man was well out of reach. Once she relapsed into a dreamy reverie, and so far forgot herself as to allow her owner to wake her up with a tremendous whack, which sent her flying with such force that I was nearly jerked out of the saddle. Our destination was the First Castle, and I was glad to turn homewards. Motee did not appear to have enjoyed his share of the joke, for he looked very angrily at the donkey man as he removed my saddle, and said: "Dis no good ponies, _Mem Sahib_, plenty _tamasha_." That evening when I was recounting my adventures at dinner, Count Carlo Sanminiatelli, who was staying at the same hotel, asked me in French if I was fond of riding. On hearing my reply, he at once placed at my disposal nearly three hundred remounts which were to be shipped later on to Massowah. These horses belonged to the Italian Government, which was expecting a row with King John of Abyssinia. After that, Motee and I used to disappear for hours in the desert every day, and we wended our way back to the hotel, only when the pangs of hunger forced us to do so. We would try sometimes as many as fifteen animals in a day, and I took the numbers of those which were nice to ride. In a very short time I had a list of more than a dozen of the nicest horses, which I intended to keep for my own hacking. As most of them had been accustomed to the barbarous Mameluke bit, which is used in Egypt, they took very kindly to my snaffle. The desert is a grand place for trying experiments with horses; for in it there is nothing to frighten or distract their attention from their work, and if one does happen to get a spill, the falling is very soft. As soon as the news of my doings became noised abroad in Suez, the riding men mustered in great force and borrowed several of the horses I had passed as quiet. It was amusing to see some of the horsemen sending all over the place to borrow a saddle, and in a couple of days we all met for a ride. One of the ladies rode very well, but she would not try any of the remounts, as she had her own Arab. There was seldom such excitement in Suez before, the lawn tennis ground became quite deserted, and everyone seemed to have gone riding mad. Coursing steinbok with greyhounds used to be a popular sport in South Africa, but when my husband and I were in Kimberley in 1892, Mr. Fenn was establishing a pack of foxhounds. I fear the Jameson Raid and its dire results have sadly disturbed the harmony of that sporting community. I cannot help thinking that the Germans are more devoted to riding than any other Continental nation. I have not hunted in Germany, as I was there only during the summer; but I sold a good hunter to a German Count who was a fine horseman and a Master of Foxhounds. He told me that a large number of ladies hunted with his pack. I was particularly struck with the immense size and beauty of the riding schools in Berlin. In the Berliner Tattersall there are three large riding schools, and I seldom went there without seeing some ladies on horseback. In the largest riding school there is a gallery, a refreshment room, reading room, several dressing rooms, a bandstand, and seating accommodation for hundreds of people. The proprietor told me that in the winter months when the weather is too bad for outside riding, ladies ride in the schools, and various entertainments are given. I saw a large number of ladies riding in the Tiergarten, although it was out of the season, and I expected to find the ride as empty as Rotten Row in the winter months. As I went there before eight in the morning, our German cousins must be early risers. On the last occasion we visited the Tiergarten, we were on our way home from Russia, and, having a couple of hours to wait for our train, we strolled into the delightful wooded ride. It was about half-past seven on a cold March morning, and almost the first people I saw there were the Kaiser and the Kaiserin, so I no longer marvelled at German ladies' taste for early rising. When I was in the Bois de Boulogne last season, it was greatly frequented as usual, but it struck me that fewer women ride there now than formerly, and that motor cars have absorbed their attention. Although the riding schools of Paris are not to be compared to those of Berlin, the worst of them is far superior to the two miserable civilian riding schools in St. Petersburg, where riding is almost entirely a military function. Very few Russian women ride, although history tells us that Peter III. kept a pack of hounds, and that his wife, Catherine II., according to her memoirs, listened to the loving solicitations of Soltikov while they were riding together "to find the dogs." A saddle belonging to this amorous lady, which I saw at the Hermitage, was like an Australian buck-jumping saddle, with large knee rolls and a high cantle. It was covered with red velvet and decorated with cowrie shells. The side saddle appears to have been first used in Russia by the daughters of the Emperor Paul. The Duchess of Newcastle, writing in _Ladies in the Field_, on "the untidy slipshod way the riders are often turned out" in Rotten Row, terms this state of things "a disgrace to a country which is considered to have the best horses and riders in the world," and wonders what foreigners must think of the sorry spectacle. This "floppy" untidyness of riding dress appears to have been introduced by the "new woman." Twenty years ago, top hats and perfectly fitting habits were _de rigueur_; but now neither horses nor riders are so well trained for park hacking as they were in those days. The Duchess also points out that it is as cheap to be clean as dirty, and there is no reason why the horses should not be groomed, and their bits burnished. CHAPTER XVIII. WALKING FOXHOUND PUPPIES. I believe I am correct in stating that no woman who has ever hunted, professes any other feeling than that of ardent admiration for the hounds which provide her with sport; but I would like to see this admiration take, among hunting women, the more practical form of walking hunt puppies, in whose future well-being they should have a keen personal interest. There are two maiden ladies in Ireland, who, although they have never hunted, and are long past the age at which they are likely to do so, always, from sheer love of sport, walk a couple of foxhound puppies for their district hunt. We want, I think, more of this sporting Irish feeling among our sex, for I am sure that apart from all other considerations, a hunting woman would find more to interest her in the rearing and training of a foxhound puppy, whose career she could literally follow, than in spending money and time in clothing and nursing a useless pug or toy terrier. There is no more intelligent and charming companion for a woman than a young foxhound, who appears to be able to do everything but speak, and even that he can do in a mute way, for when he is greatly troubled, he cries like a human being, with real tears. I am thinking as I write of a young Cottesmore pup I was walking at Melton Mowbray who, when a friend accidentally trod on his foot, came yelping up to me for sympathy with big tears rolling down his face. When I picked up this heavy lump of dog and soothed him, he at once stopped his yelping and his tears like a child. Mr. Otho Paget in his interesting book, _Hunting_, says, "The whole future success of your breeding hounds rests on being able to get good walks," and in order to ensure such success, he advises generosity in the matter of prize giving at the annual puppy show and the luncheon on that occasion, to be "as smart and festive as you can make it." Mr. Paget considers that the "ideal home for a puppy" is a farmhouse; but even if this statement were correct--which I greatly doubt, seeing the poverty of many farmers and the neglected state of their own domestic animals--few farmers walk foxhound puppies even in classic Leicestershire. When a large landowner, good sportsman and lover of hunting like the late Duke of Rutland, makes an agreement with his tenant-farmers, to walk puppies, the work is certain to be carried out in a give and take manner which will cement good feeling between both parties, and will promote sport; but the practice which obtains in some badly managed hunts of sending a whipper-in to dump down his cartload of puppies on any people who will consent to take them, is not only akin to cadging, but is also productive of many cases of neglect which ought to come before the notice of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Instead of deputing servants to dispose of young hounds in this casual manner, the Master or his Secretary should approach the residents of the district, and either personally, or by writing, arrange with them to walk puppies, so that they may be prepared to receive their young charges. Also, the Master or Secretary should visit the puppies at walk occasionally, as such practical interest taken in their welfare, would tend to encourage the walker in her by no means easy task of rearing the youngsters. Mr. Otho Paget's advice as to prize giving and a sumptuous lunch hardly, I think, meets the requirements of the case. We can dismiss the lunch, as very few of my sex care for "smart and festive" feeding, and as far as the prizes go for their trouble and expense with the animals, what is the use of judging puppies six months after they have returned from walk? The poor, neglected, half-starved animal who goes back to kennels all skin and bone may, if he be a well-shaped hound, show up better at the time of judging, than those who were returned full of good food and in hard exercise, but who may have lost in condition by fretting, or by having to live on shorter rations than before. Some puppies, as I know from experience, have either died during the six months' interval, or have been drafted to another pack. Therefore it would be far more satisfactory and encouraging to puppy walkers for the judging to be on a day fixed for them to take their young charges to the kennels. In bygone days when country squires lived on their land and their tenants were under contract to walk puppies, the present arrangement no doubt answered well enough, because it was to the tenant's interest to do his best to please his landlord; but times have changed since then. The large majority of people who hunt nowadays, rent hunting boxes for the season, and take so little interest in country life that they fly off to town on the first appearance of frost, and are not seen again until the land is fit to be ridden over. When the season ends, they disappear till the following one. Few of them know any of the resident farmers or inhabitants of hunting centres even by sight, or want to know them. This snobbish exclusiveness is very harmful to the interests of hunting, because the farmers are under no obligation to them--quite the reverse--and a farmer can, if he likes, refuse to allow them to ride over his land. Therefore, when hunting people show farmers no civility, the agriculturists naturally do not care to go to the trouble and expense of walking hunt puppies, as several farmers have told me, unless they are given a better inducement to do so than present arrangements offer. Then again, in judging puppies returned from walk, supposing the judging takes place at once, as it should do, only the condition of the puppies, and not their "points" should be taken into consideration; for the walker usually has to take any puppies that are given to him, and as he does not breed them, he cannot be held responsible for any defects which may be in their make and shape. The hunt puppy-show ought to be a function entirely apart from the walkers' show, and until this is done, the unfortunate puppies will continue to be dumped down on any stranger who will consent to take them. I cannot help thinking that the great mortality which takes place every season among young hounds, might be considerably lessened if the various hunts were to send out with the puppies, for the benefit of inexperienced walkers, a pamphlet or card of printed instructions concerning their feeding and general management. They should also request the walker to report any case of sickness, and should at once despatch a competent veterinary surgeon to investigate such cases and prescribe for the young patients. The inexperienced puppy walker, in her anxiety to get her charges strong, often gorges them to repletion with raw meat even before they have got any permanent teeth, which is as absurd as feeding an infant on raw steak. We know not how young hounds contract distemper, but they cannot be prevented in their daily walks from eating offal, and if the germs of the disease are taken into their bodies in this way, the hound whose system has been weakened by "heating" and unsuitable food will seldom recover. I do not wish to pose as an authority on this subject and am simply giving, for the benefit of ladies who find themselves placed in a similar predicament, my experience, or rather, at this stage, inexperience, in walking a couple of Cottesmore pups. I tried very hard to save those pups, nursed them night and day, and had them in my room at night, but both died. One of them was slowly recovering, but was so weak that he could hardly stand, and I was recommended to give him some fresh meat cut up small. This food occasioned a relapse, and next day he was dead. I notice that Mr. Otho Paget in his book on _Hunting_ recommends "a little raw fresh meat" for weakly pups, but possibly he would not advocate it for one getting over distemper. I attributed the death of my charges solely to improper feeding, and have since been successful in rearing others by feeding them at first on bread and milk, biscuits and gravy, scraps of cooked vegetables, and when meat has been given, I have taken care to see that it has been _cooked_. Even with the greatest attention to diet and exercise, that horror, distemper, has attacked them, but they have made a good recovery. At the time of writing I am walking a couple of Pytchley pups, which alas, will soon go to their permanent home. Both of them have had distemper, one in a very severe form, accompanied by an abscess in his throat, which prevented him from swallowing anything but beaten eggs and milk for several days. His portrait (Fig. 141) shows that he has now "grown into a hound," and I am proud of him, for all of the Pytchley pups of the first, or spring batch, which were distributed in this village died of distemper with the exception of my couple. My pups must have contracted the disease from a neighbouring farmer's dog who died of it in great agony with an abscess in his throat. Possibly the adoption of some kind of muzzle would prevent puppies from eating diseased matter. [Illustration: Fig. 141.--Pytchley puppy, Mottley.] My belief in the necessity of giving hounds cooked meat and rigorously abjuring it in a raw state, excited ridicule here, but when the good result of such "faddy" feeding was proved by the healthy condition of the animals, the unbelievers acknowledged themselves converted. Mills, in his _Life of a Foxhound_, tells us that Ringwood, who appears to have been a fine hound, was brought up solely on "sweet milk, meal and broth"; but I find that pups in hard exercise want a generous supply of cooked paunch as well as bones for the development of their teeth, and that if they are blown out with sloppy food, their internal arrangements become disorganized. Besides, a hound cannot gallop on meal alone. One of the greatest difficulties with which puppy walkers in small villages have to contend, is in obtaining an adequate supply of paunches and bones, for country butchers do not kill many animals in the week, as there is little sale for meat. The average villager purchases a joint for his "Sunday's dinner," which either lasts the whole week, or is supplemented by scraps of meat, or even a "bone pie"! An ox paunch is of course dressed and sold as tripe, all sorts of pork scraps are made up into brawn, mutton ditto into "faggots," so that there is very little left for the foxhound puppies. During the hot summer months it is best to give pups very little cooked meat, but plenty of cooked vegetables, biscuit, house scraps of bread, &c., and in cold weather the first meal of the day should, if possible, be given warm, or mixed with warm milk, for when young animals are cold and hungry, it is a good thing to warm their little insides. All meat should be given cut up. When feeding hounds on remains of fish, care should be taken to remove large bones, which are very apt to choke them. If puppies are shut up at night in a barn or loose box, their abode should be cleaned out every morning, and any soiled straw removed. Attention should be paid to the thawing of their drinking water during severe weather. After they have got their teeth and begin to snarl over their bones, it is best to feed them in separate tins, or the stronger and greedier of the two will get far more than his fair share, even if he allows his pal to have any at all. I have found ordinary large sized baking tins useful for feeding purposes, as crockery is liable to get smashed. It is a good plan to have a system of regular feeding morning and evening; for puppies, like children, thrive better on regular meals than when they are "picking and nipping" all day. A constant supply of fresh water should be always at hand for their use. For ladies who attend personally to the wants of their canine friends, Messrs. D. H. Evans, of Oxford Street, have registered a kennel coat, which I think will fill a want. They have adopted my suggestions respecting its make and shape, and have made it in mud-coloured washing material, as that tint looks less unsightly when soiled than white, which is worn by kennel huntsmen. A protection of this kind for the dress is needed in tending dogs, and I have found it a very serviceable garment. Fig. 142 shows the front view of this coat; and Fig. 143, the back view. [Illustration: Fig. 142.--Front view of Kennel Coat.] Another point to remember in the management of puppies is never to wash them. I believe every experienced hound man will bear me out in attributing many tiresome ailments to the bath tub. Hounds can be kept perfectly clean by careful brushing, and their coats will show a gloss and polish that no bathing can give. It is not unusual to find mange in pups fresh from kennel, and care should be taken that the brush is not used on the affected animal. I found that applications of paraffin and salad oil, in equal parts of each, quickly cured mange, and that the hair on the coat grew thick and appeared to be greatly benefited by the lotion. Although pills are supplied by some hunts to be given to pups who are off their feed, it is no easy task for a woman, or even man, to induce an animal to swallow one, and the struggles of the terrified youngster who objects to the pill, often make it do more harm than good. That safe old medicine, castor oil, is generally at hand, and a puppy will lap a spoonful or two in milk without making a fuss. My experience of dog doctoring has been practically limited to castor oil, except during distemper, when five grains of quinine have been given daily with beneficial results. The best way to give this medicine is to mix it with a small piece of butter and spread this ointment on a piece of cheese, which will be eagerly gobbled up, as all hounds appear to like cheese. The pups should have plenty of clean dry straw for their bedding, and boards are far safer and more comfortable for them to lie on than bricks, which are always more or less cold and damp. Each pup selects his own spot for his bed, which he arranges to his liking, and if plenty of straw be given, he will burrow under it in very cold weather and thus keep himself warm. There is certain to be one pup which we like best, but no favouritism should be shown outwardly, as it breeds envy, hatred and malice, and all bow-wows are afflicted with jealousy. It is best if possible to take two pups, as a lone hound is miserable without a playmate, and if he has no one to play with, he will be almost sure to get into mischief. One will want to boss the other, but they can generally be left to settle their own quarrels. In every pack there is a master hound who rules the roost, but if he degenerates into an intolerable bully, he may, not improbably, be killed and eaten by the others, an occurrence which Mr. Mills tells us took place in Mr. Conyer's kennel at Copthall, Essex. [Illustration: Fig. 143.--Back view of Kennel Coat.] Next to feeding, the most important thing in puppy walking is exercise. Foxhounds have to know how to gallop, and therefore the young hound requires training. It is both cruel and useless to keep a healthy pup shut up in a stable or yard and afford him no opportunity of learning his work. As soon as the young ones settle down in their new home, they may be taken out for short walks, in order to accustom them to pass traffic, and if possible they should have a steady old dog to lead them; for even the placid cow coming home to be milked, will prove an object of terror to them and probably cause them to bolt home. With the exercise of patience and kindness, such fearsome journeys will soon be made with safety, and moving objects will cease to be regarded; in fact a bold hound will be likely to prove far too venturesome, and his hair-breadth escapes from being run over will occasion much anxiety. After the pups have got accustomed to getting out of the way of fast traffic, it is excellent training for them to learn to follow a bicycle, Fig. 144; but the rider must go slowly at first and only short distances, in order not to overtax the strength of the young hounds. A good rule is to slow down when the animals lag behind, and if they show any signs of fatigue, and are not stopping merely to make investigations, it is time to go slowly home. They will soon be able to gallop as fast as any ordinary rider can safely steer her bicycle, and will sometimes show their freshness and play, by catching hold of her skirt with their teeth, as once happened to me and gave me a fall. Foxhounds are however so intelligent that the animal who playfully caused my discomfiture, looked sorrowfully at me as I lay sprawled out with my machine on the ground, and I feel sure that when I reproached him, he understood the drift of my remarks, for he never afterwards attempted to touch my skirt, though he has often come bumping into me, when flying for protection from some imaginary enemy. It is impossible to be really angry with these most affectionate irresponsible beings, for they are brimful of the exuberance of youth, and if they roll over each other in the middle of the road just under the front wheel, it is advisable to try and get out of the way. A good plan when this road playing begins is to keep the break going, ready for "happenings." Riding with pups is excellent practice in bicycle control! From bicycle exercise we passed to the higher stage of taking out the pups with horses, but I regret we did not continue the bicycle training, because one day the bolder hound of the two (Fig. 145), who had several narrow escapes by reason of his insane propensity for running into the middle of the road and jumping up at the muzzle of an advancing horse, met with a serious accident, to wit, a fractured fore leg. I was not present when it occurred, but I had often ridden out with this hound, whose vagaries in the matter of jumping up at my horse's muzzle or playfully biting his hocks, frequently necessitated my riding at a walk. The animals who were ridden with these hounds were quiet, insomuch as they never attempted to kick them when all were loose in a paddock, or when ridden; but I even the quietest horse in the world is apt to show annoyance if very great liberties are taken with his person by either man or hound. My experience teaches me to remember this fact and not try a horse, who is not a huntsman's mount, too highly in this respect. The more sedate pup of the two is in fine condition, because he takes no liberties with the horses and therefore he obtains his requisite exercise; but if I wanted a bold, generous, dashing foxhound who can use his nose, swim a river or perform in brilliant style the work required in hunting, I should unhesitatingly choose the bold cripple, who I hope will get his leg right, for he would certainly perform brilliantly in any hunt, although as a show hound he would be superseded by his more sulky and indolent brother. [Illustration: Fig. 144.--Puppies with bicycle.] [Illustration: Fig. 145.--Pytchley puppy, Monarch.] As the first requisites in a foxhound are pluck and confidence, I would, in selecting a couple of pups from the usual cartload, prefer to take from those who came and faced me boldly, as if inquiring my business, rather than to seek for "show" points among those who require to be dragged from the back of the cart for inspection. Many people are debarred from walking foxhound pups from the tales they have heard about their destructiveness, but these yarns are grossly exaggerated, for the youngsters are no worse than ordinary puppies in their desire to try their new teeth on sponges, brushes, boots or anything else they can procure. If they are taught from the first that such things are riot, and are given in their idle moments a bone on which to expend their energy, they will peacefully occupy themselves with it for hours, and after they have eaten it or as much of it as is possible to be broken off, they will solemnly proceed to inter it for resurrection on some future occasion. A young dog who has had his necessary exercise, will prefer to sleep than to get into mischief; but if kept idle, he will naturally seek some means of working off his pent-up energy. It is as cruel to punish a young animal for gnawing and biting inanimate objects, as it is to strike a teething infant who is similarly prone to use his teeth on anything he can get hold of. We generally supply such a child with a bone ring or something equally safe to bite; and if we do not give a puppy a bone, he will quickly find something for himself. I have a sheep-dog pup who, having gnawed and buried a boot in the paddock, was brought to me for correction. I gave him a "good talking to" and ordered him to lie down near me under the table, where I believed he would be out of mischief. I went on with my work and thought he was asleep, but when I bent down and looked at him, I found him busy at a large hole he was biting in our carpet! It was all my fault--he ought to have had a bone. We now come to the important question of corporal punishment, which I have deferred, as I hate it, but I know that it is a necessary evil. Solomon's warning about sparing the rod is more applicable, I think, to foxhounds than to children, for the spoilt hound has before him a fearful day of reckoning which a child may escape. Therefore our supposed kindness in ignoring sins of omission or commission is, in the case of a young hound, a cruel wrong which will assuredly cause him a great deal of suffering that timely correction on our part may avert. In the first place we ought to insist on implicit obedience, not by coaxing, but by the whip, for if a hound wilfully disobeys the person whom he loves as his mother, how much less will he be inclined to obey the orders of a stranger who is his whipper-in? When it is necessary to punish a glaring offence concerning which the lady walker, who is acting the part of mentor, has given an unheeded warning, the offender should be well whipped by someone told off to perform this operation, and when they fly to her for sympathy, she should remain silent as one who knows they have been justly punished. If she has to undertake these salutary thrashings herself, she should call the hounds to her in a tone of voice which she knows they can hear, and if, as frequently happens, they hesitate for a moment, look at her and then decide to disobey her command, she should follow them up, still calling on them to come to her, but now in a severer tone, and the disobedient ones will generally falter and take refuge in any available place. Then is the time to punish them with a few sharp cuts of whip or cane. There will be no howling, as the pups know very well that they have transgressed, and will show it on the way home by answering promptly when they are called. Pups must be punished only when they are caught in the act of disobedience; but a sin of yesterday must never be punished to-day; because foxhounds, like all dogs, have a keen sense of justice, and only understand the meaning of punishment when it is timely administered. All attempts at hunting on their own account should be rigorously repressed, and the personal dignity of the house cats should be upheld. Even when the hounds are accorded the special favour of entering the house, our pussies must be no more disturbed by them than they would be by our house dogs who sleep near the fireside with them. I like to encourage hounds to visit me occasionally in the house, as then they are, so to speak, on their honour, and they so much appreciate these visits that they lie peacefully near the fire with the cats in perfect friendship, after having carefully examined, without touching, everything in the room. They may look and smell, but not touch, and as bad behaviour in this respect means instant ejection, they soon become like visitors to a museum. The worst about puppy walking is that one has to part with these delightful companions, and that parting is a time of sorrow which we feel almost as keenly as if they were our children leaving home for the first time with all life's troubles before them. CHAPTER XIX. KINDNESS TO HORSES. A great deal has been said and written about bad-tempered horses, but hardly enough anent the riders who make them sulky or irritable. Jorrocks' remark that "the less a man knows about an 'oss, the more he expects" is perfectly true; for such persons seem to regard horses as machines, and are ever ready to slash them with the whip across the head, or any other part on which they think they can inflict most pain, and then when animals resent such cruelty, they dub them bad-tempered brutes! There are people belonging to the show-off brigade, who punish horses without the slightest provocation, in order to attract general attention to their fine (?) horsemanship. Their method is first to job the animal in the mouth, and when he exhibits the resulting signs of irritated surprise, to "lamb" him well. Another kind of horse-spoiler is the man who, having been angered by some person, vents his pent-up rage on his unfortunate mount. Far be it from me to call down the wrath of the lords of creation on my thin head by denouncing them all as cruel monsters, but my experience is that, in the majority of cases, horses are rendered vicious by brutal treatment on the part of men. A horse, like a dog, has a keen sense of justice; he never forgets unmerited punishment, but is in a constant state of nervous anxiety when ridden by a man who treats him unkindly. A dog exhibits a similar feeling of distrust of a cruel master by crouching up to him when called, instead of being delighted to see him, and according him a frisky welcome. I will give an instance of what I once saw a bad-tempered man do with a bird in India. The animal was a small green parrot which the man had taught to perform a certain trick; but I don't know what it was, because the parrot did not execute it when asked to do so. The owner of the bird was a very mild private individual, who I thought was fond of animals, and who asked me to see the effect of his training on this parrot. He tried to get the little thing to perform, but as it would not, for some cause best known to itself, he actually wrung its neck in my presence! I shall never forget that incident, because it gave me one of the greatest shocks I have ever experienced. This was, of course, an exceptional case of temper, which I mention only to show to what extremities a violent burst of rage may carry a sane individual. We often hear of an uncontrollable temper, but I believe that every man can, if he likes, govern his rage, unless, of course, he is demented. If the vast majority of so-called vicious horses could write the story of their lives, what terrible tales of suffering and injustice they would relate! A horse, unlike a dog, bears punishment in silence, and any brutal creature may with impunity torture a horse, but if he tried to hurt a dog in like degree, the yelping of the animal would alarm the entire neighbourhood, and be almost certain to call forth a strong remonstrance from some lover of animals whose sympathy had been excited by hearing such piteous cries. People who are unacquainted with the inner life of stables, have no idea of the brutality which many grooms and strappers inflict on the animals in their charge. When we find a horse which is difficult to bridle, owing to the objection he has to allowing his muzzle or ears to be approached by the hand of man, we may be almost certain that this vice has been caused by the application of a twitch, either on his upper lip, or on one of his ears, a method of restraint which should never be employed. By laying down the law on this point of horse control, I in no way pose as an authority, but rely on what my husband, who is a veterinary surgeon, thinks on this matter. He tells me that during the two trips which he made in 1901 to South Africa in veterinary charge of remounts, he examined the mouths of over seven hundred horses and found that more than ten per cent. of them had been permanently injured, especially on the tongue, by the inhuman application of twitches. No one, veterinary surgeon or layman, is justified in using a twitch that will make the animal subsequently difficult to handle. If any of my readers wish to know how a twitch can be applied without this drawback, they should consult my husband's book, _Illustrated Horse Breaking_. Of all horses, a good hunter which passes into the hands of an incompetent master, is most to be pitied. The wretched condition of many hunters is truly pitiable. Their skins, instead of showing the glow of health, present a dried-up, kippered-herring appearance, and some of the poor things have the miserable half-starved look of Berlin cab horses, chiefly because they live as a rule in a constant state of thirst, owing to the objection their grooms have of allowing them a sufficiency of water to drink. Such parched animals will quickly tell their mistress this secret, by loudly neighing, if, when she goes near their boxes or stalls, she takes up and rattles a stable bucket. This thirst torture is abominable cruelty. In this country, grooms, as a rule, are given a free hand in the feeding and management of horses, with frequently disastrous results, owing to the consequent system of commissions and tips from horse dealers, corn dealers, saddlers and shoeing smiths. In India and the Colonies, horse-owners usually take a practical interest in the welfare of their equine servants, which are therefore properly fed, and have a plentiful supply of fresh water to drink. Almost all hunting grooms keep horses in loose boxes tied up during the day, in order to prevent them lying down, soiling themselves and disarranging the bedding, which would, of course, entail trouble on the stable attendants. To such men, the good effect of liberty on legs and health is, of course, a negligible quantity. It is evident that the benefit of a loose box is nullified, if the animal in it is tied up. When we visit horses in their stable and find that they exhibit terror at our approach, we may conclude that their fear is due to bad management, because no horse which has been kindly treated, will show the slightest fear on being approached. A class of groom whom I would not care to keep, is the funky man who is continually yelling at his animals, and thus unfits them to obey our words of command when we ride them. Every horse-owner, even from a purely humane point of view, should spare a few minutes at night before turning in, to see that the animals have got plenty of hay and are not parched with thirst. I would strongly plead for our dumb friends in this matter, because, on more than one occasion, I have found my horses shut up for the night without "bite or sup," and by the welcome they always gave me, I know they were most grateful to me for my nightly visits, not only in neighing on hearing me speak, but also in dutifully obeying my voice when I rode them. If a horse, like a dog, gets to know that his mistress is his kindest friend, he will do his best to please her, and will remain steady at her command even under very great provocation to "play up." Here again Jorrocks' advice to know your horse comes in, for our stable friendship with our animals establishes a bond of unity which they will always remember and appreciate. Horses are very sporting animals, and the love of competition is inherent in them all, from the hack to the steeplechaser. When it is a question of a gallop, an old nag will put his best foot foremost and try to outdistance his companion, even though his chances of so doing may be extremely small. In hunting and racing we see horses gamely struggling on, often under severe punishment. To my mind, half the pleasure of witnessing equine competitions of speed and staying power is lost by the brutality of jockeys who, possibly from rage and disappointment at losing a race, often unmercifully punish their animals with whip and spurs, even when the first three horses have passed the winning post. One of the most fruitful causes of bad mouths is the practice which many servants adopt of jerking the reins, when a horse which they are holding becomes restless, even when the inquietude consists merely in looking at passing objects. Men who adopt this barbarous method of control, never accompany the action of their hand with the voice, and, consequently, the unfortunate animal does not know why he is punished. He naturally connects any pressure of the mouth-piece on the bars of his mouth with the idea of pain, from which he tries to escape by throwing up his head. Hence, instead of going freely up to his bit, and thus putting himself in touch with his rider, he will fight against it and will be unpleasant, if not dangerous, to ride. There have been many funny books written about horsemanship! In a very incompetent book on this subject, the author states: "In riding, if a horse does not nag himself properly, take short hold of the reins with your left hand, lean back in the saddle, with a light whip or stick give him three or four strokes right and left down his shoulders, at the same time holding the reins tight so that he does not go from under you; he will soon alter his pace. That requires practice, with nerve and judgment." I think that a person who would be guilty of such a display of "nerve and judgment" deserves similar punishment with the whip. It is in the hands of such men that horses earn the reputation of being bad-tempered. This writer also tells us "not to give water before feeding, as it weakens the saliva in a horse's mouth!" Whyte Melville owed his success in horse management to the adoption of kind and humane methods. All those who have broken and ridden young horses know how thoroughly sound is his advice:--"From the day you slip a halter over his ears he should be encouraged to look to you, like a child, for all his little wants and simple pleasures. He should come cantering up from the farthest corner in the paddock when he hears your voice, should ask to have his nose rubbed, his head stroked, his neck patted, with those honest pleading looks which will make the confidence of a dumb creature so touching; and before a roller has been put on his back, or a snaffle in his mouth, he should be convinced that everything you do to him is right, and that it is impossible for _you_, his best friend, to cause him the least uneasiness or harm. "I once owned a mare that would push her nose into my pockets in search of bread and sugar, would lick my face and hands like a dog, or suffer me to cling to any part of her limbs and body while she stood perfectly motionless. On one occasion, when I hung up in the stirrup after a fall, she never stirred on rising, till by a succession of laborious and ludicrous efforts I could swing myself back into the saddle, with my foot still fast, though hounds were running hard, and she loved hunting dearly in her heart. As a friend remarked at the time, 'The little mare seems very fond of you, or there might have been a bother'! Now this affection was but the result of petting, sugar, kind and encouraging words, particularly at her fences, and a rigid abstinence from abuse of the bridle and the spur." Many animal lovers, especially those who have had no personal experience in studying the peculiarities of our dumb servants, consider that all horses behave well if kindly treated. This belief has a certain foundation in fact, in the case of amiable animals which appreciate good usage. There are, however, many horses, especially among the half-bred hackney class of riding animal, possessed of bitter obstinacy which no amount of kindness on our part can subdue. Some of these animals allow us to get on their backs and carry us quietly, so long as we permit them to proceed at their desired pace; but as soon as we attempt to assert ourselves in this matter, they display their sullen tempers in various ways, either by plunging, pulling, or setting up other defences against our authority. If we insist on our orders being obeyed, they show fight, or more usually a sullen nagging resistance that continues the whole time we remain on their backs, and they carry out the same programme every time we ride them. With such nasty tempered brutes, breaking is of no avail, for they are quiet as long as we allow them to set the pace and carry us as they like. A breaker who is a good horseman and possessed of extreme tact and patience, which of course is necessary, may continue the fight longer than an ordinary rider cares to do, but he can produce no permanent result, for he is unable to give the animal a new heart. Therefore, when we consider the important question of manners in a horse, we should first learn all we can about the disposition and temper of the animal both in and out of the stable. Given a sound foundation to work upon, that is to say, a placid generous tempered horse, we may confidently set to work in polishing up his manners as may be required, but with the sullen brutes I have described, it is a useless task. We find much the same thing in some human beings. George Moore, in his novel, _Esther Waters_, graphically depicts the sullen obstinacy of a low class of person who will "neither lead nor drive." I think that this dogged obstinacy of temper is rarely met with among thoroughbred, or even well-bred horses, for I have found it to exist in its worst form only among half-breds, and especially among those which have hackney blood in their veins. As a rule, a bad-tempered thoroughbred does not sulk, he fights openly, says his say, like an irritated master or mistress, and, having relieved his mind, lets the matter drop, and does not nurture it up for future use, like the servants in the kitchen. My advice to any lady who is trying to win the regard of a sullen brute of this class, would be to give up the task as hopeless, get rid of him, and expend her kindness on an animal more worthy of it. No horse that will not "chum" with you, by ready obedience without asserting himself at every step he takes, is worth his keep, and it is no pleasure to either man or woman to ride such animals, however excellent both the rider's temper and horsemanship may be. I would recommend any lady who is about to purchase a horse, to do her best to find out, not only if the animal is quiet, but if his former owner was also amiable, and on no account to buy a horse which has been spoiled by a bad-tempered man, or woman, supposing that any of my sex is sour-tempered, which I very much doubt, unless, of course, she had been spoiled by a vicious male! We should bear in mind that absolute perfection, either among humans or equines, is unattainable, and, as Jorrocks points out: "If his 'oss is not so good as he might be, let him cherish the reflection that he might have been far worse!" I think that the native syces of India, like the Russian _ishvoshik_ (cabman), treat their equine charges with far greater sympathy and kindness than our English grooms and cab-drivers do. In India we ride stallions; my grey Arab, Fig. 7, was an entire, and was so kind and gentle that he was always most careful not to tread on his syce who slept in his box with him, rolled up in a corner, like a bundle of old clothes. When Gowlasher, which was the man's name, groomed him, the pony would playfully catch his arm between his teeth and make a pretence of biting it, but he never allowed his teeth to hurt the skin. Gowlasher liked to show me the funny little tricks of this animal; but if Freddie had attempted to touch the arm of an English groom, he would have been promptly struck across the muzzle, because his playfulness would have been misunderstood. It is not the custom in this country to hunt or hack stallions, which are often led out for exercise with two men hanging on to their heads, both armed with stout sticks. Magic, a grey Arab entire, which we brought home from India and sold to Colonel Walker, of Gateacre, who won several pony races with him, carried me quietly in the Row, and his new owner found him a very clever polo pony. When passing through London on my return from a visit to Russia, we put up at an hotel in Oxford Street, where the night was rendered hideous to me by the brutal slashing of cab horses; for one hears nothing of that kind in Russia, and yet we English people pride ourselves on being a horse-loving nation! The speed of Orlov trotters is very great, but no whip is used in driving them; the coachmen drive with a rein in each hand, like the drivers of American trotters, and shout after the manner of firemen to clear the road, for these animals seem to require a good deal of holding. The Russian cabby uses a small whip like an ordinary dog-whip, which he tucks away somewhere under his seat, and when his horse is taking things too easy, it is only necessary for him to show it him, for he is driven without blinkers, to cause him to at once hasten his pace. Very often the man is unprovided even with this toy thing, in which case he obtains a similar result by abusing the animal's relations! During the whole time that I was in Russia, I never once saw a cabby hurt his horse with the whip. Russia is the last country to which one would go to learn anything about the treatment of human beings, knowing what we do of her past and present history; but we certainly should emulate the Russian coachmen in their kindness to horses, and not shock our neighbours by exhibitions of brutality which may be seen daily in the London streets. CHAPTER XX. CROSS-SADDLE RIDING FOR LADIES. The question periodically arises as to whether women should adopt men's saddles in preference to their own. I have studied the art of riding astride in an ordinary man's saddle, and would give a negative answer to that query. The fact that by the adoption of the cross saddle, about seven pounds in weight would be saved, and the work for the horse would be somewhat easier, ought not to outweigh the enormous disadvantages on the other side. Whenever a lady is dragged by skirt or stirrup and killed--an accident which, happily, occurs but rarely nowadays, for we wisely adopt the best safety appliances to prevent it--up crops that evergreen question of cross-saddle riding, as if men never come to grief! Statistics would, I think, show that, considering the large number of women who hunt, the proportion of fatal accidents to them in the hunting field is extremely small as compared with the male record. Then, again, the question of sore backs from side-saddles may be urged; but with a well-fitting saddle which is properly girthed up, this trouble can be averted. Besides, sore backs are not confined to side saddles, for every hunting man, at some period or other, has had a sore-backed horse in his stable. My argument against the adoption of men's saddles is, in the first place, that such saddles afford us far less security of seat than we obtain in our own; for I do not think that men could ride, as we can, over fences without the aid of the reins. This statement is borne out, not only by the attempts which many good horsemen have made to do so, while my husband drove animals over obstacles with the long reins, but also by the fact that all men like a horse that goes well up to the bridle for cross-country work. Then, again, a woman's limbs are unsuited to cross-saddle riding, which requires length from hip to knee, flat muscles, and a slight inclination to "bow legs." I practised my cross-saddle riding in a school well supplied with large mirrors in which I could see my figure as I passed. It was anything but graceful, for the rotundity, which even in some men is very ugly on horseback, was far too much _en évidence_, and caused an outburst of laughter from the ladies who were watching my performance. I at first found it rather difficult to preserve my balance well in cantering on a circle, but that came to me far more quickly than ability to ride properly over a fence in a plain flapped saddle, such as I presume ladies would want to use if they adopted that style of riding. The directions given me were to lean back and grip with my knees; but, as in side-saddle riding, I left the reins quite loose, instead of hanging on to them as most men do, I lost the aid which they might have afforded me in my efforts to stick on. Besides, my grip was all wrong, and seemed to be obtainable only at the thigh, which, my husband tells me, ought, for riding purposes, to be flat and not round. My experience of this kind of riding appears to have been borne out by another lady who tried it, for "Rapier," in the _Sporting and Dramatic News_, Nov. 26th, 1892, says: "A few weeks ago my correspondent 'Ion,' who is, I believe, an excellent horsewoman, told me how she made an essay at riding on a man's saddle, with the result that she had a very bad fall." I believe both of us would have done better if we had had no previous experience of riding, and had acquired the art of hanging on to the reins. A lady who is well known with the Devon and Somerset Staghounds asked my husband's advice about a suitable saddle, as she desired to ride astride, and he helped her to procure one with large knee pads, made on the principle of Australian buck-jumping saddles, which appears to have answered her purpose very well; but I do not know how she would get on in Leicestershire. Mrs. Tweedie rode astride in a Mexican saddle, which, like those used by natives in India, are something after the pattern of an easy-chair. William Stokes, in an old work on riding which was published at Oxford, tells us that in Mexico "the _pisana_, or country lady, is often seen mounted before her _cavaliero_, who, seated behind his fair one, supports her with his arm thrown round her waist." This was much more gallant than the old English method, for the lady, after being seated sideways on the horse's croup, had to run the risk of being knocked off by her cavalier, who vaulted into the saddle in front of her. The plate illustrating this nice performance shows that the man had to stand with his left leg in the stirrup and put his weight on the saddle with his hands, while he raised his right leg over the lady's head. Having lived in the East, I am aware that Oriental women ride astride, but I have not seen any of them voluntarily go out of a walk. It is not difficult to trot and canter in a man's plain hunting saddle, but I think our conformation requires the assistance of knee rolls for jumping. We may see even fair horsemen thrown by a horse suddenly stopping dead at a fence, an accident that rarely occurs to a woman in a side saddle, as the grip afforded by her crutches gives her greater security of seat. A large number of men's saddles have recently been purchased in London for the use of American ladies who desire to adopt cross-saddle riding. They intend wearing frock coats and breeches made exactly like men's hunting breeches, and top boots; but as the frock coats are tight-fitting and follow the contour of the figure, I do not think that the costume will enhance the elegance of the wearer. In the Tiergarten at Berlin I saw a German lady riding astride in a kind of divided skirt, and as she was rather portly, her palfrey appeared to be fully caparisoned. If the cross-saddle were to be generally adopted by women, it would be but a revival of an ancient custom which was in use before the side-saddle with a leaping head rendered it possible for women to ride across country. According to Audry, English ladies discarded cross-saddle riding, and began to ride with the right leg over the crutch, about the middle of the seventeenth century, which style the Countess of Newcastle is said to have been the first to adopt. In the _Encyclopædia Londinensis_ we read that Queen Elizabeth "seems to have been the first who set the ladies the more modest fashion of riding sideways," but I think the honour of its introduction is due to Ann of Bohemia, the consort of Richard the Second. Garsault tells us that during the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, ladies of the French Court usually rode astride on donkeys. Whatever may be said in favour of cross-saddle riding, we must bear in mind that it was not until the introduction in 1830 of the leaping head that women were able to ride over fences, and it would be a most reactionary measure to try to dispense with this valuable improvement on the ancient and incompetent order of things. CHAPTER XXI. RIDING DIFFICULT HORSES. General Remarks--Shying--Stumbling--Dancing and Prancing--Throwing up the Head--Habit-shy--Jibbing--Shouldering--Backing--Pulling-- Refusing--Boring--Kicking--Buck-jumping--Rearing. GENERAL REMARKS. As ladies are not supposed to have to ride "difficult" horses, a chapter on the best means of managing such animals may appear superfluous; but even the steadiest animal is apt to go wrong at times, and as forewarned is forearmed, it is best for us to know how to act in cases of emergency. I do not think that there exists in this world an absolutely perfect horse, or faultless human being for that matter, although many members of both the human and equine race nearly approach the ideal standard, especially among our own gentle sex. A woman who rides a great variety of horses finds that each of her mounts has his or her special peculiarity of temper, which often sorely taxes her supply of patience and tact in keeping it under control. All horses, even the quietest, try to show their authority when ridden by a stranger, and still more so when they find themselves carrying a rider who sits in a side-saddle, which must be a most unnatural burden to a horse that has been broken and ridden by men. Apart from considerations of side-saddle gear, the extra steadiness which is required of him in standing "stock" still while a lady is being put up on his back and her habit arranged, necessitates more patience on his part than with a male rider. On the other hand, he may be impressed with the idea that he is being asked to carry a more precious burden, and that he must prove himself worthy of the confidence reposed in him. I think this feeling of honour exists in horses, for I am reminded of a charger which an officer in India lent me, with somewhat anxious misgivings, to ride. He told me that the animal would be sure to buck at a certain spot, and, as he rode with me, he warned me when I came to this debateable ground to be ready for the usual performance. We cantered along quietly, as we had been doing, for I thought it best to pretend nothing, and my mount, to his owner's great surprise, made no attempt to buck, either then or subsequently, while I was riding him, and we remained the best of friends. A hunter mare which I had in Cheshire, gave another instance of this honourable feeling among equines. When ridden by my husband or myself, she loved to show off by shying at a white gate, a heap of stones, a piece of paper, a bird, or any imaginable thing that she could find as an excuse to dart suddenly from one side of the road to the other. When we got to the hunting field, with all its noise and turmoil, she was as steady as possible, and the violent shying, which was her way of showing off, seemed to be quite forgotten. She would carry my son to his school, a distance of about five miles, and bring him home without making any attempt to shy with the child, but if an adult person rode her on the same route, she would play up as usual. I can only infer from this experience that, as I have already said, many horses possess a certain sense of honour. As shying is the most common vice among horses, we may consider it first. SHYING. I have called this habit or trick of becoming violently startled without adequate cause a vice, because in old horses who frequently shy with the object of unseating a rider thus suddenly taken unawares, it certainly is a very bad vice, and one for which the only cure is good horsemanship--that is to say, a seat sufficiently secure in the saddle to enable us to treat such conduct with indifference. If we attach importance to it by losing our temper and hitting an artful offender of this kind, punishment may cause an unpleasant exhibition of temper on his part, besides letting him see that his object has been accomplished. In the case of young and nervous horses, shying arises from timidity and not from vice, and therefore it behoves us to exhibit patience and kindness in inspiring confidence in such animals and assuring them that there is no reason for terror. The best means of doing this is to ride on and take no notice, although we may see by the behaviour of our mount, as he keeps his ears pricked, snorts at the terrifying object in front of him, slackens his pace, and prepares to either stop or dart away, that he will require encouragement to induce him to go on. As long as he answers the indications of the reins and pressure (not cuts) of the whip we should keep silent; but when he falters as if his heart were failing him, it is time for us to encourage him with the voice, softly at first, and louder, in a determined tone of command, if he still hesitates. With a young horse it is well to continue speaking to and soothing him until he has falteringly passed the cause of alarm, as the sound of his rider's voice often inspires him with confidence at the critical moment by withdrawing his attention from the object of his fright. If a lady is riding with a friend and is engaged in conversation when her horse begins to show fear at some object of alarm, she should continue her talk, because it will give him more encouragement to go on, than sudden silence on her part, which he might take as a sign that she shares his fear. If she finds it necessary to shorten her reins in anticipation of his "playing up," she should do it in an easy and gradual manner, so as not to let him know her intentions, and above all things she should refrain from speaking to him until it is absolutely necessary, which will be at the moment he is getting ready to swerve. I have at present a very amiable and steady hunter, which will invariably shy at any high vehicle, but will pass traction engines, trains and even motor cars quite quietly. No doubt his unsteadiness is nervousness and not vice, and is the result of an accident. It is not a good plan to wrestle with a horse until he can be induced to go up to and smell what he was shying at; for besides attaching too much importance to a trivial failing, it is not always possible to do this, in the case of moving objects, which cause animals far more terror than stationary ones. The whip should never be used on a shying horse with the object of hurting him, because it is unjust to inflict pain for an unintentional mistake, and idiotic to regard the exhibition of his fear as a personal affront, which is often done by ignorant riders. Almost all horses when they are very fresh, and especially on cold days, will shy and jump about on first being taken out, partly with the desire to keep themselves warm, and also with delight at being able to come out and enjoy a scamper. Dogs exhibit much the same skittishness; even old animals gamble like puppies when they are taken out, and the shying which results from freshness in horses should be tolerated within, of course, reasonable limits. Exercise will take away the superfluous playfulness, and it is one of the best of cures for equine failings, because even young horses which are regularly ridden, soon give up their habit of nervous shying and become steady conveyances. However terrified an inexperienced horsewoman may be on finding herself on a horse which shies badly, she should take care not to divulge her secret to him, as the animal would then try to usurp the reins of authority and refuse to obey her tremulous exhortations. She should always bear in mind that horses, young or old, nervous or bold, require as much keeping in their place as do domestic servants. Therefore, in all critical situations in which our ability to govern is directly challenged, we should assume the virtue of power if we have it not, and hang our banners on the outer walls, even though we may not have a shot in the locker. STUMBLING. Stumbling is not a vice, and therefore it would be as unjust to hit a horse for accidentally tripping, as it would be to strike a human being for making a false step and possibly spraining an ankle. Its chief causes may, I think, be traced to weakness; and, in the case of young horses, to bad shoeing and dirty stables. The subject of horse-shoeing is one which does not appeal to ordinary riders, so I may refer any lady who desires to study it, to my husband's chapter on it, in his new edition of _Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners_. The feet of horses should not be washed, because this practice renders horses liable to cracked heels and thrush, both of which ailments diminish the sure-footedness of an affected animal. If the feet are carefully picked out and brushed they can be kept in a hard, healthy condition, such as we find in the feet of young and unbroken horses which have never been shod. The stable should be kept clean and dry, for it is useless to expect a horse's feet to remain in a sound condition if he be allowed to stand in a wet and dirty stall or loose-box. The feet should always be carefully picked out after an animal has been exercised on tan, which contains matter that is injurious to the feet if it be allowed to remain in them. We have had bad cases of thrush caused by carelessness in this respect. As regards conformation, it is evident that horses with upright pasterns and heavy shoulders are far more apt to stumble than well-shaped ones, besides being rough and unpleasant to ride. Young horses which are shod for the first time, often stumble a great deal, until they get accustomed to their artificial foot-gear, and learn to go in a collected manner. Animals that are punished for stumbling by ignorant or bad-tempered riders, frequently acquire the detestable habit of dancing about every time they make a false step. DANCING AND PRANCING. This vice, which some badly-broken horses possess, of refusing to walk when required, and "blowing their noses" when spoken to, proceeds generally from temper, and a desire on the animal's part to show his authority. It is sometimes caused by the rider hanging on to the reins, especially if she uses a sharp curb or Pelham. I have known cases of horses which had been sold at a great sacrifice on account of this trick, become perfectly steady in a few days when properly handled. On the other hand, there are animals which prance from vice, and refuse to obey even the best horsewomen. I know of nothing more annoying to a lady, for it causes her to feel hot and uncomfortable, to say nothing of a possible headache and pain in the side. Such fretting and fuming brutes are not fit to ride, and should be put through a course of breaking lessons, preferably with the long reins, and be punished by being compelled to rein back, walk and halt at word of command. If it is inconvenient to have them properly broken, they should be driven in harness at a walk, and be kept standing about as much as possible to teach them obedience. A lady can offer very little defence when riding a dancing horse, but she may gain some respite by making him halt, supposing she does not desire to trot or canter. If a steady animal commences to dance without any exciting cause, such as the prospect of a hunt, his bitting and girthing up should be carefully examined, as there may be something hurting him, or the saddle may be pinching his back. Horses which are tormented by flies are apt to dance about, in which case it is best to trot or canter as much as possible. In India and other tropical countries where these pests are particularly troublesome during the hot weather, horse-hair wisps specially made for the purpose, are carried for brushing them away. THROWING UP THE HEAD. If a curb be used, care should be taken that its mouthpiece is not placed too high up in the mouth; that the chain is not too tight, in which case it would hurt the jaw; and that the mouthpiece of the snaffle does not press against the corners of the mouth. If there is nothing hurting the animal's mouth, he should be ridden by a groom in a standing martingale, at a length which will prevent him from getting his head too high. I like the Irish plan of buckling the standing martingale to the rings of the snaffle, better than that of attaching it to the noseband, because it teaches the animal to "give" to the bridle, and not to lean persistently on the noseband. The noseband method is generally adopted by polo players. The precaution of seeing how the horse behaves when he finds that he can no longer indulge in his favourite vice, should always be taken before he is ridden by a lady; because at first the checking influence of the standing martingale is sometimes resented by efforts to rear and plunge badly. If the use of the long reins is understood, it is better to have the horse circled and turned with them, but very few people are capable of using them in an efficient manner. When the animal finds himself unable to successfully resist this fixed defence and prefers to carry his head quietly, rather than to hurt his mouth by violently throwing his head up, he may be safely ridden by a lady in this martingale, and she will then be able to control him. Very few horses will fight against the martingale for any length of time, and as this most useful article of gear is considered to be indispensable to polo players for controlling their animals, its value to ladies who cannot, by reason of their perched-up position in a side-saddle, lower their hands like men, is inestimable. HABIT-SHY. I use this term to designate the trick that some horses, chiefly those which are unaccustomed to the side-saddle, have of sidling away from the skirt. A good plan is to put up a groom in a side-saddle with a rug on, and get him to ride in circles to the left, kicking the rug about with his foot until the horse goes collectedly, which he will generally do in a few lessons. JIBBING. Jibbing, or "balking" as the Americans term it, is a detestable vice. As a rule, it is the outcome of the knowledge an animal has acquired of his own power. Some horses are foolishly allowed by their riders to jib successfully. For instance, I was once riding with a lady whose animal "planted" himself at a certain spot and refused to "budge." Instead of trying to make him go on, his mistress wearily said that that was her limit, and that she always took him home from it, because he did not want to go any farther! I suggested a change of horses, but she would not hear of it; for she said I might upset his temper and make him worse than ever. Needless to say, the spoiled brute did precisely as he liked with her, and as she submitted to being "bossed" in this feeble manner, there was nothing to be done but go home every time he "wanted" to do so. If a horse jibs and there is nothing hurting him in the saddle or bridle, he should be shaken up sharply and ordered to go on. If he treats that order with silent contempt, the best thing to do is to make him turn and keep him circling until he gets tired of this performance and will go in the required direction. It is wiser not to strike an obstinate jibber, unless as a last resource, for further rousing his bad temper is productive of no good result. If punishment has to be resorted to, his rider should be able to form an idea of what defence he will be likely to offer by way of retaliation. If he is inclined to rear, the cuts should be given well behind the girth, and he should be kept on the turn to the right, in order that he may not fix his hind legs, which he would have to do in order to get up. If kicking be his speciality, they should be applied on the shoulder, while his head is held up as high as possible. If punishment proves ineffectual, it should be discontinued at once, as no woman cares to be the centre of an admiring crowd while she is engaged in a fight which, in nine cases out of ten, does more harm than good. A man told me that he cured a bad jibber by getting off him and throwing a lighted cracker under him; but such heroic measures had best not be undertaken by a lady, who would be wise to hand over the animal to a competent breaker if she wished to ride him again. SHOULDERING. This is a form of jibbing in which the horse tries to get rid of his rider by pressing her against some convenient object, such as a tree or wall. As he will naturally do this on the left side, his rider should try to turn him to the left to make him bring her away from the object in question. In other respects she should act as recommended in "Jibbing." BACKING. This is another variety of jibbing; but it is also caused by using a severe bit which a horse is afraid to face. If the bitting and saddling are right, a touch with the whip given behind the girth will generally prove effective. Sometimes a horse will deliberately back in order to kick another. In the hunting field, mares are at times very apt to try this trick, so care should be taken to prevent it. PULLING. I have found from experience that the best kind of gear in which to hold a hard puller, who goes along with his mouth open and is so headstrong that he will not slacken speed when required, is an ordinary double bridle, a cavesson nose-band and a standing martingale. It is far better for ladies, especially out hunting, to ride animals in gear in which they are able to hold them, than to have them dashing about as they like, and proving a source of danger, not only to their riders, but to the rest of the field. A lady should never ride a hard puller when hunting; but as some of us have to put up with what we can get, it is well to fix up a difficult mount of this kind in a manner that will keep him under control. Some clever people assert that any horse can be held with a snaffle; but I am certain that pullers can, as a rule, be much better controlled by a curb, provided that it is properly put on. I have no faith in severe bits, because the desire to pull and tear away emanates from the brain of a horse, and if we hurt his mouth by using a severe bit, we only succeed in making him more headstrong than ever. Most, if not all, young horses make frantic efforts to get away after the hounds, when they are hunted for the first few times; and, until they settle down and learn that fences require jumping and not galloping into, it is far more difficult to hold them without a standing martingale than with one. If a horse is getting out of hand, even under the restraining influence of a curb, we can generally manage to turn him with the aid of a standing martingale, and so long as we can do that, he cannot run away, as I have found when I have been placed in somewhat critical situations, with my curb ineffective in preventing a headstrong youngster from urging on his wild career under the intense excitement of his first day with hounds. The desire which a puller has to get away would probably only occur in the early part of the day when the starting rush is made, but if it were successful he would bolt among a lot of horses and be almost certain to cause an accident. A cavesson nose-band properly put on, will shut the mouth of a puller which wants to keep it open, and will thus help the rider to control him. If a lady possesses doubts as to her ability to hold her horse, she should keep well away from the field, so that she may not endanger the safety of others. It is always best to put animals which are at all likely to pull, through a regular course of cub hunting from the very beginning of the season, so that they may gradually work along from the "pottering" to the galloping stage. A course of such instruction sobers them down, and they will then give their rider far less trouble than if they are dashed off into the excitement of fox-hunting without having had good preliminary training. This is a fact which ladies should bear in mind; for I have found it work very successfully. There is nothing like plenty of regular work for taking the nonsense out of pulling horses. Mr. Caton, a well-known American trainer of match trotters, whom I met in St. Petersburg, told me that he always sent his bad pullers to do a week or two's work in one of the city tram-cars, for they always came back with a good deal of the "stuffing" taken out of them. Pulling is of course a very bad vice; for a pulling horse knows well enough what his rider is asking him, through the medium of the reins, but he shakes his head, or throws it up, if he can, as much as to say that he will _not_ obey. A lady should not be alarmed if she finds her mount getting out of hand; but should, if possible, let him go for a short distance and then take a pull at him, at the same time speaking determinedly to him, and not in a frightened tone. If the brute will not obey, we must use severe measures, and in extreme cases, it is well to "saw" the bit from one side to the other, in order to hurt his mouth so much, that from very pain he must perforce yield. I believe that many bad accidents have occurred through riders becoming frightened and refraining from the use of force in stopping a hard puller, who is thus allowed to run away. I think that if people could keep their heads clear and not clutch on to the saddle and let the reins loose, or maintain a dead hold of them, which is equally ineffective, but husband their resources for determined attacks, very few horses would succeed in bolting with their riders. Of course a great deal depends on the strength of the seat of the rider; for we must sit very tight and not let our mount feel us wobbling about in the saddle. We should never forget the power of the voice as a factor in horse control, and our attempts to stop a pulling animal should always be accompanied by a sternly expressed word of command. In my travels abroad, I have ridden some extremely bad pullers which were said to bolt with men; but although I certainly had trouble with such animals, none of them succeeded in running away with me and taking me where they liked. My husband also has a similar record in this respect, so I cannot help thinking that when a rider is actually bolted with, he or she must have got frightened and confused at a critical moment and have allowed the animal to literally take the reins of authority in his teeth. It requires a good deal of physical strength to control a hard puller, and I have had my gloves and hands badly cut in wrestling with particularly headstrong brutes. On the other hand, some horses which have really nice mouths, get the name of being pullers, on account of having been ridden by "mutton-fisted" men who hang on to the reins and thus irritate them beyond control. I am reminded of a big Australian horse, about seventeen hands high, which Mr. Macklin, the Australian horse-shipper, brought to Calcutta and lent me to ride in a paper-chase there. This animal carried me perfectly, although his rough rider (more "rough" than "rider") afterwards showed me an unjointed snaffle bent almost double, which he said had been caused by this "pulling devil of a horse"! There is a great deal of truth in the saying, that if you don't pull at a horse, he won't pull at you. I am sure that many horsemen, and certainly every riding member of my sex, will bear me out in stating that women manage pullers far better than do men, because they do not hang on to their mouths, in order to help them in keeping their seats. Where many women greatly err in riding confirmed pullers, is in inability to take sufficiently harsh measures which are needed for their control. I am aware that there are animals, especially race-horses, which cannot be held at all until they have gone a certain distance. The pace holds them, but such headstrong animals tire themselves unnecessarily, and generally have to "shut up" before the finish of a long distance race; for the steady plodding horse will almost invariably prove the better stayer of the two. In hunting, the pace will not always hold a horse, because hounds may check at any moment, the start to a "holloa" may prove a false alarm, and leaving out the uncertain behaviour of foxes, a sudden stoppage may be caused by an impossible fence, river, railway, or by a variety of causes which would amply prove the fallacy of the pace holding a hard puller in the hunting field. As pulling horses are the cause of frequent hunting accidents, I would specially caution my readers against riding animals which they are not able to keep in hand. If a lady is riding a good old hunter who insists on going his own pace, she should interfere with him as little as possible, even in her desire to steady him over bad ground and at his fences; because the large majority of these animals have their own method of doing business, and can be safely trusted to take care of themselves. If they are unduly checked in galloping, they are apt to pull very hard, and greatly tire their riders. I am, of course, alluding to good-tempered, well-made hunters which go best with a rider who sits still on their backs and trusts to their experience and honour. Concerning the best kind of bridle in which to hold a puller, I cannot do better than quote the following remarks from my husband's book, _Riding and Hunting_:--"As regards the bitting of a puller, I would advise that with a double bridle the curb should be put low down in the mouth.... In all cases an unjointed snaffle is much the best form of bit. With a double bridle we have a choice between the two. We should bear in mind that the action of a curb is peculiarly liable to produce insensibility of the mouth on account of its pressure being distributed almost completely round the lower jaw, while that of the snaffle falls only on the upper surface of the jaw. Even the jointed snaffle and the chain snaffle leave the under surface of the jaw free from pressure, and consequently interfere comparatively little with the circulation and nervous supply of that part. Hence we should avoid riding even the worst puller continuously on the curb, the action of which we should alternate from time to time with that of the snaffle, so as to preserve the sensibility of the jaw. It is evident that the sensibility of the mouth is the means by which we are enabled to remain in touch with the forehand of the horse. I would here recommend the alternative, not the combined, employment of the curb and the snaffle." Thin bits which irritate horses' mouths often cause them to fight and pull hard; it is unfortunately no uncommon sight in the hunting field to see a tortured horse bleeding from the mouth, and yet such animals are expected to gallop and jump kindly! REFUSING. To jump or not to jump, that is the question with which determined refusers have "stumped" some of the very best cross country riders. I am reminded of an instance which occurred in India, when a fine horsewoman, seeing a friend unable to make his mount jump in a paper-chase, which is nearly akin to a steeple-chase, rode him herself in the next one, with no better result, and great must have been her mortification on finding herself left on the wrong side of the first fence which the determined brute refused to look at, even when carrying this charming lady, to whom many equine bad characters had yielded obedience. This appeared to be a sheer case of equine temper and obstinacy; for the animal could jump well when he liked, but the man or woman has yet to be born who can make a horse jump when he has decided not to do so. I have a very strong belief that refusers are made, not born, for every unbroken horse which my husband had to deal with in his travels, tried his best to give satisfaction by making an effort, even if an unscientific one, to clear the obstacle, generally a heavy log of wood propped up on boxes, which was offered for his consideration. If he jumped well, and in the flippant style of a natural fencer, more boxes were produced, and sometimes these youngsters cleared quite a respectable height in one "lepping" lesson with me on their backs, and my husband at the end of the long reins. The abuse of the curb at fences is the cause of, I think, half the falls, and more than half of the refusals which we see in the hunting field. In Ireland, where the large majority of our hunters come from, the snaffle is the bit used in breaking and hunting, as it is in steeple-chasing; and although our Irish neighbours find the curb has its advantages, we must admit that they keep it in its proper place and do not allow it to usurp the snaffle when riding over fences. The sportsmen of Tipperary, Kildare, Cork and other parts of Ireland, who have to negotiate immense banks, would ridicule the idea of riding at such obstacles on the curb, because no sane person would think of checking a horse in such a manner; and the solid "cope and dash" stone walls of Galway also require to be taken by an animal whose mouth is not interfered with. Here in England we see these Irish hunters frequently ridden at fences on the curb, and the poor brutes, in order to save their mouths and keep on their legs, throw up their heads and give a half buck over the obstacle, landing on all fours, and then get a cut with the whip for having jumped badly! This is how many refusers are made. Another recipe for making a refuser is to pretend to ride hard at a fence and, at the last moment, turn the animal's head from it, and then loudly rate and "lambaste" him for refusing! Still another method is to "funk" the obstacle when it is too late, and check the horse with the curb _after_ he has made his spring, which will cause him to crash into the middle of the fence, and probably bring both himself and his rider to grief. My husband, being a veterinary surgeon, has had hunters brought to him in a most pitiable state of laceration, caused, I believe, in many cases, by "funk" and curb, a most disastrous combination. We have in our stable at the time of writing, a very intelligent hunter who was dreadfully injured from having, it is said, "jumped bang into a fence," but I wish that patient sufferer could tell me the real cause of his accident. It was one of those crumpling falls which seem to mean death to both horse and rider, but luckily in this case, the rider escaped with a few bruises and a smashed hat. The horse was also fortunate in a way, as no bones were broken; but the skin and flesh of his near fore-leg were torn off from almost the shoulder to the knee, and I wondered, as I looked on that gaping, bleeding wound, and the poor animal quivering with pain and hardly able to bear even placing the tip of his toe on the ground, if he would ever have the courage to face a fence again. Luckily, he is all right now. I have heard people talk about a "good fall" being the best means for teaching horses how to jump, and there is a certain modicum of truth in this, especially with young horses, and young horsemen too for that matter; but when an old hunter gets a "bad" fall, I doubt whether he ever recovers his jumping form again, any more than we ourselves who may have come an awful "buster" after we have reached the "age of discretion." Horses frequently refuse on account of some physical infirmity. Unsoundness in one or both fore legs naturally makes a horse chary of jumping, because of the painful jar which he will receive on landing, when he is obliged to place his entire weight on his fore legs. Then again, if his feet are not in a hard and sound condition, he "funks" the pain of landing over a fence and tries his best to avoid jumping. Many unsound horses, generally hirelings, are hammered along out hunting, especially on roads, with most inconsiderate cruelty. I once tried to hunt on a hireling which, I soon saw, was not in a fit state to carry me without pain. Had I insisted on having my money's worth out of the animal, it would have been nothing short of gross cruelty. His fore legs were bandaged, as is usual with hired mounts, and he galloped and jumped several small fences soundly, as far as I could feel; but when he came to a rather formidable one, he stopped and tried to rear. I at once found an easier means of egress, which took me for a short distance on a road, and the hard ground of only about 20 yards seemed to tell so much on one leg, that I felt him going decidedly short, pulled him up and walked him home. When I arrived in Melton Mowbray, a lady, the last person in the world whom I would have cared to meet, hailed me with the news that Miss So-and-so had broken her collar-bone, a fact which appeared to give her more pleasure than sorrow, "and you" she said, "have lamed your horse"! The dealer evidently expected this result; for when I rode the horse into his yard, so that I might personally explain things to him, he told me that the animal, which was only a four year old, had been "ridden very hard" by an officer, who, I am sorry to say, has since lost his life in South Africa. The dealer tried his best to make amends by subsequently offering me another mount for nothing; but he certainly did err in letting out this young unsound animal, and spoiling my day's sport, for which I had paid the usual guineas. My only regret in the matter is that I galloped and jumped an animal which was not in a fit state to perform such work. Horses are frequently rendered refusers by being repeatedly jumped over the same fence, until they get so disgusted with the performance that they will have no more of it. Spurs and whip then come into play and make matters worse. Even if the animal jumps the fence after a good deal of unnecessary fighting, the memory of this unjust punishment remains in his mind, and is productive of the violent agitation which such horses exhibit on being taken near a jump. It is a wise plan to stop a "lepping" lesson immediately after the horse has cleared the jump in good style, and then make much of him (patting him on the neck and speaking kindly to him). Punishing horses at fences with whip and spur renders them afraid to face their jumps; because they think that they will be knocked about, even when they are trying their best to give satisfaction. Many faulty and bad tempered riders are unnecessarily cruel in this respect. If a horse refuses from seeing an animal fall in front of him, his natural prudence should not be taken as a personal affront, but he should be spoken to and encouraged to try, preferably, if possible, after another horse has got safely over the obstacle, if there is no other part of the fence negotiable. I think that by dint of patience and tactful management, many refusers may be taught to repose sufficient confidence in their riders to make an effort when required, but that can be done only by gentle means and easy tasks. Old tricky offenders cannot be cured of this or any other vice. A lady who is hunting on a doubtful jumper should be careful not to upset other horses by letting her refuser perform in front of them, but should show consideration for her companions by keeping a backward place, supposing that several horses are taking their turn at jumping the only practicable part in a fence. Refusers are detested in the hunting field, and a lady whose hunter is known to shirk his fences and stir up equine rebellion, is soon classed among the large number of those who never will be missed. BORING. Horses are said to bore when they carry their heads down and lean heavily on the bit or bear on it to one side. As both the curb and Pelham have a tendency to make a horse carry his head low, they should not, as a rule, be used with a borer. The rider might make the animal keep his head in proper position by playing with the snaffle, the cheekpieces of the bridle of which may be shortened, so that the mouthpiece may press against the corners of the mouth and thus induce him to keep up his head. The same effect can be obtained with the gag snaffle, which has the advantage that, when one's object is gained, one can ease off the gag reins and take up the other reins, which are used in the ordinary manner. When a horse bores to one side, or when he bores with his head stuck straight out, the standing martingale will often be useful for correcting this unpleasant fault. I have seen in trotting matches a bearing-rein (called in America an "over-draw check-rein") passing between the animal's ears, going down the top of his head and attached to the pommel of the saddle, effectively employed to correct this fault. It would, of course, be too unsightly to be used by a lady, but her groom might employ it advantageously in teaching a borer to carry his head in correct position. KICKING. If practicable, we should first of all see that the saddle does not hurt the horse in any way. If this be all right, we may "shake him up" with the snaffle reins and make him carry his head high. If this be not effective, he should be given a few cuts with the whip on the _shoulder_. Making him hold up his head and touching him on the shoulder are done to "lighten" his forehand, and to put more weight on his hind quarters. Also, we may with much advantage give him some practice at reining back, within judicious limits, either when we are in the saddle, or with the long reins. When a horse starts kicking, the rider should take a strong grip of her crutches and lean back, as far as she is able, while holding his head up, and thus prevent herself from being thrown over his head. The most awkward kicker I ever rode was a mountain Zebra (Fig. 146), which my husband broke in at Calcutta. He kicked very neatly without lowering his head, and, as the slightest touch on his ears drove him nearly out of his mind, I had great difficulty in avoiding them, as he kicked with a sort of peculiar wriggle which complicated the performance for me, because I had had no practice on a kicking zebra, and had to pick up my knowledge as I went on. It was no use trying to rein _him_ back; for he had a neck like a bull, with a small rudimentary dewlap, and at every kick he gave, he made a noise like a pig grunting. His skin was the best part about him, and was as lovely and soft to the touch as the finest sealskin. As I believe I am the only woman who has ridden a mountain zebra, this photograph is probably unique. It ought to be a better one, seeing the trouble I took to make my obstinate mount stand still; but he seemed to regard the camera as an infernal machine destined for his destruction, and flatly refused to pose nicely for his portrait. He was far too neck-strong to make a pleasant mount for a lady. Kickers, as I have already said, should never be taken into any hunting field. [Illustration: Fig. 146.--Riding mountain zebra.] BUCK-JUMPING. Under this heading I shall include the minor vices of plunging and "pig-jumping." Bucking is all but unknown among English and Eastern horses, but is seen to its highest perfection among Australian and New Zealand animals, especially those that have been allowed their liberty up to a comparatively late period of life, say, four years old. I have ridden some buck-jumping Argentine horses which were expert performers: many of the wild Russian steppe horses are very bad buck-jumpers. Some English horses, especially thoroughbreds, can give a very fair imitation of this foreign equine accomplishment. I remember riding a steeple-chase horse called Emigrant, which placed quite enough strain both on me and my girths when he was first called upon to carry a side-saddle. If a horse has any buck in him, the side-saddle will be almost certain to bring it out; for with it the animal requires to be girthed up extra tightly; the balance strap "tickles and revolts" him, the lady's weight is farther back than on a man's saddle, and the unusual feeling of carrying a rider whose legs are placed on one side, tends to irritate a highly sensitive horse. If an animal, on being saddled, gets his "back up," he should not be mounted until this certain indication of the buck that is in him has been removed, which may be done by either circling him with the long reins, or letting a groom run him about a little until his back goes down. A cold saddle and a chilly day will often cause a horse to come out of his stable with his back in bucking position, and, unless a lady knows her animal well, it is best to get it down before she mounts, because he may buck as she is in the act of placing her right leg over the crutch--a part of mounting which animals that are unaccustomed to it greatly dislike, as, I suppose, they think she is going to give them a kick on the head! As I used to do the rough-riding for my husband on his horse-breaking tours in various countries, I have had to sit a good many buck-jumpers, and, am thankful to say, I never got thrown, because, from what I have seen of men being catapulted and placed on the flat of their backs on the ground, this kind of fall must be, as Jorrocks would say, "a hawful thing." The great difficulty in sitting a buck-jumper consists in keeping the body from being jerked forward in the saddle, and slackening the reins the moment the animal makes a vicious downward snatch at them, by ducking his head; for if the rider hangs on to his head, he will pull her forward by means of the reins, and she will be unable to sit the buck which will follow. All confirmed buck-jumpers look out for this opportunity whenever the rider draws the reins tightly. Ladies who ride with the right leg hooked back would not be able to sit a buck-jumper; for I found that the chief means which prevented me from being thrown was the ability to lean back, which the forward position of my right leg gave me. When riding bad horses at my husband's classes, I was able to see beforehand what special defence such animals offered, and was, therefore, prepared to cope with them; but I have been taken unawares when mounted on Australian horses which dealers in India have lent me, when they have wanted to sell such animals as having carried a lady. I remember one very handsome Waler, which went like a lamb with me until suddenly, when cantering quietly along, he took it into his head to try and buck me off. He did his best to accomplish his purpose, and was encouraged in his efforts by my pith hat coming off and flopping about my head. I wished the thing could have fallen, but it was held by the elastic--we wore our hair in plaits at the nape of the neck in those days--and I had securely pinned the elastic with hairpins under my hair. This great wobbling hat only caused the horse to buck worse than ever, until he tired of his performance and came to a sudden halt. I was greatly exhausted, and suffering from mental tension, because I was entirely unprepared for this attack, and doubted the security of my stronghold, for the girths of my saddle had seen a lot of service, and the strain on them, caused by the violent bucking of this powerful sixteen-hand animal, was very great. The bigger a horse is, the more difficult he is to sit when he bucks badly, because he can put much more force into the performance than a small animal, and he shakes the breath out of one much sooner. It is lucky for us that a wise providence has placed a limit on a horse's bucking capabilities. I think that ten or twelve bucks, given in good style and without an interval for recuperation, is about as much as any horse can do, but possibly my Australian readers can give statistics on this point. I hope I am not offending them in saying that Australian horses are the most accomplished buck-jumpers I have met. Australian shippers send many of them over to India, and rely on the long sea voyage to quieten them down, which it does to a certain extent. Mr. Macklin, an Australian importer, told me that a horse-carrying ship was wrecked on some part of the coast, an island, I believe, between Australia and India, and that there is a big colony of wild horses to be picked up by anyone who will go and take them. I like Australian horses, because they are excellent jumpers, have beautiful shoulders and are remarkably sound in wind and limb. They are moreover handsome breedy looking animals, and those of them which are addicted to bucking, soon give up this vice, if ridden by capable people. A lady who finds herself on a bucking horse should try her best to keep both her head and her seat, and not be in any way disconcerted by hearing the angry grunts which such animals often give with each buck they make to get her off. She should lean back and firmly grip her crutches as in sitting over a fence, and should try to imagine that she is jumping a line of obstacles placed close together. If she feels any forward displacement after one buck, she must hastily get into position to be ready for the next one, without pausing for a moment to think, because there will be no time for thought, and her recovery of balance must be done automatically, while the animal is doubling himself up for his next buck. If her hat, which is generally the first thing to leave the saddle, flies off, no notice must be taken, because the instant the rider devotes her attention to anything else but sticking on, she relaxes her grip and stands a good chance of being thrown. The most difficult of all bucking I have experienced was when hunting in Leicestershire on a young Argentine mare, which started to buck when we were galloping down hill over deep ridge and furrow. I knew her bucking propensities, because my husband broke her in and I had had a good deal of bucking practice with her, so I was able to remain, but that down hill ridge and furrow performance was extremely hard to sit. Like most young animals, she hated ridge and furrow, and her temper was upset on finding that she had to gallop down hill over this troublesome ground. The necessity of devoting careful attention to the soundness of the girth-tugs, stirrup-leather, and balance-strap when riding a horse which is likely to buck is obvious, for of course if they give way under the strain, no lady would be able to retain her seat. REARING. Rearing is the worst of all vices in a horse which has to carry a side-saddle, because a lady, by reason of her side position and her inability to lower her hands to the same extent as a man, is utterly powerless on a rearer. I have seen men slip off over the animal's tail, when he was standing on his hind legs, but this is a feat which a woman is unable to accomplish, as I found when a horse reared and came over with me at Tientsin in China, and hurt my spine so much that I felt its effects for several years afterwards, especially after a hard day's hunting, or a long swim. Swimming appears to tax the soundness of the spinal bones quite as much as does riding. The best thing to do with a rearer is to prevent him from fixing his hind legs, which he would have to do before he can get up, and therefore a long whip should be used, and the animal touched with it as near the hocks as possible, keeping him at the same time on the turn to the right. Confirmed rearers are however so quick in getting up on their hind legs, that the rider has no time, even were she supplied with a sufficiently long whip, to get anywhere near his hocks, and all she can do is to lean well forward and leave his mouth alone. If she is still alive when he comes down, my strong advice would be to get off his back, and give him, as the late Mr. Abingdon Baird did in the case of a similar brute, to the first passer by! Rearing is no test of horsemanship, and the sickening sight of ladies in circuses mounted on rearers is one from which every good horsewoman would recoil with horror. At Rentz circus in Hamburg I saw one of these awful sights, and noticed that the ringmaster kept touching the _steiger_ on the fore-legs with the whip in order to make him paw the air. I have been told that so long as a rearing horse keeps pawing in this manner, he will not fall over, but such horrid exhibitions ought to be prevented. There is nothing more trying to the nerves of any rider than hunting on a refuser which has a tendency to rear, and I have known ladies whose nerves have been utterly shattered in their efforts to govern such dangerous brutes. Take my advice ladies and have nothing to do with these animals; for it is far easier to get rid of a horse than it is to recover one's nerve, and the longer a lady tries to wrestle with a rearer, the more difficulty will she have in overcoming the strain on her nervous system. I would not take a rearing horse at a gift, for such animals can never be made sufficiently reliable for any woman to ride. Horses sometimes learn this detestable vice from others. I once had an animal in Calcutta which began rearing with me without any known cause, and I was greatly mystified about his behaviour until one day I saw my syce, who was exercising him, in company with a native on a horse which was rearing badly, while my mount was imitating him, a performance which I subsequently discovered had been going on daily for some time. If a previously quiet horse suddenly starts a new form of playing up, the riding of the groom or person who has been exercising and handling him should be carefully watched, and no animal which is known to be unsteady should be allowed to teach his bad tricks to a lady's mount, for we know that horses very quickly pick up bad habits from each other. Baron de Vaux, in his book _Ecuyers et Ecuyères_, tells us that Emilie Loisset, who was a brilliant high school rider, was killed by a rearer coming over with her. He says:--"_Elle souffrait beaucoup, car la fourche de la selle lui avait perforé les intestins. Après deux jours de douleurs horribles, la pauvre Emilie Loisset rendit le dernier soupir, surprise par la mort en pleine jeunesse et en plein succès._" The animal she rode is described as _d'origine irlandaise et de mauvais coeur_. CHAPTER XXII. NAMES OF EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE. I shall here of course omit to describe parts, such as the eyes, head and tail, for instance, which are known to everyone. The figures and letters employed in the following list, have reference to those on Fig. 147, except when Fig. 148 is mentioned. The hoof (10) is the horny box which encloses the lower part of the leg. The front part of the hoof, near the ground surface, is called the _toe_; the side portions, the _quarters_; and the rear parts, the _heels_. The outer portion of the hoof is termed the _wall_, which is divided into a hard, fibrous outer covering, called the _crust_, and a soft inner layer of non-fibrous horn. The designations "wall" and "crust" are often used indiscriminately. The _frog_ is the triangular horny cushion which is in the centre of the ground surface of the hoof, and which, by its elasticity and strength, acts as a buffer in saving the structures inside the hoof from the injurious effects of concussion. _The cleft of the frog_ is the division in the middle line of the frog. In healthy feet, it consists of only a slight depression. In a disease, called "thrush," of the sensitive part which secretes the frog, the cleft forms a deep, damp and foul-smelling fissure, and the frog becomes more or less shrivelled up. The frog similar to the skin of the palms of our hands, requires frequent pressure to make it thick and strong. The horn of the hoof is merely a modification of the cuticle (scarf skin). The _bars_ of the hoof are the portions of the wall of the hoof which are turned inwards at the heels, and run more or less parallel to the sides of the frog. The _sole_ is that portion of the ground surface of the foot which is included between the wall, bars and frog. The _pastern_ (9) is the short column of bones (two in number) which lies between the fetlock and hoof. The _fetlock_ (8) is the prominent joint which is just above the hoof. The _cannon bone_ (7) is the bone that extends from the fetlock to the _knee_ (6), which, in the horse, corresponds to our wrist. The _back tendons_ or _back sinews_ (_M_) form the more or less round tendinous cord which is at the back of the leg, from the knee (or hock) to the fetlock. These tendons, which are two in number, usually appear in the form of one cord; but in horses which have a very fine skin and "clean legs," we may see that one of them is placed behind the other. The term "clean legs" signifies that the limbs are not only sound, but are also free from any fulness, which would more or less obscure the contour of the bones, tendons and ligaments. _Muscles_ are the lean of meat, and their ends are connected to bones by means of _tendons_, which consist of hard, fibrous and inelastic material. The _ligaments_ of the limbs are composed of the same material (white connective tissue) as tendons, and serve to connect bones together, without the intervention of muscle. The horse has practically no muscles below his knees and hocks. [Illustration: Fig. 147.--External parts of horse.] The _suspensory ligament_ is the fibrous cord which lies between the cannon bone and the back tendons. The fact that it stands sharply out between these two structures, when viewed from the side, shows that it is in a sound condition, which is a most important point as regards usefulness; because injury to it, from accident or overwork, is a fruitful cause of lameness, especially in saddle horses that are employed in fast work. The _fore-arm_ (5) is the portion of the fore leg between the knee and the elbow. The _point of the elbow_ (_I_) is the bony projection which is at the top and back of the fore-arm. The _point of the shoulder_ (_H_) is the prominent bony angle which lies a little below the junction of the neck and shoulder, and consists of the outer portion of the upper end of the humerus. The _forehead_ (_A_) is the front part of the head which is above the eyes. The _nose_ (_B_) is a continuation of the forehead, and ends opposite the nostrils (_C_). The _muzzle_ is the lower end of the head, and includes the nostrils, upper and lower lips (_D_ and _E_), and the bones and teeth covered by the lips. The _chin-groove_ (_F_) is the depression at the back of the lower jaw, and just above the fulness of the lower lip, which, in this case, assumes the appearance of a chin. The _angles of the lower jaw_ (_G_) are the bony angles between which the upper end of the wind-pipe lies. The _withers_ (4) are the bony ridge which is the forward end of the back. The _shoulders_ (3) are the bony and muscular portion of the body which is more or less included between a line drawn from the point of the shoulder (_H_) to the front end of the withers, and another line drawn from the point of the elbow (_I_) to the rear end of the withers. Anatomically speaking, the shoulders consist of the _humerus_ (the bone which lies between the elbow and the point of the shoulder), shoulder blade, and the muscles which cover them. The _crest_ (_T_) is the upper part of the neck, extending from the withers to the ears. The _jugular groove_ (_U_) is the groove which is on each side of the neck, just above the wind-pipe. It marks the course of the jugular vein. The _poll_ (_V_) is the part on the top of the neck, immediately behind the ears. The _breast_ is the front portion of the body which we see between the fore legs and below a line connecting the points of both shoulders, when looking at the animal from the front. The chest is the cavity which is covered by the ribs, and which contains the lungs, heart, etc. Therefore, instead of saying that a horse which struck a fence without rising at it, "chested" it, we should, on the contrary, say that he "breasted" it. This confusion between the terms "breast" and "chest" is not unusual. The _brisket_ (16) is the part formed by the breastbone, and is the lower part of the chest. The _girth-place_ is that portion of the brisket which is just behind the fore legs, and which the girths pass under when the horse is saddled. The _back_ (4 and 11) is practically the withers and that portion of the upper part of the body which is covered by the saddle. Strictly speaking, it is that portion of the spine which is possessed of ribs. In common parlance, the term "back" is often applied to the upper part of the horse, from the withers to the highest point of the croup (Fig. 148, _H_). This measurement includes the _loins_ (12) as well as the back. The bones (six vertebræ) of the loins have no ribs, and, consequently, the flanks on each side are soft to the touch, and have a tendency to "fall in" (become depressed), especially if the abdomen, which is underneath them, be insufficiently filled with food. The _croup_ (17) is that part of the spine which is between the loins and tail. The hind legs are connected to the croup by means of the pelvis, which is firmly united to the croup by strong ligaments. The pelvis stands in the same relation to the hind legs as the shoulder blades do to the fore limbs, the chief difference between them being that the pelvis is a single bony structure composed of several bones, and the shoulder blades are separate bones. The front part of the pelvis is called the _point of the hip_ (_S_). The _stifle_ (_N_) is the joint of the hind leg which is at the lower part of the flank. The _thigh_ extends from the stifle to the hip joint. The _hock_ (20) is the large and freely movable joint which is immediately above the hind cannon-bone. The _point of the hock_ (_Q_) is the bony projection at the back and top of the hock. The _hamstring_, or _tendo Achillis_ (_P_), is the tendinous cord which runs up the back of the leg from the point of the hock. The _gaskin_ (19) is the part of the leg immediately above the hock and bounded at the rear by the hamstring. The term, _thigh_, is usually applied to the part of the hind leg above the gaskin; but, correctly speaking, it is the part of the hind leg above the stifle. [Illustration: Fig. 148.--Measurements of horse.] The _belly_, or _abdomen_ (15), is the underneath portion of the body of the horse which is not covered by bone. The _point of the buttock_ (_O_) is the rearmost point of the pelvis. _The dock_ (_R_) is the solid part of the tail. The _height of a horse_ (_A B_, Fig. 148) is the vertical distance of the highest point of his withers from the ground, when he is standing with his fore legs nearly vertical and with the points of his hocks in a vertical line with the points of his buttocks. I have qualified "vertical" by "nearly" when referring to the fore legs; for when the hind legs are placed as in Fig. 147, the weight of the head and neck, which are in front of the fore legs, would cause the animal to stand somewhat "over." When a pony is being measured for polo or racing, his legs should be placed in the position I have described, although his head may be lowered until his crest is parallel with the ground. The _length of the body of a horse_ (_D E_, Fig. 148), may be assumed as the horizontal distance from the front of the chest to a line dropped vertically from the point of the buttock. This measurement is a somewhat arbitrary one, but it is probably the best for the purpose. French writers generally take the length of a horse as the distance from the point of the shoulder to the point of the buttock. As this is not a horizontal measurement, I prefer to it the one just given. The _depth of the chest at the withers_ (_A C_, Fig. 148) is the vertical distance from the top of the withers to the bottom of the chest. This measurement being taken for convenience sake is an arbitrary one, because the chest is lower between the fore legs than behind the elbow, which is the spot I have selected. Besides, the actual height of the withers above the roof of the chest, has no fixed relation to the depth of the chest. _Depth of the body_ (_F G_, Fig. 148). The best and most uniform point to take this is, I think, the lowest point of the back. _Height at the croup_ (_H I_, Fig. 148) is measured from the highest point of the hind quarters. INDEX. Abdomen, 471. Accidents, 5. Across country, riding, 219. Age to begin, 4. Agricultural Hall, 167, 335. Alderson, Colonel, 310. Allen, Mr. John, 33. Angles of lower jaw, 468. Ann of Bohemia, 430. Apron skirts, 96. Arabs, 17, 18, 424. Argentine horses, 457. Ash-plant, 18. Audry, 430. Australia, 269. Australian horses, 457, 460. Ayah, 92. Back, 469. " tendons, 466. Backing, 442. Backs, sore, 350. Badminton, 361. _Baily's Hunting Directory_, 307. _Baily's Magazine_, 358. Baird, Mr. Abingdon, 463. Balance, 148, 149. " strap, 36, 53. "Balking," 440. Banks, 269, 287, 450. Bar, stirrup, 27. Barclay, Mr. Hedworth, 378. Bars of the hoof, 465. " of the tree, 26, 28. " , safety, 38-42. Baskets, 5. Beckford, 315. Beers, Frank, 246. Belly, 471. Belvoir, 14, 306, 335. " Vale, 320. Beresford, Lord William, 384. Berliner Tattersall, 392. Bicycles, 6, 16. Bit, 70. " and Bridoon, 70, 76. ", cover for, 77. Blackmore Vale, 307. Blazers, 270. "Blood," 345. "Blowing their noses," 437. "Bobbery pack," 386. Body, length of, 472. Bois de Boulogne, 16, 392. Bombay, 387. Boots, 116. Boring, 454. Brandy, 350. _Breaking and Riding_, 118. Breaking classes, 166. " tours, 458. Breast, 469. Breast-plate, 54. Breeches, 110. Bridle, adjustment of, 86. Bridles, 70. Bridoon, 75. Brisket, 469. Brooks, 335, 338. Brow-band, 74. Brutality, 414-417. Buck-jumping, 457. Bullfinch, 248. "Bumpy shoulders," 100. Burnaby's Butterfly, Miss, 8, 9. Butter, 362. Butterfly, Miss Burnaby's, 8, 9. Buttock, point of the, 471. Calcutta, 12, 167, 333, 382, 386, 456, 464. Camels, 168. Cannon bone, 466. Canter, the, 200. Cantering, 240. " false, 203. Capping, 307. Carriages, passing, 229. Carrots for horses, 170. Case for extra stirrup, 42. Catherine II., 393. Caton, Mr., 444. Cattle, 248. Ceylon, 108. Cheek pieces, 74. Cheshire, 248, 343, 432. Chest, 469. " , depth of, 472. Chifney, Sam, 165. Children, side-saddles for, 59-66. " , teaching, 59-64. Child's riding dress, 60, 98. China, 108, 388, 462. Chin-groove, 88, 468. Church Minshull, 320. Circus, 169. " in Paris, 182. Clark, Mr., 385. "Clean legs," 466. Cleaning a saddle, 69. Cloister, 287. Cloth, 89, 90. Coat, driving, 109. " , fitting riding, 100. Coats, riding, 100-108. Coffins, jumping, 388. Collars, 124. Colonel, 244. Colour of habit, 90. Coming home, 346. Committee, Farmers', 373. Compensation to farmers, 373. Condition, rider's, 351. "Continuations," 112. Conyers, Mr., 366. Cook, Mrs. "Jim," 384. "Cope and dash," 269. Cottesmore, 14, 250, 395. Country, 248. Covert fund, 307. Covering of a side-saddle, 32. Cows, 368. Cracked heels, 436. Craven, 306. Crawley and Horsham, 306. Creed, Mr., 92, 99. Crest, 469. Cross-saddle riding, 426-430. Croup, 470. " , height at, 473. Crown-piece, 74. Crop, 172. Crupper, 26, 56. Crust of hoof, 465. Crutch, off, 30. " , upper, 29. Crutches, movable, 305. " , riding the, 146. Cub-hunting, 338. Cuffs, 122. Curb-chains, 88. Curbs, 70, 78, 208, 209, 326, 438, 443, 448, 450, 451. Custance, Miss, 349. "Cut-and-laid" fence, 249. "Cut back" pommel, 28. Dairy-farming, 248. Damage fund, 307. "Dancing," 437. Davis, 2, 3. de Vaux, Baron, 464. Depth of chest, 472. " " body, 473. Devon and Somerset Staghounds, 351, 428. Diana, 315. "Difficult" horses, 431-464. Dilke, Lady, 170. Dismounting, 134. Distemper, 398. Dixon, Mr. Scarth, 245. Dock, 472. Docking horses, 21-24. Donkeys, 20, 388. Double bridle, 75, 208. "Dragged," 5, 50, 64-66, 98. Dress, riding, 89-124. East Galway, 269, 270. _Ecuyers et Ecuyères_, 464. Elbow, point of the, 468. "Ellen Terry," 389. Elliot, Mr., 246. Elmhirst, Captain, 10, 305, 311, 314, 331, 336, 341, 345. Emigrant, 458. Emperor Paul, 393. _Encyclopædia Londinensis_, 430. Esa bin Curtis, 21. Essex and Suffolk, 307. _Esther Waters_, 422. External parts, names of, 465-473. Falls, 376-380. Fane, Lady Augusta, 179. Farmers, 248, 249, 357-373, 397. " , Compensation to, 373. " , Committee, 373. " , daughters, 362. Feet, care of the, 436. Fence, riding up to, 241. Fences, 248. " , "made," 219. " , natural, 224. Fenn, Mr., 391. Fetlock, 466. Field, in the, 307. _Field, The_, 306. Fillis, Mr. Frank, 168. " , Mr. James, 118. Firr, Tom, 247, 387. First Lessons, 3. Flask, 323. Fleming, Dr. G., 23, 24. Flirting, 375. Flock, 32. Foot "home," 150. Ford, Mr., 34, 40. Fordham, George, 180. Fore-arm, 468. Forehead, 468. Forehead-band, 74. Foxhounds in India, 387. Foxhunting, 343, 354. France, 16. Franciscan, 378. Freddie, 18, 19, 424. Freeman, 378. "Frivol," 375. Frog of hoof, 465. Front, 74. Frost, praying for, 245. "Funking," 450, 451. Galway, 269, 450. Gallop, 206. Garsault, 430. Garth, Mr., 384. Gaskin, 471. Gates, 248, 287-303, 312, 313. Geldings, 343. Germans, 391. Germany, 16. Girls riding, 4, 5. Girth place, 469. Girths, 51-53. "Give and take," 163. Gloucestershire, 361. Gloves, 120. "Gone away," 326. Gowlasher, 424. Grafton, 246. Grand National, 332. _Graphic, The_, 347. Grip, 148, 149. Gullet plate, 27. Gustave, 3, 183, 331. Habits, 89-110. Habit-shy, 440. Hackamore, 87. Hacking, 227. Hacks, 16-20. Hair, management of, 115, 116. Halt, the, 188. Hames, Mr. Sam, 354. Hamstring, 470. Hancock's bit cover, 77. Handkerchiefs, 323. Hands, 160. " steady, keeping, 163. Harding, Miss, 210, 269. Harrington, Lord, 179. Hat-guards, 114. Hats, 113. " for the tropics, 115. Hayes' safety skirt, 94. Haystacks, 329. "Head," 70, 74. " , near, 30. Head-stall, 70, 74. Heavy land, 367. Heels, 465. Height at croup, 473. " of horse, 472. Henry, Colonel, 358, 361, 372. Hidden Mystery, 332. High School Riding, 181. _Hints to Huntsmen_, 352. Hip, point of the, 470. Hirelings, 452. Hock, 470. Holloaing, 310. Home, coming, 346. Hoof, 465. Hooked-back seat, 151, 154. Hook for stirrup-leather, 38, 39. Horn, the, 352. Hornsby, Mrs., 371. Horse, talking to, 229, 230. Horse-breaking classes, 166. " " tours, 458. Horses for ladies, 8. " , buying, 423. Hospitality, 381. Hot countries, jackets for, 108. _Humerus_, 469. Hunt balls, 365, 366. Hunter, height of, 12. Hunters, Australian, 8. " , Leicestershire, 8-16. Hunting, 395, 399. " abroad, 381. " ties, 122. " whips, 312, 313. " women, 4, 5. _Illustrated Horse-Breaking_, 234, 417. India, 92, 381, 382, 432, 449. " -rubber mouth-piece cover, 77. Ireland, 307, 394, 450. Italian remounts, 390. Jackeroo, Miss Neil's, 11. Jackets for hot countries, 108. Jameson Raid, 391. Japan, 108. Jaw, angles of lower, 468. Jibbing, 440. Jorrocks, 120, 244, 315, 326, 333, 341, 348, 357, 424. Jugular groove, 469. Jumping, 209, 449-454. " competitions, 168, 183. " without reins, 236. Kaiser and Kaiserin, 392. Keeper of whip, 174. Kennel coat, 402. Kent, 249. Kickers, 10, 11, 12, 342-345. Kicking, 455. Kindness to horses, 414. Knee-pad, 99. King-King, Captain, 376. Kirby Gate, 342. _Ladies in the Field_, 383, 393. Laertes, 124. Lash, 173. Leading fore leg, 7. Leaning back, 150, 158. Leaping head, 33-36. Left leg, action of, 149. " , swerving to the, 146. Legs, position of, 3. Leicestershire, 95, 98, 179, 196, 219, 247, 270, 311, 316, 319, 328, 334, 336, 342, 343, 357, 372, 377, 378, 395, 428, 461. Length of body, 472. Level-seated saddle, 55, 56. _Life of a Foxhound_, 400. Ligament, suspensory, 467. Ligaments, 467. Light land, 367. Lions, 168. Little Pedlington, 169. Loins, 470. Loisset, Emilie, 464. Long reins, 233. Lonsdale, Lord, 98, 247. Lord Arthur, 378. Lord Fitzwilliams, 306. Lucknow, 386. Lufra, 183. Macdougal, Captain "Ding," 384. Macklin, Mr., 385, 446, 460. McAndrew, Mr., 387. Magic, 424. Major, 244. Mameluke bit, 390. Manifesto, 287. Marengo, 210. Mares, 343. " , docking, 22, 23. Martingale, running, 82-88. " , standing, 82, 161. "Mary Anderson," 389. Measuring horses, 20. Meerkat holes, 335. Melton cloth, 89-92. " Mowbray, 386, 395, 452. Men riding, 1. " teaching ladies, 2, 4. Meynell, 306. " , Mr., 347. Mexico, 428. Michael Hardy, 328. Midlands, 248. Midland stile, 250. Mills, Mr., 400, 405. Milton, Mr., 386. Modern Riding, 33. Mons Meg, 167. Moore, George, 422. " , Mr. John Hubert, 82, 163. Motee, 388. Mounting, 125-134. Mouth-piece, cover for, 77. Mozufferpore, 387. Mr. Bathurst's, 306. "Mr. Gladstone," 389. "Mrs. Cornwallis West," 389. " " Kendal," 389. " " Langtry," 389. Murray, Mrs., 384. Muscles, 467. Musician, 165. Muzzle, 468. _My Leper Friends_, 62. Near head, 30. Neckties, 124. Neil's, Jackeroo, Miss, 11. Neilgherry cane, 18. Newcastle, Countess of, 430. " , Duchess of, 337, 393. New Zealand, 269. " " horses, 457. "Niggling," 163. _Nineteenth Century_, 23. North Cheshire, 14, 320, 371. " , Lord, 306. Nose, 468. Nose-band, cavesson, 443. Nose-bands, 79, 87. Nostrils, 468. Numdahs, 57-59. Off crutch, 30. Oriental women, 429. Orlov trotters, 425. Oxer, 250. Pace, judging, 374. Paget, Mr. Otho, 246, 247, 308, 309, 315, 325, 395, 396, 399. Panel, 32, 33, 57. Panniers, 5. Paperchasing, 382-386. Paris, 392. Pastern, 466. Pasture land, 368. Pat, 17. Patent leather, 118. Pelhams, 78. Pellier, M., 33. Pelvis, 470. Penrhyn, Lord, 247. _Pirouette renversée_, 303. Pilots, 373. Pith hats, 115. Ploughed land, 327. Points of the tree, 27. Poll, 469. Pollard willows, 338. Pollok, Mr. Arthur, 269. Pommel, 27, 28. Polo, 144, 179. " ponies, 16, 17. Posts and rails, 249. Poultry fund, 307. Prancing, 437. Pretoria, 166. Prestonpans, 244. Pulling, 442-448. Puppies, exercise for, 406. " , feeding, 398, 402. " , judging, 396, 397. " , medicine for, 404. " , punishing, 411. Pytchley, 209, 306, 307, 357. " pups, 399. Quarters, 465. Queen Elizabeth, 430. _Queen, The_, 60, 243. Quorn, 14, 209, 247, 306, 341. " Friday, 113. Rabbit holes, 335. Ranelagh, 183. "Rapier," 428. Rearers and rearing, 333, 462. Red board, 357. " bows, 342-345. " rag, 357, 358. Refusers and refusing, 327, 328, 449-454. Reining back, 214. Reins, 78-82. " , how to hold the, 136. " , jerking the, 419. " , long, 233. " , military way of holding, 142. " , riding without, 233. " , shortening the, 142. Remounts, Italian, 390. Rentz's Circus, 463. Richmond Show, 336. Ridge and Furrow, 319. Riding abroad, 381. _Riding and Hunting_, 51, 57, 70, 124, 136, 180, 208, 447. Riding masters, 155. " without reins, 233. Right leg, action of, 150. " " , position of, 150. Road, rules of the, 227. Roberts, Mr., 246. Romance, 8, 55. Rotten Row, 16, 17, 392, 393. Running away, 231. Russia, 109, 121. Russian cabmen, 424, 425. " horses, 457. Rutland, Duke of, 306, 395. Saddle, cleaning a, 69. " cloths, 57-59. " to fit rider, 56. Saddling a horse, 66-68. Saddles, riding in men's, 426-430. "Safe," 25, 32. Safety bars, 38-42, 231. " skirts, 89-110, 231. " stirrups, 42-51, 64-66. St. Petersburg, 393. Salary, 14, 15. Sample, Professor, 379. Sandwich case, 323. Sanminiatelli, Count, 390. Saunders, Mrs., 384, 335. Scots Grey, 82. "Scrutator," 343, 354, 379. Seats of side-saddles, 32, 55. Seat, the, 145. " , theory of the, 145-156. Second horseman, 323. " horses, 347. Shanghai, 231, 388. Sheep, 368. Shires, 8, 12, 91, 176, 179, 248, 249, 250, 269, 270, 357. Shoulder, point of the, 468. Shouldering, 441. Shoulders, 468. Shying, 229, 432, 433-436. Side-saddle, weight of, 54. Side-saddles, 1, 2, 6, 7, 25-69. Sideways, jumping horses, 378. Singapore, 388. "Sit back," 214. Skirt, accustoming horse to, 18. " , length of, 98. Slipper stirrup, 42. Snaffles, 75, 326, 438, 443, 448, 450. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, 396. _Sola topee_, 115. Sole of the hoof, 465. Soltikov, 393. Sore backs, 7, 68, 324, 350. South Africa, 335, 391. Spinal curvature, 6. _Sporting and Dramatic News_, 428. Spur, 177. " on whip, 182. Square seat, 153-155. _Stable Management and Exercise_, 350. Standing jump, 241. Standing martingale, 439. " "over," 472. Stapleford Park, 250. Staples, 54. Stake-and-bound fence, 249. Starting, 185. "Steady!" 169, 204. "Steadying" horses, 223. Steep ground, 320. _Steiger_, 463. Steinbock, coursing, 391. Stifle, 470. Stirrup bar, 27. " , case for extra, 42. " , leather, 36-38. " " , length of, 156. " , man's, 50. " , position of foot in, 156. " too long, 146. Stirrups, safety, 42-51, 64-66. Stock, 122. Stokes, William, 428. Stone gaps, 269. " walls, 269. Strangers, 327. Stuffing of saddle, 32, 33. Stumbling, 436. Subscriptions, hunt, 306. Suffolk Punch, 387. Suez, 388. Surtees, 330. Suspensory ligament, 467. Swimming, 462. Syces, 424. Tailors, 89, 102-105. Talking to horses, 229, 230. Tan, 437. Tannoform, 351. Tautz, Mr., 94, 110. Tendo Achillis, 470. Tendons, 467. Terai hat, 115. Terence, 384. Tientsin, 388, 462. Tiergarten, 16, 392, 429. Tips, 352. Tit-bits for horses, 170. Thanks, 352. _The Young Lady's Equestrian Manual_, 305 _The Wanton Mutilation of Animals_, 23. Thigh, 470, 471. Third crutch, 305. " pommel, 305. Thompson, Mr. Anstruther, 352. Thong, 173. Throat-latch, 74, 88. Thrush, 436, 437, 466. _Thoughts on Hunting_, 315. Throwing up the head, 438. Toe, 465. "Tougal," Mr., 385. Tree, points of the, 27, 29. " , saddle, 25, 26-31. Trot, rising at the, 190-194. " , the, 189-200, 239. Turner, Captain, 384. Turning, 187. Tushes, 86. Tweedie, Mrs., 428. Twitches, 416, 417. Under-bodice, 122. Under-clothing, 112. Upper crutch, 29. Vale of White Horse, 307. Vehicles, passing, 229. Venus de Medici, 21. _Veterinary Notes for Horse-owners_, 22, 347, 350, 436. Vizianagram, 381. Voice, 165, 204, 229. Voltaire, 24. Walers, 21. Walk, the, 185, 239. Walker, Colonel, 424. Walking puppies, 394-413. Wall of hoof, 465. _Wanton Mutilation of Animals, The_, 23. Ward, Mr. Frank, 175. Ward's Riding School, 59, 60, 167, 331. Warwickshire Hunt, 306, 307. Washing horses' feet, 436. " puppies, 402. Watches, 323. Watering horses, 417, 418. Webs, 28. Weight of side-saddle, 54. Whip, hunting, 172. Whips, 334. Whissendine, 250. Whiskey, 350. "Whoa!" 170. Whyte Melville, 180, 181, 209, 310, 314, 315, 376, 420. Wilberforce, Archbishop, 376. Willows, pollard, 338. Wintle, Mr., 231. Wire, 250, 357-373. " fund, 307. Withers, 468. Women riding, 1. Woodland country, 338. Wroughton, Mr., 361. Yelvertoft Church, 270. Young horses, 15, 16, 166, 433, 434, 435, 443. Zebra, riding a, 62, 456. List of Books on Horses By CAPTAIN M. HORACE HAYES, F.R.C.V.S. _The Field._--"As trainer, owner and rider of horses on the flat and over a country, the author has had a wide experience, and when to this is added competent veterinary knowledge, it is clear that CAPTAIN HAYES is entitled to attention when he speaks." PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. HURST & BLACKETT, LTD. 13, Great Marlborough Street, W. BOOKS ON HORSES. =VETERINARY NOTES for HORSE-OWNERS.= An Illustrated Manual of Horse Medicine and Surgery, written in simple language, with 267 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. Revised throughout, considerably enlarged, and 121 new and original Photographs added. Large crown 8vo, buckram, 15s. net. "A necessary guide for horse-owners, especially those who are far removed from immediate professional assistance."--_The Times._ "Of the many popular veterinary books which have come under our notice, this is certainly one of the most scientific and reliable."--_The Field._ "This book leaves nothing to be desired on the score of lucidity and comprehensiveness."--_Veterinary Journal._ "It is superfluous to commend a book that is an established success, and that has gone on from edition to edition extending its usefulness."--_Army and Navy Gazette._ =POINTS OF THE HORSE.= A Familiar Treatise on Equine Conformation. Third Edition in the Press. "Capt. Horace Hayes, the best of writers upon horses, has issued a second edition--considerably altered and enlarged, and magnificently illustrated--of his admirable work upon the 'Points of the Horse,' which is, in fact, a complete work on horses, their races and peculiarities."--_Athenæum._ "The intrinsic value of the book and the high professional reputation of the author should ensure this new edition a cordial welcome from sportsmen and all lovers of the horse."--_The Times._ =RIDING AND HUNTING.= Fully Illustrated with upwards of 250 Reproductions of Photographs and Drawings. In 1 vol., demy 8vo, cloth. Price 16s. net. "Capt. Hayes has produced a book which cannot fail to interest, if not to instruct the experienced horseman, and the beginner may learn from its pages practically all that it is necessary for him to know."--_The World._ "We can imagine no more suitable present for one who is learning to ride than this book."--_Pall Hall Gazette._ "He is no doubt the greatest authority, both on horses and horsemanship, now living in this country. Everything which he writes is lucidly expressed, and no detail is too trivial to be explained."--_The Spectator._ =THE HORSEWOMAN.= A Practical Guide to Side-Saddle Riding. By MRS. HAYES. Edited by CAPT. M. H. HAYES. Second Edition, re-written, enlarged, and with about 150 new and original Photographic Illustrations added. 1 vol., demy 8vo. 12s. net. "This is the first occasion on which a practical horseman and a practical horsewoman have collaborated in bringing out a book on riding for ladies. The result is in every way satisfactory, and, no matter how well a lady may ride, she will gain much valuable information from a perusal of 'The Horsewoman.'"--_Field._ "A large amount of sound, practical instruction, very judiciously and pleasantly imparted."--_The Times._ "We have seldom come across a brighter book than 'The Horsewoman.'"--_The Athenæum._ "With a very strong recommendation of this book as far and away the best guide to side-saddle riding we have seen."--_Saturday Review._ =STABLE MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE.= A Book for Horse-Owners and Students. Illustrated by numerous Reproductions of Photographs taken specially for this work. In 1 vol., demy 8vo. Price 12s. net. "Capt. Hayes, who may justly claim to be the first authority now living on all matters connected with the horse, is always welcome, and the more so because each successive volume is a monument of 'the reason why.'"--_The County Gentleman._ "Eminently practical."--_The Field._ "The work of an exceptionally competent authority, who thoroughly understands his subject, and is able to make the results of his practical knowledge clear to readers."--_Badminton Magazine._ =ILLUSTRATED HORSEBREAKING.= Second and Cheaper Edition. Large crown 8vo. Price 12s. net. _This Edition has been entirely rewritten, the amount of the letterpress more than doubled, and 75 reproductions of Photographs have been added._ "It is a characteristic of all Captain Hayes' books on horses that they are eminently practical, and the present one is no exception to the rule. A work which is entitled to high praise as being far and away the best reasoned-out one on breaking under a new system we have seen."--_The Field._ "The work is eminently practical and reliable."--_Veterinary Journal._ =HORSES ON BOARD SHIP.= A Guide to their Management. By M. H. HAYES. In 1 vol., crown 8vo, with numerous Illustrations from Photographs taken by the Author during two voyages to South Africa with horses. Price 3s. 6d. net. "The book altogether is like the rest of Captain Hayes' works, written on sound, practical lines, and is all the more welcome in that it deals with a subject on which we have yet a great deal to learn."--_The Field._ "As he has had two voyages to South Africa in charge of large consignments, his experience is eminently practical, and his book contains much valuable information, and ought to enable the War Office to avoid in the future some of the errors of the past."--_Morning Post._ "We are sure that the book will be found useful and instructive to those who are new to the work of conveying either large or small numbers of horses across the seas."--_County Gentleman._ =TRAINING AND HORSE MANAGEMENT IN INDIA.= Fifth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. "We entertain a very high opinion of Capt. Hayes' book on 'Horse Training and Management in India,' and are of opinion that no better guide could be placed in the hands of either amateur horseman or veterinary surgeon newly arrived in that important division of our Empire."--_Veterinary Journal._ =INFECTIVE DISEASES OF ANIMALS.= Being Part I. of the Translation of Friedberger and Froehner's Pathology of the Domestic Animals. Translated and Edited by the Author. With a Chapter on Bacteriology by Dr. G. NEWMAN, D.P.H. Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d. net. "Whether considered as a work of reference for busy practitioners, as a text-book for students, or as a treatise on pathology in its widest significance, this volume meets every requirement, and is an invaluable addition to our literature."--_Veterinary Record._ =AMONG HORSES IN RUSSIA.= With 53 Illustrations from Photographs taken chiefly by the Author. In 1 vol., large crown 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. "The book is exceedingly well written and illustrated."--_Graphic._ "The author has made an exceedingly entertaining book of his experiences."--_Baily's Magazine._ =AMONG HORSES IN SOUTH AFRICA.= In 1 vol., crown 8vo. Price 5s. "Capt. Hayes' book is genuinely interesting, and fully repays reading."--_Black and White._ "The book is very readable."--_Spectator._ "The book is written in a pleasant, chatty style, and with a broad mind."--_Sportsman._ =MODERN POLO.= By Captain E. D. MILLER, late 17th Lancers. Edited by Captain M. H. HAYES. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. In one vol., demy 8vo., with numerous Illustrations from Photographs and Drawings. Price 16s. net. "Both in the matter of polo-playing and in that of choosing or breeding polo ponies, the volume is a certain authority."--_The Times._ "'Modern Polo,' written by E. D. Miller and edited by Capt M. H. Hayes, will assuredly become the authoritative work concerning the game, which is rapidly growing in favour in this country. It is clear and bright in style, and it is provided with numerous illustrations from photographs."--_Black and White._ "Mr. Miller's is by no means the only work upon the Game of Polo, but it is, at least, the most complete and comprehensive work upon the subject that has yet been issued. It has had the benefit, too, of the editorship of Capt. M. H. Hayes, one of the best authorities of the day in regard to all matters connected with horsemanship. To Capt. Hayes are also due the excellent photographs by which the book is illustrated, showing almost every turn and stroke in a rather complicated game."--_Graphic._ LONDON: HURST AND BLACKETT, LIMITED. Transcriber's Note The following typographical errors have been corrected: xiii 68 Ready changed to 68. Ready xiii 75 Holding changed to 75. Holding xiii in Fig 77 changed to in Fig. 77 19 Arab pony, Freddie changed to Arab pony, Freddie. 48 Fig. 25. Cope's changed to Fig. 25.--Cope's 62 wanderers home changed to wanderers home. 102 _Photo by_ changed to _Photo. by_ 125 DISMOUNTING, changed to DISMOUNTING. 137 on both sides changed to on both sides. 174 in Fig 87 changed to in Fig. 87 195 a-well executed changed to a well-executed 250 106.--A cut and-laid changed to 106.--A cut-and-laid 273 in Fig 115 changed to in Fig. 115 478 342-245 changed to 342-345 479 Moore, George, 422 changed to Moore, George, 422. 479 Ninteenth changed to Nineteenth Ads p. 3 MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE changed to MANAGEMENT AND EXERCISE. Ads p. 3 =MANAGEMENT IN= INDIA changed to =MANAGEMENT IN INDIA= Ads p. 4 _Sportsman_ changed to _Sportsman._ The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated: Breast-plate / Breastplate buck-jumpers / buckjumpers cavesson / cavasson cheek pieces / cheek-pieces / cheekpieces cross-saddle / cross saddle cross-country / 'cross-country / cross country / 'cross country cub-hunting / cub hunting fore-hand / forehand fore-leg / foreleg / fore leg Fox-hunting / Foxhunting hair-pins / hairpins head-stall / headstall Hooked-back / Hooked back Illustrated Horse-Breaking / Illustrated Horse Breaking / Illustrated Horsebreaking mouth-piece / mouthpiece nose-band / noseband now-a-days / nowadays paper-chase / paperchase race-course / racecourse race-horses / race-horses re-written / rewritten safety-bar / safety bar sheep-dogs / sheepdogs side-saddle / side saddle side-saddles / side saddles steeple-chase / steeplechase steeple-chasing / steeplechasing stirrup-bar / stirrup bar Thorough-bred / Thoroughbred Under-clothing / Underclothing Whyte-Melville / Whyte Melville 
36701	----	Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of corrections is found at the end of the text. Oe ligatures have been expanded. [Illustration] [Illustration: Graceful Riding A POCKET MANUAL For Equestrians, BY S.C. Waite Esq^{RE} LONDON ROBERT HARDWICKE 192 PICCADILLY AND ALL BOOKSELLERS.] GRACEFUL RIDING. A POCKET MANUAL FOR EQUESTRIANS. ABRIDGED AND REVISED FROM "WAITE'S EQUESTRIAN'S MANUAL," DEDICATED TO H.R.H. PRINCE ALBERT. BY S. C. WAITE, ESQ. LONDON: ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY: AND ALL BOOKSELLERS. 1859. PREFACE. The Author's last publication, "The Equestrian's Manual," having met with so kind a reception from the Press and the Public--one which he looks upon with the greatest gratitude--has induced him to compile for the use of Equestrians of both sexes the present little Work, in the sincere hope that his humble efforts may, in some degree, aid in obviating the many severe and often fatal accidents, the result, in most instances, of inexperience in Horsemanship. Should he have attained this end, and given some instruction to the nervous and timid, or any to the experienced equestrian, he will feel himself well repaid. INTRODUCTION. The science of Equitation has for many years been allowed, by the testimony and strong recommendation of the most eminent of the faculty, to be an accomplishment highly conducive and most beneficial to health; assisting the blood in its proper circulation through the frame, on which depends wholly good spirits, and freedom from bilious, hypochondriacal, and nervous affections. Parents should not neglect to have imparted to their children an art so calculated for the development of grace and beauty in maturity, and, above all other considerations, _one_ that so eminently guards against the many diseases of this varying climate; diseases which are, in fact, almost, if we may use the term, "indigenous" to the spring and summer of life. Physicians, of the past and present time, whose mere names should be sufficient to procure every patronage, are in favour of the acquirement of this most essential and elegant science. The skill necessary to become a perfect rider, can only be obtained through the tuition of a first-rate master; and, as far as the accomplishment can be explained within the limits of a book, the Author has endeavoured to do so; but he repeats there is much which cannot be written, and is only to be acquired through personal tuition. Lessons in the school _alone_ can seldom make a good rider. In it the horse and the pupil become accustomed to the same monotonous routine day after day; but when they emerge on the road it is found that the expert rider of the _school_ is deficient in tact and skill; and, in fact, has learnt but little. The nature of the animal will occasion this; changing the scene of every-day objects in the school, for the great variety he must meet on the road, gives an impetus to his hitherto dormant spirit; then the rider will find that he must exert all the skill and judgment he possesses to keep his horse under the proper control indispensable to his safe guidance. In conclusion, should this work contribute to the enlightenment of ladies and gentlemen desirous of becoming _finished equestrians_, it will have accomplished the end for which it was undertaken. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE I. The first figure represents WAITE'S IMPROVED SEAT. The position is on the same system as the Cavalry, but being more _négligé_ in appearance, and much less constrained in feeling, although equally correct, imparts a more elegant and graceful seat to the rider. HEAVY DRAGOON. HUSSAR. PLATE II. RACING. HUNTING. PARK. PLATE III. The first figure represents the GENERAL SEAT of Ladies on their saddles. The second shows the position of a Lady when mounted according to Mr. WAITE'S METHOD of tuition; by it a firm seat is gained on the saddle, and consequently it is more secure than the usual seat; being also more graceful and elegant in appearance, and giving the rider a superior command over her horse, and obviating the danger of the habit-skirt becoming entangled in the horse's legs. PART I. [Illustration] CHARACTER AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE, WITH DIRECTIONS FOR RIDING. A knowledge of the general character and disposition of the horse is really and absolutely necessary to his skilful management, from his extremely nervous sensibility, his aptness to take the various impressions of fear, affection, or dislike, to any of which he is naturally very quickly disposed. "Reas'ning at ev'ry step he treads, Man yet mistakes his way; While meaner things by instinct led Are rarely known to stray." Speaking in soothing terms to a horse, so that he may become familiar to the voice, gives him confidence in his rider, which is of the _utmost importance_. At all times more is to be accomplished with the animal by gentle means than could possibly be done by harsh ones: kindness, or its opposite, is speedily conveyed to and retained in his memory, which is remarkably retentive. This mutual confidence is perfectly appreciated by the Arabs. They invariably treat their horses with the greatest kindness and affection; they are the Bedouins' beloved and stanch companions, and on them is the Arabs' sole reliance in their predatory excursions; they inhabit the same tent, and the neck of the horse is not unfrequently the pillow of the Arab and his family; yet no accident ever occurs; the kindness with which he is treated gives him an affection for his master, a desire to please, and a pride in exerting every energy in obedience to his command. Bad habits are speedily acquired by the horse, and when once learned, are very difficult to break him of. _In nine cases out of ten they arise_ from the _stupidity, joined to the brutality_, of an _idle, drunken, ill-tempered_ groom; _who, when out of temper, invariably vents his rage_ upon the unoffending animal, which, at last, to protect (or revenge) itself from the besotted tormentor, acquires a habit of kicking and biting at every person and thing coming within its reach, fearing that they are about to maltreat it. Many horses are condemned as _vicious_, and actually are rendered so through _timidity_ on the part of the _rider_. The animal may be playful from rest, or a lively temper by nature; the rider, _whose judgment_ may not enable him to _discriminate_ between playfulness, nervousness, or vice, becomes alarmed, and, consequently, loses his self-command; and, perhaps, not having learned the _correct mode of using_ his _hands and reins_, in his _boisterous endeavours_ to _save himself from falling_, imparts fear to his horse. The animal naturally imagines he has been guilty of some great fault, and is _fearful of punishment_; and should he _not be familiar with the voice of his rider_, then a mutual struggle for safety takes place, and causes an accident. The horse is _then_ condemned as "_vicious_," though the rider was _alone_ in fault. The _same horse_, in the hands of an _experienced_ horseman, would become as QUIET as ever. We often find that really dangerous horses have been reclaimed by ladies riding them! This is entirely owing to their using them _gently_, but firmly, and speaking to them kindly; by these means confidence is imparted, and makes them "All that a horse should be, which nought did lack Save a good rider on so proud a back." A few minutes' riding will be sufficient to discover the nature and temper of a horse, likewise what system of treatment has been pursued towards him (which, in consequence, must be still followed). There are very many persons who are considered good horsemen, who have no fear, and will ride anything, or _at_ anything, yet have no idea, beyond the mere fact of riding, whether the saddle, bridle, and accoutrements are properly placed. The neglect of attending to these matters has caused many serious accidents. The _method_ of gracefully _holding_ and _using_ the _reins_ is _very important_, although but _little understood_ or _attended_ to; in fact, it seems but _a secondary_ consideration with Riding-masters, where it should be a SINE QUA NON. One person may pull at a runaway horse with all his strength, but to no purpose; another possessing that knowledge shall be able to manage, and hold him with a pack-thread. * * * * * RUNAWAY HORSES are most frequently made so by bad and timid riders, who make use of a whip and spurs without having a _firm seat_. Such persons are easily unseated on the horse shying, or jumping about in a playful mood; then, in their endeavours to recover themselves, they slacken their reins, and at the same time unintentionally goad him with their spurs, or strike him with their whip. In clutching at the reins, the horse becoming frightened, naturally increases his speed, until, from the continued irritation of whip and spur, in the terrified horseman's futile attempts to subdue him, the horse becomes maddened with terror and excitement, and ultimately throws his rider. * * * * * SHYING is often the result of skittishness or affectation at first. This may be easily overcome and cured, at its commencement, by the judicious treatment of the rider, in using firmness tempered with kindness; avoiding all harsh measures, and passing the horse several times quietly by the object which caused him to shy. A word, half-scolding, half-encouraging, with a gentle pressure of the heel, or a slight touch of the spur or whip, will convince him there is nothing to fear; and, further, will give the animal _confidence_ in his rider on future occasions. * * * * * KICKING is a dangerous vice, and generally the result of an idle groom or stable-boy playing with the horse, and pinching him on the loins; so that, should any extraneous substance be in the padding of the saddle, or the flaps of a coat touch him there, or even a hand be thoughtlessly laid on his quarters, he immediately commences kicking to dislodge the cause. Once succeeding, he has invariably recourse to the same remedy, until the habit becomes confirmed. There are many valuable horses ruined by thoughtlessness and folly.--This is more frequently the case with animals of high courage. In many instances, a _very trivial_ alteration in the adjustment of the saddle or bridle, &c. (had the rider been properly instructed, and therefore possessing the knowledge how such alterations should be made), would have saved great danger and annoyance to the rider, and _unnecessary_ pain to the horse. * * * * * WHEN A HORSE IS KICKING, the rider should throw his body _well back_, raise the horse's head, and apply the whip smartly over his shoulders. Rearing is very dangerous, and most difficult to break. It is often caused by the bit being too sharp for the horse, his mouth being tender, or perhaps sore. _When rearing_, the whole weight of horse and rider being thrown perpendicularly on the animal's hind legs, the _most trifling_ check from the rider's hand would cause him to fall backwards; the rider must drop his hand as before, loosen the reins, and throw his whole weight on his shoulders, at the same time catching him 'round the neck with his right hand. These directions will much assist in bringing him down on his feet again, and prevent the rider's body from falling backwards. Unsteadiness in mounting is very often the consequence of the horse's eagerness and anxiety to start. It is generally the fault with thorough-bred, high-couraged, young and nervous horses. It is a most annoying fault, especially with elderly and timid riders, many of whom are frequently thrown before they can firmly seat themselves. This is only to be cured by an active and good horseman, combined with firm, though gentle and kind, usage; by approaching him gently and patting him, mounting at the _first_ effort, and when seated, restraining him, patting his neck, and speaking kindly to him, but, at the same time, not allowing him to move until he is perfectly quiet. In a few days he will be quite cured of his fault. Remember! _harshness must never be used_ in this case, as great mischief may be done by such a course, and the habit _will be confirmed_. KINDNESS will succeed generally in most cases of vice; HARSHNESS _never will_ in any! The position of the saddle should be in accordance with the formation of the horse's shoulders, and about a hand's breadth from them, so as not in any way to interfere with or impede the _free action_ of the muscles. The malposition of the saddle, particularly in horses with upright shoulders, is the cause of many horses falling, from its pressing too much on the shoulders, and by that means confining the action of the muscles, which thus become benumbed, and lose their elasticity. A partial deadening of the limbs having taken place, the horse, from want of vitality in the legs, stumbles, and is unable, through the torpidity of the muscles, to recover himself, and falls to the ground; in many cases he has been known to fall as if shot. The saddle should be wide, and roomy. The length of the stirrups should be such as to give ease to both horse and rider; the latter ought at all times to assimilate his movements in the saddle to those of the horse in his stride. A tight rein should always be avoided, because, if he carries his head low, it tends to deaden his mouth, and teaches him the bad habit of depending upon the bridle for support; in which case, he always goes heavily in hand, and on his shoulders. The horse should at all times be taught to go on his haunches. If the horse naturally carries his head well, it is better to ride him with a light hand, only just feeling his mouth. "With neck like a rainbow, erecting his crest, Pamper'd, prancing, and pleased, his head touching his breast; Scarcely snuffing the air, he's so proud and elate, The high-mettled racer first starts for the plate." OLD SONG. ON PROPERLY FIXING THE BRIDLE, SADDLE, &c. THE BRIDLE. In fitting the bridle, THE CURB BIT should be placed so that the mouth-piece be but one inch above the lower tusk,--in mares, two inches above the corner tooth; THE BRIDOON touching the corner of the lips, so as to fit easy, without wrinkling them; THE HEADSTALL parallel to the projecting cheek-bone, and behind it; THE THROAT LASH should be sufficiently long to fall just below the cheek-bone, and not lay over or upon it; THE NOSE BAND should be placed low--but that must depend very much on the size of the horse's mouth--and not buckled tight; THE CURB, when properly fitted, should be flat and smooth in the hollow of the lips, so as to admit one finger easily between. THE SADDLE should be placed in the middle of the horse's back, about a hand's breadth, or four or five inches, from the shoulders, so as to give perfect freedom to the action of the muscles of the shoulders. THE GIRTHS must be laid evenly one over the other, and admit freedom for one finger between the girth and the horse's belly. THE SURCINGLE should fit neatly over the girths, and not be buckled tighter than they are. The large ring of THE BREASTPLATE or MARTINGALE should be placed about two inches above the sharp breast-bone, and should allow of the hand being laid flat between it and the shoulders. THE STIRRUPS. In length they should be so that the bottom edge of the bar is about three inches above the heel of the boot. The author always adopts the following method for ascertaining the correct length of the stirrups, viz.:--He takes up the stirrup-iron with the right hand, at the same time placing the bottom of the stirrup-iron under the left arm-pit, he extends the _left_ arm until the fingers of _that_ hand _easily touch_ the stirrup _buckles_; _this_ is a _sure criterion_ with most people. ON MOUNTING. In mounting, the horse should always be approached quietly on the near (or left) side, and the reins taken up steadily. THE SNAFFLE (or bridoon) rein first, then pass this rein along the palm of the left hand, between the forefinger and thumb. THE CURB REIN must now be drawn over the little finger, and both reins being held of an equal length, and having an even pressure on the horse's mouth, must be laid over each other, being held firmly in the hand, the thumb pressing hard upon them to prevent them slipping through the fingers. Be particular that the reins are not taken up too short, for fear it might cause the horse to rear or run back; _they must be held neither too tight nor too slack_, _but having an equal feeling of the horse's mouth_. Next take up a handful of the mane with the right hand, bring it through the full of the left hand (otherwise the palm), and twist it round the thumb. Take hold of the stirrup with the right hand, the thumb in front. Place the left foot in the stirrup as far as the ball of it, placing the right hand on the cantle (or back part of the saddle), and, by a spring of the right foot from the instep, the rider should raise himself up in the stirrup, then move the hand from the cantle to the pummel, to support the body while the right leg passes clearly over the horse's quarters; the rider's right knee closes on the saddle and the body falls gently into it. The left hand now quits the mane, and the second stirrup must be taken without the help of eye or hand. The left hand (the bridle hand) must be placed with the wrist rounded outwards, opposite the centre of the body, and about three inches from it, letting the right arm drop unconstrained by the side of the thigh. POSITION IN THE SADDLE. The rider must sit upright, and equally balanced in the middle of his saddle, head erect, and his shoulders well thrown back, his chest advanced, the small of his back bent forward, but without stiffness. The hollow part of the arm should hang down straight from the shoulder, the lower part square to the upper, the thighs well stretched down, the _flat part_ to the saddle, so that the fore part of the knees may press and grasp it. Let the legs hang down easily and naturally, close to the horse's sides, with the feet parallel to the same, and the heels well depressed; the toes raised from the instep, and as near the horse's sides as the heels; the feet retained in the stirrups by an easy play of the ankle and stirrup, the stirrup to be kept under the ball of the foot, the joint of the wrist kept easy and pliable, so as to give and take as occasion may require. _A firm and well-balanced position on horseback is of the utmost importance_, it affects the horse in every motion, and failure in this proves one of his greatest impediments, and will naturally injure him in all his movements. In riding, the hands and legs should act in correspondence in everything, the latter being always held subservient to the former. It is easy to discover those who have been thoroughly instructed in the _manége_, by their firm, graceful, and uniform position in the saddle, and their ready and skilful application of the aids or motions, and the correct appliance of the bridle, hands, and legs; such being _indispensable_ to the skilful guidance and control of the horse. PART II. ON THE REINS, &c. The author most particularly wishes to impress upon his readers the value of riding with DOUBLE REINS for safety sake, and in order to avoid the numerous accidents arising from reins breaking, the tongues of buckles giving way, and the sewing of the reins to their bits coming undone. When there is but _one rein_, the rider is left quite at the mercy of an affrighted and infuriated animal; where, had there been TWO, he would still have sufficient command over the animal to prevent accidents. There is another equally urgent reason for riding with double reins, viz., the continual use of the curb materially tends to deaden the sensitiveness of the horse's mouth; from the constant and unavoidable drag upon the single rein, especially if tender-mouthed, he is made uneasy and fidgetty, causing him to throw his head about, and go extremely heavy in hand, and frequently rear or run back, to the very great danger and annoyance of his rider, particularly when happening in a crowded drive. It is very requisite to ride a horse occasionally _well up to the curb bit_, and to _keep him well up to it_ with the whip and heel, so that he may get used to _work on his haunches_. By this means he will be thrown upon them, and, consequently, "go light in hand," the greater weight being taken from off his forehand, by which his carriage and general appearance is materially improved. After many essays, the author has found the following method to be the _most correct and_ SAFE for holding the reins, when using _one_ or _both_ hands. By it the rider has a much firmer hold--or, in professional parlance, "purchase"--upon the reins, in keeping them from slipping, consequently, a greater command over the horse, and can more readily allow either rein to slip should he desire to use but one. FOR HOLDING THE REINS IN ONE HAND. The reins should hang _untwisted_ from the bits. The rider must take up the bridoon reins with his right hand, and pass the second and third fingers of the bridle, or left, hand between them, draw up the reins with the right hand, until the horse's mouth can be felt, and then pass them between the forefinger and thumb. Next take up the _curb reins_ (again with the right hand), and pass the little finger of the bridle hand between them, draw them up, as before directed, with the right hand, until the rider perceives there is an equal length and feeling with the _bridoon_ reins. The _latter_ having _rather_ the strongest pressure on the animal's mouth. This done, _lay them also over_ between the forefinger and thumb, and press down the thumb firmly upon them to keep them from slipping; the hand to be held with the wrist rounded outwards, opposite the centre of the body, and about four inches from it. _The right arm_ should hang without restraint, and _slightly_ bent, by the thigh, the whip being held about twelve inches from its head, with the point turned _upwards_. USING BOTH HANDS. Take the bridoon reins between the second and third, and the curb reins between the third and fourth, fingers of each hand, each rein having an equal bearing on the horse's mouth; the hands are to be held about six inches apart, with the wrists rounded outwards, and the thumbs pressing firmly upon the reins, the elbows well down, and held near to the sides, the whip held as directed above. RIDING ON ONE REIN. Take up THAT particular rein with the right hand, and pass the second and third fingers of the bridle hand between them, then draw up the reins, but be careful, in doing so, not to hold the horse too tight in hand; the OTHER rein should hang down, having the little finger passed between them, and the thumb also over them, so that they may be caught hold of, and drawn up quickly on any sudden emergency; the loose reins are to hang between those in use. THE WHIP. The whip being a requisite aid in the management and guidance of the horse, should be used as an instrument of correction, and by no means to be _played_ with, nor _flourished about_. When using the whip for punishment, _scold_ at the same time; by this means, with a cross word will be associated the idea of chastisement. However, far more can be achieved by kindness than by any harsh measure; but when such instances occur that it is _absolutely necessary_, never hesitate to _punish well_, so that the animal may thoroughly understand that it is _punishment_ that is meant for his fault--_not play_. "A man of kindness to his beast is kind, But brutal actions show a brutal mind: Remember He who made thee, made the brute, Who gave thee speech and reason, form'd him mute; He can't complain, but God's omniscient eye Beholds thy cruelty. He hears his cry. He was designed thy servant--not thy drudge; But know, that his Creator is thy Judge." Colt-breaking by the Guachos is performed in the same mode as the Kalmucks, with the lasso; the idea of being thrown, let a horse do what he pleases, never occurs to a Guacho. According to them, a "good rider" is a man who can manage an untamed colt, and one, if his horse should fall, could alight unhurt upon his feet. At the moment of a horse falling backwards they can slip quietly off, and, on the instant of his rising, jump on him again. They never seem to exert muscular force, and appear to ride very loosely, as if every moment they must fall off: yet should his horse be suddenly frightened, the Guacho will start, and take, simultaneously, fright with the horse. There is nothing done on foot by the Guachos that cannot be done on horseback; even _mounted_ beggars are to be seen in the streets of Buenos Ayres and Mendoza. It is not, therefore, surprising that, with such multitudes of horses, that the people should all be riders, and excel all other nations in their expertness and boldness in their management. The Pampas and Prairie Indians, whose forefathers fled from the Spanish horsemen, as if they were fatal apparitions, now seem to be part and parcel of the horse. They affirm the proudest attitude of the human figure is when a man bending over his horse, lance in hand, is riding _at_ his enemy. The Guachos, who ride so beautifully, declare it is utterly impossible to vie with mounted Indians; they have such a way of urging on their horses by cries, and a peculiar motion of their bodies; even were they to change horses, the Indians would beat them. The Turks prefer the Turkman horse to the pure-blooded, slender Arabian. In fact, from their trying mode of riding, the fine limbs of the Arab could not stand the shock upon them, their favourite manoeuvre being to make a dead stop when galloping at full speed. To accomplish this feat, they use a very severe bit, which, of course, destroys the _sensibility_ of their horses' mouths; while, on the contrary, the Arabs use only a plain snaffle, which preserves all the sensitiveness of the animals' mouths. The Toorkman, or Turkman horses.--These are much esteemed by the Persians. They are large and swift, and possess extraordinary powers of endurance, though they are exceedingly awkward in appearance. Turkistan is their native region, which lies north-east of the Caspian Sea; but their tribes are widely dispersed over Persia, Asia Minor, and Syria. The Persians are great admirers of horsemanship, and a bad rider affords them infinite amusement. "An officer of an English frigate having gone ashore to visit the envoy, and being mounted on a very spirited horse, and a very bad rider, caused great entertainment to the Persian populace. The next day the man who supplied the ship with vegetables, and spoke a little English, said to the officer, 'Don't be ashamed, sir, nobody knows you--bad rider! I tell them you, like all English, ride well, but that time they see you very drunk!' We were much amused at this conception of our national character. The Persian thought it would have been _a reproach for a man of a warlike nation not to ride well_, but none for a European to get drunk."[33-*] [33-*] _Vide_ "The Horse and his Rider." The Syrian horses are reared with the utmost tenderness and care; they are fondled and played with like children. The Syrian horse is equally good on mountainous, or stony ground, as on the plain; he is indefatigable, and full of spirit. The Timarli ride horses of the Syrian breed, mostly from their possessing these inestimable qualifications. The Neapolitan horse.--This horse is small, but compact and strong; the head rather large; the neck short, and bull-shaped: the prototype of the horses represented on the bassi-relievi of ancient Roman sculpture. He is capable of living on hard fare, and undergoing great fatigue. He is frequently vicious and headstrong; this is chiefly owing to his harsh treatment; though very high-spirited, he would, with gentle usage, become extremely docile and good tempered. The districts of Apulia, Abruzzi, and parts of Calabria furnish this excellent animal. The Neapolitans have taken extreme pains in the breeding of their horses; they make great display of them in their streets during the Carnival, and through Lent. The aristocratic families have excellent studs of great spirit and beauty. PART III. ON THE PACES OF THE HORSE. THE WALK. Of all the paces, the walk is the easiest to the rider, _provided_ he sits in the centre of his horse's back, as it consists of an alternate depression of the fore and hind quarters. The motion may be compared to the vibration of the beam of a pair of scales. The walk should be light, firm, and quick; the knee must be moderately bent, the leg should appear suspended in the air for an instant, and the foot fall perfectly flat to the ground. It is very difficult to confine young and mettlesome horses to a walk; great good temper, with a firm light hand, are requisite to accomplish this. When such horses change to a trot they should be _stopped for a minute_ or two, and _then_ allowed to proceed again. If the animal carries his head well, ride him with a moderately loose rein, raising the hand when he tries to break into a trot. THE TROT. The trot is allowed, by professionals, to be the only just basis upon which equestrians can ever attain a secure and graceful seat, combined with confidence and firmness. The rider has more control over the motions of his body in this pace than any other: in this the body is well brought down into the saddle by its own weight, and finds its true equilibrium. When the rider wishes to make his horse trot, let him ease his reins and press the calves of his legs gently; when his horse is at a trot, let him feel both his reins, raise his horse's forehand, and keep his haunches well under him. THE CANTER. The rider must have a light and firm feeling of both reins to raise his horse's forehand; at the same time, with a pressure of both calves, to bring the animal's quarters well under him, having a double feeling of the inward rein, and a strong pressure of the outward leg, to cause him to strike off in unison. At all times the horse should be taught to lead off with EITHER fore leg; by doing so his legs will not be so much shaken, especially the off fore leg, which is the one he most generally leads off on. This must be the case when he is _continually throwing_ the greater part of his weight upon the leading fore leg, as it comes to the ground, which causes lameness of the foot, and strains the back sinews of the legs. Being thoroughly taught to change his legs, the horse is better enabled to perform long journeys, with facility and comfort both to himself and his rider. TURNING. In the turn either to the right or left, the reins must be held quite evenly, so that the horse may be immediately made to feel the aid of the rider's hands; he (the rider) must then have a double feeling on the inward rein, also retaining a steady feeling on the _outward_; the horse being kept up to the hand by a pressure of both legs, the outward leg being the stronger. REINING BACK. The rider should frequently practise reining back, which is of the utmost service both to himself and his horse: by it, the rider's hand is rendered firm and materially strengthened; and the pliancy of wrist so essential to the complete management of the horse is achieved, likewise causing the body of the rider to be well thrown back and his chest expanded, thus forcing, and preserving, an _erect_ position in the saddle. Also, the _carriage_ of the horse becomes greatly improved; his head is maintained in its correct position, and he is compelled to work correctly on his haunches. _In_ "_reining back_," the horseman requires a light and steady feeling of both reins, a pressure of both legs, so as to raise his horse's forehand and keep his haunches _well under_ him, at the same time _easing_ the reins, and _feeling them again_ after every step. STOPPING. None are thoroughly taught until quite AU FAIT in the stop. It is of _far greater importance_ than may be _usually_ imagined. In the first place, it shows the horse to be _well under_ COMMAND, especially when the rider is able to do so _instantaneously_: it saves in the second place, many serious and inevitable accidents from carriages, horsemen, &c., such as crossing before suddenly pulling up, turning quickly round a corner, or coming unawares upon the rider. Care must be taken to make the STOP _steadily_; _not_ by a _sudden jerk_ upon the _bit_; by doing so the horse, if "tender mouthed," will be made to rear and plunge. To make the horse stop properly, the bridle-hand must be kept low, and the knuckles turned down. The rider's body must be well thrown back; he must have a steady feeling of both reins, and, _closing_ both legs for a moment, so keep his horse well up to hand. N. B.--The rider's hands always must be eased as soon as halted. LEAPING. Much depends upon the manner of bringing a horse up to the leap; he should be taken up straight and steady to it, with the reins held in each hand--they must be kept low, with the _curb_-rein held loosely. The rider's body should be kept erect, pliant, and easy in its movements. As the animal is in the act of rising in his leap and coming again to the ground, the rider's body must be well thrown back. The sitting of a leap, _well_, is entirely dependent upon the proper balance of the body; thereby the weight is thrown correctly into the saddle, and thus _meets_ the horse's movements. THE STANDING LEAP. Let the rider take up his horse at an animated pace, halt him with a light hand upon his haunches; when rising at the leap, the rider should only just feel the reins, so as to prevent them becoming slack, when he springs forward, yielding them without reserve; as, at the time, the horse must be left quite at liberty. As the horse's hind feet come to the ground, the rider must again collect him, resume his usual position, and move on at the same pace. His body must be inclined forward as the horse rises, and backwards as he alights. FLYING LEAP. The horse must not be hurried, but taken up at a brisk pace, with a light and steady hand, keeping his head perfectly steady and straight to the bar or fence. This position is the same as in the standing leap; and the aids required are the same as for making a horse canter. If held too tight in the act of leaping, the horse is likely to overstrain himself, and fall. If hurried at a leap, it may cause him to miss his distance, and spring too soon, or too late; therefore his pace must be regulated, so that he may take his spring distant enough, and proportionate to its height, so that he may clear it. When nearing the leap the rider must sit perfectly square, erect, pliant, and easy in the act of leaping; on arriving at the opposite side of the leap, throw the body well back, and again have the horse well in hand. SWIMMING A HORSE. The rider must take up and cross his stirrups, which will prevent the horse from entangling himself or his rider; should he commence plunging and struggling in the water, _then quite_ loosen the _curb_-reins, and scarcely feel the bridoon; any attempt to guide the horse must be made by the slightest touch of the rein possible. The rider also must have his chest as much over the horse's withers as he can, and throw his weight forward, holding on by the mane, to prevent the rush of water from carrying him backwards. Should a horse appear distressed, a person unable to swim may, with great safety, hold firmly by the mane, and throw himself out flat on the water; by those means he relieves the animal from his weight, and the horse coming once more into his depth, the rider may again recover his position in the saddle. BOLTING, OR RUNNING AWAY. This dangerous habit is to be found very generally in nervous and young horses, who at the least noise, become alarmed, and try to escape; quickening their pace, they break from a trot to a gallop, until terrified with the impotent struggles of their riders to stop them, or the sound of wheels behind them, they become maddened, and dash on in their perilous career. Once a horse finds he has succeeded in these efforts, on any recurrence of noise or cause of affright, he will pursue the same course, to the imminent peril of life, limb,--not only of the rider or driver,--but of whoever or whatever he may chance to meet in his impetuous flight. The habit at length becomes confirmed, and it is alone by the utmost nerve and coolness, tempered with firmness and kindness, that we may hope eventually to overcome the disease. When a horse is known to have a disposition for running away, a firm, steady hold should be kept over him, at the same time speaking soothingly and encouragingly; but, at the least symptom, checking sharply and scolding him, and never allowing him to increase his pace of his own accord, as fear will oftentimes cause him at length to break into a gallop. Either in riding or driving, the reins should be held firmly, and the horse had well in hand; but not by a constant pull to deaden the sensitiveness of his mouth; taking care occasionally to ease the reins and keep the mouth alive by a gentle motion of the bit, only just loosening them, so that on any symptom of running away or bolting, they may be caught up quickly, and the horse be well placed under command, without frightening him. By a little judicious management in this way, with patience, kindness tempered with firmness, a cure in most cases will be completed in a short time. In riding and driving horses addicted to running away, be _very particular_ that all portions of the horse furniture be sound and strong, more _especially the reins_ and BITS. PART IV. [Illustration] ADVICE TO LADIES. Preparatory to a lady mounting her horse, she should carefully approach to the shoulder. The quietest animal will sometimes kick on a person coming suddenly to him from behind; but if neared in the manner described, he cannot possibly contrive to bite or kick. It is also correct to allow the horse to see his rider as much as possible, as it obviates the fright occasioned by a person getting suddenly on his back, that he has not previously seen coming to him. THE HABIT. Both the habit and _under_ garments should be full, as upon this so much depends the requisite ease and graceful appearance. The habit should not, however, be too long, as it is liable to become entangled in the horse's legs. Sometimes serious and even fatal falls have occurred from this cause, particularly if the horse falls to the ground, as the habit cannot be speedily extricated from under him. The author here strongly advises a lady _never_ to tuck her skirts tight over the crutch of her saddle, but take pains to have them so easy, as to be enabled on the instant to disengage _both_ skirts and knee. A facility, _in this_, can only be acquired by _constant_ practice; and it is of far greater importance to the lady equestrian to attain, than may appear at the first glance. Had this _apparently slight_ attainment been made a matter of _moderate_ consideration, many a parent need not have had to deplore the _death or disfigurement_ of a beloved child. When a lady has her habit drawn over the crutch of her saddle, and tucked tightly in under her leg (for the purpose of keeping the skirt in its proper position), she denies herself the full liberty of her knee, and in case of accident, to be off the horse. On the slightest warning, though _foreseen_, whatever the danger, the _tightness_ of the lady's dress will not allow her to get her leg out of its place, in time to make any effectual effort to save herself; also, it is probable that the habit might get entangled in the pummel, and she, frightened of course, would become unable to disengage her foot from the stirrup (or shoe), in which case she inevitably experiences the most appalling of all accidents,--_being dragged powerless, by a terrified horse, a considerable distance along the road_. Before closing this portion of his subject, the author is rejoiced that the extremely dangerous and most unnecessary fashion of wearing "Habit Brooches" is now no longer adopted,--things solely invented for "trade purposes,"--and to any, and especially to a graceful horsewoman, a truly ridiculous article to wear: never to be patronized by a lady, anxious for her own safety and the feelings of her family and friends. To illustrate this:--The position of a lady on horseback is greatly limited, when compared to that of a gentleman; necessarily then, when her skirt is confined by a "Habit Brooch," _all power_ must be taken away, and _all chance_ of escape, when an accident occurs. A _very_ slight fall to the lady may be fatal, where, had she had the full liberty of her skirt, it would have been very trivial. The _proper_ arrangement of the skirt of the riding-dress, to prevent its flying about, entirely depends on the lady herself. MOUNTING. Two persons are absolutely necessary to assist a lady to mount; one to keep the horse quiet, by standing in front of him, and holding the reins close to the bit, _one rein in each hand_; the other is for assisting her to mount. The lady, having regulated her habit, must stand perfectly erect; her right hand; having the bridoon-rein hanging loosely on the thumb, being placed upon the upright horn of the saddle (her whip held between the thumb and forefinger), her right side towards and close to it. The second person, who is to assist the lady to mount, must now place himself near to, and almost fronting her; having united his hands by putting his fingers between each other, and stooping down near to the ground, receives the lady's left foot, which should be placed firmly in them, care being previously taken that no part of her skirt is under it. The left knee should be kept as straight as possible, in order to give additional purchase, while lifting her perpendicularly and gracefully into the saddle. The lady must then place her left hand on his right shoulder, and as he lifts her, _she must spring from the instep_, at the same time guiding herself into the saddle with her right hand. Having gained her saddle, the lady should take hold of her habit with her right hand, close to the knee, and raise it sufficiently to allow of the right knee dropping _well home_ into the crutch, and keeping it there, as far as she possibly can, immovable. RULES FOR GAINING THE CORRECT POSITION IN THE SADDLE. Before a lady mounts she must endeavour to carry in her mind's eye the _centre_ of her saddle. On _this centre_ she must, as nearly as possible, place herself; and to assist her memory, she should take it for a rule, to keep her eyes in a straight line between the horse's ears when lifted into it. By these means, after a little practice, she will not fail to drop almost insensibly into the correct position; the weight of her body being thrown full into the centre of the saddle, rendering her seat firm and easy to her horse and herself. For example:--should we place a weight on one side of a table, the other side having nothing on it as a balance, if it does not actually fall, it will become extremely insecure and unsteady; but, on the contrary, if the weight be placed in the centre, the table will be safe and steady, even if ricketty before; therefore, if the lady does not sit "square" (that is, quite in the centre) on her horse, she must inevitably throw all her weight to one side, and thereby destroy her power over the horse, and instead of giving him his correct action, render him unsafe, and shambling in his gait. THE POSITION IN THE SADDLE. To obtain a correct position in the saddle, the lady must keep her head erect, and her shoulders well thrown back, which will have the effect of expanding the chest, and giving the requisite hollowness to the small of the back. It is also most important that the rider should keep her body from the waist to the bust very easy, in no way to be constrained, more especially across the loins. By observing these directions, the lady will be enabled to accommodate herself, without uneasiness, to the motions of her horse. When the upper portion of the body regulates itself by its _elasticity_ to the paces of the horse, there is this additional advantage,--let the animal plunge or struggle as it may, if the rider keeps her knee immovable in its place, her left foot in the stirrup (with the toe turned in, which eminently assists her seat and balance), and preserves her presence of mind, and overcomes any approach to nervousness, she cannot be unseated. THE ARMS. They should hang _perfectly_ independent of the body, from the shoulders near the sides, _yet quite_ free from having a constrained appearance. THE LEGS. The right leg from the hip to the knee should be kept down in the saddle, and, as much as the rider possibly can, without moving. The lady will materially assist herself in this object by drawing _the heel backwards_. The left leg must hang steady, _yet_ not, by any means, rest its weight in the stirrup, for in consequence of the muscles of the leg being round, the foot will naturally turn outward, thus causing a wavering, tottering seat, inclining the body too much out of balance, and giving a disunited motion to the horse, and an ungraceful and deformed appearance to the rider. To prevent this, the knee must be kept firmly pressed to the saddle; and, as before remarked, by depressing the heel, the toe will be naturally turned in. THE STIRRUP. The position of the foot in the stirrup is of great importance; upon it depends much; keeping the correct balance of the body on the horse, which consists in sitting perfectly square and erect, and preserving a steady position in the saddle. In fitting the stirrup the lady ought to have her length correctly arranged, which is done in the following manner:--The stirrup leg must hang quite free from the hip-joint, the knee being slightly bent, with the toes raised and turned in towards the horse's side. Keep the foot fixed as immovable as possible in the stirrup, allowing the pressure alone to come from the toes to the bridge of the foot, which will have the effect of giving the elasticity and regularity of movement required in the horse's quickened paces. The _length_ of the stirrup must be made a matter of importance. On it, in a very great measure, _depends_ a steady, firm seat. THE STIRRUP TOO LONG. In the lady's endeavours to retain her foot in the stirrup, her weight must preponderate on the left side; if the stirrup be _too short_, it necessarily gives a rolling motion to her body, destructive alike to grace, elegance, and security of seat, and will prevent her seating herself sufficiently back in her saddle. On the Reins (_vide_ p. 27). Holding the Reins in one hand (_vide_ p. 28). Using both hands (_vide_ p. 29). Riding on one rein (_vide_ p. 30). The Whip (_vide_ p. 30). THE BRIDLE HAND. The motion of the lady's hand must be confined to the _wrist_--as in pianoforte playing--the action coming from _it alone_. By the management of the reins, in concert with the yielding or retraction of the wrists, the horse is guided in his paces. By this mode the sensibility and goodness of his mouth is preserved; the beauty of his action is developed; steadiness is combined with security in his paces, and the safety of his rider is secured. The degree of command, which the animal can be placed under, _entirely depends on the degree of proficiency_ acquired in this branch. GUIDING. There are _four_ motions requisite in guiding a horse. _To go forward._--Lengthen the reins, and give the animal his liberty. For this purpose the lady's hand must be guided by the _action_ of her wrist, and, at the same time, she must apply gently her whip. Here, it is proper to remark, the lady's bridle, or left, hand must never be left inactive, but, by practice, she must endeavour to understand the art of _feeling the horse's mouth_; should the bridle hand _not_ be kept in constant use this will never come easy to the rider, the hand will be unsteady, and the horse will become the same. _To go backward._--The reins must be shortened a little, the back of the hand turned down, the little finger next the body; the weight of the rider should be thrown back, with the little finger slightly pulled in towards the waist, then the horse will readily step back. _To turn to the right._--The hand must be turned upwards, which will direct the little finger to the right. Throw the balance of the body into the turn, by inclining the bust to the right and applying the whip, which will cause the horse to move forward as he turns, obey the hand, and cross his legs one over the other, correctly. _To turn to the left._--Let the hand be turned down, so that the little finger may be directed to the left; the bust must also be turned to the left, and the hand up, with the left heel applied to his side, and the whip to his right shoulder. DISMOUNTING. There is tact necessary in dismounting, in order that the lady may avoid the _exposé_ and inelegance, attendant upon, as it were, being lifted from the saddle in a groom's arms. Previous to dismounting, the groom must stand by the horse's head, holding the reins close to the bit, to keep him as steady as possible. The lady having removed her foot from the stirrup, and passed her hand down to free her skirt, etc., from all chance of catching to the saddle or stirrup, should remove her knee out of the crutch; at the same time taking the precaution to disengage the habit from that side. Then holding the crutch with her right hand (the rein hanging loosely on the thumb), and now placing her left hand on her groom's right arm, near the wrist; his arm being extended for the purpose, she must spring lightly and clear from the saddle, slightly inclining the bust towards the horse's shoulder. By this method the lady will quite disengage herself, and descend gently to the ground. MAXIMS TO BE ATTENDED TO. Be particular to avoid nervousness and hurry, either in mounting or dismounting. Take time, and have everything correctly arranged before starting; serious accidents have occurred frequently from being in haste to start off. Arrange the habit, length of stirrup, and have the saddle-bands and buckles properly examined before the journey is begun, to prevent having to stop on the road. Be careful to keep the hand active, and watch the movements of the horse; by this means the rider will never be thrown off her guard, and will be prepared for every emergency. Keep the horse's mouth always in play, so as to keep up its fine feeling, _indispensable_ to his correct guidance. Never allow the reins to hang loosely on the horse's neck, crutch, or pummel of the saddle. This oversight frequently causes serious and fatal accidents. _Always_ use _double_ reins. Should one become useless, there is still another to rely upon. Before the author concludes, he begs to be allowed to _impress_ upon his fair readers, that an _elegant_ and accomplished _equestrian_ becomes an equally _graceful pedestrian_, from the improved carriage acquired from proficiency in the former accomplishment. To become an _elegant pedestrian_ is no mean task, nor is it an _easy_ one to accomplish. Yet it is of the utmost importance to a lady, _in particular_, to master it. How often, in our experience through life, have we met with a lovely face and perfect figure,--everything that could constitute the perfection of female beauty, _while at rest_!--but once in _motion_, the illusion is dispelled from a _bad carriage and shuffling gait_, the perfect form becomes quite common-place. These two destructives to beauty can be entirely eradicated by attention to the following directions, and which apply equally to WALKING AND RIDING. Keep the bust and head _erect_; the shoulders _well thrown back_. The motive power to proceed from the hips _alone_. Perseverance in these few directions will soon give all that is required for a graceful and healthy carriage. Finally.--At all times _trust to your reins for security_, in cases of danger. _Never_ grasp the pummel of the saddle. Never use a "Habit Brooch." REMARKS ON SADDLERY. I have been quite surprised to see, in such a city as London, the paucity of really good saddles. Most of them would disfigure any horse they were put upon, with flaps of all shapes but the right. To say how a saddle should be made, would be quite impossible, as it solely depends on the horse and his rider; for instance, a thin and sweepy saddle will not suit a horse with round, heavy shoulders, and wide over his loins. Many imagine that cut-back saddles are less liable to injure the rider, than ordinary ones; this is quite fallacious. The saddle must have the head, or what is called, the pummel, to begin upon; and the further _that_ can be carried forward the better; but the nearer it is got under the seat, the more likely is it _to seriously injure_ the rider. In _side_-saddles there is great variety; but the requisites for a _first-rate_ side-saddle, to my idea, and one I would not hesitate in recommending, should be _length_ (_indispensable_), _a leaping-head_, _no off-head_, and it should be cut as nearly level as possible. None, I may say, can dispute my first remark, and _none_ who have ridden with the leaping-head will ever after be _without it_. There are those who say no, to the off-head being cut away, "for should a lady become nervous, she could not steady herself so well as if the head had been left on;" here I fully agree, but beg to say in reply, that before a lady attempts the road or anywhere where she might be placed in such a critical position, she must have her nerves so strengthened through her equestrian education, that she need not look to the off-head of her saddle for safety; her _point d'appui_ is the leaping-head. When holding on by the off-head, the lady of course loses _the use_ of one hand. Next, her horse may go where he pleases, for she cannot get her hands down to have a good pull at his mouth. Then, in hunting, the poor lady's wrists are everlastingly bruised by the off-head, to say nothing of the danger of their being broken by it. BRIDLES. There is a great variety of bridles. Generally speaking, the plainer the bridle the better, more especially for hunting and hacking; for the former, let your bit be long in the check (_i.e._, in moderation), the mouth-piece thick, having the bridoon the same, the _suaviter in modo_ being much more agreeable than the _fortiter in re_, to all animals. For hack bridles, any fancy check may do, if the horse's head be sufficiently handsome; but let me request my readers not to put a fancy bridle on a coarse-bred, common horse. THE THROAT LASH. Simple as it may appear, it spoils the heads of all horses, as it is usually made. It should be long enough to fall just below the cheek-bone, and not to lay _on_ or _over_ it, as it makes the animal's head look short and thick. NOSE BAND. Not as they were used in days past, _attached_ to bridle, but _separate_. No one knows its efficacy when placed low, but those who have tried it; its exact position will, of course, depend much on the size of the mouth. CHIN STRAP. Some imagine this is not an indispensable thing to a bridle, either in hunting or hacking, _but it is_, more especially in _Pelham's_. I have seen a horse in tossing his head, throw the Pelham bit over on to his face; had a chin strap been attached to the bridle, this could not have happened. THE EQUESTRIAN'S MANUAL. (_Dedicated to H.R.H. Prince Albert._) BY S. C. WAITE, ESQ. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. Standard. Mr. Waite's book will put _every one_, who shall obey its instructions, in the way of riding _well_; for it does as much as a book can to teach the theory of the art. It is a book to be purchased and carefully read by every one, not an experienced horseman, who purposes to ride or buy a horse, and even the _experienced_ horseman will find in it _valuable_ information. Morning Advertiser. This work reflects high credit on Mr. Waite for its practical lucidity, and the pleasing manner in which the instructions are imparted. His directions for _curing_ the acquired _bad_ habits of horses, too often the results of ill usage, or violence of ignorant grooms and horse-breakers, are excellent. The position of the saddle, the proper fixing of it and the bridle, the _best_ method of mounting, position in the saddle (illustrated by diagrams), are carefully and sensibly treated on. The third section, "Advice to Ladies," is novel, and the hints _invaluable, not only to the fair sex, but to those who may have to instruct them in the graceful art of Equitation_. Morning Chronicle. In bringing under notice a new book, practical and highly amusing, upon the noble Art of Horsemanship, which has emanated from the pen of a well-known and accomplished professor thereof, we have pleasure in stating the reader will find in these pages excellent practical hints and sound suggestions on the art of riding well; and, in the manner of training and treating horses we sincerely concur with, and we honour and respect Mr. Waite, when he so forcibly inculcates kindness and gentleness, though combined with firmness, as essentials in the education and treatment of the horse; hardships, cruelty, and neglect he strongly deprecates. The instructions in the proper seat and carriage on horseback, the management of the whip and rein, are minutely explained, and of the greatest utility. He is particularly attentive to the ladies, and admitting the power they lose by their peculiar seat, he gives the best recommendations for remedying the evil, as far as possible, by securing an exactly central fix upon the saddle, the best form of which he learnedly discusses. Speaking seriously, all fair riders ought, for their own sake, to profit by his advice, the result of long experience. Sunday Times. Mr. Waite, an _experienced professor_ of the art, has given us a hand-book, _in which_ will be found a great variety of instruction, by which the equestrian will receive such directions for the management of his horse, under a variety of circumstances, as must prove of _great value_ to him. Observer. This work is _evidently_ the production of one who has acquired a _thorough_ acquaintance with the subject, and who, moreover, possesses the _rare advantage_ of communicating his instructions in a manner peculiarly _ample_ and _clear_. We have seen _no_ other work in which such a variety of information on the subject is embraced. The advice to ladies is most valuable. MR. S. C. WAITE, AUTHOR OF "THE EQUESTRIAN'S MANUAL," (_Dedicated to H.R.H. Prince Albert,_) With advice to purchasers of Horses, &c., and Originator of the Improved Military Seat (obviating ruptures), and positions for Ladies and Gentlemen on Horseback.--(Vide _Opinions of the Press, April, 1850._) Mr. Waite has been requested by a numerous circle of personal friends to submit to the notice of the public an ointment, proved to be invaluable to the owners of racing and hunting establishments, breeders, farmers, &c., for restoring hair on broken knees, and where it has been lost, through accidents, disease, blistering, firing, &c., &c.; it is likewise available for dogs in reproducing hair, bare from mange, scalds, burns, and abrasions. Mr. Waite obtained the above valuable recipe from the late celebrated and eccentric character, Patrick Jones, of Dublin, familiarly known in military and sporting circles, and throughout the kingdom, as "Old Paddy," who, after an unfailing success in its use, in all parts of the world (where called by his military duties), for a period verging on eighty years (and by him obtained from his father), on his death-bed, in 1853, confided the secret to the present proprietor. To be had in pots at 3_s._, 5_s._, 8_s._, and 17_s._ 6_d._, and in 8lb. canisters for hounds after mange, &c., &c., at £4. 4_s._ TESTIMONIALS. _From_ DR. BUNTING, _the great American Horse Tamer and Breaker_. 2, ONSLOW TERRACE, BROMPTON, _May 22nd, 1859._ SIR,--I beg to certify that I have used your "Old Paddy Jones's Ointment" for restoring hair on horses and dogs, in _numerous_ cases of valuable horses, and in _no instance_ has it failed in its efficacy, and I consider it to be invaluable to every establishment where horses and dogs are kept. In future, I shall never be without it. Wishing you every success, Believe me to be truly yours, J. G. BUNTING. S. C. WAITE, Esq., _Brompton._ PATENT AMERICAN BREAK OFFICE, MASON'S RIDING SCHOOL, BROMPTON, _July 7th, 1859._ SIR,--Having used your "Old Paddy Jones's Ointment" for restoring the hair on horses and dogs, I have great pleasure in testifying to its _good_ qualities in all the cases I have had in hand, and think it will be a _great boon_ to all keeping either a horse or dog. I remain, Sir, Yours obediently, To S. C. WAITE, Esq., HENRY HURST. _Brompton._ ROBERT HARDWICKE, PRINTER, 192, PICCADILLY. Transcriber's Note The following typographical errors were corrected. Page Error 37 mettle some changed to mettlesome 51 that a gentleman changed to that of a gentleman 
37295	----	+-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's notes: | | | | The scans on which this e-book was based have been generously made| | available by the Internet Archive. | | | | The original text has been preserved for this e-book, including | | (minor) inconsistencies (for example, right-hand v. right hand). | | | | The footnote has been moved to directly underneath the section it | | refers to. | | | | Transcription used in this e-text: italics in the original are | | presented here between underscores, as in _text_; small capitals | | in the original document are presented here as ALL CAPITALS. | +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ Apiary Inspection. Bulletin No. 7A. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts. STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. SOFT CANDY FOR BEES. BY DR. BURTON N. GATES. FROM THE SIXTY-FIRST ANNUAL REPORT OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. [Illustration] BOSTON: WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS, 32 DERNE STREET. 1914. APPROVED BY THE STATE BOARD OF PUBLICATION. SOFT CANDY FOR BEES. THE SO-CALLED "FULLER CANDY" FOR QUEEN CAGES, TRANSPORTATION OF COMBLESS COLONIES, STIMULATIVE AND GENERAL FEEDING. The well-informed beekeeper has learned that it is unwise and hazardous to feed under any circumstances honey in any form, even though it be from his own apiary. There have been many sad and general infections with bee diseases by such unguarded feeding. Thus it has become almost an axiom, "Feed no honey." Consequently, substitutes have necessarily been adopted and among these are sugar syrups of various dilutions and compositions; "hard candy," which is virtually a taffy; and recently, the so-called "Fuller candy," which is a soft fondant, not dissimilar to the fondant of chocolate creams. For several years Mr. Fuller of Blackstone, Mass., as well as others, has been experimenting with this modified English candy, which should not harden beyond usefulness. Beekeepers of Massachusetts and elsewhere about the country have found it advantageous to use this as a substitute for honey or syrup. So numerous are the inquiries and satisfactory the results, that it seems desirable to prepare information in printed form. The soft candy has numerous advantages and possibilities. It is found to be a most satisfactory stimulative feed; a food for bees in transit, either full colonies on combs, in combless packages, or for queens in mailing cages. It is also found satisfactory and advantageous as winter stores. Colonies have been observed to leave natural stores for the candy. This has occurred in colonies out of doors or in the cellar during winter, as well as with colonies which are flying. Some of the advantages of the candy are the ease with which it is handled or supplied; the fact that it may be made up in quantities and stored until needed for use; its failure to excite robbing; the ability to provision colonies with known amounts or weights; and its freedom from bee disease infection. It is furthermore found to be economical, there being no waste by evaporation or spilling, as is the case with liquid feeds. It is proving exceedingly practical in all feeding purposes and methods. The candy may be made in any degree of hardness or softness, according to the preference of the individual or the needs of the season. As is inferred above, it may be made and stored for months and even years if properly handled. It may be molded in pulp, or wooden pie-plates, shallow tins or specially constructed feeders (see Figs. 1 and 2), "division-board feeders," overhead or super feeders, or boards may be nailed to the side of a frame and the candy poured and molded within the frame, allowing this to be hung in the hive adjacent to the cluster. With the candy may be mixed pollen substitutes, but these are as yet in the experimental stage, and their efficiency or satisfactoriness is uncertain. The latest formula or recipe for the cream, or soft candy, fondant, which is practically a confectioner's recipe, is as follows:-- 12 pounds granulated sugar. 1½ pounds liquid glucose.[1] 1¼ quarts water (equals 40 ounces, which equals 5 cupfuls). ¼ teaspoonful (about) cream of tartar, added when the temperature reaches about 230° F. or 110° C. Boil to 238° F. or 114.4° C. [1] Granular or crystal glucose may be used, mixing it with the usual amount of water. It may be desirable to modify the amount of glucose. The measurements should be accurate. A wooden paddle whittled about a foot long, with a 2-inch blade, is found to be superior to a spoon in stirring or beating the candy. A confectioner's thermometer is an advantage. Those experienced in making maple sugar may dispense with the thermometer, although more accurate results are obtained by using it. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--These are the usual and convenient types of candy box or feeder. The right-hand one is placed as it would appear on the top of the frames. Notice that one end is slightly elevated. To its left is a box of candy, which is darker, being made with "Coffee A" sugar; the glass side of this faces out, as also in the upper box. The box at the extreme left shows the surface of white candy, made with granulated sugar; it also shows the projection which tilts the box. Upon it is a pie plate filled with the candy, which may be inverted upon the frames. (Author's illustration.)] [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Molds in the form of division-board feeders (left-hand mold filled with candy; right hand, empty). The lower frames are the standard Langstroth dimensions; the upper are Benton nuclei frames. The central box shows the position of a feeder on top of the frames. (Author's illustration.)] As soon as the sugar has begun to dissolve, _prior to boiling_, the spoon or paddle used in stirring should be removed from the kettle. _The candy should not be stirred while cooking_; to do it will cause a coarse grain. Remove from the stove and cool to 125°-130° F. (or 51.6°-54.4° C.), when the specified boiling point has been reached. While cooling, in order to equalize the temperature, the mass may be stirred; or preferably, when cooled to the specified degree, it should be stirred until it commences to grain. Mr. Fuller's directions are to stir vigorously until the mass appears in color and consistency like boiled starch or paste. At once pour into molds or feeders and cool. _Fine-grain Fondant for Queen Cages._--Another way to cool the candy is to prepare a marble slab 2 or 3 feet square with bars of square iron, making a form. The candy may be poured upon the marble, and with broad putty knives, similar to those used by paper hangers, the mass may be beaten or worked upon the marble. Experience teaches that this, which is virtually a confectioner's method, produces a finer grain and usually a whiter fondant than when stirred in the kettle. This is the process in preparing candy for use in queen mailing cages, or the transportation of bees. By it, a firmer consistency is usually obtained. As a warning or explanation it may be said that the higher the temperature at which the candy is boiled the harder it will become; consequently, by varying the boiling point at which the candy is removed from the stove, the hardness or softness of the product may be governed. Furthermore, as is the experience of confection makers, candy should be boiled to one or two degrees higher on cloudy or humid days than on a clear, dry day. By means of a thermometer and a little experience, these features are readily learned. _Storing the Candy._--The fondant is best stored in earthen crocks, either as a mass or in the feeders. These preserve the normal moisture. Over the mass should be placed a sheet of paraffin paper upon which is a moist cloth or towel. The crock should be covered. Queen-cage candy should always be kept in this way in order to preserve its consistency. Similarly, candy molded in feeders may be stored in large crocks or tins. _Remaking the Candy._--If at any time the candy hardens from any cause, either in making, storage or in use, it may be softened by the application of a few drops of water. Furthermore, it may be removed from the molds and recooked to the desired consistency. To recook, add a small amount of water and boil as before. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--When the bees of a strong colony eat up the candy almost entirely, they not infrequently build combs, and have been known even to rear brood, in the box. This shows (upper part of the picture, in corners) the remaining candy upon which the bees were still at work, also having attached combs to the glass. Some beekeepers have removed such a box of combs and brood, starting there from a new colony. In order to get the correct relation of the picture, hold it directly above your head. The combs will then appear pendulous from the glass, and in their correct position, as if lifted off from the tops of the frames.] 
32554	----	generously made available by Kentuckiana Digital Library (http://kdl.kyvl.org/) Note: Images of the original pages are available through the Kentuckiana Digital Library. See http://kdl.kyvl.org/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=kyetexts;cc=kyetexts;xc=1&idno=b92-75-29579088&view=toc HISTORY OF THE KENTUCKY DERBY 1875-1921 by JOHN L. O'CONNOR Copyright 1921 John L. O'Connor CONTENTS PREFACE FIRST DERBY 1875 SECOND DERBY 1876 THIRD DERBY 1877 FOURTH DERBY 1878 FIFTH DERBY 1879 SIXTH DERBY 1880 SEVENTH DERBY 1881 EIGHTH DERBY 1882 NINTH DERBY 1883 TENTH DERBY 1884 ELEVENTH DERBY 1885 TWELFTH DERBY 1886 THIRTEENTH DERBY 1887 FOURTEENTH DERBY 1888 FIFTEENTH DERBY 1889 SIXTEENTH DERBY 1890 SEVENTEENTH DERBY 1891 EIGHTEENTH DERBY 1892 NINETEENTH DERBY 1893 TWENTIETH DERBY 1894 TWENTY-FIRST DERBY 1895 TWENTY-SECOND DERBY 1896 TWENTY-THIRD DERBY 1897 TWENTY-FOURTH DERBY 1898 TWENTY-FIFTH DERBY 1899 TWENTY-SIXTH DERBY 1900 TWENTY-SEVENTH DERBY 1901 TWENTY-EIGHTH DERBY 1902 TWENTY-NINTH DERBY 1903 THIRTIETH DERBY 1904 THIRTY-FIRST DERBY 1905 THIRTY-SECOND DERBY 1906 THIRTY-THIRD DERBY 1907 THIRTY-FOURTH DERBY 1908 THIRTY-FIFTH DERBY 1909 THIRTY-SIXTH DERBY 1910 THIRTY-SEVENTH DERBY 1911 THIRTY-EIGHTH DERBY 1912 THIRTY-NINTH DERBY 1913 FORTIETH DERBY 1914 FORTY-FIRST DERBY 1915 FORTY-SECOND DERBY 1916 FORTY-THIRD DERBY 1917 FORTY-FOURTH DERBY 1918 FORTY-FIFTH DERBY 1919 FORTY-SIXTH DERBY 1920 PREFACE With no pretense to authorship or claim for originality on the part of the compiler, this work is offered as a reference book. For many, the plain facts of each year's Kentucky Derby will be of sufficient interest. To the countless followers of Turf happenings the material herein will refresh the memory and awaken happy reminiscence. This compilation is made mainly from the columns of _The Thoroughbred Record_, a Kentucky publication, and I am indebted to the graciousness of its editor, Mr. John E. Rubbathan, for the privilege to use the material from his invaluable repository. Mr. Douglas Anderson, author of "Making the American Thoroughbred," by his encouragement has made light the labor incident to compilation. To Mr. Gurney C. Gue, of the _New York Herald_, I owe a debt of gratitude for his helpful advice. In conclusion, if these efforts prove acceptable to my brethren of the Turf and tend in any degree to promote and keep up the spirit of Racing, the object in giving as much time to the subject as I have done, will be accomplished and my end attained. WHITE PLAINS, N. Y. APRIL FIRST, 1921. FIRST DERBY 1875 To-day will ever be historic in the turf annals of Kentucky, as the first "Derby Day," of what I hope to see a long series of turf festivities. If the officers of the Association could have had the pick from the calendar of the year, there could not have been a more delightful and charming day. The morning broke without a cloud visible in the heavens, while a cool breeze was wafted over the course, tempering the increasing rays of the sun. It was just such a day in May When the sun is rejoicing above in heaven, The clouds have all hurried away. Down in the meadow the blossoms are waking, Light on their twigs the young leaves are shaking, Round the warm knolls the lambs are a leaping, The colt from his fold o'er the pasture is sweeping, But on the bright lake, The little waves break, For there the cool west is at play. The course was in splendid order, and all the appurtenances requisite for the comfort and convenience of racing was ready to hand. In company with a friend we started early for the course, thinking that we would reach it before the crowd, but by half past eleven o'clock we found enough people to make a respectable show. As the hour approached for the opening of the ball, every avenue leading to the course was thronged with people making their way to it. It was indeed a Derby Day in all respects. With the two railroads leading to the course, the street cars, hacks and private vehicles, when the first bell was rung for the riders, the Grand Stand presented one solid mass of human faces, while the quarter-stretch, the public stand, and a portion of the field was covered with people. There could not have been less than 10,000 persons on the course, composed of all grades of society, the banker, the merchant, the gentleman of leisure and pleasure seeker, the butcher, the baker, the candlestick maker, _et id omne genus_. That portion of the Grand Stand devoted to the ladies was one grand bouquet of beauty, refinement and intelligence. The ladies in the various costumes looked like so many parti-colored butterflies, balancing themselves on their wings, in the slanting rays of the bright sun. At one time you met a beauty with such sweetness in her upturned eyes, such as fancy lends to the Madonna; at another point, one on whose lips the words laugh, and whose stately steps Are light, as though a winged angel trod Over earth flowers, and fear'd to brush away Their delicate hues. All the shades of beauty is fully represented, from the blonde to the brunette, from the matron, whose hair is threaded with the silver, to the young girl just blushing into womanhood, whose cheeks are as ruby red as a peach that has been kissed by the sun. The Derby came next, and fifteen finer or handsomer youngsters never faced a starter. McGrath's entries had the call in the betting and many thought he would win with Chesapeake, but Aristides, the son of Leamington, carried off the honors, and worthily earned a chaplet, one of the best three-year-olds ever stripped for a race in this country. It was extremely gratifying to the friends of the liberal Laird of McGrathiana, and will be doubly gratifying to Aristides Welch, the owner of Leamington, after whom the colt is christened. This is the best race at the weights ever run by three-year-olds in this country, and cannot fail to make Aristides a still stronger favorite for his Eastern engagements. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, three-year-olds; $50 play or pay; Association to add $1000; second horse to have $200. Dash of one and a half miles. Closed with 42 nominations. Value $3,100. H. P. McGrath's ch c Aristides, by Imp. Leamington, out of Sarong; 100 lbs., Oliver Lewis 1 Geo. H. Rice's b c Volcano, by Vandal, out of Iodine; 100 lbs., H. Williams 2 C. A. Lewis' ch c Verdigris, by Versailles, out of Belle Brandon; 100 lbs., H. Chambers 3 H. P. McGrath's b c Chesapeake, by Lexington, out of Roxana; 100 lbs., W. Henry 0 Robinson, Morgan & Co.'s br c Bob Woolley, by Imp. Leamington, out of Item; 100 lbs., W. Walker 0 J. B. Rhodes' b c Searcher, by Enquirer, dam by Imp. Bonnie Scotland; 100 lbs., R. Colston, Jr. 0 Wm. Cottrill's ch f Ascension, by Imp. Australian, out of Lilly Ward; 97 lbs., W. Lakeland 0 Stringfield & Clay's gr c Enlister, by Enquirer, out of Crownlet; 100 lbs., Holloway 0 A. Buford's ch c McCreery, by Enquirer, out of Ontario; 100 lbs., D. Jones 0 Stringfield & Clay's ch c Warsaw, by War Dance, out of Sister of Charity; 100 lbs., P. Masterson 0 F. B. Harper's b c Ten Broeck, by Imp. Phaeton, out of Fanny Holton; 100 lbs., M. Kelso 0 S. J. Salyer's br c Bill Bruce, by Enquirer, out of Aurora Raby; 100 lbs., M. Jones 0 Allen Bashford's br c, by Baywood, out of Lute; 100 lbs., J. Carter 0 A. B. Lewis & Co.'s b c Vagabond, by Vandal, out of Gem; 100 lbs., J. Houston 0 J. A. Grinstead's ch f Gold Mine, by Imp. Australian, out of Income; 97 lbs., C. Stradford 0 Time--2:37-3/4 Betting--McGrath $260, Ascension $150, Searcher $120, Bill Bruce $80, Verdigris $70, Volcano $60, the field $50. THE KENTUCKY DERBY The fifteen youngsters assembled at the half mile pole. Little or no delay took place under the able directorship of Col. W. H. Johnson. When they were marshaled into line, he tapped the drum to one of the most capital starts I have ever seen, the fifteen going away like a platoon of cavalry, except the Baywood colt, who hung at the post. Volcano jumped away first, with McCreery second, and Searcher third, the remainder bunched, coming round the turn to the quarter pole 25-1/2 seconds. They came at a rapid rate down the stretch and past the stand in 50 seconds, McCreery first, Volcano second, Searcher third, Aristides fourth, the others pretty well bunched. Before they had reached the quarter, 1:17, Aristides had gone to the front and opened a gap of two lengths down the back stretch, Volcano second, Searcher third, the mile 1:43-1/4. The pace was so hot that it began to tell and the field was stretched over a good deal of ground. The race from this point home was never in doubt, Aristides winning by two lengths with something in hand, Volcano second, a length in front of Verdigris third, who came rapidly on the home stretch inside the distance. Bob Woolley who was caromed against on the lower turn a good fourth. Ten Broeck fifth, the Baywood colt sixth, Bill Bruce seventh, the remainder were scattered at wide intervals, and the dust was so great that I was unable to place the others. Time--2:37-3/4. DESCRIPTION OF THE WINNER Aristides is a chestnut colt, with a star, and two white pasterns behind. He stands fifteen hands, one and three-quarter inches high. He has a neat head and neck running into rather a straight shoulder, with great length, good barrel, excellent hips and stifles, sound feet and legs well under him. He has fine turn of speed, and from the way he finished up the Derby to-day gives every evidence of being a good stayer. He was bred by Mr. H. P. McGrath, at McGrathiana Stud Farm, near Lexington, Ky., and is by Imp. Leamington, out of Sarong, by Lexington, her dam The Greek Slave, by Imp. Glencoe--Margaret Hunter, by Imp. Margrave--Mary Hunt, by Bertrand--Betty Coons, by Hephestion--by Hampton's Twig--by Imp. Bedford--by Harlequin--by Imp. Fearnaught. SECOND DERBY 1876 Eleven out of the thirty-four nominations went to the post, and after some delay, caused by the breakaway and anxiety of a few of the colts to get off in front, Col. Robt. Johnson, who officiated in this race, sent them away to a good start, Parole in the lead, Creedmoor second, Vagrant third, Bullion fourth, Bombay fifth, Harry Hill sixth, Red Coat seventh, and the remainder in pretty close order. Before going half way around the turn, Vagrant had taken the lead, with Parole second, Creedmoor, third. From the three-quarter pole to the stand some changes took place, Vagrant leading, Bullion two lengths, second, Harry Hill third, Parole fourth, Bombay fifth, Creedmoor sixth, the remainder outpaced, strung out in single file. Vagrant maintained his lead around the turn and just before reaching the quarter pole, 1:17-1/2, some one, many thought Harry Hill, ran into and cut Bullion down and dropped back, Harry Hill taking his position, with Creedmoor third. Before reaching the half mile the race had resolved itself into a match between Vagrant and Creedmoor. But it was never in doubt, for Vagrant galloped along at his ease and his big stride, and won the race, like he has all the others, in a big gallop by more than a length, Harry Hill, two lengths from him, third, Bombay fourth, Red Coat fifth, Harper's black filly by Enquirer sixth, Leamingtonian seventh, Marie Michon eighth, Bullion ninth, Parole tenth and Germantown eleventh. The quarter 26, half 51, three-quarters 1:17-1/2, mile 1:45, mile and a quarter 2:11-3/4, mile and a half 2:38-1/4. DESCRIPTION AND PEDIGREE Vagrant is a dark bay gelding, blaze face, four white stockings, and stands a shade over 15-3/4 hands. He was bred at the Preakness Stud Farm, the property of M. H. Sanford, Esq., and was purchased as a yearling by T. J. Nichols, Paris, Ky., for $250. He has a neat head and neck, good shoulders, excellent middle piece, great length, immense hips and quarters and tremendous stifles, with sound feet and legs. His action is easy and graceful, a regular daisy cutter, and from his style and carriage must go a distance of ground. Vagrant is by Virgil (son of Vandal and Hymenia by Imp. Yorkshire; 1st dam Lazy, by Imp. Scythian; 2d dam Lindora, by Lexington; 3d dam Picayune, by Medoc; 4th dam Sally Howe, by Sir William of Transport; 5th dam Lady Robin, by Robin Grey; 6th dam by Quicksilver (son of imp. Medley); 7th dam by Meede's Celer. He started in his two-year-old form six times, won five, and beaten once. He won the Alexander Stakes, half mile, at Louisville, Ky., in 50-1/4, beating Harry Hill, Russ Butler and ten others. Same meeting with 5 lbs. penalty, ran third to Creedmoor for the Tennessee Stakes, three-quarters of a mile in 1:22-1/2 track deep in mud. At Lexington, Ky., won sweepstakes for 2-year-old colts, three-quarters of a mile, beating The Nipper, Creedmoor, and six others, in 1:18. Same meeting won the sweepstakes for two-year-old colts and fillies, one mile, beating Clemmie G., The Nipper, and five others, in 1:45-1/2. At Louisville Fall Meeting, won the Belle Meade Stakes, three-quarters of a mile, beating Bengal, Bombay, and nine others, in 1:17-1/4. Same meeting won the Sanford Stakes, one mile, beating Alborac, Miriam filly, and several others, in 1:46. At Lexington, Ky., Spring Meeting of 1876, won the Phoenix Hotel Stakes, 1-1/8 miles, by more than a distance, beating Clemmie G., Knapsack, Very Fine and Yandall, in 1:56-3/4. Besides winning the Kentucky Derby, at Louisville, in present meeting, he is engaged in the Clark Stakes, two miles, and same place in fall on the St. Leger, two miles and Galt House Stakes, two mile heats, the Grand Exposition Stakes, 1-1/2 miles at Philadelphia, the Breckenridge Stakes, two miles, at Baltimore, and the Suwanee Stakes, two mile heats, at Nashville Fall Meetings. The Kentucky Derby, for three-year olds, $50 play or pay, with $1,500 added, second to have $200. One and a half miles, 34 nominations. Value $3,200. T. J. Nichol's b g Vagrant, by Virgil, dam Lazy, 97 lbs., Swim 1 Williams & Owings' ch c Creedmoor, by Asteroid, dam imp. Target, 100 lbs., Williams 2 John Funk's br c Harry Hill, by Virgil, dam Lark, 100 lbs., Miller 3 P. Lorillard's br g Parole, by imp. Leamington, dam Maiden, 97 lbs., Sparling 0 F. B. Harper's ch c Germantown, by Planet, dam Nantura, 100 lbs., Graham 0 F. B. Harper's blk f, by Enquirer, dam by imp. Albion, 97 lbs., James 0 J. A. Grinstead's b f Marie Michon, by Melbourne, jr., dam Nellie Gray, 97 lbs., Stratford 0 H. F. Vissman's b c Leamingtonian, by imp. Leamington, dam Mollie, 100 lbs., Colston 0 D. Swigert's b c Bombay, by Planet, dam Nora, 100 lbs., Walker 0 Green Clay's ch c Red Coat, by imp. Australian, dam Sally, 100 lbs., Hughes 0 A. Keene Richards' ch c Bullion, by War Dance, dam Gold Ring, 100 lbs., Kelso 0 Time--2:38-1/4 Betting--Just before the start, Vagrant even against the field. THIRD DERBY 1877 Persons who long wished and desired a beautiful day for the Kentucky Derby were fully gratified Tuesday. The sun was out bright and the excessive heat for the past week was tempered by a gentle breeze that made it all the more enjoyable, albeit it militated some against faster time. The course, from the heavy rain of Sunday, was not in the best possible condition, and in some places was a little deep and uneven. Early in the morning preparations commenced for the day's sport, and the crowded condition of the hotels betokened a large attendance, and long before the call bell was sounded to summon the jockeys and horses, the grand stand, quarter-stretch, field and field stand were crowded to repletion with an anxious crowd of spectators. The sky was flecked here and there with a few masses of clouds, but there was nothing threatening about them. Now and then they served the purpose of a veil, which hid the fierce glances of the sun, and cast a shade over the vast crowd that was gathered on the emerald green fields. Rarely, indeed, have the magnificent landscapes which can be viewed on either side from the grand stand and its neighborhood, looked more lovely. Behind, looking, we see the Nashville railroad winding its way like a snake through green fields and woodlands until it is lost in the distance. In front to one side you see the curling smoke arising from the city, with a cloud of dust that indicates the road over which the vast crowd is coming, bent on pleasure. To the left lay green fields and woodlands, rejoicing in the light luxuriant foliage of May; meadows and fields surrounded by whitened fences, here and there a cottage dotted over the plain with their smoke curling lazily upwards. Away beyond this could be seen the green hills running in a semi-circle, indicating where the beautiful Ohio winds its way and marked the boundary between Kentucky and Indiana. For the Derby, eleven out of the forty-one nominations sported silk. Leonard was a hot favorite, and the race resulted in his overthrow by Baden-Baden, who was third choice in the betting. If Leonard could have won, his chances were destroyed by the way in which the race was managed. He made all the running, took the lead and set himself up as a target for the others to shoot at, and right gallantly did Lisbon serve his stable companion, Baden-Baden, for three-quarters of a mile at a clipping pace, and then dropped back. Vera Cruz, who was backed with considerable spirit by his friends, had his chances destroyed by being left at the post. King William ran a good race, and for a colt that has had the knocking about and hammering that he has, he is one of the best three-year-olds that has appeared this year. His performance should add greatly to the reputation of his young sire, Foster, one of the best bred sons of Lexington. The race was an excellent one for the condition of the course. After some three or four breakaways, the eleven were despatched to a good start, except Vera Cruz, who reared and plunged just as the drum tapped, Dan K. showing in front, but was soon passed by Lisbon, who cut out the work at a sharp pace, the quarter 26-1/2 seconds. Entering the stretch Leonard showed in front and had a lead of half a length at the stand, with Lisbon and King William second and third, the remainder in pretty close order, the half mile 52 seconds. Going around the turn King William joined Leonard, and Lisbon dropped back, Baden-Baden taking his place, the three-quarters 1:18. Going down the back stretch Leonard led King William a length, the latter whipping, with Baden-Baden at his quarters, the mile 1:44-3/4. The two took close order on the turn, and just before entering the stretch at the three-quarter pole, the mile and a quarter 2:11-1/2, Baden-Baden showed his nose in front, Leonard second, lapped by King William, all three driving. It was a beautiful and exciting finish to the stand, Baden-Baden winning by little over a length, Leonard second, a head in front of King William, third. Vera Cruz, who reared and was left at the post, overhauled his horses and finished fourth, with Odd Fellow fifth, lapped by McWhirter sixth, Malvern seventh, Earlylight eighth, Dan K. ninth, Lisbon tenth, and Headlight eleventh. Time--2:38. DESCRIPTION OF WINNER Baden-Baden is a dark chestnut colt, with a star, stands 16 hands high, with a plain head, good neck, well placed shoulders, with plenty of length, good back and loins, and sound feet and legs. There is nothing striking about him, and he greatly resembles his own brother, Helmbold, and has bred back after his sire. He was bred by A. J. Alexander, Woodburn Stud Farm, Spring Station, Ky., and purchased by D. Swigert, Stockwood Farm, as a yearling for $1,010, by imp. Australian, out of Lavender by Wagner, her dam Alice Carneal by imp. Sarpedon--Rowena by Sumpter--Lady Gray by Robin Gray--Maria by Melzar--by imp. Highflyer--by imp. Fearnaught--by Ariel--by Jack of Diamonds--imp. Diamond by Cullen Arabian--Lady Thigh by Croft's Partner--by Greyhound--Sophonisba's dam by Curwen's Bay Barb--by D'Arcy's Chestnut Arabian--by White-shirt--Old Montague mare. Baden-Baden started five times at two years old, won one, lost four. He was unplaced at Lexington, Ky., for sweepstakes, one mile, won by Glentina in 1:45-1/2. He ran second at Louisville, Ky., for the Belle Meade Stakes, three-quarters of a mile, won by McWhirter in 1:17. Same meeting ran second to Belle of the Meade for the Sanford Stakes, one mile, in 1:44-1/4. Same meeting ran second to Belle of the Meade, 100 lbs. each, for a sweepstakes, one mile, in 1:44-1/4, the best on record, and at Nashville won the Young America Stakes, one mile, in 1:46-3/4, beating King William, Barbara, Joe Burt and Alice Murphy. He has the following engagements: The Belle Meade Stake No. 2, 2 miles, the Suwanee Stakes, 2 mile heats, Nashville Fall meeting; the Clark Stakes, 2 miles, Louisville spring meeting; the Kentucky St. Leger, 2 miles, and the Galt House Stakes, two mile heats, fall meeting, at Louisville, Ky.; the Dixie Stakes, 2 miles, at Baltimore; the Belmont, 1-1/2 miles, the Jerome, 2 miles and All Aged stakes 1-1/2 miles at Jerome Park; the Jersey Derby, 1-1/2 miles, and the Robbins, 2 miles, at Long Branch; the Travers, 1-3/4 miles, and Kenner, 2 miles, at Saratoga, and the Woodburn Stakes, 2-1/2 miles, at Jerome Park in 1878. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds; $50 p. p., with $1,500 added; $200 to second horse. One and a half miles (41 subscribers). Value $3,550. D. Swigert's ch c Baden-Baden, by imp. Australian, dam Lavender, 100 lbs., Walker 1 H. P. McGrath's br c Leonard, by Longfellow, dam Colleen Bawn, 100 lbs., Swim 2 Smallwood & Co.'s ch c King William, by Foster, dam by imp. Albion, 100 lbs., Bailey 3 J. T. Williams' b g Vera Cruz, by Virgil, dam Regan, 97 lbs., Murphy 0 J. J. Merrill's b c Odd Fellow, by Longfellow, dam Magnolia, 100 lbs., Williams 0 A. Buford's ch c McWhirter, by Enquirer, dam Ontario, 100 lbs., H. Moore 0 Geo. H. Rice's br c Malvern, by Melbourne, jr., dam Magnetta, 100 lbs., S. Jones 0 F. B. Harper's gr f Early Light, by Longfellow, dam Fannie Wells, 97 lbs., W. James 0 Johnson & Mills' b g Dan K., by imp. Bonnie Scotland, dam Jennie June, 97 lbs., McGrath 0 D. Swigert's b c Lisbon, by imp. Phaeton, dam imp. Lady Love, 100 lbs., Douglass 0 L. B. Field's b c Headlight, by Bayonet, dam Olivia, 100 lbs., Shelton 0 Time--2:38 Betting--Leonard, $400; Field, $430. FOURTH DERBY 1878 No better evidence would be wanted of the popularity and growing interest in racing than was the case to-day, the opening of the Spring meeting of the Louisville Jockey Club. The club have struck the keynote of success in throwing open the inner field free to the public, which was graced to-day by some six or eight thousand people, as well behaved and orderly an assemblage as has ever been seen collected together. They came on foot, in every sort and kind of vehicles, and the grand stand and every other available space was full to overflowing to witness the first day, which gave one of the best races ever witnessed in America. But we must not anticipate our report. The sport proved to be of an interesting and most exciting character, and those who were present were more than repaid. This Association has been extremely fortunate in the way of weather, and to-day was no exception to the rule. The track was in admirable order, but many thought it was fully two seconds slow. The day was fine and springlike, a slight breeze tempering the otherwise warm rays of the sun. The fields, considering the number of horses on the grounds, were not as large as many anticipated, but as the favorites were overthrown, the crowd shouted themselves hoarse with joy. For the Kentucky Derby, out of 56 nominations nine splendid colts faced the starter. Himyar was such a big favorite, 3 to 1 over the field, that he was left out of the pools, and Day Star was next in favor, closely pushed by Bergundy and Leveller. The result is easily told. Day Star made all his running and won the race like the first-class colt that he is, just as he did the Blue Ribbon at Lexington. Himyar was miserably ridden, and ran fully sixty or seventy-five yards farther in the race than was necessary. This defeat does not lessen him in our estimation, and we look upon him as the greatest colt of the year, with Day Star little inferior. After three or four false starts the lot were sent away to a capital one, except for Charlie Bush, Bergundy, and the favorite, Himyar, who seemed to hang fire, which enabled the lot to get some six to ten lengths the start. At the half-mile pole Day Star was first, McHenry second, Respond third, Leveller fourth, Solicitor fifth, Earl of Beaconsfield sixth, Charlie Bush seventh, Burgundy eighth, and Himyar ninth. Day Star cut out the work at rapid rate, no change occurring at the three-quarter pole. Day Star passed the stand two lengths in front of McHenry, Respond third, Leveller fourth, Himyar fifth, Charlie Bush sixth, Solicitor seventh, Earl of Beaconsfield eighth, and Burgundy, who was knocked to his knees on the lower turn, ninth. Day Star held his lead round the turn and after passing the quarter-pole; Himyar, who was ridden miserably, running on the extreme outside on the turn, took second place, with Leveller third. The race was now over; Day Star was never headed and won easily by two lengths, the spur being freely applied with an occasional touch of the whip in the last quarter; Himyar second, four lengths in front of Leveller, third, followed by Solicitor, McHenry, Respond, Burgundy, Earl of Beaconsfield, and Charlie Bush in the order named. Quarter 25; half 50; three-quarters 1:16-1/2; mile 1:43; mile and a quarter 2:09-1/4; the race 2:37-1/4. DESCRIPTION OF WINNER Day Star is a chestnut colt, with star and light stripe down the face, three white stockings, a little white on the left hind pastern, and gray hairs scattered through the flank. He is 15 hands 2-1/2 inches high, is an extremely handsome colt, neat head, stout strong neck, well inclined shoulders, extraordinary short stout back, well coupled, broad flat ribs, drops down full in the flank, good hips and quarters, immense stifles, broad flat legs which he keeps well under him and has an extra turn of speed. Day Star was bred by Jno. M. Clay, Esq., Ashland, near Lexington, Ky., and purchased a yearling by T. J. Nichols, Paris, Ky., for $825, by Star Davis out of Squeez'em by Lexington, her dam Skedaddle by imp. Yorkshire, out of Magnolia, by imp. Glencoe, the dam of Daniel Boone, Kentucky Gilroy, &c., &c. Day Star has a double Glencoe cross through his sire Star Davis, and his great grandam Magnolia. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds; $50 p. p., with $1,500 added; second to have $200. Dash of 1-1/2 miles. 56 nominations, three of whom are dead. Value $4,150. Colts 100 lbs., fillies 97 lbs. T. J. Nichols' ch c Day Star, by Star Davis, dam Squeez'em, Carter 1 B. G. Thomas' b c Himyar, by Alarm, dam Hira, Robinson 2 R. H. Owen's b c Leveller, by Lever, dam Sly Boots, Swim 3 L. P. Tarlton, Jr.'s b c Solicitor by Enquirer, dam Sallie, Edward 0 Gen. A. Buford's ch c McHenry, by Enquirer, dam Ontario, James 0 Rodes & Carr's b c Respond, by Enquirer, dam by imp. Bonnie Scotland, Ramey 0 J. M. Wooding's ch c Burgundy, by imp. Bonnie Scotland, dam La Bluette, L. Jones 0 A. Straus & Co.'s ch c Earl of Beaconsfield, by Enquirer, dam Geneura, Mahoney 0 Jennings & Hunt's b c Charlie Bush, by John Morgan, dam Annie Bush, Miller 0 Time--2:37-1/4 Betting--Himyar $305; Field $110. With Himyar out, Day Star, Burgundy and Leveller sold about even. FIFTH DERBY 1879 For the Kentucky Derby, Lord Murphy was made the favorite at nearly even against the field, and fully justified the high opinion in which he is held by his friends in running the fastest Kentucky Derby on record. His trainer, George H. Rice, brought him to the post in the pink of order. Though Falsetto and Strathmore were defeated they lost no credit and proved themselves excellent colts, and we should not be surprised to see Falsetto rank yet with the best of the year. The entire lot went away like a platoon of cavalry in line to a beautiful start, Gen. Pike in the lead, Strathmore second, Lord Murphy, who got knocked to his knees on the first turn, third, Wissahicon fourth, Trinidad fifth, One Dime sixth, Ada Glen seventh, Buckner eighth, Falsetto ninth. Half way round the turn the lot were so closely bunched that it was impossible to distinguish the colors in the clouds of dust. At the three-quarter pole Ada Glen was first, lapped by Gen. Pike, Strathmore and Lord Murphy. At the stand Gen. Pike was a head in front of Strathmore second, he lapped by Trinidad, then came the second division a length off, composed of One Dime, Wissahicon, Lord Murphy and Ada Glen, followed by Buckner eighth and Falsetto ninth. They had hardly gone under the string until Strathmore was a length in front of Gen. Pike, who was lapped by Trinidad. Going round the turn the pace was fast, Strathmore still leading at the quarter pole. Just after passing the quarter Lord Murphy took second place, One Dime third, Gen. Pike and Trinidad dropping back. Before reaching the half-mile Lord Murphy lapped and showed in front of Strathmore second, One Dime third, Falsetto fourth. Lord Murphy was a length in front on the lower turn and at the three-quarter pole, Strathmore second, two lengths in front of One Dime third, who was lapped by Falsetto. Entering the stretch Falsetto came with a rush and passed One Dime and Strathmore and half way down lapped Lord Murphy. A most exciting race took place between the pair to within forty yards of the stand, where Lord Murphy drew clear and won the race by a length and a half, Falsetto second, three lengths in front of Strathmore third, followed by Trinidad fourth, Ada Glen fifth, One Dime sixth, Gen. Pike seventh, Buckner eighth, Wissahicon ninth. Mile 1:45; race 2:37. DESCRIPTION OF WINNER Lord Murphy (formerly Patmos), bay colt, star and snip running down over the nostrils, with two white heels behind extending nearly half way to the hocks. He stands full 15 hands 3-1/2 inches high, has a neat head and neck, plenty of length, good hips, quarters and stifles, with sound feet and legs. He has a great turn of speed, the first and greatest requisite in a race horse, and is a Lexington looking youngster, and must bring his sire, Pat Malloy, prominently to the front as one of the best sons of Lexington at the stud. Lord Murphy was bred by J. T. Carter, Gallatin, Tenn., and purchased the spring he was two years old by Messrs. G. W. Darden and G. H. Rice of Nashville, Tenn., by Pat Malloy, out of Wenonah by Capt. Elgee, her dam by imp. Albion, out of a mare by Pacific, running back through Bet Bosley, by imp. Bluster to imported Mare of Harrison of Brandon. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds, $50 entrance, play or pay, with $1,500 added; $200 to second horse; dash of one mile and a half. Value of stake $3,800. Colts 100 lbs., fillies and geldings 97 lbs. 46 nominations. Geo. W. Darden & Co.'s br c Lord Murphy, by Pat Malloy, dam Wenonah, Shauer 1 J. W. H. Reynolds' b c Falsetto, by Enquirer, dam Farfalletta, Murphy 2 George Cadwillader's b c Strathmore, by Waverly, dam Brenna, Hightower 3 D. Swigert's br c Trinidad, by Australian, dam Bonnett, Allen 0 G. W. Bowen & Co.'s ch c One Dime, by Wanderer, dam by Scythian, Jones 0 A. Buford's General Pike, by Longfellow, dam Nannie McNairy, Stovall 0 H. W. Farris' ch c Buckner, by Buckden, dam Tick, Edwards 0 H. P. McGrath's br f Wissahicon, by Leamington, dam Sarong, Hawkins 0 G. D. Wilson's ch f Ada Glen, by Glenelg, dam Catina, Ramie 0 Time--2:37 Betting--Lord Murphy $175, Strathmore and Falsetto $60 each, Trinidad $45, Ada Glen $25, Field $30. SIXTH DERBY 1880 The Derby was booked a moral for Kimball. While it was a great disappointment to his backers to see him lower his colors to Fonso, he lost no credit in the race, for in our judgment it is by odds the best Derby ever run since its inauguration, when everything is taken into consideration. The colts carried _five pounds more_ this year than heretofore, and the track was certainly a second slower than we have seen it any previous year, Fonso covering himself with honor, and must bring his sire prominently to the front. Fonso cut out his own work, did all the running, held the lead from start to finish, and won like a first-class racehorse. The last mile was run in 1:44-1/4, and the last half in 51-1/4 seconds, showing it to be a splendid race. Such a performance as that of Kimball would have won five out of six Derbies. With little or no delay the five went away to a good start, Fonso in the lead, lapped by Kimball, Boulevard third, Bancroft fourth, Quito fifth. Fonso cut out the work at a good pace, and led Kimball by a length at the three-quarters, which he held at the stand, Boulevard half a length from him, third, Quito fourth, Bancroft fifth. Going round the upper turn Fonso increased his lead and passing the quarter was two lengths in front of Kimball second, Boulevard third, Quito fourth, Bancroft fifth, about a length each separating the last four named. Nearing the half mile Kimball drew up to Fonso, when the latter received a cut of the whip and darted away again, Bancroft taking third place, Boulevard fourth, Quito fifth. It was a beautiful race round the lower turn. Entering the stretch Kimball was at Fonso's quarters, the race being reduced to a match between the two. Fairly in the home stretch both were whipping, Fonso answering gamely to the three or four licks he received, came away and won a splendid race a little over a length, Kimball second, two lengths in front of Bancroft third, he a length in front of Boulevard fourth, and Quito four lengths from him finished fifth. Half mile 53-1/4, three-quarters 1:19-3/4, mile 1:46-1/4, race 2:37-1/2. The mile from the stand back to the stand was run in 1:44-1/4, and the last half mile in 51-1/4 seconds. DESCRIPTION OF WINNER Fonso is a dark chestnut colt, with a star and two white feet behind up over the pasterns. He has grown and thickened greatly since last year, and stands full 15-3/4 hands high. He is a very neat, wiry colt, with a good head and rather short neck, which runs into well inclined shoulders. He has great length of body, deep through the heart, good hips and stifles with sound feet and legs. He has the best of tempers, and is rather inclined to need forcing to make him run. He was bred by A. J. Alexander, Woodburn Farm, Spring Station, Ky., and purchased as a yearling by J. S. Shawhan, Shawhan, Ky., for $200, by King Alfonso, out of imp. Weatherwitch by Weatherbit, her dam by Irish Birdcatcher, out of Colocynth. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds, $100 entrance, half forfeit, with $1,500 added, of which $200 to second. 1-1/2 miles, 47 entries, four of whom are dead. Value $3,850. J. S. Shawhan's ch c Fonso, by King Alfonso, dam imp Weatherwitch, 105 lbs., Lewis 1 W. Cortrill's ch c Kimball, by Buckden, dam Meta H., 105 lbs., Lakeland 2 M. Young's ch c Bancroft, by Bonnie Scotland, dam Planchette, 105 lbs., Murphy 3 W. C. McGavock & Co.'s ch c Boulevard, by Bonnie Scotland, dam Mariposa, 105 lbs., Allen 0 Dwyer Bros.' b c Quito, by King Alfonso, dam Crucifix, 105 lbs., McLaughlin 0 Time--2:37-1/2 Betting--Kimball $700, Quito $362, Fonso $222, Bancroft $50, Boulevard $----. SEVENTH DERBY 1881 On Tuesday morning, "Derby Day," the sun rose clear and not a cloud was to be seen, which with westerly wind was the precursor of a gloriously fine day. The attendance was very large. All the stands and betting enclosures were inconveniently crowded, and in the inner field the rails for near a quarter of a mile were lined with people from six to ten deep, while the field, clad in the greenest of spring verdure, was thickly dotted over with every variety of conveyance, from the cart to the splendid coach and landau. For the Kentucky Derby, only half a dozen sported silk for this valuable and important event. Hindoo was such a big favorite that little money was wagered on him, he being the favorite at 5 to 2 over the field. The race was never in doubt, but Hindoo had to have the whip, his jockey giving him two raps as he entered the stretch, and he won easy at the finish by four lengths, Lelex beating Alfambra half a length for second place. The official time of the race, 2:40, is not correct, but will have to stand. The party throwing the flag threw it as soon as the drum tapped, long before the horses reached the pole. The correct time is 2:38-1/2. Calycanthus was not disposed to join his horses, but was finally brought up, Lelex in the lead, Calycanthus second, Hindoo third, Getaway fourth, Alfambra fifth, Sligo sixth. Before reaching the three-quarter pole Calycanthus took the lead, with Lelex second, Hindoo third. Passing the stand Calycanthus was half a length in front of Hindoo, second, who was a like distance ahead of Lelex, third, followed by Sligo, Alfambra and Getaway. At the quarter Hindoo was a head in front of Calycanthus, Lelex third, Sligo fourth. Before reaching the half Lelex was a length in front and the cry went up that Hindoo, who was second, was beaten, Sligo third. On the lower turn Hindoo moved up and showed in front, and on entering the stretch began to loaf a little, and his jockey gave him a couple of raps with the whip as a reminder, and he came away and won easy at the finish by four lengths. Lelex beat Alfambra a half length for second place, after a whipping race home. Sligo two lengths from Alfambra, fourth, Getaway fifth, Calycanthus sixth. Mile, 1:47-1/2; race, 2:40. DESCRIPTION OF WINNER AND PEDIGREE Hindoo is a dark bay colt, with a star in his forehead and a slight number of gray hairs running down his face, and right hind foot white up to the pastern. He has grown and thickened since last year, and will make a 16-hand horse. His head is plain but intelligent, and he has a stout neck, well inclined shoulders, stout middle piece, great depth through the heart, a trifle long in the back, good hips, quarters, and stifles, with sound feet and legs, and his action when extended is easy and frictionless. Hindoo was bred by D. Swigert, Stockwood farm, Spring Station, Ky., and purchased at two-years-old by his present owners for $15,000. He started nine times at two-years-old and won seven. He has started twice this season and won the Blue Ribbon 1-1/2 miles at Lexington, Ky., in 2:38, and the Kentucky Derby, 1-1/2 miles, at Louisville, in 2:40. He has twenty-four more engagements this year, and, barring accidents, in our opinion, they all lay at his mercy. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds; $100 each, half forfeit, or only $20 if declared out by May 1st, 1880, and $40 if declared out by May 1st, 1881, with $1,500 added; $200 to second, 1-1/2 miles. (62 subscribers, of whom 9 declared, and two of whom are void by death of nominator). Value $4,610. Colts 105 lbs., fillies and geldings 102 lbs. Dwyer Bros,' b c Hindoo, by Virgil, dam Florine by Lexington; McLaughlin 1 B. G. Thomas' b g Lelex, by Lelaps, dam War Reel; A. Allen 2 G. W. Bowen & Co.'s b c Alfambra, by King Alfonso, dam Luileme; Evans 3 H. P. McGrath's ch c Sligo, by Tom Bowling dam Petty; Donohue 0 M. Young's b c Getaway, by Enquirer, dam by Colossus; Fisher 0 H. P. McGrath's b c Calycanthus, by Tom Bowling, dam Oleander; G. Smith 0 Time--2:40 Betting--Hindoo $500, Lelex $70, McGrath $70, Alfambra $40, Getaway $25. EIGHTH DERBY 1882 The fourteen candidates promptly assembled at the post, and at the fourth attempt the lot were sent away to a miserable, scattering start, Harry Gilmore in the lead, Babcock second, Robert Bruce third, Bengal fourth, Runnymede fifth, followed by the Pat Malloy-Canary Bird colt, Apollo, Wallensee, Lost Cause, Wendover, Monogram, Highflyer, Newsboy and Mistral, the latter getting away six lengths behind Newsboy. Passing the three-quarter pole Babcock was first, Bruce second, Harry Gilmore third, Bengal fourth, Runnymede fifth, Apollo sixth, the rest tailed off. Passing the stand Bruce and Harry Gilmore were head and head, a length in front of Babcock third, Runnymede fourth, Bengal fifth, Apollo sixth, the rest out of the race. No change on the turn, but at the quarter Harry Gilmore was a half length in front of Bruce second, a length ahead of Runnymede third. Before reaching the half Bruce, having shot his bolt, retired, Babcock taking second place, Runnymede third, Bengal fourth, Apollo fifth. The five took closer order on the turn, and entering the stretch Harry Gilmore was a half length in front of Runnymede second, Babcock and Apollo lapped, Bengal close up. Half way down it looked to be Runnymede's race, he running easy with his mouth wide open, and the shout went up that he would win, but inside the furlong pole he quit, and Apollo coming with a wet sail after a driving race won by a length, Runnymede second, two lengths ahead of Bengal third, followed by Harry Gilmore, Monogram, Babcock, Wendover, Mistral, Wallensee, Pat Malloy colt, Highflyer, Newsboy, Bruce and Lost Cause in the order named. First half 51-1/2, first mile 1:46-1/4, mile from stand to stand 1:48-3/4, race 2:40-1/4. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds, $100 entrance, half forfeit, $20 if declared May 1st, 1881; $40 if declared May 1st, 1882, with $1,500 added; second to have $200. 1-1/2 miles. 64 entries. Colts 105 lbs, fillies and geldings 102 lbs. Morris & Patton's ch g Apollo by Ashstead or Lever dam. Rebecca T. Price; 102 lbs., Hurd 1 Dwyer Bros.' br c Runnymede by Billet, dam Mercedes; 105 lbs., McLaughlin 2 Bowen & Co.'s br c Bengal 3 y o by Billet dam by Mahomet; 105 lbs., Fisher 3 J. B. Sellers & Co.'s ch c Wendover by Bullion, dam Experiment; 105 lbs., Hovey 0 W. Cottrill's ch c Harry Gilmore by Imp. Buckden, dam by Wagner; 105 lbs., Gibbs 0 P. C. Fox's ch c by Pat Malloy, dam Canary Bird; 105 lbs., Henderson 0 A. Jackson's b c Robt. Bruce by Rouseau, dam Barbary; 105 lbs., L. Jones 0 W. Lakeland's ch g Babcock by Buckden, dam Ethel Sprague; 102 lbs., Kelso 0 T. J. Megibben's b c Newsboy by Enquirer, dam Mollie Hambleton; 105 lbs., Quantrell 0 Rodes & Carr's b c Wallensee by Waverley, dam Phasma; 107 lbs., Parker 0 L. P. Tarlton's b c Mistral by Virgil, dam Glenella; 105 lbs., Stoval 0 M. Young's ch g Lost Cause by King Alfonso, dam Nellie Knight; 102 lbs., Taylor 0 M. Young's b g Monogram by Buckden, dam Monomania; 106 lbs., Edwards 0 G. Kuhns & Co.'s ch c Highflyer by Hiawatha, dam Sue Wynne; 105 lbs., Brown 0 Time--2:40-1/4 Betting--Runnymede $700, Mistral $100, Wendover $100, Lost Cause $80, Robert Bruce $60, Bengal $60, Field $150. DESCRIPTION AND PEDIGREE OF WINNER. Apollo is a chestnut gelding, bred by D. Swigert, Preakness Stud, Lexington, Ky. He stands 15 hands half an inch high, and the only white is on the left hind pastern. He has a rather heavy, plain head, wide jowls, good stout neck, which fills up his shoulders well, mounts high on the withers, deep chest, good length, arched loin, long quarters and hips, with excellent, clean and bony legs. Apollo is by Imp. Ashstead or Lever (no doubt by the latter), out of Rebecca T. Price by The Colonel, her dam by Imp. Margrave, out of Rosalie Summers by Sir Charles, her dam Mischief by Virginian, out of a mare by Imp. Bedford, &c. NINTH DERBY 1883 If the prospects of a successful meeting were somewhat dampened by the heavy fall of rain for three days previous to its inauguration, ample amends were made for the postponement by the bright and genial sunshine that ushered in Wednesday morning, and the large and brilliant crowd that was in attendance on Derby Day. This was more to be wondered at for the reason that the weather had been so unseasonable, great coats and a fire feeling remarkably comfortable. Indeed in looking at the vast sea of upturned faces, to be seen in the Grand Stand, the lawn and the field, we were reminded of witnessing our first English Derby, when Umpire, the first American candidate who had ever appeared for this classic event, failed to obtain a place, and the race was won by Thormanby, a son of the renowned Alice Hawthorne, and what is remarkable, it happened on the same day, just twenty-three years ago. At the first attempt the seven went away to a good start, Leonatus in the lead, Raglan second, Chatter third, followed by Kellar, Pike's Pride, Drake Carter and Ascender. Before reaching the three-quarter pole Chatter had taken second place to Leonatus, Raglan third, followed by Ascender, Kellar, Pride's Pike and Drake Carter. There was no change at the stand, and Leonatus was a length in front of Chatter at the quarter, Raglan third, Carter fourth, Ascender fifth, Kellar sixth, Pike's Pride last. Before reaching the half Ascender made a spurt and was third, but he soon died away, Drake Carter taking third place. The truth of the whole affair summed up in a nut-shell is that Leonatus took the lead, made all his own running, was never headed, and won it in a big gallop by three lengths, Drake Carter second, a half length in front of Lord Raglan third, Ascender fourth, Kellar fifth, Pike's Pride sixth, Chatter last. First quarter 27-1/2, half 54, mile 1:49, race 2:43. DESCRIPTION OF THE WINNER Leonatus is a rich bay, blaze face, and two white heels behind above the pasterns. He stands full 15-3/4 hands high, and is certainly one of the smoothest and neatest sons of his distinguished sire. He has a neat, handsome head, stout neck, well inclined shoulders, good middle piece, with great length, excellent back and loins, and full hips and quarters, on sound good legs. He is rapid in motion, and keeps legs well under him. He was bred by Mr. J. Henry Miller, Lexington, Ky., and sold last winter to his present owners for $5,000. He is engaged in fifteen more stakes this year. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds, $100 entrance, half forfeit, $20 if declared May 1st, 1882; $40 if declared May 1st, 1883, with $1,500 added; of which $200 to second, 1-1/2 miles. 50 entries, 3 void, 1 declared May, 1882, 8 declared May 1883; value $4,020. Chinn & Morgan's b c Leonatus by Longfellow dam Semper Felix; 105 lbs., Donohue 1 Morris & Patton's b g Drake Carter by Ten Broeck, dam Platina; 102 lbs., Spillman 2 N. Armstrong's ch c Lord Raglan by Ten Broeck, dam Catina; 105 lbs., Quantrell 3 R. C. Pate's b g Ascender by Buckden, dam Ascension; 102 lbs., Stoval 0 George Evan's ch f Pike's Pride by Imp King Ban, dam Lou Pike; 102 lbs., Evans 0 W. C. McCurdy's b c Chatter by Whisper, dam Clarina; 105 lbs., Henderson 0 J. R. Watts' ch c Standiford Kellar by Great Tom, dam Blondin; 105 lbs., Blaylock 0 Time--2:43 Betting--Ascender $275, Leonatus $260, Raglan $135, Carter $125, Kellar $41, Chatter $35, Pike's Pride $20. TENTH DERBY 1884 Every year the interest in the Kentucky Derby increases, and the desire to win also increases with breeders and owners, until it is looked upon as a mark of merit for the colt who is fortunate enough to bear off the Blue Ribbon of the Turf. More interest clusters in and about this race than any other of the year in America, and we have heard a number of prominent breeders and turfmen say that they would rather win the Kentucky Derby than any two events upon the American turf. Bob Miles was slightly the favorite at the start, closely pressed by Buchanan and Audrain, and although the quality of the nine competitors was a little below the average that have run for the race, it seemed to lend an increased interest to the result. The horses were keenly criticised on their appearance and condition and little knots could be seen gathered together consulting as to who would win. Audrain who got bumped about did not run up to his form and his race for the Blue Ribbon Stakes at Lexington, in the mud, seemed to have taken away his speed. The Admiral behaved badly, trying to bolt in the first quarter, and did run out at the head of the home stretch. Buchanan won quite easily, and how much he had in hand we are unable to say. Bob Miles seemed to labor from the start, and the running proved what we have said all the spring--that the Derby colts of this spring, taken as a class, are far inferior to any previous year. Nine went to the post and they were started out of the chute. After two or three breaks away the lot went off to a pretty start, Bob Miles in the lead, Powhattan III. second, Audrain third, followed by The Admiral, Loftin, Bob Cook, Exploit, Buchanan and Boreas. Entering the main track The Admiral was in the lead and tried to bolt, Bob Miles second, lapped by Loftin, the remainder of the lot bunched and in close order. Passing the stand The Admiral was two lengths in front of Loftin second, a length ahead of Powhattan third, followed in close order by Bob Miles, Exploit, Audrain, Bob Cook, Buchanan and Boreas. There was no change at the quarter except Bob Miles had dropped back to seventh place. Passing half they began to take closer order, The Admiral still leading about a length, Loftin second, Bob Miles, who got the whip on the back stretch, third, Bob Cook fourth, the rest bunched. Before reaching the three-quarters Loftin took the lead, The Admiral behaving badly and dropping back, Buchanan and Bob Miles lapped second and third, Audrain fourth. Entering the stretch Buchanan took the lead and showed signs of an inclination to run out, but Murphy soon straightened him and he came away and won quite easily by a length and a half, Loftin second three parts of a length in front of Audrain third, Bob Miles fourth, followed by Bob Cook, Boreas, The Admiral, Exploit and Powhattan III. in the order named. First half 52-1/2, first mile 1:47, race 2:40-1/4. DESCRIPTION OF WINNER Buchanan is a good chestnut with a small star, and stands full 16 hands high. He is a very handsome colt, with a level and symmetrical frame on sound legs. The most fastidious critic could but be pleased with his general formation and racing-like look. He was bred jointly by Capt. Cottrill, Mobile, Ala., and J. W. Guest, Danville, Ky. The latter sold his half interest to Capt. Cottrill, who in turn sold a half interest in him and his stable in training to Capt. S. S. Brown of Pittsburgh, Pa. This is Buchanan's maiden win. He started six times at two years old, was second five times and third once. He has started twice at three years old. He was unplaced in the Belle Meade Stakes at Nashville, 1-1/4 miles. He bolted and finished second but second place was given to Exploit on a claim of a foul, and won the Derby above. He has twenty-four additional three-year-old engagements. He is by Buckden, out of Mrs. Grigsby by Wagner, her dam Folly by Imp. Yorkshire, out of Imp. Fury by Imp. Priam, &c. SUMMARY Third Race--The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds, $100 entrance, half forfeit, $20 if declared May 1st, 1883; $40 if declared May 1st, 1884, with $1,500 added; of which $200 to second. 1-1/2 miles. 51 subs, of whom 16 declared and 3 dead. Value $4,190. W. Cottrill's ch c Buchanan by Buckden, dam Mrs. Grigsby; 110 lbs., Murphy 1 R. A. Johnson & Co.'s b c Loftin by Monarchist, dam Lilly Babbitt; 110 lbs., Sayres 2 T. J. Megibben's ch c Audrain by Springbok, dam Alme; 110 lbs., Fishburn 3 J. T. Williams' ch c Bob Miles by Pat Malloy, dam Dolly Morgan; 110 lbs., McLaughlin 0 Clay & Woodford's br c Admiral by Vedette, dam Regatta; 110 lbs., C. Taylor 0 R. A. Johnson & Co.'s b c Powhattan III. by Glenelg, dam Florence I; 110 lbs., D. Williams 0 Wooding & Puryear's b c Exploit by Enquirer, dam Fanny Malone; 110 lbs., Conkling 0 R. M. McClellan's b c Boreas by Billet, dam Maggie Morgan; 110 lbs., O'Brien 0 Time--2:40-1/4 Betting--Bob Miles $440, Audrain $400, Buchanan $400, Loftin $160, field $240. ELEVENTH DERBY 1885 A more beautiful morning could not have been made for the opening day of the Louisville Jockey Club. Not a cloud was to be seen, and the genial rays of the sun made the day most charming. The Kentucky Derby grows in interest with each recurring year, and this was its eleventh renewal. There is more ante-post betting on it than on any race in this country, and the winner is generally awarded the highest honor as a three-year old. The track was in splendid order, except the chute, which has not been galloped over and was deep and dusty. The grounds looked neat and clean with its holiday suit of whitewash, which was a pretty contrast with the emerald green of the grass on the inner field. The attendance was immense, the largest ever seen on a race track in Kentucky save the Ten Broeck-Mollie McCarthy match. The inner field was full of all kinds of vehicles and conveyances, while the training track was packed full of people from the head of the homestretch down past the grand stand and well around the turn, nearly half a mile of people almost solidly packed. Here and there could be seen a number of heads on the turn peeping out under the rails, reminding one of a lot of frogs coming out to sun themselves. It was a glorious sight to see--the grand stand literally packed with people while the inner field and every available place, and the stables, tents and booths outside of the main course were alive with people, the hum and noise coming up from thousands of throats reminded one of a grand chorus from a distant orchestra. The race of the year, the Kentucky Derby came, and after the ten were weighed in the questioning never ceased as to who would win until it was finally decided. We are perfectly satisfied in our own mind that Bersan would have won if Favor, his stable companion, had not crossed and interfered with him to such an extent at the vital part of the race--the homestretch. The best colt was second, and barring accidents he will demonstrate it before the year is over. He will make a grand race horse. We would not rob Joe Cotton of his laurels honestly won, still we believe Bersan is a better race horse over a distance of ground. Keokuk cut out the running, Playfair second, Irish Pat third, followed by Clay Pate, Thistle, Bersan, Joe Cotton, Favor, Lord Coleridge and Ten Booker. Entering the main track at the three-quarter pole Keokuk led, with Favor second, Joe Cotton third, rest well bunched. Passing the stand Keokuk still led, Bersan second, Lord Coleridge third, the pace slow, Irish Pat fourth, followed in close order by Playfair, Favor, Joe Cotton, Thistle, Clay Pate and Ten Booker. Bersan showed in the lead at the quarter, Keokuk third, Irish Pat fourth, rest bunched. At the half Bersan still led, Favor second, Joe Cotton third, and it looked like a battle between the stables of Williams and Morris & Patton. Entering the stretch Joe Cotton showed in front on the outside with Favor next, and Bersan at the pole third, Thistle fourth. Just after fairly getting into straight running Favor swerved over on Bersan, cutting him off and making him lose several lengths. Bersan had to pull back, and less than two hundreds yards from home was two lengths behind Joe Cotton, gaining at every stride. Joe Cotton managed to beat him on the post by a short neck. Ten Booker, who came very fast at the finish, was a length off third, followed by Favor, Thistle, Keokuk, Clay Pate, Playfair, Irish Pat and Lord Coleridge. The first half 52, three-quarters 1:19, first mile 1:44, race 2:37-1/2. SUMMARY Third Race--The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-olds; $100 entrance, h f; $20 if declared by May 1st, 1884; $40 if declared by May 1st, 1885; $1,500 added, of which $200 to second. 1-1/2 miles. 69 entries. 4 void. J. T. Williams' ch c Joe Cotton, by King Alfonso, dam Inverness; 110 lbs., Henderson 1 Morris & Patton's b c Bersan, by Ten Broeck, dam Sallie M.; 110 lbs., West 2 M. Young's b c Ten Booker, by Ten Broeck, dam Nellie Booker; 110 lbs., Stovall 3 Morris & Patton's b c Favor, by Pat Malloy, dam Favorite; 110 lbs., Thompkins 0 E. Corrigan's ch c Irish Pat, by Pat Malloy, dam Ethel; 110 lbs., Murphy 0 P. G. Speth's ch c Thistle, by Great Tom, dam Ivy Leaf; 110 lbs., Blaylock 0 W. Cottrill's ch g Lord Coleridge, by Buckden, dam Catina; 107 lbs., Hughes 0 R. C. Pate's b c Clay Pate, by Enquirer, dam Wampee; 110 lbs., Withers 0 G. W. Darden & Co.'s ch g Playfair, by Plenipo, dam Annie C.; 107 lbs., Conkling 0 W. P. Hunt's br c Keokuk, by Long Taw, dam Etta Powell; 110 lbs., Fishburne 0 Time--2:37-1/4. Betting--Joe Cotton $500, Bersan and Favor $215, Ten Booker $75, Irish Pat $40, Playfair and Thistle $35 each, Lord Coleridge $25, field $30. TWELFTH DERBY 1886 While the weather was cloudy and hot and looked threatening, the rain held off during the day. The track while not so fast as we have seen it, was in capital condition, safe and good. The attendance was very large, fully ten thousand people were on the grounds. The populace availed themselves of free entrance to the inner field, which had a large number of people, on foot and in all kinds of vehicles. The inside or training track was lined with people from the timing stand to near the three-quarter pole. The Grand Stand and betting ring was crowded to overflowing, and the ladies were out in large numbers. For the twelfth Derby, ten started, Ben Ali was the favorite, Free Knight second choice and Blue Wing third. Ben Ali won it is true, but we doubt whether he was up to concert pitch, but we confess Blue Wing is a much better colt than we gave him credit of being, and think he ought to have won the race. He ran wide on the turn; his jockey let him swerve just at the critical point of the race, and was only beaten three parts of a length. Free Knight ran a good race--indeed it is the best field we have seen since Aristide's year. There is hardly a starter in the race but what will pay his way and be a useful horse. This is the third time the race has been won by a son of Virgil--Vagrant, Hindoo and Ben Ali--and Vera Cruz would have won save an accident at the start. Seven of the starters were bred in Kentucky--Ben Ali, Blue Wing, Free Knight, Sir Joseph, Grimaldi, Harrodsburg and Masterpiece; and Lafitte and Jim Gray are by Kentucky owned stallions, and the sire and dam of Lijero were bred in Kentucky, showing the State still holds the highest place in the production of the horse. Take it all through it was the best race, so far as interest and contest are concerned, ever run for the Derby or any other race, and we doubt if such a field and such a contest will be witnessed again during the year. Every year seems to add interest to this great race. It will be seen by the time made that the pace was a hot one from start to finish, and few such races from the time standard have been run so early in the year with 118 lbs. up and by the way this is the first year the weights have been 118 lbs., and is the fastest run race. The start was a beautiful one, the ten horses going away on even terms, Blue Wing in the lead, Grimaldi second, Masterpiece third, followed by Sir Joseph, Ben Ali, Free Knight, Jim Gray, Harrodsburg, Lijero, and Lafitte in order named. Masterpiece took the lead as they entered the main track, Grimaldi second, Blue Wing third, rest well up bunched. Passing the stand Masterpiece still led, Harrodsburg second, Jim Gray third, Free Knight fourth, rest in close order. There was no change at the quarter, but the pace was still hot. Nearing the half, Free Knight was a head in front of Harrodsburg second, Jim Gray a head behind him third, with Ben Ali, Blue Wing and Masterpiece close up and bunched. At the three-quarter pole, entering the homestretch, Free Knight was a half length in front of Ben Ali second, Blue Wing third. Now commenced the real struggle for the race. All three were driving, Ben Ali and Blue Wing were head and head at the furlong pole, Free Knight a half length behind. Blue Wing swerved to the outside and lost some ground, and Ben Ali gained a length or more when he entered the stretch. Fitzpatrick rode wide on the turn, carrying Blue Wing out, which enabled Ben Ali to take the rail. After a driving race home, Ben Ali won by a scant three parts of a length, Blue Wing second, two lengths in front of Free Knight third, followed by Lijero, Jim Gray, Grimaldi, Sir Joseph, Harrodsburg, Lafitte and Masterpiece in the order named. Time--half 50, three-quarters 1:16, mile 1.43, mile and a quarter 2:10, race 2:36-1/2. SUMMARY Third Race--The Kentucky Derby, for three-year olds; $100 entrance, h f; or only $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1885 or $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1886; money to accompany declaration; with $1,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 107 entries 3 void by death of nominator, 5 declared May 1st, 1885 and 52 May 1st, 1886. Value $5,440. J. B. Haggin's br c Ben Ali by Virgil, dam Ulrica; 118 lbs., Duffy 1 Melbourne Stable's b c Blue Wing by Billet, dam Mundane; 118 lbs., Garrison 2 P. Corrigan's b c Free Knight by Ten Broeck, dam Belle Knight; 118 lbs., Fitzpatrick 3 S. S. Brown's b c Masterpiece by Blue Mantle, dam Phoebe Mayflower; 118 lbs., West 0 E. J. Baldwin's b c Lijero by Rutherford, dam Jennie D.; 118 lbs., I. Murphy 0 Gray & Co.'s b c Jim Gray by Ten Broeck, dam Alice Gray; 118 lbs., Withers 0 J. G. Greener & Co.'s br c Lafitte by Longfellow, dam Sue Wynne; 118 lbs., Stoval 0 R. A. Swigert's ch c Sir Joseph by Glenelg, dam Susie Linwood; 118 lbs., Conkling 0 J. & J. Swigert's b c Grimaldi by Lisbon, dam Nora; 118 lbs., I. Lewis 0 Chinn & Morgan's ch c Harrodsburg by Fellowcraft, dam Bonnie May; 118 lbs., J. Riley 0 Time--2:36-1/2 Betting--Ben Ali $500, Free Knight $370, Blue Wing $260, Jim Gray $115; field $140. THIRTEENTH DERBY 1887 The morning was cloudy and threatening, and it rained all around but fortune seems to favor the Louisville Jockey Club, and only a few drops of rain fell during the day. The attendance was very large, the Grand Stand, betting grounds and inner space were packed with people, so much so that navigation was almost impossible; the inner field was full of people and vehicles and the crowd lining the inner fence extended from the head of the stretch down past the Grand Stand and for an eighth of a mile around the first turn. The Derby was a fairly good race, as the track was slower than many supposed. In our issue of last week we selected Banburg, Jacobin and Jim Gore as the three placed horses, and at the same time stated that the form shown by Montrose at Lexington was not his true form, but was unable to say what was the matter with the colt. We expressed the opinion that we thought Jim Gore would win the Derby if he did not break down in the race, and unfortunately his leg gave away at the half mile pole, so his jockey, Fitzpatrick, stated, and that he could not have lost the race except for the accident. Banburg could not extend himself in the race to-day; he neither had speed or bottom, from some cause, and did not begin to show the form he did at Lexington in the Phoenix Stakes. Montrose took the lead as the lot entered the main stretch, and was never afterwards headed. Taken as a lot the Derby colts this season were inferior to last year, save and except Jim Gore, who is a real grand young horse, who struggled gamely and finished second, after breaking down a half mile away from the finish. The start was a beautiful one, Jacobin in the lead, Ban Yan second, Banburg third, followed by Jim Gore, Clarion, Montrose and Pendennis. Entering the stretch Montrose led a length, Ban Yan second, Banburg third, rest bunched. Passing the stand Montrose led a length, Ban Yan second, Banburg third, Jacobin, Jim Gore, Clarion and Pendennis following in close order. No change at the quarter, but at the half Banburg took second place, and they went around the turn pretty closely bunched, Montrose still leading a length. Entering the stretch Montrose still led; Jim Gore who was seen to falter at the half rallied and took second place as they entered the stretch, but was never able to get on even terms with Montrose who held his lead, and won by a length and a half, Jim Gore second a length in front of Jacobin third same in front of Banburg fourth, Clarion fifth, Ban Yan sixth, Pendennis beaten a hundred yards, seventh. First half mile 52, first mile 1:45-1/2, race 2:39-1/4. DESCRIPTION OF THE WINNER Montrose is a bay colt, blaze face and several white feet, has neat head and neck, rather light body but clean legs, by Duke of Montrose, out of Patti by imp. Billet, her dam Dora by Pat Malloy, out of Etta, Jr. by Bill Alexander, her dam Etta by Star Davis, &c., &c. SUMMARY Third Race--The Kentucky Derby, for 3-year olds, foals of 1884, $100 entrance, h f $10 if declared on or before May 1st, 1886; $20 if declared on or before May 1st, 1887; money to accompany declarations; with $1,500 added; of which $300 to second and $150 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 119 entries. 12 paid $10, 66 paid $20, 1 void. Value $5,920. Labold Bros.' b c Montrose by Duke of Montrose, dam Patti; 118 lbs., I. Lewis 1 A. G. McCampbell's b c Jim Gore by Hindoo, dam Katie; 118 lbs., Fitzpatrick 2 R. Lisle's br c Jacobin by Jils Johnson, dam Agnes; 118 lbs., Stoval 3 J. D. Morrisey's b g Banburg by King Ban, dam Rosaline; 115 lbs., Blaylock 0 Fleetwood Stable's ch c Clarion by Whisper, dam Claretta; 118 lbs., Arnold 0 W. O. Scully's ch c Ban Yan by King Ban, dam Hira; 118 lbs., Godfrey 0 Santa Anita Stable's b c Pendennis by Virgil, dam Persia; 118 lbs., Murphy 0 Time--2:39-1/4 Betting--8 to 5 against Banburg, 2 to 1 Jim Gore, 4 to 1 Pendennis, 5 to 1 Jacobin, 6 to 1 Ban Yan, 10 to 1 each Montrose and Clarion. FOURTEENTH DERBY 1888 A more raw, cold disagreeable day can hardly be imagined than the opening day of the Louisville Jockey Club. It was cloudy, and a cold, raw wind blew directly across the track from the North; and as they have had no rain for the past fortnight or more, the dust blew in blinding clouds. The track had been watered on the homestretch which helped matters very much. The track was slow, and deep in dust except on the homestretch. The attendance was very large, the people taking advantage of the free entrance to the inner field; the rails were packed, four or five deep, from the three-quarter pole at the head of the stretch to well around the first turn. The Grand Stand, Betting Ring and lawn in front of the Grand Stand was packed, making locomotion extremely difficult. Only seven appeared for the fourteenth renewal of the Kentucky Derby, and the Melbourne Stables Gallifet and Alexandria were even against the field. The race is described elsewhere but a few comments are necessary here. Gallifet though the day was raw and cold frothed and fogged greatly between the hind legs and on his neck, showing him to be soft, and not keyed up to concert pitch. Still, notwithstanding his condition we think him the best colt and should have won. He made the pace hot, 51 for the first half mile, was ridden in the deepest and meanest part of the track. With a good jockey he should have won. The Chevalier made an unaccountable bad show and Macbeth made a wonderful improvement on his race at Lexington. He swerved badly at the head of the stretch and seemed like he wanted to go out, but won quite handily at the finish. On Macbeth's running at Lexington we could not recommend him for a place and selected Gallifet, The Chevalier and White for the placed horses. Gallifet was second, and White third. The Chevalier led off, Gallifet second, Autocrat third. Entering the main track Zeb Ward led, Alexandria second, White third, rest bunched. Passing the stand Alexandria led Gallifet a head, followed a length off by The Chevalier, White, Autocrat and Zeb Ward. Gallifet took the lead after passing the stand, and led Alexandria a length at the quarter, The Chevalier third. Coming to the half Gallifet led Macbeth two lengths, who was head and head with The Chevalier third, Autocrat fourth. They ran in this order round the lower turn, White moving up to fourth place entering the stretch. Half way down the homestretch Macbeth took the lead and won quite handily by a length, Gallifet second, three lengths in front of White third, Alexandria fourth, The Chevalier fifth, Autocrat sixth, Zeb Ward seventh. Time--quarter 26-1/4, half 51, three-quarters 1:18, mile 1.44-1/2, mile and a quarter 2:11-1/4, race 2:38-1/4. SUMMARY For three-year olds, foals of 1886, $100 entrance, h f $10 if declared on or before May 1st, 1887; $20 if declared on or before May 1st, 1888; money to accompany declarations; with $2,500 added; of which $500 to second and $200 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 95 noms. Chicago Stable's b c Macbeth II, by Macduff, dam Agnes; 115 lbs., Covington 1 Melbourne Stable's ch c Gallifet by Falsetto, dam India; 118 lbs., McCarthy 2 W. O. Scully's ch c White by King Ban, dam Heglaz; 118 lbs., Withers 3 T. J. Clay's br c The Chevalier by Prince Charlie, dam Miss Haverley; 118 lbs., Lewis 0 D. Gibson's b c Autocrat by Prince Charlie, dam Blomida; 118 lbs., Hamilton 0 Melbourne Stable's ch c Alexandria by Falsetto, dam Patrimony; 118 lbs., Jones 0 G. M. Rye's b c Col. Zeb Ward by Hindoo, dam Galatea; 118 lbs., Blaylock 0 Time--2:38-1/4 Betting--Even money Melbourne Stable's pair 3-1/2 to 1 The Chevalier, 10 to 1 each White and Macbeth, 12 to 1 each Zeb Ward and Autocrat. FIFTEENTH DERBY 1889 A more disagreeable day for racing could hardly been imagined. It was intensely hot, and the dust so thick you could almost cut it with a knife. The track was watered during the night, but with all the water it did not lay the dust, still it was a great improvement. The attendance was the largest ever known on the Louisville track except the Ten Broeck and Mollie McCarthy match. The crowd was so great that it was really uncomfortable and almost impossible to move about or get into the betting ring. The free entrance to the field attracted an immense crowd of people and vehicles, the home stretch being twenty or more people deep for its whole length. Notwithstanding the discomforts of the day, it was great racing, and it will be a long time before we shall see such another field of high class three-year olds. Just imagine over a deep dusty track, not fast, for four three-year-olds with 118 lbs., up to a run a mile and a half as good as 2:34-1/2, and you can at once appreciate their high class. It is our conviction that with a stout armed jockey up Proctor Knott would have won the Derby. There is no complaint against Barnes's riding as he did the best he could under the circumstances. Proctor Knott is a tremendous big stout colt, heavy headed and no ninety pound boy can hold him or keep his head up. Before going a quarter of a mile he overpowered Barnes, nearly pulling him over his head, and before the race was half finished Barnes was exhausted pulling to keep his head up. With such a jockey as Murphy, McLaughlin, Hayward or Fitzpatrick up we do not believe he could have lost the race. His future racing will tend to prove our opinion. He made all the running as will be seen for a mile and a quarter and then swerved to the outside and lost enough ground to have made him win by two open lengths. We would not detract from the merits of Spokane, the winner, as he is a great race horse, but we think Proctor Knott the greatest youngster we have seen in years. The eight went away on pretty even terms, Hindoocraft first, Bootmaker second, Spokane third, followed by Proctor Knott, Sportsman, Once Again, Cassius and Outbound. They had not gone fifty yards before Proctor Knott rushed to the front and led by three lengths as they entered the main track, which he increased to five as they passed the stand, Hindoocraft second, Sportsman third, closely followed by Spokane and Once Again. Proctor Knott held his lead past the quarter, but it was reduced three lengths at the half, Sportsman second, Hindoocraft third, rest well bunched. Coming round the lower turn Spokane took second place, and when they neared the three-quarter pole Barnes was unable to control Proctor Knott and hold his head up, bolted to the outside, and looked like he was going up the chute for a moment. This lost him some three or four lengths and before he could be straightened, Spokane came next to the rails and took the lead. Inside the sixteenth pole Proctor Knott came again, and after a driving race home in which Spokane swerved to the inner rail he managed to beat Proctor Knott on the post by a short throat latch, Once Again two lengths off third, he a head in front of Hindoocraft fourth, followed by Cassius, Sportsman, Outbound and Bootmaker, in the order named. Bootmaker broke down, pulling up quite lame. Time, first 24-3/4, half a mile 48-1/2, three-quarters 1:14-1/2, mile 1:41-1/2, mile and a quarter 2:09-1/4, mile and a half 2:34-1/2. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby for three-year olds, foals of 1886; $100 entrance, half forfeit, $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1888, $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1889; money to accompany declarations; with $2,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 94 entries. Value $5,520. N. Armstrong's ch c Spokane by Hyder Ali--Interpose; 118 lbs., Kiley 1 Scoggan & Bryant's ch g Proctor Knott by Luke Blackburn--Tallapoosa; 115 lbs., Barnes 2 M. Young's b c Once Again by Onondaga--Black Maria; 118 lbs., I. Murphy 3 Hindoocraft, Cassius, Sportsman, Outbound and Bootmaker, 118 each, also ran. Time--2:34-1/2 Betting--10 to 1 Spokane and Hindoocraft, 3 to 1 Once Again and Bootmaker coupled, 1 to 3 Proctor Knott, 15 to 1 Cassius, 20 to 1 Outbound and Sportsman. SIXTEENTH DERBY 1890 Rain fell heavily on Tuesday nearly the entire day, which continued throughout the night and nearly half the day Wednesday, May 14, which made the track a sea of mud and water. Notwithstanding the unfavorable weather and muddy condition of the track the attendance was extremely large, fully up to any preceding day. The Derby was the third race, for which a half dozen put in an appearance. Robespierre was the favorite, even against the field, but he was beaten by Riley and Bill Letcher. Bill Letcher led off, Outlook second, Palisade third, other three bunched. No change at the three-quarters, but passing the stand Robespierre and Riley were head and head, Outlook third. Going round the turn Robespierre drew clear and led at the quarter with Outlook second, Riley third, Bill Letcher fourth. Before reaching the half Riley was in front, Robespierre second, Bill Letcher third, the race lay between the two. No change at the head of the stretch, Riley leading and running easy, Robespierre driving and Bill Letcher gaining. Riley won handily by a length and a half, Bill Letcher second and a length in front of Robespierre third, Palisade fourth, Prince Fonso, fifth, Outlook sixth. First mile 1:47, the race 2:45. Value to winner, $5,460. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby for three-year olds, foals of 1887; $100 entrance, half forfeit, $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1889, $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1890; money to accompany declarations; with $2,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 115 noms. E. Corrigan's b c Riley, by Longfellow, Geneva; 118 lbs., Murphy 1 W. R. Letcher's b c Bill Letcher, by Longfellow, Ida Lewis; 118 lbs., Allen 2 G. V. Hankins's br c Robespierre, by Jils Johnson, Agnes; 118 lbs., Francis 3 Prince Fonso 118, Palisade and Outlook 118 also ran. Time--2:45 Betting--Even Robespierre, 4 to 1 Riley, 4 to 1 Bill Letcher, 5 to 1 Prince Fonso, 10 to 1 Palisade, 20 to 1 Outlook. SEVENTEENTH DERBY 1891 A cloudy and hazy morning, but still spring like day, lending the Louisville Jockey Club an aspect brighter than it has ever worn since its inauguration in 1875, combined with the great improvements made during the past winter and spring, there seems every hope of a pleasant, brilliant and successful meeting. We have had a remarkable season, rainy and wet during March, and when winter broke summer came upon us with a burst, there being as usual no intermediate season between winter and summer. The country is dry; and the track deep in dust, still the country wears a hue of green, the trees are in full leaf, and the pastures clothed with a carpet of emerald green. The crowd to witness the seventeenth renewal of the Kentucky Derby was the largest and most immense ever assembled on the course, except at the Ten Broeck and Mollie McCarthy race, and many thought the crowd larger. During the years of this race men have written lovingly of Louisville and its track, and sounded the praises of the great three-year old event. The crowd was so great that locomotion was almost impossible, and being a free day the inner field presented one mass of humanity from the head of the stretch nearly to the first quarter pole. Derby only brought four to the post. The race for the first mile was merely a big exercising gallop, the first mile in 2:01. They ran from the half mile pole home in 51-1/4 seconds, and Isaac Murphy had to ride Kingman hard to win by a length. This is the slowest time a Derby has ever been run in. The Kentucky Derby for three-year olds, foals of 1888; $100 entrance, half forfeit, $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1890, $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1891; money to accompany declarations; with $2,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 83 noms. Value to winner $4,680. Jacobin Stable's b c Kingman, by Glengarry, Patricia; 122 lbs., Murphy 1 T. J. Clay's b c Balgowan, by Strathmore, Trinkitat; 122 lbs., Overton 2 Eastin & Larabie's b c High Tariff by Longfellow, Christine; 122 lbs., Williams 3 Bashford Manor's b c Hart Wallace by Longfellow, Stephanie; 122 lbs., Kiley 0 Time--2:52-1/4 Betting--2 to 5 Kingman, 3 to 1 Balgowan, 10 to 1 High Tariff, 6 to 1 Hart Wallace. EIGHTEENTH DERBY 1892 The eighteenth Kentucky Derby was run in the cold. The weather did not check the crowd, and fully 10,000 people watched the race from the grand stand and free field and cheered Azra and Huron as they passed under the wire. It takes more than bad weather to dampen the enthusiasm over the Kentucky Derby, and only a positive assurance of poor racing will lessen the crowd. Signs and predictions of the weather prophets failed, and instead of the bright May-day weather promised by the bureau, the air was chilly and damp, and the sky hung with leaden colored clouds during the greater part of the morning and afternoon. In the early morning the sun shone, and though cool the indications were that the afternoon would be an ideal one for racing. Instead, however, a cold wind sprang up from the northwest and turf lovers saw their dreams of a beautiful day fade into typical fall weather. There was enough virtue in the wind, however, to dry off the track, which, with the exception of a little stickiness, was in a fair condition. The officials of the day were as follows: Judges--Col. M. Lewis Clark, R. A. Swigert and Washington Hessing. Timers--Norvin Harris, Van Kirkman and Lew Tarlton. Secretaries--Joseph Swigert and Charles Price. Starter--J. B. Ferguson. Clerk of the Scales--L. P. Ezekiel. The third race was the Kentucky Derby, with three starters, Huron, Phil Dwyer and Azra. The betting was on the Corrigan pair, while Azra's few friends put up their boodle freely. Three minutes before the start the same persons who were most enthusiastic at the finish were repeating over and again: "Oh! what a farce the race will be. Three horses only to gallop around like the hippodrome races of a circus." The following is a description of the race: From the first jump Corrigan's intentions may be read, Huron is to set a pace that will kill Azra, and Phil Dwyer is to win. Swinging the big colt to the rail, Britton gives him his head. Racing like El Rio Rey or Proctor Knott, he draws away from Azra, whom Clayton holds well in hand, and length by length increases his lead until five lengths of daylight lie between the green and light-blue jackets, Phil Dwyer, held in reserve by Overton, a length and a half in the rear. Nearing the first quarter the wrap on Azra is slackened a little and, though all go wide at the turn to seek the dryest going, Clayton takes ground by passing nearest the rail. Down the stretch to the stand they come, and it begins to be apparent that a stubborn contest is in progress. Huron's head is swinging, he is running easily, and as he swings along with his splendid action two lengths in the lead, a cheer breaks out. In every way he looks the winner, but at his heels comes one that will follow him with dogged courage till the last gasp. Under Clayton's good guidance, Azra is holding his own, though seemingly between two fires, for if Huron does not run away from him, there behind him is Phil Dwyer running under a pull and ready to take up the fight. As the wire is passed Huron again increases his lead, and rounding the turn is three lengths to the good, while Phil Dwyer moves up almost on even terms with Azra. So the quarter-pole is passed and the critical moment of the race arrives. It is time for Britton to "feel" Azra. The colored rider looks back, and then for the first time urges Huron a little. Will Azra hold his own or will he cry for quarter? Has he been able to stand the pace? If so, Phil Dwyer must come to the front and finish the work. Will he quit? How quickly that question is answered. The moment Britton makes that move on the back-stretch Clayton loosens his wrap and Azra responds. Will he hold his own? He does not come with a sudden burst of speed, but foot by foot he nears the leader, his steady rating telling at last. Phil Dwyer's time has come. He makes no response to Overton's call, and is then and there a beaten horse. The race is between Huron and Azra. It is no longer a question as to the latter's lasting. The query is, "Will Huron quit?" The last quarter is neared, Huron leads, but only by a little, that is steadily growing less. Azra is at his saddle, at his withers, at his head, gaining at every stride, slowly, but surely forging to the front. They are in the stretch and on even terms. Grandsons, both, of the great Leamington, the blood of the great race horse that flows in their veins has no taint of the coward, such as that of the colt that labors four lengths behind them. Azra is on the inside, and Britton has pinned him so close that Clayton can not use his whip. The boys knees must touch as the two colts race head and head. The crowd goes wild. Men yell the name, first of one and then the other. But for a moment the cries of "Azra, Azra wins," drown the others. He is drawing away. Clayton is climbing up on his neck and working like a demon. At the eighth pole he is almost a neck in front of Huron. The race seems over, Huron, after setting the pace throughout, surely can not come again. But he does! Britton has never ceased work on him, and at one bound lifts him back once more head to head. But that is all. The two are straining every muscle, the last link of speed is out in each, but as the fiery nostrils of the racers see-saw past each other with the swaying of the outstretched necks only for an instant is first Azra's and Huron's nose ahead. Not a whip is raised. Hands are too precious. Britton is riding vigorously, but Clayton is outdoing him. Can not he lift his mount just an inch or two to the front? The wire is there above them. Ten thousand people are yelling and Clayton puts out his supreme effort. It succeeds! Azra has won. Right on the post he gains six inches, no more, and by that distance stands the winner of the Kentucky Derby of 1892. It is a grand race, and victor and loser alike are cheered to the echo by the excited crowd. The value of the stake was $4,230. The Kentucky Derby for three-year olds, foals of 1889; $100 entrance, half forfeit; $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1891, $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1892; money to accompany declarations; with $2,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third. 1-1/2 miles. 3 starters. 68 subscribers. Bashford Manor's b c Azra, by Reform, Albia; 122 lbs., Clayton 1 Ed. Corrigan's b c Huron, by Iroquois, Brunette; 122 lbs., Britton 2 Ed. Corrigan's b c Phil Dwyer, by Longfellow, imp. Encore; 122 lbs., Overton 3 Fractional time--:25-1/4, :51-1/2, 1:17-3/4, 1:45-1/4, 2:12, 2:41-1/2 Betting--3 to 2 Azra, 20 to 11 Corrigan's pair. NINETEENTH DERBY 1893 Never since the Spokane-Proctor Knott Derby, in 1889, was there such a crowd gathered at Churchill Downs as that to-day. The weather and the far-famed Kentucky Derby were the cause of it, greatly augmented by the fact that the field was free. It is a time-honored and commendable custom of the Louisville Jockey Club to give a free field on Derby and Clark days, and the association lost nothing by it to-day, as every inch of space on the grand stand side of the track was filled, and no more could have been accommodated. The weather was simply delightful, and this with a strong attraction on the programme is what is required to draw a large crowd to a race-track. It is no easy matter to estimate such a gathering with any degree of accuracy, but there must have been at least 25,000 people on the grounds. They began to arrive before 11 o'clock, and from that time until 3 o'clock in the afternoon the streets leading out to the track were lined with street-cars, vehicles, equestrians and pedestrians. They came in all sorts of ways, from the dusty and perspiring footman to the elegant and flashy tally-ho, drawn by four prancing horses. It reminded one of the Irishman's witty paraphrase of an old couplet, "Some ride in chaises, And some walk, be-jases." Long before the hour for the first race the grand stand and surrounding grounds were a solid mass of restless but good-natured humanity, all on the qui vive for the sport so near at hand. Locomotion was the next thing to impossible, and those not content to remain in one place had a formidable undertaking in trying to get around. Over in the center-field a similar condition of affairs existed. For more than a quarter of a mile fronting the grand stand the inner rail was hugged by a heterogeneous mass of humanity, made up of men, women and children, white and blacks all bent upon getting the best position possible under the circumstances irrespective of the rights of others. Further back, a line of vehicles, every available inch occupied by a sightseer, extended nearly the entire distance of the back-stretch, so that only occasional glimpses of the horses could be caught by the occupants of the pressstand, upon whom those not present depended for an accurate description of the races. And it might be appropriately asked, what was the attraction that drew all this concourse of people to the same spot? What was it that made them endure for five hours all the discomfitures that surrounded them? It was not for the purpose of speculating on the results, for not one-tenth of those who were there, bet, or attempted to bet, or had any desire to do so. It was that inborn love of sport, that can be found in the hearts of the majority of men. It is the greatest compliment that can be paid to a racing association for that kind of a gathering to attend its meetings. As a whole, it was not there to speculate but prompted by a feeling of admiration for deeds of prowess and with an earnest desire to see the best horse win. This was the kind of an audience that witnessed the nineteenth renewal of the Kentucky Derby. The event itself might be regarded as somewhat of a disappointment, in the fact that the winner so far out-classed his field that he had too easy a thing of it. With Lookout eliminated, the contest between Plutus, Boundless and Buck McCann was a stubborn one, and not until very near the wire was the issue settled, as to who would get second place. There was no trouble about who would get first place; that was settled shortly after the flag fell. There were six starters in the Derby, namely: Cushing & Orth's pair, Lookout and Boundless; Scroggan Bros.' Buck McCann; Bashford Manor Stable's Plutus; J. E. Pepper's Mirage, and C. E. Railey's Linger. Kunze rode Lookout; R. Williams was up on Boundless; A. Clayton on Plutus; Thorpe on Buck McCann; Isaac Murphy on Mirage, and Flynn on Linger. Cushing & Orth's pair was odds-on favorites and the bulk of the big speculators' money went on the entry. There had been a great air of mystery about the preparation of Plutus for the Derby, and the talent appeared to be at a loss as to how to estimate him. His race showed that Trainer John Morris has been doing some good work with the colt and has a stake-horse in his stable. Plutus and Buck McCann were about even second choice, both to win and for place. Mirage, with Isaac Murphy up, found some followers, but principally "pikers," for the place on which odds of 3 to 1 could be had. There was a long price about Linger's chances with few takers. There was a general impression abroad that Railey's colt could not take up the weight and go the distance, and all who reached such a conclusion had it down just about right. But neither Linger nor Mirage will ever be able to beat Lookout at any weight or distance when the great son of Troubadour is at himself. They don't belong in his class. The others in the Derby are nearer his class, but it is my opinion that he will always hold them safe, under anything like equal circumstances. He won the Derby so easily that it places him clear out of the reach of anything but a high-class horse. Coming on the track, all the horses paraded in front of the grand stand and were vociferously applauded. The enthusiasm which the two previous races had in no wise affected, broke out in uproarous demonstration. Some yelled for one and some for another just as fancy or interest suggested, but the keen eyed judge of a race-horse could see the winner only in the big, graceful chestnut, who apparently oblivious to the excitement of which he was partially the cause, galloped quietly to the post. It was comparatively a small field but starter Pettingill had to line them up several times before sending them away in a bunch. In the break Lookout and Linger went out in the lead, heads apart, followed closely by Mirage, Buck McCann, Boundless and Plutus in the order named the latter getting a little the worst of the start. Lookout shook off Linger in a few strides, and at the quarter was an open length to the good, with Plutus and Linger second on even terms, Buck McCann fourth, Mirage fifth and Boundless last. Going under the wire for the first time, it was Lookout, by two lengths and running easy, Plutus second, a head in front of Linger, Boundless and Mirage about on even terms, with Buck McCann about a half length behind them. At the first quarter, past the wire, the order had changed little, except that Lookout had increased his lead and Buck McCann had moved up to fourth position. At the conclusion of the mile the order had not changed materially, but the scene shifted in the next quarter. Linger dropped out badly beaten and Mirage, on whom Murphy was working with all his might and main, began to go back to the trailer. In the meantime Lookout was romping down the stretch, five lengths ahead of Plutus, Boundless and Buck McCann, who were having a desperate fight of it. In the order as named last above they came under the wire. SUMMARY The Kentucky Derby, for three-year-old colts and fillies, foals of 1890; $100 entrance, half forfeit, $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1892, $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1893; money to accompany declarations; with $3,000 added, of which $400 to second and $150 to third, fourth to save stake. One and a half miles. Cushing & Orth's ch c Lookout, 3, by Troubadour, Christina; 122 lbs., Kunze 1 Bashford Manor's ch c Plutus, 3, by Blue Eyes, Sungleam; 122 lbs., A. Clayton 2 Cushing & Orth's br c Boundless, 3, by Harry O'Fallon, Endless; 122 lbs., R. Williams 3 Scoggan Bros.' ch c Buck McCann, 3, by Buchanan, Mollie McCann; 122 lbs., Thorpe 4 James E. Pepper's ch c Mirage, 3, by imp. Deceiver, Uproar; 122 lbs., I. Murphy 5 C. E. Railey's ch c Linger, 3, by King Alfonso, Wait-a-While; 122 lbs., Flynn 6 Won easily by five lengths in 2:39-1/4, same between second and third. The stake was worth $4,090 to the winner. Betting--7 to 10 Cushing & Orth's entry, 3 to 1 Plutus, 4 to 5 place. TWENTIETH DERBY 1894 It was Derby Day at Churchill Downs this afternoon, and the enclosure was crowded as it had not been for a long time previous. It was an ideal racing day, the hard rain of the morning thoroughly laying the dust. The rain made the track just a bit slow but this was more than compensated in the absence of dust. The good people of the Falls City were hungry to see a race and they turned out in large numbers, irrespective of color, class or circumstances. A free field made it possible for those who were unable to pay the price of admission to see the racing at little or no cost at all. There was an immense crowd in the infield, and the fence from the head of the stretch to the clubhouse turn was lined with a dense mass of humanity, each moity of which was struggling to either gain or maintain his position. The Derby of 1894 had not about it quite that glamour and fascination that has characterized several former contests for this event perhaps because there was no horse in it of particularly high-class, and of such individual prominence as to attract and absorb public attention for weeks prior to the race, which reaches the public thru the medium of the press. Horses are something like men in that some of them possess a kind of magnetism that draws around them a coterie of admirers, who become as much infatuated with him as does the most ardent admirers of a political leader. Such a horse was Proctor Knott, and never before nor since in the West, was as much written about and as much attention paid to a horse as was to him. The press teemed with articles about him from day to day, for weeks prior to the Derby of 1889, so that when the great day rolled around thousands of people went to the track impelled by an uncontrollable curiosity to see the horse that had been written so much about. Well, every one who went on that day, saw a race, the like of which they never saw before nor since. The idol was dethroned but even in defeat he was greater in the hearts of his admirers than was the winner. But the Derby this afternoon presented none of the attractive features of that great event won by Spokane. The horses trained here and, of course, around whom most of the local interest would naturally attach had not shown any trials upon which to place much faith in their prowess, with the possible exception of Pearl Song. The others had been tried and found wanting, and, as a matter of course, the public could not make an idol of common clay. Along up the line from Memphis to this meeting came a horse that had run races at three other tracks with considerable success, and whose muscles had been hardened for a journey of a mile and a half by actual racing, which is admitted by all trainers to be a better conditioner than private work. This horse is Chant, and he won the Kentucky Derby this afternoon just as he pleased. There may have been horses in it that will be better than he later on, but there was nothing in it that was within ten pounds of him to-day. There was nothing in it that could make the son of Falsetto stretch his neck and think seriously that he was running for a stake or merely out for an exercise gallop. The time was exceedingly slow, and this was partially due to the soft condition of the track, but more particularly due to the fact that there was nothing in the race that could make Chant run any faster. Chant was a strong favorite in the betting, his odds being uniformly 1 to 2, but after viewing his easy victory one was impressed with the idea that those odds were really quite liberal. It was only a matter of loaning one's money to the bookmakers for a little while, to be taken back shortly with fifty per cent interest. There were five starters in the Derby all with the same impost--122 pounds. Goodale was on Chant; R. Williams on Pearl Song; Overton on Sigurd; Ray on Al Boyer, and Irving on Tom Elmore. As remarked before Chant was a strong favorite, and Pearl Song was second choice. Not a few backed the latter to win, and as is always the case in every race, straggling bets went on each of the others to win, acting under the idea, it is supposed, that lightning is likely to strike anywhere. While Starter Pettingill had considerable trouble with each of his other fields, it was quite an easy matter to send off five well trained horses on a line, hence, with little delay, the flag flashed on the Kentucky Derby of 1894. Sigurd was the first to show in front, and he held that position for a quarter of a mile, but apparently on probation, for when he pleased Chant passed him and he pleased to do it coming down the stretch the first time. Passing under the wire at the completion of the first half mile, Chant was leading by two lengths, and to the practical eye of the turfmen it could be seen then that he had his field beat, as he was running very easily, with his mouth pulled open, while the others were struggling behind him in vain efforts to catch up. To make a long story short, it is only necessary to say that Chant led all the way and won simply without an effort. It was about as badly a strung out field as was ever seen. Pearl Song came in ten lengths behind Chant; Sigurd was about the same distance behind Pearl Song; Al Boyer was twenty lengths or more in the rear of Sigurd, and Tom Elmore was beaten off and his jockey pulled him up half way down the stretch. May 15, 1894,--The Kentucky Derby, for three-year old colts and fillies (foals of 1891) $100 entrance, half forfeit: $10 if declared on or before May 1, 1893; $20 if declared on or before May 1, 1894; money to accompany declaration; with $2,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third. One mile and a half. Closed with 55 nominations. Leigh & Rose's b c Chant, 3, by Falsetto, Addie C.; 122 lbs., 1 to 2, Goodale 1 C. H. Smith's ch c Pearl Song, 3, by Falsetto, Pearl Thorn; 122 lbs., 3 to 1, R. Williams 2 Bashford Manor's ch g Sigurd, 3, by Pardee, Lady Salyers; 122 lbs., 20 to 1, Overton 3 Anderson & Gooding's b c Al Boyer, 3, by imp. Deceiver, Bayadere; 122 lbs., 5 to 1, Ray 0 S. K. Hughes & Co.'s br g Tom Elmore, 3, by Julien, Ems; 122 lbs., 20 to 1, Irving 0 Time--2:41. Won by six lengths, fifteen lengths between second and third. Value to winner $4,020. TWENTY-FIRST DERBY 1895 The Kentucky Derby this year went to a Lexington owned and trained horse. Halma, the black son of Hanover and Julia L., owned and trained by Byron McClelland and ridden by Perkins, won the classic event Monday, in the easiest kind of style, going the mile and a half journey in 2:37-1/2. It was the slowest race of the day, and it looked like Halma could have gone the distance at least a second and a half faster had he been pushed to it. The association was especially favored with good weather Monday, and a lovelier day for racing could hardly have been made to order. The story of the Derby is quickly told as there were no sensational features about it. Only four horses started, Halma, Basso, Laureate and Curator. Halma was a 2 to 5 favorite, but even at this short price he was pretty heavily backed. Mr. Nick Finzer's colt Laureate, was heavily played for the place at 3 to 5, especially by the Louisville contingent, who were patriotic and backed their home horse for the position at the finish that seemed possible for him to obtain. Basso was held for the place at about the same price as Laureate, and the Chicago owned horse was pretty heavily played for the place. The matter of starting the field of four was soon disposed of and the quartet went off well together. Curator took the lead and quickly separated himself from his companions, holding the lead for nearly half a mile, but only on sufference. Coming near the wire for the first time, Halma took the lead, and to make the story short, held it easily to the end. Basso trailed all the way until entering the stretch for the final home run when he came up and challenged Laureate who had been in second place since the end of the first half mile. Basso took second position half way down the stretch and thus they finished, Halma easily by three lengths, Basso second by a length and Laureate third by five lengths. The Kentucky Derby, for three-year old colts and fillies (foals of 1892); $5 to accompany the nomination; $10 to be paid May 1, 1894; $20 to be paid May 1, 1895; $100 additional to start, with $2,500 added, of which $300 to second and $150 to third; fourth to save stake. One mile and a half. B. McClelland's blk c Halma, 3, by Hanover, Julia L; 122 lbs., 1 to 3, Perkins 1 C. H. Smith's b c Basso, 3, by Falsetto, Ethelda; 122 lbs., 9 to 2, Martin 2 Pastime Stable's ch g Laureate, 3, by Volante, imp. Laurel; 122 lbs., 5 to 1, A. Clayton 3 Bashford Manor Stable's b c Curator, 3, by Alarm, Katie Creel; 122 lbs., 20 to 1, Overton 0 Time--2:37-1/2 TWENTY-SECOND DERBY 1896 The Kentucky Derby is over and Ben Brush wears the crown, but his victory was obtained only by the narrowest of margins, and while his neck was clothed with flowers after the race, his sides were sore and bleeding from the marks of the spur, and his giant muscles ached as they never did before. Simms gave him the garlands, Ben Eder caused the other things. Ah! it was a "hoss-race!" Such a field of three-year olds had not met since the old standard of Spokane-Proctor Knott Derby, in which Once Again, Bootmaker, Hindoocraft, Cassius, Sportsman and Outbound followed behind the fighting leaders. And in the finish of the race to-day there was the same desperate, hair-raising finish, which marked that most famous of Derbies. Ben Brush was all out. Not only that but he needed all of the skill and strength and vim of a jockey famous on two continents to help his quivering nostrils first under the wire. And withal he is the best horse in the race. Not that Ben Eder with jockeys changed might not and probably would have won, but it was a matter of condition. Ben Eder was fit to a hair. Made fit in the only way to secure perfect condition, i. e. in actual racing, and McGuigan, after three months of constant care and thought, brought him to the post as exquisitely adapted for this particular race as any modiste fitted a Worth gown to a Parisian belle. There is now no doubt that all of Ben Eder's "prep" and races down the line were made with an eye single to this one race. And how artistically Bill McGuigan managed it. Always racing, yet taking on no penalty, and yet thanks to Lady Inez the only genuine "Umbrella" McGuigan still took down the money. Then came the time when Lady Inez would no longer do. The finishing touches must be given; the razor edge put on. This was done, and when Ben Eder cut a hair at Nashville his trainer knew he was ready and that in the Kentucky Derby Ben Eder would race the race of his life. And he did. He will never run a better one, perhaps, while Ben Brush will. This is the difference. Ben Brush, on the other hand, was in his first race of the season, and while he was by no means much too "high" and out of condition, still he had a host of other engagements up the line, some of them far richer in money than the Kentucky Derby. Ten thousand seemed to await him at Oakley, $12,000 at Latonia and $20,000 at St. Louis and Mr. Dwyer is not a sentimental man. His trainer could not afford to have Ben Brush too fine, and when the struggle came with Ben Eder the Bramble colt had only his class in his favor, and this was supplemented by Simms. It is true there were many spectators who honestly believe that Ben Eder won, but the obstruction offered by the judges' box makes it impossible for anybody but the judges or those in the timers' stand to tell, and there seems no doubt, from the statements of those in these positions, that Simms (as a great jockey will) saved just one more effort in Ben Brush and using it in the last desperate leap, shot the hair on his nose in front of his shorter whiskered opponent. Then too, there must be considered in estimating a popular verdict the natural and noble disposition to cheer the under dog when he gains an advantage and the sportsmanlike instinct to see an overwhelming favorite beaten. First Mate ran like the flashy cur that he showed himself to be in all of his races. He will likely do in shorter contests or in which he can overwhelm his opponents by a bust of his speed, but nature obviously designed him for the role of a gentleman's saddle horse, in which he can show high head and flaming tail in harmless curvetting, which will not be taken as a challenge to battle--at which his soul sickens. The surprise was in the awful performance of Ulysses. Those who had seen the colt work did not like his going, but in the name of wonder what was "Brown Dick" thinking of to throw away that hundred starting money on a dog which may not win it back in his whole year's campaign. Surely a trainer like "Dick" could not have been so deceived. I am of the opinion that irresistible Secretary Price buncoed "Dick" into starting a colt who had no more pretentions to being a Derby horse than honest "Dick" has of being a dude. Semper Ego somewhat redeemed himself for his poor showing at Lexington, and may be dangerous to some of the cracks yet, and The Dragon ran his usual good, honest race, doing the best that is in him. Parson and The Winner had no business in the Derby and nobody thought they had, but probably only started as a compliment to a very popular track management. With the aid of the form sheet below the story of the race is soon told. The Dill starting machine, which resembles that of Curly Brown and is the work of a Louisville man was used in all the races except the Derby, but in the big race Col. Chinn used the old flag flat-footed and unaided. There were several break-a-ways in all of which Ben Brush was prominent, and which were principally caused by First Mate's fiery desire to run. Incidently, it was comical to see what a difference was presented by this degenerate son of Shipmate when he reached the same spot again after going once around the yellow circle. Then he wanted to lay right down and be put to bed. He never cared if he never saw another horserace as long as he lived and his craven heart called loudly for action by the humane society forbidding the use of spurs. They were finally off with Ben Eder in the lead, but First Mate shot to the front at once and nearly pulling Thorpe's arms from their sockets set a merry clip past the stand, down the back stretch and around to the next turn. Ben Brush had not been lagging, but with Simms almost urging the sluggish colt had been laying up in fourth position. At the turn from the back stretch Simms leaned far over his mount's neck and urged him to the front. He soon overhauled First Mate, who had not thought the race would be so long, and turned in for home with a good lead and the race apparently already won. But the white face of Ben Eder had followed him through like a ghost and was coming on the outside like a flash of light. Running free and strong this true son of Fonso showed the heritage of a Derby winning sire. The family prestige must be maintained and he bid fair to do it. For one fleeting instant the white face showed before the red. But Ben Brush, too, came from an unconquered race and the blood of Bramble and old Bonnie Scotland surged through his veins as responding to the touch of steel his extended nose was thrust again an inch in front. Then Tabor made the mistake of his life. His horse was running true and comparatively fresh. The spurt of Ben Brush was only a spasmodic effort. He would have come back before the wire was reached. But Tabor reached for his whip and Ben Eder losing his jockey's aid faltered a trifle. It was now a battle of jockeys. Both urged their mounts with whip and spur, but Tabor was riding all over his horse while Simms lifted his mount at every stride. On they came nose and nose until with an expiring effort Simms struck the wire first. It was probably the only point in the last fifty yards at which a difference could be detected between the two horses. The crowd was such as only a great race can bring out and then only in Kentucky. The railroads and steamboats from all directions poured thousands of people into the city and vehicles of every description from carriages to spring wagons kept up a steady procession out the driveways to the track, while an endless chain of street cars discharged their human freight at the jockey club gates. Over ten thousand people are officially reported to have paid admission, while thousands of ladies and complimented visitors doubtless brought the attendance up to the 15,000 mark. The stands and tall steps were packed and the crowd stood thick all along the broad space between the track and stand and extended down to the fence beyond the betting shed. A feature was the social prominence given the occasion and reminded one of the old times when Col. Clark set the fashion in Louisville and led the way on his tally-ho to the races. The Courier-Journal gives the following statements from the judges: "It was a great race--one of the greatest I ever saw. We can not but regret, however, that Mr. McGuigan did not have a jockey who could do his colt justice. With an exchange of riders Ben Brush would certainly have been beaten to-day. He is a race horse of the highest class, however, and I think this race will do him much good. There was no doubt in the world about the finish. Simms simply lifted Brush a foot or so in front at the last jump." For three-year-olds (foals of 1893), $5 to accompany the nomination; $15 to be paid May 1, 1895; $30 to be paid May 1, 1896; $100 additional to start. The Club to guarantee the value of the stakes to be $6,000, of which $700 to second and $300 to third. Colts to carry 122 pounds; geldings (at time of starting) 119 pounds; fillies 117 pounds. Those not having won a race for three-year-olds (without respect to sex) of the value of $1,500 allowed 5 pounds; maidens, 10 pounds. One mile and a quarter. 171 nominations. Index Starters Jockeys St. 1/2 3/4 S. F. Betting Ben Brush, 117 Simms 2 4 4 1 h 1 n 1 to 2 Ben Eder, 117 Tabor 1 4 5 2 1 2 8 12 to 1 Semper Ego, 117 Perkins 3 2 3 4 2 3 8 9 to 1 First Mate, 117 Thorpe 6 1 1 3 h 4 4 5 to 1 The Dragon, 117 Overton 8 6 5 5 2 5 4 20 to 1 Parson, 109 Britton 7 7 7 7 6-1/2 50 to 1 The Winner, 117 Walker 4 3 2 6 7 30 to 1 Ulysses, 117 R. Williams 6 8 8 8 8 8 to 1 Time at post 20 minutes; start good; won in a fierce drive. M. F. Dwyer's b c Ben Brush, by Bramble--Roseville. Hot Springs Stable's b c Ben Eder, by Fonso--Workmate. Fractional Time--:25, :49-1/2, 1:15-1/2, 1:42, 2:07-3/4 TWENTY-THIRD DERBY 1897 The twenty-third Kentucky Derby has been won and Typhoon II. wears the laurel wreath. It was a splendid race and the winner earned his victory fairly and honestly, leading from start to finish, winning a race that, for the track was extraordinarily fast, with the pick of three-year olds of the West behind him. Ornament was second, Dr. Catlett was third, Dr. Shepard fourth, Goshen fifth, and Ben Brown, the pride of Newport, last. To Typhoon must be fairly conceded the race on its merits. He won squarely, fairly and honestly the prize, but it must also be as fairly conceded that he had to divide the honors. Probably two-thirds of the turfmen who saw the race still believe that Ornament is the better colt, and with equal luck, would have won, and while Typhoon showed great speed and endurance, Ornament added to this by as thrilling a display of gameness as was ever witnessed on a race course. With the worst of the going he raced from the whip like the true thoroughbred that he is, and in the last quarter, which is the crucial test, cut down Typhoon's two lengths of daylight to a scant neck. Great colt as he is, it was a lucky win for Typhoon, and probably even his owner would not care to have him measure strides again with his so recently defeated opponent. Withal Typhoon is by no means the faint-hearted sprinter that his early races indicated; he shows a strong infusion of the good old stout Glenelg blood, and if Ornament can beat him he cannot give him much and do it. The race was a beautiful one, and the following description, written by Mr. E. L. Aroni, turf editor of the Louisville Courier-Journal, could scarcely be excelled in accuracy as well as graphic power. "It lacks eight minutes of four o'clock when the six colts line up. Ornament begins to dance a little, and the jockeying of the boys on the other starters causes a wait. Typhoon does not relish the delay, and prances back of the field. In a few minutes they move up and break, but Typhoon whirls around and the flag does not fall. A minute later, when they have been at the post only six minutes, they break once again. This time they are caught in line with less than half a length between first and last. Down go the red and yellow squares. There is a roar from the crowded grand stand, and the twenty-third Kentucky Derby is begun. "What all careful watchers of the turf expected comes to pass. Typhoon sweeps to the front, with the others after him. Garner with admirable judgment swings the big chestnut toward the dry middle of the track as they round into the stretch. Goshen and Ben Brown are lapped on him, lying toward the rail, but on good going. Dr. Shepard is still near the inside, while behind come Ornament and Dr. Catlett, the slowest to get in motion. "Teen" Williams starts to work through the bunch with Dr. Catlett, choosing the faster part of the track. Clayton, on the other hand, carries Ornament toward the rail. He saves ground, bearing out on the others as strongly as possible to get good going, but thereby using energy that his mount will need later in the race. "Rating towards the stand Typhoon's splendid burst of speed is in evidence. He comes like a wild horse opening a gap of three daylight lengths--a yellow streak, like that other one that came flying along the outer rail across the track eight years ago, when Proctor Knott raced home just one jump behind Spokane. Like Proctor Knott in many ways this same Typhoon--in color, action and the unconquerable desire to lead his field. "Passing the stand Ornament is the nearest to him. Dr. Shepard is at the favorite's side with Ben Brown on even terms with him. Dr. Catlett is close up and running strongly, though showing no great speed, while Goshen even this early is in trouble. "Scarcely a change is to be noted as they round the turn and near the finish of the first half-mile of their journey. Dr. Shepard is hanging on better than was expected and Dr. Catlett is striving gamely to lie with the flying leaders. But they are out of it clearly barring falls and sudden deaths. As for Ben Brown and Goshen they are simply striking examples of the difference between stake and plater class regardless of the time test. They are lost in the dim distance before the end of the first half-mile. "The two Doctors are good colts, and game colts, but from the time the field straightened into the backstretch, they too may be dismissed from comment. They strive hard, but that chestnut demon in front is breaking their hearts, and their utmost efforts do not save them from falling foot by foot farther back from any chance in the final struggle for the prize. "It is a duel. To the uninitiated Typhoon seems to be merely rating in front with ample in reserve. To those who know the colt it is soul-stirring to see that other little chestnut colt buckling to his work, holding that lead down to three lengths and refusing to be outfooted by a splendid sprinter. "Around the far turn Clayton throws the whip into Ornament's side, and he runs out from under it marvelously. A full length is closed, but Clayton settles down to hand-riding again and no more of the gap is closed. Again he does this as the finish of the first mile is passed. Again he changes his tactics. And still Typhoon races in front. "Garner is proving himself a rider of fine quality. He is coaxing Typhoon. He is handling a colt with hand-riding, and it may be stated right here that no prettier bit of that same sort of riding has been seen on the Louisville track since the best days of Isaac Murphy, with the one exception of Simms' finish on Ben Brush. "Garner looks neither to right nor left. He has the race if he can hold. He swings Typhoon wide into the homestretch, landing him in the best and dryest path. Ornament must catch that colt if there is hope for him to win. He must get to Typhoon's throat-latch and ask him the question of courage. Clayton takes a chance. He hugs the rail and saves at least a length. Then, wisely, he bears out toward the hard going. Ornament is closing on Typhoon. "Clayton goes to the whip at the eighth pole and again Ornament comes forward from under punishment. He is nearing Typhoon. What is that boy Garner going to do? Every ounce in Typhoon is out! If Garner has not a wonderfully cool head he will drop the rein and lift the whip. He does not do it. He looks straight ahead. He is climbing forward on the leader's withers coaxing him on, coaxing him always on. Typhoon is all out, but Ornament, too is staggering a length back and the wire is overhead. "Ornament is gaining, gaining at every jump, running from the whip, ready to go on until he drops. But Typhoon, with that same steam-engine action with which he gained his lead, is holding it. The wire is reached. Garner is still climbing and coaxing, Ornament is still fighting a neck back, and Typhoon II., is winner of the Kentucky Derby of 1897." For three-year-olds (foals of 1894); $5 to accompany the nomination; $15 to be paid May 1, 1896; $30 to be paid March 1, 1897; $100 additional to start. The club to guarantee the value of the stakes to be $6,000, of which $700 to second and $300 to third. Colts to carry 122 pounds; geldings (at time of starting), 119 pounds; fillies, 117 pounds. Those not having won a three-year-old race of the value of $1,500, allowed five pounds; maidens ten pounds. One mile and a quarter. Closed with 159 nominations. One mile and a quarter. Index Starters Jockeys St. 1/2 3/4 S. F. Betting (325) Typhoon II, 117 Garner 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 h 11 to 5 (186) Ornament, 117 A. Clayton 5 2 2 2 6 2 8 2 25 7 to 5 (404) Dr. Catlett, 117 R. Williams 6 4 1 4 8 4 10 3 4 4 to 1 Dr. Shepard, 117 J. Hill 4 3 4 3 6 3-1/2 4 30 15 to 1 (336) Goshen, 117 Wilhite 2 6 6 6 5 15 to 1 (284) Ben Brown, 117 Ballard 3 5 3 5 2 5 1 6 6 to 1 Start fair; won with first 2 driving hard. Time--2:12-1/2. J. C. Cahn's ch c Typhoon II, by imp. Top Gallant-Dolly Varden. TWENTY-FOURTH DERBY 1898 Kentucky is happy. The Kentucky Derby on Wednesday last was won by a Kentucky horse, bred, owned and trained, while Memphis and the Southern talent are clothed in sackcloth and ashes. The gallant Plaudit lowered the colors of the hitherto invincible Lieber Karl. The day of the great event opened gloomy and showery, and the weather, therefore, reduced the crowd which would have otherwise been perhaps the greatest in the history of this famous race. Before the races began, however, the rain ceased and a brilliant assembly saw the 24th Kentucky Derby, and even in numbers the crowd suffered little in comparison with previous Derby Days, from ten to fifteen thousand people being present. The track had been deep in dust, and the light showers of the morning made the track a little slow and soggy, but by no means sloppy or muddy. Col. M. Lewis Clark was presiding judge and Secretary Price his associate. Thirteen bookmakers were in line and there was business for twenty. Lieber Karl's Memphis performances had made him the hottest tip that in recent years has started for the Derby. Although all of the trainers at Louisville had been confident that Plaudit would win the Derby, as shown in the reports of the Louisville correspondent of The Record, the Memphis tip was brought up so hot and strong by the Southern delegation, that, with few exceptions, Plaudit's sturdiest friends succumbed and sadly concluded that after all the Memphis Hindoo would beat their pet. The most notable exceptions were Dr. J. D. Neet, who bred Plaudit and who was there to pull for the colt; "Brown Dick," who trained him as a two-year-old, and Willie Simms, who was to ride him. Albert Simons, his trainer, felt the responsibility too keenly to commit himself to an expression of opinion and John E. Madden, the owner, had gone to New York two days before with Plaudit's half brother Glenheim, of which he is said to have a higher opinion of even than Plaudit. Major Thomas, who owned Himyar when Plaudit was sired, did not come down from his Lexington home to see the great son of his great sire perform. The bookies had nearly all come from Memphis, and were thoroughly imbued with the belief that no horse on earth could beat Lieber Karl, and that every dollar they bet against him was thrown away. Hence they tentatively put up 9 to 20 Lieber Karl and 2 to 1 Plaudit. This was soon changed to 7 to 20 Lieber Karl and 2-1/2 to 1 and 3 to 1 Plaudit, and 2 to 1 the field against Karl. As the other two starters--Isabey and Han d'Or--were considered to have no earthly show for first money the bulk of the money was forced on Plaudit by the prohibitive price on Karl, and the bookies were probably losers by the race, although Mr. Schorr was said to have bet heavily on his colt. Karl is an impressive looking fellow, with a high-headed, dashing way of going, and duly impressed the spectators as he worked by the stand. He is a handsome horse, much resembling in appearance and gait Typhoon II and First Mate. Plaudit, on the other hand, though more blood-like, is the least imposing looking of all Cinderella's great sons and is withal a sluggish racer. He has, however, a clean, low frictionless stride far preferable to the high sweeping action of his rival, and his clean-cut thoroughbred lines and splendid chest indicated that he had both gameness and stamina. There was little delay at the post, and when the flag fell Lieber Karl at once shot to the front, and came by the stand like a wild horse, with Burns pulling with might and main and keeping the rank colt well within himself. Plaudit was on the outside and running last, but easily, and the others right on the flying Karl's heels. Simms sent Plaudit forward, and when the back stretch was reached his red jacket flashed in front of Isabey and Han d'Or, who were never noticed again in the race. Lieber Karl was still running like a locomotive, but Simms set sail for him and before the middle of the back stretch was reached had his head at the leader's flanks and held his place, though he seemed to be extended, while Karl was apparently well in hand. As they struck the next turn Plaudit made a move to go up but Burns let out a link and Karl shot away. Simms began to ride, however, and the sluggish Plaudit, as if waiting to be called on, held his own at Lieber Karl's tail. Straightened into the run home Simms drew his whip and at the first touch of the lash Plaudit shot forward and slowly drew up to his rival's head, and at the last eighth pole they were on even terms. Karl for the first time this season had been collared. Not till then did Burns begin to urge his mount, and soon the catgut was raising welts upon Karl's heaving sides, while Simms was vigorously plying the lash to Plaudit. It was a desperate duel for a few strides, and then Plaudit gamely responding drew away and the race was over. Lieber Karl was all out, and while Simms rode the sluggish Plaudit to the end, he no longer needed the lash and finished with something to spare by a full length. When the winner trotted back to the stand, the heartiest ovation tendered a Derby winner in recent years was given him. The crowd surged through the gates and over the fence and it was necessary to call a policeman to keep the enthusiastic crowd from the horse's heels. A wreath of red roses was placed about the victor's neck, and as he was led before the stand the crowd--ladies and all--arose and cheered the hero to the echo. Kentucky Derby; for three-year-olds; guaranteed value $6,000. 1 mile and a quarter. Index Starters Jockeys St. 1/2 3/4 S. F. Betting Plaudit, 117 Simms 3 2 4 2 8 2 8 1 1 3 to 1 (740) Lieber Karl, 122 Burns 2 1-3/4 1 2 1-1/2 2 20 1 to 3 191 Isabey, 117 Knapp 1 3 h 3-1/2 3nk 3 3 12 to 1 Han d'Or, 117 Conley 4 4 4 4 4 25 to 1 Start good; won driving. Post 4 minutes. Lieber Karl was rank and Burns had him under a stout pull to the head of the stretch; he tired badly in the last furlong. Fractional time--0:25-1/2, O:50-1/2, 1:17, 1:30, 1:43-1/2, 1:55-3/4, 209. J. E. Madden's br c Plaudit, by Himyar, imp. Cinderella. TWENTY-FIFTH DERBY 1899 The twenty-fifth Kentucky Derby was run on Thursday, May 4, and was won easily by A. H. and D. H. Morris' Manuel, ridden by Fred Taral, who had come on from New York expressly for the mount. The weather was warm and pleasant, though cloudy, and the track deep with dust. The race was a poor one from the standpoint of time and would seem to indicate that with the single exception of Manuel there was not a horse of Derby class of ordinary years in the field. Some excuses could be made for Corsine, as he traveled from the Pacific Coast and was giving from five to twelve pounds to his opponents. But the son of Riley showed no speed at any part of the journey, though he seemed to be in fine form, and will have to improve remarkably to win rank among the good horses of America. There is not much to say about the others, except that they finished behind Corsine. Mazo will probably do much better at shorter distance, but Fontainbleau and His Lordship seem to be counterfeits. The latter was trained to the hour by his trainer and part owner, Mr. John Smith, who showed his skill in the development of the crack McIvor in his first year on the turf, but he shut up like a jack knife when collared and dropped out of it. But few words are needed in addition to the form-sheet in describing the race. His Lordship took the lead before reaching the grand stand and going down the back stretch seemed to be leading easily with his mouth wide open. Taral had Manuel under a wrap close up in second place and approaching the turn from the backstretch he nailed the leader. There was a moment's struggle and His Lordship fell back sulky and beaten and was no longer a contender in the race. Coming into the homestretch Corsine made his run and half way home came up under the whip and for an instant had his head at Manuel's hips. But Taral shook up the son of Bob Miles and the latter springing away, came on with Taral looking over his shoulder, and won without farther urging. Although the race was by no means a sensational one, yet it was the Kentucky Derby, and an immense crowd, estimated at 20,000 people, saw the race. Of this number, probably one-third were ladies in their spring toilets and presenting a scene of beauty which is equalled at no other race in America save the great Kentucky classic. There were eighteen bookmakers in line. The executive officers were as follows: Presiding Judge--Charles F. Price. Associate Judge--Lew Tarlton. Timers--Arthur Newsom, Pat Dunne and Charles McMeekin. Starter--Morgan Chinn. Manuel is a bay colt, sired by Bob Miles, son of Pat Malloy and Dolly Morgan, by Revenue; dam Espanita, daughter of Alarm and Outstep, by Blue Eyes. He is owned by Messrs. A. H. and D. H. Morris, and trained by Robert Walden, son of Mr. Wyndham Walden, one of the greatest of American trainers. Manuel was bred by George J. Long, Bashford Manor, Louisville, Ky., who raced him in his two-year-old form until October, when he was bought by his present owners for $15,000. Last year he started twenty-one times, winning three races, second three times, and third six times. The Kentucky Derby; for three-year olds; guaranteed value $6,000 1-1/4 miles. Fractional time, 0:25-3/4, 0:50-1/2, 1:17-3/4, 1:45-1/2, 2:12. 151 nominations. Starters Jockeys St. 1/4 1/2 3/4 M. S. F. Betting Manuel, 117 Taral 1 3 3 3 2 1 h 1 2 1 2 1 2 11 to 20 Corsine, 122 T. Burns 5 5 5 3 h 2 3 2 4 2 5 3 to 1 Mazo, 117 Conley 4 4 1 4nk 4 1 4 3 3 3 3 6 8 to 1 His Lordship, 110 Turner 2 1-1/2 1 1 2 1 3 h 4-1/2 4 2 12 to 1 Fontai'ebleu, 117 Overton 3 2 1 2-1/2 5 5 5 5 50 to 1 Start good. Won easily; place same. Post 3 minutes. Winner, b c by Bob Miles--Espanita. Value to winner $4,850. TWENTY-SIXTH DERBY 1900 Louisville, Ky., May 3rd, 1900, weather fine, track fast. One mile and a quarter. Time 2:06-1/4. Value $4,850, second $700, third $300. Lieut. Gibson, 117, D. Boland 1 by 4 lengths Florizar, 122, Van Dusen 2 by 2 lengths Thrive, 122, Winkfield 3 by 1 length Highland Lad, His Excellency, Kentucky Farmer, Hindus also ran. Betting 10 to 7 on Gibson. Good start. Won easily, place same. Gibson made his field look common. Lieut. Gibson, br c, by G. W. Johnson--Sophia Hardy, owned by Charles H. Smith, trained by Charles Hughes. There was little delay at the post. To a perfect start, His Excellency was the first to show, closely followed by Lieut. Gibson and Kentucky Farmer, with the field well bunched. When all were straightened out and the race had begun Lieut. Gibson took command from the momentary leader and began nodding off fast quarters with wonderful regularity. The pace rate of speed was terrific the first quarter, being run in :24-1/4, at the end of which the gallant pacemaker let out a link and running the third eighth in 0:11-1/2 was at the seven-eighths pole in :35-3/4. Boland now steadied the big colt by letting him rate right along. The fourth eighth in :12-1/4 carried him to the three-quarter pole in :48, a heart-breaking clip of the first half-mile of a mile and a quarter race. Carrying 117 pounds as lightly as a feather, Lieut. Gibson still going easy, traversed the first three-quarters in 1:13-1/2. The conservative element among the backers of the favorite became uneasy at this stage of the race, fearing the horse would be unable to withstand the tremendous strain of the fast pace. A second time Boland took hold of the flying leader that with measured strides seemed to be annihilating distance and defying time. A second glance at the field and all cause of doubt as to Gibson's ability to live at the flying clip was expelled. He was going easy, much easier than any horse behind him, and seemed only a horse out for a good stiff breeze. Passed the mile ground in 1:40-2/5, he was only rating along three lengths in front of the tired His Excellency, with Scoggan's pair Florizar and Highland Lad, going well, but in no danger of overhauling the galloping leader. Into the stretch, a novice could see that Gibson was going easy, and coming on the gallant colt passed first under the wire by four lengths in front of Florizar that Van Dusen had most sensibly not driven to his limit when he found it impossible to overtake the great son of G. W. Johnson. The time was 2:06-1/4, one and one-half seconds faster than the Kentucky Derby had ever been run. TWENTY-SEVENTH DERBY 1901 Louisville, Ky.; April 29, 1901. Weather fine; track fast. One and one-quarter miles. Time 2:07-3/4, value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. 134 nominations. His Eminence, 117, Winkfield 1 by 2-l Sannazarro, 117, O'Connor 2 by 2-l Driscoll, 110, Boland 3 by 2-l Amur and Alard Scheck also ran. Betting 10 to 7 Scheck; 3 His Eminence. Good start. Won easily, place same. His Eminence, b c, by Falsetto-Patroness. Owned by F. B. Van Meter. DESCRIPTION OF RACE His Eminence, a beautiful bay colt by Falsetto-Patroness by Pat Malloy, foaled in the Blue Grass and trained at Churchill Downs, won the twenty-seventh renewal of the Kentucky. Sannazarro, the brown son of imp. Pirate of Penzance--Roseola by Duke of Montrose, was second, while Driscoll, Woodford Clay's bay colt by Dixon--Merry Maiden by Virgil was third. The time was 2:07-3/4. Alard Scheck, the odds-on favorite, the property of John W. Schoor, of Memphis and the pride of all Tennessee, finished absolutely last, five lengths behind Amur. It was a truly run race and His Eminence outclassed his field. Twenty thousand people saw the Derby run. The grand stand was a monster hillside of beautiful costumes and shining faces. They were at the post only a short time--four minutes. There was a little jockeying for positions, one false break; they were called back and lined up again. Then there was a flash of yellow and red, a long hoarse roar from the thousands packed in the stand and here they come, five good colts closely bunched, with the black nose of Alard Scheck showing slightly in front. Before the colts had gone fifty yards Winkfield had moved his charge up to first position and as they passed the stand His Eminence was half a length in front of Scheck, while Driscoll had also moved up and was only a neck behind, with a length between him and Amur, Sannazarro bringing up the rear. They ran the first eighth in :13, and passed the quarter in :25-1/2. His Eminence was beautifully rated by Jockey Winkfield, the colored boy. He carried his field to the three-eighths in :38 and passed to the half in :51, consistent pace in a mile and one-quarter race. His Eminence, in fact was never headed after he passed the stand and was never in trouble. He made his own pace and Winkfield shook him up above the eighth pole and he responded gamely and came on, dashing a couple of lengths ahead without effort. At the half, he was a length to the good, at the five-eighths he was a length and one-half to the good, at the three-quarter pole he was three lengths in front of the bunch. This is where Winkfield shook him up, for O'Connor on Sannazarro; Boland on Driscoll and Dupee on Amur, were whipping and digging the rowels into the satiny sides of their mounts. And Alard Scheck, the favorite? J. Woods, the crack Schorr jockey, had him under restraint, believing the colt would be able to win easily when he got good and ready. He was under a steady pull for the first three-quarters, and when Woods called on him he did the worse thing a horse can do next to quitting--he sulked. When Woods attempted to lay him down he positively refused to go ahead and finished five lengths behind Amur, the next to the last horse. His Eminence continued to increase his lead, and as they round into the stretch the colored boy looked over his shoulder and saw the others hopelessly beaten. He kept His Eminence under restraint all the way through the stretch and won easily by two lengths in 2:07-3/4. O'Connor gave a fine exhibition of riding on Sannazarro and while the Hayes colt was not quite up to such a race as the Derby was, he got all out of him that was in him and finished second ahead of Driscoll, as easily as His Eminence finished ahead of him. The fractional time of the race was :13, :25-1/2, :38, :51, 1:04, 1:16-3/4, 1:29, 1:43, 1:55-1/2, 2:07-3/4. TWENTY-EIGHTH DERBY 1902 Louisville, Ky., May 3, 1902. Weather fine, track fast. One and one-quarter miles. Time 2:08-3/4. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. 112 nominations. Alan-a-Dale, 117, Winkfield 1 by a nose Inventor, 117, R. Williams 2 by 1/2-l The Rival, 117, N. Turner 3 by a nose Abe Frank, 122, Coburn 4 Betting 5 to 3 on Frank, 6 to 5 Dale and Rival coupled. Good start, won driving, place driving. Alan-a-Dale outclassed his field. Alan-a-Dale, ch c, 3, by Halma--Sudie McNairy. Owned by Thos. C. McDowell. DESCRIPTION OF RACE The New Louisville Jockey Club opened their gates on Saturday, May 3, which was Derby Day, and as everybody old and young, who can, goes to the races, the crowd was enormous. Among the large assemblage were notable people from all over the United States, including many high State officials. The victory of Alan-a-Dale was the most popular Derby win ever run at Churchill Downs. T. C. McDowell the owner of the fortunate horse, which carried off the honors in game and gallant style by winning the Blue Riband, bred this horse himself at his Ashland Stud. The Derby was a true run race and the best horse won and as the English say, that any horse that makes his own pace at a mile or over from the drop of the flag to the finish must certainly be the best horse. It was Alan-a-Dale all through the race. The crowd yelled and cheered itself hoarse even those who bet and lost on other horses in the race, joined in the cheering. When it was over it was a sight worth going a thousand miles to see. It seemed as though everybody was looking for the popular owner, T. C. McDowell to shake him by the hand and congratulate him. The pace was fast for the first mile and then it dropped off badly, but when one really notices how fast Alan-a-Dale went the first mile in the race, they will not wonder that the last quarter was so slow. A first glance at the time of the race one would think from a time standpoint that it was a bad race, but when compared with other races of its kind, you will see that in all races that are fast run the horses who make the fast time generally rate along instead of running the first part of it real fast. In his race, Alan-a-Dale, according to our timing ran as follows: 1/8 :12-1/2, 1/4 :25, 3/8 :37-1/2, 1/2 :49-3/4, 5/8 1:02-1/2, 3/4 1:14-3/4, 7/8 1:27-1/2, 1 mile 1:40-3/4; 1-1/8 miles 1:54-1/2 and 1-1/4 miles in 2:08-3/4. Of course, the winner tired greatly after setting the terrific pace he did in the early part of the race, but the other horses also tired as much by trying to keep within striking distance of him. Abe Frank, although conceding the winner, Alan-a-Dale, Inventor, the second horse and The Rival, the third horse, five pounds each, was only beaten a scant length by Alan-a-Dale and a half length and a neck by Inventor and The Rival. It was a great race to watch from start to finish. At the finish of the race all four jockeys were riding like demons, and the favorite, Abe Frank, was beaten because he was not the best horse at the weights that day. Inventor and The Rival, second and third horses in this race were well ridden and ran gamely, but there is no way they could have been closer up at the finish no matter in what way they would have changed their running. All the glory and honor belongs to Alan-a-Dale and his popular owner and trainer, Mr. T. C. McDowell of Lexington, who in spite of winning this great event, has also a great misfortune to bear as Alan-a-Dale has broken down and it is doubtful if he will ever face the starter again. TWENTY-NINTH DERBY 1903 Louisville, Ky., May 2, 1903. Weather fine, track fast. 1-1/4 miles, time 2:09. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. Nominations not given. Judge Himes, 117, H. Booker 1 by 3/4-ls Early, 117, Winkfield 2 by 4-ls Bourbon, 110, Crowhurst 3 by 6-ls Bad News, Woodlake, Treacy also ran. Betting 5 to 3 on Early, 4 Bourbon and Woodlake coupled, 12 Himes. Poor start. Won driving, place easily. Himes ran an excellent race. Judge Himes, ch c by Esher--Lullaby. Owned by C. R. Ellison, trained by J. P. Mayberry. Within the shadow of the wire, Judge Himes snatched from Early the twenty-ninth Kentucky Derby at Churchill Downs to-day. It may have been the over confidence of Winkfield that lost to the favorite the blue ribbon event of the Blue Grass State. Bourbon, six lengths off, was third, while Bad News, Woodlake and Treacy finished in the order named. It was a Derby run and won not by the touted, odds-on favorite, but by the much despised outsider, but be it said to the credit of colt and jockey, he was well piloted and when Judge Himes passed under the wire winner of the classic event, it was to the plaudits of all Kentucky. The victory was a surprise even to Mr. Ellison who had not thought his colt good enough to win. A Kentucky Derby always marks an epoch in Kentucky history; time and incidents are reckoned from one Derby to the next, and the event of to-day was characteristic, for there was the same surging, jostling, mass of humanity, crowding stands and paddock and overflowing to the field. Eighteen thousand people were in attendance. It was an exciting finish. Early, with a length and a half to the good, was ridden down the stretch as though the race had already been won, when within the last sixteenth H. Booker brought up Judge Himes and in a merciless finish Early who had lost his stride by the overconfident Winkfield, was beaten three-quarters of a length by the practically neglected colt. The day was perfect. From the South drifted an invigorating breeze, bearing the fragrance of sprouting foliage on the nearby hills, of which the green slopes of Sugar Loaf and Iroquois afforded a delightful rest to the eyes bewildered by a maze of gorgeous costumes and myriads of beautiful faces, banked tier upon tier in the grand stand and club house terrace and representing the fairest of Kentucky's womanhood. The track was fast. The six colts were not kept long at the post, and after some ten minutes consumed in getting them in line, the flag went down and the Derby was on. When Starter Holtman gave the word the colts were almost at the fretful line and the jockeys found Woodlake of the McDowell entry hugging the inside rail with the others well bunched and Judge Himes a half length away. They raced in this position past the stand, Bad News being third, Early fourth and Bourbon fifth, while Treacy brought up the rear. When they made the lower turn it was evident that Helgesen on Woodlake wanted to make a runaway race of it, for he had increased his lead to two lengths. Bad News had moved up to second position with Judge Himes a neck away, while Early still maintained his position of fourth, Bourbon being fifth and Treacy a half dozen lengths in the ruck and out of the race. When the colts had been straightened out on the back stretch the canary jacket of Jockey Winkfield emerged from the rear and with an unusual burst of speed. "Early wins!" was the exultant cry of the vast majority of the crowd as the son of Troubadour with even, steady stride, moved to the front. When the three-quarters was reached he was in easy command with nearly a length to the good and this lead he increased as they rounded the last turn for the final struggle. Meanwhile Judge Himes and Bad News had been having an almost neck and neck race of it for third place, with their noses at the flank of Woodlake, which had continued to show the way down the backstretch, until he had surrendered to Early's burst of speed. As the colts made the swing for the turn into the stretch, Booker saw an opening and when they had straightened out he had Judge Himes next the rail. There was but one horse between him and victory. Maintaining a comfortable position, some two lengths behind the favorite it was not until he had passed the eighth pole that he called on him for speed. In the interim Winkfield sat quietly on Early, contemplating the victory so near at hand, and not until Judge Himes thundered down upon him was he apparently conscious of the colt's approach. Winkfield half turned, then quickly resorted to the whip and spur. But it was too late, Judge Himes passing under the wire winner of the event, with the question of supremacy still a mooted one. The fractional time for the race was :25-1/2, :51, 1:16-1/2, 1:42, 2:09. THIRTIETH DERBY 1904 Louisville, Ky., May 2. Weather fine, track fast. One and one-quarter miles. Time 2:08-1/2. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. 140 nominations. Elwood, 117, Prior 1 Ed. Tierney, 117, Dominick 2 Brancas, 117, Lyne 3 Prince Silverwings, 117, Austin 4 Proceeds, 122, Helgeson 5 Betting evens Proceeds, 2 Brancas, 4 Tierney, 8 Silverwings, 10 Elwood. Good start, won driving. Silverwings, Proceeds, Tierney and Elwood ran 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th for 1-1/8. Proceeds stumbled at start. Elwood, b c, 3, by Free Knight--Petticoat. Owned by Mrs. C. E. Durnell, trained by C. E. Durnell. DESCRIPTION OF RACE In the presence of one of the largest crowds ever seen at Churchill Downs race track the thirtieth renewal of the Kentucky Derby was decided on Monday. The winner turned up in Elwood, a son of Free Knight and Petticoat by Alarm, and the outsider in the betting. Elwood was bred by Mrs. J. B. Prather, Marysville, Mo. Proceeds, the favorite, took command just after the start, but began to quit before five furlongs had been negotiated. The Talbot horse, Prince Silverwings, who had been in second place, now took the lead and led the way until well in the stretch, where lack of condition told and he gave way to Elwood who had trailed the field to this point. Ed Tierney joined Elwood at the paddock gate, and from there on the race was between the two, Elwood winning by half length. Elwood was a seasoned horse and this probably gave him the race. According to our way of thinking, Prince Silverwings would have won easily had he been fit. While a small horse he is well made and showed he possessed more speed than anything in the race. Take it all in all, one cannot help but say that they were a bad lot of Derby horses, and if such a horse as Ben Brush, Ornament, Halma or Alan-a-Dale had been there they would have looked like $200 selling platers. It was a nice race to look at, every horse looked to have a chance the entire route, well bunched they struggled hard and did their best. The time, 2:08-1/2, was good when you consider the time made in previous Derbies. Judge Himes won the Derby in 2:09, Alan-a-Dale in 2:08-3/4, His Eminence in 2:07-3/4, Lieut. Gibson in 2:06-1/4, Plaudit in 2:09, Typhoon II., in 2:12-1/2 and Ben Brush in 2:07-3/4, all carrying the same weight, 117 pounds. THIRTY-FIRST DERBY 1905 Louisville, Ky., May 10, 1905. Weather clear. Track muddy. 1-1/4 miles. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. Time 2:10-3/4. Nominations (----). Agile, 122, J. Martin 1 Ram's Horn, 117, Lyne 2 Layson, 117, D. Austin 3 Betting 3 to 1 on Agile, 2 Horn, 15 Layson. Won by three lengths, ten lengths between second and third. Agile, bay colt, 3, by Sir Dixon--Alpena. Owned by Capt. S. S. Brown. DESCRIPTION OF RACE. Today is Derby Day in Louisville and the thirty-first running of the Kentucky Derby was won by Capt. S. S. Brown's Agile, with Ram's Horn in second place and Layson third. The attendance was the largest in the history of the famous track and the twenty thousand people who stood and watched the race looked like a solid mass of humanity. At 1 o'clock the track was a sea of mud, but after an hour's working it had dried out considerably and was in fair condition when the bugle called the Derby candidates to the post. The crowd waited patiently for the Derby, which was the fourth race on the card and at 15 minutes past 4 o'clock the three colts passed from the paddock out into the broad, heavy path. A cheer that is almost a roar goes up from the crowd. The parade takes but a few minutes and they passed on up to the turn, where Starter Dwyer gives the boys a few words of instructions and almost before the crowd has had time to realize it, they're off to a beautiful start, and here they come on the trip that means so much to the admirers of both star performers. Jockey Martin has his orders regarding Agile, and obeying these instructions to the letter, he starts out to show Ram's Horn a merry time, because it is a well-known fact that the son of Bute is unable to do himself justice in the mud. They pass the stand with Agile a length in front, while Jockey Lyne, on Ram's Horn, is trying to rate his colt and keep him within striking distance of the leader. Even at this early point in the race Layson is hopelessly beaten and even to the most inexperienced, he is merely running for the money that goes to the third horse. The cherry jacket and blue cap which is on Agile's back bobs up and down like a cork in a choppy sea. The black silk on Ram's Horn's back moves through space with very little motion. A long roar like the snarl of a multitude of bulldogs comes from the stand and spreads itself over the crowd in the infield and reverberates from the whitewashed barns on the other side of the beautiful course. This is the cry of the people from the Blue Grass land, friends of Ram's Horn, the poor man's horse. The real race has only begun. As they round the first turn, Martin lets out a wrap and Agile shoots forward like an arrow from a bow. Ram's Horn is too close for comfort, and the boy has orders to keep the lead. Then they turn into the back stretch, and here Ram's Horn runs his race. With whip and spur and with his knees digging into the satiny sides of Ram's Horn, Jockey Lyne asked the question of the son of Bute. Instantly the game colt responds, and before the half-mile pole is reached Ram's Horn has cut the lead down to one length and his nose is very close to Agile's tail. The positions do not change for a quarter of a mile. Then the favorite gradually begins to move away from Rams Horn in spite of the vigorous efforts of Lyne. But its no use--the track is muddy and sticky and slippery, and this son of one of the best stallions any American ever brought to this country from England is unused to the going and does not like it. And so they turn into the home stretch, with Agile two lengths in front and galloping with his mouth wide open, while Ram's Horn is laboring many lengths in front of Layson. The shouting and the tumult die and Martin, realizing that his victory is now assured, eases his mount to an ordinary gallop, while Lyne, on Ram's Horn, also refuses to drive Jim Williams' colt, because he knows the case is hopeless. They pass under the wire in a straggling procession, with little excitement or applause. The time, 2:10-1/2, shows the condition of the track. THIRTY-SECOND DERBY 1906 Louisville, Ky., May 2, 1906. Weather fine, track good. 1-1/4 miles. Time 2:08-4/5. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. 110 nominations. Sir Huon, 117, Troxler 1 Lady Navarre, 117, Burns 2 James Reddick, 117, Dominick 3 Hyperion II., Debar, Velours also ran. Betting 6 to 5 Huon, 9 to 5 Navarre and Reddick coupled 7 to 2 Debar; 8 Hyperion, 40 Velours. Good start. Won easily by two lengths, 3 between second and third. Sir Huon, b c, 3, by Falsetto--Ignite. Owned by George J. Long of Louisville, Ky., trained by Pete Coyne. DESCRIPTION OF RACE. Sir Huon, carrying the colors of George J. Long, one of the most popular breeders of Kentucky, won the thirty-second Kentucky Derby, at Churchill Downs on May 2, before one of the most representative gatherings that ever witnessed this classic event. Guided by Roscoe Troxler, he crossed the finishing line two lengths in front of the gallant little filly, Lady Navarre, which beat her stable companion, James Reddick, by three lengths. Five lengths behind came Hyperion II, which had set a heartbreaking pace, and a dozen lengths behind the latter was Debar, which carried the hopes and money of the Lexington contingent, and last of all, practically beaten off, came Velours, from Sunny Tennessee. Sir Huon did not win easily, for he was a very tired horse at the finish, and it required great skill on the part of his jockey to nurse him through the final furlong; at the same time, it might be said that those behind him were more tired. Sir Huon was by long odds the best looking horse in the race; in fact, he looked the Derby horse all over, and he is the first real Derby horse that has crossed the wire in front since Alan-a-Dale struggled home on three legs. Considering that Lady Navarre was conceding five pounds to the winner, a good deal of credit must be given to her. She ran a great race, but that was today, and in the opinion of many, she will never be able to get that close to Sir Huon again. It was a great day for Louisville, and everyone with a trace of sporting blood in his veins was out to see the Derby, and when a home-bred horse won, the crowd demonstrated that the victory of Mr. Long was a most popular one. They cheered him from the time he left the paddock until he crossed the wire, only to renew it when the usual formalities were gone through with at the judges' stand. There was no delay at the post, and as the barrier was lowered, the horses came walking up and Starter Dwyer gave the word. "They're off!" yelled the crowd with one accord, and down the stretch came the sextette in pretty close order. Nearing the eighth pole, Hyperion II drew clear and by the time the judges' stand was reached he was three lengths in front, with Velours and Sir Huon next in order. Then came Lady Navarre and James Reddick, and Debar brought up the rear. As the club-house turn was rounded, Sir Huon dropped in behind Hyperion II, and there he laid all the way up the back stretch. Velours was done when the field straightened out in the backstretch, and James Reddick, which showed unexpected speed, moved up behind Sir Huon. Out in front Hyperion II was still sifting sand, Troxler sitting still and holding Sir Huon well in hand. Lady Navarre, who had suffered a little interference on the lower turn, was being whipped to keep up and Velours was now the trailer. As they approached the far turn, Hyperion still had a clear lead, but now Troxler had gone to work on the son of Falsetto and it took considerable of an effort on his part to run the flying Hyperion down. He caught him and passed him on the stretch turn and then the Ellison pair closed, as the rest were beaten. Straightened for home, Troxler plied his whip and then sat down to ride. Dominick was busy on James Reddick and Burns was putting forth his best efforts on Lady Navarre, but it was to no avail, for the big colt had enough left to stall off the efforts of the tired pair behind him. Sir Huon broke a tradition in the race, and that was that a colt which had not previously started the same year that the Derby was run always got beat, no matter how good his work might have been. THIRTY-THIRD DERBY 1907 Louisville, Ky., May 6, 1907.--Weather bad. Track heavy. 1-1/4 miles. Time 2:12-3/5. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. 128 nominations. Pink Star, 117, Minder 1 Zal, 117, Boland 2 Ovelando, 117, Nicol 3 Redgauntlet, Austin; Wool Sandals; Koerner; and Orlandwick, J. Lee also ran. Betting 6 to 5 Redgauntlet; 3 each Ovelando and Sandals; 8 Zal, 10 Orlandwick. Good start. Won easily by 2 lengths; 1 between 2nd and 3rd. Pink Star, b c, 3, by Pink Coat--Mary Malloy. Owned by J. Hal Woodford, trained by W. H. Fizer. In the presence of an enormous crowd, J. Hal Woodford's Pink Star won the Kentucky Derby at Churchill Downs on Monday, the opening day of the New Louisville Jockey Club's spring meeting. Behind Pink Star were Zal, Ovelando, Redgauntlet, Wool Sandals and Orlandwick. Redgauntlet was made favorite. Pink Star's victory was not a popular one. The public had no confidence in the flashy grandson of the great Leonatus, which won the same event in 1883, and neither did his owner Hal Woodford of Paris, Ky. But his trainer, W. H. Fizer, fairly bubbled with enthusiasm over the chances of his colt. "So these are the Derby horses?" said he. "Well, if they are Derby colts, Pink Star will walk in." So he did. The race itself was robbed of a great deal of interest by the withdrawal of Arcite, which did not start on account of the going. His owner, George J. Long, waited until the last moment before scratching him, chiefly on account of the sentiment that has marked his career on the turf. Mr. Long is a Louisville man, he takes great pride in her institutions, one of which is the "Darby", and he felt as if he were duty bound to run the colt, but after consulting with his trainer, decided that the going was impossible. After the parade passed the grandstand and clubhouse, the horses cantered to the post, and it was but a moment before Starter Holtman sprung the barrier and the thirty-third Derby was on. As they swept past the stand the first time, Zal was leading, with Ovelando second and Wool Sandals third. Around the clubhouse turn, it was quite noticeable that Pink Star, with his pink-coated jockey was bringing up the rear. Round the lower turn they went and now Zal had a clear lead and was running freely. Ovelando was under restraint and was a good second, next to the rail. Redgauntlet had dropped to the rear and Austin was busy with the whip but there was no response. Up the back stretch they went, Zal with gigantic strides, still in front and Ovelando was going easily close up. Redgauntlet moved up a bit and Pink Star was last. As the three-eighths pole was reached, Nicol went up to Zal, and it looked as if he could pass the Gerst colt any time he wanted to. Pink Star was moving up on the extreme outside. Nicol rounded the stretch turn on even terms with Zal and the cry went up, "Ovelando walks in." But the jubilation was too early, for Zal drew away a bit as the field straightened for home and Nicol drew his whip. Pink Star was still coming. At the eighth pole the positions were still the same, but here Ovelando began to hang out signals of distress and he was done. Pink Star by this time had gotten on almost even terms with Zal and, as the sixteenth pole was passed, he was slowly drawing away from the fleet-footed chestnut. A few strides and it was all over, for Boland began to ride Zal, but he was done to a turn and at the end Pink Star was under wraps. Ridden out, Zal finished a little over a length in front of Ovelando, and quite a piece back came the favorite. THIRTY-FOURTH DERBY 1908 Louisville, Ky., May 5, 1908.--Weather cloudy, track heavy. 1-1/4 miles. Time 2:15-1/5. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. Stone Street, 117, Pickens 1 Sir Cleges, 117, Koerner 2 Dunvegan, 114, Warren 3 Synchronized, F. Burton; Banridge, V. Powers; Milford, Minder; Bill Herron, J. Lee, and Frank Bird, J. Williams also ran. Good start. Won easily by three lengths, heads each next four. Mutuels $123.60 for $5. Owned by C. E. Hamilton, trained by J. Hall. Stone Street, b c, 3, by Longstreet--Stone Nellie. DESCRIPTION OF RACE Stone Street, a despised outsider, carrying the blue jacket and white sash of C. E. Hamilton, the popular Latonia turfman, and ridden by Jockey Pickens, walked away with the thirty-fourth Kentucky Derby at Churchill Downs on Tuesday, with the pride of Louisville, Sir Cleges, the public's choice, in the place. The $5 mutuels paid $123.60. Three lengths in front of the favorite, Stone Street crossed the wire a pretty tired horse, but the others were more so. Sir Cleges got the place by a neck and Dunvegan got third place by an eyelash from Synchronized, which was added at the last moment. It was a clear-cut victory and an instance where condition won over class. It was also an instance where a colt that was at home in the going beat a better horse, which besides being a bit short, the condition of the track precluding the chance to give him a final good work, did not fancy the stick track, and labored all the way. Stone Street by heritage comes of stout stock, his sire being Longstreet, son of Longfellow, a family noted for endurance rather than speed. After the bugle called the horses to the post there was not much time wasted on instructing jockeys. Paddock Judge John Walsh called out: "Lead out, Powers," and the eight Derby horses were on their way to parade past the judges' stand and clubhouse and then to the post. There was no time lost at the barrier, where Judge Will Shelley presided in the absence of Jake Holtman. The crowd rose as the horses swept past the stand, and when the field reached the line the first time Banridge forged to the front, after crowding Sir Cleges out. Stone Street was second. Dunvegan third and the favorite fourth, with Frank Bird last of all. Around the lower turn they went in the same order. When straightened out on the back stretch, Banridge opened a streak of daylight on Stone Street, while Sir Cleges passed Dunvegan. The rest of the field was not out of the running and it was also noticeable that while Sir Cleges gained ground that it was with an effort, as the colt was laboring and climbing. At the far turn, Banridge's lead was cut down and Stone Street and Sir Cleges, the latter under urging moved up on the leader. Round the stretch turn came Banridge and at his heels were his relentless pursuers. Stone Street nailed him when straight for the wire and the shout went up, "Sir Cleges is beaten." Koerner was hard at work on him and he held his place with bulldog courage, but the lack of condition was telling on him and Stone Street which raced at New Orleans and was fit, drew away with ease and came under the wire with his jockey sitting still. There was a bitter struggle for the place and Sir Cleges secured this through the powerful finish of Koerner, who never let up until the last two strides, when he had second position safe. Synchronized and Dunvegan finished almost on a line a neck behind the favorite and the latter got third place. Banridge was fifth many lengths in front of Milford, which beat Bill Herron home for the distinction of having finished sixth by a head and away back came Frank Bird. THIRTY-FIFTH DERBY 1909 Louisville, Ky., May 3, 1909.--Weather clear, track slow. 1-1/4 miles. Time 2:08-1/5. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. Wintergreen, 117, V. Powers 1 Miami, 117, C. Shilling 2 Dr. Barkley, 117, 3 Sir Catesby, Friend Harry, Direct, Michael Angelo, Warfield, Campeon and Match Me also ran. Betting $5 mutuels paid $14.80 straight. Start good, won easily, second and third driving. Wintergreen, b c, 3, by Dick Welles--Winter. Owned by J. B. Respess, trained by C. Mack. DESCRIPTION OF THE RACE Wintergreen, an Ohio-bred colt, carrying the colors of Rome Respess, ridden by V. Powers, galloped away from his opponents to-day in the race for the thirty-fifth Kentucky Derby. Four lengths behind him came Miami, which carried all the hopes and money of Central Kentucky, and he was three lengths in front of Dr. Barkley, a despised outsider, which beat Sir Catesby a head and gave the latter the place of honorable mention. Wintergreen hardly left the outcome of the race in doubt after the barrier rose. His backers had a moment of anxiety when he was bumped by Miami right after the start and once in the final furlong, when Powers laid the lash on the big bay colt. The rest of the race was play for the son of Dick Welles and Winter. Miami ran a good game race, Direct and Warfield failed to show anything much and Campeon and Match Me were outclassed. Sir Catesby ran the best race behind the winner and would have been second but for bad racing luck. The going made Friend Harry stop. For a horse that was born and bred in the Buckeye State to win the Kentucky Derby is a new feature in the history of this classic event. California, Eastern horses, and in the majority of cases, Kentucky and Tennessee have furnished all the Derby winners. Slowly and with Wintergreen in the lead, they filed past the stand and clubhouse and, turning, galloped to the starting point, where Jake Holtman was ready to send them away. The field got away quickly to a good start. Wintergreen and Miami came together as the barrier went up, but the son of Dick Welles was not to be denied and he at once went to the front and there he stayed. Coming past the stand, he had a clear lead, with Miami next and Dr. Barkley and Friend Harry close up. Sir Catesby was on the inside and was apparently trying to run over horses. Going up the back stretch Powers took a nice hold on Wintergreen and the great colt just skimmed along pricking his ears. Friend Harry made a determined effort passing the half-mile post, but it was just a flash in the pan, for scarcely had the cry "Friend Harry is catching him" rung out before the crowd was yelling Friend Harry is beaten, as the Alvey colt's stride shortened. Miami, which had clung tenaciously to second place, also under restraint, was now sent after the flying pacemaker with a will. But Shilling could not rally his mount and the farther the field went the easier was Wintergreen's task. Nearing the eighth pole Powers got a little uneasy and gave Wintergreen one good crack with the whip and he bounded away like the others were standing still. Miami was just as easily second and Dr. Barkley just managed to beat out Sir Catesby, the latter coming through the worst going. The rest were pretty well scattered. THIRTY-SIXTH DERBY 1910 Louisville, Ky., May 10, 1910.--Weather clear, Track fast. 1-1/4 miles. Time 2:06-2/5. Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. Donau, 117, Herbert 1-1/2 length Joe Morris, 117, 2-h Fighting Bob, 117, 3-n Boola Boola, 117, 4 Topland, 114, 5 John Furlong, 107, 6 Gallant Pirate, 117, 7 $5 mutuels paid $13.25. At post one minute. Start good, won driving second and third same. Donau, b c, 3, by Woolsthorpe--Al Lone. Owned by Wm. Gerst, Nashville, Tenn., trained by G. Ham. DESCRIPTION OF RACE An enormous crowd gathered from all points of the compass saw and cheered the victory of the bay colt Donau in the thirty-sixth running of the Kentucky Derby, now truly the "Blue Riband" of the American turf, at Churchill Downs this afternoon. It was the largest crowd that ever graced this historic battle ground of the thoroughbreds and that crowd saw the keenest contest and the most thrilling finish that ever attended the winning of the prize, which has been annually coveted by owners of three-year olds in all the land since Price McGrath first took it with game Aristides in 1875. The winner is owned in Tennessee, but he was bred in the Blue Grass of old Kentucky, as were also each of the half dozen that went to the post with the son of Woolsthorpe and Al Lone and came back behind him. Derby Day dawned clear and warm. There was not a fleck in the sky when the sun peeped over the Eastern horizon. The track had dried out rapidly after the severe rain of Saturday and was fast. When the bugle called the horses to the post, Donau, accompanied to the paddock gate by his piebald pony companion was the first to step on the track. He was No. 1 on the program. After the post parade, the horses cantered to the starting point one quarter of a mile up the stretch. Starter Milton was ready for them, and after they had lined up about twenty yards behind the barrier, gave orders to walk up. They came in good alignment and sprung the barrier at the first attempt. They were off to a good start four minutes after they left the paddock. Joe Morris was first to show and Donau next, then Boola Boola and Gallant Pirate, Fighting Bob fifth, John Furlong sixth and Topland last. Herbert had Donau well in his stride and he lost no time sending him to the front and when they passed the stand at the end of the first quarter of a mile in :24, he was leading Joe Morris by half a length and was at the rail with Topland third a head back and the others close up. Around the clubhouse turn, Joe Morris swerved outward and carried the others with him, giving Donau a lead of about three lengths as they straightened out for the run down the backstretch, having passed the half in :48-4/5. Joe Morris was here two lengths in front of John Furlong and Topland, they on nearly even terms, with Fighting Bob two lengths back of them, a length in front of Boola Boola and Gallant Pirate a neck apart. Herbert took a restraining hold on Donau, passing the three-quarter ground in 1:14 and steadied him around the turn out of the backstretch still three lengths in front of Joe Morris. Here Stanley Page made his move on Fighting Bob. The son of Knight of Ellerslie was in third position in a jiffy and less than two lengths back of Joe Morris. Coming around the turn into the homestretch, Boola Boola made up ground rapidly and the pace seemed to quicken. At the end of the mile in 1:39-4/5, and heading for home, Donau led by half a length, with Joe Morris a head in front of Fighting Bob, and he four lengths better than Boola Boola, the others clearly out of contention. There it looked as any one of the first four might win, for Boola Boola was carrying the Camden colors with the speed of the wind and loomed up big and strong. Down the stretch they came, whips whirling and resounding even above the roar from the stand and the field, and those jockeys rode desperately for the prize that hung at the end of the tiring, heart-breaking journey now less than a sixteenth of a mile away. On and on they came near to the black mark of the white board that should proclaim the finish; flying, yet struggling gamely and determinedly under the punishment of the bending striving riders to be first to that goal where hung fame, glory and gold. Donau though tiring fast, was still able to hold the lead. Unshaken, his nose shot first past the finishing mark, with Joe Morris at his withers, Fighting Bob at Joe Morris' throat-latch, and Boola Boola beaten only a nose for third money. Topland was fifth five lengths back, and two lengths in front of John Furlong, eight lengths better than Gallant Pirate a trailing last. It was a great finish and any human being with a drop of sporting blood in his veins was to be excused for giving over for the moment to the feelings of ecstasy that well up from the soul of man at such a contest. It was beyond question the most thrilling finish ever seen in a race for the Kentucky Derby. THIRTY-SEVENTH DERBY 1911 Louisville, Ky., May 13, 1911.--Weather clear, track fast. 1-1/4 miles. Time 2:05 (equals track record). Value to winner $4,850, second $700, third $300. Meridian, 117, G. Archibald 1-3/4 length Governor Gray, 119, Troxler 2-15 Colston, 110, Conley 3-2 Jack Denman, 117, Wilson 4 Mud Sill, 107, Koerner 5 Round the World, 117, McGee 6 Col. Hogan, 110, McIntyre 7 $2 mutuels paid $7.80 straight. At post 2 minutes. Start good, won driving, second and third same. Meridian, b c, 3, by Broomstick--Sue Smith. Owned by R. F. Carman, trained by A. Ewing. DESCRIPTION OF RACE Meridian, Kentucky-bred, but Eastern-owned, triumphantly carried the colors of R. F. Carman to the front in the thirty-seventh Kentucky Derby in record time and before a record crowd at Churchill Downs to-day. The Derby was run from "eend to eend" as Frank Harper of Ten Broeck and Longfellow fame, used to say, for the winner set a heart-breaking pace and had the stamina to last the route and get home a scant length in front of Governor Gray. The latter was about 15 lengths in front of Colston, the dark horse for the Derby. The time 2:05, a new mark for the Derby. The best time ever recorded for the sixteen blue ribbon events which have been run at this distance was made by Lieut. Gibson in 1900, when 2:06-1/4 was made. It also equaled the track record made last year by Royal Report. The race was not a gallop for Meridian for he was a tired horse at the finish and was exceedingly well handled at the end by Jockey G. Archibald. Governor Gray had some bad luck. He was next to the fence going round the first turn, and Troxler was forced to take him back, and he was lengths behind the pacemaker going into the back stretch. The others were not in the same class with the two placed horses and only figured in the race for the first mile. Probably Colston will do better in the next effort and the same could be said of Mud Sill and Jack Denman. It was 4:55 when the first of the Derby contingent filed through the gate to lead the parade of the field past the sands. The huge crowd applauded vigorously as the horses filed past the clubhouse, where they turned and slowly came back again on the outside. It was easy to tell which was the favorite as Governor Gray got a great reception. After passing the betting shed the field cantered to the post with Mars Cassidy galloping up to the same point on a fiery steed and on the steeplechase track, while the crowd in the field kidded him a bit. There was but a moment's delay at the barrier. The field would have gotten away at the first line-up, but for Round the World which acted sour and Jack Denman. They were quickly lined up again and in a jiffy Cassidy yelled "Come on!" and the horses were on their way. The start was a good one for all but Col. Hogan, which was last to break, and when he did go went very wide and that settled his chances once for all. Meridian went to the front at once and ere the field had reached the judges' stand he was three lengths in front and setting a pace that had the others on their toes. Round the World was second a couple of lengths in front of Colston, which was some lengths in front of Mud Sill, with Jack Denman and Governor Gray close up. Col. Hogan trailed the field. At the first turn, Governor Gray, which was next to the rail was shut off and Troxler was forced to take him back, and for a few moments it looked as if he were going to be displaced by Col. Hogan. The field went up the back stretch in Indian file, Meridian under gentle restraint but still burning up the track, Round the World hanging on gamely and Colston still holding third position. As the field swept up the backstretch and neared the half mile pole, Governor Gray which was eating up ground, loomed up and was soon in a position to overhaul the leaders. Troxler had him full on his stride and rounding the turn, passed Colston and soon passed Round the World, and there was but one horse to catch and victory was his. But that was a hard task as Meridian was still moving along in great style turning the mile in phenomenal time for a race of that distance. The whole field was under whip and spur when straightened for home, except the Carman colt. As the eighth pole was neared he began to shorten his stride and the cry went up "Governor Gray's got him." But this was premature and wrong, for Archibald holding the colt together, urged him on, handriding and he maintained his advantage of over a length until the sixteenth pole, where he swerved over in front of Governor Gray, on which Troxler was making a final effort, but it was not for the Governor. The ground he lost on the first turn and the effort to make it up told on him and right at the finish his nose was opposite Meridian's tail. Many lengths back came Colston, which was a couple of lengths in front of Mud Sill and Jack Denman, which finished close together in the order named, then Round the World pulled to a walk and Col. Hogan, which had been eased up some time. THIRTY-EIGHTH DERBY 1912 Worth, the favorite, won the Kentucky Derby at Churchill Downs this afternoon, just beating a heavy rainstorm, and by so doing saving the day for the moving-picture operators. The Kentucky Derby of 1912, the thirty-eighth renewal of the classic stake event, went to the horse which nine out of every ten horsemen and turf patrons conceded to have the race at his mercy. He did not win as easily as many expected, but he won, just lasting long enough to get the money and the honor from a dark horse. Duval, which would have paid 20 to 1 had he popped in front, was second, and Flamma, the only filly in the contest, was third. The time, 2:09-2/5, is about four seconds slower than that made by Meridian, the winner last year. Worth won by a neck, while Duval was five lengths in front of the filly, Flamma. Worth established his claim to the three-year old championship for the 1912 season, although he will have to win many more races this year to hold that title. At the present time he is the best of all three-year olds. To-day, just as last season, there were many doubting Thomases regarding his ability and class. It took the celebrated match race at Latonia last fall to convince these persons that he was the best two-year old out in 1911, and this spring the Kentucky Derby race is the one which sweeps aside all chances for an argument. The colt was dead tired when the race was finished, and had to be urged hard in the last furlong. He was "prepped" for this race, and lasted long enough to win it, which ends all arguments what might have happened had the race been 20 or 30 yards more. Shilling, who rode him, announced before the race that he did not intend to have mud slung in his eyes, and he kept his word. The beaten ones in the contest had no excuse; they were beaten fairly and squarely, luck never entering into the result in the least. There were no unusual incidents connected with the preliminaries to the big race. The crowd during the interval between the ending of the third and the time to go to the post in the big event, wended its way to the paddock and stood several deep around the railing, each and every one anxious to get a good look at the contenders. Promptly at 4:30 they left the paddock and paraded down past the judges' stand. Flamma, the only filly in the race, leading the procession, but she was a little shy and on several occasions refused to come down in front. Wheelwright, with Byrne up, followed with free Lance, sporting the colors of George J. Long, the Louisville turfman, leading Guaranola, which was directly in front of the favorite, Worth. Sonada and Duval brought up in the rear in the order named. The clouds were hanging quite low and it was doubtful if the race would be finished before the rain fell. The horses pranced down the stretch to the quarter pole, where Starter Cassidy told riders just what was expected of them. Several times they could have been let go, but Flamma was still in an ugly mood and she broke up many perfect starts. After about two minutes of work at the post the simultaneous cry from 18,000 throats proclaimed the fact that the big race was on. Shilling pushed Worth into the lead, and the big brown son of Knight of the Thistle went about his work in a determined manner. He needed no urging to keep him in front and ran straight and true under the clever guidance of his rider. Free Lance cut across at the start and took the second position, laying back of Worth about a length, although Wheelwright breaking first, did not get to going right away. Sonada broke well, with Duval only a short distance back. Guaranola was a couple of lengths behind soon after they got to going, with Flamma bringing up in the rear, the filly having been caught unawares. Shilling took no chances with the Hallenbeck colt, but held him right to his knitting, coming down the stretch for the first time. Passing the wire, Worth was easily a length and a half to the good of Free Lance, which was laying back in a contending position at all times. A length back of Free Lance, hugging the rail, came Sonada, which was only a head in front of Duval. Wheelwright followed Duval, being three lengths back of him. Guaranola was two lengths in front of Flamma, which gives an idea of the poor start gotten by the filly. Around the turn going into the backstretch, Worth was still leading by his length and a half advantage. Free Lance was still holding on, although half a length separated the Alvescot colt from Guaranola, which had slipped up on the rail. Duval was laying back in fourth place on the outside, being half a length in front of Flamma, which had passed Sonada and Wheelwright. Sonada had dropped into last place and Wheelwright was not much better, both of them running neck and neck for the booby prize. It was plain to all that they were outclassed and the crowd passed them up and centered all their attention on the leaders. Away over on the far turn, those without glasses could still distinguish that Worth was in the lead, although it was growing dark fast. They also noticed that Duval had slipped upon the inside and was now only a length behind the Hallenbeck champion. Flamma, on the outside, had also passed Free Lance, and it was quite patent here that the Long colt could not go the route, for Guaranola had also passed him. Sonada and Wheelwright were trailing nearly ten lengths back. Worth still held his advantage turning into the stretch, but Shilling was becoming nervous, for he felt the colt was tiring. It was now a question with him as to whether he could stick out the last furlong. Drawing his whip he gave him a couple of blows and the big fellow hung on. Duval was only a length back and in this way they raced to the sixteenth pole, with Flamma in third place. Duval was gradually gaining on Worth and Fain started to ride hard. Shilling again pulled his whip at the sixteenth pole and applied it vigorously. It was well he did, for the colt was dead tired, but still game. Fain had no whip, but proceeded to give Duval a hand ride. Shilling held Worth's head straight during the last gruelling sixteenth and the colt dashed before the grand stand a neck ahead of Duval. Fain rode his mount out, but he could not get up in time. Five lengths back of Duval came Flamma, after running a good, game race. Four lengths behind Flamma was the dead tired Free Lance, a length ahead of Guaranola. Sonada finished away back and Wheelwright was pulled up. Worth had won and the crowd was satisfied that the best horse was the victor. As was said before, there is no use considering "if the race had been a few yards longer" the result might have been different. The jockeys hurried back to the grand stand, the usual wreath was placed about the neck of Worth, Shilling was given a bouquet of roses and then came the deluge. SUMMARY May 11, 1912. Track muddy. Purse $6,000. Net value to the winner $4,850. 1-1/4 miles. Time, :24-3/5, :49-2/5, 1:16-1/5, 1:42-3/5, 2:09-2/5. Worth, br c, by Knight of the Thistle--Miss Hanover, 117 lbs., ridden by C. H. Shilling. Won by a neck; 4 to 5. Duval, 2nd, Fain. Flamma, 112 lbs. Loftus, Third. Also ran Free Lance, Peak; Guaranola, Molesworth; Sonada, Koerner; Wheelwright, Byrne. Owner H. C. Hallenbeck. Trainer F. M. Taylor. THIRTY-NINTH DERBY 1913 Seldom in the history of Churchill Downs has there been a prettier start in the Derby than that of to-day. At the post less than a minute, the horses wheeled in perfect alignment and were away like a shot. Jimmie Gill had a momentary advantage, but was headed by Ten Point in a flash and the big Easterner passed the stand for the first time two lengths to the good. Foundation was in second place, with Yankee Notions third, and Leochares the Gowell close up, and Jimmie Gill by this time a trailer. Ten Point was rank and Buxton had difficulty restraining him in the next quarter, causing him to go the first half in 0:47-4/5 and adding another length's advantage over the others. Foundation was still in second place, and Yankee Notions, running well within himself, half a length away, with Gowell fourth next the inner rail. Donerail, on which Goose was riding a perfect race, was beginning to steel up in steady fashion. Gowell was given bungling handling by the diminutive McCabe and was also suffering from bumping. Leochares was thoroughly done for after the first half, and Lord Marshall and Jimmie Gill were also out of it to all intents and dropped rearward steadily. There was a general closing up by the first five in the next quarter, but Ten Point still held to a slight lead until the stretch turn was reached, where Buxton found his mount wavering and he began using his whip. At this time Yankee Notions was passing Foundation, and the supporters of the Knapp representative gave a shout of joy, for it was expected by them if Yankee Notions got to Ten Point before the stretch turn he would make short shift of the favorite in the battle to the finish. Unexpectedly, Yankee Notions weakened just when his chances appeared best and the Ten Point supporters again took heart, but their hopes went glimmering shortly after when Donerail shot out of the bunch and headed the others in the last furlong. In the final drive Donerail easily held his own. Ten Point and Foundation were struggling gamely for the place at the last furlong post when the colt seemed to bore over a trifle. In the last sixteenth Foundation began weakening and Ten Point managed to get clear of him, but another menace loomed up for place honors in the shape of Gowell, though he succeeded in passing the finishing line in advance of her. Foundation was fourth and Yankee Notions fifth, the rest were distant trailers, with Leochares the whipper in. A warm reception awaited the winner when the boy returned to the judges' stand to weigh in. Jockey R. Goose was probably happier than Owner T. P. Hayes. It devolved on Governor James B. McCreary to present Jockey Goose with the bouquet of flowers given by the New Louisville Jockey Club to the winning jockey of the day. He said: "Young man, I congratulate you. The highest compliment that any person can receive in life is that of success. You have met with great success to-day and are deserving of the honor now bestowed upon you. You were on a gallant horse and you rode a brilliant race." Jockey Goose, in reply, bashfully said: "Governor, I more than appreciate your compliment. I regard it as the greatest afternoon in my whole life for the reason that I was born and reared in Louisville and I have won Louisville's greatest race. I will never forget this day as long as I live. I will say for my mount that he did all I asked of him throughout the race. He held his position well in the early part and finished staunch and game when I called on him in the stretch. While I rode him to the best of my ability, I was on a good horse to-day." FOLLOWING IS A SUMMARY OF THE RACE Kentucky Derby; one mile and a quarter; for three-year olds; $5,000 added; net value to winner $5,475. Fractional Time--0:23-4/5, 0:47-4/5, 1:12-3/5, 1:39-3/5, 2:04-4/5, new record. P.P. St. 1/4 1/2 3/4 S. F. T. P. Hayes' Donerail, 117 Goose 5 3 6 1 6 1-1/2 5 1 5 2 1-1/2 A. L. Aste's Ten Point, 117 Buxton 4 4 1 2 1 3 1 2 1-1/2 2 1-1/2 J. T. Weaver's Gowell, 112 McCabe 3 2 5 2 4 h 4 1-1/2 4 1 3 h C. W. McKenna's Foundation, 117 Loftus 8 5 2 1 2-1/2 2 h 3-1/2 4nk H. K. Knapp's Yankee Notions, 117 Glass 6 7 3-1/2 3 h 3 1-1/2 2-1/2 5 5 J. O. & G. H. Keene's Lord Marshall, 117 Steele 1 8 7 1 7 1 6 2 6 1 6 8 Doerhoefer & West's Jimmie Gill, 110 Borel 2 1 8 8 8 7 10 7 15 J. W. Schorr's Leochares, 114 Peak 7 6 4 h 5-1/2 7 h 8 8 Donerail, the winner of the thirty-ninth Kentucky Derby, was raised on John S. Barbee's Glen-Helen Farm, near Lexington. Mr. Barbee keeps all of Mr. Hayes' mares. Ten Point, the second horse, was also raised on Mr. Barbee's farm. Donerail gets his name from Donerail, a flag station near Lexington on the Q. & C. Railway. Donerail was sired by imp. McGee, a stallion owned by Charles W. Moore, Mere Hill Stud, near Lexington. McGee was imported from England by E. Corrigan and raced in this country by that turfman with much success. Algie M., the dam of Donerail, is by Hanover out of Johnetta, by Bramble. Her sire lines are those of Kentucky Derby winners, Hanover, her sire, having gotten Halma, winner of the event in 1895, which in turn, sired Alan-a-Dale the victor in the race in 1902, whereas Bramble, sire of her grandam, got Ben Brush, the Kentucky Derby winner of 1896. Donerail is a nicely made colt of more than average height, being close to 16 hands high. He has never been credited with speed of the sprinting order, but what he can do is of the rating sort, which tells for a lot in his favor in a long race. He started eighteen times last season, winning four times, finishing second four, and third six times. This season he ran three times previous to the Derby to-day, his best race being in the Blue Grass Stakes, at Lexington, in which he ran second to Foundation, at a mile and an eighth, run in 1:51-2/5. The Kentucky Derby of to-day was the richest race in the history of that classic, being worth $6,600 gross. Of this, the second horse, Ten Point, won $700, and the third horse, Gowell, $300. With the $125 deducted, the winner's entrance and starting fee, the net value to Donerail is $5,475. FORTIETH DERBY 1914 Derby followers awoke this morning to find that, with a cloudless sky smiling above, the elements had looked upon the day with favor, it being an ideal day for racing. A warm sun dissipated the moisture of two preceding days and also assisted extensively in putting the course in good shape. It was just a few minutes after 5 o'clock when the Derby entrants, after having been cantered past the grandstand and clubhouse veranda, approached the starting point a quarter of a mile above the judges' stand. Old Ben, which had the inside position at the start, was the first to slip under the barrier and wheel about facing it. Then came Watermelon, John Gund, Bronzewing, Surprising, Old Rosebud and Hodge in the order named. At the post less than two minutes the seven entrants in the Derby were off like a shot. For the fraction of a second they ran in perfect alignment, the start having been an ideal one. Then Old Rosebud began moving into the lead. Hodge, a bit slower than his rival, was quickest of the others, however, and closed in immediately behind the leader. Bronzewing was last of the seven to get going, and at the end of the first quarter was last by five lengths. As the eyes of those stationed at the starting point followed the racers in their swift circling of the track they saw Old Rosebud gradually increasing the lead assumed by him during the first quarter of the journey. Rounding the turn into the stretch Old Rosebud was in the lead by two lengths, Hodge was second by four lengths and John Gund was third by half a length. Surprising was a head in advance of Old Ben, and the latter was a length and a half in advance of Bronzewing, which was running like a wild horse. As the band of racers passed into the stretch, McCabe called on Old Rosebud for an extra effort, and he responded in a manner that opened the oldest turfman's eyes in wonder and amazement, for he sprinted away from his opposition as if they were standing still to win easily by eight lengths in the remarkable time of 2:03-2/5, a record for the distance here, and making the performance stand out the more in view of the fact that the track was far from being in its best shape. Hodge finished second by a length and a half. Bronzewing closed up the space separating her from John Gund, Surprising and Old Ben, passing the three and dropping into third position four lengths behind Hodge. The ride which Old Rosebud received was second only to his own great courage. Jockey McCabe, a midget whose head and hands are busy under all conditions, rode a wonderful race. Coming through the stretch he was working in perfect unison with his mount. McCabe was restraining the high-strung gelding, and at the same time looking back into the rut of blasted hopes where Hodge, Bronzewing and other stars of the turf struggled toward the wire. Old Rosebud seemed to realize the importance of the occasion. He had given his best efforts and won. Except for flecks of foam and sweat upon his arching neck, he seemed as though he had just come out of the barn for a workout. He was the leading money-winner on the turf in 1913, and bids fair to hold his record again in 1914. Governor McCreary, who had witnessed the Derby running as the guest of the stewards, presented Jockey McCabe with the huge bouquet of American Beauty roses and also tendered his congratulations to Messrs. Weir and Applegate, the joint owners of the winner. Old Rosebud, the winner, was bred by J. E. Madden at Hamburg Place. His sire, Uncle, was bred by Col. E. F. Clay and his breeding partner, Catesby Woodford, in Bourbon County, and his dam, Ivory Bells, was bred by E. S. Gardner at Avondale Stud, in Tennessee. She is by Himyar, the sire of Domino, and out of the wonderful race mare Ida Pickwick, by Mr. Pickwick. The latter horse is a son of the English Derby winner Hermit. The next dam was Ida K., by King Alfonso, she being the dam of Indigo, that produced the Suburban Handicap winner, Go Between. Old Rosebud was purchased, along with four yearling fillies, in the season of 1912, by H. C. Applegate & Co., for $3,000. He won his first race, the Yucatan Stakes, at Juarez, Mexico, in the winter of 1913, and also won another race at that track before being brought to Kentucky last spring. Little Nephew, also by Uncle, is the only horse that ever beat Old Rosebud in a race. Last year the Derby winner won twelve of his fourteen starts. He ran three most remarkable races as a two-year old at Douglas Park, first winning at five furlongs in 0:58-4/5, again in 0:58-3/5 and again 0:58-2/5. In all of these races he beat his old rival, Little Nephew. He has only started once before this season, that being a mile race at Lexington, which he won with ease. That race was intended as a preliminary trial for his Derby race to-day, and it must be admitted that it brought him to the post in the Derby in the very pink of condition. The great gelding was trained by F. D. Weir, who is famous in turf annals of other days as the trainer of Roseben, one of the champion sprinters of all time. "This was surely a great day, and the Kentucky Derby this season eclipses all records," said President Charles F. Grainger. "Old Rosebud and Hodge are two three-year olds the like of which perhaps never met in a Derby race. To beat a performer like Hodge as handily as he did to-day makes Old Rosebud one of the champion three-year olds of all time. Hodge beat the previous Derby record for a mile and a quarter as well as Old Rosebud, and the race was run over a track more than a second slow. Had the Downs course been at its fastest undoubtedly Old Rosebud would have beaten the world's record for the Kentucky Derby distance on a circular track had he been pushed." Judge Charles F. Price stated that he had never seen a greater day of racing. "There was not a single happening to mar the great pleasure of the afternoon, and the Derby of 1914 was the most remarkable race ever run in the long history of this classic event," said the presiding official. "It was not only a track record for the Downs, but it was a remarkable race in every particular and wonderful to relate, the two starts of the contest, Old Rosebud and Hodge, are both geldings. It is questionable if in a life-time two such horses as these three-year olds will be seen in any Derby race together." SUMMARY Saturday, May 9, 1914. Track good. Derby 1 and 1/4 mile. $10,000 added, value to winner $9,125. For 3-year olds. Time 1:38-4/5, 2:03-2/5. Old Rosebud, 114, McCabe 1 Hodge, 114, Taylor 2 Bronze Wing, 117, J. Hanover 3 John Gund, 117, Byrne; Old Ben, 114, Turner; Surprising, 117, Peak; Watermelon, 112, French. Winner bay geld, by Uncle--Ivory Bells. Owner H. C. Applegate. Trainer F. D. Weir. FORTY-FIRST DERBY 1915 Regret, a chestnut daughter of Broomstick--Jersey Lightning, to-day overcame tradition that has withstood since Aristides, the "little red horse," triumphed in the inaugural running of the Blue Grass State classic in the spring of 1875, and gained for her owner, Harry Payne Whitney, the Eastern sportsman, the sum of $11,450 and what is infinitely more to him the honor of winning The Kentucky Derby. Regret, the scion of illustrious thoroughbreds, achieved an easy victory, and, while she may not be the greatest horse that ever won the Derby, the daughter of Broomstick and the granddaughter of Ben Brush furnished a spectacle for more than 40,000 persons at Churchill Downs that will not soon be forgotten. Dashing to the front with the rise of the barrier, she made every post a winning post and came on to laurels that were rightfully hers. Behind Regret trailed the greatest field that has ever worn silks in this premier turf event. Pebbles, also carrying the colors of the Eastern invasion, straining aching muscles, pursued the flying leader to the wire. In his wake were Sharpshooter, another representative of the East; Royal II, the English-bred colt; Emerson Cochran, Leo Ray, Double Eagle and the rest of the struggling field. Sixteen pure-blooded animals accepted the issue, the largest number in the history of the race. Far Back was For Fair, a winter king; Ed Crump, the hope of the Tennesseeans; Norse King, a star of the Maryland racing, and others. Each had done nobly, he had done his best, but it was not enough to-day. Old horsemen squinted their eyes unavailingly; they could not recall a Derby wherein so many good horses had been found wanting. For when was there such a field as that in the forty-first running of this turf fixture? Regret and her victory will long be talked of where the turf is discussed. "A filly cannot win the Derby" has been a familiar slogan in Kentucky. But no filly of Regret's type has ever before aspired to this turf honor. Of richest lineage, trained by the master hand of James Rowe, and ridden by the clever Notter, Regret's claim demanded consideration. Those who scoffed at her chances did not consider. After a short delay at the starting pole, all breasted the line together and up went the barrier. Down the stretch came the charging thoroughbreds; past the grandstand they sped with Regret leading by a half length, Pebbles second and Sharpshooter third, overlapped by Ed Crump. The others were in close attendance. On swept Regret, Jockey Notter sat well forward and the filly moved with the utmost precision, maintaining a moderate rating stride that bespoke much reserve. Pebbles still hung at the saddle girth, his long sweeping strides a source of discomfort to the backers of the favorite. Plain it was that Pebbles was the chief contender, and in the interest of the thousands it was a two-horse race. Around the first turn and up the back stretch went the flying leaders. At the five-eighths pole Pebbles challenged, and momentarily seemed to make up a few inches on the pacemaker, but Notter loosened his reins a notch and Regret responded easily. Sharpshooter was still leading the pursuit. Ed Crump, a close attendant, then made his move. Near the end of the back stretch the Schorr colt crept up. He was ridden by Jockey Goose, a Louisville boy, and his friends sounded above the din, "Come on Roscoe." But Ed Crump was not equal to the occasion. He tried, but failed and dropped back further and further as the journey progressed. As they took the turn by the old clubhouse Pebbles made a determined bid for the honor and glory that go to the winner of the Kentucky Derby. Again Regret met his challenge easily. She moved away from her dogged rival and came into the stretch with a lead of a length and a half. Sharpshooter plodded stubbornly after the Butler crack, his steel-like cords playing beneath the skin. Three-sixteenths of a mile from the wire Notter shook up the filly slightly and she came on down the rail two lengths in front of Pebbles. Sharpshooter, driving madly under the urging of Jockey Butwell, held Royal II. safe. Regret pulled up remarkably fresh after her long journey. When she came back into the charm circle before the judges' stand she was still full of run. When the wreath was placed around her neck and Jockey Notter boosted up on her bare, sweaty back the cheering which had accompanied her victory was a mere whisper in comparison to the ovation she received when the idea that the unattainable had been attained and that a filly had conquered the princes of the turf and won a Kentucky Derby, penetrated the head of the vast throng. Regret was bred at Mr. Whitney's Brookdale Farm, in New Jersey. Under a smiling sun, forgetful of world's tragedy, society assembled a brilliant gathering around the clubhouse grounds to witness the running of the Derby to-day. Mr. Whitney was one of the first men out on the track after the race was over, and as Regret was jogging back to the stand he remarked: "Isn't she the prettiest little filly you ever saw? You know," he continued, "this is the greatest race in America at the present time, and I don't care if she never starts again. The glory of winning this event is big enough, and Regret can retire to the New Jersey farm any time now. I told Rowe I didn't care if she never won another race if she could only land this one. I have seen much bigger crowds than this one in the East and abroad, but I never saw a more enthusiastic one. It's great" and the expression on his face as he stood patting the mare's neck was the best evidence in the world that he is a worthy representative of his illustrious father, than whom racing never had a better friend. This was the largest field which ever went to the post in the Kentucky Derby. In 1875, when the first Kentucky Derby was run, and Aristides, the little chestnut horse was returned the victor, fifteen competed for the prize and honors. In 1882, when Apollo was victorious, fourteen went to the post, but never in its long history did sixteen horses fight it out. SUMMARY May 8, 1915. Track fast. Derby, $10,000 added, value to winner $11,450; $2,000 to second; $1,000 to third. Time 23-3/5, 48-3/5, 1.13-3/5, 1.39-2/5, 2.05-2/5. Regret, 112, J. Notter 1 Pebbles, 117, C. Borel 2 Sharpshooter, 114, J. Butwell 3 Royal II, 117, A. Neylon; Emerson Cochran, 117, W. Taylor; Leo Rey, 117, T. McTaggart; Double Eagle, 117, C. Burlingame; Dortch, 110, A. Mott; For Fair, 117, Warrington; Ed Crump, 117, R. Goose; Little String, 117, E. Pool; Goldcrest Boy, 114, J. Kederis; Uncle Bryn, 117, J. McTaggart; Tetan, 117, J. Smyth; Norse King, 117, W. J. O'Brien; Booker Bill, 117, W. Andress. Winner Ch F, by Broomstick--Jersey Lightning. Trained by J. Rowe. Owner, H. P. Whitney. FORTY-SECOND DERBY 1916 As old Rome raised her gates for the returning conqueror and turned over to him the city's keys so did Louisville surrender to-day to the spirit of the Derby. Again must the mind go back to palmy days of the city by the Tiber to imagine anything like the scene when that crowd of 50,000 cheering persons saw Gov. Stanley present the victor's wreath to Loftus, the boy who rode George Smith, winner of the classic. It was a surrender complete, unequivocal and universal with all classes, at all places and in every regard. But perhaps it was not a surrender at all, for that spirit of the great Kentucky classic gave to the city a gala day that even the carnival of Venice or Mardi Gras at New Orleans cannot surpass; it crowded the city with 25,000 strangers from far and near and, from the calculations of hotel men and others who come in immediate contact with the racing crowds, brought and left no less than one-half million out-of-town dollars to the Gateway of the South. There was but one limit to the festivities of the day--the azure sky. If Louisville was joyful to see so many strangers within her walls and delighted in a day of sport that might befit dwellers of the Elysian Fields, she had yet another cause for gladness. Despite the efforts of "the East" to capture the Kentucky Derby for two seasons, the first and third horses in the classic were "bred in old Kentucky." The Derby was the fifth race on the card, and it was 5:15 o'clock when the horses reached the post. There was but little delay at the barrier, and within a minute they were on their way. Dodge, which ran coupled with Franklin as the Weber & Ward entry, was the first to show colors, and his stablemate dashed away right behind him. Dominant, which was coupled with Thunderer as the Harry Payne Whitney entry, followed the Weber & Ward pair, and he immediately dashed into a long lead. Passing the stand for the first time Dominant had a long lead and appeared to be running easily, but after reaching the back side of the track it was evident that he was not good enough to last it out. Franklin was running close to him and appeared to be ready to run over him. George Smith was in third position, and Jockey Johnny Loftus was carefully nursing him along reserving his speed for the gruelling drive through the stretch, which he knew must come. Nearing the three furlong pole Dominant gave it up and then Loftus called on George Smith. The Sanford colt bounded to the front at a rapid rate and soon had a lead of a length over his field, with Franklin closest to him. Then it was that Star Hawk loomed up as a dangerous contender as he finally found his stride and had clear sailing. In the stretch, though, Loftus kept hard at work on George Smith, while Jockey Walter Lilley, who rode Star Hawk, was making vigorous efforts to get him up. Between the sixteenth pole and the finish it looked as though Star Hawk could make it, but Loftus' experience served him well and he never drove a horse harder than he drove George Smith. The showing of the Whitney pair was disappointing to the Eastern contingent and to Trainer James Rowe himself, who was the picture of confidence before the race. Thunderer did not show to advantage at any stage of the race, but he finally managed to beat his stablemate, he finishing fifth, and Dominant seventh. Nine three-year old colts contested for the race, Bulse, Huffaker and St. Isidore being scratched. George Smith is entirely of English blood, both his sire, Out of Reach, and his dam, Consuelo II., being of imported blood. His sire is now owned by the New York turfman, James Butler. The Derby was worth gross $13,200. The winner's net share was $9,750, while the second horse, Star Hawk, took down $2,000; the third horse, Franklin, $1,000, and the fourth horse, Dodge, saved his stake of $225. The time, 2:04, has only once been beaten in the Derby, being second to the mark of 2:03-2/5, scored by Old Rosebud in 1914, which is still the Kentucky Derby race record. Jockey John Loftus, who rode George Smith to victory in the Kentucky Derby, is a native of Chicago, Ill., where his parents reside. He has long been regarded one of the leading riders of America, and is now under contract to James Butler. He only came West this spring to ride George Smith at Lexington and in the Derby, and will return to New York at once to his employer. Loftus was long connected with the stable of J. B. Respess and was also awhile with the J. Livingston stable. He rode one season in France and made good there, the same as he has in this country. John Sanford, the owner of George Smith, is a son of the noted turfman of the same surname, who raced such great horses as Caughnawaga, Rockton, Chuctanunda, Mohawk II. and Molly Brant. The Sanford place is Hurricana Stud, near Amsterdam, N. Y., where is also located the Sanford carpet manufacturing plant. It is at Hurricana Stud that George Smith will do stud service when his turf career is over. George Smith, the winner of the forty-second renewal of the historic and classic Kentucky Derby, is a superbly made black colt of average good size and much quality, with a superior way of going. He is very sightly in appearance and has a perfect track disposition. He was bred in Mercer County, Kentucky, at the Fountainbue Stud of Chinn & Forsythe, and was sold at a fall sale of yearlings at the Latonia track for $1,600, being the second highest priced yearling sold at that time. Ed McBride, at that sale, left considerable money with Lou Tauber to buy three yearlings, one of these was George Smith, another was Tom Elwood, and the other was Eddie Henry, both of which have won stake races for McBride. SUMMARY May 13, 1916. Track fast. $10,000 added. Value to winner $9,750, second $2,000, third $1,000. Time 22-2/5, 46-2/5, 1.12-1/5, 1.38-4/5, 2.04. George Smith, 117, J. Loftus 1 Star Hawk, 117, W. Lilley 2 Franklin, 117, T. Rice 3 Dodge, 117, F. Murphy; Thunderer, 117, T. McTaggart; The Cock, 110, M. Garner; Dominant, 117, J. Notter; Kinney, 117, L. Gentry; Lena Misha, 117, E. Dugan. Winner black colt, by Out-of Reach--Consuelo II. Owned by John Sanford. Trained by H. Hughes. FORTY-THIRD DERBY 1917 Mindful still of the war time, but mindful more of the play time--of Kentucky's great play day of the May time--35,000 citizens of everywhere came from the high and low places of earth to-day to make Derby Day in Louisville what Derby Day always had been. When a Maytime sun flushes the bluegrass of Churchill Downs, dapples the satin coats of thoroughbreds and touches to brilliancy the brave green and gold of paddock, lawn and infield, when a hawthornscented breeze, straight from the wooded hills of Jacob Park, ripples the gleaming folds of "Old Glory," when Senators and Governors, multi-millionaires and internationally famous beauties foregather for the running of the Derby, when the motion picture cameras are licking, when the bands are playing, and the bugles sounding "Boots and Saddles," it is time to heed Omar's advice: "Come, fill the cup, and in the fire of spring Your winter garment of repentance fling!" There were, indeed, no "winter garments of repentance" in evidence at the Down to-day but instead such Far Eastern colors, such vivid touches of Chinese red and jade green, such oriental embroideries, such swirling military capes and coats that had their inspiration in the army as to convert the Downs into a picture that suggested some vast canvas by Velasquez. The wise man who once declared that "four things greater than all things are: Women and horses and power and war" would have found his dictum translated into living proof to-day, for added to the beauty of the women who graced the Downs, added to the fleetness of the satin-coated horses, and the power that is Kentucky, there was the suggestion of patriotism that can only translate itself in war. The olive-drab of the First Kentucky Infantry formed a fitting background for the striking picture presented by clubhouse lawn, verandas and boxes. "Old Glory" rippled and fluttered and the notes of the bugle stirred the immense throng to one single impulse of patriotism. The feeling that if fate should decree that on the next Derby days some of "our boys" should be in France, and nearer Longchamps than Churchill Downs, that Kentucky will be sure to "place a wager for them" instead of "turning down an empty glass," was everywhere expressed. Meanwhile, it seemed that "the loveliest, and the best" of Louisville, of Kentucky, and of the nation, were "star-scattered on the grass" of the clubhouse. In fact, the Rubaiyat of the Kentucky Derby was written to-day, and the chestnut-coated, satin-smooth Omar Khayyam won no less in the clubhouse than on the race course for everywhere the Far Eastern, the Persian, the Oriental touch was in evidence. There were Arab coats, pongees, and tussahs, silks of Oriental weave, and fabrics that were dyed in the self-same tints, and embroidered in the self-same designs and motifs as those that greeted the eyes of Omar Khayyam centuries ago. Automobiles in a long line that narrowed close to the course and bore thousands from all quarters of the city filled all the inclosures and the open spaces near the park. Street cars, embracing nearly all the emergency equipment of the railway company, ran in an almost continuous line, southbound, for several hours on Fourth street. Many lovers of the sport and the occasion took the footpaths for the exercise. At any rate, 1:30 o'clock found no less than 30,000 persons within Churchill Downs. It found them likewise at attention as a body of soldiers, led by a soldier band, marched in from the north gate, drawing up before a large flagstaff in the center of the infield. When 30,000 persons are of one mind, and are gathered in silence in one place, there is eloquence in the air. The very breeze gives a thrill. When the Star Spangled Banner and a Kentucky Derby in wartime are turned loose on such a vast gathering of Americans the heart thumps mightily. In that gathering were men who have seen the ravages of war and men who expect to feel its blight; men in the khaki and men hoping soon to don it. And so, when the regiment boys burst into the anthem as a large flag was raised along with two smaller ones, the crowd rose, held its silence until the band ceased, and then broke into a mighty cheer. It was nearly 5 o'clock when the bugle sounded calling the horses to the post. The long procession of fifteen, led by the outrider on a gray horse, garbed in a fiery red jacket, made an imposing picture. The gay silks of the jockeys, with the verdant infield for a background, handed just the right touch of color to the scene. Down past the grandstand and clubhouse they pranced, and here they were all given cheers. It takes Kentucky racing audiences to grow enthusiastic, and they know how to do it. On the way to the post Ticket, the favorite, was the most nervous one of the lot, prancing and dancing throughout the stretch. All others were a well behaved lot. It took the starter four minutes to get them in alignment, and then the grand old shout of "They're off!" shot out from the grandstand and was spent on the distant green hills. Ticket dashed into the lead, but Stargazer soon assumed command, with Berlin forcing the pace at his side. They swept past the grandstand at a stirring clip, the field strung out as the riders jockeyed for positions. On went Stargazer, his dazzling pace tearing at the hearts of those who attempted to follow it. Berlin curled up from the effort and dropped back, beaten, as the band sped up the back stretch. Ticket still held on and it was plain that he was the horse the winner would have to beat. As they rounded the turn by the old clubhouse Rickety made his move. He seemed to have the speed of his party and rapidly mowed down his opposition. At the quarter pole Rickety flashed in front, but it was only for an instant. He appeared to suddenly weaken and Ticket headed the procession. Meanwhile one of the cleverest riders in America was nestling low over the neck of a big chestnut colt. As the field passed the grandstand the first time he was in tenth place. There he continued around the curve and into the back stretch. Out in front he could see the flying leaders, but his mount was running smoothly, and as they passed the half mile pole he noticed he was shortening the distance that he must make up. He was satisfied with his position. But suddenly every hope was threatened. He was borne over against the rail and his mount was knocked off his stride. But Borel did not despair. He took back until the way was clear and passed the mile mark in sixth place. The flying leaders swung a trifle wide into the stretch and left an opening on the rail. Borel did not hesitate. Along the white fence he took Omar. In a couple of jumps his mount was at Ticket's rump. Steadily he moved toward the front, past saddle girth and withers. He soon was stretching fiery nostrils alongside the bay colt's neck, and then Omar Khayyam's blaze face showed in front, and in the last hundred yards commenced to draw away and swept under the wire winner by two lengths. The Kentucky Derby; one mile and a quarter; for three-year olds; purse, $15,000 added; net value to the winner, $16,600; $2,500 to second, $1,000 to third, $275 to fourth. Fractional Time--0:23-3/5, 0:47-3/5, 1:12-4/5, 1:38, 2:04-3/5. Starters Weights Jockeys St. 1/4 1/2 3/4 S. F. Omar Khayyam, 117 Borel 11 10 h 10 1 6-1/2 2 1 1 2 Ticket, 117 J. McTaggart 1 3 h 3 1-1/2 4-1/2 1-1/2 2 1-1/2 Midway, 117 C. Hunt 12 12 1 9 1 8-1/2 3 h 3 4 Rickety, 117 Robinson 5 7-1/2 5 1 1 h 4-1/2 4 1 War Star, 110 Buxton 6 5 1-1/2 6 1 5-1/2 5 h 5 h Manister Toi, 117 Keogh 15 13-1/2 11-1/2 10 1 6-1/2 6 h Skeptic, 117 Martin 14 6 1 4 h 9 1 7 1 7 1-1/2 Guy Fortune, 117 Connolly 2 14 1 12 1 12 1 11 1 8-1/2 Star Master, 117 Loftus 9 4-1/2 2 h 2 h 8 11 9 h Stargazer, 110 Crump 10 1-1/2 1-1/2 3 h 9-1/2 10 2 Cudgel, 117 Murphy 13 11 1 7 1 13 1 12-1/2 11 5 Green Jones, 117 Goose 3 9 h 13 1 11-1/2 13 1 12 8 Top o' the Wave, 117 Morys 4 15 14 2 14 1 14 1 13 4 Berlin, 117 Andress 7 2-1/2 8 h 7-1/2 10 1 14 12 Acabado, 114 Schuttinger 8 8 h 15 15 15 15 The $2 mutuels paid: Omar Khayyam, straight $27.60, place $10.90, show $6.20; Ticket, place $3.70, show $2.80; Midway, show $5.10. Omar Khayyam was bred in England by Sir John Robinson and J. T. Farr and was purchased by his present trainer, Charles T. Patterson for C. K. G. Billings and Frederick Johnson at Newmarket, September 15, 1915, for $1,500. Omar Khayyam's sire Marco won the Cambridgeshire, etc., and is the sire of Neil Gow, Beppo, Marcovil, Malua, Bembo, Mirador, Sansovino, and other good horses. Omar Khayyam, named for the great Persian poet and astronomer, is the first foreign-bred colt to win a Kentucky Derby. His owners are Frederick Johnson, a broker, in New York and C. K. G. Billings, owner of the famous trotters Uhlan, Lou Dillon and Major Delmar and it is his second season as a thoroughbred owner. Mr. Johnson saw his colt win but Mr. Billings was unable to enjoy seeing the victory. Trainer C. T. Patterson said before the race: "I never trained a horse in which I had more confidence than Omar Khayyam, and I handled Hamburg and Ornament." FORTY-FOURTH DERBY 1918 In the presence of the greatest crowd that ever thronged Churchill Downs and over a track fetlock deep in mud, Willis Sharpe Kilmer's chestnut gelding Exterminator, saddled by Henry McDaniel, and capably ridden by W. Knapp, scored an easy victory over seven other good three-year olds in the forty-fourth running of the Kentucky Derby this afternoon. Kenneth D. Alexander's crack Broomstick colt, Escoba, ridden by Joe Notter, finished second, a length back of the winner and eight lengths in front of Viva America, the only filly that started in the race. A. K. Macomber's imported War Cloud, a heavy favorite in the speculation and which would have paid a little less than three to two, had he won, was never a serious factor and finished fourth, beaten all of the way. The winner was given but scant consideration by the bettors, being the least regarded of the eight that made up the field after Aurum and Jim Heffering had been withdrawn. Exterminator paid his backers the handsome odds of nearly thirty to one and in winning upset all calculations and brought consternation to the ranks of the form players, who went to War Cloud with rare confidence. It was after five o'clock when the bugle called the horses to the post for the Derby, in which a big surprise was in store for the spectators. Every inch of space in clubhouse and grandstand was taken, while a solid mass of humanity lined the lawns a quarter of a mile long, extending from clubhouse to the quarter pole, almost to the head of the homestretch. The procession of eight sleek thoroughbreds, trained to the minute, led by the outrider on a gray horse, garbed in a fiery jacket, made an imposing picture. The gay silks of the jockeys with the verdant field for a background, gave just the right touch of color to the scene. Down past the grandstand and clubhouse they pranced, with Escoba in the lead, closely followed by the others. At sight of the dark blue and white sleeves of Mr. Alexander, worn by Escoba's rider, faint cheers rippled along the fringe of the crowd that lined the rail, and which was turned into a noisy demonstration as War Cloud, the favorite, came in sight. They reached the post at 5:19, and it took Starter Dade but a brief time to get them in alignment. In exactly two minutes he sprung the barrier, and, shouting, "Come on," sent the eight horses away on their history-making journey. Viva America was the first to show in front after a few strides, and was closely followed by Sewell Combs and Escoba. As they thundered past the stand for the first time, the Worthington filly was still in the lead, with Sewell Combs and Escoba running neck and neck to her rear. Exterminator was lying in fourth position, while Lucky B., American Eagle, War Cloud and Jas. T. Clark were running abreast not far behind. There was very little change in the running positions as the field swung into the backstretch, except that the leader was beginning to show the strain of pacemaking. As they reached the half-mile pole backers of War Cloud implored Loftus to move up and for a moment it appeared that the rider had heard the cry across the field and was making an effort to comply. The English-bred horse, however, showed clearly that the task was too much for him, for despite his rider's vigorous efforts he could not get within hailing distance of the leaders. Rounding the far turn Viva America was ready to cry quits and Escoba, after shaking off Sewell Combs, forged ahead. If Notter, who was aboard of Escoba, exulted over the advantage gained, he was soon doomed to disappointment, for Knapp had gone to work on Exterminator, and under keen urging the Kilmer gelding rushed forward and was on even terms with the Alexander colt as they straightened out for the last gruelling drive. After a brief struggle, Exterminator shook off his doughty antagonist and drawing clear in the last eighth, won in a mild drive in 2:10-4/5. Escoba had practically no opposition for the place. Viva America beat War Cloud four lengths for third money. Sewell Combs ran a good race, but tired chasing the leader in the first seven-eighths. Lucky B., which was supposed to be partial to the heavy track, ran far below expectations. American Eagle and Jas. T. Clark also ran below par and might just as well not have been started. War Cloud showed a very poor effort, due probably to the fact that he did not like the kind of mud that prevailed to-day. The winner's portion of the stake amounted to $14,700. The second horse's share was $2,500, and the third horse, $1,000. By finishing fourth War Cloud saved his owner nominating and starting fees. Exterminator and his rider were roundly applauded upon their return to the stand. Mr. Kilmer, who watched the race with Mrs. Kilmer from a box, was called into the judges' box and warmly congratulated by Gov. A. O. Stanley, while the floral wreath was placed around the neck of the winner. The morning dawned bright and clear, but shortly after 7 o'clock the sky became overcast and by 8:30 the rain was pouring down. It was steady and heavy until shortly after 1 o'clock when it ceased and there was an occasional feeble attempt of the sun to kiss away the dampness on stand and lawns and rye-grown infield of verdant Churchill Downs, but it was all to no purpose, for the country's most classical race was decided over the muddiest course for any Derby since that won by Worth in 1912. As the horses came from the paddock onto the track in parade to the post for the opening race, the band struck up the national anthem, and at the same time the stars and stripes were run up to the top of the tall flag mast in the center field. Everyone stood--the soldiers, who had come in goodly numbers from Camp Zachary Taylor, at attention, and the male civilians, with their heads uncovered. Two of the jockeys, Frank Murphy and Lee Mink, took off their caps when they heard the strains of "The Star Spangled Banner," and saw "Old Glory," floating to the breeze, a resplendent guarantee to the freedom of the nation and earnest evidence that our fighting forces and their allies will make the world safe for democracy. And just at the moment of the good old flag's ascendancy the sun shone out from behind the vanishing clouds until it was bright enough to cast shadows from the trees and shrubs upon the lawn. In the spring of 1914 Joseph Knight made arrangements to breed three of his mother's mares to McGee on shares. Mr. Moore was to have the pick of the mares owned by Mr. Knight's mother. Fair Empress was one of the mares selected by Mr. Moore to breed to McGee and Exterminator was foaled on May 30, 1915. He was sold as a yearling at Saratoga by the Powers-Hunter Company to J. C. Milam for $1,500. Mr. Milam broke him and developed him, and last year won $1,350 with him, and this month, during the Lexington meeting, sold him to Mr. Kilmer for a price reported to have been in the vicinity of $10,000. The Kentucky Derby; one mile and a quarter; for three-year olds; $15,000 added; net value to the winner $14,700; $2,500 to second; $1,000 to third; $275 to fourth. Fractional time--0:24-1/5, 0:49-1/5, 1:16-1/5, 1:43-3/5, 2:10-4/5. Went to the post at 5:19 p. m. Off at 5:21. Starters Weights St. 1/4 1/2 3/4 S. F. Exterminator, 114 W. Knapp 5 5 1 4-1/2 1 h 2 4 1 1 Escoba, 117 J. Notter 2 3 1-1/2 2 h 2 1 1 h 2 8 Viva America, 113 W. Warrington 1 1 1-1/2 1 1-1/2 3 4 3 2 3 4 War Cloud, 117 J. Loftus 7 4 h 5 2 4 4 4 3 4 2 Lucky B., 117 J. McCabe 4 6 h 7 8 5-1/2 5 6 5 6 Jas. T. Clark, 117 J. Morys 8 7 3 6 3 7 6 7 3 6 12 Sewell Combs, 117 L. Gentry 3 2nk 3 1 6 2 6-1/2 7 1 American Eagle, 117 E. Sande 6 8 8 8 8 8 The $2 mutuels paid: Exterminator, straight $61.20, place $23.10, show $12.40; Escoba, place $4.90, show $4.60; Viva America, show $13.20. Start good. Won handily; place driving. Winner, ch g, 3, by McGee--Fair Empress. Trainer H. McDaniel. FORTY-FIFTH DERBY 1919 A record Derby in more ways than one was this year's Louisville's big racing attraction. Never was there such a crowd, the dimensions of which reminded me of Epsom and of Flemington. A vast surging mass of racing enthusiasts, which, prior to the running of the big race, were to be found eagerly discussing the merits or demerits of the Derby contestants and afterwards the whys and wherefores of the success of one and the failure of others. A record Derby also because of the fact that two horses in the same ownership finished first and second, and also for the first time in its history the spoils fell to a sportsman who hails from the land of "God save the king and heaven bless the maple leaf forever." Fortunately the morning's promise of still more rain was not fulfilled, nary an umbrella did I see raised during the course of the afternoon. Many there were who availed themselves of the privilege of watching the race from the infield, though the grandstand was not filled to that overflowing that has marked the decision of former Derbies. This was true because of the fact that the whole grandstand was reserved, an extra charge being demanded for admission. Surely this is a mistake, ugh! What next? What would have happened it is hard to say had Jupiter Pluvious again gone to work. The going itself was more than fair. The Churchill Downs course never becomes holdings as does Lexington; proof of this is the winner's more than good time, made when competing for the Derby. Now then for the Derby. The gelding Be Frank is first on view, presenting a well trained appearance. Vindex, though out on the course for a warming up canter, did not pass the stands. His manners are even yet not by any means perfect, whinnying and nickering when returning to the paddock, a magnificent specimen of a thorough bred, perhaps a trifle long of back, carrying abundant condition, too, but in every way a gentleman to look at. Along came the Canadian pair Billy and Barton, by odds the best ordered horses in the race, Kelly especially looked fit to run for the proverbial king's ransom, his whippet like contour convincing evidence that Trainer Bedwell has lost nothing of his skill, and Barton, too, though built on somewhat more generous lines, had the look of one trained to the minute. Indeed, it is comforting to know that there are yet to be found those who can prepare a horse for a ten furlongs race. Eternal and Sailor also are shown, the favorite more bulky than ever, Sailor put up on more rangy lines. Little Regalo was the last to come out, evidently on the best of terms with herself, evincing an interest in the spectators and playing with her pony companion on her return. St. Bernard, Frogtown and Under Fire I did not see, the paddock was altogether impossible. The absolutely fit condition of the Ross pair was the subject of much favorable comment, the magnificence of Vindex, the lack of scope of Eternal, the well being of Regalo, all of us had something to say, but there goes the bugle. Starter Dade did not keep us waiting long, and from the outset the Ross chestnut, Sir Barton, was at the head of affairs, followed, as they pass the stand, by Eternal, Vindex and Billy Kelly. On they sweep round the upper turn, Barton galloping easily in front of Eternal, Billy Kelly third, just in front of Vindex, then came St. Bernard and Sennings Park, well clear of the rest. Only one-half mile has been run when Vindex rapidly compounds and quickly falls to the rear. On spins the chestnut well in advance of Eternal and Kelly; won't he ever come back? Oh no, as long as weight and condition serve, both of which are in his favor. Eternal momentarily makes a stab at the three-eighths, but is done, absolutely done thereafter. Billy Kelly now looms up, and as they straighten for home makes his gallant effort, but it is of no avail, even to the application of the rawhide he is unable to respond, and Sir Barton sails home an easy winner after making every yard of the pace. Under Fire comes out of the ruck at the end to take third place, the son of Swynford again shows lack of pace in the early running, but came along stoutly at the finish, the rest scattering. Yes, scattering; there was no rattling horse against horse at any part of the race. It was thus Sir Barton broke his maiden, assisted of course in this by his pull in weight and also by his superior racing condition. Billy Kelly's condition, too, saved him the place, and this is a feat which Trainer Bedwell is deserving of all praise and of which he may well be proud. Under Fire's gameness and race horse qualities enabled him to obtain third place, and some day, later along, he is certain to develop into a cup horse of the best sort, sound, long winded and hardy as they come. Regalo disappointed me. Fillies, however, are ever uncertain in this spring season. The form displayed by Vindex was altogether too bad to be true. Maybe he has his peculiarities as had his grandsire St. Maclou. Eternal did not have the appearance of a thoroughly trained horse. Maybe he was more fit than was thought and does not fancy a distance. As for the rest, they simply are not of Derby calibre. The time, 2:09-3/5, was remarkably good, everything, track and atmospheric conditions, considered and goes a long way to show that the Kentucky Derby this year, at all events, was a true run, honest race. "EXILE." SUMMARY May 10, 1919. Track heavy. $20,000 added. Value to Winner $20,825, second $2,500, third, $1,000, fourth $275. Time--24-1/5, 48-2/5, 1.14, 1.41-4/5, 2.09-4/5. Sir Barton, 112-1/2, J. Loftus 1 Billy Kelly, 119, E. Sande 2 Under Fire, 122, M. Garner 3 Vulcanite, 110, C. Howard; Sennings Park, 122, H. Lunsford; Be Frank, 119, J. Butwell; Sailor, 119, J. McIntyre; St. Bernard, 119, E. Pool; Regalo, 117, F. Murphy; Eternal, 122, A. Schuttinger; Frogtown, 119, J. Morys; Vindex, 122, W. Knapp. Winner Chestnut Colt, by Star Shoot--Lady Sterling. Owned by J. K. L. Ross. Trained by H. G. Bedwell. FORTY-SIXTH DERBY 1920 A droning buzz as if from 45,000 human bees, a sudden silence as felt before a storm, and then an outburst of sound over topped in volume by the rebel yell let out by Uncle Billy Garth, of Virginia, thousands of fluttering spasms of dying thrills, and then the finish of the forty-sixth Kentucky Derby passed into history. Running a great and game race, that did credit to his illustrious namesake, Paul Jones, a son of Sea King and May Florence, led from start to finish of the mile and a quarter, and won under a drive by a good neck. Fighting it out to the last ounce of endeavor, Harry Payne Whitney's Upset, that owner's home bred son of Whisk Broom II. and Pankhurst, finished in second place, with four lengths to spare over George W. Loft's On Watch, who was early favorite in the winter books for this big event. On Watch was four lengths in front of Damask another of the Whitney entry, while Donnacona, the other of the Loft pair to start, was fifth, with Blazes, stable mate of Paul Jones, sixth. The race was worth $30,375 to the winner, and there was $4,000 for Upset, who ran second, and $2,000 for On Watch, as the short end of the rich purse, while Damask saved his entry fee when he finished in fourth place, $275. For once, the monster throng, many of whom had witnessed many other Derbies, awakened to a perfect day, just as perfect as a day in June, but the track was slow, as was evidenced by the time of 2:09. The record for this race was made by Old Rosebud, who did the distance in 2:03-2/5. The start of the race could not have been better, the seventeen thoroughbreds getting away in almost perfect alignment, after having been at the post less than four minutes. Paul Jones was the first to show in front, following the rise of the barrier, but pounding along at his throat-latch was Prince Pal, with the others following closely. By the time the leader had reached a point opposite the padlock gate, a few hundred yards from the starting line, the others had begun to string out. On they came with Paul Jones showing the way. As the field passed the grandstand, the first time, Jockey Ted Rice nestled low in the saddle. He was rating his mount nicely and the son of Sea King was eager to run. On they sped around the first turn and into the back stretch. Here By Golly made his move for the honor and glory that goes to the winner of the Derby. He hung close to the heels of Paul Jones as they swung into the straight-away, and then fell back beaten. Wildair took up the chase. He closed to the saddle girth of the Parr winner and they swept along at a tearing pace. One or the other must falter, the crowd knew, but Paul Jones proved his mettle. Wildair dropped back. On Watch then drew the gaze of the spectators. As the field passed the half-mile post he shot forward and sped past his tiring opposition. On he continued as they rounded the last turn, and an old horseman shouted. "On Watch wins." But On Watch had spent himself and all the courage and stamina at his command could not overhaul the driving duo out front. At the furlong pole Paul Jones met his sternest test. He seemed to be weakening from the long, hard struggle. Upset appeared to be the stronger. But Jockey Rice again called on his game little mount and Paul Jones did as Hanover or Hindoo would have done. He would not be denied. Paul Jones met challenge with challenge and at the close displayed a heart of iron as he drove madly under the wire with Upset at his throat-latch. Throughout the stretch the twain waged a heartrending duel. As they took the final turn Upset made his bid. Inch by inch he forged past rump and flank and withers. He stretched fiery nostrils alongside the gelding's throat. Only the blazed face remained between him and victory. On they came past the furlong pole, and still the blazed face would not be dislodged. It remained there to the end. This triumph of the East was more than a victory for Kentucky. The ugly little brown boasts blood that long has been the pride of the Blue Grass. His dam is by Hamburg, which got Jersey Lightning, the dam of Regret, and Hamburg's sire was the immortal Hanover, by Hindoo, winner of the Kentucky Derby of 1881. Hindoo was from the loins of Virgil out of Florence, by Lexington, and he by Boston, the great Boston. SUMMARY May 8, 1920. Track slow. $30,000 added. Value to winner $30,375, second, $4,000, third $2,000, fourth $275. Time--23-4/5, 48-1/5, 1.14-4/5, 1.42, 2.09. Paul Jones, 126, T. Rice 1 Upset, 126, J. Rodriguez 2 On Watch, 126, N. Barrett 3 Damask, 126, E. Ambrose; Donnacona, 126, W. J. O'Brien; Blazes, 126, C. Kummer; By Golly, 126, L. Lyke; Wildair, 126, L. Fator; Bersagliere, 126, T. Murray; Patches, 126, J. Hanover; Herron, 126, J. Butwell; Sandy Beal, 126, I. Williams; Prince Pal, 126, A. Schuttinger; David Harum, 126, C. Fairbrother; Cleopatra, 121, L. McAtee; Peace Pennant, 126, M. Garner; Sterling, 126, J. Callahan. Winner, Brown Gelding, by Sea King-May Florence, by Hamburg. Owned by R. Parr. Trained by Wm. Garth. I love the Hoss from Hoof to Head, From Head to Hoof and Tail to Mane. I love the Hoss, as I have said From Head to Hoof and back again. I love my God the first of all, Then Him that perished on the Cross And next my Wife and then I fall Down on my knees and Love the Hoss. James Whitcomb Riley. * * * * * Transcriber's note: Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_). The original text does not contain a Table of Contents. The Table of Contents included near the beginnning of this file was created by the transcriber as an aid for the reader. The following misprints have been corrected: "calvary" corrected to "cavalry" (page 8) "Foso" corrected to "Fonso" (page 22) "Ragland" corrected to "Raglan" (page 30) "Biersan" corrected to "Bersan" (page 37) "that" corrected to "than" (page 37) "cencert" corrected to "concert" (page 43) missing "and" added (page 44) "oustretched" corrected to "outstretched" (page 52) "three-yeor-old" corrected to "three-year-old" (page 57) "companians" corrected to "companions" (page 62) "Sheck" corrected to "Scheck" (page 80) "than" corrected to "then" (page 86) "pass" corrected to "past" (page 94) "gotton" corrected to "gotten" (page 95) "Banbridge's" corrected to "Banridge's" (page 96) "Kentucy" corrected to "Kentucky" (page 99) "viens" corrected to "veins" (page 102) "sixteeth" corrected to "sixteenth" (page 104) "nack" corrected to "neck" (page 108) "Buxon" corrected to "Buxton" (page 110) "far" corrected to "for" (page 116) "frunished" corrected to "furnished" (page 117) The mismatched parenthesis on page 10 is presented as in the original. Otherwise, punctuation errors have been corrected without note. Other than the corrections listed above, inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been retained. 
35521	----	Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of corrections is found at the end of the text. Oe ligatures have been expanded. [Illustration: Frontispiece Page 123.] RIDING RECOLLECTIONS. BY G. J. WHYTE-MELVILLE. _WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY EDGAR GIBERNE._ FIFTH EDITION. LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, 193, PICCADILLY. 1878. [_All Rights Reserved._] LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL. Dedicated, ON BEHALF OF "THE BRIDLED AND SADDLED," TO THE "BOOTED AND SPURRED." CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE KINDNESS 3 CHAPTER II. COERCION 13 CHAPTER III. THE USE OF THE BRIDLE 34 CHAPTER IV. THE ABUSE OF THE SPUR 59 CHAPTER V. HAND 72 CHAPTER VI. SEAT 94 CHAPTER VII. VALOUR 109 CHAPTER VIII. DISCRETION 126 CHAPTER IX. IRISH HUNTERS 144 CHAPTER X. THOROUGH-BRED HORSES 163 CHAPTER XI. RIDING TO FOX-HOUNDS 180 CHAPTER XII. RIDING _at_ STAG-HOUNDS 203 CHAPTER XIII. THE PROVINCES 220 CHAPTER XIV. THE SHIRES 235 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The Dorsetshire farmer's plan of teaching horses to jump timber 8 "If he should drop his hind legs, _shoot_ yourself off over his shoulders in an instant, with a fast hold of the bridle, at which tug hard, even though you may not have regained your legs" 32 "Lastly, when it gets upon Bachelor, or Benedict, or Othello, or any other high-flyer with a suggestive name, it sails away close, often too close, to the hounds leaving brothers, husbands, even admirers, hopelessly in the rear" (_Frontispiece_) 123 "Perhaps we find an easy place under a tree, with an overhanging branch, and sidle daintily up to it, bending the body and lowering the head as we creep through, to the admiration of an indiscreet friend on a rash horse who spoils a good hat and utters an evil execration, while trying to follow our example" 138 "When we canter anxiously up to a sign-post where four roads meet, with a fresh and eager horse indeed, but not the wildest notion towards which point of the compass we should direct his energies, we can but stop to listen, take counsel of a countryman, &c." 193 At bay 208 "'Come up horse!' and having admonished that faithful servant with a dig in the ribs from his horn, blows half-a-dozen shrill blasts in quick succession, sticks the instrument, I shudder to confess it, in his boot, and proceeds to hustle his old white nag at the best pace he can command in the wake of his favourites" 225 "The King of the Golden Mines" 242 RIDING RECOLLECTIONS. RIDING RECOLLECTIONS. As in the choice of a horse and a wife a man must please himself, ignoring the opinion and advice of friends, so in the governing of each it is unwise to follow out any fixed system of discipline. Much depends on temper, education, mutual understanding and surrounding circumstances. Courage must not be heated to recklessness, caution should be implied rather than exhibited, and confidence is simply a question of time and place. It is as difficult to explain by precept or demonstrate by example how force, balance, and persuasion ought to be combined in horsemanship, as to teach the art of floating in the water or swimming on the back. Practice in either case alone makes perfect, and he is the most apt pupil who brings to his lesson a good opinion of his own powers and implicit reliance on that which carries him. Trust the element or the animal and you ride aloft superior to danger; but with misgiving comes confusion, effort, breathlessness, possibly collapse and defeat. Morally and physically, there is no creature so nervous as a man out of his depth. In offering the following pages to the public, the writer begs emphatically to disclaim any intention of laying down the law on such a subject as horsemanship. Every man who wears spurs believes himself more or less an adept in the art of riding; and it would be the height of presumption for one who has studied that art as a pleasure and not a profession to dictate for the ignorant, or enter the lists of argument with the wise. All he can lay claim to is a certain amount of experience, the result of many happy hours spent with the noble animal under him, of some uncomfortable minutes when mutual indiscretion has caused that position to be reversed. If the few hints he can offer should prove serviceable to the beginner he will feel amply rewarded, and will only ask to be kindly remembered hereafter in the hour of triumph when the tyro of a riding-school has become the pride of a hunting-field,--judicious, cool, daring, and skilful--light of hand, firm of seat, thoroughly at home in the saddle, a very Centaur "Encorpsed and demi-natured With the brave beast." CHAPTER I. KINDNESS. In our dealings with the brute creation, it cannot be too much insisted on that mutual confidence is only to be established by mutual good-will. The perceptions of the beast must be raised to their highest standard, and there is no such enemy to intelligence as fear. Reward should be as the daily food it eats, punishment as the medicine administered on rare occasions, unwillingly, and but when absolute necessity demands. The horse is of all domestic animals most susceptible to anything like discomfort or ill-usage. Its nervous system, sensitive and highly strung, is capable of daring effort under excitement, but collapses utterly in any new and strange situation, as if paralysed by apprehensions of the unknown. Can anything be more helpless than the young horse you take out hunting the first time he finds himself in a bog? Compare his frantic struggles and sudden prostration with the discreet conduct of an Exmoor pony in the same predicament. The one terrified by unaccustomed danger, and relying instinctively on the speed that seems his natural refuge, plunges wildly forward, sinks to his girths, his shoulders, finally unseats his rider, and settles down, without further exertion, in the stupid apathy of despair. The other, born and bred in the wild west country, picking its scanty keep from a foal off the treacherous surface of a Devonshire moor, either refuses altogether to trust the quagmire, or shortens its stride, collects its energies, chooses the soundest tufts that afford foothold, and failing these, flaps its way out on its side, to scramble into safety with scarce a quiver or a snort. It has been there before! Herein lies the whole secret. Some day your young one will be as calm, as wise, as tractable. Alas! that when his discretion has reached its prime his legs begin to fail! Therefore cultivate his intellect--I use the word advisedly--even before you enter on the development of his physical powers. Nature and good keep will provide for these, but to make him man's willing friend and partner you must give him the advantage of man's company and man's instruction. From the day you slip a halter over his ears he should be encouraged to look to you, like a child, for all his little wants and simple pleasures. He should come cantering up from the farthest corner of the paddock when he hears your voice, should ask to have his nose rubbed, his head stroked, his neck patted, with those honest, pleading looks which make the confidence of a dumb creature so touching; and before a roller has been put on his back, or a snaffle in his mouth he should be convinced that everything you do to him is right, and that it is impossible for _you_, his best friend, to cause him the least uneasiness or harm. I once owned a mare that would push her nose into my pockets in search of bread and sugar, would lick my face and hands like a dog, or suffer me to cling to any part of her limbs and body while she stood perfectly motionless. On one occasion, when I hung in the stirrup after a fall, she never stirred on rising, till by a succession of laborious and ludicrous efforts I could swing myself back into the saddle, with my foot still fast, though hounds were running hard and she loved hunting dearly in her heart. As a friend remarked at the time, "The little mare seems very fond of you, or there might have been a bother!" Now this affection was but the result of petting, sugar, kind and encouraging words, particularly at her fences, and a rigid abstinence from abuse of the bridle and the spur. I shall presently have something to say about both these instruments, but I may remark in the mean time that many more horses than people suppose will cross a country safely with a loose rein. The late Colonel William Greenwood, one of the finest riders in the world, might be seen out hunting with a single curb-bridle, such as is called "a hard-and-sharp" and commonly used only in the streets of London or the Park. The present Lord Spencer, of whom it is enough to say that he hunts one pack of his own hounds in Northamptonshire, and is always _in the same field with them_, never seems to have a horse pull, or until it is tired, even lean on his hand. I have watched both these gentlemen intently to learn their secret, but I regret to say without avail. This, however, is not the present question. Long before a bridle is fitted on the colt's head he should have so thoroughly learned the habit of obedience, that it has become a second instinct, and to do what is required of him seems as natural as to eat when he is hungry or lie down when he wants to sleep. This result is to be attained in a longer or shorter time, according to different tempers, but the first and most important step is surely gained when we have succeeded in winning that affection which nurses and children call "cupboard love." Like many amiable characters on two legs, the quadruped is shy of acquaintances but genial with friends. Make him understand that you are his best and wisest, that all you do conduces to his comfort and happiness, be careful at first not to deceive or disappoint him, and you will find his reasoning powers quite strong enough to grasp the relations of cause and effect. In a month or six weeks he will come to your call, and follow you about like a dog. Soon he will let you lift his feet, handle him all over, pull his tail, and lean your weight on any part of his body, without alarm or resentment. When thoroughly familiar with your face, your voice, and the motions of your limbs, you may back him with perfect safety, and he will move as soberly under you in any place to which he is accustomed as the oldest horse in your stable. Do not forget, however, that education should be gradual as moon-rise, perceptible, not in progress, but result. I recollect one morning riding to covert with a Dorsetshire farmer whose horses, bred at home, were celebrated as timber-jumpers even in that most timber-jumping of countries. I asked him how they arrived at this proficiency without breaking somebody's neck, and he imparted his plan. The colt, it seemed, ran loose from a yearling in the owner's straw-yard, but fed in a lofty out-house, across the door of which was placed a single tough ashen bar that would not break under a bullock. This was laid on the ground till the young one had grown thoroughly accustomed to it, and then raised very gradually to such a height as was less trouble to jump than clamber over. At three feet the two-year old thought no more of the obstacle than a girl does of her skipping-rope. After that, it was heightened an inch every week, and it needs no ready reckoner to tell us at the end of six months how formidable a leap the animal voluntarily negotiated three times a day. "It's never put no higher," continued my informant; "I'm an old man now, and that's good enough for me." I should think it was! A horse that can leap five feet of timber in cold blood is not likely to be pounded, while still unblown, in any part of England I have yet seen. [Illustration: Page 8.] Now the Dorsetshire farmer's system was sound, and based on common sense. As you bend the twig so grows the tree, therefore prepare your pupil from the first for the purpose you intend him to serve hereafter. An Arab foal, as we know, brought up in the Bedouin's tent, like another child, among the Bedouin's children, is the most docile of its kind, and I cannot but think that if he lived in our houses and we took as much notice of him, the horse would prove quite as sagacious as the dog; but we must never forget that to harshness or intimidation he is the most sensitive of creatures, and even when in fault should be rather cautioned than reproved. An ounce of illustration is worth a pound of argument, and the following example best conveys the spirit in which our brave and willing servant should be treated by his lord. Many years ago, when he hunted the Cottesmore country, Sir Richard Sutton's hounds had been running hard from Glooston Wood along the valley under Cranehoe by Slawston to Holt. After thirty minutes or so over this beautiful, but exceedingly stiff line, their heads went up, and they came to a check, possibly from their own dash and eagerness, certainly, at that pace and amongst those fences, _not from being overridden_. "Turn 'em, Ben!" exclaimed Sir Richard, with a dirty coat, and Hotspur in a lather, but determined not to lose a moment in getting after his fox. "Yes, Sir Richard," answered Morgan, running his horse without a moment's hesitation at a flight of double-posts and rails, with a ditch in the middle and one on each side! The good grey, having gone in front from the find, was perhaps a little blown, and dropping his hind legs in the farthest ditch, rolled very handsomely into the next field. "It's not _your_ fault, old man!" said Ben, patting his favourite on the neck as they rose together in mutual good-will, adding in the same breath, while he leapt to the saddle, and Tranby acknowledged the line--"Forrard on, Sir Richard!--Hoic together, hoic! You'll have him directly, my beauties! He's a Quorn fox, and he'll do you good!" I had always considered Ben Morgan an unusually fine rider. For the first time, I began to understand _why_ his horse never failed to carry him so willingly and so well. I do not remember whether Dick Webster was out with us that day, but I am sure if he was he has not forgotten it, and I mention him as another example of daring horsemanship combined with an imperturbable good humour, almost verging on buffoonery, which seems to accept the most dangerous falls as enhancing the fun afforded by a delightful game of romps. His annual exhibition of prowess at the Islington horse show has made his shrewd comical face so familiar to the public that his name, without farther comment, is enough to recall the presence and bearing of the man--his quips and cranks and merry jests, his shrill whistle and ready smile, his strong seat and light, skilful hand, but above all his untiring patience and unfailing kindness with the most restive and refractory of pupils. Dick, like many other good fellows, is not so young as he was, but he will probably be an unequalled rider at eighty, and I am quite sure that if he lives to the age of Methuselah, the extreme of senile irritability will never provoke him to lose his temper with a horse. Presence of mind under difficulties is the one quality that in riding makes all the difference between getting off with a scramble and going down with a fall. If unvaried kindness has taught your horse to place confidence in his rider, he will have his wits about him, and provide for _your_ safety as for his own. When left to himself, and not flurried by the fear of punishment, even an inexperienced hunter makes surprising efforts to keep on his legs, and it is not too much to say that while his wind lasts, the veteran is almost as difficult to catch tripping as a cat. I have known horses drop their hind legs on places scarcely affording foothold for a goat, but in all such feats they have been ridden by a lover of the animal, who trusts it implicitly, and rules by kindness rather than fear. I will not deny that there are cases in which the _suaviter in modo_ must be supplemented by the _fortiter in re_. Still the insubordination of ignorance is never wholly inexcusable, and great discretion must be used in repressing even the most violent of outbreaks. If severity is absolutely required, be sure to temper justice with mercy, remembering that, in brute natures at least, the more you spare the rod, the less you spoil the child! CHAPTER II. COERCION. I recollect, in years gone by, an old and pleasant comrade used to declare that "to be in a rage was almost as contemptible as to be in a funk!" Doubtless the passion of anger, though less despised than that of fear, is so far derogatory to the dignity of man that it deprives him temporarily of reason, the very quality which confers sovereignty over the brute. When a magician is without his talisman the slaves he used to rule will do his bidding no longer. When we say of such a one that he has "lost his head," we no more expect him to steer a judicious course than a ship that has lost her rudder. Both are the prey of circumstances--at the mercy of winds and waves. Therefore, however hard you are compelled to hit, be sure to keep your temper. Strike in perfect good-humour, and in the right place. Many people cannot encounter resistance of any kind without anger, even a difference of opinion in conversation is sufficient to rouse their bile; but such are seldom winners in argument or in fight. Let them also leave education alone. Nature never meant them to teach the young idea how to shoot or hunt, or do anything else! It is the cold-blooded and sagacious wrestler who takes the prize, the calm and imperturbable player who wins the game. In all struggles for supremacy, excitement only produces flurry, and flurry means defeat. Who ever saw Mr. Anstruther Thompson in a passion, though, like every other huntsman and master of hounds, he must often have found his temper sorely tried? And yet, when punishment is absolutely necessary to extort obedience from the equine rebel, no man can administer it more severely, either from the saddle or the box. But whether double-thonging a restive wheeler, or "having it out" with a resolute buck-jumper, the operation is performed with the same pleasant smile, and when one of the adversaries preserves calmness and common sense, the fight is soon over, and the victory gained. It is not every man, however, who possesses this gentleman's iron nerve and powerful frame. For most of us, it is well to remember, before engaging in such contests, that defeat is absolute ruin. We must be prepared to fight it out to the bitter end, and if we are not sure of our own firmness, either mental or physical it is well to temporise, and try to win by diplomacy the terms we dare not wrest by force. If the latter alternative must needs be accepted, in this as in most stand-up fights, it will be found that the first blow is half the battle. The rider should take his horse short by the head and let him have two or three stingers with a cutting whip--not more--particularly, if on a thorough-bred one, as low down the flanks as can be reached, administered without warning, and in quick succession, sitting back as prepared for the plunge into the air that will inevitably follow, keeping his horse's head well-up the while to prevent buck-jumping. He should then turn the animal round and round half-a-dozen times, till it is confused, and start it off at speed in any direction where there is room for a gallop. Blown, startled, and intimidated, he will in all probability find his pupil perfectly amenable to reason when he pulls up, and should then coax and soothe him into an equable frame of mind once more. Such, however, is an extreme case. It is far better to avoid the _ultima ratio_. In equitation, as in matrimony, there should never arise "_the first quarrel_." Obedience, in horses, ought to be a matter of habit, contracted so imperceptibly that its acquirement can scarcely be called a lesson. This is why the hunting-field is such a good school for leaping. Horses of every kind are prompted by some unaccountable impulse to follow a pack of hounds, and the beginner finds himself voluntarily performing feats of activity and daring, in accordance with the will of his rider, which no coercion from the latter would have induced him to attempt. Flushed with success, and if fortunate enough to escape a fall, confident in his lately-discovered powers, he finds a new pleasure in their exercise, and, most precious of qualities in a hunter, grows "fond of jumping." The same result is to be attained at home, but is far more gradual, requiring the exercise of much care, patience, and perseverance. Nevertheless, when we consider the inconvenience created by the vagaries of young horses in the hunting field, to hounds, sportsmen, ladies, pedestrians, and their own riders, we must admit that the Irish system is best, and that a colt, to use the favourite expression, should have been trained into "an accomplished lepper," before he is asked to carry a sportsman through a run. Mr. Rarey, no doubt, thoroughly understood the nature of the animal with which he had to deal. His system was but a convenient application of our principle, viz., Judicious coercion, so employed that the brute obeys the man without knowing why. When forced to the earth, and compelled to remain there, apparently by the mere volition of a creature so much smaller and feebler than itself, it seemed to acknowledge some mysterious and over-mastering power such as the disciples of Mesmer profess to exercise on their believers, and this, in truth, is the whole secret of man's dominion over the beasts of the field. It is founded, to speak practically, on reason in both, the larger share being apportioned to the weaker frame. If by terror or resentment, the result of injudicious severity, that reason becomes obscured in the stronger animal, we have a maniac to deal with, possessing the strength of ten human beings, over whom we have lost our only shadow of control! Where is our supremacy then? It existed but in the imagination of the beast, for which, so long as it never tried to break the bond, a silken thread was as strong as an iron chain. Perhaps this is the theory of all government, but with the conduct and coercion of mankind we have at present nothing to do. There is a peculiarity in horses that none who spend much time in the saddle can have failed to notice. It is the readiness with which all accommodate themselves to a rider who succeeds in subjugating _one_. Some men possess a faculty, impossible to explain, of establishing a good understanding from the moment they place themselves in the saddle. It can hardly be called hand, for I have seen consummate horsemen, notably Mr. Lovell, of the New Forest, who have lost an arm; nor seat, or how could Colonel Fraser, late of the 11th Hussars, be one of the best heavy-weights over such a country as Meath, with a broken and contracted thigh? Certainly not nerve, for there are few fields too scanty to furnish examples of men who possess every quality of horsemanship except daring. What is it then? I cannot tell, but if you are fortunate enough to possess it, whether you weigh ten stone or twenty, you will be able to mount yourself fifty pounds cheaper than anybody else in the market! Be it an impulse of nature, or a result of education, there is a tendency in every horse to make vigorous efforts at the shortest notice in obedience to the inclination of a rider's body or the pressure of his limbs. Such indications are of the utmost service in an emergency, and to offer them at the happy moment is a crucial test of horsemanship. Thus races are "snatched out of the fire," as it is termed, "by riding," and this is the quality that, where judgment, patience, and knowledge of pace are equal, renders one jockey superior to the rest. It enables a proficient also to clear those large fences that, in our grazing districts especially, appear impracticable to the uninitiated, as if the horse borrowed muscular energy, no less than mental courage, from the resolution of his rider. On the racecourse and in the hunting field, Custance, the well-known jockey, possesses this quality in the highest degree. The same determined strength in the saddle, that had done him such good service amongst the bullfinches and "oxers" of his native Rutland, applied at the happy moment, secured on a great occasion his celebrated victory with King Lud. There are two kinds of hunters that require coercion in following hounds, and he is indeed a master of his art who feels equally at home on each. The one must be _steered_, the other _smuggled_ over a country. As he is never comfortable but in front, we will take the rash horse first. Let us suppose you have not ridden him before, that you like his appearance, his action, all his qualities except his boundless ambition, that you are in a practicable country, as seems only fair, and about to draw a covert affording every prospect of a run. Before you put your foot in the stirrup be sure to examine his bit--not one groom in a hundred knows how to bridle a horse properly--and remember that on the fitting of this important article depends your success, your enjoyment, perhaps your safety, during the day. Horses, like servants, will never let their master be happy if they are uncomfortable themselves. See that your headstall is long enough, so that the pressure may lie on the bars of the horse's mouth and not crumple up the corners of his lips, like a gag. The curb-chain will probably be too tight, also the throat-lash; if so, loosen both, and with your own hands; it is a pleasant way of making acquaintance, and may perhaps prepossess him in your favour. If he wears a nose-band it will be time enough to take it off when you find he shows impatience of the restriction by shaking his head, changing his leg frequently, or reaching unjustifiably at the rein. I am prejudiced against the nose-band. I frankly admit a man in a minority of one _must_ be wrong, but I never rode a horse in my life that, to my own feeling, did not go more comfortably when I took it off. Look also to your girths. For a fractious temper they are very irritating when drawn too tight, while with good shape and a breast-plate, there is little danger of their not being tight enough. When these preliminaries have been carefully gone through mount nimbly to the saddle, and take the first opportunity of feeling your new friend's mouth and paces in trot, canter, and gallop. Here, too, though in general it should be avoided for many reasons, social, agricultural, and personal, a little "larking" is not wholly inexcusable. It will promote cordiality between man and beast. The latter, as we are considering him, is sure to be fond of jumping, and to ride him over a fence or two away from other horses in cold blood will create in his mind the very desirable impression that you are of a daring spirit, determined to be in front. Take him, however, up to his leap as slow as he will permit--if possible at a trot. Even should he break into a canter and become impetuous at last, there is no space for a violent rush in three strides, during which you must hold him in a firm, equable grasp. As he leaves the ground give him his head, he cannot have "too much rope," till he lands again, when, as soon as possible, you should pull him back to a trot, handling him delicately, soothing him with voice and gesture, treating the whole affair as the simplest matter of course. Do not bring him again over the same place, rather take him on for two or three fields in a line parallel to the hounds. By the time they are put into covert you will have established a mutual understanding, and found out how much you _dislike_ one another at the worst! It is well now to avoid the crowd, but beware of taking up a position by yourself where you may head the fox! No man can ride in good-humour under a sense of guilt, and you _must_ be good-humoured with such a mount as you have under you to-day. Exhaust, therefore, all your knowledge of woodcraft to get away on good terms with the hounds. The wildest romp in a rush of horses is often perfectly temperate and amenable when called on to cut out the work. Should you, by ill luck, find yourself behind others in the first field, avoid, if possible, following any one of them over the first fence. Even though it be somewhat black and forbidding, choose a fresh place, so free a horse as yours will jump the more carefully that his attention is not distracted by a leader, and there is the further consideration, based on common humanity, that your leader might fall when too late for you to stop. No man is in so false a position as he who rides over a friend in the hunting field, except the friend! Take your own line. If you be not afraid to gallop and the hounds _run on_, you will probably find it plain sailing till they check. Should a brook laugh in your face, of no unreasonable dimensions, you may charge it with confidence, a rash horse usually jumps width, and there will be plenty of "room to ride" on the far side. It takes but a few feet of water to decimate a field. I may here observe that, if, as they cross, you see the hounds leap at it, even though they fall short, you may be sure the distance from bank to bank is within the compass of a hunter's stride. At timber, I would not have you quite so confident. When, as in Leicestershire, it is set fairly in line with the fence and there is a good take-off, your horse, however impetuous, may leap it with impunity in his stroke, but should the ground be poached by cattle, or dip as you come to it, beware of too great hurry. The feat ought then to be accomplished calmly and collectedly at a trot, the horse taking his time, so to speak, from the motions of his rider, and jumping, as it is called, "to his hand." Now when man and horse are at variance on so important a matter as pace, the one is almost sure to interfere at the wrong moment, the other to take off too soon or get too close under his leap; in either case the animal is more likely to rise at a fence than a rail, and if unsuccessful in clearing it a binder is less dangerous to flirt with than a bar. Lord Wilton seems to me to ride at timber a turn slower than usual, Lord Grey a turn faster. Whether father and son differ in theory I am unable to say, I can only affirm that both are undeniable in practice. Mr. Fellowes of Shottisham, perhaps the best of his day, and Mr. Gilmour, _facile princeps_, almost walk up to this kind of leap; Colonel, now General Pearson, known for so many seasons as "the flying Captain," charges it like a squadron of Sikh cavalry; Captain Arthur Smith pulls back to a trot; Lord Carington scarcely shortens the stride of his gallop. Who shall decide between such professors? Much depends on circumstances, more perhaps on horses. Assheton Smith used to throw the reins on a hunter's neck when rising at a gate, and say,--"Take care of yourself, you brute!"--whereas the celebrated Lord Jersey, who gave me this information of his old friend's style, held his own bridle in a vice at such emergencies, and both usually got safe over! Perhaps the logical deduction from these conflicting examples should be not to jump timber at all! But the rash horse is by this time getting tired, and now, if you would avoid a casualty, you must temper valour with discretion, and ride him as skilfully as you _can_. He has probably carried you well and pleasantly during the few happy moments that intervened between freshness and fatigue; now he is beginning to pull again, but in a more set and determined manner than at first. He does not collect himself so readily, and wants to go faster than ever at his fences, if you would let him. This careless, rushing style threatens a downfall, and to counteract it will require the exercise of your utmost skill. Carry his head for him, since he seems to require it, and endeavour, by main force if necessary, to bring him to his leaps with his hind legs under him. Half-beaten horses measure distance with great accuracy, and "lob" over very large places, when properly ridden. If, notwithstanding all your precautions, he persists in going on his shoulders, blundering through his places, and labouring across ridge and furrow like a boat in a heavy sea, take advantage of the first lane you find, and voting the run nearly over, make up your mind to view the rest of it in safety from the hard road! Ride the same horse again at the first opportunity, and, if sound enough to come out in his turn, a month's open weather will probably make him a very pleasant mount. The "slug," a thorough-bred one, we will say, with capital hind-ribs, lop ears, and a lazy eye, must be managed on a very different system from the foregoing. You need not be so particular about his bridle, for the coercion in this case is of impulsion rather than restraint, but I would advise you to select a useful cutting-whip, stiff and strong enough to push a gate. Not that you must use it freely--one or two "reminders" at the right moment, and an occasional flourish, ought to carry you through the day. Be sure, too, that you strike underhanded, and not in front of your own body, lest you take his eye off at the critical moment when your horse is measuring his leap. The best riders prefer such an instrument to the spurs, as a stimulant to increased pace and momentary exertion. You will have little trouble with this kind of hunter while hounds are drawing. He will seem only too happy to stand still, and you may sit amongst your friends in the middle ride, smoking, joking, and holding forth to your heart's content. But, like the fox, you will find your troubles begin with the cheering holloa of "Gone away!" On your present mount, instead of avoiding the crowd, I should advise you to keep in the very midst of the torrent that, pent up in covert, rushes down the main ride to choke a narrow handgate, and overflow the adjoining field. Emerging from the jaws of their inconvenient egress, they will scatter, like a row of beads when the string breaks, and while the majority incline to right or left, regardless of the line of chase as compared with that of safety, some half dozen are sure to single themselves out, and ride straight after the hounds. Select one of these, a determined horseman, whom you know to be mounted on an experienced hunter; give him _plenty of room_--fifty yards at least--and ride his line, nothing doubting, fence for fence, till your horse's blood is up, and your own too. I cannot enough insist on a jealous care of your leader's safety, and a little consideration for his prejudices. The boldest sportsmen are exceedingly touchy about being ridden over, and not without reason. There is something unpleasantly suggestive in the bit, and teeth, and tongue of an open mouth at your ear; while your own horse, quivering high in air, makes the discovery that he has not allowed margin enough for the yawner under his nose! It is little less inexcusable to pick a man's pocket than to ride in it; and no apology can exonerate so flagrant an assault as to land on him when down. Reflect, also, that a hunter, after the effort to clear his fence, often loses foothold, particularly over ridge and furrow, in the second or third stride, and falls at the very moment a follower would suppose he was safe over. Therefore, do not begin for yourself till your leader is twenty yards into the next field when you may harden your heart, set your muscles, and give your horse to understand, by seat and manner, that it must be in, through, or over. Beware, however, of hurrying him off his legs. Ride him resolutely, indeed, but in a short, contracted stride; slower in proportion to the unwillingness he betrays, so as to hold him in a vice, and squeeze him up to the brink of his task, when, forbidden to turn from it, he will probably make his effort in self-defence, and take you somehow to the other side. Not one hunter in a hundred can jump in good form when going at speed; it is the perfection of equine prowess, resulting from great quickness and the confidence of much experience. An arrant refuser usually puts on the steam of his own accord, like a confirmed rusher, and wheels to right or left at the last moment, with an activity that, displayed in a better cause, would be beyond praise. The rider, too, has more command of his horse, when forced up to the bit in a slow canter, than at any other pace. Thoroughbred horses, until their education is complete, are apt to get very close to their fences, preferring, as it would seem, to go into them on this side rather than the other. It is not a style that inspires confidence; yet these crafty, careful creatures are safer than they seem, and from jumping in a collected form, with their hind-legs under them, extricate themselves with surprising address from difficulties that, after a little more tuition, they will never be in. They are really less afraid of their fences, and consequently less flurried, than the wilful, impetuous brute that loses its equanimity from the moment it catches sight of an obstacle, and miscalculating its distance, in sheer nervousness--most fatal error of all--takes off too soon. I will now suppose that in the wake of your pilot you have negotiated two or three fences with some expenditure of nerve and temper, but without a refusal or a fall. The cutting-whip has been applied, and the result, perhaps, was disappointing, for it is an uncertain remedy, though, in my opinion, preferable to the spur. Your horse has shown great leaping powers in the distances he has covered without the momentum of speed, and has doubled an on-and-off with a precision not excelled by your leader himself. If he would but jump in his stride, you feel you have a hunter under you. Should the country be favourable, now is the time to teach him this accomplishment, while his limbs are supple and his spirit roused. If he seems willing to face them, let him take his fences in his own way; do not force or hurry him, but keep fast hold of his head without varying the pressure of hand or limb by a hairsbreadth; the least uncertainty of finger or inequality of seat will spoil it all. Should the ditch be towards him, he will jump from a stand, or nearly so, but, to your surprise, will land safe in the next field. If it is on the far side, he will show more confidence, and will perhaps swing over the whole with something of an effort in his canter. A foot or two of extra width may cause him to drop a hind-leg, or even bring him on his nose;--so much the better! no admonition of yours would have proved as effectual a warning--he will take good care to cover distance enough next time. Dispense with your leader now, if you are pretty close to the hounds, for your horse is gathering confidence with every stride. He can gallop, of course, and is good through dirt--it is also understood that he is fit to go; there are not many in a season, but let us suppose you have dropped into a run; if he carries you well to the finish, he will be a hunter from to-day. After some five and twenty minutes, you will find him going with more dash and freedom, as his neighbours begin to tire. You may now ride him at timber without scruple, when not too high, but avoid a rail that looks as if it would break. To find out he may tamper with such an obstacle is the most dangerous discovery a hunter can make. You should send him at it pretty quick, lest he get too near to rise, and refuse at the last moment. He may not do it in the best of form, but whether he chances it in his gallop, or bucks over like a deer, or hoists himself sideways all in a heap, with his tail against your hat, at this kind of fence this kind of horse is most unlikely to fall. The same may be said of a brook. If he is within a fair distance of the hounds, and you see by the expression of his ears and crest that he is watching them with ardent interest, ride him boldly at water should it be necessary. It is quite possible he may jump it in his stride from bank to bank, without a moment's hesitation. It is equally possible he may stop short on the bank, with lowered head and crouching quarters as if prepared to drink, or dive, or decline. He will do none of these. Sit still, give him his head, keep close into your saddle, not moving so much as an eyelash, and it is more than probable that he will jump the stream standing, and reach the other side, with a scramble and a flounder at the worst! If he should drop his hind-legs, _shoot_ yourself off over his shoulders in an instant, with a fast hold of the bridle, at which tug hard; even though you may not have regained your legs. A very slight help now will enable him to extricate himself, but if he is allowed to subside into the gulf, it may take a team of cart horses to drag him out. When in the saddle again give him a timely pull; after the struggle you will be delighted with each other, and have every prospect of going on triumphantly to the end. [Illustration: Page 32.] I have here endeavoured to describe the different methods of coercion by which two opposite natures may be induced to exert themselves on our behalf in the chase. Every horse inclines, more or less, to one or other extreme I have cited as an example. A perfect hunter has preserved the good qualities of each without the faults, but how many perfect hunters do any of us ride in our lives? The chestnut is as fast as the wind, stout and honest, a safe and gallant fencer, but too light a mouth makes him difficult to handle at blind and cramped places; the bay can leap like a deer, and climb like a goat, invincible at doubles, and unrivalled at rails, but, as bold Lord Cardigan said of an equally accomplished animal, "it takes him a long time to get from one bit of timber to another!" While the brown, even faster than the chestnut, even safer than the bay, would be the best, as he is the pleasantest hunter in the world--only nothing will induce him to go near a brook! It is only by exertion of a skill that is the embodiment of thought in action, by application of a science founded on reason, experience and analogy, that we can approach perfection in our noble four-footed friend. Common-sense will do much, kindness more, coercion very little, yet we are not to forget that man is the master; that the hand, however light, must be strong, the heel, however lively, must be resolute; and that when persuasion, best of all inducements, seems to fail, we must not shrink from the timely application of force. CHAPTER III. THE USE OF THE BRIDLE. The late Mr. Maxse, celebrated some fifty years ago for a fineness of hand that enabled him to cross Leicestershire with fewer falls than any other sportsman of fifteen stone who rode equally straight, used to profess much comical impatience with the insensibility of his servants to this useful quality. He was once seen explaining what he meant to his coachman with a silk-handkerchief passed round a post. "Pull at it!" said the master. "Does it pull at you?" "Yes, sir," answered the servant, grinning. "Slack it off then. Does it pull at you now?" "No, sir." "Well then, you double-distilled fool, can't you see that your horses are like that post? If you don't pull at _them_ they won't pull at _you_!" Now it seems to me that in riding and driving also, what we want to teach our horses is, that when we pull at them they are _not_ to pull at us, and this understanding is only to be attained by a delicacy of touch, a harmony of intention, and a give-and-take concord, that for lack of a better we express by the term "hand." Like the fingering of a pianoforte, this desirable quality seems rather a gift than an acquirement, and its rarity has no doubt given rise to the multiplicity of inventions with which man's ingenuity endeavours to supply the want of manual skill. It was the theory of a celebrated Yorkshire sportsman, the well-known Mr. Fairfax, that "Every horse is a hunter if you don't throw him down with the bridle!" and I have always understood his style of riding was in perfect accordance with this daring profession of faith. The instrument, however, though no doubt producing ten falls, where it prevents one, is in so far a necessary evil, that we are helpless without it, and when skilfully used in conjunction with legs, knees, and body by a consummate horseman, would seem to convey the man's intentions to the beast through some subtle agency, mysterious and almost rapid as thought. It is impossible to define the nature of that sympathy which exists between a well-bitted horse and his rider, they seem actuated by a common impulse, and it is to promote or create this mutual understanding that so many remarkable conceits, generally painful, have been dignified with the name of bridles. In the saddle-room of any hunting-man may be found at least a dozen of these, but you will probably learn on inquiry, that three or four at most are all he keeps in use. It must be a stud of strangely-varying mouths and tempers which, the snaffle, gag, Pelham, and double-bridle are insufficient to humour and control. As it seems from the oldest representations known of men on horseback, to have been the earliest in use, we will take the snaffle first. This bit, the invention of common-sense going straight to its object, while lying easily on the tongue and bars of a horse's mouth, and affording control without pain, is perfection of its kind. It causes no annoyance and consequently no alarm to the unbroken colt, champing and churning freely at the new plaything between his jaws; on it the highly trained charger bears pleasantly and lightly, to "change his leg,"--"passage"--or "shoulder in," at the slightest inflection of a rider's hand; the hunter leans against it for support in deep ground; and the race-horse allows it to hold him together at nearly full-speed without contracting his stride, or by fighting with the restriction, wasting any of his gallop in the air. It answers its purpose admirably _so long as it remains in the proper place_, but not a moment longer. Directly a horse by sticking out his nose can shift this pressure to his lips and teeth, it affords no more control than a halter. With head up, and mouth open, he can go how and where he will. In such a predicament only an experienced horseman has the skill to give him such an amount of liberty without license as cajoles him into dropping again to his bridle, before he breaks away. Once off at speed, with the conviction that he is master, however ludicrous in appearance, the affair is serious enough in fact. Many centuries elapsed, and a good deal of unpleasant riding must have been endured, before the snaffle was supplemented with a martingale. Judging from the Elgin Marbles, this useful invention seems to have been wholly unknown to the Greeks. Though the men's figures are perfect in seat and attitude through the whole of that spirited frieze which adorned the Parthenon, not one of their horses carries its head in the right place. The ancient Greek seems to have relied on strength rather than cunning, in his dealings with the noble animal, and though he sat down on it like a workman, must have found considerable difficulty in guiding his beast the way he wanted to go. But with a martingale, the most insubordinate soon discover that they cannot rid themselves of control. It keeps their heads down in a position that enables the bit to act on the mouth, and if they must needs pull, obliges them to pull against that most sensitive part called the bars. There is no escape--bend their necks they must, and to bend their necks means to acknowledge a master and do homage to the rider's will. It is a well-known fact, and I can attest it by my own experience, that a _twisted_ snaffle with a martingale will hold a runaway when every other bridle fails; but to guide or stop an animal by the exercise of bodily strength is not horsemanship, and to saw at its mouth for the purpose cannot be expected to promote that sympathy of desire and intention which we understand by the term. If we look at the sporting prints of our grandfathers and great-grandfathers, as delineated, early in the present century, we observe that nine out of every ten hunters were ridden in plain snaffle bridles, and we ask ourselves if our progenitors bred more docile beasts, or were these drinkers of port wine, bolder, stronger, and better horsemen than their descendants. Without entering on the vexed question of comparative merit in hounds, hunters, pace, country and sport, at an interval of more than two generations, I think I can find a reason, and it seems to me simply this. Most of these hunting pictures are representations of the chase in our midland counties, notably Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, then only partially inclosed; boundary fences of large properties were few and far between, straggling also, and ill-made-up, the high thorn hedges that now call forth so much bold and so much timid riding, either did not exist, or were of such tender growth as required protection by a low rail on each side, and a sportsman, with flying coat-tails, doubling these obstacles neatly, at his own pace, forms a favourite subject for the artist of the time. Twenty or thirty horsemen, at most, comprised the field; in such an expanse of free country there must have been plenty of room to ride, and we all know how soon a horse becomes amenable to control on a moor or an open down. The surface too was undrained, and a few furlongs bring the hardest puller to reason when he goes in over his fetlocks every stride. Hand and heel are the two great auxiliaries of the equestrian, but our grandfathers, I imagine, made less use of the bridle than the spur. With increased facilities for locomotion, in the improvement of roads and coaches, hunting, always the English gentleman's favourite pastime, became a fashion for every one who could afford to keep a horse, and men thought little of twelve hours spent in the mail on a dark winter's night in order to meet hounds next day. The numbers attending a favourite fixture began to multiply, second horses were introduced, so that long before the use of railways scarlet coats mustered by tens as to-day by fifties, and the _crowd_, as it is called, became a recognized impediment to the enjoyments of the day. Meantime fences were growing in height and thickness; an improved system of farming subdivided the fields and partitioned them off for pastoral or agricultural purposes; the hunter was called upon to collect himself, and jump at short notice, with a frequency that roused his mettle to the utmost, and this too in a rush of his fellow-creatures, urging, jostling, crossing him in the first five minutes at every turn. Under such conditions it became indispensable to have him in perfect control, and that excellent invention, the double-bridle, came into general use. I suppose I need hardly explain to my reader that it loses none of the advantages belonging to the snaffle, while it gains in the powerful leverage of the curb a restraint few horses are resolute enough to defy. In skilful hands, varying, yet harmonising, the manipulation of both, as a musician plays treble and bass on the pianoforte, it would seem to connect the rider's thought with the horse's movement, as if an electric chain passed through wrist, and finger, and mouth, from the head of the one to the heart of the other. The bearing and touch of this instrument can be so varied as to admit of a continual change in the degree of liberty and control, of that give-and-take which is the whole secret of comfortable progression. While the bridoon or snaffle-rein is tightened, the horse may stretch his neck to the utmost, without losing that confidence in the moral support of his rider's hand which is so encouraging to him if unaccompanied by pain. When the curb is brought into play, he bends his neck at its pressure to a position that brings his hind-legs under his own body and his rider's weight, from which collected form alone can his greatest efforts be made. Have your curb-bit sufficiently powerful, if not high in the _port_, at any rate long in the _cheek_, your bridoon as _thick_ as your saddler can be induced to send it. With the first you bring a horse's head into the right place, with the second, if smooth and _very_ thick, you keep it there, in perfect comfort to the animal, and consequently to yourself. A thin bridoon, and I have seen them mere wires, only cuts, chafes, and irritates, causing more pain and consequently more resistance, than the curb itself. I have already mentioned the fineness of Mr. Lovell's hand (alas! that he has but one), and I was induced by this gentleman to try a plan of his own invention, which, with his delicate manipulation, he found to be a success. Instead of the usual bridoon, he rode with a double strap of leather, exactly the width of a bridle-rein, and twice its thickness, resting where the snaffle ordinarily lies, on the horse's tongue and bars. With his touch it answered admirably, with mine, perhaps because I used the leather more roughly than the metal, it seemed the severer of the two. But a badly-broken horse, and half the hunters we ride have scarcely been taught their alphabet, will perhaps try to avoid the restraint of a curb by throwing his head up at the critical moment when you want to steady him for a difficulty. If you have a firm seat, perfectly independent of the bridle,--and do not be too sure of this, until you have tried the experiment of sitting a leap with nothing to hold on by--you may call in the assistance of the running-martingale, slipping your curb-rein, which should be made to unbuckle, through its rings. Your _curb_, I repeat, contrary to the usual practice, and _not your snaffle_. I will soon explain why. The horse has so docile a nature, that he would always rather do right than wrong, if he can only be taught to distinguish one from the other; therefore, have all your restrictive power on the same engine. Directly he gives to your hand, by affording him more liberty you show him that he has met your wishes, and done what you asked. If you put the martingale on your bridoon rein you can no longer indicate approval. To avoid its control he must lean on the discomfort of his curb, and it puzzles no less than it discourages him, to find that every effort to please you is met, one way or the other, by restraint. So much for his convenience; now for your own. I will suppose you are using the common hunting martingale, attached to the breast-plate of your saddle, not to its girths. Be careful that the rings are too small to slip over those of the curb-bit; you will be in an awkward predicament if, after rising at a fence, your horse in the moment that he tries to extend himself finds his nose tied down to his knees. Neither must you shorten it too much at first; rather accustom your pupil gradually to its restraint, and remember that all horses are not shaped alike; some are so formed that they must needs carry their heads higher, and, as you choose to think, in a worse place than others. Tuition in all its branches cannot be too gradual, and nature, whether of man or beast, is less easily driven than led. The first consideration in riding is, no doubt, to make our horses do what we desire; but when this elementary object has been gained, it is of great importance to our comfort that they should accept our wishes as their own, persuaded that they exert themselves voluntarily in the service of their riders. For this it is essential to use such a bridle as they do not fear to meet, yet feel unwilling to disobey. Many high-couraged horses, with sensitive mouths, no uncommon combination, and often united to those propelling powers in hocks and quarters that are so valuable to a hunter, while they scorn restraint by the mild influence of the snaffle, fight tumultuously against the galling restriction of a curb. For these the scion of a noble family, that has produced many fine riders, invented a bridle, combining, as its enemies declare, the defects of both, to which he has given his name. In England there seems a very general prejudice against the Pelham, whereas in Ireland we see it in constant use. Like other bridles of a peculiar nature it is adapted for peculiar horses; and I have myself had three or four excellent hunters that would not be persuaded to go comfortably in anything else. I need hardly explain the construction of a Pelham. It consists of a single bit, smooth and jointed, like a common snaffle, but prolonged from the rings on either side to a cheek, having a second rein attached, which acts, by means of a curb-chain round the lower jaw, in the same manner, though to a modified extent, as the curb-rein of the usual hunting double-bridle, to which it bears an outward resemblance, and of which it seems a mild and feeble imitation. I have never to this day made out whether or not a keen young sportsman was amusing himself at my expense, when, looking at my horse's head thus equipped, he asked the simple question: "Do you find it a good plan to have your snaffle and curb all in one?" I _did_ find it a good plan with that particular horse, and at the risk of appearing egotistical I will explain why, by narrating the circumstances under which I first discovered his merits, illustrating as they do the special advantages of this unpopular implement. The animal in question, thoroughbred, and amongst hunters exceedingly speedy, was unused to jumping when I purchased him, and from his unaffected delight in their society, I imagine had never seen hounds. He was active, however, high-couraged, and only too willing to be in front; but with a nervous, excitable temperament, and every inclination to pull hard, he had also a highly sensitive mouth. The double-bridle in which he began his experiences annoyed him sadly; he bounced, fretted, made himself thoroughly disagreeable, and our first day was a pleasure to neither of us. Next time I bethought me of putting on a Pelham, and the effect of its greater liberty seemed so satisfactory that to enhance it, I took the curb-chain off altogether. I was in the act of pocketing the links, when a straight-necked fox broke covert, pointing for a beautiful grass country, and the hounds came pouring out with a burning scent, not five hundred yards from his brush. I remounted pretty quick, but my thoroughbred one--in racing language, "a good beginner"--was quicker yet, and my feet were hardly in the stirrups, ere he had settled to his stride, and was flying along in rather too close proximity to the pack. Happily, there was plenty of room, and the hounds ran unusually hard, for my horse fairly broke away with me in the first field, and although he allowed me by main force to steady him a little at his fences, during ten minutes at least I know who was _not_ master! He calmed, however, before the end of the burst, which was a very brilliant gallop, over a practicable country, and when I sent him home at two o'clock, I felt satisfied I had a game, good horse, that would soon make a capital hunter. Now I am persuaded our timely _escapade_ was of the utmost service. It gave him confidence in his rider's hand; which, with this light Pelham bridle he found could inflict on him no pain, and only directed him the way he delighted to go. On his next appearance in the hunting-field, he was not afraid to submit to a little more restraint, and so by degrees, though I am bound to admit, the process took more than one season, he became a steady, temperate conveyance, answering the powerful conventional double-bridle with no less docility than the most sedate of his stable companions. We have seen a great deal of fun together since, but never such a game of romps as our first! Why are so many brilliant horses difficult to ride? It ought not to be so. The truest shape entails the truest balance, consequently the smoothest paces and the best mouth. The fault is neither of form nor temper, but originates, if truth must be told, in the prejudices of the breaker, who will not vary his system to meet the requirements of different pupils. The best hunters have necessarily great power behind the saddle, causing them to move with their hind-legs so well under them, that they will not, and indeed cannot lean on the rider's hand. This the breaker calls "facing their bit," and the shyer they seem of that instrument, the harder he pulls. Up go their heads to avoid the pain, till that effort of self-defence becomes a habit, and it takes weeks of patience and fine horsemanship to undo the effects of unnecessary ill-usage for an hour. Eastern horses, being broke from the first in the severest possible bits, all acquire this trick of throwing their noses in the air; but as they have never learned to pull, for the Oriental prides himself on riding with a "finger," you need only give them an easy bridle and a martingale to make them go quietly and pleasantly, with heads in the right place, delighted to find control not necessarily accompanied by pain. And this indeed is the whole object of our numerous inventions. A light-mouthed horse steered by a good rider, will cross a country safely and satisfactorily in a Pelham bridle, with a running martingale on the _lower_ rein. It is only necessary to give him his head at his fences, that is to say, to let his mouth alone, the moment he leaves the ground. That the man he carries can hold a horse up, while landing, I believe to be a fallacy, that he gives him every chance in a difficulty by sitting well back and not interfering with his efforts to recover himself, I know to be a fact. The rider cannot keep too quiet till the last moment, when his own knee touches the ground, then, the sooner he parts company the better, turning his face towards his horse if possible, so as not to lose sight of the falling mass, and, above all, holding the bridle in his hand. The last precaution cannot be insisted on too strongly. Not to mention the solecism of being afoot in boots and breeches during a run, and the cruel tax we inflict on some brother sportsman, who, being too good a fellow to leave us in the lurch, rides his own horse furlongs out of his line to go and catch ours, there is the further consideration of personal safety to life and limb. That is a very false position in which a man finds himself, when the animal is on its legs again, who cannot clear his foot from the stirrup, and has let his horse's head go! I believe too that a tenacious grasp on the reins saves many a broken collar-bone, as it cants the rider's body round in the act of falling, so that the cushion of muscle behind it, rather than the point of his shoulder, is the first place to touch the ground; and no one who has ever been "pitched into" by a bigger boy at school can have forgotten that this part of the body takes punishment with the greatest impunity. But we are wandering from our subject. To hold on like grim death when down, seems an accomplishment little akin to the contents of a chapter professing to deal with the skilful use of the bridle. The horse, except in peculiar cases, such as a stab with a sharp instrument, shrinks like other animals from pain. If he cannot avoid it in one way he will in another. When suffering under the pressure of his bit, he endeavours to escape the annoyance, according to the shape and setting on of his neck and shoulders, either by throwing his head up to the level of a rider's eyes, or dashing it down between his own knees. The latter is by far the most pernicious manoeuvre of the two, and to counteract it has been constructed the instrument we call "a gag." This is neither more nor less than another snaffle bit of which the head-stall and rein, instead of being separately attached to the rings, are in one piece running through a swivel, so that a leverage is obtained on the side of the mouth of such power as forces the horse's head upwards to its proper level. In a gag and snaffle no horse can continue "boring," as it is termed against his rider's hand; in a gag and curb he is indeed a hard puller who will attempt to run away. But with this bridle, adieu to all those delicacies of fingering which form the great charm of horsemanship, and are indeed the master touches of the art. A gag cannot be drawn gently through the mouth with hands parted and lowered on each side so as to "turn and wind a fiery Pegasus," nor is the bull-headed beast that requires it one on which, without long and patient tuition, you may hope to "witch the world with noble horsemanship." It is at best but a schoolmaster, and like the curbless Pelham in which my horse ran away with me, only a step in the right direction towards such willing obedience as we require. Something has been gained when our horse learns we have power to control him; much when he finds that power exerted for his own advantage. I would ride mine in a chain-cable if by no other means I could make him understand that he must submit to my will, hoping always eventually to substitute for it a silken thread. All bridles, by whatever names they may be called, are but the contrivances of a government that depends for authority on concealment of its weakness. Hard hands will inevitably make hard pullers, but to the animal intellect a force still untested is a force not lightly to be defied. The loose rein argues confidence, and even the brute understands that confidence is an attribute of power. Change your bridle over and over again, till you find one that suits your hand, rather, I should say, that suits your horse's mouth. Do not, however, be too well satisfied with a first essay. He may go delightfully to-day in a bit that he will learn how to counteract by to-morrow. Nevertheless, a long step has been made in the right direction when he has carried you pleasantly if only for an hour. Should that period have been passed in following hounds, it is worth a whole week's education under less exciting conditions. A horse becomes best acquainted with his rider in those situations that call forth most care and circumspection from both. Broken ground, fords, morasses, dark nights, all tend to mutual good understanding, but forty minutes over an inclosed country establishes the partnership of man and beast on such relations of confidence as much subsequent indiscretion fails to efface. The same excitement that rouses his courage seems to sharpen his faculties and clear his brain. It is wonderful how soon he begins to understand your meaning as conveyed literally from "hand to mouth," how cautiously he picks his steps amongst stubs or rabbit-holes, when the loosened rein warns him he must look out for himself, how boldly he quickens his stride and collects his energies for the fence he is approaching, when he feels grip and grasp tighten on back and bridle, conscious that you mean to "catch hold of his head and send him at it!" while loving you all the better for this energy of yours that stimulates his own. And now we come to a question admitting of no little discussion, inasmuch as those practitioners differ widely who are best capable of forming an opinion. The advocates of the loose rein, who though outnumbered at the covert-side, are not always in a minority when the hounds run, maintain that a hunter never acquits himself so well as while let completely alone; their adversaries, on the other hand, protest that the first principle of equitation, is to keep fast hold of your horse's head at all times and under all circumstances. "You pull him into his fences," argues Finger. "_You_ will never pull him out of them," answers Fist. "Get into a bucket and try to lift yourself by the handles!" rejoins Finger, quoting from an apposite illustration of Colonel Greenwood's, as accomplished a horseman as his brother, also a colonel, whose fine handling I have already mentioned. "A horse isn't a bucket," returns Fist, triumphantly; "why, directly you let his head go does he stop in a race, refuse a brook, or stumble when tired on the road?" It is a thousand pities that he cannot tell us which of the two systems he prefers himself. We may argue from theory, but can only judge by practice; and must draw our inferences rather from personal experience than the subtlest reasoning of the schools. Now if all horses were broke by such masters of the art as General Lawrenson and Mr. Mackenzie Greaves, riders who combine the strength and freedom of the hunting field with the scientific exercise of hands and limbs, as taught in the _haute école_, so obedient would they become to our gestures, nay, to the inflection of our bodies, that they might be trusted over the strongest lordship in Leicestershire with their heads quite loose, or, for that matter, with no bridle at all. But equine education is usually conducted on a very different system to that of Monsieur Baucher, or either of the above-named gentlemen. From colthood horses have been taught to understand, paradoxically enough, that a dead pull against the jaws means, "Go on, and be hanged to you, till I alter the pressure as a hint for you to stop." It certainly seems common sense, that when we tug at a horse's bridle he should oblige us by coming to a halt, yet, in his fast paces, we find the pull produces a precisely contrary effect; and for this habit, which during the process of breaking has become a second nature, we must make strong allowances, particularly in the hurry and excitement of crossing a country after a pack of hounds. It has happened to most of us, no doubt, at some period to have owned a favourite, whose mouth was so fine, temper so perfect, courage so reliable, and who had so learned to accommodate pace and action to our lightest indications, that when thus mounted we felt we could go tit-tupping over a country with slackened rein and toe in stirrup, as if cantering in the Park. As we near our fence, a little more forbidding, perhaps, than common, every stride seems timed like clockwork, and, unwilling to interfere with such perfect mechanism, we drop our hand, trusting wholly in the honour of our horse. At the very last stride the traitor refuses, and whisks round. "_Et tu brute!_" we exclaim--"Are _you_ also a brute?"--and catching him vigorously by the head, we ram him again at the obstacle to fly over it like a bird. Early associations had prevailed, and our stanch friend disappointed us, not from cowardice, temper, nor incapacity, but only from the influence of an education based on principles contrary to common sense. The great art of horsemanship, then, is to find out what the animal requires of us, and to meet its wishes, even its prejudices, half-way. Cool with the rash, and daring with the cautious, it is wise to retain the semblance, at least, of a self-possession superior to casualties, and equal to any emergency, from a refusal to a fall. Though "give and take" is the very first principle of handling, too sudden a variation of pressure has a tendency to confuse and flurry a hunter, whether in the gallop or when collecting itself for the leap. If you have been holding a horse hard by the head, to let him go in the last stride is very apt to make him run into his fence; while, if you have been riding with a light hand and loosened rein, a "chuck under the chin" at an inopportune moment distracts his attention, and causes him to drop short. "How did you get your fall?" is a common question in the hunting-field. If the partner at one end of the bridle could speak, how often would he answer, "Through bad riding;" when the partner at the other dishonestly replies, "The brute didn't jump high enough, or far enough, that was all." It is well for the most brilliant reputations that the noble animal is generous as he is brave, and silent as he is wise. I have already observed there are many more kinds of bridles than those just mentioned. Major Dwyer's, notably, of which the principle is an exact fitting of bridoon and curb-bits to the horse's mouth, seems to give general satisfaction; and Lord Gardner, whose opinion none are likely to dispute, stamps it with his approval. I confess, however, to a preference for the old-fashioned double-bridles, such as are called respectively the Dunchurch, Nos. 1 and 2, being persuaded that these will meet the requirements of nine horses out of ten that have any business in the hunting-field. The first, very large, powerful, and of stronger leverage than the second, should be used with discretion, but, in good hands, is an instrument against which the most resolute puller, if he insists on fighting with it, must contend in vain. Thus tackled, and ridden by such a horseman as Mr. Angerstein, for instance, of Weeting, in Norfolk, I do not believe there are half-a-dozen hunters in England that could get the mastery. Whilst living in Northamptonshire I remember he owned a determined runaway, not inappropriately called "Hard Bargain," that in this bridle he could turn and twist like a pony. I have no doubt he has not forgotten the horse, nor a capital run from Misterton, in which, with his usual kindness, he lent him thus bridled to a friend. I have seen horses go very pleasantly in what I believe is called the half-moon bit, of which the bridoon, having no joint, is shaped so as to take the curve of the animal's mouth. I have never tried one, but the idea seems good, as based on the principle of comfort to the horse. When we can arrive at that essential, combined with power to the rider, we may congratulate ourselves on possessing the right bridle at last, and need have no scruple in putting the animal to its best pace, confident we can stop it at will. We should never forget that the faster hounds run, the more desirable is it to have perfect control of our conveyance; and that a hunter of very moderate speed, easy to turn, and quick on its legs, will cross a country with more expedition than a race-horse that requires half a field to "go about;" and that we dare not extend lest, "with too much way on," he should get completely out of our hand. Once past the gap you fancied, you will never find a place in the fence you like so well again. CHAPTER IV. THE ABUSE OF THE SPUR. "You may ride us, With one soft kiss, a thousand furlongs, ere With spurs we heat an acre." Says Hermione, and indeed that gentle lady's illustration equally applies to an inferior order of beings, from which also man derives much comfort and delight. It will admit of discussion whether the "armed heel," with all its terrors, has not, on the race-course at least, lost more triumphs than it has won. I have been told that Fordham, who seems to be first past the judges' chair oftener than any jockey of the day, wholly repudiates "the tormentors," arguing that they only make a horse shorten his stride, and "shut up," to use an expressive term, instead of struggling gallantly home. Judging by analogy, it is easy to conceive that such may be the case. The tendency of the human frame seems certainly to contract rather than expand its muscles, with instinctive repugnance at the stab of a sharp instrument, or even the puncture of a thorn. It is not while receiving punishment but administering it that the prize-fighter opens his shoulders and lets out. There is no doubt that many horses, thoroughbred ones especially, will stop suddenly, even in their gallop, and resent by kicking an indiscreet application of the spurs. A determined rider who keeps them screwed in the animal's flanks eventually gains the victory. But such triumphs of severity and main force are the last resource of an authority that ought never to be disputed, as springing less from fear than confidence and good-will. It cannot be denied that there are many fools in the world, yet, regarding matters of opinion, the majority are generally right. A top-boot has an unfinished look without its appendage of shining steel; and, although some sportmen assure us they dispense with rowels, it is rare to find one so indifferent to appearances as not to wear spurs. There must be some good reason for this general adoption of an instrument that, from the days of chivalry, has been the very stamp and badge of a superiority which the man on horseback assumes over the man on foot. Let us weigh the arguments for and against this emblem of knighthood before we decide. In the riding-school, and particularly for military purposes, when the dragoon's right hand is required for his weapon, these aids, as they are called, seem to enhance that pressure of the leg which acts on the horse's quarters, as the rein on his forehand, bringing his whole body into the required position. Perhaps if the boot were totally unarmed much time might be lost in making his pupil understand the horseman's wishes, but any one who has ridden a perfectly trained charger knows how much more accurately it answers to the leg than the heel, and how awkwardly a horse acquits himself that has been broke in very sharp spurs; every touch causing it to wince and swerve too far in the required direction, glancing off at a tangent, like a boat that is over ready in answering her helm. Patience and a light switch, I believe, would fulfil all the purposes of the spur, even in the _manége_; but delay is doubtless a drawback, and there are reasons for going the shortest way on occasion, even if it be not the smoothest and the best. It is quite unnecessary, however, and even prejudicial, to have the rowels long and sharp. Nothing impedes tuition like fear; and fear in the animal creation is the offspring of pain. Granted, then, that the spur may be applied advantageously in the school, let us see how far it is useful on the road or in the hunting-field. We will start by supposing that you do not possess a really perfect hack; that desirable animal must, doubtless, exist somewhere, but, like Pegasus, is more often talked of than seen. Nevertheless, the roadster that carries you to business or pleasure is a sound, active, useful beast, with safe, quick action, good shoulders, of course, and a willing disposition, particularly when turned towards home. How often in a week do you touch it with the spurs? Once, perhaps, by some bridle-gate, craftily hung at precisely the angle which prevents your reaching its latch or hasp. And what is the result of this little display of vexation? Your hack gets flurried, sticks his nose in the air, refuses to back, and compels you at last to open the gate with your wrong hand, rubbing your knee against the post as he pushes through in unseemly haste, for fear of another prod. When late for dinner, or hurrying home to outstrip the coming shower, you may fondly imagine that but for "the persuaders" you would have been drenched to the skin; and, relating your adventures at the fire-side, will probably declare that "you stuck the spurs into him the last mile, and came along as hard as he could drive." But, if you were to visit him in the stable, you would probably find his flanks untouched, and would, I am sure, be pleased rather than disappointed at the discovery. Happily, not one man in ten knows _how_ to spur a horse, and the tenth is often the most unwilling to administer so severe a punishment. Ladies, however, are not so merciful. Perhaps because they have but one, they use this stimulant liberally, and without compunction. From their seat, and shortness of stirrup, every kick tells home. Concealed under a riding-habit, these vigorous applications are unsuspected by lookers-on; and the unwary wonder why, in the streets of London or the Park, a ladies' horse always appears to go in a lighter and livelier form than that of her male companion. "It's a woman's hand," says the admiring pedestrian. "Not a bit of it," answers the cynic who knows; "it's a woman's heel." But, however sparing you may be of the spurs in lane or bridle-road, you are tempted to ply them far too freely in the anxiety and excitement of the hunting-field. Have you ever noticed the appearance of a white horse at the conclusion of some merry gallop over a strongly fenced country? The pure conspicuous colour tells sad tales, and the smooth, thin-skinned flanks are too often stained and plastered with red. Many bad horsemen spur their horses without meaning it; many worse, mean to spur their horses at every fence, and _do_. A Leicestershire notability, of the last generation once dubbed a rival with the expressive title of "a hard funker;" and the term, so happily applied, fully rendered what he meant. Of all riders "the hard funker" is the most unmerciful to his beast; at every turn he uses his spurs cruelly, not because he is _hard_, but because he _funks_. Let us watch him crossing a country, observing his style as a warning rather than an example. Hesitation and hurry are his principal faults, practised, with much impartiality, in alternate extremes. Though half-way across a field, he is still undecided where to get out. This vacillation communicates itself in electric sympathy to his horse, and both go wavering down to their fence, without the slightest idea what they mean to do when they arrive. Some ten strides off the rider makes up his mind, selecting, probably, an extremely awkward place, for no courage is so desperate as that which is founded on fear. Want of determination is now supplemented by excessive haste and, with incessant application of the spurs, his poor horse is hurried wildly at the leap. That it gets over without falling, as happens oftener than might be supposed, seems due to activity in the animal rather than sagacity in the rider, and a strong instinct of self-preservation in both; but such a process, repeated again and again during a gallop, even of twenty minutes, tells fearfully on wind and muscle, nor have many hunters sufficient powers of endurance to carry these exacting performers through a run. Still the "h. f." would be nothing without his spurs, and I grant that to him these instruments are indispensable, if he is to get from one field to another; but of what use are they to such men as Mr. Gilmour, Captain Coventry, Sir Frederic Johnston, Captain Boyce, Mr. Hugh Lowther, and a host more that I could name, who seem to glide over Leicestershire, and other strongly-fenced countries, as a bird glides through the air. Day after day, unless accidentally scored in a fall, you may look in vain for a spur-mark on their horses sides. Shoulders and quarters, indeed, are reddened by gashes from a hundred thorns; but the virgin spot, a handsbreadth behind the girths, is pure and stainless still. Yet not one of the gentlemen I have named will ride without the instrument he uses so rarely, if at all; and they must cherish, therefore, some belief in its virtue, when called into play, strong enough to counterbalance its indisputable disadvantages--notably, the stabbing of a hunter's side, when its rider's foot is turned outwards by a stake or grower, and the tearing of its back or quarters in the struggle and confusion of a fall. There is one excellent reason that, perhaps, I may have overlooked. It is tiresome to answer the same question over and over again, and in a field of 200 sportsmen you are sure to be asked almost as many times, "Why don't you wear spurs?" if you set appearances at defiance by coming into the hunting-field without them. In my personal recollection I can only call to mind one man who systematically abjured so essential a finish to the horseman's dress and equipment. This was Mr. Tomline of Leigh Lodge, a Leicestershire farmer and horse-dealer, well-known some thirty years ago as one of the finest riders and straightest goers that ever got into a saddle. His costume, indeed, was not of so careful a nature that want of completeness in any one particular could spoil the general effect. He _always_ hunted in a rusty, worn pilot-jacket, drab breeches with strings untied, brown-topped boots, and a large ill-fitting hat, carrying in his hand a ground-ash plant, totally useless for opening a gate if he did not happen to jump it. Yet thus accoutred, and generally on a young one, so long as his horse's condition lasted, he was sure to be in front, and, when the fences were rougher than common, with but two or three companions at most. I have not yet forgotten the style in which I once saw him coax a four-year-old to jump a "bottom" under Launde, fortified by a high post and rail--down-hill--a bad take off--and almost a ravine on the far side! With his powerful grip and exquisite handling, he seemed to persuade the pupil that it was as willing as the master. My own spurs were four inches long, and I was riding the best hunter in my stable, but I don't think I would have had the same place for fifty pounds! A paradox, like an Irishman's bull, will sometimes convey our meaning more impressively than a logical statement. It seems paradoxical, yet I believe it is sound sense to say that no man should arm his heels with spurs unless he is so good a rider as to be sure they shall not touch his horse. To punish him with them involuntarily is, of course, like any other blunder totally inadmissible, but when applied with intention, they should be used sparingly and only as a last resource. That there _are_ occasions on which they rouse a horse's energies for a momentary effort, I am disposed to admit less from my own experience than the opinion of those for whose practical knowledge in all such matters I have the greatest respect. Both the Messrs. Coventry, in common with other first-rate steeple-chase riders, advocate their use on rare occasions and under peculiar circumstances. Poor Jem Mason never went hunting without them, and would not, I think, have hesitated to apply them pretty freely if required, but then these could all spur their horses in the right place, leaning back the while and altering in no way the force and bearing of hand or seat. Most men, on the contrary, stoop forward and let their horses' heads go when engaged in this method of compulsion, and even if their heels _do_ reach the mark, by no means a certainty, gain but little with the rowels compared to all they lose with the reins. There is no fault in a hunter so annoying to a man whose heart is in the sport as a tendency _to refuse_. It utterly defeats the timid and damps the courage of the bold, while even to him who _rides_ that he may hunt rather than _hunts_ that he may _ride_, it is intensely provoking, as he is apt to lose by it that start which is so invaluable in a quick thing, and, when a large field are all struggling for the same object, so difficult to regain. This perversity of disposition too, is very apt to be displayed at some fence that will not admit of half-measures, such as a rail low enough to jump, but too strong to break, or a ditch so wide and deep that it must not be attempted as a standing leap. In these cases a vigorous dig with the spurs at the last moment will sometimes have an excellent effect. But it must not be trusted as an unfailing remedy. Nearly as many hunters will resent so broad a hint, by stopping short, and turning restive, as will spring generously forward, and make a sudden effort in answer to the appeal. For this, as for every other requirement of equitation, much depends on an insight into his character, whom an enthusiastic friend of mine designates "the bolder and wiser animal of the two." Few men go out hunting with the expectation of encountering more than one or two falls in the best of runs, although the score sometimes increases very rapidly, when a good and gallant horse is getting tired towards the finish. Twenty "croppers" in a season, if he is well-mounted, seems a high average for the most determined of bruisers, but a man, whom circumstances impel to ride whatever he can lay hands on, must take into consideration how he can best rise from the ground unhurt with no less forethought than he asks his way to the meet or inquires into the condition of his mount. To such a bold rider the spur may seem an indispensable article, but he must remember that even if its application should save him on occasion, which I am not altogether prepared to admit, the appendage itself is most inconvenient when down. I cannot remember a single instance of a man's foot remaining fixed in the stirrup who was riding without spurs. I do not mean to say such a catastrophe is impossible, but I have good reason to know that the buckle on the instep, which when brightly polished imparts such a finish to the lustrous wrinkles of a well-made boot, is extremely apt to catch in the angle of the stirrup iron, and hold us fast at the very moment when it is most important to our safety we should be free. I have headed this chapter "The Abuse of the Spur," because I hold that implement of horsemanship to be in general most unmercifully abused, so much so that I believe it would be far better for the majority of horses, and riders too, if it had never come into vogue. The perfect equestrian may be trusted indeed with rowels sharp and long as those that jingle at the Mexican's heels on his boundless prairies, but, as in the days of chivalry, these ornaments should be won by prowess to be worn with honour; and I firmly believe that nine out of every ten men who come out hunting would be better and more safely carried if they left their spurs at home. CHAPTER V. HAND. What is it? Intellect, nerve, sympathy, confidence, skill? None of these can be said to constitute this quality; rather it is a combination of all, with something superinduced that can only be called a magnetic affinity between the aggressive spirit of man and the ductile nature of the beast. "He spurred the old horse, and _he held him tight_, And leaped him out over the wall," says Kingsley, in his stirring ballad of "The Knight's Last Leap at Alten-ahr;" and Kingsley, an excellent rider himself, thus described exactly how the animal should have been put at its formidable fence. Most poets would have let their horse's head go--the loose rein is a favourite method of making play in literature--and a fatal refusal must have been the result. The German Knight, however, whose past life seems to have been no less disreputable than his end was tragic, had not "Lived by the saddle for years a score," to fail in his horsemanship at the finish, and so, when he came to jump his last fence, negotiated it with no less skill than daring--grim, quiet, resolute, strong of seat, and firm of hand. The latter quality seems, however, much the rarer of the two. For ten men who can stick to the saddle like Centaurs you will hardly find one gifted with that nicety of touch which horses so willingly obey, and which, if not inborn, seems as difficult to acquire by practice as the draughtsman's eye for outline, or the musician's ear for sound. Attention, reflection, painstaking, and common sense, can, nevertheless, do much; and, if the brain will only take the trouble to think, the clumsiest fingers that ever mismanaged a bridle may be taught in time to humour it like a silken thread. I have been told, though I never tried the experiment, that if you take bold chanticleer from his perch, and, placing his bill on a table, draw from it a line of chalk by candle-light, the poor dazed fowl makes no attempt to stir from this imaginary bondage, persuaded that it is secured by a cord it has not strength enough to break. We should never get on horseback without remembering this unaccountable illusion; our control by means of the bridle is, in reality, little more substantial than the chalk-line that seems to keep the bird in durance. It should be our first consideration so to manage the rein we handle as never to give our horse the opportunity of discovering our weakness and his own strength. How is this to be effected? By letting his head go, and allowing him to carry us where he will? Certainly not, or we should have no need for the bridle at all. By pulling at him, then, with main strength, and trying the muscular power of our arms against that of his shoulders and neck? Comparing these relative forces again, we are constrained to answer, Certainly not; the art of control is essentially founded on compromise. In riding, as in diplomacy, we must always be ready to give an inch that we may take an ell. The first principle of horsemanship is to make the animal believe we can rule its wildest mood; the next, to prevent, at any sacrifice, the submission of this plausible theory to proof. You get on a horse you have never seen before, improperly bitted, we may fairly suppose, for few men would think of wasting as many seconds on their bridle as they devote minutes to their boots and breeches. You infer, from his wild eye and restless ear that he is "a bit of a romp;" and you observe, with some concern, that surrounding circumstances, a race, a review, a coursing-meeting, or a sure find, it matters little which, are likely to rouse all the tumultuous propensities of his nature. Obviously it would be exceedingly bad policy to have the slightest misunderstanding. The stone of Sisyphus gathered impetus less rapidly than does a horse who is getting the better of his rider; and John Gilpin was not the first equestrian, by a good many, for whom "The trot became a gallop soon, In spite of curb and rein." "I am the owner, I wish I could say the _master_, of the four best hunters I ever had in my life," wrote one of the finest horsemen in Europe to a brother proficient in the art; and although so frank an avowal would have seemed less surprising from an inferior performer, his friend, who was also in the habit of riding anything, anywhere, and over everything, doubtless understood perfectly what he meant. Now in equitation there can be no divided empire; and the horse will most assuredly be master if the man is not. In the interests of good government, then, beware how you let your authority literally slip through your fingers, for, once lost, it will not easily be regained. Draw your reins gently to an equal length, and ascertain the precise bearing on your horse's mouth that seems, while he is yet in a walk, to influence his action without offending his sensitiveness. But this cannot be accomplished with the hands alone; these members, though supposed to be the prime agents of control, will do little without the assistance of legs and knees pressing the sides and flanks of the animal, so as to urge him against the touch of his bit, from which he will probably show a tendency to recoil, and, as it is roughly called, "forcing him into his bridle." The absence of this leg-power is an incalculable disadvantage to ladies, and affords the strongest reason, amongst many, why they should be mounted only on temperate and perfectly broken horses. How much oftener would they come to grief but that their seat compels them to ride with such long reins as insure light hands, and that their finer sympathy seems fully understood and gratefully appreciated by the most sympathetic of all the brute creation! The style adopted by good horsewomen, especially in crossing a country, has in it much to be admired, something, also, to be deprecated and deplored. They allow their horses plenty of liberty, and certainly interfere but little with their heads, even at the greatest emergencies; but their ideas of pace are unreasonably liberal, and they are too apt to "chance it" at the fences, encouraging with voice and whip the haste that in the last few strides it is judicious to repress. It seems to me they are safer in a "bank-and-ditch" country than amongst the high strong fences of the grazing districts, where a horse must be roused and held together that he may jump well up in the air, and extend himself afterwards, so as to cover the wide "uncertainties" he may find on the landing side. For a bank he is pretty sure to collect himself without troubling his rider; and this is, perhaps, why Irishmen, as a general rule, use such light bridles. Now, a woman cannot possibly bring her horse up to a high staked-and-bound fence, out of deep ground, with the strength and resolution of a man, whose very grip in the saddle seems to extort from the animal its utmost energies. Half measures are fatal in a difficulty, and, as she seems unable to interfere with good effect she is wise to let it alone. We may learn from her, however, one of the most effective secrets of the whole art, and that is, to ride with long reins. "Always give them plenty of rope," said poor Jem Mason, when instructing a beginner; and he certainly practised what he preached. I have seen his hands carried so high as to be level with his elbows, _but his horse's head was always in the right place_; and to this must be attributed the fact that, while he rode to hounds straighter than anybody else, he got comparatively few falls. A man with long reins not only affords his horse greater liberty at his fences, but allows him every chance of recovery should he get into difficulties on landing, the rider not being pulled with a jerk on the animal's neck and shoulders, so as to throw both of them down, when they ought to have got off with a scramble. Let us return to the horse you have lately mounted, not without certain misgivings that he may be tempted to insubordination under the excitement of tumult, rivalry, or noise. When you have discovered the amount of repression, probably very slight, that he accepts without resentment, at a walk, increase your pace gradually, still with your legs keeping him well into his bridle, carrying your hands low down on his withers, and, if you take my advice, with a rein in each. You will find this method affords you great control of your horse's head, and enables you, by drawing the bit through his mouth, to counteract any arrangement on his part for a dead pull, which could have but one result. Should you, moreover, find it necessary to jump, you can thus hold him perfectly straight at his fences, so that he must either decline altogether or go exactly _where you put him_. Young, headstrong horses are exceedingly apt to swerve from the place selected for them, and to rise sideways at some strong bit of timber, or impracticable part of a bullfinch; and this is a most dangerous experiment, causing the worst kind of falls to which the sportsman is liable. Riding thus two-handed, you will probably find your new acquaintance "bends" to you in his canter better than in his trot, and if so, you may safely push him to a gallop, taking great care, however, not to let him extend himself too much. When he goes on his shoulders, he becomes a free agent; so long as his haunches are under him, you can keep him, as it is called, "in your hand." There is considerable scope for thought in this exercise of manual skill, and it is always wise to save labour of body by use of brain. Take care then, to have your front clear, so that your horse may flatter himself he is leading his comrades, when he will not give you half so much trouble to retain him in reasonable bounds. Strategy is here required no less than tactics, and horsemanship even as regards the bridle, is quite as much a matter of head as hand. If you are out hunting, and have got thus far on good terms, you will probably now be tempted to indulge in a leap. We cannot, unfortunately, select these obstacles exactly as we wish; it is quite possible your first fence may be high, strong, and awkward, with every probability of a fall. Take your horse at it quietly, but resolutely, in a canter, remembering that the quicker and _shorter_ his strides, while gathering _impetus_, the greater effort he can make when he makes his spring. Above all, measure with your eye, and endeavour to show him by the clip of your thighs, and the sway of your body, exactly where he should take off. On this important point depends, almost entirely, the success of your leap. Half a stride means some six or seven feet; to leave the ground that much too soon adds the width of a fair-sized ditch to his task, and if the sum total prove too much for him you cannot be surprised at the result. This is, I think, one of the most important points in horsemanship as applied to riding across a country. It is a detail in which Lord Wilton particularly excels, and although so good a huntsman must despise a compliment to his mere riding, I cannot refrain from mentioning Tom Firr, as another proficient who possesses this enviable knack in an extraordinary degree. Many of us can remember "Cap" Tomline, a professional "rough rider," living at or near Billesdon, within the last twenty years, as fine a horseman as his namesake, whom I have already mentioned, and a somewhat lighter weight. For one sovereign, "Cap," as we used to call him, was delighted to ride anybody's horse under any circumstances, over, or into any kind of fence the owner chose to point out. After going brilliantly through a run, I have seen him, to my mind most injudiciously, desired to lark home alongside, while we watched his performance from the road. He was particularly fond of timber, and notwithstanding that his horse was usually rash, inexperienced, or bad-tempered, otherwise he would not have been riding him, I can call to mind very few occasions on which I saw him down. One unusually open winter, when he hunted five and six days a week from October to April, he told me he had only fifteen falls, and that taking the seasons as they came, thirteen was about his average. Nor was he a very light-weight--spare, lengthy, and muscular, he turned twelve stone in his hunting clothes, which were by no means of costly material. Horses rarely refused with him, and though they often had a scramble for it, as seldom fell, but under his method of riding, sitting well down in the saddle, with the reins in both hands, they never took off wrong, and in this lay the great secret of his superiority. When I knew him he was an exceedingly temperate man; for many years I believe he drank only water, and he eschewed tobacco in every form. "The reason you gentlemen have such _bad nerves_," he said to me, jogging home to Melton one evening in the dusk that always meets us about Somerby, "is because you smoke so much. It turns your brains to a kind of vapour!" the inference was startling, I thought, and not complimentary, but there might be some truth in it nevertheless. We have put off a great deal of time at our first fence, let us do it without a fall, if we can. When a hunter's quarters are under him in taking off, he has them ready to help him over any unforeseen difficulty that may confront him on the other side. Should there be a bank from which he can get a purchase for a second effort, he will poise himself on it lightly as a bird, or perhaps, dropping his hind-legs only, shoot himself well into the next field, with that delightful elasticity which, met by a corresponding action of his rider's loins, imparts to the horseman such sensations of confidence and dexterity as are felt by some buoyant swimmer, wafted home on the roll of an incoming wave. Strong hocks and thighs, a mutual predilection for the chase, a bold heart between the saddle-flaps, another under the waistcoat, and a pair of light hands, form a combination that few fences after Christmas are strong enough or blind enough to put down. And now please not to forget that soundest of maxims, applicable to all affairs alike by land or sea--"While she lies her course, let the ship steer herself." If your horse is going to his own satisfaction, do not be too particular that he should go entirely to yours. So long as you can steady him, never mind that he carries his head a little up or a little down. If he shakes it you know you have got him, and can pull him off in a hundred yards. Keep your hands quiet and not too low. It is a well-known fact, of which, however, many draughtsmen seem ignorant, that the horse in action never puts his fore-feet beyond his nose. You need only watch the finish of a race to be satisfied of this, and indeed the Derby winner in his supreme effort is almost as straight as an old-fashioned frigate, from stem to stern, while a line dropped perpendicularly from his muzzle would exactly touch the tips of his toes. Now, if your hands are on each side of your horse's withers, you make him bend his neck so much as to contract his stride within three-quarter speed, whereas when you carry them about the level of your own hips, and nearly as far back, he has enough freedom of head to extend himself without getting beyond your control, and room besides to look about him, of which be sure he will avail himself for your mutual advantage. I have ridden hunters that obviously found great pleasure in watching hounds, and, except to measure their fences, would never take their eyes off the pack from field to field, so long as we could keep it in sight. These animals too, were, invariably fine jumpers, free, generous, light-hearted, and as wise as they were bold. I heard a very superior performer once remark that he not only rode every horse differently, but he rode the same horse differently at every fence. All I can say is, he used to ride them all in the same place, well up with the hounds, but I think I understand what he meant. He had his system of course, like every other master of the art, but it admitted of endless variations according to circumstances and the exigencies of the case. No man, I conclude, rides so fast at a wall as a brook, though he takes equal pains with his handling in both cases, if in a different way, nor would he deny a half-tired animal that support, amounting even to a dead pull, which might cause a hunter fresh out of his stable to imagine his utmost exertions were required forthwith. Nevertheless, whether "lobbing along" through deep ground at the punishing period, when we wish our fun was over, or fingering a rash one delicately for his first fence, a stile, we will say, downhill with a bad take-off, when we could almost wish it had not begun, we equally require such a combination of skill, science, and sagacity, or rather common-sense, as goes by the name of "hand." When the player possesses this quality in perfection it is wonderful how much can be done with the instrument of which he holds the strings. I remember seeing the Reverend John Bower, an extraordinarily fine rider of the last generation, hand his horse over an ugly iron-bound stile, on to some stepping-stones, with a drop of six or seven feet, into a Leicestershire lane, as calmly as if the animal had been a lady whom he was taking out for a walk. He pulled it back into a trot, sitting very close and quiet, with his hand raised two or three inches above the withers, and I can still recall, as if I had seen it yesterday, the curve of neck and quarters, as, gently mouthing the bit, that well-broken hunter poised lightly for its spring, and landing in the same collected form, picked its way daintily, step by step, down the declivity, like a cat. There was a large field out, but though Leicestershire then, as now, had no lack of bold and jealous riders, who could use heads, hands, and beyond all, their heels, nobody followed him, and I think the attempt was better left alone. Another clergyman of our own day, whose name I forbear mentioning, because I think he would dislike it for professional reasons, has the finest bridle-hand of any one I know. "_You good man_," I once heard a foreigner observe to this gentleman, in allusion to his bold style of riding; "_it no matter if you break your neck!_" And although I cannot look on the loss of such valuable lives from the same point of view as this Continental moralist, I may be permitted to regret the present scarcity of clergymen in the hunting-field. It redounds greatly to their credit, for we know how many of them deny themselves a harmless pleasure rather than offend "the weaker brethren," but what a dog in the manger must the weaker brother be! I have never heard that these "hunting parsons," as they are called, neglect the smallest detail of duty to indulge in their favourite sport, but when they _do_ come out you may be sure to see them in the front rank. Can it be that the weaker brother is jealous of his pastor's superiority in the saddle? I hope not. At any rate it seems unfair to cavil at the enjoyment by another of the pursuit we affect ourselves. Let us show more even-handed justice, if not more charity, and endeavour at least to follow the good man's example in the parish, though we are afraid to ride his line across the fields. It would be endless to enter on all the different styles of horsemanship in which fine hands are of the utmost utility. On the race-course, for instance, it seems to an outsider that the whole performance of the jockey is merely a dead pull from end to end. But only watch the lightest urchin that is flung on a two-year-old to scramble home five furlongs as fast as ever he can come; you will soon be satisfied that even in these tumultuous flights there is room for the display of judgment, patience, though briefly tried, and manual skill. The same art is exercised on the light smooth snaffle, held in tenacious grasp, that causes the heavily-bitted charger to dance and "passage" in the school. It differs only in direction and degree. As much dexterity is required to prevent some playful flyer recently put in training from breaking out in a game of romps, when he ought to be minding his business in "the string" as to call forth the well-drilled efforts of a war-horse, answering wrist and leg with disciplined activity, ready to "rein back," "pass," "wheel,"-- "And high curvet that not in vain, The sword-sway may descend amain On foeman's casque below." Chifney, the great jockey of his day, wrote an elaborate treatise on handling, laying down the somewhat untenable position, that even a racehorse should be held as if with a silken thread. I have noticed, too, that our best steeplechase riders have particularly fine hands when crossing a country with hounds; nor does their professional practice seem to make them over-hasty at their fences, when there is time to do these with deliberation. I imagine that to ride a steeplechase well, over a strong line, is the highest possible test of what we may call "all-round" horsemanship. My own experience in the silk jacket has been of the slightest; and I confess that, like Falstaff with his reasons, I never fancied being rattled quite so fast at my fences "on compulsion." One of the finest pieces of riding I ever witnessed was in a steeplechase held at Melton, as long ago as the year 1864, when, happening to stand near the brook, _eighteen feet of water_, I observed my friend Captain Coventry come down at it. Choosing sound ground and a clear place, for it was already beginning to fill with numerous competitors, he set his horse going, at about a hundred yards from the brink; in the most masterly manner, increasing the pace resolutely but gradually, so as not to flurry or cause the animal to change his leg, nearly to full speed before he took off. I could not have believed it possible to make a horse go so fast in so collected a form; but with the rider's strength in the saddle, and perfectly skilful hands, he accomplished the feat, and got well over, I need hardly say, in his stride. But, although a fine "bridle-hand," as it is called, proves of such advantage to the horseman in the hurry-skurry of a steeplechase or a very quick thing with hounds, its niceties come more readily under the notice of an observer on the road than in the field. Perhaps the Ride in Hyde Park is the place of all others where this quality is most appreciated, and, shall we add? most rarely to be found. A perfect Park hack, that can walk or canter five miles an hour, no light criterion of action and balance, should also be so well broke, and so well ridden, as to change its leg, if asked to do so, at every stride. "With woven paces," if not "with waving arms," I have seen rider and horse threading in and out the trees that bisect Rotten Row, without missing _one_, for half a mile on end; the animal leading with near or off leg, as it inclined to left or right, guided only by the inflection of the rider's body, and the touch, too light to be called a pressure, of his knee and leg. How seldom does one see a horse ridden properly round a corner. He is usually allowed to turn on his shoulders, with his hind-legs too far back to be of the slightest assistance if he slips or stumbles, and should the foothold be greasy, as may happen in London streets, down he comes flat on his side. Even at a walk, or slow trot, he should be collected, and his outer flank pressed inwards by his rider's heel, so that the motive power in hocks and thighs is kept under his own body, and the weight on his back. In the canter it stands to reason that he should lead with the inner leg, otherwise it is very possible he may cross the other over it, and fall like a lump of lead. I remember seeing the famous Lord Anglesey ride his hack at that pace nineteen times out of Piccadilly into Albemarle Street, before it turned the corner exactly to his mind. The handsome old warrior who _looked_ no less distinguished than he _was_, had, as we know, a cork leg, and its oscillation no doubt interfered with those niceties of horsemanship in which he delighted. Nevertheless at the twentieth trial he succeeded, and a large crowd, collected to watch him, seemed glad of an opportunity to give their Waterloo hero a hearty cheer as he rode away. Perhaps the finest pair of hands to be seen amongst the frequenters of the Park in the present day belong to Mr. Mackenzie Greaves, a retired cavalry officer of our own service, who, passionately fond of hunting and everything connected with horses, has lately turned his attention to the subtleties of the _haute école_, nowhere better understood, by a select few, than in Paris, where he usually resides. To watch this gentleman on a horse he has broken in himself, gliding through the crowd, as if by mere volition, with the smoothness, ease, and rapidity of a fish arrowing up a stream, makes one quite understand how the myth of the Centaur originated in the sculpture and poetry of Greece. In common with General Laurenson, whose name I have already mentioned as just such another proficient, his system is very similar to that of Monsieur Baucher, one of the few lovers of the animal either in France or England, who have so studied its character as to reduce equine education to a science. Its details are far too elaborate to enter on here, but one of its first principles, applied in the most elementary tuition, is never to let the horse recoil from his bridle. "Drop your hands!" say nine good riders out of ten, when the pupil's head is thrown up to avoid control. "Not so," replies Baucher. "On the contrary, tighten and increase your pressure more and more, keeping the rebel up to his bit with legs and spurs if necessary, till _he_ yields, not you; then on the instant, rapidly and dexterously, as you would strike in fly-fishing, give to him, and he will come into your hand!" I have tried his method myself, in more than one instance, and am inclined to think it is founded on common sense. But in all our dealings with him, we should remember that the horse's mouth is naturally delicate and sensitive though we so often find it hardened by violence and ill-usage. The amount of force we apply, therefore, whether small or great, should be measured no less accurately than the drops of laudanum administered to a patient by the nurse. Reins are intended for the guidance of the horse, not the support of his rider, and if you do not feel secure without holding on by something, rather than pluck at his mouth, accept the ridicule of the position with its safety, and grasp the mane! Seriously, you may do worse in a difficulty when your balance is in danger, and instinct prompts you to restore it, as, if a horse is struggling out of a bog, has dropped his hind-legs in a brook, or otherwise come on his nose without actually falling, nothing so impedes his endeavours to right himself as a tug of the bridle at an inopportune moment. That instrument should be used for its legitimate purposes alone, and a strong seat in the saddle is the first essential for a light hand on the rein. CHAPTER VI. SEAT. Some people tell you they ride by "balance," others by "grip." I think a man might as well say he played the fiddle by "finger," or by ear. Surely in either case a combination of both is required to sustain the performance with harmony and success. The grip preserves the balance, which in turn prevents the grip becoming irksome. To depend on the one alone is to come home very often with a dirty coat, to cling wholly by the other is to court as much fatigue in a day as ought to serve for a week. I have more than once compared riding to swimming, it seems to require the same buoyancy of spirits, the same venture of body, the same happy combination of confidence, strength, and skill. The seat a man finds easiest to himself, says the inimitable Mr. Jorrocks, "will in all humane probability be the easiest to his 'oss!" and in this, as in every other remark of the humorous grocer, there is no little wisdom and truth. "If he go smooth, I am,"[95-1] said a Frenchman, to whom a friend of mine offered a mount, "if he go rough, I shall not remain!" and doubtless the primary object of getting into a saddle, is to stay there at our own convenience, so long as circumstances permit. [95-1] _J'y suis._ But what a number of different attitudes do men adopt, in order to insure this permanent settlement. There is no position, from the tongs in the fender, to the tailor on his shop-board, into which the equestrian has not forced his unaccustomed limbs, to avoid involuntary separation from his beast. The dragoon of fifty years ago was drilled to ride with a straight leg, and his foot barely resting on the stirrup, whereas the oriental cavalry soldier, no mean proficient in the management of horse and weapon, tucks his knees up nearly to his chin, so that when he rises in the saddle, he towers above his little Arab as if he were standing rather than sitting on its back. The position, he argues, gives him a longer reach, and a stronger purchase for the use of sword and spear. If we are to judge by illuminated copies of Froissart, and other contemporary chronicles, it would seem that the armour-clad knight of the olden time, trusting in the depth and security of his saddle, _rode so long_ as to derive no assistance whatever from his stirrups, sitting down on his horse as much as possible, in dread, may be, lest the point of an adversary's lance should hoist him fairly out of his place over a cantle six inches high, and send him clanging to the ground, in mail and plate, surcoat, helmet and plumes, with his lady-love, squires, yeomen, the marshals of the lists, and all his feudal enemies looking on! Now the length of stirrup with which a man should ride, and in its adjustment consists much of the ease, grace, and security of his position, depends on the conformation of his lower limbs. If his thighs are long in proportion to his frame, flat and somewhat curved inwards, he will sit very comfortably at the exact length that raises him clear of his horse's withers, when he stands up in his stirrups with his feet home, and the majority of men thus limbed, on the majority of horses, will find this a good general rule. But when the legs are short and muscular, the thighs round and thick, the whole frame square and strong, more like wrestling than dancing, and many very superior riders are of this figure, the leathers must be pulled up a couple of holes, and the foot thrust a little more forward, to obtain the necessary security of seat, at a certain sacrifice of grace and even ease. To look as neat as one can is a compliment to society, to be safe and comfortable is a duty to oneself. Much also depends on the animal we bestride. Horses low in the withers, and strong behind the saddle, particularly if inclined to "catch hold" a little, require in all cases rather shorter stirrups than their easier and truer-shaped stable-companions, nay, the varying roundness of barrel at different stages of condition affects the attitude of a rider, and most of us must have remarked, as horse and master get finer drawn towards the spring, how we let out the stirrups in proportion as we take in waistbelt, and saddle girths. Men rode well nevertheless, witness the Elgin marbles, before the invention of this invaluable aid to horsemanship; and no equestrian can be considered perfect who is unable in a plunge or leap to stick on his horse bare-backed. Every boy should be taught to ride without stirrups, but not till he is tall and strong enough to grasp his pony firmly between his knees. A child of six or seven might injure itself in the effort, and ten, or eleven, is an early age enough for our young gentleman to be initiated into the subtleties of the art. My own idea is that he should begin without reins, so as to acquire a seat totally independent of his hands, and should never be trusted with a bridle till it is perfectly immaterial to him whether he has hold of it or not. Neither should it be restored, after his stirrups have been taken away, till he has again proved himself independent of its support. When he has learnt to canter round the school, and sit firm over a leaping bar, with his feet swinging loose, and his hands in his pockets, he will have become a better horseman than ninety-nine out of every hundred who go out hunting. Henceforward you may trust him to take care of himself, and _swim alone_. In every art it is well to begin from the very first with the best method; and I would instil into a pupil, even of the tenderest years, that although his legs, and especially his knees, are to be applied firmly to his pony's sides, as affording a security against tumbling off, it is _from the loins_ that he must really ride, when all is said and done. I dare say most of us can remember the mechanical horse exhibited in Piccadilly some ten or twelve years ago, a German invention, remarkable for its ingenuity and the wonderful accuracy with which it imitated, in an exaggerated degree, the kicks, plunges, and other outrages practised by the most restive of the species to unseat their riders. Shaped in the truest symmetry, clad in a real horse's skin, with flowing mane and tail, this automaton represented the live animal in every particular, but for the pivot on which it turned, a shaft entering the belly below its girths, and communicating through the floor with the machinery that set in motion and regulated its astonishing vagaries. On mounting, the illusion was complete. Its very neck was so constructed with hinges that, on pulling at the bridle, it gave you its head without changing the direction of its body, exactly like an unbroken colt as yet intractable to the bit. At a word from the inventor, spoken in his own language to his assistants below, this artificial charger committed every kind of wickedness that could be devised by a fiend in equine shape. It reared straight on end; it lunged forward with its nose between its fore-feet, and its tail elevated to a perpendicular, awkward and ungainly as that of a swan _in reverse_. It lay down on its side; it rose to its legs with a bounce, and finally, if the rider's strength and dexterity enabled him still to remain in the saddle, it wheeled round and round with a velocity that could not fail at last to shoot him out of his seat on to the floor, humanely spread with mattresses, in anticipation of this inevitable catastrophe. It is needless to say how such an exhibition _drew_, with so horse-loving a public as our own. No gentleman who fancied he could "ride a bit" was satisfied till he had taken his shilling's worth and the mechanical horse had put him on his back. But for the mattresses, Piccadilly could have counted more broken collar-bones than ever did Leicestershire in the blindest and deepest of its Novembers. Rough-riders from the Life-Guards, Blues, Artillery, and half the cavalry regiments in the service, came to try conclusions with the spectre; and, like antagonists of some automaton chess-player, retired defeated and dismayed. For this universal failure, one could neither blame the men nor the military system taught in their schools. It stands to reason that human wind and muscle must sooner or later succumb to mechanical force. The inventor himself expressed surprise at the consummate horsemanship displayed by many of his fallen visitors, and admitted that more than one rough-rider would have tired out and subjugated any living creature of real flesh and blood; while the essayists universally declared the imitation so perfect, that at no period of the struggle could they believe they were contending with clock-work, rather than the natural efforts of some wild unbroken colt. But those who succeeded best, I remarked (and I speak with some little experience, having myself been indebted to the mattresses in my turn), were the horsemen who, allowing their loins to play freely, yielding more or less to every motion of the figure, did not trust exclusively for firmness of seat to the clasp of their knees and thighs. The mere balance rider had not a chance, the athlete who stuck on by main force found himself hurled into the air, with a violence proportioned to his own stubborn resistance; but the artist who judiciously combined strength with skill, giving a little _here_ that he might get a stronger purchase _there_, swaying his body loosely to meet and accompany every motion, while he kept his legs pressed hard against the saddle, withstood trick after trick, and shock after shock creditably enough, till a hint muttered in German that it was time to displace him, put such mechanism in motion as settled the matter forthwith. There was one detail, however, to be observed in the equipment of the mechanical horse that brings us to a question I have heard discussed amongst the best riders with very decided opinions on either side. Formerly every saddle used to be made with padding about half an inch deep, sewn in the front rim of the flap against which a rider rests his knee, for the purpose, as it would seem, of affording him a stronger seat with its resistance and support. Thirty or forty years ago a few noted sportsmen, despising such adventitious aid, began to adopt the open, or plain-flapped saddle; and, although not universal, it has now come into general use. It would certainly, of the two, have been the better adapted to the automaton I have described, as an inequality of surface was sadly in the way when the figure in its downward perpendicular, brought the rider's foot parallel with the point of its shoulders. The man's calf then necessarily slipped over the padding of his saddle, and it was impossible for him to get his leg back to its right place in time for a fresh outbreak when the model rose again to its proper level. As I would prefer an open saddle for the artificial, so I do for the natural horse, and I will explain why. I take it as a general and elementary rule, there is no better position for a rider than that which brings shoulder, hip, knee, and heel into one perpendicular line. A man thus placed on his horse cannot but sit well down with a bend in his back, and in this attitude, the one into which he would naturally fall, if riding at full speed, he has not only security of seat, but great command over the animal he bestrides. He will find, nevertheless, in crossing a country, or otherwise practising feats of horsemanship requiring the exercise of strength, that to get his knee an inch or two in advance of the correct line will afford such leverage as it were for the rest of his body as gives considerable advantage in any unusual difficulty, such as a drop-leap, for instance, with which he may have to contend. Now in the plain-flapped saddle, he can bend his leg as much as he likes, and put it indeed where he will. This facility, too, is very useful in smuggling through a gap by a tree, often the most convenient egress, to make use of which, with a little skill and prudence, is a less hazardous experiment than it looks. A horse will take good care not to graze his own skin, and the space that admits of clearing his hips is wide enough for his rider's leg as well, if he hangs it over the animal's shoulder just where its neck is set on to the withers. But I would caution him to adopt this attitude carefully and above all, in good time. He should take his foot out of the stirrup and make his preparatory arrangements some three or four strides off at least, so as to accommodate his change of seat to the horse's canter before rising at the leap, and if he can spare his hand nearest the tree, so as to "fend it off" a little at the same time, he will be surprised to find how safely and pleasantly he accomplished a transit through some awkward and dangerous fence. But he must beware of delaying this little manoeuvre till the last moment, when his horse is about to spring. It is then too late, and he will either find himself so thrown out of his seat as to lose balance and grip too, or will try to save his leg by shifting it back instead of _forward_, when much confusion, bad language, and perhaps a broken knee-pan will be the result. Amongst other advantages of the open saddle we must not forget that it is cheaper by twenty shillings, and so sets off the shape of his forehand as to make a hunter look more valuable by twenty pounds. Nevertheless, it is still repudiated by some of our finest horsemen, who allege the sufficient reason that an inch or so of stuffing adds to their strength and security of seat. This, after all is, the _sine quâ non_, to which every article of equipment, even the important items of boots and breeches, should be subservient, and I may here remark that ease and freedom of dress are indispensable to a man who wishes to ride across a country not only in comfort, but in safety. I am convinced that tight, ill-fitting leathers may have broken bones to answer for. Many a good fellow comes down to breakfast, stiff of gait, as if he were clothed in buckram, and can we wonder that he is hurt when thus hampered and constrained, he falls stark and rigid, like a paste-board policeman in a pantomime. I have already protested against the solecism of saving yourself by the bridle. It is better, if you _must_ have assistance, to follow the example of two or three notoriously fine riders and grasp the cantle of the saddle at the risk of breaking its tree. But in my humble opinion it is not well to be in the wrong even with Plato, and, notwithstanding these high authorities, we must consider such habits, however convenient on occasion, as errors in horsemanship. To a good rider the saddle ought to be a place of security as easy as an armchair. I have heard it asserted, usually by persons of lean and wiry frames, that with short legs and round thighs, it is impossible to acquire a firm seat on horseback; but in this, as in most matters of skill, I believe nature can be rendered obedient to education. Few men are so clumsily shaped but that they may learn to become strong and skilful riders if they will adopt a good system, and from the first resolve to sit _in the right place_; this, I think, should be in the very middle of the saddle, while bending the small of the back inwards, so that the weight of the body rests on that part of a horse's spine immediately behind his withers, under which his fore feet are placed, and on which, it has been ascertained, he can bear the heaviest load. When the animal stands perfectly still, or when it is extended at full speed, the most inexperienced horseman seems to fall naturally into the required position; but to preserve it, even through the regulated paces of the riding school demands constant effort and attention. The back-board is here, in my opinion, of great assistance to the beginner, as it forces him into an attitude that causes him to sit on the right part of his own person and his horse's back. It compels him also to carry his hands at a considerable distance off the horse's head, and thus entails also the desideratum of long reins. The shortest and surest way, however, of attaining a firm seat on horseback is, after all, to practise without stirrups on every available opportunity. Many a valuable lesson may be taken while riding to covert and nobody but the student be a bit the wiser. Thus to trot and canter along, for two or three miles on end is no bad training at the beginning of the season, and even an experienced horseman will be surprised to find how it gets him down in his saddle, and makes him feel as much at home there as he did in the previous March. The late Captain Percy Williams, as brilliant a rider over a country as ever cheered a hound, and to whom few professional jockeys would have cared to give five pounds on a race-course, assured me that he attributed to the above self-denying exercise that strength in the saddle which used to serve him so well from the distance home. When quartered at Hounslow with his regiment, the 9th Lancers, like other gay young light dragoons, he liked to spend all his available time in London. There were no railroads in those days, and the coaches did not always suit for time; but he owned a sound, speedy, high-trotting hack, and on this "bone setter" he travelled backwards and forwards twelve miles of the great Bath Road, with military regularity, half as many times a week. He made it a rule to cross the stirrups over his horse's shoulders the moment he was off the stones at either end, only to be replaced when he reached his destination. In three months' time, he told me, he had gained more practical knowledge of horsemanship, and more muscular power below the waist, than in all the hunting, larking, and riding-school drill of the previous three years. Grace is, after all, but the result of repressed strength. The loose and easy seat that seems to sway so carelessly with every motion, can tighten itself by instinct to the compression of a vice, and the "prettiest rider," as they say in Ireland, is probably the one whom a kicker or buck-jumper would find the most difficult to dislodge. No doubt in the field, the ride, the parade, or the polo-ground a strong seat is the first of those many qualities that constitute good horsemanship. The real adept is not to be unseated by any catastrophe less conclusive than complete downfall of man and beast; nay, even then he parts company without confusion, and it may be said of him as of "William of Deloraine," good at need in a like predicament-- "Still sate the warrior, saddle fast, Till, stumbling in the mortal shock, Down went the steed, the girthing broke, Hurled in a heap lay man and horse." But I have a strong idea Sir William did not let his bridle go even then. CHAPTER VII. VALOUR. "He that would venture nothing must not get on horseback," says a Spanish proverb, and the same caution seems applicable to most manly amusements or pursuits. We cannot enter a boat, put on a pair of skates, take a gun in hand for covert shooting, or even run downstairs in a hurry without encountering risk; but the amount of peril to which a horseman subjects himself seems proportioned inversely to the unconsciousness of it he displays. "Where there is no fear there is no danger," though a somewhat reckless aphorism, is more applicable, I think, to the exercise of riding than to any other venture of neck and limbs. The horse is an animal of exceedingly nervous temperament, sympathetic too, in the highest degree, with the hand from which he takes his instructions. Its slightest vacillation affects him with electric rapidity, but from its steadiness he derives moral encouragement rather than physical support, and on those rare occasions when his own is insufficient, he seems to borrow daring and resolution from his rider. If the man's heart is in the right place, his horse will seldom fail him; and were we asked to name the one essential without which it is impossible to attain thorough proficiency in the saddle, we should not hesitate to say nerve. _Nerve_, I repeat, in contradistinction to _pluck_. The latter takes us into a difficulty, the former brings us out of it. Both are comprised in the noble quality we call emphatically valour, but while the one is a brilliant and imposing costume, so is the other an honest wear-and-tear fabric, equally fit for all weathers, fine and foul. "You shiver, Colonel--you are afraid," said an insubordinate Major, who ought to have been put under arrest then and there, to his commanding officer on the field of Prestonpans. "I _am_ afraid, sir," answered the Colonel; "and if you were as much afraid as I am, _you would run away_!" I have often thought this improbable anecdote exemplifies very clearly that most meritorious of all courage which asserts the dominion of our will over our senses. The Colonel's answer proves he was full of valour. He had lots of pluck, but as he was bold enough to admit, a deficiency of nerve. Now the field of Diana happily requires but a slight per-centage of daring and resolution compared with the field of Mars. I heard the late Sir Francis Head, distinguished as a soldier, a statesman, an author, and a sportsman, put the matter in a few words, very tersely--and exceedingly to the point. "Under fire," said he, "there is a guinea's-worth of danger, but it comes to you. In the hunting-field, there is only three-ha'p 'orth, but _you go to it_!" In both cases, the courage required is a mere question of degree, and as in war, so in the chase, he is most likely to distinguish himself whose daring, not to be dismayed, is tempered with coolness, whose heart is always stout and hopeful, while he never loses his head. Now as I understand the terms pluck and nerve, I conceive the first to be a moral quality, the result of education, sentiment, self-respect, and certain high aspirations of the intellect; the second, a gift of nature dependent on the health, the circulation, and the liver. As memory to imagination in the student, so is nerve to pluck in the horseman. Not the more brilliant quality, nor the more captivating, but sound, lasting, available for all emergencies, and sure to conquer in the long run. We will suppose two sportsmen are crossing a country equally well mounted, and each full of valour to the brim. A, to quote his admiring friends, "has the pluck of the devil!" B, to use a favourite expression of the saddle-room, "has a good nerve." Both are bound to come to grief over some forbidding rails at a corner, the only way out, in the line hounds are running, and neither has any more idea of declining than had poor Lord Strathmore on a similar occasion when Jem Mason halloaed to him, "Eternal misery on this side my lord, and certain death on the other!" So they harden their hearts, sit down in their saddles, and this is what happens:-- A's horse, injudiciously sent at the obstacle, _because_ it is awkward, a turn too fast, slips in taking off, and strikes the top-rail, which neither bends nor breaks, just below its knees. A flurried snatch at the bridle pulls its head in the air, and throws the animal skilfully to the ground at the moment it most requires perfect freedom for a desperate effort to keep on its legs. Rider and horse roll over in an "imperial crowner," and rise to their feet looking wildly about them, totally disconnected, and five or six yards apart. This is not encouraging for B, who is obliged to follow, inasmuch as the place only offers room for one at a time, but as soon as his leader is out of the way, he comes steadily and quietly at the leap. His horse too, slips in the tracks of its fallen comrade, but as it is going in a more collected form, it contrives to get its fore-legs over the impediment, which catches it, however, inside the hocks, so that, balancing for a moment, it comes heavily on its nose. During these evolutions, B sits motionless in the saddle, giving the animal complete liberty of rein. An instinct of self-preservation and a good pair of shoulders turn the scale at the last moment, and although there is no denying they "had a squeak for it" in the scramble, B and his horse come off without a fall. Now it was pluck that took both these riders into the difficulty, but nerve that extricated one of them without defeat. I am not old enough to have seen the famous Mr. Assheton Smith in the hunting-field, but many of my early Leicestershire friends could remember him perfectly at his best, when he hunted that fine and formidable country, with the avowed determination, daily carried out, _of going into every field with his hounds_! The expenditure of valour, for it really deserves the name necessary to carry out such a style of riding can only be appreciated by those who have tried to keep in a good place during thirty or forty minutes, over any part of the Quorn and Cottesmore counties lying within six miles of Billesdon. Where should we be but for the gates? I think I may answer, neither there nor thereabouts! I have reason to believe the many stories told of "Tom Smith's" skill and daring are little, if at all, exaggerated. He seems admitted by all to have been the boldest, as he was one of the best, horsemen that ever got into a saddle with a hunting-whip in his hand. Though subsequently a man of enormous wealth, in the prime of life, he lived on the allowance, adequate but not extravagant, made him by his father, and did by no means give those high prices for horses, which, on the principle that "money makes the mare to go," are believed by many sportsmen to ensure a place in the front rank. He entertained no fancies as to size, action, above all, peculiarities in mouths and tempers. Little or big, sulky, violent, or restive, if a horse could gallop and jump, he was a hunter the moment he found himself between the legs of Tom Smith. There is a namesake of his hunting at present from Melton, who seems to have taken several leaves out of his book. Captain Arthur Smith, with every advantage of weight, nerve, skill, seat, and hand, is never away from the hounds. Moreover, he always likes his horse, and his horse always seems to like him. This gentleman, too, is blessed with an imperturbable temper, which I have been given to understand the squire of Tedworth was _not_. Instances of Tom Smith's daring are endless. How characteristic was his request to a farmer near Glengorse, that he would construct such a fence as should effectually prevent the field from getting away in too close proximity to his hounds. "I can make you up a stopper," said the good-natured yeoman, "and welcome; but what be you to do yourself, Squire, for I know you like well to be with 'em when they run?" "Never mind me," was the answer, "you do what I ask you. I never saw a fence in this country I couldn't get over _with a fall_!" and, sure enough, the first day the hounds found a fox in that well-known covert, Tom Smith was seen striding along in the wake of his darlings, having tumbled neck-and-crop over the obstacle he had demanded, in perfect good humour and content. If valour then, is a combination of pluck and nerve, he may be called the most valorous sportsman that ever got upon a horse, while affording another example of the partiality with which fortune favours the bold, for although he has had between eighty and ninety falls in a season, he was never really hurt, I believe, but once in his life. "That is a _brave_ man!" I have heard Lord Gardner say in good-humoured derision, pointing to some adventurous sportsman, whose daring so far exceeded his dexterity as to bring horse and rider into trouble; but his lordship's own nerve was so undeniable, that like many others, he may have undervalued a quality of which he could not comprehend the want. Most hunting-men, I fancy, will agree with me, that of all obstacles we meet with in crossing a country, timber draws most largely on the reserve fund of courage hoarded away in that part of a hero's heart which is nearest his mouth. The highest rails I ever saw attempted were ridden at by Lord Gardner some years ago, while out with Mr. Tailby's hounds near the Ram's Head. With a fair holding scent, and the pack bustling their fox along over the grass, there was no time for measurement, but I remember perfectly well that being in the same field, some fifty yards behind him, and casting longing looks at the fence, totally impracticable in every part, I felt satisfied the corner he made for was simply an impossibility. "We had better turn round and go home!" I muttered in my despair. The leap consisted of four strong rails, higher than a horse's withers, an approach down hill, a take-off poached by cattle, and a landing into a deep muddy lane. I can recall at this moment, the beautiful style in which my leader brought his horse to its effort. Very strong in the saddle, with the finest hands in the world, leaning far back, and sitting well down, he seemed to rouse as it were, and concentrate the energies of the animal for its last half-stride, when, rearing itself almost perpendicularly, it contrived to get safe over, only breaking the top rail with a hind leg. This must have lowered the leap by at least a foot, yet when I came to it, thus reduced, and "made easy," it was still a formidable obstacle, and I felt thankful to be on a good jumper. Of late years I have seen Mr. Powell, who is usually very well mounted, ride over exceedingly high and forbidding timber so persistently, as to have earned from that material, the _nom de chasse_ by which he is known amongst his friends. But perhaps the late Lord Cardigan, the last of the Brudenells, afforded in the hunting-field, as in all other scenes of life, the most striking example of that "pluck" which is totally independent of youth, health, strength, or any other physical advantage. The courage that in advanced middle-age governed the steady manoeuvres of Bulganak, and led the death-ride at Balaclava, burned bright and fierce to the end. The graceful seat might be less firm, the tall soldier-like figure less upright, but Mars, one of his last and best hunters, was urged to charge wood and water by the same bold heart at seventy, that tumbled Langar into the Uppingham road over the highest gate in Leicestershire at twenty-six. The foundation of Lord Cardigan's whole character was valour. He loved it, he prized it, he admired it in others, he was conscious and proud of it in himself. So jealous was he of this chivalrous quality, that even in such a matter of mere amusement as riding across a country, he seemed to attach some vague sense of disgrace to the avoidance of a leap, however dangerous, if hounds were running at the time, and was notorious for the recklessness with which he would plunge into the deepest rivers though he could not swim a stroke! This I think is to court _real_ danger for no sufficient object. Lord Wolverton, than whom no man has ridden straighter and more enthusiastically to hounds, ever since he left Oxford, once crossed the Thames in this most perilous fashion, for he, too, has never learnt to swim, during a run with "the Queen's." "But," said I, protesting subsequently against such hardihood, "you were risking your life at every stroke." "I never thought of that," was the answer, "till I got safe over, and it was no use bothering about it then." Lord Cardigan however, seemed well aware of his danger, and, in my own recollection, had two very narrow escapes from drowning in these uncalled-for exploits. The gallant old cavalry officer's death was in keeping with his whole career. At threescore years and ten he insisted on mounting a dangerous animal that he would not have permitted any friend to ride. What happened is still a mystery. The horse came home without him, and he never spoke again, though he lived till the following day. But these are sad reflections for so cheerful a subject as daring in the saddle. Red is our colour, not black, and, happily, in the sport we love, there are few casualties calling forth more valour than is required to sustain a bloody nose, a broken collar-bone, or a sound ducking in a wet ditch. Yet it is extraordinary how many good fellows riding good horses find themselves defeated in a gallop after hounds, from indecision and uncertainty, rather than want of courage, when the emergency actually arises. Though the danger, according to Sir Francis Head, is about a hap'orth, it might possibly be valued at a penny, and nobody wants to discover, in his own person, the exact amount. Therefore are the chivalry of the Midland Counties to be seen on occasion panic-stricken at the downfall or disappearance of a leader. And a dozen feet of dirty water will wholly scatter a field of horsemen who would confront an enemy's fire without the quiver of an eye-lash. Except timber, of which the risk is obvious, at a glance, nothing frightens the _half_-hard, so much as a brook. It is difficult, you see, to please them, the uncertainty of the limpid impediment being little less forbidding than the certainty of the stiff! But it does require dash and coolness, pluck and nerve, a certain spice of something that may fairly be called valour, to charge cheerfully at a brook when we have no means of ascertaining its width, its depth, or the soundness of its banks. Horses too are apt to share the misgivings of their riders, and water-jumping, like a loan to a poor relation, if not done freely, had better not be done at all. The fox, and consequently the hounds, as we know, will usually cross at the narrowest place, but even if we can mark the exact spot, fences, or the nature of the ground may prevent our getting there. What are we to do? If we follow a leader, and he drops short, we are irretrievably defeated, if we make our own selection, the gulf may be as wide as the Thames. "Send him at it!" says valour, "and take your chance!" Perhaps it is the best plan after all. There is something in luck, a good deal in the reach of a horse's stride at a gallop, and if we _do_ get over, we _rather_ flatter ourselves for the next mile or two that we have "done the trick!" To enter on the subject of "hard riding," as it is called, without honourable mention of the habit and the side-saddle, would in these days betray both want of observation and politeness; but ladies, though they seem to court danger no less freely than admiration, possess, I think, as a general rule, more pluck than nerve. I can recall an instance very lately, however, in which I saw displayed by one of the gentlest of her sex, an amount of courage, coolness, and self-possession, that would have done credit to a hero. This lady, who had not quite succeeded in clearing a high post-and-rail with a boggy ditch on the landing side, was down and under her horse. The animal's whole weight rested on her legs, so as to keep her in such a position, that her head lay between its fore and hind feet, where the least attempt at a struggle, hemmed in by those four shining shoes, must have dashed her brains out. She seemed in no way concerned for her beauty, or her life, but gave judicious directions to those who rescued her as calmly and courteously as if she had been pouring out their tea. The horse, though in that there is nothing unusual, behaved like an angel, and the fair rider was extricated without very serious injury; but I thought to myself, as I remounted and rode on, that if a legion of Amazons could be rendered amenable to discipline they would conquer the world. No man, till he has tried the experiment, can conceive how awkward and powerless one feels in a lady's seat. They themselves affirm that with the crutch, or second pommel on the near side, they are more secure than ourselves; but when I see those delicate, fragile forms flying over wood and water, poised on precipitous banks, above all, crashing through strong bullfinches, I am struck with admiration at the mysteries of nature, among which not the least wonderful seems the feminine desire to excel. And they _do_ excel when resolved they will, even in those sports and exercises which seem more naturally belonging to the masculine department. It was but the other day, a boatman in the Channel told me he saw a lady swimming alone more than half a mile off shore. Now that the universal rink has brought skating into fashion, the "many-twinkling feet," that smoothest glide and turn most deftly, are shod with such dainty boots as never could be worn by the clumsier sex. At lawn-tennis the winning service is offered by some seductive hoyden in her teens; and, although in the game of cricket the Graces have as yet been males, at no distant day we may expect to see the best batsman at the Oval bowled out, or perhaps caught by a woman! Yes, the race is in the ascendant. It takes the heaviest fish,--I mean _real_ fish--with a rod and line. It kills its grouse right and left--in the moor among the heather. It shoulders a rifle no heavier than a pea-shooter, but levels the toy so straight that, after some cunning stalk, a "stag of ten" goes down before the white hand and taper finger, as becomes his antlers and his sex. Lastly, when it gets upon Bachelor, or Benedict, or Othello, or any other high-flyer with a suggestive name, it sails away close, often too close, to the hounds, leaving brothers, husbands, even admirers hopelessly in the rear. Now, I hope I am not going to express a sentiment that will offend their prejudices, and cause young women to call me an old one, but I do consider that, in these days, ladies who go out hunting _ride a turn too hard_. Far be it from me to assert that the Field is no place for the fair; on the contrary, I hold that their presence adds in every respect to its charms. Neither would I protest against their jumping, and relegate them to the bridle-roads or lanes. Nothing of the kind. Let the greatest care be taken in the selection of their horses; let their saddles and bridles be fitted to such a nicety that sore backs and sore mouths are equally impossible, and let trustworthy servants be told off to attend them during the day. Then, with everything in their favour, over a fair country, fairly fenced, why should they not ride on and take their pleasure? But even if their souls disdain to follow a regular pilot (and I may observe his office requires no little nerve, as they are pretty quick on to a leader if he gets down), I would entreat them not to try "cutting out the work," as it is called, but rather to wait and see one rider, at least, over a leap before they attempt it themselves. It is frightful to think of a woman landing in a pit, a water-course, or even so deep a ditch as may cause the horse to roll over her when he falls. With her less muscular frame she is more easily injured than a man; with her finer organisation she cannot sustain injury as well. It turns one sick to think of her dainty head between a horse's hind-legs, or of those cruel pommels bruising her delicate ribs and bosom. It is at least twenty to one in _our_ favour every time we fall, whereas with her the odds are all the other way, and it is almost twenty to one she must be hurt. What said the wisest of kings concerning a fair woman without discretion? We want no Solomon to remind us that with her courage roused, her ambition excited, all the rivalry of her nature called into play, she has nowhere more need of this judicious quality than in the hunting-field. CHAPTER VIII. DISCRETION. It has been called the better part of valour, and doubtless, when wanting, the latter is as likely to sustain irretrievable reverses as a ship without a rudder, or a horse without a bridle. The two should always travel together; but it appears to me that we meet the cautious brother most frequently on our journey through life. In the chase, however, they seem to share their presence impartially enough. Valour is very much to the front at the covert side, and shows again with great certainty after dinner; but discretion becomes paramount and almost ubiquitous when the hounds run, being called on indeed to act for us in every field. Sometimes, particularly when countries are blind early in November, we abandon ourselves so entirely to its guidance as little by little to lose all our self-reliance, till at last we feel comfortable nowhere but in the high road; and most of us, I dare say, can recall occasions on which we have been so utterly discomfited by an early disappointment (in plain English a fence we were afraid to jump) as to give in without an effort, although the slightest dash of valour at the right moment would have carried us triumphantly out of defeat. Never mind. Like a French friend of mine, who expresses his disinclination to our _chasse au renard_ by protesting, "_Monsieur, je ne cherche pas mes émotions à me casser le cou_," when we are avowedly in pursuit of pleasure we ought to take it exactly as suits us best. There are two ends of the string in every run with hounds. Wisdom pervades each of these, but eschews the various gradations between. In front rides valour with discretion; in rear, discretion without valour; and in the middle a tumultuous throng, amongst whom neither quality is to be recognised. With too little of the one to fly, not enough of the other to creep, they waver at the fences, hurry at the gaps, get in each other's way at the gates, and altogether make exceedingly slow progress compared to their efforts and their excitement. Valour without discretion, I had almost forgotten to observe, was down and under his horse at the first difficulty. We will let the apex of the pyramid alone for the present, taking the safest and broadest end of the hunt first. If, then, you have achieved so bad a start that it is impossible to make up your lee-way, or if you are on a hack with neither power nor intention to ride in the front rank, be sure you cannot take matters too coolly should you wish to command the line of chase and see as much as possible of the fun. I am supposing the hounds have found a good fox that knows more than one parish, and are running him with a holding scent. However favourable your start, and fate is sure to arrange a good one for a man too badly mounted to avail himself of it, let nothing induce you to keep near the pack. At a mile off you can survey and anticipate their general direction, at a quarter that distance you must ride every turn. Do not be disordered by the brilliancy of the pace should their fox go straight up wind. If he does not sink it within five minutes he means reaching a drain, and another five will bring the "who-whoop!" that marks him to ground. This is an unfailing deduction, but happily the most discreet of us are apt to forget it. Time after time we are so fooled by the excitement of our gallop that even experience does not make us wise, and we enjoy the scurry, exclaiming, "What a pity!" when it is over, as if we had never been out hunting before. It would be useless to distress your hack for so short a spin, rather keep wide of the line, if possible, on high ground, and calculate by the wind, the coverts, and the general aspect of the country, where a fox is most likely to make his point. I have known good runs in the Shires seen fairly, from end to end, by a lady in a wagonette. When business really begins, men are apt to express in various ways their intention of taking part. Some use their eyes, some their heels, and some their flasks. Do you trust your brains, they will stand you in better stead than spurs, or spectacles, or even brandy diluted with curaçoa. Keep your attention fixed on the chase, watch the pack as long as you can, and when those white specks have vanished into space, depend on your own skill in woodcraft and knowledge of country to bring you up with them again. Above all, while they are actually in motion, distrust the bobbing hats and spots of scarlet that you mark in a distant cluster behind the hedge. What are they but the field? and the field, if it is _really_ a run, are pretty sure to be _out of it_. The first flight you will find very difficult to keep in view. At the most it consists of six or seven horsemen riding fifty or a hundred yards apart, and even its followers become so scattered and detached that in anything like an undulating country they are completely hidden from observation. If you _do_ catch a glimpse of them, how slow they seem to travel! and yet, when you nick in presently, heaving flanks, red faces, and excited voices will tell a very different tale. Trotting soberly along, then, with ears and eyes wide open, carefully keeping down wind, not only because the hounds are sure to bend in that direction, but also that you can thus hear before you see them, and take measures accordingly, you will have ridden very few miles before you are gladdened by the cheerful music of the pack, or more probably a twang from the horn. The scent is rarely so good as to admit of hounds running for thirty or forty minutes without a check; indeed, on most days they are likely to be at fault more than once during the lapse of half an hour, when the huntsman's science will be required to cast them, and, in some cases, to assist them in losing their fox. Now is your time to press on with the still undefeated hack. If you are wise you will not leave the lanes to which I give you the credit of having stuck religiously from the start. At least, do not think of entering a field unless the track of an obvious bridle-road leads safely into the next. A man who never jumps at all can by no possibility be "pounded," whereas the easiest and safest of gaps into an inclosure may mean a bullfinch with two ditches at the other end. Perhaps you will find yourself ahead of every one as the hounds spread, and stoop and dash forward with a whimper that makes the sweetest of music in your ears. Perhaps, as they swarm across the very lane in which you are standing, discretion may calmly open the gate for valour, who curses him in his heart, wondering what business he has to be there at all. There is jealousy even in the hunting-field, though we prefer to call it keenness, emulation, a fancy for riding our own line, and I fear that with most of us, in spite of the kindly sympathies and joyous expansion of the chase, "_ego et præterea nihil_" is the unit about which our aspirations chiefly revolve. "What is the use?" I once heard a plaintive voice lamenting behind a blackthorn, while the hounds were baying over a drain at the finish of a clipping thirty minutes on the grass. "I've spoilt my hat, I've torn my coat, I've lamed my horse, I've had two falls, I went first, I'll take my oath, from end to end, and there's that d--d fellow on the coffee-coloured pony gets here before me after all!" There are times, no doubt, when valour must needs yield the palm to discretion. Let us see how this last respectable quality serves us at the other and nobler extremity of the hunt, for it is there, after all, that our ambition points, and our wishes chiefly tend. "Are you a hard rider?" asked an inquiring lady of Mr. Jorrocks. "The hardest in England," answered that facetious worthy, adding to himself, "I may say that, for I never goes off the 'ard road if I can help it." Now instead of following so cautious an example, let us rather cast overboard a superfluity of discretion, that would debar us the post of honour we are fain to occupy, retaining only such a leavening of its virtue as will steer us safely between the two extremes. While the hounds are racing before us, with a good scent, in an open country, let our gallant hunter be freely urged by valour to the front, while at the same time, discretion holds him hard by the head, lest a too inconsiderate daring should endanger his rider's neck. If a man has the luck to be on a good timber-jumper, now is the time to take advantage freely of its confidential resources. If not pulled about, and interfered with, a hunter that understands his business leaps this kind of fence, so long as he is fresh, with ease to himself and security to his rider. He sees exactly what he has to do, and need not rise an inch higher, nor fling himself an inch farther than is absolutely necessary, whereas a hedge induces him to make such exertions as may cover the uncertainty it conceals. But, on the other hand, the binder will usually bear tampering with, which the bar will _not_, therefore _if_ your own courage and your horse's skill tempt you to negotiate rails, stiles, or even a gate--and this last is _very_ good form--sound discretion warns you to select the first ten or fifteen minutes of a run for such exhibitions, but to avoid them religiously, when the deep ground and the pace have begun to tell. Assheton Smith himself, though he scouted the idea of ever turning from anything, had in so far the instinct of self-preservation, that when he thought his horse likely to fall over such an obstacle, he put him at it somewhat _a-slant_, so that the animal should get at least one fore-leg clear, and tumble on to its side, when this accomplished rider was pretty sure to rise unhurt with the reins in his hand. Now this diagonal style of jumping, judiciously practised, is not without its advantages at less dangerous fences than the uncompromising bit of timber that turns us over. It necessarily increases the width of a bank, affording the horse more room for foothold, as it decreases the height and strength of the growers, by taking them the way they lie, and may, on occasion, save a good hunter from a broken back, the penalty for dropping both hind legs simultaneously and perpendicularly into some steep cut ditch he has failed to cover in his stride. Discretion, you observe, should accompany the hardest riders, and is not to be laid aside even in the confusion and excitement of a fall. This must prove a frequent casualty with every man, however well-mounted, if the hounds show sport and he means to be with them while they run. It seems a paradox, but the oftener you are down, the less likely you are to be hurt. Practice soon teaches you to preserve presence of mind, or, as I may be allowed to call it, discretion, and when you know exactly where your horse is, you can get away from him before he crushes you with the weight of his body. A foot or a hand thrust out at the happy moment, is enough to "fend you off," and your own person seldom comes to the ground with such force as to do you any harm, if there is plenty of dirt. In the absence of that essential to sport, hunters are not distressed, and therefore do not often fall. If, however, you have undertaken to temper the rashness of a young one with your own discretion, you must expect occasional reverses; but even thus, there are many chances in your favour, not the least of which is your pupil's elasticity. Lithe and agile, he will make such gallant efforts to save himself as usually obviate the worst consequences of his mistake. The worn-out, the under-bred, or the distressed horse comes down like a lump of lead, and neither valour nor discretion are much help to us then. From the pace at which hounds cross a country, there is unfortunately no time to practise that most discreet manoeuvre called "leading over," when the fence is of so formidable a nature as to threaten certain discomfiture, yet I have seen a few tall, powerful, active men, spring off and on their horses with such rapidity as to perform this feat successfully in all the hurry of a burst. The late Colonel Wyndham, who, when he commanded the Greys, in which regiment he served at Waterloo, was said by George the Fourth to be the handsomest man in the army, possessed with a giant's stature the pliant agility of a harlequin. A finer rider never got into a saddle. Weighing nineteen stone, I have seen him in a burst across Leicestershire, go for twenty minutes with the best of the light-weights, occasionally relieving his horse by throwing himself off, leaping a fence alongside of it, and vaulting on again, without checking the animal sufficiently to break its stride. The lamented Lord Mayo too, whose tall stalwart frame was in keeping with those intellectual powers that India still recalls in melancholy pride, was accustomed, on occasion, thus to surmount an obstacle, no less successfully among the bullfinches of Northamptonshire than the banks and ditches of Kildare. Perhaps the best rider of his family, and it is a bold assertion, for when five or six of the brothers are out hunting, there will always be that number of tall heavy men, answering to the name of Bourke in the same field with the hounds, Lord Mayo, or rather Lord Naas (for the best of his sporting career closed with his succession to the earldom), was no less distinguished for his daring horsemanship, than his tact in managing a country, and his skill in hunting a pack of hounds. That he showed less forethought in risking a valuable life than in conducting the government of an empire, we must attribute to his personal courage and keen delight in the chase, but that he humorously deplored the scarcity of discretion amongst its votaries, the following anecdote, as I had it from himself, sufficiently attests. While he hunted his own hounds in Kildare, his most constant attendant, though on foot, was a nondescript character, such as is called "a tight boy" in Ireland, and nowhere else, belonging to a class that never seem to do a day's work, nor to eat a plentiful meal, but are always pleasant, obliging, idle, hungry, thirsty, and supremely happy. Running ten miles on foot to covert, Mick, as he was called, would never leave the hounds till they reached their kennels at night. Thus, plodding home one evening by his lordship's horse, after an unusually long and fatiguing run, the rider could not help expostulating with the walker on such a perverse misapplication of strength, energy, and perseverance. "Why, look at the work you have been doing," said his lordship; "with a quarter of the labour you might have earned three or four shillings at least. What a fool you must be, Mick, to neglect your business, and lose half your potatoes, that you may come out with my hounds!" Mick reflected a moment, and looked up, "Ah! me lard," replied he, with such a glance of fun as twinkles nowhere but in the Irish blue of an Irish eye, "it's truth your lardship's spakin' this night; _'av there was no fools, there'd be sorra few fox-hunters!_" Let us return to the question of Discretion, and how we are to combine it with an amusement that makes fools of us all. While valour, then, bids us take our fences as they come, discretion teaches us that each should be accomplished in the manner most suitable to its peculiar requirements. When a bank offers foothold, and we see the possibility of dividing a large leap by two, we should pull back to a trot, and give our horse a hint that he will do well to spring on and off the obstacle in accordance with a motion of our hand. If, on the contrary, his effort must be made at a black and forbidding bullfinch, with the chance of a wide ditch, or even a tough ashen rail, beyond, it is wise, should we mean having it at all, to catch hold of the bridle and increase our pace, for the last two or three strides, with such energy as shall shoot us through the thorns like a harlequin through a trap-door, leaving the orifice to close up behind, with no more traces of our transit than are left by a bird! [Illustration: Page 138.] Perhaps we find an easy place under a tree, with an overhanging branch, and sidle daintily up to it, bending the body and lowering the head as we creep through, to the admiration of an indiscreet friend on a rash horse who spoils a good hat and utters an evil execration while trying to follow our example. Or it may be, rejoicing to find ourselves on arable land, that actually rides light, and yet carries a scent, "Solid and tall, The rasping wall" challenges us a quarter of a mile off to face it or go home, for it offers neither gate nor gap, and seems to meet the sky-line on either side. I do not know whether others are open to the same deception, but to my own eye, a wall appears more, and a hedge less, than its real height at a certain distance off. The former, however, is a most satisfactory leap when skilfully accomplished, and not half so arduous as it looks. "Have it!" says Valour. "Yes, but very slow," replies Discretion. And, sure enough, we calm the free generous horse into a trot, causing him to put his very nose over the obstacle before taking off; when bucking into the air, like a deer, he leaves it behind him with little more effort than a girl puts to her skipping-rope. The height an experienced wall-jumper will clear seems scarcely credible. A fence of this description, which measurement proves to be fully six feet, was jumped by the well-known Colonel Miles three or four years ago in the Badminton country without displacing a stone, and although the rider's consummate horsemanship afforded every chance of success, great credit is due to the good hunter that could make such an effort with so heavy a man on its back. The knack of wall-jumping, however, is soon learned even by the most inexperienced animals, and I may here observe that I have often been surprised at the discretion shown by young horses, when ridden close to hounds, in negotiating fences requiring sagacity and common sense. I am aware that my opinion is singular, and I only give it as the result, perhaps exceptional, of my own limited experience; but I must admit that I have been carried by a pupil, on his first day, over awkward places, up and down banks, in and out of ravines, or under trees, with a docility and circumspection I have looked for from the veterans in vain. Perhaps the old horse knows me as well as I know him, and thinks also that he knows best. I am bound to say he never fails me when I trust him, but he likes his head let alone, and insists on having it all his own way. When his blood is really up, and the hero of a hundred fights considers it worth while to put forth his strength, I am persuaded he is even bolder than his junior. Not only at the fences, however, do we require discretion. There is a right way and a wrong of traversing every acre of ground that lies between them. On the grass, we must avoid crossing high ridge-and-furrow in a direct line; rather let us take it obliquely, or, if the field be not too large, go all the way round by the headland. For an unaccustomed horse there is nothing so trying as those up-and-down efforts, that resemble the lurches of a boat in a heavy sea. A very true-shaped animal will learn to glide smoothly over them after a season or two, but these inequalities of surface must always be a tax on wind and muscular powers at best. The easiest goer in ridge-and-furrow that we have yet seen is a fox. Surely no other quadruped has nature gifted with so much strength and symmetry in so small a compass. Amongst the ploughs, though the fences are happily easier, forethought and consideration are even more required for ground. After much rain, do not enter a turnip-field if you can help it, the large, frequent roots loosen the soil, and your horse will go in up to his hocks; young wheat also it is well to avoid, if only for reasons purely selfish; but on the fallows, when you find a _wet_ furrow, lying the right way, put on steam, splash boldly ahead, and never leave it so long as it serves you in your line. The same may be said of a foot-path, even though its guidance should entail the jumping of half-a-dozen stiles. Sound foothold reduces the size of any leap, and while you are travelling easily above the ground, the rest of the chase, fox and hounds too, as well as horses, though in a less degree, are labouring through the mire. When your course is intersected by narrow water-cuts, for purposes of irrigation, by covered drains, or deep, grass-grown cart-ruts, it will be well to traverse them obliquely, so that, if they catch the stride of his gallop, your horse may only get one foot in at a time. He will then right himself with a flounder, whereas, if held by both legs, either before or behind, the result is a rattling fall, very dangerous to his back in the one case, and to your own neck in the other. Valour of course insists that a hunter should do what he is bid, but there are some situations in which the beast's discretion pleads reasonably enough for some forbearance from its master. If a good horse, thoroughly experienced in the exigencies of the sport, that you have ridden a season or two, and flatter yourself you understand, persistently refuses a fence, depend upon it there is sufficient reason. The animal may be lame from an injury just received, may have displaced a joint, broken a tendon, or even ruptured an artery. Perhaps it is so blown as to feel it must fall in the effort you require. At any rate do not persevere. Horses have been killed, and men also, through a sentiment of sheer obstinacy that would not be denied, and humanity should at least think shame to be out-done in discretion by the brute. A horse is a wise creature enough, or he could never carry us pleasantly to hounds. An old friend of mine used to say: "People talk about size and shape, shoulders, quarters, blood, bone, and muscle, but for my part, give me a hunter with brains. He has to take care of the biggest fool of the two, and think for both!" Discretion, then, is one of the most valuable qualities for an animal charged with such heavy responsibilities, that bears us happy and triumphant during the day, and brings us safe home at night. Who would grudge a journey across St. George's Channel to find this desirable quality in its highest perfection at Ballinasloe or Cahirmee? for indeed it is not too much to say that whatever we may think of her natives, the most discreet and sagacious of our hunters come over from the Emerald Isle. CHAPTER IX. IRISH HUNTERS. "An' niver laid an iron to the sod!" was a metaphor I once heard used by an excellent fellow from Limerick, to convey the brilliant manner in which a certain four-year-old he was describing performed during a burst, when, his owner told me, he went clean away from all rivals in his gallop, and flew every wall, bank, and ditch, in his stride. The expression, translated into English, would seem to imply that he neither perched on the grass-grown banks, with all four feet at once, like a cat, nor struck back at them with his hind legs, like a dog; and perhaps my friend made the more account of this hazardous style of jumping, that it seemed so foreign to the usual characteristics of the Irish horse. For those who have never hunted in Ireland, I must explain that the country as a general rule is fenced on a primitive system, requiring little expenditure of capital beyond the labour of a man, or, as he is there called, "a boy," with a short pipe in his mouth and a spade in his hand. This light-hearted operative, gay, generous, reckless, high-spirited, and by no means a free worker, simply throws a bank up with the soil that he scoops out of the ditch, reversing the process, and filling the latter by levelling the former, when a passage is required for carts, or cattle, from one inclosure to the next. I ought nevertheless to observe, that many landlords, with a munificence for which I am at a loss to account, go to the expense of erecting massive pillars of stone, ostensibly gate-posts, at commanding points, between which supports, however, they seldom seem to hang a gate, though it is but justice to admit that when they do, the article is usually of iron, very high, very heavy, and fastened with a strong padlock, though its object seems less apparent, when we detect within convenient distance on either side a gap through which one might safely drive a gig. It is obvious, then, that this kind of fence, at its widest and deepest, requires considerable activity as well as circumspection on a horse's part, and forbearance in handling on that of a rider. The animal must gather itself to spring like a goat, on the crest of the eminence it has to surmount, with perfect liberty of head and neck, for the climb, and subsequent effort, that may, or may not be demanded. Neither man nor beast can foresee what is prepared for them on the landing side, and a clever Irish hunter brings itself up short in an instant, should the gulf be too formidable for its powers, balancing on the brink, to look for a better spot, or even leaping back again into the field from which it came. That the Irishman rides with a light bridle and lets it very much alone is the necessary result. His pace at the fences must be slow, because it is not a horse's nature, however rash, to rush at a place like the side of a house; and instinct prompts the animal to collect itself without restraint from a rider's hand, while any interference during the second and downward spring would only tend to pull it back into the chasm it is doing its best to clear. The efforts by which an Irish hunter surmounts these national impediments is like that of a hound jumping a wall. The horse leaps to the top with fore-and-hind feet together, where it dwells, almost imperceptibly, while shifting the purchase, or "changing," as the natives call it, in the shortest possible stride, of a few inches at most, to make the second spring. Every good English hunter will strike back with his hind legs when surprised into sudden exertion, but only a proficient bred, or at least, taught in the sister island, can master the feat described above in such artistic form as leads one to believe that, like Pegasus, the creature has wings at every heel. No man who has followed hounds in Meath, Kilkenny, or Kildare will ever forget the first time, when, to use the vernacular of those delightful countries, he rode "an accomplished hunter over an intricate lep!" But the merit is not heaven-born. On the contrary, it seems the result of patient and judicious tuition, called by Irish breakers "training," in which they show much knowledge of character and sound common sense. In some counties, such as Roscommon and Connemara, the brood mare indeed, with the foal at her foot, runs wild over extensive districts, and, finding no gates against which to lean, leaps leisurely from pasture to pasture, pausing, perhaps, in her transit to crop the sweeter herbage from some bank on which she is perched. Where mamma goes her little one dutifully follows, imitating the maternal motions, and as a charming mother almost always has a charming daughter, so, from its earliest foalhood, the future hunter acquires an activity, courage, and sagacity that shall hereafter become the admiration of crowded hunting-fields in the land of the Saxon far, far away! But whereas in many parts of Ireland improved agriculture denies space for the unrestrained vagaries of these early lessons, a judicious system is adopted that substitutes artificial education for that of nature. "It is wonderful we don't get more falls," said one of the boldest and best of lady riders, who during many seasons followed the pilotage of Jem Mason, and but for failing eye-sight, could sometimes have gone before him, "when we consider that we all ride half-broken horses," and, no doubt, on our side of the Channel, the observation contained a great deal of truth. But in this respect our neighbours show more wisdom. They seldom bring a pupil into the hunting-field till the elementary discipline has been gone through that teaches him when he comes to his fence _what to do with it_. He may be three, he may be four. I have seen a sportsman in Kilkenny so unassumingly equipped that instead of boots he wore wisps of straw called, I believe, "_sooghauns_" go in front for a quarter of an hour on a two-year old! Whatever his age, the colt shows himself an experienced hunter when it is necessary to leap. Not yet _mouthed_, with unformed paces and wandering action, he may seem the merest baby on the road or across a field, but no veteran can be wiser or steadier when he comes within distance of it, or, as his owner would say, when he "challenges" his leap, and this enthusiast hardly over-states the truth in affirming that his pupil "would change on the edge of a razor, and never let ye know he was off the Queen's high-road, God bless her, all the time!" The Irishman, like the Arab, seems to possess a natural insight into the character of a horse; with many shortcomings as grooms, not the least of which are want of neatness in stable-management, and rooted dislike to hard work, except by fits and starts, they cherish extraordinary affection for their charges, and certainly in their dealings with them obviously prefer kindness to coercion. I do not think they always understand feeding judiciously, and many of them have much to learn about getting horses into condition; but they are unrivalled in teaching them to jump. Though seldom practised, there is no better system in all undertakings than "to begin with the beginning," and an Irish horse-breaker is so persuaded of this great elementary truth that he never asks the colt to attempt three feet till it has become thoroughly master of two. With a cavesson rein, a handful of oats, and a few yards of waste ground behind the potato-ground or the pig-styes, he will, by dint of skill and patience, turn the most blundering neophyte into an expert and stylish fencer in about six weeks. As he widens the ditch of his earthwork, he necessarily heightens its bank, which his simple tools, the spade and the pipe, soon raise to six or seven feet. When the young one has learned to surmount this temperately, but with courage, to change on the top, and deliver itself handsomely, with the requisite fling and freedom, on the far side, he considers it sufficiently advanced to take into the fields, where he leads it forthwith, leaving behind him the spade, but holding fast to the corn, the cavesson, and the pipe. Here he soon teaches his colt to wait, quietly grazing, or staring about, while he climbs the fence he intends it to jump, and almost before the long rein can be tightened it follows like a dog, to poke its nose in his hand for the few grains of oats it expects as a reward. Some breakers drive their pupils from behind, with reins, pulling them up when they have accomplished the leap; but this is not so good a plan as necessitating the use of the whip, and having, moreover, a further disadvantage in accustoming the colt to stop dead short on landing, a habit productive hereafter of inconvenience to a loose rider taken unawares! When he has taught his horse thus to _walk_ over a country, for two or three miles on end, the breaker considers it, with reason, thoroughly trained for leaping, and has no hesitation however low its condition, in riding it out with the hounds. Who that has hunted in Ireland but can recall the interest, and indeed amusement, with which he has watched some mere baby, strangely tackled and uncouthly equipped, sailing along in the front rank, steered with consummate skill and temper by a venerable rider who looks sixty on horseback, and at least eighty on foot. The man's dress is of the shabbiest and most incongruous, his boots are outrageous, his spurs ill put on, and his hat shows symptoms of ill-usage in warfare or the chase; but he sits in the saddle like a workman, and age has no more quenched the courage in his bright Irish eye, than it has soured the mirth of his temperament, or saddened the music of his brogue. You know instinctively that he must be a good fellow and a good sportsman; you cannot follow him for half a mile without being satisfied that he is a good rider, and you forget, in your admiration of his beast's performance, your surprise at its obvious youth, its excessive leanness, and the unusual shabbiness of its accoutrements. Inspecting these more narrowly, if you can get near enough, you begin to grudge the sums you have paid Bartley, or Wilkinson and Kidd, for the neat turn-out you have been taught to consider indispensable to success. You see that a horse may cross a dangerous country speedily and in safety, though its saddle be pulpy and weather-stained, with unequal stirrup-leathers, and only one girth; though its bridle be a Pelham, _with_ a noseband, and _without_ a curb-chain, while one rein seems most untrustworthy, and the other, for want of a buckle, has its ends tied in a knot. And yet, wherever the hounds go, thither follow this strangely-equipped pair. They arrive at a seven-foot bank, defended by a wide and, more forbidding still, an enormously deep ditch on this side and with nothing apparently but blue sky on the other. While the man utters an exclamation that seems a threat, a war-cry, and a shout of triumph combined, the horse springs to the summit, perches like a bird, and disappears buoyantly into space as if furnished, indeed, with wings, that it need only spread to fly away. They come to a stone-gap, as it is termed; neither more nor less than a disused egress, made up with blocks of granite into a wall about five feet high, and the young one, getting close under it, clears the whole out of a trot, with the elasticity and the very action of a deer. Presently some frightful chasm has to be encountered, wide enough for a brook, deep enough for a ravine, boggy of approach, faced with stone, and offering about as awkward an appearance as ever defeated a good man on his best hunter and bade him go to look for a better place. Our friend in the bad hat, who knows what he is about, rides at this "yawner" a turn slower than would most Englishmen, and with a lighter hand on his horse's mouth, though his legs and knees are keeping the pupil well into its bridle, and, should the latter want to refuse, or "renage," as they say in Ireland, a disgrace of which it has not the remotest idea, there is a slip of ground-ash in the man's fingers ready to administer "a refresher" on its flank. "Did ye draw now?" asks an Irishman when his friend is describing how he accomplished some extraordinary feat in leaping, and the expression, derived from an obsolete custom of sticking the cutting-whip upright in the boot, so that it has come to mean punishment from that instrument, is nearly always answered--"I did _not_!" Light as a fairy, our young, but experienced hunter dances down to the gulf, and leaves it behind with scarce an effort, while an unwashed hand bestows its caress on the reeking neck that will hereafter thicken prodigiously in some Saxon stable on a proper allowance of corn. If you are riding an Irish horse, you cannot do better than imitate closely every motion of the pair in front. If not, you will be wise, I think, to turn round and go home. Presently we will hope, for the sake of the neophyte, whose condition is by no means on a par with his natural powers, the hounds either kill their fox, or run him to ground, or lose, or otherwise account for him, thus affording a few minutes' repose for breathing and conversation. "It's an intrickate country," observes some brother-sportsman with just such another mount to the veteran I have endeavoured to describe; "and will that be the colt by Chitchat out of Donovan's mare? Does he 'lep' well now?" he adds with much interest. "The beautifullest ever ye see!" answers his friend, and nobody who has witnessed the young horse's performances can dispute the justice of such a reply. It is not difficult to understand that hunters so educated and so ridden in a country where every leap requires power, courage, and the exercise of much sagacity, should find little difficulty in surmounting such obstacles as confront them on this side of the Channel. It is child's play to fly a Leicestershire fence, even with an additional rail, for a horse that has been taught his business amongst the precipitous banks and fathomless ditches of Meath or Kildare. If the ground were always sound and the hills somewhat levelled, these Irish hunters would find little to stop them in Leicestershire from going as straight as their owners dared ride. Practice at walls renders them clever timber-jumpers, they have usually the spring and confidence that make nothing of a brook, and their careful habit of preparing for something treacherous on the landing side of every leap prevents their being taken unawares by the "oxers" and doubles that form such unwelcome exceptions to the usual run of impediments throughout the shires. There is something in the expression of their very ears while we put them at their fences, that seems to say, "It's a good trick enough, and would take in most horses, but my mother taught me a thing or two in Connemara, and you don't come over me!" Unfortunately the Shires, as they are called _par excellence_, the Vale of Aylesbury, a perfect wilderness of grass, and indeed all the best hunting districts, ride very deep nine seasons out of ten, so that the Irish horse, accustomed to a sound lime-stone soil and an unfurrowed surface in his own green island, being moreover usually much wanting in condition, feels the added labour, and difference of action required, severely enough. It is proverbial that a horse equal to fourteen stone in Ireland is only up to thirteen in Leicestershire, and English purchasers must calculate accordingly. But if some prize-taker at the Dublin Horse Show, or other ornament of that land which her natives call the "first flower of the earth and first gem of the sea," should disappoint you a little when you ride him in November from Ranksborough, the Coplow, Crick, Melton-Spinney, Christmas-Gorse, Great-Wood, or any other favourite covert in one of our many good hunting countries, do not therefore despond. If he fail in deep ground, or labour on ridge and furrow, remember he possesses this inestimable merit that _he can go the shortest way_! Because the fence in front is large, black, and forbidding, you need not therefore send him at it a turn faster than usual; he is accustomed to spring _from his back_, and cover large places out of a trot. If you ride your own line to hounds, it is no slight advantage thus to have the power of negotiating awkward corners, without being "committed to them" fifty yards off, unable to pull up should they prove impracticable; and the faculty of "jumping at short notice," on this consideration alone, I conceive to be one of the choicest qualities a hunter can possess. Also, even in the most favoured and flying of the "grass countries," many fences require unusual steadiness and circumspection. If they are to be done at all, they can only be accomplished by creeping, sometimes even _climbing_ to the wished-for side. The front rank itself will probably shirk these unaccustomed obstacles with cordial unanimity, leaving them to be triumphantly disposed of by your new purchase from Kildare. He pokes out his nose, as if to inspect the depth of a possible interment, and it is wise to let him manage it all his own way. You give him his head, and the slightest possible kick in the ribs. With a cringe of his powerful back and quarters, a vigorous lift that seems to reach two-thirds of the required distance, a second spring, apparently taken from a twig weak enough to bend under a bird, that covers the remainder, a scramble for foothold, a half stride and a snort of satisfaction, the whole is disposed of, and you are alone with the hounds. Though, under such circumstances, these seem pretty sure to run to ground or otherwise disappoint you within half-a-mile, none the less credit is due to your horse's capabilities, and you vow next season to have nothing but Irish nags in your stable, resolving for the future to ride straighter than you have ever done before. But if you are so well pleased now with your promising Patlander, what shall you think of him this time next year, when he has had twelve months of your stud-groom's stable-management, and consumed ten or a dozen quarters of good English oats? Though you may have bought him as a six-year old, he will have grown in size and substance, even in height, and will not only look, but feel up to a stone more weight than you ever gave him credit for. He can jump when he is blown _now_, but he will never be blown _then_. Condition will teach him to laugh at the deep ground, while his fine shoulders and true shape will enable him, after the necessary practice, to travel across ridge and furrow without a lurch. He will have turned out a rattling good horse, and you will never grudge the cheque you wrote, nor the punch you were obliged to drink, before his late proprietor would let you make him your own. Gold and whisky, in large quantities and judiciously applied, may no doubt buy the best horses in Ireland. But a man must know where to look for them, and even in remote districts, will sometimes be disappointed to find that the English dealers have forestalled him. Happily, there are so many good horses, perhaps I should say, so few _rank bad ones_, bred in the country, that from the very sweepings and leavings of the market, one need not despair of turning up a trump. A hunter is in so far like a wife, that experience alone will prove whether he is or is not good for nothing. Make and shape, in either case, may be perfect, pedigree unimpeachable, and manners blameless, but who is to answer for temper, reflection, docility, and the generous staying power that accepts rough and smooth, ups and downs, good and evil, without a struggle or a sob? When we have tried them, we find them out, and can only make the best of our disappointment, if they do not fully come up to our expectations. There is many a good hunter, particularly in a rich man's stable, that never has a chance of proving its value. With three or four, we know their form to a pound; with a dozen, season after season goes by without furnishing occasion for the use of all, till some fine scenting day, after mounting a friend, we are surprised to learn that the flower of the whole stud has hitherto been esteemed but a moderate animal, only fit to carry the sandwiches, and bring us home. I imagine, notwithstanding all we have heard and read concerning the difficulty of buying Irish horses in their own country, that there are still scores of them in Cork, Limerick, and other breeding districts, as yet unpromised and unsold. The scarcity of weight-carriers is indisputable, but can we find them here? The "light man's horse," to fly under sixteen stone, is a "black swan" everywhere, and if _not_ "a light man's horse," that is to say, free, flippant, fast, and well-bred, he will never give his stalwart rider thorough satisfaction; but in Ireland, far more plentifully than in England, are still to be found handsome, clever, hunting-like animals fit to carry thirteen stone, and capital jumpers at reasonable prices, varying from one to two hundred pounds. The latter sum, particularly if you had it with you in _sovereigns_, would in most localities insure the "pick of the basket," and ten or twenty of the coins thrown back for luck. I have heard it objected to Irish hunters, that they are so accustomed to "double" all their places, as to practise this accomplishment even at those flying fences of the grazing districts which ought to be taken in the stride, and that they require fresh tuition before they can be trusted at the staked-and-bound or the bullfinch, lest, catching their feet in the growers as in a net, they should be tumbled headlong to the ground. I can only say that I have been well and safely carried by many of them on their first appearance in Leicestershire, as in other English countries, that they seemed intuitively to apprehend the character of the fences they had to deal with, and that, although being mortal, they could not always keep on their legs, I cannot remember one of them giving me a fall _because_ he was an Irish horse! How many their nationality has saved me, I forbear to count, but I am persuaded that the careful tuition undergone in youth, and their varied experience when sufficiently advanced to follow hounds over their native country, imparts that facility of powerful and safe jumping, which is one of the most important qualities among the many that constitute a hunter. They possess also the merit of being universally well-bred. This is an advantage no sportsman will overlook who likes to be near hounds while they run, but objects to leading, driving, or perhaps _pushing_ his horse home. Till within a few years, there was literally _no_ cart-horse blood in Ireland. The "black-drop" of the ponderous Clydesdale remained positively unknown, and although the Suffolk Punch has been recently introduced, he cannot yet have sufficiently tainted the pedigrees of the country, to render us mistrustful of a golden-coated chestnut, with a round barrel and a strong back. No, their horses if not quite "clean-bred," as the Irish themselves call it, are at least of illustrious parentage on both sides a few generations back, and this high descent cannot but avail them, when called on for long-continued exertion, particularly at the end of the day. Juvenal, hurling his scathing satire against the patricians of his time, drew from the equine race a metaphor to illustrate the superiority of merit over birth. However unanswerable in argument, he was, I think, wrong in his facts. Men and women are to be found of every parentage, good, bad, and indifferent; but with horses, there is more in race than in culture, and for the selection of these noble animals at least, I can imagine no safer guide than the aristocratic maxim, "Blood will tell!" CHAPTER X. THOROUGH-BRED HORSES. I have heard it affirmed, though I know not on what authority, that if we are to believe the hunting records of the last hundred years, in all runs so severe and protracted as to admit of only one man getting to the finish, this exceptional person was in _every_ instance, riding an old horse, a thorough-bred horse, and a horse under fifteen-two! Perhaps on consideration, this is a less remarkable statement than it appears. That the survivor was an old horse, means that he had many years of corn and condition to pull him through; that he was a little horse, infers he carried a light weight, but that he was a thorough-bred horse seems to me a reasonable explanation of the whole. "The thorough-bred ones never stop," is a common saying among sportsmen, and there are daily instances of some high-born steed who can boast "His sire from the desert, his dam from the north," galloping steadily on, calm and vigorous, when the country behind him is dotted for miles with hunters standing still in every field. It is obvious that a breed, reared expressly for racing purposes, must be the fastest of its kind. A colt considered good enough to be "put through the mill" on Newmarket Heath, or Middleham Moor, whatever may be his shortcomings in the select company he finds at school, cannot but seem "a flyer," when in after-life he meets horses, however good, that have neither been bred nor trained for the purpose of galloping a single mile at the rate of an express train. While these are at speed he is only cantering, and we need not therefore be surprised that he can keep cantering on after they are reduced to a walk. In the hunting-field, "what kills is the pace." When hounds can make it good enough they kill their fox, when horses _cannot_ it kills _them_, and for this reason alone, if for no other, I would always prefer that my hunters should be quite thorough-bred. Though undoubtedly the best, I cannot affirm, however, that they are always the _pleasantest_ mounts; far from it, indeed, just at first, though subsequent superiority makes amends for the little eccentricities of gait and temper peculiar to pupils from the racing-stable in their early youth. An idle, lurching mover, rather narrow before the saddle, with great power of back and loins, a habit of bearing on its rider's hand, one side to its mouth, and a loose neck, hardly inspires a careful man with the confidence necessary for enjoyment; coming away from Ranksborough, for instance, down-hill, with the first fence leaning towards him, very little room, his horse too much extended, going on its shoulders, and getting the better of him at every stride! But this is an extreme case, purposely chosen to illustrate at their worst, the disadvantages of riding a thorough-bred horse. It is often our own fault, when we buy one of these illustrious cast-offs, that our purchase so disappoints us after we have got it home. Many men believe that to carry them through an exhausting run, such staying powers are required as win under high weights and at long distances on the turf. Their selection, therefore, from the racing-stable, is some young one of undeniably stout blood, that when "asked the question" for the first time, has been found too slow to put in training. They argue with considerable show of reason, that it will prove quite speedy enough for a hunter, but they forget that though a fast horse is by no means indispensable to the chase, a _quick_ one is most conducive to enjoyment when we are compelled to jump all sorts of fences out of all sorts of ground. Now a yearling, quick enough on its legs to promise a turn of speed, is pretty sure to be esteemed worth training, nor will it be condemned as useless, till its distance is found to be just short of half-a-mile. In plain English, when it fails under the strain on wind and frame, of galloping at its very best, eight hundred and seventy yards, and "fades to nothing" in the next ten. Now this collapse is really more a question of speed than stamina. There is a want of reach or leverage somewhere, that makes its rapid action too laborious to be lasting, but there is no reason why the animal that comes short of five furlongs on the trial-ground, should not hold its own in front, for five miles of a steeple-chase, or fifteen of a run with hounds. These, in fact, are the so-called "weeds" that win our cross-country races, and when we reflect on the pace and distance of the Liverpool, four miles and three-quarters run in something under eleven minutes, at anything but feather-weights, and over all sorts of fences, we cannot but admire the speed, gallantry, and endurance, the essentially _game_ qualities of our English horse. And here I may observe that a good steeple-chaser, properly sobered and brought into his bridle, is one of the pleasantest hunters a man can ride, particularly in a flying country. He is sure to be able to "make haste" in all sorts of ground, while the smooth, easy stride that wins between the flags is invaluable through dirt. He does not lose his head and turn foolish, as do many good useful hunters, when bustled along for a mile or two at something like racing pace. Very quick over his fences, his style of jumping is no less conducive to safety than despatch, while his courage is sure to be undeniable, because the slightest tendency to refuse would have disqualified him for success in his late profession, wherein also, he must necessarily have learnt to be a free and brilliant water-jumper. Indeed you may always take _two_ liberties with a steeple-chase horse during a run (not more). The first time you squeeze him, he thinks, "Oh! this is the brook!" and putting on plenty of steam, flings himself as far as ever he can. The second, he accepts your warning with equal good will. "All right!" he seems to answer, "This is the brook, coming home!" but if you try the same game a third time, I cannot undertake to say what may happen, you will probably puzzle him exceedingly, upset his temper, and throw him out of gear for the day. We have travelled a long way, however, from our original subject, tuition of the thorough-bred for the field, or perhaps I should call it the task of turning a bad race-horse into a good hunter. Like every other process of education this requires exceeding perseverance, and a patience not to be overcome. The irritation of a moment may undo the lessons of a week, and if the master forgets himself, you may be sure the pupil will long remember which of the two was in fault. Never begin a quarrel if it can possibly be avoided, because, when war is actually declared, you must fight it out to the bitter end, and if you are beaten, you had better send your horse to Tattersall's, for you will never be master again. Stick to him till he does what you require, trusting, nevertheless, rather to time than violence, and if you can get him at last to obey you of his own free will, without knowing why, I cannot repeat too often, you will have won the most conclusive of victories. When the late Sir Charles Knightley took Sir Marinel out of training, and brought him down to Pytchley, to teach him the way he should go (and the way of Sir Charles over a country was that of a bird in the air), he found the horse restive, ignorant, wilful, and unusually averse to learning the business of a hunter. The animal, was, however, well worth a little painstaking, and his owner, a perfect centaur in the saddle, rode him out for a lesson in jumping the first day the hounds remained in the kennel. At two o'clock, as his old friend and contemporary, Mr. John Cooke informed me, he came back, having failed to get the rebel over a single fence. "But I have told them not to take his saddle off," said Sir Charles, sitting down to a cutlet and a glass of Madeira, "after luncheon I mean to have a turn at him again!" So the baronet remounted and took the lesson up where he had left off. Nerve, temper, patience, the strongest seat, and the finest hands in England, could not but triumph at last, and this thorough-bred pair came home at dinner-time, having larked over all the stiffest fences in the country, with perfect unanimity and good will. Sir Marinel, and Benvolio, also a thorough-bred horse, were by many degrees, Sir Charles has often told me, the best hunters he ever had. Shuttlecock too, immortalized in the famous Billesdon-Coplow poem, when "Villiers esteemed it a serious bore, That no longer could Shuttlecock fly as before," was a clean thorough-bred horse, fast enough to have made a good figure on the race-course, but with a rooted disinclination to jump. That king of horsemen, the grandfather of the present Lord Jersey, whom I am proud to remember having seen ride fairly away from a whole Leicestershire field, over a rough country not far from Melton, at seventy-three, told me that this horse, though it turned out eventually one of his safest and boldest fencers, at the end of six weeks' tuition would not jump the leaping-bar the height of its own knees! His lordship, however, who was blessed in perfection, with the sweet temper, as with the personal beauty and gallant bearing of his race, neither hurried nor ill-used it, and the time spent on the animal's education, though somewhat wearisome, was not thrown away. Mr. Gilmour's famous _Vingt-et-un_, the best hunter, he protests, by a great deal that gentleman ever possessed, was quite thorough-bred. Seventeen hands high, but formed all over in perfect proportion to this commanding frame, it may easily be imagined that the power and stride of so large an animal made light of ordinary obstacles, and I do not believe, though it may sound an extravagant assertion, there was a fence in the whole of Leicestershire that could have stopped _Vingt-et-un_ and his rider, on a good scenting day some few years ago. Such men and such horses ought never to grow old. Mr. William Cooke, too, owned a celebrated hunter called Advance, of stainless pedigree, as was December, so named from being foaled on the last day of that month, a premature arrival that lost him his year for racing purposes by twenty-four hours, and transferred the colt to the hunting-stables. Mr. Cooke rode nothing but this class, nor indeed could any animal less speedy than a race-horse, sustain the pace he liked to go. Whitenose, a beautiful animal that the late Sir Richard Sutton affirmed was not only the best hunter he ever owned, but that he ever saw or heard of, and on whose back he is painted in Sir F. Grant's spirited picture of the Cottesmore Meet, was also quite thorough-bred. When Sir Richard hunted the Burton country, Whitenose carried him through a run so severe in pace and of such long duration, that not another horse got to the end, galloping, his master assured me, steadily on without a falter, to the last. By the way, he was then of no great age, and nearer sixteen hands than fifteen-two! This was a very easy horse to ride, and could literally jump anything he got his nose over. A picture to look at, with a coat like satin, the eyes of a deer, and the truest action in his slow as in his fast paces, he has always been my ideal of perfection in a hunter. But it would be endless to enumerate the many examples I can recall of the thorough-bred's superiority in the hunting-field. Those I have mentioned belong to a by-gone time, but a man need not look very narrowly into any knot of sportsmen at the present day, particularly _after_ a sharpish scurry in deep ground, before his eye rests on the thin tail, and smoothly turned quarters, that need no gaudier blazon to attest the nobility of their descent. If you mean, however, to ride a thorough-bred one, and choose to _make_ him yourself, do not feel disappointed that he seems to require more time and tuition than his lower-born cousins, once and twice removed. In the first place you will begin by thinking him wanting in courage! Where the half-bred one, eager, flurried, and excited, rushes wildly at an unaccustomed difficulty, your calmer gentleman proceeds deliberately to examine its nature, and consider how he can best accomplish his task. It is not that he has less valour, but more discretion! In the monotonous process of training, he has acquired, with other tiresome tricks, the habit of doing as little as he can, in the different paces, walk, canter, and gallop, of which he has become so weary. Even the excitement of hunting till hounds _really_ run, hardly dissipates his aristocratic lethargy, but only get him in front for one of those scurries that, perhaps twice in a season turn up a fox in twenty minutes, and if you _dare_ trust him, you will be surprised at the brilliant performance of your idle, negligent, wayward young friend. He bends kindly to the bridle he objected to all the morning, he tucks his quarters in, and _scours_ through the deep ground like a hare, he slides over rather than jumps his fences, with the easy swoop of a bird on the wing, and when everything of meaner race has been disposed of a field or two behind, he trots up to some high bit of timber, and leaps it gallantly without a pause, though only yesterday he would have turned round to kick at it for an hour! Still, there are many chances against your having such an opportunity as this. Most days the hounds do _not_ run hard. When they do, you are perhaps so unfortunate as to lose your start, and finally, should everything else be in your favour, it is twenty to one you are riding the wrong horse! Therefore, the process of educating your young one, must be conducted on quieter principles, and in a less haphazard way. If you can find a pack of harriers, and _their master does not object_, there is no better school for the troublesome or unwilling pupil. But remember, I entreat, that horsebreaking is prejudicial to sport, and most unwelcome. You are there on sufferance, take care to interfere with nobody, and above all, keep wide of the hounds! The great advantage you will find in harehunting over the wilder pursuit of the fox, is in the circles described by your game. There is plenty of time to "have it out" with a refuser, and indeed to turn him backwards and forwards if you please, over the same leap, without fear of being left behind. The "merry harriers" are pretty sure to return in a few minutes, and you can begin again, with as much enthusiasm of man and horse as if you had never been out of the hunt at all! Whip and spur, I need hardly insist, cannot be used too sparingly, and anything in the shape of haste or over-anxiety is prejudicial, but if it induces him to jump in his stride, you may ride this kind of horse a turn faster at his fences, than any other. You can trust him not to be in too great a hurry, and it is his nature to take care of himself. Till he has become thoroughly accustomed to his new profession, it is well to avoid such places as seem particularly distasteful and likely to make him rebel. His fine skin will cause him to be a little shy of thick bullfinches, and his sagacity mistrusts deep or blind ditches, such as less intelligent animals would run into without a thought. Rather select rails, or clean upright fences, that he can compass and understand. Try to imbue him with love for the sport and confidence in his rider. After a few weeks, he will turn his head from nothing, and go straighter, as well as faster, and longer than anything in your stable. An old Meltonian used to affirm that the first two articles of his creed for the hunting season were, "a perfectly pure claret, and thorough-bred horses." Of the former he was unsparing to his friends, the latter he used freely enough for himself. Certainly no man gave pleasanter dinners, or was better carried, and one might do worse than go to Melton with implicit reliance on these twin accessories of the chase. All opinions must be agreed, I fancy, about the one, but there are still many prejudices against the other. Heavy men especially declare they cannot find thorough-bred horses to carry them, forgetting, it would seem, that size is no more a criterion of strength than haste is of speed. The bone of a thorough-bred horse is of the closest and toughest fibre, his muscles are well developed, and his joints elastic. Do not these advantages infer power, no less than stamina, and in our own experience have we not all reason to corroborate the old-fashioned maxim, "It is action that carries weight"? Nimrod, who understood the subject thoroughly, observes with great truth, that "'Wind' is strength; when a horse is blown a mountain or a mole-hill are much the same to him," and no sportsman who has ever scaled a Highland hill to circumvent a red-deer, or walk up to "a point," will dispute the argument. What a game animal it is, that without touch of spur, at the mere pleasure and caprice of a rider, struggles gallantly on till it drops! There used to be a saying in the Prize Ring, that "Seven pounds will lick the best man in England." This is but a technical mode of stating that, _cæteris paribus_, weight means strength. Thirty years ago, it was a common practice at Melton to weigh hunters after they were put in condition, and sportsmen often wondered to find how the eye had deceived them, in the comparative tonnage, so to speak, and consequently, the horse-power of these different conveyances; the thorough-bred, without exception, proving far heavier than was supposed. An athlete, we all know, whether boxer, wrestler, pedestrian, cricketer or gymnast, looks smaller in his clothes, and larger when he is stripped. Similarly, on examining in the stable, "the nice little horse" we admired in the field, it surprises us to find nearly sixteen hands of height, and six feet of girth, with power to correspond in an animal of which we thought the only defect was want of size. A thorough-bred one is invariably a little bigger, and a great deal stronger than he looks. Of his power to carry weight, those tall, fine men who usually ride so judiciously and so straight, are not yet sufficiently convinced, although if you ask any celebrated "welter" to name the best horse he ever had, he is sure to answer, "Oh! little So-and-so. He wasn't up to my weight, but he carried me better than anything else in the stable!" Surely no criterion could be more satisfactory than this! It may not be out of place to observe here, as an illustration of the well-known maxim, "Horses can go in all shapes," that of the three heaviest men I can call to mind who rode perfectly straight to hounds, the best hunter owned by each was too long in the back. "Sober Robin," an extraordinary animal that could carry Mr. Richard Gurney, riding twenty stone, ahead of all the light-weights, was thus shaped. A famous bay-horse, nearly as good, belonging to the late Mr. Wood of Brixworth Hall, an equally heavy man, who when thus mounted, never stopped to open a gate! had, his owner used to declare, as many vertebræ as a crocodile, and Colonel Wyndham whose size and superiority in the saddle I have already mentioned, hesitated a week before he bought his famous black mare, the most brilliant hunter he ever possessed, because she was at least three inches too long behind the saddle! I remember also seeing the late Lord Mayo ride fairly away from a Pytchley field, no easy task, between Lilbourne and Cold Ashby, on a horse that except for its enormous depth of girth, arguing unfailing wind, seemed to have no good points whatever to catch the eye. It was tall, narrow, plain-headed, with very bad shoulders, and very long legs, all this to carry at least eighteen stone; but it was nearly, if not quite, thorough-bred. We need hardly dwell on the advantages of speed and endurance, inherited from the Arab, and improved, as we fondly hope, almost to perfection, through the culture of many generations, while even the fine temper of the "desert-born" has not been so warped by the tricks of stable-boys, and the severity of turf-discipline, but that a little forbearance and kind usage soon restores its natural docility. In all the qualities of a hunter, the thorough-bred horse, is, I think, superior to the rest of his kind. You can hardly do better than buy one, and "make him to your hand," should you be blessed with good nerves, a fine temper, and a delicate touch, or, wanting these qualities, confide him to some one so gifted, if you wish to be carried well and pleasantly, in your love for hunting, perhaps I should rather say, for the keen and stirring excitement we call "riding to hounds." CHAPTER XI. RIDING TO FOX-HOUNDS. "If you want to be near hounds," says an old friend of mine who, for a life-time, has religiously practised what he preaches, "the method is simple, and seems only common sense--_keep as close to them as ever you can_!" but I think, though, with his undaunted nerve, and extraordinary horsemanship, he seems to find it feasible enough, this plan, for most people, requires considerable management, and no little modification. I grant we should never let them slip away from us, and that, in nine cases out of ten, when defeated by what we choose to call "a bad turn" it is our own fault. At the same time, there are many occasions on which a man who keeps his eyes open, and knows how to ride, can save his horse to some purpose, by travelling inside the pack, and galloping a hundred yards for their three. I say _who keeps his eyes open_, because, in order to effect this economy of speed and distance, it is indispensable to watch their doings narrowly, and to possess the experience that tells one when they are _really_ on the line, and when only flinging forward to regain, with the dash that is a fox-hound's chief characteristic, the scent they have over-run. Constant observation will alone teach us to distinguish the hounds that are right; and to turn with them judiciously, is the great secret of "getting to the end." We must, therefore, be within convenient distance, and to ensure such proximity, it is most desirable to get a good start. Let us begin at the beginning, and consider how this primary essential is to be obtained. Directly a move is made from the place of meeting, it is well to cut short all "coffee-house" conversation, even at the risk of neglecting certain social amenities, and to fix our minds at once on the work in hand. A good story, though pleasant enough in its way, cannot compare with a good run, and it is quite possible to lose the one by too earnest attention to the other. A few courteous words previously addressed to the huntsman will ensure his civility during the day; but this is not a happy moment for imparting to him your opinion on things in general and his own business in particular. He has many matters to occupy his thoughts, and does not care to see you in the middle of his favourites on a strange horse. It is better to keep the second whip between yourself and the hounds, jogging calmly on, with a pleasant view of their well-filled backs and handsomely-carried sterns, taking care to pull up, religiously murmuring the orthodox caution--"Ware horse!" when any one of them requires to pause for any purpose. You cannot too early impress on the hunt servants that you are a lover of the animal, most averse to interfering with it at all times, and especially in the ardour of the chase. If the size and nature of the covert will admit, you had better go into it with the hounds, and on this occasion, but no other, I think it is permissible to make use of the huntsman's pilotage at a respectful distance. Where there are foxes there is game, where game, riot. A few young hounds must come out with every pack, and the _rate_ or _cheer_ of your leader will warn you whether their opening music means a false flourish or a welcome find. Also where he goes you can safely follow, and need have no misgivings that the friendly hand-gate for which he is winding down some tortuous ride will be nailed up. Besides, though floundering in deep, sloughy woodlands entails considerable labour on your horse, it is less distressing than that gallop of a mile or two at speed which endeavours, but usually fails, to make amends for a bad start; whereas, if you get away on good terms, you can indulge him with a pull at the first opportunity, and those scenting days are indeed rare on which hounds run many fields without at least a hover, if not a check. Some men take their station outside the covert, down wind, in a commanding position, so as to hear every turn of the hounds, secure a front place for the sport, and--head the fox! But we will suppose all such difficulties overcome; that a little care, attention, and common sense have enabled you to get away on good terms with the pack; and that you emerge not a bowshot off, while they stream across the first field with a dash that brings the mettle to your heart and the blood to your brain. Do not, therefore, lose your head. It is the characteristic of good manhood to be physically calm in proportion to moral excitement. Remember there are two occasions in chase when the manner of hounds is not to be trusted. On first coming away with their fox, and immediately before they kill him, the steadiest will lead you to believe there is a burning scent and that they cannot make a mistake. Nevertheless, hope for the best, set your horse going, and if, as you sail over, or crash through, the first fence, you mark the pack driving eagerly on, drawn to a line at either end by the pace, harden your heart, and thank your stars. It is all right, you may lay odds, you are in for a really good thing! I suppose I need hardly observe that the laws of fox-hunting forbid you to follow hounds by the very obvious process of galloping in their track. Nothing makes them so wild, to use the proper term, as "riding on their line;" and should you be ignorant enough to attempt it, you are pretty sure to be told _where_ you are driving them, and desired to go there yourself! No; you must keep one side or the other, but do not, if you can help it, let the nature of the obstacles to be encountered bias your choice. Ride for ground as far as possible when the foothold is good; the fences will take care of themselves; but let no advantages of sound turf, nor even open gates, tempt you to stray more than a couple of hundred yards from the pack. At that distance a bad turn can be remedied, and a good one gives you leisure to pull back into a trot. Remember, too, that it is the nature of a fox, and we are now speaking of fox-hunting, to travel down wind; therefore, as a general rule, keep to leeward of the hounds. Every bend they make ought to be in your favour; but, on the other hand should they chance to turn up wind, they will begin to run very hard, and this is a good reason for never letting them get, so to speak, out of your reach. I repeat, as a _general rule_, but by no means without exception. In Leicestershire especially, foxes seem to scorn this fine old principle, and will make their point with a stiff breeze blowing in their teeth; but on such occasions they do not usually mean to go very far, and the gallant veteran, with his white tag, that gives you the run to be talked of for years, is almost always a wind-sinker from wold or woodland in an adjoining hunt. Suppose, however, the day is perfectly calm, and there seems no sufficient reason to prefer one course to the other, should we go to right or left? This is a matter in which neither precept nor personal experience can avail. One man is as sure to do right as the other to do wrong. There is an intuitive perception, more animal than human, of what we may call "the line of chase," with which certain sportsmen are gifted by nature, and which, I believe, would bring them up at critical points of the finest and longest runs if they came out hunting in a gig. This faculty, where everything else is equal, causes A to ride better than B, but is no less difficult to explain than the instinct that guides an Indian on the prairie or a swallow across the sea. It counsels the lady in her carriage, or the old coachman piloting her children on their ponies, it enables the butcher to come up on his hack, the first-flight man to save his horse, and above all, the huntsman to kill his fox. The Duke of Beaufort possesses it in an extraordinary degree. When so crippled by gout, or reduced by suffering as to be unable to keep the saddle over a fence, he seems, even in strange countries, to see no less of the sport than in old days, when he could ride into every field with his hounds. And I do believe that now, in any part of Gloucestershire, with ten couple of "the badger-pyed" and a horn, he could go out and kill his fox in a Bath-chair! Perhaps, however, his may be an extreme case. No man has more experience, few such a natural aptitude and fondness for the sport. Lord Worcester, too, like his father, has shown how an educated gentleman, with abilities equal to all exigencies of a high position that affords comparatively little leisure for the mere amusements of life, can excel, in their own profession, men who have been brought up to it from childhood, whose thoughts and energies, winter and summer, morning, noon, and night, are concentrated on the business of the chase. This knack of getting to hounds then--should we consider genius or talent too strong terms to use for proficiency in field sports--while a most valuable quality to everybody who comes out hunting, is no less rare than precious. If we have it we are to be congratulated and our horses still more, but if, like the generality of men, we have it _not_, let us consider how far common sense and close attention will supply the want of a natural gift. It was said of an old friend of mine, the keenest of the keen, that he always rode as if he had never seen a run before, and should never see a run again! This, I believe, is something of the feeling with which we ought to be possessed, impelling us to take every legitimate advantage and to throw no possible chance away. It cannot be too often repeated that judicious choice of ground is the very first essential for success. Therefore the hunting-field has always been considered so good a school for cavalry officers. There seems no limit to the endurance of a horse in travelling over a hard and tolerably level surface, even under heavy weight, but we all know the fatal effect of a very few yards in a steam-ploughed field, when the gallant animal sinks to its hocks every stride. Keep an eye forward then, and shape your course where the foothold is smooth and sound. In a hilly country choose the sides of the slopes, above, rather than below, the pack, for, if they turn away from you, it is harder work to gallop up, than down. In the latter case, and for this little hint I am indebted to Lord Wilton, do not increase your speed so as to gain in distance, rather preserve the same regular pace, so as to save in wind. Descending an incline at an easy canter, and held well together, your horse is resting almost as if he were standing still. It is quite time enough when near the bottom to put on a spurt that will shoot him up the opposite rise. On the grass, if you _must_ cross ridge-and-furrow, take it a-slant, your horse will pitch less on his shoulders, and move with greater ease, while if they lie the right way, by keeping him on the crest, rather than in the trough of those long parallel rollers, you will ensure firm ground for his gallop, and a sounder, as well as higher take-off for the leap, when he comes to his fence. I need hardly remind you that in all swampy places, rushes may be trusted implicitly, and experienced hunters seem as well aware of the fact as their riders. Vegetable growth, indeed, of any kind has a tendency to suck moisture into its fibres, and consequently to drain, more or less, the surface in its immediate vicinity. The deep rides of a woodland are least treacherous at their edges, and the brink of a brook is most reliable close to some pollard or alder bush, particularly on the upper side, as Mr. Bromley Davenport knew better than most people, when he wrote his thrilling lines:-- "Then steady, my young one! the place I've selected Above the dwarf willow, is sound, I'll be bail; With your muscular quarters beneath you collected, Prepare for a rush like the limited mail!" But we cannot always be on the grass, nor, happily are any of us obliged, often in a life time, to ride at the Whissendine! In ploughed land, choose a wet furrow, for the simple reason that water would not stand in it unless the bottom were hard, but if you cannot find one, nor a foot-path, nor a cart-track trampled down into a certain consistency, remember the fable of the hare and the tortoise, pull your horse back into a trot, and never fear but that you will be able to make up your leeway when you arrive at better ground. It is fortunate that the fences are usually less formidable here than in the pastures, and will admit of creeping into, and otherwise negotiating, with less expenditure of power, so you may travel pretty safely, and turn at pleasure, shorter than the hounds. There _are_ plough countries, notably in Gloucestershire and Wilts, that ride light. To them the above remarks in no way apply. Inclosed with stone walls, if there is anything like a scent, hounds carry such a head, and run so hard over these districts, that you must simply go as fast as your horse's pace, and as straight as his courage admits, but if you have the Duke of Beaufort's dog-pack in front of you, do not be surprised to find, with their extraordinary dash and enormous stride, that even on the pick of your stable, ere you can jump into one field they are half-way across the next. In hunting, as in everything else, compensation seems the rule of daily life, and the very brilliancy of the pace affords its own cure. Either hounds run into their fox, or, should he find room to turn, flash over the scent, and bring themselves to a check. You will not then regret having made play while you could, and although no good sportsman, and, indeed, no kind-hearted man, would overtax the powers of the most generous animal in creation, still we must remember that we came out for the purpose of seeing the fun, and unless we can keep near the hounds while they run we shall lose many beautiful instances of their sagacity when brought to their noses, and obliged to hunt. There is no greater treat to a lover of the chase than to watch a pack of high-bred fox-hounds that have been running hard on pasture, brought suddenly to a check on the dusty sun-dried fallows. After dashing and snatching in vain for a furlong or so, they will literally quarter their ground like pointers, till they recover the line, every yard of which they make good, with noses down and sterns working as if from the concentrated energy of all their faculties, till suspicion becomes certainty, and they lay themselves out once more, in the uncontrolled ecstasy of pursuit. Now if you are a mile behind, you miss all these interesting incidents, and lose, as does your disappointed hunter, more than half the amusement you both came out to enjoy. The latter too, works twice as hard when held back in the rear, as when ridden freely and fearlessly in front. The energy expended in fighting with his rider would itself suffice to gallop many a furlong and leap many a fence, while the moral effect of disappointment is most disheartening to a creature of such a highly-strung nervous organisation. Look at the work done by a huntsman's horse before the very commencement of some fine run, the triumphant conclusion of which depends so much on his freshness at the finish, and yet how rarely does he succumb to the labour of love imposed; but then he usually leaves the covert in close proximity to his friends the hounds, every minute of his toil is cheered by their companionship, and, having no leeway to make up he need not be overpaced when they are running their hardest, while he finds a moment's leisure to recover himself when they are hunting their closest and best. In those long and severe chases, to which, unhappily, two or three horses may sometimes be sacrificed, the "first flight" are not usually sufferers. Death from exhaustion is more likely to be inflicted cruelly, though unwittingly on his faithful friend and comrade, by the injudicious and hesitating rider, who has neither decision to seize a commanding position in front, nor self-denial to be satisfied with an unassuming retirement in rear. His valour and discretion are improperly mixed, like bad punch, and fatal is the result. A timely pull means simply the difference between breathlessness and exhaustion, but this opportune relief is only available for him who knows exactly how far they brought it, and where the hounds flashed beyond the line of their fox at a check. I remember in my youth, alas! long ago, "the old sportsman"--a character for whom, I fear, we entertained in my day less veneration than we professed--amongst many inestimable precepts was fond of propounding the following:-- "Young gentleman, nurse your hunter carefully at the beginning of a run, and when the others are tired he will enable you to see the end." [Illustration: Page 193.] Now with all due deference to the old sportsman, I take leave to differ with him _in toto_. By nursing one's horse, I conclude he meant riding him at less than half-speed during that critical ten minutes when hounds run their very hardest and straightest. If we follow this cautious advice, who is to solve the important question, "Which way are they gone?" when we canter anxiously up to a sign-post where four roads meet, with a fresh and eager horse indeed, but not the wildest notion towards which point of the compass we should direct his energies? We can but stop to listen, take counsel of a countryman who unwittingly puts us wrong, ride to points, speculate on chances, and make up our minds never to be really on terms with them again! No, I think on the contrary, the best and most experienced riders adopt a very different system. On the earliest intimation that hounds are "away," they may be observed getting after them with all the speed they can make. Who ever saw Mr. Portman, for instance, trotting across the first field when his bitches were well out of covert settling on the line of their fox?--and I only mention his name because it occurs to me at the moment, and because, notwithstanding the formidable hills of his wild country and the pace of his flying pack, he is always present at the finish, to render them assistance if required, as it often must be, with a sinking fox. "The first blow is half the battle" in many nobler struggles than a street-brawl with a cad, and the very speed at which you send your horse along for a few furlongs, if the ground is at all favourable, enables you to give him a pull at the earliest opportunity, without fear lest the whole distant panorama of the hunt should fade into space while you are considering what to do next. Not that I mean you to over-mark, or push him for a single stride, beyond the collected pace at which he travels with ease and comfort to himself; for remember he is as much your partner as the fairest young lady ever trusted to your guidance in a ball-room: but I _do_ mean that you should make as much haste as is compatible with your mutual enjoyment, and, reflecting on the capricious nature of scent, take the chance of its failure, to afford you a moment's breathing-time when most required. At all periods of a fox-chase, be careful to _anticipate a check_. Never with more foresight than when flying along in the ecstasy of a quick thing, on a brilliant hunter. Keep an eye forward, and scan with close attention every moving object in front. There you observe a flock of sheep getting into line like cavalry for a charge--that is where the fox has gone. Or perhaps a man is ploughing half-a-mile further on; in all probability this object will have headed him, and on the discretion with which you ride at these critical moments may depend the performance of the pack, the difference between "a beautiful turn" and "an unlucky check." The very rush of your gallop alongside them will tempt high-mettled hounds into the indiscretion of over-running their scent. Whereas, if you take a pull at your horse, and give them plenty of room, they will swing to the line, and wheel like a flock of pigeons on the wing. Always ride, then, to _command_ hounds if you can, but never be tempted, when in this proud position, to press them, and to spoil your own sport, with that of every one else. If so fortunate as to view him, and near enough to distinguish that it is the hunted fox, think twice before you holloa. More time will be lost than gained by getting their heads up, if the hounds are still on the line, and even when at fault, it is questionable whether they do not derive less assistance than excitement from the human voice. Much depends on circumstances, much on the nature of the pack. I will not say you are never to open your mouth, but I think that if the inmates of our deaf and dumb asylums kept hounds, these would show sport above the average, and would seldom go home without blood. Noise is by no means a necessary concomitant of the chase, and a hat held up, or a quiet whisper to the huntsman, is of more help to him than the loudest and clearest view-holloa that ever wakened the dead "from the lungs of John Peel in the morning." We have hitherto supposed that you are riding a good horse, in a good place, and have been so fortunate as to meet with none of those reverses that are nevertheless to be expected on occasion, particularly when hounds run hard and the ground is deep. The best of hunters may fall, the boldest of riders be defeated by an impracticable fence. Hills, bogs, a precipitous ravine, or even an unlucky turn in a wood may place you at a mile's disadvantage, almost before you have realised your mistake, and you long for the wings of an eagle, while cursing the impossibility of taking back so much as a single minute from the past. It seems so easy to ride a run when it is over! But do not therefore despair. Pull yourself well together, no less than your horse. Keep steadily on at a regulated pace, watching the movements of those who are with the hounds, and ride inside them, every bend. No fox goes perfectly straight--he must turn sooner or later--and when the happy moment arrives be ready to back your luck, and _pounce_! But here, again, I would have your valour tempered with discretion. If your horse does not see the hounds, be careful how you ride him at such large places as he would face freely enough in the excitement of their company. Not one hunter in fifty is really fond of jumping, and we hardly give them sufficient credit for the good-humour with which they accept it as a necessity for enjoyment of the sport. Avoid water especially, unless you have reason to believe the bottom is good, and you can go in and out. Even under such favourable conditions, look well to your egress. There is never much difficulty about the entrance, and do not forget that the middle is often the shallowest, and always the soundest part of a brook. When tempted therefore to take a horse, that you know is a bad water-jumper, at this serious obstacle; you are most likely to succeed, if you only ask him to jump half-way. Should he drop his hind-legs under the farther bank, he will probably not obtain foothold to extricate himself, particularly with your weight on his back. We are all panic-stricken, and with reason, at the idea of being submerged, but we might wade through many more brooks than we usually suppose. I can remember seeing the Rowsham, generally believed to be bottomless, forded in perfect safety by half-a-dozen of the finest and heaviest bullocks the Vale of Aylesbury ever fattened into beef. This, too, close to a hunting-bridge, put there by Baron Rothschild because of the depth and treacherous nature of the stream! A hard road, however, though to be avoided religiously when enjoying a good place with hounds, is an invaluable ally on these occasions of discomfiture and vexation, if it leads in the same direction as the line of chase. On its firm, unyielding surface your horse is regaining his wind with every stride. Should a turnpike-gate bar your progress, chuck the honest fellow a shilling who swings it back and never mind the change. We hunt on sufferance; for our own sakes we cannot make the amusement too popular with the lower classes. The same argument holds good as to feeing a countryman who assists you in any way when you have a red coat on your back. Reward him with an open hand. He will go to the public-house and drink "fox-hunting" amongst his friends. It is impossible to say how many innocent cubs are preserved by such judicious liberality to die what Charles Payne calls "a natural death." And now your quiet perseverance meets its reward. You regain your place with the hounds and are surprised to find how easily and temperately your horse, not yet exhausted, covers large flying fences in his stride. A half-beaten hunter, as I have already observed, will "lob over" high and wide places if they can be done in a single effort, although instinct causes him to "cut them very fine," and forbids unnecessary exertion; but it is "the beginning of the end," and you must not presume on his game, enduring qualities too long. The object of your pursuit, however, is also mortal. By the time you have tired an honest horse in good condition the fox is driven to his last resources, and even the hounds are less full of fire than when they brought him away from the covert. I am supposing, of course, that they have not changed during the run. You may now save many a furlong by bringing your common sense into play. What would you do if you were a beaten fox, and where would you go? Certainly not across the middle of those large pastures where you could be seen by the whole troop of your enemies without a chance of shelter or repose. No; you would rather lie down in this deep, overgrown ditch, sneak along the back of that strong, thick bullfinch, turn short in the high, double hedgerow, and so hiding yourself from the spiteful crows that would point you out to the huntsman, try to baffle alike his experienced intelligence and the natural sagacity of his hounds. Such are but the simplest of the wiles practised by this most cunning beast of chase. While observing them, you need no further distress the favourite who has carried you so well than is necessary to render the assistance required for finishing satisfactorily with blood; and here your eyes and ears will be far more useful than the speed and stamina of your horse. Who-whoop! His labours are now over for the day. Do not keep him standing half-an-hour in the cold, while you smoke a cigar and enlarge to sympathising ears on his doings, and yours, and theirs, and those of everybody concerned. Rather jog gently off as soon as a few compliments and congratulations have been exchanged, and keep him moving at the rate of about six miles an hour, so that his muscles may not begin to stiffen after his violent exertions, till you have got him home. Jump off his honest back, to walk up and down the hills with him as they come. He well deserves this courtesy at your hands. If you ever go out shooting you cannot have forgotten the relief it is to put down your gun for a minute or two. And even from a selfish point of view, there is good reason for this forbearance in the ease your own frame experiences with the change of attitude and exercise. If you can get him a mouthful of gruel, it will recruit his exhausted vitality, as a basin of soup puts life into a fainting man; but do not tarry more than five or six minutes for your own luncheon, while he is sucking it in, and the more tired he seems, remember, the sooner you ought to get him home. If he fails altogether, does not attempt to trot, and wavers from side to side under your weight, put him into the first available shelter, and make up your mind, however mean the quarters, it is better for him to stay there all night than in his exhausted condition to be forced back to his own stable. With thorough ventilation and plenty of coverings, old sacks, blankets, whatever you can lay hands on, he will take no harm. Indeed, if you can keep up his circulation there is no better restorative than the pure cold air that in a cow-shed, or out-house, finds free admission, to fill his lungs. You will lose your dinner perhaps. What matter? You may even have to sleep out in "the worst inn's worst room," unfed, unwashed, and without a change of clothes. It is no such penance after all, and surely your first duty is to the gallant generous animal that would never fail _you_ at your need, but would gallop till his heart broke, for your mere amusement and caprice. Of all our relations with the dumb creation, there is none in which man has so entirely the best of it as the one-sided partnership that exists between the horse and his rider. CHAPTER XII. RIDING _AT_ STAG-HOUNDS. I have purposely altered the preposition at the heading of this, because it treats of a method so entirely different from that which I have tried to describe in the preceding chapter. At the risk of rousing animadversion from an experienced and scientific majority, I am prepared to affirm that there is nearly as much intelligence and knowledge of the animal required to hunt a deer as a fox, but in following the chase of the larger and higher-scented quadruped there are no fixed rules to guide a rider in his course, so that if he allows the hounds to get out of sight he may gallop over any extent of country till dark, and never hear tidings of them again. Therefore it has been said, one should ride _to_ fox-hounds, but _at_ stag-hounds, meaning that with the latter, skill and science are of little avail to retrieve a mistake. Deer, both wild and tame, so long as they are fresh, seem perfectly indifferent whether they run up wind or down, although when exhausted they turn their heads to the cold air that serves to breathe new life into their nostrils. Perhaps, if anything, they prefer to feel the breeze blowing against their sides, but as to this there is no more certainty than in their choice of ground. Other wild animals go to the hill; deer will constantly leave it for the vale. I have seen them fly, straight as an arrow, across a strongly enclosed country, and circle like hares on an open down. Sometimes they will not run a yard till the hounds are at their very haunches; sometimes, when closely pressed, they become stupid with fear, or turn fiercely at bay. "Have we got a good deer to-day?" is a question usually answered with the utmost confidence, yet how often the result is disappointment and disgust. Nor is this the case only in that phase of the sport which may be termed artificial. A wild stag proudly carrying his "brow, bay, and tray" over Exmoor seems no less capricious than an astonished hind, enlarged amongst the brickfields of Hounslow, or the rich pastures that lie outstretched below Harrow-on-the-Hill. One creature, familiar with every inch of its native wastes, will often wander aimlessly in a circle before making its point; the other, not knowing the least where it is bound, will as often run perfectly straight for miles. My own experience of "the calf," as it has been ignominiously termed, is limited to three packs--Mr. Bissett's, who hunts the perfectly wild animal over the moorlands of Somerset and North Devon; Baron Rothschild's, in the Vale of Aylesbury; and Lord Wolverton's blood-hounds, amongst the combes of Dorsetshire and "doubles" of the Blackmoor Vale. With her Majesty's hounds I have not been out more than three or four times in my life. Let us take the noble chase of the West country first, as it is followed in glorious autumn weather through the fairest scenes that ever haunted a painter's dream; in Horner woods and Cloutsham Ball, over the grassy slopes of Exmoor, and across the broad expanse of Brendon, spreading its rich mantle of purple under skies of gold. We could dwell for pages on the associations connected with such classical names as Badgeworthy-water, New-Invention, Mountsey Gate, or wooded Glenthorne, rearing its garlanded brows above the Severn sea. But we are now concerned in the practical question, how to keep a place with Mr. Bissett's six-and-twenty-inch hounds running a "warrantable deer" over the finest scenting country in the world? You may ride _at_ them as like a tailor as you please. The ups and downs of a Devonshire _coombe_ will soon put you in your right place, and you will be grateful for the most trifling hint that helps you to spare your horse, and remain on any kind of terms with them, on ground no less trying to his temper and intelligence than to his wind and muscular powers. Till you attempt to gallop alongside you will hardly believe how hard the hounds are running. They neither carry such a head, nor dash so eagerly, I might almost say _jealously_, for the scent as if they were hunting their natural quarry, the fox. This difference I attribute to the larger size, and consequently stronger odour, of a deer. Every hound enjoying his full share, none are tempted to rob their comrades of the mysterious pleasure, and we therefore miss the quick, sharp turns and the _drive_ that we are accustomed to consider so characteristic of the fox-hound. They string, too, in long-drawn line, because of the tall, bushy heather, necessitating great size and power, through which they must make their way; but, nevertheless, they keep swinging steadily on, without a check or hover for many a mile of moorland, showing something of that fierce indomitable perseverance attributed by Byron to the wolf-- "With his long gallop that can tire The hound's deep hate and hunter's fire." If you had a second Eclipse under you, and rode him fairly with them, yard for yard, you would stop him in less than twenty minutes! Yet old practitioners, notably that prince of sportsmen the Rev. John Russell, contrive to see runs of many hours' duration without so entirely exhausting their horses but that they can travel some twenty miles home across the moor. Such men as Mr. Granville Somerset, the late Mr. Dene of Barnstaple, Mr. Bissett himself, though weighing twenty stone, and a score of others--for in the West good sportsmen are the rule, not the exception--go well from find to finish of these long, exhausting chases, yet never trespass too far on the generosity and endurance of the noble animal that carries them to the end. And why? Because they take pains, use their heads sagaciously, their hands skilfully, and their heels scarcely at all. To their experience I am indebted for the following little hints which I have found serviceable when embarked on those wide, trackless wastes, brown, endless, undulating, and spacious as the sea. There are happily no fences, and the chief obstructions to be defeated, or rather _negotiated_, are the "combes"--a succession of valleys that trend upward from the shallow streams to the heathery ridges, narrowing as they ascend till lost in the level surface of the moor. Never go down into these until your deer is sinking. So surely as you descend will you have to climb the opposite rise; rather keep round them towards the top, watching the hounds while they thread a thousand intricacies of rock, heather, and scattered copse-wood, so as to meet them when they emerge, which they will surely do on the upper level, for it is the nature of their quarry to rise the hill aslant, and seek safety, when pressed, in its speed across the flat. A deer descends these declivities one after another as they come, but it is for the refreshment of a bath in their waters below, and instinct prompts it to return without delay to higher ground when thus invigorated. Only if completely beaten and exhausted, does it become so confused as to attempt scaling a rise in a direct line. The run is over then, and you may turn your horse's head to the wind, for in a furlong or two the game will falter and come down again amongst its pursuers to stand at bay. [Illustration: Page 208.] Coast your "combes," therefore, judiciously, and spare your horse; so shall you cross the heather in thorough enjoyment of the chase till it leads you perhaps to the grassy swamps of Exmoor, the most plausible line in the world, over which hounds run their hardest--and now look out! If Exmoor were in Leicestershire, it would be called a bog, and cursed accordingly, but every country has its own peculiarities, and a North Devon sportsman more especially, on a horse whose dam, or even grandam, was bred on the moor, seems to flap his way across it with as much confidence as a bittern or a curlew. Could I discover how he accomplished this feat I would tell you, but I can only advise you to ride his line and follow him yard for yard. There are certain sound tracks and pathways, no doubt, in which a horse does not sink more than fetlock deep, and Mr. Knight, the lord of the soil, may be seen, on a large handsome thorough-bred hunter, careering away as close to the pack as he used to ride in the Vale of Aylesbury, but for a stranger so to presume would be madness, and if he did not find himself bogged in half a minute, he would stop his horse in half a mile. Choose a pilot then, Mr. Granville Somerset we will say, or one of the gentlemen I have already named, and stick to him religiously till the welcome heather is brushing your stirrup-irons once more. On Brendon, you may ride for yourself with perfect confidence in the face of all beholders, bold and conspicuous as Dunkery Beacon, but on Exmoor you need not be ashamed to play follow my leader. Only give him room enough to fall! As, although a full-grown or warrantable stag is quickly found, the process of separating it from its companions, called "tufting," is a long business, lasting for hours, you will be wise to take with you a feed of corn and a rope halter, the latter of which greatly assists in serving your horse with the former. You will find it also a good plan to have your saddles previously well stuffed and repaired, lined with smooth linen. The weather in August is very hot, and your horse will be many hours under your weight, therefore it is well to guard against a sore back. Jump off, too, whenever you have the chance; a hunter cannot but find it a delightful relief to get rid of twelve or thirteen stone bumping all day against his spine for a minute or two at a time. I have remarked, however, with some astonishment that the heavier the rider the more averse he seems to granting this indulgence, and am forced to suppose his unwillingness to get down proceeds, as my friend Mr. Grimston says, from a difficulty in getting up again! This gentleman, however, who, notwithstanding his great weight, has always ridden perfectly straight to hounds, over the stiffest of grass countries, obstinately declines to leave the saddle at any time under less provocation than a complete turn over by the strength of a gate or stile. To mention "the Honourable Robert" brings one by an irresistible association of ideas into the wide pastures of that grassy paradise which mortals call the Vale of Aylesbury. Here, under the excellent management of Sir Nathaniel Rothschild, assisted by his brother Mr. Leopold, the _carted_ deer is hunted on the most favourable terms, and a sportsman must indeed be prejudiced who will not admit that "ten mile points" over grass with one of the handsomest packs of hounds in the world, are most enjoyable; the object of chase, when the fun is over, returning to Mentmore, like a gentleman, in his own carriage, notwithstanding. Fred Cox is the picture of a huntsman. Mark Howcott, his whip, fears nothing in the shape of a fence, and will close with a wicked stag, in or out of water, as readily as a policeman collars a pickpocket! The horses are superb, and so they ought to be, for the fences that divide this grazing district into fields of eighty and a hundred acres grow to the most formidable size and strength. Unless brilliantly mounted neither masters nor servants could hold the commanding position through a run that they always seem to desire. In riding to these hounds, as to all others, it is advisable to avoid the crowd. Many of the hedgerows are double, with a ditch on each side, and to wait for your turn amongst a hundred horsemen, some too bold, some too cautious, would entail such delay as must prove fatal with a good scent. Happily, there are plenty of gates, and a deer preferring timber to any other leap, usually selects this convenient mode of transit. Should they be chained, look for a weak place in the fence, which, being double, will admit of subdividing your leap by two, and your chance of a fall by ten. At first you may be somewhat puzzled on entering a field to find your way out. I will suppose that in other countries you have been accustomed to select the easiest place at once in the fence you are approaching, and to make for it without delay, but across these large fields the nature of an obstacle deceives your eye. The two contiguous hedges that form one boundary render it very difficult to determine at a distance where the easiest place _is_, so you will find it best to follow the hounds, and take your chance. The deer, like your horse, is a large quadruped, and, except under unusual circumstances, where one goes the other can probably follow. This, I fear, is a sad temptation to ride on the line of hounds. If you give way to it, let the whole pack be at least two or three hundred yards in front, and beware, even then, of tail hounds coming up to join their comrades. Be careful also, never to jump a fence in your stride, till you see the pack well into the next field. A deer is very apt to drop lightly over a wall or upright hedge just high enough to conceal it, and then turn short at a right angle under this convenient screen. It would be painful to realise your feelings, poised in air over eight or ten couple of priceless hounds, with a chorus of remonstrances storming in the rear! It is no use protesting you "Didn't touch them," you "Didn't mean it," you "Never knew they were there." Better ride doggedly on, over the largest places you can find, and apologise humbly to everybody at the first check. When a fox goes down to water he means crossing, not so the deer. If at all tired, or heated, it may stay there for an hour. On such occasions, therefore, you can take a pull at your horse and your flask too if you like, while you look for the best way to the other side. When induced to leave it, however, the animal seems usually so refreshed by its bath, as to travel a long distance, and on this, as on many other occasions in stag-hunting, the run seems only beginning, when you and your horse consider it ought to be nearly over. Directly you observe a deer, that has hitherto gone straight, describing a series of circles, you may think about going home. It is tired at last, and will give you no more fun for a month. You should offer assistance to the men, and, even if it be not accepted, remain, as a matter of courtesy, to see your quarry properly taken, and sent back to the paddock in its cart. With all stag-hounds, the same rules would seem to apply. Never care to view it, and above all, unless expressly requested to do so for a reason, avoid the solecism of "riding the deer." On the mode in which this sport is conducted depends the whole difference between a wild exhilarating pastime and a tame uninteresting parade. Though prejudice will not allow it is the _real_ thing, we cannot but admit the excellence of the imitation, and a man must possess a more logical mind, a less excitable temperament, than is usually allotted to sportsmen, who can remember, while sailing along with hounds running hard over a flying country, that he is only "trying to catch what he had already," and has turned a handsome hairy-coated quadruped out of a box for the mere purpose of putting it in again when the fun is over! Follow every turn then, religiously, and with good intent. You came out expressly to enjoy a gallop, do not allow yourself to be disappointed. If nerve and horse are good enough, go into every field with them, but, I intreat you, ride like a sportsman, and give the hounds plenty of room. This last injunction more especially applies to that handsome pack of black-and-tans with which Lord Wolverton, during the last five or six seasons, has shown extraordinary sport for the amusement of his neighbours on the uplands of Dorset and in the green pastures that enrich the valley of the Stour. These blood-hounds, for such they are, and of the purest breed, stand seven or eight-and-twenty inches, with limbs and frames proportioned to so gigantic a stature. Their heads are magnificent, solemn sagacious eyes, pendent jowls, and flapping ears that brush away the dew. Thanks to his Lordship's care in breeding, and the freedom with which he has drafted, their feet are round and their powerful legs symmetrically straight. A spirited and truly artistic picture of these hounds in chase, sweeping like a whirlwind over the downs, by Mr. Goddard, the well-known painter, hangs on Lord Wolverton's staircase in London, and conveys to his guests, particularly after dinner, so vivid an idea of their picturesque and even sporting qualities as I cannot hope to represent with humble pen and ink. One could almost fancy, standing opposite this masterpiece, that one heard _the cry_. Full, sonorous, and musical, it is not extravagant to compare these deep-mouthed notes with the peal of an organ in a cathedral. Yet they run a tremendous pace. Stride, courage, and _condition_ (the last essential requiring constant care) enable them to sustain such speed over the open as can make a good horse look foolish! While, amongst enclosures, they charge the fences in line, like a squadron of heavy dragoons. Yet for all this fire and mettle in chase, they are sad cowards under pressure from a crowd. A whip cracked hurriedly, a horse galloping in their track, even an injudicious _rate_, will make the best of them shy and sulky for half the day. Only by thorough knowledge of his favourites, and patient deference to their prejudices, has Lord Wolverton obtained their confidence, and it is wonderful to mark how his perseverance is rewarded. While he hunts them they are perfectly handy, and turn like a pack of harriers; but if an outsider attempts to "cap them on," or otherwise interfere, they decline to acknowledge him from the first; and should they be left to his guidance, are quite capable of going straight home at once, with every mark of contempt. In a run, however, their huntsman is seldom wanting. His lordship has an extraordinary knack of _galloping_, getting across a field with surprising quickness on every horse he rides, and is not to be turned by the fence when he reaches it, so that his hounds are rarely placed in the awkward position of a pack at fault with no one to look to for assistance. He has acquired, too, considerable familiarity with the habits of his game, and has a holy horror of going home without it, so perseveres, when at a loss, through many a long hour of cold hunting, slotting, scouring the country for information, and other drawbacks to enjoyment of his chase. As he says himself, "The worst of a deer is, you can't leave off when you like. Nobody will believe you if you swear it went to ground!" Part of the country in his immediate neighbourhood seems made for stag-hunting. Large fields, easy slopes, light fences, and light land, with here and there a hazel copse, bordering a stretch for three or four miles of level turf, like Launceston Down, or Blandford race-course, must needs tempt a deer to go straight no less than a horseman, but the animal, as I have said, is unaccountably capricious, and if we could search his lordship's diary I believe we should find his best runs have taken place over a district differing in every respect from the above. As soon as the leaves are fallen sufficiently to render the Blackmoor Vale rideable, it is his greatest pleasure to take the blood-hounds down to those deep, level, and strongly-enclosed pastures, over which, notwithstanding the size and nature of the fences, he finds his deer (usually hinds) run remarkably well, and make extraordinary points. Ten miles, on the ordnance map, is no unusual distance, and is often accomplished in little more than an hour. For men who enjoy _riding_ I can conceive no better fun. Not an acre of plough is to be seen. The enclosures, perhaps, are rather small, but this only necessitates more jumping, and the fences may well satisfy the hungriest, or as an Irishman would say, the _thirstiest_, of competitors! They are not, however, _quite_ so formidable as they look. To accomplish two blind ditches, with a bank between, and a hedge thereon, requires indeed discretion in a horse, and cool determination in its rider, but where these exist the large leap is divided easily by two, and a good man, who _means going_, is not often to be _pounded_, even in the Blackmoor Vale. Nothing is _quite_ perfect under the sun, not your own best hunter, nor your wife's last baby, and the river Stour, winding through them in every direction, somewhat detracts from the merit of these happiest of hunting-grounds. A good friend to the deer, and a sad hindrance to its pursuers, it has spoilt many a fine run; but even with this drawback there are few districts in any part of England so naturally adapted to the pleasures of the chase. The population is scanty, the countrymen are enthusiasts, the farmers the best fellows on earth, the climate seems unusually favourable; from the kindness and courtesy of Sir Richard Glynn and Mr. Portman, who pursue the _legitimate_ sport over the same locality, and his own personal popularity, the normal difficulties of his undertaking are got over in favour of the noble master, and everybody seems equally pleased to welcome the green plush coats and the good grey horses in the midst of the black-and-tans. If I were sure of a fine morning and a _safe mount_, I would ask for no keener pleasure than an hour's gallop with Lord Wolverton's blood-hounds over the Blackmoor Vale. CHAPTER XIII. THE PROVINCES. A distinguished soldier of the present day, formerly as daring and enthusiastic a rider as ever charged his "oxers" with the certainty of a fall, was once asked in my hearing by a mild stranger, "Whether he had been out with the Crawley and Horsham?" if I remember right. "No, sir!" was the answer, delivered in a tone that somewhat startled the querist, "I have never hunted with any hounds in my life but the Quorn and the Pytchley, and I'll take d----d good care I never do!" Now I fancy that not a few of our "golden youth," who are either born to it, or have contrived in their own way to get the "silver spoon" into their mouths, are under the impression that all hunting must necessarily be dead slow if conducted out of Leicestershire, and that little sport, with less excitement, is to be obtained in those remote regions which they contemptuously term the provinces. There never was a greater fallacy. If we calculate the number of hours hounds are out of kennel (for we must remember that the Quorn and Belvoir put two days into one), we shall find, I think, that they run hard for fewer minutes, in proportion, across the fashionable countries than in apparently less-favoured districts concealed at sundry out-of-the-way corners of the kingdom. Nor is this disparity difficult to understand. Fox-hunting at its best is a wild sport; the wilder the better. Where coverts are many miles apart, where the animal must travel for its food, where agriculture is conducted on primitive principles that do not necessitate the huntsman's horror, "a man in every field," the fox retains all his savage nature, and is prepared to run any distance, face every obstacle, rather than succumb to his relentless enemy, the hound. He has need, and he seems to know it, of all his courage and all his sagacity, as compelled to fight alone on his own behalf, without assistance from that invaluable ally, the crowd. A score of hard riders, nineteen of whom are jealous, and the twentieth determined not to be beat, forced on by a hundred comrades all eager for the view and its stentorian proclamation, may well save the life of any fox on earth, with scarce an effort from the animal itself. But that hounds are creatures of habit, and huntsmen in the flying countries miracles of patience, no less than their masters, not a nose would be nailed on the kennel-door, after cub-hunting was over, from one end of the shires to the other. Nothing surprises me so much as to see a pack of hounds, like the Belvoir or the Quorn, come up _through_ a crowd of horses and stick to the line of their fox, or fling gallantly forward to recover it, without a thought of personal danger or the slightest misgiving that not one man in ten is master of the two pair of hoofs beneath him, carrying death in every shoe. Were they not bred for the make-and-shape that gives them speed no less than for fineness of nose, but especially for that _dash_ which, like all victorious qualities, leaves something to chance, they could never get a field from the covert. It does happen, however, that, now and again, a favourable stroke of fortune puts a couple of furlongs between the hounds and their pursuers. A hundred-acre field of well saturated grass lies before them, down go their noses, out go their sterns, and away they scour, at a pace which makes a precious example of young Rapid on a first-class steeple-chase horse with the wrong bridle in its mouth. But how differently is the same sport being carried out in his father's country, perhaps by the old gentleman's own pack, with which the young one considers it slow to hunt. Let us begin at the beginning and try to imagine a good day in the provinces, about the third week in November, when leaves are thin and threadbare on the fences, while copse and woodland glisten under subdued shafts of sunlight in sheets of yellow gold. What says Mr. Warburton, favoured of Diana and the Muses? "The dew-drop is clinging To whin-bush and brake, The sky-lark is singing, Merry hunters, awake! Home to the cover, Deserted by night, The little red rover Is bending his flight--" Could words more stirringly describe the hope and promise, the joy, the vitality, the buoyant exhilaration of a hunting morning? So the little red rover, who has travelled half-a-dozen miles for his supper, returns to find he has "forgotten his latch-key," and curls himself up in some dry, warm nook amongst the brushwood, at the quietest corner of a deep, precipitous ravine. Here, while sleep favours digestion, he makes himself very comfortable, and dreams, no doubt, of his own pleasures and successes in pursuit of prey. Presently, about half-past eleven, he wakes with a start, leaps out of bed, shakes his fur, and stands to listen, a perfect picture, with one pad raised and his cunning head aslant. Yes, he recognized it from the first. The "Yooi, wind him, and rouse him!" of old Matthew's mellow tones, not unknown in a gin-and-water chorus when occasion warrants the convivial brew, yet clear, healthy, and resonant as the very roar of Challenger, who has just proclaimed his consciousness of the drag, some five hours old. 'Tis an experienced rover, and does not hesitate for an instant. Stealing down the ravine, he twists his agile little body through a tangled growth of blackthorn and brambles, crosses the stream dry-footed with a leap, and, creeping through the fence that bounds his stronghold, peers into the meadow beyond. No smart and busy whip has "clapped forward" to view and head him. Matthew, indeed, brings out but one, and swears he could do better without _him_. So the rover puts his sharp nose straight for the solitude he loves, and whisking his brush defiantly, resolves to make his point. He has been gone five minutes when the clamour of the find reaches his ears, twice that time ere the hounds are fairly out of covert on his line; so, with a clear head and a bold heart, he has leisure to consider his tactics and to remember the main earth at Crag's-end in the forest, twelve miles off as the crow flies. [Illustration: Page 225.] Challenger, and Charmer his progeny, crash out of the wood together, fairly howling with ecstasy as their busy noses meet the rich tufted herbage, dewy, dank, and tainted with the maddening odour that affords such uncontrolled enjoyment. "_Harve art_ him, my _lards_!" exclaims old Matthew, in Doric accents, peculiar to the kennel. "Come up, horse!" and, having admonished that faithful servant with a dig in the ribs from his horn, blows half-a-dozen shrill blasts in quick succession, sticks the instrument, I shudder to confess it, in his boot, and proceeds to hustle his old white nag at the best pace he can command in the wake of his favourites. "Dang it! they're off," exclaims a farmer, who had stationed himself on the crest of the hill, diving, at a gallop, down a stony darkling lane, overgrown with alder, brambles, honeysuckle, all the garden produce of uncultivated nature, lush and steaming in decay. The field, consisting of the Squire, three or four strapping yeomen, a parson, and a boy on a pony, follow his example, and making a good turn in the valley, find themselves splashing through a glittering, shallow streamlet, still in the lane, with the hounds not a bowshot from them on the right. "And pace?" inquires young Rapid, when his father describes the run to him on Christmas-eve. "Of course you had no pace with so good a point?" "Pace, sir!" answers the indignant parent; "my hounds _run_ because they can _hunt_. I tell you, they were never off the line for an hour and three-quarters! Matthew _would_ try to cast them once, and very nearly lost his fox, but Charmer hit it off on the other side of the combe and put us right. He's as like old Challenger as he can stick; a deal more like than _you_ are to _me_." Young Rapid concedes the point readily, and the Squire continues his narrative: "I had but eighteen couple out, because of a run the week before--I'll tell you about it presently,--five-and-thirty minutes on the hills, and a kill in the open, that lamed half the pack amongst the flints. You talk of pace--they went fast enough to have settled the best of you, I'll warrant! but I'm getting off the line--I've not done with the other yet. I never saw hounds work better. They came away all together, they hunted their fox like a cluster of bees; swarming over every field, and every fence, they brought him across Tinglebury Tor, where it's always as dry as that hearth-stone, through a flock of five hundred sheep, they rattled him in and out of Combe-Bampton, though the Lower Woods were alive with riot--hares, roe, fallow-deer, hang it! apes and peacocks if you like; had old Matthew not been a fool they would never have hesitated for a moment, and when they ran into him under Crag's-end, there wasn't a man-jack of them missing. Not one--that's what I call a pack of hounds! "The best part of it? So much depends on whether you young fellows go out to hunt, or to ride. For the first half-hour or so we were never off the grass--there's not a ploughed field all the way up the valley till you come to Shifner's allotments, orchard and meadow, meadow and orchard, fetlock-deep in grass, even at this time of year. Why, it carries a side-scent, like the heather on a moor! I suppose you'd have called _that_ the best part. I didn't, though I saw it _well_ from the lane with Matthew and the rest of us, all but the Vicar, who went into every field with the hounds--I thought he was rather hard on them amongst those great blind, tangled fences; but he's such a good fellow, I hadn't the heart to holloa at him--it's very wrong though, and a man in his profession ought to know better. "I can't say they checked exactly in the allotments, but the manure and rubbish, weeds burning, and whatnot, brought them to their noses. That's where Matthew made such a fool of himself; but, as I told you, Charmer put us all right. The fox had crossed into Combe-Bampton and was rising the hill for the downs. "I never saw hounds so patient--they could but just hold a line over the chalk--first one and then another puzzled it out, till they got on better terms in Hazlewood Hanger, and when they ran down into the valley again between the cliffs there was a cry it did one's heart good to hear. "I had a view of him, crossing Parker's Piece, the long strip of waste land, you know, under Craven Clump; and he seemed as fresh as you are now--I sat as mute as a mouse, for six-and-thirty noses knew better where he'd gone than I did, and six-and-thirty-tongues were at work that never told a lie. The Vicar gave them plenty of room by this time, and all our horses seemed to have had about enough! "'I wish we mayn't have changed in the Hanger,' said Matthew, refreshing the old grey with a side-binder, as they blundered into the lane, but I knew better--he had run the rides, every yard, and that made me hope we should have him in hand before long. "It began to get very interesting, I was near enough to watch each hound doing his work, eighteen couple, all dogs, three and four season hunters, for I hadn't a single puppy out. I wish you had been there, my boy. It was a real lesson in hunting, and I'll tell you what I thought of them, one by ----. Hulloh! Yes. You'd better ring for coffee--Hanged if I don't believe you've been fast asleep all the time!" But such runs as these, though wearisome to a listener, are most enjoyable for those who can appreciate the steadiness and sagacity of the hound, no less than the craft and courage of the animal it pursues. There is an indescribable charm too, in what I may call the _romance_ of hunting,--the remote scenes we should perhaps never visit for their own sake, the broken sunlight glinting through copse and gleaming on fern, the woodland sights, the woodland sounds, the balmy odours of nature, and all the treats she provides for her votaries, tasted and enjoyed, with every faculty roused, every sense sharpened in the excitement of our pursuit. These delights are better known in the provinces than the shires, and to descend from flights of fancy to practical matters of £ _s._ _d._, we can hunt in the former at comparatively trifling expense. In the first place, particularly if good horsemen, we need not be nearly so well-mounted. There are few provincial countries in which a man who knows how to ride, cannot get from one field to another, by hook or by crook, with a little creeping and scrambling and blundering, that come far short of the casualty we deprecate as "a rattling fall!" His horse must be in good condition of course, and able to gallop; also if temperate, the more willing at his fences the better, but it is not indispensable that he should possess the stride and power necessary to cover some twenty feet of distance, and four or five of height, at every leap, nor the blood that can alone enable him to repeat the exertion, over and over again, at three-quarter speed in deep ground. To jump, as it is called, "from field to field," tries a horse's stamina no less severely than his courage, while, as I have already observed, there is no such economy of effort, and even danger, as to make two small fences out of a large one. I do not mean to say that there are any parts of England where, if hounds run hard, a hunter, with a workman on his back, has not enough to do to live with them, but I do consider that, _cæteris paribus_, a good rider may smuggle a moderate horse over most of our provincial countries, whereas he would be helpless on the same animal in Leicestershire or Northamptonshire. There, on the other hand, an inferior horseman, bold enough to place implicit confidence in the first-class hunter he rides, may see a run, from end to end, with considerable credit and enjoyment, by the simple process of keeping a good hold of his bridle, while he leaves everything to the horse. But he must not have learned a single letter of the noble word "Funk." Directly his heart fails, and he interferes, down they both come, an _imperial crowner_, and the game is lost! Many of our provincial districts are also calculated, from their very nature, to turn out experienced sportsmen no less than accomplished riders. In large woods, amongst secluded hills, or wild tracts of moor intersected by impracticable ravines, a lover of the chase is compelled by force of circumstances to depend on his own eyes, ears, and general intelligence for his amusement. He finds no young Rapid to pilot him over the large places, if he _means going_; no crafty band of second-horsemen to guide him in safety to the finish, if his ambition is satisfied with a distant and occasional view of the stirring pageant; no convenient hand-gate in the corner, no friendly bridge across the stream; above all, no hurrying cavalcade drawn out for miles, amongst which to hide, and with whom pleasantly to compare notes hereafter in those self-deceiving moments, when "Dined, o'er our claret, we talk of the merit, Of every choice spirit that rode in the run. But here the crowd, Sir, can talk just as loud, Sir, As those who were forward enjoying the fun!" No. In the provinces our young sportsman must make up his mind to take his own part, to study the coverts drawn, and find out for himself the points where he can see, hear, and, so to speak, command hounds till they go away; must learn how to rise the hill with least labour, and descend it with greatest dispatch, how to thread glen, combe, or dale, wind in and out of the rugged ravine, plunge through a morass, and make his way home at night across trackless moor, or open storm-swept down. By the time he has acquired these accomplishments, the horsemanship will have come of itself. He will know how to bore where he cannot jump, to creep where he must not fly, and so manage his horse that the animal seems to share the intentions and intelligence of its rider. If he can afford it, and likes to spend a season or two in the shires for the last superlative polish, let him go and welcome! He will be taught to get clear of a crowd, to leap timber at short notice, to put on his boots and breeches, and that is about all there is left for him to learn! In the British army, though more than a hundred regiments constitute the line, each cherishes its own particular title, while applying that general application indiscriminately to the rest. I imagine the same illusion affects the provinces, and I should offend an incalculable number of good fellows and good sportsmen, were I to describe as _provincial_ establishments, the variety of hunts, north, south, east, and west, with which I have enjoyed so much good company and good fun. Each has its own claim to distinction, some have collars, all have sport. Grass, I imagine, is the one essential that constitutes pre-eminence in a hunting country, and for this the shires have always boasted they bear away the palm, but it will surprise many of my readers to be told that in the south and west there are districts where this desideratum seems now more plentiful than in the middle of England. The Blackmoor Vale still lies almost wholly under pasture, and you may travel to-day forty miles by rail, through the counties of Dorset and Somerset, in general terms nearly from Blandford to Bath, without seeing a ploughed field. What a country might here be made by such an enthusiast as poor "Sam Reynell," who found Meath without a gorse-covert, and drew between thirty and forty "sure finds" in it before he died! Independently of duty, which ought to be our first consideration, there is also great convenience in hunting from home. We require no large stud, can choose our meets, and, above all, are indifferent to weather. A horse comes out so many times in a season; if we don't hunt to-day we shall next week. Compare this equable frame of mind with the irritation and impatience of a man who has ten hunters standing at the sign of "The Hand-in-Pocket," while he inhabits the front parlour, without his books, deprived of his usual society and occupations, the barometer at set fair, and the atmosphere affording every indication of a six-weeks' frost! Let us see in what the charm consists that impels people to encounter bad food, bad wine, bad lodgings, and above all, protracted boredom, for a campaign in those historical hunting-grounds, that have always seemed to constitute the rosiest illusion of a sportsman's dream. CHAPTER XIV. THE SHIRES. "Every species of fence every horse doesn't suit, What's a good country hunter may here prove a brute," Sings that clerical bard who wrote the Billesdon-Coplow poem, from which I have already quoted; and it would be difficult to explain more tersely than do these two lines the difference between a fair useful hunter, and the flyer we call _par excellence_ "a Leicestershire horse!" Alas! for the favourite unrivalled over Gloucestershire walls, among Dorsetshire doubles, in the level ploughs of Holderness, or up and down the wild Derbyshire hills, when called upon to gallop, we will say, from Ashby pastures to the Coplow, after a week's rain, at Quorn pace, across Quorn fences, unless he happens to possess with the speed of a steeple-chaser, the courage of a lion and the activity of a cat! For the first mile or two "pristinæ virtutis haud immemor" he bears him gallantly enough, even the unaccustomed rail on the far side of an "oxer," elicits but a startling exertion, and a loud rattle of horn and iron against wood, but ere long the slope rises against him, the ridge-and-furrow checks his stride, a field, dotted with ant-hills as large as church-hassocks and not unlike them in shape, to catch his toes and impede his action, changes his smooth easy swing to a laborious flounder, and presently at a thick bullfinch on the crest of a grassy ridge, out of ground that takes him in nearly to his hocks, comes the crisis. Too good a hunter to turn over, he gets his shoulders out and lets his rider see the fall before it is administered, but down he goes notwithstanding, very effectually, to rise again after a struggle, his eye wild, nostril distended, and flanks heaving, thoroughly pumped out! He is a good horse, but you have brought him into the wrong country, and this is the result. It would be a hopeless task to extract from young Rapid's laconic phrases, and general indifference, any particulars regarding the burst in which, to give him his due, he has gone brilliantly, or the merits of the horse that carried him in the first flight without a mistake. He wastes his time, his money, his talents, but not his words. For him and his companions, question and answer are cut short somewhat in this wise:-- "Did you get away with them from the Punchbowl?" "Yes, I was among the lucky ones." "Is, 'The King of the Golden Mines' any use?" "I fancy he is good enough." And yet he is reflecting on the merits of Self and Co. with no little satisfaction, and does not grudge one shilling of the money--a hundred down, and a bill for two hundred and fifty--that the horse with the magnificent name cost him last spring. Their performance, I admit, does them both credit. I will endeavour to give a rough sketch of the somewhat hazardous amusement that puts him out of conceit with the sport shown by his father's hounds. Let us picture to ourselves then, Rapid junior, resplendent in the whitest of breeches and brightest of boots, with a single-breasted, square-cut scarlet coat, a sleek hat curly of brim, four feet of cane hunting-whip in his hand, a flower at his breast, and a toothpick in his mouth, replaced by an enormous cigar as somebody he doesn't know suggests they are not likely to find. Though he looks so helpless, and more than half-asleep, he is wide-awake enough in fact, and dashes the weed unlighted from his lips, when he spies the huntsman stand up in his stirrups as though on the watch. There lurks a fund of latent energy under the placidity of our friend's demeanour, and, as four couple of hounds come streaming out of cover, he shoots up the bank rather too near them, to pick his place without hesitation in an ugly bullfinch at the top. Two of his own kind are making for the same spot at the same moment, and our young friend shows at such a crisis, that he knows how to ride. Taking "The King of the Golden Mines," hard by the head, he changes his aim on the instant, and rams the good horse at four feet of strong timber, leaning towards him, with an energy not to be denied. Over they go triumphantly, "The King," half affronted, "catching hold" with some resentment, as he settles vigorously to his stride. What matter? most of the pack are already half-way across the next field, for Leicestershire hounds have an extraordinary knack of flying forward to overtake their comrades. His father would be delighted with the performance, and would call it "scoring to cry," but young Rapid does not trouble himself about such matters. He is only glad to find they are out of his way, and thinks no more about it, except to rejoice that he can "put the steam on," without the usual remonstrance from huntsman and master. The King can gallop like a race-horse, and is soon at the next leap--a wide ditch, a high staked-and-bound hedge, coarse, rough and strong, with a drop and what you please, on the other side. This last treat proves to be a bowed-out oak-rail, standing four feet from the fence. "The King," full of courage, and going fast, bounds over the whole with his hind legs tucked under him like a deer, ready, but not requiring, to strike back, while two of Rapid's young friends with whom he dined yesterday, and one he will meet at dinner to-day, fly it in similar form, nearly alongside. An ugly, overgrown bullfinch, with a miniature ravine, or, as it is here called, "a bottom," appears at the foot of the hill they are now descending, and, as there seems only one practicable place, these four reckless individuals at once begin to race for the desirable spot. The King's turn of speed serves him again; covering five- or six-and-twenty feet, he leaps it a length in front of the nearest horse, and a couple of strides before the other two, while loud reproachful outcries resound in the rear because of Harmony's narrow escape--the King's forefoot, missing that priceless bitch by a yard! Our young gentleman, having got a lead now, begins to ride with more judgment. He trots up to a stile and pops over in truly artistic form; better still, he gives the hounds plenty of room on the fallow beyond, where they have hovered for a moment and put down their noses, holding his hand up to warn those behind, a "bit of cheek," as they call this precautionary measure, which he will be made to remember for some days to come! He is not such a fool but that he knows, from experience in the old country, how a little patience at these critical moments makes the whole difference between a good day's sport and a bad. It would be provoking to lose the chance of a gallop now, when he has got such a start, and is riding the best horse in his stable, so he looks anxiously over his shoulder for the huntsman, who is "coming," and stands fifty yards aloof, which he considers a liberal allowance, that the hounds may have space to swing. To-day there is a good scent and a good fox, a combination that happens oftener than might be supposed. Harmony, who, notwithstanding her recent peril, has never been off the line, though the others over-shot it, scours away at a tangent, with the slightest possible whimper, and her stern down, the leading hounds wheeling to her like pigeons, and the whole pack driving forward again, harder than before. It is a beautiful turn; young Rapid would admire it, no doubt, were his attention not distracted by the gate out of the field, which is chained up, and a hurried calculation as to whether it is too high for the King to attempt. The solution is obvious. I need hardly say he jumps it gallantly in his stride. It would never do, you see, to let those other fellows catch him, and he sails away once more with a stronger lead than at first. What a hunting panorama opens on his view!--a downward stretch of a couple of miles, and a gentle rise beyond of more than twice that distance, consisting wholly of enormous grass fields, dotted here and there with single trees, and separated by long lines of fences, showing black and level on that faded expanse of green. The smoke from a farm-house rises white and thin against the dull sky in the middle distance, and a taper church-spire points to heaven from behind the hill, otherwise there is not an object for miles to recall everyday life; and young Rapid's world consists at this moment of two reeking pointed ears, with a vision of certain dim shapes, fleeting like shadows across the open--swift, dusky, and noiseless as a dream. His blood thrills with excitement, from the crown of his close-cropped head to his silken-covered heel, but education is stronger than nature, and he tightens his lips, perhaps to repress a cheer, while he murmurs--"Over the brook for a hundred! and the King never turned from water in his life." Two more fences bring him to the level meadow with its willows. Harmony is shaking herself on the farther bank, and he has marked with his eye the spot where he means to take off. A strong pull, a steady hand, the energy of a mile gallop condensed into a dozen strides, and the stream passes beneath him like a flash. "It's a _rum_ one!" he murmurs, standing up in his stirrups to ease the good horse, while one follower exclaims "Bravo! Rapid. Go along, old man!" as the speaker plunges overhead; and another, who lands with a scramble, mutters, "D----n him, I shall never catch him! my horse is done to a turn _now_." "The King," his owner thinks, is well worth the £350 that has _not_ been paid. The horse has caught his second wind, and keeps striding on, strong and full of running, though temperate enough now, and, in such a country as this, a truly delightful mount. [Illustration: Page 242.] There is no denying that our friend is a capital horseman, and bold as need be. "The King of the Golden Mines," with a _workman_ on his back, can hardly be defeated by any obstacle that the power and spring of a quadruped ought to surmount. He has tremendous stride, and no less courage than his master, so fence after fence is thrown behind the happy pair with a sensation like flying that seems equally gratifying to both. The ground is soft but sound enough; the leaps, though large, are fair and clean. One by one they are covered in light, elastic bounds, of eighteen or twenty feet, and for a mile, at least, the King scarcely alters his action, and never changes his leg. Young Rapid would ask no better fun than to go on like this for a week. Once he has a narrow escape. The fox having turned short up a hedgerow after crossing it, the hounds, though running _to kill_, turn _as_ short, for which they deserve the praise there is nobody present to bestow, and Rapid, charging the fence with considerable freedom, just misses landing in the middle of the pack. I know it, because he acknowledged it after dinner, professing, at the same time, devout thankfulness that master and huntsman were too far off to see. Just such another turn is made at the next fence, but this time on the near side. The hounds disappear suddenly, tumbling over each other into the ditch like a cascade. Peering between his horse's ears, the successful rider can distinguish only a confused whirl of muddy backs, and legs, and sterns, seen through a cloud of steam; but smothered growls, with a certain vibration of the busy cluster, announce that they have got him, and Rapid so far forgets himself as to venture on a feeble "Who--whoop!" Before he can leap from the saddle the huntsman comes up followed by two others, one of whom, pulling out his watch, with a delighted face repeats frantically, "Seven-and-twenty minutes, and a kill in the open! _What_ a good gallop! Not the ghost of a check from end to end. Seven-and-twenty minutes," and so on, over and over again. While the field straggle in, and the obsequies of this good fox are properly celebrated, a little enthusiasm would be justifiable enough on the part of a young gentleman who has "had the best of it" unquestionably through the whole of so brilliant a scurry. He might be expected to enlarge volubly, and with excusable self-consciousness, on the pace, the country, the straight running of the fox, the speed and gallantry of the hounds; nor could we blame him for praising by implication his own determined riding in a tribute to "The King of the Golden Mines." But such extravagancies are studiously repudiated and repressed by the school to which young Rapid belongs. All he _does_ say is this-- "I wonder when the second horses will come up? I want some luncheon before we go and find another fox." I have already observed that in the shires we put two days into one. Where seventy or eighty couple of hounds are kept and thirty horses, to hunt four times a week, with plenty of country, in which you may find a fox every five minutes, there can be no reason for going home while light serves; and really good scenting days occur so rarely that we may well be tempted to make the most of one even with jaded servants and a half-tired pack of hounds. The field, too, are considerably diminished by three or four o'clock. One has no second horse, another must get home to write his letters, and, if within distance of Melton, some hurry back to play whist. Everything is comparative. With forty or fifty horsemen left, a huntsman breathes more freely, and these, who are probably enthusiasts, begin to congratulate themselves that the best of the day is yet to come. "Let us go and draw Melton Spinney," is a suggestion that brightens every eye; and the Duke will always draw Melton Spinney so long as he can see. It is no unusual thing for his hounds to kill, and, I have been told, they once _found_ their fox by moonlight, so that it is proverbial all over his country, if you only stop out late enough, you are sure of a run with the Belvoir at last. And then, whether you belong to the school of young Rapid or his father, you will equally have a treat. Are you fond of hounds? Here is a pack that cannot be surpassed, to delight the most fastidious eye, satisfy the most critical taste. Do you like to see them _hunt_? Watch how these put their noses down, tempering energy with patience, yet so bustling and resolute as to work a bad scent into a good one. Are you an admirer of make-and-shape? Mark this perfect symmetry of form, bigger, stronger, and tougher than it looks. Do you understand kennel management and condition? Ask Gillard why his hounds are never known to tire, and get from him what hints you can. Lastly, do you want to gallop and jump, defeat your dearest friends, and get to the end of your best horse? That is but a moderate scenting-day, on which the Belvoir will not afford opportunity to do both. If you can live with them while they run, and see them race into their fox at the finish, I congratulate you on having science, nerve, all the qualities of horsemanship, a good hunter, and, above all, a good groom. These remarks as to pace, stoutness, and sporting qualities, apply also to the Quorn, the Cottesmore, and the Pytchley. This last, indeed, with its extensive range of woodlands in Rockingham Forest, possesses the finest hunting country in England, spacious enough to stand six days a week in the mildest of winters all the season through. Under the rule of Lord Spencer, who has brought to bear on his favourite amusement the talent, energy, and administrative powers that, while they remained in office, were so serviceable to his party, the Pytchley seems to have recovered its ancient renown, and the sport provided for the white collars during the last year or two has been much above the average. His lordship thoroughly understands the whole management of hounds, in the kennel and the field, is enthusiastically fond of the pursuit, and, being a very determined rider as well as an excellent judge of a horse, is always present in an emergency to observe the cause and take measures for the remedy. Will Goodall has but little to learn as a huntsman, and, like his father, the unrivalled Will Goodall of Belvoir celebrity, places implicit confidence in his hounds. "They can put me right," seems his maxim, "oftener than I can put them!" If a man wanted to see "a gallop in the shires" at its best, he should meet the Pytchley some Saturday in February at Waterloo Gorse, but I am bound to caution him that he ought to ride a brilliant hunter, and, as young Rapid would say, "harden his heart" to make strong use of him. Large grass fields, from fifty to a hundred acres in extent, carrying a rare scent, are indeed tempting; but to my own taste, though perhaps in this my reader may not agree with me, they would be more inviting were they not separated by such forbidding fences. A high black-thorn hedge, strong enough to hold an elephant, with one, and sometimes two ditches, fortified, moreover, in many cases, by a rail placed half a horse's length off to keep out cattle from the thorns, offers, indeed, scope for all the nobler qualities of man and beast, but while sufficiently perilous for glory, seems to my mind rather too stiff for pleasure! And yet I have seen half-a-dozen good men well-mounted live with hounds over this country for two or three miles on end without a fall, nor do I believe that in these stiffly fenced grazing grounds the average of dirty coats is greater than in less difficult-looking districts. It may be that those who compete are on the best of hunters, and that a horse finds all his energies roused by the formidable nature of such obstacles, if he means to face them at all! And now a word about those casualties which perhaps rather enhance than damp our ardour in the chase. Mr. Assheton Smith used to say that no man could be called a good rider who did not _know how to fall_. Founded on his own exhaustive experience there is much sound wisdom in this remark. The oftener a man is down, the less likely is he to be hurt, and although, as the old joke tells us, absence of body as regards danger seems even preferable to presence of mind, the latter quality is not without its advantage in the crisis that can no longer be deferred. I have seen men so flurried when their horses' noses touched the ground as to fling themselves wildly from the saddle, and meet their own apprehensions half-way, converting an uncertain scramble into a certain downfall. Now it should never be forgotten that a horse in difficulties has the best chance of recovery if the rider sits quiet in the middle of his saddle and lets the animal's head alone. It is always time enough to part company when his own knee touches the ground, and as he then knows exactly _where_ his horse is, he can get out of the way of its impending body, ere it comes heavily to the earth. If his seat is not strong enough to admit of such desirable tenacity, let him at least keep a firm hold of the bridle; that connecting link will, so to speak, "preserve his communications," and a kick with one foot, or timely roll of his own person, will take him out of harm's way. The worst fall a man can get is to be thrown over his horse's head, with such violence as to lay him senseless till the animal, turning a somersault, crushes his prostrate body with all the weight of its own. Such accidents must sometimes happen, of course, but they are not necessarily of every-day occurrence. By riding with moderate speed at his fences, and preserving, on all occasions, coolness, good-humour, and confidence in his partner, a sportsman, even when past his prime, may cross the severest parts of the Harborough country itself with an infinitesimal amount of danger to life and limb. Kindness, coercion, hand, seat, valour, and discretion should be combined in due proportion, and the mixture, as far as the hunting-field is concerned, will come out a real _elixir vitæ_ such as the pale Rosicrucian poring over crucible and alembic sought to compound in vain. I cannot forbear quoting once more from the gallant soul-stirring lines of Mr. Bromley Davenport, himself an enthusiast who, to this day, never seems to remember he has a neck to break! "What is time? the effusion of life zoophytic, In dreary pursuit of position or gain. What is life? the absorption of vapours mephitic, The bursting of sunlight on senses and brain. Such a life has been mine, though so speedily over, Condensing the joys of a century's course, From the find, till they ate him near Woodwell-Head Covert, In thirty bright minutes from Banksborough Gorse!" Yes, when all is said and done, perhaps the very acme and perfection of a _riding_ run, is to be attained within fifteen miles of Melton. A man who has once been fortunate enough to find himself, for ever so short a distance, leading "The cream of the cream, in the shire of shires," will never, I imagine, forget his feelings of triumph and satisfaction while he occupied so proud a position; nor do I think that, as a matter of mere amusement and pleasurable excitement, life can offer anything to compare with a good horse, a good conscience, a good start, and "A quick thirty minutes from Banksborough Gorse." THE END. LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C. _193, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W. NOVEMBER, 1877._ Chapman and Hall's CATALOGUE OF BOOKS. 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THE LIBRARY OF CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE. Some degree of truth has been admitted in the charge not unfrequently brought against the English, that they are assiduous rather than solid readers. They give themselves too much to the lighter forms of literature. Technical Science is almost exclusively restricted to its professed votaries, and, but for some of the Quarterlies and Monthlies, very little solid matter would come within the reach of the general public. But the circulation enjoyed by many of these very periodicals, and the increase of the scientific journals, may be taken for sufficient proof that a taste for more serious subjects of study is now growing. Indeed there is good reason to believe that if strictly scientific subjects are not more universally cultivated, it is mainly because they are not rendered more accessible to the people. Such themes are treated either too elaborately, or in too forbidding a style, or else brought out in too costly a form to be easily available to all classes. With the view of remedying this manifold and increasing inconvenience, we are glad to be able to take advantage of a comprehensive project recently set on foot in France, emphatically the land of Popular Science. The well-known publishers MM. Reinwald and Co., have made satisfactory arrangements with some of the leading _savants_ of that country to supply an exhaustive series of works on each and all of the sciences of the day, treated in a style at once lucid, popular, and strictly methodic. The names of MM. P. Broca, Secretary of the Société d'Anthropologie; Ch. Martins, Montpellier University; C. Vogt, University of Geneva; G. de Mortillet, Museum of Saint Germain; A. Guillemin, author of "Ciel" and "Phénomènes de la Physique;" A. Hovelacque, editor of the "Revue de Linguistique;" Dr. Dally, Dr. Letourneau, and many others, whose cooperation has already been secured, are a guarantee that their respective subjects will receive thorough treatment, and will in all cases be written up to the very latest discoveries, and kept in every respect fully abreast of the times. We have, on our part, been fortunate in making such further arrangements with some of the best writers and recognised authorities here, as will enable us to present the series in a thoroughly English dress to the reading public of this country. In so doing we feel convinced that we are taking the best means of supplying a want that has long been deeply felt. The volumes in actual course of execution, or contemplated, will embrace such subjects as: SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE. [_Ready._ BIOLOGY. [_In November._ ANTHROPOLOGY. [_In December._ COMPARATIVE MYTHOLOGY. ASTRONOMY. PREHISTORIC ARCH�OLOGY. ETHNOGRAPHY. GEOLOGY. HYGIENE. POLITICAL ECONOMY. 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Page Error iv STREET HILL, changed to STREET HILL. 6 have so thorougly changed to have so thoroughly 32 accomplished animal. changed to accomplished animal, 38 insurbordinate changed to insubordinate 45 of a Pelham changed to of a Pelham. 49 recover him self changed to recover himself 80 you half sa changed to you half so 86 combination of skill changed to combination of skill, 104 manoeuvre ill changed to manoeuvre till 112 and the liver changed to and the liver. 118 "pluck' changed to "pluck" 120 panicstricken changed to panic-stricken 160 light man' changed to light man's 193 Page 193 changed to Page 193. 208 may turn you changed to may turn your Ads 6 £1 4s changed to £1 4s. (below Experiences of a Planter...) Ads 6 £1 8s changed to £1 8s. (below The Life and Times of Prince Charles...) Ads 9 [_In November_ changed to [_In November._ Ads 11 3s. 6d changed to 3s. 6d. (below Struggle for National Education) Ads 12 SCHMID (HERMAN changed to SCHMID (HERMAN) Ads 15 Civilisation,' changed to Civilisation," Ads 16 [_In November_ changed to [_In November._ Ads 25 WAS RIGHT changed to WAS RIGHT. Ads 28 Sprays, 8d changed to Sprays, 8d. Ads 31 FEMALE SKELETON changed to FEMALE SKELETON, The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated. a-slant / aslant black-thorn / blackthorn clock-work / clockwork down-hill / downhill every-day / everyday eye-lash / eyelash Free-hand / Freehand hand-gate / handgate head-stall / headstall lee-way / leeway nose-band / noseband race-course / racecourse race-horse / racehorse steeple-chase / steeplechase thorough-bred / thoroughbred 
35450	----	Distributed Proofreading Canada Team at http://www.pgdpcanada.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) Our Cats BY Harrison Weir. [Illustration:] [Illustration: The Author With all good wishes, Yours truly Harrison Weir 1889 Engraved by R. TAYLOR, from a Photograph by G. GLANVILLE, of Tunbridge Wells.] OUR CATS AND ALL ABOUT THEM. THEIR VARIETIES, HABITS, AND MANAGEMENT; AND FOR SHOW, THE STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE AND BEAUTY; DESCRIBED AND PICTURED [Illustration] BY HARRISON WEIR, F.R.H.S. _NEW EDITION._ London: PUBLISHED BY THE "FANCIERS' GAZETTE," LIMITED, 54-57, IMPERIAL BUILDINGS, LUDGATE CIRCUS. 1892. [_All rights reserved._] TO MY DEAR WIFE, Alice Mary, I DEDICATE THIS BOOK, IN TOKEN OF MY APPRECIATION OF HER GENTLE AND TENDER KINDNESS TOWARDS ALL ANIMAL LIFE, MORE PARTICULARLY "THE CAT." "_Iddesleigh," Sevenoaks._ PREFACE. "What is aught, but as 'tis valued?" _Troilus and Cressida_, Act II. The following notes and illustrations of and respecting the Cat are the outcome of over fifty years' careful, thoughtful, heedful observation, much research, and not unprofitable attention to the facts and fancies of others. From a tiny child to the present, the love of Nature has been my chief delight; animals and birds have not only been objects of study, but of deep and absorbing interest. I have noted their habits, watched their ways, and found lasting pleasure in their companionship. This love of animal life and Nature, with all its moods and phases, has grown with me from childhood to manhood, and is not the least enjoyable part of my old age. Among animals possibly the most perfect, and certainly the most domestic, is the Cat. I did not think so always, having had a bias against it, and was some time coming to this belief; nevertheless, such is the fact. It is a veritable part of our household, and is both useful, quiet, affectionate, and ornamental. The small or large dog may be regarded and petted, but is generally _useless_; the Cat, a pet or not, _is of service_. Were it not for our Cats, rats and mice would overrun our house, buildings, cultivated and other lands. If there were not _millions_ of Cats, there would be _billions_ of vermin. Long ages of neglect, ill-treatment, and absolute cruelty, with little or no gentleness, kindness, or training, have made the Cat self-reliant; and from this emanates the marvellous powers of observation, the concentration of which has produced a state analogous to reasoning, not unmixed with timidity, caution, wildness, and a retaliative nature. But should a new order of things arise, and it is nurtured, petted, cosseted, talked to, noticed, and _trained_, with mellowed firmness and tender gentleness, then in but a few generations much evil that bygone cruelty has stamped into its often wretched existence will disappear, and it will be more than ever not only a useful, serviceable helpmate, but an object of increasing interest, admiration, and cultured beauty, and, thus being of value, profitable. Having said this much, I turn to the pleasurable duty of recording my deep sense of the kindness of those warm-hearted friends who have assisted me in "my labour of love," not the least among these being those publishers, who, with a generous and prompt alacrity, gave me permission to make extracts, excerpts, notes, and quotations from the following high-class works, their property. My best thanks are due to Messrs. Longmans & Co., Blaine's "Encyclopædia of British Sports;" Allen & Co., Rev. J. F. Thiselton Dyer's "English Folk-lore;" Cassell & Company (Limited), Dr. Brewer's "Dictionary of Phrase and Fable," and "Old and New London;" Messrs. Chatto & Windus, "History of Sign-boards;" Mr. J. Murray, Jamieson's "Scottish Dictionary," and others. I am also indebted to Messrs. Walker & Boutal, and The Phototype Company, for the able manner in which they have rendered my drawings; and for the careful printing, to my good friends Messrs. Charles Dickens & Evans. HARRISON WEIR. "IDDESLEIGH," SEVENOAKS, _May_ 5_th_, 1889. PREFACE TO NEW EDITION. "'Twas pitiful, 'twas wondrous pitiful." _Othello._ Some time has passed since I published my book, "Our Cats and all about them," in 1889, and much has taken place regarding these household pets. All know as well as myself that each and everything about us changes, nothing stands still; that which is of to-day is past, and that which was hidden often revealed, sometimes by mere accident, at others by scientific research; but one was scarcely prepared in any way for so wonderful "a find" as that of the large number of "mummy" Cats at Beni Hassan, Central Egypt. They were discovered by an Egyptian fellah, employed in husbandry, who tumbled into a pit which, on further examination, proved to be a large subterranean cave completely filled with mummy Cats, every one of which had been separately embalmed and wrapped in cloth, after the manner of the Egyptian human mummies, all being laid out carefully in rows; and here they had lain probably about three or four thousand years. The "totem" of a section of the ancients, as is well known, was the Cat; hence when a Cat died it was buried with due honours, being embalmed, and often decorated in various ways, and, in short, had as much attention paid to it as a human being. It had long been believed that a Cat cemetery existed on the east bank of the Nile, and in the autumn of 1889 the lucky Egyptian, about 100 miles from Cairo, came unexpectedly upon it. Immediately on "the find" becoming known, "specimen" mummy Cats were written for to agents in Egypt, one friend of mine sending for four, and it appeared for a while that much money would be realised by the owner of the cave or land in this way; but the number was too great, and the prices and the interest gave way, and, sad to relate, these former "Deities" were dug out of their resting-place by hundreds of thousands, and quickly sold to local farmers, being used for enriching the land. Other lots found their way to an Alexandrian merchant, and were by him sent to Liverpool on board the steamer _Pharos and Thebes_. The consignment consisted of 19½ tons, and were sold by auction, mostly being bought by a local "fertiliser" merchant. The auction was only known to the trade, and the lots were "knocked down" at the "giving away" sums of £3 13_s._ 9_d._, £3 17_s._, to £4 5_s._ _per ton_, the big and the perfect ones being picked out for the museum and private collections. The broker who sold used a head of one of these Cats in lieu of an auctioneer's hammer. And now these tons of "deified" Cats are used for manure, and in our English soil plants grow into them, and on them, and of them; and, if it be true, as chemists assert, these plants take into their system that on which they feed, and so, if so, possibly in our very bread that we have eaten, we have swallowed "_a little_ at a time part of if not the whole of a deified cat." I made several endeavours to find out from those on the spot at Liverpool whether there was any hair of colours in existence among the mass of bodies; but in no case could I succeed in getting any, as I had hoped by this means to possibly come to some conclusion as to the kind or breed. Of course, it is well known from mummies long in this country what form, size, and general appearance the Egyptian possessed; but as yet, as far as I can learn, no one has found so much, if any, of the fur as to be able to determine the colour. Apropos with the above, as applying the bodies of the mummy Cats for manure, comes the modern idea of keeping Cats for their fur. It is stated that a company has been formed in America for that purpose in Washington, and an island of some size has been bought or leased for the purpose. The intention is to raise entirely black Cats; and as their place of abode will be surrounded by water, it is conjectured that after the first importation they will go on propagating and producing only Cats of that beautiful though sombre dark hue. The Cats with which the island is to be stocked are to be procured from Holland, where already the "industry" is "at work." So much so that a friend of mine, an elderly gentleman, sending to a furrier in Holland to know what kind of fur he would recommend as the best for warmth, received the reply that Cats' skins "were the most useful and warmest." A few days ago he called on me wrapped in a cloth coat, with fur collar and cuffs, and _lining throughout of black Cats' skins_, and I am bound to say that the general appearance was much in its favour; he also stated that he was in every way perfectly satisfied. By-the-bye, the Cat Company intend to feed their Cats on fish, which abound about the shores of their island, and so they affirm the food will cost nothing, and their profits consequently be very large. But in this I hope they have been well informed as to the adaptability of the Cat to feed _entirely_ on fish, for of this I have my doubts; certainly those I have had did not appear to thrive if they had fish too often. Again, as the Cats are to roam the island at their "own sweet will," I take it there will be at times some "damaging of fur" by the playful way in which they so often engage, when jealousy incites them to mortal combat. But possibly this has been considered and duly entered in the "profit and loss" account. While writing that portion of my book in which I referred to the superstitions connected with the domestic Cat, and the amazing stories told of the witches' Cats, I felt convinced that in those darkened and foolish times that the very fact of the wonderful faculty the Cat possesses of applying what it observes to its own purposes was in some way the cause of the ignorant and superstitious considering that it was "possessed" of an evil spirit. I therefore searched for proofs among the evidence given at the trial of witches, and was, as I expected, rewarded for my trouble. What a Cat would do now would not unreasonably be thought clever and showing much sagacity, if not attributes of a deeper kind. Yet I find that at a trial for witchcraft, the following questions were put to a man: "Well! and what did you see?" "Well! I saw her Cat walk up and try to open the door by the latch." "What did you do?" "I immediately killed it." This, which is now regarded as an everyday example of the intelligence of the Cat, bore hardly in the evidence against the witch. Sir Walter Scott, in his letter on "Demonology and Witchcraft," tells of "a poor old woman condemned, as usual, on her own confession, and on the testimony of a neighbour, who deposed that he saw a Cat jump in the accused person's cottage through the window at twilight, one evening, and that he verily believed the Cat to be the devil, on which precious testimony the poor wretch was hanged." One more note and I leave the subject. A certain carpenter, named William Montgomery, was so infested with Cats, which, as his servant-maid reported, "spoke among themselves," that he fell in a rage upon a party of these animals, which had assembled in his house at irregular hours, and betwixt his Highland arms of knife, dirk, and broadsword, and his professional weapon of an axe, he made such a dispersion that they were quiet for the night. In consequence of his blows _two witches_ are said to have died. Since writing of the English wild Cat, I had the pleasure of meeting Mr. Francis Darwin (brother of Mr. Charles Darwin) on board the steamboat going to St. Servan, when, in the course of conversation, he informed me that a wild Cat was killed at Bramhope Moor Plantation, in 1841, a keeper having caught it in _two_ traps. In February of this year, 1891, my kind friend, Mr. Dresser, of Orpington, the well-known naturalist, wrote to me to know whether I would like to have a kitten half-bred between the British Wild Cat and a domestic she Cat, which I was unfortunately obliged to decline, fearing it would "make matters unpleasant" with what I had. He very kindly supplied me with the following particulars forwarded to him by O. H. Mactheyer, Esq.: "Mr. Harrison Weir can see the papa of the kitten at the Zoo. "He is a young Cat (under a year old, we thought, by the teeth). He was seen one moonlight night in company with my 'stalker's' small lean black Cat, right away in my deer forest. We caught the papa in a trap after he had killed a number of grouse, and not being badly hurt, I sent him to Bartlett at the Zoo. We are thoroughly up to real wild Cats here. I have caught them forty-three inches from nose to tail-end; tails as thick at the point as at the root; the ears are also differently set on. Martin Cats, Polecats, and Badgers are all extinct here, and it is ten years since we got the last wild Cat, but three have been killed in this district this winter." I insert the foregoing as being of much interest, it having been frequently stated that the wild Cat will not mate with the domestic Cat. The kitten offered to me is now at Fawley Court, Bucks. Among the numerous letters I have received from America is one from Mrs. Mary A. C. Livermore, of Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., who writes: "I have just come possessed of a black long-haired Cat from Maine. It is neither Persian, Angora, nor Indian. They are called here 'Coon' Cats, and it is vulgarly supposed to be a cross between a common Cat and a 'Coon.' Mine is a rusty bear-brown colour, but his relatives have been black and white, blue and white, and fawn and white, the latter the gentlest, prettiest Cat I know. His tail is very bushy and a fine ruff adorns his neck. A friend of mine has a pair of these Cats, all black, and the female consorts with no one but her mate. Yet often she has in her litter a common short-haired kitten." Since the above reached me, I have received from another correspondent in the United States a very beautiful photograph of what is termed a "Coon" Cat. It certainly differs much from the ordinary long-haired Cat in appearance; but as to its being a cross with the Racoon, such a supposition is totally out of the question, and the idea cannot be entertained. The photographs sent to me show that the ears are unusually large, the head long, the length being in excess from the eyes to the tip of the nose, the legs and feet are large and evenly covered with long, somewhat coarse hair, the latter being devoid of tufts between and at the extremity of the toes; there are no long hairs of any consequence either within the ears or at their apex. The frill or mane is considerable, as is the length of the hair covering the body; the tail is rather short and somewhat thick, well covered with hair of equal length, and in shape like a fox's brush. The eyes are large, round, and full, with a wild staring expression. Certainly, the breed, however it may be obtained, is most interesting to the Cat naturalist, and the colour, as before stated, being peculiar, must of course attract his attention independently of its general appearance. Since the above was written, I have received the following from Mr. Henry Brooker, The Elms, West Midford, Massachusetts, United States of America. After asking for information respecting Cats of certain breeds, he says: "I have had for a number of years a peculiar strain of long-haired Cats; they come from the islands off the coast of Maine, and are known in this country as 'Coon' Cats. The belief is that they have been crossed with the 'Coon.' This, of course, is untrue. The inhabitants of these islands are seafaring people, and many years ago some one on his vessel had a pair of long-haired Cats from which the strain has sprung. There are few short-haired cats on the island as there is no communication with the mainland except by boat. I want to improve my strain and get finer hair than the Cats now have. Yellow Cats are the most popular kind here, and I have succeeded in producing Cats of a rich mahogany colour with brushes like a fox. They hunt in the fields with me, and my Scotch terriers and they are on the most friendly terms." This, as a corroboration of the foregoing letters and the photographs, is, I take it, eminently satisfactory. I have been shown a Siberian Cat, by Mr. Castang, of Leadenhall Market; the breed is entirely new to me. It is a small female Cat of a slaty-blue colour, rather short in body and legs; the head is small and much rounded, while the ears are of medium size. The iris of the eyes is a deep golden colour, which, in contrast to the bluish colour of the fur, makes them to appear still more brilliant; the tail is short and thick, very much so at the base, and suddenly pointed at the tip. It is particularly timid and wild in its nature, and is difficult to approach; but, as Mr. Castang observed, this timidity may be "because it does not understand our language and does not know when it is called or spoken to." I think it would make a valuable Cat to cross with some English varieties. A correspondent writes: "In your book on Cats you do not mention Norwegian Cats. I was in Norway last year, and was struck by the Cats being different to any I had ever seen, being much stouter built, with thick close fur, mostly sandy, with stripes of dark yellow." I suppose I am to infer that both the sexes are of sandy yellow colour. If so, I should say it is more a matter of selection than a new colour. I find generally in the colder countries the fur is short, dense, and somewhat woolly, and as a rule, judging from the information that I am continually receiving, whole or entire colours predominate. Large Cats are by some sought after. This, I take it, is a great mistake, the fairly medium-sized Cat being much the handsomer of the two, and they are generally also devoid of that coarseness that is found apparent in the former; while small Cats are extremely pretty, and I understand are not only likely to be "in vogue," but are actually now being bred for their extreme _prettiness_. I have heard of some of these "Bantam" Cats being produced by that true and most excellent fancier, Mr. Herbert Young, who not only has produced a Tortoiseshell Tom Cat on lines laid down by myself, but is also engaged in breeding more, and I have not the least doubt he will be most successful, he having so been in producing new colours and some of the finest silver tabby short-haired Cats as yet seen; these short-haired Cats, in my opinion, far surpassing for beauty any long-hair ever exhibited, and are certainly of a "sweeter disposition." In my former edition of "Our Cats," I wrote hopefully and expectantly of much good to be derived from the institution of the so-called National Cat Club, and of which I was then President; but I am sorry to say that none of those hopes or expectations have been realised, and I now feel the _deepest regret_ that I was ever induced to be in any way associated with it. I do not care to go into particulars further than to say I found the principal idea of many of its members consisted not so much in promoting the welfare of the Cat as of winning prizes, and more particularly their own Cat Club medals, for which, though offered at public shows, the public were not allowed to compete, and when won by the members, in many cases the public were thoughtlessly misled by believing it was an open competition. I therefore felt it my duty to leave the club for that and other reasons. I have also left off judging of the Cats, even at my old much-loved show at the Crystal Palace, because I no longer cared to come into contact with _such_ "Lovers of Cats." I am very much in favour of the Cats' Homes. The one at Dublin, in which Miss Swift takes so much interest; the one in London, with Miss Mayhew working for it with the zeal of a true "Cat lover"; and that where Mr. Colam is the manager, all deserve and _have_ my _sincerest_ and _warmest_ approbation, sympathy, and support, standing out as they do in such bright contrast to those self-styled "Cat lovers," the National Cat Club. HARRISON WEIR, F.R.H.S. SEVENOAKS, _March_ 12_th_, 1892. ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Reduction of Cat's Head drawn for Posting Bill, Crystal Palace Cat Show, 1871 1 Silver Tankard presented by the Crystal Palace Company to the Author 3 Cat at Show 5 Miss Saunders' White Persian, "Muff" 6 "The Old Lady." Silver Tabby, good in colour and marking, the property of the Author, shown at the first Crystal Palace Cat Show, not for competition 13 Miss Saunders' Long-haired Cat, "Tiger" 16 "The Colonel." Deaf White Persian, the property of the Author 17 Miss F. Moore's Persian Cat, "Fez" 19 Miss Saunders' Long-haired Cat, "Tiger" 20 Specimen of a good White Angora 21 Miss F. Moore's Long-haired Kitten, "Dinah." This and "Chloe," as Kittens, won first prize and medal at the Crystal Palace, Brighton, and Bexley Cat Shows, 1887 23 Miss Saunders' very Light Blue Tabby, "Sylvie." A great beauty, and winner of first prize, silver medal, and silver sugar basin, at the Crystal Palace, 1886, as the best long-haired cat in the show; then the property of Mrs. Christopher 24 Mr. Lloyd's Black Persian, "Minnie." Winner of a large number of prizes at the Crystal Palace, etc. 26 Mr. A. A. Clarke's White Persian, "Tim." First prize and silver medal at the Crystal Palace, 1885, and winner of other prizes 27 Mrs. C. Herring's young Persian Kitten 29 Russian Long-haired Brown Tabby Cat, the property of the Author 30 Miss Mary Gresham's Persian Kitten, "Lambkin." (Also see reference, p. 36) 33 Long-haired Cat, from Daniel's "Rural Sports," 1813 34 Tail of the same 35 Miss Mary Gresham's "Lambkin No. 2." This, with "Lambkin" at p. 33, won first and special and silver medal at the Crystal Palace Show. These were of fine quality, and were said to be the best pair of long-haired kittens ever seen 36 Miss Moore's Long-haired Persian, "Bogey." First and medal at Albert Palace Show, 1885; second at Brighton Show 37 Miss Saunders' White Persian, "Fluffie" 38 Mr. Smith's Tortoiseshell He-Cat. The only tortoiseshell he-cat of entire colouring ever shown at the Crystal Palace, and winner of numerous first prizes 39 Example of Tortoiseshell Cat, very dark variety, purposely showing too much black, which is a defect 40 Light White and Sandy She-Cat and Kittens 43 Tortoiseshell-and-white Cat, finely marked, and prize-winner 44 Head of Mrs. Vyvyan's Royal Cat of Siam. Winner of prizes 47 Example of a properly-marked Brown Tabby, showing the width of the black bars and spaces between. A fine specimen 48 Example of a Brown Tabby, "Aaron," with the black bars far too wide, only showing the brown as streaks. This is a defect. Property of the Author 50 Well-marked Silver Black-banded Tabby. First prize in its class and special prize, Crystal Palace Show, 1886 51 White Cat at the Show. First prize, blue eyes and deep. 53 Example of a finely-marked Spotted Tabby He-Cat 54 Spotted Tabby Half-bred Indian Wild Cat 56 Head of a well-marked Striped Brown Tabby 57 Mrs. Herring's Dark Blue, Small-banded Tabby, "Chin." A very fine specimen, and winner of a large number of prizes, and in champion classes 60 Group of Kittens at the Crystal Palace Cat Show 61 White Cat. Prize-winner in 1879 62 Archangel Blue Cat 66 Group of Kittens in Box 67 Example of a properly-marked Black-and-White Cat 68 Mrs. Vyvyan's Royal Cat of Siam. Prize-winner 69 Mr. Lyon's curiously-marked White-and-Black Cat 70 White Cat. Winner of many prizes 72 Mrs. Lee's Royal Cat of Siam. Winner of many prizes 73 Head of properly-marked Siamese Cat 79 Mr. Thomas's Tortoiseshell Manx She-Cat. Winner of many prizes at the Crystal Palace 80 Mr. Thomas's Brown Tabby Manx Kitten 83 Kittens at the Show 86 Kittens after the Show 90 The Game of Ball 108 Cat and Kittens. "Happy" 109 What is it? 114 Tired of Play 117 Miss Moore's Long-haired Kitten, "Chloe." (See description of "Dinah" for p. 23.) Chloe has been several times shown alone, and never without winning 119 The Cat Club Challenge Vase, presented by Mr. A. A. Clarke, to be won three times by the same exhibitor before it is his actual property 122 Example of a finely-marked Tortoiseshell Cat 123 Mr. Babb's beautiful properly-marked Light Silver Tabby She-Cat. First prize in her class, silver medal and plate as being the best short-haired cat in the Crystal Palace Show, 1888; also winner of many prizes at other shows 133 Example of a well-marked Black-and-White He-Cat 134 Mr. A. A. Clarke's extremely beautiful White Persian She-Cat, "Miss Whitey." At the Crystal Palace Show in 1888, first in her class, taking the Crystal Palace silver medal for the best female cat in the section, the silver-mounted Doulton ware five o'clock tea-set for the best long-haired cat in the exhibition, the gold medal given by the National Cat Club for the best long-haired cat belonging to a member, the National Cat Club Challenge Cup, and also winner of numerous first prizes elsewhere 140 "In full play" 143 Head of Miss Saunders' "Sylvie." (See other description) 146 Wild Cat shown at the Crystal Palace Cat Show, 1871, by the Duke of Sutherland; caught in Sutherlandshire 154 English Wild Cat, from the British Museum 160 Heading to "Cat Proverbs" 185 Cat watching Mouse-hole 209 Cat on Tight-rope with White Mice 215 Cat made of Snail Shells and Wax 219 Blue Long-haired Persian Cat. Prize-winner 223 Head of Wild Cat 239 [Illustration: A reduction of the large black Cat's Head, drawn for the Posting Bill giving notice of the first Cat Show at the Crystal Palace, July 16, 1871.] OUR CATS AND ALL ABOUT THEM. INTRODUCTORY. After a Cat Show at the Crystal Palace, I usually receive a number of letters requesting information. One asks: "What is a true tortoiseshell like?" Another: "What is a tabby?" and yet another: "What is a blue tabby?" One writes of the "splendid disposition" of his cat, another asks how to cure a cat scratching the furniture, and so on. After much consideration, and also at the request of many, I have thought it best to publish my notes on cats, their ways, habits, instincts, peculiarities, usefulness, colours, markings, forms, and other qualities that are required as fitting subjects to exhibit at what is now one of the instituted exhibitions of "The land we live in," and also the Folk and other lore, both ancient and modern, respecting them. It is many years ago that, when thinking of the large number of cats kept in London alone, I conceived the idea that it would be well to hold "Cat Shows," so that the different breeds, colours, markings, etc., might be more carefully attended to, and the domestic cat, sitting in front of the fire, would then possess a beauty and an attractiveness to its owner unobserved and unknown because uncultivated heretofore. Prepossessed with this view of the subject, I called on my friend Mr. Wilkinson, the then manager of the Crystal Palace. With his usual businesslike clear-headedness, he saw it was "a thing to be done." In a few days I presented my scheme in full working order: the schedule of prizes, the price of entry, the number of classes, and the points by which they would be judged, the number of prizes in each class, their amount, the different varieties of colour, form, size, and sex for which they were to be given; I also made a drawing of the head of a cat to be printed in black on yellow paper for a posting bill. Mr. F. Wilson, the Company's naturalist and show manager, then took the matter in charge, worked hard, got a goodly number of cats together, among which was my blue tabby, "The Old Lady," then about fourteen years old, yet the best in the show of its colour and never surpassed, though lately possibly equalled. To my watch-chain I have attached the silver bell she wore at her _début_. My brother, John Jenner Weir, the Rev. J. Macdona, and myself acted as judges, and the result was a success far beyond our most sanguine expectations--so much so that I having made it a labour of love of the feline race, and acting "without fee, gratuity, or reward," the Crystal Palace Company generously presented me with a large silver tankard in token of their high approval of my exertions on behalf of "the Company," and--Cats. Now that a Cat Club is formed, shows are more numerous, and the entries increasing, there is every reason to expect a permanent benefit in every way to one of the most intelligent of (though often much abused) animals. [Illustration] THE FIRST CAT SHOW. On the day for judging, at Ludgate Hill I took a ticket and the train for the Crystal Palace. Sitting alone in the comfortable cushioned compartment of a "first class," I confess I felt somewhat more than anxious as to the issue of the experiment. Yes; what would it be like? Would there be many cats? How many? How would the animals comport themselves in their cages? Would they sulk or cry for liberty, refuse all food? or settle down and take the situation quietly and resignedly, or give way to terror? I could in no way picture to myself the scene; it was all so new. Presently, and while I was musing on the subject, the door was opened, and a friend got in. "Ah!" said he, "how are you?" "Tolerably well," said I; "I am on my way to the Cat Show." "What!" said my friend, "that surpasses everything! A show of cats! Why, I hate the things; I drive them off my premises when I see them. You'll have a fine bother with them in their cages! Or are they to be tied up? Anyhow, what a noise there will be, and how they will clutch at the bars and try and get out, or they will strangle themselves with their chains." "I am sorry, very sorry," said I, "that you do not like cats. For my part, I think them extremely beautiful, also very graceful in all their actions, and they are quite as domestic in their habits as the dog, if not more so. They are very useful in catching rats and mice; they are not deficient in sense; they will jump up at doors to push up latches with their paws. I have known them knock at a door by the knocker when wanting admittance. They know Sunday from the week-day, and do not go out to wait for the meat barrow on that day; they----" "Stop," said my friend, "I see you do like cats, and I do not, so let the matter drop." "No," said I, "not so. That is why I instituted this Cat Show; I wish every one to see how beautiful a well-cared-for cat is, and how docile, gentle, and--may I use the term?--cossetty. Why should not the cat that sits purring in front of us before the fire be an object of interest, and be selected for its colour, markings, and form? Now come with me, my dear old friend, and see the first Cat Show." Inside the Crystal Palace stood my friend and I. Instead of the noise and struggles to escape, there lay the cats in their different pens, reclining on crimson cushions, making no sound save now and then a homely purring, as from time to time they lapped the nice new milk provided for them. Yes, there they were, big cats, very big cats, middling-sized cats, and small cats, cats of all colours and markings, and beautiful pure white Persian cats; and as we passed down the front of the cages I saw that my friend became interested; presently he said: "What a beauty this is! and here's another!" "And no doubt," said I, "many of the cats you have seen before would be quite as beautiful if they were as well cared for, or at least cared for at all; generally they are driven about and ill-fed, and often ill-used, simply for the reason that they are cats, and for no other. Yet I feel a great pleasure in telling you the show would have been much larger were it not for the difficulty of inducing the owners to send their pets from home, though you see the great care that is taken of them." "Well, I had no idea there was such a variety of form, size, and colour," said my friend, and departed. A few months after, I called on him; he was at luncheon, with two cats on a chair beside him--pets I should say, from their appearance. [Illustration] This is not a solitary instance of the good of the first Cat Show in leading up to the observation of, and kindly feeling for, the domestic cat. Since then, throughout the length and breadth of the land there have been Cat Shows, and much interest is taken in them by all classes of the community, so much so that large prices have been paid for handsome specimens. It is to be hoped that by these shows the too often despised cat will meet with the attention and kind treatment that every dumb animal should have and ought to receive at the hands of humanity. Even the few instances of the shows generating a love for cats that have come before my own notice are a sufficient pleasure to me not to regret having thought out and planned the first Cat Show at the Crystal Palace. [Illustration] HABITS. Before attempting to describe the different varieties, I should like to make a few remarks as to the habits and ways of "the domestic cat." When judging, I have frequently found some of the exhibits of anything but a mild and placid disposition. Some have displayed a downright ferocity; others, on the contrary, have been excessively gentle, and very few but seemed to recognise their position, and submitted quietly to their confinement. This is easily accounted for when persons are accustomed to cats; they know what wonderful powers of observation the cat possesses, and how quickly they recognise the "why and the wherefore" of many things. Take for instance, how very _many_ cats will open a _latched_ door by springing up and holding on with one fore-leg while with the other they press down the latch catch, and so open the door; and yet even more observant are they than that, as I have shown by a case in my "Animal Stories, Old and New," in which a cat opened a door by pulling it _towards_ him, when he found _pushing_ it of no avail. The cat is more critical in noticing than the dog. I never knew but one dog that would open a door by moving the fastening without being shown or taught how to do it. Cats that have done so are numberless. I noticed one at the last Crystal Palace Show, a white cat: it looked up, it looked down, then to the right and then a little to the left, paused, seemed lost in thought, when, not seeing any one about, it crept up to the door, and with its paw tried to pull back the bolt or catch. On getting sight of me, it retired to a corner of the cage, shut its eyes, and pretended to sleep. I stood further away, and soon saw the paw coming through the bars again. This cat had noticed how the cage-door was fastened, and so knew how to open it. Many cats that are said to be spiteful are made so by ill-treatment, for, as a rule, I have found them to be most affectionate and gentle, and that to the last degree, attaching themselves to individuals, although such is stated not to be the case, yet of this I am certain. Having had several in my house at one time, I found that no two were the "followers" of the same member of my family. But it may be argued, and I think with some degree of justice, Why was this? Was it only that each cat had a separate liking? If so, why? Why should not three or four cats take a liking to the same individual? But they seldom or never do, and for that matter there seems somewhat the same feeling with dogs. This required some consideration, but that not of long duration. For I am sorry to say I rapidly came to the conclusion that it was jealousy. Yes, jealousy! There was no doubt of it. Zeno would be very cossetty, loving, lovable, and gentle, but when Lulu came in and was nursed he retired to a corner and seized the first opportunity of vanishing through the door. As soon as Zillah jumped on my knee and put her paws about my neck, Lulu looked at me, then at her, then at me, walked to the fire, sat down, looked round, got up, went to the door, cried to go out, the door was opened, and----she fled. I thought that Zillah seemed then more than ever--happy. Though jealousy is one of if not the ruling attributes of the cat, there are exceptions to such a rule. Sometimes it may be that two or more will take to the same person. As an instance of this I had two cats, one a red tabby, a great beauty; Lillah, a short-haired red-and-white cat; the latter and a white long-haired one, named "The Colonel," were great friends, and these associated with a tortoiseshell-and-white, Lizzie. None of these were absolutely house cats, but attended more to the poultry yards and runs, looking after the chicken, seeing that no rats were about or other "vermin," near the coops. Useful cats, very! Mine was then a very large garden, and generally of an evening, when at home, I used to walk about the numerous paths to admire the beauties of the different herbaceous plants, of which I had an interesting collection. Five was my time of starting on my ambulation, when, on going out of the door, I was sure to find the two first-named cats, and often the third, waiting for me, ready to go wherever I went, following like faithful dogs. These apparently never had any jealous feeling. Of all the cats Lillah was the most loving. If I stood still, she would look up, and watch the expression of my face. If she thought it was favourable to her, she would jump, and, clinging to my chest, put her fore-paws around my neck, and rub her head softly against my face, purring melodiously all the time, then move on to my shoulder, while "The Colonel" and his tortoiseshell friend Lizzie would press about my legs, uttering the same musical self-complacent sound. Here, there, and everywhere, even out into the road or into the wood, the pretty things would accompany me, seeming intensely happy. When I returned to the house, they would scamper off, bounding in the air, and playing with and tumbling over each other in the fullest and most frolicsome manner imaginable. No! I do not think that Lillah, The Colonel, or Lizzie ever knew the feeling of jealousy. But these, as I said before, were exceptions. They all had a sad ending, coming to an untimely death through being caught in wires set by poachers for rabbits. I have ever regretted the loss of the gentle Lillah. She was as beautiful as she was good, gentle, and loving, without a fault. It may have been noted in the foregoing I have said that my cats were always awaiting my coming. Just so. The cat seems to take note of time as well as place. At my town house I had a cat named Guadalquiver, which was fed on horseflesh brought to the door. Every day during the week he would go and sit ready for the coming of "the cat's-meat man," but he never did so on the Sunday. How it was he knew on that day that the man did not come I never could discover; still, the fact remains. How he, or whether he, counted the days until the sixth, and then rested the seventh from his watching, is a mystery. A similar case is related of an animal belonging to Mr. Trübner, the London publisher. The cat, a gigantic one, and a pet of his, used to go every evening to the end of the terrace, on which was the house where he resided, to escort Mr. Trübner back to dinner on his arrival from the City, but was never once known to make the mistake of going to meet him on Sundays. And again, how well a cat knows when it is luncheon-time! He or she may be apparently asleep on the tiles, or snugly lying under a bush basking in the sun's warm rays, when it will look up, yawn, stretch itself, get up, and move leisurely towards the house, and as the luncheon-bell rings, in walks the cat, as ready for food as any there. Most cats are of a gentle disposition, but resent ill-treatment in a most determined way, generally making use of their claws, at the same time giving vent to their feelings by a low growl and spitting furiously. Under such conditions it is best to leave off that which has appeared to irritate them. Dogs generally bite when they lose their temper, but a cat seldom. Should a cat dig her claws into your hand, never draw it backward, but push forward; you thus close the foot and render the claws harmless. If otherwise, you generally lose three to four pieces of skin from your hand; the cat knows he has done it, and feels revenged. Some cats do not like their ears touched, others their backs, others their tails. I have one now (Fritz); he has such a great dislike to having his tail touched that if we only point to it and say "Tail!" he growls, and if repeated he will get up and go out of the room, even though he was enjoying the comfort of his basket before a good fire. By avoiding anything that is known to tease an animal, no matter what, it will be found that is the true way, combined with gentle treatment and oft caressing, to tame and to make them love you, even those whose temper is none of the best. This is equally applicable to horses, cows, and dogs as to cats. Gentleness and kindness will work wonders with animals, and, I take it, is not lost on human beings. The distance cats will travel to find and regain the home they have been taken from is surprising. One my groom begged of me, as he said he had no cat at home, and he was fond of "the dear thing," but he really wanted to be rid of it, as I found afterwards. He took the poor animal away in a hamper, and after carrying it some three miles through London streets, threw it into the Surrey Canal. That cat was sitting wet and dirty outside the stable when he came in the morning, and went in joyfully on his opening the door, ran up to and climbed on to the back of its favourite, the horse, who neighed a "welcome home." The man left that week. Another instance, and I could give many more, but this will suffice. It is said that if you wish an old cat to stay you should have the mother with the kitten or kittens, but this sometimes fails to keep her. Having a fancy for a beautiful brown tabby, I purchased her and kitten from a cottager living two miles and a half away. The next day I let her out, keeping the kitten in a basket before the fire. In half an hour mother and child were gone, and though she had to carry her little one through woods, hedgerows, across grass and arable fields, she arrived home with her young charge quite safely the following day, though evidently very tired, wet, and hungry. After two days she was brought back, and being well fed and carefully tended, she roamed no more. The cat, like many other animals, will often form singular attachments. One would sit in my horse's manger and purr and rub against his nose, which undoubtedly the horse enjoyed, for he would frequently turn his head purposely to be so treated. One went as consort with a Dorking cock; another took a great liking to my collie, Rover; another loved Lina, the cow; while another would cosset up close to a sitting hen, and allowed the fresh-hatched chickens to seek warmth by creeping under her. Again, they will rear other animals such as rats, rabbits, squirrels, puppies, hedgehogs; and, when motherly inclined, will take to almost anything, even to a young pigeon. At the Brighton Show of 1886 there were two cats, both reared by dogs, the foster-mother and her bantling showing evident signs of sincere affection. There are both men and women who have a decided antipathy to cats--"Won't have one in the house on any account." They are called "deceitful," and some go as far as to say "treacherous," but how and in what way I cannot discover. Others, on the contrary, love cats beyond all other "things domestic." Of course cats, like other animals, or even human beings, are very dissimilar, no two being precisely alike in disposition, any more than are to be found two forms so closely resembling as not to be distinguished one from the other. To some a cat is a cat, and if all were black all would be alike. But this would not be so in reality, as those well know who are close observers of animal and bird life. Of course the gamekeeper has a dislike to cats, more especially when they "take to the woods," but so long as they are fed, and keep within bounds, they are "useful" in scaring away rats from the young broods of pheasants. What are termed "poaching cats" are clearly "outlaws," and must be treated as such. TRAINED CATS. That cats may be trained to respect the lives of other animals, and also birds on which they habitually feed, is a well-known fact. In proof of this I well recollect a story that my father used to tell of "a happy family" that was shown many years ago on the Surrey side of Waterloo Bridge. Their abode consisted of a large wire cage placed on wheels. In windy weather the "breezy side" was protected by green baize, so draughts were prevented, and a degree of comfort obtained. As there was no charge for "the show," a box was placed in front with an opening for the purpose of admitting any donations from those who felt inclined to give. On it was written "The Happy Family--their money-box." The family varied somewhat, as casualties occurred occasionally by death from natural causes or sales. Usually, there was a Monkey, an Owl, some Guinea-pigs, Squirrels, small birds, Starlings, a Magpie, Rats, Mice, and a Cat or two. But the story? Well, the story is this. One day, when my father was looking at "the happy family," a burly-looking man came up, and, after a while, said to the man who owned the show: "Ah! I don't see much in that. It is true the cat does not touch the small birds [one of which was sitting on the head of the cat at the time], nor the other things; but you could not manage to keep rats and mice in there as well." "Think not?" said the showman. "I think I could very easily." "Not you," said the burly one. "I will give you a month to do it in, if you like, and a shilling in the bargain if you succeed. I shall be this way again soon." "Thank you, sir," said the man. "Don't go yet," then, putting a stick through the bars of the cage he lifted up the cat, when from beneath her out ran a white rat and three white mice. "Won--der--ful!" slowly ejaculated he of the burly form; "Wonder--ful!" The money was paid. Cats, properly trained, will not touch anything, alive or dead, on the premises to which they are attached. I have known them to sport with tame rabbits, to romp and jump in frolicsome mood this way, then that, which both seemed greatly to enjoy, yet they would bring home wild rabbits they had killed, and not touch my little chickens or ducklings. [Illustration: "THE OLD LADY."] When I built a house in the country, fond as I am of cats, I determined _not_ to keep any there, because they would destroy the birds' nests and drive my feathered friends away, and I liked to watch and feed these from the windows. Things went pleasantly for awhile. The birds were fed, and paid for their keep with many and many a song. There were the old ones and there the young, and oft by the hour I watched them from the window; and they became so tame as scarcely caring to get out of my way when I went outside with more food. But--there is always a but--but one day, or rather evening, as I was "looking on," a rat came out from the rocks, and then another. Soon they began their repast on the remains of the birds' food. Then in the twilight came mice, the short-tailed and the long, scampering hither and thither. This, too, was amusing. In the autumn I bought some filberts, and put them into a closet upstairs, went to London, returned, and thought I would sleep in the room adjoining the closet. No such thing. As soon as the light was out there was a sound of gnawing--curb--curb--sweek!--squeak--a rushing of tiny feet here, there, and everywhere; thump, bump--scriggle, scraggle--squeak--overhead, above the ceiling, behind the skirting boards, under the floor, and--in the closet. I lighted a candle, opened the door, and looked into the repository for my filberts. What a hustling, what a scuffling, what a scrambling. There they were, mice in numbers; they "made for" some holes in the corners of the cupboard, got jammed, squeaked, struggled, squabbled, pushed, their tails making circles; push--push--squeak!--more jostling, another effort or two--squeak--squeak--gurgle--squeak--more struggling--and they were gone. Gone? Yes! but not for long. As soon as the light was out back they came. No! oh, dear no! sleep! no more sleep. Outside, I liked to watch the mice; but when they climbed the ivy and got inside, the pleasure entirely ceased. Nor was this all; they got into the vineries and spoilt the grapes, and the rats killed the young ducks and chickens, and undermined the building also, besides storing quantities of grain and other things under the floor. The result number one was, three cats coming on a visit. Farmyard cats--cats that knew the difference between chickens, ducklings, mice, and rats. Result number two, that after being away a couple of weeks, I went again to my cottage, and I slept undisturbed in the room late the play-ground of the mice. My chickens and ducklings were safe, and soon the cats allowed the birds to be fed in front of the window, though I could not break them of destroying many of the nests. I never NOTICED more fully the very great use the domestic cat is to man than on that occasion. All day my cats were indoors, dozy, sociable, and contented. At night they were on guard outside, and doubtless saved me the lives of dozens of my "young things." One afternoon I saw one of my cats coming towards me with apparent difficulty in walking. On its near approach I found it was carrying a large rat, which appeared dead. Coming nearer, the cat put down the rat. Presently I saw it move, then it suddenly got up and ran off. The cat caught it again. Again it feigned death, again got up and ran off, and was once more caught. It laid quite still, when, perceiving the cat had turned away, it got up, apparently quite uninjured, and ran in another direction, and I and the cat--lost it! I was not sorry. This rat deserved his liberty. Whether it was permanent I know not, as "Little-john," the cat, remained, and I left. The cat is not only a very useful animal about the house and premises, but is also ornamental. It is lithe and beautiful in form, and graceful in action. Of course there are cats that are ugly by comparison with others, both in form, colour, and markings; and as there are now cat shows, at which prizes are offered for varieties, I will endeavour to give, in succeeding chapters, the points of excellence as regards form, colour, and markings required and most esteemed for the different classes. I am the more induced to define these as clearly as possible, owing to the number of mistakes that often occur in the entries. [Illustration] LONG-HAIRED CATS. These are very diversified, both in form, colour, and the quality of the hair, which in some is more woolly than in others; and they vary also in the shape and length of the tail, the ears, and size of eyes. There are several varieties--the Russian, the Angora, the Persian, and Indian. Forty or fifty years ago they used all to be called French cats, as they were mostly imported from Paris--more particularly the white, which were then the fashion, and, if I remember rightly, they, as a rule, were larger than those of the present day. Coloured long-haired cats were then rare, and but little cared for or appreciated. The pure white, with long silky hair, bedecked with blue or rose-colour ribbon, or a silver collar with its name inscribed thereon or one of scarlet leather studded with brass, might often be seen stretching its full lazy length on luxurious woollen rugs--the valued, pampered pets of "West End" life. [Illustration] A curious fact relating to the white cat of not only the long but also the short-haired breed is their deafness. Should they have blue eyes, which is the fancy colour, these are nearly always deaf; although I have seen specimens whose hearing was as perfect as that of any other colour. Still deafness in white cats is not always confined to those with blue eyes, as I too well know from purchasing a very fine male at the Crystal Palace Show some few years since. The price was low and the cat "a beauty," both in form, coat, and tail, his eyes were yellow, and he had a nice, meek, mild, expressive face. I stopped and looked at him, as he much took my fancy. He stared at me wistfully, with something like melancholy in the gaze of his _amber_-coloured eyes. I put my hand through the bars of the cage. He purred, licked my hand, rubbed against the wires, put his tail up, as much as to say, "See, here is a beautiful tail; am I not a lovely cat?" "Yes," thought I, "a very nice cat." When I looked at my catalogue and saw the low price, "something is wrong here," said I, musingly. "Yes, there _must_ be something wrong. The price is misstated, or there is something not right about this cat." No! it was a beauty--so comely, so loving, so gentle--so very gentle. "Well," said I to myself, "if there is no misstatement of price, I will buy this cat," and, with a parting survey of its excellences, I went to the office of the show manager. He looked at the letter of entry. No; the price was quite right--"two guineas!" "I will buy it," said I. And so I did; but at two guineas I bought it dearly. Yes! very dearly, for when I got it home I found it was "stone" deaf. What an unhappy cat it was! If shut out of the dining-room you could hear its cry for admission all over the house; being so deaf the poor wretched creature never knew the noise it made. I often wish that it had so known--very, very often. I am satisfied that a tithe would have frightened it out of its life. And so loving, so affectionate. But, oh! horror, when it called out as it sat on my lap, its voice seemed to acquire at least _ten cat power_. And when, if it lost sight of me in the garden, its voice rose to the occasion, I feel confident it might have been heard miles off. Alas! he never knew what that agonised sound was like, but I did, and I have never forgotten it, and I never shall. I named him "The Colonel" on account of his commanding voice. One morning a friend came--blessed be that day--and after dinner he saw "the beauty." "What a lovely cat!" said he. "Yes," said I, "he is very beautiful, quite a picture." After a while he said, looking at "Pussy" warming himself before the fire, "I think I never saw one I liked more." "Indeed," said I, "if you really think so, I will give it to you; but he has a fault--he is 'stone' deaf." "Oh, I don't mind that," said he. He took him away--miles and miles away. I was glad it was so many miles away for two reasons. One was I feared he might come back, and the other that his voice might come resounding on the still night air. But he never came back nor a sound.--A few days after he left "to better himself," a letter came saying, would I wish to have him back? They liked it very much, all but its voice. "No," I wrote, "no, you are very kind, no, thank you; give him to any one you please--do what you will with 'the beauty,' but it must not return, never." When next I saw my friend, I asked him how "the beauty" was. "You dreadful man!" said he; "why, that cat nearly drove us all mad--I never heard anything like it." "Nor I," said I, sententiously. "Well," said my friend, "'all is well that ends well;' I have given it to a very deaf old lady, and so both are happy." "Very, I trust," said I. The foregoing is by way of advice; in buying a white cat--or, in fact, any other--ascertain for a _certainty_ that it is _not deaf_. [Illustration] A short time since I saw a white Persian cat with deep blue eyes sitting at the door of a tobacconist's, at the corner of the Haymarket, London. On inquiry I found that the cat could hear perfectly, and was in no way deficient of health and strength; and this is by no means a solitary instance. [Illustration: MISS SAUNDERS' "TIGER."] [Illustration] THE ANGORA. The Angora cat, as its name indicates, comes from Angora, in Western Asia, a province that is also celebrated for its goats with long hair, which is of extremely fine quality. It is said that this deteriorates when the animal leaves that locality. This may be so, but that I have no means of proving; yet, if so, do the Angora cats also deteriorate in the silky qualities of their fur? Or does it get shorter? Certain it is that many of the imported cats have finer and longer hair than those bred in this country; but when are the latter true bred? Even some a little cross-bred will often have long hair, but not of the texture as regards length and silkiness which is to be noted in the pure breed. The Angora cats, I am told, are great favourites with the Turks and Armenians, and the best are of high value, a pure white, with blue eyes, being thought the perfection of cats, all other points being good, and its hearing by no means defective. The points are a small head, with not too long a nose, large full eyes of a colour in harmony with that of its fur, ears rather large than small and pointed, with a tuft of hair at the apex, the size not showing, as they are deeply set in the long hair on the forehead, with a very full flowing mane about the head and neck; this latter should not be short, neither the body, which should be long, graceful, and elegant, and covered with long, silky hair, with a slight admixture of woolliness; in this it differs from the Persian, and the longer the better. In texture it should be as fine as possible, and also not so woolly as that of the Russian; still it is more inclined to be so than the Persian. The legs to be of moderate length, and in proportion to the body; the tail long, and slightly curving upward towards the end. The hair should be very long at the base, less so toward the tip. When perfect, it is an extremely beautiful and elegant object, and no wonder that it has become a pet among the Orientals. The colours are varied; but the black which should have orange eyes, as should also the slate colours, and blues, and the white are the most esteemed, though the soft slates, blues, and the light fawns, deep reds, and mottled grays are shades of colour that blend well with the Eastern furniture and other surroundings. There are also light grays, and what is termed smoke colour; a beauty was shown at Brighton which was white with black tips to the hair, the white being scarcely visible, unless the hair was parted; this tinting had a marvellous effect. I have never seen imported strong-coloured tabbies of this breed, nor do I believe such are true Angoras. Fine specimens are even now rare in this country, and are extremely valuable. In manners and temper they are quiet, sociable, and docile, though given to roaming, especially in the country, where I have seen them far from their homes, hunting the hedgerows more like dogs than cats; nor do they appear to possess the keen intelligence of the short-haired European cat. They are not new to us, being mentioned by writers nearly a hundred years ago, if not more. I well remember white specimens of uncommon size on sale in Leadenhall Market, more than forty years since; the price usually was five guineas, though some of rare excellence would realise double that sum. [Illustration: MISS MOORE'S "DINAH."] [Illustration: MISS SAUNDERS' "SYLVIE."] THE PERSIAN CAT. This differs somewhat from the Angora, the tail being generally longer, more like a table brush in point of form, and is generally slightly turned upwards, the hair being more full and coarser at the end, while at the base it is somewhat longer. The head is rather larger, with less pointed ears, although these should not be devoid of the tuft at the apex, and also well furnished with long hair within, and of moderate size. The eyes should be large, full, and round, with a soft expression; the hair on the forehead is generally rather short in comparison to the other parts of the body, which ought to be clothed with long silky hair, very long about the neck, giving the appearance of the mane of the lion. The legs, feet, and toes should be well clothed with long hair and have well-developed fringes on the toes, assuming the character of tufts between them. It is larger in body, and generally broader in the loins, and apparently stronger made, than the foregoing variety, though yet slender and elegant, with small bone, and exceedingly graceful in all its movements, there being a kind of languor observable in its walk, until roused, when it immediately assumes the quick motion of the ordinary short-haired cat, though not so alert. The colours vary very much, and comprise almost every tint obtainable in cats, though the tortoiseshell is not, nor is the dark marked tabby, in my opinion, a Persian cat colour, but has been got by crossing with the short-haired tortoiseshell, and also English tabby, and as generally shows pretty clearly unmistakable signs of such being the case. For a long time, if not now, the black was the most sought after and the most difficult to obtain. A good rich, deep black, with orange-coloured eyes and long flowing hair, grand in mane, large and with graceful carriage, with a mild expression, is truly a very beautiful object, and one very rare. The best I have hitherto seen was one that belonged to Mr. Edward Lloyd, the great authority on all matters relating to aquariums. It was called Mimie, and was a very fine specimen, usually carrying off the first prize wherever shown. It generally wore a handsome collar, on which was inscribed its name and victories. The collar, as Mr. Lloyd used jocosely to observe, really belonged to it, as it was bought out of its winnings; and, according to the accounts kept, was proved also to have paid for its food for some considerable period. It was, as its owner laughingly said, "his friend, and not his dependent," and generally used to sit on the table by his side while he was writing either his letters, articles, or planning those improvements regarding aquariums, for which he was so justly celebrated. [Illustration] Next in value is the light slate or blue colour. This beautiful tint is very different in its shades. In some it verges towards a light purplish or lilac hue, and is very lovely; in others it tends to a much bluer tone, having a colder and harder appearance, still beautiful by way of contrast; in all the colour should be pure, even, and bright, not in any way mottled, which is a defect; and I may here remark that in these colours the hair is generally of a softer texture, as far as I have observed, than that of any other colour, not excepting the white, which is also in much request. Then follow the various shades of light tabbies, so light in the marking having scarcely a right to be called tabbies; in fact, tabby is not a Persian colour, nor have I ever seen an imported cat of that colour--I mean firmly, strongly marked with black on a brown-blue or gray ground, until they culminate in those of intense richness and density in the way of deep, harmonious browns and reds, yet still preserving throughout an extreme delicacy of line and tracery, never becoming harsh or hard in any of its arrangements or colour; not as the ordinary short-haired tabby. The eyes should be orange-yellow in the browns, reds, blues, grays, and blacks. [Illustration: MR. A. A. CLARKE'S "TIM."] As far as my experience extends, and I have had numerous opportunities of noticing, I find this variety less reliable as regards temper than the short-haired cats, less also in the keen sense of observing, as in the Angora, and also of turning such observations to account, either as regards their comfort, their endeavour to help themselves, or in their efforts to escape from confinement. In some few cases I have found them to be of almost a savage disposition, biting and snapping more like a dog than a cat, and using their claws less for protective purposes. Nor have I found them so "cossetty" in their ways as those of the "short-coats," though I have known exceptions in both. They are much given to roam, as indeed are the Russian and Angora, especially in the country, going considerable distances either for their own pleasure or in search of food, or when "on the hunt." After mature consideration, I have come to the conclusion that this breed, and slightly so the preceding, are decidedly different in their habits to the short-haired English domestic cat, as it is now generally called. It may be, however, only a very close observer would notice the several peculiarities which I consider certainly exist. These cats attach themselves to places more than persons, and are indifferent to those who feed and have the care of them. They are beautiful and useful objects about the house, and generally very pleasant companions, and when kept with the short-haired varieties form an exceedingly pretty and interesting contrast; but, as I have stated, they certainly require more attention to their training, and more caution in their handling, than the latter. I may here remark, that during the time I have acted as judge at cat shows, which is now over eighteen years, it has been seldom there has been any display of temper in the short-haired breeds in comparison with the long; though some of the former, in some instances, have not comported themselves with that sweetness and amiability of disposition that is their usual characteristic. My attendant has been frequently wounded in our endeavour to examine the fur, dentition, etc., of the Angora, Persian, or Russian; and once severely by a "short-hair." Hitherto I have been so fortunate as to escape all injury, but this I attribute to my close observation of the _countenance_ and expression of the cat about to be handled, so as to be perfectly on my guard, and to the knowledge of how to put my hands out of harm's way. If a vicious cat is to be taken from one pen to another, it must be carried by the loose skin at the back of the neck and that of the back with both hands, and held well away from the person who is carrying it. [Illustration] [Illustration] THE RUSSIAN LONG-HAIRED CAT. The above is a portrait of a cat given me many years ago, whose parents came from Russia, but from what part I could never ascertain. It differed from the Angora and the Persian in many respects. It was larger in the body with shorter legs. The mane or frill was very large, long, and dense, and more of a woolly texture, with coarse hairs among it; the colour was of dark tabby, though the markings were not a decided black, nor clear and distinct; the ground colour was wanting in that depth and richness possessed by the Persian, having a somewhat dull appearance. The eyes were large and prominent, of a bright orange, slightly tinted with green, the ears large by comparison, with small tufts, full of long, woolly hair, the limbs stout and short, the tail being very dissimilar, as it was short, very woolly, and thickly covered with hair the same length from the base to the tip, and much resembled in form that of the English wild cat. Its motion was not so agile as other cats, nor did it apparently care for warmth, as it liked being outdoors in the coldest weather. Another peculiarity being that it seemed to care little in the way of watching birds for the purpose of food, neither were its habits like those of the short-haired cats that were its companions. It attached itself to no person, as was the case with some of the others, but curiously took a particular fancy to one of my short-haired, silver-gray tabbies; the two appeared always together. In front of the fire they sat side by side. If one left the room the other followed. Adown the garden paths there they were, still companions; and at night slept in the same box; they drank milk from the same saucer, and fed from the same plate, and, in fact, only seemed to exist for each other. In all my experience I never knew a more devoted couple. I bred but one kitten from the Russian, and this was the offspring of the short-haired silver tabby. It was black-and-white, and resembled the Russian in a large degree, having a woolly coat, somewhat of a mane, and a short, very bushy tail. This, like his father, seemed also to be fonder of animals for food than birds, and, although very small, would without any hesitation attack and kill a full-grown rat. I have seen several Russian cats, yet never but on this occasion had the opportunity of comparing their habits and mode of life with those of the other varieties; neither have I seen any but those of a tabby colour, and they mostly of a dark brown. I am fully aware that many cross-bred cats are sold as Russian, Angora, and Persian, either between these or the short-haired, and some of these, of course, retain in large degree the distinctive peculiarities of each breed. Yet to the practised eye there is generally--I do not say always--a difference of some sort by which the particular breed may be clearly defined. When the prizes are given, as is the case even at our largest cat shows, for the best long-haired cat, there, of course, exists in the eye of the judge no distinction as regards breed. He selects, as he is bound to do, that which is the best _long-haired_ cat in all points, the length of hair, colour, texture, and condition of the exhibit being that which commands his first attention. But if it were so put that the prize should be for the best Angora, Persian, Russian, etc., it would make the task rather more than difficult, for I have seen some "first-cross cats" that have possessed all, or nearly all, the points requisite for that of the Angora, Persian, or Russian, while others so bred have been very deficient, perhaps showing the Angora cross only by the tail and a slight and small frill. At the same time it must be noted, that, although from time to time some excellent specimens may be so bred, it is by no means desirable to buy and use such for stock purposes, for they will in all probability "throw back"--that is, after several generations, although allied with thoroughbred, they will possibly have a little family of quite "short-hairs." I have known this with rabbits, who, after breeding short-haired varieties for some time, suddenly reverted to a litter of "long-hairs"; but have not carried out the experiment with cats. At the same time I may state that I have little or no doubt that such would be the case; therefore I would urge on all those who are fond of cats--or, in fact, other animals--of any particular breed, to use when possible none but those of the purest pedigree, as this will tend to prevent much disappointment that might otherwise ensue. But I am digressing, and so back to my subject--the Russian long-haired cat. I advisedly say long-haired cat, for I shall hereafter have to treat of other cats coming from Russia that are short-haired, none which I have hitherto seen being tabbies, but whole colour. This is the more singular as all those of the long-hair have been brown tabbies, with only one or two exceptions, which were black. It is just possible these were the offspring of tabby or gray parents, as the wild rabbit has been known to have had black progeny. I have seen a black rabbit shot from amongst the gray on the South Downs. [Illustration: MISS MARY GRESHAM'S PERSIAN KITTEN, "LAMBKIN."] I do not remember having seen a white Russian "long-hair," and I should feel particularly obliged to any of my readers who could supply me with further information on this subject, or on any other relating to the various breeds of cats, cat-life and habits. I am fully aware that no two cats are exactly alike either in their form, colour, movements, or habits; but what I have given much study and attention to, and what I wish to arrive at is, the broad existing natural distinctions of the different varieties. In this way I shall feel grateful for any information. [Illustration] The above engraving and description of a very peculiar animal is from Daniel's "Rural Sports," 1813: "This Cat was the Property of Mrs. Finch, of Maldon, Essex. In the Account of this _Lusus Naturæ_, for such it may be deemed, the _Mother_ had no other Likeness to her Production, than her Colour, which is a _tawny Sandy_, in some parts lightly streaked with _black_; She had this, and another Kitten _like it_, about _two Years_ since. The fellow Kitten was killed, in consequence of being troublesome, to the Mistress of the House, where it was presented. _This_ is a _Male_, above the _usual_ Size, with a _shaggy_ Appearance round its Face, resembling that of the Lion's, in _Miniature_. The _Hair_ protruding from the _Ears_, formerly grew, like what are termed _Cork-screw Curls_, and which are frequently seen, among the _smart_ young _Watermen_, on the Thames; the Tail is perfectly distinct, from that of the Cat Species, and resembles the _Brush_ of a Fox. The Mother, has at this time (1813), three Young ones, but without the least Difference to _common_ Kittens, neither, indeed, has she ever had any _before_, or since, similar to _That_ here described. The Proprietor has been offered, and refused One Hundred Pounds for this Animal." [Illustration] This was either a cross with the English wild cat, which sometimes has a mane, or it was an accidental variation of nature. I once bred a long-haired rabbit in a similar way, but at first I failed entirely to perpetuate the peculiarity. I think the above simply "a sport." [Illustration: MISS MARY GRESHAM'S PERSIAN KITTEN, "LAMBKIN NO. 2."] [Illustration: MISS MOORE'S "BOGEY."] I have now concluded my remarks on the long-haired varieties of cats that I am at present acquainted with. They are an exceedingly interesting section; their habits, manners, forms, and colours form a by no means unprofitable study for those fond of animal life, as they, in my opinion, differ in many ways from those of their "short-haired" brethren. I shall not cease, however, in my endeavours to find out if any other long-haired breeds exist, and I am, therefore, making inquiries in every direction in which I deem it likely I shall get an increase of information on the subject, but hitherto without any success. Therefore, I am led to suppose that the three I have enumerated are the only domesticated long-haired varieties. The nearest approach, I believe, to these in the wild state is that of the British wild cat, which has in some instances a mane and a bushy tail, slightly resembling that of the Russian long-hair, with much of the same facial expression, and rather pointed tufts at the apex of the ears. It is also large, like some of the "long-haired" cats that I have seen; in fact, it far more resembles these breeds than those of the short hair. I was much struck with the many points of similitude on seeing the British wild cat exhibited by the Duke of Sutherland at the first cat show at the Crystal Palace in July, 1871. I merely offer this as an idea for further consideration. At the same time, allow me to say that I have had no opportunity of studying the anatomy of the British wild cat, in contradistinction to that of the Russian, or others with long hair. I only wish to point out what I term a general resemblance, far in excess of those with short hair. I am fully aware how difficult it is to trace any origin of the domestic cat, or from what breeds; it is also said, that the British wild cat is not one of them, still I urge there exists the similarity I mention; whether it is so apparent to others I know not. [Illustration] [Illustration: MR. SMITH'S PRIZE HE-CAT.] THE TORTOISESHELL CAT. I now come to the section of the short-haired domestic cat, a variety possessing sub-varieties. Whether these all came from the same origin is doubtful, although in breeding many of the different colours will breed back to the striped or tabby colour, and, _per contra_, white whole-coloured cats are often got from striped or spotted parents, and _vice versâ_. Those that have had any experience of breeding domesticated animals or birds, know perfectly well how difficult it is to keep certain peculiarities gained by years of perseverance of breeding for such points of variation, or what is termed excellence. Place a few fancy pigeons, for instance, in the country and let them match how they like, and one would be quite surprised, unless he were a naturalist, to note the great changes that occur in a few years, and the unmistakable signs of reversion towards their ancestral stock--that of the Rock pigeon. But with the cat this is somewhat different, as little or no attempts have been made, as far as I know of, until cat shows were instituted, to improve any particular breed either in form or colour. Nor has it even yet, with the exception of the long-haired cats. Why this is so I am at a loss to understand, but the fact remains. Good well-developed cats of certain colours fetch large prices, and are, if I may use the term, perpetual prize-winners. I will take as an instance the tortoiseshell tom, he, or male cat as one of the most scarce, and the red or yellow tabby she-cat as the next; and yet the possessor of either, with proper care and attention, I have little or no doubt, has it in his power to produce either variety _ad libitum_. It is now many years since I remember the first "tortoiseshell tom-cat;" nor can I now at this distance of time quite call to mind whether or not it was not a tortoiseshell-and-white, and not a tortoiseshell pure and simple. It was exhibited in Piccadilly. If I remember rightly, I made a drawing of it, but as it is about forty years ago, of this I am not certain, although I have lately been told that I did, and that the price asked for the cat was 100 guineas. [Illustration: EXAMPLE OF TORTOISESHELL CAT, VERY DARK VARIETY.] This supposed scarcity was rudely put aside by the appearance, at the Crystal Palace Show of 1871, of no less than one tortoiseshell he-cat (exhibited by Mr. Smith) and three tortoiseshell-and-white he-cats, but it will be observed there was really but only one tortoiseshell he-cat, the others having white. On referring to the catalogues of the succeeding shows, no other pure tortoiseshell has been exhibited, and he ceased to appear after 1873; but tortoiseshell-and-white have been shown from 1871, varying in number from five to three until 1885. One of these, a tortoiseshell-and-white belonging to Mr. Hurry, gained no fewer than nine first prizes at the Crystal Palace, besides several firsts at other shows; this maintains my statement, that a really good scarce variety of cats is a valuable investment, Mr. Hurry's cat Totty keeping up his price of £100 till the end. As may have been gathered from the foregoing remarks, the points of the tortoiseshell he-cat are, black-red and yellow in patches, but no _white_. The colouring should be in broad, well-defined blotches and solid in colour, not mealy or tabby-like in the marking, but clear, sharp, and distinct, and the richer and deeper the colours the better. When this is so the animal presents a very handsome appearance. The eyes should be orange, the tail long and thick towards the base, the form slim, graceful, and elegant, and not too short on the leg, to which this breed has a tendency. Coming then to the actual tortoiseshell he, or male cat without white, I have never seen but one at the Shows, and that was exhibited by Mr. Smith. It does not appear that Mr. Smith bred any from it, nor do I know whether he took any precautions to do so; but if not, I am still of the opinion that more might have been produced. In Cassell's "Natural History," it is stated that the tortoiseshell cat is quite common in Egypt and in the south of Europe. This I can readily believe, as I think that it comes from a different stock than the usual short-haired cat, the texture of the hair being different, the form of tail also. I should much like to know whether in that country, where the variety is so common, there exists any number of tortoiseshell he-cats. In England the he-kittens are almost invariably red-tabby or red-tabby-and-white; the red-tabby she-cats are almost as scarce as tortoiseshell-and-white he-cats. Yet if red-tabby she-cats can be produced, I am of opinion that tortoiseshell he-cats could also. I had one of the former, a great beauty, and hoped to perpetuate the breed, but it unfortunately fell a victim to wires set by poachers for game. Again returning to the tortoiseshell, I have noted that, in drawings made by the Japanese, the cats are always of this colour; that being so, it leads one to suppose that in that country tortoiseshell he-cats must be plentiful. Though the drawings are strong evidence, they are not absolute proof. I have asked several travelling friends questions as regards the Japanese cats, but in no case have I found them to have taken sufficient notice for their testimony to be anything else than worthless. I shall be very thankful for any information on this subject, for to myself, and doubtless also to many others, it is exceedingly interesting. Any one wishing to breed rich brown tabbies, should use a tortoiseshell she-cat with a very brown and black-banded he-cat. They are not so good from the spotted tabby, often producing merely tortoiseshell tabbies instead of brown tabbies, or true tortoiseshells. My remarks as to the colouring of the tortoiseshell he-cat are equally applicable to the she-cat, which should not have any white. Of the tortoiseshell-and-white hereafter. To breed tortoiseshell he-cats, I should use males of a whole colour, such as either white, black, or blue; and on no account any tabby, no matter the colour. What is wanted is patches of colour, not tiny streaks or spots; and I feel certain that, for those who persevere, there will be successful results. [Illustration] [Illustration] THE TORTOISESHELL-AND-WHITE CAT. This is a more common mixture of colouring than the tortoiseshell pure and simple without white, and seems to be widely spread over different parts of the world. It is the opinion of some that this colour and the pure tortoiseshell is the original domestic cat, and that the other varieties of marking and colours are but deviations produced by crossing with wild varieties. My brother, John Jenner Weir, F.L.S., F.Z.S., holds somewhat to this opinion; but, to me, it is rather difficult to arrive at this conclusion. In fact, I can scarcely realise the ground on which the theory is based--at the same time, I do not mean to ignore it entirely. And yet, if this be so, from what starting-point was the original domestic cat derived, and by what means were the rich and varied markings obtained? I am fully aware that by selection cats with large patches of colour may be obtained; still, there remain the peculiar markings of the tortoiseshell. Nor is this by any means an uncommon colour, not only in this country, but in many others, and there also appears to be a peculiar fixedness of this, especially in the female, but why it is not so in the male I am at a loss to understand, the males almost invariably coming either red-tabby or red-tabby-and-white. One would suppose that black or white would be equally likely; but, as far as my observations take me, this is not so, though I have seen both pure white, yellow, red, and black in litters of kittens, but this might be different were the he parent tortoiseshell. Some years ago I was out with a shooting party not far from Snowdon, in Wales, when turning past a large rock I came on a sheltered nook, and there in a nest made of dry grasses laid six tortoiseshell-and-white kittens about eight to ten days old. I was much surprised at this, as I did not know of any house near, therefore these must have been the offspring of some cat or cats that were leading a roving or wild life, and yet it had no effect as to the deviation of the colour. I left them there, and without observing the sex. I was afterwards sorry, as it is just possible, though scarcely probable, that one or more of the six, being all of the same colour, might have proved to be a male. As I left the neighbourhood a few days after I saw no more of them, nor have I since heard of any being there; so conclude they in some way were destroyed. I have observed in the breed of tortoiseshell or tortoise-shell-and-white that the hair is of a coarser texture than the ordinary domestic cat, and that the tail is generally thicker, especially at the base, though some few are thin-tailed; yet I prefer the thick and tapering form. Some are very much so, and of a good length; the legs are generally somewhat short; I do not ever remember seeing a really long-legged tortoiseshell, though when this is so if not too long it adds much to its grace of action. I give a drawing of what I consider to be a GOOD tortoiseshell-and-white tom or he-cat. It will be observed that there is more white on the chest, belly, and hind legs than is allowable in the black-and-white cat. This I deem necessary for artistic beauty, when the colour is laid on in _patches_, although it should be even, clear, and distinct in its outline; the larger space of white adds brilliancy to the red, yellow, and black colouring. The face is one of the parts which should have some uniformity of colour, and yet not so, but a mere _balancing_ of colour; that is to say, that there should be a _relief_ in black, with the yellow and red on each side, and so in the body and tail. The nose should be white, the eyes orange, and the whole colouring rich and varied without the least _Tabbyness_, either brown or gray or an approach to it, such being highly detrimental to its beauty. I have received a welcome letter from Mr. Herbert Young, of James Street, Harrogate, informing me of the existence of what is said to be a tortoiseshell tom or he-cat somewhere in Yorkshire, and the price is fifty guineas; but he, unfortunately, has forgotten the exact address. He also kindly favours me with the further information of a tortoiseshell-and-white he-cat. He describes it as "splendid," and "extra good in colour," and it is at present in the vicinity of Harrogate. And still further, Mr. Herbert Young says, "I am breeding from a dark colour cat and two tortoiseshell females," and he hopes, by careful selection, to succeed in "breeding the other colour out." This, I deem, is by no means an unlikely thing to happen, and, by careful management, may not take very long to accomplish; but much depends on the ancestry, or rather the pedigree of both sides. I for one most heartily wish Mr. Herbert Young success, and it will be most gratifying should he arrive at the height of his expectations. Failing the producing of the desired colour in the he-cats by the legitimate method of tortoiseshell with tortoiseshell, I would advise the trial of some _whole_ colours, such as solid black and white. This _may_ prove a better way than the other, as we pigeon fanciers go an apparently roundabout way often to obtain what we want to attain in colour, and yet there is almost a certainty in the method. As regards the tortoiseshell cat, there is a distinct variety known to us cat fanciers as the tortoiseshell-tabby. This must not be confounded with the true variety, as it consists only of a variegation in colour of the yellow, the red, and the dark tabby, and is more in lines than patches, or patches of lines or spots. These are by no means ugly, and a well-marked, richly-coloured specimen is really very handsome. They may also be intermixed with white, and should be marked the same as the true tortoiseshell; but in competition with the _real_ tortoiseshell they would stand _no chance_ whatever, and ought in my opinion to be disqualified as being wrong class, and be put in that for "any other colour." [Illustration: MRS. VYVYAN'S ROYAL CAT OF SIAM.] [Illustration: BROWN TABBY--BARS THE RIGHT WIDTH.] THE BROWN TABBY CAT. The tabby cat is doubtless one of, if not the most common of colours, and numbers many almost endless varieties of both tint and markings. Of these those with very broad bands of black, or narrow bands of black, on nearly a black ground, are usually called black tabby, and if the bands are divided into spots instead of being in continuous lines, then it is a spotted black tabby; but I purpose in this paper to deal mostly with the brown tabby--that is to say, a tabby, whose ground colour is of a very rich, orangey, dark brown ground, without any white, and that is evenly, proportionably, and not too broadly but elegantly marked on the face, head, breast, sides, back, belly, legs, and tail with bands of solid, deep, shining black. The front part of the head or face and legs, breast, and belly should have a more rich red orange tint than the back, but which should be nearly if not equal in depth of colour, though somewhat browner; the markings should be graceful in curve, sharply, well, and clearly defined, with fine deep black edges, so that the brown and black are clear and distinct the one from the other, not blurred in any way. The banded tabby should not be spotted in any way, excepting those few that nearly always occur on the face and sometimes on the fore-legs. The clearer, redder, and brighter the brown the better. The nose should be deep red, bordered with black; the eyes an orange colour, slightly diffused with green; in form the head should not be large, nor too wide, being rather longer than broad, so as not to give too round or clumsy an appearance; ears not large nor small, but of moderate size, and of good form; legs medium length, rather long than short, so as not to lose grace of action; body long, narrow, and deep towards the fore part. Tail long, and gradually tapering towards the point; feet round, with black claws, and black pads; yellowish-white around the black lips and brown whiskers are allowable, but orange-tinted are far preferable, and pure white should disqualify. A cat of this description is now somewhat rare. What are generally shown as _brown_ tabbies are not sufficiently _orange-brown_, but mostly of a dark, brownish-gray. This is simply the ordinary tabby, and not the _brown_ tabby proper. [Illustration: BROWN TABBY--MARKINGS MUCH TOO WIDE.] As I stated in my notes on the Tortoiseshell cat, the best parents to obtain a good brown tabby from is to have a strongly marked, not too broad-banded tabby he-cat and a tortoiseshell she-cat with little black, or red tabby she-cat, the produce being, when tabby, generally of a rich brown, or sometimes what is termed black tabby, and also red tabby. The picture illustrating these notes is from one so bred, and is a particularly handsome specimen. There were two he-cats in the litter, one the dark-brown tabby just mentioned, which I named Aaron, and the other, a very fine red tabby, Moses. This last was even a finer animal than Aaron, being very beautiful in colour and very large in size; but he, alas! like many others, was caught in wires set by poachers, and was found dead. His handsome brother still survives, though no longer my property. The banded red tabby should be marked precisely the same as the brown tabby, only the bands should be of deep red on an orange ground, the deeper in colour the better; almost a chocolate on orange is very fine. The nose deep pink, as also the pads of the feet. The ordinary dark tabby the same way as the brown, and so also the blue or silver, only the ground colour should be of a pale, soft, _blue_ colour--not the slightest tint of brown in it. The clearer, the _lighter_, and brighter the blue the better, bearing in mind always that the bands should be of a _jet black_, sharply and _very clearly defined_. [Illustration: WELL-MARKED PRIZE SILVER TABBY.] The word tabby was derived from a kind of taffeta, or ribbed silk, which when calendered or what is now termed "watered," is by that process covered with wavy lines. This stuff, in bygone times, was often called "tabby:" hence the cat with lines or markings on its fur was called a "tabby" cat. But it might also, one would suppose, with as much justice, be called a taffety cat, unless the calendering of "taffety" caused it to become "tabby." Certain it is that the word tabby only referred to the marking or stripes, not to the absolute colour, for in "Wit and Drollery" (1682), p. 343, is the following:-- "Her petticoat of satin, Her gown of crimson tabby." Be that as it may, I think there is little doubt that the foregoing was the origin of the term. Yet it was also called the brinded cat, or the brindled cat, also tiger cat, with some the gray cat, graymalkin; but I was rather unprepared to learn that in Norfolk and Suffolk it is called a Cyprus cat. "Why Cyprus cat?" quoth I. "I do not know," said my informant. "All I know is, that such is the case." So I referred to my Bailey's Dictionary of 1730, and there, "sure enough," was the elucidation; for I found that Cyprus was a kind of cloth made of silk and hair, showing wavy lines on it, and coming from Cyprus; therefore this somewhat strengthens the argument in favour of "taffeta," or "tabby," but it is still curious that the Norfolk and Suffolk people should have adopted a kind of cloth as that representing the markings and colour of the cat, and that of a different name from that in use for the cat--one or more counties calling it a "tabby cat," as regards colour, and the other naming the same as "Cyprus." I take this to be exceedingly interesting. How or when such naming took place I am at present unable to get the least clue, though I think from what I gather from one of the Crystal Palace Cat Show catalogues, that it must have been after 1597, as the excerpt shows that at that time the shape and colour was like a leopard's, which, of course, is spotted, and is always called the spotted leopard. (Since this I have learned that the domestic cat is said to have been brought from Cyprus by merchants, as also was the tortoiseshell. Cyprus is a colour, a sort of reddish-yellow, something like citron; so a Cyprus cat may mean a red or yellow tabby.) However, I find Holloway, in his "Dictionary of Provincialisms" (1839), gives the following:-- "Calimanco Cat, s. (_calimanco_, a _glossy stuff_), a tortoiseshell cat, Norfolk." Salmon, in "The Compleat English Physician," 1693, p. 326, writing of the cat, says: "It is a neat and cleanly creature, often licking itself to keep it fair and clean, and washing its face with its fore feet; the best are such as of a fair and large kind and of an exquisite tabby color called _Cyprus_ cats." [Illustration:] [Illustration: SPOTTED TABBY CAT.] I have thought it best to give two illustrations of the peculiar markings of the _spotted_ tabby, or leopard cat of some, as showing its distinctness from the ordinary and banded Tabby, one of my reasons being that I have, when judging at cat shows, often found excellent specimens of both entered in the "wrong class," thereby losing all chance of a prize, though, if rightly entered, either might very possibly have taken honours. I therefore wish to direct particular attention to the _spotted_ character of the markings of the variety called the "spotted tabby." It will be observed that there are no lines, but what are lines in other tabbies are broken up into a number of spots, and the more these spots prevail, to the exclusion of _lines_ or _bands_, the better the specimen is considered to be. The varieties of the ground colour or tint on which these markings or spots are placed constitutes the name, such as black-spotted tabby, brown-spotted tabby, and so on, the red-spotted tabby or yellow-spotted tabby in _she_-cats being by far the most scarce. These should be marked with _spots_ instead of _bands_, on the same ground colour as the red or yellow-banded tabby cat. In the former the ground colour should be a rich red, with spots of a deep, almost chocolate colour, while that of the yellow tabby may be a deep yellow cream, with yellowish-brown spots. Both are very scarce, and are extremely pretty. Any admixture of white is not allowable in the class for yellow or red tabbies; such exhibit must be put into the class (should there be one, which is usually the case at large shows) for red or yellow and _white_ tabbies. This exhibitors will do well to make a note of. There is a rich-coloured brown tabby hybrid to be seen at the Zoological Society Gardens in Regent's Park, between the wild cat of Bengal and a tabby she-cat. It is handsome, but very wild. These hybrids, I am told, will breed again with tame variety, or with others. [Illustration] In the brown-spotted tabby, the dark gray-spotted tabby, the black-spotted tabby, the gray or the blue-spotted tabby, the eyes are best yellow or orange tinted, with the less of the green the better. The nose should be of a dark red, edged with black or dark brown, in the dark colours, or somewhat lighter colour in the gray or blue tabbies. The pads of the feet in all instances must be black. In the yellow and the red tabby the nose and the pads of the feet are to be pink. As regards the tail, that should have large spots on the upper and lower sides instead of being annulated, but this is difficult to obtain. It has always occurred to me that the spotted tabby is a much nearer approach to the wild English cat and some other wild cats in the way of colour than the ordinary broad-banded tabby. Those specimens of the crosses, said to be between the wild and domestic cat, that I have seen, have had a tendency to be spotted tabbies. And these crosses were not infrequent in bygone times when the wild cats were more numerous than at present, as is stated to be the case by that reliable authority, Thomas Bewick. In the year 1873, there was a specimen shown at the Crystal Palace Cat Show, and also the last year or two there has been exhibited at the same place a most beautiful hybrid between the East Indian wild cat and the domestic cat. It was shown in the spotted tabby class, and won the first prize. The ground colour was a deep blackish-brown, with well-defined black spots, black pads to the feet, rich in colour, and very strong and powerfully made, and not by any means a sweet temper. It was a he-cat, and though I have made inquiry, I have not been able to ascertain that any progeny has been reared from it, yet I have been informed that such hybrids between the Indian wild cat and the domestic cat breed freely. [Illustration] THE ABYSSINIAN. I now come to the last variety of the tabby cat, and this can scarcely be called a tabby proper, as it is nearly destitute of markings, excepting sometimes on the legs and a broad black band along the back. It is mostly of a deep brown, ticked with black, somewhat resembling the back of a wild (only not so gray) rabbit. Along the centre of the back, from the nape of the neck to the tip of the tail, there is a band of black, very slightly interspersed with dark brown hairs. The inner sides of the legs and belly are more of a rufous-orange tint than the body, and are marked in some cases with a few dark patches; but they are best without these marks, and in the exhibition pens it is a point lost. The eyes are deep yellow, tinted with green; nose dark red, black-edged; ears rather small, dark brown, with black edges and tips; the pads of the feet are black. Altogether, it is a pretty and interesting variety. It has been shown under a variety of names, such as Russian, Spanish, Abyssinian, Hare cat, Rabbit cat, and some have gone so far as to maintain that it is a cross between the latter and a cat, proving very unmistakably there is nothing, however absurd or impossible, in animal or everyday life, that some people are not ready to credit and believe. A hybrid between the English wild cat and the domestic much resembles it; and I do not consider it different in any way, with the exception of its colour, from the ordinary tabby cat, from which I have seen kittens and adults bearing almost the same appearance. Some years ago when out rabbit-shooting on the South Downs, not far from Eastbourne, one of our party shot a cat of this colour in a copse not far from the village of Eastdean. He mistook it at first for a rabbit as it dashed into the underwood. It proved not to be wild, but belonged to one of the villagers, and was bred in the village. When the ground colour is light gray or blue, it is generally called chinchilla, to the fur of which animal the coat has a general resemblance. I have but little inclination to place it as a distinct, though often it is of foreign breed; such may be, though ours is merely a variety--and a very interesting one--of the ordinary tabby, with which its form, habits, temper, etc., seem fully to correspond; still several have been imported from Abyssinia all of which were precisely similar, and it is stated that this is the origin of the Egyptian cat that was worshipped so many centuries ago. The mummies of the cats I have seen in no case had any hair left, so that it was impossible to determine what colour they were. The imported cats are of stouter build than the English and less marked. These bred with an English tabby often give a result of nearly black, the back band extending very much down the sides, and the brown ticks almost disappearing, producing a rich and beautiful colouring. I find there is yet another tint or colour of the tabby proper which I have not mentioned, that is to say, a cat marked with light wavy lines, and an exceedingly pretty one it is. It is very rare; in fact, so much so that it has never had a class appropriated to it, and therefore is only admissible to or likely to win in the class "For Any Other Colour," in which class usually a number of very beautiful varieties are to be found, some of which I shall have occasion to notice further on. The colour, however, that I now refer to is often called the silver tabby, for want of a better name. It is this. The whole of the ground colour is of a most delicate silver-gray, clear and firm in tone, slightly blue if anything apart from the gray, and the markings thereon are but a little darker, with a tinge of lilac in them making the fur to look like an evening sky, rayed with light clouds. The eyes are orange-yellow, and when large and full make a fine contrast to the colour of the fur. The nose is red, edged with a lilac tint, and the pads of the feet and claws are black, or nearly so. The hair is generally very fine, short, and soft. Altogether it is most lovely, and well worthy of attention, forming, as it does, a beautiful contrast to the red, the yellow, or even the brown tabby. A turquoise ribbon about its neck will show to great advantage the delicate lilac tints of its coat, or, if a contrast is preferred, a light orange scarlet, or what is often called geranium colour, will perhaps give a brighter and more pleasing effect. [Illustration: MRS. HERRING'S BLUE SMALL-BANDED TABBY.] This is by no means so uncommon a colour in the _long-haired_ cats, some of which are exquisite, and are certainly the acme of beauty in the way of cat colouring; but I must here remark that there is a vast difference in the way of disposition between these two light varieties, that of the former being far more gentle. In fact, I am of opinion that the short-haired cat in general is of a more genial temperament, more "cossetty," more observant, more quick in adapting itself to its surroundings and circumstances than its long-haired brother, and, as a rule, it is also more cleanly in its habits. Though at the same time I am willing to admit that some of these peculiarities being set aside, the long-haired cat is charmingly beautiful, and at the same time has a large degree of intelligence--in fact, much more than most animals that I know, not even setting aside the dog, and I have come to this conclusion after much long, careful, and mature consideration. [Illustration] [Illustration] THE SHORT-HAIRED WHITE CAT. This of all, as it depends entirely on its comeliness, should be graceful and elegant in the outline of its form and also action, the head small, not too round nor thick, for this gives a clumsy, heavy appearance, but broad on the forehead, and gently tapering towards the muzzle, the nose small, tip even and pink, the ears rather small than large, and not too pointed, the neck slender, shoulders narrow and sloping backwards, loin full and long, legs of moderate length, tail well set on, long, broad at the base, and gradually tapering towards the end; the white should be the yellow-white, that is, the white of the colours, such as tortoiseshell, red tabby or blues, not the gray-white bred from the black, as these are coarser in the quality of the furs. The eye should be large, round, full, and blue. I noted this peculiarity of white when breeding white Cochins many years ago; those chickens that were black when hatched were a colder and harder white than those which were hatched buff. This colouring of white should be fully borne in mind when crossing colours in breeding, as the results are widely different from the two varieties. The whole colour yellow-white will not do to match with blue or gray, as it will assuredly give the wrong tinge or colour. The eyes should be blue; green is a great defect; bright yellow is allowable, or what in horses is called "wall eyes." Orange gives a heavy appearance; but yellow will harmonise and look well with a gray-white. White cats with blue eyes are hardy. Mr. Timbs, in "Things Not Generally Known," relates that even they are not so likely to be deaf as is supposed, and mentions one of seventeen years old which retained its hearing faculties perfectly. Some specimens I have seen with one yellow eye and one blue; this is a most singular freak of nature, and to the best of my knowledge is not to be found among any of the other colours. It is stated that one of the white horses recently presented by the Shah of Persia to the Emperor of Russia has blue eyes. I can scarcely credit this, but think it must be a true albino, with the gray-pink coloured eyes they generally have, or possibly the blue eye is that peculiar to the _albino_ cat and horse, as I have never seen an albino horse or cat with pink eyes but a kind of opalesque colour, or what is termed "wall eye." No doubt many of my readers have observed the differences in the white of our horses, they mostly being the gray-white, with dark skin; but the purer white has a pink skin, and is much softer and elegant in appearance. It is the same with our white cats. THE BLACK CAT. It is often said "What's in a name?" the object, whatever it is, by any other would be the same, and yet there is much in a name; but this is not the question at issue, which is that of colour. Why should a _black_ cat be thought so widely different from all others by the foolish, unthinking, and ignorant? Why, simply on account of its colour being black, should it have ascribed to it a numberless variety of bad omens, besides having certain necromantic power? In Germany, for instance, black cats are kept away from children as omens of evil, and if a black cat appeared in the room of one lying ill it was said to portend death. To meet a black cat in the twilight was held unlucky. In the "good old times" a black cat was generally the only colour that was favoured by men reported to be wizards, and also were said to be the constant companions of reputed witches, and in such horror and detestation were they then held that when the unfortunate creatures were ill-treated, drowned, or even burned, very frequently we are told that their cats suffered martyrdom at the same time. It is possible that one of the reasons for such wild, savage superstition may have arisen from the fact of the larger amount of electricity to be found by friction in the coat of the black cat to any other; experiments prove there is but very little either in that of the white or the red tabby cat. Be this as it may, still the fact remains that, for some reason or other, the black cat is held by the prejudiced ignorant as an animal most foul and detestable, and wonderful stories are related of their actions in the dead of the night during thunder-storms and windy nights. Yet, as far as I can discover, there appears little difference either of temper or habit in the black cat distinct from that of any other colour, though it is maintained by many even to this day that black cats are far more vicious and spiteful and of higher courage, and this last I admit. Still, when a black cat is enraged and its coat and tail are well "set up," its form swollen, its round, bright, orange-yellow eye distended and all aglow with anger, it certainly presents to even the most impartial observer, to say the least of it, a most "uncanny" appearance. But, for all this, their admirers are by no means few; and, to my thinking, a jet-black cat, fine and glossy in fur and elegantly formed, certainly has its attractions; but I will refer to the superstitions connected with the black cat further on. A black cat for show purposes should be of a uniform, intense black; a brown-black is richer than a blue-black. I mean by this that when the hair is parted it should show in the division a dark brown-black in preference to any tint of blue whatever. The coat or fur should be short, velvety, and very glossy. The eyes round and full, and of a deep orange colour; nose black, and also the pads of the feet; tail long, wide at the base, and tapering gradually towards the end. A long thin tail is a great fault, and detracts much from the merits it may otherwise possess. A good, deep, rich-coloured black cat is not so common as many may at first suppose, as often those that are said to be black show tabby markings under certain conditions of light; and, again, others want depth and richness of colour, some being only a very dark gray. In form it is the same as other short-haired cats, such as I have described in the white, and this brings me to the variety called "blue." [Illustration: ARCHANGEL BLUE CAT.] THE BLUE CAT. This is shown often under a number of names. It was at first shown as the Archangel cat, then Russian blue, Spanish blue, Chartreuse blue, and, lastly, and I know not why, the American blue. It is not, in my belief, a distinct breed, but merely a light-coloured form of the black cat. In fact, I have ascertained that one shown at the Crystal Palace, and which won many prizes on account of its beautiful blue colour slightly tinged with purple, was the offspring of a tabby and white she-cat and a black-and-white he-cat, and I have seen the same colour occur when bred from the cats usually kept about a farmhouse as a protection from rats and mice, though none of the parents had any blue colour. Being so beautiful, and as it is possible in some places abroad it may be bred in numbers, I deemed it advisable, when making out the prize schedule, to give special prizes for this colour; the fur being used for various purposes on account of its hue. A fine specimen should be even in colour, of a bluish-lilac tint, with no sootiness or black, and though light be firm and rich in tone, the nose and pads dark, and the eyes orange-yellow. If of a very light blue-gray, the nose and pads may be of a deep chocolate colour and the eyes deep yellow, not green. If it is a foreign variety, I can only say that I see no distinction in form, temper, or habit; and, as I have before mentioned, it is sometimes bred here in England from cats bearing no resemblance to the bluish-lilac colour, nor of foreign extraction or pedigree. I feel bound, however, to admit that those that came from Archangel were of a deeper, purer tint than the English cross-breeds; and on reference to my notes, I find they had larger ears and eyes, and were larger and longer in the head and legs, also the coat or fur was excessively short, rather inclined to woolliness, but bright and glossy, the hair inside the ears being shorter than is usual in the English cat. [Illustration] [Illustration] THE BLACK-AND-WHITE CAT. This is distinct from the _white-and-black_ cat, the ground colour being black, marked with white; while the other is white, marked with black. The chief points of excellence for show purposes are a dense bright brown-black, evenly marked with white. Of this I give an illustration, showing the most approved way in which the white should be distributed, coming to a point between the eyes. The feet should be white, and the chest, the nose, and the pads white. No black on the lips or nose, whiskers white, eyes of orange yellow. Any black on the white portions is highly detrimental to its beauty and its chance of a prize. The same markings are applicable to the brown tabby and white, the dark tabby and white, the red tabby and white, the yellow tabby and white, the blue or silver tabby and white, and the blue and white. One great point is to obtain a perfectly clear and distinct gracefully-curved outline of colour, and this to be maintained throughout; the blaze on the forehead to be central. It is stated that if a dog has white anywhere, he is sure to have a white tip to his tail, and I think, on observation, it will be found usually the case, although this is not so in the cat, for I cannot call to mind a single instance where a black-and-white had a white tip to its tail; but taking the various colours of the domestic cat into consideration I think it will be found that there is a larger number with some white about them than those of entirely one colour, without even a few white hairs, which if they appear at all are mostly to be found on the chest, though they often are exceedingly few in number. [Illustration: MRS. VYVYAN'S ROYAL CAT OF SIAM.] [Illustration] THE WHITE-AND-BLACK CAT. This differs entirely from the black-and-white cat, as just explained, and is the opposite as regards colour, the ground being white instead of black, and the markings black on white. For exhibition purposes and points of excellence, no particular rule exists beyond that the exhibit shall be evenly marked, with the colour distributed so as to balance, as, for example:--If a cat has a black patch just _under_ one eye with a _little above_, the balance of colour would be maintained if the other eye had a preponderance of colour _above_ instead of _below_, and so with the nose, shoulders, or back, but it would be far better if the patches of colour were the same size and shape, and equal in position. It might be that a cat evenly marked on the head had a mark on the left shoulder with more on the right, with a rather larger patch on the right side of the loin, or a black tail would help considerably to produce what is termed "_balance_," though a cat of this description would lose if competing against one of entirely uniform markings. I have seen several that have been marked in a very singular way. One was entirely white, with black ears. Another white, with a black tail only. This had orange eyes, and was very pretty. Another had a black blaze up the nose, the rest of the animal being white. This had blue eyes, and was deaf. Another had the two front feet black, all else being white; the eyes were yellow-tinted green. All these, it will be observed, were perfect in the way they were marked. I give an illustration of a cat belonging to Mr. S. Lyon, of Crewe. It is remarkable in more ways than one, and in all probability, had it been born in "the dark ages" a vast degree of importance would have been attached to it, not only on account of the peculiar distribution of the colour and its form, but also as to the singular coincidence of its birth. The head is white, with a black mark over the eyes and ears which, when looked at from above, presents the appearance of a _fleur-de-lis_. The body is white, with a distinct black cross on the right side, or, rather, more on the back than side. The cross resembles that known as Maltese in form, and is clearly defined. The tail is black, the legs and feet white. Nor does the cat's claim to notice entirely end here, for, marvellous to relate, it was born on Easter Sunday, A.D. 1886. Now, what would have been said of such a coincidence had this peculiar development of Nature occurred in bygone times? There is just the possibility that the credulous would have "flocked" to see the wondrous animal from far and near; and even now, in these enlightened times, I learn from Mr. Lyon that the cat is not by any means devoid of interest and attraction, for, as he tells me, a number of persons have been to see it, some of whom predict that "luck" will follow, and that he and his household will, in consequence, _doubtless_ enjoy many blessings, and that all things will prosper with him accordingly. Although my remarks are directed to "the white-and-black" cat, the same will apply to the "white-and-red, white-and-yellow, white-and-tabby, white-and-blue, or dun colour;" all these, and the foregoing, will most probably have to be exhibited in the "Any Other Colour" class, as there is seldom one at even the largest shows for peculiar markings with white as the _ground_ or principal colour. [Illustration: WHITE CAT.] [Illustration] SIAMESE CAT. Among the beautiful varieties of the domestic cat brought into notice by the cat shows, none deserve more attention than "The Royal Cat of Siam." In form, colour, texture, and length, or rather shortness of its coat, it is widely different from other short-haired varieties; yet there is but little difference in its mode of life or habit. I have not had the pleasure of owning one of this breed, though when on a visit to Lady Dorothy Nevill, at Dangstein, near Petersfield, I had several opportunities for observation. I noticed in particular the intense liking of these cats for "the woods," not passing along the hedgerows like the ordinary cat, but quickly and quietly creeping from bush to bush, then away in the shaws; not that they displayed a wildness of nature, in being shy or distrustful, nor did they seem to care about getting wet like many cats do, though apparently they suffer much when it is cold and damp weather, as would be likely on account of the extreme shortness of their fur, which is of both a hairy and a woolly texture, and not so glossy as our ordinary common domestic cat, nor is the tail, which is thin. Lady Dorothy Nevill informed me that those which belonged to her were imported from Siam and presented by Sir R. Herbert of the Colonial Office; the late Duke of Wellington imported the breed, also Mr. Scott of Rotherfield. Lady Dorothy Nevill thought them exceedingly docile and domestic, but delicate in their constitution; although her ladyship kept one for two years, another over a year, but eventually all died of the same complaint, that of worms, which permeated every part of their body. Mr. Young, of Harrogate, possesses a chocolate variety of this Royal Siamese cat; it was sent from Singapore to Mr. Brennand, from whom he purchased it, and is described as "most loving and affectionate," which I believe is usually the case. Although this peculiar colour is very beautiful and scarce, I am of opinion that the light gray or fawn colour with black and well-marked muzzle, ears, and legs is the typical variety, the markings being the same as the Himalayan rabbits. There are cavies so marked; and many years ago I saw a mouse similarly coloured. Mr. Young informs me that the kittens he has bred from his dark variety have invariably come the usual gray or light dun colour with dark points. I therefore take that to be the correct form and colour, and the darker colour to be an accidental deviation. In pug-dogs such a depth of colour would be considered a blemish, however beautiful it might be; even black pugs do not obtain prizes in competition with a true-marked light dun; but whatever colour the body is it should be clear and firm, rich and not clouded in any way. But I give Mr. Young's own views: "The dun Siamese we have has won whenever shown; the body is of a dun colour, nose, part of the face, ears, feet, and tail of a very dark chocolate brown, nearly black, eyes of a beautiful blue by day, and of a red colour at night! My other prize cat is of a very rich chocolate or seal, with darker face, ears, and tail; the legs are a shade darker, which intensifies towards the feet. The eyes small, of a rich amber colour, the ears are bare of hair, and not so much hair between the eyes and the ears as the English cats have. The dun, unless under special judges, invariably beats the chocolate at the shows. The tail is shorter and finer than our English cats. "I may add that we lately have had four kittens from the chocolate cat by a pure dun Siamese he-cat. All the young are dun coloured, and when born were very light, nearly white, but are gradually getting the dark points of the parents; in fact, I expect that one will turn chocolate. The cats are very affectionate, and make charming ladies' pets, but are rather more delicate than our cats, but after they have once wintered in England they seem to get acclimatised. "Mr. Brennand, who brought the chocolate one and another, a male, from Singapore last year, informs me that there are two varieties, a large and small. Ours are the small; he also tells me the chocolate is the most rare. "I have heard a little more regarding the Siamese cats from Miss Walker, the daughter of General Walker, who brought over one male and three females. It seems the only pure breed is kept at the King of Siam's palace, and the cats are very difficult to procure, for in Siam it took three different gentlemen of great influence three months before they could get any. "Their food is fish and rice boiled together until quite soft, and Miss Walker finds the kittens bred have thriven on it. "It is my intention to try and breed from a white English female with blue eyes, and a Siamese male. "The Siamese cats are very prolific breeders, having generally five at each litter, and three litters a year. "We have never succeeded in breeding any like our chocolate cat; they all come fawn, with black or dark brown points; the last family are a little darker on their backs, which gives them a richer appearance than the pale fawn. Hitherto we have never had any half-bred Siamese; but there used to be a male Siamese at Hurworth-on-Tees, and there were many young bred from English cats. They invariably showed the Siamese cross in the ground colour." From the foregoing it will be seen how very difficult it is to obtain the pure breed, even in Siam, and on reference to the Crystal Palace catalogues from the year 1871 until 1887, I find that there were _fifteen_ females and only _four_ males, and some of these were not entire; and I have always understood that the latter were not allowed to be exported, and were only got by those so fortunate as a most extraordinary favour, as the King of Siam is most jealous of keeping the breed entirely in Siam as royal cats. The one exhibited by Lady Dorothy Nevill (Mrs. Poodle) had three kittens by an English cat; but none showed any trace of the Siamese, being all tabby. Although Mr. Herbert Young was informed by Mr. Brennand that there is another and a larger breed in Siam, it does not appear that any of these have been imported; nor have we any description of them, either as to colour, size, form, or quality of coat, or whether they resemble the lesser variety in this or any respect, yet it is to be hoped that, ere long, some specimens may be secured for this country. Besides Mr. Herbert Young, I am also much indebted to the courtesy of Mrs. Vyvyan, of Dover, who is a lover of this beautiful breed, and who kindly sends the following information: "The original pair were sent from Bangkok, and it is believed that they came from the King's Palace, where alone the breed are said to be kept pure. At any rate they were procured as a great favour, after much delay and great difficulty, and since that time no others have been attainable by the same person. We were in China when they reached us, and the following year, 1886, we brought the father, mother, and a pair of kittens to England. "Their habits are in general the same as the common cat, though it has been observed by strangers, 'there is a pleasant wild animal odour,' which is not apparent to us. "Most of the kittens have a kink in the tail; it varies in position, sometimes in the middle, close to the body, or at the extreme end like a hook." This tallies with the description given by Mr. Darwin of the Malayan and also the Siamese cats. See my notes on the Manx cat. Mr. Young had also noted this peculiarity in "the Royal cat of Siam." Mrs. Vyvyan further remarks: "They are very affectionate and personally attached to their human friends, not liking to be left alone, and following us from room to room more after the manner of dogs than cats. "They are devoted parents, the old father taking the greatest interest in the young ones. "They are friendly with the dogs of the house, occupying the same baskets; but the males are very strong, and fight with great persistency with strange dogs, and conquer all other tom-cats in their neighbourhood. We lost one, however, a very fine cat, in China in this way, as he returned to the house almost torn to pieces and in a dying condition, from an encounter with some animal which we think was one of the wild cats of the hills. "We feed them on fresh fish boiled with rice, until the two are nearly amalgamated; they also take bread and milk _warm_, the milk having been boiled, and this diet seems to suit them better than any other. They also like chicken and game. We have proved the fish diet is not essential, as two of our cats (in Cornwall) never get it. "Rather a free life seems necessary to their perfect acclimatisation, where they can go out and provide themselves with raw animal food, 'feather and fur.' "We find these cats require a great deal of care, unless they live in the country, and become hardy through being constantly out of doors. The kittens are difficult to rear unless they are born late in the spring, thus having the warm weather before them. Most deaths occur before they are six months old. "We have lost several kittens from worms, which they endeavour to vomit; as relief we give them raw chicken heads, with _the feathers on_, with success. We also give cod-liver oil, if the appetite fails and weight diminishes. "When first born the colour is nearly pure white, the only trace of 'points' being a fine line of dark gray at the edge of the ears; a gradual alteration takes place, the body becoming creamy, the ears, face, tail, and feet darkening, until, about a year old, they attain perfection, when the points should be the deepest brown, nearly black, and the body ash or fawn colour, eyes opal or blue, looking red in the dark. After maturity they are apt to darken considerably, though not in all specimens. "They are most interesting and delightful pets. But owing to their delicacy and the great care they require, no one, unless a real cat _lover_, should attempt to keep them; they cannot with safety to their health be treated as common cats. "During 'Susan's' (one of the cats) illness, the old he-cat came daily to condole with her, bringing delicate 'attentions' in the form of freshly-caught mice. 'Loquat' also provided this for a young family for whom she had no milk. "Another, 'Saiwan,' is very clever at undoing the latch of the window in order to let himself out; tying it up with string is of no use, and he has even managed to untwist wire that has been used to prevent his going out in the snow. We have at present two males, four adult females, and five kittens." One of our kittens sent to Scotland last August, has done well. Mrs. Lee, of Penshurst, also has some fine specimens of the breed, and of the same colours as described. I take it, therefore, that the true breed, by consensus of opinion, is that of the dun, fawn, or ash-coloured ground, with black points. Other colours should be shown in the variety classes. The head should be long from the ears to the eyes, and not over broad, and then rather sharply taper off towards the muzzle, the forehead flat, and receding, the eyes somewhat aslant downwards towards the nose, and the eyes of a pearly, yet bright blue colour, the ears usual size and black, with little or no hair on the inside, with black muzzle, and round the eyes black. The form should be slight, graceful, and delicately made, body long, tail rather short and thin, and the legs somewhat short, slender, and the feet oval, not so round as the ordinary English cat. The body should be one bright, uniform, even colour, not clouded, either rich fawn, dun, or ash. The legs, feet, and tail black. The back slightly darker is allowable, if of a rich colour, and the colour softened, _not clouded_. [Illustration: PROPERLY MARKED SIAMESE CAT.] [Illustration] THE MANX CAT. The Manx cat is well known, and is by no means uncommon. It differs chiefly from the ordinary domestic cat in being tailless, or nearly so, the best breeds not having any; the hind legs are thicker and rather longer, particularly in the thighs. It runs more like a hare than a cat, the action of the legs being awkward, nor does it seem to turn itself so readily, or with such rapidity and ease; the head is somewhat small for its size, yet thick and well set on a rather long neck; the eyes large, round, and full, ears medium, and rather rounded at the apex. In colour they vary, but I do not remember to have seen a white or many black, though one of the best that has come under my notice was the latter colour. I have examined a number of specimens sent for exhibition at the Crystal Palace and other cat shows, and found in some a very short, thin, twisted tail, in others a mere excrescence, and some with an appendage more like a knob. These I have taken as having been operated upon when young, the tail being removed, but this may not be the case, as Mr. St. George Mivart in his very valuable book on the cat, mentions a case where a female cat had her tail so injured by the passage of a cart-wheel over it, that her master judged it best to have it cut off near the base. Since then she has had two litters of kittens, and in each litter one or more of the kittens had a _stump of tail_, while their brothers and sisters had tails of the usual length. But were there no Manx cats in the neighbourhood, is a query. This case is analogous to the statement that the short-tailed sheep-dog was produced from parents that had had their tails amputated; and yet this is now an established breed. Also a small black breed of dogs from the Netherlands, which is now very fashionable. They are called "Chipperkes," and have no tails, at least when exhibited. Mr. St. George Mivart further states that Mr. Bartlett told him, as he has so stated to myself, that in the Isle of Man the cats have tails of different lengths, from nothing up to ten inches. I have also been informed on good authority that the Fox Terrier dogs, which invariably have (as a matter of fashion) their tails cut short, sometimes have puppies with much shorter tails than the original breed; but this does not appear to take effect on sheep, whose tails are generally cut off. I cannot, myself, come to the same conclusion as to the origin of the Manx cat. Be this as it may, one thing is certain: that cross-bred Manx with other cats often have young that are tailless. As a proof of this, Mr. Herbert Young, of Harrogate, has had in his possession a very fine red female long-haired tailless cat, that was bred between the Manx and a Persian. Another case showing the strong prepotency of the Manx cat. Mr. Hodgkin, of Eridge, some time ago had a female Manx cat sent to him. Not only does she produce tailless cats when crossed with the ordinary cat, but the progeny again crossed also frequently have some tailless kittens in each litter. I have also been told there is a breed of tailless cats in Cornwall. Mr. Darwin states in his book on "The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. i. p. 47, that "throughout an immense area, namely, the Malayan Archipelago, Siam, Pequan, and Burmah, all the cats have truncated tails about half the proper length, often with a sort of knob at the end." This description tallies somewhat with the appearance of some of the Siamese cats that have been imported, several of which, though they have fairly long and thin tails, and though they are much pointed at the end, often have a break or kink. In a note Mr. Darwin says, "The Madagascar cat is said to have a twisted tail." (See Desmares, in Encyclop. Nat. Mamm., 1820, p. 233, for some other breeds.) Mr. St. George Mivart also corroborates the statement, so far as the Malay cat is concerned. He says the tail is only half the ordinary length, and often contorted into a sort of knot, so that it cannot be straightened. He further states, "Its contortion is due to deformity of the bones of the tail," and there is a tailless breed of cats in the Crimea. Some of the Manx cats I have examined have precisely the kind of tail here described--thin, very short, and twisted, that cannot be straightened. Is it possible that the Manx cat originated from the Malayan? Or rather is it a freak of nature perpetuated by selection? Be this as it may, we have the Manx cat now as a distinct breed, and, when crossed with others, will almost always produce some entirely tailless kittens, if not all. Many of the Siamese kittens bred here have kinks in their tails. The illustration I give is that of a prize winner at the Crystal Palace in 1880, 1881, 1882, and is the property of Mr. J. M. Thomas, of Parliament Street. In colour it is a brindled tortoiseshell. It is eight years old. At the end of this description I also give a portrait of one of its kittens, a tabby; both are true Manx, and neither have a particle of tail, only a very small tuft of hair which is boneless. The hind quarters are very square and deep, as contrasted with other cats, and the flank deeper, giving an appearance of great strength, the hind legs being longer, and thicker in proportion to the fore legs, which are much slighter and tapering; even the toes are smaller. The head is round for a she-cat, and the ears somewhat large and pointed, but thin and fine in the hair, the cavity of the ear has _less hair within it_ (also a trait of the Siamese) than some other short-haired cats, the neck is long and thin, as are the shoulders. Its habits are the same as those of most cats. I may add that Mr. Thomas, who is an old friend of mine, has had this breed many years, and kept it perfectly pure. [Illustration] VARIOUS COLOURS. Those who have had much to do with breeding, and crossing of animals, birds, or plants, well know that with time, leisure, and patience, how comparatively easy it is to improve, alter, enlarge, or diminish any of these, or any part of them; and looking at the cat from this standpoint, now that it is becoming "a fancy" animal, there is no prophesying what forms, colours, markings, or other variations will be made by those who understand what can be done by careful, well-considered matching, and skilful selection. We have now cats with no tails, short tails, and some of moderate length, long tails bushy and hairy; but should a very long tail be in request, I have no doubt whatever but that in a few years it would be produced; and now that there is a cat club constituted for the welfare and improvement of the condition, as well as the careful breeding of cats, curious and unforeseen results are most likely to be attained; but whether any will ever excel the many beautiful varieties we now have, is a problem that remains to be solved. This concludes the numerous varieties of _colours_ and the proper markings of the domestic cat, as regards beauty and the points of excellence to be observed for the purposes of exhibition. These are distinct, and as such, nearly all have classes for each individual colour and marking, and therefore it is imperative that the owner should note carefully the different properties and beauties of his or her particular specimen, and also as carefully read the schedule of prizes with such attention as to be enabled to enter his or her pet in the proper class; for, it is not only annoying to the exhibitor but to the judge to find an animal sometimes of extraordinary merit placed in the "wrong class" by _sheer inattention_ to the _printed rules_ and instructions prepared by the committee or promoters of the show. It is exceedingly distasteful, and I may say almost distressing, to a judge to find a splendid animal wrongly entered, and so to feel himself compelled to "pass it," and to affix the words fatal to all chance of winning--"Wrong class." Again let me impress on exhibitors to be careful--very careful--in this matter--this matter of entry--for I may say it is one of the reasons which has led to my placing these notes on paper, though I have done so with much pleasure, and with earnest hope that they will be found of some value and service to the "uninitiated." Of course there are, as there must be, a number of beautiful shades of colour, tints, and markings that are difficult to define or describe; colours and markings that are intermediate with those noticed; but though in themselves they are extremely interesting, and even very beautiful, they do not come within the range of the classes for certain definite forms of lines, spots, or colourings, as I have endeavoured to point out, and, indeed, it was almost impossible to make a sufficient number of classes to comprehend the whole. Therefore it has been considered wisest and even necessary as the most conducive to the best interests of the exhibitor and also to simplify the difficulties of judging, and for the maintenance of the various forms of beauty of the cat, to have classes wherein they are shown under rules of colour, points of beauty and excellence that are "hard and fast," and by this means all may not only know how and in what class to exhibit, but also what their chance is of "taking honours." As I have just stated, there are intermediate colours, markings, and forms, so extra classes have been provided for these, under the heading of "any other variety of colour," and "any other variety not before mentioned," and "any cats of peculiar structure." In this last case, the cats that have abnormal formations, such as seven toes, or even nine on their fore and hind legs, peculiar in other ways, such as three legs, or only two legs, as I have seen, may be exhibited. I regard these, however, as malformations, and not to be encouraged, being generally devoid of beauty, and lacking interest for the ordinary observer, and they also tend to create a morbid taste for the unnatural and ugly, instead of the beautiful; the beautiful, be it what it may, is always pleasant to behold; and there is but little, if any, doubt in my mind but that the constant companionship of even a beautiful cat must have a soothing effect. Therefore, not in cats only, but in all things have the finest and best. Surround yourself with the elegant, the graceful, the brilliant, the beautiful, the agile, and the gentle. Be it what it may, animal, bird, or flower, be careful to have the best. A man, it is said, is made more or less by his environments, and doubtless this is to a great extent, if not entirely, a fact; that being so, the contemplation of the beautiful must have its quieting, restful influences, and tend to a brighter and happier state of existence. I am fully aware there are many that may differ from me, though I feel sure I am not far wrong when I aver there are few animals really more beautiful than a cat. If it is a good, carefully selected specimen, well kept, well cared for, in high condition, in its prime of life, well-trained, graceful in every line, bright in colour, distinct in markings, supple and elegant in form, agile and gentle in its ways, it is beautiful to look at and must command admiration. Yes! the contemplation of the beautiful elevates the mind, if only in a cat; beauty of any kind, is beauty, and has its refining influences. [Illustration] USEFULNESS OF CATS. In our urban and suburban houses what should we do without cats? In our sitting or bedrooms, our libraries, in our kitchens and storerooms, our farms, barns, and rickyards, in our docks, our granaries, our ships, and our wharves, in our corn markets, meat markets, and other places too numerous to mention, how useful they are! In our ships, however, the rats oft set them at defiance; still they are of great service. How wonderfully patient is the cat when watching for rats or mice, awaiting their egress from their place of refuge or that which is their home! How well Shakespeare in _Pericles_, Act iii., describes this keen attention of the cat to its natural pursuit! The cat, with eyne of burning coal, Now crouches from (before) the mouse's hole. A slight rustle, and the fugitive comes forth; a quick, sharp, resolute motion, and the cat has proved its usefulness. Let any one have a plague of rats and mice, as I once had, and let them be delivered therefrom by cats, as I was, and they will have a lasting and kind regard for them. A friend not long since informed me that a cat at Stone's Distillery was seen to catch two rats at one time, a fore foot on each. All the cats kept at this establishment, and there are several, are of the red tabby colour, and therefore most likely all males. I am credibly informed of a still more extraordinary feat of a cat in catching mice, that of a red tabby cat which on being taken into a granary at Sevenoaks where there were a number of mice, dashed in among a retreating group, and secured four, one with each paw and two in her mouth. At the office of _The Morning Advertiser_, I am informed by my old friend Mr. Charles Williams, they boast of a race of cats bred there for nearly half a century. In colour these are mostly tortoiseshell, and some are very handsome. The Government, mindful also of their utility, pay certain sums, which are regularly passed through the accounts quarterly, for the purpose of providing and keeping cats in our public offices, dockyards, stores, shipping, etc., thereby proving, if proof were wanting, their acknowledged worth. In Vienna four cats are employed by the town magistrates to catch mice on the premises of the municipality. A regular allowance is voted for their keep, and, after a limited period of active service, they are placed on the "retired list," with a comfortable pension. * * * * * There are also a number of cats in the service of the United States Post Office. These cats are distributed over the different offices to protect the bags from being eaten by rats and mice, and the cost of providing for them is duly inscribed in the accounts. When a birth takes place, the local postmaster informs the district superintendent of the fact, and obtains an addition to his rations. * * * * * A short time ago, the budget of the Imperial Printing Office in France, amongst other items, contained one for cats, which caused some merriment in the legislative chamber during its discussion. According to the _Pays_ these cats are kept for the purpose of destroying the numerous rats and mice which infest the premises, and cause considerable damage to the large stock of paper which is always stored there. This feline staff is fed twice a day, and a man is employed to look after them; so that for cats' meat and the keeper's salary no little expense is annually incurred; sufficient, in fact, to form a special item in the national expenditure. Mr. W. M. Acworth, in his excellent book, "The Railways of England," gives a very interesting account of the usefulness of the cat. He says, writing of the Midland Railway: "A few miles further off, however--at Trent--is a still more remarkable portion of the company's staff, eight cats, who are borne on the strength of the establishment, and for whom a sufficient allowance of milk and cats' meat is provided. And when we say that the cats have under their charge, according to the season of the year, from one to three or four hundred thousand empty corn sacks, it will be admitted that the company cannot have many servants who better earn their wages. "The holes in the sacks, which are eaten by the rats which are not killed by the cats, are darned by twelve women, who are employed by the company." Few people know, or wish to know, what a boon to mankind is "The Domestic Cat." Liked or disliked, there is the cat, in some cases unthought of or uncared for, but simply kept on account of the devastation that would otherwise take place were rats and mice allowed to have undivided possession. An uncle of mine had some hams sent from Yorkshire; during the transit by rail the whole of the interior of one of the largest was consumed by rats. More cats at the stations would possibly have prevented such irritating damage. And further, it is almost incredible, and likewise almost unknown, the great benefit the cat is to the farmer. All day they sleep in the barns, stables, or outhouses, among the hay or straw. At eve they are seen about the rick-yard, the corn-stack, the cow and bullock yards, the stables, the gardens, and the newly sown or mown fields, in quest of their natural prey, the rat and mouse. In the fields the mice eat and carry off the newly-sown peas or corn, so in the garden, or the ripened garnered corn in stacks; but when the cat is on guard much of this is prevented. Rats eat corn and carry off more, kill whole broods of ducklings and chickens in a night, undermine buildings, stop drains, and unwittingly do much other injury to the well-being of the farmers and others. What a ruinous thing it would be, and what a dreadfully horrible thing it is to be overrun with rats, to say nothing of mice. In this matter man's best friend is the cat. Silent, careful, cautious, and sure, it is at work, while the owner sleeps, with an industry, a will, and purpose that never rests nor tires from dewy eve till rosy morn, when it will glide through "the cat hole" into the barn for repose among the straw, and when night comes, forth again; its usefulness scarcely imagined, much less known and appreciated. They who remember old Fleet Prison, in Farringdon Street, will scarcely believe that the debtors there confined were at times so neglected as to be absolutely starving; so much so, that a Mr. Morgan, a surgeon of Liverpool, being put into that prison, was ultimately reduced so low by poverty, neglect, and hunger, as to catch mice by the means of a cat for his sustenance. This is stated to be the fact in a book written by Moses Pitt, "The Cries of the Oppressed," 1691. [Illustration] GENERAL MANAGEMENT. FEEDING. Adult cats require less food in proportion than kittens, for two reasons. One is this: a kitten is growing, and therefore extra bone, flesh, skin, hair, and all else has to be provided for; while in the adults, these are more or less acquired, and also they procure for themselves, in various ways in country or suburban localities, much live and other food, and no animal is the better for over or excessive feeding, especially if confined, or its chances of exercise contracted. I have tried many ways or methods of feeding, biscuits of sorts, liver, lights, horseflesh, bread and milk, rice, fish, and cat mixtures, but have always attained the best results by giving new milk as drink, and raw shin of beef for food, with grass, boiled asparagus stems, cabbage-lettuce, or some other vegetable, either cooked or fresh. Good horseflesh is much liked by the cat, and it thrives well on it. I do not believe in either liver or lights as a flesh or bone maker. Besides the beef, there are the "tit-bits" that the household cat not only usually receives, but looks for or expects. My dear friend, Mr. John Timbs, in "Things not Generally Known," avers that cats are not so fond of fish as flesh, and that the statement that they are is a fallacy. He says, put both before them and they will take the flesh first, and this I have found to be correct. I should only give fresh fish, as a rule, to a cat when unwell, more as an alternative than food. As raw meat or other raw food is natural to the cat, it is far the best, with vegetables, for keeping the body, coat, and skin in good condition and health, and the securing of a rich, bright, high colour and quality. On no account try to improve these by either medicinal liquids, pills, or condiments; nothing can be much worse, as reflection will prove. If the cat is healthy, it is at its best, and will keep so by proper food; if unwell, then use such medicines as the disease or complaint it suffers from requires, _and not otherwise_. Many horses and other animals have their constitutions entirely ruined by what are called "coat tonics," which are useless, and only believed in and practised by the thoughtless, gullible, and foolish. Does any one, or will any one take pills, powders, or liquids, for promoting the colour or texture of their hair; would any one be so silly? And yet we are coolly told to give such things to our animals. Granted that in illness medicine is of much service, in health it is harmful, and tends to promote disease where none exists. SLEEPING PLACES. I much prefer a round basket filled with oat straw to anything else; some urge that a box is better; my cats have a basket. It is well to sprinkle the straw occasionally with Keating's Powder or flour of sulphur, which is a preventive of insect annoyances, and "Prevention is better than cure." Never shut cats up in close cupboards for the night, there being little or no ventilation; it is most injurious, pure air being as essential to a cat as to a human being. Always have a box with dry earth near the cat's sleeping place, unless there is an opening for egress near. Do not, as a rule, put either collar or ribbon on your cat; though they may thereby be improved in appearance, they are too apt to get entangled or caught by the collar, and often strangulation ensues; besides which, in long-haired cats, it spoils their mane or frill. Of course at shows it is allowable. All cats, as well as other animals, should have ready access to a pan of clear water, which should be changed every day, and the pan cleaned. Fresh air, sunlight, and warm sunshine are good, both for cats and their owners. It is related of Charles James Fox that, walking up St. James's Street from one of the club-houses with the Prince of Wales, he laid a wager that he would see more cats than the Prince in his walk, and that he might take which side of the street he liked. When they reached the top, it was found that Mr. Fox had seen thirteen cats, and the Prince not one. The Royal personage asked for an explanation of this apparent miracle. Mr. Fox said: "Your Royal Highness took, of course, the shady side of the way as most agreeable; I knew the sunny side would be left for me, and _cats always prefer the sunshine_." A most essential requisite for the health of the cat is cleanliness. In itself the animal is particularly so, as may be observed by its constant habit of washing, or cleaning its fur many times a day; therefore, a clean basket, clean straw, or clean flannel, to lie on--in fact, everything clean is not only necessary, but is a necessity for its absolute comfort. Mr. Timbs says: "It is equally erroneous that she is subject to fleas; the small insect, which infests the half-grown kitten, being a totally different animal, exceedingly swift in running, but not salient or leaping like a flea." In this Mr. Timbs slightly errs. Cats _do_ have fleas, but not often, and of a different kind to the ordinary flea; but I have certainly seen them jump. In dressing the coat of the cat no comb should be used, more especially with the long-haired varieties; but if so, which I do not recommend, great care should be used not to drag the hair so that it comes out, or breaks, otherwise a rough, uneven coat will and must be the result. Should the hair become clotted, matted, or felted, as is sometimes the case, it ought to be moistened, either with oil or soft-soap, a little water being added, and when the application has well soaked in, it will be found comparatively easy to separate the tangle with the fingers by gently pulling out from the mass a few hairs at a time, after which wash thoroughly, and use a soft, long-haired brush; but this must be done with discretion, so as not to spoil the natural waviness of the hair, or to make it lie in breadths instead of the natural, easy, carelessly-parted flaky appearance, which shows the white or blue cat off to such advantage. WASHING. Most cats have a dislike to water, and as a rule, and under ordinary conditions, generally keep themselves clean, more especially the short-haired breeds; but, as is well known, the Angora, Persian, and Russian, if not taken care of, are sure to require washing, the more so to prepare them for exhibition, as there is much gain in the condition in which a cat comes before the judge. There are many cases of cats taking to the water and swimming to certain points to catch fish, or for other food, on record; yet it is seldom that they take a pleasure in playing about in it. I therefore think it well to mention that I had a half-bred black and white Russian, that would frequently jump into the bath while it was being filled, and sit there until the water rose too high for its safety. Thus cats may be taught to like washing. If a cat is to be washed, treat it as kindly and gently as is possible, speaking in a soothing tone, and in no way be hasty or sudden in your movements, so as to raise distrust or fear. Let the water be warm but not hot, put the cat in slowly, and when its feet rest on the bottom of the tub, you may commence the washing. Mr. A. A. Clarke, the well-known cat fancier, says: "I seldom wash my cats, I rather prefer giving them a good clean straw-bed, and attending to their general health and condition, and they will then very seldom require washing. I find that much washing makes the coat harsh and poor, and I also know from experience that it is 'a work of art' to wash a cat properly, and requires an artist in that way to do it. My plan is to prepare some liquid soap, by cutting a piece into shreds, and putting it into cold water, and then boiling it for an hour. I then have two clean tubs got ready, one to wash, the other to rinse in. Have soft water about blood heat, with a very small piece of soda in the washing-tub, into which I place the cat, hind-quarters first, having some one that it knows perfectly well, to hold and talk to the cat while the washing is going on. I begin with the tail, and thoroughly rubbing in the soap with my hands, and getting by degrees over the body and shoulders up to the ears, leaving the head until the cat is rinsed in the other tub, which ought to be half filled with warm soft water, into which I place the cat, and thoroughly rinse out all the soap, when at the same time I wash the head, and I then sit in front of the fire and dry with warm towels; and if it is done well and thoroughly, it is a good three hours' hard work." I would add to the foregoing that I should use Naldire's dog soap, which I have found excellent in all ways, and it also destroys any insect life that may be present. Also in washing, be careful not to move the hands in circles, or the hair will become entangled and knotty, and very difficult to untwist or unravel. Take the hair in the hands, and press the softened soap through and through the interstices, and when rinsing do the same with the water, using a large sponge for the purpose. After drying I should put the cat in a box lightly, full of oat straw, and place it in front of, or near a fire, at such distance as not to become too warm, and only near enough to prevent a chill before the cat is thoroughly dry. MATING. Yet nature is made better by no mean, But nature makes that mean: so, o'er that art, Which, you say, adds to nature, is an art That nature makes. _Coriolanus, Act II. Scene I._ This requires much and careful consideration, and in this, as well as in many other things, experience and theory join hands, while the knowledge of the naturalist and fancier is of great and superlative value; yet, with all combined, anything like certainty can never be assured, although the possession of pedigree is added, and the different properties of food, health, quality, and breed understood and taken into account. Still, much may be gained by continued observation and close study of the peculiar properties of colour, besides that of form. If, for instance, a really, absolutely _blue_ cat, without a shade of any other colour, were obtainable, and likewise a pure, clear, canary yellow, there is little doubt that at a distant period, a green would be the ultimate goal of success. But the yellow tabby is not a yellow, nor the blue a blue. There being, then, only a certain variety of colours in cats, the tints to be gained are limited entirely to a certain set of such colours, and the numerous shades and half-shades of these mixed, broken, or not, into tints, markings light or dark, as desired. To all colour arrangements, if I may so call them, by the mind, intellect, or hand of man, there is a limit, beyond which none can go. It is thus far and no further. There is the black cat, and the white; and between these are intervening shades, from very light, or white-gray, to darker, blue, dark blue, blackish blue, gray and black. If a blue-black is used, the lighter colours are of one tint; if a brown-black, they are another. Then in what are termed the sandies and browns, it commences with the yellow-white tint scarcely visible apart from white to the uninitiated eye; then darker and darker, until it culminates in deep brown, with the intervening yellows, reds, chestnuts, mahoganys, and such colours, which generally are striped with a darker colour of nearly their own shade, until growing denser, it ends in brown-black. The gray tabby has a ground colour of gray. In this there are the various shades from little or no markings, leaving the colour a brown or gray, or the gray gradually disappearing before the advance of the black in broader and broader bands, until the first is excluded and black is the result. The tortoiseshell is a mixture of colours in patches, and is certainly an exhibition of what may be done by careful selection, mating, and crossing of an animal while under the control of man, in a state of thorough domestication. What the almond tumbler is to the pigeon fancier, so is the tortoiseshell cat to the cat fancier, or the bizarre tulip to the florist. As regards colour, it is a triumph of art over nature, by the means of skilful, careful mating, continued with unwearying patience. We get the same combination of colour in the guinea-pig, both male and female, and therefore this is in part a proof that by proper mating, eventually a tortoiseshell male cat should soon be by no means a rarity. There are rules, which, if strictly followed under favourable conditions, ought to produce certain properties, such properties that may be desired, either by foolish (which generally it is) fashion, or the production of absolute beauty of form, markings in colours, or other brilliant effects, and which the true fanciers endeavour to obtain. It is to this latter I shall address my remarks, rather than to the reproduction of the curious, the inelegant, or the deformed, such as an undesirable number of toes, which are impediments to utility. In the first place, the fancier must thoroughly make up his mind as to the variety of form, colour, association of colours or markings by which he wishes to produce, if possible, perfection; and, having done so, he must provide himself with such stock as, on being mated, are likely to bring such progeny as will enable him in due time to attain the end he has in view. This being gained, he must also prepare himself for many disappointments, which are the more likely to accrue from the reason that, in all probability, he starts without any knowledge of the ancestry or pedigree of the animals with which he begins his operations. Therefore, for this reason, he has to gain his knowledge of any aptitude for divergence from the ordinary or the common they may exhibit, or which his practical experience discovers, and thus, as it were, build up a family with certain points and qualities before he can actually embark in the real business of accurately matching and crossing so as to produce the results which, by a will, undeviating perseverance, and patience, he is hoping to gain eventually--the perfection he so long, ardently, and anxiously seeks to acquire; but he must bear in mind that that, on which he sets his mark, though high, must come within the limits and compass of that which _is_ attainable, for it is not the slightest use to attempt that which is not within the charmed circle of possibilities. TORTOISESHELLS. I place these first on the list because, being an old pigeon fancier and somewhat of a florist, I deem these to be the breed wherein there is the most art and skill required to produce properly all the varied mottled beauty of bright colours that a cat of this breed should possess; and those who have bred tortoiseshells well know how difficult a task it is. In breeding for this splendid, gorgeous, and diversified arrangement of colouring, a black, or even a blue, may be used with a yellow or red tabby female, or a white male, supposing either or both were the offspring of a tortoiseshell mother. The same males might be used with advantage with a tortoiseshell female. This is on the theory of whole colours, and patches or portions of whole colours, without bars or markings when possible. In the same way some of the best almond tumbler pigeons are bred from an almond cock mated to a yellow hen. The difficulty here, until lately, has been to breed hens of the varied mottling on almond colour, the hen almost invariably coming nearly, if not quite yellow--so much so that forty to fifty years ago a yellow hen was considered as a pair to an almond cock, in the same way as the red tabby male is now regarded in respect to the tortoiseshell female; and it was not until at Birmingham, many years ago, when acting as judge, I refused to award prizes to them as such, that the effort was made, and a successful one, to breed almond-coloured hens with the same plumage as the cock--that is, the three colours. With cats the matter is entirely different, it being the male at present that is the difficulty, if a real difficulty it may be called. Mr. Herbert Young, a most excellent cat fancier and authority on the subject, is of opinion that if a tortoiseshell male cat could be found, it would not prove fertile with a tortoiseshell female. But of this I am very doubtful, because, if the red and the yellow tabby is so, which is decidedly a weaker colour, I do not see how it can possess more vitality than a cat marked with the _three_ colours; in fact the latter ought, in reality, to be more prolific, having black as one of the colours, which is a strong colour, blue being only the weak substitute, or with white _combined_. A whole black is one of the strongest colours and most powerful of cats. Reverting once again to the pigeon fancier by way of analogy, take, as an instance, what is termed the silver-coloured pigeon, or the yellow. These two, and duns, are, by loss of certain pigments, differently coloured and constituted (like the tortoiseshell among cats) from other varieties of pigeons of harder colours, such as blues, and blacks, or even reds. For a long time silver turbit cock pigeons were so scarce that, until I bred some myself, I had never seen such a thing; yet hens were common enough, and got from silver and blues. In the nestling before the feathers come, the young of these colours are without down, and are thus thought to be, and doubtless are, a weakly breed; yet there is no absolute diminution of strength, beyond that of colour, when silver is matched to silver; but dun with dun, these last go lower in the scale, losing the black tint, and not unfrequently the colour is yellow; or, matched with black, breed true blacks. I am, therefore, of opinion that a tortoiseshell male and female would, and should, produce the best of tortoiseshells, both male and female. It not unfrequently happens that from a tortoiseshell mother, in the litter of kittens there are male blacks and clear whites, and I have known of one case when a good blue and one where the mixed colours were blue, light red, and light yellow were produced, while the sisters in the litter were of the usual pure tortoiseshell markings. In such cases, generally, the latter only are kept, unless it is the blue, the others being too often destroyed. My own plan would be to breed from such black or white males, and if not successful in the first attempt, to breed again in the same way with the young obtained with such cross; and I have but little doubt that, by so doing, the result so long sought after would be achieved. At least, I deem it far more likely to be so than the present plan of using the red tabby as the male, which are easily produced, though very few are of high excellence in richness of ground tints. TORTOISESHELL-AND-WHITE. If tortoiseshell-and-white are desired, then a black-and-white male may be selected, being bred in the same way as those recommended for the pure tortoiseshell, or one without white if the female has white; but on _no account_ should an ordinary tabby be tolerated, but a red tabby female of deep colour, or having white, may be held in request, though I would prefer patches of colour not in any way barred. The gray tabby will throw barred, spotted, or banded kittens, mixed with tortoiseshell, which is the very worst form of mottling, and is very difficult to eradicate. A gray "ticking" will most likely appear between the dark colour, as it does between the black bars of the tabby. BLACK. The best black, undoubtedly, are those bred from tortoiseshell mothers or females. The black is generally more dense, and less liable to show any signs of spots, bands, or bars, when the animal is in the sun or a bright light; when this is so, it is fatal to a black as regards its chance of a prize, or even notice, and it comes under the denomination of a black tabby. If a black and a white cat are mated, let the black be the male, blacks having more stamina, the issue will probably be either white or black; and also when you wish the black to be perpetuated, the black male must be younger. In 1884, a black female cat was exhibited with five white kittens. I have just seen a beautiful black Persian whose mother was a clear white; this, and the foregoing example, prove either colour represents the same for the purpose of breeding to colour. For breeding black with white, take care that the white is the gray-white, and not the yellow-white; the first generally has orange or yellow eyes, and this is one of the required qualities in the black cat. If a yellow-white with blue eyes, this type of eye would be detrimental, and most likely the eyes of the offspring would have a green stain, or possibly be of odd colours. It should be borne in mind, that black kittens are seldom or ever so rich in colour when newly born, as they afterwards become; therefore, if without spots or bars, and of a deep self brown-black, they will in all possibility be fine in colour when they gain their adult coat. This the experienced fancier well knows, though the tyro often destroys that which will ultimately prove of value, simply from ignorance. An instance of the brown-black kitten is before me as I write, in a beautiful Persian, which is now changing from the dull kitten self brown-black on to a brilliant glossy, jetty beauty. BLUES. Blue in cats is one of the most extraordinary colours of any, for the reason that it is the _mixture_ of black which is no colour, and white which is no colour, and this is the more curious because black mated with white generally produces either one colour or the other, or breaks black and white, or white and black. The blue being, as it were, a weakened black, or a withdrawal by white of some, if not all, of the brown or red, varying in tint according to the colour of the black from which it was bred, dark-gray, or from weakness in the stamina of the litter. In the human species an alliance of the Negro, or African race, and the European, produces the mulatto, and some other shades of coloured skin, though the hair generally retains the black hue; but seldom or ever are the colours broken up as in animal life, the only instance that has come to my knowledge, and I believe on record, being that of the spotted Negro boy, exhibited at fairs in England by Richardson, the famous showman; but in this case both the parents were black, and natives of South Africa. The boy arrived in England in September, 1809, and died February, 1813. His skin and hair were everywhere parti-coloured, transparent brown and white; on the crown of his head several triangles, one within the other, were formed by alternations of the colour of the hair. In other domestic animals blue colour is not uncommon. Blue-tinted dogs, rabbits, horses of a blue-gray, or spotted with blue on a pink flesh colour, as in the naked horse shown at the Crystal Palace some years ago, also pigs; and all these have likewise broken colours of blue, or black, and white. I do not remember having seen any blue cattle, nor any blue guinea-pigs, but no doubt these latter will soon exist. When once the colour or break from the black is acquired, it is then easy to go on multiplying the different shades and varieties of tint and tone, from the dark blue-black to the very light, almost white-gray. In some places in Russia, I am told, blue cats are exceedingly common; I have seen several shown under the names of Archangel, and others as Chartreuse and Maltese cats. Persians are imported sometimes of this colour, both dark and light. Next kin to it is the very light-gray tabby, with almost the same hue, if not quite so light-gray markings. Two such mated have been known to produce very light self grays, and of a lovely hue, a sort of "morning gray"; these matched with black should breed blues. Old male black, and young female white cats, have been known to produce kittens this colour. There is a colony of farm cats at Rodmell, Sussex, from which very fine blues are bred. Light silver tabby males, and white females, are also apt to have one or so in a litter of kittens; but these generally are not such good blues, the colour being a gray-white, or nearly so, should the hair or coat be parted or divided, the skin being light. The very dark, if from brown-black, are not so blue, but come under the denomination of "smokies," or blue "smokies," with scarcely a tint of blue in them; some "smokies" are white, or nearly so, with dark tips to the hair; these more often occur among Persian than English cats, though I once had a smoky tabby bred from a black and a silver tabby. Importations of some of the former are often extremely light, scarcely showing any markings. These, and such as these, are very valuable where a self blue is desired. If these light colours are females, a smoke-coloured male is an excellent cross, as it already shows a weakened colour. For a very light, tender, delicate, light-gray long-haired self, I should try a white male, and either a rich blue, or a soft gray, extremely lightly-marked tabby. As a rule, all broken whites, such as black and white, should be avoided; because, as I explained at the commencement of these notes on blues, the blue is black and white _amalgamated_, or the brown withdrawn from the colouring, or, if not, with the colours breaking, or becoming black and white. If whole coloured blues are in request, then parti-colours, such as white and black, or black and white, are best excluded. Blue and white are easily attainable by mating a blue male with a white and black female. The best and deepest coloured of the blue short-haired cats are from Archangel. Those I have seen were very fine in colour, the pelage being the same colour to the skin, which was also dark and of a uniform lilac-tinted blue. Some come by chance. I knew of a blue English cat, winner of several prizes, whose parents were a black and white male mated with a "light-gray tabby" and white; but this was an exception to the rule, for strongly-marked tabbies are not a good cross. BROWN TABBY. For the purpose of breeding rich brown black-striped tabbies, a male of a rich dark rufous or red tabby should be selected, the bands being regular and not too broad, the lighter or ground colour showing well between the lines; if the black lines are very broad, it is then a black, striped with brown, instead of a brown with black, which is wrong. With this match a female of a good brown ground colour, marked with dense, not broad, black bands, having clear, sharply defined edges. Note also that the centre line of the back is a distinct line, with the brown ground colour on which it is placed being in no way interspersed with black, and at least as broad as the black line; by this cross finely-marked kittens of a brilliant colour may be expected. But if the progeny are not so bright as required, and the ground colour not glowing enough, then, when the young arrive at maturity, mate with a dark-yellow red tabby either male or female. Very beautiful brown tabbies are also to be found among the litters of the female tortoiseshell, allied with a dark-brown tabby with narrow black bars. It is a cross that may be tried with advantage for both variety and richness of colour, among which it will not be found difficult to find something worthy of notice. WHITE. Of English, or short-haired cats, the best white are those from a tortoiseshell mother, and as often some of the best blacks. These whites are generally of soft yellow, or sandy tint of white. Although they have pink noses, as also are the cushions of their feet, they are not Albinos, not having the peculiar pink or red eyes, nor are they deficient in sight. I have seen and examined with much care some hundreds of white cats, but have never yet seen one with pink eyes, though it has been asserted that such exist, and there is no reason why they should not. Still, I am inclined to think they do not, and the pale blue eyes, or the red tinted blue, like those of the Siamese, take the place of it in the feline race; neither have I ever seen a white horse with pink eyes, but I find it mentioned in one of the daily papers that among other presents to the Emperor of Russia, the Bokhara Embassy took with them ten thoroughbred saddle-horses of different breeds, one of them being a magnificent animal--a pure white stallion with _blue eyes_. The cold gray-white is the opposite of the black, and this knowledge should not be lost sight of in mating. It generally has yellow or light orange eyes. This colour, in a male, may be crossed with the yellow-white with advantage, when more strength of constitution is required; but otherwise I deem the best matching is that of two yellow-white, both with blue eyes, for soft hair, elegance, and beauty; but even a black male and a white female produce whites, and sometimes blacks, but the former are generally of a coarse description, and harsh in coat by comparison. I think the blue-eyed white are a distinct breed from the common ordinary white cat, nor do I remember any such being bred from those with eyes of yellow colour. ABYSSINIAN. To breed these true, it is well to procure imported or pedigree stock, for many cats are bred in England from ordinary tabbies, that so nearly resemble Abyssinian in colour as scarcely to be distinguished from the much-prized foreigners. The males are generally of a darker colour than the females, and are mostly marked with dark-brown bands on the forehead, a black band along the back which ends at the tip of the tail, with which it is annulated. The ticking should be of the truest kind, each hair being of three distinct colours, blue, yellow, or red, and black at the points, the cushions of the feet black, and back of the hind-legs. Choose a female, with either more red or yellow, the markings being the same, and, with care in the selection, there will be some very brilliant specimens. Eyes bright orange-yellow. ABYSSINIAN CROSSES. Curiously coloured as the Abyssinian cat is, and being a true breed, no doubt of long far back ancestry, it is most useful in crossing with other varieties, even with the Persian, Russian, Angora, or the Archangel, the ticking hues being easy of transmission, and is then capable of charming and delightful tints, with breadths of beautiful mottled or grizzled colouring, if judiciously mated. The light tabby Persian, matched with a female Abyssinian, would give unexpected surprises, so with the dark blue Archangel; a well-ticked blue would not only be a novelty, but an elegant colour hitherto unseen. A deep red tabby might result in a whole colour, bright red, or a yellow tint. I have seen a cat nearly black ticked with white, which had yellow eyes. It was truly a splendid and very beautiful animal, of a most _recherché_ colour. Matched with a silver-gray tabby, a silver-gray tick is generally the sequence. A yellow-white will possibly prove excellent. Try it! WHITE AND BLACK. For white and black choose evenly marked animals, in which white predominates. I have seen three differently bred cats, white, with black ears and tails, all else being white, and been informed of others. I failed to notice the colour of the eyes which came under my own observation, for which I am sorry, for much depends on the colour of the eyes in selection; for though the parents are white and black, many gray and white, tabby and white, even yellow and white will appear among the kittens, gray being the original colour, and black the sport. BLACK AND WHITE. A deep brown, dense black ground, with a blaze up the face, white nose and lips, should be chosen--white chest and white feet. Get a female as nearly as possible so marked, and being a dense blue-black, both with orange eyes, when satisfactorily marked, and sable and white kittens may be expected. BLUE TABBY. A slate colour, or a blue male cat, mated with a strongly black-marked, though narrow-banded blue or gray tabby, is the best for dark blue tabbies, or a light-gray, evenly-marked female may be used. What a lovely thing a white cat, marked with black stripes, would be! It may be got. SPOTTED TABBY. For spotted tabby the best brown are those got by mating a spotted red tabby, the darker the better, and a brown and black spotted female. These should be carefully selected, not only for their ground colour, but also for the roundness, distinctness, blackness, and arrangements of their spots. For grays, blues, and light ash-coloured tabbies, the same care should be exercised, the only difference being the choice of ground colours. FANCY COLOURS. By other odd and fanciful combinations, many beautiful mottles and stripes may be secured, and strange, quaint, harmonious arrangements of lines and spots produced according to "fancy's dictates;" but the foregoing are the chief colours in request for exhibition purposes, and most of the colour marking. In any other colour classes, the beauties, whatever they may be, are chiefly the result of accident or sports, selected for such beauty, or in other ways equally interesting. [Illustration] [Illustration] CAT AND KITTENS. Care and attention is necessary when the cat is likely to become a mother. A basket or box, half filled with sweet hay, or clean oat straw, with some flannel in the winter, is absolutely requisite, and a quiet nook or corner selected away from light, noise, and intrusion. Some prefer a box made like a rabbit-hutch, with sleeping place, and a barred door to one or both compartments which may be closed when thought necessary for comfort and quiet. The cat should be placed within, with food and new milk by or inside, and there be regularly fed for a few days, all pans and plates to be kept well washed, and only as much food given at a time as can be eaten at one meal, so that everything is clean and fresh. Cats, as I have before stated, delight in cleanliness, therefore this, nor any comfort, should not be forgotten or omitted, for so much depends on her health and the growth of her little family, with regard to their future well-being. The cat brings forth three times a year, and often more. The time of gestation is to sixty-three days, and the number of the kittens varies much. Some will have five to six at a birth, while others _never_ have more than two or three. I had a blue tabby, "The Old Lady," which never had more than _one_. The cat, however, is a very prolific animal, and, if of long life, produces a very numerous progeny. _The Derby Gazette_, December 10th, 1886, states:--"There is a cat at Cromford, the age of which is nineteen years. It belonged to the late Mr. Isaac Orme, who died a few months ago. The old man made an entry of all the kittens the cat had given birth to, which, up to the time of his death, numbered 120. It has now just given birth to _one_ more. It will not leave the house where the old man died, except to visit a neighbouring house, where there is a harmonium; and when the instrument is being played, the cat will go and stand on its hind-legs beside the player." Cats live to various ages, the oldest I have seen being twenty-one years, and the foregoing is the greatest age at which I have known one to breed. But I am indebted to Mrs. Paterson, of Tunbridge Wells, for the information that Mr. Sandal had a cat that lived to the extraordinary age of twenty-four years. I have seen Mr. Sandal, and found that such was the case. It was a short-haired cat, and rather above the usual size, and tabby in colour. When littered, the kittens are weak, blind, deaf, helpless little things, and it appears almost impossible they can ever attain the supple grace and elegance of form and motion so much admired in the fully-developed cat. The state of visual darkness continues until the eighth or ninth day, during which the eyesight is gradually developing. After this they grow rapidly, and, at the age of a few weeks, the gamboling, frolicsome life of "kittenhood" begins, and they begin to feed, lap milk, if slightly warm, when placed in front of them. No animal is more fond and attentive than the cat; she is the most tender and gentle of nurses, watching closely every movement of her young. With the utmost solicitude she brings the choicest morsels of her own food, which she lays before them, softly purring, while with gentle and motherly ways she attracts them to the spot while she sits or stands, looking on with evident satisfaction, full of almost uncontrollable pleasure and delight, at their eager, but often futile attempts and endeavours to eat and enjoy the dainty morsel. Yet nothing is wasted, for after waiting what appears to her a reasonable time, and giving them every encouragement, and with the most exemplary patience, she teaches them what they should do, and how, by slowly making a meal of the residue herself, frequently stopping and fondling and licking them in the hope they will yet make another effort. What can be more sensitively touching than the following anecdote, sent to _The Animal World_ by C. E. N., in 1876? It is a little poem of everyday life, full of deep feeling and feline love. "I have a small tabby cat, very comely and graceful. Being very fond of her kitten, she is always uneasy if she loses sight of it if only for a short time. For the last six weeks, the mother, failing to recall the truant back by her voice, even returns to the kitchen for the lower portion of a rabbit's fore-leg, which has served as a plaything for some time. With this in her mouth, she proceeds to search for her lost one, crying all the time, and, putting it down at her feet, repeats her entreaties, to which the kitten, allured by the sight of its plaything, generally responds. Owing to its gambols in the open air during the inclement weather, the kitten was seized with an affliction of the throat; the mother, puzzled with the prostration of its offspring, brought down the rabbit's foot to attract attention. In vain; the kitten died. Even now the loving mother searches for the rabbit's foot, and brings it down." An instance of the peculiar foresight and instinct, so often observable in the cat, is related in _The Animal World_, October, 1882. Miss M. writes: "This house is very old, and big impudent rats often appear in the shop, so a cat is always kept on the premises. Pussy is about five years old, and is a handsome, light tortoiseshell, with a pretty face and coaxing ways. A month ago she had three kittens, one of which was kept; they were born in the drawing-room, by the side of the piano. When the two were taken away, pussy carried the one remaining to the fireplace, and made it a bed under the grate with shavings. When a fortnight old, both were removed downstairs to the room behind the shop. One day last week an enormous rat appeared; pussy spied him, and set up her back; but her motherly instinct prevailed. She looked round the shop, and, finding a drawer high up a little way open, she jumped with her kitten in her mouth, and dropped it into the drawer, after which she descended and fought a battle royal with the rat, which she soon despatched and carried to her mistress, then went back to the drawer and brought out her kitten." Here is another fact as regards the observation of cats, which possibly, in this respect, is not far different from some other domestic animals. "A gray and white cat, 'Jenny' (a house cat), had three kittens in the hollow stump of an old ash-tree, some distance from the house. There, from time to time, she took them food, and there nursed them. One day, looking from the window, I observed a very heavy storm was approaching, and also, what should I see but Mistress 'Jenny' running across the meadow as fast as she could, and, on her drawing nearer, I noticed that she had one of her kittens in her mouth. She ran past and put the kitten into a small outhouse, when she immediately hastened back, and returned bringing another of her kittens, which she put in the same place. Again she started for the wood, and shortly reappeared bringing her third and last kitten, though more slowly, seemingly very tired. I was just thinking of going to help her, when she suddenly quickened her pace and ran for the outhouse; just then a few drops of rain began to fall. In a few moments a deluge of water was falling, the lightning was flashing, the thunder crashed overhead and rumbled in the distance, but 'Jenny' did not mind, for she had her three kittens comfortably housed, and she and they were all nestled together in an apple basket, warm and dry. Surely she must have known, by instinct or observation, that the storm was coming."--From my Book of "_Animal Stories, Old and New_." Should it be deemed necessary to destroy some, if not all of the litter, which, unfortunately, is sometimes the case, it is not well to take away the whole at once; but it is advisable to let a day or two intervene between each removal; the mother will thus be relieved of much suffering, especially if one at least is left for her to rear, but two is preferable. Still, when the progeny are well-marked or otherwise valuable, and large specimens are required for show or other purposes, three kittens are enough to leave, though some advocate as many as five; but if this is done it is better to provide a foster-mother for two, for which even a dog will often prove a very good substitute for one of the feline race. In either case, slightly warm new milk should be given at least three times a day; the milk should not be heated, but some hot water put to it, and as soon as their teeth are sufficiently grown for them to be of use in mastication give some raw beef cut very small and fine. Some prefer chopped liver; I do not; but never give more than they can lap or eat at each meal. This liberal treatment will make a wonderful difference in their growth, and also their general health and strength; and being so fed makes them more docile. And it should be borne in mind that in a state of nature cats always bring raw food to their young as soon as they are able to eat; therefore raw meat is far the best to give them--their dentition proves this. [Illustration] KITTENS. Kittenhood, the baby time especially of country cats, is with most the brightest, sprightliest, and prettiest period of their existence, and perhaps the most happy. True, when first born and in the earliest era of their lives, they are blind, helpless little things, dull, weak, and staggering, scarcely able to stand, if at all, almost rolling over at every attempt, making querulous, fretful noises, if wakeful or cold, or for the time motherless. But 'tis not for long; awhile, and she, the fondest of mothers, is with them. They are nestled about her, or amid her soft, warm fluffy fur, cossetted with parental tenderness, caressed, nurtured, and, with low, sweet tones and fondlings, they are soothed again and again to sleep.--They sleep.--Noiseless, and with many a longing, lingering look, the careful, watchful, loving creature slowly and reluctantly steals away; soon to return, when she and her little ones are lost "in the land of dreams." And so from day to day, until bright, meek-eyed, innocent, inquiring little faces, with eager eyes, peep above the basket that is yet their home. One bolder than the others springs out, when, scared at its own audacity, as quickly, and oft clumsily, scrambles back, then out--in--and out, in happy, varied, wild, frolicsome, gambolsome play, they clutch, twist, turn, and wrestle in artless mimicry of desperate quarrelling;--the struggle over, in liveliest antics they chase and rechase in turn, or in fantastic mood play; 'tis but play, and such wondrous play--bright, joyous, and light; and so life glides on with them as kittens--frisky, skittish, playful kittens. A few more days, and their mother leads them forth, with many an anxious look and turn, softly calling in a subdued voice, they halting almost at every step; suddenly, oft at nothing, panic-stricken, quickly scamper back, not one yet daring to follow where all is so oddly strange and new, their natural shyness being stronger than the love of freedom. Again, with scared look and timid steps, they come, when again at nothing frightened, or with infantile pretence, they are off, "helter-skelter," without a pause or stay, one and all, they o'er and into their basket clamber, tumble in, turn about and stare with a more than half-bewildered, self-satisfied safety look about them. Gaining courage once more, they peer about, with dreamy, startled, anxious eyes, watching for dangers that never are, although expected. Noiseless comes their patient, loving mother; with what new delight they cling about her; how fondly and tenderly she tends them, lures, cossets, coaxes, and talks, as only a gentle mother-cat can--"There is no danger, no!--nothing to fear. Is she not with them; will she not guard, keep and defend them? There is a paradise out there; through this door; they must see it. Come, she will show them; come, have confidence! Now, then--come!" When followed by her three little ones, and they with much misgiving, she passes out--out into the garden, out among the lovely, blooming, fragrant roses, out among the sweet stocks and the damask-coloured gilly-flowers, the pink daisies, brown, red, and orange wallflowers, the spice-scented pinks, and other gay and modest floral beauties that make so sweet the soft and balmy breath of Spring. Out into the sunshine, almost dazed amid a flood of light, warmed by the glowing midday sun. Light above, light around and everywhere about; while the sweet-scented breezes come joy-laden with the happy wild birds' melodious songs; wearied with wonderment, under the flower-crowned lilacs they gather themselves to rest. How beautiful all is, how full of young delights; the odorous wind fans, soothes, and lulls them to rest, while rustling leaves softly whisper them to sleep--they and their loving mother slumber unconscious of all things, and with all things at peace. There, stretched in the warm sunshine asleep, possibly dreaming of their after-life when they are kittens no longer, they rest and--sleep. Their young, bright life has begun; how charming all is, how peaceful under the young, green leaves, bright as emeralds; about them flickering, chequering lights play with the never-wearying, restless shadows; they know of nothing but bliss, so happy, they enjoy all--sweet-faced, gentle-eyed and pretty. Happy, there is no other word. "Happy as a kitten." "Sprightly as a kitten." As they sleep they dream of delight, awake they more than realise their dreams. [Illustration] OF KITTENS IN GENERAL. Kittens usually shed their first teeth from five to seven months old, and seldom possess even part of a set of the small, sharp dentition after that time. When shown as kittens under six months old, and they have changed the _whole_ of their kittenhood teeth for those of the adult, it is generally considered a fairly _strong_ proof that their life is in excess of that age, and the judge is therefore certainly justified in disqualifying such exhibit, though sometimes, as in other domestic animals, there occurs premature change, as well as inexplicable delay. Kittens are not so cleanly in their habits as cats of a mature growth; this is more generally the case when they have been _separated from the mother-cat_, or when removed to some place that is strange to them, or when sufficient care is not taken, by letting them out of the house occasionally. When they cannot from various reasons be so turned out, a box should be provided, partly filled with dry earth, to which they may retire. This is always a requisite when cats or kittens are valuable, and therefore obliged to be kept within doors, especially in neighbourhoods where there is a chance of their being lost or stolen. It should also be borne in mind, that the present and future health of an animal, be it what it may, is subject to many incidences, and not the least of these is good and appropriate food, shelter, warmth, and cleanliness. It is best to feed at regular intervals. In confinement, Mr. Bartlett, the skilful and experienced manager of the Zoological Society's Gardens, at Regent's Park, finds that one meal a day is sufficient, and this is thought also to be the case with a full-grown cat, more especially when it has the opportunity of ranging and getting other food, such as mice, and "such small deer;" but with "young things" it is different, as it is deemed necessary to get as much strength and growth as possible. I therefore advocate several meals a day, at least three, with a variety of food, such as raw shin of beef, cut very small; bones to pick; fish of sorts, with all the bones taken out, or refuse parts; milk, with a little hot water; boiled rice or oatmeal, with milk or without it; and grass, if possible; if not, some boiled vegetables, stalks of asparagus, cabbage, or even carrots. Let the food be varied from time to time, but never omitting the finely-cut raw beef every day. I am not in favour of liver, or "lights," as it is called, either for cats or kittens. If horseflesh can be depended on, it is a very favourite and strengthening food, and may be given. The kitten should be kept warm and dry, and away from draughts. Also take especial care not in any way to frighten, tease, or worry a young animal, but do everything possible to give confidence and engender regard, fondness, or affection for its owner; always be gentle and yet firm in its training. Do not allow it to do one day uncorrected, that for which it is punished the next for the same kind of fault. If it is doing wrong remove it, speaking gently, _at the time_, and not _wait long after the fault is committed_, or they will not know what the punishment is for. Many animals' tempers are spoiled entirely by this mode of proceeding. Take care there is always a clean vessel, with pure clear water for them to drink when thirsty. [Illustration: MISS MOORE'S KITTEN, "CHLOE."] MANAGEMENT OF KITTENS AND CATS. These require quiet and kindly treatment. Do nothing quickly or suddenly, so as in any way to scare or frighten, but when speaking to them, let the voice be moderated, gentle, and soft in tone. Cats are not slow to understand kind treatment, and may often be seen to watch the countenance as though trying to fathom our thoughts. Some cats are of a very timorous nature, and are thus easily dismayed. Others again are more bold in their ways and habits, and are ever ready for cossetty attention; but treat both as you would be treated--kindly. As to food, as already noted, I have found raw beef the best, with milk mixed with a little hot water to drink--never boil it--and give plenty of grass, or some boiled vegetable, such as asparagus, sea-kale, or celery; they also are fond of certain weeds, such as cat-mint, and equisetum, or mares' or cats' tails, as it is sometimes called. If fish is given it is best mixed with either rice or oatmeal, and boiled, otherwise it is apt to produce diarrhoea. Horse-flesh may be given as a change, provided that it is not from a diseased animal; and should be boiled, and be fresh. Brown bread and milk is also good and healthy food; the bread should be cut in cubes of half an inch, and the warm milk and water poured on; only enough for one meal should be prepared at a time. Let the cat and kittens have as much fresh air as is possible; and if fed on some dainty last thing at night they will be sure to "come in," and thus preserved from doing and receiving injury. If cats are in any way soiled in their coat, especially the long-haired varieties, and cannot cleanse themselves, they may be washed in warm, soapy water; but this is not advisable in kittens, unless great care is used to prevent their taking cold. Some cats like being brushed, and it is often an improvement to the pelage or fur if carefully done; but in all cases the brush should have soft, close hair, which should be rather long than otherwise. Do not let your cats or kittens wear collars or ribbons always, especially if they are ramblers, for the reason that they are liable to get caught on spikes of railings or twigs of bushes, and so starved to death, or strangled, unless discovered. For sending cats to an exhibition, a close-made basket is best, which will allow for ventilation, as fresh air is most essential; and have it sufficiently large to allow of the cat standing and turning about, especially if a long journey is before them. I have _seen_ cats sent to shows taken out of _small boxes_, _dead_, stifled to death--"poor things." Bear in mind that the higher and better condition your cat is in on its arrival at the show, the greater is the chance of winning. Do not put carpet or woollen fabrics in the basket, but plenty of good, sweet hay or oat-straw; this will answer all purposes, and does not get sodden. If you use a padlock for the fastening, _do not forget to send the key to the manager of the show_, as is sometimes the case. [Illustration: CAT CLUB CHALLENGE CUP.] [Illustration] POINTS BY WHICH CATS ARE JUDGED, AS SPECIFIED BY MYSELF. _Revised and corrected to the present time._ ... What you do, Still betters what is done. _Winter's Tale, Act IV._ THE TORTOISESHELL. POINTS HEAD 15 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips, nose rather long than short, ears of medium size, narrow and rounded at the apex, broad at the base. EYES 10 Orange-yellow, clear, brilliant, large, full, round, and lustrous. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 25 A mixture of three colours--black, red, and yellow--each to be distinct and clear of the other, with sharp edges, not one colour running into the other, but in small irregular patches, of great brilliancy of tint, the red and yellow to preponderate over the black. If the colours are deep and rich, and the variegation harmonious, the effect is very fine. White is a disqualification. FORM 15 Narrow, long, graceful in line, neck rather long and slender; shoulders receding, well-sloped and deep; legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy; feet round and small. TAIL 10 Long, thick at the base, and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve, and well-marked with alternate patches of black, red, and yellow. SIZE AND CONDITION 15 Large, lithe, elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening full health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 TORTOISESHELL AND WHITE. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips, nose rather long than short, ears medium size, narrow and rounded at the apex, broad at the base. EYES 10 Orange-yellow, clear, brilliant, large, full, round, and lustrous. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 25 A mixture of three--black, red, and yellow--each to be distinct and clear of the other, with sharp edges, not one colour running into the other, but in small irregular patches of great brilliancy of tint, the red and yellow to preponderate over the black. If the colours are deep and rich, and the variegation harmonious, the effect is very fine. WHITE MARKING 15 The fore-legs, breast, throat, lips and a circle round them, with a blaze up the forehead, white; lower half of the hind-legs white, nose and cushions of the feet white. FORM 10 Narrow, long, graceful in line, neck rather long and slender; shoulders receding, well-sloped and deep; legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy; feet round and small. TAIL 10 Long, thick at the base and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve, and well-marked with alternate patches of black, red, and yellow. SIZE AND CONDITION 10 Large, lithe, elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening full health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 WHITE. SHORT-HAIR. POINTS HEAD 15 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips, nose rather long than short, ears of medium size, narrow and rounded at apex, broad at the base. EYES 15 Blue--a soft, turquoise blue--but yellow is permissible as five points only, green a defect; large, round, and full. FUR 15 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 15 Yellow-white; gray-white, five points less. FORM 15 Narrow, long, graceful in line, neck rather long and slender; shoulders receding, well-sloped and deep; legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy; feet round and small. TAIL 10 Long, thick at the base and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve. SIZE AND CONDITION 15 Large, lithe, and elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening good health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 SELF-COLOUR, BLACK, BLUE, GRAY, OR RED SHORT-HAIR. POINTS HEAD 15 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips, nose rather long than short, ears of medium size, narrow, rounded at apex, broad at the base. EYES 15 Orange for black, orange-yellow for blue, deep yellow for gray, and gold tinged with green for red. Large, round, and full; very bright. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. FORM 15 Narrow, long, graceful in line; neck rather long and slender; shoulders receding, well-sloped and deep; legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy; feet round and small. COLOUR 25 Black, a jet, dense, brown-black, with purple gloss; blue, a bright, rich, even, dark colour, or lighter, but even in tint; gray, a bright, light, even colour; red, a brilliant sandy or yellowish-red colour. TAIL 5 Long, thick at the base, and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve. SIZE AND CONDITION 15 Large, lithe, elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, lying close to the body, all betokening good health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 BROWN AND ORDINARY TABBY, STRIPED, SHORT-HAIR. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips, nose rather long than short, ears of medium size, narrow and rounded at apex, broad at the base. EYES 15 Orange-yellow, slightly tinted with green, large, full, round, and very lustrous. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 20 Deep, very rich reddish-brown, more rufous inside the legs and belly; ears and nose a still deeper red-brown, the latter at the tip edged with black. Ordinary tabby, dark gray, and ticked. MARKINGS 20 Jet-black lines, not too broad, scarcely so wide as the ground colour shown between, so as to give a light and brilliant effect. When the black lines are broader than the colour space, it is a defect, being then black marked with colour, instead of colour marked with black. The lines must be clear, sharp, and well-defined, in every way distinct, having no mixture of the ground colour. Head and legs marked regularly, the rings on the throat and chest being in no way blurred or broken, but clear, graceful, and continuous; lips, cushions of feet, and backs of hind-legs, and the ear-points, black. FORM 10 Narrow, long, graceful in line, neck rather long and slender; shoulders receding, well-sloped and deep; legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy; feet round and small. TAIL 5 Long, thick at the base and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve, and marked with black rings. SIZE AND CONDITION 10 Large, lithe, elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening full health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 CHOCOLATE, CHESTNUT, RED, OR YELLOW TABBY, STRIPED, SHORT-HAIR. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips, nose rather long than short, ears of medium size, narrow and rounded at apex, broad at the base. EYES 15 Orange, gold, or yellow, in the order of the above names, large, round, full, and very lustrous. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 20 Deep, rich, reddish-brown, bright red, or yellow, in the order as above, brighter inside the legs and belly; ears and nose deeper colour, the latter at the tip red, edged with chocolate. MARKINGS 20 Dark, rich brown or chocolate, lines not too broad, scarcely so wide as the ground colour shown between, so as to give a light and brilliant effect; when the lines are broader than the colour space it is a defect, being then light colour markings on dark brown or chocolate, red or dark yellow, instead of colour marked with deeper colour. Head and legs marked regularly, the rings on the throat and chest being in no way blurred or broken, but clear, graceful, and continuous; lips, cushions of feet, and the back of hind-legs, and the ear-points, dark. Yellow tabby, the cushions of feet red, or light red. FORM 10 Narrow, long, graceful in line, neck rather long and slender, shoulders receding, well-sloped, and deep, legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy, feet round and small. TAIL 5 Long, thick at the base, and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve, and marked with dark rings. SIZE AND CONDITION 10 Large, lithe, elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening full health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 BLUE, SILVER, LIGHT GRAY, AND WHITE TABBY, STRIPED, SHORT-HAIR. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, broad across and between the eyes, rounded above, below tapering towards the lips; nose rather long than short; ears of medium size, narrow and rounded at the apex, broad at the base. EYES 15 Orange-yellow for blue tabby; deep, bright yellow for silver or gray; large, full, round, and very lustrous. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 20 If blue, a rich, deep, yet bright colour; silver, a lighter, yet bright tint; gray, very light; if a white tabby, ground to be colourless; ears and nose a deep gray, the tip red, edged with black. MARKINGS 20 Jet-black lines, not too broad, scarcely so wide as the ground colour shown between, so as to give a light and brilliant effect. When the black lines are broader than the colour space, it is a defect, being then black marked with colour, instead of colour with black. The lines must be clear, sharp, and well-defined, in every way distinct, having no mixture of the ground colour. Head and legs marked regularly, the rings on the throat and chest being in no way blurred or broken, but clear, graceful, and continuous; lips, cushions of feet, and the backs of hind-legs, and the ear-points, black. FORM 10 Narrow, long, graceful in line, neck rather long and slender; shoulders receding, well-sloped, and deep; legs medium length, not thick nor clumsy; feet round and small. TAIL 5 Long, thick at the base and narrowing towards the end, carried low, with graceful curve, and marked with black rings. SIZE AND CONDITION 10 Large, lithe, elegant in all its movements; hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening full health and strength. --- Total 100 [Illustration: MR. BABB'S SPOTTED SILVER TABBY.] SHORT-HAIRED, SPOTTED TABBIES OF ANY COLOUR. These to be the same in all points of head, eyes, fur, form, colours, tail, size and condition as those laid down for the judging of short-haired tabby cats in general, with the exception, in whatever colour the markings are, or on whatever ground, they, instead of being in lines or bands, are to be broken up into clear, well-defined and well-formed spots, each spot to be separate, and distinct, and good, firm and dark in colour; these then count as many points as a finely-striped cat in its class. [Illustration: PROPERLY MARKED BLACK AND WHITE.] BLACK AND WHITE, GRAY-WHITE, RED AND WHITE, AND OTHER COLOURS AND WHITE. The self colour to count the same number of points as the ground colour in tabby, namely, twenty points, and the white _markings_ the same as the tabby markings, that is, twenty points. The other points also the same. The markings to be: lips, mouth and part of the cheek, including the whiskers, with a blaze up the nose, coming to a point between the eyes, white; throat and chest white, and pear-shaped in outline of colour; all four feet white. WHITE AND BLACK, WHITE AND GRAY, WHITE AND RED, WHITE AND ANY OTHER COLOUR. The colours and markings to count the same as the above. The ground colour being white, and markings the dark colour instead of white. In the markings they should be even or well-balanced, such as two black ears, the rest white; or two black ears, with black tail, and the rest white; or all white, with dark tail only. These are not very uncommon markings, but if so marked, they may also have a spot or two on the back or sides provided they balance in size of colour. But the simplicity of the former is the best. All other fancy colours and markings must be judged according to taste, and entered in the any other variety of colours for short-haired cats, such as strawberry colour, smokies, chinchillas, ticked, black tabbies and such fancy colours. ABYSSINIAN. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, broad across the eyes, rather long than short, nose medium length, all well-formed. EYES 15 Orange-yellow, slightly tinged with green, large, round, full, and bright. NOSE AND FEET 10 Nose dark red, edged with black; tips and cushions of feet black, also the back of the hind-legs. FUR 15 Soft, rather woolly hair, yet soft, silky, lustrous, and glossy, short, smooth, even, and dense. EARS 10 The usual size of the ordinary English cat, but a little more rounded, with not much hair in the interior, black at the apex. COLOUR 20 A rich, dun brown, ticked with black and orange, or darker on lighter colours, having a dark or black line along the back extending to the end of the tail, and slightly annulated with black or dark colour. As few other marks as possible. Inside of fore-legs and belly to be orange-brown. No white. SIZE AND CONDITION 10 Large; coat glossy and smooth, fitting close to the body; eyes bright and clear. CARRIAGE AND APPEARANCE 10 Graceful, lithe, elegant, alert and quick in all its movements, head carried up, tail trailing, in walk undulating. --- TOTAL 100 N.B.--The Abyssinian Silver Gray, or Chinchilla, is the same in all points, with the exception of the ground colour being silver instead of brown. This is a new and beautiful variety. ROYAL CAT OF SIAM. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, broad across and between the eyes, tapering upwards and somewhat narrow between the ears: forehead flat and receding, nose long, and somewhat broad, cheeks narrowing towards the mouth, lips full and rounded, ears rather large and wide at base, with very little hair inside. FUR 10 Very short, and somewhat woolly, yet soft and silky to the touch, and glossy, with much lustre on the face, legs, and tail. COLOUR 20 The ground or body colour to be of an even tint, slightly darker on the back, but not in any way clouded or patched with any darker colour; light rich dun is the preferable colour, but a light fawn, light silver-gray, or light orange is allowable; deeper and richer browns, almost chocolate, are admissible if even and not clouded, but the first is the true type, the last merely a variety of much beauty and excellence; but the dun and light tints take precedence. MARKINGS 20 Ears black, the colour not extending beyond them, but ending in a clear and well-defined outline; around the eyes, and all the lower part of the head, black; legs and tail black, the colour not extending into or staining the body, but having a clear line of demarkation. EYES 15 Rather of almond shape, slanting towards the nose, full and of a very beautiful blue opalesque colour, luminous and of a reddish tint in the dusk of evening or by artificial light. TAIL 5 Short by comparison with the English cat, thin throughout, a little thicker towards the base, without any break or kink. SIZE AND FORM 10 Rather small, lithe, elegant in outline, and graceful, narrow and somewhat long; legs thin and a little short than otherwise; feet long, not so round as the ordinary cat; neck long and small. CONDITION 10 In full health, not too fat, hair smooth, clear, bright, full of lustre, lying close to the body, which should be hard and firm in the muscles. --- TOTAL 100 MANX, OR SHORT-TAILED CAT. POINTS HEAD 10 Small, round, but tapering towards the lips, rather broad across the eyes, nose medium length, ears rather small, broad at base and sloping upwards to a point. EYES 10 According to colour, as shown in other varieties. FUR 10 Short, of even length, smooth, silky, and glossy. COLOUR 15 To range the same as other short-haired cats, if self same as self, if marked same as the marked varieties, with less points, allowing for the tail points in this variety. FORM 15 Narrow, long, neck long and thin, all to be graceful in line; shoulders narrow, well-sloped; fore-legs medium length and thin; hind-legs long in proportion and stouter built; feet round and small. TAIL 25 To have no tail whatever, not even a stump, but some true bred have a very short, thin, twisted tail, that cannot be straightened, this allowable, and is true bred; but thick stumps, knobs, or short, thick tails _disqualify_. SIZE AND CONDITION 15 Large, elegant in all its movements, hair smooth, clean, bright, full of lustre, and lying close to the body, all betokening good health and strength. --- TOTAL 100 [Illustration: MR. CLARKE'S "MISS WHITEY."] WHITE, LONG-HAIRED CAT. POINTS HEAD 10 Round and broad across and between the eyes, of medium size; nose rather short, pink at the tip; ears ordinary size, but looking small, being surrounded with long hair, which should also be long on the forehead and lips. EYES 15 Large, full, round or almond-shape, lustrous, and of a beautiful azure blue. Yellow admissible as five points only. Green a defect. RUFF OR FRILL 15 Large, very long, flowing, and lion-like, extending over the shoulders, and covering the neck and chest thickly. FUR 15 Very long everywhere, mostly along the back, sides, legs, and feet, making tufts between the toes, and points at the apex of the ears. QUALITY OF FUR 10 Fine, silky, and very soft in the Persian, with a slightly woolly texture in the Angora, and still more so in the Russian. TAIL 10 In the Persian the hair long and silky throughout, but somewhat longer at the base. Angora more like the brush of a fox, but much longer in the hair. Russian equally long in hair, but full tail, shorter and more blunt, like a tassel. SIZE, SHAPE, AND CONDITION 15 Large, small in bone, looking larger than it really is on account of the length of hair. Body long, legs short, tail carried low--not over the back, which is a fault. Fur clean, bright and glossy, even and smooth, and flakey, which gives an appearance of quality. COLOUR 10 White, with a tender, very slightly yellow tint; cushions of feet and tip of nose pink. --- TOTAL 100 BLACK, BLUE, GRAY, RED, OR ANY SELF COLOUR LONG-HAIRED CATS. POINTS HEAD 10 Round, and broad across and between the eyes, of medium size; nose rather short and dark at tip, excepting in the red, when it should be pink; ears ordinary size, but looking small, being surrounded with long hair, which should also be long on the forehead and lips. EYES 10 For black, orange; orange-yellow for blue; deep yellow for gray; and gold, tinged with green, for red; large, round, or almond-shaped, full and very bright. RUFF OR FRILL 15 Large, very long, flowing, and lion-like, extending over the shoulders, and covering the neck and chest thickly. FUR 15 Very long everywhere; mostly so along the back, sides, legs, and feet, making tufts between the toes, and points at the apex of the ears. QUALITY OF FUR 10 Fine, silky, and very soft in the Persian, with slightly woolly texture in the Angora, and still more so in the Russian. TAIL 10 In the Persian the hair long and silky throughout, but somewhat longer at the base; Angora like the brush of a fox, but longer in the hair; Russian equally long in hair but more full at the end, tail shorter, rather blunt, like a tassel. SIZE, SHAPE, AND CONDITION 10 Large, small in bone, looking larger than it really is on account of the length of the hair; body long, legs short; tail carried low, not over the back, which is a fault; fur clean and glossy, even, smooth, and flakey, which gives an appearance of quality. COLOUR 20 Black, dense, bright brown-black, with purple gloss; blue, a bright, rich, even dark colour, or lighter, but even in tint; gray, a bright, light, even colour; red, a brilliant, sandy, or yellowish-red colour. --- TOTAL 100 [Illustration] BROWN, BLUE, SILVER, LIGHT GRAY, AND WHITE TABBY LONG-HAIRED CATS. POINTS HEAD 10 Round and broad across and between the eyes, of medium size; nose rather short; ears ordinary size, but looking small, being surrounded with long hair, which should also be long on the forehead and lips. EYES 10 Orange-yellow for brown and blue tabby, very slightly tinted with green; deep, bright yellow for silver; gray, and golden yellow for white tabby; large, full, round, or almond-shaped, and very lustrous. RUFF OR FRILL 10 Large, very long, flowing, and lion-like, extending over the shoulders, and covering the neck and chest thickly. FUR 10 Very long everywhere, mostly so along the back, sides, legs, and feet, making tufts between the toes, and points at the apex of the ears. QUALITY OF FUR 10 Fine, silky, and very soft in the Persian, with slightly woolly texture in the Angora, and still more so in the Russian. TAIL 10 In the Persian the hair long and silky throughout, but somewhat longer at the base; Angora like the brush of a fox, but longer in the hair; Russian equally long in the hair, but more full at the end; tail shorter, rather blunt, like a tassel. SIZE, SHAPE, AND CONDITION 10 Large, small in bone, looking larger than it really is on account of the length of the hair; body long; legs short; tail carried low, not over the back, which is a fault; fur clean and glossy, even, smooth, and flakey, which gives an appearance of quality. COLOUR 15 Ground colour, deep, rich reddish-brown, more rufous on the nose, ears, mane, and inside the legs and belly; tip of nose red, edged with black; blue, bright, deep, rich, even, dark colour; silver, lighter and equally even tint; and so light gray; and white ground, pure white. MARKINGS 15 Jet-black lines, not too broad, scarcely so wide as the ground colour seen between, so as to give a light and brilliant effect. When the black lines are broader than the colour space, it is a defect, being then black marked with colour, instead of colour marked with black. The lines must be clear, sharp, and well-defined, in every way distinct, having no mixture of the ground colour. Head, legs, and tail regularly marked, the latter with rings, the lines on the throat and chest being in no way blurred or broken, but clear, graceful, and continuous; lips, cushions of feet, the backs of the hind-legs and the ear-points black. --- TOTAL 100 In chocolate, mahogany, red, or yellow long-haired tabbies, the markings and colours to be the same as in the short-haired cats; but in points to count the same as the last in all qualities. Spotted tabbies to count the same in all points, the only difference being that instead of stripes, the cats are marked with clear, well-defined spots. All fancy colours to be shown in the "any other variety of _colour_" class, and judged according to quality of coat, beauty, and rarity of colouring or marking. The small, thin, broken-banded tabby should go in this class, as also those with thin, light, wavy lines. All foreign, wild, or other cats of peculiar form to go into the class for "any other variety or species." [Illustration: "SYLVIE."] DISEASES OF CATS. Cats, like many other animals, both wild and domestic, are subject to diseases, several being fatal, others yielding to known curatives; many are of a very exhaustive character, some are epidemic, others are undoubtedly contagious--the two worst of these are what is known as the distemper and the mange. Through the kindness of friends I am enabled to give recipes for medicines considered as useful, or, at any rate, tending to abate the severity of the attack in the one, and utterly eradicate the other. Care should always be taken on the first symptoms of illness to remove the animal at once from contact with others. My kind friend, Dr. George Fleming, C.B., principal veterinary surgeon of the army, has courteously sent me a copy of a remedy for cat distemper from his very excellent work, "Animal Plagues: their History, Nature, and Prevention," which I give in full. CATARRHAL FEVERS. "Cats are, like some other of the domesticated animals, liable to be attacked by two kinds of Catarrhal Fever, one of which is undoubtedly very infectious--like distemper in dogs--and the other may be looked upon as the result of a simple cold, and therefore not transmissible. The first is, of course, the most severe and fatal, and often prevails most extensively, affecting cats generally over wide areas, sometimes entire continents being invaded by it. From A.D. 1414 up to 1832 no fewer than nineteen widespread outbreaks of this kind have been recorded. The most notable of these was in 1796, when the cats in England and Holland were generally attacked by the disease, and in the following year when it had spread over Europe and extended to America; in 1803, it again appeared in this country and over a large part of the European continent. "The symptoms are intense fever, prostration, vomiting, diarrhoea, sneezing, cough, and profuse discharge from the nose and eyes. Sometimes the parotid glands are swollen, as in human mumps. Dr. Darwin, of Derby, uncle to Charles Darwin, thought it was a kind of mumps, and therefore designated it _Parotitis felina_. "The treatment consists in careful nursing and cleanliness, keeping the animal moderately warm and comfortable. The disease rapidly produces intense debility, and therefore the strength should be maintained from the very commencement by frequent small doses of strong beef-tea, into which one grain of quinine has been introduced twice a day, a small quantity of port wine (from half to one teaspoonful) according to the size of the cat, and the state of debility. If there is no diarrhoea, but constipation, a small dose of castor oil or syrup of buckthorn should be given. Solid food should not be allowed until convalescence has set in. Isolation, with regard to other cats, and disinfection, should be attended to. "Simple Catarrh demands similar treatment. Warmth, cleanliness, broth, and beef-tea, are the chief items of treatment, with a dose of castor oil if constipation is present. If the discharge obstructs the nostrils it should be removed with a sponge, and these and the eyes may be bathed with a weak lotion of vinegar and water." "As regards inoculation for distemper," Dr. Fleming says, "it has been tried, but the remedy is often worse than the disease, at least as bad as the natural disease. _Vaccination_ has also been tried, but it is _valueless_. Probably inoculation with cultivated or modified virus would be found a good and safe preventative." I was anxious to know about this, as inoculation used to be the practice with packs of hounds. It will be observed that Dr. Fleming treats the distemper as a kind of influenza, and considers one of the most important things is to keep up the strength of the suffering animal. Other members of the R.C.V.S., whom I have consulted, have all given the same kind of advice, not only prescribing for the sick animal wine, but brandy, as a last resource, to arouse sinking vitality. Mr. George Cheverton, of High Street, Tunbridge Wells, who is very successful with animals and their diseases, thinks it best to treat them homoeopathically. The following is what he prescribes as efficacious for some of the most dire complaints with which cats are apt to be afflicted. WORMS. For a full-grown cat give 3 grains of santonine every night for a week or 10 days; it might be administered in milk, or given in a small piece of beef or meat of any kind. After the course give an aperient powder. MANGE. The best possible remedies for this disease are arsenicum, 2^{×} trituration, and sulphur, 2^{×} trituration, given on alternate days, as much as will lie on a threepenny piece, night and morning, administered as above. A most useful lotion is acid sulphurous, 1 oz. to 5 oz. of water, adding about a teaspoonful of glycerine, and sponging the affected parts twice or thrice daily. COLDS. The symptoms are twofold, usually there is constant sneezing and discharge from the nose. Aconite, 1^{×} tincture, 1 drop given every 3 hours in alternation with arsenicum, 3^{×} trituration, will speedily remove the disease. Should there be stuffing of the nose, and difficult breathing, give mercurius biniod., 3^{×} trituration, a dose every 3 or 4 hours. COUGHS. The short, hard, dry cough will always give way to treatment with belladonna, 3^{×} trituration, 3 grains every 3 or 4 hours. For the difficult breathing, with rattling in the chest and bronchial tubes, with distressing cough, antimonium tartaric., 2^{×}, grains iij every 2, 3 or 4 hours, according to the severity of the symptoms. DISTEMPER. Early symptoms should be noted and receive prompt attention; this will often cut short the duration of the malady. The first indications usually are a disinclination to rest in the usual place, seeking a dark corner beneath a sofa, etc. The eyes flow freely, the nose after becoming hard and dry becomes stopped with fluid, the tongue parched, and total aversion to food follows. The breathing becomes short and laboured, the discharges are offensive, and the animal creeps away into some quiet corner to die--if before this its life has not been mercifully ended. On discovery of _first_ symptoms, give 2 drops aconite and arsenicum in alternation every 3 hours. When the nose becomes dry, and the eye restless and glaring, give belladonna. CANKER OF EAR. When internal, drop into the affected ear, night and morning, 3 or 5 drops of the following mixture: Tincture of Hydrastis Canadensis 2 drachms. Carbolic Acid (pure) ½ " Glycerine, to make up to 2 oz. If external, paint with the mixture the affected parts. APERIENT. Get a chemist to rub down a medium-size croton bean with about 40 grains of sugar of milk, and divide into four powders. One of these powders given in milk usually suffices. Large cats often require two powders. The dose might be repeated if necessary. Dose, when drops are ordered, 2 drops. " " trituration is ordered, 2 to 3 grains. REMEDIES AND STRENGTHENING MEDICINES. Aconite, 1^{×} tincture. Arsenicum, 2^{×} trituration. Antimonium tartaricum, 2^{×} trituration. Belladonna, 3^{×} trituration. Mercurius biniodatus, 3^{×} trituration. Hydrastis canadensis, [Greek: phi] tincture. Sulphur, 2^{×} trituration. Santonine. Mr. Frank Upjohn, of Castelnau, Barnes, has also kindly forwarded me his treatment of some few of the cat ailments. Mindful of the old proverb that "In a multitude of counsellors there is wisdom," I place all before my friends, and those of the cat, that they may select which remedy they deem best: DISTEMPER. Take yellow basilicon, 1 oz.; flowers of sulphur, ½ oz.; oil of juniper, 3 drachms. Mix for ointment. Then give sulphide of mercury, 3 grains, two or three times on alternate nights. PURGATIVE. Nothing like castor oil for purgation; half the quantity of syrup of buckthorn, if necessary, may be added. WORMS. Two or three grains of santonine in a teaspoonful of castor oil, for two or three days. CATARRH. Cold in the eyes and sneezing may be relieved by sweet spirits of nitre, 1 drachm; minocrerus spirit, 3 drachms; antimony wine, 1 drachm; water to 1½ oz. Mix. Give 1 teaspoonful every two or three hours. FLEAS, AND IRRITATION OF SKIN. Two drachms pure carbolic acid to 6 oz. of water well mixed for a lotion, and apply night and morning. EYE OINTMENT. Red oxide of mercury, 12 grains; spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. Mix. The above prescription was given to me many years ago by the late Dr. Walsh (Stonehenge), and I have found it of great service, both for my own eyes, also those of animals and birds. Wash the eyes carefully with warm water, dry off with a soft silk handkerchief, and apply a little of the ointment. Dr. Walsh informed me that he deemed it excellent for canker in the ear, but of that I have had no experience. FOR MANGE. In the early stages of mange, flowers of sulphur mixed in vaseline, and rubbed in the coat of the cat, is efficacious, giving sulphur in the milk, the water, and on the food of the patient; also give vegetable diet. Another remedy: give a teaspoonful of castor oil; next day give raw meat, dusted over with flowers of sulphur. Also give sulphur in milk. If there are any sore places, bathe with lotion made from camphorated oil in which some sulphur is mixed. Oil, 2 oz.; camphor, ¼ oz.; sulphur, a teaspoonful. As a rule, when the animal is of value, either intrinsically or as a pet, the best plan is to consult a practitioner, well versed in the veterinary science and art, especially when the cat appears to suffer from some obscure disease, many of which it is very difficult to detect, unless by the trained and practised eye. Of all the ailments, both of dogs and cats, distemper is the worst to combat, and is so virulent and contagious that I have thought it well to offer remedies that are at least worthy of a trial, though when the complaint has firm hold, and the attack very severe, the case is generally almost hopeless, especially with high-bred animals. POISON. It is not generally known that the much-admired laburnum contains a strong poison, and is therefore an exceedingly dangerous plant. All its parts--blossoms, leaves, seeds, even the bark and the roots--are charged with a poison named _cytisin_, which was discovered by Husemann and Marms in 1864. A small dose of juice infused under the skin is quite sufficient to kill a cat or a dog. Children have died from eating the seeds, of which ten or twelve were sufficient to cause death. The worst of it is that there is _no remedy_, no antidote against this poison. How many cases have happened before the danger was discovered is of course only a matter of conjecture, as few would suspect the cause to come from the lovely plant that so delights the eye. It has, however, long been known to gamekeepers and others, and used by them to destroy "vermin." When quite a boy I remember an old uncle of mine telling me to beware of it even in gathering the blossom. [Illustration] THE WILD CAT OF BRITAIN. The wild cat is said to be now extinct in England, and only found in some of the northern parts of Scotland, or the rocky parts of the mountains of the south, where I am informed it may yet occasionally be seen. The drawing I give above was made from one sent to the first Crystal Palace Cat Show in 1871, by the Duke of Sutherland, from Sutherlandshire. It was caught in a trap by the fore-leg, which was much injured, but not so as to prevent its moving with great alacrity, even with agility, endeavouring frequently to use the claws of both fore-feet with a desperate determination and amazing vigour. It was a very powerful animal, possessing great strength, taking size into consideration, and of extraordinary fierceness. Mr. Wilson, the manager of the show, though an excellent naturalist, tried to get it out of the thick-barred, heavy-made travelling box in which it arrived, into one of the ordinary wire show-cages, thinking it would appear to better advantage; but in this endeavour he was unsuccessful, the animal resisting all attempts to expel it from the one into the other, making such frantic and determined opposition that the idea was abandoned. This was most fortunate, for the wire cages then in use were afterwards found unequal to confining even the ordinary domestic cat, which, in more than one instance, forced the bars apart sufficiently to allow of escape. As it was, the wild cat maintained its position, sullenly retiring to one corner of the box, where it scowled, growled, and fought in a most fearful and courageous manner during the time of its exhibition, never once relaxing its savage watchfulness or attempts to injure even those who fed it. I never saw anything more unremittingly ferocious, nor apparently more untamable. It was a grand animal, however, and most interesting to the naturalist, being, even then, scarcely ever seen; if so, only in districts far away and remote from the dwellings of civilisation. Yet I believe I saw one among the rocks of Bodsbeck, in Dumfriesshire, many years ago, though of this I am not certain, as it was too far away for accurate observation before it turned and stood at bay, and on my advancing it disappeared. The animal shown at the Crystal Palace was very much lighter in colour, and with less markings than those in the British Museum, the tail shorter, and the dark rings fewer, the lines on the body not much deeper in tint than the ground colour, excepting on the forehead and the inside of the fore-legs, which were darker, rather a light red round the mouth, and almost white on the chest--which appears to be usual with the wild cat; the eyes were yellow-tinted green, the tips of the ears, the lips, cushions of the feet, and a portion of the back part of the hind-legs, black; the markings were, in short, irregular thin lines, and in no way resembled those of the ordinary black-marked domestic tabby cat, possessing little elegance of line--in character it was bolder, having a rugged sturdiness, being stronger and broader built, the fore-arms thick, massive, and endowed with great power, with long, curved claws, the feet were stout, sinewy, and strong; altogether it was a very peculiar, interesting, and extraordinary animal. What became of it I never learned. In 1871 and 1872, a wild cat was exhibited at the Crystal Palace Cat Show, by the Earl of Hopetoun, aged three years, also some hybrid kittens, the father of which was a long-haired cat, the mother a sandy, by a wild cat out of a long-haired tabby, which proves, if proof were wanting, that such hybrids breed freely either with hybrids, the domestic, or the wild cat. Mr. Frank Buckland also exhibited a hybrid between the wild and tame cat. The Zoological Society, a pair of wild cats which did not appear to be British. In 1873, Mr. A. H. Senger sent a fine specimen of hybrid, between the domestic cat and Scotch wild cat. An early description of the wild cat in England is to be found in an old book on Natural History, and copied into a work on "Menageries," "Bartholomoeus de Proprietatibus Rerum," which was translated into English by Thomas Berthlet, and printed by Wynkyn de Worde as early as 1498. There is a very interesting description of the cat, which gives nearly all the properties of the wild animal in an odd and very amusing way. It states: "He is most like to the leopard, and hath a great mouthe, and saw teeth and sharp, and long tongue, and pliant, thin, and subtle; and lappeth therewith when he drinketh, as other beasts do, that have the nether lip shorter than the over; for, by cause of unevenness of lips, such beasts suck not in drinking, but lap and lick, as Aristotle saith and Plinius also. And he is a full lecherous beast in youth, swift, pliant, and merry, and leapeth, and riseth on all things that is tofore him; and is led by a straw, and playeth therewith, and is a right heavy beast in age, and full sleepy, and lieth slyly in wait for mice; and is ware where they bene more by smell than by sight, and hunteth and riseth on them in privy places; and when he taketh a mouse, he playeth therewith, and eateth him after the play; and is a cruel beast when he is wild, and dwelleth in woods, and hunteth there small wild beasts as conies and hares." The next appears in John Bossewell's "Workes of Armorie," folio, A.D. 1597: "This beaste is called a Musion, for that he is enimie to Myse and Rattes. He is slye and wittie, and seeth so sharpely that he overcommeth darknes of the nighte by the shyninge lyghte of his eyne. In shape of body he is like unto a Leoparde, and hathe a great mouth. He dothe delight that he enioyeth his libertye; and in his youthe he is swifte, plyante, and merye. He maketh a rufull noyse and a gastefull when he profereth to fighte with an other. He is a cruell beaste when he is wilde, and falleth on his owne feete from most high places: and vneth is hurt therewith. "When he hath a fayre skinne, he is, as it were, prowde thereof, and then he goeth faste aboute to be seene...." Those who have seen the wild cat of Britain, especially in confinement, will doubtless be ready to endorse this description as being "true to the life," even to the "rufull noyse," or his industry in the way of fighting. Yet even this old chronicler mentions the fact of his being "wilde," clearly indicating a similar animal in a state of domestication. Later on we find Maister Salmon giving an account of the cat in his strangely-curious book, "Salmon's Compleat English Physician; or, the Druggist's Shop Opened," A.D. 1693, in which he relates that marvellous properties exist in the brain, bones, etc., of the cat, giving recipes mostly cruel and incredible. He describes "Catus the Cat" in such terms as these: "_The Cat of Mountain_, all which are of one nature, and agree much in one shape, save as to their magnitude, the _wild Cat_ being larger than the _Tame_ and the _Cat of Mountain_ much larger than the _wild Cat_. It has a broad Face, almost like a Lyon, short Ears, large Whiskers, shining Eyes, short, smooth Hair, long Tail, rough Tongue, and armed on its Feet, with Claws, being a crafty, subtle, watchful Creature, very loving and familiar with Man-kind, the mortal enemy to the Rat, Mouse, and all sorts of Birds, which it seizes on as its prey. As to its Eyes, Authors say that they shine in the Night, and see better at the full, and more dimly at the change of the moon; as also that the Cat doth vary his Eyes with the Sun, the Apple of its Eye being long at Sun rise, round towards Noon, and not to be seen at all at night, but the whole Eye shining in the night. These appearances of the Cats' Eyes I am sure are true, but whether they answer to the times of the day, I never observed." "Its flesh is not usually eaten, yet in some countries it is accounted an excellent dish." Mr. Blaine, in his excellent and useful work, the "Encyclopædia of Rural Sports"--a book no sportsman should be without--thus discusses the origin of the domestic cat compared with the British wild cat: "We have yet, however, to satisfy ourselves with regard to the origin of the true wild cat (_Felis catus_, Linn.), which, following the analogies of the _Felinæ_ generally, are almost exclusively native to countries warmer than our own. It is true that occasionally varieties of the _Felinæ_ do breed in our caravans and menageries, where artificial warmth is kept up to represent something like a tropical temperature; but the circumstance is too rare to ground any opinion on of their ever having been indigenous here--at least, since our part of the globe has cooled down to its present temperature. It is, therefore, more than probable that both the wild and the tame cat have been derived from some other extra-European source or sources. We say source or sources, for such admission begets another difficulty not easily got over, which is this, that if both of these grimalkins own one common root, in which variety was it that the very marked differences between them have taken place? Most sportsmen, we believe, suspect that they own one common origin, and some naturalists also do the same, contending that the differences observable between them are attributable solely to the long-continued action of external agencies, which had modified the various organs to meet the varied necessities of the animals. The wild cat, according to this theory, having to contend with powerful enemies, expanded in general dimensions; its limbs, particularly, became massive; and its long and strong claws, with the powerful muscular mechanism which operated on them, fitted it for a life of predacity. Thus its increased size enabled it to stand some time before any other dogs than high-bred foxhounds, and even before them also, in any place but the direct open ground. There exist, however, in direct contradiction to this opinion, certain specialities proper to the wild, and certain other to the domestic cat, besides the simple expansion of bulk, which sufficiently disprove their identity. It will be seen that a remarkable difference exists between the tails of the two animals; that of the domestic being, as is well known, long, and tapering elegantly to a point, whereas that of the wild cat is seen to be broad, and to terminate abruptly in a blunt or rounded extremity. Linnæus and Buffon having both of them confounded these two species into one, have contributed much to propagate this error, which affords us another opportunity of adding to the many we have taken of remarking on the vast importance of comparative anatomy, which enables us to draw just distinctions between animals that might otherwise erroneously be adjudged to be dependent on external agencies, etc. Nor need we rest here, for what doubt can be entertained on the subject when we point at the remarkable difference between the intestines of the two? _Those of the domestic are nine times the length of its body_, whereas, in the _wild cat_, they are little more than _three times as long as the body_." The food of the wild cat is said to consist of animals, and in the opinion of some, fish should be added. Why not also birds' eggs? Cats are particularly fond of the latter. In the event of their finding and destroying a nest, they invariably eat the eggs, and generally the shells. Much has been written as to the aptitude of the domestic cat at catching fish. If this be so, are fish necessarily a part of the food of the native wild cat? Numerous instances are adduced of our "household cat" plunging into water in pursuit of and capture of fish. Although I have spent much time in watching cats that were roaming beside streams and about ponds, there has never been even an attempt at "fishing." Frogs they will take and kill, often greedily devouring the small ones. Yet doubtless they will hunt, catch, and eat fish, for the fact has become proverbial. [Illustration: WILD CAT, BRITISH MUSEUM.] A writer in "Menageries" states: "There is no doubt that wild cats will seize on fish, and the passionate longing of the domestic cat after this food is an evidence of the natural desire. We have seen a cat overcome her natural reluctance to wet her feet, and take an eel out of a pail of water." Dr. Darwin alludes to this propensity: "Mr. Leonard, a very intelligent friend of mine, saw a cat catch a trout by darting on it in deep, clear water, at the Mill, Wexford, near Lichfield. The cat belonged to Mr. Stanley, who had often seen it catch fish." Cases have also been known of cats catching fish in shallow water, springing on them from the banks of streams and ponds; but I take this as not _the habit_ of the domestic cat, though it is not unusual. Gray, in a poem, tells of a cat's death through drowning, while attempting to take gold-fish from a vase filled with water. Of Dr. Samuel Johnson it is related, that his cat having fallen sick and refused all food, he became aware that cats are fond of fish. With this knowledge before him he went to the fishmonger's and bought an oyster for the sick creature, wrapped it in paper and brought the appetising morsel home. The cat relished the dainty food, and the Doctor was seen going on the same kindly errand every day until his suffering feline friend was restored to health. Still this is no proof that the _wild_ cat, in a pure state of nature, feeds on fish. Again, it is nothing unusual for domestic cats to catch and eat cockroaches, crickets, cockchafers, also large and small moths, but not so all. In domesticity some are almost omnivorous. But is the wild cat? Taking its anatomical structure into consideration, there is doubtless a wide distinction, both as regards food and habit. In Daniel's "Rural Sports," A.D. 1813, the wild cat is stated to be "now scarce in England, inhabiting the mountainous and woody parts. Mr. Pennant describes it as _four_ times the size of the house cat, but the head larger, that it multiplies as fast, and may be called the British _tiger_, being the fiercest and most destructive beast we have. When only wounded with shot they will attack the person who injured them, and often have strength enough to be no despicable enemy." Through the kind courtesy of that painstaking, excellent, observant, and eminent naturalist, Mr. J. E. Harting, I am enabled to reprint a portion of his lecture on the origin of the domestic cat, and which afterwards appeared in _The Field_. Although many of the statements are known to naturalists, still I prefer giving them in the order in which they are so skilfully arranged, presenting, as they do, a very garland of facts connected with the British wild cat (_Felis catus_) up to the present, and which I deem valuable from many points of view, but the more particularly as a record of an animal once abundant in England, where it has now apparently almost, if not quite, ceased to exist. "In England in former days, the wild cat was included amongst the beasts of chase, and is often mentioned in royal grants giving liberty to inclose forest land and licence to hunt there (extracts from several such grants will be found in the _Zoologist_ for 1878, p. 251, and 1880, p. 251). Nor was it for diversion alone that the wild cat was hunted. Its fur was much used as trimming for dresses, and in this way was worn even by nuns at one time. Thus, in Archbishop Corboyle's 'Canons,' anno 1127, it is ordained 'that no abbess or nun use more costly apparel than such as is made of lambs' or _cats'_ skins,' and as no other part of the animal but the skin was of any use here, it grew into a proverb that 'You can have nothing of a cat but her skin.' "The wild cat is believed to be now extinct, not only in England and Wales, but in a great part of the south of Scotland. About five years ago a Scottish naturalist resident in Stirlingshire (Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown) took a great deal of trouble, by means of printed circulars addressed to the principal landowners throughout Scotland and the Isles, to ascertain the existing haunts of the wild cat in that part of the United Kingdom. The result of his inquiries, embodying some very interesting information, was published in the _Zoologist_ for January, 1881. The replies which he received indicated pretty clearly, although perhaps unexpectedly, that there are now no wild cats in Scotland south of a line drawn from Oban on the west coast up the Brander Pass to Dalmally, and thence following the borders of Perthshire to the junction of the three counties of Perth, Forfar and Aberdeen, northward to Tomintoul, and so to the city of Inverness. We are assured that it is only to the northward and westward of this line that the animal still keeps a footing in suitable localities, finding its principal shelter in the great deer forests. Thus we see that the wild cat is being gradually driven northward before advancing civilisation and the increased supervision of moors and forests. Just as the reindeer in the twelfth century was driven northward from England and found its last home in Caithness, and as the wolf followed it a few centuries later, so we may expect one day that the wild cat will come to be numbered amongst the 'extinct British animals.' "A recent writer in the new edition of the 'Encyclopædia Britannica' (art. _Cat_) expresses the opinion that the wild cat still exists in Wales and in the north of England, but gives no proof of its recent occurrence there. From time to time we see reports in the newspapers to the effect that a wild cat has been shot or trapped in some out-of-the-way part of the country; but it usually turns out to be a large example of the domestic cat, coloured like the wild form. It is remarkable that when cats in England are allowed to return to a feral state, their offspring, in the course of generations, show a tendency to revert to the wild type of the country; partly, no doubt, in consequence of former interbreeding with the wild species when the latter was common throughout all the wooded portions of the country, and partly because the light-coloured varieties of escaped cats, being more readily seen and destroyed, are gradually eliminated, while the darker wild type is perpetuated. The great increase in size observable in the offspring of escaped domestic cats is no doubt due to continuous living on freshly-killed, warm-blooded animals, and to the greater use of the muscles which their new mode of life requires. In this way I think we may account for the size and appearance of the so-called 'wild cats' which are from time to time reported south of the Tweed. "Perhaps the last genuine wild cat seen in England was the one shot by Lord Ravensworth at Eslington, Northumberland, in 1853;[A] although so recently as March, 1883, a cat was shot in Bullington Wood, Lincolnshire, which in point of size, colour, and markings was said to be quite indistinguishable from the wild _Felis catus_. Bullington Wood is one of an almost continuous chain of great woodlands, extending from Mid-Lincolnshire to near Peterborough. Much of the district has never been preserved for game, and keepers are few and far between; hence the wild animals have enjoyed an almost complete immunity from persecution. Cats are known to have bred in these woods in a wild state for generations, and there is no improbability that the cat in question may have descended directly from the old British wild cat. Under all the circumstances, however, it seems more likely to be a case of reversion under favourable conditions from the domestic to the wild type. [A] "Trans. Tyneside Nat. Field Club," 1864, vol. vi. p. 123. "In Ireland, strange to say, notwithstanding reports to the contrary, all endeavours to find a genuine wild cat have failed, the so-called 'wild cat' of the natives proving to be the 'marten cat,' a very different animal. "We thus come back to the question with which we started, namely, the question of origin of the domestic cat; and the conclusion, I think, at which we must arrive is, that although _Felis catus_ has contributed to the formation of the existing race of domestic cats, it is not the sole ancestor. Several wild species of Egyptian and Indian origin having been ages ago reclaimed, the interbreeding of their offspring and crossing with other wild species in the countries to which they have been at various times exported, has resulted in the gradual production of the many varieties, so different in shape and colour, with which we are now familiar." Before quitting the subject, I would point to the fact that when the domestic cat takes to the woods and becomes wild, it becomes much larger, stronger, and changes in colour; and there can be little doubt that during the centuries of the existence of the cat in England there must have been numberless crosses and intercrosses, both with regard to the _males_ of the domestic cat as with wild _females_, and _vice versâ_; yet the curious fact remains that the wild cat still retains its peculiar colouring and form, as is shown by the skins preserved in the British Museum and elsewhere. Mr. Darwin, in his "Voyage of the Beagle," 1845 (p. 120), in his notes of the first colonists of La Plata, A.D. 1535, says, among other animals that he saw was "the common cat altered into a _large_ and _fierce_ animal, inhabiting the rocky hills," etc. Another point on which I wish to give my impressions is the act of the cat in what is termed "sharpening its claws." Mr. Darwin notes certain trees where the jaguars "_sharpen their claws_," and mentions the scars were of different ages; he also thought they did this "_to tear off the horny points_." This, I believe, is the received opinion among naturalists; but I differ _entirely_ from this view of the practice. It is a fact, however, and worthy of notice, that all cats do so, even the domestic cat. I had _one_ of the legs of a kitchen table entirely torn to pieces by my cats; and after much observation I came to the conclusion that it has nothing whatever to do with _sharpening_ the claws, but is done to stretch the muscles and tendons of the feet so that they work readily and strongly, as the retraction of the claws for lengthened periods must tend to contract the tendons used for the purpose of extending or retracting; therefore the cats fix the points of their claws in something soft, and bear downwards with the whole weight of the body, simply to stretch and, by use, to strengthen the ligatures that pull the claws forward. It is also to be noted that even the domestic cat goes to one particular place or tree to insert the claws and drag forward the muscles--perhaps even in the leather of an arm-chair, a costly practice. Why one object is always selected is that they may not betray their presence by numerous marks in the neighbourhood, if wild, to other animals or their enemies. I have mentioned this to my brother, John Jenner Weir, F.L.S., and he concurs with me throughout. I find in Strutt's "Sports and Pastimes" that of the names applied to companies of animals in the Middle Ages, several are still in use, though many have become obsolete; and also a few of the beasts have ceased to exist in a wild state. Some were very curious, such as a _skulk_ of foxes, a _cete_ of badgers, a _huske_ or _down_ of hares, a _nest_ of rabbits, and a _clowder of cats_, and a _kindle of young cats_. Now cats are said to _kitten_, and rabbits _kindle_. The following shows the value of the cat nearly a thousand years ago; it is to be found in Bewick's "Quadrupeds": "In the time of Hoel the Good, King of Wales, who died in the year 948, laws were made as well to preserve as to fix the different prices of animals; among which the cat is included, as being at that period of great importance, on account of its scarcity and utility. "The price of a kitten, before it could see, was fixed at one penny; till proof could be given of its having caught a mouse, twopence; after which it was rated at fourpence, which was a great sum in those days, when the value of specie was extremely high. It was likewise required that it should be perfect in its sense of hearing and seeing, should be a good mouser, have its claws whole, and, if a female, be a careful nurse. If it failed in any of these good qualities, the seller was to forfeit to the buyer a third part of its value. If any one should steal or kill a cat that guarded the Prince's granary, he was either to forfeit a milch ewe, her fleece and lamb, or as much wheat as when poured on the cat suspended by its feet (its head touching the floor), would form a heap high enough to cover the tip of the former." Bewick remarks: "Hence we may conclude that cats were not originally natives of these islands, and from the great care taken to improve the breed of this prolific creature, we may suppose were but little known at that period." I scarcely think this the right conclusion, the English wild cat being anatomically different. In Hone's popular works it is stated that "Cats are supposed to have been brought into England from the island of Cyprus by some foreign merchants, who came hither for tin." Mr. Hone further says: "Wild cats were kept by our ancient kings for hunting. The officers who had charge of these cats seem to have had appointments of equal consequence with the masters of the king's hounds; they were called _Catatores_." Beaumont and Fletcher in _The Scornful Lady_ allude to the hunting of cats in the line, "Bring out the _cat-hounds_, I'll make you take a tree." But although large and ferocious, the wild cat was not considered a match for some of the lesser animals, for in Salmon's "English Physician," 1693, we read that "The weasel is an enemy to ravens, crows, and _cats_, and although cats may sometimes set upon them, yet they can scarcely overcome them." Nevertheless, we find in Daniel's "Rural Sports," 1813, that "_Wild cats_ formerly were an object of _sport_ to huntsmen. Thus, Gerard Camvile, 6 John, had special licence to hunt the hare, fox, and wild cat, throughout all the King's _forests_; and 23 Henry III., Earl Warren, by giving Simon de Pierpont a _goshawk_, obtained leave to hunt the buck, doe, hart, hind, hare, fox, goat, _cat_, or any other wild beast, in certain lands of Simon's. But it was not for diversion alone that this animal was pursued; for the _skin_ was much used by the nuns in their habits, as a _fur_." Still it appears from Mr. Charles Darwin's "Voyage of the Beagle," that tastes vary. "Doctor Shaw was laughed at for stating the flesh of the lion is in great esteem, having no small affinity with veal, both in the colour, taste, and flavour. Such certainly is the case with the puma. The Guachos differ in their opinion whether the jaguar is good eating; but were unanimous in saying the _cat_ is _excellent_." It is also stated that the Chinese fatten and eat cats with considerable relish; but of this I can obtain no reliable information, some of my friends from China not having heard of the custom, if such it is. Again referring to the skin of the cat, _vide_ Strutt: "In the thirty-seventh year of the reign of Edward III., it was decreed, after enumerating the various kinds of cloth that were to be worn by the nobles, knights, dames, and others, that (Article 2) tradesmen, artificers, and men in office, called yeomen, their wives and children, shall wear no kind of furs excepting those of lambs, of rabbits, of _cats_, and of foxes." Further: "No man, unless he be possessed of the yearly value of forty shillings, shall wear any furs but black and white lambs' skins." Lambs' and cats' skins were equivalent in value and order. In the twenty-second year of this monarch's reign, all the former statutes "against excess in apparel" were repealed. My old friend Fairholt, in his useful work on costume, says of the Middle Ages: "The peasants wore cat skins, badger skins, etc." One of the reasons why the skin of cats was used on cloaks and other garments for trimming, being that it showed humility in dress, and not by way of affectation or vanity, but for warmth and comfort, it being of the lowest value of any, with the exception of lambs' skin and badgers'; and adopted by some priests as well as nuns, when wishing to impress others with their deep sense of humility in all things, even to their wearing-apparel. The proof of which Strutt's "Habits of the Anglo-Normans," _circâ_ twelfth century, fully illustrates: "William of Malmesbury, speaking of Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester, assures us that he avoided all appearance of pride and ostentation in his dress, and though he was very wealthy, he never used any furs finer than lambs' skin for the lining of his garments. Being blamed for such needless humility by Geoffrey, Bishop of Constans, who told him that 'He not only could afford, but even ought to wear those of sables, of beavers, or of foxes,' he replied: 'It may indeed be proper for you politicians, skilful in the affairs of the world, to adorn yourselves in the skins of such cunning animals; but for me, who am a plain man, and not subject to change my opinion, the skins of lambs are quite sufficient.' 'If,' returned his opponent, 'the finer furs are unpleasant, you might at least make use of those of the cat.' 'Believe me,' answered the facetious prelate, 'the lamb of God is much oftener sung in the Church than the cat of God.' This witty retort put Geoffrey to the blush, and threw the whole company into a violent fit of laughter." Of a very different character was the usage of the cat at clerical festivals. In Mill's "History of the Crusades," one reads with some degree of horror that "In the Middle Ages the cat was a very important personage in religious festivals. At Aix, in Provence, on the festival of the Corpus Christi, the finest he-cat of the country, wrapped like a child in swaddling clothes, was exhibited in a magnificent shrine to public admiration. Every knee was bent, every hand strewed flowers or poured incense; and pussy was treated in all respects as the god of the day. On the festival, however, of St. John (June 24), the poor cat's fate was reversed. A number of cats were put in a wicker basket, and thrown alive into the midst of a large fire, kindled in the public square by the bishop and his clergy. Hymns and anthems were sung, and processions were made by the priests and people in honour of the sacrifice." While the foregoing was about being printed, Mr. Edward Hamilton, M.D., writing to _The Field_, May 11th, 1889, gives information of a wild cat being shot in Inverness-shire. I therefore insert the paragraph, as every record of so scarce an animal is of importance and value, especially when it is descriptive. He states: "A fine specimen of the wild cat (_Felis sylvestris_) was sent to me on May 3rd, trapped in Inverness-shire on the Ben Nevis range. It was too much decomposed to exhibit. Its dimensions were: from nose to base of tail, 1 foot 11 inches; length of tail, 1 foot; height at shoulder, 1 foot 2 inches; the length of small intestine, 1 foot 8½ inches; and the large intestine, 1 foot 1 inch." It will be seen by these measurements that the animal was not so large as some that have been taken, though excelling in size many of the domestic varieties. CONCERNING CATS. CAT.--Irish, _Cat_; French, _Chat_; Dutch, _Kat_; Danish, _Kat_; Swedish, _Katt_; German, _Katti_ or _Katze_; Latin, _Catus_; Italian, _Gatto_; Portuguese and Spanish, _Gato_; Polish, _Kot_; Russian, _Kots_; Turkish, _Keti_; Welsh, _Cath_; Cornish, _Kath_; Basque, _Catua_; Armenian, _Gaz_ or _Katz_. In Armenic, _Kitta_, or _Kaita_, is a male cat. _Abram cat._--This I first thought simply meant a male cat; but I find in Nares, "Abram" is the corruption of "auburn," so, no doubt, a red or sandy tabby cat is intended. _A Wheen cat, a Queen cat (Catus femina)._--"Queen" was used by the Saxons to signify the female sex, in that "queen fugol" was used for "hen fowl." Farmers in Kent and Sussex used also to call heifers "little queens." _Carl cat._--A boar or he-cat, from the old Saxon carle or karle, a male, and cat. _Cat._--It was used to denote "Liberty." No animal is more impatient of restriction or confinement, nor yet _seeming_ to bear it with more resignation. The Romans made their goddess of Liberty holding a cup in one hand and a broken sceptre in the other, with a cat lying at her feet. Among the goddesses, Diana is said to have assumed the form of a cat. The Egyptians worshipped the cat as an emblem of the moon, not only because it was more active after sunset, but from the dilation and contraction of its orb, symbolical of the waxing and waning of the night goddess. But Bailey, in his dictionary, says cats see best as the sun approaches, and that their eyesight decays as it goes down in the evening. Yet, "on this account," says Mr. Thiselton Dyer, in his "English Folk-lore," "it was so highly esteemed as to receive sacrifices, and even to have stately temples erected to its honour. Whenever a cat died, Brand tells us, all the family shaved their eyebrows; and Diodorus Siculus relates that a Roman happening accidentally to kill a cat, the mob immediately gathered round the house where he was, and neither the entreaties of some principal men by the king, nor the fear of the Romans, with whom the Egyptians were then negotiating a peace, could save the man's life. In so much esteem also was it held, that on the death of its owner the favourite cat, or even kitten, was sacrificed, embalmed, and placed in the same sarcophagus." Some few years ago, Mr. E. Long, R.A., exhibited at the Royal Academy a very fine picture of Egyptians idol-making, idol worshippers and sellers; the lines from Juvenal being descriptive: "All know what monsters Egypt venerates; It worships crocodiles, or it adores The snake-gorged ibis; and sacred ape Graven in gold is seen ...Whole cities pray To _cats_ and fishes, or the dog invoke." _Cat._--A metal tripod for holding a plate or Dutch oven before the fire. So called because, in whatever position it is placed, it is supported by the spokes; as it is said a cat will always light on its feet, so the plate-holder will stand firmly in any position. These old brass appliances have now gone out of use and are seldom seen, the new mode of "handing round" not requiring them. Another reason, doubtless, is the lowness of the fire compared with the stove of former years, which was high up in the bygone "parlour grate." _Cat._--A cross old woman was called "a cat"; or to a shrewish, the epithet was applied tauntingly. "But will you woo this wild cat?" _Taming of the Shrew_, Act I., Scene 2. CAT.--A ship formed on the Norwegian model, having a narrow stern, projecting quarters, and a deep waist. It is strongly built, from four to six hundred tons' burden, and employed in the coal trade. _Cat._--A strong tackle, or combination of pulleys, to hook and draw in the anchor perpendicularly up to the cat-head of the ship. _Cat._--A small kind of anchor is sometimes called a cat or ketch; by the Dutch, "Kat." _Cat._--"At the edge of the moat, opposite the wooden tower, a strong penthouse, which they called a 'cat,' might be seen stealing towards the curtain, and gradually filling up the moat with facines and rubbish."--Read _Cloister and Hearth_, chap, xliii. (Davis' "Glossary.") _Catacide._--A cat-killer (BAILEY, 1726). _Catamount._--Cat of the mountain, the ordinary wild cat, when found on the mountains, among the rocks or woods. _Cat and trap._--A game or play (AINSWORTH). This is probably that known as "trap, bat, and ball," as on striking the trap, after the ball is placed on the lever, it is propelled upwards, and then struck by the batsman. _Catapult._--A military engine for battering or attacking purposes. A modern toy, by which much mischief and evil is done by unthinking boys. _Cat-bird._--An American bird, whose cry resembles that of a cat, the _Turdus felivox._ _Cat-block._--A two or threefold block with an iron strap and large hook, used to draw up an anchor to the cat-head. _Cat-call._--"A tin whistle. The ancients divided their dramas into four parts: _pro'tasis_ (introduction), _epit'asis_ (continuation), _catas'tasis_ (climax), and _catas'trophë_ (conclusion or _dénouement_). The cat-call is the call for the cat or _catastrophe._"--BREWER'S _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable._ "Sound, sound, ye viols; be the cat-call dumb." DUNCIADE, I. 303. The modern imitation of "cat-calls" is caused by whistling with two fingers in the mouth, and so making an intensely shrill noise, with waulings imitating "catterwaulings." Also a shrill tin whistle, round and flat, set against the teeth. _Cat-eaten Street._--In London; properly "Catte Street" (STOW). _Caterpillar._--"_Catyrpelwyrm_ among fruit" is corrupted from old French _Chatte peleuse_ (PALSGRAVE, 1530). "Hairy cat;" the last part of the word was probably assimilated to _piller_, a robber or despoiler (PALMER'S _Folk Etymology_). _Caterwauling._--The wrawl of cats in rutting times; any hideous noise. Topsel gives _catwralling_, to "wrall;" "wrawl," to rail or quarrel with a loud voice; hence the Yorkshire expression, "raising a wrow," meaning a row or quarrel. There is also the archaic adjective _wraw_ (angry). Caterwaul, therefore, is the wawl or wrawl of cats; the _er_ being either a plural, similar to "childer" (children), or a corrupted genitive.--BREWER'S _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable._ "What a caterwawling do you keep here!" SHAKESPEARE, _Twelfth Night_, Act II., Scene 3. "To yawl.--To squall or scream harshly like an enraged cat."--HOLLOWAY (Norfolk). "Thou must be patient; we came crying hither; Thou knowest the first time that we smell air, We _waul_ and cry." _King John_, Act IV. _Cat-eyed._--Sly, gray eyes, or with large pupils, watchful. _Cat-fall._--A rope used in ships for hoisting the anchor to the cat-head. _Catfish._--A species of the squalus, or shark (_Felis marinus_). The catfish of North America is a species of _cottus_, or bull-head. _Catgut._--A corruption of "gut-cord." The intestines of a sheep, twisted and dried; not that of a cat, as generally supposed. Also, it is stated by some, the finer strings for viols were made from the cat. Mr. Timbs says the original reading in Shakespeare was "_calves'_-gut." "A sort of linen or canvas with wide interstices."--WEBSTER. _Cat-hamed._, or _hammed._--Awkward; sometimes applied to a horse with weak hind-legs, and which drops suddenly behind on its haunches, as a cat is said to do. _Cat-handed._--A Devonshire term for awkward. _Cat-harpings._--"Rope sewing to brace in the shrouds of the lower masts behind their respective yards, to tighten the shrouds and give more room to draw in the yards when the ship is close hauled."--_Marine Dictionary._ _Cat-harping fashion._--Drinking crossways, and not as usual, over the left thumb. Sea term.--GROSE. _Cat-head._--"A strong beam, projecting horizontally over the ship's bows, carrying two or three sheaves, above which a rope, called the cat-fall, passes, and communicates with the cat-block."--_Marine Dictionary._ _Cathood._--The time when a kitten is full grown, it is then a cat and has attained maturity, that is, cathood. _Cat-hook._--A strong hook fitted to the cat-block. _Cat-lap._--Weak tea, only fit for the cat to lap, or thin milk and water. In Kent and Sussex it is also often applied to small, _very_ small beer; even thin gruel is called "cat-lap." Weak tea is also called "scandal-broth." _Cat-like._--Stealthy, slow, yet appertaining more to appearance. _Catlings._--Down, or moss, growing about walnut-trees, resembling the hair of a cat. _Cat o' Nine Tails._--So called from being nine pieces of cord put together, in each cord nine knots; and this, when used vigorously, makes several long marks not unlike the clawing or scratching of a cat, producing crossing and re-crossing wounds; a fearful and severe punishment, formerly too often exercised for trivial offences. _Cat_ or _dog wool._--"Of which cotte or coarse blankets were formerly made" (BAILEY). "Cot gase" (refuse wool). "Cat" no doubt was a corruption of "cot." _Cat-pear._--A pear, shaped like a hen's egg, that ripens in October. _Cat pellet._--The pop-gun of boys, one pellet of paper driving out the other. Davis in his "Glossary" thinks it means "tip-cat." Probably it may be the sharpened piece of wood, not the game, that is different altogether, he quotes. "Who beats the boys from cat pellet, and stool ball." _British Bellman_, 1648. _Cat-salt._--A salt obtained from butter. _Cat-salt._--"A sort of salt beautifully granulated, formed out of the bittern or leach brine, used for making hard soap."--_Encyclopædia._ _Cat's-eye._--A precious stone, resembling, when polished, the eye of a cat. It has lately become fashionable. A large collection of Burmese, Indian, and Japanese curiosities was lately sold by auction. The great attraction of the sale was "The Hindoo Lingam God," consisting of a chrysoberyl _cat's-eye_ fixed in a topaz, and mounted in a pyramidal base studded with diamonds and precious stones. This curious relic stood 2¼ inches in height. It was preserved for more than a thousand years in an ancient temple at Delhi, where acts of devotion were paid before it by women anxious to have children. The base is of solid gold, and around it are set nine gems or charms, a diamond, ruby, sapphire, _chrysoberyl cat's-eye_, coral, pearl, hyacinthine garnet, yellow sapphire, and emerald. Round the apex of this gold pyramid is a plinth set with diamonds. On the apex is a topaz 1 10-16ths inch in length, and 9-16ths of an inch in depth, shaped like a horseshoe; in the centre of the horseshoe the _great chrysoberyl cat's-eye_ stands upright. This is 15-16ths of an inch in height, and dark brown in colour, and shaped like a pear. An extremely mobile opalescent light crosses the length of the stone in an oblique direction. When Bad Shah Bahadoor Shah, the last King of Delhi, was captured and exiled to the Andaman Isles, his Queen secreted this gem, and it was never seen again until, being distressed during the Mutiny, she sold it to the present owner. The gem was finally knocked down at £2,450 to Mr. S. J. Phillips, jeweller, New Bond Street. _Cat's-foot._--To live under the cat's foot, to be under the dominion of a wife, hen-pecked. _Cat's-foot._--A plant of the genus _Glechoma pes felinus_, ground ivy or gill. _Cat's-head apple._--A large culinary apple, considered by some in form to bear a resemblance to a cat's head. Philips in his poem "Cyder" thus describes it: " ...The cat's head's weighty orb, Enormous in growth, for various use." _Cat-silver._--An old popular name for mica or talc. _Cat-sleep._--A light doze, a watchful sleep, like that of a hare or of a cat who sits in front of a mouse-hole, a dozy or a sleeping wakefulness. _Cat's-paw._--Any one used by another for getting them out of a difficulty, and for no other reason, is made a cat's-paw of. The simile is from the fable of the monkey using the cat's paw to take his chestnuts out of the fire. A light breeze just ruffling the water in a calm is called a cat's-paw. Also a particular kind of turn in the bight of a rope made to hook tackle on. _Cat's-tail._ (_Typha latifolia_).--A kind of reed which bears a spike like the tail of a cat, which some call reed mace; its long, flat leaves are much used for the bottoms of chairs. _Cats'-tails._--Mares' tails (_equisetum_). _Cat-stane._--"Battle-stone. A monolith in Scotland (sometimes falsely called a Druidical stone). The Norwegian term, banta stein, means the same thing. Celtic--_cath_ (battle)."--BREWER'S _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable._ _Cat-sticks._--Thin legs; compared to the thin sticks with which boys play at cat (Grose). _Catsup_ or _ketchup._--A corruption of the Eastern name of "Kitjap." Is then the syllable "cat" a pun on "kit" or "kitten" (a young cat)? Surely not. _Cattaria._--_Nepeta Cattaria._ _Mentha felina_, the herb cat-mint. _Cattery._--A place where cats are kept, the ordinary name when a person keeps a collection of cats. _Cattish._--Having stealthy ways, slow and cautious in movements, watchful. _Catwater._ (Plymouth).--"This is a remarkable instance of mistranslation. The castle at the mouth of the Plym used to be called the Château; but some one, thinking it would be better to Anglicise the French, divided the word into two parts: _chat_ (cat), _eau_ (water)."--BREWER'S _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable._ _Catwhin._--_Rosa spinosissima._ Burnet Rose is the name of the _plant_. _Cat with two tails._--The earwig. _Northumberland_; Holloway. _Gil cat._--A male cat; some say an old male. Nares says, an expression exactly analogous to "Jack ass;" the one being formerly called "Gil" or "Gilbert," as commonly as the other "Jack." "Tom cat" is now the usual term, and for a similar reason. "Tibert" is said to be the old French for "Gilbert." From "Tibert," "Tib," "Tibby," also was a common name for a cat. Wilkins, in his "Index to Philosophical Language," has "Gil" (male) cat in the same way as a male cat is called a "Tom" cat. In some counties the cock fowl is called a "Tom." It is unknown whence the origin of the latter term. _Grimalkin._--Poetical name for a cat (Bailey). "Mawkin" signifies a hare in Scotland (Grose). In Sussex a hare is often called "puss" or "pussy." "Puss" is also a common name for a cat. _Grinagog, the cat's uncle._--A foolish, grinning fellow. One who grins without reason (Grose). In Norfolk, if one say "she," the reply is, "Who's 'she'? The cat's aunt?" _Hang me in a bottle like a cat._--"BENEDICT. If I do, hang me in a bottle like a cat, and shoot at me, and he that hits me, let him be clapt on the shoulder and called Adam" (meaning Adam Bell, the famous archer).--_Much Ado About Nothing_, Act I. A note in the "Percy Reliques," vol. i., 1812, states: "Bottles were formerly of leather, though perhaps a wooden bottle might be here meant. It is still a diversion in Scotland (1812) to hang up a cat in a small cask or firkin, half filled with soot, and then a parcel of clowns on horseback try to beat out the ends of it, in order to show their dexterity in escaping before the contents fall on them." From "Demandes Joyeuses" (amusing questions), 1511: "_Q._ What is that that never was and never will be? "_A._ A mouse nest in a cat's ear. "_Q._ Why does a cat cross the road? "_A._ Because it wants to get to the other side." _Mrs. Evans._--"A local name for a she-cat, owing, it is said, to a witch of the name of Evans, who assumed the appearance of a cat."--GROSE. _Nine lives like a cat._--"Cats, from their great suppleness and aptitude to fall on their feet, are commonly said to have nine lives; hence Ben Jonson, in 'Every Man in His Humour,' says: ''Tis a pity you had not ten lives--a cat's and your own.'"--THISELTON DYER'S _English Folk-lore._ "TYB. What wouldst thou have with me? MER. Good king of cats, nothing but one of your nine lives." _Romeo and Juliet_, III. I. Middleton says in "Blurt Master Constable," 1602: "They have nine lives apiece, like a woman." _Pussy cats._--Male blossom of the willow. _Salt-cat_, or _salt-cate._--A mixture of salt, gravel, clay, old mortar, cumin seed, ginger, and other ingredients, in a pan, which is placed in pigeon lofts. _Sick as a Cat._--Cats are subject to sickness or vomiting for the purpose of throwing up indigestible matter, such as the fur of mice, feathers of birds, which would otherwise collect and form balls internally. For this reason they eat grass, which produces the desired effect; hence arises the phrase "as sick as a cat." _Tabby._--"An old maid; either from Tabitha, a formal antiquated name, or else from a tabby cat; old maids, by the rude, weak-minded, and vulgar, being often compared to cats. 'To drive tab,' to go out on a party of pleasure with wife and family."--GROSE'S _Glossary._ "The neighbour's old cat often Came to pay us a visit; We made her a bow and courtesy, Each with a compliment in it. After her health we asked, Our care and regard to evince; (We have made the very same speeches To many an old cat since)." MRS. B. BROWNING (translation of "Heine"). _Tip-cat._--A pleasant game for those engaged in it; not so, too often, for others, medical reports of late tending to show that many cases of the loss of sight have occurred. _To turn Cat in Pan._--This phrase has been a source of much contention, and many different derivations have been given; but all tend to show that it means a complete _turn over_, that is, to quit one side and go to the other, to turn traitor, to turncoat. "To turn cat in pan: _Prævaricor_" (Ainsworth). Bacon, in his Essays "On Cunning," p. 81, says: "There is a cunning which we in England call 'the turning of the cat in the pan,' which is when that a man says to another, 'he lays it as if another had said it to him.'" This is somewhat obscure in definition. Toone says: "The proverbial expression, 'to turn a cat in a pan,' denotes a sudden change in one's party, or politics, or religion, for the sake of being in the ascendant, as a cat always comes down on its legs, however thrown." The Vicar of Bray is quoted as simply a "turncoat," but this does _not_ affect the argument. I quite think, and in this others agree with me, that it has nothing to do with the _cat_, but was originally cate. In olden times, and until lately, it was the custom _to toss_ pancakes (to turn them over). It was no easy matter; frequently the _cake_ or _cate_ went in the fire or lodged in the chimney. To turn the cat or cate in the pan was to toss and _turn it completely over_, that is, from one side to the other. The meaning given to the phrase _helps to prove_ this view. I merely introduce this because so many have asked for an explanation as regards "the _cat_ in pan." I consider the "far-fetched" origins of the term are complete errors. It was a custom to toss pancakes on Shrove Tuesday, and it required great skill to do it well, cleanly, and completely. Some cooks were noted for it, and thought clever if it was done without injury to themselves or clothes. It appears from "The Westmoreland Dialect," by A. Walker (1790), that cock-fighting and "casting" of pancakes were then common in that county, thus: "Whaar ther wor tae be cock-feightin', for it war pankeak Tuesday," and "we met sum lads an' lasses gangin' to kest (cast) their pankeaks." * * * * * _To whip the cat._--"To practise the most pinching parsimony, grudging even the scraps and orts, or remnants of food given to the cat."--HOLLOWAY (_Norfolk_). A phrase applied to the village tailor going round from house to house for work. "To be drunk."--HEYWOOD'S _Philoconothista_, 1635, p. 60. An itinerant parson is said to "whip the cat." "A trick practised on ignorant country fellows, vain of their strength, by laying a wager with them that they may be pulled through a pond by a cat. The bet being made, a rope is fixed round the waist of the party to be catted, and the end thrown across the pond, to which the cat is also fastened by a pack-thread, and three or four sturdy fellows are appointed to lead and 'whip the cat.' These, on a signal being given, seize the end of the cord, and, pretending to whip the cat, haul the astonished booby through the water."--GROSE, 1785. * * * * * The following are culled from the well-known and useful book, Jamieson's "Scottish Dictionary": _Cat._--A small bit of rag, rolled up and put between the handle of a pot and the hook which suspends it over the fire, to raise it a little.--_Roxb._ _Cat._--A handful of straw, with or without corn upon it, or of reaped grain, laid on the ground by the reaper without being put into a sheaf (_Roxb., Dumfr._). Perhaps from the Belg. word _katt-en_, to throw, the handful of corn being cast on the ground; whence _kat_, a small anchor. _Cat._--The name given to a bit of wood, a horn, or anything which is struck in place of a ball in certain games. _To Cat a Chimney._--To enclose a vent by the process called _Cat and Clay_ (_Teviotd._). _Cat and Clay._--The materials of which a mud wall is constructed in many parts of S. Straw and clay are well wrought together, and being formed into pretty large rolls, are laid between the different wooden posts by means of which the wall is formed, and carefully pressed down so as to incorporate with each other, or with the twigs that are sometimes plaited from one post to another (_S._). _Cat and Dog._--The name of an ancient sport (_S._). It seems to be an early form of _Cricket._ (Query, is this the same as Cat and Trap?) _Catband._--1. The name given to the strong hook used on the inside of a door or gate, which, being fixed to the wall, keeps it shut. 2. A chain drawn across a street for defence in time of war. Germ., _kette_, a chain, and _band_. _Cat-fish, Sea-cat._--The sea-wolf (_S._). _Anarhicas lupus_ (LINN.) Sw., _haf-cat_--_i.e._ sea-cat.--SIBBALD. _Cat-gut._--Thread fucus, or sea laces. _Fucus filum_ (LINN.), _Orkney_, "Neill's Tour." _Cat-Harrow._--"_They draw the Cat-Harrow_"--that is, they thwart one another.--_Loth. Ang._, LYNDSEY. _Cat-heather._--A finer species of heath, low and slender, growing more in separate, upright stalks than the common heath, and flowering only at the top (_Aberd._). _Cat-hole._--1. The name given to the loop-holes or narrow openings in the wall of a barn (_S._). 2. A sort of niche in the wall of a barn, in which keys and other necessaries are deposited in the inside, where it is not perforated. _Cat-hud._--The name given to a large stone, which serves as a back to a fire on the hearth in the house of a cottager (_Dumfr._). Sw. G., _kaette_, denotes a small cell or apartment, which corresponds to the form of the country fireside; also a bed; a pen. _Hud_ might seem allied to Teut. _huyd-en_, _conservare_, as the stone is meant to guard this enclosure from the effects of the fire. _Catling._--Small catgut strings for musical instruments, also a kind of knife used in surgery. _Cat-loup._--1. A very short distance as to space (_S._); q. as far as a cat may leap (HOGG). 2. A moment; as, "I'se be wi' ye in a _catloup_"--_i.e._, instantly. "I will be with you as quickly as a cat can leap." _Catmaw._--"To tumble the _catmaw_," to go topsy-turvy, to tumble (_S. B._). _Catmint._--An herbaceous plant (_Mentha felina_), that cats delight to roll on. _Cat's Carriage._--The same play that is otherwise called the "King's Cushion," q.v. (_Loth._). _Cat's Cradle._--A plaything for children, made of pack-thread on the fingers of one person, and transferred from them to those of another (_S._). _Cat's Crammocks._--Clouds like hairs streaming from an animal's tail (_Shetland_). _Cat's Hair._--1. The down that covers unfledged birds (_Fife_); synon. _Paddockhair_. 2. The down on the face of boys before the beard grows (_S._). 3. Applied also to the thin hair that often grows on the bodies of persons in bad health (_S._). _Cat-siller._.--The mica of mineralogists (_S._); the _katzen silber_ of the vulgar in Germany. Teut., _katten silver_, _amiantus_, _mica_, _vulgo argentum felium_; Kilian. _Cat's Lug._--The name given to the _Auricula ursi._--LINN. (_Roxburgh._). _Cat's Stairs._--A plaything for children, made of thread, small cord, or tape, which is so disposed by the hands as to fall down like steps of a stair (_Dumfr._, _Gall._). _Catstone._--One of the upright stones which support a grate, there being one on each side (_Roxb._). Since the introduction of Carron grates these _stones_ are found in kitchens only. The term is said to originate from this being the favourite seat of the _cat._ _See_ Catstone (English). _Catstone-head._--The flat top of the Catstone (_ibid._). _Catsteps._--The projections of the stones in the slanting part of a gable (_Roxb._). _Corbie-steps_, synon. _Cat's-Tails._--Hare's Tail Rush (_Eriophorum vaginatum_). LINN. _Mearns_; also called _Canna-down_, Cat Tails (_Galloway_). _Catten-Clover._, _Cat-in-Clover._--The Lotus (_South of S._). Sw., _Katt-klor_ (Cat's Claws). _Catter._--1. Catarrh (BELLENDEN). 2. A supposed disease of the fingers from handling cats. _Catterbatch._--A broil, a quarrel (_Fife_). Teut., _kater_, a he-cat, and _boetse_, rendered _cavillatio, q._, "a cat's quarrel." _Catwittit._--Harebrained, unsettled; _q._, having the _wits_ of a _cat_ (_S._). _Kittie._--A North-country name for a cat, male or female. _Kitling._--Sharp; kitten-like. "His _kitling_ eyes begin to run Quite through the table where he spies The horns of paperie butterflys." HERRICK, _Hesperides_. _Kittenhood._--State of being a kitten. "For thou art as beautiful as ever a cat That wantoned in the joy of kittenhood." SOUTHEY. _Kittenish_, kitten-like. "Such a kittenish disposition in her, I called it; ...the love of playfulness."--RICHARDSON. _Kit_, or _kitten._--A young cat. A young cat is a kitten until it is full-grown, then kittenhood ceases. A school-boy being asked to describe a _kitten_, replied: "A _kitten_ is chiefly remarkable for rushing like mad at nothing whatever, and generally stopping before it gets there." _Puss gentleman._--An effeminate man.--DAVIS, _Glossary._ "I cannot talk with civet in th' room, A fine puss gentleman that's all perfume." COWPER'S _Conversations._ CAT PROVERBS. _A BLATE cat makes a proud mouse_ (Scotch). An idle, or stupid, or timid foe is never feared. _A cat has nine lives, a woman has nine lives._ In Middleton's _Blurt Master Constable_, 1602, we have: "They have nine lives apiece, like a woman." _A cat may look at a king._ In Cornwall they say a cat may look at a king if he carries his eyes about him. "A Cat may Look at a King," is the title of a book on history, published in the early part of the last century. On the frontispiece is the picture of a cat, over it the inscription, "A cat may look at a king," and a king's head and shoulders on the title-page, with the same inscription above. _A cat's walk_, a little way and back (Cornwall). No place like home. Idling about. _A dead cat feels no cold._ No life, no pain, nor reproach. _A dog hath a day._--HEYWOOD. In Essex folks add: _And a cat has two Sundays._ Why? The shape of a good greyhound: A head like a snake, a neck like a drake, A back like a beam, sided like a bream, A _foot like a cat_, a tail like a rat. _Ale that would make a cat talk._ Strong enough to make even the dumb speak. "A spicy pot, Then do's us reason, Would make a cat To talk high treason."--D'URFEY. _A half-penny cat may look at a king_ (Scotch). A jeering saying of offence--"One is as good as another," and as a Scotchman once said, "and better." _A muffled cat is no good mouser._--CLARKE, 1639. No good workman wears gloves. By some is said "muzzled." _A piece of a kid is worth two of a cat._ A little of good is better than much that is bad. _A scalded cat fears cold water._ Once bit always shy. What was may be again. _As cat or cap case_. "Bouser I am not, but mild sober Tuesday, _As catte in cap case_, if I like not St. Hewsday." _The Christmas Prince_, 1607. _As gray as Grannum's cat._--HAZLITT. So old as to be likely to be doubly gray. _As melancholy as a cat._--WALKER. The voice of the cat is melancholy. _As melancholy as a gib-cat_ (Scotch). As an old, worn-out cat.--JOHNSTON. "I am as melancholy as a gib-cat or a lugged bear."[B] SHAKESPEARE. [B] A lugged bear is a bear with its ears cut off, so that when used for baiting there is less hold for the dogs. Gib-cat; an old, lonely, melancholy cat. _Before the cat can lick her ear._ "Nay, you were not quite out of hearing ere the cat could lick her ear."--_Oviddius Exultans_, 1673, p. 50. That is never. Dun, besides being the name of one who arrested for debt in Henry VII.'s time, was also the name of the hangman before "Jack Ketch."--GROSE. "And presently a halter got, Made of the best strong teer, And ere a cat could lick her ear, Had tied it up with so much art." 1664, COTTON'S _Virgile_, Book 4. _By biting and scratching dogs and cats come together._--HEYWOOD. Quarrelling oft makes friends. _Care clammed a cat._--SIR G. C. LEWIS'S "Herefordshire Glossary." Clammed means starvation; that is, care killed the cat; for want of food the entrails get "clammed." _Care killed the cat, but ye canna live without it._ To all some trouble, though not all take heed. None know another's burden. _Care will kill a cat._ "Then hang care and sorrow, 'Tis able to kill a cat."--D'URFEY. Alluding to its tenacity of life and the carking wear of care. _Cats after kind good mouse hunt._--HEYWOOD. Letter by F. A. touching the quarrel between Arthur Hall and Melch Mallorie, in 1575-6, repr. of ed. 1580, in "Misc^{y}. Antiq. Anglic." 1816, p. 93. "For never yet was good cat out of kinde."--_English Proverbs_, HAZLITT. _Cats and Carlins sit in the sun._ When work is done then warmth and rest. _Cats eat what hussies spare._ Nothing is lost. Also refers to giving away, and saying "the cat took it." _Cats hide their claws._ All is not fair that seems so. Trust not to appearances. _Cry you mercy, killed my cat._--CLARKE, 1639. Better away, than stay and ask pardon. _Every day's no yule; cast the cat a castock._ The stump of a cabbage, and the proverb means much the same thing as "Spare no expense, bring another bottle of _small beer_."--DENHAM'S _Popular Sayings_, 1846. OF FALSE PERSONS. _He bydes as fast as a cat bound with a sacer._ He does as he likes; nothing holds him. OF WITTIE PERSONS. _He can hold the cat to the sun._ Bold and foolish enough for anything. INCONSTANT PERSONS. _He is like a dog or a cat._ Not reliable. _He looks like a wild cat out of a bush._ Fiercely afraid. _He's like a cat; fling him which way you will, he'll not hurt._ Some are always superior to misfortune, or fortune favours many. _He's like a singed cat, better than he's likely._ He's better than he looks or seems. _He stands in great need that borrows the cat's dish._--CLARKE, 1639. The starving are not particular. The hungry cannot choose. _He lives at the sign of the cat's foot._ He is hen-pecked, his wife scratches him.--RAY. _He wald gar a man trow that the moon is made of green cheis, or the cat took the heron._ Never believe all that is laid to another. _Honest as the cat when the meat is out of reach._ Some are honest, but others not by choice. _How can the cat help it when the maid is a fool?_ Often things lost, given, or stolen, are laid to the cat. _If thou 'scap'st, thou hast cat's luck_, in Fletcher's _Knight of Malta_, alluding to the activity and caution of the cat, which generally stands it in good stead. _I'll not buy a cat in a poke._ F., _Chat en Poche_. See what you buy; bargain not on another's word. _Just as quick as a cat up a walnut-tree._--D'URFEY. To climb well and easily. To be alert and sudden. _Let the cat wink, and let the mouse run._ For want of watching and care much is lost.--HAZLITT'S "Dodsley," i. 265. The first portion is in the interlude of "The World and the Child," 1522. _Like a cat he'll fall on his legs._ To succeed, never to fail, always right. _Like a cat round hot milk._ Wait and have; all things come to those who wait. _Little and little the cat eateth the stickle._--HEYWOOD. Constant dropping weareth a stone. _Long and slender like a cat's elbow._--HAZLITT. A sneer at the ill-favoured. _Love me, love my cat._--This refers to one marrying; in taking a wife he must take her belongings. Or, where you like, you must avoid contention. _Never was cat or dog drowned that could see the shore._ To know the way often brings a right ending. _None but cats and dogs are allowed to quarrel here._ All else agree. _No playing with a straw before an old cat._--HEYWOOD, 1562. Every trifling toy age cannot laugh at.--"Youth and Folly, Age and Wisdom." _Rats walk at their ease if cats do not them meese._--WODROEPHE, 1623. Rogues abound where laws are weak. _Send not a cat for lard._--GEORGE HERBERT. Put not any to temptation. _So as cat is after kind._ Near friends are dearest. Birds of a feather flock together. _Take the chestnuts out of the fire with the cat's paw._ Making use of others to save oneself. _That comes of a cat will catch mice._ What is bred in the bone comes out in the flesh. Like father, like son. _The cat and dog may kiss, but are none the better friends._ Policy is one thing, friendship another. _The cat invites the mouse to her feast._ It is difficult for the weak to refuse the strong. _The cat is in the cream-pot._ Any one's fault but hers. A row in the house (Northern). _The cat is hungry when a crust contents her._ Hunger is a good sauce. _The cat is out of kind that sweet milk will not lap._ One is wrong who forsakes custom.--"History of Jacob and Esau," 1568. _The cat, the rat, and Lovel the dog, rule England under one hog._--"A Myrrour for Magistrates," edition 1563, fol. 143. This couplet is a satire on Richard III. (who carried a boar on his escutcheon) and his myrmidons, _Cat_esby, _Rat_cliffe, and Lovell. _The cat would eat fish, and would not wet her feet._--HEYWOOD, 1562. "Fain would the cat fish eat, But she is loth to wet her feet." "What cat's averse to fish?"--GRAY. Dr. Trench has pointed out the allusion to this saying in _Macbeth_, when Lady Macbeth speaks of her husband as a man, "Letting I dare not, wait upon I would, Like the poor cat i' the adage." _The cat sees not the mouse ever._--HEYWOOD. Those that should hide, see more than they who seek. The fearful eye sees far. _The liquorish cat gets many a rap._ The wrong-doer escapes not. _The more you rub a cat on the back, the higher she sets her tail._ Praise the vain and they are more than pleased. Flattery and vanity are near akin. _The mouse lords it where the cat is not._--MS., 15th century. The little rule, where there are no great. _The old cat laps as much as the young._--CLARKE. One evil is much like another. _They agree like two cats in gutter._--HEYWOOD. To be less than friends. _They argue like cats and dogs._ That is to quarrel. _Thou'lt strip it, as Stack stripped the cat when he pulled her out of the churn._ To take away everything. _Though the cat winks awhile, yet sure he is not blind._ To know all and pretend ignorance. _To grin like a Cheshire cat._ Said to be like a cheese cat, often made in Cheshire; but this is not very clear, and the meaning doubtful. _To go like a cat on a hot bake-stone._ To lose no time. To be swift and stay not. _To keep a cat from the tongs._ To stop at home in idleness. It is said of a youth who stays at home with his family, when others go to the wars abroad, in "A Health to the Gentlemanly Profession of Serving Men," 1598. _Too late repents the rat when caught by the cat._ Shun danger, nor dare too long. _To love it as a cat loves mustard._ Not at all. To abhor. _Two cats and a mouse, two wives in one house, two dogs and one bone, never agree._ No peace when all want to be masters, or to possess one object. _Well might the cat wink when both her eyes were out._ "Sumwhat it was sayeth the proverbe old, That the cat winked when here iye was out." _Jack Juggler_, edit. 1848, p. 46. Those bribed are worse than blind. "_Well wots the cat whose beard she licketh._"--SKELTON'S _Garlande of Laurel_, 1523. "Wel wot nure cat whas berd he lickat."--WRIGHT'S _Essays_, vol. i. p. 149. "The cat knoweth whose lips she licketh."--HEYWOOD, 1562. The first appears the most correct. _What the good wife spares the cat eats._ Favourites are well cared for. _When candles are out all cats are gray._ In the dark all are alike. This is said of beauty in general. _When the cat is away the mice will play._--"The Bachelor's Banquet," 1603. Heywood's "Woman Killed with Kindness," 1607. When danger is past, it is time to rejoice. _When the weasel and the cat make a marriage, it is very ill presage._ When enemies counsel together, take heed; when rogues agree, let the honest folk beware. _When the maid leaves the door open, the cat's in fault._ It is always well to have another to bear the blame. The way to do ill deeds oft makes ill deeds done. _Who shall hang the bell about the cat's neck?_--HEYWOOD, 1562. "Who shall ty the bell about the cat's necke low? Not I (quoth the mouse), for a thing that I know." The mice at a consultation held how to secure themselves from the cat, resolved upon hanging a bell about her neck, to give warning when she was near; but when this was resolved, they were as far to seek; for who would do it?--R. Who will court danger to benefit others? A Douglas in the olden time, at a meeting of conspirators, said he would "bell the cat." Afterwards the enemy was taken by him, he retaining the cognomen of "Archibald Bell-the-cat." _You can have no more of a cat than its skin._ You can have no more of a man but what he can do or what he has, or no more from a jug than what it contains. THE CAT OF SHAKESPEARE. Shakespeare mentions the cat forty-four times, and in this, like nearly all else of which he wrote, displayed both wonderful and accurate knowledge, not only of the form, nature, habits, and food of the animal, but also the inner life, the disposition, what it was, of what capable, and what it resembled. How truly he saw either from study, observation, or intuitively knew, not only the outward contour of "men and things," but could see within the casket which held the life and being, noting clearly thoughts, feelings, aspirations, intents, and purposes, not of the one only, but that also of the brute creation. How truthfully he alludes to the peculiar eyes of the cat, the fine mark that the pupil dwindles to when the sun rides high in the heavens! Hear Grumio in _The Taming of the Shrew:_ And so disfigure her with it, that she shall have no more eyes to see withal than a cat. As to the food of the cat, he well informs us that at this distant period domestic cats were fed and cared for to a certain extent, for besides much else, he points to the fact of its love of milk in _The Tempest_, Antonio's reply to Sebastian in Act II., Scene 1: For all the rest, They'll take suggestion as a cat laps milk. And in _King Henry the Fourth_, Act IV., Scene 2, of its pilfering ways, Falstaff cries out: I am as vigilant as a cat to steal cream. While Lady Macbeth points to the uncertain, timid, cautious habits of the cat, amounting almost to cowardice: Letting I dare not wait upon I would, Like the poor cat i' the adage. and in the same play the strange superstitious fear attached to the voice and presence of the cat at certain times and seasons: Thrice the brinded cat hath mewed. The line almost carries a kind of awe with it, a sort of feeling of "what next will happen?" He noted, also, as he did most things, its marvellous powers of observation, for in _Coriolanus_, Act IV., Scene 2, occurs the following: Cats, that can judge as fitly. and of the forlorn loneliness of the age-stricken male cat in _King Henry the Fourth_, Falstaff, murmuring, says: I am as melancholy as a gib cat. He marks, too, the difference of action in the lion and cat, in a state of nature: A crouching lion and a ramping cat. Of the night-time food-seeking cat, in _The Merchant of Venice_, old Shylock talks of the ...Slow in profit, and he sleeps by day More than the wild cat. In the same play Shylock discourses of those that have a natural horror of certain animals, which holds good till this day: Some men there are love not a gaping pig, Some, that are mad if they behold a cat. and further on: As there is no firm reason to be rendered Why he cannot abide a gaping pig, Why he, a harmless necessary cat. Note the distinction he makes between the wild and the domestic cat; the one, evidently, he knew the value and use of, and the other, its peculiar stealthy ways and of nature dread. In _All's Well that Ends Well_, he gives vent to his dislike; Bertram rages forth: I could endure anything before but a cat, And now he's cat to me. The feud with the wild cat intensifies in _Midsummer Night's Dream_; 'tis Lysander speaks: Hang off, thou cat, thou burr, thou vile thing. And Gremio tells of the untamableness of the wild cat, which he deems apparently impossible: But will you woo this wild cat? Romeo, in _Romeo and Juliet_, looks with much disfavour, not only on cats but also dogs; in fact, the dog was held in as high disdain as the cat: And every cat and dog, And every little mouse, and every unworthy thing. Here is Hamlet's opinion: The cat will mew, the dog will have his day. In _Cymbeline_ there is: In killing creatures vile, as cats and dogs. The foregoing is enough to show the great poet's opinion of the cat. SUPERSTITION AND WITCHCRAFT. A very remarkable peculiarity of the domestic cat, and possibly one that has had much to do with the ill favour with which it has been regarded, especially in the Middle Ages, is the extraordinary property which its fur possesses of yielding electric sparks when hand-rubbed or by other friction, the black in a larger degree than any other colour, even the rapid motion of a fast retreating cat through rough, tangled underwood having been known to produce a luminous effect. In frosty weather it is the more noticeable, the coldness of the weather apparently giving intensity and brilliancy, which to the ignorant would certainly be attributed to the interference of the spiritual or superhuman. To sensitive natures and nervous temperaments the very contact with the fur of the black cat will often produce a startling thrill or absolutely an electric shock. That carefully observant naturalist, Gilbert White, speaking of the frost of 1785, notes: "During those two Siberian days my parlour cat was so electric, that had a person stroked her, and been properly insulated, the shock might have been given to a whole circle of people." Possibly from this lively fiery sparkling tendency, combined with its noiseless motion and stealthy habits, our ancestors were led in the happily bygone superstitious days to regard the unconscious animal as a "familiar" of Satan or some other evil spirit, which generally appeared in the form of a black cat; hence witches were said to have a black cat as their "familiar," or could at will change themselves into the form of a black cat with eyes of fire. Shakespeare says, "the cat with eyne of burning coal," and in Middleton's _Witch_, Act III., Hecate says: I will but 'noint, and then I'll mount. (_A Spirit like a cat descends. Voice above._) There's one come down to fetch his dues. (_Later on the Voice calls._) Hark! hark! the cat sings a brave treble in her own language. (_Then_ HECATE.) Now I go, now I fly, Malkin, my sweet spirit, and I, etc. NOTE.--Almost the same words are sung in the music to _Macbeth_. "One of the frauds of witchcraft," says Timbs, "is the witch pretending to transform herself into a certain animal, the favourite and most usual transformation being a _cat_; hence cats were tormented by the ignorant vulgar." "_Rutterkin_ was a famous cat, a cat who was 'cater'-cousin to the great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-great-grandmother of Grimalkin, and first cat in the caterie of an old woman who was tried for bewitching a daughter of the Countess of Rutland in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The monodis connects him with cats of great renown in the annals of witchcraft, a science whereto they have been allied as poor old women, one of whom, it appears, on the authority of an old pamphlet entitled 'Newes from Scotland,' etc., printed in the year 1591, 'confessed that she took a cat and christened it, etc., and that in the night following, the said cat was conveyed into the middest of the sea by all these witches sayling in their Riddles, or Cives, and so left the said cat right before the towne of Leith in Scotland. This done, there did arise such a tempest at sea as a greater hath not been seen, etc. Againe it is confessed that the said christened cat was the cause of the kinges majestie's shippe, at his coming forthe of Denmarke, had a contrarie winde to the rest of the shippes then being in his companie, which thing was most straunge and true, as the kinges majestie acknowledgeth, for when the rest of the shippes had a fair and good winde, then was the winde contrairie, and altogether against his majestie,' etc."[C] [C] Hone's "Every-day Book," vol. i. "In some parts black cats are said to bring good luck, and in Scarborough (Henderson's 'Folk-lore of the Northern Counties'). A few years ago, sailors' wives were in the habit of keeping one, thinking thereby to ensure the safety of their husbands at sea. This, consequently, gave black cats such a value that no one else could keep them, as they were nearly always stolen. There are various proverbs which attach equal importance to this lucky animal, as, for example: Whenever the cat o' the house is black, The lasses o' lovers will have no lack. "And again: Kiss the black cat, An' 'twill make ye fat; Kiss the white ane, 'Twill make ye lean. "In Scotland there is a children's rhyme upon the purring of the cat: Dirdum drum, Three threads and a thrum; Thrum gray, thrum gray! "In Devonshire and Wiltshire it is believed that a May cat--or, in other words, a cat born in the month of May--will never catch any rats or mice, but, contrary to the wont of cats, will bring into the house snakes, and slow-worms, and other disagreeable reptiles. In Huntingdonshire it is a common saying that 'a May kitten makes a dirty cat.' If a cat should leap over a corpse, it is said to portend misfortune. Gough, in his 'Sepulchral Monuments,' says that in Orkney, during the time the corpse remains in the house, all the cats are locked up, and the looking-glasses covered over. In Devonshire a superstition prevails that a cat will not remain in a house with an unburied corpse; and stories are often told how, on the death of one of the inmates of a house, the cat has suddenly made its disappearance, and not returned again until after the funeral. The sneezing of the cat, says Brand ('Popular Antiquities,' 1849, vol. iii., p. 187), appears to have been considered as a lucky omen to a bride who was to be married on the succeeding day. "'In Cornwall,' says Hunt, 'those little gatherings which come on children's eyelids, locally called "whilks," and also "warts," are cured by passing the tail of a black cat nine times over the place. If a ram cat, the cure is more certain. In Ireland it is considered highly unlucky.'"[D] [D] Mr. T. F. Thiselton Dyer's "English Folk-lore." Sailors are very superstitious as regards cats. If a black cat comes on board, it is a presage of disaster; if the ship's cat is more lively than ordinary, it is a sign of wind; but if the cat is accidentally drowned, then there is consternation, which does not wear off until the vessel is safe in harbour. Lady Wilde, in her "Irish Legends," gives a cat story quite of the fairy type, and well in keeping with many of witchcraft and sorcery. "One dark, cold night, as an old woman was spinning, there came three taps at her door, and not until after the last did she open it, when a pleading voice said: 'Let me in, let me in,' and a handsome black cat, with a white breast, and two white kittens, entered. The old woman spun on, and the cats purred loudly, till the mother puss warned her that it was very late, that they wanted some milk, and that the fairies wanted her room that night to dance and sup in. The milk was given, the cats thanked her, and said they would not forget her kindness; but, ere they vanished up the chimney, they left her a great silver coin, and the fairies had their ball untroubled by the old woman's presence, for the pussy's warning was a gentle hint." If a kitten comes to a house in the morning, it is lucky; if in the evening, it portends evil of some kind, unless it stays to prevent it. A cat's hair is said to be indigestible, and if one is swallowed death will ensue (Northern). Milton, in his "Astrologaster," p. 48, tells us: "That when the cat washes her face over her eares we shall have great store of raine." Lord Westmoreland, in a poem "To a cat bore me company in confinement," says: ----Scratch but thine ear, Then boldly tell what weather's drawing near. The cat sneezing appears to be a lucky omen to a bride. It was a vulgar notion that cats, when hungry, would eat coals; and even to this day, in some parts there is a doubt about it. In "The Tamer Tamed, or, Woman's Pride," Izamo says to Moroso, "I'd learn to eat coals with a hungry cat"; and in "Boduca," the first daughter says, "They are cowards; eat coals like compelled cats." "The crying of cats, ospreys, ravens, or other birds upon the tops of houses in the night time are observed by the vulgar to presignify death to the sick."--Brand. There is also a superstition that cats will suck the breath of infants. Nothing could be more ridiculous. The formation of the cat's mouth is not well adapted for such action, the under jaw being shorter than the upper, which is one reason why it _laps_ fluids instead of drinking. Cats will creep into cradles, but for no other purpose than that of sleep, the bed and clothes being warm and soft, and of course comfortable; yet instead of doing harm, they help to keep the child's temperature more even in cold weather. Of course, if they lie on the infant, it is a different matter. WEATHER NOTIONS. "Signs of Foul Weather," by Dr. Erasmus Darwin. In a poem, the well-known relative of the eminent Charles Darwin describes the various natural indications of coming storms. Among the animals and birds he notes the cat: Low o'er the grass the swallow wings; The cricket, too, how sharp he sings; Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws, Sits wiping o'er his whiskered jaws. "In England," says Mr. T. F. Thiselton Dyer, "the superstitious still hold the cat in high esteem, and oftentimes, when observing the weather, attribute much importance to its various movements. Thus, according to some, when they sneeze it is a sign of rain; and Herrick, in his 'Hesperides,' tells us how: True calendars as pusses eare, Wash't o're to tell what change is neare. "It is a common notion that when a cat scratches the legs of a table, it is a prognostic of change of weather. John Swan, in his 'Speculum Mundi' (Cambridge, 1643), writing of the cat, says: 'She useth therefore to wash her face with her feet, which she licketh and moisteneth with her tongue; and it is observed by some that if she put her feet beyond the crown of her head in this kind of washing, it is a signe of rain.' Indeed, in the eyes of the superstitious, there is scarcely a movement of the cat which is not supposed to have some significance. "Cats are exceedingly fond of valerian (_V. officinalis_), and in Topsell's 'Four-footed Beasts' (1658, p. 81), we find the following curious remarks: 'The root of the herb valerian (called _Phu_), is very like to the eye of a cat, and wheresoever it groweth, if cats come thereunto, they instantly dig it up for the love thereof, as I myself have seen in mine own garden, for it smelleth moreover like a cat.' There is also an English rhyme on the plant _marum_ to the following effect: If you see it, The cats will eat it; If you sow it, The cats will know it. "In Suffolk, cats' eyes are supposed to dilate and contract with the flow and ebb of the tide. In Lancashire the common people have an idea that those who play much with cats never have good health."[E] [E] Mr. T. F. Thiselton Dyer's "English Folk-lore." If tincture of valerian is sprinkled on a plant or bush the neighbouring cats roll and rub themselves on or against it, often biting and scratching the plant to pieces.--H. W. In Lancashire it is regarded as unlucky to allow a cat to die in a house. Hence,[F] when they are ill they are usually drowned. [F] Harland and Wilkinson, "Lancashire Folk-lore," p. 141. At Christ Church, Spitalfields, there is a benefaction for the widows of weavers under certain restrictions, called "cat and dog money." There is a tradition in the parish that money was given in the first instance to cats and dogs.[G] [G] Edwards's "Old English Customs," p. 54. If a cat tears at the cushions, carpet, and other articles of furniture with its claws, it is considered a sign of wind. Hence the saying, "the cat is raising the wind." Mr. Park's note in his copy of Bourn and Brand's "Popular Antiquities," p. 92, says: "Cats sitting with their tails to the fire, or washing with their paws behind their ears, are said to foretell a change of weather." In Pules' play of "The Novice" is the line: Ere Gil, our cat, can lick her ear. This is from Brand, and I do not think it refers to the weather, but to an impossibility. A CAT-CLOCK. The following curious incident is to be found in Huc's "Chinese Empire": "One day, when we went to pay a visit to some families of Chinese Christian peasants, we met, near a farm, a young lad, who was taking a buffalo to graze along our path. We asked him carelessly as we passed whether it was yet noon. The child raised his head to look at the sun, but it was hidden behind thick clouds, and he could read no answer there. 'The sky is so cloudy,' said he; 'but wait a moment;' and with these words he ran towards the farm, and came back a few minutes afterwards with a cat in his arms. 'Look here,' said he, 'it is not noon yet;' and he showed us the cat's eyes by pushing up the lids with his hands. We looked at the child with surprise; but he was evidently in earnest, and the cat, though astonished, and not much pleased at the experiment made on her eyes, behaved with most exemplary complaisance. 'Very well,' said we, 'thank you;' and he then let go the cat, who made her escape pretty quickly, and we continued our route. To say the truth, we had not at all understood the proceeding, but did not wish to question the little pagan, lest he should find out that we were Europeans by our ignorance. As soon as we reached the farm, however, we made haste to ask our Christians whether they could tell the clock by looking into the cat's eyes. They seemed surprised at the question, but as there was no danger in confessing to them our ignorance of the properties of the cat's eyes, we related what had just taken place. That was all that was necessary; our complaisant neophytes immediately gave chase to all the cats in the neighbourhood. They brought us three or four, and explained in what manner they might be made use of for watches. They pointed out that the pupils of their eyes went on constantly growing narrower until twelve o'clock, when they became like a fine line, as thin as a hair, drawn perpendicularly across the eye, and that after twelve the dilatation recommenced." * * * * * "Archbishop Whately once declared that there was only one noun in English which had a real vocative case. It was 'cat,' vocative 'puss.' I wonder if this derivation is true (I take it from a New York journal): When the Egyptians of old worshipped the cat they settled it that she was like the moon, because she was more bright at night, and because her eyes changed just as the moon changes--from new, to crescent, and to full. So they made an idol of the cat's head, and named it _pasht_, which meant the face of the moon. _Pasht_ became pas, pus, puss."--_Church Times_, March 8th, 1888. "PUSS IN BOOTS" (_Le Chat Botté_) Is from the "Eleventh Night" of Straparola's Italian fairy tales, where Constantine's cat procures his master a fine castle and the king's heiress, first translated into French in 1585. Our version is taken from that of Charles Perrault. There is a similar one in the Scandinavian nursery tales. This clever cat secures a fortune and a royal partner for his master, who passes off as the Marquis of Carabas, but is in reality a young miller, without a penny in the world. The above is from Dr. Brewer's "Dictionary of Phrase and Fable," and goes far to prove the antiquity of what is generally believed to be a modern story, many believing it to be one of the numberless pleasant, amusing, and in a sense instructive nursery or children's stories of the present time. SIGNS. D'Urfey, in his poem on Knole, speaks of "The Cats" at Sevenoaks. "The Cat" or "Cats" is by no means a common sign. The subject is well alluded to in "The Cat, Past and Present," from the French of M. Champfleury, translated by Mrs. Cashel Hoey, at page 33. A sign is pictured from the Lombards' quarter, Paris. It is there over a confectioner's shop, and is a cat seated, or rather two, a sign being placed on either side of the corner. Underneath one is "Au Chat," the other, "Noir." I may add the work is a most excellent and amusing collection of much appertaining to cats, and is well worthy of a place in the cat-lover's library. In Larwood and Hotten's "History of Sign-boards," a work of much research and merit, occurs the following: "As I was going through a street of London where I had never been till then, I felt a general damp and faintness all over me which I could not tell how to account for, till I chanced to cast my eyes upwards, and found I was passing under a sign-post on which the picture of a _cat_ was hung." This little incident of the cat-hater, told in No. 538 of _The Spectator_, is a proof of the presence of cats on the sign-board, where, indeed, they are still to be met with, but very rarely. There is a sign of "The Cat" at Egremont, in Cumberland, a "Black Cat" at St. Leonard's Gate, Lancaster, and a "Red Cat" at Birkenhead; and a "Red Cat" in the Hague, Holland, to which is attached an amusing story worthy of perusal. "The Cat and Parrot" and "The Cat and Lion" apparently have no direct meaning, unless by the former may be inferred that if you lap like a cat of the liquids sold at the hostelry, you will talk like a parrot; yet, according to Larwood and Hotten, it was a bookseller's sign. "The Cat and Cage" and "The Cat in Basket" were signs much in vogue during the frost fair on the Thames in 1739-40, a live cat being hung outside some of the booths, which afterwards was not infrequent at other festive meetings. What the exact origin was is not quite apparent. "'Cat and Fiddle,' a public-house sign, is a corruption either of the French _Catherine la fidèle_, wife of Czar Peter the Great of Russia, or of _Caton le fidèle_, meaning Caton, governor of Calais."--DR. BREWER'S _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable_. * * * * * _Cat and Fiddle._--"While on the subject of sign-boards," says a writer in Cassell's "Old and New London," vol. i., p. 507, "we may state that Piccadilly was the place in which 'The Cat and Fiddle' first appeared as a public-house sign. The story is that a Frenchwoman, a small shopkeeper at the eastern end soon after it was built, had a very faithful and favourite cat, and that in the lack of any other sign she put over her door the words, 'Voici un Chat fidèle.' From some cause or other the 'Chat fidèle' soon became a popular sign in France, and was speedily Anglicised into 'The Cat and Fiddle,' because the words form part of one of our most popular nursery rhymes. We do not pledge ourselves as to the accuracy of this definition." "In Farringdon (Devon) is the sign of 'La Chatte Fidèle,' in commemoration of a faithful cat. Without scanning the phrase too nicely, it may simply indicate that the game of _cat_ (trap-ball) and a _fiddle_ for dancing are provided for customers." Yet, according to Larwood and Hotten's "History of Sign-boards," there is yet another version, and another, of the matter, for it is stated, "a little hidden meaning is there in the 'Cat and Fiddle,' still a great favourite in Hampshire, the only connection between the animal and the instrument being that the strings are made from cats' entrails (_sic_), and that a small fiddle is called a _kit_, and a small cat a _kitten_; besides, they have been united from time immemorial in the nursery rhyme: Heigh diddle diddle, The Cat and the fiddle." Amongst the other explanations offered is the one that it may have originated with the sign of a certain _Caton Fidèle_, a staunch Protestant in the reign of Queen Mary, and only have been changed into the cat and fiddle by corruption; but if so it must have lost its original appellation very soon, for as early as 1589 we find "Henry Carr, signe of the _Catte and Fidle_ in the olde Chaunge." Formerly there was a "_Cat and Fiddle_ at Norwich, the Cat being represented playing on a fiddle, and a number of mice dancing round her." _Cat and Bagpipes._--Was not uncommon in Ireland, this instrument being the national one in place of the fiddle. When doctors disagree, who shall decide? Thus I leave it. _Cat and Mutton_, from Cassell's "Old and New London," vol. iv., p. 223: "Near the Imperial Gas Works, Haggerston, is Goldsmith's row; this was formerly known as Mutton Lane, a name still given to that part of the thoroughfare bordering on the southern extremity of London Fields, where stands a noted public-house rejoicing in the sign of the 'Cat and Mutton' affixed to the house, and _two_ sign-boards, which are rather curious. They have upon them the following doggerel lines: Pray Puss do not tare, Because the Mutton is so rare. Pray Puss do not claw, Because the Mutton is so raw. _Cat and Wheel._--Most likely to be a corruption of Catherine Wheel; there was a sign of this name in the Borough, Southwark. In France some signs are still more peculiar, as a "Cat Playing at Raquet" (_Chatte qui pelote_), "Fishing Cat" (_La Chatte qui pêche_), "The Dancing Cat," and the well-known "Puss in Boots." "Whittington and his Cat" is by no means uncommon, and was not unknown in the early part of the seventeenth century. Somewhere I remember having seen "Whittington's Cat" without the master, which, I suppose, arose from the painter not knowing how to portray "Sir Richard." "_Cat and Kittens._--A public-house sign, alluding to the pewter pots so called. Stealing these pots is termed 'Cat and kitten sneaking.' We still call a large kettle a _kitchen_, and speak of a soldier's _kit_ (Saxon, _cytel_, a pot, pan, or vessel generally)."--BREWER'S _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable_. May not this sign be intended to mean merely what is shown, "The Cat and Kittens," indicative of comfort and rest? Or may it have been "Cat and _Chitterlings_," in allusion to the source from which fiddlestrings were said to be derived? _Cat and Tortoise._--This seems to have no meaning other than at a tavern extremes meet, the fast and the slow, the lively and the stolid; or it is possibly a corruption of something widely different. THE LAW ON CAT KILLING. An "Articled Clerk," writing to _The Standard_ with regard to the illegality of killing cats, states: "It is clearly laid down in 'Addison on Torts,' that a person is not justified in killing his neighbour's cat, or dog, which he finds on his land, unless the animal is in the act of doing some injurious act which can only be prevented by its slaughter. "And it has been decided by the case of 'Townsend v. Watken' 9 last 277, that if a person sets on his lands a trap for foxes, and baits it with such strong-smelling meat as to attract his neighbour's dog or cat on to his land, to the trap, and such animal is thereby killed or injured, he is liable for the act, though he had no intention of doing it, and though the animal ought not to have been on his land." DEAD CATS. Lifeless cats have been from time immemorial suggestive of foolish hoaxing, a parcel being made up, or a basket with the legs of a hare projecting, directed to some one at a distance, and on which the charge for carriage comes to a considerable sum, the _fortunate_ recipient ultimately, to his great annoyance, finding "his present" was nothing else but "a dead cat." Dead cats, which not infrequently were cast into the streets, or accidentally killed there, were sometimes used as objects of sport by the silly, low-minded, and vulgar, and it was thought a "clever thing" if they could deposit such in a drawing-room through an open window, or pitch the unfortunate animal, often crushed and dirty, into a passing carriage; but "the time of times" when it was considered to be a legitimate object to use was that of either a borough or county election, cats and rotten eggs forming the material with which the assault was conducted in the event of an unpopular candidate for honours attempting to give his political views to a depreciatory mob surrounding the hustings. An anecdote is recorded in Grose's "Olio" of Mr. Fox, who, in 1784, was a candidate for Westminster, which goes far to show what dirty, degrading, disgusting indignities the would-be "_people's_ representative" had to endure at that period, and with what good humour such favours of popular appreciation, or otherwise, were received: "During the poll, a dead cat being thrown on the hustings, one of Sir Cecil Wray's party observed it stunk worse than _a fox_; to which Mr. Fox replied there was nothing extraordinary in that, considering it was a 'poll cat.'" This is by no means the only ready and witty answer that has been attributed to Mr. Fox, though not bearing on the present subject. [Illustration] THE CAT AS A TORMENTOR. Shakespeare, in "Lucrece," says: "Yet foul night-waking cat, he doth but dally, While in his holdfast foot the weak mouse panteth." In an essay on "The Art of Ingeniously Tormenting" (1753), the cat is alluded to in the frontispiece--a cat at play with a mouse, below which is the couplet: The cat doth play, And after slay. _Child's Guide_. Giovanni Batista Casti, in his book, "Tre Giuli" (1762), likens the cat to one who lends money, and suddenly pounces on the debtor: Thus sometimes with a mouse, ere nip, The cat will on her hapless victim smile, Until at length she gives the fatal grip. Again, John Philips, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, in his poem of "The Splendid Shilling," referring to debtors, writes: Grimalkin to Domestick Vermin sworn An everlasting Foe, with watchful Eye Lies nightly brooding o'er a chinky Gap Protending her fell Claws, to thoughtless Mice Sure Ruin. HERALDRY, ETC. A cat (hieroglyphically) represents false friendship, or a deceitful, flattering friend. The cat (in heraldry) is an emblem of liberty, because it naturally dislikes to be shut up, and therefore the Burgundians, etc., bore a cat on their banners to intimate they could not endure servitude. "It is a bold and daring creature and also cruel to its enemy, and never gives over till it has destroyed it, if possible. It is also watchful, dexterous, swift, pliable, and has good nerves--thus, if it falls from a place never so high, it still alights on its feet; and therefore may denote those who have much forethought, that whatsoever befalls them they are still on their guard." "In coat armour they must always be represented as full-faced, and not showing one side of it, but both their eyes and both their ears. _Argent_ three cats in pale _sable_ is the coat of the family of Keat of Devonshire." Many families have adopted the cat as their emblem. In "Cats, Past and Present," several are noted. In Scotland, the Clan Chattan bore as their chief cognizance the wild cat, and called their chief "Mohr au Chat," the great wild cat. Nor is the name uncommon as an English surname, frequently appearing as Cat, Catt, Catte; but the most strange association of the name with the calling was one I knew in my old sporting days of a _gamekeeper_ whose name was Cat. PERFORMING CATS. Cats, unlike dogs, are not amused by, nor do they in any way take an interest in what are termed "tricks." Performing dogs will sit about their master watching anxiously for their turn, and they have been known on more than one occasion to slip before the dog that has next jump through the hoop or over a stick, barking merrily, exulting in having excelled the other; generally they await with intense eagerness the agility of the others and strenuously try to surpass them. Possibly this is so from the long time the dog has been under the dominion of man, and _taught_ by him how to be of service, either in _hunting_, _sporting_, _shepherding_, _watching_; in a sense his friend, though more his bond or slave, even to dragging carts, waggons, and sleighs, to fetch and carry, even to smuggle. _Long teaching_, _persistent teaching from time immemorial_ has undoubtedly had its due effect, and in some instances, if not all, has been _transmitted_, such as in the pointer and setter, which particular sections have been known to require little or no present training, taking to their duties naturally, receiving but little guidance as to how much, when, and where such instinctive qualities are required. With the cat it is widely different. Beyond being the "necessary" cat, the pet cat or kitten, it never has been an object of interest, beyond that of keeping from increase those veritable plagues, rats and mice; the enormous use it has thus been to man has had but scant acknowledgment, never thoroughly appreciated, vastly underrated, with but little attention not only to its beauty, nor in modifying its nature to the actual _requirements_ of civilisation. The cat through long ages has had, as it were, to shift for itself; with the _few_ approved, with the _many_ not only neglected, but in bygone days, and with some even in the present, it has been, and is looked on as a thing that is not to be cared for, or domesticated, but often absolutely ill-treated, not because there has been wrong done, but because it is _a cat_. I heard a man of "gentle blood" once say that there was no good in a cat, and the only use they were, as far as _he_ could see, was as an animal to try the courage of his terriers upon. Happily all are not alike, and so the cat survives, and by the present generation is petted and noticed with a growing interest. Though long closely connected with man in many ways, still, as I have before said, it has been left to itself to a certain degree. In no way, or but slightly, has it been guided; and thus, as a domestic animal, it has become what it is--one repelling most attempts to make it of the same kind of value as the dog; its great powers of observation, coupled with timidity, make a barrier to its being trained into that which its nature dislikes; and its natural and acquired repugnance to confinement and tuition prevent it--at least at present--from being "the humble servant," as the dog, "past and present," has been and is. Studying closely the habits of the cat for years, as I have, I believe there is a natural sullen antipathy to being taught or restrained, or _made_ to do anything to which its nature or feelings are averse; and this arises from long-continued persecution and no training. Try, for instance, to make a cat lie still if it wants to go out. You may hold it at first, then gently relinquish your grasp, stroke it, talk to it, fondle it, until it purrs, and purrs with seeming pleasure, but it _never once forgets it is restrained_, and _the first_ opportunity it will make a sudden dash, and is--gone. However, all animals, more or less, may be trained, and the cat, of course, is among them, and a notable one. By bringing them up among birds, such as canaries, pigeons, chickens, and ducklings, it will respect and not touch them, while those wild will be immediately sacrificed. One of the best instances of this was a small collection of animals and birds in a large cage that used to be shown by a man by the name of Austin, and to which I have already referred. This man was a lover and trainer of animal life, and an adept. His "Happy Family" generally consisted of a cat or two, some kittens, rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, an owl, a kestrel falcon, starlings, goldfinches, canaries, etc.--a most incongruous assembly. Yet among them all there was a _freedom of action_, a self-reliance, and an air of happiness that I have never seen in "performing cats." Mr. Austin informed me that he had been a number of years studying their different natures, but that he found the cats the most difficult to deal with, only the most gentle treatment accomplishing the object he had in view. Any fresh introduction had to be done by degrees, and shown outside first for some time. It was quite apparent, however, that the cats were _quite at their ease_, and I have seen a canary sitting on the head of the cat, while a starling was resting on the back. But all are gone--Austin and his pets--and no other reigns in his stead. Occasionally one sees, at the corners of some of the London streets, a man who professes to have _trained_ cats and birds; the latter, certainly, are clever, but the former have a frightened, scared look, and seem by no means comfortable. I should say the tuition was on different lines to that of Austin. The man takes a canary, opens a cat's mouth, puts it in, takes it out, _makes_ the cat, or cats, go up a short ladder and down another; then they are _told_ to fight, and placed in front of each other; but fight they will not with their fore-paws, so the _master_ moves their paws for them, _each looking away_ from the other. There is no training in this but _fear_. There is an innate timidity, the offspring of long persecution, in the cat that prevents, as a rule, its performing in public. Not so the dog; time and place matter not to him; from generation to generation he _has been used to it_. In "Cats Past and Present," by Champfleury, there are descriptions of performing cats, and one Valmont de Bomare mentions that in a booth at the fair of St. Germain's, during the eighteenth century, there was a cat concert, the word "Miaulique," in huge letters, being on the outside. In 1789 there is an account of a Venetian giving cat concerts, and the facsimile of a print of the seventeenth century picturing a cat showman. "In 1758, or the following year, Bisset, the famous animal trainer, hired a room near the Haymarket, at which he announced a public performance of a 'CATS' OPERA,' supplemented by tricks of a horse, a dog, and some monkeys, etc. The 'Cats' Opera' was attended by crowded houses, and Bisset cleared a thousand pounds in a few days. After a successful season in London, he sold some of the animals, and made a provincial tour with the rest, rapidly accumulating a considerable fortune."--MR. FROST'S _Old Showman_. "Many years ago a concert was given at Paris, wherein cats were the performers. They were placed in rows, and a monkey beat time to them. According as he beat the time so the cats mewed; and the historian of the FACT relates that the diversity of the tones which they emitted produced a very ludicrous effect. This exhibition was announced to the Parisian public by the title of _Concert Miaulant."--Zoological Anecdotes._ Another specimen of _discipline_ is to be found in "Menageries." The writer says: "Cats may be taught to perform tricks, such as leaping over a stick, but they always do such feats unwillingly. There is at present an exhibition of cats in Regent Street, who, at the bidding of their master, an Italian, turn a wheel and draw up water in a bucket, ring a bell; and in doing these things begin, continue, and stop as they are commanded. But the _commencez_, _continuez_, _arrêtez_ of their keeper is always enforced with a threatening eye, and often with a severe blow; and the poor creatures exhibit the greatest reluctance to proceed with their unnatural employments. They have a subdued and piteous look; but the scratches upon their master's arms show that _his_ task is not always an easy one." [Illustration] Of performing cats on the stage, there have been several "companies" of late in London, one of which I went to see at the royal Aquarium, Westminster; and I am bound to say that the relations between master and cats were on a better footing than any that have hitherto come under my notice. On each side of the stage there were cat kennels, from which the cats made their appearance on a given signal, ran across, on or over whatever was placed between, and disappeared quickly into the opposite kennels. But about it all there was a decided air of _timidity_, and an eagerness to _get the performance over_, and _done with it_. When the cats came out they were caressed and encouraged, which seemed to have a soothing effect, and I have a strong apprehension that they received some dainty morsel when they reached their destination. One ran up a pole at command, over which there was a cap at the top, into which it disappeared for a few seconds, evidently for some reason, food _perhaps_. It then descended. But before this supreme act several cats had crossed a bridge of chairs, stepping only on the backs, until they reached the opposite house or box into which to retire. The process was repeated, and the performance varied by two cats crossing the bridge together, one passing over and the other under the horizontal rung between the seat and the top of the chair. A long plank was next produced, upon which was placed a row of wine-bottles at intervals; and the cats ran along the plank, winding in and out between the bottles, first to the right, then to the left, without making a mistake. This part of the performance was varied by placing on the top of each bottle a flat disc of thick wood; one of the cats strode then from disc to disc, without displacing or upsetting a bottle, while the other animal repeated its serpentine walk on the plank below. The plank being removed, a number of trestles were brought in, and placed at intervals in a row between the two sets of houses, when the cats, on being called, jumped from trestle to trestle, varying the feat by leaping through a hoop, which was held up by the trainer between the trestles. To this succeeded a performance on the tight rope, which was not the least curious part of the exhibition. A rope being stretched across the arena from house to house, the cats walked across in turn, without making a mistake. Some white rats were then brought and placed at intervals along the rope, when the cats, re-crossing from one end to the other, strode over the rats without injuring them. A repetition of this feat was rendered a little more difficult by substituting for rats, which sat pretty quietly in one place, several white mice and small birds, which were more restless, and kept changing their positions. The cats re-crossed the rope, and passed over all these obstacles without even noticing the impediments placed in their way, with one or two exceptions, when they stopped, and cosseted one or more of the white rats, two of which rode triumphantly on the back of a large black cat. Perhaps the most odd performance was that of "Cat Harris," an imitator of the voice of cats in 1747. "When Foote first opened the Haymarket Theatre, amongst other projects he proposed to entertain the public with imitation of cat-music. For this purpose he engaged a man famous for his skill in mimicking the mewing of the cat. This person was called 'Cat Harris.' As he did not attend the rehearsal of this odd concert, Foote desired Shuter would endeavour to find him out and bring him with him. Shuter was directed to some court in the Minories, where this extraordinary musician lived; but, not being able to find the house, Shuter began a cat solo; upon this the other looked out of the window, and answered him with a cantata of the same sort. 'Come along,' said Shuter; 'I want no better information that you are the man. Foote stays for us; we cannot begin the cat-opera without you.'"--CASSELL'S _Old and New London_, vol. iv. [Illustration] CAT-RACING IN BELGIUM. "On festival days, parties of young men assemble in various places to shoot with cross-bows and muskets, and prizes of considerable value are often distributed to the winners. Then there are pigeon-clubs and canary-clubs, for granting rewards to the trainers of the fleetest carrier-pigeons and best warbling canaries. Of these clubs many individuals of high rank are the honorary presidents, and even royal princes deign to present them banners, without which no Belgian club can lay claim to any degree of importance." But the most curious thing is cat-racing, which takes place, according to an engraving, in the public thoroughfare, the cats being turned loose at a given time. It is thus described: "Cat-racing is a sport which stands high in popular favour. In one of the suburbs of Liège it is an affair of annual observance during carnival time. Numerous individuals of the feline tribe are collected, each having round his neck a collar with a seal attached to it, precisely like those of the carrier-pigeons. The cats are tied up in sacks, and as soon as the clock strikes the solemn hour of midnight the sacks are unfastened, the cats let loose, and the race begins. The winner is the cat which first reaches home, and the prize awarded to its owner is sometimes a ham, sometimes a silver spoon. On the occasion of the last competition the prize was won by a blind cat."--_Pictorial Times_, June 16th, 1860. [Illustration] CAT IMAGES. Those with long memories will not have forgotten the Italian with a board on his head, on which were tied a number of plaster casts, and possibly still seem to hear, in the far away time, the unforgotten cry of "Yah im-a-gees." Notably, among these works of art, were models of cats--such cats, such expressive faces; and what forms! How droll, too, were those with a moving head, wagging and nodding, as it were, with a grave and thoughtful, semi-reproachful, vacant gaze! "Yah im-a-gees" has passed on, and the country pedlar, with his "crockery" cats, mostly red and white. "Sure such cats alive were never seen?" but in burnt clay they existed, and often _adorned_ the mantel-shelves of the poor. What must the live cat sitting before the fire have thought--if cats think--when it looked up at the stolid, staring, stiff and stark new-comer? One never sees these things now; nor the cats made of paste-board covered with black velvet, and two large brass spangles for eyes. These were put into dark corners with an idea of deception, with the imbecile hope that visitors would take them to be real flesh and bone everyday black cats. But was any one ever taken in but--the maker? Then there were cats, and cats and kittens, made of silk, for selling at fancy fairs, not much like cats, but for the _purposes_ good. Cats sitting on pen-wipers; clay cats of burnt brick-earth. These were generally something to remember rather than possess. Wax cats also, with a cotton wick coming out at the top of the head. It was a saddening sight to see these _beauties_ burning slowly away. Was this a "remnant" of the burning of the live cats in the "good old times?" And cats made of rabbits' skins were not uncommon, and far better to give children to play with than the tiny, lovable, patient, live kitten, which, if it submit to be tortured, it is well, but if it resent pain and suffering, then it is beaten. There is more ill done "from want of thought than want of heart." But kittens have fallen upon evil times, ay, even in these days of education and enlightenment. As long as the world lasts probably there will be the foolish, the gay, unthinking, and, in tastes, the ridiculous. But then there are, and there ever will be, those that are always craving, thirsting, longing, shall I say _mad_?--for something _new_. Light-headed, with softened intellects who must--_they_ say _they must_--have some excitement or some novelty, no matter what, to talk of or possess, though all this is ephemeral, and the silliness only lasts a few hours. Long or short, they are never conscious of these absurdities, and look forward with all the eagerness of doll-pleased infancy for another--craze. The world is being denuded of some of its brightest ornaments and its heaven-taught music, in the slaughter of birds, to gratify for scarcely a few hours the insane vanity, that is now rife in the ball-room--fashion. What has all this to do with cats? Why, this class of people are not content, they never are so; but are adding to the evil by piling up a fresh one. It is the kitten now, the small, about two or three weeks old kitten that is the "fashion." Not long ago they were killed and stuffed for children to play with--better so than alive, perhaps; but now they are to please children of a larger _growth_, their tightly filled skins, adorned with glass eyes, being put in sportive attitudes about portrait frames, and such like uses. It is comical, and were it not for the stupid bad taste and absurdity of the thing, one would feel inclined to laugh at _clambering_ kitten skins about, and supposed to be peeping into the face of a languor-struck "beauty." Who buys such? Does any one? If so, where do they go? Over thirty kittens in one shop window. What next, and--next? Truly frivolity is not dead! From these, and such as these, turn to the models fair and proper; the china, the porcelain, the terra cotta, the bronze, and the silver, both English, French, German, and Japanese; some exquisite, with all the character, elegance, and grace of the living animals. In these there has been a great advance of late years, Miss A. Chaplin taking the lead. Then in bold point tracery on pottery Miss Barlow tells of the animal's flowing lines and non-angular posing. Art--true art--all of it; and art to be coveted by the lover of cats, or for art alone. But I have almost forgotten the old-time custom of, when the young ladies came from school, bringing home a "sampler," in the days before linen stamping was known or thought of. On these in needlework were alphabets, numbers, trees (such trees), dogs, and cats. Then, too, there were cats of silk and satin, in needlework, and cats in various materials; but the most curious among the young people's accomplishments was the making of tortoiseshell cats from a snail-shell, with a smaller one for a head, with either wax or bread ears, fore-legs and tail, and yellow or green beads for eyes. Droll-looking things--very. I give a drawing of one. And last, not least often, the edible cats--cats made of cheese, cats of sweet sponge-cake, cats of sugar, and once I saw a cat of jelly. In the old times of country pleasure fairs, when every one brought home gingerbread nuts and cakes as "a fairing," the gingerbread "cat in boots" was not forgotten nor left unappreciated; generally fairly good in form, and gilt over with Dutch metal, it occupied a place of honour in many a country cottage home, and, for the matter of that, also in the busy town. If good gingerbread, it was saved for many a day, or until the holiday time was ended and feasting over, and the next fair talked of. But, after all "said and done," what a little respect, regard, and reverence is there in our mode to that of the Egyptians! They had three varieties of cats, but they were all the same to them; as their pets, as useful, beautiful, and typical, they were individually and nationally regarded, their bodies embalmed, and verses chaunted in their praise; and the image of the cat then--a thousand years ago--was a deity. What do they think of the cat now, these same though modern Egyptians? Scarcely anything. And we, who in bygone ages persecuted it, to-day give it a growing recognition as an animal both useful, beautiful, and worthy of culture. [Illustration] [Illustration] LOVERS OF CATS. "The Turks greatly admire Cats; to them, their alluring Figure appears preferable to the Docility, Instinct, and Fidelity of the Dog. Mahomet was very partial to Cats. It is related, that being called up on some urgent Business, he preferred _cutting off_ the Sleeve of his Robe, to _waking_ the Cat, that lay upon it _asleep_. Nothing more was necessary, to bring these Animals into high Request. A Cat may even enter a Mosque; it is caressed there, as the Favourite Animal of the Prophet; while the Dog, that should dare appear in the Temples, would _pollute_ them with his Presence, and would be punished with instant _Death_."[H] [H] Daniel's "Rural Sports," 1813. I am indebted to the Rev. T. G. Gardner, of St. Paul's Cray, for the following from the French: "A recluse, in the time of Gregory the Great, had it revealed to him in a vision that in the world to come he should have equal share of beatitude with that Pontiff; but this scarcely contented him, and he thought some compensation was his due, inasmuch as the Pope enjoyed immense wealth in this present life, and he himself had nothing he could call his own save one pet cat. But in another vision he was censured; his worldly detachment was not so entire as he imagined, and that Gregory would with far greater equanimity part with his vast treasures than he could part with his beloved puss." CATS ENDOWED BY LA BELLE STEWART.--One of the chief ornaments of the Court of St. James', in the reign of Charles II., was "La Belle Stewart," afterwards the Duchess of Richmond, to whom Pope alluded as the "Duchess of R." in the well-known line: Die and endow a college or a cat. The endowment satirised by Pope has been favourably explained by Warton. She left annuities to several female friends, with the burden of maintaining some of her cats--a delicate way of providing for poor and probably proud gentlewomen, without making them feel that they owed their livelihood to her mere liberality. But possibly there may have been a kindliness of thought for both, deeming that those who were dear friends would be most likely to attend to her wishes. Mr. Samuel Pepys had at least a gentle nature as regards animals, if he was not a lover of cats, for in his Diary occurs this note as to the Fire of London, 1666: "_September 5th._--Thence homeward having passed through Cheapside and Newgate Market, all burned; and seen Antony Joyce's house on fire. And took up (which I keep by me) a piece of glass of Mercer's chapel in the street, where much more was, so melted and buckled with the heat of the fire like parchment. I did also see a poor cat taken out of a hole in a chimney, joining the wall of the Exchange, with the hair all burned off its body and yet alive." Dr. Jortin wrote a Latin epitaph on a favourite cat:[I] [I] Hone's "Every-day Book," vol. i. IMITATED IN ENGLISH. "Worn out with age and dire disease, a cat, Friendly to all, save wicked mouse and rat, I'm sent at last to ford the Stygian lake, And to the infernal coast a voyage make. Me _Proserpine_ receiv'd, and smiling said, 'Be bless'd within these mansions of the dead. Enjoy among thy velvet-footed loves, Elysian's sunny banks and shady groves.' 'But if I've well deserv'd (O gracious queen), If patient under sufferings I have been, Grant me at least one night to visit home again, Once more to see my home and mistress dear, And purr these grateful accents in her ear: "Thy faithful cat, thy poor departed slave, Still loves her mistress, e'en beyond the grave."'" "Dr. Barker kept a Seraglio and Colony of Cats. It happened, that at the Coronation of George I. the Chair of State fell to his Share of the Spoil (as Prebendary of Westminster) which he sold to some Foreigner; when they packed it up, one of his favourite Cats was inclosed along with it; but the Doctor pursued his treasure in a boat to Gravesend and recovered her safe. When the Doctor was disgusted with the _Ministry_, he gave his _Female_ Cats, the Names of the _Chief Ladies_ about the Court; and the _Male-ones_, those of the _Men in Power_, adorning them with the Blue, Red, or Green Insignia of Ribbons, which the Persons they represented, wore."[J] [J] Daniel's "Rural Sports," 1813. Daniel, in his "Rural Sports," 1813, mentions the fact that, "In one of the Ships of the Fleet, that sailed lately from Falmouth, for the West Indies, went as Passengers a Lady and her _seven Lap-dogs_, for the Passage of _each_ of which, she paid _Thirty Pounds_, on the express Condition, that they were to _dine_ at the Cabin-table, and lap their _Wine_ afterwards. Yet these happy dogs do not engross the _whole_ of their good Lady's Affection; she has also, in Jamaica, FORTY CATS, and a Husband." "The Partiality to the _domestic_ Cat, has been thus established. Some Years since, a Lady of the name of Greggs, died at an advanced Age, in Southampton Row, London. Her fortune was _Thirty Thousand Pounds_, at the Time of her Decease. _Credite Posteri!_ her _Executors_ found in her House _Eighty-six living_, and _Twenty-eight dead Cats_. Her Mode of Interring them, was, as they died, to place them in different Boxes, which were heaped on one another in Closets, as the _Dead_ are described by Pennant, to be in the Church of St. Giles. She had a black Female Servant--to Her she left One hundred and fifty pounds _per annum_ to keep the _Favourites_, whom she left _alive_."[K] [K] Daniel's "Rural Sports," 1813. The Chantrel family of Rottingdean seem also to be possessed with a similar kind of feeling towards cats, exhibiting no fewer than twenty-one specimens at one Cat Show, which at the time were said to represent only a small portion of their stock; these ultimately became almost too numerous, getting beyond control. _Signor Foli_ is a lover of cats, and has exhibited at the Crystal Palace Cat Show. _Petrarch_ loved his cat almost as much as he loved Laura, and when it died he had it embalmed. _Tasso_ addressed one of his best sonnets to his female cat. _Cardinal Wolsey_ had his cat placed near him on a chair while acting in his judicial capacity. _Sir I. Newton_ was also a lover of cats, and there is a good story told of the philosopher having two holes made in a door for his cat and her kitten to enter by--a _large_ one for the cat, and a _small_ one for the kitten. _Peg Woffington_ came to London at twenty-two years of age. After calling many times unsuccessfully at the house of John Rich, the manager of Covent Garden, she at last sent up her name. She was admitted, and found him lolling on a sofa, surrounded by twenty-seven cats of all ages. The following is from the _Echo_, respecting a lady well known in her profession: "Miss Ellen Terry has a passionate fondness for cats. She will frolic for hours with her feline pets, never tiring of studying their graceful gambols. An author friend of mine told me of once reading a play to her. During the reading she posed on an immense tiger-skin, surrounded by a small army of cats. At first the playful capers of the mistress and her pets were toned down to suit the quiet situations of the play; but as the reading progressed, and the plot approached a climax, the antics of the group became so vigorous and drolly excited that my poor friend closed the MS. in despair, and abandoned himself to the unrestrained expression of his mirth, declaring that if he could write a play to equal the fun of Miss Terry and her cats, his fortune would be made." _Cowper_ loved his pet hares, spaniel, and cat, and wrote the well-known "Cat retired from business." _Gray_ wrote a poem on a cat drowned in a vase which contained gold-fish. _Cardinal Richelieu_ was a lover of the cat. _Montaigne_ had a favourite cat. Among painters, Gottfried Mind was not only fond of cats, but was one of, if not the best at portraying them in action; and in England no one has surpassed Couldery in delineation, nor Miss Chaplin in perfection of modelling. I am the fortunate possessor of several of her models in terra cotta, which, though small, are beautiful in finish. Of one, Miss Chaplin informed me, the details were scratched in with a pin, for want of better and proper tools. GAMES. CAT'S CRADLE OR CATCH CRADLE. Dr. Brewer, in his "Dictionary of Phrase and Fable," thinks this "the corrupt for cratch cradle or manger cradle, in which the infant Saviour was laid. Cratch is the French _crêche_ (a rack or manger), and to the present hour the racks which stand in the fields for cattle to eat from are called _cratches_." Of this, however, I am doubtful, though there is much reason in his suggestion. In Sussex and Kent, when I was a boy, it was commonly played among children, but always called cat's, _catch_, or scratch cradle, and consisted generally of two or more players. A piece of string, being tied at the ends, was placed on the fingers, and crossed and re-crossed to make a sort of cradle; the next player inserted his or her fingers, quickly taking it off; then the first catching it back, then the second again, then the first, as fast as possible, _catching_ and taking off the string. Sometimes the sides were caught by the teeth of the players, one on each side, and as the hands were relaxed the faces were apart, then when drawn out it brought the faces together; the string being let go or not, and caught again as it receded, was according to the will of the players, the catching and letting go affording much merriment. When four or five played, the string rapidly passed from hand to hand until, in the rapidity of the motion, one missed, who then stood out, and so on until only one was left, winning the game of cat's, _catch_, or scratch cradle. It was varied also to single and double cradle, according to the number of crossings of the string. Catch is easily converted into _cat's_, or it might be so called from the _catching_ or clawing at, to get and to hold, the entanglement. CAT-TRAP, BAT, AND BALL.[L] With the form of the trap our readers are, doubtless, acquainted; it will only be necessary for us to give the laws of the game. Two boundaries are equally placed at some distance from the trap, between which it is necessary for the ball to pass when struck by the batsman; if it fall outside either of them he loses his innings. Innings are drawn for, and the player who wins places the ball in the spoon of the trap, touches the trigger with the bat, and, as the ball ascends from the trap, strikes it as far as he can. One of the other players (who may be from two to half-a-dozen) endeavours to catch it. If he do so before it reaches the ground, or hops more than once, or if the striker miss the ball when he aims at it, or hits the trigger more than once without striking the ball, he loses his innings, and the next in order, which must previously be agreed on, takes his place. Should the ball be fairly struck, and not caught, as we have stated, the out-player, into whose hand it comes, bowls it from the place where he picks it up, at the trap, which if he hit, the striker is out; if he miss it the striker counts one towards the game, which may be any number decided on. There is also a practice in some places, when the bowler has sent in the ball, of the striker's guessing the number of bats' lengths it is from the trap; if he guess within the real number he reckons that number toward his game, but if he guess more than there really are he loses his innings. It is not necessary to make the game in one innings. PUSS IN THE CORNER.[L] [L] The Boy's Own Book. This is a very simple, but, at the same time, a very lively and amusing game. It is played by five only; and the place chosen for the sport should be a square court or yard with four corners, or any place where there are four trees or posts, about equidistant from each other, and forming the four points of a square. Each of these points or corners is occupied by a player; the fifth, who is called Puss, stands in the centre. The game now commences; the players exchange corners in all directions; it is the object of the one who stands out to occupy any of the corners which may remain vacant for an instant during the exchanges. When he succeeds in so doing, that player who is left without a corner becomes the puss. It is to be observed, that if A and B attempt to exchange corners, and A gets to B's corner, but B fails to reach A's before the player who stands out gets there, it is B and not A who becomes Puss. CAT AND MOUSE. This is a French sport. The toys with which it is played consist of two flat bits of hard wood, the edges of one of which are notched. The game is played by two only; they are both blindfolded and tied to the ends of a long string, which is fastened in the centre to a post, by a loose knot, so as to play easily in the evolutions made by the players. The party who plays the mouse occasionally scrapes the toys together, and the other, who plays the cat, attracted by the sound, endeavours to catch him. CAT AND MOUSE-HUNTING. The game of "Hunt the Slipper" used frequently to be called "Cat and Mouse-hunting." It is generally played with a slipper, shoe, or even a piece of wood, which was called the mouse, the centre player being the cat, and trying to catch or find the mouse. The "Boy's Own Book" thus describes the game, but _not_ as Cat and Mouse: "Several young persons sit on the ground in a circle, a slipper is given them, and one--who generally volunteers to accept the office in order to begin the game--stands in the centre, and whose business it is to 'chase the slipper by its sound.' The parties who are seated pass it round so as to prevent, if possible, its being found in the possession of any individual. In order that the player in the centre may know where the slipper is, it is occasionally tapped on the ground and then suddenly handed on to right or left. When the slipper is found in the possession of any one in the circle, by the player who is hunting it, the party on whom it is found takes the latter player's place." TIP-CAT. Is a game played with sticks of a certain length and a piece of wood sharpened off at each end, which is called the "cat." A ring is made on the ground with chalk, or the pointed part of the cat, which is then placed in the centre. One end being smartly struck by the player, it springs spinning upwards; as it rises it is again struck, and thus knocked to a considerable distance. It is played in two ways, one being for the antagonist to guess _how many sticks length_ it is off the ring, which is measured, and if right he goes in; or he may elect to pitch the cat, if possible, into the ring, which if he succeeds in doing, he then has the pleasure of knocking the wood called the cat recklessly, he knows not whither, until it alights somewhere, on something or some one. CAT I' THE HOLE.[M] [M] Jamieson's "Scottish Dictionary." The name of a game well known in Fife, and perhaps in other counties. If seven boys are to play, six holes are made at certain distances. Each of the six stands at a hole, with a short stick in his hand; the seventh stands at a certain distance, holding a ball. When he gives the word, or makes the sign agreed upon, all the six must change holes, each running to his neighbour's hole, and putting his stick in the hole which he has newly seized. In making this change, the boy who has the ball tries to put it into the empty hole. If he succeeds in this, the boy who had not his stick (for the stick is the _cat_) in the hole for which he had run is put out, and must take the ball. When the _Cat_ is _in the Hole_, it is against the laws of the game to put the ball into it. NURSERY RHYMES AND STORIES. These are as plentiful as blackberries, and are far too numerous to be treated of here. Some are very old, such as "Puss in Boots," "Whittington and his Cat," "Hey, diddle, diddle!" etc. Some have a political meaning, others satirical, others amusing, funny, or instructive, while a few are unmeaning jangles. "Dame Trot and her Wonderful Cat," "The Cat and the Mouse," and, later, "The White Cat," "The Adventures of Miss Minette Cattina," are familiar to many of the present time. Of the older stories and rhymes there are enough to fill a book; not of or about the cat in particular, possibly; but even that--the old combined with those of modern date--might be done; and for such information and perusal the "Popular Rhymes," by J. O. Halliwell, will be found very interesting, space preventing the subject being amplified here. Nor do they come within the scope and intention for which I have written respecting the cat. FISHING CATS. Having just come across a communication made to _The Kelso Mail_, in 1880, by a correspondent giving the signature of "March Brown," bearing on the subject to which I have already alluded ("Fishing Cats"), I deem it worthy of notice, corroborating, as it does, the statement so often made, and almost as often denied, that cats are adept fishers, not only for food, but likewise for the sport and pleasure they so derive. The writer says that "for several years it has been my happy fortune to fish the lovely Tweed for salmon and trout. From Tweed Well to Coldstream is a long stretch, but I have fished it all, and believe that though other rivers have their special advantages, there is not one in Britain which offers such varied and successful angling as the grand Border stream. Many have been the boatmen whom I have employed whilst fishing for salmon, and all were fairly honest, except in the matter of a little poaching. Some had the complaint more fiercely than others, and some so bad as to be incurable. One of the afflicted (Donald by name) was an excellent boatman by day; as to his nocturnal doings I deemed it best not to inquire, except on those occasions when he needed a holiday to attend a summons with which the police had favoured him. Now any one who has studied the proclivities of poachers, knows that they have wonderful powers over all animals who depend upon them, such as dogs, cats, ferrets, tame badgers, otters, etc., etc. Donald's special favourite was a lady-cat, which followed him in his frequent fishings, and took deep interest in the sport. Near to his cottage on the river-bank was a dam or weir, over which the water trickled here and there a few inches deep. In the evenings of spring and summer Donald was generally to be found fishing upon this favourite stretch with artificial fly for trout, and, being an adept in the art, he seldom fished in vain. Pretty puss always kept close behind him, watching the trail of the mimic flies till a fish was hooked, and then her eagerness and love of sport could not be controlled, and so soon as the captive was in shoal water, in sprang puss up to the shoulders, and, fixing her claws firmly in the fish, brought it to the bank, when, with a caress from Donald, she again took her place behind him till another trout was on the line, and the sport was repeated. In this way did puss and her master pass the evenings, each proud of the other's doings, and happy in their companionship. Such was the affection of the cat for her master, that she could not even bear to be separated from him by day. Donald had charge of a ferry across the river, and no sooner did a bell at the opposite side of the stream give notice that a passenger was ready to voyage across, than down scampered puss to the boat, and, leaping in, she journeyed with her master to the further side, and again returned, gravely watching each stroke of the oar. Many a voyage did she thus daily make, and I question, with these luxurious boatings and the exciting fishing in the evenings, if ever cat was more truly happy. The love of fishing once developed itself to the disturbance of my own sport. With careful prevision, my boatman had, in the floods of November and December, secured a plentiful supply of minnows, to be held in readiness till wanted in my fishings for salmon in the ensuing February and March. The minnows were placed in a well two or three feet deep, and the cold spring water rendered them as tough as angler could desire. All went well for the first few days of the salmon fishing; the minnows were deemed admirable for the purpose, and the supply ample for our needs; but this good fortune was not to last. One morning the boatman reported a serious diminution of stock in the well, and on the following day things were still worse. Suspicion fell on more than one honest person, and we determined to watch late and early till the real thief was discovered. When the guidwife and bairns were abed, the boatman kept watch from the cottage window, and by the aid of a bright moon the mystery was soon solved. At the well-side stood puss, the favourite of the household; with arched back and extended paw she took her prey. When an unfortunate minnow approached the surface, sharp was the dash made by puss, arm and shoulder were boldly immersed, and straightway the victim lay gasping on the bank. Fishing in this manner, she soon captured half-a-dozen, and was then driven away. From that evening the well was always covered with a net, which scared puss into enforced honesty. By nature cats love dry warmth and sunshine, whilst they hate water and cold. Who has not seen the misery of a cat when compelled to step into a shallow pool, and how she examines her wet paw with anxiety, holding it up as something to be pitied? And yet the passion of destructiveness is so strong within them as to overcome even their aversion to water." The following still more extraordinary circumstance of a cat fishing in the sea, appeared in _The Plymouth Journal_, June, 1828: "There is now at the battery on the Devil's Point, a cat, which is an expert catcher of the finny tribe, being in the constant habit of diving into the sea, and bringing up the fish alive in her mouth, and depositing them in the guard-room for the use of the soldiers. She is now seven years old, and has long been a useful caterer. It is supposed that her pursuits of the water-rats first taught her to venture into the water, to which it is well known puss has a natural aversion. She is as fond of the water as a Newfoundland dog, and takes her regular peregrinations along the rocks at its edge, looking out for her prey, ready to dive for them at a moment's notice."--ED. CATS AND HORSES. From time immemorial cats have been kept in stables, and when this is the case there is generally a friendly feeling between one or other of the horses and the cat or cats. Such I have known with the heavy, ponderous cart-horse and his feline companion; such was the case in my stable, and so in many others. Cats are as a rule fond of horses, and the feeling is generally reciprocated. Several of our "race winners" have had their favourites at home, among others the well-known "Foxhall." "Many famous horses have had their stable cats, and the great, amiable Foxhall has adopted a couple of kittens, if it would not be more correct to say that they have adopted him. A pretty little white and a tabby, own brothers, live in Foxhall's box, and when Hatcher, his attendant, has rubbed him over, and put on his clothing, he takes up the kittens from the corner of the box where they have been waiting, and gently throws them on Foxhall's back. They are quite accustomed to the process, and, catching hold, soon settle down and curl themselves up into little fluffy balls, much to their own satisfaction and to the good horse's likewise, to judge from the way in which he turns and watches the operation." In Lawrence's "History of the Horse," it is stated that the celebrated Arabian stallion, Godolphin, and a black cat were for many years the warmest friends. When the horse died, in 1753, the cat sat upon his carcase till it was put under ground, and then, crawling slowly and reluctantly away, was never seen again till her dead body was found in a hay-loft. Stubbs painted the portraits of the Arabian and the cat. There was a hunter in the King's stables at Windsor, to which a cat was so attached, that whenever he was in the stable the creature would never leave her usual seat on the horse's back, and the horse was so well pleased with the attention that, to accommodate his friend, he slept, as horses will sometimes do, standing. "GRAMMER'S CAT AND OURS." BY JOHN TABOIS TREGELLAS. John Tabois Tregellas (1792-1865), born at St. Agnes. The greatest master of the niceties of the Cornish dialect, in which he wrote largely, both in prose and verse. The piece quoted from is included in a volume of miscellanies published by Mr. Netherton, Truro, and happily indicates the marked difference between the modern dialect of Cornwall and that of Devon, illustrated in "Girt Ofvenders an' Zmal." The hero of "Grammer's Cat" was a miner named Jim Chegwidden. To wash his hands and save the floshing, Outside the door Jim did his washing, But soon returned in haste and fright-- "Mother, aw come! and see the sight; Up on our house there's such a row, Millions of cats es up there now!" Jim's mother stared, and well she might; She knew that Jim had not said right. "'Millions of cats,' you said; now worn't it so?" "Why, iss," said Jim, "and I beleeve ut too; Not millions p'rhaps, but thousands must be theere, And fiercer cats than they you'll never hear; They're spitting, yowling, and the fur is flying, Some of 'em's dead, I s'pose, and some is dying; Such dismal groans I'm sure you never heard, Aw, mother! ef you ded, you'd be affeered." "Not I," said Jinny; "no, not I, indeed; A hundred cats out theere, thee'st never seed." Said Jim, "I doan't knaw 'zackly to a cat, They must be laarge wauns, then, to do like that; They maake such dismal noises when they're fighting, Such scrowling, and such tearing, and such biting." "Count ev'ry cat," says Jinny, "'round and 'round; Iss, rams and yaws, theer caan't be twenty found." "We'll caall 'em twenty, mother, ef 'twill do; Shut all the cats, say I; let's have my stew." "No, Jimmy, no!--no stew to-night, 'Tell all the cats es counted right." "Heere goes," said Jim; "lev Grammer's cat go fust (Of all the thievish cats, he es the wust). You knaw Mal Digry's cat, he's nither black nor blue, But howsomever, he's a cat, and that maakes two; Theer's that theer short-tailed cat, and she's a he, Short tail or long now, mother, that maakes three; Theer's that theer grayish cat what stawl the flour, Hee's theere, I s'pose, and that, you knaw, maakes fower; Trevenen's black es theere, ef he's alive, Now, mother, doan't 'ee see, why, that maakes five; That no-tailed cat, that wance was uncle Dick's, He's sure theere to-night, and that maakes six; That tabby cat you gove to Georgey Bevan, I knaw _his_ yowl--he's theere, and that maakes seven; That sickly cat we had, cud ait no mait, She's up theere too to-night, and she maakes 'ight; That genteel cat, you knaw, weth fur so fine, She's surely theere, I s'pose, and that maakes nine; Tom Avery's cat es theere, they caall un Ben, A reg'lar fighter he, and he maakes ten; The ould maid's cat, Miss Jinkin broft from Devon, I s'pose she's theere, and that, you knaw, maakes 'leven; Theere's Grace Penrose's cat, got chets, 'tes awnly two, And they're too young to fight as yet; so they waan't do. Iss, 'leven's all that I can mind, Not more than 'leven you waan't find; So lev me have my supper, mother, And let the cats ait one another." "No, Jimmy, no! It shaan't be so; No supper shu'st thou have this night Until the cats thee'st counted right; Go taake the lantern from the shelf, And go and count the cats thyself." See hungry Jimmy with his light, Turned out to count the cats aright; And he who had Hugh Tonkin blamed Did soon return, and, much ashamed, Confessed the number was but two, And both were cats that well he knew. Jim scratched his head, And then he said-- "Theere's Grammer's cat and ours out theere, And they two cats made all that rout theere; But ef two cats made such a row, 'Tes like a thousand, anyhow." [Illustration] LOST. How beautiful she was in her superb calmness, so graceful, so mild, and yet so majestic! Ah! I was a younger man then, of course, than I am now, and possibly more impressionable; but I thought her then the most perfect creature I had ever beheld. And even now, looking back through the gathering mists of time and the chilling frosts of advancing age, and recalling what she was, I endorse that earlier sentiment--she lives in my memory now, as she lived in my presence then, as the most perfect creature I ever beheld. I had gone the round of all the best boarding-houses in town, when, at last, I went to Mrs. Honeywold's, and there, in her small, unpretending establishment, I, General Leslie Auchester, having been subdued, I trust, to a proper and humble state of mind by my past experiences, agreed to take up my abode. And it was there I first met her! Hers was the early maturity of loveliness, perfect in repose, with mild, thoughtful eyes, intelligent and tender, a trifle sad at times, but lighting up with quick brilliancy as some new object met her view, or some vivid thought darted its lightning flash through her brain--for she was wonderfully quick of perception--with an exquisite figure, splendidly symmetrical, yet swaying and supple as a young willow, and with unstudied grace in every quick, sinewy motion. She spent little upon dress (I was sure she was not wealthy); but though there was little variety, her dress was always exquisitely neat and in perfect good taste, of some soft glossy fabric, smooth as silk and lustrous as satin, and of the softest shade of silver-gray, that colour so beautiful in itself, and so becoming to beautiful wearers; simply made, but fitting with a nicety more like the work of nature than of art to every curve and outline of that full and stately figure, and finished off round her white throat with something scarcely whiter. She never wore ornaments of any kind, no chain, no brooch, no ring or pin. She had twins--two beautiful little blue-eyed things, wonderfully like herself--little shy, graceful creatures, always together, always playful. She never spoke of her own affairs, and affable as she was, and gentle in manner, there was something about her which repelled intrusion. When, after some weeks' residence there, I had gained the good-will of my simple-minded but kindly little landlady, I cautiously ventured to ask her to gratify my not, I think, unnatural curiosity; but I found, to my surprise, she knew but little more than I did myself. "She came to me," she said, "just at the edge of the evening, one cold rainy night, and I could not refuse to give her shelter, at least for the night, or till she could do better. I did not think of her remaining; but she is so pretty and gentle, and innocent-looking, I could not turn her out of my house--could I, now? I know I am silly in such ways; but what could I do?" "But is it possible," I said, "that she has remained here ever since, and you know nothing more about her?" "No more than you do yourself, general," said Mrs. Honeywold. "I do not even know where she lived before she came here. I cannot question her, and now, indeed, I have become so fond of her, I should not be willing to part with her; and I would not turn her and her little ones out of my house for the world!" Further conversation elicited the fact that she was not a boarder, but that she and her little ones were the dependents upon Mrs. Honeywold's charity. One fine summer day I had made an appointment with a friend to drive out to his place in the suburbs and dine with him, returning in the evening. When I came down in the afternoon, dressed for my excursion, I went into the dining-room to tell Mrs. Honeywold she need not wait for me. As I came back through the parlour, _she_ was there alone. She was sitting on the sofa. A book lay near her, but I do not think she had been reading. She was sitting perfectly still, as if lost in reverie, and her eyes looked heavy with sleep or thought. But as I passed out of the room I looked back. I saw she had risen to her feet, and standing with her graceful figure drawn up to its full height, she was looking after me, with a look which I flattered myself was a look of interest. Ah, how well I remember that look! The day had been a beautiful one, though sultry; but in the early evening we had a heavy thunder-shower, the violence of the summer rain delaying my return to town for an hour or two; and when the rain ceased, the evening was still starless, cloudy, and damp; and as I drove back to town I remember that the night air, although somewhat freshened by the rain, was warm, and heavy with the scent of unseen flowers. It was late when I reached the quiet street where I had taken up my abode, and as I mounted the steps I involuntarily felt for my latch-key, but to my surprise I found the hall-door not only unfastened, but a little way opened. "Why, how is this, Mrs. Honeywold?" I said, as my landlady met me in the hall. "Do you know that your street-door was left open?" "Yes," she said, quietly, "I know it." "But is it safe?" I asked, as I turned to lock the door; "and so late, too." "I do not think there is any danger," she said. "I was on the watch; I was in the hall myself, waiting." "Not waiting for me, I hope?" said I; "that was surely unnecessary." "No, not for you," she answered. "I presume you can take care of yourself; but," she added, in a low voice, "she is out, and I was waiting to let her in." "Out at this time of night!--that seems strange. Where has she gone?" "I do not know." "And how long has she been gone?" I asked, as I hung up my hat. "I cannot tell just what time she went out," she said; "I know she was in the garden with the little ones, and came in just before tea. After they had had their suppers and gone to bed I saw her in the parlour alone, and when I came into the room again she was gone, and she has not returned, and I----" "Oh, then she went out before the rain, did she?" "Yes, sir; some time before the rain." "Oh, then that explains it; she was probably caught out by the rain, and took shelter somewhere, and has been persuaded to stay. There is nothing to be alarmed at; you had better not wait up another moment." "But I don't like to shut her out, general; I should not sleep a wink." "Nonsense, nonsense!" I said. "Go to bed, you silly woman; you will hear her when she comes, of course, and can come down and let her in." And so saying, I retired to my own room. The next morning at breakfast, I noticed that my landlady was looking pale and troubled, and I felt sure she had spent a sleepless night. "Well, Mrs. Honeywold," I said, with assumed cheerfulness, as she handed my coffee to me, "how long did you have to sit up? What time did she come in?" "She did not come in all night, general," said my landlady, in a troubled voice. "She has not come home yet, and I am very anxious about it." "No need of that, I trust," I said, reassuringly; "she will come this morning, no doubt." "I don't know. I wish I was sure of that. I don't know what to make of it. I don't understand it. She never did so before. How she could have stayed out, and left those two blessed little things all night--and she always seemed such a tender, loving mother, too--I don't understand it." When I returned at dinner-time I found matters still worse. She had not returned. My poor landlady was almost in hysterics, though she tried hard to control herself. To satisfy her I set off to consult the police. My mission was not encouraging. They promised to do their best, but gave slight hopes of a successful result. So sad, weary, and discouraged, I returned home, only to learn there were no tidings of the missing one. "I give her up now," said my weeping landlady; "I shall never see her again. She is lost for ever; and those two poor pretty little creatures----" "By the way," I said, "I wanted to speak to you about them. If she never does return, what do you purpose to do with them?" "Keep them!" said the generous and impulsive little woman. "I wanted to say, if she does not return, I will, if you like, relieve you of one of them. My sister, who lives with me, and keeps my house, is a very kind, tender-hearted woman. There are no children in the house, and she would, I am sure, be very kind to the poor little thing. What do you say?" "No, no!" sobbed the poor woman; "I cannot part with them. I am a poor woman, it is true, but not too poor to give them a home; and while I have a bit and a sup for myself they shall have one too. Their poor mother left them here, and if she ever does return she shall find them here. And if she never returns, then----" _And she never did return_, and no tidings of her fate ever reached us. If she was enticed away by artful blandishments, or kidnapped by cruel violence, we knew not. But I honestly believe the latter. Either way, it was her fatal beauty that led her to destruction; for, as I have said before, she was the most perfect creature, the most beautiful Maltese cat, that I ever beheld in my life! I am sure she never deserted her two pretty little kittens of her own accord. And if--poor dumb thing--she was stolen and killed for her beautiful fur, still I say, as I said at first, she was "more sinned against than sinning."--C. H. GRATTAN, in _Tit-Bits_. INDEX. PAGE Abyssinian cats, 58 Angora cats, 21 Antipathy to cats, 11 Aperient, 151 Archangel blue cat, 66 "Bartholomoeus de Proprietatibus Rerum," Extract from, 156 Bewick's "Quadrupeds," Extract from, 166 Black-and-white cats, 68 Black cats, 64 Blue cats, 66 Blue small-banded tabby, 60 "Boduca," Extract from, 199 "Bogey", 37 British wild cat, 38 Brown tabby cats, 48 Canker of ear, 150 Cat and kittens, 109 Catarrh, 148, 152 Catarrhal fevers, 147 Cat as a tormentor, The, 209 Cat-clock, A, 202 "Cat Harris", 216 Cat images, 219 Cat of Shakespeare, The, 193 Cat-racing in Belgium, 218 Cats and fish, 159 Cats and horses, 236 Cats at The Morning Advertiser Office, 88 Cats in Vienna, 88 Cats reared by dogs, 11 Cats take note of time, 9 "Chipperkes", 81 "Chloe", 119 Chocolate Siamese, 74 Cleanliness, 119 Colds, 149 Concerning cats, 170 Coughs, 150 Curious long-haired cat, 34 Cytisin, 153 Daniel's "Rural Sports," Extracts from, 161, 167, 225 Darwin's, Mr. Charles, "Voyage of the Beagle," Extract from, 167 Dead cats, 208 Deaf cat, A, 17 "Dinah", 23 Diseases of cats, 147 Distance cats will travel, 10 Distemper, 150, 151 Distemper, Inoculation for, 148 Electricity in cats' fur, 195 "Encyclopædia of Rural Sports," Extract from, 158 "English Folk-lore," Extracts from, 197, 200 Eye ointment, 152 Feeding cats, 91 First Cat Show, The, 3 Fishing cats, 233 Fleas, 152 Fleet Prison, Debtors in, 90 Fox, Charles James, Anecdote of, 93 Games, 228 General management, 91 Gentleness and kindness, 10 Glossary, 170 to 184 Government cats, 88 "Grammer's Cat and Ours", 237 Habits, 6 Hamilton, Mr. E., Letter to The Field, 169 "Happy Family," The, 12, 213 Harting, Mr. J. E., on the origin of the domestic cat, 162 Heraldry, etc., 210 Hone's "Every-day Book," Extract from, 196 Horses fond of cats, 236 Hybrid cats, 55 Imperial Printing Office, France, Cats in, 88 Inoculation for distemper, 148 Irritation, 152 Jamieson's "Scottish Dictionary," Extracts from, 181 Jealousy of cats, 8 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, and his cat, 161 Killing cats, The law on, 207 Kindness and gentleness, 10 Kittens, 114 "Lambkin", 33 "Lambkin No. 2", 36 Law on cat-killing, The, 207 Long-haired cats, 16 Lost, 240 Lovers of cats, 223 Management, 120 Mange, 149, 152 Manx cats, 80 Mating, 96 Midland Railway, Cats on the staff of the, 89 Mill's "History of the Crusades," Extract from 169 "Mimie" 25 Nevill, Lady Dorothy 74 Nursery rhymes and stories 232 Observation of cats 7 Origin of the domestic cat 162 Performing cats 211 Persian cats 24 Plague of mice 14 Points of Excellence: Abyssinian 135 Black-and-white, gray-white, red-and-white, and other colours and white 134 Black, blue, gray, red, or any self-colour long-haired 142 Blue, silver, light gray, and white tabby, striped, short-hair 131 Brown and ordinary tabby, striped, short-hair 128 Brown, blue, silver, light gray, and white tabby long-haired 144 Chinchilla 136 Chocolate, chestnut, red, or yellow tabby, striped, short-hair 130 Chocolate, mahogany, red, and yellow long-haired 145 Manx, or short-tailed 138 Royal Cat of Siam 137 Self-colour, black, blue, gray, or red short-hair 127 Short-haired, spotted tabbies of any colour 133 Siamese 137 Tortoiseshell 123 Tortoiseshell-and-white 125 White-and-black, white-and-gray, white-and-red, white and any other colour 135 White, long-haired 140 White, short-hair 126 Poison 153 Proverbs 185 Purgative 151 "Puss in Boots" 203 Rats, mice, and cats 15 Remedies 147 to 153 Royal cat of Siam, The 73 Russian cats 30 Salmon's "Compleat English Physician," Extract from 157 Sharpening claws 165 Short-haired white cats 62 Siamese cats 73 Signs 204 "Signs of Foul Weather," Extract from 200 Singular attachments 11 Skin, Irritation of the 152 Sleeping-places 92 Smith's, Mr., prize he-cat 39 Spotted silver tabby 133 Spotted tabbies 54 Strengthening medicines 151 Strutt's "Habits of the Anglo-Normans," Extracts from 167, 168 Superstition, 195 "Sylvie", 24 Tabby, derivation of the word, 52 "The Old Lady", 13 "The Tamer Tamed," Extract from, 199 "Tiger", 20 "Tim", 27 Tormentor, The cat as a, 209 Tortoiseshell-and-white cats, 44 Tortoiseshell cats, 39 Trained cats, 12 United States Post Office, Cats in the, 88 Usefulness of cats, 87 Various colours, 84 Vyvyan, Mrs., on Siamese cats, 76 Washing cats, 94 Weather notions, 200 Well-trained cats, 13 White-and-black cats, 70 White cats, 62 Wild cat of Britain, 38, 154 Witchcraft, 195 "Works of Armorie," Extracts from, 157 Worms, 149, 152 "You dreadful man!", 19 THE END. CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | Transcriber's note:- | | | | The symbols ^{x} represent the superscript x. | | | | Page 235 has been corrected to 239 in the Illustration index.| | | | Punctuation errors were corrected. | | | | The following printer's suspected spelling | | errors have been addressed. | | | | Page 91 alterative changed to alternative | | as an alternative than food | | | | Page 111 ancedote changed to anecdote | | than the following anecdote | | | | Page 129 narrrowing changed to narrowing | | and narrowing towards the end | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ 
32300	----	[Transcriber's note: The original text was published in 1873. The contents of this text may be dated. If in doubt, consult a Canine care professional.] [Illustration: SETTER AND WOODCOCK.] THE DOG. BY DINKS, MAYHEW, AND HUTCHINSON. COMPILED, ABRIDGED, EDITED, AND ILLUSTRATED BY FRANK FORESTER, AUTHOR OF "FIELD SPORTS," "FISH AND FISHING," "HORSES AND HORSEMANSHIP OF THE UNITED STATES AND BRITISH PROVINCES," "THE COMPLETE MANUAL FOR YOUNG SPORTSMEN," ETC., ETC. Complete and Revised Edition. NEW YORK: GEO. E. WOODWARD, 191 BROADWAY. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, BY GEORGE E. WOODWARD, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. EDITOR'S PREFACE. In offering to the American public a new edition of DINKS and MAYHEW on the Dog, which, I am happy to find, is largely called for, I have been induced to make a further addition, which will, I think, render this the most perfect and comprehensive work in existence for the dog fancier and dog lover. For myself I claim no merit, since, with the exception of one or two trivial changes in unimportant recipes in DINKS, and some abridgment of the last admirable work of Col. HUTCHINSON on Dog Breaking, which is now included in this volume, I have found occasion to make no alterations whatever, and, save a few notes, no additions. I will add, in brief, that while I believe the little manual of Dinks to be the best short and brief compendium on the Dog, particularly as regards his breeding, conditioning, kennel and field management, and general specialities, there can be no possible doubt that Mayhew's pages are the _ne plus ultra_ of canine pathology. There is nothing comparable to his treatment of all diseases for gentleness, simplicity, mercy to the animal, and effect. I have no hesitation in saying, that any person with sufficient intelligence to make a diagnosis according to his showing of the symptoms, and patience to exhibit his remedies, precisely according to his directions, cannot fail of success. I have this year treated, myself, two very unusually severe cases of distemper, one of acute dysentery, one of chronic diarrhoea, and one of most aggravated mange, implicitly after his instructions, and that with perfect, and, in three instances, most unexpected, success. The cases of distemper were got rid of with less suffering to the animals, and with less--in fact, no--prostration or emaciation than I have ever before witnessed. I shall never attempt any practice other than that of Mayhew, for distemper; and, as he says, I am satisfied it is true, that no dog, taken in time, and treated by his rules, _need_ die of this disease. Colonel Hutchinson's volume, which is to dog-breaking, what Mayhew's is to dog-medicining--science, experience, patience, temper, gentleness, and judgment, against brute force and unreasoning ignorance--I have so far abridged as to omit, while retaining all the rules and precepts, such anecdotes of the habits, tricks, faults, and perfections of individual animals, and the discursive matter relative to Indian field sports, and general education of animals, as, however interesting in themselves, have no particular utility to the dog-breaker or sportsman in America. Beyond this I have done no more than to change the word September to the more general term of Autumn, in the heading of the chapters, and to add a few short notes, explanatory of the differences and comparative relations of English and American game. I will conclude by observing, that although this work is exclusively on breaking for English shooting, there is not one word in it, which is not applicable to this country. The methods of woodcock and snipe shooting are exactly the same in both countries, excepting only that in England there is no summer-cock shooting. Otherwise, the practice, the rules, and the qualifications of dogs are identical. The partridge, in England, varies in few of its habits from our quail--I might almost say in none--unless that it prefers turnip fields, potatoe fields, long clover, standing beans, and the like, to bushy coverts and underwood among tall timber, and that it never takes to the tree. Like our quail, it must be hunted for and found in the open, and marked into, and followed up in, its covert, whatever that may be. In like manner, English and American grouse-shooting may be regarded as identical, except that the former is practised on heathery mountains, the latter on grassy plains; and that pointers are preferable on the latter, owing to the drought and want of water, and to a particular kind of prickly burr, which terribly afflicts the long-haired setter. The same qualities and performances constitute the excellence of dogs for either sport, and, as there the moors, so here the prairies, are, beyond all doubt, the true field for carrying the art of dog-breaking to perfection. To pheasant shooting we have nothing perfectly analogous. Indeed, the only sport in North America which at all resembles it, is ruffed-grouse shooting, where they abound sufficiently to make it worth the sportsman's while to pursue them alone. Where they do so, there is no difference in the mode of pursuing the two birds, however dissimilar they may be in their other habits and peculiarities. Bearing these facts in mind, the American sportsman will have no difficulty in applying all the rules given in the admirable work in question; and the American dog-breaker can by no other means produce so perfect an animal for his pains, with so little distress to himself or his pupil. The greatest drawback to the pleasures of dog-keeping and sporting, are the occasional sufferings of the animals, when diseased, which the owner cannot relieve, and the occasional severity with which he believes himself at times compelled to punish his friend and servant. It may be said that, for the careful student of this volume, as it is now given entire, in its three separate parts, who has time, temper, patience, and firmness, to follow out its precepts to the letter, this drawback is abolished. The writers are--all the three--good friends to that best of the friends of man, the faithful dog; and I feel some claim to a share in their well-doing, and to the gratitude of the good animal, and of those who love him, in bringing them thus together, in an easy compass, and a form attainable to all who love the sports of the field, and yet love mercy more. FRANK FORESTER. THE CEDARS, NEWARK, N.J., LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Setter and Woodcock, _Frontispiece_ Beagles, _To face page_ 50 Group of Dogs, 73 The Pointer, 241 Cockers--Butler and Frisk, 463 Setters--Bob and Dinks, 579 The Wolf, Page 74 The Jackal, 75 The Mastiff, 104 Cuts Illustrating the Administration of Medicine to Dogs, 111, 112, 113 A Dog under the Influence of an Emetic, 118 Head of a Dog, 121 Brush for Cleaning the Teeth of a Dog, 188 A Scotch Terrier, 197 A Dog Suffering from Inflammation of the Lung, 211 A Dog with Asthma, 219 " " Chronic Hepatitis, 221 " " Gastritis, 233 " " Colic, 252 " " Superpurgation, 263 " " Acute Rheumatism, 274 A Rabid Dog, 300 A Mad Dog on the March, 304 Head of a full-sized Pug Bitch, 348 The Blood Hound, 349 The Beagle, 350 The Gravid Uterus, 372 Parturition Instrument, 381 The Crochet, 384 The Bull-Dog, 404 Dog with a Canker-cap on, 423 A Dog Taped or Muzzled for Operation, 428 Bandages for Fractured Legs, 445 THE SPORTSMAN'S VADE MECUM. BY "DINKS." CONTAINING FULL INSTRUCTIONS IN ALL THAT RELATES TO THE BREEDING, REARING, BREAKING, KENNELLING, AND CONDITIONING OF DOGS. TOGETHER WITH NUMEROUS VALUABLE RECIPES FOR THE TREATMENT OF THE VARIOUS DISEASES TO WHICH THE CANINE RACE IS SUBJECT. AS ALSO A FEW REMARKS ON GUNS, THEIR LOADING AND CARRIAGE, DESIGNED EXPRESSLY FOR THE USE OF YOUNG SPORTSMEN. TO THE READER. No one work that I am aware of contains the information that is proposed for this little treatise, which does not aspire to any great originality of idea; but the author having experienced in his early days very great difficulty in finding to his hand a concise treatise, was induced to cull, from various authors what he found most beneficial in practice, into manuscript, and this collection he is induced to make public, in the hopes that any one "who runs may read," and, without searching through many and various voluminous authors, may find the cream, leaving the skim milk behind. Wherever any known quotation is made, credit has been given to the proper persons, but it may be as well to state that most if not all of the Receipts are copies, though from what book is in a great measure unknown to the author, who extracted them in bygone days for his own use. With this admission, he trusts that his readers will rest satisfied with the little volume which he offers to their indulgent criticism. "DINKS." _Fort Malden Canada West_ CONTENTS OF DINKS' VADE MECUM. Page Breeding of Dogs in general, 15 Setter, 18 Setter, Russian, 19 Spaniel, 20 Spaniel and Cocker, 20 Retriever, 21 Beagles, 21 Breeding, 21 Bitch in Use, 24 Bitches in Pup, 26 Feeding Pups and Weaning.--Lice.--Teats Rubbed, 27 Pointer and Setter, 28 Breaking, 29 Ranging, how taught, 30 Quartering, 33 Feeding, 40 Condition, 42 Kennel, 44 Credit given for Recipes, 49 Recipes, 50 General Remarks about Dogs in Physic, 50 Recipes for Diseases incident to Dogs, 51 Distemper, 58 Tabular Form of Game Book, 68 THE SPORTSMAN'S VADE MECUM BREEDING OF DOGS IN GENERAL. Before commencing to treat of the most correct methods to be observed in the breeding, it will be as well to mention the different varieties of sporting dogs, and also the various sub-genera of each species, of which every one who knows anything of the subject need not be informed; but as this work affects to be a Vade Mecum for sportsmen, young far more than old, it is as well to put before the young idea certain established rules, not to be violated with impunity, and without following which no kennel can be great or glorious. A run of luck may perhaps happen, to set at naught all well defined rules, but "breeding will tell" sooner or later; and, therefore, it behoves any person who prides himself on his kennel, to study well the qualities of his dog or bitch, his or her failings and good qualities, and so to cross with another kennel as to blend the two, and form one perfect dog. This is the great art in breeding, requiring great tact and judgment. POINTERS. The breed of Pointers, as now generally to be met with, is called "the English," distinguished by the lightness of limb, fineness of coat, and rattishness of tail. Fifteen or twenty years ago this style of dog was seldom seen; but, in place of it, you had a much heavier animal--heavy limbs, heavy head, deep flew-jaws, long falling ears. Which of these breeds was the best 'tis hard to say, but for America I certainly should prefer the old, heavy, English Pointer. Too much, I think, has been sacrificed to lightness, rendering him too fine for long and continued exertion, too susceptible to cold and wet, too tender skinned to bear contact with briers and thorns, in fact, far too highly bred. Not that for a moment I am going to admit that American Pointers are too highly bred; far from it, for there is hardly one that, if his or her pedigree be carefully traced up, will not be found to have some admixture of blood very far from Pointer in its veins. Now this mongrel breeding will not end well, no matter how an odd cross may succeed, and the plan to be adopted is never to breed except from the most perfect and best bitches, always having in view the making of strong, well formed, tractable dogs, bearing in mind that the bitches take after the dog, and the dog pups after the dam, that temper, ill condition, and most bad qualities are just as inherent in some breeds as good qualities are in others. Here, then, to begin with, you have a difficult problem to solve; for, in addition to the defects of your own animal, you have to make yourself acquainted with those of the one you purpose putting to it. Is your dog too timid--copulate with one of high courage. But don't misunderstand me. In this there is as much difference between a high couraged and a headstrong dog as between a well bred dog and a cur. Is your dog faulty in ranging, may be too high, or may be no ranger at all, mate with the reverse, selecting your pups according to what has been stated above. If possible, always avoid crossing colors. It is a bad plan, but cannot always be avoided, for oftentimes you may see in an animal qualities so good, that it would be wrong to let him go past you. But, then, in the offspring, keep to your color. From this general statement it will be easy to see, that in breeding dogs there is more science and skill required, more attention to minutiæ necessary, than at first sight appears to be the case. Long and deep study alone enables a person to tell whether any or what cross may be judicious, how to recover any fading excellence in his breed, or how best to acquire that of some one else. We will endeavor to give the experience of some fifteen years--devoted to this subject--to our readers, merely resting on our oars, to describe the various breeds of sporting dogs most desirable for him to possess, together with certain data on which to pin his faith in making a selection from a dealer, though as the eye may deceive, it is always as well to call in the ear as consulting physician, and by diligent inquiry endeavor to ascertain particulars. The characteristics of a well bred Pointer may be summed up as follows: and any great deviation from them makes at once an ill bred, or, at all events, a deformed dog. To commence, then, at the head:--the head should be broad at top, long and tapering, the poll rising to a point; his nose open and large; his ears tolerably long, slightly erect, and falling between the neck and jaw bone, slightly pointed at the tip; eyes clear and bright; neck and head set on straight; his chest should be broad and deep--the contrary clearly shows want of speed and stamina; legs and arms strong, muscular, and straight; elbows well in; feet small and hard; body not over long, and well ribbed up--if not, he will be weak, and incapable of doing a day's work; loins broad at top, but thin downwards; hind quarters broad; hind legs strong and large; tail long, fine, and tapering; hair short, sleek, and close. Here you have the pure English Pointer, and as that is the best type of the dog, we shall not attempt to describe the Spanish one, which is not by any means equal to the English, and is, moreover, so quarrelsome, that he cannot be kennelled with other dogs. Good dogs are of any colors, but the most favorite ones are liver and white, white and fawn, pure black, and pure liver. The two first, however, are better adapted for this country, being more easily seen in cover. SETTER. We next come to the Setter. His head, like the Pointer should be broad at the top between the eyes; the muzzle though, must be longer and more tapering, and not over thick. Towards the eyes he must have a deepish indenture, and on the top of his skull a highish bony ridge. His ears should be long, pendulous, and slightly rounded. The eyes rather dark and full. His nose soft, moist, and large. Some breeds and breeders affect black noses and palates; but I must say that there are full as many good without the black as with it. I rather incline to the opinion that they are the best notwithstanding. Body like the Pointer, only deeper and broader, if anything; legs long to knee, short thence downwards; feet small, close, and thickly clothed with hair between the toes, ball and toe tufts they are termed; tail long, fine, and tapering, thickly feathered with long, soft, wavy hair; stern and legs down to feet also feathered. His body and feet also should be clothed with long, soft, silky hair, wavy, but no curl in it. This last smells badly of water spaniel. Colors, black and white, red and white, black and tan. These last I consider the finest bred ones. Roan also is good. The Irish setter is red, red and white, white and yellow spotted. The nose, lips, and palate always black. He is also rather more bony and muscular than the English breed, and ten times as headstrong and enduring. He requires constant and severe work, under most rigid discipline, to keep in anything like decent subjection. SETTER, RUSSIAN. The Russian Setter is as distinct from either of the above varieties as bulldog from greyhound. It is covered more profusely with long, thick, curly, soft, and silky hair, well on to the top of the head and over the eyes. He is also more bony and muscular, with a much shorter and broader head. What he wants in dash and ranging propensities, he makes up for in unwearied assiduity, extreme carefulness, and extraordinary scenting powers. The cross between this and either of the other setters is much valued by some breeders. SPANIEL. Of Spaniels there are several varieties, but of these the Suffolk Cocker is the only one deserving a notice. All the others are too noisy, too heedless, and too quick on their legs. It is almost impossible to keep any one of them steady, and, therefore, in this country at least, they are totally useless, since you would not see them from the beginning to the end of the day. Yaff! yaff! half a mile off, all the time putting up the birds, and you unable to stop them. The Suffolk Cocker, on the contrary, is extremely docile, can be easily broken, and kept in order. They are extremely valuable, thirty-five guineas being a low price for a brace of pure bred and well broken ones in England. The right sort are scarce, even there. Here, with two exceptions, I fancy they are not. SPANIEL AND COCKER. In appearance they are much like a raseed setter. The head and muzzle is much the same length and size; ears rather more rounded, but not so long; body deep, broad, and long; hair long and stiffish; legs and feet remarkably short, amounting almost to a deformity, and extraordinarily strong; tail short and bushy; it is usually curtailed a couple of joints. The purest colors are liver and white, fawn and white, and yellow and white. These dogs are slow and sure, remarkably close hunters, and obedient; just the things for cock shooting here. Too much cannot be said in their favor. They are easily taught to retrieve. RETRIEVER. A Retriever is a cross breed dog. There is no true type of them. Every person has a peculiar fancy regarding them. The great object is to have them tolerably small, compatible with endurance. The best I have seen were of a cross between the Labrador and water spaniel, or the pure Labrador dog. BEAGLES. In some parts of the States Beagles are used, and it may be as well to point out the characteristics of them. First, then, a beagle ought not to exceed fourteen inches in height; its head ought to be long and fine; its ears long, fine also, beautifully round, thin, and pendulous, rather far set back; body not too long; chest broad and deep; loins broad at top, but narrow downwards; legs strong, but short; feet small and close; hair short and close; tails curved upwards and tapering, but not too fine. There is also another sort of beagles, wire-haired, flew-jawed, heavy hung, deep-mouthed. They are very true hunters, seldom leaving the trail till dead, or run to ground. BREEDING. It is needless to say that at certain indefinite periods of the year a bitch comes into use, as the term is--generally twice a year, and still more generally speaking, during the time you most require her services, that is, April and September, spring snipe and grouse shooting, in consequence of which you must either sacrifice your pups or your sport. Now I am aware that in the States, for this reason, a bitch is seldom kept. For my part, I do not object to them, for from experience I can so regulate their failings as to prevent their family cares from interfering with their hunting. The knowledge of this enables me to have my pups when I want them, to get the cover of a dog I fancy, when a strange one comes my way also. The best time, then, to put the bitch to the dog is early in January. By this means you have your pups ready to wean by the middle of April. They have all summer to grow in, get strong, and large, and are fit to break in October on snipe first, and then quail, finishing off on snipe the following spring. After this litter, the bitch probably comes into use again in the end of July or in August. Young ones are not so fond of it as old ones, and, consequently, for quail shooting, your bitch is all correct and well behaved, so far as regards the dam. I look upon the breeding of dogs from any except the best and most perfectly formed of their species, as an act of great folly. There are times when it must be done to keep up the breed, or to acquire one; for no one drafts his best bitches unless he is an ass. For my part, I keep five or six constantly, and draft yearly all my dog pups but two or three, say one pointer, setter, and cocker. By this means I have the pick out of a large number of well bred ones for myself, while the drafts pay the expenses of keep and breaking. This is impossible for every one to do, and they must pick up their dogs the best way they can. It is my intention for the future to draft my setters to New York and my pointers westward. My cockers, I fear, will not go off yet, my imported dog having taken it into his head to die, and, until he is replaced from England--I have no stock for breed. I could only get a chance of four while last there out of many valuable kennels. However, I have promises of drafts from two or three parties, and ere summer cock come in, doubtless a brace or so will dare the perils of the sea for me; I have no hesitation in saying that, unless most amply remunerated, I would as soon sell my nose as the best pup in the litter, if I wanted it, nor would I advise any one else to do it. If done, you have to put up with inferior dogs. No; I breed to put a brace or so of the best young dogs yearly into my kennel, for my own use, and, while doing this, I also have, probably, ten good, well formed dogs to pick from, any one of which were one in want, would gladden the heart to get hold of. Sir William Stanley used to breed some fifty pointers yearly. Out of this lot, two brace were culled for his use. The rest were sold. They paid expenses. Many were excellent dogs, but he got the tip-top ones, and so he ought. This is the way a man who cannot afford to give great prices for good dogs must do, if he is much addicted to shooting. It requires two brace of dogs to do a day's shooting as it ought to be done. Each dog at full gallop the whole time, except, of course, when on birds; and to do this he must be shut off work about noon. Few dogs can go from morn till night without extreme fatigue. I never yet saw the dog that I could not hunt off his legs in a fortnight's hunt, taking him out every second day only, and feeding him on the best and strongest food. However, for general purposes, three brace of dogs are sufficient, and, when not often used, two are plenty; but no one ought ever to have less than two brace. It may be managed by always going out with a friend, he keeping one brace, you the other; he shooting to your dogs, you to his. For my part, give me three brace of my own, and let those be the best shaped, strongest, best bred, and best workers there can be. That is my weakness, and to achieve this I yearly sink a sufficient number of dollars to keep a poor man. But all this is digressing most fearfully from the nursery of young pointers and setters. BITCH IN USE. By receipt on a subsequent page, you will see how your bitch is to be brought into use. We will suppose her well formed and well bred. If faultless, put her to a dog nearly equal, if you cannot get one equal. Save the dog pups which will take after the dam. It is well understood that by breeding from young bitches you have faster and higher rangers; and this also reminds me to say that no bitch ought to be bred from till she is full grown, that is to say, till she is two years old. Many people breed at twelve months, but it is wrong. The bitch is not full grown, and, consequently, the puppies are poor, weak, and miserable. If the bitch has faults, find a dog of the same appearance as her, while he excels in those points she is deficient in. The bitches are partakers of his qualities. Are you short of bone, nose, size, form, temper, look for the excess of these. The cross, or, at all events, the next remove from it, will be just as you wish. Any peculiarity may be made inherent in a breed by sedulously cultivating that peculiarity. Avoid above all things breeding in and in brother and sister, mother and son, father and daughter--all bad, but the first far worse than either of the others, since the blood of each is the same. The other two are only half so. To perfect form should be added high ranging qualities, high courage, great docility, keen nose, and great endurance. That is the acme of breeding. A few judicious crosses will enable you to acquire it for your kennel. To the inattention and carelessness of sportsmen to these points are to be attributed the innumerable curs we nowadays see in comparison to well bred dogs. Anything that will find a bird will do. Far otherwise, to my mind. "Nothing is worth doing at all if it is not to be well done," and I would as soon pot a bevy of quail on the ground, as think of following an ill bred, ill broken, obstinate cur. It may perhaps be as well to state, that when I spoke of "crosses," I had not the slightest intention of recommending a cross of pointer and setter or bull dog. Far otherwise. Let each breed be distinct, but cultivate a "cross," be they pointer or spaniel, from another kennel of another breed of the same class of dogs. With regard to setters, a little separate talk is necessary, for we have three sorts, English, Irish, and Russian. The cross of English and Irish may and does often benefit both races. So also does the Russian, but I would be extremely careful how I put him to one or the other. Extreme cases may and do justify the admixture, but the old blood ought to be got back as soon as possible. He is of quite a different species to the other, though with the same types or characteristics, yet this cross is rather approaching to mongrel. Having descanted somewhat largely on the preliminary portion, we will pass on to the rearing of the progeny. BITCHES IN PUP. Bitches in pup ought to be well fed, and suffered to run at large, and I am rather of opinion that by hunting them occasionally, or rather, by letting them see game while in this state, does not "set the young back any." Every one is aware of the sympathy between the mother and the unborn foetus, and I for one rather do think it of use. Few bitches can rear more than six pups, many only four, and do them justice. Cull out, therefore, the ill colored, ugly marked bitches first, and if you find too many left, after a few days you must exercise your judgment on the dogs. I don't like, however, this murdering, and prefer, by extra feeding while suckling, and afterwards, to make up for pulling the mother down, which having to nurse six or seven pups does terribly. My idea always is in the matter, that the pup I drown is to be, or rather would be, the best in the litter. It is humbug, I know, but I cannot help it. At that age all else but color and markings is a lottery. Oft have I seen the poor, miserable little one turn out not only the best, but biggest dog. Therefore, I recommend the keeping of as many as possible. Let the bitch have a warm kennel, with plenty of straw and shavings, or shavings alone. Let her be loose, free to go or come. Feed her well with boiled oatmeal in preference to corn meal--more of this anon in the feeding department, mixed in good rich broth, just lukewarm, twice a day; About the ninth day the pups begin to see, and at a month old they will lap milk. This they ought to be encouraged to do as soon as possible, as it saves the mother vastly. At six weeks, or at most seven, they are fit to wean. FEEDING PUPS AND WEANING.--LICE.--TEATS RUBBED. Feed them entirely on bread and milk, boiled together to pulp. Shut them in a warm place, the spare stall of a stable, boarded up at the end. Examine them to see whether they are lousy, as they almost always are. A decoction of tobacco water (_vide_ receipt) kills them off. Rub the bitch's teats with warm vinegar twice a day till they are dried up. If this be not done, there is great danger of their becoming caked, besides causing her to suffer severely. She must have a mild dose of salts, say half an ounce, repeated after the third day. When the weather is fine, the young pups should be turned out of doors to run about. Knock out the head of a barrel, in which put a little straw, so that they may retire to sleep when they feel disposed. Feed them three times a day, and encourage them to run about as much as possible. Nothing produces crooked legs more than confinement, nothing ill grown weeds more than starvation; so that air, liberty, exercise, and plenty of food are all equally essential to the successful rearing of fine, handsome dogs. Above all things, never frighten, nor yet take undue notice of one over the rest. Accustom them to yourself and strangers. This gives them courage and confidence. Remember, if you ever should have to select a pup in this early stage, to get them all together, fondle them a little; the one that does not skulk will be the highest couraged dog, the rest much in the same proportion, as they display fear or not. This I have invariably noticed is the case, and on this I invariably act when I have to select a pup, provided always he is not mis-formed. We have now brought our pups on till they can take care of themselves, and while they grow and prosper and get over the distemper, we will hark back a little, and say why we object to fall puppies,--simply because they are generally stunted by the cold, unless they are house-reared. They come in better, certainly, for breaking, but it is not so good to have them after September at the latest, unless it be down South, where, I fancy, the order of things would, or rather should, be reversed. POINTER AND SETTER. Hitherto I have omitted to compare the respective merits of pointer and setter. This I had intended to have done altogether, but fearful lest fault should be found with me for doing so, I state it as my deliberate opinion, that there is nothing to choose between them "year in and year out." A setter may stand the cold better and may stand the briers better, but the heat and want of water he cannot stand. A pointer, I admit, cannot quite stand cold so well, but he will face thorns quite as well, if he be the right sort, and pure bred, but he don't come out quite so well from it as the setter does. The one does it because it don't hurt him, the other does it because he is told so to do, and his pluck, his high moral courage won't let him say no. For heat and drought he don't care a rush, comparatively, and will kill a setter dead, were he to attempt to follow him. Westward, in the neighborhood of Detroit, the pros and cons are pretty equal. I hunt both indiscriminately, and see no difference either in their powers of endurance, see exceptions above, or hunting qualifications. For the prairies, however, I should say the pointer was infinitely superior, for there the shooting--of prairie hen--is in the two hottest months of the year, and the ground almost, if not quite, devoid of water. Therefore, the pointer there is the dog, and if well and purely bred, he is as gallant a ranger as the setter. Eastward, in New Jersey and Maryland, I am led to believe that setters may be the best there. Except "summer cock," all the shooting is in spring or late fall. Westward, we commence quail shooting on September the first. There, I believe, not until November the first. Here we have few or no briers or thorned things, save and except an odd blackberry or raspberry bush. There they have these and cat briers also, and that infernal young locust tree almost would skin a pointer. Therefore, for those regions, a setter is more preferable. Still more so the real springer. BREAKING. We will now pass on to the breaking of our young dogs. This may be begun when they are four or five months old, to a certain extent They may be taught to "charge" and obey a trifle, but it must be done so discreetly that it were almost better left alone. Nevertheless, I generally teach them some little, taking care never to cow them, one by one. This down-charging must be taught them in a room or any convenient place. Put them into the proper position, hind legs under the body, nose on the ground between their fore-paws. Retaining them so with one hand on their head, your feet one on each side their hind quarters, with the other hand pat and encourage them. Do not persist at this early age more than a few minutes at a time, and after it is over, play with and fondle them. At this time also teach them to fetch and carry; to know their names. Recollect that any name ending in o, as "Ponto," "Cato," &c., very common ones by the way, is bad. The only word ending in o ought to be "Toho," often abbreviated into "ho." This objection will be evident to any person who reflects for a moment, and a dog will answer to any other short two syllable word equally as well. These two lessons, and answering to the whistle, are about all that can or should be taught them. RANGING, HOW TAUGHT. Nine months, or better, twelve, is soon enough to enter into the serious part of breaking. This is more to be effected by kind determination than by brute force. Avoid the use of the whip. Indeed, it never in my opinion ought to be seen, except in real shooting, instead of which we would use a cord about five or ten yards long. Fasten one end round the dog's neck, the other to a peg firmly staked in the ground; before doing this, however, your young dogs should, along with a high ranging dog, be taken out into a field where there is _no_ game, and suffered to run at large without control until they are well practised in ranging. Too much stress cannot be laid on this point, as on this first step in a great measure depends the future ranging propensities of the dog. Where a youngster sees the old one galloping about as hard as he can, he soon takes the hint and follows. After a few days, the old one may be left behind, when the pups will gallop about equally as well. These lessons should never be too long as to time, else the effect is lost. Another good plan also is to accustom them to follow you on horseback at a good rate. They will learn by this to gallop, not to _trot_, than which nothing is more disgusting in a dog. When you have your pup well "confirmed in ranging," take the cord, as above directed, peg him down. Probably he will attempt to follow you as you leave him, in which case the cord will check him with more or less force, according to the pace he goes at. The more he resists the more he punishes himself. At last he finds that by being still he is best off. Generally he lies down. At all events, he stands still. This is just what you desire. Without your intervention he punishes himself, and learns a lesson of great value, without attributing it to you, and consequently fearing you, to wit:--that he is not to have his own way always. After repeating this lesson a few times, you may take him to the peg, and "down" or "charge," as you like the term best, close to the peg in the proper position. Move away, but if he stirs one single inch, check him by the cord and drag him back, crying "down" or "charge." For the future I shall use the word "down." _You_ can in practice which you please. Leave him again, checking him when he moves, or letting him do it for himself when he gets to the end of it, always bringing him, however, back to the peg, jerking the cord with more or less severity. Do this for eight or ten times, and he will not stir. You must now walk quite out of sight, round him, run at him, in fact, do anything you can to make him move, when, if he moves, he must be checked as before, until he is perfectly steady. It is essential in this system of breaking that this first lesson should be so effectually taught that nothing shall induce the dog to move, and one quarter of an hour will generally effect this. In all probability, the dog will be much cowed by this treatment. Go up to him, pat him, lift him up, caress him, and take him home for that day. Half an hour per day for each dog will soon get over a long list of them. There is no more severe, I may as well remark here, or more gentle method of breaking than this; more or less vim being put into the check, according to the nature of the beast. I never saw it fail to daunt the most resolute, audacious devil, nor yet to cow the most timid after the first or second attempt, for it is essential in the first instance that THEY SHOULD OBEY. The next day, and for many days, you commence as at first. Peg him down, &c., and after he does this properly lift him up and walk him about, holding on to the cord still pegged in the ground, suddenly cry "_Down!_" accompanying the word with a check more or less severe, as requisite, till he does go down. Leave him as before. If he don't move, go up to him, pat him--a young dog ought never to move while breaking until he is touched--lift him up, if necessary, lead him about, again cry "down," and check him until he falls instantly at the word. This will do for lesson No. 2. The next day commence at the beginning, following up with lesson 2, making him steady at each. Before proceeding to the next step, release the one end of the cord from the peg, take it in your hand, cry "down;" if he goes down, well; if not, check him, pat him, loose the end of cord in the hand, let him run about, occasionally crying "down," sometimes when he is close at hand, at other times further off, visiting any disobedience with a check, until he will drop at the word anywhere immediately. At these times his lesson may last for an hour twice a day. He will get steady more quickly and better. QUARTERING. His next step is to learn to quarter his ground thoroughly and properly. It is the most difficult to teach, and requires more care and ability, than any other part of his acquirements, on the part of the preceptor. For this purpose select a moderately sized field, say one hundred or two hundred yards wide, where you are certain there is no game. Cast him off at the word "hold up" to the right or left, up wind. This is essential, to prevent their turning inwards, and so going over the same ground twice. (I forgot to say that a cord fifteen feet is long enough now; it does not impede his ranging, and he is nearly as much at command with it as with one twice as long.) If a dog is inclined to this fault of turning inwards, you must get before him up wind, and whistle him just before he turns. This will in the end break him of that habit. If he takes too much ground up wind, call "down," and start him off, after you get to him, in the way he should go. You ought also yourself to walk on a line with the direction the dog is going. This will accustom him to take his beat right through to the fence, and not in irregular zigzags, as he otherwise would do. He must now be kept at these lessons in "down," charging, and quartering, till he is quite perfect and confirmed, setting him off indiscriminately to the right or left, so that when you hunt with another, both may not start one way. Much time will be gained, and the dog rendered by far more perfect by continuing this practice for some time. It is far better to render him au fait at his work by slight punishments, frequently repeated, and by that means more strongly impressed on his memory, than by a severe cowhiding. This latter process is apt to make him cowed, than which there is nothing worse. Many a fine dog is ruined by it. The punishment of the check is severe, and, as I said before, whilst it never fails to daunt the most resolute, so also it can be so administered as not in the end to cow the most timid. Here it is you are to use your discretion so to temper justice and mercy that you cause yourself to be obeyed without spoiling your creature. For full a month this ought daily to be done, if fine. It is a good plan to feed your young dogs at this stage all together, with a cord round each of their necks, making them "down" several times between the trough and their kennel. Pat one dog, and let him feed awhile. The rest being "down," call him back and make him "down" also, checking him if he does not instantly obey. Pat another now, and let him feed awhile, and so on all through one day, sending one first then another. They learn by this a daily lesson of _obedience_, and also to let another dog pass them when at _point_. After your dog is perfectly steady, take him out as before, and when he has run off what is termed the wire edge, introduce him to where there are birds. Set him off up wind, and most probably he will spring the first bird, and chase. Follow him, crying "down." This, in the first ardor of the moment, he is not expected to do, but sooner or later he will. You must now pull him back to where he sprung the birds. By repeatedly doing this, he will chase less and less, always pulling him back to where the bird rises, crying "down." Gradually, by this, he will learn to drop at the rise of the bird, and ultimately to make a point; though most well bred dogs do this the first time. When they do so, cry "down," very slightly checking them if they do not. Great caution is necessary here to prevent their blinking. It is always advisable to teach all young dogs to "down" when they point. When once down, they will lie there as long as you please, and are less likely to blink, run in, chase. You ought, if possible, to get before the dog when you cry "down." It is less likely also to make him blink. Every dog, old or young, ought to be broken to drop when a bird rises, not at the report of the gun. It renders them far more steady. A young dog ought to be hunted alone till he is perfectly confirmed in these points. It is a very absurd idea to suppose that killing birds prevents their chasing, quite "au contraire." Seeing the bird fall in its flight encourages them to chase. It is far better to get a bird and peg it down so as to flutter and run about before the dog when he is "down." This persisted in soon brings them steady. The other plan takes a much longer time to accomplish. A young dog may easily be taught to back. Make one dog down, and then cry "down" to him, checking him if he does not, and pulling him to where he ought to drop. In the field, after a time, you use the word "toho," at which also he drops or points. A young dog ought never to be hunted with an old one. The latter always has tricks; in fact, is cunning; and at that age a bad fault is easily learnt, but not so easily forgotten. This is Lloyd's art of breaking. A more sensible one I have never seen, nor do I believe is. I have broken many dogs on it, and never saw it fail. Patience, practice, and temper are all that is required, for dogs can only be taught by lessons frequently repeated. When first you shoot over a young dog, an assistant should hold the end of the long line to check him, should he attempt to run in when the bird falls. Lloyd says further, "I never use a whip on any occasion whatever." He trusts to the cord. This is all right while breaking and finishing off a dog, but after that one cannot be expected to lug fifteen feet of cord in one's pocket, though, doubtless, it is very true that it is more efficacious than the whip, and does not make them so apt to blink. Some will sneak away, and are not easily caught, after committing a fault, and others are so shy, that they would not bear a lash, and yet are readily broken with the cord. By this means also dogs are broken to fetch a soft substance, for instance, a glove stuffed with wool is put in their mouths, checking them till they hold it, calling them to you, checking them if they drop it. By degrees you get them not only to hold and bring, but also to fetch it. Practice and patience only are required. Any one possessing them, and with but a slight knowledge of sporting matters, by following the above plain and precise rules, may break his own dogs. I have much pleasure in making it known to the American public. Where the article is taken from I cannot say. I got it a few years ago in manuscript, and Lloyd, Sir J. Sebright's keeper, is the author, and very creditable it is to him. The springer is broken by this equally well with the pointer or setter, omitting the pointing part; teaching, however, the quartering and "down," in the open, most perfectly and thoroughly before ever he goes into covert--till steady on birds, dropping the moment a bird rises and a gun is fired--observing, though, to teach him to take his quarters much closer and shorter. The cocker ought never to be fifteen yards from the shooter, and when two are shooting, should take his quarters from one to the other, turning at the whistle, and only gaining a few yards each turn. For beagles, kennel discipline is of more avail than out-door teaching. They must be taught to come and go, when called. To such perfection is this kennel discipline carried in England, that I have seen fifty couples of hounds waiting in a yard to be fed; the door open, each one coming when called by name; leaving his food when ordered "to bed" or "kennel." "Dogs come over," all the dogs coming over "Bitches come over," when all the bitches come. To do this requires time and patience. Out doors they are taught to follow the huntsman to cover, receiving a hearty cut of the whip if they lag or loiter by the way, whipped up if they neglect to come to the pipe of the horn, if they run to heel, hang too long on the scent, follow false scent, fox, rabbit, or anything else they be not hunted to. With them the whip is used, and severely too, sometimes. And now I have done with the training of dogs, all but the retriever. The cord will apply for him, though in addition to this he must be taught to "seek lost" in any direction you wave your hand. His lessons, however, will extend over a far greater length of time than the others. Age only increases his abilities. The more of a companion you make of him, the more tricks in seeking lost you teach him, the more valuable he becomes. My brother has one that can be sent miles to the house for any article almost, and he brings it. Last winter he sent him for the roast before the fire, and after a tussle with the cook it came sure enough. He is one of the most knowing dogs I ever saw. A large black fellow, of what breed I know not, Newfoundland and setter though, I fancy. Four pounds was his price. He is well worth five times four. For wounded birds he is invaluable, and has only one fault; he does not "charge," which all retrievers, as well as every other sporting dog, should do; else while you are loading, and they rushing about like mad, the birds get up, and you lose a chance, from either not being ready, or your gun being empty. Before concluding, I will state all the words and motions requisite to teach your pointers and setters. "Down," "Hold up," "Toho." Holding up your hand open means "down," or "Toho," where another dog is pointing. A whistle solus to come in "to heel"--that word for them to get behind you; a whistle and a wave of the hand to the right for them to quarter that way; ditto whistle and wave to the left to quarter to the left. Avoid shouting as much as possible. Nothing is more disgusting than to be bawling all the time. If your dog don't heed your whistle, get him to heel as fast and as quietly as possible, and administer a little strap, whistling to them sharply to impress it on their mind. Never pass by a single fault without either rating or flogging. Always make your dogs point a dead bird before retrieving it; and nothing is more insane than to loo on your dogs, after a wing-tipped bird. Hunt it quietly and deliberately. I know it is difficult to restrain yourself sometimes. How much more difficult, then, to restrain your dogs. Far better to lose a bird, a thing I detest doing, than run the chance of spoiling a young dog. Never take a liberty with him, however you may do so with an old one, though even he can and will be made unsteady, by letting him chase or have his own way. One thing leads to another. I thought I had got through, but methinks it is as well to state the best plan to find a dead bird in cover, or out also, for that matter. Walk as nearly as possible to where you fancy the bird fell; there stand, nor move a step, making the dogs circle round you till they find it. Practise them at this as much as any other part of their education, calling them constantly back if they move off. Should you find a dog going off, notice the direction, but call him back. If he should still return there, you may presume it is a runner. Let him try to puzzle it out, while you keep the other dog at work close to you. By this plan it is extraordinary what few birds you will lose in a season. Always hunt a brace of dogs. More are too many; one is just one too few. It is too pot-hunterish, too slow. You lose half the beauties of the sport seeing your dogs quartering their fields, crossing one another in the centre, or thereby, without jealousy, backing one another's points--both dropping "to shot" as if shot. You get over twice as much ground in a day. This, in a thinly sprinkled game country, is something. Where very plentiful, you find them all the quicker. FEEDING. With regard to the feeding of dogs, some few words are necessary, and we will endeavor to point out the best way to manage them properly, and with a due regard to economy. Where only one or two dogs are kept, it is presumed that the refuse of the house is ample for them. It will keep them in good order and condition; but where more are kept, it will be necessary to look further for their supplies. We will therefore treat them as one would a kennel, distinguishing town from country; for in the one what would be extremely cheap, in the other would be dear. For ordinary feeding, then, in town, purchase beef heads, sheep ditto, offal, i.e. feet, bellies, &c., which clean. Chop them up and boil to rags in a copper, filling up your copper as the water boils away. You may add to this a little salt, cabbage, parsnips, potatoes, carrots, turnips, or any other cheap vegetable. Put this soup aside, and then boil _old_ Indian meal till it is quite stiff. Let it also get cold. Take of the boiled meal as much as you think requisite, adding sufficient of the broth to liquefy it. This is the cheapest town food. In the country during the summer, skimmed milk, sour milk, buttermilk, or whey, may be used in place of the soup. In the winter, it is as well to give soup occasionally for a change. Never use new Indian flour. It scours the dogs dreadfully. Old does not. The plan I adopt is, to buy Indian corn this year for use next, store it, and send it to grind as I require it; and as the millers have no object in boning the old meal, returning new for it, I insure by this means no illness from feeding in my kennel. Although Indian corn has not either so much albumen or saccharine matter in it as oats, it does tolerably well with broth; but when the greatest amount of work is required in a certain given time from a certain quantity of dogs, as in a week's, fortnight's, or month's shooting excursion, I always use oatmeal, for two reasons:--1st, it is far more nourishing in itself, a less bulk of it going further than corn meal:--2nd, you cannot depend on getting old meal in the country, nor yet meat always to make soup. The dogs fed on oatmeal porridge and milk, which you always can get, do a vast deal of work, and have good scenting powers. Using these different articles, I calculate each dog to cost me one shilling York currency per week, and I pay fifty cents per bushel for Indian corn, six dollars per barrel for oatmeal (old), one York shilling for beef head, milk three cents per quart for new, probably, one and a half for skim. In a house there are always bones, potatoe peelings, and pot liquor. By cleaning the potatoes before peeling, and popping all into the dog pot, a considerable saving is effected in a year, and the dogs are benefited thereby. Mangel Wurtzel and Ruta Bagas, I believe they call them this side the water, are easily grown, and are good food, boiled up with soup. CONDITION. This brings me on to what is termed "condition," in other words, that form of body best adapted to undergo long and continued exertion. It is equally certain that a dog too fat, as well as one all skin and bone, is not in this state. These are the two forms from which different people start to bring their animals to the mark. Of the two, I certainly prefer the fat one. During the summer time, dogs should have plenty of air, water, and exercise. This is easily managed by taking them out whenever you go walking or riding, or letting them be loose all day, kennelling at night, and when this is done, by a mild dose of physic a fortnight before the season, and additional exercise along a _hard_ road to harden their feet, say two or three hours daily, you have your dogs in fair working order. When you have a dog too fat, you must purge him, and put him through a course of long but slow exercise at first, quickening by degrees, till you work off the fat, and leave substance and muscle in its place. With a lean dog you have a far harder job to manage, and one which takes a long time to accomplish. A mild dose to put him in form first, then the best, strongest, and most nutritious food you can get. Oatmeal and strong broth, gentle and slow exercise, this is the plan to put beef on his bones without fat. As he grows in substance, increase and quicken his work. Any person living in the country does or ought to take his dogs out when he rides or drives. The pace is fast and severe enough for them, and generally lasts sufficiently long. My dogs are exercised this way every time the horses go out, and are kept in fine order, if anything too fine, perhaps; but, then, what there is, is all muscle and hard flesh. During the shooting season, always feed your dogs with warm meals. Three o'clock is the best time at that season of the year, and a separate mess kept warm for your brace at work, when they return. Nothing conduces more to the keeping your dogs in condition than regular feeding hours and regular work. One meal a day is sufficient. Three o'clock is the best hour, as the dogs have tolerably emptied themselves by the next morning. I omitted to mention in the proper place to accustom your pups to the same food as when kennelled they will get. For this purpose, as soon as they feed well, give them regular kennel food, except that they must have three feeds a day for some six months, and after that two, till they are full grown. Use as little medicine as possible. Always feed your worked dogs immediately they get home. If you wait awhile, and they are tired, they curl themselves up, get stiff, and don't feed properly; and if they so refuse their food, and are by any accident to be out next day, they will not be up to the work. No dogs, however, can stand daily work properly for more than three days, and even that is more than enough for them, but they will stand every second day, if well attended to, for a considerable time. Always see your dogs fed _yourself_. No servant will do it as it should be done. Ten minutes or a quarter of an hour devoted to this as soon as you return from the field, will be more than repaid when next you use them. If you ride, or rather drive to your ground, as is best to do when more than a mile away, ride your dogs also; ditto as you return. Every little helps, and this short ride wonderfully saves your animals. I invariably do this. But when I drive, say twenty miles or so, to a shooting station, I generally run one brace or so the whole way, and the other brace perhaps ten miles, taking out next day that brace which only ran the short distance. Always on a trip of this kind take a bag of meal with you also. You are then safe. The neglect of this precaution in one or two instances has obliged me to use boiled beef alone, to the very great detriment of the olfactory senses of my dogs. Their noses, on this kind of food, completely fail them. Greasy substances also are objectionable for the same cause, unless very well incorporated with meal. For this reason I object to "tallow scrap" or chandlers' graves; but this I sometimes use in summer. Regular work, correct feeding, and regular hours, that is the great secret of one man's dogs standing harder work than others. A little attention to the subject will enable any one to keep his animals pretty near the mark. Amongst the receipts will be found one used in England for feeding greyhounds when in training, if any one likes to go to the expense of it. KENNEL. This treatise would not be complete without making some remarks on that very essential thing, the kennel. Where only a brace of dogs are kept, the common movable box kennel is sufficient. This should be large enough to hold the two comfortably, with a sharp pitch to the roof and projecting front; but I should recommend one for each dog slightly raised from the ground, sufficiently high for the dog to stand up in, and wide enough for him to turn round in. The entrance had better be boarded up, except a hole for him to enter and get out by. But where a large number of dogs are kept, this plan of separate houses is expensive, and in their place I would recommend a brick building sixteen feet long by five feet wide and six feet high, or, if brick be not get-at-able, a boarded house will do; but it ought to be lined and boarded outside, the space between the two filled up with sawdust, and weather-boarded. Besides, this sixteen feet must be divided into three compartments right up to the top, one eight feet for the dogs, one five for the bitches, and one three feet for the worked dogs. The doors should be large enough to admit a man to clean. The beds ought to be raised on a bench from the floor, this bench movable on hinges at the back, so that it can be hoisted up, and cleaning done below. The dogs ought to be prevented getting under their beds, by a board reaching from the outside edge of the bench to the floor. Six or eight inches is sufficient raise. The floor of this kennel should slope outwards, to carry off wet. The door should have a small hole in it, with a swing door, so that by pushing against it, the dogs can get either in or out. In front of these two, that is to say, the dog and bitch departments, a court-yard, either paved or flagged, both preferable to brick, since they dry quicker, and consequently there is less fear of kennel lameness, caused by paddling on a damp floor. These courts ought to run out at least ten or fifteen feet to the front, and of course the partition kept up between the two. This outside court may be palisaded, but it should be at least ten feet high, else the dogs are liable to break kennel; and the front of the house also at the top should be fortified, to prevent their eloping that way. If possible, a stream of running water should be conducted through the yards; it aids its daily washing, as well as enabling the dogs to get as much pure water as they choose. When this cannot be had, a trough must be daily filled for their use. Clean wheat straw, removed twice a week, or shavings of pine or cedar when to be had are better, must be used for their beds. Always feed your dogs together in a V shaped trough, raised slightly from the ground, taking care to restrain the greedy and encourage the shy feeders. In a building of this sort, they will be perfectly warm and comfortable. Every portion of it must be daily cleaned out, and the rubbish carried away. Twice a year it should be whitewashed inside and out, and fumigated with sulphur, tobacco, &c. This considerably helps to destroy vermin. Nothing conduces more to disease than a filthy kennel, nothing vitiates a dog's nose more than foetid smells. In the rear of this kennel should be your boiling house, if your establishment requires one. All that is required is a copper, set in brick, with a chimney, to boil mush and meat in, a barrel to hold soup, and a ledge or tray, three or four inches deep, to pour the mush in to cool and set; a chopping block, knife, ladle, with long wooden handle, to stir and empty the copper with, a few hooks to hang flesh on, when you use horse-flesh, &c., in place of heads--equally good, by the way, when you can get it--shovel, broom, and buckets. I believe all in this department is now complete and requisite, when you keep six or more dogs. The spare place is good for breeding bitches, when you do not require it for your tired dogs, as also for sick ones. In fact, you cannot well do without it. And now methinks I may safely add a few words on guns. This, of course, especially to the rising generation. I need not tell you not to put the shot all in one barrel and the powder in the other, though I have frequently seen it done, aye, and done it myself, when in a mooning fit; but I will say, never carry your gun at full cock or with the hammers down, than which last there cannot be anything more dangerous. The slightest pull upon the cock is sufficient to cause it to fall so smartly on the cone or nipple as to explode the cap. Positively, I would not shoot a day, no, nor an hour, with a man that so carried his gun. At half cock there is no danger. By pulling ever so hard at the trigger, you cannot get it off; and if you raise the cock ever so little, it falls back to half cock, or, at the worst, catches at full cock. Never overcharge your gun. Two to two and a half drachms of powder, and one ounce to one and a quarter of shot, is about the load. For summer shooting, still less. Never take out a dirty gun, not even if only once fired out of, even if you have to clean it yourself. After cleaning with soap rubbed on the tow in warm, or better, cold water, without the soap, if not over dirty, remove the tow, put on clean, and pump out remaining dirt in clean warm water, rinsing out the third time in other clean warm water. Invert the barrels, muzzle downwards, while you refix your dry tow on the rod. Work them out successively with several changes of tow, till they burn again. Drop a few drops of animal oil--refined by putting shot into the bottle; neat's foot oil is best for this--on to the tow, and rub out the inside of barrels with it well. Wipe the outside with oil rag, cleaning around the nipples with a hard brush and a stick; ditto hammers and the steel furniture. Use boiled oil to rub off the stock, but it must be well rubbed in. Before using next day, rub over every part with a clean dry rag. Nothing is more disgusting than an oily gun, and yet nothing is more requisite than to keep it so when out of use. In receipts you will find a composition to prevent water penetrating to the locks, which ought to be as seldom removed as possible. I shall not tell you how to do this, for if you do know the how, where is the necessity, and if you don't, in all probability you would break a scear or mainspring in the attempt, as I did, when first I essayed, and after that had to get the gamekeeper to put it together. So your best plan in this latter case is to watch the method for a time or two, when you will know as much of the matter as I do. The finest barrels are rusted the most easily, and suffer the more detriment by rusting. Of course the fouler the gun the greater the evil that arises from its being left foul. In hot weather, barrels suffer infinitely more than in cold; and in wet, than in dry. When dampness and heat are combined, the mischief is yet augmented; and, probably, the worst conditions that can be supposed are when, to dampness and heat, a salt atmosphere is superadded. No man who owns a fine gun, which he values, ought ever to put it aside after use without cleaning, even if he have fired but a single shot. Again, every man who loves his gun, should make it a point to clean it with his own hands. It may do in Europe, where one has a game-keeper at his elbow who knows how to clean a gun better than he does himself, and who takes as much pride in having it clean as he. Use strong and clean shooting powders. Don't use too large, nor yet too small shot. Six, seven, and eight are about your mark for ordinary work; for duck, from common gun, number four. Never leave your dog whip at home: you always want it most on those occasions. A gun thirty-one inch barrel, fourteen gauge, and eight pounds weight, is as useful an article as you can have. Never poke at a bird, that is, try to see him along the barrels. If you do, you never can be a good or a quick shot. Fix your eye or eyes on the bird, lift up your gun, and fire the moment it touches your shoulder. Practise this a little, and believe me you will give the pokers the go by in a short time. It is the only way to be a sharp shot. And now I will have done, trusting I have not wasted your time in reading so far to no purpose. CREDIT GIVEN FOR RECEIPTS. In the following receipts you will find those of Blaine Youatt, Myres, Herbert, and several other people, but as I really don't know to whom the credit is due for each individual one, I trust to be forgiven. This much, however, I can say, there are not more than one or two of my own. I have tried most, if not all, and found them good. Some are not quite as in the original, having been amended by a sporting medical man, a friend of mine, to suit the new fashion of preparing medicines. RECEIPTS. We will commence these by directions to give a dog physic. If he is not over large, you can manage by your self. Invert a bucket, and sit on it. Set the dog down on his haunches between your legs, holding him up with your knees. Tie a cloth round his neck; this falling over his fore-paws is pressed against his ribs by your knees. His fore-legs by this dodge are hors du combat. With the finger and thumb of one hand force open his jaws, elevating his head at the same time with the same hand. If a bolus, with the other hand pass it over the root of the tongue, and give it a sharp poke downwards. Close the mouth, still holding up the head, till you see it swallowed. If a draught, give a mouthful, close the mouth, hold up the head, and stop the nostrils. Repeat this, if the draught is too large to be taken at once. If the dog is very large, you must have an assistant, else in his struggles he will upset physic and yourself into the bargain. GENERAL REMARKS ABOUT DOGS IN PHYSIC. Keep them dry and warm, especially when you use calomel or any mercurial preparation. Always remove them from the kennel, and put them into an hospital apart from the rest, to prevent infection, as well as to insure the poor brutes quietness. Study the appearance of the eyes, feet, nose, extremities, pulse, &c. [Illustration: BEAGLES.] _To make a bitch inclined to copulate._--Seven drops Tincture of Cantharides twice a day till effect is produced--about six days, probably. _Mange._--Caused by dirty kennels, neglect, want of nourishing, or improper, food. Cure--1 oz. salts, if dog of moderate size. Rub every third day well into the skin quantum suf. of the following mixture:-- Train oil--tanner's will do--one quart; spirits turpentine one large wineglass full; sulphur sufficient to let it just run off a stick. Mix well. Three applications are generally sufficient. Let it stay on the animal for a fortnight, when wash well with soap and water. Remember, it takes nearly two hours to well scrub the above into the skin. Smearing over the hair is no use. It must get well into the skin; and if neatly and properly done, the dog scarcely shows the application. _Worms._--[Rx] Cowhage, half a drachm; tin filings, very fine, four drachms. Make into four or six balls, according to size of dog. One daily, and a few hours afterwards a purge of salts or aloes. Powdered glass, as much as will lie on a shilling, i.e. a quarter dollar, new coin, in lard. Repeat once or twice alternate days. Finish off with one to two drachms Socotrine Aloes, rolled up in tissue paper. Mind, the glass must be ground into the finest kind of powder, else it will injure the coats of the stomach. _To make a dog fine in his coat._--A tablespoonful of tar in oatmeal. Make bolus. _Distemper._--Distemper is caused by low keep, neglect, and changes of atmosphere. Symptoms of the disease are as follows:--Loss of spirit, activity, and appetite, drowsiness, dulness of the eyes, lying at length with nose to the ground, coldness of extremities, legs, ears, and lips, heat in head and body, running at the nose and eyes, accompanied by sneezing, emaciation, and weakness, dragging of hinder quarters, flanks drawn in, diarrhoea, sometimes vomiting. There are several receipts for this, the worst and most fatal of all diseases. One is better than another, according to the various stages. This first, if commenced at an early stage, seldom fails. Half an ounce of salts in warm water, when the dog is first taken ill; thirty-six hours afterwards, ten grains compound Powder of Ipecacuanha in warm water. If in two days he is no better, take sixteen grains Antimonial Powder, made into four boluses; one night and morning for two days. If no improvement visible, continue these pills, unless diarrhoea comes on, in which case you must use the ipecacuanha day about with the pills. If the animal is much weakened by this, give him one teaspoonful Huxam's Tincture of Bark three times a day. Keep warm, and feed on rich broth. James's Powder is also almost a certain remedy Dose four grains; or Antimonial Powder and Calomel, three parts of first to one of latter, from eight to fifteen grains; or, after the salts, Ant. Powder, two, three, or four grains, Nitrate Potash, five, ten, or fifteen grains; Ipecacuanha, two, three, or four. Make into ball, and give twice or three times a day, according to appearances. Repeat the purge or emetics every fourth day, but avoid too great looseness of bowels. Diarrhoea sometimes supervenes, in which case give Compound Powder of Chalk, with Opium, ten grains. In case of fits coming on, destroy the animal. The same may be said of paralysis. If this disease is taken in its early stage, and attended to, and the dog kept warm, there is not much danger. Otherwise it is very fatal. _Wounds._--Poultice for a day or two; then apply Friar's Balsam, covering up the place. _For a Green Wound._--Hog's lard, turpentine, bees' wax, equal parts; verdigris, one fourth part. Simmer over a slow fire till they are well mixed. _Purgative Medicines._--Salts, one ounce; Calomel, five grains; or Socotrine Aloes, two drachms for moderate sized dog. _Stripping Feet._--Wash in bran and warm water, with a little vinegar; after apply Tincture of Myrrh. Apply sweet oil before he goes out. If his feet are tender, wash them in brine, to harden them. When actually sore, buttermilk, greasy pot liquor, or water gruel, are best. Brine inflames. The dog should be kept at home till feet are healed. Then apply the brine and vinegar. _Canker in the Ear._--Wash well with soap and warm water; fill up the ear with finely powdered charcoal or powdered borax. Clean out daily with sponge on stick and warm water, and repeat the dusting till it heals. Or, perhaps, the best receipt is,--clean out ear with sponge fastened on a pliable stick, using warm soap and water. When quite clean, dip the sponge in Sulphate of Copper-water, turning it gently round. Put seton in the neck just under the ear. Oak Bark, one pound, chopped fine, and well boiled in soft water. When cold, take of the Decoction of Bark four ounces, Sugar of Lead, half a drachm. Put a teaspoonful into the ear night and morning, rubbing the root of ear well, to cause it to get well into the cavities. This is one of the best receipts in this book. _To make Sulphate of Copper Water._--Sulphate of Copper half a drachm, water one ounce. Mix well and keep corked. _External Canker of Ear._--Butter of Antimony, diluted in milk to the thickness of cream, will cure it; or Red Precipitate of Mercury, half an ounce, with two ounces of hog's lard, mixed well. _To make a Seton._--Take a dozen or two strands of a horse's tail; plait them; rub blistering ointment on them. Pass it through two or three inches of the skin with a curved surgical needle. Tie the two ends together. Move daily. _Bleeding._--You may readily bleed a dog in the jugular vein by holding up his head, stopping the circulation at the base of the neck. Part the hair, and with the lancet make an incision, taking care not to stick him too deeply. If the animal rejoices in a heavy coat, it may be necessary to shave away the hair. From one to eight ounces are the quantities; but in this, as in most prescriptions, the old proverb is the safest--"Keep between the banks." _For a Strain._--Use Bertine's Liniment; or one ounce Turpentine, half a pint of old beer, half a pint of brine; bathe the part and repeat; or Sal Ammonia, one ounce, vinegar one pint. _Bruises or Strains of long standing._--Gall, Opodeldoc, excellent. Shaved Camphor two ounces, Spirits of Wine three quarters of a pint. Shake well, and cork close, placing it near the fire till the camphor dissolves. Then add a bullock's gall. Shake well together. Apply, rubbing it well into the part affected till it lathers. _Dog Poisoned._--Give teacupful of castor oil. After he has vomited well, continue to pour olive oil down his throat and rub his belly. _Staggers and Fits._--This generally happens in warm weather. Throw water on them, if convenient. If not, bleed in neck, if you have lancets. If not, with your knife slit the ears, which you can cause to adhere together again; or run your knife across two or three bars next the teeth. Bitches coming off heat are more subject to this than dogs in good health. _To reduce the time a bitch is in heat._--Give her a little Nitre in water, and a dose of Calomel, four grains or thereabouts, followed by salts or aloes. _Bilious Fever._--Is caused by want of exercise and too high feeding. Calomel, six or eight grains; or, in an obstinate case, Turpeth Mineral or Yellow Mercury, six to twelve grains in a bolus. _To destroy Lice._--Sometimes the receipt below for fleas will prove efficacious, but not always; but a small quantity of Mercurial Ointment, reduced by adding hog's lard to it, say an equal quantity, rubbed along the top of the dog's back never fails. The greatest care must be taken to keep the animal warm. _Fleas._--Scotch snuff steeped in gin is infallible; but must be used with great care, and not above a teaspoonful of snuff to a pint of gin,--as the cure, if overdone, is a deadly poison. _Torn Ears._--Laudanum and brandy, equal parts. Mix well. Apply alternately with sweet oil. _Feed for Greyhounds in training._--Wheat flour and oatmeal, old, equal parts. Liquorice, aniseed, and white of eggs. Make into a paste. Make loaves. Bake them. Break up into very rich broth. _Swelled Teats._--Make pomade of Camphorated Spirit, or brandy, and goose grease, two or three times a day. _Inflammation of the Bowels._--Symptoms: Dulness of appearance and eyes; loss of appetite; lying on the belly, with outstretched legs; pulse much quickened; scratching up of the bed into a heap, and pressing the belly on it; desire to swallow stones, coal, or any cold substance not voidable; inclination to hide away. It is very dangerous; requires active treatment. Bleed most freely, till the dog faints away. Clap a blister on the pit of the stomach. Give Aloes, fifteen grains, and Opium, half a grain. Repeat dose three times a day. Bleed after twelve hours, if pulse rises again, and continue dosing and bleeding till either the dog or inflammation gives in. No half measures do in this disease. After determining that it is inflammation of bowels, set to work to get the upper hand. When that is done, there is no trouble. Otherwise it is fatal. Feed low, and attend carefully to prevent relapse. _Films over the Eyes._--Blue stone or Lunar Caustic, eight grains, spring water, one ounce. Wash the eyes with it, letting a little pass in. Repeat this daily, and you will soon cure it. _Films caused by Thorn Wounds_.--Rest the dog till perfectly healed over, washing with rose water. If much inflammation, bleed, and foment with hot water, with a few drops of laudanum in it--about forty drops of laudanum to one ounce of water; or two grains of opium to one ounce of water--one as good as the other. Then apply four or five times a day the following wash:--Superacetate of Lead, half a drachm, Rose Water, six ounces. _To extract Thorns._--Cobbler's wax bound on to the place, or black pitch plaster or a poultice, are equally good. _To preserve Gun Barrels from rust of salt water._--Black lead, three ounces; hog's lard, eight ounces; camphor, quarter ounce; boiled together over a slow fire; the barrels to be rubbed with this mixture, which after three days must be wiped off clean. This need not be repeated above twice in the winter. _Bite of a Snake._--Olive oil, well rubbed in before a fire, and a copious drench of it also. _To render Boots or Shoes Water-proof._--Beef suet, quarter of a pound; bees' wax, half a pound; rosin, quarter of a pound. Stir well together over a slow fire. Melt the mixture, and rub well into the articles daily with a hard brush before the fire. _To Soften Boots._--Use hog's lard, half a pound; mutton suet, quarter of a pound; and bees' wax, quarter of a pound. Melt well, and rub well in before the fire; or currier's oil is as good, barring the smell. _Water-proofing for Gun Locks._--Make a saturated solution of Naphtha and India rubber. Add to this three times the quantity of Copal Varnish. Apply with a fine, small brush along the edges of the lock and stock. DISTEMPER. How best to convey to my readers a clear, and at the same time succinct account of this disease, has much troubled me. This is now the third attempt made to set before my brother sportsmen, who have had little or no experience, in the plainest terms, the symptoms and features of the disease, as well as the best remedies to be applied to its various stages and ever varying types. After considerable doubts on the subject, I fancy that by setting before you a series of cases which have come under my own treatment, the peculiar features of each case, the remedies prescribed, and the termination, whether fatal or otherwise, I shall best serve the interests of my readers. I beg expressly to state, that with one or two exceptions--the cases of the older dogs--of which I write from recollection, after a lapse of several years, and consequently cannot be so positive about, the others have all recently passed through my hands, and the course of treatment, &c., has been especially noted, and here recorded with minute exactness. The range of cases are, I believe, sufficiently numerous to meet any form and stage of the disease, from the most simple to the most complicated and fatal. With the sole exception of chorea or paralysis, a case of which I have never fairly seen through, one or two cases are noted, in which this would have been the termination, but for the remedies applied. The system pursued has been a combination of a great many various receipts, adapted to each peculiar case; and through the very severe cases that this year have depopulated my kennel, I have been under great obligations to a very talented medical man, whose advice I ever found of great service, and whose professional knowledge enabled him so to vary the quantities and forms of the medicines as best to overcome some particular form or other. Every keeper or sportsman has, or professes to have, some never-failing nostrum or other. Believe me, this is all stuff. There have been, are, and ever will be, cases incurable; but I will venture to say, that ninety-nine out of a hundred who know anything of the subject will admit that these remedies contain some one or more of the following medicines, all of which are of value:--Epsom Salts, Calomel, Jalap, Tartar Emetic, as purgatives or vomits; Antimony, Nitre, James' Powder, Ipecacuanha, as sudorifics, diaphoretics, or febrifuges. From these medicines, the most used, it is evident to see what tendency the course of treatment is designed to have, and when it fails, extra means must be employed till that is effected. Here it is that study, practice, and an intimate knowledge of medicines and their combinations prove of great advantage. At this stage more dogs are lost for want of knowledge what next to do than in any other way; for they are either getting worse or better, never standing still, and each day's illness tells much against the recovery, from the great emaciation and weakness which commences from the first, and keeps increasing daily. Never was there a more appropriate quotation than "Opus est consulto, sed ubi consulueris mature facto." It were idle to speculate on the origin of the disease. Suffice for us that we have it, and that we consider it an affection of the mucous membrane, solely, in the earlier stages, but ultimately combining itself with general mucous affections. But it will not be foreign to our purpose to state several influences which are supposed, if not actually to cause, at all events, greatly to increase its virulence. They are these:--_Low Diet_, _Dirt_, _Confinement in close, unhealthy, damp kennels_, _too great a quantity of raw, or even boiled flesh_, _too little exercise_, _sudden changes in the atmosphere_, and _contagion_. It cannot be called endemic, since it exists everywhere. Neither is it exactly an epidemic, though some years it does assume that form, while at other times it does not. Bleeding we see recommended in the Field Sports. Some practitioners are very fond of the lancet. We confess quite a contrary penchant, and hold that bleeding is seldom or ever justifiable, except in cases of violent inflammations. In distemper, we would not draw blood, once in a hundred times; for the usual course of the disease is so enervating, that in ordinary circumstances nature is reduced far more than agreeable; and as purgatives must be used under any circumstances, they will in general be sufficient to reduce any fever. We will now mention the ordinary symptoms whence we determine this complaint. Lowness of spirit, drowsiness, dimness of the eyes, staring of the coat, loss of appetite, may be noticed, and frequently disregarded. Here we will remark that a mild dose of Epsom salts, according to age--vide prescriptions at the end, No. one,--will suffice. In a day or two, however, if neglected, sometimes a running at the nose will be seen; or the ears and feet will be cold, while the head and body will be feverish; the nose will be hard, dry, and cracked. By degrees, if neglected, the nose will discharge a thick purulent matter, the belly become hotter and distended, the dog will lie full stretch, belly to the ground, the hind legs begin to fail. He may also have spasmodic and convulsive twitchings, giddiness, foaming at the mouth, epileptic fits. Now he will ravenously eat anything cold, drink any quantity of water. FIRST CASE. _Three Setter pups, two to three months old. Appearance, &c._--_Slight_ drowsiness, dimness of eyes, staring of coat, fæces hard. Gave two teaspoonfuls No. one, and repeated next day. Intermitted a day. Repeated dose to make sure. All well. SECOND CASE. _Three Setter puppies, same age at the same time._--Symptoms same, and also heat in body and head; coldness of extremities; bodies inclined to hardness; fæces dark and irregular. Gave four teaspoonfuls No. one. Next morning, if anything worse, belly still hard and swelling, gave each half a grain of Calomel, half a grain of Tartar Emetic. After an hour, no vomit having been attained, repeated the dose. At night gave each a pill--Antimony, two grains, Nitre, ten grains, Ipecacuanha, three grains. _Third day._--Saw pups about eight A.M. One had had a fit, another had one while we were present, and the third seemed likely to have one. Its eyes looked wild; it was unnaturally brisk, and running about; the nose discharged more freely, but not yet any foul matter. Gave all three Calomel and Tartar Emetic as before, and repeated, it not having produced any effect. Between the doses, the two had each a fit, and several, we may as well mention, through the day, the earlier ones being the most severe. About one hour after the vomit, gave each one tablespoonful Castor oil. Fed them with bread and milk. At night gave pill to each--Antimony, three grains, Nitre, ten grains, Ipecacuanha, two grains. Next morning two pups were better. Gave them No. one, two teaspoonfuls, pill as before, night and morning, for two days. No. one the third day. Sent them to kennel. The third of this lot we found not to have had fits; but his bowels were hard, and his secretions black and improper. Gave him Calomel and Tartar Emetic as before, with No. one, usual dose, and pills as above. Gradually he got weaker and weaker, and at last he died. The error here was undoubtedly in not increasing the calomel, and leaving out emetic, so as to endeavor to alter the secretions. A pill, for instance, in this form, would have better met the case. Calomel, one grain, Antimony, two grains, Nitre, five grains, followed up in three hours by one teaspoonful No. two. THIRD CASE. _Two Setter pups, same age as the last._--Case very bad. Fits had taken place more than once. Bodies hard, tumid head and belly hot, evidently much pain in body; ears and feet icy cold; nose hard and thick, pus in it; fæces not noticed. Gave instantly, vomit as before; Calomel and Tartar Emetic, half a grain. Repeated in one hour, not having operated. Half an hour after this had taken place, gave two teaspoonfuls No. two to each. This purged very quickly. One of the puppies appeared to be in much pain. Gave it a saltspoonful of mustard in a little milk. Fits constantly occurring, with intervals of one or two hours, repeated the mustard, and gave Spirits of Hartshorn, six drops, Camphor water, sixty drops, Sweet Spirits Nitre, twenty drops, Laudanum, six drops. Repeated this dose in six hours' time. Kept them all night by the kitchen stove. Slightly better next morning. Gave pill--Antimony, three grains, Calomel, one grain, Nitre, ten grains. Three hours after, two teaspoonfuls No. two. Fits had ceased before night. Gave pill--Antimony, two grains, Ipecacuanha, three grains, Nitre, ten grains, each night and next morning. Next day improvement visible. Wildness of the eye abated; fever in body and coldness of extremities much diminished: secretions, however, still irregular; nose dry and hard. At night gave pill--Ipecacuanha, three grains, Nitre, ten grains, Ginger Essence, five drops. Next morning gave two teaspoonfuls No. two. At night, half teaspoonful diluted Quinine Mixture. Next day gave Quinine twice. Day after, two teaspoonfuls No. one. Sent well to kennel. These were the worst cases of epileptic fits we ever saw. The pair could not have had less than twenty fits each, which lasted from a quarter to half an hour, during which they uttered most piercing howlings. FOURTH CASE. _Pointer puppy ten months old._--Brought in from kennel: food chiefly raw flesh. Condition high. Appearance--Eyes very dull; drowsy; nose hard, dry, with thick mucous effusion; evacuations very offensive. Should consider this the putrid type. Gave half an ounce of salts in warm water. Two days after, gave ten grains Compound Powder of Ipecacuanha. No better: nose running a thick, heavy matter; fæces very offensive. Two days after giving last medicine, gave four grains Antimonial Powder, night and morning, for two days. Dog died. _Remarks._--This case happened years ago, when we were young. Our treatment was bad from the commencement, but the case was a vile one also. The following formulæ would have been more befitting:--Calomel, half a grain, Tartar Emetic, half a grain, repeated with intermissions of an hour, till a vomit was secured. Wineglassful of No. two in an hour afterwards. At night, Antimony, four grains, Nitre, ten grains, repeated next morning. If secretions then offensive, Calomel, two grains, followed by wineglass No. two, in three hours. Then use Antimony, Nitre, and Ipecacuanha, more or less, according as you wish to act on the skin, or on the lungs or kidneys. If the cough is bad, increase the Ipecacuanha. If fever prevails, add to the Antimony. Nitre acts on the bladder. FIFTH CASE. _A Terrier bitch in very low condition, pups having been lately weaned. Age, two or three years._--Symptoms very mild. Gave half an ounce of salts, and two days after, ten grains Ipecacuanha, followed up by four grains Antimonial Powder, for two days. Results: bitch was cured of distemper, but so dreadfully weak, could not feed itself. Gave one teaspoonful of Huxam's Tincture of Bark, three times a day. Hand-fed her frequently with rich beef soup, milk, and bread. After a very hard fight, brought her round. _Remarks._--Could not have done better much, except would have given a combination of Antimony, Ipecacuanha, and Nitre at first, i.e. after purging with salts. Got great credit at the time for the cure, more deserved for nursing well. From these cases you will be able to see, that for a simple purgative we prefer salts, as being a very cooling dose, and suiting a dog's constitution well. In the earlier stages, it sometimes effects a cure. Where there is a discharge of the nose, you must, after purging, work on the lungs. Where there is fever, you must double your purging, i.e. clean them out front and rear as quickly as possible. Where to this is added a visible disorganization of the secretions, you ought to call in Calomel in large doses, one or two grains, repeated, and this you may continue with Antimony, and so at the same time subdue the inflammation of the lungs. In the earlier part of spring and in fall, there is little fear of diarrhoea supervening. A slight attack of it will not be of much consequence provided you take care to keep it well in hand. Opium must be used with great caution; it rather tends to epileptic fits, which, by the way, we consider to result from an almost stoppage of the bowels. Compound Powder of Chalk, Quinine Mixture, Rhubarb, Catechu, will generally be sufficient. In the Field Sports is the following receipt, and as we have invariably found Blaine and Youatt's horse and dog receipts the most reliable, we quote it. It is new to us, and so is a violent case of diarrhoea, for that matter. [Rx] Magnesia, one drachm; powdered Alum, two scruples; Powdered Calumba,[1] one drachm; P. Gum Arabic, two drachms. Mix with six ounces boiled starch, and give a dessert or table spoonful every four or six hours, pro re natâ. FOOTNOTES: [1] Catechu, one drachm, will be better than the Calumba. It is far more efficacious.--_Dinks._ CASE. We will now suppose a case, for our practice of late years has been confined to young puppies. Ears and feet cold; body and head very hot; body hard and distended; nose hard, dry, and almost stopped up with thick matter; dry, husky cough; fæces, hard; pulse rapid, evidencing much fever. Give instantly, Calomel and Tartar Emetic, half a grain each, repeating it with intermissions of an hour, till you get a vomit. One hour after, give wine glass No. two. Twelve hours after, if fever has not abated, give three grains Calomel, followed in three hours by wine glass of No. two. If the next day you find any fever still lingering, give Calomel, three grains, as before, Antimonial Powder, eight grains. This will, with, in three hours, the usual quantity of No. two, be pretty sure to be successful. You must now address yourself to the cold and other symptoms; and you may give large doses of Ipecacuanha and Nitre. Keep the bowels open, but avoid active purging, except in cases of fever. If you find at any time the body getting hard and distended, administer the emetic. Let the dog out into the air whenever it is fine and warm, keep his nose well cleaned out, and change his bed daily. Encourage him to drink fresh water, if he will. The receipts alluded to in the previous pages are as follows:-- _No. 1._--_For young pups up to six months old._--Of Epsom salts, take two ounces; of water, one quart. Mix well, and keep close corked. _No. 2._--Eight ounces of Saturated Solution of Epsom salts, in water; thirty drops Sulphuric Acid. Mix well, and cork close. Antimony is preferable, when there is fever. It is an antiphlogistic. Ipecacuanha, when there is much debility. The last also affects the lungs, and is more efficient in removing cold. Half an ounce of salts is a fair dose for a dog from nine months to any age. No. 2 is particularly recommended, whenever an early action is required. It is essentially short, sharp and decisive. FORM OF GAME BOOK. +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | Total | | Date. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Deer. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Turkey. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Ruffed Grouse. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Pinnated Grouse. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Quail. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Snipe. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Woodcock. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Duck. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Teal. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Rail. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Plover. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Guns. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Shots. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | Place where shooting. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | | No. of Head to own Gun. | +-------+------------------------+-------------------------+ | | REMARKS. | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------------------+-------------------------+ This will be found as convenient a form as any for recording the season's bag, and I would suggest as a means to accurately determine the number of shots, to put a given number, say 50 or 80 caps, into your cap pocket every day on going out, deducting any miss-fired and wasted ones from the balance left on returning. This will give you an exact idea of your average shootings, which will be found not to exceed three out of five shots. In the column of remarks you can state your companion, quantity of game seen, &c.; in fact, any point worthy of notice, and to which afterwards you can refer. The writer's book dates back to 1845, and records every head of game killed while he was out, by his own, as also his friend's gun, remarks on the weather, curious ornithological observations, &c. DOGS, AND THEIR MANAGEMENT; BEING A NEW PLAN FOR TREATING THE ANIMAL, BASED UPON A CONSIDERATION OF HIS NATURAL TEMPERAMENT. Illustrated by numerous Engravings, DEPICTING THE CHARACTER AND POSITION OF THE DOG WHEN SUFFERING DISEASE. BY EDWARD MAYHEW, M.R.C.V.S. SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. PREFACE. In the following pages is laid before the public the result of several years' study. The Author hopes to be able, ultimately, to perfect a system of treatment which shall change only with the progress of the science, of which it can be no more than an offshoot. Saying this, the writer cannot be accused of self-glorification, since there is in the field no living author over whom he might appear to triumph. The book was also written with the hope of inducing the gentlemen of the Author's profession to study more carefully the Pathology of the Dog. This is at present not properly taught, nor is it rightly understood by the Veterinarians who profess to alleviate canine afflictions. Of all the persons who accept such offices, there is but one who, to the Author's knowledge, devotes the time, attention, or care which disease in every shape demands; and the individual thus honorably distinguished, is MR. GOWING of Camden Town. CONTENTS OF MAYHEW'S MANAGEMENT. Page General Remarks, 73 Distemper, 120 Mouth, Teeth, Tongue, Gullet, &c., 179 Bronchocele, 198 Respiratory Organs, 200 Hepatitis, 221 Indigestion, 227 Gastritis, 233 St. Vitus's Dance, 240 Bowel Diseases, 246 Paralysis of the Hind Extremities, 270 Rheumatism, 274 The Rectum, 278 Fits, 295 Rabies, 299 Generative Organs--Male, 313 " " Female, 337 Skin Diseases, 410 Canker within and without the Ear, 419 The Eye, 429 Diseases of the Limbs, 437 Fractures, 444 Operations, 450 [Illustration] DOGS: THEIR MANAGEMENT. GENERAL REMARKS. There is no animal so widely distributed as the dog. The like assertion could not be made of any other domesticated creature. In countries subjected to the extremes of heat or cold, in the centre of Africa, and at the Northern Pole, the horse is absent; but wherever man is able to exist, there, in some shape or other, the dog is represented. Various have been the speculations as to its original. There is no animal in any way approaching in outward appearance to the Canine Species (properly so called), but has been assumed to be the original parent of the family. Some have even fancied the fox was father to all the dogs that trot by the side of man; but this idea seems too preposterous to be maintained. Others, with more reason, have supposed the prototype of the dog was discovered in the wolf. There are, however, many differences to reconcile before this hypothesis can be received. The formation of the two animals is distinct,--their anatomy presents positive differences,--their time of breeding does not agree,--their habits are opposite, and their outward and inward character is entirely dissimilar. The above engraving is the portrait of the wolf. Is the reader in any danger of mistaking it for that of a dog? [Illustration: THE WOLF.] Thus the apparent separation of the two species appears to be so wide, that a child could point it out, and none but a philosopher could confound it. Others, again, have gone to warmer climates for the founder of the kind, which they have, to their own satisfaction, discovered in the jackal: but there are very many obstacles to be surmounted, before this supposition can be acknowledged. In the first place, although the dog is to be found in warm climates, he thrives least in those to which the jackal is entirely confined. Then all that has been urged against the fancy which conceived the prototype of the dog was to be found in the wolf, applies with even greater force to the jackal. However, to settle the dispute, we here give the likeness of the beast, and leave to the reader to point out the particular breed of dogs to which it belongs. [Illustration: THE JACKAL.] Beyond the circumstance of the habitats of the animals being distinct, is the well-known fact that all domesticated animals have a disposition to return to their original formation; but who ever heard of a dog, however neglected, or however wild, becoming either a wolf or a jackal? The dog is spread all over the world, and not only is the animal thus widely distributed over the face of the earth, but there is no creature that is permitted with such perfect safety to the human race to have such continual and intimate intercourse with mankind. It is found in every abode: the palace, the warehouse, the mansion, and the cottage, equally afford it shelter. No condition of life is there with which the dog is not connected. The playmate of the infant, the favorite of the woman, the servant of the man, and the companion of the aged, it is seen in and around every home. Thus brought into intimate connexion with the human race, and continually subject to observation, it is not a little strange that the dog should be universally misunderstood. There is no quadruped which is more abused; whether treated kindly or otherwise, the dog is equally made to suffer; and probably the consequences of over indulgence are more cruel in their result than is the opposite course of treatment. The health of the beast is perhaps best preserved when neglect deprives it of man's attention; then it may suffer from want, but it escapes many of the diseases which caprice or ignorance entail upon the generality of the tribe. There exists no creature more liable to disorder, and in which disease is prone to assume a more virulent or a more complicated form. To minister to its afflictions, therefore, demands no inconsiderable skill; and it becomes the more difficult to alleviate them, since canine pathology is not fully comprehended, nor the action of the various medicines upon the poor beast clearly understood; yet there are few persons who in their own estimation are not able to vanquish the many diseases to which the dog is liable. About every stable are to be met crowds of uneducated loiterers, possessors of recipes and owners of specifics, eager to advise and confident of success. I seldom send a diseased dog into the park for exercise, that my servant does not return to me with messages which strangers have volunteered how to cure the animal. I hear of medicines that never fail, and of processes that always afford relief. Persons often of the upper rank honor me with secret communications which in their opinion are of inestimable value; ladies frequently entreat me to try particular nostrums, and sportsmen not seldom command me to do things which I am obliged to decline. In fact, the man who shall attempt to treat the diseases of the dog, will have no little annoyance to surmount. He will soon discover that science unfortunately can afford him but partial help, while prejudice on every side increases the difficulties with which he will have to contend. Happily, however, the majority of pretended cures are harmless. A roll of sulphur in the animal's water may be permitted, since it amuses the proprietor while it does not injure his dog. Some of these domestic recipes, nevertheless, are far from harmless, and they are the more to be deprecated, because those which most people would imagine to be safe are the very ones which are attended with the greatest danger. Common salt is a poison to the dog; tobacco is the source of many a death in the kennel; castor oil often does the ill which months of care are needed to efface, even if the life be not destroyed. In the majority of cases vomits are far from beneficial; bleeding is very seldom required, and the warm bath has sealed the doom of innumerable animals. The foregoing observations will have informed the reader of the reasons that prompt the publication of the present work, which is put forth only as a step towards the point the author does not yet pretend to have fully attained. The study of years will be required to perfect that which is now commenced, and further experience will probably demand the retraction of many of the opinions herein advanced. The reader will understand, the author in the present work asserts only that which he now believes. It must not be imagined, however positive may read the language in which his sentiments are expressed, that the writer is pledged to uphold any of the conclusions at which he may have arrived; knowledge is in its nature progressive, and canine pathology is not yet clearly made out. The advantages which accompany the study of anatomy, physiology, and therapeutics have yet to be more largely applied to the diseases of the dog, and until this has been accomplished, science, not reposing upon truth, will be constantly subjected to change. The present work, therefore, will be accepted only as a contribution to veterinary literature, and its contents will be viewed as doing nothing more than declaring the temporary convictions of one, who, desirous of truth, does not conceal that his mind is oppressed by many doubts. In the following pages advantage will be freely taken of the labours of those authors who have written upon the subject; nor must it be supposed, because the writer may feel himself obliged to dissent from, he therefore undervalues the genius of Blaine or Youatt. Before Blaine collected and arranged the knowledge which existed concerning the diseases of the dog, canine pathology, as a separate or distinct branch of veterinary science, hardly existed. The task he accomplished; but if after the lapse of years some of his opinions are found to be unsound, and some of his statements discovered to require correction, these circumstances may be regarded as the natural consequences of progression, while they in no way deteriorate from the honor due to his name. Youatt enlarged and softened the teaching of his master, and by the liberality of his communications, and the gentleness of his example, improved and adorned the science to which he was attached. To others than these two great men I have no obligations to acknowledge. For their memories I take the opportunity of expressing the highest respect, and confess that to their instruction is fairly due any novelty which the present pages may contain; since but for those advantages their teaching afforded, it is more than doubtful if I had perceived the facts herein made known. Before any mention is made of the diseases of the dog, it will be proper to take some notice of the temperament of the animal, as without regarding this the best selected medicines, or the most assiduous attention, may be of no avail. Any one who will observe the animal will soon be made aware of its excessive irritability. The nervous system in this creature is largely developed, and, exerting an influence over all its actions, gives character to the beast. The brain of the dog is seldom in repose, for even when asleep the twitching of the legs and the suppressed sounds which it emits inform us that it is dreaming. No animal is more actuated by the power of imagination. Who is there that has not seen the dog mistake objects during the dusk of the evening? Delirium usually precedes its death, and nervous excitability is the common accompaniment of most of its disorders. To diseases of a cerebral or spinal character it is more liable than is any other domesticated animal. Its very bark is symbolical of its temperament, and its mode of attack energetically declares the excitability of its nature. The most fearful of all the diseases to which it is exposed (rabies), is essentially of a nervous character, and there are few of its disorders which do not terminate with symptoms indicative of cranial disturbance. This tendency to cerebral affections will, if properly considered, suggest those casual and appropriate acts which the dog in affliction may require, and which it would be impossible for any author fully to describe. Gentleness should at all times be practised; but to be truly gentle the reader must understand it is imperative to be firm. Hesitation, to an irritable being, is, or soon becomes, positive torture. He who would attend upon the dog must be able to command his feeling, and, whatever fear he may be conscious of, he must have power to conceal his emotion. The hand slowly and cautiously advanced, to be hastily retracted, is nearly certain to be bitten. Whatever therefore is attempted should be done with at least the appearance of confidence, and the determination of the man will, in the generality of cases, check the disposition of the beast. There should be no wrestling or fighting. The practitioner should so prepare his acts as to prevent the dog in the first instance from effectually resisting, and the animal mastered at the commencement is usually afterwards submissive. If, however, from any cause, the primary attempt should not be effective, the attendant, rather than provoke a contest which can be productive of no beneficial result, should for a brief period retire, and after a little time he may with better success renew his purpose. Strange dogs are not easily examined in their own homes, especially if they be favorites and their indulgent owners are present. Like spoiled children, the beasts seem to be aware of all the advantages which the affections of their master give to their humors. They will assume so much, and play such antics, as renders it impossible to arrive at any just conclusion as to the actual state of their health. Dogs in fact are great impostors, and he who has had much to do with them soon learns how cunningly the pampered "toy" of the drawing-room can "sham." For deception, consequently, it is necessary to be prepared, and practice quickly teaches us to distinguish between what is real and that which is assumed. The exertion, however, required to feign disturbs the system, and the struggle which always accompanies the act renders it frequently impossible to make the necessary observation with requisite nicety. Petted dogs are, therefore, best examined away from their homes, and in the absence of any one who has been in the habit of caressing them. Frequently I have found it of no avail to attempt the examination of these creatures at the residences of their owners; but the same animals brought to my surgery have, without a struggle, allowed me to take what liberties I pleased. I usually carry such dogs into a room by myself, and commence by quickly but gently lifting them off their legs and throwing them upon their backs. This appears to take the creatures by surprise, and a little assurance soon allays any fear which the action may have excited. The dog seldom after resists, but permits itself to be freely handled. Should, however, any disposition to bite be exhibited, the hand ought immediately to grasp the throat, nor should the hold be relinquished until the creature is fully convinced of the inutility of its malice, and thoroughly assured that no injury is intended towards it. A few kind words, and the absence of anything approaching to severity, will generally accomplish the latter object in a short period, and confidence being gained, the brute seldom violates the contract. Dogs are intelligent and honorable creatures, and no man will have reason to regret who teaches himself to trust in their better qualities. I have hitherto, in a great measure, escaped their teeth, and being slow and infirm, my good fortune certainly cannot be attributed to my activity. Kindness and consideration work upon animals; nor do I believe there are many of the lower creatures that will not appreciate such appeals. It is better, therefore, to work upon the sympathetic nature of the brute, than to compete with it in strength, or endeavor to outvie it in agility. Manual dexterity will often fail, and is seldom employed save when danger is present. Mental supremacy appealing to the source of action ensures safety, by subduing, not the resistance, but the desire to resist. It is easy to ascertain when the dog has regained that tranquillity which would allow of its being trusted with security. The eye need alone be consulted, and a little observation will speedily instruct any one to read its meaning correctly. When the creature is irritated, the pupil invariably dilates, and by singly marking this circumstance, the temper of the beast may be correctly ascertained. Nor should caution be discarded until the contracted circle assures that the agitation has passed away. With the smaller kind of spaniels and the generality of petted animals, the indications of the eye may be depended upon; but with the more robust and less familiarized species it is safest to take some precaution, even, while the sign of sagacity is exhibited. Certain dogs, those of coarse breeds and large size, are exceedingly treacherous, and sometimes are not safe even to their masters. Creatures of this kind are, however, usually as devoid of courage as they are deficient of magnanimity; and by the display of resolution are to be readily subdued. When, however, really sick, there are few dogs which may not be approached. Under such circumstances, the utmost gentleness should be employed. The stranger should advance quietly, and not bustle rudely up to the animal. He should speak to it in accents of commiseration, which will be better comprehended than the majority of reasonable beings may be willing to admit. The hand after a little while should be quietly offered to the dog to smell, and that ceremony being ended, the pulse may be taken, or any other necessary observation made, without dread of danger. Every consideration, however, ought to be given to the condition of the beast. No violence on any account should be indulged; it is better to be ignorant of symptoms than to aggravate the disorder by attempting to ascertain their existence. If the brain should be affected, or the nervous system sympathetically involved, silence is absolutely imperative. No chirping or loud talking ought under such circumstances to be allowed, and the animal should not be carried into the light for the purpose of inspecting it. The real condition of the patient, and the extent or nature of its disease, will be best discovered by silently watching the animal for some time, and attentively noting those actions which rarely fail to point out the true seat of the disorder. Consequently manual interference is the less needed, and in numerous instances I have, when the creature has appeared to be particularly sensitive to being handled, trusted to visible indications, and done so with perfect success. The hand certainly can confirm the eye, but the mind, properly directed, can often read sufficient without the aid of a single sense. Having made the foregoing remarks, which the intelligence of the reader will readily enlarge, it will next be necessary to describe in what way the dog should be examined. Simple as this operation may appear, it is one which few persons properly comprehend; and as upon it everything depends, it will not be out of place to devote a few lines to its explanation. The dog, in the first place, should be permitted to run about, released from every restraint, or only so far confined as is necessary to prevent his escape from the limits of observation. No attempt should be made to attract the animal's attention, but the practitioner, seating himself in one corner, ought to be perfectly still and silent. The way in which the creature moves; whether it roams about, stands motionless, appears restless or indifferent, avoids the light, seems desirous of companionship, or huddles itself into some place as far as possible removed from inspection; whether it crouches down, curls itself round, sits upon its haunches, turns round and round trying to bite its tail, drags itself along the floor, or lies stretched out either upon its side or belly; in what manner the head is carried, and to what part it is directed; if any particular place is licked, bitten, or scratched; if thirst is great, or the dog by scenting about shows an inclination for food; the nature of the breathing, the expression of the countenance, the appearance of the coat, and the general condition of the body, should all be noted down. When such points have been observed, the animal is addressed by name, and attempts may be made to approach and to caress it; the way in which it responds, submits to, or resents such advances being carefully remarked. The dog may then be handled. The eyes and their membrane are inspected, to see if the one be dull or moistened by any discharge, and if the other be reddened, pallid, yellow, or discolored. The ears are next felt around, their edges lifted to discover if any blackened wax or soreness be present in their convolutions, and slightly squeezed to ascertain if any crackling sensation is communicated to the fingers, or sign of pain evinced by the animal. The nose is now to be remarked. If it be moist or dry; and if dry, whether it is at all encrusted. The back of the hand or side of the cheek should be applied to the part to ascertain its temperature. The lips should next be raised, and the state of their lining membrane, with the condition of the teeth, observed. The jaws should then be separated, that the tongue may be seen sufficiently to note its color, and the breath smelt. The hand should subsequently be passed over the head and along the back, to feel the hair, and discover whether there exist any sore places or tumors concealed beneath it. The coat may now be generally examined, to find whether in any part the covering is thin or deficient. Its firmness should afterwards be tried, and the itchiness of the skin tested by the nails, as well as its thickness and pliancy ascertained between the fingers. The hand should also be applied to the throat, and carried along the course of the windpipe, feeling for any swelling of the salivary glands, or enlargement of the thyroid. It is next passed to the abdomen, and the inferior part of the cavity is gently pressed upwards, to ascertain if the rectus abdominis muscle be contracted, or the animal shows symptoms of tenderness. The abdomen may subsequently be kneaded between the fingers. The amount of fat should not be unnoticed, nor should the firmness of the muscles pass unobserved. When all this is accomplished, the dog is laid upon its side or back, and the tail being elevated, the anus is inspected and felt, to see whether it be inflamed or protruded, and to feel if it be indurated or thickened. The feet are now taken up, and the length and shape of the nails, with the condition of the dew claws, inspected, to see whether they are growing into the flesh, or by their shortness indicate the animal has been accustomed to healthful exercise. The pad and web also receive a glance. If the animal be a male, the prepuce is first pressed and then withdrawn, to perceive if any discharge be present, or if the lining membrane be inflamed or ulcerated. Should it be a bitch, the vulva are inspected, to observe if they are moistened by any exudation, or if they are swollen and excited by the touch. They are separated to observe the color of the lining membrane. The mammæ are then felt, to know if the animal has ever borne pups, or if any of them are hardened. At the same time the parts are squeezed, to discover whether or not they contain milk. Such is a general description of the manner of proceeding, but there are many possibilities which the above directions, lengthy and minute as they may read, do not include. Such, for instance, as hernia, and disease of the testicle or scrotum. All, however, it would not be necessary to describe at length, and the foregoing instructions will lead the eye to any extraordinary appearances should they exist. The experienced practitioner probably will do less than is here set down, being educated to a promptitude which enables him to leap as it were at once to those parts which deserve his attention. For such the above is not intended; but he who has not made the dog his special study, will certainly find his advantage in going through the whole ceremony; nor will the most experienced practitioner habitually neglect any portion of it, without having cause to lament his inattention. To examine the dog properly, is perhaps even more difficult than to perform the same office upon the horse, and certainly it is a duty which there are few persons qualified to discharge. Having spoken of the proper manner of examining the animal, before I proceed to describe its diseases, I shall touch upon some of those matters which are essential to its health. It will, however, be understood that I do not here pretend to treat of hounds, which for the most part are well attended to, and fed, exercised, &c., according to the judgment of the individual entrusted with the superintendence of the kennel. Little probably could be written which would materially amend the condition of these creatures; but petted and housed dogs are commonly treated after a fashion with which judgment has nothing to do. Persons are indulgent to their animals, and imagine that they are also kind, when too often they oppose the dictates of their reason to gratify the weakness of their momentary impulses. A little reflection will convince such people that humanity does not consist in the yielding to every expression of desire. The dog, in a state of nature, being carnivorous, and obliged to hunt for its food, in all probability would not feed every day; certainly it would seldom make more than one meal in twenty-four hours. When the prey was caught, it would be torn to pieces, and with the flesh much earth would be swallowed. The animal, however, is now to be regarded as subjected to man; but while so viewing it, nothing will be lost by keeping in sight its primitive habits. The dog can fast for a great number of days. Abstinence for forty-eight hours seldom injures it; but it is a practice which ought not to be too frequently adopted, as by its repetition the digestion is weakened. One meal, however, is sufficient, in every case, for the twenty-four hours. Animals not worked, but kept as favourites, or allowed only to range at pleasure, should not have any meat, nor be permitted to consume any large quantity of fatty substances. Butter, fat, or grease, soon renders the skin of the dog diseased and its body gross. Milk, fine bread, cakes, or sugar, are better far for children, and can be on the human race bestowed with advantage; while given to the brute they are apt to generate disorders, which a long course of medicine will not in every case eradicate. Beer, wine, or spirits, all of which the dog can be induced to drink, show rather the master's ignorance than the creature's liking. Nice food, or that which a human being would so consider, is in fact not fitted to support the dog in health. It may appear offensive to ladies when they behold their favourites gorge rankly, but Nature has wisely ordained that her numerous children should, by their difference of appetite, consume the produce of earth. The dog, therefore, can enjoy and thrive upon that which man thinks of with disgust; but our reason sees in this circumstance no facts worthy of our exclamation. The animal seeking the provender its Creator formed its appetite to relish, is not necessarily filthy or unclean; but could dogs write books, probably the opinions of these beasts upon many of the made dishes and tit-bits of the fashionable circles, would be opposed to the ideas which delicate epicures entertain concerning such luxurious fare. The spaniel which, bloated with sweets, escapes from the drawing-room to amuse itself with a blackened bone picked from a dung-hill, follows but the inclination of its kind; and while tearing with its teeth the dirt-begrimed morsels, it is, according to its nature, daintily employed. Could we read its thoughts, probably the perverse little pet, even while it is provoking its mistress's horror, is reflecting upon the nasty trash which the human stomach can endure, and upon the tempting relishes which mankind know not, like dogs, how to appreciate. An occasional bone and a little dirt are beneficial to the canine race, while food nicely minced and served on plates is calculated to do harm. Such keep fattens to excess, destroys activity, renders the bowels costive, and causes the teeth to be encrusted with tartar. A bone is of great service to the animal, which cannot employ a tooth-brush; and the larger it be and the less meat upon it, the better it will prove for little high-fed favorites. A dog in strong health may digest an occasional meal of bones; but the pet has generally a weak and often a diseased stomach, which would be irritated by what would otherwise do it no harm. The animal, nevertheless, true to its instinct, has always an inclination to swallow such substances, provided its teeth can break off a piece of a size fitted for deglutition. Game and chicken-bones, which are readily crushed, should therefore be withheld, for not infrequently is choking caused by pieces sticking in the oesophagus; though more often is vomiting induced by irritation of the stomach, or serious impactment of the posterior intestine ensues upon the feebleness of the digestion. The bone, therefore, should be large, and on it there should be nothing which the knife can remove. It ought to be thrown upon the earth, and the animal should be allowed to gnaw it at leisure. During the act, a considerable quantity of earth and saliva will be swallowed, and little actual food be added to an already loaded stomach. In all points of view the animal is benefited. The soil is always slightly alkaline, and so is the saliva; any undue acidity is by both in some measure counteracted; but the earth is also of further service. Food too highly or purely nutritive will not support life; but to render it healthy, a certain quantity of indigestible or refuse matter is imperative. The latter portion acts mechanically as a stimulant to the intestines, and hence, gentlemen by choice consume bread in which a portion of the husk is mingled, finding it prevents the costiveness that the baker's "best" induces. Dogs are here very like men, but they require more of the mixture than the human being could bear. The animals, therefore, should not be fed off plates. The better practice is to take the day's allowance and throw it upon the ground, letting the beast eat it with what addition it may please. Neither should the nature of the food itself be disregarded. Oatmeal or ship-biscuit ought always to be given, if alone the better, else rice upon which gravy has been poured. Meat, when allowed, should be lean, and the coarser the better. Paunch or tripe is excellent food for dogs, and for a continuance I have found nothing agree so well. Horse-flesh or any such filth is never to be allowed; this kind of food being very apt to generate diseases of the skin. Dogs will thrive on liver, but it is too valuable an article of diet for these creatures to be regularly given. When only occasionally administered it has a well-marked laxative property, and on this account will often be of service in rendering needless the use of medicinal agents. In the raw state, if the animal will take it, its action is more powerful; but after it has been boiled it generally is sufficiently operative. The meat, whatever it may be, should, for animals not in work, be boiled, raw flesh being more stimulative than their comparatively idle pursuits demand. Such animals, in fact, may be said to lead sedentary lives, and their diet must be lowered to suit their habits. For the pointer, &c., during the season, raw flesh is actually to be preferred, nor should the quantity be limited. The exertion is great, and the utmost indulgence in this respect will seldom do harm; but my own experience teaches me that the sporting dog is often crippled by being under-fed. It cannot consume too much, neither can that much be too nourishing, especially if the country to be shot over is of a hilly nature. It is one of the prejudices of most men to believe that a feed of oats to the horse, or a meal of flesh to the dog, just before starting, gives strength for the labor which is to be endured. We cannot, however, make strength as beds are made, at any moment, but the invigoration of a living body must be the result of a slow and a long process. On the day of work it is of less consequence what food is given than is the diet which has been allowed the many previous weeks. Regularity in the hour of feeding should equally be observed; and if this matter be generally attended to, there will be no danger of its being forgotten, since dogs' stomachs are excellent time-keepers, and the brutes are not by any delicacy of feeling restrained from asking. The hour, after a little while, will always for the sake of peace be kept, and the animals will soon learn the rules to which they are subjected. For home-kept dogs there is no possibility of stating the quantity of food that ought to be allowed. No two animals in this respect are alike. One eats much, and its fellow consumes but little; yet the small feeder in most cases thrives the best even where neither is stinted. The quantity, therefore, cannot be measured. The only rule to be observed is, that there be enough placed before the animal at a stated hour. Let him eat of this till the slackening of the jaws' movement and the raising of the head indicate that hunger has been for the present appeased. So soon as this is remarked the food ought to be withdrawn. On no account should the creature be allowed to gorge to repletion, or eat after its healthy craving has been satisfied. While the dog eats it should therefore be watched; and this custom works well, as the failure of the appetite often gives to the attendant the earliest indication of disease. The dog that neglects its day's allowance should not be coaxed to feed, but ought to be left alone for some minutes, or until its companions have finished their meal. It should then be examined, and if nothing can be detected, perhaps the abstinence of a day may restore it. Until the proper hour arrives on the following day, nothing ought to be given to the animal, nor should any inclination on its part for food be noticed. Where eating is concerned, dogs have lively sympathies. The animal which at its own kennel has feasted to satiety, will wake from its digestive slumber to taste anything of which it sees its master partaking. These creatures are so peculiarly sensitive in this respect, that they will do violence to their feelings rather than be left out when eating is going forward. Dogs moreover are most pertinacious beggars, and they soon learn the cunning of the trade. On no account should they be permitted to frequent the kitchen. If properly reared, they will be rigidly honest, but, like the "audacious cats," they offer a ready excuse to dishonest kitchen-maids, who will sometimes do injury by subjecting the animal to undeserved chastisement. Where the servants are trustworthy this danger will not arise; but good servants mostly have tender hearts, and dogs have a peculiar tact in appealing to female weaknesses. However strict may be the orders, and however sincere may be the disposition to observe them, bits will fall,--scraps will be thrown down,--dishes will be placed upon the ground, and sometimes affection will venture to offer just "the little piece," which no one could call feeding. It is astonishing how much will in this way be picked up, for the dog that lies most before the kitchen fire is generally the fattest, laziest, and at feeding time the best behaved of his company. Consequently no dog should be allowed to enter the kitchen, for their arts in working upon mortal frailty can only be met by insisting on their absence. The dog that is well fed and not crammed, should not refuse bread when it is offered. If this be rejected, while sugar is eagerly snapped up, it will be pretty certain that the animal is either too much indulged, or that its health requires attention. Some writers recommend pot-liquor for dogs. It is not advisable to use this. The water in which salt meat has been boiled ought never to be employed. Greens are not nutritious, but they often purge; and if the animal will eat them, they can sometimes be given when liver cannot be obtained. Potatoes will, with other substances, agree with animals not required for work, but the rice I have recommended will be found for general purposes the best, and not the most expensive food upon which the animal can be sustained. Persons having lap-dogs will moreover find the keep upon rice, properly seasoned, or soaked in gravy, less liable to render these creatures strong or tainted than the provender which is choicely selected from the joint provided for the family dinner. The warm meat too often presented to these creatures is apt to enfeeble their digestions; for their stomachs are soon deranged, and they never should be allowed to taste any kind of food which is not perfectly cold. The food for diseased dogs should be prepared with extreme care, and no disregard of cleanliness; in fact, it should in every respect be such as a human being could partake of, provided the ingredients were not repugnant to his taste. Sickness cannot be relieved without trouble, and in many cases an animal requires as much attention as a child. To gain success, neither time, labor, nor expense must be begrudged; but the attendant must be assiduous and the cook skilful. Nothing smoked or burnt, no refuse or tainted flesh, must on any account be made use of. The meat may be coarse, but it should be fresh and wholesome. Dirty saucepans or dishes ought not to be employed; and so very important are these circumstances, that the practitioner who engages in dog practice will often surprise his acquaintances by being seen at market, or busied over the fire. Beef tea is one of the articles which in extreme cases is of great service. Few servants, however, make it properly, and when a dog is concerned there are fewer still who will credit that any pains should be bestowed upon the decoction. I generally either prepare it myself or superintend the person who undertakes that office, and not unfrequently give serious offence by my officiousness; or, spite of studious attention, fail in procuring that which I desire. Still, as in the last extremity food is even of more importance than medicine, my anxiety cannot be conquered by such schooling, and I am therefore content to bear the sneers of those who cannot understand my motives. To make beef-tea properly, take a pound and a half of coarse, lean beef: that cut from the neck or round is best. The leg does not answer so well, however excellent it may be for soup. The rump steak is good for the purpose, but no better than other and cheaper parts; though I often use it when nothing else can be obtained so well suited for this beverage. Let the flesh be carefully separated from every portion of skin or fat, and chopped as fine as for sausage meat--the smaller the better--it cannot be too minutely minced. Without washing it, put the flesh into a clean saucepan, with a pint of water, and so place it upon the fire that it will be half an hour at least before it boils. When it boils, allow it to remain in that state for ten minutes, and then remove it, pouring off the liquor, which should be set aside to cool. When cold, any fat upon the surface should be removed, and, no salt or seasoning of any kind being added, the beef-tea is fit for use. To the meat, which has been drained of moisture, the skin and fat may now be added and a pint and a half of water, which should be allowed to boil till it is reduced to a pint. This being set aside and afterwards cleared of fat, will be of some service if used instead of water when the next potion is required; and there is no limitation in the quantity which may be needed. Besides beef-tea, wheaten flour, oatmeal, arrow-root, starch, biscuit powdered, and _ground rice_ are also to be employed. These are to be mixed with water, or more often with beef-tea, and boiled; but for sick animals the compound should not be made too thick. The ordinary consistence of gruel will be about the proper substance, and a little only should be administered every hour or half-hour, as the case may require. From half a pint to a quart, divided so as to allow of a portion being given at the stated periods, will be sufficient for a large or small animal, the quantity being proportioned to the size. When the creature is so far exhausted that it is no longer willing or able to lap, the nourishment should be administered by means of a tube passed down the throat or into the oesophagus; for if given with a spoon, as the breathing is always disturbed, the consequence may be fatal, from the fluid being drawn into the lungs. The food should always be made fresh every morning; and none left from the previous day ought on any account to be mixed with it, more especially if the weather be at all warm. These directions may to some appear needlessly particular; but so rapid are the terminations of canine diseases, and so acute are they in their development, that while the tax upon the patience is not likely to be of long duration, the care demanded during their existence must be unremitting. _Exercise_ is next to food, and if of one dogs generally have too much, of the other few have enough. In towns, if dogs are kept, a chain and collar should always be at hand. The servants should be ordered to take the creatures out whenever they go upon their errands, and an occasional free journey with the master will be a treat which will be the more enjoyed because of the habit thus enforced. _Washing dogs_ is not a custom deserving of half the consideration which is bestowed upon it. The operation is not so necessary as it is generally imagined. Soap and water make the hair look white; but the coat usually becomes soiled the quicker because of their employment. The use of alkalies, soda, or potash, in the water, renders the immediate effects more conspicuous; but unfortunately these substances also make the after-consequences more vexatious. They take the sebaceous or unctuous secretion from the coat. The skin is deprived of its natural protector in this animal; the cuticle grows weak and dry. The hair is rendered rough; is prepared to catch the dirt; and not unfrequently the skin itself, by nature striving to counteract the effect of its deprivation, pours forth a secretion that aids in causing it to appear foul. Above all, the warmth, so repeatedly and often inhumanly applied to the entire surface of the body, debilitates the system of the creature, and generates in the long run certain disease, even if by the drying immediate disorder be not engendered. The warm-bath to the dog is peculiarly debilitating, and the heat which the hand of a cook would endure with a sense of comfort, will sometimes cause the dog to faint. Panting is a sign of sensible weakness in this animal, and few of these creatures are washed without exhibiting it. If washing is insisted upon, the water should never be warm, and in cold weather only should the _chill_ be taken off. The soap ought to be of the mildest quality; but the yelk of an egg is much to be preferred, and in its effects is every way more beneficial where the hair, either of man or beast must be cleansed. A small dog will require the yelk of one egg; and a Newfoundland the yelks of a dozen eggs. The yelks are to be separated from the whites and smeared well into the hair. A little water is then to be poured upon the back, and the hand is to be rubbed upon the coat till a lather covers the body, after which the hair may be cleared by copious ablutions. This process is much to be preferred, and the dog dislikes it far less than when soaps are employed. His eyes are not made to smart, or his skin to burn, and if he tastes the substance he does not therefore sicken. Moreover, when the business is ended, even if some portion of the egg should cling to his hair he will not on that account neglect his personal appearance. The coat will be found to look bright, and to remain clean for a longer period than after the adoption of the customary thoughtless process. Washing, however, is not constantly required, if a dog be kept combed and brushed every morning, and does not reside in a very filthy locality. A little dirt after a walk is easily removed, if it be allowed to dry perfectly, and the hair is then rubbed and picked by the hand of its attendant, when the comb will complete the proceeding. A bath every morning does the generality of dogs good; but it should be cold, and the animal ought not to be punished by having its head submerged. It should be plunged up to the neck, the head being held above the surface. While in the water the coat should be well rubbed with the hand, that every portion of the hair may become thoroughly soaked. This over, no attempt should be made to dry the dog, for that is not by any industry to be perfectly accomplished. Neither ought the dog to be wrapped up, placed before the fire, or suffered to lie about, which it is always by a sense of discomfort induced to do, if not made to move. The animal ought immediately to be started for a scamper, and never allowed to remain quiescent until its activity has driven every trace of moisture from its body. Not until this is thoroughly effected should the creature be brought in-doors, or be suffered to rest for a moment. If healthy it will require little exertion on its attendant's part to make it jump and run about; but some of these little animals have to carry a burthen of fat which no sense of uneasiness can provoke them to move under of their free wills. An active lad with a chain may, in these last cases, be of much use; but he should be told to exercise his charge in some spot open to the master's eye, else the boy may play while the animal shivers. Some dogs show a great dislike to, strenuously fighting with, the collar and chain; others will exhibit the most piteous distress, by squatting upon their hocks, and whining, while they pant vehemently, and look imploringly up to the face of their leader. The first are probably not aware of the intention of the bonds to which they are subjected, and should not be harshly rebuked. The voice ought to assure them, and means be resorted to calculated to allay their fears. Gentleness and firmness will in two or three days render such animals perfectly submissive for ever after. The last kind are rank impostors. No one not familiar with these animals would credit the arts which they can with such excellent effect and apparent genuineness practise to gain their ends. They have been used to be carried, and they prefer riding in the arms of a human being. Their insinuating tricks ought to be rewarded only by laughter, accompanied with an admonition. Dogs are very intelligent. They understand much more than men choose to give them credit for. Their pride is enormous, and through this feeling they are easily moved. Laughter, when directed against himself, no dog can endure, and the slightest reprimand is always answered by an immediate change of aspect. Rather than have their dignity offended, dogs will quickly become honest, especially when deceit is experienced to be of no avail. People who are physiognomists may detect this sentiment impressed upon the countenance. Upon the next page is a portrait of a Mastiff. Mark the absolute Asiatic dignity, only outwardly slurred over by a heedlessness of behaviour. Does it not seem as though the creature, through very pride reposing upon strength, was above forms? Who could think of laughing at such gravity? Would it not be like ridiculing nature to insult one who has such outward claims to our respect? Sporting dogs will always take the exercise that is beneficial, and for such the cold bath is much to be recommended. Only in skin diseases should the tepid bath be resorted to. It is of much service when the skin is hot and inflamed, but after it, exercise ought not to be neglected. For healthy animals the hot or warm bath should never be employed; but the sea is frequently as beneficial to dogs as to their owners; only always bearing in mind that the head should be preserved dry. [Illustration: THE MASTIFF.] Vermin often are very troublesome to dogs, and I have known these animals destroyed because their owners were ignorant of the process by which the annoyance might have been readily conquered. There are many powerful drugs recommended by different writers to effect this end; but though all of them are sufficiently potent to annihilate the parasite, most of them are also strong enough to kill the dog. When fleas are numerous, the dog must be taken from the place where it has been accustomed to sleep. The bed must be entirely removed, and the kennel sluiced--not merely washed--with boiling water, after which it ought to be painted over with spirits of turpentine. The dog itself ought to be washed with eggs and water, as before directed; but with the yelk of every egg a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine should be blended. After this, the animal should have pine shavings to sleep upon, and if these are frequently renewed, the annoyance will seldom be again complained of. As, however, exceptional cases will always start up, should the tribe not be entirely dispersed, the washing must be repeated; or if from want of time or other cause it be inconvenient to renew that operation, a little powdered camphor rubbed into the coat will mostly abate and often eradicate the nuisance. Lice often cover the body of the dog, and especially crowd upon its head around the eyes and lips. There need be no dread of their presence, since these vermin will not live upon the human being, though similar to the kind which will. When they are perceived, the dog should be carried into some place in which grease stains are not of much consequence. It ought then to be covered with castor oil till the hair is completely saturated. In this state it should be allowed to remain at least twelve hours, at the expiration of which time the oil may be removed with yelk of eggs and water: only an additional number of eggs will be required. As to the quantity of castor oil which may be necessary, a moderate-sized dog with a long coat will require about a pound, and a large Newfoundland four times that amount. The process, as might be anticipated, operates upon the bowels; but I have never found it to do so with any dangerous power; on the contrary, the laxative effect is generally in these cases beneficial. Medicine to the dog requires to be administered with caution. The nostrums which are so particularly recommended by grooms and farriers ought never to be made use of. The veterinary surgeon is less likely to commit error; but there are, however, few of the profession who devote attention to the dog with the zeal which the comprehension of its diseases and their treatment demand. Huntsmen and gamekeepers are generally from practical experience not altogether inapt dog doctors, where the larger and more robust kind of animal is to be treated, but for the smaller and petted species these persons ought not to be consulted. Many of their receipts are harsh--not a few of them inoperative--and some even dangerous; while all for the most part are pushed down at random, or in total ignorance of any effect the agents employed may induce beyond the intended one of doing good or working a certain cure. Nevertheless, with the kind of animals generally entrusted to their charge, such persons are so far successful that, in the absence of better advice, they deserve to be consulted for the larger species of dogs. The human physician will also, on occasions, be enabled to prescribe advantageously for the canine race; but not knowing the treatment of the diseases, and the symptoms being too often deceptive, the highest opinions are by no means to be absolutely relied upon. Dog-doctoring is, in fact, a separate branch of science so intricate as to call for intense study strengthened by constant observation. No one not attached to the animal should attempt to master it, for success in such a case would be hopeless. The annoyances are so great that the patience is continually being tried; and the facts on which reliance can be placed are so few, that he who is content to depend upon the received assertions will never be able to realize his expectation. Nothing is more erroneous than to believe that there is any close analogy between man and the dog in the operation of medicinal substances. Aloes, rhubarb, &c., are not purgatives to the dog; but castor oil, which to the human being is a gentle laxative, to the dog is an active purge; while Epsom salts are a violent hydragogue to the canine patient, producing copious and watery stools. Common salt is in large doses a poison, and in apparent small quantities is so strong an emetic as to be dangerous. Salivation speedily ensues upon the use of minute quantities of mercury, which therefore cannot be considered safe in the hands of the general practitioner. Secale cornutum has little specific action beyond that of inducing vomiting; and strychnia cannot be with security administered, on account of its poisonous operation upon the animal. Other instances, casting more than suspicion upon the inferences which every writer upon Materia Medica draws from the action of drugs given to dogs, could easily be quoted, but they would here be somewhat out of place; and probably sufficient has been said to check a dangerous reliance upon results that admit of no positive deduction. It is painful to peruse the "_experiments_" made especially by the French authors. We read that so much of some particular agent caused death to a dog in such a period; but he must be wise indeed who learns anything from statements of this kind. The word dog represents animals of various sizes and very diverse constitutions; therefore no conclusion can be drawn from an assertion that does not embrace every particular. Unfortunately, however, the operators think it no disgrace to their scientific attainments to put forth such loose and idle assertions; nor do they seem to hold it derogatory to their intelligence that they assume to reach a show of certainty by experimentalising upon a creature about which, as their reports bear witness, they literally know nothing. Equally unsatisfactory are the surgical and physiological experiments made upon these creatures. No results deduced from such acts can be of the slightest importance. The anatomy of the dog is not by them generally understood. There is no book upon this subject that is deserving of commendation; and, to instance the ignorance which prevails even in places where a superficial knowledge ought to exist, I will mention but one circumstance. At the Royal Veterinary College there is a professor of Particular Anatomy, whose duty it is specially to instruct the pupils concerning the dog. The lectures, however, embrace but little, and that little is principally devoted to wandering remarks upon the osseous structure. Of the value of such teaching some opinion may be formed when the skeleton at the College actually exhibits the bones placed in wrong or unnatural situations. After the proof thereby afforded, with what reliance can any sane mind accept the awful declarations of those anatomists who, upon the living bodies of these creatures, have, according to their own accounts, exhibited a nicety and certainty of skill which the profoundest acquaintance with the various structures and parts would still leave incomprehensible? Such reports evidence only the presumptuous folly of individuals--the publication of such records testifies no more than the ignorance of the age. _To give medicine to the Dog_ often creates more bustle than the magnitude of the creature appears to justify. Moreover, if the parties concerned in the undertaking are not quite up to their business, the animal, which, between its gasping, howling, and struggling, will find time to bite, increases the activity by provoking human exclamations. I have known this species of confusion to have been continued for half an hour; during which work was stopped in a forge, and three brawny smiths joined a veterinary surgeon's efforts to give a pill to a little spaniel that could not have weighed above eight pounds. The dog was beaten and hands were bitten, but after all no pill was swallowed. The result was the natural consequence of the manner of proceeding. No man should contend with an animal, and especially with a dog, whose excitement soon renders it incapable of obedience. With brutes of every kind, if the mastery cannot, by a bold stratagem, be gained at once, it should be only established through the confidence of the animal, which a few acts of kindness will, in the majority of cases, easily win. I have had dogs brought to me which seemed disposed rather to part with life than permit their jaws to be handled. The poor beasts had been harshly used by the persons who had previously undertaken to treat them. These creatures have remained with me, and in a little time have grown so submissive that my shop-boy could with ease give any kind of physic which I ordered to be prepared. Firmness and kindness were the only stratagems I employed. I took care never to give the dog a chance of mastery, but while ensuring my victory, I was careful that the conquest caused no sense of pain. A few pats, with a kind word, and an occasional reward in the shape of a bit of meat, induced the creature more willingly to submit when the next dose came round. A small dog should be taken into the lap, the person who is to give the physic being seated. If the animal has learned to fight with its claws, an assistant must kneel at the side of the chair and tightly hold them when the dog has been cast upon its back. The left hand is then made to grasp the skull, the thumb and fore finger being pressed against the cheeks so as to force them between the posterior molar teeth. A firm hold of the head will thus be gained, and the jaws are prevented from being closed by the pain which every effort to shut the mouth produces. No time should be lost, but the pill ought to be dropped as far as possible into the mouth, and with the finger of the right hand it ought to be pushed the entire length down the throat. This will not inconvenience the dog. The epiglottis is of such a size that the finger does not excite a desire to vomit; and the pharynx and oesophagus are so lax that the passage presents no obstruction. [Illustration] [Illustration] When the finger is withdrawn, the jaws ought to be clapped together, and the attention of the creature diverted. The tongue being protruded to lick the nose and lips will certify that the substance has been swallowed, and after a caress or two the dog may be released. Large brutes, however, are not thus easily mastered. Creatures of this description must be cheated, and they fortunately are not so naturally suspicious as those of the smaller kind. For months I have thus deceived a huge, ferocious, but noble guardian of a yard, who appeared incapable of conceiving that deception was being practised. The dog bolts its food, and, unless the piece be of unusual size, it is rarely masticated. The more tempting the morsel, the more eagerly is it gorged; and a bit of juicy or fat meat, cut so as to contain and cover the pill, ensures its being swallowed. Medicine, however, which in this manner is to be administered, ought to be perfectly devoid of smell, or for a certainty the trick will be discovered. Indeed, there are but few drugs possessed of odour which can be long used in dog practice, and even those that are endowed with much taste cannot be continuously employed. When the dog is very ill, the intelligent beast becomes conscious of its danger, and almost any kind or any form of medicine will be accepted. There is no difficulty generally then; but in chronic diseases, that only vex the temper and scarcely lower the spirit, the ingenuity will mostly need to be exerted. Some medicines, however, can be dissolved in the water; others may be smeared upon the food; and fortunately the majority of those drugs appropriate to slow and inveterate disorders admit of being thus exhibited. Fluids are perhaps more readily than solids given to dogs, by the generality of inexperienced persons. To administer liquids, the jaws should not be forced open and the bottle emptied into the mouth, as when this method is pursued the greater portion will be lost. The animal's head being gently raised, the corner of the mouth should be drawn aside, so as to pull the cheek from the teeth. A kind of funnel will thus be formed, and into this a quantity of the medicine equal to its capacity should be poured. After a little while the fluid will, by its own gravity, trickle into the pharynx, and oblige the dog, however unwilling it may be, to swallow. A second portion should then be given in the like way, and thus, little by little, till the full dose is consumed. Often dogs treated in this fashion swallow a draught very expeditiously; but others will remain a considerable time before they deglutate. Some, spite of every precaution, will manage to reject the greater part, and others will not waste a drop. The dexterity of the practitioner makes some difference; but no skill can ensure the drink being taken. Patience, however, is here of most avail; but when the mouth is full of fluid, by gently separating the jaws the animal may be caused to deglutate. [Illustration] Two pieces of tape, one passed behind the canine teeth or tusks of the upper, and the other in like manner upon the lower jaw, have been recommended. The tapes are given to an assistant, who, pulling at them, forces the mouth open, and holds it in that position. In certain cases this may be adopted for pills; indeed every stratagem will be needed to meet the multifarious circumstances that will arise. For ordinary occurrences, however, the practice is not to be commended, and should never be embraced when drinks have to be given: the animal cannot swallow while the jaws are held asunder; but for solids this plan answers better. There are several objections, however, to be urged against its constant use. The operation is violent, and the restraint it necessitates not alone prevents the poor animal deglutating fluids, but also terrifies the brute, who, on the next occasion, naturally is the more resistful. Difficulties, therefore, increase, and the dog generally is not long before it learns to baffle the attempt to confine it. Moreover, unless the assistant be very well up to his business, his steadiness cannot be depended upon, and the hand often is wounded by the teeth of the patient. I therefore do not, as a general custom, resort to the tapes, and I advise others only to employ them upon necessity. There are some creatures so artful and so resolute that any attempt to give them physic is certain to be frustrated. These are mostly small dogs that have been tutored by severity, and such animals are not subdued by any amount of suffering. The poor beasts fear the doctor more than the disease; and, though gentle in their dispositions, are resolute in their resistance. For such cases I employ the stomach pump, and by its aid introduce a dose of sulphate of magnesia; for in general it is only purgatives that require to be given in bulk. Other drugs may be either disguised, or exhibited by injection. Enemata are of great service to this animal, and I make much use of them. In their exhibition, care should always be taken to introduce the pipe without any force; having previously greased the tube to ensure its passing the more readily. While the instrument is in the rectum the dog should be firmly held, else, in its struggles, the intestine may be injured. The fluid should be gently thrown up, even when a large quantity is employed. For those injections, however, which it is desirable to have retained, from an ounce to a quarter of a pound will be sufficient. Warm water ought not to be used as an injection, since it washes away the mucus, renders the intestinal surface harsh, and prevents the passage of the foeces. Linseed tea or any mucilaginous fluid answers the purpose better, and a solution of soap is excellent in many cases, when only a laxative effect is desired. The form, however, as will in the course of this work be explained, must be repeatedly varied, since this agent may be rendered medicinal or nutritive. Purgatives are most valuable, but are not free from danger. The digestive canal of the dog is peculiarly irritable, and no less sensitive to the action of medicine. There are few diseases in which the stomach and intestines are not involved, and very many in which purgatives are directly contra-indicated. No one should get into the habit of thrusting physic of this nature down the throats of his animals; and sportsmen may rest assured that, to the dog at all events, preparatory doses are not necessary to condition. Those, however, who persist in using such stuffs will do well not to employ the compounds in general use. The mixture of poppies, buckthorn, and castor oil is a filthy mess; and I do not understand the principles upon which the abomination is based. A better and more cleanly mixture is thus made:-- Ol: Ricini 4 parts. Ol: Olivæ 2 " Ol: Anisi Q. s. Mix. A little pounded sugar added to this will often render it palatable, which, being of a fluid consistency, is without difficulty exhibited. The compound, however, flows the more readily if it be slightly warmed, and in winter it even requires to be thus prepared. Sulphate of magnesia I rarely employ; and, as a general purgative, it is not suited to the dog, though in exceptional cases it will be seen I recommend it. Should pills be preferred, the following will be found to answer every purpose:-- Ext: Col: Half a scruple. Pulv: Colch: Six grains. Pil: Hydrarg: Five grains. This is for one pill, which is a dose for a small dog of seven or eight pounds weight. Three times the quantity would be required for a Newfoundland. It is not very powerful in its action; its effect upon the system being quite as much alterative as laxative. The animal under its operation is evidently nauseated, and refuses food for about twelve hours; at the expiration of which time relief is afforded by a not very copious, but bilious evacuation. It is, however, important that, after the administration of a purgative, the dog should be permitted to remain perfectly quiet; since, if put to exercise, or much excited, the medicine will in all probability be ejected. Emetics are shamefully abused, being so universally employed by the owners of dogs, and so strenuously recommended by writers upon their treatment, that one might think these agents were held to possess some charmed power over the health of the animal. Lecturers are marvellously fluent upon the subject of the dog's vomiting, which they dwell upon with such delight that their auditors must suppose the act of revulsion in the canine species is a pleasurable performance. Let any one, however, possessed of sense and reason, observe the creature in the act of being sick. The attitude is not characterised by ease; but the body is drawn up preparatory for some unusual effort. The countenance does not bespeak tranquillity; but the face is expressive of inward oppression. The animal's frame is shaken by convulsive spasms, each throe being announced by a deep pectoral sound, and only after this has repeatedly been heard is the stomach able to cast off its contents. [Illustration] The description denotes nothing calculated to suggest that the organ whose derangement is so marked should be rudely tampered with. It is true the dog can readily be made to vomit. No creature is more easily moved in that way; but in such a circumstance reason should perceive no license to thrust emetics down the animal's throat. The organ which is so readily excited, by the fact asserts its sensibility, and on that very account ought to be the more respected. I have found oftener difficulty to check this tendency than reason to provoke it. Repeatedly are tonics rejected, and only by the reduction of the dose can the dog's stomach be made to retain the medicine. The emetics in common use are, moreover, far too violent. Antimonial wine, from half a teaspoonful to a dessertspoonful, is much preferable to tartar emetic and calomel. On no account should such doses as Blaine prescribes ever be exhibited. Youatt in his recommendation is much better, but even the amount he orders is too great. A quarter of a grain of tartar emetic in solution is sufficient for a middling sized dog; and four grains of ipecacuanha is equally effective. If in two hours (which rarely happens) no effect is produced, it is better to repeat the dose, and continue even to do so, than to commence with a larger quantity in the first instance. These animals in their constitutions are so various, and the practitioner has so little to guide his judgment, that the utmost caution will not in every instance protect him from self-reproach; and in no case is he warranted in closing his mind against the suggestions of prudence. It is true the primary effects of an emetic are generally gratifying, but the after consequences, if carefully traced, will not be found to be equally satisfactory. Often the purge and the vomit, with which every dabbler commences his treatment of a "dog-case," appear to give relief; but, commonly, when the immediate excitation which their first operation naturally calls forth passes away, debility ensues, and the termination is not in harmony with the beginning. I once was very partial to emetics. I now rarely make use of them, and have no reason to lament my change of practice. No notice will be bestowed upon those mysterious compounds known as alteratives, sedatives, &c., which are given merely because habit has sanctioned their administration. Names are in medicine dangerous things, and give a currency to error which, to man and beast alike, has proved fatal. Neither will any attempt be made to classify diseases; which custom, though it has some advantages, is likely to mislead, by setting up a system where no positive connexion can be demonstrated. The disorders of the dog in this work will be treated of after no formal plan; but the index must supply that want of arrangement, the absence of pretence to which probably will give offence to regular students. DISTEMPER. Of all the diseases to which the dog is subject, this one is the most dreaded. Writers have agreed it is the scourge of the canine race. Blaine and Youatt speak of it as capricious and untractable; the French regard it as incurable. The owners of dogs, despairing of benefit from regular means, have for a long time been content to trust in charms and specifics. Folly and cruelty have been embraced to accomplish that which kindness and science appear unequal to perform; and one general feeling seems to be entertained with regard to the distemper--most persons being agreed that the disorder is not to be subdued by medicine, and that its fatality is independent of the best efforts of man to check it. My experience does not corroborate these various but harmonious accounts and opinions. In my conviction, the disorder is feared only because it is not understood, and is rendered worse by the injudicious attempts to relieve it. I find it tractable, easily mastered, and when submitted to me before the system is exhausted, I am very seldom disappointed by the result of my treatment. It has for some time been my custom to tell those who bring me an animal affected with this complaint, that if my directions are strictly followed, the creature "_shall not die_." When saying this, I pretend not to have life or death at my command, and the mildest affections will sometimes terminate fatally; but I merely mean to imply, that when proper measures are adopted, distemper is less likely to destroy than the majority of those diseases to which the dog is liable. [Illustration] Distemper has been hitherto regarded as an inflammatory disorder, which was to be conquered only by antiphlogistic remedies. Bleeding, purging, vomiting, sedatives, blisters, and setons were employed; and the more acute the attack, the more violent were the means resorted to for the purpose of its conquest. Under such treatment I do not wonder at the evil character which the malady has obtained; for in proportion as the efforts made were great, so would be the probability of the disease proving destructive. There can be no doubt that more dogs have been killed for the distemper than would have died from it if nature had been suffered to take her course; and yet there is no disease that more requires help, or rewards the practitioner more largely for the assistance he affords. The reader is entreated to dismiss from his mind all he may have read, or heard, or thought of this affection. Let the many tales about never-failing receipts, and the only proper modes of treatment, be for a time at all events forgotten, that the author, who undertakes to oppose prejudice and to contradict authority, may at least have a patient hearing. There is no reason to doubt that many cases which have been called distemper have, to all appearance, been saved by each of the reputed methods of cure. A pillet of tobacco, a tea-spoonful of salt, a dose of castor oil, an emetic, rubbing the nose with syrup of buckthorn, &c., &c., or anything that is famed for the purpose, may have often seemed to check the disease; but no one who has been accustomed to depend on these charms can deny he has frequently witnessed their failure. That they should sometimes have seemed to do good is easily explained. In the first place, there are very few persons who know how to recognise the early symptoms of the malady; but it is usual for every young dog that is a little poorly to be pronounced sick with the distemper. The unfounded belief that all of these animals must have the disease makes every one anticipate its advent, and tempts them to call every ailment by the name suggested by their expectations. Two-thirds, at least, of the cases which are so quickly cured by nostrums and specifics would on inquiry prove to have been mistaken; and as, in the instances where a single dose is depended upon, nature is pretty much left to herself, the chances are that a fair share of the rest would get well of themselves. The recovery, however, could in no way be expedited by that which is credited for its accomplishment; since the little done is mostly calculated to aggravate and not to alleviate the symptoms, while there is no possibility it should eradicate the disorder. In its character, distemper approaches very near to "continued fever" in the human subject; the chief difference being consequent upon the more delicate constitution and more irritable temperament of the dog, which prevents the two diseases from appearing exactly the same. It consists in a general fever, which produces a morbid excitement of all the mucous membranes. The digestive track is the principal seat of the disease, but of course its presence is most easily recognised at those parts which are most exposed to view. Thus the membrane of the eye, being a comparatively large surface, and by its delicacy well calculated to denote every variation of the system, is usually the first observed, and often the only place inspected. If this be cloudy or watery, the nature of the malady is at once concluded; the membrane of the nose also, though less palpable, is under observation; and if its secretion be copious and opaque, the fact is generally imagined to be established. The alterations, however, exhibited by these membranes are no more than sympathetic derangements, they being continuous with the more important organs; and when proofs are found in the eyes or nose, the disorder is generally confirmed, or has taken hold of the system. Some have supposed the disease originated in the nose, and thence extended to other parts; now I shall not stop here to consider so groundless an hypothesis. It essentially is fever affecting the entire of the mucous surfaces, but especially those of the alimentary canal. The causes cannot be well ascertained. Contagion has been by the majority of writers supposed to be its principal source, but I cannot say my experience has corroborated that opinion. My own little cur never had the distemper, and yet she lived where the disease was scarcely ever absent. Animals virulently affected were daily brought to me, and not a few were left in my charge. From these she was not kept separate; they were her acquaintances and companions; she played with them, and often by choice shared their beds; and nevertheless she died without exhibiting the disease. I do not generally put those dogs by themselves which are affected with distemper; yet I cannot bring to mind the instance of an animal while under my care having caught the disorder. I doubt whether there is any justice in the general opinion. It would be hard to prove the prevailing notion was a prejudice, yet there can be no doubt that it is much more insisted upon than it deserves to be. With regard to other causes, I know of none. I have not been able to observe that any circumstance can induce the disease, though at particular ages the animals are predisposed to its exhibition. During the latter period of dentition--that is, when the second set of incisors are well up, and the permanent tusks are about half-grown, the temporary ones being still retained--is the time when pups are most disposed to display this disorder. I cannot state the precise age, because mouths are not regular in their appearances even as to mouths; but the aspect of the teeth will sufficiently mark the period when an individual may be expected to be attacked. The season certainly, in no little degree, influences the disease. In winter it is not usually seen; in the spring it is more common; in summer is rare, but less so than in winter. During the autumn, however, especially if much rain should fall, it is very frequent, and always more prevalent than at any other periods. Spring and autumn, therefore, are the times when it is to be looked for, but in the latter it is to be anticipated. When treating of a subject like the present, there would seem to be a disposition to string together a number of words which do duty for information. Cold, wet, bad food, foul air, excessive exertion, fear, &c., are grouped together, and put forth for almost every "ill that flesh is heir to;" but I have to learn that these accepted terms have any connexion with the development of this disorder. Dogs that are starved, neglected, and cruelly tortured--animals that are judiciously fed, properly housed, and sensibly treated--as well as favorites that are crammed, nursed, and humored--all equally are its victims; and those which are most cared for fall most frequently, while those which are least prized more generally survive. If, therefore, privation or exposure be of any importance, the facts seem to infer their tendencies are either to check or mitigate the attack. Exercise and food, however, do influence the complaint. The dog that is free suffers much less severely than the one that is confined. The animal that never tastes flesh has a much lighter attack than the one which subsists entirely upon meat. This last fact I have often proved. When the distemper has made its appearance, the opportunity for changing the diet has passed away. We have, then, only a choice of dangers. To remove the flesh to which the animal is accustomed is to cause it to pine and to weaken the strength, at a time when vigor is of every importance; whereas to continue the meat is mostly certain death; in this position I generally take away the flesh, for by so doing I give the patient a chance of recovery; and however desperate that chance may be, nevertheless it is to be much preferred to no chance at all. The symptoms in the very early stage are not well marked or by any means distinguished for their regularity. They may assume almost any form; dulness and loss of appetite, purging, or vomiting, are very frequently the first indications. The more than usual moisture of the eyes, and a short cough, are often the earliest signs that attract attention. In the bitch a desire for copulation, with a disinclination to accept the dog, is to be regarded with suspicion; as is also a display of peevishness and a wish to be undisturbed in full-grown animals. These things denote no more than the derangement of the system; but if, conjoined with them, the inner surface of the lower eyelid should appear to be more red than usual, and the pulse should be increased in number without being materially altered in character--ranging from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty in puppies, and in dogs from one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty-five--the probability of distemper making its appearance is the greater, though even then by no means certain. The period of the year, however, will also have to be taken into consideration; and inquiry should always be made whether any animals in the immediate neighborhood are known to have exhibited the disorder; because the disease is then proved to be in the locality. At this stage the practitioner is always more or less in the dark; and therefore he contents himself with such measures as he concludes are adapted to the symptoms, and waits for further instructions which nature will speedily develope. When the disease is established, the animal is sensitive to cold. It seeks warmth, and is constantly shivering; when taken hold of, it is felt to tremble violently, so much so that the pulse cannot be accurately counted. The bowels are generally constipated. A thick purulent discharge flows from the eyes; and the white around the eye, if the upper lid be retracted, will be seen covered with numerous small and bright red vessels, giving to the part the appearance of acute inflammation. The vessels now spoken of are not to be confounded with the veins which are natural to this organ. These last are large, and of a purple hue, while their course is in the direction of the circumference of the cornea. The small vessels, indicative of distemper, are fine, bright in color, and their course is towards the centre, or in a line directly the opposite to that indicated by the veins. They are never present during health, though they are often to be witnessed in other diseases besides that which is here treated of. A glairy mucus, or yellow fluid, moistens the nostrils, and if the ear be applied to the head, the breathing will be discovered to be accompanied with an unusual sound. The cough is often severe and frequent; it is sometimes spasmodic--the fits being almost convulsive, and terminating with the ejection of a small quantity of yellow frothy liquid, which is thrown off by the stomach. The digestion is always impaired, and sickness is not unusual; the matter vomited having an offensive smell, and never being again consumed by the animal, as is generally the case when the creature is in health. The nose is dry and harsh; the coat staring and devoid of gloss: the skin hotter than is customary, and the paws warm. The pulse is perhaps quicker by twenty beats than during the prior stage, but less full--the artery feeling sharp, short, and thin under the finger. When the symptoms described are apparent, the distemper is easily recognised, but it is not likely to continue stationary for any long period. In the course of a week it generally changes its character, and sometimes appears to subside altogether; the cases in which the disease steadily progresses, becoming day by day more severe, being comparatively rare. When no abatement is witnessed, the case is not to be despaired of, but it requires to be anxiously watched; for often it will take a sudden turn, sometimes favorable, but more frequently demanding immediate assistance to prevent a fatal termination. The symptoms become aggravated. The eyes are clogged by a thick matter which glues the lids together, especially in the morning. The nostrils are plugged up by an accumulation of tenacious discharge, which becomes encrusted over the lips and nose, and impedes the breathing. The body rapidly wastes, though the appetite may return, and even be voracious. The shivering is constant. The dog seeks repose and is disinclined to move; though at times it may be playful, and in some instances will never exhibit any diminution of spirit. The cough may continue; but it more often ceases, or is only heard at irregular and distant intervals. The animal makes repeated and desperate efforts to expel the accumulated matter from the nose, and uses its paws evidently with an intention to remove the annoyance. Day by day, if not attended to, these signs grow more aggravated; the breath becomes very offensive; ulcers appear on the lips; the eyes become white; the discharge from the nostrils changes its color, and is mingled with blood and scabs, having an offensive odor. The creature at last begins to "yap," or utter short sharp cries. It becomes more weak, till at length it cannot walk, but lies upon its side; the noise being continued for hours, and then ceasing only to be again commenced. Constipation has usually been present, but at last diarrhoea sets in; the fæces have that peculiar smell which in the dog is characteristic of the latest stage of all; and gradually death, without a seeming struggle, closes the scene of suffering. More frequently--indeed, in the majority of cases--the distemper is hardly well developed before it all at once seems to disappear. This peculiarity in the disorder has no doubt given strength to the general faith in specifics for this disease. The animal suddenly so far recovers, or appears to recover, after having been seriously affected, that the inexperienced naturally conclude the dog is either quite well, or evidently so far cured that the efficacy of the remedy administered is not to be disputed. For two or three weeks this deceptive appearance may continue, and in some cases no return of the symptoms may be witnessed; but in the majority of instances the disorder is only dormant, and again starts up as if it had been strengthened by its treacherous repose. The running from the nose comes back in excessive quantities, and either the bowels are singly inflamed, or with them the brain is involved, and fits or diarrhoea, or both united, speedily terminate in death, to arrest which medicine has seldom the power. The loss is on these occasions rarely attributed to distemper, which is thought to have been subdued; but death is commonly set down to fits, or to poison, or to inflammation of the bowels, or to anything else which the imagination of the proprietor may conceive. Hence we get an insight into the value of a large number, and perhaps into all, of the reputed nostrums; and hence it is the more necessary the reader should be made aware of those indications which denote the virus is not eradicated, but only latent as it were, lurking, to spring with greater certainty upon its victim. No one must conclude the distemper is mastered if the dog continues to lose flesh, or if the animal does not rapidly repair the waste consequent upon the earlier stages of the disorder. This tendency to stand still or decline should be carefully observed, and it will seldom deceive. When it is remarked, or even suspected, let the owner be upon his guard. When the distemper is actually overcome, there is a marked disposition to fatten; indeed, so strong is it at this time that, should it not be evident, there can be no doubt as to the cause, especially if a short and slight attack of the disorder has been known to have occurred a little time before. A warning, equally clear to those who will look for and can read it, is to be obtained from the eyes. These may be bright, and even peculiarly transparent; the face have a more animated expression than it displayed during previous health; but if the eyelids are retracted, the membranes will be found red, and the vessels before observed upon will be seen running over the white of the eye. When these things are present, although the coat may be beautifully smooth, the discharge dried up, the shivering gone, the appetite strong, and the spirits boisterous, still there is in the system the seeds of a disease which at no distant period will reappear in its most dangerous form. Commonly, after the second stage, there is an abatement of the symptoms, without any actual cessation in the discharges. The dog is concluded to be better, and thought to be doing well, but it will not be long before something to excite alarm is witnessed. The eyes or nerves, or lungs or liver, or stomach or intestines may be attacked; or a pustular eruption, or actual mange, or a disposition in the animal to eat its own flesh, or choroea, or paralysis may appear, and all of these possible varieties require to be separately dwelt upon. The eyes lose their transparency, the surface is white and opaque, the sight is impaired, and the lids are nearly constantly closed. One or both of the organs of vision may be thus affected; usually the two are simultaneously affected, but seldom with the like intensity. After a few days, and sometimes at the commencement, a small circular depression is to be seen upon the very centre of the eyeball. It is round, and varies in size from that of a pin's head to that of a small pea, but rarely becomes larger. The depression, if nothing be done to check it, deepens till a little shallow pit is exhibited. At other times the hole grows larger and deeper, till the outer covering of the eye is absorbed, or, in common phrase, is eaten through, and the water escapes: this gives relief. If, however, the animal survives, the eye is often perfectly restored, though very frequently a white speck marks the spot which was ulcerated; or the dog is left with weakened eyes, and has a tendency to cataract, which may ultimately render it blind. The affection of the lungs is denoted by the dog breathing more quickly, and often making a small plaintive or whistling noise during respiration. Though cough is quite as often absent as present; but if present it is usually severe; the pulse is increased, but small and thready, and the appetite may not be impaired. The animal is, however, disinclined to move, if put down at liberty, it always gets into some place where it hopes to be allowed to remain undisturbed. As the symptoms become more intense, the animal constantly sits upon its haunches; but I have not seen it carry the head erect, although authors state this to be one of the indications. There is a desire for fresh air, and the dog will always leave the house, or get to the window or door, if he have an opportunity of so doing. These signs are hardly to be mistaken, but they are easily confirmed. If the ear be applied to the side of a healthy dog's chest, no sound can be detected; but when the lungs are diseased, a very plain noise is readily heard. The presence, therefore, of any murmur, or of anything like air escaping over a dry rough surface, is indicative of disease, and the certainty that the lungs are involved is confirmed. Dogs of late years have not commonly died of pneumonia during the distemper; but authors speak of the pulmonary form of the disorder as having formerly been a common cause of death. I know it only as a mild variation of the ordinary symptoms. It has not in any case under my observation proved fatal, but has readily yielded to gentle measures, aided by attention to simple diet. The liver is generally involved. After the termination of a fatal case, this gland is found either soft or more brittle than it ought to be, else it is discovered much enlarged. I never saw it of less than its natural size. Generally it is discolored, mostly of a pale tint; which sometimes exists all over the organ, though the pendulous edges of the lobes are very generally seen of the bright red, suggestive of inflammation. The gall-bladder is always distended with a thin dark-green fluid or impure bile; and a large quantity of the same secretion, but of greater consistency, is distributed over the lining membrane of the anterior intestines. The liver obviously is the cause of the yellow distemper, which is no more than jaundice added to the original and pre-existing disease. Yellow distemper is by writers treated of as a distinct disorder, but I have not yet met with it in that form. When it has come under my notice, it has been no more than one of the many complications which the symptoms are liable to assume. The dog has been ill before his skin became discolored; but the eyes not exhibiting that ordinary discharge which denotes the true character of the affection under which he labored, the distemper was not detected. Everything concerning distemper is by the generality of the public misunderstood. Most people imagine a dog can have the distemper but once in its life; whereas I had a patient that underwent three distinct attacks in one autumn, that of 1849. The majority of persons who profess an intimate knowledge of the dog will tell you distemper is a disorder peculiar to the young; whereas I know of no age that is exempt from its attack. I have known dogs, high-bred favorites, to be left with men selected because of their supposed familiarity with dog diseases; and these very men have brought to me the animals in the fits which are the wind-up of distemper, yet notwithstanding have been ignorant that their charges had any disease whatever. All the stages and symptoms of ordinary distemper may appear and depart unnoticed; but it is widely different with yellow distemper, for when the yellowness appears, it is so marked that no description of a peculiar symptom need be inserted, since it cannot be overlooked or mistaken. It is attended with excessive debility, and, unless properly combated, is rapidly fatal. The stomach and intestines are always involved; I have never known a case in which either escaped. The affection of the first is generally shown by sickness during the earliest stage; when also the derangement of the last is denoted by either costiveness or relaxation, the bowels never being perfectly regular; towards the latter stages, or about the third or fourth week, the appetite sometimes becomes enormous; the craving for food is then unnatural, and is so intense that no quantity can appease the hunger. The animal will eat anything; dry bread is taken with avidity, and stones, cinders, straw, and every species of filth are eaten with apparent relish. Such, however, is not always the case, since it is not unusual for the appetite entirely to fail. In either instance the dog rapidly wastes; the flesh seems to melt as it were away, and the change produced by a few days is startling; from having been fat, a thinness which exposes every bone is witnessed in a shorter time than would be supposed possible. At this period vomiting may come on; but when the animal is morbidly ravenous, the stomach does not generally reject its contents. After death I have found it loaded with the most irritating substances, and always acutely inflamed; but no sickness in any instance of this kind has been observed. Vomiting is most generally absent, but the protruded and reddened appearance of the anus will give a clue to the actual condition of the alimentary tube. The stomach is inflamed, not throughout, but in various parts which are in different stages of disease. The pyloric orifice is always more affected than the cardiac; the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, are inflamed; the cæcum is enlarged, inflamed, and generally impacted. The rectum, however, suffers most severely; it is much reddened and thickened, often to an extraordinary degree. I have known blood to be exuded from the surface of this bowel in such quantities as to destroy the life from actual hemorrhage. In one case, however, a spaniel vomited more than half-a-pint of blood previous to its death, which took place two hours afterwards. A small quantity of blood is ordinarily passed with the fæces toward the latter stage; but in several cases a large amount of pure blood, partly coagulated and unmingled with any fæcal matter, has flowed from the body in a continued stream, to which there will be cessation only as death approaches. The possibility of this occurring will give the reader some idea of the extent and degree in which the bowels are or may be diseased; the symptoms, nevertheless, are not such as would suggest the danger which may be shortly violently exemplified. Irregularity of the intestines may be remarked; but it is not so characterised as to force itself upon the attention. The belly during distemper mostly appears tucked up and small; the intestines, even when costiveness exists, are seldom loaded, but all except the rectum may feel empty. The animal is always bound when the bowels are acutely attacked. The first indication we get of this is often colic. The cries are high and yet full at first; but they only occur at periods, between which the dog seems easy and inclined to sleep; gradually the exclamations become more sharp and short, a quantity of dark-coloured fæces are voided, and relief is for a time experienced; the cries, however, return and become continuous; diarrhoea sets in; the excretions become more and more liquid, by degrees mixed with blood, and of a lighter color. Whenever they are discharged, pain is expressed; but as the animal sinks the cries grow less frequent, till at last the excrements pass involuntarily, and death soon takes place. The cries, however, are not heard in every instance even of this kind, and the abdomen is not generally sensitive to pressure. When the belly is handled, the dog, by contracting the muscles covering the parts, may denote some small degree of resistance; but I have never known it to struggle during the operation. The curving of the spine, the occasional looks towards the seat of agony, and the efforts made to press or draw the belly upon the ground, will indicate the inflammatory character and the locality of the disease. The pulse does not materially aid the judgment; it becomes quicker and more sharp, but hardly to such an extent that dependence can be placed on its indications. The discharges often cease when the disease, in an acute form, becomes concentrated upon the contents of the abdomen; but the nose is almost always hot and harsh, though in a few cases I have known the part remain cold and moist even to the last. As the close draws near, a very peculiar smell, not absolutely powerful, but more sickly than offensive, is emitted. This odor is consequent upon the fæces, and when it is detected the animal seldom or never survives. The brain, both Blaine and Youatt speak of as subject to inflammation during the latter stage of distemper. As diseases are peculiarly liable to change, and the appearances assumed at different times are by no means uniform, I may not say those estimable writers never beheld it in such a state; but I am certain I have never seen it in a similar condition; I have found it congested, but far oftener have I discovered it perfectly healthy. One of its coverings (the dura mater) has exhibited a few spots of congestion, but these have been small, each not larger than the head of a moderate sized pin, and in number about ten or twelve; generally they are situated towards the anterior of the cranium (on either side or falx), and near to the crista galli. The bones forming the roof of the skull have, however, been highly vascular--loaded with dark blood--so that if dried they become of almost a black hue; and without disputing the accuracy of either of the authorities I have mentioned, these appearances to my mind account more satisfactorily for symptoms which no one asserts ever border upon phrenitis. The brain seems to me to be only sympathetically affected, not absolutely involved in this disease. When this is threatened, there is generally some notice given before the fits, succeeded by stupor, are displayed. The eye will sometimes brighten, and the discharge from the nose will cease. This, however, is by no means constant; as it is not rare for both to continue, or even to become more copious; but if one only should remain, the nose is certain to be the part whence the deflexion will issue. No positive dependence, therefore, can be placed upon the discharges from the eye or nose. The eye, nevertheless, is certain to denote that which is on the eve of happening. The pupil may be small; and when it is so, its decrease of size will be marked, and it will have little disposition to enlarge. This, however, is rarely witnessed. Generally the pupil is much enlarged, so much as to conceal the iris, and alter the character of the organ. The eye is moreover retracted, and the dog has a very peculiar expression of mingled pain and stupidity. If the hand be placed upon the head, it will be sensibly hot. No matter how thick the coat may be, the heat will be apparent, and the carotid arteries will sensibly throb. The coat feels dry and is warm, although the animal may be trembling to such a degree as prevents the pulse being counted. Yet the dog seems lively; it is active now, though perhaps a little while ago it was dull; every trivial circumstance now attracts its notice. The appetite is generally ravenous. The dog which only the day before was disinclined to feed, is suddenly disposed to eat more than it ever was known to consume; and it will gnaw and swallow the hardest wood for want of better provender. The amended appetite is mostly one of the symptoms, but it is not invariably witnessed; for occasionally increased activity, and the strange appearance of the eye, are all that indicate the approach of fits. It will not be long, however, before something shall be added which is more definite in its meaning. The dog which was running about suddenly stands still, and begins to smack its lips and champ its jaw. It keeps stationary while doing this, and continues so until a quantity of froth and thick saliva falls from the mouth, drops upon the ground, and then the action ceases. The animal looks around with a vacant stare, evidently not conscious where it is, and starts away, hitting itself perhaps against anything which may oppose its progress. If caught it struggles to get loose, and may even bite the hand which, when conscious, it would perish to defend. Almost immediately, however, it regains its faculties, and then seems quite as well as it appeared to be before the attack came on. It may continue subject to be thus seized for several days; or soon after the first attack, fits or convulsions may start up. During the champing colic may set in, which will only yield when the fits are established. The duration of the champing is not regular; it may be only for a few moments, or for several minutes. The attacks may be no more than one or two in the day, or twenty may occur in a single hour. Generally they remain about three days, but here also there is no rule. I have known them to be present for a week, and also to exist only for a few hours. In these latter cases the condition of the dog is generally not understood. It is taken out for a long walk, or it is indulged with a hearty meal; and in the middle of the one, or shortly after the other, it begins to champ, utters a loud sharp cry, which is suddenly cut short as if the animal was choked. The eyes glare, the mouth is open, and before perfect insensibility ensues, the dog bites at every object near it, then falls down convulsed, the limbs stiffen, the head is drawn back or twisted to one side, the urine and dung are voided; and a slate of unconsciousness, which may cease in a few minutes, or continue for hours, during which the body is in contortions, and the saliva flows freely from the mouth, stretches the poor brute upon the earth. When this is over, the dog recovers as from a trance, being always disposed to ramble, and should its strength permit, will start away at its utmost speed. There is neither to the number nor duration of these fits any limit; they may be few or frequent, and long or short. The second may end the life; or every five minutes, nay oftener, they may occur, and the animal survive for days. Any excitement will bring them on, and the passage of the fæces invariably is accompanied by an attack. Diarrhoea always begins when they commence, and the dog soon loses strength, and lies upon its side unconscious and incapable of motion; the pulse is not to be felt, and gradually without a struggle it expires. Let no man, however, be hasty in saying positively when death has taken place. Often has the life seemed gone, for the heart has been still; but minutes afterwards the animal has gasped, and then began to breathe once more. Death, however, comes at last, for if the dog sinks to such a state, I have never known it to revive. A pustular eruption is often witnessed during the existence of distemper, and I have not seen the same phenomenon distinct from the disease. The two appear to be united, and yet we do not know the manner in which they are connected. The other symptoms are not mitigated when the pustules are matured, nor does their appearance denote any particular crisis or stage of the disorder. I have, however, most frequently seen them towards the latter or confirmed stages of distemper, and often they have immediately preceded the fits. The first indication given is a little redness, which is strictly local or confined to a particular spot. This place is not very red, but, nevertheless, it is obviously inflamed and tender; there is not much swelling, but a slight hardness can be detected. A day or two afterwards the redness dies away, and a globular eminence, perfectly round, and generally about the size of a split pea, is beheld. If it be opened, a proportionate quantity of thick pus of a healthy character escapes, and a comparatively large incrustation forms over the part; if not opened, the pustule bursts and the scab follows, but larger than in the previous case. Mostly the eruption appears on the belly and inside of the thighs, but it is seldom strictly confined to those parts. Often it affects the trunk and tail, but does not usually attack the head and fore-limbs. There is no proof that any benefit attends its development, or any known reason for attributing it to any cause; save only such as can be drawn from the statement, that I have commonly observed it in pups of a weakly constitution and emaciated condition. The disposition to eat or gnaw some part of the body is often shown to an alarming degree, but is seldom exhibited save in the latter stage of the disease. The dog is observed to lick one of its paws, or mumble at its tail, for some days. The part is always one of the extremities, and is evidently tormented with a violent itching which cannot be allayed. The animal at length, irritated by the torture, attacks the member with its teeth. The skin is first removed, and then the flesh. The mouth may be covered with blood, the teeth clogged with hair, and the very bones attacked; but the pain which the sight of the mangled surface suggests to the spectator seems not to be felt by the dog, which appears desirous only of destroying its own body. I have known two of the toes of one fore-paw to be thus consumed, so that amputation was afterward imperative, portions of the metacarpal bones being laid bare. In several instances the root of the tail has been eaten, until the sacrum and first tail bones, with the nerves, were exposed. The rage cannot be overcome, and, unless the disposition be prevented by mechanical means, the consequence will be fatal. No author that I am acquainted with has noticed this peculiarity; and in general it is attributed to other causes than distemper, which is either not observed, or is supposed to have been got over. Tumors on various parts of the body, and of different kinds, sometimes but not usually accompany the disease; but as I have not been able to satisfy myself they are peculiar to the disorder, or induced by any other cause than the debility attendant on distemper, there is in this place no occasion to more than point out the possibility of their appearance. They are unfavorable as indications of general weakness, but they do not seem to possess any further or direct influence over the course of the affection. The genital organs rarely escape altogether. A thick purulent discharge, or one of a glairy nature, is often present in the male throughout the attack, and nearly always during recovery. In both sexes the bladder in the latter stages is apt to be paralysed, and the accumulation of the urine then becomes a prominent symptom. The recovery often commences after relief has been obtained, but if the necessity be overlooked, death generally ensues. Paralysis of the hind extremities is occasionally witnessed, and when seen is generally sudden in its appearance. Sometimes, however, the loss of power is gradual, and when such is the case the hopes of a cure are always diminished. If the power of motion be lost suddenly, costiveness mostly exists; and if, on the other hand, it should be gradual, there may be diarrhoea, which will terminate in death. Twitches, choræa, or Saint Vitus's dance, are not very usual, and may continue for months after every other symptom has subsided. All four limbs are sometimes violently agitated, and even during sleep are not quiescent. The motion is incessant, and when this is the case the animal dies, worn out by the want of bodily rest. In the majority of instances only one limb is affected; and a species of independence of volition, or incapability of controlling its movements, accompanies the affection. Though never still, the leg is comparatively useless, and is carried in a manner which denotes this fact. The muscles of the trunk are less commonly attacked, but they do not always escape. When the legs have not been thus affected, I have known the abdominal and thoracic muscles to be troubled by continuous twitchings; which, however, have been for the most part slight, and have subsided more quickly than have those of the extremities, when they have been diseased. Cholera comes on gradually; its commencement is hardly to be perceived, and it is seldom observed before the distemper is fully developed--even sometimes only when the disorder appears to be subsiding. It is not rare for it to start up while the animal is apparently recovering; and when it does so, it is always most difficult to remove. No pain is felt in the affected limb; the part rather seems to lose some portion of its sensibility. When the hind parts are paralysed, feeling may be entirely gone; so that a pin thrust into the flesh of those parts does not even attract the notice of the dog. This does not occur in choræa, but the consciousness is dulled by that affection. The convulsed limb may be more roughly handled than the healthy ones; but violence will excite those answers which truly indicate that insensibility is not established in it. If nothing be done for the twitchings, the limb will waste; at last the general system will be sympathetically involved, and the body will grow thin. This, however, may not happen until long after all signs of distemper have disappeared; for choræa, though well known to be often fatal, is always slow in its progress, and never attended with immediate danger. Such is an outline of the leading symptoms; and it now remains only to more particularly point out those which indicate death and denote recovery. The third or fourth week is the time when the dog mostly dies, if the disorder terminates fatally; and six weeks is the average continuance of the attack. Rapid loss of flesh is always a bad sign, and it is worse in proportion as the appetite is good, because then nature has lost the power of appropriation. The presence of vermin is likewise a circumstance which in some measure is deserving of notice. If a dog becomes, during the existence of this disorder, unusually infested with fleas, or more especially if lice all at once cover its coat,--as these parasites ever abound where the body is debilitated and the system unhealthy,--they are at such a period particularly ominous. The coat cannot, while the disease prevails, be expected to look sleek; but when it becomes more than usually harsh, and is decidedly foul, having a peculiar smell, which is communicated to the hand when it is passed over the body, the anticipations are not bright. The most marked indication is, however, given by the tongue. When this is only a little whiter than it was in health, we may hope for recovery; but if it becomes coated, discolored, and red and dry at its tip and edges, the worst may be foretold. The warning is the more decided if the breath be hot and tainted, and the belly and feet cold to the touch. While the dog can stand and walk, however feebly, there is no reason to despair; but when it falls down, and lies upon its side, rarely is medicine of much avail. Even then, however, it will sometimes recover; but if, while in this state, injections are returned as soon as they are administered, the chance that it can survive is indeed remote. Recovery, in extreme cases, usually commences after diarrhoea which had set in has subsided, rather than during its attack. This is the only semblance to anything approaching a crisis which has come hither under my observation. If simultaneously the eyes lose their red and glassy aspect, and the cough returns, the danger may be supposed to have been passed. For weeks, however, the animal will require attention; for the convalescence is often more difficult to master than the disease itself is to cure; and relapses, always more dangerous than the original attack, are by no means unusual. The recovery may not be perfect before one or even two months have expired; but usually it is rapid, and the health is better than it was previous to the disease. A dog which would before never make flesh, having had the distemper, will often become fat. I once tried all in my power to relieve a Newfoundland dog of worms, but though I persisted for months, I was at last reluctantly obliged to admit the case was beyond any treatment I dared employ. A fortnight after I had given it up, the same animal was brought to me, suffering under evident distemper. I was not displeased to see it in that state, for I felt I could overcome the disease; and I told the proprietor that with the distemper the worms would depart. So it proved, and the dog has not since been subject to the annoyance. When the violence of the disorder has declined, the skin generally peels, the cuticle is cut off, and the hair is scurfy. I have even known the soles of the feet to cast their outer covering, and in one case three of the nails were shed. The teeth, also, are coated with a thick fur, and the breath is offensive; but as the strength returns at the same time, these circumstances are not to be viewed in a serious light. In one or two instances, where the system seemed to be so shaken that it retained no strength to cast off the lingering remnant of the distemper, mange has burst forth, and proceeded very rapidly; but it yielded with equal speed to mild external remedies, and is therefore only to be feared inasmuch as it disfigures the dog for a time, retarding the ultimate restoration to health by further taxing the enfeebled body. During the recovery from distemper, small and delicate animals--terriers and spaniels--are very liable to faint; the dog is lively, perhaps excited, when suddenly it falls upon its side, and all its limbs stiffen. A series of these attacks may follow one another, though generally one only occurs; when numerous and rapid, there is some danger, but, as a general rule, little apprehension need be entertained. The fainting fits are of some consequence, if they exist during a sickening for, or maturing of, distemper. In pups that have not passed the climax of the disease, they are not unseldom the cause of death; but, even in that case, I have never been convinced that the measures adopted for the relief did not kill quite as much or even more than the affection. When the symptom is mistaken, and wrong remedies are resorted to, the fainting fit will often continue for hours, or never be overcome. When let alone, the attack mostly does not last longer than a quarter of an hour, and under judicious treatment the consciousness almost immediately returns. When the fainting fits occur during the progress or advance of the disease--that is, before the symptoms have begun to amend--it is usually preceded by signs of aggravation. For twelve or twenty-four hours previously the dog is perceptibly worse; it may moan or cry, and yet no organ seems to be decidedly affected more seriously than it was before. I attribute the sounds made to headache; and, confirming this opinion, there is always some heat at the scalp. The animal is dull, but immediately before the collapse it attempts to wander, and has begun to move, probably panting at the same time, when it falls without a cry, and stiffens. In this state--the rigidity occasionally being less, but the unconsciousness continuing unchanged--it will remain; the eyes are turned upward or into the skull, the gums and tongue are pallid, the legs and belly cold: the appearances are those of approaching death, which, unless relief is afforded, may in a short time take place. When the fainting occurs after convalescence is established, the attack is sudden, the symptoms are less violent, and the coma of shorter duration. In this last case there is generally little danger, but there is always sufficient reason for alarm, and help ought never to be delayed. These attacks are commonly confounded with true distemper fits, from which they are altogether distinct; and from which they may be readily distinguished by the absence of the champing of the jaw, the want of any disposition to bite, the immediate insensibility which ensues, the shrieks not being heard, and the urine or fæces not being voided. Nevertheless, the two are usually confounded, and hence many persons are found asserting that distemper fits are easily cured; and several dogs have been shown to me at different times, which their owners were confident had been attacked by distemper fits, and radically cured by the most simple, and often ridiculous specifics. I have sometimes in despair--even against my reason--tried these boasted remedies, but in no instance has the result rewarded me. Where there was real occasion for a potent medicine, and little hope that any drug could benefit, the nostrums have, without a single exception, belied the confident recommendations with which they were offered, and either have done harm or proved inoperative. The symptoms of distemper, as the reader will, after wading through the foregoing description, have perceived, are numerous and complicated; they admit of no positive arrangement, being both eccentric in their order and appearances. Redness of the eyes, with discharge from both eyes and nose, accompanied with ordinary signs of illness, are the early indications; but even these are not to be sought for, or to be expected in any single form. The judgment must be exercised, and study strengthened by experience will alone enable any man to pronounce the presence of distemper in many cases; while, perhaps, without knowledge or practice any person may recognise it in the generality of instances. The treatment is rendered the more difficult because of the insidious nature of the disorder, and the uncertain character of its symptoms; under such circumstances, it is no easy task to make perfectly clear those instructions I am about to give. I am in possession of no specific; I do not pretend to teach how to conjure; I am going only to lay down certain rules which, if judiciously applied, will tend to take from this disease that fatal reputation which it has hitherto acquired. I shall be obliged, however, to leave much to the discretion of the reader; for it would employ too great a space, did I attempt to make provision for all possible accidents and probable combinations. The diet is of all importance; it must be strictly attended to. In the first place, meat or flesh must be withheld. Boiled rice, with a little broth from which the fat has been removed, may be the food of a weakly animal, but for the majority bread and milk will be sufficient; whichever is employed must be given perfectly cold. Sugar, butter, sweet biscuits, meat, gravy, greens, tea or pot liquor--either luxuries or trash--must be scrupulously denied in any quantity, however small. Skim-milk, if perfectly sweet, is to be preferred, and coarse bread or ship biscuits are better than the same articles of a finer quality. These will form the diet, when the dog can be brought to accept them; and to rice, the favorite--however great may be the pity he elicits, or however urgent may be his solicitations for a more liberal fare--must be rigidly confined. If, after a few trials, the dog stubbornly refuses such provender, meat must of necessity be given, but it should be of the very best description, and rather underdone. Of this kind, it ought to be minced, and mixed with so much rice or ship biscuit as the animal can at first be made to eat with it; the rice or biscuit may then be gradually increased; and in the end the vegetable substance will constitute, at all events, the major part of the support. Water, constantly changed--a circumstance too little attended to where dogs are concerned--must be the only drink; the bed must be warm and dry, but airy. Cleanliness cannot be carried to too nice an extent; here the most fastidious attention is not out of place. Let the kennel be daily cleared, and the bed regularly changed at least thrice-a-week; straw or hay is better for the dog to sleep upon than cushions or blankets, which, being more expensive, are not so frequently replaced. Too much hay or straw cannot be allowed, but, on the other hand, it is difficult to regulate the quantity of the finer articles. In the last kind of bed the animal is often almost smothered, or else he scrapes them into a lump, and lies shivering on the top; whereas, when he has straw to lie upon, he can either creep beneath it, and shelter himself when sensible of cold, or expose himself to the air when oppressed by the fever. The sensations being the only guide, it is best to leave the dog, as much as possible, capable of obeying its instinct; but always let the bed be ample, as during the night the shivering generally prevails, and the cold fit is entirely independent of the heat to be felt at the skin, or the temperature of the season. Let the dog be kept away from the fire, for, if permitted, it will creep to the hearth, and may be injured by the falling cinders, when the burn will not perhaps readily heal. A cold or rather cool place is to be selected--one protected from wet, free from damp, and not exposed to wind or draughts. The kennel, if properly constructed, is the better house, for dogs do best in the open air; the only objection to which is, the chance it offers of the animal being drenched with rain. If the kennel can be placed under an open outhouse, I should always have it put there; and what else I would recommend is, of course, told by the line of conduct which I pursue. Medicinal measures are not to be so quickly settled. A constant change of the agents employed will be imperative, and the practitioner must be prepared to meet every symptom as it appears. The treatment is almost wholly regulated by the symptoms, and as the last are various, of course the mode of vanquishing them cannot be uniform. To guide us, however, there is the well-known fact, the disease we have to subdue is of a febrile kind, and has a decided tendency to assume a typhoid character; therefore, whatever is done must be of a description not likely to exhaust,--depletion is altogether out of the question. The object we have to keep in view is the support of nature, and the husbanding of those powers which the malady is certain to prey upon: in proportion as this is done, so will be the issue. In the very early stage, purgatives or emetics are admissible. If a dog is brought to me with reddened eyes, but no discharge, and the owner does no more with regard to the animal than complain of dulness, a want of appetite, and a desire to creep to the warmth, then I give a mild emetic such as is directed, page 119; and this I repeat for three successive mornings; on the fourth day administering a gentle purge, as ordered, page 116. The tartar emetic solution and purgative pills I employ for these purposes, in preference to castor oil or ipecacuanha, and during the same time I prescribe the following pills:-- Ext. belladonna Six to twenty-four grains. Nitre One to four scruples. Extract of gentian One to four drachms. Powdered quassia A sufficiency. Make into twenty-four pills, and give three daily; choosing the lowest amount specified, or the intermediate quantities, according to the size of the animal. Often under this treatment the disease will appear to be suddenly cut short. With the action of the purgative, or even before it has acted, all the symptoms will disappear, and nothing remains which seems to say any further treatment is required. I never rest here, for experience has taught me that these appearances are deceptive, and the disorder has a disposition to return. Consequently strict injunctions are given as to diet, and a course of tonics is adopted:-- Disulphate of quinine One to four scruples. Sulphate of iron One to four scruples. Extract of gentian Two to eight drachms. Powdered quassia A sufficiency. Make into twenty pills, and give three daily. At the same time I give the liquor arsenicalis, which I prepare not exactly as is directed to be made by the London pharmacopoeia, but after the following method:-- Take any quantity of arsenious acid, and adding to it so much distilled water as will constitute one ounce of the fluid to every four grains of the substance, put the two into a glass vessel. To these put a quantity of carbonate of potash equal to that of the acid, and let the whole boil until the liquid is perfectly clear. The strength is the same as the preparation used in human practice; the only difference is, the coloring and flavoring ingredients are omitted, because they render the medicine distasteful to the dog. The dose for the dog is from one drop to three drops; it may be carried higher, but should not be used in greater strength, when a tonic or febrifuge effect only is desired. Of the liquor arsenicalis I take ten or twenty drops, and adding one ounce of distilled water, mingled with a little simple syrup, I order a teaspoonful to be given thrice daily with the pills, or in a little milk, or in any fluid the creature is fond of. The taste being pleasant, the dog does not object to this physic, and it is of all importance that it should be annoyed at this time as little as may be possible. Numerous are the cases which have thus been shortened by this method; and the advantage gained by this mode of treatment is, that if the measures employed be not absolutely necessary, they do no harm, and if required, they are those which are calculated to mitigate the violence of the disease; so for three or four weeks I pursue this course, and should all then appear well, I dismiss the case. Most generally, however, the dogs brought to us with the distemper have the disease fairly established before we see them. Then I never purge or vomit: the time when such agents could be remedial has passed, and if now used, though they will seem to do some immediate good, the after consequences are always to be regretted. The action of the purgative has scarcely subsided before the distemper assumes a more virulent form, and the probability of the termination is rendered more dark. During the distemper I pay little attention to the bowels; and, however great may be the costiveness, I never venture to resort even to a laxative, though, should I discover the rectum to be impacted with hard fæces, an enema may be employed. That which I use on these occasions is composed of gruel, to which some sulphuric ether and laudanum has been added. Take of cold gruel One quart. Sulphuric ether Four drachms. Laudanum One scruple. The above quantity will be ample for the largest dog--one-eighth will be enough for a small animal--and for a mere pup, an ounce of the fluid is often sufficient. In these cases, however, I always continue the injection until it is returned, the object not being to have it retained; but simply to lubricate the part, and thereby facilitate the passage of the fæces, while by distending the rectum, that intestine is stimulated to expel its contents. The ether and laudanum are introduced to guard against the possibility of irritation. If a more than usual disposition to costiveness be observed, twice a week a meal of liver, chopped very fine, is allowed; but even this should be given only after there is absolute proof of its necessity. Of the cough, however distressing it may be, I take no notice. I do nothing for its relief, but persevere in the tonic treatment, and become more strict in my directions concerning diet. The cough is only one of the symptoms attendant on the disorder, and the measures likely to mitigate its severity will aggravate the disease; while by attacking the disorder, we destroy the cause, and with that the effect also disappears. The eyes I treat, or rather refuse to treat, upon the same principle. Whatever may be the appearance they present--even though the animal should be actually blind, the eye of a dull thick white color on its entire surface, and the centre of the cornea ulcerated--nevertheless I let them alone, and turn a deaf ear to the entreaties which call on me to relieve so terrible an affliction: I forbid even the discharge to be washed off. Nothing must go near them; but the treatment must be pursued as though we were ignorant that the parts were affected. Any excessive accumulation may be gently picked off with the fingers once a-day; but even this must be performed with the utmost caution, and in most instances had better be let alone. It can only be necessary in dogs that have very long hair which becomes matted and glued together upon the cheeks; for other animals it is not imperative. If the lids should be stuck together, the fastening substance may be removed; but it should not be too quickly done even then. All water, either warm, tepid, or cold--every kind of lotion, or any sort of salve or powder--will do harm, by either weakening or irritating the organs. As to bleeding, blistering, and setoning, which have been advised, they are contrary to the dictates of humanity, and as a necessary consequence, are injurious. In medicine, at least with the dog, that which is not kind is not good. With these animals the feelings are much safer than the reason; and a lady, consulting the impulses of her heart, would be more likely to save her favorite than a veterinary surgeon, who proceeded upon the practice of that which he supposed was his science. Let the eyes of the sufferer alone--we cannot alleviate the pain, or shorten its duration. The disease regulates the torture, and to that we must give attention. If the distemper is conquered, the sight will mostly be restored; but if the eyes are tampered with, consequences may ensue which are not natural to the disease, but are induced by the crude and cruel prejudices of the doctor. The man who, during distemper, seeing an ulcer upon the cornea, under the imagination that by so doing he will set up a healthy action, presumes to touch it with lunar caustic, will in the resistance of the poor patient be rebuked, and, by the humour of the eye squirting into his face, probably be informed that he has accomplished the very object he intended to prevent, while a fungoid mass will spring up to commemorate his achievement. When the lungs are attacked, all kinds of mistaken cruelties have been perpetrated. No wonder the disease has been so fatal, when it has been so little understood. I cannot conceive that any dog could survive the measures I was by my college tutor taught to pursue, or the plan which books told me to adopt. Needlessly severe, calculated to strengthen the disease, and to decrease the power of the animal to survive, as the general practice decidedly is, I entreat the reader to reject it. In truth, the involvement of the lungs is in distemper a very slight affair; no symptom yields more quickly or to milder means. Do not forget the diet, but let it be both low and small. The system cannot endure depletion, therefore we must gain whatever we can through abstinence. Do not starve, but be cautious not to cram the animal; only keep it so short that it remains always hungry. The meal must now never be full, or sufficient to satisfy the appetite, which is usually large. A loaded stomach would do much injury, therefore little and often is the rule. The amount for the day must be cut off in the morning; and during the day, at as many times as the owner pleases, it may little by little be offered, but no more must be allowed. If the dog should not be inclined to eat, which is not often the case at this particular period, the circumstance is hardly to be regretted; he is not, save under the direction of one qualified to give such an order, to be enticed or forced. As for medicine, let the following pill be given thrice daily:-- Extract of belladonna One to four grains. Nitre Three to eight grains. James's powder One to four grains. Conserve of roses A sufficiency. This will be the quantity for one pill; but a better effect is produced if the medicine be administered in smaller doses, and at shorter intervals. If the dog can be constantly attended to, and does not resist the exhibition of pills, or will swallow them readily when concealed in a bit of meat, the following may be given every hour:-- Extract of belladonna A quarter grain to one grain. Nitre One to four grains. James's powder A quarter grain to one grain. Conserve of roses A sufficiency. With these a very little of the tincture of aconite may be also blended, not more than one drop to four pills. The tonics ought during the time to be discontinued, and the chest should be daily auscultated to learn when the symptoms subside. So soon as a marked change is observed, the tonic treatment must be resumed, nor need we wait until all signs of chest affection have disappeared. When the more active stage is mastered by strengthening the system, the cure is often hastened; but the animal should be watched, as sometimes the affection will return. More frequently, however, while the lungs engross attention, the eyes become disordered. When such is the case, the tonics may be at once resorted to; for then there is little fear but the disease is leaving the chest to involve other structures. Diarrhoea may next start up. If it appears, let ether and laudanum be immediately administered, both by the mouth and by injection. To one pint of gruel add two ounces of sulphuric ether, and four scruples of the tincture of opium; shake them well together. From half an ounce to a quarter of a pint of this may be employed as an enema, which should be administered with great gentleness, as the desire is that it should be retained. This should be repeated every third hour, or oftener if the symptoms seem urgent, and there is much straining after the motions. From a tablespoonful to four times that quantity of the ether and laudanum mixture, in a small quantity of simple syrup, may be given every second hour by the mouth; but if there is any indication of colic, the dose may be repeated every hour or half hour; and I have occasionally given a second dose when only ten minutes have elapsed. Should the purgation continue, and the pain subside, from five to twenty drops of liquor potassæ may be added to every dose of ether given by the mouth; which, when there is no colic, should be once in three hours, and the pills directed below may be exhibited at the same time:-- Prepared chalk Five grains to one scruple. Powdered ginger Three to ten grains. Powdered carraways Three to ten grains. Powdered capsicums One to four grains. Confection of roses A sufficiency. To the foregoing, from two to eight grains of powdered catechu may be added should it seem to be required, but it is not generally needed. Opium more than has been recommended, in this stage, is not usually beneficial; and, save in conjunction with ether, which appears to deprive it of its injurious property, I am not in the habit of employing it. I have been more full in my directions for diarrhoea than was perhaps required by the majority of cases. Under the administration of the ether only I am, therefore, never in a hurry to resort even to the liquor potassæ, which, however, I use some time before I employ the astringent pills, and during the whole period I persevere with the tonic. The diet I restrict to strong beef tea, thickened with ground rice, and nothing of a solid nature is allowed. Should these measures not arrest the purgation, but the fæces become offensive, chloride of zinc is introduced into the injection, and also into the ether given by the mouth. With the first, from a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful of the solution is combined, and with the last half those quantities is blended. A wash, composed of two ounces of the solution of the chloride to a pint of cold water, is also made use of to cleanse the anus, about which, and the root of the tail, the fæces have a tendency to accumulate. Warm turpentine I have sometimes with advantage had repeatedly held to the abdomen, by means of flannels heated and then dipt into the oil, which is afterwards wrung out. This, however, is apt to be energetic in its action; but that circumstance offers no objection to its employment. When it causes much pain, it may be discontinued, and with the less regret, as the necessity is the less in proportion as the sensibility is the greater. Should it even produce no indication of uneasiness, it must nevertheless not be carried too far, since on the dog it will cause serious irritation if injudiciously employed; and we may then have the consequences of the application to contend with added to the effects of the disease. When it produces violent irritation, a wash made of a drachm of the carbonate of ammonia to half a pint of water may be applied to the surface; and when the inflammation subsides, the part may be dressed with spermaceti ointment. The fits are more to be dreaded than any other symptom; when fairly established, they are seldom mastered. I have no occasion to boast of the success of my treatment of these fits. All I can advance in favor of my practice is, that it does sometimes save the life, and certainly alleviates the sufferings of the patient; while of that plan of treatment which is generally recommended and pursued, I can confidently assert it always destroys, adding torture to the pains of death. In my hands not more than one in ten are relieved, but when I followed the custom of Blaine none ever lived,--the fate was sealed, and its horrors were increased by the folly and ignorance of him who was employed to watch over, and was supposed to be able to control. Let the owners of dogs, when these animals have true distemper fits, rather cut short their lives than allow the creatures to be tampered with for no earthly prospect. I have no hesitation when saying this; the doom of the dog with distemper fits may be regarded as sealed; and medicine, which will seldom save, should be studied chiefly as a means of lessening the last agonies. In this light alone can I recommend the practice I am in the habit of adopting. When under it any animal recovers, the result is rather to be attributed to the powers of nature than to be ascribed to the virtues of medicine; which by the frequency of its failure shows that its potency is subservient to many circumstances. Blaine and Youatt, both by the terms in which they speak of, and the directions they lay down for, the cure of distemper fits, evidently did not understand the pathology of this form of the disease. These authors seem to argue that the fits are a separate disease, and not the symptoms only of an existing disorder. The treatment they order is depletive, whereas, the attacks appearing only after the distemper has exhausted the strength, a little reflection convinces us the fits are the results of weakness. Their views are mistaken, and their remedies are prejudicial. They speak of distemper being sometimes ushered in by a fit, and their language implies that the convulsions, sometimes seen at the first period, are identical with those witnessed only during the latest stages. This is not the fact. A fit may be observed before the appearance of the distemper; and anything which, like a fit, shows the system to be deranged, may predispose the animal to be affected; but, between fits of any kind, and the termination of the affection in relation to distemper, there is no reason to imagine there is an absolute connexion. The true distemper fit is never observed early--at least, I have never beheld it--before the expiration of the third week; and I am happy in being able to add, that when my directions have from the first been followed, I have never known an instance in which the fits have started up. Therefore, if seldom to be cured, I have cause to think they may be generally prevented. When the symptoms denote the probable appearance of fits, although the appetite should be craving, the food must be light and spare. At the Veterinary College, the pupils are taught that the increase of the appetite at this particular period is a benevolent provision to strengthen the body for the approaching trial. Nature, foreseeing the struggle her creature is doomed to undergo--the teacher used to say--gives a desire for food, that the body may have vigor to endure it; and the young gentlemen are advised, therefore, to gratify the cravings of the dog. This is sad nonsense, which pretends to comprehend those motives that are far beyond mortal recognition. We cannot read the intentions of every human mind, and it displays presumption when we pretend to understand the designs of Providence. There are subjects upon which prudence would enjoin silence. The voracity is excessive, but it is a morbid prompting. When the fits are threatened, the stomach is either acutely inflamed, or in places actually sore, the cuticle being removed, and the surface raw. After a full meal at such a period, a fit may follow, or continuous cries may evidence the pain which it inflicts. Nothing solid should be allowed; the strongest animal jelly, in which arrowroot or ground rice is mixed, must constitute the diet; and this must be perfectly cold before the dog is permitted to touch it: the quantity may be large, but the amount given at one time must be small. A little pup should have the essence of at least a pound of beef in the course of the day, and a Newfoundland or mastiff would require eight times that weight of nutriment: this should be given little by little, a portion every hour, and nothing more save water must be placed within the animal's reach. The bed must not be hay or straw, nor must any wooden utensil be at hand; for there is a disposition to eat such things. A strong canvas bag, lightly filled with sweet hay, answers the purpose best; but if the slightest inclination to gnaw is observed, a bare floor is preferable. The muzzle does not answer; for it irritates the temper which sickness has rendered sensitive. Therefore no restraint, or as little as is consonant with the circumstances, must be enforced. Emetics are not indicated. Could we know with certainty that the stomach was loaded with foreign matters, necessity would oblige their use; but there can be no knowledge of this fact--and of themselves these agents are at this time most injurious. Purgatives are poisons now. There is always apparent constipation; but it is confined only to the posterior intestine, and is only mechanical. Diarrhoea is certain to commence when the rectum is unloaded, and nothing likely to irritate the intestines is admissible. The fluid food will have all the aperient effect that can be desired. As to setons, they are useless during the active stage; and if continued after it has passed, they annoy and weaken the poor patient: in fact, nothing must be done which has not hitherto been proposed. When signs indicative of approaching fits are remarked, small doses of mercury and ipecacuanha should be administered. Grey powder Five grains to one scruple. Ipecacuanha One to four grains. Give the above thrice daily; but if it produces sickness, let the quantity at the next dose be one-half. Tincture of hyoscyamus One part. Sulphuric ether Three parts. This should be mixed with cold soup, ten ounces of which should be mingled with one ounce of the medicine. Give an ounce every hour to a small dog, and four ounces to the largest animal. A full enema of the solution of soap should be thrown up; and the rectum having been emptied, an ounce or four ounces of the sulphuric ether and hyoscyamus mixture ought to be injected every hour. Over the anterior part of the forehead, from one to four leeches may be applied. To do this the hair must be cut close, and the parts shaved; then, with a pair of scissors, the skin must be snipped through, and the leech put to the wound: after tasting the blood it will take hold. To the nape of the neck a small blister may be applied; and if it rises, the hope will mount with it. A blister is altogether preferable to a seton; the one acts as a derivative, by drawing the blood immediately to the surface without producing absolute inflammation, which the other as a foreign body violently excites. The effects of vesicants are speedy, those of setons are remote; and I have seen fearful spectacles induced by their employment. With dogs setons are never safe; for these animals, with their teeth or claws, are nearly certain to tear them out. In cases of fits, if the seton causes much discharge, it is debilitating and also offensive to the dog, and the ends of the tape are to him an incessant annoyance. It is not my practice to employ setons, being convinced that those agents are not beneficial to the canine race; but to blisters, which on these animals are seldom used, I have little objection. With the ammonia and cantharides, turpentine and mustard, we have so much variety, both as to strength and speed of action, that we can suit the remedy to the circumstances, which, in the instance of a creature so sensitive and irritable as the dog, is of all importance. The blister which I employ in distemper fits is composed of equal parts of liquor ammoniæ and camphorated spirits. I saturate a piece of sponge or piline with this compound; and having removed the hair, I apply it to the nape of the neck, where it is retained from five to fifteen minutes, according to the effect it appears to produce. Great relief is often obtained by this practice; and should it be necessary, I sometimes repeat the application a little lower down towards the shoulders, but never on the same place; for even though no apparent rubefaction may be discerned, the deeper seated structures are apt to be affected, and should the animal survive, serious sloughing may follow, if the blister be repeated too quickly on one part. The directions given above apply to that stage when the eye and other symptoms indicate the approach of fits, or when the champing has commenced. The tonic pills and liquor arsenicalis may also then be continued; but when the fits have positively occurred, other measures must be adopted. If colic should attack the animal, laudanum must be administered, and in small but repeated doses, until the pain is dismissed. Opium is of itself objectionable; but the drug does less injury than does the suffering, and, therefore, we choose between the two evils. From five to twenty drops of the tincture, combined with half-a-drachm to two drachms of sulphuric ether, may be given every half-hour during the paroxysm; and either the dose diminished or the intervals increased as the agony lessens, the animal being at the same time constantly watched. The ethereal enemas should be simultaneously exhibited, and repeated every half-hour. When a fit occurs, nothing should during its existence be given by the mouth, except with the stomach-pump, or by means of a large-sized catheter introduced into the pharynx. Unless this precaution be taken, there is much danger of the fluid being carried into the lungs. Ether by injection, however, is of every service, and where the proper instruments are at hand, it ought also to be given by the mouth. The doses have been described. To the liquor arsenicalis, from half a drop to two drops of the tincture of aconite may with every dose be blended; and the solution of the chloride of lime should be mingled with the injections, as ordered for diarrhoea, which, if not present, is certain to be near at hand. The following may also be exhibited, either as a soft mass or as a fluid mixture:-- Chlorate of potash One to four grains. Aromatic powder Half-a-drachm to two drachms. Or, Carbonate of ammonia Five grains to a scruple. Chalk One to four scruples. Aromatic confection One to four scruples. Either of the above may be tried every third hour, but on no account ought the warm bath to be used. An embrocation, as directed for rheumatism, may be employed to the feet and legs, and warm turpentine may, as described in diarrhoea, be used to the abdomen. Cold or evaporating lotions to the head are of service, but unless they can be continuously applied, they do harm. Their action must be prolonged and kept up night and day, or they had better not be employed, as the reaction they provoke is excessive. Cold water dashed upon the head during the fit does no good, but rather seems to produce evil. The shock often aggravates the convulsions; and the wet which soon dries upon the skull is followed by a marked increase of temperature; while, remaining upon other parts, and chilling these, it drives the blood to the head. From the foregoing, it will have been seen that my efforts are chiefly directed to strengthening the system, and, so far as possible, avoiding anything that might add to the irritability. On these principles I have sometimes succeeded, and most often when the fits have been caused by some foreign substance in the stomach or intestines. When such is the case, the fits are mostly short and frequent. One dog that had one of these attacks, which did not last above forty seconds every five minutes, and was very noisy, lived in pain for two days, and then passed a peach-stone, from which moment it began to recover, and is now alive. In another case, a nail was vomited, and the animal from that time commenced improving. In this instance an emetic would have been of benefit; but such occurrences are rare, and the emetic does not, even when required, do the same good as is produced by the natural ejection of the offending agent. Perhaps, where nature possesses the strength to cast off the cause of the distress, there is more power indicated; but after an emetic, I have known a dog fall upon its side, and never rise again. During fits the dog should be confined, to prevent its exhausting itself by wandering about. A large basket is best suited for this purpose. It should be so large as not to incommode the animal, and high enough to allow the dog to stand up without hitting its head. A box is too close; and, besides the objection it presents with regard to air, it does not allow the liquids ejected to drain off. For the pustular eruption peculiar to distemper, I apply no remedy. When the pustules are matured I open them, but I am not certain any great benefit results from this practice. If the disorder terminates favorably the symptom disappears; and, beyond giving a little additional food, perhaps allowing one meal of meat, from one ounce to six ounces, I positively do nothing in these cases. I must confess I do not understand this eruption; and in medicine, if you are not certain what you should do, it is always safest to do nothing. The disposition to eat or gnaw any part of the body must be counteracted by mechanical measures. The limb or tail must be encased with leather or gutta percha. No application containing aloes, or any drug the dog distastes, will be of any avail. When the flesh is not sensitive, the palate is not nice, and the dog will eat away in spite of any seasoning. A mechanical obstruction is the only check that can be depended upon. A muzzle must be employed, if nothing else can be used; but generally a leather boot, or gutta percha case moulded to the part, has answered admirably. To the immediate place I apply a piece of wet lint, over which is put some oil silk, and the rag is kept constantly moist. The dose of the liquor arsenicalis is increased by one-fourth or one-half, and in a few days the morbid desire to injure itself ceases. After this the dressings are continued; and only when the recovery is perfect do I attempt to operate, no matter how serious may be the wound, or how terrible, short of mortifying, it may appear. Tumors must be treated upon general principles: and only regarded as reasons for supporting the strength. They require no special directions at this place, but the reader is referred to that portion of the work in which they are dwelt upon. To the genital organs of the male, when the discharge is abundant, a wash consisting of a drachm of the solution of the chloride of zinc to an ounce of water, gently applied once or twice daily, is all that will be necessary. The paralysis of the bladder requires immediate attention. In the last stage, when exhaustion sets in, it is nearly always paralysed. Sometimes the retention of urine constitutes the leading and most serious symptom; and after the water has been once drawn off, the bladder may regain its tone--another operation rarely being needed. A professional friend, formerly my pupil, brought to me a dog which exhibited symptoms he could not interpret; it was in the advanced stage of distemper. It was disinclined to move, and appeared almost as if its hind legs were partially paralysed. I detected the bladder was distended, and though the animal did not weigh more than eight pounds, nine ounces and a half of urine were taken away by means of the catheter. From that time it improved, and is now well. There can be no doubt that a few hours' delay in that case would have sealed the fate of the dog. For the manner of introducing the catheter, and the way to discover when the urine is retained, the reader is referred to that part of the present work which treats especially on this subject. Paralysis and choræa will be here dismissed with a like remark. To those diseases the reader must turn for their treatment; but I must here state, that before any measures specially intended to relieve either are adopted, the original disease should be first subdued, as, in many cases, with the last the choræa will disappear; while in some the twitching will remain through life. All that may be attempted during the existence of distemper, will consist in the addition of from a quarter of a grain to a grain and a half of powdered nux vomica to the tonic pills; and, in severe paralysis, the use of a little friction, with a mild embrocation to the loins. The treatment during convalescence is by no means to be despised, for here we have to restore the strength, and, while we do so, to guard against a relapse. One circumstance must not be lost sight of; namely, that nature is, after the disease has spent its violence, always anxious to repair the damage it may have inflicted. Bearing this in mind, much of our labor will be lightened, and more than ever shall we be satisfied to play second in the business. The less we do the better; but, nevertheless, there remains something which will not let us continue perfectly idle. Never, after danger has seemingly passed, permit the animal to return all at once to flesh food. For some time, after all signs of the disease have entirely disappeared, let vegetables form a part, and a good part of the diet. Do not let the animal gorge itself. However lively it may seem to be, and however eager may be its hunger, let the quantity be proportioned to the requirements independent of the voracity. Above all, do not tempt and coax the dog to eat, under the foolish idea that the body will strengthen or fatten, because a great deal is taken into the stomach. We are not nourished by what we swallow, but by that which we digest; and too much, by distending the stomach and loading the intestines, retards the natural powers of appropriation; just as a man may be prevented from walking by a weight which, nevertheless, he may be able to support. Give enough, but divide it into at least three meals--four or five will be better--and let the animal have them at stated periods; taking care that it never at one time has as much as it can eat: and by degrees return to the ordinary mode of feeding. The fainting fits create great alarm, but, if properly treated, they are very trivial affairs. An ethereal enema, and a dose or two of the medicine, will generally restore the animal. No other physic is needed, but greater attention to the feeding is required. Excessive exercise will cause them, and the want of exercise will also bring them on. The open air is of every service, and will do more for the perfect recovery than almost anything else. When the scarf-skin peels off, a cold bath with plenty of friction, and a walk afterwards, is frequently highly beneficial; but there are dogs with which it does not agree, and, consequently, the action must be watched. Never persevere with anything that seems to be injurious. If the mange breaks out, a simple dressing as directed for that disease will remove it, no internal remedies being in such a case required. I cannot close my account of distemper without cautioning the reader against the too long use of quinine. It is a most valuable medicine, and, as a general rule, no less safe than useful. I do not know that it can act as a poison, or destroy the life; but it can produce evils hardly less, and more difficult to cure, than those it was employed to eradicate. The most certain and most potent febrifuge, and the most active tonic, it can also induce blindness and deafness; and by the too long or too large employment of quinine a fever is induced, which hangs upon the dog, and keeps him thin for many a month. Therefore, when the more violent stages of the disease have been conquered, it should no longer be employed. Other tonics will then do quite as well, and a change of medicine often performs that which no one, if persevered with, will accomplish. All writers, when treating of distemper, speak of worms, and give directions for their removal during the existence of the disease. I know they are too often present, and I am afraid they too often aggravate the symptoms; but it is no easy matter to judge precisely when they do or when they do not exist. The remedies most to be depended upon for their destruction, are not such as can be beneficial to the animal laboring under this disorder; but, on the other hand, the tonic course of treatment I propose is very likely to be destructive to the worms. Therefore, rather than risk the possibility of doing harm, I rely upon the tonics, and have no reason to repent the confidence evinced in this particular. The treatment of distemper consists in avoiding all and everything which can debilitate; it is, simply, strengthening by medicine aided by good nursing. It is neither mysterious nor complex, but is both clear and simple when once understood. It was ignorance alone which induced men to resort to filth and cruelty for the relief of that which is not difficult to cure. In animals, I am certain, kindness is ninety-nine parts of what passes for wisdom; and, in man, I do not think the proportion is much less; for how often does the mother's love preserve the life which science abandons! To dogs we may be a little experimental; and with these creatures, therefore, there is no objection to trying the effects of those gentler feelings, which the very philosophical sneer at as the indications of weakness. When I am called to see a dog, if there be a lady for its nurse, I am always more certain as to the result; for the medicines I send then seem to have twice the effect. MOUTH, TEETH, TONGUE, GULLET, ETC. The mouth of the dog is not subject to many diseases; but it sometimes occasions misery to the animal. Much of such suffering is consequent upon the folly and thoughtlessness of people, who, having power given them over life, act as though the highest gift of God could be rendered secondary to the momentary pleasure of man. No matter in what form vitality may appear--for itself it is sacred; it has claims and rights, which it is equally idle and ridiculous to deny or to dispute. The law of the land may declare and make man to have a possession in a beast; but no act of parliament ever yet enacted has placed health and life among human property. The body may be the master's; but the spirit that supports and animates it is reserved to another. Disease and death will resent torture, and rescue the afflicted; he who undertakes the custody of an animal is morally and religiously answerable for its happiness. To make happy becomes then a duty; and to care for the welfare is an obligation. Too little is thought of this; and the fact is not yet credited. The gentleman will sport with the agony of animals; and to speak of consideration for the brute, is regarded either as an eccentricity or an affectation. This is the case generally at the present time; and it is strange it should be so, since Providence, from the creation of the earth, has been striving to woo and to teach us to entertain gentler sentiments. No one ever played with cruelty but he lost by the game, and still the sport is fashionable. No one ever spared or relieved the meanest creature but in his feelings he was rewarded; and yet are there comparatively few who will seek such pleasure. Neither through our sensibilities nor our interests are we quick to learn that which Heaven itself is constantly striving to impress. The dog is our companion, our servant, and our friend. With more than matrimonial faith does the honorable beast wed itself to man. In sickness and in health, literally does it obey, serve, love, and honor. Absolutely does it cleave only unto one, forsaking all others--for even from its own species does it separate itself, devoting its heart to man. In the very spirit and to the letter of the contract does it yield itself, accepting its life's load for better, for worse--for richer, for poorer--in sickness and in health--to love, cherish, and to obey till death. The name of the animal may be a reproach, but the affection of the dog realizes the ideal of conjugal fidelity. Nevertheless, with all its estimable qualities, it is despised, and we know not how to prize, or in what way to treat it. It is the inmate of our homes, and the associate of our leisure: and yet its requirements are not recognised, nor its necessities appreciated. Its docility and intelligence are employed to undermine its health; and its willingness to learn and to obey is converted into a reason for destroying its constitution. What it can do we are content to assume it was intended to perform; and that which it will eat we are satisfied to assert was destined to be its food. Bones, stones, and bricks, are not beneficial to dogs. The animals may be tutored to carry the two last, and impelled by hunger they will eat the first. Hard substances and heavy weights, however, when firmly grasped, of course wear the teeth; and the organs of mastication are even more valuable to the meanest cur than to the wealthiest dame. If the mouth of the human being be toothless, the cook can be told to provide for the occasion, or the dentist will in a great measure supply the loss. But the toothless dog must eat its customary food; and it must do this, although the last stump or remaining fang be excoriating the lips, and ulcerating the gums. The ability to crush, and the power to digest bones, is thought to be a proof that dogs were made to thrive upon such diet; and Blaine speaks of a meal of bones as a wholesome canine dish. I beg the owners of dogs not to be led away by so unfounded an opinion. A bone to a dog is a treat, and one which should not be denied; but it should come in only as a kind of dessert after a hearty meal. Then the creature will not strain to break and strive to swallow it; but it will amuse itself picking off little bits, and at the same time benefit itself by cleaning its teeth. Much more ingenuity than force will be employed, and the mouth will not be injured. In a state of nature this would be the regular course. The dog when wild hunts its prey; and, having caught, proceeds to feast upon the flesh, which it tears off; this, being soft, does not severely tax the masticating members. When the stomach is filled, the skeleton may be polished; but hungry dogs never take to bones when there is a choice of meat. It is a mistaken charity which throws a bone to a starving hound. Equally injurious to the teeth, are luxuries which disorder the digestion. High breeding likewise will render the mouth toothless at a very early age; but of all things the very worst is salivation, which, by the ignorant people who undertake to cure the diseases of these sensitive and delicate animals, is often induced though seldom recognised, and if recognised, always left to take its course. The mouth of the dog is therefore exposed to several evils; and there are not many of these animals which retain their teeth even at the middle age. High-bred spaniels are the soonest toothless; hard or luxurious feeding rapidly makes bare the gums. Stones, bones, &c., wear down the teeth; but the stumps become sources of irritation, and often cause disease. Salivation may, according to its violence, either remove all the teeth, or discolor any that may be retained. The hale dog's teeth, if properly cared for, will generally last during the creature's life; and continue white almost to the remotest period of its existence. I have seen very aged animals with beautiful mouths; but such sights, for the reasons which have been pointed out, are unfortunately rare. The teeth of the dog, however, may be perfectly clean and entire even at the twelfth year; and it is no more than folly to pretend that these organs are in any way indicative of the age of this animal. They are of no further importance to a purchaser than as signs which denote the state of the system, and show the uses to which the animal has been subjected. The primary teeth are cut sometimes as early as the third week; but, in the same litter, one pup may not show more than the point of an incisor when it is six weeks old; while another may display all those teeth well up. As a general rule, the permanent incisors begin to come up about the fourth month; but I have known a dog to be ten months old, and, nevertheless, to have all the temporary teeth in its head. The deviations, consequently, are so great that no rule can be laid down; and every person who pretends to judge of the dog's age by the teeth is either deceived himself, or practising upon the ignorance of others. Strong pups require no attention during dentition; but high-bred and weakly animals should be constantly watched during this period. When a tooth is loose, it should be drawn at once, and never suffered to remain a useless source of irritation. If suffered to continue in the mouth, it will ultimately become tightened; and the food or portions of hair getting and lodging between it and the permanent teeth, will inflame the gum, and cause the beast considerable suffering. The extraction at first is so slight an operation, that when undertaken by a person having the proper instruments, and knowing how to use them, the pup does not even vent a single cry. The temporary tusks of small dogs are very commonly retained after the permanent ones are fully up, and if not removed, will remain perhaps during the life; they become firm and fixed, the necks being united to the bone. This is more common in the upper than in the lower jaw, but I have seen it in both. Diminutive high-bred animals rarely shed the primary tusks naturally; therefore, when the incisors have been cut, and the permanent fang teeth begin to make their appearance through the gums, the temporary ones ought, as frequently as possible, to be moved backward and forward with the finger, in order to loosen them. When that is accomplished, they should be extracted, which if not done at this time will afterwards be difficult. As the tooth becomes again fixed, filth of various kinds accumulates between it and the permanent tusk; the animal feeds in pain, the gum swells and ulcerates, and sometimes the permanent tusk falls out, but the cause of the injury never naturally comes away. To extract a temporary tusk after it has reset is somewhat difficult, and is not to be undertaken by every bungler. The gum must be deeply lanced; and a small scalpel made for the purpose answers better than the ordinary gum lancet. The instrument having been passed all round the neck of the tooth, the gum is with the forceps to be driven or pushed away, and the hold to be taken as high as possible; firm traction is then to be made, the hand of the operator being steadied by the thumb placed against the point of the permanent tusk. As the temporary teeth are almost as brittle as glass, and as the animal invariably moves its head about, endeavoring to escape, some care must be exercised to prevent the tooth being broken. However, if it is thoroughly set, we must not expect to draw it with the fang entire, for that has become absorbed, and the neck is united to the jawbone. The object, therefore, in such cases, is to grasp the tooth as high up as possible, and break it off so that the gum may close over any small remainder of the fang which shall be left in the mouth. The operator, therefore, makes his pull with this intention; and when the tooth gives way, he feels, to discover if his object has been accomplished. Should any projecting portion of tooth, or little point of dislodged bone be felt, these must be removed; and in less than a day the wound shows a disposition to heal; but it should afterwards be inspected occasionally, in case of accidents. When foulness of the mouth is the consequence of the system of breeding, the constitution must be invigorated by the employment of such medicines as the symptoms indicate: and the teeth no further interfered with than may be required either for the health, ease, or cleanliness of the animal. From age, improper food, and disease conjoined, the dog's mouth is frequently a torture to the beast, and a nuisance to all about it. The teeth grow black from an incrustation of tartar; the insides of the lips ulcerate; the gums bleed at the slightest touch, and the breath stinks most intolerably. The dog will not eat, and sometimes is afraid even to drink; the throat is sore, and saliva dribbles from the mouth; the animal loses flesh, and is a picture of misery. When such is the case, the cure must be undertaken with all regard to the dog's condition; harm only will follow brutality or haste. The animal must be humored, and the business must be got through little by little. In some very bad cases of this description I have had no less than three visits before my patient was entirely cleansed. At the first sitting I examine the mouth, and with a small probe seek for every remnant of a stump, trying the firmness of every remaining tooth. All that are quite loose are extracted first, and then the stumps are drawn, the gums being lanced where it is necessary. This over, I employ a weak solution of the chloride of zinc--a grain to an ounce of sweetened water--as a lotion, and send the dog home, ordering the mouth, gums, teeth, and lips to be well washed with it, at least three times in the course of a day. In four days the animal is brought to me again, and then I scale the teeth with instruments similar to those employed by the human dentist, only of a small size. The dog resists this operation more stoutly than it generally does the extraction, and patience is imperative. The operation will be the more quickly got over by taking time, and exerting firmness without severity. A loud word or a box on the ear may on some occasions be required; but on no account should a blow he given, or anything done to provoke the anger of the animal. The mistress or master should never be present; for the cunning brute will take advantage of their fondness, and sham so artfully that it will be useless to attempt to proceed. I usually have no assistance, but carry the dog into a room by itself; and having spoken to it, or taken such little liberties as denote my authority, I commence the more serious part of the business. Amidst remonstrance and expostulation, caresses and scolding, the work then is got over; but seldom so thoroughly that a little further attention is not needed, which is given on the following day. The incrustation on the dog's teeth, more especially on the fangs, is often very thick. It is best removed by getting the instrument between the substance and the gum; then with a kind of wrenching action snapping it away, when frequently it will shell off in large flakes; the remaining portions should be scraped, and the tooth should afterwards look white, or nearly so. The instrument may be used without any fear of injuring the enamel, which is so hard that steel can make no impression on it; but there is always danger of hurting the gums, and as the resistance of the dog increases this, the practitioner must exert himself to guard against it. Some precaution also will be necessary to thwart occasional attempts to bite; but a little practice will give all the needful protection, and those who are not accustomed to such operations will best save themselves by not hitting the dog; for the teeth are almost certain to mark the hand that strikes. Firmness will gain submission; cruelty will only get up a quarrel, in which the dog will conquer, and the man, even if he prove victorious, can win nothing. He who is cleaning canine teeth must not expect to earn the love of his patient; the liberty taken is so great that it is never afterwards pardoned. I scarcely ever yet have known the dog to which I was not subsequently an object of dread and hatred. Grateful and intelligent as these creatures are, I have not found one simple or noble-minded enough to appreciate a dentist. [Illustration] The only direction I have to add to the above, concerns the means necessary to guard against a relapse, and to afford general relief to the constitution. To effect the first object, prepare a weak solution of chloride of zinc--one grain to the ounce--and flavor the liquid with oil of aniseed. This give to your employer, together with a small stencilling, or poonah painting brush, which is a stiff brush used in certain mechanical pursuits of art; desire him to saturate the brush in the liquid, and with it to clean the dog's teeth every morning; which, if done as directed, will prevent fresh tartar accumulating, and in time remove any portion that may have escaped the eye of the operator, sweetening the animal's breath. With regard to that medicine the constitution may require, it is impossible to say what the different kinds of dogs affected may necessitate--none can be named here; the symptoms must be observed, and according to these should be the treatment; which must be studied from the principles inculcated throughout this work. Most usually, however, tonics, stimulants, and alteratives will be required, and their operation will be gratifying. The dog, which before was offensive and miserable, may speedily become comfortable and happy; and should the errors which induced its misfortune be afterwards avoided, it may continue to enjoy its brief life up to the latest moment; therefore the teeth should never be neglected; but if any further reason be required to enforce the necessity of attending to the mouth, surely it might be found in the frightful disease to which it is occasionally subject. When the teeth, either by decay or from excessive wear, have been reduced to mere stumps, their vitality often is lost. They then act as foreign bodies, and inflame the parts adjacent to them. Should that inflammation not be attended to, it extends, first involving the bones of the lower jaw, and afterwards the gums, and CANKER OF THE MOUTH is established. Such is the course of the disease, the symptoms of which are redness and swelling during the commencement. Suppuration from time to time appears; but as the animal with its tongue removes the pus, this last effect may not be observed. The enlargement increases, till at last a hard body seems to be formed on the jaw, immediately beneath the skin. The surface of the gums may be tender, and bleed on being touched, but the tumor itself is not painful when it first appears, and throughout its course is not highly sensitive. At length it discharges a thin fluid, which is sometimes mingled with pus, and generally with more or less blood. The stench which ultimately is given off becomes powerful; and a mass of proud flesh grows upon the part, while sinuses form in various directions. Hemorrhage now is frequent and profuse, and we have to deal with a cancerous affection, which probably it may not be in our power to alleviate. The dog, which does not appear to suffer, by its actions encourages the belief that it endures no acute pain--and for a length of time maintains its condition; but, in the end, the flesh wastes and the strength gives way; the sore enlarges, and the animal may die of any disease to which its state predisposes it to be attacked. The treatment consists in searching for any stump or portion of tooth that may be retained. All such must be extracted, and also all the molars on the diseased side, without any regard to the few which may be left in the jaw. This done, the constitution must be strengthened, and pills, as directed, with the liquor arsenicalis, should be employed for that purpose. Iodide of iron One to four grains. Powdered nux vomica A quarter of a grain to one grain. Salicine One to four grains. Extract of gentian Three to twelve grains. Powdered quassia As much as may be required. The above forms one pill, three or four of which should be given daily, with any other medicine which the case may require. To the part itself a weak solution of the chloride of zinc may be used; but nothing further should be done until the system has been invigorated, and the health, as far as possible, restored. That being accomplished, if the tumor is still perfect, it should be cut down upon and removed. If any part of the bone is diseased, so much should be taken away as will leave a healthy surface. However, before the dog is brought to the veterinary surgeon for treatment, very often the tumor has lost its integrity, and there is a running sore to be healed. To this probably some ignorant persons have been applying caustics and erodents, which have done much harm, and caused it to increase. In such a case we strengthen the constitution by all possible means, and to the part order fomentations of a decoction of poppy-heads, containing chloride of zinc in minute quantities. Other anodyne applications may also be employed; the object being to allay any existing irritation, for the chloride is merely added to correct the fetor, which at this period is never absent. After some days we strive to ascertain what action the internal remedies have had upon the cancer; for by this circumstance the surgeon will decide whether he is justified in hazarding an operation. If the health has improved, but simultaneously the affected part has become worse, then the inference is unfavorable; for the disease is no longer to be regarded as local. The constitution is involved, and an operation would produce no benefit, but hasten the death, while it added to the suffering of the beast. The growth would be reproduced, and its effects would be more violent; consequently nothing further can be done beyond supporting the system, and alleviating any torture the animal may endure. But if the body has improved, and the tumor has remained stationary, or is suspected to be a little better, the knife may be resorted to; although the chance of cure is rather against success. The age of the animal, and the predisposition to throw out tumors of this nature, are against the result; for too frequently, after the jaw has healed, some distant part is attacked with a disease of a similar character. WORMING, as it is generally called, is often-practised upon dogs, and both Blaine and Youatt give directions for its performance. I shall not follow their examples. It is a needless, and therefore a cruel operation; and though often requested to do so, I never will worm a dog. Several persons, some high in rank, have been offended by my refusal; but my profession has obligations which may not be infringed for the gratification of individuals. People who talk of a worm in the tongue of a dog, only show their ignorance, and by requesting it should be removed, expose their want of feeling. Pups, when about half-grown, are sometimes seized with an inclination to destroy all kinds of property. Ladies are often vexed by discovering the havoc which their little favorites have made with articles of millinery; gloves, shawls, and bonnets, are pulled to pieces with a seeming zest for mischief, and the culprit is found wagging its tail for joy among the wreck it has occasioned. Great distress is created by this propensity, and a means to check it is naturally sought for. Mangling the tongue will not have the desired effect. For a few days pain may make the animal disinclined to use its mouth; but when this ceases, the teeth will be employed as ingeniously as before. Some good is accomplished by clipping the temporary fangs: these are very brittle, and easily cut through. The excision causes no pain, but the point being gone, the dog's pleasure is destroyed; and, as these teeth will naturally be soon shed, no injury of any consequence is inflicted. By such a simple measure, more benefit than worming ever produced is secured; for in the last case, almost in every instance, the obnoxious habit entirely ceases. As to worming being of any, even the slightest, protection, in case rabies should attack the dog, the idea is so preposterous, that I shall not here stay to notice it. The tongue of the high-bred spaniel is often subject to partial paralysis of one side. When such is the case, the muscles of the healthy side draw the tongue in that direction; and the member hangs out of the mouth, rendering the appearance somewhat unsightly. The organ from exposure becomes dry and hard; and not being properly used to cleanse the nose, this last becomes harsh and encrusted upon such portion of its surface as the disabled tongue cannot reach. The dog is disfigured, but it manages to live, and seems to endure more inconvenience than positive pain. The muscles on the paralysed side do not appear to be entirely deprived of nervous power. I infer this to be the case because they do not waste, and therefore attribute the affection to loss of tone rather than to actual palsy. The cause is not known. Some dogs are pupped in this condition; others are only affected in this way when age has far advanced. In the latter case the symptom is sudden, and nothing previous has been observed which would denote the probability of the attack; but, arguing from the description of animals which are subject to this affection, and the periods when it mostly is exhibited, we may attribute it to weakness of the constitution. For the disease nothing of a local nature can be done. I have been induced to try various topical remedies, but not with any satisfactory result; and I am not very hopeful as to future experiments in the same direction. Constitutional remedies have more power; and by these, if we cannot cure, we may limit the evil. For pups, good nursing--not petting or pampering, but whatever can invigorate--wholesome diet, airy lodging, and sufficient exercise, will do much. For older animals, the same measures, combined with such medicines as correct the digestion and give tone to the system, will be proper. An operation of dividing the muscles of that side on which the tongue protruded was once successful; but on three subsequent occasions it failed, and I have therefore relinquished it; for it is not quite safe, and puts the animal to a great deal of suffering. Dog fanciers sometimes cut off the exposed portion of the tongue, and thereby conceal the defect; but this is a brutal custom, and should not be adopted. The animal so mutilated drinks with difficulty, and the nose ultimately becomes even more unsightly than was the appearance of the hanging tongue. The tongue is sometimes injured by the teeth, especially during fits. In such cases the wounds generally heal quickly, and require no special attention. Should the sores not mend, the fault is in the system. To that, and not to the part, medicines should be directed, and the matter will be quickly settled. Salivation should never be produced upon the dog. The largest and strongest of these animals can but ill sustain the constitutional effects of mercury; while to those of a delicate kind it is nearly certain death. It may be induced by inunction, or rubbing in of ointment, as surely as by calomel internally administered. Chemists mix up various ointments that are called black, blue, red, white, or yellow; and sell these as specifics for skin diseases, which are in the dog all denominated mange. Such things are applied to the entire surface of the body; and as they mostly contain either Turpeth or Ethiop's mineral calomel, or one of the preparations of mercury, no great time is required to produce their fullest effect. The operation of the metal is too frequently mistaken for an aggravation of the disorder; and when the chemist is next visited, he is told to make the stuff stronger, because the other made the dog worse. No warning nature can give will stop the proceeding. Night and day the dog is rubbed with the poison, till its gums are sore, or its teeth fall out; the saliva dribbles from the mouth; the glands enlarge, the dog refusing to eat, and is so weak that it can hardly stand; then, fearing death, a doubt is for the first time entertained, and a veterinary surgeon is requested to look at the animal, and say what it wants. Chemists are not qualified to administer the drugs they sell to human beings; but they are fairly the murderers of a fourth part of the dogs they physic. They know nothing about these animals, and dispense poison under the name of medicine when they presume to treat them. I have had creatures brought to me in the most terrible condition; and when they have been under domestic treatment--that is, when the chemist has been consulted--I always look to find symptoms of salivation. The signs are not obscure; the gums are either soft, tender, and inflamed, or else very much retracted; the teeth are of a yellow or brownish color, loose and mottled on their surfaces, but not covered with tartar; the breath has a peculiar fetor, and the saliva flows from the lips, while the glands at the jaw are hard; the weakness is excessive, and the appearance dejected. Purgation may be present, and in some instances the whole of the hair has fallen off. One dog, a Scotch terrier, lost every portion of its coat, and was nearly a year before it regained the covering. Here is a portrait of a Scotch terrier, and the reader will perceive the coat is by the artist truthfully depicted as remarkably long, full, and hairy. [Illustration] The imagination can, from this likeness of the animal in health, conjure up the resemblance such an object as the poor dog must have presented without its coat. Nor was the loss of the hair the worst part of the business; it never afterwards grew to its proper length. The other symptoms which have been described were present. Fever also existed, though the debility in a great measure concealed it; nor was the issue of the case by any means certain for a week or even longer. The health may be restored, but the teeth will never regain their whiteness, nor the breath recover its natural odor. A mild acidulated drink, made of sulphuric acid and sweetened water, will be the most proper remedy. It should be made pleasant, and tasted before given to the dog, which will prevent its being administered of too great a potency. Of this as much as can be conveniently got down may be given, from a quarter of a pint to a quart daily; and with it the sulphate of iron, the disulphate of quinine, and vegetable bitters, made into pills, may be joined. If the bowels are costive, injections of the sulphate of magnesia, or small doses of the salt, may be employed, while the food should be nourishing. Sulphuric acid and the sulphates, with generous diet, will constitute the treatment; and if the case be not too far advanced, these will ultimately restore the strength. BRONCHOCELE. This disease is usually seen in greatest severity in pups. It consists in an enlargement of the thyroid body, which increases so much as to destroy the life. In old dogs it is commonly stationary, or of a fixed size. Spaniels and terriers, are much exposed to it; and of the last-mentioned breed, probably bull-terriers are, of all animals, the most liable to be attacked. In pups, the thyroid body greatly and quickly enlarges, so as to cut short the life by when the sixth week is attained. The disease of itself, in old dogs, is rather annoying than fatal; but the manner in which it destroys the animal when very young, is by impeding the circulation and respiration. The enlarged thyroid body presses upon the trachea and jugular veins. The blood which should return from the brain and head is thereby prevented descending, and hindered from reaching the heart in a full current. The vessels enlarge so as to become obvious to the most indifferent observer. The veins not only look swelled, but they feel turgid, and cannot be compressed; the little beast is dull; the breathing is very laborious; the animal sleeps much, and at last dies without a struggle, casting off life as it were but a troubled dream. It never has perfectly enjoyed existence, and its departure is not to be regretted. With the older animals, so far as my experience at present teaches me, the thyroid body, when enlarged, has not suddenly increased; yet this fact by no means proves that the diseased part is always quiescent, and cannot increase in size. Because of this possibility, and the safety of the process, the disease should be eradicated. This is to be done by administering iodine by the mouth, and painting over the enlargement (having the hair first closely shaved off the part) with some of the tincture of the same drug, applied by means of a camel's hair brush. As iodine soon separates and is thrown down to the bottom, all the preparations of it should be used as freshly made as may be convenient. The mixture of which iodine is the active ingredient, and which is a week old, may be confidently said to have lost the major part of its virtue. Every three or four days this medicine should be concocted; for even when put into pills, iodine, being very volatile, will evaporate. The quantity to be given to the dog varies, from a quarter of a grain four times a day to the smallest pup, to two grains four times daily to the largest dog. The tincture used for painting the throat is made with spirits of wine, an ounce; iodide of potassium, a drachm. RESPIRATORY ORGANS. The Larynx of the dog is affected in various ways. It is called a "little box," and the projecting part of this organ is, in the throat of man, spoken of as "Adam's apple." It opens at the back part of the mouth, and is placed at the beginning of the windpipe. All the air that inflates the lungs must pass through it, but it will permit nothing else to enter with impunity. A drop of saliva, or the smallest particle of salt, will be sufficient to call forth the most painful irritability. In fact the lining membrane of the larynx is the most tender or sensitive structure in the body; and, as parts are exposed to suffering just in proportion as they are endowed with sensation, of course, the organ so finely gifted is often the seat of disease. The dog's larynx has many peculiarities. It is very complicated, and exquisitely constructed. Few persons have, perhaps, much attended to the notes of the animal's voice; but those who will observe the sounds may find these take a range far more wide than is generally imagined. The dog's voice is remarkably expressive, and to my ear speaks very intelligible music. The deep growl is not without variety; for by the feeling of the animal that emits it the note is always modulated. The rumble of expostulation the favorite gives utterance to when the master pretends to take away its bone does not resemble the rattle of joy with which the child's playmate accompanies a game of romps. Both, however, are distinct from the suppressed warning with which the watchdog announces the advancing stranger, or the sharp defiance by which he signifies his determination to attack. The bark also is not by any means monotonous, but is capable of infinite variety. The cries of the animal are remarkably modulated; but the soft and gentle sounds it can emit when inclined to coax its master, or answering to the excess of pleasure which his caresses create, are full of natural music. The dog's voice is not to my ear less beautiful than the song of a bird; but more delightful, because it is more full of meaning. The nightingale has but one song, which it constantly repeats. The cur has many tuneful notes, with which it responds to my attentions. Music has been recognised in the tongues of the pack, but I have heard harmony more delightful from the hound in my home. I like to hear the dog's voice, especially when not too loud, and having studied it, I have often wondered the animal did not speak. There can be little doubt it would be able to frame words if it possessed the power to comprehend their meaning; but the high intelligence of the creature unfits it for parrot-like mimicry. The dog is, in all it does, guided by its reason, and it performs no act without a reasonable motive. If any physical incapacity exist, it is to be found rather in the formation of the mouth than in the construction of the larynx, which presents no explanation of the dog's inability to frame definite sounds like words. The part is rarely the seat of acute disease. In rabies, especially of the dumb kind, it is acutely affected; but of that form of disorder the writer will have to speak in another place. Of acute laryngitis, as met with commonly in the horse, I have not seen an example in the dog, and therefore I shall not here say anything about it. Of chronic disease of the larynx there is no lack of instances. These are brought to us frequently, and generally are submitted to our notice as cases of continued or confirmed cough. Cough, however, is but a symptom; and may be no more than a sympathetic effect induced by the derangement of a distant structure. When it is caused by the condition of the larynx, it has a deep sound, which is never entirely changed in character, however much pain induces the animal to suppress it. It is essentially the same in every stage, though it may be more or less full or loud, according to the state of the air passage. This cough may start up from sympathy; but then it is always less sonorous, harsh, and grating. It is also less spasmodic, and likewise less the consequence of particular causes. When the larynx is the seat of the affection, the cough, should it once begin, continues for a considerable time; and cold air or excitement will invariably induce it. In bad cases every act of inspiration is followed by a kind of noise intermediate between a grunt and a cough. Sometimes the breathing is accompanied by a species of roaring; and I have seen one case in which a blood-hound had every symptom of laryngismus stridulus, or the crowing disease of the human infant. Laryngeal disorders are seldom brought under our notice until they are confirmed, and they are difficult to cure in proportion to the length of time they have existed. The food in every case must be rigidly regulated, and no solid flesh should be allowed; but if the animal be very old or weak, beef tea or gravy may be added to the rice or biscuit which constitutes the chief portion of the diet. The condition of the stomach must so far as possible be ascertained, and the medicines necessary to correct its disease should be administered. The exercise must not be stinted, neither should confinement within doors be insisted upon. All must be done to assist the digestion and invigorate the health; such precautions being adopted as prevent the aggravation of the disease. Sudden changes of atmosphere, as from a warm room to a frosty air during the depth of winter, should obviously be avoided; neither would it be prudent to race the animal about, or induce it to perform any action calculated to accelerate the breathing. At the commencement a gentle emetic given every other morning until six or seven have been administered, with a laxative occasionally if the bowels are torpid, is often productive of speedy benefit. A mustard poultice to the throat is also to be recommended, but he who applies it must be attentive to remove it when it appears to seriously pain the animal. It may be repeated on each successive night, or even oftener, but should never be reapplied before the skin on which it was previously placed has ceased to be tender. Leeches to the throat are often of service, as also are small blisters to the chest. I found great improvement result from wearing a very wide bandage, which was kept wet, and covered with oil silk, round the neck. This is easily made, and strips of gutta percha, or stout leather, will prevent it being doubled up by the motions of the head; and it is scarcely a disfigurement, since it only looks like a large collar. A seton in the throat may be tried, but though often beneficial, it ought only to be inserted by a person acquainted with the anatomy of the dog; for the jugular veins in this animal are connected by several large branches, which run just where the seton would be introduced. These could not be pierced with impunity, nor ought the seton to be left in so long as might induce sloughing, when the vessels probably would be opened; for as the dog badly sustains the loss of blood, the result would surely be fatal. Internal medicines are not to be neglected. All sedatives, balsams, expectorants, and peppers, with some alkalies and stimulants, may be tried, and even alterative doses of mercury with caution resorted to. Dogs are more peculiar with respect to the medicines that act upon individuals than any other animals I am acquainted with. That which touches one will be inoperative upon another; and what violently affects one, will on a second, apparently of the same bulk, strength, age, and character, be actually powerless. This renders dog-practice so difficult, and makes the explanation of any decided mode of treatment almost impossible. A great deal must necessarily be left to the discretion of the practitioner, who, despite his utmost care, will often have reason for regret, if he do not in every new instance proceed with caution. The following pills are likely to do good:-- Barbadoes tar Half a drachm to two drachms. Powdered squills A drachm to four drachms. Extract of belladonna Half a scruple to four scruples. Liquorice powder A sufficiency. Beat into a mass, and make into twenty pills; give four daily. Or, James's powder One grain to four grains. Dover's powder Six grains to a scruple. Balsam of Peru A sufficiency. Make into one pill and give as before. Or, Extract of hyoscyamus One to four grains. Powdered ammoniacum, } Four to twelve grains. and cubebs, of each } Venice turpentine A sufficiency. Powdered capsicums and cantharides have also seemed to touch the disease; but no one medicine has to me appeared to have any specific influence over it. In these cases mere formulæ could be extended almost indefinitely; but the reason must be exerted, and the prescription must be dictated by the symptoms. Thus, when there is much nervous excitability accompanied with gastric derangement, Prussic acid of Scheele's strength, in doses of half a drop to two drops, may be exhibited; and if the mouth be dry, and the disposition irritable, from five to twenty drops of the tincture of Indian tobacco may be administered. If the throat is very sore, the mouth may be held open, and ten grains of powdered alum mixed with four times its weight of fine sugar may be blown into it, or in severe instances, the fauces may be mopped out by means of a piece of soft sponge tied to the end of a probe, and saturated with a solution containing six grains of nitrate of silver dissolved in an ounce of water. Ulceration of the interior of the larynx is to be dreaded if the symptoms do not yield. This will be denoted by the cough becoming weaker, less loud, more short, and also more frequent. Prior to it there are always intervals during which the animal enjoys repose; but after ulceration of the larynx is established every inhalation provokes the irritability of the organ. With it the constitutional symptoms become more serious, and little can then by medicine be accomplished; for the passage of the air which is necessary to life causes the affection we desire to cure to spread. Tracheotomy might be performed, though the dog is so very expert with its claws, and any tape around the neck would be probably so injurious, that hitherto I have not ventured to hazard the experiment. Humanity has, in such cases, forced me to recommend the destruction of the life which I entertained no hope of comforting. Cough is much more frequently a symptom than a disease. It, in fat dogs, usually proceeds from disordered digestion; and then to remove it the cause must be attacked. It accompanies worms; and if these are expelled, it will subside. It may, however, exist by itself, for the larynx of the dog early becomes ossified or converted into bone; and being then less yielding, the violent vibrations it is subjected to during the act of barking have a natural tendency to injure the delicate lining membrane. Its irritability is excited, and cough is the consequence. The disposition of the creature to give tongue ought, therefore, to be as much as possible checked, and a mustard poultice applied to the throat, while the pills first recommended on page 205, are given; but if these fail, the others may be employed. The general measures would be pretty much the same, only the more severe need not be resorted to. Quiet, mild food, and a little care, will often, without medicine, remove the annoyance; but it is never well to trust too long to such dubious aids, when timely assistance will procure speedy relief, and delay may lead to further evil. SNORING is often a heavy accusation brought against the dog. It may proceed from weakness; though, in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, it results from that debility which accompanies accumulated fat and sloth. In the one case we apply the means advised to restore the strength,--in the other, we stint the food, enforce a vegetable diet, and see that sufficient exercise be taken. SNORTING is another unpleasantness which the canine race display. The animals stand with their heads erect, and, drawing the air through the nostrils, produce a series of harsh loud sounds, which are sometimes continued till the dog falls from actual exhaustion. This is the result of irritability, in a low form, of the lining membrane of the nasal chambers. The sensation is probably that of itching, and the dog endeavors, by drawing the air quickly through the nostrils and energetically expelling it, to relieve the annoyance. The treatment is not to be laid down; attention to the food, and medicines of an alterative nature calculated to affect or improve the secretions, are most likely to be of service. Worms may possibly be the provocative, and in that case of course they should be removed. The measures, therefore, are not to be arbitrarily pointed out. The judgment must be employed to discover in what particular the system is unsound, and the agents used must be selected with a view to the general health. Local applications have been tried without advantage, but there do not appear to be any specifics for the complaint. The snorting is to be regarded merely as an effect of some deep-seated derangement, and the remedies are to be such as the appearance of the animal suggests. I have generally been successful in these cases, but I remember no two of them which I have treated exactly in the same manner. Patience and perseverance are mostly required, but sometimes the affection will not yield to any remedy. When it appears to be obstinate, the use of medicine should not be pushed too far. The constitution of the dog is so easily injured, and with so much difficulty restored, that where a mere unpleasantness is apparently all that exists, it is better to permit that to continue than hazard the health of the animal by over-strenuous attempts to get rid of it. COLD or CORIZA is not frequent in the dog, but it will occasionally be seen. It comes on gradually, and often passes off without any assistance being given. In pups it is apt to pass first into bronchitis, and then change into distemper, which in such instances, spite of our best endeavors, will often terminate in fits. It springs from various causes, but neglect and improper lodging are generally those to which it may be traced. In adult animals it is not to be greatly feared, but in the young it requires immediate attention. The kennel must be looked to; the food and exercise be strictly watched. Tonics, into which cayenne pepper, cubebs, or balsam of pepper enter, are to be tried, and cod-liver oil also is worth an experiment. The iodide of potassium is also not to be rejected; but the condition of the patient must decide which is the most likely to be of service in the case. When undertaken early, the symptoms yield in the majority of instances. The discharge, which at the commencement is thin, becomes more copious, grows thicker, and at last ceases. The sneezing stops and the spirits return; but should the disorder not be checked, the larynx becomes involved, and cough appears. If no relief be now sought, and the disease spreads, the breathing grows quick at first, and then laborious. The pup may even at this stage be eager to feed, and when its attention is excited, be as playful as in health; but if watched it will be seen, when alone, to be oppressed and languid. In such cases, belladonna, combined with James's powder, an equal amount of each, should be administered. The dose should be exhibited every hour, for here the wish is to obtain the speedy effect of the drug without allowing its sedative property to seriously affect the strength. To a young pup, a quarter of a grain will be the proper quantity; and for a full-grown large-sized dog, two grains of the extract may be employed. The action, however, must be observed, and when a marked disinclination for food or drink, with a seeming wish for both, and signs of inconvenience in the throat are seen, the belladonna must be withheld. On the third day, if the cure be not complete, it may be a second time employed; and, after a like period, even a further trial may be made. At the same time, a little soap liniment may be rubbed into the throat, along the course of the windpipe, and over the chest. The bowels also should be regulated; but purgation is not to be desired. Should the liver be sluggish, mild alterative doses of the grey powder may be sprinkled upon the food, and will thus be taken without the necessity of forcing the animal. When the measures recommended do not succeed, the appearance of the patient must direct those which are next to be adopted. Where weakness prevails, and shivering denotes the presence of fever, quinine and the sulphate of iron are required. Small blisters, or mustard poultices, to the chest, may with due caution be applied. An emetic may even be administered; but, if repeated at all, it must be only after two or three days have elapsed. Where the system is vigorous, expectorants and sedatives, with leeches to the chest, may be used. Turpentine liniment to the sides, throat, and under the jaws, may also be freely rubbed in, and the diet in quantity restricted. Tartar emetic in very minute doses may be exhibited three times daily. [Illustration: INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.] The chest of the dog is not in any remarkable degree the seat of disease. The ribs of the animal being constructed for easy motion, and the muscles which move them being strong and large in proportion to the size of the bones, the lungs, therefore, are in general properly expanded; and this circumstance tends to preserve them in a healthy condition. They do not, however, always escape, but are subject to the same inflammations as those of the horse, though, from the causes stated, more rarely attacked. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS is denoted by a quickened pulse and breathing, preceded by shivering fits. The appetite does not always fail; in one or two instances I have seen it increased; but it is most often diminished. The animal is averse to motion; but when the affection is established, the dog sits upon its hocks, and wherever it is placed, speedily assumes that position. As the disorder becomes worse, the difficulty of breathing is more marked. The creature also shows a disposition to quit the house, and if there be an open window it will thrust its head through the aperture. The sense of suffocation is obviously present, and at length this becomes more and more obvious. The dog in the very last stage refuses to sit, but obstinately stands. One of the legs swells, and, on being felt, it is ascertained to be enlarged by fluid. There is dropsy of the chest, and the limb has sympathized in the disposition to effusion. The pulse denotes the weakness of the body; but the excitement of disease in a great measure disguises the other symptoms. The dog may even, to an unpractised eye, seem to possess considerable strength; for it resists, with all its remaining power, any attempt to move it, and its last energies are exerted to support the attitude that affords the most relief to the respiration. At length the poor brute stubbornly stands until forced to stir, when it drops suddenly, and for several moments lies as if the life had departed. Again it falls, but again revives; and always with the return of consciousness gets upon its legs; but at last it sinks, and without a struggle dies. The lungs have been, in the first instance, inflamed, but the pleura or membrane covering the lungs, and also lining the chest, has likewise become by the progress of the disease involved. The cavity has become full of water, or rather serum, and by the pressure of the fluid the organs of respiration are compressed. It is seldom that both sides are gorged to an equal degree; but one cavity may be quite full while the other is only partially so. One lung, therefore, in part remains to perform the function on which the continuance of life depends; and if, by any movement, the weight of fluid is brought to bear upon the little left to continue respiration, the animal is literally asphyxiated. It drops, in fact, strangled, or more correctly, suffocated; and as the vital energy is strong or weak, so may the dog more or less frequently recover for a time. In the end, however, the tax upon the strength exhausts the power, and the accumulation of the fluid diminishes the source by which the life was sustained. After death, I have taken from the body of a full-sized Newfoundland one lung, which lay with ease upon my extended hand; while the two held together afforded a surface sufficient to support the other. The condensation was so great that the part was literally consolidated, and the fluid which exuded on cutting into the substance was small in quantity. The blood-vessels were, with the air-cells, compressed, and while the arterialization of the blood was imperfect, the circulation was also impeded. The causes usually assigned to account for inflammation of the lungs will not, in the dog, explain its origin. I have usually met it where the animal had not been exposed to wet or cold; where it had not undergone excessive exertion, or been subjected to violence. Extraordinary care as rather seemed to induce, than the neglect of the creature appeared to provoke the attack. It is, however, easy to trace causes when we have a wish to explain a particular effect; but where the lungs have been inflamed I have never, to my entire satisfaction, been able to ascertain that the animal had been exposed to hardship, or subjected to labor which it had not previously sustained, and which, if the health had been good, it might not have endured. Disease of the lungs is, in the early stage, very readily subdued; but, if allowed to establish itself, it is rarely that medicine can eradicate it. The majority of persons who profess to know anything about the diseases of dogs, look upon the nose as an indication of the health. While the appetite is good, or the nose is cold and moist, such people are confident no fear need be entertained. Of the uncertainty that attends the disposition to feed mention has been already made; but with regard to the condition of a part, the persons who assume to teach us are likely to be in such cases entirely deceived. I have known dogs with violent inflammation of the lungs; I have seen them die from dropsy of the chest; and their noses have been wet and cold, even as though the animals had iced the organs. From this mistaken notion, therefore, no doubt, are to be traced the numerous instances of dogs brought for treatment when no remedies can be of avail. They are submitted to our notice only that we may be pained to look upon their deaths; and often have my endeavors been thus limited to simple palliative measures, when an earlier application would have enabled me to employ medicine with a reasonable prospect of success. In the commencement, when the breathing is simply increased and the pulse slightly accelerated, then if you place the ear to the side, there is merely a small increase of sound; and the animal exhibits no obstinate, or more properly, unconquerable disposition to sit upon the hocks; small quantities of belladonna, combined with James's powder, will generally put an end to the disease. The belladonna, in doses of from one to four grains, may be given three times a day; but where trouble is not objected to, and regularity can be depended upon, I prefer administering it in doses of a quarter of a grain to a grain every hour. By the last practice I think I have obtained results more satisfactory; but it is not always that a plan necessitating almost constant attention can be enforced, or that the animal to be treated will allow of such repeated interference. The following formula will serve the purpose, and the reader can divide it if the method I recommend can be pursued. Extract of belladonna One to four grains. James's powder Two to eight grains. Nitrate of potash Four to sixteen grains. Extract of gentian A sufficiency for one pill. If, on the second day, no marked improvement is perceptible, small doses of antimonial wine may be tried; from fifteen minims to half-a-drachm may be given every fourth hour, unless vomiting be speedily induced; when the next dose must, at the stated period, be reduced five or ten minims, and even further diminished if the lessened quantity should have an emetic effect. The object in giving the antimonial wine is to create nausea, and not to excite sickness; and we endeavor to keep up the action in order to affect the system. This is frequently very decisive in the reduction of the symptoms; but, even after the danger has been dispelled, the pills before recommended must be persevered with, and every means adopted to prevent a relapse. Sometimes, however, the disorder commences with a violence that, from the very beginning of the attack, calls for the most energetic measures. If the breathing be very quick, short, and catching; the position constant; the pulse full and strong; the jugular vein may be opened, and from one ounce to eight ounces of blood extracted; or leeches may be applied to the sides; or an ammoniacal blister may be employed. This is done by saturating a piece of rag, folded three or four times, with a solution composed of liquor ammoniaca fort., one part; distilled water, three parts; and, having placed it upon the place from which the hair has been previously cut off, holding over it a dry cloth to prevent evaporization of the volatile vesicant. A quarter of an hour will serve to raise the cuticle; but frequently that object is accomplished in less time; therefore, during its operation, the agent must be watched, or else the effect may be greater than we desire, and sloughing may ensue. A dose of castor oil may also be administered, and the food should be composed entirely of vegetables, if the animal can be induced to eat this kind of diet. Exertion should be prevented, and quiet as much as possible enjoined. The tincture of aconite, it is said, sometimes does wonders in inflammation of the lungs; but in my hands its operation has been uncertain, though the homoeopathists trust greatly to its action in this disease. They give it singly, but I have not reaped from its use on the dog those advantages which tempt me to depend solely on its influence. When employed, it may be given in doses of from half a drop to two drops of the tincture, in any pleasant vehicle, every hour. After dropsy of the chest has been established, the chance of cure is certainly remote; but tapping at all events renders the last moments of life more easy. It is both simple and safe, and does not seem to occasion any pain; but, on the contrary, to afford immediate relief. The skin should be first punctured, and then drawn forward so as to bring the incision over the spot where the instrument is to be inserted. The place where the trocar should be introduced is between the seventh and eighth ribs, nearer to the last than to the first, and rather close to the breast-bone. The point being selected, the instrument is pushed gently into the flesh; and when the operator feels no resistance is offered to the progress of the tube, he knows the cavity has been pierced. The stilet is then withdrawn, and the fluid will pour forth. Unless the dog shows signs of faintness, as much of the water as possible ought to be taken away; but if symptoms of syncope appear, the operation must be stopped, and after a little time, when the strength has been regained, resumed. When this has been done, tonics must be freely resorted to. The following pill may be administered three or four times a day; and the diet should be confined to flesh, for everything depends on the invigoration of the body, and the inflammation is either gone, or it has become of secondary importance. Iodide of iron One to four grains. Sulphate of iron Two to eight grains. Extract of gentian Ten grains to half a drachm. Powdered capsicums Two to eight grains. Powdered quassia A sufficiency. The above will make two pills; and it is better to make these the more frequently, as they speedily harden, and we now desire their quickest effect, which is sooner obtained if they are soft or recently compounded. During recovery the food must be mild, and tonics must be administered. Exercise should be allowed with the greatest caution, and all excitement ought to be avoided. The dog must be watched and nursed, being provided with a sheltered lodging and an ample bed in a situation perfectly protected from winds or draughts, but at the same time cool and airy. ASTHMA is a frequent disease in old and petted dogs. It comes on by fits, and, through the severity of the attack, often seems to threaten suffocation; but I have not known a single case in which it has proved fatal. The cause is generally attributable to inordinate feeding, for the animals thus afflicted are always gross and fat. The disorder comes on gradually in most instances, though the fit is usually sudden. The appetite is not affected, or rather it is increased often to an extraordinary degree. The craving is great, and flesh is always preferred, while sweet and seasoned articles are much relished. On examination, the signs denoting the digestion to be deranged will be discovered. Piles are nearly constantly met with; the coat is generally in a bad condition, and the hair off in places. The nose may be dry; the membrane of the eyes congested; the teeth covered with tartar, and the breath offensive. The dog is slothful, and exertion is followed by distress. Cough may or may not exist; but it usually appears towards the latter period of the attack. [Illustration: ASTHMA.] Asthma is spasm of the bronchial tubes, and when it is thoroughly established it is seldom to be cured. All medicine can accomplish is the relief of the more violent symptoms. The fits may be rendered comparatively less frequent and less severe; but the agents that best operate to that result are likely in the end to destroy the general health. Between two evils, therefore, the proprietor has to make his choice; but if he resolves to treat the disorder, he must do so knowing the drugs he makes use of are not entirely harmless. Food is of all importance. It must be proportioned to the size of the patient, and be rather spare than full in quantity. Flesh should be denied, and coarse vegetable diet alone allowed. The digestion must also be attended to, and every means taken to invigorate the system. Exercise must be enforced, even though the animal appear to suffer in consequence of being made to walk. The skin should be daily brushed, and the bed should not be too luxurious. Sedatives are of service; and as no one of these agents will answer in every case, a constant change will be needed, that, by watching their action, the one which produces the best effect may be discovered. Opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus, assafoetida, and the rest, may be thus tried in succession; and often small doses produce those effects which the larger one seems to conceal. A pill containing any sedative, with an alterative quantity of some expectorant, may be given three times daily; but when the fit is on, I have gained the most immediate benefit by the administration of ether and opium. From one to four leeches to the chest, sometimes, are of service; but small ammoniacal blisters applied to the sides, and frequently repeated, are more to be depended upon. Trivial doses of antimonial wine or ipecacuanha wine, with an occasional emetic, will sometimes give temporary ease; but the last-named medicines are to be resorted to only after due consideration, as they greatly lower the strength. Stomachics and mild tonics at the same time are to be employed; but a cure is not to be expected. The treatment cannot be absolutely laid down; but the judgment must be exercised, and whenever the slightest improvement is remarked every effort must be made to prevent a relapse. HEPATITIS. [Illustration: CHRONIC HEPATITIS.] LIVER complaints were once fashionable. A few years ago the mind of Great Britain was in distress about its bile, and blue pill with black draught literally became a part of the national diet. At present nervous and urinary diseases appear to be in vogue; but, with dogs, hepatic disorders are as prevalent as ever. The canine liver is peculiarly susceptible to disease. Very seldom have I dipped into the mysteries of their bodies but I have found the biliary gland of these animals deranged; sometimes inflamed--sometimes in an opposite condition--often enlarged--seldom diminished--rarely of uniform color--occasionally tuberculated--and not unfrequently as fat with disease as those are which have obtained for Strasburg geese a morbid celebrity. It is, however, somewhat strange that, notwithstanding the almost universality of liver disease among petted dogs, the symptoms which denote its existence are in these creatures so obscure and undefined as rarely to be recognised. Very few dogs have healthy livers, and yet seldom is the disordered condition of this important gland suspected. Various are the causes which different authors, English and foreign, have asserted produced this effect. I shall only allude to such as I can on my own experience corroborate, and here I shall have but little to refer to. Over-feeding and excessive indulgence are the sources to which I have always traced it. In the half-starved or well-worked dog I have seen the liver involved; but have never beheld it in such a state as led me to conclude it was the principal or original seat of the affection which ended in death. On the other hand, in fatted and petted animals, I have seen the gland in a condition that warranted no doubt as to what part the fatal attack had commenced in. When death has been the consequence of hepatic disorder, the symptoms have in every instance been chronic. I am not aware that I have been called upon to treat a case of an acute description, excepting as a phase of distemper. It would be too much to say such a form of disease does not exist in a carnivorous animal; but I have hitherto not met with it. Neither have I seen it as the effect of inveterate mange; though I have beheld obstinate skin disease the common, but far from invariable, result of chronic hepatitis. I have also known cerebral symptoms to be produced by the derangement of this gland, which, in the dog, may be the cause of almost any possible symptom, and still give so little indication of its actual condition as almost to set our reason at defiance. When the animal is fat, the visible mucous membranes may be pallid; the tongue white; the pulse full and quick; the spirits slothful: the appetite good; the foeces natural: the bowels irregular; the breath offensive; the anus enlarged, and the rump denuded of hair, the naked skin being covered with a scaly cuticle, thickened and partially insensible. When the animal is thin, almost all of the foregoing signs may be wanting. The dog may be only emaciated--a living skeleton, with an enlarged belly. It is dull, and has a sleepy look when undisturbed; but when its attention is attracted, the expression of its countenance is half vacant and half wild. The pupil of the eye is dilated, and the visual organs stare as though the power of recognition were enfeebled. The appetite is good and the manner gentle. The tongue is white, and occasionally reddish towards the circumference. The membranes of the eye are very pale, but not yellow. The lining of the mouth is of a faint dull tint, and often it feels cold to the touch. The coat looks not positively bad; but rather like a skin which had been well dressed by a furrier, than one which was still upon a living body. The history in these cases invariably informs us that the animal has been fat--very fat--about six or twelve months ago. It fell away all at once, though no change was made in the diet; and yet we learn it has been physicked. No restraint has been put upon buckthorn, castor oil, aloes, sulphur, and antimony, but yet the belly will not go down--it keeps getting bigger; and now we are told the animal has a dropsy which "wants to be cured." It is natural the figure and condition should suggest the idea of ascites; but the hair does not pull out--none of the legs are swollen--the shape of the abdomen wants the appearance of gravitation, and if the patient be placed upon its back the form of the rotundity is not altered by the position of the body. Moreover, the breathing is tolerably easy: and, though if one hand be placed against the side of the belly, and the part opposite be struck with the other, there will be a marked sense of fluctuation; still we cannot accept so dubious a test against the mass of evidence that declares dropsy is not the name of the disease. To make sure, we feel the abdomen near to the line of the false ribs. This gives no pain, so we press a little hard, and in two or three places on either side, on the right, or may be the left, high up or low down; for in abnormal growths there can be no rule--in two or three places we can detect hard, solid, but smooth lumps within the cavity. This last discovery leaves no room for further doubt, so we pronounce the liver to be the organ that is principally affected. In chronic cases, especially after the dog has begun to waste, enlargement nearly always may be felt, not invariably hard, yet often so, but never soft or so soft as the other parts; and this proof should, therefore, in every instance of the kind be sought for. With regard to treatment, the food must not be suddenly reduced to the starvation point. Whether the dog be fat or lean, let the quality be nutritious, and the quantity sufficient; from a quarter of a pound to a pound and a half of paunch, divided into four meals, will be enough for a single day; but nothing more than this must be given. Tonics, to strengthen the system generally, should be employed; and an occasional dose of the cathartic pills administered, providing the condition is such as justifies the use of purgatives. Frequent small blisters, applied over the region of the liver, may do good; but they should not be larger than two or four inches across, and they should be repeated one every three or four days. Leeches put upon the places where hardness can be felt, also are beneficial; but depletion must be regulated by the ability of the animal to sustain it. A long course of iodide of potassium in solution, combined with the liquor potassæ, will, however, constitute the principal dependence. Iodide of potassium Two drachms two scruples. Liquor potassæ One ounce and a half. Simple syrup Six ounces. Water Twelve ounces and a half. Give from half a teaspoonful to a teaspoonful three times a day. The above must be persevered in for a couple of months before any effect can be anticipated. Mercury I have not found of any service, though Blaine speaks highly of it, and Youatt quotes his opinion. Perhaps I have not employed it rightly, or ventured to push it far enough. Under the treatment recommended, the dog may be preserved from speedy death; but the structures have been so much changed that medicine cannot be expected to restore them. The pet may be saved to its indulgent mistress, and again perhaps exhibit all the charms for which it was ever prized; but the sporting-dog will never be made capable of doing work, and certainly it is not to be selected to breed from after it has sustained an attack of hepatitis. Sometimes, during the existence of hepatitis, the animal will be seized with fits of pain, which appear to render it frantic. These I always attribute to the passage of gall stones, which I have taken in comparative large quantities from the gall-bladders of dogs. The cries and struggles create alarm, but the attack is seldom fatal. A brisk purgative, a warm bath, and free use of laudanum and ether, afford relief; for when the animal dies of chronic hepatitis, it perishes gradually from utter exhaustion. The post-mortem examination generally presents that which much surprises the proprietor; one lobe of the gland is very greatly enlarged; it evidently contains fluid. It has under disease become a vast cyst, from which, in a setter, I have actually extracted more than two gallons of serum: from a small spaniel I have taken this organ so increased in size that it positively weighed one half the amount of the body from which it was removed. The wonder is that the apparently weak covering to the liver could bear so great a pressure without bursting. INDIGESTION. Things must seem to have come to a pretty pass when a book is gravely written upon dyspepsia in dogs. Nevertheless, I am in earnest when I treat upon that subject; and could the animals concerned bear witness, they would testify it was indeed no joke. The Lord Mayor of London does not retire from office with a stomach more deranged than the majority of the canine race, shielded by his worshipful authority, could exhibit. The cause in both instances is the same. Dogs as they increase in years seem to degenerate sadly; till at length they mumble dainties and relish flavors with the gusto of an alderman. Pups even are not worthy of unlimited confidence. The little animals will show much ingenuity in procuring substances that make the belly ache; and, with infantine perversity, will, of their own accord, gobble things which, if administered, would excite shrieks of resistance. A litter of high-bred pups is a source of no less constant annoyance, nor does it require less incessant watching, than a nursery of children. There is so much similarity between man and dog that, from fear of too strongly wounding the self-love of my reader, I must drop the subject. Indigestion in dogs assumes various forms, and is the source of numerous diseases. Most skin affections may be attributed to it. The inflammation of the gums, the foulness of the teeth, and the offensiveness of the breath, are produced by it. Excessive fatness, with its attendant asthma and hollow cough, are to be directly traced to a disordered digestion. In the long run, half of the petted animals die from diseases originating in this cause; and in nearly every instance the fault lies far more with the weakness of the master than with the corruptness of the beast. He who is invested with authority has more sins, than those he piously acknowledges his own, to answer for. The symptoms are not obscure. A dislike for wholesome food, and a craving for hotly spiced or highly sweetened diet, is an indication. Thirst and sickness are more marked. A love for eating string, wood, thread, and paper, denotes the fact; and is wrongly put down to the prompting of a mere mischievous instinct: any want of natural appetite, or any evidence of morbid desire in the case of food, declares the stomach to be disordered. The dog that, when offered a piece of bread, smells it with a sleepy eye, and without taking it licks the fingers that present it, has an impaired digestion. Such an animal will perhaps only take the morsel when it is about to be withdrawn; and, having got it, does not swallow it, but places it on the ground, and stands over it with an expression of peevish disgust. A healthy dog is always decided. No animal can be more so. It will often take that which it cannot eat, but, having done so, it either throws the needless possession away or lies down, and with a determined air watches "the property." There is no vexation in its looks, no captiousness in its manner. It acts with decision, and there is purpose in what it does. The reverse is the case with dogs suffering from indigestion. They are peevish and irresolute. They take only because another shall not have. They will perhaps eat greedily what they do not want if the cat looks longfully at that which had lain before them for many minutes, and which no coaxing could induce them to swallow. They are, in their foibles, very like the higher animal. The treatment is simple. The dog must be put upon, and strictly kept upon, an allowance. Some persons, when these animals are sent to them, because the creatures are fat and sickly, shut the dogs up for two or four days, and allow them during the period to taste nothing but water. The trick often succeeds, but it is dangerous in severe cases, and needless in mild ones. This is a heartless practice, which ignorance only would resort to; but such conduct is very general, and the people who follow it boast laughingly of its effect. They do not care for its consequences. A weakly stomach cannot be benefited by a prolonged abstinence. I have kept a dog four-and-twenty hours without food, but never longer, and then only when the animal has been brought to me with a tale about its not eating. The report, then, is assurance that food has been offered, and the inference is that the stomach is loaded. A little rest enables it to get rid of its contents, and in some measure to recover its tone. The dog, as a general rule, does well on one meal a day; afterward, the food is regularly weighed, and nothing more than the quantity is permitted. This quantity may be divided into three or four meals, and given at stated periods, so that the last is eaten at night. When thus treated, animals, which I am assured would touch nothing, have soon become possessors of vigorous appetites. At the same time, exercise and the cold bath every morning is ordered; and either tonic or gentle sedatives, with alkalies and vegetable bitters, are administered. The following are the ordinary stomach-pills, and do very well for the generality of cases:-- Extract of hyoscyamus Sixteen grains. Sodæ carb. Half an ounce. Extract of gentian Half an ounce. Ferri carb. Half an ounce. Make into sixteen, thirty, or eight pills, and give two daily. The reader, however, will not depend upon any one compound, for stomach disease is remarkably capricious. Sometimes one thing and sometimes another does a great deal of good; but the same thing is seldom equally good in any two cases. Stimulants, as nitrate of silver, trisnitrate of bismuth, or nux vomica, are occasionally of great service; and so also are purgatives and emetics, but these last, when they do no benefit, always do much injury. They should, therefore, be tried last, and then with caution, the order being thus:--Tonics, sedatives, and alkalies, either singly or in combination, and frequently changed. Stimulants and excitants in small doses, gradually increased. Emetics and purgatives, mingled with any of the foregoing. The food and exercise, after all, will do more for the restoration than the medicine, which must be so long continued that the mind doubts whether it is of any decided advantage. The affection is always chronic, and time is therefore imperative for its cure. Dogs are afflicted with a disease of the stomach, which is very like to "water-brash," "pyrosis," or "cardialgia," in the human being. The animals thus tormented are generally fully grown and weakly: a peculiarity in the walk shows the strength is feeble. The chief symptom is, however, not to be mistaken. The creature is dull just before the attack: it gets by itself, and remains quiet. All at once it rises; and without an effort, no premonitory sounds being heard, a quantity of fluid is ejected from the mouth, and by the shaking of the head scattered about. This appears to afford relief, but the same thing may occur frequently during the day. This disease of itself is not dangerous; but it is troublesome, and will make any other disorder the more likely to terminate fatally; it should, therefore, be always attended to. The food must not be neglected, and either a solution of the iodide of potassium with liquor potassæ, or pills of trisnitrate of bismuth, must be given. The preparations of iron are sometimes of use; and a leech or two, after a small blister to the side, has also seemed to be beneficial. When some ground has been gained, the treatment recommended for indigestion generally must be adopted, the choice of remedies being guided by the symptoms. The practitioner, however, must not forget that the mode of feeding has probably been the cause; and, therefore, it must ever after be an object of especial care. The cold bath and exercise, proportioned to the strength, are equally to be esteemed. Very old dogs often die from indigestion, and in such cases the stomach will become inflated to an extent that would hardly be credited. These animals I have not observed to be subject to flatulent colic; when, therefore, the abdomen becomes suddenly tympanitic the gas is usually contained in the stomach. Fits and diarrhoea may accompany or precede the attack, which in the first instance yields to treatment; but in a month more or less returns, and is far more stubborn. Ether and laudanum, by mouth and enema, are at first to be employed; and, generally, they are successful. The liquor potassæ, chloride of lime in solution, and aromatics with chalk, may also be tried, the food being strengthening but entirely fluid. The warm bath is here highly injurious; and bleeding or purging out of the question. When the distension of the stomach is so great as to threaten suffocation, the tube of the stomach-pump may be introduced; but, unless danger be present, the practitioner ought to depend upon the efforts of nature, to support which all his measures should be directed. After recovery, meat scraped as for potting, without any admixture of vegetables, must constitute the diet; and while a sufficiency is given, a very little only must be allowed at a time. With these precautions the life may be prolonged, but the restoration of health is not to be expected. GASTRITIS [Illustration] Dogs are abused for their depraved tastes, and reproached for the filth they eat; but if one of them, being of a particular disposition in the article of food, takes to killing his own mutton, he is knocked on the head as too luxurious. It is a very vulgar mistake to imagine the canine race have no preferences. They have their likes and dislikes quite as strong and as capricious as other animals. Man himself does not more frequently impair his digestion by over indulgence than does the dog. In both cases the punishment is the same, but the brute having the more delicate digestion suffers most severely. The dog's stomach is so subject to be deranged that few of these creatures can afford to gormandize; to which failing, however, they are much inclined. The consequence is soon shown. A healthy dog can make a hearty meal and sleep soundly after it. The petted favorite is often pained by a moderate quantity of food, and frequent are the housemaid's regrets that his digestion is not more retentive. He spoils other things besides victuals; and the more daintily he lives the more generally is he troublesome. It is the variety that diseases him. He grows to be omnivorous. He learns to relish that which nature did not fit him to consume, and as a consequence he pays for his bad habits. The dog in extreme cases can digest even bones; a banquet of tainted flesh will not disorder him; but he cannot subsist in health on his lady's diet. His stomach was formed to receive and assimilate certain substances, and to deny these is not to be generous or kind. Gastritis is very common with ladies' favorites. Its symptoms are well marked. Frequent sickness is the first indication. This is taken little notice of. The mess is cleared up, and the matter is forgotten. Thirst is constant, and the lapping is long; but no further notice is taken of this circumstance, than to remark the animal has grown very fond of water. At last the thirst has increased, and no sooner is the draught swallowed than it is ejected. The appetite which may have been ravenous a little time before, now grows bad, and whatever is eaten is immediately returned. The animal is evidently ill. The nose is dry, and the breathing quick. It avoids warmth, and lies and pants, away from the hearthrug. It dislikes motion and stretches itself out, either upon its chest or on its belly. Sometimes it moans, and more rarely cries. The stomach is now inflamed; and if the symptoms could have been earlier understood, frequently has the animal been seen, prior to this stage of attack, licking the polished steel fire-irons. It has been horrifying its mistress's propriety, by its instinctive desire to touch something cold with its burning tongue; and the poor little beast perhaps has been chastised for seeking a momentary relief to its affliction. Dogs that are properly treated rarely have gastritis. When they do, it is generally induced by some unwholesome food. I have known it to be caused by graves more often than by anything else they are accustomed to eat. I never recommend this stuff to be given to dogs. Meal and skim milk is far better, and that can always be procured where flesh is scarce. The entrails of sheep, &c., if washed and boiled with a large quantity of any kind of meal, are nutritious and wholesome; nay, even when a little tainted, they will not be refused. If, however, they were hung up in a strong draught, they would soon dry; and in that state might be preserved for use any length of time; all they afterwards require would be boiling. The paunch can be prepared in the same manner; and it would be worth some little trouble to avoid a mixture which contains nothing strengthening, and too often a great deal that is injurious. The treatment of gastritis is simple. It is generally accompanied by more or less diarrhoea; but the violence of the leading symptom renders that of comparatively little consequence. The degree of sickness will always indicate whether the stomach is the principal seat of disease. As nothing is retained, it would be a needless trouble to give many solids or fluids, by the mouth. From half a grain to a grain and a half of calomel, thoroughly mixed with the same quantities of powdered opium, may be sprinkled upon the tongue; and from one drachm to four drachms of sulphuric ether may be given in as much water as will dissolve it twenty minutes afterwards. The medicine will most probably be ejected; but, as it is very volatile, it may be retained sufficient time to have some influence in quieting the spasmodic irritability of the stomach. Ethereal injections should be administered every hour, and no food of any kind allowed. Besides this, from a quarter of a grain to a grain of opium may be sprinkled on the tongue every hour; and the ether draught continued until the sickness ceases, or the animal displays signs of being narcotised. An ammoniacal blister, if the symptoms are urgent, may be applied to the left side; but in mild cases, a strong embrocation will answer every purpose. Except the constitution be vigorous, and the pulse very strong, it will not be advisable to bleed, but from two to twelve leeches may be applied to the lower part of the chest. Cold water may be allowed in any quantity, but nothing warm should be given. The colder the water, the better, and the more grateful it will be to the animal. Where it can be obtained, a large lump of ice may be placed in the water, for the dog often will lick this, and sometimes even gnaw it. Small lumps of ice may be forced down as pills, and a cold bath may be given, the animal being well wrapped up afterwards, that it may become warm, and the blood, by the natural reaction, be determined to the skin. When the sickness is conquered, the following should be administered:-- Powdered nux vomica A quarter of a grain to a grain. Sulphate of iron One grain to four grains. Extract of gentian Sufficient to make a pill. The above may be repeated every four hours until the stomach is quiet; but it is not always tranquillized; sickness may return, and the pills may possibly seem to aggravate it. If such should appear to be the case, try the next:-- Acid hydrocyanic, L.P. One drop to four drops. Carbonate of soda Three grains to twelve grains. Water A sufficiency. The ether and opium must also he persevered with, regulating the last of course by the action which it induces. Food should consist of cold broth, slightly thickened with ground rice, arrowroot, starch, or flour, and for some days it must be composed of nothing more; but by degrees the thickness may be increased, and a little bread and milk introduced. After a time a small portion of minced underdone meat, without skin or fat, may be allowed; but the quantity must be small, and the quality unexceptionable. The second day generally sees an abatement of the more urgent symptoms, and then the draught may be composed of five minims of laudanum to every drachm of ether, and ten drachms of water. This to be given both by mouth and injection six times daily. The former pills were intended only to allay the primary violence of the disease, and when that object is attained, the following remedy may be employed:-- Extract of hyoscyamus One grain to four grains. Carbonate of soda Three grains to twelve grains. Carbonate of ammonia Half a grain to two grains. Extract of gentian Five grains to a scruple. Powdered quassia A sufficiency. The above is for one pill, which should be repeated four times daily, and continued for some days; when, if the dog seems quite recovered, a course of the quinine tonic pills, as recommended for distemper, will be of use; but should any suspicion be created of the disorder not being entirely removed, the animal may be treated as advised for indigestion. Sporting dogs are frequently sent to me suffering under what the proprietors are pleased to term "Foul." The history of these cases is soon known. They have been withdrawn from the field at the close of the season, and have ever since been shut up in close confinement, while the working diet has been persevered with. The poor beast is supposed capable of vegetating until the return of the period for shooting requires his services. He remains chained up till he acquires every outward disease to which his kind are liable; and then, when he stinks the place out, his owner is surprised at his condition, pronouncing his misused animal to be "very foul." "Foul" is not one disease, but an accumulation of disorders brought on by the absence of exercise with a stimulating diet. The sporting dog, when really at work, may have all the flesh it can consume; but at the termination of that period its food should consist wholly of vegetable substances, while a _little_ exercise daily is necessary, not to health, but absolutely for life. The dog with "foul" requires each seat of disease to be treated separately; beginning of course with the dressing for mange or for lice, one or the other of which the animal is certain to display. DISEASES DEPENDENT ON AN INTERNAL ORGAN. STOMACH.--ST. VITUS'S DANCE. This disease generally is assumed to be a nervous disorder, and so the symptoms declare it to be; but on _post mortem_ examinations no lesion is found either upon the brain, spinal marrow, or the nerves themselves. This last circumstance, however, proves nothing; for the same thing may be said of tetanus in the human being, and of stringhalt in the horse; both of them being well-marked nervous affections. I append St. Vitus's Dance to the stomach, not because of that which I have not beheld, but because of that which I have positively seen. It follows upon distemper. I do not know it as a distinct disorder, though it is asserted to exist as such when the greater or leading disease is unobserved. It then follows up the affection which primarily involves the stomach and intestines, and to which indications all other symptoms are secondary. On every _post mortem_ which I have made of this disorder, I have discovered the stomach inflamed; and, therefore, not because the nerves or their centres are blank, but because on one important viscus I have found well marked signs to impress my reason, I propose to treat of this disorder as connected with the stomach. [Illustration: THE POINTER.] The signs to which I allude, consists of patches of well-defined inflammation; and hence, knowing how distemper has the power to involve other organs, I conclude it has caused the spinal marrow to be sympathetically affected. The symptoms of the disease are well marked. The poor beast, whether he be standing up or lying down, is constantly worried with a catching of the limb or limbs--for only one may be affected, or all four may be attacked. Sleeping or waking, the annoyance continues. The dog cannot obtain a moment's rest from its tormentor. Day and night the movement remains; no act, no position the poor brute is capable of, can bring to the animal an instant's downright repose. Its sleep is troubled and broken; its waking moments are rendered miserable by this terrible infliction. The worst of the matter is, that the dog in every other respect appears to be well. Its spirits are good, and it is alive for happiness. If it were released from its constant affliction, it is eager to enjoy its brief lease of life as in the time of perfect health. Plaintive and piteous are its looks as, lying asleep before the fire, it is aroused by a sudden pain; wakes, turns round, and mutely appeals to its master for an explanation or a removal of the nuisance. When stricken down at last, as, unable to stand, it lies upon its straw, most sad is it to see the poor head raised, and to hear the tail in motion welcoming any one who may enter the place in which it is a helpless but a necessary prisoner. In this disorder the best thing is to pay every attention to the food. The wretched animal generally has an enormous appetite, and, when it is unable to stand, will continue feeding to the last. This morbid hunger must not be indulged. One pound of good rice may be boiled or cooked in a sufficiency of carefully made beef-tea, every particle of meat or bone being removed. This will constitute the provender for one day necessary to sustain the largest dog, and a quarter the amount will be sufficient for one of the average size. Where good rice is not to be obtained, oatmeal or bread, allowing for the moisture which the last contains, may be substituted. No bones, nor substances likely, when swallowed, to irritate the stomach, must on any account be allowed. The quantity given at one time must ever be small; and every sort of provender offered should be soft and soothing to the internal parts; though the poor dog will be eager to eat that which will be injurious. Water should be placed within its reach, and offered during the day, the head being held while the incapacitated animal drinks. When a dog is prostrated by this affliction, it must on no account be suffered to remain on the floor, where its limbs would speedily become excoriated, being forcibly moved upon the boards; anything placed beneath the animal to save the limbs, would be saturated with the urine and fæces the poor beast is necessitated to pass. The best bed in such cases is made of a slanting piece of woodwork, of sufficient size to allow the animal to lie with ease at full length. The planks composing the wooden stage must be placed apart, be pierced with numerous holes, have the edges rounded, and be elevated at one end so as to allow all moisture readily to run off. The wood must be covered with a quantity of straw; which sort of bedding is convenient, not only because it allows the water to speedily percolate through it, but because it is warm, and being cheap, permits of repeated change. Physic is not of much avail in this disorder; kind nursing and mild food will do more towards recovery. Still, medicine, as an accessory, may be of considerable service, and in a secondary view deserves honorable mention. Alkalies, sedatives, and vegetable bitters, may be combined in various forms. The author's favorite sedative in stomach diseases is hyoscyamus, and alkali potash. For a bitter, quassia is a very good one; better than gentian, a small amount of the extract of which, however, may be used to make up the pill. When speaking of the pill, the most important ingredient must not be forgotten--I mean nux vomica. Some people employ strychnia, but such persons more often kill than cure their patients. Strychnia in any doses, however minute, is a violent poison to the dog. While at college I beheld animals killed with it; and there does not live the person who knows how to render this agent safe to the dog. Nux vomica, even, must be used in very minute doses, to be entirely safe--from a quarter of a grain to a small pup, to two grains to the largest animal. That quantity must be continued for a week, four pills being given daily; then add a quarter of a grain daily to the four larger pills, and a quarter of a grain every four days to all the smaller ones; keep on increasing the amount, till the physiological effects of the drug, as they are called, become developed. These consist in the beast having that which uninformed people term "a fit." He lies upon the ground, uttering rather loud cries, whilst every muscle of his body is in motion. Thus he continues scratching, as if it was his desire to be up and off at a hundred miles an hour. No sooner is he rid of one attack than he has another. He retains his consciousness, but is unable to give any sign of recognition. It is useless to crowd round the animal in this state; the drug must perform its office, and will do so, in spite of human effort. The very best thing that can be done, is to let the animal alone until the attack is over, when writers on Materia Medica tell us improvement is perceptible. I wish it was so in dogs. I have beheld the physiological effect of nux vomica repeatedly, but cannot recollect many instances in which I could date amendment from its appearance. The following is the formula for the pill recently alluded to:-- Potash Two to seven grains. Extract of hyoscyamus Half a grain to four grains. Quassia powder Three to sixteen grains. Nux vomica A quarter of a grain to two grains. Extract of gentian A sufficiency. The above quantities are sufficient for one pill, four of which are to be given daily for a week, at the expiration of which period the increase may begin. If the above, after a fair test has been made of it, does not succeed, trial may be instituted of the nitrate of silver, the trisnitrate of bismuth, or any of the various drugs said to be beneficial in the disease, or of service in stomach complaints. In this disorder the same drug never appears to act twice alike, therefore a change is warranted and desirable. Hopes of restoration may be entertained if the animal can only be kept alive to recover strength; then confident expectation can be expressed that the dog will outgrow the disease. The first signs perceptible which denote recovery are these:--The provender the beast consumes is evidently not thrown away. Instead of eating much, and ungratefully becoming thinner and thinner upon that which it consumes, the animal displays a disposition to thrive upon its victuals. It does not get fat on what it eats, but it evidently loses no flesh. It grows no thinner; and if the strength be not recruited, it obviously is not diminished. The animal does not gorge much wholesome diet daily, to exhibit more and more the signs of debility and starvation. If only a suspicion can be felt that the poor dog does not sink, then hope of ultimate success may warm the heart of a kind master; but when the reverse is obvious, though killing a dog is next to killing a child--and he who for pleasure can do the one, is not far off from doing the other--yet it is mercy then to destroy that existence which must else be miserably worn away. When there is no chance left for expectation to cling to, it becomes real charity to do violence to our feelings, in order that we may spare a suffering creature pain; but when there is a prospect, however remote, of recovery, I hope there is no veterinary surgeon who would touch the life. When the animal can stand, we may anticipate good; and whatever is left of the complaint, we may assure our employers will vanish as the age increases; for St. Vitus's Dance is essentially the disease of young dogs. But as recovery progresses, we must be cautious to do nothing to fling the animal back. No walks must be enforced, under the pretence of administering exercise. The animal has enough of that in its ever-jerking limbs; and however well it may grow to be while the disease lasts, we may rest assured the dog suffering its attack stands in need of repose. BOWEL DISEASES. Continuous with the stomach are the intestines, which are equally subject to disease, and more exposed to it in an acute form than even the former viscus. The dog will fill its belly with almost anything, but there is little that positively agrees with it. Boiled rice or lean meat, &c., and coarse biscuit, are the best general food; but without exercise, even these will not support health. The dog requires constant care if it is deprived of liberty: and those who keep these animals as pets, must submit to trouble, for though art may do much, it cannot conquer Nature. The intestines of the dog are peculiar. In the first place, it has no colon, and all the guts are nearly of one size from the commencement to the termination; the duodenum and the most posterior portion of the rectum being the largest, though not so much so as materially to destroy the appearance of uniformity. The cæcum is no more than a small appendage--a little sac attached to the main tube; it has but one opening, and that is very diminutive. I think all the food, as in other animals, passes into and out of this intestine; which, because of its peculiar formation, is therefore particularly liable to be disordered. In the dog which has died of intestinal disease, the cæcum is almost invariably found enlarged and inflamed. In it, I imagine, the majority of bowel affections have their origin. The gut is first loaded, and the consequence of this is, it loses its natural function. The contents become irritants from being retained, and the whole process of digestion is deranged; other parts are involved, and inflammation is induced. Writers do not notice the tendency of the cæcum to be diseased, or remark upon its disposition to exhibit signs of alteration; but the fact being so obvious, I wonder it should have escaped observation. COSTIVENESS is, in some measure, natural to the dog, and in that animal is hardly to be viewed as a disease. In health, the fæces are not expelled without considerable straining, and the matter voided ought to be of a solid character. It nevertheless should not be absolutely hard, or positively dry, for in that case the want of moisture shows the natural secretion of the rectum is deficient; the hardness proving prolonged detention, denoting the intestines have lost their activity. Both Blaine and Youatt were educated in the old school of medicine, which taught them to regard purgatives as the surgeon's best friends, and the sheet-anchors of his practice. They prescribe them in almost every case, and almost on every occasion; but I rarely give these agents. In the dog I am convinced they are not safe, and their constant use is by no means imperative. Should an animal be supposed not to have been relieved for a week, this fact is no proof that a purgative is required. The animal may have eluded observation, and it cannot inform us if such has been the case. The intestines may be slow, or the digestion may be more than usually active. It is foolish to lay down rules for Nature, and punish her creatures if these laws are not obeyed. There are, however, means of ascertaining when a purgative is needed; and these, if employed, will very rarely deceive. The muscles covering the abdomen of the dog are very thin, and through them the contents of the cavity may be plainly felt. By squeezing these together, the fingers will detect whether the rectum, which lies near to the spine, and of course backward or towards the tail, contains any substance. Should the presence of any solid body be ascertained, its character ought to be noted. If round and comparatively soft, a little exercise will cause it to be expelled; but if hard-pointed in places, and uneven, assistance should be afforded. An enema, of the solution of soap--or of Epsom salts, from half an ounce to a quarter of a pound, in a quarter of a pint to a quart of water--may be administered. A more active injection will be, from half a drachm to four drachms of turpentine, beaten up with the yolks of so many eggs as there are drachms of the oil, and mixed with the quantity of water just named. Either of these will relieve the bowel; but the condition of one part justifies an inference as to the state of another, and the enema probably will not unload the cæcum, which there is reason to suppose is also clogged. A gentle dose of castor-oil, or of the pills directed on page 116, will accomplish this intention; and, afterwards, measures must be adopted to regulate the digestion, either by tonics or such medicines as the symptoms suggest, but not by the constant repetition of laxatives. Costiveness will sometimes produce such violent pain that alarm is created, and dogs have been destroyed under the idea that they were rabid. To guard against so fatal a mistake, I shall only here say, that rabies does not come on suddenly, or, save in the latest stage, appear to influence the consciousness, which it never entirely overpowers. The agony caused by costiveness is greater than in any other affection to which the dog is liable. Apparently well, and perhaps at play, a cry breaks forth, which is the next instant a shriek, expressive of the acutest torture. The animal takes to running, and is not aware of surrounding objects; it can recognise nothing, but will bite its master if he attempts to catch it, and hit itself against anything that may be in its way; it scampers from room to room, or hurries from place to place; it is unable to be still or silent; and perhaps getting into a corner, it makes continuous efforts as though it wished to scramble up the wall, remaining there jumping with all its strength, and at the same time yelling at the top of its voice. This excitement may last for an hour or more, and then cease only to be renewed: till at length the powers fail, and in half a day the animal may be dead. Just prior to death, a mass of compact fæces is usually passed; and blood, with dysentery, is generally witnessed for the short period the animal survives. After death, general inflammation of the intestines is discovered, and the dog is reported to have perished from an attack of enteritis which no medicine could subdue. In such cases, the first examination should be directed to the rectum; the finger, moistened or oiled, ought to be inserted, and the intestine explored as thoroughly as possible. This operation is, however, not of further use than to confirm the opinion of the practitioner; and I, knowing the cause, therefore dispense with it. A copious enema should be immediately exhibited. One containing turpentine is the most effective; but, on account of its activity, it is only safe in the beginning of the attack. A warm bath is of service, but it takes up time which may be better employed, and does not do sufficient good to recompense for the delay. A full dose of sulphuric ether and laudanum should be given to allay the pain, and it may with this intention be repeated every ten or twenty minutes. If, from the enema, nothing follows, the finger should then certainly be introduced, and perhaps a compact mass may be felt firmly grasped by the intestine. Slowly, and with great caution, this must be broken up, and brought away bit by bit. The handle of a spoon has been recommended for this purpose, but I entreat my readers not to use it. Where pain is present, and life or death hang on the issue, there is no right to be any delicacy. An instrument of any kind introduced into such a part, and employed while the body is writhing about in agony, cannot be free from danger, and scarcely can be so used as to be effective. The finger is the quickest, the most safe, and the most effectual instrument; for we have it under our command, can guide it at our will, and with it take cognisance of all the circumstances presented. Even that must be employed gently, and this will be best done by the avoidance of haste. The surgeon is bound to be skilful, but he ought never to be in a hurry. Let all the time that can be occupied on such a matter be freely taken, and during the process, let the cries of the animal be attended to; any change of note will contain a warning which must not be disregarded. Without attending to that, the intestine might be ruptured, and death would then be certain. When the obstruction has been overcome, let a few ethereal enemas be administered to allay any local irritability; and a dose of the purgative pills--followed, six hours afterwards, should they not have operated, by one of castor-oil mixture, blended with half a scruple of chloroform--being given to unload the cæcum. The medicine having acted freely, the food must be amended, the treatment altered, and such other measures taken as the digestion may require for its restoration. [Illustration] COLIC.--This is an affection to which dogs are very subject. The human infant is not more liable to be griped than are the young of the canine species. The idea of a cur with a belly-ache may, to some persons, seem to be suggestive of fun; but to the creature that suffers, it is indeed a serious business. A duchess with the spasms does not endure so much, and is not in half the danger, that a dog is exposed to during a fit of gripes. The animal must be relieved, or inflammation will speedily ensue, and death will follow. In some cases, the appearance of colic is almost a certain indication that the poor beast will die. When it comes on a week or two prior to pupping, we may cure it; but during, or soon after parturition, the bitch generally perishes. When it starts up in the later or more virulent stage of distemper, especially at the time when the champing of the jaw denotes the approach of fits, the chance of a favorable termination to the disease is materially diminished. When in a violent form it attacks a litter of puppies, either simultaneously or consecutively, it is always attended with danger. At no season, and under no circumstances, is it trivial, and never ought it to be neglected. The cries and distress of the suffering animal will, when it is fully established, enforce attention; but too often it has then proceeded so far that much medicine will not check what in the first instance a single dose might have entirely banished. The symptoms of colic have been much confused by Blaine, who, when describing them, evidently alludes to many forms of disease with which abdominal spasm has no connexion. Youatt is far more clear; but he is too concise, and omits so much that the reader does not properly appreciate the importance of that affection which is thus slightly mentioned. Neither of the two authors seems to have carefully studied the subject; for in their writings is not to be found any account of those early symptoms which most readily yield to treatment. Prior to evincing any sign of colic, the dog appears well; healthy in its body and easy in its mind. The appetite is good, or may be better than usual. The food has been eaten and relished; then the animal instinctively lies down to sleep and aid digestion. A moan is heard; the sound is half suppressed, and the dog that utters it appears to sleep. Another cry, as feeble, but of greater length, is noticed; and now the animal that made it changes its position. The next time it may rise, look round, and seek another place; which having found, it appears to settle itself and to go to sleep. The rest once more is broken, the voice grows more full and loud; the dog jumps up and runs about for a little while, then selects a spot where it curls its body tightly up, as if resolved to have out its nap. The interruption, however, constantly recurs; and at each return the exclamation is more emphatic--the starting more energetic--the movement more abrupt--and, contrasting these, the determination or desire to repose becomes more strong. Thus endeavoring to sleep, and being constantly disturbed by some sharp and shooting pain, the dog may continue for a day, or two, or three, its cries, during the whole period, offending a neighborhood. During the continuance of colic, the general appearance of the animal may be but little affected. The eye is not injected, but the pupil may be slightly enlarged. The nose is cool and moist, but towards the end, irritation may render the part hot or dry. The appetite is generally slight--sometimes lost; and fluids are more readily accepted than solids. The cry, however, should be remarked; because, with the pulse, it gives the earliest notice when inflammation is commencing. While colic alone exists, the pulse may, from pain, be accelerated, and rendered more full, as well as strong, though not always to any marked extent. In inflammation, the pulse is greatly quickened, the artery becomes smaller, and its beat more jerking or wiry. During simple spasm the voice is natural, rich, sonorous, and almost musical; but in inflammation it is short, harsh, high, and broken, the exclamations not being continuous, but consisting of a series of disconnected "_yaps_." For the treatment, in the first instance, a turpentine enema will frequently cut short the attack. Should it fail to so, injections of ether and laudanum should succeed, and doses of the mixture should also be given every half hour; the first three being exhibited at intervals only of a quarter of an hour each. The cathartic pills should be administered; and in three hours, if the bowels have not been acted upon, a dose of castor-oil should be resorted to; but where the cathartic has been responded to, the castor-oil should be delayed for eight or twelve hours. When the pain ceases, the ether and laudanum should not be immediately discontinued; but they may be employed at longer intervals, and gradually reduced in quantity, until the bowels are thoroughly opened, when they may be withheld. Under this treatment, the affection is rarely fatal, and never so if taken in time. An injection of ether and laudanum should always be given to any pup that exhibits even the slightest symptom of uneasiness. I have never known it to do harm, but I am convinced it has often prevented danger. In those cases where purging and other indications denote the coats of the bowels to be already involved, and spasm co-exists with enteritis, ether and laudanum must enter into all the remedies employed. On the dog their action is, in my opinion, always beneficial; and were they not directly so, the influence they possess in deadening pain would be sufficient reason to justify their adoption. The other measures consist of such as will be found mentioned under the head of enteritis; but it is essential to observe any fæces which may be ejected by the animal that has suffered colic; for by these we may sometimes guess the cause of the attack, and more often learn the means through which a return may be prevented. As to the causes which induce colic, I can of my own knowledge offer no information. It has to me seemed to be regulated by none of those circumstances to which it is generally attributed; at all events, I think I have witnessed it in animals which have not been exposed to any of the causes that teachers and writers assert induce it. Dogs are, however, brought to us only when the cause has ceased; for we are sought for only to treat the effect. The declarations of authors may therefore be correct, although I am unable to corroborate them; and these gentlemen say colic is produced by cold, acrid food, chills, worms, hard water, &c. In cases of this kind, therefore, it may be well to inquire if the dog has been exposed, or badly fed, or is in any way unhealthy; and, so far as possible, to rectify these matters; for, even though they may not have provoked the spasm, nevertheless we shall do good by attending to the health, diet, and comfort of the animal. ENTERITIS.--The doom of the dog which is really afflicted with this disease, is generally sealed. It is a painful and a fatal disorder--equally rapid and stubborn. I fear it more than any other affection to which the animal is subject, and more frequently than any other has it set my best endeavors at defiance. In the dog, however, enteritis is rarely seen in a pure form. The mucous membrane of the intestines is mostly inflamed, but the serous covering, as a general rule, is in no degree involved. The stomach, however, is almost in every instance more or less implicated; its inner surface being inflamed, and its muscular coat so contracted, that the lining membrane is corrugated, and remains in that condition after death. The incentives are, unwholesome food, which is the most frequent of the causes; exposure, especially after a dog has been in winter fantastically deprived of its long hair over the loins; and over-exertion, to which the dog is often exposed, no attention being paid to its condition. Anything which disorders the digestion, or violently shakes the constitution, will induce it; for in the dog every species of revulsion has a tendency to attack the bowels. Mange improperly treated has produced it; and this may be said of almost any skin disease; so that it has been caused not by true mange or itch alone but by a skin disease having been, under the pretence of working an immediate cure, driven into the system. Neglected impactments, or colic, are among its most frequent immediate causes; for at least three parts of those cases of enteritis submitted to my notice, have been clearly traced to have commenced with something of that kind. Of the symptoms of enteritis, colic and constipation, with a hard thin pulse, are the most prominent. Sickness is not present, or rather I have not witnessed it, at the commencement of the disorder. The extremities are cold--the eye has a stupid expression, the pupil being much dilated--the breath is hot, and the nose dry. The tail is drawn firmly downward, and pressed upon the anus; the urine is sometimes scanty, always high-colored; the tongue is rough and clammy, the thirst strong, and the appetite lost. The dog seeks darkness and privacy, and does not ramble during the early stage; it will stretch itself out either upon its belly or on its side, and I have not seen it sit upon its haunches. The abdomen is only of the heat of the body, which is generally of an increased temperature. Pressure appears to cause no pain, and the animal rather seems grateful for friction than to resist it. As the disease proceeds, diarrhoea ensues, and with it the signs of exhaustion and death generally are exhibited. Throughout the attack there is a marked disinclination to take any remedy; which is not always displayed by these creatures, and in no other disease is so violently exhibited. Dogs often become attached to those who minister to their complaints; many of them will appear to understand and appreciate the motives of him who attempts their relief. The poor things will frequently submit to operations, and lick the hand which has performed them. Eloquent are the appeals which they sometimes make to the feelings of one in whom they have placed their confidence; often staggering to meet him when he enters; looking upward into his face, and uttering low cries, which are more expressive than words could possibly be rendered. He who has had much to do with dogs must, if he be not insensible, grow to like them, and gradually learn to think these creatures possess both knowledge and reason. They will sometimes, without a struggle, swallow the most pungent and nauseous drinks; but such is not the case during enteritis. The brain in that disease is always sympathetically affected, the state of the eye, its peculiar expression and dilated pupil, denote the fact; and the manner of the dog would, without these indications, lead us to surmise the circumstance. The treatment must be energetic. The sharp, short cries, characteristic of enteritis, as pointed out in the preceding description of colic, will be sufficient warning of the danger, and ample intimation that there is no time to be lost. A turpentine enema should be injected. The treatment ought always to begin with this, for to unload the rectum is of all importance. Afterwards, from one to four grains of calomel, with from half a grain to two grains of opium, should be shaken upon the tongue; and when ten minutes have elapsed, a draught of ether and laudanum and water, with an injection of the same composition, ought to be exhibited. While the cries last, the ether may be continued, and when the strength appears to fail, it may also be employed. Two hours subsequent to the calomel being given, from half an ounce to three ounces of castor-oil, diluted with half the quantity of olive-oil, should be used as a drench; and thrice during the day the following may be administered either as a pill or draught, in thick gruel, soup, or mucilage, at the option of the practitioner; who will, of course, be guided by the disposition of the patient, which in every particular must be considered:-- Grey powder Five grains to a scruple. Powdered ipecacuanha Half a grain to four grains. Extract of hyoscyamus One to eight grains. Bleeding is of some service, but the dog so quickly sinks, that it must be practised with caution. On this account, as well as for other reasons, leeches are to be preferred. If the patient be a male, they may be applied to the belly; but if a female, the side of the abdomen must be shaven, and that part selected. From four to twenty-four leeches will be sufficient; and half that number may be again used if no change for the better is observed, and the strength does not fail. Stimulating applications are likewise beneficial. A large mustard poultice has appeared to be more operative than more violent agents. After it has been removed, warm fomentations of water, with occasional ones of hot turpentine, may be employed. In the early stage, a warm bath of 90 degrees, for half an hour, has been used with advantage; but the animal, when removed from it, must be wrapped well up in several hot blankets, and kept in them until it is perfectly dry. On the second day from two to ten drops of the tincture of arnica, with half a drachm of the solution of the chloride of zinc, may be added to the ethereal drinks and injections, if the disorder has not been checked; and beef-tea, thickened with rice, may also be frequently administered, using it instead of water, both in the draughts and injections. No other food is admissible, and the return to solids must, if the animal survives, be very gradual. DYSENTERY AND DIARRHOEA.--These diseases, which in works on human pathology are advantageously separated, I cannot here treat of as distinct disorders. In the dog they are so connected and blended that the line which divides them cannot be discovered; and for every practical purpose, they may be here considered as one and the same affection. The young and the old are most liable to these complaints. Puppies are very subject, as also are aged gross favorites; things so fat that it becomes hard work to live are very generally attacked with diarrhoea. The pup, however, usually exhibits it in the acute form, whereas in the other description of animal it mostly appears in the chronic type. When acute, colic may accompany or precede it. In proportion to the spasm will be the violence and the danger of the disorder. Sickness is mostly witnessed a little time prior to the attack, and the matter vomited has a peculiarly disagreeable and acrid odor. The dog does not again consume that which the stomach has thrown off, but sneaks away dejected, and afterwards seems dull. Sickness will occasionally continue throughout the complaint, but in general it departs as the disease appears. Thirst, however, is always present; and there is also a disposition to seek cold things and places. The pulse is quicker, but not stronger, and hardly at first less thin than during health. There is no pain on pressure being applied to the abdomen. The membranes of the eye are not injected; they may be a little deeper in color than is strictly natural, but occasionally they are the reverse. If, however, the anus be gently forced open, so as to expose the terminating surface of the rectum, the membrane there will be found more red, and perhaps less clear in tint, than it ought to be; and the presence of purgation, attended with a violent resistance to the administration of clysters, will leave no doubt as to the character of the affection. In the chronic form, the membrane of the eye is pallid; the nose often moist; the breath offensive; the appetite ravenous; the pulse quick and weak; the anus inflamed; mostly protruding, and usually disfigured by piles; the fæces liquid, and of various hues; sometimes black, occasionally lighter than usual, very generally mixed with much mucus and a small quantity of blood, so that the leading symptoms are those of weakness, accompanied with purgation. [Illustration: SUPERPURGATION.] Acute diarrhoea may terminate in twenty-four hours; the chronic may continue as many days. The first sometimes closes with hemorrhage, blood in large quantities being ejected, either from the mouth or from the anus; but more generally death ensues from apparent exhaustion, which is announced by coldness of the belly and mouth, attended with a peculiar faint and sickly fetor and perfect insensibility. The chronic more rarely, ends with excessive bleeding, but almost always gradually wears out the animal, which for days previous may be paralysed in the hind extremities, lying with its back arched and its feet approximated, though consciousness is retained almost to the last moment. In either case, however, the characteristic stench prevails, and the lower surface of the abdomen, as a general rule, feels hard, presenting to the touch two distinct lines, which run in the course of the spine. These lines, which Youatt mentions as cords, are the recti muscles, which in the dog are composed of continuous fibre, and consequently, when contracted under the stimulus of pain or disease, become very apparent. On examination after death, the stomach, especially towards the pyloric orifice, is inflamed, as are the intestines, which, however, towards the middle of the track, are less violently affected than at other parts. The cæcum is enlarged, and may even, while all the other guts are empty, contain hard solid fæces. The rectum is generally black with inflammation, and seems most to suffer in these disorders. Occasionally its interior is ulcerated, and such is nearly always its condition towards the anus. Signs of colic are distributed along the entire length of the alimentary tubes. In the acute disease, the case in the first instance should be treated as directed for colic, with turpentine enema and ether, laudanum and water, followed by mild doses of grey powder and ipecacuanha, or chalk, catechu and aromatics, in the proportions directed below:-- Powdered opium Half a grain to two grains. Powdered prepared chalk Five grains to a scruple. Catechu Two grains to half a scruple. Liquor potassæ Half-a-drachm to two drachms. Powdered ginger Three to twelve grains. Powdered caraways Three to twelve grains. Powdered capsicums One to four grains. This may be given every second hour. The carbonate of ammonia, from two to eight grains, is also deserving of a trial, as are the chlorides and chlorates when the odor is perceived. Applications, as before directed, to the abdomen are also beneficial; but frequent use of the warm bath should be forbidden, for its action is far too debilitating. The ether, laudanum, and water should be persisted with throughout the treatment, and hope may be indulged so long as the injections are retained; but when these are cast back, or flow out as soon as the pipe is removed, the case may be pronounced a desperate one. In the chronic form of diarrhoea there is always greater prospect of success. Ether, laudanum, and water will often master it, without the addition of any other medicine; but the liquor potassæ and the chalk preparation are valuable adjuncts. To the anus an ointment will be useful; and it should not only be smeared well over the part, but, by means of a penholder or the little finger, a small quantity should thrice in the course of the day be introduced up the rectum. For this purpose the following will be found to answer much better than any of those which Blaine orders to be employed on similar occasions:-- Camphor powdered } Mercurial ointment } Of each equal parts. Elder ointment } Cleanliness is of the utmost importance. Thrice daily, or oftener if necessary, the anus and root of the tail should be thoroughly cleansed, with a wash consisting of an ounce of the solution of chloride of zinc to a pint of distilled water. The food should be generous; but fluid beef tea, thickened with rice, will constitute the most proper diet during the existence of diarrhoea. A little gravy and rice with scraped meat may be gradually introduced; but the dog must be drenched with the liquid rather than indulged with solids at too early a period. All the other measures necessary have been indicated when treating of previous abdominal diseases, and such rules as are therein laid down must, according to the circumstances, be applied. PERITONITIS.--In the acute form this disease is rarely witnessed, save as accompanying or following parturition. Its symptoms are, panting; restlessness; occasional cries; a desire for cold; constant stretching forth at full length upon the side; dry mouth and nose; thirst; constipation; hard quick pulse; catching breathing, and--contrary as it may be to all reasonable expectation--seldom any pain on pressure to the abdomen, toward which, however, the animal constantly inclines the head. The treatment consists in bleeding from the jugular, from three to twelve ounces being taken; but a pup, not having all its permanent teeth, supposing such an animal could be affected, should not lose more than from half-an-ounce to two ounces. Stimulating applications to the abdomen should be employed, an ammoniacal blister, from its speedy action, being to be preferred. Ether, laudanum, and water ought to be given, to allay the pain, with calomel in small but repeated doses, combined with one-fourth its weight of opium, in order to subdue the inflammation. A turpentine enema to unload the rectum, and a full dose of castor oil to relieve the bowels, should be administered early in the disease. The warm bath, if the animal is after it well wrapped up, may also be resorted to. A second bleeding may be necessary, but it should always be by means of leeches, and should only be practised upon conviction of its necessity, for no animal is less tolerant of blood-letting than the dog. During peritonitis, the chief aim of all the measures adopted is to reduce the inflammation; but while this is kept in view, it must not be forgotten that of equal, or perhaps of even more, importance, is it to subdue the pain and lessen the constitutional irritation which adds to the energy of the disorder, thus rendering nature the less capable of sustaining it. With this object I have often carried ether, laudanum, and water, so far as to narcotise the animal; and I have kept the dog under the action of these medicines for twelve hours, and then have not entirely relinquished them. The consequence has not always been success, but I have not seen any reason to imagine that the life has not been lengthened by the practice; and sometimes when the narcotism has ceased, the disease has exhibited so marked an improvement, that I have dated the recovery from that period. STRANGULATION.--This consists in the intestines being twisted or tied together, and it is caused by sudden emotion or violent exertion. From it the dog is almost exempt, though to it some other animals are much exposed. The symptoms are sudden pain, resembling acute enteritis, accompanied with sickness and constipation, and terminating in the lethargic ease which characterises mortification. No treatment can save the life, and all the measures justifiable are such as would alleviate the sufferings of the animal; but as, in the majority of these cases, the fact is only ascertained after death, the practitioner must in a great measure be guided by the symptoms. INTROSUSCEPTION.--This is when a portion of intestine slips into another part of the alimentary tube, and there becomes fixed. Colic always precedes this, for the accident could not occur unless the bowel was in places spasmodically contracted. The symptoms are--colic, in the first instance, speedily followed by enteritis, accompanied by a seeming constipation, that resists all purgatives, and prevails up to the moment of death. The measures would be the same as were alluded to when writing of strangulation. STOPPAGE.--To this the dog is much exposed. These animals are taught to run after sticks or stones, and to bring them to their masters. When this trick has been learnt, the creatures are very fond of displaying their accomplishment. They engage in the game with more than pleasure; and as no living being is half so enthusiastic as dogs, they throw their souls into the simple sport. Delighted to please their lords, the animals are in a fever of excitement; they back and run about--their eyes on fire, and every muscle of their frames in motion. The stone is flung, and away goes the dog at its topmost speed, so happy that it has lost its self-command. If the missile should be small, the poor animal, in its eagerness to seize, may unfortunately swallow it, and when that happens, the faithful brute nearly always dies. The oesophagus or gullet of the dog is larger than its intestines, and consequently the substance which can pass down the throat may in the guts become impacted. Such too frequently follows when stones are gulped; for hard things of this kind, though they should be small enough to pass through the alimentary tube, nevertheless would cause a stoppage; for a foreign body of any size, by irritating the intestine, would provoke it to contract, or induce spasm; and the bowel thus excited would close upon the substance, retaining it with a force which could not be overcome. Persons, therefore, who like their dogs to fetch and carry, should never use for this purpose any pebble so small as to be dangerous, or rather, they should never use stones of any kind for this purpose. The animal taught to indulge in this amusement seriously injures its teeth, which during the excitement are employed with imprudent violence, and the mouth sustains more injury than the game can recompense. If a dog should swallow a stone, let the animal be immediately fed largely; half-an-hour afterwards let thrice the ordinary dose of antimonial wine be administered, and the animal directly afterwards be exercised. Probably the pebble may be returned with the food when the emetic acts. Should such not be the case, as the dog will not eat again, all the thick gruel it can be made to swallow must be forced upon it, and perhaps the stone may come away when this is vomited. Every effort must be used to cause the substance to be ejected before it has reached the bowels, since if it enters these, the doom is sealed. However, should such be the case, the most violent and potent antispasmodics may be tried; and under their influence I have known comparatively large bodies to pass. No attempt must be made to quicken the passage by moulding or kneading the belly; much less must any effort be used intended to push the substance onward. The convolutions of the alimentary track are numerous, and the bowels are not stationary; therefore we have no certainty, even if the violence should do no injury, that our interference would be properly directed. Hope must depend upon antispasmodics; while every measure is taken to anticipate the irritation which is almost certain to follow. Stoppage may be caused by other things besides stones. Corks, pins, nails, skewers, sharp pieces of bone, particularly portions of game and poultry bones, have produced death; and this fact will serve to enforce the warning which was given in the earlier portion of this work. PARALYSIS OF THE HIND EXTREMITIES. It appears odd to speak of such an affliction as loss of all motor power in the hind extremities, connected with deranged bowels. What can the stomach have to do with the legs? Why, all and everything. That which is put into the stomach, nourishes the legs, and that which enters the same receptacle, may surely disease the like parts. That which nurtures health, and that which generates sickness, are more closely allied than we are willing to allow. Thus, a moderate meal nourishes and refreshes; but the same food taken in too great abundance, as surely will bring disease; and it is of too much food that I have to complain, when I speak of the bowels as associated with paralysis. Dogs will become great gluttons. They like to do what they see their master doing; but as a dog's repast comes round but once a day, and a human being eats three or four times in the twenty-four hours, so has the animal kept within doors so many additional opportunities of over-gorging itself. Nor is this all. The canine appetite is soon satisfied; the meal is soon devoured. But it is far otherwise with the human repast. The dog may consume enough provender in a few minutes to last till the following day comes round; whereas the man cannot get through the food which is to support him for six hours, in less than half a division of the time here enumerated. Supposing one or two persons to be seated at table, it is very hard to withstand a pair of large, eloquent, and imploring eyes, watching every mouthful the fork lifts from the plate. For a minute or two it may be borne; but to hold out an entire hour is more than human fortitude is capable of. A bit is thrown to the poor dog that looks so very hungry; it is eaten quickly, and then the eyes are at work again. Perhaps the other end of the board is tried, and the appeal is enforced with the supplicatory whine that seldom fails. Piece after piece is thereby extracted; and dogs fed in this fashion will eat much more than if the whole were placed before them at one time. The animal becomes enormously fat, and then one day is found by the mistress with its legs dragging after it. The lady inquires which of the servants have been squeezing the dog in the door. All deny that they have been so amusing themselves, and every one protests that she had not heard poor Fanny cry. The mistress' wrath is by no means allayed. Servants are so careless--such abominable liars--and the poor dog was no favorite down stairs. Thereupon Fanny is wrapped in a couple of shawls, and despatched to the nearest veterinary surgeon. If the gentleman who may be consulted knows his business, he returns for answer, "The dog is too fat," and must for the future be fed more sparingly--that it has been squeezed in no door--that none of the vertebræ are injured, but the animal is suffering from an attack of paralysis. He sends some physic to be given, and some embrocation to rub on the back. The mistress is by no means satisfied. She protests the man's a fool--declares she alone knows the truth--but, despite her knowledge, does as the veterinary surgeon ordered. Under the treatment the dog recovers; after which every one feeds it, and everybody accuses the other of doing that which the doctor said was not to be done. At length the animal has a second visitation, which is more slowly removed than was the first; but it at last yields; till the third attack comes, with which the poor beast is generally destroyed as incurable. These dogs, when brought to us, usually appear easy and well to do in the world. The coats are sleek; their eyes are placid; and the extremities alone want motion, which rather seems to surprise the animal than to occasion it any immediate suffering. They have no other obvious disease; but the malignity of their ailments seems fixed or concentrated on the affection which is present. The first attack is soon conquered. A few cathartic pills, followed by castor-oil, prepared as recommended in this work (page 116), will soon unload the bowels, and clear out the digestive canal. They must be continued until, and after, the paralysis has departed. At the same time, some stimulating embrocation must be employed to the back, belly, and hind-legs, which must be well rubbed with it four times daily, or the oftener the better. Soap liniment, as used by Veterinarians, rendered more stimulating by an additional quantity of liquor ammoniæ, will answer very well; more good being done by the friction than by the agent employed. The chief benefit sought by the rubbing, is to restore the circulation, and so bring back feeling with motion, for both are lost; a pin run into the legs produces no effort to retract the limb, nor any sign of pain. The cure is certain,--and so is the second attack, if the feeding be persisted in; unless nature seeks and finds relief in skin disease, canker, piles, or one of the many consequences induced by over-feeding. The second attack mostly yields to treatment. The third is less certain, and so is each following visitation; the chances of restoration being remote, just in proportion as the assault is removed from the original affliction. DISEASES ATTENDANT ON DISORDERED BOWELS. RHEUMATISM. [Illustration: ACUTE RHEUMATISM.] It appears almost laughable to talk about a rheumatic dog; but, in fact, the animal suffers quite as, or even more acutely than the human patient, and both from the same cause--over-indulgence; still with this difference--the man usually suffers from attachment to the bottle; the dog endures its misery from devotion to roaming under the table. It is not an uncommon sight to behold an animal so fat that it can hardly waddle, without scruple enjoying its five meals a day; which it takes with a bloated mistress, who, according to her own account, is kept alive with the utmost difficulty by eating little and often. The dog, I say, looks for its lady's tray with regularity, besides having its own personal meal, and a bone or two to indulge any odd craving between whiles. These spoiled animals are, for the most part, old and bad tempered. They would bite, but they have no teeth, and yet they will wrathfully mumble the hand they are unable to injure; while the doting mistress, in alarm for her favorite, sits upon the sofa entreating the beast may not be hurt: begging for pity, as though it were for her own life she were pleading. The animal during this is being followed from under table to chair, growling and barking all the time; and showing every disposition, if it had but ability, to do you some grievous bodily harm. At length, after a chase that has nearly caused the fond mistress to faint and you to exhaust all patience, the poor brute is overtaken and caught; but no sooner does your hand touch the miserable beast, than it sets up a howl fit to alarm the neighborhood. On this the hand is moved from the neck to the belly, intending to raise the dog from the ground; but the howl thereon is changed to a positive scream, when the mistress starts up, declaring she can bear no more. On this you desist, to ask a few questions: "The dog has often called out in that manner?" "O yes." "And has done so, no one being near or touching it?" "O yes, when quite alone." Thereupon you request the mistress to call the animal to her; and it waddles across the carpet, every member stiff, its back arched, and its neck set, but the eye fixed upon the person who has been called in. You get the mistress to take the favorite upon her lap, and request she will oblige you by pinching the skin. "Oh, harder; pray, a little harder, madam!" Nevertheless, all your entreaties cannot move the kind mistress to do that which she fears will pain her pet; whereon you request permission to be permitted to make a trial; and it being granted, you seize the coat, and give the animal one of the hardest pinches of which your fore-finger and thumb, compressed with all your might, are capable. The animal turns its head round and licks your hand, to reward the polite attention, and solicits a continuance of your favors. The skin is thick and insensible. What teeth remain, are covered with tartar, and the breath smells like a pestilence. The dog is taken home, and an allowance of wholesome rice and gravy placed before it, with one ounce of meat by weight. The flesh is greedily devoured, but the other mess remains untouched. The next day the untouched portion is removed, and fresh supplied; also the same meat as before, which is consumed ere the hand which presented the morsel is retracted, the head being raised to ask for more. The second day, however, the gravy and rice are eaten, and the meat on the morrow is deficient; gravy and rice for the future constituting the animal's fare. Then, for physic, an embrocation containing one-third of turpentine is used thrice daily, to rub the animal's back, neck, and belly with. Some of the cathartic pills are given over night, with the castor-oil mixture in the morning. Constant purgation is judiciously kept up, and before the first fortnight expires, the dog ceases to howl. Then the pills and mixture are given every other night, and the quantity of turpentine in the embrocation increased to one-half, the other ingredients being of the same amount. This rubbed in as before, evidently annoys the animal, and on that account is used only twice a-day. When all signs of pain are gone, the turpentine is then lowered to one-third, the embrocation being applied only once a-day, because it now gives actual pain. Some liniment, however, is continued, generally making the poor beast howl whenever it is administered. At the expiration of a month, all treatment is abandoned for a week, that the skin may get rid of its scurf, and you may perceive the effect of the treatment you have pursued. If the skin then appears thin, especially on the neck and near the tail, being also sensitive, clean the teeth, and send the dog home with a bottle of cleansing fluid, a tooth-brush, (as before explained,) and strict injunctions with regard to diet. EMBROCATION (FIRST STRENGTH) FOR RHEUMATISM. Turpentine } Laudanum } One part of each. Soap liniment } Tincture of capsicums A little. The subsequent strength is made by increasing the quantity of turpentine. THE RECTUM. PILES.--The dog is very subject to these annoyances in all their various forms; for the posterior intestine of the animal seems to be peculiarly susceptible of disease. When enteritis exists the rectum never escapes, but is very frequently the seat of the most virulent malice of the disorder. There are reasons why such should be the case. The dog has but a small apology for what should be a cæcum, and the colon I assume to be entirely wanting. The guts, which in the horse are largest, in the canine species are not characterised by any difference of bulk; and however compact may be the food on which the dog subsists, nevertheless a proportionate quantity of its substance must be voided. If the excrement be less than in beasts of herbivorous natures, yet there being but one small receptacle in which it can be retained, the effects upon that receptacle are more concentrated, and the consequences therefore are very much more violent. The dung of the horse and ox is naturally moist, and only during disease is it ever in a contrary condition. Costiveness is nearly always in some degree present in the dog. During health the animal's bowels are never relaxed; but the violent straining it habitually employs to expel its fæces would alone suggest the injury to which the rectum is exposed, even if the inclination to swallow substances which in their passage are likely to cause excoriation did not exist. The grit, dirt, bone, and filth that dogs will, spite of every precaution, manage to obtain, must be frequent sources of piles, which without such instigation would frequently appear. Bones, which people carelessly conclude the dog should consume, it can in some measure digest; but it can do this only partially when in vigorous health. Should the body be delicate, such substances pass through it hardly affected by the powers of assimilation; they become sharp and hard projections when surrounded by, and fixed in the firm mass, which is characteristic of the excrement of the dog. A pointed piece of bone, projecting from an almost solid body, is nearly certain to lacerate the tender and soft membrane over which it would have to be propelled; and though, as I have said, strong and vigorous dogs can eat almost with impunity, and extract considerable nourishment from bones, nevertheless they do not constitute a proper food for these animals at any time. When the system is debilitated, the digestion is always feeble; and, under some conditions of disease, I have taken from the stomachs of dogs after death, in an unaltered state, meat, which had been swallowed two days prior to death. It had been eaten and had been retained for at least forty-eight hours, but all the functions had been paralyzed, and it continued unchanged. If such a thing be possible under any circumstances, then in the fact there is sufficient reason why people should be more cautious in the mode of feeding these creatures; for I have extracted from the rectums of dogs large quantities of trash, such as hardened masses of comminuted bones and of cocoanut, which, because the animal would eat it, the owners thought it to be incapable of doing harm. Nature has not fitted the dog to thrive upon many substances; certain vegetables afford it wholesome nourishment, but a large share of that which is either wantonly or ignorantly given as food, is neither nutritive nor harmless. Whatever injures the digestion, from the disposition of the rectum to sympathise in all disorders of the great mucous track, is likely to induce piles; and the anus of the animal is often as indicative of the general state of the body as is the tongue of man. In perfect health the anus should be small, firm, close, and entirely retracted; especially should it be cleanly. Any soil upon the part, or any excrement adhering to the hair about its margin, is indicative of derangement. If the fundament protrudes, so that it can be grasped by the finger and thumb, or if it presents a sensible projection to the touch, the digestion is not sound. The indication is still worse when the orifice is enlarged--the edges not being inflamed, which indeed they seldom are, but swollen, loose, coarse, creased, and unsightly. This state will not continue long before cracks and ulcers may be detected upon the borders of the opening, which ultimately is constantly moistened by an unctuous and peculiarly fetid discharge. If the lips of the orifice be gently pulled aside, the more inward portion of the membrane will frequently be seen of a bright scarlet color, and wet with a watery fluid, but the anus is rarely of so deep a tint, the hue being, even in aggravated cases, only a pale reddish brown. To correct this state of disease, the first thing to be attended to is the food. The diet must be strictly regulated; it should not be too much reduced either in quantity or quality, for dogs in this state are generally old, and always weakly. Enough of good food should be allowed, but nothing more ought to be given. Meat, lean, and from a healthy animal, as constituting the lightest and most nourishing diet, will here be best, and from two ounces to two pounds may be divided into four meals, and given in the course of the day. Plenty of exercise and a daily cold bath will likewise be beneficial. Medicine must be employed for two purposes; the first, to alleviate the pain and act locally on the disease; and the second, to amend the general health, checking the constitutional disposition to be affected. As a local application, Mr. Blaine recommends an ointment; which I object to, because I have found it aggravate the suffering without conferring any compensating benefit. Astringents, such as the acetate of lead, are not curative; but the following ointment has done so much good in these cases that I can most confidently submit it to the public:-- Camphor Two drachms. Strong mercurial ointment One drachm. Elder ointment One ounce. The only addition I make to the above is occasionally a drachm of powdered opium. This is smeared over the exterior of, and also inserted up, the rectum, thrice in the day. A piece of wood nicely rounded, or a penholder if the animal be small, answers very well to introduce the salve into the gut; and of course it should be done with every consideration, for the pain it will at first produce. The resistance is often strong, and the cries violent; for in some cases the rectum is so sensitive that the mere lifting of the tail cannot be silently endured. The poor dog seems in constant agony; for I have known the exclamations to be provoked by simply looking at the part, and the animal evidently shrieked from the idea of it being touched. All possible tenderness, therefore, is required; and the dog should be very firmly held, to prevent its contortions from adding to its anguish. When the ointment is regularly and properly employed, the relief is generally speedy; and after the third day the dog, which had been so energetically resistful, often submits to be dressed without a murmur. The cessation of the howling will indicate the progress of the cure, but the application should be used for some days after the animal becomes silent. If much stench is present, the fundament may be at each dressing moistened with very dilute solution of the chloride of zinc, and a small quantity may be administered as an injection, after the grease has been introduced. The constitutional remedies must be regulated by the symptoms, and nothing absolute can be said on this subject; but in the great majority of instances tonics will be required. Purgatives are not often needed, but a day's feed of liver once or twice a week will do no harm. Should it not have the desired effect, a little olive oil may be given; but nothing stronger ought to be risked, and above all, no preparation of mercury--which, in the dog, specially acts upon the rectum--ought on any account to be permitted. Piles, if not attended to, become causes of further disease, which may in some cases prove fatal, though in the larger number of instances they are far more distressing than dangerous. A sero-sanguineous abscess, that is, a tumor consisting of a single sac or numerous small bladders, containing a thin and bloody fluid, is by no means a rare accompaniment of long-continued piles. These mostly appear rather to one side of, and more below than above, the opening, the verge of which they always involve. They occasion little pain, and often grow to a comparatively enormous size; when they may burst and leave a ragged ulcer, which has little disposition to heal, and is not improved by the dog's drawing it along the ground. When these are observed, the knife should not be too quickly resorted to. The abscess should be allowed to progress until it is fully matured, the dog being in the meantime treated for simple piles. When the tumor perceptibly fluctuates, it should be freely opened, the incision being made along its entire length. This is best done with one of Liston's knives, which should be thrust fairly through the swelling, entering at the top and coming out at the lowest part, when with one movement of the wrist the substance is divided. The operation thus performed is much quicker, less painful, and more safe than it can possibly be rendered if the tumor be punctured and slit up with repeated thrusts of an ordinary lancet. I have frequently opened these sacs without the animal uttering even a moan, and mercy is wisdom where surgery is employed. Dogs will not bear torture, and soon become blindly infuriated if subjected to pain. The animal is naturally so sensitive and excitable that the brutality or suffering a horse can sustain, these animals would perish under. He, therefore, who undertakes to treat the diseases of the canine race, if the amiable qualities of the brute or his own feelings have no influence, will in the success of his practice discover ample reason for the exercise of a little humanity. After the sac is opened a portion of lint should be used, to render the part perfectly dry, which may then be lightly pencilled over with lunar caustic, or moistened with some caustic solution. Fomentations of warm water to keep the wound free from dirt, and with no other object, are all that subsequently will be required. Tumors of a solid nature also form about the anus, and are likewise consequent upon neglected piles. These generally appear at the root of the tail superior to the opening. They feel hard; are glistening; not very tender; but highly vascular, and in some cases pulsate strongly. The dog is generally loaded with fat, perhaps slightly mangy; nearly always old, gross and weak. The quantity of blood that at various intervals is lost from this tumor, which at length ulcerates and bleeds at the slightest touch, or without any apparent cause, is often very great; but it does not, save in the very latest stage, induce obvious emaciation. The health is not good, of course, but to the casual observer the disease does not appear to affect the system. The spirits under excitement are, to all appearances, undiminished, and the appetite is in these cases ravenous. If, however, the dog had to do work, the truth would be soon discovered. After a short space the strength would fail, and no correction could keep the poor animal to its duty. The treatment must commence with constitutional remedies, if the state of the part permits of the requisite delay. The digestion should be amended, and the piles, which are certain to be present, attended to. After a fortnight, more or less, has been devoted to such measures, a strong ligature should be tied as tight up as possible around the base of the growth, and a fresh one should be applied every second day. There must be no forbearance in the application of the ligature, but the degree of tension must be regulated only by the strength of the operator. This is far more severe than the removal would be if the knife were employed, but I have not seen a case which I dared venture to excise. I do not like the ligature; it is long and torturing in its action; but here there will be no chance, for the vessels are too numerous and large to admit of the speedier process being resorted to. Where it is possible, it is well, however, to cut through the skin before applying the cord; for the operation is expedited considerably, and an important deduction made from the animal's agony. When the tumor drops off, the surface may be sprinkled thrice a day with the following powder:-- Camphor in powder, Opium in powder, Grey powder, Powdered galls, of each an equal quantity. Or a little of the ointment recommended for piles may be smeared upon the wound in lieu of the above. An unguent is perhaps to be preferred, as giving better protection to the sore, over which the fæces must pass, and also as being more grateful to the feelings of the patient. Powder and ointment may be changed and varied according to the judgment of the attendant: thus, to render the last more stimulating, I mix creosote with it occasionally; or to give it an astringent property I add a portion of galls, catechu, or kino; but these I never pass into the rectum. Astringents introduced upon the sore and ulcerated surface of the intestine of course render it harsh, dry, and corrugated; and as during the exercise of its function the part is necessarily dilated, the animal is, by the pain produced from the stretching of the constringed membrane, indisposed for the performance of that act, on the regular discharge of which its health in no little measure depends. Astringents, moreover, heat and irritate the part; and the sensations induced make the dog draw its anus along the ground, thereby adding greatly to the evil it is the intention of the application to remove. Therefore prudence will approve what humanity suggests; and those who in kindly feeling can discover no motive, will in the colder reason find every inducement for the adoption of the gentler measure. Protrusion of the rectum is also sometimes a consequence of gross feeding, starting up piles in the first instance, and then, from more intense digestive derangement, causing purgation, accompanied with violent straining. The tone of the intestine is destroyed. It becomes lax, and its muscular power is lost. The gut is at first only a little exposed during the act, and when that is over, it is retracted; but after some time, the limit of which is uncertain, it remains constantly protruded. It is not so violently inflamed as might be expected, but it soon gets dry and harsh; cracks appear upon its surface; and the pressure of the muscle which closes the anus preventing the free circulation of the blood, renders it black from congestion. If taken early, the treatment recommended for piles will generally effect a cure; but if nothing be done in the first instance, the disease when established is apt to prove intractable. The intestine should be sopped with cold water until every particle of dirt is removed. It should then be dried with a soft cloth, and afterwards returned. There is never much difficulty in replacing the gut; but there is always considerable difficulty to get it to be retained. So soon as it is restored to its situation, a human stomach pump should be inserted up the rectum, and a full stream of the coldest spring water should be thrown into the bowel for ten minutes. The fluid will be returned so fast as it enters, and it must be allowed to do so, the fingers of one hand being employed against the anus to prevent the disordered rectum being ejected with the water. Cold injection in less quantity must be administered several times during the day, and with each a little of the tincture of galls, or of nux vomica, in the proportion of a drachm to a pint, may be united. The ointment recommended for piles may also be employed, but without opium, for no application of a sedative nature must be used. The constitutional measures will consist of tonics into which nux vomica enters. The food must be light and nourishing, and purgatives on no account must be administered. Cold will do good by invigorating the system, and should always be recommended. Some persons, unable by sedatives and purgatives, which are injurious, to obtain relief, have gone so far as to cut off the projecting bowel, and they have thereby certainly ended the case; for the dog dies whenever this is done. I remember at the Veterinary College, Professor Simonds killed a fine animal by attempting this operation; for he took a heated spatula to remove the part, and carried the incision so high up that he opened the abdomen, and the bowels protruded from the anus. Amputation of any portion of the rectum is not to be thought of; but an operation of a less heroic description will sometimes accomplish what the previous measures failed to effect. With a knife, having not too sharp but a coarse edge, a circular portion of the exposed lining membrane, of a width proportioned to the size of the animal, may be scraped off, so as to induce a cicatrix; or, if the dog be very tractable, and the operator skilful, a piece of it may partially be dissected off; but the knife, when employed in the last method, is apt to cause alarming hemorrhage. When this is done, as the wound heals the edges come together, and the gut is so far shortened as to be thereby retracted. There is, however, some danger of stricture being afterwards established; wherefore this operation, however satisfactory it may seem to be in the first instance, is not so certain in the benefit of its results that it should be resorted to, save in extreme cases when every other means have failed, and the choice at last hangs between relief and destruction. Another affection of the part, to which Scotch terriers of great size are particularly subject, begins with an enlargement below the anus, extending either quite or almost to the testicles; for males are more frequently attacked by this form of disease than females. The dog is generally old, and a favorite with an indulgent mistress, having much to eat, and little or no work to do. The swelling is soft and attended with no pain. On pressure and on percussion it is ascertained to hold fluid, and in fact it arises from dropsy of the perinæum. The health may appear to be good, but on examination debility will be found to be present. The anus also protrudes, and the orifice is thickened; while, possibly, a marked tendency to piles may at the same time be displayed. Should no attention be paid to the case, the swelling will continue without sensibly enlarging; but after a period, hard substances may with the fingers be detected beneath it. These hard bodies are fæces, which accumulate within the rectum, and often in so great a quantity as to seriously inconvenience the animal, rendering it dull and indisposed to feed. Before attempting to direct the treatment for these cases, it is necessary the nature of the affection should be fully explained. The enlargement, to which attention is at first solely directed, is always of secondary consideration. The dropsy is merely a symptom indicative of the loss of tone of the adjacent parts, of which the rectum is by far the most important. If this circumstance be not observed, but the swelling be treated as if it was all the practitioner had to contend with, he will in the end learn his mistake. The intestine loses its tonicity; it no longer has power to contract upon or to expel its contents; it becomes paralysed, and the dung consequently accumulates within it, distending it, and adding to its weakness by constant tension. The rectum at length retains no ability to perform its function; but the sphincter of the anus, or the circular muscle that closes the opening, appears to gain the strength of which the intestine is deprived. It contracts, and thus shuts up the fæces which the rectum cannot make an effort to dislodge; and in this circumstance the physiologist sees evidence of the sources whence the different parts derive their contractility. The rectum, like the other intestines, gains its vital power from the sympathetic nerve, or that nerve of nutrition and secretion which presides over organic life. The muscle of the anus, on the other hand, is influenced by nerves derived from the spinal column; and thus, understanding the two parts obtain their motor power from different sources, the reader will comprehend how one can be incapable of motion while the other is unaffected, or rather excited; for the presence of the retained dung acts as an irritant, and provokes the anus to contract with more than usual vigor. If nothing be done to restore the balance of power, the rectum speedily is so much distended that its walls become attenuated, and then a cure is hopeless; a sac is formed, and the gut is not only much stretched or enlarged, but it is also, by the excessive bulk of its contents, forced from its natural position, being carried either to one side or the other, but always to where the dropsy is most conspicuous. In such cases, when the dropsy is first observed, our care must be to invigorate the system. Small doses of nux vomica, with iron, gentian and capsicums, made into a pill, will generally do this, and the following form may be employed:-- Nux vomica, in powder Five grains to a scruple. Capsicums, in powder Ten grains to two scruples. Sulphate of iron One to four scruples. Extract of gentian Two drachms to one ounce. Cinchona powder A sufficiency. Make into twenty pills, and give four in the course of the day. The liver is too often at this time unhealthy, and to correct it the subjoined may be administered:-- Iodide of potassium One drachm. Liquor potassæ Two ounces. Simple syrup Five ounces. Water A pint. Dose, from a tea-spoon to a table-spoonful three times a day. The food should be chiefly vegetables, or at all events only so much meat should be allowed as is required to induce the dog to eat the mess of boiled rice. Exercise is also essential, and a daily cold bath with a brisk run afterwards, will be of service. The dog will likewise be benefited if his skin be well brushed every morning; and perhaps it is hardly necessary to state that any symptoms denoting mange or skin disease, canker, &c., should be specially counteracted. Hitherto, however, nothing has been said about any treatment of the part which is the immediate seat of the disease. If the fluid poured into the perinæum be excessive, the part must be laid freely open by two or three incisions being made along the entire length of the swelling. After this has been done, the liquid will not escape as from an abscess; for being held within the cells of the membrane that lies immediately under the skin, comparatively little of it is released from the knife. A fine pair of scissors will be required to snip the separate bags or bladders; but that operation must be performed with caution, else injury may possibly be done. The business being concluded, let the parts be afterwards dressed with the tincture of iodine, or a tincture of the iodide of potassium, of the strength of a drachm to the ounce of proof spirit; this being preferable to water for a solution in these cases. Into the rectum also injections should be thrown at least three times a day, and all of these ought to be of a tonic and stimulating kind, being used perfectly cold. Either of the following may be administered:-- 1. Tincture of cantharides One drachm. Camphor mixture One pint. 2. Tincture of nux vomica One drachm. Tincture of tolu One drachm. Water One pint. 3. Tincture of cubebs One drachm. Liquor potassæ One drachm. Camphor mixture One pint. 4. Solution of nitrate of silver One drachm. Distilled water One pint. Any of the above may be employed, from a tablespoonful to a common wine-glass full being used for a dose. The pile ointment will likewise be beneficial, by facilitating the passage of the fæces, allaying local irritability, and correcting that tendency to piles which is generally attendant upon, if not the original cause of the affection. From what has been described, the reader will have seen that the diseases of the dog's rectum are neither few nor insignificant. Fistula in ano is said to be often beheld; but I have never seen a case in which it assumed in the dog that serious form which characterises it in man. In the canine race I have mostly let it alone, and hitherto I have had no reason to repent my forbearance. Blaine and Youatt both speak of the affection, and give directions for its treatment by operation. The most active remedy I have found it necessary to resort to has been an astringent or mildly caustic injection; the solution of the chloride of zinc I prefer to every other, but the sulphates are also not to be despised. Injections, when not designed to be immediately operative, or meant to distend the gut and to act through being ejected, are best given by means of the India-rubber bladder, which allows the fluid to be more gently and silently thrown up. The less noise or force attending the operation the less likely is the animal to be alarmed or excited, and the probability is the enema will be retained. Small quantities are to be administered when the fluid is wished to remain; and by attracting the attention of the dog at the time, and amusing him after the business is finished, the object in view is considerably favored. The administration of an injection is in the first instance almost certain to alarm the animal, who can neither understand nor passively sanction the strange liberty the operation implies. A little soothing, however, will restore his confidence, and he who has gained the trust of a dog, may subsequently do as he pleases with the body of the generous and confiding beast. NERVOUS DISEASES.--FITS IN THE DOG. Youatt speaks of fits as particularly fatal to the dog, saying they "kill more than all the other diseases put together." The experience of this esteemed authority is in direct variance with my own--save from distemper. When the fits occur in that disease they are mostly fatal, being the wind-up of all the many evils which the malady in its most intense and malignant form can accumulate on one doomed life--I have not otherwise found them especially troublesome. Fainting fits require little attention; if the dog be left quiet, it will in due time often recover without medicine. Puerperal, or rather pupping fits, are treated of in their fitting place, and, if properly administered to, are by no means dangerous. Fits _par excellence_ are witnessed when a dog is taking a long walk with its master; the animal at first lingers behind, or gets a long distance before the proprietor, who notices the fact, but contents himself with whistling and walking forward. The dog does not obey the mandate; it is standing still as if stupefied; suddenly it emits a strange, loud, guttural sound, and then falls upon its side, continuing to cry, but more feebly and more naturally; its fæces and urine may be discharged involuntarily; it will bite any one who, during the existence of the attack, incautiously attempts to lay hold of it; its limbs, at first stretched rigidly out, are ultimately, with returning volition, put into violent motion; the eye is protruded and foam covers the mouth. When the convulsion has subsided, the dog raises its head and stares about; after which it would, if left alone, start at its utmost pace, and run heaven only knows where. Should idle men and foolish boys behold a dog wildly run onward after having come out of a fit, and raise the cry of "mad dog," the fate of the poor animal is then sealed, as fear is devoid of discrimination or pity. Half the dogs killed as rabid are those in this condition, scampering under the impulse of returning sensation. The first thing any person is to do when out with a dog which has a fit is to secure the animal, and to prevent its running away when the fit has passed. The second thing is stubbornly to close his ears to the crowd who are certain to surround him. No matter what advice may be given, he is to do nothing but get the animal home as quickly as possible. He is neither to lance the mouth, slit the ear, nor cut a piece of the tail off. He is on no account to administer a full dose of salt and water, a lump of tobacco, or to throw the animal into an adjacent pond; and of all things he is to allow no man more acquainted with dogs than the other spectators to bleed the creature. Any offer to rub the nose with syrup of buckthorn, however confidently he who makes the proposal may recommend that energetic mode of treatment, is to be unhesitatingly declined. The friendly desire of any one who may express his willingness to ram a secret and choice specific down the prostrate animal's throat, must be refused with firmness. The attendant must however take advantage of the time the dog is on the ground to pass a handkerchief round the neck or through the collar. This done, he must wait patiently till the dog gets upon its legs, when he must, amidst its struggles to be free, caress it and call it kindly by its name. That part of the business over, he must take the creature in his arms, and seeking the nearest cab-stand, carry the poor animal with all expedition homeward. I have known a dog to have a succession of fits which lasted more than an hour; and yet this creature, by the treatment I shall presently describe, was the next day upon its legs, and to all appearance as well as ever. The dog being brought home, if the fit continues, give nothing by the mouth; because the animal being insensible cannot swallow; and the breathing being laborious, anything administered is more likely to be drawn on to the lungs, and so to suffocate the creature, than to pass into the stomach, and thus (if it have any curative properties) effect a restoration. On this account the very best physic ever invented would be dangerous, and should be withheld. Enemas are the only things in these cases to be depended upon; and the best the author is at present acquainted with, is made of 1, 2, or 3 drachms of sulphuric æther, and 2, 4, or 6 scruples of laudanum to 1½, 3, or 4½ ounces of the very coldest spring water that can be obtained. The above injection having been administered, the dog is left entirely by itself, and, as far as possible, in absolute silence for an hour; at the expiration of which time, in whatever state the animal may be in, another dose is given in the same manner as before. There is no limitation to the quantity which may be administered; the only sign the attendant accepts that the creature has received sufficient is the sight of it coiled up as though it were composing itself to sleep, when he gives one more injection, and leaves the dog to recover at leisure, but in perfect stillness. So valuable is this medicine in cases of fits that I have known it to cut them short as with a knife; literally to let the first part of the fit be heard, but to check the attack before the last and worst portion could put in an appearance. Armed with this medicine I fearlessly face the disorder, which other veterinary surgeons dread; and, whether it be my good luck or no, cannot be decided, but I have not, under its operation, lost a single case. Fits in my opinion are, in the great majority of cases, to be traced to the quantity or quality of the food consumed. In proof of this, dogs have had fits whenever flesh has been given; which ceased on this kind of diet being withheld, and medicine calculated to restore the tone of the stomach being ordered. In every case of fits, when the attack is over, I attend to the stomach; at the same time, ordering that the dog is to go short distances, and never to leave the house without a chain and collar. The object of this last injunction is to prevent the animal running about, and thus heating itself, or causing a flow of blood to the brain. It is to be lamented that the crowd of people prevents an injection being administered out of doors in London: but the same objection does not apply to the country; and as the effects of the æther are more marked in proportion as it is quickly exhibited, persons in the country, when, during the hot months of summer, they take dogs for an airing, should be provided with the materials necessary to render fits, if not harmless, at all events less fatal. NERVOUS SYSTEM.--RABIES. The dog is naturally the most nervous of all the dumb tribe. His intense affection, his ever-watchful jealousy, his method of attack, the blindness of his rage, and his insensibility to consequences, all bespeak a creature whose nervous system is developed in the highest possible degree. I myself once had a little cur, who, as I sat reading, would enter the apartment, jump upon my knee, uttering a low whimper all the time, creep along my waistcoat, rub his little body against my head and face, lick the hand lifted up to return his caresses, and then scamper off, and perhaps not come near me again the whole of that afternoon. What was this but an affectionate impulse seeking a nervous development? The way to manage an animal of this description is, to respect his evident excitability. The instant a dog appears to be getting excited, there should be a sign given, commanding a stop to be put to all further proceedings. If the respect of the animal be habitual, the person who mildly enforces it may enter a room, where the same dog is in a rabid state, and come forth unscathed. [Illustration: A RABID DOG.] I have hitherto been much among dogs, and, nevertheless, have almost escaped being bitten. The reason is, that I understand and respect the innate nervousness of the animal. When I go into a room, if there be a dog there and he growl, I speak kindly to him, and then seat myself, and bestow on him none of my attention for some time. My request to his master or mistress is, that he or she will not check or seek to stop the symptom of his wrath; but allow him to vent his rage until he is ashamed of it, and from a feeling of remorse is silent. When this takes place, and a sufficient time has passed to confirm him in the new mood into which he has recently entered, I approach him with my hand extended and open; this I bring near to him by degrees, avoiding all sudden movements or anything that might provoke his natural disposition. Generally he crouches, then I speak to him in tones of encouragement. If he display a return of his warlike propensity, I still bring the hand nearer and nearer to him, telling him to bite it if he pleases, if he is not ashamed to injure that which means to do him good. Then, perhaps, he will make a snap at my extended hand, which is not upon this withdrawn, or the jaws would close with nervous violence, but allowed to remain, and the teeth are felt to touch the skin without wounding it. I allow him to hold the hand for any length of time he pleases, telling him "he would lose his character if he were to harm it. That he is a courageous dog, and means no hurt; he would be ashamed to bite." And with this kind of speech, which the animal may not literally understand, but the sense and purpose of which it nevertheless appears to comprehend, I seldom fail of getting my hand safe and sound from the creature's jaws. After that I may pat him, for an intimacy has begun. He allows me to drag him forth, take him on my knees, and permits me any liberty I please to take. I do not attribute my escape to any charm that I possess; but account for it simply by my knowing and respecting the natural temperament of the beast with which I have to interfere. This natural respect for the feelings of a most affectionate creature, with such a power of observation as will enable the individual to recognise the presence of lamentable sickness in an animal that has with truth been called "the companion of the home," shall at all times enable the uneducated in such matters to recognise a mad dog, and, unless luck be dead against the individual, save him from being bitten. It is no pleasure to a dog to go mad. Quite the reverse. Dreadful as hydrophobia may be to the human being, rabies is worse to the dog. It makes its approach more gradually. It lasts longer, and it is more intense while it endures. The dog that is going mad, feels unwell for a long time prior to the full development of the disease. He is very ill, but he does not know what ails him. He feels nasty; dissatisfied with everything; vexed without a reason; and, greatly against his better nature, very snappish. Feeling thus, he longs to avoid all annoyance by being alone. This makes him seem strange to those who are most accustomed to him. The sensation induces him to seek solitude. But there is another reason which decides his choice of a resting-place. The light inflicts upon him intense agony. The sun is to him an instrument of torture, which he therefore studies to avoid, for his brain aches and feels as it were a trembling jelly. This induces the poor brute to find out the holes and corners where he is least likely to be noticed, and into which the light is unable to enter. In solitude and darkness he passes his day. If his retreat be discovered and the master's voice bids him to come forth, the affectionate creature's countenance brightens; his tail beats the ground, and he leaves his hiding-place, anxious to obey the loved authority; but before he has gone half the distance, a kind of sensation comes over him, which produces an instantaneous change in his whole appearance. He seems to say to himself, "Why cannot you let me alone? Go away. Do go away. You trouble, you pain me." And thereon he suddenly turns tail and darts back into his dark corner. If let alone, there he will remain; perhaps frothing a little at the mouth, and drinking a great deal of water, but not issuing from his hiding-place to seek after food. His appetites are altered, hair, straw, dirt, filth, excrement, rags, tin shavings, stones, the most noisome and unnatural substances are then the delicacies for which the poor dog, changed by disease, longs, and swallows, in hope to ease a burning stomach. So anxious is he for liquids, and so depraved are his appetites, that no sooner has he passed a little urine than he turns round to lick it up. He is now altogether changed. Still he does not desire to bite mankind; he rather endeavors to avoid society; he takes long journeys of thirty or forty miles in extent, and lengthened by all kinds of accidents, to vent his restless desire for motion. When on these journeys he does not walk. This would be too formal and measured a pace for an animal whose whole frame quivers with excitement. He does not run. That would be too great an exertion for an animal whose body is the abode of a deadly sickness. He proceeds in a slouching manner, in a kind of trot; a movement neither run nor walk, and his aspect is dejected. His eyes do not glare and stare, but they are dull and retracted. His appearance is very characteristic, and if once seen, can never afterwards be mistaken. In this state he will travel the most dusty roads, his tongue hanging dry from his open mouth, from which, however, there drops no foam. His course is not straight. How could it be, since it is doubtful whether at this period he sees at all? His desire is to journey unnoticed. If no one notices him, he gladly passes by them. He is very ill. He cannot stay to bite. If, nevertheless, anything oppose his progress, he will, as if by impulse, snap--as a man in a similar state might strike, and tell the person "to get out of the way." He may take his road across a field in which there are a flock of sheep. Could these creatures only make room for him, and stand motionless, the dog would pass on and leave them behind uninjured. But they begin, to run, and at the sound, the dog pricks up. His entire aspect changes. Rage takes possession of him. What made that noise? He pursues it with all the energy of madness. He flies at one, then at another. He does not mangle, nor is his bite, simply considered, terrible. He cannot pause to tear the creature he has caught. He snaps and then rushes onward, till, fairly exhausted and unable longer to follow, he sinks down, and the sheep pass forward to be no more molested. He may have bitten twenty or thirty in his mad onslaught; and would have worried more had his strength lasted, for the furor of madness then had possession of him. [Illustration: A MAD DOG ON THE MARCH.] He may be slain while on these excursions; but if he escapes he returns home and seeks the darkness and quiet of his former abode. His thirst increases; but with it comes the swelling of the throat. He will plunge his head into water, so ravenous is his desire; but not a drop of the liquid can he swallow, though its surface is covered with bubbles in consequence of the efforts he makes to gulp the smallest quantity. The throat is enlarged to that extent which will permit nothing to pass. He is the victim of the most horrible inflammation of the stomach, and the most intense inflammation of the bowels. His state of suffering is most pitiable. He has lost all self-reliance; even feeling is gone. He flies at and pulls to pieces anything that is within his reach. One animal in this condition, being confined near a fire, flew at the burning mass, pulled out the live coals, and in his fury scrunched them. He emits the most hideous cries. The noise he makes is incessant and peculiar. It begins as a bark, which sound, being too torturing to be continued, is quickly changed to a howl, which is suddenly cut short in the middle; and so the poor wretch at last falls, fairly worn out by a terrible disease. But now comes the question, How do we know that rabies is a nervous disease? Why, the whole course of the disorder declares it, or if that be not thought sufficient, the dog at one stage very distinctly announces it. He may be sitting down, an unwilling listener to his master's voice, when the brute's eyes will wander; and at length fix themselves upon some object at a distance, which it will keep watching, crouching down as the horror seems, to the excited brain of the poor beast, to draw near; till, having apparently come within bounds, the hateful presence is no longer to be endured, and the vision-haunted animal dashes forward with a howl of execration, as if to seize and tear the terrible spectre. This action being performed, and the dog biting the air, he stands for a moment, shivers, looks stupidly around him, and slinks back. What is this but a power of seeing visions depending on a disordered brain, or positive delirium exemplified by a dumb creature? And the same piece of pantomime the dog may go through fifty times in an hour. No disappointment can teach him; and experience is lost upon the animal that in his sane state was so quick to learn. Youatt mentions as a symptom, that the dog in all he does is instigated by the spirit of mischief or of malice,--that he desires to do injury, and is prompted by malice in all his acts. This, to an outward observer, will appear a correct judgment; but it is essentially wrong. It is the conclusion reached by one who judges mainly of exteriors; it can be true only to those who are willing to look no deeper than the surface. There can be no malice in a raging fever, which vents itself on every object within its reach, animate or inanimate. Mischief is too playful a term to apply to a consuming wrath that ultimately destroys the life. All pain is lost; as a consequence all fear is gone. The poor beast is urged by some power too mighty for its control, which lashes it on beyond all earthly restraint to pull to pieces, to gnaw, and to attempt to eat every object it can get at; but how far it is urged by malice or mischief, the following anecdote will serve to show:-- A butcher had a large bull mastiff of which he was very fond; but, observing something very strange in his pet's behavior, he came to consult the author about the dog. The man was told to bring the animal for inspection early the same evening. This order was given from no suspicion of the truth, for the owner's description was too confused to be rightly interpreted. The animal was accordingly brought punctual to time, led through the streets by a silk handkerchief carelessly tied round the neck of the beast. The author being at the exact moment of the dog's arrival, fortunately, engaged, the butcher had to wait some few minutes, during which time the writer's eyes were kept upon the huge creature. It was remarked to look round in a strange manner. The eye was retracted and the nose dry. It was at length seen to put its mouth against its master's boot, continue in that position uttering a strange noise, and to move its jaws as if biting at some substance. The butcher all this time stood perfectly still, allowing his favorite to follow the bent of its inclination without rebuke or opposition. When the mastiff's head was removed, the boot it had apparently been biting was perfectly dry. The author observed nothing more than this; but, afraid to confess his dread, lest the cry of mad dog should be raised, and do more, much more, harm than good, he called to the butcher, telling him he was going abroad shortly, and would call upon him. In the mean time, he was to take the dog home, place it where it could do no injury, and in a place whence there was no possibility of escape. The man touched his hair and retired. No time elapsed before the author paid his promised visit; and when he did so, he was pleased to hear the dog was securely confined in that which ought to have been the front kitchen of the house in which the butcher resided. To this spot the man led the way, and was about fearlessly to open the door, when he was entreated to stay his hand. The author listened at the closed entrance, and from the interior there soon came forth sounds that left no doubt of the poor creature's real condition. The butcher was thereupon informed that his dog was mad. The man was at first wholly incredulous; whereon the writer requested him to look through a chink, and say how the animal was employed. "He is tearing a piece of wood to pieces, and munching it as though he were very hungry. Poor thing, I must go to him! He has taken no victuals or drink these three days." The author interposed, to prevent the master from fulfilling his humane suggestion. With much difficulty he was persuaded to wait the turn of events, and not to unloose the door that night. The next morning the butcher was thoroughly convinced. Neither he nor his family had been able to get any rest on account of the dog's cries; and before that day expired, to anticipate the poor animal's fate, the unfortunate beast was shot. In this case the dog exhibited no malice, neither did he appear to be prompted solely by mischief. When the muzzle was first lowered to the master's boot, the poor animal doubtless was moved to that action by the irresistible desire natural to the disease. The longing was to bite something, no matter what; any object must be cooler than the heat that burnt within the wretched creature's throat and stomach. The teeth were impulsively prepared to bite, but between the desire and its consummation, reflection came. The affection natural to the dog acted as a restraint. It was unable entirely to destroy the prompting of disease, but it turned the bite which it was prepared to give into a mumble, and the loved master escaped unhurt. There is also something which must not be quite overlooked in the habitual wanderings that, as the disease grows in virulence beyond the dog's control, causes the animal constantly to leave the home within which its attachment resides. There is something likewise in the disposition, which causes the poor beast to quit the society of all it loves; and to leave the house in which those for whom its life would cheerfully be sacrificed dwell, to inhabit a dark and noisome corner. It is not mischief which makes the creature respond to its master's voice so long as memory has power--even after rabies has set in. There is no malice in the end of the disease; it is blind and indiscriminate fury, which would much rather vent itself on things than upon beings--even finding an unholy pleasure in injuring itself by gnawing, biting, and tearing its own flesh; and so truly is the fury _blind_, that most frequently the eyes ulcerate, the humors escape, and the rabid dog becomes actually sightless. Of the causes or treatment of this disorder we know nothing; neither are we likely to learn, when the nature of the disease is considered. The danger of the study must excuse our ignorance; nor is this much to be regretted, since it is highly improbable that medicine could cure what is so deeply seated and universally present. The entire glandular structure seems to be in the highest degree inflamed; and besides these, the brain, the organs of mastication, deglutition, digestion, nutrition, generation, and occasionally of respiration, are acutely involved. The entire animal is inflamed. Some except from this category the muscular system; but such persons forget that paralysis of the hind extremities is often present during rabies. The body seems to be yielded up to the fury of the disease, and it obviously would be folly trying to cure a malady which has so many and such various organs for its prey. Neither are we better informed with regard to the causes which generate the disease. Hot weather has been imagined to influence its development; but this belief is denied, by the fact that mad dogs are quite as, if not more, frequent in winter than in summer. Abstinence from fluids has been thought to provoke it; but this circumstance will hardly account for its absence in the arid East, and its presence in a country so well watered as England, especially when the unscrupulous nature of the dog's appetite is considered. The French have been supposed to set this latter question at rest by a cruelty, miscalled an experiment. They obtained forty dogs, and withheld all drink from the unhappy beasts till they died. Not one of them, however, exhibited rabies, and by this the French philosophers think that they have demonstrated that the disorder is not caused by want of water. No such thing; they have proved only their want of feeling, and show nothing more than that one out of every forty dogs is not liable to be attacked with rabies. They have demonstrated that the utmost malice of the human being can be vented upon his poor dumb slave without exciting rabies. They have made plain that the poor dog can endure the most hellish torments the mind of man can invent without displaying rabies. They have held themselves up to the world, and in their book have duly reported themselves as capable of perverting science to the most hideous abuses, and under its name contemplating acts and beholding sufferings at which the feelings of humanity recoil with disgust. It is rarely that more than one mad dog appears at a time in England; so, to perfect their experiment, it would be requisite for the French philosophers to procure all the specimens of the canine species in this island, and doom them to torture; since, of the predisposing disposition or circumstances necessary to the development of this disease, man knows nothing. Ignorance is not to be concealed under the practices of barbarity. Irritation or teazing, by exciting the nervous irritability of the dog, appears more likely than any physical want to excite rabies. TETANUS.--I have witnessed no case of this description in the dog. Both Blaine and Youatt speak of tetanus as extremely rare in that animal; but both mention having encountered it, and that it was in every instance fatal. Since such is its termination, I am in no hurry to meet with it, and care not how long it remains a stranger to me. If any of my readers were to have a dog subject to this disease, the best treatment would be the application of ether internally as medicine, with slops or light puddings as food. The effects of the ether ought to be kept up for a considerable period at one time, and recommenced so soon as the slightest trace of the disorder reappears. GENERATIVE ORGANS.--MALE. These parts in the dogs are liable to various diseases, among the most common of which is a thick discharge, either of pus or of impure mucus. Petted animals are very frequently thus affected, and are a source of annoyance to those who lap them. In this condition they also offend the ideas of propriety, by paying certain lingual attentions to themselves without regard to privacy. The favourite is for these things repeatedly chid and thrust from the knee; but it cannot be instructed to forego the impulses of its nature, or of itself to restrain the symptoms of its affliction. Indeed, the dog is not to blame; the fault lies with the owner. The generative organs, in the male of the canine species, are peculiarly sympathetic with the digestive functions. This is so with man, but in the dog it is much more strongly marked. If a dog become from bad food affected with mange, canker, sore feet, &c., the part is never cleanly. When, however, the animal is fat and gross, though neither mange, canker, nor other disease be present, the organ may, nevertheless, be a source of painful irritation, and beyond a little thin fluid about the opening of the prepuce, there will be nothing to attract attention. In such a case the discharge originally is thick and mattery. It accumulates upon the few hairs that fringe the urinal orifice, and sometimes almost impedes the passage of the water. The symptom being neglected, the running becomes less consistent. The part is frequently erect, and the animal persists in licking it. The organ is now painful, and should be without delay attended to. If, however, no heed be taken of the creature's necessity, to which its instinct directs the proprietor's eye, swellings appear about the sheath, and blood is mingled with the exudation. Sores then appear externally, and the member becomes a mass of acute disease, often of a frightful character. If, when the discharge first appears, the dog be taken on the knee, and its back being slightly bent, so as to bring the hind-legs forward--if, having the animal in this position, the sheath be retracted, so as to expose the glans, it is generally found to be inflamed. When the case is slight, the inflammation is confined to the base of the member, just around that part where the lining membrane is reflected upon the inner surface of the prepuce. As far back, therefore, as it can be exposed, a little redness may be discovered; but this will be so distributed as to convince us that the interior of the sheath is also involved. All the inflammation that can be detected will not be sufficient to account for the quantity of pus that is thrown out; and some persons have therefore allowed the disease to progress, imagining there was nothing present requiring to be treated. This is always a mistake. The lining membrane of the prepuce in these animals cannot be readily laid bare, and that part is always the most seriously attacked. The penis during health ought to be moist and of a delicate flesh color; it should not be wet, neither should it be in any degree red. The appearance ought to suggest the secluded situation to which the part is by nature assigned, and the sensitiveness with which it is endued. It should not denote uncleanliness or anger; but convey an idea of delicacy, and even beauty, to those who have good sense enough to appreciate nature's provisions. When the want of early attention has allowed the structures to be seriously implicated, ulcers appear, which enlarge, and ultimately by uniting form a mass of sores. There is then often resistance exhibited when the part is touched, and cries declare the pain which pulling back the sheath occasions. The prepuce sometimes is not to be withdrawn, and the struggles of the animal are excessive when its retraction is attempted. There are then fungoid growths within, and the heat and tenderness denote the condition of the surface, which cannot without much violence be beheld. All this suffering is to be traced to the misplaced kindness of the owner. Over-feeding is the cause; and, so far as I know, the single cause which gives rise to the serious aspect of this form of disease. Should it accompany debility, it is mild in its character, and as the strength returns it will disappear. Even in this last case, however, it would be more certainly, and with more speed removed, by a few simple measures which necessitate no vast trouble. In its mildest shape, any astringent eye-lotion will generally answer; but the strength may with safety and advantage be increased. 1. Sulphate of copper or zinc Five grains. Distilled water One ounce. 2. Liquor plumbi One drachm. Distilled water One ounce. 3. Alum Half a scruple. Rose water One ounce. Either of the foregoing will be of service; but before any of them, I prefer the subjoined:-- Chloride of zinc One grain. Distilled water One ounce. Whichever of the lotions the practitioner may prefer, should be used at least thrice daily, and if more frequently employed, no injury will be done. The mode of applying the lotion is extremely simple. The seat of the disease being exposed, with a piece of lint or soft rag the fluid is passed over the surface. No friction is resorted to; but a simple bathing, in the gentlest possible manner, is all that can be required. In a few days the effect will be perceived, for by such means the affection can be cured; but unless the food is improved, and the digestion relieved, there can be no security against its speedy return. Under its more virulent form it is not to be thus easily got rid of, though even then it is to be subdued. If there be much pain, I inject the lotion up the sheath, and by closing the orifice around the point of the syringe, endeavor to pass the fluid over the whole of the interior. Sometimes the pain or irritation is excessive: I then combine sedatives with the lotions, and their strength I increase as the occasion warrants; but the non-professional person had better use none more potent than one drachm of tincture of opium to every ounce of lotion. When the pain, decreasing, allows the penis to be protruded, if any sprouting fungus or proud flesh is upon it, a pair of scissors should be used to snip it off. Some bleeding will ensue, but a little burnt alum will generally stay it; though, if allowed to continue, I have thought the local depletion was beneficial, and it has never to my knowledge been attended with danger. The burnt alum I use in powder, and I prefer it in these cases to the lunar caustic; which gives more pain; acts less immediately as a styptic, and is not so satisfactory in its subsequent effects, and, as the animal can hardly be kept from licking the place, it may possibly be objectionable on that account. Such treatment usually is beneficial; and the only further direction to be added concerns such minor points as reason probably would not need to have specially pointed out. When the hairs at the orifice are matted together, it is best to snip them away, which will not only remove a present inconvenience, but effectually prevent its recurrence. The wounds which occasionally cover the exterior of the sheath are of no vast importance, or, at all events, they are of secondary consideration. With the healing of the inward sores they mostly depart; but their disappearance will be hastened, and the comfort of the animal improved, if, when the injection is used, they are at the same time smeared with some mild ointment. That composed of camphor, &c., and to be found described at page 265, does very well for such a purpose; but any other of a gentle nature would probably answer as well. Soreness of the scrotum is very common, and I have seen it in every description of dog. I attribute it to derangement of the digestion; never having witnessed it in animals that were not thus affected, and not having been able to discover it had any more immediate origin. It mostly appears first as a redness, which soon becomes covered with small pimples, that break and discharge a thin watery fluid. The fluid coagulates, and a thin scab covers the surface. The scab is generally detached, being retained only by the straggling hairs that grow upon the bag. The scab being removed, shows a moist and unhealthy patch, the margin of which is of a faint dirty red color. This condition of the scrotum yields, in the first instance, to simple applications; but, should nothing be done, it will continue bad for some period, and may involve the whole of the bag. It will, in most instances, so far as the outward and more acute symptom is concerned; that is, the discharge will cease, the scab fall off, and nothing be left for the eye to dwell upon. With the seeming cessation, however, other and more deep-seated structures become involved. The disease leaves the surface only, and its virulence fixes upon the internal parts. The skin at the place thickens, becomes hard and gristly. There is no pain; but the sensation is diminished, which, to the surgeon, is a far worse sign than is a little anguish. The thickening is sometimes stationary; and the animal dies without any further evil afflicting him. There is, however, no security that it will remain thus passive; for occasionally it increases in size, inflames, gets hurt or rubbed, and ulcerates: in fact, cancer of the scrotum is established; and as this mostly comes on when the constitution is weakened, little relief and no promise of cure can generally be afforded. These cancers do not appear to burst of themselves. They get sensation as they inflame; but in every instance that has fallen under my notice, before ulceration has taken place, they have been slightly wounded; either by the dog's dragging himself upon the earth, or otherwise. The smallest injury, however, is sufficient to provoke the action, which when once excited is not afterwards to be subdued. The ulcer being established, enlarges; and the humanity of the owner does not allow the lingering and disgusting disease to take its course, but the poor dog is destroyed to spare its suffering. At the commencement the diet must be changed, for the manner of feeding is at fault. The remedies proper to improve the general health must be employed, and everything done to restore the system. To the scrotum a mild ointment will be sufficient. Should that not succeed, some of those recommended for mange may be tried; or the surface may be lightly passed over once with a stick of lunar caustic, care being taken to tie the head of the dog up afterwards to prevent it licking the part. The measures already spoken of apply only to mild and recent cases. When the disease has probably existed for years, such remedies will be of little service. The skin being unnaturally hard and thick, feeling like cartilage, and giving the idea that a firm or resistant tumor is connected with the integument; such being the condition of the part, the surgeon pauses before he advises it should be interfered with. As it seems to be possessed of small sensibility, and appears to have assumed a form in which there is a probability of its remaining, the less done to the local affection the better. The relief should be directed wholly to keep the cancer, for such it is, in a passive or quiescent state. There is no hope that nature will remove it; and every effort must be made to prevent its malignant character being by accident or otherwise provoked. With a little care the dog may die of old age, and the disease may even at the time of death be dormant. A very mild mercurial ointment may be daily applied to the surface. This will remove scurf, allay irritability, and prevent the itching, which might induce the animal to injure the part. The food must be good, proportioned to the work the creature has to perform,--sufficiently nutritive, but easy of digestion, and by no means heating. The stomach must be strengthened by tonics and vegetable bitters, combined with alkalies. Sedatives are sometimes required, and hyosciamus is in that case to be preferred. A course of iodide of potassium is likewise frequently beneficial; but it must be employed only in alterative doses, and persevered with for a considerable period. The eighth of a grain or half-a-grain may be given three times a day for six months; and on the first indication of irritability appearing, the medicine must be resumed. Should the symptoms of activity be such as to excite alarm, the iodide must be administered in quantities likely to affect the system. This is to be done with safety, by dissolving two drachms of the salt in two ounces of water, every drop of which will then hold in solution the eighth of a grain of the medicine. From two to ten drops may be given at the commencement, and every day afterwards one drop may be added to the dose, which should be regularly administered thrice in the twenty-four hours. The physic should thus be gradually increased until the appetite fails; or the eyes become inflamed; or the animal is in an obvious degree dull. When that result is obtained, the dose ought to be withheld for a time, or to be diminished three or twelve drops, and the lessened quantity only given until the symptoms have subsided. The spirits, or appetite, having returned, and sufficient time having been allowed to make certain of the fact, the dose may once more be increased; and thus by degrees be augmented, until it is worked up to from fifty to a hundred drops three times a day, beyond which it ought not to be pushed. Even while this is being done, it is well to give tonic and strengthening pills; but purgatives are to be used with extreme caution. Too frequently our assistance is not sought until the disease has assumed its worst aspect. There is then an open cancer, and we are asked to cure it. There is in medicine no known means of performing so desirable an object; physic can, in such a case, only be palliative--whatever hope then remains must rest upon the employment of the knife. The surgeon, however, must well examine the part before he consents to operate. Entreaties will not unfrequently be urgent; and where the life of an animal only is involved in the result, it is hard to say "no" to supplications which may be accompanied with tears. The professional man, however, must consult his judgment, and by its dictates resolutely abide; for those who are most eager in their requests are always most sanguine in their hopes. The issue, if unsuccessful, will not do otherwise than expose the surgeon to reproaches, perhaps more bitter than the supplications to which he yielded were imploring. Even should the proprietor be silent, the reputation of the operator will be injured; for, when the knife is resorted to, mankind will not tolerate failure. Therefore it is prudent, and also humane, to consider how far surgery can eradicate the affection ere excision is employed to add to the immediate suffering, and perhaps hasten the consequence it was designed to prevent. The tumor should be circumscribed, or, at all events, there should be around it a fair proportion of healthy skin whenever its removal is attempted. When such exists, the operation is justifiable; but without such being present, it is to be condemned. The skin is wanted to close the orifice, and it must be healthy, in order that it may properly unite. In extreme cases, where the life of the animal depends upon activity, it may be proper to remove both testicles; but this should, if possible, be avoided. Castration in the dog is not of itself dangerous; but it renders the animal disposed to accumulate fat, and destroys many of those qualities for which it is esteemed. The creature afterwards becomes lethargic, and its spirits never are recovered. It is best performed by cutting through the spermatic nerve, and scraping the artery, so as to separate it; taking care to do this sufficiently high up to prevent the cord from being exposed. When the operator has decided to take away the spermatic glands, he does so at the commencement of the operation. With one cut he lays the scrotum open, and pulling forth the testicle, divides the nerve; then with the edge of a blunt but coarse knife, scrapes it as the cords lie upon his finger. Having done this on one or both sides, as the case may require, he inspects the tumor, the substance of which is now exposed to view. By the aspect of the growth he decides upon the course he will next adopt; or rather shapes the manner he had proposed to proceed. Seldom will it occasion him to change his plan; but he must be prepared to do so, if the appearances should be contrary to his anticipations. The skin is here of primary importance; wherever it is not involved, it is dissected back, and every portion of hard or gristly matter scrupulously sought for and cut away. All such substance being excised, care is then directed to bring the edges together. A pair of scissors may be required to make them exactly even, but the less snipping there may be the better. To retain the lips of the wound in the places desired, collodium will be found far superior to sutures or plasters. It is with a camel's hair pencil laid in bands along the parts, which are held in their intended situations while it dries. A few threads of linen are embedded in it while it is in a liquid state, so as to increase its strength; and layer after layer is added until the mind is assured the purpose is obtained. The application must on no account be made in one continuous sheet; for before union can take place suppuration must be established, and spaces are necessary to allow the matter to escape. Therefore, in several fine strips stretching over the wound, and holding its edges close, the collodium is to be employed; and this being ended, subsequent attention is generally required only to regulate the health, on which the healing process will greatly depend. To stone in the bladder the dog is liable. The cause cannot be directly traced, but the symptoms are not obscure; the animal is constantly voiding its urine, which, though small in quantity, is not of a healthy character. A few drops of blood occasionally are passed; and, in attempting to go down stairs, sudden cries are often emitted. Fits of pain and seasons of illness are frequent, and the point of the penis is protruded from the sheath, never being withdrawn. The leg is not raised to void the urine; but the creature strains when the act has either been accomplished, or there is no power to perform it. If the dog be taken on the knee, and one knowing the situation of the contents gently manipulates the abdomen, the body may be felt within the bladder, which will mostly be contracted and empty. The nature of the disease having been ascertained, little can be done beyond relieving the immediate distress. Some writers have given directions for operating under such circumstances; but none of them tell us they have successfully performed lithotomy upon the animal. In every case of the kind upon which I have been consulted, the idea of such a measure was not for an instant to be countenanced. Dogs thus afflicted, are mostly small, and the calculus is generally of great proportional size, prior to our attention being directed to it. In a creature so very delicate as the dog, every operation requires to be well considered before it is resorted to; and though the cutler might make knives sufficiently diminutive for the occasion, it may be doubted if our hands are sufficiently nice to employ them. The stones I have met with were of a size I would not have liked to have drawn through the urethra; and therefore, though I will not assert lithotomy cannot be performed upon the dog, I must confess I have not performed it, and must say I should require strong inducements to attempt it upon the animal. All I aim at is to limit the increase of the deposit, and to alleviate the painful symptoms it gives rise to. A strictly vegetable diet best accomplishes the first object, and doses of ether and laudanum, repeatedly administered by mouth and injection, most speedily secure the second. Pills of henbane are likewise of service; and with them small quantities of the balsams may be combined, though the last should not be continued if they have any marked diuretic action. The peppers, especially cubebs, I have thought serviceable, and very minute doses of cantharides have seemed to be attended with benefit. Here, however, I speak with doubt; for the agents have by me been employed only in homoeopathic quantities, and I have not the means of saying they had very decided action. They appeared to do good, since under their use the animals improved; and that is all I can state in their behalf. Proprietors, however, when the pressing annoyance is allayed, being told there is no prospect of a radical cure, do not generally afford us much opportunity to watch the action of medicines. Hæmaturia or bloody urine is met with in the dog; and I (having been unfortunate in those cases where I employed acetate of lead) adopted small doses of cantharides, and with these to my surprise succeeded; for which reason I have persevered in my homoeopathic treatment. The quantity of tincture of cantharides I employ is three minims to two ounces of water, and to my wonder, this appears to answer every purpose; the only fault, indeed, that a general practitioner might find with it being that it did its work too quickly. Swelling of the glans penis is not uncommon. It comes on suddenly, and the dog is by it rendered offensive to the owner's sight. The membrane is in a state of erection, and being so, is of course protruded; and while thus exposed, the end of it loses its mild red color, becoming of a paler hue, and at the same time enlarging. Its size increases to such an extent, that when the erection subsides, it cannot be retracted. This generally happens to animals that are weakly; such being of what are called high breeds, or having recovered from some dangerous disorder. It is not a dangerous affection, and if taken early is very easily subdued. With a silk handkerchief, the exposed part should be grasped by the left hand; and while every means is employed to push the gland back, the fingers of the right hand ought to be used, to draw the prepuce over it. A little time and care will, in most instances, do what is desired; and there is no need of haste, or justification for violence. Oil is not required, as the parts are sufficiently lubricated by their own secretion; and still less are those practices some persons have advocated, admissible. The scarification of the glans, or the slitting of the prepuce, should not ever be allowed, save the absolute failure of all other measures has demonstrated relief is not otherwise to be procured. Before these severe resorts are sanctioned, the effects of cold and stimulants, locally applied, ought to be fully and patiently tried. A lotion containing ether, in such proportions as water will dissolve it, should be applied to the part; and spirit of nitric ether, to which double its amount of proof spirit has been added, may be with a camel's hair pencil painted over its surface. Ice is even better, but both, according as they can be readily obtained, are beneficial. Gentle manipulations will also be of benefit, and if the patience of the practitioner be not too easily exhausted, he will rarely need more to bring about that which is desired. Retention of urine, though not very common in the dog, is, however, encountered too frequently to be termed a rare affection. It mostly accompanies debility, during the last stage of distemper, and is sometimes present in paralysis of the hind extremities. I have not seen a case in which it took the acute form, though obviously it may do so. The symptoms generally are obscure; for in the majority of instances the distension of the bladder will simply aggravate the general uneasiness. The condition of the part, therefore, may not be suspected, but in such cases it is to be ascertained by manipulation. By taking the animal, and gently pressing its abdomen, if the bladder be empty, the intestines will be felt; but if the viscus be full, there will be a soft and pulpy mass under the fingers. The sensation imparted by it conveys the idea that it is fluid, and the greatest care will in it detect nothing denoting substance or form. The proof thus obtained is positive, and will not deceive him who has accepted it. All pretending to administer to canine disease should be able to read this indication, but sometimes others direct attention to its presence. The dog having the bladder gorged, and not so debilitated as to be deprived of power to move, or by paralysis disabled, mostly lies, but even then it is never at rest. The position is constantly shifted. Food and drink are refused, great dulness is exhibited, and a low plaintive moan is from time to time emitted. If made to walk, the animal straddles the hind-legs, and its gait is peculiar. The spine is arched, but the posterior limbs are not drawn or carried forward. If pressure is made upon the belly, it provokes resistance; and any attempt to raise the dog from the ground induces it to struggle. Relief should without loss of time be afforded by the use of the catheter. When I was a pupil at the college, the professor used to assert that the introduction of such an instrument was in the dog a physical impossibility. The bone found in the penis of this animal, the gentleman instructed his pupils to believe, opposed an obstacle which could not be overcome. My former teacher, however, was in error. He had either never made the trial, or he had not judgment sufficient to conduct an operation which, when properly undertaken, is remarkably easy and simple. I believe I was the first practitioner in England who used the catheter for the dog, though prior to my doing so, reports were published of the instrument having been employed in France. On the Continent, however, I have heard of no one who had thought of introducing a catheter into the bladder of the bitch. That also I have done; and find the operation to be unattended with danger or difficulty. The method of operating upon the female will be explained in another place. Here I have to speak of the mode in which the male is to be relieved. Let the dog be placed upon its side, and by means of a handkerchief the penis be drawn. A catheter of proportionate size must be selected. Metallic tubes will not do; but the gum elastic are to be employed. Before one of these is introduced, the wire must be taken out, and the outer surface moistened with olive oil. The human catheters answer admirably for small dogs; but these are not made long enough to be of service to animals of the larger kinds. For a dog of middle height, an instrument twice the length of those employed on man ought to be at hand; and for a huge Newfoundland, one thrice as long will be useful. The shorter catheters may be of the sizes sold as Nos. 1, 2, and 3; the middle length, 4 and 5; the longest, Nos. 6, 7, and 8. The dog being placed upon its side, and retained there in a position such as the operator may think most advantageous to his movements, the catheter is introduced with one hand while the penis is held by the other. The meatus being found--there is no great ingenuity required to discover it--the instrument is inserted and pushed gently onward. At first its passage is easy, but it has not gone far before a check is felt. The stoppage arises from the spasmodic contraction of the canal, caused by the point of the instrument having reached the bone of the penis. For a period the passage is effectually closed; but no force must be employed to overcome the obstacle. Gentle but steady pressure is kept up; and under this it is rarely longer than a few minutes before the spasm yields. The catheter then glides forward, and the operator, resigning the hold of the penis to his assistant, passes his free hand to the perinæum. When he feels the point of the tube below the anus, he uses his fingers to direct its course,--for at this part the canal curves, taking a direction forward,--and after a little further way has been made, another check is experienced. This last springs from the contraction of the neck of the bladder; and once more gentle, but steady pressure must he employed to overcome the spasm. It rarely resists long; but the sudden absence of all opposition, and the flow of urine, shows that the object of the operation has been obtained. The dog offers no resistance to the passage of the instrument. I have never known one to cry, or seen one exhibit a struggle. I could not account for this by attributing it to any fondness for the necessary restraint, under which the creature is temporarily placed. During the flowing of the urine, the dog invariably remains perfectly quiet; and the relief afforded seems to dispose it almost to sleep; for after it is over, the animal lies in a kind of happy lethargy. The fluid, however, does not jet forth or empty quickly. The operator must not be impatient, for the stream is perfectly passive; since, in consequence of the distension, the bladder has lost its contractive power. To obtain the whole of the contents, has sometimes required a quarter of an hour, and the quantity procured has frequently been quite disproportioned to the size of the patient. From a small petted spaniel, brought under my notice by my friend, Mr. Henderson, I extracted very nearly half a pint of urine, and the animal from that period began to get well. From a very small dog, the property of a lady of fortune, I for several days, every night and morning, withdrew about four ounces of the excretion with marked benefit to the animal. The operation is tedious, but it repays us for the time it occupies. Towards the conclusion the stream is frequently interrupted. It stops, then recommences; ceases, and then begins again; and the last portions are often ejected with a force which the first did not display. A little straining may attend the closing of the operation. For this the operator must be prepared, and immediately withdraw the catheter; lest the bladder, energetically contracting upon it, should cause the point to pierce the sides of the viscus. The instrument is no longer required when straining is excited; for then the contractive function has been resumed, and nature will subsequently perform her office without assistance. The bladder that has been relieved, may require the care of the surgeon a second time; but no officiousness should be indulged in that respect. Let the necessity be present before the operation is resorted to; and the need for its adoption can be so accurately ascertained, that there is no excuse whatever for needless interference. The operation is attended with no immediate danger or subsequent ill consequences, that I am aware of; but it is particularly recommended by the fact, that in the dog it is not accompanied with that pain, which in man usually provokes exclamation, sometimes causes fainting, and not unfrequently induces irritability of the membrane lining the canal. The testicles are occasionally the sources of annoyance to the proprietor. In one instance a high-bred dog was sold, the person who bought the animal making the purchase with a view to breeding from it. Disappointment followed, for no sexual desire could be excited; and as a stock-dog, the beast was useless. An examination was then made, and the scrotum was discovered to contain no glands. A most infamous fraud was now accused against him who had sold the dog; and as dog-dealers are not so respectable, and are almost as little credited as horse-dealers, any charge imputing dishonesty required no evidence to substantiate it. An infamous villain was convicted of having castrated the dog before he parted with it, in order that a valuable strain might not be rendered common. This same dog was brought to me. I could detect no testicles, and I could perceive no cicatrix. The body was fat and the disposition sluggish, but the frame well developed. It was possible the scar, if the operation had been performed early, should have disappeared: and there are means practised by which the testicles can be in a great measure destroyed without making an incision. Here, however, there was nothing to denote they had been present; or evidence to show they had been removed. I could by manipulation discover no bodies in the inguinal canals. Under the circumstances, I was unable to give a positive opinion; but I leant to the idea that the appearances resulted from defective conformation. My indecision exposed me to some remarks at the time; for the veterinary surgeon is never permitted to doubt. Ignorance is the only reason the majority of his patrons can conceive to account for his deliberation. A year subsequent, however, the dog died; and the body was then brought to me, in order that the point might be decided. I found both glands, which were not larger than they should have been at birth, within the abdomen, whence they never had descended. It is very common to find small dogs, especially spaniels and terriers, with only one testicle in the scrotum; but in the larger number of such cases the other can be detected, though it will be of small size, within the canal. Animals in this condition are quite capable of being used as stock-dogs, and are for such purposes as certain, as those more perfectly formed. Of this I have had repeated proofs; and, consequently, the absence of one gland is not to be viewed as a serious defect; though I do not know that it can be regarded in the light of a recommendation. Speaking from observation, and bringing the results of positive experience to bear upon my opinion, I may assert, that in diminutive dogs--animals intended only to be esteemed as "toys,"--the absence of one testicle is not of the slightest import; though, in the larger breeds intended for actual work, I should by no means be inclined so to regard it. The testicles are also subject to enlarge and become hard, more than is natural. In that state they most frequently are devoid of sensation; though sometimes, but rarely, they are unnaturally tender. The size and degree of feeling may be the only indications; but generally the scrotum is at the same time thickened, and exhibits an alteration in structure. Blaine speaks of castration under such circumstances. I have hitherto abstained from direct interference. Notwithstanding the alteration, which has been obvious, I have, beyond daily rubbing in the ointment, containing camphor and mercury, resorted to no topical application. In one instance I employed an unguent, containing iodine; but it was ultimately discontinued, from a conviction that it was in its operation injurious, seeming to produce effects the opposite of those desired. The food, however, I alter; and by gentle aperients I endeavor to regulate the bowels. A course of the iodide of potassium I have likewise adopted, and can with confidence recommend. Alterative doses only should be administered; and the drug ought to be continued for three months at least. If prepared in the following form, it will not perhaps be readily swallowed up, but the animal will very seldom violently resist its administration:-- Simple syrup Two ounces. Water Six ounces. Iodide of potassium Fifteen grains to one drachm. Dose, one drachm, or a teaspoonful thrice daily The quantity ordered contains from a quarter of a grain to a grain of the iodide; and, if there be motive for desiring it should be exhibited in substance, the like amounts may be made into pills with conserve of roses, and a little powdered liquorice. The form is of little importance; but I prefer the fluid, because I have found that the animal can, with no great trouble or vast tax upon ingenuity, be brought to accept it readily; and with dogs, as with children, we gain by convincing them we are practising no deception. These creatures possess remarkable discernment: it is astonishing how long the doubt, when once excited, will act upon the canine mind. A pill, for this reason, is better pushed down the throat than presented in meat; for the imposition, being once detected, will for a long time subsequent to it be suspected. It is, therefore, best to proceed openly and without fear. So strong is my impression that dogs have a general comprehension of the meaning of sounds, that when I have medicines to give, I always address them, saying, "Come and take your physic." Some will do as they are ordered; but others are less obedient. I have met with none (save clump-headed spaniels--which of all dogs are the very worst behaved) that were not to be subjected. Frankness and determination operate wonderfully on these occasions. The animal soon learns it must submit, and quickly ascertains you have no desire to hurt it. The natural and beautiful confidence the brute reposes in man is thus appealed to, and it is surely wise not to tamper with so noble a feeling. With dogs be resolute and straightforward; have no sense of fear, and have no desire for deceit. Call upon the innate submissiveness of the creature, and claim its obedience as a right. The amiable brute will respond to such appeals; as the struggles which result from weakness operating upon sensibility will originate confusion, and provoke those bites which are not maliciously aimed, but intended for self-defence. GENERATIVE ORGANS.--FEMALE. The ignorant are always inclined to be officious where procreation is concerned. The knowledge they pretend to, concerning such matters, however, consists of mingled indecency and mystery; and, when exposed, only commands contempt. The poor dog, nevertheless, suffers cruelly through the practices which such persons subject it to; and great as may be the ignorance of the parties who go about the country under various assumed denominations, to torture the canine race, surely, they who pay such fellows, or allow their animals to be abused by these pretenders, display a want of sense even more deplorable? Still this is done every day. The nobility continue to be the profitable dupes of a host of confident impostors; and strangely seem to be infatuated with the belief that the man who sells a dog can likewise administer to the diseases of the creatures in which he trades. The bitch is most unfortunate in the variety of severities she is compelled to undergo. Some foolish persons have imagined they can at will induce the periodical desire for offspring in the animal. To do this, violent stimulants are employed; being often given by the mouth, but more frequently injected up the passage. I have no proof that such means are ever successful; and were they capable of doing all they are employed to accomplish, I would certainly refuse to make use of them. Nature cannot be coerced to man's profit; and any interference with her laws is always dangerous. The consequences may not be so immediate that in every instance the effect is traced to the cause; but the major portion of the affections of which the female generative organs of the dog are too commonly the seat, may be attributed to the carelessness, or cruelty of the owner, or of those by whom he is surrounded. Various morbid growths are apt to appear upon or within the parts when old age advances. These have been generally produced by violence endured at a period long prior to the development of the disease. Potent injections may have been employed to bring on the condition called "heat;" or undue force may have been exerted to drag away the pups when the bitch was in labor; or brutality may have been resorted to, to tear apart the animals during the performance of the act of impregnation. Other sources of accident and injury may likewise operate in disposing the delicate membrane of the vagina to exhibit disease; for boys, and others also, are cruelly inquisitive, and the dumb creature cannot complain. The growths that appear upon the parts are not peculiar to its locality. They are only such as may be present on similar structures. They assume one of three forms, viz. either that of tumor, fungus, or polypus. The tumor may be of any shape or size; and it may be very hard or comparatively soft. Its consistence and dimension will depend upon its character; and this is seldom in two cases exactly alike. Mostly it is confined to the more external parts of the passage; but so deep-rooted is it that it cannot be conveniently dissected away. It may have a broad base or widely spreading attachment; and those I have examined after death most frequently were mixed up with the structures on which they seemed to repose. When such is the case, nothing can be done beyond attending to the general health; as by supporting the constitution, the tendency to disease is likely to be checked. To the part no local application should be used; and every care is required to prevent the animal from injuring it. When more externally situated, a careful examination must be made, to decide whether there is a fair hope of the growth being successfully excised. If it is hard and circumscribed, an operation is justifiable; but the skin should be healthy. All the integument must be preserved, and the entire bulk of the morbid body cleanly taken away. The parts are not so sensitive as to render the operation exceedingly severe; however large the wound may be, it generally heals rapidly. After the operation no dressing will be required, unless some untoward circumstance should arise, when, of course, the remedies needed to counteract it must be resorted to. Fungus is invariably preceded by a purulent discharge, which, when the growth is developed, is mingled with blood. The system is feverish, and the parts are hot, irritable, and painful. The animal is continually licking itself, and is disinclined for motion or food. In the first instance the cure is speedy; but if allowed to proceed, the affection is troublesome, and may be difficult to eradicate. When any unnatural discharge exudes, a mild tepid lotion should be injected. It should be of an astringent nature, and an infusion of green tea or any of the eye-washes recommended will be of service. The strength should likewise be supported, and the cold bath given daily, while exercise is particularly attended to. When blood mingles with the exudation, a careful examination, with a speculum, if required, must be made; and the diseased surface should be touched with lunar caustic, or sulphate of copper. After this, an injection of the chloride of zinc, one grain to distilled water one ounce, should be employed thrice daily. Should, however, the growth be of any size, it should be snipped off with a pair of probe-pointed scissors; and the lunar caustic ought then to be applied and repeated when the bleeding has entirely ceased. If the bleeding be excessive, cold water may be thrown up, or a pair of bellows, to drive a current of air upon the place, supposing it to be situated where it can be thus acted upon, may be made use of. Too frequently, however, the affection is deeply located, and then injections are alone to be resorted to, though, at the same time, constitutional measures may be employed. The case is not to be despaired of, but the prospect of success may not be satisfactory. Polypus is a round pear-shaped body, generally hanging by a pedicle, or neck, like to the stalk of the fruit. It is smooth, also moist, and highly vascular, having a red and shining appearance. When present, its attachment is commonly rather backward, or pretty deep within the passage. A small glairy discharge is at first observed. The fluid emitted is simply mucous, caused by the increased secretion of the membrane, which is irritated by the presence of a foreign growth. The parts subsequently seem to be swollen, and the animal does not appear otherwise affected. At length something red and glistening is remarked to protrude. It is seen occasionally, and then withdrawn; but most generally it appears subsequent to the urine having been voided. Ultimately, however, it constantly hangs out; and as, when exposed, it annoys the animal, it may be injured, and bleed freely. The practitioner must cautiously examine the part. Before he makes up his mind concerning the nature of that which is presented, he must assure himself that the womb has not become inverted. I was once requested by a veterinary surgeon to see him remove a polypus from the vagina of a bitch, as he had determined to excise it. Luckily I went, and saved him from cutting away the animal's uterus, which would assuredly have destroyed her. A contrary course was pursued, and that dog, in three days afterwards, was returned to its master well. The following particulars will enable him who may be in such a difficulty to discriminate the uterus from a polypus. The uterus is soft, but rough when exposed; no vessels are to be seen upon its surface; it does not shine; it is not round or pear-shaped; it feels like a thick empty sac, and never appears upon pressure to contain any substance; it cannot be traced to any stalk-like attachment, and, if returned, the situation it will occupy denotes the position it was ordained to hold. A polypus is smooth, glistening, and on its surface generally exhibits vessels. Its covering is always tense, and contains a semi-solid substance; it is often sensitive, and, if the space allows of the passage of the finger, the neck or point of attachment can be felt; it cannot, like the womb, or the bladder when inverted, be forced inward, or made to take the situation which either of them would occupy. Moreover, the appearance of a polypus is an affair which must have attracted notice some months prior to its occurrence; whereas, the inversion of the bladder or the womb, occupies but an instant, and is commonly preceded by no symptoms. Being assured there is a polypus, if a fine silk can be passed round the neck or stalk and be tied tight, so as to cut off the circulation of blood to the part, the growth will drop off in two days, supposing the operation to have been effectively performed. When a ligature cannot be applied, the body should be seized with a proper pair of forceps, and it should then be turned round and round several times. The object in doing this is to twist the stalk, so as to strangulate the vessels within it; and this sometimes answers quite as well as the ligature itself, but the last is best, as being more sure and less likely to be attended with accident. When neither can be accomplished, the polypus may be forcibly dragged away, or literally torn out; but the pain of this is very great, and the operation has nothing to recommend it but its absolute necessity. The polypus being removed, perfectly cold, mild, astringent injections, to act as healing and cleansing lotions, should be used; or if any portion of the stalk remain, to that caustic may be applied. Authors speak of cancer of the vagina. I have seen nothing yet in the animal that I may designate by such a term. I have, it is true, met with serious wounds and grievous sores; but all of these have yielded to treatment, and I am not aware that, if their nature had been malignant, they could have been subdued by any medicinal measures. Dropsy of the uterus I have encountered, though, as no teacher or work speaks of such an affection in the dog, it was some time before I was able to recognise the disease. The bitch thus afflicted is generally petted into ill-health. She is fat, slothful, and weakly. All the various symptoms show the digestion to be deranged; and in most cases she eventually perishes of abdominal disease, which is in its termination independent of the condition of the uterus. The only marked symptom directing attention to the womb, is the cessation of every sign indicating sexual desire. For years there may be no appearance of "_heat;_" but otherwise the bitch shall be regarded only as delicate, and not be esteemed to be decidedly unwell. If, however, the body of the animal be examined after death, the body and horns of the uterus will be found distended with a thin aqueous fluid; and the walls of the organ will be seen to be very attenuated, and much wanting in vascularity. There is no precise limit to the size the uterus may attain; but, in consequence of its increased volume, it occupies another situation to that it naturally holds in the abdomen of the bitch. Generally, when dropsical to any extent, it will repose immediately upon the linea alba; and it is apt to be injured if care be not taken when the _post mortem_ examination is made. For dropsy of the uterus, general measures must alone be employed, and these must be of a tonic character; for, however much the dog may be petted, or however fat its body may be, the disease is always consequent upon debility. Among the tonics are several which have a stimulating action upon the uterus, and where it is suspected to be affected the following medicines may be administered:-- Powdered cinnamon One scruple to one and a half drachm. Powdered borate of soda Ten grains to two scruples. Powdered secale cornutum One to six grains. Extract of gentian One drachm to half an ounce. Powdered quassia A sufficiency. Make in twenty-four pills, and give three daily. Iodide of iron Ten grains to one scruple. Powdered cinchona bark One drachm to half an ounce. Extract of gentian One drachm to half an ounce. Make as in the previous prescription. Iodide of potassium Ten grains to one drachm. Tincture of cantharides Five drops to one scruple. Simple syrup One drachm. Water Two ounces. Let a tea-spoonful be given three times a day. In some cases the pills first recommended may be given with the drops last proposed; but the action must be watched, and either the dose diminished or the medicine withheld, if it appears to have any violent effect. The intent is to work gently and gradually upon the system, and no immediate result should be expected or desired. PARTURITION, OR PUPPING.--This is a very serious branch of the present subject; for, through the inability to bring forth their young, many a valuable bitch is annually lost; and, by the injudicious measures intended to relieve them, many more are yearly sacrificed. I know of no book that gives proper directions for the guidance of the practitioner; indeed, the rules laid down by both Blaine and Youatt are calculated to do mischief whenever they shall be put into practice. The reader must, therefore, be content to accept that which will be submitted to his consideration on this topic, as the result of the experience of an individual whose observations have been made only during a comparatively short period, and whose opinions consequently are not to be regarded as confirmed. While directing attention to what has been declared rejected, the author solicits no confidence in his judgment, beyond that which results shall sanction, and reason approve. [Illustration] Little gentlemen are said to incline towards what are termed fine women; and many persons will remember the caricature, in which a strapping Life-guards-man was depicted, stooping to salute a lady who scarcely reached the top of his boots. The like admiration for bulk appears to be entertained by the members of the canine race. Small curs are much disposed to bestow their affections upon huge Newfoundlands; and diminutive bitches, if followed by a host of suitors, will give the preference to the largest of the group. All descriptions of dogs will freely have intercourse with one another; and as these animals are of such various proportions, the female is frequently unable to give birth to the progeny of a gigantic sire. Care consequently should be taken to provide suitable males when pups are desired; and in all cases the dog should be smaller than the bitch. It is not, however, a sufficient precaution that the dog be of less size; for it, or the bitch herself, may be the dwarf of a large stock, and being so, may be capable of getting or gestating offspring as huge as the race from which either of them sprung. It is possible, therefore, for a small dog to be quite as dangerous as one of great weight; and I knew an animal of this kind which had been the cause of many deaths on that account. The animal alluded to was the property of a gentleman (now deceased) who had long graced the bench. The dog was a handsome Scotch terrier; and, being small, it was frequently solicited as a stock-dog. It was, however, very deceptive; for a bitch twice its own size could with difficulty survive the consequences of its embraces. It is a diminutive example of a naturally large race; and in its offspring there is a disposition to return to the original size. Therefore, not only must the dog be small, but, if possible, it must have been derived from a small stock. The giant's dwarf may beget a giant; and how frequently do parents of short stature have children who can at maturity look literally over their heads! Certainly more important, however, than the size of the dog, is the magnitude of the stock whence the bitch is derived. A full-sized pug bitch, whose portrait is given beneath, had connexion with a setter dog. She was sent to me to be delivered; but with little assistance the affair was accomplished. A small mongrel bitch, but a great favorite with its master, broke loose during his absence, and had connexion with a dog at least four times its size. The animal was brought to me to ascertain what could be done, her death being expected when the nine weeks expired. At the proper period, however, she brought forth four pups without any assistance. On the opposite side numerous instances might be quoted: but, on this topic, enough has been said to warn the reader that the dog, however small, should not be permitted to approach the bitch whose mother was large, or whose brothers and sisters stand much higher than herself. Let the reader look at the two portraits that follow. They are evidently of one and the same family. They both had a common progenitor. The beagle is the blood-hound, only of smaller size; and often these beautiful diminutive creatures suffer in parturition, or throw pups whose size takes from them all value. However, for the chance of security, if for no more tangible object; let the dog, in every instance, be smaller than the bitch; and let it also have no disease, but be in perfect health, strong and lively. A dog in any way deformed or affected with any disorder ought to be avoided. Blindness, skin eruptions, piles, paralysis of the tongue, and a host of other annoyances, I more than suspect to be hereditary. The mental qualities are transmitted, as well as physical beauties and defects. Sagacity, health, and beauty are to be sought for, and if all cannot be obtained, those most desired must be selected. Where shape is wanted, let the dog possess such form as the bitch is deficient in; thus the female having a long-nose or legs, may be put to a male short in these respects; and the rule may be applied in other instances. [Illustration: THE BLOOD-HOUND.] [Illustration: THE BEAGLE.] Judgment is needed; and, of course, the choice is to be in some measure regulated by the kind of stock the dog has been known to get. All dogs kept as stock-dogs have reputations for the qualities of their offspring; and these, sometimes, are better guides than the appearances of the animals themselves; for it does occur that the pups procured by a diminutive dog, do occasionally prove the very reverse of what might be anticipated. The bitch, for breeding, should be rather long in the back; and it is scarcely possible for her to be made too wide in the hind-quarters. She should be strong, and rather large than small of her breed; and where a diminution of size is desired, it is better to obtain it through the father than the mother. When the last method is adopted there is no danger of the bitch bearing pups of gigantic proportions, and which she may not be capable of bringing forth. The breed, also, should be as pure as possible; for there is a disposition in these animals to throw back, as it is termed; that is, supposing a bitch to be of spaniel breed, to that degree which allows of no cross being detected; nevertheless if there should be a stain of cur or terrier in her pedigree, one or more of every litter she bears, may prominently exhibit it. It is often long before this natural proof of a degraded family can be entirely eradicated; and it is very common for persons to express surprise at the pups born resembling neither of the parents they were derived from. Another caution not to be neglected is, to keep the bitch from all communication with dogs it is wished her progeny should in no way resemble. A low-bred playmate may not appear to be of much consequence; and the proprietor may imagine, if actual connexion is provided against, no further precaution can be required. The females of the canine race, however, are able to bestow their affections; and tender recollections are as potent over them as they are known to be in other cases, where higher animals are concerned. Bitches are not always prudent in their loves, but are apt to fling themselves away on curs of low degree. If reared with a companion of vulgar appearance, there often springs up between the pair a devotion which no time can afterwards subdue. The passion, for such it really is, becomes of a more than romantic endurance. The loved one's image grows to be so impressed upon the mind--so much so, that all the fruits of the body afterwards bear its likeness. There may have been no intercourse between the pair, but to animals of her breed, the bitch may, contrary to her longings, have been devoted: and yet, in the offspring she brings forth the object of her affections will be represented. This, however, is very likely to be the case, when the first male accepted is by accident or neglect of impure origin. There have been several well-marked cases illustrative of this fact, and probably many which have never been properly observed. The peculiarity of a high-bred bitch bringing forth a blemished litter, would be set down to her throwing back; but perhaps a fair proportion of the cases thus accounted for, might with justice be attributed to the mental influence which has been pointed out. The first indication of a bitch approaching to desire, is a slight enlargement of the teats. This may be observed for a week, more or less, before the parts show any signs of change. These last, however, soon begin to swell, and a thick glairy discharge of simple mucus drains from them in small quantities. The secretion becomes more copious, and thinner, gradually changing its character to that of blood; and as that alteration in the fluid is remarked, the labia grow larger, redder, and more hot. The animal has then "heat," or oestrum, upon her, and her system is generally excited. She is more lively, and should any other dogs be with her, she indulges in a variety of coquettish antics. Her attitudes when thus excited are very picturesque, and the beauty of the animal is never exhibited to greater advantage. A lively grace animates her whole frame; and she is now the creature a painter should study, or a poet describe. She will not immediately accept the male, whose passion she evidently practises all her arts to excite. For a few days, perhaps, a romping courtship may go forward before union is actually permitted. Dog fanciers almost universally attach importance to the appearance of the discharge. Some say the dog should not be offered before the bleeding begins to diminish. If these rules are not attended to, I have been most confidently assured the evil consequences of the neglect are certain to be present in the pups. The litter prematurely begotten, it is foretold, must be bad in some way; though why this should be the case, or how the cause produces such effects, none of the dog fanciers have been able to explain. As by attempting to obey these injunctions I have known many disappointments to be produced, there was every inducement, even had I not been inquisitive from professional motives, to set me testing the truth of these assertions; for I am not inclined to sneer at every opinion announced by persons devoid of education. A power to observe is by no means regulated by an ability to read or write; and as the dog fanciers bred much more largely than I possibly could do, their experience entitled their opinions to attention. Nevertheless, ignorance is so exposed to misconception, that its declarations at all times should be examined, and I resolved to test the truth of the rule which so many announced to be established. The result has not confirmed the belief generally entertained; but it has induced me to conclude that the dog may be allowed whenever the bitch will permit him. Nature, I have found, regulates the matter, so as not to necessitate man's supervision. The bitch will, by her instinct, decide the question; and she may, without any dread of mysterious consequences, be left to its direction. In support of this conclusion, a large number of animals can readily be adduced. The numerous bitches, especially in the country, that are placed under no restraint, but are left free to gratify their impulses, afford obvious demonstration of the fact. These creatures have litters that are much stronger and healthier than those which are more tenderly guarded. The fatality that attends the offspring of very choice breeds, does not infer that the customs they are subjected to conduce materially to their benefit; and my experience, so far as it has been carried, supports the conclusion which this circumstance would seem to countenance. Let the bitch therefore follow her inclinations; but it is not unusual for force to be employed on such occasions. This should never be allowed. The female ought on no account to be compelled; but it is a common practice to employ restraint when she is unwilling. Some assistance may occasionally be needed, particularly with the smaller breeds, which are apt to be physically disabled; but it should be limited to such offices as favor the desires of the parties principally concerned. Whenever man's aid goes beyond that, it is likely to be injurious; for if Nature orders an animal to decline the gratification of its instinct, we may rest assured there is good reason why such a phenomenon is exhibited, although we may not possess the acumen to rightly interpret its indication. Some people permit the dog and bitch to remain together for several hours; but with favorite stock-dogs, it is customary to present the female twice. I have found the second visit to be needless; and a single occasion has never yet failed to procure me three or four pups, which is quite as many as the majority of bitches are able to rear. The ordinary practice, however, appears to do no harm, so far as I am aware of its consequences. I do not, therefore, object to it; but I know it is not imperative, and it is well to be convinced on such a point. After the bitch has been lined, she should be most carefully watched. Her desire rather increases than diminishes, and she will be most anxious to escape in search of new admirers. Her appetite renders her ingenious; and the owner is often vexed to find she conquers at this time those bounds which at other periods confined her. Let her be securely housed, or kept under the eye of her master, who must not forget her propensity to rove. When the discharge ceases, and the local swelling subsides, the necessity for vigilance is at an end. The animal has then returned to chastity, and will be as obedient as before her passions were inflamed. During the nine weeks of gestation, she demands no special care. She thrives best if left to take her chance, and does better in proportion as she is not pampered. Her food should be wholesome, and her exercise rather increased than diminished. She should not be made fat, neither ought she to be suddenly reduced. The safest course is to take no notice of the particular condition of the animal, but to let her ordinary treatment be continued without any change. The bitch will return to her usual manners and appearance, nor will there be for some time anything to denote her having conceived. In the middle of the fourth week, however, the presence of the young within the abdomen may, by skilful manipulation, be detected. I know of no one who has before made the observation, but I am confident as to the correctness of the statement; since I have frequently been enabled to inform parties that their dogs were in pup, when the circumstance was not suspected. In many instances, I have been able to ascertain before the expiration of the first month the number of young that would be born; but of course these matters are not always to be told with equal certainty. They can, however, be generally ascertained with tolerable accuracy; but where there is only one sense to guide the knowledge, and that one is not quite unobstructed, the judgment is liable to be mistaken with regard to particulars, though it may be assured concerning the main point. To discover whether a bitch is in pup, let her be placed upon a table, and her fears or excitability banished by caresses. Then lay her upon her side, and with the fingers gently manipulate the intestines. If the womb is impregnated, the person, directing his attention first to the situation the uterus occupies, near to the rim of the pelvis, and inferior to the rectum, will there detect round smooth bodies, like little eggs. These may not be perceptible if the bladder be loaded; but if the catheter be employed to draw off the urine, they will surely be felt. If the rectum be full of foeces, it serves as an admirable guide to the position of the uterus; though he who is acquainted with anatomy needs no such assistance. Some globular substance being detected, the fingers are advanced, and if more than one pup be conceived, another similar to it will speedily impinge upon the touch; then another, and so on, until the whole of the promised family have been thus announced. The last is the most difficult to discover: for should there be more than two or three, it may, and will, generally occupy the extremity of a horn; and, in that situation, may escape observation. There are to the womb of this animal a pair of horns, which are long, and extend to the region of the kidneys. Both cannot be traced at the same time, and there is a chance of the two being confounded. Therefore it is well not to be positive as to the precise number of young the bitch will bring forth; and I never presume to speak confidently upon the point; for though, in the majority of cases, my opinion may have been corroborated, nevertheless, I have often known a pup more than I supposed the uterus contained to have been delivered. From the end of the fourth week, the litter, as it were, go away, or are lost; but when the seventh week arrives, the contents of the abdomen may be plainly detected; and if the bitch be taken upon the lap, and her belly supported with the hand, they at this period will be felt to move, and the motion even of their limbs is clearly recognised. Milk appears in the teats about the middle of the ninth week, and the presence of the fluid declares the event is near at hand. The following day, or the one succeeding, is marked by a mucous discharge from the vagina; and when that is witnessed, parturition is seldom delayed beyond a day or two at most. The exact period is announced by the animal being disinclined for food and desirous of solitude. Some bitches do not wish for seclusion; but others are very anxious to obtain it; and in either case the disposition should be gratified. All that is necessary for the comfort of the creature should be provided; but if the accommodation designed for her be rejected, she should as far as possible be allowed to indulge her own liking for another spot. As the time of parturition draws near--that is, when the increase of mucus is remarked--a daily meal of boiled liver should be given; but nothing stronger, of a laxative nature, ought to be administered, unless the absolute necessity of such relief as aperients afford is ascertained. Many persons are in the habit of giving buckthorn or castor oil at this season; but the dog is naturally very delicate; and nothing calculated to detract from the strength which the coming effort must severely tax, should be heedlessly resorted to. When the bitch retires, let her wish for privacy be respected. For three or four hours allow her to be undisturbed; but at the expiration of that time, the person who most enjoys her confidence, may approach her. After an exchange of recognitions, the animal may be examined. If nothing extraordinary can be remarked, nothing should be done beyond offering food and water; neither of which, however, need be pressed upon her. A day possibly may thus pass, without any sign of decided progress being made; nevertheless, the owner's patience must not be alarmed, for the greatest danger springs from premature assistance. The first pup is often long before it is delivered; so that the cries be not sharp, loud, and frequent, the delay need not generate fear. Four-and-twenty hours having elapsed, and the indication of suffering with constant straining being present, the help which man can give should not be pressed upon the animal. The throes must cease, or the bitch appear exhausted by lying on its side, and emitting low moans before any aid is offered. Then the little finger, well greased, may be passed gently up the vagina, to learn if anything be within the passage; and if a pup be felt, instruments, as hereafter described, may be employed; but, on no account, need the finger be pushed beyond the os uteri. If the mouth of the womb be well opened, free, and the passage clear, the attention must be bestowed upon the bitch, and every means employed to revive the strength and bring back the pains. Some unusual circumstance is needed to justify manual interference--such as a pup with its side presented, or the os uteri well expanded, and the head of a dead pup filling up the space. To such an extent have I practically followed out the measures here recommended, that under my care the labor-pains of a Scotch terrier ceased without anything being born. The bitch returned to her customary habits, but appeared dull, while a dark discharge was emitted. I told the proprietor the bitch had a dead pup within her, and entreated him to give the animal time. He consented to do this; and on the fourth day from that of the unsuccessful labor, the animal was delivered of a dead pup, with perfect ease. The presence of straining alone should never be regarded as a symptom of pupping being actually at hand. The bitch, like other animals, is subject to spasms, called false labor-pains. These are in appearance highly deceptive, for they are generally accompanied with plaintive cries. To distinguish their true character, let the hands embrace the abdomen; and at the time when spasm seizes her, let gentle pressure be made upon its sides. If the pains be false, the convulsion will be felt to render turgid the muscles of the abdomen, but nothing within it will at the same time feel hard. Should, however, the labor have commenced, other signs than these will then declare the fact. When the throes come on, the uterus will contract; and beneath the hands it will be then felt a hard, harsh, and solid body. Its character, when naturally excited, is not to be mistaken; but is so well and strongly marked, that there is no excuse for not detecting its indication. For false pains nothing need be done for some time; but if they continue, and seem to distress the animal, ether and opium may be freely given by the mouth; this will have the effect of quieting the spasm without injuring the pups. The existence of true labor being ascertained, should there be sufficient cause to suspect obstruction to be present, then let the finger be oiled and introduced up the passage with caution as directed. Some persons when called to a bitch in pup, always begin at once doing this, but it should not be done unless there be some reason for the practice. I have known fellows poke the poor animals about, as though to do so was an important duty, which they were bound incessantly to perform. The introduction of the finger cannot do otherwise than remove the mucus which Nature provides to lubricate the passage and facilitate the egress of the pup. It is the mildest and best moisture the membrane can receive, and its removal is not to be slightly thought of. The finger, moreover, by the friction it occasions, irritates the parts; and however gently it may be introduced, it cannot otherwise than in some degree have this effect. The less it is used, therefore, the better; and when it is inserted, the attention should be alive to note every circumstance the touch can acquaint us with. Other parties, when the labor is difficult or tedious, think it advisable to place the bitch in a hot bath. All the authors I know of, recommend this measure; but I must, without reservation, in the strongest possible terms, condemn it. In obedience with the directions of those who wrote or lectured on this subject, I originally followed the practice; but it was not long before I was apprised of its evil effects; and my wonder now is, how so injurious a custom ever came into general favor. I have known the bitch, when the throes were energetic, to be placed in the warm bath; and under its action to have indeed been quieted, for the pains never subsequently returned. The efforts, upon the vigor of which the delivery depended, have, to my knowledge, been more than once, twice, or thrice, dispersed, by the warmth which at such a time is a poison; for I can recollect but few cases where the bitch was taken from the water to survive. Still, as the assertions of an individual cannot be supposed of sufficient force to overthrow an established habit, let me here, at the hazard of wearying the reader, venture to reason upon the matter. The uterus is principally composed of white muscular fibre, upon which structure heat has a sedative and cold has a stimulative action. The members of our profession well know this fact; and the reader, who can hardly be unacquainted with the colic, may in that affection find a proof to convince him of its truth. Cold water will bring on the belly-ache. This is occasioned by a chill to the intestines, causing their muscular fibre, which resembles that of the womb, to spasmodically contract. The vitality of the muscles of the intestines is excited; and to allay the pain, that excitability must be destroyed. Heat will effectually do this; and hot clothes, bags of sand, or bottles, are placed against the belly for that purpose. When the suffering depends on cold alone, the relief is speedy; and when it is dependent on other causes, the sense of comfort imparted testifies to the effect of the application. The heat allays the spasm, which the cold provoked. Warmth, therefore, is a sedative to organic muscular fibre; and now, let it be asked, if during labor we should seek to dispel the contraction of the womb? During gestation the muscular coat of the uterus is passive; but when that function has been perfected, Nature endues it with energy to expel the foetus. Upon the violence of its contractions the performance of this important office is wholly and entirely dependent. Without it the young cannot be borne; and however painful may be its force, nevertheless, such pain is to be welcomed, and regarded thankfully. The throes may be agonizing, but it is more cruel to check than to promote them; for the temporary relief we obtain by causing them to cease, will certainly be purchased with the life of the animal that enjoys so dearly-bought a repose. The shriek of the bitch during the time when a pup probably is being forced into the world, may harrow the heart of an affectionate master, and his sympathies may be wrought upon by beholding the convulsion which stretches every fibre of her frame. The sounds may grate upon the ear, and the spectacle may be terrible to look upon--for in dogs I have seen misery so powerfully exemplified, that I do no wrong to any man, when I suppose the picture would be piteous to his humanity--but it is not charity which would put a termination to the pangs. Place the bitch, then, in a warm bath, and the appearances almost instantaneously are changed. The animal rejoices in the ease which a cessation of torture produces. No doubt she, for the time, luxuriates, and her face expresses the sense of happiness she then enjoys. But her fate is with the pleasure sealed; and she obtains a momentary ease to meet with a lingering, or perhaps a frightful death, for I have known inflammation of the womb to follow the use of the warm bath. The use of the warm bath is, during labor, at best a mistake generated by ignorance; and unfortunately it is one of those errors which can rarely be afterwards redeemed; for the weakness it induces is so great, that the tonicity required in parturition is destroyed; and this no medicine can restore. Another common failing in veterinary practitioners is, a belief that the ergot of rye, or secale cornutum, acts upon the dog as a direct uterine excitant, and thus promotes the parturitive function. In this belief, however, they are not single. Many writers speak with confidence of its operation upon the animal. The accounts are positive; and I would not lightly place my unsupported testimony to the fact against a host of authors who can be suspected of no motive to misstate. The gentlemen alluded to are authorities of such weight that a strong conviction of the truth is required to make me advance, against such and so many witnesses, my single word. The reader must, however, take both for what they are worth; and remember the truth is not the less true because there may be but one humble individual ranged upon its side. It is not my intention to say the authors who speak decidedly concerning the action of the ergot on the bitch had no grounds for the statements they advance. I should not be justified in making so gross an assertion; on the contrary, I believe sincerely they saw all which they narrate; but, nevertheless, I am prepared to maintain that secale cornutum is not an excitant to the uterus of the dog in that sense which would warrant the veterinary practitioner in regarding it as a lawful agent. To be so esteemed by such persons, it should be both safe and certain in its operation. It should not only possess a chance of doing good in one direction, but it ought to be attended with no probability of doing harm in another way. It may, in the hands of others, have caused the uterus to contract, and thus have favored parturition, or have brought about abortion. I have seen it do neither, but I cannot say it has never thus acted; I am in no position to prove the negative. When I have given it to the animal, it has disordered the stomach and induced vomition. The dogs I tried its action upon might possibly have been bad subjects for experiment, but I am not aware that they presented any peculiarity. In every case that has passed under my observation, secale cornutum has been injurious; and I fear lest it may be so, when employed by others; I, therefore, discountenance its use, declaring the custom of exhibiting it with a view to quicken labor to be dangerous. I have used it as an emetic, though, rarely; as, for ordinary circumstances, there are preferable agents at command; but for some time I have abandoned its employment as a parturient for the bitch. To reconcile, in some measure, the opposite opinions, and explain the probable source of difference, let the reader consider the possible conditions of the animals I and others have subjected to observation. The medical man, when experimentalising upon a dog, generally buys the animal; and as he merely wants a life to practise upon, he does not give money to procure beauty or high breed; cheapness is an object with him; and any unfortunate straggling brute, that can with impunity be trapped, is sufficient for his purpose. Such unhappy creatures are to be caught roaming about the country; perhaps poorly fed, but strong and low-bred curs. The dogs I am called to are not of this kind. They have been tenderly fostered, and generally their health has been deteriorated by the excess of care bestowed upon them. They are high-bred animals, and their sensibility is equal to their caste. My object, also, is not to play with life, but to save it; and that at which the medical man would laugh, I have reasons to regard with a serious countenance. Therefore, the accident which to me would be most important, might to others be so trivial as to deserve no notice, and even to excite no remark. However, supposing no accident to occur, the vigorous and low-bred mongrel might well endure that which a delicate and high-bred pet could not sustain. The stomach of the one being strong, would retain that which should induce violent spasm in the morbidly sensitive organ of the other. Dogs, it is true, are but dogs; yet, as a group, they present such varieties that there can be many things asserted of them which shall be true or untrue as applied to individuals. Consequently, when I, writing of medicines as applied to certain descriptions of dogs, assert a particular agent is not in its action such as various writers have described, it is just possible I may not contradict the declarations previously made. We may probably be both speaking of our knowledge only of really different things. Nominally the creatures we each observed were dogs; but though they were the same in race, in capabilities and bulk, they were perfectly distinct. The dog of the pharmacologist is a kind of beast I know nothing of; I am ignorant--entirely and totally ignorant--of the creature that Magendie and other respectabilities report of. As to the tales told by the French physiologists, I confess an inability to credit one-third of them; and from the list of those narrated by English physicians, I am obliged to make a very wide selection. My unfortunate capacity for incredulity in this matter has been educated by a professional acquaintance with the animal; and gentlemen must pardon me if I am disposed to think, they who are not ashamed to publish their wanton disregard for life would not be very tender with respect to a mere report about the creature whose suffering they despised. Where sympathy is dead, the conscience cannot be very acute. I have yet another custom here to deprecate; and I am sorry to add, it is one which books and teachers equally countenance. I allude to the employment of instruments in parturition, without any rule being pointed out as to the time when such aids are necessary. Hundreds of bitches are murdered by the misdirected efforts of Veterinarians; and of the brutalities resorted to by other persons, I designedly take no notice. Such fellows--mere pretenders--are below the contempt of every honest mind; and my indignation passes over them to face the persons by whom their interference is permitted. It is horrible to think of the amount of torture which man's favorite animal is hourly subjected to, through the culpability or weakness of those who should, in gratitude for the poor beast's affections, be cautious to protect it. Poetical as the dog is at all times, I know of no circumstance that develops more pathetically the disposition of the creature than that of pupping. At such a time, the bitch in her agony seems to trust more confidently in mankind. Animals that at other periods have allowed no one to approach them, at such moments have seemed to welcome me, and have appeared to comprehend the motive which brought me to their sides. To be examined they submit; and the pain it will often occasion may cause the animal to cry, but it draws forth no sign of resentment. The eyes are fixed upon the operator, as if to tell him of the suffering, and entreat for his sympathy. The expression of the face is mild and even plaintive; but, if possible, still more appealing are the endeavors the creature almost invariably makes to assist her attendant's designs. She seems, by some process that I cannot otherwise than consider to be a mental one, to comprehend human motives, and to more than appreciate our intentions. Her gratitude now would appear to be intense, and her confidence to be boundless. Where I have reluctantly been necessitated to resort to force, the dragging of a dead pup through a swollen passage has produced the pain which brought a sharp shriek from the animal; the agony has been such that even the fortitude of the canine parent could not silently sustain; and under its almost maddening influence, the head has been turned instinctively to bite. The natural impulse, however, was never fully gratified; the nose has touched my hand, but the jaws have closed before they grasped it. I have then distinctly felt the snapping motion, and plainly heard the teeth rattle as they quickly hit against each other, but they have never injured me. The dog could not repress the natural instinct; but though the hand was against its mouth, the noble beast has bitten the air. If men knew more of dogs, the animal would be more esteemed. The persons who pretend to dislike them are always ignorant of the creatures. It is impossible for human beings to see much of, and be acquainted with, these despised brutes, without becoming their admirers. To like dogs denotes no peculiarity of taste or strangeness of disposition; for he must be incapable of appreciating natural goodness, who can observe these animals and not grow fond of them. There is no mental sympathy between a shrub and ourselves; yet a passion for flowers is pretended to by many who cultivate a horror of the canine race. Both feelings are affections, and a person of good sense would be ashamed to acknowledge either. Flowers are sweet and pretty, but man cannot love such things; whereas, between us and dogs there can be a positive bond of affection. In this world no one should be proud of disliking anything it is possible for him to love, or indulge a hatred towards any life that can adore him. I have too many reasons to be grateful for the generosity of the brute, not to feel warmly toward it. There is no day my hands are not spared, for they are constantly exposed, and never protected; and I should long ago have been torn to pieces if the canine race were legitimate objects of dread. Therefore I merely discharge a debt, when I assert the magnanimity of the creature; and it is a duty on my part to do all in my power to benefit the despised brute. With that object I speak most unreservedly, in condemnation of the way in which instruments are employed during parturition. Many various inventions are sold in shops; and of these, the great majority are very dangerous. Of themselves, very few indeed are safe, with any skill; and most are seldom needed. In the mode of employing them, they are almost sure to do injury; for in ninety-nine cases out of every hundred, they are introduced much too early, and in the hundredth they are used with unnecessary violence. Before any instrument is employed, the pup should be within the pelvis. The forceps sold in shops are made with the intention of dragging the foetus from the womb; and one of the difficulties the practitioner is supposed to encounter in parturition of the bitch, is taught to be the impossibility of hauling the foetus from the horn of the uterus. One pup generally occupies the body of the womb, and the rest of the litter are located in the horns. That is their natural situation; and as in the gravid state the length of the horns is greatly extended, of course some occupy a place far within the abdomen. The length of the horns, however, though supposed to constitute the only obstacle, is not the single cause which prevents the pup being reached by instruments. The horns, in consequence of their greater length, become bent, or folded upon themselves; so that an instrument which should drag the pups to light, where more than two or three are present, should be made to pass forward in the first instance, and then be constructed to take a backward direction. Those who invented these instruments to deliver bitches with, would seem to have been ignorant of this necessity; and I here mention it to prove how perfectly inadequate such things are for the purpose intended. [Illustration: THE GRAVID UTERUS.] Before any instrument is employed, the pup should be within the vagina. This is a rule that can hardly be with impunity violated by the generality of practitioners. Simple and brief as may be the direction, it is one that only on rare occasions may be safely disregarded; and of the exceptional case, mention will be made hereafter. The pup must be within the passage; and not only there, but so there, as to seem impacted, before assistance by means of instruments is necessary. The largest foetus can, in almost every case, proceed thus far; and where it is of too great a size to come so low, any interference would be desperate; for then it must be of such a magnitude as to destroy the probability of delivery being accomplished. When the pup has not entered the pelvis, the practitioner may be assured the obstacle is not created by the disproportioned size of the young. The labor either has not proceeded far enough, and time is required for its completion; or the uterus is feeble, and stimulants are wanted to invigorate it. The largest foetus can be moved by the womb; so the size must be an impediment only to its passage through the vagina. There is therefore no mechanical hindrance before that part has been reached, and no mechanical assistance at an earlier period is imperative. When the veterinarian is called to a labor that has already commenced, and perhaps been some time about, he directs his first attention to the orifice. If the perineum looks unnaturally distended, so large as to be remarkable, the presence of a pup in the vagina may be concluded; and here he must know how to act with decision. If the throes are on, and strong, though evidence of pain be heard, we must not be too quick to interfere. If there be anything like a bladder protruding from the vulva, nothing whatever must be done. In easy births the pups invariably come into the world enveloped in their membranes, and thereby their egress seems to be greatly accelerated. If these burst, or are broken, the delivery is thereby rendered more difficult. The membranes consequently, if protruding, should not be touched. Some persons, I know, seize them under an idea, that by pulling at these, or at the cord, the foetus can be brought away. The notion is fallacious. With the first or second pup the membrane may be visible; and, nevertheless, the labor may not then have proceeded far enough to detach all the placenta. The entirety of the caul, or water-bag, denotes that the foetus is alive; and it also shows that Nature is proceeding to accomplish, in due time, her offices. The position which the bitch assumes during labor also deserves to be noted. While she remains within her bed, and continues lying upon her side, however tedious may be the labor, there is little reason for apprehension. A few cries vented when the throes are present, or a moan or two emitted when they are coming on, may be expected, and deserve little observation; but when the bitch gives forth sharp, short exclamations, leaves her house or basket, and places herself in the attitude she takes when voiding her fæces, there is cause to conclude something wrong, and requiring immediate help, has taken place. Most authorities make mention of what are called wrong presentations; and such are very commonly met with in the cow, mare, and the larger animals; but I have never known a case of false presentation in the bitch; and I am led to conclude that the authors who narrated such cases, drew upon their experience in other directions, describing imaginative possibilities as circumstances that had actually occurred. I do not well comprehend how a false presentation could take place in this animal, and I can grant the possibility of its ever having been witnessed to the first pup alone. It is remotely possible that this one should be presented sideways, though highly improbable it could take such a position. After the womb has expelled the first of the litter, the body of the generative organ contracts; and all the others must pass through it in a line favorable to the birth. It is of little consequence, in the young of the dog, whether the head or tail be first born. Examples in both directions are always witnessed in every puppying. So likewise is it of small importance how the legs are placed, though of course delivery is favored by their being properly arranged. At the time of birth, however, the bones of the pup are but partially consolidated; and that circumstance causes them not to offer those serious obstructions which they are found to present in other creatures. The gelatinous mass readily takes the form required for its expulsion; and the practitioner has little reason to perplex himself concerning those particulars which in the calf or foal he knows to be of vital import. The principal obstruction to birth in the bitch springs from the weakness of the creature. To this its sufferings, and the too frequent tediousness of its labor, are to be mostly attributed. When there are evident signs of debility--shown by the throes having subsided, and further evidenced by no symptom of their reappearance being witnessed after three or four hours' watching--from a teaspoonful to a table-spoonful of brandy, mixed with sugar and cold water, may be administered; and in half an hour repeated, if it should have no effect. This I have seldom found to fail, and never have I known it to do injury; wherefore I prefer it to the ergot of rye, which in my hands has been uncertain and injurious. Patience, however, is more often needed, than stimulants required; and before the latter are resorted to, the symptoms of debility ought to be recognised; for without these be perceived, the passive condition of the uterus deserves no immediate attention. When the throes are on, the efforts may be assisted. This is best done by placing the hands under the abdomen, and with them making pressure whenever the straining appears. The hands, however, must not be held so long as will let them get hot; for, by communicating warmth, more harm is done than the benefit afforded is likely to compensate. The object in placing the hands under the belly is, to brace and give support to the abdominal muscles; which, in the dog, are naturally weak, and in the bitch during gestation always become attenuated. Cold cloths to the abdomen will also in some cases--but not in all--excite the uterus, and bring on vigorous throes. The coldest water I could procure is that of the temperature employed by me; and it has seldom, to my knowledge, been otherwise than beneficial. When the birth is long delayed, the bladder and rectum should be examined and emptied of their contents by means of the injection-pipe and catheter. To draw off the urine of the bitch is not difficult or dangerous. A knowledge of the situation of the meatus, or termination of the urethra, is necessary to the operation; and this is best obtained by dissection. It lies within the pelvis, a short way anterior to the brim, and above the symphysis of the ischium. I know that while endeavoring to explain, I am here making use of words which will to the majority of readers convey no meaning; nevertheless, I cannot be more clear. I have, however, in a communication to the _Veterinarian_, entered into this matter; and I here extract from that journal part of a paper published in the number for January, 1849:-- "With regard to the bitch, I always let the animal stand upon her legs, simply having an assistant to hold the head and engage the attention of the creature. The meatus lies about half an inch or two inches within the pelvis, the distance varying with the size of the dog. The line of the urethra is rather forward than downward, though, of course, in both directions. After having once or twice passed the instrument, it is surprising how very readily this conjectured impossibility is performed. I think so little of the difficulties, that I have no inclination to dilate upon the few precautions which are required to remove them. I may, however, here state, that, when grasping the penis of the dog, a handkerchief or a portion of tow will be required to render the hold secure; and the wire should, before the catheter is introduced, be withdrawn, while it ought to be moistened with olive oil to facilitate its passage, as the canal is not unfrequently devoid of mucus." When the pup is partly born, and its passage appears to be delayed, either through the feebleness of the throes or some mechanical impediment, assistance should be afforded. The restlessness of the bitch will, perhaps, be the most proper indication; and it is the more necessary to be cautious in our interference, as, on account of the size of the animal, the aid we can afford is limited. When a paw is to be seen, this may be laid hold of; but not without the fingers being covered; for, as the limb is slippery, the force intended to secure it would hardly render the grasp confirmed, and might crush the member. The osseous structure in the pup at birth, as I have already stated, is not consolidated; and all other components of the body are in a condition proportionally immatured. The tiny being, when first brought into the world, is little better than a living mass of pulp; and on that account, it must be gently handled. Far less violence than might be supposed requisite to do so, will dismember it; and no vast force is needed to pull even the head from the trunk. Aware of this, the efforts intended for the delivery must be regulated by the power of the substance to endure them. The practitioner must take a thin, soft cloth, or what is better, his silk pocket-handkerchief, and with this lay hold of any part that can be grasped. If but one leg can be got hold of, that must be secured, and an attempt made to bring forward the other. The two being obtained, gentle force or traction may be through them applied while the throes are on. The dragging must not be strong, as, if the pup be alive, it will be injured; or, alive or dead, it may be torn to pieces. A broken pup, as the foetus is called when any part of it has been pulled off, is always more dangerous to the life of the bitch, and much more difficult to get away, than one that is entire. The impediment bears relation to the extent of the mutilation. Thus the separation of the head is more serious than the deprivation of a limb; for, let not the reader imagine that in the dog, as in the cow or mare, embryotomy by means of a knife can be successfully resorted to. I have endeavored sometimes to perform craniotomy, or to remove the brains of the foetus, hoping by so reducing the bulk of the head to facilitate the delivery; but the result has displeased me, and I no longer follow the practice. The pup, if to be got away at all, will be most easily removed entire; and that it may not have its integrity destroyed, the assistance given to the mother must be temperate. Every little aid is a help to the labor; and knowing that, we must be content if we are denied to accomplish all. The traction, assisted by a secure grasp, should be steady; and the lips of the part should at the same time be as much as possible pulled open with the fingers of the free hand. Mild, soothing, and encouraging words will, during the operation, be of every consequence; and it is of importance that, in every particular, the animal should be humored to the extent of possibility. Restraint should be enforced only where absolutely necessary; and when it is so, the creature will strangely comprehend the reason that compels, and patiently, or at least without resentment, submit to its endurance. A harsh word, however, or a blow, or both together, too frequently gratify the impatience of the practitioner, and, at this time, often dispel the throes on which the birth depends. The dog is ever sensitive to correction; no living being more acutely feels rebuke or praise; and its excitable nature, lighted up by the pains of labor, cannot then endure unkindness, and should receive our sympathy. Good language, no hurry, and a rejection of all violence, will do more for a desperate case than all the drugs in the pharmacy, or all the tact which ingenuity is possessed of. To secure the legs, when they can be felt, Blaine recommends a skein of worsted. I have not found that article of any use whatever. If introduced into the vagina, it soon becomes moist, adheres to the finger, and cannot be detached from it. If, however, applied in a loop or slip-knot round a paw, I have known it cut through the bone; and its only advantage lies in the fact of its little tendency to come off when once fixed. Even in that respect, however, it sometimes disappoints, and I consequently no longer use it. To supply its place, I had the following very simple instrument made; and it answers every intention, although it is but seldom required:-- [Illustration: PARTURITION INSTRUMENT.] A tube of polished metal is at one end curved to suit the line of the pelvis, and at the other it is grooved, and also has a small cross-bar. Into the tube a piece of zinc wire is introduced, so as to double and form a loop at the bent extremity, the ends of the wire coming forth at the other. One of the ends of the wire is twisted into the groove, so as to render it fast; and that being done, the instrument is prepared for use. When required, it is introduced with the loop of wire upon the point of the finger, and the paw it is desired to fix being felt, the finger is withdrawn, and the instrument moved forward. The free end of the wire is then pulled to render the hold secure; when it is twisted round the projecting bar and made secure. By employing a pliable wire, we gain those advantages which arise from its not becoming flabby and adherent when the part is moist; but it retains its form, and is therefore more readily directed. The tube assists us in guiding the loop, which, being once fixed, can be made secure, so that traction does not afterwards further tighten it. The danger, however, is not entirely removed; for, if undue force be used, the wire may do injury as well as the worsted; and for that reason I seldom resort to it, unless assured the pup is dead, when the pains are generally slight, and additional force is often necessitated. When the pup dies before birth, the membranes in which it is enveloped generally rupture; and by introducing the finger, the foetus is to be felt without these interposing. The mere rupture of the membranes, and the emission of the meconium--a dark, greenish, semi-fluid substance--will not alone convince us of the fact; but, if the labor has been prolonged, if the throes are almost lost, and if no motion can be detected in the pup, we may conclude the life has departed. Dead pups are more difficult to deliver, and stimulants are generally needed to promote their expulsion; but manual help is to be given with caution. Youatt speaks of working hard, till his nail was soft and his finger sore, for two hours at a time; and that author tells us the passage was, by his industry and frequent examinations, so much swollen, that only with considerable difficulty could the finger be passed. The humanity which shines in every wish that writer ever penned, and the purpose of all his teaching, assures us he thought such a proceeding was not only imperative but praiseworthy. He was, however, a good man actuated by an imperfect knowledge. Let no one follow his example; but be passive till the time for action is ascertained--and it is of no use to grope for it. Frequent examinations are injurious; the more seldom they are made the better; for, if undertaken only when the judgment sees a chance of hope, no harm will be occasioned. Under every delay, therefore, have patience; for often the pup which originally would resist every attempt to bring it forth, will, after it has been dead a few hours, be delivered with a facility we could not anticipate. If the parts are not irritated and rendered dry, there is little to be apprehended; but if this be done, inflammation of the uterus is apt to be induced, and should that occur, it is of little consequence to the life of the bitch whether the pup be delivered or not delivered. From the pup, whether it be dead or alive, we are not to look for those signs which denote there is a pressing necessity to accomplish the delivery without delay. I have known a foetus, after being ascertained to be dead, to be retained four days, and the bitch to survive. Instances of the dead pup remaining in the womb a day or two are very common; and, if we had no other proofs, these would be sufficient to convince us there need be no immediate hurry. When, however, the bitch becomes restless, gets in and out of her bed, pants, staggers, refuses food, drinks largely, and is shortly afterwards sick; when the tongue becomes dry, and the pulse grows quick and thin, or unnaturally hard and strong, there is danger, and at every hazard delivery must be accomplished. There will, however, then only be a distant chance of success; and where these indications have been remarked, the life of the mother has generally been lost. If a portion of the litter has been born, and, on the appearance of the symptoms just described, the pups refuse to suck, and when placed to the teats turn from them, the termination will be fatal. The milk seems to have lost its inviting properties, and to be rendered disgusting by the approach of death; and the sign is as conclusive as the departure of vermin from the carcase of an animal. Forcible delivery is to be accomplished by every means in our power; for it is undertaken only when hope by ordinary process is despaired of. Forceps of any kind, however, are to be employed with extreme care. These instruments are always dangerous in the bitch; as we cannot see, and can but imperfectly feel, so there is little guide to their proper use. The crochet, a blunt hook--and for the dog it can hardly be too blunt--is to be preferred. As I have before submitted to the public my opinion of this instrument, I here extract from a paper which appeared in _The Veterinarian_ for February, 1847:-- [Illustration: THE CROCHET.] "I was obliged to meet my pupils in the evening, and was not sorry to leave a case which had now, in my mind, become hopeless; but as I walked, I could not forbear thinking of that which had occupied most of my attention during the day. The different instruments employed to facilitate the labors of different animals passed in review before me; but some were not applicable to the dog, and others could not be manufactured with sufficient speed to benefit my present patient. The crochet, used with such power by the human practitioner, seemed the one most likely to avail; indeed, it had often before occurred to me, that an adaptation of this instrument would, in our hands, be of infinite service; and, after I had dismissed my class, I hurried to procure what I had conceived would be useful. Mr. Perry, to whom I applied, had a human crotchet in his shop, and this he consented to alter according to my directions. I stayed till the alterations were completed, and by eleven at night reached home, to put the adaptation of the crotchet to the test. It answered beyond my utmost expectation, and I was enabled to bring away the whole of the contents of the womb with comparative ease. Four pups were extracted; and while I compared them with the little animal from which they had been removed, it required the evidence of my senses to convince me that the disproportioned mass had been forced through the narrow passage of the Italian greyhound's vagina. The pups were all dead. Each bore the well-marked character of the Russian, and by their size indicated their sire: nor was that size decreased by their having been retained a week beyond their usual period. "So far my labor was accomplished; but the appearance of the bitch indicated that all had been done to little purpose. The pulse began to decrease in number, and, nevertheless, continued hard and jerking--the eyes became fixed--the jaw closed--the head pendulous--and all the symptoms of approaching death were exhibited. I tried to support the system; but the poor animal died in spite of every attention, and the examination after death showed the womb to be intensely inflamed. "It was with some anxiety that I looked for injuries and abrasions, scarcely deeming it possible the violence I had necessarily employed had not lacerated the delicate structure with which the instrument had been in contact. Not a mark which I could attribute to the crotchet was to be discovered. I have seen fearful wounds made by the forceps used to deliver the bitch; but here, in the most desperate case of the kind which I had ever undertaken, was not a scratch or a bruise to be detected. "I have since confirmed the indications of utility which were given by the crotchet on the first occasion of its employment; and had I not received such proofs in its favor as appeared to be conclusive, I should, perhaps, on the results of a few cases only, have hesitated to introduce it to general notice. Besides the instances before alluded to, I have employed the instrument on four occasions--three times in my own practice, and once at the request of a practitioner, whose name it is desired I should conceal. Two of the cases were successful, so far as the bitches were concerned; one, which was evidently sinking when brought to me, was delivered of a pup in a decomposed state, and died five hours afterwards, the post-mortem displaying acute peritonitis; the other, which I attended to yesterday, was alive when I last saw it; but I am of opinion its hours are numbered. The pulse is hard, but not quick--the animal restless--and the eye dull: worse symptoms can hardly be present. The poor beast had been left too long unassisted for help of any kind to be of much avail. "Of the pups brought forth by the aid of the crotchet, the majority were dead; indeed, though safe to the mother, the instrument is apt to be fatal to the offspring. The numbers stand thus:--Dead when extracted, 7; mutilated when brought forth, and immediately destroyed, 1; alive, 1. Thus the proportions are as 8 to 1 against the probability of saving the pups; but it must be remembered that the calculation is made from the cases of which the majority were, by previous delay, rendered hopeless, and under fairer circumstances the result might have been different. "I will now proceed to describe the crotchet, and explain the manner in which I have employed that instrument. It has been long known to the human accoucheur, but by him is not employed save under certain conditions. A piece of stout steel wire constitutes its substance. The wire, about twelve inches long, is flattened at one extremity, and both ends crooked and made perfectly smooth or blunt, the flattened hook being the larger of the two. For the dog, the instrument must, of course, be proportioned to the passage into which it is to be introduced; and as the pup, in consequence of the weakness of the abdominal parietes in the bitch, often is felt lying below the level of the symphysis, a dip or lateral bend is given to the hooks. "So simple is the crotchet, which ought to be highly polished, in order to secure its being perfectly smooth. It is first warmed and greased, then introduced with the index finger of one hand, while the other guides the instrument into the womb. The foetus is to be first felt, and this is the more readily done if an assistant supports and compresses the abdomen. When the finger has ascertained that the pup is favorably placed, the hook (and I generally use the flattened extremity of the instrument) is to be pushed forward and then retracted, until the operator is aware that a firm hold has been obtained. The purchase being secure, the finger is to be employed to keep the foetus from escaping, by pushing it against or towards the point of the crotchet, and holding it there. Traction is now made steadily and in the proper direction; and the assistant at the same time, by manipulating the belly, facilitates the delivery of the bitch, which should be in a standing position--not upon its back. "The directions are not very complex, but they must not on that account be disregarded. By introducing the finger, and taking care that its extremity corresponds with the point of the instrument, a great object is gained by securing the pup more firmly: yet there are other advantages also obtained by this mode of operating. The head of the foetus is generally too large for the vagina, and hence the difficulty of its expulsion; but by the employment of an instrument which is simultaneously to pass, we appear to be increasing the obstruction: however, by compressing the head with the end of the finger, it is in some degree forced to conform to the diameter of the passage, which the gelatinous development of the pup at the time of birth readily enables it to do. Moreover, the hazard of injury being done, if the instrument should lose its hold, is guarded against; for should the hook slip, the point would be received upon the end of the finger before it could catch the soft parts. However, the operator will feel the hold giving way long before it is entirely lost, and will be enabled to rectify the occurrence in the majority of cases before there is a chance of accident. The finger, therefore, becomes a sensible guide to the operator, and by its employment the traction is rendered more firm and steady. But above all, care should be taken to have the instrument perfectly blunt, and the beaks of the hooks not too long. A sharp point might, at the first glance, seem more likely to answer the purpose in view; but its employment would be attended with danger, and on being tested, it would be found more apt to tear away. In fact, the sharper the point, the less firm would be the hold, since the substance to be secured is somewhat of a pulpy nature; whereas, by using as broad and flat a point as possible, the force is exerted on a larger surface, and the grasp is proportionably the more likely to be retained; the object being not to rend the foetus, or tear it away, but to gently pull it through the vagina, using only so much violence as the judgment assures us is imperative for the accomplishment of the purpose." On reflection, I am inclined to think the measures adopted in the case narrated above were somewhat more precipitate than they ought to have been. Now, I should have taken more time; and the success does not assure me that the haste exhibited was fully warranted. It is not always easy to ascertain when the whole of the pups have been removed. The last in the womb, always occupying the extremity of one of the horns of the uterus, may by an inexperienced practitioner be overlooked. Most persons seek to learn whether the labor has been perfected, by inserting the finger up the vagina; and they who base their opinions upon an "_examination_" of that description will often be deceived. External manipulation will best lead us to the knowledge we desire to gain; and when the hand is properly directed, an approach to certainty can be obtained. The pup to be felt through the walls of the abdomen is an uneven body; the inequalities caused by the limbs being detected. After parturition there is generally one thing that may be mistaken, which is the contraction of the body of the uterus. The first pup born occupied that situation, and on its expulsion the part of the womb it filled narrows, becoming thick and somewhat hard. Under the fingers, it conveys the idea of a solid substance, and it may be imagined to be another foetus. It is too frequently seized when the forceps are ignorantly and violently employed. The womb has been repeatedly forcibly dragged forth, and its integrity destroyed. A mistake of this kind is fatal. The rupture of the uterus is followed by sickness and a cessation of the throes; while the hemorrhage from the laceration induces inflammation that destroys the life; therefore, when forcible means are determined upon, extreme care is required, and forceps, as a general rule, had better be dispensed with. As regards other means--such as the tube and wire, the crotchet, the supports to the abdomen, and the employment of stimulants--these must be regulated by the circumstances of the case. The appearance of the bitch will generally denote when the births are completed. She, after the last of the litter has been born, seems to be much rejoiced, and by her manner indicates she has no more business at present to transact. She curls herself round, draws her puppies close to her, makes the bed comfortable, sees that all her family are in order, and then composes herself for a comfortable sleep. The meaning of her actions is at this time so conspicuous, that I have repeatedly lingered to watch them; and he who has never witnessed her conduct on such occasions, might be entertained by observing it. The animal subsequently requires little attention, beyond a change of bed and a fair supply of nutritive food. She does best when least noticed; but it is well to see that she takes a sufficiency of exercise. On the following day she should be taken out; and on every day after that she ought to be about pretty much as before. Some bitches, however, are such devoted mothers as to sacrifice health, and occasionally life itself, to enjoy the pleasure of being with their young ones. This excess of affection must be controlled; for if not checked it will seriously injure both parent and offspring. All animals, however, are not thus distinguished. Some bitches cannot be induced to suckle the pups they have given birth to; and others, though less frequent, will eat their progeny. The disposition to desert or destroy their young seems to prevail among the parentage of this world. In the female of the dog the maternal instinct is most powerful; but under certain conditions of the animal's body, the natural impulse seems to be perverted, and she takes the life she would else have perished to preserve. It is painful, knowing this, to reflect that on his own species man inflicts the highest punishment, for an act that possibly may be, in the human being as in brutes, the consequence of a mental excitement accompanying the period of parturition. Women, when not in distress and otherwise afflicted, rarely indeed are guilty of infanticide; and I have observed annoyance or ill health proceed or accompany the like act in animals. If the rabbit be looked at, her alarm seems to change her nature; and the bitch that devours her pups will, upon inquiry, be generally found to have suffered some species of persecution. That the brain is affected there can be no doubt. The unnatural propensity is of itself a proof; but the strange appearance, and the altered looks of the creature, sufficiently denote her state. She is not then savage; her ferocity has been gratified; and she seems rather to be afflicted with a remembrance of the act she was unable to resist. She is the picture of shame; she slinks away at our approach, and her eye no longer confidently seeks that of her master; her aspect is dejected, but I think more with sorrow than with crime. I would not plead for sin; but what I have beheld in dogs inclines me to think the majority of those who have been hung for infanticide were legally murdered. There is danger in admitting such an opinion; but seeing all animals at certain periods exhibit a particular propensity, it is very doubtful whether the morbid feeling, as exemplified in the human race, is really one that calls for mortal punishment. When a bitch has devoured her young, let an emetic be administered; and should the bowels be costive, an aperient be exhibited. A little fever medicine may follow; but if its effects are not immediately witnessed, tonics, without loss of time, should be resorted to. The food must be mild; and everything should be done to guard against excitement. The system requires to be soothed; for the act is always attended with general disturbance; and attention must be paid to prevent the milk from accumulating in the glands. Some persons entertain a notion that the bitch which has once devoured her litter, will ever after retain the disposition. This is a false idea. On the next occasion, if properly treated--that is, if not persecuted, chastised, alarmed, and annoyed, but properly dieted--she may prove, and most likely will prove, an excellent mother; the very excitability which, when over-stimulated, induced her unnatural impulse, making her, when tranquil, the more alive to the instincts of her nature. I once saw this in a very remarkable manner illustrated by a rabbit. The doe was sold to me very cheap, and was in litter at the time of purchase. A week after she came into my possession, she plucked her fur and made her bed. One morning I distinctly saw a nest full of young; but looking again at noon, not a single one of the progeny was to be beheld. Some little blood and a mangled leg told their history; and the animal a fortnight afterwards was again put to the buck. I by chance discovered, while the doe was breeding, that she had an inordinate thirst. At first it amused me to see the creature lap the water I presented to her; but at last I placed within her hutch a cup, and had it kept constantly filled. Her desire for liquid was not speedily quenched; and it became to me a source of some pain when I reflected how much agony the craving must have caused prior to my being conscious of its existence. The next litter was not eaten by the mother. She brought them up, and they likewise did well, drinking as much as they pleased. The disposition of the doe appeared to undergo a change. From having been savage, that is, from always endeavoring to bite and scratch the hand that cleaned her residence, or even supplied her table, she became gentle and familiar, allowing her person to be caressed, and letting her progeny be looked at. She was at last as good as she was beautiful; and I parted with her for a sum exactly four times that which she had cost me. After a bitch has pupped, there always is from the vagina a discharge, which rarely ceases before a week expires, and sometimes flows forth for a longer period. Some gentlemen of the "fancy," as the dog breeders term themselves, boast they know how to check it; and to what extent their knowledge may reach I cannot pretend to say. I have been requested to perform such an office, but hitherto I have not attempted to fulfil it; and I should be very sorry to do so, even if I were certain there existed the means to arrest the exudation. It is natural; if the animal be left alone, she will be sure to perform the offices of cleanliness, and to do everything her state requires. For the first week the bitch is very attentive to her family; and as it gives her pain when one is taken up, it is better not to handle the pups more than is absolutely necessary. She should be well fed; not crammed, but nourished; and she will require more food than formerly, for there are many mouths to feed through hers. The quantity of support she needs may be conjectured from the rapid growth of the pups. A small bitch of my own had a litter of four. The mother weighed seven pounds six ounces; and between the second and fourth weeks the young ones daily added one ounce and a half each to their bulk. It would require some amount of milk to supply such a quantity of flesh; and we have also to remember that, during the rapid growth, the process of consolidation is simultaneously going forward. Good nourishing food, sufficient in bulk, is absolutely imperative; for if the pups be stinted, the dogs will assuredly be weak. A strong bitch may be able to bring up as many young as she can produce at a litter; but the animals of the smaller or more choice breeds are seldom possessed of such capabilities. The very diminutive will not generally rear two pups without suffering; and four are a very heavy drag upon the majority of the animals kept as pets, even though they be in no way remarkable on account of size. Three, perhaps, is the average number the larger favorites can nurture. When, through a desire to get as many specimens of a particular breed as possible, a delicate bitch is allowed to suckle all the members of a heavy litter, fits are the too probable consequence. The animal becomes so much weakened by the continual drain upon her, that the whole system is debilitated, and the brain shares the general disorder. Previous to this being perceptible, the animal may be observed to pant violently when her young are sucking; and instead of cuddling to them in a manner expressive of her delight, she stretches herself out, and frequently exhibits uneasiness by shifting her position. At length she breaks away from her offspring, which appear to be dissatisfied with her departure. She does not continue quiet after her escape, but seeks ease in vain, has a vacant expression of countenance. Affection, however, impels her to return; and the same scene is exhibited, the pups seizing upon her, and having no regard for her exhaustion. The little things are hungry, for the source of their nourishment is failing; and thus the demand is the greater, just as the supply becomes the less. At length the poor bitch pants, staggers, falls, and writhes in convulsions, which on an average continue about five minutes. The struggle subsides, to leave the animal in a sad state of weakness. The pulse then is quick and feeble; the pupil of the eye is dilated; and if the teats be tried, the milk they ought to contain will be found absent. For the fit itself little need be done. While they are violent, an injection of ether and laudanum may be thrown up; and when the consciousness is in some degree recovered, a dose of the same, with from a quarter of an ounce to an ounce of sherry may be administered. Afterwards a few tonics may be given; but the mother must never be permitted to visit her young ones as before. Either a foster-parent must be found (and a cat will rear a small pup very tenderly), or the litter must in part be brought up by hand. This last is more troublesome than difficult to do. The pups want to be fed early and late; consequently, they must be taken into the bed-room; and when the feeding time arrives, the soundest sleeper will be reminded of his duty. A bottle, such as is used for infants of the human kind, must have a sort of nipple made of wash-leather fitted to it. The leather is to be pricked all over with a fine needle, and within it is to be placed a small piece of sponge to give substance and form to it. There is need to do that, because the pup when it sucks wraps the tongue round the teat; and unless the body it thus grasps has bulk, it cannot extract the liquid. This, therefore, being attended to, the little creatures very soon learn their lesson, and all that is subsequently to be done will be to hold them to the bottle, and the bottle to them. Each pup occupies from ten to fifteen minutes at a meal; and they may be allowed to decide the quantity that will do them good, unless one should obviously be morbidly gluttonous, when the indulgence of its appetite should be restrained. During the night the bitch must be kept away from her hungry tormentors; but in the day-time she may be allowed to go to them every time after they have been fed; and she may remain to enjoy their society for half-an-hour on each occasion. The small gluttons, though full of cow's juice, will nevertheless find appetite for such a luxury as mother's milk; but their energies being blunted, they will have power to do no more than to prevent an accumulation within the glands. The little, however, which they can swallow seems to do them much good; for after this manner I have brought up many pups, though, when I have attempted to rear them wholly upon cow's milk, success has not always rewarded my care. There is only one circumstance needed to be pointed out when pups are brought up by hand. The sponge and leather of the false nipple is apt to become sour; and therefore, after they have been used, they should be kept in water rendered slightly alkaline with the carbonate of soda. At three weeks old, puppies may be brought to lap a little; and they not only learn quickly where their bellies are concerned, but they never, like other children, forget what they once acquire. After a month a little scraped meat or boiled rice may be added to their diet; and by five weeks old they will feed themselves. Therefore, if the trouble be great it does not last long; and to those who can make an amusement of the business, the pleasure repays the labor. I do not know whether feeding pups is quite as agreeable a pastime as killing birds; but I am sure it is far less dangerous to him who follows it; though the difference of name given to such recreations may, to weak eyes, invest them with very opposite attractions. At this place it is not intended to enter at length into the plan to be pursued in rearing the pups; but the method in which they ought to be weaned must be pointed out. Some persons remove the entire litter at a stated period; various dates being fixed by different individuals when the young ones can do for themselves. A pup can survive if taken from the mother at the expiration of the third week; but it must be a strong animal, or it will feel such an early separation from the source of its natural nourishment. The stronger the pup, the more attached is the bitch to it; and I have known these animals to pine and neglect the rest, when the favorite has been taken from her. If, however, the healthy are beloved, the weakly, in almost a stronger degree, are the objects of dislike. In many breeds where the value is regulated by the lightness of the weight, the one most prized by the owner is the one that too frequently dies. The causes of this disappointment are many. Pups have neither politeness nor generosity. They scramble at their meals; and the one that is not able to contest for his share is certain to get the least. Thus the debilitated hope of particular litters comes but badly off. It is pushed aside by its brothers and sisters, whose vigorous greediness appears to endear them to their mother. For the boisterous gluttons she will accommodate her position, and fondly lick them in return for their energetic appetites; but to the poor sickly thing she has given life to, she lends no assistance, and bestows no attention upon. She seems to be ashamed of, and disgusted with, its degeneracy and while the others grow fat and sleek from positive repletion, it becomes thin and dirty from actual starvation. Where, therefore, it is desirable to rear the smallest of the litter, the proprietor must take care to see it properly fed. The bitch may need to be held, in order that the little one may suck her; and often have I placed her under such restraint. In order that the small one may be nurtured, some persons have taken away from the mother the rest of the family; but this practice, though successful with regard to the life, generally disappoints with respect to the diminutiveness, which made the existence precious. Upon the abundance which such single blessedness secures, the growth is generally rapid; and it is not very long before Nature makes up for her previous stint. The better method is, to let the companions continue; care being exercised only to see that at meal-times all share alike. The bitch, also, requires our attention to observe that all the glands are properly emptied. Puppies, like children, are apt to be fanciful where plenty prevails; and it is no very rare occurrence for a litter to combine in refusing to draw the most forward of the teats. These are situated under the sternum or breast-bone; and repeatedly have animals with young ones recently born been brought to me, because their owners perceived symptoms which could not be interpreted. The animal is restless; the nose is dry; the tongue hot; the appetite is either lost, feeble, or capricious; and the dog is disinclined to move, often crying out when obliged to walk. If the teats are examined, all those posteriorly situated will be found fairly drawn. On these the pups can take a firm hold; and as they are the most capacious, no doubt they present temptations against which the lesser glands anteriorly placed cannot compete. The smaller are therefore rejected; and will be found to be distended with their secretion. If this is removed, and, as necessity arises, afterwards withdrawn, no more need be done, but the symptoms will subside. To milk the bitch requires only a little patience. The gland should be taken between the finger and thumb, when any degree of pressure, not designed to create pain, may be made, and the fluid squeezed out. The animal submits with pleasure to have this operation performed, and seldom moves before it is perfectly accomplished. Where any appearance of hardness is detected, the place should be kneaded between the finger and thumb; for pains should be taken to remove the coagulated milk, which is generally the cause of the induration. Frequent and thorough milking will do more good in these cases than any of the active remedies sold by chemists and dog-fanciers, for the purpose of immediately curing them. To dry up the milk of a bitch is a duty we are often called upon to perform; but it is one I invariably decline to accept. The animal will always soon cease to yield its secretion if it be let alone; for if dog's milk were valuable, we should in vain use our utmost art to prolong its continuance. When the pups are removed, Nature takes away that which is no longer required; but if the litter be suddenly separated from the mother, or all the young should be born dead, Nature may not immediately accommodate herself to the circumstances. In such cases, the milk should be withdrawn three times daily; a dose of opening medicine should be administered, and the food should be spare. A few days' attention will be required; but the matter, if neglected, causes much suffering, and very frequently lays the foundation for future evil. Falling of the vagina, or membrane lining the passage to the womb, is sometimes witnessed in animals that are much confined, and consequently of a debilitated habit. Creatures so savage as to be dangerous, and which, therefore, cannot be properly exercised, are most subject to it; and I have in the greater number of instances met with it in high-bred bull-bitches of that disposition. The reason of this is, the bull-dog ranks as an entirely artificial creation. In proof of this stands the well-known fact, that unless the breed be sedulously kept up, it is apt to degenerate, or to become extinct. Old breeders even now say, the ancient kind of English bull-dog is nowhere to be found. But take another proof. We want no anatomical knowledge or prejudice: in him formation is to be judged. Let the reader look at the head of the animal depicted on page 404. Is not the cranium a malformation? Do not the habits of the animal prove it to be a pampered creation? It is not generally known, that the disposition of the genuine bull-dog is too fond. It will fondle upon any stranger; and yet, contrary to the general custom of its race, it displays small preference for its master. It will fondle a human being as though its heart would burst with affection; but upon the slightest excitement--often upon a sudden sound--it will fly at and mangle the hand that was caressing it. Then the hold taken by this animal is more retentive than is strictly natural. It will fix upon an object, and frequently suffer itself to be dismembered before it will let go its hold, although its master's voice be energetically raised to command it. Do not these traits bespeak the being formed rather by man's malice, than created by Nature's goodness? Look at the likeness of the beast, and say how far it resembles the mild, graceful, and generous race to which it outwardly belongs. It is the high, or rather perverted, state in which the breed is kept, that subjects them to accidents; it is the pampered condition in which these antipodes to beauty are reared that renders them so liable to afflictions that do not affect the ordinary run of their kind--such as falling of the vagina. It comes on generally when heat is present, and mostly disappears when the excitement subsides. A red bag is seen to be pendulous from the orifice of the part; and if no care be taken to prevent it, this by exposure gets injured; becomes hard; bleeds freely, and is difficult to return. It often presents a pitiable aspect; but however painful it may be to look at, there seems to be but little suffering attending it. The animal permits it to be freely handled, and does not resist even when sharp dressings are applied. [Illustration: THE BULL-DOG.] In such cases cleanliness is to be strictly observed. If the protruded membrane should be thickened and excoriated, it must be well washed with a sponge and warm water. Afterwards it may be bathed with a lotion, (made of nitric acid one drachm, to proof-spirit one ounce,) and then returned. A cold injection, composed of alum one drachm, dissolved in spring water one pint, may be used thrice daily; and from a quarter of a grain to a grain of powdered gallic acid may be given three times a-day. The inversion of the womb is more serious; but it is generally more speedily restored. In the larger animals, that produce one or two young at a time, the uterus is commonly inverted subsequent to parturition; but in the dog I have known it only when the womb had for some period been unimpregnated. Blows may cause it; so also may excessive weakness; and the earlier it is attended to, the more readily will it be restored. The treatment is described in the following narrative, which was published by me in the _Veterinarian_. "I began by having a soft clean cloth spread upon a table, and, placing the dog on this, with a sponge the uterus was gently moistened. No friction was employed, but with tepid water the part was carefully sopped. This process was not quick. An hour and a half expired before all the extraneous matter was by it removed. This accomplished, with a pair of scissors the fibrinous tumors were snipped off. The hemorrhage was trivial; but there yet remained marks of bruises and signs of laceration which could not be cut away. To these a spirituous solution of nitric acid--a drachm to the ounce--was applied, and the entire of the exposed surface dressed with it. "Knowing the peculiar form of the passage, I was able to return the womb, and met with little obstruction. Up to this point I had succeeded better than at first I hoped; but here came the difficulty. The uterus was replaced, but how was it to be retained? The irritability of the system would have a natural tendency to reject the viscus, and the lotion I had used was not of a soothing quality. To render the case more desperate, there was the knowledge of the temperament and habits of the animal--its manner of sitting--its mode of curving the spine to void its fæces--the marked excitability of its generative organs--and its peculiar sensitiveness to suffering. "To own the truth, I had done so much more than, seeing the hardened and lacerated condition of the parts, I had in the first instance anticipated was possible, that I was not exactly prepared for my good fortune. I remained for some time thinking--and, really puzzled, requested those present not to speak. I wanted some combination of medicine which I could not satisfactorily procure. A sedative to the general system was required, but not one that should depress; as, after operations of this description, the vital powers are disposed to sink, and therefore generally require to be stimulated. I moreover wanted an excitant to the uterus. Many things were hastily thought of, and as quickly rejected; and, in my difficulty, I was at last obliged to ask advice of those about me. A bandage or harness to pass over the parts was suggested; but the almost impossibility of fixing it properly, and the mischievous ingenuity the dog exhibits with its teeth, rendered this plan obviously inappropriate. One person proposed to adopt the custom--sometimes, I am sorry to say, followed by cow-leeches--of passing stitches through the labia. The brutal and unjustifiable practice was of course rejected, and, I trust, by the members of the veterinary profession, it is never embraced. "Fairly at my wits' end, I suddenly determined to try how the injection of cold water into the uterus would act. I knew of no case in which this agent had been employed, and could not feel confidence concerning the consequences of the experiment; but, in despair, I resolved to hazard it. A quantity fresh from the pump was therefore obtained, and it was thrown up, being allowed to flow back. A stream of cold water was thus made to pass over the interior of the uterus, and about two quarts had been used before the animal appeared to be at all affected, excepting that the injection seemed to induce a sensation of discomfort. At last a feeble moan was uttered, which, when another pint or thereabouts had been injected, burst into something approaching to a cry. I then desisted. The tube was withdrawn, and, hoping that the symptom of pain resulted from the contraction of the organic fibre under the stimulating effects of the cold, the animal was ordered to be placed where nothing could disturb it. "Having passed an hour in the company of my friend, when about to leave I requested to see the dog once more. The animal had been put into a hayloft, and I was pleasantly surprised to hear it give tongue on our approach: it came to meet us, and the change was such as I could not have anticipated. The parts had regained almost their natural appearance; certainly they presented nothing to indicate the aspect they had exhibited only a few hours before. "A mild aperient was given. The animal had no other medicine, neither was any local application used. For three days a slight discharge of a blackish color ensued; but when this stopped, the animal was returned to its owner cured." Hardened swellings, or indurated tumors in the teats, are very common in the bitch. They are caused by the milk being allowed to accumulate in the glands, and there to curdle or act as a foreign body on the parts immediately around it. The bitch will secrete milk, although she has had no pups; and a virgin bitch will do so quite as actively as one that has been a mother. When heat has subsided, although no intercourse has been permitted at the period, when the birth would have taken place the glands will swell; and on squeezing them, a full stream of thick milk will flow forth. Nine weeks, therefore, after oestrum, whether the desire has been gratified or denied, the teats should be examined and relieved. If this should not be done, small lumps will appear. These are round, not sensitive; but generally roll under the fingers, and appear at first to be perfectly detached, though more or less deep seated. No time should be lost in removing them; for if allowed to remain they rapidly increase, and often become of an enormous size. Others also appear until the whole of the glands are involved; and the extent of the implication renders an operation, which in the first instance would have been both simple and safe, so complicated and hazardous as not to be risked. The tumors, moreover, as they enlarge, by their weight and size, become exposed to numerous accidents; either they are excoriated by the movements of the legs, hurt by blows, or lacerated by being dragged along the ground. Anything that interferes with their integrity seems to change their character. From having been dormant they start into activity, and the slightest wound degenerates into a wide-spreading ulcer. When this last appearance is established, no treatment I know of can effect a cure. If there be a hope, it lies solely in the skilful use of the knife; but generally the constitution is so much exhausted, and the disease so firmly established, that surgery is but a desperate resort. When taken in time, the situation of the tumor being ascertained, the skin is divided and the growth dissected out. This is easily done, and it is seldom that a vessel requiring ligature is divided. The care required is to spare the skin, no portion of which, unless it should be implicated, ought to be excised. Neither plaster nor suture will afterwards be wanted. The bitch would with her teeth remove either; and as the healing process is established, the integument will contract and unite. When there is more than a single tumor to take away, or one of large dimensions to remove, though there may be no important vessels to ligature, the oozing of blood is sometimes greater than may with safety be disregarded. In such cases, the application of cold water, or of oil of turpentine, or the tincture of ergot of rye, or blowing upon the part by means of a pair of bellows, will be of service, and may each be tried; but the actual cautery, though held in high esteem by veterinarians, is not suited to these instances. After the tumor or tumors are cleanly removed, a course of iodine should be enforced; and it should be persevered with for several months, nor given up simply because all present symptoms have disappeared. The tendency has been exhibited, and the medicine is now employed to prevent its development for the future; and, by the continued use of the agent, we hope to accomplish that intention. SKIN DISEASES. Every affection of the skin in the dog is termed mange. This is very wrong; and receipts for the cure of mange are all nonsense, unless we can imagine that one physic is good for various disorders. The dog is very subject to mange; that is, the animal's system can hardly suffer without the derangement flying to and developing itself externally, or upon the skin. True mange is chiefly caught, being mainly dependent upon contagion; but all the other varieties have the seats internally, and are chiefly owing to the keep or lodging. Too close a kennel will give rise to mange, as will too spare or too full a diet; too much flesh or unwholesome food; too hard or too luxurious a bed. In fact, there is hardly a circumstance to which the animal is exposed which will not cause this malady to be developed. Peculiar kinds of bedding, as barley straw, will give rise to it; and particular kinds of diet, as subsisting entirely upon flesh food, will produce it. In short, I know a few, and only a few, of those things which will cause it; and my time has been so taken up that I have been able to observe but five distinct varieties; though my reason informs me there are many more than I here describe. However, as, in describing five kinds of mange, I do more than either of my predecessors, the public must be content with the moiety for the present; and wait till either I find time to accurately note, if possible, the different forms which mange in the dog will assume, or some more close observer comes forth to take the task from before me. True mange is dependent, as in the horse, upon an insect; and though not commonly met with, is known by the same symptoms, as the similar affection in the more valuable animal. The skin is partially denuded of hair, but never perfectly so; for in the most bare place, hairs, either single or in small and distinct patches, will be seen adhering to the surface of the body: these remaining hairs are very firmly planted in the skin, have a coarse or unnatural feel, and look all awry and unthrifty. The skin appears very dry and scaly; it is corrugated, or thrown into ridges. The parts chiefly affected have been the back, eyes, neck, &c.; though no part of the body is exempt, for I have seen it virulent upon the feet, and the rest of the body comparatively untouched. The animal appears dejected, though at seasons he may assume his usual liveliness; but when nothing attracts his attention, his time is nearly consumed in scratching himself violently. His appetite generally remains good, notwithstanding the torture he endures; but the heat of the body denotes fever, and his thirst may be excessive. The treatment consists in rubbing the body over with some of the various dressings for mange; some of which, however, are compounded for the horse, and do not very well suit the canine race. Care should be taken that the dressing, of whatever nature it may be, reaches and is expended upon the skin, as simply anointing the dog or smearing the salve upon the hair is of no earthly use. The unguent which I have employed, and with such success as emboldens me to recommend it, is composed of-- Ung. resini As much as you please to take. Sulph. sub } A sufficiency to make the rosin ointment } very thick. Ol. junip. } Enough to make the unguent of a proper } consistency, but not too thin. This is to be applied one day; washed off the next; and then the dressing repeated until the dog has been dressed three times, and washed thrice; after which the ointment may be discontinued; but again had recourse to if the animal exhibits the slightest signs of uneasiness; when the entire process may be gone through once more. Mercurial ointments are the most certain remedies for this disorder; but then they are not safe, and should always be avoided where the dog is concerned. The second kind of mange is where hair partially falls off; and this kind of disorder is well marked by bare patches of small dimensions, showing themselves on the point of the elbow and any part which is prominent, and which the animal might be supposed to have rubbed as he lay in his kennel. The patches are small and free from hair; but at the same time the skin exposed is rough, scaly, thickened, and corrugated. The itching is intense; but it does not particularly affect the exposed part; it rather seems to reside in those portions of the body which are well covered with hair. For this form of disease the cure begins with tonic medicine; and after this has been administered a week or a fortnight, as the strength may appear to require restoration, it is suddenly left off; and liquor arsenicalis in gradually increasing doses is administered. If it be a little dog, let the first day's dose consist of half-a-drop each time; and if for a large animal, of two drops each dose; three doses in either case to be given in the course of the day. In the former case, the quantity of arsenicalis is to be increased half-a-drop each day, and in the latter instance one drop daily is to be the advance; the quantity in both cases to be distributed over three doses, one to be given in the morning, one at noon, and the last at night. The medicine is to be kept on increasing each day, until the dog loathes his food; has a running from the eyes; a scarlet conjunctiva; or exhibits some symptom that denotes the physic has hold of his system; when the arsenicalis is to be discontinued for three days, and then steadily persevered with at the dose which preceded the derangement. Thus, supposing it requires three and a half drops to throw the small dog off his appetite, the quantity to resume with will in that case be three drops. There is no power I possess which can predicate the quantity of the liquor arsenicalis which an animal will bear; its effects on different creatures of the same species are so various, that what one can gorge with impunity would kill his companion. On this account no fixed quantity of the medicine can be recommended; but the practitioner must be satisfied to watch the symptoms induced, and be content to be guided by these. So soon as the physiological symptom is beheld, the good results of the medicine may be anticipated; and no compound in the pharmacopoeia works with greater certainty. The disease will begin to decline; and in a month, six weeks, or two months at furthest, will be thoroughly eradicated. In the course of that period, however, it may be as well to give Nature a jolt every now and then, by occasionally increasing the dose, being always prepared to diminish it on the symptoms giving the slightest hint that it is prudent so to do. The arsenicalis should be used simply diluted with water; and during the period occupied by the cure, no other medicine whatever will be required. The next form of mange attacks very fat and cruelly overfed animals. The poor dog is very foul. He, as it were, smells aloud; and his hide is enormously thickened, being everywhere devoid of sensation. Pinch it as hard as you can--even until the moisture be forced through the pores by the pressure--and the operation which should inflict pain, will only communicate pleasure. The animal, instead of crying out or endeavoring to snap, will stand altogether quiet, the expression of the face announcing the perfect delight it experiences; or the head turns round to lick the hand of the pincher, thereby entreating him to continue the delicate recreation. The hair is generally more or less removed from the back; and the thickest portions of the skin are either above the neck, or just before the tail. The animal is the whole day dull, never being alive except at meal-times, when it is all activity; the rest of the day is passed in sleeping, licking, scratching, biting, and gnawing its person--to the infinite annoyance of an indulgent master, who looks on the mass of disease before him, and with regret pictures the animated creature which it once was. Here the mode of feeding must be changed. Flesh must be strictly prohibited. Boiled rice forms the most wholesome diet; but even rice milk will not be touched. Neither will be eaten at first; but this does not much signify, as a day or two of abstinence rather does good than injury. If, however, the refusal to feed be exhibited beyond the third day, one, two, or three ounces of meat, according to the size, may be allowed; which quantity, though insufficient to satisfy the desires, is sufficient to keep a dog alive and hungry for an almost indefinite period. Fresh vegetable diet should be presented every day; and if declined, it should immediately be withdrawn. On no account should it be allowed to remain about, and the animal to blow upon it till it either becomes stale or noisome in the creature's eyes. Fresh clean rice should be boiled, and presented every morning; and this should be offered and withdrawn, as though it were too choice a luxury to be twice refused. The animal, tired out, and despairing of gaining anything better to eat through resistance, will fall to the loathed dish at last; and afterward swallow it without any coaxing, although the preference for flesh as food will be cherished to the death. The food being managed as directed, the dog may also have first a mild emetic, to be followed by three doses, on three different days, of castor-oil prepared as recommended, p. 116. To these is to succeed a course of pretty strong tonics, to keep up the general tone of the body, invigorate the appetite, and to support the strength. Likewise a cold bath every morning may be added, and plenty of exercise in the course of the day. So soon as the appetite is subdued, stimulating dressings are applied down the back, where the hair is wanting; and, for a beginning, the common mange liniment answers very well. It is thus prepared:-- Ol. tereb } Ol. picis } Of each equal parts. Mix. Ol. nucis } This may at first attract no notice; after it has been submitted to for a week, add to every three pints an extra pint of turpentine, which will soon banish all the philosophy the strongest-minded dog may have at his command. Even subsequent to the period when the application of the liniment is received with the acutest and most piteous cries, the torture must be continued until the skin, being reduced to its natural thickness, announces that its office is perfected; only, with the production of this last effect, the agent that gives such pain should be used less lavishly. During the application of the liniment, some diluted liquor arsenicalis may also be administered, and even the pills containing iodide of sulphur exhibited. The fourth kind of mange is where the hair falls suddenly off in circular patches. For this any simple ointment, as the ung. cest. or no application at all is sufficient. The fifth kind is the worst, especially where it attacks young pups. Almost all the hair falls off; and the poor little creature is thin, and nearly naked, while the surface of the body is covered with dark patches, and comparatively large pustules. If the dark patches be punctured, a quantity of venous and grumous blood exudes; but the wound soon heals. In full-grown dogs, the same form of disease seldom involves more than the top of the head, neck, and the entire length of the back; but it is precisely of the self-same character as in the more juvenile animal. In both cases the treatment is the same. The dark pustules are to be cut into, which produces no pain; and the pustules are to be freely opened, which operation is attended with no apparent effects. The bare skin is to be then washed tenderly with warm water and a soft sponge, after which the body may be lightly smeared over with the ointment of camphor and mercury; see p. 265. This operation must be repeated daily. The liquor arsenicalis may be administered as drops, and pills of the iodide of sulphur likewise exhibited. Where the dog is old, a cure invariably results; but it takes time to bring it about. Perhaps months may be thus consumed; and the practitioner will require a goodly stock of patience before he undertake the treatment of such a case. The proprietor, therefore, must be endowed with some esteem for the animal, before he can be induced to pay for all the physic it will consume. I cannot account for so virulent a form of skin disease affecting pups; but certain it is, that they have scarcely left the dam before its signs are to be detected. Probably it may be owing to their being weaned upon garbage or putrid flesh. Certain it is that the cure of creatures at this tender age greatly depends upon their previous keep. If it has for any known length of time been good and generous, the practitioner may undertake the case without fear; but if, on the other hand, the pup, though of a valuable breed, had lived in filth, never enjoyed exercise, and been badly nurtured, no entreaties should tempt the veterinarian to promise a restoration. It will certainly perish, not perhaps of the skin disease, but of debility. Here I may for the present conclude my imperfect account of mange; again insisting that in every form of the disorder the food is to consist of vegetables, and every kind of flesh is to be scrupulously withheld, unless to pups in a very weakly condition. Blaine and Youatt speak of alteratives as necessary towards the perfection of a cure; but as I am simply here recording my experience, all I can say is, I have not found them to be required. Cleanliness--the bed being repeatedly changed--free exercise--wholesome, not stimulating food--and fresh water--are essential towards recovery. In no case should the dog suffering under these complaints be allowed to gorge or cram itself; but the victuals must be withdrawn the instant it has swallowed sufficient to support nature. CANKER WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE EAR. Blaine treats of these two as different diseases. Youatt speaks of them as the same disease situated on different parts. As they differ in their origin and in their effects, however closely they may be united, I hold Blaine's arrangement to be the soundest, and therefore to that I shall adhere. Water-dogs are said to be the most liable to attacks of these disorders; but I have not found such to be the case. At the mouth of the river Ex, near Exeter, Devonshire, for instance, there are numerous dogs kept for the purpose of recovering the wild fowl, by shooting of which their masters exist during winter. Here is rather a wide field for observation; but among the many water-dogs there to be found, the canker both internal and external is unknown; whereas there is scarcely a dog kept in town, especially of the larger size, that does not present a well-marked case of canker. The London dog is, for the most part, over-fed on stimulating diet (flesh), and kept chained up, generally in a filthy state. The country dog gets plenty of exercise, being allowed to sleep in the open air where he pleases outside of his master's cottage, and has but little food, and very seldom any flesh. I scarcely ever have a sporting dog sent to me, on the approach of autumn, suffering from what their masters are pleased to term "foul," but canker within and without the ear are found to be included in the so-called disorder. Often am I desired to look at both long-haired and short-haired dogs, and find both kinds victims to these diseases; but canker without the ear, or on the flap of the ear, I never see without canker within the ear being also present. Canker on the flap of the ear, it is true, becomes the worst in short-haired dogs, because these animals have this part by nature more exposed to injury. Long-haired dogs, on the other hand, have the disease within the organ worst, because the warmth of their coats serves to keep hot and to encourage the disorder. Therefore, we find on inquiry that neither breed of dogs is more liable or more subject to be attacked by a particular kind of canker; though in each kind there exist circumstances calculated to give a direction to the disease when once established. Authors speak of rounding the ear for external canker; that is, of taking a portion of the border away, so as to leave the flap of the ear the less for the operation; and fox-hounds are said to have the ears rounded to escape the ravages of the disorder. There are said to have been poor dogs subjected to a second and third rounding; till at length the entire ear has been rounded away, and the wretched beast has been at last destroyed; because man first fed it till it was diseased, and then was too heartless properly to study the nature of the affection which tormented the animal. Let those who may feel disposed to question this view of external canker, ask themselves what it is which induces the dog to shake his head violently at first? For the brute must shake the head violently and frequently, before canker in the flap can be established. The disease is, in the first instance, thus mechanically induced. It has its origin in the violent action of the beast; and that action is the very one which ensues upon the animal being attacked by internal canker. The dog shakes his head long before the eye can detect anything within the ear. By that action, in nine cases out of ten, we are led to inspect the part. The action is symptomatic of the disorder, and it is the earliest sign displayed. In the dog whose coat does not favor internal canker, it may, however, establish the external form of the disease; which being once set up, may afterwards even act as a derivative to the original disorder. External canker is nothing more in the first stage than a sore established around the edge of the ear, in consequence of the dog violently shaking the head, and thereby hitting the flap of the ear with force against the collar, chain, neck, &c. Shaking, however, does not cure the annoyance. An itching within the ear still remains; which the dog, doubtless imagining it to be caused by some foreign body, endeavors to shake out. In consequence of the continued action, the sore is beaten more and more, till an ulcer is established; the ulcer extends, involves the cartilage which gives substance to the flap of the ear, and thus is created a new source of increased itching. The ulcer enlarges, becomes offensive; and he who is consulted, instead of seeking for the cause, begins by attending to the effect. Various remedies are employed to cure the flap of the ear; and each and all of these failing, the poor animal is at length rounded, and as books and teachers advise, rounded high enough up. All the diseased parts are carefully cut away; but the disease appears again, and the wretched beast is rounded a second time. On this occasion the rounding is carried still deeper, the operator being resolved the knife this time shall take effect. The dog has little ear left when the disease appears again; and the master saying he wants his dog for the field--to shoot over, and not to look at--the remaining portion of the ear is removed, hoping for better luck this time. However, chances are now against them; they have cut beyond mere skin and cartilage, into the seat of flesh in goodly substance. Spite of the brutal use of the red-hot iron, the hemorrhage is great, and ulcers appear before the cicatrix is perfected. The miserable animal having nothing more that can be cut away, is then killed, being said to be incurably affected. This is a true history, and can be substantiated by reference to all the authors who have hitherto written about the dog. It does not, therefore, depend solely upon the testimony of the present writer; but sad is the reflection, that all the pain and suffering thus occasioned was unnecessary. Canker without the ear cannot be established unless canker within the ear, in the first instance, exists. It may not be violent; it may be present only in an incipient stage, and never get beyond it; but in this state it is sufficient to annoy the animal, and make it shake its head. Doing this, however, it does enough to mislead the practitioner, and cause the death of the unfortunate animal. [Illustration: DOG WITH A CANKER CAP ON.] When a dog is brought with canker in the flap, the first thing I order is a calico cap, to keep the animal from shaking the ear. I then give the person accompanying the creature a box of the mercurial and camphor ointment, ordering it to be well applied to the external ear thrice daily, with the intention of cooling the part. I do nothing absolutely to heal the ulcers beyond keeping the part from being shaken; for I have not yet met with a case in which the cartilage has been positively involved, however much authors may write about such a texture having suffered. I direct my chief attention to the healing of the internal ear, from which I trace all the evil to have sprung. For this purpose I give a bottle of the canker-wash, described a little further on, ordering it to be applied thrice daily, and rest contented as to the result. With regard to internal canker, how virulent was the disorder, and to what lengths it used to progress, may be imagined from reading Blaine and Youatt; both of whom speak with terror of its effects, advising the use of agents for the recommendation of which I cannot account, excepting by the supposition that they were selected under the influence of fear. Most of the solutions advised are painful; but how far they were effective we may conjecture from the descriptions they have left us of the disease. They tell us that, as the disorder proceeds, it eats into the brain; either causing the dog to be destroyed, or driving it phrenetic. The poor animal, we are informed, leans the head upon the fore-feet, the diseased ear being pressed downwards, and continually utters a low moan, which at length rises into one prolonged howl. Of all this I know nothing; but I remember at college, when going the rounds with the Professor Simonds, on a Sunday morning, hearing one of those huge howls which are uttered by large dogs when enduring excessive torture. On my asking whence the sound proceeded, I was coolly informed by my teacher that he supposed Sam (the head groom) had been pouring some dressing into the ear of a dog that had got canker. Of what the dressing that had occasioned such pain was composed, I never inquired; but we may judge of its power to destroy the bone, from the extent of the agony which it produced. No wonder, when such powerful agents were employed, the bone, the brain, or any other part, was affected. Thank heaven! there is one good custom prevalent in this disease--dogs affected with it are brought to us early. Often, when the animal is only observed to be constantly shaking and scratching the ear, the proprietors bring the dog for us, to remove something from the interior of the organ. At other times, and with the most careless or unobservant masters, the dog is brought under our notice with a blackened discharge within the convolutions of the ear, and a slight smell, like decayed cheese, proceeding from it. A crackling sensation is then imparted to the fingers when the base of the ear below the flap is manipulated; the necessary pressure sometimes drawing forth an expression of pain. A worse case than this I have not encountered; though how common canker has been in my practice may be conjectured from my keeping a two-gallon stock-bottle of the wash in my surgery, and a label, for the bottles in which it is sent out, within my drawers. The mode of administering this wash is admirably described by Youatt, from whose pages I transcribe it:-- "Some attention should be paid to the method of applying these lotions. Two persons will be required in order to accomplish the operation. The surgeon must hold the muzzle of the dog with one hand, and have the root of the ear in the hollow of the other, and between the first finger and the thumb. The assistant must then pour the liquid into the ear; half a tea-spoonful will usually be sufficient. The surgeon, without quitting the dog, will then close the ear, and mould it gently until the liquid has insinuated itself as deeply as possible into the passages of the ear." The warming of the fluid I find to be unnecessary; and there is something to be added to the above direction, when the wash I advise is employed. After one ear is done, let it be covered closely with the flap, and the other side of the head turned upward without releasing the dog. When both are finished, take a firm hold of the dog, and fling him away to any distance the strength you possess is capable of sending the animal; for the instant the dog is loose, it will begin shaking its head, and, as the canker-wash I employ contains lead, wherever a drop falls, a white mark or spot, as the liquid dries, will be left behind. CANKER WASH. Liquor plumbi } } Of both equal parts. Aqua distil } Youatt speaks of the liquor plumbi as a dangerous agent to the dog, and advises for canker that a scruple be mixed with an ounce of water; but in opposition to that esteemed author's recommendation, I have employed the liquor plumbi pure, with the best effect, in extreme cases; though, in ordinary disease, the above is sufficiently strong; and in medicine it is a maxim that a sufficiency is enough. I give to the animal, as a general rule, no medicine to take; but invariably recommend the dog to be kept on vegetable diet; for, inasmuch as meat is the sole cause of the disorder, however potent may be the drugs employed for the cure, it is imperative for its eradication that the cause be removed. Sometimes, in consequence of the violent shaking of the head, serous abscesses of considerable size form inside the flaps of the ears. This mostly happens with large dogs, and the abscesses are hot and soft, being excessively tender. The animal does not like them to be touched, or even looked at, but is frequently shaking the head, and howling or whining afterwards. The remedy in these cases is equally simple and efficient. The person who undertakes to remedy the evil, first, by way of precaution, tapes the animal; that is, he forms a temporary muzzle, by binding a piece of tape thrice firmly round the creature's mouth. He then places the dog between his knees, and turning up the ear, with a small lancet makes quickly an opening in what then is the superior part of the sac in the inverted ear. This is necessary, because, if the opening were made inferiorly, all the fluid would escape, and the side of the emptied sac would collapse. If the point of the knife even could be introduced into an incision made upon the lower part of the ear, it would not be so easy to cut speedily from below upward, as to push the blade from above downwards. Well, the opening being made with the lancet, a little fluid escapes; but no pressure being put on the sac, the major portion is retained. The operator then takes a straight probe-pointed bistoury, and having introduced it into the orifice, by making only pressure, instantly divides the sac. Frequently considerable fluid escapes; the beast operated upon makes up its mind for a good howl; but, finding the affair over before its mouth was moulded to emit the sound, the cry is cut short, and the dog returns to have the tape removed, that it may lick the hand that pained it. [Illustration: A DOG TAPED OR MUZZLED FOR OPERATION.] After the enlargement is slit up, nothing more is required than to fill the sac for a day or two with lint soaked in the healing fluid; and when suppuration is established the lint may be withdrawn, and the wound, if kept clean, left to nature. THE EYE. Most writers describe a regular series of disorders associated with the eye of the dog. I must be permitted to recite only those which I have witnessed; and surely, if the diseases which the writers alluded to above have mentioned do exist, I must have encountered some solitary instance of each of them; instead of which, I have been honored by the confidence of all classes, and have after all to confess I have not witnessed a specimen of genuine ophthalmia in this animal. CATARACT.--This derangement of the visual organ is very common with the dog. Every old animal that has lost his eyesight is nearly certain to be blind from cataract. The optic nerve appears to have retained its health long after the crystalline lens has parted with its transparency. The latter becomes opaque, while circumstances allow us to infer the former is yet in vigor; for certainly dogs do see through lenses, the milky or chalky aspect of which would justify us in pronouncing the sight quite gone. There is no precise time when cataract makes its appearance. It may come on at any period or at any age. It may be rapid or slow in its formation; but from its generally known habit, we should be inclined to say it was rather slow than otherwise; though upon this point the author can speak with no certainty. No breed appears to be specially liable to it, but all seem to be exposed to it alike. The small-bred, house-kept, high-fed dogs, however, are those most subject to be attacked by it; for, in these kinds of animals, on account of the derangement of the digestive organs, the eyes seem to be disposed to show cataract earlier than in the more robust creatures of the same breed. The cause of this affection is, in the horse, usually put down to blows; but, in the dog, we dare not say the disorder is thus produced. The dog is more exposed to the kicks and cuffs of domestics than is the horse; the violence done upon the first-named animal being less thought about, and therefore less likely to be observed. But that the disease takes its origin in any such inhumanity the author has no proof, and no intention of insinuating an accusation against a class, who being generally ignorant, have therefore the less chance of a reply. The disease seems to be the natural termination of the animal's eyesight; and, though the author has seen the iris ragged-looking, as though acute ophthalmia had loosed its ravages upon the delicate structures of the eye, nevertheless he has in vain endeavored to detect the presence of that disease. Were ophthalmia common enough to have produced one-half of the cataracts which are to be witnessed by him who administers to the affections of the canine species, surely I must have met with it; as not being a very brief disorder, but one which by its symptoms is sure to make itself known, I must have encountered it in one of its numerous stages. However, not having seen it, and still being anxious of tracing cataract to its source, the author has been induced to attribute it to the influences of old age, high breeding, or too stimulating a diet. Medicine having appeared to do injury rather than to produce benefit, the author has generally abandoned it in these cases; whereas those measures which are within the reach of every proprietor, such as change of abode, attention to necessary cleanliness without caudling in the bed, wholesome food, and a total abstinence from flesh, added to the daily use of the cold bath with a long run, and constant employment of a penetrative hair-brush to the skin afterwards, have seemed to stay the ravages of the disorder; and on these, therefore, the author is inclined to place his entire dependence. GUTTA SERENA.--The author has seen one or two cases of this affection. One was present with disease of the brain, to the increase of which it was clearly traceable. The other was attributable to no known cause; but as blows on the head are beyond all doubt ascertained to produce this affliction, the author in his own mind has no doubt of its origin. A temporary affection of this nature is also constantly witnessed when the dog falls down in a fit, or rather faints from weakness; as when a female is rearing an undue number of pups, or when a dog has been too largely bled, or retained too long in the warm bath. In the last cases, the gutta serena departs as the animal recovers; but in the first-named, sometimes it is constant, and no medicine appears to affect it for good or for evil. The author, therefore, does nothing in such cases beyond giving general directions, as in the instance of cataract. Gutta serena is known by the organ being perfectly clear, but the iris remaining permanently fixed. The introduction of sudden light produces no effect on it; neither, unless the current of air be agitated, does the eyelid move. Towards the latter stage the eye changes color; but when it first occurs, a person without experience would prefer the eye in this state, because it looks so thoroughly bright and transparent. The aspect of these eyes is known to those who are much among animals, and the carriage of the body is recognised as altered when a creature becomes blind; besides which, trust him alone, and his running against different obstacles, as well as his manner of walking, will declare the truth. SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA.--To this disorder of the eye the dog is very susceptible. It may be caused by dust, dirt, thorns, or portions of leaves getting into the eyes; the symptoms are, constant closing of the lid, and perpetual flowing of the tears. Though the eye be closed, the lid is never quiet; but is being, during the entire period, spasmodically, though partially, raised to be shut again, or in perpetual movement. If the lids are forced asunder, the conjunctiva or mucous membrane forming the inner lining of the lid is seen to be inflamed; while the same membrane covering the ball of the eye is perceived to be of a white color, and perfectly opaque. The cure in this instance is always, first, to remove the cause of the injury, and then to apply some of the remedies in the manner mentioned hereafter. The conjunctiva in the dog is very sympathetic with the mucous membrane lining the stomach. The interior of the stomach may be inflamed, and the eye sometimes exhibits no sign of sympathy; but more often, as in distemper or rabies, it will denote the existence of some serious disorder. So if the animal's digestive powers are weakened by an undue quantity of purgative medicine, the eyes will assume all the symptoms of distemper, even to the circular ulcer in the centre of the organ. However, in instances of this kind nothing need be done for cure; the major disorder being subdued, the minor one subsides. No matter how virulent the disease of the eye may appear to be--even though it should become perfectly opaque--let it alone: any meddling does injury. No bathing or medicaments can hasten the cure. Although it should ulcerate in the centre, and the terrible appearance of the eye be seconded by the entreaties of the proprietor, still I caution you to continue quite passive. Touch the ulcer with nitrate of silver, as is the common practice, and the eye will most likely burst. The aqueous humor will escape, and a large bunch of fungus will start up in the place of the ulcer occupied. This fungus, if let alone, may fade away as the stomach returns to health; but a white spot is established in its place to remind you of your officiousness. Nevertheless, simple ophthalmia occasionally will appear when nothing can be detected to affect the stomach; probably owing to large dogs chasing through brush-wood, or those of the smaller breeds hunting through long grass. Then a square of soft lint, formed by doubling a large piece several times, is laid upon the painful organ, and kept wet with the following lotion:-- (1.) LOTION FOR THE EYE. Tinct. arnic. mont. Three drops. Tinct. opii Six drops. Mist. camph. One ounce. The first symptoms having subsided--that is, the dog being capable of raising the lid, and the flow of tears having in some measure stopped--the previous lotion may be changed for the following wash:-- (2.) EYE WASH. Arg. nit. One grain. Mist. camph., or Aq. dist. One ounce. The proper manner of applying these preparations to the eye deserves notice. Let the owner buy a large-sized, long-haired, camel's-hair painting brush; pour a little of the liquid into a saucer; saturate the brush in the fluid; pull the lids gently asunder, being careful not to call forth resistance by frightening a timid animal with any exhibition of haste or violence; then, having the eye exposed, draw the brush quickly across it, and the business is over. The author is frequently consulted by ladies, because their favorites' eyes run water. Such is a consequence of high breeding in some of the canine species; and being so, medicines of various kinds, by drying up the secretion of the lachrymal gland, may at first appear to do good, but must ultimately be fruitful of the most serious injury. EJECTION OF THE EYE.--The eye of the dog is rather curiously situated, which, as the writer knows of no author who has remarked on its position, he may as well refer to in this place. The eye of man is situated within a bony orbit, from which it cannot in the course of nature protrude. The eye of the dog, also, has an orbit partly formed of bone; but as regards the ridge, which in man supports and gives prominence to the eyebrow, in the dog it is composed of ligament, as with animals of the cat, pig, and other species. The reason of this arrangement--the cause for composing part of the orbit of ligament--is to allow the eye to protrude or to take its place without and before the orbit. This position of the eye is easily perceived, when a live specimen which has confidence in man is examined upon the knee, and at the same time the skull is inspected. The cause of this peculiar situation of so important an organ, is to allow the eye to possess telescopic properties; because the dog has the faculty of withdrawing the eye within, or rather quite to the back of the orbit; as any who have beheld the animal in some stages of brain disease, or the last stage of distemper, must, with their attention directed to the fact, be convinced. The dog in its wild state lives by the chase, and therefore has Providence endowed his visual organ with peculiarities which best enable it to discover its prey; at the same time, also, affording extra scope of vision, or power of seeing around it, to the eye of the animal. Owing to this peculiarity, the eye in consequence of a bite may be forced out upon the cheek; or, as once happened in my own experience, the use of tapes for the purpose of giving medicine may be the cause of the injury. Whenever this happens, procure a glass of clean milk-warm water, and a piece of soft lint; then wash the eye; when obtain a soft napkin; let the eye be well greased with any mild and perfectly sweet ointment; wrap the napkin about the right hand, and with the fingers thus encased, gently take hold of the ejected ball of the eye, while the fingers of the left hand are employed in raising the lid of the emptied orbit; then applying gentle but adequate force, and at the same time giving to the wrist of the right hand a rotatory motion, the eye will at once assume its proper place. The use of the eye lotion and wash will perform all that the after symptoms may require. Dogs are often brought to us because the animal has been taking liberties with the cat; which mistress puss has turned to resent, and her paw--the claws in the moment of irritation being out--has unfortunately scratched the dog's eye. When consulted on such a subject, the eye lotion No. 1 is in most instances all that is required; for the coverings of the eye are endowed with great powers of self-reparation. If, however, the application recommended does not perform everything to the proprietor's satisfaction, the eye wash No. 2 will perfect the cure. Accidents of this description are apt to leave scars in the shape of white marks across the eye, which time must be allowed to remove; and this in general is performed, while all the appliances of art in the writer's hand have been useless for hastening this object. DISEASES OF THE LIMBS. THE DEW-CLAWS.--The dew-claws, as they are termed, grow high upon the inner side of the leg, nearer to the foot than to the elbow. They are frequently removed while the dog is very young, being then merely cut off with a pair of scissors. This, however, is a very primitive way of operating; and it is best done with a knife, first reflecting back sufficient skin to cover the wound which the removal will occasion. The excision, moreover, is only justifiable when the dew-claw hangs from the leg attached to it merely by integument; when it is regularly formed, united to the leg by means of continuous bone, it may be allowed to remain; for in that case there is little more danger of its being torn off as the dog grows up and hunts game, than any other of the claws appended to the extremity of the foot. THE CLAWS.--These frequently, especially in petted dogs that pass their days parading about on Turkey carpets, become of extraordinary length; in some cases, turning round and forming a complete circle, so as to penetrate the little pad at the base of the last joint of the toe. In this case they cause swelling, inflammation, and suppuration, accompanied by such intense pain, that in extreme cases it may be necessary to take away the toe of the foot itself, although in general it is sufficient to clip the offending claw. However, to do this nicely, with expedition, and without giving great pain to the patient, is to be desired. Blaine recommends a small saw, such as is employed to cut off cocks' spurs with; but the dog must have excessive patience and extraordinary powers of endurance, who could allow this to be moved quickly backwards and forwards on a claw, one end of which rests on an inflamed and highly sensitive surface. Besides, it is not one claw we are generally required to remove, but sixteen; and long before the first had been fairly taken off by the method advised by Blaine, the cries of the poor animal would say, "Hold, enough!" Moreover, favorites of the class I have mentioned are generally brought by their mistresses, who cannot endure their pets to suffer, and rightly refuse to leave them to the mercy of a veterinary surgeon. This last circumstance requires a speedier instrument than the one proposed by Blaine, to be discovered. The rowelling bistoury, employed for the horses, answers better than the saw; but even it occasions so much pain as to cause serious annoyance and obstruction. I have found nothing answer so well as a pair of wire nippers; which, provided they be in good condition, will take off the whole of a dog's claws, although for the operation the animal never quits its mistress's arms. They are quick and effective, cutting through the strongest claw on the instant; giving no pain; often removing the nail without the knowledge of the patient, who provokes laughter rather than commiseration by frequently shamming the agony he does not feel--venting heart-rending cries, but invariably in the wrong place. For the performance of the operation there is but one caution necessary, and that is, to leave the root of the claw long enough, or not to attempt cutting it too short; because the unnatural life the animal lives causes small arteries to extend even into the growth of horn, and a little blood is a terrible loss in a lady's eyes. However, beyond causing the mistress distress, the practitioner need be in no fear about dividing one of these abnormal vessels, for the eccentric growth of which the most experienced practitioner cannot at all times be prepared. FALLING OFF OF THE CLAW.--There is another injury to which the claws of the dog are exposed, and the cause of which in no instance have I been able to trace. The toe becomes hot, swollen, and inflamed; the animal walks lame, or upon three legs. Whenever the particular claw in fault is touched, the cries of the dog sufficiently testify that the seat of the disease has been found. A simple treatment, such as bathing the claw and placing the foot frequently in warm water, will occasion the horny covering to be cast off in a few days; after which all that is required will be to wrap the part up in soft lint for a short period, and to deprive the animal of its accustomed exercise for a day or two. SINUSES UP THE CLAW.--These are of frequent existence, and are commonly found where their presence was not suspected. The dog walks lame, and its master's sagacity cannot discover the cause. The animal is accordingly submitted to our inspection. To pinch the claw in this case is of no use; it can only mislead the judgment. The better plan, after having ascertained none of the claws are loose, is to make the dog stand upon the lame foot on a piece of blotting paper. If the slightest moisture be left thereon, throw the animal on his back, and minutely examine the lower surface of each claw. On one will be seen a small hole, not larger than the point of a pin, from which exudes a thin watery discharge. Soak the foot in warm water; then with a sharp knife pare off the superficial horn; then soak and pare again; and so on till the entire claw is removed; when slit up, making a free wound of any sinuous opening that may exist in the ball of the toe. Dress the interior of the sinus with a small portion of sulphate of copper; afterwards with the healing lotion previously recommended; and all will do well: but the claw once taken away, either by nature or art, is very seldom perfectly restored. FOOT-SORE.--Men of robust habit, who shoot over an immense tract of country, and take a pleasure in lawfully finding the game they kill, often have to complain that their dogs become foot-sore. These animals have an elastic pad at the bottom of each foot, on which, conjointly with the nails of the toes, the creatures walk. The bottom of the dog's foot is covered with a thick cuticle, which is rapidly reproduced in ordinary cases, as soon as or before it has been worn down: but the game dog is often kept inactive during the summer, and then in autumn brought into sudden work. The consequences of this foolish practice are, that nature during the warm season supplies only a cuticle fitted to the wants of the animal, which being suddenly forced to endure excessive exercise, soon wears away, and the foot thus left devoid of covering, is raw, and consequently tender. For this state of the part, Blaine, who is therein followed by Youatt, recommends "pot liquor." I do not know what "pot liquor" means. Cooks apply the name to various refuse waters, in which different and opposite ingredients have been boiled. If so, the material with which it is made being dissimilar, the product cannot be the same. It appears to be a filth, generally cast into the hog-tub; and as such cannot be a proper medicine wherewith to cure a lame dog's foot. I throw it into the receptacle for which it is intended; and do so because I cannot understand it is possessed of any curative properties. The mode I pursue in these cases is simply this:--I get a basin of tepid water and a soft sponge; and I then well wash the injured foot. When every particle of grit or dirt is thoroughly removed, I apply to the dried sore surface a lotion composed of two grains of chloride of zinc to one ounce of water, with one or two drops of the essence of lemons. Having thoroughly washed the foot with the lotion, I soak some rags in it, which I wrap around the injured member, fixing over all a leather or gutta-percha boot; and when thus treated, and the animal is subsequently brought into work with caution, a few days I find generally settles the business. DOG-CARTS.--This appears to be the place to meet, or rather answer, the remarks which have appeared in Youatt's work on this subject. He argues, because the dog is a beast of draught in northern climes, it can be without violence, and indeed was intended by Providence to be used as such in temperate countries. Thus, if this argument be of any value, that which the dog can endure in a temperate climate, it can likewise without injury undergo in a torrid zone. The argument, if of worth, admits of this extension; for, if the subject of it is to be moved at all, it is not for the reasoner to arrogate the power of saying at what point it shall stop. However, granting him to possess this right, he will thereby gain nothing by it. In the northern climes, where the dog is employed as a beast of draught, it is so used only for the winter season; during which time the face of the landscape is covered by one sheet of snow. Is the poor dog in a cart, as seen in this country, only so employed? Is he not rather obliged to drag his heavy load, to which the master's weight is often appended, along dusty roads instead of snowy paths, and at the top of his speed, rather than at a pace which the poor creature can maintain for hours? Is it not worked in summer as well as winter? Does not mud cover the roadways in this country during the colder season for a far longer period than the snow? The summer's toil must be most oppressive to this over-tasked animal; for, though the dog is naturalized close to the northern pole, he becomes scarce for a long distance before the equator is reached. It is the creature of a cold climate; and what it can do in one country is by no means the measurement of that which it can perform in another; as those who have been at the trouble and expense of exporting hunting-dogs from England to India can testify. The foot, moreover, may travel over a sheet of snow with impunity, which may be unsuited for journeying over artificial roads, deep in mud or water; or else hot, dry, and parched with a summer's sun. The sportsman's dog is often sore-footed; and do the approvers of dog-carts pretend that the wretched beast, forced by an inhuman master to undue labor, is of a different species? If the animals are the same, how can it be argued that the organ, which when moving over soft ploughed or grassy fields often fails, is all-sufficient for the longest and heaviest journey performed upon a hard artificially constructed road? One grave senator in the House of Lords used as an argument against the Bill introduced to put down that abominable nuisance, dog-carts, in this country, the pleasure he had experienced, when a child, while being drawn in a carriage pulled by a dog along the lawn attached to his father's residence. There is no legislation required to meet such cases. No doubt the pleasure felt by the delighted child was shared by the beast, who wagged his tail, and scarcely felt the tax imposed upon its huge strength. Had the cart been removed from the lawn to the road, and been knocked up with rough wheels and without springs, like the carts used by vagrant poor are, the load of a child would not even then have made the cases similar. To make the instances the same, the cart must not only be of the rudest construction, but it must be filled with weight limited solely by the master's capacity to buy; while on the top of the burthen must be placed, not a happy child, but an idle full grown rascal. And the vehicle thus encumbered must be dragged, not along a soft lawn, at a pace necessary to please the son and heir, but along a hard road, at a rate which alone can satisfy an impatient and brutal master. In whichever way we regard this question, reason proves against it, and the dog subject to the most dreadful disease that is communicable to man should on no account, in this densely populated country, be subjected to usage best calculated to bring on the malady. FRACTURES. A fracture is technically called a solution of continuity; but, as the general reader will imagine the definition can hardly be correct, with regard to a bone which may be broader than it is long, I will here define it to be the violent division of a bone into two or more parts. [Illustration] Fractures are divided into comminuted, simple, and compound. The comminuted and compound, for the present purpose, may be regarded as one and the same; since it is obviously impossible to restore the bone of a dog which has been crushed into innumerable pieces; and such a state of the hard structure is scarcely possible to exist without the soft parts, as flesh or muscle, around the injury being involved, or the lesion rendered compound as well as comminuted in its nature. Then it is simple fractures only that have to be dealt with in this place; and a simple fracture exists when a bone is snapped across into two equal or unequal pieces. It does not matter at what point the injury may occur; so that the bone be broken only into two pieces, and none of the flesh be torn, or the joint involved, the fracture is a simple one. In the dog, several simultaneous simple fractures may exist; as where the animal breaks across the whole of the four metatarsal bones proceeding from the hock to the foot; or snaps, which is of more rare occurrence, the entire number of metacarpal bones, proceeding from the joint, which is called the knee of the dog, towards the foot of the animal. The bones, however, most commonly fractured are the ulna and radius in the fore-limb, and the tibia and fibula in the posterior extremity. Next to these in order are the femur or thigh-bone, in the hind-leg, and the humerus or arm-bone of the anterior limb. Then come the four metacarpal or metatarsal bones, being the same in number in both legs. These are all the author undertakes to treat. The first and last he manages pretty successfully. For the restoration of a fracture, all that is necessary is to bring the ends which have been divided together, and to keep them in the place into which your art has brought them. To accomplish this end, the author is accustomed to cut from a sheet of stout gutta percha three broad straight ribbons; then to soak these in warm water till they are pliable, having first cut in them several holes resembling button-holes, by the aid of a punch and narrow chisel. When they have lain in the warm water a sufficient time to soften, and no more--for the water of too great a heat shrivels up as well as softens the gutta percha--he draws forth one ribbon, and this he moulds to the front of the sound leg. That done, he takes another piece of the gutta percha, and this he models to the hind part of the sound leg. The remaining slip is fixed to the side of the limb. After the pliable gutta percha has been forced to assume the shape desired, it is the practice of the writer to cover it with a cloth saturated in cold spring water, to hasten the setting of the material, and thereby shorten a process which always renders the dog somewhat uneasy. All this accomplished, he next braces the splints together, and fixes them upon the limb, by means of a long piece of tape; putting under them, next to the skin of the animal, a quantity of lint to prevent the gutta percha from irritating the flesh. The tapes he also runs through the holes previously made, and winds about the limb, or over the splints--rather, but not too tightly in the first instance--with the intent of arousing the restorative amount of inflammation. This quantity of inflammation, the reader may imagine, would be certain to ensue on so violent an injury as the separation of the hard supports of the body; but in this he is mistaken. I have known a favorite hound to break at once the four metatarsal bones, and though the splints necessary to promote a union were kept on above two months, nothing of the kind took place; at the end of which time all bandages were removed, and his movements effected the cure which my appliances were unable to bring about. Some persons even advocate taking off all bandages from a broken leg, and sending the dog for a walk, where union is tardy; but people who use such language talk about that, concerning which they literally know nothing. It is not one walk which will produce the desired effect; but repeated walks are required to accomplish what appears to the ignorant so certain to occur. Thus, to do nothing is far better in some cases than to perform much; since the absence of remedies accomplishes that which all the paraphernalia of the surgery is unable to produce. There are cases, however, which cannot get well of themselves, unless deformity be esteemed of no consequence. Thus, when the radius and ulna are snapped right across, and the foot, deprived of all support, dangles at the end of the limb; here the interposition of surgical agency is absolutely required; for the fracture, if left to itself without the aid of art, would never assume its proper situation. So when the humerus or femur are fractured, the bones may unite of themselves; but in that case shortening of the limb and incurable lameness is certain to ensue. The practitioner aims not only to bring the separated ends of the bone together; but he endeavors, by the invention of various means, to keep them there, or to force the limb all the time of the cure to be and to remain at its fullest length. To prevent the tendency to contract in the limb, and consequently to shorten, is one of the chief difficulties which we have to contend with in the treatment of fractures. When a bone is broken, the muscles which hold the parts together sooner or later contract, and sometimes with such force as to draw the ends of the bone, which were once continuous, side by side; thus rendering the limb shorter than it was previously. This force is generally exerted immediately on the occurrence of the accident; but in some petted animals where the system is slow, it does not take place till some indefinite period has elapsed. Fortunate is the gentleman who is called on to treat a case before anything of the kind has occurred, as his difficulties will thereby be at first materially lessened; but when putting on the splints, he must be careful that they are strong enough and his tapes tight enough to keep the leg extended, or to resist the power which sooner or later he may rest assured will start up. The bandages and splints having been on some time--the precise period of which cannot be estimated,--the leg will swell, especially the foot, and the tapes become so tight as to cut into the flesh. The practitioner pays little attention to the primary indication of swelling being about to take place; but when it has fairly set in, and threatens to do injury to the limb, he with caution loosens the tapes, thus permitting the blood freely to circulate. The after-treatment of a fracture is comparatively easy. It consists merely in keeping the bowels open, attending to the general health, and in renewing the splints and bandages as often as may be necessary. It is well to bathe the fractured limb, splints and all, in the following lotions:-- LOTION FOR THE LEG BEFORE THE SWELLING HAS COMMENCED. Tinct. arnic. mont. One drachm. Aqua font. One ounce. Ess. limon A sufficiency. To be applied frequently. LOTION TO BE USED WHEN SWELLING IS PRESENT. Tinct. aconit. Half-a-scruple. Aqua font. One ounce. Ess. anis. A sufficiency. LOTION TO BE APPLIED AFTER THE SWELLING HAS SUBSIDED. Zinchi chlor. One grain. Aqua font. One ounce. Ess. anis. A sufficiency. The other measures are dictated entirely by circumstances. OPERATIONS. There are very few of such offices to be performed on the dog. Among those, however, which do occur, is the removal of the toe. When a claw has grown completely round, and by being pressed into the flesh appears, in the judgment of the practitioner, to have provoked such injury as decidedly and imperatively requires the removal of the part affected, then the amputation of one toe may be undertaken. When the dog, to allay the itching of the extremities, gnaws or eats his own flesh from the toes, leaving black and ragged bones protruding, amputation is necessary. The member must in each case be amputated higher up than the injury. There is no absolute necessity to muzzle the dog, provided the master is present, and will undertake the charge of the head. When such has been the case, and the master has engaged to keep the attention of the dog fixed upon himself, I have removed a joint or two from the leg without the animal uttering a single cry; although the master, unused to such sights, has been seized with sickness so as to require spirits for his restoration. The master being at the head, or an assistant on whom you can depend being at that post; another placed to keep down the body; and a third to lay hold of and extend the limb to be operated upon, which must be uppermost; the animal should be thrown on one side. There it must be allowed to remain until sufficient time has elapsed to calm its natural fears. The operator then takes one of Liston's sharp-pointed knives, and thrusts it quite through the flesh, a short distance above the injury; he then with a sawing motion cuts downward and outward till the knife is released. He next impales the member on the other side, keeping the back of the knife, as on the former occasion, as close to the bone as possible, and draws it forth in the same manner. He thus will have two flaps divided by a small notch, which coincides with the breadth of the bone. Through this notch, on the uppermost side, he must pass his knife, cutting upwards and inwards; thus upon both sides, till the lines made by the knife meet in a point. He will then, supposing the business to have been properly performed, see a bright pink living piece of bone in the centre; and to cut off so much, or even a little more than is visible, becomes his next object. For this purpose a saw, however fine, is tedious; because the bone to be cut through is not of sufficient body to allow the operator to put forth his strength, and on that account also does not leave behind it a smooth surface. The bone-nippers answer better. Without loss of time, therefore, the veterinary surgeon seizes a pair suited to the object in view, and with these he gently pushes back the flesh on all sides; he then, suddenly closing the handles, cuts short the protruding bone. The flaps that have been made are then brought together, when, if there is any bleeding, the raw surfaces are again exposed, and a few puffs with a pair of bellows, first having sprinkled the part with cold water, usually stop it. If that should not succeed, a small quantity of the tincture of ergot of rye suffices for the purpose; and all bleeding having ceased, the flaps are finally placed together, bound up in soft lint, and a leather or gutta percha boot placed over all, no dressing being applied or the boot removed for three days. When the wound is inspected, if, as frequently happens, the movements of the dog have disturbed the flaps, provided they are not drawn too uneven, the practitioner had better not touch them. The rectifying powers of nature in such cases are wonderful; and in those he had better trust rather than interfere with the process of healing, which he may remain certain has already commenced. In this fashion I have excised a dog's claw; and three months after the operation a spectator would have to compare one foot with another to discover that either was deficient in the proper number of appendages. CAPPED HOCK AND ELBOW.--The first of these is more rare than the last; but as, on the point of the bone in each joint, is situated a bursa or small sac, containing an unctuous fluid intended to facilitate the movement of the bone under the skin, they both are subject to injury; when they swell to an enormous size, and constitute a very unsightly deformity. If seen early, so soon as the tenderness has subsided, an ounce of lard may be mixed with a drachm of the iodide of lead, and the part well and frequently rubbed with the ointment. If in spite of the use of this ointment, which more often fails than succeeds, the tumor grows larger and larger, recourse must be had to an operation; else the disfigurement may ultimately become sufficiently great and hard to seriously impede the animal's movements. An operation being determined on, the animal is best left standing; though, should it prove unruly, assistance sufficient to lift it on to a table, and thereon to lay it on its side, must be at hand. Everything being ready, and the dog in this case properly muzzled, the operator, with such a knife as he can work quickest with, makes an incision the entire length of the swelling, and even rather longer than shorter: he next reflects back both portions of skin, that is, the skin on either side of the swelling; and lastly, separates the enlargement from its base. This removal will leave a huge, ugly, gaping wound, with a seeming superabundance of skin hanging from its side. Let him on no account remove a particle of that skin, however much more than is necessary properly to cover the wound there may immediately after the operation seem to be. Inflammation will, with the beginning of the healing process, set in, and the action of this inflammation contracts the hanging skin; so that if a portion be removed, there will remain an open wound to that extent; and as skin is slowly reproduced, the cure may be retarded for months. The first part of the business being well concluded, the dog must remain muzzled, and be returned to its proprietor with a bottle of healing fluid, the sore which has been made being left uncovered. The healing fluid is to be used frequently; and if the case be a good one, the orifice quickly becomes small, and heals. In some animals, however, there is a disposition to gnaw or lick the part; thus undoing everything the veterinary surgeon has been accomplishing. To check this habit, a cradle round the neck; wide collars which prevent the head from being turned round; and various splints which, by keeping the limb extended, thereby hinder the animal from touching the wound, are employed. Any or all of these, in untoward cases, may be necessary; and in very high-bred animals the healing powers of nature are frequently slow, consequently in such the after-consequences of an operation are likely to prove very annoying. [Illustration] DOG BREAKING: THE MOST EXPEDITIOUS, EASY, AND CERTAIN METHOD, WHETHER GREAT EXCELLENCE OR ONLY MEDIOCRITY BE REQUIRED. BY COL. W.N. HUTCHINSON, GRENADIER GUARDS. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.--463. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. QUALIFICATIONS, IN BREAKER--IN DOG. 1. Dog-Breaking an Art easily acquired. 2. Most expeditious mode of imparting every Degree of Education. Time bestowed determines Grade of Education. In note, Col. Hawker's opinion. 3. Sportsmen recommended to break in their own Dogs. 4. Men of property too easily satisfied with badly-broken Dogs. Keepers have no excuse for Dogs being badly broken. 5. Great Experience in Dog-breaking, or Excellence in Shooting, not necessary. Dispositions of Dogs vary. 6. What is required in an instructor. 7. Early in a Season, any Dog will answer, a good one necessary afterwards. Hallooing, rating Dogs, and loud whistling spoils Sport. 8. What a well-broken Dog ought to do. 9. Severity reprobated. 10. Astley's Method of teaching his Horses. 11. _Initiatory_ Lessons recommended--to be given when alone with Dog--given fasting. 12. Success promised if rules be followed. Advantages of an expeditious Education. Autumn shooting not sacrificed. CHAPTER II.--470. INITIATORY LESSONS WITHIN DOORS. SHOOTING PONIES. 13. One Instructor better than two. 14. Age at which Education commences. In-door breaking for hours, better than Out-door breaking for weeks. 15. To obey all necessary Words of Command, and all Signals, before shown Game. 16. Unreasonableness of not always giving Initiatory Lessons--leads to Punishment--thence to Blinking. 17. Dog to be _your_ constant Companion, not another's. 18, 19, 20. Instruct when alone with him. Initiatory Lessons in his Whistle--in "Dead"--"Toho"--"On." 21. All Commands and Whistling to be given in a low tone. 22 to 25. Lessons in "Drop."--Head between fore-legs--Setters crouch more than Pointers. 26. Slovenly to employ right Arm both for "Drop" and "Toho." 27. Lessons in "Down-charge."--Taught at Pigeon-match--Rewards taken from Hand. 27. Cavalry Horses fed at discharge of Pistol--Same plan pursued with Dogs. 28. Dog unusually Timid to be coupled to another. 29. Lessons at Feeding Time, with Checkcords. CHAPTER III.--480. INITIATORY LESSONS CONTINUED. SPANIELS. 30, 31. Initiatory Lessons in "Dead" and "Seek," continued. 32. In Signals to hunt to the "right"--"left"--"forward." 33. In the "Beckon." Woodcock Shooting in America. 34. In looking to you for instructions. 35. In "Care." 36. Always give a reward. 37. In "Up"--saves using Puzzle-peg. 38. Dog to carry Nose high. 39. Initiatory Lesson in "Footing a scent". 40. In "Heel." 41. In "Gone" or "Away." 42. In "Fence" or "Ware-fence." 43. "No" a better word than "Ware." 44. Accustomed to couples. 45. Initiatory Lesson in-doors with a Companion--when one "drops," the other to "drop." 46. Makes "Backing" quickly understood. 47. Initiatory Lessons with a Companion in the Fields. 48. Initiatory Lessons save time--make Dogs fond of Hunting. 49. Checkcord described. Wildest Dogs possess most energy. 50. Advantages of Checkcord explained. Spaniels broken in by it. 51. Lad to act as Whipper-in. 52. Retriever that acted as Whipper-in. 53. Jealousy made him act the part. Might be taught to Retrieve. 54. Instead of "down charge," coming to "heel." 55. As Puppies kept close to you, not to "self-hunt"--"broke" from hare. 56. Blacksmith straps Horse's Leg above Hock--Dog's similarly confined--Shot-belt round the necks of wildest. 57. Hunted in Gorse. 58. Age when shown Game. Example of good Spaniels advantageous. 59. Perfected in "Drop"--taught to "seek dead"--to "fetch"--entered at Hedge-rows and lightest Covers. Bells to Collars. 60. To hunt farther side of Hedge. 61. How Sportsmen may aid Keeper. 62. Experienced Spaniels slacken pace on Game. 63. Difficult to work young ones in Silence. 64. Spaniels that Pointed. 65. Game first accustomed to, most liked. 66. Principal requisites in Spaniels. 67. The signal "to point with finger." 68. Following Cockers a Young Man's work. 69. Education differs in different Teams. 70. One and a half couple of large Spaniels sufficient. One of the Team to retrieve. 71. Clumbers procuring more shots in Turnips than Pointers. 72. Lord P----n's highly-broken Team. 73. Of small Cockers three couple a Team. What constitutes Perfection. 74. Retriever with Team. Duke of Newcastle's Keepers. 75. Some Teams allowed to hunt flick. 76. Markers necessary with wild Spaniels. 77. Old Sportsmen prefer mute Spaniels. 78. Handy old Setters capital in light cover. Attention necessary when first entered. 79. C----e's Pointers as good in cover as on the stubble. 80. Pointer that ran to opposite side of Thicket to flush Game towards Gun. 81. Water Spaniels, how broken. 82. Shepherd's Forward Signal best for Water Retrievers. 83. Wild Fowl reconnoitred with Telescope. 84. Qualities required in Water Retriever. In Note, Poachers in Snow. Beast or Man of one uniform color easily detected. 85. Steady Spaniels in Rice Lakes. CHAPTER IV.--510. LESSONS IN "FETCHING." RETRIEVERS. 86. Lessons in "fetching" recommended. Dog, not taught to retrieve, bringing dead Bird he had found. 87. Taught to deliver into your hand; never pick up a Bird yourself; Dog which often lost winged Birds she had lifted. 88. Retrievers taught to carry something soft; injudiciousness of employing a stone. 89. How encouraged to plunge into Water. 90. Diving, how taught. 91. "Fetching" taught with a Pincushion; with a Bunch of Keys. 92. Made to deliver instantly. 93. Practised to carry things of the size and weight of a Hare. 94. "Fetching," how taught at commencement. 95. Regular Retrievers taught to fetch Birds; to "foot" Rabbits and Winged Game. 96. Retriever observes when a Bird is struck; a quality particularly useful in a Water Retriever. 97. Pigeons and small Birds shot to Retrievers. 98. Injudiciousness of aiding a young Dog when retrieving; makes him rely on Gun rather than his own Nose. 99. Fatigue of carrying Hare tempts young Retriever to drop it; taught to deliver quickly by rewards of hard boiled liver. 100. If he taste blood, put on Wire snaffle; how made. 101. Retriever how taught to pursue faster; should commence to "road" slowly, but "follow up" rapidly. 102. Why Land Retrievers should "down charge". 103. Some Retrievers may "run on shot," but those for sale should "down charge." 104. Retrievers not to be of a heavy build, yet strong and thick-coated. 105. Cross between Newfoundland and Setter makes best Retriever; the real Newfoundland described. 106. Cross from heavy Setter best Retriever. 107. Most Dogs can be taught more or less to Retrieve. 108. Young Retriever to lift Woodcock and Landrail. 109. Retrievers never to kill Rats, lift vermin, or wounded Heron, &c. CHAPTER V.--527. INITIATORY LESSONS OUT OF DOORS. TRICKS. 110. Lessons in Country Walks. 111. "Instruction in quartering;" hunted where least likely to find Game; taught while young. In Note, Bitch shot over when seven months old. 112. If unreasonably long before taking to hunting, the remedy. 113. Utility of Initiatory Lessons; taught without punishing. 114. Self-confidence of timid Dogs increased. 115. The more Dogs learn, the more readily they learn. 116. Two superior Dogs better than half-a-dozen of the ordinary sort; Action of Dogs; their Feet; Loins; dash of Foxhound gives endurance; cross with Bull hunts with nose too low; Reliefs desirable; best Dog reserved for evening. 117. Memorandum, never to ride through gate with gun athwart-ship; instance of Dog's behaving admirably the first day shown Game. 118. Proves the value of Initiatory Lessons. 119. Summary of knowledge imparted by them. 120. Why to signal with _right_ hand. 121. _One_ word only of command; dogs attend to the general _Sound_, not to the several _Words_. 122. Names of Dogs not to end in "O;" to be easily called; to be dissimilar. 123. "Drop" better word of command than "Down;" use words of command least likely to be employed by others; when purchasing a Dog ascertain what words he is accustomed to. CHAPTER VI--537. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN COMMENCED. RANGING. 124. Regular Breakers make Dogs "point" paired Birds in Spring, tends to Blinking. 125. Better not to see Game until shot over; taken out alone on a fine day in Autumn. 126. Perpetually whistling to animate Dogs, injudicious. 127. Beat largest fields, and where least likely to find Game. 128. Commence from leeward; scent bad in a calm or gale. 129 to 133. Instructions in "ranging." 134. Kept from hedge; Range greater on moors than stubble. 135. Distance between Parallels dependent on tenderness of nose. 136. If the Dog is to hunt with another, the Parallels to be farther apart. 137. No interruption when winding Birds, yet not allowed to puzzle; Nose to gain Experience. 138. Birds lie well to Dog that "winds," not "foots" them. 139. Inattentive to Whistle, made to "drop," &c.; when rating or punishing, the disregarded order or signal to be often repeated; Whip to crack loudly. The attainment of a scientific Range difficult, but of surpassing value; the best ranger must in the end find most Game. CHAPTER VII.--549. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. CAUTION. 140. Dog to be hunted alone. 141. Many Breakers exactly reverse this. 142. Turnips, Potatoes, &c., avoided; Range of dogs broken on moors most true. 143. In Turnips, &c., young Dogs get too close to Birds. 144. _Cautious_ Dogs may with advantage be as fast as wild ones; the two contrasted. In Note, injudiciousness of teaching a Puppy to "point" Chickens. 145, 6. A Dog's nose cannot be improved, but his _caution_ can, which is nearly tantamount; how effected. 147. How to make fast Dogs cautious. 148, 149. The cause why wild Dogs ultimately turn out best. 150. The day's Beat commenced from the leeward. 151. Wonderful Dogs, which find Game without hunting. 152. Reason why Dogs should be instructed separately, and allowed Time to work out a scent; young Dogs generally too much hurried. CHAPTER VIII.--556. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. CUNNING OF AGE--RANGE OF FROM TWO TO SIX DOGS. 153. Your Dog not to "break fence;" how taught; Birds often sprung while you are scrambling over hedge. 154. Turning one's back upon a Dog to bring him away; stooping down, &c., to make him hunt close. 155. Dog, when fatigued, not to be hunted; leads to false points. 156. Sent home, brushed, and allowed a warm berth; not to follow all day at "heel." 157 to 159. Beat of two Dogs, how regulated. 160. Whatever number hunted, all should look to the Gun for orders. 161. Mr. Herbert's opinion in his "Field Sports in United States." 162, 163. Beat of three Dogs. 164. Of four Dogs. 165 to 167. Of five or six Dogs. 168. Great precision impracticable, but the necessity of a system maintained; System particularly essential where Game is scarce; Dogs to be brigaded, not to be employed as a pack. 169. When each keeper hunts a brace. 170. A brigade of fine rangers worth from fifty to sixty guineas a brace. 171. Fastest walkers do not necessarily beat most country. 172. Nor do always the fastest Dogs. 173. How slow Dogs may hunt more ground than faster. CHAPTER IX.--565 FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. "POINT" NOT RELINQUISHED FOR "DOWN CHARGE." 174. Affection makes Dog anxious to please--when he rushes in to be dragged back. 175. Rule pressed. 176. Reasons for Rule--Experience anticipated. 177. To "stand" far off. 178. Patience enjoined--Not to part as enemies. 179. The first good point--Remain yourself stationary. 180. "Heading" Dog--Your circle to be wide. The first Bird killed. 181. Finding dead Bird, it being to leeward. 182. Pointing it--Blinking it. The cause. 183. Bird killed, the Dog to go to "heel." 184. Supposed objection. 184. Answered. 185. Temptation to run after fallen Bird greater than to run to "heel." 186. Dog pointing one Bird, and after "down charge," springing the others. The cause. 187. The preventive. Dog never to discontinue his point in order to "down charge." How taught. 188. Its advantages exemplified. 189. Decide whether Dog goes direct to Bird, or first to you. 190. Dog which performed well--Snipe shooting on banks of Richelieu. 191. Coolness recommended--Inconsistency deprecated. CHAPTER X.--579. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. ASSISTANT 192. Some Dogs will not point readily. Breeding in and in, error of. 193. Dogs more inclined to point at first than afterwards. 194. Checkcord employed--spike attached to it. 195. With wild Dog assistant useful--Signals to. 196. How particularly useful with a badly-broken Dog. 197. "Heading" Dog at his point--not practised too often--Dog to acquire a knowledge of his distance from Game. 198. Constantly "Heading" Dog may make him too immovable. 199. A fault often caused by over-punishment. 200. False points caused by over-punishment--Self-confidence and experience only cures for over-caution. 201. Dog's manner shows position of Birds. CHAPTER XI.--585. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONCLUDED. BAR. LEG STRAP. SPIKE COLLAR. 202. Bar cure for too high spirits. A leg strapped up. Why these remedies are better than starvation and excessive work. 203. The regular Spike Collar described. French Spike Collar. 204. One less objectionable. 205 to 208. How, in extreme cases, the Spike Collar may be employed. 209. Dog springing Birds without noticing them; how to be treated. 210. The first Birds fired at to be killed outright; the search for winged Birds, Dog being to leeward. 211. Had the Dog seized. Firing at running Bird. 212. The search for winged Bird, Dog being to windward. 213. "Lifting" a Dog, when recommended. "Footing" a scent. In Note, Speed of Red-legged Partridge. 214. Evil of a young Sportsman always thinking his Birds killed outright; often calls away Dog improperly. 215. Loss of dead Bird discouraging to Dog. 216. Perseverance in seeking, how fostered. 217. "Nosing" Bird allowed. 218. Error of picking up winged Bird before loading. In Note, Ingenious argument in its favor; Bird picked up in the evening; rejoins covey. 219. If a winged Bird be a fast runner, and out of shot. 220. If Dog rushes forward, yet yields to menaces and stops. 221. If he seizes the dead Bird; if he has torn it.--How to administer Punishment. 222. Part good friends. Your own temper not to be ruffled. 223. Your own temper not to be ruffled. 224. He is no Breaker who cannot always get hold of Dog. 225. Be certain of Dog's guilt before punishing. 226. Dog's ears not to be pulled violently. 227. To "drop" whenever Bird or Hare rises. 228. Lesson in Turnips. 229. Real Lesson in "Gone" or "Flown" given after Dog has had some experience; reason why. CHAPTER XII.--604. SHOOTING HARES. COURAGE IMPARTED. "BACKING" TAUGHT. 230. Shooting Hares not recommended; shooting Rabbits strongly condemned. In Note, why superior Grouse-Dog better than superior Partridge-Dog. Dog brought from strange country always hunts to disadvantage. 231. Put off killing Hares as long as possible. 232. Dogs not to quit faint scent of Birds for strong scent of Hare. 233. Dog after Hare; no racing after Dog; Puss gone down wind. 234. Checkcord employed. Drive in spike on "toho-ing" Hare. 235. Impropriety of firing at Dog. 236. Hares scarce, visit Rabbit-warren. 237. Morning, hunt where no Hares; evening, where plentiful. Mountain Hares. 238. Killing Hare in its form. 239. Shooting Bird on ground. 240. Dog taught to pursue _wounded_ Hare. 241. Whip carried, saves punishment. Detention of Dog at crouching posture, saves Whip. 242. Few cuts, but severe ones. 243. Instance of timidity cured. Range imparted by giving Dog feet of Partridge. 244. Punishment, not defective Nose, causes Blinking. 245. Courage imparted to timid Dogs. 246. Dogs expect Punishment for faults; vexed when Birds are not fired at. 247. What Dog select to teach yours to "Back." 248. Example has great influence. 249. "Backing" old Dog. 250. "Finder" to "road" to a "rise;" his intrusive companion described. 251. To "back" by Eye, not Nose. 252. Encourage old Dog before rating the other. 253. "Finder" not to advance, even if _passed_ by other Dog. 254. The "Backer" should "down charge." 255. Dog when pointing never to "down charge;" how taught. CHAPTER XIII.--619. HINTS TO PURCHASERS. SHEEP KILLING. 256. The "back" being taught, young Dog again hunted alone. 257. Breakers hunt too many together. Why injudicious. 258. One hour's instruction alone, better than a day's in company. 259. Case in point. 260. Rushing in to "dead," how cured. 261. Dogs shot over "single-handed." Jealousy decreases with intimacy. Independence and self-reliance, how imparted. 262. Best Dogs; summary of rules for making, concisely given. The best will make mistakes. 263. Dog that always ran riot when out of sight. 264. Killing sheep; cure attempted. 265. Another plan. 266, 267. Third attempt at remedy. 267. Muzzle Dog likely to worry Sheep. 268. Killing Fowls; the cure. CHAPTER XIV.--628. DISTINGUISHING WHISTLES. "BACKING" THE GUN. RETREAT FROM AND RESUMPTION OF POINT. RANGE UNACCOMPANIED BY GUN. HEADING RUNNING BIRDS. 271. A distinguishing whistle for each Dog; disadvantage of employing but one whistle for several Dogs; supposed case. 272. Another case. 273. Third case. 274. Dissimilar whistles, or distinct notes on one whistle. 275. General rule for whistling 276. Dog to back the Gun; how taught; it creates caution. 277. Advantage of Dog backing the Gun. 278. American Wood-Duck. 279. Dog to retreat from point and resume it. 280. How taught. 281. Shows Dog object for which he is hunted. 282. Not taught too early. 283. Dog's consciousness of its object. 284. Dog to hunt from leeward to windward, unaccompanied by Gun; how taught. 285. A _careful_ Dog running down wind would not spring Birds. 286. The great advantages of the accomplishment. 287. Dog to head running Birds; could be taught. 288. How Dog taught to hunt "unaccompanied by Gun." 289. The accomplishment taught by "lifting;" not commenced first season. 290. Could be taught as easily as Shepherds' collies are instructed. 291. Particularly useful where the red-legged Partridge is found. CHAPTER XV.--638. SETTER TO RETRIEVE. BLOODHOUNDS. RETRIEVERS TO "BEAT." WOUNDED WILD FOWL RETRIEVED FIRST. 292. Setter to retrieve; obtain thereby in one Dog the services of two; necessity of having some Dog that retrieves. 293. Predilection for Setters confessed; Reasons given. 294. One Dog only to retrieve. 295. Let "retrieving" be done by "Finder." 296. Seeking Dead with two Dogs; Winged Bird searched for in direction of covey's flight. 297. Scent differs of wounded and unwounded Birds. 298. Three dead Snipe lifted in succession; Setter that stood fresh Birds while carrying a dead one; Pointer that pointed Partridge while carrying a Hare; Retriever refusing to relinquish chase of wounded Hare. 299. Injudiciousness of _retrieving_ Setter pointing dead. 300. Argument against employing retrieving Setters holds against using regular Retrievers. 301. Regular Retrievers to beat; its advantages; one Dog does the duty of two. 302. Water Retrievers, or Water Spaniels, to retrieve crippled before picking up dead Wild Fowl; how taught. 303. None of these accomplishments so difficult to teach as a good range. 304. Might be taught by your Gamekeeper, but not to be expected of regular Breaker. [Illustration: COCKERS.--BUTLER AND BRISK.] DOG-BREAKING. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. QUALIFICATIONS, IN BREAKER--IN DOG. 1. Dog-breaking, so far from there being any mystery in it, is an art easily acquired when it is commenced and continued on rational principles. 2. I think you will be convinced of this if you will have the patience to follow me, whilst I endeavor to explain what, I am satisfied, is the most certain and rapid method of breaking in your dogs, whether you require great proficiency in them, or are contented with an inferior education. No quicker system has yet been devised, however humble the education may be. The education in fact of the peasant, and that of the future double-first collegian, begin and proceed on the same principle. You know your own circumstances, and you must yourself determine what time you choose to devote to them; and, as a consequence, the degree of excellence to which you aspire. I can only assure you of my firm conviction, that no other means will enable you to gain your object so quickly, and I speak with a confidence derived from long experience in many parts of the world, on a subject that was, for several years, my great hobby.[2] 3. Every writer is presumed to take some interest in his reader; I therefore feel privileged to address you as a friend, and will commence my lecture by strongly recommending, that, if your occupations will allow it, you take earnestly and heartily to educating your dogs yourself. If you possess temper and some judgment, and will implicitly attend to my advice, I will go bail for your success, and, much as you may now love shooting, you will then like it infinitely more. Try the plan I recommend, and I will guarantee that the Pointer or Setter Pup which I will, for example sake, suppose to be now in your kennel, shall be a better dog by the end of next season--I mean a more killing dog--than probably any you ever yet shot over. 4. Possibly you will urge, that you are unable to spare the time which I consider necessary for giving him a high education--brief as that time is, compared with the many, many months wasted in the tedious methods usually employed--and that you must, perforce, content yourself with humbler qualifications. Be it so, I can only condole with you, for in your case this may be partly true; mind, I only say _partly_ true. But how a man of property, who keeps a regular gamekeeper, can be satisfied with the disorderly, disobedient troop to which he often shoots, I cannot understand. Where the gamekeeper is permitted to accompany his master in the field, and hunt the dogs himself, there can be no valid excuse for the deficiency in their education. The deficiency must arise either from the incapacity, or from the idleness of the keeper. 5. Unlike most other arts, dog-breaking does not require much experience; but such a knowledge of dogs, as will enable you to discriminate between their different tempers and dispositions, I had almost said characters--and they vary greatly--is very advantageous. Some require constant encouragement; some you must never beat; whilst, to gain the required ascendancy over others, the whip must be occasionally employed. Nor is it necessary that the instructor should be a very good shot; which probably is a more fortunate circumstance for me than for you. It should even be received as a principle that birds ought to be now and then missed to young dogs, lest some day, if your nerves happen to be out of order, or a cockney companion be harmlessly blazing away, your dog take it into his head and heels to run home in disgust, as I have seen a bitch, called Countess, do more than once, in Haddingtonshire. 6. The chief requisites in a breaker are:--Firstly, command of temper, that he may never be betrayed into giving one unnecessary blow, for with dogs, as with horses, no work is so well done as that which is done cheerfully; secondly, consistency, that in the exhilaration of his spirits, or in his eagerness to secure a bird, he may not permit a fault to pass unreproved, I do not say _unpunished_, which at a less exciting moment he would have noticed--and that, on the other hand, he may not correct a dog the more harshly because the shot has been missed, or the game lost; and lastly, the exercise of a little reflection, to enable him to judge what meaning an unreasonable animal is likely to attach to every word and sign, nay to every look. 7. With the coarsest tackle, and worst flies, trout can be taken in unflogged waters, while it requires much science, and the finest gut, to kill persecuted fish. It is the same in shooting. With almost any sporting-dog game can be killed early in the season, when the birds lie like stones, and the dog can get within a few yards of them; but you will require one highly broken to obtain many shots when they are wild. Then any incautious approach of the dog, or any noise, would flush the game, and your own experience will tell you that nothing so soon puts birds on the run, and makes them so ready to take flight, as the sound of the human voice, especially now-a-days, when farmers generally prefer the scythe to the sickle, and clean husbandry, large fields, and trim narrow hedges--affording no shelter from wet--have forced the partridge--a _short-winged_[3] bird--unwillingly to seek protection, when arrived at maturity, in ready flight rather than in concealment. Even the report of a gun does not so much alarm them as the command, "Toho," or "Down charge," usually too, as if to make matters worse, hallooed to the extent of the breaker's lungs. There are anglers who recommend silence as conducive to success, and there are no experienced sportsmen who do not acknowledge its great value in shooting. Rate or beat a dog at one end of a field, and the birds at the other will lift their heads, become uneasy, and be ready to take wing the moment you get near them. "Penn," in his clever maxims on Angling and Chess, observes to this effect, "if you wish to see the fish, do not let him see you;" and with respect to shooting, we may as truly say, "if you wish birds to hear your gun, do not let them hear your voice." Even a loud whistle disturbs them. Mr. O----t of C----e says a gamekeeper's motto ought to be,--"No whistling--no whipping--no noise, when master goes out for sport." 8. These observations lead unavoidably to the inference, that no dog can be considered perfectly broken, that does not make his point when first he feels assured of the presence of game, and remain stationary _where he makes it_, until urged on by you to draw nearer--that does not, as a matter of course, lie down without any word of command the moment you have fired, and afterwards perseveringly seek for the dead bird in the direction you may point out--and all this without your once having occasion to speak, more than to say in a low voice, "Find," when he gets near the dead bird, as will be hereafter explained. Moreover, it must be obvious that he risks leaving game behind him if he does not hunt every part of a field, and, on the other hand, that he wastes your time and his strength, if he travels twice over the same ground, nay, over any ground which his powers of scent have already reached. Of course I am now speaking of a dog hunted without a companion to share his labors. 9. You may say, "How is all this, which sounds so well in theory, to be obtained in practice without great severity?" Believe me, with severity it never can be attained. If flogging would make a dog perfect, few would be found unbroken in England or Scotland, and scarcely one in Ireland. 10. Astley's method was to give each horse his preparatory lessons alone, and when there was no noise or anything to divert his attention from his instructor. If the horse was interrupted during the lesson, or his attention in any way withdrawn, he was dismissed for that day. When perfect in certain lessons by himself, he was associated with other horses whose education was further advanced. And it was the practice of that great master to reward his horses with slices of carrot or apple when they performed well. 11. Astley may give us a useful hint in our far easier task of dog-breaking. We see that he endeavored by kindness and patience to make the horse thoroughly comprehend the meaning of certain words and signals before he allowed him any companion. So ought you, by what may be termed "initiatory lessons," to make your young dog perfectly understand the meaning of certain words and signs before you hunt him in the company of another dog--nay, before you hunt him at all; and, in pursuance of Astley's plan, you ought to give these lessons when you are alone with the dog, and his attention is not likely to be withdrawn to other matters. Give them, also, when he is fasting, as his faculties will then be clearer, and he will be more eager to obtain any rewards of biscuit or other food. 12. Be assured that by a consistent adherence to the simple rules which I will explain, you can obtain the perfection I have described, 8, with more ease and expedition than you probably imagine to be practicable; and, if you will zealously follow my advice, I promise, that, instead of having to give up your shooting in September--for I am supposing you to be in England--while you break in your pup, you shall then be able to take him into the field, provided he is tolerably well bred and well disposed, perfectly obedient; and, except that he will not have a well-confirmed, judicious range, almost perfectly made; at least so far made, that he will only commit such faults as naturally arise from want of experience. Let me remind you also that the keep of dogs is expensive, and supplies an argument for making them earn their bread by hunting to a _useful_ purpose so soon as they are of an age to work without injury to their constitution. Time, moreover, is valuable to us all, or most of us fancy it is. Surely, then, that system of education is best which imparts the most expeditiously the required degree of knowledge. FOOTNOTES: [2] It may be satisfactory to others to know the opinion of so undeniable an authority as Colonel Hawker. The Colonel, in the Tenth Edition of his invaluable Book on Shooting, writes--page 285--"Since the publication of the last edition, Lieut.-Col. Hutchinson's valuable work on 'Dog-breaking' has appeared. It is a perfect _vade mecum_ for both Sportsmen and Keeper, and I have great pleasure in giving a cordial welcome to a work which so ably supplies my own deficiencies." [3] The American Quail so closely resembles the English partridge in all its habits, except that it takes to covert in large woodlands, and occasionally _trees_, that all the rules of hunting and beating for it, shooting it, and breaking dogs for its pursuit, are entirely identical.--H.W.H. CHAPTER II. INITIATORY LESSONS WITHIN DOORS. SHOOTING PONIES. 13. It is seldom of any advantage to a dog to have more than one instructor. The methods of teaching may be the same; but there will be a difference in the tone of voice and in the manner that will more or less puzzle the learner, and retard rather than advance his education. If, therefore, you resolve to break in your dog, do it entirely yourself; let no one interfere with you. 14. As a general rule, let his education begin when he is about six or seven months old[4]--although I allow that some dogs are more precocious than others, and bitches always more forward than dogs--but it ought to be nearly completed before he is shown a bird (111). A quarter of an hour's daily in-door training--called by the Germans "house-breaking"--for three or four weeks will effect more than a month's constant hunting without preliminary tuition. 15. Never take your young dog out of doors for instruction, until he has learnt to know and obey the several words of command which you intend to give him in the field, and is well acquainted with all the signs which you will have occasion to make to him with your arms. These are what may be called the initiatory lessons. 16. Think a moment, and you will see the importance of this preliminary instruction, though rarely imparted. Why should it be imagined that at the precise moment when a young dog is enraptured with the first sniff of game, he is, by some mysterious unaccountable instinct, to understand the meaning of the word "Toho?" Why should he not conceive it to be a word of encouragement to rush in upon the game, as he probably longs to do; especially if it is a partridge fluttering before him, in the sagacious endeavor to lure him from her brood, or a hare enticingly cantering off from under his nose? There are breakers who would correct him for not intuitively comprehending and obeying the "Toho," roared out with stentorian lungs; though, it is obvious, the youngster, from having had no previous instruction, could have no better reason for understanding its import than the watch-dog chained up in the adjacent farm-yard. Again he hears the word "Toho"--again followed by another licking, accompanied perhaps by the long lecture, "Ware springing birds, will you?" The word "Toho" then begins to assume a most awful character; he naturally connects it with the finding of game, and not understanding a syllable of the lecture, lest he should a third time hear it, and get a third drubbing, he judges it most prudent, unless he is a dog of very high courage, when next aware of the presence of birds, to come in to heel; and thus he commences to be a blinker, thanks to the sagacity and intelligence of his tutor. I do not speak of all professional dog-breakers,--far from it. Many are fully sensible that comprehension of orders must necessarily precede all but accidental obedience. I am only thinking of some whom it has been my misfortune to see, and who have many a time made my blood boil at their brutal usage of a fine high-couraged young dog. Men who had a strong arm and hard heart to punish--but no temper and no head to instruct. 17. So long as you are a bachelor, you can make a companion of your dog, without incurring the danger of his being spoilt by your wife and children; the more, by-the-bye, he is your own companion and nobody else's the better: and it is a fact, though you may smile at the assertion, that all the initiatory lessons can be, and can best be inculcated in your own breakfast-room. 18. Follow Astley's plan. Let no one be present to distract the dog's attention. Call him to you by the whistle you propose always using in the field. Tie a slight cord a few yards long to his collar. Throw him a small piece of toast or meat, saying at the time, "Dead, dead." Do this several times, chucking it into different parts of the room, and let him eat what he finds. Then throw a piece, always as you do so saying, "Dead," and the moment he gets close to it, check him by jerking the cord, at the same time saying, "Toho," and lifting up your right arm almost perpendicularly. By pressing on the cord with your foot, you can restrain him as long as you please. Do not let him take what you have thrown until you give him the encouraging word, "On," accompanied by a forward movement of the right arm and hand, somewhat similar to the swing of an under-hand bowler at cricket. 19. Let all your commands be given in a low voice. Consider that in the field, where you are anxious not to alarm the birds unnecessarily, your words must reach your dogs' ears more or less softened by distance, and, if their influence depends on loudness, they will have the least effect at the very moment when you wish them to have the most. For the same reason, in the initiatory lessons, be careful not to whistle loudly. 20. After a few trials with the checkcord, you will find yourself enabled, without touching it, and merely by using the word "Toho," to prevent his seizing the toast or meat, until you say "On," or give him the forward signal. When he gets yet more perfect in his lesson, raising your right arm only, without employing your voice, will be sufficient, especially if you have gradually accustomed him to hear you speak less and less loudly. If he draw towards the bread before he has obtained leave, jerk the cord, and _drag him back to the spot from which he stirred_. He is not to quit it until you order him, occupy yourself as you may. Move about, and occasionally go from him, as far as you can, before you give the command "On." This will make him less unwilling hereafter to continue steady at his point while you are taking a circuit to head him, and so get wild birds between him and your gun,--179, 196. The signal for his advancing, when you are facing him, is the "beckon"--see 33. 21. At odd times let him take the bread the moment you throw it, that his eagerness to rush forward to seize it may be continued, only to be instantly restrained at your command. 22. Your _left_ arm raised perpendicularly, in a similar manner, should make the young dog lie down. Call out "Drop," when so holding up the left hand, and press him down with the other until he assumes a crouching position. If you study beauty of attitude, his fore-legs should be extended and his head rest between them. Make him lie well down, occasionally walking round and round him, gradually increasing the size of the circle--your eyes on his. Do not let him raise himself to a sitting posture. If you do, he will have the greater inclination hereafter to move about: _especially when you want to catch him in order to chide or correct him_. A stop is all you require for the "Toho," and you would prefer his standing to his point, rather than his lying down,[5] as you then would run less risk of losing sight of him in cover, heather, or high turnips, &c. Setters, however, naturally crouch so much more than Pointers, that you will often not be able to prevent their "falling" when they are close to game. Indeed, I have heard some sportsmen argue in favor of a dog's dropping, "that it rested him." An advantage, in my opinion, in no way commensurate with the inconvenience that often attends the practice. 23. If you are satisfied with teaching him in a slovenly manner, you can employ your right arm both for the "Toho" and "Drop;" but that is not quite correct, for the former is a natural stop--being the pause to determine exactly where the game is lying, preparatory to rushing in to seize it--which you prolong by art,[6] whilst the other is wholly opposed to nature. The one affords him great delight, especially when, from experience, he has learnt well its object: the latter is always irksome. Nevertheless, it must be firmly established. It is the triumph of your art. It ensures future obedience. But it cannot be effectually taught without creating more or less awe, and it should create awe. It is obvious, therefore, that it must be advantageous to make a distinction between the two signals--especially with a timid dog--for he will not then be so likely to blink on seeing you raise your right hand when he is drawing upon game. Nevertheless, there are breakers so unreasonable as not only to make that one signal, but the one word "Drop," or rather "Down," answer both for the order to point, and the order to crouch! How can such tuition serve to enlarge a dog's ideas? 24. To perfect him in the "Down," that difficult part of his education,--difficult, because it is unnatural,--practise it in your walks. At very uncertain, unexpected times catch his eye, having previously stealthily taken hold of the checkcord--a long, light one, or a whistle to call his attention, and then hold up your left arm. If he does not _instantly_ drop, jerk the checkcord violently, and, as before, drag him back to the exact spot where he should have crouched down. Admit of no compromise. You must have _implicit_, _unhesitating_, _instant_ obedience. When you quit him, he must not be allowed to crawl _an inch_ after you. If he attempt it, drive a spike into the ground, and attach the end of the checkcord to it, allowing the line to be slack; then leave him quickly, and on his running after you he will be brought up with a sudden jerk. So much the better; it will slightly alarm him. As before, take him back to the precise place he quitted--do this invariably, though he may have scarcely moved. There make him again "Drop"--always observing to jerk the cord at the moment you give the command. After a few trials of this tethering, say less than a dozen, he will be certain to lie down steadily, until you give the proper order or a signal--20--let you run away, or do what you may to excite him to move. One great advantage of frequently repeating this lesson, and thus teaching it _thoroughly_, is that your dog will hereafter always feel, more or less, in subjection whenever the cord is fastened to his collar. He must be brought to instantly obey the signal, even at the extreme limit of his beat. 25. Most probably he will not at first rise when he is desired. There is no harm in that--a due sense of the inutility of non-compliance with the order of "Drop," and a wholesome dread of the attendant penalty, will be advantageous. Go up to him--pat him--and lead him for some paces, "making much of him," as they say in the cavalry. Dogs which are over-headstrong and resolute can only be brought under satisfactory command by this lesson being indelibly implanted--and I think a master before he allows the keeper to take a pup into the field to show him game, should insist upon having ocular demonstration that he is perfect in the "Drop." 26. When he is well confirmed in this all-important lesson, obeying implicitly, yet cheerfully, you may, whilst he is lying down--in order to teach him the "down charge"--go through the motions of loading, on no account permitting him to stir until you give him the forward signal, or say, "On." After a few times you may fire off a copper cap, and then a little powder, but be very careful not to alarm him. Until your dog is quite reconciled to the report of a gun, never take him up to any one who may be firing. I have, however, known of puppies being familiarized to the sound, by being at first kept at a considerable distance from the party firing, and then gradually and by slow degrees brought nearer. This can easily be managed at a rifle or pigeon match, and the companionship of a made-dog would much expedite matters. Whenever, in the lessons, your young dog has behaved steadily and well, give him a reward. Do not throw it to him: let him take it from your hands. It will assist in making him tender-mouthed, and in attaching him to you. 27. In some cavalry regiments in India, the feeding-time is denoted by the firing off of a pistol. This soon changes a young horse's first dread of the report into eager, joyous expectation. You might, if you did not dislike the trouble, in a similar manner, soon make your pup regard the report of a gun as the gratifying summons to his dinner, but coupled with the understanding that, as a preliminary step, he is to crouch the instant he hears the sound. After a little perseverance you would so well succeed, that you would not be obliged even to raise your hand. If habituated to wait patiently at the "drop," however hungry he may be, before he is permitted to taste his food, it is reasonable to think he will remain at the "down charge," yet more patiently before he is allowed to "seek dead." 28. If your pupil is unusually timid, and you cannot banish his alarm on hearing the gun, couple him to another dog which has no such foolish fears, and will steadily "down charge." The confidence of the one will impart confidence to the other. Fear and joy are feelings yet more contagious in animals than in man. It is the visible, joyous animation of the old horses, that so quickly reconciles the cavalry colt to the sound of the "feeding-pistol." 29. A keeper who had several dogs to break, would find the advantage of pursuing the cavalry plan just noticed. Indeed, he might extend it still further, by having his principal in-door drill at feeding-time, and by enforcing, but in minuter details, that kennel discipline which has brought many a pack of hounds to marvellous obedience. He should place the food in different parts of the yard. He should have a short checkcord on all his pupils; and, after going slowly through the motions of loading (the dogs having regularly "down-charged" on the report of the gun), he should call each separately by name, and by signals of the hand send them successively to different, but designated feeding-troughs.[7] He might then call a dog to him which had commenced eating, and after a short abstinence, make him go to another trough. He might bring two to his heels and make them change troughs, and so vary the lesson, that, in a short time, with the aid of the checkcords, he would have them under such complete command that they would afterwards give him comparatively but little trouble in the field. As they became more and more submissive he would gradually retire further and further, so as, at length, to have his orders obeyed when at a considerable distance from his pupils. The small portion of time these lessons would occupy compared with their valuable results should warn him most forcibly not to neglect them. FOOTNOTES: [4] But from his very infancy you ought not to have allowed him to be disobedient. You should have made him know--which he will do nearly intuitively--that a whip can punish him, though he ought never to have _suffered_ from it. I have heard of pups only four months old being made quite _au fait_ to the preliminary drill here recommended. This early exercise of their intelligence and observation must have benefited them. The questionable point is the unnecessary consumption of the instructor's time. [5] This is one reason for giving initiatory lessons in the "Toho" before the "Drop." Another is that the dog may acquire the "Toho" before he has run the chance of being cowed in learning the "Drop." If the latter were taught first, he might confound the "Toho" with it. [6] I know of a young man's reading the first edition of this book, and taking it into his head to teach his Terrier to point according to the method just recommended. He succeeded perfectly. Some Terriers have been made very useful for cover shooting. [7] There is often such a similarity in the names of hounds, that a person cannot but be much struck, who for the first time sees them go to their meals, one by one as they are called. CHAPTER III. INITIATORY LESSONS CONTINUED. SPANIELS. 30. When your young dog is tolerably well advanced in the lessons which you have been advised to practise, hide a piece of bread or biscuit. Say "Dead, dead." Call him to you. (40.) Let him remain by you for nearly a minute or two. Then say "Find," or "Seek." Accompany him in his search. By your actions and gestures make him fancy you are yourself looking about for something, for dogs are observing, one might say, imitative, creatures.[8] Stoop and move your right hand to and fro near the ground. Contrive that he shall come upon the bread, and reward him by permitting him to eat it. 31. After a little time--a few days I mean--he will show the greatest eagerness on your saying, at any unexpected moment, "Dead." He will connect the word with the idea that there is something very desirable concealed near him, and he will be all impatience to be off and find it; _but make him first come to you_--for reason, see 182.--Keep him half a minute.--Then say "Find," and, without your accompanying him, he will search for what you have previously hidden. Always let him be encouraged to perseverance by discovering something acceptable. 32. Unseen by him, place the rewards--one at a time--in different parts of the room,--under the rug or carpet, and more frequently on a chair, a table, or a low shelf. He will be at a loss in what part of the room to search. Assist him by a motion of your arm and hand. A wave of the right arm and hand to the right, will soon show him that he is to hunt to the right, as he will find there. The corresponding wave of the left hand and arm to the left, will explain to him, that he is to make a cast to the left. The underhand bowler's swing of the right hand and arm, will show that he is to hunt in a forward direction.[9] Your occasionally throwing the delicacy--in the direction you wish him to take,--whilst waving your hand, will aid in making him comprehend the signal. You may have noticed how well, by watching the action of a boy's arm, his little cur judges towards what point to run for the expected stone. 33. When the hidden object is near you, but between you and the dog, make him come towards you to seek for it, beckoning him with your right hand. When he is at a distance at the "Drop," if you are accustomed to recompense him for good behavior, you can employ this signal to make him rise and run towards you for his reward--and according to my judgment he should always join you after the "down charge,"--184. By these means you will thus familiarize him with a very useful signal; for that signal will cause him to approach you in the field, when you have made a circuit to head him at his point--knowing that birds will then be lying somewhere between you and him--and want him to draw nearer to the birds and you, to show you exactly where they are. This some may call a superfluous refinement, but I hope _you_ will consider it a very killing accomplishment, and, being easily taught, it were a pity to neglect it. When a Setter is employed in cock-shooting, the advantage of using this signal is very apparent. While the dog is steadily pointing, it enables the sportsman to look for a favorable opening, and, when he has posted himself to his satisfaction, to sign to the Setter--or if out of sight to tell him--to advance and flush the bird: when, should the sportsman have selected his position with judgment, he will generally get a shot. I have seen this method very successfully adopted in America, where the forests are usually so dense that cocks are only found on the outskirts in the underwood. 34. After a little time he will regularly look to you for directions. Encourage him to do so; it will make him hereafter, when he is in the field, desirous of hunting under your eye, and induce him to look to you, in a similar manner, for instructions in what direction he is to search for game. Observe how a child watches its mother's eye; so will a dog watch yours, when he becomes interested in your movements, and finds that you frequently notice him. 35. Occasionally, when he approaches any of the spots where the bread lies hidden, say "Care," and slightly raise your right hand. He will quickly consider this word, or signal, as an intimation that he is near the object of his search. 36. Never deceive him in any of these words and signs, and never disappoint him of the expected reward. Praise and caress him for good conduct; rate him for bad. Make it a rule throughout the whole course of his education, out of doors as fully as within, to act upon this system. You will find that caresses and substantial rewards are far greater incentives to exertion than any fears of punishment. 37. Your pup having become a tolerable proficient in these lessons, you may beneficially extend them by employing the word "Up," as a command that he is to sniff high in the air to find the hidden bread or meat, lying, say on a shelf, or on the back of a sofa. He will, comparatively speaking, be some time in acquiring a knowledge of the meaning of the word, and many would probably term it an over-refinement in canine education; but I must own I think you will act judiciously if you teach it perfectly in the initiatory lessons; for the word "Up," if well understood, will frequently save your putting on the puzzle-peg. For this you might be tempted to employ, should your dog be acquiring the execrable habit of "raking," as it is termed, instead of searching for the delicious effluvia with his nose carried high in the air. 38. Whenever birds can be sought for in the wind, the dog should thus hunt the field--and the higher he carries his nose the better--for, independently of the far greater chance of finding them, they will allow the dog to come much nearer than when he approaches them by the foot: but of this more anon. 39. Setters and Pointers naturally hunt with their noses sufficiently close to the ground--they want elevating rather than depressing. Notwithstanding, you will do well to show your pupil a few times out of doors how to work out a scent, by dragging a piece of bread unperceived by him _down wind_ through grass, and then letting him "foot" it out. Try him for a few yards at first; you can gradually increase the length of the drag. You must not, however, practise this initiatory lesson too frequently, lest you give him the wretched custom of pottering. 40. The word "Heel," and a backward low wave of the right hand and arm to the rear--the reverse of the underhand cricket-bowler's swing--will, after a few times, bring the dog close behind you. Keep him there a while and pat him, but do not otherwise reward him. The object of the order was to make him instantly give up hunting, and come to your heels. This signal cannot be substituted for the "beckon." The one is an order always obeyed with reluctance--being a command to leave off hunting--whereas the "beckon" is merely an instruction in what direction to beat, and will be attended to with delight. The signal "heel," however, when given immediately after loading, is an exception; for the instructions about "Dead" in xi. of 141, will show that without your speaking it may be made to impart the gratifying intelligence of your having killed. See also 190. 41. To teach him to attach a meaning to the word "Gone," or "Away," or "Flown,"[10]--select which you will, but do not ring the changes--you may now rub a piece of meat--if you have no one but your servant to scold you--in some place where the dog is accustomed frequently to find, and when he is sniffing at the place say "Gone," or "Away." This he will, after some trials, perceive to be an intimation that it is of no use to continue hunting for it. 42. You will greatly facilitate his acquiring the meaning of the command "Fence," or "Ware-fence," if, from time to time, as he is quitting the room through the open door or garden window, you restrain him by calling out that word. 43. Whenever, indeed, you wish him to desist from doing anything, call out "Ware,"--pronounced "War"--as it will expedite his hereafter understanding the terms "Ware sheep," "Ware chase," and "Ware lark." The last expression to be used when he is wasting his time upon the scent of anything but game--a fault best cured by plenty of birds being killed to him. However, the simple word "No," omitting "Chase" or "Fence," might be substituted advantageously for "Ware." All you want him to do is to desist from a wrong action. That sharp sound--and when necessary it can be clearly thundered out--cannot be misunderstood. 44. That your young dog may not hereafter resist the couples, yoke him occasionally to a stronger dog, and for the sake of peace, and in the name of all that is gallant, let it be to the one of the other sex who appears to be the greatest favorite. 45. When he is thus far advanced in his education, and tolerably obedient, which he will soon become if you are consistent, and _patient_, _yet strict_, you can, in further pursuance of Astley's plan, associate him in his lessons with a companion. Should you be breaking in another youngster--though one at a time you will probably find quite enough, especially if it be your laudable wish to give him hereafter a well confirmed scientific range--they can now be brought together for instruction. You must expect to witness the same jealousy which they would exhibit on the stubble. Both will be anxious to hunt for the bread, and in restraining them alternately from so doing, you exact the obedience which you will require hereafter in the field, when in their natural eagerness they will endeavor, unless you properly control them, to take the point of birds from one another; or, in their rivalry, run over the taint of a wounded bird, instead of collectedly and perseveringly working out the scent. You can throw a bit of toast, and make them "Toho" it, and then let the dog you name take it. In the same way you can let each alternately search for a hidden piece, after both have come up to you, on your saying "Dead." I would also advise you to accustom each dog to "drop," without any command from you, the moment he sees that the other is down. 46. Those lessons will almost ensure their hereafter instantly obeying, and nearly instantly comprehending the object of the signal to "back" any dog which may be pointing game. 47. When you take out two youngsters for exercise, while they are romping about, suddenly call one into "heel." After a time again send him off on his gambols. Whistle to catch the eye of the other, and signal to him to join you. By working them thus alternately, while they are fresh and full of spirits, you will habituate them to implicit obedience. When the birds are wild, and you are anxious to send a basket of game to a friend, it is very satisfactory to be able merely by a sign, without uttering a word, to bring the other dogs into "heel," leaving the ground to the careful favorite. Teach the present lesson well, and you go far towards attaining the desired result. 48. I trust you will not object to the minutiæ of these initiatory lessons, and fancy you have not time to attend to them. By teaching them well you will gain time,--much time,--and the time that is of most value to you as a sportsman; for when your dog is regularly hunting to your gun his every faculty ought to be solely devoted to finding birds, and his undisturbed intellects exclusively given to aid you in bagging them, instead of being bewildered by an endeavor to comprehend novel signals or words of command. I put it to you as a sportsman, whether he will not have the more delight and ardor in hunting, the more he feels that he understands your instructions? and, further, I ask you, whether he will not be the more sensitively alive to the faintest indication of a haunt, and more readily follow it up to a sure find, if he be unembarrassed by any anxiety to make out what you mean, and be in no way alarmed at the consequences of not almost instinctively understanding your wishes? 49. In all these lessons, and those which follow in the field, the checkcord will wonderfully assist you. Indeed it may be regarded as the instructor's right hand. It can be employed so mildly as not to intimidate the most gentle, and it can, without the aid of any whip, be used with such severity, or I should rather say perseverance, as to conquer the most wild and headstrong, and these are sure to be dogs of the greatest travel and endurance. The cord may be from ten to twenty-five[11] yards long, according to the animal's disposition, and may be gradually shortened as he gets more and more under command. Even when it is first employed you can put on a shorter cord if you perceive that he is becoming tired. In thick stubble, especially if cut with a sickle, the drag will be greater, far greater than when the cord glides over heather. The cord may be of the thickness of what some call strong lay-cord, but made of twelve threads. Sailors would know it by the name of log-line or cod-line. To save the end from fraying it can be whipped with thread, which is better than tying a knot, because it is thus less likely to become entangled. FOOTNOTES: [8] Imitative creatures! who can doubt it? If you make an old dog perform a trick several times in the sight of a young one who is watching the proceedings, you will be surprised to see how quickly the young one will learn the trick, especially if he has seen that the old dog was always rewarded for his obedience. [9] Obedience to all such signals will hereafter be taught out of doors at gradually increased distances; and to confirm him in the habit of sniffing high in the air (37) for whatever you may then hide, put the bread or meat on a stick or bush, but never in a hedge. With the view to his some day retrieving, as instanced in 190, it will be your aim to get him not to seek immediately, but to watch your signals, until by obeying them you will have placed him close to where the object lies, at which precise moment you will say energetically "Find," and cease making any further signs. [10] The least comprehensive and logical of the expressions, yet one often used. A dog being no critical grammarian, understands it to apply to fur as well as feather. [11] With a resolute, reckless, dashing dog you may advantageously employ a _thinner_ cord of double that length,--whereas, the shortest line will sometimes prevent a timid animal from ranging freely. By-the-bye, the thinner the cord the more readily does it become entangled--as a rule, a checkcord cannot be too firmly twisted--a soft one quickly gets knotted and troublesome. (See note to 177.) 50. Hunted with such a cord, the most indomitable dog, when he is _perfectly obedient to the "drop,"_ is nearly as amenable to command as if the end of the line were in the breaker's hand. By no other means can SPANIELS be _quickly_ broken in. The general object of the trainer is to restrain them from ranging at a distance likely to spring game out of gun-shot, and to make them perfect to the "down charge." If one of these high-spirited animals will not range close when called to by whistle or name, the breaker gets hold of the cord and jerks it; this makes the dog come in a few paces; another jerk or two makes him approach closer, and then the breaker, by himself retiring with his face towards the spaniel, calling out his name--or whistling,--and occasionally jerking the cord, makes him quite submissive, and more disposed to obey on future occasions. 51. In training a large team it is of much advantage to the keeper to have a lad to rate, and, when necessary, give the skirters a taste of the lash--in short, to act as whipper-in. The keeper need not then carry a whip, or at least often use it, which will make his spaniels all the more willing to hunt close to him. 52. Lord A----r's head gamekeeper was singularly aided--he possessed a four-legged whipper-in. Three years since while Mr. D----s--M.P. for a South Eastern County--was with a shooting party at his Lordship's, the keeper brought into the field a brace of powerful retrievers, and a team of spaniels, among which were two that had never been shot over. On the first pheasant being killed all the old spaniels dropped to shot, but one of the young ones rushed forward and mouthed the bird. The person who had fired ran on to save the bird, but the keeper called aloud, and requested him not to move. The man then made a signal to one of the retrievers to go. He did so instantly, but, instead of meddling with the bird, he seized the spaniel, lifted him up, and shook him well. The moment the pup could escape he came howling to the "heels" of the keeper, and lay down among his companions. The keeper then confessed that a couple of the spaniels had never been shot to--but he confidently assured the sportsmen they would see before the day was over that the pups behaved fully as steadily as the old dogs, and explained to the party how the retriever did all the disagreeable work, and indeed nearly relieved him of every trouble in breaking in the youngsters. On the next few shots this novel schoolmaster was again deputed to show his pupils that he would not allow his special duties as a retriever to be interfered with. Both the young dogs, having been thus well chastised, became more careful--made only partial rushes to the front, when a recollection of their punishment and a dread of their four-footed tutor brought them slinking back to their older companions. As the keeper had averred, they soon learned their lesson completely--gave up all thought of chasing after shot, and quietly crouched down with the other dogs. 53. I can easily imagine that it was a feeling of jealousy which first prompted the retriever to thrash some spaniel who was endeavoring to carry off a bird, and that the clever keeper encouraged him in doing so, instantly perceiving the value of such assistance. It is worth a consideration whether it would not be advisable to train the retriever employed with a team to give this assistance. A dog of a quarrelsome disposition could be taught, by your urging him, to seize any spaniel who might be mouthing a bird, in the same manner you would set on a young terrier to fly at a rat. 54. Doubtless it is the _highest_ training to teach a team to "down-charge," but most breakers make their spaniels come into "heel," or rather gather close around them--by the word "round"--whenever a gun is discharged. This plan, though so injudicious in the case of pointers or setters, is but little objectionable in the case of spaniels, for spaniels in their small sweep inwards are not likely to spring game while the guns are unloaded. It certainly possesses this merit, that it is readily taught to puppies--with the aid of a whipper-in--by the trainer's giving them some delicacy on their rejoining him. It may be urged too that the method much removes any necessity for noise in calling to a dog--whereas, with a team trained to the "down-charge," however highly broken, it will occasionally happen that the keeper--or assistant--has to rate some excited skirter for not instantly "dropping." Moreover, in thick cover, an infraction of the irksome rule to "down charge" may sometimes escape detection, which might lead to future acts of insubordination. Prince Albert's team of Clumbers "down-charge," but the greatest attention is paid to them. They are admirably broken, and I may add, are shot over by a first-rate hand. 55. When exercising young spaniels it is a good plan to habituate them, even as puppies, never to stray further from you than about twenty yards. With them, even more than with other kinds of dogs trained for the gun, great pains should be taken to prevent their having the opportunity of "self-hunting." If it is wished to break from hare, the method to be followed is mentioned in 233, &c., for with spaniels as with setters--or pointers--it is always advisable to drag them back to the spot from which they started in pursuit. 56. Occasionally you may see a country blacksmith when preparing to shoe the hind legs of a cart horse that appears disposed to make a disagreeable use of his heels, twist the long hair at the end of his tail,--raise the foot that is to be shod,--pass the twisted hair round the leg immediately above the hock, and by these means press the tendon close to the bone. The tail assists in retaining the leg in position, and thus, for the time, the limb is rendered powerless. Acting much upon this coercive principle, but discarding the aid of the tail, some breakers _slightly_ confine a hind-leg of their most unruly spaniels with a soft bandage, shifting it from one leg to the other about every hour. Possibly a loop of vulcanized india-rubber, being elastic, would best answer the purpose. Restrained in this manner a dog is less likely to tumble about, and become injured, than if one of his fore legs had been passed through his collar. Other breakers, when hunting many couple together, fasten a belt with a few pounds of shot round the necks of the wildest. But the sooner such adjuncts to discipline can be safely discarded the better; for "brushing" a close cover is severe work. Gorse is the most trying[12]. Its prickles are so numerous and fine that the ears and eyes of every spaniel hunted in it ought to be separately examined on returning home, and well bathed in warm water. Their eyes are peculiarly liable to be injured by dust and gravel from their hunting so close to the ground. 57. To give young spaniels sufficient courage to face the most entangled cover, a judicious trainer will occasionally introduce them to thick brakes, or gorse, early in the morning, or in the evening, when the noise of his approach will have made the pheasants feeding in the neighborhood run far into it for shelter. The effluvia of the birds will then so excite the young dogs, especially if cheered with good companionship--which always creates emulation--that they will utterly disregard the pricks and scratches of the strongest furze. 58. If the time of year will permit, they should be shown game when about nine or ten months old. At a more advanced age they would be less amenable to control. Happily the example of a riotous pup will not be as detrimental to the discipline of the rest of the team as the example of an ill-conducted companion would be to a pointer--or setter--for the influence of thoroughly steady spaniels makes the pup curtail his range sooner than might be expected. Finding that he is not followed by his associates he soon rejoins them. 59. A judicious breaker will regard perfection in the "drop"--22 to 25--as the main-spring of his educational system. He will teach his young spaniels to "seek dead"--30, 31, 39--where directed by signs of the hand. He will instruct them in "fetching"--92, 94. &c.--with the view to some of them hereafter retrieving. He will accustom them to hunt hedge-rows, and light open copses--because always under his eye--before taking them into closer cover. Nor until they are under some command, and well weaned from noticing vermin and small birds, will he allow them to enter gorse or strong thickets, and then he will never neglect--though probably he will have used them before--to attach bells of _different sounds_ to the collars of his several pupils--one to each--so that his ear may at all times detect any truant straying beyond bounds, and thus enable him to rate the delinquent by name. In this manner he establishes the useful feeling elsewhere spoken of--262--that whether he be within or out of sight he is equally aware of every impropriety that is committed. 60. Young spaniels, when they have been steadily broken in not to hunt too far ahead on the instructor's side of the hedge, may be permitted to beat on the other--and this when only one person is shooting is generally their most useful position, for they are thus more likely to drive the game towards the gun. 61. If a keeper is hunting the team, while you and a friend are beating narrow belts or strips of wood, should you and he be placed, as is usual, on the outside, a little ahead of the keeper--one to his right, the other to his left--you would much aid him in preventing the young spaniels from ranging wildly were you to turn your face towards him whenever you saw any of them getting too far in advance, for they will watch the guns as much as they will him. 62. Among spaniels the great advantage of age and experience is more apparent than in partridge-dogs. A young spaniel cannot keep to a pheasant's tail like an old one. He may push the bird for forty or fifty yards if judiciously managed. After that he is almost sure from impatience either to lose it, or rush in and flush out of shot, whereas an old cocker, who has had much game shot over him, is frequently knowing enough to slacken his pace, instead of increasing it, when he first touches on birds, apparently quite sensible that he ought to give the gun time to approach before he presses to a flush. 63. Even good spaniels, however well bred, if they have not had great experience, generally road too fast. Undeniably they are difficult animals to educate, and it requires much watchfulness, perseverance, and attention at an early age, so to break in a team of young ones that they shall keep within gun range without your being compelled to halloo or whistle to them. But some few are yet more highly trained. 64. Mr. N----n, when in France, had a lively, intelligent, liver and white cocker which would work busily all day long within gun-shot; and which possessed the singular accomplishment of steadily pointing all game that lay well, and of not rushing in until the sportsman had come close to him. But this is a case of high breaking more curious than useful, for spaniels are essentially _springers_, not _pointers_, and the little animal must frequently have been lost sight of in cover. Our grandfathers used to apply the term springers solely to large spaniels--never to the Duke of Marlborough's small breed, which was greatly prized. 65. A dog is generally most attached to that description of sport, and soonest recognises the scent of that game, to which he has principally been accustomed in youth. He will through life hunt most diligently where he first had the delight of often finding. The utility therefore is obvious of introducing spaniels at an early age to close covers and hedge-rows, and setters and pointers to heather and stubble. 66. In spaniels, feathered sterns and long ears are much admired, but obviously the latter must suffer in thick underwood. The chief requisite in all kinds of spaniels, is, that they be good finders, and have noses so true that they will never overrun a scent. Should they do so when footing an old cock[13] pheasant, the chances are that he will double back on the exact line by which he came. They should be high-mettled,--as regardless of the severest weather as of the most punishing cover, and ever ready to spring into the closest thicket the moment a pointed finger gives the command. 67. A comprehension of the signal made by the finger--which is far neater than the raising of the hand described in 30, but not so quickly understood--might with advantage be imparted to all dogs trained for the gun, in order to make them hunt close _exactly_ where directed. It is usually taught by pointing with the fore-finger of the right hand to pieces of biscuit, previously concealed, near easily recognised tufts of grass, weeds, &c. It is beautiful to see how correctly, promptly, yet quietly, some spaniels will work in every direction thus indicated. 68. Breasting a strong cover with cockers, is more suited to young, than to old men. The gun must follow rapidly, and stick close when a dog is on the road of feather. A shot will then infallibly be obtained, if a good dog be at work; for the more closely a bird is pressed, the hotter gets the scent. If a pheasant found in thick cover on marshy ground near water--a locality they much like in hot weather--is not closely pushed, he will so twist, and turn, and double upon old tracks that none but the most experienced dogs will be able to stick to him. 69. The preceding observations respecting spaniels apply to all descriptions employed on land-service, whether of the strong kind, the Sussex breed and the Clumber, or the smallest cockers, Blenheims and King Charles'. But whether they are to be trained not to hunt flick[14]--the most difficult part of their tuition, and in which there is generally most failure,--and whether they shall be bred to give tongue, or run mute, will depend much upon the nature of the country to be hunted, and yet more upon the taste of the proprietor. No fixed rules can be given for a sport that varies so much as cover-shooting. 70. Of the large kind, most sportsmen will think a couple and a half a sufficient number to hunt at a time. Certainly one of them should retrieve: and they ought to be well broken in not to notice flick. These dogs are most esteemed when they run mute. If they do, they must be hunted with bells in very thick cover; but the less bells are employed the better, for the tinkling sound, in a greater or smaller degree, annoys all game. Such dogs, when good, are very valuable. 71. I once shot over a team of Clumber spaniels belonging to Mr. D----z.[15] The breed--the Duke of Newcastle's, taking their name from one of his seats--are mostly white with a little lemon color, have large, sensible heads, thick, short legs, silky coats, carry their sterns low, and hunt perfectly mute. The team kept within twenty or twenty-five yards of the keeper, were trained to acknowledge rabbits, as well as all kinds of game; and in the country Mr. D----z was then shooting over afforded capital sport. One of the spaniels was taught to retrieve. He would follow to any distance, and seldom failed to bring. A regular retriever was, however, generally taken out with them. Mr. D----z told me that they required very judicious management, and encouragement rather than severity, as undue whipping soon made them timid. They are of a delicate constitution. He rather surprised me by saying that his spaniels from working quietly and ranging close,--therefore, alarming the birds less,--procured him far more shots in turnips than his pointers; and he had three that looked of the right sort. He explained matters, however, by telling me that it was his practice to make a circuit round the outskirts of a turnip or a potato field before hunting the inner parts. This of course greatly tended to prevent the birds breaking. A juvenile sportsman would rejoice in the services of the spaniels, for many a rabbit would they procure for him without the aid of powder and shot. 72. When Colonel M----, who died in Syria, was stationed with his troop of Horse Artillery at Pontefract, he was asked to shoot partridges at Lord P----n's seat in Yorkshire. On meeting the gamekeeper, according to appointment, he found him surrounded by a team of Clumber spaniels. Colonel M----, in some surprise at seeing no setters or pointers, remarked that he had expected some _partridge_ shooting. "I know it," answered the man, "and I hope to show you some sport." To the inquiry why one of the spaniels was muzzled, the keeper said that his master had threatened to shoot it should it again give tongue, and, as it possessed a particularly fine nose, he--the keeper--was anxious not to lose it. They walked on, and soon the man told M---- to be prepared, as the spaniels were feathering. A covey rose. The Colonel, who was a good shot, killed right and left. All the spaniels dropped instantly. When he was reloading the keeper begged him to say which of the dogs should retrieve the game. M---- pointed to a broad-headed dog lying in the middle, when the keeper directed by name the spaniel so favored to be off. It quickly fetched one of the birds. The keeper then asked M---- to choose some other dog to bring the remaining bird--a runner. He did so, and the animal he selected to act as retriever performed the duty very cleverly; the rest of the team remaining quite still, until its return. The Colonel had capital sport, killing nearly twenty brace, and the dogs behaved beautifully throughout the day. When afterwards relating the circumstances, he observed that, although an old sportsman, he had seldom been so gratified, as it was a novel scene to him, who had not been accustomed to shoot over spaniels. 73. Of small cockers, three couple appear ample to form a team. Some teams of small springers greatly exceed this number, and many sportsmen shoot over more than a couple and a half of the larger spaniels; but it is a question whether, in the generality of cases, the gun would not benefit by the number being diminished rather than increased. The smaller in number the team, the greater is the necessity that none of them should stick too close to "heel." The difficulty is to make them hunt far enough, and yet not too far. At least one of the number should retrieve well. If they give tongue, it ought to be in an intelligible manner; softly, when they first come on the haunt of a cock, but making the cover ring again with their joyous melody, when once the bird is flushed. A first rate cocker will never deceive by opening upon an old haunt, nor yet find the gun unprepared by delaying to give due warning before he flushes the bird. When cocks are abundant, some teams are broken, not only to avoid flick, but actually not to notice a pheasant, or anything besides woodcock. Hardly any price would tempt a real lover of cock-shooting, in a cocking country, to part with such a team. Hawker terms the sport, "the fox-hunting of shooting." Some sportsmen kill water-hens to young spaniels to practise them in forcing their way through entangled covers, and get them well in hand and steady against the all-important cocking season. 74. When a regular retriever can be constantly employed with spaniels, of course it will be unnecessary to make any of them fetch game--certainly never to lift anything which falls out of bounds--though all the team should be taught to "seek dead." This is the plan pursued by the Duke of Newcastle's keepers, and obviously it is the soundest and easiest practice, for it must always be more or less difficult to make a spaniel keep within his usual hunting limits, who is occasionally encouraged to pursue wounded game, at his best pace, to a considerable distance. 75. Other teams are broken no more than to keep within range, being allowed to hunt all kinds of game, and also rabbits; they, however, are restricted from pursuing wounded flick further than fifty or sixty yards. Where rabbits are abundant, and outlying, a team thus broken affords lively sport--nothing escapes them. 76. Wild spaniels, though they may show you most cock, will get you fewest shots, unless you have well-placed markers. There are sportsmen who like to take out one steady dog to range close to them, and a couple of wild ones to hunt on the flanks, one on each side, expressly that the latter may put up birds for the markers to take note of. 77. An old sportsman knows _mute_ spaniels to be most killing: a young one may prefer those which give tongue--if true from the beginning owning nothing but game,--because, though undeniably greater disturbers of a cover, they are more cheerful and animating. The superiority of the former is, however, apparent on a still calm day, when the least noise will make the game steal away long before the gun gets within shot. But it is not so in all countries. 78. In very thick covers it is obvious, the height of setters being greatly against them, that spaniels are far preferable: but in light covers, and when the leaves are off the trees, _handy_ old setters--if white, all the better--that will readily confine themselves to a restricted range, and will flush their game when ordered--IV. and VII. of 119 and 196--afford quite as much sport, if not more. Setters do not, to the same degree, alarm birds; and there is, also, this advantage, that they can be employed on _all_ occasions, excepting in low gorse or the closest thickets, whereas spaniels, from their contracted "beat," are nearly useless in the open when game is scarce. You will be prepared, when first you hunt a setter in cover, to sacrifice much of your sport. There must be noise; for it is essential to make him at once thoroughly understand the very different "beat" required of him, and this can only be effected by constantly checking and rating him, whenever he ranges beyond the prescribed limits. He should hunt slowly and carefully to the right and left, and never be much in advance of the guns. In a short time he will comprehend matters, if you are so forbearing and judicious as invariably to call him away from every point made the least out of bounds. A less severe test of your consistency will not suffice. The few first days will either make or mar him as a cover-dog. You must naturally expect that hunting him much in cover will injure his range in the open, and make him too fond of hedge-rows. 79. But there is a man in Yorkshire, who will not willingly admit this.[16] C----e, Sir George A----e's gamekeeper--and a good one he is, for he has a particularly difficult country to protect, one intersected with "rights of way" in every direction--makes his pointers as freely hunt the cover as the open. You never lose them, for they are sure to make their appearance when they think they have given you ample time to go to them if you choose. This cover work does not the least unsteady them, but it is right to state that C---- is an unusually good breaker, and works his dogs with singular temper and patience. They are very attached to him, and appear to listen anxiously to what he says when he talks to them--which, I own, he does more than I recommend. 80. Pointers, however, are manifestly out of place in strong cover, though an unusually high-couraged one may occasionally be found, who will dash forward in defiance of pricks and scratches; but it is not fair to expect it. In a very light cover I have often shot over one belonging to a relation of mine, which was so clever, that when I came close to her as she was pointing, she would frequently run around to the other side of the thicket, and then rush in to drive the game towards me. This killing plan had in no way been taught her; she adopted it solely of her own sagacity. Having been much hunted in cover when young, she was so fond of it (65) as to be, comparatively speaking, quite unserviceable on the stubbles. FOOTNOTES: [12] There is no gorse in America. It is a prickly shrub, severe enough, but nothing to compare to catbriars, or even to the hollies of Southern Jersey.--H.W.H. [13] The only bird which we have in America, at all analogous in habit to the pheasant, though totally different in species and appearance, is the Ruffed Grouse, erroneously called Pheasant in the South, and Partridge in the Eastern States. It is, however, for cock and quail shooting in covert, that the Spaniel would be of such inestimable service to sportsmen in North America.--H.W.H. [14] For the benefit of those who have the good fortune, or the bad fortune, as the case may be, of always living within the sound of Bow bells, "Flick," be it observed, is a synonym for "Fur," thereby meaning Hare or Rabbit. [15] Contrary to my usual system, I preserve these anecdotes, as relating to the Clumber Spaniels, which are so little known, and which I so much desire to see introduced in America.--H.W.H. [16] I leave these two anecdotes, contrary to my usual system, as we use setters and pointers so generally in cover in America, that the idea of their being utterly unfit for cover work seems strange. Yet such is the opinion in England, and where they are chiefly used in the open it _does_ operate to spoil their range.--H.W.H. WATER SPANIELS (OR WATER RETRIEVERS). 81. A young water spaniel might, with advantage, occasionally be indulged with a duck hunt in warm weather. It would tend to make him quick in the water, and observant. The finishing lessons might conclude with your shooting the bird and obliging him to retrieve it. He should be made handy to your signals--IV. to VII. and X. of 119--so as to hunt the fens and marshes, and "seek dead" exactly where you may wish. 82. This obedience to the hand is particularly required; for when the spaniel is swimming he is on a level with the bird, and therefore is not so likely to see it--especially if there is a ripple on the water--as you, who probably are standing many feet above him on the shore. As you may frequently, while he is retrieving, have occasion to direct his movements when at a considerable distance from him, you probably would find it more advantageous to teach him the forward signal used by shepherds, than the one described in IV. of 119. 83. A water spaniel should also be taught to fetch--86, 87, 91 to 94--be accustomed to follow quietly close to your heels,--be broken in, not to the "down charge"--26--but to the "drop"--22 to 25--the instant you signal to him, while you are noiselessly stalking the wild-fowl previously reconnoitred, with the aid of your Dollond, from some neighboring height; nor should he stir a limb, however long he and you may have to await, ensconced behind a favoring bush, the right moment for the destructive raking discharge of your first barrel, to be followed by the less murderous but still effective flying shot. On hearing the report, it is his duty to dash instantly into the water, and secure the slain as rapidly as possible. 84. A really good water retriever is a scarce and valuable animal. He should be neither white nor black, because the colors are too conspicuous, especially the former--a hint by-the-bye for your own costume;[17]--he should be perfectly mute; of a patient disposition, though active in the pursuit of birds; of so hardy a constitution as not to mind the severest cold,--therefore no coddling while he is young near a fire,--and possess what many are deficient in, viz. a good nose: consequently a cross that will improve his nose, yet not decrease his steadiness, is the great desideratum in breeding. He should swim rapidly, for wild fowl that are only winged, will frequently escape from the quickest dog if they have plenty of sea-room and deep water--see also 96, 302. 85. In the wild-_rice_ lakes, as they are commonly called, of America, a brace of highly-trained spaniels will sometimes, on a windy day, afford you magnificent sport. The cover is so good that, if it is not often beaten, the birds will frequently get up singly, or only a couple at a time. The dogs should keep swimming about within gun shot, while you are slowly and silently paddling, or probably poling your canoe through the most likely spots. Relays of spaniels are requisite, for it is fatiguing work. If, by any rare chance, you are situated where you can get much of this delightful shooting, and _you are an enthusiast in training_, it may be worth your while to consider whether there would not be an advantage in making the dogs perfect in the "down charge," as they would then cease swimming the instant you fired. But this long digression about spaniels has led us away from your pup, which we assumed--3--to be a pointer, or setter. FOOTNOTES: [17] But when the moors are covered with snow, poachers, who emerge in bands from the mines, often put a shirt over their clothes, and manage to approach grouse at a time when a fair sportsman cannot get a shot; but this is the only occasion on which one uniform color could be advantageous. A mass of _any_ single color always catches, and arrests the eye. Nature tells us this; animals that browse, elephants, buffaloes, and large deer, as well as those which can escape from their enemies by speed, are mostly of one color. On the contrary, the tiger kind, snakes, and all that lie in wait for, and seize their prey by stealth, wear a garment of many colors, so do the smaller animals and most birds, which are saved from capture by the inability of their foes to distinguish them from the surrounding foliage or herbage. The uniform of our rifle corps is too much of one hue. CHAPTER IV. LESSONS IN "FETCHING."--RETRIEVERS. 86. Though you may not wish your young pointer (or setter) to perform the duties of a regular retriever (292), still you would do well to teach him, whilst he is a puppy, to fetch and deliver into your hand anything soft you may occasionally throw for him, or leave behind you in some place where he will have observed you deposit it, while he is following at your heels. In a little time you can drop something _without_ letting him see you, and afterwards send him back for it. A dog thus made, who is your intimate companion, becomes so conversant with every article of your apparel, and with whatever you usually carry about you, that, should you accidentally drop anything, the observant animal will be almost certain to recover it. On receiving your order to "be off and find" he will accurately retrace your footsteps for miles and miles, diligently hunting every yard of the ground. Of course the distances to which you at first send your dog will be inconsiderable, and you should carefully avoid persevering too long a time, lest he get sick of the lesson. Indeed, in all his lessons--as well in-doors as out--but particularly in this, let it be your aim to leave off at a moment when he has performed entirely to your satisfaction; that you may part the best of friends, and that the last impression made by the lesson may be pleasing as well as correct, from a grateful recollection of the caresses which he has received. In wild-duck shooting you may be in situations where you would be very glad if the dog would bring your bird; and when it is an active runner in cover, I fear you will be more anxious than I could wish--221--that the dog should "fetch." It is probable that he will thus assist you if he be practised as I have just advised; and such instruction may lead, years hence, to his occasionally bringing you some dead bird which he may come across, and which you otherwise might have imagined you had missed, for its scent might be too cold, and consequently too changed, for the dog to have thought of regularly pointing it. 87. Mark my having said "deliver into your hand," that your young dog may not be satisfied with only dropping, within your sight, any bird he may lift, and so, perhaps, leave it on the other side of a trout stream, as I have seen dogs do more than once, in spite of every persuasion and entreaty. With a young dog, who retrieves, never pick up a bird yourself, however close it may fall to you. Invariably, make him either deliver it into your hand or lay it at your feet. The former is by far the better plan. If the dog has at one moment to drop the bird at your will, he is likely to fancy himself privileged to drop it at another time for his own convenience. In other respects, too, the former is the safest method. I have a bitch now in my recollection, who frequently lost her master slightly winged birds,--which she had admirably recovered--by dropping them too soon on hearing the report of a gun, or coming on other game--for off they ran, and fairly escaped, it being impracticable, by any encouragement, to induce her to seek for a bird she had once lifted. 88. I observed it was something soft which you should teach your dog to fetch. Probably you have seen a retriever taught to seek and bring a stone, upon which, in a delicate manner, the tutor has spit. Does it not stand to reason that the stone must have tended to give his pupil a hard mouth? And what may, later in life, cause him much misery, in dashing at a bounding stone, he may split a tooth. Dogs of an advanced age suffer more in their mouths than most of us suspect. 89. Should your pup be unwilling to enter water, on no account push him in, under the mistaken idea that it will reconcile him to the element--it will but augment his fears. Rather, on a warm day, throw some biscuit for him, when he is hungry, close to the edge of the bank, where it is so shallow as merely to require his wading. Chuck the next piece a little further off, and, by degrees, increase the distance until he gets beyond his depth, and finds that nature has given him useful swimming powers. On no occasion will the example of another dog more assist you. Your youngster's diving can never be of service; therefore throw in only what will float. Otherwise he might have a plunge for nothing, and so be discouraged; and evidently it should be your constant aim to avoid doing anything likely to shake his confidence in you. 90. If you ever have occasion to teach a dog to dive and retrieve, first accustom him, on land, to fetch something heavy, of a conspicuous color. When he brings it eagerly, commence your diving lesson by throwing it into the shallowest parts of the stream. Only by slow degrees get to deep water, and let your lessons be very short. Never chuck in a stone. The chances are twenty to one that there are several at the bottom not very dissimilar, and the young dog ought not to be subjected to the temptation of picking up one of them in lieu of that he was sent for. Should he on any occasion do so, neither scold nor caress him; quietly take what he brings, lay it at your feet, to show him that you want it not, and endeavor to make him renew his search for what you threw in; do this by signs, and by encouragement with your voice, rather than by chucking stones in the right direction, lest he should seek for them instead of searching for what you originally sent him. 91. Some teachers make a young dog fetch a round pin cushion, or a cork ball, in which needles are judiciously buried; nor is it a bad plan, and there need be no cruelty in it, if well managed. At least it can only be cruel once, for the dog's recollection of his sufferings will prevent his picking up the offending object a second time. Others, after he is well drilled into "fetching," and takes pleasure in it, will make him bring a bunch of keys. There are few things a dog is less willing to lift. Most probably they gave him some severe rebuffs when first heedlessly snatching at them; and the caution thereby induced tends to give him a careful, tender mouth. A fencing master, I knew in France, had a spaniel, singularly enough for a Frenchman, called "Waterloo," that would take up the smallest needle. 92. When your dog has picked up what you desired, endeavor to make him run to you quickly. Many who teach a dog to fetch, praise and encourage him while he is bringing what he was sent after. Clearly this is an error. It induces the dog to loiter and play with it. He thinks he is lauded for having it in his mouth and carrying it about. Reserve your encomiums and caresses until he has delivered it. If you walk away, the fear of your leaving him will induce him to hurry after you. Let a dog retrieve ever so carelessly, still, while on the move, he will rarely drop a bird. 93. Dogs that retrieve should be gradually brought to lift heavy, flexible things, and such as require a large grasp, that they may not be quite unprepared for the weight and size of a hare; otherwise they may be inclined to drag it along by a slight hold of the skin, instead of balancing it across their mouths. Thus capacious jaws are obviously an advantage in retrievers. The French gamekeepers, many of whom are capital hands at making a retriever--excepting that they do not teach the "down charge,"--stuff a hare or rabbit skin with straw, and when the dog has learned to fetch it with eagerness, they progressively increase its weight by burying larger and larger pieces of wood in the middle of the straw: and to add to the difficulty of carrying it, they often throw it to the other side of a hedge or thick copse. If the dog shows any tendency to a hard mouth they mix thorns with the straw. 94. I ought to have mentioned sooner that you should commence teaching a puppy to "fetch" by shaking your glove--or anything soft--at him, and encouraging him to seize and drag it from you. Then throw it a yard or two off, gradually increasing the distance, and the moment he delivers it to you, give him something palatable. Should you, contrary to every reasonable expectation, from his having no inclination to romp or play with the glove, not be able to persuade him to pick it up, put it between his teeth--force him to grasp it by tightly pressing his jaws together, speaking all the while impressively to him--scold him if he is obstinate and refuses to take hold of the glove. After a little time retire a few paces, keeping one hand under his mouth--to prevent his dropping the glove,--while you lead or drag him with the other. When you halt, be sure not to take the glove immediately from him--oblige him to continue holding it for at least a minute--lest he should learn to relinquish his grip too soon,--before you make him yield at the command "give;" then bestow a reward. Should he drop it before he is ordered to deliver it, replace it in his mouth and again retreat some steps before ordering him to "give." He will soon follow with it at your heels. If you have sufficient perseverance you can thus make him earn all his daily food. Hunger will soon perfect him in the lesson. Observe that there are four distinct stages in this trick of carrying--the first, making the dog grasp and retain--the second, inducing him to bring, following at your heels--the third, teaching him not to quit his hold when you stop--the fourth, getting him to deliver into your hands on your order. The great advantage of a sporting dog's acquiring this trick is that it accustoms him to deliver into your _hands_; and it often happens that you must thus teach a dog to "carry" as a preparative to teaching him to "fetch." It certainly will be judicious in you to do so, if the dog is a lively, riotous animal; for the act of carrying the glove--or stick, &c.--quietly at your heels will sober him, and make him less likely to run off with it instead of delivering it when you are teaching him to fetch. As soon as he brings the glove tolerably well, try him with a short stick. You will wish him not to seize the end of it, lest he should learn to "drag" instead of "carry." Therefore fix pegs or wires into holes drilled at right angles to each other at the extremities of the stick. He will then only grasp it near the middle. 95. This drill should be further extended if a REGULAR LAND RETRIEVER be your pupil. Throw dead birds of any kind for him to bring--of course one at a time,--being on the alert to check him whenever he grips them too severely. If he persists in disfiguring them, pass a few blunted knitting needles through them at right angles to one another. When he fetches with a tender mouth, you will be able to follow up this method of training still further by letting him "road"--or "foot," as it is often termed--a rabbit in high stubble, one--or both, if a strong buck--of whose hind legs you will have previously bandaged in the manner described in 56. Be careful not to let him see you turn it out, lest he watch your proceedings and endeavor to "hunt by eye." Indeed it might be better to employ another person to turn it out. Keep clear of woods for some time--the cross scents would puzzle him. If by any chance you have a winged pheasant or partridge, let him retrieve it. You will not, I presume, at the commencement select a morning when there is a dry cold wind from the north-east, but probably you will wish to conclude his initiatory lessons on days which you judge to possess least scent. The more he has been practised as described in 39, the better will he work; for he cannot keep his nose too perseveringly close to the ground. With reference to the instructions in that paragraph, I will here remark, that before you let the dog stoop to hunt, you should have placed him by signal (31) near the spot from which you had begun dragging the bread. In paragraph 190 an instance is given of the manner in which a dog who retrieves should be put upon a scent; and why that mode is adopted is explained in 184. 96. It is quite astonishing how well an old dog that retrieves knows when a bird is struck. He instantly detects any hesitation or uncertainty of movement, and for a length of time will watch its flight with the utmost eagerness, and, steadily keeping his eye on it, will as surely as yourself mark its fall. To induce a young dog to become thus observant, always let him perceive that _you_ watch a wounded bird with great eagerness; his imitative instinct will soon lead him to do the same. This faculty of observation is particularly serviceable in a water retriever. It enables him to swim direct to the crippled bird, and, besides the saving of time, the less he is in the water in severe weather, the less likely is he to suffer from rheumatism. 97. As an initiatory lesson in making him observant of the flight and fall of birds, place a few pigeons, or other birds, during his absence, each in a hole covered with a tile. Afterwards come upon these spots apparently unexpectedly, and, kicking away the tiles--or, what is better, dragging them off by a previously adjusted string,--shoot the birds for him to bring; it being clearly understood that he has been previously tutored into having no dread of the gun. As he will have been taught to search where bidden--IV. to VIII. of 119,--nothing now remains but to take him out on a regular campaign, when the fascinating scent of game will infallibly make him search--I do not say deliver--with great eagerness. When once he then touches upon a scent, leave him entirely to himself--not a word, not a sign. Possibly his nose may not be able to follow the bird, but it is certain that yours cannot. Occasionally you may be able to help an old retriever (296), but rarely, if ever, a young one. Your interference, nay, probably your mere presence, would so excite him as to make him overrun the scent. Remain, therefore, quietly where you are until he rejoins you. 98. When we see a winged pheasant racing off, most of us are too apt to assist a young dog, forgetting that we thereby teach him, instead of devoting his whole attention to work out the scent, to turn to us for aid on occasions when it may be impossible to give it. When a dog is hunting _for_ birds, he should frequently look to the gun for signals, but when he is _on_ them he should trust to nothing but his own scenting faculties. 99. If, from a judicious education, a retriever pup has had a delight in "fetching" rapidly, it is not likely he will loiter on the way to mouth his birds; but the fatigue of carrying a hare a considerable distance may, perhaps, induce a young dog to drop it in order to take a moment's rest. There is a risk that when doing so he may be tempted to lick the blood, and, finding it palatable, be led to maul the carcase. You see, therefore, the judiciousness of employing every means in your power to ensure his feeling anxious to deliver _quickly_, and I know not what plan will answer better--though it sounds sadly unsentimental--than to have some pieces of hard boiled liver[18] at hand to bestow upon him the moment he surrenders his game, until he is thoroughly confirmed in an expeditious delivery. Never give him a piece, however diligently he may have searched, unless he succeeds in bringing. When you leave off these rewards do so gradually. The invariable bestowal of such dainties during, at least, the retriever's first season, will prevent his ever dropping a bird on hearing the report of a gun--as many do--in order to search for the later killed game. 100. Should a young retriever evince any wish to assist the cook by plucking out the feathers of a bird; or from natural vice or mismanagement before he came into your possession,[19] show any predisposition to taste blood, take about two feet (dependent upon the size of the dog's head) of iron wire, say the one-eighth of an inch in diameter, sufficiently flexible for _you_, but not for _him_ to bend. Shape this much into the form of the letter U, supposing the extremities to be joined by a straight line. Place the straight part in the dog's mouth, and passing the other over his head and ears, retain it in position by a light throat lash passed through a turn in the wire, as here roughly represented. The flexibility of the wire will enable you to adjust it with ease to the shape of his head. When in the kennel he ought to be occasionally thus bitted, that he may not fret when he is first hunted with it. It will not injure his teeth or much annoy him if it lie on his grinders a little behind the tushes. [Illustration] 101. Sometimes a retriever, notwithstanding every encouragement, will not pursue a winged bird with sufficient rapidity. In this case associate him for a few days with a quicker dog, whose example will to a certainty animate him and increase his pace. It is true that when he is striving to hit off a scent he cannot work too patiently and perseveringly; but, on the other hand, the moment he is satisfied he is on it, he cannot follow too rapidly. A winged bird, when closely pressed, seems, through nervousness, to emit an increasing stream of scent; therefore, though it may sound paradoxical, the retriever's accelerated pace then makes him (his nose being close to the ground) the less likely to overrun it; and the faster he pursues the less ground must he disturb, for the shorter will be the chase. 102. Retrievers are generally taught to rush in the instant a bird falls. This plan, like most other things, has its advocates and its opponents. I confess to being one of the latter, for I cannot believe that in the long run it is the best way to fill the bag. I think it certain that more game is lost by birds being flushed while the guns are unloaded, than could be lost from the scent cooling during the short period the dog remains at the "down charge." Unquestionably some retrievers have so good a nose, that the delay would not lead to their missing any wounded game however slightly struck; and the delay has this great advantage, that it helps to keep the retriever under proper subjection, and diminishes his anxiety to rush to every part of the line where a gun may be fired, instead of remaining quietly at his master's heels until signalled to take up the scent. Moreover, a retriever by neglecting the "down charge," sets an example to the pointers or setters who may be his companions, which it is always more or less difficult to prevent the dogs, if young, from following. But I once shot over a retriever which I could hardly wish not to have "run on shot." On a bird being hit he started off with the greatest impetuosity, kept his eye immovably fixed on its flight, and possessed such speed that a winged bird scarcely touched the ground ere it was pinned. He would, too, often seize a slightly injured hare before it had acquired its best pace. The pursuit so soon terminated that possibly less game escaped being fired at than if the retriever had not stirred until the guns were reloaded. On a miss he was never allowed--indeed appeared little inclined--to quit "heel." Of course a trainer's trouble is decreased by not breaking to the "down charge," which may induce some to recommend the plan; though it is to be observed, that this class of dogs is more easily than any other perfected in it, because the breaker nearly always possesses the power of treading upon or seizing the checkcord the instant a bird is sprung. 103. The nature of your shooting will much influence you in deciding which of the two methods to adopt; but should you select the one which the generality of good sportsmen consider to be most according to rule, and to possess the greatest beauty, viz., the "down charge," rather lose any bird, however valuable, so long as your retriever remains young, than put him on the "foot" a second before you have reloaded. Undoubtedly it ought to be taught to every dog broken for sale, as the purchaser can always dispense with it should he judge it unnecessary--it can soon be untaught. It is clear that not "quitting heel" until ordered is tantamount to the regular "down charge," but I think the last is the easiest to enforce constantly. It is the more decided step. 104. Large retrievers are less apt to mouth their game than small ones: but very heavy dogs are not desirable, for they soon tire. And yet a certain medium is necessary, for they ought to have sufficient strength to carry a hare with ease through a thicket, when balanced in their jaws, and be able to jump a fence with her. They should run mute. And they should be thick coated: unless they are so,--I do not say long coated,--they cannot be expected to dash into close cover, or plunge into water after a duck or snipe when the thermometer is near zero. 105. It is usually allowed that, as a general rule, the best land retrievers are bred from a cross between the setter and the Newfoundland--or the strong spaniel and Newfoundland. I do not mean the heavy Labrador, whose weight and bulk is valued because it adds to his power of draught, nor the Newfoundland, increased in size at Halifax and St. John's to suit the taste of the English purchaser,--but the far slighter dog reared by the settlers on the coast,--a dog that is quite as fond of water as of land, and which in almost the severest part of a North American winter will remain on the edge of a rock for hours together, watching intently for anything the passing waves may carry near him. Such a dog is highly prized. Without his aid the farmer would secure but few of the many wild ducks he shoots at certain seasons of the year. The patience with which he waits for a shot on the top of a high cliff--until the numerous flock sail leisurely underneath--would be fruitless, did not his noble dog fearlessly plunge in from the greatest height, and successfully bring the slain to shore. 106. Probably a cross from the heavy, large headed setter, who, though so wanting in pace, has an exquisite nose; and the true Newfoundland, makes the best retriever. Nose is the first desideratum. A breaker may doubt which of his pointers or setters possesses the greatest olfactory powers, but a short trial tells him which of his retrievers has the finest nose. 107. Making a first-rate retriever is a work of time, but his being _thoroughly_ grounded in the required initiatory lessons facilitates matters surprisingly. Indeed after having been taught the "drop"--22, 24, 25,--to "fetch"--92 to 94--and "seek dead" in the precise direction he is ordered--XI of 119,--almost any kind of dog can be made to retrieve. The better his nose is, the better of course he will retrieve. Sagacity, good temper, quickness of comprehension, a teachable disposition, and all cultivated qualities are almost as visibly transmitted to offspring as shape and action; therefore the stronger a dog's hereditary instincts lead him to retrieve, the less will be the instructor's trouble; and the more obedient he is made to the signals of the hand, the more readily will he be put upon a scent. Dogs that are by nature quick rangers do not take instinctively to retrieving. They have not naturally sufficient patience to work out a feeble scent. They are apt to overrun it. A really good retriever will pursue a wounded bird or hare as accurately as a bloodhound will a deer or man; and if he is put on a false scent, I mean a scent of uninjured flick or feather, he will not follow it beyond a few steps--experience will have shown him the inutility of so doing. (297.) 108. Avail yourself of the first opportunity to make a young retriever lift a woodcock, lest in after life, from novel scent, he decline touching it, as many dogs have done to the great annoyance of their masters. Ditto, with the delicate landrail. 109. The directions given about "fetching" led me to talk of retrievers; and, having touched upon the subject, I thought it right not to quit it, until I had offered the best advice in my power. I have but one more recommendation to add before I return to your setter--or pointer--pup: carefully guard a young retriever--indeed any dog bred for the gun--from being ever allowed to join a rat-hunt. Rat-hunting would tend to destroy his tenderness of mouth, nay, possibly make him mangle his game. But this is not all. It has often gradually led good dogs to decline lifting hares or rabbits, apparently regarding them more in the light of vermin than of game. Some dogs, however, that are not bad retrievers, are capital ratters, but they are exceptions to the general rule. Indeed, you should never permit your dog to retrieve any kind of ground or winged vermin. If the creature were only wounded it might turn upon him. He in self-defence would give it a grip, and he might thus be led to follow the practice on less pardonable occasions. Remember, that a winged bittern or heron might peck out his eye. FOOTNOTES: [18] A drier and cleaner article than you may suppose, and which can be carried not inconveniently in a Mackintosh, or oil-skin bag--a toilet sponge bag. [19] If a retriever has the opportunity, while prowling about, of gnawing hare or rabbit-skins thrown aside by a slovenly cook, it will not be unnatural in him, when he is hungry, to wish to appropriate to himself the hide, if not the interior, of the animals he is lifting. CHAPTER V. INITIATORY LESSONS OUT OF DOORS.--TRICKS. 110. As I before observed, you can practise most of the initiatory lessons in your country walks. Always put something alluring in your pocket to reward your pupil for prompt obedience. Do not take him out unnecessarily in bad weather. On no account let him amuse himself by scraping acquaintance with every idle cur he meets on the way; nor permit him to gambol about the lanes. Let him understand by your manner that there is business at hand. Never let him enter a field before you. _Always keep him at your heels, until you give him the order to be off._ You will find him disposed to presume and encroach. According to the old adage, "Give him an inch, and he will take an ell." He will be endeavoring to lead rather than to follow, and, if he fancies himself unobserved, he will most perseveringly steal inch upon inch in advance. Be ever on the watch, ready to check the _beginning_ of every act of disobedience. Implicit obedience in trifles will insure it in things of more importance. 111. For some time, but the period is uncertain--say from his being eight months old until double that age[20]--he will merely gallop and frisk about, and probably will take diligently to persecuting butterflies. Let him choose what he likes. Don't think he will prize small beer, when he can get champagne. He will leave off noticing inferior articles as he becomes conversant with the taste of game. It is now your main object to get him to hunt; no matter what, so that he is not perpetually running to "heel." And the more timid he is the more you must let him chase, and amuse himself as his fancy dictates. When you see that he is really occupying himself with more serious hunting, _eagerly_ searching for small birds, especially larks, you must begin instructing him how to quarter his ground to the greatest advantage, _under your constant direction_. Should any one join you, or anything occur likely to prevent your giving him your strictest attention, on no account permit him to range--keep him to "heel" until you are quite prepared to watch and control all his movements. Hunt him where he is least likely to find game, for he will take to quartering his ground far more regularly, under your guidance, where his attention is least distracted by any scent. The taint of partridge would be almost sure to make him deviate from the true line on which you are anxious he should work. Labor now diligently, if possible daily, though not for many hours a day; for be assured a good method of ranging can only be implanted when he is young. 112. Should your pup be so long before taking to hunting that your patience becomes exhausted, let an older dog accompany you a few times. When _he_ finds birds, gradually bring the young one upon them from leeward, and let him spring them. Encourage him to sniff the ground they have quitted, and allow him to run riot on the haunt. After that enjoyment, the example of the old dog will most likely soon make him range, and employ his nose in seeking a repetition of what has afforded him such unexpected delight. If it does not, and the old dog is steady and good-humored enough to bear the annoyance cheerfully, couple the young one to him. Before this he should have learned to work kindly in couples--44. But I am getting on too fast, and swerving from the track I had marked for myself. By-and-by I will tell you how I think you should instruct your youngster to quarter his ground to the best advantage--127, &c. 113. Common sense shows that you ought not to correct your dog for disobedience, unless you are certain that he knows his fault. Now you will see that the initiatory lessons I recommend must give him that knowledge, for they explain to him the meaning of almost all the signs and words of command you will have to employ when shooting. That knowledge, too, is imparted by a system of rewards, not punishments. Your object is not to break his spirit, but his self-will. With his obedience you gain his affection. The greatest hardship admissible, in this early stage of his education, is a strong jerk of the checkcord, and a sound rating, given, _when necessary_, in the loudest tone and sternest manner; and it is singular how soon he will discriminate between the reproving term "bad"--to which he will sensitively attach a feeling of shame--and the encouraging word "good"--expressions that will hereafter have a powerful influence over him, especially if he be of a gentle, timid disposition. 114. In educating such a dog--and there are many of the kind, likely to turn out well, if they are judiciously managed, often possessing noses so exquisite--perhaps I ought to say cautious--as nearly to make up for their general want of constitution and powers of endurance--it is satisfactory to think that all these lessons can be inculcated without in the slightest degree depressing his spirit. On the contrary, increasing observation and intelligence will gradually banish his shyness and distrust of his own powers; for he will be sensible that he is becoming more and more capable of comprehending your wishes, and therefore less likely to err and be punished (245). 115. I fear you may imagine that I am attributing too much reasoning power to him. You would not think so if you had broken in two or three dogs. What makes dog-teaching, if not very attractive, at least not laborious, is the fact that the more you impart to a dog, the more readily will he gain further knowledge. After teaching a poodle or a terrier a few tricks, you will be surprised to see with what increasing facility he will acquire each successive accomplishment. It is this circumstance which, I think, should induce you not to regard as chimerical the perfection of which I purpose to speak by-and-by, under the head of "refinements in breaking." Indeed I only adopt this distinction in deference to what I cannot but consider popular prejudice; for I well know many will regard such accomplishments as altogether superfluous. It is sad to think that an art which might easily be made much more perfect, is allowed, almost by universal suffrance, to stop short just at the point where excellence is within grasp. 116. Far more dogs would be _well-broken_, if men would but keep half the number they usually possess. _The owner of many dogs cannot shoot often enough over them, to give them great experience._ 117. I am, however, wandering from our immediate subject. Let us return to the lecture, and consider how much knowledge your pupil will have acquired by these preliminary instructions. We shall find that, with the exception of a systematically confirmed range, really little remains to be learned, save what his almost unaided instinct will tell him. 118. For it is wonderful how much you can effect by initiatory instruction: indeed, afterwards, you will have little else to do than teach and confirm your dog in a judicious range--his own sagacity and increasing experience will be his principal guides--for consider how much you will have taught him. 119. He will know-- I. That he is to pay attention to his whistle--the whistle that you design always to use to him. I mean that, when he hears _one_ low blast on his whistle he is to look to you for orders, but not necessarily run towards you, unless he is out of sight, or you continue whistling (18). II. That "Toho," or the right arm raised nearly perpendicularly, means that he is to stand still (19 to 21). III. That "Drop," or the left arm raised nearly perpendicularly, or the report of a gun, means that he is to crouch down with his head close to the ground, between his feet, however far off he may be ranging. Greater relaxation in the position may be permitted after he has been a little time shot over (22 to 26). IV. That "On,"--the shortest word for "hie-on,"--or the forward underhand swing of the right hand, signifies that he is to advance in a forward direction--the direction in which you are waving. This signal is very useful. It implies that you want the dog to hunt ahead of you. Yon employ it also when you are alongside of him at his point, and are desirous of urging him to follow up the running bird or birds, and press to a rise. If he push on too eagerly, you restrain him by slightly raising the right hand--XII. of this paragraph (18 to 21). V. That a wave of the right arm and hand--the arm being fully extended and well to the right--from left to right, means that he is to hunt to the right. Some men wave the left hand across the body from left to right, as a direction to the dog to hunt to the right; but that signal is not so apparent at a distance as the one I have described (32). VI. That a wave of the left arm from right to left--the arm being fully extended and well to the left--means that he is to hunt to the left (33). VII. That the "Beckon," the wave of the right hand towards you, indicates that he is to hunt towards you (33. See also 67). VIII. That the word "Heel," or a wave of the right hand to the rear--the reverse of the underhand, cricket-bowler's swing,--implies that he is to give up hunting, and go directly close to your heels (40). IX. That "Fence" means that he is not to leave the place where you are. After being so checked a few times when he is endeavoring to quit the field, he will understand the word to be an order not to "break fence" (42, 43). X. That "Find" or "Seek" means that he is to search for something which he will have great gratification in discovering. When he is in the field he will quickly understand this to be game (30, 31). XI. That "Dead"--which it would be well to accompany with the signal to "Heel," means that there is something not far off, which he would have great satisfaction in finding. On hearing it, he will come to you, and await your signals instructing him in what direction he is to hunt for it. When, by signals, you have put him as near as you can upon the spot where you think the bird has fallen, you will say "Find;" for, until you say that word, he ought to be more occupied in attending to your signals than in searching for the bird. When you have shot a good many birds to him, if he is within sight, in order to work more silently, omit saying "Dead," only signal to him to go to "Heel" (18, 30, 31, 40). XII. That "Care" means that he is near that for which he is hunting. This word, used with the right hand slightly raised--the signal for the "Toho," only not exhibited nearly so energetically--will soon make him comprehend that game is near him, and that he is therefore to hunt cautiously. You will use it when your young dog is racing too fast among turnips or potatoes (35). XIII. That "Up" means that he is to sniff with his nose high in the air for that of which he is in search (37). XIV. That "Away"--or "Gone," or "Flown"--is an indication that the thing for which he was hunting and of which he smells the taint, is no longer there. This word is not to be used in the field until your young dog has gained some experience (41). XV. That "Ware"--pronounced "War"--is a general order to desist from whatever he may be doing. "No" is perhaps a better word; it can be pronounced more distinctly and energetically. If the command is occasionally accompanied with the cracking of your whip, its meaning will soon be understood (43). XVI. He will also know the distinction between the chiding term "Bad" and the encouraging word "Good"; and, moreover, be sensible, from your look and manner, whether you are pleased or angry with him. Dogs, like children, are physiognomists (36, end of 104). 120. You will perceive that you are advised to use the right hand more than the left. This is only because the left hand is so generally employed in carrying the gun. 121. You will also observe, that when the voice is employed--and this should be done only when the dog will not obey your signals--I have recommended you to make use of but _one_ word. Why should you say "Come to heel," "Ware breaking fence," "Have a care?" If you speak in sentences, you may at times unconsciously vary the words of the sentence, or the emphasis on any word; and as it is only by the sound that you should expect a dog to be guided, the more defined and distinct in sound the several commands are the better. 122. This consideration leads to the remark that, as, by nearly universal consent, "Toho" is the word employed to tell a dog to point, the old rule is clearly a judicious one, never to call him "Ponto," "Sancho," or by any name ending in "o." Always, too, choose one that can be hallooed in a sharp, loud, high key. You will find the advantage of this whenever you lose your dog, and happen not to have a whistle. Observe, also, if you have several dogs, to let their names be dissimilar in sound. 123. I have suggested your employing the word "Drop" instead of the usual word "Down," because it is less likely to be uttered by any one on whom the dog might jump or fawn; for, on principle, I strongly object to any order being given which is not strictly enforced. It begets in a dog, as much as in the nobler animal who walks on two legs, habits of inattention to words of command, and ultimately makes greater severity necessary. If I felt certain I should never wish to part with a dog I was instructing, I should carry this principle so far as to frame a novel vocabulary, and never use any word I thought he would be likely to hear from others. By the bye, whenever you purchase a dog, it would be advisable to ascertain what words of command and what signals he has been accustomed to. FOOTNOTES: [20] I once had a pointer pup whose dam was broken in (after a fashion) and regularly shot to when seven months old. Without injury to her constitution, she could not have been hunted for more than an hour or two at a time. She ought not to have been taken to the field for _regular_ use until fully a year old. CHAPTER VI. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN COMMENCED. RANGING. 124. A keeper nearly always breaks in his young dogs to "set," if their ages permit it, on favorable days in Spring, when the partridges have paired.[21] He gets plenty of points, and the birds lie well. But I cannot believe it is the best way to attain great excellence, though the plan has many followers: it does not cultivate the intelligence of his pupils, nor enlarge their ideas by making them sensible of the object for which such pains are taken in hunting them. Moreover, their natural ardor--a feeling that it should be his aim rather to increase than weaken--is more or less damped by having often to stand at game before they can be rewarded for their exertions by having it killed to them,--it prevents, rather than imparts, the zeal and perseverance for which Irish dogs are so remarkable. Particularly ought a breaker, whose pupil is of nervous temperament, or of too gentle a disposition, to consider well that the want of all recompense for finding paired birds must make a timid dog far more likely to become a "blinker," when he is checked for not pointing them, than when he is checked for not pointing birds which his own impetuosity alone deprives him of every chance of rapturously "touseling." The very fact that "the birds lie well" frequently leads to mischief; for, if the instructor be not very watchful, there is a fear that his youngsters may succeed in getting too close to their game before he forces them to come to a staunch point. A keeper, however, has but little choice--and it is not a bad time to teach the back--if his master insists upon shooting over the animals the first day of the season, and expects to find them what some call "perfectly broken in." But I trust some of my readers have nobler ends in view; therefore, 125. I will suppose your youngster to have been well grounded in his initiatory lessons, and that you take him out when the crops are nearly off the ground--by which time there will be few squeakers--on a fine cool day in September,--alas! that it cannot be an August day on the moors,--to show him birds for the first time. As he is assumed to be highly bred, you may start in the confident expectation of killing partridges over him, especially if he is a pointer. Have his nose moist and healthy. Take him out when the birds are on the feed, and of an afternoon in preference to the morning,--unless from an unusually dry season there be but little scent,--that he may not be attracted by the taint of hares or rabbits. Take him out alone, if he evince any disposition to hunt, which, at the age we will presume him to have attained next season, we must assume that he will do, and with great zeal. Be much guided by his temper and character. Should he possess great courage and dash, you cannot begin too soon to make him point. You should always check a wild dog in racing after pigeons and small birds on their rising; whereas you should encourage a timid dog--one who clings to "heel"--in such a fruitless but exciting chase. The measures to be pursued with such an animal are fully detailed in 111, 112. 126. I may as well caution you against adopting the foolish practice of attempting to cheer on your dog with a constant low whistle, under the mistaken idea that it will animate him to increased zeal in hunting. From perpetually hearing the monotonous sound, it would prove as little of an incentive to exertion as a continued chirrup to a horse; and yet if habituated to it, your dog would greatly miss it whenever hunted by a stranger. Not unregarded, however, would it be by the birds, to whom on a calm day it would act as a very useful warning. 127. Though you have not moors, fortunately we can suppose your fields to be of a good size. Avoid all which have recently been manured. Select those that are large, and in which you are the least likely to find birds, until his spirits are somewhat sobered, and he begins partly to comprehend your instructions respecting his range. There is no reason why he should not have been taken out a few days before this, _not to show him birds_, but to have commenced teaching him how to traverse his ground. Indeed, if we had supposed him of a sufficient age--111--he might by this time be somewhat advanced towards a systematic beat. It is seeing birds early that is to be deprecated, not his being taught how to range. 128. _Be careful to enter every field at the leeward_[22] side--about the middle,--that he may have the wind to work against. Choose a day when there is a breeze, but not a boisterous one. In a calm the scent is stationary, and can hardly be found unless accidentally. In a gale it is scattered to the four quarters.[23] You want not an undirected ramble, but a judicious traversing beat under your own guidance, which shall leave no ground unexplored, and yet have none twice explored. 129. Suppose the form of the field, as is usually the case, to approach a parallelogram or square, and that the wind blows in any direction but diagonally across it. On entering at the leeward side send the dog from you by a wave of your hand or the word "On." You wish him, while you are advancing up the middle of it, to cross you at right angles, say from right to left,--then to run up-wind for a little, parallel to your own direction, and afterwards to recross in front of you from left to right, and so on until the whole field is regularly hunted. To effect this, notwithstanding your previous preparatory lessons, you will have to show him the way, as it were--setting him an example in your own person,--by running a few steps in the direction you wish him to go--say to the right,--cheering him on to take the lead. As he gets near the extremity of his beat, when he does not observe you, he can steal a small advance in the true direction of your own beat, which is directly up the middle of the field meeting the wind. If perceiving your advance he turn towards you, face him--wave your right hand to him, and, while he sees you, run on a few paces in his direction--that is, _parallel_ to his true direction. As he approaches the hedge--the one on your right hand, but be careful that he does not get close to it, lest, from often finding game there, he ultimately become a potterer and regular hedge hunter--face towards him, and on catching his eye, wave your left arm. If you cannot succeed in catching his eye, you must give one low whistle--the less you habituate yourself to use the whistle, the less you will alarm the birds--study to do all, as far as is practicable, by signals. You wish your wave of the left arm to make the dog turn to the left--his head to the wind,--and that he should run parallel to the side of the hedge for some yards--say from thirty to forty--before he makes his second turn to the left to cross the field; but you must expect him to turn too directly towards you on your first signal to turn. Should he by any rare chance have made the turn--the first one--correctly, and thus be hunting up-wind, on no account interrupt him by making any signals until he has run up the distance you wish--the aforesaid thirty or forty yards,--then again catch his eye, and, as before--not now, however, faced towards him and the hedge, but faced towards your true direction,--by a wave of the left arm endeavor to make him turn to the left--across the wind. If, contrary to what you have a right to suppose, he will not turn towards you on your giving a whistle and wave of your hand, stand still, and continue whistling--eventually he will obey. But you must not indulge in the faintest hope that all I have described will be done correctly; be satisfied at first with an approach towards accuracy; you will daily find an improvement, if you persevere steadily. When you see that there is but little chance of his turning the way you want, at once use the signal more consonant to his views, for it should be your constant endeavor to make him fancy that he is always ranging according to the directions of your hands. Be particular in attending to this hint. 130. His past tuition--34--most probably will have accustomed him to watch your eye for directions, therefore it is not likely, even should he have made a wrong turn near the hedge--a turn down-wind instead of up-wind, which would wholly have prevented the required advance parallel to the hedge,--that he will cross in rear of you. Should he, however, do so, retreat a few steps,--or face about, if he is far in the rear,--in order to impress him with the feeling that all his work must be performed under your eye. Animate him with an encouraging word as he passes. When he gets near the edge to the left, endeavor, by signals--agreeably to the method just explained--129--to make him turn to the--his--right, his head to the wind, and run up alongside of it for thirty to forty yards, if you can manage it, before he begins to recross the field, by making a second turn to the right. If you could get him to do this, he would cross well in advance of you. 131. Though most likely his turn--the first--the turn up-wind--will be too abrupt--too much of an acute angle instead of the required right angle,--and that consequently, in order to get ahead of you, he will have to traverse the field diagonally, yet after a few trials it is probable he will do so rather than not get in front of you. This would be better than the former attempt--not obliging you to face about--express your approval, and the next turn near the hedge may be made with a bolder sweep. Remember your aim is, that no part be unhunted, and that none once commanded by his nose should be again hunted. He ought to cross, say thirty yards in front of you, but _much_ will depend upon his nose. 132. Nearly on every occasion of catching his eye, except when he is running up-wind parallel to the hedge, give him some kind of signal. This will more and more confirm him in the habit of looking to you, from time to time, for orders, and thus aid in insuring his constant obedience. After a while, judging by the way in which your face is turned, he will know in what direction you propose advancing, and will guide his own movements accordingly. Should he, as most probably he will for some time, turn too sharply towards you when getting near the hedge, I mean at too acute an angle, incline or rather face towards him. This, coupled with the natural wish to range unrestrained, will make him hunt longer parallel to the hedge, before he makes his second turn towards you. 133. You may at first strive to correct your dog's turning too abruptly inwards--the first turn--by pushing on in your own person further ahead on your own beat; but when he has acquired if merely the slightest idea of a correct range, be most careful not to get in advance of the ground he is to hunt; your doing so might habituate him to cross the field diagonally--thereby leaving much of the sides of the fields unhunted,--in order to get ahead of you; and, moreover, _you_ might spring birds you are anxious _he_ should find. Should he, on the other hand, be inclined to work too far upward before making his turn to cross the field, hang back in your own person. 134. Though you may be in an unenclosed country, let him range at first to no more than from seventy to eighty yards on each side of you. You can gradually extend these lateral beats as he becomes conversant with his business--indeed at the commencement rather diminish than increase the distances just named, both for the length of the parallels and the space between them. Do not allow the alluring title "a fine wide ranger" to tempt you to let him out of leading strings. If he be once permitted to imagine that he has a discretionary power respecting the best places to hunt, and the direction and length of his beats, you will find it extremely difficult to get him again well in hand. On the moors his range must be far greater than on the stubbles, but still the rudiments must be taught on this contracted scale or you will never get him to look to you for orders. Do _you_ keep entire control over his beats; let _him_ have almost the sole management of his drawing upon birds, provided he does not puzzle, or run riot too long over an old haunt. Give him time, and after a little experience his nose will tell him more surely than your judgment can, whether he is working on the "toe" or "heel" of birds, and whether he diverges from or approaches the strongest and most recent haunt--do not flurry or hurry him, and he will soon acquire that knowledge. 135. As the powers of scent vary greatly in different dogs, the depth of their turns--or parallels--ought to vary also, and it will be hereafter for you to judge what distance between the parallels it is most advantageous for your youngster ultimately to adopt in his general hunting. The deeper its turns are, of course, the more ground you will beat within a specified time. What you have to guard against is the possibility of their being so wide that birds may be passed by unnoticed. I should not like to name the distance within which good _cautious_ dogs that carry their heads high will wind game on a favorable day. 136. If you design your pupil, when broken in, to hunt with a companion, and wish both the dogs, as is usual, to cross you, you will, of course, habituate him to make his sweeps--the space between the parallels--wider than if you had intended him to hunt without any one to share his labors. 137. I need hardly warn you to be careful not to interrupt him whenever he appears to be winding birds. However good his nose may be by nature, it will not gain experience and discrimination unless you give him a certain time to determine for himself whether he has really touched upon a faint scent of birds, and whether they are in his front or rear, or gone away altogether. Like every other faculty, his sense of smell will improve the more it is exercised. But on the other hand, as I observed before, do not let him continue puzzling with his nose close to the ground,--urge him on,--make him increase his pace,--force him to search elsewhere, and he will gradually elevate his head, and, catching the scent of other particles, will follow up these with a nose borne aloft, unless he is a brute not worth a twentieth part of the pains which you think of bestowing upon him; for, 138. Besides the greatly decreased chance of finding them, birds that to a certainty would become uneasy, and make off if pursued by a dog tracking them, will often lie well to one who finds them by the wind. They are then not aware that they are discovered, and the dog, from the information his nose gives him, can approach them either boldly or with great wariness, according as he perceives them to be more or less shy. 139. If, being unable to catch the dog's eye, you are forced to use the whistle frequently, and he continues inattentive to it, notwithstanding his previous tuition, stand still--make him lie down--by the word "drop," if he will not obey your raised left arm--go up to him--take hold of his collar, and rate him, saying, "Bad, bad," cracking your whip over him--let the whip be one that will crack loudly, not for present purposes, but that, when occasion requires, he may hear it at a distance--and whistling softly. This will show him--should you beat him, you would confuse his ideas--that he is chidden for not paying attention to the whistle. Indeed, whenever you have occasion to scold or punish him, make it a constant rule, while you rate him, to repeat many times the word of command, or the signal which he has neglected to obey. There is no other way by which you will make him understand you _quickly_. You must expect that your young dog will for some time make sad mistakes in his range;--but be not discouraged. Doubtless there is no one thing,--I was going to say, that there are no dozen things,--in the whole art of dog-breaking, which are so difficult to attain, or which exact so much labor, as a high, well-confirmed, systematic range. Nature will not assist you--you must do it all yourself; but in recompense there is nothing so advantageous when it is at length acquired. It will abundantly repay months of persevering exertion. It constitutes the grand criterion of true excellence. Its attainment makes a dog of inferior nose and action far superior to one of much greater natural qualifications, who may be tomfooling about, galloping backwards and forwards, sometimes over identically the same ground, quite uselessly exerting his travelling powers; now and then, indeed, arrested by the suspicion of a haunt, which he is not experienced enough, or sufficiently taught, to turn to good account,--and occasionally brought to a stiff point on birds accidentally found right under his nose. It is undeniable, _coeteris paribus_, that the dog who hunts his ground most according to rule must in the end find most game. FOOTNOTES: [21] In ordinary seasons immediately after St. Valentine's Day--before the birds have made their nests. The first of September is the commencement of partridge shooting in England, as the 26th of Oct. and the 1st of Nov. are generally in America for quail. All the breaking for partridge in this work, is applicable and must be referred to quail in America. Grouse shooting on the moors in England is applicable to our prairie shooting, and pheasant shooting to our ruffed grouse shooting, when that may be had. The reader must, therefore, transfer the months and seasons accordingly.--H.W.H. [22] "Leeward"--a nautical phrase--here meaning the side towards which the wind blows _from_ the field. If you entered elsewhere, the dog while ranging would be tempted, from the natural bearing of his nose towards the wind, to come back upon you, making his first turn inwards instead of outwards. [23] But, independently of these obvious reasons, scent is affected by causes into the nature of which none of us can penetrate. There is a contrariety in it that ever has puzzled, and apparently ever will puzzle, the most observant sportsman--whether a lover of the chase or gun,--and therefore, in ignorance of the doubtless immutable, though to us inexplicable, laws by which it is regulated, we are contented to call it "capricious." Immediately before heavy rain there frequently is none. It is undeniable that moisture will at one time destroy it--at another time bring it. That on certain days--in slight frost, for instance,--setters will recognise it better than pointers, and, on the other hand, that the nose of the latter will prove far superior after a long continuance of dry weather, and this even when the setter has been furnished with abundance of water--which circumstance pleads in favor of hunting pointers and setters together. The argument against it, is the usual inequality of their pace, and, to the eye of some sportsmen, the want of harmony in their appearance. Should not this uncertainty respecting the recognition of scent teach us not to continue hunting a good dog who is frequently making mistakes, but rather to keep him at "heel" for an hour or two? He will consider it a kind of punishment, and be doubly careful when next enlarged. Moreover, he may be slightly feverish from overwork, or he may have come in contact with some impurity,--in either of which cases his nose would be temporarily out of order. CHAPTER VII. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. CAUTION. 140. If it is your fixed determination to confirm your dog in the truly-killing range described in last Chapter, do not associate him for months in the field with another dog, however highly broken. It would be far better to devote but two hours per diem to your pupil exclusively, than to hunt him the whole day with a companion. 141. Many breakers do exactly the reverse of this. They take out an old steady ranger, with the intention that he shall lead the young dog, and that the latter, from imitation and habit, shall learn how to quarter his ground. But what he gains by imitation will so little improve his intellects, that, when thrown upon his own resources, he will prove a miserable finder. On a hot, dry day he will not be able to make out a feather, nor on any day to "foot" a delicate scent. I grant that the plan expedites matters, and attains the end which _most_ professional trainers seek; but it will not give a dog self confidence and independence, it will not impart to him an inquiring nose, and make him rely on its sensitiveness to discover game, rather than to his quickness of eye to detect when his friend touches upon a haunt; nor will it instruct him to look from time to time towards the gun for directions. It may teach him a range, but not to hunt where he is ordered; nor will it habituate him to vary the breadth of the parallels on which he works, according as his master may judge it to be a good or bad scenting day. 142. To establish the rare, noble beat I am recommending,--one not hereafter to be deranged by the temptation, of a furrow in turnips or potatoes,--you must have the philosophy not to hunt your dog in them until he is accustomed in his range to be guided entirely by the wind and your signals, and is in no way influenced by the nature of the ground. Even then it would be better not to beat narrow strips across which it would be impossible for him to make his regular casts. Avoid, too, for some time, if you can, all small fields--which will only contract his range,--and all fields with trenches or furrows, for he will but too naturally follow them instead of paying attention to his true beat. Have you never, in low lands, seen a young dog running down a potato or turnip trench, out of which his master, after much labor, had no sooner extracted him than he dropped into the adjacent one? It is the absence of artificial tracks which makes the range of nearly all dogs _well_ broken on the moors, so much truer than that of dogs hunted on cultivated lands. 143. Moreover, in turnips, potatoes, clover, and the like thick shelter, birds will generally permit a dog to approach so closely, that if he is much accustomed to hunt such places, he will be sure to acquire the evil habit of pressing too near his game when finding on the stubbles--instead of being startled as it were into an instantaneous stop the moment he first winds game,--and thus raise many a bird out of gun-shot that a cautious dog--one who slackens his pace the instant he judges that he is beating a likely spot--would not have alarmed. 144. "A _cautious_ dog!" Can there well be a more flattering epithet?[24] Such a dog can hardly travel too fast[25] in a tolerably open country, where there is not a superabundance of game, _if_ he really hunt with an inquiring nose;--but to his master what an all-important "if" is this! It marks the difference between the sagacious, wary, patient, yet diligent animal, whose every sense and every faculty is absorbed in his endeavor to make out birds, not for himself but the gun, and the wild harum-scarum who blunders up three-fourths of the birds he finds. No! not _finds_, but frightens,--for he is not aware of their presence until they are on the wing, and seldom points unless he gets some heedless bird right under his nose, when an ignoramus, in admiration of the beauty of the dog's sudden attitude, will often forget the mischief which he has done. 145. Though you cannot improve a dog's nose, you can do what is nearly tantamount to it--you can increase his caution. By watching for the slightest token of his feathering, and then calling out "Toho," or making the signal, you will gradually teach him to look out for the faintest indication of a scent, and _point the instant he winds it_, instead of heedlessly hunting on until he meets a more exciting effluvia. See 174 to 176, and 228. 146. If from a want of animation in his manner you are not able to judge of the moment when he first winds game, and you thus are not able to call out "Toho" until he gets close to birds, quietly pull him back from his point "dead to leeward" for some paces, and there make him resume his point. Perseverance in this plan will ultimately effect your wishes, unless his nose is radically wrong. A dog's pointing too near his game more frequently arises from want of caution--in other words, from want of good instruction--than from a defective nose. 147. Slow dogs readily acquire this caution; but fast dogs cannot be taught it without great labor. You have to show them the necessity of diminishing their pace, that their noses may have fair play. If you have such a pupil to instruct, when you get near birds you have marked down, signal to him to come to "heel" _Whisper_ to him "Care," and let him see by your light, slow tread, your anxiety not to alarm the birds. If he has never shown any symptoms of blinking, you may, a few times, thus spring the birds yourself while you keep him close to you. On the next occasion of marking down birds, or coming to a very likely spot, bring him into "heel," and after an impressive injunction to take "care," give him two or three very limited casts to the right or left, and let _him_ find the birds while you instruct him as described in 228. As there will be no fear of such a dog making false points, take him often to the fields where he has most frequently met birds. The expectation of again coming on them, and the recollection of the lectures he there received, will be likely to make him cautious on entering it. I remember a particular spot in a certain field that early in the season constantly held birds. A young dog I then possessed never approached it afterwards without drawing upon it most carefully, though he had not found there for months. At first I had some difficulty in preventing the "draw" from becoming a "point." 148. I have elsewhere observed that fast dogs, which give most trouble in breaking, usually turn out best: now if you think for a moment you will see the reason plainly. A young dog does not ultimately become first-rate because he is wild and headstrong, and regardless of orders, but because his speed and disobedience arise from his great energies,--from his fondness for the sport, from his longing to inhale the exhilarating scent and pursue the flying game. It is the possession of these qualities that makes him, in his anxious state of excitement, blind to your signals and deaf to your calls. These obviously are qualities that, _under good management_,[26] lead to great excellence and superiority,--that make one dog do the work of two. But they are not qualities sought for by an idle or incompetent breaker. 149. These valuable qualities in the fast dog, must, however, be accompanied with a searching nose. It is not enough that a dog be always apparently hunting, that is to say, always on the gallop--his nose should always be hunting. When this is the case, and you may be pretty certain it is if, as he crosses the breeze, his nose has intuitively a bearing to windward, you need not fear that he will travel too fast, or not repay you ultimately for the great extra trouble caused by his high spirits and ardor for the sport. 150. You have been recommended invariably to enter every field by the leeward side. This you can generally accomplish with ease, if you commence your day's beat to leeward. Should circumstances oblige you to enter a field on the windward side, make it a rule, as long as your dog continues a youngster, to call him to "heel," and walk down the field with him until you get to the opposite side--the leeward--then hunt him regularly up to windward. 151. I have read wondrous accounts of dogs, who, without giving themselves the trouble of quartering their ground, would walk straight up to the birds if there were any in the field. It has never been my luck, I do not say to have possessed such marvellous animals, but even to have been favored with a sight of them. I therefore am inclined to think, let your means be what they may, that you would find it better not to advertise for creatures undoubtedly most rare, but to act upon the common belief that, as the scent of birds, more or less, impregnates the air, no dog, let his nose be ever so fine, can, except accidentally, wind game unless he seeks for the taint in the air--and that the dog who regularly crosses the wind must have a better chance of finding it than he who only works up wind--and that down wind he can have little other chance than by "roading." 152. It is heedlessness--the exact opposite of this extreme caution--that makes young dogs so often disregard and overrun a slight scent; and since they are more inclined to commit this error from the rivalry of companionship, an additional argument is presented in favor of breaking them separately, and giving them their own time, leisurely and methodically, to work out a scent, _provided the nose be carried high_. I am satisfied most of us hurry young dogs too much. FOOTNOTES: [24] Provided always he be not perpetually pointing, as occasionally will happen--and is the more likely to happen if he has been injudiciously taught as a puppy to set chickens, and has thereby acquired the evil habit of "standing by eye;" which, however, may have made him a first-rate hand at pointing crows. [25] With the understanding that the pace does not make him "shut up" before the day is over. [26] The more resolute a dog is, the more pains should be taken, before he is shown game, to perfect him in the instant "drop"--25--however far off he may be ranging. CHAPTER VIII. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. CUNNING OF AGE. RANGE OF FROM TWO TO SIX DOGS. 153. Of course you will not let your pupil "break fence," or get out of your sight. Be on the watch to whistle or call out "Fence," the instant you perceive that he is thinking of quitting the field. Do not wait until he is out of sight; check him by anticipating his intentions. Should he, unperceived, or in defiance of your orders, get into a field before you, call him back--by the same opening, if practicable, through which he passed, the more clearly to show him his folly;--and do not proceed further until he has obeyed you. A steady adherence to this rule will soon convince him of the inutility of not exercising more patience, or at least forbearance; then signal to him "away" in the direction _you_ choose, not in the direction _he_ chooses. It is essential that you should be the first over every fence. In the scramble, birds, at which you ought to have a shot, are frequently sprung. If he is not obedient to your orders make him "drop," and rate him as described in 139. 154. A dog from his own observation so much feels,--and in a greater or less degree, according to his education,--the necessity of watching in what direction you are walking, that if he is habituated to work under your eye,--I mean, is never allowed to hunt behind you,--by turning your back upon him when he is paying no attention to your signals, you will often be able to bring him away from a spot where he is ranging--perhaps down wind--against your wishes, at a time when you are afraid to whistle, lest you should alarm the birds. Waving your hand backwards and forwards near the ground, and stooping low while walking slowly about, as if in search of something, will often attract the attention of an ill-taught, self-willed dog; and his anxiety to participate in the find, and share the sport which he imagines you expect, will frequently induce him to run up, and hunt alongside of you for any close lying bird. 155. Never be induced to hunt your young dog,--nor indeed any dog,--when he is tired. If you do, you will give him a slovenly carriage and habits, and lessen his zeal for the sport. In order to come in for a sniff, at a time when he is too fatigued to search for it himself, he will crawl after his companion, watching for any indication of his finding. As they become wearied you will have a difficulty in keeping even old well-broken dogs separate--much more young ones, however independently they may have ranged when fresh. You may also, to a certainty, expect false points; but what is of far more consequence, by frequently overtasking your dog, you will as effectually waste his constitution as you would your horse's by premature work. 156. If he is very young when first entered, two or three hours' work at a time will be sufficient. When he is tired, or rather before he is tired, send him home with the man who brings you a relief. Do not fancy your dog will be getting a rest if he is allowed to follow at your heels for the remainder of the day, coupled to a companion. His fretting at not being allowed to share in the sport he sees, will take nearly as much out of him as if you permitted him to hunt. If you can persuade John always to rub him down, and brush and dry him--nay even to let him enjoy an hour's basking in front of the fire--before he shuts him up in the kennel, you will add years to his existence; and remember that one old experienced dog, whose constitution is uninjured, is worth two young ones. 157. When you hunt a brace of dogs, to speak theoretically, they should traverse a field in opposite directions, but along parallel lines, and the distance between the lines should be regulated by you according as it is a good or a bad scenting day, and according to the excellence of the dogs' noses. Mathematical accuracy is, of course, never to be attained, but the closer you approach the better. 158. You should attempt it--on entering the field to _leeward_, as before directed--by making one dog go straight ahead of you to the distance which you wish the parallel lines to be apart from each other, before you cast him off--say--to the right; then cast off his companion to the left. If the dogs are nearly equal in pace, the one ahead, so long as he does not fancy he winds game, should continue to work on a parallel more advanced than the other. 159. Should you not like to relinquish, for the sake of this formal precision, the chance of a find in the neglected right-hand corner of the field, cast off one dog to the right and the other to the left, on entering it, and make the one that soonest approaches his hedge take the widest sweep--turn--and so be placed in the _advanced_, parallel. 160. With regard to hunting more than a brace--when your difficulties wonderfully multiply--your own judgment must determine in what manner to direct their travelling powers to the greatest advantage. Much will depend upon the different speed of the dogs; the number you choose from whim, or otherwise, to hunt; the kind of country you beat; and the quantity and sort of game you expect to find. It is, however, certain you must wish that each dog be observant of the direction in which your face is turned, in order that he may guide his own movements by yours;--that he from time to time look towards you to see if you have any commands; and that he be ever anxious to obey them. 161. Herbert writes as follows, in his work on shooting in the United States:[27] his words ought to have influence, for manifestly he is a good sportsman; but I own I cannot quite agree with him as to the _facility_ with which a range can be taught: "It is wonderful how easily dogs which are always shot over by the same man--he being one who knows his business--will learn to cross and re-quarter their ground, turning to the slightest whistle, and following the least gesture of the hand. I have seen old dogs turn their heads to catch their master's eye, if they thought the whistle too long deferred; and I lately lost an old Irish setter, which had been stone deaf for his last two seasons, but which I found no more difficulty in turning than any other dog, so accurately did he know when to look for the signal." 162. To beat your ground _systematically_ with three dogs, you should strive to make them cross and recross you each on a different parallel, as just described for two dogs; but each dog must make a proportionally bolder sweep--turn--or, 163. If you have plenty of space, you can make one dog take a distinct beat to the right, another a separate beat to the left, and direct the third--which ought to be the dog least confirmed in his range--to traverse the central part,--and so be the only one that shall cross and recross you. If one of your dogs is a slow potterer, and you prefer this method to the one named in 162, give him the middle beat, and let his faster companions take the flanks. In our small English fields you have not space enough, but on our moors, and in many parts of the Continent, it cannot be want of room that will prevent your accomplishing it. To do this well, however, and not interfere with each other's ground, how magnificently must your dogs be broken! In directing their movements, the assistance that would be given you by each dog's acknowledging his own particular whistle, and no other--275--is very apparent. 164. It is difficult enough to make three dogs traverse across you on tolerably distinct parallels; and at a judicious distance between the parallels you will find it hopeless to attempt it with more than three; and one can hardly imagine a case in which it would be advantageous to uncouple a greater number of good rangers. If, however, the scarcity of game, and the extensiveness of your beat, or any peculiar fancy, induce you habitually to use four dogs, hunt one brace to the right, the other to the left; and, so far as you can, let those which _form a brace be of equal speed_.[28] Your task will be facilitated by your always keeping the same brace to one flank--I mean, by making one brace constantly hunt to your right hand; the other brace to your left. The same reasoning holds with regard to assigning to each dog a particular side when hunting three, according to the mode described in last paragraph. It should, however, be borne in mind, that constantly hunting a dog in this manner on one and the same flank, tends to make him range very disagreeably whenever employed single-handed. 165. If you hunt five dogs, four of them ought to work by braces to the right and left, and the fifth--the dog whose rate of speed most varies from the others--should have a narrow beat assigned him directly in advance of you. 166. If three brace are to be used, let the third brace hunt the central ground, as recommended for the fifth dog--or they could be worked in leashes, one on the right of the gun, the other on the left. 167. These are the correct _theoretical_ rules, and the more closely you observe them, the more truly and killingly will your ground be hunted. 168. Probably you will think that such niceties are utterly impracticable. They must be impracticable if you look for mathematical precision; but if you hope to shoot over more than mere rabble, you should work upon _system_. If you do not, what can you expect but an unorganized mob?--an undrilled set, perpetually running over each other's ground,--now grouped in this part, now crowded in that,--a few likely spots being hunted by all (especially if they are old dogs), the rest of the field by none of them; and to control whose unprofitable wanderings, why not employ a regular huntsman and a well-mounted whip? Doubtless it would be absurd to hope for perfect accuracy in so difficult a matter as a systematic range in a brigade of dogs; but that you may approach correctness, take a true standard of excellence. If you do not keep perfection in view, you will never attain to more than mediocrity. I earnestly hope, however, that it cannot be your wish to take out a host of dogs--but should you have such a singular hobby, pray let them be regularly brigaded, and not employed as a pack. In my opinion, under no circumstances can more than relays of leashes be desirable; but I should be sorry in such matters to dispute any man's right to please himself; I only wish him, whatever he does, to strive to do it correctly. 169. Some men who shoot on a grand scale make their keepers hunt each a distinct brace of dogs,--the gun going up to whatever dog points. It is the most killing plan to adopt; but that is not the matter we were considering. The question was, what method a man ought to pursue who had a fancy to himself hunt many dogs at a time. 170. If a professional breaker could show you a brigade of dogs well trained to quarter their ground systematically, and should ask from fifty to sixty guineas[29] a brace for them, you ought not to be surprised. What an extent of country they could sweep over in an hour and not leave a bird behind! And consider what time and labor must have been spent in inculcating so noble a range. He would have been far better paid if he had received less than half the money as soon as they "pointed steadily," both at the living and the dead; "down charged;" "backed:" and were broken from "chasing hare," or noticing rabbits. 171. Some men fancy that the faster they walk, the more country they hunt. This is far from being always the case. Dogs travel at one rate, whether you walk fast or slow, and the distance between the parallels on which they work--being determined by the fineness of their noses, and the goodness of the scent--ought not to be affected by your pace. Suppose, therefore, that you shoot in an unenclosed country, whether you walk quickly, or merely crawl along, the only difference in the beat of your dogs _ought_ to be that, in the latter case, they range further to the right and the left. You thus make up in your _breadth_ what you lose in your _length_ of beat. 172. Nor do the fastest dogs, however well they may be broken, always truly hunt the most ground. The slower dogs have frequently finer olfactory nerves than their fleeter rivals,--therefore the parallels on which the former work may correctly be much wider apart than the parallels of the latter. The finer nose in this manner commands so much more ground that it beats the quicker heels out and out. 173. You will see, then, how judicious it is to show forbearance and give encouragement to the timid, but high-bred class[30] of dogs described in 114; for it is obvious that, though they may travel slower, yet they may really hunt _properly_, within a specified time, many more acres of ground than their hardier and faster competitors; and it is certain that they will not so much alarm the birds. Dogs that are most active with their heels are generally least busy with their noses. FOOTNOTES: [27] Entitled, "Field Sports in the United States and British Provinces, by Frank Forester." [28] A rule to be followed whenever you employ relays of braces. [29] 250 to 300 dollars. This would be by no means an extraordinary price here, however extraordinary it might be to see dogs so qualified.--H.W.H. [30] It is admitted, however, that they are often difficult animals to manage; for the _least_ hastiness on the part of the instructor may create a distrust that he will find it very hard to remove. CHAPTER IX. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. "POINT" NOT RELINQUISHED FOR "DOWN CHARGE." 174. To proceed, however, with our imaginary September day's work. I will suppose that your young dog has got upon birds, and that from his boldness and keenness in hunting you need not let him run riot on a haunt, as you were recommended (in 111) when you wished to give courage and animation to a timid dog. You must expect that his eagerness and delight will make him run in and flush them, even though you should have called out "Toho" when first you perceived his stern begin feathering, and thence judged that his olfactory nerves were rejoicing in the luxurious taint of game. Hollo out "Drop" most energetically. If he does not immediately lie down, crack your whip loudly to command greater attention. When you have succeeded in making him lie down, approach him quietly: be not angry with him, but yet be stern in manner. Grasping the skin of his neck, or, what is better, putting your hand within his collar--for he ought to wear a light one--quietly drag him to the precise spot where you think he was _first_ aware of the scent of the birds. There make him stand--if stand he will, instead of timidly crouching--with his head directed towards the place from which the birds took wing, and by frequently repeating the word "Toho," endeavor to make him understand that he ought to have pointed at that identical spot. Do not confuse him by even threatening to beat him. The chances are twenty to one that he is anxious to please you, but does not yet know what you wish. I assume also that he is attached to you, and his affection, from constantly inducing him to exert himself to give satisfaction, will greatly develope his observation and intelligence. 175. Consider it a golden rule never to be departed from--for I must again impress upon you a matter of such importance--invariably to drag a dog who has put up birds incautiously, or wilfully drawn too near them, and so sprung them--or, what is quite as bad,--though young sportsmen will not sufficiently think of it,--_endangered_ their rising out of shot--to the exact spot at which you judge he ought to have pointed at first, and awaited your instructions. 176. Think for one moment what could be the use of chiding--or beating, as I have seen some ***** do--the poor animal at the spot where he flushed the birds. You are not displeased with him (or ought not to be) because the birds took wing,--for if they had remained stationary until he was within a yard of them, his fault would have been the same: nor are you angry with him because he did not catch them--which interpretation he might, as naturally as any other, put upon your rating him at the spot where he flushed them--you are displeased with him for _not having pointed_ at them steadily the moment he became sensible of their presence. This is what you wish him to understand, and this you can only teach him by dragging him, as has been so often said, to the spot at which he ought to have "toho-ed" them. Your object is to give the young dog, by instruction, the caution that most old dogs have acquired by experience. Doubtless experience would in time convince him of the necessity of this caution; but you wish to save time,--to anticipate that experience; and by a judicious education impart to him knowledge which it would take him years to acquire otherwise. What a dog gains by experience is not what you teach him, but what he teaches himself. 177. Many carelessly-taught dogs will, on first recognising a scent, make a momentary point, and then slowly crawl on until they get within a few yards of the game--if it be sufficiently complaisant to allow of such a near approach--and there "set" as steady as a rock by the hour together. Supposing, however, that the birds are in an unfriendly, distant mood, and not willing to remain on these neighborly terms, "your game is up," both literally and metaphorically,--you have no chance of getting a shot. This is a common fault among dogs hastily broken in the spring. 178. But to resume our supposed lesson. You must not be in a hurry--keep your dog for some time--for a long time, where he should have pointed. You may even sit down alongside him. Be patient; you have not come out so much to shoot, as to break in your dog. When at length you give him the wave of the hand to hie him on to hunt, you must not part as enemies, though I do not say he is to be caressed. He has committed a fault, and he is to be made sensible of it by your altered manner. Suppose that, after two or three such errors, all treated in the way described, he makes a satisfactory point. Hold up your right hand, and the moment you catch his eye, remain quite stationary, still keeping your arm up. Dogs, as has been already observed, are very imitative; and your standing stock still will, more than anything else, induce him to be patient and immovable at his point. After a time--say five minutes, if, from the hour of the day and the dog's manner, you are convinced that the birds are not stirring--endeavor to get up to him so quietly as not to excite him to move. Whenever you observe him inclined to advance,--of which his lifting a foot or even raising a shoulder, or the agitation of his stern will be an indication,--stop for some seconds, and when by your raised hand you have awed him into steadiness, again creep on. Make your approaches within his sight, so that he may be intimidated by your eye and hand. If you succeed in getting near him without unsettling him, actually stay by him, as firm as a statue, for a quarter of an hour by one of Barwise's best chronometers. Let your manner, which he will observe, show great earnestness. Never mind the loss of time. You are giving the dog a famous lesson, and the birds are kindly aiding you by lying beautifully and not shifting their ground. 179. Now attempt a grand _coup_, in which if you are successful, you may almost consider your dog made staunch for ever. Keeping your eye on him, and your hand up--of course the right one--make a circuit, so that the birds shall be between him and you. Be certain that your circle is sufficiently wide--if it is not, the birds may get up behind you, and so perplex him that at his next find he will feel doubtful how to act. Fire at no skirter, or chance shot. Reserve yourself for the bird or birds at which he points; a caution more necessary on the moors than on the stubbles, as grouse spread while feeding. When you have well headed him, walk towards him and spring the birds. Use straight shooting-powder. Take a cool aim well forward, and knock down one. Do not flurry the dog by firing more than a single barrel, or confuse him by killing more than _one_ bird. If you have been able to accomplish all this without his stirring--though, to effect it, you may have been obliged to use your voice--you have every right to hope, from his previous education, that he will readily "down-charge" on hearing the report of your gun. Do not hurry your loading:--indeed, be unnecessarily long, with the view of making him at all such times patient and steady. If, in spite of all your calls and signals, he ever gives chase to the sprung birds, make him "drop,"--instantly if possible--and proceed much as described in 174, dragging him back to the place where he should have "down-charged." 180. When you have loaded, say "Dead,"[31] in a low voice, and signalling to "heel" make him come up to you, yourself keeping still. By signs--XI. of 119--place him as near as you can, _but to leeward_ of the dead bird. Then, and not till then, say, "Find;" give him no other assistance. Let him have plenty of time to make out the bird. It is not to be find and _grip_, but find and _point_,[32] therefore the moment you perceive he is aware that it is before him, make him--by word of command--"toho:"--go up to him, stay for a while alongside him, then make a small circuit to head him, and have the bird between you and him; approach him. If he attempt to dash in, thunder out "No," and greet him with at least the sound of the whip: slowly pick up the dead bird; call the dog to you; show him the bird; but on no account throw it to him, lest he snatch at it; lay it on the ground, encourage him to sniff it; let him--for reason why see 216--turn it over with his nose--teeth closed--say to him, "Dead, dead;" caress him; sit down; smoothe the feathers of the bird; let him perceive that you attach much value to it; and after a while loop it on the game bag, allowing him all the time to see what you are doing. After that, make much of him for full five minutes: indeed with some dogs it would be advisable to give a palatable reward, but be not invariably very prodigal of these allurements; you may have a pupil whose attention they might engross more than they ought. Then walk about a little time with him at your heels. All this delay and caressing will serve to show him that the first tragedy is concluded, and has been satisfactorily performed. You may now hie him on to hunt for more birds. 181. Pray mind what is said about making your youngster point the dead bird staunchly, the moment you perceive that he first scents it. Should he be allowed to approach so near as to be able to touch it--instead of being made to point the instant he finds,--the chances are, that if hard-mouthed he will give it a crunch, if tender-mouthed a fumbling of the feathers; and either proceeding satisfying him, that he will quit it, and not further aid you in a search. As "pointing" is only a natural pause--prolonged by art--to determine exactly where the game is lying, preparatory to rushing forward to seize, it would be unreasonable to expect him willingly to make a second point at game he has not only found but mouthed--the evil, however, does not rest here. There is such a disagreeable thing as blinking a dead bird, no less than blinking a sound one. For mouthing the bird you may possibly beat the dog, or for nosing it and not pointing you may rate him harshly, either of which, if he be not of a bold disposition, may lead, on the next occasion, to his slinking off after merely obtaining a sniff. You ought, in fact, to watch as carefully for your pupil's first "feathering" upon the dead bird, as you did--174--upon his first coming upon the covey. You see, then, that your teaching him to "point dead" is absolutely indispensable; unless, indeed, you constantly shoot with a retriever. Pointing at a live bird or at a dead one should only differ in this, that in the latter case the dog makes a nearer point. _Begin_ correctly, and you will not have any difficulty; but you may expect the greatest if you let your dog go up to one or two birds and mouthe them, before you commence making him point them. The following season, should you then permit him to lift his game, it will be time enough to dispense with his "pointing dead." I dwell upon this subject because many excellent dogs, from not having been properly taught to "point dead," often fail in securing the produce of a successful shot, while, on the contrary, with judiciously educated dogs it rarely happens that any of the slain or wounded are left on the field. Moreover, the protracted search and failure--as an instance see 217--occasions a lamentable loss of time. Were a sportsman who shoots over dogs not well broken to "point dead"--or retrieve--to calculate accurately, watch in hand, he would, I think, be surprised to find how many of his best shooting hours are wasted in unprofitable searching for birds of the certainty of whose untimely fate his dogs had probably long before fully convinced themselves. 182. As to the word "Dead," whether you choose to continue using it immediately after loading, or, as I have recommended--XI. of 119--_after a time_ omit it, and merely let the signal to "heel" intimate that you have killed, always make your dog go to you before you allow him to seek for the fallen bird. 183. Some may say, "As a dog generally sees a bird fall, what is the use of calling him to you before you let him seek?--and even if he does not see the bird, why should any time be lost? Why should not you and he go as direct to it as you can?" 184. Provided you have no wish that the "finder"--see 295--rather than any of his companions, should be allowed the privilege of "seeking dead," I must admit that in the cultivated lands of England, when a dog "sees a bird fall," he might in nine cases out of ten go direct to it without inconvenience. Even here, however, there are occasions when intervening obstacles may prevent you observing what the dog is about; and in cover, so far from being able to give him any assistance by signalling, you may be ignorant whether or not he has seen the bird knocked over, or is even aware of the general direction in which he ought to seek. But in the oft-occurring cases in which "he does not see the bird fall," it is obvious--particularly when he happens to be at the extremity of his beat,--that you will far more quickly place him where you wish, if you make him, at first, run up to you, and then advance from you, straight to the bird, by your forward signal--190. These good results at least will follow, if you remain stationary, and make him join you. You do not lose sight of the spot where you marked that the bird or birds fell. The foil is not interfered with by your walking over the ground--a matter of much importance, especially on bad-scenting days. The dog, if habituated to "seek" without your companionship, will readily hunt morasses and ravines, where you might find it difficult to accompany him. He will feel the less free to follow his own vagaries; and this consciousness of subjection will dispose him to pay more watchful attention to your signals. He will the more patiently wait at the "down charge;" and when you are reloaded will not be so tempted to dash recklessly after the bird, regardless whether or not he raises others on the way. If he is dragging a cord, you can the more easily take hold of its end, in order to check him, and make him point when he first winds the dead bird--and, should you be shooting over several dogs, by none of them being permitted to run direct to the fallen bird they will the less unwillingly allow you to select the one who is to approach close to you before "seeking dead." 185. The opponents of this method argue, that the practice may give the dog the bad habit of running immediately after the "down charge" to the gun, instead of recommencing to hunt; particularly if he is shot over by a first-rate performer. Granted; but is not the temptation to bolt off in search of a dead bird still stronger? To check the former evil, endeavor to make the coming to "heel" an act of obedience rather than a voluntary act, by never failing, as soon as you are re-loaded, to give the customary signal--VIII. of 119--when you have killed, or the signal to "hie on" should you have missed. 186. Moreover, you will sometimes meet with a dog who, when a bird has been fired at, though it be the first and only one sprung of a large covey, commences "seeking dead" immediately after the "down charge," apparently considering that his first duty. This sad, sad fault--for it frequently leads to his raising the other birds out of shot--is generally attributable to the dog's having been allowed to rush at the fallen bird, instead of being accustomed to the restraint of having first to run up to the gun. 187. To prevent your pupil ever behaving so badly, often adopt the plan of not "seeking dead" immediately after loading, especially if the birds are lying well. Mark accurately the spot where your victim lies, and closely hunt for others, endeavoring to instil great caution into the dog, much in the manner--being guided by his disposition and character--described in 144, 145, and 228. As long as any of the covey remain unsprung, you ought not to pick up one dead bird, though you should have a dozen on the ground. Your dog ought not even to "down charge" after you have fired, if he is fully aware that more birds are before him. To impart to him the knowledge that, _however important is the "down charge," his continuing at his point is still more so_, you may, when the birds are lying well and he is at a fixed point, make your attendant discharge a gun at a little distance while you remain near the dog, encouraging him to maintain his "toho." If you have no attendant, and the birds lie like stones, fire off a barrel yourself while the dog is steadily pointing. He will fancy you see birds which he has not noticed, and, unless properly tutored and praised by you, will be desirous to quit those he has found, to search for the bird he conceives you have shot. 188. It is a fine display of intelligence in the dog, and of judicious training in the breaker--may it be your desert and reward ere long to witness it in your pupil,--when a pointer--or setter--in goodly turnips or strong potatoes draws upon birds which obligingly rise one after the other, while by continuing his eloquent attitude he assures you that some still remain unsprung, to which he is prepared to lead you if you will but attend to them and him, and, instead of pot-hunting after those you have killed, wait until his discriminating nose informs him that, having no more strangers to introduce, he is at liberty to assist you in your search. 189. To revert, however, to the point particularly under discussion, viz., whether you prefer that your dog go direct to the fallen bird, or--as I strongly recommend--that he first join you, pray be consistent, exact which you will, but always exact the same, if you are anxious to obtain cheerful unhesitating obedience. 190. I have seen the advantage of the latter method very strikingly exemplified in America, in parts of which there is capital snipe-shooting.[33] In the high grass and rushes on the banks of the Richelieu, many a bird have I seen flushed and shot at, of which the liver and white pointer, ranging at a little distance, has known nothing. As he was well broken in, on hearing the report of the gun, he, of course, dropped instantly. His master, when he had reloaded, if the bird had fallen, used invariably to say "Dead,"[34] in a low tone of voice, on which the dog would _go up to him_; and then his master, without stirring from the spot where he had fired, directed him by signals to the place where the bird had tumbled, and in proceeding thither, the dog often had to swim the stream. His master then said "Find." At that word, and not before it, his intelligent four-footed companion commenced the search for the bird, nor did he ever fail to find and bring; and so delicate was his mouth that I have often seen him deliver up a bird perfectly alive, without having deranged a feather, though, very probably, he had swam with it across one of the many creeks which intersect that part of the country. If the shot was a miss, his master's silence after reloading, and a wave of his arm to continue hunting--or the command to "Hie on," if the dog was hidden by the rushes--perhaps a low whistle would have been better,--fully informed his companion of the disappointment. He was quite as good on the large quail, and small wood-cock found in Canada, which latter makes a ringing noise on rising, not unlike the sound of a distant soft bell; but reminiscences of that capital old dog are leading me away from your young one. 191. For some days you cannot shoot to your pupil too steadily and quietly--I had well nigh said too slowly. By being cool, calm, and collected yourself, you will make him so. I am most unwilling to think that you will be too severe, but I confess I have my misgivings lest you should occasionally overlook some slight faults in the elation of a successful right and left. Filling the game-bag must be quite secondary to education. Never hesitate to give up any bird if its acquisition interfere with a lesson. Let all that you secure be done according to rule, and in a sportsmanlike manner. [Illustration: SETTERS.--BOB.] FOOTNOTES: [31] As he acquires experience he will wish to rise the moment he observes that your loading is completed. Do not allow him to move, however correctly he may have judged the time. Let his rising be always in obedience to signal or word. You may make a mistake in charging, or your friend may not load as expeditiously as yourself. [32] Never being allowed to grip conduces so much to making him tender-mouthed, that, should he hereafter be permitted to lift his game, it is probable he will deliver it up perfectly uninjured. [33] I reserve this anecdote on account of its interest and applicability to American readers.--H.W.H. [34] In order to work in silence, I advised--XI. of 119--that the signal to "heel" whenever the dog could observe it, should supersede the word "dead." It might be necessary to sing out with a boat-swain's voice should the dog be far off. CHAPTER X. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONTINUED. ASSISTANT. 192. It is proper you should be warned that you must not always expect a dog will "toho" the first day as readily as I have described, though most will, and some--especially pointers--even more quickly, if they have been previously well-drilled, and have been bred for several generations from parents of pure blood. I do not say bred in and in. Breeding in and in, to a certainty, would enfeeble their intellects as surely as their constitutions. In this way has many a kennel been deprived of the energy and endurance so essential in a sportsman's dog. 193. As in the present instance, it often occurs that a dog is less inclined to dash in at first than when he is more acquainted with birds. He is suddenly arrested by the novelty of the scent, and it is not until he is fully assured from what it proceeds that he longs to rush forward and give chase. In autumnal breaking the dog gets his bird--it is killed for him--he is satisfied--and therefore he has not the same temptation to rush in as when he is shown birds in the spring. 194. If you find your dog, from excess of delight and exuberance of spirits, less under general command than from his initiatory education you had expected, and that he will not "toho" steadily at the exact spot at which you order him, at once attach a checkcord to his collar. It will diminish his pace, and make him more cautious and obedient. The moment you next see him begin to feather, get up quickly, _but without running_, to the end of the cord, and check him with a sudden jerk, if you are satisfied that game is before him and that he ought to be pointing. If from his attitude and manner you are _positive_ that there is game, drive a spike--or peg--into the ground, and tie the cord to it. I only hope the birds will remain stationary. If they do, you can give him a capital lesson by remaining patiently alongside of him and then heading him and the birds in the manner before described--178, 179. 195. As a general rule, an attendant or any companion cannot be recommended, because he would be likely to distract a young dog's attention; but an intelligent fellow who would readily obey your signals, and not presume to speak, would doubtless, with a very wild dog, be an advantageous substitute for the spike. You could then employ a longer and slighter cord than usual, and, on the man's getting hold of the end of it, be at once free to head and awe the dog. Whenever you had occasion to stand still, the man would, of course, be as immovable as yourself. Your signals to him might be:-- The gun held up,--"Get near the dog." Your fist clenched,--"Seize the rope." Your fist shaken,--"Jerk the cord." Your hand spread open,--"Let go the cord." Or any signs you pleased, so that you understood each other without the necessity of speaking. 196. Should it ever be your misfortune to have to correct in a dog evil habits caused by past mismanagement, such an attendant, if an active, observant fellow, could give you valuable assistance, for he sometimes would be able to seize the cord immediately the dog began "feathering," and generally would have hold of it before you could have occasion to fire. But the fault most difficult to cure in an old dog is a bad habit of ranging. If, as a youngster, he has been permitted to beat as his fancy dictated, and _has not been instructed in looking to the gun for orders_, you will have great, very great difficulty in reclaiming him. Probably he will have adopted a habit of running for a considerable distance up wind, his experience having shown him that it is one way of finding birds, but not having taught him that to seek for them by crossing the wind would be a better method. The great advantage of teaching a dog to point the instant he is sensible of the presence of birds--175--and of not creeping a foot further until he is directed by you, is particularly apparent when birds are wild. While he remains steady, the direction of his nose will lead you to give a tolerable guess as to their "whereabouts," and you and your companion can keep quite wide of the dog--one on each side,--and so approach the birds from both flanks. They, meanwhile, finding themselves thus intercepted in three directions, will probably lie so close as to afford a fair shot to at least one gun, for they will not fail to see the dog and be awed by his presence. Raise your feet well off the ground to avoid making a noise. Walk quickly, but with no unnecessary flourish, of arms or gun. 197. You must not, however, too often try to work round and head your pupil when he is pointing. Judgment is required to know when to do it with advantage. If the birds were running, you would completely throw him out, and greatly puzzle and discourage him, for they probably would then rise out of shot, behind you if they were feeding up wind,--behind him if they were feeding down wind. Far more frequently make him work out the scent by his own sagacity and nose, and lead you up to the birds, every moment bristling more and more, at a pace entirely controlled and regulated by your signals. These being given with your right hand will be more apparent to him if you place yourself on his left side. It is in this manner that you give him a lesson which will _hereafter_ greatly aid him in recovering slightly winged birds,--in pressing to a rise the slow-winged, but nimble-heeled rail,--or in minutely following the devious mazes through which an old cock pheasant, or yet more, an old cock grouse, may endeavor to mislead him. And yet this lesson should not be given before he is tolerably confirmed at his point, lest he should push too fast on the scent; and make a rush more like the dash of a cocker than the sober, convenient "road" of a setter. As his experience increases he will thus acquire the valuable knowledge of the position of his game--he will lead you to the centre of a covey, or what is of greater consequence--as grouse spread--to the centre of a pack,--instead of allowing himself to be attracted to a flank by some truant from the main body,--and thus get you a good double shot, and enable you effectually to separate the birds--he will, moreover, become watchful, and sensible of his distance from game--a knowledge all important, and which, be it remarked, he never could gain in turnips, or potatoes, or any thick cover. 198. There is another and yet stronger reason why you should not consider it a rule always to head your young dog at his point. You may--although at first it seems an odd caution to give--make him too stanch. This, to be sure, signifies less with partridges than with most birds; but if you have ever seen your dog come to a fixed point, and there, in spite of all your efforts, remain provokingly immovable--plainly telling you of the vicinity of birds, but that you must find them out for yourself--your admiration of his steadiness has, I think, by no means reconciled you to the embarrassing position in which it has placed you. I have often witnessed this vexatious display of stanchness, although the owner cheered on the dog in a tone loud enough to alarm birds two fields off. 199. A keeper will sometimes praise his dog for such stanchness; but it is a great fault, induced probably by over-severity for former rashness,--and the more difficult to be cured, if the animal is a setter, from the crouching position he often naturally assumes when pointing. 200. I here desire to warn you against the too common error of fancying that a young dog is making false points if birds do not get up directly. They may have taken leg-bail, and thus have puzzled him in his inexperience. Dogs not cowed by punishment will, after a little hunting, seldom make false points, while they are unfatigued. To a certainty they will not draw upon a false point for any distance: therefore, never punish what is solely occasioned by over-caution. Your doing so would but increase the evil. Self-confidence and experience are the only cures for a fault that would be a virtue if not carried to excess. Even a good dog will occasionally make a point at larks from over-caution when birds are wild; but see the first note to 144. 201. After you have shot over a dog a short time, his manner and attitude will enable you to guess pretty accurately whether birds are really before him; whether they are far off or near; and whether or not they are on the move. Generally speaking, the higher he carries his head, and the less he stiffens his stern, the further off are the birds. If he begins to look nervous, and become fidgety, you will seldom be wrong in fancying they are on the run. But various, and at times most curious, are the methods that dogs will adopt, _apparently_ with the wish to show you where the birds are, and _certainly_ with the desire to get you a shot. CHAPTER XI. FIRST LESSON IN AUTUMN CONCLUDED. BAR. LEG STRAP. SPIKE COLLAR. 202. After a few trials you will, I hope, be able to dispense with the peg recommended in 194, and soon after with the checkcord also. But if your dog possesses unusually high spirits, or if he travels over the ground at a pace which obviously precludes his making a proper use of his nose, it may be advisable to fasten to his collar a bar, something like a diminutive splinter-bar, that it may, by occasional knocking against his shins, feelingly admonish him to lessen his stride. If he gets it between his legs and thus finds it no annoyance, attach it to both sides of his collar from points near the extremities. One of his forelegs might occasionally be passed through the collar; but this plan is not so good as the other; nor as the strap on the hind leg--56. These means--to be discarded, however, as soon as obedience is established--are far better than the _temporary_ ascendancy which some breakers establish by low diet and excessive work, which would only weaken his spirits and his bodily powers, without eradicating his self will, or improving his intellect. You want to force him, when he is in the highest health and vigor, to learn by experience the advantage of letting his nose dwell longer on a feeble scent. 203. I have made no mention of the spiked collar, because it is a brutal instrument, which none but the most ignorant or unthinking would employ. It is a leather collar, into which nails, much longer than the thickness of the collar, have been driven, with their points projecting inwards. The French spike-collar is nearly as severe. It is formed of a series of wooden balls,--larger than marbles,--linked--about two and a half inches apart--into a chain by stiff wires bent into the form of hooks. These sharp pointed hooks punish cruelly when the checkcord is jerked. 204. We have, however, a more modern description of collar, which is far less inhuman than either of those I have mentioned, but still I cannot recommend its adoption, unless in extreme cases; for though not so severely, it, likewise, punishes the unfortunate dog, more or less, by the strain of the checkcord he drags along the ground: and it ought to be the great object of a good breaker as little as is possible to fret or worry his pupil, that all his ideas may be engaged in an anxious wish to wind birds. On a leather strap, which has a ring at one end, four wooden balls--of about two inches in diameter--are threaded like beads, at intervals from each other and the ring, say, of two inches--the exact distance being dependent on the size of the dog's throat. Into each of the balls sundry short pieces of thickish wire are driven, leaving about one-sixth of an inch beyond the surface. The other end of the strap--to which the checkcord is attached--is passed through the ring. This ring being of somewhat less diameter than the balls, it is clear, however severely the breaker may pull, he cannot compress the dog's throat beyond a certain point. The effect of the short spikes is rather to crumple than penetrate the skin. 205. I have long been sensible of the aid a spiked collar would afford in reclaiming headstrong, badly educated dogs, if it could be used at the moment--and only at the precise moment when punishment was required,--but not until lately did it strike me how the collar could be carried so that the attached cord should not constantly bear upon it, and thereby worry, if not pain the dog. And had I again to deal with an old offender, who incorrigibly crept in after pointing, or obstinately "rushed into dead," I should feel much disposed to employ a slightly spiked collar in the following manner. 206. That the mere carrying the collar might not annoy the dog, I would extract or flatten the nails fixed on the top of the collar, on the part, I mean, that would lie on the animal's neck. This collar I would place on his neck, in front of his common light collar. I would then firmly fasten the checkcord, in the usual way, to the spiked collar; but, to prevent any annoyance from dragging the checkcord, at about five or six inches from the fastening just made I would attach it to the common collar, with very slight twine--twine so slight that, although it would not give way to the usual drag of the checkcord, however long, yet it would readily break on my having to pull strongly against the wilful rush of an obstinate dog, when, of course, the spikes would punish him, as the strain would then be borne by the spiked collar alone. 207. Guided by circumstances, I would afterwards either remove the spiked collar, or, if I conceived another bout necessary, refasten the checkcord to the common collar with some of the thin twine, leaving, as before, five or six inches of the checkcord loose between the two collars. 208. If you should ever consider yourself forced to employ a spiked collar, do not thoughtlessly imagine that the same collar will suit all dogs. The spikes for a thin coated pointer ought to be shorter than for a coarse haired setter! You can easily construct one to punish with any degree of severity you please. Take a common leather collar; lay its inner surface flat on a soft deal board: through the leather drive with a hammer any number of tacks or flat-headed nails: then get a cobbler to sew on another strap of leather at the back of the nails, so as to retain them firmly in position. 209. I have supposed that your dog has _scented_ the birds before they rose, but if he springs them without having previously noticed them--as in some rare cases happens even to well-bred dogs--you _must_ bring him back to the spot at which you feel assured that he ought to have been sensible of their presence, and _there_ make him "Toho." Afterwards endeavor to make him aware of the haunt by encouraging him to sniff at the ground that the birds have just left. The next time watch very carefully for the _slightest_ indication of his feathering, and then instantly call out "Toho." After a few times he will, to a certainty, understand you. 210. You should kill outright the few first birds at which you fire. I would infinitely prefer that you should miss altogether than that one of the two or three first birds should be a runner. Afterwards you have full leave to merely wing a bird; but still I should wish it not to be too nimble. This is a good trial of _your_ judgment as well as the dog's. I hope he is to leeward of the bird, and that it will not catch his eye. See he touches on the haunt. Do not let him work with his nose to the ground. "Up, up," must be your encouraging words,--or "On, on," according to circumstances,--whilst with your right hand--IV. of 119--you are alternately urging and restraining him, so as to make him advance at a suitable pace. From his previous education, not being flurried by any undue dread of the whip, he will be enabled to give his undisturbed attention, and devote all his faculties to follow unerringly the retreating bird. But from inexperience he may wander from the haunt. On perceiving this, bring him, by signals, back to the spot where he was apparently last aware of the scent. He will again hit it off. If you view the bird ever so far ahead, on no account run. I hope you will at length observe it lie down. Head it, if possible, and strike it with your whip, if you think you will be unable to seize it with your hand. Endeavor to prevent its fluttering away;--it is too soon to subject the youngster to such a severe trial of his nerves and steadiness. Then,--having put the poor creature out of its misery, by piercing its skull, or rapping its head against your gun, as before--180--show your dog the gratifying prize which your combined exertions have gained. 211. Should he unluckily have caught sight of the running bird, and, in spite of all your calls, have rushed forward and seized it, you ought to have proceeded as described in 221. Clearly, however, you would not have dragged the dog back to the place where he "down charged," but merely to the spot from which he had made his unlawful rush. If the bird had been very active, it would have been far better to have fired at it a second time--while it was running--than to have incurred the risk of making your dog unsteady by a wild pursuit. Suppose that it was not winged, but rose again on your approaching it, and fluttered off,--a hard trial for the young dog,--you must, however, have made him bear it, and obey your loud command to "drop,"--you would--or should--have taken another shot, and have proceeded in exactly the same manner as if this had been your first find--179, 180. 212. As the wounded bird was to windward of the dog, the course to follow was obvious,--it was plain sailing; but the case would have varied greatly if the dog had been to windward. Had you pursued the usual plan, he must have roaded the bird by the "foot;" and the danger is, that in allowing him to do so, you may create in him the evil habit of hunting with his nose close to the ground, which is, above all things, to be deprecated. You have another mode--you can "lift" the dog--I suppose you know the meaning of that hunting term,--and make him take a large circuit, and so head the bird, and then proceed as if it had fallen to windward. 213. The latter plan would avoid all risk of your making him a potterer, and it is, I think, to be recommended, if you find him naturally inclined to hunt low. But the former method, as a lesson in "footing," must be often resorted to, that he may learn unhesitatingly to distinguish the "heel" from the "toe," and how to push an old cock-grouse, or to flush a pheasant running through cover, or the red-legged, I was nearly saying, the everlasting-legged partridge;[35] and, indeed, generally, how to draw upon his birds, and with confidence lead you to a shot, when they are upon the move and running down wind.--See end of 98; and for further directions, and for "seeking dead" with two dogs, look at 296. The heavy Spanish pointer, from his plodding perseverance and great olfactory powers, was an excellent hand at retrieving a slightly injured bird on a broiling, bad scenting day. 214. When I advised you--180--to let the dog "have plenty of time to make out the bird," I spoke from personal experience, and from a vivid recollection of errors committed in my novitiate. A young hand is too apt to imagine that every bird which falls to his gun is killed outright, and lying dead on the spot where it fell. He will, therefore, often impatiently, and most injudiciously, call away the dog who, at a little distance, may have hit-off the trail of the winged bird, and be "footing" it beautifully. 215. If in these lessons you should lose one or two wounded birds, though it might not be a matter of any moment to yourself personally, it would be extremely vexatious on the dog's account, because, in this early stage of his education, it would tend to discourage him. The feeling which you must anxiously foster in him is this, that after the word "find"[36] the search must never be relinquished, even though he be constrained to hunt from morning till night. And it is clear that to make an abiding, valuable impression, this lesson must be inculcated on the several first occasions with unremitting, untiring diligence. 216. Persevere, therefore, for an hour, rather than give up a wounded bird. Join in the search yourself. Even if you see where it lies, do not pick it up hastily. On the contrary, leave it, but mark well the spot. Keep on the move. Hold your gun as if in expectation of a rise. Pretend to seek for the bird in every direction, even for a good half hour, if you can encourage your dog to hunt so long. If, indeed, you see him flag, and get wearied and dispirited, gradually bring him close, but to leeward of the spot where the bird lies, in order to make him "point dead" and be rewarded for all his diligence by finding it himself. Let him, also, have a good sniff at it and nose it--but let there be no biting or mouthing--before you put it into the bag. Otherwise, what return has he for the pains he has taken? 217. It is no conclusive argument against the practice of allowing him to "nose," that many first-rate dogs have never been so indulged. It is certain that they would not have been worse if they had; and many a dog, that would otherwise have been extremely slack, has been incited to hunt with eagerness from having been so rewarded. There are dogs who, from having been constantly denied all "touseling," will not even give themselves the trouble of searching for any bird which they have seen knocked over, much less think of pointing it. They seem satisfied with this ocular evidence of its death; for, odd to say, these very dogs will often zealously obey the order to hunt for any bird whose fall they have not noticed; but on winding it they will indulge in no more than a passing sniff,--which sniff, unless you are watchful, you may not observe, and so lose your bird. Never fail, therefore, to let your pupil ruffle the feathers a little, while you bestow on him a caress or kind word of approbation. You then incite to perseverance, by, even with dogs, a very abiding motive,--"self-interest;" but mind the important rule, that his "nosing" be only _when_ the bird is in your possession, not _before_ it is in your possession. If you wish to establish for ever a confirmed perseverance in "seeking dead," you must sacrifice _hours_--I say it seriously--rather than give up any of the first wounded birds. Be persuaded that every half hour spent in an unremitting search for _one_ bird, if ultimately successful, will more benefit the young dog than your killing a _dozen_ to him, should you bag them the moment you are reloaded. Of course you would not, when you are giving such a lesson in perseverance, fire at another bird, even if it sprang at your feet,--for your doing so, whether you missed or killed, would unsettle the young dog, and make him relinquish his search. Be stimulated to present exertion by the conviction, that if he be not _now_ well instructed, you must expect him to lose, season after season, nearly every bird only slightly disabled by a merely tipped wing. 218. I hope you will not say, as would most of our neighbors[37] on the other side of the Channel: "But if, instead of waiting to load, I had gone after the winged bird just as it fell, when first I saw it start off running, the evil you have now spoken of--215--could not have occurred, for there would have been but little risk of losing it." Probably not, but you would almost have ruined your dog; and to secure this one bird, in all likelihood you would subsequently lose a hundred.[38] How could you with justice blame him if, when next you killed, he rushed headlong after the bird--instead of dropping patiently to the "down charge"--and so sprung a dozen birds while you were unloaded? 219. Perhaps you will say, "You tell me to fire at a running bird, but when a winged cock-pheasant or red-legged partridge is racing off _out of shot_, how am I to get it if I proceed in the slow, methodical manner you advise? May it not lead me an unsuccessful dance for an hour, if I do not allow the dog to shoot ahead and seize?" It may--but I hope months will pass before you witness such agility--and this shows that those who do not employ a retriever, and yet are sticklers for a setter's--or pointer's--never being permitted to touch a feather, must on such occasions get into a dilemma; and, unless they are willing to lose the bird, must plead guilty to the inconsistency of being pleased--however loudly they may roar out "Toho," "ware dead,"--when they see their dog, in defiance of all such calls, disable it by a sudden grip. This plan, though frequently followed, cannot be correct. They blame the dog for doing what they really wish! and if he be too tender-mouthed to injure the bird, he keeps them at top speed, while he is alternately picking up the unfortunate creature--acting on his natural impulses--and letting it fall, on being rated. I therefore repeat, that even if you do not wish your dog constantly to retrieve--292--you would still act judiciously in teaching him as a puppy to fetch--86--for then he will give chase to the winged bird, and bring it to you _on getting the order_, instead of permitting it to escape for a fresh _burst_, or carrying it off, as I have seen done. You thus maintain discipline. The dog will do what you wish, in obedience to orders,--not in opposition to orders. The sticklers for dogs never being allowed to nose a feather ought, unless they are quite willing to give up slightly-winged birds, not to shrink from the difficult task of teaching their pupils to stop and retain with their paws. 220. We have only spoken of instances 180, 210, 212, in which all has gone on smoothly, the dog most obediently dropping to shot and permitting _you_ to take up the bird notwithstanding the poor creature's death-struggles. Suppose, however, and this may probably happen, that he does not restrain himself at the "down charge," but, in spite of all your calls and signals, rushes forward, yet yields to your menaces and halts in mid-career. It is well--your course is clear; you have to lug him back and threaten and lecture him. But should he not check himself until he sniffs the game, his stop then becomes a "point;" and if he is of a timid disposition, or has ever evinced any disposition to blink, you dare not force him to retrace his steps lest he should mistake your motives, and fancy himself encouraged to abandon his point. If you merely make him "down charge," you violate the axiom named in 255. In short you are in a difficulty. It is a nice case, in which your own judgment of the dog's character can alone decide you. 221. But, if from inadequate initiatory instruction--for I will maintain that such marked rebellion can arise from no other cause--in the excitement of the moment he actually rushes in and seizes the bird, he must be punished, I am sorry to say it; but however much we may deplore it, _he must_; for he has been guilty of great disobedience, and he well knows that he has been disobedient. But the temptation was strong, perhaps too strong, for canine nature--that is to say, for canine nature not early taught obedience. The wounded bird was fluttering within sight and hearing--it was, too, the first he had ever seen,--and this is almost his first glaring act of disobedience; be therefore merciful, though firm. Make him "drop." Get up to him at once. Probably he will relinquish his grip of the bird; if not, make him give it up to you, but do not pull it from him: that would only increase the temptation to tear it. Lay it on the ground. Then drag him back to the spot from which he rushed; there make him lie down. Rate him. Call out "Toho."[39] Crack the whip over him--and, I am pained to add, make use of it--but moderately, not severely. Three or four cuts will be enough, provided he has not torn the bird; if he has, his chastisement must be greater. Let him now have one nibble without punishment, and soon a whole carcase will not suffice for his morning's meal. Do not strike him across the body, but lengthwise. 222. An ill-tempered dog might attempt to bite you. Prevent the possibility of his succeeding, by grasping and twisting his collar with your left hand, still keeping him at the "down." Consider coolly whether you are flagellating a thick-coated dog, or one with a skin not much coarser than your own. Pause between each cut; and, that he may comprehend why he is punished, call out several times, but not loudly, "Toho--bad--toho," and crack your whip. Let your last strokes be milder and milder, until they fall in the gentlest manner--a manner more calculated to awaken reflection than give pain. When the chastisement is over stand close in front of him, the better to awe him, and prevent his thinking of bolting. Put the whip quietly in your pocket, but still remain where you are, occasionally rating and scolding him while you are loading; gradually, however, becoming milder in manner that he may be sensible that though your dissatisfaction at his conduct continues, his punishment is over--241 to 242. Indeed, if you have any fear of his becoming too timid, you may at length fondle him a little, provided that while you so re-encourage him, you continue to say "Toho--toho," most impressively--then, giving him the wind, go up together to the bird and make him "point dead" close to it. Take it up, and let him fumble the feathers before you loop it on the bag. 223. Never let a dog whom you have been forced to chastise bolt or creep away until you order him. If he is ever allowed to move off at _his_ wish, he will improve upon the idea, and on the next occasion will far too soon anticipate _yours_. And do not send him off until he has given some evidence of having forgiven you, and of his desire to be reconciled, by crawling towards you, for instance, or wagging his tail. On no occasion--under circumstances of ever such great provocation--be so weak or irritable--but I hope you do not need the warning--as to give him a kick or a blow when he is going off. He ought to have stood with reassured confidence alongside of you, for perhaps a minute or so, before you sanctioned his departure; and the severer his punishment the longer should have been the detention. You are always to part tolerable friends, while he feels perfectly convinced that his chastisement is over. If you do not, you may find it rather difficult to catch him when he commits another fault. It will be owing to your own injudiciousness if he ever becomes afraid of approaching you after making a blunder. Should he be so, sit down. He will gradually draw near you; then quietly put your hand on his collar. 224. If a man cannot readily get hold of any dog under his tuition whom he desires to rate or punish, you may be certain that he fails either in temper or judgment; perhaps in both. He may be an excellent man; but he cannot be a good dog-breaker. There are men who get quite enraged at a dog's not coming instantly to "heel," on being called. When at length the poor brute does come within reach, he gets a blow, perhaps a licking--a blow or licking, he has the sense to see he should have longer avoided had he stayed longer away. Thus the punishment increases instead of remedying the evil. 225. Never correct or even rate a dog, in the mere _belief_ that he is in error; be first _convinced_ of his guilt. If you have good reason to suspect that unseen by you he has wilfully sprung birds, still rather give him an earnest caution than any severer rebuke. It is not easy to repair the mischief occasioned by unjust punishment. When from his sheepish look, or any other cause, you imagine that he has raised game, either through heedlessness or from their being unusually wild, be sure to give him a short lecture, and accompany him to the haunt. A lingering bird may occasionally reward you. If his manner has led you to form an incorrect opinion, your warning can have no other effect than to increase his caution--rarely an undesirable result;--and if you are right the admonition is obviously most judicious. 226. Let me caution you against the too common error of punishing a dog by pulling his ears. It has often occasioned bad canker. Some men are of opinion that it is frequently the cause of premature deafness. When you rate him you may lay hold of an ear and shake it, but not with violence. 227. I would strongly recommend you always to make your young dog "drop" for half-a-minute or so, when he, sees a hare; or when he hears a bird rise.[40] To effect this, stand still yourself. After a few seconds you can either hie him on, or, which is yet better, get close to him if you expect other birds to spring. You will thus, especially in potatoes or turnips, often obtain shots at birds which would have made off, had he continued to hunt, and early in the season be frequently enabled to bag the tail-bird of a covey. This plan will also tend to make him cautious, and prevent his getting a habit of blundering-up birds, and cunningly pretending not to have noticed their escape. It will also make him less inclined to chase hares and rabbits, or rush at a fallen bird. 228. On approaching a piece of turnips, you may have heard, "Let us couple up all the dogs excepting Old Don:" the veteran's experience having shown him, that the only effect of his thundering through them would be to scare every bird and make it rise out of shot. _You_, on the contrary, when your pupil is well confirmed in his range, and has some knowledge of his distance from game, ought to wish the other dogs kept to "Heel"--especially when the seed has been broadcast,--that by the word "Care" and the right hand slightly raised you may instil into him the necessary caution and so, by judicious tuition, give him the benefit of your own experience. Most probably you would be obliged to employ the checkcord,[41] which I presume to be always at hand ready for occasional use. Or you might strap your shot-belt round his throat, for it is essential that he traverse such ground slowly, and greatly contract his range--see 145. The several cross scents he will encounter should afford him a valuable lesson in detecting the most recent, and in discriminating between the "heel and toe" of a run. Be patient,--give him time to work, and consider what he is about. It is probable that he will frequently overrun the birds on their doubling back, and imagine that they are gone. Should he do so, bring him again on the spot where he appeared to lose the scent. He now rushes up the adjacent drill. "Slower, slower," signals your right arm; "go no faster than I can walk comfortably." On the other hand, the birds may lie like stones. Not until you have remained nearly a minute alongside of him let him urge them to rise; and make him effect this, not by a sudden dash, but by steadily pressing on the scent. Bear in mind, as before warned--143--that the confidence with which he can here creep on to a near find may lead, if he is now mismanaged, to his springing on future occasions, from want of care, many a bird at which he ought to get you a shot. 229. If you can contrive it, let your pupil have some little experience in the field before you give him a real lesson in "Gone"--or "Flown." Instead of being perplexed, he will then comprehend you. Should you, therefore, during the first few days of hunting him, see birds make off in lieu of taking him to the haunt--as many breakers erroneously do,--carefully keep him from the spot. You cannot let him run riot over the reeking scent without expecting him to do the same when next he finds; and if, in compliance with your orders, he points, you are making a fool of him--there is nothing before him; and if he does not fancy you as bewildered as himself, he will imagine that the exhilarating effluvia he rejoices in is the sum total you both seek. This advice, at first sight, may appear to contradict that given in 111 and 209; but look again, and you will find that those paragraphs referred to peculiar cases. Should your young dog be loitering and sniffing at a haunt which he has _seen_ birds quit, he cannot well mistake the meaning of your calling out, "Gone, gone." FOOTNOTES: [35] The speed with which one of these extremely beautiful, but in every other respect far, far inferior partridges will run, when only slightly wounded, is quite marvellous. [36] The force of the word "Dead"--preceding the command "Find"--that joyous, exciting note of triumph--ought never to be lessened by being employed, as I have heard it, to stimulate a dog to hunt when no bird is down; or, like the shepherd-boy's cry of "Wolf! wolf!" it will have little influence at the moment when it should most animate to unremitting exertions. [37] In favor of such unsportsman-like haste they ingeniously argue that a continued noise after firing makes birds lie, from attracting their attention. They say that a sudden change to quiet--and a great change it must be, for a _chasseur_ is always talking--alarms the birds. As an evidence of this, they adduce the well-known fact of its frequently happening that a partridge gets up the moment the guns have left the spot, though no previous noise had induced it to stir. [38] Had you lost the bird from there being but little scent, it is probable you might have found it by renewing your search on your return homewards in the evening. If a runner, it would most likely have rejoined the covey. [39] "Toho," rather than "Drop,"--your object now being to make him stand at, and prevent his mouthing game; for you are satisfied that he would have "down charged" had the bird been missed. [40] Of course, with the proviso that he is not pointing at another bird--187. [41] Lest the cord should cut the turnip-tops, it might be better to employ the elastic band spoken of in 56. CHAPTER XII. SHOOTING HARES. COURAGE IMPARTED.--"BACKING" TAUGHT. 230. Probably you may be in a part of the country where you may wish to kill hares to your dog's point. I will, therefore, speak about them, though I confess I cannot do it with much enthusiasm. Ah! my English friend, what far happier autumns we should spend could we but pass them in the Highlands! Then we should think little about those villanous hares. We should direct the whole _undivided_ faculties of our dogs, to work out the haunt of the noble grouse.[42] As for rabbits, I beg we may have no further acquaintance, if you ever even in imagination, shoot them to your young dog. Should you be betrayed into so vile a practice, you must resign all hope of establishing in him a confirmed systematic range. He will degenerate into a low potterer,--a regular hedge-hunter. In turnips he will always be thinking more of rabbits than birds. It will be soon enough to shoot the little wretches to him when he is a venerable grandfather. The youngster's noticing them--which he would be sure to do if you had ever killed one to him--might frequently lead to your mis-instructing him, by earnestly enforcing "Care" at a moment when you ought to rate him loudly with the command "Ware"--or "No." But to our immediate subject. 231. Defer as long as possible the evil day of shooting a hare over him, that he may not get too fond--65--of such vermin--I beg pardon, I mean game--and when you do kill one, so manage that he may not see it put into the bag. On no account let him mouthe it. You want him to love the pursuit of feather more than of fur, that he may never be taken off the faintest scent of birds by coming across the taint of a hare. I therefore entreat you, during his first season, if you will shoot hares, to fire only at those which you are likely to kill outright; for the taint of a wounded hare is so strong that it would probably diminish his zeal, and the sensitiveness of his nose, in searching for a winged bird. 232. The temptation is always great to quit for a strong scent of hare--which any coarse-nosed dog can follow--a feeble one of birds; therefore it is a very satisfactory test of good breaking to see a dog, when he is drawing upon birds, in no way interrupted by a hare having just crossed before him. If you aim at such excellence, and it is frequently attained in the Highlands, it is certain you must not shoot hares over your youngster. 233. I hope that he will not see a hare before you have shot a few birds over him. The first that springs up near him will test the perfection to which he has attained in his initiatory lessons. Lose not a moment. It is most essential to restrain instantaneously the naturally strong impulse of the dog to run after four-footed game. Halloo out "Drop" to the extent of your voice,--raise your hand,--crack your whip,--do all you can to prevent his pursuing. Of course you will not move an inch. Should he commence running, thunder out "No," "no." If, in spite of everything, he bolts after the hare, you have nothing for it but patience. It's no use to give yourself a fit of asthma by following him. You have only half as many legs as he has--a deficiency you would do well to keep secret from him as long as possible. Wait quietly where you are--for an hour if necessary. You have one consolation,--puss, according to her usual custom, has run down wind,--your dog has lost sight of her, and is, I see, with his nose to the ground, giving himself an admirable lesson in reading out a haunt. After a time he will come back looking rather ashamed of himself, conscious that he did wrong in disobeying, and vexed with himself from having more than a suspicion forced upon him, that he cannot run so fast as the hare. When he has nearly reached you, make him "drop." Scold him severely, saying, "Ware chase"--a command that applies to the chase of birds as well as of hares.--Pull him to the place where he was when first he got a view of the hare,--make him lie down--rate him well,--call out "No," or "Hare," or "Ware chase," or any word you choose, provided you uniformly employ the same. Smack the whip and punish him with it, but not so severely as you did when we assumed that he tore the bird--end of 221. You then flogged him for two offences: first, because he rushed in and seized the bird; secondly, because he tore it and _tasted_ blood. If you had not then punished him severely, you could never have expected him to be tender-mouthed. On the next occasion he might have swallowed the bird, feathers and all. 234. Should he persist in running after hares, you must employ the checkcord. If you see the hare, at which he is pointing, in its form, drive a peg firmly into the ground, and attach the cord to it, giving him a few slack yards, so that after starting off he may be arrested with a tremendous jerk. Fasten the line to the part of the spike close to the ground, or he may pull it out. 235. I have known a dog to be arrested in a headlong chase by a shot fired at him--an act which you will think yet more reprehensible than the previous mismanagement for which his owner apparently knew no other remedy than this hazardous severity. 236. When you are teaching your dog to refrain from chasing hares, take him, if you can, where they are plentiful. If they are scarce, and you are in the neighborhood of a rabbit-warren, visit it occasionally of an evening. He will there get so accustomed to see the little animals running about unpursued by either of you, that his natural anxiety to chase fur, whether it grow on the back of hare or rabbit, will be gradually diminished. 237. In Scotland there are tracts of heather where one may hunt for weeks together and not find a hare; indeed, it is commonly observed, that hares are always scarce on those hills where grouse most abound. In other parts they are extremely numerous. Some sports men in the Highlands avail themselves of this contrasted ground in order to break a young dog from "chasing." They hunt him, as long as he continues fresh, where there are no hares; and when he becomes tired, they take him to the Lowlands, where they are plentiful. By then killing a good many over him, and severely punishing him whenever he attempts to follow, a cure is often effected in two or three days. In the yet higher ranges, the mountain-hares, from possessing a peculiarly strong scent, and not running to a distance, are a severe trial to the steadiest dog. 238. Killing a sitting hare to your dog's point will wonderfully steady him from chasing; but do not fire until he has remained stanch for a considerable time. This will show him that puss is far more likely to be bagged by _your_ firing than by _his_ pursuing. 239. For the same object,--I mean to make your young dog stanch,--I would recommend your killing a few birds on the ground to his point were it not that you rarely have the opportunity. 240. When you have made your dog perfectly steady from chasing you may--supposing you have no retriever at hand,--naturally enough, inquire how you are to teach him to follow any hare you may be so unlucky as merely to wound. I acknowledge that the task is difficult. I would say, at once resolve to give up every wounded hare during his first season.[43] The following year, provided you find that he remains quite steady, on your wounding an unfortunate wretch, encourage your dog to pursue it by running yourself after it. When he gets hold of it, check him if he mauls it, and take it from him as quickly as possible. As I cannot suppose that you are anxious to slaughter every hare you see, let the next two or three go off without a shot. This forbearance will re-steady him, and after a while his own sagacity and nose--297--will show him that the established usage was departed from solely because puss was severely struck. 241. As you wish to flog your dog as little as possible, never go out without your whip, paradoxical as this may appear. The dog's salutary awe of the implement which he sees in your possession, like a horse's consciousness of your heel being armed with a spur, will tend to keep him in order. If your dog is a keen ranger, you may much spare the whip by making him crouch at your feet for several minutes after he has committed a fault. The detention will be felt by him, when he is all anxiety to be off hunting, as a severe punishment. If he is a mettlesome, high-couraged animal, he will regard as a yet severer punishment his being compelled to follow at your heels for half-an-hour, while the other dogs are allowed the enjoyment of hunting. 242. Excess of punishment has made many a dog of good promise a confirmed blinker; and of far more has it quenched that keen ardor for the sport, without which no dog can be first-rate. For this reason, if not from more humane motives, make it a rule to give but few cuts; let them, however, be tolerably severe. Your pupil's recollection of them, when he hears the crack of the whip, will prevent the necessity of their frequent repetition. 243. I knew of a young fellow's purchasing a pointer of an excellent breed from a gamekeeper for a _few shillings_ merely, as the animal had become so timid from over-chastisement, that she not only blinked her game, but seldom quitted the man's heels. The lad had the good sense to treat the bitch, at all times, with the greatest kindness: and in order to induce her to hunt, he used to break off the feet of every bird he killed, and give them to her to eat along with the sinews. The plan succeeded so well that she eventually became an unusually keen and fast ranger. This would be a hazardous step to take with a dog wanted to retrieve. There are few, if any dogs who may not be tempted by hunger to eat game. A gentleman told me, that, to his great astonishment, he one day saw an old tender-mouthed retriever, that he had possessed for years, deliberately swallow a partridge. Before he could get up to the dog even the tail-feathers had disappeared. On inquiry it turned out that, through some neglect, the animal had not been fed. 244. Some argue that blinking arises from a defective nose, not from punishment; but surely it is the injudicious chastisement following the blunders caused by a bad nose that makes a dog, through fear, go to "heel" when he winds birds. A bad nose may lead to a dog's running up birds from not noticing them, but it cannot _naturally_ induce him to run away from them. Possibly he may be worthless from a deficiency in his olfactory powers; but it is hard to conceive how these powers can be improved by a dread of doing mischief when he finds himself near game. Some dogs that have been unduly chastised do not even betray themselves by running to "heel," but cunningly slink away from their birds without giving you the slightest intimation of their vicinity. I have seen such instances. When a young dog, who has betrayed symptoms of blinking, draws upon birds, _head_ him, if you can, before you give him the order to "toho:" he will then have such a large circuit to make, that he will feel the less tempted to run to your heels. 245. Obedience and intelligence are, as I have already remarked, best secured by judicious ratings and encouragements--scoldings for bad conduct,--praise, caresses, and rewards for good. Never forget, therefore, to have some delicacy in your pocket to give the youngster whenever he may deserve it. All dogs, however, even the most fearful, ought to be made able to bear a little punishment. If, _unfortunately_, your dog is constitutionally timid--I cannot help saying _unfortunately_, though so many of the sort have fine noses--the whip must be employed with the greatest gentleness, the lash being rather laid on the back than used, until such forbearance, and many caresses before his dismissal, have gradually banished the animal's alarm, and ultimately enabled you to give him a very slight beating, on his misconducting himself, without any danger of making him blink. By such means, odd as it may sound, you _create_ courage, and with it give him self-confidence and range. 246. A judiciously-educated dog will know as well as you do whether or not he has earned a chastisement, and many a one is of so noble a nature that he will not wish to avoid it if he is conscious that he deserves it. He will become as anxious for good sport as you are, and feel that he ought to be punished, if from his own misconduct he mars it. Indeed, he will not have much opinion of your sagacity if you do not then give him a sound rating, or let him have a taste of the lash, though it matters not how slight. Clearly this feeling, which it will be right to foster, must have arisen from his belief that you are always conscious of his actions--262--therefore never check him for coming towards you on his committing any unseen error. Moreover, when he has been but a little shot to, you will find that if you abstain from firing at a bird which through his fault he has improperly flushed, although in its flight it affords you an excellent shot, you will greatly vex him; and this will tend to make him-more careful for the future. 247. When, after a few weeks, you perceive that the youngster has confidence in himself, and is likely to hunt independently, not deferentially following the footsteps of an older companion, take out a well-broken dog with him, that you may have the opportunity of teaching him to "back." Be careful to choose one not given to make false points; for if he commits such mistakes, your pupil will soon utterly disregard his pointing. Select also one who draws upon his birds in a fine, determined attitude; not one to whose manner even _you_ must be habituated to feel certain he is on game. Be watchful to prevent your dog ever hunting in the wake of the other, which, in the humility of canine youth, he probably will, unless you are on the alert to wave him in a different direction, the moment you observe him inclined to seek the company of his more experienced associate. By selecting a slow old dog you will probably diminish the wish of the young one to follow him; for it is likely that the youngster's eagerness will make him push on faster, and so take the lead. 248. The example for a _few_ days--but only for a few days--of a good stanch dog who is not a hedge-hunter,--has no bad habits, and does not require being called to--will be advantageous to your inexperienced animal. 249. On the old dog's pointing, catch the eye of the young one. If you cannot readily do so, and are not afraid of too much alarming the birds, call to the old fellow by name, and desire him to "toho." The order will make the young one look round, and awaken him to a suspicion of what is going forward. Hold up your right arm--stand still for a minute--and then, carrying your gun as if you were prepared momentarily to fire, retreat, or move sideways in crab-like fashion towards the old dog, continuing your signal to the other to remain steady, and turning your face to him, so that he may be restrained by the feeling that your eye is constantly fixed upon him. He will soon remark the attitude of the old dog, and almost intuitively guess its meaning. Should the old one draw upon his game, still the other dog must remain stationary. If he advance but an inch, rate him. Should he rush up--which is hardly to be expected--at him at once;--having made him drop, catch hold of him, and drag him to the place at which he should have backed--there--if you judge such strong measures necessary--peg him down until after you have had your shot and are reloaded. If by heading the birds you can drive them towards the young dog, do so; and aim at the one most likely to fall near him. Endeavor to make him comprehend that any sign or word to urge on or retard the leading dog in no way applies to him. This he will soon understand, if he has been properly instructed with an associate in the initiatory lesson described in 45. After you have picked up the bird let him sniff at it. 250. It is most important that the dog which first winds birds should be allowed to "road" them to a spring without being flurried, or in any way interfered with by another dog. Few things are more trying to your temper as a sportsman, than to see a self-sufficient cub, especially when birds are wild, creep up to the old dog whom he observes pointing at a distance, or cautiously drawing upon a covey. The young whipper-snapper pays no attention to your most energetic signals: you are afraid to speak lest you should alarm the birds, and before you can catch hold of the presumptuous jackanapes, he not only steals close to the good old dog, but actually ventures to head him; nay, possibly dares to crawl on yet nearer to the birds in the hope of enjoying a more intoxicating sniff. 251. All dogs but the "finder" should stand wholly by sight,--just the reverse of pointing. Your dog's nose ought to have nothing to do with backing. If you permit it, he will get the abominable habit of creeping up to his companions in the manner just described--250--when he observes them to be winding birds; and though he may not presume to take the lead, nay, even keep at so respectful a distance as in no way to annoy the "finder," yet a longing to inhale the "grateful steam"--as that good poet and capital sportsman, Somerville, terms it--will make him constantly watch the other dogs, instead of bestowing his undivided attention and faculties upon finding game for himself. It is quite enough if he backs whenever you order him, or he accidentally catches sight of another dog either "pointing" or "roading;" and the less he is looking after his companions, the more zealously will he attend to his own duties. 252. If you have any fears that the old dog when he is on birds will not act steadily, should you have occasion to chide the young one, be careful to give the old dog a word expressive of your approval, before you commence to rate the other. 253. When your youngster is hereafter hunted in company, should he make a point, and any intrusive companion, instead of properly backing him, be impertinently pressing on, the youngster should not be induced--however great may be the trial upon his patience and forbearance--to draw one foot nearer to the game than his own knowledge of distance tells him is correct; not even if his friend, or rather, jealous rival, boldly assumes the front rank. Your pupil will have a right to look to you for protection, and to expect that the rash intruder, however young, be _at the least_ well rated. 254. It is a matter of little moment whether the "backer" attends to the "down charge," or continues to back as long as the other dog remains at his point. It appears, however, best that he should "drop," unless he is so near that he winds the game, when he would be rather pointing than backing--and should, consequently, behave as explained in 187;--for the fewer exceptions there are to general rules the more readily are the rules observed. 255. Should both dogs make separate points at the same moment, it is clear that neither can back the other. They must act independently--each for himself. Moreover, your firing over one should not induce the other to "down charge," or in any way divert his attention from his own birds. He ought to remain as immovable as a statue. Some dogs, whose high courage has not been damped by over-correction, will do this from their own sagacity; but to enable you to _teach_ them to behave thus steadily, game should be plentiful. When you are lucky enough to observe both dogs pointing at the same time, let your fellow-sportsman--or your attendant--flush and fire at the birds found by the older dog, while you remain stationary near the young one, quietly but earnestly cautioning him to continue firm. When your companion has reloaded and picked up his game--and made the other dog "back,"--let him join you and knock over the bird at which your pupil is pointing. It will not be long before he--your young dog--understands what is required of him, if he has been practised--as recommended in 187--not to "down charge" when pointing unsprung birds. In short, it may be received as an axiom, that _nothing ought to make a dog voluntarily relinquish a point so long as he winds birds; and nothing but the wish to continue his point should make him neglect the "down charge" the instant he hears the near report of a gun_. FOOTNOTES: [42] A superior dog on grouse more easily becomes good on partridge than a superior partridge-dog becomes good on grouse. Grouse run so much, both when they are pairing, and after the first flight of the young pack, that a dog broken on them has necessarily great practice in "roading,"--"roading," too, with the nose carried high to avoid strong heather--a valuable instructor,--whereas the dog broken on partridge often becomes impatient, and breaks away when he first finds grouse. The former dog, moreover, will learn not to "break fence," and the necessity of moderating his pace when hunting stubbles and turnips, sooner than the latter will acquire the extensive fast beat so desirable on heather, where he can work for hours uninterrupted by hedge, ditch, or furrow; making casts to the right and left a quarter of a mile in length. First impressions are as strong in puppyhood as in childhood; therefore the advantage of having such ground to commence on must be obvious. There are, however, favored spots in Perthshire, &c., where game so abounds that close rangers are as necessary as when hunting in England. Alas! even the grouse-dog will take far too quickly to hedge hunting; and pottering when on the stubbles. It is, of course, presumed that he is broken from "chasing hare"--a task his trainer must have found difficult--though none are ever shot to him--from the few that, _comparatively_ speaking, his pupil could have seen. Independently, however, of want of pace and practice in roading, it never would be fair to take a dog direct from the Lowlands to contend on the Highlands with one habituated to the latter,--and _vice versâ_, for the stranger would always be placed to great disadvantage. A _faint_ scent of game which the other would instantly recognise, he would not acknowledge from being wholly unaccustomed to it. Sometimes, however, a grouse dog of a ticklish temper will not bear being constantly called to on "breaking fence." A fine, free-ranging pointer, belonging to one of the brothers Hy, when brought to an enclosed country, became quite subdued and dispirited. He could not stand the rating he received for bounding over the hedges, and he evidently derived no enjoyment from the sport, though there were plenty of birds. On returning to the Highlands, he quite recovered his animation and perseverance. He added another to the many evidences that dogs are most attached to, and _at home_ on, the kind of country they first hunted. This note is applicable to the pointer, used to the pinnated grouse on the Prairies, when brought into close shooting on quail, &c. H.W.H. [43] This appears extremely cruel; remember, however, that I entreated you to abstain entirely from shooting hares; but if you would not make this sacrifice, at least "only to fire at those which you were likely to kill outright"--231. CHAPTER XIII. HINTS TO PURCHASERS. SHEEP KILLING. 256. When your dog has been properly taught the "back," fail not to recommence hunting him alone, if it is your object to establish a perfect range. 257. Professional dog-breakers, I have remarked, almost invariably hunt too many dogs together. This arises, I suppose, from the number which they have to train; but the consequence is, that the younger dogs are spectators rather than actors, and, instead of ranging independently in search of game, are watching the manoeuvres of their older associates. 258. A glimmering of knowledge may be picked up in this way; but no one will argue that it is likely to create great excellence. Doubtless the young ones will be good backers; and to the inexperienced a troop of perhaps a dozen dogs, all in chiselled form, stanchly backing an old leader, is a most imposing sight--but if the observer were to accompany the whole party for a few hours, he would remark, I will bet any money, that the same veterans would over and over again find the birds, and that the _"perfectly"_ broken young ones in the rear would do nothing but "back" and "down charge." What can they know of judicious quartering? Of obeying the signals of the hand? Of gradually drawing upon the faintest token of a scent--only perceptible to a nose carried high in the air--until they arrive at a confident point? Of perseveringly working out the foil of a slightly-winged bird, on a hot still day, to a sure "find?" Nothing, or next to nothing,--nearly all is to be taught; and yet the breaker will show off those raw recruits as perfectly drilled soldiers. Would they not have had a much better chance of really being so, if he had given a small portion of his time each day to each? He well knows they would; but the theatrical display would not be half so magnificent. If he had truly wished to give his pupils a good systematic range, without a doubt he would have devoted one hour in the field exclusively to each dog, rather than many hours to several at once--and not have associated any together in the field until he had gained full command over each separately. And this he would have done--_because it would have tended to his interest_,--had he supposed that his dog's qualifications would be investigated by judges--by those who would insist on seeing a dog hunted singly--in order to observe his method of ranging,--or with but one companion, before they thought of definitively purchasing. 259. At the beginning of a partridge season, I unexpectedly wanted to purchase a dog. An old gamekeeper--one on whose judgment I could rely, and who, I knew, would not willingly deceive me,--saw a setter in the field that he thought would please, and accordingly sent it to my kennel. I greatly liked the looks of the animal. He quartered his ground well--was obedient to the hand--carried a high and apparently tender nose--pointed, backed, and down-charged steadily. Unquestionably he had been well broken. I thought myself in great luck, and should not have hesitated to complete the purchase, but that fortunately I had an opportunity of shooting a bird over him, when to my horror he rushed at it with the speed of a greyhound. As, in spite of all my remonstrances, shouted in the most determined manner, he repeated this manoeuvre whenever a bird fell, I returned him. I afterwards heard he had just been shot over by a party on the moors, who, no doubt, had spoilt him by their ignoble, pot-hunting propensities. 260. Had I chosen to sacrifice my shooting in order to reclaim him--which I must have done, had I too hastily concluded the purchase,--I ought to have sent home the other dogs, and proceeded, but with greater severity, much in the manner described in 220 and 222. I ought not, however, to have gone after him when first he bolted; I ought merely to have endeavored to check him with my voice, for it would have been most important to set him a good example by remaining immovable myself, and he might have misconstrued any hasty advance on my part into rivalship for possession of the bird; in short, into a repetition of one of the many scrambles to which he had recently been accustomed, and in which I feel sure he must invariably have come off victorious. I ought, when loaded, to have walked calmly up to him, and, without taking the slightest notice of the disfigured bird, have dragged him back, while loudly rating him, to the spot where he should have "down charged." After a good flagellation--a protracted lecture--and a long delay,--the longer the better,--I ought to have made him cautiously approach the bird; and by a little scolding, and by showing him the wounds he had inflicted, have striven to make him sensible and ashamed of his enormities. Probably, too, had the birds lain well, the moment he pointed I should have employed the checkcord[44] with a spike, giving him a liberal allowance of slack line--234. Had I thus treated him throughout the day, I have little doubt but that he would have become a reformed character; though an occasional outbreak might not unreasonably have been expected. See 205 to 208. 261. To create a feeling of self-dependence, obviously there is no better plan than for a considerable time to take out the dog by himself, and thus force him to trust for sport to his own unaided powers; and when he is at length hunted in company, never to omit paying him the compliment of attending to every indication he evinces of being upon birds, even occasionally to the unfair neglect of confirmed points made by the other dogs. 262. I conceive those dogs must be considered the _best_ which procure a persevering sportsman most shots in a season and lose him fewest winged birds.[45] If you are anxious for your pupil to attain this superlative excellence,--I will repeat it, at the risk of being accused of tautology,--you must be at all times consistently strict but never severe. Make him as much as you can, your constant companion; you will thereby much develope his intelligence, and so render him a more efficient assistant in the field, for he will understand your manner better and better, and greatly increase in affection as well as observation. Many men would like so faithful an attendant. _Teach_ obedience at home--to _obtain_ it in the field. Consider the instantaneous "drop," the moment he gets the signal, as all-important,--as the very key-stone of the arch that conducts to the glorious triumphs of due subordination. Notice every fault, and check it by rating, but never punish with the whip unless you judge it absolutely necessary. On the other hand, following Astley's plan--10--reward, or at least praise, every instance of good behavior, and you will be surprised how quickly your young dog will comprehend your wishes, and how anxious he will be to comply with them. Remember that evil practices, unchecked until they become confirmed habits, or any errors in training committed at the commencement of his education, cannot be repaired afterwards without tenfold--nay, twentyfold--trouble. Never let him hunt from under your eye. Unceasingly endeavor to keep alive in him as long as possible his belief that you are intuitively aware as fully when he is out of sight as within sight of every fault he commits, whether it arise from wilfulness or mere heedlessness. This is a very important admonition. Remember, however, that the best dogs will occasionally make mistakes when they are running down wind--especially if it blows hard,--and that there are days when there is scarcely any scent.--Note to 128. 263. Attend most carefully to the injunction not to let your dog hunt out of sight. It is essential that you do so. 264. Notwithstanding Beckford's capital story of the hounds making a dinner of the old ram which his lordship had left in their kennel to intimidate them, if your dog be unhappily too fond of mutton or lamb of his own killing, perhaps no better cure can be _attempted_, provided you superintend the operation, than that of muzzling him, and letting a strong ram give him a butting at the time that you are administering the lash, and hallooing out "Ware" or "Sheep." But, unfortunately, this too often fails. 265. If you do not succeed, you must hang or drown him,--the latter is probably the less painful death, but a charge of shot well lodged behind the ear in the direction of the brain would be yet better. Therefore you will not mind giving him another chance for his life, though confessedly the measure proposed is most barbarous. Procure an ash-pole about five feet long. Tie one extremity of the pole to a strong ram, by the part of the horns near the forehead. To the opposite extremity of the pole attach a strong spiked collar, and strap it round the dog's throat, to the audible tune of "Ware" or "Sheep." To prevent the possibility of the cord slipping, through each end of the pole burn a hole. The continued efforts of the ram for some hours either to free himself from his strange companion, or to attack him, will possibly so worry and punish the dog as to give him a distaste ever afterwards for anything of a woolly nature. The pole will so effectually separate these unwilling--but still too intimate--associates, that you need not muzzle the dog. 266. There is yet another remedy, which I will name, as it sounds reasonable, though I cannot speak of its merits from personal observation, never having seen it tried. 267. Wrap a narrow strip of sheep-skin, that has much wool on it, round the dog's lower jaw, the wool outwards, and fasten it so that he cannot get rid of it. Put this on him for a few hours daily and there is a chance that he will become as thoroughly disgusted as even you could wish, with every animal of the race whose coat furnished such odious mouthfuls; but prevention being better than cure, pay great attention to your dog's morals during the lambing season. Dogs not led away by evil companionship rarely commence their depredations upon sober full-grown sheep. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred,[46] they have previously yielded to the great temptation of running down some frisking lamb, whose animated gambols seemed to court pursuit. 268. If ever you have fears that you may be unable to prevent a dog's breaking away to worry sheep, hunt him in a muzzle of a size that will not interfere with his breathing, and yet effectually prevent the wide extension of his jaws. 269. The killing of fowls is more easily prevented. The temptation, though equally frequent, is not so great--he will only have tasted blood, not revelled in it. Take a dead fowl--one of his recent victims, if you can procure it--and endeavor, by pointing to it, while you are scolding him, to make him aware of the cause of your displeasure. Then secure him to a post, and thrash him about the head with the bird, occasionally favoring his hide with sundry applications of a whip, and his ears with frequent repetitions of the scaring admonition, "Ware fowl," "Fowl--fowl--fowl." Whenever you afterwards catch him watching poultry, be sure to rate him. FOOTNOTES: [44] I am glad to say I have never had occasion to adopt so severe a remedy as the following; but I have heard of an otherwise incorrigible taste for blood being cured by a partridge pierced transversely with two knitting-pins being _adroitly_ substituted for the fallen bird which the dog had been restrained by a checkcord from bolting. The pins were cut to a length somewhat less than the diameter of its body, and were fixed at right angles to one another. Several slight wires would, I think, have answered better. [45] And if hares are shot to him, fewest wounded hares. [46] In the remaining odd case--one out of a hundred--the propensity may be traced to the animal's belonging to a vicious stock--in short, to hereditary instinct. CHAPTER XIV. DISTINGUISHING WHISTLES. "BACKING" THE GUN. RETREAT FROM AND RESUMPTION OF POINT. RANGE UNACCOMPANIED BY GUN. HEADING RUNNING BIRDS. A DISTINGUISHING WHISTLE FOR EACH DOG. 271. Though you may have only begun to shoot last season, have you not often wished to attract the attention of one of your two dogs, and make him hunt in a particular part of the field, but for fear of alarming the birds, have been unwilling to call out his name, and have felt loath to whistle to him, lest you should bring away at the same time the other dog, who was zealously hunting exactly where you considered him most likely to find birds? 272. Again: have the dogs never been hunting close together instead of pursuing distinct beats; and has it not constantly happened, on your whistling with the view to separate them, that _both_ have turned their heads in obedience to the whistle, and _both_ on your signal changed the direction of their beat, but still the _two together_? And have you not, in despair of ever parting them by merely whistling and signalling, given the lucky birds--apparently in the most handsome manner, as if scorning to take any ungenerous advantage--fair notice of the approach of the guns by shouting out the name of one of the dogs. 273. Or, if one dog was attentive to the whistle, did he not gradually learn to disregard it from observing that his companion was never chidden for neglecting to obey it?--and did not such laxity more and more confirm both in habits of disobedience? 274. I believe several of my readers will be constrained to answer these questions in the affirmative; and, further, I think their own experience will remind them of many occasions, both on moor and stubble when birds were wild, on which they have wished to attract the notice of a particular dog--perhaps running along a hedge, or pottering over a recent haunt; or hunting down wind towards marked game--by _whistling_ instead of calling out his name, but have been unwilling to do so, lest the other dogs should likewise obey the shrill sound to which all were equally accustomed. 275. Now, in breaking young dogs, you could, by using whistles of dissimilar calls, easily avoid the liability of these evils; and by invariably employing a particular whistle for each dog to summon him separately to his food--29--each would distinguish his own whistle as surely as every dog knows his own master's whistle, and as hounds learn their names. Dogs not only know their own names, but instantly know by the pronunciation when it is uttered by a stranger. To prevent mistakes, each dog's name might be marked on his own whistle. You might have two whistles, of very different sound, on one short stock. Indeed, _one_ whistle would be sufficient for two dogs, if you invariably sounded the same two or three sharp short notes for one dog, and as invariably gave a sustained note for the other. Nay, the calls could thus be so diversified, that one whistle might be used for even more than two dogs. But whatever whistle you choose to employ, be sure, both in and out of the field, to sound it softly whenever the dog is near you. Indeed, you would act judiciously to make it a constant rule, wherever he may be, _never to whistle louder than is really requisite_, otherwise--as I think I before remarked--he will, comparatively speaking, pay little attention to its summons, when, being at a distance, he hears it but faintly. TO BACK THE GUN. 276. In shooting, especially late in the season, you will often mark down a bird, and feel assured that you stand a better chance of getting a shot at it if the dogs cease hunting whilst you approach it. You can teach your dog to do this by holding up your right hand _behind_ you when you mark down a bird, saying at the same time, "Toho," in an earnest, quiet voice, and carrying your gun as if you were prepared to shoot. He will soon begin, I really must say it to _back you_,--for he actually will be backing you, ludicrous as the expression may sound. After a few times he will do so on the signal, without your speaking at all; and he will be as pleased, as excited, and as stanch, as if he were backing an old dog. Making him "drop" will not effect your object, for, besides that it in no way increases his intelligence, you may wish him to follow at a respectful distance, while you are stealing along the banks of some stream, &c. Ere long he will become as sensible as yourself that any noise would alarm the birds, and you will soon see him picking his steps to avoid the crisp leaves, lest their rustling should betray him. I have even heard of a dog whose admirable caution occasionally led him, when satisfied that his point was observed, to crawl behind a bush, or some other shelter, to screen himself from the notice of the birds. 277. The acquisition of this accomplishment--and it is easily taught to a young dog previously made steady in backing another--it should not be attempted before--will often secure you a duck, or other wary bird, which the dog would otherwise, almost to a certainty, spring out of gun-shot. If you should "toho" a hare, and wish to kill one, you will have an excellent opportunity of practising this lesson. 278. In America there is a singular duck, called, from its often alighting on trees, the Wood-duck. I have killed some of these beautiful, fast-flying birds, while they were seated on logs overhanging the water, which I could not have approached within gun-shot had the dog not properly backed the gun when signalled to, and cautiously crept after me, still remaining far in the rear. TO RETREAT FROM A POINT AND RESUME IT. 279. Amidst coppices, osiers, or broom--indeed, some times on a rough moor--you will occasionally lose sight of a dog, and yet be unwilling to call him, feeling assured that he is somewhere steadily pointing; and being vexatiously certain that, when he hears your whistle, he will either leave his point, not subsequently to resume it, or--which is far more probable--amuse himself by raising the game before he joins you. There are moments when you would give guineas if he would retreat from his point, come to you on your whistling, lead you towards the bird, and there resume his point. 280. This accomplishment--and in many places abroad its value is almost inappreciable--can be taught him, if he is under great command, by your occasionally bringing him in to your heel from a point when he is within sight and near you, and again putting him on his point. You will begin your instruction in this accomplishment when the dog is pointing quite close to you. On subsequent occasions, you can gradually increase the distance, until you arrive at such perfection that you can let him be out of sight when you call him. When he is first allowed to be out of your sight, he ought not to be far from you. 281. You may, for a moment, think that what is here recommended contradicts the axiom laid down in 255; but it is there said, that nothing ought to make a dog "_voluntarily_" leave his point. Indeed, the possession of this accomplishment, so far from being productive of any harm, greatly awakens a dog's intelligence, and makes him perceive, more clearly than ever, that the sole object for which he is taken to the field is to obtain shots for the gun that accompanies him. When he is pointing on your side of a thick hedge, it will make him understand why you call him off;--take him down wind, and direct him to jump the fence: he will at once go to the bird, and, on your encouraging him, force it to rise on your side. 282. You will practise this lesson, however, with great caution, and not before his education is nearly completed, lest he imagine that you do not wish him always to remain stanch to his point. Indeed, if you are precipitate, or injudicious, you may make him blink his game. 283. After a little experience, he will very likely some day satisfactorily prove his consciousness of your object, by voluntarily coming out of thick cover to show you where he is, and again going in and resuming his point. TO HUNT REGULARLY FROM LEEWARD TO WINDWARD WITHOUT THE GUN. 284. In paragraph 147 I observed, that when you are obliged, as occasionally must be the case, to enter a field to windward with your pupil, you ought to go down to the leeward side of it, keeping him close to your heels, before you commence to hunt. After undeviatingly pursuing this plan for some time, you can, before you come quite to the bottom of the field, send him ahead--by the underhand bowler's swing of the right-hand, IV. of 119,--and, when he has reached the bottom, signal to him to hunt to the right--or left. He will be so habituated to work under your eye--130--that you will find it necessary to walk backwards--up the middle of the field,--while instructing him. As he becomes, by degrees, confirmed in this lesson, you can sooner and sooner send him ahead--from your heel--but increase the distances very gradually,--until at length he will be so far perfected, that you may venture to send him down wind to the extremity of the field--before he commences beating,--while you remain quietly at the top awaiting his return, until he shall have hunted the whole ground, as systematically and carefully as if you had accompanied him from the bottom. By this method you will teach him, on his gaining more experience, invariably to run to leeward, and hunt up to windward--crossing and recrossing the wind--whatever part of a field you and he may enter. What a glorious consummation! and it can be attained, but only by great patience and perseverance. The least reflection, however, will show you that you should not attempt it until the dog is perfected in his range. 285. A careful dog, thus practised, will seldom spring birds, however directly he may be running down wind. He will pull up at the faintest indication of a scent, being at all times anxiously on the look-out for the coveted aroma. 286. Not only to the idle or tired sportsman would it be a great benefit to have a field thus beaten, but the keenest and most indefatigable shot would experience its advantages in the cold and windy weather customary in November, when the tameness of partridge-shooting cannot be much complained of; for the birds being then ever ready to take wing, surely the best chance, by fair means, of getting near them would be to intercept them between the dog and yourself. 287. Here the consideration naturally arises, whether dogs could not be _taught_--when hunting in the ordinary manner with the gun in the rear-- TO HEAD RUNNING BIRDS. Certainly it could be done. There have been many instances of old dogs _spontaneously_ galloping off, and placing themselves on the other side of the covey--which they had pointed--as soon as they perceived that it was on the run,--and by good instruction you could develope or rather excite, that exercise of sagacity. 288. If dogs are taught to "hunt from leeward to windward without the gun," they become habituated to seeing game intercepted between themselves and their masters,--and then their spontaneously heading running birds--though undeniably evincing great intelligence--would not be very remarkable. They would but reverse matters by placing themselves to windward of the birds while the gun was to leeward. This shows that the acquisition of that accomplishment would be a great step towards securing a knowledge of the one we are now considering. Indeed there seems to be a mutual relation between these two refinements in education, for the possession of either would greatly conduce to the attainment of the other. 289. This accomplishment--and hardly any can be considered more useful--is not so difficult to teach an intelligent dog as one might at first imagine; it is but to lift him, and make him act on a larger scale, much in the manner described in 212 and 296. Like, however, everything else in canine education--indeed, in all education--it must be effected gradually; nor should it be commenced before the dog has had a season's steadying, then practise him in heading every wounded bird, and endeavor to make him do so at increased distances. Whenever, also, he comes upon the "heel" of a covey which is to leeward of him--instead of letting him "foot" it--oblige him to quit the scent and take a circuit--sinking the wind--so as to place himself to leeward of birds. He will thereby _head the covey_, and you will have every reason to hope that after a time his own observation and intellect will show him the advantage of thus intercepting birds and stopping them when they are on the run, whether the manoeuvre places him to leeward or to windward of them. 290. If you could succeed in teaching but one of your dogs thus to take a wide sweep when he is ordered, and head a running covey before it gets to the extremity of the field--while the other dogs remain near you--you would be amply rewarded for months of extra trouble in training, by obtaining shots on days when good sportsmen, with fair average dogs, would hardly pull a trigger. And why should you not? Success would be next to certain if you could as readily place your dog exactly where you wish, as shepherds do their collies. And whose fault will it be if you cannot? Clearly not your dog's, for he is as capable of receiving instruction as the shepherd's. 291. Manifestly it would be worth while to take great pains to teach this accomplishment, for in all countries it would prove a most killing one when birds become wild; and it would be found particularly useful wherever the red-legged partridge abounds,--which birds you will find do not lie badly when the coveys are, by any means, well headed and completely broken. But there are other accomplishments nearly as useful as those already detailed; the description of them, however, we will reserve for a separate Chapter. CHAPTER XV. SETTER TO RETRIEVE. BLOODHOUNDS. RETRIEVERS TO "BEAT." WOUNDED WILD FOWL RETRIEVED FIRST. SETTER TO RETRIEVE. 292. Undeniably there is some value in the extra number of shots obtained by means of highly-broken dogs; and nearly as undeniable is it that no man, who is not over-rich, will term that teaching superfluous which enables him to secure in one dog the services of two. Now, I take it for granted--as I cannot suppose you are willing to lose many head of killed game--that you would be glad to be always accompanied in the field by a dog that retrieves. Unless you have such a companion, there will be but little chance of your often securing a slightly winged bird in turnips. Indeed, in all rough shooting, the services of a dog so trained are desirable to prevent many an unfortunate hare and rabbit from getting away to die a painful, lingering death; and yet, if the possession of a large kennel is ever likely to prove half as inconvenient to you as it would to me, you would do well, according to my idea of the matter, to dispense with a regular retriever, provided you have a highly-broken setter who retrieves well. 293. I say setter rather than pointer, not on account of his more affectionate, and perhaps more docile disposition--for certainly he is less liable to sulk under punishment,--but because, thanks to his long coat, he will be able to work in any cover, and that from nature he "roads" quicker. I must, however, plead _guilty_--for many good sportsmen will think I evince bad taste--to a predilection for setters--meaning always _cautious_ setters--a partiality, perhaps, attributable to having shot more over wild, uncertain ground than in well-stocked preserves. Doubtless, in a very inclosed country, where game is abundant, pointers are preferable, far preferable,--more especially should there be a scarcity of water; but for severe and fast work, and as a servant of all work, there is nothing, I humbly conceive, like the setter. He may be, and generally is, the more difficult to break; but, when success has crowned your efforts, what a noble, enduring, sociable, attached animal you possess. I greatly, too, admire his long, stealthy, blood-like action,--for I am not speaking of the large heavy sort before which in old days whole coveys used to be netted,--and the animated waving of his stern, so strongly indicative of high breeding; though strange to say, in gracefulness of carriage, the fox, when hunting, and actually on game, far excels him. But we are again getting astray beyond our proper limits; let us keep to the subject of dog-breaking. 294. As it will be your endeavor, during your pupil's first season, to make him thoroughly stanch and steady, I cannot advise you, as a general rule--liable, of course, to many exceptions--one of which is named in 219--to let him retrieve--by retrieve I always mean fetch--until the following year. There is another advantage in the delay. His sagacity will have shown him that the design of every shot is to bag the game--when, therefore, he has once been permitted to pick up a bird, he will be desirous of carrying it immediately to you, and will resist the temptation to loiter with it, mouthing and spoiling it; and however keenly he may have heretofore "sought dead," he will henceforth search with redoubled zeal, from the delight he will experience in being permitted to carry his game. Moreover, the season's shooting, without lifting, will have so thoroughly confirmed him in the "down charge," that the increased[47] inclination to bolt off in search of a falling bird will be successfully resisted. If he has been taught while young to "fetch"--92, 94, &c.,--he will be so anxious to take the birds to you, that instead of there being any difficulty in teaching him this accomplishment, you will often, during his first season, have to restrain him from lifting when he is "pointing dead." The least encouragement will make him gladly pick up the birds, and give them, as he ought, to no one but yourself. 295. You need hardly be cautioned not to let more than one dog retrieve the same bird. With more dogs than one the bird would, almost to a certainty, be torn; and if a dog once becomes sensible of the enjoyment he would derive in pulling out the feathers of a bird, you will find it difficult to make him deliver it up before he has in some way disfigured it. If you shoot with several dogs that retrieve, be careful always to let the dog who finds the game be the one to bring it. It is but fair that he should be so rewarded, and thus all will be stimulated to hunt with increased diligence. 296. If the dog that found the covey be not able to wind the bird you have shot, make one of the other dogs take a large circuit. The latter may thus, without interfering with the first dog, come upon the bird, should it have run far. Send him in the direction the covey has taken--the chances are great that the bird is travelling towards the same point. By pursuing this plan, obviously there will be much less chance of your losing a bird than if you allow the dogs to keep close together while searching.--See also 98. 297. Do not think that by making your setter lift--after his first season--instead of "pointing dead," there will be any increased risk of his raising unsprung birds. The difference between the scent of dead or wounded game, and that of game perfectly uninjured, is so vast, that no steady, experienced dog will fail to point any fresh bird he may come across whilst seeking for that which is lost. As a proof of this I may mention that, 298. In North America I once saw, lying on the ground, three snipe, which a pointer, that retrieved, had regularly set one after the other, having found a couple on his way to retrieve the first, and which he afterwards brought in succession to his master, who had all the time governed the dog entirely by signs, never having been obliged to use his voice beyond saying, in a low tone, "Dead," or "Find." I remember, also, hearing of a retrieving setter that on one occasion pointed a fresh bird, still retaining in her mouth the winged partridge which she was carrying,--and of a pointer who did the same when he was bringing a hare; there must, too, be few sportsmen who will not admit that they have found it more difficult to make a dog give up the pursuit of a wounded hare than of one perfectly uninjured. I know of a sportsman's saying he felt certain that the hare his retriever was _coursing_ over the moors must have been struck, although the only person who had fired stoutly maintained that the shot was a regular miss.[48] The owner of the dog, however, averred that this was impossible, as he never could get the discerning animal to follow any kind of unwounded game; and, on the other hand, that no rating would make him quit the pursuit of _injured_ running feather or fur. The retriever's speedy return with puss, conveniently balanced between his jaws, bore satisfactory testimony to the accuracy of both his own and his master's judgment. 299. Some good sportsmen maintain that a retrieving setter--or pointer--on finding a dead bird ought to point it until desired to lift it. This training they hold to be advisable, on the ground that it conduces to the dog's steadiness by diminishing his wish to run forward on seeing a bird fall; but the plan has necessarily this evil consequence, that should the setter, when searching for the dead bird, come across and point, _as he ought_, any fresh game, on your telling him to fetch it--as you naturally will--he must spring it if he attempt to obey you. Surely this would tend more to unsteady him than the habit of lifting his dead birds as soon as found? Your dog and you ought always to work in the greatest harmony--in the mutual confidence of your, at all times, thoroughly understanding each other--and you should carefully avoid the possibility of ever perplexing him by giving him any order it is out of his power to obey, however much he may exert himself. Moreover, if you teach your retrieving setter to "point dead," you at once relinquish--surely unnecessarily?--all hope of ever witnessing such a fine display of sagacity and steadiness as has just been related in the first part of 298. 300. If you object to a setter's being taught to lift on the ground that it will make the other dogs jealous, pray remember that the argument has equal force against the employment of a regular retriever in their presence. FOOTNOTES: [47] "Increased:" the gratification of carrying being far greater than that of merely "pointing dead." [48] I retain this anecdote because every one of the occurrences related has happened to myself. The first many times in the United States; the second once in the United States when my dog Chavee pointed a fresh woodcock with a dead bird in his mouth, and a winged bird under his fore paw; the last, many times in England over an old Russian setter, Charm.--H.W.H. REGULAR RETRIEVER TO BEAT. 301. We all have our prejudices--every Englishman has a right to many. One of mine is to think a _regular_ retriever positively not worth his keep for general shooting _if one of your setting dogs will retrieve well_. However, if you shoot much in cover, I admit that a regular retriever which can be worked in perfect silence, never refusing to come in when he is merely signalled to, or, if out of sight, softly whistled to, is better[49]--particularly when you employ beaters[50]--but even then he need not be the idle rascal that one generally sees--he might be broken in to hunt close to you, and give you the same service as a mute spaniel. I grant this is somewhat difficult to accomplish, for it much tends to unsteady him, but it can be effected--I have seen it--and, being practicable, it is at least worth trying; for if you succeed, you, as before--292--make one dog perform the work of two; and, besides its evident advantage in thick cover, if he accompany you in your every-day shooting, you will thus obtain, in the course of a season, many a shot which your other dogs, especially in hot weather, would pass over. If, too, the retriever hunts quite close to you, he can in no way annoy his companions, or interfere with them, for I take it for granted he will be so obedient as to come to "heel" the instant he gets your signal. FOOTNOTES: [49] Of course, a regular retriever is absolutely necessary when a team of spaniels is hunted, none of which are accustomed to retrieve. [50] Regular retrievers are never used in America except on the Chesapeake bay for fowl-shooting.--H.W.H. WATER RETRIEVERS--OR WATER SPANIELS--TO RETRIEVE WOUNDED BEFORE PICKING UP DEAD WILD FOWL. 302. This a knowing old dog will often do of his own accord; but you must not attempt to teach a young one this useful habit until you are satisfied that there is no risk of making him blink his birds. You can then call him off when he is swimming towards dead birds, and signal to him to follow those that are fluttering away. If the water is not too deep, rush in yourself, and set him a good example by actively pursuing the runaways; and until all the cripples that can be recovered are safely bagged, do not let him lift one of those killed outright. If very intelligent, he will before long perceive the advantage of the system, or at least find it the more exciting method, and adhere to it without obliging you to continue your aquatic excursions. For advice about water retrievers, see 81 to 85. I have placed this paragraph among the "refinements" in breaking; but I ought, perhaps, to have entered it sooner; for if you are fond of duck-shooting, and live in a neighborhood where you have good opportunities of following it, you should regard this accomplishment as a necessary part of your spaniel's education. 303. In your part of the country none of these extra, or, as some will say, always superfluous accomplishments may be required; but if you consider that a pupil of yours attaining any one of them would be serviceable, be not deterred from teaching it by the idea that you would be undertaking a difficult task. Any one of them, I was nearly saying all of them, could be taught a dog with far greater ease, and in a shorter time, than a well-established, judicious range. 304. It would be quite unreasonable to expect a regular breaker--"mark" I do not say your game-keeper--to teach your dog any of these accomplishments. He may be fully aware of the judiciousness of the system, and be sensible of its great advantages, but the many imperious calls upon his time would preclude his pursuing it in all its details. At the usual present prices, it would not pay him to break in dogs so highly. 305. In following Beckford's advice respecting your making, as far as is practicable, your dog your "constant companion," do not, however, forget that you require him to evince great diligence and perseverance in the field; and, therefore, that his highest enjoyment must consist in being allowed to hunt. 306. Now, it seems to be a principle of nature,--of canine as well as human nature,--to feel, through life, most attachment to that pursuit, whatever it may be, which is most followed in youth. If a dog is permitted as a youngster to have the run of the kitchen, he will be too fond of it when grown up. If he is allowed to amuse himself in every way his fancy dictates, he will think little of the privilege of hunting. Therefore, the hours he cannot pass with you--after you have commenced his education,--I am sorry to say it, but I must do so, he ought to be in his _kennel_--loose in his kennel,[51] not tied up; for straining at his collar would throw out his elbows, and so make him grow up bandy-legged. If, however, he must be fastened, let it be by a chain. He would soon learn to gnaw through a cord, especially if a young puppy, who, from nature, is constantly using his teeth, and thus acquire a trick that some day might prove very inconvenient were no chain at hand. You would greatly consult his comfort by having the chain attached, with a loose ring and swivel, to a spike fixed a few paces in front of his kennel, so that he could take some exercise by trotting round and round. 307. When your dog has attained some age, and hunting has become with him a regular passion, I believe you may give him as much liberty as you please without diminishing his zeal--but most carefully prevent his ever hunting alone, technically called "self-hunting." At that advanced time of life, too, a few occasional irregularities in the field may be innocuously permitted. The steadiest dogs will, at times, deviate from the usual routine of their business, sagaciously thinking that such departure from rule must be acceptable if it tends to obtain the game; and it will be advisable to leave an experienced dog to himself whenever he evinces great perseverance in spontaneously following some unusual plan. You may have seen an old fellow, instead of cautiously "roading" and "pointing dead," rush forward and seize an unfortunate winged bird, while it was making the best use of its legs after the flight of the rest of the covey--some peculiarity in the scent emitted having probably betrayed to the dog's _practised_ nose that the bird was injured. When your pup arrives at such years of discrimination, you need not so vigorously insist upon a patient "down charge" should you see a winged cock-pheasant running into cover. Your dog's habits of discipline would be, I should hope, too well confirmed by his previous course of long drill for such a temporary departure from rule to effect any permanent mischief; but oh! beware of any such laxity with a _young_ pupil, however strongly you may be tempted. In five minutes you may wholly undo the labor of a month. On days, therefore, when you are anxious, _coûte qui coûte_, to fill the game-bag, pray leave him at home. Let him acquire any bad habit when you are thus pressed for birds, and you will have more difficulty in eradicating it than you would have in teaching him almost any accomplishment. This reason made me all along keep steadily in view the supposition, that you had commenced with a dog unvitiated by evil associates, either biped or quadruped; for assuredly you would find it far easier to give a thoroughly good education to such a pupil, than to complete the tuition (particularly in his range) of one usually considered broken, and who must, in the natural order of things, have acquired some habits more or less opposed to your own system. If, as a puppy, he had been allowed to self-hunt and chase, your labor would be herculean. And inevitably this would have been your task had you ever allowed him to associate with any dog who "self-hunted." The oldest friend in your kennel might be led astray by forming an intimacy with the veriest cur, if a "self-hunter." There is a fascination in the vice--above all, in killing young hares and rabbits--that the steadiest dog cannot resist when he has been persuaded to join in the sport by some vagabond of a poacher possessing a tolerable nose, rendered keenly discerning by experience. 308. I hope that by this time we too well understand each other for you now to wonder why I think that you should not commence hunting your young dog where game is abundant. Professional breakers prefer such ground, because, from getting plenty of points, it enables them to train their dogs more quickly, and _sufficiently well_ to ensure an early sale. This is _their_ object, and they succeed. _My_ object is that you shall establish _ultimately_ great perseverance and a fine range in your young dog, let birds be ever so scarce. If you show him too many at first, he will subsequently become easily dispirited whenever he fails in getting a point. 309. The good condition of a dog's nose is far from being an immaterial part of his conditioning, for on the preservation of its sensitiveness chiefly depends your hope of sport. If it be dry from being feverish, or if it be habituated to the villanous smells of an impure kennel, how are you to expect it to acknowledge the faintest taint of game--yet one that, if followed up by olfactory nerves in high order, would lead to a sure find? Sweetness of breath is a strong indication of health. Cleanliness is as essential as a judicious diet; and you may be assured, that if you look for excellence, you must always have your youngster's kennel clean, dry, airy, and yet sufficiently warm. The more you attend to this, the greater will be his bodily strength and the finer his nose. In India the kennels are, of course, too hot; but in the best constructed which fell under my observation, the heat was much mitigated by the roofs being thickly thatched with grass. In England, however, nearly all kennels--I am not speaking of those for hounds--are far too cold in winter. 310. There must be _sufficient_ warmth. Observe how a petted dog, especially after severe exercise, lays himself down close to the fire, and enjoys it. Do you not see that instinct teaches him to do this? and must it not be of great service to him? Why, therefore, deny him in cold weather, after a hard day's work, a place on the hearth-rug? It is the want of sufficient heat in the kennels, and good drying and brushing after hard work, that makes sporting dogs, particularly if they are long-coated ones, suffer from rheumatism, blear eyes, and many ills that generally, but not necessarily, attend them in old age. FOOTNOTES: [51] Twice a day he should be allowed to run out, that he may not be compelled to adopt habits wholly opposed to his natural propensities. If he has acquired the disagreeable trick of howling when shut up, put a muzzle on him. CONCLUSION. 311. Gentle Reader, according to the courteous phraseology of old novels, though most probably I ought to say Brother Sportsman;--If you have had the patience to attend me, through the preceding pages, while I have been describing the educational course of a dog from almost his infancy, up to maturity, I will hope that I may construe that patience into an evidence that they have afforded you some amusement, and perhaps, some useful instruction. 312. Though I may have failed in persuading you to undertake the instruction of your dogs yourself, yet I trust I have shown you how they ought to be broken in: and if you are a novice in the field, I hope I have clearly explained to you in what manner they ought to be shot over--a knowledge which no one can possess by intuition, and which you will find nearly as essential to the preservation of the good qualities of well-tutored dogs as to the education of uninformed ones. 313. I believe that all I have said is perfectly true, and, as the system which I have described advocates kind treatment of man's most faithful companion, and his instruction with mildness rather than severity, I trust that you will be induced to give it a fair trial, and if you find it successful, recommend its adoption. 314. I dare not ask for the same favor at the hands of the generality of regular trainers--I have no right to expect such liberality. They, naturally enough, will not readily forgive my intruding upon what they consider exclusively their own domain,--and, above all, they will not easily pardon my urging every sportsman to break in his own dogs. They will, I know, endeavor to persuade their employers that the finished education which I have described is useless, or quite unattainable, without a great sacrifice of time; and that, therefore, the system which I advocate is a bad one. They will wish it to be forgotten--that I advise a gradual advance, step by step, from the A, B, C;--that accomplishments have only been recommended _after_ the acquisition of essentials--never at the expense of essentials; that at any moment it is in the instructor's power to say, "I am now satisfied with the extent of my pupil's acquirements, and have neither leisure nor inclination to teach him more;"--and that they cannot suggest quicker means of imparting any grade of education, however incomplete; at least they do not--I wish they would; few would thank them more than myself. 315. Greatly vexed at the erroneous way in which I saw some dogs instructed in the north by one who from his profession should have known better, I promised, on the impulse of the moment, to write. If I could have purchased any work which treated the subject in what I considered a judicious and perspicuous manner, and, above all, which taught by what means a _finished_ education could be imparted, I would gladly have recommended the study of it,--have spared myself the trouble of detailing the results of my own observations and experience,--and not have sought to impose on any one the task of reading them. When I began the book, and even when I had finished it, I intended to put it forth without any token by which the writer might be discovered. Mr. Murray, however, forcibly represented that unless the public had some guarantee for the fidelity of the details there would be no chance of the little work being circulated, or proving useful; therefore, having written solely from a desire to assist my brother sportsmen and to show the injudiciousness of severity, with a wish that my readers might feel as keen a zest for shooting as I once possessed, and with a charitable hope that they might not be compelled to seek it in as varied climates as was my lot, I at once annexed my address and initials to the manuscript. W.N.H. _United Service Club, Pall Mall._ EDITOR'S NOTE. In section 299, page 643, Col. Hutchinson argues _against_ a retrieving Pointer or Setter, pointing a dead bird when ordered "_find_," and not lifting it until ordered to "fetch." This is the single rule of breaking in which I wholly differ from the Colonel; but _here_ I differ so widely, that I would not own a dog which did _not_ point until ordered to "fetch;" and I consider that one which "fetches" without pointing, when simply ordered to "find," is worthless. Col. Hutchinson argues that there is a difference in the scent of a wounded and an unwounded bird, which enables a dog certainly to discriminate between the two, so that he may be trusted to point all the live birds he may meet in the way to find his dead bird, and yet to rush upon the latter and pick him up without making any pause. On the other hand, he argues as if there were _no_ difference in the scent of the two, when he says that if the dog be taught to point until ordered to "fetch," and chance to point a live bird before finding the dead, he will _flush_ the live bird on being ordered to "fetch" the dead. I admit that there _is_ a difference of scent at all times to the best nosed dogs, but very faint, even to the best, in bad scenting weather; but that difference will more easily make the dog refuse to flush a live bird, if he do point before fetching, than make him pause to point a live one, if allowed to rush in upon dead ones. The only rule that will keep a dog always up to his business is, that he shall always "_point_" every game bird or animal he comes upon, dead or living, and always "_drop_," when it runs or rises, whether a shot be fired or not. I have always shot over dogs broken to point before fetching. I have often been deceived in supposing a fresh bird newly pointed to be the killed one, but have always found my dogs to hesitate so distinctly, before obeying the order to "_fetch_," as to make it evident that I was in error, and allow me to correct it. For the better comprehension of the above admirable treatise on breaking, I wish to add, for the benefit of the American sportsmen, that, wherever Col. Hutchinson speaks of the partridge, it is the English bird which he intends, which, in its habits, is closely analogous to our quail; and that all his precepts as to breaking on partridge hold good precisely for the quail with us. In the same way all his precepts for grouse-shooting apply, letter for letter, to our prairie-fowl-shooting; and his precepts for pheasant-shooting to the hunting and shooting of our ruffed grouse, called in the northern states the partridge, and in the southern and western the pheasant. When he speaks of the rabbit as distinct from the hare, he alludes to a European animal which does not exist in America, the original stock of the tame rabbit, which has the habit of burrowing in the ground and dwelling in great communities, known as warrens. We have two kinds of hare, the small one commonly known as the rabbit, and the large Canadian hare, which turns white in winter; but no genuine rabbit. Hutchinson's rules as to breaking, in regard to the English hares and rabbits, hold good of both our varieties. I will only say farther, that when he speaks of shooting in turnips or potatoes, we may apply his rules to any tall-growing vegetable covert, such as clover, rag weed, wild meadow-grass, or the like, those crops not being so extensively cultivated with us as to be haunted in general by game. Similarly, when he mentions breaking spaniels to gorse, we may substitute hollies, black-brush, cat-briers, and any other thorny covert common in any section of the country; but, in fact, no especial breaking is needed with us, as we have no brake which exactly compares with furze. H.W.H. INDEX. A. Abscess, about the tail, 283, 284. treatment of, 284 in the flap of the ear, 427. treatment of, ib. Accomplishments or Refinements-- distinguishing dog whistles, 629. dog to back the gun, 630. to head running birds, 635. to hunt without gun, 633. to retreat and resume point, 632. regular retrievers to beat, 644. setter to retrieve, 638. water retriever to fetch cripples, 645. Action of physic on dogs, 107. Acute purgation, 263. treatment of, 264. rheumatism, 274. treatment of, 276. Administration of medicine, 106. Advice to practitioners, 80. Affection an incentive, 565. After-discharge, 394. Age for education, 470, 495, 527. Aids to promote labor, 376. Assistance, when to be afforded during pupping, 360. Asthma, 218. treatment of, 220. Attention, necessary, for the sucking bitch, 400. necessary, to the teeth of the dog, 183. Author's cause of writing, 653. Avoid having a battle with a dog, 82. Axioms, 576, 618. B. Back, turned brings dog away, 557. Backing, how taught, 614, 615. initiatory lesson in, 488. the gun, 630. Battle, avoid having one with a dog, 82. Beagles, 21. Beat, a range, taught, 527, 529, 538, 541, 544. bad, hard to cure, 581. Beat, good, difficult but invaluable, 548 Herbert's opinion, 560. without gun, 633. of five or six dogs, 562. of four dogs, 561. of three dogs, 560. of two dogs, 558. taught following dog, 549. Beef-tea, how to make, 97. Beckon, why useful signal, 482. and "Heel" differ, 485. Bitch, in use, 24. in pup, 26. Bells put on dogs, 496. Best dogs err, concise hints, 623. Bird, dead, loss of discourages dog, 592 dead, seized and torn by dog, 597. shot on ground steadies dog, 610. shot, search for, 570, 589, 591, 593, 597, 641. shot, signal heel, 573. winged, shoot on ground, 591. Birds, lie well, dog winding them, 547. wild, intercepted, 635, 636. wounded, scent differs, 641. wounded, first retrieved, 645. wounded, make for covey, 641. wounded, found evening, 595. wounded, the search for, 570. wounded, observed by dog, 518. Black too conspicuous a color, 508. Blacksmith shoeing kicker, 494. Blinking dead bird, 571. from punishment, 611. initiatory lessons prevent, 471. Bones of the dog not rightly placed in the skeleton at the London Veterinary College, 109. stones and bricks not good for dogs, 185. when large, do not injure dogs, 91. Boots, to render waterproof, 57. Bowel diseases, 56, 246. Brace of dogs sufficient, if good, 137. Breaking of young dogs, 29. Break in dogs yourself, 464. Breaker, qualifications required, 466. one better than two, 470. Breaker, hunt too many, 475, 620. idle, dislike bold dogs, 554. Breaking fence prevented, 556. Breeding in-and-in bad, 579. Breeding, 15, 21, 25. Bronchocele, 148. treatment of, 199. Bruises, remedy for, 55. Bull-dogs, remarks upon, 402. C. Cancer of the scrotum, 319. of the teats, 408. of the vagina, 344. Canker, within and without the ear, 53, 54, 419. causes, ib. external, 421. treatment of, 423. internal, 424. former accounts of, ib. treatment of, 423. of the mouth, 189. treatment of, 190. Capped hock or elbow, 452. treatment for, 453. Care, necessary for the pups, 378. required after pupping, 391. signal for, 484. Carrots for horses, 469. Carrying, how taught, 510. Carts, dog, 442. Cases, details of various, 61 Castor oil, 116. Castration, 323. Cataract, 429. causes of, 430. Catheter, passing of the, 329, 377. Caution, taught to fast dogs, 516, 552. in excess, 583. cure for, 584. Cautious and wild dog contrasted, 551. dog rarely too fast, 551. Chain better than cord, 647. Check cord, 489, 490, 581, 588. spike to, 476, 580, 609. Chemists to be avoided as doctors for dogs, 196. Choice of a male, 347. Chronic diarrhoea, 265. treatment of, 266. Chronic hepatitis, 221. symptoms of, 222. treatment of, 225. Circle wide when heading dog, 569. Claws, 437. to cut, 438. dew, 437. falling off of the, 439. sinuses up the, 440. Clean, to, the dog's teeth, 186. Clumber spaniels, 502. Cock shooting, 482. Cocker, the, 20. Cold or coriza, 209. Colic, 252. symptoms of, 258. treatment of, 255. Collar and chain, 102. a light one on dog, 565. Colors for concealment, 508. Commands, given in a low tone, 473. understood before seeing game, 471. Comb and brush, 101. Companion, dog to be yours, 473. initiatory lessons with, 487, 488. Condition, 42. Confidence of the dog, how to gain, 82. Consistency necessary, 466, 578. Coolness recommended, 578. Costiveness, 247. treatment of, 250. Cough, 202. treatment of, 203. Couple to older dog, 479. Couples, accustomed to, 487. Courage, created, 530, 614. Covert, pointers in, 506. Cripples, first retrieved, 645. Crochet, 384. D. Danger of domestic remedies, 77. Dead bird, blinking of, 571. lifted by you, error of, 511. loss of, discourages dog, 592. rushing into, 597, 622. search for, 626, 647, 649. search for, with two dogs, 641. the first killed, 569. to be pointed, 571. but not by retrieving pointer, &c., 643. torn by dog, 597. Dead, initiatory lesson in, 473, 480. Death of unborn pups, sign of, 383. Dew-claws, 437. Diarrhoea, 261. Digestive discharge, 313. symptoms of, 314. treatment of, 316. Diseases dependent on internal organs, 240. of the limbs, 437. Distance, between parallels, 546. dog's knowledge of, 582. Distemper, 46, 58, 120. brain not subject to disease in, 138. chorea in, 145. disposition of dogs to gnaw their bodies in, 143. dogs may have the disease many times, 135. the dogs that most escape its attacks, 126. Distemper, earliest symptoms of, 126. eruption in, 142. exercise and food influence the disorder, 126. eyes in, 132. fainting fits in, 149. fearful cries in, 137. fits in, 140. its causes undiscovered, 124. importance of diet in, 152. liver involved in, 134. lungs diseased in, 133. morbid appetite during the fits in, 167. ordinary treatment for, 121. paralysis of the hind legs in, 145. periods when it attacks animals, 125. popular remedies for, 122. resembles continued fever, 123. skin peels after an attack of, 149. stomach and intestinal diseases in, 135. symptoms when it abates, 132. treatment for, 154. tumours in, 144. very treacherous, 130. when the disease is established, 127. Distribution of the dog, 73. Diving, how taught, 513. Dog-carts, 442. Dog's tooth-brush, 188. Dogs, are generally misunderstood, 76. are very intelligent, 103. shape of, 639. slow beating, more than faster, 503. wildest, most energetic, 489, 531. Down, _see_ "Drop." charge, dog pointing not to, 618. initiatory lesson in, 478. why retrievers should, 521. "Drop," a better word than "down," 536. dog, to another dropping, 488. dog, to game rising, 601. Initiatory lessons in, 474, 476, 478. unnatural, "Toho," natural, 476. Dropsy of the chest, 217. treatment of, 217. of the uterus, 345. of the perinæum, 289. treatment of, 291. Duck, wood duck of America, 631. shooting, in wild rice, 509. Ducks, wounded, first retrieved, 645. Dysentery, 261. E. Ear, canker within and without, 53, 54, 419. causes, 420. torn, 56. rounding of the dog's, 422. Ears, not pulled violently, 601. Eating, dogs have lively sympathies for, 95. of the young by the mother, 393. Education, age when commenced, 471. best conducted by one, 470. commenced from A B C, 652. expeditious, economical,489. Ejection of the eye, 435. treatment for, 436. Emetics, 117. Energy, wildest dogs have most, 489, 531. Enlargement of the testicle, 335. treatment of, ib. Enteritis, 257. symptoms of, 258. treatment of, 259. Ergot of rye not a good uterine excitant to the bitch, 365. Examination of a dog, how to conduct, 81. Example, advantageous, 615. especially to spaniels, 495. yours, has influence, 569, 622. Exercise, 42, 90. on the road, 493. Experiments, 108. External canker, 421. treatment of, 423. Eye, the, 429. films over, 56. ejection of, 435. treatment for, 436. F. Falling off of the claw, 439. of the vagina, 402. Fastest dogs not beating most, 502. walkers not beating most, 564. Fasting, initiatory lessons in, 469. Fatigued, dog not hunted when, 557. Faults, punishment expected for, 614. Feeding time, lessons at, 479. pistol fired at, 478. Feet, 53. ailments of, 437-443. of partridges given to dogs, 642. Fence, not to be broken, 556. "ware fence," initiatory lesson in, 486. Fetching, evil of not, 638. lessons in, 510, 512. Fevers, bilious, 55. Fields, largest beat, 539. Films over the eyes, 56. "Find," initiatory lessons, 480, 481. "Finder" not to advance, 617. "Finder" retrieves, 641. Fire, dog to bask before, 558. First good point, 568. bird killed, 569. Fits in the dog, 55, 295. sucking, 396. what to do when they occur, 296. treatment of, 297. Flap of the ear, abscess in, 427. treatment of, ib. Flapper shooting, 647. Fleas, remedy for, 56. Flogging, how administered, 598. reprobated, 468, 611. "Flown," initiatory lesson, 486. real, 603. Fluids, to give, 118. Food for a diseased dog, 96. proper for dogs, 40, 90. Foot-sore, 53, 440. Footing a scent, 487, 511, 581. Forceps ought not to be used during parturition, 371. Form desirable in a bitch for breeding, 349. Forward initiatory lesson, 481. "Foul," 239. Fowls, killing of, the cure, 627. Fractures, 444. treatment for, 446. Fungoid tumours, 340. G. Gain, to, the confidence of a dog, 82. Game book, form of, 68. lies too close in turnips, 551. not shown too soon to dog, 471, 588. spring toward gun, 496, 508. Gastritis, 233. what dogs most liable to, 234. treatment of, 236. Generative organs, female, 337. male, 313. Give, to, solids, 111. fluids 113. Glans, swelling of, 327. Gone, initiatory lesson, 486. real, 603. Gorse, spaniels to be habituated to, 495. Greyhounds, food for, in training, 56. Growths, morbid, in the bitch, 338. Gun, dog to back the, 630. first over fence, not dog, 556. game flushed toward the, 496, 508, 603. Guns, a few words on, 41. to preserve the barrels from rust of salt water, 57. water-proofing for the locks, 58. Gutta Serena, 431. causes, ib. H. Hæmaturia, 326. Hand, bird delivered into, 511. Hand, rewards taken from, 478. Hare, chase of, checked, 607, 608. heavy, tempts dog to drop, 519. killed in form, steadies dog, 610. scent of strong, 607. shooting of condemned, 604. wounded, dog may pursue, 610. Haste, when imperative, during pupping, 383. Heading birds, 635. dog, making too stanch, 583. circle wide, 509. Heat, 55, 353. Hedge, farthest side hunted, 496. rows not to be hunted, 542. Heel, signal to, on killing, 573, 577. signal to, 482, 485. Hepatitis, 221. chronic, ib. symptoms of, 223. treatment of, 225. Herbert's Field Sports in the United States, 560. Hereditary instincts, 525, 597. Horses how taught at Astley's, 468. fed on firing, 478. Hot bath kills during parturition, 364. I. Imitative, dogs are, 568. In-and-in breeding injudicious, 579. Independence imparted, 623. Indigestion, 237, 282. symptoms of, 228. treatment of, 229. Inflammation of the bowels, 56. of the lungs, 211. treatment of, 215. Initiatory lessons important, 469, 471, 480, 529, 532. Injuries to the tongue, 195. treatment of, ib. Instrument, parturition, recommended, 381. Instruments, certain, when lawful to employ them in pupping, 372. as a rule deadly in parturition, 368. Internal canker, 424. former accounts of, ib. treatment for, 425. Intestines, peculiarity of, 246. Introsusception, 268. Inversion of the womb, 404. K. Kennel, the, 44. dog ought to be in his, 646. Killing fowls, the remedy, 627. sheep, cure attempted, 625. Kind of dogs alluded to in this book, 89. L. Labor pains, false, 361. Large bone may be given to dogs, 91. Larynx, 201. Leeward, beat from, 555. Left hand signals "down charge," 476. less than right, 535. side of dog, keep on, 583. signal for dog to go on the, 481. Lessons, initiatory, reasonable, 469, 471, 488, 529. walking in the fields, 527. Lice, 27, 55, 105. Lifting a dog, 591, 636, 642. Limbs, diseases of the, 437. Liver, a mild laxative to dogs, 93. hard-boiled, 519. Lungs, inflammation of, 211. treatment of, 215. Luxuries hurt the teeth of dogs, 182. M. Make beef-tea, how to, 97. Mange, a general term only, 410. a second description of, 412. treatment for, 413. true, ib. treatment for, ib. another form, 414. treatment for, 51, 415. a fourth sort, 417. treatment for, ib. a fifth kind, ib. treatment for, ib. Markers used with spaniels, 505. Medicine, how to administer, 50, 106. generally alluded to, 119. Milk, how to draw from a bitch, 401. Morbid growths in the bitch, 338. Mouth, how to hold open, 111. teeth, tongue, gullet, &c., 179. canker of the, 189. treatment of, 190. Mute spaniels, old sportsmen prefer, 506. Muzzle, to, the dog with tape for operations, 428. N. Names ending in "O" dissimilar, 536. Nervous diseases, 295. system, 299. Nipping the teeth off, 193. "No," Better word than "ware," 487. Noise spoils sport, 466, 473, 539. Nose carried high, 485, 547. Nosing allowed, 593. Number of pups a bitch can rear, 26, 395. Numerous pretenders to cure the dog's diseases, 76. O. OEstrum, 353. Old dog allowed liberties, 648. range taught with, 549. "On," initiatory lesson in, 473, 474. Opening pills, 116. Operations, 450. mode of performing, 451. Ophthalmia, simple, 432. symptoms of, ib. treatment for, 433. Original of the dog inquired after, 73. P. Parallels, distance between, 546, 547. Paralysis, 270. treatment of, 273. of the tongue, 193. Parturition, 346. what is necessary at, 359. Passing the catheter, 330. Patience enjoined, 568. required at a pupping, 376. Peculiarity of the intestines, 246. Peg or spike on a check-cord, 580, 609. Perseverance and range attained, 649. in seeking taught, 593. Perinæum, dropsy of, 345. Physic, how to administer, 50, 106. action of, on dogs, 107. Piles, 278. treatment of, 281. Pills, opening, 116. Pincushion, retrievers fetch, 513. Pistol, horse fed at discharge of, 478. Point, dead, 570. left and resumed, 633. not quitted for down charge, 576, 618. the first good one, 568. Pointers, 16, 28. out of place in strong cover, 506. points, 638. Pointing, dog not soon, 528, 580, 589. dog when not to down, 618. origin of, 476. Poisoning, what to do in case of, 55. Polypus, 341. how to recognise, 342. Pot-hunting sportsmen ruin dogs, 621. Preparatory lessons, important, 469, 471, 529, 522, 563. Presentations, false, rare in the bitch, 375. Pretenders are numerous in the cure of canine diseases, 76. Protrusion of the rectum, 287. treatment of, ib. Punishment avoided by lessons, 471. causes blinking, 611. decreases, whip carried, 611. not shunned by dogs, 614. how administered, 598. making dogs too stanch, 583. not inflicted on suspicion, 601. Punishment, reprobated, 468, 611. Pupping, 346. Pups, when they may be felt in the mother, 356. when broken difficult to bring away, 379. feeding and weaning, 27, 397. Purchasers of dogs, hints to, 536. Purgation, acute, 263. treatment of, 264. Purgatives, 53, 115. Puzzle-peg saved by the word "up," 484. "Puzzling" with nose to ground, 547. Q. Quail, large in Canada, 578. Qualities expected in good dog, 468. Quarter ground, _see_ Beat. Quartering, how taught, 33. R. Rabbit-shooting reprobated, 604. Rabies, 299. "Range," _see_ Beat. Ranging, how taught, 30. Receipts, various, 50. _See_ the names of diseases for which remedies are sought. Rectum, 278. protrusion of, 287. treatment of, ib. Refinements, _see_ Accomplishments. Regularity essential in the feeding of dogs, 94. Relays desirable, not a pack, 563. Remedies, domestic, the danger of, 77. Requisites in a dog, 467. in a breaker, 466. Respiratory organs, 200. Retention of urine, 328. Retriever, the, 21. bit for one that mouths, 521. evil of assisting, 519. footing scent, lesson in, 517. for water, qualities in, 508. made whipper in, 492. observes struck bird, 518. to "down charge," or not, 521. Retrievers, shape, &c. of, 523. to beat, 644. to fetch, taught, 514. to pursue faster, 521. water, to fetch cripples first, 645. how fed, 524. Retrieving, not taught first season, 640. pointers or setters not to point dead, 643, 654. setters not pointers, 639. Rewards always given, 478, 481. Rheumatism, 274. acute, ib. treatment of, 276. Rice, wild lakes, duck-shooting in 509. Right, the signal to go toward, 482. hand for "toho" and "drop," 476. signals more than left, 536. Rounding dogs' ears, 422. Rope to dog, 647. Running bird, firing at, 590. Rushing in to "dead" cured, 622. S. Saint Vitus's dance, 240. symptoms of, 241. treatment of, 242. Scent bad in calm or gale, 540. differently recognized by pointers or setters, 541. of birds not left for hare, 607. "footing," an initiatory lesson in, 485. of wounded and unwounded birds differs, 641. Scrotum, cancer of the, 319. Search, "dead," 570. with two dogs, 641. for wounded bird to leeward, 589. to windward, 591. Seeking dead, how taught, 593. Self-hunting, prevent, 647. Servant useful in the field, 580. Seton, to make a, 54. Setter, the, 18, 25, 28. the Russian, 10. to retrieve, 638. Setters crouch more than pointers, 475. for covert shooting, 506. points in, 639. Shoes, to render waterproof, 57. Shooting excellence in breaker, not necessary, 465. Shot-belt on spaniels and setters, 496, 602. Shy birds to be intercepted, 582, 635, 636. Sight, dog not to be out of, 625. Sign when parturition is concluded, 390. Silence enjoined, 467, 539. Simple ophthalmia, 432. symptoms of, ib. treatment for, 433. Single-handed, shot to, 623. Sinuses up the claws, 440. Skin diseases, 410. Slow dog associate for young one, 615. hunting more than fast one, 564. Snake, bite of a, 57. Snipes, three lifted in succession, 642. Snoring, 207. Snorting, ib. Spaniel, 20. Spaniels, age when shown game, 495. hunted in gorse, ib. mute preferred, 504. numbers for a team, 500, 508. Spaniels, requisites in, 498. shot-belt on wildest, 494. that pointed, 498. water, how broken in, 508. Spike-collar, 586. fastened to check-cord, 580, 609. Sportsmen to break dogs, 464. Spring, dogs broken in, 537. Springing the other birds after pointing one, 575. Staggers, 55. Stanch, made too by heading, 583. Stone, error of retrieving with, 512. in the bladder, 325. Stoppage, 268. Strain, remedy for, 54. Strangulation, 267. Substances fit for sick dogs, 96. Summary imparted by lessons, 532. Swelling of the glans, 327. T. Tape, to make a muzzle of, for operations, 428. Tapes, their use objected to when giving medicine, 114. Teats, swelling, 56. cancer of the, 408. Teeth of the dog are hurt by luxuries, 182. to clean the dog's, 188. nipping off the, 193. Temperament of the dog, 79. Temper, hereditary, 525. in breaker necessary, 466. Temporary teeth, how to extract them, 184. Testicle, the absence of, 333. enlargement of, 335. treatment of, ib. Thorns, to extract, 51. Time proper for putting to the dog, 355. given determines education, 463. saved by initiatory lessons, 488. Timidity cured, 530, 612, 613. "Toho," first good one in the field, 568. initiatory lessons in, 473, 474, 476. Tongue, paralysis, 193. injuries to, 195. treatment of, ib. Tooth-brush, 188 To tell when the bitch is in pup, 357. Tranquillity, how to ascertain when the dog has recovered it, 83. Tumours, fungoid, 340. Turning back brings dog away, 577. Two dogs, beat of, 558, 559. U. "Up," signal for, initiatory lesson, 484. Uterus, dropsy of, 345. form of the, 372. V. Vagina, cancer of the, 344. falling of the, 402. Vermin, 104. W. Walkers, fastest, not beating most, 564. Ware not so good a word as "No," 487. Warmth necessary for dog, 318. Water-brash, 231. spaniels, 507. retrievers, how broken, 508. observe struck bird, 518. qualities in, 508. dog taught to plunge in, 512. Whip carried saves punishment, 611. to crack loudly, 548. Whistle, low, 473, 630. dissimilar notes on one, 629. distinguishing for each dog, 628. inattentive to, how to punish, 548. initiatory lesson in, 473. Whistling, to animate, injudicious, 466, 539. White too conspicuous a color, 508. Wild birds intercepted, 582, 635, 636. Wild dog compared with cautious, 551. dogs turning out best, 553. Wild fowl, wounded, retrieved first, 645 reconnoitred with glass, 508. Winged birds, _see_ Bird winged. Womb, shape of, 372 inversion of, 404. treatment for, 405 Worming, 192. Worms, 51. Wounds, 53. Wounded birds, _see_ Bird wounded. Y. Youth, game followed in, liked, 498. occupation followed in, liked 647. Transcriber's notes The following typographical errors have been corrected as noted below. Page 57 headed corrected to healed Page 66 Rhubard corrected to Rhubarb Page 87 membrance corrected to membrane Page 90 greese corrected to grease Page 243 vonica corrected to vomica Page 394 pleaseed corrected to pleased Page 457 SHOOITNG corrected to SHOOTING Page 658 Crotchet corrected to Crochet Page 660 Hane corrected to Hand Errors in Table of contents and List of Illustration descriptions have not been corrected. 
37329	----	The Domestic Cat By Gordon Stables Published by George Routledge and Sons, Ludgate, London. This edition dated 1876. The Domestic Cat, by Gordon Stables. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ THE DOMESTIC CAT, BY GORDON STABLES. CHAPTER ONE. CLASSIFICATION: ITS BASIS. In the feline world you find no such diversity, of form, shape, disposition, coat, size, etc, as you do in the canine. Dogs differ from each other in both the size and conformation of the skeleton, and in many other important points, almost as much as if they belonged to entirely different species. Mark, for instance, how unlike the bulldog is to the greyhound, or the Scotch toy-terrier to the English mastiff; yet, from the toy-terrier upwards to the giant Saint Bernard, they are all _dogs_, every one of them. So is the jackal, so is the fox and the wolf. The domesticated dog himself, indeed, is the best judge as to whether any given animal belongs to his own species or not. I have taken dogs to different zoological gardens, and have always found that they were ready enough to hob-nob with either jackal or fox, if the latter were only decently civil; but they will turn away with indifference, or even abhorrence, from a wild goat or sloth. But among the various breeds of cats there exists no such characteristic differences, so that in proposing a classification one almost hesitates to use the word "breed" at all, and feels inclined to search about for another and better term. If I were not under a vow not to let my imagination run riot in these papers, but to glide gently over the surface of things, rather than be erudite, philosophical, theoretical, or speculative, I should feel sorely tempted to pause here for a moment, and ask myself the question--Why are there so many distinct breeds of the domesticated dog, and, properly speaking, only one of the more humble cat? Did the former all spring from the same original stock, or are certain breeds, such as the staghound, etc, more directly descended from the wolf, the collie, Pomeranian, etc, from the fox after his kind, and other breeds from animals now entirely extinct in the wild state? And once upon a time, as the fairy books say, did flocks of wolves, foxes, wild mastiffs, and all dogs run at large in these islands, clubbing together in warlike and predatory bands, each after his kind, much in the same way that the Scottish Highlanders used to do two or three hundred years ago? Animals of the dog kind are a step or two more advanced in civilisation, if I may be allowed to use the term, than cats; and hence, as intelligence can appreciate intelligence, and always seeks to rise to a higher level, more breeds, or a larger number of species, of the former than of the latter have forsaken their wild or natural condition to attach themselves to man. May not the time come, in the distant future, when a larger variety of feline animals shall become fashionable--when domesticated tigers, tame lions, or pet ocelots shall be the rage? If so, that will indeed be the millennium for cats. Just fancy how becoming it would be to meet the lovely and accomplished Miss De Dear out walking, and leading a beautiful leopard by a slight silver chain, or Lady Bluesock in her phaeton, with a tame ocelot beside John on the dickey! A lady beside a lion on the lawn would, I think, make a prettier picture than one by the side of a peacock, and a tame Bengalese tiger would be a pet worthy to crouch at the foot of a throne. To be sure, little bits of mistakes would occur at times; instead of the pussy of the period bolting away with the canary, nothing less would satisfy the pet than a nice fat baby, and then those extraordinary people the cat--exterminators would be louder in their denunciations than ever. If we dissect the cat, we will find that the skeleton of one breed of pussy would pretty nearly pass for that of another; we find the same shape and almost the same size of bones, the same arrangement of teeth as regards their levelness, the same number of teeth, and the same formation of jawbone. Clothe that skeleton with muscle, and still you can hardly tell the breed of the cat, for scarcely will you be able to find a muscle in the one breed that has not its fellow in all, a little difference perhaps in the size and development of one or two, but even this more the result of accident and use than a distinction real and natural. I feel as I write that I am sailing as close to a wind as possible; I am luffing all my ship will steer; were I to keep her away a single point, I should drift down into the pleasant gulf-stream of comparative anatomy, and thence away and away to the broad enchanted ocean of speculative theory. And I confess, too, I wouldn't mind a cruise or two in those latitudes, did space and time admit of it. Now, I do not mean to say that there is really no difference in shape and form between the different breeds of the domestic cat, but rather that this difference is so minute, compared to that which exists between dogs, that the term "breeds" seems almost a misnomer as applied to cats. It is only when you see pussy arrayed in all the wealth and beauty of her lovely fur, that you can see any real distinction between her and another. In regard to the origin of the domestic cat, naturalists have squabbled and fought for centuries, and the best thing possible, I think, is for every man steadfastly to retain his own opinion, then everybody is sure to be right. For myself, I really cannot see that it would either assist us in breeding better cats, or render us a bit more humane in our treatment of the pretty animal, to be assured that she was first imported into this country from Egypt or Persia in the year one thousand and ever so much before Christ, or that the father of all the cats was a Scottish wild cat, captured and tamed by some old Highland witch-wife a thousand years before the birth of Noah's grandfather. What matters it to us whether the pussy that purrs on our footstool is a polecat bred bigger, or a Polar bear bred less? There she is,-- The rank is but the guinea stamp, And a cat's a cat for a' that. But, and if, you are fond of pedigree, why then surely it ought to satisfy you to know that, ages before your ancestors or mine could distinguish between a B and a bull, pussy was the pet of Persian princes, the idol of many a harem, and the playmate of many a juvenile Pharaoh. What classification, then, are we to make of cats? We search around us in vain for something to guide us; then, fairly on our beam-ends, are fain to clutch at the only solution to the question, and fall back upon coat and colour, with some few distinctive points of difference in the size and shape of the skull and body. Colour or markings, then, and quality of coat, are the guiding distinctions between one breed of cat and another; and to these we add, as auxiliaries, size and shape. _Colour_.--Whether we understand it or not, there, undoubtedly, is nothing in this world left to chance alone, and nothing, I sincerely believe, is done by Nature without a purpose. The same merciful Providence that clothes the lambs with wool, the reason for which we can understand, paints the rose's petal, the pigeon's breast, or even the robin's egg, for reasons which to us are inscrutable, or only to be vaguely guessed at. We can tell the "why" and the "wherefore" of the rainbow's evanescent hues, but who shall investigate the laws that determine the fixed colours of the animal and vegetable creation? Who shall tell us why the grass is green, the rose is red, that bullfinch on the pear-tree so glorious in his gaudiness, and that sparrow so humble in his coat of brown? If we ask the Christian philosopher, he will tell us that the colours in animated nature are traced by the finger of God, who always paints the coat or skin of an animal with that tint or hue, which shall tend most to the propagation and preservation of its species. That He clothes the hare and rabbit in a suit of humble brown, that they may be less easily seen by the eye of the sportsman, or their natural enemies, the polecat, weasel, white owl, or golden-headed eagle. That birds--who flit about all summer in coats so gay and jackets so gaudy, that even a hawk may mistake them for bouquets of flowers, and think them not worth eating-- as soon as the breeding season is over, and the leaves and flowers fade and fall, are presented by nature with warmer but more homely suits of apparel, more akin in colour to the leafless hedgerows, or the brown of the rustling beech leaves, among which they seek shelter from the wintry blast. If you go farther you may fare worse. No one in the world can be a greater admirer than I of the genius of Tyndall, Darwin, or Huxley, but I must confess they get a little, just a _leetle_, "mixed" at times; and I doubt if Darwin himself, or any other sublunarian whatever, understands his (Darwin's) theory of colour. He says, for instance--I can't use the exact words, but can give his meaning in my own--that the wild rabbit or the hare was not painted by the finger of nature the colour we find them with any pre-defined idea of protecting the animal against its enemies; but that in the struggle for life that has been going on for aeons, considering the conditions of its surroundings, it was only the grey rabbit that had the power of continuing in existence, escaping its enemies by aid of its dusky coat. Darwin thinks, indeed, that religionists put the cart before the horse, to use a homely phrase. I confess that I myself prefer the good old theory of design--of a God of design, and a prescient Providence. I believe the testimony of the rocks, I believe to a great extent in evolution--it is a grand theory, and one which gives the Creator an immensity of glory--but I cannot let any one rob me of the belief that beauty and colour are not all chance. Yonder is a hornet, just alighted at the foot of the old oak-tree where I am writing, so uncomfortably near my nose, indeed, that I can't help wishing he had kept to his nest for another month; but the same April sunshine that lured me out of doors lured the hornet, and there it stands, all a-quiver with delight, on a budding acorn, looking every moment as if it would part amidships. "Do you think, Mrs Hornet, O thou tigress of bees, if your lovely body, with its bars of gold, had been of any other colour, that, under the peculiar conditions in which your ancestors lived, you would, ages ago, have ceased to exist; that ants, or other `crawling ferlies,' who detest the colour of turmeric, would, in spite of your ugly sting, have devoured you and yours?" Yonder, again, is a beautiful chaffinch; he was very glad to come to my lawn-window every day, during all the weary winter, to beg a crumb of bread. He forgets that now, or thinks perhaps that I do not know him in his spring suit of clothes, and golden-braided coat and vest. But I do, and I still believe--simple though the belief may be--that the same Being, who gave life and motion to that little beetle which is now making its way to the highest pinnacle of my note-book, as proud as a boy with a new kite, to try its wings for the first time, tipped that ungrateful finch's feathers with crimson, white, and gold, in order to make him more attractive to his little dowdy thing of a wife, who has been so busy all the morning building her nest on the silver birch, and trying to find lichens to match the colour of the tree. For Mrs Finch is a nervous, timid little body, and had no thoughts of marrying at all, and indeed would have preferred to remain single, and would have so remained, had she not been a female; but being a female, how could she resist that splendid uniform? I go into the garden and bend me over the crocus beds--white crocuses, orange crocuses, and blue, all smiling in the sunshine of spring. Each is a little family in itself, and they would like to know each other too so very much, for they have ever so many love tales to breathe into each other's ears. But they are all fast by one end and cannot move. Whatever shall they do, and what will become of the next generation of crocuses? I can hear them whispering their tales of love to the passing wind, and so can you if you are a lover of Nature; but the wind is too busy, or too light, or too something or another, and cannot pause to listen. So the little things are all in despair, when past comes a bee. Now bees, and butterflies too, for all they have got so many eyes, are rather short-sighted, but even a bee cannot help seeing that gorgeous display of orange, white, and blue, so he pops at once into the bosom of a blue crocus, and is made as welcome as the flowers in May. "Oh! you dear old bee," says the crocus, "you're just come in time; have something to eat first. I have a nice little store of honey for you; and then you shall bear a message to my lady-love--the pretty blue belle crocus mind, not the white. I wouldn't have a race of variegated children for the world." "All right," says the bee, and away he flies with the message of love to the blue belle crocus, and thus the loves of the crocuses are cemented. They tell the old, old story by proxy, because they can't do it as you or I do, reader, eye to eye and lip to lip. For colour has its uses, and nothing that exists was made in vain, although some are selfish enough to believe that all the colour and beauty they see around them, during a ramble in the country, was made but to please the eye of man. Colour I believe to be connected in some way with the mystery of heat and life. We all know that certain colours will dispel or retain heat; black is more warm, for instance, than white. There may be, then, a _scale_ of colours as it were, each colour differing in the amount of heat-retaining power; and, it may be that, having reference to this scale, the colours on an animal's coat, are apportioned to it in the way which shall best conduce to its health, comfort, and happiness. The colour of any animal is an important consideration in determining its breed, and this is especially the case among cats, where indeed it forms the basis of our classification. Colour is often the key to the character of the cat--to its temper, whether savage or good-natured; to its qualities as a good hunter or the reverse; and to its power of endurance, its eyesight, and its hearing. _Size_.--Cats of different breeds--I use the word for want of a better-- are generally of different sizes, and the skeleton is, as a rule, larger in some breeds than in others. The male ought to be larger than the female. _Form_.--The difference in form is principally observable in the shape and rotundity of skull, the length and shape of the nasal bones and jaw, and the length of the tail and its form at the point. The ears also vary a good deal in length in the different breeds, and also in breadth, and in "sit" or position. _Pelage, or Coat_.--The coat is of two different kinds, the long and the short. In the former, the longer and softer and silkier the better, and in the latter the length of the hairs, their closeness and glossiness, are to be taken into consideration. You can generally tell by one glance at the animal's coat how she is fed, how she is treated and housed, and the condition of her health. Having got so far, we will next bring pussy herself on the stage, and see how far these remarks apply to her, according to her breed and species. CHAPTER TWO. BREEDS AND CLASSES. In future chapters I will give the habits and characteristics of the domestic cat in general, with some specialities of a few of the different kinds in particular. The "tricks and manners" of one cat, however, will be found to correspond pretty closely with those of any other. But before going farther on with this chapter, I wish to make a plea in pussy's favour. I myself have studied cat life, off and on, for twenty years, so I suppose it will be admitted I am no mean authority on the subject. During that time I have come to certain conclusions, which in some cases run contrary to the opinions generally conceived of those animals--contrary, at any rate, to the belief current some years ago, before pussy was thought worthy to hold a show of her own. Towards this ocean of contrary opinions I have been wafted, not by the wind of my own sails alone, but aided and supported by many hundreds of anecdotes of domestic pussy's daily life, habits, likes and dislikes. These anecdotes have been supplied to me from trustworthy people, in every position of life--from the poverty-stricken old maid with her one feline favourite; from the honest working-man with his fireside pet and children's playmate; from farmers, solicitors, doctors, and parsons; from baronets' ladies; and, in more than one instance, from the daughters of peers of the realm, allied to royalty itself. These anecdotes have, in almost every case, been substantially authenticated, and _always_ discarded wherever, in any case, they were open to doubt. From these anecdotes and essays, and from my own experience as well, I have arrived at the following conclusions--and be it remembered I speak of cats that are properly fed and housed, and have been taught habits of cleanliness when kittens:-- 1. That cats are extremely sagacious. 2 That cats are cleanly and regular in their habits. 3. That cats are fond of children. 4. That cats are excellent mothers, and will nurse the young of any small animal on the loss of their own. 5. That cats are fond of roaming abroad. 6. That cats are brave to a fault. 7. That cats are fond of other animals as playmates. 8. That cats are easily taught tricks. 9. That cats are excellent hunters. 10. That cats are good fishers, and can swim on occasion. 11. That cats are very tenacious of life. 12. That cats are fond of home. 13. That cats are _fonder far of master or mistress_. 14. That cats are _not_, as a rule, _thieves, but the reverse_. 15. That long-headed, sharp-nosed cats are the best mousers. These are not texts, but deductions. All that is known for certain of the origin of the domestic cat may be expressed in three letters, _n i l_--nil. And, after all, I cannot see that it matters very much, for if the theory of Darwin be correct, that everything living sprang originally from the primordial cell, then cats or dogs, or human beings, we all had the same origin. But, again, according to Darwin, the cat is an older animal than man in the world's history; and if this be so, how silly of us to bother our heads in trying to find out who first domesticated the cat, when in all probability _it was the cat who first domesticated man_. But, avaunt! all learned discourse on the subject; perish all discursive lore. I have studied the matter over and over again, and read about it in languages dead and living, till my head ached, and my heart was sick; and still, for the life of me, I cannot make out that there are any more than two distinct _species_ of domestic cats in existence. There are, first, the European or Western cat, a short-haired animal; and secondly, the Asiatic or Eastern cat--called also Persian or Angora, according to the difference in the texture of the coat, it being exceedingly fine, soft, and satiny in the Angora, and not so much so in the Persian--a long-haired cat. All the others, such as Assyrian, Abyssinian, the Maltese, Russian, Chinese, Italian, French, Turkish, etc, are either inter-breeds between the two, or lineal descendants of the one or the other, altered and modified by climate and mode of life. Taking everything into consideration, I am inclined to favour the belief held by some, that our own fireside cat was first domesticated from our mountain wild cat. I mentioned, this to a naturalist of some repute, with whom I was dining only a few days ago. "_What_?" he roared, trying to get across the table, in order to jump down my throat. "_You_ ought to know, sir, that all animals increase, instead of degenerating in size, by being transplanted to domestic life." I didn't contradict the man in his own house; but indeed, reader, the rule, if rule it be, admits of numerous exceptions. It holds good among horses, and I suppose cattle of all kinds; it even holds good if we go down the scale of organic life, and apply it to fruit and flowers; but how about the wilder animals, and our forest trees? Take the latter first--will the acorns of a garden-grown oak-tree, or the cone of a transplanted Scotch pine, produce such noble specimens as those that toss their giant arms in the forest or on mountain-side? Or will a menagerie-bred lion, or tiger--feed them ever so well--ever reach the noble proportions of those animals who in freedom tread the African desert, or roam uncaged and untrammelled through the jungles of Eastern India? What prison-born elephant ever reached in height to the shoulders even, of the gigantic bulls that my poor friend, Gordon Cumming, used to slay? Do eagles, owls, the wilder hawks, alligators, or anacondas do anything else but degenerate in captivity? But even admitting, hypothetically, that the rule would hold good as regards cats, there isn't such a very great difference in the size of the tame and wild cats after all. I do not think that all the wild cats ever I saw in Scotland or elsewhere, would average over ten to twelve pounds; and twelve pounds is no unusual weight for our domestic cheety. Another thing that has often struck me is this: the farther north you go in Scotland, and the nearer to the abode of the wild cat, the greater is the resemblance in head and tail, and often in colour, of the tame cat to the wild. And, mark you, the domestic is often known to inter-breed with the wild cat, and the offspring can be tamed and reared. This is considered nothing unusual in the Highlands. CHAPTER THREE. BREEDS AND CLASSES. THE TORTOISESHELL. The classification I propose of the domestic cat is an exceedingly simple one, as I think all classifications ought to be; it will, I trust, however, be found quite sufficient, and a useful one. We have first, then, the two and only two distinct breeds mentioned above, viz:--One. The European Cat. Two. The Asiatic. From these two alone, if you get them of different colours, you can very easily manufacture all the varieties and various-coloured pussies you are ever likely to meet with, either on the show-benches or in domestic life. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ONE. The European, short-haired, or Western Cats. These I divide into five primary classes, namely--1, _Tortoiseshell_; 2, _Black_; 3, _White_; 4, _Blue_ or _Slate-colour_; and 5, the _Tabbies_. The _Tortoiseshell_ I subdivide into secondary classes: 1, the pure Tortoiseshell; and 2, the Tortoiseshell-and-white. The _Black_ is subdivided likewise into two: 1, pure Black; and 2, Black-and-white. The _White_ has no subdivision, but is bred in with any or all the other classes. The _Blue_ or _Slate-coloured Cat_. These are subdivided into two: 1, the pure Blue; and 2, the Blue-and-white. _Tabbies_ are easily subdivided into four classes, viz:--1, the Red Tabby; 2, the Brown Tabby; 3, the Blue or Silver Tabby; and 4, the Spotted Tabby. There are other odd cats, such as the Manx or tailless cat, the hybrid, the six-clawed cat, and some curiously-coloured animals, which I shall mention in another place, for these have no right to have classes of their own, any more than black-and-tan Newfoundlands, or kittens with eight legs. I shall take these in their order of rotation. 1. _The Tortoiseshell Cat_.--This might also be called the black-and-tan cat. If you want to get a good idea of the colour this cat is, or ought to be, take a keek through a lady's tortoiseshell back-hair comb. That is about it; but you never see such perfection in pussy's coat. For many a long year it was almost universally believed that there never was any such thing as a tortoiseshell male or Tom cat, or ever could be; and many an anxious search has many an old maid had over her newly-born litter of kits, to see if she would be fortunate enough to find the much-to-be-desired anomaly. For, bear in mind, a belief used to be pretty current that 300 pounds--or was it 500 pounds?--would be paid over some counter, by some fool or fools unknown, to anyone who should be able to put the possibility of the existence of a tortoiseshell Tom beyond dispute--by producing one. I saw an advertisement the other day in _The Live Stock Journal_, offering for sale a tortoiseshell Tom, at the low price of 100 pounds! I hope, if only for poor Tom's sake, that somebody with more money than brains bought it--for the cat anyone paid 100 pounds for would, I should think, be certain of good milk and generous treatment. I knew a poor old woman in Skye, and this old woman's pussy was as pussies love to be. And lo! one night the old woman, in the silence of night, dreamed a dream. She thought that the cat came to her bedside, and said to her, "Arise, mistress, come and see." That she followed pussy at once. That pussy led her to the barn. That there she found, cuddled together in a heap upon an old sack, no less than five tortoiseshell Toms. She dreamt besides that she sold the lot for 1,000 pounds each, and bought a carriage and four, right off the reel, and set up for a lady of fashion on the spot. Anxiously did the old woman watch for her cattie's accouchement, but much to her disappointment they all had white about them. Next time that pussy was in the same way, her mistress had an old tortoiseshell comb nailed up above its bed. Even this didn't do, so--for by this time the ancient dame had tortoiseshell Tom on the brain--she set out for Portree, a distance of fully sixteen miles, where she managed to procure a live tortoise as a playmate for her pet. Pussy never took much to the tortoise; all she did was to sit and watch it, and whenever it protruded its scaly head, the cat smacked it in again. This might have been the reason why her kittens had all white about them the third time. The old woman didn't despair, however; she took to praying, and prayed in English, and prayed in Gaelic, and she told me seriously that she never doubted but that her prayers would one day be answered--_if_, she added, _it was for her good_. I didn't doubt it either, but Tom never came ashore as long as I was in the island, neither was the old creature's snuff-box ever empty. I have but little fancy for this breed myself. They are usually sour-tempered, unfriendly little things to all save those who own and love them. They are, moreover, not very prepossessing. I speak of the cat as _I_ have found it, and I doubt not there are many exceptions. _Merits_.--They are excellent and patient mousers, and the _best_ of hunters. They are likewise good mothers. They are as game as a bull and terrier--in fact they seem to fear nothing on four legs; and when they do take off the gloves to fight, I pity the animal they tackle, for what the tortoiseshell lacks in weight, she makes up for amply in courage. They are very wise and sagacious, and faithful to the death to those who own them. _Points_.--1. _Size_: You don't look for a very large cat of the pure tortoiseshell breed, nor a very pretty one. The larger the better to a certain extent. I have known a small-sized tortoiseshell cat follow the rats even into their own burrows, again and again, until she had exterminated them. 2. _Head_: The head is small and rather bullety, the ears moderately large and nicely cocked, and the eyes small, and the darker the better. 3. _Colour and markings_: The colour is as near tortoiseshell as possible, and the markings must not only be deep and pretty, but very distinct in the centre, although blending insensibly where they meet, and artistically arranged. You mustn't expect to find the colour or markings very nicely arranged on the male tortoiseshell. No white is allowed on this breed of cat. Tortoiseshell Tom _is_ tortoiseshell Tom, and prefers to be judged alone and on his own merits; for, as a rule, his right there is none to dispute. 4. _Pelage_ or _Coat_: Hair moderately short, but _very_ fine, glossy, and silken. N.B.--Knock off from five to eight points for _cinder-holes_. I now give the points in a tabular form, with their full value. Not, remember, that as a rule I go in for judging by points; still, a table of this sort has its value, as one can see just at a glance what is looked for in each breed, and what isn't:-- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Points of the Tortoiseshell Cat. 1. Size, 5. 2. Head, 10. 3. Colour and markings, 25. 4. Pelage, 10. Total, 50. The next pussy which demands a few passing remarks is _The Tortoiseshell-and-white_. This is often a very beautiful cat, more especially when young, as, when old, they sometimes degenerate into very lazy habits, especially if they have a large amount of white about them. They are pretty, and they seem to know it, taking great delight in keeping the white portions of their fur as pure as snow. I knew a cat something of this breed, who was nearly all white, excepting a beautiful tortoiseshell patch on the upper part of one thigh. She was unexceptionably cleanly, and the frantic efforts she used to make to wash off that spot of black-and-amber were ridiculous to behold. She would sit for hours admiring herself in the glass, and occasionally dipping her paw in her saucer of milk, until she spied that unhappy spot; to that she would at once devote a good half-hour, but finding no appreciable difference in it, she would start away in high dudgeon, swishing her tail about, like a lion in love. That spot was the only barrier to pussy's bliss. _Moral_: There's no such thing as perfect happiness here below--even to a cat. CHAPTER FOUR. THE BLACK CAT. Next on the list of classification comes the _Black Cat_, subdivided into--1, the Pure Black; and 2, the Black-and-white. 1. _The Pure Black_.--This is one of my pet breeds. The pure black cat is such a noble, gentlemanly fellow, and if well-bred and trained--and he is capable of a very large amount of training--he is one of the best and most useful cats you can have in the house. There is no namby-pambiness about black Tom, and no squeamishness either. You can take him or tire of him, just as you please; it is all one to Tom. There is a certain independence about his every movement, and an assumption of dignity, as he saunters about the house, gazes at the fire of a winter's evening, or rolls himself in the sunniest spot of the garden in summer, that are both amusing and delightful. Black Tom will give you a paw, but you may take it or leave it, just as suits you; and if you annoy him too much, he will very quickly cast his gloves and make you laugh with the wrong side of your mouth, as the saying is. And it is quite astonishing, too, what a beautiful deep and cleanly-cut wound-- I speak feelingly, as a surgeon--Tom can make on the fleshy portion of your hand, or down the side of your nose. For black Tom, and all the race of black cats, seem to have made up their minds ages ago not to stand any nonsense from man or beast. But you mustn't run away with the idea that black Tom is a pugnacious animal, or fond of fighting for fighting's sake. No, Tom is never aggressive; he stands a good deal before he is thoroughly roused, and, to tell the truth, I have more than once seen a tortoiseshell thrash a black cat double its size. But if there is a lady cat in the play, the affections of a queen to be gained, or if black Tom has made up his mind to carry war into the heart of a rival's camp, doesn't he go at it with a will! If the other cat will not surrender, ten to one all you'll find of that cat in the morning will be the front teeth, the wind of the battle having blown all the fluff away, while, if you cast your eyes upwards, you will see black Tom on the top of the wall making love to his Dinah, and looking as if butter wouldn't melt in his mouth. Black Tom is generally most exemplary in the matter of cleanliness, personal or otherwise--there you have him again. And he is as proud as Lucifer--for he is quite well aware that he _is_ good-looking. If he were a man, he is just the sort of fellow who would wear a well-fitting coat, spotless linen, and well-fitting boots and gloves, and part his hair in the centre without appearing a cad. You will seldom see cinder-holes in black Tom; if you do, you may lay your honour on it, that the animal is either aged and infirm, or suffering from some internal disorder. The black cat might be called the Newfoundland of the feline race, not only in colour, but in nearly all his ways. He is not the pussy, however, I like to see made a pet of by children, for two reasons-- first, he is too fine an animal to be crumpled and spoiled; and, secondly, because, like a good many Newfoundlands, he is liable at times to be just a little uncertain in temper. Although he cannot save life, like his prototype, still black Tom makes the best of black guards, and will protect his master or mistress, or their property. One or two that I happen to think of now, keep a watch on their master's wares just as a dog would. One belonging to Mr Taylor, of Cumministon, "clooked" a little boy in the very act of stealing a piece of butter, and held him, growling fiercely the while, until his master came. The same cat would keep the packet of groceries ordered by a customer, until the money was paid, and he was told it was all right. The cunning and wiliness of the black cat is sometimes highly amusing. I have known a cat of this breed feign death to escape a thrashing; that is, when being thrashed, he pretended that one of the blows had suddenly killed him, and would lie to all appearance stark and stiff on the floor for several minutes; but if you watched him narrowly you would presently see just a line of his cute brown eye, and as soon as the coast was clear, Tom would come to life again, and be off like a shot. Black cats are sometimes thieves. I know the reader would put it in more forcible language, but don't you expect for a single moment that I will say more against my pets than the exigencies of truth compel me to, so there! I say they are at times just a _leetle_ addicted to appropriating what they have but small legal right to. But there is this to be said in their favour--when they are thieves _they are swells at it_. I have a black cat in my eye at this very moment, and if, my _dear_ lady, you are at all fond of that sort of thing, it would, simply do your heart good to watch that pussy stalking steak. He is such an honest-looking cat, you see, and from the easy way he sits in the doorway opposite the butcher's, with his half-shut eyes and his dreamy air, you would feel convinced that the house was his home, that all the adjoining property belonged to him, and he had a vote in Parliament and a seat on the municipal bench. But bide a wee till Blocks turns round to serve a customer, when pop! fuss!! honest Tom is round the corner with a pound of beef in his mouth, before you could say "Muslin!" Oh! it's charming, I assure you, but rather rough on Blocks. I must confess, too, that, at times, there is about a black Tom cat a look which you can only designate as Satanical--Mephistophelean, then, if you object to the other word--and I have no doubt it is this look of devil-beauty in Tom which has often led him to be suspected of being either an imp of darkness or possessed of one. A witch, you know, is generally supposed to have as a companion a familiar spirit in the shape of a black cat. Superstitions connected with the black cat are still common in some parts of the country and among sailors. We had a black Tom in the _Penguin_ which led us many a pretty dance. He was treated as a fiend, poor fellow, and behaved as such; and the captain was as much afraid of him as anybody else, and never failed to let go the life-buoy and lower a boat when Tom missed his footing and fell overboard, which the cat had a happy knack of doing periodically. Tom was missed, though, one morning, and seen again no more. He had doubtless fallen into the sea in the darkness of the middle watch. This cat had a strange method of fishing, which is worthy of notice. You are, I suppose, aware that flying fish are caught by exposing a light on deck, which they always vault towards. Black Tom's eyes had the same effect. He would sit on the bulwarks and glare into the sea till a fish flew towards or over him, then he nabbed it nimbly. Just before we came to the Cape, for the last time in that commission, I heard two blue-jackets conversing about this black Tom. "Look, see!" one was saying, "I think he were a devil, nothin' more and nothin' less; and I'll bet you five bob he were a devil." "Done," said the other sailor. Three days after, both men were "planked" for coming off drunk. They had been on shore drinking their bet beforehand. Simple souls, they both came to me after punishment, to get my decision as to who should pay. Their doctor, they thought, knew everything. But very sadly were they put out, when I told them the bet could never be satisfactorily decided _in this world_. "Ah! doctor," said one, waggishly, "it's a jolly good thing we drank the bet beforehand." Black Tom's queen is usually a very lively lady, and up to any amount of fun and mischief. _Merits_.--For house-hunting they are the _best_ cats you can have. They are very beautiful and graceful; and, indeed, a well-bred, well-trained black Tom is a veritable prince of the feline race. The finest cat of this sort I ever saw was at Glasgow Show, "Le Diable" to name. He _was_ a beauty. What attitudes he did! What grace in every movement! and such a colour and coat and eye! I forget now who owned him, but I remember I gave him first prize after only one glance at the others. Black cats are not so easily seen at night, and their hearing is extremely keen; so, likewise, is their eyesight. As a rule, they kill rats and mice more for sport than anything else, and are fonder of tackling larger game. In the field, however, their colour is against them, and makes them a good mark for the keeper's gun. I prefer seeing black Tom in the parlour, or on a hosier's counter, or coiled up in a draper's window. _Points_.--1. _Size_: You want them large--as large an possible, and with great grace of motion. 2. _Head_: The head is medium-sized, and not too bullety; a sharp nose, however, is an abomination in a black cat. The ears must be rather longish, and shapely, and well-feathered internally, and set _straight_ on. 3. _Eyes_: A brown eye is best, next best is hazel, which in turn is better than green, but green is better than yellow. 4. _Colour_: All black; not even a toe must be white, nor _one hair of the whiskers_. 5. _Pelage_: A beautiful, soft, though not too fine, fur, and inclining rather to length than otherwise, and as sheeny as a boatman beetle. Points of the black cat. Size, 15. Head, 5. Eyes, 5. Colour, 15. Pelage, 10. Total, 50. CHAPTER FIVE. THE BLACK-AND-WHITE CAT AND THE PURE WHITE. I have been asked to give a few hints as to the best and most useful classification for show purposes, and may as well do so here. For a large show, the classes can hardly be better arranged than they are in the Crystal Palace catalogue, or that of the Edinburgh or Glasgow Shows. For smaller shows I beg to suggest the following:-- ONE. Long-haired cats, any colour, male or female. TWO. Short-haired black and black-and-white, and white. THREE. Short-haired tabbies, any colour. FOUR. Short-haired tortoiseshell and tortoise-and-white. FIVE. Anomalous, as Manx, etc. The first class would include Persian, Angora, and other long-haired cats--black, white, tabby, or tortoiseshell. The third class would include all tabbies--brown, red, and grey or silver. Class Four must have tortoiseshell-and-white as well as tortoiseshell, or it will be a small class, owing to the rarity of the pure tortoiseshell. The last class will give a place to Manx, six-toed cats, wild cats, and hybrids, as well as any curious foreign pussy that may be forthcoming. At all shows you find a great many cats entered in the wrong class. I think it a pity that secretaries don't arrange these in their proper classes; it is not right to exclude merit through mistake. In judging, prizes should be withheld where there is no competition; and where there is want of merit in any one class, some of the prizes should be withdrawn and added to any class of _extra_ merit. We come now to the _black-and-white cat_. A good black-and-white cat is a very noble-looking animal. If well-trained and looked after, you can hardly have a nicer parlour pet. He is affectionate in his disposition, and cleanly and gentlemanly, so to speak, and makes himself quite an ornament to a well-furnished drawing-room. I must speak, however, of the demerits of my pets, as well as of their good qualities, and feel constrained to say that I have sometimes found black-and-white Tom a pussy who did not trouble himself too much about his duties as house-cat; he much preferred the parlour to the kitchen, a good bed to a hay-loft, and seemed to think that catching mean little mice was far below his dignity. If well treated black and white cats are apt to turn a little indolent and lazy, and if improperly fed and housed, they degenerate into the most wretched-looking specimens of felinity you ever looked upon. All the bad in their character comes out, and their good qualities are forgotten. Their coat gets dry, and tear, and are cinder-holed; and, instead of the plump, round-faced, clerical-looking cat which used to adorn your parlour window, you have a thin, emaciated, long-nosed, pigeon-loft-hunting, flower-unscraping, dirty, disreputable dunghill cat. Of course, the same may, to a certain extent, be said of most neglected cats, but the two breeds that show to the least advantage, when ill-used, are the black-and-white and the red-and-white, and more especially the former. _Merits_.--I like these cats more for their appearance than anything else. When nicely marked they look reverend and respectable in the extreme. I consider them but very ordinary pussies in regard to house-hunting. A naval officer who cannot go to quarters without having his hands encased in white kids, and a black-and-white cat, carry on duty much on a par. Neither do these cats make over good children's pets, being at times a little selfish. They are beautiful creatures, nevertheless, and well worthy of a place at our parlour firesides. _Points_.--1. _Size_: As big as possible, but not leggy; reasonably plump for the show-bench, but _very_ graceful in all their motions; with stoutish short forelegs, and plenty of spring in the hindquarters. 2. _Head_: The best black-and-white Toms have large, well-rounded heads, with moderately long ears, and a well-pleased, self-contented expression of face. The whiskers are usually white, but black is not objectionable. The eyes are preferred green, and sparkling like emeralds of the finest water. 3. _Colour and markings_: The colour is black-and-white, with as much of the former, and as little of the latter as you can find. I like to see the nose and cheeks vandyked with white, the chin black, white fore-paws, white hind legs and belly, and a white chest. This is all that is needed for beauty's sake; but, at all events, the markings must be even. 4. _Pelage_: Fur should be longish (and I don't object to its being ticked all over the back with longer white hairs), silky, and glossy. Points of the Black-and-White Cat. Size, 10. Head, 5. Colour and markings, 25. Pelage, 10. Total, 50. The next cat on the boards is the white cat. It is very remarkable--and most students of feline nature must have had an opportunity of observing this--the great difference in the temperament, constitution, and nature of cats, which colour alone, apparently, has the power of truly indicating; and this is nowhere more easily seen than in the peculiar characteristics of the pure black pussy and the all-white one. The black cat, on the one hand, is bold, and free, and fierce; the white, far from brave, more fond of petting and society, and as gentle as a little white mouse. The black cat is full of life and daring; the white of a much quieter and more loving disposition. The black cat stands but little "cuddling;" the white would like to be always nursed. It takes but little pains to teach a black cat to be perfectly cleanly, but much more to train a pure white one. In constitution the black cat is much more hardy and lasting, the white cat being often delicate, and longing apparently for a sunnier clime. A black cat is often afflicted with _kleptomania_, while a properly-educated white puss is as honest as the day is long. The senses of the black cat are nearly always in a state of perfection, while the white is often deaf, and at times a little blind. Again there is nothing demoniacal about a white cat, as there often is about a black one. I remember, when a little boy at the grammar school of Aberdeen, receiving a box from the country containing lots of good things, and marked, "A Present from Muffle"--Muffle was a pet tabby of mine--and, childlike, replying in verse, the last lines of the "poem" being-- "And when at last Death's withering arms Shall throw his mantle thee around, May angel catties carry thee To the happy hunting-ground." Well, a blue-eyed white pussy was my idea of an "angel cattie" then, and it is not altered still. It will be observed, however, that the colour of the kittens of the same litter will often differ, and the question naturally comes to be asked, Do I assert that the nature and temperament of cats in the same litter will not coincide? I do so aver most unhesitatingly; and the thing is easily explained if you bear in mind that a litter of differently-coloured kittens has had but _one_ mother, but _many_ fathers. Although born from the same mother in one day, they stand in the relation to each other of half-brothers and half-sisters. Except when the odds in colour is very distinct, as in black, white, or red, the difference in constitution, etc, will not be so easily perceived, but it is there, nevertheless. _Colour follows the breed, and temper and quality follow colour_. This is the same all throughout nature, and is often observed, though but little studied, by dog fanciers. I have only to remind pointer and setter men, how often hardiness and good stamp cling to certain colours. That "God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb," I believe to be merely metaphor, but I am ready to go to death on it that He paints the petals of the flower and the blossoms on the fruit-tree, to the requirements of the tender seedlings. What sort of fruit would you grow in the dark, or under deeply-coloured glass shades? Lest I be found guilty of digression, I shall say no more now on this subject. _Merits of the White Cat_.--A _pet_, gentle and loving above a cat of any other colour, though at times dull, and cross, and wayward; "given," as a lady said, "to moods of melancholy." Not a bad mouser either, when "i' th' vein," and a good cat for a miller to have, not being easily seen among sacks of flour. _Points_.--1. _Size_: Seldom a large cat. 2. _Head_: Smallish, and as nicely rounded as possible; ears not too long, and well-feathered internally; eyes of "himmel-blue;" eyes ought to be both the same colour--if not so, deduct five points. 3. _Pelage_: Fine, soft, and glossy; but a too long coat shows a cross with Angora. 4. _Colour_: White as driven snow, if intended for a show cat; if not, a very little black wonderfully improves the constitution. Points of the White Cat. Size, 5. Head and eyes, 15. Colour, 25. Pelage, 5. Total, 50. CHAPTER SIX. THE BLUE CAT; AND TABBIES--RED, BROWN, SPOTTED, AND SILVER. The Blue cat: just one word about this pretty creature before passing on to the Tabbies. Although she is called a blue cat, don't fancy for a moment that ultramarine is anywhere near her colour, or himmel-blue, or honest navy serge itself. Her colour is a sad slate-colour; I cannot get any nearer to it than that. Apart from her somewhat sombre appearance, this cat makes a very nice pet indeed; she is exceedingly gentle and winning, and I'm sure would do anything rather than scratch a child. But the less children have to do with her the better, for all that: for this simple reason--she is a cat of delicate constitution--all that ever I knew were so, at least, and I daresay my readers can corroborate what I say. _Merits_.--Their extreme gentleness is one merit, and their tractability and teachability are others. A pure blue cat is very rare, and they are greatly prized by their owners. _Points_.--1. _Size_: They are rather under-sized, never being much larger than the pure tortoiseshell. 2. _Head_: The head is small and round, and the eyes are prettiest when of a beautiful orange-yellow. The nose should be tipped with black. 3. _Pelage_: Moderately long and delightfully soft and sheeny. 4. _Colour_: This is the principal point. It is, as I said, a nice cool, slate-grey, and, like the black cat, our blue pussy must be all one colour, without a hair of white anywhere. _Even her whiskers_ must be of the same colour as her fur. Points of the Blue Cat. Size, 5. Head, 5. Pelage, 10. Colour, 30. Total, 50. We now come to the Tabbies--the real old English cats--the playmates of our infant days and sharers of our oatmeal porridge. They are the commonest of all cats, and justly so, too, for there is hardly anything they don't know, and nothing they can't be taught, bar conic sections, perhaps, the _Pons Asinorum_, and a few trifles of that ilk. You will find a tabby cat wherever you go, and you will find her equally at home wherever she is--whether sitting on the footstool on the cosy hearthrug, singing duets with the tea-kettle; catching birds and rabbits in the woods, or mice in the barn; conducting a concert for your especial benefit on the neighbouring tiles at twelve o'clock at night; examining the flower seeds you lately sowed in the garden to see if they are budding yet; or locked, quite by accident, into the pigeon loft. The first cat of the Tabby kind which claims our attention is the Red or Sandy Tabby. This is a very beautiful animal, and quite worthy of a place in the best drawing-rooms in the land. Although they do not grow to the immense size of some of our brown tabbies, still they are better hunters, much fiercer, and of a hardier constitution. They much prefer out-of-door sport, and will attack and slay even the polecat and weasel; and instances have been known of their giving battle to the wild cat himself. _Merits_.--They are the prettiest of pets, and the honestest of all cat kind. They are such good ratters that neither mice nor rats will frequent the house they inhabit. _Points_.--1. _Size_: They ought to be as large as possible, and not clumsy; they are generally neater cats all over than the Brown Tabbies. 2. _Head_: The head should be large and broad, with rather shortish ears, well placed, and the face ought to beam with intelligence and good nature. The eyes should be deep set, and a nice yellow colour. 3. _Pelage_: The coat is generally short in nearly all the Tabbies, but ought to be sleek and glossy. 4. _Colour and markings_: The colour is a light sandy red, barred and striped with red of a darker, deeper hue. No white. The stripes or markings ought to be the same on both sides, and even the legs ought to be marked with cross bars, and one beautiful swirl, at least, across the chest. This is called the Lord Mayor's Chain, and when the cat has two, give him extra points. Points of the Red Tabby. Size, 10. Head, 5. Colour and markings, 30. Pelage, 5. Total, 50. Next comes the Brown Tabby. This is the largest of all breeds of cats, fourteen, seventeen, and even twenty pounds a common weight. They are also, when well marked and striped, exceedingly beautiful. Of all cats they are the best adapted for house-hunting, being less addicted to wandering than some breeds. _Merits_.--Their hunting proclivities. Their fondness for children is sometimes quite remarkable. I have known many instances of Brown Tom Tabbies, so fierce that scarce any one dare lay a finger on them unscathed, but a little child of four years of age could do anything with them, lug them about anyhow, and even carry them head down, over its shoulder by the tail. They are, moreover, nice, loving, kind-hearted pets, and exceedingly fond of their master and mistress. They are the cats of all cats to make a family circle look cosy and complete around the fire of a winter's night. _Points_.--1. _Size_: It will be observed below that I give fifteen points for size. The bigger your Brown Tom Tabby is the better he looks, _if_ the one-half of it isn't fat, for if so he won't be graceful, and that is one essential point. I can find a Tabby at this moment who weighs over twenty pounds, and who will spring from the floor, without scrambling, mind you, clean on to the top of the parlour door, and that is little short of seven feet. I like to see a tabby with a graceful carriage then, and shortish in forelegs, with beautifully well-fitted and rounded limbs, and with a tiger-like walk and mien. 2. _Head_: Very large and broad and round, ears short, eyes dark, and muzzle broad, not lean, and thin and long. This latter certainly gives him more killing power, but it brings him too near the wild cat. I don't care how savagely he behaves in a cage at a show, for well I know he is quite a different animal at his own fireside, asleep on the rug in little Alice's arms, or purring in bed on old Maid Mudge's virgin bosom. 3. _Colour_: A nice dark brown or grey ground, and the workings as deeply black as possible. No white. 4. _Markings_: Like a Bengal tiger, and even prettier. The tail and legs likewise barred. The head striped perpendicularly down the brow, and the marks going swirling round the cheeks. Nose black or brown, and the eyes as dark as possible, and full of fire. 5. _Pelage_: Short and glossy. Points of the Brown Tabby. Size, 15. Head, 5. Colour, 10. Markings, 15. Pelage, 5. Total, 50. Lastly, we have the Silver Tabby and the Spotted Tabby, and in almost all points these may be judged alike. The Silver Tabby is a sweetly pretty cat. Perhaps the prettiest of all pussies. They are a size smaller than even the best Red Tabbies, and are infinitely more graceful, and quicker in all their motions. They are proud, elegant, aristocratic cats, fond to love and quick to resent an injury. _Merits_.--Their special merit is their exceeding beauty. They are somewhat rare, however. Here is a bit of advice to any one who would like to have four really pretty cats about the house, each to show the others to advantage. Get a pure white kitten, a pure black one, a red tabby, and a silver ditto. Take great care in the training of them, be careful in feeding and housing them, and you will have your reward. The Spotted Tabby is also very pretty. He ought to be a good, sizeable animal, with broad head, short ears, and a loving face; ground colour a dark grey, one dark stripe, and down the spine, and diverging from this stripes of black broken up into spots. _Points_.--The Silver Tabby ought to be-- 1. _In size_, less than or about the size of the Red Tabby, and very quick and graceful. 2. _Head_: Large and shapely, but not so blunt as the Brown Tabby's; ears short and eyes light. 3. _Colour and markings_: Of a deep Aberdeen granite, grey in the ground-work, and the markings very dark and beautifully arranged. Don't forget the Mayor's Chains. 4. _Pelage_: Longish, if anything; but not so long as to make the judge suspect crossing with the Persian. Points of Silver and Spotted Tabbies. Size, 10. Head, 5. Colour and markings, 30. Pelage, 5. Total, 50. There are one or two fancy cats I have not mentioned, as the Red-and-white, etc; but I believe I have said enough to make anyone, with a little study and attention, a good judge of the points and qualities of the different breeds of the English domestic cat. CHAPTER SEVEN. ASIATIC CATS. When I was a little boy at school, floundering through Herodotus, and getting double doses of fum-fum daily for my Anabasis--for my old teacher, when he couldn't get enough Greek into one end of me, took jolly good care to put it in at the other--there was no man I had greater respect for than Alexander the Great, owing to his having done that Gordian knot business so neatly. I practised afterwards on the dominie's tawse (i.e., the fum-fum strap); I tied a splendid knot on it, and then cut it through with a jack-knife; but, woe's me! the plaguy dominie caught me in the very act, and--and I had to take my meals standing for a week. But ever since then I have always been a don at knots; and I give myself no small credit, whether you do or not, reader, for the dexterous manner in which I have polished off the cat-classification knot. There it lay before me, interminable, intricate, incensing; and bother the end could I see to it at all at all. "Draw the sword of Scotland." Swish! There it lies, the short-haired European pussies on the one hand, and the Asiatic or long-haired on the other. Among these latter you will find exactly the same colours, and the same variety of markings, as among the European cats proper. We give their points in a general way. 1. _Size_: The blue cats and the pure white are usually of the smallest dimensions; next comes the black, and lastly the tabbies. Some of these latter grow to immense sizes, and are animals of a beauty which is at times magnificent. The cat that belonged to Troppman, the distinguished French murderer, and now, or lately, possessed by Mr Hincks, of Birmingham, is worth going a day's journey to behold. Yet, although very large, they are very graceful, too, and can spring enormous distances. Fierce enough, too, they can be when there is any occasion, especially to strangers or dogs. 2. _Head_: The heads of the white, blue, and black ought to be small, round, and sweet, the expression of the countenance being singularly kind and loving. The heads of the tabbies ought to be broad and large, and not snouty. The whiskers of both ought to be very long, and of a colour to match the general tone. The ears have this peculiarity--they are slightly bent downwards and forwards, which gives rather a pensive character to their beauty. They are, moreover, graced by the _aural tuft_. The eyes must also match; and this is what I like to see--a blue eye in a white Persian, a hazel in a black, and a lovely sea-green in a tabby. 3. The _Pelage_: The pelage is long (the longer the better), especially around the neck and a-down the sides; and a good brush, gracefully swirled and carried, is an essential point of beauty. The fur ought to be as silken as possible; this shows that the cat is not only well-bred, but well-fed and taken care of. 4. _Markings_: They ought to be as distinct as possible, as pretty as possible, and evenly laid on with reference to the two sides. 5. _Colour_: All white in the pure white, all black in the black, and so on with the other distinct colours; and for the tabbies the same rules hold good as those given for short-haired tabbies. _General rules for judging Asiatic Cats_.--First scan your cats, remembering the difference in size you are to expect in tabbies from the others. Next see to the length and texture of the pelage--its glossiness, and its freedom from cinder-holes, or the reverse. Then note the colour, and the evenness or unevenness of the markings. The head most be carefully noted, as to its size and shape, the colour of the eyes and nose, ditto the whiskers; mark, too, the _lay_ of the ear, and its _aural tuft_. In the tabbies the _Mayor's Chain_ should swirl around the chest. Lastly, take a glance at the expression of face. _Merits of the Asiatic Cats_.--I think every cat-fancier will bear me out in saying that, although more delicate in constitution than our European short-hairs, and hardly so keen at mousing, ratting, or so fierce in fighting larger game, there can be no doubt of it they make far nicer pets. They are extremely affectionate and loving in their dispositions, and so fond of other animals, such as dogs, pet rabbits, guinea-pigs, etc. Their love for a kind master or mistress only ends with life itself. Then they are so beautiful and so cleanly, and, if kept in a clean room, take such care of their lovely pelage, that I only wonder there are not more of them bred than there are. They are a little more expensive at first. You can seldom pick up a good kitten at a show under one pound sterling--but if you do succeed in getting one or two nice ones, I am quite certain you will never have to repent it, if you only do them ordinary justice. It will be well to end this chapter here; but before doing so, I beg to make one or two remarks, which I feel sure will interest secretaries of coming cat-shows. 1. In all shows give the cats nice roomy pens, whether of wood or zinc. 2. Attend well to the ventilation, and more especially to disinfection. 3. Attend to the feeding, and, at a more than one-day show, cats ought to have _water_ as well as milk. I think boiled lights, cut into small pieces, with a very small portion of bullock's liver and bread soaked, is the best food; but I have tried Spratt's Patent Cat Food with a great number of cats, both of my own and those of friends, and have nearly always found it agree; and at a cat-show it would, I believe, be both handy and cleanly. 4. On no account let the pussies lie on the bare wood or zinc, but provide each with a cushion of some sort, and have a small box filled with earth or sand, in each pen. _Sawdust in a cat's cage is an abomination_. It soils the fur, and gets into the food-dish, and renders pussy simply miserable. CHAPTER EIGHT. ON DIET, DRINK, AND HOUSING. "Throw physic to the dogs," said the immortal William. That was a good many years ago, and dogs then were of very little value, and little used either to physic or good treatment; but nowadays we have found out that the possession of even a cat, entails upon us the duty and responsibility of seeing she is well cared for while in health, and properly treated in sickness. I recommended small doses of quinine and steel to an unwell pussy the other day. "Ma conscience!" cried her owner; "gie medicine to a cat! Wha ever heard o' the like?" I'm sorry that woman was Scotch, but glad to say I reasoned even her round, and her cat is now as sleek and lively as the day is long. Most, if not all the diseases which feline flesh is heir to, are brought on by bad feeding, starvation, or exposure to the weather, especially the cruel custom many people have of leaving their poor cats out all night, to seek for food and shelter for themselves. These are the cats who make night hideous with their howling, who tear up beautiful flowerbeds, rob pigeon-lofts, murder valuable rabbits, and, in a general way, do all they can to bring into disrepute the whole feline race. I declare to you honestly, there is as much difference between one of these night-prowlers and a well-cared-for cat, as there is between one of the lean and mangy curs who do scavengers' duty in Cairo, and a champion Scottish Collie. Some men will tell you that it is unmanly to love or care for a cat; just as if it _could_ be unmanly to love anything that God made and gifted with sagacity, wisdom, and undying love for all the human race! But I can point you out scores of men who are good sportsmen, fearless huntsmen, and fond of every manly sport--ay, and men, too, who are at home on the stormiest ocean, and never pale when fired upon in anger-- who can both pride and prize a favourite cat. At Exeter, not long since, out of thirty-nine owners of cats, all were men except nine, and of these nine seven were married, and the two others were young ladies, while the owner of the first-prize cat _was a gallant soldier_. So much for the notion that only old maids care for cats. Before going on to describe the diseases which afflict pussydom, we must give a few general instructions regarding her treatment while well. And first, as to her food. Pussy will catch a mouse, and after playing with it for half an hour in a way which is very cruel, but no doubt makes it very tender, she will generally kill and eat it; but it by no means follows that mice are the cat's natural food. The majority of cats catch mice more for the love of sport than anything else. Nothing, therefore, is more cruel than to starve poor pussy, with the erroneous idea that it will make her a good mouser; it is just the reverse. My Phiz bids me say that mice-catching is long, weary, anxious work at the best, and she is quite certain she would die if compelled to make a living at it. Feed your pussy well, then, if you would have her be faithful and honest, and keep your house clear of mice and rats. I have lived a good deal in apartments in my time, and I have always avoided places where there was a lean and hungry-looking cat. It is a sure sign of irregularity and bad housekeeping. Twice a day is often enough, but not too often, to feed your cat, and it is better to let her have her allowance put down to her at once, instead of feeding her with tid-bits. Nothing can be better for pussy's breakfast than oatmeal porridge and sweet milk. _Entre nous_, reader, nothing could be better for your own breakfast. Oatmeal is the food of both mind and matter, the food of the hero and the poet; it was the food of Wallace, Bruce, and Walter Scott, and has been the food of brave men and good since their day. "Oh! were I able to rehearse Scotch oatmeal's praise in proper verse, I'd blaw it oot as loud and fierce, As piper's drones could blaw, man." But I cannot wonder for a single moment at this favourite Scottish food being in disrepute in England, because hardly anyone knows how to make it. Our cook at sea once undertook to supply our mess with a daily matutinal meal of porridge, and of oatcakes too. He was sure he could make them, because his "father had once lived in Scotland." Nevertheless, I gave him some additional information, and we, the Scottish officers, of whom there were two or three besides myself, were in high glee, and took an extra turn on deck the first morning, to give us a good appetite for the great coming double event. Then down we bolted to our porridge. Porridge! save the name, such a slimy, thin, disgusting mess you never saw! Well might our chief engineer call out: "Tak' it awa', steward, tak' it awa'; it would scunner (sicken) the de'il himsel'!" "But, hurrah!" I cried, "there's the oatcakes to come. Steward, where are the oatcakes?" The steward lifted the cover from the dish on which was wont to repose our delicious "'spatch cock," or savoury curry, and there, lo and behold! half-a-dozen things of the shape and thickness of a ship's biscuit, black, and wet, and steaming, and we were supposed to eat them _with a knife and fork_! Meanwhile the ham and eggs were fast disappearing among the Englishmen at the other end of the table, and we poor Scots had to go without our breakfast, and get laughed at into the bargain. But here, now, I'll tell you what I'll do for you, as Cheap Jack says-- I'll give you a receipt by which you shall live a hundred years, and begin your second century a deal stronger than you began your first. Buy your meal from the meal-shop--no, not the chemist, my dear--taste it to make sure it has no "nip;" see, also, that it is fresh, and not ground before Culloden, and buy it neither too fine nor too round, but just a _happy medium_. Having thus caught your hare, so to speak, go home with it, and put a saucepan on a clear fire, with a pint of beautiful spring-water, into which throw a teaspoonful, or more, of salt, and a dessert spoonful of oatmeal. This is essential. Then sit down and read till the water boils. Now take your "spurckle" or "whurtle" in your right hand--I don't know the English of "spurckle" or "whurtle," but it is a round piece of wood, rather thicker than your thumb and not so long as your arm, and you never see it silver-mounted-- and commence operations. You stir in the meal very gradually, to prevent its getting knotted, and you occasionally pause to let it boil a moment, and you continue this until the porridge is quite thick, and the bubbles rise into small mountains ere they escape, with a sound between a "whitch" and a "whirr," which is in itself a pleasure to listen to. And now it is ready, and you have only to pour it into a large soup-plate, sprinkle a little dry oatmeal over the top of it, and set it aside until reasonably cold. You eat it with a spoon--not a fork--and with nice sweet milk. "A dish fit for a king," you say; "A dish fit for the gods!" I resound. Now, having told you all this, I feel I have well deserved of my country; and I'm not above accepting--a hamper at any time. Bread-and-milk, soaked, is the next best thing for pussy; and at dinner you must let her have a wee bit of meat. Lights, boiled and cut in pieces, are best, but horseflesh isn't bad; but you mustn't give her too much of either, or you will induce diarrhoea. Give her fish, occasionally, as a treat. If pussy is a show cat, a little morsel of butter, given every day, after dinner, will make her dress her jacket with surprising regularity. Now, as to what she drinks, a well-bred cat is always particular, and at times even fastidious; but two things they must have--water and milk. They will often prefer the former to the latter. _But do keep their dishes clean_. Disease is often brought on from neglect of this precaution. Cats will drink tea or beer, and I have seen a Tom get as drunk as a duke on oatmeal and whisky. An old lady, an acquaintance of mine, has a fine red-and-white Tom, and whenever he is ailing she gives him "just a leetle drop o' brandy, sir." Tom, I think, must have had two little drops o' brandy yesterday, when he rode my fox-terrier, Princie, all round the paddock. Those naughty drops o' brandy! Just one word about housing. There is no more objectionable practice than that of turning your cat out of doors at night, and none more certain to engender disease and spoil your pussy's morals. If you have taken the least pains to train your cat to habits of cleanliness, she will never misbehave herself. Keep her in at night, then, and you'll have her in health; keep her in if you want to run no risk of getting her poisoned; keep her in, and the neighbours will bless you. Don't lock her into a room, though, unless she has an attic to herself. Let her have the run of the house from basement to roof. Give pussy a bed to lie on, or let her find one for herself, which she has a happy knack of doing, as I daresay more than one of my readers can testify. My pretty Phiz needn't have kittened in my cocked hat, nevertheless. So much, then, for the prevention of disease. We will now come to diseases themselves. But just let me impress upon your mind, reader, this fact--that attention to your pussy's housing, drink, and the cleanliness and regularity of her diet, will almost certainly prevent her from getting sick. CHAPTER NINE. THE DISEASES OF CATS. Before describing the management and treatment of feline ailments, I may as well mention that there are three different plans usually adopted for giving a cat medicine. Pussy must first and foremost be caught--not always an easy job, as the little creature is fond of hiding away when ill. Take her on your knee, and, as you gently soothe her, envelope her, all save the head, in a woollen shawl, and then place her in some one else's arms to hold. Now, if it is a pill or small bolus it must be dipped in oil, and placed well down behind the tongue, and towards the roof of the mouth; if it is a powder, it may simply be placed on the tongue; but the better plan is to mix it first with a little treacle or glycerine; thirdly, if it is a fluid, the mouth must be held well open, and the medicine poured down the throat out of a small phial, but only a few drops at a time. If your cat is suffering from any severe illness, such as bronchitis, and you value her, set aside a garret or lumber-room for her accommodation, for quiet is essential to her recovery. Arrange her bed as common sense tells you will best suit her comfort; don't forget to let her have plenty of clean water to drink, and a large box of garden mould in the far corner of the room. There is only one other little matter, which must not be overlooked--and, with this, pussy's little hospital is complete--Grass. _Grass_.--This is the natural medicine of both cat and dog. In large doses, it acts as an emetic; in smaller, as a purgative; its mode of action being similar in both cases, namely, mechanical irritation of the muscular and mucous coats of the alimentary canal; this causing spasmodic contraction of the stomach, or increasing the peristaltic motions of bowel. Grass also possesses valuable antiscorbutic properties, and the cat, either in sickness or health, should never want a supply of it. If pussy has been out all night at a feline entertainment on the tiles, and the excitement has produced constipation, her remedy is grass. If she has made too free in the aviary, and the feathers of the Norwich cock lie unpleasantly on her stomach, grass is her cure; or if she, at any time, feels hot or feverish, out into the garden she goes, and a little grass, taken at intervals, soon makes her feel as fresh as the lark. Don't let your cat want grass, then; if you live in a town, and she has some difficulty in getting it, either procure it for her yourself, or, what is better, get a boxful of earth, and sow it, and call it pussy's garden. Now for pussy's ailments. _Mange_.--All skin diseases in the cat, whether pustular, papular, or squamous, may be, for convenience' sake, called _mange_. Cats are very subject to skin diseases, especially long-haired ones, and those who have been the subjects of bad or careless treatment; for they are always brought about by poverty of the blood, from under-feeding, or surfeit from over-eating on dainties. Now I must warn the cat-fancier that there is no _specific_ for the cure of mange in the cat, and that the cure will take weeks, and at times even months; he must therefore make up his mind either to destroy the cat at once, or set about curing her in earnest. Attend, in the first place, to her diet. It must be nourishing, but not heating; plenty of good milk, and no meat, unless she be very thin, when raw meat in small quantities may be given twice a day. Dress the skin with carbolic oil, washing her carefully next day; then try equal parts of sulphur-ointment and green iodide of mercury ointment, mixed with an equal bulk of lard. Give her arsenic internally--one drop of the _Liquor arsenicalis_ twice a day, in milk, for a week, then thrice a day for another week, when you must omit it for a day or two, and then begin again. At the same time give her, once or twice a week, a little sulphur. Placing brimstone-roll in a cat's drinking-water is all a mistake, and does no good at all. Sometimes the disease will only yield to a course of iodide of potash. Give her half-grain or whole-grain doses, made into little boluses with breadcrumbs--which any chemist can make for you--twice a day. _Ulcers_.--Cats are liable to a variety of these, but they can best and most conveniently be described as of two sorts--_constitutional_ and _accidental_. The first are the most difficult to cure, and are usually found on the toes or feet. Confine the cat to the house for a term; any simple ointment, such as that of zinc, will do for a dressing, as it will not hurt her if she licks it. Put her on a course of arsenic, as recommended above; give her, once a week, one grain of calomel, or two or three grains of grey powder and a little sulphur; and, if the sores appear sluggish, touch them once a day with blue-stone or nitrate of silver. Feed her well and regularly. _Accidental ulcers_ are generally the result of scratches and wounds received in the hunting-field, or during some slight difference of opinion with the pussy over the way. They require no internal treatment. If they look angry, bathe in warm water, or milk and water, and use, occasionally, a little lotion of sulphate of zinc--ten grains to four ounces of water, to which add one drachm of tincture of lavender. If the sores are sluggish, and indisposed to heal kindly, truss the cat in the shawl, and cauterise with nitrate of silver; afterwards dress with the mildest mercurial ointment. _Inflammation of the eyes_ is generally the result of injury or cold caught from exposure. It may be confined to one eye, or may attack both. In either case the treatment is the same. Begin by the use of a purgative--say two or three grains of compound jalap-powder mixed in glycerine, and given in the morning; give nothing but bread-and-milk to eat, and let the cat have a little sulphur mixed with butter or lard every second day. The external treatment consists in bathing frequently with warm water or weak green tea, and the following lotion, may afterwards be used with advantage: two grains of sulphate of zinc to an ounce of water, or one grain of nitrate of silver to the same quantity of _aqua pura_. _Simple Maladies_.--If you are fond of your cat you will naturally easily know when she is getting out of sorts or going to be ill. When you observe, then, from her appearing dull and apathetic, refusing her food, taking to dark corners, or sleeping all day, without attempting to go out of doors; and, especially if her coat is dry; catch her at once, and give her an emetic. Try a little salt and water first, and, if that will not act, two grains of sulphate of zinc will, given in luke-warm water. Afterwards administer as much castor-oil as you would give to a baby, or two or three grains of grey powder. Such treatment, taken in time, will often have the effect of cutting short a serious illness. _Operations_.--Never hesitate to open an abscess if you think, or rather, if you are about half sure, there is matter in it. Afterwards foment with warm water. Poultices are unhandy. If the cat's leg has been severely lacerated and broken in a trap, and there seems little likelihood of its being able to heal, cut it off. Do it quietly, gently, and firmly; the ragged edge of the bone may be sawn off with a table-knife made into a saw with a file. (I cut a man's finger off the other day with the same instrument. About a fortnight after, the commander, sitting at luncheon, made the innocent remark: "This knife is rather blunt, steward. I'm hanged!" he roared, immediately after, as he dashed the knife through the open port, "I'm hanged if it isn't the doctor's saw!") Be sure to leave enough flesh to form a flap to cover the bone; stop the bleeding with the actual cautery, then sew up and dress the wound in sticking plaster; only leave room for the egress of matter. Painful operations of this sort are always better performed under chloroform. Lay the cat on her side (rolled in the shawl) on some one else's knee, pour a little chloroform into a handkerchief, and hold it _near, not on_ pussy's nose, or you will smother her. As soon as one portion of the chloroform gets evaporated supply its place with more; in from five to ten minutes pussy will be in the land of nod. _Consumption_.--Consumption in the cat is curable, because it is not necessarily disease of the lungs. The term is used to denote all sorts of wasting disease in which pussy falls away in flesh, in coat, and in general health. The treatment must be careful--regulation of the diet and attention to her housing, an occasional mild purgative and dose of sulphur-butter. You may give her raw meat steeped in wine if she will take it; but remember your great sheet-anchor in the care of all these cases is _cod-liver oil_, a dessert spoonful every day, or even more. And you may supplement the treatment most advantageously by giving, twice a day, the sixth of a grain of quinine. One word of warning to cat-fanciers before I close this chapter. _Never ask a veterinary surgeon about your cat_. Their knowledge of canine ailments is vastly behind the times; their knowledge of cat diseases is simply and literally _carte blanche_. If you want your pussy killed or tormented to death, _go to a chemist_. The chemists in this country, through their ignorance, and impudent assumption of medical knowledge, slay their thousands annually. Their ignorant patients, however, go with their eyes open, and place themselves in chemists' hands. Well, as a paternal government refuses to protect the people, let the chemists go ahead and poison away; but, if warning of mine will be heard and heeded, they shall not poison our pussies too. CHAPTER TEN. DISEASES OF CATS--CONTINUED. Probably one of the commonest and most distressing of complaints in the cat is _diarrhoea_; and what makes it all the more distressing, is the fact that, instead of receiving sympathy and good treatment in her distress, she is often harshly treated, kicked about, and thrust out of doors. Diarrhoea is usually brought about by want of regular feeding, by improper food, and exposure to wet and cold. Different sorts of food will also induce it--such as rancid horseflesh, sour milk, an over-allowance of fat or liver. If taken at once, the treatment is generally very successful; if let go on too long, the cat will rapidly lose flesh; and the advent of dysentery will make it a charity to put her out of the way. Give her at first a small teaspoonful of castor-oil, to which add two drops of solution of muriate of morphia. This will often stop it, and remove all offending matter from the intestines. If there is no improvement, repeat the dose on the second morning, and give small doses of common chalk mixture three times a day, with two drops of laudanum divided between the three doses. Let her have nothing but bread and milk to eat, or a little corn-flour, if she will take it; if not, give her fish--she won't refuse that. A few drops of solution of lime added to her milk will do good. If she be very much reduced in weight, and has no appetite, try two grains of quinine made into twelve pills with breadcrumb: dose, one three times a day. Or you may give cod-liver oil. _Dysentery_ is a frequent sequel to badly-treated diarrhoea. It is simply ulceration of the coats of the bowels, combined with great emaciation, roughness of coat, dejected look, and loss of appetite. Unless a very valuable cat, I would not advise you to keep her alive. You may, however, with patience, bring her round. Give her, then, a grain or two of calomel occasionally, and quinine three times a day, unless she exhibits any tendency to fits. House her well, and give her the most generous of diet--raw meat, eggs, etc, and a little port wine daily, or even a small quantity of brandy. _Gastritis_, or inflammation of the stomach, is by no means rare in the cat, and is frequently the result of poison having been given with the hope of causing death. The cat simply pines, and gets thin, and refuses nearly all food, which, when she does eat, causes pain, sickness, and vomiting. The bowels, too, are often disordered. There is nothing better, in these cases, than the tris-nitrate of bismuth, from one to three grains to be placed on the tongue twice or thrice daily. You may also give occasionally a grain or two of calomel with a little rhubarb powder. If there is much emaciation, cod-liver oil may be tried, and a small allowance of raw meat, cut into little bits; and quinine. _Bronchitis_.--This is a much more common and dangerous disease than is generally supposed. It often attacks cats at a particular age--say, six or eight months--and, indeed, is somewhat analogous to distemper in the dog. It is ushered in by the usual symptoms of a bad cold--staring coat, watery eyes, and a slight cough. If the disease be confined to the lining membranes of the nose and throat, there will be but little cough, but it usually attacks the bronchi (windpipes) themselves. There is pain, a slight swelling of the nose, and mattery exudation from both nose and eyes. After a few days of the acute comes _the chronic stage_. Pussy is now a very wretched and unhappy little object indeed. She wanders about the house coughing continually, with her little tongue protruding. She gets rapidly thin, and refuses all food; and, if not attended to, generally seeks some quiet, dark corner in which to die. _Treatment_.--Great good can be done in the first stage by hot fomentations applied across the face. These must be frequent, or they are of no avail. Keep pussy indoors, and at first let her diet be low-- simply bread and milk, and occasionally fish. Give her castor-oil alone, if there is no diarrhoea; if there is, add to the dose two drops of solution of muriate of morphia. As the disease gets chronic, and pussy begins to lose flesh, do everything you can to support her strength by beef-tea, nourishing food, and wine. If the cough is troublesome, get her the following, compounded by your own chemist:--R. Extr. conii, Pil. scillae, co. aa., gr. xv.; Camph., gr. xx. Mix and make into twenty-four pills, and give one night and morning. Latterly give cod-liver oil to complete the cure, which, in this case, will act like magic. If the mange is present in any shape, it must be carefully seen to as directed under that heading. _Fits_.--These are by no means uncommon among our domestic cats. They are of various kinds--fainting fits, delirious fits, and convulsive fits. The former are usually caused by weakness, exposure to the weather, and general ill-treatment, or loss of blood. All that is required during the fit is rest and exposure to a current of cool air. After the fit you ought to set about getting pussy's bodily health into better condition by good food, tonics, and oil. _Delirious_ fits are those in which the poor cat, through mental or bodily suffering, apparently goes wild, dashing madly through the house, springing through a window, and finally hiding herself away in some dark corner. You must catch her and put her into a quiet room, and do all you can to soothe her. Apply smelling-salts to the nostrils, and bleed. This operation is easily performed by making a puncture through any of the small veins inside the ear, and fomenting in hot water. An emetic-- if the cat is not insensible--will, in all probability, do good, as, both in the delirious and convulsive fits, the stomach and bowels are generally out of order. _Convulsive Fits_.--The cat emits a cry as of pain and terror, and falls down on her side, foaming at the mouth, and with convulsive motions of all the limbs, accompanied with cries and moans. Usually ends in a delirious fit. During the fit do nothing at all, except prevent pussy from injuring herself or any one else; and do this gently and firmly. A pinch of snuff or smelling-bottle applied to the nose can do no harm. Afterwards bleed, and keep her in a quiet, cool room, and treat as for the delirious fit above described. When pussy has recovered--and especially if she has had a succession of fits--something ought to be done to prevent their recurrence. If too fat, you must reduce her by lowering her diet, and giving a little sheep's liver and milt two or three times a week. If too thin, tonics and raw meat must be given, and cod-liver oil every morning. If, in spite of this, the fits recur, you must have recourse to such an alterative as the following, which has done good in many such cases:--R Bromid. potass., gr. xv.; Iod. potass., Zinci sulph., aa., gr. v. Mix with moist breadcrumb, and make twenty boluses, of which the dose is one night and morning. _Jaundice_.--Called also the yellows. The disease can hardly be mistaken. It is characterised by general feverishness, loss of appetite, a disposition to "lie about," and by vomiting of a bright yellow or green fluid, covered with froth. The skin, eyes, and lips are also tinged with yellow. It is often fatal if not attended to in time. I give, to begin with, a very small teaspoonful of Glauber salts, diluted with plenty of water. It acts as a purgative or emetic, I don't care which. If the vomiting continues, try a few grains of white bismuth placed on the tongue, or take three drops of creosote, and five of aromatic powder, and form into ten pills, with breadcrumb. _Dose_, one three times a day. For four or five nights running give one grain of calomel on the tongue. But watch the symptoms, and omit for a night or two, if it causes too much purging. If not, you can give a small dose of castor-oil in the morning. As she gets well, strengthen her, and encourage her appetite with quinine first--no wine--and, after a week or two, with raw meat and cod-liver oil. _Milk Fever_.--Only cat-fanciers will believe that poor pussy suffers, at times, the most cruel tortures, from the thoughtless practice of depriving her of her kittens all at once. Either this or cold usually produces milk fever. I need not describe it; it being synchronous with the suckling season will be sufficient to enable even a tyro to diagnose it. If the cat is very much excited, and partially or wholly delirious, bleeding must be resorted to, and afterwards give a castor-oil purgative, with three or four drops of the compound tincture of camphor, and keep her in a quiet room. At the same time, the swollen and painful teats must be frequently fomented with warm water. Never take a cat's kittens away all at once, but always leave one at least. If she has five, and you mean to drown four, drown two one day and two the next, so that the first milk may be well drawn off. I have not mentioned half the ills that feline flesh is heir to, but I think I have said sufficient to indicate the _general plan of treatment_ of cat diseases. Let me only just repeat that if you use your pussy well in the matter of housing, food, and drink--bar accidents--you will never have her ill at all. CHAPTER ELEVEN. TRICKS AND TRAINING. Before going on to speak of the training of youthful pussy, there is one subject which deserves a word or two at least--namely, the humane destruction of cats, when such destruction becomes necessary. Kittens, at least, people have often to get rid of, or the whole world would be peopled with cats, and that would hardly do. Although I am no advocate for the rash and hasty condemnation of the sickest cat that ever is, still, I must confess that, at times, to destroy a cat is to be merciful to it. Never give kittens poison, it is cruel in the extreme; you might chloroform them to death, but one doesn't like to waste much time in taking life, if merely a kitten's; the pail is always handy, and the poor wee things don't really suffer much if you do it properly. Always sink them, and keep the pail for three hours, after which bury them at once. I'll give you an example of the wrong way of doing things. Miss M--n, who lived not a stone's throw from where I now write, and who is an old maid (and may a merciful Providence keep her so!), was changing her residence last month, and at the last moment thought she couldn't be bothered with more than one of her kittens--little Persian beauties, whom she had let live a whole month--so one was snatched from its mother's arms, and pitched carelessly into a pail of water. She never heeded its cries, nor the mother's piteous appeal to save her offspring; so presently kitty was dead, to all appearance, and the bucket was emptied over the wall into an adjoining field. This was at eleven o'clock in the morning, and late that evening some boys, in passing, were attracted to the spot by plaintive mews, and there they found the kitten crawling in the grass, with sadly swollen body and inflamed mouth. The boys drowned and buried it, being more humane than old maid M--n. If necessity, then, compels you to part by death with an old cat, and probably an old friend and favourite, I do not advise you to have her drowned. It is cruel in many ways; there is the catching of her, the putting of her into the sack with the stone, and the march to the waterside, the cat knowing all the while what is to happen, and that her mistress ordered her death. Do not drown her. If there is any one you can really trust, that you are sure knows the difference between a gun and a washing-stick, by all means have her shot. It is over in a moment. The next best plan is to administer morphia. Don't grudge her a good dose--five or even ten grains. Cats are wonderfully tenacious of life, but they can't stand that. Make the morphia into a pill, with a little of the extract of liquorice, and force it down the throat. Pussy will sleep the sleep that knows no waking, and you will have the satisfaction of knowing she did not suffer. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Apart from teaching a cat tricks, which tend to amuse children or older folks, there is a training which every pussy needs when young--viz, to be cleanly and honest. For some weeks after the kitten has been taken from its mother, and gone to its new abode, a flower-pot saucer filled with sand, or, what is better, a small box of garden mould, must be placed in a particular corner of the room, and the kitten taught to go there; two or three lessons are usually sufficient. By degrees wean her from the box, and teach her to go out of doors. As to teaching her the difference between _meum_ and _tuum_, I maintain, with all cat-fanciers, that cats are honest by nature, although they may, at times, be tempted to steal a herring, or take a slight liberty with the canary. The great secret is to feed pussy well, and be kind to her; you may then let her sit on the table, or even extend to her the liberty of the press. Depend upon it she will never do anything to deserve disfranchisement. If ever you catch pussy tripping, chastise her; but don't forget this, you must do so only very moderately, or in the fright she will forget what she is being whipped for. A little bit of whalebone is the best thing to use, but take care you do not hit her about the head. I have often known cats severely chastised for what they were quite innocent of. One pussy, I remember, used to be thrashed every day for a whole week for a certain act of impropriety, and it turned out, after all, that Charley, the black-and-tan, was the real culprit. She took it out of Charley, however. She whipped him upstairs, and she whipped him down, and finally she whipped him over the window, which was two storeys high. Poor Charley was much hurt, and didn't turn up again for a fortnight. Would you have your cat a good mouser? Then _feed her regularly_ and liberally; I assure you, madam, that is the whole secret. Cats, when young, can be taught a whole host of amusing tricks. The most graceful of these is, perhaps, leaping heights. A cat that has had constant exercise at this sort of thing will spring almost incredible distances. The best plan to train her to this is to attach a hare's foot to the end of a rod and set it in motion for her. You can every day place it a little higher, and she will soon take to it naturally. Cats thus trained will climb the tallest trees, and leap from branch to branch like squirrels. By holding your arms in front of pussy you will soon teach her to leap backwards and forwards over them. As she gets older, increase the distance of your arms from the ground, until at last you place them right over your head, and pussy will go over and through like any old steeple-chaser. You may teach her to go through a hoop, or hoops, held at any elevation, and in all conceivable positions. Remember always to speak kindly to her when teaching her anything. Never chastise her; and when she has performed her little feat to your satisfaction, make much of her, and give her a morsel of fish, or any favourite food. Cats are easily taught to fish in this manner: take them when young to a shallow stream, on a clear day, where the minnows are plentiful, and throw in a dead one or two, and encourage the cat to catch them. She will soon be after the living ones. I had a cat that I taught to retrieve like a dog, and to fetch and carry. The same cat had for its constant companion my cheeky little starling, who used to hop about and on her, pick her teeth, and open her claws, but she never attempted to molest him. You can teach your cat to follow you like a dog, and take long walks with you, and to come to you whenever you call her by whistling. I have told you how to make your cat a good mouser, now I'll give you another wrinkle--how to make her a good trickster--_love her_ and take an interest in all her little performances, and you will be surprised at the amount of tricks she will learn. Without reference to the accomplishments of performing cats, who require a special education, I may here enumerate just a few of the many simple performances, which, with firmness, gentleness, and patience, you may easily teach any cat of ordinary brain calibre. A cat may be taught to beg like a dog; to embrace you; to pat your nose or your neighbour's nose when told--(N.B. It's just as well it should _always_ be your neighbour's nose)--to down charge; to watch by a mouse's hole; to stand in a corner on her hind legs; to move rhythmically to music; to mew when told; to shut her eyes when told; to leap six or eight feet through a hoop or over your head; to feign sleep; to feign death; to open or shut a door; to ring the bell; to fish; to swim, and retrieve either in the water or on the land. I have a cat who, if I hold her up in front of the map of London, will place her paw upon any principal building I like to name. The cat has been used to be carried round the room to catch flies on the wall. The principal buildings in the map are marked with square black spots, which she naturally mistakes for flies, so you have only to hold her in front of the map nearest to the spot you want her to touch, and slightly elevate your voice when you name the place, and the thing is done. CHAPTER TWELVE. AGREMENS OF CAT LIFE. Before we can thoroughly understand the ways and habits of any animal, we must try, in a manner, to put ourselves in that animal's place, and thus be able to study life from its point of view. I don't believe that God made any creature to be otherwise than happy, and He has endowed each member of His creation with just that amount of reason and instinct which shall enable it to find its food and a place to rest in, make love in its own way, marry after its own fashion--by civil contract--bring up its young, and, in a word, be generally jolly. I found a poor bee this morning getting drowned in the water-butt. "Yes," I said, "I'll save your life, but I will give you as a treat to my pet spider." Man has the proposing, but not the disposing. I laid my bee for one moment on the edge of the butt to dry, when whirr! away he darted through the bright morning sunshine, and my spider had to be content with a bluebottle for breakfast. This spider, I may tell you, is a very large and beautiful specimen, striped and marked like a silver tabby. He lives in an outhouse, and has a web, the network of which is a yard in diameter, with goodness knows how many feet of tack, and sheet, and stay, and guy. And a very amusing rascal he is, and not a bit afraid of me. Nearly every day, I give him a bee with the sting out. (It is in the kaleidoscope of events; that some day I may leave the sting in, just to see how he feels it.) I place the bee in the web, and it is amusing to see how quickly my friend shins up the rigging--he catches the bee by the shoulders, and makes him spin for a few seconds like a top, till he is completely enveloped in a gauzy shroud, and there is a big hole in the web. I tell my spider he shouldn't make a hole in the web. "Never mind that," he replies, "soon make that all right," and sure enough next morning the web is nicely repaired, and the bee nearly eaten. I don't think he eats all the bee himself. I am convinced that he has a little wife who lives somewhere in a corner, and that every day he is careful to send her a leg, or a wing, or a bit of the breast. Well, he is happy, I know. Hadn't he a nice private house, without rent or taxes, maybe a wife, and a thriving business, to say nothing at all about the bee. I have studied cats as I have studied that spider. I have imagined myself that spider. I have been, or imagined myself to be, a cat--a Tom, you know, and I can fully understand a pussy's life and a pussy's joys and sorrows. "How different," I thought, as I mused one morning under a tree, "is the life of a cat from that of a dog. I'm the parson's cat to be sure, but then I'm my own master. Now, there is the parson's Saint Bernard dog, Dumpling for instance,--an honest, contented fellow enough, but, bless you, he isn't free. _I_ am. Dumpling can't do as he pleases. I can. I can go to bed when I like, rise when I like, and eat and drink, when, where, or what I choose. Dumpling _can't_. Really I feel I can forgive Dumpling for chasing me into the apple-tree last Sunday when I think of the dull life the dog leads, and how few are his joys compared to mine. Poor Dumpling needs servants to wait upon him, and he can't even walk a couple of miles, and make sure of his way home, or sure of not getting into a row, or not getting stolen, or something else equally ridiculous. The other day Dumpling actually sat on the door-step for two hours in the rain, till his great shaggy coat was wet through and through, because, forsooth, he didn't know how to get the door opened. Would I have done that? No. I should have walked up politely to the first kind-faced passenger, and asked that passenger to `be good enough to ring this bell for me, please, 'cause I ain't big enough,' and the thing would have been done. Could Dumpling unlatch a door or catch a mouse? Could he climb a tree and rob a sparrow's nest? or could he find his way home over the tiles on a dark night? I would laugh to see him try. "Now here am I on this bright, beautiful summer morning, as fresh as a daisy, as happy as a king. Catch me sleeping in the house on a summer's night! "How sweetly the birds are singing, but how much more sweetly they will taste! What a glorious day I had of it yesterday all through! Put in an appearance at the parson's breakfast-table, just for fashion's sake, and pretended to drink the milk my kind mistress placed before me. Fairly won the old lady's heart by rubbing my head affectionately against the canary's cage. `Dear Tom,' said she, `_you_ would never touch the pretty bird?' Oh! wouldn't I, though? "What a nasty old man that Farmer Trump is! I'm sure, if it wasn't that I have a taste for pigeons, and am a little bit of a Columbarian, I would never have thought of looking at his lot, anyhow. Besides, I had only eaten two when in came _he_, and out went _I_. Well, if he didn't take his gun and fire after me. Well, if he hadn't done anything of the sort, he wouldn't have shot his bantam cock. "I didn't go into that milk cellar of my own free will. It was purely accidental. I was chased by a dog, but being in, how could I, being only a thirsty cat, and amid such profusion, help helping myself to a drop of cream? And if the clumsy old dairymaid hadn't thrown her shoe at me, she wouldn't have broken the milk-house window. It was no business of mine. I met Master Black-and-tan outside, and warmed him. I gave _him_ sore eyes. That old shoe brought luck with it, however, for about an hour after I found myself in a large and beautiful garden, filled with beds of the rarest flowers. It isn't always you get a bed made for you, thinks I; so I scraped about me a bit, and went off to sleep in the sun. Where did that half-brick come from? I wonder. I'm somehow of opinion that it was meant for me. However, if people will use profane language, and heave bricks at the heads of unoffending cats, they mustn't be astonished if they do smash the cucumber frame. "I find it so much better to live in the free forest, because, if I live in the house, a day never passes that I do not get into a row, and I always get the worst of it. Only yesterday I looked in for a few minutes at tea-time, and there was Dumpling standing, with a yard of tongue hanging from one side of his mouth; and Master must pat him, and call him a fine fellow; then I jumped on the sofa-stool, and smacked him in the face, and Dumpling knocked down the stool to get at me, besides a cup and saucer, with his wisp of a tail, and I bolted through a pane of glass, and got blamed for that. Day before, a mouse was pleased to get behind a china vase, and I had to break the vase to get at it--I got blamed for that. Same day I ran away with a mackerel. That mackerel seemed positively to say, `Oh, pussy, do run away with me, and eat me in some nice, quiet corner.' And I did; and, would you believe it, I was even blamed for that! "I'm going to see Zelina to-night. Zelina is a beautiful black Persian angel, with hazel eyes and flowing fur, and a voice that would lure the larks from the sky. Zelina belongs to the barber, and I met her by appointment in the back garden, and found her very thick with three other fellows. That's the worst of Zelina. But I fellowed them! For five minutes you wouldn't have seen either of us for fluff, and at the end of that time little remained of the other cats save the teeth. Meanwhile Zelina looked calmly on. Then I wooed Zelina beneath the moon, and thrashed her, and beat her, and bit her, till at last she consented to fly with me to a foreign shore; but we made such a row that we awoke the brute of a barber, and he threw a basin of dirty water right over us, and there was no more foreign shore thought of. But I'll see her to-night, sweet Zelina!" I'll conclude this paper with a rather curious anecdote, told me by Captain A. Brown, late of Arbroath, now of Chatham, Canada. "We have a cat," says Captain Brown, "who brought up a kitten in a loft above the woodshed, until it was old enough to wean; she then brought it down to run about, but the dog (a puppy) would on every opportunity take the kitten in its mouth and drag it about. This the cat didn't seem to like, so one day she took it in her mouth, and carried it along, on the top of the fence, to the nearest farm, a quarter of a mile off, where the _kitten's father lived_. She placed the kitten at the male parent's feet, gave it suck once more, then started off home along the fence, and never went near it again." This anecdote, for the truth of which the captain vouches, clearly proves that pussy has a much larger amount of reasoning power than most people give her credit for. It was just as though pussy had addressed the male cat thus: "I've brought you your youngster, Thomas. It cannot live at home for the mischievous puppy. Goodness knows I've done _my_ duty to him as a mother; now, hub, you have a turn. Time about's fair-play, Thomas; good-bye." CHAPTER THIRTEEN. SAGACITY OF THE CAT. "The dignity of life is not impaired By aught which innocently satisfies The humbler cravings of the heart; and he Is still a happier man, who, for the heights Of speculation not unfit, descends, And such benign affections cultivates, Among the inferior kinds." Wordsworth. I think many of the miseries which the "harmless necessary cat" has to endure in this wicked world of hers and ours would be mitigated if not entirely removed, were we only to take the trouble to study and consider what a wonderfully reasoning and sensible little thing she is. "Leave the study to old maids," I think I hear some manly (?) reader exclaim. But why to old maids? It is you who are unkind to pussy, and regardless of her comforts, and not old maids. And indeed, indeed now, I never for the life of me could see why any stigma should attach itself to an old maid any more than to a cat. Most of the old maids I have known were very agreeable persons indeed, and I've spent many a quiet and enjoyable hour with old maids over a cup of homely tea. My two maternal aunts are old maids, they even plead guilty to the soft impeachment, but cheerier bodies you wouldn't meet anywhere. They go three times to the kirk on a Sunday, to be sure, and wouldn't cook a meal on that sacred day for a world. But just see them on a week-day, look at their bright smiling faces--what odds if they do try to appear a few years younger?--and ah! just see them go through the intricate figures of the mazy Reel o' Tulloch, and hear them crack their thumbs, and cry "hooch!" you wouldn't say old-maidendom was so very dreary after that. It isn't always a woman's fault if she can't get married: many, whose early affections have been blighted, would not marry if they could, for haven't they got a posy somewhere, a locket with a face, a lock of hair, and a faded ribbon which erst was bonny blue--relics of lost love, around which cling sweetest memories of the past? Besides, have not unmarried ladies more opportunities to taste the sweets of doing good, and, better still, more time to cherish hopes of happiness hereafter, which are worth a world of wedded bliss? Cats then, like old maids, are fifty times worse than they are painted, and the reason why people don't like them is because they don't understand them. I have at this moment a large and beautiful tabby, and I positively rejoice that that cat is so fierce to everyone but me, because before I got her she was subjected to the most barbarous treatment, neither fed, nor housed, nor watered, and I believe I was the first person from whom she ever got a word of kindness. No wonder that at first she did not understand my meaning. But she does now, though she never will be tame; but if I am asleep she mounts guard on the table near me, and her purring chant is speedily turned into a low, ominous growl if any one but touches the handle of the door. Does she know that I am asleep, and that one in sleep is helpless as regards defence? I'm sure she does, for-- _Cats know the nature of sleep in others_.--A friend of mine has a pussy, Kate to name, who has been early trained to habits of cleanliness. When Kate wishes to get out at night she goes to her master's bedside, and mews loudly and entreatingly. To see how she will behave, sometimes her master pretends to be fast asleep, and snores loudly. "Oh!" thinks puss to herself, "this will never do;" so she invariably stands upon her hind legs, and pats his face with her gloved hand. When he gets up, she trots pleasantly before him towards a little window, which he opens for her, and admits her into the garden. The same cat for many years used to seat herself regularly every night on a chest of drawers, waiting patiently till the door of the adjoining cupboard was thrown open for her: this cupboard was a very prolific hunting-ground of pussy's. When she had kittens, and they were able to eat, she used to bring all the mice to them, and present them with that fond "murring" mew which all cat lovers know so well. Everybody knows that cats can open doors if left off the latch, and also that they soon get up to the mechanism of the old-fashioned hand-and-thumb latch; they open this by springing up, and holding on to the hand portion with one arm, while they press down the thumb portion with the other foot. A lady friend of mine has a large Tabby Tom who can open a room door, by standing on his hind legs and turning the knob with his teeth. This is clever, but cats even know how to _fasten_ doors, at least some do; and this same _lady was once in_ a cupboard, when one of her pussies came and turned on the button latch of the door, and made her a prisoner for some considerable time! In a small village which I know, there is an old woman who lives by keeping lodgers of the more humble description. As these have often to get up and be off early in the morning, the woman always gives them strict injunctions to shut the door when they go out, for fear of thieves. One morning a lodger had forgotten to obey his landlady's instructions. Pussy, however, had witnessed the infraction of the rule, and walked directly to her mistress's bedside, and began to mew most plaintively. Nor would she be content till the woman got up, when the cat led her directly to the door. Pussy wouldn't go out, but so soon as the door was shut, led the way again back to bed, _singing_. Old women's cats are nearly always wiser than others--they get more care taken with their training, and more comfort and love. They know all the ways, likes, and dislikes of a beloved mistress, and study them just as they do their own. Indeed, some of the things I have known old women's cats do are unaccountable in any other way, but the belief that they are possessed of a very high amount of intelligence and reasoning power. No wonder our ignorant ancestors believed them possessed of devils. You see it is just like this--when you once get a cat to love you, you, and you only, will become the study of her whole life. She soon finds out what pleases you, and what vexes you, and also what you love, and, whether that be dog or child, she will love it too, to please you. Cats will often, very often--just like dogs--lead those they love to places where something or some creature is in danger. It may be, as happened to myself once, while residing in Lincoln, two summers ago, when a cat came towards me out of an entry, and, as plain as any animal could speak, gazed up into my face, and cried: "Come, oh come and help me?" I followed, and she led me down the garden to a closet, through which her kitten had dropped into the cesspool below. Now just think for one moment of the amount of sagacity shown in this case! Piteously the little kit had mewed to her mother: "Mother, mother, come and help me?" Pussy's answer had been: "My dear, I can't, but I'll soon find those who will." And that was precisely my answer to the mother cat, when I saw the state of affairs, and I kept my word. And once again a pussy--this time my own--led me a long way from my work to a distant outhouse to see her kits. After she got me to the spot where they were, she rolled on her back and held them up one by one to be admired. I knew the case of a cat bringing her mistress hastily to a room where her sick child lay. The child had rolled on to the floor, and would have been smothered, except for pussy's timely aid. Some will hardly credit this, because they do not see the working of the internal machine--pussy's mind--nor know the motive power--love, love, love. _Amor vincit omnia_. CHAPTER FOURTEEN. CATS FEEDING THE SICK. "Ma conscience! mither, it kens its name?" Such was the exclamation of a little ragged and kilted urchin, in the remote Highlands of Argyllshire, as he heard me call my dog to give him a drink. The day was exceedingly warm, and we had had a long walk over the mountain, and had been kindly invited into a shepherd's hut, and asked to partake of a draught of cool, sweet whey--the very best of summer beverages. Nero was having a "talkee-talkee" with some rabbits, and didn't see his whey until I called his attention to it; hence the wondering urchin's exclamation. "Hoo shouldna he?" said the mother; "poor wise-lookin' beast. Ise warrant he kens mair than that." The idea of even a child thinking it strange Theodore Nero [the Newfoundland champion] should know his name was so amusing that I gave the boy "twa bawbees" on the spot. And just on a par with this boy's ignorance, is the unbelieving ignorance of some people who doubt everything they cannot understand, however well authenticated. This doubting implies an assumption on their part that the knowledge they possess is the highest attainable, that their minds are, in fact, complete in themselves. It is people of this class--fools--who doubt the existence of even a Supreme Being. I read in a late number of the _Live Stock Journal_ an account of a cat, which, seeing its master sick in bed, and unable to move, brought a mouse to him, and on her master pretending to eat it, the same day brought him a striped squirrel; and every day, until he got well, brought "game" of some sort and laid them on his bed. I believe I, myself, was the first who ever _dared_ to publish a case of the same kind. The story was this: A poor ploughman, who lived in a little hut at the foot of the Moffat Hills, in Scotland, fell sick of a long, lingering illness--and when the poor are ill they are poorer still; it is then the shoe pinches. This poor man had nothing in the house but meal and milk. The doctor said he must have wine. His wife pledged her marriage-gown to get it. The doctor said he must have meat. That was beyond their power to procure. But a merciful Providence had willed the man should live; and one day the little tortoiseshell cat, which was a great favourite with the poor ploughman, and had been very dull and wretched since his illness, brought in a rabbit--a thing, mind you, she had never done before--and placed it on the bed. She appeared to brighten up as she saw it skinned and cooked by the ploughman's wife, and partaken of by her sick master. And next day she brought another, and so on, almost every day, a rabbit or a bird, until her master was well, after _which she brought no more_. I took very considerable pains to test the truth of this story, and went to some expense about it as well, and found it in every whit true as first related to me. [See "Cats," by same Author. Dean and Sons, Publishers, 160a, Fleet Street.] Since then I have had one or two cases precisely similar to the above, in which cats brought their "game-bag" to the bed of a sick master or mistress. It is indisputable, then, that such things have been done over and over again. And now the question comes to be, how are we to account for it? In ancient times, these poor, affectionate pussies would doubtless have been condemned to death as being witches in feline form. In our own day such cases are usually put down to a special interposition of Providence. Now, without doubting for a moment that there is a Divinity which shapes the end, we must remember that that Divinity works more by simple laws than miraculous means, and consequently endeavour to account for the occurrences in a natural way. Cats, we know, after they have weaned their kittens, are in the habit of bringing them mice, etc, by way of food. This we do not think at all strange, and we put it down to that much-abused term--instinct. But the following anecdote shows, I think, something higher than mere instinct, and will help us to understand why the cat will bring food to a sick master or mistress. A certain cat had kittens. They were all drowned except one, which, of course, became a great pet with pussy, who, after putting it through a course of milk, put it through a course of mice, according to the custom of country cats. The kitten grew up into a fine large Tom, and was big enough to thrash his mother, which I'm sorry to say the unfilial rascal sometimes did. But a day came when he had need of that mother's love. Tom had his leg torn off in a trap, and was confined to his pallet of straw for several weeks, and never, one single day of his illness, did his mother miss bringing her wounded son either birds or mice, until he was able to run once more, though on three legs, to go and hunt them for himself. This cat is living still, I believe. It is quite evident that a cat's affection for, and attachment to, a beloved master, are quite equal to their love for a grown-up son, and the same feelings which prompt her to minister to the latter when ill, and unable to move, would cause her to attend on the other. Cats easily know when any one they love is sick or ailing. I returned home a few years ago, after an absence of some six months, very bad indeed. I thought I was a "gone coon," as the Yanks say, and didn't feel to have any more flesh on my ribs than there is on those telegraph wires. Well, my pet cat was rejoiced to see me, and hardly ever left my room. She would never leave me, it is true, but still there was something very strange in her behaviour. For she must have seen something strange in my appearance. Whether she took me for an impostor or not, I cannot say, but she always sat facing me whenever I was seated, seldom taking her eyes off my face, and her brows were lowered as if she were angry with me about something. What were pussy's thoughts? I asked this question one day of my father's housekeeper. "The cat kens ye'er no lang for this warld," said Eppie; "gin I were you, I'd just mak' my callin' and election sure." Calling and election! How I hated the old rook! Cats have an idea that when any one is ailing, it _must_ be for want of food. Poor things! How often they suffer hunger and privations themselves, goodness only can tell! This idea is not confined to cats alone. Dogs, at least, I know possess the same notion. I could give many anecdotes to prove this, but as this book is presumably on cats, I must only give one. An Inverness-shire student was returning from the south, and with him his faithful Scottish collie. In the Highlands there are generally two roads, the high and the low; the low road being the longest and of course the safest, and the high much shorter, but usually leading through some ugly bits of country, which are far from safe even by day, and much less by night. It was a beautiful night, quite clear and starry, with just the slightest crust of snow on the ground, barely enough to darken the heather. But such being the case, the student thought he could easily venture to cross by the hills, and thus save a mile or two. Early next morning, a woman at a neighbouring farm was surprised, while baking bannocks, by the entrance of a strange collie. The collie did not use much ceremony, but simply stole the largest bannock, and fled. This, of course, was not thought much of. The dog was hungry, and the morning cold, and he was welcome to the bannock, although it would have been more satisfactory for both sides had he asked for it. The same dog returned, however, in a few hours, and his behaviour was so strange that one of the family was induced to follow him. The dog led him a long way over the mountains, and at last brought up at the foot of a precipice, near a stream, where "something dark was lying." This something dark was no other than the poor student, who had slipped his foot on the previous night, and tumbled over the rock. He was at first supposed to be dead, but soon revived, having merely fractured a thigh, and become insensible from the cold; but the strange part of the story is to come--the bannock, all untouched, reclined against the student's cheek, _placed there by the dog_. [At page 83, volume three, "Annals of Sporting," an instance of collie-dog sagacity very similar to this is given.] Not only do cats know sickness in others, but they are acquainted in some way with the mystery of death. Observe a cat, for instance, that has played with a mouse until she has killed it. Just see the critical way she turns it over and over with her foot, and glares into its glazing eyes. She wants to make sure the wee thing is not shamming; but, being satisfied, mark her as she coolly stretches herself, or walks slowly away from her victim, as much as to say: "Well, I've had half an hour's good fun, anyhow. Might have eaten it as long as it was alive, though; but I can't bear a dead mouse. So it's just as broad as it's long." CHAPTER FIFTEEN. TOM, TIMBY, AND TOM BRANDY. "The best-laid schemes o' mice and men Gang aft agley, An' leave us nought but grief and pain For promised joy." Burns. And if the schemes of mice and men often "gang agley," it is not to be wondered at that the sagacity of the domestic cat is sometimes at fault. A very large and beautiful cat, belonging to a lady in Dumbarton, was very much attached to its home--more so, perhaps, in this case, than to its mistress, for one day, much to pussy's disgust, disreputable-looking men in aprons--so pussy thought them--came to the house and began to remove the furniture. Pussy sat on the hearthrug, washing her face with a spittle and musing. "I've been so happy here," she was thinking; "I know every mouse's hole in the house, and the places in the garden where I can hide to catch the sparrows, and the gaps in the hedge through which I can bolt when that Skye-terrier chases me, and the whitethorn bush beneath whose scented boughs I meet dear Tom in the moonlight. Oh! the thoughts of leaving Tom--no, I cannot, will not, leave the old house. Missus can hang herself if she likes. Happy thought, I'll hide--hide in the linen drawer, till this cruel war is over, and then come forth, mistress of all I survey." And so she did; but, unfortunately for her calculations, the chest of drawers was moved as well; and when at last she did "come forth," much to her bewilderment she was in a house which she had never seen before in her life. The following anecdotes may not be thought uninteresting; they are taken almost at random from hosts of others in my possession, or, if there has been any choice in the matter, they have been chosen because the three cats, whose stories here are told, lived in widely different parts of the globe, clearly proving that a cat is a cat all the world over. We'll give the English cat the preference. There is nothing very wonderful in his history. Tom was born and bred in Gloucestershire; he was presented to his master and mistress, the former of whom was a schoolmaster, when quite a little kitten, and soon became a great favourite with both. Tom, who was a tabby, soon grew in strength and beauty, until there were few male or female cats in the neighbourhood who did not own him lord and master. But Tom was so fond of his owners that he spent but little time either fighting or courting, much to his credit be it said. About this time, his master and mistress used to make frequent visits to a neighbouring village. Tom was not permitted to accompany them; but, whatever time they returned, by night or by day, wet weather or dry, poor Tom always met them nearly a mile from their own house. Tom was remarkably fond of the schoolchildren, and every day, as regularly as the clock struck twelve, at which hour the school was released for the forenoon, Tom presented himself all ready for a romp. The family dinner-hour was one o'clock, and Tom never failed to attend. There was a knocker on the door, and whenever pussy found the door closed, he used to _jump up and knock_, just as he had seen strangers do. Tom knew the days of the week, for he was never known to set out for school on Saturdays or Sundays, for the simple reason that he knew the school was closed. Another strange trait in Tom's character was his fondness for poultry. "He would feed with _very young_ chickens, and with the ducks and hens, never attempting to molest the weakest of them, but would even yield to them, and frequently leave the choicest bits for them." Tom's life was a very happy one until his owners removed to Leamington. Here, in the same house with him, were a parcel of rude, badly-bred children, who persistently ill-treated the poor cat, till at last Tom was missing; and it was found he had taken up his abode in a fowl-house among his old friends. This was rather a down-come for the poor cat, and he must have felt as wretched as a human being whom, after living for years in luxury, misfortune had at last condemned to the poor-house. Being removed back to his owner's house, and the children still continuing their persecutions, Tom fled to the woods and became a bandit, and no doubt met with a bandit cat's death, and died in a trap. So we leave him. Tom Brandy was an Australian miner's cat. The miners baptised him in _aguardiente_, and hence his name. He was a beautiful large black cat, with one white spot on his chest, invaluable as a hunter, and came down like a whirlwind on every dog he saw. He was a good example of the travelling cat; he would follow his master every Sunday in Melbourne to church, hide in a neighbouring garden till the preaching was over, and then trot home behind him. He would lead like a dog in a string. Tom's travelling carriage was an old gin case. Into this Tom would jump whenever he saw preparations made for striking the tent, and lie there without ever appearing, at times for a whole day, until the new camping-ground was reached. Yes, a wild life Tom led of it in the Australian bush. When Tom's master left for "merrie England," Tom proved himself just as good a ship cat as he had been a miner's puss. Only, mind you, Tom liked his comforts when he could get them. It was no business of his if his master and family chose to be intermediate passengers. He knew better, and attached himself to the cabin, although, to show he did not forget his owners, he used to pay them a visit every evening, to see, I suppose, if they had everything they wanted. On the arrival of the ship at Birkenhead, the purser, after offering two pounds for Tom in vain, stole Tom Brandy; but Tom was at his master's house that night, nevertheless. Tom's future home was Montrose, where he lived for two years happy enough, after which he mysteriously disappeared, and was not seen again for nineteen months. Where had he been? What had he been doing? How had he lived? _N'importe_! Tom Brandy turned up again very thin and very angry, and wanted to fight everybody save his own master. Tom lived happy ever after--that is, for three years, when he laid down upon a shelf and died like a Christian. And the days and years of Tom Brandy's life were sixteen and over, and he weighed a little under seventeen pounds. Timby is also a Tom cat, and lives at Dunbeath Castle, Caithness; a pretty black-and-white animal, weighing about ten pounds. Timby is the coachman's cat; and as his master lives in a retired part of the country, the two are naturally very much attached to each other. Timby follows his master round the grounds and policies just like a dog. When little more than a kitten he proved himself a perfect Nimrod among cats, brought down birds from the highest trees, tore up moles from their tunnels, and was death upon rats and mice wherever he saw them. Since he has grown up to years of discretion, Timby has learned to despise such paltry game as mice or rats. The Highlands of Scotland, as the reader doubtless knows, are infested with rabbits, and many a poor farmer is ruined by them; and these Timby makes his special quarry. It is his habit to stay out all night, and he seldom appears without a coney in the morning. If his master will accept the rabbit, Timby is very much pleased. If his master won't, and pushes it away with his foot, "Oh, very well," says Timby, "I'll have the rabbit; you have that herring of yours--I question if it will keep another day;" and he trots off with his prey. Three years ago his master got a nice retriever dog, and to this dog Timby was at first exceedingly cruel, but latterly he grew very much attached to it; and as often as he can spare a rabbit he brings it to the dog's kennel, and seems pleased to see him devour it. Like my own cat or cats, Timby will defend his master with his heart's blood. One day when Mr McKenzie, Timby's master, was trying a new terrier with a rabbit, Timby, who had followed unperceived, as soon as he heard the rabbit scream, doubtless came to the conclusion that his master was in danger, and sprang fiercely on another dog which Mr McKenzie was holding. The battle was short and bloody, and the poor dog had to retire very much worsted. Another day, when the coachman and his cat were lying together on the grass, a friend came up, and was just in the act of throwing himself on the turf likewise, when Timby flew upon him and lacerated his face very severely, and it was with some difficulty his master got him off. Timby goes regularly to the sea with his master to swim the dogs, but does not himself take the water. But in coming home a rabbit is often started. Then away go the dogs, and away goes Timby, and, strange as it may seem in rabbit-coursing, Timby would gain as many, if not more, points than the terriers. However, there is no sort of spirit of rivalry betwixt them, and if the dogs choose to beat a field for rabbits, Timby stands by to catch them; again, when the dogs prefer to "lay by," Timby with pleasure goes and beats the field for them. If Timby knows there is any vermin in a burrow, he has patience enough to wait till he secures it! and he has been known to lie near a hole _for nine hours_ in a stormy day, before his patience was rewarded. CHAPTER SIXTEEN. SOME TRAITS OF FELINE CHARACTER. We all know that almost any dog that has lived a reasonable number of years, and isn't a kennel dog, but one of the family, as it were, understands pretty nearly all that is said in his presence, if it at all concerns him. My Theodore Nero is exceedingly 'cute in this respect. When I have to go out without taking him along with me, he will lie listening attentively, with just half an eye open, till he finds out in what particular direction I mean to go. After I leave home he tries every trick and wile to get round the servant, and generally succeeds; so that, on turning a corner of the road, ten to one I find the identical dog I left asleep in the parlour, coolly waiting for me. Indeed, I have often to leave my orders about him in bad French, as my wife doesn't understand good Gaelic. I get to windward of the dog that way, and, I fear, sometimes to windward of the wife too; the haziness of my French leaving the one just as wise as the other. Till very recently, some people wouldn't even admit that a cat could know its own name; some people get wiser every day, and I, for one, believe that cats know fully as much of what we say as dogs do. As an instance of this, I give you the following anecdote, which may be entitled: _A Cat with a Conscience_.--A certain Mr Coutts, of Newhills, Aberdeen, is very fond of both cats and poultry, and studies the tricks and manners of both. He recently had a hen with a large brood of chickens, the number of which day after day became lessened by one at least. The place was always searched, but not the slightest trace of a dead one could be discovered. The poor cock was blamed, ravens were suspected, and hawks deemed guilty; but still there was some mystery about it, and the chicks went on getting fewer and fewer. About this time it was observed that whenever the subject was brought up, the favourite cat seemed all at once to grow exceedingly uneasy and restless, and finally bolted off through the nearest open door. This naturally aroused suspicion. Pussy was watched, and found one day in the very act of walking away with a chicken. I have another anecdote, something similar, of a cat called Polly. Polly had one failing, although otherwise a virtuous cat, and extremely honest--she could not resist the temptation of stealing a bit of cheese, whenever she could do so unperceived. But note the slyness of this pussy: she could never be prevailed upon to touch cheese, even if offered to her in the presence of any one of the family, evidently reasoning thus with herself: "If I pretend I can't eat cheese because it disagrees with me, they will never blame me for stealing it, and I shall often find myself locked in the same room--glorious thought!--with a whole Cheddar." It is a well-known fact that dogs often take particular dislikes to certain people. They appear, in many cases, to be much better judges of character than we ourselves are. I believe this instinct, or whatever else it is, is not confined to dogs alone, but is equally shared by other animals. Cats, I know, possess it in a very remarkable degree. They know by some means, which I will not pretend to understand, those individuals who have a soft side towards them. Why, for instance, did that strange cat at Lincoln single me out from dozens of people who were on the street, and ask me to go to the rescue of her kitten? Why do cats often pass other people by, and come up to me on the pavement, requesting me to ring the bell, that they may get in out of the wet? There are two strange cats who sleep in the sun almost daily in a corner of my front garden. If any one comes along they bolt at once, but when I pass up and down, they merely look at me and lie still; and I never speak to them, unless, perhaps, just a passing word. But, what is still more strange, Theodore Nero walks up and down past them without causing them the slightest alarm. Yet, what a tremendous monster he must appear to them! They just look at him, wonderingly, as much as to say: "Oh, you great, good-natured-looking brute, however you can catch mice and sparrows enough to fill your enormous stomach, I can't tell?" I know a lady who is very fond of cats, and when out walking or shopping in town, it is quite a usual thing for her to be accosted by some poor half-starved waif or stray, and very often she goes into a shop and buys food for them, for which, no doubt, they are grateful, and for which, no doubt, she will one day receive her reward from Him who careth even for the humble sparrows. This lady was passing a house one time where a poor cat was confined, the usual occupants having gone to the seaside, and left pussy shut up in the empty house. As soon as she stopped at the door of the house, the cat's cries were quite pitiable to hear. As soon as this lady left the door, the cries ceased, only to be renewed whenever she returned. But pussy did not make the same noises when others stopped in front of the door. _A Cat deserting one Home for another_.--A tortoiseshell-and-white cat, belonging now to a friend of mine, came into his possession in rather a singular way. The cat was originally the property of a neighbour of my friend, whose house was on the opposite side of the street, and about thirty yards off. There she stayed, apparently perfectly contented and happy, until she became the mother of four kittens. Then, for some reason or other known only to herself, she determined to shift her quarters, and one day my friend was astonished to see Kate, as she was called, march into his house with a kitten in her mouth, which she deposited in a safe and comfortable corner, and then set off for the others, which she brought one by one. Remember this, the cat had never been in my friend's house before! Kate's kittens were taken back again to her old home, and Kate marched them all over again to the home of her choice. And this was done every day for a whole week. "It's no earthly use, you know," Kate seemed to say. "What I says I means, and what I does I sticks to." And so my friend had to adopt both Kate and her family, previously having failed in an attempt to starve her out, for Kate had adopted a system of house-to-house begging, but always came home in the evening. This cat for fourteen years used to sit patiently on the arm of her master's chair until dinner was done and she was helped. It is exceedingly rude, I know, to doubt a lady's word, but _can you believe_ what follows? 'A lady assures me that she has such an inexplicable and innate antipathy to cats, that if she enters a strange room she can tell at once if there is a cat there, whether she sees it or not. And if a cat is carried suddenly into a room where she is, she "faints dead away." Another lady friend of mine, who is very fond of animals of all sorts, while living down in Brighton last October, was hastening home one evening just about dusk, when she suddenly found that she was not alone, but accompanied by some little black creature, which, immediately she came under the gas-lamp, she found was a poor little stray kitten. As this wee puss bounded into the house as soon as the door was opened, of course she believed it belonged to the house. Going to her bedroom to dress for dinner, there was little Miss Puss sitting on the bed singing, and apparently perfectly satisfied with her new quarters, for the lady soon found it did not belong to the house. Pussy was treated to a saucerful of milk, and then sent adrift out into the street, chased out with a broom, in fact, for the housemaid hated cats. This kitten didn't mean to be put off like this, however. She stopped out all night, certainly, but quietly came in with the charwoman at five o'clock in the morning, and came directly to my friend's bedroom. There is no getting rid of a cat when it once concludes to board itself upon you, and this little waif soon established herself for good at Ashburnham House. But here is the strange part of the business. She seemed to know that my friend Mrs W. was only a visitor here, and constantly showed great discretion, by sticking close to her apartments and back-yard. Just once she ventured down to the kitchen, and the old residential cat bit a piece out of her ear. "If that is how you treat visitors," said kitty, "I'll stick to my own rooms in future." And so she did. It is sometimes rather a difficult thing finding suitable apartments when you are accompanied with pets. It takes considerable tact, I can assure you, to convince Mrs 'Arris, or whatever is the name of your intended landlady, that your Newfoundland is so clean that you never can see even a hair on the carpet; that your Pomeranian is an angel in canine form; that your Persian cat wouldn't steal, if surrounded even by the most tempting viands; that your macaw doesn't scream loud enough to give all the terrace "an 'eadache;" and that your white rats never escape and run all over the house. Mrs W. had some difficulty about her kitten when she went to the lodgings she had taken at Norwood. "I certainly did expect," her landlady observed, "a lady with birds, and a mouse, and a very large dog; but a cat I couldn't have, because I've one of my own." Mrs W. of course promised all sorts of impossibilities regarding her pet, and her landlady finally gave in. But, strange to say, this very house became the kitten's future home, for the landlady's grandchild struck up a friendship with the wee pussy, and when the child fell sick, the kitten would hardly ever leave her little crib, nor would the child bear Miss Brighton, as she called her feline favourite, out of her sight for a single moment. Who shall say how far the simple companionship, of this loving and affectionate wee kitten, might not have tended to the child's restoration to perfect health? CHAPTER SEVENTEEN. LOVE OF CHILDREN AND AFFECTION FOR OWNER. There is hardly a domestic animal we possess that is not fond, to a greater or less extent, of children. How carefully a horse will pick his steps if a child happens to fall amongst his feet! I saw a bull one day escape, wounded and furious, from a killing-house, and dash madly along the turnpike road. He knocked down and injured several people, who could not get quickly enough out of his way; then there stood, paralysed with fear, and right in the wild brute's path, a child of tender years, which everyone who saw it gave up for lost; but the bull, who did not hesitate to attack grown-up people, suddenly veered to one side, and left this child unhurt! My large Newfoundland dog is in the habit of careering along the street with a speed which, considering his size, is quite incompatible with the safety of the lieges. Policemen, especially, very often find themselves in the line of his rush, and Nero never hesitates to run clean through these men, so to speak, leaving them sprawling on the ground with heels in air; but the other day this dog, on suddenly rounding a corner, found himself confronted with four little toddling infants, who, hand in hand, were coming along the pavement. There was no time to slacken speed, and to proceed was certain death to one or more of the poor children, and what do you think this noble fellow did? why lifted himself clean off the pavement, and sprang high and clear over their heads. The same dog was once in a hotel, when a friend of mine offered him a biscuit. Master Nero wasn't hungry; he would neither eat the biscuit from my friend's hand nor from my own, but when the landlord's pretty little daughter came running in, and threw her arms about his neck, and caressed him, he hadn't the heart to refuse the biscuit from _her_ hands, and even accepted several from her, although still refusing them from us. But the domestic cat is, _par excellence_, the playmate and friend of childhood. What is it, indeed, that pussy will not bear from the hands of its little child-mistress? She may pull and lug pussy about any way she pleases, or walk up and down the garden-walk with it slung over her shoulder by the tail. If such treatment does hurt the poor cat, she takes good care not to show it. It is amusing enough sometimes to watch a little girl making a baby of her favourite pussy. They are wearied with gambolling together on the flowery lawn, and playing at hide-and-seek among the shrubbery, and pussy "_must_ be tired," says little Alice. Pussy enters into the joke at once, and seems positively dead beat; so the basket is brought, the little night-cap is put on, the shawl is carefully pinned around its shoulders, and this embryo mamma puts her feline baby to bed and bids it sleep. There is always two words, however, with pussy as regards the sleeping part of the contract, for little Alice never can get her baby to close more than one eye at a time. Pussy must see what is going on. Anon the baby "must be sick," and pussy forthwith appears as if she couldn't possibly survive another hour. Bread pills are manufactured, and forced over the poor cat's throat, she barely resisting. Then lullabies, low and sweet, are sung to her, which pussy enjoys immensely, and presently, joining in the song herself, goes off to sleep in earnest. And Alice, pussy's friend, although at times she may use the furry favourite rather roughly, is kind to her in the main. Doesn't pussy get a share of Alice's porridge every morning? doesn't she sup with Alice every night? and do you think for one moment Alice would go to bed without her? Not she. And still this cat, may be as savage as a she tiger, to every one else in the house save to her little mistress. Just let you or me, reader, attempt to hold her up by the tail--well, I would a hundred times rather you should try it than I. The very fact, I think, that faithful pussy is so fond of our innocent children, and so patient and self-denying towards them, is one reason why we should be kind to her, and study her comforts a little more than we do. But probably one of the most endearing traits in the character of the domestic cat is her extreme attachment to, and love for, the person who owns her. If you once get your cat to really love you, no matter how fond she may be of the home where she was born and reared, she will go with you, if you but say the word, to the uttermost parts of the earth. My poor old favourite, Muffle, has travelled many, many thousands of miles with me by sea and land, and always watched over both me and my property _with all the care_ and fidelity of a Highland collie. Been lost, too, she has, many a time in the midst of big bustling cities which were quite strange to her--been lost, but always turned up again. I know of many instances in which cats have so attached themselves to their owners, that, when the latter have died, they have refused all food, and in a few days succumbed to grief, and gone, I fondly hope, to meet the loved one in a world that's free of care. "But the largest cat," writes one of my numerous correspondents, "I ever saw belonged to my mother's mother, and was wise and sedate in proportion to its size. Its good mistress was often distressed with palpitation of the heart, and during the silent hours of night paced the bedroom floor in pain--but not alone, for the faithful creature would walk slowly at her side, seeming by his look to pity her condition, and when she lay down he would still stand sentinel at her head. He never could be persuaded to leave the house while she lived, yet a few hours before her death he suddenly took flight, but only to the lower apartments, which my parents occupied, and from which he never stirred again." I never think, somehow, that a fireside has the same cheerful look of an evening unless there be a cat there, to sit on the footstool, and sing duets with the tea-kettle. And I do not wonder at old women, whose friends have all long since gone before, and who have no one left to care for them, getting greatly attached to a faithful pussy; for people must have something to love. "But, fancy loving a cat!" I think I hear some churl remark. Yes, cynical reader, and I have, myself, before now, often shared my heart with stranger pets than cats; and I don't mind betting you that what I have left of it is bigger than yours now. Figuratively speaking, I think a man's or a woman's heart is like a blacksmith's arm--_it grows with use_. CHAPTER EIGHTEEN. HINTS UPON BREEDING AND REARING CATS FOR EXHIBITION, AND A WORD ABOUT CAT-SHOWS. At nearly all the cat-shows which I have visited of late, I have been invariably impressed with this one idea: here, in these shows, we see pussy as she is in the present day--the live mouse-trap, the barn cat, at best the fireside favourite--but, at all events, the animal, of all our domestic animals, that is least cared for, and the only animal we possess, whose improvement in condition and species we have never cared to study. What this animal--the domestic cat--can become, the perfection to which she may attain through judicious selection and careful breeding, it is for future years to show. Other nations--such as the Persians and different other Asiatics--know far more about the domestic cat than we do, and quite put us to the blush with their splendidly-bred and high-blooded animals. It is one of the many popular fallacies current in this enlightened land of ours, that there is in the cat a certain number of bad qualities--a certain spice of the devil, so to speak--that never can be bred out. This is simply absurd, for there is no animal that lives and breathes on God's fair earth but is susceptible of improvement, both physically and morally; for, remember, a cat, little as you may think of her, has a mind _and a soul_, as well as you have. She has thought, and memory, and reasoning powers; she can love and she can fear, can be happy and gay, or sad and sorrowful, and she knows something too of the mystery of death. With all these qualities will you tell me that she cannot be improved? I say she can; even as to race; for what can be accomplished with individual cats, may be accomplished with the whole race. I can introduce you to dozens of cat-fanciers in this country, who have made the peculiarities of pussy's nature their study, and who find that they can, at will, not only improve the physical condition of their cats; but even, by careful training, occasional gentle correction, kindness, and good-feeding, raise them from good to better, and wean them from the ways which are so objectionable in other, or merely half-domesticated cats. And, look you, the progeny of such animals--by a law well-known to all breeders--take after them, or inherit the good qualities of their parents. Hence, I repeat, if you can improve the individual cat, through time you may improve the _genus_. That time may be long in coming--granted; but that the lovers of cats, in this country, have boldly seized the bull by the horns, and are taking a step in the right direction, is a positive fact which admits of no denial. Now, to those who are fond of cats, and would fain improve the particular breed they have a fancy for, and probably win prizes at our great shows, I beg to offer the following hints:-- _First_. Having made up your mind as to what particular breed you mean to go in for, stick by that breed for a time, at least, and go in for no other. _Secondly_. Be careful in your selection of parents. For instance: we will suppose you mean to breed pure white Angoras; well, purchase at a first-class show a Tom kitten and a queen kitten _from different litters_. Choose the liveliest, biggest, and most healthy-looking kitten of each litter, not, as in choosing pups, the heaviest and sleepiest-looking. The funny kitten turns out the best cat, and is more easily trained than a sulky or frightened one. Having gotten your purchases home, remember that the royal road to a kitten's affection is straight through its stomach. Be, yourself, then, the first to present pussy with a saucer of warm, creamy milk. _Thirdly. How to get size_. This is accomplished by the quantity and quality of pussy's food, and the regularity with which she gets her meals. Whatever you give a young cat, and a growing cat to eat, do not let it be too abundant. Never let her gorge herself; give her little and often. Don't let her want for a saucerful of pure water, to which she can always find access. Let her allowance of milk be put down to her and taken up again when she has had all she wants; what she leaves had better be given to the pigs. Bad milk is a fruitful source of diarrhoea, dysentery, and some forms of skin disease. A little sulphur--about as much as will lie on a fourpenny-bit--should be given at least once a fortnight, or half that quantity once a week. Train your cats early to habits of cleanliness. Don't forget the flower-pot saucer; and remember that, if the cats you wish to take prizes with, belong to any of the finer breeds, they _must_ be parlour cats, and not kitchen-bred brutes. If you want your cats to grow large, let their food be nourishing but not stimulating; boiled cow's or sheep's lights they can eat their stomachs full of; but avoid beef, it is too gross and heating, and don't patronise the cat's-meat man. Kittens and growing cats, in order to grow large, must have plenty of exercise and fun. Leaping exercise is best. Teach them to jump through a hoop, and keep them at it. They ought to have a ball as a toy, or a hare's foot; and ridiculous as it may seem to many, it is a positive fact, that cats--especially queen cats--thrive best who have a looking-glass conveniently placed to admire themselves in, and to wash and dress in front of. "Ilka little maks a mickle," is a good old Scotch proverb, and believe me it is attention to little matters, to minutiae, which makes one successful in properly rearing any animal. _Fourthly. How to get Good Pelage on a Cat_. The feeding of course has much to do with the length and gloss of the coat. Fish I have found is good for the coat, and a mixed diet generally, with not too much vegetables to scour them. But your sheet-anchors, after all, are the brush and the comb. The comb must be fine, and not too close in the teeth, and it should be used gently, after which brush the coat briskly all over with a long-haired soft hair-brush--a baby's brush in fact. The comb is not only a gentle stimulant to the skin, but it prevents matting, while the brush removes dust, and gives a nice glitter to the pelage. Both together act as a charm. _Fifthly_. In cats other than white you will find that certain kinds of food strengthen the colours of the pelage. I am convinced, for instance, that boiled bullock's lights do, and so does sheep's blood. This fact is perhaps worth knowing. I am making experiments with other foods and some condiments, but am not yet in a position to state results. _Sixthly. Breeding for colour_. No matter what colour your parent cats are, you will occasionally find waifs and strays in a litter that you will wonder to find of a different colour. But do not be discouraged; stick only to the true colours, and you will find in time that such anomalies will become few and far between. Be careful to avoid the possibility of any litter of kittens having more than one father. _Seventhly_. In young cats, which you are breeding to take prizes with, begin to look out for symptoms of the queen's getting gay, any time after six months, and on the first signs lock her up for a week, or until she becomes herself again. Do not think of breeding from a cat you mean for the show-bench until she is at least eighteen months old, else you will spoil her for size. Some people fancy that to manage cats properly, and guide their breeding to the Tom you desire them to, is very difficult. I have not found it so. There is a little trouble, certainly, but you are amply rewarded, when you find on the birth of the kittens that you have been successful. The only thing you've got to do, is to watch the queen well, and lock her up for a night or two with her own lord in an outhouse. Then afterwards keep her prisoner by herself for ten days. The danger is quite past then. _Eighthly_. About a week before any important show, be more than usually careful with the grooming, etc, of your cats, and feed them up a bit; give them an extra allowance of milk and cream, and boiled rice and sugar, and occasionally mutton and mutton-broth, but take great care not to induce diarrhoea. _Ninthly_. Send them to the show in a basket lined with flannel and a cushion, and pretty collar or ribbon to match the colour of the coat. Let the colour of the cushion be also effective, and in keeping with pussy's jacket. As to cat-shows themselves, I have nothing but good to say. All prosperity to their promoters and patrons! They are in general, indeed almost invariably, well managed, and the cats are carefully caged, properly tended and fed, and no lady need apprehend the slightest danger to her feline favourite, in being sent to any of our great shows. It is seldom, if ever, that a cat is lost, the baskets containing the pussies never being opened, until inside the building, and then only with the greatest care. Indeed, one needs to be pretty cautious in handling a strange cat. Your well-bred beauties, in particular, make it a rule to stand no nonsense. The cats are fed morning and night, and regularly supplied with the best and sweetest milk which the town can afford. Indeed, altogether, the poor things appear quite as happy as they are at their own firesides. If it is a four-day show, they soon come to know and welcome with gloved hand, the girl attendants every time they pass. There is no head-splitting noise and din as there is in a dog-show. Peace and quiet and serenity reign everywhere in a cat-show. At nearly all the shows--at all events at all the _great_ shows--Mr Sillet, the well-known naturalist of Southampton, has the arrangement of the pens or cages for the pussies. And very well he does his work too. Every cage is supplied with a box for sand at the back, and in the fore part with a beautiful soft cushion. The boxes are emptied daily, and disinfectants are also used, so that everything is sweet and clean. The entries at some of our national shows, such as the Crystal Palace and Birmingham, number between three and four hundred, and every year I trust the numbers will be increased. You see then, reader, that no danger can accrue from sending your feline favourite to a show, and I may tell you also that if she is anything like good at all, she is almost sure of finding herself placed. Cat-shows are only in their infancy, and anyone who _chances_ to have a good cat, may nowadays take prizes. In future years, there will be no chance work about the matter at all, and those only who study the breeding and rearing of cats in a scientific and sensible manner will be the winners. When you send your entry form up to the secretary, be careful you have placed your pussy in the right class, not only as to breed but as to sex, whether male, female, or gelded. As to breed, you must attend to the colour and also to the length of the coat. There are classes for all kinds of cats, and a class for anomalies besides. I am often sorry, when judging at shows, to have to disqualify many a beautiful specimen of the feline race, because it has been carelessly entered in a wrong class. If people only will read with some degree of attention the description of each class, given in the schedules, they need never make this mistake. To such clever and energetic managers of shows as Mr Wilson, of the Crystal Palace, who seems to have adopted the motto of the Cameron clan, "Whatever a man dares he can do," or sensible Mr Chaplin, of Birmingham, or Mr Brown, of Edinburgh, or Mr Martin, of Glasgow, I have positively nothing to suggest. Let anyone who wants to get up a cat-show take a lesson out of the books of either. To amateur managers I may say this: Be very tender and gentle with the feline property entrusted to your care; remember not only that cats are extremely nervous and sensitive creatures, but also that numbers of them have a value in the eyes of their owners far above money and above price. Feed with Spratt's Patent Cat Food. This ought to be used at all shows; it has the advantage of being cleanly, handy, and wholesome. A small allowance of boiled lights may be added. Use chloride of lime, not too much of it, as a disinfectant. Fill the utility boxes with plain garden mould or sand, but _never put charcoal in it_. That soils the fur, and doesn't give a white cat the chance of looking well. _Never put sawdust in a cat's cage_. It gets into the milk and spoils it, and if they lick it it will make them ill. Do not receive a cat that is suffering from illness of any sort. If a cat should appear to be ill any time during the exhibition, have her carefully removed and sent home. Finally, if possible, have beautifully ornamented prize cards, and send them home neat and clean to the successful exhibitors. These cards are greatly valued, and generally framed and hung in a conspicuous place. No one, except the initiated, can have any idea what an important little creature a cat becomes that has once taken a prize. She is then more than ever the valued pet of her owners, and an object of interest even to the neighbours. CHAPTER NINETEEN. ON CRUELTY TO CATS. "He prayeth well, who loveth well, Both man, and bird, and beast; He prayeth best, who loveth best, All things both great and small, For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all." Coleridge. I am fond of cats, and am never happier than when I am writing about them; nevertheless, it is with feelings the very reverse of pleasant that I commence the present chapter. Were I to consult my own comfort, I should avoid the subject of cruelty to cats, and it is only with the hope, that I may be the means of doing some little good to poor harmless pussy, that I approach the matter at all. I am not a sentimentalist by any means, yet I abominate wanton cruelty. I am fond of animals, yet not maudlinly so. I am not a vegetarian; and, although I neither believe that all animals were made for man's use, nor that man was made for theirs (as, you remember, was the opinion of the pampered goose), still I think we are right to kill and to use them as food. So I am fond of fishing, and fond too of shooting, and I can see nothing in the Bible against either practice. The very reverse, indeed, and everywhere in nature we observe that God permits one animal to prey upon another; and can the Lord Himself do wrong? Yet, albeit I love sport and shooting, I do not think I am cruel. All my animals love me. My fishes know me, and come to be fed; my birds flutter their wings with affectionate excitement when I approach their cage; my white rats run to me when I call; my cat certainly never rushes up the chimney when I enter the room; and when I am dead I know my dogs will miss me. Now, what I particularly object to is wanton and unnecessary cruelty. If we have to, and must, put the lower animals to death, in order that we--the higher animals--may live, we ought to do so as humanely as possible; and never, on any account, should we torture animals for mere sport. Hence I object to cock-fighting, pigeon or sparrow-shooting, and ratting--all mean and cowardly employments, and quite unfitted for men above the rank of the commonest navvy. I see no harm in deer-stalking in Scotland, where the deer are as wild as the hare or coney; but I do see very great cruelty in what is called stag-hunting in England. The stag in England is a domesticated animal, and I do not see that there is greater pluck or courage needed in hunting it, than there would be in chasing a decent old Alderney cow. I had travelled pretty nearly all over the world, and had shot in Africa, India, and Greenland, before I witnessed the first English stag-hunt. If my sympathies had not been all with the poor stag, I should have been highly amused indeed. The first stag wouldn't move at all; he looked upon the matter as too good a joke. "No, beggar me," he seemed to say, "if I'll budge an inch, to please anybody!" And he didn't. Yet this stag-hunting, they will tell you, seriously, keeps up the national courage. Believe me, reader, English courage requires no such keeping up, and it will be a poor day for this country when it does. Besides, it is only gentlemen (?) who hunt; and, well as our army is officered, it is, after all, the men who do the fighting; and it has always struck me that good beef and mutton, together with a determination to do their duty, are the mainstays on which our soldiers depend in the day of battle. A great deal, I think, of the cruelty which is inflicted on the poor cat, is done through ignorance of pussy's nature and constitution; done unwittingly, and with no real intention of doing the animal an injury. It is very cruel indeed to starve the creature, with the idea that you will induce her to catch more mice. When a cat is hungry the system is weak, the mind is dull, and the nerves so far from being well-strung that she will do anything sooner than hunt. A well-filled stomach gives pussy patience, and that is much wanted for mouse-killing; besides, you must not forget that cats kill mice as much for the sport as anything else. Another very common form of cruelty is that of turning the cat out every night. Cats need their comforts, and enjoy them too, more than any other domestic animal we possess. Leaving her out at night not only exposes her to colds, inflammations, and various diseases, but it leads her to contract bad habits; and she eventually gets trapped or killed, and no wonder; is she not, through your carelessness, a nuisance to the whole neighbourhood? It is cruel not to feed your cats with regularity. They expect it, and need it; and, if they do not get it, what else can you expect but that your cat will become a thief? What is called "wandering" cats is extremely cruel. A man has no further use for his cat, so he "wanders" her. I assure you it would be far more humane to drown her at once. How would you, yourself, like to be wandered--to be taken abroad somewhere, and placed down in the centre of savages; hungry and cold, and longing and pining for the home you left behind you; and in danger every moment of being cruelly slain? Don't you think that speedy dissolution were more to be desired than such a life? It is cruel, when your cat has kittens, to permit more to live than you can find decent homes for. It is a shame to a poor little kit, after it has opened its eyes to the wonders all around it, and begun to get happy and funny. Always keep one or two kittens for sake of the mother, and try, if possible, to find some one to take them. But the worst form of unintentional cruelty is that of leaving your poor favourite at home, when you go to the seaside, or to summer quarters. Often and often, on the return of the family, the unhappy cat is found lying in the empty hall, dead or dying, and wasted away to a mere handful of bones and skin--this in itself testifying to the sufferings she must have undergone for the want of food and water. Such gross _carelessness ought to be made penal_. I do not know whether the Society has ever yet prosecuted anyone for thus cruelly starving a cat, but I should think it would have little difficulty in obtaining a conviction. I come now to mention some cases of intentional and specific cruelty, and shall be as brief as possible. Some men, both young and old, think that a cat is a fit subject for torture and cruelty of all kinds; hence they never miss the chance of shying a stone after pussy's retreating figure. Cases, too, are continually cropping up in the police courts, of men having tortured cats to the death with dogs. Cat skins are considered of some value by the furriers. At a sale not long since in London, there were some three thousand cat skins. Where think you, reader, do these come from? That is a question unfortunately only too easily answered. In almost all large cities there exists a gang of ruffians--you cannot call them by a milder name--who eke out a sort of livelihood by stealing cats by every available means and method. But worse than this remains to be told; it is darkly whispered, and I have some reason to believe it may be but too true, that many of those poor cats are _skinned alive_, in the belief that the living skin thus procured retains the gloss. In Greenland I have seen young seals flayed alive by the score. That was a sickening sight enough, but skinning alive a poor harmless cat must be many times worse. I wish I could say that it was only the lowest class of ruffians that ill-treat poor cats to the death, but--and I know this for certain--there are men who pass as gentlemen, who night after night set traps for cats that stray into their gardens, and kill them in the cruellest manner; and some of these fellows, too, keep neither poultry, pigeons, nor rabbits, and haven't a flower in their gardens worthy of the name, only _they hate cats_. I know one gentleman (?) who thus traps and kills cats because he has a passion for fur rugs, which he thus indulges on the cheap. Little boys, and those too, sometimes the sons of respectable parents who ought to have taught them better, are often dreadfully cruel to cats, stoning them wherever found, and setting dogs to worry them to death. A lady, a friend of mine, once attracted by the heartrending cries of a cat, found two young fiends, with a pretty pussy tied in an apron, gouging its eyes out with a nail! A common form of cruelty to cats, in some rural districts of England, is that of tying two of them together by the tails and hanging them over a rope or pole to fight to the death. Such cases as that of cutting cats' tails off for wanton mischief, burning or boiling cats alive, though not unknown, I am happy to say are very rare. Now, considering how very useful an animal a cat is, I think it is high time the law interfered to protect her from violence and ill-usage. I should like to see a tax imposed upon all cats, and a home for lost cats, precisely on the same principles as the home for lost and starving dogs, only with this difference, that there should be no reward offered for bringing a cat to the home. Remember this, that a stranger or starving cat will come to anyone who says a kind word to it, so policemen would have no difficulty in catching them. The revenue from the imposition of even a small tax would be very large, and it would not only help to clear the country of a whole army corps of thieving, prowling, homeless cats, but give to the cats of respectable people a greater value in the eyes of the law, and a greater chance of taking their walks abroad without being molested. We have a law to protect even our wild birds, why not one for the protection of my friend the harmless, useful cat? In conclusion, let me assure lovers and owners of cats, that, as the law stands at present, the only way to keep their favourites alive, and free from danger, is to be kind to them, feed them well and teach them, as far as possible, to keep to the house at night. We think that men who kill, and trap, and injure our cats are exceedingly cruel. And so they are, and I hope they will in time learn to be a shade more merciful. At the same time, don't forget that the temptation to take revenge upon a cat for vines destroyed, beautiful flowerbeds torn up, favourite rabbits murdered in their hutches, and valuable pigeons torn and eaten in their dovecots, is a very great temptation indeed. You see, reader, there are two sides to every question. Pray think of the matter. CHAPTER TWENTY. PUSSY'S TRICKS AND MANNERS. When I was a boy, it used to be a positive pain to me to have to enter a large library and choose a book. I used to wander round and round the well-filled shelves like a butterfly floating over a clover-field. I didn't know where to alight. I would fain have begun at the beginning, and read the lot--but that was impracticable. Hence my difficulty. I am in a somewhat similar fix now. I have so many original anecdotes of cat life and customs that I don't know which to tell. If I had space at command you should have the whole lot, and I would arrange them into classes according to their character; as it is, I must be content to present the reader with some account of a few of pussy's tricks and manners, deduced from these and from my own rather large experience of cat life. Every child knows how fond cats are of hunting and catching mice, but no cat of any respectability would think of confining her attentions to mice alone. The very presence of a cat about a house will usually suffice to keep these destructive pests at bay; and if one should pop out of its hole, it knows, or ought to know, what to expect. But seldom will a high-bred cat condescend to eat a mouse. She will play with it as long as hope keeps up its little heart; when that fails it, pussy turns it over once or twice to see whether it is really dead or only shamming, and then walks disdainfully away. The next higher game is rats, but these she seldom cares to eat, only she kills them on the spot. She knows that rats have teeth and can use them, so she doesn't romp with them. I have known rats inflict such severe wounds upon a cat that they ultimately proved fatal. Cats delight to spend a day in the woods, bird-catching. They rob the nests, too, when they find any, and cases have occurred of a cat paying visits to nests day after day until the young were hatched, then eating them. (I once had a blackbird's nest in the side of a bank at the roadside--a strange place for a blackbird to build. I often used to see a polecat close to, and I am convinced it knew of the nest, but it never robbed it until the young were hatched.) Nearly all cats who live in the country hunt over the hills and the woods, and a great plague, too, gamekeepers find them. There is no animal which a cat may meet in the covers that she is not a match for. Polecats and weasels have to own her sway, while rabbits and leverets fall an easy prey to her prowess. Most cats, who are well treated by their owners, have a habit of bringing everything home which they catch. I have often seen a cat come trotting homewards, carrying in its mouth a rabbit well-nigh as big as herself. Cats may therefore be called poachers; and it is curious, but true, that when a poor man owns a cat who poaches, and brings home the quarry, he usually winks at it. I have dozens of well-authenticated anecdotes of cats who are very expert at fishing. I have, myself, watched a cat by the banks of a stream, until I have seen him dive into the water, and emerge almost immediately with a large trout in his mouth. Cats who fish, generally belong to millers, or are bred and reared somewhere near a river. They not only catch fish of all sorts, but even water-rats; often springing many feet off the bank after prey of this kind, and even diving under to secure it. In Scotland cats often attack and destroy large quantities of salmon in small streams, in the spawning season. Cats are supposed to have an antipathy to water, and, as a rule, this is so. They are very cleanly animals, and it has often amused me to watch a pussy crossing a muddy street. How eagerly she looks out for the dry spots, how gingerly she picks her steps, and, when she does tread in a pool, with what an air of supreme disgust she stops and shakes the offending foot! Cats swim well, nevertheless. I have seen a cat take the water as coolly as an Irish spaniel, swim the river, hunt in the woods for some time, and then swim back again with a bird in her mouth. And, to save their kittens from drowning, almost any cat will swim a long distance. I have known a cat whose favourite fish was the eel, and he always managed to catch one somehow. Cats are very fanciful at times, and very self-opinionated. If a cat takes a fancy to a particular house, or part of the house, it is difficult to dislodge her. "In the year 1852," a lady writes me, "my mother was living with a family in the Albany Road, Camberwell, who had a large tabby Tom cat. This cat had formed a strong attachment to a kitten who belonged to the lady next door. In 1853, the family removed to the Ashby Road, Lower Road, Islington, and the cat was _packed in a hamper_, and sent with the furniture. "It was kept in confinement the first day and night, and let out the next morning. Tabby had his feet buttered, to keep him employed, as they said it was a good thing to keep him busy. The next day he had disappeared, no one knew whither, though search was made for him everywhere. "A few days after, the lady from Camberwell wrote to say that Tabby had put in an appearance there, and resumed the charge of his kitten. He was sent back by the carrier to his proper owner, and every means was tried to induce him to stop; but he returned the second time to the kitten, and so they let him remain, because they knew he would be well taken care of. The wonderment of this was: _which bridge did he go over in passing through busy London_?" It is really wonderful how a cat can often find its way, long distances across a country which he never before may have traversed. "A few days ago," says another correspondent, "a lady who lives in Newport told me that, at one time, her house was quite overrun with mice; and, having procured the loan of a cat which was considered a good mouser, she tied it into a basket, and then placed it in a concealed part of the pony carriage. On her arrival at the `Cliff' the prisoner was released; but even the prospect of a delicious feast of mice could not obliterate its thoughts of `home, sweet home;' and, after about an hour's stay, it set off, and, ere long, arrived at its former abode-- distant three miles!" Some months ago, a half-bred Persian tabby, came to my place, and has since then stuck to it with all the persistency of Edgar Allan Poe's raven. He is a cat that seems to have nothing to recommend him; if he would come into the house, and behave like a civilised being, I would never grudge him his daily dole. But he prefers to live a half-pagan existence, out among the bushes, and take his nap of a night in the coal-house; and Bridget says he is an awful thief, and that she can't leave the kitchen-door open one moment for fear of him. I've often asked that cat to take his departure, but, as plain as cat can speak, that cat says "never more." By way of experiment I have caught him several times--no easy task, I assure you--and _sent him_, securely packed in a hamper, distances of three, four, and five miles to friends who have set him free. And he always came back. His last journey was at Christmas-time--may Heaven forgive me this sin!--to the house of a parson _whom I did not know_, and I stuck some pheasants' feathers too just under the lid. I don't know what the parson thought, but Tom came back next day, not looking a single bit put out, and--I am willing to sell him to anyone who may have need of his services. I know a cat who caught two sparrows at once, and when retreating, a third sparrow pursued and attacked him. This one pussy also killed, with his paw. That was funny! Cats know certain days of the week, such as Sunday for instance, and they also know certain hours of each day. I don't mean to say they look at the clock, but, if a favourite master or mistress is in the habit of coming home every day, say at 4 p.m., there you will often find that every day at 4 p.m. pussy will trot down the road to meet her and wait till she comes. Cats make good husbands, gentle fathers, and the most tender and loving of mothers. A cat will fight for her kittens, starve or _steal_ for them. Oh! I daresay you imagine that stealing wouldn't be likely to lie very heavily on a cat's conscience. Now listen to this--which the printer will kindly put in italics--_all experience goes to prove that well-fed, properly cared-for cats, are not thieves, but the reverse_. Cats have their kittens in queer places, at times. A lady's best Sunday bonnet, or master's wig, or a set of ermine furs, just suits pussy to a nicety. My cat once kittened in my cocked hat. It is a positive fact, madam, and so far from thinking she had done anything to offend me, she held up one of her brats for me to admire. But the queerest place for a cat to kitten in, that ever I knew, was a tree. The cat scrambled up the tree and brought forth her young in the nest of a wood-pigeon! I didn't hear how the kittens got down again though, but I have every reason to believe the story. Probably, when the kittens opened their eyes they commenced playing with their mother's tail, and went topsy-turvy to the ground. Well, _facilis descensus Averni_, and you know cats always fall on their feet. I knew a man who kicked his own cat out of his pigeon loft, three storeys high. He told me it didn't seem to hurt her a bit, but rather increased her appetite. Whether cats have nine lives or not, they take a great deal of killing. I knew a cat that was drowned four times, and came home again as unconcernedly as if nothing very unusual had happened. However, drowning in the end seemed to get rather irksome to this pussy, and after the fourth immersion, he ran away to the woods, and didn't come back to be drowned any more. Many cases I know of parties having started off with puss in a bag to drown her, and having stopped to talk to a friend on the way back found, on their return, the cat sitting by the fire drying herself! I have many instances of cats having been thrown from bridges and other high places, with the intention of killing them, but without fatal effect. Cats have been buried alive for days and recovered after being dug up. A cat of my acquaintance was sent to live at a mill. This seemed to please pussy very much. You see there were plenty of mice in the mill, and plenty of rats and fish in the mill-lead, so the cat made herself at home. But in course of time pussy became the mother of two kittens, and then the longing for her old home came back with a force too powerful to be resisted. She determined, therefore, to return to her former residence, and she did so, carrying her kittens one by one. The distance she had to travel was two miles, and the night she chose was a dark and stormy one. There were two cats who dwelt at the self-same house and had kittens at the self-same time. All the kittens were drowned with the exception of two, one being left with each mother. And now comes the curious part of the business. These two mother-cats came to an amicable understanding, that whenever the one was abroad the other should suckle and attend to both babies, and this treaty was carried out to the letter. Cats are not only fond of human beings, but often get greatly attached to other domestic animals, especially to the family dog. I know at this moment a cat whose constant companion is a Dandy Dinmont; and a rough one he is too, for, although he sleeps in pussy's arms every night, he thinks nothing of pulling her all round the lawn by the tail at any time, the cat herself seeming to enjoy the fun! Rabbits and cats often associate together on the most friendly terms, even accompanying each other in long excursions, the cat on these occasions electing herself protector of her feebler friend against predatory dogs and other cats. A cat belonging to a friend of mine used to be constantly at war with the dog, until one day, with a blow of her ungloved paw, she blinded the poor animal in one eye. No mother could have been kinder to her child than pussy was to this dog, after she saw what she had done. That she bitterly repented the rash act is evident, for she watched beside him night and day, until he grew well again; and now, they are the fastest friends in the world, and the cat is the first to welcome the dog home when he returns from a walk. As a proof of how cruel it is to take _all_ a cat's kittens away from her, I may state that, thus bereaved, a cat will take to nursing even chickens, or she will suckle puppies, hedgehogs, or rats. It is a funny thing that many cats can't bear music. Some will run out of the room if they hear a fiddle played, and others will growl and attack the musician. Cats can be easily taught to follow one in a country walk just like a dog, and on these occasions they come much better to the sound of whistling than to any other call. A well-bred cat will always teach its kittens habits of cleanliness, how to watch for and catch mice, and also how to catch minnows in a shallow stream. I have already said that cats, as a rule, when well treated, are not thieves, but the very reverse. But when a cat does take to thieving for a livelihood, she becomes quite a swell at it--shows how clever she is. Cats are considered in some parts of England to be of some value as an article of diet. I have never to my knowledge eaten cat, so I cannot give the reader any idea what they taste like. It is ridiculous to suppose, as some do, that a cat's breath has any effect upon a baby either for good or for evil. Neither will a cat bring blood from a child's temple by licking it with its rough tongue. An ugly old woman isn't necessarily a witch because she keeps a black cat. Neither is a black cat a devil. They say that witches sail over the sea in riddles accompanied by their black cats, and that they have rather a jolly time of it upon the whole, having plenty to eat, and plenty to drink--flagons of wine, in fact. Don't you believe it, reader. Cats are not afraid of snakes; but snakes, even the dreaded cobra, will invariably give pussy a wide berth. Cats are fond of fish, absurdly so, and if you offer them even the gold-fish, they won't feel offended. It is only out of respect for the owner thereof that they don't devour the canary. They prefer canary living, with the feathers on. It tickles their palates and makes them laugh. Chickens are dainties in a cat's _cuisine_; they also rather like a nice plump partridge, and won't refuse to suck an egg when occasion offers. Cats are, as a rule, Good Templars; the proof of which rule is this: I had a Red Tabby Tom who would eat oatmeal and whisky until he couldn't stand. The servants knew this failing, and encouraged him in his evil ways; so that half his time, instead of being as sober as a judge--as every decent, respectable cat ought--Tom was as drunk as a piper. It is funny to listen to a cat's concert about two o'clock in the morning. Of course, if you are rather nervous, and want to go to sleep, it isn't so funny. (N.B.--If cats were better treated, they would hold their concerts in daylight in the garden, instead of at midnight on the tiles. Mind you, there is something in that.) Altogether, cats are funny things, and the more you study them the funnier you find them. That's so! CHAPTER TWENTY ONE. THE FIRESIDE FAVOURITE. The lines of some cats fall in pleasant places. Mine have. I'm the fireside favourite, I'm the parlour pet. I'm the _beau ideal_, so my mistress says, of what every decent, respectable, well-trained cat ought to be--and I looked in the glass and found it so. But pray don't think that I am vain because I happen to know the usages of polite society, and the uses and abuses of the looking-glass. No cat, in my opinion, with any claim to the dignity of lady-puss, would think of washing her face unless in front of a plate-glass mirror. But I will not soon forget the day I first knew what a looking-glass meant. I was then only a cheeky little mite of a kitten, of a highly inquiring turn of mind. Well, one evening my young mistress was going to a ball, and before she went she spent about three hours in her dressing-room, doing something, and then she came down to the parlour, looking more like an angel than ever I had seen her. Oh, how she was dressed, to be sure! And she had little bunches of flowers stuck on all over her dress, and I wanted to play at "mousies" with them; but she wouldn't wait, she just kissed me and bade me be a good kitten and not run up the curtains, and then off she went. Yes; I meant to be an awfully good little kitten--but first and foremost I meant to see the interior of that mysterious room. By good luck the door was ajar, so in I popped at once, and made direct for the table. Such a display of beautiful things I had never seen before. I didn't know what they all meant then, but I do now, for, mind you, I will soon be twenty years of age. But I got great fun on that table. I tried the gold rings on my nose, and the earrings on my toes, and I knocked off the lid of a powder-box, and scattered the crimson contents all abroad. Then I had a fearful battle with a puff which I unearthed from another box. During the fight a bottle of ylang-ylang went down. I didn't care a dump. Crash went a bottle of fragrant floriline next. I regarded it not. I fought the puff till it took refuge on the floor. Then I paused, wondering what I should do next, when behold! right in front of me and looking through a square of glass, and apparently wondering what _it_ should do next, was the ugliest little wretch of a kitten ever you saw in your life--a long-nosed, blear-eyed, pingey-wingey thing. I marched up to it as brave as a button, and it had the audacity to come and meet me. "You ugly, deformed little beast," I cried, "what do you want in my lady's room?" "The same to you," it seemed to say, "and many of them." "For two pins," I continued, "I would scratch your nasty little eyes out--yah--fuss-s!" "Yah--fuss-s!" replied the foe, lifting its left paw as I lifted my right. This was too much. I crept round the corner to give her a cuff. She wasn't there! I came back, and there she was as brazen as ever. I tried this game on several times, but couldn't catch her. "Then," says I, "you'll have it where you stand, and hang the pane of glass!" I struck straight from the shoulder, and with a will too. Down went the glass, and I found I had been fighting all the time with my own shadow. Funny, wasn't it? When mistress came home there was such a row. But she was sensible, and didn't beat me. She took me upstairs, and showed me what I had done, and looked so vexed that I was sorry too. "It is my own fault, though," she said; "I ought to have shut the door." She presented me with a looking-glass soon after this, and it is quite surprising how my opinion of that strange kitten in the mirror altered after that. I thought now I had never seen such a lovely thing, and I was never tired looking at it. No more I had. But first impressions _are_ so erroneous, you know. My dear mother is dead and gone years ago--of course, considering my age, you won't marvel at that; and my young mistress is married long, long ago, and has a grown family, who are all as kind as kind can be to old Tom, as they facetiously call me. And so they were to my mother, who, I may tell you, was only three days in her last illness, and gave up the ghost on a file of old newspapers (than which nothing makes a better bed) and is buried under the old pear-tree. Dear me, how often I have wondered how other poor cats who have neither kind master nor mistress manage to live. But, the poor creatures, they are _so_ ignorant--badly-bred, you know. Why, only the other day the young master brought home a poor little cat, he had found starving in the street. Well, I never in all my life saw such an ill-mannered, rude little wretch, for no sooner had it got itself stuffed with the best fare in the house, than it made a deliberate attempt to steal the canary. There was gratitude for you! Now, mind, I don't say that _I_ shouldn't like to eat the canary, but I never have taken our own birds-- no--always the neighbours'. I did, just once, fly at our own canary's cage when I was quite a wee cat, and didn't know any better. And what do you think my mistress did? Why, she took the bird out of the cage and popped me in; and there I was, all day long, a prisoner, with nothing for dinner but seeds and water, and the canary flying about the room and doing what it liked, even helping itself to my milk. I never forgot that. Some cats, you know, are arrant thieves, and I don't wonder at it, the way they are kicked and cuffed about, put out all night, and never offered food or water. I would steal myself if I were used like that, wouldn't you, madam? But I have my two meals a day, regularly; and I have a nice double saucer, which stands beside my mirror, and one end contains nice milk and the other clean water, and I don't know which I like the best. When I am downright thirsty, the water is so nice; but at times I am hungry and thirsty both, if you can understand me--then I drink the milk. At times I am allowed to sit on the table when my mistress is at breakfast, and I often put out my paw, ever so gently, and help myself to a morsel from her plate; but I wouldn't do it when she isn't looking. The other day I took a fancy to a nice smelt, and I just went and told my mistress and led her to the kitchen, and I got what I wanted at once. I am never put out at night. I have always the softest and warmest of beds, and in winter, towards morning, when the fire goes out, I go upstairs and creep (singing loudly to let her know it is I) into my mistress's arms. If I want to go on the tiles any night, I have only to ask. A fellow does want to go on the tiles now and then, doesn't he? Oh, it is a jolly thing, is a night on the tiles! One of these days I may give you my experience of life on the tiles, and then you'll know all about it-- in the meantime, madam, you may try it yourself. Let it be moonlight, and be cautious, you know, for, as you have only two feet, you will feel rather awkward at first. Did I ever know what it was to be hungry? Yes, indeed, once I did; and I'm now going to tell you of the saddest experience in all my long life. You see it happened like this. It was autumn; I was then about five years of age, and a finer-looking Tom, I could see by my mirror, never trod on four legs. For some days I had observed an unusual bustle both upstairs and downstairs. The servants, especially, seemed all off their heads, and did nothing but open doors and shut them, and nail up things in large boxes, and drink beer and eat cold meat whenever they stood on end. What was up, I wondered? Went and asked my mistress. "Off to the seaside, pussy Tom," said she; "and you're going too, if you're good." I determined to be good, and not make faces at the canary. But one night I had been out rather late at a cat-concert, and, as usual, came home with the milk in the morning. In order to make sure of a good sleep I went upstairs to an unused attic, as was my wont, and fell asleep on an old pillow. How long I slept I shall never know, but it must have been far on in the day when I awoke, feeling hungry enough to eat a hunter. As I trotted downstairs the first thing that alarmed me was the unusual stillness. I mewed, and a thousand echoes seemed to mock me. The ticking of the old clock on the stairs had never sounded to me so loud and clear before. I went, one by one, into every room. Nothing in any of them but the stillness, apparently, of death and desolation. The blinds were all down, and I could even hear the mice nibbling behind the wainscot. My heart felt like a great cold lump of lead, as the sad truth flashed upon my mind--my kind mistress had gone, with all the family, and I was left, forgotten, deserted! My first endeavour was to find my way out. Had I succeeded, even then I would have found my mistress, for cats have an instinct you little wot of. But every door and window was fastened, and there wasn't a hole left which a rat could have crept through. What nights and days of misery followed!--it makes me shudder to think of them even now. For the first few days I did not suffer much from hunger. There were crumbs left by the servants, and occasionally a mouse crept out from the kitchen fender, and I had that. But by the fifth day the crumbs had all gone, and with them the mice, too, had disappeared. They nibbled no more in the cupboard nor behind the wainscot; and as the clock had run down there wasn't a sound in the old house by night or by day. I now began to suffer both from hunger and thirst. I spent my time either mewing piteously at the hall-door, or roaming purposelessly through the empty house, or watching, watching, faint and wearily, for the mice that never came. Perhaps the most bitter part of my sufferings just then was the thought that would keep obtruding itself on my mind, that for all the love with which I had loved my mistress, and the faithfulness with which I had served her, she had gone away, and left me to die all alone in the deserted house. Me, too, who would have laid down my life to please her had she only stayed near me. How slowly the time dragged on--how long and dreary the days, how terrible the nights! Perhaps it was when I was at my very worst, that I happened to be standing close by my empty saucer, and in front of my mirror. At that time I was almost too weak to walk, I tottered on my feet, and my head swam and moved from side to side when I tried to look at anything. Suddenly I started. Could that wild, attenuated image in the mirror be my reflection? How it glared upon me from its glassy eyes! And now I knew it could not be mine, but some dreadful thing sent to torture me. For as I gazed it uttered a yell--mournful, prolonged, unearthly--and dashed at me through and out from the mirror. For some time we seemed to writhe together in agony on the carpet. Then up again we started, the mirror-fiend and I. "Follow me fast!" it seemed to cry, and I was impelled to follow. Wherever it was, there was I. How it tore up and down the house, yelling as it went and tearing everything in its way! How it rushed half up the chimney, and was dashed back again by invisible hands! How it flung itself, half-blind and bleeding, at the Venetian blinds, and how madly it tried again to escape into the mirror and shivered the glass! Then mills began in my head--mills and machinery--and the roar of running waters. Then I found myself walking all alone in a green and beautiful meadow, with a blue sky overhead and birds and butterflies all about, a cool breeze fanning my brow, and, better than all, _water_, pure, and clear, and cool, meandering over brown smooth pebbles, beside which the minnows chased the sunbeams. And I drank--and slept. When I awoke, I found myself lying on the mat in the hall, and the sunlight shimmering in through the stained glass, and falling in patches of green and crimson on the floor. Very cold now, but quiet and sensible. There was a large hole in my side, and blood was all about, so I must have, in my delirium, _torn the flesh, from my own ribs and devoured it_. [Not overdrawn. A case of the kind actually occurred some years ago in the new town of Edinburgh.--The Author.] I knew now that death was come, and would set me free at last. Then the noise of wheels in my ears, and the sound of human voices; then a blank; and then someone pouring something down my throat; and I opened my eyes and beheld my dear young mistress. How she was weeping! The sight of her sorrow would have melted your heart. "Oh, pussy, pussy, do not die!" she was crying. Pussy didn't die; but till this day I believe it was only to please my dear mistress I crept back again to life and love. I'm very old now, and my thoughts dwell mostly in the past, and I like a cheery fire and a drop of warm milk better than ever. But I have all my faculties and all my comforts. We have other cats in the house, but I never feel jealous, for my mistress, look you, loves me better than all the cats in the kingdom--fact--she told me so. CHAPTER TWENTY TWO. THE DUNGHILL CAT. I'm the dunghill cat--that is what I am. Nobody owns me, and I owe allegiance to nobody. Nobody feeds me; nobody puts a saucer on the ground and says, "Here, pussy, there's a drop of milk for you, my pet." Nobody ever gave me a bit of fish in my life, and nobody, so far as I can remember, ever called me pet names or spoke kindly to me. Not that I care, you know, but I merely mention it, that's all. But don't you despise me because I am only a poor dunghill cat. It isn't my fault but my misfortune, as you shall presently hear. Circumstances over which I had no control have rendered me what I am; but I am come of respectable parents for all that. To be sure I could not swear to my father, not knowing exactly who he was, and the mum herself being at times a little hazy on the point. But my mother, madam, came from Egypt, and was descended from a long line of noble ancestors in that beautiful land, where, they tell me, there is bread enough for all, and where a poor cat is honoured and respected, as she always ought to be. And the mum told me that her original ancestors came over with the Conqueror--Cambyses, you know--so that is good enough, surely. Yes, madam, without meaning the slightest offence, I may just remind you that when your forebears were dressed in pig-skins, and not much of that; when they wore flint-headed spears, and stalked about the hills with painted faces, doing attitudes and saying "Ugh!" when astonished, my progenitors dwelt in palaces, loved and respected by all, and were considered the equals of prince, or priest, or peer--what do you think of that? But I'm not proud; I'm only the poor dunghill cat, that all the dogs chase, that all the little boys stone, and Bridget shakes the broom at. Bridget never can catch me, though--ha, ha! Won't I eat her canary, first chance--you see if I don't. My earliest recollection is of being carried by the back of my neck, by something or somebody that I afterwards discovered was my mother. I was taken into a beautiful house, and deposited carefully on a rug in the corner of a cupboard. Then my mother began licking me all over with her tongue, when suddenly said a voice close alongside of me, "I declare that pussy has been and gone and got another kitten--as if one cat of the kind wasn't enough about the house. Sarah, go and put it where you put all the others." I don't know who the others were, or where they were put; but I know what Sarah did with me. She took me up with the hot tongs, mother screamed and so did I, till I couldn't scream any more because the black water was all around me. Then followed a period of agony, and then a blank, and the next thing I recollect is finding myself lying, wet and cold, in my mother's arms, and she all wet and cold as well as me. "My dear chee-ild," said my mamma, "this has been a sad morning; but you're safe ne-ow, although the building is humble and your pallet is straw. Shade of Cambyses!" continued the old lady, rubbing a paw over her right ear, "why ever did I leave the land of Egypt?" When I got a little older I began to look around me. I thought our new home was one of the jolliest places that could be, despite all the flowery accounts my mother used to give me of the land of her birth, with its marble halls and gorgeous tesselated pavements. It was a large, roomy loft in an old, old mill, and I used to run about the floor and chase the great spiders before I was big and brave enough to attack a wild mouse, or the great, untamable rats that used to frighten me so when mother was out, by standing on their hind legs and making dreadful faces at me. But didn't they scamper off when mother came back! One day mother brought me a live mouse. How brave I suddenly felt. You should have seen how I sprung on it, and heard how I growled. Had anyone, even the immortal Cambyses himself, attempted to rescue that wild mouse from my clutches, he should have died on the spot. How pleased my mother looked! I think I see her yet, with her old-fashioned face and her odd, old-world ways. Very much respected my mother was, I assure you. I've seen no less than seven well-dressed feline swells talking and singing to her all at once, and she didn't know which of them to speak to first. Met a violent end, did my mother. Verdict--"Killed by the carrier's collie." After I had slain and eaten one mouse, I felt every inch a Tom. I declined to lie any more in my mother's arms. No more milk for me; blood, and only blood, was my motto, and I meant it, too. When I was a well-grown cat of nine months old my mother introduced me to her mistress's house, and I became, for a time, a house-cat. I cannot say, however, that I liked the change. The lady of the dwelling was, they told me, exceedingly good and pious, went twice to church on Sunday, and read prayers morning and evening; but, sad to say, she never had studied feline economy. "If cats can't find mice to eat," she used to say, "they ought to starve." My mother told me that this was something like asking a person to make bricks without straw. My mother was very learned. Well, one evening--and I had been starving all day, and was dreadfully hungry and too faint to watch for mice--I happened to stroll into the pantry, and there I found such a nice, nice dish of cream. Luscious! But what a thrashing I got five minutes afterwards--I wasn't hungry for a week. Then the hunger came on again worse than ever, and I stole again. I couldn't help it, really. Then I was called a nasty, thieving brute, and got blamed many times when quite innocent. There is Briddy with the broom again. She hasn't forgiven me for that herring yet, and I can swear it wouldn't have kept for another day. Besides, what do I care if it was for Master Fred's breakfast? Briddy had no business to be upstairs trying on missus's Sunday bonnet, and the kitchen-door wide open. She thinks I don't see all her capers, and her opening drawers, and keeking into cupboards, and examining this, that, and t'other, when her missus is out. But lying on the top of that wall I can see a great deal more than I trouble to tell of. But Briddy blamed me for eating those two new-laid eggs that the baker brought. She "just laid them down outside in the strawberry-basket, m'm, for one minute; and when she turned again, la, m'm, they was broke and eaten, they was!" She forgot to mention how the baker crumpled her cap, though; and she didn't tell how she was all over flour, and had to brush herself from top to toe when the bell rang. But, mind you, it wasn't _me_ that stole the eggs. I would confess at once if it was; for what could a couple of paltry new-laid eggs add to the weight of crime I have been guilty of in my day? Why, nothing. But Dr Ricket's jackdaw took the eggs, for I saw him hop on to the wall, and he gave a look down, first, with one side of his head, at Briddy and the baker, then, with the other side of his head, to the eggs; then down he went, and it was all over in a moment--I mean the eggs were. Just like Briddy, blaming me for that piece of cold pork. Mind you, I don't say I wouldn't have taken it had I got the chance, but I didn't. "That beautiful piece of pork gone next, m'm; and I never can keep that cat out. And whatever shall I do, m'm?" But I wonder why Briddy didn't say a word about that visit she had from the policeman. Much of a lover he is, anyhow. I could see him through the window, and he never opened his mouth but to put something into it. His courtship was _so_ un-Byronic, for he sat and he sat, and he chewed and chewed, and glowered and glowered at Briddy, till I wondered she didn't spit in his face and turn him out. Ah, Briddy, you needn't shake the broom, what would you do without me? But to resume my story. One night I was shut up in a room by accident, and no one heard me call, for I did call, and, in the morning, the room wasn't just as it ought to have been, and for this new offence I was condemned to die--taken away in a sack, and drowned. Not dead? Bless you, no; it wasn't likely I was going to remain at the bottom of a mill-dam, in an old guano-bag. I was up again before you could say mouse, and had swam on shore as cool as you like. It was a beautiful day in early autumn, the fields were all ablaze with golden grain, and the berries beginning to turn red and black in the hedgerows. I sat down on a sheaf of wheat and basked till dry in the warm sunshine. Then a young pheasant ran round the corner and cried, "Peet, peet, have you seen my mother anywhere?" I thought I never had tasted anything half so sweet in all my life. Then I felt a new Tom from top to toe. Go back and be a house-cat? No, perish the thought. And I never did. I am now fifteen years of age, and as I look back to the days that are gone I cannot help exclaiming, "What a jolly life I've led." I've been a Bohemian, a robber, a brigand, and a thief. "It is a sin, pussy," you say; "why don't you reform?" "'Cause I won't," I answer. Had I been differently brought up, better treated, better fed, and better understood, I mightn't be what I am. I would then have been as honest and virtuous as one of good Mrs Peek's cats. She knows how to treat a cat, and it is only a pity she isn't an Egyptian, she might have married Cambyses. Well, well, as I said before, I'm now fifteen years of age; I've seen many ups and downs in the world, but I suppose my day is wearing through, and I must soon be preparing for the happy hunting-fields on the other side of Jordan. Now, madam, you know I'm only a cat, a common dunghill cat, and have only common dunghill notions, but here are my sentiments. Religion is a beautiful thing when brought to bear on everyday life, and not put off and on with your moire antique. But never you go away to church and forget to give pussy her breakfast. And have your prayer-book in one hand if you like of a morning, but have a nice bit of fish or a saucer of milk for pussy in the other, and the beauty of the one hand will be reflected from the other, as the stars are mirrored in the ocean's wave. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ The End. 
38184	----	Transcriber's notes : (1) Typos, spelling mistakes and punctuation errors have been corrected. (2) Italic text is marked with _underlining_; bold text is marked with =equals signs=. (3) Footnotes are marked as [A], [B] and so on, placed at the end of the relevant paragraph. [Illustration: MR. BAUCHER, upon Partisan.] NEW METHOD OF HORSEMANSHIP, INCLUDING THE BREAKING AND TRAINING OF HORSES, WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR OBTAINING A GOOD SEAT. ILLUSTRATED. By F. BAUCHER. _Translated from the Ninth Paris Edition._ NEW YORK: ALBERT COGSWELL, PUBLISHER, NO. 139 EIGHTH STREET. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. The author's introduction to his "Method of Horsemanship" is omitted in this edition, because containing much that would be uninteresting to the American reader. It mentions the great difficulties he had in attracting the attention of the public to his system, and the complete success with which it was crowned when once this attention was attracted. One paragraph from it, which contains the principle upon which his whole method is founded, is here given: "However favored by nature the horse may be, he requires a preparatory exercise to enable his forces to afford each other mutual assistance; without this everything becomes mechanical and hazardous, as well on his part as on that of the rider. "What musician could draw melodious sounds from an instrument without having exercised his fingers in handling it? He would certainly, if he attempted such a thing, produce only false discordant sounds; and the same thing occurs in horsemanship when we undertake to make a horse execute movements for which he has not been prepared." M. Baucher presents the official documents upon the subject of the introduction of his method into the French army with the following introductory remarks: "Since the first publication of my method, indisputable facts have attested the truth of the principles therein contained. Field-Marshal the Minister of War has appointed a commission, presided over by Lieutenant-General the Marquis Oudinot, to examine into its advantages.[A] "Fifty horses, some from the troop, and others belonging to officers, which had not yet commenced their education, or which were considered difficult to manage, or vicious, were subjected to the experiment, which commenced on the 21st March, 1842. The demands of the service of the garrison of Paris permitting only a small number of cuirassiers, municipal guards, and first-class lancers to be put at the disposition of the commission, nearly all the horses were intrusted to riders who were by no means intelligent, or else whose education was not very much advanced. The riders themselves exercised their horses. On the 9th of April--that is to say, after fifteen lessons--Field-Marshal the Minister of War wished to witness the results of the system he had ordered to be tried. His Excellency was accompanied by the members of the committee of cavalry, and many other general officers. The men being completely armed and equipped, and the horses caparisoned, they executed, individually and in troop, at all the paces, movements that, up to this time, had only been required of horses that had been exercised for five or six months under experienced riders. The Minister of War followed all the trials with the greatest interest, and before retiring expressed his complete satisfaction, and announced his intention of having a general application of it made in the army." [A] "The commission was composed of Lieutenant-General Oudinot, Col. Carrelet, Commander of the Municipal Guard, the Chef d'Escadrons De Novital, commanding the Cavalry Riding-School, and the Captain-instructors deGues, of the 5th Cuirassiers, and De Mesanges, of the 3d Lancers." Among the official documents in favor of Baucher's method is a letter from M. Champmontant, Lieutenant-Colonel of the Staff, Secretary of the Committee of Cavalry, in which he requests M. Baucher to fix a convenient time to appear before the committee and explain his system more completely, that they may consider its adoption in the army; another from Lieutenant-General Marquis Oudinot to M. Baucher. In this letter the General informs M. Baucher that the Minister of War has decided that a series of experiments shall be made upon his method of breaking new horses and such as were considered difficult to manage. Then follows the report upon the trials of Baucher's method, and a recapitulation of the daily operations by the _Chef d'Escadrons_ de Novital, commanding the Royal School at Saumur. The complete success of the trial is mentioned above, and an extract only from the report will be here given: "But, it may be objected, will not this species of captivity to which the new method will subject the horse, prevent his lasting? Will it not be the source of his premature decay? To this it is easy to answer by a comparison, which to us appears conclusive. When all the wheel work of a machine fits well together, so that each part furnishes its share of action, there is harmony, and consequently need of a less force; so when, in an organized body, we are enabled to obtain suppleness and pliability in all the parts, the equilibrium becomes easy, there is suppleness and lightness, and in consequence, a diminution of fatigue. "Far from injuring the horse, the new method has the advantage of being a great auxiliary in developing the muscles, particularly in a young subject." Extract from the report to Lieutenant-General Oudinot, by M. Carrelet, Colonel of the Municipal Guard of Paris: "To shorten this narration, I would say that the officers of the Municipal Guard are unanimous in their approval of M. Baucher's proceedings, applied to the breaking of young horses. "We have assisted at the education of forty troop horses, all more or less difficult to manage; and we are convinced that, by Baucher's system, they have been more advanced in fifteen days than they would have been in six months, by the proceedings we have been accustomed to follow. "I am so convinced of the efficiency of the means practised by M. Baucher, that I am going to subject to them all the horses of my five squadrons." Extract from the report of Lieutenant-General Marquis Oudinot to his Excellency the Marshal the Minister of War: "That the system of M. Baucher may produce in the army all the advantages expected from it, it would be necessary to have a certain number of instructors initiated in it as completely as possible, that they may be able to teach it afterwards. "In consequence of which, I have the honor to propose to you to order: "1st. That upon the return to Saumur of the commanding officer of the riding-school, the young horses be broken after Baucher's method, and observations made upon the advantages or disadvantages that it presents. "2d. That in the Fifth Cuirassiers and the Third Lancers, the application of this method be continued. "3d. That the different bodies of cavalry within a circle of twenty-five leagues around Paris detach, for about two months, their captain-instructor and one officer, who should come to study the system of M. Baucher." The Minister of War immediately issued these three orders, and also three additional ones: "4th. M. Baucher, Jr., will repair to the camp at Luneville and sojourn there during the months of June, July and August. The captain-instructors and one lieutenant from the troops of horse stationed in the neighborhood of Paris will be ordered to Luneville during those months to study the Baucher system. "5th. M. Baucher, Jr., will receive an indemnity of five hundred francs a month. "6th. Each of the bodies of troops of horse and establishments of unbroken horses will receive two copies of the work entitled 'A New Method of Horsemanship, by M. Baucher.'" Extract from the report of the Chef d'Escadrons Grenier, appointed to the command of the officers detached to Paris, by ministerial decision of the 20th of May, 1842, to study the method of horsemanship of M. Baucher: "The officers detached to Paris were of the number of twenty-two, the captain-instructor and a lieutenant from each regiment. * * * They exercised for thirty-nine days. * * * These officers did not all arrive at Paris with the belief that they could be taught anything. One-half were captain-instructors, the rest, lieutenants, intended to become the same. Thus, in the beginning, there was very little confidence, on the part of the officers, in their new professor, sometimes even opposition, but always zeal and good will. "Little by little, confidence came, opposition disappeared; but only at the end of the first month, after about twenty-five lessons, did all the officers, without exception, understand the method and recognize the superiority of M. Baucher's principles over those previously known. "Before leaving, they all approved of the new method, and desired its application in their regiments. "The method of horsemanship of M. Baucher is positive and rational; it is easy to understand, especially when studied under the direction of some one who knows it. It is attractive to the rider, gives him a taste for horses and horsemanship, tends to develop the horse's qualities, especially that of lightness, which is so delightful to discover in a saddle-horse. * * Applied to the breaking of young horses, it develops their instinct, makes them find the domination of the rider easy and pleasant; it preserves them from the premature ruin that an improper breaking often brings with it; it may shorten the time devoted to the education of the horse; and it interests the riders employed in it." M. Desondes, Lieutenant of the Ninth Cuirassiers, winds up a long and highly favorable report upon the breaking of young horses for the army with the words, "To Baucher the cavalry is grateful." Extracts from the sixth and last report upon the trials of the new method of horsemanship of M. Baucher: "The first trials are concluded. The principal movements of the platoon-drill on horseback, the running at the head and charging, have completed the exercises. Thus, thirty-five lessons have sufficed to perfect the instruction of the tractable as well as the intractable horses confided to me. The first rough work with the horse--that is to say, the exercises with the snaffle prescribed by the orders--used to take up as much time as this, and then we scarcely dared to touch the curb-rein. In this view, the new system is of great utility for cavalry. "But the promptness with which we can put new horses in the ranks is not the only advantage the new method presents; it guarantees, besides, the preservation of the horse; it develops his faculties and his powers; these increase by the harmony and proper application of the forces among themselves and by their rational and opportune use. It is not the immoderate employment of force which conquers a rebellious horse, but the well-combined use of an ordinary force. The Baucher system ought to be considered eminently preservative, since the breaking, being well graduated and well combined, cannot have an injurious influence upon the horse's _physique_; and his forces being at the disposition of the rider, it is he, the absolute dispenser of these forces, who is responsible for their duration or premature destruction. * * * I repeat it, that the new method would be a great benefit, an indisputable improvement for cavalry. * * * I pray then for its adoption, and ardently desire its prompt introduction into the cavalry. (Signed) DE NOVITAL." Extract from the _Spectateur Militaire_: "Passionately fond of a science that, from his childhood, has been the object of studies as productive as they were persevering, M. Baucher, after having obtained from the horse a submission almost magical, has not been willing to be the only one to profit by his meditations; he has put them cleverly together, and his written method is now in the hands of all those who occupy themselves with horsemanship. * * * The division of dragoons, and the instructors of the different bodies of troops of horse that composed a part of the camp of Luneville, intended to execute, after the principles of the new method, and in the presence of their royal highnesses, the Dukes of Orleans and Nemours, equestrian exercises that would have had thousands of spectators. The mournful event that deprived France of the prince royal did not allow of this performance having the _éclat_ that was intended. Nevertheless, M. the Duke de Nemours, wishing to judge for himself of the results, has had part of these exercises performed in his presence." The death of the Duke of Orleans, and the indifference and afterwards opposition of the Duke de Nemours, were the principal causes of the system of M. Baucher not being adopted for the whole cavalry of the French army. The former was an ardent admirer of the system, while the latter was an equally ardent admirer of a rival professor of horsemanship. Extract from a letter of M. de Gouy, Colonel of the First Hussars, to M. Baucher: "So far from the muscular power being lessened by the repetition of the flexions, is it not increased by having all the advantage of exercise over repose, of work over indolence? Does not the muscular system, in reason, develop itself, physiologically speaking, in proportion to these conditions? Will not address and vigor be the result of these gymnastics? Has the habitual difference between the forces of the right and left arm any other cause than the difference in the daily use of the one to the prejudice of the other?" Baucher says: "To prove the complete success of my mission to Saumur, I will back, according to my custom, my assertions by positive facts. The officers present at my course of instruction were of the number of seventy-two; of this number sixty-nine have sent in reports favorable to my method. There were but _three dissenting voices_." This statement is followed by letters from General Prévost, De Novital, etc., all highly commending the system. Baucher's method has been reprinted in Belgium and translated into Dutch and German. In the latter language, several different translations have been written, one by M. Ritgen, Lieutenant of the Fourth Regiment of _Houlans_ (Prussian), and the other by M. de Willisen, Lieutenant-Colonel of the Seventh Cuirassiers (Prussian). The translator will give some extracts from the preface to M. de Willisen's translation, as it shows that some of the difficulties met with by the former were not altogether escaped by his German _confrère_. "After the most positive results had proved to me most convincingly that, of all existing methods, that of M. Baucher was the best, I thought that it would be useful to translate it. This translation seemed at first much easier than it proved in the sequel; above all, it was actually impossible for me to render in German, as I wished, such technical French expressions as _attaques_, _acculement_, _assouplissement_, _ramener_, _rassembler_, etc., retaining their clearness and conciseness. In German I could only find expressions that were incomplete. On this account I have put all the words for which I could not find a clear equivalent in German in the original French. "Horses may be broken with much success upon other principles--they have been broken before M. Baucher's time--but no work has thrown so much light upon horse education; no other method has taught such simple and sure means, nor presented a like result with certainty. He who would ride with safety and satisfaction, ought to be completely master of an obedient and correct horse. To obtain this result, M. Baucher gives the surest means and points out the shortest road: "The exact knowledge of the obstacles that the horse presents to dispose him to obey easily; the simple manner, easy to understand and easy to execute, of making these obstacles disappear, distinguish this method from all preceding ones, and render it of the greatest importance to all riders. "The close relations that are established between rider and horse give the former such a certainty of hand and legs, and the latter such suppleness and obedience, that a like result has never previously been obtained. "Until now, no horseman has ever had such clear and sure means for breaking a horse given him, even approximatively, as are contained in this book. The trial will give the most convincing proofs of this when we undertake to apply the principles therein contained; but that can only be considered a trial when made by following strictly what is prescribed in the method. There is no other method that can put the horse so certainly in the hand and in the legs of the rider; no other method succeeds in developing so much address and assurance in horse or rider: the horse feels at his ease, the rider is absolute master of him, and both are at their ease. * * * This new method teaches, further, what is of very great importance, the most certain means of making the rider perfectly in harmony with his horse, so that they can understand and mutually trust one another, in such a way that the horse obeys as punctually as the rider guides him skilfully. In place of being obliged to break every horse after our own particular fashion, we will only, thanks to this method, have to occupy ourselves with one horse, for it teaches us that the same means are applicable to all horses. It is unnecessary to enumerate the advantages the instruction of the rider gains from it, for he escapes the martyrdom of the lessons being given him on awkward, badly-broken horses. Riders will sooner become masters of these managed horses, and will acquire in six weeks a seat that will come of itself, and their touch will be developed much more quickly. "Finally, men learn very quickly to put in practice means that are applied on foot, and there is a great advantage in it; it is that they can see better the moment that the neck becomes flexible and the jaw without contraction; besides this, their hand becomes much more delicate than it would have become in a much greater space of time, if the application took place in the saddle. "Until now, only men of great talent were able to break horses; now, by practising this new method, which demonstrates clearly the means of breaking, every rider, in a very short time, can acquire the knowledge necessary to render a horse fit for use. * * * A person commencing to learn this method, and who is obliged to work from the book, ought to proceed slowly and cautiously in the application of principles that are not familiar to him. He ought first to endeavor to perfect his seat, his position, his touch, the obedience of his horse, and his paces; he will thus make great progress in the breaking, and be enabled to undertake the application of the new method. "DE WILLISEN, "_Lieut.-Col. of the Seventh Cuirassiers_." M. Baucher received from the King of Prussia a magnificent snuff-box of elegantly carved gold, as a token of the satisfaction of his majesty with our author's system. If anybody has read all this, they will be pleased to hear that there will be no more proofs of the excellence of the system brought from across the Atlantic. In consequence of the opposition mentioned above, Baucher's system was discontinued in the French army, in spite of the almost unanimous wish of the officers. But he has gained a name as the first horseman of this or any other age--the first who could not only manage horses himself, but teach others to do so equally well. This has been proved under the translator's own eyes. A gentleman of Philadelphia purchased a horse, four years old, long, _gangling_, ewe-necked; such a brute as no one but a confident disciple of Baucher would have had anything to do with. Had he hunted the country for a horse with but one merit, that of soundness, and possessing that only because nothing had ever been done to injure it, he could not have been better suited. Mounted upon this animal, it was painful to see a good rider in such a quandary; but a quiet, confident smile showed what was intended to come of it. In six weeks from that time, without the horse ever having crossed the threshold of the stable-yard, the writer saw him splendid, with his neck arched like the steed in Holy Writ, his haunches well under him, obedient to the lightest touch of hand or heel, ready to do anything that was demanded of him, because he had been put in a position that enabled him to do it. Since that, the same person has broken two other horses of greater natural capabilities, and the success was proportionately greater. Every one who takes any interest in horses recollects the horse May-fly, when first introduced to an American audience, by Sands, of Welsh's circus. This horse, a thoroughbred, belonging to the racing stud of Baron Rothschild, was so vicious that he had to be brought upon the race-course in a van, so that he could see nothing till the moment to start arrived. With even this and similar precautions, he was considered dangerous and unmanageable. The master hand was required, and, under its influence, all such things as vice and being unmanageable disappeared. Instead of violent force on the part of man, which would only have produced more violent force on the part of the brute, Baucher sought out the sources of these resistances, and conquered them in detail. Is it not worth a few weeks' pleasant labor with your horse to be able to make him move with the grace, elegance and majesty of this one, or of those we have since seen ridden by Derious, and that French Amazon, Caroline Loyo? It is within the power of every one to do this to a certain extent; and as the education of the man as a rider advances progressively with that of the horse, there are, as Baucher himself says, no limits to the progress of horsemanship, and no performance, _equestrianly_ possible, that a horseman, who will properly apply his principles, cannot make his horse execute. __________________________ BAUCHER'S NEW METHOD OF HORSEMANSHIP. --------------------------- CHAPTER I. NEW MEANS OF OBTAINING A GOOD SEAT It may undoubtedly be thought astonishing that, in the first editions of this work, having for its object the horse's education, I should not have commenced by speaking of the rider's seat. In fact, this, so important a part of horsemanship, has always been the basis of classical works on this subject. Nevertheless, it is not without a motive that I have deferred treating of this question until now. Had I had nothing new to say on this subject, I might very easily have managed, by consulting old authors, by transposing a sentence here and changing a word there, to have sent forth into the equestrian world another inutility. But I had other ideas; I wished to make a thorough reform. My system for giving a good seat to the rider, being also an innovation, I feared lest so many new things at one time should alarm even the best intentioned amateurs, and give a hold to my adversaries. They would not have failed to say that my means of managing a horse were impracticable, or that they could not be applied without recourse to a seat still more impracticable. But now I have proved the contrary--that, upon my plan, horses have been broken by troops without regard to the men's seat. To give more force to my method, and render it more easily comprehensible, I have divested it of all accessories, and said nothing about those new principles that concern the rider's seat. I reserved these last until after the indisputable success of the official trials. By means of these principles, added to those I have published upon the art of horse-breaking, I both shorten the man's work, and establish a system not only precise, but complete in these two important parts of horsemanship, hitherto so confused. By following my new instructions relating to the man's seat on horseback, we will promptly arrive at a certain result; they are as easy to understand as to demonstrate. Two sentences are sufficient to explain all to the rider, and he will get a good seat by the simple advice of the instructor. _The seat of the rider._--The rider will expand his chest as much as possible, so that each part of his body rests upon that next below it, for the purpose of increasing the adhesion of his buttocks to the saddle; the arms will fall easily by the sides. The thighs and legs must, by their own strength, find as many points of contact as possible with the saddle and the horse's sides; the feet will naturally follow the motion of the legs. You see by these few lines how simple the rider's seat is. The means which I point out for quickly obtaining a good seat, remove all the difficulties which the plan pursued by our predecessors presented. The pupil used to understand nothing of the long catechism, recited in a loud voice by the instructor, from the first word to the last, consequently he could not execute it. Here one word replaces all those sentences; but we previously go through a course of supplings. This course will make the rider expert, and consequently intelligent. One month will not elapse without the most stupid and awkward recruit being able to seat himself properly without the aid of the word of command. _Preparatory lesson (the lesson to last an hour, two lessons a day for a month)._--The horse is led upon the ground, saddled and bridled. The instructor must take two pupils; one will hold the horse by the bridle, all the while watching what the other does, that he may be able to perform in his turn. The pupil will approach the horse's shoulder and prepare to mount; for this purpose he will lay hold of and separate, with the right hand, a handful of mane, and pass it into the left hand, taking hold as near the roots as possible, without twisting them; he will seize the pommel of the saddle with the right hand, the four fingers in, and the thumb outside; then springing lightly, will raise himself upon his wrists. As soon as his middle is the height of the horse's withers, he will pass the right leg over the croup, without touching it, and place himself lightly in the saddle. This vaulting being very useful in making the man active, he should be made to repeat it eight or ten times, before letting him finally seat himself. The repetition of this will soon teach him what he is able to do, using the powers of his arms and loins. _Exercise in the saddle._--(This is a stationary exercise on horseback; an old, quiet horse to be chosen in preference; the reins are knotted, and hang on his neck.) The pupil being on horseback, the instructor will examine his natural position, in order to exercise more frequently those parts which have a tendency to give way or stiffen. The lesson will commence with the chest. The instructor will make use of the flexions of the loins, which expand the chest, to straighten the upper part of the pupil's body; he whose loins are slack will be made to hold himself in this position for some time, without regard to the stiffness which this will bring along with it the first few times. It is by the exertion of force that the pupil will become supple, and not by the _abandon_ so much and so uselessly recommended. A movement at first obtained by great effort, will, after a while, not require so much, for he will then have gained skill, and skill, in this case, is but the result of exertions combined and employed properly. What is first done with twenty pounds of force, reduces itself afterwards to fourteen, to ten, to four. Skill will be the exertion reduced to four pounds. If we commenced by a less, we would not attain this result. The flexions of the loins will be often renewed, allowing the pupil often to let himself down into his natural relaxed position, in order to make him properly employ the force that quickly gives a good position to the chest. The body being well placed, the instructor will pass: 1st. To the lesson of the arm, which consists in moving it in every direction, first bent, and afterwards extended; 2d. To that of the head; this must be turned right and left without its motions reacting on the shoulders. When the lessons of the chest, arms, and head give a satisfactory result, which ought to be at the end of four days (eight lessons), they will pass to that of the legs. The pupil will remove one of his thighs as far as possible from the quarters of the saddle; and afterwards replace it with a rotatory movement from without inwards, in order to make it adhere to the saddle by as many points of contact as possible. The instructor will watch that the thigh does not fall back heavily; it should resume its position by a slowly progressive motion, and without a jerk. He ought, moreover, during the first lesson, to take hold of the pupil's leg and direct it, in order to make him understand the proper way of performing this displacement. He will thus save him fatigue, and obtain the result more quickly. This kind of exercise, very fatiguing at first, requires frequent rests; it would be wrong to prolong the exercise beyond the powers of the pupil. The motions of drawing in (_adduction_, which makes the thigh adhere to the saddle), and putting out (_abduction_, which separates it from the saddle), becoming more easy, the thighs will have acquired a suppleness which will admit of their adherence to the saddle in a good position. Then comes the flexion of the legs. _Flexion of the legs._--The instructor will watch that the knees always preserve their perfect adherence to the saddle. The legs will be swung backward and forward like the pendulum of a clock; that is, the pupil will raise them so as to touch the cantle of the saddle with his heels. The repetition of these flexions will soon render the legs supple, pliable and independent of the thighs. The flexions of the legs and thighs will be continued for four days (eight lessons). To make each of these movements more correct and easier, eight days (or sixteen lessons), will be devoted to it. The fifteen days (thirty lessons), which remain to complete the month, will continue to be occupied by the exercise of stationary supplings; but, in order that the pupil may learn to combine the strength of his arms, and that of his loins, he will be made to hold at arm's length, progressively, weights of from ten to forty pounds. This exercise will be commenced in the least fatiguing position, the arm being bent, and the hand near the shoulder, and this flexion will be continued to the full extent of the arm. The chest should not be affected by this exercise, but be kept steady in the same position. _Of the knees._--The strength of pressure of the knees will be judged of, and even obtained, by the aid of the following method: this, which at first sight will perhaps appear of slight importance, will, nevertheless, bring about great results. The instructor will take a narrow piece of leather about twenty inches long; he will place one end of this strap between the pupil's knee and the side of the saddle. The pupil will make use of the force of his knees to prevent its slipping, while the instructor will draw it towards him slowly and progressively. This process will serve as a dynamometer to judge of the increase of power. The strictest watch must be kept that each force which acts separately does not put other forces in action; that is to say, that the movement of the arms does not influence the shoulders; it should be the same with the thighs, with respect to the body; the legs, with respect to the thighs, etc., etc. The displacement and suppling of each part separately, being obtained, the chest and seat will be temporarily displaced, in order to teach the rider to recover his proper position without assistance. This will be done as follows: the instructor being placed on one side, will push the pupil's hip, so that his seat will be moved out of the seat of the saddle. The instructor will then allow him to get back into the saddle, being careful to watch that, in regaining his seat, he makes use of his hips and knees only, in order to make him use only those parts nearest to his seat. In fact, the aid of the shoulders would soon affect the hand, and this the horse; the assistance of the legs would have still worse results. In a word, in all the displacements, the pupil must be taught not to have recourse in order to direct the horse, to the means which keep him in his seat, and, _vice versâ_, not to employ, in order to keep his seat, those which direct the horse. Here, but a month has elapsed, and these equestrian gymnastics have made a rider of a person, who at first may have appeared the most unfit for it. Having mastered the preliminary trials, he will impatiently await the first movements of the horse, to give himself up to them with the ease of an experienced rider. Fifteen days (thirty lessons) will be devoted to the walk, trot and gallop. Here the pupil should solely endeavor to follow the movements of the horse; therefore, the instructor will oblige him to occupy himself only with his seat, and not attempt to guide the horse. He will only exact that the pupil ride, at first, straight before him, then in every direction, one rein of the snaffle in each hand. At the end of four days (eight lessons), he may be made to take the curb-rein in his left hand. The right hand, which is now free, must be held alongside of the left, that he may early get the habit of sitting square (with his shoulders on a level); the horse will trot equally to the right and to the left. When the seat is firmly settled at all the paces, the instructor will explain simply, the connection between the wrist and the legs, as well as their separate effects. _Education of the horse._--Here the rider will commence the horse's education, by following the progression I have pointed out, and which will be found farther on. The pupil will be made to understand all that there is rational in it, and what an intimate connection exists between the education of the man and that of the horse. _Recapitulation and progression._-- Days. Lessons. 1. Flexion of the loins to expand the chest 4 8 2. Extending and replacing of the thighs, and flexion of the legs 4 8 3. General exercise of all the parts in succession 8 16 4. Displacement of the man's body, exercise of the knees and arms with weights in the hands 15 30 5. Position of the rider, the horse being at a walk, trot and gallop, in order to fashion and settle the seat at these different paces 15 30 6. Education of the horse by the rider 75 150 ---- ---- Total 121 242 CHAPTER II. OF THE FORCES OF THE HORSE. _Of their causes and effects._--The horse, like all organized beings, is possessed of a weight and a force peculiar to himself. The weight inherent to the material of which the animal is composed, renders the mass inert, and tends to fix it to the ground. The force, on the contrary, by the faculty it gives him of moving this weight, of dividing it, of transferring it from one of his parts to another, communicates movement to his whole being, determines his equilibrium, speed and direction. To make this truth more evident, let us suppose a horse in repose. His body will be in perfect equilibrium, if each of its members supports exactly that part of the weight which devolves upon it in this position. If he wishes to move forward at a walk, he must first transfer that part of the weight resting on the leg he moves first to those that will remain fixed to the ground. It will be the same thing in other paces, the transfer acting from one diagonal to the other in the trot, from the front to the rear, and reciprocally in the gallop. We must not then confound the weight with the force; the latter determines, the former is subordinate to it. It is by carrying the weight from one extremity to the other that the force puts them in motion, or makes them stationary. The slowness or quickness of the transfers fixes the different paces, which are correct or false, even or uneven, according as these transfers are executed with correctness or irregularity. It is understood that this motive power is subdivided _ad infinitum_, since it is spread over all the muscles of the animal. When the latter himself determines the use of them, the forces are instinctive; I call them transmitted when they emanate from the rider. In the first case, the man governed by his horse remains the plaything of his caprices; in the second, on the contrary, he makes him a docile instrument, submissive to all the impulses of his will. The horse, then, from the moment he is mounted, should only act by transmitted forces. The invariable application of this principle constitutes the true talent of the horseman. But such a result cannot be attained instantaneously. The young horse, in freedom, having been accustomed to regulate his own movements, will, at first, submit with difficulty to the strange influence which comes to take the entire control of them. A struggle necessarily ensues between the horse and his rider, who will be overcome unless he is possessed of energy, patience, and, above all, the knowledge necessary to gain his point. The forces of the animal being the element upon which the rider must principally work, first to conquer, and finally to direct them, it is necessary he should fix his attention upon these before anything else. He will study what they are, whence they spring, the parts where they contract the most for resistance, the physical causes which occasion these contractions. When this is discovered, he will proceed with his pupil by means in accordance with his nature, and his progress will then be rapid. Unfortunately, we search in vain in ancient or modern authors, on horsemanship, I will not say for rational principles, but even for any data in connection with the forces of the horse. All speak very prettily about resistances, oppositions, lightness and equilibrium; but none of them have known how to tell us what causes these resistances, how we can combat them, destroy them, and obtain this lightness and equilibrium they so earnestly recommend. It is this gap that has caused the great doubts and obscurity about the principles of horsemanship; it is this that has made the art stationary so long a time; it is this gap that, I think, I am able to fill up. And first, I lay down the principle that all the resistances of young horses spring, in the first place, from a physical cause, and that this cause only becomes a moral one by the awkwardness, ignorance and brutality of the rider. In fact, besides the natural stiffness peculiar to all these animals, each of them has a peculiar conformation, the more or less of perfection in which constitutes the degree of harmony that exists between the forces and the weight. The want of this harmony occasions the ungracefulness of their paces, the difficulty of their movements; in a word, all the obstacles to a good education. In a state of freedom, whatever may be the bad structure of the horse, instinct is sufficient to enable him to make such a use of his forces as to maintain his equilibrium; but there are movements it is impossible for him to make until a preparatory exercise shall have put him in the way of supplying the defects of his organization by a better combined use of his motive power. A horse puts himself in motion only in consequence of a given position; if his forces are such as to oppose themselves to this position, they must first be annulled, in order to replace them by the only ones which can lead to it. Now, I ask, if before overcoming these first obstacles, the rider adds to them the weight of his own body, and his unreasonable demands, will not the animal experience still greater difficulty in executing certain movements? The efforts we make to compel him to submission, being contrary to his nature, will they not find in it an insurmountable obstacle? He will naturally resist, and with so much the more advantage, that the bad distribution of his forces will of itself be sufficient to paralyze those of the rider. The resistance then emanates, in this case, from a physical cause: which becomes a moral one from the moment when, the struggle going on with the same processes, the horse begins of his own accord to combine means of resisting the torture imposed on him, when we undertake to force into operation parts which have not previously been supplied. When things get into this state, they can only grow worse. The rider, soon disgusted with the impotence of his efforts, will cast back upon the horse the responsibility of his own ignorance; he will brand as a jade an animal possessing the most brilliant resources, and of whom, with more discernment and tact, he could have made a hackney as docile in character, as graceful and agreeable in his paces. I have often remarked that horses considered indomitable are those which develop the most energy and vigor, when we know how to remedy those physical defects which prevent their making use of them. As to those which, in spite of their bad formation, are by a similar system made to show a semblance of obedience, we need thank nothing but the softness of their nature; if they can be made to submit to the simplest exercises, it is only on condition that we do not demand anything more of them, for they would soon find their energy again to resist any further attempts. The rider can then make them go along at different paces to be sure; but how disconnected, how stiff, how ungraceful in their movements, and how ridiculous such steeds make their unfortunate riders look, as they toss them about at will, instead of being guided by them! This state of things is all perfectly natural, unless we destroy the first cause of it: _the bad distribution of their forces, and the stiffness caused by a bad conformation_. But, it is objected, since, you allow that these difficulties are caused by the formation of the horse, how is it possible to remedy them? You do not possibly pretend to change the structure of the animal and reform the work of nature? Undoubtedly not; but while I confess that it is impossible to give more breadth to a narrow chest, to lengthen too short a neck, to lower too high a croup, to shorten and fill out long, weak, narrow loins, I do not the less insist that if I prevent the different contractions occasioned by these physical defects, if I supply the muscles, if I make myself master of the forces so as to use them at will, it will be easy for me to prevent these resistances, to give more action to the weak parts, and to moderate those that are too vigorous, and thus make up for the deficiencies of nature. Such results, I do not hesitate to say, were and still are forever denied to the old methods. But if the science of those who follow the old beaten track finds so constant an obstacle in the great number of horses of defective formation, there are, unfortunately, some horses who, by the perfection of their organization, and the consequent facility of their education, contribute greatly to perpetuate the impotent routines that have been so unfavorable to the progress of horsemanship. A well constituted horse is one, all of whose parts being regularly harmonized, induce the perfect equilibrium of the whole. It would be as difficult for such a subject to leave this natural equilibrium, and take up an improper position for the purpose of resistance, as it is at first painful for the badly formed horse to come into that just distribution of forces, without which no regularity of movement can be hoped for. It is then only in the education of these last that the real difficulties of horsemanship consist. With the others the breaking ought to be, so to say, instantaneous, since all the springs being in their places, there is nothing to be done but to put them in motion; this result is always obtained by my method. Yet the old principles demand two or three years to reach this point, and when by feeling your way without any certainty of success, the horseman gifted with some tact and experience, ends by accustoming the horse to obey the impressions communicated to him, he imagines that he has surmounted great difficulties, and attributes to his skill a state so near that of nature that correct principles would have obtained it in a few days. Then as the animal continues to display in all his movements the grace and lightness natural to his beautiful formation, the rider does not scruple to take all the merit to himself, thus showing himself as presumptuous in this case as he was unjust when he would make the badly formed horse responsible for the failure of his attempts. If we once admit these truths: That the education of the horse consists in the complete subjection of his powers; That we can only make use of his powers at will by annulling all resistances; And that these resistances have their source in the contractions occasioned by physical defects; The only thing will be to seek out the parts where these contractions operate, in order to endeavor to oppose and destroy them. Long and conscientious observations have shown me that, whatever be the fault of formation that in the horse prevents a just distribution of his forces, it is always in the neck that the most immediate effect is felt. There is no improper movement, no resistance that is not preceded by the contraction of this part of the animal; and as the jaw is intimately connected with the neck, the stiffness of the one is instantly communicated to the other. These two points are the prop upon which the horse rests, in order to annul all the rider's efforts. We can easily conceive the immense obstacle they must present to the impulsions of the latter, since the neck and head, being the two principal levers by which we direct the animal, it is impossible to obtain anything from him until we are master of these first and indispensable means of action. Behind, the parts where the forces contract the most for resistance, are the loins and the croup (the haunches). The contractions of these two opposite extremities are, mutually the one to the other, causes and effects, that is to say, the stiffness of the neck induces that of the haunches, and reciprocally. We can combat the one by the other; and as soon as we have succeeded in annulling them, as soon as we have re-established the equilibrium and harmony that they prevented between the fore and hind-parts, the education of the horse will be half finished. I will now point out the means of infallibly arriving at this result. CHAPTER III. THE SUPPLINGS. This work being an exposition of a method which upsets most of the old principles of horsemanship, it is understood that I only address men already conversant with the art, and who join to an assured seat a sufficiently great familiarity with the horse, to understand all that concerns his mechanism. I will not, then, revert to the elementary processes; it is for the instructor to judge if his pupil possesses a proper degree of solidity of seat, and is sufficiently a part of the horse; for at the same time that a good seat produces this identification, it favors the easy and regular play of the rider's extremities. My present object is to treat principally of the education of the horse; but this education is too intimately bound up in that of the rider, for him to make much progress in one without the other. In explaining the processes which should produce perfection in the animal, I will necessarily teach the horseman to apply them himself; he will only have to practise tomorrow what I teach him today. Nevertheless, there is one thing that no precept can give; that is, a fineness of touch, a delicacy of equestrian feeling that belongs only to certain privileged organizations, and without which, we seek in vain to pass certain limits. Having said this, we will return to our subject. We now know which are the parts of the horse that contract the most in resistances, and we feel the necessity of suppling them. Shall we then seek to attack, exercise and conquer them all at once? No; this would be to fall back into the old error, of the inefficiency of which we are convinced. The animal's muscular power is infinitely superior to ours; his instinctive forces, moreover, being able to sustain themselves the one by the others, we will inevitably be conquered if we set them in motion all at once. Since the contractions have their seat in separate parts, let us profit by this division to combat them separately, as a skillful general destroys, in detail, forces which, when together, he would be unable to resist. For the rest, whatever the age, the disposition, and the structure of my pupil, my course of proceeding at the start will be always the same. The results will only be more or less prompt and easy, according to the degree of perfection in his nature, and the influence of the hand to which he has been previously subjected. The suppling, which will have no other object in the case of a well-made horse than that of preparing his forces to yield to our impulsions, will re-establish calm and confidence in a horse that has been badly handled, and in a defective formation will make those contractions disappear, which are the causes of resistances, and the only obstacles to a perfect equilibrium. The difficulties to be surmounted will be in proportion to this complication of obstacles, and will quickly disappear with a little perseverance on our part. In the progression we are about to pursue in order to subject the different parts of the animal to suppling, we will naturally commence with the most important parts, that is to say, with the jaw and neck. The head and neck of the horse are at once the rudder and compass of the rider. By them he directs the animal; by them, also, he can judge of the regularity and precision of his movements. The equilibrium of the whole body is perfect, its lightness complete, when the head and neck remain of themselves easy, pliable and graceful. On the contrary, there can be no elegance, no ease of the whole, when these two parts are stiff. Preceding the body of the horse in all its impulsions, they ought to give warning, and show by their attitude the positions to be taken, and the movements to be executed. The rider has no power so long as they remain contracted and rebellious; he disposes of the animal at will, when once they are flexible and easily handled. If the head and neck do not first commence the changes of direction, if in circular movements they are not inclined in a curved line, if in backing they do not bend back upon themselves, and if their lightness is not always in harmony with the different paces at which we wish to go, the horse will be free to execute these movements or not, since he will remain master of the employment of his own forces. From the time I first noticed the powerful influence that the stiffness of the neck exercises on the whole mechanism of the horse, I attentively sought the means to remedy it. The resistances to the hand are always either sideways, upward or downward. I at first considered the neck alone as the source of these resistances, and exercised myself in suppling the animal by flexions, repeated in every direction. The result was immense; but, although, at the end of a certain time, the supplings of the neck rendered me perfectly master of the forces of the fore-parts of the horse, I still felt a slight resistance which I could not at first account for. At last I discovered that it proceeded from the jaw. The flexibility I had communicated to the neck even aided this stiffness of the muscles of the lower jaw, by permitting the horse in certain cases to escape the action of the bit. I then bethought me of the means of combating these resistances in this, their last stronghold; and, from that time, it is there I always commence my work of suppling. _First exercise on foot._--Means of making the horse come to the man, of making him steady to mount, etc., etc. Before commencing the exercises of flexions, it is essential to give the horse a first lesson of subjection, and teach him to recognize the power of man. This first act of submission, which might appear unimportant, will have the effect of quickly rendering him calm, of giving him confidence, and of repressing all those movements which might distract his attention, and mar the success of the commencement of his education. Two lessons, of a half hour each, will suffice to obtain the preparatory obedience of every horse. The pleasure we experience in thus playing with him will naturally lead the rider to continue this exercise for a few moments each day, and make it both instructive to the horse and useful to himself. The mode of proceeding is as follows: the rider will approach the horse, his whip under his arm, without roughness or timidity; he will speak to him without raising the voice too much, and will pat him on the face and neck; then with the left hand will lay hold of the curb-reins, about six or seven inches from the branches of the bit, keeping his wrist stiff, so as to present as much force as possible when the horse resists. The whip will be held firmly in the right hand, the point towards the ground, then slowly raised as high as his chest, in order to tap it at intervals of a second. The first natural movement of the horse will be to withdraw from the direction in which the pain comes; it is by backing that he will endeavor to do this. The rider will follow this backward movement without discontinuing the firm tension of the reins, nor the little taps with the whip on the breast, applying them all the time with the same degree of intensity. The rider should be perfectly self-possessed, that there may be no indication of anger or weakness in his motions or looks. Becoming tired of this constraint, the horse will soon seek by another movement to avoid the infliction, and it is by coming forward that he will arrive at it; the rider will seize this second instinctive movement to stop and caress the animal with his hand and voice. The repetition of this exercise will give the most surprising results, even in the first lesson. The horse having discovered and understood the means by which he can avoid the pain, will not wait till the whip touches him, he will anticipate it by rushing forward at the least gesture. The rider will take advantage of this to effect, by a downward force of the bridle hand, the depression of the neck, and the getting him in hand; he will thus early dispose the horse for the exercises that are to follow. This training, besides being a great recreation, will serve to make the horse steady to mount, will greatly abridge his education and accelerate the development of his intelligence. Should the horse, by reason of his restless or wild nature, become very unruly, we should have recourse to the cavesson, as a means of repressing his disorderly movements, and use it with little jerks. I would add that it requires great prudence and discernment to use it with tact and moderation. _Flexion of the jaw._--The flexions of the jaw, as well as the two flexions of the neck which follow, are executed standing still, the man on foot. The horse will be led on the ground saddled and bridled, the reins on his neck. The man will first see that the bit is properly placed in the horse's mouth, and that the curb-chain is fastened so that he can introduce his finger between the links and the horse's chin. Then looking the animal good-naturedly in the eyes, he will place himself before him near his head, holding his body straight and firm, his feet a little apart to steady himself, and dispose himself to struggle with advantage against all resistances.[B] [B] I have divided all the flexions into two parts, and, in order to facilitate the understanding of the text, I have added to it plates representing the position of the horse at the moment the flexion is about to commence, and at the moment it is terminated. 1st. In order to execute the flexion to the right, the man will take hold of the right curb-rein with the right hand, at about six inches from the branch of the bit, and the left rein with the left hand, at only three inches from the left branch. He will then draw his right hand towards his body, pushing out his left hand so as to turn the bit in the horse's mouth. The force employed ought to be entirely determined by and proportioned to the resistance of the jaw and neck only, in order not to affect the _aplomb_, which keeps his body still. If the horse backs to avoid the flexion, the opposition of the hands should still be continued. If the preceding exercise has been completely and carefully practised, it will be easy by the aid of the whip to prevent this retrograde movement, which is a great obstacle to all kinds of flexions of the jaw and neck. (Plate I.) 2d. As soon as the flexion is obtained, the left hand will let the left rein slip to the same length as the right, then drawing the two reins equally will bring the head near to the breast, in order to hold it there oblique and perpendicular, until it sustains itself without assistance in this position. The horse by champing the bit will show his being in hand as well as his perfect submission. The man, to reward him, will cease drawing on the reins immediately, and after some seconds will allow him to resume his natural position. (Plate II.) [Illustration: Plates I. and II.] The flexion of the jaw to the left is executed upon the same principles and by inverse means to the flexion to the right, the man being careful to pass alternately from one to the other. The importance of these flexions of the jaw is easily understood. The result of them is to prepare the horse to yield instantly to the lightest pressure of the bit, and to supple directly the muscles that join the head to the neck. As the head ought to precede and determine the different attitudes of the neck, it is indispensable that the latter part be always in subjection to the other, and respond to its impulsions. That would be only partially the case with the flexibility of the neck alone, which would then make the head obey it, by drawing it along in its movements. You see, then, why at first I experienced resistances, in spite of the pliability of the neck, of which I could not imagine the cause. The followers of my method to whom I have not yet had an opportunity of making known the new means just explained, will learn with pleasure that this process not only brings the flexibility of the neck to a greater degree of perfection, but saves much time in finishing the suppling. The exercise of the jaw, while fashioning the mouth and head, brings along with it the flexion of the neck, and accelerates the getting the horse in hand. This exercise is the first of our attempts to accustom the forces of the horse to yield to ours. It is necessary, then, to manage it very nicely, so as not to discourage him at first. To enter on the flexion roughly would be to shock the animal's intelligence, who would not have had time to comprehend what was required of him. The opposition of the hands will be commenced gently but firmly, not to cease until perfect obedience is obtained, except, indeed, the horse backs against a wall, or into a corner; but it will diminish or increase its effect in proportion to the resistance, in a way always to govern it, but not with too great violence. The horse that at first will, perhaps, submit with difficulty, will end by regarding the man's hand as an irresistible regulator, and will become so used to obeying it, that he will soon obtain, by a simple pressure of the rein, what at first required the whole strength of our arms. At each renewal of the lateral flexions some progress will be made in the obedience of the horse. As soon as his first resistances are a little diminished, we will pass to the perpendicular flexions or depression of the neck. _Depression of the neck by the direct flexion of the jaw._-- 1. The man will place himself as for the lateral flexions of the jaw; he will take hold of the reins of the snaffle with the left hand, at six inches from the rings, and the curb-reins at about two inches from the bit. He will oppose the two hands by effecting the depression with the left and the proper position with the right. (Plate III.) 2. As soon as the horse's head shall fall of its own accord and by its own weight, the man will instantly cease all kind of force, and allow the animal to resume his natural position. (Plate IV.) [Illustration: Plates III. and IV.] This exercise being often repeated, will soon bring about the suppling of the elevating muscles of the neck, which play a prominent part in the resistances of the horse, and will besides facilitate the direct flexions and the getting the head in position, which should follow the lateral flexions. The man can execute this, as well as the preceding exercise, by himself; yet it would be well to put a second person in the saddle, in order to accustom the horse to the exercise of the supplings with a rider. This rider should just hold the snaffle-reins, without drawing on them, in his right hand, the nails downward. The flexions of the jaw have already communicated suppleness to the upper part of the neck, but we have obtained it by means of a powerful and direct motive power, and we must accustom the horse to yield to a less direct regulating force. Besides, it is important that the pliability and flexibility, especially necessary in the upper part of the neck, should be transmitted throughout its whole extent, so as to destroy its stiffness entirely. The force from above downward, practised with the snaffle, acting only by the headstall on the top of the head, often takes too long to make the horse lower his head. In this case, we must cross the two snaffle-reins by taking the left rein in the right, and the right rein in the left hand, about six or seven inches from the horse's mouth, in such a way as to cause a pretty strong pressure upon the chin. This force, like all the others, must be continued until the horse yields. The flexions being repeated with this more powerful agent, will put him in a condition to respond to the means previously indicated. If the horse responded to the first flexions represented by Plate IV., it would be unnecessary to make use of this one. (Plate V.) [Illustration: Plate V.] We can act directly on the jaw so as to render it prompt in moving. To do this, we take the left curb-rein about six inches from the horse's mouth and draw it straight towards the left shoulder; at the same time draw the left rein of the snaffle forward, in such a way that the wrists of the person holding the two reins shall be opposite and on a level with each other. The two opposed forces will soon cause a separation of the jaws and end all resistance. The force ought to be always proportioned to that of the horse, whether in his resistance, or in his lightness. Thus, by means of this direct force a few lessons will be sufficient to give a pliability to the part in question that could not have been obtained by any other means. (Plate VI.) [Illustration: Plate VI.] _Lateral flexions of the neck._-- 1. The man will place himself near the horse's shoulder as for the flexions of the jaw; he will take hold of the right snaffle-rein, which he will draw upon across the neck, in order to establish an intermediate point between the impulsion that comes from him and the resistance the horse presents; he will hold up the left rein with the left hand about a foot from the bit. As soon as the horse endeavors to avoid the constant tension of the right rein by inclining his head to the right, he will let the left rein slip so as to offer no opposition to the flexion of the neck. Whenever the horse endeavors to escape the constraint of the right rein by bringing his croup around, he will be brought into place again by slight pulls of the left rein. (Plate VII.) 2. When the head and neck have entirely yielded to the right, the man will draw equally on both reins to place the head perpendicularly. Suppleness and lightness will soon follow this position, and as soon as the horse evinces, by champing the bit, entire freedom from stiffness, the man will cease the tension of the reins, being careful that the head does not take advantage of this moment of freedom to displace itself suddenly. In this case, it will be sufficient to restrain it by a slight support of the right rein. After having kept the horse in this position for some seconds, he will make him resume his former position by drawing on the left rein. It is most important that the animal in all his movements should do nothing of his own accord. (Plate VIII.) [Illustration: Plates VII. and VIII.] The flexion of the neck to the left is executed after the same principles, but by inverse means. The man can repeat with the curb what he has previously done with the snaffle-reins; but the snaffle should always be employed first, its effect being less powerful and more direct. When the horse submits without resistance to the preceding exercises, it will prove that the suppling of the neck has already made a great step. The rider can, henceforward, continue his work by operating with a less direct motive power, and without the animal's being impressed by the sight of him. He will place himself in the saddle, and commence by repeating with the full length of the reins, the lateral flexions, in which he has already exercised his horse. _Lateral flexions of the neck, the man on horseback._-- 1. To execute the flexion to the right, the rider will take one snaffle-rein in each hand, the left scarcely feeling the bit; the right, on the contrary, giving a moderate impression at first, but which will increase in proportion to the resistance of the horse, and in a way always to govern him. The animal, soon tired of a struggle which, being prolonged, only makes the pain proceeding from the bit more acute, will understand that the only way to avoid it is to incline the head in the direction the pressure is felt. (Plate IX.) 2. As soon as the horse's head is brought round to the right, the left rein will form opposition, to prevent the nose from passing beyond the perpendicular. Great stress should be laid on the head's remaining always in this position, without which the flexion would be imperfect and the suppleness incomplete. The movement being regularly accomplished, the horse will be made to resume his natural position by a slight tension of the left rein. (Plate X.) [Illustration: Plates IX. and X.] The flexion to the left is executed in the same way, the rider employing alternately the snaffle and curb-reins. I have already mentioned that it is of great importance to supple the upper part of the neck. After mounting, and having obtained the lateral flexions without resistance, the rider will often content himself with executing them half-way, the head and upper part of the neck pivoting upon the lower part, which will serve as a base or axis. This exercise must be frequently repeated, even after the horse's education is completed, in order to keep up the pliability, and facilitate the getting him in hand. It now remains for us, in order to complete the suppling of the head and neck, to combat the contractions which occasion the direct resistances, and prevent your getting the horse's head in a perpendicular position. _Direct flexions of the head and neck, or ramener.[C]_-- [C] _Ramener_ means to place the horse's head in a perpendicular position.--TRANSLATOR. 1. The rider will first use the snaffle-reins, which he will hold together in the left hand as he would the curb-reins. He will rest the outer edge of the right hand (see Plate XI.) on the reins in front of the left hand in order to increase the power of the right hand; after which he will gradually bear on the snaffle-bit. As soon as the horse yields, it would suffice to raise the right hand to diminish the tension of the reins and reward the animal. As the hand must only present a force proportioned to the resistance of the neck, it will only be necessary to hold the legs rather close to prevent backing. When the horse obeys the action of the snaffle, he will yield much more quickly to that of the curb, the effect of which is so much more powerful. The curb, of course, needs more care in the use of it than the snaffle. (Plate XI.) 2. The horse will have completely yielded to the action of the hand, when his head is carried in a position perfectly perpendicular to the ground; from that time the contraction will cease, which the animal will show, as in every other case, by champing his bit. The rider must be careful not to be deceived by the feints of the horse--feints which consist in yielding one-fourth or one-third of the way, and then hesitating. If, for example, the nose of the horse having to pass over a curve of ten degrees to attain the perpendicular position (Plate XI.), should stop at the fourth or sixth and again resist, the hand should follow the movement and then remain firm and immovable, for a concession on its part would encourage resistance and increase the difficulties. When the nose shall descend to No. 10, the perpendicular position will be complete and the lightness perfect. The rider can then cease the tension of the reins, but so as to keep the head in this position, if it should offer to leave it. If he lets it return at all to its natural situation, it should be to draw it in over again, and to make the animal understand that the perpendicular position of the head is the only one allowed when under the rider's hand. He should, at the outset, accustom the horse to cease backing at the pressure of the legs, as all backward movements would enable him to avoid the effects of the hand or create new means of resistance. (Plate XII.) [Illustration: Plates XI. and XII.] This is the most important flexion of all; the others tended principally to pave the way for it. As soon as it is executed with ease and promptness, as soon as a slight touch is sufficient to place and keep the head in a perpendicular position, it will prove that the suppling is complete, contraction destroyed, lightness and equilibrium established in the fore-hand. The direction of this part of the animal will, henceforward, be as easy as it is natural, since we have put it in a condition to receive all our impressions, and instantly to yield to them without effort. As to the functions of the legs, they must support the hind-parts of the horse, in order to obtain the _ramener_, in such a way that he may not be able to avoid the effect of the hand by a retrograde movement of his body. This complete getting in hand is necessary to drive the hind-legs under the centre. In the first case, we act upon the fore-hand; in the second, upon the hind-parts; the first serves for the _ramener_, the second for the _rassembler_, or gathering the horse.[D] [D] The full meaning of the word _rassembler_ will be understood after reading the chapter, further on in this work, under that head. With regard to the other word, _ramener_, to avoid the constant circumlocution of saying, "placing the horse's head in a perpendicular position," it will be used in future wherever it occurs.--TRANSLATOR. _Combination of effects._--I published four editions of my Method, without devoting a special article to the combination of effects. Although I myself made a very frequent use of it, I had not attached sufficient importance to the great necessity of this principle in the case of teaching; later experiments have taught me to consider it of more consequence. The combination of effects means the continued and exactly opposed force of the hand and legs. Its object should be to bring back again into a position of equilibrium all the parts of the horse which leave it, in order to prevent him from going ahead, without backing him, and _vice versâ_: finally, it serves to stop any movement from the right to the left, or the left to the right. By this means, also, we distribute the weight of the mass equally on the four legs, and produce temporary immobility. This combination of effects ought to precede and follow each exercise within the graduated limit assigned to it. It is essential when we employ the aids (i.e. the hand and legs), in this, that the action of the legs should precede the other, in order to prevent the horse from backing against any place, for he might find, in this movement, points of support that would enable him to increase his resistance. Thus, all motion of the extremities, proceeding from the horse himself, should be stopped by a combination of effects; finally, whenever his forces get scattered, and act inharmoniously, the rider will find in this a powerful and infallible corrective. It is by disposing all the parts of the horse in the most exact order, that we will easily transmit to him the impulsion that should cause the regular movements of his extremities; it is then also that we will address his comprehension, and that he will appreciate what we demand of him; then will follow caresses of the hand and voice as a moral effect; they should not be used, though, until after he has done what is demanded of him by the rider's hand and legs. _The horse's resting his chin on his breast._--Although few horses are disposed by nature to do this, it is not the less necessary, when it does occur, to practise on them all the flexions, even the one which bends down the neck. In this position, the horse's chin comes back near the breast and rests in contact with the lower part of the neck; too high a croup, joined to a permanent contraction of the muscles that lower the neck, is generally the cause of it. These muscles must then be suppled in order to destroy their intensity, and thereby give to the muscles that raise the neck, their antagonists, the predominance which will make the neck rest in a graceful and useful position. This first accomplished, the horse will be accustomed to go forward freely at the pressure of the legs, and to respond, without abruptness or excitement, to the touch of the spurs (_attaques_); the object of these last is to bring the hind legs near the centre, and to lower the croup. The rider will then endeavor to raise the horse's head by the aid of the curb-reins; in this case, the hand will be held some distance above the saddle, and far from the body[E]; the force it transmits to the horse ought to be continued until he yields by elevating his head. As these sorts of horses have generally little action, we must take care to avoid letting the hand produce an effect from the front to the rear, in which case it would take away from the impulse necessary for movement. The pace commencing with the walk, must be kept up at the same rate, while the hand is producing an elevating effect upon the neck. This precept is applicable to all the changes of position that the hand makes in the head and neck; but is particularly essential in the case of a horse disposed to depress his neck. [E] This position of the hand at a distance from the saddle and the body will be criticised; but let the rider be reassured, eight or ten lessons will suffice to make the horse change the position of his head, and allow the hand to resume its normal position. It should be remembered that the horse has two ways of responding to the pressure of the bit; by one, he yields but withdraws himself at the same time by shrinking and coming back to his former position; this kind of yielding is only injurious to his education, for if the hand is held too forcibly, if he does not wait till the horse changes of his own accord the position of his head, the backward movement of his body would precede and be accompanied by a shifting of the weight backwards. In this case, the contraction of his neck remains all the while the same. The second kind of yielding, which contributes so greatly to the rapid and certain education of the horse, consists in giving a half or three-quarter tension to the reins, then to sustain the hand as forcibly as possible without bringing it near the body. In a short time the force of the hand, seconded by the continued pressure of the legs, will make the horse avoid this slight but constant pressure of the bit, but by means of his head and neck only. Then the rider will only make use of the force necessary to displace the head. It is by this means that he will be able to place the horse's body on a level, and will obtain that equilibrium,[F] the perfect balance of which has not hitherto been appreciated. [F] The word equilibrium, so often repeated in the course of this work, must be categorically explained. People have never rightly understood what it means, this true equilibrium of a horse, which serves as the basis of his education, and by which he takes instantly, at the rider's will, such a pace, or such a change or direction. It is not here a question of the equilibrium which prevents the horse from falling down, but of that upon which depends his performance, when it is prompt, graceful and regular, and by means of which his paces are either measured or extended at will. _Equilibrium of Baucher._ _Croup_------------------------------------------------_Head._ Here the weight and the forces are equally distributed. By means of this just distribution the different positions, the different paces, and the equilibriums that belong to them, are obtained without effort on the part of man or horse. Resuming what we have just explained in the case of a horse who rests his chin on his breast, we repeat that it is by producing one force from the rear to the front with the legs, and another from below upwards with the hand, that we will soon be enabled to improve the position and movements of the horse. So that whatever may be his disposition at first, it is by first causing the depression of the neck that we will quickly gain a masterly and perfect elevation of it. I will close this chapter by some reflections on the supposed difference of sensibility in horses' mouths, and the kind of bit which ought to be used. _Of the horse's mouth and the bit._--I have already treated this subject at length in my Comprehensive Dictionary of Equitation; but as in this work I make a complete exposition of my method, I think it necessary to repeat it in a few words. I cannot imagine how people have been able so long to attribute to the mere difference of formation of the bars,[G] those contrary dispositions of horses which render them so light or so hard to the hand. How can we believe that, according as a horse has one or two lines of flesh, more or less, between the bit and the bone of the lower jaw, he should yield to the lightest impulse of the hand, or become unmanageable in spite of all the efforts of two vigorous arms? Nevertheless, it is from remaining in this inconceiveable error, that people have forged bits of so strange and various forms, real instruments of torture, the effect of which is to increase the difficulties they sought to remove. [G] The bars are the continuations of the two bones of the lower jaw between the masticating and the front teeth. It is on these that the bit rests. Had they gone back a little further to the source of the resistances, they would have discovered that this one, like all the rest, does not proceed from the difference of formation of a feeble organ, like the bars, but from a contraction communicated to the different parts of the body, and, above all, to the neck, by some serious fault of constitution. It is, then, in vain that we attach to the reins, and place in the horse's mouth a more or less murderous instrument; he will remain insensible to our efforts as long as we do not communicate suppleness to him, which alone can enable him to yield. In the first place, then, I lay down as a fact, that there is no difference of sensibility in the mouths of horses; that all present the same lightness when in the position called _ramener_, and the same resistances in proportion as they recede from this position. There are horses hard to the hand; but this hardness proceeds from the length or weakness of their loins, from a narrow croup, from short haunches, thin thighs, straight hocks, or (a most important point) from a croup too high or too low in proportion to the withers; such are the true causes of resistances; the contractions of the neck, the closing of the jaws are only the effects; as to the bars, they are only there to show the ignorance of self-styled equestrian theoricians. By suppling the neck and the jaw, this hardness completely disappears. Experiments a hundred times repeated give me the right to advance this principle boldly; perhaps it may, at first, appear too arbitrary, but it is none the less true. Consequently, I only allow one kind of bit, and this is the form and the dimensions I give it, to make it as simple as it is easy. The branches straight and six inches long, measuring from the eye of the bit to the extremity of the branch; circumference of the canon,[H] two inches and a half; port, about two inches wide at the bottom, and one inch at the top. The only variation to be in the width of the bit, according to the horse's mouth. [H] The mouth-piece of the bit consists of three parts: the port, to give freedom to the tongue, and the two canons, which are the parts that come in contact with the bars.--TRANSLATOR. I insist that such a bit is sufficient to render passively obedient all horses that have been prepared by supplings; and I need not add that, as I deny the utility of severe bits, I reject all means not coming directly from the rider, such as martingales, piliers, etc. CHAPTER IV. CONTINUATION OF SUPPLINGS. _The hind-parts._--In order to guide the horse, the rider acts directly on two of his parts: the fore-parts and the hind-parts. To effect this, he employs two motive powers: the legs, which give the impulse by the croup; and the hand, which directs and modifies this impulse by the head and neck. A perfect harmony of forces ought then to exist always between these two motive powers; but the same harmony is equally necessary between the parts of the animal they are intended particularly to impress. In vain would be our labor to render the head and neck flexible, light, obedient to the touch of the hand; incomplete would be the results, the equilibrium of the whole imperfect, as long as the croup remained dull, contracted and rebellious to the direct governing agent. I have just explained the simple and easy means of giving to the fore-parts the qualities indispensable to a good management thereof: it remains to tell how we will fashion, in the same way, the hind-parts, in order to complete the suppling of the horse, and bring about a uniform harmony in the development of all his moving parts. The resistances of the neck and croup mutually aiding one another, our labor will be more easy, as we have already destroyed the former. _The flexions of the croup, and making it movable._-- 1. The rider will hold the curb-reins in the left hand, and those of the snaffle, crossed, in the right, the nails of the right hand held downward; he will first bring the horse's head into a perpendicular position, by drawing lightly on the bit; after that, if he wishes to execute the movement to the right, he will carry the left leg back behind the girths and fix it near the flanks of the animal, until the croup yields to this pressure. The rider will at the same time make the left snaffle-rein felt, proportioning the effect of the rein to the resistance which is opposed to it. Of these two forces transmitted thus by the left leg and the rein of the same side, the first is intended to combat the resistance, and the second, to determine the movement. The rider should content himself in the beginning with making the croup execute one or two steps only sideways. (Plate XIII.) 2. The croup having acquired more facility in moving, we can continue the movement so as to complete to the right and the left reversed pirouettes.[I] As soon as the haunches yield to the pressure of the leg, the rider, to cause the perfect equilibrium of the horse, will immediately draw upon the rein opposite to this leg. The motion of this, slight at first, will be progressively increased until the head is inclined to the side towards which the croup is moving, as if to look at it coming. (Plate XIV.) [I] See note, page 63. [Illustration: Plates XIII. and XIV.] To make this movement understood, I will add some explanations, the more important as they are applicable to all the exercises of horsemanship. The horse, in all his movements, cannot preserve a perfect and constant equilibrium, without a combination of opposite forces, skillfully managed by the rider. In the reversed pirouette, for example, if when the horse has yielded to the pressure of the leg, we continue to oppose the rein on the same side as this leg, it is evident that we will shoot beyond the mark, since we will be employing a force which has become useless. We must then establish two motive powers, the effect of which balances, without interfering; this, the tension of the rein on the opposite side from the leg will produce in the pirouette. So, we will commence with the rein and the leg of the same side, until it is time to pass to the second part of the work, then with the curb-rein in the left hand, and finally, with the snaffle-rein opposite to the leg. The forces will then be kept in a diagonal position, and in consequence, the equilibrium natural, and the execution of the movement easy. The horse's head being turned to the side where the croup is moving, adds much to the gracefulness of the performance, and aids the rider in regulating the activity of the haunches, and keeping the shoulders in place. For the rest, tact alone will be able to show him how to use the leg and the rein, in such a way that their motions will mutually sustain, without at any time counteracting one another. I need not remind you that during the whole of this exercise, as on all occasions, the neck should remain supple and light; the head in position (perpendicular) and the jaw movable. While the bridle hand keeps them in this proper position, the right hand, with the aid of the snaffle, is combating the lateral resistances, and determining the different inclinations, until the horse is sufficiently well broken to obey a simple pressure of the bit. If, when combating the contraction of the croup, we permitted the horse to throw its stiffness into the fore-parts, our efforts would be vain, and the fruit of our first labors lost. On the contrary, we will facilitate the subjection of the hind-parts, by preserving the advantages we have already acquired over the fore-parts, and by keeping separated those contractions we have yet to combat. The leg of the rider opposite to that which determines the rotation of the croup, must not be kept off during the movement, but remain close to the horse and keep him in place, while giving from the rear forward an impulse which the other leg communicates from right to left, or from left to right. There will thus be one force which keeps the horse in position, and another which determines the rotation. In order that the pressure of the two legs should not counteract one another, and in order to be able to use them both together, the leg intended to move the croup will be placed farther behind the girths than the other, which will remain held with a force equal to that of the leg that determines the movement. Then the action of the legs will be distinct, the one bearing from right to left, the other from the rear forwards. It is by the aid of the latter that the hand places and fixes the fore legs. To accelerate these results, at first, a second person may be employed who will place himself at the height of the horse's head, holding the curb-reins in the right hand, and on the side opposite to which we wish the croup to go. He will lay hold of the reins at six inches from the branches of the bit, so as to be in a good position to combat the instinctive resistances of the animal. The one in the saddle will content himself with holding lightly the snaffle-reins, acting with his legs as I have already shown. The second person is only useful when we have to deal with a horse of an intractable disposition, or to aid the inexperience of the one in the saddle; but, as much should be done without assistance as possible, in order that the practitioner may judge by himself of the progress of his horse, seeking all the while for means to increase the effects of his touch. Even while this work is in an elementary state, he will make the horse execute easily all the figures of the _manège de deux pistes_.[J] After eight days of moderate exercise, he will have accomplished, without effort, a performance that the old school did not dare to undertake until after two or three years' studying and working at the horse. [J] "_La piste_ is an imaginary line upon which the horse is made to walk. When the hind legs follow the same line as the fore ones, the horse is said to go _d'une piste_, or on one line. He goes _de deux pistes_, or on two lines, when his hind legs pass along a line parallel to that traced by the fore legs."--_Baucher's Dictionnaire d'Equitation._ When the rider has accustomed the croup of the horse to yield promptly to the pressure of the legs, he will be able to put it in motion, or fix it motionless at will, and can, consequently, execute ordinary pirouettes.[K] For this purpose he will take a snaffle-rein in each hand, one to direct the neck and shoulders towards the side to which we wish to wheel, the other to second the opposite leg, if it is not sufficient to keep the croup still. At the beginning, this leg should be placed as far back as possible, and not be used until the haunches bear against it. By careful and progressive management the results will soon be attained; at the start, the horse should be allowed to rest after executing two or three steps well, which will give five or six halts in the complete rotation of the shoulders around the croup. [K] "The _pirouette_ is executed on the fore or hind legs, by making the horse turn round upon himself, in such a way, that the leg on the side he is going, acts as a pivot, and is the principal support around which the other three legs move."--_Baucher's Dictionnaire d'Equitation._ _Pirouettes_ are either _ordinary_ or _reversed_. In the ordinary _pirouette_, one of the hind legs is the pivot on which the horse moves; in the reversed, one of the fore legs.--TRANSLATOR.] Here the stationary exercises cease. I will now explain how the suppling of the hind-parts will be completed, by commencing to combine the play of its springs with those of the fore-parts. _Backing._--The retrograde movement, otherwise called backing, is an exercise, the importance of which has not been sufficiently appreciated, and which yet ought to have a very great influence upon his education. When practised after the old erroneous methods, it would have been without success, since the thread of exercises that ought to precede it were unknown. Backing properly differs essentially from that incorrect backward movement which carries the horse to the rear with his croup contracted and his neck stiff; that is, backing away from and avoiding the effect of the reins. Backing correctly supples the horse, and adds grace and precision to his natural motions. The first of the conditions upon which it is to be obtained, is to keep the horse in hand; that is to say, supple, light in the mouth, steady on his legs, and perfectly balanced in all his parts. Thus disposed, the animal will be able with ease to move and elevate equally his fore and hind legs. It is here that we will be enabled to appreciate the good effects and the indispensable necessity of suppling the neck and haunches. Backing, which at first is tolerably painful to the horse, will always lead him to combat the motions of our hand, by stiffening his neck, and those of our legs, by contracting his croup; these are the instinctive resistances. If we cannot obviate the bad disposition of them, how will we be able to obtain that shifting and re-shifting of weight, which alone ought to make the execution of this movement perfect? If the impulsion which, to back him, ought to come from the fore-parts, should pass over its proper limits, the movement would become painful, impossible in fact, and occasion, on the part of the animal, sudden, violent movements which are always injurious to his organization. On the other hand, the displacements[L] of the croup, by destroying the harmony which should exist between the relative forces of fore and hind-parts, would also hinder the proper execution of the backing. The previous exercise to which we have subjected the croup will aid us in keeping it in a straight line with the shoulders, in order to preserve the necessary transferring of the forces and weight. [L] These displacements of the croup mean sideway displacements, or the horse's croup not being in a line with the shoulders.--TRANSLATOR. To commence the movement, the rider ought first to assure himself that the haunches are on a line with the shoulders, and the horse light in hand; then he will slowly close his legs, in order that the action they will communicate to the hind-parts of the horse may make him lift one of his hind legs, and prevent the body from yielding before the neck. It is then that the immediate pressure of the bit, forcing the horse to regain his equilibrium behind, will produce the first part of the backing. As soon as the horse obeys, the rider will instantly give the hand to reward the animal, and not to force the play of his fore-parts. If his croup is displaced, the rider will bring it back by means of his leg, and if necessary, use for this purpose the snaffle-rein on that side. After having defined what I call the proper backing (_reculer_), I ought to explain what I understand by backing so as to avoid the bit (_l'acculement_). This movement is too painful to the horse, too ungraceful, and too much opposed to the right development of his mechanism, not to have struck any one who has occupied himself at all with horsemanship. We force a horse backwards in this way, whenever we crowd too much his forces and weight upon his hind-parts; by so doing we destroy his equilibrium, and render grace, measure and correctness impossible. Lightness, always lightness! this is the basis, the touchstone of all beautiful execution. With this, all is easy, as much for the horse as the rider. That being the case, it is understood that the difficulty of horsemanship does not consist in the direction to give the horse, but in the position to make him assume--a position which alone can smooth all obstacles. Indeed, if the horse executes, it is the rider who makes him do so; upon him then rests the responsibility of every false movement. It will suffice to exercise the horse for eight days (for five minutes each lesson), in backing, to make him execute it with facility. The rider will content himself the first few times with one or two steps to the rear, followed by the combined effect of the legs and hand, increasing in proportion to the progress he makes, until he finds no more difficulty in a backward than in a forward movement. What an immense step we will then have made in the education of our pupil! At the start, the defective formation of the animal, his natural contractions, the resistances we encountered everywhere, seemed as if they might defy our efforts forever. Without doubt they would have been vain, had we made use of a bad course of proceeding, but the wise system of progression that we have introduced into our work, the destruction of the instinctive forces of the horse, the suppling, the separate subjection of all the rebellious parts, have soon placed in our power the whole of the mechanism to such a degree as to enable us to govern it completely, and to restore that pliability, ease, and harmony of the parts, which their bad arrangement appeared as if it would always prevent. As I shall point out hereafter in classing the general division of the labor, it will be seen that eight or ten days will be sufficient to obtain these important results. Was I not right then in saying that if it is not in my power to change the defective formation of a horse, I can yet prevent the evil effect of his physical defects, so as to render him as fit to do everything with grace and natural ease, as the better formed horse? In suppling the parts of the animal upon which the rider acts directly, in order to govern and guide him, in accustoming them to yield without difficulty or hesitation to the different impressions which are communicated to them, I have, by so doing, destroyed their stiffness and restored the centre of gravity to its true place, namely, to the middle of the body. I have, besides, settled the greatest difficulty of horsemanship: that of subjecting, before everything else, the parts upon which the rider acts directly, in order to prepare for him infallible means of acting upon the horse. It is only by destroying the instinctive forces, and by suppling the different parts of the horse, that we will obtain this. All the springs of the animal's body are thus yielded up to the discretion of the rider. But this first advantage will not be enough to make him a complete horseman. The employment of these forces thus abandoned to him, demand, in order to execute the different paces, much study and skill. I will show in the subsequent chapters the rules to be observed. I will conclude this one by a rapid recapitulation of the progression to be followed in the supplings. _Stationary exercise, the rider on foot. Fore-parts._-- 1. Flexions of the jaw to the right and left, using the curb-bit. 2. Direct flexions of the jaw, and depression of the neck. 3. Lateral flexions of the neck with the snaffle-reins and with the curb. _Stationary exercise, the rider on horseback._-- 1. Lateral flexions of the neck with the snaffle-reins, and with the curb-reins. 2. Direct flexions of the head or placing it in a perpendicular position with the snaffle, and with the curb-reins. _Hind-parts._-- 3. Lateral flexions, and moving the croup around the shoulders. 4. Rotation of the shoulders around the haunches. 5. Combining the play of the fore and hind legs of the horse, or backing. I have placed the rotation of the shoulders around the haunches in the nomenclatere of stationary exercise. But the ordinary pivoting, or _pirouettes_, being a pretty complicated movement, and one difficult for the horse, he should not be completely exercised in it until he has acquired the measured time of the walk, and of the trot, and will easily execute the changes of direction. CHAPTER V. OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE FORCES OF THE HORSE BY THE RIDER. When the supplings have subjected the instinctive forces of the horse, and given them up completely into our power, the animal will be nothing more in our hand than a passive, expectant machine, ready to act upon the impulsion we choose to communicate to him. It will be for us, then, as sovereign disposers of all his forces, to combine the employment of them in correct proportion to the movements we wish to execute. The young horse, at first stiff and awkward in the use of his members, will need a certain degree of management in developing them. In this, as in every other case, we will follow that rational progression which tells us to commence with the simple, before passing to the complicated. By the preceding exercise, we have made our means of acting upon the horse sure. We must now attend to facilitating his means of execution, by exercising all his forces together. If the animal responds to the aids of the rider by the jaw, the neck and the haunches; if he yields by the general disposition of his body to the impulses communicated to him, it is by the play of his extremities that he executes the movement. The mechanism of these parts ought then to be easy, prompt and regular; their application, well directed in the different paces, will alone be able to give them these qualities, indispensable to a good education.[M] [M] It must not be forgotten that the hand and legs have their vocabulary also; and a very concise one. This mute, laconic language consists of these few words. _You are doing badly; this is what you should do; you do well now._ It is sufficient for the rider to be able to translate, by his mechanism, the meaning of these three remarks, to possess all the equestrian erudition, and share his intelligence with his horse. _The walk._--This pace is the mother of all the other paces; by it we will obtain the cadence, the regularity, the extension of the others. But to obtain these brilliant results, the rider must display as much knowledge as tact. The preceding exercises have led the horse to bear the combined effect of hand and legs, which could not have been done previously to the destruction of the instinctive resistances; we have now only to act on the inert resistances which appertain to the animal's weight; upon the forces which only move when an impulse is communicated to them. Before making the horse go forward, we should first assure ourselves of his lightness; that is to say, of his head being perpendicular, his neck flexible, his hind-part straight and plumb. The legs will then be closed lightly, to give the body the impulse necessary to move it. But we should not, in accordance with the precepts of the old method, give the bridle hand at the same time; for then the neck, being free from all restraint, would lose its lightness; would contract, and render the motion of the hand powerless. The rider will remember that his hand ought to be to the horse an insurmountable barrier, whenever he would leave the position of _ramener_. The animal will never attempt it, without pain; and only within this limit will he find ease and comfort. By the application of my method, the rider will be led to guide his horse all the time with the reins half tight, except when he wishes to correct a false movement, or determine a new one. The walk, I have said, ought to precede the other paces, because the horse having three supports upon the ground, his action is less, and consequently easier to regulate than in the trot and gallop. The first exercises of the supplings will be followed by some turns in the riding-house at a walk, but only as a relaxation, the rider attending less to animating his horse than to making him keep his head, while walking in a perpendicular position. Little by little he will complicate his work, so as to join to the lightness of the horse that precision of movement indispensable to the beauty of all his paces. He will commence light oppositions of the hand and legs to make the forces of the fore and hind-parts work together in harmony. This exercise, by accustoming the horse always to yield the use of his forces to the direction of the rider, will be also useful in forming his intelligence, as well as in developing his powers. What delights the expert horseman will experience in the progressive application of his art! His pupil at first rebellious will insensibly yield himself to his every wish; will adopt his character, and end by becoming the living personification of him. Take care, then, rider! If your horse is capricious, violent, fantastic, we will have the right to say that you yourself do not shine by the amenity of your disposition, and the propriety of your proceedings. In order to keep the measure and quickness of the walk equal and regular, it is indispensable that the impulsive and governing forces which come from the rider, should themselves be perfectly in harmony. We will suppose, for example, that the rider to move his horse forward, should make use of a force equal to twenty pounds, fifteen for the impulse forward, and five to bring his head into position. If the legs increase their motion without the hands increasing theirs in the same proportion, it is evident that the surplus of communicated force will be thrown into the neck, cause it to contract, and destroy all lightness. If, on the contrary, it is the hand which acts with too much violence, it will be at the expense of the impulsive force necessary to move the horse forward; on this account, his forward movement will be slackened and counteracted, at the same time that his position will lose its gracefulness and power. This short explanation will suffice to show the harmony that should exist between the legs and hands. It is understood that their motion should vary according as the formation of the horse renders it necessary to support him more or less before or behind; but the rule is the same, only the proportions are different. As long as the horse will not keep himself supple and light in his walk, we will continue to exercise him in a straight line; but as soon as he acquires more ease and steadiness, we will commence to make him execute changes of direction to the right and left, while walking. _Changes of direction._--The use of the wrists, in the changes of direction, is so simple that it is unnecessary to speak of it here. I will only call attention to the fact, that the resistances of the horse ought always to be anticipated by disposing his forces in such a manner that they all concur in putting him in the way of moving. The head will be inclined in the direction we wish to go by means of the snaffle-rein of that side, the curb will then complete the movement. General rule: the lateral resistances of the neck are always to be opposed by the aid of the snaffle, being very careful not to commence to wheel until after destroying the obstacle that opposed it. If the use of the wrists remains very nearly the same as formerly, it is not so with the legs; their motion will be diametrically opposite to that given them in the old style of horsemanship. This innovation is so natural a one, that I cannot conceive why some one never applied it before me. It is by bearing the hand to the right, and making the right leg felt, people have told me, and I have myself at first repeated it, that the horse is made to turn to the right. With me, practice has always taken the precedence of reasoning; and this is the way I first perceived the incorrectness of this principle. Whatever lightness my horse had in a straight line, I remarked that this lightness always lost some of its delicacy when moving in small circles, although my outside leg came to the assistance of the inside one. As soon as the hind leg put itself in motion to follow the shoulders in the circle, I immediately felt a slight resistance. I then thought of changing the use of my aids, and of pressing the leg on the side opposite to the direction of wheeling. At the same time, in place of bearing the hand immediately to the right, to determine the shoulders in that direction, I first, by the aid of this hand, made the opposition necessary to render the haunches motionless, and to dispose the forces in such a way as to maintain the equilibrium during the execution of the movement. This proceeding was completely successful; and in explaining what ought to be the function of the different extremities, I recognize this as the only rational way of using them in wheeling. In fact, in wheeling to the right, for example, it is the right hind leg which serves as pivot and supports the whole weight of the mass, while the left hind leg and the fore legs describe a circle more or less extended. In order that the movement should be correct and free, it is necessary that this pivot upon which the whole turns be not interfered with in its action; the simultaneous action of the right hand and the right leg must necessarily produce this effect. The equilibrium is thus destroyed, and the regularity of the wheeling rendered impossible. As soon as the horse executes easily the changes of direction at a walk, and keeps himself perfectly light, we can commence exercising at a trot. _The trot._--The rider will commence this pace at a very moderate rate of speed, following exactly the same principles as for the walk. He will keep his horse perfectly light, not forgetting that the faster the pace, the more disposition there will be on the part of the animal to fall back again into his natural contractions. The hand should then be used with redoubled nicety, in order to keep the head and neck always pliable, without affecting the impulse necessary to the movement. The legs will lightly second the hands, and the horse between these two barriers, which are obstacles only to his improper movements, will soon develop all his best faculties, and with precision of movement, will acquire grace, extension, and the steadiness inherent to the lightness of the whole. Although many persons who would not take the trouble to examine thoroughly my method, have pretended that it is opposed to great speed in trotting, it is not the less proved that the well-balanced horse can trot faster than the one destitute of this advantage. I have given proofs of this whenever they have been demanded of me; but it is in vain that I have tried to make people understand what constitutes the motions of the trot, and what are the conditions indispensable for regularity in executing it. So, I was obliged in a race of which I was judge, to make the bets void, and to prove that the pretended trotters were not trotting really, but were ambling. The condition indispensable to a good trotter, is perfect equilibrium of the body. Equilibrium which keeps up a regular movement of the diagonal fore and hind feet, gives them an equal elevation and extension, with such lightness that the animal can easily execute all changes of direction, moderate his speed, halt, or increase his speed without effort. The fore-parts have not, then, the appearance of towing after them the hind-parts, which keep as far off as possible; everything becomes easy and graceful for the horse, because his forces being in perfect harmony, permit the rider to dispose of them in such a way that they mutually and constantly assist each other. It would be impossible for me to count up the number of horses that have been sent me to break, and whose paces have been so spoiled that it was impossible for them to trot a single step. A few lessons have always been sufficient for me to get them back into regular paces, and these are the means I employed. The difficulty which the horse experiences in keeping himself square in his trot, almost always proceeds from the hind-parts. Whether these be of a feeble construction, or be rendered useless by the superior vigor of the fore-parts, the motions of these parts, which receive the shock and give the bound, in each case become powerless, and in consequence, render the movement irregular.[N] There is, then, weakness in one extremity, or excess of force in the other. The remedy in each case will be the same, viz: the depression of the neck, which by diminishing the power of the fore-parts, restores the equilibrium between the two parts. We have practised this suppling on foot, it will be easy to obtain it on horseback. We here see the usefulness of this perpendicular flexion, which allows us to place on a level the forces of the two opposite extremities of the horse, in order to make them harmonious, and induce regularity in their working. The horse being thus placed, can bend and extend his fore and hind legs, before the weight of the body forces them to resume their support. [N] I am not of the opinion of those connoisseurs who imagine that the qualities of the horse, as well as his speed in trotting, depend principally on the height of his withers. I think, that for the horse to be stylish and regular in his movements, the croup should be on a level with the withers; such was the construction of the old English horses. A certain kind of horses, very much _à la mode_, called steppers, are constructed after an entirely different fashion; they strike out with their fore legs, and drag their hind-parts after them. Horses with a low croup, or withers very high in proportion to their croup, were preferred by horsemen of the old school, and are still in favor now-a-days among amateur horsemen. The German horsemen have an equally marked predilection for this sort of formation, although it is contrary to strength of the croup, to the equilibrium of the horse, and to the regular play of his feet and legs. This fault of construction (for it is one) has been scarcely noticed till now; nevertheless, it is a great one, and really retards the horse's education. In fact, we are obliged, in order to render his movements uniform, to lower his neck, so that the kind of lever it represents, may serve to lighten his hind-parts of the weight with which they are overburdened. I ought also to say, that this change of position, or of equilibrium, is only obtained by the aid of my principles. I explain the cause and effect, and I point out the remedies. Is this not the proper way for an author to proceed? The practice of this and some other principles that I explain in this work, will place in the rank of choice horses, animals whose inferiority caused them to be considered jades, and that the old method would never have raised from their degradation. It will suffice to accustom the horse to trot well, to exercise him at this pace only five minutes in each lesson. When he acquires the necessary ease and lightness, he can be made to execute ordinary _pirouettes_, as well as the exercise on two lines, at a walk and a trot. I have said that five minutes of trotting were enough at first, because it is less the continuance of an exercise than its being properly done that perfects the execution of it. Besides, as this pace requires a considerable displacement of forces, and as the animal will have been already subjected to a rather painful exercise, it would be dangerous to prolong it beyond the time I mention. The horse will lend himself more willingly to your efforts when nicely managed, and of short duration; his intelligence, becoming familiar with this efficient progression, will hasten success. He will submit himself calmly and without repugnance to work in which there will be nothing painful to him, and we will be able thus to push his education to the farthest limits, not only without injury to his physical organization, but in restoring to their normal state organs that a forced exercise might have weakened. This regular development of all the organs of the horse will not only give him grace, but also strength and health, and will thus prolong his existence, while increasing a hundredfold the delights of the true horseman. CHAPTER VI. OF THE CONCENTRATION OF THE FORCES OF THE HORSE BY THE RIDER. The rider now understands that the only means of obtaining precision and regularity of movement in the walk and trot is to keep the horse perfectly light while he is exercised at these paces. As soon as we are sure of this lightness while going in a straight line, in changes of direction, and in circular movements it will be easy to preserve it while exercising on two lines.[O] [O] Previously explained. I would here treat immediately of the gallop; but this pace, more complicated than the two others, demands an arrangement on the part of the horse, and a power on the part of the rider, that the preceding exercises have not yet been able to give. The proper placing of the horse's head spreads his forces over the whole of his body; it is necessary, in order to perform correctly the different exercises at a gallop, and to enable yourself properly to direct the forces in energetic movements, to bring them into a common focus--that is, to the centre of gravity of the animal. I am about to explain how this is to be done. _The use of the spurs._--Professors of equitation and authors upon this subject have said that the spurs are to punish the horse when he does not respond to the legs, or when he refuses to approach an object that frightens him. With them, the spur is not an aid, but a means of chastisement. With me it is, on the contrary, a powerful auxiliary, without which it would be impossible to break any horse perfectly. How! you exclaim, you attack with the spur, horses that are sensitive, excitable, full of fire and action--horses whose powerful make leads them to become unmanageable, in spite of the hardest bits and the most vigorous arms! Yes, and it is with the spur that I will moderate the fury of these too fiery animals, and stop them short in their most impetuous bounds. It is with the spur, aided of course by the hand, that I will make the most stubborn natures kind, and perfectly educate the most intractable animal. Long before publishing my "_Comprehensive Dictionary of Equitation_," I was aware of the excellent effects of the spur; but I abstained from developing my principles, being prevented by an expression of one of my friends, whom I had shown how to obtain results, which to him appeared miraculous. "It is extraordinary! It is wonderful!" he exclaimed; "but it is a razor in the hands of a monkey." It is true that the use of the spurs requires prudence, tact, and gradation; but the effects of it are precious. Now that I have proved the efficacy of my method; now that I see my most violent adversaries become warm partisans of my principles, I no longer fear to develop a process that I consider one of the most beautiful results of my long researches in horsemanship. There is no more difference in sensibility of different horses' flanks than in their sensibility of mouth--that is to say, that the direct effect of the spur is nearly the same in them all. I have already shown that the organization of the bars of the mouth goes for nothing in the resistances to the hand. It is clear enough that if the nose being thrown up in the air gives the horse a force of resistance equal to two hundred pounds, this force will be reduced to one hundred pounds, when we bring the horse's head half-way towards a perpendicular position; to fifty pounds when brought still nearer that position, and to nothing when perfectly placed. The pretended hardness of mouth proceeds in this case from the bad position of the head caused by the stiffness of the neck and the faulty construction of the loins and haunches of the horse. If we carefully examine the causes that produce what is called sensibility of the flanks, we will discover that they have very much the same kind of source. The innumerable conjectures to which people have devoted themselves, in attributing to the horse's flanks a local sensibility that had no existence, have necessarily injured the progress of his education, because it was based upon false data. The greater or less sensibility of the animal proceeds from his action, from his faulty formation, and bad position resulting therefrom. To a horse of natural action, but with long weak loins, and bad action behind, every motion backward is painful, and the very disposition that leads him to rush ahead, serves him to avoid the pain of the spur. He returns to this movement whenever he feels the rider's legs touch him; and far from being a spirited horse, he is only scared and crazy. The more he feels the spur, the more he plunges out of hand, and baffles the means intended to make him obedient. There is everything to fear from such a horse; he will scare at objects from the very ease he possesses of avoiding them. Now since his fright proceeds, so to say, from the bad position we allow him to take, this inconvenience will disappear from the moment we remedy the first cause of it. We must confine the forces in order to prevent every displacement. We must separate the _physical_ from the _moral_ horse, and force these impressions to concentrate in the brain. He will then be a furious madman whose limbs we have bound to prevent him from carrying his frenzied thoughts into execution. The best proof we have that the promptness of a horse in responding to the effect of the legs and spurs, is not caused by a sensibility of the flanks, but rather by great action joined to bad formation, is that the same action is not so manifest in a well-formed horse, and that the latter bears the spur much better than one whose equilibrium and organization are inferior. But the spur is not useful only in moderating the too great energy of horses of much action; its effect being equally good in combating the dispositions which lead the animal to throw its centre of gravity too much forward, or back. I would also use it to stir up those that are wanting in ardor and vivacity. In horses of action, the forces of the hind-parts surpass those of the fore-parts. It is the opposite in dull horses. We can thus account for the quickness of the former; the slowness and sluggishness of the latter. By the exercise of suppling, we have completely annulled the instinctive forces of the horse. We must now reunite these forces in their true centre of gravity, that is, the middle of the animal's body; it is by the properly combined opposition of the legs and hands that we will succeed in this. The advantages we possess already over the horse, will enable us to combat from their very birth, all the resistances which tend to make him leave the proper position, the only one in which we can successfully practice these oppositions. It is also of the first importance to put into our proceedings tact and gradation, so that, for example, the legs never give an impulse that the hand is not able to take hold of and govern at the same moment. I will make this principle more clear by a short explanation. We will suppose a horse at a walk, employing a force of forty pounds, necessary to keep the pace regular till the moment of the opposition of the hands and legs which follow. By and by comes a slow and gradual pressure of the legs, which adds ten pounds to the impulse of the pace. As the horse is supposed to be perfectly in hand, the hand will immediately feel this passage of forces, and must then make itself master of them to transfer them to the centre. Meanwhile the legs will continue their pressure, to the end that these forces thus driven back may not return to the focus they had left, which would be but a useless ebbing and flowing of forces. This succession of oppositions well combined will bring together a great quantity of forces in the centre of the horse's body, and the more these are increased, the more the animal will lose its instinctive energy. When the pressure of the legs becomes insufficient to entirely collect the forces, more energetic means must be employed, viz.: the touches of the spur. The spurring ought to be done, not violently, and with much movement of the legs, but with delicacy and management. The rider ought to close his legs so gradually, that before coming in actual contact with the horse's flanks, the spur will not be more than a hair's breadth off, if possible. The hand should ever be the echo to the light touches with which we commence; it should then be firmly held, so as to present an opposition equal to the force communicated by the spur. If by the time being badly chosen, the hand does not exactly intercept the impulse given, and the general commotion resulting therefrom, we should, before recommencing, gather the horse together, and re-establish calm in his motions. The force of the spurring will be progressively increased until the horse bears it, when as vigorously applied as possible, without presenting the least resistance to the hand, without increasing the speed of his pace, or without displacing himself as long as we operate with a firm foot. A horse brought thus to bear spurring, is three-fourths broken, since we have the free disposition of all his forces. Besides, his centre of gravity being where his forces are all united, we have brought it to its proper place, viz.: the middle of the body. All the oscillations of the animal will then be subordinate to us, and we will be able to transfer the weight with ease, when necessary. It is easy now to understand where the resistances have their origin; whether the horse kicks up behind, rears, or runs away, the cause is always the centre of gravity being in the wrong place. This very cause belongs to a defective formation that we cannot change, it is true, but the effects of which we can always modify. If the horse kicks up, the centre of gravity is in the shoulders; in his croup when the animal rears, and too far forward when he runs away. The principal thought of the rider, then, ought to be to keep the centre of gravity in the middle of the horse's body, since he will thereby prevent him defending himself, and bring back the forces of the badly formed horse to their true place, which they occupy in the finest organizations. It is this that makes me assert that a well-formed horse will not make resistance nor move irregularly, for to do so requires supernatural efforts on his part to destroy the harmony of his moving parts, and so greatly displace his centre of gravity. So, when I speak of the necessity of giving the horse a new equilibrium, in order to prevent his defending himself, and also to remedy the ungracefulness of his form, I allude to the combination of forces of which I have been treating, or, rather, of the removal of the centre of gravity from one place to another. This result obtained, the education of the horse is complete. When the horseman succeeds in obtaining it, his talent becomes a truth, since it transforms ugliness into grace, and gives elegance and lightness to movements which were before heavy and confused.[P] [P] I have often proved that horses that were considered dull, or unable to move their shoulders freely, have not the defect that is supposed; in other words, that it is very rare that they are paralyzed in their shoulders so as to injure the regularity and speed of their paces, principally as regards trotting. The shoulders of the horse, if I may use the comparison, resemble the wings of a wind-mill; the impulse given by the hocks replaces the motive force. There undoubtedly exist some local complaints that affect the shoulders; but this is very rare; the defect, if there is one, has its origin in the hind-parts. For my part, I have been able to make all such horses very free in their movements, and that after fifteen days of exercise, half an hour a day. The means, like all I employ, are very simple. They consist in suppling the neck to get the horse in hand, and then, by the aid of the legs, and afterwards slight use of the spurs, in bringing his haunches nearer the centre. Then the hocks will obtain a leverage, by which they can propel the mass forward, and give the shoulders a freedom that people would not expect. The rider's employment of force, when properly applied, has a moral effect also on the horse, that accelerates the results. If the impulse given by the legs finds in the hand the energy and _àpropos_ necessary to regulate its effects, the pain the animal sustains will be always proportioned to his resistances, and his instinct will soon make him understand how he can diminish, and even avoid altogether this constraint, by promptly yielding to what we demand of him. He will hasten then to submit, and will even anticipate our desires. But, I repeat, it is only by means of tact and delicate management that we will gain this important point. If the legs give too vigorous an impulse, the horse will quickly overcome the motion of the hands, and resume with his natural position all the advantages it gives him to foil the efforts of the rider. If, on the contrary, the hand presents too great a resistance, the horse will soon overcome the legs, and find a means of defending himself by backing. Yet these difficulties must not be allowed to frighten us; they were only serious ones when no rational principle gave the means of surmounting them. The application of my method will enable ordinary horsemen to obtain results that otherwise could be obtained only by the most favored equestrian organizations. When the animal becomes accustomed by means of the spur to such oppositions, it will become easy enough to combat with the spur all the resistances that may afterwards manifest themselves. Since the resistances are always caused by moving the croup sideways, or getting it too far back, the spur, by immediately bringing the hind legs towards the centre of the body, prevents the support of the hocks, which were able to oppose the proper harmony of forces, and prevent the right distribution of the weight. This is the means I always employ to make the horse pass from a swift gallop to a halt, without straining his hocks, or injuring any of the joints of his hind-parts. In fact, since it is the hocks which propel the mass forward, it suffices to destroy their motion to stop the bound. The spur, by instantly bringing the hind legs under the horse's belly, destroys their power from the moment the hand comes in the nick of time to fix them in that position. Then the haunches bend, the croup is lowered; the weight and forces arrange themselves in the order most favorable to the free and combined play of each part, and the violence of the shock, infinitely decomposed, is scarce perceptible to either horse or rider. If, on the contrary, we stop the horse by making the hand move first, the hocks remain far in the rear of the plumb-line; the shock is violent, painful for the animal, and especially injurious to his physical organization. Horses that are thus stopped, set themselves against the bit, extending their neck, and require an arm of iron and a most violent opposing force. Such is the custom of the Arabs, for example, in halting suddenly their horses, by making use of murderous bits that break the bars of their horses' mouths. Thus, notwithstanding the wonderful powers with which nature has gifted them, are these excellent animals injured. The use of the spur must not be commenced till by gathering him we get the horse well in hand; then the first touch of the spur should be made felt. We will continue to make use of it, at long intervals, until the horse, after his bound forward, presents no resistance to the hand, and avoids the pressure of the bit, by bringing in his chin towards his chest, of his own accord. This submission once obtained, we can undertake the use of the spurs with oppositions, but we must be careful to discontinue them when the horse is in hand. This means has the double advantage of acting morally and physically. The first attacks will be made with a single spur, and by bearing on the opposite rein; these transverse oppositions will have a better effect and give more prompt results. When the horse begins to contain himself, the two spurs being used separately, we can make them felt together and with an equal gradation.[Q] [Q] I would never have thought that this means, which serves as a corrective to the processes used by all horsemen, would have aroused the sensibility of some amateurs. These latter have preferred to be affected by exaggerated or erroneous reports, rather than satisfy themselves by observation, that this pretended cruelty is in fact the most innocent thing in the world. Must we not teach the horse to respond to the spur as well as to the legs and the hand? Is it not by this spurring, judiciously applied, that we bring in at will the hind legs more or less near the centre of gravity? Is not this the only way of increasing or diminishing the leverage of the hocks, whether for extending or raising them in motion, or for the purpose of halting? To the work, then, cavaliers! If you will follow my principles, I can promise you that your purse will be less often emptied into the hands of horse-dealers, and that you will render the meanest of your hacks agreeable. You will charm our breeders of horses, who will attribute to their efforts of regeneration that elegance and grace that your art alone could have given to your chargers. _Lowering the hand._--The lowering the hand consists in confirming the horse in all his lightness--that is, in making him preserve his equilibrium without the aid of the reins. The suppleness given to all parts of the horse, the just oppositions of hands and legs, lead him to keep himself in the best possible position. To find out exactly whether we are obtaining this result, we must have recourse to frequent lowering of the hand. It is done in this way: After having slipped the right hand to the buckle, and having assured yourself that the reins are even, you will let go of them with the left hand, and lower the right slowly to the pommel of the saddle. To do this regularly, the horse must neither increase nor diminish the speed of his pace, and his head and neck continue to preserve their proper position. The first few times that the horse is thus given up to himself, he will perhaps only take a few steps while keeping in position, and at the same rate of speed; the rider ought then to make his legs felt first, and the hand afterwards, to bring him into his previous position. The frequent repetition of this lowering of the hand, after a complete placing of the horse's head in a perpendicular position, will give him a most exquisite mouth, and the rider a still greater delicacy of touch. The means of guiding employed by the latter will immediately be answered by the horse, if his forces have been previously disposed in a perfectly harmonious state. The lowerings of the hand ought to be practised first at a walk, then at a trot, afterwards at a gallop. This semblance of liberty gives such confidence to the horse that he gives up without knowing it; he becomes our submissive slave, while supposing that he is preserving an entire independence. _Of gathering the horse, or rassembler._--The preceding exercise will render easy to the rider that important part of horsemanship called _rassembler_. This has been a great deal talked about by people, as they have talked about Providence, and all the mysteries that are impenetrable to human perception. If it were allowable for us to compare small things to great, we might say that the more or less absurd theories that have been put forward upon the subject of divine power have not, fortunately, hindered in any way the unchangeable march of nature; but with regard to the progress of horsemanship, the case is not the same as to what has been said and written on the subject of the _rassembler_. The false principles propagated on this subject have made the horse the plaything and the victim of the rider's ignorance. I proclaim it, the gathering a horse has never been understood or defined before me, for it cannot be perfectly executed without the regular application of the principles that I have developed for the first time. You will be convinced of this truth when you know that the _rassembler_ demands: 1. The suppling, partial and general, of the neck and haunches. 2. The perfect position that results from this suppling. 3. The entire absorption of the forces of the horse by the rider. Now, as the means of obtaining these different results have never been pointed out in any treatise on horsemanship, am I not justified in saying that the true _rassembler_ has never been practised until now? It is, nevertheless, one of the indispensable conditions of the horse's education; consequently I think I am right in saying that before my method, horses of defective formation have never been properly broken. How is the _rassembler_ defined in the schools of horsemanship? _You gather your horse by raising the hand and closing the legs._ I ask, what good can this movement of the rider do upon an animal badly formed, contracted, and that remains under the influence of all the evil propensities of its nature? This mechanical support of the hands and legs, far from preparing the horse for obedience, will only make him redouble his means of resistance, since, while giving him notice that we are about to demand a movement on his part, we remain unable to dispose his forces in such a way as to force him to it. The real _rassembler_ consists in collecting the forces of the horse in his centre in order to ease his extremities, and give them up completely to the disposition of the rider. The animal thus finds himself transformed into a kind of balance, of which the rider is the centre-piece. The least touch upon one or other of the extremities, which represent the scales, will immediately send them in the direction we wish. The rider will know that his horse is completely gathered when he feels him ready, as it were, to rise from all four of his legs. The proper position first, and then the use of the spurs, will make this beautiful execution of the gathering easy to both horse and rider; and what splendor, grace and majesty it gives the animal! If we have been obliged at first to use the spurs in pushing this concentration of forces to its farthest limits, the legs will afterwards be sufficient to obtain the gathering necessary for the precision and elevation required in all complicated movements. Need I recommend discretion in your demands? I think not. If the rider, having reached this stage of his horse's education, cannot comprehend and seize that fineness of touch, that delicacy of process indispensable to the right application of my principles, it will prove him devoid of every feeling of a horseman; nothing I can say can remedy this imperfection of his nature. CHAPTER VII. OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF THE FORCES OF THE HORSE BY THE RIDER. (_Continuation._) _Of the gallop._--I have said that, until now, the greater part of the resources of horsemanship have not been understood, and had I need of another proof to support my opinion, I would draw it from the error, the suppositions, the innumerable contradictions that have been heaped together in order to explain so simple a movement as the gallop. What contrary opinions upon the means to employ to make the horse go off with his right foot? It is the support of the rider's right leg which determines the movement, one pretends; it is that of the left leg, says another; it is the equal touch of the two legs, affirms a third; no, some others remark, very seriously, you must let the horse act naturally. How can the truth be made out in the midst of this conflict of such contrary principles? Besides, they come from such respectable sources; the most of their authors were possessed of titles and dignities which are generally only granted to merit. Have they all been deceived for a hundred and fifty years? This is not possible; for many of them joined to long practice a perfect knowledge of physics, anatomy, mathematics, etc., etc. To doubt such authorities would be as presumptuous as imprudent; it would have been considered a crime of high treason against horsemanship. So the riders kept their ignorance and the horses their bad equilibrium; and if any one succeeded, after two or three years of routine labor, in making certain horses of a privileged organization start with the desired foot, and in making them change feet finally, at a fixed point, the difficulty then was to prevent them from always repeating this movement at the same place. Thus it is that the most palpable errors gain credit, and often are perpetuated, until there comes a practical mind, gifted with some amount of common sense, who contradicts by practice all the learned theories of its predecessors. They try hard at first to deny the knowledge of the innovator; but the masses who instinctively know the true, and judge from what they see, soon range themselves on his side, turn their backs upon his detractors, and leave them to their solitude and vain pretensions. To the mass of horsemen I address myself, when I say, either the horse is under the influence of your forces, and entirely submissive to your power, or you are struggling with him. If he gallops off with you, without your being able to modify or direct with certainty his course, it proves that, although subject to a certain extent to your power in thus consenting to carry you about, he, nevertheless, uses his instinctive forces. In this case, there is a perpetual fight going on between you and him, the chances of which depend on the temperament and caprice of the animal, upon the good or bad state of his digestion. Changes of foot, in such a state, can only be obtained by inclining the horse very much to one side, which makes the movement both difficult and ungraceful. If, on the contrary, the animal is made submissive to a degree that he cannot contract any one of his parts without the intervention and aid of the rider, the latter can direct at his pleasure the whole of his moving parts, and, consequently, can easily and promptly execute changes of feet. We know the contraction of any one part of the horse reacts on the neck, and that the stiffness of this part prevents the proper execution of every movement. If, then, at the moment of setting off on a gallop, the horse stiffens one of his extremities, and consequently his neck, of what use in determining him in starting with the right foot can be the support of one or the other leg of the rider, or even of that of both at once? These means will evidently be ineffectual until we go back to the source of the resistance, for the purpose of combating and destroying it. Here, as in every other case, we see that suppleness and lightness alone can make the execution of the work easy. If, when we wish to make the horse start with the right foot, a slight contraction of one part of the animal disposes him to start with the left foot, and we persist in inducing the pace, we must employ two forces on the same side, viz.: the left leg and the left hand; the first to determine the movement, the second to combat the contrary disposition of the horse. But when the horse, perfectly supple and gathered, only brings his parts into play after the impression given them by the rider, the latter, in order to start with the right foot, ought to combine an opposition of forces proper for keeping the horse in equilibrium, while placing him in the position required for the movement. He will then bear the hand to the left, and press his right leg. Here we see that the means mentioned above, necessary when the horse is not properly placed, would be wrong when the animal is properly placed, since it would destroy the harmony then existing between his forces. This short explanation will, I hope, suffice to make it understood that things should be studied thoroughly before laying down any principles of action. Let us have no more systems, then, upon the exclusive use of such or such leg to determine the gallop; but a settled conviction that the first condition of this or any other performance is to keep the horse supple and light--that is _rassemblé_; then, after this, to make use of one or the other motive power, according as the animal, at the start, preserves a proper position, or seeks to leave it. It must also be understood that, while it is the force that gives the position to the horse, it is position alone upon which the regularity of movement depends. Passing frequently from the gallop with the right foot to that with the left, in a straight line, and with halts, will soon bring the horse to make these changes of feet by the touch without halting. Violent effects of force should be avoided, which would bewilder the horse and destroy his lightness. We must remember that this lightness which should precede all changes of pace and direction, and make every movement easy, graceful and inevitable, is the important condition we should seek before everything else. It is because they have not understood this principle, and have not felt that the first condition to dispose a horse for the gallop is to destroy all the instinctive forces of the animal (forces that oppose the position the movement demands), that horsemen have laid down so many erroneous principles, and have all remained unable to show us the proper means to be employed. _Of leaping the ditch and the bar._--Although the combinations of equestrian science alone cannot give to every horse the energy and vigor necessary to clear a ditch or a bar, there are, nevertheless, principles by the aid of which we will succeed in partly supplying the deficiencies in the natural formation of the animal. By giving a good direction to the forces, we will facilitate the rise and freedom of the bound. I do not pretend by this, to say, that a horse of ordinary capabilities will attain the same height and elegance in this movement as one that is well constituted, but he will, at least, be able to display in it all the resources of his organization to more purpose. The great thing is to bring the horse to attempt this performance with good will. If all the processes prescribed by me for mastering the instinctive forces of the animal, and putting him under the influence of ours, have been punctually followed, the utility of this progression will be recognized by the facility we have of making the horse clear all the objects that are encountered in his way. For the rest, recourse must never be had, in case of a contest, to violent means, such as a whip in the hands of a second person; nor should we seek to excite the animal by cries; this could only produce a moral effect calculated to frighten him. It is by physical means that we should before all bring him to obedience, since they alone will enable him to understand and execute. We should then carry on the contest calmly, and seek to surmount the forces that lead him to refuse, by acting directly on them. To make the horse leap, we will wait till he responds freely to the legs and spur, in order to have always a sure means of government. The bar will remain on the ground until the horse goes over it without hesitation; it will then be raised some inches, progressively increasing the height until the animal will be just able to clear it without too violent an effort. To exceed this proper limit would be to risk causing a disgust on the part of the horse that should be most carefully avoided. The bar having been thus gradually raised, ought to be made fast, in order that the horse, disposed to be indolent, should not make sport of an obstacle which would be no longer serious, when the touch of his feet sufficed to overturn it. The bar ought not to be wrapped in any covering that would lessen its hardness; we should be severe when we demand possibilities, and avoid the abuses that always result from an ill-devised complaisance. Before preparing to take the leap, the rider should hold himself sufficiently firm to prevent his body preceding the motion of the horse. His loins should be supple, his buttocks well fixed to the saddle, so that he may experience no shock nor violent reaction. His thighs and legs exactly enveloping the body and sides of the horse will give him a power always opportune and infallible. The hand in its natural position will feel the horse's mouth in order to judge of the effects of impulsion. It is in this position that the rider should conduct the horse towards the obstacle; if he comes up to it with the same freedom of pace, a light opposition of the legs and hand will facilitate the elevation of the fore-hand, and the bound of the posterior extremity. As soon as the horse is raised, the hand ceases its effect, to be again sustained when the fore legs touch the ground, and to prevent them giving way under the weight of the body. We should content ourselves with executing a few leaps in accordance with the horse's powers, and, above all, avoid pushing bravado to the point of wishing to force the animal to clear obstacles that are beyond his powers. I have known very good leapers that people have succeeded in thus disgusting forever, so that no efforts could induce them to clear things only half the height of those that at first they leaped with ease. _Of the piaffer._[R]--Until now, horsemen have maintained that the nature of each horse permits of only a limited number of movements, and that if there are some that can be brought to execute a _piaffer_ high and elegant, or low and precipitate, there are a great number of them to whom this exercise is for ever interdicted. Their construction, they say, is opposed to it; it is then nature that has so willed it; ought we not to bow before this supreme arbiter, and respect its decrees? [R] "The _piaffer_ is the horse's raising his legs diagonally, as in the trot, but without advancing or receding."--_Baucher's_ "_Dictionnaire d'Equitation._" This opinion is undoubtedly convenient for justifying its own ignorance, but it is none the less false. _We can bring all horses to piaffer_, and I will prove that in this particularly, without reforming the work of nature, without deranging the formation of the bones, or that of the muscles of the animal, we can remedy the consequences of its physical imperfections, and change the vicious disposition occasioned by faulty construction. There is no doubt that the horse whose forces and weight are collected in one of his extremities will be unfit to execute the elegant cadence of the _piaffer_. But a graduated exercise, the completion of which is the _rassembler_, soon allows us to remedy such an inconvenience. We can now reunite all these forces in their true centre of gravity, and the horse that bears the _rassembler_ perfectly has all the necessary qualifications for the _piaffer_. For the _piaffer_ to be regular and graceful, it is necessary that the horse's legs, moved diagonally, rise together and fall in the same way upon the ground at as long intervals as possible. The animal ought not to bear more upon the hand than upon the legs of the rider, that his equilibrium may present the perfection of that balance of which I have spoken in another place. When the centre of the forces is thus disposed in the middle of the body, and when the _rassembler_ is perfect, it is sufficient, in order to induce a commencement of _piaffer_, to communicate to the horse with the legs a vibration at first slight, but often repeated. By vibration I mean an invigoration of forces, of which the rider ought always to be the agent. After this first result, the horse will be put at a walk, and the rider's legs gradually brought close, will give the animal a slight increase of action. Then, but only then, the hand will sustain itself in time with the legs, and at the same intervals, in order that these two motive powers, acting conjointly, may keep up a succession of imperceptible movements, and produce a slight contraction which will spread itself over the whole body of the horse. This reiterated activity will give the extremities a first mobility, which at the beginning will be far from regular, since the increase of action that this new exercise makes necessary will for the moment break the harmonious uniformity of the forces. But this general action is necessary in order to obtain even an irregular mobility, for without it the movement would be disorderly, and there would be a want of harmony among the different springs. We will content ourselves, for the first few days, with a commencement of mobility of the extremities, being careful to stop each time that the horse raises or puts down his feet, without advancing them too much, in order to caress him, and speak to him, and thus calm the invigoration that a demand, the object of which he does not understand, must cause in him. Nevertheless, these caresses should be employed with discernment, and when the horse has done well, for if badly applied they would be rather injurious than useful. The fit time for ceasing with the hands and legs is more important still; it demands all the rider's attention. The mobility of the legs once obtained, we can commence to regulate it, and fix the intervals of the cadence. Here again, I seek in vain to indicate with the pen the degree of delicacy necessary in the rider's proceedings, since his motions ought to be answered by the horse with an exactness and _à propos_ that is unequaled. It is by the alternated support of the two legs that he will succeed in prolonging the lateral balancings of the horse's body, in such way as to keep him longer on one side or the other. He will seize the moment when the horse prepares to rest his fore leg on the ground, to make the pressure of his own leg felt on the same side, and add to the inclination of the animal in the same direction. If this time is well seized, the horse will balance himself slowly, and the cadence will acquire that elevation so fit to bring out all its elegance and all its majesty. These times of the legs are difficult, and require great practice; but their results are too splendid for the rider not to strive to seize the light variations of them. The precipitate movement of the rider's legs accelerates also the _piaffer_. It is he, then, who regulates at will the greater or less degree of quickness of the cadence. The performance of the _piaffer_ is not elegant and perfect until the horse performs it without repugnance, which will always be the case when the forces are kept together, and the position is suitable to the demands of the movement. It is urgent, then, to be well acquainted with the amount of force necessary for the performance of the _piaffer_, so as not to overdo it. We should, above all, be careful to keep the horse _rassemblé_, which, of itself, will induce the movement without effort. CHAPTER VIII. DIVISION OF THE WORK. I have developed all the means to be employed in completing the horse's education; it remains for me to say how the horseman ought to divide his work, in order to connect the different exercises and pass by degrees from the simple to the complicated. Two months of work, consisting of two lessons a day of a half hour each--that is to say, one hundred and twenty lessons--will be amply sufficient to bring the greenest horse to perform regularly all the preceding exercises. I hold to two short lessons a day, one in the morning, the other in the afternoon; they are necessary to obtain good results. We disgust a young horse by keeping him too long at exercises that fatigue him, the more so as his intelligence is less prepared to understand what we wish to demand of him. On the other hand, an interval of twenty-four hours is too long, in my opinion, for the animal to remember the next day what he had comprehended the day before. The general work will be divided into five series or lessons, distributed in the following order: _First lesson. Eight days of work._--The first twenty minutes of this lesson will be devoted to the stationary exercise for the flexions of the jaw and neck; the rider first on foot, and then on horseback, will follow the progression I have previously indicated. During the last ten minutes, he will make the horse go forward at a walk without trying to animate him, but applying himself all the while to keeping his head in the position of _ramener_. He will content himself with executing a single change of hand, in order to go as well to the right hand as to the left. The fourth or fifth day, the rider, before putting his horse in motion, will make him commence some slight flexions of the croup. _Second lesson. Ten days of work._--The first fifteen minutes will be occupied in the stationary supplings, comprising the flexions of the croup performed more completely than in the preceding lesson; then will begin the backing. We will devote the other half of the lesson to the moving straight ahead, once or twice taking the trot at a very moderate pace. The rider during this second part of the work, without ceasing to pay attention to the _ramener_, will yet commence light oppositions of hands and legs, in order to prepare the horse to bear the combined effects, and to give regularity to his paces. We will also commence the changes of direction at a walk, while preserving the _ramener_, and being careful to make the head and neck always go first. _Third lesson. Twelve days of work._--Six or eight minutes only will at first be occupied in the stationary flexions; those of the hind-parts should be pushed to the completion of the reversed _pirouettes_. We will continue by the backing; then all the rest of the lesson will be devoted to perfecting the walk and the trot, commencing at this latter pace the changes of direction. The rider will often stop the horse, and continue to watch attentively the _ramener_ during the changes of pace or direction. He will also commence the exercise _de deux pistes_ at a walk, as well as the rotation of the shoulders around the haunches. _Fourth lesson. Fifteen days of work._--After five minutes being devoted to the stationary supplings, the rider will first repeat all the work of the preceding lessons; he will commence, with a steady foot, the _attaques_,[S] in order to confirm the _ramener_ and prepare the _rassembler_. He will renew the _attaques_ while in motion, and when the horse bears them patiently, he will commence the gallop. He will content himself in the commencement with executing four or five lopes only before resuming the walk, and then start again with a different foot, unless the horse requires being exercised more often on one foot than the other. In passing from the gallop to the walk, we should watch with care that the horse resumes this latter pace as quickly as possible without taking short steps on a trot, all the while keeping the head and neck light. He will only be exercised at the gallop at the end of each lesson. [S] The use of the spurs. _Fifth lesson. Fifteen days of work._--These last fifteen days will be occupied in assuring the perfect execution of all the preceding work, and in perfecting the pace of the gallop until we can execute easily changes of direction, changes of feet at every step, and passaging. We can then exercise the horse at leaping the bar and at the _piaffer_. Thus in two months, and upon any horse, we will have accomplished a work that formerly required years, and then often gave incomplete results. And I repeat, however insufficient so short a space of time may appear, it will produce the effect I promise, if you follow exactly all my directions. I have demonstrated this upon a hundred different occasions, and many of my pupils are able to prove it as well as myself. In establishing the above order of work, be it well understood that I found myself on the dispositions of horses in general. A horseman of any tact will soon understand the modifications that he ought to make in their application, according to the particular nature of his pupil. Such a horse, for example, will require more or less persistence in the flexions; another one in the backing; this one, dull and apathetic, will require the use of the spurs before the time I have indicated. All this is an affair of intelligence; it would be to insult my readers not to suppose them capable of supplying to the details what it is elsewhere impossible to particularize. You can readily understand that there are irritable, ill-disposed horses, whose defective dispositions have been made worse by previous bad management. With such subjects it is necessary to put more persistence into the supplings and the walk. In every case, whatever the slight modifications that the difference in the dispositions of the subjects render necessary, I persist in saying that there are no horses whose education ought not to be completed by my method in the space I designate. I mean here, that this time is sufficient to give the forces of the horse the fitness necessary for executing all the movements; the finish of education depends finally on the nicety of touch of the rider. In fact, my method has the advantages of recognizing no limits to the progress of equitation, and there is no performance _equestrianly_ possible that a horseman who understands properly applying my principles cannot make his horse execute. I am about to give a convincing proof in support of this assertion, by explaining the sixteen new figures of the _manège_ that I have added to the collection of the old masters. CHAPTER IX. APPLICATION OF THE PRECEDING PRINCIPLES TO THE PERFORMANCE OF THE HORSES, PARTISAN, CAPITAINE, NEPTUNE, AND BURIDAN. The persons who systematically denied the efficacy of my method ought, necessarily, also to deny the results shown to them. They were forced to acknowledge that my performance at the _Cirque-Olympique_ was new and extraordinary, but attributed it to causes, some more strange than others; all the while insisting that the equestrian talent of the rider did not go for nothing in the expertness of the horse. According to some, I was a second Carter, accustoming my horses to obedience by depriving them of sleep and food; according to others, I bound their legs with cords, and thus held them suspended to prepare them for a kind of puppet-show; some were not far from believing that I fascinated them by the power of my looks. Finally, a certain portion of the public, seeing these animals perform in time to the sound of the charming music of one of my friends, M. Paul Cuzent, insisted seriously that they undoubtedly possessed, in a very great degree, the instinct of melody, and that they would stop short with the clarionets and trombones. So, the sound of the music was more powerful over my horse than I was myself! The animal obeyed a _do_ or a _sol_ nicely touched; but my legs and hands went for nothing in their effects. Would it be believed that such nonsense was uttered by people that passed for riders? I can comprehend their not having understood my means at first, since my method was new; but before judging it in so strange a manner, they ought, at least, it seems to me, to have sought to understand it. I had found the round of ordinary feats of horsemanship too limited, since it was sufficient to execute one movement well to immediately practise the others with the same facility. So, it was proved to me that the rider who passed with precision along a straight line sideways (_de deux pistes_) at a walk, trot and gallop, could go in the same way with the head or the croup to the wall, with the shoulder in, perform the ordinary or reversed volts, the changes and counterchanges of hands, etc., etc. As to the _piaffer_, it was, as I have said, nature alone that settled this. This long and fastidious performance had no other variations than the different titles of the movements, since it was sufficient to vanquish one difficulty to be able to surmount all the others. I then created new figures of the _manège_, the execution of which rendered necessary more suppleness, more _ensemble_, more finish in the education of the horse. This was easy to me with my system; and to convince my adversaries that there was neither magic nor mystery in my performance at the _Cirque_, I am going to explain by what processes purely equestrian, and even without having recourse to _piliers_, cavessons or horse-whips, I have brought my horses to execute the sixteen figures of the _manège_ that appear so extraordinary. 1. Instantaneous flexion and support in the air of either one of the fore legs, while the other three legs remain fixed to the ground. The means of making the horse raise one of his fore legs is very simple, as soon as the animal is perfectly supple and _rassemblé_. To make him raise, for example, the right leg, it is sufficient to incline his head slightly to the right, while making the weight of his body fall upon the left side. The rider's legs will be sustained firmly (the left a little more than the right), that the effect of the hand which brings the head to the right should not react upon the weight, and that the forces which serve to fasten to the ground the over-weighted part may give the horse's right leg enough action to make it rise from the ground. By a repetition of this exercise a few times, you will succeed in keeping this leg in the air as long a time as you wish. 2. Mobility of the haunches, the horse resting on his fore legs, while his hind legs balance themselves alternately the one over the other; when the hind leg which is raised from left to right is moved, and is placed on the ground to become pivot in its turn, the other to be instantly raised and to execute the same movement. The simple mobility of the haunches is one of the exercises that I have pointed out for the elementary education of the horse. We can complicate this performance by multiplying the alternate contact of the legs, until we succeed in easily carrying the horse's croup, one leg over the other, in such a way that the movement from left to right and from right to left cannot exceed one step. This exercise is good to give great nicety of touch to the rider, and to prepare the horse to respond to the lightest effects. 3. Passing instantly from the slow _piaffer_ to the precipitate _piaffer_, and _vice versâ_. After having brought the horse to display great mobility of the legs, we ought to regulate the movement of them. It is by the slow and alternated pressure of his legs that the rider will obtain the slow _piaffer_. He will make it precipitate by multiplying the contact. Both these _piaffers_ can be obtained from all horses; but as this is among the great difficulties, perfect tact is indispensable. 4. To back with an equal elevation of the transverse legs, which leave the ground and are placed again on it at the same time, the horse executing the movement with as much freedom and facility as if he were going forward, and without apparent aid from the rider. Backing is not new, but it certainly is new upon the conditions that I lay down. It is only by the aid of a complete suppling and _ramener_ that we succeed in so suspending the horse's body that the distribution of the weight is perfectly regular and the extremities acquire energy and activity alike. This movement then becomes as easy and graceful as it is painful and devoid of elegance when it is changed into _acculement_.[T] [T] _Acculement_ and _reculer_ have been previously explained; one is the horse backing falsely, the other backing correctly. --TRANSLATOR. 5. Simultaneous mobility of the two diagonal legs, the horse stationary. After having raised the two opposite legs, he carries them to the rear to bring them back again to the place they first occupied, and recommences the same movement with the other diagonal. The suppling, and having got the horse in hand, make this movement easy. When he no longer presents any resistance, he appreciates the lightest effects of the rider, intended in this case to displace only the least possible quantity of forces and weight necessary to set in motion the opposite extremities. By repeating this exercise, it will in a little while be rendered familiar to the horse. The finish of the mechanism will soon give the finish of intelligence. 6. Trot with a sustained extension; the horse, after having raised his legs, carries them forward, sustaining them an instant in the air before replacing them on the ground. The processes that form the basis of my method reproduce themselves in each simple movement, and with still more reason in the complicated ones. If equilibrium is only obtained by lightness, in return there is no lightness without equilibrium; it is by the union of these two conditions that the horse will acquire the facility of extending his trot to the farthest possible limits, and will completely change his original gait. 7. Serpentine trot, the horse turning to the right and to the left, to return nearly to his starting point, after having made five or six steps in each direction. This movement will present no difficulty if we keep the horse in hand while executing the flexions of the neck at the walk and trot; you can readily see that such a performance is impossible without this condition. The leg opposite to the side towards which the neck turns ought always to be pressed. 8. Instant halt by the aid of the spurs, the horse being at a gallop. When the horse, being perfectly suppled, will properly bear the _attaques_ and the _rassembler_, he will be fit to execute the halt upon the above conditions. In the application of this we will start with a slow gallop, in order to go on successively to the greatest speed. The legs preceding the hand, will bring the horse's hind legs under the middle of his body, then a prompt effect of the hand, by fixing them in this position, will immediately stop the bound. By this means we spare the horse's organization, which can thus be always kept free from blemish. 9. Continued mobility or pawing, while stationary, of one of the horse's fore legs; the horse, at the rider's will, executing the movement by which he, of his own accord, often manifests his impatience. This movement will be obtained by the same process that serves to keep the horse's leg in the air. In the latter case, the rider's legs must impress a continued support, in order that the force which holds the horse's leg raised keep up its effect; while, for the movement now in question, we must renew the action by a quantity of slight pressures, in order to cause the motion of the leg held up in the air. This extremity of the horse will soon acquire a movement subordinate to that of the rider's legs, and if the time is well seized, it will seem, so to say, that we make the animal move by the aid of mechanical means. 10. To trot backwards, the horse preserving the same cadence and the same step as in the trot forwards. The first condition, in order to obtain the trot backwards, is to keep the horse in a perfect cadence and as _rassemblé_ as possible. The second is all in the proceedings of the rider. He ought to seek insensibly by the combined effects to make the forces of the fore-hand exceed those of the hind-parts, without affecting the harmony of the movement. Thus we see that by the _rassembler_ we will successively obtain the _piaffer_ stationary, and the _piaffer_ backwards, even without the aid of the reins. 11. To gallop backwards, the time being the same as in the ordinary gallop; but the fore legs once raised, in place of coming to the ground, are carried backwards, that the hind-parts may execute the same backward movement as soon as the fore-feet are placed on the ground. The principle is the same as for the preceding performance; with a perfect _rassembler_, the hind legs will find themselves so brought under the centre, that by raising the fore-hand, the movement of the hocks can only be an upward one. This performance, though easily executed with a powerful horse, ought not to be attempted with one not possessing this quality. 12. Changing feet every step, each time of the gallop being done on a different leg. In order to practise this difficult performance, the horse ought to be accustomed to execute perfectly, and as frequently as possible, changing feet at the touch. Before attempting these changes of feet every step, we ought to have brought him to execute this movement at every other step. Everything depends upon his aptness, and above all, on the intelligence of the rider; with this latter quality, there is no obstacle that is not to be surmounted. To execute this performance with the desirable degree of precision, the horse should remain light, and preserve the same degree of action; the rider, on his part, should also avoid roughly inclining the horse's fore-hand to one side or the other. 13. Ordinary _pirouettes_ on three legs, the fore leg on the side towards which we are turning: remaining in the air during the whole time of the movement. Ordinary _pirouettes_ should be familiar to a horse broken after my method, and I have above shown the means to make him hold up one of his fore feet. If these two movements are well executed separately, it will be easy to connect them in a single performance. After having disposed the horse for the _pirouette_, we will prepare the mass in such a way as to raise the fore leg; this once in the air, we will throw the weight on the part opposite to the side towards which we wish to turn, by bearing upon this part with the hand and leg. The leg of the rider placed on the converging side, will only act daring this time so as to carry the forces forward, in order to prevent the hand producing a retrograde effect. 14. To back with a halt at each step, the right leg of the horse remaining in front motionless and held out at the full distance that the left leg has passed over, and _vice versâ_. This movement depends upon the nicety of touch of the rider, as it results from an effect of forces impossible to specify. Though this performance is not very graceful, the experienced rider will do well to often practise it, in order to learn to modify the effects of forces, and acquire all the niceties of his art in perfection. 15. Regular _piaffer_ with an instant halt on three legs, the fourth remaining in the air. Here, also, as for the ordinary _pirouettes_ upon three legs, it is by exercising the _piaffer_ and the flexion of one leg separately, that we will succeed in uniting the two movements in one. We will interrupt the _piaffer_ by arresting the contraction of three of the legs so as to leave it in one only. It is sufficient, then, in order to accustom the horse to this performance, to stop him while he is _piaffing_, by forcing him to contract one of his legs. 16. Change of feet every time at equal intervals, the horse remaining in the same place. This movement is obtained by the same proceedings as are employed for changing feet every time while advancing; only it is much more complicated, since we must give an exact impulsion sufficiently strong to determine the movement of the legs without the body advancing. This movement consequently demands a great deal of tact on the rider's part, and cannot be practised except on a perfectly broken horse, but broken as I understand it. Such is the vocabulary of the new figures of the _manège_ that I have created, and so often executed before the public. As you see, this performance, which appeared so extraordinary that people would not believe it belonged to equestrianism, becomes very simple and comprehensible as soon as you have studied the principles of my method. There is not one of these movements in which is not discovered the application of the precepts I have developed in this book. But, I repeat, if I have enriched equitation with a new and interesting work, I do not pretend to have attained the farthest limits of the art; and one may come after me, who, if he will study my system and practise it with intelligence, will be able to pass me on the course, and add something yet to the results I have obtained. CHAPTER X. SUCCINCT EXPOSITION OF THE METHOD BY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. _Question._ What do you understand by force? _Answer._ The motive power which results from muscular contraction. _Q._ What do you understand by _instinctive_ forces? _A._ Those which come from the horse--that is to say, of which he himself determines the employment. _Q._ What do you understand by _transmitted_ forces? _A._ Those which emanate from the rider, and are immediately appreciated by the horse. _Q._ What do you understand by resistances? _A._ The force which the horse presents, and with which he seeks to establish a struggle to his advantage. _Q._ Ought we first to set to work to annul the forces the horse presents for resistance, before demanding any other movements of him? _A._ Without doubt, as then the force of the rider, which should displace the weight of the mass, finding itself absorbed by an equivalent resistance, every movement becomes impossible. _Q._ By what means can we combat the resistances? _A._ By the methodical and separate suppling of the jaw, the neck, the haunches, and the loins. _Q._ What is the use of the flexions of the jaw? _A._ As it is upon the lower jaw that the effects of the rider's hand are first felt, these will be null or incomplete if the jaw is contracted or closed against the upper one. Besides, as in this case the displacing of the horse's body is only obtained with difficulty, the movements resulting therefrom will also be painful. _Q._ Is it enough that the horse _champ his bit_ for the flexion of his jaw to leave nothing more to wish for? _A._ No, it is also necessary that the horse _let go of the bit_--that is to say, that he should separate (at our will) his jaws as much as possible. _Q._ Can all horses have this mobility of jaw? _A._ All without exception, if we follow the gradation pointed out, and if the rider does not allow himself to be deceived by the flexion of the neck. Useful as this is, it would be insufficient without the play of the jaw. _Q._ In the direct flexion of the jaw, ought we to give a tension to the curb-reins and those of the snaffle at the same time? _A._ No, we must make the snaffle precede (the hand being placed as indicated in Plate No. III.), until the head and neck are lowered; afterwards the pressure of the bit, in time with the snaffle, will promptly make the jaws open. _Q._ Ought we often to repeat this exercise? _A._ It should be continued until the jaws separate by a light pressure of the bit or snaffle. _Q._ Why is the stiffness of the neck so powerful an obstacle to the education of the horse? _A._ Because it absorbs to its profit the force which the rider seeks in vain to transmit throughout the whole mass. _Q._ Can the haunches be suppled separately? _A._ Certainly they can; and this exercise is comprised in what is called stationary exercise. _Q._ What is its useful object? _A._ To prevent the bad effects resulting from the instinctive forces of the horse, and to make him appreciate the forces transmitted by the rider without opposing them. _Q._ Can the horse execute a movement without a shifting of weight? _A._ It is impossible. We must first seek to make the horse take a position which causes such a variation in his equilibrium that the movement may be a natural consequence of it. _Q._ What do you understand by position? _A._ An arrangement of the head, neck and body, previously disposed according to the movements of the horse. _Q._ In what consists the _ramener_? _A._ In the perpendicular position of the head, and the lightness that accompanies it. _Q._ What is the distribution of the forces and weight in the _ramener_? _A._ The forces and weight are equally distributed through all the mass. _Q._ How do we address the intelligence of the horse? _A._ By the position, because it is that which makes the horse know the rider's intentions. _Q._ Why is it necessary that in the backward movements of the horse, the legs of the rider precede the hand? _A._ Because we must displace the points of support before placing upon them the mass that they must sustain. _Q._ Is it the rider that determines his horse? _A._ No. The rider gives action and position, which are the language; the horse answers this demand by the change of pace or direction that the rider had intended. _Q._ Is it to the rider or to the horse that we ought to impute the fault of bad execution? _A._ To the rider, and always to the rider. As it depends upon him to supple and place the horse in the way of the movement, and as with these two conditions faithfully fulfilled, everything becomes regular, it is then to the rider that the merit or blame ought to belong. _Q._ What kind of bit is suitable for a horse? _A._ An easy bit. _Q._ Why is an easy bit necessary for all horses, whatever may be their resistance? _A._ Because the effect of a severe bit is to constrain and surprise a horse, while it ought to prevent him from doing wrong and enable him to do well. Now, we cannot obtain these results except by the aid of an easy bit, and above all, of a skillful hand; for the bit is the hand, and a good hand is the whole of the rider. _Q._ Are there any other inconveniences connected with the instruments of torture called severe bits? _A._ Certainly there are, for the horse soon learns to avoid the painful infliction of them by forcing the rider's legs, the power of which can never be equal to that of this barbarous bit. He succeeds in this by yielding with his body, and resisting with his neck and jaw, which misses altogether the aim proposed. _Q._ How is it that nearly all the horsemen of renown have invented a particular kind of bit? _A._ Because being wanting in personal science, they sought to replace their own insufficiency by aids or strange machines. _Q._ Can the horse, perfectly in hand, defend himself? _A._ No; for the just distribution of weight that this position gives supposes a great regularity of movement, and it would be necessary to overturn this order that any act of rebellion on the part of the horse should take place. _Q._ What is the use of the snaffle? _A._ The snaffle serves to combat the opposing forces (lateral) of the neck, to make the head precede in all the changes of direction, while the horse is not yet familiarized with the effects of the bit; it serves also to arrange the head and neck in a perfectly straight line. _Q._ In order to obtain the _ramener_, should we make the legs precede the hand or the hand the legs? _A._ The hands ought to precede until they have produced the effect of giving great suppleness to the neck (this ought to be practised in the stationary exercises); then come the legs in their turn to combine the hind and fore-parts in the movement. The continual lightness of the horse at all paces will be the result of it. _Q._ Ought the legs and the hands to aid one another or act separately? _A._ One of these extremities ought always to have the other for auxiliary. _Q._ Ought we to leave the horse a long time at the same pace in order to develop his powers? _A._ It is useless, since the regularity of movements results from the regularity of the positions; the horse that makes fifty steps at a trot regularly is much further advanced in his education than if he made a thousand in a bad position. We must then attend to his position, that is to say, his lightness. _Q._ In what proportions ought we to use the force of the horse? _A._ This cannot be defined, since these forces vary in different subjects; but we should be sparing of them, and not expend them without circumspection, particularly during the course of his education. It is on this account that we must, so to say, create for them a reservoir that the horse may not absorb them uselessly, and that the rider may make a profitable and more lasting use of them. _Q._ What good will there result to the horse from this judicious employment of his forces? _A._ As we will only make use of forces useful for certain movements, fatigue or exhaustion can only result from the length of time during which the animal will remain at an accelerated pace, and will not be the effect of an excessive muscular contraction which would preserve its intensity, even at a moderate pace. _Q._ When should we first undertake to make the horse back? _A._ After the suppling of the neck and haunches. _Q._ Why should the suppling of the haunches precede that of the loins (the _reculer_)? _A._ To keep the horse more easily in a straight line and to render the flowing back and forward of the weight more easy. _Q._ Ought these first retrograde movements of the horse to be prolonged during the first lessons? _A._ No. As their only object is to annul the instinctive forces of the horse, we must wait till he is perfectly in hand to obtain a backward movement, a true _reculer_. _Q._ What constitutes a true _reculer_? _A._ The lightness of the horse (head perpendicular), the exact balance of his body, and the elevation to the same height of the legs diagonally. _Q._ At what distance ought the spur to be placed from the horse's flanks before the _attaque_ commences? _A._ The rowel should not be farther than two inches from the horse's flanks. _Q._ How ought the _attaques_ to be practised? _A._ They ought to reach the flanks by a movement like the stroke of a lancet, and be taken away as quickly. _Q._ Are there circumstances where the _attaque_ ought to be practised without the aid of the hand? _A._ Never; since its only object should be to give the impulsion which serves for the hand to contain (_renfermer_) the horse. _Q._ Is it the _attaques_ themselves that chastise the horse? _A._ No. The chastisement is in the contained position that the _attaques_ and the hand make the horse assume. As the latter then finds himself in a position where it is impossible to make use of any of his forces, the chastisement has all its efficiency. _Q._ In what consists the difference between the _attaques_ practised after the old principles, and those which the new method prescribed? _A._ Our predecessors (that we should venerate) practised spurring in order to throw the horse out of himself; the new method makes use of it to contain him; that is, to give him that first position which is the mother of all the others. _Q._ What are the functions of the legs during the _attaques_? _A._ The legs ought to remain adherent to the horse's flanks and in no respect to partake of the movements of the feet. _Q._ At what moment ought we to commence the _attaques_? _A._ When the horse supports peaceably a strong pressure of the legs without getting out of hand. _Q._ Why does a horse, perfectly in hand, bear the spur without becoming excited, and even without sudden movement? _A._ Because the skillful hand of the rider, having prevented all displacings of the head, never lets the forces escape outwards; it concentrates them by fixing them. The equal struggle of the forces, or if you prefer it, their _ensemble_, sufficiently explains the apparent dullness of the horse in this case. _Q._ Is it not to be feared that the horse may become insensible to the legs and lose all that activity necessary for accelerated movements? _A._ Although this is the opinion of nearly all the people who talk of this method without understanding it, there is nothing in it. Since all these means serve only to keep the horse in the most perfect equilibrium, promptness of movement ought necessarily to be the result of it, and, consequently, the horse will be disposed to respond to the progressive contact of the legs, when the hand does not oppose it. _Q._ How can we judge whether an _attaque_ is regular? _A._ When, far from making the horse get out of hand, it makes him come into it. _Q._ How ought the hand to be supported at the moments of resistance on the part of the horse? _A._ The hand ought to stop, fix itself, and only be drawn sufficiently towards the body to give the reins a three-quarter tension. In the contrary case, we must wait till the horse bears upon the hand to present this insurmountable barrier to him. _Q._ What would be the inconvenience of increasing the pressure of the bit by drawing the hand towards the body in order to slacken the horse in his paces by getting him in hand? _A._ It would not produce an effect upon a particular part, but would act generally upon all the forces, in displacing the weight instead of annulling the force of impulsion. We should not wish to incline to one side what we cannot stop. _Q._ In what case ought we to make use of the cavesson, and what is its use? _A._ We should make use of it when the faulty construction of the horse leads him to defend himself, when only simple movements are demanded of him. It is also useful to use the cavesson with restive horses, as its object is to act upon the moral, while the rider acts upon the physical. _Q._ How ought we to make use of the cavesson? _A._ At first, the longe of the cavesson should be held at from fifteen or twenty inches from the horse's head, held out and supported with a stiff wrist. We must watch the proper times to diminish or increase the bearing of the cavesson upon the horse's nose, so as to use it as an aid. All viciousness that leads him to act badly is to be repressed by little jerks, which should be given at the very moment of defense. As soon as the rider's movements begin to be appreciated by the horse, the longe of the cavesson ought no longer to act; at the end of a few days the horse will only need the bit, to which he will respond without hesitation. _Q._ In what case is the rider less intelligent than the horse? _A._ When the latter subjects him to his caprices, and does what he wishes with him. _Q._ Are the defenses of the horse physical or moral? _A._ At first they are physical, but afterwards become moral; the rider ought then to seek out the causes that produce them, and endeavor, by a preparatory exercise, to re-establish the correct equilibrium that a bad natural formation prevented. _Q._ Can the naturally well-balanced horse defend himself? _A._ It would be as difficult for a subject uniting all that constitutes a good horse to give himself up to disorderly movements, as it is impossible for the one that has not received the like gifts from nature, to have regular movements, if art did not lend him its aid. _Q._ What do you mean by _rassembler_? _A._ The reunion of forces at the centre of gravity. _Q._ Can we _rassembler_ the horse that does not contain himself under the _attaques_? _A._ This is altogether impossible; the legs would be insufficient to counterbalance the effects of the hand. _Q._ At what time ought we to _rassembler_ the horse? _A._ When the _ramener_ is complete. _Q._ Of what service is the _rassembler?_ _A._ To obtain without difficulty everything of a complicated nature in horsemanship. _Q._ In what does the _piaffer_ consist? _A._ In the graceful position of the body and the harmonized precision of movement of the legs and feet. _Q._ Is there more than one kind of _piaffer?_ _A._ Two; the slow and the precipitate. _Q._ Which is to be preferred of these two? _A._ The slow _piaffer_, since it is only when this is obtained that the equilibrium is perfect. _Q._ Ought we to make a horse _piaffe_ who will not bear the _rassembler?_ _A._ No; for that would be to step out of the logical gradation that alone can give certain results. Besides, the horse that has not been brought forward by this chain of principles would only execute with trouble and ungracefully what he ought to accomplish with pleasure and nobly. _Q._ Are all riders alike suited to conquer all the difficulties and seize all the effects of touch? _A._ As in horsemanship, intelligence is the starting point for obtaining every result, everything is subordinate to this innate disposition; but every rider will have the power to break his horse to an extent commensurate with his own abilities to instruct. CONCLUSION. Everybody complains now-a-days of the degeneration of our breeds of horses. Apprehensive too late of a state of things which threatens even the national independence,[U] patriotic spirits are seeking to go back to the source of the evil, and are arranging divers systems for remedying it as soon as possible. Among the causes which have contributed the most to the loss of our old breeds, they forget, it seems to me, to mention the decline of horsemanship, nor do they consider that the revival of this art is indispensable in bringing about the regeneration of the horse. [U] Much in this chapter, though written for France, applies with great appropriateness to our own country. The difficulties of horsemanship have long been the same, but formerly constant practice, if not taste, kept it up; these stimulants exist no longer. Fifty years ago, every man of rank was expected to be able to handle a horse with skill, and break one if necessary. This study was an indispensable part of the education of young people of family; and as it obliged them to devote two or three years to the rough exercises of the _manège_, in the end they all became horsemen, some by taste, the rest by habit. These habits once acquired were preserved throughout life; they then felt the necessity of possessing good horses, and men of fortune spared nothing in getting them. The sale of fine horses thus became easy; all gained by it, the breeder as well as the horse. It is not so now; the aristocracy of fortune, succeeding to that of birth, is very willing to possess the advantages of the latter, but would dispense with the onerous obligations which appertained to an elevated rank. The desire of showing off in public places, or motives still more frivolous, sometimes lead gentlemen of our times to commence the study of horsemanship, but, soon wearied of a work without satisfactory results, they find only a monotonous fatigue where they sought a pleasure, and are satisfied they know enough as soon as they can stick passably well in the saddle. So insufficient a knowledge of horsemanship, as dangerous as it is thoughtless, must necessarily occasion sad accidents. They then become disgusted with horsemanship and horses, and as nothing obliges them to continue the exercise, they give it up nearly altogether, and so much the more easily as they naturally care very little about the breeds of horses and their perfection. We must then, as a preliminary measure in the improvement of horses, raise up horsemanship from the low state into which it has fallen. The government can undoubtedly do much here; but it is for the masters of the art to supply, if necessary, what it leaves undone. Let them render attractive and to the purpose studies which have hitherto been too monotonous and often barren; let rational and true principles make the scholar see a real progress, that each of his efforts brings a success with it; and we will soon see young persons of fortune become passionately fond of an exercise which has been rendered as interesting to them as it is noble, and discover, with their love for horses, a lively solicitude for all that concerns their qualities and education. But horsemen can aim at still more brilliant results. If they succeed in rendering easy the education of common horses, they will make the study of horsemanship popular among the masses; they will put within reach of moderate fortunes, so numerous in our land of equality, the practice of an art that has hitherto been confined to the rich. Such has been the aim of the labors of my whole life. It is in the hope of attaining this end that I give to the public the fruit of my long researches. But I should say, however, that if I was upheld by the hope of being one day useful to my country, it was the army above all that occupied my thoughts. Though counting many skillful horsemen in its ranks, the system they are made to follow, impotent in my eyes, is the true cause of the equestrian inferiority of so many, as well as of their horses being so awkward and badly broken. I might add that to the same motive is to be attributed the little taste for horsemanship felt by the officers and soldiers. How can it be otherwise? The low price allowed by government for horses of remount, causes few horses of good shape to be met with in the army, and it is only of these that the education is easy. The officers themselves, mounted upon a very common sort of horses, strive in vain to render them docile and agreeable. After two or three years of fatiguing exercise, they end by gaining a mechanical obedience, but the same resistances and the same faults of construction are perpetually recurring. Disgusted by difficulties that appear insurmountable, they trouble themselves no more about horses and horsemanship than the demands of the service actually require. Yet it is indispensable that a cavalry officer be always master of his horse, so much so as to be able, so to say, to communicate his own thoughts to him; the uniformity of manoeres, the necessities of command, the perils of the battle-field, all demand it imperatively. The life of the rider, every one knows, often depends upon the good or bad disposition of his steed; in the same way the loss or the gain of a battle often hangs on the degree of precision in manoeuvring a squadron. My method will give military men a taste for horsemanship, a taste which is indispensable in the profession they practise. The nature of officers' horses, considered as so defective, is exactly the one upon which the most satisfactory results may be obtained. These animals generally possess a certain degree of energy, and as soon as we know how rightly to use their powers by remedying the physical faults that paralyze them, we will be astonished at the resources they will exhibit. The rider fashioning the steed by degrees will regard him as the work of his hand, will become sincerely attached to him, and will find as much charm in horsemanship as he previously felt _ennui_ and disgust. My principles are simple, easy in their application, and within the reach of every mind. They can everywhere make (what is now so rare) skillful horsemen. I am sure that if my method is adopted and well understood in the army, where the daily exercise of the horse is a necessary duty, we will see equestrian capacities spring up among the officers and sub-officers by thousands. There is not one among them who, with an hour a day of study would not soon be able to give any horse in less than three months the following qualities and education: 1. General suppling. 2. Perfect lightness. 3. Graceful position. 4. A steady walk. 5. Trot steady, measured, extended. 6. Backing as easily and freely as going forward. 7. Gallop easy with either foot, and change of foot by the touch. 8. Easy and regular movement of the haunches, comprising ordinary and reversed _pirouettes_. 9. Leaping the ditch and the bar. 10. _Piaffer._ 11. Halt from the gallop, by the aid of first, the pressure of the legs, and then a light support of the hand. I ask all conscientious men: have they seen many horsemen of renown obtain similar results in so short a time? The education of the men's horses, being less complicated than that of those intended for officers, would on that account be more rapid. The principal things will be the supplings and the backing, followed by the walk, the trot and the gallop, while keeping the horse perfectly in hand. The colonels will soon appreciate the excellent results of this exercise, in consequence of the precision with which all the movements are made. The important flexions of the fore-hand can be executed without leaving the stables, each rider turning his horse around in the stall. It is not for me to point out to the colonels of regiments the exact way of putting my method in practice; it is enough for me to lay down my principles and to explain them. The instructors will themselves supply the details of application too long to enumerate here. I must again repeat, this book is the fruit of twenty years of observation constantly verified by practice. A long and painful work without doubt, but what compensation I have found in the results I have been happy enough to obtain. In order to let the public judge of the importance of my discoveries, it is sufficient here to give their nomenclature, and I present these processes as new ones, because I can conscientiously say that they never were practised before me. I have added then successively to the manual of the horseman the following principles and innovations: 1. New means of obtaining a good seat. 2. Means of making the horse come to the man, and rendering him steady to mount. 3. Distinction between the instinctive forces of the horse and the communicated forces. 4. Explanation of the influence of a bad formation upon the horse's resistances. 5. Effect of bad formations on the neck and croup, the principal focuses of resistance. 6. Means of remedying the faults, or supplings of the two extremities, and the whole of the horse's body. 7. Annihilation of the instinctive forces of the horse, in order to substitute for them forces transmitted by the rider, and to give ease and beauty of motion to the ungraceful animal. 8. Equality of sensibility of mouth in all horses; adoption of a uniform bit. 9. Equality of sensibility of flanks in all horses; means of accustoming them all to bear the spur alike. 10. All horses can place their heads in the position of _ramener_ and acquire the same lightness. 11. Means of bringing the centre of gravity in a badly-formed horse to the place it occupies in a well-formed one. 12. The rider disposes his horse for a moment, but he does not determine the movement. 13. Why sound horses often are faulty in their paces. Means of remedying this in a few lessons. 14. For changes of direction, use of the leg opposite to the side towards which we turn, so that it may precede the other one. 15. In all backward movements of the horse the rider's legs ought to precede the hands. 16. Distinction between the _reculer_ and the _acculement_; the good effect of the former in the horse's education; the bad effect of the latter. 17. The use of the spurs as a means of education. 18. All horses can _piaffer_; means of rendering this movement slow or precipitate. 19. Definition of the true _rassembler_; means of obtaining it; of its usefulness to produce grace and regularity in complicated movements. 20. Means of bringing all horses to step out freely at a trot. 21. Rational means of putting a horse at a gallop. 22. Halt at a gallop, the legs or the spur preceding the hand. 23. Force continued in proportion to the forces of the horse; the rider should never yield until after having _annulled_ the horse's resistances. 24. Education of the horse in parts, or means of exercising his forces separately. 25. Complete education of horses of ordinary formation in less than three months. 26. Sixteen new figures of the _manège_ proper for giving the finishing touch to the horse's education, and for perfecting the rider's touch. It is understood that all the details of application appertaining to these innovations are new also, and likewise belong to me. THE END. INDEX. Backing, 64-107 Back to, with a halt, 111 Bit, false and true, yielding to the, 55 " form of, 57 " pressure of the, 54 Breaking, succinct exposition of the method of, 113 Croup, flexions of the, 59 Gallop, of the, 91 Horse, concentration by the rider of the forces of the, 78 " education of the, 23 " " " first lesson, 100 " " " second lesson, 101 " " " third " , 101 " " " fourth " , 102 " " " fifth " , 102 " employment of the forces of the, by the rider, 69 " gathering the, 88 " how to make him come to you, 35 " of the forces of the, 35 " resting his chin on his breast, 53 " education of Partisan, Capitaine, Neptune and Buridan, 104 Jaw, flexion of the, 36 Knees, flexions of the, 22 Leaping, 94 Legs, flexions of the, 21 Neck, depression of the, 40 " direct flexions of the head and, 48 " lateral " " on foot, 45 " " " " " horseback, 47 Piaffer, the, 94 Riding, preparatory lessons for, 19 Saddles, exercises in the, 19 Seat, new means for obtaining a good, 17 " of the rider, 18 Spurs, the use of the, 78 Supplings, the head and neck, 32-58 " Recapitulations, 67 Trot, the, 74 " " backward, 109 _______________________________________________________ JUST WHAT EVERY HOUSEKEEPER WANTS ---------------------- THE ECONOMICAL COOK BOOK Or, How to Prepare Nice Dishes at a Moderate Cost ----------------------- CONTAINING NEARLY FIVE HUNDRED CAREFULLY TRIED RECIPES FOR COOKING Soups, Fish, Oysters, Clams MEATS OF ALL KINDS, POULTRY, EGGS, VEGETABLES, SAUCE FOR MEATS and PUDDINGS, BREAD, BREAKFAST CAKES, Etc.; PUDDINGS, PIES, PRESERVES, PICKLES, ETC., ETC. 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28612	----	Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of corrections is found at the end of the text. Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been maintained. A list of inconsistently spelled and hyphenated words is found at the end of the text. Oe ligatures have been expanded. [Illustration: Zebra strapped up.] HORSE-TAMING--HORSEMANSHIP--HUNTING. A New Illustrated Edition of J. S. RAREY'S ART OF TAMING HORSES; WITH THE SUBSTANCE OF THE LECTURES AT THE ROUND HOUSE, AND ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS ON HORSEMANSHIP AND HUNTING, FOR THE YOUNG AND TIMID. BY THE SECRETARY TO THE FIRST SUBSCRIPTION OF FIVE THOUSAND GUINEAS, AUTHOR OF "GALLOPS AND GOSSIPS," AND HUNTING CORRESPONDENT OF THE "ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS." LONDON: ROUTLEDGE, WARNES, AND ROUTLEDGE, FARRINGDON STREET. 1859. [_The right of Translation is reserved._] CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Mr. Rarey's pamphlet first published in Ohio.--Experience of old system.--Compiled and invented new.--Tying up the fore-leg known many years ago, _see_ Stamford Almanack.--Forgotten and not valued.--Reference to Captain Nolan's and Colonel Greenwood's works on horsemanship.--Dick Christian missed the discovery.--Baucher's plan of laying down a horse explained.--Mademoiselle Isabel's whip-and-spur plan.--Account of the Irish whisperer Dan Sullivan.--Usual modes of taming vicious horses.--Starving.--Physic.--Sleepless nights.--Bleeding.--Biting the ear.--Story of Kentish coachman.--The Ellis system.--Value of the Rarey system as compared with that of ordinary horse-tamers.--Systems of Australia and Arabia compared.--The South American plan explained.--A French plan.--Grisoné the Neapolitan's advice.--The discovery of Mr. Rarey by Mr. Goodenough.--Visit to Canada.--To England.--Lord Alfred Paget.--Sir Richard Airey.--System made known to them.--To Mr. Jos. Anderson.--Messrs. Tattersall.--Sir Matthew Ridley's black horse tamed.--Subscription list of 500 opened.--Stafford tamed.--Description of.--Teaching commenced with Lords Palmerston, Granville, &c.--Cruiser tamed.--History of.--Enthusiastic crowd at Cruiser exhibition.--System approved by the Earl of Jersey and Sir Tatton Sykes.--Close of first subscription list.--Anecdote of Mr. Gurney's colt--Personal sketch of Mr. Rarey 1 CHAPTER II. Mr. Rarey's Introduction.--Remarks on 26 CHAPTER III. The three fundamental principles of the Rarey Theory.--Heads of the Rarey Lectures.--Editor's paraphrase.--That any horse may be taught docility.--That a horse should be so handled and tied as to feel inferior to man.--That a horse should be allowed to see, smell, and feel all fearful objects.--Key note of the Rarey system 32 CHAPTER IV. How to drive a colt from pasture.--How to drive into a stable.--The kind of halter.--Experiment with a robe or cloak.--Horse-taming drugs.--The Editor's remarks.--Importance of patience.--Best kind of head-stall.--Danger of approaching some colts.--Hints from a Colonel of the Life Guards 39 CHAPTER V. Powell's system of approaching a colt.--Rarey's remarks on.--Lively high-spirited horses tamed easily.--Stubborn sulky ones more difficult.--Motto, "Fear, love and obey."--Use of a whalebone gig-whip.--How to frighten and then approach.--Use kind words.--How to halter and lead a colt.--By the side of a horse.--To lead into a stable.--To tie up to a manger.--Editor's remarks.--Longeing.--Use and abuse of.--On bitting.--Sort of bit for a colt.--Dick Christian's bit.--The wooden gag bit 51 CHAPTER VI. Taming a colt or horse.--Rarey's directions for strapping up and laying down detailed.--Explanations by Editor.--To approach a vicious horse with half door.--Cartwheel.--No. 1 strap applied.--No. 2 strap applied.--Woodcuts of.--How to hop about.--Knot up bridle.--Struggle described.--Lord B.'s improved No. 2 strap.--Not much danger.--How to steer a horse.--Laid down, how to gentle.--To mount, tied up.--Place and preparations for training described 67 CHAPTER VII. The Drum.--The Umbrella.--Riding-habit.--How to bit a colt.--How to saddle.--To mount.--To ride.--To break.--To harness.--To make a horse follow and stand without holding.--Baucher's plan.--Nolan's plan 90 CHAPTER VIII. Value of good horsemanship to both sexes.--On teaching children.--Anecdote.--Havelock's opinion.--Rarey's plan to train ponies.--The use of books.--Necessity of regular teaching for girls; boys can be self-taught.--Commence without a bridle.--Ride with one pair of reins and two hands.--Advantage of hunting-horn on side-saddle.--On the best plan for mounting.--Rarey's plan.--On a man's seat.--Nolan's opinion.--Military style.--Hunting style.--Two examples in Lord Cardigan.--The Prussian style.--Anecdote by Mr. Gould, Blucher, and the Prince Regent.--Hints for men learning to ride.--How to use the reins.--Pull right for right, and left for left.--How to collect your horse 111 CHAPTER IX. On bits.--The snaffle.--The use of the curb.--The Pelham.--The Hanoverian bit described.--Martingales.--The gentleman's saddle to be large enough.--Spurs.--Not to be too sharp.--The Somerset saddle for the timid and aged.--The Nolan saddle without flaps.--Ladies' saddle described.--Advantages of the hunting-horn crutch.--Ladies' stirrup.--Ladies' dress.--Hints on.--Habit.--Boots.--Whips.--Hunting-whips.--Use of the lash.--Gentleman's riding costume.--Hunting dress.--Poole, the great authority.--Advantage of cap over hat in hunting.--Boot-tops and Napoleons.--Quotation from Warburton's ballads 135 CHAPTER X. Advantage of hunting.--Libels on.--Great men who have hunted.--Popular notion unlike reality.--Dick Christian and the Marquis of Hastings.--Fallacy of "lifting" a horse refuted.--Hints on riding at fences.--Harriers discussed.--Stag-hunting a necessity and use where time an object.--Hints for novices.--"Tally-ho!" expounded.--To feed a horse after a hard ride.--Expenses of horse-keep.--Song by Squire Warburton, "A word ere we start" 154 CHAPTER XI. The Fitzwilliam.--Brocklesby.--A day on the Wolds.--Brighton harriers.--Prince Albert's harriers 176 CHAPTER XII. Hunting Terms 199 CHAPTER XIII. The origin of Fox-hunting 210 CHAPTER XIV. The wild ponies of Exmoor 218 POSTSCRIPT 232 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. TO FACE 1. ZEBRA STRAPPED UP Drawn by Louis Huard, Esq. Title-page 2. HORSE WITH STRAP NO. 1 Ditto " 67 3. HORSE WITH STRAPS NOS. 1 AND 2 Ditto " 76 4. THE HORSE STRUGGLING Ditto " 79 5. THE HORSE EXHAUSTED Ditto " 80 6. THE HORSE TAMED Ditto " 82 7. SECOND LESSON IN HARNESS Ditto " 100 8. RAILS AND DOUBLE DITCH Ditto " 153 VIGNETTES. PAGE WILD HORSE'S HEAD 25 HALTER OR BRIDLE 39 WOODEN GAG BIT 66 STRAP NO. 1 74 STRAP NO. 2 76 LORD B.'S IMPROVED NO. 2 77 SURCINGLE STRAP FOR NO. 2 78 SIDE SADDLE, AND LADY'S SEAT ON 111 SIDE SADDLE, OFFSIDE VIEW OF 135 CURB, OR HARD AND SHARP 136 PLAIN SNAFFLE 137 PELHAM 138 HANOVERIAN 139 SITZ, OR HUNTSMAN'S BATH 232 HOT-AIR OR INDIAN BATH 235 THE ART OF TAMING HORSES. CHAPTER I. Mr. Rarey's pamphlet first published in Ohio.--Experience of old system.--Compiled and invented new.--Tying up the fore-leg known many years ago, _see_ Stamford Almanack.--Forgotten and not valued.--Reference to Captain Nolan's and Colonel Greenwood's works on horsemanship.--Dick Christian missed the discovery.--Baucher's plan of laying down a horse explained.--Mademoiselle Isabel's whip-and-spur plan.--Account of the Irish whisperer Dan Sullivan.--Usual modes of taming vicious horses.--Starving.--Physic.--Sleepless nights.--Bleeding.--Biting the ear.--Story of Kentish coachman.--The Ellis system.--Value of the Rarey system as compared with that of ordinary horse-tamers.--Systems of Australia and Arabia compared.--The South American plan explained.--A French plan.--Grisoné the Neapolitan's advice.--The discovery of Mr. Rarey by Mr. Goodenough.--Visit to Canada.--To England.--Lord Alfred Paget.--Sir Richard Airey.--System made known to them.--To Mr. Jos. Anderson.--Messrs. Tattersall.--Sir Matthew Ridley's black horse tamed.--Subscription list of 500 opened.--Stafford tamed.--Description of.--Teaching commenced with Lords Palmerston, Granville, &c.--Cruiser tamed.--History of.--Enthusiastic crowd at Cruiser exhibition.--System approved by the Earl of Jersey and Sir Tatton Sykes.--Close of first subscription list.--Anecdote of Mr. Gurney's colt.--Personal sketch of Mr. Rarey. Mr. Rarey is a farmer from Ohio, in the United States. Five years ago he wrote the little book which forms the _text_ of the following complete account of his system, with pictorial illustrations, which are essential for explaining the means he now employs for subduing the most refractory animals. Without these explanations, it would be extremely difficult for any one who had not enjoyed the advantage of hearing Mr. Rarey's explanations, to practise his system successfully, or even safely. The original work contains a mere outline of the art, since perfected by five years' further study and practice. The author did not revise his first sketch, for very obvious reasons. He was living in obscurity, teaching his system for a few dollars in Ohio and Texas. He never taught in the great cities or seabord states of the United States. When he had imparted his art to a pupil, he bound him to secrecy, and presented him with a copy of his pamphlet. He did not dream, then, of becoming the great Lion of the London Season, and realising from English subscribers nearly 20,000_l._ It will be observed, that in the original American edition, the operation of tying up the foot is described in one chapter, and, at an interval of some pages, that of laying a horse down, in another; and that neither the difficulties nor the necessary precautions, nor the extraordinary results, are described with the clearness their importance requires. Mr. Rarey has now very properly released his subscribers from the contract which bound them to secrecy; and it is now in every point of view important that this valuable system of rendering horses docile and affectionate, fit for hacks or chargers, ladies' pads or harness, or the safe conveyance of the aged, crippled, and sick, should be placed within the reach of the thousands whose business it is to deal with horses, as well as of that large class of gentlemen who are obliged to observe economy while keeping up their equestrian tastes. After all, it is to the horse-breeding farmers and grooms to whom Mr. Rarey's art will be of the most practical use. As it is, enough of the system has oozed out to suggest to the ignorant new means of cruelty. A horse's leg is strapped up, and then the unlearned proceed to bully the crippled animal, instead of--to borrow an expressive Americanism--"to gentle him." Before entering into the details for practising the Rarey system, it may be interesting to give a sketch of the "facts" that have placed Mr. Rarey in his present well-deserved position, as an invincible Horse-Tamer, as well as a Reformer of the whole modern system of training horses--a position unanimously assigned to him by all the first horsemen of the day. Mr. Rarey has been a horse-breaker in the United States from his earliest youth, and had frequently to break in horses five or six years old, that had run wild until that mature undocile age. At first he employed the old English rough-rider method, and in the course of his adventures broke almost every bone in his body, for his pluck was greater than his science. But he was not satisfied with following old routine; he inquired from the wandering horsemen and circus trainers into their methods (it may be that he was at one time attached to a circus himself), and read every book he could lay his hands on. By inquiry and by study--as he says in one of his advertisements--"he thought out" the plan and the principles of his present system. The methods he uses for placing a colt or horse completely in his power are not absolutely new, although it is possible that he has re-invented and has certainly much improved them. The Russian (_i. e._ Courland) Circus Riders have long known how, single-handed, to make a horse lie down by fastening up one fore-leg, and then with a rope suddenly pulling the other leg from under him. The trick was practised in England more than forty years ago, and forgotten. That no importance was attached to this method of throwing a horse is proved by the fact, that in the works on horsemanship, published during the last twenty years, no reference is made to it. When Mr. Starkey, of Wiltshire, a breeder and runner of race-horses,[4-*] saw Mr. Rarey operate for the first time, he said, "Why I knew how to throw a horse in that way years ago, but I did not know the use of it, and was always in too great a hurry!" Lord Berners made nearly the same remark to me. Nimrod, Cecil, Harry Hieover, Scrutator--do not appear to have ever heard of it. The best modern authority on such subjects (British Rural Sports), describes a number of difficulties in breaking colts which altogether disappear under the Rarey system--especially the difficulty of shoeing. Captain Nolan, who was killed at Balaklava, served in an Hungarian regiment, in the Austrian service, afterwards in our own service in India, and visited Russia, France, Denmark, and South Germany, to collect materials for his work on the "History of Cavalry and on the Training of Horses," although he set out with the golden rule laid down by the great Greek horseman, Xenophon, more than a thousand years ago--"HORSES ARE TAUGHT, NOT BY HARSHNESS, BUT BY GENTLENESS," only refers incidentally to a plan for throwing a horse down, in an extract from Baucher's great work, which will presently be quoted, but attaches no importance to it, and was evidently totally ignorant of the foundation of the Rarey system. The accomplished Colonel Greenwood, who was equally learned in the _manége_ of the _Haute Ecole_, and skilled in the style of the English hunting-fields, gives no hint of a method which reduces the time for taming colts from months to hours, and makes the docility of five horses out of six merely a matter of a few weeks' patience. The sporting newspapers of England and America were so completely off the true scent when guessing at the Rarey method, that they put faith in recipes of oils and scents for taming horses. Dick Christian--a genius in his way--when on horseback unmatched for patience and pluck, but with no taste for reading and no talent for generalizing, used to conquer savages for temporary use by tying up one fore-foot, and made good water-jumpers of horses afraid of water by making them smell it and wade through it; so that he came very near the Rarey methods, but missed the chain of reasoning that would have led him to go further with these expedients.[5-*] Mons. Baucher, of Paris (misprinted Faucher in the American edition), the great modern authority in horse-training and elaborate school equitation, under whom our principal English cavalry generals have studied--amongst others, two enthusiastic disciples of Mr. Rarey, Lord Vivian and General Laurenson, commanding the cavalry at Aldershott--admitted Mr. Rarey's system was not only "most valuable," but "quite new to him." After Mr. Rarey had taught five or six hundred subscribers, some of whom of course had wives, Mr. Cooke, of Astley's, began to exhibit a way of making a horse lie down, which bore as much resemblance to Mr. Rarey's system, as Buckstone's or Keeley's travestie of Othello would to a serious performance by a first-rate tragedian. Mr. Cooke pulling at a strap over the horse's back, was, until he grew, by practice, skilful, more than once thrown down by the extension of the off fore-leg. Indeed, the proof that the circus people knew neither the Rarey plan, nor the results to be obtained from it, is to be found in the fact, that they continually failed in subduing unruly horses sent to them for that purpose. A friend of mine, an eminent engineer, sent to Astley's, about two years ago, a horse which had cost him two hundred pounds, and was useless from a habit of standing still and rearing at the corner of streets; he was returned worse rather than better, and sold for forty pounds. Six lessons from Mr. Rarey would have produced, at least, temporary docility. Monsieur Baucher, in his _Méthode d'Equitation_, says, _speaking of the surprise created by the feats_ he performed with trained horses,--"According to some, I was a new 'Carter,'[6-*] taming my horses by depriving them of rest and nourishment: others would have it, that I tied ropes to their legs, and suspended them in the air; some again supposed that I fascinated them by the power of the eye; and part of the audience, seeing my horses (Partisan, Capitaine, Neptune, and Baridan) work in time to my friend Monsieur Paul Cuzent's charming music, seriously argued that the horses had a capital ear for music, and that they stopped when the clarionets and trombones ceased to play, and that the music had more power over the horse than I had. That the beast obeyed an '_ut_' or a '_sol_' or '_staccato_,' but my hands and legs went for nothing. "Could any one imagine that such nonsense could emanate from people who passed for horsemen? "Now from this, although in some respects the same class of nonsense that was talked about Mr. Rarey, it does not seem that any Parisian veterinary surgeon staked his reputation on the efficacy of oils and scents." M. Baucher then proceeds to give what he calls sixteen "_Airs de Manége_," which reflect the highest credit on his skill as a rational horseman, using his hands and legs. But he proceeds to say--"It is with regret I publish the means of making a horse kneel, limp, lie down, and sit on his haunches in the position called the '_Cheval Gastronomie_,' or 'The Horse at Dinner.' This work is degrading to the poor horse, and painful to the trainer, who no longer sees in the poor trembling beast the proud courser, full of spirit and energy, he took such pleasure in training. "To make a horse kneel, tie his pastern-joint to his elbow, make fast a longer line to the other pastern-joint, have this held tight, and strike the leg with the whip; the instant he raises it from the ground, pull at the longeing line to bend the leg. He cannot help it--he must fall on his knees. Make much of the horse in this position, and let him get up free of all hindrance. "As soon as he does this without difficulty, leave off the use of the longeing line, and next leave both legs at liberty: by striking him on the shins with the whip, he will understand that he is to kneel down. "When on his knees, send his head well to the off-side, and, supporting him with the left rein, pull the right rein down against his neck till he falls to the near side; when down at full length, you cannot make too much of him; _have his head held that he may not get up too suddenly_, or before you wish him. You can do this by placing your right foot on the right reins; this keeps the horse's nose raised from the ground, and thus deprives him of the power of struggling successfully against you. Profit by his present position to make him sit up on his haunches, and in the position of the 'Cheval Gastronomie.'" The difference between this and Rarey's plan of laying down a horse is as great as between Franklin's kite and Wheatstone's electrical telegraph; and foremost to acknowledge the American's merits was M. Baucher. So little idea had cavalry authorities that a horse could be trained without severity, that, during the Crimean war, a Mademoiselle Isabel came over to this country with strong recommendations from the French war minister, and was employed at considerable cost at Maidstone for some months in spoiling a number of horses by _her system_, the principal features of which consisted in a new dumb jockey, and a severe spur attached to a whip! It is true that Mademoiselle Isabel's experiment was made contrary to the wishes and plans of the head of the Cavalry Training Department, the late General Griffiths; but it is not less true that within the last two years influential cavalry officers were looking for an improvement in training horses from an adroit use of the whip and spur. From the time of Alexander the Great down to the Northumberland Horse-Breaker, there have been instances of courageous men who have been able to do extraordinary things with horses. But they may be divided into two classes, neither of which have been able to originate or impart a system for the use of ordinary horsemen. The one class relied and relies on personal influence over lower animals. They terrify, subdue, or conciliate by eye, voice, and touch, just as some wicked women, not endowed with any extraordinary external charms, bewitch and betray the wisest men. The other class rely on the infliction of acute pain, or, stupefaction by drugs, or other similar expedients for acquiring a temporary ascendancy. In a work printed in 1664, quoted by Nolan, we have a melancholy account of the fate of an ingenious horse-tamer. "A Neapolitan, called Pietro, had a little horse, named Mauroço, doubtless a Barb or Arab, which he had taught to perform many tricks. He would, at a sign from his master, lie down, kneel, and make as many courvettes (springs on his hind-legs forward, like rearing), as his master told him. He jumped over a stick, and through hoops, carried a glove to the person Pietro pointed out, and performed a thousand pretty antics. He travelled through the greater part of the Continent, but unfortunately passing through Arles, the people in that 'age of faith,' took him for a sorcerer, and burned him and poor Mauroço in the market-place." It was probably from this incident that Victor Hugo took the catastrophe of La Esmeralda and her goat. Dan Sullivan, who flourished about fifty years ago, was the greatest horse-tamer of whom there is any record in modern times. His triumph commenced by his purchasing for an old song a dragoon's horse at Mallow, who was so savage "that he was obliged to be fed through a hole in the wall." After one of Sullivan's lessons the trooper drew a car quietly through Mallow, and remained a very proverb of gentleness for years after. In fact, with mule or horse, one half-hour's lesson from Sullivan was enough; but they relapsed in other hands. Sullivan's own account of the secret was, that he originally acquired it from a wearied soldier who had not money to pay for a pint of porter he had drunk. The landlord was retaining part of his kit as a pledge, when Sullivan, who sat in the bar, vowed he would never see a hungry man want, and gave the soldier so good a luncheon, that, in his gratitude, he drew him aside at parting, and revealed what he believed to be an Indian charm. Sullivan never took any pupils, and, as far as I can learn, never attempted to train colts by his method, although that is a more profitable and useful branch of business than training vicious horses. It is stated in an article in "Household Words" on Horse-Tamers, that he was so jealous of his gift that even the priest of Ballyclough could not wring it from him at the confessional. His son used to boast how his reverence met his sire as they both rode towards Mallow, and charged him with being a confederate of the wicked one, and how the "whisperer" laid the priest's horse under a spell, and forthwith led him a weary chase among the cross roads, till he promised in despair to let Sullivan alone for ever. Sullivan left three sons: one only practised his art, with imperfect success till his death; neither of the others pretended to any knowledge of it. One of them is to this day a horse-breaker at Mallow. The reputation of Mr. Rarey brought to light a number of provincial horse-tamers, and, amongst others, a grandson of Sullivan has opened a list under the auspices of the Marquis of Waterford, for teaching his grandfather's art of horse-taming. It is impossible not to ask, why, if the art is of any value, it has not been taught long ago? In Ireland as in England, the accepted modes of taming a determined colt, or vicious horse, are either by a resolute rider with whip and spur, and violent longeings, or by starving, physic, and sleepless nights. It was by these means combined that the well-known horseman, Bartley the bootmaker, twenty years ago, tamed a splendid thorough-bred horse, that had defied all the efforts of all the rough-riders of the Household Cavalry regiments. Bleeding a vicious horse has been recommended in German books on equitation. In the family Robinson Crusoe, paterfamilias conquers the quagga by biting its ear, and every farrier knows how to apply a twitch to a horse's ear or nose to secure his quietness under an operation. A Mr. King, some years since, exhibited a learned horse, which he said he subdued by pinching a nerve of its mouth, called "_the nerve of susceptibility_." The writer in the "Household Words" article, to which I have already referred, tells how "a coachman in Kent, who had been quite mastered by horses, called in the assistance of a professed whisperer. After his ghostly course the horses had the worst of it for two months, when their ill-humour returned, and the coachman himself immediately darkened his stable, and held what he termed a little conversation with them, which kept them placid till two more months had passed. He did not seem altogether to approve of the system, and plainly confessed that it was cruel." Putting shot in the ear is an old stupid and fatal trick of ignorant carters to cure a gibbing horse--it cures and kills him too. The latest instantaneous system which acquired a certain degree of temporary popularity was that introduced from the western prairies, by Mr. Ellis, of Trinity College, Cambridge, which consisted in breathing into the nostrils of a colt, or buffalo colt, while its eyes were covered. But although on some animals this seemed to produce a soothing effect, on others it totally failed. There can be very little doubt that most of the mysterious "horse-whisperers" relied for their power of subduing a vicious horse partly on the special personal influence already referred to, and partly on some one of those cruel modes of intimidating the animal. It has been observed that idiots can sometimes manage the most savage horses and bulls, and conciliate the most savage dogs at first sight. The value of Mr. Rarey's system consists in the fact that it may be taught to, and successfully practised by, a ploughboy of thirteen or fourteen for use on all except extremely vicious and powerful horses. It requires patience--it requires the habit of dealing with horses as well as coolness; but the real work is rather a matter of skill than strength. Not only have boys of five or six stone become successful horse-tamers, but ladies of high rank have in the course of ten minutes perfectly subdued and reduced to death-like calmness fiery blood-horses. Therefore, in dealing with Mr. Rarey's plan we are not wasting our time about a trick for conquering these rare exceptions--incurably-savage horses--but considering the principles of a universally applicable system for taming and training horses for man's use, with a perfection of docility rarely found except in aged pet horses, and with a rapidity heretofore quite unknown. The system of Arabia and Australia are the two extremes. In Australia, where the people are always in a hurry, the usual mode of breaking in the bush horses is _to ride them quiet_; that is, to let the man fight it out with the horse until the latter gives in; for the time, at any rate. The result is, that nine-tenths of the Australian horses are vicious, and especially given to the trick of "buck-jumping." This vile vice consists in a succession of leaps from all-fours, the beast descending with the back arched, the limbs rigid, and the head as low down between the legs as possible. Not one horseman in a hundred can sit three jumps of a confirmed buck-jumper. Charles Barter, who was one of the hardest riders in the Heythrope Hunt, in his "Six Months in Natal," says, "when my horse began buck-jumping I dismounted, and I recommend every one under the same circumstances to do the same." The Guachos on the South American Pampas lasso a wild horse, throw him down, cover his head with one of their ponchos, or cloaks, and, having girthed on him one of their heavy demi-piqued saddles, from which it is almost impossible to be dislodged, thrust a curb-bit, capable of breaking the jaw with one tug, into the poor wretch's mouth, mount him with a pair of spurs with rowels six inches long, and ride him over the treeless plains until he sinks exhausted _in a fainting state_. But horses thus broken are almost invariably either vicious or stupid; in fact, idiotic. There is another milder method sometimes adopted by these Pampas horsemen, on which, no doubt, Mr. Rarey partly founded his system. After lassoing a horse, they blind his eyes with a poncho, tie him fast to a post, and girth a heavy saddle on him. The animal sometimes dies at once of fright and anger: if not, he trembles, sweats, and would, after a time, fall down from terror and weakness. The Guacho then goes up to him, caresses him, removes the poncho from his eyes, continues to caress him; so that, according to the notion of the country, the horse becomes grateful and attached to the man for delivering him from something frightful; and from that moment the process of training becomes easy, and, with the help of the long spurs, is completed in a few days. This plan must spoil as many horses as it makes quiet, and fail utterly with the more nervous and high-spirited; for the very qualities that render a horse most useful and beautiful, when properly trained, lead him, when unbroken, to resist more obstinately rough violent usage. In a French newspaper article on Mr. Rarey's system, it is related that a French horse-breaker, in 1846, made a good speculation by purchasing vicious horses, which are more common in France than in England, and selling them, after a few days' discipline, perfectly quiet. His remedy lay in a loaded whip, freely applied between the ears when any symptom of vice was displayed. This expedient was only a revival of the method of Grisoné, the Neapolitan, called, in the fifteenth century, the regenerator of horsemanship, predecessor of the French school, who says--"In breaking young horses, put them into a circular pit; be very severe with those that are sensitive, and of high courage; beat them between the ears with a stick." His followers tied their horses to the pillars in riding-schools, and beat them to make them raise their fore-legs. We do not approve of Grisoné's maxims at the present day in print, but we leave our horses too much to ignorant colt-breakers, who practise them. The Arabs alone, who have no need to hurry the education of their horses, and who live with them as we do with our pet dogs, train their colts by degrees, with patient gentleness, and only resort to severe measures to teach them to gallop and stop short. For this reason Arabs are most docile until they fall into the hands of cruel grooms. It was from considering the docility of the high-bred Arab horse and intractableness of the quibly, roughly broken prairie or Pampas horse, that Mr. Rarey was led to think over and perfect the system which he has repeatedly explained and illustrated by living examples in his lectures, and very imperfectly explained in his valuable, original, but crude little book. It is very fortunate that this book did not find its way to England before Mr. Rarey himself came and conquered Cruiser, and in face-to-face interviews gained the confidence and co-operation of all our horse-loving aristocracy. For had the book appeared unsupported by lectures (or such explanations written and pictorial as this edition will supply), there would have been so many accidents and so many failures, that Mr. Rarey would have had great difficulty in obtaining a hearing, and for many years our splendid colts would have been left to the empirical treatment of ignorant rough-riders. An accident withdrew the great reformer of horse-training from obscurity. In the course of his travels as a teacher of horse-taming he met with Mr. Goodenough, a sharp, hard-fisted New Englander, of the true "Yankee" breed, so well-described by Sam Slick, settled in the city of Toronto, Canada, as a general dealer. In fact, a "sort of Barnum." Mr. Goodenough saw that there was money to be made out of the Rarey system--formed a partnership with the Ohio farmer--conducted him to Canada--obtained an opportunity of exhibiting his talents before Major Robertson, Aide-de-camp to General Sir William Eyre, K.C.B., Commander of the forces, and, through the Major, before Sir William himself, who is (as I can say from having seen him with hounds) an accomplished horseman and enthusiastic fox-hunter. From these high authorities the partners obtained letters of introduction to the Horse Guards in England, and to several gentlemen attached to the Court; in one of the letters of introduction, General Eyre said, "that the system was new to him, and valuable for military purposes." On arriving in England, Mr. Rarey made known his system, and was fortunate enough to convert and obtain the active assistance of Sir Richard Airey, Quarter-Master General, Lord Alfred Paget,[16-*] and Colonel Hood, the two first being noted for their skill as horsemen, and the two latter being attached to the Court. From these gentlemen of high degree, Mr. Rarey proceeded, under good advice, to make known his art to Mr. Joseph Anderson of Piccadilly, and his prime minister, the well-known George Rice--tamed for them a black horse that had been returned by Sir Matthew White Ridley, as unridable from vice and nervousness. The next step was an introduction to Messrs. Tattersall of Hyde Park, whose reputation for honour and integrity in most difficult transactions is world wide and nearly a century old. Introduced at Hyde Park Corner with the strongest recommendations and certificates from such authorities as Lord Alfred Paget, Sir Richard Airey, Colonel Hood, &c., &c., Messrs. Tattersall investigated Mr. Rarey's system, and became convinced that its general adoption would confer an invaluable benefit on what may be called "the great horse interest," and do away with a great deal of cruelty and unnecessary severity now practised on the best-bred and most high-spirited animals through ignorance of colt-breakers and grooms. They, therefore, decided, with that liberality which has always distinguished the firm, to lend Mr. Rarey all the assistance in their power, without taking any commission, or remuneration of any kind. As the methods used by Mr. Rarey are so exceedingly simple, the question next arose of how Mr. Rarey was to be remunerated when teaching in a city where hundreds live by collecting and retailing news. His previous lessons had been given to the thinly-populated districts of Ohio and Texas, where each pupil was a dealer in horses, and kept his secret for his own sake. Had he been the inventor of an improved corkscrew or stirrup-iron, a patent would have secured him that limited monopoly which very imperfectly rewards many invaluable mechanical inventions. Had his countrymen chosen to agree to a reciprocity treaty for copyright of books, he might have secured some certain remuneration by a printed publication of his Lectures. But they prefer the liberty of borrowing our copyrights without consulting the author, and we occasionally return the compliment. In this instance the author cannot say that the British nation has not paid him handsomely. After a consultation with Mr. Rarey's noble patrons, it was decided that a list should be opened at Hyde Park Corner for subscribers at £10 10_s._ each, paid in advance, the teaching to commence as soon as five hundred subscriptions had been paid, each subscriber signing an engagement, under a penalty of £500, not to teach or divulge Mr. Rarey's method, and Messrs. Tattersall undertaking to hold the subscriptions in trust until Mr. Rarey had performed his part of the agreement.[17-*] To this fund, at the request of my friends Messrs. Tattersall, I agreed to act as Secretary. My duties ceased when the list was filled, and the management of the business passed from those gentlemen to Mr. Rarey's partner, Mr. Goodenough, on the 3rd of May, 1858. This list was opened the first day at Mr. Jos. Anderson's, after Mr. Rarey had exhibited, not his method, but the results of his method on the celebrated black, or rather iron-gray, horse already mentioned. Leaving the list to fill, Mr. Rarey went to Paris, and there tamed the vicious and probably half-mad coaching stallion, Stafford.[18-*] It is not generally known that having omitted the precautions of gagging this wild beast with the wooden bit, which forms one of the vignettes of this book, he turned round suddenly, while the tamer was soothing his legs, caught his shoulder in his mouth, and would have made an end of the Rarey system if assistance had not been at hand in the shape of Mr. Goodenough and a pitchfork. Intense enthusiasm was created in Paris by the conquest of Stafford, but 250 francs was too large a sum to found a long subscription list in a city so little given to private horsemanship, and a French experiment did not produce much effect in England. In fact, the English list, which started so bravely under distinguished patronage, after touching some 250 names, languished, and in spite of testimonials from great names, only reached 320, when Mr. Rarey, at the pressing recommendation of his English friends, returned from Paris, and fixed the day for commencing his lessons in the private riding-school of the Duke of Wellington, the use of which had been in the kindest manner offered by his Grace as a testimony of his high opinion of the value of the new system. The course was commenced on the 20th March, by inviting to a private lesson a select party of noblemen and gentlemen, twenty-one in all, including, amongst other accomplished horsemen and horse-breeders, Lord Palmerston, the two ex-masters of the Royal Buckhounds, Earls Granville and Bessborough, the Marquis of Stafford, Vice-President of the Four-Horse Driving Club, and the Honourable Admiral Rous, the leading authority of the Jockey Club on all racing matters. The favourable report of these, perhaps, among the most competent judges of anything appertaining to horses in the world, settled the value of Mr. Rarey's lessons, and the list began to fill speedily; many of the subscribers, no doubt, being more influenced by the prevailing fashion and curiosity, than by an inclination to turn horse-tamers. But early in April, when it became known that Mr. Rarey had tamed Cruiser,[20-*] the most vicious stallion in England, "who could do more fighting in less time than any horse in the world," and that he had brought him to London on the very day after, that he first backed him and had ridden him within three hours after the first interview, slow conviction swelled to enthusiasm. The list filled up rapidly. The school in Kinnerton Street, to which Mr. Rarey was obliged to remove, was crowded, the excitement increasing with each lesson. On the day that Cruiser was exhibited for the first time, long before the doors were open, the little back street was filled with a fashionable mob, including ladies of the highest rank. An admission by noble non-subscribers with notes, gold, and cheques in hands, was begged for with a polite insinuating humility that was quite edifying. A hatful of ten-guinea subscriptions was thrust upon the unwilling secretary at the door with as much eagerness as if he had been the allotter of shares in a ten per cent railway in the day of Hudsonian guarantees. And it must be observed that this crowd included among the mere fashion-mongers almost every distinguished horseman and hunting-man in the three kingdoms. It is quite too late now to attempt to depreciate a system the value of which has been repeatedly and openly acknowledged by authorities above question. As to the "secret," the subscribers must have known that it was impossible that a system that required so much space, and involved so much noise, could long remain a secret. The Earl of Jersey, so celebrated in this century as a breeder of race-horses, in the last century as a rider to hounds, _stood_ through a long lesson, and was as much delighted as his son the Honourable Frederick Villiers, Master of the Pytchley Hounds. Sir Tatton Sykes of Sledmere, perhaps the finest amateur horseman that ever rode a race, whose equestrian performances on the course and in the hunting-field date back more than sixty years, was as enthusiastic in his approval as the young Guardsman who, fortified by Mr. Rarey's lessons, mastered a mare that had defied the efforts of all the farriers of the Household Cavalry. In a word, the five-hundred list was filled, and overflowed, the subscribers were satisfied, and the responsibility of Messrs. Tattersall as stakeholders for the public ceased, and the Secretary and Treasurer to the fund, having wound up the accounts and retired, the connection between Mr. Rarey and the Messrs. Tattersall resolved itself into the use of an office at Hyde Park Corner. The London subscription list had passed eleven hundred names, and, in conjunction with the subscription received in Yorkshire, Liverpool, Manchester, Dublin, and Paris, besides private lessons at £25 each, had realised upwards of £20,000 for Mr. Rarey and his partner, when the five-hundred secrecy agreement was extinguished by the re-publication of the little American pamphlet already mentioned. It was high time that it should, for, while Mr. Rarey had been handsomely paid for his instruction, the more scrupulous of his subscribers were unable to practise his lessons for want of a place where they could work in secrecy. But although the re-publication of Mr. Rarey's American pamphlet virtually absolved his subscribers from the agreement which he gave up formally a few days later in his letter to the _Times_, it is quite absurd to assert that the little pamphlet teaches the Art of Horse-Taming as now practised by Mr. Rarey. Certainly no one but a horseman skilled in the equitation of schools could do much with a horse without great danger of injuring the animal and himself, if he had no other instruction than that contained in Mr. Rarey's clever, original, but vague chapters. In the following work I shall endeavour to fill up the blanks in Mr. Rarey's sketch, and with the help of pictures and diagrams, show how a cool determined man or boy may break in any colt, and make him a docile hack, harness horse, or hunter; stand still, follow, and obey the voice almost as much as the reins. To say that written or oral instructions will teach every man how to grapple with savages like Stafford, Cruiser, Phlegon, or Mr. Gurney's gray colt, would be sheer humbug--that must depend on the man; but we have an instance of what can be done that is encouraging. When Mr. Rarey was so ill that he was unable to sit Mr. Gurney's gray colt, the boasting Mr. Goodenough tried his hand, and was beaten pale and trembling out of the circus by that equine tiger; but Mr. Thomas Rice, the jobmaster of Motcombe Street, who had had the charge of Cruiser in Mr. Rarey's absence up to that time, although he had never before tried his hand at Rareyfying a horse, stuck to the gray colt, laid down, made him fast, and completely conquered him in one evening, so that he was fit to be exhibited the next day, when Mr. Goodenough, _more suo_, claimed the benefit of the victory. Several ladies have succeeded famously in horse-taming; but they have been ladies accustomed to horses and to exercise, and always with gentlemen by, in case a customer proved too tough. Before concluding this desultory but necessary introductory sketch of the rise, progress, and success of the Rarey system, it will be as well, perhaps, for the benefit of lady readers, to give a personal sketch of Mr. Rarey, who is by no means the athletic giant that many imagine. Mr. Rarey is about thirty years of age, of middle height, and well-proportioned figure, wiry and active rather than muscular--his complexion is almost effeminately fair, with more colour than is usually found in those of his countrymen who live in the cities of the sea-coast. And his fair hair, large gray eyes, which only light up and flash fire when he has an awkward customer to tackle, give him altogether the appearance of a Saxon Englishman. His walk is remarkably light and springy, yet regular, as he turns round his horse; something between the set-up of a soldier and the light step of a sportsman. Altogether his appearance and manners are eminently gentlemanly. Although a self-educated and not a book-educated man, his conversation, when he cares to talk, for he is rather reserved, always displays a good deal of thoughtful originality, relieved by flashes of playful humour. This may be seen in his writing. It may easily be imagined that he is extremely popular with all those with whom he has been brought in contact, and has acquired the personal friendship of some of the most accomplished noblemen and gentlemen of the day. Mr. Rarey's system of horse-training will infallibly supersede all others for both civil and military purposes, and his name will take rank among the great social reformers of the nineteenth century. May we have many more such importations from America! [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [4-*] Owner of Fisherman. [5-*] See "The Post and the Paddock," by "The Druid." [6-*] Carter, one of the Van Amburgh showmen. [16-*] Son of the late Marquis of Anglesea, one of the finest horsemen of his day, even with one leg, after he left the other at Waterloo. [17-*] The list itself is one of the most extraordinary documents ever printed, in regard to the rank and equestrian accomplishments of the subscribers. [18-*] "Stafford is a half-bred carriage stallion, six years old. For three years he has formed one of the breeding-stud at Cluny, where he has acquired the character of being a most dangerous animal. He was about to be withdrawn from the stud and destroyed, in consequence of the protests of the breeders--for a whole year he had obstinately refused to be dressed, and was obliged to be closely confined in his box. He rushed at every one who appeared with both fore-feet, and open mouthed. Every means of subduing and restraining him was adopted; he was muzzled, blindfolded, and hobbled. In order to give Mr. Rarey's method a trial, Stafford was sent to Paris, and there a great number of persons, including the principal members of the Jockey Club, had an opportunity of judging of his vicious disposition. "After being alone with Stafford for an hour and a half, Mr. Rarey rode on him into the Riding School, guiding him with a common snaffle-bridle. The appearance of the horse was completely altered: he was calm and docile. His docility did not seem to be produced by fear or constraint, but the result of perfect confidence. The astonishment of the spectators was increased when Mr. Rarey unbridled him, and guided the late savage animal, with a mere motion of his hands or indication with his leg, as easily as a trained circus-horse. Then, dashing into a gallop, he stopped him short with a single word. "Mr. Rarey concluded his first exhibition by beating a drum on Stafford's back, and passing his hand over his head and mouth. Stafford was afterwards ridden by a groom, and showed the same docility in his hands as in those of Mr. Rarey. "Mr. Rarey succeeded on the first attempt in putting him in harness with a mare, although he had never had his head through a collar before; and he went as quietly as the best-broken carriage-horse in Paris. Mr Rarey concluded by firing a six-chambered revolver from his back."--_Paris Illustrated Journal._ [20-*] "Cruiser was the property of Lord Dorchester, and was a good favourite for the Derby in Wild Dayrell's year, but broke down before the race. Like all Venison horses, his temper was not of the mildest kind, and John Day was delighted to get rid of him. When started for Rawcliffe, he told the man who led him on no account to put him into a stable, as he would never get him out. This injunction was of course disregarded, for when the man wanted some refreshment, he put him into a country public-house stable, and left him, and to get him out, the roof of the building had to be pulled off. At Rawcliffe, he was always exhibited by a groom with a ticket-of-leave bludgeon in his hand, and few were bold enough to venture into his yard. This animal, whose temper has depreciated him perhaps a thousand pounds in value, I think would be 'the right horse in the right place' for Mr. Rarey. Phlegon and Vatican would also be good patients. I am sorry to hear that the latter has been blinded: if leathern blinds had been put on his eyes, the same effect would have been produced."--_Morning Post_, March 2, 1858. "Mr. Rarey, when here, first subjugated a two-year old filly, perfectly unbroken. This he accomplished under half an hour, riding on her, opening an umbrella, beating a drum upon her, &c. He then took Cruiser in hand, and in three hours Mr. Rarey and myself mounted him. He had not been ridden for nearly three years, and was so vicious that it was impossible even to dress him, and it was necessary to keep him muzzled constantly. The following morning Mr. Rarey led him behind an open carriage, on his road to London. This horse was returned to me by the Rawcliffe and Stud Company on account of his vice, it being considered as much as a man's life was worth to attend to him. "Greywell, April 7." "DORCHESTER." CHAPTER II. Mr. Rarey's Pamphlet.--Introduction. Mr. Rarey's American Pamphlet would make about fifty pages of this type, if given in full; but, in revising my Illustrated Edition, I have decided on omitting six pages of Introduction, which, copied from Mr. Rollo Springfield, an American author, do not contain any reliable facts or useful inferences. The speculations of the American author, as to the early history of the horse, are written without sufficient information. So far from the "polished Greeks" having, as he states, "ridden without bridles," we have the best authority in the frieze of the Parthenon for knowing that, although they rode barebacked on their compact cobby ponies, they used reins and handled them skilfully and elegantly. To go still further back, the bas-reliefs in the British Museum, discovered by Mr. Layard in the Assyrian Palace of Nimroud, contain spirited representation of horses with bridles, ridden in hunting and in pursuit of enemies, as well as driven in war-chariots. These horses are Arabs, while those of the Elgin Marbles more resemble the cream-coloured Hanoverians which draw the state carriage of our sovereigns. In one of the Nimroud bas-reliefs, we have cavalry soldiers standing with the bridles of their horses in their hands, "waiting," as Mr. Bonomi tells us, "for the orders to mount;" but, as they stand on the left side, with the bridles in their left hands, it is difficult to understand how they could obey such an order with reasonable celerity. The Arabian stories, as to the performances of Arab horses and their owners, must be received with considerable hesitation, for the horse is one of the subjects on which Orientals love to found their poetical fireside stories. This is certain, that the Arab horse being highly bred, is very intelligent, being reared from its birth in the family of its master, extremely docile, and, being always in the open air and fed on a moderate quantity of dry food, very hardy. If we lived with our horses, as we do with our dogs, they would be equally affectionate and tractable. In Norway, in consequence of the severity of the climate, the ponies are all housed during the winter, and thus become so familiar with their owner that there is scarcely any difficulty in putting them into harness, even the first time. English thoroughbred horses, when once acclimatized and bred in the open air on the dry pastures of Australia and South Africa, are found, if not put to work too early, as enduring as the Arab. Experiments in the Indian artillery have proved that the Australian horse and the Cape[27-*] horse, which has also been improved by judicious crosses with English blood, are superior for strength and endurance to the Eastern horses bred in the stud establishments of the East India Company. The exaggerated idea that long prevailed of the value of the Arab horse, as compared with the English thorough-bred, which is an Eastern horse improved by long years of care and ample food, has been to a great extent dissipated by the large importation of Arabs that took place after the Crimean war--in fact, they are on the average pretty ponies of great endurance, but of very little use in this country, where size is indispensable for profit. In the East they are of great value for cavalry; they are hardy and full of fire and spirit. "But," says Captain Nolan, "no horse can compare with the English--no horse is more easily broken in to anything and everything--there is no quality in which the English horse does not excel--no performance in which he cannot beat all competition;" and Nolan was as familiar with the Eastern, Hungarian, and German crosses with the Arab as with the English thorough-bred. We spoil our horses, first by pampering them in hot stables under warm clothing; next, by working them too young; and, lastly, by entrusting their training to rude, ignorant men, who rely for leading colt the way he should go on mere force, harsh words, a sharp whip, and the worrying use of the longeing rein. Rarey has shown how easily, quietly, and safely horses may be tamed; but we must also train men before we can obtain full benefit from our admirable breeds of horses. Proof that our horses have become feeble from pampering may be found in Devonshire. There the common hacks of the county breed on the moors, and, crossed with native ponies, are usually undersized and coarse and heavy about the shoulders, like most wild horses, and all the inferior breeds of Arabs, but they are hardy and enduring to a degree that a Yorkshire breeder would scarcely believe. Mean-looking Galloways will draw a heavy dog-cart over the Devonshire hills fifty miles a-day for many days in succession. A little common sense has been introduced into the management of our cavalry, since the real experience of the Crimean war. General Sir Charles Napier was not noticed when, nearly ten years ago, he wrote, "The cavalry charger, on a Hounslow Heath parade, well fed, well groomed, goes through a field-day without injury, although carrying more than twenty stone weight; he and his rider presenting together, a kind of alderman centaur. But if in the field, half starved, they have, at the end of a forced march, to charge an enemy! The biped full of fire and courage, transformed by war-work to a wiry muscular dragoon, is able and willing, but the overloaded quadruped cannot gallop--he staggers." Our poor horses thus loaded, are expected to bound to hand and spur, while the riders wield their swords worthily. They cannot; and both man and horse appear inferior to their Indian opponents. The Eastern warrior's eye is quick, but not quicker than the European's; his heart is big, yet not bigger than the European's; his arm is strong, but not so strong as the European's; the swing of his razor-like scimitar is terrible, but an English trooper's downright blow splits the skull. Why then does the latter fail? The light-weighted horse of the dark swordsman carries him round his foe with elastic bounds, and the strong European, unable to deal the cleaving blow, falls under the activity of an inferior adversary! Since the war, light men with broad chests have been enlisted for Indian service. The next step, originally suggested by Nolan, that every cavalry soldier should train his own horse, will be made easy by the introduction of the Rarey system. Country horse-breakers are too ignorant, too prejudiced, and too much interested in keeping up a mystery that gives them three months employment, instead of three weeks, to adopt it. The reform will probably commence in the army and in racing stables. * * * * * In the following pages, I have given the text of the American edition of Mr. Rarey's pamphlet, and added the information I have derived from hearing his lectures, seeing his operations on "Cruiser," and other difficult horses, and from the experience of my friends and self in taming horses. Thus, in Chap. VI. to Mr. Rarey's five pages I have added sixteen, and nine woodcut illustrations. In Chap. VII. the directions for the drum, umbrella, and riding habit are in print for the first time, as well as the directions for mounting with slack girths. Chaps. VIII. to XIV. have been added, in order to make this little work a complete manual for those who wish to benefit in riding as well as training horses from the experience of others. In my opinion, the Rarey system is invaluable for training colts, breaking horses into harness, and curing kickers and jibbers. I do not profess to be a horse-tamer, my pursuits are too sedentary during the greater part of the year, but I have succeeded with even colts. I tried my hand on two of them wild from the Devonshire moors, in August last, and succeeded perfectly in an hour. I made them as affectionate as pet ponies, ready to follow me everywhere, as well as to submit to be mounted and ridden. As to curing vicious horses, all that can be safely said is, that it puts it into the power of a _courageous, calm-tempered horseman_ to conquer any horse. "Cruiser" was quiet in the hands of Mr. Rarey and Mr. Rice, but when insulted in the circus of Leicester Square by a violent jerk, he rushed at his tormentor with such ferocity that he cleared the ring of all the spangled troupe, yet, in the midst of his rage, he halted and ran up on being called by Rarey. From this we learn that such a horse won't be bullied and must not be feared. But such vicious horses are rare exceptions. It is curious, that Mr. Rarey should have made his reputation by the least useful exercise of his art. FOOTNOTES: [27-*] The Cape horse has recently come into notice, in consequence of the publication of "Papers relating to the Purchase of Horses at the Cape for the Army of India." It seems that not less than 3300 have been purchased for that purpose; that Cape horses purchased by Colonel Havelock arrived from India in the Crimea in better condition than any other horses in the regiment; and that in the Caffre War Cape horses condemned by the martinets of a Remount Committee, carried the 7th Dragoons, averaging, in marching order, over nineteen stone, and no privation or fatigue could make General Cathcart's horses succumb. These horses are bred between the Arabs introduced by the Dutch and the English thoroughbred. I confess I see with, surprise that Colonel Apperley, the remount agent, recommends crosses with Norfolk trotting and Cleveland stallions. No such cross has ever answered in this country. Had he recommended thoroughbred weight-carrying stallions in preference to Arabs, I could have understood his condemnation of the latter. I should have hesitated to set my opinion against Colonel Apperley, had I not found that he differs entirely from the late General Sir Walter Gilbert, the greatest horseman, take him for all in all, as a cavalry officer, as a flat and steeple-chase rider, and rider to hounds of his day.--_See Napier's Indian Misgovernment_, p. 286 _et seq._ CHAPTER III. The three fundamental principles of the Rarey Theory.--Heads of the Rarey Lectures.--Editor's paraphrase.--That any horse may be taught docility.--That a horse should be so handled and tied as to feel inferior to man.--That a horse should be allowed to see, smell, and feel all fearful objects.--Key note of the Rarey system. FIRST.--That he is so constituted by nature that he will not offer resistance to any demand made of him which he fully comprehends, if made in a way consistent with the laws of his nature. SECOND.--That he has no consciousness of his strength beyond his experience, and can be handled according to our will without force. THIRD.--That we can, in compliance with the laws of his nature, by which he examines all things new to him, take any object, however frightful, around, over, or on him, that does not inflict pain--without causing him to fear. To take these assertions in order, I will first give you some of the reasons why I think he is naturally obedient, and will not offer resistance to anything fully comprehended. The horse, though possessed of some faculties superior to man's, being deficient in reasoning powers, has no knowledge of right or wrong, of free will and independent government, and knows not of any imposition practised upon him, however unreasonable these impositions may be. Consequently, he cannot come to any decision as to what he should or should not do, because he has not the reasoning faculties of man to argue the justice of the thing demanded of him. If he had, taking into consideration his superior strength, he would be useless to man as a servant. Give him _mind_ in proportion to his strength, and he will demand of us the green fields for his inheritance, where he will roam at leisure, denying the right of servitude at all. God has wisely formed his nature so that it can be operated upon by the knowledge of man according to the dictates of his will; and he might well be termed an unconscious, submissive servant. This truth we can see verified in every day's experience by the abuses practised upon him. Any one who chooses to be so cruel can mount the noble steed and run him till he drops with fatigue, or, as is often the case with the more spirited, falls dead beneath his rider. If he had the power to reason, would he not rear and pitch his rider, rather than suffer him to run him to death? Or would he condescend to carry at all the vain impostor, who, with but equal intellect, was trying to impose on his equal rights and equally independent spirit? But, happily for us, he has no consciousness of imposition, no thought of disobedience except by impulse caused by the violation of the law of his nature. Consequently, when disobedient, it is the fault of man. Then, we can but come to the conclusion that, if a horse is not taken in a way at variance with the laws of his nature, he will do anything that he fully comprehends, without making any offer of resistance. Second--The fact of the horse being unconscious of the amount of his strength can be proven to the satisfaction of any one. For instance, such remarks as these are common, and perhaps familiar to your recollection. One person says to another, "If that wild horse there was conscious of the amount of his strength, his owner would have no business with him in that vehicle: such light reins and harness, too--if he knew, he could snap them asunder in a minute, and be as free as the air we breathe;" and, "That horse yonder, that is pawing and fretting to follow the company that is fast leaving him--if he knew his strength, he would not remain long fastened to that hitching post so much against his will, by a strap that would no more resist his powerful weight and strength than a cotton thread would bind a strong man." Yet these facts, made common by every-day occurrence, are not thought of as anything wonderful. Like the ignorant man who looks at the different phases of the moon, you look at these things as he looks at her different changes, without troubling your mind with the question, "Why are these things so?" What would be the condition of the world if all our minds lay dormant? If men did not think, reason, and act, our undisturbed, slumbering intellects would not excel the imbecility of the brute; we should live in chaos, hardly aware of our existence. And yet, with all our activity of mind, we daily pass by unobserved that which would be wonderful if philosophized and reasoned upon; and with the same inconsistency wonder at that which a little consideration, reason, and philosophy, would make but a simple affair. Third--He will allow any object, however frightful in appearance, to come around, over, or on him, that does not inflict pain. We know, from a natural course of reasoning, that there has never been an effect without a cause; and we infer from this that there can be no action, either in animate or inanimate matter, without there first being some cause to produce it. And from this self-evident fact we know that there is some cause for every impulse or movement of either mind or matter, and that this law governs every action or movement of the animal kingdom. Then, according to this theory, there must be some cause before fear can exist; and if fear exists from the effect of imagination, and not from the infliction of real pain, it can be removed by complying with those laws of nature by which the horse examines an object, and determines upon its innocence or harm. A log or stump by the road-side may be, in the imagination of the horse, some great beast about to pounce upon him; but after you take him up to it, and let him stand by it a little while, and touch it with his nose, and go through his process of examination, he will not care anything more about it. And the same principle and process will have the same effect with any other object, however frightful in appearance, in which there is no harm. Take a boy that has been frightened by a false face, or any other object that he could not comprehend at once; but let him take that face or object in his hands and examine it, and he will not care anything more about it. This is a demonstration of the same principle. With this introduction to the principles of my theory, I shall next attempt to teach you how to put it into practice; and whatever instructions may follow, you can rely on as having been proven practically by my own experiments. And knowing, from experience, just what obstacles I have met with in handling bad horses, I shall try to anticipate them for you, and assist you in surmounting them, by commencing with the first steps to be taken with the colt, and accompanying you through the whole task of breaking. These three principles have been enlarged upon and explained in a fuller and more familiar manner by Mr. Rarey in his Lectures, of which the following are the heads. "Principles on which horses should be treated and educated--not by fear or force--By an intelligent application of skill with firmness and patience--How to approach a colt--How to halter--How teach to lead in twenty minutes--How to subdue and cause to lie down in fifteen minutes--How to tame and cure fear and nervousness--How to saddle and bridle--How to accustom to be mounted and ridden--How to accustom to a drum--to an umbrella--to a lady's habit, or any other object, in a few minutes--How to harness a horse for the first time--How to drive a horse unbroken to harness, and make go steady, single or double, in a couple of hours--How to make any horse stand still until called--How to make a horse follow his owner." * * * * * In plain language, Mr. Rarey means, that-- 1st. That any horse may be taught to do anything that a horse can do if taught in a proper manner. 2nd. That a horse is not conscious of his own strength until he has resisted and conquered a man, and that by taking advantage of man's reasoning powers a horse can be handled in such a manner that he shall not find out his strength. 3rd. That by enabling a horse to examine every object with which we desire to make him familiar, with the organs naturally used for that purpose, viz. _seeing_, _smelling_, and _feeling_, you may take any object around, over, and on him that does not actually hurt him. Thus, for example, the objects which affright horses are the feel of saddles, riding-habits, harness, and wheeled carriages; the sight of umbrellas and flags; loaded waggons, troops, or a crowd; the sound of wheels, of drums, of musketry. There are thousands of horses that by degrees learn to bear all these things; others, under our old imperfect system, never improve, and continue nervous or vicious to the end of their lives. Every year good sound horses are drafted from the cavalry, or from hunters' barbs and carriage-horses, into omnibuses and Hansom cabs, because they cannot be made to bear the sound of drums and firearms, or will not submit to be shod, and be safe and steady in crowded cities, or at covert side. Nothing is more common than to hear that such a horse would be invaluable if he would go in harness, or carry a lady, or that a racehorse of great swiftness is almost valueless because his temper is so bad, or his nervousness in a crowd so great that he cannot be depended on to start or to run his best. All these varieties of nervous and vicious animals are deteriorated in value, because they have not been educated to confide in and implicitly obey man. The whole object of the Rarey system is, to give the horse full confidence in his rider, to make him obedient to his voice and gestures, and to impress the animal with the belief that he could not successfully resist him. Lord Pembroke, in his treatise on Horsemanship, says, "His hand is the best whose indications are so clear that his horse cannot mistake them, _and whose gentleness and fearlessness_ alike induce obedience to them." "The noblest animal," says Colonel Greenwood, "will obey such a rider; and it is ever the noblest, most intelligent horses, that rebel the most. In riding a colt or a restive horse we should never forget that he has the right to resist, and that as far as he can judge we have not the right to insist. The great thing in horsemanship is to get the horse to be your party, not to obey only, but to obey willingly. For this reason the lessons cannot be begun too early, or be too progressive." The key-note to the Rarey system is to be found in the opening sentence of his early lectures in England: "Man has reason in addition to his senses. A horse judges everything by SEEING, SMELLING, and FEELING." It must be the business of every one who undertakes to train colts that they shall _see_, _smell_, and _feel_ everything that they are to wear or to bear. [Illustration: HALTER OR BRIDLE FOR COLTS.] CHAPTER IV. How to drive a colt from pasture.--How to drive into a stable.--The kind of halter.--Experiment with a robe or cloak.--Horse-taming drugs.--The Editor's remarks.--Importance of patience.--Best kind of head-stall.--Danger of approaching some colts.--Hints from a Colonel of the Life Guards. HOW TO DRIVE A COLT FROM PASTURE. Go to the pasture and walk around the whole herd quietly, and at such a distance as not to cause them to scare and run. Then approach them very slowly, and if they stick up their heads and seem to be frightened, stand still until they become quiet, so as not to make them run before you are close enough to drive them in the direction you want them to go. And when you begin to drive, do not flourish your arms or halloo, but gently follow them off, leaving the direction open that you wish them to take. Thus taking advantage of their ignorance, you will be able to get them into the pound as easily as the hunter drives the quails into his net. For, if they have always run in the pasture uncared for (as many horses do in prairie countries and on large plantations), there is no reason why they should not be as wild as the sportsman's birds, and require the same gentle treatment, if you want to get them without trouble; for the horse, in his natural state, is as wild as a stag, or any of the undomesticated animals, though more easily tamed. HOW TO STABLE A COLT WITHOUT TROUBLE. The next step will be, to get the horse into a stable or shed. This should be done as quietly as possible, so as not to excite any suspicion in the horse of any danger befalling him. The best way to do this, is to lead a broken horse into the stable first and hitch (tie) him, then quietly walk around the colt and let him go in of his own accord. It is almost impossible to get men who have never practised on this principle to go slowly and considerately enough about it. They do not know that in handling a wild horse, above all other things, is that good old adage true, that "haste makes waste;" that is, waste of time--for the gain of trouble and perplexity. One wrong move may frighten your horse, and make him think it necessary to escape at all hazards for the safety of his life--and thus make two hours' work of a ten minutes' job; and this would be all your own fault, and entirely unnecessary--_for he will not run unless you run after him, and that would not be good policy unless you knew that you could outrun him, for you will have to let him stop of his own accord after all_. But he will not try to break away unless you attempt to force him into measures. If he does not see the way at once, and is a little fretful about going in, do not undertake to drive him, but give him a little less room outside, by gently closing in around him. Do not raise your arms, but let them hang at your side, for you might as well raise a club: _the horse has never studied anatomy, and does not know but that they will unhinge themselves and fly at him_. If he attempts to turn back, walk before him, but do not run; and if he gets past you, encircle him again in the same quiet manner, and he will soon find that you are not going to hurt him; and then you can walk so close around him that he will go into the stable for more room, and to get farther from you. As soon as he is in, remove the quiet horse and shut the door. This will be his first notion of confinement--not knowing how he got into such a place, nor how to get out of it. That he may take it as quietly at possible, see that the shed is entirely free from dogs, chickens, or anything that would annoy him. Then give him a few ears of corn, and let him remain alone fifteen or twenty minutes, until he has examined his apartment, and has become reconciled to his confinement. TIME TO REFLECT. And now, while your horse is eating those few ears of corn, is the proper time to see that your halter is ready and all right, and to reflect on the best mode of operations; for in horse-breaking it is highly important that you should be governed by some system. And you should know, before you attempt to do anything, just what you are going to do, and how you are going to do it. And, if you are experienced in the art of taming wild horses, you ought to be able to tell, within a few minutes, the length of time it would take you to halter the colt, and teach him to lead. THE KIND OF HALTER. Always use a leather halter, and be sure to have it made so that it will not draw tight around his nose if he pulls on it. It should be of the right size to fit his head easily and nicely; so that the nose-band will not be too tight or too low. Never put a rope halter on an unbroken colt, under any circumstances whatever. Rope halters have caused more horses to hurt or kill themselves than would pay for twice the cost of all the leather halters that have ever been needed for the purpose of haltering colts. It is almost impossible to break a colt that is very wild with a rope halter, without having him pull, rear, and throw himself, and thus endanger his life; and I will tell you why. It is just as natural for a horse to try to get his head out of anything that hurts it, or feels unpleasant, at it would be for you to try to get your hand out of a fire. The cords of the rope are hard and cutting; this makes him raise his head and draw on it, and as soon as he pulls, the slip noose (the way rope-halters are always made) tightens, and pinches his nose, and then he will struggle for life, until, perchance, he throws himself; and who would have his horse throw himself, and run the risk of breaking his neck, rather than pay the price of a leather halter? But this is not the worst. _A horse that has once pulled on his halter can never be as well broken as one that has never pulled at all._ But before we attempt to do anything more with the colt, I will give you some of the characteristics of his nature, that you may better understand his motions. Every one that has ever paid any attention to the horse, has noticed his natural inclination to smell everything which to him looks new and frightful. This is their strange mode of examining everything. And when they are frightened at anything, though they look at it sharply, they seem to have no confidence in their eyesight alone, but must touch it with their nose before they are entirely satisfied; and, as soon as they have done that, all seems right. EXPERIMENT WITH THE ROBE. If you want to satisfy yourself of this characteristic of the horse, and to learn something of importance concerning the peculiarities of his nature, &c., turn him into the barn-yard, or a large stable will do, and then gather up something that you know will frighten him--a red blanket, buffalo robe, or something of that kind. Hold it up so that he can see it, he will stick up his head and snort. Then throw it down somewhere in the centre of the lot or barn, and walk off to one side. Watch his motions, and study his nature. If he is frightened at the object, he will not rest until he has touched it with his nose. You will see him begin to walk around the robe and snort, all the time getting a little closer, as if drawn up by some magic spell, until he finally gets within reach of it. He will then very cautiously stretch out his neck as far as he can reach, merely touching it with his nose, as though he thought it was ready to fly at him. But after he has repeated these touches a few times, for the first time (though he has been looking at it all the while) he seems to have an idea what it is. But now he has found, by the sense of feeling, that it is nothing that will do him any harm, and he is ready to play with it. And if you watch him closely, you will see him take hold of it with his teeth, and raise it up and pull at it. And in a few minutes you can see that he has not that same wild look about his eye, but stands like a horse biting at some familiar stump. Yet the horse is never so well satisfied when he is about anything that has frightened him, as when he is standing with his nose to it. And, in nine cases out of ten, you will see some of that same wild look about him again, as he turns to walk from it. And you will, probably, see him looking back very suspiciously as he walks away, as though he thought it might come after him yet. And in all probability, he will have to go back and make another examination before he is satisfied. But he will familiarize himself with it, and, if he should run in that field a few days, the robe that frightened him so much at first will be no more to him than a familiar stump. We might very naturally suppose from the fact of the horse's applying his nose to everything new to him, that he always does so for the purpose of smelling these objects. But I believe that it is as much or more for the purpose of feeling, and that he makes use of his nose, or muzzle (as it is sometimes called), as we would of our hands; because it is the only organ by which he can touch or feel anything with much susceptibility. I believe that he invariably makes use of the four senses, SEEING, HEARING, SMELLING, and FEELING, in all of his examinations, of which the sense of feeling is, perhaps, the most important. And I think that in the experiment with the robe, his gradual approach and final touch with his nose was as much for the purpose of feeling as anything else, his sense of smell being so keen that it would not be necessary for him to touch his nose against anything in order to get the proper scent; for it is said that a horse can smell a man at a distance of a mile. And if the scent of the robe was all that was necessary he could get that several rods off. But we know from experience, that if a horse sees and smells a robe a short distance from him he is very much frightened (unless he is used to it) until he touches or feels it with his nose; which is a positive proof that feeling is the controlling sense in this case. HORSE-TAMING DRUGS (?). It is a prevailing opinion among horsemen generally that the sense of smell is the governing sense of the horse. And Baucher, as well as others, has with that view got up receipts of strong smelling oils, &c., to tame the horse, sometimes using the chestnut of his leg, which they dry, grind into powder, and blow into his nostrils, sometimes using the oils of rhodium, origanum, &c., that are noted for their strong smell; and sometimes they scent the hand with the sweat from under the arm, or blow their breath into his nostrils, &c., &c. All of which, as far as the scent goes, have no effect whatever in gentling the horse, or conveying any idea to his mind; _though the acts that accompany these efforts--handling him, touching him about the nose and head, and patting him, as they direct you should, after administering the articles, may have a very great effect, which they mistake for the effect of the ingredients used_. And Baucher, in his work, entitled "The Arabian Art of Taming Horses," page 17, tells us how to accustom a horse to a robe, by administering certain articles to his nose; and goes on to say that these articles must first be applied to the horse's nose, before you attempt to break him, in order to operate successfully. Now, reader, can you, or any one else, give one single reason how scent can convey any idea to the horse's mind of what we want him to do? If not, then of course strong scents of any kind can be of no use in taming the unbroken horse. For, everything that we get him to do of his own accord, without force, must be accomplished by conveying our ideas to his mind. I say to my horse, "Go-'long!" and he goes; "Ho!" and he stops, because these two words, of which he has learned the meaning by the tap of the whip and the pull of the rein that first accompanied them, convey the two ideas to his mind of _go_ and _stop_. It is impossible to teach the horse a single thing by the means of scent alone; and as for affection, that can be better created by other means. How long do you suppose a horse would have to stand and smell a bottle of oil, before he would learn to bend his knee and make a bow at your bidding, "Go yonder and bring my hat," or "Come here and lie down?" The absurdity of trying to break or tame the horse by the means of receipts for articles to smell at, or of medicine to swallow, is self-evident. The only science that has ever existed in the world, relative to the breaking of horses, that has been of any value, is that method which, taking them in their native state, improves their intelligence. EDITOR'S REMARKS. The directions for driving colts from the pasture are of less importance in this country where fields are enclosed, and the most valuable colts wear headstalls, and are handled, or ought to be, from their earliest infancy; but in Wales, and on wastes like Exmoor[47-*] or Dartmoor, the advice may be found useful. Under all circumstances it is important that the whole training of a colt (and training of the boy who is to manage horses) should be conducted from first to last on consistent principles; for, in the mere process of driving a colt from the field to the fold-yard, ideas of terror may be instilled into the timid animal, for instance, by idle drumming on a hat, which it will take weeks or months to eradicate. The next step is to get the colt into a stable, barn, or other building sufficiently large for the early operations, and secluded from those sights and sounds so common in a farm-yard, which would be likely to distract his attention. In training a colt the squeaking of a litter of pigs has lost me the work of three hours. An outfield, empty barn, or bullock-shed, is better than any place near the homestead. It is a good plan to keep an intelligent old horse expressly for the purpose of helping to train and lead the young colts. I have known horses that seemed to take a positive pleasure in helping to subdue a wild colt when first put in double harness. The great point is not to force or frighten a colt into the stable, but to edge him into it quietly, and cause him to glide in of his own accord. In this simple operation, the horse-trainer will test himself the indispensable quality of a horse trainer--_patience_. A word I shall have to repeat until my readers are almost heartily sick of the "_damnable iteration_." There is a world of equestrian wisdom in two sentences of the chapter just quoted, "he will not run unless you run after him," and "the horse has not studied anatomy." The observations about rope halters are very sound, and in addition I may add, that the mouths of hundreds of horses are spoiled by the practice of passing a looped rope round the lower jaw of a fiery horse, which the rider often makes the stay for keeping himself in his seat. The best kind of head-stall for training colts is that delineated at the head of this chapter,[48-*] called the Bush Bridle, to which any kind of bit may be attached, and by unbuckling the bit it is converted into a capital halter, with a rope for leading a colt or picketing a horse at night. The long rope is exactly what Mr. Rarey recommends for teaching a colt to lead. Every one of any experience will agree that "a horse that has once pulled on his halter can never be so well broken as one that has never pulled at all." The directions for stroking and patting the body and limbs of a colt are curious, as proving that an operation which we have been in the habit of performing as a matter of course without attaching any particular virtue to it, has really a sort of mesmeric effect in soothing and conciliating a nervous animal. The directions in Chapter V. for approaching a colt deserve to be studied very minutely, remembering always the maxim printed at p. 57--_Fear and anger, a good horseman should never feel._ It took Mr. Rarey himself two hours to halter a savage half-broken colt in Liverpool, but then he had the disadvantage of being surrounded by an impatient whispering circle of spectators. At Lord Poltimore's seat in Devonshire, in February last (1858), Lord Rivers was two hours alone with a very sulky biting colt, but finally succeeded in haltering and saddling him. Yet his lordship had only seen one lesson illustrated on a very difficult horse at the Duke of Wellington's school. But this operation is much more easily described than executed, because some colts will smell at your hand one moment, and turn round as quick as lightning, and plant their heels in your ribs if you are not very active, and don't stand very close to them. On the directions for using the whip, p. 55, with colts of a stubborn disposition, I can say nothing, never having seen it so employed; but it is evident, that it must be employed with very great discretion. The directions for haltering are very complete, but to execute them with a colt or horse that paws violently, even in play, with his fore-feet, requires no common agility. But I may mention that I saw Mr. Rarey alone put a bridle on a horse seventeen bands high that was notoriously difficult to bridle even with two men assisting in the operation. In reference to the hints for treating a colt in a little work from which I have already quoted, a colonel in the Life Guards says, "The great thing in horsemanship is to get your horse to be of your party; not only to obey, but to obey willingly. For this reason, a young horse cannot be begun with too early, and his lessons cannot be too gradually progressive. He should wear a head-stall from the beginning, be accustomed to be held and made fast by the head, to give up all four feet, to bear the girthing of a roller, to be led, &c." But if all this useful preliminary education, in which climbing through gaps after an old hunter, and taking little jumps, be omitted, then the Rarey system comes in to shorten your domesticating labours. "A wild horse, until tamed, is just as wild and fearful as a wild stag taken for the first time in the toils. "When a horse hangs back and leads unwillingly, the common error is to get in front of him and pull him. This may answer when the man is stronger than the horse, but not otherwise. "In leading you should never be further forward than your horse's shoulder: with your right-hand hold his head in front of you by the bridle close to his mouth or the head-stall, and with your left hand touch him with a whip as far back as you can; if you have not a whip you can use a stirrup-leather." FOOTNOTES: [47-*] See page 215--"The Wild Ponies of Exmoor." [48-*] Made by Stokey, North Street, Little Moorfields, London. CHAPTER V. Powell's system of approaching a colt.--Haley's remarks on.--Lively high-spirited horses tamed easily.--Stubborn sulky ones more difficult.--Motto, "Fear, love and obey."--Use of a whalebone gig-whip.--How to frighten and then approach.--Use kind words.--How to halter and lead a colt.--By the side of a horse.--To lead into a stable.--To tie up to a manger.--Editor's remarks.--Longeing.--Use and abuse of.--On bitting.--Sort of bit for a colt.--Dick Christian's bit.--The wooden gag bit. But, before we go further, I will give you Willis J. Powell's system of approaching a wild colt, as given by him in a work published in Europe, about the year 1814, on the "Art of Taming Wild Horses."[51-*] He says, "A horse is gentled by my secret in from two to sixteen hours." The time I have most commonly employed has been from four to six hours. He goes on to say, "Cause your horse to be put in a small yard, stable, or room. If in a stable or room, it ought to be large, in order to give him some exercise with the halter before you lead him out. If the horse belongs to that class which appears only to fear man, you must introduce yourself gently into the stable, room, or yard, where the horse is. He will naturally run from you, and frequently turn his head from you; for you must walk about extremely slow and softly, so that he can see you whenever he turns his head towards you, which he never fails to do in a short time, say in a quarter or half an hour. I never knew one to be much longer without turning towards me. "At the very moment he turns his head, hold out your left hand towards him, and stand perfectly still, keeping your eyes upon the horse, watching his motions, if he makes any. If the horse does not stir for ten or fifteen minutes, advance as slowly as possible, and without making the least noise, always holding out your left hand, without any other ingredient in it than what nature put in it." He says, "I have made use of certain ingredients before people, such as the sweat under my arm, &c., to disguise the real secret, and many believed that the docility to which the horse arrived in so short a time was owing to these ingredients: but you see from this explanation that they were of no use whatever. The implicit faith placed in these ingredients, though innocent of themselves, becomes 'faith without works.' And thus men remained always in doubt concerning the secret. If the horse makes the least motion when you advance towards him, stop, and remain perfectly still until he is quiet. Remain a few moments in this condition, and then advance again in the same slow and almost imperceptible manner. Take notice--if the horse stirs, stop, without changing your position. It is very uncommon for the horse to stir more than once after you begin to advance, yet there are exceptions. He generally keeps his eyes steadfast on you, until you get near enough to touch him on the forehead. When you are thus near to him, raise slowly and by degrees your hand, and let it come in contact with that part just above the nostrils, as lightly as possible. If the horse flinches (as many will), repeat with great rapidity these light strokes upon the forehead, going a little farther up towards his ears by degrees, and descending with the same rapidity until he will let you handle his forehead all over. Now let the strokes be repeated with more force over all his forehead, descending by lighter strokes to each side of his head, until you can handle that part with equal facility. Then touch in the same light manner, making your hands and fingers play around, the lower part of the horse's ears, coming down now and then to his forehead, which may be looked upon as the helm that governs all the rest. "Having succeeded in handling his ears, advance towards the neck, with the same precautions, and in the same manner; observing always to augment the force of the strokes whenever the horse will permit it. Perform the same on both sides of the neck, until he lets you take it in your arms without flinching. "Proceed in the same progressive manner to the sides, and then to the back of the horse. Every time the horse shows any nervousness, return immediately to the forehead, as the true standard, patting him with your hands, and thence rapidly to where you had already arrived, always gaining ground a considerable distance farther on every time this happens. The head, ears, neck, and body being thus gentled, proceed from the back to the root of the tail. "This must be managed with dexterity, as a horse is never to be depended on that is skittish about the tail. Let your hand fall lightly and rapidly on that part next to the body a minute or two, and then you will begin to give it a slight pull upwards every quarter of a minute. At the same time you continue this handling of him, augment the force of the strokes as well as the raising of the tail, until you can raise it and handle it with the greatest ease, which commonly happens in a quarter of an hour in most horses, in others almost immediately, and in some much longer. It now remains to handle all his legs; from the tail come back again to the head, handle it well, as likewise the ears, breast, neck, &c., speaking now and then to the horse. Begin by degrees to descend to the legs, always ascending and descending, gaming ground every time you descend, until you get to his feet. "Talk to the horse in Latin, Greek, French, English, or Spanish, or in any other language you please; but let him hear the sound of your voice, which at the beginning of the operation is not quite so necessary, but which I have always done in making him lift up his feet. 'Hold up your foot'--'Lève le pied'--'Alza el pié'--'Aron ton poda,' &c.; at the same time lift his foot with your hand. He soon becomes familiar with the sounds, and will hold up his foot at command. Then proceed to the hind feet, and go on in the same manner; and in a short time the horse will let you lift them, and even take them up in your arms. "All this operation is no magnetism, no galvanism; it is merely taking away the fear a horse generally has of a man, and familiarizing the animal with his master. As the horse doubtless experiences a certain pleasure from this handling, he will soon become gentle under it, and show a very marked attachment to his keeper." RAREY'S REMARKS ON POWELL'S TREATMENT. These instructions are very good, but not quite sufficient for horses of all kinds, and for haltering and leading the colt; but I have inserted them here because they give some of the true philosophy of approaching the horse, and of establishing confidence between man and horse. He speaks only of the kind that fear man. To those who understand the philosophy of horsemanship, these are the easiest trained; for when we have a horse that is wild and lively, we can train him to our will in a very short time--for they are generally quick to learn, and always ready to obey. But there is another kind that are of a stubborn or vicious disposition; and although they are not wild, and do not require taming, in the sense it is generally understood, they are just as ignorant as a wild horse, if not more so, and need to be taught just as much: and in order to have them obey quickly, it is very necessary that they should be made to fear their master; for, in order to obtain perfect obedience from any horse, we must first have him fear us, for our motto is, "_Fear, love and obey_;" and we must have the fulfilment of the first two before we can expect the latter; for it is by our philosophy of creating fear, love, and confidence, that we govern to our will every kind of horse whatever. Then, in order to take horses as we find them, of all kinds, and to train them to our liking, we should always take with us, when we go into a stable to train a colt, a long switch whip (whalebone buggy-whips are the best), with a good silk cracker, so as to cut keenly and make a sharp report. This, if handled with dexterity, and rightly applied, accompanied with a sharp, fierce word, will be sufficient to enliven the spirits of any horse. With this whip in your right hand, with the lash pointing backward, enter the stable alone. It is a great disadvantage, in training a horse, to have any one in the stable with you; you should be entirely alone, so as to have nothing but yourself to attract his attention. If he is wild, you will soon see him on the opposite side of the stable from you; and now is the time to use a little judgment. I should not require, myself, more than half or three-quarters of an hour to handle any kind of colt, and have him running about in the stable after me; though I would advise a new beginner to take more time, and not be in too much of a hurry. If you have but one colt to gentle, and are not particular about the length of time you spend, and have not had any experience in handling colts, I would advise you to take Mr. Powell's method at first, till you gentle him, which, he says, takes from two to six hours. But as I want to accomplish the same, and, what is more, teach the horse to lead, in less than one hour, I shall give you a much quicker process of accomplishing the same end. Accordingly, when you have entered the stable, stand still, and let your horse look at you a minute or two, and as soon as he is settled in one place, approach him slowly, with both arms stationary, your right hanging by your side, holding the whip as directed, and the left bent at the elbow, with your hand projecting. As you approach him, go not too much towards his head or croup, so as not to make him move either forward or backward, thus keeping your horse stationary; if he does move a little either forward or backward, step a little to the right or left very cautiously; this will keep him in one place. As you get very near him, draw a little to his shoulder, and stop a few seconds. If you are in his reach he will turn his head and smell your hand, not that he has any preference for your hand, but because that is projecting, and is the nearest portion of your body to the horse. This all colts will do, and they will smell your naked hand just as quickly as they will of anything that you can put in it, and with just as good an effect, however much some men have preached the doctrine of taming horses by giving them the scent of articles from the hand. I have already proved that to be a mistake. As soon as he touches your hand with his nose, caress him as before directed, always using a very light, soft hand, merely touching the horse, always rubbing the way the hair lies, so that your hand will pass along as smoothly as possible. As you stand by his side, you may find it more convenient to rub his neck or the side of his head, which will answer the same purpose as rubbing his forehead. Favour every inclination of the horse to smell or touch you with his nose. _Always follow each touch or communication of this kind with the most tender and affectionate caresses, accompanied, with a kind look, and pleasant word of some sort_, such as, "Ho! my little boy--ho! my little boy!" "Pretty boy!" "Nice lady!" or something of that kind, constantly repeating the same words, with the same kind, steady tone of voice; for the horse soon learns to read the expression of the face and voice, and will know as well when fear, love, or anger prevails, as you know your own feelings; two of which, FEAR AND ANGER, A GOOD HORSEMAN SHOULD NEVER FEEL. IF YOUR HORSE IS OF A STUBBORN DISPOSITION. If your horse, instead of being wild, seems to be of a stubborn or _mulish_ disposition; if he lays back his ears as you approach him, or turns his heels to kick you, he has not that regard or fear of man that he should have, to enable you to handle him quickly and easily; and it might be well to give him a few sharp cuts with the whip, about the legs, pretty close to the body. It will crack keenly as it plies around his legs, and the crack of the whip will affect him as much as the stroke; besides, one sharp cut about his legs will affect him more than two or three over his back, the skin on the inner part of his legs or about his flank being thinner, more tender, than on his back. But do not whip him much--just enough to frighten him; _it is not because we want to hurt the horse that we whip him_--we only do it to frighten vice and stubbornness out of him. But whatever you do, do quickly, sharply, and with a good deal of fire, but always without anger. If you are going to frighten him at all, you must do it at once. Never go into a pitched battle with your horse, and whip him until he is mad and will fight you; it would be better not to touch him at all, for you will establish, instead of fear and respect, feelings of resentment, hatred, and ill-will. It will do him no good, but harm, to strike him, unless you can frighten him; but if you can succeed in frightening him, you can whip him without making him mad; _for fear and anger never exist together in the horse_, and as soon as one is visible, you will find that the other has disappeared. As soon as you have frightened him, so that he will stand up straight and pay some attention to you, approach him again, and caress him a good deal more than you whipped him; thus you will excite the two controlling passions of his nature, love and fear; he will love and fear you, too; and, as soon as he learns what you require, will obey quickly. HOW TO HALTER AND LEAD A COLT. As soon as you have gentled the colt a little, take the halter in your left hand, and approach him as before, and on the same side that you have gentled him. If he is very timid about your approaching closely to him, you can get up to him quicker by making the whip a part of your arm, and reaching out very gently with the butt end of it, rubbing him lightly on the neck, all the time getting a little closer, shortening the whip by taking it up in your hand, until you finally get close enough to put your hands on him. If he is inclined to hold his head from you, put the end of the halter-strap around his neck, drop your whip, and draw very gently; he will let his neck give, and you can pull his head to you. Then take hold of that part of the halter which buckles over the top of his head, and pass the long side, or that part which goes into the buckle, under his neck, grasping it on the opposite side with your right hand, letting the first strap loose--the latter will be sufficient to hold his head to you. Lower the halter a little, just enough to get his nose into that part which goes around it; then raise it somewhat, and fasten the top buckle, and you will have it all right. The first time you halter a colt you should stand on the left side, pretty well back to his shoulder, only taking hold of that part of the halter that goes around his neck; then with your two hands about his neck you can hold his head to you, and raise the halter on it without making him dodge by putting your hands about his nose. You should have a long rope or strap ready, and as soon as you have the halter on, attach this to it, so that you can let him walk the length of the stable without letting go of the strap, or without making him pull on the halter, for if you only let him feel the weight of your hand on the halter, and give him rope when he runs from you, he will never rear, pull, or throw himself, yet you will be holding him all the time, and doing more towards gentling him than if you had the power to snub him right up, and hold him to one spot; because he does not know anything about his strength, and if you don't do anything to make him pull, he will never know that he can. In a few minutes you can begin to control him with the halter, then shorten the distance between yourself and the horse by taking up the strap in your hand. As soon as he will allow you to hold him by a tolerably short strap, and to step up to him without flying back, you can begin to give him some idea about leading. But to do this, do not go before and attempt to pull him after you, but commence by pulling him very quietly to one side. He has nothing to brace either side of his neck, and will soon yield to a steady, gradual pull of the halter; and as soon as you have pulled him a step or two to one side, step up to him and caress him, and then pull him again, repeating this operation until you can pull him around in every direction, and walk about the stable with him, which you can do in a few minutes, for he will soon think when you have made him step to the right or left a few times, that he is compelled to follow the pull of the halter, not knowing that he has the power to resist your pulling; besides, you have handled him so gently that he is not afraid of you, and you always caress him when he comes up to you, and he likes that, and would just as lief follow you as not. And after he has had a few lessons of that kind, if you turn him out in a field, he will come up to you every opportunity he gets. You should lead him about in the stable some time before you take him out, opening the door, so that he can see out, leading him up to it and back again, and past it. See that there is nothing on the outside to make him jump when you take him out, and as you go out with him, try to make him go very slowly, catching hold of the halter close to the jaw with your left hand, while the right is resting on the top of the neck, holding to his mane. After you are out with him a little while, you can lead him about as you please. Don't let any second person come up to you when you first take him out; a stranger taking hold of the halter would frighten him, and make him run. There should not even be any one standing near him, to attract his attention or scare him. If you are alone, and manage him rightly, it will not require any more force to lead or hold him than it would to manage a broken horse. HOW TO LEAD A COLT BY THE SIDE OF A BROKEN HORSE. If you should want to lead your colt by the side of another horse, as is often the case, I would advise you to take your horse into the stable, attach a second strap to the colt's halter, and lead your horse up alongside of him. Then get on the broken horse and take one strap around his breast, under his martingale (if he has any on), holding it in your left hand. This will prevent the colt from getting back too far; besides, you will have more power to hold him with the strap pulling against the horse's breast. The other strap take up in your right hand to prevent him from running ahead; then turn him about a few times in the stable, and if the door is wide enough, ride out with him in that position; if not, take the broken horse out first, and stand his breast up against the door, then lead the colt to the same spot, and take the straps as before directed, one on each side of his neck, then let some one start the colt out, and as he comes out, turn your horse to the left, and you will have them all right. This is the best way to lead a colt; you can manage any kind of colt in this way, without any trouble; for if he tries to run ahead, or pull back, the two straps will bring the horses facing each other, so that you can very easily follow up his movements without doing much holding, and as soon as he stops running backward you are right with him, and all ready to go ahead; and if he gets stubborn and does not want to go, you can remove all his stubbornness by riding your horse against his neck, thus compelling him to turn to the right; and as soon as you have turned him about a few times, he will be willing to go along. The next thing after you have got through leading him, will be to take him into a stable, and hitch him in such a way as not to have him pull on the halter; and as they are often troublesome to get into a stable the first few times, I will give you some instructions about getting him in. TO LEAD INTO A STABLE. You should lead the broken horse into the stable first, and get the colt, if you can, to follow in after him. If he refuses to go, step unto him, taking a little stick or switch in your right hand; then take hold of the halter close to his head with your left hand, at the same time reaching over his back with your right arm so that you can tap him on the opposite side with your switch; bring him up facing the door, tap him slightly with your switch, reaching as far back with it as you can. This tapping, by being pretty well back, and on the opposite side, will drive him ahead, and keep him close to you; then by giving him the right direction with your left hand you can walk into the stable with him. I have walked colts into the stable this way in less than a minute, after men had worked at them half an hour, trying to pull them in. If you cannot walk him in at once in this way, turn him about and walk him around in every direction, until you can get him up to the door without pulling at him. Then let him stand a few minutes, keeping his head in the right direction with the halter, and he will walk in in less than ten minutes. Never attempt to pull the colt into the stable; that would make him think at once that it was a dangerous place, and if he was not afraid of it before he would be then. Besides, we do not want him to know anything about pulling on the halter. Colts are often hurt and sometimes killed, by trying to force them into the stable; and those who attempt to do it in that way go into an up-hill business, when a plain smooth road is before them. If you want to tie up your colt, put him in a tolerably wide stall, which should not be too long, and should be connected by a bar or something of that kind to the partition behind it; so that, after the colt is in he cannot go far enough back to take a straight, backward pull on the halter; then by tying him in the centre of the stall, it would be impossible for him to pull on the halter, the partition behind preventing him from going back, and the halter in the centre checking him every time he turns to the right or left. In a stall of this kind you can break any horse to stand tied with a light strap, anywhere, without his ever knowing anything about pulling. For if you have broken your horse to lead, and have taught him the use of the halter (which you should always do before you hitch him to anything), you can hitch him in any kind of a stall, and if you give him something to eat to keep him up to his place for a few minutes at first, there is not one colt in fifty that will pull on his halter. EDITORS REMARKS. Mr. Rarey says nothing about "longeing," which is the first step of European and Eastern training. Perhaps he considers his plan of pulling up the leg to be sufficient; but be that as it may, we think it well to give the common sense of a much-abused practice. Ignorant horse-breakers will tell you that they _longe_ a colt to supple him. That is ridiculous nonsense. A colt unbroken will bend himself with most extraordinary flexibility. Look at a lot of two-years before starting for a run; observe the agility of their antics: or watch a colt scratching his head with his hind foot, and you will never believe that such animals can require suppling. But it is an easy way of teaching a horse simple acts of obedience--of getting him to go and stop at your orders: but in brutal hands more horses are spoiled and lamed by the longe than any other horse-breaking operation. A stupid fellow drags a horse's head and shoulders into the circle with the cord, while his hind-quarters are driven out by the whip. "_A colt should be longed at a walk only, until he circles without force._ "He should never be compelled to canter in the longe, though he may be permitted to do it of himself. "He must not be stopped by pulling the cord, which would pull him across, but by meeting him, so that he stops himself straight. A skilful person will, single-handed, longe, and, by heading him with the whip, change him without stopping, and longe him in the figure of 8. No man is fit to be trusted with such powerful implements as the longe-cord and whip who cannot do this. "The snaffle may be added when he goes freely in the head-stall." A colt should never be buckled to the pillar reins by his bit, but by the head-stall; for if tightly buckled to the bit, he will bear heavily--even go to sleep: raw lip, which, when cured, becomes callous, is the result. Yet nothing is more common than to see colts standing for hours on the bit, with reins tightly buckled to the demi-jockey, under the ignorant notion of giving him a mouth, or setting up his head in the right place. The latter, if not done by nature, can only be done, if ever, by delicate, skilful hands. A colt's bit should be large and smooth snaffle, with players to keep his mouth moist. Dick Christian liked a bit for young horses as thick as his thumb--we don't know how thick that was--and four and a half inches between the cheeks; and there was no better judge than Dick. The Germans use a wooden bit to make a horse's mouth, and good judges think they are right, as it may not be so unpleasant as metal to begin with; but wood or iron, the bridle should be properly put on, a point often neglected, and a fertile source of restiveness. There is as much need to fit a bridle to the length of a horse's head, as to buckle the girths of the saddle. For conquering a vicious, biting horse, there is nothing equal to the large wooden gag-bit, which Mr. Rarey first exhibited in public on the zebra. A muzzle only prevents a horse from biting; a gag, properly used, cures; for when he finds he cannot bite, and that you caress him and rub his ears kindly with perfect confidence, he by degrees abandons this most dangerous vice. Stafford was driven in a wooden gag the first time. Colts inclined to crib-bite, should be dressed with one on. [Illustration: WOODEN GAG BIT.] Our woodcut is taken from the improved model produced by Mr. Stokey; no doubt Mr. Rarey took the idea of his gag-bit from the wooden gag, which has been in use among country farriers from time immemorial, to keep a horse's mouth while they are performing the cruel and useless operation of firing for lampas. [Illustration: Leg strapped up.] FOOTNOTES: [51-*] Is there such a work? I cannot find it in any English catalogue.--EDITOR. CHAPTER VI. Taming a colt or horse.--Rarey's directions for strapping up and laying down detailed.--Explanations by Editor.--To approach a vicious horse with half door.--Cartwheel.--No. 1 strap applied.--No. 2 strap applied.--Woodcuts of.--How to hop about.--Knot up bridle.--Struggle described.--Lord B.'s improved No. 2 strap.--Not much danger.--How to steer a horse.--Laid down, how to gentle.--To mount, tied up.--Place and preparations for training described. In this chapter I change the arrangement of the original work, and unite two sections which Mr. Rarey has divided, either because when he wrote them he was not aware of the importance of what is really the cardinal point, the mainstay, the foundation of his system, or because he wished to conceal it from the uninitiated. The Rarey system substitutes for severe longeing, for whipping and spurring, blinkers, physic, starving, the twitch, tying the tail down, sewing the ears together, putting shot in the ears, and all the cruelties hitherto resorted to for subduing high-spirited and vicious animals (and very often the high-spirited become, from injudicious treatment, the most vicious), a method of laying a horse down, tying up his limbs, and gagging, if necessary, his mouth, which makes him soon feel that man is his superior, and yet neither excites his terror or his hatred. These two sections are to be found at pp. 48 and 51 and at pp. 59 and 60, _orig. edit._, under the titles of "How to drive a Horse that is very wild, and has any vicious Habits," and "How to make a Horse lie down." It is essential to unite these sections, because, if you put a well-bred horse in harness with his leg up, without first putting him down, it is ten to one but that he throws himself down violently, breaks the shafts of the vehicle, and his own knees. The following are the sections verbatim, of which I shall afterwards give a paraphrase, with illustrative woodcuts:-- "Take up one fore-foot and bend his knee till his hoof is bottom upwards, and nearly touching his body; then slip a loop over his knee, and up until it comes above the pastern-joint, to keep it up, being careful to draw the loop together between the hoof and pastern-joint with a second strap of some kind to prevent the loop from slipping down and coming off. This will leave the horse standing on three legs; you can now handle him as you wish, for it is utterly impossible for him to kick in this position. There is something in this operation of taking up one foot, that conquers a horse quicker and better than anything else you can do to him. There is no process in the world equal to it to break a kicking horse, for several reasons. First, there is a principle of this kind in the nature of the horse; that by conquering one member, you conquer, to a great extent, the whole horse. "You have perhaps seen men operate upon this principle, by sewing a horse's ears together to prevent him from kicking. I once saw a plan given in a newspaper to make a bad horse stand to be shod, which was to fasten down one ear. There were no reasons given why you should do so; but I tried it several times, and thought that it had a good effect--though I would not recommend its use, especially stitching his ears together. The only benefit arising from this process is, that by disarranging his ears we draw his attention to them, and he is not so apt to resist the shoeing. By tying up one foot we operate on the same principle to a much better effect. When you first fasten up a horse's foot, he will sometimes get very mad, and strike with his knee, and try every possible way to get it down; but he cannot do that, and will soon give up. "This will conquer him better than anything you could do, and without any possible danger of hurting himself or you either, for you can tie up his foot and sit down and look at him until he gives up. When you find that he is conquered, go to him, let down his foot, rub his leg with your hand, caress him, and let him rest a little; then put it up again. Repeat this a few times, always putting up the same foot, and he will soon learn to travel on three legs, so that you can drive him some distance. As soon as he gets a little used to this way of travelling, put on your harness, and hitch him to a sulky. If he is the worst kicking horse that ever raised a foot, you need not be fearful of his doing any damage while he has one foot up, for he cannot kick, neither can he run fast enough to do any harm. And if he is the wildest horse that ever had harness on, and has run away every time he has been hitched, you can now hitch him in a sulky, and drive him as you please. If he wants to run, you can let him have the lines, and the whip too, with perfect safety, for he can go but a slow gait on three legs, and will soon be tired, and willing to stop; only hold him enough to guide him in the right direction, and he will soon be tired and willing to stop at the word. Thus you will effectually cure him at once of any further notion of running off. Kicking horses have always been the dread of everybody; you always hear men say, when they speak about a bad horse, 'I don't care what he does, so he don't kick.' This new method is an effectual cure for this worst of all habits. There are plenty of ways by which you can hitch a kicking horse, and force him to go, though he kicks all the time; but this doesn't have any good effect towards breaking him, for we know that horses kick because they are afraid of what is behind them, and when they kick against it and it hurts them, they will only kick the harder; and this will hurt them still more and make them remember the scrape much longer, and make it still more difficult to persuade them to have any confidence in anything dragging behind them ever after. "But by this new method you can harness them to a rattling sulky, plough, waggon, or anything else in its worst shape. They may be frightened at first, but cannot kick or do anything to hurt themselves, and will soon find that you do not intend to hurt them, and then they will not care anything more about it. You can then let down the leg and drive along gently without any further trouble. By this new process a bad kicking horse can be learned to go gentle in harness in a few hours' time."[70-*] "HOW TO MAKE A HORSE LIE DOWN. "Everything that we want to teach the horse must be commenced in such a way as to give him an idea of what you want him to do, and then be repeated till he learns it perfectly. To make a horse lie down, bend his left fore-leg and slip a loop over it, so that he cannot get it down. Then put a surcingle around his body, and fasten one end of a long strap around the other fore-leg, just above the hoof. Place the other end under the before-described surcingle, so as to keep the strap in the right direction; take a short hold of it with your right hand; stand on the left side of the horse, grasp the bit in your left hand, pull steadily on the strap with your right; bear against his shoulder till you cause him to move. As soon as he lifts his weight, your pulling will raise the other foot, and he will have to come on his knees. Keep the strap tight in your hand, so that he cannot straighten his leg if he rises up. Hold him in this position, and turn his head towards you; bear against his side with your shoulder, not hard, but with a steady, equal pressure, and in about ten minutes he will lie down. As soon as he lies down, he will be completely conquered, and you can handle him as you please. Take off the straps, and straighten out his legs; rub him lightly about the face and neck with your hand the way the hair lies; handle all his legs, and after he has lain ten or twenty minutes, let him get up again. After resting him a short time, make him lie down as before. Repeat the operation three or four times, which will be sufficient for one lesson. Give him two lessons a day, and when you have given him four lessons, he will lie down by taking hold of one foot. As soon as he is well broken to lie down in this way, tap him on the opposite leg with a stick when you take hold of his foot, and in a few days he will lie down from the mere motion of the stick." EDITORS DETAILED EXPLANATIONS. Although, as I before observed, the tying up of the fore-leg is not a new expedient, or even the putting a horse down single-handed, the two operations, as taught and performed by Mr. Rarey, not only subdue and render docile the most violent horses, but, most strange of all, inspire them with a positive confidence and affection after two or three lessons from the horse-tamer. "How this is or why this is," Mr. Langworthy, the veterinary surgeon to Her Majesty's stables, observed, "I cannot say or explain, but I am convinced, by repeated observation on many horses, that it is a fact." If, however, a man, however clever with horses, were to attempt to perform the operations without other instruction than that contained in the American pamphlet, he would infallibly break his horse's knees, and probably get his toes trodden on, his eyes blacked, and his arm dislocated--for all these accidents have happened within my own knowledge to rash experimentalists; while under proper instructions, not only have stout and gouty noblemen succeeded perfectly, but the slight-built, professional horsewoman, Miss Gilbert, has conquered thorough-bred colts and fighting Arabs, and a young and beautiful peeress has taken off her bonnet before going to a morning _féte_, and in ten minutes laid a full-sized horse prostrate and helpless as a sheep in the hands of the shearer. Having, then, in your mind Mr. Rarey's maxim that a horseman should know neither fear nor anger, and having laid in a good stock of patience, you must make your approach to the colt or stallion in the mode prescribed in the preceding chapters. In dealing with a colt, except upon an emergency, he should be first accustomed to be handled and taught to lead; this, first-rate horse-tamers will accomplish with the wildest colt in three hours, but it is better to give at least one day up to these first important steps in education. It will also be as well to have a colt cleaned and his hoof trimmed by the blacksmith. If this cannot be done the operation will be found very dirty and disagreeable. In approaching a spiteful stallion you had better make your first advances with a half-door between you and him, as Mr. Rarey did in his first interview with Cruiser: gradually make his acquaintance, and teach him that you do not care for his open mouth; but a regular biter must be gagged in the manner which will presently be described. Of course there is no difficulty in handling the leg of a quiet horse or colt, and by constantly working from the neck down to the fetlock you may do what you please. But many horses and even colts have a most dangerous trick of striking out with their fore-legs. There is no better protection against this than a cart-wheel. The wheel may either be used loose, or the animal may be led up to a cart loaded with hay, when the horse-tamer can work under the cart through one of the wheels, while the colt is nibbling the load. Having, then, so far soothed a colt that he will permit you to take up his legs without resistance, take the strap No. 1[73-*]--pass the tongue through the loop under the buckle so as to form a noose, slip it over the near fore-leg and draw it close up to the pastern-joint, then take up the leg as if you were going to shoe him, and passing the strap over the fore-arm, put it through the buckle, and buckle the lower limb as close as you can to the arm without hurting the animal. [Illustration: STRAP NO. 1.] Take care that your buckle is of the very best quality, and the leather sound. It is a good plan to stretch it before using it. The tongues of buckles used for this purpose, if not of the very best quality, are very likely to come out, when all your labour will have to be gone over again. Sometimes you may find it better to lay the loop open on the ground, and let the horse step into it. It is better the buckle should be inside the leg if you mean the horse to fall toward you, because then it is easier to unbuckle when he is on the ground. In those instances in which you have had no opportunity of previously taming and soothing a colt, it will frequently take you an hour of quiet, patient, silent perseverance before he will allow you to buckle up his leg--if he resists you have nothing for it but _patience_. You must stroke him, you must fondle him, until he lets you enthral him. Mr. Rarey always works alone, and disdains assistance, and so do some of his best pupils, Lord B., the Marquis of S., and Captain S. In travelling in foreign countries you may have occasion to tame a colt or wild horse alone, but there is no reason why you should not have assistance if you can get it, and in that case the process is of course much easier. But it must never be forgotten that to tame a horse properly no unnecessary force must be employed; it is better that he should put down his foot six times that he may yield it willingly at last, and under no circumstances must the trainer lose patience, or give way to temper. The near fore-leg being securely strapped, and the horse, if so inclined, secured from biting by a wooden bit, the next step is to make him hop about on three legs. This is comparatively easy if the animal has been taught to lead, but it is difficult with one which has not. The trainer must take care to keep behind his horse's shoulder and walk in a circle, or he will be likely to be struck by the horse's head or strapped-up leg. Mr. Rarey is so skilful that he seldom considers it necessary to make his horses hop about; but there is no doubt that it saves much after-trouble by fatiguing the animal; and that it is a useful preparation before putting a colt or kicking horse into harness. Like every other operation it must be done very gently, and accompanied by soothing words--"Come along"--"Come along, old fellow," &c. A horse can hop on three legs, if not severely pressed, for two or three miles; and no plan is more successful for curing a kicker or jibber. When the horse has hopped for as long as you think necessary to tire him, buckle a common single strap roller or surcingle on his body tolerably tight. A single strap surcingle is the best. It is as well, if possible, to teach colts from a very early age to bear a surcingle. At any rate it will require a little management the first time. You have now advanced your colt so far that he is not afraid of a man, he likes being patted and caressed, he will lead when you take hold of the bridle, and you have buckled up his leg so that he cannot hop faster than you can run. [Illustration: NO. 2 STRAP, FOR OFF FORE-LEG.] Shorten the bridle (the bit should be a thick plain snaffle) so that the reins, when laid loose on his withers, come nearly straight. This is best done by twisting the reins twice round two fore-fingers and passing the ends through in a loop, because this knot can be easily untied. Next take strap No. 2, and, making a loop, put it round the off fore-leg. With a very quiet horse this can easily be done; with a wild or vicious horse you may have to make him step into it; at any rate, when once the off fore-leg is caught in the noose it must be drawn tight round the pastern-joint. Then put a stout glove or mitten on your right hand, having taken care that your nails have been cut short, pass the strap through the belly part of the surcingle, take a firm short hold of it with your gloved right hand, standing close to the horse behind his shoulders, and with your left hand take hold of the near rein; by pulling the horse gently to the near side he will be almost sure to hop; if he will not he must be led, but Mr. Rarey always makes him hop alone. The moment he lifts up his off fore-foot you must draw up strap No. 2 tightly and steadily. The motion will draw up the off leg into the same position as the near leg, and the horse will go down on his knees. Your object is to hold the strap so firmly that he will not be able to stretch his foot out again. Those who are very confident in their skill are content to hold the strap only with a twist round their hand, but others take the opportunity of the horse's first surprise to give the strap a double turn round the surcingle. [Illustration: Horse with Straps Nos. 1 and 2.] Another way of performing this operation is to use with difficult violent horses the strap invented by Lord B----h, which consists first of the loop for the off fore-leg shown in our cut. A surcingle strap, at least seven feet long, with a buckle, is thrown across the horse's back; the buckle end is passed through the ring; the tongue is passed through the buckle, and the moment the horse moves the Tamer draws the strap tight round the body of the horse, and in buckling it makes the leg so safe that he has no need to use any force in holding it up. [Illustration: LORD B.'S IMPROVED STRAP NO. 2.] As soon as a horse recovers from his astonishment at being brought to his knees, he begins to resist; that is, he rears up on his hind-legs, and springs about in a manner that is truly alarming for the spectators to behold, and which in the case of a well-bred horse in good condition requires a certain degree of activity in the Trainer. (See page of Horse Struggling.) [Illustration: SURCINGLE FOR LORD B.'S STRAP NO. 2.] You must remember that your business is not to set your strength against the horse's strength, but merely to follow him about, holding the strap just tight enough to prevent him from putting out his off fore-leg. As long as you keep _close to him_ and _behind his shoulders_ you are in very little danger. The bridle in the left hand must be used like steering lines: by pulling to the right or left as occasion requires, the horse, turning on his hind-legs, maybe guided just as a boat is steered by the rudder lines; or pulling straight, the horse may be fatigued by being forced to walk backwards. The strap passing through the surcingle keeps, or ought to keep, the Trainer in his right place--he is not to pull or in any way fatigue himself more than he can help, but, standing upright, simply follow the horse about, guiding him with the bridle away from the walls of the training school when needful. It must be admitted that to do this well requires considerable nerve, coolness, patience, and at times agility; for although a grass-fed colt will soon give in, a corn-fed colt, and, above all, a high-couraged hunter in condition, will make a very stout fight; and I have known one instance in which a horse with both fore-legs fast has jumped sideways. [Illustration: The Horse struggling.] The proof that the danger is more apparent than real lies in the fact that no serious accidents have as yet happened; and that, as I before observed, many noblemen, and some noble ladies, and some boys, have succeeded perfectly. But it would be untrue to assert that there is no danger. When held and guided properly, few horses resist more than ten minutes; and it is believed that a quarter of an hour is the utmost time that any horse has ever fought before sinking exhausted to the earth. But the time seems extremely long to an inexperienced performer; and it is a great comfort to get your assistant to be tune-keeper, if there is no clock in a conspicuous situation, and tell you how you are getting on. Usually at the end of eight minutes' violent struggles, the animal sinks forward on his knees, sweating profusely, with heaving flanks and shaking tail, as if at the end of a thirty minutes' burst with fox-hounds over a stiff country. Then is the time to get him into a comfortable position for lying down; if he is still stout, he may be forced by the bit to walk backwards. Then, too, by pushing gently at his shoulder, or by pulling steadily the off-rein, you can get him to fall, in the one case on the near side, on the other on the off side; but this assistance should be so slight that the horse must not be able to resist it. The horse will often make a final spring when you think he is quite beaten; but, at any rate, at length he slides over, and lies down, panting and exhausted, on his side. If he is full of corn and well bred, take advantage of the moment to tie up the off fore-leg to the surcingle, as securely as the other, in a slip loop knot. Now let your horse recover his wind, and then encourage him to make a second fight. It will often be more stubborn and more fierce than the first. The object of this tying-up operation is, that he shall thoroughly exhaust without hurting himself, and that he shall come to the conclusion that it is you who, by your superior strength, have conquered him, and that you are always able to conquer him. Under the old rough-riding system, the most vicious horses were occasionally conquered by daring men with firm seats and strong arms, who rode and flogged them into subjection; but these conquests were temporary, and usually _personal_; with every stranger, the animal would begin his game again. One advantage of this Rarey system is, that the horse is allowed to exhaust himself under circumstances that render it impossible for him to struggle long enough to do himself any harm. It has been suggested that a blood-vessel would be likely to be broken, or apoplexy produced by the exertion of leaping from the hind legs; but, up to the present time, no accident of any kind has been reported. When the horse lies down for the second or third time thoroughly beaten, the time has arrived for teaching him a few more of the practical parts of horse-training. [Illustration: The Horse exhausted.] When you have done all you desire to the horse tied up,--smoothed his ears, if fidgety about the ears--the hind-legs, if a kicker--shown him a saddle, and allowed him to smell it, and then placed it on his back--mounted him yourself, and pulled him all over--take off all the straps. In moving round him for the purpose of gentling him, walk slowly always from the head round the tail, and again to the head: scrape the sweat off him with a scraper; rub him down with a wisp; smooth the hair of his legs, and draw the fore one straight out. If he has fought hard, he will lie like a dead horse, and scarcely stir. You must now again go over him as conscientiously as if you were a mesmeric doctor or shampooer: every limb must be "_gentled_," to use Mr. Rarey's expressive phrase; and with that operation you have completed your _first_ and _most_ important lesson. You may now mount on the back of an unbroken colt, and teach him that you do not hurt him in that attitude: if he were standing upright he might resist, and throw you from fright; but as he is exhausted and powerless, he has time to find out that you mean him no harm. You can lay a saddle or harness on him, if he has previously shown aversion to them, or any part of them: his head and his tail and his legs are all safe for your friendly caresses; don't spare them, and speak to him all the time. If he has hitherto resisted shoeing, now is the time for handling his fore and hind legs; kindly, yet, if he attempts to resist, with a voice of authority. If he is a violent, savage, confirmed kicker, like Cruiser, or Mr. Gurney's gray colt, or the zebra, as soon as he is down put a pair of hobbles on his hind-legs, like those used for mares during covering. (Frontispiece of Zebra.) These must be held by an assistant on whom you can depend; and passed through the rings of the surcingle. With his fore-legs tied, you may usefully spend an hour, in handling his legs, tapping the hoofs with your hand or hammer--all this to be done in a firm, measured, soothing manner; only now and then, if he resist, crying, as you paralyze him with the ropes, "_Wo ho!_" in a determined manner. It is by this continual soothing and handling that you establish confidence between the horse and yourself. After patting him as much as you deem needful, say for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, you may encourage him to rise. Some horses will require a good deal of helping, and their fore-legs drawing out before them. It may be as well to remark, that the handling the limbs, of colts particularly, requires caution. A cart colt, tormented by flies, will kick forward nearly up to the fore-legs. If a horse, unstrapped, attempts to rise, you may easily stop him by taking hold of a fore-leg and doubling it back to the strapped position. If by chance he should be too quick, don't resist; it is an essential principle in the Rarey system, never to enter into a contest with a horse unless you are certain to be victorious. In all these operations, you must be calm, and not in a hurry. Thus, under the Rarey system, all indications are so direct, that the horse must understand them. You place him in a position, and under such restraint, that he cannot resist anything that you chose to do to him; and then you proceed to caress him when he assents, to reprove him when he _thinks_ of resisting--resist, with all his legs tied, he cannot--repeated lessons end by persuading the most vicious horse that it is useless to try to resist, and that acquiescence will be followed by the caresses that horses evidently like. [Illustration: The Horse tamed.] The last instance of Mr. Rarey's power was a beautiful gray mare, which had been fourteen years in the band of one of the Life Guards regiments, and consequently at least seventeen years old; during all that time she would never submit quietly to have her hind-legs shod; the farriers had to put a twitch on her nose and ears, and tie her tail down: even then she resisted violently. In three days Mr. Rarey was able to shoe her with her head loose. And this was not done by a trick, but by proving to her that she could not resist even to the extent of an inch, and that no harm was meant her; her lessons were repeated many times a day for three days. Such continual impressive perseverance is an essential part of the system. When you have to deal with a horse as savage a kicker as Cruiser, or the zebra, a horse that can kick from one leg as fiercely as others can from two, in that case, to subdue and compel him to lie down, have a leather surcingle with a ring sewed on the belly part, and when the hobbles are buckled on the hind-legs, pass the ropes through the rings, and when the horse rises again, by buckling up one fore-leg, and pulling steadily, when needful, at the hind-legs, or tying the hobble-ropes to a collar, you reduce him to perfect helplessness; he finds that he cannot rear, for you pull his hind-legs--or kick, for you can pull at all three legs, and after a few lessons he gives in in despair. These were the methods by which Cruiser and the zebra were subdued. They seem, and are, very simple; properly carried out they are effective for subduing the most spirited colt, and curing the most vicious horse. But still in difficult and exceptional cases it cannot be too often repeated that a MAN is required, as well as a method. Without nerve nothing can be attempted; without patience and perseverance mere nerve will be of little use; all the quackery and nonsense that has been talked and written under the inspiration of the Barnum who has had an interest in the success of the silent, reserved, practical Rarey, must be dismissed. Horse-training is not a conjuror's trick. The principles may certainly be learned by once reading this book; a few persons specially organised, accustomed to horses all their lives, may succeed in their first attempts with even difficult horses. The success of Lord Burghersh, after one lesson from Rarey, with a very difficult mare; of Lord Elvers, Lord Vivian, the Hon. Frederick Villiers, and the Marquess of Stafford, with colts, is well known in the sporting world. Mr. Thomas Rice, of Motcombe Street, who has studied everything connected with the horse, on the Continent as well as in England, and who is thoroughly acquainted with the Spanish school, as well as the English cross-country style of horsemanship, succeeded, as I have already mentioned, the very first time he took the straps in hand in subduing Mr. Gurney's gray colt--the most vicious animal, next to Cruiser, that Mr. Rarey tackled in England. This brute tore off the flaps of the saddle with his teeth. But it is sheer humbug to pretend that a person who knows no more of horses than is to be learned by riding a perfectly-trained animal now and then for an hour or two, can acquire the whole art of horse-taming, or can even safely tackle a violent horse, without a previous preparation and practice. As you must not be nervous or angry, so you must not be in a hurry. Many ladies have attended Mr. Rarey's lessons, and studied his art, but very few have tried, and still fewer have succeeded. It is just one of those things that all ladies fond of horses should know, as well as those who are likely to visit India, or the Colonies, although it is not exactly a feminine occupation; crinoline would be sadly in the way-- "Those little hands were never made To hold a leather strap." But it may be useful as an emergency, as it will enable any lady to instruct a friend, or groom, or sailor, or peasant, how to do what she is not able to do herself, and to argue effectively that straps will do more than whips and spurs. At the Practice Club of noblemen and gentlemen held at Miss Gilbert's stables, it has been observed that every week some horse more determined than the average has been too much for the wind, or the patience, of most of the subscribers. One only has never been beaten, the Marquess of S----, but then he was always in condition; a dab hand at every athletic sport, extremely active, and gifted with a "calmness," as well as a nerve, which few men of his position enjoy. In a word, the average horse may be subdued by the average horseman, and colts usually come within the average; but a fierce, determined, vicious horse requires a man above the average in temper, courage, and activity; activity and skill in _steering_ being of more importance than strength. It is seldom necessary to lay a colt down more than twice. Perhaps the best way is to begin practising the strap movements with a donkey, or a quiet horse full of grass or water, and so go on from day to day with as much perseverance as if you were practising skating or walking on a tight rope; until you can approach, halter, lead, strap up, and lay down a colt with as much calmness as a huntsman takes his fences with his eye on his hounds, you are not perfect. Remember you must not hurry, and you must _not chatter_. When you feel impatient you had better leave off, and begin again another day. And the same with your horse: you must not tire him with one lesson, but you must give him at least one lesson every day, and two or three to a nervous customer; we have a striking example of patience and perseverance in Mr. Rarey's first evening with Cruiser. He had gone through the labour of securing him, and bringing him up forty miles behind a dog-cart, yet he did not lose a moment, but set to work the same night to tame him limb by limb, and inch by inch, and from that day until he produced him in public, he never missed a day without spending twice a day from two to three hours with him, first rendering him helpless by gag-bit, straps and hobbles, then caressing him, then forcing him to lie down, then caressing him again, stroking every limb, talking to him in soothing tones, and now and then, if he turned vicious, taking up his helpless head, giving it a good shake, while scolding him as you would a naughty boy. And then again taking off the gag and rewarding submission with a lock of sweet hay and a drink of water, most grateful after a tempest of passion, then making him rise, and riding him--making him stop at a word. I mention these facts, because an idea has gone abroad that any man with Mr. Rarey's straps can manage any horse. It would be just as sensible to assert that any boy could learn to steer a yacht by taking the tiller for an hour under the care of an "old salt." The most curious and important fact of all in connection with this strapping up and laying down process, is, that the moment the horse rises _he seems to have contracted a personal friendship for the operator_, and with a very little encouragement will generally follow him round the box or circus; this feeling may as well be encouraged by a little bit of carrot or bread and sugar. PLACE AND PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING A COLT. It is almost impossible to train or tame a horse quickly in an open space. As his falls are violent, the floor must be very soft. The best place is a space boarded off with partitions six or seven feet high, and on the floor a deep layer of tan or sand or saw-dust, on which, a thick layer of straw has been spread; but the floor must not be too soft; if it is, the horse will sink on his knees without fighting, and without the lesson of exhaustion, which is so important. To throw a horse for a surgical operation, the floor cannot be too soft: the enclosure should be about thirty feet from side to side, of a square or octagonal shape; but not round if possible, because it is of great advantage to have a corner into which a colt may turn when you are teaching him the first haltering lesson. A barn may be converted into a training-school, if the floor be made soft enough with straw. But in every case, it is extremely dangerous to have pillars, posts, or any projections against which the horse in rearing might strike; as when the legs are tied, a horse is apt to miscalculate his distance. And if the space is too narrow, the trainer, in dealing with a violent horse, may get crushed or kicked. It is of great advantage that the training-school should be roofed, and if possible, every living thing, that might distract the horse's attention by sight or sound, should be removed. Other horses, cattle, pigs, and even dogs or fowls moving about or making a noise, will spoil the effect of a good lesson. In an emergency, the first lesson may be given in an open straw-yard. Lord Burghersh trained his first pupil on a small space in the middle of a thick wood; Cruiser was laid down the first time in a bullock-yard. But if you have many colts to train, it is well worth while to dig out a pit two feet deep, fill it with tan and straw, and build round it a shed of rough poles, filled in with gorse plastered with clay, on the same plan as a bullock feeding-box. The floor should not be too deep or soft, because if it is, the colt will sink at once without fighting, and a good lesson in obedience is lost. This may be done for from 30_s._ to 2_l._ on a farm. In a riding-school it is very easy to have lofty temporary partitions. It is probable that in future every riding-school will have a Rarey box for training hacks, as well as to enable pupils to practise the art. It is quite out of the question to attempt to do anything with a difficult horse while other horses can be seen or heard, or while a party of lookers-on are chattering and laughing. As to the costume of the trainer, I recommend a close cap, a stout pair of boots, short trousers or breeches of stout tweed or corduroy, a short jacket with pockets outside, one to hold the straps and gloves, the other a few pieces of carrot to reward the pupil. A pocket-handkerchief should be handy to wipe your perspiring brow. A trainer should not be without a knife and a piece of string, for emergencies. Spare straps, bridles, a surcingle, a long whalebone whip, and a saddle, should be hung up outside the training inclosure, where they can be handed, when required, to the operator as quickly and with as little delay and fuss as possible. A sort of dumb-waiter, with hooks instead of trays, could be contrived for a man who worked alone. If a lady determines to become a horse-trainer, she had better adopt a Bloomer costume, without any stiff petticoats, as long robes would be sure to bring her to grief. To hold the long strap No. 2, it is necessary to wear a stout glove, which will be all the more useful if the tips of the fingers are cut off at the first joint, so as to make it a sort of mitten. FOOTNOTES: [70-*] I should not recommend this plan with a well-bred horse without first laying him down, as he would be likely to throw himself down.--EDITOR. [73-*] All these straps may be obtained from Mr. Stokey, saddler, North Street, Little Moorfields, who supplied Mr. Rarey, and has patterns of the improvements by Lord B---- and Colonel R----. CHAPTER VII. The Drum.--The Umbrella.--Riding-habit.--How to bit a colt.--How to saddle.--To mount.--To ride.--To break.--To harness.--To make a horse follow and stand without holding.--Baucher's plan.--Nolan's plan. It is an excellent practice to accustom all horses to strange sounds and sights, and of very great importance to young horses which are to be ridden or driven in large towns, or used as chargers. Although some horses are very much more timid and nervous than others, the very worst can be very much improved by acting on the first principles laid down in the introduction to this book--that is, by proving that the strange sights and sounds will do them no harm. When a railway is first opened, the sheep, the cattle, and especially the horses, grazing in the neighbouring fields, are terribly alarmed at the sight of the swift, dark, moving trains, and the terrible snorting and hissing of the steam-engines. They start away--they gallop in circles--and when they stop, gaze with head and tail erect, until the monsters have disappeared. But from day to day the live stock become more accustomed to the sight and sound of the steam horse, and after a while they do not even cease grazing when the train passes. They have learned that it will do them no harm. The same result may be observed with respect to young horses when first they are brought to a large town, and have to meet great loads of hay, omnibuses crowded with passengers, and other strange or noisy objects--if judiciously treated, not flogged and ill-used, they lose their fears without losing their high courage. Nothing is more astonishing in London than the steadiness of the high-bred and highly-fed horses in the streets and in Hyde Park. But until Mr. Rarey went to first principles, and taught "the reason why" there were horses that could not be brought to bear the beating of a drum, the rustling of an umbrella, or the flapping of a riding-habit against their legs--and all attempts to compel them by force to submit to these objects of their terror failed and made them furious. Mr. Rarey, in his lectures, often told a story of a horse which shied at buffalo-robes--the owner tied him up fast and laid a robe on him--the poor animal died instantly with fright. And yet nothing can be more simple. _To accustom a horse to a drum._--Place it near him on the ground, and, without forcing him, induce him to smell it again and again until he is thoroughly accustomed to it. Then lift it up, and slowly place it on the side of his neck, where he can see it, and tap it gently with a stick or your finger. If he starts, pause, and let him carefully examine it. Then re-commence, gradually moving it backwards until it rests upon his withers, by degrees playing louder and louder, pausing always when he seems alarmed, to let him look at it and smell, if needful. In a very few minutes you may play with all your force, without his taking any notice. When this practice has been repeated a few times, your horse, however spirited, will rest his nose unmoved on the big drum while the most thundering piece is played. _To teach a horse to bear an umbrella_, go through the same cautious forms, let him see it, and smell it, open it by degrees--gain your point inch by inch, passing it always from his eyes to his neck, and from his neck to his back and tail; and so with a riding-habit, in half an hour any horse may be taught that it will not hurt him, and then the difficulty is over. _To fire off a horse's back._--Begin with caps, and, by degrees, as with the drum, instead of lengthening the reins, stretch the bridle hand to the front, and raise it for the carbine to rest on, with the muzzle clear of the horse's head, a little to one side. Lean the body forward without rising in the stirrups. _Avoid interfering with the horse's mouth, or exciting his fears by suddenly closing your legs either before or after firing--be quiet yourself and your horse will be quiet._ The colt can learn, as I have already observed, to bear a rider on his bare back during his first lessons, when prostrate and powerless, fast bound by straps. The surcingle has accustomed him to girths--he leads well, and has learned that when the right rein is pulled he must go to the right, and when the left rein to the left. You may now teach him to bear the BIT and the SADDLE--if you have not placed it upon his back while on the ground, and for this operation I cannot do better than return, and quote literally from Mr. Rarey. "HOW TO ACCUSTOM A HORSE TO A BIT. "You should use a large, smooth, snaffle bit, so as not to hurt his mouth, with a bar to each side, to prevent the bit from pulling through either way. This you should attach to the head-stall of your bridle, and put it on your colt without any reins to it, and let him run loose in a large stable or shed some time, until he becomes a little used to the bit, and will bear it without trying to get it out of his mouth. It would be well, if convenient, to repeat this several times, before you do anything more with the colt; as soon as he will bear the bit, attach a single rein to it. You should also have a halter on your colt, or a bridle made after the fashion of a halter, with a strap to it, so that you can hold or lead him about without pulling on the bit much. (See Woodcut, p. 39.) He is now ready for the saddle. "THE PROPER WAY TO BIT A COLT. "Farmers often put bitting harness on a colt the first thing they do to him, buckling up the bitting as tight as they can draw it, to make him carry his head high, and then turn him out in a field to run a half-day at a time. This is one of the worst of punishments that they could inflict on the colt, and very injurious to a young horse that has been used to running in pasture with his head down. I have seen colts so injured in this way that they never got over it. "A horse should be well accustomed to the bit before you put on the bitting harness, and when you first bit him you should only rein his head up to that point where he naturally holds it, let that be high or low; he will soon learn that he cannot lower his head, and that raising it a little will loosen the bit in his mouth. This will give him the idea of raising his head to loosen the bit, and then you can draw the bitting a little tighter every time you put it on, and he will still raise his head to loosen it; by this means you will gradually get his head and neck in the position you want him to carry it, and give him a nice and graceful carriage without hurting him, making him mad, or causing his mouth to get sore. "If you put the bitting on very tight the first time, he cannot raise his head enough to loosen it, but will bear on it all the time, and paw, sweat, and throw himself. Many horses have been killed by falling backward with the bitting on; their heads being drawn up strike the ground with the whole weight of the body. Horses that have their heads drawn up tightly should not have the bitting on more than fifteen or twenty minutes at a time. "HOW TO SADDLE A COLT. "The first thing will be to tie each stirrup-strap into a loose knot to make them short, and prevent the stirrups from flying about and hitting him. Then double up the skirts and take the saddle under your right arm, so as not to frighten him with it as you approach. When you get to him rub him gently a few times with your hand, and then raise the saddle very slowly, until he can see it, and smell and feel it with his nose. Then let the skirt loose, and rub it very gently against his neck the way the hair lies, letting him hear the rattle of the skirts as he feels them against him; each time getting a little farther backward, and finally slipping it over his shoulders on his back. Shake it a little with your hand, and in less than five minutes you can rattle it about over his back as much as you please, and pull it off and throw it on again, without his paying much attention to it. "As soon as you have accustomed him to the saddle, fasten the girth. Be careful how you do this. It often frightens the colt when he feels the girth binding him, and making the saddle fit tight on his back. You should bring up the girth very gently, and not draw it too tight at first, just enough to hold the saddle on. Move him a little, and then girth it as tight as you choose, and he will not mind it. "You should see that the pad of your saddle is all right before you put it on, and that there is nothing to make it hurt him, or feel unpleasant to his back. It should not have any loose straps on the back part of it, to flap about and scare him. After you have saddled him in this way, take a switch in your right hand to tap him up with, and walk about in the stable a few times with your right arm over your saddle, taking hold of the reins on each side of his neck with your right and left hands, thus marching him about in the stable until you teach him the use of the bridle and can turn him about in any direction, and stop him by a gentle pull of the rein. Always caress him, and loose the reins a little every time you stop him. "You should always be alone, and have your colt in some light stable or shed, the first time you ride him; the loft should be high, so that you can sit on his back without endangering your head. You can teach him more in two hours' time in a stable of this kind, than you could in two weeks in the common way of breaking colts, out in an open place. If you follow my course of treatment, you need not run any risk, or have any trouble in riding the worst kind of horse. You take him a step at a time, until you get up a mutual confidence and trust between yourself and horse. First teach him to lead and stand hitched; next acquaint him with the saddle, and the use of the bit; and then all that remains is to get on him without scaring him, and you can ride him as well as any horse. "HOW TO MOUNT THE COLT. "First gentle him well on both sides, about the saddle, and all over until he will stand still without holding, and is not afraid to see you anywhere about him. "As soon as you have him thus gentled, get a small block, about one foot or eighteen inches in height, and set it down by the side of him, about where you want to stand to mount him; step up on this, raising yourself very gently: horses notice every change of position very closely, and, if you were to step up suddenly on the block, it would be very apt to scare him; but, by raising yourself gradually on it, he will see you, without being frightened, in a position very nearly the same as when you are on his back. "As soon as he will bear this without alarm, untie the stirrup-strap next to you, and put your left foot into the stirrup, and stand square over it, holding your knee against the horse, and your toe out, so as not to touch him under the shoulder with the toe of your boot. Place your right hand on the front of the saddle, and on the opposite side of you, taking hold of a portion of the mane and the reins, as they hang loosely over his neck, with your left hand; then gradually bear your weight on the stirrup, and on your right hand, until the horse feels your whole weight on the saddle: repeat this several times, each time raising yourself a little higher from the block, until he will allow you to raise your leg over his croup and place yourself in the saddle. "There are three great advantages in having a block to mount from. First, a sudden change of position is very apt to frighten a young horse who has never been handled: he will allow you to walk up to him, and stand by his side without scaring at you, because you have gentled him to that position; but if you get down on your hands and knees and crawl towards him, he will be very much frightened; and upon the same principle, he would be frightened at your new position if you had the power to hold yourself over his back without touching him. Then the first great advantage of the block is to gradually gentle him to that new position in which he will see you when you ride him. "Secondly, by the process of leaning your weight in the stirrups, and on your hand, you can gradually accustom him to your weight, so as not to frighten him by having him feel it all at once. And, in the third place, the block elevates you so that you will not have to make a spring in order to get on the horse's back, but from it you can gradually raise yourself into the saddle. When you take these precautions, there is no horse so wild but what you can mount him without making him jump. I have tried it on the worst horses that could be found, and have never failed in any case. When mounting, your horse should always stand without being held. _A horse is never well broken when he has to be held with a tight rein when mounting_; and a colt is never so safe to mount as when you see that assurance of confidence, and absence of fear, which cause him to stand without holding." [Mr. Rarey's improved plan is to press the palm of the right hand on the off-side of the Saddle, and as you rise lean your weight on it; by this means you can mount with the girths loose, or without any girths at all.--EDITOR.] "HOW TO RIDE THE COLT. "When you want him to start do not touch him on the side with your heel, or do anything to frighten him and make him jump. But speak to him kindly, and if he does not start pull him a little to the left until he starts, and then let him walk off slowly with the reins loose. Walk him around in the stable a few times until he gets used to the bit, and you can turn him about in every direction and stop him as you please. It would be well to get on and off a good many times until he gets perfectly used to it before you take him out of the stable. "After you have trained him in this way, which should not take you more than one or two hours, you can ride him anywhere you choose without ever having him jump or make any effort to throw you. "When you first take him out of the stable be very gentle with him, as he will feel a little more at liberty to jump or run, and be a little easier frightened than he was while in the stable. But after handling him so much in the stable he will be pretty well broken, and you will be able to manage him without trouble or danger. "When you first mount him take a little the shortest hold on the left rein, so that if anything frightens him you can prevent him from jumping by pulling his head round to you. This operation of pulling a horse's head round against his side will prevent any horse from jumping ahead, rearing up, or running away. If he is stubborn and will not go, you can make him move by pulling his head round to one side, when whipping would have no effect. And turning him round a few times will make him dizzy, and then by letting him have his head straight, and giving him a little touch with the whip, he will go along without any trouble. "Never use martingales on a colt when you first ride him; every movement of the hand should go right to the bit in the direction in which it is applied to the reins, without a martingale to change the direction of the force applied. You can guide the colt much better without it, and teach him the use of the bit in much less time. Besides, martingales would prevent you from pulling his head round if he should try to jump. "After your colt has been ridden until he is gentle and well accustomed to the bit, you may find it an advantage, if he carries his head too high or his nose too far out, to put martingales on him. "_You should be careful not to ride your colt so far at first as to heat, worry, or tire him._ Get off as soon as you see he is a little fatigued; gentle him and let him rest; this will make him kind to you, and prevent him from getting stubborn or mad. "TO BREAK A HORSE TO HARNESS. "Take him in a light stable, as you did to ride him; take the harness and go through the same process that you did with the saddle, until you get him familiar with it, so that you can put it on him, and rattle it about without his caring for it. As soon as he will bear this, put on the lines, caress him as you draw them over him, and drive him about in the stable till he will bear them over his hips. The _lines_ are a great aggravation to some colts, and often frighten them as much as if you were to raise a whip over them. As soon as he is familiar with the harness and lines, take him out and put him by the side of a gentle horse, and go through the same process that you did with the balking horse. _Always use a bridle without blinkers when you are breaking a horse to harness._ "Lead him to and around a light gig or phaeton; let him look at it, touch it with his nose, and stand by it till he does not care for it; then pull the shafts a little to the left, and stand your horse in front of the off-wheel. Let some one stand on the right side of the horse, and hold him by the bit, while you stand on the left side, facing the sulky. This will keep him straight. Run your left hand back, and let it rest on his hip, and lay hold of the shafts with your right, bringing them up very gently to the left hand, which still remains stationary. Do not let anything but your arm touch his back, and as soon as you have the shafts square over him, let the person on the opposite side take hold of one of them, and lower them very gently to the shaft-bearers. Be very slow and deliberate about hitching; the longer time you take the better, as a general thing. When you have the shafts placed, shake them slightly, so that he will feel them against each side. As soon as he will bear them without scaring, fasten your braces, &c., and start him along very slowly. Let one man lead the horse, to keep him gentle, while the other gradually works back with the lines till he can get behind and drive him. After you have driven him in this way a short distance, you can get into the sulky, and all will go right. It is very important to have your horse go gently when you first hitch him. After you have walked him awhile, there is not half so much danger of his scaring. Men do very wrong to jump up behind a horse to drive him as soon as they have him hitched. There are too many things for him to comprehend all at once. The shifts, the lines, the harness, and the rattling of the sulky, all tend to scare him, and he must be made familiar with them by degrees. If your horse is very wild, I would advise you to put up one foot the first time you drive him." [Illustration: Second Lesson in Harness.] With the leg strapped up, the lighter the break or gig the better, and four wheels are better than two. TO MAKE A HORSE FOLLOW YOU. The directions make simple what have hitherto been among the mysteries of the circus. I can assert from personal observation that by the means described by Mr. Rarey a very nervous thorough-bred mare, the property of the Earl of Derby, was taught to stand, answer to her name, and follow one of his pupils in less than a week. No hack, and certainly no lady's horse, is perfect until he has been taught to stand still, and no hunter is complete until he has learned to follow his master. Huntsmen may spend a few hours in the summer very usefully in teaching their old favourites to wait outside cover until wanted. Turn him into a large stable or shed, where there is no chance to get out, with a halter or bridal on. Go to him and gentle him a little, take hold of his halter, and turn him towards you, at the same time touching him lightly over the hips with a long whip. Lead him the length of the stable, rubbing him on the neck, saying in a steady tone of voice as you lead him, "Come along, boy!" or use his name instead of "boy," if you choose. Every time you turn, touch him slightly with the whip, to make him step up close to you, and then caress him with your hand. He will soon learn to hurry up to escape the whip and be caressed, and you can make him follow you around without taking hold of the halter. If he should stop and turn from you, give him a few sharp cuts about the hind legs, and he will soon turn his head towards you, when you must always caress him. A few lessons of this kind will make him run after you, when he sees the motion of the whip--in twenty or thirty minutes he will follow you about the stable. After you have given him two or three lessons in the stable, take him out into a small field and train him; and from thence you can take him into the road and make him follow you anywhere, and run after you. To make a horse stand without holding, after you have him well broken to follow you, place him in the centre of the stable--begin at his head to caress him, gradually working backwards. If he move, give him a cut with the whip, and put him back to the same spot from which he started. If he stands, caress him as before, and continue gentling him in this way until you can get round him without making him move. Keep walking around him, increasing your pace, and only touch him occasionally. Enlarge your circle as you walk around, and if he then moves, give him another cut with the whip, and put him back to his place. If he stands, go to him frequently and caress him, and then walk around him again. Do not keep him in one position too long at a time, but make him come to you occasionally, and follow you around the stable. Then make him stand in another place, and proceed as before. You should not train your horse more than half an hour at a time. The following is Baucher's method of making a horse stand to be mounted, which, he says, may be taught in two lessons, of half an hour each. I do not know any one who has tried, but it is worth trying. "Go up to him, pat him on the neck (_i. e._ gentle him), and speak to him; then taking the curb reins a few inches from the rings with the left hand, place yourself so as to offer as much resistance as possible to him when he tries to break away. Take the whip in the right hand with the point down, raise it quietly and tap the horse on the chest; he will rein back to avoid punishment; resist and follow him, continuing the tapping of the whip, but without anger or haste. The horse, soon tired of running back, will endeavour to avoid the infliction by rushing forward; then stop and make much of him. This repeated once or twice will teach the horse that, to stand still, is to avoid punishment, and will move up to you on a slight motion of the whip." I doubt whether high-spirited horses would stand this treatment. _To teach a horse to stand in the field._--Nolan's plan was, to draw the reins over the horse's head and fasten them to the ground with a peg, walk away, return in a few minutes and reward him with bread, salt, or carrot; in a short time the horse will fancy himself fast whenever the reins are drawn over his head. It may be doubted whether, in the excitement of the hunting-field, either Rarey's or Nolan's plan would avail to make a huntsman's horse stand while hounds were running. Scrutator gives another method which is not within everyone's means to execute. "In my father's time we had a large field, enclosed by a high wall, round which the lads used to exercise their horses, with a thick rug only, doubled, to sit upon. A single snaffle and a sharp curb-bit were placed in the horse's mouth; the former to ride and guide by. To the curb was attached a long single rein, which was placed in the boy's hand, or attached to his wrist. When the horse was in motion, either walking, trotting, or cantering, the lad would throw himself off, holding only the long rein attached to the curb, the sudden pull upon which, when the lad was on the ground, would cause the horse's head to be turned round, and stop him in his career. The boy would then gradually shorten the rein, until the horse was brought up to him, then patting and caressing him, he would again mount. After a very few lessons of this kind, the horse would always stop the instant the boy fell, and remain stationary beside him. The lads, as well as the horses, were rewarded by my father for their proper performance of this rather singular manoeuvre, but I never saw or knew any accident occur. The horses thus trained proved excellent hunters, and would never run away from their riders when thrown, always standing by them until re-mounted. From the lads constantly rubbing and pulling their legs about, we had no kickers. When a boy of only fifteen, I was allowed to ride a fine mare which has been thus broken in, in company with the hounds. Being nearly sixteen hands high, I had some difficulty in clambering up and down; but when dislodged from my seat, she would stand quietly by until re-mounted, and appeared as anxious for me to get up again as I was myself. "It may be said that all this was time and trouble thrown away, and that the present plan of riding a young four-year-old, straight across country at once, will answer the same purpose. My reply is, that a good education, either upon man, horse, or dog, will never be thrown away; and, notwithstanding the number of horses now brought into the hunting-field, there are still few well-trained hunters to be met with. The horse, the most beautiful and useful of animals to man, is seldom sufficiently instructed or familiarised, although certainly capable of the greatest attachment to his master when well used, and deserving to be treated more as a friend than a slave. It is a general remark how quiet some high-spirited horses will become when ridden by ladies. The cause of this is, that they are more quietly handled, patted, and caressed by them, and become soon sensible of this difference of treatment, from the rough whip-and-spur system, too generally adopted by men." ON BAULKING OR JIBBING HORSES. Horses are taught the dangerous vice of baulking, or jibbing, as it is called in England, by improper management. When a horse jibs in harness, it is generally from some mismanagement, excitement, confusion, or from not knowing how to pull, but seldom from any unwillingness to perform all that he understands. High-spirited free-going horses are the most subject to baulking, and only so because drivers do not properly understand how to manage this kind. A free horse in a team may be so anxious to go, that when he hears the word he will start with a jump, which will not move the load, but give him such a severe jerk on the shoulders that he will fly back and stop the other horse. The teamster will continue his driving without any cessation, and by the time he has the slow horse started again, he will find that the free horse has made another jump, and again flown back. And now he has them both badly baulked, and so confused that neither of them knows what is the matter, or how to start the load. Next will come the slashing and cracking of the whip, and hallooing of the driver, till something is broken, or he is through with his course of treatment. But what a mistake the driver commits by whipping his horse for this act! Reason and common sense should teach him that the horse was willing and anxious to go, but did not know how to start the load. And should he whip him for that? If so, he should whip him again for not knowing how to talk. A man that wants to act with reason should not fly into a passion, but should always think before he strikes. It takes a steady pressure against the collar to move a load, and you cannot expect him to act with a steady, determined purpose while you are whipping him. There is hardly one baulking horse in five hundred that will pull truly from whipping: it is only adding fuel to fire, and will make him more liable to baulk another time. You always see horses that have been baulked a few times turn their heads and look back as soon as they are a little frustrated. This is because they have been whipped, and are afraid of what is behind them. This is an invariable rule with baulked horses, just as much as it is for them to look around at their sides when they have the bots.[106-*] In either case they are deserving of the same sympathy and the same kind, rational treatment. When your horse baulks, or is a little excited, if he wants to start quickly, or looks around and doesn't want to go, there is something wrong, and he needs kind treatment immediately. Caress him kindly, and if he doesn't understand at once what you want him to do, he will not be so much excited as to jump and break things, and do everything wrong through fear. As long as you are calm, and keep down the excitement of the horse, there are ten chances that you will make him understand you, where there would not be one under harsh treatment; and then the little _flare up_ will not carry with it any unfavourable recollections, and he will soon forget all about it, and learn to pull truly. Almost every wrong act the horse commits is from mismanagement, fear, or excitement: one harsh word will so excite a nervous horse as to increase his pulse ten beats in a minute. When we remember that we are dealing with dumb brutes, and reflect how difficult it must be for them to understand our motions, signs, and language, we should never get out of patience with them because they don't understand us, or wonder at their doing things wrong. With all our intellect, if we were placed in the horse's situation, it would be difficult for us to understand the driving of some foreigner, of foreign ways and foreign language. We should always recollect that our ways and language are just as foreign and unknown to the horse as any language in the world is to us, and should try to practise what we could understand were we the horse, endeavouring by some simple means to work on his understanding rather than on the different parts of his body. All baulked horses can be started true and steady in a few minutes' time: they are all willing to pull as soon as they know how, and I never yet found a baulked horse that I could not teach to start his load in fifteen, and often less than three, minutes' time. Almost any team, when first baulked, will start kindly if you let them stand five or ten minutes as though there was nothing wrong, and then speak to them with a steady voice, and turn them a little to the right or left, so as to get them both in motion before they feel the pinch of the load. But if you want to start a team that you are not driving yourself, that has been baulked, fooled, and whipped for some time, go to them and hang the lines on their hames, or fasten them to the waggon, so that they will be perfectly loose; make the driver and spectators (if there are any) stand off some distance to one side, so as not to attract the attention of the horses; unloose their check-reins, so that they can get their heads down if they choose; let them stand a few minutes in this condition until you can see that they are a little composed. While they are standing, you should be about their heads, gentling them: it will make them a little more kind, and the spectators will think that you are doing something that they do not understand, and will not learn the secret. When you have them ready to start, stand before them, and, as you seldom have but one baulky horse in a team, get as near in front of him as you can, and, if he is too fast for the other horse, let his nose come against your breast: this will keep him steady, for he will go slow rather than run on you. Turn them gently to the right, without letting them pull on the traces as far as the tongue will let them go: stop them with a kind word, gentle them a little, and then turn them back to the left, by the same process. You will then have them under your control by this time; and as you turn them again to the right, steady them in the collar, and you can take them where you please. There is a quicker process that will generally start a baulky horse, but not so sure. Stand him a little ahead, so that his shoulders will be against the collar; and then take up one of his fore feet in your hand, and let the driver start them, and when the weight comes against his shoulders he will try to step: then let him have his foot, and he will go right along. If you want to break a horse from baulking that has long been in that habit, you ought to set apart a half-day for that purpose. Put him by the side of some steady horse; have driving reins on them; tie up all the traces and straps, so that there will be nothing to excite them; do not rein them up, but let them have their heads loose. Walk them about together for some time as slowly and lazily as possible; stop often, and go up to your baulky horse and gentle him. Do not take any whip about him, or do anything to excite him, but keep him just as quiet as you can. He will soon learn to start off at the word, and stop whenever you tell him. As soon as he performs rightly, hitch him in an empty waggon; have it standing in a favourable position for starting. It would be well to shorten the trace-chain behind the steady horse, so that, if it is necessary, he can take the weight of the waggon the first time you start them. Do not drive more than a few rods at first; watch your jibbing horse closely, and if you see that he is getting excited, stop him before he stops of his own accord, caress him a little, and start again. As soon as they go well, drive them over a small hill a few times, and then over a larger one, occasionally adding a little load. This process will make any horse true to pull. The following anecdote from Scrutator's "Horses and Hounds," illustrates the soundness of Mr. Rarey's system:--"A gentleman in our neighbourhood having purchased a very fine carriage horse, at a high price, was not a little annoyed, upon trial, to find that he would not pull an ounce, and when the whip was applied he began plunging and kicking. After one or two trials the coachman declared he could do nothing with him, and our neighbour, meeting my father, expressed his grievances at being thus taken in, and asked what he had better do. The reply was 'Send the horse to me tomorrow morning, and I will return him a good puller within a week.' The horse being brought, was put into the shafts of a wagon, in a field, with the hind wheels tied, and being reined up so that he could not get his head between his legs, was there left, with a man to watch him for five or six hours, and, of course, without any food. When my father thought he had enough of standing still, he went up to him with a handful of sweet hay, let down the bearing rein, and had the wheels of the wagon released. After patting the horse on the neck, when he had taken a mouthful or two of hay, he took hold of the bridle and led him away--the wagon followed--thus proving stratagem to be better than force. Another lesson was scarcely required, but, to make sure, it was repeated, and, after that, the horse was sent back to the owner. There was no complaint ever made of his jibbing again. The wagon to which he was attached was both light and empty, and the ground inclined rather towards the stable." FOOTNOTES: [106-*] A much more severe disease in America than in England.--EDIT. [Illustration: LADY'S SEAT, WITH HUNTING-HORN POMMEL.] CHAPTER VIII. Value of good horsemanship to both sexes.--On teaching children.--Anecdote.--Havelock's opinion.--Rarey's plan to train ponies.--The use of books.--Necessity of regular teaching for girls, boys can be self-taught.--Commence without a bridle.--Ride with one pair of reins and two hands.--Advantage of hunting-horn on side-saddle.--On the best plan for mounting.--Rarey's plan.--On a man's seat.--Nolan's opinion.--Military style.--Hunting style.--Two examples in Lord Cardigan.--The Prussian style.--Anecdote by Mr. Gould, Blucher, and the Prince Regent.--Hints for men learning to ride.--How to use the reins.--Pull right for right, and left for left.--How to collect your horse. You cannot learn to ride from a book, but you may learn how to do some things and how to avoid many things of importance. Those who know all about horses and horsemanship, or fancy they do, will not read this chapter. But as there are riding-schools in the City of London, where an excellent business is done in teaching well-grown men how to ride for health or fashion, and as papas who know their own bump-bump style very well often desire to teach their daughters, I have collected the following instructions from my own experience, now extending over full thirty years, on horses of all kinds, including the worst, and from the best books on the subject, some of the best being anonymous contributions by distinguished horsemen, printed for private circulation. Every man and woman, girl and boy, who has the opportunity, should learn to ride on horseback. It is almost an additional sense--it is one of the healthiest exercises--it affords amusement when other amusements fail--relaxation from the most severe toil, and often, in colonies or wild countries, the only means of travelling or trading. A man feels twice a man on horseback. The student and the farmer meet, when mounted, the Cabinet Minister and the landlord on even terms--good horsemanship is a passport to acquaintances in all ranks of life, and to make acquaintances is one of the arts of civilised life; to ripen them into use or friendship is another art. On horseback you can call with less ceremony, and meet or leave a superior with less form than on foot. Rotten Row is the ride of idleness and pleasure, but there is a great deal of business done in sober walks and slow canters, commercial, political, and matrimonial. For a young lady not to be able to ride with a lover is a great loss; not to be able to ride with a young husband a serious privation. The first element for enjoying horse exercise is good horsemanship. Colonel Greenwood says very truly:--"_Good_ riding is worth acquiring by those whose pleasure or business it is to ride, because it is soon and easily acquired, and, when acquired, it becomes habitual; and it is as easy, nay, much more easy, and infinitely more safe, than bad riding." "Good riding will last through age, sickness, and decrepitude, but bad riding will last only as long as youth, health, and strength supply courage; _for good riding is an affair of skill, but bad riding is an affair of courage_." A bold bad rider must not be merely brave; he must be fool-hardy; for he is perpetually in as much danger as a blind man among precipices. In riding, as in most other things, danger is for the timid and the unskilful. The skilful rider, when apparently courting danger in the field, deserves no more credit for courage than for sitting in an arm-chair, and the unskilful no more the imputation of timidity for backwardness than if without practice he declined to perform on the tight-rope. Depend upon it, the bold bad rider is the hero. There is nothing heroic in good riding, when dissected. The whole thing is a matter of detail--a collection of trifles--and its principles are so simple in theory and so easy in practice that they are despised. It is an accomplishment that may, to a certain extent, be acquired late in life. I know instances in both sexes of a fair firm seat having been acquired under the pressure of necessity after forty years of age (I could name lawyers, sculptors, architects, and sailors), but it may be acquired with ease and perfection in youth, and it is most important that no awkward habits should be acquired. Children who have courage may be taught to ride almost as soon as they can walk. On the Pampas of South America you may see a boy seven years old on horseback, driving a herd of horses, and carrying a baby in his arms! I began my own lessons at four, when I sat upon an old mare in the stall while the groom polished harness or blacked his boots. Mr. Nathaniel Gould, who, at upwards of seventy years, and sixteen stone weight, can still ride hunting for seven or eight hours at a stretch, mentions, in his observations on horses and hunting,[114-*] that a nephew of his followed the Cheshire fox-hounds at seven years of age. "His manner of gathering up his reins was most singular, and his power of keeping his seat, with his little legs stretched horizontally along the saddle, quite surprising." The hero Havelock, writing to his little boy, says, "You are now seven years old, and ought to learn to ride. I hope to hear soon that you have made progress in that important part of your education. Your uncle William (a boy-hero in the Peninsula) rode well before he was seven years old." The proper commencement for a boy is a pony in which he can interest himself, and on which he may learn to sit as a horseman should. I particularly warn parents against those broad-backed animals which, however suitable for carrying heavy old gentlemen, or sacks to market, are certainly very uncomfortable for the short legs of little boys, and likely to induce rupture. On a narrow, well-bred pony, of 11 or 12 hands high, a boy of six can sit like a little man. It is cruel to make children ride with bare legs. Before Rarey introduced his system, there was no satisfactory mode of training those ponies that were too small for a man to mount, unless the owner happened to live near some racing stable, where he could obtain the services of a "feather-weight doll," and then the pony often learned tricks more comic than satisfactory. By patiently applying the practices explained in the preceding chapters, the smallest and most highly-bred pony may be reduced to perfect docility without impairing its spirit, and taught a number of amusing tricks. Young ladies may learn on full-sized horses quite as well as on ponies, if they are provided with suitable side-saddles. A man, or rather a boy, may learn to ride by practice and imitation, and go on tumbling about until he has acquired a firm and even elegant seat, but no lady can ever learn to ride as a lady should ride, without a good deal of instruction; because her seat on horseback is so thoroughly artificial, that without some competent person to tell her of her faults, she is sure to fall into a number of awkward ungraceful tricks. Besides, a riding-school, with its enclosed walls and trained horses, affords an opportunity of going through the preliminary lessons without any of those accidents which on the road, or in a field, are very likely to occur with a raw pupil on a fresh horse. For a young lad to fall on the grass, is not a serious affair, but a lady should never be allowed to run the chance of a fall, because it is likely to destroy the nerve, without which no lessons can be taught successfully. All who have noticed the performances of Amazones in London, or at Brighton, must have in remembrance the many examples of ladies who, with great courage, sit in a manner that is at once fearful and ridiculous to behold; entirely dependent on the good behaviour of horses, which they, in reality, have no power of turning, and scarcely of stopping. Little girls who learn their first lessons by riding with papa, who is either absorbed in other business, or himself a novice in the art of horsemanship, get into poky habits, which it is extremely difficult to eradicate when they reach the age when every real woman wishes to be admired. Therefore, let everyone interested in the horsemanship of a young lady commence by placing her, as early as possible, under the tuition of a competent professional riding-master, unless he knows enough to teach her himself. There are many riding-schools where a fair seat is acquired by the lady pupils, but in London, at any rate, only two or three where they learn to use the reins, so as to control an unruly horse. Both sexes are apt to acquire the habit of holding on by the bridle. To avoid this grave error, the first lessons in walking and cantering should be given to the pupil on a led horse, without taking hold of the bridle; and this should be repeated in learning to leap. The horsemanship of a lady is not complete until she has learned to leap, whether she intends to ride farming or hunting, or to confine herself to Rotten Row canters; for horses will leap and bound at times without permission. I have high authority for recommending lessons without holding the bridle. Lady Mildred H----, one of the most accomplished horsewomen of the day, taught her daughter to walk, trot, canter, gallop, and leap, without the steadying assistance of the reins. A second point is, that every pupil in horsemanship should begin by holding the rein or reins (one is enough to begin with) in both hands, pulling to the right when they want to go to the right, and to the left when they wish to go to the left, that is the proper way of riding every strange horse, every colt, and every hunter, that does not perfectly know his business, for it is the only way in which you have any real command over your horse. But almost all our riding-school rules are military. Soldiers are obliged to carry a sword in one hand, and to rely, to a great extent, on the training of their horses for turning right or left. Ladies and gentlemen have no swords to carry, and neither possess, nor can desire to possess, such machines as troop-horses. Besides other more important advantages which will presently be described by commencing with two-handed riding, a lady is more likely to continue to sit squarely, than when holding the reins with one hand, and pretending to guide a horse who really guides himself. A man has the power of turning a horse, to a certain extent, with his legs and spurs; a woman must depend on her reins, whip, and left leg. As only one rein and the whip can be well held in one hand, double reins, except for hunting, are to a lady merely a perplexing puzzle. The best way for a lady is to knot up the snaffle, and hang it over the pommel, and ride with a light hand on the curb. In order to give those ladies who may not have instruction at hand an idea of a safe, firm, and elegant seat, I have placed at the head of this chapter a woodcut, which shows how the legs should be placed. The third or hunting-horn pommel must be fitted to the rider, as its situation in the saddle will differ, to some extent, according to the length of the lady's legs. I hope my plain speaking will not offend American friends. The first step is to sit well down on the saddle, then pass the right leg over the upstanding pommel, and let it hang straight down,--a little back, if leaping; if the foot pokes out, the lady has no firm hold. The stirrup must then be shortened, so as to bring the bent thigh next to the knee of the left leg firmly against the under side of the hunting-horn pommel. If, when this is done, an imaginary line were drawn from the rider's backbone, which would go through the centre of the saddle, close to the cantle, she is in her proper place, and leaning rather back than forward, firm and close from the hips downwards, flexible from her hips upwards, with her hands holding the reins apart, a little above the level of her knee, she is in a position at once powerful and graceful. This is a very imperfect description of a very elegant picture. The originals, few and far between, are to be found for nine months of the year daily in Rotten Row. A lady in mounting, should hold the reins in her left hand, and place it on the pommel, the right hand as far over the cantle as she can comfortably reach. If there is no skilful man present to take her foot, make any man kneel down and put out his right knee as a step, and let down the stirrup to be shortened afterwards. Practise on a high chest of drawers! After all the rules of horsemanship have been perfectly learned, nothing but practice can give the instinct which prepares a rider for the most sudden starts, leaps, and "kickings up behind and before." The style of a man's seat must, to a certain extent, be settled by his height and shape. A man with short round legs and thighs cannot sit down on his horse like tall thin men, such as Jim Mason, or Tom Oliver, but men of the most unlikely shapes, by dint of practice and pluck, go well in the hunting-field, and don't look ridiculous on the road. There are certain rules laid down as to the length of a man's stirrup-leathers, but the only good rule is that they should be short enough to give the rider full confidence in his seat, and full power over a pulling horse. For hunting it is generally well to take them up one hole shorter than on the road. The military directions for mounting are absurd for civilians; in the first place, there ought to be no right side or wrong side in mounting; in both the street and hunting-field it is often most convenient to mount on what is called the wrong side. In the next place horses trained on the Rarey plan (and very soon all horses will be), will stand without thinking of moving when placed by the rider, so that the military direction to stand before the stirrup becomes unnecessary. The following is Mr. Rarey's plan of mounting for men, which is excellent, but is not described in his book, and indeed is difficult to describe at all. _To mount with the girths slack without bearing on the stirrup._--Take up the reins and a lock of the mane, stand behind the withers looking at your horse's head, put your foot in the stirrup, and while holding the reins in one hand on the neck, place the other open and flat on the other side of the saddle as far down as the edge of the little flap, turn your toe out, so as not to touch the horse's belly, and rise by leaning on your flat hand, thus pressing hard on the side of the saddle opposite to that on which you are mounting. The pressure of your hands will counterbalance your weight, and you will be able to mount without straining the girths, or even without any girths at all. If you are not tall enough to put your foot fairly in the stirrup, use a horse-block, or, better still, a piece of solid wood about eighteen inches high, that can be moved about anywhere. Young men should learn to leap into the saddle by placing both hands on the cantle, as the horse moves. I have seen Daly, the steeplechaser, who was a little man, do this often in the hunting-field, before he broke his thigh. With respect to the best model for a seat, I recommend the very large class who form the best customers of riding-school masters in the great towns of England, I mean the gentlemen from eighteen to eight-and-twenty, who begin to ride as soon as they have the means and the opportunity, to study the style of the first-class steeplechase jockeys and gentlemen riders in the hunting-field whenever they have the opportunity. Almost all riding-masters are old dragoons, and what they teach is good as far as it goes, as to general appearance and carriage of the body, but generally the military notions about the use of a rider's arms and legs are utterly wrong. On this point we cannot have a better authority then that of the late Captain Nolan, who served in the Austrian, Hungarian, and in the English cavalry in India, and who studied horsemanship in Russia, and all other European countries celebrated for their cavalry. He says-- "The difference between a school (viz. an ordinary military horseman) and a real horseman is this, the first depends upon guiding and managing his horse for maintaining his seat; the second depends upon his seat for controlling and guiding his horse. At a _trot_ the school rider, instead of lightly rising to the action of the horse, bumps up and down, falling heavily on the horse's loins, and hanging on the reins to prevent the animal slipping from under him, whilst he is thrown up in his seat." It is a curious circumstance that the English alone have two styles of horsemanship. The one, natural and useful, formed in the hunting-field; the other, artificial and military, imported from the Continent. If you go into Rotten Row in the season you may see General the Earl of Cardigan riding a trained charger in the most approved military style--the toes in the stirrups, long stirrup-leathers, heels down, legs from the knee carefully clear of the horse's sides--in fact, the balance seat, handed down by tradition from the time when knights wore complete armour and could ride in no other way, for the weight of the armour rendered a fall certain if once the balance was lost; a very grand and graceful style it is when performed by a master of the art of the length of limb of the Earl, or his more brilliant predecessor, the late Marquess of Anglesea. But if you go into Northamptonshire in the hunting season, you may see the same Earl of Cardigan in his scarlet coat, looking twice as thick in the waist, sailing away in the first flight, sitting down on the part intended by nature for a seat, with his knees well bent, and his calves employed in distributing his weight over the horse's back and sides. In the one case the Earl is a real, in the other a show, horseman. Therefore, when a riding-master tells you that you must ride by balance, "with your body upright, knee drawn back, and the feet in a perpendicular line with the shoulder, and your legs from the knee downward brought away to prevent what is called _clinging_," listen to him, learn all you can--do not argue, that would be useless--and then take the first opportunity of studying those who are noted for combining an easy, natural seat with grace--that is, if you are built for gracefulness--some people are not. In Nolan's words, "Let a man have a roomy saddle, and sit close to the horse's back; let the leg be supported by the stirrup in a natural position, without being so short as to throw back the thigh, and the nearer the whole leg is brought to the horse the better, so long as the foot is not bent below the ankle-joint." Soon after the battle of Waterloo, by influence of the Prince Regent, who fancied he knew something about cavalry, a Prussian was introduced to teach our cavalry a new style of equitation, which consisted in entirely abandoning the use of that part of the person in which his Royal Highness was so highly gifted, and riding on the fork like a pair of compasses on a rolling pin, with perfectly straight legs. For a considerable period this ridiculous drill, which deprived the soldiers of all power over their horses, was carried on in the fields where Belgrave Square now stands, and was not abandoned until the number of men who suffered by it was the cause of a serious remonstrance from commanding officers. It is a pity that the reverse system has never been tried, and a regiment of cavalry taught riding on English fox-hunting principles, using the snaffle on the road, and rising in the trot. But it must be admitted that since the war there has been a great improvement in this respect, and there will probably be more as the martinets of the old school die off. It was not for want of examples of a better style that the continental military style was forced upon our cavalry. Mr. Nathaniel Gould relates in his little book as an instance of what determined hunting-men can do, that-- "When, in the year 1815, Blucher arrived in London and drove at once to Carlton House, I was one of a few out of an immense concourse of horsemen who accompanied his carriage from Shooter's Hill, riding on each side; spite of all obstacles we forced ourselves through the Horse Guards gate and the troop of guardsmen, in like manner through the Light Cavalry and gate at Carlton House, as well as the posse of constables in the court-yard, and drove our horses up the flight of stone steps into the salon, though the guards, beefeaters, and constables arrayed themselves against this irruption of Cossacks, and actually came to the charge. The Prince, however, in the noblest manner waved his hand, and we were allowed to form a circle round the Regent while Blucher had the blue ribbon placed on his shoulders, and was assisted to rise by the Prince in the most dignified manner. His Royal Highness then slightly acknowledged our presence, we backed to the door, and got down the steps again with only one accident, that arising from a horse, which, on being urged forward, took a leap down the whole flight of stairs." But to return to the subject of a man's seat on horseback. Nolan, quoting Baucher, says, "When first put on horseback, devote a few lessons to making his limbs supple, in the same way that you begin drill on foot with extension motions. Show him how to close up the thigh and leg to the saddle, and then work the leg backwards and forwards, up and down, _without stirrups_; _make him swing a weight round in a circle from the shoulder as centre_; the other hand placed on the thigh, thence to the rear, change the weight to the opposite hand, and same." "_Placing one hand on the horse's mane_, make him lean down to each side in succession, till he reaches to within a short distance of the ground." "These exercises give a man a firm hold with his legs, on a horse, and teach him to move his limbs without quitting his seat. Then take him in the circle in the longe, and, by walking and trotting alternately, teach him the necessity of leaning with the body to the side the horse is turning to. This is the necessary balance. Then put him with others, and give him plenty of trotting, to shake him into his seat. By degrees teach him how to use the reins, then the leg." These directions for training a full-grown trooper may be of use to civilians. HANDS AND REINS. Presuming that you are in a fair way to obtain a secure seat, the next point is the use of the reins and the employment of your legs, for it is by these that a horseman holds, urges, and turns his horse. To handle a horse in perfection, you must have, besides instruction, "good hands." Good or light hands, like the touch of a first-rate violinist, are a gift, not always to be acquired even by thought and practice. The perfection of riding is to make your horse understand and obey your directions, as conveyed through the reins--to halt, or go fast or slow; to walk, trot, canter, or gallop; to lead off with right or left leg, to change leg, to turn either way, and to rise in leaping at the exact point you select. No one but a perfect horseman, with naturally fine hands, can do this perfectly, but every young horseman should try. The golden rule of horsemanship is laid down by Colonel Greenwood, in a sentence that noodles will despise for its "trite simplicity:"--"When you wish to turn to the right, pull the right rein stronger than the left." This is common sense. No horse becomes restive in the colt-breaker's hands. The reason is, that they ride with one bridle and two hands, instead of two bridles and one hand. "When they wish to go to the left, they pull the left rein stronger than the right. When they wish to go to the right, they pull the right rein stronger than the left. If the colt does not obey these indications, at least he understands them, even the first time he is mounted, and the most obstinate will not long resist them. Acting on these plain principles, I saw, in August last, a three-year-old colt which, placed absolutely raw and unbridled in Mr. Rarey's hands, within seven days answered every indication of the reins like an old horse--turned right or left, brought his nose to the rider's knee, and backed like an old trooper. "But it takes a long time to make a colt understand that he is to turn to the right when the left rein is pulled;" and if any horse resists, the rider has no power one-handed, as the reins are usually held, to compel him. The practice of one-handed riding originated in military schools; for a soldier has to carry a sword or lance, and depends chiefly on his well-trained horse and the pressure of his legs. No one ever attempts to turn a horse in harness with one hand, although there the driver has the assistance of the terrets, and it is equally absurd to attempt it with a colt or horse with a delicate mouth. Of course, with an old-trained hack even the reins are a mere form; any hint is enough. The advantage of double-handed riding is, that, in a few hours, any colt and any pupil in horsemanship may learn it. To make the most of a horse, the reins must be held with a smooth, even bearing, not hauling at a horse's mouth, as if it were made of Indian rubber, nor yet leaving the reins slack, but so feeling him that you can instantaneously direct his course in any direction, "as if," to use old Chifney's phrase, "your rein was a worsted thread." Your legs are to be used to force your horse forward up to the bit, and also to guide him. That is, when you turn to the right pull the right rein sharpest and press with the left leg; when to the left, _vice versâ_. Unless a horse rides up to the bit you have no control over him. A good horseman chooses his horse's ground and his pace for him. "To avoid a falling leaf a horse will put his foot over a precipice. When a horse has made a stumble, or is in difficulties at a fence, you cannot leave him too much at liberty, or be too quiet with him." Don't believe the nonsense people talk about holding a horse up _after_ he has stumbled. The pupil horseman should remember to drop his hands as low as he can on each side the withers, without stooping, when a horse becomes restive, plunging or attempting to run away. The instinct of a novice is to do exactly what he ought not to do--raise his hands. By a skilful use of the reins and your own legs, with or without spurs, you collect, or, as Colonel Greenwood well expresses it, you condense your horse, at a stand, that is, you make him stand square, yet ready to move in any direction at any pace that you require; this is one use of the curb bit. It is on the same principle that fashionable coachmen "hit and hold" their high-bred horses while they thread the crowded streets of the West end in season, or that you see a hard rider, when starting with three hundred companions at the joyful sound of Tally-ho, pricking and holding his horse, to have him ready for a great effort the moment he is clear of the crowd. By a judicious use of the curb rein, you collect a tired horse; tired horses are inclined to sprawl about. You draw his hind-legs under him, throw him upon his haunches, and render him less liable to fall even on his weary or weak fore-legs. But a pull at the reins when a horse is falling may make him hold up his head, but cannot make him hold up his legs. "When a horse is in movement there should be a constant touch or feeling or play between his mouth and the rider's hands." Not the hold by which riders of the foreign school retain their horses at an artificial parade pace, which is inconceivably fatiguing to the animal, and quite contrary to our English notions of natural riding; but a gradual, delicate firm feeling of the mouth and steady indications of the legs, which keep a fiery well-broken horse always, to use a school phrase, "between your hands and legs." You cannot take too much pains to acquire this art, for although it is not exercised on an old hack, that you ride with reins held any how, and your legs dangling anywhere, it is called into action and gives additional enjoyment to be striding the finest class of high-couraged delicate-mouthed horses--beautiful creatures that seem to enjoy being ridden by a real horseman or light-handed Amazone, but which become frantic in ignorant or brutal hands. "A horse should never be turned without being made to collect himself, without being retained by the hands and urged by the legs, as well as guided by both; that is, in turning to the right both hands should retain him, and the right hand guide him, by being used the strongest; in turning to the left, both legs should urge him, and the left guide him by being pressed the strongest. Don't turn into the contrary extreme, slackening the left rein, and hauling the horse's head round to the right." The same rules should be observed for making a horse canter with the right leg, but the right rein should be only drawn enough to develop his right nostril. _Reining Back._--You must collect a horse with your legs before you rein him back, because if you press him back first with the reins he may throw all his weight on his hind legs under him, stick out his nose, hug his tail, and then he cannot stir--you must recover him to his balance, and give him power to step back. This rule is often neglected by carters in trying to make the shaft-horse back. _Rearing._--Knot the snaffle rein--loose it when the horse rears--put your right arm round the horse's neck, with the hand well up and close under the horse's gullet; press your left shoulder forward so as to bring your chest to the horse's near side, for, if the horse falls, you will fall clear; the moment he is descending, press him forward, take up the rein, which, being knotted, is short to your hands, and ply the spurs. But a horse, after being laid down and made walk, tied up like the zebra a few times, will seldom persist, because the moment he attempts to rise you pull his off hind leg under him and he is powerless. _Leaping._--The riding-school is a bad place to teach a horse to leap. The bar, with its posts, is very apt to frighten him; if a colt has not been trained to leap as it should be by following its dam before it is mounted, take it into the fields and let it follow well-trained horses over easy low fences and little ditches, slowly without fuss, and, as part of the ride, not backwards and forwards--always leap on the snaffle. Our cavalry officers learn to leap, not in the school, but "across country." Nolan tells a story that, during some manoeuvres in Italy, an Austrian general, with his staff, got amongst some enclosures and sent some of his aide-de-camps to find an outlet. They peered over the stone walls, rode about, but could find no gap. The general turned to one of his staff, a Yorkshireman, and said, "See if you can find a way out of this place." Mr. W----k, mounted on a good English horse, went straight at the wall, cleared it, and, while doing so, turned in his saddle and touched his cap and said, "This way, general;" but his way did not suit the rest of the party. There is a good deal taught in the best military schools, well worth time and study, which, with practice in horse-taming, would fill up the idle time of that numerous class who never read, and find time heavy on their hands, when out of town life. "But a military riding-school," says Colonel Greenwood, "is too apt to teach you to sit on your horse as stiff as a statue, to let your right hand hang down as useless as if God had never gifted you with one, to stick your left hand out, with a stiff straight wrist like a boltsprit, and to turn your horse invariably on the wrong rein." I should not venture to say so much on my own authority, but Captain Nolan says further, speaking of the effect of the foreign school (not Baucher's), on horses and men, "The result of this long monotonous course of study is, that on the uninitiated the school rider makes a pleasing impression, his horse turns, prances, and caracoles without any visible aid, or without any motion in the horseman's upright, imposing attitude. But I have lived and served with them. I have myself been a riding-master, and know, from experience, the disadvantages of this foreign seat and system." There is nothing that requires more patience and firmness than a shying horse. Shying arises from three causes--defective eyesight, skittishness, and fear. If a horse always shies from the same side you may be sure the eye on that side is defective. You may know that a horse shies from skittishness if he flies one day snorting from what he meets the next with indifference; dark stables also produce this irregular shying. Nervousness, which is often increased by brutality, as the horse is not only afraid of the object, but of the whipping and spurring he has been accustomed to receive, can be alleviated, to some extent, by the treatment already described in the horse-training chapter. But horses first brought from the country to a large town are likely to be alarmed at a number of objects. You must take time to make them acquainted with each. For instance, I brought a mare from the country that everything moving seemed to frighten. I am convinced she had been ill-used, or had had an accident in harness. The first time a railway train passed in her sight over a bridge spanning the road she was travelling, she would turn round and would have run away had I not been able to restrain her; I could feel her heart beat between my legs. Acting on the principles of Xenophon and Mr. Rarey, I allowed her to turn, but compelled her to stand, twenty yards off, while the train passed. She looked back with a fearful eye all the time--it was a very slow luggage train--while I soothed her. After once or twice she consented to face the train, watching it with crested neck and ears erect; by degrees she walked slowly forwards, and in the course of a few days passed under the bridge in the midst of the thunder of a train with perfect indifference. If you can distinctly ascertain that a horse shies and turns round from mere skittishness, correct him when he turns, not as long as he faces the object: he will soon learn that it is for turning that he is visited with whip and spurs. A few days' practice and patience essentially alter the character of the most nervous horses. Books contain very elaborate descriptions of what a hack or a hunter should be in form, &c. To most persons these descriptions convey no practical ideas. The better plan is to take lessons on the proportions and anatomy of a horse from some intelligent judge or veterinary surgeon. You must study, and buy, and lose your money on many horses before you can safely, if ever, depend on your own judgment in choosing a horse. And, after all, a natural talent for comparison and eye for proportion are only the gift of a few. Some men have horses all their lives, and yet scarcely know a good animal from a bad one, although they may know what they like to drive, or ride or hunt. The safe plan is to distrust your own judgment until you feel you have had experience enough to choose for yourself. Hacks for long distances are seldom required in England in these railway days. A town hack should be good-looking, sure-footed, not too tall, and active, for you are always in sight, you have to ride over slippery pavement, to turn sharp corners, and to mount and dismount often. Rarey's system of making the horse obey the voice, stand until called, and follow the rider, may easily be taught, and is of great practical value thus applied. A cover or country hack must be fast, but need not be so showy in action or handsome as a town hack--his merit is to get over the ground. Teach your hack to walk well with the reins loose--no pace is more gentlemanly and useful than a good steady walk. Any well-bred screw can gallop; it is the slow paces that show a gentleman's hack. If on a long journey, walk a quarter of a mile for every four you trot or canter, choosing the softest bits of road or turf. Do not permit the saddle to be removed for at least half an hour after arriving with your horse hot. A neglect of this precaution will give a sore back. A lady's horse, beside other well-known qualifications of beauty and pace, should be up to the lady's weight. It is one of the fictions of society that all ladies eat little and weigh little. Now, a saddle and habit weigh nearly three stone, a very slim lady will weigh nine, so there you reach twelve stone, which, considering how fond young girls are of riding fast and long over hard roads, is no mean weight. The best plan is to put the dear creatures into the scales with their saddles, register the result, and choose a horse calculated to be a good stone over the gross weight. How few ladies remember, as for hours they canter up and down Rotten Row, that that famous promenade is a mile and a quarter in length, so ten turns make twelve miles and a half. The qualifications of a hunter need not be described, because all those who need these hints will, if they have common sense, only take hunters like servants, with established characters of at least one season. Remember that a horse for driving requires "courage," for he is always going fast--he never walks. People who only keep one or two horses often make the same mistake, as if they engaged Lord Gourmet's cook for a servant of all work. They see a fiery caprioling animal, sleek as a mole, gentle, but full of fire, come out of a nobleman's stud, where he was nursed like a child, and only ridden or driven in his turn, with half-a-dozen others. Seduced by his lively appearance, they purchase him, and place him under the care of a gardener-groom, or at livery, work him every day, early and late, and are surprised to find his flesh melt, his coat lose its bloom, and his lively pace exchanged for a dull shamble. This is a common case. The wise course is to select for a horse of all work an animal that has been always accustomed to work hard; he will then improve with care and regular exercise. Horses under six years' old are seldom equal to very hard work: they are not, full-grown, of much use, where only one or two are kept. Make a point of caressing your horse, and giving him a carrot or apple whenever he is brought to you, at the same time carefully examine him all over, see to his legs, his shoes, and feet; notice if he is well groomed; see to the condition of his furniture, and see always that he is properly bitted. Grooms are often careless and ignorant. As to _Shoeing_. In large towns there are always veterinary surgeons' forges, where the art is well understood, and so, too, in hunting districts; but where you have to rely on ignorant blacksmiths you cannot do better than rely on the rather exaggerated instructions contained in "Miles on the Horse's Foot," issued at a low price by the Royal Agricultural Society. Good shoeing prolongs the use of a horse for years. _Stables._--Most elaborate directions are given for the construction of stables; but most people are obliged to put up with what they find on their premises. Stables should be so ventilated that they never stink, and are never decidedly warm in cold weather, if you wish your horses to be healthy. Grooms will almost always stop up ventilation if they can. Loose boxes are to be preferred to stalls, because in them a tired horse can place himself in the position most easy to him. Sloping stalls are chambers of torture. Hunters should be placed away from other horses, where, after a fatiguing day, they can lie at length, undisturbed by men or other horses in use. Stables should be as light as living rooms, but with louvers to darken them in summer, in order to keep out the flies. An ample supply of cold and hot water without troubling the cook is essential in a well-managed stable. Large stables are magnificent, but a mistake. Four or five horses are quite as many as can be comfortably lodged together. I have seen hunters in an old barn in better condition than in the grandest temples of fashionable architects. It takes an hour to dress a horse well in the morning, and more on return hot from work. From this hint you may calculate what time your servant must devote to his horses if they are to be well dressed. If you are in the middle class, with a small stud, never take a swell groom from a great stable--he will despise you and your horses. Hunting farmers and hunting country surgeons train the best class of grooms. When you find an honest, sober man, who thoroughly knows his business, you cannot treat him too well, for half the goodness of a horse depends, like a French dish, on the treatment. FOOTNOTES: [114-*] "Hints on Horses and Hunting," by Senex. [Illustration: SIDE SADDLE.] CHAPTER IX. ON HORSEMAN'S AND HORSEWOMAN'S DRESS, AND HORSE FURNITURE. On bits.--The snaffle.--The use of the curb.--The Pelham.--The Hanoverian bit described.--Martingales.--The gentleman's saddle to be large enough.--Spurs.--Not to be too sharp.--The Somerset saddle for the timid and aged.--The Nolan saddle without flaps.--Ladies' saddle described.--Advantages of the hunting-horn crutch.--Ladies' stirrup.--Ladies' dress.--Hints on.--Habit.--Boots.--Whips.--Hunting whips.--Use of the lash.--Gentleman's riding costume.--Hunting dress.--Poole, the great authority.--Advantage of cap over hat in hunting.--Boot-tops and Napoleons.--Quotation from Warburton's ballads. If you wish to ride comfortably, you must look as carefully to see that your horse's furniture fits and suits him as to your own boots and breeches. [Illustration: CURB-BIT.] When a farmer buys a team of oxen, if he knows his business he asks their names, because oxen answer to their names. On the same principle it is well to inquire what bit a horse has been accustomed to, and if you cannot learn, try several until you find out what suits him. There are rare horses, "that carry their own heads," in dealers' phrase, safely and elegantly with a plain snaffle bridle; but except in the hands of a steeple-chase jock, few are to be so trusted. Besides, as reins, as well as snaffles, break, it is not safe to hunt much with one bit and one bridle-rein. The average of horses go best on a double bridle, that is to say, the common hard and sharp or curb, with a snaffle. The best way is to ride on the snaffle, and use the curb only when it is required to stop your horse suddenly, to moderate his speed when he is pulling too hard, or when he is tired or lazy to collect him, by drawing his nose down and his hind-legs more under him, for that is the first effect of taking hold of the curb-rein. There are many horses with good mouths, so far that they can be stopped easily with a plain snaffle, and yet require a curb-bit, to make them carry their heads in the right place, and this they often seem to do from the mere hint of the curb-chain dangling against their chins, without the rider being obliged to pull at the reins with any perceptible force. [Illustration: PLAIN SNAFFLE.] The Pelham-bit (see cut), which is a sort of snaffle-bit with cheeks and a curb-chain, is a convenient style for this class of horse. A powerful variation of the Pelham, called the Hanoverian, has within the last few years come very much into use. It requires the light hands of a practised horseman to use the curb-reins of the Hanoverian on a delicate-mouthed horse; but when properly used no bit makes a horse bend and display himself more handsomely, and in the hunting-field it will hold a horse when nothing else will, for this bit is a very powerful snaffle, as well as curb, with rollers or rings, that keep the horse's mouth moist, and prevent it from becoming dead (see cut). For hunting, use the first; if the Hanoverian it should not be too narrow. [Illustration: PELHAM-BIT.] The Chifney is a curb with, a very powerful leverage, and one of the best for a pulling horse, or a lady's use. A perfect horseman will make shift with any bit. Sir Tatton Sykes and Sir Charles Knightley, in their prime, could hold any horse with a plain snaffle; but a lady, or a weak-wristed horseman, should be provided with a bit that can stop the horse on an emergency; and many horses, perfectly quiet on the road, pull hard in the field at the beginning of a run. But it should be remembered, that when a horse runs away, it is useless to rely on the curb, as, when once he has fully resisted it, the longer he runs the less he cares for it. The better plan is to keep the snaffle moving and sawing in his mouth, and from time to time take a sharp pull at the curb. [Illustration: HANOVERIAN-BIT.] It is of great importance, especially with a high-spirited horse, that the headpiece should fit him, that it is neither too tight nor too low down in his mouth. I have known a violently restive horse to become perfectly calm and docile when his bridle had been altered so as to fit him comfortably. The curb-bit should be placed so low as only just to clear the tushes in a horse's mouth, and one inch above the corner teeth in a mare's. There should be room for at least one finger between the curb-chain and the chin. If the horse is tender-skinned, the chain may be covered with leather. When you are learning to ride, you should take pains to learn everything concerning the horse and his equipments. In this country we are so well waited upon, that we often forget that we may at some time or other be obliged to become our own grooms and farriers. For the colonies, the best bridle is that described in the chapter on training colts, which is a halter, a bridle, and a gag combined. Bridle reins should be soft, yet tough; so long, and no longer, so that by extending your arms you can shorten them to any desired length; then, if your horse pokes out his head, or extends himself in leaping, you can, if you hold the reins in each hand, as you ought, let them slip through your fingers, and shorten them in an instant by extending your arms. A very good sportsman of my acquaintance has tabs sewn on the curb-reins, which prevents them from slipping. This is a useful plan for ladies who ride or drive; but, as before observed, in hunting the snaffle-reins should slip through the fingers. Some horses require martingales to keep their heads down, and in the right place. But imperfect horsemen are not to be trusted with running martingales. Running martingales require tabs on the reins, to prevent the rings getting fixed close to the mouth. For hacks and ladies' horses on the road, a standing martingale, buckled to the nose-band of the bridle, is the best. It should be fixed, as Mr. Rarey directs, not so short as to bring the horse's head exactly where you want it--your hands must do that--but just short enough to keep his nose down, and prevent him from flinging his poll into your teeth. If his neck is rightly shaped, he will by degrees lower his head, and get into the habit of so arching his neck that the martingale may be dispensed with; this is very desirable, because you cannot leap with a standing martingale, and a running one requires the hands of a steeplechase jock. The saddle of a gentleman should be large enough. In racing, a few pounds are of consequence; but in carrying a heavy man on the road or in the field, to have the weight evenly distributed over the horse's back is of more consequence than three or four pounds. The common general fitting saddle will fit nine horses out of ten. Colonial horses usually have low shoulders; therefore colonial saddles should be narrow, thickly stuffed, and provided with cruppers, although they have gone out of fashion in this country, because it is presumed that gentlemen will only ride horses that have a place for carrying a saddle properly. On a journey, see to the stuffing of your saddle, and have it put in a draft, or to the fire, to dry, when saturated with sweat; the neglect of either precaution may give your horse a sore back, one of the most troublesome of horse maladies. Before hunting, look to the spring bars of the stirrup-leathers, and see that they will work: if they are tight, pull them down and leave them open. Of all accidents, that of being caught, after your horses fall, in the stirrup, is the most dangerous, and not uncommon. I have seen at least six instances of it. When raw to the hunting-field, and of course liable to falls, it is well to use the spring-bar stirrups which open, not at the side, but at the eye holding the stirrup-leather; the same that I recommend for the use of ladies. Spurs are only to be used by those who have the habit of riding, and will not use them at the wrong time. In most instances, the sharp points of the rowels should be filed or rubbed off, for they are seldom required for more than to rouse a horse at a fence, or turn him suddenly away from a vehicle in the street. Sharp spurs may be left to jockeys. Long-legged men can squeeze their horses so hard, that they can dispense with spurs; but short-legged men need them at the close of a run, when a horse begins to lumber carelessly over his fences, or with a horse inclined to refuse. Dick Christian broke difficult horses to leaping without the spur; and when he did, only used one on the left heel. Having myself had falls with horses at the close of a run, which rushed and pulled at the beginning, for want of spurs, I have found the advantage of carrying one in my sandwich-bag, and buckling it on, if needed, at a check. Of course, first-rate horsemen need none of these hints; but I write for novices only, of whom, I trust, every prosperous year of Old England will produce a plentiful crop from the fortunate and the sons of the fortunate. A great many persons in this country learn, or relearn, to ride after they have reached manhood, either because they can then for the first time afford the dignity and luxury, or because the doctor prescribes horse exercise as the only remedy for weak digestion, disordered liver, trembling nerves--the result of overwork or over-feeding. Thus the lawyer, overwhelmed with briefs; the artist, maintaining his position as a Royal Academician; the philosopher, deep in laborious historical researches; and the young alderman, exhausted by his first year's apprenticeship to City feeding, come under the hands of the riding-master. Now although for the man "to the manner bred," there is no saddle for hard work and long work, whether in the hunting-field or Indian campaign, like a broad seated English hunting saddle, there is no doubt that its smooth slippery surface offers additional difficulties to the middle-aged, the timid, and those crippled by gout, rheumatism or pounds. There can be very little benefit derived from horse exercise as long as the patient travels in mortal fear. Foreigners teach riding on a buff leather demi-pique saddle,--a bad plan for the young, as the English saddle becomes a separate difficulty. But to those who merely aspire to constitutional canters, and who ride only for health, or as a matter of dignity, I strongly recommend the Somerset saddle, invented for one of that family of cavaliers who had lost a leg below the knee. This saddle is padded before the knee and behind the thigh to fit the seat of the purchaser, and if provided with a stuffed seat of brown buckskin will give the quartogenarian pupil the comfort and the confidence of an arm-chair. They are, it may be encouraging to mention, fashionable among the more aristocratic middle-aged, and the front roll of stuffing is much used among those who ride and break their own colts, as it affords a fulcrum against a puller, and a protection against a kicker. Australians use a rolled blanket, strapped over the pommel of the saddle, for the same purpose. To bad horsemen who are too conceited to use a Somerset, I say, in the words of the old proverb, "Pride must have a fall." The late Captain Nolan had a military saddle improved from an Hungarian model, made for him by Gibson, of Coventry Street, London, without flaps, and with a felt saddle cloth, which had the advantage of being light, while affording the rider a close seat and more complete control over his horse, in consequence of the more direct pressure of the legs on the horse's flanks. It would be worth while to try a saddle of this kind for hunting purposes, and for breaking in colts. Of course it could only be worn with boots, to protect the rider's legs from the sweat of the horse's flanks. With the hunting-horn crutch the seat of a woman is stronger than that of a man, for she presses her right leg down over the upright pommel, and the left leg up against the hunting-horn, and thus grasps the two pommels between her legs at that angle which gives her the most power. Ladies' saddles ought invariably to be made with what is called the hunting-horn, or crutch, at the left side. The right-hand pommel has not yet gone out of fashion, but it is of no use, and is injurious to the security of a lady's seat, by preventing the right hand from being put down as low as it ought to be with a restive horse, and by encouraging the bad habit of leaning the right hand on it. A flat projection is quite sufficient. The security of the hunting-horn saddle will be quite clear to you, if, when sitting in your chair, you put a cylinder three or four inches in diameter between your legs, press your two knees together by crossing them, in the position of a woman on a side-saddle; when a man clasps his horse, however firmly, it has a tendency, to raise the seat from the saddle. This is not the case with the side-saddle seat: if a man wishes to use a lance and ride at a ring, he will find that he has a firmer seat with this kind of side-saddle than with his own. There is no danger in this side-pommel, since you cannot be thrown on it, and it renders it next to impossible that the rider should be thrown upon the other pommel. In case of a horse leaping suddenly into the air and coming down on all four feet, technically, "_bucking_," without the leaping-horn there is nothing to prevent a lady from being thrown up. But the leaping-horn holds down the left knee, and makes it a fulcrum to keep the right knee down in its proper place. If the horse in violent action throws himself suddenly to the left, the upper part of the rider's body will tend downwards, to the right, and the lower limbs to the left: nothing can prevent this but the support of the leaping-horn. The fear of over-balancing to the right causes many ladies to get into the bad habit of leaning over their saddles to the left. This fear disappears when the hunting-horn pommel is used. The leaping-horn is also of great use with a hard puller, or in riding down a steep place, for it prevents the lady from sliding forward. But these advantages render the right-hand pommel quite useless, a slight projection being all sufficient (see woodcut); while this arrangement gives the habit and figure a much better appearance. Every lady ought to be measured for this part of the saddle, as the distance between the two pommels will depend partly on the length of her legs. When a timid inexperienced lady has to ride a fiery horse it is not a bad plan to attach a strap to the outside girth on the right hand, so that she may hold it and the right hand rein at the same time without disturbing her seat. This little expedient gives confidence, and is particularly useful if a fresh horse should begin to kick a little. Of course it is not to be continued, but only used to give a timid rider temporary assistance. I have also used for the same purpose a broad tape passed across the knees, and so fastened that in a fall of the horse it would give way. Colonel Greenwood recommends that for fastening a ladies' saddle-flaps an elastic webbing girth, and not a leather girth, should be used, and this attached, not, as is usually the case, to the small, but to the _large flap_ on the near side. This will leave the near side small flap loose, as in a man's saddle, and allow a spring bar to be used. But I have never seen, either in use or in a saddler's shop, although I have constantly sought, a lady's saddle so arranged with a spring bar for the stirrup-leather. This mode of attaching a web girth to the large flap will render the near side perfectly smooth, with the exception of the stirrup-leather, which he recommends to be a single thin strap as broad as a gentleman's, fastened to the stirrup-leg by a loop or slipknot, and fixed over the spring bar of the saddle by a buckle like that on a man's stirrup-leather. This arrangement, which the Colonel also recommends to gentlemen, presumes that the length of the stirrup-leather never requires altering more than an inch or two. It is a good plan for short men when travelling, and likely to ride strange horses, to carry their stirrup-leathers with them, as nothing is more annoying than to have to alter them in a hurry with the help of a blunt pen-knife. "The stirrup for ladies should be in all respects like a man's, large and heavy, and open at the side, or the eyelet hole, with a spring." The stirrups made small and padded out of compliment to ladies' small feet are very dangerous. If any padding be required to protect the front of the ankle-joint, it had better be a fixture on the boot. It is a mistake to imagine that people are dragged owing to the stirrup being too large, and the foot passing through it; such accidents arise from the stirrup being too small, and the foot clasped by the pressure of the upper part on the toe and the lower part on the sole. Few ladies know how to dress for horse exercise, although there has been a great improvement, so far as taste is concerned, of late years. As to the head-dress, it may be whatever is in fashion, provided it so fits the head as not to require continual adjustment, often needed when the hands would be better employed with the reins and whip. It should shade from the sun, and if used in hunting protect the nape of the neck from rain. The recent fashions of wearing the plumes or feathers of the ostrich, the cock, the capercailzie, the pheasant, the peacock, and the kingfisher, in the riding-hats of young ladies, in my humble opinion, are highly to be commended. As to the riding-habit, it may be of any colour and material suitable to the wearer and the season of year, but the sleeves must fit rather closely; nothing can be more out of place, inconvenient, and ridiculous, than the wide, hanging sleeves which look so well in a drawing-room. For country use the skirt of a habit may be short, and bordered at the bottom a foot deep with leather. The fashion of a waistcoat of light material for summer, revived from the fashion of last century, is a decided improvement, and so is the over-jacket of cloth, or sealskin, for rough weather. There is no reason why pretty young girls should not indulge in picturesque riding costume so long as it is appropriate. Many ladies entirely spoil the sit of the skirts by retaining the usual _impedimenta_ of petticoats[147-*]. The best-dressed horsewomen wear nothing more than a flannel chemise with long coloured sleeves, under their trousers. Ladies' trousers should be of the same material and colour as the habit, and if full flowing like a Turk's, and fastened with an elastic band round the ankle, they will not be distinguished from the skirt. In this costume, which may be made amply warm by the folds of the trousers, plaited like a Highlander's kilt (fastened with an elastic band at the waist), a lady can sit down in a manner impossible for one encumbered by two or three short petticoats. It is the chest and back which require double folds of protection during, and after, strong exercise. There is a prejudice against ladies wearing long Wellington boots; but it is quite absurd, for they need never be seen, and are a great comfort and protection in riding long distances, when worn with the trousers tucked inside. They should, for obvious reasons, be large enough for warm woollen stockings, and easy to get on and off. It would not look well to see a lady struggling out of a pair of wet boots with the help of a bootjack and a couple of chambermaids. The heels of riding-boots, whether for ladies or gentlemen, should be low, but _long_, to keep the stirrup in its place. The yellow patent leather recently introduced seems a suitable thing for the "Napoleons" of hunting ladies. And I have often thought that the long leather gaiters of the Zouave would suit them. Whips require consideration. By gentlemen on the road or in the park they are rather for ornament than use. A jockey whip is the most punishing, but on the Rarey system it is seldom necessary to use the whip except to a slug, and then spurs are more effective. A lady's whip is intended to supply the place of a man's right leg and spur; it should therefore, however ornamental and thin, be stiff and real. Messrs. Callow, of Park Lane, make some very pretty ones, pink, green and amber, from the skin of the hippopotamus, light but severe. A loop to hang it from the wrist may be made ornamental in colours and gold, and is useful, for a lady may require all the power of her little hand to grasp the right rein without the encumbrance of the whip, which on this plan will still be ready if required at a moment's notice. Hunting-whips must vary according to the country. In some districts the formidable metal hammers are still required to break intractable horses, but such whips and jobs should be left to the servants and hard-riding farmers. As a general rule the hunting-whip of a man who has nothing to do with the hounds may be light, but it should have a good crook and be stiff enough to stop a gate. A small steel stud outside the crook prevents the gate from slipping; flat lashes of a brown colour have recently come into fashion, but they are mere matters of fashion like the colour of top boots, points to which only snobs pay any attention--that is, those asses who pin their faith in externals, and who, in the days of pigtails, were ready to die in defence of those absurd excrescences. The stock of a whip made by Callow for a hunting nobleman to present to a steeple-chasing and fox-hunting professional, was of oak, a yard long, with a buck-horn crook, and a steel stud; but then the presentee is six feet high. Every hunting-whip should have a lash, but it need not be long. The lash may be required to rouse a hound under your horse's feet, or turn the pack; as for whipping off the pack from the fox in the absence of the huntsman, the whips and the master, that is an event that happens to one per cent of the field once in a lifetime, although it is a common and favourite anecdote after dinner. But then Saint Munchausen presides over the mahogany where fox-hunting feats are discussed. One use of a lash is to lead a horse by putting it through the rings of the snaffle, and to flip him up as you stand on the bank when he gets stuck fast, or dead beat in a ditch or brook. I once owed the extrication of my horse from a brook with a deep clay bottom entirely to having a long lash to my whip; for when he had plumped in close enough to the opposite bank for me to escape over his head, I was able first to guide him to a shelving spot, and then make him try one effort more by adroit flicks on his rump at a moment when he seemed prepared to give in and be drowned. In leading a horse, always pass the reins through the ring of the snaffle, so that if he pulls he is held by the mouth, not by the top of his head. The riding costume of a gentleman should be suitable without being groomish. It is a fact that does not seem universally known, that a man does not ride any better for dressing like a groom. It has lately been the fashion to discard straps. This is all very well if the horse and the rider can keep the trousers down, which can only be done by keeping the legs away from the horse's sides; but when the trousers rise to the top of the boot, and the stocking or bare leg appears, the sooner straps or knee-breeches are adopted the better. For hunting, nothing will do but boots and breeches, unless you condescend to gaiters--for trousers wet, draggled and torn, are uncomfortable and expensive wear. Leathers are pleasant, except in wet weather, and economical wear if you have a man who can clean them; but if they have to go weekly to the breeches-maker they become expensive, and are not to be had when wanted; besides, wet leather breeches are troublesome things to travel with. White cord breeches have one great convenience; they wash well, although not so elastic, warm, and comfortable as woollen cords. It is essential for comfort that hunting-breeches should be built by a tailor who knows that particular branch of business, _and tried on sitting down_ if not on horseback, for half your comfort depends on their fit. Many schneiders who are first-rate at ordinary garments, have no idea of riding clothes. Poole, of Saville Row, makes hunting-dress a special study, and supplies more hunting-men and masters of hounds than any tailor in London, but his customers must be prepared to pay for perfection. In the coats, since the modern shooting jacket fashion came in, there is great scope for variety. The fashion does not much matter so long as it is fit for riding--ample enough to cover the chest and stomach in wet weather, easy enough to allow full play for the arms and shoulders, and not so long as to catch in hedgerows and brambles. Our forefathers in some counties rode in coats like scarlet dressing-gowns. There is one still to be seen in Surrey. For appearance, for wear, and as a universal passport to civility in a strange country, there is nothing like scarlet, provided the horseman can afford to wear it without offending the prejudices of valuable patrons, friends or landlords. In Lincolnshire, farmers are expected to appear in pink. In Northamptonshire a yeoman farming his own 400 acres would be thought presumptuous if he followed the Lincolnshire example. Near London you may see the "pals" of fighting men and hell-keepers in pink and velvet. A scarlet coat should never be assumed until the rider's experience in the field is such that he is in no danger of becoming at once conspicuous and ridiculous. A cap is to be preferred to a hat because it fits closer, is less in the way when riding through cover, protects the head better from a bough or a fall, and will wear out two or three hats. It should be ventilated by a good hole at the top. Top-boots are very pretty wear for men of the right height and right sort of leg when they fit perfectly--that is difficult on fat calves--and are cleaned to perfection, which is also difficult unless you have a more than ordinarily clever groom. For men of moderate means, the patent black leather Napoleon, which costs from 3_l._ 10_s._ to 4_l._ 4_s._, and can be cleaned with a wet sponge in five minutes, is the neatest and most economical boot--one in which travelling does not put you under any obligation to your host's servants. I have often found the convenience of patent leather boots when staying with a party at the house of a master of hounds, while others, as the hounds were coming out of the kennel, were in an agony for tops entrusted two or three days previously to a not-to-be-found servant. In this point of the boots I differ from the author of "A Word ere we Start;" but then, squires of ten thousand a-year are not supposed to understand the shifts of those who on a twentieth part of that income manage to enjoy a good deal of sport with all sorts of hounds and all sorts of horses. There is a certain class of sporting snobs who endeavour to enhance their own consequence or indulge their cynical humour by talking with the utmost contempt of any variation from the kind of hunting-dress in use, in their own particular district. The best commentary on the supercilious tailoring criticism of these gents is to be found in the fact that within a century every variety of hunting clothes has been in and out of fashion, and that the dress in fashion with the Quorn hunt in its most palmy days was not only the exact reverse of the present fashion in that flying country, but, if comfort and convenience are to be regarded, as ridiculous as brass helmets, tight stocks, and buttoned-up red jackets for Indian warfare. It consisted, as may be seen in old Alken's and Sir John Dean Paul's hunting sketches, of a high-crowned hat, a high tight stock, a tight dress coat, with narrow skirts that could protect neither the chest, stomach, or thighs, long tight white cord breeches, and pale top-boots thrust low down the leg, the tops being supposed to be cleaned with champagne. Leather breeches, caps, and brown top-boots were voted slow in those days. But the men went well as they do in every dress. "Old wiseheads, complacently smoothing the brim, May jeer at my velvet, and call it a whim; They may think in a cap little wisdom there dwells; They may say he who wears it should wear it with bells; But when Broadbrim lies flat, I will answer him pat, Oh! who but a crackskull would ride in a hat!" SQUIRE WARBURTON. [Illustration: Rails and Double Ditch.] FOOTNOTES: [147-*] At an inquest on a young lady killed at Totnes in September last, it appeared that she lost her seat and hung by a _crinoline petticoat_ from the right hand _pommel_! CHAPTER X. ON HUNTING. "The sailor who rides on the ocean, Delights when the stormy winds blow: Wind and steam, what are they to horse motion? Sea cheers to a land Tally-ho? The canvas, the screw, and the paddle, The stride of the thorough-bred hack, When, fastened like glue to the saddle, We gallop astern of the pack." TARPORLEY HUNT SONG, 1855. Advantage of hunting.--Libels on.--Great men who have hunted.--Popular notion unlike reality.--Dick Christian and the Marquis of Hastings.--Fallacy of "lifting" a horse refuted.--Hints on riding at fences.--Harriers discussed.--Stag-hunting a necessity and use where time an object.--Hints for novices.--Tally-ho! expounded.--To feed a horse after a hard ride.--Expenses of horse keep.--Song by Squire Warburton, "A word ere we start." Every man who can ride, and, living within a couple of hours' distance of a pack of hounds, can spare a day now and then, should hunt. It will improve his horsemanship, enlarge his circle of acquaintance, as well as his tastes and sympathies, and make, as Shakspeare hath it-- "Good digestion wait on appetite, and health on both." Not that I mean that every horseman should attempt to follow the hounds in the first flight, or even the second; because age, nerves, weight, or other good reasons may forbid: but every man who keeps a good hack may meet his friends at cover side, enjoy the morning air, with a little pleasant chat, and follow the hounds, if not in the front, in the rear, galloping across pastures, trotting through bridle gates, creeping through gaps, and cantering along the green rides of a wood, thus causing a healthy excitement, with no painful reaction: and if, unhappily, soured or overpressed by work and anxious thoughts, drinking in such draughts of Lethe as can no otherwise be drained. Hunting has suffered as much from overpraise as from the traditionary libels of the fribbles and fops of the time of the first Georges, when a fool, a sot, and a fox-hunter were considered synonymous terms. Of late years it has pleased a sportsman, with a wonderful talent for picturesquely describing the events of a fox-hunt, to write two sporting novels, in which all the leading characters are either fools or rogues. "In England all conditions of men, except bishops, from ratcatchers to Royalty, are to be found in the hunting-field--equalised by horsemanship, and fraternising under the influence of a genial sport. Among fox-hunters we can trace a long line of statesmen, from William of Orange to Pitt and Fox. Lord Althorp was a master of hounds; and Lord Palmerston we have seen, within the last few years, going--as he goes everywhere--in the first flight." This was before the French fall of the late Premier. Cromwell's Ironsides were hunting men; Pope, the poet, writes in raptures of a gallop with the Wiltshire Harriers; and Gladstone, theologian, politician, and editor of Homer, bestrides his celebrated white mare in Nottinghamshire, and scurries along by the side of the ex-War Minister, the Duke of Newcastle. "The progress of agriculture is indelibly associated with fox-hunting; for the three great landlords, who did more to turn sand and heath into corn and wool, and make popular the best breeds of stock and best course of cultivation--Francis, Duke of Bedford; Coke, Earl of Leicester; and the first Lord Yarborough--were all masters of hounds. "When indecency formed the staple of our plays, and a drunken debauch formed the inevitable sequence of every dinner-party, a fool and a fox-hunter were synonymous. Squire Western was the representative of a class, which, however, was not more ridiculous than the patched, perfumed Sir Plumes, whom Hogarth painted, and Pope satirised. Fox-hunters are not a class now--roads, newspapers, and manufacturing emigration have equalised the condition of the whole kingdom; and fox-hunters are just like any other people, who wear clean shirts, and can afford to keep one or more horses. "It is safe to assert that hunting-men, as a class, are temperate. No man can ride well across a difficult country who is not. We must, however, admit that the birds who have most fouled their own nest have been broken-down sportsmen, chiefly racing men, who have turned writers to turn a penny. These unfortunate people, with the fatal example of 'Noctes Ambrosianæ' before them, fill up a page, whenever their memory or their industry fails them, in describing in detail a breakfast, a luncheon, a dinner, and a supper. And this has been repeated so often, that the uninitiated are led to believe that every fox-hunter must, as a matter of course, keep a French cook, and consume an immense cellar of port, sherry, madeira, hock, champagne, with gallons of strong ale, and all manner of liqueurs. "The popular notion of a fox-hunt is as unlike the reality as a girl's notion of war--a grand charge and a splendid victory. "Pictures always represent exciting scenes--hounds flying away with a burning scent; horses taking at a bound, or tumbling neck and crop over, frightful fences. Such lucky days, such bruising horsemen, such burning scents and flying foxes are the exception. "At least two-thirds of those who go out, even in the most fashionable counties, never attempt brooks or five-barred gates, or anything difficult or dangerous; but, by help of open gates and bridle-roads, which are plentiful, parallel lanes, and gaps, which are conveniently made by the first rush of the straight riders and the dealers with horses to sell, helped by the curves that hounds generally make, and a fair knowledge of the country, manage to be as near the hounds as the most thrusting horseman. Among this crowd of skirters and road-riders are to be found some very good sportsmen, who, from some cause or other, have lost their nerve; others, who live in the county, like the excitement and society, but never took a jump in their lives; young ladies with their papas; boys on ponies; farmers educating four-year-olds; surgeons and lawyers, who are looking for professional practice as well as sport. On cold scenting days, with a ringing fox, this crowd keeps on until nearly dark, and heads many a fox. Many a beginner, in his first season, has been cheated by a succession of these easy days over an easy part of the county into the idea that there was no difficulty in riding to hounds. But a straight fox and a burning scent over a grass country has undeceived him, and left him in the third or fourth field with his horse half on a hedge and half in a ditch, or pounded before a 'bulfinch,' feeling very ridiculous. There are men who cut a very respectable figure in the hunting-field who never saw a pack of hounds until they were past thirty. The city of London turns out many such; so does every great town where money is made by men of pluck, bred, perhaps, as ploughboys in the country. We could name three--one an M.P.--under these conditions, who would pass muster in Leicestershire, if necessary. But a good seat on horseback, pluck, and a love of the sport, are essential. A few years ago a scientific manufacturer, a very moderate horseman, was ordered horse exercise as a remedy for mind and body prostrated by over-anxiety. He found that, riding along the road, his mind was as busy and wretched as ever. A friend prescribed hunting, purchased for him a couple of made hunters, and gave him the needful elementary instruction. The first result was, that he obtained such sound, refreshing sleep as he had not enjoyed since boyhood; the next, that in less than two seasons he made himself quite at home with a provincial pack, and now rides so as to enjoy himself without attracting any more notice than one who had been a fox-hunter from his youth upwards." The illustration at the commencement of this chapter gives a very fair idea of the seat of good horsemen going at a fence and broad ditch, where pace is essential. A novice may advantageously study the seats of the riders in Herring's "Steeplechase Cracks," painted by an artist who was a sportsman in his day. A few invaluable hints on riding to hounds are to be found in the Druid's account of Dick Christian. The late Marquis of Hastings, father of the present Marquis, was one of the best and keenest fox-hunters of his day; he died young, and here is Dick's account of his "first fence," for which all fox-hunters are under deep obligations to the Druid. "The Marquis of Hastings was one of my pupils. I was two months at his place before he came of age. He sent for me to Donnington, and I broke all his horses. I had never seen him before. He had seven rare nice horses, and very handy I got them. The first meet I went out with him was Wartnaby Stone Pits. I rode by his side, and I says, 'My lord, we'll save a bit of distance if we take this fence.' So he looked at me and he laughed, and says, 'Why, Christian, I was never over a fence in my life.' 'God bless me, my lord! you don't say so?' And I seemed quite took aback at hearing him say it. 'Its true enough, Christian, I really mean it.' 'Well, my lord,' says I, 'you're on a beautiful fencer, he'll walk up to it and jump it. Now I'll go over the fence first. _Put your hands well down on his withers and let him come._' It was a bit of a low-staked hedge and a ditch; he got over as nice as possible, and he gave quite a hurrah like. He says, 'There, I'm over my first fence--that's a blessing!' Then I got him over a great many little places, and he quite took to it and went on uncommonly well. _He was a nice gentleman to teach--he'd just do anything you told him. That's the way to get on!_" In another place Dick says, "A quick and safe jumper always goes from hind-legs to fore-legs. I never rode a steeple-chase yet but I steadied my horse on to his hind-legs twenty yards from his fence, and I was always over and away before the rushers. Lots of the young riders think horses can jump anything if they can only drive them at it fast enough. They force them too much at their fences. If you don't feel your horse's mouth, you can tell nothing about him. You hold him, he can make a second effort; if you drop him, he won't." Now, Dick does not mean by this that you are to go slowly at every kind of fence. He tells you that he "sent him with some powder at a bullfinch;" but whatever the pace, you so hold your horse in the last fifty yards up to the taking-off point, that instead of spreading himself out all abroad at every stroke, he feels the bit and gets his hind-legs well under him. If you stand to see Jim Mason or Tom Oliver in the hunting-field going at water, even at what they call "forty miles an hour," you will find the stride of their horses a measured beat, and while they spur and urge them they collect them. This is the art no book can teach; _but it can teach that it ought to be learned_. Thousands of falls have been caused by a common and most absurd phrase, which is constantly repeated in every description of the leaps of a great race or run. "_He took his horse by the head and lifted him_," &c. No man in the world ever lifted a horse over anything--it is a mechanical impossibility--but a horseman of the first order can at a critical moment so rouse a horse, and so accurately place his head and hind-legs in the right position, that he can make an extraordinary effort and achieve a miraculous leap. This in metaphorical language is called lifting a horse, because, to a bye-stander, it looks like it. But when a novice, or even an average horseman, attempts this sort of _tour de force_, he only worries his horse, and, ten to one, throws him into the fence. Those who are wise will content themselves with keeping a horse well in hand until he is about to rise for his effort, and to collecting him the moment he lands. The right hold brings his hind legs under him; too hard a pull brings him into the ditch, if there is one. By holding your hands with the reins in each rather wide apart as you come towards your fence, and closing them and dropping them near his withers as he rises, you give him room to extend himself; and if you stretch your arms as he descends, you have him in hand. But the perfect hunter, as long as he is fresh, does his work perfectly, so the less you meddle with him when he is rising the better. Young sportsmen generally err by being too bold and too fast. Instead of studying the art in the way the best men out perform, they are hiding their nervousness by going full speed at everything, or trying to rival the whips in daring. Any hard-headed fool can ride boldly. To go well when hounds are running hard--to save your horse as much as possible while keeping well forward, for the end, the difficult part of a long run--these are the acts a good sportsman seeks to acquire by observation and experience. For this reason young sportsmen should commence their studies with harriers, where the runs are usually circling and a good deal of hunting is done slowly. If a young fellow can ride well in a close, enclosed hedge, bank, and ditch country, with occasional practice at stiles and gates, pluck will carry him through a flying country, if properly mounted. Any horse that is formed for jumping, with good loins, hocks, and thighs, can be taught to jump timber; but it is madness to ride at a gate or a stile with a doubtful horse. A deer always slacks his pace to a trot to jump a wall or park rails, and it is better to slacken to a trot or canter where there is no ditch on either side to be cleared, unless you expect a fall, and then go fast, that your horse may not tumble on you. A rushing horse is generally a dangerous fencer; but it is a trick that can only be cured in private lessons, and it is more dangerous to try to make a rusher go slowly than to let him have his own way. The great error of young beginners is to select young horses under their weight. It was the saying of a Judge of the old school, that all kinds of wine were good, but the best wine of all was "two bottles of port!" In the same style, one may venture to say that all kinds of hunting are good, but that the best of all is fox-hunting, in a grass scent-holding country, divided into large fields, with fences that may be taken in the stride of a thorough-bred, and coverts that comprise good gorse and open woods--that is, for men of the weight, with the nerve, and with the horses that can shine in such a country. But it is not given to all to have or retain the nerve or to afford a stud of the style of horses required for going across the best part of Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. In this world, the way to be happy is to put up with what you can get. The majority of my readers will be obliged to ride with the hounds that happen to live nearest their dwelling; it is only given to the few to be able to choose their hunting country and change their stud whenever the maggot bites them. After hard brain-work and gray hairs have told on the pulse, or when the opening of the nursery-door has almost shut the stable, a couple of hours or so once a week may be made pleasant and profitable on a thirty-pound hack for the quartogenarian, whom time has not handicapped with weight for age. I can say, from the experience of many years, that as long as you are under twelve stone, you may enjoy very good sport with such packs as the Bramham Moor in Yorkshire, the Brocklesby in Lincolnshire, the Heythrope in Oxfordshire, the Berkley or the Beaufort in Gloucestershire, without any enormous outlay for horses, for the simple reason that the average runs do not present the difficulties of grass countries, where farmers are obliged to make strong fences and deep ditches to keep the bullocks they fatten within bounds. Good-looking little horses, clever jumpers, equal to moderate weights, are to be had, by a man who has not too much money, at moderate prices; but the sixteen hands, well-bred flyer, that can gallop and go straight in such countries as the Vale of Aylesbury, is an expensive luxury. Of course I am speaking of sound horses. There is scarcely ever a remarkable run in which some well-ridden screw does not figure in the first flight among the two hundred guinea nags. When an old sportsman of my acquaintance heard any of the thousand-and-one tales of extraordinary runs with fox-hounds, "after dinner," he used to ask--"Were any of the boys or ponies up at the kill?" If the answer was "Yes," he would say, "Then it was not a severe thing;" and he was generally right. Men of moderate means had better choose a hunting county where the boys can live with the hounds. "As to harriers, the people who sneer at them are ludicrously ignorant of the history of modern fox-hunting, which is altogether founded on the experience and maxims of hare-hunters. The two oldest fox-hound packs in England--the Brocklesby and the Cheshire--were originally formed for hare-hunting. The best book ever written on hounds and hunting, a text-book to every master of hounds to this day, is by Beckford, who learned all he knew as master of a pack of harriers. "The great Meynell and Warwickshire Corbett both entered their young hounds to hare, a practice which cannot, however, be approved. The late Parson Froude, in North Devon, than whom a keener sportsman never holloaed to hounds, and the breeder of one of the best packs for showing sport ever seen, hunted hare, fox, deer, and even polecats, sooner than not keep his darlings doing something; and, while his hounds would puzzle out the faintest scent, there were among the leaders several that, with admirable dash, jumped every gate, disdaining to creep. Some of this stock are still hunting on Exmoor. There are at present several very good M.F.H. who began with hare-hounds. "The intense pretentious snobbishness of the age has something to do with the mysterious manner in which many men, blushing, own that they have been out with harriers. In the first place, as a rule, harriers are slow; although there are days when, with a stout, well-fed, straight-running hare, the best men will have enough to do to keep their place in the field: over the dinner-table that is always an easy task; but in this fast, competitive age, the man who can contrive to stick on a good horse can show in front without having the least idea of the meaning of hunting. To such, harriers afford no amusement. Then again, harrier packs are of all degrees, from the perfection of the Blackmoor Vale, the Brookside, and some Devon or Welsh packs with unpronounceable names, down to the little scratch packs of six or seven couple kept among jovial farmers in out-of-the-way places, or for the amusement of Sheffield cutlers running afoot. The same failing that makes a considerable class reverently worship an alderman or a city baronet until they can get on speaking terms with a peer, leads others to boast of fox-hunting when the Brighton harriers are more than they can comfortably manage." The greater number of what are called harriers now-a-days are dwarf fox-hounds, or partake largely of fox-hound blood. If Leicestershire is the county for "swells," Devonshire is the county of sportsmen; for although there is very little riding to hounds as compared with the midland counties, there is a great deal of hunting. Every village has its little pack; every man, woman, and child, from the highest to the humblest, takes an interest in the sport; and the science of hunting is better understood than in the hard-riding, horse-dealing counties. To produce a finished fox-hunter, I would have him commence his studies in Devonshire, and finish his practice in Northamptonshire. On the whole, I should say that a student of the noble science, whose early education has been neglected, cannot do better than go through a course of fox-hunting near Oxford, in the winter vacation, where plenty of perfect hunters are to be hired, and hounds meet within easy reach of the University City, six days in the week, hunting over a country where you may usually be with them at the finish without doing anything desperate, if content to come in with the ruck, the ponies, and the old farmers; or where, if so inclined, you may have more than an average number of fast and furious runs, and study the admirable style of some of the best horsemen in the world among the Oxfordshire and Berkshire squires. Stag-hunting from a cart is a pursuit very generally contemned in print, and very ardently followed by many hundred hard-riding gentlemen every hunting day in the year. A man who can ride up to stag-hounds on a straight running day must have a perfect hunter, in first-rate condition, and be, in the strongest sense of the term, "a horseman." But it wants the uncertainties which give so great a charm to fox-hunting, where there are any foxes. There is no find, and no finish; and the checks generally consist in whipping off the too eager hounds. As a compensation, when the deer does not run cunning, or along roads, the pace is tremendous. The Surrey stag-hounds, in the season of 1857, had some runs with the Ketton Hind equal in every respect to the best fox-hunts on record; for she repeatedly beat them, was loose in the woods for days, was drawn for like a wild deer, and then, with a burning scent, ran clear away from the hounds, while the hounds ran away from the horsemen. But, according to the usual order of the day, the deer begins in a cart, and ends in a barn. But stag-hunting may be defended as the very best mode of obtaining a constitutional gallop for those whose time is too valuable to be expended in looking for a fox. It is suited to punctual, commercial, military, or political duties. You may read your letters, dictate replies, breakfast deliberately, order your dinner, and invite a party to discuss it, and set off to hunt with the Queen's, the Baron's, or any other stag-hound pack within reach of rail, almost certain of two hours' galloping, and a return by the train you fixed in the morning. * * * * * There are a few hints to which pupils in the art of hunting may do well to attend. "Don't go into the field until you can sit a horse over any reasonable fence. But practice at real fences, for at the leaping-bar only the rudiments of fencing are to be learned by either man or horse. The hunting-field is not the place for practising the rudiments of the art. Buy a perfect hunter; no matter how blemished or how ugly, so that he has legs, eyes, and wind to carry him and his rider across the country. It is essential that one of the two should perfectly understand the business in hand. Have nothing to say to a puller, a rusher, or a kicker, even if you fancy you are competent; a colt should only be ridden by a man who is paid to risk his bones. An amateur endangers himself, his neighbours, and the pack, by attempting rough-riding. The best plan for a man of moderate means--those who can afford to spend hundreds on experiments can pick and choose in the best stables--is to hire a hack hunter; and, if he suits, buy him, to teach you how to go. "Never take a jump when an open gate or gap is handy, unless the hounds are going fast. Don't attempt to show in front, unless you feel you can keep there. Beginners, who try to make a display, even if lucky at first, are sure to make some horrid blunder. Go slowly at your fences, except water and wide ditches, and don't pull at the curb when your horse is rising. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, the horse will be better without your assistance than with it. Don't wear spurs until you are quite sure that you won't spur at the wrong time. Never lose your temper with your horse, and never strike him with the whip when going at a fence; it is almost sure to make him swerve. Pick out the firmest ground; hold your horse together across ploughed land; if you want a pilot, choose not a scarlet and cap, but some well-mounted old farmer, who has not got a horse to sell: if he has, ten to one but he leads you into grief. "In going from cover to cover, keep in the same field as the hounds, unless you know the country--then you can't be left behind without a struggle. To keep in the same field as the hounds when they are running, is more than any man can undertake to do. Make your commencement in an easy country, and defer trying the pasture counties until you are sure of yourself and your horse. "If you should have a cold-scenting day, and any first-rate steeplechase rider be in the field, breaking in a young one, watch him; you may learn more from seeing what he does, than from hours of advice, or pages of reading. "Above all, hold your tongue until you have learnt your lesson; and talk neither of your triumphs nor your failures. Any fool can boast; and though to ride boldly and with judgment is very pleasant, there is nothing for a gentleman to be specially proud of, considering that two hundred huntsmen, or whips, do it better than most gentlemen every hunting day in the season." When you meet the pack with a strange horse, don't go near it until sure that he will not kick at hounds, as some ill-educated horses will do. Before the hounds begin to draw, you may get some useful information as to a strange country from a talkative farmer. When hounds are drawing a large cover, and when you cannot see them, keep down wind, so as to hear the huntsman, who, in large woodlands, must keep on cheering his hounds. When a fox breaks cover near you, or you think he does, don't be in a hurry to give the "Tally-a-e-o!" for, in the first place, if you are not experienced and quick-eyed, it may not be a fox at all, but a dog, or a hare. The mistake is common to people who are always in a hurry, and equally annoying to the huntsman and the blunderer; and, in the next place, if you halloo too soon, ten to one the fox heads back into cover. When he is well away through the hedge of a good-sized field, halloo, at the same time raising your cap, "Tally-o aw-ay-o-o!" giving each syllable very slowly, and with your mouth well open; for this is the way to be heard a long distance. Do this once or twice, and then be quiet for a short spell, and be ready to tell the huntsman, when he comes up, in a few sentences, exactly which way the fox is gone. If the fox makes a short bolt, and returns, it is "Tally-o _back_!" with the "_back_" loud and clear. If the fox crosses the side of a wood when the hounds are at check, the cry should be "Tally-o over!" _Foxes._--Study the change in the appearance of the fox between the beginning and the end of a run; a fresh fox slips away with his brush straight, whisking it with an air of defiance now and then; a beaten fox looks dark, hangs his brush, and arches his back as he labours along. With the hounds well away, it is a great point to get a good start; so while they are running in cover, cast your eyes over the boundary-fence, and make up your mind where you will take it: a big jump at starting is better than thrusting with a crowd in a gap or gateway--always presuming that you can depend on your horse. Dismiss the moment you start two ideas which are the bane of sport, jealousy of what others are doing, and conceit of what you are doing yourself; keep your eyes on the pack, on your horse's ears, and the next fence, instead of burning to beat Thompson, or hoping that Brown saw how cleverly you got over that rasper! Acquire an eye to hounds, that is, learn to detect the moment when the leading hound turns right or left, or, losing the scent, checks, or, catching it breast high, races away mute, "dropping his stem as straight as a tobacco-pipe." By thus studying the leading hounds instead of racing against your neighbours' horses, you see how they turn, save many an angle, and are ready to pull up the moment the hounds throw up their heads. Never let your anxiety to be forward induce you to press upon the hounds when they are hunting; nothing makes a huntsman more angry, or spoils sport more. Set the example of getting out of the way when the huntsman, all anxious, comes trotting back through a narrow road to make his cast after a check. Attention to these hints, which are familiar to every old sportsman, will tend to make a young one successful and popular. When you are well up, and hounds come to a check, instead of beginning to relate how wonderfully the bay horse or the gray mare carried you, notice every point that may help the huntsman to make his cast--sheep, cattle, magpies, and the exact point where the scent began to fail. It is observation that makes a true sportsman. As soon as the run has ended, begin to pay attention to the condition of your horse, whose spirit may have carried him further than his strength warranted; it is to be presumed, that you have eased him at every check by turning his nose to the wind, and if a heavy man, by dismounting on every safe opportunity. The first thing is to let him have just enough water to wash his mouth out without chilling him. The next to feed him--the horse has a small stomach, and requires food often. At the first roadside inn or cottage get a quart of oatmeal or wheat-flour _boiled_ in half a pail of water--mere soaking the raw oatmeal is not sufficient. I have found the water of boiled linseed used for cattle answer well with a tired horse. In cases of serious distress a pint of wine or glass of spirits mixed with water may be administered advantageously; to decide on the propriety of bleeding requires some veterinary experience; quite as many horses as men have been killed by bleeding when stimulants would have answered better. With respect to the treatment of hunters on their return, I can do nothing better than quote the directions of that capital sportsman and horseman, Scrutator, in "Horses and Hounds." "When a horse returns to the stable, either after hunting or a journey, the first thing to be done to him is to take off the bridle, but to let the saddle _remain on_ for some time at least, merely loosening the girths. The head and ears are first to be rubbed dry, either with a wisp of hay or a cloth, and then by the hand, until the ears are warm and comfortable; this will occupy only a few minutes, and the horse can then have his bit of hay or feed of corn, having previously, if returned from hunting, or from a long journey, despatched his bucket of thick gruel: the process of washing his legs may now be going on, whilst he is discussing his feed of corn in peace; as each leg is washed, it should be wrapped round with a flannel or serge bandage, and by the time the four legs are done with, the horse will have finished his feed of corn. A little hay may then be given, which will occupy his attention while the rubbing his body is proceeded with. I am a great advocate for plenty of dry clean wheat straw for this purpose; and a good groom, with a large wisp in each hand, will in a very short space of time make a clean sweep of all outward dirt and wet. It cannot, however, be properly done without a great deal of _elbow grease_ as well, of which the present generation are inclined to be very chary. When the body of the horse is dry, a large loose rug should be thrown over him, and the legs then attended to, and rubbed thoroughly dry by the hand; I know the usual practice with idle and knowing grooms is to let the bandages remain on until the legs become dry of themselves, but I also know that there cannot be a worse practice; for horses' legs, after hunting, the large knee-bucket should be used, with plenty of warm water, which will sooth the sinews after such violent exertion, and allay any irritation proceeding from cuts and thorns. The system of bandaging horses' legs, and letting them remain in this state for hours, must tend to relax the sinews; such practices have never gained favour with me, but I have heard salt and water and vinegar highly extolled by some, with which the bandages are to be kept constantly wet, as tending to strengthen the sinews and keep them cool; if, however, used too long or allowed to become dry, I conceive more injury likely to result from their use than benefit. It is generally known that those who have recourse to belts for support in riding, cannot do well without them afterwards, and although often advised to try these extra aids, I never availed myself of them; cold water is the best strengthener either to man or horse, and a thorough good dry rubbing afterwards. After severe walking exercise, the benefit of immersing the feet in warm water for a short time must be fully appreciated by all who have tried it; but I very much question if any man would feel himself stronger upon his legs the next morning, by having them bandaged with hot flannels during the night. Very much may be done by the judicious use of hot and cold water--in fact, more than by half the prescriptions in general use; but the proper time must be attended to as well, for its application. When a horse has had a long and severe day's work, he should not be harassed more than is absolutely necessary, by grooming and dressing; the chief business should be to get him dry and comfortable as quickly as possible, and when that has been effected, a slight wisping over with a dry cloth will be sufficient for that night." The expenses of horse-keep vary according to the knowledge of the master and the honesty of his groom; but what the expense ought to be may be calculated from the fact that horses in first-rate condition cannot consume more than thirteen quarters of oats and two and a half tons of hay in a year; that is, as to oats, from three to six quarterns a day, according to the work they are doing. But in some stables, horses are supposed to eat a bushel a day every day in the year: there is no doubt that the surplus is converted into beer or gin. "Upon our return from hunting, every horse had his bucket of thick gruel directly he came into the stable, and a little hay to eat whilst he was being cleaned. We never gave any corn until just before littering down, the last thing at night. The horse's legs were plunged into a high bucket of warm water, and if dirty, soft soap was used. The first leg being washed, was sponged as dry as possible, and then bandaged with thick woollen bandages until the others were washed; the bandages were then _removed entirely_, and the legs rubbed by hand until quite dry. We used the best old white potato oats, weighing usually 45 lbs. per bushel, but so _few beans_ that a quarter lasted us _a season_. The oats were bruised, and a little sweet hay chaff mixed with them. We also gave our horses a few carrots the day after hunting, to cool their bodies, or a bran mash or two. They were never coddled up in hoods or half a dozen rugs at night, but a single blanket sufficed, which was never so tight but that you might thrust your hand easily under it. This was a thing I always looked to myself, when paying a visit to the stable the last thing at night. A tried horse should have everything comfortable about him, but carefully avoid any tight bandage round the body. In over-reaches or wounds, warm water was our first application, and plenty of it, to clean all dirt or grit from the wound; then Fryer's balsam and brandy with a clean linen bandage. Our usual allowance of corn to each horse per diem was four quarterns, but more if they required it, and from 14 lbs. to 16 lbs. of hay, eight of which were given at night, at racking-up time, about eight o'clock. Our hours of feeding were about five in the morning, a feed of corn, bruised, with a little hay chaff; the horse then went to exercise. At eight o'clock, 4 lbs. of hay; twelve o'clock, feed of corn; two o'clock, 2 lbs. of hay; four o'clock, corn; at six o'clock, another feed of corn, with chaff; and at eight o'clock, 8 lbs. of hay; water they could always drink when they wanted it." I cannot conclude these hints on hunting more appropriately than by quoting another of the songs of the Squire of Arley Hall, Honorary Laureate of the Tarporley Hunt Club:-- "A WORD ERE WE START. "The order of march and due regulation That guide us in warfare we need in the chase; Huntsman and whips, each his own proper station-- Horse, hound, and fox, each his own proper place. "The fox takes precedence of all from the cover; The horse is the animal purposely bred, _After_ the pack to be ridden, not _over_-- Good hounds are not reared to be knocked on the head. "Buckskin's the only wear fit for the saddle; Hats for Hyde Park, but a cap for the chase; In tops of black leather let fishermen paddle, The calves of a fox-hunter white ones encase. "If your horse be well bred and in blooming condition, Both up to the country and up to your weight, Oh! then give the reins to your youthful ambition, Sit down in the saddle and keep his head straight. "Eager and emulous only, not spiteful, Grudging no friend, though ourselves he may beat; Just enough danger to make sport delightful, Toil just sufficient to make slumbers sweet!" CHAPTER XI. SKETCHES OF HUNTING WITH FOX-HOUNDS AND HARRIERS. The Fitzwilliam.--Brocklesby.--A day on the Wolds.--Brighton harriers.--Prince Albert's harriers. The following descriptions of my own sport with fox-hounds and harriers will give the uninitiated some idea of the average adventures of a hunting-day:-- A DAY WITH THE LATE EARL FITZWILLIAM'S HOUNDS.[176-*] "LOO IN, LITTLE DEARIES. LOO IN." How eagerly forward they rush; In a moment how widely they spread; Have at him there, Hotspur. Hush, hush! 'Tis a find, or I'll forfeit my head. Now fast flies the fox, and still faster The hounds from the cover are freed, The horn to the mouth of the master, The spur to the flank of his steed. With Chorister, Concord, and Chorus, Now Chantress commences her song; Now Bellman goes jingling before us, And Sinbad is sailing along. The Fitzwilliam pack was established by the grandfather of the present Earl between seventy and eighty years ago; they hunt four days a week over a north-east strip of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire--a wide, wild, thinly-populated district, with some fine woodlands; country that was almost all grass, until deep draining turned some cold clay pastures into arable. It holds a rare scent, and the woodland country can be hunted, when a hot sun does not bake the ground too hard, up to the first week in May, when, in most other countries, horns are silenced. The country is wide enough, with foxes enough, to bear hunting six days a week. "Bless your heart, sir," said an old farmer, "there be foxes as tall as donkeys, as fat as pigs, in these woods, that go and die of old age." The Fitzwilliam are supposed to be the biggest-boned hounds now bred, and exquisitely handsome. If they have a fault, they are, for want of work, or excess of numbers, rather too full of flesh; so that at the end of the year, when the days grow warm, they seem to tire and tail in a long run. Many of the pasture fences are big enough to keep out a bullock; the ditches wide and full of water; bulfinches are to be met with, stiff rails, gates not always unlocked; so, although a Pytchley flyer is not indispensable, on a going day, nothing less than a hunter can get along. Tom Sebright, as a huntsman and breeder of hounds, has been a celebrity ever since he hunted the Quorn, under Squire Osbaldeston, six-and-thirty years ago. Sebright looks the huntsman, and the huntsman of an hereditary pack, to perfection; rather under than over the middle height; stout without being unwieldy; with a fine, full, intelligent, and fresh-complexioned oval countenance; keen gray eyes; and the decided nose of a Cromwellian Ironside. A fringe of white hair below his cap, and a broad bald forehead, when he lifts his cap to cheer his hounds, tell the tale of Time on this accomplished veteran of the chase. "The field," with the Fitzwilliam, is more aristocratic than fashionable; it includes a few peers and their friends from neighbouring noble mansions, a good many squires, now and then undergraduates from Cambridge, a very few strangers by rail, and a great many first-class yeoman farmers and graziers. Thus it is equally unlike the fashionable "cut-me-down" multitude to be met at coverside in the "Shires" _par excellence_, and the scarlet mob who rush, and race, and lark from and back to Leamington and Cheltenham. For seeing a good deal of sport in a short time, the Fitzwilliam is certainly the best, within a hundred miles of London. You have a first-rate pack, first-rate huntsman, a good scenting country, plenty of foxes, fair fences to ride over, and though last not least, very courteous reception, if you know how to ride and when to hold your tongue and your horse. My fortunate day with the Fitzwilliam was in their open pasture, Huntingdon country. My head-quarters were at the celebrated "Haycock," which is known, or ought to be known, to every wandering fox-hunter, standing as it does in the middle of the Fitzwilliam Hunt, within reach of some of the best meets of the Pytchley and the Warwickshire, and not out of reach of the Cottesmore and Belvoir. It is much more like a Lincolnshire Wolds farmhouse than an inn. The guests are regular _habitués_; you find yourself in a sort of fox-hunting clubhouse, in a large, snug dining-room; not the least like Albert Smith's favourite aversion, a coffee-room; you have a first-rate English dinner, undeniable wine, real cream with your tea, in a word, all the comforts and most of the luxuries of town and country life combined. If needful, Tom Percival will provide you with a flyer for every day in the week, and you will be sure to meet with one or two guests, able and willing, ready to canter with you to cover, explain the chart of the country, and, if you are in the first year of boots and breeches, show you as Squire Warburton sings, how "To sit down in your saddle and put his head straight." The meet, within four miles of the inn, was in a park by the side of a small firwood plantation. Punctual to a minute, up trotted Sebright on a compact, well-bred chestnut in blooming condition, the whips equally well mounted on thoroughbreds, all dressed in ample scarlet coats and dark cord breeches--a style of dress in much better taste than the tight, short dandified costume of the fashionable hunt, where the huntsman can scarcely be distinguished from the "swell." Of the Earl's family there were present a son and daughter, and three grandsons, beautiful boys, in Lincoln green loose jackets, brown cord breeches, black boots, and caps; of these, the youngest, a fair, rosy child of about eight or nine years old, on a thorough-bred chestnut pony, was all day the admiration of the field; he dashed along full of genuine enthusiasm, stopping at nothing practicable. Amongst others present was a tall, lithe, white-haired, white-moustached, dignified old gentleman, in scarlet and velvet cap, riding forward on a magnificent gray horse, who realised completely the poetical idea of a nobleman. This was the Marquess of H----, known well forty years ago in fashionable circles, when George IV. was Prince, now popular and much esteemed as a country gentleman and improving landlord. There was also Mr. H----, an M.P., celebrated, before he settled into place and "ceased his hum," as a hunter of bishops--a handsome, dark man, in leathers and patent Napoleons; with his wife on a fine bay horse, who rode boldly throughout the day. In strange countries I usually pick out a leader in some well-knowing farmer; but this day I made a grand mistake, by selecting for my guide a slim, quiet-looking, young fellow, in a black hat and coat, white cords, and boots, on a young chestnut--never dreaming that my quiet man was Alec ----, a farmer truly, but also a provincial celebrity as a steeplechaser. The day was mild, cloudy, with a gentle wind. We drew several covers blank, and found a fox, about one o'clock, in a small spinney, from which he bolted at the first summons. A beautiful picture it was to see gallant old Sebright get his hounds away, the ladies racing down a convenient green lane, and the little Fitzwilliam, in Lincoln green, charging a double flight of hurdles. In half-an-hour's strong running I had good reason to rejoice that Percival had, with due respect for the fourth estate, put me on an unmistakable hunter. Our line took us over big undulating fields (almost hills), with, on the flats or valleys, a large share of willow-bordered ditches (they would call them brooks in some counties), with thick undeniable hedges between the pollards. At the beginning of the run, my black-coated friend led me--much as a dog in a string leads a blind man--at a great pace, into a farm-yard, thus artfully cutting off a great angle, over a most respectable stone wall into a home paddock, over a stile into a deep lane, and then up a bank as steep as a gothic roof, and almost as long; into a fifty-acre pasture, where, racing at best pace, we got close to the hounds just before they checked, between a broad unjumpable drain and a willow bed--two fine resources for a cunning fox. There I thought it well, having so far escaped grief, to look out for a leader who was less of a bruiser, while I took breath. In the meantime Sebright, well up, hit our friend off with a short cast forward, and after five minutes' slow hunting, we began to race again over a flat country of grass, with a few big ploughed fields, fences easier, ladies and ponies well up again. After brushing through two small coverts without hanging, we came out on a series of very large level grass fields, where I could see the gray horse of the marquis, and the black hat of my first leader sailing in front; a couple of stiff hedges and ditches were got over comfortably; the third was a regular bulfinch, six or seven feet high, with a gate so far away to the right that to make for it was to lose too much time, as the hounds were running breast high. Ten yards ahead of me was Mr. Frank G----, on a Stormer colt, evidently with no notion of turning; so I hardened my heart, felt my bay nag full of going, and kept my eye on Mr. Frank, who made for the only practicable place beside an oak-tree with low branches, and, stooping his head, popped through a place where the hedge showed daylight, with his hand over his eyes, in the neatest possible style. Without hesitating a moment I followed, rather too fast and too much afraid of the tree, and pulled too much into the hedge. In an instant I found myself torn out of the saddle, balanced on a blackthorn bough (fortunately I wore leathers), and deposited on the right side of the hedge on my back; whence I rose just in time to see Bay Middleton disappear over the next fence. So there I was alone in a big grass field, with strong notions that I should have to walk an unknown number of miles home. Judge of my delight as I paced slowly along--running was of no use--at seeing Frank G---- returning with my truant in hand. Such an action in the middle of a run deserves a Humane Society's medal. To struggle breathless into my seat; to go off at score, to find a lucky string of open gates, to come upon the hounds at a check, was my good fortune. But our fox was doomed--in another quarter of an hour at a hand gallop we hunted him into a shrubbery, across a home field into an ornamental clump of laurels, back again to the plantation, where a couple and a half of leading hounds pulled him down, and he was brought out by the first whip dead and almost stiff, without a mark--regularly run down by an hour and twenty minutes with two very short checks. Had the latter part of the run been as fast as the first, there would have been very few of us there to see the finish. ON THE LINCOLNSHIRE WOLDS. I started to meet Lord Yarborough's hounds, from the house of a friend, on a capital Wold pony for cover hack. It used to be said, before non-riding masters of hounds had broadcasted bridle-gates over the Quorn country, that a Leicestershire hack was a pretty good hunter for other counties. We may say the same of a Lincolnshire Wolds pony--his master, farming not less than three hundred and more likely fifteen hundred acres, has no time to lose in crawling about on a punchy half-bred cart-horse, like a smock-frocked tenant--the farm must be visited before hunting, and the market-towns lie too far off for five miles an hour jog-trot to suit. It is the Wold fashion to ride farming at a pretty good pace, and take the fences in a fly where the gate stands at the wrong corner of the field. Broad strips of turf fringe the road, offering every excuse for a gallop, and our guide continually turned through a gate or over a hurdle, and through half a dozen fields, to save two sides of an angle. These fields contrast strangely with the ancient counties--large, and square, and clean, with little ground lost in hedgerows. The great cop banks of Essex, Devon, and Cheshire are almost unknown--villages you scarcely see, farmhouses rarely from the roadside, for they mostly stand well back in the midst of their acres. Gradually creeping up the Wold--passing through, here vast turnip-fields, fed over by armies of long-woolled Lincoln sheep; there, stubble yielding before from a dozen to a score of pair-horse ploughs, silent witnesses of the scale of Lincolnshire farming--at length we see descending and winding along a bridle-road before us, the pied pack and the gleam of the huntsman's scarlet. Around, from every point of the compass the "field" come ambling, trotting, cantering, galloping, on hacks, on hunters, through gates or over fences, practising their Yorkshire four-year-olds. There are squires of every degree, Lincolnshire M.P.'s, parsons in black, in number beyond average; tenant-farmers, in quantity and quality such as no other county we have ever seen can boast, velvet-capped and scarlet-coated, many with the Brocklesby hunt button, mounted on first-class hunters, whom it was a pleasure to see them handle; and these were not young bloods, outrunning the constable, astonishing their landlords and alarming their fathers; but amongst the ruck were respectable grandfathers who had begun hunting on ponies when Stubbs was painting great-grandfather Smith, and who had as a matter of course brought up their sons to follow the line in which they had been cheered on by Arthur Young's Lord Yarborough. There they were, of all ages, from the white-haired veteran who could tell you when every field had been inclosed, to the little petticoated orphan boy on a pony, "whose father's farm had been put in trust for him by the good Earl." Of the ordinary mob that crowd fox-hound meets from great cities and fashionable watering-places, there were none. The swell who comes out to show his clothes and his horse; the nondescript, who may be a fast Life-Guardsman or a fishmonger; the lot of horse-dealers; and, above all, those _blasé_ gentlemen who, bored with everything, openly express their preference for a carted deer or red-herring drag, if a straight running fox is not found in a quarter of an hour after the hounds are thrown into cover. The men who ride on the Lincolnshire Wolds are all sportsmen, who know the whole country as well as their own gardens, and are not unfrequently personally acquainted with the peculiar appearance and habits of each fox on foot. Altogether they are as formidable critics as any professional huntsman would care to encounter. There is another pleasant thing. In consequence, perhaps, of the rarity, strangers are not snubbed as in some counties; and you have no difficulty in getting information to any extent on subjects agricultural and fox-hunting (even without that excellent passport which I enjoyed of a hunter from the stables of the noble Master of the Hounds), and may be pretty sure of more than one hospitable and really-meant invitation in the course of the return ride when the sport is ended. But time is up, and away we trot--leaving the woods of Limber for the present--to one of the regular Wolds, artificial coverts, a square of gorse of several acres, surrounded by a turf bank and ditch, and outside again by fields of the ancient turf of the moorlands. In go the hounds at a word, without a straggler; and while they make the gorse alive with their lashing sterns, there is no fear of our being left behind for want of seeing which way they go, for there is neither plantation nor hedge, nor hill of any account to screen us. And there is no fear either of the fox being stupidly headed, for the field all know their business, and are fully agreed, as old friends should be, on the probable line. A very faint Tally-away, and cap held up, by a fresh complexioned, iron-gray, bullet-headed old gentleman, of sixteen stone, mounted on a four-year-old, brought the pack out in a minute from the far end of the covert, and we were soon going, holding hard, over a newly-ploughed field, looking out sharp for the next open gate; but it is at the wrong corner, and by the time we have reached the middle of fifty acres, a young farmer in scarlet, sitting upright as a dart, showed the way over a new rail in the middle of a six-foot quickset. Our nag, "Leicestershire," needs no spurring, but takes it pleasantly, with a hop, skip, and jump; and by the time we had settled into the pace on the other side, the senior on the four-year-old was alongside, crying, "Push along, sir; push along, or they'll run clean away from you. The fences are all fair on the line we're going." And so they were--hedges thick, but jumpable enough, yet needing a hunter nevertheless, especially as the big fields warmed up the pace amazingly; and, as the majority of the farmers out were riding young ones destined for finished hunters in the pasture counties, there was above an average of resolution in the style of going at the fences. The ground almost all plough, naturally drained by chalk sub-subsoil, fortunately rode light; but presently we passed the edge of the Wolds, held on through some thin plantations over the demesne grass of a squire's house, then on a bit of unreclaimed heath, where a flock of sheep brought us to a few minutes' check. With the help of a veteran of the hunt, who had been riding well up, a cast forward set us agoing again, and brought us, still running hard, away from the Wolds to low ground of new inclosures, all grass, fenced in by ditch and new double undeniable rails. As we had a good view of the style of country from a distance, we thought it wisest, as a stranger, on a strange horse, with personally a special distaste to double fences, to pull gently, and let half-a-dozen young fellows on half-made, heavy-weight four or five years old, go first. The results of this prudent and unplucky step were most satisfactory; while two or three, with a skill we admired, without venturing to imitate, went the "in and out" clever, the rest, some down and some blundering well over, smashed at least one rail out of every two, and let the "stranger" through comfortably at a fair flying jump. After three or four of these tremendous fields, each about the size of Mr. Mechi's farm, a shepherd riding after his flock on a pony opened a gate just as the hounds, after throwing up their heads for a minute, turned to the right, and began to run back to the Wolds at a slower rate than we started, for the fox was no doubt blown by the pace; and so up what are called hills there (they would scarcely be felt in Devonshire or Surrey), we followed at a hand gallop right up to the plantations of Brocklesby Park, and for a good hour the hounds worked him round and round the woods, while we kept as near them as we could, racing along green rides as magnificent in their broad spread verdures and overhanging evergreen walls of holly and laurel as any Watteau ever painted. The Lincolnshire gentry and yeomanry, scarlet coated and velvet capped, on their great blood horses sweeping down one of the grand evergreen avenues of Brocklesby Park, say toward the Pelham Pillar, is a capital untried subject, in colour, contrast, and living interest, for an artist who can paint men as well as horses. At length when every dodge had been tried, Master Reynard made a bolt in despair. We raced him down a line of fields of very pretty fencing to a small lake, where wild ducks squatted up, and there ran into him, after a fair although not a very fast day's sport: a more honest hunting, yet courageous dashing pack we never rode to. The scarcity of villages, the general sparseness of the population, the few roads, and those almost all turf-bordered, and on a level with the fields, the great size of the enclosures, the prevalence of light arable land, the nuisance of flocks of sheep, and yet a good scenting country, are the special features of the Wolds. When you leave them and descend, there is a country of water, drains, and deep ditches, that require a real water-jumper. Two points specially strike a stranger--the complete hereditary air of the pack, and the attendants, so different from the piebald, new-varnished appearance of fashionable subscription packs. Smith, the huntsman, is fourth in descent of a line of Brocklesby huntsmen; Robinson, the head groom, had just completed his half century of service at Brocklesby; and Barnetby, who rode Lord Yarborough's second horse, was many years in the same capacity with the first Earl. But, after all, the Brocklesby tenants--the Nainbys, the Brookes, the Skipwiths, and other Woldsmen, names "whom to mention would take up too much room," as the "Eton Grammar" says--tenants who, from generation to generation, have lived, and flourished, and hunted under the Pelham family--a spirited, intelligent, hospitable race of men--these alone are worth travelling from Land's End to see, to hear, to dine with; to learn from their sayings and doings what a wise, liberal, resident landlord--a lover of field sports, a promoter of improved agriculture--can do in the course of generations toward "breeding" a first-class tenantry, and feeding thousands of townsfolk from acres that a hundred years ago only fed rabbits. We should recommend those M.P.'s who think fox-hunting folly, to leave their books and debates for a day's hunting on the Wolds. We think it will be hard to obtain such happy results from the mere pen-and-ink regulations of chamber legislators and haters of field sports. Three generations of the Pelhams turned thousands of acres of waste in heaths and Wolds into rich farm-land; the fourth did his part by giving the same district railways and seaport communication. When we find learned mole-eyed pedants sneering at fox-hunters, we may call the Brocklesby kennels and the Pelham Pillar as witnesses on the side of the common sense of English field sports. It was hunting that settled the Pelhams in a remote country and led them to colonise a waste. There is one excellent custom at the hunting-dinners at Brocklesby Park which we may mention, without being guilty of intrusion on private hospitality. At a certain hour the stud-groom enters and says, "My Lord, the horses are bedded up;" then the whole party rise, make a procession through the stables, and return to coffee in the drawing-room. This custom was introduced by the first Lord Yarborough some half-century ago, in order to break through the habit of late sitting over wine that then was too prevalent. HARRIERS--ON THE BRIGHTON DOWNS. Long before hunting sounds are to be heard, except the early morning cub-hunters routing woodlands, and the autumn stag-hunters of Exmoor, harrier packs are hard at work racing down and up the steep hillside and along the chalky valleys of Brighton Downs, preparing old sportsmen for the more earnest work of November--training young ones into the meaning of pace, the habit of riding fast down, and the art of climbing quickly, yet not too quickly, up hill--giving constitutional gallops to wheezy aldermen, or enterprizing adults fresh from the riding-school--affording fun for fast young ladies and pleasant sights for a crowd of foot-folks and fly-loads, halting on the brows of the steep combs, content with the living panorama. The Downs and the sea are the redeeming features of Brighton, considered as a place of change and recreation for the over-worked of London. Without these advantages one might quite as well migrate from the City to Regent Street, varying the exercise by a stroll along the Serpentine. To a man who needs rest there is something at first sight truly frightful in the townish gregariousness of Brighton proper, with its pretentious common-place architecture, and its ceaseless bustle and rolling of wheels. But then comes into view first the sea, stretching away into infinite silence and solitude, dotted over on sunny days with pleasure-boats; and next, perpetually dashing along the league of sea-borded highway, group after group of gay riding-parties of all ages and both sexes--Spanish hats, feathers, and riding-habits--_amazones_, according to the French classic title, in the majority. First comes Papa Briggs, with all his progeny, down to the little bare-legged imitation Highlander on a shaggy Shetland pony; then a riding-master in mustachios, boots, and breeches, with a dozen pupils in divers stages of timidity and full-blown temerity; and then again loving pairs in the process of courtship or the ecstasies of the honeymoon, pacing or racing along, indifferent to the interest and admiration that such pairs always excite. Besides the groups there are single figures, military and civil, on prancing thorough-bred hacks and solid weight-carrying cobs, contrasted with a great army of hard-worked animals, at half-a-crown an hour which compose the bulk of the Brighton cavalry, for horse-hiring at Brighton is the rule, private possession the exception; nowhere else, except, perhaps, at Oxford, is the custom so universal, and nowhere do such odd, strange people venture to exhibit themselves "a-horseback." As Dublin is said to be the car-drivingest, so is Brighton the horse-ridingest city in creation; and it is this most healthy, mental and physical exercise, with the summer-sea yacht excursions, which constitute the difference and establishes the superiority of this marine offshoot of London over any foreign bathing-place. Under French auspices we should have had something infinitely more magnificent, gay, gilded, and luxurious in architecture, in shops, in restaurants, cafés, theatres, and ball-rooms; but pleasure-boat sails would have been utterly unknown, and the horse-exercise confined to a few daring cavaliers and theatrical ladies. It is doubtless the open Downs that originally gave the visitors of Brighton (when it was Brighthelmstone, the little village patronised by the Prince, by "the Burney," and Mrs. Thrale) the habit of constitutional canters to a degree unknown in other pleasure towns; and the traditional custom has been preserved in the face of miles of brick and stucco. With horses in legions, and Downs at hand, a pack of hounds follows naturally; hares of a rare stout breed are plentiful; and the tradesmen have been acute enough to discover that a plentiful and varied supply of hunting facilities is one of the most safe, certain, and profitable attractions they can provide. Cheltenham and Bath has each its stag-hounds; Brighton does better, less expensively, and pleases more people, with two packs of harriers, hunting four days (and, by recent arrangements, a pack of fox-hounds filling up the other two days) of the week; so that now it may be considered about the best place in the country for making sure of a daily constitutional gallop from October to March at short notice, and with no particular attention to costume and a very moderate stud, or no stud at all. With these and a few other floating notions of air, exercise, and change of scene in my head--having decided that, however tempting to the caricaturist, the amusement of hundreds was not to be despised--I took my place at eight o'clock, at London-bridge station, in a railway carriage--the best of hacks for a long distance--on a bright October morning, with no other change from ordinary road-riding costume than one of Callow's long-lashed, instead of a straight-cutting, whips, so saving all the impediments of baggage. By ten o'clock I was wondering what the "sad sea waves" were saying to the strange costumes in which it pleases the fair denizens of Brighton to deck themselves. My horse, a little, wiry, well-bred chestnut, had been secured beforehand at a dealer's, well known in the Surrey country. The meet was the race-course, a good three miles from the Parade. The Brighton meets are stereotyped. The Race-course, Telscombe Tye, the Devil's Dyke, and Thunders Barrow are repeated weekly. But of the way along the green-topped chalk cliffs, beside the far-spreading sea, or up and down the moorland hills and valleys, who can ever weary? Who can weary of hill and dale and the eternal sea? To those accustomed to an inclosed country there is something extremely curious in mile after mile of open undulating downs lost in the distant horizon. My day was bright. About eleven o'clock the horsemen and _amazones_ arrived in rapidly-succeeding parties, and gathered on the high ground. Pleasure visitors, out for the first time--distinguished by their correct costume and unmistakably hired animals--caps and white breeches, spotless tops and shining Napoleons--were mounted on hacks battered about the legs, and rather rough in the coat, though hard and full of go; but trousers were the prevailing order of the day. Medical men were evident, in correct white ties, on neat ponies and superior cobs; military in mufti, on pulling steeplechasers; some farmers in leggings on good young nags for sale, and good old ones for use. London lawyers in heather mixture shooting-suits and Park hacks; lots of little boys and girls on ponies--white or cream-coloured being the favourites; at least one master of far distant fox-hounds pack, on a blood-colt, master and horse alike new to the country and to the sport. Riding-masters, with their lady pupils tittupping about on the live rocking-horses that form the essential stock of every riding-master's establishment, with one or two papas of the pupils--"worthy" aldermen, or authorities of the Stock Exchange, expensively mounted, gravely looking on, with an expression of doubt as to whether they ought to have been there or not; and then a crowd of the nondescripts, bankers and brewers trying to look like squires, neat and grim, among the well and ill dressed, well and ill mounted, who form the staple of every watering-place,--with this satisfactory feature pervading the whole gathering, that with the exception of a few whose first appearance it was in saddle on any turf, and the before-mentioned grim brewers, all seemed decidedly jolly and determined to enjoy themselves. The hounds drew up; to criticise them elaborately would be as unfair, under the circumstances, as to criticise a pot-luck dinner of beans and bacon put before a hungry man. They are not particularly handsome--white patches being the prevailing colour; and they certainly do not keep very close; but they are fast enough, persevering, and, killing a fair share of hares, show very good sport to both lookers-on and hard riders. The huntsman Willard, who has no "whip" to help him, and often more assistance than he requires, is a heavy man, but contrives, in spite of his weight, to get his hounds in the fastest runs. The country, it may be as well to say for the benefit of the thousands who have never been on these famous mutton-producing "South Downs," is composed of a series of table-lands divided by basin-like valleys, for the most part covered with short turf, with large patches of gorse and heather, in which the hares, when beaten, take refuge. Of late years, high prices and Brighton demand, with the new system of artificial agriculture, have pushed root crops and corn crops into sheltered valleys and far over the hills, much to the disgust of the ancient race of shepherds. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that on Brighton Downs there are no blank days, but the drawing is a real operation performed seriously until such a time as the company having all assembled, say at half-past seven o'clock, when, if the unaided faculties of the pack have not brought them up to a form, a shepherd appears as the _Deus ex machinâ_. In spite of all manner of precautions, the hounds will generally rush up to the point without hunting; loud rises the joyful cry; and, if it is level ground, the whole meet--hacks, hobbie-horses, and hunters--look as if their riders meant to go off in a whirlwind of trampling feet. There is usually a circle or two with the stoutest hare before making a long stretch; but, on lucky days like that of our first and last visit, the pace mends the hounds settle, the riding-masters check their more dashing pupils, the crowd gets dispersed, and rides round, or halts on the edges, or crawls slowly down the steep-sided valleys; while the hard riders catch their nags by the head, in with the spurs, and go down straight and furious, as if they were away for ever and a day; but the pedestrians and constitutional cob-owners are comforted by assurances that the hare is sure to run a ring back. But, on our day, Pussy, having lain _perdu_ during a few minutes' check, started up suddenly amid a full cry, and rather too much hallooing. A gentleman in large mustachios and a velvet cap rode at her as if he meant to catch her himself. Away we all dashed, losing sight of the dignity of fox-hunters--all mad as hatters (though why hatters should be madder than cappers it would be difficult to say). The pace becomes tremendous; the pack tails by twos and threes; the valleys grow steeper; the field lingers and halts more and more at each steeper comb; the lads who have hurried straight up the hillsides, instead of creeping up by degrees blow their horses and come to a full stop; while old hands at Devonshire combs and Surrey steeps take their nags by the head, rush down like thunder, and slily zigzag up the opposite face at a trot; and so, for ten minutes, so straight, that a stranger, one of three in front, cried, "By Jove, it must be a fox!" But at that moment the leading hounds turned sharp to the right and then to the left--a shrill squeak, a cry of hounds, and all was over. The sun shone out bright and clear; looking up from the valley on the hills, nine-tenths of the field were to be seen a mile in the distance, galloping, trotting, walking, or standing still, scattered like a pulk of pursuing Cossacks. The sight reminded me that, putting aside the delicious excitement of a mad rush down hill at full-speed, the lookers-on, the young ladies on ponies, and old gentlemen on cobs, see the most of the sport in such a country as the Brighton Downs; while in a flat inclosed, or wooded country, those who do not ride are left alone quite deserted, five minutes after the hounds get well away. We killed two more hares before retiring for the day, but as they ran rings in the approved style, continually coming back to the slow, prudent, and constitutional riders, there was nothing to distinguish them from all other hare-hunts. After killing the last hare there was ample time to get back to Brighton, take a warm bath, dress, and stroll on the Esplanade for an hour in the midst of as gay and brilliant crowd, vehicular, equestrian, and pedestrian, as can be found in Europe, before sitting down to a quiet dinner, in which the delicious Southdown haunch was not forgotten. So ended a day of glorious weather and pleasant sport, jolly--if not in the highest degree genteel. Tempted to stay another day, I went the next morning six miles through Rottingdean to Telscombe Tye, to meet the Brookside; and, after seeing them, have no hesitation in saying that every one who cares to look at a first-rate pack of harriers would find it worth his while to travel a hundred miles to meet the Brookside, for the whole turnout is perfection. Royalty cannot excel it. A delicious ride over turf all the way, after passing Rottingdean, under a blue sky and a June-like sun, in sight of the sea, calm as a lake, brought us to the top of a hill of rich close turf, enveloped in a cloud of mist, which rendered horses and horsemen alike invisible at the distance of a few yards; and when we came upon three tall shepherds, leaning on their iron-_hooked_ crooks, in the midst of a gorse covert, it was almost impossible to believe that we were not in some remote Highland district instead of within half an hour of a town of 70,000 inhabitants. The costumes of the field, more exact than the previous day, showed that the master was considered worthy of the compliment; and when, the mist clearing, the beautiful black-and-tan pack, all of a size, and as like as peas, came clustering up with Mr. Saxby, a white-haired, healthy, fresh-coloured, neat-figured, upright squire, riding in the midst on a rare black horse, it was a picture that, taking in the wild heathland scenery, the deep valleys below, bright in sun, the dark hills beyond it, was indeed a bright page in the poetry of field sports. The Brookside are as good and honest as they are handsome; hunting, all together, almost entirely without assistance. If they have a fault they are a little too fast for hare-hounds. After killing the second hare, we were able to leave Brighton by the 3.30 P.M. train. Thus, under modern advantages, a man troubled with indigestion has only to order a horse by post the previous day, leave town at eight in the morning, have a day's gallop, with excitement more valuable than gallons of physic, and be back in town by half-past five o'clock. Can eight hours be passed more pleasantly or profitably? PRINCE ALBERT'S HARRIERS. The South-Western Rail made a very good hack up to the Castle station. That Prince Albert should never have taken to the Royal stag-hounds is not at all surprising. It requires to be "to the manner born" to endure the vast jostling, shouting, thrusting mob of gentlemen and horse dealers, "legs" and horse-breakers, that whirl away after the uncarted deer. Without the revival of the old Court etiquette, which forbade any one to ride before royalty, his Royal Highness might have been ridden down by some ambitious butcher or experimental cockney horseman on a runaway. If the etiquette of the time of George III had been revived, then only Leech could have done justice to the appearance of the field, following impatiently at a respectful distance--not the stag, as they do now very often, or the hounds, as they ought to do--but the Prince's horse's tail. Prince Albert's harriers are in the strictest sense of the term a private pack, kept by his Royal Highness for his own amusement, under the management of Colonel Hood. The meets are not advertised. The fields consist, in addition to the Royal and official party from the Castle, of a few neighbouring gentlemen and farmers, the hunting establishment of a huntsman and one whip, both splendidly mounted, and a boy on foot. The costume of the hunt is a very dark green cloth double-breasted coat, with the Prince's gilt button, brown cords, and velvet cap. The hounds were about fifteen couple, of medium size, with considerable variety of true colours, inclining to the fox-hound stamp, yet very honest hunters. In each run the lead was taken by a hound of peculiar and uncommon marking--black and tan, but the tan so far spreading that the black was reduced to merely a saddle. The day was rather too bright, perhaps, for the scent to lie well; but there was the better opportunity for seeing the hounds work, which they did most admirably, without any assistance. It is one of the advantages of a pack like this that no one presumes to interfere and do the business of either the huntsman or hounds. The first hare was found on land apparently recently inclosed near Eton; but, after two hours' perseverance, it was impossible to make anything of the scent over ploughed land. We then crossed the railway into some fields, partly in grass, divided by broad ditches full of water, with plenty of willow stumps on the banks, and partly arable on higher, sloping ground, divided by fair growing fences into large square inclosures. Here we soon found a stout hare that gave us an opportunity of seeing and admiring the qualities of the pack. After the first short burst there was a quarter of an hour of slow hunting, when the hounds, left entirely to themselves, did their work beautifully. At length, as the sun went behind clouds, the scent improved; the hounds got on good terms with puss, and rattled away at a pace, and over a line of big fields and undeniable fences, that soon found out the slows and the nags that dared not face shining water. Short checks of a few minutes gave puss a short respite; then followed a full cry, and soon a view. Over a score of big fields the pack raced within a dozen yards of pussy's scent, without gaining a yard, the black-tanned leading hound almost coursing his game; but this was too fast to last, and, just as we were squaring our shoulders and settling down to take a very uncompromising hedge with evident signs of a broad ditch of running water on the other side, the hounds threw up their heads; poor puss had shuffled through the fence into the brook, and sunk like a stone. There is something painful about the helpless finish with a hare. A fox dies snarling and fighting. FOOTNOTES: [176-*] This sketch was written in 1857. CHAPTER XII. HUNTING TERMS. Hunting terms are difficult to write, because they are often rather sung than said. I shall take as my authority one of the best sportsmen of his day, Mr. Thomas Smith, author of the "Diary of a Huntsman," a book which has only one fault, it is too short; and give some explanations of my own. HUNTSMAN'S LANGUAGE. On throwing off.--_Cover hoick!_ i. e. _Hark into cover!_ Also--_Eloo in!_ Over the fence.--_Yoi over!_ To make hounds draw.--_Edawick!_ Also--_Yoi, wind him! Yoi, rouse him, my boys!_ And to a particular hound--_Hoick, Rector! Hoick, Bonny Lass!_ The variety of Tally-ho's I have given in another place. To call the rest when some hounds have gone away.--_Elope forward, aw-ay-woy!_ If they have hit off the scent.--_Forrid, hoick!_ When hounds have overrun the scent, or he wants them to come back to him.--_Yo-geote!_ When the hounds are near their fox.--_Eloo, at him!_ HUNTING TERMS _Billet._--The excrement of a fox. _Burst._--The first part of a run. _Burning scent._--When hounds go so fast, from the goodness of the scent, they have no breath to spare, and run almost mute. _Breast high._--When hounds do not stoop their heads, but go a racing pace. _Capping._--To wave your cap to bring on the hounds. Also to subscribe for the huntsman, by dropping into a cap after a good run with fox-hounds. At watering places, before a run with harriers. _Carry a good head._--When hounds run well together, owing to the scent being good, and spreading so wide that the whole pack can feel it. But it usually happens that the scent is good only on the line for one hound to get it, so that the rest follow him; hence the necessity of keeping your eyes on the leading hounds, if you wish to be forward. _Challenge._--When drawing a fox, the first hound that gives tongue, "challenges." _Changed._--When the pack changed from the hunted fox to a fresh one. _Check._--When hounds stop for want of scent in running, or over-run it. _Chopped a fox._--When a fox is killed in cover without running. _Crash._--When in cover, every hound seems giving tongue at the same moment: that is a crash of hounds. _Cub._--Until November, a young fox is a cub. _Drawing._--The act of hunting to find a fox in a cover, or covert, as some term it. _Drag._--The scent left by the footsteps of the fox on his way from his rural rambles to his earth, or kennel. Our forefathers rose early; and instead of drawing, hunted the fox by "dragging" up to him. _Dwelling._--When hounds do not come up to the huntsman's halloo till moved by the whipper-in, they are said to dwell. _Drafted._--Hounds drawn from the pack to be disposed of, or _hung_, are drafted. "_Earths are drawn._"--When a vixen fox has drawn out fresh earth, it is a proof she intends to lay up her cubs there. _Eye to hounds._--A man has a good eye to hounds who turns his horse's head with the leading hounds. _Flighty._--A hound that is not a steady hunter. _Feeling a scent._--You say, if scent is bad, "The hounds could scarcely feel the scent." _Foil._--When a fox runs the ground over which he has been before, he is running his foil. _Headed._--When a fox is going away, and is met and driven back to cover. Jealous riders, anxious for a start, are very apt to head the fox. It is one of the greatest crimes in the hunting-field. _Heel._--When hounds get on the scent of a fox, and run it back the way he came, they are said to be running heel. _Hold hard._--A cry that speaks for itself, which every one who wishes for sport will at once attend to when uttered by the huntsman. _Holding scent._--When the scent is just good enough for hounds to hunt a fox a fair pace, but not enough to press him. _Kennel._--Where a fox lays all day in cover. _Line holders._--Hounds which will not go a yard beyond the scent. _Left-handed._--A hunting pun on hounds that are not always _right_. _Lifting._--When a huntsman carries the pack forward from an indifferent, or no scent, to a place the fox is hoped to have more recently passed, or to a view halloo. It is an expedient found needful where the field is large, and unruly, and impatient, oftener than good sportsmen approve.[202-*] _Laid up._--When a vixen fox has had cubs she is said to have laid up. _Metal._--When hounds fly for a short distance on a wrong scent, or without one, it is said to be "all metal." _Moving scent._--When hounds get on a scent that is fresher than a drag, it is called a moving scent; that is, the scent of a fox which has been disturbed by travelling. _Mobbing a fox._--Is when foot passengers, or foolish jealous horsemen so surround a cover, that the fox is driven into the teeth of the hounds, instead of being allowed to break away and show sport. _Mute._--When the pace is great hounds are mute, they have no breath to spare; but a hound that is always mute is as useless as a rich epicure who has capital dinners and eats them alone. Hounds that do not help each other are worthless. _Noisy._--To throw the tongue without scent is an opposite and equal fault to muteness. _Open._--When a hound throws his tongue, or gives tongue, he is said to open. _Owning a scent._--When hounds throw their tongues on the scent. _Pad._--The foot of a fox. _Riot._--When the hounds hunt anything beside fox, the word is "Ware Riot." _Skirter._--A hound which is wide of the pack, or a man riding wide of the hounds, is called a skirter. _Stroke of a fox._--Is when hounds are drawing. It is evident, from their manner, that they feel the scent of a fox, slashing their stern significantly, although they do not speak to it. _Sinking._--A fox nearly beaten is said to be sinking. _Sinking the wind._--Is going down wind, usually done by knowing sportsmen to catch the cry of the hounds. _Stained._--When the scent is lost by cattle or sheep having passed over the line. _Stooping._--Hounds stoop to the scent. _Slack._--Indifferent. A succession of bad days, or a slack huntsman, will make hounds slack. _Streaming._--An expressive word applied to hounds in full cry, or breast high and mute, "streaming away." _Speaks._--When a hound throws his tongue he is said to speak; and one word from a sure hound makes the presence of a fox certain. _Throw up._--When hounds lose the scent they "throw up their heads." A good sportsman always takes note of the exact spot and cause, if he can, to tell the huntsman. _Tailing._--The reverse of streaming. The result of bad scent, tired hounds, or an uneven pack. _Throw off._--After reaching the "meet," at the master's word the pack is "thrown into cover," hence "throw off." There are many other terms in common use too plain to need explanation, and there are a good many slang phrases to be found in newspaper descriptions of runs, which are both vulgar and unnecessary. One of the finest descriptions of a fox-hunt ever written is to be found in the account of Jorrocks' day with the "Old Customer," disfigured, unfortunately, by an overload of impossible cockneyisms, put in the mouth of the impossible grocer. Another capitally-told story of a fox-hunt is to be found in Whyte Melville's "Kate Coventry." But the Rev. Charles Kingsley has, in his opening chapter of "Yeast," and his papers in Fraser on North Devon, shown that if he chose he could throw all writers on hunting into the shade. Would that he would give us some hunting-songs, for he is a true poet, as well as a true sportsman! Another clergyman, under the pseudonym of "Uncle Scribble," contributed to the pages of the _Sporting Magazine_ an admirable series of photographs--to adopt a modern word--of hunting and hunting men, as remarkable for dry wit and common sense, as a thorough knowledge of sport. But "Uncle Scribble," as the head of a most successful Boarding School, writes no more. I may perhaps be pardoned for concluding my hints on hunting, by re-quoting from _Household Words_ an "Apology for Fox-hunting," which, at the time I wrote it, received the approbation, by quotation, of almost every sporting journal in the country. It will be seen that it contains a sentence very similar to one to be found in Mr. Rarey's "Horse Training"--"A bad-tempered man cannot be a good horseman." "TALLY-HO! "Fox-hunting, I maintain, is entitled to be considered one of the fine arts, standing somewhere between music and dancing. For 'Tally-ho!' like the favourite evening gun of colonising orators, has been 'carried round the world.' The plump mole-fed foxes of the neutral ground of Gibraltar have fled from the jolly cry; it has been echoed back from the rocky hills of our island possessions in the Mediterranean; it has startled the jackal on the mountains of the Cape, and his red brother on the burning plains of Bengal; the wolf of the pine forests of Canada has heard it, cheering on fox-hounds to an unequal contest; and even the wretched dingoe and the bounding kangaroo of 'Australia have learned to dread the sound. "In our native land 'Tally-ho!' is shouted and welcomed in due season by all conditions of men; by the ploughman, holding hard his startled colt; by the woodman, leaning on his axe before the half-felled oak; by bird-boys from the tops of leafless trees; even Dolly Dumpling, as she sees the white-tipped brush flash before her market-cart in a deep-banked lane, stops, points her whip and in shrill treble screams 'Tally-ho!' "And when at full speed the pink, green, brown, and black-coated followers of any of the ninety packs which our England maintains, sweep through a village, with what intense delight the whole population turn out! Young mothers stand at the doors, holding up their crowing babies; the shopkeeper, with his customers, adjourns to the street; the windows of the school are covered with flattened noses; the parson, if of the right sort, smiles blandly, and waves his hand from the porch of the vicarage to half-a-dozen friends; while the surgeon pushes on his galloway and joins for half-an-hour; all the little boys holla in chorus, and run on to open gates without expecting sixpence. As for the farmers, those who do not join the hunt criticise the horseflesh, speculate on the probable price of oats, and tell 'Missis' to set out the big round of beef, the bread, the cheese, and get ready to draw some strong ale,--'in case of a check, some of the gentlemen might like a bit as they come back. "It is true, among the five thousand who follow the hounds daily in the hunting season, there are to be found, as among most medleys of five thousand, a certain number of fools and brutes--mere animals, deaf to the music, blind to the living poetry of nature. To such men hunting is a piece of fashion or vulgar excitement, but bring hunting in comparison with other amusements, and it will stand a severe test. Are you an admirer of scenery, an amateur or artist? Have you traversed Greece and Italy, Switzerland and Norway, in search of the picturesque? You do not know the beauties of your own country, until, having hunted from Northumberland to Cornwall, you have viewed the various counties under the three aspects of a fox-hunter's day--the 'morning ride,' 'the run,' and 'the return home.' "The morning ride, slowly pacing, full of expectation, your horse as pleased as yourself; sharp and clear in the gray atmosphere the leafless trees and white farmhouses stand out, backed by a curtain of mist hanging on the hills in the horizon. With eager eyes you take all in; nothing escapes you; you have cast off care for the day. How pleasant and cheerful everything and everyone looks! Even the cocks and hens, scratching by the road-side, have a friendly air. The turnpike-man relaxes, in favour of your 'pink,' his usual grimness. A tramping woman, with one child at her back and two running beside her, asks charity; you suspect she is an impostor, but she looks cold and pitiful; you give her a shilling, and the next day you don't regret your foolish benevolence. To your mind the well-cultivated land looks beautiful. In the monotony of ten acres of turnips, you see a hundred pictures of English farming life, well-fed cattle, good wheat crops, and a little barley for beer. Not less beautiful is the wild gorse-covered moor--never to be reclaimed, I hope--where the wiry, white-headed, bright-eyed huntsman sits motionless on his old white horse, surrounded by the pied pack--a study for Landseer. "But if the morning ride creates unexecuted cabinet pictures and unwritten sonnets, how delightful 'the find,' 'the run' along brook-intersected vales, up steep hills, through woodlands, parks, and villages, showing you in byways little gothic churches, ivy-covered cottages, and nooks of beauty you never dreamed of, alive with startled cattle and hilarious rustics. "Talk of epic poems, read in bowers or at firesides, what poet's description of a battle could make the blood boil in delirious excitement, like a seat on a long-striding hunter, clearing every obstacle with firm elastic bounds, holding in sight without gaining a yard on the flying pack, while the tip of Reynard's tail disappears over the wall at the top of the hill! "And, lastly,--tired, successful, hungry, happy,--the return home, when the shades of evening, closing round, give a fantastic, curious, mysterious aspect to familiar road-side objects! Loosely lounging on your saddle, with half-closed eyes, you almost dream--the gnarled trees grow into giants, cottages into castles, ponds into lakes. The maid of the inn is a lovely princess, and the bread and cheese she brings (while, without dismounting, you let your thirsty horse drink his gruel), tastes more delicious than the finest supper of champagne, with a _pâté_ of tortured goose's liver, that ever tempted the appetite of a humane, anti-fox hunting, poet-critic, exhausted by a long night of opera, ballet, and Roman punch. "Are you fond of agriculture?--You may survey all the progress and ignorance of an agricultural district in rides across country; you may sound the depth of the average agricultural mind while trotting from cover to cover. Are you of a social disposition?--What a fund of information is to be gathered from the acquaintances made, returning home after a famous day, 'thirty-five minutes without a check.' In a word, fox-hunting affords exercise and healthy excitement without headaches, or heartaches, without late hours, without the 'terrible next morning' that follows so many town amusements. Fox-hunting draws men from towns, promotes a love of country life, fosters skill, courage, temper; for a bad-tempered man can never be a good horseman. "To the right-minded, as many feelings of thankfulness and praise to the Giver of all good will arise, sitting on a fiery horse, subdued to courageous obedience for the use of man, while surveying a pack of hounds ranging an autumnal thicket with fierce intelligence, or looking down on a late moorland, broken up to fertility by man's skill and industry, as in a solitary walk by the sea-shore or over a Highland hill." Oh, give me the man to whom nought comes amiss, One horse or another--that country or this; Through falls and bad starts who undauntedly still Bides up to this motto, "Be with them I will!" And give me the man who can ride through a run, Nor engross to himself all the glory when done; Who calls not each horse that o'ertakes him a screw; Who loves a run best when a friend sees it too. WARBURTON of Arley Hall. FOOTNOTES: [202-*] The late Sir Richard Sutton, Master of the Quorn, used to say that he liked "to stick to the band and keep hold of the bridle," that is to say, make his pack hold to the line of the fox as long as they could; but there were times when he could not resist the temptation of a sure "holloa," and off he would start at a tremendous pace, for he was always a bruising rider, with a blast or two upon his "little merry-toned horn" which he had the art of blowing better than other people. To his intimate friends he used to excuse himself for these occasional outbreaks by quoting a saying of his old huntsman Goosey (late the Duke of Rutland's)--for whose opinion on hunting matters he had a great respect--"I take leave to say, sir, a fox is a very quick animal, and you must make haste after him during some part of the day, or you will not catch him."--_Letter from Captain Percy Williams, Master of the Rufford Hounds, to the Editor._ CHAPTER XIII. THE ORIGIN OF FOX-HUNTING. The origin of modern fox-hunting is involved in a degree of obscurity which can only be attributed to the illiterate character of the originators, the Squire Westerns, who rode all day, and drank all the evening. We need the assistance of the ingenious correspondent of _Notes and Queries_:-- "It is quite certain that the fox was not accounted a noble beast of chase before the Revolution of 1688; for Gervase Markham classes the fox with the badger in his 'Cavalrie, or that part of Arte wherein is contained the Choice Trayning and Dyeting of Hunting Horses whether for Pleasure or for Wager. The Third Booke. Printed by Edw. Allde, for Edward White; and are to be sold at his Shop, neare the Little North Door of St. Paule's Church, at the signe of the Gun. 1616.' He says:-- "'The chase of the foxe or badger, although it be a chase of much more swiftness (than the otter), and is ever kept upon firm ground, yet I cannot allow it for training horses, because for the most part it continues in woody rough grounds, where a horse can neither conveniently make foorth his way nor can heed without danger of stubbing. The chase, much better than any of these, is hunting of the bucke or stag, especially if they be not confined within a park or pale, but having liberty to chuse their waies, which some huntsmen call "hunting at force." When he is at liberty he will break forth his chase into the winde, sometimes four, five, and six miles foorth right: nay, I have myself followed a stag better than ten miles foorth right from the place of his rousing to the place of his death, besides all his windings, turnings, and cross passages. The time of the year for these chases is from the middle of May to middle of September.' He goes on to say, 'which being of all chases the worthiest, and belonging only Princes and men of best quality, there is no horse too good to be employed in such a service; yet the horses which are aptest and best to be employed in this chase is the Barbary jennet, or a light-made English gelding, being of a middle stature.' 'But to conclude and come to the chase which is of all chases the best for the purpose whereof we are now entreating; it is the chase of the hare, which is a chase both swift and pleasant, and of long endurance; it is a sport ever readie, equally distributed, as well to the wealthie farmer as the great gentleman. It hath its beginning contrary to the stag and bucke; for it begins at Michaelmas, when they end, and is out of date after April, when they first come into season.' "This low estimate of the fox, at that period, is borne out by a speech of Oliver St. John, to the Long Parliament, against Strafford, quoted by Macaulay, in which he declares--'Strafford was to be regarded not as a stag or hare, but as a fox, who was to be snared by any means and knocked on the head without pity.' The same historian relates that red deer were as plentiful on the hills of Hampshire and Gloucestershire, in the reign of Queen Anne, as they are now in the preserved deer-forests of the Highlands of Scotland. "When wild deer became scarce, the attention of sportsmen was probably turned to the sporting qualities of the fox by the accident of harriers getting upon the scent of some wanderer in the clicketing season, and being led a straight long run. We have more than once met with such accidents on the Devonshire moors, and have known well-bred harriers run clear away from the huntsmen, after an on-lying fox, over an unrideable country. "Fox-hunting rose into favour with the increase of population attendant on improved agriculture. In a wild woodland country, with earths unstopped, no pack of hounds could fairly run down a fox. "I have found in private records two instances in which packs of hounds, since celebrated, were turned from hare-hounds to fox-hounds. There are, no doubt, many more. The Tarporley, or Cheshire Hunt, was established in 1762 for Hare-hunting, and held its first meeting on the 14th November in that year. 'Those who kept harriers brought them in turn.' It is ordered by the 8th Rule, 'that if no member of the society kept hounds, or that it were inconvenient for masters to bring them, a pack be borrowed at the expense of the society.' "The uniform was ordered to be 'a blue frock with plain yellow mettled buttons, scarlet velvet cape, and double-breasted flannel waistcoat. The coat sleeve to be cut and turned. A scarlet saddle-cloth, bound singly with blue, and the front of the bridle lapt with scarlet.' The third rule contrasts oddly with our modern meets at half-past ten and half-past eleven o'clock:--'The harriers shall not wait for any member after eight o'clock in the morning.' "As to drinking, it was ordered 'that three collar bumpers be drunk after dinner, and the same after supper; after that every member might do as he pleased in regard to drinking.' "By another rule every member was 'to present on his marriage to each member of the hunt, a pair of well-stitched leather breeches,'[213-*] then costing a guinea a pair. "In 1769, the club commenced Fox-hunting. The uniform was ordered to be changed to 'a red coat, unbound, with small frock sleeve, a green velvet cape, and green waistcoat, and that the sleeve have no buttons; in every other form to be like the old uniform; and the red saddle-cloth to be bound with green instead of blue, the fronts of the saddles to remain the same.' "At the same time there was an alteration in regard to drinking orders--'That instead of three collar bumpers, only one shall be drunk, except a fox be killed above ground, and then one other collar glass shall be drunk to "Fox-hunting." Among the names of the original members in 1762, we recognise many whose descendants have maintained in this generation their ancestral reputation as sportsmen. For instance, Crewe, Mainwaring, Wilbraham, Smith, Barry, Cholmondeley, Stanley, Grosvenor, Townley, Watkin Williams Wynne, Stanford. But, although the Tarporley Hunt Club has been maintained and thriven through the reigns of George III., George IV., William IV., and Victoria, the pack of hounds, destroyed or removed by various accidents, have been more than once renewed. But the Brocklesby pack has been maintained in the family of the present Earl of Yarborough more than 130 years without break or change of blood; and a written pedigree of the pack has been kept for upwards of 100 years; and it is now the oldest pack in the kingdom. The Cottesmore, which was established before the Brocklesby, has been repeatedly dispersed and has long passed out of the hands of the family of the Noels--by whom it was first established 200 years ago." By the kindness of Lord Yarborough, I was permitted to examine all the papers connected with his hounds. Among them is a memorandum dated April 20, 1713: it is agreed "between Sir John Tyrwhitt, Charles Pelham, Esq., and Robert Vyner, Esq. (another name well known in modern hunting annals), that the foxhounds now kept by the said Sir John Tyrwhitt and Mr. Pelham shall be joyned in one pack, and the three have a joint interest in the said hounds for five years, each for one-third of the year." And it was agreed that the establishment should consist of "sixteen couple of hounds, three horses, and a huntsman and a boy." So apparently they only hunted one day a week. It would seem that, under the terms of the agreement, the united pack soon passed into the hands of Mr. Pelham, and down to the present day the hounds have been branded with a P. I also found at Brocklesby a rough memoranda of the kennel from 1710 to 1746; after that date the Stud Book has been distinctly kept up without a break. From 1797 the first Lord Yarborough kept journals of the pedigree of hounds in his own handwriting; and since his time by the father, the grandfather, and great-grandfather of the present huntsman. In the time of the first Lord Yarborough, his country extended over the whole of the South Wold country, part of the now Burton Hunt, and part of North Nottinghamshire; and he used to go down into both those districts for a month at a time to hunt the woodlands. There were, as he told his grandson when he began hunting, only three or four fences between Horncastle and Brigg, a distance of at least thirty miles. Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt kept harriers at his Manor House of Aylsby, at the foot of the Lincolnshire Wolds, before he turned them into fox-hounds. A barn at Aylsby was formerly known as the "Kennels." The Aylsby estate has passed, in the female line, into the Oxfordshire family of the Tyrwhitt Drakes, who are so well known as masters of hounds, and first-rate sportsmen; while a descendant of Squire Vyner, of Lincolnshire, has, within the last twenty years, been a master of fox-hounds in Warwickshire and Worcestershire. Mr. Meynell, the father of modern fox-hunting, and founder of the Quorn Hunt, formed his pack chiefly of drafts from the Brocklesby. Between the period that fox-hunting superseded hare-hunting in the estimation of country squires, and that when the celebrated Mr. Meynell reduced it to a science, and prepared the way for making hunting in Leicestershire almost an aristocratic institution, a great change took place in the breed of the hounds and horses, and in the style of horsemanship. Under the old system, the hounds were taken out before light to hunt back by his drag the fox who had been foraging all night, and set on him as he lay above his stopped-earth, before he had digested his meal of rats or rabbits. The breed of hounds partook more of the long-eared, dew-lapped, heavy, crock-kneed southern hound, or of the bloodhound. Well-bred horses, too, were less plentiful than they are now. But the change to fast hounds, fast horses, and fast men, took place at a much more distant date than some of our hard-riding young swells of 1854 seem to imagine. A portrait of a celebrated hound, Ringwood, at Brocklesby Park, painted by Stubbs, the well-known animal painter in 1792, presents in an extraordinary manner the type and character of some of the best hounds remotely descended from him, although the Cheshire song says:-- "When each horse wore a crupper, each squire a pigtail, Ere Blue Cap and Wanton taught greyhounds to scurry, With music in plenty--oh, where was the hurry?" But it is more than eighty years since Blue Cap and Wanton ran their race over Newmarket Heath, which for speed has never been excelled by any modern hounds. And it is a curious fact, that although Somerville, the author of The Chase, died in 1742, his poem contains as clear and correct directions for fox-hunting, with few exceptions, as if it were written yesterday. So that the art must have arrived at perfection within sixty or seventy years. In the long reign of George III. the distinction between town and country was much broken down, and the isolation in which country squires lived destroyed. Packs of hounds, kept for the amusement of a small district, became, as it were, public property. At length the meets of hounds began to be regularly given in the country newspapers. With every change sportsmen of the old school have prophesied the total ruin of fox-hunting. Roads and canals excited great alarm to our fathers. In our time every one expected to see sport entirely destroyed by railroads; but we were mistaken, and have lived to consider them almost an essential auxiliary of a good hunting district. Looking back at the manner in which fox-hunting has grown up with our habits and customs, and increased in the number of packs, number of hunting days, and number of horsemen, in full proportion with wealth and population, one cannot help being amused at the simplicity with which Mrs. Beecher Stowe, who comes from a country where people seldom amuse themselves out of doors (except in making money), tells in her "Sunny Memories," how, when she dined with Lord John Russell, at Richmond, the conversation turned on hunting; and she expressed her astonishment "that, in the height of English civilisation, this vestige of the savage state should remain." "Thereupon they only laughed, and told stories about fox-hunters." They might have answered with old Gervase Markham, "Of all the field pleasures wherewith Old Time and man's inventions hath blessed the hours of our recreations, there is none so excellent as the delight of hunting, being compounded like an harmonious concert of all the best partes of most refined pleasures, as music, dancing, running and ryding." Mrs. Stowe's distinguished countryman, Washington Irving, took a sounder view of our rural pleasures; for he says in his charming "Sketch Book:"-- "The fondness for rural life among the higher classes of the English has had a great and salutary effect upon national character. I do not know a finer race of men than the English gentlemen. Instead of the softness and effeminacy which characterizes the men of rank of most countries, they exhibit a union of elegance and strength, of robustness of frame and freshness of complexion, which I am inclined to attribute to their living so much in the open air, pursuing so eagerly the invigorating recreations of the country." FOOTNOTES: [213-*] I think this is a mistake. In a copy of the rules forwarded to me by a Cheshire squire, one of the hereditary members of the club, it is a pair of _gloves_. But in the notes, the songs and ballads by R. Egerton Warburton, Esq., of Arley Hall, it is printed "breeches." CHAPTER XIV. THE WILD PONIES OF EXMOOR. In England there are so few wild horses, that the following description of a visit I made to Exmoor a few years ago in the month of September, may be doubly interesting, since Mr. Rarey has shown a short and easy method of dealing with the principal produce of that truly wild region. The road from South Molton to Exmoor is a gradual ascent over a succession of hills, of which each descent, however steep, leads to a still longer ascent, until you reach the high level of Exmoor. The first six miles are through real Devonshire lanes; on each side high banks, all covered with fern and grass, and topped with shrubs and trees; for miles we were hedged in with hazels, bearing nuts with a luxuriance wonderful to the eyes of those accustomed to see them sold at the corners of streets for a penny the dozen. In spring and summer, wild flowers give all the charms of colour to these game-preserving hedgerows; but a rainy autumn had left no colour among the rich green foliage, except here and there a pyramid of the bright red berries of the mountain ash. So, up hill and down dale, over water-courses--now merrily trotting, anon descending, and not less merrily trudging up, steep ascents--we proceed by a track as sound as if it had been under the care of a model board of trustees--for the simple reason that it rested on natural rock. We pushed along at an average rate of some six miles an hour, allowing for the slow crawling up hills; passing many rich fields wherein fat oxen of the Devon breed calmly grazed, with sheep that had certainly not been bred on mountains. Once we passed a deserted copper-mine; which, after having been worked for many years, had at length failed, or grown unprofitable, under the competition of the richer mines of Cuba and South Australia. A long chimney, peering above deserted cottages, and a plentiful crop of weeds, was the sole monument of departed glories--in shares and dividends--and mine-captain's promises. At length the hedges began to grow thinner; beeches succeeded the hazels; the road, more rugged and bare showed the marks where winter's rains had ploughed deep channels; and, at the turn of a steep hill, we saw, on the one hand, the brown and blue moor stretching before and above us; and on the other hand, below, like a map, the fertile vale lay unrolled, various in colour, according to the crops, divided by enclosures into every angle from most acute to most obtuse. Below was the cultivation of centuries; above, the turnip--the greatest improvement of modern agriculture--flourished, a deep green, under the protection of fences of very recent date. One turnpike, and cottages at rare intervals, had so far kept up the idea of population; but now, far as the horizon extended, not a place of habitation was to be seen; until, just in a hollow bend out of the ascending road, we came upon a low white farm-house, of humble pretensions, flanked by a great turf-stack (but no signs of corn; no fold-yard full of cattle), which bore, on a board of great size, in long letters, this imposing announcement, "The Poltimore Arms." Our driver not being of the usual thirsty disposition of his tribe, we did not test the capabilities of the one hostelry and habitation on Lord Poltimore's Moorland Estate, but, pushing on, took the reins while our conductor descended to open a gate in a large turf and stone wall. We passed through--left Devon--entered Somerset; and the famous Exmoor estate of 20,000 acres, bounded by a wall forty miles in length, the object of our journey, lay before us. Very dreary was this part of our journey, although, contrary to the custom of the country, the day was bright and clear, and the September sun defeated the fogs, and kept at a distance the drizzling rains which in winter sweep over Exmoor. We had now left the smooth, rocky-floored road, and were travelling along what most resembled the dry bed of a torrent: turf banks on each side seemed rather intended to define than to divide the property. As far as the eye could reach, the rushy tufted moorland extended, bounded in the distance by lofty, round-backed hills. Thinly scattered about were horned sheep and Devon red oxen. For about two miles we jolted gently on, until, beginning to descend a hill, our driver pointed in the valley below to a spot where stacks of hay and turf guarded a series of stone buildings, saying, "There's the Grange." The first glance was not encouraging--no sheep-station in Australia could seem more utterly desolate; but it improved on closer examination. The effects of cultivation were to be seen in the different colours of the fields round the house, where the number of stock grazing showed that more than ordinary means must have been taken to improve the pasture. We started on Exmoor ponies to ride to Simon's Bath. Exmoor, previous to 1818, was the property of the Crown, and leased to Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, who has an estate of a similar character close adjoining. He used its wild pasture (at that time it was without roads) for breeding ponies and feeding Exmoor sheep. There are no traces of any population having ever existed on this forest since Roman times. The Romans are believed to have worked iron-mines on the moor, which have recently been re-opened. Exmoor consists of 20,000 acres, on an elevation varying from 1000 to 1200 feet above the sea, of undulating table-land, divided by valleys, or "combes," through which the River Exe--which rises in one of its valleys--with its tributary, the Barle, forces a devious way, in the form of pleasant trout-streams, rattling over and among huge stones, and creeping through deep pools--a very angler's paradise. Like many similar districts in the Scotch Highlands, the resort of the red deer, it is called a forest, although trees--with the exception of some very insignificant plantations--are as rare as men. After riding all day with a party of explorers, one of them suddenly exclaimed, "Look, there is a man!" A similar expression escaped me when we came in sight of the first tree--a gnarled thorn, standing alone on the side of a valley. The sides of the steep valleys, of which some include an acre, and others extend for miles, are usually covered with coarse herbage, heather, and bilberry plants, springing from a deep black or red soil: at certain spots a greener hue marks the site of the bogs which impede, and at times almost engulph, the incautious horseman. These bogs are formed by springs, which, having been intercepted by a pan of sediment, and prevented from percolating through the soil, stagnate, and cause, at the same time, decay and vicious vegetation. They are seldom deep, and can usually be reclaimed by subsoiling or otherwise breaking the pan, and so drying the upper layers of bog. Bog-turf is largely employed on Exmoor as fuel. On other precipitous descents, winter torrents have washed away all the earth, and left avalanches of bare loose stones, called, in the western dialect, "crees." To descend these crees at a slapping pace in the course of a stag-hunt, requires no slight degree of nerve; but it is done, and is not so dangerous as it looks. Exmoor may be nothing strange to those accustomed to the wild, barren scenery. To one who has known country scenes only in the best-cultivated regions of England, and who has but recently quitted the perpetual roar of London, there is something strangely solemn and impressive in the deep silence of a ride across the forest. Horses bred on the moors, if left to themselves, rapidly pick their way through pools and bogs, and canter smoothly over dry flats of natural meadow; creep safely down the precipitous descents, and climb with scarcely a puff of distress these steep ascents; splash through fords in the trout-streams, swelled by rain, without a moment's hesitation, and trot along sheep-paths, bestrewed with rolling stones, without a stumble: so that you are perfectly at liberty to enjoy the luxury of excitement, and follow out the winding valleys, and study the rich brown and purple herbage. It was while advancing over a great brown plain in the centre of the moor, with a deep valley on our left, that our young quick-eyed guide suddenly held up his hand, whispering, "Ride on without seeming to take notice; there are the deer." A great red stag, lying on the brown grass, had sprung up, and was gazing on our party--too numerous and too brightly attired to be herdsmen, whom he would have allowed to pass without notice. Behind him were clustered four hinds and a calf. They stood still for some minutes watching our every movement, as we tried to approach them in a narrowing circle. Then the stag moved off slowly, with stately, easy, gliding steps, constantly looking back. The hinds preceded him: they reached the edge of the valley, and disappeared. We galloped up, and found that they had exchanged the slow retreat for a rapid flight, clearing every slight or suspicious obstacle with a grace, ease, and swiftness it was delightful to witness. In an incredibly short time they had disappeared, hidden by undulations in the apparently flat moor. These were one of the few herds still remaining on the forest. In a short time the wild deer of Exmoor will be a matter of tradition; and the hunt, which may be traced back to the time of Queen Elizabeth, will, if continued, descend to the "cart and calf" business. A sight scarcely less interesting than the deer was afforded by a white pony mare, with her young stock--consisting of a foal still sucking, a yearling, and a two-year-old--which we met in a valley of the Barle. The two-year-old had strayed away feeding, until alarmed by the cracking of our whips and the neighing of its dam, when it came galloping down a steep combe, neighing loudly, at headlong speed. It is thus these ponies learn their action and sure-footedness. It was a district such as we had traversed--entirely wild, without inclosures, or roads, or fences--that came into the hands of the father of the present proprietor. He built a fence of forty miles around it, made roads, reclaimed a farm for his own use at Simon's Bath, introduced Highland cattle on the hills, and set up a considerable stud for improving the indigenous race of ponies, and for rearing full-sized horses. These improvements, on which some three hundred thousand pounds were sunk, were not profitable; and it is very doubtful whether any considerable improvements could have been prosecuted successfully, if railways had not brought better markets within reach of the district. Coming from a part of the country where ponies are the perquisites of old ladies and little children, and where the nearer a well-shaped horse can be got to sixteen hands the better, the first feeling on mounting a rough little unkemped brute, fresh from the moor, barely twelve hands (four feet) in height, was intensely ridiculous. It seemed as if the slightest mistake would send the rider clean over the animal's head. But we learned soon that the indigenous pony, in certain useful qualities, is not to be surpassed by animals of greater size and pretensions. From the Grange to Simon's Bath (about three miles), the road, which runs through the heart of Exmoor proper, was constructed, with all the other roads in this vast extra-parochial estate, by the father of the present proprietor, F. Knight, Esq., of Wolverly House, Worcestershire, M.P. for East Worcestershire (Parliamentary Secretary of the Poor Law Board, under Lord Derby's Government). In the course of a considerable part of the route, the contrast of wild moorland and high cultivation may be found only divided by the carriage-way. At length, descending a steep hill, we came in sight of a view--of which Exmoor and its kindred district in North Devon affords many--a deep gorge, at whose precipitous base a trout-stream rolled along, gurgling and plashing, and winding round huge masses of white spar. The far bank sometimes extended out into natural meadows, where red cattle and wild ponies grazed, and sometimes rose precipitously. At one point, where both banks were equally steep and lofty, the far side was covered by a plantation with a cover of under-wood; but no trees of sufficient magnitude to deserve the name of a wood. This is a spot famous in the annals of a grand sport that soon will be among things of the past--Wild Stag Hunting. In this wood more than once the red monarch of Exmoor has been roused, and bounded over the rolling plains beyond, amid the shouts of excited hunters and the deep cry of the hounds, as with a burring scent they dashed up the steep breast of the hill. But there was no defiant stag there that day; so on we trotted on our shaggy sure-footed nags, beneath a burning sun--a sun that sparkled on the flowing waters as they gleamed between far distant hills, and threw a golden glow upon the fading tints of foliage and herbage, and cast deep shadows from the white overhanging rocks. Next we came to the deep pool that gives the name to Simon's Bath, where some unhappy man of that name, in times when deer were more plentiful than sheep, drowned himself for love, or in madness, or both--long before roads, farms, turnip crops, a school, and a church were dreamed of on Exmoor. Here fences give signs of habitation and cultivation. A rude, ancient bridge, with two arches of different curves, covered with turf, without side battlements or rails, stretches across the stream, and leads to a small house built for his own occupation by the father of Mr. Knight, pending the completion of a mansion of which the unfinished walls of one wing rise like a dismantled castle from the midst of a grove of trees and ornamented shrubs. A series of gentle declivities, plantations, a winding, full-flowing stream, seem only to require a suitable edifice and the hand of an artist gardener to make, at comparatively trifling expense, an abode unequalled in luxuriant and romantic beauty. We crossed the stream--not by the narrow bridge, but by the ford; and, passing through the straggling stone village of Simon's Bath, arrived in sight of the field where the Tattersall of the West was to sell the wild and tame horse stock bred on the moors. It was a field of some ten acres and a half, forming a very steep slope, with the upper path comparatively flat, the sloping side broken by a stone quarry, and dotted over with huge blocks of granite. At its base flowed an arm of the stream we had found margining our route. A substantial, but, as the event proved, not sufficiently high stone fence bounded the whole field. On the upper part, a sort of double pound, united by a narrow neck, with a gate at each end, had been constructed of rails, upwards of five feet in height. Into the first of these pounds, by ingenious management, all the ponies, wild and tame, had been driven. When the sale commenced, it was the duty of the herdsmen to separate two at a time, and drive them through the narrow neck into the pound before the auctioneer. Around a crowd of spectators of every degree were clustered--'squires and clergymen, horse-dealers and farmers, from Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire, as well as South Devon, and the immediate neighbourhood. These ponies are the result of crosses made years ago with Arab, Dongola, and thorough-bred stallions, on the indigenous race of Exmoors, since carefully culled from year to year for the purpose of securing the utmost amount of perfection among the stallions and mares reserved for breeding purposes. The real Exmoor seldom exceeds twelve hands; has a well-shaped head, with very small ears; but the thick round shoulder peculiar to all breeds of wild horses, which seem specially adapted for inclemencies of the weather; indeed, the whole body is round, compact, and well ribbed. The Exmoor has very good quarters and powerful hocks; legs straight, flat, and clean; the muscles well developed by early racing up and down steep mountain sides while following their dams. In about forty lots the prevailing colours were bay, brown, and gray; chestnuts and blacks were less frequent, and not in favour with the country people, many of whom seemed to consider that the indigenous race had been deteriorated by the sedulous efforts made and making to improve it--an opinion which we could not share after examining some of the best specimens, in which a clean blood-like head and increased size seemed to have been given, without any diminution of the enduring qualities of the Exmoor. The sale was great fun. Perched on convenient rails, we had the whole scene before us. The auctioneer rather hoarse and quite matter-of-fact; the ponies wildly rushing about the first enclosure, were with difficulty separated into pairs to be driven in the sale section; when fairly hemmed in through the open gate, they dashed and made a sort of circus circuit, with mane and tail erect, in a style that would draw great applause at Astley's. Then there was the difficulty of deciding whether the figures marked in white on the animal's hind-quarters were 8 or 3 or 5. Instead of the regular trot up and down of Tattersall's, a whisk of a cap was sufficient to produce a tremendous caper. A very pretty exhibition was made by a little mare, with a late foal about the size of a setter dog.[228-*] The sale over, a most amusing scene ensued: every man who had bought a pony wanted to catch it. In order to clear the way, each lot, as sold, as wild and nearly as active as deer, had been turned into the field. A joint-stock company of pony-catchers, headed by the champion wrestler of the district--a hawk-nosed, fresh-complexioned, rustic Don Juan--stood ready to be hired, at the moderate rate of sixpence per pony caught and delivered. One carried a bundle of new halters; the others, warmed by a liberal distribution of beer, seemed as much inspired by the fun as the sixpence. When the word was given, the first step was to drive a herd into the lowest corner of the field in as compact a mass as possible. The bay, gray, or chestnut, from that hour doomed to perpetual slavery and exile from his native hills, was pointed out by the nervous anxious purchaser. Three wiry fellows crept cat-like among the mob, sheltering behind some tame cart-horses; on a mutual signal they rushed on the devoted animal; two--one bearing a halter--strove to fling each one arm round its neck, and with one hand to grasp its nostrils--while the insidious third, clinging to the flowing tail; tried to throw the poor quadruped off its balance. Often they were baffled in the first effort, for with one wild spring the pony would clear the whole lot, and flying with streaming mane and tail across the brook up the field, leave the whole work to be recommenced. Sometimes when the feat was cleverly performed, pony and pony-catchers were to be seen all rolling on the ground together; the pony yelling, snorting, and fighting with his fore feet, the men clinging on like the Lapithæ and the Centaurs, and how escaping crushed ribs or broken legs it is impossible to imagine. On one occasion a fine brown stallion dashed away, with two plucky fellows hanging on to his mane: rearing, plunging, fighting with his fore feet, away he bounded down a declivity among the huge rocks, amid the encouraging cheers of the spectators: for a moment the contest was doubtful, so tough were the sinews, and so determined the grip of Davy, the champion; but the steep bank of the brook, down which the brown stallion recklessly plunged, was too much for human efforts (in a moment they all went together into the brook), but the pony, up first, leaped the opposite bank and galloped away, whinnying in short-lived triumph. After a series of such contests, well worth the study of artists not content with pale copies from marbles or casts, the difficulty of haltering these snorting steeds--equal in spirit and probably in size to those which drew the car of Boadicea--was diminished by all those uncaught being driven back to the pound; and there, not without furious battles, one by one enslaved. Yet even when haltered, the conquest was by no means concluded. Some refused to stir, others started off at such a pace as speedily brought the holder of the halter on his nose. One respectable old gentleman, in gray stockings and knee-breeches, lost his animal in much less time than it took him to extract the sixpence from his knotted purse. Yet in all these fights there was little display of vice; it was pure fright on the part of the ponies that made them struggle so. A few days' confinement in a shed, a few carrots, with a little salt, and gentle treatment, reduces the wildest of the three-year-olds to docility. When older they are more difficult to manage. It was a pretty sight to view them led away, splashing through the brook--conquered, but not yet subdued. In the course of the evening a little chestnut stallion, twelve hands, or four feet in height, jumped, at a standing jump, over the bars out of a pound upward of five feet from the ground, only just touching the top rail with his hind feet. We had hoped to have a day's wild stag hunting, but the hounds were out on the other side of the country. However, we had a few runs with a scratch pack of harriers after stout moorland hares. The dandy school, who revel in descriptions of coats and waistcoats, boots and breeches, and who pretend that there is no sport without an outfit which is only within the reach of a man with ten thousand a year, would no doubt have been extremely disgusted with the whole affair. We rose at five o'clock in the morning and hunted puss up to her form (instead of paying a shilling to a boy to turn her out) with six couples, giving tongue most melodiously. Viewing her away we rattled across the crispy brown moor, and splattered through bogs with a loose rein, in lunatic enjoyment, until we checked at the edge of a deep "combe." Then--when the old yellow Southerner challenged, and our young host cheered him with "Hark to Reveller, hark!"--to hear the challenge and the cheer re-echoed again from the opposite cliff; and--as the little pack in full cry again took up the running, and scaled the steep ascent--to see our young huntsman, bred in these hills, go rattling down the valleys, and to follow by instinct, under a vague idea, not unmixed with nervous apprehensions of the consequences of a slip, that what one could do two could, was vastly exciting, and amusing, and, in a word, decidedly jolly. So with many facts, some new ideas, and a fine stock of health from a week of open air, I bade farewell to my hospitable hosts and to romantic Exmoor. FOOTNOTES: [228-*] According to tradition, the Exmoor ponies are descended from horses brought from the East by the Phoenicians, who traded there with Cornwall for metals. [Illustration: SITZ BATH.] POSTSCRIPT. THE HUNTING MAN'S HEALTH. Without health there can be no sport. A man at the commencement of the hunting often requires condition more than his horse, especially if engaged in sedentary occupations, and averse to summer riding or walking. Of course the proper plan is to train by walking or riding. I remember, some years ago, when three months of severe mental occupation had kept me entirely out of the saddle, going out in Northamptonshire, fortunately admirably mounted, when the hounds were no sooner in cover than they were out of it, "running breast high," five minutes after I had changed from my seat in a dog-cart to the saddle. We had thirty-five minutes' sharp run, without a check, and for the latter part of the run I was perfectly beaten, almost black in the face, and scarcely able to hold my horse together. I did not recover from this too sudden exertion for many days. Those who are out of condition will do well to ride, instead of driving to cover. In changing from town to country life, between the different hours of rising and hearty meals--the result of fresh air and exercise--the stomach and bowels are very likely to get out of order. It is as well, therefore, to be provided with some mild digestive pills: violent purges are as injurious to men as to horses, and more inconvenient. The enema is a valuable instrument, which a hunting man should not be without, as its use, when you are in strong exercise, is often more advisable than medicine. But one of the most valuable aids to the health and spirits of a hard-riding man is the Sitz Bath, which, taken morning and evening, cold or tepid, according to individual taste, has even more advantageous effects on the system than a complete bath. It braces the muscles, strengthens the nerves, and tends to keep the bowels open. Sitz baths are made in zinc, and are tolerably portable; but in a country place you may make shift with a tub half-filled with water. In taking this kind of bath, it is essential that the parts not in the water should be warm and comfortable. For this end, in cold weather, case your feet and legs in warm stockings, and cover your person and tub with a poncho, through the hole of which you can thrust your head. In default of a poncho, a plaid or blanket will do, and in warm weather a sheet. If you begin with tepid water, you will soon be able to bear cold, as after the first shock the cold disappears. The water must not reach higher than your hips, rather under than over. The time for a Sitz bath varies from ten to twenty minutes, not longer, during which you may read or smoke; but then you will need sleeves, for it is essential that you should be covered all the time. I often take a cup of coffee in this bath, it saves time in breakfasting. In the illustration, the blanket has been turned back to show the right position. THE HOT-AIR OR INDIAN BATH. In case of an attack of cold or influenza, or a necessity for sweating off a few pounds, or especially after a severe fall, there is no bath so effective and so simple as the hot-air or Indian bath. This is made with a wooden-bottomed kitchen chair, a few blankets, a tin cup, and a claret-glass of spirits of wine. For want of spirits of wine you might use a dozen of Price's night lights. Take a wooden-bottomed chair, and place it in a convenient part of the bedroom, where a fire should be previously lighted. Put under the chair a narrow metal cup or gallipot, if it will stand fire filled with spirits of wine. Let the bather strip to his drawers, and sit down on the chair with a fold of flannel under him, for the seat will get extremely hot--put on his knees a slop-basin, with a sponge and a little cold water. Then take four blankets or rugs, and lay them, one over his back, one over his front, and one on each side, so as to cover him closely in a woollen tent, and wrap his head up in flannel or silk--if he is cold or shivering put his feet in warm water, or on a hot brick wrapped in flannel. Then light the spirits of wine, which will very soon make a famous hot-air bath. By giving the patient a little _cold water_ to drink, perspiration will be encouraged; if he finds the air inconveniently hot before he begins to perspire, he can use the sponge and slop-basin to bathe his chest, &c. [Illustration: INDIAN BATH.] When the perspiration rolls like rain from his face, and you think he has had enough, have a blanket warmed at the fire, strip him, roll him in it, and tumble him into bed. In five or ten minutes, you can take away the blanket and put on his night shirt--give him a drink of white wine whey, and he will be ready to go to sleep comfortably. This bath can be administered when a patient is too ill to be put in a warm bath, and is more effective. I have seen admirable results from it on a gentleman after a horse had rolled over him. It can also be prepared in a few minutes, in places where to get a warm bath would be out of the question. In the illustration, the blanket is turned back, to show the proper position, and by error the head is not covered. Woodfall and Kinder Printers, Angel Court, Skinner Street, London. "_If the steamboat and the railway have abridged time and space, and made a large addition to the available length of human existence, why may not our intellectual journey be also accelerated, our knowledge more cheaply and quickly acquired, its records rendered more accessible and portable, its cultivators increased in number, and its blessings more cheaply and widely diffused?_"--QUARTERLY REVIEW. LONDON: FARRINGDON STREET. 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Mr. Midshipman Easy.= By Captain Marryat. =32. Newton Forster.= By Captain Marryat. =33. The Pacha of Many Tales.= By Captain Marryat. =34. Rattlin the Reefer.= Edited by Captain Marryat. =35. The Poacher.= By Captain Marryat. =36. The Phantom Ship.= By Captain Marryat. =37. The Dog Fiend.= By Captain Marryat. =38. Percival Keene.= By Captain Marryat. =39. Hector O'Halloran.= By W. H. Maxwell. =40. The Pottleton Legacy.= By Albert Smith. =41. The Pastor's Fireside.= By Miss Porter. =42. My Cousin Nicholas.= By Ingoldsby. =43. The Black Dragoons.= By James Grant. Transcriber's Note The following typographical errors were corrected. Page Error iii Mr. Rarey's Introduction changed to Mr. Rarey's Introduction. v snaffle.--the changed to snaffle.--The vii struogling changed to struggling 10 under the auspicies changed to under the auspices 11 violent loungings changed to violent longeings fn 20-* April 7.' changed to April 7." 23 shere humbug changed to sheer humbug 26 omiting changed to omitting 30 scimetar changed to scimitar 31 spangled troope changed to spangled troupe 31 horse wont changed to horse won't 64 suppleing changed to suppling 88 long wholebone whip changed to long whalebone whip 95 any horse changed to any horse. 128 round to the right. changed to round to the right." (based on comparison to another edition of the book) 129 gotamongst changed to got amongst 129 aid-de-camps changed to aide-de-camps 159 of my pupils changed to of my pupils. 173 white potatoe oats changed to white potato oats 173 45lbs. changed to 45 lbs. 185 distance, we though changed to distance, we thought 202 Mobbing a fox changed to Mobbing a fox. 210 danger of stubbing changed to danger of stubbing. 216 distinction bewteen changed to distinction between Ads 2 Bancrofts changed to Bancroft's bullfinch / bulfinch farm-house / farmhouse fox-hounds / foxhounds jibbing / gibbing off-side / offside over-run / overrun practice / practise (and other forms of the word also vary) road-side / roadside steeple-chase / steeplechase thorough-bred / thoroughbred 
34376	----	[Illustration: HOUDAN CHICKS WITH BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MOTHER. (Photograph by C. E. Petersen)] OUR DOMESTIC BIRDS ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN AVICULTURE BY JOHN H. ROBINSON GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY JOHN H. ROBINSON ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 413.9 =The Athenæum Press= GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A. PREFACE Ten years ago aviculture had hardly been thought of as a school subject. To-day it is taught in thousands of schools, and in some states instruction in poultry culture is required by law. This rapid change in sentiment and situation has resulted from a combination of causes. When agricultural colleges established poultry departments, it was found that a large part of those applying for admission to them had neither the practical knowledge of poultry nor the general education that they needed to do work of college grade. About this time also the interest in nature study began to take a more practical turn, and attention was directed to the superiority of domesticated to wild animals and plants as material for school studies of the phenomena of physical life. Added to these special causes was a general cause more potent than either: great numbers of people had reached the stage of experience in various lines of aviculture where they realized keenly that a little sound instruction in the subject in youth would have been of great value to them later in life, saving them from costly mistakes. To these people it seemed both natural and necessary that the schools should teach poultry and pigeon culture. Developing as the result of such a combination of causes, the demand for an elementary textbook on poultry came with equal force from country schools, where poultry might be kept on the school grounds as well as by every pupil at home, from city schools, in which all instruction must be by book, and from all types of schools and conditions of life between. Had there been only the extreme classes of schools to consider, the natural way to supply the demand would be with a special book for each distinct type of school. The idea of one book for all schools, from which each might use what seemed to suit its requirements, was dismissed as impractical while so large a proportion of teachers were but slightly acquainted with the subject. It is believed that the plan of making an elementary reading course for general use, and a secondary book of a more technical character for use where practice courses are given, is the best solution of the problem under existing conditions. In this first book the object is to tell in plain language the things that every one ought to know about poultry, pigeons, and cage birds; to teach fundamental facts in such a way that they will be fixed in the mind; to excite interest in the subject where none existed; and to direct enthusiasm along right lines. While the demand has been almost wholly for a poultry book, pigeons and cage birds are included, because they are of more interest than some kinds of poultry and better adapted than any other kind to the conditions of city life. In regard to the time that should be given to this course, one period a week for forty weeks is better than a period a day for forty days, because the average person, young or old, retains a great deal more of what is read or heard about a diversified subject if the ground is covered by easy stages with comparatively long intervals between. References for collateral readings and suggestions for original investigations are omitted, because, in the author's opinion, what work of this kind it is desirable for a high-school pupil to do should be done by those taking practice work in the advanced course. JOHN H. ROBINSON READING, MASSACHUSETTS CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. BIRDS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO MAN 1 Definition of a bird; Place of birds in the animal kingdom; Flight of birds; Voices of birds; Social relations of birds--Place of birds in domestication--Uses of birds in domestication--Place of wild birds in civilization--Classes of domestic birds II. CHARACTERS AND HABITS OF BIRDS RELATED TO USE 8 Feathers--Structure of feathers--Arrangement of the feathers--Decorative feather forms--Color in feathers--Growth and molting of feathers--Flight--Mechanism of the wing--Scratching--Swimming--Foods and mode of digestion--Peculiarities of birds' eggs--Development of the egg--Rate and amount of egg production--Incubation--Development of the embryo in a bird's egg III. SPECIES AND THEIR DIVISIONS IN DOMESTIC BIRDS 24 Definition of species--Origin of species--Natural varieties--Varieties in domestication--Classification of domestic varieties of birds--Systematic mixtures of breeds and varieties--Pure-bred, thoroughbred, and standard-bred IV. FOWLS 31 Description--Origin of the fowl--Appearance of the original wild species--Distribution of fowls in ancient times--Development of principal races of fowls--How fowls were kept in old times--Modern conditions and methods--Native fowls in America--Old European races of fowls--Italian fowls--English races of fowls--German and Dutch races--French races--Spanish races--Asiatic races of fowls--Chinese races--Japanese races--The "hen-fever" period--How the American breeds arose--The modern Barred Plymouth Rock--Other varieties of the Plymouth Rock--The Wyandottes--The Rhode Island Red--The American idea in England; the Orpington--Present distribution of improved races--Deformed and dwarf races--Silky fowls--Frizzled fowls--Rumpless fowls--Bantams--Origin of Bantams--Varieties of bantams V. MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS 72 Small flocks on town lots: Numbers in flocks--Houses and yards--Feeding--Growing chickens. Small flocks on ordinary farms: Numbers in flocks--Single houses for farm flocks--Feeding--Reproducing the flock--The hatching season--Broody hens--Setting the hens--Care of sitting hens--Attention at hatching time--Coops for broods--Feeding young chickens--Management of growing chicks. Large stocks on general farms: The colony system--Numbers of hens kept--Feeding, care, and results--How the chickens are grown--Adaptability of the colony system. Intensive poultry farms: Reasons for concentration--Concentration not profitable--Common type of intensive poultry farm. Broiler growing: The "broiler craze"--Present condition of broiler growing. Roaster growing: Description of a good roaster--General and special supplies--Large roaster plants. Intensive egg farming--Poultry fanciers' farms VI. DUCKS 124 Description; Origin--The common duck--Improved races--Ornamental ducks--Place of ducks in domestication VII. MANAGEMENT OF DUCKS 137 Small flocks on town lots: Numbers--Houses and yards--Feeding--Laying habits. Growing ducklings. Small flocks on farms: General conditions--Feeding. Market duck farms: History--Description--Duck fanciers' methods VIII. GEESE 157 Description--Origin--Common geese--Improved races--Ornamental varieties--The Canada Goose, or American Wild Goose--Place of geese in domestication IX. MANAGEMENT OF GEESE 168 Small farm flocks: Size of flock--Houses and yards--Feeding--Laying season and habits--Hatching and rearing goslings--Large flocks of geese on farms--Goose-fattening farms--Growing thoroughbred geese for exhibition--Growing a few geese on a town lot--Growing wild geese in captivity X. TURKEYS 179 Description--Origin--Common turkeys--Improved varieties--Bronze Turkeys--Influence of the Bronze Turkey on other varieties--Other varieties of the turkey--Place of the turkey in domestication XI. MANAGEMENT OF TURKEYS 190 Size of flocks--Shelters and yards--Feeding--Breeding season and laying habits--Hatching and rearing XII. GUINEAS 201 Description--Origin--Varieties--Place in domestication--Management of domestic guineas XIII. PEAFOWLS 206 Description--Origin--Place in domestication--Management XIV. PHEASANTS 211 Description--Origin--History in America--Species and varieties--Place in domestication--Management of pheasants in confinement XV. SWANS 222 Description--Origin and history in domestication--Place in domestication--Management XVI. OSTRICHES 230 Description--Origin and history in domestication--Place in domestication--Management XVII. PIGEONS 239 Description--Origin--Distribution in ancient times--Improved varieties--The Carrier Pigeon--The Antwerp Homer--Tumbler and Tippler Pigeons--The Fantail Pigeon--Pouter Pigeons--Other important types--History in domestication--Place in domestication XVIII. MANAGEMENT OF PIGEONS 255 Size of flock--Quarters for pigeons--Ventilation and cleanliness--Handling pigeons--Mating pigeons--Feeding--How pigeons rear their young XIX. CANARIES 269 Description--Origin--Improvement in domestication--Place in domestication--Management of canaries: Cages--Position of the Cage--Feeding--Care--Breeding XX. DISTRIBUTION OF MARKET PRODUCTS 275 Producers, consumers, and middlemen--How the middleman enters local trade--Additional middlemen--How the demand for poultry products stimulates production--Losses in distribution--Cold storage of poultry products--Methods of selling at retail--Volume of products XXI. EXHIBITIONS AND THE FANCY TRADE 291 Conditions in the fancy trade--Exhibitions--Rudiments of judging--Disqualifications--Methods of judging--Exhibition quality and value--Why good breeders have much low-priced stock--Fancy and utility types in the same variety XXII. OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AVICULTURE 304 Judging fancy poultry and pigeons--Journalism--Art--Invention--Education and investigation--Manufacturing and commerce--Legislation and litigation INDEX 311 OUR DOMESTIC BIRDS CHAPTER I BIRDS AND THEIR RELATIONS TO MAN =Definition of a bird.= A bird is a feathered animal. The covering of feathers is the only character common to all birds and not possessed by any other creature. The other characters--the bill, the wings, egg-laying, etc.--by which we usually distinguish birds from animals of other kinds are not exclusive bird characters. Turtles have beaks, and there is one species of mammal (the ornithorhynchus) which has a bill like that of a duck. Many insects and one species of mammal (the bat) fly. Insects, fishes, and reptiles lay eggs, and there are several rare species of mammals that lay eggs and incubate them. On the other hand, some birds are deficient in one or more of the typical bird characters. The ostrich cannot fly. The penguin can neither fly nor run, and cannot even walk well. The cuckoo lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, leaving to them the hatching and rearing of its young. These exceptional cases are very interesting because they show that animals now quite different in structure and habits had a common origin, but in no case is there such a combination of characters that any doubt arises whether the creature is a bird or a mammal. The characters which typically belong to birds attain their highest development in them, and in most cases this is due to peculiar adaptabilities of the feathers. The Anglo-Saxons' name for a bird was _fugol_ (the flying animal). The young feathered creature they called _bridd_ (the thing brooded). This name was also sometimes given to young mammals, but it applied especially to the young of feathered creatures which were more dependent upon the parent for warmth than others. Our English words "fowl" and "bird" come from these Anglo-Saxon terms. At first "fowl" was applied to large birds and "bird" to small ones, but gradually the use of the name "fowl" was limited to the common domestic fowl, and "bird" became the generic name for all feathered creatures. =Place of birds in the animal kingdom.= Zoölogists rank mammals higher than birds because man is a mammal and his general superiority to other creatures determines the rank of the class to which he belongs. Yet, while placing birds below mammals in a simple classification of animals, naturalists point out that birds are the most distinct class in the animal kingdom. If we compare birds and the lower mammals, and compare the relations of each class to man, we see at once that nothing else could take the place of birds either in nature or in civilization. Among birds are found the highest developments of animal locomotion and of the natural voice, capacity for language far beyond that of other creatures (except man), and family and community relations resembling those of the human race. Hitherto in the history of the world mammals have been more useful to man than birds, but birds have given him some of his best ideas, and with the advance of civilization the lower mammals become less necessary and birds more necessary to him. =Flight of birds.= It has been said that "on the earth and on the sea man has attained to powers of locomotion with which, in strength, endurance, and velocity, no animal movement can compare. But the air is an element on which he cannot travel, an ocean which he cannot navigate. The birds of heaven are still his envy, and on the paths they tread he cannot follow." Since that was written practical flying machines have been invented, but in these, as in boats and ships, man has merely devised a machine which under his control can do laboriously and at great risk what the bird does naturally and easily. To birds man is indebted for his first lessons in navigating the water as well as for his ideas about airships. =Voices of birds.= With few exceptions the different kinds of animals have natural languages through which individuals of the same species can to some extent hold communication with each other, and which are partly intelligible to other creatures. In all mammals except man, and in most birds, the range of expression is very limited and the sound of the voice is disagreeable; but a great many species of birds have very pleasing notes, many have very beautiful natural songs, and some readily learn the songs of other species. Man learned melody from the song birds. There are also many species of birds that can imitate a great variety of sounds, and even learn to speak words and short sentences. Birds that learn to talk often show intelligence in their use of words. This is the more remarkable because the intelligence of birds is not of a high order, but is distinctly inferior to that of the common domesticated mammals. =Social relations of birds.= In aërial birds (except the cuckoos) the male and female pair, build a nest, and both take part in the incubation of the eggs and the feeding of the young. Usually a pair once mated remain mated for life and are very devoted to each other. In wild land birds the pairing habit is not of advantage to a species, but still the tendency to single matings is very strong. When land and water birds are domesticated man tries to break them of this habit because the males produce no eggs and he prefers to eat them while they are young and their flesh is tender. But, as will appear in detail when the different species of birds of this class are described, he does not always succeed in doing this. Even the domestic fowl and duck, in which pairing has been prevented for centuries, often show a strong tendency to pair; and the females with broods of young usually separate from the flock until the little ones no longer need their care. With this separate family life there is still in most species of birds concerted action by communities in migrations, in forming colonies, in attacks on other creatures, and in defense from enemies. From the earliest times of which we have knowledge the devotion of birds to their mates and to their young has afforded the most common and most beautiful illustration of family life in nature. =Place of birds in domestication.= The place of birds among domestic animals corresponds to that of garden vegetables, small fruits, and flowers among cultivated plants. The great staple agricultural crops--corn, wheat, oats, barley, hay, apples, oranges, horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, etc.--are produced mostly by men who make farming and stock-growing their business. But, while large quantities of garden vegetables, small fruits, flowers, poultry, pigeons, etc. are grown by people who specialize in them, the greater part of the supply in all lands comes from small gardens and small flocks on ordinary farms and in the back yards of town homes. =Uses of birds in domestication.= With the exception of the cage birds and the ostrich, all our domestic birds are valuable for their flesh; but, as some kinds can be produced more easily and cheaply than others, people growing birds for the table give most attention to those that can be grown most profitably, and the others are grown principally by those who prize them for rarity, beauty, or some peculiar quality. The eggs of all birds are edible, but birds differ greatly in the number of eggs that they lay and in the disposition to lay them in places provided for the purpose. So, nearly all who keep birds for their eggs keep fowls, which are the most prolific and most docile, and hens' eggs are the staple eggs in the markets. The feathers of birds are used for pillows and beds, for feather dusters, and in various ways for ornament. Except in the case of the ostrich, however, the value of the feathers of domesticated birds is so small that no one grows birds primarily for their feathers. On the other hand, those who keep birds for pleasure find their greatest enjoyment in breeding them with colors and markings difficult to produce. Choice specimens of fancy-bred birds bring prices many times greater than the value of their flesh and eggs for food and of their feathers for use or ornament. Fancy feathers have no more value than others except on the living birds. While those who keep birds for pleasure nowadays give most attention to breeding fancy stock for exhibition, several kinds of pigeons are kept to entertain by their flying performances; and--outside of the limited class of those who breed them especially for exhibition--canaries are valued according to ability to sing. The brutal sport of cockfighting was a popular pastime with our ancestors until prohibited by law, and is still prevalent in many lands. In early times birds of prey were captured when very young and carefully trained to hunt for their masters. Under the feudal system there were regulations prescribing the kinds of birds which different classes of men might use in this way: the eagle and vulture were for emperors only; the gyrfalcon for kings; the lesser falcons for nobles; the harrier for esquires; the merlin for ladies; the goshawk for yeomen; the kestrel for servants; the sparrow hawk for priests. Much of the value of various kinds of poultry comes from their ability to destroy insects which damage vegetation, and to maintain themselves on these and on foods not available for the larger domestic mammals. The services of poultry in this respect being limited to those insects that can be secured from the ground, and to areas on which the birds can live safely and do no damage to crops, we are dependent upon wild aërial birds to keep insect life in check on trees and high bushes and on land not occupied by poultry. =Place of wild birds in civilization.= As no insect-eating aërial birds have been domesticated, the preservation of wild birds that destroy insects is of as much importance to man as the production of domestic birds. Indeed, the wild birds are much more valuable to us in the wild state than they would be if domesticated. In nature species prey upon each other--the lowest forms of life upon inorganic and decayed matter, the higher forms upon the lower, the larger creatures upon the smaller, the savage upon the defenseless. Fertile lands not only produce luxuriant vegetation but teem with insect life, which, if not kept in check, would soon destroy that vegetation. In tropical and semitropical regions there are mammals, some of them quite large, which feed upon insects. In temperate regions where insects are not to be obtained during the winter, there would be no adequate check upon their increase and the consequent destruction of vegetation if it were not for the vast numbers of insect-eating migratory birds which come to these regions for the summer. Necessary as these birds are to vegetation on uncultivated lands, they are more necessary in cultivated fields, orchards, and gardens where the crops are more attractive to insects than the mixed vegetation on wild lands. As insect destroyers the domestic birds that are kept on cultivated lands only fill the place of the nonmigratory wild birds that have been driven away or exterminated. So it is to the interest of every one to protect insect-eating wild birds, for although these birds may do some damage to crops, their service usually more than pays for it. =Classes of domestic birds.= There are three classes of domestic birds--poultry, pigeons, and cage birds. The poultry class comprises land and water birds and contains nine kinds--fowls, ducks, geese, turkeys, guineas, peafowls, pheasants, swans, and ostriches. The pigeon class has but one kind, the pigeon, which is the only aërial bird domesticated for economic purposes. The cage-bird class has as its most important representative the canary. The other birds of this class have never been popular in America. The question of increasing the number of species of birds in domestication interests many people. There is a general impression among those not familiar with the commercial aspect of aviculture that many more species might be domesticated. While it is true that many birds capable of domestication have not been domesticated, there are few of these that would serve any purpose not better served by some species already domesticated. It will be shown as the different kinds and varieties of domestic birds are discussed that the most useful kinds are always the most popular, and that many others are kept principally as ornaments. The number of ornamental creatures that can be kept in domestication is limited, for as a rule animals, like people, must earn their living. CHAPTER II CHARACTERS AND HABITS OF BIRDS RELATED TO USE =Feathers.= The feathers of a bird are the most highly developed form of protective covering in animals, serving other important functions in addition to the primary one. Compared with the hair of a mammal or the scale of a fish or of a reptile, a typical soft feather from the body of a bird is a very complex structure, partaking of the characters of both scales and hair. The fact that birds have scales and hair as well as feathers shows their relation to these other forms of animal covering. This is best observed on a fowl. The legs of a fowl are normally smooth, with scales on the front of the shank and on the upper surfaces of the toes. In feather-legged fowls the feathers appear first along the outer sides of the shanks and toes. As the number of feathers is increased they grow longer and more feathers appear, until in the most heavily feathered specimens the soft skin is covered and the scales are almost hidden. The face of a fowl is normally almost bare, the skin being a bright red like the comb and wattles; but at a distance of a few feet we can usually see some very small, fine feathers on it, and if we examine closely we see in addition still finer growths--hairs. Among the body feathers of a fowl, too, are quite long hairs. These are most easily observed after a bird is plucked. They do not come out with the feathers, and are removed by singeing. =Structure of feathers.= The smallest feather that to the naked eye appears as something more complex than a hair, looks like a little bunch of fuzzy filaments. This is called down. In the next higher form of feather a small round quill appears with filaments protruding from it like the hairs in an artist's brush. Such a feather is called a stub feather, or simply a stub. The best place to find these is on the outside of the shank of a fowl with scantily feathered legs. The first form of the complete feather is best observed either on the head of a fowl or at the hock joint. The feathers in these places are very small, yet complete. The round quill is lengthened into a shaft. Extending from each side of this shaft is a single row of filaments, called barbs, the edges of which, interlocked with little hooks, form the web of the feather. On other parts of the body of the bird the feathers are larger, but the general structure is always the same. The size and special structure of the feather are always adjusted to suit the part on which it grows or the service which it has to perform. As the first function of the feathers is to keep the bird dry and warm, the body feathers are all soft as compared with the large stiff feathers of the wings and tail; yet as we look at the feathers on different parts of the body of a bird we notice differences in their structure, and also notice that the structure of a feather is not always the same throughout its length. On the exposed parts of the feathers of the neck, back, wings, and breast the web is perfect and the feathers overlap so closely that they present a smooth surface. Under the surface, especially next the skin, the barbs are not smoothly joined, but are fluffy. Thus the same feathers which present a hard, smooth surface to the weather provide a soft, warm garment next the skin. Under the wings and on the underside of the body the feathers are quite fluffy throughout their whole length. =Arrangement of the feathers.= As you look at a living bird the feathers appear to grow on all parts of the body. When the feathers are removed from the bird you see that while the skin is nearly all rough, with the little elevations where the feathers were removed, there are quite large areas where the skin is perfectly smooth, showing that no feathers grew there. These places are bare because feathers on them would interfere with the movements of the bird. The feathers on adjacent parts give the smooth areas sufficient protection. =Decorative feather forms.= The natural decorative forms of plumage are found mostly in male birds and consist of extraordinary developments of the plumage of the neck and back, where the male birds of some species always have feathers differing in form from the feathers on the same parts of the female. When a feather appendage not common to a species is developed on some varieties, as the crest and beard on fowls and the ruff on pigeons, both sexes have it. The most interesting feather decorations will be described particularly in the chapters on the species on which they occur. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Brown Leghorn chick (one day old)] =Color in feathers.= While colors in the plumage are distributed very differently in different species of birds, often making combinations peculiar to a species, there is in all the same wonderful formation of patterns, that depends for its effect in a section upon some overlapping feathers being marked alike and others having a different marking; and for the effect in a single feather, upon adjacent barbs being now alike, now different, in the distribution of the pigment in them. The best common example of a pattern covering a series of feathers is found on the wing of a Mallard Duck or of a Rouen Duck. Interesting examples of the formation of patterns on a single feather may be found in the plumage of barred, laced, and penciled fowls, and also in the lacings on the body feathers of the females of the varieties of ducks mentioned. Perhaps the most interesting illustrations of this kind, however, are to be seen on the plain feathers of the guinea and the gorgeous tail of the peacock. The pigment which colors the plumage may be found in soluble form in the quills of immature colored feathers. It is not conspicuous unless it is quite dark. In black fowls it is often so abundant that a part remains in the skin when the feathers are removed. After the pigment is deposited in the web of the feather the color is fast. Water does not affect it, but it fades a little with age and exposure. New plumage usually contains a great deal of oil, a condition which is most conspicuous in white birds, to whose plumage the oil gives a creamy tint. In colored birds the presence of a large amount of oil in feathers is desirable because it gives greater brilliance to the plumage. [Illustration: Fig. 2. White Leghorn chicks (ten days old)] =Growth and molting of feathers.= The first covering of a young bird is down. The young of birds which nest on the ground have the down covering when hatched; others acquire it in a few days. In small land birds which feather quickly, as Leghorn and Hamburg chicks, the largest wing feathers may have started to grow before the chick leaves the egg. In most kinds of poultry, however, the young show no signs of feathers for some days. The down is gradually replaced by small feathers, and these by larger feathers as the bird grows. As feathers in all stages of growth are found on the young bird at the same time, it is not known whether all feathers are molted the same number of times. In cases where some feathers were marked and watched, or where the colors changed with the changing feathers, it appeared that after the down three sets of feathers were grown in succession, the third and last making the adult plumage of the bird. This coat remains until the following summer or fall, when it is molted and replaced by a new one. =Flight.= The habit of flying is objectionable in domestic birds because it makes them more difficult to control. It has no direct use except in pigeons kept for flying. There is, however, a very important connection between development for flying and the value of birds for the table. The muscles of the wings furnish the greater part of the edible meat of most birds. The most desirable birds for food purposes are those which have the wing muscles well developed, yet not quite strong enough to enable them to fly easily. In such birds the breast meat remains comparatively soft through life, while in birds that fly well it becomes hard in a very short time. That is why the breast meat of the pigeon is relatively tougher in an old bird than the breast meat of a fowl or turkey. The balance between capacity for flight and neglect to use it, which is desired in birds grown for the table, is secured by giving them opportunity to exercise their wings moderately but not for progressive practice in flying, which would soon enable them to fly easily over the fences used to confine them. To regulate such exercise the perches for birds that roost are made low, or in an ascending series in which each perch after the first is reached from the one below it, while fences are made so much higher than the distance the bird is accustomed to fly that the failures of its first efforts to go over them discourage it. Ducks and geese, which do not roost, flap their wings a great deal, and if they have room often exercise them by half running and half flying along the ground. =Mechanism of the wing.= In its structure and in the muscular power that moves it, the wing of a bird is a wonderful piece of mechanism. A bird in flying strikes the air with its wings so rapidly that the movements cannot be accurately counted. The heron, which is a slow-flying bird, makes from one hundred twenty to one hundred fifty downward strokes of its wings a minute. As each downward stroke must be preceded by an upward stroke, this means that the wings make from two hundred forty to three hundred separate movements a minute. In such swift-flying birds as the pigeon the movements of the wings can be distinguished but cannot be counted. The fastest movements of the wings are not made by the swiftest fliers. In order to fly at all some land birds with comparatively small wings have to move them so fast that the movements make a blur and a whirring noise. The partridge is an illustration of a bird of this class. If the supporting surface of the wing of a bird were made of skin, like the web of the foot of a swimming bird, it would be necessary to fold the wing for each upward stroke. It is here that the structure of feathers adapts itself to the rapid action required for movement in the air. The wing is not one surface but a series of narrow surfaces lapping in such a manner that they unite to form one broad surface when the downward stroke is made, and with the upward stroke are separated so that the air passes between them. Greater power in the downward stroke and less resistance in the upward stroke are also secured by the curvature of the wing. The under side is concave, the upper side convex. Thus in the downward stroke the wing gathers the air under it and so increases the pressure, while in the upward stroke it scatters the air and reduces the pressure. If the wing were equally rigid throughout, the movement of the bird would be mostly upward. The bird in flying moves forward because the front of the wing is rigid and the tips of the feathers, which are directed backward, are flexible. So the air compressed by the wing in the downward stroke escapes backward, and in doing so propels the bird forward. The principle is the same that is applied in the screw propeller of a boat or an airship, except that the wing vibrates while the propeller revolves. The most important function of the tail in flight is to balance the bird. It is of some assistance in steering, but a bird steers its course mostly by manipulation of the wings. =Scratching.= With the exception of the aquatic birds and the ostrich, all the species of poultry belong to the group called by naturalists _Rasores_ or _Scratchers_. Birds of this class have legs of moderate length and very strong, with toes terminating in a stout claw. Normally they have three toes upon which the foot rests when they are standing on a flat surface, and a fourth toe, like a thumb, which assists the other toes to grasp a perch. Some individual birds and some races of birds have the fourth or hind toe double. The leg of a bird is so constructed that when it is bent as the bird sits on a narrow support the toes contract and grasp the support and hold it without any effort on the part of the bird. Thus the bird is as secure in its position on a limb when asleep as if wide awake and looking out for itself. In proportion to their ability to scratch, birds are able to find seeds and insects concealed among dead or living vegetation on the surface of the ground, and also to dig below the surface. Scratching capacity is most highly developed in the fowl. Compared to it the other land birds are very feeble scratchers, and do little damage by scratching if free to roam about. For ages the scratching propensity of fowls was regarded as a vice in them, but since people began to give special attention to poultry they have learned that fowls are much more contented and thrifty in confinement if their food is given them in a litter of leaves, straw, or shavings, in which they must scratch for it, and have also found that to some extent fowls may be used to cultivate crops while destroying insects and weeds among them. =Swimming.= Capacity for swimming has an economic value in domestic birds because it adapts those possessing it to places which land birds rarely frequent. It will be shown when the different kinds of aquatic birds are described that each has its special place and use in domestication. The swimming faculty in these birds is of further interest because of its relation to the development of the body plumage. If a land bird is placed in the water, the feathers are quickly saturated, the water penetrating to the skin. A duck or other swimming bird will remain in the water for hours without the water penetrating the feathers. This is commonly supposed to be due to the presence of a large amount of oil in the feathers, but the difference in the oiliness of the feathers of fowls and of ducks is not great enough to account for the difference in resistance to the penetration of water. The peculiar quality of the plumage of swimming birds is its density. If you take up a fowl and examine the plumage you will find that it is easy to part the feathers so that the skin can be seen. It may be done with the fingers, or even by blowing gently among the feathers with the mouth. Now try to separate the feathers of a duck so that the skin will be visible. You find it much harder, because the feathers are so thick and soft and at the same time so elastic. The familiar phrase "like water from a duck's back" is not especially appropriate. The feathers on the back of most birds are a very effective protection against rain. The feathers all over a duck are such poor conductors of water that it is hard to remove them by scalding. The structure of the plumage of swimming birds adds to their buoyancy in the water. They do not have to exert themselves to remain on the surface, but float like cork. =Foods and mode of digestion.= All kinds of poultry and most of our common wild birds are omnivorous eaters, but the proportion of different foods usually taken is not the same in different kinds of birds. Some eat mostly grains, some mostly animal foods. Some can subsist entirely on grass if they can get it in a tender state; others eat very little grass. The scratching birds like a diet of about equal parts of grain, leaves, and insects. Pigeons and canaries live almost entirely on grains and seeds, but like a little green stuff occasionally. Domestic birds which produce many eggs require special supplies of food containing lime to make the shells. Until within a few years it was universally believed--and it is still commonly supposed--that birds needed grit to take the place of the teeth nature did not give them, and assist in the grinding of the food in the gizzard. Many close observers now reject this idea because they find that birds supplied with digestible mineral foods do not eat those that are not digestible. A bird does not need teeth to grind its food, because it is softened in the crop and the gastric juice acts upon it before the grinding process begins. =Peculiarities of birds' eggs.= The only animal foodstuff produced in a natural package, easily preserved and handled, is the egg. In the vegetable world we have a great many such things--fruits, seeds, roots, nuts, with coverings of various textures to protect the contents from the air. In all of these the material stored up is either for the nourishment of the seeds in the first stages of growth as plants, or for the nourishment of a new or special growth. An egg is the seed of an animal. All animals produce eggs, but in mammals the new life originating from the egg goes through the embryonic stages within the body of the parent, while in insects, fishes, reptiles, and birds the egg is laid by the creature producing it before the embryo begins to develop. In mammals the embryo grows as a part of the body of the parent, the substances which build it up coming from the parent form as they are needed. In birds a tiny germ--the true egg--is put, with all the material needed for its development as an embryo, in a sealed package, which may be taken thousands of miles away from the parent, and, after lying dormant for weeks, may begin to grow as soon as the proper conditions of temperature are applied. The food value of the germ of an egg is inappreciable. We use the egg to get the material stored up in it for the young bird which would come from the germ. =Development of the egg.= The method of the formation of an egg is very interesting. It is the same in all birds, but is most conveniently studied in fowls. If a laying hen is killed and the body is opened so that the internal organs can all be seen, one of the most conspicuous of these is a large, convoluted duct having its outlet at the vent. In this duct, which is called the oviduct, are eggs in various stages of formation. At its upper extremity, attached to the backbone, is a bunch of globular yellow substances which are at once identified as yolks of eggs in all sizes. The organ to which these are attached is the ovary. The smallest yolks are so small that they cannot be seen without a powerful microscope. These yolks are not germs, but as they grow the germ forms on one side of each yolk, where it appears as a small white spot. When a yolk is full-grown it drops into the funnel-shaped mouth of the oviduct. Here it is inclosed in a membranous covering, called the chalazæ, and receives a coating of thick albumen. The function of the chalazæ is to keep the yolk suspended in the center of the egg. It does not merely inclose the yolk, but, twisted into cords, extends from either end and is attached to the outer membrane at the end of the egg. After leaving the funnel the egg passes into a narrow part of the oviduct, called the isthmus, where it receives the membranous coverings which are found just inside the shell. From the isthmus it goes into the lowest part of the oviduct--the uterus. Here the shell is formed, and at the same time a thin albumen enters through the pores of the shell and the shell membranes and dilutes the thick albumen first deposited. After this process is completed the egg may be retained in the oviduct for some time. It is, however, usually laid within a few hours. =Rate and amount of egg production.= In the wild state a bird, if not molested after it begins laying, produces a number of eggs varying in different kinds, according to the number of young that can be cared for, and then incubates them. If its first eggs are removed or destroyed, the bird lays more, usually changing the location of its nest. In domestication the eggs of most kinds of birds are removed from the nests daily as laid, and the birds lay many more eggs before they stop to incubate than they do in the wild state. It is, and has been for ages, the common opinion that the wild birds and poultry, when first domesticated, were capable of laying only a small number of eggs each season, and that laying capacity has been enormously increased in domestication; but the oldest reports that we have of the amount of egg production indicate that the laying capacity of fowls was as great centuries ago as it is at the present time. Recent observations on wild birds in captivity show that even birds which pair and usually lay only a few eggs each season have a laying capacity at least equal to the ordinary production of hens. Quails in captivity have been known to lay about one hundred eggs in a season, and an English sparrow from which the eggs were taken as laid produced over sixty. The constitutional capacity to produce ovules is now known to be far greater than the power of any bird to supply the material for the nourishment of germs through the embryonic stage. The principal factors in large egg production are abundance of food and great capacity for digesting and assimilating it. =Incubation.= A bird before beginning to lay makes a nest. Some birds build very elaborate and curious nests; others merely put together a few sticks, or hollow out a little place on the ground. In birds that pair, the male and female work together to build the nest. Even in polygamous domestic birds like the fowl and the duck, a male will often make a nest for the females of his family and coax them to it as a cock pigeon does his mate. If the birds are left to themselves and the eggs are not molested, an aërial bird will usually lay a number of eggs equal to the number of young the parents can feed as long as they require this attention, while a terrestrial or aquatic bird will usually lay as many eggs as she can cover. The desired number of eggs having been laid, the process of incubation by the parents begins. The incubation of their eggs by birds is one of the most remarkable things in nature. We say that "instinct" leads birds to build their nests and to keep their eggs warm for a period varying from two weeks for small birds, to six weeks for the ostrich; but "instinct" is only a term to describe the apparently intelligent actions of the lower animals, which we say have not intelligence enough to know the reasons for the things that they do. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Sitting hen] The mother of a young mammal knows that it came from herself, and she can see that it is like her and others of her kind. It at once seeks her care and responds to her attentions. The egg which a bird lays is as lifeless--to all appearances--as the stones which it often so closely resembles. Only after many days or weeks of tiresomely close attention does it produce a creature which can respond to the care lavished upon it. The birds incubating eggs not only give them the most unremitting attention, but those that fill their nests with eggs before beginning to incubate methodically turn the eggs and change their position in the nest, this being necessary because otherwise the eggs at the center of the nest would get too much heat and those at the outside would not get enough. A bird appears to know that if she begins to sit before she has finished laying, some of the eggs would be spoiled or would hatch before the others; and, as noted above, aërial birds seem to know better than to hatch more young than they can rear. But no bird seems to have any idea of the time required to hatch its eggs, or to notice the lapse of time, or to care whether the eggs upon which it sits are of its own kind or of some other kind, or to know whether the young when hatched are like or unlike itself. If eggs fail to hatch, domestic birds will, as a rule, remain on the nest until the eggs are taken away or until sheer exhaustion compels them to abandon the hopeless task. In domestication, however, those birds which continue laying most freely when their eggs are removed as laid, tend to lose the habit of incubation. Turkeys and geese will often begin to incubate after having laid about the number of eggs that they could cover. Many fowls will do the same, but most fowls lay for several months before attempting to incubate, and in many races not more than two or three per cent of the hens ever incubate. [Illustration: Fig. 4. Fresh egg[1]] [Illustration: Fig. 5. Infertile egg (after twenty-four hours' incubation)] [Illustration: Fig. 6. Fertile egg (after twenty-four hours' incubation)] [Illustration: Fig. 7. Embryo (after seventy-two hours' incubation)] [Illustration: Fig. 8. Embryo (after seven days' incubation)] [1] Photographs (Figs. 4-8) from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. [Illustration: Fig. 9. Chick ready to break shell] =Development of the embryo in a bird's egg.= The condition required to produce a live bird from a fertile egg is the continuous application of a temperature of about 102 or 103 degrees Fahrenheit from the time the heat is first applied until the embryo is fully developed and ready to emerge from the shell. In nature the heat is applied by contact with the bodies of the parent birds. Development of life will start in an egg at about 10 degrees below the temperature required to maintain it, but at this temperature the germ soon dies. The temperature in incubation may occasionally go higher than 103 degrees or may be as low as 70 degrees for a short time without injury to the germ. Some germs will stand greater extremes of temperature than others, just as some living creatures will. The first stages of the development of life in the egg of a bird may be observed by holding the eggs before a strong light in a darkened room. White-shelled eggs are the best for this purpose. In about thirty-six hours from the beginning of incubation it will be found that the germ has turned red, and little red veins radiate from it somewhat like the legs of a spider. For several days the egg is quite translucent and the yolk shows plainly. As the germ grows, the contents of the egg become clouded and dense, and the air space at the large end of the egg is clearly defined, the density being greatest near it. From the time that the egg becomes dense, observations of development must be made by breaking one or more eggs daily or every few days, according to the number available for observation. [Illustration: Fig. 10. Egg before exclusion and partially excluded chick] [Illustration: Fig. 11. Light Brahma (day old)] The embryo grows until it fills the egg. The mere application of heat to the egg has gradually transformed that little germ and the yellow and white of egg into bones, flesh, skin (and, in some cases, down), and all the organs of a living creature. When the embryo has filled the shell, it lies curled up, usually with the head at the large end of the egg and the beak almost touching the shell, at about one third of the distance from the large to the small end of the egg. At the point of the beak of the young bird on the curved tip of the upper mandible is a small horny scale. Without this scale it would be hard for the embryo to break the shell because it cannot, as it lies, strike it a direct blow with the point of its beak. This scale is a remarkable character. Its only use is to help the bird out of the shell. A few days after exclusion it disappears. If you take a hen's egg about the eighteenth or the nineteenth day of incubation and hold it closely in your hand, you may be able to feel the chick move. If your hand is a little bit cold, the chick is much more likely to squirm in the egg and may utter a peep. If, with the egg in a warm hand, you hold it to your ear, you will about this time hear an occasional tap, tap, caused by the chicken striking its beak against the shell. The tapping is kept up more or less steadily until the shell cracks where the point of the beak strikes it and a little piece is broken out. The chick usually rests awhile now,--perhaps for some hours,--then resumes the attack on the shell. It turns in the shell, breaking out little pieces as it turns, until there is a crack nearly all the way around, when, by pushing with its head and feet, it forces the shell apart and sprawls out of it. The process is the same for all birds, except that those that take longest to develop in the shell take a longer rest after first breaking it. The young of aërial birds, which are naked when hatched, are ugly little things. Young poultry, too, are almost repulsive with their sprawling forms and the wet down plastered to the skin, but in a few hours they grow strong, the down dries and becomes fluffy, the bright little eyes seem to take in everything, and they are the most attractive of all baby animals. CHAPTER III SPECIES AND THEIR DIVISIONS IN DOMESTIC BIRDS The three general classes of domestic birds include few species but many varieties, and, outside of the distinct varieties, an indefinite number of individual types. Where varieties are as numerous as in the fowl, which has about three hundred, and the pigeon, which has a much greater number, the differences between them are often very slight. Sometimes the form of a single small character is the only distinguishing feature. But, if this is a fixed character, the variety is distinct. Where there are so many varieties it is hard to make short, appropriate descriptive names for all, if considered simply as varieties. For such diversity there must be a more extended classification. Such a classification, growing gradually with the increase in the number of varieties, will not be consistent throughout. Hence to understand clearly the relations of the artificial divisions of species in domestication we must know what a species is and how these divisions arise. =Definition of species.= Species are the natural divisions of living things. Each plant and animal species retains its distinctive character through long ages because the individuals composing it can produce perfect offspring only (if asexual) of themselves, or (if bisexual) with others of their species. The self-isolation of species is well illustrated when similar plants grow together, as grasses in the same field and practically on the same spot; yet year after year all the old kinds are found and no new ones such as might come from a mixture of two kinds, if they would mix. In the higher animals, where the parent forms are of different sexes, they choose mates of their own kind, and so each species remains distinct; but if in a species there are many different types, such as we find in domestic fowls, the members of the species, when free to do so, mate as readily with types quite different from their own as with individuals exactly like them, and produce offspring of intermediate types with all the essential characters of the species. In domestication individuals of distinct yet similar species are sometimes mated and produce offspring called hybrids, but these are sterile. The mule, which is a hybrid between the ass and the mare, is the most familiar animal of this kind. Hybrid, or mule, cage birds are produced by crossing the canary with several allied species. Among other domestic birds hybrids are almost unknown. =Origin of species.= Until near the close of the last century it was commonly believed that each species had been created in perfect form and that species were unchangeable; but long before that time some keen students of the natural sciences and close observers of the changes that take place in plants and animals in domestication had discovered that species were not perfectly stable and were changing slowly. Geologists established the fact that the earth, instead of being only a few thousand years old, had existed for countless centuries. Among fossil remains of creatures unlike any now known they had found also other forms which appeared to be prototypes of existing species. The idea that the forms of life now on the earth had come from earlier and somewhat different forms had occurred to several scientists more than a hundred years ago, but it was not until about 1860 that a satisfactory explanation of progressive development of forms of life was given to the world. This mode of creation is called evolution. The theory of evolution is that partly through their own inherent tendency to vary and partly through the influence of external things which affect them, all organisms change slowly; that things of the same kind, separated and living under different conditions, may in time so change that they become separate species; and that this process may be repeated indefinitely, the number of species constantly increasing and becoming more diversified and more highly developed. Such a theory would not be entitled to serious consideration unless it was known that the earth was millions of years old, because we know that races of fowls separated for over three thousand years (and perhaps twice as long) and developed into quite different varieties will breed together as readily as those of the same variety. But when it is certain that the earth is so old that there has been ample time for changes in living forms that would require periods of time beyond our comprehension, some of the relations of varieties and species of birds have an important bearing on the theory of evolution. As in the case of fowls just noted, we find that domestic ducks of the same species, after a separation of several thousand years, breed freely together. But our domestic ducks are not, like the fowls, all of the same species, and if individuals of different species are paired they produce only a few weak hybrids. Our domestic geese are probably descended from two wild varieties, but races that were not brought together for thousands of years after they were domesticated are perfectly fertile together, while when mated with the American Wild Goose, which is not domesticated but will breed in captivity, they produce only hybrids. The general resemblance between geese and ducks is very striking, yet they will not breed together at all. A comparison of these facts indicates that while three thousand, or even five or six thousand, years of separation may not be enough to break down the natural affinity of varieties of the same species, separation and difference of development will eventually make of varieties distinct species, a union of which will produce only hybrids, while a longer separation and further increase of differences makes the break between the species absolute and they will not breed together at all. =Natural varieties.= A species having developed as a variety of an earlier species will continue to develop as one variety or as several varieties, according to conditions. If a part of a species becomes so separated from the rest that intercourse ceases, each division of the species may become a well-defined variety. =Varieties in domestication.= How a species when domesticated breaks up into varieties is well illustrated by the case of the fowl. The original wild species has long disappeared, but there is good reason to suppose that in size and color it was something between a Brown Pit Game and a Brown Leghorn. The birds were smaller than most fowls seen in this country to-day. The prevailing color was a dull brown, because that color best conceals a small land bird from its enemies. Fowls that were domesticated and given good care and an abundance of food would usually grow larger than the wild stock. Thus if any person, or the people generally in any community, systematically gave their fowls good care, a variety of unusual size would be developed. Different colors would also appear in the flocks of fowls, because the birds of unusual colors would be protected and preserved, instead of being destroyed as they usually are in the wild state. Other peculiarities, too, such as large combs, crests, and feathered legs, would be developed in some lands and neglected in others. This is how it happened that after thousands of years in domestication the races of fowls in different parts of the world were quite different in size and form, but alike in being of many colors. From a species in this condition modern poultry breeders have made hundreds of distinct varieties. The easiest method of making a variety in domestication is to select specimens for breeding as near the desired type as possible, and to breed only from a few individuals in each generation which come nearest to the ideal type. In this way a variety that breeds quite true to the type may be established in from three or four to eight or ten years, according to the number of characters to be established as distinctive of the variety. Varieties are also made by crossing unlike individuals. This process is longer than the other, and sometimes requires a series of crosses to produce specimens approximating the ideal sought. After such specimens have been obtained the method is the same as in the first case. A variety is commonly considered to be well established when the greater part of the specimens produced are easily identified as of that variety. But no domestic variety is ever established in the sense that a species is. All are artificial, produced by compulsory separation and preserved only as long as it is continued. =Classification of domestic varieties of birds.= Domestic varieties of all kinds of live stock were at first mostly shape-varieties; that is, the individuals of a variety were alike in shape but of various colors. This is the case still with some varieties. These shape-varieties are mostly the common types of certain countries or districts. Thus the Leghorn fowl is the common fowl of Italy, and the Houdan is a type common in a small district in France. Such shape-varieties are called _breeds_. When other types were made by crossing such breeds they also were called breeds. When people first began to be interested in the improvement of live stock, the popular idea of a breed was that it was a domestic species, and there are still many people who hold this view. This popular misconception of the nature of a breed is responsible for much of the inconsistency and confusion in the ordinary classifications of domestic varieties. To it also is due the use of the term "variety" to apply especially to color-varieties, which are the principal divisions of breeds. In the classification of domestic birds a _variety_ is properly a color-variety of a breed. Thus in the Plymouth Rock breed there are six color-varieties--barred, white, buff, partridge, silver-penciled, and ermine (called Columbian); and in Fantail Pigeons there are six color-varieties--white, blue, black, red, yellow, and silver. Birds of the same breed (shape) and the same variety (color) may differ in some other character, as the form of the comb or the presence or absence of feathers in certain places. In accordance with such differences varieties are divided into _subvarieties_. Thus, in Leghorn Fowls the brown, white, and buff varieties have single-combed and rose-combed subvarieties. In any breed, variety, or subvariety certain families are sometimes distinguished for general or special excellence of form or color. Such a family is called a _strain_. =Systematic mixtures of breeds and varieties.= Although so many distinct varieties have been developed from common domestic stocks, the improved races do not always displace the mongrels. When the old mongrels disappear their place is often taken by a new mongrel stock produced by mixtures of the distinct breeds with each other and with the old mongrel race. The greater part of such stock is so mixed that its relation to any established breed could not be determined or expressed, but systematic mixtures are sometimes made, and to describe these the following terms are used: _Crossbred_--having parents of different, distinct breeds, varieties, or subvarieties. A Leghorn male mated with a Cochin female produces offspring each of which is in blood one half Leghorn and one half Cochin. _Grade_--having more than half of the blood of a breed. If the offspring of a cross such as is described in the preceding paragraph are mated with birds of one of the parent breeds, the offspring of this mating will have three fourths of the blood of that breed. If these in turn are mated to birds of the same pure breed, the offspring will have seven eighths of the blood of that breed. Animals bred in this way are called _grades_ until the process has been carried so far that they are practically pure-bred. Mongrel stock is often graded up in this way. As a rule stock that is seven eighths pure is not distinguishable from average pure stock of the same breed. =Pure-bred, thoroughbred, and standard-bred.= A _pure-bred_ animal is, strictly speaking, one having the blood only of the variety to which it belongs. From what has been said of the making of breeds and varieties it is plain that absolute purity of blood is not a universal attribute of well-bred domestic birds. A _thoroughbred_ animal is one that is thoroughly bred for some purpose or to some type. A _standard-bred_ animal is one that is bred especially to conform to requirements agreed upon by breeders and exhibitors. A great deal of misapprehension and confusion in the use of these terms has been caused by the attitude of those who maintain that the term "thoroughbred," having been used as a name for highly bred running horses, cannot properly apply to any other kind of live stock, and that "pure-bred" should apply to all thoroughly bred races. The noun "Thoroughbred" is the name of a breed of horses. The adjective "thoroughbred" is common property. Writers on aviculture who wish to be accurate prefer it in many instances to "pure-bred" because absolute purity of blood is rare and is not of the importance in breeding that novices usually suppose. Not only are many new varieties made by crossing, but in long-established breeds outcrosses are regularly made to restore or intensify characters. To illustrate the use of the three terms in application to a single breed: A stock of Light Brahmas might be kept pure for half a century, yet at the end of that period might have changed its type entirely. It might be so deteriorated that it was worth less than common mongrels; yet it is pure-bred stock. Another stock of the same variety might be bred for table qualities, egg-production, and the same principal color-characteristics of the variety, but without attention to the fine points of fancy breeding. Such a stock is thoroughbred but not standard-bred. CHAPTER IV FOWLS [Illustration: Fig. 12. Pet fowls--White Wyandottes and Game Bantams. (Photograph from Dr. J. C. Paige, Amherst, Massachusetts)] The most useful of all birds is the common fowl, seen on almost every farm and in the back yards of many city and village homes. The fowl takes to the conditions of domestic life better than any other land bird. It is more cleanly in its habits, more productive, more intelligent, and more interesting than the duck, which ranks next in usefulness. Fowls supply nearly all the eggs and the greater part of the poultry meat that we use. Their feathers are of less value than those of ducks, geese, and turkeys. In the days when feather beds were common they were made usually of the body feathers of fowls. Now the feathers of fowls are used mostly for the cheaper grades of pillows and cushions, and in the making of feather boas and like articles. The wing and tail feathers have been much used for decorating ladies' hats, and since the use of small wild birds in millinery decorations has been prohibited, the hackle feathers of cocks are quite extensively used in trimming hats. [Illustration: Fig. 13. Single-combed Rhode Island Red male[2]] [Illustration: Fig. 14. Rose-combed Rhode Island Red female[2]] [2] Photograph from Lester Tompkins, Concord, Massachusetts. =Description.= Ordinary fowls are rather small land birds. The males at maturity weigh from four to five pounds each, and the females about a pound less. They are plump, rugged, and very active. If treated well they are bold, and with a little attention can easily be made very tame. If neglected and abused, they become shy and wild. The most striking peculiarities of the fowl are the fleshy comb and wattles which ornament the head, and the full tail which is usually carried well up and spread perpendicularly. The head appendages vary much in size and form. They are sometimes very small, but never entirely wanting. The carriage of the tail also varies, but except in a few breeds bred especially for low tails it is noticeably high as compared with that of other poultry. Fowls are readily distinguished from other birds by the voice. The male crows, the female cackles. These are their most common calls, but there are other notes--some common to both sexes, some peculiar to one--which are the same in all races of fowls. An abrupt, harsh croak warns the flock that one of their number has discerned a hawk or noticed something suspicious in the air. A slowly repeated cluck keeps the young brood advised of the location of their mother. If she finds a choice morsel of food, a rapid clicking sound calls them about her. When she settles down to brood them she calls them with a peculiar crooning note. The male also cackles when alarmed, and when he finds food calls his mates in the same way that the female calls her young under the same circumstances. Other poultry and sometimes even cats and dogs learn this call and respond to it. If the food discovered is something that a stronger animal wants, the bird making the call may lose it because of his eagerness to share the treasure with the members of his family. In adult fowls the male and female are readily distinguished by differences in appearance as well as by the voice. The comb and wattles of the male are larger, and after he has completed his growth are always of the same size and a bright red in color. In the female the comb is much smaller than that of a male of the same family, and both size and color vary periodically, the comb and wattles being larger and the whole head brighter in color when the female is laying. The tail of the male is also much larger than that of the female and has long plumelike coverts. The feathers of his back and neck are long, narrow, and flowing, and in many varieties are much brighter in color than the corresponding feathers on the female. The male has a short, sharp spur on the inside of each leg, a little above the hind toe. Occasionally a female has spurs, but they are usually very small. With so many differences between male and female the sex of an adult fowl is apparent at a glance. In the young of breeds which have large combs the males begin to grow combs when quite small, and so the sex may be known when they are only a few weeks old. In other breeds the sex may not be distinguished with certainty until the birds are several months old, or, in some cases, until they are nearly full-grown. [Illustration: Fig. 15. White Polish male (crowing) and female. (Photograph from Leontine Lincoln Jr., Fall River, Massachusetts)] The adult male fowl is called a _cock_, and also, in popular phrase, a _rooster_. The adult female fowl is called a _hen_. The word "hen" is the feminine form of _hana_, the Anglo-Saxon name for the cock. It is likely that the name "cock," which it is plain was taken from the first syllable of the crow of the bird, was gradually substituted for _hana_ because it is shorter. _Hana_ means "the singer." A young fowl is called a _chicken_ until the sex can be distinguished. After that poultry fanciers call the young male a _cockerel_ and the young female a _pullet_. The word "pullet" is also used by others, but the popular names for a cockerel are _crower_ and _young rooster_. The word "cockerel," as is seen at a glance, is the diminutive of "cock." The word "pullet," sometimes spelled _poulet_, is a diminutive from the French _poule_, "a hen." =Origin of the fowl.= Of the origin of the fowl we have no direct knowledge. It was fully domesticated long before the beginnings of history. There is no true wild race of fowls known. For a long time it was commonly held that the _Gallus Bankiva_, found in the jungles of India, was the ancestor of all the races of the domestic fowl, but this view was not accepted by some of the most careful investigators, and the most recent inquiries into the subject indicate that the so-called _Gallus Bankiva_ is not a native wild species but a feral race, that is, a race developed in the wild from individuals escaped from domestication. =Appearance of the original wild species.= The likeness of the fowls shown in ancient drawings to the ordinary unimproved stock in many parts of the world to-day shows that--except as by special breeding men have developed distinct races--fowls have not changed since the most remote times of which records exist. From the constancy of this type through this long period it is reasonably inferred that no marked change in the size and shape of the fowl had occurred in domestication in prehistoric times, and therefore that the original wild fowl very closely resembled fowls which may be seen wherever the influence of improved races has not changed the ordinary type. The particular point in which the wild species differed from a flock of ordinary domestic fowls was color. Domestic fowls, unless carefully bred for one color type, are usually of many colors. In the wild species, as a rule, only one color would be found, and that would be brown, which is the prevailing color among small land birds. =Distribution of fowls in ancient times.= From drawings and descriptions on ancient tablets and from figures on old coins it appears that the fowl was familiar to the Babylonians seven thousand years ago, and that it was introduced into Egypt about 4600 B.C. Chinese tradition gives 1400 B.C. as the approximate date of the introduction of poultry into China from the West. At the time of the founding of Rome the fowl was well known throughout Northern Africa, and in the Mediterranean countries of Europe as far west as Italy and Sicily. It was also known in Japan at this time. Whether it was known in India is uncertain; if not, it was brought there soon after. It is supposed that immediately following their conquests in Central and Western Europe the Romans introduced their poultry into those regions. Thus, at about the beginning of the Christian Era, the fowl was known to all the civilized peoples of the Old World and had been introduced to the less civilized races of Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 16. Light Brahma cockerel] =Development of principal races of fowls.= There is no evidence that any of the ancient civilized peoples made any effort to improve the fowl, nor have any improved races been produced in the lands where those civilizations flourished. Outside of this area many different types were gradually developed to suit the needs or the tastes of people in different countries and localities. Thus in the course of centuries were produced from the same original wild stock fowls as unlike as the massive Brahma, with feathered legs and feet, and the diminutive Game Bantam; the Leghorn, with its large comb, and the Polish, with only the rudiments of a comb and in its place a great ball of feathers; the Spanish, with monstrous development of the skin of the face, and the Silky, with dark skin and hairlike plumage. Except in a few limited districts these special types did not displace the ordinary type for many centuries. Until modern times they were hardly known outside of the districts or the countries where they originated. Of the details of their origin nothing is known. They were not of the highly specialized and finished types such as are bred by fanciers now. Their distinctive features had been established, but in comparatively crude form. The refining and perfecting of all these types has been the work of fanciers in Holland, Belgium, England, and America in modern times. These fanciers have also developed new races of more serviceable types. [Illustration: Fig. 17. Light Brahma hen] [Illustration: Fig. 18. Red Pile Game Bantam cock] [Illustration: Fig. 19. Red Pile Game Bantam hen] =How fowls were kept in old times.= Less than a century ago it was quite a common practice among the cottagers of England and Scotland to keep their fowls in their cottages at night. Sometimes a loft, to which the birds had access by a ladder outside, was fitted up for them. Sometimes perches for the fowls were put in the living room of the cottage. Such practices seem to us wrong from a sanitary standpoint, but it is only within very recent times that people have given careful attention to sanitation, and in old times, when petty thieving was more common than it is now, there was a decided advantage in having such small domestic animals as poultry and pigs where they could not be disturbed without the owner's knowing it. The practice of keeping fowls in the owner's dwelling seems to have been confined to the poorer people, who had no large domestic animals for which they must provide suitable outbuildings. On large farms special houses were sometimes provided for poultry, but they were probably oftener housed with other animals, for few people thought it worth while to give them special attention. [Illustration: Fig. 20. White-Faced Black Spanish cockerel. (Photograph from R. A. Rowan, Los Angeles, California)] Throughout all times and in all lands the common domestic birds have usually been the special charge of the women and children of a household. In some countries long-established custom makes the poultry the personal property of the wife. A traveler in Nubia about seventy years ago states that there the henhouse, as well as the hens, belonged to the wife, and if a man divorced his wife, as the custom permitted, she took all away with her. [Illustration: Fig. 21. Silver-Spangled Polish cock and hen. (Photograph from Leontine Lincoln Jr., Fall River, Massachusetts)] The flocks of fowls were usually small in old times. It was only in areas adjacent to large cities that a surplus of poultry or eggs could be disposed of profitably, and as the fowls were almost always allowed the run of the dooryard, the barnyard, and the outbuildings, the number that could be tolerated, even on a large farm, was limited. As a rule the fowls were expected to get their living as they could, but in this they were not so much worse off than other live stock, or than their owners. But, while this was the ordinary state of the family flock of fowls, there were frequent exceptions. The housewife who is thrifty always manages affairs about the house better than the majority of her neighbors, and in older poultry literature there are occasional statements of the methods of those who were most successful with their fowls, which we may well suppose were methods that had been used for centuries. [Illustration: Fig. 22. Black Langshan cock. (Photograph from Urban Farms, Buffalo, New York)] =Modern conditions and methods.= About a hundred years ago people in England and America began to give more attention to poultry keeping, and to study how to make poultry (especially fowls) more profitable. This interest in poultry arose partly because of the increasing interest in agricultural matters and partly because eggs and poultry were becoming more important articles of food. Those who studied the situation found that there were two ways of making poultry more profitable. One way, which was open to all, was to give the birds better care; the other was to replace the ordinary fowls with fowls of an improved breed. So those who were much interested began to follow the practices of the most successful poultry keepers that they knew, and to introduce new breeds, and gradually great changes were made in the methods of producing poultry and in the types of fowls that were kept in places where the interest in poultry was marked. Nearly all farmers now keep quite large flocks of fowls. Many farmers make the most of their living from poultry, and in some places nearly every farm is devoted primarily to the production of eggs and of poultry for the table. Fowls receive most attention, although, as we shall see, some of the largest and most profitable farms are engaged in producing ducks. In the suburbs of cities and in villages all over the land many people keep more fowls now than the average farmer did in old times. These city poultry keepers often give a great deal of time to their fowls and still either lose money on them or make very small wages for the time given to this work, because they try to keep too many in a small space, or to keep more than they have time to care for properly. [Illustration: Fig. 23. Black Langshan hen. (Photograph from Urban Farms, Buffalo, New York)] The breeding of fancy fowls is also an important pursuit. Those who engage in this line on a large scale locate on farms, but many of the smaller breeders live in towns, and the greater number of the amateur fanciers who breed fine fowls for pleasure are city people. On large poultry farms the work is usually done by men. There are many small plants operated by women. The ordinary farm and family flocks are cared for by women and children much oftener than by men, because, even when the men are interested in poultry, other work takes the farmer away from the vicinity of the house, and the city man away from home, so much that they cannot look after poultry as closely as is necessary to get the best results. Many women like to have the care of a small flock of fowls, because it takes them outdoors for a few minutes at intervals every day, and the eggs and poultry sold may bring in a considerable amount of pin money. Many boys, while attending the grammar and high schools, earn money by keeping a flock of fowls. Some have saved enough in this way to pay expenses at college for a year or more, or to give them a start in a small business. When there are both boys and girls in a family, such outdoor work usually falls to the lot of a boy. A girl can do just as well if she has the opportunity and takes an interest in the work. [Illustration: Fig. 24. Pit Game cock. (Photograph from W. F. Liedtke, Meriden, Connecticut)] =Native fowls in America.= To appreciate the influence of improved races of fowls from various parts of the Old World upon the development of poultry culture in America, we must know what the fowls in this country were like when poultry keepers here began to see the advantages of keeping better stock, and must learn something of the history of the improved races in the countries from which they came. [Illustration: Fig. 25. Dominique cockerel. (Photograph from W. H. Davenport, Coleraine, Massachusetts)] When we speak of native fowls in America we mean fowls derived from the stocks brought here by the early settlers. The fowl was not known in the Western Hemisphere until it was brought here by Europeans. Britain, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden all sent colonists to America, and from each of these countries came, no doubt, some of the ordinary fowls of that country. Perhaps improved varieties came from some of these lands in early colonial times, but the only breeds that retained their identity sufficiently to have distinctive names were the Game Fowls, which came mostly from England, and the Dominiques (bluish-gray barred fowls which probably came from Holland or from the north of France, where fowls of this type were common). [Illustration: Fig. 26. Dominique hen. (Photograph from Skerritt and Son, Utica, New York)] The Game Fowls, being prized for the sport of cockfighting, were often bred with great care, but the Dominique fowls (also called cuckoo fowls and hawk-colored fowls) were mixed with other stock, and the name was commonly given to any fowl of that color, until after the improvement of fowls began. Then some people collected flocks of fowls of this color and bred them for uniformity in other characters. Well-bred fowls, however, were comparatively rare. Most of the stock all through the country was of the little mongrel type until about the middle of the last century. Then that type began to disappear from New England, New York, New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania. It remained longer in the Northern states west of the Allegheny Mountains and a generation ago was still the most common type in the upper Mississippi Valley. It is now unknown outside of the Southern states, and within ten or twenty years it will disappear entirely. [Illustration: Fig. 27. Silver-Gray Dorking cock] [Illustration: Fig. 28. Silver-Gray Dorking hen] =Old European races of fowls.= With the exception of the Leghorn, most of the distinct breeds of European origin were brought from England, and the types introduced were not the types as developed in the places where the breeds (other than English breeds) originated, but those types as modified by English fanciers. In America, again, most of these breeds have been slightly changed to conform to the ideas of American fanciers. So, while the breed characters are still the same as in the original stocks, the pupil looking at birds of these breeds to-day must not suppose that it was just such birds that came to this country from seventy to a hundred years ago, or that, if he went to the countries where those races originated, he would find birds just like those he had seen at home. Except in the case of the distinctly English breeds, such as the Dorking and the Cornish Indian Game, which are bred to greater perfection in their native land than elsewhere, he would find most of the European races not so highly developed in the countries where they originated as in England and America, where fanciers are more numerous. [Illustration: Fig. 29. Single-Comb Brown Leghorn cockerel. (Photograph from Grove Hill Poultry Yards, Waltham, Massachusetts)] [Illustration: Fig. 30. Rose-Comb Buff Leghorn hen. (Photograph from H. J. Fisk, Falconer, New York)] =Italian fowls.= Strictly speaking, the Italian fowls in Italy are not an improved race. The fowl which is known in this country as the Leghorn fowl (because the first specimens brought here came from the port of Leghorn) is the common fowl of Italy and has changed very little since it was introduced into that country thousands of years ago. It is found there in all colors, and mostly with a single comb. The Italian type is of particular interest, not only because of its influence in modern times, but because from it were probably derived most of the other European races. Italian fowls were first brought to this country about 1835, but did not attract popular attention until twenty-five or thirty years later. [Illustration: Fig. 31. Silver-Spangled Hamburg cock[3]] [Illustration: Fig. 32. Silver-Spangled Hamburg hen[3]] [3] Photograph from Dr. J. S. Wolfe, Bloomfield, New Jersey. =English races of fowls.= It is supposed that fowls were introduced into Britain from Italy shortly after the Roman conquest. The type was probably very like that of ordinary Leghorn fowls of our own time, but with smaller combs. From such stock the English developed two very different races, the Pit Game and the Dorking. Game fowls were bred in all parts of the kingdom, but the Dorkings were a local breed developed by the people in the vicinity of the town of Dorking, where from very early times the growing of poultry for the London market was an important local industry. Each in its way, these two breeds represent the highest skill in breeding. In the Old English Game Fowl, symmetry, strength, endurance, and courage were combined to perfection. The Dorking is the finest type of table fowl that has ever been produced. [Illustration: Fig. 33. White-Crested Black Polish cock[4]] [Illustration: Fig. 34. White-Crested Black Polish hen[4]] [4] Photograph from Charles L. Seely, Afton, New York. =German and Dutch races.= The breeds now known as Hamburgs and Polish are of peculiar interest to a student of the evolution of races of fowls, because they present some characters not readily derived from the primitive type of the fowl. The feather markings of some varieties of both these breeds are unlike those of other races, and are markings which would not be likely to become established unless the fowls were bred systematically for that purpose. So, too, with the large crest of the Polish fowl: to carry it the structure of the head must be changed. Such changes require systematic breeding for a long period. Dutch and German artists of the sixteenth century painted many farmyard scenes showing fowls of both these types, frequently in flocks with common fowls and with some that appear to be a mixture. To any one versed in the breeding of poultry this indicates that these peculiar types had been made by very skillful breeders long before. The most reasonable supposition is that these breeders were monks in the monasteries of Central Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages the monks of Europe, more than any other class of men, worked for improvement in agriculture as well as for the advancement of learning. [Illustration: Fig. 35. Houdan cock. (Photograph from the Houdan Yards, Sewickley, Pennsylvania)] [Illustration: Fig. 36. White Minorca hen. (Photograph from Tioga Poultry Farm, Apalachin, New York)] =French races.= The Houdan is the only French breed well known in America. It is of the Polish type, but heavier, and the plumage is mottled irregularly, not distinctly marked as in the party-colored varieties of Polish. The breed takes its name from the town of Houdan, the center of a district in which this is the common type of fowl. =Spanish races.= The fowls of Spanish origin well known outside of Spain are the White-faced Black Spanish, the Black Minorca, and the Blue Andalusian. The fowls of Spain at the present time are mostly of the Italian type, with black (or in some districts blue) the predominant color. The Black Spanish seems to have been known in Holland and England for two hundred years or more. In Spain the white face is but moderately developed. The monstrous exaggeration of this character began in Holland and was carried to the extreme by British fanciers who admired it. [Illustration: Fig. 37. Black Minorca cock. (Photograph from Arthur Trethaway, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania)] The Black Minorca is supposed to have been brought to England direct from Spain about a century ago. There it was bred to much greater size, with the comb often so large that it was a burden to the fowl. Blue Andalusians, at first called Blue Spanish and Blue Minorcas, were first known in England about 1850. =Asiatic races of fowls.= The evolution of races of fowls in the Orient gave some general results strikingly different from those in Europe. As far as is known, after the introduction of fowls into China and India some thousand years ago the stock which went to those countries and that which descended from it was completely isolated from the fowls of Western Asia, Africa, and Europe until the eighteenth century. When commerce between Europe, India, and the East Indies began, the Europeans found in these countries fowls of a much more rugged type than those of Europe. Some of these fowls were much larger than any that the visitors had seen. The Aseel of India was a small but very strong, stocky type of Game. Among the Malayans the common fowl was a large, coarse type of Game. The hens of these breeds laid eggs of a reddish-brown color, while hens of all the races of Europe laid white eggs. Birds of both these types were taken to England early in the last century, and perhaps in small numbers before that time. [Illustration: Fig. 38. Buff Cochin hen[5]] [Illustration: Fig. 39. Buff Cochin cock[5]] [5] Photograph from Tienken and Case, Rochester, Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 40. Dark Brahma hen] =Chinese races.= In China a type of fowl in some ways much like the Malay, in others quite different, had been developed as the common stock of the country. They were about as tall as the Malays, much heavier, and very quiet and docile. They were of various colors, had feathers on the shanks and feet, and laid brown eggs. Some of these fowls were brought to America in sailing vessels very early in the last century and occasionally after that until the middle of the century, but attracted no attention, for the birds were brought in small numbers for friends of sailors or for persons particularly interested in poultry, and at that time there was no means of communication between fanciers in different localities. [Illustration: Fig. 41. Dark Brahma cockerel] =Japanese races.= Although the Japanese races of fowls had no particular influence on the development of poultry culture in America, they are of great interest in a study of poultry types, because, when intercourse between Japan and Western nations began, it was found that the ordinary fowls of Japan were much like the ordinary fowls of Europe and America, and not, as would be expected, like the fowls of China. This indicated that there had been no exchange of fowls between China and Japan after the type in China became changed. It also affords strong evidence that the fowls of India and China, although so changed, were originally like the European and Japanese common fowls. The special races developed in Japan were Game Fowls, more like the European than the Malay type; a long-tailed fowl, very much like the Leghorn in other respects; and the very short-legged Japanese Bantam. [Illustration: Fig. 42. Long-Tailed Japanese Phoenix cockerel. (Photograph from Urban Farms, Buffalo, New York)] =The "hen-fever" period.= We are all familiar with the phrase "the hen fever" and with its application to persons intensely interested in poultry, but few know how it originated. The interest in better poultry that had been slowly growing in the Eastern states culminated in 1849 in an exhibition in the Public Garden in Boston, to which fanciers from eastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and eastern Connecticut brought their choicest and rarest specimens. This was the first poultry show held in America. Nearly fifteen hundred birds were exhibited, and the exhibitors numbered over two hundred. There were a few birds of other kinds, but fowls made by far the greater part of the show. All the principal races of Europe and Asia were represented. Most of the exhibitors lived in the immediate vicinity of Boston. About ten thousand people attended this exhibition. Such an event created a great sensation. Newspaper reports of it reached all parts of the country. The Chinese fowls, so large when compared with others, were most noticed. At once a great demand for these fowls and for their eggs arose, and prices for fancy poultry, which previously had been but little higher than prices for common poultry, rose so high that those who paid such prices for fowls were commonly regarded as monomaniacs. While the interest was not as great in other kinds of fowls as in the Shanghais, Cochin Chinas, and "Brahmaputras," as they were then called, all shared in the boom, and within a few years there was hardly a community in the northeastern part of the United States where there was not some one keeping highly bred fowls. When the interest became general, the famous showman, P. T. Barnum, promoted a show of poultry in the American Museum in New York City. Many celebrated men became interested in fine poultry. Daniel Webster had been one of the exhibitors at the first show in 1849. The noted temperance lecturer, John B. Gough, was a very enthusiastic fancier. After a few years the excitement began to subside, and most people supposed that it was about to die, never to revive. A Mr. Burnham, who had been one of the most energetic promoters of Asiatic fowls, and had made a small fortune while the boom lasted, had so little confidence in the permanence of the poultry fancy that he published a book called "The History of the Hen Fever," which presented the whole movement as a humbug skillfully engineered by himself. This book was very widely read, and the phrase "the hen fever," applying to enthusiastic amateur poultry keepers, came into common use. Subsequent developments showed that those who had supposed that the interest in fine poultry was only a passing fad were wrong. The true reason for its decline at that time was that the nation was approaching a crisis in its history and a civil war. When the war was over, the interest in poultry revived at once, and has steadily increased ever since. The prices for fine specimens, which were considered absurd in the days of the hen fever, are now ordinary prices for stock of high quality. [Illustration: Fig. 43. Barred Plymouth Rock cock. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] =How the American breeds arose.= It is natural to suppose that with such a variety of types of fowls, from so many lands, there was no occasion for Americans to make any new breeds. If, however, you look critically at the foreign breeds, you may notice that not one of them had been developed with reference to the simple requirements of the ordinary farmer and poultry keeper. It was the increasing demand for eggs and poultry for market that had given the first impulse to the interest in special breeds. The first claim made for each of these was that it was a better layer than the ordinary fowl. In general, these claims were true, but farmers and others who were interested primarily in producing eggs and poultry for the table were rather indifferent to the foreign breeds, because, among them all, there was not one as well adapted to the ordinary American poultry keeper's needs as the old Dominique or as the occasional flocks of the old native stock that had been bred with some attention to size and to uniformity in other characters. To every foreign breed these practical poultry keepers found some objection. The Dorking was too delicate, and its five-toed feet made it clumsy. The Hamburgs, too, were delicate, and the most skillful breeding was required to preserve their beautiful color markings. The superfluous feathers on the heads of the crested breeds and on the feet of the Asiatics were equally objectionable. All the European races except the Leghorns had white skin and flesh-colored or slate-colored feet, while in America there was a very decided popular preference for fowls with yellow skin and legs. The Leghorns and the Asiatics met this requirement, but the former were too small and their combs were unnecessarily large, while the latter were larger fowls than were desired for general use, and their foot feathering was a handicap in barnyards and on heavy, wet soils. [Illustration: Fig. 44. Barred Plymouth Rock hen. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] So, while fanciers and those who were willing to give their poultry special attention, or who kept fowls for some special purpose which one of the foreign breeds suited, took these breeds up eagerly, farmers and other poultry keepers usually became interested in them only to the extent of using male birds of different breeds to cross with flocks of native and grade hens. In consequence of this promiscuous crossing, the stock in the country rapidly changed, a new type of mongrel replacing the old native stock. While the masses of poultry keepers were thus crossing new and old stock at random, many breeders were trying systematically to produce a new breed that would meet all the popular requirements. Even before the days of the hen fever two local breeds had arisen, probably by accident. These were the Jersey Blue and the Bucks County Fowl, both of which continued down to our own time but never became popular. At the first exhibition in Boston a class had been provided for crossbred fowls, and in this was shown a new variety called the Plymouth Rock. From the descriptions of these birds now in existence it appears that they looked much like the modern Partridge Plymouth Rock. Those who brought them out hoped that they would meet the popular demand, and for a short time it seemed that this hope might be realized, but interest in them soon waned, and in a few years they were almost forgotten. [Illustration: Fig. 45. White Plymouth Rock hen (Photograph from C. E. Hodgkins, Northampton, Massachusetts)] In the light of the history of American breeds which did afterwards become popular we can see now that the ideas of the masses of American poultry keepers were not as strictly practical as their objections to the various foreign breeds appeared to show. The three varieties that have just been mentioned, and many others arising from time to time, met all the expressed requirements of the practical poultry keeper quite as well as those which subsequently caught his fancy. Indeed, as will be shown farther on, some of the productions of this period, after being neglected for a long time, finally became very popular. Usually this happened when their color became fashionable. =The modern Barred Plymouth Rock.= Shortly after our Civil War two poultrymen in Connecticut--one a fancier, the other a farmer--engaged in a joint effort to produce the business type of fowl that would meet the favor of American farmers. A male of the old Dominique type was crossed with some Black Cochin hens. This mating produced some chickens having the color of the sire, but larger and more robust. Another and more skillful fancier saw these chickens and persuaded the farmer to sell him a few of the best. A few years later, when, by careful breeding and selection, he had fixed the type and had specimens enough to supply eggs to other fanciers, he took some of his new breed to a show at Worcester, Massachusetts. Up to this time he had not thought of a name for them, but as people who saw them would want to know what they were called, a name was now necessary. It occurred to this man that the name "Plymouth Rock," having once been given to a promising American breed, would be appropriate. So the birds were exhibited as Plymouth Rocks. [Illustration: Fig. 46. Buff Plymouth Rock cock] This new breed caught the popular fancy at once, for it had the color which throughout this country was supposed always to be associated with exceptional vigor and productiveness, and it had greater size than the Dominique. The fame of the new breed spread rapidly. It was impossible to supply the demand from the original stock, and, as there is usually more than one way of producing a type by crossing, good imitations of the original were soon abundant. Farmers and market poultrymen by thousands took up the Plymouth Rock, while all over the land fanciers were trying to perfect the color which their critical taste found very poor. [Illustration: Fig. 47. Silver-Penciled Plymouth Rock hen] =Other varieties of the Plymouth Rock.= The success of the Plymouth Rock gave fresh impetus to efforts to make new breeds and varieties of the same general character. Great as was its popularity, the new breed did not suit all. Some did not like the color; some objected to the single comb, thinking that a rose comb or a pea comb had advantages; some preferred a shorter, blockier body; others wanted a larger, longer body. The off-colored birds which new races usually produce in considerable numbers, even when the greater number come quite true, also suggested to some who obtained them new varieties of the Plymouth Rock, while to others it seemed better policy to give them new names and exploit them as new and distinct breeds. Both black and white specimens came often in the early flocks of Barred Plymouth Rocks. The black ones were developed as a distinct breed, called the Black Java. The white ones, after going for a while under various names, and after strong opposition from those who claimed that the name "Plymouth Rock" belonged exclusively to birds of the color with which the name had become identified, finally secured recognition as White Plymouth Rocks. Almost immediately Buff Plymouth Rocks appeared. For reasons which will appear later, the origin of these will be given in another connection. Then came in rapid succession the Silver-Penciled, the Partridge, or Golden-Penciled (which, as has been said, is probably quite a close duplicate of the type to which the name "Plymouth Rock" was originally given), and the Columbian, or Ermine, Plymouth Rock. These were all of the general type of the Barred variety, but because in most cases they were made by different combinations, and because fanciers are much more particular to breed for color than to breed for typical form, the several varieties of the Plymouth Rock are slightly different in form. [Illustration: Fig. 48. Silver-Laced Wyandotte pullet. Photographed in position showing lacing on back] [Illustration: Fig. 49. Silver-Laced Wyandotte cockerel] =The Wyandottes.= Closely following the appearance of the Barred Plymouth Rock came the Silver-Laced Wyandotte, called at first simply the Wyandotte. The original type was quite different in color from the modern type. It had on each feather a small white center surrounded by a heavy black lacing. This has been gradually changed until now the white center is large and the black edging narrow. At first some of these Wyandottes had rose combs and some had single combs. The rose comb was preferred and the single-combed birds were discarded as culls. Strange as it seems in the case of an event so recent, no one knows where the first Wyandottes came from. It is supposed that they were one of the many varieties developed either by chance or in an effort to meet the demand for a general-purpose fowl. They appear to have come into the hands of those who first exploited them in some way that left no trace of their source. They went under several different names until 1883, when the name "Wyandotte" was given them as an appropriate and euphonious name for an American breed. [Illustration: Fig. 50. White Wyandotte cockerel. (Photograph from W. E. Mack, Woodstock, Vermont)] Next appeared a Golden-Laced Wyandotte, marked like the Silver-Laced variety but having golden bay where that had white. This variety was developed from an earlier variety of unknown origin, known in Southern Wisconsin and Northern Illinois (about 1870 and earlier) under the name of "Winnebago." The Silver-Laced Wyandottes, like the Barred Plymouth Rocks, produced some black and some white specimens. From these were made the Black Wyandottes and the White Wyandottes. Then came the Buff Wyandottes (from the same original source as the Buff Plymouth Rocks), and after them Partridge Wyandottes, Silver-Penciled Wyandottes, and Columbian, or Ermine, Wyandottes. From the three last-named varieties came the Plymouth Rock varieties of the corresponding colors, the first stocks of these being the single-combed specimens from the flocks of breeders of these varieties of Wyandottes. [Illustration: Fig. 51. Silver-Penciled Wyandotte cockerel. (Photograph from James S. Wason, Grand Rapids, Michigan)] [Illustration: Fig. 52. Partridge Wyandotte pullet] =The Rhode Island Red.= Among the earliest of the local types developed in America was a red fowl which soon became the prevalent type in the egg-farming section of Rhode Island and quite popular in the adjacent part of Massachusetts. Most of the stock of this race was produced by a continuous process of grading and crossing which was systematic only in that it was the common practice to preserve none but the red males after introducing a cross of another color. A few breeders in the district bred their flocks more carefully than others, but the race as a whole was not really thoroughbred until after it became more widely popular. Although the formation of this race began about 1850 (perhaps earlier), it was fifty years before it became known outside of the limited area in which it was almost the only type to be seen. Indeed, the first birds of this race to attract the attention of the public were exhibited about 1890 as Buff Plymouth Rocks and Buff Wyandottes. At that time very few of the Rhode Island Reds were as dark in color as the average specimen now seen in the showroom, and buff specimens were numerous. Birds with rose combs, birds with single combs, birds with pea combs, and birds with intermediate types of comb could often be found in the same flock. So it was not a very difficult matter, among many thousands of birds, to pick out some that would pass for Buff Plymouth Rocks and some that would pass for Buff Wyandottes. These varieties were also made in other ways, mostly by various crosses with the Buff Cochin, but for some years breeders continued to draw on the Rhode Island supply. [Illustration: Fig. 53. Columbian Wyandottes. (Photograph from R. G. Richardson, Lowell, Massachusetts)] Some people in the Rhode Island district thought that a breed which could thus furnish the foundation for varieties of two other breeds ought to win popularity on its own merits. So they began to exhibit and advertise Rhode Island Reds. At first they made little progress, but as the breed improved, many more people became interested in it, and soon it was one of the most popular breeds in the country. The modern exhibition Rhode Island Red is of a dark brownish red in color. =The American idea in England; the Orpington.= At the time that the Chinese fowls were attracting wide attention in America and England some were taken to other countries of Europe. In almost every country they had some influence upon the native stock, but as each of the old countries had one or more improved races that suited most of those giving special attention to poultry culture, the influence of the Asiatics was less marked than in our country. When the Plymouth Rock and the Wyandotte became popular in America, they were taken to England, where, in spite of the preference for white skin and flesh-colored legs, they were soon in such favor that a shrewd English breeder saw the advantage of making another breed of the same general type but with skin and legs of the colors preferred in England. He called his new breed the Orpington, giving it the name of the town in which he lived. The first Orpingtons were black and were made by crossing the black progeny of Plymouth Rocks (which in America had been used to make the Black Java), Black Minorcas, and Black Langshans. Then the originator of the Orpingtons put out a buff variety, which he claimed was made by another particular combination of crosses, but which others said was only an improvement of a local breed known as the Lincolnshire Buff. Later White Orpingtons and Spangled Orpingtons appeared. =Present distribution of improved races.= Having briefly traced the distribution of the fowl in ancient times, and the movements which in modern times brought long-separated branches of the species together, let us look at the present situation. The Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, and Orpingtons, which are essentially one type, the differences between them being superficial, constitute the greater part of the improved fowls of America and England and are favorites with progressive poultry keepers in many other lands. In many parts of this country one rarely sees a fowl that is not of this type, either of one of the breeds named or a grade of the same type. After the general-purpose type, the laying type, which includes the Italian, Spanish, German, and Dutch races, is the most popular, but in this type popularity is limited in most places to the Leghorns and to a few breeds which, though classed as distinct breeds, are essentially the same. The Ancona is really a Leghorn, and the Andalusian, although it comes from Spain, is, like other races in that land, distinctly of the same type as the fowls of Italy. [Illustration: Fig. 54. Single-Combed Buff Orpington cock. (Photograph from Miss Henrietta E. Hooker, South Hadley, Massachusetts)] With the growth of a general-purpose class, interest in the Asiatic fowls rapidly declined. They are now kept principally by fanciers and by market poultry growers who produce extra large fowls for the table. =Deformed and dwarf races.= Although some of the races of fowls that have been considered have odd characters which, when greatly exaggerated, are detrimental and bring the race to decay, such characters as large combs, crests, feathered legs, and the peculiar development of the face in the Black Spanish fowl, when moderately developed, do not seriously affect the usefulness of fowls possessing them. With a little extra care they usually do as well as fowls of corresponding plain types. Poultry keepers who admire such decorations and keep only a few birds do not find the extra care that they require burdensome, and consequently all these races have become well established and at times popular. It is notable that in all fowls of this class the odd character is added to the others or is an exaggeration of a regular character. There are two other classes of odd types of fowls. The first of these is made up of a small group of varieties defective in one character; the second comprises the dwarf varieties, most of which are miniatures of larger varieties. =Silky fowls.= In all races of fowls individuals sometimes appear in which the web of the feathers is of a peculiar formation, resembling hair. Such fowls are called silkies. They are occasionally exhibited as curiosities but are not often bred to reproduce this character. There is one distinct race of white fowls, so small that it is usually classed as a bantam, having feathers of this kind. [Illustration: Fig. 55. Single-Combed White Orpington hen. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] =Frizzled fowls.= The feathers of a fowl are sometimes curled at the tips, like the short curls in the feathers which indicate the sex of a drake. Such birds are called frizzles or frizzled fowls. True frizzles, like true silkies from races having normal plumage, are very rare. Many of the fowls exhibited at poultry shows as Frizzles are ordinary birds the feathers of which have been curled artificially. =Rumpless fowls.= The tail feathers of a fowl are borne on a fleshy protuberance at the lower end of the spine. It sometimes happens that one or more of the lower vertebræ are missing. In that case the fowl has no tail and the feathers on the back, which in a normal fowl divide and hang down at each side, fall smoothly all around. True rumpless fowls are rare. Many of the specimens exhibited are birds from which the rump was removed when they were very young. =Bantams.= Dwarf, or bantam, fowls, on account of their diminutive size and pert ways, are especially attractive to children. Breeding them to secure the minimum size, the desired type, and fine quality in plumage color has the same fascination for a fancier as the breeding of large fowls, and as the small birds are better adapted to small spaces, fanciers who have little room often devote themselves to the breeding of bantams. The larger and hardier varieties of bantams are good for eggs and poultry for home use, but are not often kept primarily for these products. Most people who keep bantams keep only a few for pleasure, and the eggs and poultry they furnish are but a small part of what the family consumes. Bantam keepers who have a surplus of such products can usually find customers in their own neighborhood. The very small bantams and the very rare varieties are usually delicate and so hard to rear that amateurs who try them soon become discouraged and either give up bantams or take one of the hardy kinds. It is better to begin with one of the popular varieties, which are as interesting as any and, on the whole, are the most satisfactory. [Illustration: Fig. 56. White Cochin Bantam cockerel] =Origin of bantams.= After the explanation of the origin of varieties given in Chapter III, and the description of the evolution of the different races of fowls in the present chapter, it is perhaps not really necessary to tell how dwarf races of fowls originated; but the belief that such races were unknown until brought to Europe from the city of Bantam, in the Island of Java, is so widespread that it can do no harm to give the facts which disprove this and in doing so to show again how easily artificial varieties are made by skillful poultry fanciers. [Illustration: Fig. 57. Bantams make good pets] As has been stated, people who do not understand the close relations of the different races of fowls, and do not know how quickly new types may be established by careful breeding, attach a great deal of importance to purity of breed. Hence, unscrupulous promoters of new breeds have often claimed that they received their original stock direct from some remote place or from some one who had long bred it pure. The idea of assigning the town of Bantam as the home of a true species of dwarf domestic fowl seems to have occurred to some one in England more than a hundred years ago, and to have been suggested because of the resemblance of the name of this Asiatic city to the English word "banty," the popular name for a dwarf fowl. It seems strange that such a fiction should be accepted as accounting for dwarf varieties of European races, but it was published by some of the early writers, used by lexicographers, and, having found a place in the dictionaries, was accepted as authoritative by the majority of later writers on poultry, even after some of the highest authorities had shown conclusively that this view of the origin of dwarf races was erroneous. [Illustration: Fig. 58. Black-Tailed White Japanese Bantams. (Photograph from Frederick W. Otte, Peekskill, New York)] [Illustration: Fig. 59. White Polish Bantam hen] [Illustration: Fig. 60. White Polish Bantam cock] No evidence of the existence of a dwarf race of fowls in Java has ever been produced. The Chinese and Japanese bantams did not come to Europe and America until long after the name "bantam" came into use. Dwarfs occur and undoubtedly have occurred frequently in every race of fowls. Usually they are unsymmetrical and weakly, and are called runts and put out of the way as soon as possible. But occasionally an undersized individual is finely formed, active, and hardy. By mating such a specimen with the smallest specimen of the other sex that can be found (even though the latter is much larger), and by repeated selection of the smallest specimens, a dwarf race may be obtained. It could be made, though not so rapidly, by systematic selection of the smallest ordinary specimens and by keeping the growing chicks so short of food that they would be stunted. The latter process, however, is so tedious that no one is likely to adopt it. Usually the idea of making a new variety of bantams does not occur to a breeder until he sees a good dwarf specimen of a race of which there is no dwarf variety. Then, if he undertakes to make such a variety, he is likely to use in the process both small specimens of large races and birds of long-established dwarf races. [Illustration: Fig. 61. Black Cochin Bantam pullet[6]] [Illustration: Fig. 62. Black Cochin Bantam cockerel[6]] [6] Photograph from Dr. J. N. MacRae, Galt, Ontario. [Illustration: Fig. 63. Rose-Comb Black Bantam cock] [Illustration: Fig. 64. Rose-Comb Black Bantam hen[7]] [7] Photograph from Grove Hill Poultry Yards, Waltham, Massachusetts. Dwarf types of most of the popular breeds have been made here and exhibited, but the originators were given very little encouragement to perfect them. [Illustration: Fig. 65. Silver Sebright Bantam cockerel] [Illustration: Fig. 66. Silver Sebright Bantam pullet] [Illustration: Fig. 67. Dark Brahma Bantam cockerel] [Illustration: Fig. 68. Light Brahma Bantam hen with brood[8]] [8] Photograph from Brook View Farm, Newbury, Massachusetts. =Varieties of bantams.= The most popular bantams in this country to-day are the Cochin Bantams, formerly called Pekin Bantams because the first that were seen in Europe and America had come from Peking. Only the self-colored varieties--buff, black, and white--are natives of China. The Partridge variety was made in England, where there are several other color varieties not known in this country. The Common Game Bantam is a dwarf Pit Game fowl; the Exhibition Game Bantam is a dwarf type resembling the Exhibition Game, developed from the Common Game Bantam. Rose-Comb Black and Rose-Comb White Bantams are diminutive Hamburg fowls; Polish Bantams are diminutive Polish. The Sebright Bantams are of the same general type as the Rose-Combs, but in color they are laced like the large varieties of Polish, not spangled like the party-colored Hamburgs. They are further distinguished by being "hen-tailed," that is, the males having tails like hens. Sebright Bantams were made in England about a hundred years ago, by Sir John Sebright, for whom they were named. Although the large Brahmas and Cochins are originally of the same stock, no bantams of the colors of the Brahmas have come from China. The Light and Dark Brahma Bantams were made in England and America in very recent times. From Japan has come a peculiar type of bantam with very short legs, a large tail carried very high, and a large single comb. In their native country the Japanese Bantams are not separated into distinct color varieties. In England and America there are black, white, gray, black-tailed white, and buff varieties. CHAPTER V MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS The methods of managing fowls vary according to the conditions under which they are kept and the time that the keeper can give them. Fowls ought to have an outdoor run, and it is desirable that this should be large enough to be kept in sod; but very few people in towns can give their fowls grass yards, and the advantages of an outdoor run will not in themselves compensate for neglect in other matters. Hence we often see fowls under poor conditions, with good care, doing better than fowls, in a much more favorable environment, that are given indifferent care. No absolute rules for keeping fowls under any given conditions can be made. In general, small flocks of fowls that have free range or large, grassy yards need very little attention, while those that are closely confined require a great deal. With good care the egg production of fowls in close confinement is often better than that from fowls at liberty, but if the cost of caring for the fowls is computed at current rates for common labor, the rate of compensation is often higher on fowls running at large than on fowls in confinement which are producing many more eggs. The question of profits from amateur poultry keeping, however, should not be considered solely with reference to the compensation for time used, nor should such work be adjusted wholly with reference to economic results, for it combines recreation, education, and money compensation, and the first two results should have as much consideration as the last. In this chapter the methods adapted to small flocks are first described for the instruction of the pupil, and then descriptions of operations on a larger scale are given for his information. SMALL FLOCKS ON TOWN LOTS =Numbers in flocks.= The average number of fowls kept by a town family for its own use is about one dozen. Very few who keep hens have less than half a dozen, and not many who plan only to supply their own tables have more than a dozen and a half. Six fowls, if well cared for, will produce all the eggs used by an average family of two or three persons during the greater part of the year. =Houses and yards.= For a dozen medium-sized fowls the house should be about 8 ft. × 8 ft. on the ground, with the highest point of the roof about 6 or 7 feet from the floor. The general rule is to make the poultry house face the sun, and have the windows and the outside doors in or near the front. The object of this is to get as much sunlight in the house as possible in winter, when the sun is low, and to have the walls tight that are exposed to the prevailing cold winds. In the Northern Hemisphere the front of the house is toward the south; in the Southern Hemisphere it is toward the north. In tropical and subtropical countries houses are often so constructed that they can be kept open on all sides in summer and closed tightly, except in front, during cool weather. [Illustration: Fig. 69. Small house used for fowls and pigeons] If the land on which a house stands is sandy and well drained, the floor may be of earth. The common practice where earth floors are used is to fill the earth level with the top of the sill and renew it once a year by removing the soil that has become mixed with droppings of the fowls and putting in fresh earth. When a house stands on wet land or on clay soil, it is better to have a floor of boards or of cement. Fowls may be confined to a house for a year or more and lay well and be in apparently good condition at the end of such a period, but as the chickens hatched from the eggs of fowls that have been so closely confined for even a few months are almost invariably less vigorous than those produced from fowls that live a more natural life, this plan is not much used except by those who keep a few fowls for their eggs only and renew the stock by purchase as often as necessary. [Illustration: Fig. 70. An old-style small poultry house and yard] To give a flock of a dozen fowls outdoor air and exercise enough to keep them in good condition, a yard containing about 300 sq. ft. is necessary. There is no perceptible advantage in giving more yard room than this, unless the yard can be made so large that grass will grow continuously in the greater part of it. On most soils this would require a yard containing from 750 to 1000 sq. ft. in sod before being used for poultry. [Illustration: Fig. 71. Coop and shade for flock of Bantams[9]] [9] The coop is an old dry-goods box; the shade is a burlap bag. Makeshift arrangements are not always nice looking, but some of the finest chickens are kept in very poor quarters. When fowls are confined to their houses, or to the houses and small yards, the droppings must be removed at frequent, regular intervals. To facilitate this it is customary to have a wide board, called the droppings board, under the roost at a distance of eight or ten inches. All the droppings made while the birds are on the roost fall on this board and are easily collected and removed. It is a good plan to keep a supply of dry earth in a convenient place, and strew a little of this over the droppings board after each cleaning. Sifted coal ashes, land plaster, and dry sawdust are sometimes used instead of earth on the droppings boards. The droppings of fowls, when not mixed with other matter, are often salable for use in tanning leather, but in most cases the difference in their value for this purpose and for use as plant fertilizer is not great enough to pay for the extra trouble which is made by saving them for the tanners. Poultry manure is one of the most valuable fertilizers and can always be used to good advantage on lawns and gardens. [Illustration: Fig. 72. Neat house for six hens] If the floor is of wood or of cement, a thin layer of earth or sand spread upon it makes it more comfortable for the fowls. On all kinds of floors the modern practice is to use a few inches of litter of some kind. There is a great variety of materials that will serve this purpose. Lawn clippings raked up after they are dry, dried weeds and grass from the garden, leaves collected when dry and stored to be used as wanted, straw, hay, cornstalks cut into short lengths, and shavings, such as are sold baled for bedding horses and cattle, are all good. Fresh litter should be added in small quantities about once a week. About once a month the coarse litter on top should be raked aside, and the fine litter mixed with droppings underneath removed. Once or twice a year all the material should be taken out and a fresh start made. [Illustration: Fig. 73. House for a dozen fowls. Floor, 8 ft. × 8 ft.; height at sides, 4 ft.; height in middle, 7 ft.] When kept in a house having an earth floor, fowls will scratch aside the litter from small spaces and wallow and dust themselves. In houses having hard floors, shallow boxes about 2 ft. square, containing several inches of dry earth, are placed for the birds' dust baths. Fresh earth must be provided frequently or they will not use the bath as freely as is desirable. For use in winter the earth must be so dry that it will not freeze, but the birds prefer earth that is slightly moist. The first function of the dust bath is to clean the feathers, and damp earth does this much better than earth that is very dry. In wallowing to clean their plumage fowls also rid themselves of lice. When it is not convenient to store much earth, the same material may do double service--first in the dust bath, then on the droppings board. [Illustration: Fig. 74. Small houses in back yard] In a bare yard the soil should be turned over often, all the matter that can be raked up with a fine rake having first been removed. A yard that is in grass requires little care except near the house, where the ground may be bare. Here it should be forked over occasionally. =Feeding.= The feeding of a small flock of fowls is a very simple process. The table and kitchen waste of an ordinary family will furnish all the soft food that they need, and usually enough green food to prevent their suffering for lack of such foods if no other provision is made for supplying them. This waste should not be carried from the house as it is made, and thrown on the ground for the fowls to pick out of the dirt. A better way is to provide a covered jar large enough to hold the accumulation of this material for a day. Into this may be put all the leavings from the table, except such things as orange and banana peelings, large bones, and pieces of fat meat. Once a day, at whatever time is most convenient, the contents of the jar should be mixed with as much corn meal and bran (equal parts by measure) as will take up the water in them and make a moist but not sloppy mash. This should be fed in a clean trough. If the trough stands high enough from the floor to keep the contents clean, it will do no harm if more food is given than the birds will eat up at once, but the quantity given should never be so great that it will not be eaten before the next feeding time. Most people find the morning the most convenient time to give the mash. If the mash is fed in the morning, a small feed of hard grain should be given about noon, and a more liberal one an hour or two before sunset. Some poultry keepers feed the different grains separately; others mix them before feeding. Advocates of different practices often imagine advantages for that which they favor, but no advantage can be demonstrated for either. Wheat and cracked corn are the grains most used in this country; they are about equal in feeding value. As corn is nearly always cheaper than wheat, the usual practice is to feed about twice as much corn. When the grains are mixed, one part (by measure) of wheat is used to two parts of cracked corn. When they are fed separately, it is usual to feed the wheat at noon, as the light feed, and the corn in the evening, as the heavy feed. All the common grains except rye make good poultry foods. Why fowls do not like rye is one of the puzzles of poultry keeping. In some countries it is used for poultry to a greater extent than in the United States, and fowls forced to eat it here have done very well for short periods, but will not eat it readily if they are accustomed to other grains and can get enough to sustain life without it. Fowls do not like dry oats so well as corn and wheat, but have not such a dislike for them as for rye. They are very fond of oats soaked in water and partly sprouted. [Illustration: Fig. 75. With curtains closed] [Illustration: Fig. 76. With one curtain open] [Illustration: Fig. 77. As an open-front house] POULTRY HOUSE USED AT THE CENTRAL EXPERIMENT STATION, OTTAWA, CANADA. (Photograph from the station) The quantity of grain to be given any flock of fowls must be determined by trial and observation. The grain should not be fed in troughs from which the birds can eat it very quickly, but scattered in the litter on the floor, so that the fowls will take exercise scratching it out, and eat slowly. There is an advantage in giving some soft and quickly digested food, but if too much of the food can be eaten quickly, the birds do not take exercise enough. When there is grass in the poultry yard, it is a good plan to scatter the grain in the grass sometimes in fine weather. The hens will find it all, and in scratching it out will bring up the dead grass, and a better sod will grow afterward. [Illustration: Fig. 78. Flock of Barred Plymouth Rocks] A dozen medium-sized fowls, if fed in the morning with the mash described above, would probably need a little over a pint of grain in the middle of the day and about a quart toward evening. An experienced feeder can usually tell by the eagerness of the fowls for their food whether to increase or diminish the quantity; but the most expert poultry keeper does not rely upon this kind of observation alone. Occasionally, before giving food, he looks in the litter to see if there is grain left there from previous feedings, and if he finds much, gives no more until the birds have eaten this all up clean. Water should be given as often as is necessary to keep the supply quite fresh. In cool (but not freezing) weather, once a day is usually sufficient. In hot weather the water should be fresh two or three times a day, in order that the birds may have cool drinks. In freezing weather many poultry keepers give the water warm, because then it does not freeze so quickly. The advantage of this is very slight, and wattles that are wet with warm water in extreme cold weather become especially susceptible to frost. It is not really necessary to give fowls water when they can get snow or ice in a form in which they can eat it. [Illustration: Fig. 79. Flock of Single-Comb White Leghorns] Hens that are laying must be well supplied with oyster shells or lime in some form for the shells of the eggs. They can get a part of the lime required for this purpose from the lime in foodstuffs, but not nearly enough to make good thick shells for all their eggs when they are laying well. Ground oyster shells are sold by all dealers in poultry supplies. [Illustration: Fig. 80. White Wyandotte hen and chicks] =Growing chickens.= Where old fowls have to be kept in close confinement, very little can be done in growing chickens. Some amateur poultry keepers raise in small, bare yards birds that are as good as the average chickens grown under more favorable conditions, but where one succeeds in doing this a hundred fail. Most of the chickens grown in close quarters are very poor indeed in comparison with farm-grown chickens, and quite unfit to be kept for laying or breeding purposes. Those who succeed in growing good chickens in a small place usually give a great deal more time to the work than the chickens produced are worth. The best way for a poultry keeper so situated to get as much as possible of the pleasure of this interesting line of work is to hatch a few broods and, when the chicks are large enough, broil, eat, or sell all but a few of the best pullets and one or two cockerels. If these thrive, they may be worth keeping for a year; but if, as they mature, they do not seem rugged, it is not wise to use them for laying stock. Where there is room to give young chickens a good grass yard, a limited number can be grown to maturity year after year on a town lot and used for laying and breeding purposes. Many town poultry keepers who might grow a few very good chickens never grow a good one because they always try to raise too many for the space at their disposal. Fifty or a hundred chickens may be kept until two months old on a plot of land only large enough to carry twelve or fifteen to maturity. So people start out with a great many more chickens than they ought to have on their land, never thinking that the better their chickens do at the start the sooner they will begin to overcrowd their quarters, and that when that stage is reached, the promising results of several months' work may in a few days be ruined beyond remedy. After they are two or three months old, young chickens will not make the best growth of which they are capable unless they have either a great deal of room or a great deal more care than most people who raise only a few, and have other work to do, can afford to give them. SMALL FLOCKS ON ORDINARY FARMS =Numbers in flocks.= The ordinary farm flock consists of from fifty to one hundred adult fowls and, during the growing season, from one hundred to two hundred chickens. The old stock is usually kept in one or more small houses located among the other outbuildings, and all run together during the day. If the farmer wants to keep the fowls out of the dooryard and the kitchen garden, he does not make yards for the fowls, but incloses the dooryard and garden. Outside of these the birds go where they please. The coops for the young chickens are often kept in the dooryard or the garden until the chickens are weaned, but after that the young birds are nearly always turned out to take their chances with the old ones. [Illustration: Fig. 81. A small farm stock of fowls, ducks, and turkeys] Under such conditions a farm flock is not often very productive, yet, as the birds secure a large part of their food by foraging, the flock may be more profitable than a more productive flock for which all food is bought and upon which a great deal of labor is expended. While this way of keeping fowls on farms is not in itself commendable, it is not to be altogether condemned, because circumstances often compel the farmer to treat his fowls as a sort of volunteer or self-producing crop. The conditions on a farm admit of this, and as a matter of fact the greater part of our enormous total production of eggs and poultry comes from the half-neglected flocks on the ordinary farms. Hence the conditions are tolerable where they are necessary, but whenever it is possible to give farm fowls enough attention to obviate the faults of common practice, the product and the profits can be greatly increased with very little increase in the cost of production. In this section we consider the best methods of securing this result when all the old stock is to be kept as one flock. Old stock and young ought always to be separated unless the old birds constitute an insignificant portion of the flock. [Illustration: Fig. 82. Good poultry house on Texas farm. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] =Single houses for farm flocks.= It is as true on a farm as elsewhere that the greatest yields of eggs and the best growth in young birds are secured when the flock is divided into small groups. But a farm flock of the class under consideration, while it makes its headquarters in such buildings as may be provided, will forage a considerable distance in every direction, going among growing crops from which the larger farm animals must be excluded, and also following the larger animals in their stables, yards, and pastures and picking up food left by them. As fowls also eat many weeds and seeds of weeds, and all kinds of destructive insects, the advantages of letting them run at large more than make up for lower production. Also the production is normal and can be easily maintained from year to year in the same line of stock, while high production secured by extra care is forced and can be maintained in the same line of stock for only a few generations. A flock of one hundred fowls or less, that run together, may all be kept in one house just as well as in several, if the size of the house and the equipment are in proportion to the size of the flock. [Illustration: Fig. 83. Rude poultry house on a Kansas farm. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] If the snow lies long on the ground, so that the fowls are confined to the house much of the time in winter, the allowance of floor space should be about 5 sq. ft. per bird. Where the snow rarely lies more than a day or two at a time, less space may be given, because the birds will not occupy the house much of the time during the day. Under such conditions the allowance of floor space may be as low as 3 sq. ft. per bird. Those who go to this limit, however, should consider that, in the unusual case of a snowstorm keeping the hens confined to the house for more than a very few days, overcrowding may cause losses that more than offset what was gained by using the highest capacity of the house. Usually a flock of fifty hens needs a house with a floor surface of about 250 sq. ft. This is obtained in a house 16 ft. square or in a house 12 ft. × 24 ft. A house 20 ft. square is about right for seventy-five or eighty hens, and is not badly overcrowded if one hundred medium-sized birds are put into it. If an oblong building is preferred, a house 12 ft. wide by 42 ft. long gives one hundred birds 5 sq. ft. of floor space per bird. Houses of such size should be from 4 ft. to 7 ft. high at the sides, and from 7 ft. to 10 ft. high at the highest point of the roof, according to the style of construction. [Illustration: Fig. 84. Good poultry house on a Kansas farm. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] =Feeding.= In the feeding of a farm flock the first thing to consider is what the birds can pick up by foraging. The poultry keeper on a farm, even more than the poultry keeper elsewhere, should make it a rule to do nothing for poultry that they can do for themselves. Fowls can do more for themselves at some seasons than at others, because natural food is more abundant. As fowls do not usually go very far from their house, the larger the flock the less food each bird will secure. On some farms quite a large flock of fowls can get all the food they need about the barns and stockyards and in orchards and fields near the homestead. [Illustration: Fig. 85. Poultry house at Mississippi Agricultural College.[10] (Photograph from the college)] [10] In this house the part of the rear wall above the roost platform is made to open wide, thus affording perfect ventilation in summer. When the conditions are such that it may reasonably be supposed that the fowls can get all the food they require without going farther than fowls usually wander, the best way to determine whether this supposition is correct is to give them no food until evening, then throw out a little grain and see how much they will eat. If it appears that they need to be fed a considerable quantity, it is better to give a light feed in the morning and another in the evening than to give a heavy feed once a day, because if they learn to expect a full feed at a regular time, they will not forage so well. Fowls that have an opportunity to secure considerable food by foraging should never be fed so much in the morning that they will sit around for hours. When hens on a farm need only one or two light feeds a day, whatever grain is most convenient may be given them. Where they get so much exercise and a good variety of other foods, whole corn is as good as anything. A good way to feed it is to break the ears into short pieces and let the birds pick the grain from the cob. In winter the feeding of the farm flock should have more attention, especially if little food can be secured around the stables and stockyards. It is a good plan to give, once a day, a warm mash made of 1 part (by measure) of corn meal and 2 parts of bran, and to give as much grain at one other feeding as the hens will eat. Some farmers use sheaf oats for litter in the floors of their poultry houses, throwing in a sheaf or two as often as is necessary to keep a good depth of litter on the floor, and then give as much corn in addition as the hens will eat readily. [Illustration: Fig. 86. Open-front house with hood. (Photograph from Department of Agriculture, Victoria, British Columbia)] If it is not convenient to make a mash, what grain the fowls will eat quickly from a trough may be prepared for a warm breakfast for them by pouring boiling water on it in the evening and letting it soak overnight. Any of the small grains and cracked corn may be fed in this way; whole corn needs longer soaking. In hard, freezing weather no more mash or soaked grain should be given than the fowls will eat before it can freeze. A favorite old-time practice still used on many farms is to heat shelled corn in the oven and feed it while warm. The best vegetable foods for fowls in winter are cabbages and mangel-wurzels. The cabbages can be hung up by the roots and the fowls will eat all but the stump. The most convenient way to feed the beets is to split them and impale the pieces on spikes in the wall at a convenient distance from the floor. Sound, sweet turnips are also good, but bitter turnips and those that have begun to spoil are likely to give an unpleasant flavor to the eggs. A little freezing does not seem to affect the value of these vegetables for poultry food, and the birds will usually eat them when frozen. The quantity fed at one time, however, should not be so large that it may freeze and thaw several times before it is all eaten. [Illustration: Fig. 87. Movable poultry house on United States Government farm, Beltsville, Maryland. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry)] When hogs and cattle are killed on a farm, the blood and other offal, and the small trimmings when the carcasses are cut up, should be saved and fed to the fowls regularly in moderate quantities, but care should be taken not to leave fat trimmings where the fowls can help themselves, for if fowls have been short of animal food, they eat meat very greedily and are often made sick by it. Blood and lean meat are not very injurious, but too much fat meat has very bad effects. [Illustration: Fig. 88. The upper shutter is closed only at night in extreme cold weather] [Illustration: Fig. 89. Lower part of front open for hot weather] ANOTHER STYLE OF MOVABLE HOUSE AT THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT FARM, BELTSVILLE, MARYLAND. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry) It is not necessary to give the fowls water when there is snow on the ground. Delicate fowls that are accustomed to close confinement may not be able to stand running out on the snow, but if they have a comfortable house, with a good supply of litter on the floor, and are free to go and come at will, rugged birds that are out in all kinds of weather are not in the least hurt by going out on snow and ice and wet ground in cold weather, and will usually take snow in preference to water when they can get it. When the ground is bare and frozen, water or finely chipped ice should be supplied. In extreme cold weather the latter is better, because the water soon freezes and the fowls go thirsty until a fresh supply is given them. [Illustration: Fig. 90. Barred Plymouth Rock hen with Light Brahma chicks] =Reproducing the flock.= Fowls are short-lived creatures. They mature in less than a year; their period of greatest productiveness is usually over before they are two years old, and only a very small proportion of a flock are worth keeping after that. Hence the entire stock of fowls on a farm is renewed in two years. Most farmers intend to kill off all their two-year-old hens each year, thus keeping up the number in the flock by growing annually about as many young birds as there are hens in the flock. To allow for losses, for an excess of males, and for inferior pullets which are not worth keeping for layers, it is necessary to hatch about four times as many chickens as are to be reserved. =The hatching season.= Most of the chickens reared on farms are hatched in the spring months. The late-hatched chickens are nearly all from hens that steal their nests. People on farms do not want late chickens; among so many larger ones a few small birds have very little chance to make good growth. But those who have a place to keep a few early chickens and time to take care of them often set a few hens in the winter. Eggs will hatch at any season of the year, and chickens will grow if they get proper care; but there is a comparatively short season in the spring when eggs hatch better and chickens grow better than at any other time, and the easiest way to get a given number of good chickens that will be full-grown at the beginning of winter is to hatch them in this natural hatching season. This season cannot be exactly defined, because it varies according to latitude and also from year to year according to the weather. Perhaps the best general rule is to have the first chicks hatch when the grass is beginning to grow. To effect this the hens must be set three weeks earlier, when there may be no signs of spring. No one can time hatches to a natural phenomenon of this kind with certainty, but by planning with reference to the advance of spring in a normal season, the first hatches are usually brought very near to the desired time. =Broody hens.= When a hen wants to incubate eggs, or, as the common phrase is, to sit, she remains on her nest continuously and, unless very shy, will not leave it when approached and will resent any interference. The hen is then said to be broody. Because the broody hen makes a clucking noise, she is sometimes called a clucking hen. Hens that are shy when they begin to cluck, and that fly from the nest when approached, usually become tame and allow themselves to be handled after a few days. Broody hens cannot always be obtained at the time they are wanted. In that case there is nothing to do but wait, or try to buy, hire, or borrow them. There is no way of forcing or inducing hens to become broody before they would do so of their own accord. When broody hens are hard to get, people think that hatching with incubators will relieve them of trouble and prevent delay, but the incubator, too, has its uncertainties. Success in artificial hatching requires careful attention to the operation of the incubator and good judgment in adjusting and regulating it. [Illustration: Fig. 91. Nest boxes, made in pairs, for sitting hens. Inside dimensions: large, 16" × 16" × 18"; small, 12" × 12" × 15"] [Illustration: Fig. 92. Same as Fig. 91, with nest boxes closed] =Setting the hens.= As many broody hens as can be obtained should be set at the same time. The most convenient style of nest is that shown in Figs. 91 and 92, which can be kept closed if desired. The best nest material is soft hay or straw. In preparing the nest a poultry keeper shapes the nest material with his hand, to give it a bowl shape, pressing it down to make a smooth, firm surface upon which the eggs will lie evenly. It is a good plan to make the nests and place the hens in them, giving to each a few China nest eggs two or three days before the eggs that are to be hatched are given to them. The eggs for hatching should be of good size and shape, with good strong shells, and as uniform in color as can be obtained. The usual number of eggs placed under a hen is thirteen. After the weather becomes warm, even a small hen will cover thirteen eggs well, and medium-sized hens will cover fifteen or sixteen eggs and often hatch every one, but early in the season it is better to give a hen eleven eggs or perhaps only nine. The number of eggs given a hen is almost always an odd number. There is an old superstition that an even number will not hatch. The reason commonly given by writers on poultry is that an odd number of eggs arrange in better form in the nest, but this is mere fancy. However the practice started, the real reason why odd numbers of eggs are placed in nests of sitting hens now is that the custom is so well established, and the habit of thinking of eggs for hatching in odd numbers is so strong, that most poultry keepers do it unconsciously. =Care of sitting hens.= The best food for sitting hens is whole corn. As the hen will leave the nest only once a day, and not always daily unless removed, the food is given in a vessel from which she can eat it readily. The usual way is to keep a supply where the hens are, so that whenever they leave the nest they can get something to eat. Whether to let them choose their own time to leave the nest or to keep the nests closed except when they are let off at a regular time each day is a point to be determined in each case according to the circumstances. If all the hens in the same place are quiet and get along well together and do not quarrel for the possession of particular nests, they may be left very much to themselves; otherwise the poultry keeper should regulate things so that there will be no quarreling and no danger of a nest of eggs getting cold while two hens crowd on another nest and break some of the eggs in it. Besides grain the hens need water and a place to dust. Most sitting hens will dust themselves every time they leave the nest, if they have an opportunity to do so. As lice multiply rapidly on sitting hens, it is a good idea, even when the hen can dust herself, to apply an insect powder to her and to the nest two or three times during the period of incubation. The eggs may be tested at the end of the seventh day by using a light, as described on page 21. While fertility can be determined earlier, waiting until the seventh day enables one to tell more surely whether fertility is strong or weak, and to discard weak germs as well as infertile eggs. An infertile egg is clear, that is, shows no signs of development or decay, at every period of incubation. The eggs that rot are fertile eggs in which the germs have died. A rotten egg is distinguished from a fertile egg through the tester by the movement of the line between the transparent air space at the large end of the egg and the dark contents, this movement showing that the contents are in a fluid state. The eggs which are the most opaque and have the air space most distinctly marked are those which have the strongest germs. Eggs that are conspicuously light-colored (as they appear before the light) when compared with these may as well be discarded. If many eggs are discarded, those that remain may be given to a part of the hens, and the rest of the hens reset. =Attention at hatching time.= The eggs of medium-sized fowls usually hatch in from twenty to twenty-one days. The eggs of small fowls take about a day less, and those of large fowls about a day more. Hens' eggs have been known to hatch as early as the seventeenth day and as late as the twenty-fourth, but as a rule chickens that come before the nineteenth day or after the twenty-second are weakly. Hens sometimes trample the chickens in the nests or crush the eggs after they are picked, so that the chicken cannot turn to break the shell in the regular manner. Sometimes this is due to the nervousness or to the clumsiness of the hen, but oftener it is caused by the nest being too much dished (that is, hollowed so much that the eggs tend to roll toward the center) or by lice disturbing her. The chickens may be saved either by removing them to other broody hens or by putting them in a flannel wrapping in a warm place. Unless, however, the conditions are bad, it is better to leave them with the hen. Hens with little chicks should be left in the nests until all the eggs that will hatch have hatched and the chicks are dry and begin to show an inclination to run about. Then, if the weather is fine, the hen and her brood may be taken at once to a coop out of doors, but if it is cold or stormy, the little chicks are better indoors. [Illustration: Fig. 93. Coop for hen and chicks, to be used without run] =Coops for broods.= The coop for a hen and chickens should be so constructed that they will have plenty of fresh air at night. There should be a small run attached to it, to which the hen can be confined while the chickens run about or come to her to be brooded, as they may wish. It is not a good plan to let a hen run with her brood while the chicks are very small. The chickens do much better if the mother is confined and gives more attention to keeping them warm than to feeding them. The coops should not be placed in the same spot year after year, nor should they be on land upon which the old fowls run during any considerable portion of the year. Sod ground is best. [Illustration: Fig. 94. Coop to be used with runs, as in Fig. 95] =Feeding young chickens.= From early times in America the most common food for young chickens has been corn meal moistened with water. When fresh this is a good food for chickens that run about and eat a great deal of green food, insects, worms, and small seeds, but a mash of scalded corn meal and bran, such as is given old fowls, or a baked johnnycake, is better. There is no need of fussing with such foods as finely chopped hard-boiled eggs, cracker crumbs, pinhead oatmeal, and other things often recommended as most appropriate for the first feeds of little chicks. Healthy hen-hatched chicks raised by the natural method on a farm need nothing but one soft feed (such as has been mentioned) in the morning, a little hard grain toward evening, and then, just before dark, all the soft food they will eat. The best grain for them is sound cracked corn; the next best is wheat. The chickens should have good water always before them, and may be given all the milk they want. Skim milk, sour milk (either thin or clabbered), and buttermilk are all eaten with relish and promote health and growth. Vessels in which milk is given must be cleaned often or they will become very filthy. [Illustration: Fig. 95. Coops and runs for hens and chicks[11]] [11] Burlap bags are used to shade the interior or to keep out rain. When not in use they are turned back on the top of the coop. =Management of growing chicks.= Of course, healthy chickens are growing all the time, and growing at a very rapid rate, too; but after the chicks are weaned, they have usually reached the point in growth when the increase in size in a short period is very noticeable. So poultry keepers commonly speak of chickens from weaning time until maturity as growing chicks. At this time the rudest kind of shelter will suit them as well as any. Indeed, they hardly need shelter from the weather at all. The most essential things are a good range, apart from the old fowls, and an abundance of food. They should be able to pick up a great deal of food for themselves, but should have enough given them to make sure that they always have all the food they can eat. It does not pay to stint them to make them forage farther. Young chickens will always take all the exercise that they need if they have the opportunity, and the more they eat the better they grow. [Illustration: Fig. 96. Small house for growing chicks, in Maine orchard] [Illustration: Fig. 97. Small house for growing chicks, in orchard in New York State] When the range near their coops ceases to afford them good picking, the coops should be moved to a place where the food to be secured by foraging is more abundant. LARGE STOCKS ON GENERAL FARMS When farmers in America began to keep larger stocks of fowls, the most common practice nearly everywhere was to increase the general flock until there were far too many fowls on the land that they would usually forage over. Under such conditions fowls on the farm were not profitable. They damaged every crop to which they had access, and made the farm most unsightly in the vicinity of the dwelling house. Then some farmers would reduce the flock and return to the old practice of keeping only a few dozen hens, while others would adopt the city plan of building houses with many compartments and keeping the fowls yarded in small flocks. This plan was usually abandoned within a few years, because, while it worked very well in the winter, when the farmer had time to give the hens extra care, they were not as well off in the summer, when the farmer had to give attention to his field crops first. Such was the usual course of development of farm methods of managing fowls. [Illustration: Fig. 98. Stone poultry house about two hundred years old, on farm of F. W. C. Almy, Tiverton Four Corners, Rhode Island] [Illustration: Fig. 99. Rhode Island colony poultry house for thirty-five fowls] [Illustration: Fig. 100. Colony poultry houses on Rhode Island farm] =The colony system.= But occasionally a farmer whose flock had outgrown its accommodations as one flock would divide it, moving a part to another place on the farm, and so was able to maintain the increase in numbers without adopting laborious methods. This idea was carried out most systematically and most extensively in the vicinity of Little Compton, Rhode Island, where the Rhode Island Red fowl originated. The first settlers in this part of Rhode Island built large stone poultry houses like that shown in Fig. 98. Some of these old buildings are still used for poultry. This district is most favorably situated for poultry keeping. The snow rarely lies long, and the birds can be outdoors nearly every day in winter as well as in summer. Being near the fashionable summer resort of Newport, the farmers here early found a large demand for their eggs and poultry at high prices in the summer time, when in many places the prices were low. Then in the winter they could send eggs to Boston and Providence, which were the best markets in the country for this class of produce. So these farmers had every inducement to devise a practical method of indefinitely increasing their stocks of fowls. The plan which they adopted was very simple. Small houses, which could easily be moved from place to place with a two-horse team, and which would accommodate from twenty-five to thirty-five fowls, were made and distributed over the farm. Sometimes these houses were placed in pastures not suitable for mowing or for cultivation and remained there permanently, but as a rule they were moved from time to time to suit the rotation of crops on the farm. As the number of these houses on a farm increased, and they were spread over a larger area and sometimes placed in fields and pastures a long distance from the farmhouse, the work of caring for the fowls, even by the simple method used, became too heavy to be done by man power alone, and a horse and cart was used in carrying food and water, collecting eggs, and moving chicks and fowls from one part of the farm to another. Thus the work was put on a very economical basis, and keeping fowls by this method became a common feature of the farming of this section of Rhode Island. The methods used here have changed little, if at all, since the system was started sixty or seventy years ago. The system is so primitive that people who are familiar with more elaborate methods often imagine that the Rhode Island farmer, who does so well by his simple methods, would certainly do very much better if he applied more of the modern ideas. But the test of time has demonstrated that this simple colony system is easily made permanent, while most of the more ambitious and complex systems either fail utterly or have but a transient success. [Illustration: Fig. 101. Collecting eggs on Rhode Island farm. The little girl is in the box in which dough is carried in the morning] =Numbers of hens kept.= The number of hens kept on a farm in this section varies from four or five hundred to over two thousand. Stocks of from eight hundred to twelve hundred are most common. The principal object is to produce market eggs, but as the two-year-old hens and the cockerels that are not needed for breeding purposes are sold every year, the receipts from the sale of live poultry are sometimes considerable. [Illustration: Fig. 102. Colony houses at Michigan Agricultural College. (Photograph from the college)] =Feeding, care, and results.= The hens, being well distributed over the farm, pick a large part of their living. Hard grain (usually cracked corn) is kept always before them in the house, in hoppers which will hold a bag of grain each. Once a day, in the morning, the hens are given a feed of mash (or, as it is called in this locality, dough) of about the same composition as the mash described on page 89. The dough is cooked in a large iron set-kettle in the evening and left there until it is to be fed the next morning. Then it is loaded into boxes or large tubs on a cart. The cart also carries a barrel of water. As he reaches each house the driver, with a shovel, throws what dough the hens need on the grass near the house. Then he fills the water pail and drives on to the next house. The hens require no more attention until evening, when the man collects the eggs and gives more water where it is necessary. [Illustration: Fig. 103. Moving one of the houses in Fig. 102] [Illustration: Fig. 104. Colony houses at Iowa Agricultural College. (Photograph from the college)] Some of the smaller stocks of fowls on these farms--flocks that have been selected with care and are given a little more attention than is usual--give an average annual production of eleven or twelve dozen eggs a hen, but the general average is only eight or nine dozen. Although the profit per hen is small, the compensation for labor and investment is better than on most poultry plants where a much greater product per hen is secured. Even when eggs are the most important money crop on the farm, the care of the laying hens is but a small part of the day's work of the man who looks after them. [Illustration: Fig. 105. Colony houses at Hampton Institute] =How the chickens are grown.= The number of chickens reared each year on one of these colony farms is usually about equal to the number of fowls kept. Where there are so many hens of a sitting variety, and very early hatching is not practiced, there is rarely any shortage of sitting hens at the time when they are wanted. Usually twenty or thirty hens are set at the same time, and it is expected that they will hatch eight or ten chickens each. Sometimes sixty or seventy hens are set at one time. As it is almost always quite warm when the chickens are hatched, it is customary to give each hen twenty or more chickens. The coops are placed in rows, several rods apart each way, on a piece of grassland that has had no poultry on it for a year or more. Most of the farmers are very particular on this point, and prefer to put the young chickens on land on which there has been no poultry for at least two years. They have learned by experience that under such conditions they can rear a much larger percentage of the chickens hatched, and that the chickens will grow more evenly and mature earlier. In planning the field crops grown on the farm they always try to arrange so that the small chickens may have fresh land not too far from the farmhouse; land seeded to grass the year before is best. The chickens are fed the same dough as is given to the hens, but are fed oftener. They have a second meal of dough about noon, and their grain supply, which is given in small troughs, is replenished frequently. While the hens are with the chickens the food is placed where the hen confined to the coop can get her share. After the hens are taken away, the dough is thrown on the grass as the cart passes up and down the rows of coops. [Illustration: Fig. 106. Coop for hen and chicks, used on Rhode Island farm] When the hay has been harvested and the corn has grown tall, a part of the young chickens may be removed from the land where they were started, and the coops placed where they can forage on mowing lands, in cornfields, and wherever they can go without damage to a growing crop. As they become too crowded in the small coops, the cockerels are sold and, if there are still too many birds in a coop, a few pullets are taken from each of the overcrowded coops and new colonies are started, so far from their old associates that they will not find their way back. [Illustration: Fig. 107. Colony house for growing chicks, at Macdonald College. (Photograph from the college)] In the early fall as many of the oldest hens are sold as is necessary to vacate the houses needed for the pullets reared that season. Then the houses are thoroughly cleaned. (They may not have been cleaned before for six months or a year.) If a house is to be moved to a new location, the change is usually made at this time. One or two cartloads of clean sand are put into each house, to make the floor higher than the ground outside and to provide an absorbent for the droppings which are allowed to accumulate. When they are brought to the house, which will probably be their home as long as they live, the pullets are confined to the house, or a small temporary yard is attached to it, so that they cannot wander away. After a few days of confinement they accept the new home as their headquarters. =Adaptability of the colony system.= The colony system as developed in Rhode Island attracted little attention elsewhere until very recent years. Since about 1900 many descriptions of it have been published, and numerous efforts have been made to adapt features of this system to operations in other localities. The principal obstacles to this are snow and predacious animals. Where snow lies deep for months it is not practical to keep fowls in widely distributed flocks in winter. In some places the plan of distributing the houses in summer and parking them (that is, placing them close together in a regular order) in winter has worked very well. Where wild animals are numerous, colony methods cannot be extensively applied, but on most farms a limited application of the system will greatly increase the amount of poultry that can profitably be kept. In England many farmers use smaller colony houses than those in use in Rhode Island, and move them often, not letting a house stand in the same spot long enough to kill the grass. Some of the houses used in this way are provided with small wheels. The advantage of moving houses often is greatest when the fowls are on good arable land, upon which there are, or will be, crops that can utilize the manure which the birds leave on the land. If the houses are moved methodically, the fertilizer will be evenly distributed. INTENSIVE POULTRY FARMS [Illustration: Fig. 108. Colony houses in foreground; sheds for ducks beyond. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] =Reasons for concentration.= In the early days of the poultry fancy in this country the tendency was for each fancier to keep as many different varieties as he could find room for or could afford to buy. Most of these fanciers were city people who thought that, as they kept their fowls in small flocks anyway, they might just as well have as many different kinds of poultry as they had separate compartments in their poultry yards. When rich men with large estates became interested in fancy poultry, they usually built large houses containing many small pens, each with its small yard, and bought a few of each known variety. By far the greater part of the choicest poultry was kept in small inclosures, and the flocks that laid remarkably well were usually city flocks that were given good care. This seemed to a great many people to prove that fowls did not need the room and the freedom which for ages they had enjoyed on farms, and that the limit of the possible extension of the city method of keeping fowls in small, bare yards depended in any case upon the business capacity of the poultry keeper. =Concentration not profitable.= Very few people who have not had experience in growing large numbers of poultry under both good and bad conditions can be made to understand how futile industry and business methods are when many other things which affect results are unfavorable. Even when the obstacles to the application of intensive methods on a large scale are pointed out to them, most novices imagine that the difficulties are exaggerated for the purpose of discouraging them. They think that the successful poultry keeper wishes to discourage competition, and that the person who has failed does not want to see any one else succeed, and so warns others to let such projects alone. Those who have been very successful in their first efforts in a small way seldom lack perfect confidence in their ability to make good on any scale if once they are in a position to devote themselves entirely to this work. [Illustration: Fig. 109. Commercial laying house at New Jersey Experiment Station. (Photograph from the station)] For some seventy or eighty years, but more especially for the last thirty or forty years, the most conspicuous phase of the poultry industry in America has been the widespread and continuous movement to develop large plants of this character. There has been no time, for a quarter of a century, when poultry plants of this kind, which to the uninitiated appeared to be highly profitable, have not been numerous. The owners of many of these plants have claimed that they were making very large profits, and their claims have led others to engage in the business, following in every detail the methods in use on some large plant which they suppose is very successful. So, while well-informed poultry keepers know that these methods are not practical on a large scale, except in a few limited lines of production, there is in the business a constant succession of newcomers who try to operate egg farms and breeding farms and combinations of various lines by methods that are not suited to their purpose. [Illustration: Fig. 110. Interior of a compartment in commercial poultry house, United States Government farm, Beltsville, Maryland. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry)] =Common type of intensive poultry farm.= The ordinary special poultry farm is a run-down farm upon which have been erected the buildings necessary for the accommodation of from four or five hundred to two or three thousand fowls kept in comparatively small yards. The buildings are nearly always neat and substantial, the fences strong and durable. The arrangement of the plant is orderly, and, when well stocked with fowls and kept clean, it presents a most attractive appearance. The houses and yards for adult stock, the incubator cellar and the brooder houses, the barns and sheds, and the dwelling of the owner or manager occupy but a very small part of the farm--usually from one to three acres. The young chickens are grown year after year on the nearest land not occupied by the permanent buildings and yards. In most cases the land is so heavily stocked with them that they secure almost nothing by foraging. The routine of work on such a farm is very exacting. The fowls can do so little for themselves and require so much extra care that the poultry keeper knows from the start that he cannot make his business pay unless he gets a very high production. So all his efforts are devoted to this end. He uses labor-saving appliances, carefully systematizes his work, and by great effort often succeeds in making a fair profit for a few years. It is at this stage of his progress that the poultry keeper of this class does the boasting which misleads others. Then things begin to go wrong with his stock. His eggs do not hatch well, because his chickens, while nominally on free range on a farm, have really been no better off than chickens reared under ordinary conditions in town. His chickens do not thrive, because they are weak and the land is tainted. He himself is worn out with long hours of work and no holidays, and if he does not realize his mistake and close out the business in time, it is only a question of continuing until his income and credit combined no longer suffice to keep the business going. This in brief has been the history of all special poultry farms where intensive methods were used, except the duck farms and the several classes to be described farther on in this chapter. By no means all succeed to even the extent described, because a great many people who go into the business have so little capital that they have to give up the business before they have been able to make it show a profit. When the owners have capital, plants are sometimes operated for years at a loss, but it is very rare indeed that a poultry farm of this kind (except in the classes to be described later) is continued for more than seven or eight years, and few of them last five years. Those who wish to make a poultry business permanent must adopt other methods. BROILER GROWING The desire for what is rare and costly is a common trait in human character. In nothing is it more plainly displayed than in the demand for food products out of their natural season. An article which in its season of abundance is a staple article of diet, within the means of all but the very poorest, at its season of scarcity becomes a luxury which only the wealthy can afford. Before cold-storage methods had been brought to high efficiency, there was a period in the latter part of the winter and the early spring when young chickens were very scarce. The number that could be hatched with hens to meet a demand at this season was small, and those who were hatching autumn and winter chickens by the natural method found it more profitable to keep them to sell as roasters late in the spring and early in the summer. =The "broiler craze."= A little before 1890, artificial incubators being then first brought to a perfection which made them popular, some poultry keepers began to hatch chickens in the winter to meet the demand for early broilers. Those who were successful made a very good profit on what chickens they had ready to sell while the prices were high. Most of them operated in a very small way, taking up this work simply for occupation when they had nothing else to do. Many were gardeners who had just about enough slack time, after the harvest of one year was over, to hatch and grow one lot of broilers before beginning their regular spring work. These people were not under any delusions about the limitations on this line of production. They knew that the demand for very small chickens at very high prices was limited and easily satisfied. But, as usual, the published accounts of what they were doing set a great many people to figuring the possibilities of profit from such a business conducted on a large scale. For a few years the broiler craze affected nearly every one interested in poultry keeping. Thousands who never engaged in it were restrained only because of lack of capital or inability to adapt it to their circumstances. Many people who had been through several unsatisfactory ventures in poultry keeping thought that they saw in this the one sure road to wealth, and began to make plans to grow broilers in large quantities. Besides these business ventures there were countless small ones, sometimes conducted under the most unsuitable conditions. People tried to grow broilers in living rooms, in attics, in all sorts of unheated outbuildings, and in house cellars to which the daylight hardly penetrated. =Present condition of broiler growing.= The production of broilers as a specialty did not last long. The improvement in cold-storage methods soon made it possible for speculators to carry over large quantities of summer chickens, and the poultry keepers in other lines could easily arrange to produce all the fresh broilers that could be sold at a good profit. ROASTER GROWING =Description of a good roaster.= To roast nicely, a fowl must be full-grown and well filled out, but young, soft-meated, and fat. A fowl is "ripe" for a choice roaster for only a short period after arriving at maturity. When a pullet has laid a few eggs, her flesh becomes harder and is never again as tender and juicy as it was before she laid an egg. When the spurs of a cockerel begin to harden and to grow a long, sharp point, and the bird becomes boisterous and quarrelsome, the flesh becomes dry and tough and is not fit for roasting. =General and special supplies.= From July, when the earliest farm chickens are large enough for roasting, until about the first of February, when the last of the late-hatched farm chickens disappear from the markets, there are nearly always enough very good roasting chickens in the general market receipts to supply the demand for that class and grade of poultry. Then for four or five months there are no fresh roasting chickens on the market except those grown especially for this trade. This line of poultry culture was developed first near Philadelphia, in southern New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, about forty years ago. The chickens were hatched with hens in the autumn and early winter, each grower having only a few hundred. They were sold not only in Philadelphia but in New York and Boston, and in smaller Eastern cities where there was a demand for them. They were, and still are, commonly known as Philadelphia chickens. [Illustration: Fig. 111. Massachusetts soft-roaster plant] =Large roaster plants.= After incubators came into common use, the production of Philadelphia chickens increased, but a more remarkable development of that line of production took place in Plymouth County, Massachusetts, just about the time the broiler craze started. The growing of winter chickens had been carried on to some extent in southern New England in the same way as in the vicinity of Philadelphia, but the local supply was small and irregular until artificial methods were adopted. Then, quite suddenly, the industry developed extensively in the vicinity of Norwell, Hanover, and Rockland. Its growth was remarkable, both because of the number of people who were successful on a comparatively large scale, and because it attracted almost no attention outside of this district until long after it had become a well-established local industry. [Illustration: Fig. 112. Incubator cellar] The methods of the roaster growers in this district are very intensive, but as originally developed their business was not a continuous line of intensive poultry culture, nor is it continuous now except in some cases. For many years after the business began, the growers bought the eggs that they incubated from farmers whose flocks were kept under good conditions and were strong and vigorous; but as the numbers engaged in growing winter chickens increased, the supply of eggs from the farms was not sufficient, and some of the roaster growers began to keep hens to supply a part of the eggs they used. Later some produced all the eggs for hatching that they needed for their own use, and a few sold to others also. This, however, can be done only by those having quite large farms. Some of the most successful growers have only a few acres of land and do not attempt to keep breeding fowls. Hatching begins in August or September and is continued until all the chickens that can be handled are hatched. If the eggs hatch well from the start, a large grower may have his houses full by December, but usually it takes until January to complete hatching, and sometimes it takes longer. The price paid for eggs for hatching is only a little above the price of market eggs, and the buyer takes all the risks of poor hatches. The chickens are kept in warm brooder houses as long as they need artificial heat, then they are removed to cold brooder houses of the same type or to colony houses. Those who have land enough use mostly colony houses. While in the heated brooder houses the chickens are fed in the regular way--with mixed ground grains, either dry or moistened, and small whole or cracked grains. After they leave the brooder houses they have cracked corn, beef scrap, and water always before them; for green food they have cabbage or the winter rye or grass growing on the land. [Illustration: Fig. 113. House used for growing roasting chickens] [Illustration: Fig. 114. Group of houses like that in Fig. 113] As the object of the grower is to have chickens that will grow large and remain soft as long as possible, the breeds used are principally Light Brahmas and Plymouth Rocks, although when eggs of these varieties cannot be obtained in sufficient quantities, Wyandottes are used. The cockerels are caponized when they are about two months old. A capon does not grow a comb or spurs, nor does it crow. If a perfect capon, it remains always soft-meated and may grow very large, though it does not, as is commonly supposed, grow larger than a cockerel within the time it is usually kept before being killed. An imperfect capon will after a time grow a comb and short spurs and, though sterile, becomes harder in flesh than a perfect capon. An imperfect capon is technically called a _slip_. [Illustration: Fig. 115. Petaluma egg farm. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] About the first of March some of the earliest pullets may begin to lay. From that time all the pullets that begin to lay, and the slips as they appear, are marketed; all others are kept, because the grower realizes the largest profit on those that can be marketed in June and July, when the price is highest. By the middle of July, at the latest, everything is sold. The poultry keeper then begins to prepare for the next crop of chickens by taking up all his fences, plowing land that is not in grass, and planting it with winter rye or cabbage or some late garden crop. Rye and cabbage are preferred, because the rye will remain green all winter and furnish green food for chickens that have access to it, and the cabbage makes the best of green food for the little chickens in the brooder houses. It is just as good for the others, too, but not many of the poultry keepers grow enough to continue feeding it to them throughout the winter. While the land on these plants is heavily stocked with poultry, the birds are on it only half of the season,--when vegetation grows freely,--and during the remainder of the season a great deal of manure is removed from the soil by gross-feeding crops like rye and cabbage. So the land may be heavily stocked longer than it could be if fowls were on it all the time. The chickens grown in this way do not usually grow so large as those that are given more room, but they are grown at less cost and are as large as the market demands. By this method the land will carry a large crop of chickens year after year for many years, yet it finally becomes so contaminated that chickens do not thrive on it. [Illustration: Fig. 116. Group of houses on a Petaluma egg farm. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] INTENSIVE EGG FARMING Still another important development due to artificial incubation took place in California. The climate of the Pacific Coast is well suited to fowls of the Mediterranean class, the cold never being severe enough to affect their large combs. Hence these fowls early became very popular with farmers in this section, but as they were non-sitters, those who kept them had to keep hens of another breed to hatch and rear the chickens. When an incubator factory was established at Petaluma, California, the farmers in that vicinity began to use incubators, and some small egg farms grew up in the town. White Leghorns were kept almost exclusively. Before long the egg industry here had grown to such proportions that it was the most important local industry, and the district became celebrated as a center of egg production. Although the product is different, and a different type of fowl is used, the conditions at Petaluma closely resemble those in the roaster-growing district of Massachusetts. The special egg farms are small, each containing from five to ten acres. The houses for the laying hens are larger than the colony houses used in Rhode Island, and are arranged in groups of three, each group containing about five hundred hens. The egg farmers grow their own pullets but, as a rule, do not breed or hatch them. The hatching is done by custom hatcheries, the eggs coming from flocks of White Leghorns on farms that do not specialize in poultry but keep a flock of Leghorns under more favorable conditions than exist on the egg farms. Here, as in the Massachusetts district, the bad effects of intensive methods are reduced for a time, because the fowls affected by them are not used for reproduction. POULTRY FANCIERS' FARMS A large proportion of poultry fanciers are city people who have very little room for their fowls. Some have no room at all for growing chickens, although, by giving them the best of care, they can keep a small flock of adult birds in fair condition. Such fanciers have to find farmers to grow chickens for them. This is not so easy as is commonly supposed, for the farmers who are sufficiently interested in poultry to give them the care required to make good exhibition birds usually want to give their own birds all the time they can spare for work with poultry. [Illustration: Fig. 117. Yards of a small poultry fancier] So it happens that, after a few years' experience in keeping fine fowls in close quarters, an amateur fancier almost always wants to move to a farm where he can grow more and better chickens. A small farm near a city suits the average fancier best, because, when so situated, he can continue his regular work and look after his poultry in leisure time. Fanciers generally use houses with many pens under one roof, because, even when they have only one variety, the different matings must be kept separate during the breeding season, the adult males must be kept separate at all times, and valuable hens cannot be kept in large flocks except when damage to plumage may be remedied before they are to be exhibited or sold. A fancier will keep only five or six birds, and sometimes only two or three, where a utility poultry keeper would keep a dozen. If the yards connecting with the pens in the houses are small, he will arrange so that each lot of fowls may have access to a large yard daily or on alternate days. In every way practicable the experienced fancier arranges to give his fowls all the advantages of natural conditions, while isolating them as completely as is necessary to keep each individual in perfect condition. [Illustration: Fig. 118. Large fancy-poultry farm] Poultry farms that were started as intensive market-poultry or egg farms are sometimes converted into fancy-poultry farms. This is very likely to be the case if thoroughbred stock is used and the owner becomes skillful as a breeder. If he can breed fowls of a quality to command high prices, he may be able to produce enough of them on a small farm to make a very good living, when it would be very much harder, or perhaps impossible, to make the farm profitable with ordinary stock. [Illustration: Fig. 119. Growing chicks in a fancier's yard] [Illustration: Fig. 120. Young stock in cornfield on a fancier's farm] While farmers usually care more for horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, many become interested in poultry, and if they are natural fanciers and good business men, it often happens that the growing of fancy poultry becomes one of the most important industries on the farm. Many women on farms become interested in fancy poultry, and some become very skillful breeders and exhibitors. A farmer-fancier's poultry plant is usually a combination of extensive and intensive methods. Some buildings with small compartments must be provided, but all except the choicest birds can be managed just like the ordinary fowls on a farm where arrangements are made with a view to giving them the full advantage of the good conditions which the place affords. [Illustration: Fig. 121. Summer quarters for poultry. (Photograph from New York State Agricultural College at Cornell University)] To a novice in fancy-poultry culture the number of chickens grown by expert fanciers seems very small for the equipment and the land used, but the old fancier has learned in the costly school of competition, by the bitter experience of defeat, that in growing exhibition poultry it pays to give the birds a great deal more room, both indoors and outdoors, than is needed simply to get quick growth and good size. Elegance of form, depth and brilliance of color, and the indefinable qualities of style and finish that distinguish the high-class exhibition fowl are obtained in a much larger proportion of birds when they are given a great deal more room than they apparently need. CHAPTER VI DUCKS Ducks rank next to fowls in economic importance. If there were no fowls, domestic ducks would probably be as numerous as fowls are now, for it is much easier to produce eggs and meat from ducks than from any known species of gallinaceous bird except the fowl. To most people who are not accustomed to eating them, neither the flesh nor the eggs of ducks seem quite as palatable as the flesh and eggs of fowls. On the other hand, people accustomed to eating fat ducks and the eggs of ducks, which contain a much higher percentage of fat than hens' eggs, often consider the flesh and eggs of fowls rather insipid. The feathers of ducks are more valuable commercially than those of fowls but are not correspondingly profitable to the producer, because ducks are much harder to pluck. =Description.= Common ducks are about the same size as common fowls. The improved breeds vary greatly in size but do not present such extremes of size and diversity of form as are found in the races of fowls. As the duck in a state of nature lives much upon the water, its form is at nearly every point different from the typical form of the fowl. The duck is usually described as boat-shaped, but, while this is a good description, it would be more correct to say that a boat is duck-shaped. The duck was the natural model for the first builders of boats. The bills of ducks are large, rather flat, and broad at the tip. The species to which most of our domestic ducks belong has no head ornaments corresponding to the comb and wattles of the fowl. There is one variety of this species which has a topknot, or crest. The Muscovy Duck, which is of a different species, has a bare face with a carunculated red skin. The plumage of ducks is very soft and dense, forming a thick covering which, when the feathers are in a natural position, is impenetrable to water and so perfect a protection from wind and cold that hardy ducks are quite indifferent to keen winds and low temperatures, and, if left to themselves, rarely seek shelter in winter. During a heavy snowfall they will get under cover to escape being buried in the snow. At other times they seem quite as comfortable on snow and ice as on the ground. One of the most interesting sights of the poultry yard is to see a duck sit down on the snow or ice when the temperature is below zero, draw up its feet and work them into the feathers at the side of its body until they are completely covered, tuck its bill into the feathers of its back until only the nostrils and a little of the base of the bill are exposed, and remain this way through the coldest nights rather than go a few feet to a comfortable house with warm bedding on the floor. Being better adapted to cold than fowls, they are, as would be expected, much more susceptible to heat and suffer greatly in hot summer weather if exposed to the sun or kept where there is not a good circulation of air. The tails of ducks are short, spread laterally, and are usually folded close and carried with the tip a little higher than the base. The legs are very short, comparatively slender, and weak. Most ducks walk awkwardly and fall down and flounder about helplessly when they try to run. The legs of a duck are so weak that it is not safe to catch or handle them by the legs, as fowls are usually caught and handled. It is very easy to break or dislocate the leg of a duck in this way. Hence, the usual method is to catch and carry them by the neck, which is very strong. Most persons who are not used to handling ducks are afraid of choking them by grasping the neck firmly, but there is very little danger of this. The feet of a duck are webbed between the forward toes, which makes them more serviceable as paddles in swimming. They are not suited to perching. There is a wild tree duck, and it is said that the domestic Muscovy Duck sometimes alights in trees or on objects above the ground, but the familiar kinds of ducks rest only on the surface of the land or on the water. Although the males average a little larger, the male and female of the same stock are usually nearer the same size than in gallinaceous birds. The only marks by which sex can be distinguished in all ducks are the voice and the presence or absence of the small curled feathers on the tail which characterize the males. In party-colored varieties the color markings of the male and female are sometimes different. The "quack" of the duck is the note of the female; the male makes a very subdued similar sound, comparing with it as a hoarse whisper compares with the natural tones of the human voice. The duck derives its English name from its habit of ducking its head into the water in search of food at the bottom of the shallow waters, which it prefers. The term "duck" is applied to males and females collectively, and also to the female as distinguished from the male. The male is called a _drake_. The name "drake" is supposed to be derived from an Old German word meaning "the chief duck." Any one who is familiar with the habits of ducks will see at once the appropriateness of the term. Ducks often march in single file, and when they do so, all the drakes in a group go first, the ducks following them, usually with a little space between. So if there is only one male, he marches a little ahead of his flock, like a commander. Young ducks are called _ducklings_, the name being applied to both sexes. In our language there are no special terms applying to a young duck and a young drake as distinguished from adult birds. =Origin.= Useful domestic ducks are of two species. All the breeds of this class, except the Muscovy Duck, are derived from the wild Mallard Duck, specimens of which are still frequently captured and domesticated. The Mallard takes very readily to domestication. Although in the wild state it is a migratory bird, in domestication it soon becomes too heavy to fly far. After a few generations in domestication it becomes as large as common domestic stock, loses its power of flight, and cannot be distinguished from stock that has been domesticated for centuries. Mallard Ducks captured in the wild state and kept in captivity have been known to lay from eighty to one hundred eggs in a season, which is as many as the average domestic duck lays. [Illustration: Fig. 122. Domesticated Mallard Ducks, Brook View Farm, Newbury, Massachusetts] When ducks were first domesticated is not known. The figure of a duck was used in the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphics. As the Mallard is widely distributed and so easily tamed, and as domestic ducks of the same type (but apparently not related in domestication) are found in widely separated parts of the earth, it is plain that the distribution of domestic ducks has been less dependent upon the movements of the human race than the distribution of the fowl. Wherever at any time in the history of the world male and female wild Mallards happened to be caught and kept in captivity, a domestic race might be developed. A missionary who went to Africa in 1885 and worked among the Bakubas--a people more than a thousand miles from the west coast of the continent--reported that he found there such little mongrel fowls as are common elsewhere in Africa, and a local race of domestic ducks varied in color as are the common ducks of Europe and America, but as large as the Rouen and Pekin ducks. The Bakubas had had so little intercourse with civilized peoples that it was not at all likely that an improved race of ducks had been introduced from the outside world, and whatever possibility of that might be supposed to exist, the fact that the ducks of this country, like the domestic quadrupeds, were dumb indicates that they are a distinct and very old domestic race. [Illustration: Fig. 123. Colored Muscovy Ducks. (Photograph by E. J. Hall)] It is worth noting in this connection that the missionary, Dr. William H. Sheppard, found it the accepted opinion among this savage people that, by a process of natural selection, the character of dumbness had been acquired by the domestic animals, to which it gave a measure of protection from wild enemies in the forest around them. It seems wonderful that the theory of evolution was found out by such people before it was developed by modern scientists. =The common duck.= Like the ordinary mongrel fowl, the common duck (sometimes called the puddle duck, because, when it cannot find water elsewhere, it appears to be perfectly satisfied with the filthiest puddles) is much the same in all parts of the world and is a very inferior bird in comparison with ducks of the improved races. Common ducks are usually very slow growers and weigh at maturity from three to four pounds each. As a rule they are very indifferent layers, laying only in the spring. They are of various colors. =Improved races.= Nearly all our improved races of ducks are of foreign origin. At the poultry exhibition at Boston in 1849 the only kinds exhibited were the Aylesbury, the Muscovy, and the ornamental Wood ducks. The Aylesbury Duck is a large white duck developed as a local variety in the vale of Aylesbury, in England. It has a flesh-colored bill, and legs of a pale orange color. Although the favorite market duck in England, and early known in America, it never became a favorite here. The Muscovy Duck is, as has been stated, of a different species from our other useful breeds. It is a native of South America and is supposed to have been taken to Europe in the seventeenth century. It was probably brought to North America from Europe less than a hundred years ago. It differs from ducks of Mallard origin in several other particulars besides the naked head with its bright-red, carunculated skin. The male is very much larger than the female. The tail is longer and more depressed. There is an entire absence of red pigment in the plumage. The natural color is black and white, unevenly distributed. This variety is called the Colored Muscovy Duck. Many specimens are nearly black. The White Muscovy Duck is an albino variety. By crossing these two varieties a blue variety is sometimes obtained, but, although Blue Muscovy Ducks have been made at various times, fanciers have never taken enough interest in them to encourage the originators to continue their breeding. The Rouen Duck takes its name from the town of Rouen, in the north of France, though the type seems to have been common over quite a large area and not peculiar to the vicinity of that town. It is like the Mallard in color, and is just such a duck as by good care and selection for size might be developed at any time from common ducks of that color. Rouen Ducks are said to have been well known in the south of England early in the nineteenth century. When they were brought to this country is not known. Although for a long time they have been familiar to those who attend poultry shows, and have been widely distributed in small numbers, they have never been extensively bred because the Rouen, having dark plumage, is not desirable for the production of young ducks for market. When mature it dresses clean and the quality of its flesh is unsurpassed. [Illustration: Fig. 124. Rouen Ducks, Brook View Farm, Newbury, Massachusetts] The Cayuga Duck is an improved black duck developed about the middle of the last century in Cayuga County, New York. Some early accounts of its origin stated that it was a domesticated wild black duck, but it is much more reasonable to suppose that it was developed by selection from black and nearly black common ducks. [Illustration: Fig. 125. Flock of Pekin Ducks] The White Pekin Duck is a Chinese breed closely resembling the Aylesbury Duck of England. It has an orange-yellow bill and legs. No large ducks of other colors than white have ever been brought to this country or to Europe from China. As far as is known, the importations from China to England and the United States consisted of only a few birds and were made about 1872-1875. Information about these is not very definite. The most commonly accepted version is that they were brought to England in 1874 and to the United States from England in the following year, but some accounts say that both England and America received them direct in 1873, and one account places the first importation to England in 1872. The exact truth is not of importance in such a matter, but those who are interested in the remarkable developments in duck culture which followed the arrival of this breed in the Western World naturally wish to know the facts. All accounts agree that there were only a few ducks brought from China. In England the Pekin became quite popular at once. It was hardier and more prolific than the Aylesbury, and was used largely in outcrosses, to give vigor to Aylesbury stock. In America it became immensely popular in a few years. It was found to be remarkably well adapted to intensive methods of poultry keeping, and large duck farms were built up; some of these made very large profits for long periods of years. The Indian Runner Duck is a small, active duck which originated long ago as the common duck on the meadows of certain marshy districts in the Netherlands. The peasants of these districts compelled their ducks to forage for their food, and so developed ducks with a more upright carriage and stronger legs than the other races. In the Netherlands these ducks are of all colors. [Illustration: Fig. 126. Indian Runner Ducks. (Photograph from owner, Clayton Ballard, White Pine, Tennessee)] Ducks of this type, in color white with fawn-colored markings, were introduced to poultry fanciers in England in 1893 or 1894 as Indian Runner Ducks. It was said that they had been first brought from India to Cumberland fifty or sixty years before, and that ever since that time they had been bred pure by a few breeders and more or less mixed with the common stock of that section by many others. The story of their history in England is much more plausible than that of their origin in India. When the breed was shown on the Continent of Europe it was at once recognized by fanciers there as an improved variety of a common duck. Compared with other ducks the Indian Runner is a remarkable layer, but it does not, as many admirers of the breed claim, surpass fowls in egg production, and the market for duck eggs is so limited that it is easily overstocked. [Illustration: Fig. 127. Flock of White Indian Runner Ducks. (Photograph from Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] Blue Swedish Ducks and Buff Orpington Ducks are simply color varieties of an improved type of the common duck. There are several other quite well-marked varieties in Europe that have not been seen in this country. =Ornamental ducks.= The ornamental ducks of the same species as the common duck, and derived either from common ducks or directly from the Mallard, are the East India Duck, the Black, White, and Gray Call Ducks, and the Crested White Duck. The Call Ducks are so named because their persistent quacking makes them valuable for calling wild ducks within range of the guns of hunters, and they are much used as decoys. They are very small and were produced by dwarfing common ducks. The name "gray," to describe the colored variety, is misleading. The color is like that of the Mallard but of a lighter shade. Some Mallards are quite as gray as the average Gray Call Duck. The Black East India Duck is a dwarf black duck differing so little from the Call Ducks as to leave no doubt, in the mind of any one acquainted with the mysteries of making and naming breeds of poultry, that, like the Call Ducks, it is of European origin. [Illustration: Fig. 128. Blue Orpington Ducks. (Photograph from owner, Sunswick Farm, Plainfield, New Jersey)] There are many ornamental ducks of other species, the most interesting of which are the brilliantly colored Wood Duck (sometimes called the Carolina Duck) and the Mandarin Duck, which, besides being gorgeously colored, has a peculiar crest and has some of the feathers on its wings oddly curved and spread, giving it a singular appearance. Specimens of these ducks are almost always to be seen in a collection of fancy waterfowl. The Wood Duck is a native of North America, the Mandarin Duck of Northern China. =Place of ducks in domestication.= It has been stated that if there were no fowls, the duck would make the best substitute, but as we have fowls in great variety, and as they suit us better than ducks for nearly every purpose for which either might be used, ducks are not often kept in place of fowls. Small flocks of ducks are kept in addition to a flock of fowls, both on farms and by town poultry keepers, either because the owner likes to have them about or to add to the variety of poultry meat for home consumption. The flocks of ducks so kept are of comparatively little economic importance. The ratio of ducks to fowls is only about one to fifty, and the ratio of values of the products of these two kinds of poultry is probably nearer one to one hundred. But when poultry keeping is made a special business, duck growing gives the surest and the largest profits, because ducks can be grown in large numbers more easily than any other domestic animal. The largest permanently successful poultry farms in the world are the great duck farms of the United States. [Illustration: Fig. 129. Black and White Call Ducks, Brook View Farm, Newbury, Massachusetts] To the fancier, ducks are decidedly less interesting than fowls, not only because, as has already been stated, they present fewer superficial characters upon which he can exercise his art, but because they are, on the whole, less intelligent and less capable of developing confidence in one who handles them. Fowls are much easier to handle in the way the fancier must often handle his birds for thorough examination. As a rule, a fowl quickly learns that it is not going to be hurt, and the more it is handled the tamer it becomes. Young ducks are almost stupidly fearless of the person who feeds them, as long as he goes among them without touching them, but after he catches them they are as stupidly shy. It takes very much more patience to handle ducks as a fancier handles birds than the average human being possesses, and so very few people find them satisfactory for pets after they cease to be a novelty. Perhaps if the interest in the breeding of ducks for exhibition were greater, stocks of ducks that were free from this timidity could gradually be developed. Individual birds are often found which are not at all shy; and, as a rule, persistent selection for any quality will eventually make it a race characteristic. CHAPTER VII MANAGEMENT OF DUCKS Although ducks delight in the water and, when they have an opportunity to do so, spend a considerable part of the time in it, they are often kept very successfully where they have no water except for drinking. Some duck breeders, who have kept their ducks for many generations without water in which they could swim, have said that the ducks lost all desire to swim, and that birds of such stock would not go into the water even when they had the opportunity to do so. This statement greatly exaggerates the facts. Any young duck, no matter how the stock from which it came has been kept, will take to the water as soon as it can run about if it is given access to water at that time; but if young ducks are kept away from the water until they are several weeks old, and then given access to water in which they can swim, they are often as much afraid of the water as they would be of any object to which they were not accustomed. If they remain near the water, however, it will not be long before they follow their natural instinct to get into it. Having once entered the water, they are immediately as much at home there as if they had always known the pleasures of life in that element. As comparatively few people keep ducks, and specialization in duck culture is mostly in the line of producing young ducks for market, on a large scale, there is not as much variety in methods of managing ducks as in methods of managing fowls. If ducks are expected to do the best of which they are capable, they must be given a great deal of attention. While no bird will endure more neglect without appearing to suffer, there is none that will respond to good care more generously. SMALL FLOCKS ON TOWN LOTS =Numbers.= The small flock of ducks on a town lot is usually a _very_ small flock, kept more from curiosity and for a little variety in poultry keeping than with any definite purpose. Most of such little flocks are composed of a drake and from one to five ducks. Where a larger flock is kept for the eggs they produce, the number rarely exceeds fifteen or twenty. Many town people who want to grow only a few ducks each year prefer not to keep any adult stock, but to buy a few eggs for hatching when they want them. =Houses and yards.= Ducks require about the same amounts of house and yard room per bird as fowls. While they will stand crowding better than any other kind of poultry, they appreciate an abundance of room and good conditions, and are more thrifty when they are not overcrowded. Where they can be allowed to remain outdoors at night, they really need no shelter but a shed large enough to give them shade from the sun on hot days and protection from hard, driving storms. On most town lots, however, it is advisable to have them indoors at night for protection from dogs and thieves. Also, the amount of roughing that they like, while not at all detrimental to them, is not conducive to early laying. So most duck keepers prefer to have the ducks housed at night and in severe weather, and give them approximately the same space that would be given to an equal number of fowls. The floor of the house should be littered with straw, hay, or shavings. The object of littering the floors of duck houses is not to afford them exercise, but to provide them with dry bedding. The droppings of ducks are very watery, and the bedding must be changed often enough to keep the ducks clean. It is customary to provide shallow nest boxes, placing them on the floor next the wall, preferably in a corner. The ducks are quite as likely to leave their eggs anywhere on the floor, or out in the yard (if they are let out before they lay), but the nests are there if they want them, and many will use the nests regularly. The only other furnishings needed are a feed trough and a drinking vessel, but it is advisable to have a tub or a pan in which the birds can take a bath, and to supply them with water in this once or twice a week. The drinking vessel must be one that they cannot get into, for if they can get into it they will certainly do so. An ordinary wooden water pail, or a small butter tub with the part above the upper hoop sawed off, makes a very satisfactory drinking vessel for adult ducks. It will hold enough water for the ducks to partially wash themselves, which they do by dipping their heads in the water and then rubbing them on their bodies and wings. For the regular bath for two or three ducks one of the largest-sized bath pans made for pigeons will do very well, or an old washtub cut down to six or eight inches deep may be used. For a flock of eight or ten ducks a good tub may be made from one end of a molasses hogshead. The bath should always be given outdoors, because it takes the ducks only a few minutes to splash so much water out of the tub that everything around it is thoroughly wet. The drinking water should also be given outdoors whenever the houses are open. As the ducks of the breeds usually kept can hardly fly at all, very low partitions and fences will keep them in their quarters, but to keep other poultry or animals out of their yards it may be necessary to build higher fences. For the heavier breeds, like the Pekin and Rouen, fences are usually made from 18 inches to 24 inches high. The ducks will rarely attempt to go over these, but occasionally a drake learns to climb a two-foot fence by using his bill, wings, and toes, and may then manage to get over a higher fence. For the small, light breeds, fences 3 or 4 feet high may be needed. If their yard is on a slope and is large enough to give them a chance to start a flight high up on the slope, so that they will rise above the fence at the lower side, it may be necessary either to put a very high fence on that side or to cover the yard. While the fence for ducks need not be either high or strong, there must be no holes in it that a duck, having put its head through, could by pressure enlarge enough to let its body pass. A piece of wire netting that has begun to rust a little may be as good as ever for fowls for a long time, but if used for a duck fence it will be most unsatisfactory, because the ducks will soon make many holes in it. If wire netting alone is used, it should be fastened to the ground with pegs every three or four feet. =Feeding.= The feeding of ducks differs from the feeding of hens in that ducks need mostly soft food, and that, if the keeper wishes to force growth or egg production, they may be fed much larger proportions of such concentrated foods as beef scraps and meat meals. As has been stated, in its natural state the duck gets the greater part of its food from the water. This is all soft food, and the bird swallows a great deal of water with it. It does not, therefore, need a large crop in which to soak its food before it passes into the gizzard. So the crop of the duck is small--merely an enlargement of the gullet. Some of the old books on poultry say that the duck has no crop, but you can see by looking at a duck that has just had a full meal that the food it has taken remains in the passage, sometimes filling it right up to the throat. [Illustration: Fig. 130. Pekin duckling six weeks old] With a mash (just the same as is given to hens) morning and evening, a cabbage to pick at, plenty of drinking water, and a supply of oyster shell always before them, ducks will do very well. If they have no cabbage, about one third (by bulk) of the mash should be cut clover or alfalfa. When the days are long, it is a good plan to give them a little cracked corn or whole wheat about noon. The water supply should always be replenished just before feeding, for as soon as a duck has taken a few mouthfuls of food of any kind, it wants a drink of water. =Laying habits.= With the exception of the ducks of the Indian Runner type, which lay some eggs at other seasons, as hens do, ducks usually lay very persistently for about six months, and then stop entirely for about six months. Occasionally ducks of other breeds lay a few eggs in the autumn, but this trait has not been developed in them as it has in the Indian Runner. If they are comfortably housed and well fed, Pekin and Rouen Ducks usually begin to lay in January. If they are allowed to expose themselves to rough weather, and are fed indifferently, they may not begin to lay until March or April. When they do begin, they usually lay much more steadily than hens until hot weather comes, and then gradually decrease their production until by midsummer they have stopped altogether. [Illustration: Fig. 131. Pekin drake four months old, weighing nine pounds] The eggs are usually laid very early in the morning. Ducks often lay before daylight and almost always lay before eight o'clock. When a duck lays in a nest, she is very likely to cover the egg with the nest material when she leaves it. A duck will often make a nest and remain on it an hour or more and then go and drop her egg somewhere else and pay no further attention to it. =Growing ducklings.= For a poultry keeper who has only a little room it is much easier to grow a few ducks than to grow an equal number of chickens. There are two reasons for this: One is that the ducklings stand close confinement better and are not so sensitive to unsanitary conditions; the other is that ducks of the improved breeds grow much more quickly than chickens and are grown up before the novelty of caring for them wears off and the keeper tires of giving the close attention that young poultry need when grown under such conditions. The ducks of the improved breeds are mostly non-sitters. Unless one has common ducks, Muscovy Ducks, Rouen Ducks with some wild Mallard blood, or Mallards not long domesticated, he is not likely to have a duck "go broody," and so small lots of duck eggs are usually hatched under hens. As duck eggs are larger than hen eggs, a smaller number is given to the hen. Eleven medium-sized duck eggs are given to a hen that would cover thirteen hen eggs. If the eggs are large, it is better to give such a hen only nine. The development of a fertile duck egg that has a white or slightly tinted shell can be seen very plainly when the egg is held before a light, much earlier than the development of a hen egg. If the shell is green and quite dark in color, the development of the germ may not show any better than in a brown-shelled hen egg. The period of incubation is about four weeks. Eggs are sometimes picked as early as the twenty-fifth day, but usually on the twenty-sixth day. As stated in Chapter II, the duckling usually waits quite a long time after chipping the shell before it completes the process and emerges. In a little duckling we find the most striking resemblance to a reptile that is to be seen among domestic birds. It has a long, soft body, a long neck, short legs, and a wriggling movement, and sometimes, when it is wriggling through a small hole, it looks very snakelike. While they are very small, ducklings are the most interesting of young birds. They will go to the water as soon as they leave the nest. Dabbling in it will not hurt them in the least if the weather is pleasant, if the water is not cold, and if they can leave it when they are tired and go to their mother and get dry and warm. Much of the pleasure of growing young ducks is in watching their behavior in the water. For this purpose a large pan or a small, shallow tub may be placed in their coop. It should either be sunk in the ground, so that they can get in and out easily, or two short pieces of board should be nailed together at such an angle that they will form a little walk from the ground outside, over the edge of the vessel, and to the bottom inside. This walk enables the ducklings to get out if the water gets so low that they cannot scramble from its surface over the sides of the pan or tub. The best way to teach the little ducks to use the walk is to put a little pile of sods or earth beside the vessel containing the water. The ducks will learn very quickly to go into the water in this way, and will soon find their way out by the board walk. After they have come out by the walk a few times, they will begin to go in by it. It is very important to make sure that if young ducks are given water to play in, they can get out of it easily. Many who have not had experience in handling them neglect this and feel very bad when some of their ducklings are drowned. If proper provision is made for the safety of the ducklings, they afford a great deal of entertainment. One of the first things a little duck does when it gets into the water is to go through the peculiar ducking performance that gives the name to its species. The little fellows duck their heads to the bottom, and their tails and feet go up into the air while they mechanically feel with their bills for the food which instinct seems to suggest should be there. They play in the water, going through all the motions of feeding in it. If the sun is warm, they are as likely to lie down together in the sun when they leave the water as they are to go to the hen to be brooded. As they lie on the ground they often turn one eye toward the sky and look steadily upward, as if they knew intuitively that one of their most dangerous natural enemies might appear from that quarter. In every way they comport themselves just as old ducks do and not at all in the ways of their hen mother. The young ducks may be fed, as the old ones are, on mash, but should be fed oftener, unless their coops are where they can eat all the grass they want and can get a great many flies, worms, and insects. They are expert flycatchers, and if there is anything in their coop to attract flies, they will get a great many of them. Under such conditions three feeds a day will be sufficient. If they have no grass they should be fed five times daily and should be supplied with tender green food of some kind. For the first few days the mash given them should have a little very fine gravel or coarse sand mixed with it--about a heaping tablespoonful to a quart of mash. At any time after that when the ducks seem dull and weak, a little fine gravel in the mash will usually tone them up. Little ducks grow very fast and in a few weeks are entirely independent of the hen. At ten or twelve weeks they are fully feathered and almost full-grown, and are ready to be killed and eaten as "green ducks." SMALL FLOCKS ON FARMS =General conditions.= The small flock of ducks on the farm is usually most profitable if it can be given the run of a small pasture or orchard where the birds have good foraging and have access to a pond or stream but cannot wander away. Ducks on the farm are often allowed to run with other poultry. This may do very well if the flocks of all kinds are small and can separate when foraging, but as a rule it is better to put the ducks where they will be away from other poultry. A small flock of ducks properly placed on a farm should require very little food and very little attention. If possible the birds should be free at night, because the worms and grubs come to the surface in greatest abundance then, and they can get as much in an hour early in the morning as they can in several hours after the sun is high. The principal objections to leaving them out at night are that they may be attacked by animals that prey upon them, and that the ducks may lay their eggs where they are not easily found. The person in charge of the ducks has to use his judgment as to whether the risks in his case are so great that the ducks should be confined at night. When a flock of ducks on a farm has liberty to wander at will, it often makes a great deal of trouble, because ducks are prone to stop for the night wherever they happen to be when they have eaten their fill late in the day. =Feeding.= If the ducks are kept in until they have laid, they should have a little food when they are let out. It does not make much difference what this is. If a mash is made for other poultry, some of it may be given to them. Otherwise, a little whole grain will make them comfortable until they can pick up a more varied breakfast. The best method of feeding the young ducks will depend upon the conditions. As a rule it is better to keep them quite close for the first two or three weeks and feed them well. The ideal way is to coop them on grass, or in a garden where they can get a great deal of green food and worms. Treated in this way they will get a better start and will grow much faster and larger than if they are allowed to wear themselves out by running about while small. On a farm where there is no water near the house, but where there is a stream at a little distance, the young ducks should be so placed that they cannot make their way to this stream. Very small ducks at liberty will often find their way alone to water so far from their home that it was not supposed that they could locate it. If they have an opportunity to do so, small ducks are much more likely than older ones to wander off in search of water, and instinct seems to direct them toward it. After the ducklings are three or four weeks old, they may be given as much freedom as old ducks. Unless natural food is very abundant, they should be fed some grain for a while. Ducks grown in this way cannot be sold to advantage as green ducks. At this stage of growth they cannot be collected from small flocks and marketed in condition to bring the prices paid for those from the special duck farms, and as it costs the farmer little or nothing to keep his ducks until mature, it is usually more profitable for him to do so than to sell them earlier. [Illustration: Fig. 132. Duck farms at Speonk, Long Island] On a farm near a market where there is a good demand for green ducks it might pay very well to grow several hundred a year. On this scale the methods should be similar to those used on the special duck farms, except that the hatching might be done with hens. It would not do to let the ducks run about as recommended for stock which is to be kept until mature, because then they would not be fat at the age for killing them. MARKET DUCK FARMS =History.= The growing of ducks for the New York City market began on Long Island at a very early stage of specialization in poultry culture. Many farmers there produced a few hundred ducks for this market each year, and found it very profitable. As the demand increased they tried to increase production to meet it, but were unable to do this, because there was then in this country no duck adapted to their needs. The Aylesbury Duck, the favorite table duck in England, was too delicate. The only hardy white duck that they had was the White Muscovy. This breed was not very satisfactory, because the females are much smaller than the males, but they had to use white ducks, for the colored ducks will not pick clean at the age at which ducks can be marketed most profitably; so they did the best they could with the White Muscovy Duck, under the restrictions placed upon their operations by the difficulty of getting broody hens. While the industry was mostly on Long Island, there were duck growers here and there on the mainland in the vicinity of New York and also near Boston, but there were no duck farms of any importance in other parts of the country. [Illustration: Fig. 133. View from the windmill tower in Fig. 132] When the White Pekin Ducks were brought from China, and reports of their hardiness, prolificacy, and rapid growth were circulated, the duck growers were at first very skeptical, but they soon learned that the reports which they had supposed were greatly exaggerated were literally true. Then every duck grower had to have Pekin Ducks. The production increased very much after the introduction of the Pekin Duck, but the growth of the industry was still retarded by the impossibility of getting all the hens that were needed to hatch the eggs. Several incubators had been invented, which hatched very well for those who had the skill to operate them, but which, in the hands of unskilled operators, spoiled most of the eggs placed in them. About 1890 appeared the first incubators with automatic regulators that really worked so that the ordinary person could manage the machines successfully. One of the New England duck growers who had invented the best of the machines used before this time was already growing ducklings on quite a large scale. On Long Island, where most of the duck farms were located, the farmers were hard to convince of the superiority of incubators for their work. Indeed, the only way that they could be convinced was by practical demonstrations right on their own farms. The first incubators used there were machines set up on trial by a manufacturer who had invented an incubator which was very easy to operate. This man went to the duck growing district, placed machines on various farms, and went from farm to farm daily to attend to them, until the farmers were fully convinced that the machines would do what was claimed for them. In a very short time the artificial method had displaced hatching with hens on the commercial duck farms, and the business was growing amazingly. Within ten years there were many farms producing from 15,000 to 20,000 ducks a year, and a few producing from 40,000 to 50,000. One man on Long Island, who operated two farms a few miles apart, sometimes grew 80,000 ducks in a season. Those who were successful on a large scale became moderately rich. Without exception the successful duck farms have been built up from small beginnings by men who had very little capital to start with. Some of these farms have been operated on a large scale for twenty years. [Illustration: Fig. 134. House and yards for breeding stock] [Illustration: Fig. 135. Brooder house for young ducklings] [Illustration: Fig. 136. Fattening sheds and yards] VIEWS OF WEBER BROTHERS' DUCK FARM, WRENTHAM, MASSACHUSETTS As would be expected, the success of the big duck farms has led many people with large capital to undertake to establish duck farms on a still larger scale. But these undertakings do not last long, because it is practically impossible to secure for such a plant an organization as efficient as one developed by the owner of a plant which has grown from small beginnings under his own management. =Description.= A large duck farm is a very interesting place at any time, but is most interesting at the height of the growing season, when all the operations in the business are going on at the same time. The total number of birds on a farm at any time is very much less than the product for the season, because the first ducks hatched will have gone to market before the eggs which produce the last are laid, but in flocks of more than 10,000 the impression on the visitor is much the same, no matter what the numbers. [Illustration: Fig. 137. Duck house and yards on seashore, Fishers Island, New York] Duck farms are of two types: those located on streams or inlets have the yards for all but the smallest ducks partly in the water; the inland duck farms, on which the young ducks grown for market are given no water except for drinking. Some of the inland farms give the breeding stock access to streams and ponds only during the molting season, when they can be allowed to run in large flocks and a small area of water will serve for all. For a time after the large inland duck farms were first established it was claimed by many that ducks grew faster when not allowed to swim than they did when allowed to follow their natural inclination to play in the water. No doubt some ducks which were in dry yards grew better than some having access to large bodies of water, and on the whole as good ducks were grown on the inland farms as on those near the water, but it has long been known that it is much easier to manage the ducks when they have water in their yards. There are two reasons for this: in the first place, they are much more contented in the water; in the second place, they feel very much safer on the water when anything alarms them, and will keep quiet on it when, if they could not retreat to the water, they would rush about in a panic and many would be injured. [Illustration: Fig. 138. Quarters for breeding stock on an inland duck farm. Swimming tanks in the yards] Ducks are very timid and easily panic-stricken. The duck grower has to take every possible precaution to guard against disturbances of this kind, because ducks are so easily injured, and even if they are not hurt, a sudden fright will make them shrink a great deal in weight. Visitors who come merely out of curiosity are not desired on duck farms at any time, and none but those familiar with the handling of ducks are ever allowed to go about the farm without a guide who will see that the ducks are not disturbed. Many visitors think that this is unreasonable, but the duck grower knows that the mere presence of a stranger excites the ducks, and that a person walking about might put a flock in a panic which would at once extend to other flocks, simply because he was not familiar enough with the ways of ducks to detect the signs of panic in a flock which he was approaching, and to stand still until they were quiet, or move very slowly until he had passed them. If a stranger, walking between yards where there were five thousand ducks fattening, made an unconscious movement that set the ducks in motion, the loss to the grower could hardly be less than from five to ten dollars, and might be very much more. Where such little things can cause so much trouble and loss, the difference between success and failure may lie in preventing them. On a duck plant with a capacity of 50,000 ducks everything is on a big scale. Although ducks will stand more crowding than other kinds of poultry, it takes a large farm for so many. The buildings will cover many thousands of square feet of land and, though of the cheapest substantial structure, will represent an investment of fifteen or twenty thousand dollars. Incubators, appliances, breeding stock, and supplies on hand will amount to about as much. The incubator cellar will be several times as large as the cellar under the ordinary dwelling house. Before the so-called mammoth incubators were made, the largest-sized machines heated with lamps were used on all duck farms, and an incubator cellar would sometimes contain as many as seventy incubators having a capacity of from 200 to 300 eggs each. Now many of the large farms use the mammoth incubators, with a capacity of from 6000 to 18,000 eggs each. These mammoth incubators are really series of small egg chambers so arranged that the entire series is heated by pipes coming from a hot-water heater, instead of each chamber having an independent lamp heater as in the small, or individual, machines. [Illustration: Fig. 139. Feeding young ducks on farm of W. R. Curtiss & Co., Ransomville, New York] As nearly all kinds of supplies are bought by the carload, and as stocks must be kept up so that there will be no possibility of running short of foodstuffs, a great deal of space is required for storage. Large quantities of ice are needed to cool the dressed ducks before shipping them to market, so the farm must have its own ice houses and store its own supply of ice in the winter. For some years after duck farms grew to such large proportions, the mixing of mash was all done by hand, with shovels. Often one man was kept busy all day long mixing mash, and very hard work it was. Now the men on the large farms mix the food in big dough mixers, such as are used by bakers, and work that would take a man an hour is done in a few minutes. In some sections the killing and dressing of the ducks is done by men with whom duck picking is a trade at which they work during its season. In others the killing is done by men, but the pickers are women living in the vicinity of the farm, who can be secured for this work whenever they are needed. A farm that markets 50,000 ducks in a season will keep a large force of pickers busy the greater part of the time for many months. Quite a large building is required to provide room for the pickers to work in, for tanks for cooling 500 or more ducks at once, for space for the men who pack them, and for lofts for drying the feathers before they are sold. This drying process must be used whether the birds are dry-picked or are scalded before the feathers are removed. Water on feathers dries quickly, but the oil in the quills dries very slowly. The feathers from one duck are worth only a few cents, and where small numbers are grown the feathers are hardly worth the trouble of saving and curing. On a large plant the total product of feathers for a season amounts to several thousand dollars, and it pays to provide facilities for taking proper care of them. After the crop of ducks on an inland farm is marketed, the fences must be removed and the land plowed and sowed with winter rye. This crop is used extensively for this purpose, because it is a gross feeder and takes the impurities from the soil very fast, and also furnishes a good supply of green food for the stock ducks during the winter and for the first young ducks put on the land in the spring. Where the farms are large enough, all ducks may be kept off a part of the land each year and crops grown on it. The farms located at the waterside do not have to look to the purification of the land so carefully, because the rains wash a great deal of the droppings away. Some of these farms get large quantities of river grass from the streams and cut it up to mix with the food for the ducks. DUCK FANCIERS' METHODS There are two general classes of duck fanciers: those who breed one or more of the useful varieties for fine form and feather points, and those who breed the ornamental varieties. Breeders of the latter class usually keep other kinds of ornamental poultry also. The methods of the fanciers of useful kinds of ducks compare with those of the practical growers who handle small numbers as do those of the fowl fancier with the methods of the poultry keeper who keeps a few fowls for his own use. In a general way they are the same, yet wherever it is necessary they are modified to secure the best possible development of the type. If a duck fancier has not a natural water supply for his ducks, he either makes a small artificial pond or ditch or gives them water for bathing much oftener than the commercial duck grower thinks is necessary. He also gives both old and young ducks more room, and encourages them to take exercise, because this makes them stronger, more symmetrical, and better able to stand transportation and the handling to which they are subjected when taken to shows. Most duck fanciers are also fanciers of fowls or of some other kind of poultry. The competition in ducks is not nearly so keen as in fowls. Hence they are so much less interesting to a fancier that few are satisfied with the sport that may be obtained from exhibiting ducks only. When the growing of green ducks for market began to be developed upon a large scale, many of those engaged in this line exhibited stock and sold birds for breeding and eggs for hatching. They soon found that while the Pekin Duck was unrivaled as a market duck, it was not of sufficient interest to fanciers to excite the competition that creates high prices for the finest specimens, and that it paid them better to devote themselves exclusively to the production of market ducks. At the present time only a few market duck growers make a business of selling breeding and exhibition stock. Most of them will not take small orders, but will fill large orders when they have a surplus of breeding stock and can get a good price for it. On almost every large commercial duck farm there are hundreds of birds much better than most of the Pekin Ducks seen at poultry shows, and many better than the best exhibited. There is probably no other kind of poultry in which so large a proportion of the finest specimens are found on the plants of those producing for market. The ornamental varieties of ducks are given much less attention in America than they deserve. Few are seen except in large collections of fancy waterfowl, and sales from these collections are principally for special displays at shows. On many farms the Mallard, Call, and East Indian Ducks might be established and left to themselves, to increase in a natural way, only enough being sold or killed to keep them from becoming too numerous. If located in a suitable place, such a flock makes a very attractive feature on a farm. The highly ornamental Mandarin and Carolina Ducks, being able to fly quite as well as pigeons, must be kept in covered runs. They will breed and rear their young in a very small space. A covered run 6 ft. wide, 6 ft. high, and from 20 to 30 ft. long, built in a secluded place and having a small shelter at one end, makes a very satisfactory place for a pair of ducks of any of the small breeds to live and rear their young. CHAPTER VIII GEESE People who are not familiar with animals often get wrong ideas of the characters of certain creatures from the popular metaphorical use of their names. Perhaps those who first applied these metaphors understood them correctly, but after long use by people acquainted with the metaphor but not familiar with the animal to which it relates, a part of the meaning is likely to be lost. This is what has happened to the term "goose" as applied to a person. When one acts stupidly foolish about some little thing he is often called a goose. Most people, associating the idea of stupidity with the name of the goose, suppose that geese are very stupid and uninteresting. If you will notice how the term "goose" is commonly applied to persons, you will discover that it is very rarely used except to apply to a person for whom the speaker has a great deal of affection. Under the same circumstances others are more likely to be designated by some harsher term. The most marked characteristic of a goose is not stupidity but an affectionate disposition. The ancient Egyptians noted this, and in their hieroglyphic writing a goose stood for "son." The goose is a very intelligent and interesting bird. It is of a most social nature and becomes very much attached not only to its mates but to other animals and to people. No domestic animal except the dog develops so much affection for its master as a goose will if it is permitted to do so. But, while interesting in some ways, the goose has so little of the other qualities which lead man to make a companion and pet of an animal, that its devotion is not usually encouraged. Commercially geese and ducks belong to the same class and are used in the same way (the goose being preferred where size is desired), but in some points of character, structure, and habits they are quite different. =Description.= In general appearance a goose resembles a duck so closely that people not familiar with both often mistake large white ducks for geese, but no one that knows either kind well is likely to make mistakes in the identity of any of the common varieties. While many of the small domestic geese are no heavier than the largest ducks, geese are on the average more than twice as large as ducks. Their legs are longer and much stronger. Their bills are larger at the juncture with the head and smaller and more pointed at the tip. While ducks are usually very timid, geese are bold, and this makes a marked difference in their attitude when approached and also in the carriage of their bodies. They are very strong birds, quite able to defend themselves against the attacks of small animals and from annoyance by children. Indeed, they are very likely to take an aggressive attitude toward persons or animals that they regard as trespassers, and a large gander when angry is a dangerous customer. A blow from his wing might knock a child down or even break a small child's arm. [Illustration: Fig. 140. Emden Geese] There are no regular distinguishing marks of sex in geese. The males average larger than the females, but the difference is slight and some females may be larger than some males of the same breeding. In some foreign varieties, not known in this country, the males are mostly of one color and the females of another, but as there are exceptions to this rule, it is not reliable. In those varieties which have a knob on the bill this is likely to be more prominent in the males. There is nothing in the form of the plumage to distinguish the male, like the little curl in the tail of the drake. The voices of males and females are so nearly alike that, while a difference may sometimes be noted in the voices of birds known to be of different sexes, the voice is not a plain indication of the sex. There are some males so distinctly masculine, and some females so distinctly feminine, in appearance and behavior, that a person familiar with geese will not often make a mistake in identifying the sex by the general appearance. There are others about which the most expert goose breeder is in doubt until the laying season arrives and the production or nonproduction of eggs shows without doubt which birds are females and which are males. [Illustration: Fig. 141. Toulouse Geese] The name _goose_ is applied to either male or female without reference to sex, and also to the female as distinguished from the male. The male is called a _gander_. The young are called _goslings_. _Goose_ and _gander_ are the modern forms of Anglo-Saxon names. =Origin.= Our fully domesticated geese all originated in the Old World. The European stock is believed to be derived from the Gray Lag Goose, which is still found in Europe in the wild state. The origin of the curious name "Gray Lag" has been the subject of much speculation. The most plausible theory is that which takes "lag" in its common meaning and supposes that the term was applied to this species of goose because it was slower in motion, or because it lingered longer in Northern Europe, than the less familiar species. As in the wild state the Gray Lag Goose ranged over Europe and Northern Asia, it may have been domesticated many times in many different places. Wild specimens may still be brought into domestication, but there are no authentic reports of such cases. The Chinese breeds of geese, which will shortly be described, are quite different in appearance from the European races, but the difference does not necessarily show that they are of different origin. [Illustration: Fig. 142. Toulouse goslings three weeks old] =Common geese.= Throughout Europe and America the ordinary geese are of much the same type as their wild progenitor. They are a little heavier and coarser than the Gray Lag Goose, and have not its great power of flight, yet some of them can fly better than any other domestic poultry. The author has seen flocks of common geese fly from a high hill over the roofs of tall buildings at its foot and alight in a stream fully an eighth of a mile from where they started. It is perhaps needless to say that they always walked home. Such geese were hard-meated and tough except when quite young. They were geese that picked the most of their living where food was none too plenty. Well-kept stocks of common geese have probably always been very good table poultry. =Improved races.= In various parts of Europe the common geese have somewhat distinctive race characteristics. The Roman Geese are supposed to be the oldest distinct race. They differ from ordinary geese in that the prevailing color is white, and they are more prolific layers. The Pomeranian Goose, found throughout Germany and Southeastern Europe, is somewhat larger. The female of this race is usually white, the male white with a gray back. Because of the peculiar markings of the male this variety is sometimes called the Saddleback Goose. The Emden and Toulouse Geese are very large. The Emden was developed in Germany, where it was at one time called the Brunswick Goose. The first specimens seen in America came from Bremen in 1826 and were called Bremen Geese. They had been known in England for a long time and had become very popular there under the name of "Emden Geese." The name "Bremen" was used in this country until about 1830, when the English name was adopted. The Toulouse Goose is a very large gray goose which originated in a goose-growing district in the vicinity of Toulouse in the South of France. It was introduced into England about 1840 and into America about fifteen years later. In Russia gander fighting was from very ancient times a popular sport, and several varieties of geese were bred especially for their fighting qualities. The most common of these is the Tula Goose, which is usually gray in color but is sometimes clay-colored. The latter point is very interesting for its bearing on the question of the common origin of the European and Asiatic breeds of geese, to be discussed in the next paragraph. None of the Russian races of geese are known in this country. [Illustration: Fig. 143. White China Geese. (Photograph from Charles McClave, New London, Ohio)] [Illustration: Fig. 144. Brown China Geese. (Photograph by E. J. Hall)] The Asiatic races of geese probably came to America as early as the Asiatic races of fowls. They were early known in England under a variety of names, and were quite popular there over a hundred years ago as Spanish Geese. A writer in an agricultural paper in 1848 stated that he had seen White China Geese in Virginia in 1817. It appears, however, that the early introductions were immediately so mixed with the native geese that the distinct type was lost, and that it was not until nearly 1850 that the specimens were brought here from which the stocks now known were produced. There are two varieties of the China Goose--White and Brown. They are smaller and more graceful than the improved European varieties and are more prolific layers than any except perhaps the Roman Goose. They have a large knob on the head at its juncture with the upper mandible. Most of the geese of Europe are either white or gray (black-and-white). The red which appears to a slight extent as brown in the Gray Lag Goose has been lost or so reduced that it is not noticed except in the Tula Goose, which is sometimes clay-colored. The colored variety of the China Goose is distinctly brown. Hence, if they came from the same wild species as the European geese, the red which was reduced in Europe was greatly increased in China. But if, as is not impossible, they came from different wild species, a most interesting question arises: The Chinese types and the European types are perfectly fertile when bred together. Would their wild ancestors (supposing them to have the same characteristics) be equally fertile? Unless we can find a wild ancestor for the Chinese type, all that we know of the relations of domestic races points to the conclusion that they, like the European races, are descended from the Gray Lag Goose. The variety known as the African Goose is a larger and coarser type of the Brown China, and is probably obtained by crossing with the Toulouse or by selection from mixed flocks. Nothing definite is known of the origin of this type, but to any one familiar with the stock in the goose-growing district of Rhode Island, and with the breeding methods of the farmers there as applied in the development of the Rhode Island Red fowl, it appears probable that African Geese came from this district. [Illustration: Fig. 145. African Geese on a Rhode Island farm] =Ornamental varieties.= There are two ornamental varieties of domestic geese and quite a number of species of wild geese that are kept in collections of fancy waterfowl. The Sebastopol Goose evidently belongs to the common domestic species. It is about the size of the common goose, is white in color, and has a peculiar development of some of the feathers of the body and wings, this development of the plumage giving the variety its ornamental character. A number of feathers on the back of this bird are long and twisted, as if they had been loosely curled, and lie in a wavy mass on the back and rump. The Egyptian Goose is the smallest domestic goose. It is unlike other domestic geese in being quite gaudy in color. It is found in the wild state and also in domestication in many parts of Africa. Sebastopol and Egyptian Geese are rare in this country. [Illustration: Fig. 146. Sebastopol Geese on an English farm] =The Canada Goose, or American Wild Goose.= Few persons in America have not at some time seen a flock of wild geese flying in wedgelike formation as they migrate in the spring and fall. Their honking can often be heard when they cannot be seen. Hunters watch for these flocks and, when they are flying low, sometimes shoot them as they pass, but the favorite method of hunting wild geese is to induce them to approach a hunter concealed where he can get a better shot at them. For this kind of hunting, shooting stands are built near bodies of water where wild geese may alight in their passage. These stands are either concealed in the bushes or masked by green boughs. In order to bring near the stands any wild geese that may alight of their own accord, and also to attract any flying by, captive wild geese are used as decoys. At first the birds used for this purpose were those crippled but not killed by the hunters and kept in confinement. As the supply secured in this way was small, and as the wild birds bred readily in captivity, the breeding of wild geese for decoys soon became quite common in districts where the shooting of this kind of game was good. The wild geese will mate with domestic geese, producing a sterile hybrid called a mongrel goose. [Illustration: Fig. 147. A pet Canada gander. (Photograph from George E. Parrett)] =Place of geese in domestication.= In ancient Egypt and Rome the goose was a sacred bird, not an object of worship but reserved for the use of the priests, who keenly appreciated the advantage of having a monopoly of the use of the best domestic table bird then in existence. In later times, until the turkey was introduced, goose was the favorite kind of poultry for festal occasions all through Europe. Then it lost some of its popularity in those places where turkeys were extensively grown. In Germany, Austria, and Russia there is still a very large production of geese. In this country geese are grown in small numbers by a few persons in almost every community. The feeding and flocking habits of geese especially adapted them to the conditions under which they were kept when stock of all kinds was allowed to run at large and to feed on common or unoccupied land in charge of a gooseherd. As towns grew, and as people became less tolerant of the trespassing of live stock, the growing of geese in towns declined. Nearly all the geese now produced in this country come from flocks on general farms. The production of geese on farms has been restricted to some extent by the abundance and cheapness of turkeys. As turkeys become scarce and dear in any locality the production of geese seems to increase. From early times geese have been prized for their feathers. So valuable have these been considered that it has been a practice to pluck the live geese each year before they molted. Public opinion now condemns this barbarous practice, and persons plucking live geese are sometimes punished for cruelty to animals. [Illustration: Fig. 148. Mongrel Geese on a Rhode Island farm] CHAPTER IX MANAGEMENT OF GEESE Geese will bear confinement well if given proper attention, but they require such large quantities of succulent green food that it does not pay to grow them where they cannot secure most of this by foraging. Very few people who keep geese in inclosures too small to furnish them with good pasture can conveniently supply them with all the green food that they need. Hence no one engages in growing geese in close quarters for profit. Many, however, grow a few geese under such conditions because of the interest a small flock affords. Goose growing cannot be developed on intensive lines as duck growing has been. One obstacle to this is the difficulty of supplying green food under such conditions. Another is that the average egg production is small. The description of the management of geese on farms will show more fully why this branch of poultry culture is likely always to be restricted to general farms. SMALL FARM FLOCKS =Size of flock.= On the ordinary farm, where only a few dozen geese are grown each year, a flock of one male and from two to four females gives a sufficient number of breeding birds. It is more difficult to get a start with geese than with fowls or ducks, because a young gander will often mate with only one goose, and an old gander separated from mates to which he has become attached may be very slow about establishing new family relations. An experienced goose grower does not expect to get very good results the first season that a flock of breeding birds are together. On the other hand, a flock once harmoniously mated does not have to be renewed every year or two. As long as the old birds are vigorous the entire product of young may be sold each season without reducing the producing capacity of the flock. The average gander is past his prime after he is six or seven years old, but geese are often good breeders until ten or twelve years old. Occasionally a goose lives to a great age. There are reliable accounts of geese breeding well when over twenty years old. Some stories of geese living to more than eighty years of age have been widely circulated, but little credence is to be given such tales; people who originate them and suppose that they are true do not know how difficult it would be to make sure of the identity of a goose through so long a period. =Houses and yards.= Geese, like ducks, prefer to live in the open air, and do not often voluntarily take shelter from any element but heat. It is customary to provide a small shelter which they may use if they wish. In most cases it is not necessary for a farmer to make a yard especially for geese. The permanent fences or walls between the divisions of the farm will usually keep geese in the pasture allotted to them. The best place for geese is a marshy meadow in which some parts of the surface are elevated enough to be quite dry at all seasons. These places afford more comfortable resting places when the birds tire of the wet land. They also furnish different kinds of grass from those growing on very wet land. On many farms there are tracts of land much more suitable for geese than for any other live stock. Cattle and hogs sometimes cut up such land very badly, destroying the vegetation on it and making it unsightly. Such a piece of land is sometimes a part of a pasture used for cattle. In that case it may be a good plan to fence the cattle from the soft ground with a wire or rail fence, which keeps them out of the part reserved for the geese, yet allows the geese the range of the whole pasture. A small number of geese in a large pasture will not hurt the pasture for cattle or horses. Too many geese in a pasture spoil the grass for themselves as well as for other stock. Even when cattle have access to all parts of a pasture in which there are geese, a small space should be inclosed for a feeding pen, where food for the geese will be out of the reach of other stock. This is especially necessary during the breeding season, when they usually require extra food. =Feeding.= A flock of geese in a good pasture need no other food except at the breeding season or when they are being fattened. If there is any doubt about the pasturage being sufficient, a small trough or box containing grain of any kind that it is convenient to give them should be put where they can eat what they want. When there is snow on the ground, they should have a little grain and all the cabbage, beets, turnips, or other vegetables they want. =Laying season and habits.= Geese usually begin to lay in February or March. As many nests should be provided as there are geese, for while two or more geese sometimes lay peaceably in the same nest, it is more likely that each goose will want one to herself. A barrel placed on its side in a secluded place makes a good nest. Geese are sometimes very notional about the location of the nest and, neglecting one provided for them, may choose a spot right out in the open or in some place where the nest is not well protected. When they do this, it is a good plan to place over the nest, without disturbing it, a large box with a hole cut in one end for passage. Geese, like ducks, lay very early in the morning. When they begin laying while the weather is cold, the person who has charge of them must be up early and get the eggs before they are chilled. A goose usually lays from twelve to eighteen or twenty eggs and then goes broody. The common practice is to set the first lot of eggs under hens, and keep the goose away from her nest until she shows no inclination to sit. She may then be allowed access to the nest and before long will begin laying again. As a rule the second lot of eggs will be fewer in number than the first. When the goose goes broody the second time, it is as well to set her, for if stopped again she may not resume laying. Occasionally a goose lays for a whole season without going broody. =Hatching and rearing goslings.= In hatching goose eggs under hens the hens are managed in just the same way as if they had hen eggs. Each hen is given four or five eggs, according to the size of the eggs and the size of the hen. A goose must be set in the nest where she has been laying. If she is inclined to be very cross if approached while sitting, she should be left to herself as much as possible, care being taken that nothing can molest her. With the help of the gander a goose can defend her nest against almost anything likely to attack it, but some eggs would probably be broken in the fray. The period of incubation is from thirty to thirty-five days. The goslings sometimes chip the eggs two days before completing the process. They should be left in the nest until they begin to run about. Then, if they are with a goose mother, they may safely be left to the care of the old ones, and may not even need to be fed. The early goslings with hen mothers should be placed on sod ground where the grass is fine and soft, in coops such as are used for little chickens, with a small pen in front of each coop to keep them from wandering away. This pen may be made of boards 8 or 10 inches wide, set on edge and kept in place by small sticks driven into the ground. It is best to give them only grass to eat the first day. After that two or three light feeds of mash may be given daily, but they should always have all the fresh, succulent green food that they can eat. The coops and pens should be moved as often as is necessary to secure this end. The goslings should also be constantly supplied with drinking water. They will appreciate a bath occasionally. Goslings grow very rapidly. In from ten to fourteen days they are so large that they no longer need the hen mother and she may be taken away. At this stage several broods may be combined and the flock allowed the run of any place where it can graze unmolested. A shelter should be provided for protection from the sun, and a roomy coop with a dry floor to keep them in at night. If allowed to do so, they would stay out and graze at intervals during the night, but the owner will sleep more comfortably if he is sure that nothing can disturb them. Although very big babies, they are quite soft and helpless at this stage. When six weeks old a gosling is nearly half-grown. Young goslings that were started with hen mothers may then be put into the pasture with the old geese. When ten or twelve weeks old they will be almost as large as the adult birds. [Illustration: Fig. 149. Goslings three or four days old] [Illustration: Fig. 150. Goslings three weeks old] [Illustration: Fig. 151. Goslings nine weeks old] In growing geese on the farm the most important thing is to provide good pasture. Grass is not only the most economical food, but it is the best food. Geese will grow and fatten on grass without grain, but will not fatten as quickly or be as firm-fleshed. To fatten for market they should be confined for from ten to twenty days before they are to be killed, and fed all that they will eat of some very fattening food. Corn soaked in water until it is soft is an easily prepared food and a very good one. LARGE FLOCKS OF GEESE ON FARMS The most important goose-growing district in the United States is that part of Rhode Island where the colony system of egg farming is used. This district is well adapted to goose growing. The winters are not severe, and the birds can have grass almost the year round. The breeding geese are often kept in pastures occupied by hens and cattle, but there are also many small ponds and marshy places used exclusively for geese. The absence of foxes makes it possible to keep them in fields a long way from the farmhouses, and for this reason many spots are used for geese which in other districts would be too exposed. The large flocks of hens in this district give an abundance of sitters to hatch the early goslings. As the person who looks after the sitting hens and the young chickens on one of these farms has to give the greater part of his time to that work for several months in the spring, he can often use the remaining time to best advantage by hatching and rearing a few hundred goslings. So a large proportion of the farms which specialize in eggs also specialize in geese. The numbers grown on a farm vary from 100 to 500, the average being between 200 and 300. To produce this average number, flocks of 15 or 20 geese and 4 or 5 ganders are kept. A flock of this kind does not mate miscellaneously, as a similar flock of ducks would. It is composed of as many families as there are ganders, and if the pasture is large, these families will remain separate a great deal of the time. The method of handling the geese on these farms differs from the ordinary farm method in that the work is done more systematically and more attention is given to the goslings while growing. They are grazed each year on new grassland. Most of them are sold unfatted, as soon as they are of full size, to men who make a business of fattening and dressing them. GOOSE-FATTENING FARMS [Illustration: Fig. 152. Goslings grazing on a Rhode Island farm] Market duck growing is conducted on so large a scale that each grower can employ expert pickers and sell his product directly to wholesale dealers in poultry. So the duck grower fattens his own ducks before killing them. It is natural for him to do this, too, because his method of fattening is a modification of the feeding process which he has used from the start. As he nears the end of his process of feeding, he simply increases the proportion of fat-forming material in the food and feeds all that the ducks will eat. The fattening of geese that have been grown on grass to make them of the quality that will bring the highest price requires a change to a heavy grain diet. The farmers who grow these geese could fatten them better than any one else and make more profit on them, but few of these farmers are willing to give them the special attention that this requires. So large a part of the geese sold alive are thin that the men who bought them to dress for market long ago saw an opportunity to make a greater profit by fattening them before they were killed. Some of those who engaged in fattening geese were very successful and made large profits. As they extended operations in this line they required a great deal of land. Sometimes as many as 15,000 geese are fattened on one farm in a season. The fatteners buy in the early part of the summer from the farmers who sell the green geese as soon as they are grown. As these make the finest geese for the table, and as the best demand for geese comes at the holiday season in the winter, a large part of them are put in storage after being killed. After the green geese are disposed of, the fatteners buy live geese shipped in from distant points, and have them ready to kill about the time when the demand for goose is good. [Illustration: Fig. 153. Scene on a goose-fattening farm in England] While they are very profitable when everything goes well, fattening geese is a business attended by heavy risks. In buying from many different sources a fattener may get some geese having a contagious disease, and the infection may spread through his whole flock before he discovers it, for some diseases have no pronounced symptoms in their early stages. Keeping such large numbers of geese on the same land year after year also brings trouble through the pollution of the soil. GROWING THOROUGHBRED GEESE FOR EXHIBITION The proportion of thoroughbred geese among those grown for market is very small. Most of the geese on farms are grades produced by crossing thoroughbred or high-grade males on the old unimproved stock. This gives a type of goose which is much better than the old common goose but not nearly as large as the heavy Emden and Toulouse Geese. The intermediate size is, however, large enough to meet the general market demand. The production of thoroughbred geese is carried on to supply stock of medium quality for the farmers who want to maintain a good grade of stock, and to supply exhibition birds of the best quality for the relatively small numbers of fanciers and breeders of standard-bred stock. The usual method of growing exhibition geese is to keep only one breed on a farm, and to manage them as ordinary geese are managed, except that, to secure the best possible development, the breeder is more careful than the average farmer is to provide abundant pasture and all the grain that the birds can use to advantage. Occasionally several breeds of geese are kept on a farm, but most breeders consider one enough. GROWING A FEW GEESE ON A TOWN LOT Old geese are so noisy that they are undesirable inhabitants for populous places. In such a place a poultry keeper who wants to grow a few geese often finds it satisfactory to buy eggs for hatching and either dispose of the goslings as green geese when three months old or eat one as he wants it until all are gone. The only difference in handling goslings in close quarters and on farms is in the method of providing the green food. On the farms the birds graze; on the town lot they must be fed very abundantly with succulent food. They will eat almost any vegetable leaf that is young and not too tough, and they should have such food almost constantly before them. Most people who try to grow geese in a small space injure them by feeding too much grain. If they have had no experience in this line, they suppose, quite naturally, that birds so much alike as the goose and the duck, both in outward appearance and in the texture and flavor of the flesh, require the same diet. When we compare the duck, which lives so largely on grain and meat, with the goose, which makes greater growth in the same period on grass alone, we can begin to appreciate what large quantities of bulky green food the goose needs to accomplish so remarkable a result. While the growing of geese in bare yards is not recommended as a paying venture, every one interested in poultry should grow a few occasionally for observation. GROWING WILD GEESE IN CAPTIVITY Wild geese mate in pairs. If they are to be bred successfully in captivity, they must have a place away from other animals, where they will not be disturbed. They will be more contented if located near a small pool or stream. A pair of wild geese is usually kept during the breeding season in a small, isolated inclosure containing a permanent water supply. Here the female will make her nest, lay her eggs, and hatch her brood. The male at this period is very savage and will vigorously resent any interference with his mate. Most wild geese in captivity lay but a few eggs, and the broods hatched are small. There are seldom more than five or six goslings in a brood. After the young are hatched, the parents may be allowed to leave the inclosure with them. CHAPTER X TURKEYS The turkey is commonly considered the best of birds for the table, the most desirable for any festive occasion, and quite indispensable on Thanksgiving Day. It is the largest bird grown for its flesh. As usually found in the markets, geese and turkeys are of about the same weight, because most people, when buying a large bird for the table, want those that, when dressed, weigh about ten or twelve pounds; but the largest turkeys are considerably heavier than the largest geese, and the proportion of extra large birds is much greater among turkeys. =Description.= A dressed turkey and a dressed fowl are quite strikingly alike in shape. The most noticeable difference is in the breast, which is usually deeper and fuller in a turkey. The living birds are distinctly unlike in appearance, the carriage of the body and the character and expression of the head of the turkey being very different from those of the fowl. The head and upper part of the neck are bare, with a few bristly hairs. The bare skin is a little loose on the head and very much looser on the neck, forming many small folds, some of which are sac-like. It varies in color from a livid bluish-gray to brilliant scarlet. An elongated, trunklike extension of the skin at the juncture of the beak with the head takes the place of the comb in the fowl. There is a single wattle under the throat, not pendent from the jaw, as in the fowl, but attached to the skin of the neck. The feathers on the lower part of the neck are short, and the plumage of the whole body is closer and harder than that of most fowls. The wings are large. The tail spreads vertically and is usually carried in a drooping position. This, with the shortness of the feathers of the neck, makes the back of the turkey convex. The usual gait of the bird is a very deliberate walk. The male and female differ conspicuously in so many points that the sex of an adult bird is distinguished without difficulty. As a rule the males are much larger than the females of the same stock. In colored varieties the males are more strongly pigmented, and the shades of color in them are more pronounced. The head characters of the male are much more prominent in size and more brilliant in color. Both sexes have the power of inflating the loose appendages of the head and neck. In the male this is highly developed; in the female only perceptible. The male has a brushlike tuft of coarse hair growing from the upper part of the breast. This tuft, called the beard, is black in all varieties. The female is usually shy and has a low, plaintive call. The male challenges attention and often struts about with his tail elevated and spread in a circle like a fan, wings trailing on the ground, the feathers all over the body erected until he looks twice his natural size, and at frequent intervals vociferously uttering his peculiar "gobble-gobble-gobble." The male turkey has short spurs like those of the male fowl. The name _turkey_ was erroneously given in England when the birds were first known there and it was supposed that they came from Turkey. The adult male is called a _turkey cock_, also a _tom-turkey_ (sometimes simply _tom_) and a _gobbler_. The adult female is called a _turkey hen_, or a _hen turkey_, the order of the terms being immaterial. Young turkeys before the sex can be distinguished are variously called _young turkeys_, _turkey chicks_, and _poults_, the latter being considered by poultrymen the proper technical name. After the sex can be distinguished, the terms _cockerel_ and _pullet_ are applied to turkeys in the same way as to fowls. =Origin.= The turkey is a native of North America. Although not as widely distributed as before the country was settled, it is still found wild in many places. It was domesticated in Mexico and Central America long before the discovery of the New World. Domesticated stock from these places was taken to Spain and England early in the sixteenth century, and was soon spread all over Europe. The domestic stock of the colonists in the United States and Canada came from Europe with the other kinds of domestic poultry. It is probable that from early colonial times the domestic stock was occasionally crossed by wild stock, but we have no information about such crosses until after the Revolutionary War. From the earliest published statements in regard to the matter it would appear that such crosses had long been common, and that the benefits of vigorous wild blood were appreciated by the farmers of that time. The wild turkey is about as large as a medium-sized domestic turkey but, being very close-feathered, looks smaller. It is nearly black, and the bare head and neck are darker in color than in most domestic birds. [Illustration: Fig. 154. Common turkeys on a New England farm] =Common turkeys.= The turkey is not so well adapted to domestication as the fowl, duck, and goose. Under the conditions to which they have usually been subjected domestic turkeys have lost much of the vigor of the wild stock. As far as is known, the birds taken to Europe after the discovery of America were black or nearly black. In Europe white sports appeared and were preserved, and the colors became mixed--black, white, gray of various shades, brown, and buff. That has been the character of most flocks in this country until quite recent times, and many such flocks are still found. =Improved varieties.= The development of the domestic turkey is unique in that the most marked improvement in domestic stocks has been due to extensive introductions of the blood of the wild race. The reason for this is indicated in the statement in the preceding paragraph, in regard to the lack of adaptation of the turkey to the ordinary conditions of life in domestication. The turkey deteriorates where the other kinds of poultry mentioned would improve. So, while in Europe a few color varieties were made, and in some localities both there and in America local breeds of special merit arose, on the whole the domestic stocks were degenerate. The distinct color varieties were the Black, the White, and the Gray, but by no means all turkeys of these colors were well-bred birds. The color varieties were crudely made by the preference of breeders in a certain locality for a particular color. They were impure and often produced specimens of other colors because of the occasional use of breeding birds unlike the flock. In early times it was the almost universal opinion that crossbred stock had more vitality than pure-bred stock. Hence farmers, although preferring a certain type of animal, would often make an outcross to an entirely different type, and then by selection go back to the type of their preference. When this mode of breeding is adopted, undesirable colors may appear for many years after a bird of a foreign variety has been used in breeding. The local European breeds that gained a wide reputation were the Black Norfolk, the Cambridgeshire Bronze, and the White Holland. Black and White turkeys were perhaps quite as popular and as well established in other places as in those mentioned. Black turkeys were the most common kind in Spain and in some parts of France. In some other parts of France, and in parts of Germany and Austria, White turkeys were the most numerous, but in general the turkeys of Europe and America were of various colors, with gray predominating. In the United States a local breed of very good quality was developed in Rhode Island about the middle of the last century. It appears to have been known at first as the Point Judith Bronze Turkey, and also as the Narragansett Turkey, but the first name was soon dropped and has long been forgotten by all but those familiar with the early literature. The Narragansett Turkey was not bronze as the term is now applied to turkeys; it was a dark, brownish-gray, which is doubtless the reason why the name was changed after the distinctly bronze turkeys became well known. Although the Narragansett Turkey is described in the American Standard, and prizes are still offered for it at some shows, the type has almost disappeared. =Bronze turkeys.= The accidental crossing of wild with tame turkeys produced, in the domestic flocks where such crosses occurred, many specimens of exceptional size and vigor, in which the blending of the colors of the wild turkey with the gray of the domestic birds gave rise to a very beautiful type of coloration. It was neither black nor brown nor gray, but contained all these shades and had an iridescent bronze sheen. As the crosses which produced these were only occasional, the wild blood being reduced in each generation removed from it, the bronze type was usually soon merged with and lost in the common type. As the wild birds became scarce, crosses were rare, and what improvement had been accidentally made was in danger of being lost, when the awakening of interest in all kinds of poultry stirred turkey growers to more systematic efforts for the improvement of domestic stock by crossing with the wild stock. Those who were able to do so captured wild birds and bred them in captivity, producing both pure wild and half-wild stock. They also secured the eggs of wild birds and hatched and reared the young with tame hens. With wild stock under control, they were able to use as much wild blood as they desired in their flocks, and soon fixed and improved the bronze type until they had a variety of turkeys that were extremely hardy, larger than the wild race or any domestic stock that had hitherto been produced, and also more attractive in color. The name "Bronze" was soon applied exclusively to this type of turkey in America. In England they are called American Bronze, to distinguish them from the Cambridge Bronze, which seems to be very nearly a duplicate of the Narragansett. [Illustration: Fig. 155. White Holland Turkey cock. (Photograph by E. J. Hall)] The evolution of the Bronze Turkey in America is one of the most interesting things in poultry culture. The work was done on a very large scale. It was not just a few breeders that engaged in grading up domestic turkeys with wild blood, but a great many scattered all over the country. Many, remote from places where wild turkeys ranged, paid high prices for full-blooded wild males, and also for grades with a large proportion of wild blood. In this way the wild blood was very widely distributed. As the superiority of the bronze type became established, turkey growers everywhere bought Bronze males to head their flocks, and so in a remarkably short time Bronze Turkeys of a type much superior to the old domestic stock became the common turkeys in many districts. [Illustration: Fig. 156. Flock of White Holland Turkeys] Interest in the American Bronze Turkey arose in England at a very early stage of this development. In fact, there is some reason to believe that the publicity given to several early shipments of small lots of wild turkeys to France and England did more than anything else to direct the attention of breeders in this country to the value of systematic breeding to fix the characters which wild blood introduced. The most celebrated of these shipments was one taken to France by Lafayette on his return from his last visit to the United States in 1825. About this time, or earlier, an English nobleman, who had some American wild turkeys, presented his sovereign with a very fine horse. The king, instead of expressing pleasure with the gift, intimated that he would prefer some of the wild turkeys, and was accordingly presented with a pair. The use of wild blood to give greater vigor to domestic stock continues, though it gives no better results now than the use of vigorous Bronze Turkeys many generations removed from wild ancestry. [Illustration: Fig. 157. Bronze Turkey cock. (Photograph by E. J. Hall)] =Influence of the Bronze Turkey on other varieties.= Although White turkeys have long been very popular in some parts of Europe, in this country they were, until recently, considered too weak to be desirable for any but those who kept them as a hobby. By chance mixtures of Bronze and White turkeys, and in some instances by systematic breeding, white turkeys that were large and vigorous were produced. Some of these were large enough to be called mammoths, as the largest Bronze Turkeys were. A few breeders who had these big white turkeys advertised them as Mammoth White Turkeys produced by Mammoth Bronze Turkeys as sports and in no way related to the old, weakly white birds. But whatever may have been the case at the outset, in a few years the Mammoth Whites were so mixed with others that the distinction was lost, for the best buyers of superior white turkeys were those who liked the color and had inferior stock which they wished to improve. All white turkeys in America now go by the old name, "White Holland Turkeys." Yellow or buff turkeys were often seen among the old common turkeys. They were usually small and very poor in color. The mixture of bronze turkeys with these birds occasionally produced larger birds of a darker, more reddish buff but very uneven in color, with the tail and wings nearly white. From such birds, by careful breeding, a dark red race with white wings and tail was made. This variety is called the Bourbon Red, from Bourbon County, Kentucky, where it originated. =Other varieties of the turkey.= The only other variety worthy of mention here is the Slate Turkey. Birds of this color are often seen in mixed flocks. Some of very good size and color have been bred for exhibition, and the Slate Turkey in America is classed as a distinct variety. [Illustration: Fig. 158. Bourbon Red Turkeys. (Photograph from owner, C. W. Jones, Holmdel, New Jersey)] =Place of the turkey in domestication.= In discussing the history of the turkey in domestication much has been said of the influence of conditions on the type and on the vitality of this bird. The case of the turkey is peculiar, because it seems as capable of being tamed as the fowl, the goose, or the duck, yet does not thrive under the conditions in which it would grow tame. It is peculiarly sensitive to the effects of soil which has been contaminated by the excrement of animals, and so instinctively avoids feeding places on which other animals are numerous. Thus it requires a large range and, if permitted to follow its inclination, spends most of its time at a distance from the homestead. The successful growing of turkeys depends upon the watchfulness of the caretaker and the absence of their natural enemies. This will appear more clearly when the methods of managing them are described in the next chapter. Turkey culture is not well adapted to the more intensive methods of farming which become necessary after the first fertility of the land has been exhausted. Hence the turkey has almost disappeared from many places where turkey growing was once an industry of considerable importance. The farms of the Central West and the mountain regions of Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee have for many years produced most of the turkeys consumed in this country, but the changing conditions in these regions seem unfavorable to the increase of turkey culture. Attempts to grow turkeys on a large scale have been made on the Pacific coast. While these may succeed for a time, turkey culture in this country is likely to decline rapidly unless changes in economic conditions afford cheaper labor on farms, or unless the natural enemies of poultry are so reduced that flocks of turkeys may be kept in a half-wild state. CHAPTER XI MANAGEMENT OF TURKEYS The turkey is almost exclusively a farm product. It is possible to grow a few good turkeys in confinement, but this is rarely done except in experimental work or by persons who grow a few for amusement and for an opportunity to study some of their characteristics. A few adult turkeys may be kept on a small farm and remain about the homestead as other poultry does. The turkeys themselves may get along very well, but they are likely to abuse the fowls, and as they can easily fly over any ordinary fence, they cannot be controlled except by putting them in covered yards. Turkeys kept under such conditions cause so much trouble that, after the novelty of watching them has worn off, the owner soon disposes of them. It is where the farms are large and there is a great deal of woodland and pasture through which the turkeys may roam without strict regard to farm boundaries, and large grain and grass fields where they can forage after the crops are removed, that turkeys in large numbers are grown for market with good profit. On such farms, too, the farmer, if he is a good breeder, can produce the finest exhibition specimens. =Size of flocks.= The number of turkeys kept on a farm for breeding usually depends upon the number of young it is desired to rear, but the difficulty of keeping more than one adult male with the flock tends to restrict the annual production to what can be reared from one male. Experience has taught that it is not advisable to have more than ten or twelve females with one male. Sometimes a much larger number is kept with one gobbler, and the eggs hatch well and produce thrifty poults; oftener an excess of females is responsible for poor results which the breeder attributes to other causes. The average hen turkey lays only eighteen or twenty eggs in the spring. Some hens lay even less. Once in a long time a turkey hen lays continuously for many months. A turkey grower who raises eight or ten turkeys for each hen in his breeding flock does very well. To do much better than this the hatches must be exceptionally good and the losses very light. Those who grow turkeys for profit expect them to pick the most of their living from the time they are a few weeks old until they are ready to fatten for market. A grower will, therefore, rarely undertake to hatch more young turkeys than he thinks can find food on the available range. It takes a very large farm to provide food for a hundred young turkeys and the old birds which produced them, after the young ones are well started. On many large farms where turkeys are grown regularly, not more than seventy or eighty are ever hatched, and if losses are heavy, not more than two or three dozen may be reared. A farmer who grows from seventy to a hundred turkeys is in the business on a relatively large scale. Flocks of larger size are sometimes seen in the fall, but not very often. The ordinary farm flock of breeding turkeys rarely has less than three or four or more than ten or twelve hens. =Shelters and yards.= The wild turkey living in the woods, with only such shelter from the rigors of Northern winters as the trees afford, is perfectly hardy. Domestic turkeys are most thrifty when they roost high in the open air yet are not fully exposed to storms and cold winds. If left to themselves they usually select convenient trees near the farm buildings, or mount to the ridge of a shed or a barn, or perch on a high fence. A high perch to which they can mount by a succession of easy flights has such an attraction for them that it is a common practice to place strong perches between trees that are near together, or on tall, stout poles set for the purpose, where other trees or buildings form a windbreak. The turkeys, if at home, will not fail to go to such a roost as night approaches. One of the most important tasks of the person who has charge of a flock of turkeys is to see that the flock is at home before nightfall. After they begin to roost, young turkeys need no shelter in the spring and summer. When chilly nights come in the fall, late-hatched turkeys may do better housed than in the open. Turkeys that are well grown and fully feathered do not need to be under cover in the winter except in protracted or very severe storms. Turkey growers who wish to have the birds partially under control, and want to be able to catch any one when they need it, often have the birds roost in a shed or other outbuilding available for the purpose. Such places should be very well ventilated, or the turkeys will become soft and take colds. [Illustration: Fig. 159. House and yards for stock turkeys on a California ranch. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] Yards are made for turkeys only to enable the person in charge of them to keep them under control when necessary. The principal uses of the yards are to confine the hens at the laying season and to separate birds from the general flock when there is any occasion for this. A great deal of trouble is sometimes saved by having a small yard for such purposes. The height of fence required depends on the size and weight of the turkeys and also upon whether they are in the habit of flying. A turkey that is not accustomed to fly may not attempt to go over a fence four or five feet high that has no top upon which it could alight. The same bird, when confined in a strange place, might, without hesitation, fly to a roof twice as high, because, although not in the habit of flying, it has the power to fly such a distance and can see that the roof offers a suitable place for alighting. A turkey in the habit of flying over obstacles will often go over a fence six or seven feet high without touching. A turkey hen that is laying will not fly as freely as one that is not, because the weight and bulk of the eggs in her body encumber her movements. For this reason a five-foot fence is usually high enough for a yard for breeding stock, if they are to be confined to it only as much as is necessary in order to make sure that the hens will lay at home. =Feeding.= The natural diet of the turkey, like that of all birds of the order of _Scratchers_, consists of a variety of vegetable and animal foods. Turkeys eat the same things that fowls eat, and apparently in about the same proportions, but their foraging habits are quite different. The disposition of the fowl is to dig for its food wherever it appears that anything is to be had by scratching. The turkey will scratch a little, but it prefers to wander over the land, picking up the food that is in sight. Fowls will forage from their house to the limits of their usual range and return many times in the course of a day. A flock of turkeys, if allowed to do so, leaves its roosting place in the morning and makes a wide circuit, often returning home in the afternoon from a direction nearly opposite to the direction they took in the morning. On their circuit, which is likely to follow the same course day after day, turkeys have their favorite feeding and resting places. Persons familiar with the route of a flock can tell where they are likely to be found at any hour of the day. If food becomes scarce on their circuit, the turkeys extend it, or go on an exploring expedition which takes them a long way from home. If night overtakes them at a distance from home, they look for a convenient roosting place and remain there. [Illustration: Fig. 160. Turkey roost in shelter of barn on a Rhode Island farm] The feeding habits of the turkey make it especially valuable for destroying grasshoppers and other insects that damage field crops. To get an adequate idea of the great quantities of insects destroyed by a flock of turkeys, and of the waste food that they save and turn to profit by eating it, one should take careful note of the amount of food consumed when the turkeys are fed all that they can eat at one time (as when they are being fattened), and from this compute the amount that a flock must pick in order to live, as many flocks do, from spring until fall almost wholly upon what they get by foraging. Turkeys are much more systematic foragers than fowls, working more in concert. A flock advances in an irregular yet orderly formation, taking all the choice food in its way, but not often tempted to side excursions which would disperse the flock. Many people who keep turkeys make a practice of feeding a little grain, usually corn, in the evening as an inducement to them to come home. When they require more food, they may be given whatever is fed to the fowls. Indeed, unless some arrangement is made by which the fowls and turkeys are fed separately, the turkeys may get the habit of being on hand when the fowls are fed, and drive them from the food. This, however, is most likely to happen when the range for the turkeys is so restricted that it does not afford good picking. =Breeding season and laying habits.= Experienced growers of turkeys like to get their young turkeys hatched about the time when settled weather may be expected in the spring. Little turkeys are less rugged than little chickens, and are very sensitive to cold, damp weather. Although the hens may have been very domestic all winter, when they begin to lay they develop more of a roving disposition than is at all satisfactory to their keeper. They are very likely to want to hide their nests. When this is the case, and there is no yard in which they may be confined, they make a great deal of trouble. They often go a long way from home to find places for their nests, and make such wide circuits, and double on their tracks so often in going and returning, that the nests are very hard to find. There is nothing to do in such cases but to confine the turkey or to follow her day after day until the nest is found. If she is to be confined, it should be done as soon as she indicates that she does not intend to take one of the nests provided or to make one at home. When, in spite of efforts to prevent it, a turkey hen makes a nest at a distance and has laid some eggs in it before the nest is discovered, it is best to allow her to continue to lay there, but the eggs should be removed as soon as laid. The egg of a turkey is about twice as large as a hen's egg. The usual color is a light, slightly bluish, brown, with small spots of a darker shade. =Hatching and rearing.= Turkey eggs are often incubated by fowls. A fowl will hatch the eggs just as well as a turkey hen, and may make as good a mother for a few turkeys grown on a small place. For young turkeys grown on the farm, turkey hens make the best mothers, because they take them to better foraging ground and remain with them all the season. It is a good plan, especially when there are more turkey eggs than the turkey hens can cover, to set some fowls on the surplus eggs at the same time that the turkey hens are set. Then, as there will rarely be a full hatch from all nests, the young turkeys hatched by the fowls will fill up the broods of the turkey mothers. A fowl will cover from seven to nine turkey eggs. As a rule it is better to give the smaller number. A turkey hen will cover from twelve to fifteen of her own eggs, or even a larger number, but the young turkeys will be stronger if the nest is not too full. The period of incubation is four weeks. Even when normally strong and healthy, little turkeys appear weak in comparison with lively young chickens and ducks or the more bulky goslings. They may be fed the same as young chickens. [Illustration: Fig. 161. Sheltered turkey nest. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] It is the common practice to confine the mother to a coop from which the little turkeys can go to a small pen placed in front of it. The pen may be made of wide boards placed on edge, or of light frames covered with one-inch-mesh wire netting. The coop and pen should be moved before the grass becomes much trampled and soiled. The little turkeys can be kept in such an inclosure for only about a week or ten days. As they increase in size, and as their wings grow, they fly over low obstacles as easily and naturally as little chickens scratch or as little ducks swim. Having once flown out of the pen, they cannot be kept in it or in any inclosure that has not a high fence or a cover. When only two weeks old, little Bronze Turkeys have been seen flying to the top of a five-foot fence and, after a few efforts, reaching it with seeming ease. No matter how contented old turkeys that produced them may have been in confinement, young turkeys become restless as soon as their wings and legs are strong, and, unless prevented from doing so, will begin to roam long distances. They do not wait for the mother, whether fowl or turkey, to take the initiative and lead them. If she is not disposed to rove, they start and let her follow. A turkey hen quickly catches their spirit and goes with them and keeps them together; a fowl is likely to follow them reluctantly, allow them to scatter, and lose a part of the brood. [Illustration: Fig. 162. Turkey brood coop. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] When the little turkeys have reached this stage, the best plan of managing them depends upon circumstances. If there is little danger of enemies disturbing them, they may be given a light feed in the morning and then allowed to forage where they please, the person in charge looking occasionally to see that they do not go too far and, if necessary, bringing them back or starting them off in another direction. In case of a sudden, hard shower the turkeys must be looked up, and if any have been caught out in the rain and have been chilled and wet, they should be warmed and dried at once. The usual way to do this is to wrap the bird in a piece of old flannel and place it in an oven at a temperature of about 100 degrees, or near a stove. If this is done promptly, a bird that seemed to be nearly dead from wet and cold may be running about as well as ever in an hour. A large part of the losses of little turkeys is due to lack of attention in matters of this kind, or to delaying it until the injury cannot be fully repaired. [Illustration: Fig. 163. Turkey hen with brood. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] After the young turkeys are five or six weeks old, they do not need such close watching. They are now so well feathered that their plumage sheds rain, and if they are thrifty, a little wetting will not hurt them. It is at this age that the symptoms of the disease called _blackhead_ begin to appear, if it is present, and the turkeys pine away and die one by one. Blackhead is a contagious liver disease which affects fowls as well as turkeys, but is most fatal to young turkeys, because it is a filth disease; as has been said, turkeys are especially sensitive to foul conditions, and the young of all kinds of poultry are more sensitive to such conditions than the adults. The germs of the disease pass into the soil with the excrement of affected birds and may remain there for several years. Young birds feeding on land containing these germs may take up some with their food. If the birds are vigorous and thrifty and the land is not badly infected, no harm may be done, but if the birds are weakly and the land is so badly infected that they are constantly taking up more germs, the disease soon develops in acute form. [Illustration: Fig. 164. Driving turkeys to market in Tennessee. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] Many people suppose that if once they have serious trouble with this disease, it is useless for them to try to grow turkeys, but this is an error. The germs of the disease are destroyed by cultivating the land and exposing them to the sun and air. Three or four years of cultivation will rid a piece of land of disease germs, no matter how badly it is affected. The infection is not usually distributed in dangerous quantities all over a farm or all over the land on which the turkeys and fowls have ranged. It is principally on the land near the farm buildings. There would be very little danger from diseases of this kind on farms if those who feed the poultry would make it a practice to scatter food on clean grass or cultivated ground at a little distance from the buildings, instead of giving it (as too many do) on ground that is bare year after year and never cultivated. On a large farm the turkeys should not require close attention after they are two months old. A little food may be given to them in the morning and again in the evening, to keep them familiar with the person in charge, and if they are inclined to stray too far, they should be rounded up soon after noon and started toward home. Having started in that direction, they may be left to come at their leisure. They should pick the most of their living until the time comes to begin to fatten them. Beginning about three weeks before they are to be killed, they should be fed two or three times a day all the whole corn they will eat. CHAPTER XII GUINEAS =Description.= The guinea, or guinea fowl, is about the size of a small fowl. It is very much like the fowl in some respects but not at all like it in some others. Naturalists classify it in the pheasant family, but its present place in domestication is so different from that of the pheasant that a poultry keeper hardly ever associates them in his thought. In appearance the guinea is a unique bird. The shape of the body and shape of the head are both peculiar. The body is quite plump, the back nearly horizontal, and the tail short and much depressed. The neck and legs are rather short. The feathers of the neck are short, and the head is bare. The skin of the head and face is a bluish-white. The bird has a small, knoblike red comb and short, stiff, red wattles projecting from the cheeks. The plumage of the body is quite long, loose, and soft, and lies so smoothly that it appears much shorter and closer than it is. The male and female are of nearly the same size, and so like in appearance that the sex cannot be distinguished with certainty by any external character. The comb and wattles of the male are sometimes conspicuously larger than those Of the female, but this difference is not regular. Although the voices of the male and female are different, the difference is not easily described, nor is it readily detected except by people who are familiar with the birds, and whose ears are trained to distinguish the different notes. Both sexes make a rapid, sharp, clattering sound, and also a shrill cry of two notes. The cry of the male is harsher and has a more aggressive tone; that of the female has a somewhat plaintive sound, which some people describe as like the words "come back, come back." The name "guinea" comes from the country of Guinea in Africa, from which the birds were introduced into America and Western Europe. The male guinea fowl is called a guinea cock; the female, a guinea hen; the young, guinea chickens. =Origin.= The guinea fowl is a native of Africa. It is said that there are about a dozen similar species on that continent. This species is abundant there in both the wild and the domesticated state, and also in a half-wild state. It was probably brought into partial domestication at a very early date, for it was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, as well as to the early civilized nations of Northern Africa. It may have been distributed through Western Europe by the Romans. According to one account, some English monks had guineas in the thirteenth century. It is likely that they were rare in Europe at that time and soon disappeared, for the modern Europeans had never seen them until they were taken to Europe from the West Indies, where, it is said, they had been brought by slave ships from Africa. There is a tradition that the first guineas in America were brought direct from Africa with the first cargo of slaves from that continent. In the West Indies and in South America the guinea, after its introduction, ran wild. The natural color of the species is a bluish-gray with many small, round white spots on each feather. On the flight feathers of the wings these spots are so placed that they form irregular bars. [Illustration: Fig. 165. White guinea fowls] =Varieties.= The only change that has taken place in the guinea in domestication is the production of color varieties. White sports from the original variety, which is called the Pearl Guinea, were developed as a distinct variety. Crosses of White and Pearl Guineas produced birds with white on the neck, the breast, and the under part of the body. These are called Pied Guineas, but are not regarded as a distinct variety. Birds with the original white markings but with the color very much lighter and sometimes of a decidedly reddish tinge have also been produced by crossing. These are not considered a distinct variety, but are sometimes exhibited as such under the name of "Lavender Guineas." Some of the older works on poultry describe the Self-Colored Guinea, a gray bird without white spots, and the Netted Guinea, in which the original colors are reversed. The author has never seen these varieties, nor has he found any mention of them in the works of later writers. =Place in domestication.= The guinea is as eccentric in nature and habits as it is unique in appearance. It is an ill-tempered bird, very pugnacious, and persistently annoys any other birds with which it comes in contact. While inclined to be shy of man and to resent his control, it likes to establish itself between wild and domestic conditions, where it is independent yet enjoys the safety from its enemies that proximity to the habitations of man affords. The hens are very prolific layers. This characteristic is said to be as well developed in the wild as in the domestic stock. Although they lay so well, they are not usually considered desirable for egg production, because the eggs are small and it is hard to keep the birds under such control that the eggs are easily secured. The flesh and skin of the guinea are quite dark in color. The dressed carcass is not at all attractive in appearance, but the meat is very good. Many people prefer it to the flesh of the fowl. The guinea is not really a domestic bird. It is possible to keep a few in confinement and to rear the young with other poultry, but the adult birds are so noisy and vicious that very few people want them near the house or with other poultry. They would not be tolerated as much as they are but for the traditional notion that their noisy clamor keeps hawks away. Many farmers keep a few guineas, supposing that they are of service in this way. Those who have tried to find out whether the noise of the guinea really has any effect on hawks say that the hawks are just as bad where there are guineas as where there are none. The only way that guineas can be made profitable is by treating them as half-wild birds--letting them establish themselves in the woods where they can maintain themselves--and then shooting or trapping a part of the flock each season. The number of guineas now produced in this way is steadily increasing in many parts of the United States where the winters are not severe and where wild animals which prey upon game birds are kept in subjection. [Illustration: Fig. 166. White guinea hen with brood] =Management of domestic guineas.= As has been stated, guineas are so hard to control that few persons try to keep them in close quarters or where they must have particular attention. When a few birds are kept on a farm, they are usually allowed to wander at will; the owner secures as many of their eggs as he can find before they spoil, and perhaps hatches a few of them under hens, for the guinea hens often lay a long time without going broody. As they are prone to hide their nests and are very clever in eluding observation, it not infrequently happens that, when a nest is found, it contains a great many eggs, a large part of which have been spoiled by long exposure to the weather. The first care of the breeder of these birds is to see that he has suitable proportions of males and females. Guineas are disposed to mate in pairs. Some poultry keepers who have observed them closely say that while one or more extra females may associate with a pair, the eggs of the extra females do not usually hatch well. Occasionally it happens that a small flock are all males or all females, and the owner does not find it out until too late in the season to get a bird of the missing sex. When a supposed guinea hen does not lay in the breeding season, the owner often thinks that she lays but manages to completely baffle his search for the nest. The period of incubation for guinea eggs is four weeks. The young birds may be managed the same as young turkeys while small, but do not need as close watching to keep them from wandering away. Those that are hatched and reared by fowls are tamer than those reared by guinea hens, but are not so hardy. CHAPTER XIII PEAFOWLS The peacock, or male peafowl, when matured and in full plumage, is the most gorgeous of birds. Many smaller birds are more brilliant in color. Many birds of various sizes and types have beautiful or interesting characters as attractive as those which distinguish the peacock. But this bird surpasses them all in attractiveness, because in it are combined in the highest degree size, beauty of form, beauty of color, and the power of displaying its beauties to the greatest advantage. =Description.= The adult peacock is so much more striking in appearance than the females and the young males, and old males are so often exhibited alone, that many persons suppose that the peafowl are distinctly unlike other domestic birds. The size, shape, and carriage of the peacock sometimes suggest to them a resemblance to the turkey gobbler, but the peacock's most striking characters seem so peculiar to it that the attention of the observer is usually fixed upon them, to the exclusion of direct comparisons with other creatures. When, however, one sees a flock containing several females, or males in which the characteristic plumage is not yet developed, the general resemblance between peafowl and turkeys is immediately noticed. The peafowl is smaller, slenderer, and more graceful than the turkey, and is a little more agile in motion. But if there were no old males present to identify the species, to which they belong, a person who was not familiar with peafowls, seeing a flock for the first time, would be almost certain to think that they were turkeys of a rare breed. Notwithstanding this striking general likeness, a close observer will soon note that in nearly every conspicuous character the differences between the two indicate that they belong to entirely different species. The voice of the peafowl is a harsh, piercing scream. [Illustration: Fig. 167. Indian Peacock. (Photograph from the New York Zoölogical Society)] The development of the plumage in the male at full maturity is like that of the fowl and of some pheasants. In all of these species in which the tail of the male assumes a highly decorative form, it is not the tail proper that is so developed, but the tail coverts and other feathers of the back, which in the male are long and flowing. In the peacock these feathers are very remarkably developed, both in form and in color. The largest are sometimes a yard long. The stem, or shaft, is a marvelous combination of lightness and strength. For the greater part of the length of the shaft the barbs are so far apart that they do not form a web, but make a fringe on each side. Toward the tip of the feather the barbs are closer together, and at the extremity they form a broad web. The feathers of this structure growing next to the main tail feathers are the longest. The next are a little shorter, and thus the length diminishes until the shortest coverts are only a little longer than the ordinary feathers of the back. This feather formation is called the train. The train of the peacock is the most prominent peculiarity of the species, but there is also in both sexes another uncommon feather character--the curious little tuft, or crest (called the aigret), which grows on the head. The surface color of the peacock is a marvelous blending of purples, greens, golds, and bronzes of various hues. On the head and neck purple tints predominate. The train is mostly green with large, eyelike spots, or spangles, at the tip of each feather. The plumage of the female is a soft brown on the body, darkest on the back and shading to nearly white on the abdomen. The brown often shows slight tints of purple and green. The neck and throat are a purple-green; much less intense than the coloring on the male. The young males are colored like the females until they molt in their second year. Then they become much darker, but it is not until the next molt, in their third year, that they grow the characteristic train and take on the brilliant coloration which is their greatest attraction. The wild peafowls in different parts of Asia vary somewhat in color and are sometimes thought to be of different species, but they are evidently all varieties of the same species. Specimens of all are seen in domestication. One variety is almost black. Domestic life has had little if any effect upon the type of peafowls. A white variety has been produced, and from the mixture of this with the green variety, birds that are partly white are sometimes obtained. The significance of the terms "fowl," "cock," "hen," and "chick," or "chicken," in combination with the "pea" in the name of this bird is, of course, perfectly plain. Those who seek further meaning in the first syllable are puzzled until they consult the dictionary and find that the three letters as they occur here are not the word "pea," but a contraction of _pawa_, which was an Anglo-Saxon corruption of _pavo_, the Latin name of the bird. While the original meaning of the name is not known, the word came into the Latin language from the Greek, into which it had previously come from the Persian. Hence, the history of the name indicates that the distribution of the peafowl was along much the same lines in Europe as the distribution of the fowl. =Origin.= The peafowl is supposed to be a native of Java and Ceylon. It is found throughout Southern Asia and is said to be very numerous in India and Ceylon, both in the wild state and in a half-domestic state. It was known to the Jews in the time of Solomon, and to all the ancient civilized peoples of Western Asia, Europe, and Africa at a very early period. In the days of the Roman Empire a peacock served with the feathers on[12] was a favorite dish at the feasts of wealthy Romans, and this mode of serving the bird was continued in Western Europe for many centuries. At what time they were introduced into that part of the world is not known, but it is probable that they were distributed to the various countries soon after the Roman conquests. Nor is anything known of their first introduction into America. It is, however, quite reasonable to suppose that some were brought here at an early date by wealthy colonists. [12] Of course the bird was not cooked with the feathers on, but was skinned, the feathers remaining in the skin, and after the flesh was cooked the skin with the feathers was placed over it before it appeared on the table. Skinning poultry instead of plucking the feathers seems to have been quite a common practice in old times. As recently as between 1880 and 1890 the author heard of people who preferred it as the easiest way of preparing chickens to be cooked immediately. =Place in domestication.= In Europe and America the peafowl is now bred only for ornamental purposes. That seems to be its status even in the Asiatic countries, where it is most abundant, and its position has probably been much the same in all lands and in all ages. The use of fully developed peacocks for food at banquets was simply a display of barbarous extravagance. Although a young peafowl is very good eating, a male old enough to have acquired its full plumage would be hard, tough, and unpalatable. The peafowl is not prolific enough to be a profitable table bird, and is too desirable for its beauty to be used for any other purpose. In this country peafowls are not common. Very few are seen except in zoölogical collections and at the principal poultry shows. The scarcity of peafowl is not due wholly to the expense of procuring them or to the difficulty of rearing them. Indeed, neither of these constitutes a serious drawback to their popularity. The peafowl is its own worst enemy in domestication. It has a very savage disposition toward smaller birds, and in this way usually makes itself an intolerable nuisance to those who grow other poultry. Many owners of large farms, who do not keep turkeys, or who keep only a small flock, might maintain a small stock of peafowl with very little trouble. Although they are so vicious when brought in close contact with smaller poultry, they will flock and forage by themselves if they have room to do so. =Management.= The methods of managing turkeys apply at nearly every point to the management of peafowl. The peafowl matures more slowly and does not breed so early. The females are not fit for breeding until two years old; the males not until three years old. They do not pair, but mate in small polygamous families--one male with from two to four females. The peahen usually lays from four to six eggs--rarely more than eight or ten. The period of incubation is four weeks. Young peachicks are very bright and active. They begin to fly when only three or four days old. If they are to be kept in an inclosure while very small, the sides must be high or the top must be covered with wire netting. Although so active, they are less independent than most young poultry, and follow the mother closely until she drives them from her at the approach of the next breeding season. Peahens are preferred as mothers, because their disposition is to keep their young with them much longer than a turkey or a fowl does. Next to the peahen a turkey hen makes the best mother for peachicks. CHAPTER XIV PHEASANTS The guinea and the peafowl were described as closely related to the pheasants, and as of limited usefulness to man both because of their ugly dispositions and because of their roving habits. The species of pheasants that are best known are a little farther removed from domestication by their extreme shyness, and have often been excluded from lists of domestic birds; yet it is quite possible that some of them may become of much greater economic importance in America than either the guinea or the peafowl. =Description.= The most common kinds of pheasants are about the size of small domestic fowls, but have rounder, plumper bodies. There are also other characteristic differences. The head of a pheasant, except a part of the face around the eye, is usually feathered. This bare skin, called the wattle, is red in most species, but in a few it is purplish. The feathers of the neck are short, and the tail is depressed. Some of the rarer kinds of pheasants are as large as medium-sized fowls. Pheasants as a class are distinguished principally for their brilliant plumage. In most species the male alone has showy coloring, the females being very sober hued. In some species the male has a very long tail, corresponding to the train of the peacock; in some the tail is wide and heavy, as well as quite long; in others the males are feathered like the females. The name "pheasant" comes from the name of the river Phasis in Colchis, at the eastern end of the Euxine Sea. The term "fowl" is not used in connection with "pheasant," but the words "cock," "hen," and "chicken" are used as in other cases that have been mentioned. =Origin.= The pheasants are all natives of Asia, where nearly all known kinds are found in the wild state. They are well distributed over that continent, and are found in localities differing greatly in climate and in the character of the soil and of the vegetation. Some species live mostly at low altitudes; others are peculiar to high mountain regions. According to an old Greek legend the first pheasants known in Europe were brought to Greece by the Argonauts on their return from the expedition in search of the Golden Fleece. A more probable story is that which says that they were introduced in the time of Alexander the Great. Pheasants were reared in confinement for food by the Greeks and the Egyptians, and also later by the Romans in Italy. Both the rearing and the use of pheasants in those times seem to have been limited to the very wealthy. From Greece and Italy they were gradually distributed all over Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 168. Ringneck Pheasant[13]] [13] Figs. 168-172 are from photographs of mounted specimens in the National Museum, made to illustrate "Pheasant Raising in the United States," _Farmers' Bulletin No. 390_ of the United States Department of Agriculture. =History in America.= The history of pheasants in America is much more fully known than that of most kinds of poultry. The first importation of which there is a record was made by an Englishman named Bache, who had married a daughter of Benjamin Franklin. In England at that time pheasants were propagated, as they are to-day, in a half-wild state in game preserves, and Mr. Bache expected that those which he imported and released on his estate in New Jersey would soon become established there. In this he was disappointed. Others who subsequently tried the same plan met with no better success. For a long time the only pheasants known in this country were those grown in confinement by fanciers. [Illustration: Fig. 169. Mongolian Pheasant] The first successful attempt to establish pheasants at liberty on this continent was made in Oregon with pheasants brought direct from China. The United States consul at Shanghai sent some Ringneck Pheasants to Oregon in 1880. As most of these died on the way, a second shipment was sent in the following year. In all about forty birds were liberated. The shooting of pheasants was prohibited by law in Oregon until 1892, when the stock had become so widely distributed and so well established that shooting them was allowed for a short season. So numerous were the pheasants at this time that on the first day of this open season about 50,000 were shot by the hunters. In many other states efforts have since been made, both by state game commissions and by private enterprise, to acclimatize pheasants and establish them as game birds. Some of these efforts have been quite successful. [Illustration: Fig. 170. Amherst Pheasant] =Species and varieties.= The relationships of the various kinds of pheasants are not positively known. Some kinds that are undoubtedly varieties of the same species are commonly classed as different species. The best-known of these so-called species interbreed freely. The rare kinds have not been sufficiently tested, either with common kinds or with one another, to show whether they are species or merely varieties. The European pheasants, descended from the stocks which came in early times from Western Asia, are called by various names--Common Pheasant, Darknecked Pheasant, English Pheasant, and Hungarian Pheasant. Two kinds of pheasants, of the same type but having more distinctive color markings, have in recent times been brought from Eastern Asia. One of these is commonly called the Ringneck Pheasant, but the names "China Pheasant," "Mongolian Pheasant," and others are also applied to it. The second variety, also called Mongolian Pheasant, is said by some authorities to be the only one to which the name "Mongolian" properly applies. It is not quite like the Ringneck, but, like it, has a white ring around the neck. From Japan still another bird, called the Versicolor Pheasant, or Japanese Versicolor Pheasant, very similar in type, was brought to England. These three varieties from Eastern Asia have been mixed with the European pheasants to such an extent that there are now very few pheasants of the type common in Europe before their introduction, and good specimens of the oriental races are equally rare. The principal English variety at the present time is a Ringneck produced from the mixture. This is called the English Pheasant; in England it is also sometimes called the Common Pheasant. The birds that breed at liberty in the United States are mostly of the Ringneck type. [Illustration: Fig. 171. Manchurian Pheasant] Although they are very beautiful birds, the pheasants thus far mentioned appear plain in comparison with the Silver and the Golden Pheasants (which are the most common of the highly ornamental varieties) and the Reeves and Amherst Pheasants. These are the kinds most often seen in aviaries and at poultry shows. There are many other rare and curious varieties which are to be seen only in the finest collections. Among these is a class called the Eared Pheasants, because of the little tufts of feathers which project backward at each side of the head, looking strikingly like the ears of a mammal. The pheasants of this class are mostly dull colored and quite docile in disposition. =Place in domestication.= The future place of pheasants in domestication is not so plainly indicated by their history and present position as the places of the guinea and the turkey seem to be. Pheasants seem to be more desirable, easier to control, better suited to confinement, and also better adapted to wintering out of doors in cold climates, than are guineas. The beauty of the ornamental types makes them very desirable to those who keep birds for pleasure. Because they are so much smaller than peafowl, and also because they are able to live amicably with fowls, they may be kept where peafowl could not. It is therefore probable that, as people in America become more familiar with pheasants, and as they learn that the greatest pleasure and the surest profit in aviculture are to be found in growing a few birds under the most favorable conditions that can be made for them, the numbers of pheasant fanciers will greatly increase. [Illustration: Fig. 172. Monaul, a Himalayan pheasant] In England pheasants are extensively grown in game preserves, for shooting and for sale as breeding stock to those who wish to stock new preserves. Where the birds are fed by a keeper, as they must be when they are very numerous, they become so tame that hunting them is not very exciting sport. Some that have been released in this country, and have lived in a natural state in places where shooting them was not allowed, have become quite as tame as the birds in the English preserves. Altogether the history of efforts to establish pheasants in a wild state with a measure of protection from hunters shows that it would often be practical for owners of woodland and waste land to establish and preserve colonies of wild or half-wild pheasants. Whether this will be done to any great extent depends upon the extermination of wild animals and upon the placing of proper restrictions upon the domestic animals (dogs and cats) which are destructive to land birds; it depends also, to some extent, upon concert of action among the landowners in a community, in securing for themselves the use of the pheasants grown on their lands. The possibility of domesticating pheasants of the Manchurian type, and one or two other rare varieties that, when seen on exhibition, appear very docile, is also to be taken into account. The United States Department of Agriculture[14] has called attention to the fact that some of the little-known kinds of pheasants seem especially adapted to domestication. Even before that, many poultrymen, seeing these birds at exhibitions, had been impressed by their appearance, and had remarked that they looked like birds that would become thoroughly domestic. At the present time persons desiring to grow any of the more common varieties of pheasants for table use should first ascertain how the game laws of the state in which they live, and of any state into which they might want to send pheasants, would affect their undertaking. Sometimes the laws made to protect pheasants in a wild state have been passed without due regard for the interests of persons growing them in captivity. Errors of this kind are usually adjusted before long; meantime those who may innocently break a law find the situation very embarrassing. [14] Pheasant Raising in the United States, _Farmers' Bulletin No. 390_. =Management of pheasants in confinement.= The breeding of pheasants on a small scale may be carried on in any place where suitable runs can be made for them. The first essential is a somewhat secluded site where the birds will not be subject to frequent disturbances. It should be near enough to the owner's dwelling to enable him to keep watch of what goes on in its vicinity, yet not so near that the movements of the members of the household, as they go about their ordinary affairs, will disturb the pheasants. It should be where trees or bushes make a natural shade but not a dense shade; a place where the sun and shade are about equal on a clear day is best. A light sandy or gravelly soil is to be preferred, and a clay soil should be avoided. If the land has underbrush on it, this need not be cleared from the space occupied by the run, unless it is so thick that it shades the ground too much. [Illustration: Fig. 173. Coops and yards for breeding pheasants. (Photograph from Simpson's Pheasant Farm, Corvallis, Oregon)] The house should be of about the same size and construction as would be used for a few fowls. A roosting place should also be made in the yard, for as a rule the birds will prefer to roost outdoors. The house is to afford them proper shelter from severe storms and during prolonged damp weather. For either a pair or a pen of a male and several females the yard should contain about 600 square feet. The fences inclosing it should be at least 6 feet high, and the top should be covered with wire netting. [Illustration: Fig. 174. Young China Pheasants at feeding time. (Photograph from Simpson's Pheasant Farm, Corvallis, Oregon)] The Silver, Soemmerring, and Swinhoe Pheasants mate in pairs; the other familiar kinds are polygamous, and from one to five or six females may be kept with one male. Pheasants may be fed the same things as are fed to fowls, and in much the same manner, but there is one important difference which the pheasant breeder must carefully observe. Fowls will stand abuse in the matter of diet much better than pheasants will. In feeding the latter more attention must be given to providing regular supplies of green food, to having all food sound and good when fed, and to regulating the quantity given for a meal so that it will not lie about and become sour or soiled before it is eaten. [Illustration: Fig. 175. Fowls and pheasants in same yard on a New England poultry farm] Most pheasant fanciers use large bantams or small common hens to hatch and rear the young pheasants. The period of incubation is from twenty-two to twenty-four days. Until they are weaned from the hens the little pheasants may be managed as young chickens are, but with the same attention to variety of food and to moderation in feeding that has been specified for the old birds. A small number with a good range on grass or in a garden will pick much of their food. Many of the older works on poultry which treated of the care of pheasants recommended for the young birds a great variety of foods not easily provided. Nowadays the most successful amateur fanciers feed either a mixture of the common small grains or some of the commercial mixtures which contain, in addition to these, a number of seeds and grains not much used by poultry keepers who buy their grains separately in bulk. Stale cracked corn, which is dangerous to all young poultry, is especially to be avoided in feeding young pheasants. After the young pheasants are weaned, they must be kept in covered runs, or their wings must be clipped to prevent them from flying. A large pheasantry is operated on the same general lines as a plant where birds are grown in small numbers. The method is simply an extension of that just described. When only one kind of pheasant is kept, the inclosed yard is sometimes made very large, and a hundred or more birds are put together. This is not good practice with any kind of poultry, and is no doubt responsible for much of the trouble which those growing pheasants in large numbers have had. At aviaries where there are large collections of pheasants, including many rare and costly kinds, the yards are always made large enough to give the birds good sanitary conditions, and as a rule each family of adult birds, whether composed of two or more, has a yard to itself. CHAPTER XV SWANS Naturalists divide swans into a number of different species. Whether this division is correct is not known. The habits of swans, and the circumstances under which they are usually kept, tend to prevent the mingling of different kinds. As far as the author has been able to learn, there is no evidence which shows conclusively the relations of any of the supposed different species. The differences between them are in some cases very slight. Some of the decisions of the naturalists who have classified slightly different kinds as distinct species are based upon examinations of very small numbers of specimens. Considering the apparent resemblances of the different kinds of swans in the light of what is known of species and varieties in fowls, ducks, geese, and pheasants, it seems probable that the true species of swans are fewer in number than the common classification shows, and it also seems quite possible that all swans are of the same species. =Description.= The common swan, called the domestic swan, is about the size of the largest domestic geese, but appears larger because it has a longer neck and head and larger wings. The body is also somewhat longer than that of a goose of about the same weight, and the swan is a much more graceful bird than a large goose. It is sometimes called the Mute Swan, to distinguish it from the Whistling Swan, which is a very similar kind not bred in domestication. There are other slight differences between the Mute Swans and the Whistling Swans, but the difference in the voice, if it really is as great as is supposed, is the only one of much consequence in deciding their relations. The Mute Swan is not dumb. It sometimes makes a low, whistling sound. People are not agreed as to whether there is any real foundation for the familiar tradition that the Mute Swan remains silent until about to die, and then sings a "song." Some people acquainted with the habits of swans declare that the swan is more vocal when dying than at any other time in its life. Others say that the idea probably arose as a result of some one's hearing a dying swan moaning in pain, as sick animals and birds often do, and concluding that it was uttering a series of sounds characteristic of swans in a dying condition. However that may be, the Mute Swan is distinctly less noisy than the wild Whistling Swan. Until 1697 all swans known to civilized people were white, and the swan was an emblem of purity of color. In that year a Dutch navigator visiting Australia found there a black swan. Afterwards a white swan with a black neck was discovered in South America. Had the subject of heredity been well understood before the discovery of these two swans that were not white, people familiar with the white swans would have known that there were colored swans in some unexplored country (or that they had existed in the known world in a former age), for white swans are not perfectly white at maturity, and when young they are gray. Neither is the black swan all black. It has white flight feathers, and its black color is a rusty black, that is, a black mixed with red. Swans are very long-lived birds, but stories of swans living to seventy or eighty years of age are not to be credited. It cannot be affirmed that the birds may not live as long as that, but the evidence in the cases reported is defective. The reports of swans living for fifty years are quite credible. The male and female swan are not readily distinguished, for there are no external indications of sex, and the birds use their voices so rarely that, even if there is a difference in the notes of the male and female, it is not practical to use it to distinguish between them. The only way to identify the sex with certainty is by observing the birds at nesting time. The name "swan" is Anglo-Saxon. Nothing is known of its derivation. The terms "cock" and "hen" are sometimes applied to swans as they are to many other kinds of birds. The swanherds in England call the male a _cob_ and the female a _pen_. The young swan is called a _cygnet_, from the French word for "swan." [Illustration: Fig. 176. Swan and nest] =Origin and history in domestication.= Tradition says that the domestic swan was brought to England from France by Richard the Lion-hearted. As the swan is a migratory bird, still sometimes seen in many parts of the Eastern Hemisphere north of the equator, it is possible that swans were known in England long before the reign of this king. However that may be, it is certain that, from about the time of the Norman Conquest, the swan has occupied a peculiar position in England. It was regarded as a royal bird, and the privilege of owning swans was granted only to those in high station. At first the number of those who were permitted to own swans was very small, but it was afterward extended until, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, more than nine hundred different swanmarks were registered by the royal swanherd, who had general oversight of all the swans in the kingdom. The swans were marked by branding or cutting the bill, this being necessary because they lived largely on the margins of uninclosed waters, just as in some of our Western states cattle live on unfenced lands. The right to own swans carried with it the right to keep them in such a place. =Place in domestication.= Although it has been bred in captivity for centuries, the swan is not fully domesticated. It does not, like the duck and the goose, so increase in size and weight when kept under the control of man that it becomes incapable of flight, but, like the American Wild Goose in captivity, it is prevented from flying by removing the first joint of one wing, the operation being performed as soon as possible after the young birds are hatched. The swan lives more on the water than either the duck or the goose. It subsists largely upon coarse aquatic grasses and plants, and is said to eat all kinds of decaying matter found in the water. In England in old times the swan was used as food by the wealthy, but its use for this purpose ceased long ago. It is now kept almost exclusively for ornament. Most of the swans in America are kept in public parks or on large private estates. Very few are reared here; the supply is kept up largely by importations from England. The swan is not popular, because the birds are costly and are not prolific. Still the breeding of swans for ornamental purposes or for sale to exhibitors might be carried on with profit upon many farms. Under suitable conditions, swans may, at the same time, perform valuable service and make a valuable product. By consuming the kinds of food which they prefer, they clean ponds and keep sluggish streams open. Being so large and strong, and requiring so much coarse food, they are a great deal more serviceable in this way than are ducks and geese. =Management.= When swans were abundant in England, they were kept mostly upon certain rivers and inlets of the sea where natural food was abundant. The climate of England is so mild that they can there obtain food in such places at all seasons. The colder parts of America do not afford conditions favorable to swan culture. Where the winters are long and severe, and streams and ponds are frozen over for months, wintering swans would be troublesome and expensive, but where the waters are open throughout the year, a farmer who had a suitable place for them might breed swans with profit. A pair of swans would cost about the same as a good cow, and might make about the same net profit. But there would be this difference: the cow would require a great deal of care, the swans very little; the cow would eat salable food, the swans mostly waste food. By this comparison it is not meant to suggest that a farmer might profitably replace his cows with swans. The object is simply to show how the possible profit from small specialities compares with the usual profit from a regular feature of farming. The methods of managing swans are much like the methods of managing wild geese in captivity. The principal difference is that the swans must have a larger body of water, and one in which vegetation is abundant. They are not as fond of land grasses as geese are, and like to float on the surface of the water, feeding on the vegetation at the bottom. Their long necks enable them to do this in water several feet deep. They need no shelter but a small hut, which they will use only in rare emergencies. After they have settled down in a spot, there should be no need of building fences to restrain them. As they are not able to fly, they will remain quite near their home unless food supplies there are very short. In that case extra food should be given them. Even when natural food is abundant, it is a good plan to feed swans a little of something else occasionally, to attach them to the person who has charge of them. As every one knows who has seen the swans in parks, where visitors amuse themselves by feeding them, swans are very fond of bread. They will eat grain also, although, when not accustomed to it, they may at first refuse it. Their food is usually given either by throwing it on the water or by placing it in troughs from which the birds can eat while floating upon the water. [Illustration: Fig. 177. Feeding swans on the water] [Illustration: Fig. 178. View of an English swannery] The female builds near the water a nest of coarse stalks and small sticks. Sometimes this is reared to a height of several feet, and material added around the sides, little by little, during the whole period of incubation. Swans have been known to pile up nearly half a cord of material for their nest. From five to ten eggs are laid in the nest. The period of incubation is six weeks. As far as possible, interference with the birds should be avoided during the breeding season and while the young are small. When it is necessary to handle them in any way, the attendant should have at the start all the assistance he is likely to require. A blow from a swan's wing may injure a man very seriously. It is said that such a blow has been known to break a man's thigh. The young are gray when hatched and do not become entirely white until two years old. Even then many of them are not absolutely white, but show very distinct traces of reddish-yellow, especially on the head and upper part of the neck. There is a story that a young swan of a deep buff color was hatched at Lewes in England. If the swans with young must be fed, the usual practice is to throw the food upon the water. Stale bread, grain, and even meal are given in this way. It looks like a wasteful way of feeding, but the birds will get all the food. Swanneries are unknown in America. In England a few of those established many centuries ago still remain. The largest and most celebrated of these is at Abbotsbury. Swans have been bred here continuously for about eight hundred years. CHAPTER XVI OSTRICHES The ostrich is unlike other birds in many important characters. It is not a typical bird. While it has feathers and wings, its feathering is not normal, and the muscles of the wings are lacking. In the minds of most persons it is associated with the circus menagerie rather than with the poultry yard, but, as we shall see, this singular bird has a place in domestication and, as a useful land bird, belongs to the poultry group. There are two species of ostriches, but only one of these is of economic value. =Description.= The ostrich is the largest of living birds. A full-grown male standing erect measures from six to seven feet in height. The largest specimens weigh about three hundred pounds. As, in the atmosphere which now surrounds the earth, a creature of such size and weight cannot fly at all, the wings of the ostrich have become atrophied, and the muscles of the wings, which form the plump, meaty breasts of flying birds, are entirely wanting. Not only have these muscles disappeared, but the breastbone, which in flying birds is very large in proportion to the rest of the skeleton, and has a deep, longitudinal keel in the middle, is comparatively small in the ostrich and has no keel at all. The ostrich, having no power of flight, is dependent for safety upon its speed in running; so its legs are long and strong, and the muscles which move them are very large. Indeed, there is very little meat on an ostrich except on the thighs. It can run much faster than a horse. Because its foot must be adapted to running at great speed, the ostrich has only two toes. Its neck is very long and slender, and its head is very small and flat. In such a head there is little room for brains. The ostrich is a very stupid creature, but it does not, as is commonly supposed, hide its head in the sand and imagine that, not being able to see its enemies, it cannot be seen by them. That is a myth apparently based upon the fact that, when in repose, an ostrich sometimes lies with its long neck stretched upon the ground. [Illustration: Fig. 179. Side view of male ostrich. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] Since the wings of the ostrich are useless for flight, the flight feathers have lost the structure adapted to that purpose and have developed into beautiful plumes. The tail feathers have also undergone a similar change. These wing and tail feathers are the ostrich feathers of commerce. The neck and head of the ostrich are almost bare of feathers. The body is covered with feathers, but not as densely as in most birds. There are just enough feathers on the body of an ostrich to protect the skin from exposure when they lie flat. The areas on the skin where there are no feathers are much larger than on other birds. The thighs of the ostrich are bare. The skin is in some varieties of a bluish-gray; in other varieties the bare parts are red and the skin of the body is yellow. The crop and the gizzard of the ostrich are not separated as in other birds, but are joined; the upper part of the stomach performs the functions of a crop and the lower part those of a gizzard. The male ostrich is usually larger than the female. The adult males and females are plainly distinguished by the color of their plumage, the body feathers of the male being black, while those of the female are gray. The plumes of both sexes are white or white mixed with black. The black on an ostrich is often of a brownish shade, and this is most conspicuous when it appears on the plumes. The bill of the male and the scales on the fronts of his shanks become a bright rose color in the breeding season. The male ostrich utters a guttural sound, called booming, which is said to resemble the roar of a lion as heard at a distance. The voice of the female is like that of the male, but very faint. The difference in the plumage of the sexes, although it is not complete until after the second adult molt, is noticeable much earlier. The females do not begin to lay until three or four years old. The males are not fully matured until four or five years of age. Ostriches are very long-lived. Birds whose age could be verified have lived as long as forty-five years in captivity, and at that age were profitable as breeders and also as feather producers. It is believed by some of those most competent to judge such matters that under favorable circumstances an ostrich might live a hundred years or more. Very few of the birds kept in domestication die of old age. They are so stupid, and their long legs, though strong for running, are so easily broken, that an accident of some kind almost always ends the life of an ostrich long before it has passed its prime. [Illustration: Fig. 180. Front view of male and female ostriches. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] The name "ostrich" has an interesting history. The Greeks called this singular bird _struthion'_. This came into the Latin language as _struthio_. In low Latin, _avis_, the Latin word for "bird," was prefixed to what remained of the Greek name, giving _avis struthio_. "Ostrich" is a contraction of this low Latin compound. So we have in this name a combination of two words from different languages, having the same meaning. The terms "cock," "hen," and "chick" are used with the name of the species, to designate respectively the adult male, the adult female, and the young before the first plucking. =Origin and history in domestication.= The domestic ostrich is the wild African ostrich in captivity. It is probable that the ostrich was familiar to the people of Northern Africa, and was known to those of the adjacent parts of Asia and Europe, in prehistoric times. In very early times ostriches may have been kept in captivity for their feathers, as they are now kept in the Sudan, but, until about 1860, when the farmers of South Africa began to take an interest in the subject, we have no knowledge of any efforts to breed ostriches in captivity and to improve the quality of the feathers by giving the birds more nutritious food than they usually get in the wild state. The first stock used in South Africa was some of the wild stock found in that part of the continent. In 1882 the first ostriches were brought to the United States. =Place in domestication.= Commercially the ostrich is valuable only for its plume feathers. The extent of the development of ostrich culture depends upon the demand for ostrich feathers at prices that will warrant breeding ostriches to supply them. When the industry was first established in South Africa, ostrich feathers brought high prices and the business was very profitable; but so many farmers engaged in it, and the supply of feathers increased so rapidly that prices soon became much lower and have never since returned to the scale that prevailed at that time. The flesh of the ostrich is edible, but it is so hard and tough that no one would grow ostriches for their flesh. The egg of an ostrich is about as large as two dozen hen eggs. Ostrich eggs are said to be very good, but they are too large for ordinary use, and the birds are so long in maturing that it would not pay to use them to produce eggs for commercial purposes. [Illustration: Fig. 181. Ostrich eggs and newly hatched chicks. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] The breeding of ostriches for their feathers, however, may be regarded as a permanent industry, for there will always be a demand for ostrich plumes, but it cannot be developed as extensively as if the product were a staple article of food. The ostrich farms in America are mostly special farms devoted exclusively to ostrich breeding. Most of these farms are owned and operated by companies. Some of them are stock speculation projects. In South Africa the industry is more in the hands of the general farmers, each of those engaged in it growing a few birds. The people of South Africa have tried to secure a monopoly in ostrich feathers by prohibiting the exportation of ostriches and by purchasing the best stock to be obtained in North Africa. Ostrich farming is practical only in tropical and semitropical countries; the plumage of the birds is too scanty to protect them in the cold winters of temperate climes. In the United States nearly all the ostrich farms are in Southern California and Arizona, but there are some in Texas, Arkansas, and Florida. =Management.= In the places where ostrich farming is carried on, the birds need no shelter. They must be kept in inclosures fenced as for cattle. As ostriches are bred for their plumage, and that of the male is most valuable, the breeder does not object to their following their natural inclination and mating in pairs, but many males are so injured in fighting that they must be killed. This leaves an excess of females, and so two or more females are sometimes mated with one male. The birds are mated for breeding when they are about three and one-half years old. The object of mating them before they are fully mature is to prevent them from selecting for themselves partners contrary to the ideas of the breeder. Each mating must have its own yard, unless the place where more than one family is kept is large enough to allow each family the exclusive use of a part of it. Under such circumstances each group will keep to its own range. The natural food of the ostrich is grass and the leaves of shrubs and trees. In domestication it is usually pastured on alfalfa, or fed on alfalfa hay, according to the season. The alfalfa is often supplemented with grain (principally corn), and grit, bone, and shell are provided as for other birds. Most ostrich growers prefer to hatch the eggs in incubators, because by removing the eggs from the nests they induce the hens to lay more, and because the young ostriches are much easier to manage when by themselves than when with the old birds. When a pair of ostriches hatch their own eggs, the hen sits during the day and the cock at night. The period of incubation is six weeks. [Illustration: Fig. 182. Flock of ostriches on a California ostrich farm. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture)] Young ostriches are fed the same as old ones. They are kept in flocks of fifty or more until about a year old, when the sexes are separated. The plumes are cut for the first time when the birds are between six and seven months old. Although the process of removing these feathers is called plucking, they are not drawn out, but are cut close to the skin. The object is to get the feather immediately after it is grown, before it can be soiled or damaged in any way. At that time the quill is still full of blood. Drawing it out would be very painful to the bird, and might injure the wing so that the next feather that grew would be defective. The stumps of the feathers are allowed to remain until they are dead and dry, when they are drawn out easily. In South Africa the Kafirs draw the stumps out with their teeth. In about six or seven months after the stumps are removed, the new plumes are grown and the process of plucking is repeated. CHAPTER XVII PIGEONS The pigeon is the only species of aërial bird kept in domestication to provide food for man. It is also the only useful domestic bird that is able to maintain itself and increase in numbers in populous districts without the care of man. =Description.= The common pigeon is about the size of the smallest bantam fowls. It is a plump, hard-feathered bird, with a short neck, a round head free from ornamental appendages, a short beak, and short legs. The prevailing color is a dull, checkered blue, varying in shade from a very light blue to nearly black. The blue is sometimes replaced by red with similar variations in shade. There are also white pigeons, black pigeons, and many birds in which all the colors that have been named are irregularly mixed. The male and female pigeons are not distinguished by any regular differences of size, form, color, or voice. The males are usually a little larger and coarser looking, and make themselves conspicuous by their vain posing and domineering ways, but none of these characteristics are reliable indications of sex. The natural voice of the pigeon is a soft, gurgling coo repeated over and over with monotonous effect. It is sometimes heavier and more prolonged in the male, but except in the Trumpeter and Laugher Pigeons, in which the voice has been peculiarly developed, the difference in the voices of the male and female is not marked. Even in the two varieties mentioned, many males have such poor voices that the voice is not an infallible indication of the sex. The most expert pigeon breeders are often in doubt about the sex of some pigeons until they pair. The name "pigeon" is from the Latin _pipio_ (to peep or chirp), and came into the English language from the French. The Anglo-Saxon name for the bird was probably _dufa_, from which we have the word "dove," which is still sometimes applied to pigeons. _Dufa_ was derived from _dufan_ (to plunge into). It seems probable that the name was given because of the pigeon's habit of dropping almost perpendicularly when descending from an elevated position. The male pigeon is called a cock, the female a hen. Young pigeons are called _squabs_, _squeakers_, or sometimes _squealers_. The word "squab," which means "fat," describes the characteristic appearance of the nestling pigeon; the other terms refer to the noise it makes as it persistently begs for food. [Illustration: Fig. 183. Tame pigeons. (Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts)] =Origin.= Domestic pigeons are all descended from the wild Blue Rock Pigeon of the Old World. Although many of the improved varieties have been greatly changed in form, they are all perfectly fertile when bred together. The Blue Rock Pigeon is found in the wild state in Europe, Asia, and Africa. "Fancy Pigeons," by James C. Lyell, the best authority on the subject, contains this statement: "The British Blue Rock inhabits the rocks and caves on our seacoasts, as well as precipitous inland rocks, and certainly the difference between this bird and a common blue flying tumbler is very little. Their color is identical, their size almost so.... In the west of Scotland, where fanciers keep and show common pigeons, the wild Blue Rock domesticated is the bird so called." It is by no means certain that these wild pigeons are a true wild race. Considering the habits of the pigeon and its wide distribution in England centuries ago, it seems certain that many, if not all, of the pigeons now found wild in the British Isles are descended from birds once domesticated. Rock Pigeons of the same type, however, are found in many other parts of the Old World and, whether wild or feral, are plainly all from the same original stock. The American Wild Pigeon, also called the Passenger Pigeon, which was once found in enormous flocks in eastern North America, is often erroneously mentioned as the ancestor of domestic pigeons. The Rock Pigeon and the Passenger Pigeon are of different species and are very different in appearance and habits. The Rock Pigeon is what is called a shelf builder. It builds its nest on a ledge, or shelf, and will rarely even alight in a tree or a bush. The Passenger Pigeon is a wood pigeon, nesting and roosting in trees. [Illustration: Fig. 184. Flock of Dragoon Pigeons[15]] [Illustration: Fig. 185. Flying Homer Pigeon[15]] [Illustration: Fig. 186. Silver Runt Pigeon[15]] [15] Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts. =Distribution in ancient times.= The pigeon was domesticated at a very early stage of civilization. Like the fowl, the duck, and the goose, it was well known to all civilized peoples of antiquity. To what extent the distribution of pigeons in domestication followed the early migrations of the human race is not known. It is probable that pigeons were domesticated before the Aryan migrations began, and also that the domestic stock was sometimes taken by Aryan colonists to their new homes; but it is equally probable that at various times in the history of the earth people coming to new lands domesticated some of the wild rock pigeons which they found there. [Illustration: Fig. 187. Swiss Mondaine Pigeon[16]] [Illustration: Fig. 188. Splashed Homer[16]] [Illustration: Fig. 189. Blue-barred Homer[16]] [16] Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts. =Improved varieties.= Common pigeons are much alike the world over, and have changed little from the wild race, but in many different parts of the Old World the making of improved varieties began thousands of years ago, and in some places peculiar types were developed which were little known elsewhere until modern times. The varieties of the pigeon are so numerous that it is practically impossible to make a complete list of them. At the large shows in this country, classes are made for more than one hundred fifty named varieties, in about forty breeds. In many of these breeds there are eight or ten principal color varieties, and an indefinite number of less popular varieties, specimens of which compete in a miscellaneous competition in what is called the "any other variety class." There are probably nearly three hundred varieties of pigeons bred in America and England. On the continent of Europe the number is very much greater. The Triganica pigeon has one hundred fifty-two color varieties, and it is said that another variety in Germany, not known in England and America, has one hundred thirty-eight color varieties. Where varieties are so numerous, many of the color differences are necessarily slight, and only those who know them well can readily distinguish the different varieties at sight; others are bewildered when they attempt to do so. In this chapter only the most pronounced color varieties and the breeds of most interest to beginners will be described, but some of the most interesting of the others will be mentioned, to illustrate the range of the improved types developed by fanciers. [Illustration: Fig. 190. White Hen Pigeons. (Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts)] [Illustration: Fig. 191. Young Jacobin Pigeons. (Photograph from E. R. B. Chapman, Stoneham, Massachusetts)] =The Carrier Pigeon.= The homing instinct--that is, the faculty of finding the way home after wandering or being taken away from it--is found in animals of all kinds. In some kinds of animals it is much more highly developed than in others, and some animals of each kind have more of it than is usual with their species. It is well known that migratory birds usually return to the same localities season after season, and that certain pairs often return to the same vicinity year after year and build their nests in the same places. When this instinct is highly developed in a wild bird, its habit of returning to the same nest is of great interest to those who observe it, but it has no particular value. In a domestic bird the homing instinct or habit is of service because the owner of a bird relies upon it to make the bird return always to the place which he has provided for it, instead of taking shelter elsewhere or remaining where nocturnal enemies will find it an easy prey. In the domestic land birds the instinct has no further use than this, but in pigeons which, while thoroughly domesticated, retain full power of flight, the development of the homing faculty makes it possible to use them as a means of communication when it is necessary to transmit short letters with great dispatch. [Illustration: Fig. 192. Muffed Tumblers with "saddle" color pattern. (Photograph from E. R. B. Chapman, Stoneham, Massachusetts)] It is known that pigeons were used as messengers in war about the beginning of the Christian Era. An Egyptian bas-relief of about 1350 B.C. shows pigeons being released from cages just as they are now released in flying matches. The homing instinct is so strong in the common pigeon that any one familiar with its habits may easily suppose that pigeons were used to carry messages almost as soon as men had devised means of communication by writing upon any material which the birds could carry in their flight. There is reason to believe that in very ancient times pigeons were bred and trained especially for work of this kind in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. [Illustration: Fig. 193. Feeding pigeons on Boston Common. (Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts)] The pigeon which in England and America now goes by the name of "Carrier Pigeon" is a type developed as a messenger pigeon in Persia and from that country distributed to many parts of the world. As bred in Asia it was larger and stronger than the common pigeon, and had a cere, or convoluted membrane, around each eye and at the juncture of the head and the beak. It is thought that this type of Carrier may have been taken from Asia Minor to England at the time of the Crusades, but nothing definite is known of it in Great Britain until the seventeenth century. This old type of Carrier and several closely related varieties were used for messengers, and also in flying competitions, until the variety next described was developed. When the Carrier Pigeon was bred for carrying messages, no attention was paid to its color. Pigeon fanciers who were not interested in pigeon flying, but liked the Carrier for its other characters, early developed many distinct color varieties and also gave special attention to the form and carriage of the bird and to the development of the ceres around the eyes and on the beak. The Carrier Pigeon is now bred only as an exhibition bird. =The Antwerp Homer.= Beginning sometime early in the last century, breeders of flying pigeons at Antwerp, in Belgium, developed a race which soon became celebrated for superior development of the homing faculty and for great speed and endurance. This race was at first called the Antwerp Carrier. When the invention of the telegraph made the services of pigeons as messengers on land unnecessary, pigeons that could fly long distances were still bred and trained for competitive flying matches. In these, as a rule, they carried no messages; the object was to see which bird would reach home first. So gradually the term "homer" was substituted for "carrier," and the pigeons now called Homers, or Homing Pigeons, are the Antwerp Homing Pigeons. Good birds of this type are larger and stronger than the common pigeon, and have a bolder, more confident bearing and a more attractive carriage. They show their good breeding very plainly. Many of the pigeons called Homers are crosses or grades of the Antwerp Homer, and are not much better in any way than ordinary pigeons. [Illustration: Fig. 194. Flying Homer[17]] [17] Photograph from C. E. Twombley, Medford, Massachusetts. The true Homer is also the most popular type of pigeon for the production of squabs for market. Its great prolificacy, strong constitution, quick growth, and large size make it a favorite with squab growers. As bred for flying or for market, Homers are of various colors, and the color varieties are not distinct except as occasionally a breeder makes a specialty of producing birds of some particular color. Many pigeon fanciers breed Homers solely for exhibition. The Exhibition Homer has many distinct color varieties--Blue, Silver, Mealy, Blue Checker, Black Checker, Black, Red Checker, White, Yellow. =Tumbler and Tippler Pigeons.= The flying powers of pigeons have been developed for other purposes as well as for traveling long distances. In rising or descending in flight a pigeon sometimes turns a somersault in the air. This trait has been developed in certain races so that many birds will perform the feat very often. These races are called Tumblers. They are found all over Europe and Asia and in a few localities in America. The common Tumblers perform in the air, usually at some distance from the ground, the tumbling of individual birds being an occasional feature of the evolutions of a flock circling about in the vicinity of its home. From this common Tumbler more highly specialized types have been developed. The breeding of these types has become something of an art, and in some cases the sport of flying them has become a well-organized recreation. [Illustration: Fig. 195. Squab-breeding Homers. (Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts)] By breeding together specimens which performed well when flying, Tumblers were finally produced in which the tumbling propensity was so exaggerated that they could not fly but, after a few somersaults, alighted on their feet. These birds were called Inside Tumblers, or Parlor Tumblers, to distinguish them from the common Tumblers, which required more room for their evolutions than any ordinary building afforded. Although they are incapable of flight, the Parlor Tumblers can rise a short distance before they fall. The Roller is a Tumbler which turns many somersaults so rapidly that each revolution of its body is made in a very small space. A high-flying Roller falls while rolling in the air. An Inside Roller turns over and over backward on the ground. [Illustration: Fig. 196. Clean-legged Red Tumbler[18]] [Illustration: Fig. 197. Muffed, or Feather-legged, Tumblers[18]] [18] Photograph from E. R. B. Chapman, Stoneham, Massachusetts. Breeders of common Tumblers do not give them liberty, but release them from their loft only when they wish to see the birds perform, and, by feeding them immediately upon their return, coax and train them to return to the loft soon after being released. A good performer is soon exhausted by tumbling, and is quite willing to return to the loft in a short time. But not all birds of Tumbler stock are good and persistent performers, and often birds that do not perform prefer liberty for a longer period to the food that is waiting for them in the loft. Birds have sometimes been compelled to remain in the air for a long time. As a result of this treatment of poor Tumblers a type of Tumbler has been produced which will perform more or less when ascending or descending, but which, having risen to a high elevation, will remain for hours circling over its home and perhaps occasionally flying away and returning. Tumblers of this type can remain in the air for five or six hours. In flying them for sport the object is to see which flock will remain in the air longest. The tumbling habit was gradually bred out of the high-flying birds, and after a time many of them did not tumble at all. Such birds were then called Tipplers ("tipple" having in some English dialects the meaning of "tumble"). The modern Tippler Pigeon is a bird in which the tendency to rise to a great height and remain there for a long time has been developed to the utmost, as the tendency to return home from great distances has been developed in the Flying Homer. Performing Tumblers and Tipplers are usually bred for performance without regard to color, and the colors in a flock of the same breeding may be, and nearly always are, various. Exhibition stocks of Tumblers and Tipplers are bred in many distinct color varieties. [Illustration: Fig. 198. English Owl Pigeon[19]] [Illustration: Fig. 199. English Red Trumpeter Pigeon[19]] [Illustration: Fig. 200. English Saddle Trumpeter Pigeon[19]] [19] Photograph from E. R. B. Chapman, Stoneham, Massachusetts. =The Fantail Pigeon.= The Fantail Pigeon originated in India. The fan-shaped tail, from which this variety takes its name, was developed by selection to increase the number of the large, straight main tail feathers. Normally a pigeon has from twelve to sixteen of these feathers; in the ordinary Fantail the number has been increased to twenty-four or twenty-six. Many of the specimens in which this character is highly developed have a much greater number of tail feathers. It is said that forty-two feathers have been counted in a tail. A tail in which there are so many feathers cannot be carried in the natural position; it spreads, forming a major segment of a circle, and at the same time it is elevated until, in specimens with very full tails, the highest tail feathers stand nearly perpendicular. To balance the large tail carried in this position the Fantail has to carry its head very far back. This makes the breast very prominent. The bird cannot fly well, and when walking about it appears to be strutting to make a display of its spectacular tail. Its appearance is in this respect deceptive, for it is a very modest bird and has difficulty in balancing itself in any other position. The Fantail is gentle and affectionate, and is the best of all pigeons for those who want birds for pets. It is bred in many color varieties. The White Fantail is the most popular, because it is the most showy and the easiest to produce with uniform color in a flock. [Illustration: Fig. 201. White Runt Pigeon[20]] [20] Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts. [Illustration: Fig. 202. White Pouter Pigeon] =Pouter Pigeons.= All pigeons have in some measure the power of inflating the crop with air. In the Pouter Pigeons this power has been developed and its exercise encouraged to such an extent that in many specimens the inflated crop is as large as all the rest of the bird. Pouters were introduced into England from Holland several hundred years ago. They were at first called Croppers. The common Pouter is a large pigeon with long legs. It usually stands in a very erect position. There is a race of dwarf pigeons of this type, called Pigmy Pouters. [Illustration: Fig. 203. Fowl-like, or Maltese Hen, Pigeons[21]] [21] Photograph from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts. =Other important types.= One of the most attractive pigeons is the Jacobin, which has the feathers of the neck turned upward, forming a hood which sometimes almost conceals the head. The Turbit and Owl Pigeons are distinguished by a frill of feathers on the breast, and by the peculiar beak and face, which are very short. The Dragoon is a large, showy pigeon of the Carrier type. The Trumpeter is distinguished by a crest, which greatly obstructs its sight, as well as by the peculiar development of the voice, to which it owes its name. The Runt is a very large pigeon bred both for exhibition and for the table. Some squab growers prize it very highly; others say that the smaller and more prolific Homer is more profitable for squab breeding. The use of a term commonly applied to undersized, ill-developed creatures as the name of one of the largest pigeons is one of the curiosities of nomenclature. The explanation, however, is simple. In England in old times common pigeons were called runts. The pigeon now called the Runt was introduced into England from Spain, and was called by early writers on pigeons the Spanish Runt, meaning the common pigeon of Spain. With the disuse of the term "runt" to designate the common pigeon, the term "Spanish" was dropped from the designation of the improved breed, and it became simply the Runt. Besides the Runt just mentioned there is another large pigeon, once called the Leghorn Runt, which belongs to the class of Fowl-like, or Hen, Pigeons, so called because in shape they are strikingly like fowls. The most familiar representative of this class is the Maltese Hen Pigeon. =History in domestication.= The history of the pigeon in domestication presents some very interesting features. Its use as a messenger has been mentioned. From very early times people of privileged classes took advantage of the habits of the pigeon to grow the birds for their own use at the expense of the community. The Assyrians and some other ancient peoples considered the pigeon sacred to certain of their deities. Sometimes all pigeons were so regarded; at other times and places only white pigeons were sacred, those of other colors being used by the common people. [Illustration: Fig. 204. Nun Pigeons[22]] [Illustration: Fig. 205. German Frillback Pigeons[22]] [22] Photograph from E. R. B. Chapman, Stoneham, Massachusetts. In medieval times in England, the lord of a manor, when leasing farms to tenants, reserved the right to let his pigeons forage over them. As pigeons live mostly upon grains and seeds, caring little for green vegetation and insects, the newly planted fields of the farmer were the favorite feeding places of his landlord's pigeons. The landlords, being able to keep pigeons without other expense than that of providing shelter for them, built large dovecots near the manor houses and kept their tables plentifully supplied with pigeons. At one time it was estimated that there were more than twenty thousand such dovecots in England. The destruction of crops by the occupants of these caused serious losses to the farmers and a great deal of trouble between them and their landlords. This form of protection for roving pigeons in agricultural districts was finally abandoned. No doubt the selfishness of landlords was originally responsible for this method of protecting pigeons, but the government of the country at that time also had something to do with it. Pigeon manure is very rich in niter, which in those days the government had difficulty in procuring in such quantities as it needed for the manufacture of gunpowder; so it adopted the policy of regulating the construction of pigeon houses, prescribing the method of disposing of the droppings to conserve the niter in them and appointing official inspectors to see that its regulations were observed, and collectors to gather the pigeon manure. It was much easier to do this when large flocks were kept by landlords than when an equal number of the birds were kept in small flocks by the tenants. =Place in domestication.= Although many farmers keep small flocks of pigeons, the pigeon in modern times is a city bird rather than a country bird. The strong flying types are all well adapted to an independent life in towns and cities, where, as has been stated, they often become a nuisance. This form of nuisance might be partly abated and perhaps prevented if city authorities would systematically and humanely exterminate the free flocks of common pigeons, and encourage citizens to breed improved varieties under proper control. Pigeon culture does not afford as many or as good opportunities for profit as poultry culture does, but it is suited to conditions under which poultry do not thrive. A flock of pigeons may be permanently maintained by a city resident who has so little room for domestic birds that, if he kept poultry, he would have to renew his flock every year. A few pigeons may be kept by any one who can provide a nesting place for them where they will be safe from cats and rats. In this country the growing of squabs has been widely exploited in recent years as a profitable commercial industry. Near large cities where the demand for squabs is good, squab growing on a large scale is sometimes successful. Elsewhere the small flock that can be cared for in the owner's spare time is likely to be more profitable. The breeding of fancy pigeons is also almost wholly a spare-time occupation. The demand for fancy pigeons is small in comparison with the demand for fancy poultry, and a pigeon fancier's trade rarely grows so large that he can give his attention to it exclusively. In Europe the breeding of pigeons for exhibition and sport is more popular than in America, but the interest is growing rapidly in this country. CHAPTER XVIII MANAGEMENT OF PIGEONS [Illustration: Fig. 206. Small pigeon house and fly[23]] [23] The photographs for illustrations in this chapter, when not credited to others, are from Elmer E. Rice, Boston, Massachusetts. Almost every child knows something of the lives of the common pigeons that are seen at large in both city and country. Some flocks have owners who take a slight interest in them and make rude provisions for their safety and comfort. Nearly all the country flocks, and many of the city flocks, are in this class. But there are in all large cities, and in some smaller places, many flocks of pigeons which no one claims to own. They build their nests in high cupolas, in the belfries of churches, on sheltered ledges under the cornices or other projections of high buildings, and in all sorts of places from which they cannot be easily dislodged. The streets and areas of a great city afford daily food sufficient for vast numbers of birds. The principal part of this is fresh oats scattered by thousands of horses as they take their noon meal from pails or nose bags, and oats that, passing through the horses undigested, are mixed with the dust and dirt of the street. Very large quantities of food also fall on the streets from torn bags or broken boxes as cereal products are carted from place to place and handled in transportation. Then there are the crumbs and remnants of food thrown from windows by innumerable people who carry their lunches when they go to their work; and besides these a great deal of waste food from the occupants of tenements, as well as from many hotel and restaurant kitchens. Much of this is thrown out at random, but often, when pigeons begin to frequent places where food supplies are regular, the people there take an interest in the birds and throw out more than they did before. From all these various sources an abundance of food is available for birds that forage on the city streets. [Illustration: Fig. 207. House and fly for a small flock] The pigeons do their part in saving this waste food, but the people derive little benefit from the saving, because so many pigeons are not kept under control, where their produce may be taken and used when it is ready. Good management of pigeons consists in keeping them so that the owner gets all the benefits of ownership. Good management in the large sense requires that all pigeons shall be owned by some one who is responsible for them, and who keeps them under full control or under partial control, as the circumstances in each case require. =Size of flock.= A flock of breeding pigeons may contain as many pairs as can nest in the place where they are kept. Most pigeon keepers prefer lofts about 12 or 14 feet square, because in larger spaces it is harder to catch the birds when they must be handled, and in many ways the very large flock makes extra trouble for the attendant. A place with a floor area of from 150 to 200 square feet will accommodate from fifty to sixty pairs of breeding pigeons. Except when undertaking squab breeding on a large scale, pigeon keepers usually begin with a small number and keep most of the increase until the full capacity of the loft is used. [Illustration: Fig. 208. Small barn and shed arranged for pigeon keeping] =Quarters for pigeons.= A pair of pigeons may be kept in a coop, box, or cage about 3 feet square, and 2 or 3 feet high. A cage 4 or 5 feet high, or one as high as the room in which it is placed, is still better, because it will allow the birds a little room to use their wings. If such a cage has a few perches at various heights, the pigeons will not seem to miss their liberty. Such close confinement, however, is not recommended except for those who cannot provide larger quarters, or who merely wish to keep one or two pair a short time for observation. A house about 6 feet square makes a convenient size for a small breeding flock of pigeons. In a place of that size eight or ten pairs may be kept. Attached to it there should be a wire-inclosed fly, as pigeon keepers call the outdoor compartment for pigeons. The size of the fly can be adjusted to suit the conditions and the available space. The larger the fly the better the pigeons will like it, but even a very small place where they can be much in the open air and lie and sun themselves is better than constant confinement indoors, which makes them anemic and greatly reduces their vitality. Where the space for pigeons is very limited and there is room for only one small loft and fly, breeding operations are closely restricted. Most pigeon fanciers want at least two lofts of this size--one for the breeding birds, the other for the young birds that no longer need the care of their parents. With such facilities the work in the breeding loft goes on better, and promising young birds can be kept until they are well matured and the breeder can tell whether it is advisable to keep some of these and dispose of a part of the old ones. To provide for larger numbers of birds, either more lofts or larger lofts may be made. A breeder of fancy pigeons usually prefers many small compartments. A breeder of squabs for market makes each compartment as large as is convenient and builds as many as he has room for. [Illustration: Fig. 209. Old poultry house arranged for pigeons. (Photograph from Dr. J. G. Robinson, Pembroke, Massachusetts)] Buildings for pigeons are constructed on the same plans as buildings for fowls. The furnishings of the pigeon loft are different from those of the poultry house, and of course the fly is always completely inclosed. Upper floors or lofts of buildings are used for pigeons to much better advantage than for poultry, but where there is room it is more satisfactory to have all quarters for pigeons on the ground floor. As the young pigeons remain in the nest and are fed by the parents until they are almost full-grown, each pair of old pigeons must have their own nesting place. As has been stated, the domestic pigeon is a shelf builder. So in arranging for nests the pigeon keeper builds shelves 10 or 12 inches apart, and divides these into compartments about 12 inches wide, thus forming pigeonholes. Because a hen pigeon often lays again and begins to incubate before a pair of young are ready to leave the nest, it is usual to arrange the pigeonholes in pairs. This is sometimes done by omitting alternate dividing boards, making each pigeonhole twice the size required, so that a nest can be made in each corner. Some people prefer to have single pigeonholes and to arrange them in double sections by making each alternate perpendicular board project several inches beyond the front edge of the horizontal shelf. When this is done, a pair of pigeons in possession of one side of a double section will usually claim the entire section and prevent others from entering it even when they are themselves using only one side. [Illustration: Fig. 210. City back-yard squab plant] For indoor perches for pigeons individual perches shaped like an inverted V are most used. These are attached to the wall, one above another, about 12 or 14 inches apart. The pigeons rest on the upper edge of the perch, and the sloping sides prevent their plumage from being soiled by birds roosting above them. In the outdoor flies running boards are placed along the sides to make exercising and resting places for the birds, for they usually prefer a shelf of this kind to the ground. Long perches are also placed in the fly when the running boards do not give room for all the pigeons in the flock. Out of doors the birds get along very well on long perches, but in the house each wants a separate perch. Feed hoppers like those used for fowls are used in pigeon houses. Drinking vessels for pigeons should be of the fountain type, exposing only a small surface of water, because if the vessel is open the birds will bathe in it. For the bath any circular vessel with a depth of 4 or 5 inches and a diameter of 18 inches or over may be used. [Illustration: Fig. 211. Running boards in pigeon fly. (Photograph from Springer Brothers, Bridgeton, New Jersey)] =Ventilation and cleanliness.= The ventilation of a pigeon house is managed in the same way as that of a poultry house, by adjusting the openings in the front. Most kinds of pigeons are very rugged and, when fully feathered, can stand a great deal of cold. When a house is open in winter, some of the young, unfledged squabs may be chilled and die from exposure, but breeders agree that, on the whole, it is better to keep the windows or other openings for ventilation partly open at all times. While this causes some loss of the weaker squabs, it keeps the old birds in much better condition than when the house is tightly closed. [Illustration: Fig. 212. Constant water supply for pigeons] To keep the loft looking clean and neat the droppings should be removed from the floor, and from all shelves that can be cleaned without disturbing breeding birds, at least once a week. Many pigeon keepers clean the houses oftener than that, but if the ventilation is good and the droppings are dry and firm, a house may go uncleaned for weeks or months without detriment to the birds. It is customary to keep the floor of the pigeon loft thinly covered with fine gravel, coarse sand, sawdust, or chaff. To prevent the wind from the pigeons' wings from blowing this from the middle to the sides of the floor, a small box is placed in the middle of the floor. Whenever it is possible, the bath pan is placed outdoors, because in taking a bath pigeons splash the water a great deal, and if they are given the bath indoors, they will make a nasty mess of the house floor unless it is perfectly clean. The bath need not be given oftener than once or twice a week. In bad weather it is better to let them go without a bath than to have them take one and get chilled before their feathers dry. =Handling pigeons.= When a few pigeons in a small loft get a great deal of attention, they usually become very tame and allow themselves to be caught at any time. For catching pigeons that are shy, pigeon keepers use a net, called a landing net, such as is used by fishermen. A pigeon is held securely in the hand by grasping it so that the breast of the bird lies in the palm and one wing is held against the side by the thumb and the other by the fingers. A pigeon may also be carried by the tips of the wings by bringing them together over the back and letting the bird hang by them. [Illustration: Fig. 213. Small pigeon house and fly] =Mating pigeons.= The beginner's first serious difficulty in breeding pigeons is to get the birds in his loft all mated and each pair attending to the work of hatching and rearing its young. As has been said, the sexes cannot always be identified by appearance. Most of the pigeons sold for breeding are young birds that have not yet mated. Some breeders and dealers are very expert in selecting males and females, but all make some mistakes, and the average person makes a great many of them. There are two ways of selling pigeons. The most common way is to sell the desired number of birds, the seller selecting, according to his best judgment, equal numbers of males and females, with the understanding that if, when the birds mate, there is an excess of one sex, he will make a suitable exchange. The other way is to sell the number of pairs desired, guaranteeing them as mated pairs--which means that the pairs are all known to be properly mated. The advantage of buying guaranteed mated pairs is that the question of mating requires no further attention at the outset, but the prices for them are so much higher than for those not known to be mated, that most beginners buy on the other plan. [Illustration: Fig. 214. Large squab plant. (Photograph from Dr. J. G. Robinson, Pembroke, Massachusetts)] Where the flock is small and the birds are to be allowed to select their own mates, all that is necessary is to watch them closely until all are mated or it is evident that there is a surplus of one sex. Surplus males will quarrel persistently with the other males and endeavor to coax their mates away from them. The unmated males must be provided with mates or removed from the loft. Unmated females are not so readily noticed except when there are only a few birds in the loft, but by close watching they will soon be found. When a start is to be made with quite a large number of unmated birds, the best plan is to put the flock first in a different apartment from that in which they are to be kept permanently, and, as each pair mate and begin to build their nest, remove them to their permanent quarters. [Illustration: Fig. 215. Neat pigeon house and fly] When it is desired to mate a particular male and female, the best way is to place them one in each side of a small coop with a wire partition across the middle. This coop should be put where they cannot see other pigeons. Sometimes one of the birds shows a decided antipathy to the other. In such a case it is, as a rule, useless to continue efforts to induce them to pair. In most cases, however, the birds will soon show mutual affection. When this stage is reached, they may be taken to the loft and released. Short coarse straw or fine twigs should be placed where pigeons that are building nests can take what they want. No nest box or pan is really needed, but many pigeon keepers use a nest bowl, called a nappy, of earthenware or wood fiber. =Feeding.= The food of pigeons consists almost wholly of grains and seeds. The principal grains used in America are wheat and corn (usually cracked corn). Field peas are also used quite extensively. While pigeons will eat the same kinds of ground-grain products as are fed to poultry, pigeon keepers rarely use such foods. They prefer to give a variety of hard grains and seeds. Those who keep large stocks of pigeons often buy separately the feeds which they use, and mix the grains to suit themselves, or feed them in such alternation as seems desirable. People who keep only a few pairs of pigeons usually find it more satisfactory to buy the feed mixtures sold by dealers in pigeons' supplies. As a rule, old grain and seed that are very dry and hard are best for pigeons, and especially for exhibition and breeding stock. [Illustration: Fig. 216. An attractive squab plant] The most common practice is to give the feed in hoppers, keeping a supply always before the birds. This is done principally because it is the most convenient way, particularly for those who are away from home a great deal. For them hopper feeding is really necessary, but pigeon fanciers seem to agree that when the birds can be fed by throwing on the floor of the loft or the fly, two or three times a day, just about the quantity of food that they need for a meal, they do better and the cost of food is less than by the hopper method. Unlike poultry, pigeons require considerable quantities of salt. The common practice is to keep it before them in the form of lumps of rock salt, one large lump being enough for the birds in a loft of ordinary size. Oyster shell should also be supplied. [Illustration: Fig. 217. Homer squabs four weeks old] [Illustration: Fig. 218. Carneaux squabs four weeks old] =How pigeons rear their young.= After a pair of pigeons have completed their nest, the male seems to come at once to the conclusion that home duties demand his mate's constant attention. At the nest he struts about, cooing and coaxing, entering the nest himself, then leaving it and plainly showing his wish that she should take the nest. If she goes away from the nest, he follows her with his head high and his neck inflated. His cooing turns to scolding. He pecks at her and will not give her a moment's peace until she returns to the nest. The hen lays one egg and, after laying it, spends most of her time standing on the nest until the second or third day after, when she lays another egg and immediately begins to sit. She seems to know that if she sat on the first egg before laying the other, one squab would hatch two or three days earlier than the other, and the second squab, being smaller and weaker, would have a hard time. The work of incubation is done mostly by the hen, the cock taking only a minor part. For about an hour in the middle of the morning and again in the middle of the afternoon he relieves her on the nest, giving her a chance to eat, drink, and take some exercise. Counting from the time the last egg was laid, the period of incubation is sixteen or seventeen days. Young squabs, like all other young birds that are naked when hatched, are ugly little things. They have apparently insatiable appetites, and their mouths seem to be always open. They are fed by the parents with pigeon milk, which is simply the usual food of the old birds softened in the crop. The pigeon has the power of disgorging the contents of the crop at will, and feeds its young by forcing food from its crop into their mouths. When they are well fed, the squabs grow very fast. Young Homers four weeks old often weigh from three quarters of a pound to a pound, or even more, and are ready for market. Many of the fancy varieties of pigeons are hard to rear, because the abnormal structure of the beak or the interference of peculiar feather characters prevent the old ones from feeding their young properly. All the breeds described in detail in the preceding chapter are known as good feeders. [Illustration: Fig. 219. Dressed squabs. (Photograph from Dr. J. G. Robinson, Pembroke, Massachusetts)] Pigeons will breed nearly the year round, stopping only while molting, but in cold climates many young birds die in the nests in winter. Those who are breeding for market take this as one of the risks of their business. If only half of the squabs are reared in winter, the profits may be as great as when the actual results are much better, because in winter the prices are much higher than at the seasons when squabs are most easily produced. Fanciers do not usually allow their pigeons to breed during the coldest winter months, but take the eggs from the nests or keep the sexes separate until spring approaches. The object of the fancier is to produce specimens having the finest possible development of form and color. He cannot do this successfully under conditions that cause heavy losses. The birds may grow under such conditions but will not have the superior quality that he desires, and so he finds it more profitable to concentrate all his attention upon the birds that he can produce when the weather is most favorable. CHAPTER XIX CANARIES The canary is the only common cage bird. There are about fifty kinds of birds that make desirable pets, but very few of them will breed in small cages, and many will not breed in confinement even when kept in large aviaries. In the United States the number of kinds of cage birds is restricted by state laws which prohibit keeping native song birds in captivity. Such laws are necessary to preserve the birds. Before these laws were passed, great numbers of song birds were trapped every year to send to Europe, where the keeping of cage birds as pets is more popular than in America. Song birds from other parts of the world may be kept in this country, but most of them are so scarce and expensive that few people would buy them even if the canary were not a more satisfactory pet. =Description.= The common domestic canary is a small bird, about five inches in length, very lively and sprightly in manner, and in color yellow or a greenish gray and yellow. The male and female are so much alike that the sex cannot be positively determined by the appearance. Although it often happens that the male is more slender in form and brighter in color, the voice is a better index of sex and, in mature birds of good singing stock, is very reliable. The male is the singer. The female also has a singing voice, but it is so inferior in quality to that of the male that few people care for it. =Origin.= The domestic canary belongs to the finch family and is found wild in the Canary Islands (from which it takes its name) and in a number of other islands in that part of the world. The color of the wild birds is described, by some who have seen them, as greenish-gray, changing to a greenish-yellow on the breast and under parts. Other observers describe the wild birds of some localities as brownish. [Illustration: Fig. 220. Tricolor Canary[24]] [24] The illustrations in this chapter are from "Our Domestic Animals," by Charles W. Burkett. The canary was introduced into Europe about four hundred years ago. As the story goes, a ship with a cargo from the Canary Islands, carrying several thousand canaries, which the traders thought might be sold in Europe, was wrecked off the coast of Italy early in the sixteenth century. Before the sailors left the ship, they opened the cages containing the canaries. The birds escaped to the Island of Elba and there became established in the wild state. From this colony of canaries birds were captured and distributed to all parts of Europe and America, their superior song powers and adaptability to domestication making them popular wherever they became known. [Illustration: Fig. 221. Norwich Canary with hood] The wild bird known in America as the wild canary is the American Goldfinch. It belongs to the same family as the canary but is of a different species. It is of no value as a singer. [Illustration: Fig. 222. Yorkshire Canary] =Improvement in domestication.= Nearly all the varieties of the canary were developed before the eighteenth century. The German canary fanciers turned their attention to developing the song of the bird, the Belgian and British fanciers to making and perfecting shape and color varieties. In Germany the celebrated Harz Mountain Canaries were produced. These are simply common canaries carefully bred and trained for singing. But their excellence as singers is not due to breeding and training alone; the climate of the Harz Mountain region seems to be peculiarly suited to the development of canaries with beautiful voices. The finest Harz Mountain Canaries are produced at St. Andreasberg, a health resort noted for its pure and bracing air. The St. Andreasberg Roller is a canary trained to sing with a peculiar rolling note. Among fancy types of canaries the most interesting are the Norwich Canary, which is larger than the singing canaries and has reddish-yellow plumage; the Manchester Coppy, a yellow canary almost as large as a small pigeon; the Lizard Canaries (Silver and Golden), which have spangled markings on the back; the London Fancy Canary, which has an orange body with black wings and tail; and the Belgian Canary, a malformed type in which the head appears to grow out of the breast instead of being carried above the shoulders. [Illustration: Fig. 223. Belgian Canary] =Place in domestication.= Most people who have canaries keep them for pets, and have only a few. In perhaps the greater number of cases a single bird--a singer--satisfies the canary lover. A few of those who keep canaries as pets also breed them for sale. Occasionally a canary fancier devotes a room in his house entirely to his birds and, when breeding on such a scale, has a great many to sell. The commercial side of canary breeding, however, is usually subordinate, except in the Harz Mountain district, where the breeding and training of singing canaries is a very important cottage industry. Canaries from this district are sold all over the civilized world. [Illustration: Fig. 224. English Flatheaded Canary] MANAGEMENT OF CANARIES =Cages.= The common wire bird cages used for one or two canaries are so well known that no description of them is necessary. For larger numbers larger cages must be provided. Large cages cannot always be obtained at stores which sell the small ones, but they may be obtained from bird stores in the large cities, or made to order by a local mechanic. Indeed, any clever boy who has learned to use tools can make one at very little cost. While the small cages are usually made all of metal, the large ones are commonly made with wooden frames. A small cage has a removable bottom. A large cage must have two bottoms--the outer one fixed, the inner one in the form of a movable drawer. A metal drawer is easier to keep clean than a wooden one. =Position of the cage.= The cage in an ordinary room should be hung where its occupants will be comfortable and safe. The greatest foe of the domestic canary is the house cat. Some cats can be trained to let canaries alone, but very few can be trusted to make no attempt to get a canary when left alone in a room with it. When canaries and cats are kept in the same house, the cage should hang in a place from which cats can be excluded when they cannot be watched. The comfort of the bird will often require that the position of the cage be changed once or oftener during the day, according to the season or to some particular condition. Thus, a sunny window may be very pleasant at some times and too warm at others, or a bird may tire of being constantly in the same place. The bird keeper has to learn to know, by observing the actions of birds, when they are comfortable and contented, and must use judgment in placing the cage to suit them. =Feeding.= Canaries live mostly on ripe seeds, but they are also very fond of the leaves, flowers, and green seeds of many common plants. Being such small birds, they eat only small seeds. The seeds most used as food for canaries are hempseed, flaxseed, rapeseed, and canary seed, which is the seed of the canary grass, a plant indigenous to the Canary Islands. These are often sold mixed under the trade name of "birdseed." Many canary fanciers think that it is better to feed the seeds separately, or to make the mixtures themselves, so that they can know just what the birds eat, and can judge whether any trouble which may arise is due to a wrong diet. Rapeseed and canary seed are considered the best and safest feed for canaries. They may be mixed in equal parts and kept before the birds at all times. Canaries like hempseed better than anything else, but it is so rich that, if fed heavily, it is injurious. When a mixture of seeds containing hempseed is placed in the feed cup, canaries will pick out and scatter and waste the other seeds, to get the hempseed. For this reason it is often left out of the mixture and given occasionally, a few grains at a time. Canaries are very fond of lettuce, chickweed, and plantain. They also like the green seeds of many grasses. These things may be given to them by fastening the leaves or stalks between the wires of the cage where the birds can reach them easily. A piece of cuttlefish bone should be placed where the birds can eat some whenever they want it. Cuttle bone furnishes them with salt and lime. =Care.= Canaries should have regular attention. Aside from having the position of the cage changed when necessary, they usually require attention only once a day. This should be at a regular hour, preferably in the morning. The cage should be placed on a table or stand, and the bottom removed, that it may be thoroughly cleaned. The best way is to wash it. While the bottom of the cage is being cleaned the cage with the bird in it rests upon the table. This is the best time to give the bird its bath. A shallow pan or dish containing about an inch of water is placed on the table under the bottomless cage. Some birds splash so vigorously that the bath must be given in a room containing nothing that would be damaged by the drops of water which they scatter. Some seem to understand that the harder they splash the more trouble they make, and to take delight in wetting everything about them. When the bird has had its bath, the cage should be wiped dry, the bottom replaced, the drinking cup rinsed and refilled, and the seed cup filled. If a bird is very tame and can be easily caught, it may be let out of the cage for its bath and for a little exercise. Many canaries will return voluntarily to their cages after bathing and flying around the room a few times. Canary fanciers frequently allow their birds the freedom of the room for hours at a time. Whenever this is done, special care must be taken that no unexpected opening of a door allows the bird to escape from the room. Neglect of this point often leads to the loss of a valued bird. =Breeding.= The breeding season for canaries is from February until May or June. The cage for a breeding pair should be a little larger than that used for a single bird, and should be firmly attached to the wall instead of hanging where it can swing. The nest is usually a small wire basket. For nest material cotton batting and cow's hair or deer's hair are used. Deer's hair may be obtained at bird stores. These materials are placed in the cage and the birds use what they want. The hen lays from four to six eggs. The period of incubation is two weeks. During the breeding season the birds should be fed, in addition to the usual supply of seed, a little grated hard-boiled egg with cracker or bread crumbs. They also need a supply of fine oyster shells. By the time the young are three weeks old they are able to leave the nest and to feed themselves. They should then be removed to a separate cage. CHAPTER XX DISTRIBUTION OF MARKET PRODUCTS =Producers, consumers, and middlemen.= The preceding chapters have treated of the characters and the uses of domestic birds, and of the methods of producing them. In this chapter we shall consider matters relating to the distribution of such of their products as are staple articles of commerce. There are very few subjects of general interest that are as widely misunderstood as some phases of the distribution of market eggs and poultry. Every one uses these products; many millions of people produce them in small quantities; but the consumers who are not producers live mostly in cities remote from the farming sections which have great surpluses of eggs and poultry to send to the cities, and so the work of distributing these products is done principally by traders, or middlemen. The modern developments of poultry culture have been in a very large measure due to middlemen and could not continue without them. In a large and highly organized population middlemen in many different capacities perform the services which in primitive or small communities may be performed by either the producer or the consumer. Consumers and producers are apt to think that the middlemen get more than their fair share of the profits on the articles that they buy and sell. The true situation and the exact relations of producers, middlemen, and consumers of poultry products are easily understood if we study the development of the existing methods of distribution from the beginning. =How the middleman enters local trade.= Suppose that a farmer brings to town 30 dozen eggs; that the storekeeper will allow him 20 cents a dozen for them; and that by peddling them from house to house he can sell them for 25 cents a dozen: how much will he make by selling them directly to the consumers? As an arithmetical example, considering only the factors which appear in the statement, this is a very simple problem. It is easy to compute that by selling the eggs from house to house the farmer will make $1.50. But the farmer's practical problem in disposing of his eggs has some very important factors which do not appear in a simple arithmetical problem. Unless he had regular customers for his eggs, he would probably have to call at fifty or sixty houses to sell them. He might have to call at a great many more, and then might not succeed in selling them all. He would find that it was of little use to try to sell eggs to families that had not engaged them in advance, unless he called very early in the morning, before they had ordered eggs from some one else. If he succeeded in selling all the eggs, he would still have to consider whether it paid him better to spend his time, and that of his team, in selling the eggs than in working on the farm. Most farmers find that they cannot afford to peddle produce themselves, and unless some other member of the family can do it without interfering with important farm work, they sell such products as poultry, butter, and eggs to the storekeepers. Now take the consumer's side of the case. The ordinary family uses only 2 or 3 dozen eggs a week. If the eggs can be bought at the store for 25 cents a dozen, and at a farm for 15 cents a dozen, there is an apparent saving of 20 or 30 cents by purchasing them at the farm. But in most cases it would cost the buyer more than 20 or 30 cents to go to the farm and get the eggs, and so he goes to the store for them. The storekeeper is the middleman, really serving both producer and consumer. Every one can see this clearly in cases where there is only one middleman. =Additional middlemen.= If the farmers trading at a country store bring to it more eggs than the people in the town will buy, the storekeeper must either sell them elsewhere or refuse to take them. If possible, he will find a market for the surplus, usually by shipping them to the nearest large city. But he does not send them direct to consumers, for he could not deal with them any better than the farmers could with the people in his town. He may send them to a storekeeper in the city, but he is more likely to send them to some one who makes a business of receiving eggs from country collectors and selling them at wholesale wherever there is a demand for them. If the receipts in a city exceed the local requirements, the surplus will be sent to one of the great cities which are the principal receiving centers for produce of all kinds. The large receivers in the great cities distribute the eggs to retailers in the cities and also to jobbers and retailers in smaller cities where local supplies are inadequate. [Illustration: Fig. 225. Unloading coops of poultry at a receiving warehouse. (Photograph from the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] Thus between the producer and the consumer there may be as many as six or seven middlemen who in turn handle the eggs. At first thought it seems that so many middlemen are not necessary. But it is not a question of numbers; it is a question of conditions. The number depends more or less upon whether the middleman at any stage finds it more advantageous to deal with one next to him in the general series or to pass one or more and deal with another farther away. In the United States prices of eggs are finally determined by the demand and supply in the large cities of the East; the prices at other points are usually the prices in these cities, minus the cost of transportation and handling. In periods of scarcity, however, there is a tendency to uniformity of prices in all large cities. The movements of poultry to market are made in much the same way as the movement of eggs. As a rule the same people handle both. =How the demand for poultry products stimulates production.= In the preceding sections it was assumed, for the purpose of showing clearly the relation of the middleman to both the producer and the consumer, that the movement of these articles from the country producer to the city buyer came about as the result of the existence of a surplus in farming districts. As a matter of fact the movement is produced by the demand in localities which do not produce their own supplies. One effect of the increase of population in cities is to cause farmers near the cities to grow more poultry and sometimes to establish special poultry farms. But as grain and labor cost more near the cities, the poultry and eggs produced near them must be sold at high prices. If the city people were dependent upon these local supplies, only the rich could afford them. As this is true of all perishable food articles, as well as of poultry products, the growth of cities was restricted as long as there was no means of bringing provisions quickly from places where they could be produced at low cost. When steam railroads were built, this restriction on the growth of cities was partly removed. Many cities then began to grow very fast, and the demands of their population for cheap food led city dealers in provisions to look for supplies in the towns and farms along the railroads. Many such dealers had before collected provisions by wagon as far from the city as was practicable. These men could now greatly extend their routes, because, having collected a wagon-load, they could take it to the most convenient railway station, ship it by rail to the city, and go on collecting, instead of spending a day or more in delivering their load in the city. Very soon after railroads were first built, many farmers began to produce more poultry and eggs and to ship them directly to the best city market that they could find. As the demand for their produce was usually much greater than could be supplied from their own farms, such farmers often began to buy from their neighbors, thus becoming middlemen as well as producers. In many cases such men would after a time find it to their advantage to move their headquarters to the city, and would ultimately build up a very large business. [Illustration: Fig. 226. Fattening chickens in crates at a poultry buyer's warehouse.[25] (Photograph from the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] [25] If the farmer sells his chickens without fattening, the buyer can fatten them in this way and so make an extra profit. In nearly all farming sections, even those most remote from city markets, there is a short period in the spring when there is a large surplus of eggs and sometimes a period in the fall when there is more poultry ready for market than can be sold; but the people in those places rarely make any effort to increase their production, and to extend the seasons when they have more than enough for themselves, until they have good facilities for shipping eggs and poultry and the demands from outside cause a marked increase in the local prices of these products. [Illustration: Fig. 227. Driving turkeys to market. (Photograph from Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] So from the city and the country, almost simultaneously, but with the demand from the city most active and pressing, the modern system of collecting and distributing poultry products has grown. At first poultry products were nearly all handled by men who dealt in all kinds of country produce. As the business increased, many firms gave their attention exclusively to poultry products. Then, when creameries were established in many places, the creamery was found a convenient place for the collection of eggs. The large packing houses which handle other kinds of meat also entered this field and became a very important factor in the development of poultry culture in the West. [Illustration: Fig. 228. A big drive of turkeys arriving at a killing house. (Photograph from Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture]) In the collection and distribution of poultry products the various agencies mentioned form a great many different kinds of combinations. The arrangements vary according to many different conditions. From first to last every one who handles an article is trying to make all he can out of it, but most of the middlemen deal fairly both in buying and in selling. Indeed, people cannot continue long in any legitimate business unless they are honest. As we shall see, middlemen are in a position where they are often blamed without just cause, and often have to take much greater risks than either producers or consumers. =Losses in distribution.= It has been said that the general tendency is to reduce as far as possible the number of middlemen concerned in the distribution of poultry products. This tendency often goes too far and overreaches its purpose of economy. The efforts of producers and country collectors to deal directly with consumers and retailers in the large cities often give them less profit than would be obtained by selling through the regular channels of the trade. The reason for this is that most producers and a majority of country collectors do not prepare and pack their poultry and eggs so that they will reach those to whom they are consigned in good condition and bring the prices which the shippers expected to realize. The losses due to improper handling of eggs and poultry by producers and small collectors are enormous, undoubtedly amounting to more than $100,000,000 a year in the United States. [Illustration: Fig. 229. Candling eggs.[26] (Photograph from Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] [26] The man is posing for the photograph. When he works, the room must be dark except for the covered light used in candling. To place eggs and poultry in the hands of consumers in strictly first-class condition, they must be handled with great care at every stage of preparation and distribution. Eggs must be gathered while perfectly fresh, kept in a cool place where no bad odors will reach them, and protected from heat and frost, as well as from breakage, when being moved from place to place. If the producer is careless about any of these points, many of his eggs will be tainted or stale or beginning to rot when they are only a few days old, and though he may call them fresh eggs and try to sell them as such, he will not get the highest price for them. The small collectors are also likely to be careless in handling eggs, and to ship them to receivers in bad condition. The receivers in the cities, whose whole business is in perishable products, cannot afford to handle goods in this slipshod way. They candle the eggs that are forwarded to them to determine the quality, and pay for eggs not only according to their external appearance, but also the appearance and condition of the package in which they are received. Candling eggs consists in passing them before a bright light, as in testing to determine the fertility of eggs that are being incubated. When the egg is held before a light, the expert candler can tell in an instant whether it is fresh and good and, if not, just what is wrong with it. Except when kept at almost freezing temperature, eggs that have begun to decompose continue to deteriorate quite rapidly. Sometimes a lot of eggs is candled several times and the bad ones removed, before it reaches the last dealer who handles it. Market poultry and pigeons are sold both alive and dead. Most dead poultry is dressed (that is, has the feathers removed), but pigeons and guineas are often marketed dead without plucking, and occasionally turkeys are treated in the same way. Live birds lose weight in transportation, especially when they are shipped in crowded and badly ventilated coops. Frequently many birds in a shipment die before their journey is over. Because of such losses, and because the price per pound of the best dressed poultry is usually much higher than the price per pound of the best live poultry, the impression that it is more profitable for a producer to dress his poultry is widespread. The result is that a great many people who have poultry to sell dress it just as they would to use at home and, putting it into a box or a barrel, ship it to a market where the prices are high, expecting to get the highest price for it. A large part of such poultry arrives on the market in such a condition that it is hard to sell at any price, and much of it has to be thrown away. [Illustration: Fig. 230. Barrel of dressed poultry opened on arrival at its destination.[27] (Photograph from Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] [27] Note the large piece of ice remaining. If the ice should give out on the way, the poultry would spoil. Birds that are to be marketed should be kept without food or water for from twenty-four to thirty-six hours before killing. The object of this is to have the crop, gizzard, and intestines entirely empty. The killing is done by making a small, deep cut, that will at the same time penetrate the brain (making the bird unconscious) and sever one or two veins, thus letting the blood flow freely. This cut is usually made in the roof of the mouth, but sometimes in the neck. The former method is preferred because it leaves no wound exposed to the air. The common practice in picking poultry for home use is to scald the bird in water just below the boiling temperature. When this is done just right, the results are very good; the feathers come off easily and the skin is not damaged. But if the bird is not held in the scalding water long enough, the feathers are hard to remove and the skin may be torn in several places in the process. If the bird is held in the water too long, the skin will be partly cooked. If it is scalded before it has been properly bled, the hot water will turn the skin red. The defects in scalded poultry do not show badly at first, and if it is packed and shipped at once, the shipper may think that it was in very good condition; but if he could see it when the receiver unpacks it, he would be surprised to find how many blemishes there were on it and how poor it looked. Removing the feathers without scalding is called dry picking. It is an art which requires considerable practice. The novice who tries it usually tears the skin of the birds badly. In order to reach the market in good condition, poultry must not only be properly killed and picked, but each carcass must be cooled as quickly as possible, to remove the animal heat that remains in it. This is done either by hanging the carcasses in a very cool place or by putting them in cold water. Meat of all kinds that is cooled immediately after killing will keep much longer than if cooling is neglected. [Illustration: Fig. 231. A badly dressed and a well-dressed fowl. (Photograph from Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] There are so many details which must have attention in dressing poultry for shipment, that it usually pays both producers and small collectors to sell poultry alive to those who have better facilities for handling it and whose operations are on such a scale that they can employ experts for all parts of the work of preparation. =Cold storage of poultry products.= So abundant are the supplies of eggs in the spring, and of some kinds of dressed poultry in the summer, fall, and early winter, that large quantities could not be sold at any price at seasons of plenty if there were no way of keeping them until a season of scarcity. For about half a century after the production of eggs and poultry began to receive special attention in this country, the profits of the ordinary producer were severely cut every spring and fall, because the market was overstocked. Consumers derived little benefit from this situation, because they could not use the surplus before it spoiled. The popular idea of the way to remedy the conditions was to have hens lay when eggs were scarce, and to have poultry ready for sale when supplies were insufficient. Experience, however, has shown that it is practically impossible to have a very large proportion of things of this kind produced out of their natural season. The relatively small numbers of people who succeed in doing so make very good profits, but the masses of producers and consumers are not benefited. The solution of the problem of carrying the surplus of a season of abundance to a season of scarcity was discovered when methods of making ice artificially were perfected and it was found that the equipment used in manufacturing ice could be used to cool, to any desired degree, rooms for the storage of perishable produce. This form of refrigeration was at first used in place of the ordinary method (with natural ice), to keep goods for short periods. Much larger quantities could be taken care of in this way when for any reason a market was temporarily overstocked. For hundreds of years it had been quite a common practice to preserve eggs in various ways. By packing them in salt, or in salt brine, or in limewater, eggs may be kept in very good condition for several months, and sometimes for nearly a year. As limed and pickled eggs were regularly sold in the markets, every dealer in eggs at once saw the possibilities of cold storage as a factor in the market egg trade. Wherever there was a storage house, dealers began to buy eggs when prices were low, and store them to sell when prices were high. At first a great many of those who stored eggs lost money on them, either by the eggs spoiling in storage or because they kept the eggs too long, but after a few years' experience the operators of cold-storage plants learned the best temperatures for keeping the different kinds of produce and the best methods of arranging different articles in the chambers of the storage warehouses. They found that eggs kept best at 34 degrees Fahrenheit, that poultry must be frozen hard, and that the temperature in a storage chamber must not be allowed to vary. Those who were putting eggs and poultry in cold storage found that it did not pay to store produce that was not perfectly sound and good, and that products which had been in cold storage must be used promptly after being taken out, and also that they must plan their sales to have all stored goods sold before the new crop began to come in, or they would lose money. [Illustration: Fig. 232. Dressed fowls cooling on racks in dry-cooling room. (Photograph from Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture)] The development of cold-storage methods and their extensive use have been of great benefit to producers and consumers, as well as to distributors of perishable food products. The storing of such products is a legitimate form of speculative business. It prevents waste and loss. The demand for eggs and poultry to go into cold storage raises the price at seasons of plenty and makes a good market for all eggs and poultry that are fit to store. The eggs and poultry that have been stored furnish consumers with supplies at reasonable prices for much longer seasons. As a rule supplies in storage are not kept there for very long periods. Speculators who want to be on the safe side plan very carefully so that most, if not all, of the stuff that they have stored shall be sold before new supplies become abundant in the market. To do this they have to watch very closely every condition affecting the markets, and to use good judgment in selling. Most of them do not, as is popularly supposed, hold their entire stock for the period when prices are highest. If they did, all would lose. Eggs begin to come out of storage about midsummer, and are withdrawn gradually for about six months. By far the greater part of the poultry stored goes into the warehouses in the fall and begins to come out soon after the winter holidays. Within the limits of the time that goods may be carried in cold storage profitably, long storage has no more bad effects on eggs and poultry than refrigeration for short periods. Cold-storage products are usually of better than average quality if used immediately upon being withdrawn from storage. =Methods of selling at retail.= For convenience in handling and counting them in quantities, eggs are packed in cases containing thirty dozen each, and wholesale transactions in eggs are by the case, but with the price usually quoted by the dozen. Consumers who use large quantities of eggs buy them by the case. The ordinary consumer buys them by the dozen. There is a widespread impression that, inasmuch as eggs vary greatly in size, the practice of selling them by count is not fair to the consumer. This feeling sometimes goes so far that laws are proposed, and even passed, requiring that eggs shall be sold by weight. Such a law does not remain long in force, because weighing small quantities of eggs is troublesome and the greater number of consumers prefer to buy them by the dozen. In fact, while eggs are nominally sold by count both at wholesale and at retail, they are usually assorted according to size, and the prices graduated to suit. Considering size, condition, quality, and color of shell, as many as ten grades of eggs are sometimes made. Although the color of the shell of an egg has no relation whatever to its palatability or its nutritive value, eggs of a certain color sometimes command a premium. Thus, in New York City white eggs of the best grades will bring from five to ten cents a dozen more than brown eggs of equal quality, while in Boston the situation is exactly reversed. When most of the poultry of each kind in any market is of about the same size and quality, it is customary to sell live poultry at wholesale at a uniform price by the dozen, and to sell at retail by the piece or by the pair. But as soon as any considerable part of the poultry of any kind in a market is larger than the general run of supplies, a difference is made, in the prices per dozen or per piece or per pair, between small birds and large ones. If the size of the largest specimens further increases, the range of weights becomes too great to be classified in this way, and selling by weight soon becomes the common practice. Conditions are the same for dead poultry, except that the change to selling by weight comes more quickly. In preparing poultry for market by the method that has been described the head and feet were left on and the internal organs were not removed. The reason for this is that poultry keeps much better in this state. Removing these parts exposes the flesh at several places to the action of the air and of bacteria, which cause putrefaction. In many markets in poultry-producing sections it is customary to sell poultry drawn and with the head and feet off. In places where most of the poultry comes from a distance the waste parts of the carcass are not removed until it is bought by the consumer. Some people who buy in this way think that they are being defrauded if the marketman weighs the bird before removing the offal. Sometimes, to satisfy such a customer, a dealer removes the offal before weighing, and the customer cheerfully pays a higher rate per pound, feeling that at any rate he is getting just what he pays for when he insists on having it done in this way. As far as the cost is concerned, it makes no difference to the consumer at what stage of distribution the offal is discarded. =Volume of products.= In the United States and Canada the production and consumption of poultry products are very nearly equal, because each country has agricultural areas capable of supplying an enormous population with poultry and eggs. Production in such districts responds quickly to the increasing demands of other sections, but not in such volume as to create large surpluses for export. The present annual production of the United States is variously estimated at from $600,000,000 to $1,000,000,000. This wide difference exists because the census is only a partial one. In Canada no general census of poultry products has ever been taken. The poultry statistics for the United States as collected decennially by the Bureau of the Census may be found complete in the full report of agricultural statistics. Those for the different states may be obtained in separate bulletins. Some of the states and provinces collect poultry statistics through state and provincial departments and furnish the reports to all persons desiring them. Persons living in communities which ship poultry products can usually learn from the local shippers the approximate amounts and the value of the produce that they handle. At the more important receiving points statistics of receipts are kept by such organizations as the Produce Exchange, Board of Trade, or Chamber of Commerce, and the results published in their annual reports. From such sources it is possible for pupils to get information as to the status and importance of the poultry trade in the communities in which they live. CHAPTER XXI EXHIBITIONS AND THE FANCY TRADE =Conditions in the fancy trade.= The trade in fancy poultry and pigeons and in cage birds is on a very different basis from the trade in market products. With the arrangements for collecting poultry products and for holding them when that is desirable, it seldom happens that market products cannot be sold at any time when the producer wants to dispose of them. The fancy trade is quite closely limited to certain short seasons. In this trade prices depend as much upon the reputation of the seller as upon the quality of his stock. Very high prices are obtained only by those who have made a big reputation by winning at important shows, and have advertised their winnings extensively. Buyers of fancy stock prefer to deal directly with producers, and the greater part of the business is mail-order business. It is almost impossible to force the sale of this class of stock except by selling it for the table at market prices. The producer can only advertise and wait for customers, and what is not sold at fancy prices must be sold at market prices. =Exhibitions.= Competitive exhibitions hold a very important place in the development and distribution of improved stocks of animals. In old times such exhibitions were informal gatherings of the persons in a locality who were interested in the improvement of a particular breed or variety. Our knowledge of these early gatherings of breeders of domestic birds is very limited and is mostly traditional. From what is known it appears that they were usually held in the evenings at public houses, and that each person taking part carried with him to the place of meeting one or more of his best birds; that these were compared and their qualities discussed by the company, and that at the close each participant carried his exhibit home. [Illustration: Fig. 233. View of a section of a large poultry show in Mechanics Building, Boston, Massachusetts] As the interest in breeding for fancy points extended, such gatherings became larger and assumed a more formal character, and rules were adopted for comparing, or judging, the birds; but it was not until about the middle of the nineteenth century that the modern system of public exhibitions of poultry, pigeons, cage birds, and pet stock was inaugurated. The first exhibitions of this kind were held at the agricultural fairs. Very soon after these began to attract attention, special exhibitions, limited to this class of stock and held in suitable buildings in the winter, became frequent. Now large shows are held annually in nearly every large city and in hundreds of smaller cities, and every agricultural fair has its poultry department. For the sake of brevity, shows at which poultry is the principal feature are called simply poultry shows, although they often include other kinds of domestic birds and all kinds of small domestic animals. A large poultry show, with a great variety of exhibits of birds and of the appliances used in aviculture, affords an excellent opportunity to see good specimens of many kinds. Those who have such an opportunity ought to make the most of it. But the novice who can attend only small shows will find that, while he does not see as many different kinds of birds there and may not see many really fine specimens, the small show affords the beginner a much better opportunity to learn something about the differences that affect quality and value in fancy poultry and pigeons. At the large show there is so much to see, and the differences between the winning specimens in any class are usually so slight, that only those who are familiar with many varieties can make a critical examination of the exhibits. At the smaller shows the varieties are not as numerous, the competing classes are smaller, and the differences between the specimens which win prizes are often plainly apparent, even to a novice, if he has a clue to the method of making the awards. Those who visit large shows can use their time to best advantage if they make as careful a study as they can of the few things in which they take the most interest, and take just a casual look at everything else. In the four or five days that it is open to the public it is not possible for any one to make a thorough, discriminating inspection of all that there is to be seen at a large poultry show, and an experienced visitor to such shows never tries to do so. At many of the small shows even a novice, by studying the exhibits systematically, may get a very good idea of all the classes and may add something to his accurate knowledge of a number of different kinds of birds. =Rudiments of judging.= While even an ordinary poultry show contains a great deal that is of interest to those who know how to get at it, the visitor who does not know how to study the exhibits and simply takes a cursory look at all of them, tires of the regular classes at a show in a very short time. After the awards have been made, the ribbons or cards on the coops will show the winning birds and their relative positions, but unless one knows something of the methods and rules of judging and compares the birds with some care, he is likely to get the impression that making comparisons between show birds requires a keener critical faculty than he possesses, and to conclude that it is quite useless for him to attempt to discover why the birds have been ranked in the order in which the judge has placed them. Judging live stock is not a matter of simple comparisons of weights and dimensions. The personal opinions of the judge necessarily affect his decisions, and as the opinions of men differ, their judgments will vary. A judge is often in doubt as to which of two or more birds is (all things considered) the better specimen, but he must make his decision on the birds as they appear to him at the time, and that decision must stand for that competition. No one, no matter how well he may know the requirements of the standard for a variety and the methods of applying it, can discover by a study of a class of birds all of the judge's reasons for his decisions; but any one who will keep in mind and try to apply a few simple, general rules can look over a variety that he has never seen before, and of which he may not know the name, and (unless the judge has been very erratic in his decisions) can see why most of the awards in a small class of varied quality have been made. These rules are: 1. The character or characters that most conspicuously distinguish a type are given most consideration in judging. 2. Color of plumage is given more consideration than shape, unless some shape character is unusually striking. 3. Quality in color of plumage consists in evenness and purity of shade in solid-colored specimens, and in sound colors and distinctness of the pattern in party-colored specimens. 4. The shape of extraordinary superficial shape characters, such as crests, very large combs, heavy foot-feathering, etc., is usually given as much consideration as color. The first rule really includes all the others, and although this is not usually admitted by the exponents of current methods of judging live stock, in practice it is the fundamental rule in judging. One reason why people who have a little knowledge of standards for well-bred poultry, and of the methods of applying them, are almost always puzzled by the awards at poultry shows is because they try to analyze them in accordance with the commonly accepted theory of judging by points, which assigns definite numerical values to certain characters. This theory assumes that the judge, taking these values as a basis, computes the values of faults with mathematical accuracy. This is not possible where the computation is based upon an opinion. To illustrate the application of the rules given, let us apply them to some well-known varieties, taking first the Barred Plymouth Rock. The conspicuous distinguishing character of this variety is the barred color pattern; therefore color of plumage has most consideration in judging it. The pattern is the same all over the bird; therefore every feather should be barred. The pattern must be sharply defined; therefore the colors must be clean-cut and the bars straight and of nearly equal width on each feather, with the width of bars on feathers of different sizes proportionate to the width of the feather. These requirements seem very simple when stated, but a close examination of ordinary exhibition Barred Plymouth Rocks will show very few specimens that closely approach perfection according to the rules. Now take the White Wyandotte. The most conspicuous character of any white bird is its whiteness. In judging this variety, therefore, whiteness will have more consideration than any other quality. White Wyandottes are distinguished from White Plymouth Rocks by the shape of the comb; therefore the shape of the comb will be given more attention by the judge than if there were other distinguishing features. Silver-Laced Wyandottes are conspicuous for their color pattern; therefore the most important thing is that this shall be well defined and uniform, the white centers clean and white and the black edges intensely black. Uniformity in such markings is very difficult to produce. A bird may be well marked in one section and very poorly marked in another. In Partridge Cochins the most conspicuous character is extreme feather development; the next is color of plumage, which differs in male and female. Feather development and the shape which it produces will therefore have about equal consideration with color. In color the male is black on the breast and body, with a red neck and back, the feathers of the hackle and the saddle having black stripes in the center; therefore, in the male, quality in color consists in blackness in the black sections, a uniform red in the red sections, and clear and sharp striping wherever it appears. The Partridge Cochin female has plumage of brown penciled with a darker brown; therefore to the eye of a poultry fancier the beauty of her color consists in well-defined penciling and a harmonious contrast in the two shades of color. A White-Crested Black Polish fowl is most conspicuous for its large white crest; therefore the crest is the most important feature to be considered in judging this variety. But color is also very important, for if the white feathers of the crest are partly mixed with black, or the black of the body is dull, the effect is not pleasing. The Fantail Pigeon is most conspicuous for its fan-shaped tail; therefore this is the most important thing in judging. The tail must not only be large and well shaped, but must be carried in an attractive manner. It must not be too large, because then the bird cannot carry it in a good position. In addition to carrying the tail in a good position, the bird must pose so that the whole attitude adds to the attractiveness of the principal feature. Similarly with the Pouter Pigeon, the globular crop, which is its distinctive character, must be large and well formed, and in addition the general carriage must be such as to show the pouting trait to the best advantage. [Illustration: Fig. 234. Almost complete view of a poultry show at Worcester, Massachusetts] The same rules of color which apply to fowls apply also to pigeons. The color patterns of pigeons are much more numerous, but as a rule the principal required features are at once obvious to any one who keeps in mind the general rules that have been given. After the more conspicuous characters, many minor characters are given particular consideration. In theoretical statements of methods of judging, these minor characters are often treated as of equal importance with the conspicuous characters, but in ordinary judging practice they are not often so treated, except in the case of disqualifying faults, to be noted presently. The less conspicuous characters, including shape of body (in regard to which the average fancier and judge is somewhat careless, not discriminating between closely related types), become important in making decisions between specimens which appear to be equal in the more conspicuous characters. Because of this there is a tendency to exaggerate some one minor character whenever a high degree of uniformity in characters that are of primary importance in judging is reached. [Illustration: Fig. 235. Saddle Fantail Pigeon[28]] [Illustration: Fig. 236. White Fantail Pigeons [28]] [28] Reproduced, by permission, from "Domesticated Animals and Plants," by E. Davenport. =Disqualifications.= The practice of judging the relative merits of exhibition birds principally by a few striking characters tends to make breeders and exhibitors neglect many little things which affect the appearance of a bird. This is especially the case with exhibitors competing under judges who are partial to some conspicuous character. To prevent this, and to place the heaviest possible penalty upon serious faults that are easily overlooked, certain faults are made disqualifications; that is, a bird having any one of these faults is absolutely debarred from competition, no matter how good it may be in other respects. There is general agreement as to the wisdom and justice of disqualifying for deformities or for mutilations of the feathers to conceal a fault. In regard to disqualifying for trivial faults, fanciers differ in opinion. Many hold that this has been carried to a ridiculous extreme in some cases. Thus, in all clean-legged fowls it is required that the shanks and toes shall be free from small feathers, stubs, or down. Most fanciers agree that conspicuous feathers and stubs should disqualify, but many consider that to disqualify for a minute bit of down, which can hardly be seen without the aid of a magnifying glass, is going too far. Unless the judge has overlooked a disqualification (and this rarely happens), none will be found on a bird that has been awarded a prize. If in any class there is a bird which is not given a place, though apparently superior to any of the prize winners in the characters most distinctive of its variety, that bird usually has some disqualification. The list of disqualifications is too long to be given here. It is not the same throughout for all varieties. Exhibitors and breeders do not attempt to keep track of the disqualifications (which are changed occasionally) for any but the varieties in which they are especially interested. =Methods of judging.= When exhibitions of domestic birds were first held, the awards were usually made by committees of two or three judges. The object in doing this was to insure impartiality and to make connivance between a judge and an exhibitor more difficult. It was found that this plan did not work well. Often the opinions of one man dominated, or, if the man could not have his way, the committee wrangled and took too long to make its decisions. So by degrees the committee plan was abandoned and a single judge made the awards in accordance with standards and rules agreed upon by associations of exhibitors and judges. At first all judging was done by comparison of the specimens of each class entered in competition. That is the method still in general use in Europe and widely used in America. But to many exhibitors comparison judging seemed unsatisfactory, because by it only the winning birds were indicated, and exhibitors whose birds did not win usually wanted to know how their birds compared with the winners. To meet this demand score-card judging was adopted. In this method of judging, the characters to be considered are divided into sections, which are named in order on a card having corresponding blank spaces in which to mark numerical cuts for faults in each section. The score cards used at poultry shows where judging is done by that method do not indicate to which of several possible faults a cut applies, except that, having one column for shape cuts and another for color cuts, they show in which class the fault appears. In many educational and private score cards the names of the common faults in each section are printed in the space allotted that section, in order that the fault may be accurately checked. The use of cards with so much detail is not practical in ordinary competition. The score of a bird judged by the score-card method is the difference between 100 (taken as the symbol of the perfect bird of any variety) and the sum of all the cuts made for faults. The common cuts for faults are ½ for a slight fault, 1 for a pronounced fault, and 1½ for a very bad fault. Occasionally larger cuts are made for serious faults. Theoretically the score is supposed to represent accurately the relation of a specimen to a perfect specimen, but really scores only represent in a general way the judges' opinions of the relative values of the birds in a class, and indicate to the exhibitor where the judge found faults in his bird. =Exhibition quality and value.= The winning of a prize at an important show gives a breeder of fancy birds a standing that he could not otherwise acquire. The greater part of the sales of poultry of this class are made by mail to persons who do not know the breeder personally and do not see his stock until after purchasing. No matter how good his stock may be, those who want to buy will not pay much attention to his claims for its superior quality until they have such confirmation of those claims as is given by the winning of prizes in competition. Then the prices which a breeder can get for his stock will be regulated largely by the prices obtained by other successful exhibitors at shows of the same class. There is a wide range of prices from those that can be secured for stock of the quality that wins at the greatest shows, to those that can be obtained for the kind that wins at ordinary small shows. High prices are paid for noted winners and for other stock of the same breeding, as much for the advertising value of ownership of fine stock as for the actual value of the birds to breed from or to exhibit again. A breeder who wins at some very small show may find it hard to sell either stock or eggs for hatching except at a slight advance over market prices. Some breeders who have made remarkable records in winning at the best shows can get very high prices for their prize-winning stock and for the eggs from it. Fowls sometimes sell as high as $500 each, and eggs at $2 each. Pigeons also bring very high prices at times, although fewer people are interested in them and sales are not so numerous. The ordinary prices for good stock are quite reasonable, considering how few really fine specimens are produced. The average novice finds that fowls at from $10 to $25 a trio and pigeons at from $5 to $15 a pair have all the quality that he can appreciate. In the early days of modern fancy poultry culture those breeders who had great reputations could get relatively high prices for almost any bird that would pass as a breeding specimen of its kind. This is still true of breeders who successfully introduce new varieties or who suddenly attain prominence with stock of their own breeding. But as the stock of a leading breeder becomes widely distributed among smaller breeders, the competition of his customers reduces his sales, and especially the sales of the cheaper grades of stock. The most troublesome problem that the best breeders have is to get rid of the lower grades of their stock at a fair profit. =Why good breeders have much low-priced stock.= Novices in the breeding of fine stock commonly suppose that all pure-bred stock of any variety is of uniform quality. When they learn that, as a rule, only a small part of the young birds hatched from good stock is considered of superior quality, they often conclude that the ideas and the standards of fanciers must be wrong. Even professional and scientific men who become interested in fancy poultry and pigeons often take this view and, after considering the question carefully from their standpoint, try to explain to fanciers how, by changing a standard, they might secure a much larger proportion of specimens approximately perfect according to the standard used. In the case of varieties in which the finest specimens of the different sexes are secured from different matings, many novices waste a great deal of time trying to convince old fanciers that their standards and methods are illogical and unnatural. To those who do not understand the philosophy of the interest in breeding to highly specialized types the arguments for standards that are adjusted to common results and are easy to attain appear to be unanswerable. Upon the fancier who does understand this philosophy they make no impression at all. The breeding and exhibiting of fancy stock of any kind is primarily a game. The rules of the game are in a measure arbitrary, like the rules in baseball or football or any other game. At the same time they must be framed in the interests of the development of the game as a sport and also as a spectacle. They must be reasonable and must be suited to players of all degrees of skill. Standards and rules for judging fancy stock develop just as the rules of athletic games develop. A generation ago such games as baseball and football were comparatively simple games in which boys and men might take very creditable parts without devoting a great deal of attention to practice. These games still afford recreation to many who use them for that purpose only, but they have also been developed so that players of exceptional skill play competition games for the interest of a public which studies the fine points of these games and compares the abilities of the players. People who take an interest in and patronize professional or high-class amateur ball games do so because in them skillful and well-trained players do difficult things. It is the same in the breeding of fancy live stock to a high standard of excellence. When a breed or a variety is first made, the interest of the breeders centers in a few characters, precisely as the interest of a novice in any line centers in a few prominent features. As breeders grow in experience and in skill, and as the characters to which they first give special attention become fixed, they demand better quality in these and also turn their attention to the development of other characters. The more difficult a combination of characters is to produce, the greater interest the fancier takes in trying to produce it. When a standard calls for a high degree of excellence in many characters, the proportion of specimens of high excellence, as measured by that standard, will almost always be small. It is because this is the case that the rare specimens are considered so valuable. =Fancy and utility types in the same variety.= The great majority of American breeders of fancy poultry seek to secure a high degree of practical value in combination with fancy quality in their stock. There are some fanciers who breed only for fancy points, and some market poultry growers who pay no attention at all to them, but as a rule those who give market poultry special attention want well-bred stock of good ordinary quality, and those who keep poultry for pleasure want the flock kept for this purpose to supply at least their own tables with eggs and meat. The breeder who wishes to combine fancy and utility properties in any kind of live stock must breed only from specimens that are meritorious in both directions, selecting much more carefully than when breeding for one class of properties. CHAPTER XXII OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AVICULTURE The value of a knowledge of domestic birds is not limited to the use which may be made of it in keeping them for profit or for pleasure. Any occupation in which a great many people are interested affords opportunities to combine the knowledge relating to it with special knowledge or skill in other lines, to the advantage of those who are able to do so. Just as the large market or fancy poultry business may develop from a small flock kept to supply the owner's table or to give him a little recreation, many special occupations grow out of particular interests of aviculturists. Some of these have been mentioned incidentally in preceding chapters. In this chapter the principal occupations associated with aviculture will be discussed both in their relation to that subject and with respect to their possible interest for those who plan to devote themselves to lines of work which would qualify them for special service in aviculture. =Judging fancy poultry and pigeons.= There is the same difference between selecting one's own birds according to quality and judging the birds of others in competition that there is between performing well in a friendly game and performing well in a competition where the stakes are important and feeling runs high. Many fanciers who are good breeders and also good judges under other conditions make poor judges in competitions. In judging at shows decisions must be made quickly, there is little opportunity to rectify mistakes, and if a judge makes serious blunders he is severely criticized. A person who deliberates a long time before coming to a decision, and who is very sensitive to criticisms of his errors, even though he knows that some errors are sure to be made by every one and that unprejudiced exhibitors make allowance for this, will not make a successful judge of poultry and pigeons. Judges as a class are not the men who know the most about standard-bred birds or who are the most skillful in breeding them, although some of the best breeders are among the best judges. Almost all fanciers get opportunities to act as judges. If their work is satisfactory, the demand for their services increases until in time their income from this source may be large enough to make it worth while to adjust their other affairs to their engagements at poultry shows. =Journalism.= There were a few books on poultry and pigeons written in the first half of the last century, and a larger number immediately following the "hen-fever" period. These and the articles on poultry and pigeons in agricultural papers constituted the literature of the subject until about 1870. Then there appeared a number of poultry journals, most of which gave some attention to other domestic birds. The demand for special journals arose because many people who were interested in poultry were living in cities and were not interested in general agriculture; they wanted more information about poultry matters than the agricultural papers could give. Advertisers of poultry and pigeons, and of goods bought by aviculturists, also wished advertising mediums through which they could reach buyers at less cost than they could through the agricultural papers. The rates for advertising are based upon circulation, and if only a small class of the readers of a publication are buyers of a particular class of goods advertised in it, the cost of reaching them may be too great. Whenever any interest becomes of sufficient importance, journals especially devoted to it are issued, for the convenience of buyers and sellers as well as for the information they contain. Until about 1890 nearly all poultry journals were small publications which the owners looked after in their spare time. Then they began to increase in number and importance, and before long there were a great many that gave regular employment to editors, advertising solicitors, and subscription solicitors, who were employed for their knowledge of poultry and their acquaintance with poultrymen as well as for special qualifications for their respective departments. =Art.= The illustrating of poultry journals and books, and of the catalogues of fanciers and other advertisers in poultry literature, gives employment to a constantly increasing number of artists. In order to successfully portray birds for critical fanciers, an artist must be something of a fancier. It is not enough that he should draw or paint them as he sees them; he must know how to pose birds of different kinds, types, and breeds so that his pictures will show the proper characteristic poses and show the most important characters to their best advantage. Since the half-tone process of making illustrations was perfected, the greatest demand is for photographic work, but unless an artist is able to work over and complete a defective photograph with brush or pencil, he cannot make this line of work profitable. Most birds are difficult subjects to photograph, and only a small proportion of the photographs that are taken can be used without retouching. A photographer may work for an hour to get a bird posed to suit him, and then, just as he presses the bulb, the bird, by a slight movement of the head or foot, may spoil one feature in a photograph that is otherwise all that could be desired. An artist who can draw birds can remedy such defects; the ordinary commercial artist cannot. =Invention.= The most important invention used in aviculture is the artificial incubator. Methods of hatching eggs by artificial heat were developed independently by the Egyptians and by the Chinese thousands of years ago, and are still used in Egypt and China. The arrangements used in these old hatcheries are crude, and the success of the operation depends upon exceptional skill and judgment on the part of the operator. Operating incubators is a business continued in the same families for centuries. Each hatchery does the hatching for a community. In the early part of the eighteenth century a French scientist named Réaumur, who was much interested in poultry, began to make experiments in artificial hatching and brooding. In 1750 he published a very full account of these and other experiments which he had made with poultry. His idea was to devise a modification of the Egyptian practice of hatching in ovens, suited to the conditions of a more advanced civilization. He succeeded in hatching eggs by utilizing the waste heat from a baker's oven, and also hatched eggs in hotbeds heated with decomposing manure. He applied the hotbed principle to the brooding of chickens with some success. But the methods that he devised were not adapted to general use. After Réaumur many others experimented with artificial hatching. Some of the ideas were obviously more impractical than those of Réaumur, but the experimenters tried them out and sometimes succeeded in hatching chickens by very peculiar and laborious processes. One man in England, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, hatched some chickens from eggs placed in cotton batting in a sieve adjusted over a charcoal fire in a small fireplace. The fire was watched constantly for three weeks, either by himself or by some member of his family. He demonstrated that eggs could be hatched in this way, but not that it could be done profitably. Practical incubators were not produced until about forty years ago. Although incubators and brooders have been brought to a relatively high state of efficiency, they are far from perfect. Inventors of the best machines are still studying ways to improve them. In this and many other fields there are opportunities for inventive genius. =Education and investigation.= Lectures on poultry have been given occasionally at agricultural institutes in the United States since about 1860. After 1890 the demand for such lectures, and the number given, constantly increased, and ability to speak in public became valuable to one versed in aviculture. Then the study of poultry culture was introduced into agricultural colleges, and a new field was opened to poultry keepers with a faculty for teaching, and for trained teachers with special knowledge of domestic birds. The teaching of poultry culture impressed upon those engaged in it the need of scientific investigation of many problems not clearly understood even by the best-informed poultrymen. The agricultural experiment stations had been giving little attention to some of these problems except in a desultory way and without important results. As the demands for more accurate information on many topics increased, many of the experiment stations began to make important poultry investigations. For this work men specially trained in various sciences were required. As a rule the men that were secured for such work knew very little about poultry when they began their investigations, but it was much easier for them to acquire a knowledge of poultry sufficient for their needs than for persons who had poultry knowledge and no scientific training to qualify for positions as investigators. The field of investigation of matters relating to poultry is constantly being extended. Proficiency in physics, chemistry, biology, surgery, and medicine, and in higher mathematics as far as it relates to the problems of any of the sciences mentioned, will always be in demand for scientific work in aviculture. In the future the most efficient teachers and investigators will be those whose early familiarity with domestic birds has given a greater insight into the subject than is usually possessed by those who take up the study of the subject comparatively late in life. =Manufacturing and commerce.= It is very much easier to build up a large business in the manufacture or the sale of articles used by poultry and pigeon keepers than to build up a large business as a breeder of domestic birds of any kind. As has been stated in connection with nearly every kind of bird mentioned in this book, a poultry keeper's operations are limited by the difficulty of keeping large numbers of birds continuously on the same land, and also by the exacting nature of the work of caring for them under such conditions. In manufacturing and commercial operations there are no such limitations. The possibilities of development depend upon the extent of the demand for the articles that are manufactured or sold, and only a small proportion of the employees need to be persons versed in aviculture. But in competition with other manufacturers or merchants those who understand domestic birds and know all the different phases of interest in them have a very great advantage over those who do not. =Legislation and litigation.= The rise of new industries creates new problems for legislators, executive departments, courts, and lawyers. An industry in which many people are interested eventually reaches a stage where it is profitable for lawyers to specialize to some extent in laws affecting it, and politic for legislators and administrators to do what is in their power to protect the interests of those engaged in it, and to advance those interests for the benefit of the whole community. A special field is opening for lawyers familiar with aviculture and with its relations to other matters, just as within a few years the field has opened to teachers and investigators. * * * * * The possible uses of a knowledge of aviculture to young people who are naturally inclined toward intellectual professions, art, invention, manufacturing, or trading have not been given for the sake of urging students to direct their course especially toward work connected with aviculture. The object is only to show those who take an interest in the subject that it is worth while to cultivate that interest for other reasons, as well as for the profit or the pleasure that may be immediately derived from it. INDEX Abbotsbury, old swannery at, 229 Africa, guinea fowl in, 202; ostrich breeding in, 235 African goose, 164; illustrated, 164 Age, of earth, 25; of fowls, 92; of geese, 169; of swans, 223; of ostriches, 232 Agricultural experiment stations, interest of, in aviculture, 308 Agricultural fairs, poultry exhibitions at, 292 Aigret of peafowl, 208 Albumen, formation of, in egg, 17 Alfalfa, 140, 236 American Wild Goose, 165; illustrated, 166 American Wild Pigeon, 241 Amherst Pheasant, illustrated, 214 Ancona, 64 Andalusian, Blue, 49, 64 Animal kingdom, place of birds in, 2 Animals, having bird characters, 1; predacious, prevent use of colony system, 107 Annual production of poultry and eggs in United States, 290 Antwerp Homer Pigeon, 246 Art, relation of, to poultry culture, 306 Aseel, 50 Ashes, use of, in poultry house, 75 Asia, peafowl in, 208; pheasants in, 212 Asiatic races of fowls, 49 Australia, Black Swan discovered in, 223 Austria, goose growing in, 167 Aylesbury Duck, 129; as a market duck in America, 147 Babylonians, knowledge of fowls among, 36 Bache, importation of pheasants by, 212 Bakubas, ducks among the, 127 Bantams, 66; illustrated, 37, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70 Barbs of feather, 9 Barnum, P. T., promoter of an early poultry show, 53 Barrel of dressed poultry iced for shipment, illustrated, 284 Barring, quality in, 295 Bat, a flying animal, 1 Bath, for ducks, 139; for pigeons, 261; for canaries, 273 Beard, of fowls, 10; of turkeys, 180 Bedding for ducks, 138 Beef scrap, 116, 140 Belgian Canary, 271; illustrated, 271 Bill, of duck, 124; of goose, 158 Bird, use of term, 2 Birdseed, composition of, 273 Black Swan, 223 Blackhead in turkeys, 198 Blood, feeding, to fowls, 90 Boat, swimming bird model for, 3, 124 Boston, first poultry show held in, 52 Boston Common, feeding pigeons on, illustrated, 245 Bourbon Red Turkey, 187; illustrated, 188 Brahma Bantams, 71; illustrated, 70 Brahmaputras, 53 Brahmas, Light, illustrated, 22, 36, 37; Dark, illustrated, 51; used for roasters, 116 Bran, 78, 89 Branding swans, 225 Bread, feeding, to swans, 228 Breast in birds, relation of development of, to flight, 12 Breed, defined, 28 Bremen Goose, 161 Broiler growing, 112 Bronze Turkey, 183; illustrated, 186 Broody hen, actions of, 93 Brown eggs, preference for, in Boston, 289 Brunswick Goose, 161 Bucks County Fowl, 56 Buff Turkey, 187 Buoyancy of aquatic birds, 15 Burnham, author of "The History of the Hen Fever," 53 Buttermilk, 98 Cabbage for poultry, 89, 117, 140 Cackling of fowls, 33 Cages for canaries, 272 Call Ducks, 133, 134; illustrated, 135 Cambridgeshire Bronze Turkey, 182 Canada Goose, 165; illustrated, 166 Canary Islands, canaries in, 269 Candling eggs, 21, 283; illustrated, 282 Capon, 116 Carneaux squabs, illustrated, 266 Carrier Pigeon, 243 Cart, used on poultry farm, illustrated, 102 Cats and canaries, 272 Cayuga Duck, 131 Cement floor in poultry house, 74 Central America, turkey in, 181 Ceylon, peafowl in, 209 Chalazæ, function of, 17 Charcoal fire, incubating eggs over, 307 Chicken, exclusion of, 22; technical use of term, 35 Chickweed for canaries, 273 Children as poultry keepers, 39, 42 China, introduction of poultry into, 36; Pekin Duck brought from, 131; artificial incubation in, 305 China Geese, 162; illustrated, 162, 163 Chinese races of fowls, 51 Cities, relation of growth of, to poultry culture, 278 Classes of domestic birds, 6 Clover, 140 Clucking of hen, 33, 93 Cochin, Buff, illustrated, 50; Black, used in making Plymouth Rock, 57; Partridge, judging, 296 Cochin Bantams, 69; illustrated, 69 Cock, use of term, 34 Cockfighting, prohibition of, 5 Cockerel, 35 Cold storage, 112, 285 Colony houses, illustrated, 101, 103, 104, 106 Colony system of poultry keeping, 101 Color, in feathers, 10; of wild ancestor of domestic fowl, 27; of wild ancestor of domestic pigeon, 247; consideration of, in judging, 294 Comb, of fowl, 33, 117; of guinea, 200 Commerce, relations of, to aviculture, 308 Common Pheasant, 214 Comparison judging, 299 Confinement, effect of, on egg production, 72, 74 Cooling dressed poultry, 285; illustrated, 287 Coop, made of dry-goods box, illustrated, 75; for hens and chicks, 97; illustrated, 97, 98, 106; for turkey hen and brood, illustrated, 197; for pheasants, illustrated, 218, 219 Corn, cracked, 78, 98, 103, 116, 140, 175; feeding, on cob, 89; soaking whole, 89; for sitting hens, 95; stale, 220 Corn meal for chicks, 78, 89, 97 Cornfield, poultry in, 106; illustrated, 122 Cracker crumbs for chicks, 98 Creameries as egg-collecting depots, 280 Creamy tint in white feathers, cause of, 11 Crest, occurrence of, in fowls, 10; consideration of, in judging, 295 Crested White Duck, 133 Crop, function of, 16; size of, in duck, 140; peculiarity of, in ostrich, 232 Croppers, 250 Crossbred, defined, 29 Crow of cock, 33 Crower, colloquial use of term, 35 Cuckoo, laying habit of, 1; mating habits of, 3; fowls, 43 Curl in tail of drake, 127 Cuttle bone for canaries, 273 Cygnet, 224 Darknecked Pheasant, 214 Decoration, feathers used for, 32 Decorative plumage, 10 Deer's hair for canaries' nests, 274 Diet of birds, 15 Disqualifications for exhibitions, 298 Domestication, adaptability of species to, 7 Dominique, 43, 55, 57; illustrated, 43 Dorking, 44, 55; illustrated, 44 Dove, origin and use of term, 240 Dovecots, great number of, in England in medieval times, 252 Down, defined, 8; replaced by feathers, 11; sometimes a disqualification, 299 Dragoon pigeon, 251; illustrated, 241 Drawing poultry, 289 Dressed poultry, 283; illustrated, 285 Dressed squabs, illustrated, 267 Driving turkeys to market, illustrated, 199, 280, 281 Droppings board, 75 Duck farms, illustrated, 146, 147, 149, 150 Dumb ducks, 127 Dust bath for fowls, 76 Dutch artists, paintings of poultry by, 48 Dutch races of fowls, 47 Dwarf fowls, 64 Eared Pheasants, 216 Earth, relation of age of, to evolution, 26 East India Duck, 133 Egg, description of, 16 Eggs, uses of, 4; number of, set under hen, 95; boiled for chicks, 98; quality of ducks' and hens', compared, 124 Egypt, fowls in ancient, 36; goose sacred in ancient, 166; pigeons in, 244; artificial incubation in, 305 Egyptian Goose, 165 Egyptian hieroglyphics, duck in, 127; goose in, 157 Embryo, growth of, 16, 21 Emden Goose, 158; illustrated, 158 England, colony poultry houses in, 107 English Pheasant, 215 English races of fowls, 46 Evolution, theory of, 25 Exhibition Game Bantams, 70; illustrated, 37 Exhibitions of poultry, illustrated, 292, 297 Face of fowl, appearance of, 8 Fancier, philosophy of the, 302 Fanciers, influence of, on development of types, 37 Fancy poultry plant, illustrated, 121 Fantail Pigeon, 249, 296; illustrated, 298 Farm stock of poultry, illustrated, 84 Fattening chickens in crates, illustrated, 279 Feather beds, 31 Feathers, uses of, 4, 31; structure of, 8; resistance of, to water, 15 Feeding young ducks on duck farm, illustrated, 153 Fence for ducks, 139; for turkeys, 192, 197 Feral race, distinguished from wild, 35 Fertile egg, appearance of, when tested, 96 Feudal system, regulation under, of use of birds in hunting, 5 Flatheaded Canary, illustrated, 271 Flaxseed for canaries, 272 Flies, ducks catching, 144 Flight of birds, 2 Floors in poultry houses, 73 Fly for pigeons, 257 Flying machine, bird a model for, 2 Food, of birds, 15; of fowls, 78 Foot feathering, 37; consideration of, in judging, 295 Fowl, use of term, 2 Fowls and pheasants in same yard, illustrated, 220 French races of fowls, 48 Frillback Pigeons, illustrated, 252 Frizzled fowls, 65 _Gallus Bankiva_, 35; cock, illustrated, 42 Game, resemblance of Brown Pit to wild progenitor, 27 Game Bantam, 37 Gander, 160; fighting, in Russia, 162 Garden, keeping chickens in, 83; keeping ducks in, 145 Germ of egg, 16 German artists, paintings of poultry by old, 48 German races of fowls, 47 Germany, goose growing in, 167 Gizzard, function of, 16; peculiarity of, in ostrich, 232 Gobbler, use of term, 180 Golden Pheasant, 215 Goldfinch, American, erroneously called a canary, 270 Goose-fattening farm, illustrated, 175 Goslings, growth of, illustrated, 172; grazing, illustrated, 174 Gough, John B., a noted poultry fancier, 53 Grade, defined, 29 Grass, in poultry yards, 72; growing goslings on, 172 Grasshoppers, turkeys as destroyers of, 194 Gray Lag Goose, 160 Green ducks, 144 Grit, use of, for poultry, 16 Guinea, color pattern in feathers of, 10; White, illustrated, 202, 204 Gunpowder, use of pigeon manure in manufacture of, 253 Hair, relation of, to feathers, 8 Hamburg, Silver-Spangled, illustrated, 46 Hamburg chicks, early growth of feathers of, 11 Handling ducks, 125 Handling pigeons, 262 Harz Mountain Canaries, 271 Hatching season, natural, 93 Hawk-colored fowls, 43 Hawks and guineas, 204 Hempseed for canaries, 274 Hen Pigeons, illustrated, 251 Hen-tailed Bantams, 70 Heron, flight of, 12 Holland Turkey, White, 182; illustrated, 184, 185 Homer Pigeons, 243; Flying, illustrated, 241, 242, 246; squab-breeding, illustrated, 247; squabs of, illustrated, 266 Houdan male, illustrated, 48 House, for fowls, 73, 85, 101, 108; illustrated, 74, 76, 77, 85-89, 118; with open front protected by hood, illustrated, 89; for growing chickens, illustrated, 99, 116; old stone, on Rhode Island farm, illustrated, 100; moving a colony to, 104; interior of a compartment in, illustrated, 110; for ducks, 138; illustrated, 150, 151; for geese, 169; for turkeys, 190; illustrated, 191; for pheasants, 219 House and fly for pigeons, illustrated, 255, 259, 262-265 Houses at agricultural colleges and experiment stations, illustrated, 79, 88, 90, 91, 109 Hungarian Pheasant, 214 Hybrid, defined, 25 Ice supply on large duck farms, 154 Incubation, appearance of eggs at various stages of, illustrated, 20, 21; period of, 96, 142, 171, 196, 205, 210, 220, 228, 236, 267, 275 Incubator cellar, illustrated, 115 Incubators, 306; introduction of, on Long Island duck farms, 148; mammoth, 152 India, antiquity of fowl in, 36; peafowl in, 209 Indian Runner Duck, 132, 141; illustrated, 132, 133 Insects, birds as destroyers of, 5 Instinct, relation of, to incubation, 19; homing, in pigeons, 243 Intelligence of birds, 3 Intensive poultry farms, 110 Invention, relation of, to aviculture, 306 Italian races of fowls, 46 Jacobin Pigeon, illustrated, 243 Japan, antiquity of fowl in, 36 Japanese Bantams, 68; illustrated, 68 Japanese Long-Tailed Fowl, illustrated, 52 Japanese races of fowls, 51 Java, Black, 58 Java, peafowl in, 209 Jersey Blue, 56 Johnnycake for chicks, 98 Journalism, 305 Judging, 293, 304 Kafirs, their method of pulling stumps of ostrich plumes, 238 Kentucky, turkeys in, 189 Killing poultry, 284 Land plaster, use of, in poultry houses, 75 Langshan, Black, illustrated, 40, 41 Language, capacity of birds for, 2 Laugher Pigeon, 239 Lavender Guinea, 203 Lawn clippings for poultry, 76 Laying capacity of birds, 18, 127 Laying habits of birds, 141, 170, 195, 266 Leaves for litter in poultry houses, 76 Leg of bird, contraction of, in perching, 14 Leghorn, 46; illustrated, 10, 11, 45, 81; early growth of feathers of, 11 Legislation relating to aviculture, 309 Lettuce for canaries, 273 Lice, how fowls rid themselves of, 77; to destroy, on sitting hens, 96 Lime in eggshells, 16 Lincolnshire Buff, 63 Litter in poultry houses, 76, 138 Lizard Canary, 271 Long Island duck farms, 146 Losses due to bad handling of poultry produce, 282 Lyell, James C., on origin of domestic pigeon, 240 Malay fowl, 50 Mallard Duck, 126; illustrated, 127 Maltese Hen Pigeon, 252 Manchester Coppy, 271 Manchurian Pheasant, illustrated, 215 Mandarin Duck, 134 Mangel-wurzels, 89 Manure, poultry, use of, 75; pigeon, used in manufacture of gunpowder, 253 Mash, time of feeding, 78; method of making, 89; use of, 89, 98, 140; cooking, 103 Meat meal, 140 Mexico, turkey in, 181 Middlemen, 275 Milk, feeding, to chicks, 98; pigeon, 267 Minorcas, illustrated, 48, 49 Molting, 11 Monaul, illustrated, 216 Mondaine Pigeon, Swiss, illustrated, 242 Mongolian Pheasant, 215; illustrated, 213 Mongrel Geese, illustrated, 167 Monks, probable originators of many types of fancy fowls, 48 Mule, defined, 25 Muscovy Duck, 125, 129; illustrated, 128 Mute Swan, 222 Narragansett Turkey, 183 Native fowls in America, 43 Neck, handling ducks by, 125 Nest building, 18 Nest eggs, 94 Nests, fowls', 94; ducks', 138; geese's, 171; turkeys', 195; swans', 228; pigeons', 259, 264; canaries', 274 Netherlands, Indian Runner Duck in, 132 Netted Guinea, 203 New Jersey, pheasant introduced into, 213 Norfolk Turkey, 182 Norwich Canary, illustrated, 270 Nubia, ownership of fowls in, 39 Nun Pigeons, illustrated, 252 Oatmeal for chicks, 98 Oats, 78; feeding, in sheaf, 89 Offal of slaughtered animals, feeding, to poultry, 90 Oil in feathers, 11 Oregon, pheasant introduced into, 213 Ornamental birds, number of, in domestication limited, 7 Ornamental ducks, 156 Ornamental geese, 164 Ornithorhynchus, resemblance of, to bird, 1 Orpington Ducks, Blue, illustrated, 134 Orpington fowl, 63; illustrated, 64, 65 Ostrich, illustrated, 231, 233, 235, 237 Outdoor quarters for fowls, 72 Ovary, 17 Oviduct, 17 Ovules, numbers of, in hens, 18 Owl Pigeon, illustrated, 249 Oyster shell for fowls, 81 Packing houses, relation of, to distribution of poultry produce, 280 Pairing of birds, 3, 168, 178, 205, 210, 219, 236, 262, 274 Partridge, peculiarity of flight of, 13 Passenger Pigeon, 241 Peacock, tail of, 10; Indian, illustrated, 207 Pearl Guinea, 203 Peas for pigeon food, 265 Pekin Duck, 131, 147; illustrated, 131, 140, 141 Penguin, locomotion of, 1 Perches for pigeons, 259 Persia, pigeon in ancient, 245 Petaluma, egg farming at, 119; illustrated, 117 Philadelphia chickens, 114 Phoenix cockerel, illustrated, 52 Pied Guinea, 203 Pigment in feathers, 11 Pigmy Pouters, 251 Plantain for canaries, 273 Plucking live geese, 167 Plymouth Rock, Barred, 57, 295; illustrated, 54, 55, 80; White, 58; illustrated, 56; Buff, 59, 62; illustrated, 57; Columbian, 61; illustrated, 62; Silver-Penciled, 61; illustrated, 58 Point Judith Bronze Turkey, 183 Polish, 47; White, 34; Silver-Spangled, illustrated, 39; White-Crested Black, 47 Pomeranian Goose, 161 Poult, 180 Pouter Pigeon, 250, 297; illustrated, 250 Preserved eggs, 286 Prices, how determined, 278; of fancy poultry and pigeons, 301 Profits, computation of, 72 Pullet, 35 Pure-bred, defined, 30 Quail, laying of, in captivity, 18 Quantity of food, 80, 88 Range, advantages of, 85 Rapeseed for canaries, 273 Réaumur, experiments of, in incubation, 307 Reptile, resemblance of duckling to, 142 Retailing poultry produce, 275, 288 Rhode Island, goose growing in, 173 Rhode Island Red, 61, 100; illustrated, 32 Ringneck Pheasant, illustrated, 212 Roaster growing, 113; illustrated, 114 Rock Pigeon, 241 Roller Canaries, 271 Roller Pigeons, 248 Romans, distribution of domestic fowl by, 36, 46; peacock a favorite dish among, 209 Rooster, use of term, 34 Rose-Comb Black Bantam, illustrated, 69 Rotten egg, appearance of, when candled, 96 Rouen Duck, 130, 141; illustrated, 130 Rudiments of judging poultry, 293 Ruff, occurrence of, in pigeons, 10 Rumpless Fowl, 65 Running board for pigeons, 260 Runt Pigeon, 251; illustrated, 241, 250 Russia, geese in, 167 Rye, 78, 116, 154 Saddleback Goose, 161 St. Andreasberg Roller, 271 Salt for pigeons, 265 Sawdust in poultry house, 75 Scalding poultry, 284 Scale on beak of young birds, 22 Scales, relation of, to feathers, 8 Scoring, 300 Scotland, wild pigeon in, 240 Scratching of birds, use of, 14 Sebastopol Goose, 165; illustrated, 165 Sebright Bantam, 70; illustrated, 70 Shanghai, 53 Shavings for litter in poultry house, 76 Shell of egg, formation of, 17 Silky fowl, 65 Silver Pheasant, 215 Sitting hen, illustrated, 19; food for, 95 Slate Turkey, 187 Slip, an imperfect capon, 117 Snow, effect of, on poultry, 81, 92, 107, 125, 269 Social relations of birds, 3 South America, guinea in, 202 Space per bird in poultry house, 86 Spain, turkey in, 181 Spanish Goose, 162 Spanish, White-Faced Black, illustrated, 38 Spanish races of fowls, 49 Sparrow, laying capacity of, 18 Species, predatory relation of, 6; defined, 24; origin of, 25 Sprouted oats, 78 Spurs, 33, 117 Squab, 240; illustrated, 266, 267 Squeaker. See Squab Standard-bred, defined, 30 Standards for judging exhibition poultry, 299 Strain, defined, 29 Stub feather, 9 Subvariety, defined, 29 Summer quarters for poultry, illustrated, 123 Sunlight, benefits of, 73 Swan and nest, illustrated, 224 Swannery, an English, illustrated, 228 Swans feeding on the water, illustrated, 227 Swedish Duck, Blue, illustrated, 133 Swimming, of birds, economic value of, 14; effect of, on growth of ducks, 151 Swiss Mondaine Pigeon, illustrated, 242 Table fowl, Dorking best type of, 47 Table scraps, feeding to fowls, 77 Tail of bird, its use in flight, 14 Temperature for incubation, 21 Tennessee, turkeys in, 189 Testing eggs to determine fertility, 21, 96, 142 Thoroughbred, defined, 30 Tippler Pigeon, 247 Tom-turkey, 180 Toulouse Goose, 161; illustrated, 159, 160 Train of peacock, 207 Tricolor Canary, illustrated, 270 Triganica Pigeon, 242 Trumpeter Pigeon, 239; illustrated, 249 Tula Goose, 162 Tumbler Pigeon, 247; illustrated, 244, 258 Turbit Pigeon, 251 Turkey, common, illustrated, 181 Turkey hen with brood, illustrated, 198 Turkey nest, illustrated, 196 Turkey roost, illustrated, 194 Turnips for poultry, 90 Uses of birds in domestication, 4 Utility types of poultry, 303 Varieties, 27 Variety, defined, 28 Ventilation, 261 Versicolor Pheasant, 215 Virginia, turkeys in, 189 Voices of birds, 3, 33, 126, 159, 180, 200, 207, 223, 232, 238, 269 Waste food consumed by street pigeons, 256 Water, 81, 98, 141; imperviousness of feathers to, 15; warming, for fowls, 81; propensity of young ducks for, 145; constant supply of, for pigeons, illustrated, 261 Wattles, of fowl, 33; of turkey, 179; of guinea, 200; of pheasant, 211 Web of feather, 9 Webster, Daniel, exhibitor at first poultry show in America, 53 West Indies, guinea in, 202 Wheat, 78, 98, 141 Whistling Swan, 222 White eggs, preference for, 289 White of egg, formation of, 17 Wild birds, place of, in civilization, 5 Wild geese, growing, in captivity, 178 Wings, movement of, in flight, 12 Women as poultry keepers, 39, 42, 122 Wood Duck, 134 Wyandotte, 59; Silver-Laced, illustrated, 59; White, 60; illustrated, 60, 82; Partridge, illustrated, 61; Silver-Penciled, illustrated, 61; Buff, origin of, 62; Columbian, illustrated, 62 Yard of small poultry fancier, illustrated, 120 Yards, for fowls, 73; for ducks, 138; for geese, 169; for turkeys, 190; for pheasants, 219 Yellow-legged fowls, American preference for, 55 Yolk of egg, 17 Yorkshire Canary, illustrated, 270 Transcriber's Notes. In the text version, the oe-ligature was changed to the two separate characters, "oe." Also, the macron, which appeared over the "o" in the Greek transliteration of "struthion'" was dropped. Changed "silver penciled" to "silver-penciled" on page 28: "partridge, silver-penciled, and ermine." Changed "out-crosses" to "outcrosses" on page 30: "outcrosses are regularly made." Changed "Siver-Penciled" to "Silver-Penciled" in the caption to figure 51. Changed "Amercia" to "America" on page 63: "fowls of America." Changed "thay" to "they" on page 169: "which they may use." Changed "distroyed" to "destroyed" on page 200: "are destroyed by cultivating." Changed "servicable" to "serviceable" on page 226: "more serviceable in this way." 
38321	----	TRANSCRIBER NOTES: Words in bold in the original are bracketed in equal signs (=). Words in italics in the original are bracketed by underscores (_). The tables have been modified to fit by creating a key for the first column. The key precedes the tables. Footnotes have been moved closer to the reference. Additional notes can be found at the end of the text. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Agricultural Experiment Station BULLETIN NO. 143 ECONOMY OF THE ROUND DAIRY BARN BY WILBER J. FRASER [Illustration] URBANA, ILLINOIS, FEBRUARY, 1910 SUMMARY OF BULLETIN NO. 143 1. Round barns would be more generally built if their advantages were known and if the few which have been erected had been rightly constructed. Page 1. 2. The round dairy barn offers greater convenience in storing, handling and distributing the feed. Page 5. 3. In the circular construction, much greater strength is secured with less lumber. Page 6. 4. The material for rectangular barns costs from 34 to 58 percent more than for round barns of the same area and capacity. Page 7. 5. Round and rectangular barns compared. Page 11. 6. Round and rectangular barns, including silos, compared. Page 13. 7. Detailed account, with illustrations showing how the round barn at the University was built. Page 17. 8. Itemized statement of cost of a 60-foot round barn. Page 29. 9. Brief descriptions with illustrations and plans of several round dairy barns in actual use. Page 31. 10. Conclusions. The advantages of the round dairy barn are convenience, strength and cheapness. Page 44. ECONOMY OF THE ROUND DAIRY BARN FULL SPECIFICATIONS AND DETAILED COST AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE NEW SIXTY-FOOT CIRCULAR DAIRY BARN AT THE UNIVERSITY. SAVING OF ROUND OVER RECTANGULAR BARNS. NOTES ON SEVERAL ROUND BARNS ON DAIRY FARMS.[A] [A] Special acknowledgment is made to Mr. H. E. Crouch and Mr. R. E. Brand for their assistance in working out the detailed data which are the bases for the economic comparisons of the round and rectangular barns made in this bulletin. BY W. J. FRASER, CHIEF IN DAIRY HUSBANDRY The planning, construction, and arrangement of farm buildings do not usually receive the thought and study these subjects warrant. How many dairymen have compared a circular, 40-cow barn with the common rectangular building containing the same area? How many understand that the circular structure is much the stronger; that the rectangular form requires 22 percent more wall and foundation to enclose the same space; and that the cost of material is from 34 to 58 percent more for the rectangular building? In a community in which everyone is engaged in the same occupation, one person is likely to copy from his neighbor without apparently giving a thought as to whether or not there is a better way. In a district of Kane county, Illinois, a certain type of dairy barn is used by nearly everyone, while in the next county a distinctly different type prevails, and the dairy barns of another adjacent county differ from those of either of the former, simply because the early settlers of this particular locality came from an eastern state and started building the style of barn then common in Pennsylvania. In a certain community in Ohio where a milk condensing factory is located, a large number of farmers have barns 36 × 60 feet, with an "L" the same size. The loft of the "L" is used for the storage of straw, and the cows run loose in the lower portion. These barns are all built on practically the same plan and are usually of the same size, and this is the only community known to the writer where this form of barn is used in this manner. This tendency to imitate emphasizes the fact that men do not exercise sufficient originality. Because most barns are rectangular is no reason that this is the best and most economical form. WHY MORE ROUND BARNS ARE NOT BUILT [Illustration: FIG. 1. BARN NO. 5. 100 FEET IN DIAMETER, SCALE 20 FEET TO ONE INCH; SHOWING INCREASED MOW CAPACITY GIVEN BY SELF-SUPPORTING ROOF.] In an early day when lumber was cheap, buildings were built of logs, or at least had heavy frames. Under these conditions, the rectangular barn was the one naturally used, and people have followed in the footsteps of their forefathers in continuing this form of barn. The result is that the economy and advantages of the round barn have apparently never been considered. This is because they are not obvious at first sight, and become fully apparent only after a detailed study of the construction. For these reasons, the rectangular form still continues to be built, altho it requires much more lumber. As the price of lumber has advanced so materially in recent years, the possible saving in this material is a large item, and well worth investigating. The objections to round barns have usually been made by those who have only a superficial knowledge of the subject, and do not really understand the relative merits of the two forms. To the writer's knowledge, there has never been published a carefully figured out, detailed comparison of a properly constructed circular barn with the rectangular barn. The difficulty with most round barns that have been built, thus far, is that they do not have a self-supporting roof, and consequently lose many of the advantages of a properly constructed round barn. This is the principal reason why round barns have not become more popular. A straight roof necessarily requires many supports in the barn below. These are both costly and inconvenient, and make the roof no stronger than a dome-shaped, self-supporting roof which nearly doubles the capacity of the mow. See Fig. (1). Many who have thus disregarded capacity have also wasted lumber and made a needless amount of work by chopping or hewing out the sill and plate, thus requiring more labor and lumber, besides sacrificing the greater strength of a built-up sill. Rightly constructed round barns are, however, being built to a limited extent. One contractor has erected twenty-four round barns, with self-supporting roofs, in the last nine years. These barns vary in size from 40 feet in diameter with 18-foot posts to 102 feet in diameter with 30-foot posts. Another reason for the scarcity of round barns is the difficulty in getting them built. Most carpenters hesitate to undertake the work because in the erection of a round barn the construction should be entirely different from that of the rectangular form. Many new problems present themselves, but when these are once understood, the round barn offers no more difficulties in construction than the rectangular form. It is, however, important to have a head carpenter who is accustomed to putting up round barns, as a man with ingenuity and experience can take advantage of many opportunities to save labor and material. KIND OF BARN NEEDED The first thing to consider in the erection of a barn is a convenient arrangement for the purpose for which it is to be used. At the University of Illinois, two years ago, a twenty-acre demonstration dairy farm was started, the sole object being to produce the largest amount of milk per acre at the least possible cost. To meet the requirements of a barn for this purpose, it became imperative to build one that was convenient for feeding and caring for the cows, economical of construction, and containing a large storage capacity in both silo and mow. These are the requirements of a barn for every practical dairyman. [Illustration: FIG. 2. FILLING THE SILO.] A silo was needed that could be fed from the year round. With the small number of cows kept, a deep enough layer of silage could not be fed off each day to keep it good thru the summer, if the silo was more than 12 feet in diameter. As this small diameter was a necessity, it would require two silos 33 feet deep to supply enough silage. Two silos of such small diameter would not only be costly, but difficult to make stand, unless built of concrete. This difficulty was overcome by using the circular barn and placing in the center a silo which is 12 feet in diameter and 54 feet deep, thus making the one silo, with as much capacity as the two before mentioned, answer every purpose. This deep silo is an important part of the round barn, as it not only forms a support for the roof, but is protected by the barn, thus saving the cost of siding. Then, too, besides occupying the space least valuable for other purposes, it being centrally located, is in the most convenient place for feeding. The silage chute being open at the top forms a suction of air, which keeps the silage odor from the barn at milking time, and also assists in ventilation when the door to the chute is open. ADVANTAGES OF THE ROUND BARN The points of superiority that the round dairy barn shows over the rectangular form are convenience, strength, and cheapness. ROUND BARN MOST CONVENIENT Considering that the barn on a dairy farm is used twice every day in the year, and that for six months each year the cows occupy it almost continuously, and that during this time a large amount of the labor of the farm is done inside the barn, it is evident that the question of its convenience is a vital one. The amount of time and strength wasted in useless labor in poorly arranged buildings is appalling. People do not stop to consider the saving in a year or a lifetime by having the barn so conveniently arranged that there is a saving of only a few seconds on each task that has to be done two or three times every day. [Illustration: Fig. 3. INTERIOR OF BARN, SECOND FLOOR, SHOWING SILO AND LOCATION OF ENSILAGE CUTTER. (TEAM UNHITCHED TO SHOW CUTTER.)] The round barn has a special advantage in the work of distributing silage to the cows. The feeding commences at the chute where it is thrown down, and is continued around the circle, ending with the silage cart at the chute again, ready for the next feeding. The same thing is true in feeding hay and grain. Still another great advantage is the large unobstructed hay mow. With the self-supporting roof, there are no timbers whatever obstructing the mow, which means no dragging of hay around posts or over girders. The hay carrier runs on a circular track around the mow, midway between the silo and the outside wall, and drops the hay at any desired point, thus in no case does the hay have to be moved but a few feet, which means a saving of much labor in the mowing. To successfully embody all of the above discussed advantages in a dairy barn is one of the large problems in milk production. In a careful study of the barn question it soon became apparent that it was impossible to embody all of the requirements advantageously in anything but a circular form of building, and the 60-foot round barn, which is here described, was built. [Illustration: FIG. 4. SOUTH VIEW, SHOWING WELL LIGHTED STABLE.] CIRCULAR CONSTRUCTION THE STRONGEST The circular construction is the strongest, because it takes advantage of the lineal, instead of the breaking strength of the lumber. Each row of boards running around the barn forms a hoop that holds the barn together. A barrel, properly hooped and headed, is almost indestructible, and much stronger than a box, altho the hoops are small. This strength is because the stress comes on the hoops in a lineal direction. Any piece of timber is many times stronger on a lineal pull than on a breaking stress. Take for example a No. 1 yellow pine 2 × 6, 16 feet long, with an actual cross section of 1-5/8 × 5-5/8 inches. If placed on edge and supported at the ends, as a joist, the limit of safety for a load evenly distributed is 642 pounds, while the limit of safety for a load in the lineal direction of the same piece of timber is 12,800 pounds, or twenty times as great. [Illustration: FIG. 5. IN COW STABLE, SHOWING SILO AND FEED ALLEY IN CENTER OF BARN; STANCHIONS ON RIGHT, MILK SCALES AND RECORD SHEET ON LEFT.] All exposed surfaces of a round barn are circular, as both the sides and roof are arched, which is the strongest form of construction to resist wind pressure; besides, the wind, in striking it, glances off and can get no direct hold on the walls or roof, as it can on the flat sides or gable ends of a rectangular structure. If the lumber is properly placed in a round barn, much of it will perform two or more functions. Every row of siding boards running around the building serves also as a brace, and the same is true of the roof boards and the arched rafters. If the siding is put on vertically and the roof built dome-shaped, no scaffolding is required inside or out. These are points of economy in the round construction. RECTANGULAR BARNS REQUIRE 34 TO 58 PERCENT MORE MATERIAL In order to compare the amount and cost of material in round and rectangular barns, the following figures have been carefully worked out by an expert barn builder. Two comparisons, based on wood construction thruout, are made, in which round barns 60 feet and 90 feet in diameter are compared with both plank and mortise frame rectangular barns containing the same number of square feet of floor space, respectively. Since the most practical width of a rectangular dairy barn is 36 feet, its length will depend upon the number of square feet required in the barn. [Illustration: FIG. 6. SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF MORTISE FRAME BARN, END VIEW.] [Illustration: FIG. 7. SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF PLANK FRAME BARN, SIDE VIEW.] Figures 6 to 9 are side and end views, showing the detail construction and size of the timbers of the plank frame and mortise frame barns here figured. The detailed figures of the lumber bills for each of these barns were carefully worked out, but are too voluminous for publication here. The total number of feet of each kind of lumber required is given in Tables 1A and 1B. Since the proportion of the different kinds of lumber and shingles varied for the different barns, to draw an exact comparison it was necessary to base it upon the money value, and for this purpose the total cost of lumber has been figured in each case. The lumber values used thruout are the best average prices that could be obtained. As the same prices are used for the material of all the barns, the comparisons of cost are correct, altho these exact prices will not hold for all localities and all times. [Illustration: FIG. 8. SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF PLANK FRAME BARN, END VIEW.] Since a silo cannot be economically built inside of a rectangular barn, the first comparison is made with the barns simply enclosed, altho one of the chief advantages of a round barn is the deep silo which it is possible to build so economically in the center. [Illustration: FIG. 9. SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF MORTISE FRAME BARN, SIDE VIEW.] Another item of economy in the circular barn is less framing lumber. This form has the strongest possible construction with the least lumber in the frame, and the least bracing, not a single timber larger than a 2 × 6 being required above the sill. The arched circular roof requires no supports, and no scaffolding is needed inside during its construction. The accompanying tables show the comparative amount and value of lumber and cubical content in round barns 60 and 90 feet in diameter, and rectangular barns of equal area and height of posts. TABLE 1A.--A COMPARISON OF THE COST OF MATERIAL IN ROUND AND RECTANGULAR BARNS OF THE SAME AREA, _Not Including_ Foundation And Silos. A: Framing lumber, B: Sheathing, siding, and flooring, C: Shingles, D: Bolts, E: Total cost of lumber, F: Content, cubic feet, ==+=====================+=========================================== | | Rectangular barn, 36 × 78-1/2 ft. | Round barn, +---------------------+--------------------- | 60 feet in diameter | Plank frame | Mortise frame --+---------------------+---------------------+--------------------- A | 13,976 ft. @ $25 | 19,833 ft. @ $25 | 29,074 ft. @ $25 | = $349.40 | = $495.83 | = $726.85 B | 12,971 ft. @ $22 | 15,355 ft. @ $22 | 15,355 ft. @ $22 | = 285.36 | = 337.81 | = 337.81 C | 44,000 @ $3.75 | 45,000 @ $3.75 | 45,000 @ $3.75 | = 165.00 | = 168.75 | = 168.75 D | | 20.88 | --+---------------------+---------------------+--------------------- E | =$799.76=| =$1023.27=| =$1233.41= ==+=====================+=====================+===================== F | =117,669= | =117,138= | =117,138= ==+=====================+=====================+===================== TABLE 1B. A: Framing lumber, B: Sheathing, siding, and flooring, C: Shingles, D: Bolts, E: Total cost of lumber, F: Content, cubic feet, ==+=====================+=========================================== | | Rectangular barn, 36 × 176-3/4 ft. | Round barn, +---------------------+--------------------- | 90 feet in diameter | Plank frame | Mortise frame --+---------------------+---------------------+--------------------- A | 30,899 ft. @ $25 | 38,815 ft. @ $25 | 59,481 ft. @$25 | = $772.48 | = $970.38 | = $1487.03 B | 22,375 ft. @ $22 | 28,547 ft. @ $22 | 28,547 ft. @ $22 | = 492.25 | = 628.03 | = 628.03 C | 97,000 @ $3.75 | 102,000 @ $3.75 | 102,000 @ $3.75 | = 363.75 | = 382.50 | = 382.50 D | | 26.76 | --+---------------------+---------------------+--------------------- E | =$1628.48= | =$2007.67= | =$2497.56= ==+=====================+=====================+===================== F | =322,952= | =270,570= | =270,570= ==+=====================+=====================+===================== ROUND AND RECTANGULAR BARNS COMPARED In comparing the 60-foot round barn with a rectangular barn of the same area, the two barns should afford the cows the same amount of space on the platform. Allowing each cow in the 60-foot round barn 3 feet 6 inches in width at the rear of the platform, it will accommodate 40 cows and leave space for two passage ways. But in a rectangular barn, only 3 feet 4 inches of platform space need be allowed for each cow, and the 78-1/2 foot barn, with two 3-foot passage ways across it for convenience in feeding, will accommodate 42 cows. While the rectangular barn has stall room for two more cows, the round barn contains space in the center for a silo 18 feet in diameter. The floor space and cubical content of the round barn 60 feet in diameter, and the rectangular barn compared with it in these tables, are practically the same, and the barns are therefore directly comparable. This being true, the percentages which were figured from the complete bills of material for these barns show the exact saving in lumber on the 60-foot round barn over the plank and mortise frame rectangular barns 36 × 78-1/2 feet. The lumber bills of the rectangular barns show an increase in cost of 28 percent for the plank frame and 54 percent for the mortise frame. The round barn, 60 feet in diameter, contains 188-1/2, and the rectangular barn 225 lineal feet of wall. The rectangular barn has, therefore, 22 percent more lineal feet of outside barn wall, requiring a proportional increase in both paint and foundation. The 176-3/4-foot rectangular barn would hold 100 cows, allowing each cow 3 feet 4 inches in width and providing for 3 passage ways of 3 feet each across the barn. The 90-foot round barn would hold 100 cows in two rows headed together, 65 of which would be in the outer circle, and have 3 feet 6 inches each in width at the gutter. This leaves sufficient room for feed alleys and walks, and two passage ways, one three feet and the other seven feet wide for the manure and feed carriers. All of this is outside of a central space for a silo 20 feet in diameter and 71 feet high, with a capacity for 620 tons of silage, and in the mow there would still be an excess, above the capacity of the rectangular barn, of 33,000 cubic feet, which would hold 66 tons of hay, or as much as the entire mow of a barn 32 × 36 feet with 20-foot posts. TABLE 2A.--A COMPARISON OF THE COST OF MATERIAL IN ROUND AND RECTANGULAR BARNS, _Including_ FOUNDATION AND SILOS. ========================+=============+============================= | Round barn, | Rectangular barn, | 60 feet in | 36 × 78-1/2 ft. | diameter +-------------+--------------- | | Plank frame | Mortise frame ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------- Lumber in barn, | $799.76 | $1023.27 | $1233.41 Material in foundation, | 86.89 | 105.90 | 105.90 Material in silo, | 159.01 | 295.26 | 295.26 ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------- Total cost of material | | | in barn, | =$1045.66= | =$1424.43= | =$1634.57= ========================+=============+=============+=============== Actual money saved, | | =$378.77= | =$588.91= ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------- Proportional cost, | =100%= | =136%= | =156%= ========================+=============+=============+=============== TABLE 2B. ========================+=============+============================= | Round barn, | Rectangular barn, | 90 feet in | 36 × 176-3/4 ft. | diameter +-------------+--------------- | | Plank frame | Mortise frame ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------- Lumber in barn, | $1628.48 | $2007.67 | $2497.56 Material in foundation, | 130.35 | 196.80 | 196.80 Material in silo, | 265.00 | 513.52 | 513.52 ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------- Total cost of material | | | in barn, | =$2023.83= | =$2717.99= | =$3207.88= ========================+=============+=============+=============== Actual money saved, | | =$694.16= | =$1184.05= ------------------------+-------------+-------------+--------------- Proportional cost, | =100%= | =134%= | =158%= ========================+=============+=============+=============== The square feet of floor space in the round barn 90 feet in diameter and rectangular barn 36 × 176-3/4 feet are the same, but the cubical content of the former is more than that of the latter. The increase in the lumber bill is 23 percent in the plank frame and 53 percent in the mortise frame barn. The round barn 90 feet in diameter contains 283 and the rectangular barn 426 lineal feet of wall. The rectangular barn has, therefore, 50 percent more lineal feet of outside barn wall, requiring a proportional increase in both paint and foundation. The smaller surface on the outside wall of the round barn requires less paint and makes a proportional saving in keeping the round barn painted in after years. ROUND AND RECTANGULAR BARNS, _Including Silos_, COMPARED Owing to the fact that a silo is a necessity for the most economical production of milk, a barn is not complete for a dairyman's purpose unless it includes a silo with capacity to store sufficient silage for the herd. In the case of the round barn, the silo is most economically built inside, but in the rectangular form would cause a waste of space, and for that reason is best erected outside. Therefore, in comparing a round dairy barn with a rectangular dairy barn, silos should be included. In figuring the cost of materials in the silos for the round and rectangular barns, the capacity needed in each case was determined in the following manner: Allowing 40 pounds of silage per cow per day for 7 winter months and 25 pounds per cow per day for 3 months during the summer, would require for 40 cows 220 tons; then allowing one-eighth for waste would make the silage requirement 248 tons. As the silo in the round barn 60 feet in diameter is 53 feet deep, it would need to be only 16 feet in diameter to hold 250 tons. This diameter is sufficiently small to allow summer feeding without waste. To erect a silo outside of a barn, with sufficient stability to stand well, the height above ground should not be much more than twice the diameter, and in order to avoid waste for summer feeding, the diameter should not be greater than 16 feet for a herd of 40 cows. In order that a deep enough layer of silage can be fed off each day during the summer to avoid waste, it is evident that to store 250 tons of silage outside the barn, two silos would be required. One of these should be 16 feet in diameter and 36 feet deep, holding 154 tons, and the other 13 feet in diameter and 36 feet deep, holding 102 tons, making a total silo capacity of 256 tons. As the large barns hold 100 cows, the same allowance of silage per cow for the season would require silo capacity for 620 tons. As the silo in the round barn 90 feet in diameter would be 71 feet deep, it would need to be only 20 feet in diameter to hold 620 tons. To store 620 tons of silage in silos built outside the rectangular barn would require two silos, each 20 feet in diameter and 44 feet deep.[B] These are the sizes on which the figures for cost of silos of the Gurler type, given in Tables 2A and 2B, were used. [B] Since the deeper the silo the more firmly the silage packs, one silo 71 feet deep will hold as much as two silos of the same diameter and 44 feet deep. [Illustration: FIG. 10. INTERIOR OF COW STABLE, SHOWING WATER TROUGH WITH FLOAT VALVE, SALT BOX, AND DOOR INTO DAIRY.] The table (page 12) is the final summing up of the cost of all the material for the completed dairy barns, with silos, and shows a saving of from 34 to 58 percent in favor of the round barn and silo, or an actual money saving in this case of from $379 to $1184, depending upon the size and construction of the barns. Thoughtlessly, men go on building rectangular barns, but what would this reckless disregard of a possible saving of 34 to 58 percent mean in a year's business on the farm? Some illustrations may help us to understand what this money saved in building a round barn really amounts to, and its convenience is also a great saving. If the dairyman discarded the idea of a rectangular barn and built a round barn instead, he could take the money thus saved and buy one of the best pure-bred sires for his herd, and also three to ten pure-bred heifers or fine grade cows. Either of these purchases might double the profit of the herd. Or, this saving, properly applied, would purchase many labor-saving devices which would make life less of a drudgery on many dairy farms. Is not such a saving worth while? [Illustration: FIG. 11. COW COMFORT IN A ROUND BARN.] When the comparative cost and merit of two constructions are known, it is a poor financier who will pay extra for the one which is inferior. If a man received bids from contractors for a building, he would be a foolish man who would accept one which is from 34 to 58 percent higher than the lowest bidder, especially when he knew the lowest bidder would put up the most convenient and substantial building. DISADVANTAGES OF THE ROUND DAIRY BARN The disadvantages of the round dairy barn are, that it cannot be enlarged by building on as readily as can the rectangular form, but as the round barn may be built higher to the eaves than a rectangular barn 36 feet wide, provision can be made for the growth of the herd by building so as to put cows in the second story and still leave sufficient mow room for hay. The objection is frequently raised that a round barn is difficult to light. This difficulty is entirely overcome in a barn 90 feet or less in diameter, if a sufficient number of properly spaced windows are used. See Figs. 4 and 30. With the same number of windows, the light is more evenly distributed in a round barn and the sun can shine directly into some portion at all hours of the day during the winter. [Illustration: FIG. 12. FIRST STORY WALL, AND FOUNDATION FOR SILO, FEED ALLEY, AND MANGER; SILL IN PLACE, READY FOR JOISTS AND STUDS.] The objection has been raised that rectangular objects cannot be placed in a circle without a waste of space, but this does not apply to a dairy barn, as the storage of hay and grain depends upon cubical content, alone, and silos should always be circular, no matter where built. Cows, when lying down, are decidedly wedge-shaped, requiring much less space in front than behind. The objection may be raised, with round barns large enough for two rows of cows, that the row headed out does not use the space as economically as in the rectangular form, because a cow needs more width at the rear of the platform than at the manger. Where there are two rows of cows, the inner row is usually headed out, and as only about one-third of the cows are in this row, this loss of space is counterbalanced by the large number of cows in the outer circle using the space more economically than they do in the rectangular barn. Box stalls cannot be as conveniently arranged, but in a one-row barn, gates hung on the outside and swung around to the manger, form stalls for cows at freshening time, and in a barn with two rows, box stalls can be arranged in the inner circle. HOW THE ROUND BARN AT THE UNIVERSITY WAS BUILT The barn is located on the side of a hill, sloping gently to the south and east. With this location, it was an advantage to excavate 5 feet deep on the northwest and run out to the surface of the ground on the southeast. [Illustration: FIG. 13. SHOWING TEMPORARY BRACING TO HOLD STUDS IN PLACE WHILE SHIP LAP CEILING IS NAILED ON.] The footing for the foundation is 18 inches wide. A ten-inch brick wall was carried up nine feet above the stable floor. This wall contains a 2-inch air space to prevent moisture from condensing on the inner wall and making the barn damp. This is an important point, as barns with a solid stone or brick wall are very objectionable on account of dampness. It has been proven by two years' use that this difficulty is entirely obviated by the air space in the wall. The foundation for the manger and feed alley is built up 2 feet above the stable floor. The foundation for the silo extends 4 feet below the stable floor and is continued 9 inches above the floor in the feed alley. This silo wall, together with the foundation under the manger, forms the foundation for the center supports of the barn. Fig. 12 shows the foundation completed. The silo, which is the Gurler type, was then started and carried up with the barn. It was built by placing 2 × 4 studs around the circle, one foot on centers, and ceiling inside with 1/2 × 6-inch lumber. This 1/2-inch lumber was obtained by re-sawing 1 × 6 yellow pine fencing. Common lath were then put on horizontally in the regular way inside, without furring out, and plastered with rich cement plaster. The sill of the barn is 6 × 6, made up of 1 × 6s, and built on top of the wall. Building it up in this manner makes a stronger sill than can be obtained in any other way, as it forms a continuous hoop around the barn. [Illustration: FIG. 14. SHOWING HEIGHT AND CONSTRUCTION OF SILO, SIDING COMPLETED, AND FOUR MAIN RAFTERS IN PLACE.] The joists are 2 × 12s notched 6 inches to fit the sill, so that the outer ends rest on both the sill and the brick wall. The outer span of joists is 14 feet and the inner ends of these joists rest on a similar sill built of 1 × 6s on top of the 4 × 4 supports at the stanchions. The inner span of joists, between the stanchions and the silo, is 8 feet, the outer end resting on the sill over the stanchions, and the inner end on a 1-1/2 × 6-inch band, made up of three 1/2 × 6-inch pieces, running around the outside of the silo. These joists are placed 2-1/2 feet apart at the outside of the barn, and half as many joists are used in the inner span, making the joists at the silo one foot apart. The number of joists under the driveways are doubled, being only 1 foot and 3 inches apart at the outside of the barn. [Illustration: FIG. 15. SHOWING ALL RAFTERS IN PLACE AND METHOD OF SHEATHING ROOF.] The studs, which are 2 × 6s, 20 feet long, were then placed on the sill, about 2 feet 6 inches apart, being as evenly spaced between the windows as possible, and temporarily braced, as shown in Fig. 13, until the 8-inch ship lap ceiling could be nailed on the outside. This was carried up 5 feet to the second scaffold, and then covered to this height with shingles laid 5 inches to the weather. The scaffolding was then moved up and this process repeated until the siding was completed. The plate, made up of five 1 × 4s, was then built in the notch in the top of the studs shown in Fig. 13. [Illustration: FIG. 16. SHOWING HEIGHT OF SILO, CAPACITY OF BARN, AND CONSTRUCTION OF ROOF.] The silo was completed, as before described. The rafters, which were framed on the ground, were then erected, as shown in Fig. 14, the first eight going to the center of the roof, and the remaining ones were cut to rest on the plate of the silo. There are 64 framed rafters, and these are the only ones in the upper section of the roof. At the break in the roof, a header is cut in between the framed rafters, and in the lower section a rafter is placed between these, thus making twice as many rafters in the lower section of the roof as in the upper section. After the rafters were all in place and temporarily braced, the 1 × 2-inch sheathing was put on, as shown in Fig. 15, and the shingles, which were the best 5/2 red cedar, were laid 5 inches to the weather on the lower section of the roof, and 4 inches to the weather on the upper section, as this had less pitch. No chalk line was necessary, as the shingles were laid by the sheathing. [Illustration: FIG. 17. SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF JOISTS AND HOW THE FLOOR IS LAID.] The floor was made of 1 × 8 ship lap, laid in four directions, as shown in Fig. 17. In the driveway an extra layer of ship lap was used, making this portion of the floor 2 inches thick. The doorways in the second story are 14 feet wide, and in the lower story 12 feet. These openings are closed by two sliding doors, each door being made of two sections, hinged together so as to follow the circular wall of the barn in opening. The cow stable is on the ground floor, and well lighted by 16 windows having twelve 9 × 12 lights each. There are also six windows in the doors. The windows are placed just below the ceiling and admit an abundance of sunshine at all times of the day, which is one of the essentials of a good dairy barn. [Illustration: FIG. 18. SHOWING PRESENT ARRANGEMENT OF COW STABLE. THERE ARE STANCHIONS AND MANGERS FOR 28 COWS, AND 2200 SQ. FT. OF FLOOR SPACE IN WHICH THE COWS CAN RUN LOOSE. THE GATES ARE SWUNG INTO THE PRESENT POSITION WHEN BOX STALLS ARE NEEDED.] The floor, back of the manger, is of clay, except at the door, where a small portion is covered with cement. The cows run loose except at feeding and milking time, when they are placed in rigid stanchions. It must be distinctly understood that rigid stanchions are strongly condemned as a cow tie, where cows are to remain in them all night, but as they are here used merely to hold the cow during milking, they are both economical and convenient. [Illustration: FIG. 19. SHOWING CROSS SECTION OF 60-FOOT ROUND BARN.] [Illustration: FIG. 20. CLEANING OUT COW STABLE WITH THREE-HORSE MANURE SPREADER.] [Illustration: FIG. 21. COWS IN STANCHION AT MILKING TIME.] Running cows loose in this manner is an excellent method, where bedding is abundant and sufficient space is available, as the cows are more comfortable, and all fertility is saved. There is no waste from leaching, as when the manure lies exposed to the weather. This method saves the labor of cleaning the stable, as the manure is loaded into the spreader and hauled directly upon the land whenever convenient, and the land is in the best condition to receive it.[C] [C] For a more detailed discussion of the advantages of keeping cows in this manner, see Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Circular No. 93. Three gates are hung on posts at the outside wall, and when box stalls are needed, these are swung around to the manger, as shown in Fig. 18. The south door in the cow stable can be closed by slatted gates, thus affording an abundance of fresh air and sunshine on nice days, without letting the cows out of the barn. SYSTEM OF VENTILATION [Illustration: FIG. 21. CONTINUED.] The system of ventilation is the "King." To economize space and lumber, the hay chute is used for a ventilator. This chute, which extends to the cupola, is 2-1/4 × 3-1/2 feet, having a cross section area of 8 sq. ft., which, with a good draft, is sufficient for 40 cows. In order that this combination of ventilator and hay chute prove practical, doors thru which the hay could be thrust were placed at intervals in the side of the chute. These doors are hinged at the top, opening in, and close immediately after the hay drops, thus maintaining a closed ventilator chute. The air is drawn in at the bottom, the amount being regulated by means of a sliding door in the side. As this chute is 50 feet high, it creates a strong suction. THE MILK ROOM To economize space, the milk room, 12 × 16 feet, is located under the north driveway. The brick walls under the drive form the sides of this room, and the floor of the drive, which is made of 2 × 6s grooved on both edges, forms the roof. The grooves in the flooring were filled with white lead, and a wooden strip, fitted to fill the grooves of both planks, was driven in, forming a water-tight floor. This floor was covered with hot tar and sand 1/2 inch thick. The milk room is plastered on the inside, the plaster being applied directly to the brick walls, excepting in the case of the ceiling, which is lathed. The floor and cooling tank are of cement. The passage from the barn to the milk room is thru a small hallway, which is open to the outside, thus preventing the stable air getting into the milk room. [Illustration: FIG. 22. FEED ALLEY, SHOWING COMBINED HAY CHUTE AND VENTILATOR. A DOOR ON THE SIDE WHICH IS HINGED AT THE BOTTOM, 3 FEET FROM THE FLOOR, IS LET IN TOWARD THE SILO, SLIDING THE HAY ONTO THE FLOOR. IN HOT WEATHER THIS OPENING TAKES THE HEAT OUT OF THE BARN; DURING THE WINTER THIS DOOR IS KEPT CLOSED AND THE VENTILATION IS REGULATED BY RAISING THE SLIDE, AS SHOWN IN THE CUT.] BARN SATISFACTORY This round dairy barn above described has been in use for over two years at the University of Illinois, and has given entire satisfaction. [Illustration: FIG. 23. NORTHEAST VIEW, SHOWING DAIRY UNDER DRIVEWAY. THE BARN IS ON THE SAME SCALE AS THE DRAWING ON PAGE 28.] [Illustration: FIG. 24. INTERIOR OF DAIRY; COOLING TANK ON LEFT.] RE-ARRANGEMENT OF BARN TO ACCOMMODATE 40 COWS If it is desired to keep cows in stalls in a round barn of this size, the circular manger can be enlarged to 38 feet in diameter, which gives room for forty cows, as shown in Fig. 25, and the silo, to hold sufficient silage to feed the year round, enlarged to 18 feet in diameter. The present mow room is sufficient to store enough hay and bedding for this number of cows. The barn on the Twenty-acre Demonstration Dairy Farm was built this large, as it was thought it might be desired at some future time to increase the size of the farm and herd, and the barn could easily be changed to accommodate a larger herd by simply enlarging the silo, without rebuilding the barn. [Illustration: FIG. 25. SHOWING HOW THIS 60-FOOT BARN MAY BE ARRANGED TO ACCOMMODATE 40 COWS IN STALLS. TO SUPPLY THIS SIZED HERD AND THE NECESSARY YOUNG STOCK WITH SILAGE FOR EIGHT MONTHS WOULD REQUIRE A 370-TON SILO, OR ONE 18 FEET IN DIAMETER AND 56 FEET DEEP; WITH A SEVEN-FOOT FEED ALLEY AND A 2-1/2-FOOT MANGER, THE CIRCLE AT THE STANCHIONS WOULD BE 38 FEET IN DIAMETER, OR 119-1/3 FEET IN CIRCUMFERENCE; ALLOWING 4-1/4 FEET FOR TWO PASSAGE WAYS, THE STALLS WOULD BE 2 FEET 10-1/2 INCHES WIDE AT THE STANCHION, AND 3 FEET 6 INCHES AT THE DROP.] ITEMIZED COST OF THIS ROUND BARN Excavating, foundation, and first story brick wall $904.00 Lumber: 149 pieces, 1 × 4 × 16 Y. P. 31 " 1 × 4 × 14 Cypress 16 " 1 × 4 × 12 " 165 " 1 × 6 × 16 Y. P. 17 " 1 × 6 × 14 " 226 " 2 × 4 × 12 " 20 " 2 × 4 × 16 " 6 " 2 × 4 × 14 " 15 " 4 × 4 × 14 " 120 " 2 × 12 × 16 " 23 " 2 × 12 × 14 " 100 " 2 × 6 × 20 " 144 " 2 × 6 × 16 " 67 " 2 × 6 × 18 " 4 " 2 × 6 × 26 " 60 " 2 × 6 × 12 " 30 " 2 × 6 × 22 " 4 " 2 × 6 × 24 " 6 " 2 × 8 × 10 " 9 " 2 × 8 × 16 " 4 " 2 × 10 × 14 " 11 " 2 × 10 × 12 " 1 " 2 × 10 × 22 " 1 " 1 × 10 × 12 " 1 " 1 × 10 × 14 Cypress 2 " 1 × 12 × 14 " 22 " 1-1/8 × 8 × 10 Cyp. S2S 2 " 1 × 1-1/8 × 12 × 14 " 2 " 1 × 1-1/8 × 12 × 16 " 6000 feet of 8-inch ship lap 3150 feet of 10-inch ship lap 71 M 5/2 red cedar shingles 165 Lineal feet of 2-inch Cr. molding 240 Lineal feet of Cr. molding 270 feet of 4-inch Y. P. S1S 4000 feet of 6-inch rough pine 62 feet of 3/8-inch Y. P. Ceiling 850 feet of 6-inch No. 1 flooring 230 feet of 6-inch fence flooring 56 lineal feet of 1/2 × 3-inch battening 32 lineal feet of lattice 444 lineal feet of 4-inch cypress 3 10-foot cedar posts Total cost of lumber $1,313.63 Mill work: Window sash and doors $270.00 Window and door frames 71.00 Sawing lumber for silo, roof, bridge and stanchions 29.78 Cost of hardware 96.57 Carpenter work: Head carpenter 518 hrs. @ 40c = $207.20 Carpenters 1057 hrs. @ 35c = 369.95 Common labor 429 hrs. @ 20c = 85.80 ------- Total cost for carpenter work 662.95 Tiling around barn and silo, sewer from dairy room, retaining wall, cement floor in alley, dairy, doorway of barn, and steps and tanks 128.54 Plastering dairy room and inside of silo 104.60 Painting 89.54 -------- Total cost of barn $3670.61 [Illustration: FIG. 26. BARN NO. 2. 80 FEET IN DIAMETER; ENGINE ROOM IN FOREGROUND.] The cost of this barn, if built on the ordinary dairy farm, could be materially reduced without shortening the life of the barn. Owing to the conditions under which this barn was built, it was necessary to pay for hauling all material to the farm, two and one-half miles from town. All of the labor had to be hired, and as it was necessary for the men to board themselves the wages paid were proportionately higher. The farmer usually does the excavating and hauls the brick, sand, and lumber with his own teams, tends the mason, and does quite an amount of the rough work with his own help, besides boarding the men, all of which would greatly reduce the cost. The construction could also be cheapened by using drop siding to cover the outside, instead of shingles, which in this case were used over ship lap on the side walls to improve the appearance. This barn could be still further cheapened by putting hoops, five feet apart, around the studs, and covering with common 1 × 12 boards, put on vertically, as is done in some cases. A saving could also be made on the mill work and large doors by having the carpenters make these plainer and leave the windows out of them. Anyone wishing to build a round barn can get local bids on the lumber bill, and determine approximately the cost in his locality. This will vary with both the location and the year. OTHER ROUND DAIRY BARNS BARN NO. 2 Built 1897. Diameter, 80 feet. Capacity, 75 cows in 2 rows, tails together, 51 head in outer circle, 24 head in inner circle. [Illustration: FIG. 27. INTERIOR OF BARN NO. 2. SHOWING TWO ROWS OF STANCHIONS AND DRIVE BEHIND COWS WHICH IS USED IN CLEANING BARN; SILO ON RIGHT.] Cost, $1800. Studs, 2 × 6s, placed 2-1/2 feet on center. Supports, two 2 × 6s in each stanchion. Joists, main span 3 × 12s, 20 feet long, placed 14 inches on center. Short spans over feed alleys, 2 × 10s. Plate, 1 × 10-inch boards sprung around near top of studs. Roof supports, 6 × 6s placed 12 feet apart. Purline plate rests on these posts and consists of 1 × 8s sprung to the circle. Siding, 8-inch, put on horizontally, first story ceiled inside. To clean out, a wagon is driven around between the two rows of cows. The chief objection to this barn is insufficient light in the cow stable. This barn and No. 3 are approximately the same in construction, and are more substantially built than barns No. 4 and 5. [Illustration: FIG. 28. ARRANGEMENT OF COW STABLE IN BARN NO. 2; TWO ROWS OF COWS TAILED TOGETHER. THE BARN IS CLEANED BY DRIVING AROUND BEHIND THE COWS.] [Illustration: FIG. 29. BARN NO. 3. 80 FEET IN DIAMETER.] BARN NO. 4 Built in 1900. Diameter, 90 feet. Capacity, 105 cows, two rows heading together. Cost, $3000. Foundation, width at base and top, 18 inches; depth in ground, 20 inches, (not sufficient). Sills, 2 × 8s, sawed in short lengths, and placed flatwise. Studding, 20-foot 2 × 8s, placed 3 feet on center and toenailed to sill. Supports, first story 4 × 4s placed between stanchions in each row, making two rows of supports between the outside wall and the silo; 4 × 4s cut to a circle placed on top of these supports. The outside span, over cows, is 13 feet 6 inches; middle span, over feed alley, 6 feet 8 inches, and inside span, over cows, 13 feet. Joists, 2 × 8s placed 3 feet apart at studs on outside wall. There are as many joists in center of barn as at the outside. Supports, second-story, consist of one row of posts running around at a point immediately under the break in the roof. These are 16 feet apart and are made of three 2 × 8s kept 2 inches apart by horizontal braces which run from studding near the eave thru these posts to studding in silo. See Fig. 31. Plate, rafter is set on top of each stud, and no plate is used. Rafters, 2 × 6s resting on studs at outside and on circular plate at break in roof. [Illustration: FIG. 30. BARN NO. 4. 90 FEET IN DIAMETER; ONE OF THE FEW DAIRY BARNS WITH SUFFICIENT LIGHT; SAME SCALE AS DRAWING ON PAGE 37.] [Illustration: FIG. 31. SILO IN CENTER OF BARN NO. 4; UPPER PORTION IN HAY LOFT. LOWER PORTION IN COW STABLE.] Siding, 8-inch drop siding, put on horizontally, nailed with 10d nails. Ends holding well. Windows, 12 light, 10 × 12 glass; one window every six feet. This gives an abundance of light in the center of the barn. Doors, built on circle; (not satisfactory). Silo, round; diameter, 24 feet over all; height, 53 feet, exclusive of 12-foot space for water tank on top; capacity, 500 tons. Studs of silo, 2 × 4s placed 12 inches on center. Ceiled inside of studs with two thicknesses of half-inch lumber with paper between. [Illustration: FIG. 32. INTERIOR OF BARN NO. 4, SHOWING STALLS AND FEED ALLEY.] Remarks: Considering its size, the construction of this barn is apparently too light to be substantial, as the joists and studs are too small and too far apart, yet it has stood for nine years with no more evidence of wear than is common with any barn. Were the owner to build again he would place the studs only 2-1/2 feet apart and use 2 × 12 joists, 2-1/2 feet apart at the outside wall. He would also use cement plaster on inside of silo. The owner says it would have cost him as much to have built a rectangular barn without the 500-ton silo, and containing 1300 sq. ft. less floor space. In other words, he gained a 500-ton silo and 1300 sq. ft. of floor space, besides an immense amount of mow room, by building a circular barn. [Illustration: FIG. 33. ARRANGEMENT OF COW STABLE IN BARN NO. 4, 90 FEET IN DIAMETER; TWO ROWS OF COWS HEADED TOGETHER.] BARN NO. 5 Built in 1906. Diameter, 100 feet. Capacity, 115 cows. Cost, $3400. Studding, 16-foot 2 × 6s, placed 3 feet on centers. Supports, 3 rows 4 × 4s. Joists, 2 × 10s, placed 3 feet on centers. Hemlock and yellow pine. Floor, laid in eight directions. Rafters, 2 × 6s spiked to studs. A band of two 1 × 6s is placed around the studs just below the rafters, and helps support the rafters. Supports for roof. There are three purline plates. Two of these are supported by posts, the other by braces running out from the silo. The roof is straight from eaves to peak. The bracing is similar to that of barn No. 4. Silo, 18 feet in diameter, 56 feet deep, 2 feet in ground. Capacity, 350 tons. [Illustration: FIG. 34. BARN 92 FEET IN DIAMETER; TWO ROWS OF COWS HEADED TOGETHER; SILO IN CENTER.] [Illustration: FIG. 35. VIEW OF 70-FOOT SELF-SUPPORTING ROOF ON BARN SHOWN IN FIG. 36; NOTE HOOPS ON STUDS IN RIGHT FOREGROUND.] [Illustration: FIG. 36. BARN 70 FEET IN DIAMETER; FRAME HOOPED FOR PERPENDICULAR SIDING; LOWER SECTION SIDED.] THE SMALL DAIRYMAN'S BARN [Illustration: FIG. 37. BARN 40 FEET IN DIAMETER.] [Illustration: FIG. 38. BARN 48 FEET IN DIAMETER, 16-FOOT POSTS; NOTE METHOD OF TAKING HAY INTO SMALL ROUND BARN.] The round barns previously described do not meet the needs of the man with only a few cows. He usually wants a general-purpose barn. The circular form can be made satisfactory for this purpose if proper attention is given to the plan. It is necessary that the cow stable be distinctly separated from all other stock by a tight wall. Round barns with this arrangement are giving satisfaction in Illinois at the present time. [Illustration: FIG. 39. SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF BARN IN FIG. 40. HOOPS IN PLACE READY FOR PERPENDICULAR SIDING; ROOF SHEATHED FOR SHINGLES.] [Illustration: FIG. 40. BARN 102 FEET IN DIAMETER AND 85 FEET HIGH.] DISADVANTAGES OF THE POLYGONAL BARN. A polygonal barn has the disadvantages of both the rectangular and the round barn, and is less stable than either. It must necessarily have a heavy frame, which is expensive, and as the siding cannot run around the corners, it is very difficult to tie the different sides together sufficiently to prevent the barn being racked by the wind. BARN NO. 6 16-sided. Built, 1888. [Illustration: FIG. 41. BARN NO. 6; 85 FEET IN DIAMETER; SAME SCALE AS DRAWING ON OPPOSITE PAGE.] Diameter, 85 feet. Height, 26-foot posts on 9-foot wall. Capacity, 88 cows; 350 tons of hay. Foundation and first story, cement wall 9 feet above cement floor. Supports, 4 × 8s, placed just back of stanchions, 3 feet on center. Studs, 2 × 10s, 26 feet long, placed 2-1/2 feet on center. Joists 3 × 12s, 20 feet long, 14 inches on center for main span. Rafters, self-supporting. Sheathed with 1 × 6s with no space between. This roof has a purline plate thrown in the gambrel. The plate is supported only by the braces which tie the joints. [Illustration: FIG. 42. ARRANGEMENT OF COW STABLE IN BARN NO. 6.] The barn has been racked three times by the wind, replumbed and heavy iron rods put in to brace it, yet it is out of plumb at the present time. CONCLUSIONS In summing up the data given in this bulletin, it is obvious that the advantages of the round barn are convenience, strength, and cheapness. The round barn is the more convenient, because of the unobstructed mow, which reduces the labor required in mowing hay, and because of the greater ease and fewer steps with which the feed can be gotten to the cows, owing to the central location of the supply. The circular construction is the strongest because advantage is taken of the lineal strength of the lumber. All exposed surfaces are circular, and withstand greater wind pressure, as the wind can get no direct hold, as on the sides or gable ends of a rectangular barn. In round numbers, rectangular barns require, according to their construction, from 34 to 58 percent more in cost of material than round barns with the same floor area and built of the same grade of material. * * * * * TRANSCRIBER NOTES: Punctuation has been normalized without note. Hyphenation of words has been changed to be more consistent throughout the text. Page 6: "betwen" changed to "between" (midway between the silo and the outside wall). 
38467	----	NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL DUCK CULTURE JAMES RANKIN _Price 50 Cents._ FIFTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED SOUTH EASTON, MASS. 1906 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1906, by JAMES RANKIN, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. DESIGNED AND COMPILED BY H. A. SUMMERS BOSTON, MASS. [Illustration: BIRDS-EYE VIEW MAPLEWOOD FARM. JAMES RANKIN, PROPRIETOR.] INTRODUCTION. Our original motive in publishing this little book, was one of self-defense, to relieve ourselves, in a measure, of a correspondence which was becoming much too large for the time at our disposal. After reading from fifty to one hundred letters per day, from people, asking all manner of questions concerning the hatching, growing and marketing of ducks, in detail, there were not hours enough in the twenty-four to answer them. This book was published to send out with our machines to meet these queries and give our patrons our method of growing, supposing it would cover all the points in duck-culture, but it does not as yet answer the ends. The questions still come in far beyond our ability to answer, and as our fourth edition is about exhausted, we now publish a fifth, revised, enlarged and illustrated; also adding a Question Bureau, which will answer many of the questions which have reached us during the past few years concerning the growing, as well as the diseases to which the Pekin duck is subject. Though we have been in this business for nearly forty years, and have been eminently successful, we do not claim to know all about it; but by persistent effort, careful selection and breeding, have succeeded in developing a mammoth strain of Pekin ducks, which, for symmetry, precocity and fecundity (experts who have visited our place from all parts of the country tell us), stand unrivalled on this continent. Many of our customers write us that their birds average from 150 to 165 eggs per season. We would say that there is no domestic bird under so perfect control, so free from diseases of all kinds, or from insect parasites as the Pekin duck. From the time the little bird is hatched until it is full grown and ready to reproduce its own species, it is under the perfect control of the intelligent operator, who can produce feathers, flesh or bone at will, and even mature the bird and compel it to lay at four-and-a-half months old. There is no bird in existence that will respond to kind treatment, generous care and feed as the Pekin duck. On the other hand, there is no bird more susceptible to improper feed or neglect, and a sad mortality is sure to follow among the little ones, where proper food and system are wanting. It may surprise some one to know that the predisposition to disease may exist in the egg from which the little bird is hatched, or even in the condition of the parent bird which produces the egg. Strong physique in animal life, as in man, are like exotics, requiring the most assiduous care and cultivation, and are the most difficult to transmit. Defects, like weeds, seem indigenous to the soil and will reproduce with unerring regularity, and will often crop out in all directions, generations after you think you have wiped it all out. So it is one thing to produce an egg from good, strong, vigorous stock during the winter in inclement weather, when all nature is against you, and so poorly fertilized that if it hatches at all, will hatch a chick so enfeebled in construction that no amount of petting or coaxing can induce it to live, but quite another to produce an egg so highly vitalized, that it will be sure to hatch a healthy young bird, bound to live under all circumstances. But this is not all the danger. The operator, though he may have good eggs, may be neglectful or ignorant, and the health of the young birds seriously injured during the hours of incubation; or he may have a defective machine which under no condition can turn out healthy birds. With healthy, vigorous parent stock, judicious care and food, there is no reason why good hatches of strong, healthy young birds may not be obtained, and the same matured with very little loss. Natural and Artificial Duck Culture. It is only within a few years that the public at large have become awake to the importance of the poultry interests in the country. Formerly it was supposed to be of insignificant proportions compared to the beef and pork product. But recent statistics show that the poultry interests in magnitude not only exceed either of the above, but are vastly on the increase year by year. Yet, strange to say, the supply, enormous as it is, does not keep pace with the demand. As a natural consequence, we are obliged to import millions of dozens of eggs from Europe, and carloads of poultry of all descriptions from Canada. (December 21, 1888, a train of twenty refrigerator cars loaded with dressed poultry, aggregating 200 tons, arrived in Boston from Canada,--$50,000 worth of dressed poultry at one shipment.) Still the demand goes on. Our large cities, which form the principal market for poultry and eggs, are growing larger every year. The rich men who inhabit them are growing richer and more numerous, and are always ready to pay the poulterer a good round price for a first-class article. Good poultry has not only become an every day necessity to the well-to-do classes, but is a common article of diet at least six months of the year on the workingman's table. It is everywhere recognized by physicians as the best and most palatable, as well as the most wholesome and nutritious, of all our flesh diets. Duck Culture an Important Industry. Duck culture now assumes a most important part in the poultry business, and yet, until within a few years, people did not suppose that ducks were fit to eat. But now the public appetite is fast becoming educated to the fact that a nice, crispy, roasted duckling of ten weeks old is not only a dish fit for an epicure, but is far ahead of either turkey, chicken or goose. As a natural consequence, the demand for good ducks is rapidly increasing. One of the principal poultry dealers in Boston assured me that his sales of ducks had nearly doubled each season for the past five years. Twenty years ago, when growing less than 1500 ducks yearly, I was obliged to visit the city markets personally and tease the dealers to purchase my birds in order to secure anything like satisfactory prices. Now, with a ranch capacity of nearly 20,000 ducks yearly, I cannot fill my orders. Pond or Lake Not Necessary. The reason is very plain. Formerly people supposed that ducks could not be successfully grown without access to either pond, stream or coast line. As a natural consequence, a large share of the birds sold in the markets were grown on or near the coasts, fed largely on fish, partially fattened, and were anything but a tempting morsel. For years there have been large establishments on the Long Island shores devoted to duck-culture. Large seines and nets were used regularly to secure the fish on which the young birds were fed and fattened. These birds grew to a large size and attained a fine plumage, but, as might be surmised, their flesh was coarse and fishy. Occasionally a person was found who relished these birds, but the majority of people preferred to eat their fish and flesh separately. Now this is all changed. Duck-culture of today is quite a different thing from the days of yore. Then, the young birds were confided to the tender mercies of the old hen. Now, the business is all done artificially. The artificially-grown, scrap-fed duckling of the interior is a far different bird from his fishy-fed brother of the coast. He has been educated to a complete indifference to water except to satisfy his thirst. Taught to take on flesh and fat instead of feathers, his body is widened out and rounded off, and, when properly denuded of his feathers, is a thing of beauty. Ducks In Great Demand for Food. This sudden popularity of the duck in our markets, the great demand for them on the tables of our epicures, together with the immense profits realized from growing them, has naturally created quite an interest among poultry men; so much so that I am constantly flooded with letters filled with inquiries as to which is the best variety to raise, which are the best layers, if they can be hatched in incubators, what kind of buildings are necessary, the amount of profit realized,--in short, wishing me to give them the whole thing in detail, which, were one willing, it would be completely out of one's power to do. As there seems to be no work published in the country to meet this case and answer these queries, in pure self-defense, and through earnest persuasion of many friends, I shall, to the best of my ability, through this little treatise, endeavor to answer them, together with many other points which will naturally suggest themselves. I shall confine myself almost entirely to an exposition of the artificial method, giving my own experience in the business for the last thirty years in detail. In doing this, the most approved buildings will be (both for brooding and breeding) described in full, together with cuts of the egg in different stages of incubation, and the living and dead germ compared, and how to distinguish each, plainly told. Just here let me say that a great deal of skepticism prevails among people in general and farmers in particular. They do not believe in the success of artificial poultry growing, or, indeed, of growing it in large numbers in any other way. As a proof of their assertions they will tell you that more than three-fourths of the people who attempt the business on a large scale make a complete failure of it. And it is the plain truth. There are few communities in this country, large as it is, but that, at some time in the past, has had a bogus incubator within its limits, or a good one that has been badly managed. The unfortunate experience of these men has spread for miles in all directions. There is but one verdict. The man is never condemned. The system is so denounced that a strong prejudice exists against all incubators, which it is difficult to combat. Every town, too, has had its representative poultry man who has erected extensive building's with a view to growing poultry on a large scale in the natural way. He, too, has met with disaster. Failure has attended his efforts, and the community is still more embittered against the whole thing, and the emphatic "It can't be done," meets you on every side. Now, there is a cause for all this. Where is it? In the men. They do not comply with the conditions of success, and failure is the result. We will endeavor to give some of the reasons why: Nearly three-fourths of these people come from the city. Now, city people have unfortunately imbibed the impression that the necessary amount of brains and executive ability required to successfully run a mercantile, manufacturing or broker's business in the city is largely in excess of that required to run a successful poultry or agricultural ranch in the country. Raising Poultry in the Country. Men who have impoverished themselves by repeated failures in the city come out to retrieve their fortunes by raising poultry in the country. They visit your place and see thousands of young ducklings of all sizes and ages, each one vieing with the other as to which will consume the most food. They are completely carried away with the sight. They question you closely in regard to the profit derived from the business, and then openly avow their intention of doing the same thing themselves. You advise beginning small, and meekly suggest the possibility of failure through inexperience. The incredulous smile that plays over their features informs you that advice is wasted. "Why, haven't I read up all the poultry journals and got the whole thing down fine?" Others, still, who, from close confinement at sedentary work in the city, are anxious to engage in a business which promises equally to restore their health as well as to provide them a livelihood. These invalids come out with their exhausted energies and dilapidated constitutions to engage in a business which, to insure success, requires a minuteness of detail and intensity of application second to none. They are unequal to the six or eight hours required of them on a revolving stool in the counting-room in the city, but are equal to the fourteen and sixteen hours indispensable to the poultry business in the country. Is it strange that a large proportion of these men fail? Others, still, come to us wishing to engage in the business, at the same time candidly acknowledging their complete ignorance and inexperience. They frankly state their circumstances. They are poor, with families to support, and are not afraid of work, throwing themselves, as it were, upon one's mercy. They seek a good, healthy and fairly profitable occupation in which they can cultivate the physique and morals of their children away from the temptations of city life. Now you take kindly to such men; readily forfeit any advantages which may accrue to yourself through want of candor on your part, gauge their calibre, and to the best of your ability measure their chances of success, and give them the best advice you can, which advice usually is to begin small,--say with one machine, buildings in proportion, and increase their plant as their experience and judgment dictates. Raise Ducks and Chicks. But the reader will say: "What has all this to do with duck-culture?" Simply this: It is to give the would-be poultry enthusiast some idea of what he has to contend with before he begins. To convince him that this is no child's play--that the care of young ducks and chicks means early hours and late. The closest confinement and application is required for at least six months of the year, and if he is at all afraid of hard work or of soiling his fingers, he had better stop where he is. The theory that the poultry business furnishes a good occupation for little boys and girls, superannuated old men and invalids, has long since exploded. We advise people to secure a fair share of health before they begin and then they will be sure to keep it. As an inducement to all, I would say that there is nothing in the way of farm industry or any other legitimate occupation which will at all compare with the profits obtained from poultry when artificially conducted. There are, however, a few notable exceptions in favor of watered railroad stock, bogus mining shares, patent medicines, and the business done by our bank cashiers when guaranteed a safe transit through to Canada. I would advise all contemplating the poultry business to combine the growing of ducks and chicks together, for the reason that more profit can be realized from both than from either alone, because they do not necessarily interfere with each other, and the same buildings and machinery can be utilized for both. The brooding-house should be filled with chicks in November and December, which they will have outgrown by February, when the building will be required for ducklings. The ducklings, strange to say, though two months younger, will be ready for market as soon as the chicks (provided the latter are held for roasters, as they should be) and they will both be in the market in time to command the highest prices. This is what the poulterer should always cater for, and machinery alone will enable him to do it. He who expects to incubate with old hens during the winter will surely get left. But more of this hereafter. Select A Good Site. The first thing for one to do (if he is not already located), is to select a good site. It should have a gradual slope to the east or south, enough for natural drainage. No matter how poor the land, it will be rich enough before your fowls get through with it. I need not say that in those regions where snow lies upon the ground four or five months of the year, the conditions are not as favorable for the poultry grower as near the coast line, where snow, though a frequent visitor, remains but a few weeks or days at a time. In the one case it means close confinement to the fowls a great part of the winter, with want of exercise and consequent want of action in the digestive organs. The food is not assimilated, the fowls become debilitated, and though they may give a fair share of eggs, these eggs can seldom be depended upon to hatch. It is true, the active poulterer may overcome this in a measure by clearing away the snow for ten or fifteen feet in front of his buildings after each storm, and by a free use of barn chaff and chopped straw induce his fowls to go out on sunny days, but all this increases his work and makes the conditions against him. I simply mention these facts, assuming that where a man has his choice of locations, these hints may have their proper weight in the matter. Advantages with Ducks. The same rule holds good in a measure with breeding ducks, though not in so great a degree. For instance, your hen when closely confined seems to lose her ambition, and spends a large part of her time on the perches, apparently indifferent to all sublunary things. Not so your duck. She is in constant motion, no matter how small her quarters. No meditation for her. Indeed, the days seem too short for her to exercise in, and so she keeps it up through a great part of the night. Her greatest ambition seems to be to distribute the few quarts of water you have given her for drink, evenly all over the pen you have just covered with dry, finely-chopped straw, and make it as sloppy as possible, and it is astonishing in how short a space of time she will succeed in doing it. Again, snow and ice are the aversion of the hen. She cannot be induced to step in either except under pressure of circumstances. Not so your duck. She likes nothing better than to be out in a snow bank during a thaw, and if she can only work it up into the color and consistency of mud it suits her exactly. She does not mind the cold if she can only keep her feet warm. She is clothed with an impenetrable coat of feathers and an equally thick coat of down. She does not take kindly to confinement in a building and will utter her constant protest, and like the average school boy of ten prefers to suffer from the cold outside to being comfortable in. Therefore, the main point in breeding early ducks and erecting buildings for the same, next to supplying them with the right kind of food, is to keep their feet warm. Cold feet affect the winter laying of the duck the same as a frozen comb affects the hen. It stops the egg production at once. Locate Near a Railroad. Your plant should be located on a line of railroad, in direct communication with one or more of our great city markets, and not too far from the station, as you will necessarily be in frequent and close communication with that. Arrange the Buildings. to secure good room in front, also good drainage, and especially with a view to reducing the labor to a minimum, both inside and out. Always remember that the labor is the most expensive part of the poultry business. Now is the time for forethought and caution--save all the steps, all the work you can. You will never suffer from want of exercise, if your fowls do. I never knew a case of gout in a man in the poultry business in my life. It is well, also, when arranging a poultry plant, to make provision for future contingencies, so that should one in the course of time and experience wish to increase his plant and the size of his buildings longitudinally he will have plenty of room to do it, by simply moving the end of his building out as far as he wishes and filling in between. I have been obliged to do this several times in the course of my experience, and have the past Fall built a double brooding house 250 feet long by 16 feet wide. One important point in erecting poultry buildings is the difficulty in building them, Warm, Cheap, and Rat-proof. Formerly I built stone foundations on which were placed the buildings, cementing the stone work to the sill carefully inside and out. This proved in the end not only an expensive but a very unsatisfactory arrangement, for cement it as one would the action of the frost would always part the sill from the foundation and admit the cold air from all around just where it should be kept warm. I have since hit upon a plan which has not only met the case but is comparatively inexpensive. Place posts, with one square side to them, about four feet apart, on which place the 2x4 inch sill. Set these posts in the ground so that the tops rise but one inch above the surface, with the flat side exactly horizontal and perpendicular to the inside of the sill. Then sink a hemlock board twelve or fourteen inches wide into the ground inside of the building, and immediately in front of the two-inch sill, until the upper edge is flush with the upper side of the sill, nailing it firmly thereto, filling up inside nearly to a level of the top of the sill. This gives a warm, cheap foundation on which the frost does not act. Hemlock, too, seems to have an affinity for moisture and will last in that condition from eight to ten years, when it can be easily renewed. This arrangement is also comparatively rat-proof, as a hemlock board is a rat's aversion. It does not agree with their teeth. They cannot possibly dig under during the frozen months of the year, and as it affords them no concealment they do not care to, during the warm season. The Outside Plan of a Breeding and Brooding House with the exception of a little more glass in the latter, should be precisely the same both for ducks and ducklings. The internal arrangements can be made to suit. As I shall give a full description with cuts of this building later, I will now merely give the manner in which it should be arranged as a good breeding-house for ducks. This building should be fifteen feet wide and any length required. It should have an uneven double roof, five-foot posts in the rear and four foot in front. About one-quarter of this front should be glass. There should be a walk the entire length of the building three and one-half feet wide. The main body of the building should be divided into pens twenty feet long, by either lath or wire two feet high. The walk should be separated from the pens by laths three inches apart, to allow the birds to feed and water from the walk. This method simplifies the labor very much, as it enables the operator to load his barrow, travel the whole length of a 200-foot building and feed and water 500 ducks in a few minutes. This arrangement has many other advantages besides, as it permits the birds to feed and water readily from the walk without being able to waste either, or mix the contents of food and water-dishes with filth. It also prevents the birds from sopping the straw in the bottom of their pens, or of soiling their white plumage, both of which they are bound to do if possible, and as the duck, especially the Pekin, is a very timid bird, this plan familiarizes her with the appearance of the attendant without bringing her into actual contact with him. Use Half the Pens for Feeding Purposes. One-half or ten feet of the twenty-foot pens should be utilized for feeding purposes. The lower board of this slat partition should not be more than three inches wide and should rest upon the ground so the birds can readily feed over it. As this ten-foot partition is but two feet high, the attendant can readily step over it to pick up a stray egg occasionally. Six feet of this partition should be portable and secured with a groove or button so it can be easily removed to allow the entrance of a barrow in cleaning out the pens; this should be done when the birds are out, never when they are in. The remaining ten feet of the pen should be used for nest boxes, which can be fifteen inches square and one foot high. A board four inches wide may be fastened in front to prevent the nest material from being drawn out. This latter may be composed of finely cut hay or chaff. This must be perfectly dry, as the duck while laying will work it all over and cover her eggs carefully, which as they are pure white, become easily soiled and stained; this will necessitate washing unless things are kept dry and clean. This is a vital point with us, as it never did seem as if a filthy egg would hatch as well as a clean one. I abominate a machine filled with filthy eggs; it actually hurts my feelings to handle them. These nests should be covered closely and the partition above them be correspondingly high, as the birds will often mount upon the boxes. The back of the nest boxes next the walk should be closed with a board hinged below so that the attendant can let it down readily and secure the eggs from the walk. The Room for Mixing Feed. Some twelve feet of this breeding-house may be utilized as a cook and mixing room, and must necessarily be a little higher posted than the rest of the building,--say, two feet higher. This cookroom, with boiler, is an essential thing in a duck-house. Unlike hens, they do not take kindly to hard food and whole grain. Their digestive organs, in many points, are different from the hens, and they do not assimilate hard food readily. They require more vegetable food, and those vegetables must be cooked,--but more about this hereafter. Of course, this building should be sweet and clean, and must be well deodorized; for, though ducks do not generate vermin like other fowl, and are not subject to as many diseases, or as readily affected by thermal changes,--in fact, a good driving rainstorm is their delight,--yet they will not thrive when confined in filthy quarters. It engenders a morbid appetite, impairs digestion, and your bird is poor before you know it. This, of course, arrests the egg production at once. I wish here to impress upon the breeder the absolute necessity of the careful handling and feeding of his birds; and, when necessary, handle very gently, always taking the bird by the neck. This is very essential, because the bones of a well-bred, well-fatted duck seem wholly disproportioned to the size and weight of his body, and we have often seen a wing broken or a leg disjointed by the convulsive efforts of the bird to escape when caught by those members through the carelessness of the attendant. The timidity of the Pekin is proverbial. You should move quietly among your layers if you would have them thrive, as constant agitation and disquietude will surely debilitate them and reduce their flesh. I have known a pair of heavy exhibition birds to lose a pound per day during their confinement the first four days of exhibition, and to be eight pounds lighter than they were ten days before when started for the show. Their recuperative powers are equally wonderful. I have often seen Pekin ducks, after having produced one hundred eggs in nearly as many days, on evincing a desire to sit, and being somewhat reduced in flesh, when shut up in a yard with drakes and well fed, in less than a week commence her regular contribution of an egg per day. Water Not Needed. The majority of people have the impression that water to bathe in is essential to secure fertility in duck eggs, but it is a great mistake. My ducks never see water, the year round, except to drink. They are confined in yards 24x100 feet, some forty in each yard, twenty-four feet being the size of the pens inside of the breeding house. They are confined in these yards for nine months, or till August 1, when they are removed in order that the land may be disinfected. This is done by plowing and growing a crop of barley or rye, when the land is ready for the ducks again. Free Range Unnecessary. I am constantly experimenting to see if there are defects in my system. A few years ago I had thirty breeding-yards devoted to ducks. I wished to ascertain the difference in egg production and percentage of fertility between ducks yarded close and those with free range, the feed and other conditions being the same. One lot of fifty ducks were allowed the range of a five-acre lot, in addition to their own yard. They ranged in common with our cows, there being plenty of grass. Another lot of seventy-five were allowed the range of the whole premises, with the same feed and care as the eight yards confined. The latter were liberally supplied with all the green and vegetable food needed. The egg production and the fertility of each were carefully noted. I was much surprised to find that the difference was very little, and that in favor of the birds confined. The Mode of Feeding. differs with the season of the year. During the autumn and early winter months feed twice each day about equal quantities of corn-meal, wheat-bran, and boiled turnips and potatoes, with about ten per cent. of ground beef scrap thrown in. At noon, give a small amount of dry food, composed of equal quantities of cracked corn, oats, and wheat. When the birds commence laying, as they will about January 1st, gradually increase the quantity of meal and animal food, proportionally decreasing the amount of bran. The Pekin Duck. is my favorite. I have experimented carefully during the last thirty years with all the larger breeds, crossing them in every conceivable way to obtain the best results, and am perfectly satisfied with the Pekins. I am now through experimenting, and as I grow nearly 20,000 ducklings yearly, can hardly afford to guess at it, as one cent per bird makes a difference of over $200. in my receipts,--one cent per pound, a difference of over $1200. It is readily seen that I can only afford to use the bird that will grow the greatest number of pounds of flesh in the shortest space of time. Nor is this all. It must be the bird that will give you the first eggs of the season, as this will enable you to get your birds on the market when they will command the highest price, as there is more clear profit from one early bird than from three later ones. This will be the more readily understood when it is known that the maximum price paid for early birds is thirty cents per pound in Boston and New York, the minimum price for late ones eighteen cents, the cost of production being the same for both. [Illustration: PEKIN DUCKS.] The Pekin Combines the Best Points. The Pekin is the only bird that will cover all these points. It has two slight defects,--its extreme timidity and its heavy, coarse voice, which it does not scruple to use when congregated in large numbers. The former can be easily overcome by careful handling. But to off-set these defects the Pekin will not only produce the first eggs of the season, but by far the greatest number of any of the breeds, with one exception, the Indian Runner. They mature earlier, are more hardy and domestic in their habits, never wandering far, and always returning to the coops at night. They are not mischievous, and require less water than either of the other breeds. My birds have for generations been bred in dry yards, with simply water to drink, and all desire for it for other purposes seems to have been bred out of them. When allowed their freedom in the fall, the flocks never visit the brook, fifteen or twenty rods distant, and when driven there occasionally for the purpose of purifying their feathers, get out again just as soon as possible. Indeed, after a water bath their feathers cling to their bodies, and they present the same bedraggled appearance that the old hen did many years ago after one had immersed her in a water-barrel to cure her propensity for sitting. A wealthy New Yorker ordered a dozen of my best ducks, a year or two ago. In a few weeks he wrote that he wished to return them, as they did not answer his purpose; "for," said he, "I have an artificial lake on my lawn, near my piazza, and I wanted these ducks to disport in the water for the pleasure of my wife and children, and they will not go in the water at all unless I drive them in with a whip, and I have to stand guard over them all the time, as they get out the moment my back is turned." I wrote him in return that had I known he wanted the ducks for their aquatic performances, I should have recommended the common puddle duck, when he would have had as much trouble to get them out of the water as he had to get the Pekins in. Feathers are Pure White. Another advantage of the Pekin over the other breeds is their pure white, elastic feathers which are largely mixed with down. These feathers readily command from forty to fifty cents per pound, and as the reader can see, are no mean source of income, especially when the birds are grown in large numbers. These birds, as their name indicates, originated in China. They are large, beautiful birds, of a proud, erect carriage, with pure white plumage outside. The inside feathers are slightly cream colored. The neck is long and gracefully curved; the head long and finely shaped, with a full bright eye. The legs and beak are of a very dark orange, and form a fine contrast to the pure white feathers. The minimum weight of our birds when matured is about fourteen pounds per pair, while the very heaviest will tip the scales at twenty-two pounds. My first experience with ducks commenced more than forty years ago. We used the common puddle ducks and grew them for the city market. The ducks were very small and so were the profits. They were fed but little and allowed full range, consequently the home ties were not strong. Those ducks followed the little brook in the pasture through swamps and marshes for half a mile in either direction, wholly regardless of farm limits. If we expected any eggs from those ducks they should have been safely housed at night. This task devolved upon the boys. Now our paternal head, though a kind and indulgent parent (unfortunately for us), had the impression that boys were made to work, and work we did. Now, what boy of ten or twelve years had not rather chase ducks through the mud in the swamp than to wield the hoe among the weeds in the corn field? It was our recreation, our chief solace and delight through those long, hot summer days--the anticipation of that duck hunt in the evening. I think our extraordinary love for the duck hailed from this date. Later on we used a cross between a Rouen and Cayuga. This cross made a much larger and better market bird. The flesh was better flavored. They produced more eggs and began earlier in the spring, consequently prices and profits slightly improved. These birds did not stray as far, but were as fond of mud and water as their little predecessors. It was a pleasing and comical sight to see three or four hundred of these ducklings of all ages, when first let out in the morning, run down the hill in their eager haste to reach the swamp, a part of them right side up, then rolling over and over on their broadsides; others still reversing themselves end for end down the steep incline, apparently a matter of supreme indifference how, so long as they reached the mud first. These ducklings always returned at night with their numbers more or less depleted, as they were the legitimate prey of skunks, minks, weasels and mud turtles; and if we reached the summer's end with sixty per cent. of the original number we were well satisfied. All this has been changed. We have learned a number of points on duck culture since then. First, that all losses by vermin can be easily avoided by yarding your little birds at home and keeping them under your own eye. Second, that mud and water externally applied are not essential to their growth and well-being, and that in fact they will thrive better without. Ready for Market 3 Months Earlier. Third, that it is not necessary to keep your birds till they are six months old in the fall and then put them on the market when it is sure to be glutted, but much better to market them at ten weeks, when they are nearly as heavy, and you are sure to get more than double the price, as well as save three or four months extra feed. There are many other points connected with this thing which the novice must ponder carefully before he begins, as a slight mistake in the beginning often means a great loss in the end. As pioneers in the business we have for many years been carefully experimenting with the different breeds, different treatment and variety of food. We have met with many failures, suffered some loss, but with a gradual improvement through it all, which has been very encouraging to us, and though we do not claim perfection, yet we are now reaping a rich harvest compared to which our former losses are simply insignificant. It is a source of gratification to know that success has at last crowned our efforts. When we look back forty years--when year after year chronicled failure and our best efforts met with loss--when we were the butt, ridicule, and laughing stock of the whole community; when we were assured again and again that we were fighting against nature and never could succeed, and repeated failures only seemed to confirm that assertion,--and compare it with the present, when we can grow our birds by the thousands, regulate the growth, control the mortality, and grow flesh or feathers at will; have shortened the precocity, increased fecundity, and even educated the birds to an aversion for water, which was formerly their home; we have completely reversed the order of things and taught our birds to reproduce at a season of the year when all nature is against them, we can safely feel the victory is won. We hope that our readers will not only benefit by the experience we shall present, but that many of them will be able to take this and carry it on where, according to the natural course of things, we shall be obliged to leave it. We are no longer young, the infirmities and decrepitude of age are slowly creeping upon us and admonish us that our days of research are nearly over, and we find that our life is all too short. But there is a satisfaction in knowing that others will take this thing up where we leave off and carry it on to the end. The Superiority of Artificial Poultry Growing. We predict a great future for artificial poultry growing. It is yet in its infancy. The time will come when it will gradually supersede many of the regular farm crops on the sterile soil of New England, when every farmer will have his proper complement of poultry appliances, and when you can prove to the average farmer that the capital necessary to run a poultry plant (which will with less labor ensure him a greater income than that from his whole farm) is less than one-fourth of that required for any other farm investment. You will begin to see him scratch his head to evolve ideas. The beginner in starting, should recollect that this is a business of detail and that small things must be taken into account. It is not only a very essential thing to choose the best breeding stock that can be had, but, all other conditions being the same, to select the color of their feathers. We have always had a predilection in favor of white birds, for the feathers (which are no small item in ducks) command nearly double the price of colored ones, and are always more saleable. Again, we must cater for the market with young birds, and every one knows that young birds are more or less addicted to pinfeathers, many of which it is very difficult to remove, as they have secured a lodgment just under the skin, but have not found their way through. Now a dark pinfeather is a blot upon the fair surface of a fine chicken or duck, and the thrifty housewife in selecting her dinner will always leave the pins behind. She does not like a variety of colors in her duckling, if she does in her dress. The dealer, aware of this peculiarity of the ladies (who, by the way, form a large share of his customers) will, if he buys at all, cut you on the price. Unfortunately we started in with dark birds, but it did not matter at that time, as the Pekin had not been imported, and there were very few Aylesburys in the country. We were surrounded by vermin of all kinds. Our young birds disappeared mysteriously, and in such large numbers that we were nearly discouraged. Hawks do not trouble ducks, but rats, weasels and minks developed such a fondness for them as to completely atone for any neglect on their part. We made a free use of steel traps, guns, and phosphoretic poison. The battle raged for two years; at the end of that time I think it would be difficult to find one of the above-mentioned vermin one-fourth of a mile from the place. It was a great relief; our ducklings could range at will, even be left out during the night, and still the full complement appear at the dough-troughs in the morning. Do Not Have Neighbors Too Near. Another source of discomfort was our neighbors' cats. Now, we are eminently social in our disposition, and enjoy our neighbors' company very much. We like to spend a social evening with them and have them do the same by us. But not so their cats. We never interchanged civilities with them, their visits were too ill timed and frequent. Our ducklings were carried off in large numbers, and in pure self-defense we shot the cats. Of course, this made trouble in our neighbors' families, especially the female portion, by whom it was promptly resented. The principle of "touch my dog, touch me," was illustrated here in all its force. No amount of provocation ever justified us in their eyes in killing their cats. With pater familias it was different. His affections were not engaged. He recognized the necessity of the thing, laughed it off, and said it was all right. Now, cats breed fast and are very prolific, and our neighbors were plenty, and we are unwilling to state the amount of our losses from those sources, for fear our veracity would be doubted. We endured this sort of annoyance for some twelve years, but made up our minds that if we ever selected another poultry ranch we would locate our neighbors at a distance. We have done so, and now have no trouble from this source. We found that the Cayuga duck was a more precocious bird than the Rouen, and were better layers. The eggs were more fertile. They were also much hardier, and, as a consequence, there was less mortality among the young. But they were rather small in size, dressing only seven to nine pounds per pair. The Rouens were nearly four pounds heavier, but had their disadvantages. They were not so productive in eggs, and those did not give us the same percentage of hatch, while the mortality among the little ones was much greater. We do not like to condemn any variety of birds on one trial, as we may be unfortunate in our selection of a strain, but our subsequent experience with these birds fully confirms the above; and though they are a large, attractive bird, we do not consider them as hardy as either Pekin, Aylesbury or Cayuga. [Illustration: CAYUGA DUCKS.] We conceived the plan of crossing this bird with the Cayuga, with a view of increasing the size, not knowing whether the good or the negative qualities of the two birds would prevail. We were very much pleased with the results of this cross, as it gave us all the good qualities of the Cayuga with the largely increased size of the Rouen. It gave us also a good table bird, the flesh of which was far better flavored than that of the puddle duck. We made the duck business then supplementary to that of growing chickens. Our chicks were hatched out early in the winter in order to secure the high prices. Our ducks during the spring and summer were not marketed until fall. We did not expect those ducks to lay till the first of April, and they did not disappoint us. If anyone had told us that young ducks could be made to lay at four or five months old, and that we could have our young broods out by the thousands at that time, we should have called him insane. We then gave our ducklings free range, and, as a consequence, lost large numbers of them from eating injurious insects, which, in their haste, they did not stop to kill, and paid the penalty with their lives. [Illustration: ROUEN DUCKS.] Now, the genuine duckling is proverbially stupid. He has an immense faculty for getting himself into trouble, without the first idea as to how he shall get out. As, for instance, we had taken up some old fence-posts one day, and carelessly left the holes (some two feet deep) unfilled. When feeding time came at night we missed many of our little ducklings, and, at the same time, heard a great squeaking, which we could not locate. We finally traced it to the post-holes, which we found nearly full of young ducklings, not much the worse for the adventure. When we look back at the difficulties with which we had to contend, and the losses we sustained in consequence, I often wonder that we were not discouraged. It was blunder after blunder, repeated always with the same results. We had very little idea of the systematic care and regular food required to ensure against loss and enable the young birds to attain a weight in a few weeks which we supposed required almost as many months. We still had the impression that water was essential to the welfare of the birds, both old and young, and that eggs would not be fertile unless copulation took place in the water. So we built a tank for use during the dry season of the year (which held about a hogshead), and cemented it thoroughly. This tank we laboriously filled with water for the birds to sport in, but it did not work, as it soon became so offensive that we were obliged to renew it at least every three days, so that we soon became tired of it, and once more allowed the ducks the liberty of the swamp. We never obtained more than half of the number of eggs that we now get from our Pekins. About this time the Aylesbury duck came under our notice, and we procured a number of them at once, as they came highly recommended, but they did not meet our expectations. They were a very pretty bird to look at, and their feathers were more valuable, but there the advantage ended, for the strain we obtained was a trifle smaller than the mongrels we had been breeding,--rather more delicate to rear, and, worse than all, we found it almost impossible to pick them. In all our experience before or since we have never seen anything to equal those birds. The tenacity of those feathers was exasperating. Every one was bound to retain its complement of flesh. Of course the birds were so disfigured that the most of them were retained for family use. It was no use to think of scalding them,--that would not only seriously injure the feathers, but would completely spoil the birds for Boston market, as scalded birds are rejected at once and classed with cheap Western fowls. While going the rounds of Boston market one pleasant June day, shortly after our experience with the Aylesburys, we noticed some fine young birds nicely dressed, that had evidently snow-white plumage. As this was before the advent of iced poultry, we supposed the birds had come from the regions of the far South, and our curiosity was excited. We interviewed the dealer and was surprised to learn that the birds were grown to the north of us, and that they were the Pekin ducks we had heard of for a year or two, but had taken no stock in. Yet here they were in the market, while ours were toddling about at home less than half grown. Here was a revelation. We procured some eggs of this party, at once, and in due time hatched out sixty lively young ducklings. They were tended with the utmost care and not one was lost. We were very much interested in these little fellows, they were so hardy, and you could fairly see them grow. It occurred to me at this time to try and experiment with these ducklings, keep a correct account of all food consumed by them, and ascertain what they cost per pound when ready for market. The average weight was taken from the rejected drakes which we did not need for breeding purposes, and which were culled out and sent to market at ten weeks old. We were very much surprised to find the cost to us (exclusive of the cost of eggs) was about 4-3/4 cents per pound. We could hardly credit our own eyes. The calculation was made again and again with the same result. The same calculation was made a year later on two yards of some three hundred ducklings with a result obtained, when ready for market, of 5-1/4 cents per pound, including cost of eggs. [Illustration: AYLESBURY DUCKS.] As I had long since left the paternal abode, and for years had ceased to superintend the establishments of others, and as the following experience will be entirely my own, I shall hereafter use the personal "I". It is needless to say that the figures arrived at from the calculations made of those ducks were startling. What! can I grow ducks in three months as cheaply as I can grow pork in a year, or beef in two years, and then get six times as much per pound for it after it is grown? Yes, if figures tell the truth. Can I afford longer to grow large crops of fruit and vegetables, working early and late, risking frosts and drouths, making a bare livelihood, when with one-tenth part of the labor and capital involved I can grow a crop which drouths and frosts do not injure, and make five times as much? No! I have not had a hog on my farm since I kept a Kemp's spreader to work over the manure, and simply grow fruit and vegetables enough for feathered thieves and home consumption. Another question arose: "What shall I do with my cows?" some sixteen or eighteen in number, bull, young stock, etc. My Farm. Now, I had become somewhat proud of my farm, as what man does not who had quadrupled its increase within ten years? I was cutting yearly some two hundred tons of hay on less than half that number of acres, and I knew that if I sold my cows I should, in some way, be obliged to get rid of my hay and that would mean disaster to the farm. There might be no decrease in acres, but there would be a sad diminution in the tons of hay. The result is, I keep cows for my own use. Have built two new barns, each one hundred feet long, the basements of which are utilized for box stalls, accommodating sixty boarding horses. These convert my hay and grain (for which I receive the market price) into manure. This is all I expect and all I get. A while ago a gentleman from New York caught me hoeing in my onion patch. He expressed his astonishment at the size of the onions. (I now grow two or three hundred bushels yearly to supply my own and neighbors' wants, and just to keep my hand in.) Said he: "Your land seems well adapted to this crop." "Yes, I have some twenty or thirty acres that are level, the soil is easily worked and friable, not troubled much with maggot, and, if properly handled, is about sure of a crop." "Why don't you put it all into onions?" "I cannot afford to." "Why," said he, "if our New York farmers had that land within twenty or thirty miles of New York city it would be worth $1,000 an acre, and they would make it pay twenty-five per cent. of that, too, every year." "Possibly they could, but with one-tenth of the labor and capital employed I can raise ducks enough on one acre to buy all the onions I can raise on ten. If I am going to increase my capital and labor in any direction I should put it into ducks, not onions." He acknowledged that perhaps I was right, but at the same time thought it was poor economy to grow nothing but hay on such land as that. The Muscovy Duck. The Muscovy duck as its name implies is a denizen of the Mediterranean and is a beautiful bird, quiet and inoffensive in its habits, but cannot compare with the Pekin either in fecundity or in market value. It cannot be induced to lay so early in the season as the Pekin, thus forfeiting the high Spring prices. The eggs require about the same time to incubate as the goose egg (five weeks) and they do not hatch well in an incubator. It is some three weeks longer in maturing than the Pekin and does not command as high a price in the market by two cents per pound. I asked a prominent Boston market man yesterday the reason for it. He said that the flesh was coarser than that of the Pekin while the disparity in the size of the sexes made them very unpopular, for instance, while the drake will dress from eight to ten pounds the duck will rate but four or five pounds. Said he, "I want none of them." There are two varieties of this bird, white and colored. The Indian Runner Duck. This bird is of recent introduction, and while it can never be a first-class market bird on account of its small size and dark pins, it has many good points. Its fecundity is wonderful. There is, perhaps, no bird that will excel it as an egg producer for market. Its patrons are enthusiastic in its praise and claim an average yield of one hundred and seventy-five to two hundred eggs per year from each of their birds, but their small size, four to four and a half pounds, together with their dark pins, militates against their value as a market bird. I have always emphasized the point that size as well as fecundity is a necessary adjunct to a profitable market bird. It is no more trouble or risk to grow a large bird than a small one, while the market returns are often double. The large bird will always command at least two or three cents per pound more than a small one, as well as a more ready sale. The Runner is a parti-colored bird. I was very much pleased with the Pekin ducks. They not only layed some weeks earlier than any other breed I had ever kept, but were precocious, maturing earlier than either of the other breeds, excepting the Cayugas, there being but little difference between the latter and the Pekins, but the Pekins laying some weeks sooner, it gave us control of the early spring markets, which are by far the most profitable of the year. Disinfecting. My neighbors had become much interested in the business and often visited me, and were not backward in giving their opinions. They predicted failure for me, giving as reasons that the market would soon be glutted with so much of that kind of stuff, for poultry never could be as good grown in that unnatural way, and that if I kept on growing those ducks in the same yard, year after year, the land would eventually get poisoned, and then disease would clean me out. But I had thought this thing all over before laying out my yards. I knew that reversing land and cropping it would disinfect it, so a crop of ducks is always followed by a crop of something else; and thus I succeed each season in getting two crops of ducks and two crops of either rye, barley, or oats, so that the land has not been poisoned, and is still growing its complement of large, fat ducks every year, and as I have set it to plum trees, it is beginning to yield fine, luscious plums. Neither is the market glutted, as the demand is far in excess of the supply. The way of growing does not seem to be any objection, as the marketmen are willing to pay me, at least, two to four cents per pound more than they can possibly get for those grown in the natural way. Perhaps a word here would not be amiss regarding the merits of artificially and naturally-grown poultry for fancy and market purposes. This is a vital question, and it is as well for the public to fully understand this thing now, as well as its origin. There is many a person who has been thoroughly convinced of the great advantages and the economy of the artificial over the natural way of doing it, and who would gladly have started in the business, but was deterred by the prevailing opinion that artificially-grown birds were always deficient in plumage, and could never win at a show, and that the flesh was inferior for table use and could not find a ready sale. It is as well to explode this thing now, and expose its utter fallacy. There is not a shadow of doubt but that much poor poultry has been put upon the market by people who have attempted its culture in the artificial way by growing hundreds of ducks and chicks in the same limited space that they formerly used for a dozen with an old hen. These, of course, could not be otherwise than poor and the mortality great. Another reason: the fancy business in poultry is fast being overdone. The best breeds are now scattered far and wide over the entire country. There is not the demand for them that there has been, because good birds can be obtained nearer home. Many of our old and well-known fanciers are making frantic but vain efforts to keep their business up to its former standard. They have suffered considerably from competition with artificially-grown birds, and they roundly assert that it is an unnatural method, that the conditions are not right, that it affects the growth and plumage of the bird in such a manner as to preclude its ever taking a first-class premium at our shows. Now if they can convince the public that naturally grown birds can capture premiums, and they grow all their birds in the natural way, it is easy to see how their trade would be increased. Now, I never could see how the old hen could impart vigor to her chicks by imparting lice, or how the increased contributions of filth from the old hen, united to that from the chicks, could ever make the conditions more favorable than that from the chicks alone. It can no longer be denied that the artificially-grown fowls are fast coming to the front,--a place which they already occupy in the market. Knapp Bros., Fabius, N. Y., the greatest prize winners on White Leghorns in the country, grow their birds artificially. We could mention many others who are doing equally well. Our own Pekin ducks have, for many generations, been hatched and grown artificially, and today, for size, symmetry, and beauty of plumage they stand unrivaled in North America. They have won first from Canada to the Gulf, and have never been defeated. Three times during the past ten years we have been obliged to enlarge market boxes to accommodate the increased size of our birds; and yet we have bred only from our own stock. A number of times I have procured winning birds at the Pennsylvania and Western State Fairs, with a view to a change of blood, only to cast the birds aside on their arrival here, as I could not breed from them without deteriorating my flock in size. If this is the result of artificial growing and of in-breeding, I shall keep right on. In-Breeding. I have always selected the very choicest and best from the many I raised for breeding stock, and the result has been a gradual increase of size. I have seen many persons who, from a mistaken idea of introducing new blood, have reduced both the size and quality of their stock. Let it be here understood that a man who keeps but one drake and a few ducks is breeding-in fast. But the one who keeps a thousand in different yards can breed many years with impunity, because the intermingling of blood is exactly in inverse ratio to the numbers kept. I have repeatedly heard prominent marketmen in New York and Boston say that my artificially-grown poultry, both in chicks and ducks, were the best that they ever handled.... I will endeavor to secure their signatures to that effect, as convincing proof of this, as I wish the public to know the truth as it is. I was then breeding Pekins exclusively, and found the business while growing them was far more profitable than ever before, and accordingly increased my incubating and brooding capacity, and instead of growing 1,500 to 2,000 ducklings, grew from 10,000 to 20,000. This was done during the early spring and summer, the machines and brooders being used for early chicks during the winter. I had observed that, during my experience with chicks, that crossing with the best breeds always made better layers and better market birds than either of the breeds from which they originated; also, that the first cross was always the best, and that continued breeding from crosses is sure to deteriorate both in size and quality. Crossing. I conceived the idea of procuring some of the best stock possible of Rouens, Aylesburys, Cayugas, and crossing them on the Pekins, with the object of increasing the size and precocity. I experimented first with Cayugas, and crossed both ways, using both Pekin and Cayuga drakes, and, in order to test the experiment fairly, the mongrel eggs were hatched in the same machine, the young birds grown in the same yards, subjected to the same care and feed, with the Pekins. The Cayuga cross was very satisfactory, with two exceptions. They were fine, plump birds, took on fat readily, and matured as early as the Pekins, while the mortality was not more than one per cent. on either, but we found that the skin was dark, the dark pins, when there were any, showing very plainly beneath. These birds were sent to market in the same boxes with the Pekins. Our dealers to whom we shipped allowed us the same price for them as for the Pekins, as there were but few of them, but had they all been of that color would have been obliged to cut them two cents per pound on the price. This was enough for me, especially as I found that the feathers commanded but little more than half the price of the pure white feathers of the Pekins. The experiment, though conducted in the same manner, with the Rouens, was somewhat different in result. There was a great loss from those mongrels. They evidently inherited the same weak constitutions of the Rouens. They had not the vitality of the Pekins, while they required at least three weeks longer to mature. This latter alone was sufficient to condemn them for all market purposes, especially when subjected to the same discount on dark pins and feathers as the Cayugas. This was sufficient to discard both breeds for my use as market birds. Aylesburys. But I expected great things from the Aylesburys. I procured the best ducks to be had in the country, while I used imported drakes from the best prize-winners in England, and I have never yet seen those drakes equaled in size; and I was unusually careful in this experiment, because I knew that the English breeders claimed for their birds a superiority in all the points essential for a good market bird, namely, delicacy and flavor of flesh, size, precocity, and greater egg production,--laying special stress on their hardiness and vitality. I bred those birds clear and crossed them, carefully noting the result. Our first batch of Pekins and those crosses numbered about 300, nearly equally divided. These were mixed and confined in two yards. For the first two weeks there was no perceptible difference, when gradually the young Pekins began to outgrow the crosses, the difference increasing with age. The former were very even in size, the latter irregular, while the mortality was as six to one in favor of the Pekins. When we began to kill those birds the Pekins were all in the market at the end of eleven weeks, while the crosses remained in the yards fully one week behind. The weight was in favor of the Pekins about one pound per pair. The same difficulty existed as in former years--the tenacity of the feathers. The pickers grumbled, while the birds were more or less disfigured. I notified the dealers of the breeds of those ducks, and of the claim made by the English breeders, and wished them to ascertain if possible if there was any difference in favor of the Aylesburys. They said their customers found no preference, for themselves they preferred the Pekins on account of the larger size and finer appearance of the dressed birds. But I found it made a vast deal more difference than that to me. One pound per pair on 2,000 pairs of ducklings, at an average price of twenty-five cents per pound, made a difference of more than $500 to me; especially the extra ten days required to mature the Aylesburys cost more than the feed for extra pound of flesh grown upon the Pekins. I do not keep Aylesburys now, and have not since that experiment; I never shall again. Precocity. There is one point which I wish to impress, which is too often overlooked, and yet is of the most vital importance to the poultry grower, and that is the early maturity of his market birds. I often hear growers say that as there is very little change in the poultry market during nine months of the year, and as they do not contend for the early spring prices anyway, if their birds are three or four weeks longer in maturing it does not matter. Does is not? I have always contended that it requires just so much to sustain life in either bird or animal, and the profit consists in what we can get them to consume and digest over and above that; and if the time required to do this is protracted longer than is necessary, it is done at the expense of the grower. If it takes ten weeks to grow five pounds of flesh on one bird and fourteen weeks on another the one must necessarily cost more than the other per pound, simply because you have to sustain life four weeks longer in one case than in the other, and that cannot be done for nothing. That is why, though I can easily grow a pound of duck for six cents, I must have eight cents to grow a pound of chicken, because the ducks will take on six pounds of flesh in ten weeks, while the chicken requires twenty weeks to obtain the same size. These appear trivial matters when a person grows only a few dozen fowls yearly, but when he makes a life business of it and grows fowls by the thousands, it is of the utmost importance. First-Class Breeding Stock. The above shows the necessity of first-class breeding stock to start with. I do not mean fancy stock at all, as many of the points of excellence claimed by the American standard militate directly against the market value of the birds. A few years ago several men came here to buy Pekin ducks for breeding stock. On looking at the birds and getting the price, one man said: "Those are the best birds I ever saw. I want thirty of the best birds you have." Another said: "They are fine birds, but I cannot afford to pay two dollars for a duck; have you no cheaper birds?" "Yes, I have some later birds--culls from which the rest have been selected. They are not as large as these. My late birds never attain the size of the earlier-hatched ones, and they will not lay quite as early. You can have your choice of these at one dollar each, which is about their market value." He took those birds, and I consider when he made that choice that he threw away more than $100 of his first season's work alone, for, with a fair share of success he might easily expect to raise 100 young birds from each of his breeding ducks, and as the birds he chose were at least one-third lighter than those he rejected, their progeny would not be as heavy at a marketable age by at least one pound per bird. The excess in cost to him, had he bought the better birds, would have been but one cent on each of the young birds he raised. He lost, on making the choice he did, more than twenty cents on each bird, and this is not all; those birds will be small for generations to come. He never can get them up to the standard of the others. They will go upon the market as small birds, and as such, command at least two cents per pound less than the larger ones; in fact, his losses in this transaction will represent a large share of the profits. How to Begin. I will now suppose that the breeder has secured his stock, erected his building, and is ready for business. The next thing is to feed them well, keep them warm and comfortable, giving them as great a variety of green food as is obtainable during the winter months, in order to induce winter laying and insure fertility of the eggs. This matter requires close attention, because the profits in one week of the early market will always equal the profits in four or five of the late. The proportion of the sexes in the early spring should be about one drake to five or six ducks. One point here I wish to emphasize particularly and that is in the selection of drakes. The drakes should be, at least, two months older than the ducks, as the latter will mature some two or three months earlier and begin their egg production two or three months before the drakes are ready for breeding. As a consequence, we always select our February hatched drakes for breeding purposes. This comes a little hard, as these birds will average to dress seven to nine pounds at ten weeks old and will always bring, at least, 30c per pound at that time in the market, making them worth about $2.50 each. Would-be purchasers think we are crazy when we charge $3 each for these birds at eight months old, expecting us to keep them for six months and coop them for less than fifty cents. Now this selection of early hatched birds is absolutely necessary for good profits, as early hatched, means early reproduction and these great profits can hardly be ignored. We sold thousands of birds the past spring for 30c per pound, having almost complete control of Boston and New York markets for at least six weeks. Later in the season, when many of the ducks are off duty from a desire to incubate, the proportion should be about one drake to ten ducks. Be particular about this, as the eggs will be much more fertile if a part of the drakes are removed. The feeding boxes should be long and roomy; mine are 6x7 feet long, eight inches wide and three inches high. This is essential, as the birds are rapid eaters, and if there is not room, some will gorge themselves to repletion, while others will get but little. Do not keep food by them, as that will clog their appetites, and always effects the egg production, as well as the condition of the birds. Keep the Feed Clean. I have often visited poultry establishments where the food was lying around in all conditions,--in troughs, on the ground, trodden upon, mixed with excrement and filth; had become sour and offensive, so that the birds would not eat it. The attendant would go his rounds periodically and throw more food upon the already offensive mass; the owner looking on, passively complaining that his ducks did not lay and his ducklings would not fat. I require my men to go the rounds after feeding, and if there is any food left, to take it up clean. If this is insisted on they will soon learn to feed just what is required and no more. Clean feeding is of the utmost importance, both for young and old birds, as neither will thrive from overfeeding, as it destroys the appetite completely. Another essential thing is that ducks will not produce their proper quota of fertile eggs on hard food alone. The natural food of the duck is principally vegetable and animal, and is obtained in brooks, puddles, swales, and consists of flag, grass roots, small fish, pollywogs, etc. Unlike the hen, the duck has no crop,--the passage or duct leading from the throat to gizzard direct, is very small compared to the size of the bird. Consequently it does not assimilate or thrive on hard food. I am continually receiving letters from amateurs during the months of March and April, complaining that their ducks do not lay, at the same time saying that they give them all the corn they will eat. I write back suggesting soft food, giving ingredients and proportions. In an incredibly short space of time a postal will come to hand saying, "Thanks, my ducks are all laying." Success or failure in the poultry business often date their origin from just such trivial things as the above. So insignificant in themselves as to be entirely overlooked by the novice who, if he is persevering, will eventually discover both cause and remedy; but only through years of costly experiment and a loss of valuable time which he can never recall. How to Feed Breeding Ducks for Eggs. There should be quite a distinction between feeding ducks to obtain a supply of eggs and feeding them for market, as in one case the object is to lay on fat and the other is to furnish the most available supply of egg material. As before hinted, soft food is much more readily utilized in a duck's organization than a hen's. We make a habit of turning out our breeding ducks to pasture during the moulting season, housing them in the fall according to the nature of the season, say, from the middle of November to the first of December. We feed soft food morning and evening composed largely of bran with a little meal, keeping them purposely short to induce them to forage for themselves, but when the birds are housed this is all changed. They are then fed on equal parts of corn meal, wheat-bran and low-grade flour, with about twelve or fifteen per cent. of animal food. One fourth of this food should be composed of vegetables cooked--say, small potatoes, turnips, etc., with all the green rye and refuse cabbage they will eat. We feed this compound morning and evening with a little corn, wheat and oats at noon. Feed all the birds will eat clean and no more. The birds, young and old, may be expected to lay in three weeks from the time they are housed. This part of the thing seems to be under perfect control. You turn in the proper variety of food and they cannot help turning out a generous supply of eggs. The fertility however, cannot, at this season of the year be so perfectly controlled, as the standard of fertility in the first eggs is apt to be very low, but soon comes to a high point. The fecundity of these birds is wonderful. As a general thing each bird can be depended upon for 140 eggs each season, and as the eggs always command from 5 to 10 cents per dozen more than those from hens it makes the Pekin ducks more profitable for eggs alone than any other fowl. Incubators. With the necessary buildings constructed and the stock selected, the next thing required is the incubator, for I do not suppose the modern poultry grower is going to do his incubating with hens, for the simple reason that he cannot afford to. Hens show no desire to incubate when you want them to the most, or in time to command the high prices for ducks and chicks in the early spring, and this is attended with a loss of at least one-half of the season's profits. I often have letters filled with questions concerning incubators. Which is the best incubator? Can a person of ordinary intelligence run one successfully? Do they require watching during the night? Is there an incubator in the market today that will hatch as well as the average hen? and many more of like import. To the first I would say that modesty forbids a candid answer. There are objections to many machines, though the same do not apply to all. It does not become me to mention their failings. But first of all do not buy a cheap incubator, as the conditions to which the material of an incubator is exposed are of the severest kind. It must be exposed constantly to a temperature of 103 degrees, and that in an atmosphere surcharged with moisture; and unless the material of which the machine is constructed is of the choicest kind, well kiln-dried and put together, the chances are that it will warp out of shape, admit drafts of air and injure, if not destroy, the regulation. I do not think an incubator can ever be complete unless it is a double-cased machine. It requires that to effectually resist thermal changes. Years of careful experiment, and of experience in the competitive show room have convinced me of the truth of this. Extreme cold will affect the uniformity of heat in the egg-chamber of single-cased machines. Imagine if you can a single-cased machine constructed of five-eighth inch stuff, with a temperature of 103 degrees inside, and that of freezing outside. How can the eggs at the extreme corners and the thin cold sides of that machine be as warm as those in the centre? Of course that difference does not exist in warm weather, but that is the time when incubators are usually let alone and the business is given up to the old hen. Now, I say this frankly, as much for the benefit of incubator manufacturers as for their customers. I have letters every day from parties ordering circulars and saying that they have used from one to three machines of different makes, denouncing the machines and their makers in the most emphatic terms as frauds. Now, this is all wrong; one-half of the time you will find that it is the purchasers, not the makers, who are at fault. There are probably just as many honest incubator makers as there are in any other branch of business. But there is such a thing as a man being honest and yet ignorant. Many of the manufacturers of incubators know very little about the first principles of artificial incubation. They have the idea that a simple heat regulator is all that is necessary to insure the success of an incubator, when in reality it is only one of the many requirements. I will enumerate some of the most essential points, viz.: heat regulation; uniformity of heat in egg-chamber; absolute control of heat by the operator on any given egg-tray; automatic moisture supply; accurate thermometers; thorough construction and good material to avoid warping and shrinkage, together with a safe lamp adjustment. There are many other minor points which will come up with care of machines. I am often asked, "Why do so many fail to hatch with incubators?" I will answer by saying: "Not because it is difficult; for I have always found it a far more difficult thing to grow ducks and chicks successfully after they are hatched, than it is to hatch them." Doubtless everyone knows that an incubator, different from other machines, must run three weeks continually night and day, (and when filled with duck eggs, four weeks,) and preserve an even temperature all the while. Some machines as described above, are not adapted to this business, and some men are not adapted to the use of machines even when they are good ones. They are not willing to bestow the little but intelligent and regular care required, and many times during the four weeks they will forget some of the most essential points, such as replenishing their lamps, or forget to attach the extinguishers, thus depriving the machine of all self-control, or they neglect to trim the lamps for days, and perhaps a week, allowing the wick to crust and the heat to decrease. Others of nervous temperament will open their machines every fifteen minutes during the day and get up many times during the night to do the same thing, necessarily creating a great variation in the temperature of the machine. Now, all these, when repeated often enough, mean disaster and grief. One man who had been very successful, said he liked the hatching very well, but there was too much confinement growing chicks and ducks, and he was not going to make a slave of himself any longer. Another very young man who has been uniformly successful, and is running four large machines, said that the hatching and care of incubators was nothing, as he simply looked at his machines twice per day, but that the care of chicks and ducks was hard work; but there was more money in it than anything else he could do, and he should stick to it. Another man, because his machine did not run to suit him, threw his boot at it, knocking the regulation all off, which he called upon me to duplicate. (This man has done better since and increased the number of his machines). So the reader will see that there are cranks even among the poultry men, and that many of them enter the poultry business simply because they are looking for an easy job,--a sad mistake on their part. I have always noticed that the man who knows the least, but is willing to acquire knowledge and follow instructions implicitly, is the man who generally succeeds. Best Place for Incubators. Having secured a good machine, the next thing is to locate it where it will give you the least trouble to run it, and at the same time do you the most good. The best place for this is either in a barn or house cellar or in some building partly under ground, for obvious reasons. Though a good machine can be regulated to run in any temperature (provided it can generate heat enough), yet constant thermal changes of 30 or 40 degrees between night and day will necessitate regulating to meet them,--as the amount of flame required to run a machine in a temperature of 40 degrees, will be far in excess of that needed to run it in one of 70 degrees, for, though the change will be very slow in a nicely packed double cased machine, yet in time even that change will affect. This, of course, could be easily overcome with a little care, yet it is just as well to avoid all unnecessary care and trouble in the beginning; there will be still enough left to keep you thinking. In a common building above ground during the winter months it will often freeze around your machine, and in turning eggs in a freezing atmosphere do it as quickly as you can, as it will always cool your eggs perceptibly, and more or less derange the temperature of your machine. This is of course decidedly injurious and will more or less impair the hatch. Now, this is a very important matter, and people do not give it sufficient consideration. It is even advocated by some incubator manufacturers, that eggs should be cooled every day to 70 degrees, for the simple reason that the old hen does. They do not take into consideration that it is a necessity for the old hen, but may not be for the embryo chick. When the hen leaves her eggs to feed, and they become partially cold, when she recovers them and brings those eggs in immediate contact with the rapidly-pulsating arteries of her body, in fifteen minutes they have acquired their normal heat. With the machine it will require an hour or two. To meet this difficulty, suitable instructions should be given with and to suit different machines. Where the eggs are turned automatically inside the machine, it is necessary that they should be cooled at least once a day during the last two weeks of the hatch. Taking the eggs out to turn twice each day, as in the Monarch, cools them sufficiently during the winter months; in warm weather, leaving the outside and inside doors open while turning cools them sufficiently. Some incubator manufacturers will tell you that thermal changes, however great, will not affect their machines. Their patrons tell a different story. No machine was ever made, or ever will be, that will run as well or give as good results amid constant thermal changes as in an even temperature. It is true that they reduce the heat, but it is by admitting large draughts of air, running off the moisture and completely destroying the humidity of atmosphere in their machines. Then, how about those little ducklings which have been pipped forty-eight hours? They can never get out unless you help them. Suitable Buildings. Many insurance companies object to incubators being run in buildings covered by their policies, and will often cancel them. This originated from the fact that so many fire-traps, which were thrust upon the public in the shape of incubators, had consumed the buildings in which they were operated. The insurance companies were obliged in self-defence to prohibit their use in insured buildings. But the interdiction is usually removed upon the representation that the machine is safe. Sometimes a slight premium is exacted. In the event of insurance companies being obdurate, it is very easy to excavate a place in a side hill, or on level ground. Stone it up five feet high at the sides. It is not necessary to dig more than two or three feet deep, as the excavated dirt can be used to bank up with on the outside. Upon this stone-work put a simple roof. I use a building of this description. The original cost, exclusive of labor, was $15. It was large enough for two machines. My new incubator room is ten times as large, but the cost was in proportion. This building never freezes in winter, and is always some ten or fifteen degrees colder than the outside temperature in summer, making a very handy place to keep eggs for incubating purposes. It is well to run your machine a few days and get the control of it. The next thing is to fill it with fresh fertile eggs. In the winter time, if one does not have eggs himself, this is sometimes a very difficult thing to do, for the eggs must not only be fresh, but fertile. The young beginner is often obliged to depend upon others for his eggs when first starting in the business, but the poulterer, as a rule, cannot afford to do this, because he can grow them a good deal cheaper than he can buy; and not only this, and what is more to the point, he, by proper care and feed during the winter months, can make his own eggs a great deal more fertile than any he can buy of others. Usually about one-third of our novices go right to the stores and purchase eggs to fill their machines with. [Illustration: OUR INCUBATOR HOUSE.] This is running a great risk, especially during the winter months, but will give the reader an idea of the amount of knowledge that many of our would-be poultry men have acquired to begin with, and when he knows that the incubator has to shoulder all these mistakes, he will naturally have a little sympathy for the maker. Several years ago I sold a six hundred-egg machine to a lady, who, on receiving it, filled it promptly with eggs obtained from the grocers. Now, as this was in the month of December, it was, to say the least, an exceedingly doubtful operation. As she only got about forty chicks she was naturally very much dissatisfied, and strongly denounced both the machine and the maker. Her husband suggested that possibly the machine was not to blame, and that the eggs might have something to do with it. They went to the grocer to enquire about it. He told them that he had had some of those eggs on hand for several weeks, and that they had been exposed to the cold and freezing weather, and that probably the farmers from whom he had obtained them had held them for high prices. They found on enquiry that this was the case, and one party especially, who kept a large number of hens, and from whom he had collected the largest share of his eggs, kept no "crowers" with his hens. This threw some light on the subject, and stock on that incubator went up at once. The next time she had parties save their eggs for her, taking them in several times each day. She then obtained a hatch of ninety per cent, and was uniformly successful afterwards, getting out some 3,000 chicks and ducks during the season with her machine. How to Keep Eggs for Incubation. The above is only one case out of many that are constantly taking place. In nine cases out of ten, failure with good machines may be traced directly to the operator or the eggs. Occasionally there is a defect in a machine overlooked by the maker, which he is in honor bound to make good. The best way to secure good eggs is to engage them beforehand from reliable parties, who will gather them carefully several times each day in cold weather to prevent them chilling, and turn them at least every other day. If these eggs are kept on end it is not necessary to turn them as often. I have egg boxes for the purpose, in which the eggs are set on end, like the common market box. These boxes and contents can be turned as readily with a dozen as when full. Eggs intended for incubation should always be kept in a cool place,--duck eggs especially,--as the fertile eggs will change at a temperature of eighty-five to ninety degrees, and spoil within three or four days. One may safely calculate on one-half of them being spoiled in a week at a temperature of 80 degrees. All kinds of eggs can be safely kept three weeks for purposes of incubation, say, at forty-five to fifty degrees, though I always like to have them as fresh as possible. In filling orders for eggs at a distance I make it a point never to send eggs more than four days old, or with less than seventy-five per cent of fertility. Transportation, even over rough roads, does not affect their hatching, except in extreme warm weather, when the contents, becoming thin and slightly evaporated through the heat, are apt to mix, when they will surely cloud and rot. I have often sent eggs 2,000 miles, with the report that every egg produced a duckling. With machine ready and running steadily the eggs may be introduced at once. They need no moisture now, and it is not necessary to disturb them for the first forty-eight hours. How to Choose and Use Thermometers. Place your thermometer on the eggs in middle of egg-tray. Be sure, in the first place, that you get a good glass, as all depends upon its accuracy. Do not use one with the mercury bulb lying upon a solid metal plate, as the refraction of heat upon the plate from the tank above will always run that glass one or two degrees higher than the heat in the egg-chamber, but get one, if possible, with a hole in the plate opposite the bulb, so that the heat can play around the bulb and through the plate, giving the correct heat of eggs and chamber. Do not hang your glass up over the eggs, or put it down between the eggs, but lay it on them, for the reason that, though either of these positions may be all right during the first twelve days of the hatch (if your eggs are fertile), they will surely be all wrong during the last part. I will endeavor to explain this thing, so that the novice will understand how important it is. Before circulation begins in the embryo chick or duck, and there is no animal heat in the egg, the temperature of the egg chamber regulates that of the eggs. But after circulation begins, and especially during the latter part of the hatch, when the rapidly-developing young bird throws out a great deal of heat, the thing is often completely reversed. For instance, a glass may be hung one inch above the eggs and another placed immediately on the eggs beneath. The one above may register 102 degrees; the one below, on the eggs, will register 105 degrees,--conclusively showing that the eggs are now, by their own caloric, heating the egg-chamber. I have often, during the last part of a hatch, when the thermometer was ranging from 70 to 80 degrees outside of machine, placed a glass on the hottest part of the boiler, where but one lamp was dimly burning, carefully covering the glass. In that position it would register perhaps 96 to 98 degrees, while a glass inside the machine, and on the eggs, would register 103 degrees, proving beyond a doubt that the eggs, by their own caloric, were not only heating the egg-chamber, but contributing their quota towards heating the water in the tank. Now, who will pretend to say that a glass hanging above the eggs will give the correct heat of the egg after circulation begins. So that, even in cold weather, the amount of oil consumed during the last week of the hatch is less than half the amount required during the first part. The operator must not expect the eggs to heat up at once. On the contrary, they will cool the air in the egg-chamber very sensibly, though they will not affect the heat of the water in the tank. It will be from five to eight hours before they arrive at their normal heat. How to Turn Eggs. At the end of forty-eight hours they may be turned. This should be done by gathering up the eggs at the end of egg-tray and placing them upon the eggs in centre of the tray, rolling the centre ones back to the end of the tray. The tray should be reversed, and the same thing done to the other end. It is not necessary that the eggs should be completely reversed,--simply change the position, rolling over one-half or one-third. The egg-trays should always be turned end for end, and changed from end to centre of machine. This is necessary in case there should not be a uniform heat in egg-chamber, as it will equalize matters, and, in a measure, obviate the difficulty. Now, all this, though it takes some time to describe it, can be done very quickly, requiring only a few moments for each machine. I usually allow about ten minutes for each 1,000 eggs, though it can be done much quicker if one is in a hurry. I am often requested by people to put in patent automatic egg-turning trays in my machines, it would so simplify matters. I reply: "So it would; and when you can produce a machine with a perfect uniformity of heat in the egg-chamber, I should be most happy to use an automatic tray, but I have never yet seen that machine." In our own double-cased Monarch, in cold weather, there is at least one degree difference between the end and centre of egg-tray. In single-cased machines this difference must be largely increased, and in automatic trays the eggs must necessarily remain where they are placed through the entire hatch. Now, under these conditions, if the heat is right in the centre of trays it must be all wrong in the ends. The hatch will be protracted long after the proper time, and if those on the ends of trays come out at all it will be forty-eight hours behind time and with weakened constitutions, keeping one in constant stir with their sickly plaints. It is needless to say that there is a great mortality among birds of that description, and at the end of ten days they are usually among the things that were. Hatching the Eggs. The next thing is testing the eggs. This matter is essential as well as economical, with both hens and incubators. I once knew a man who ran a six hundred-egg machine for three weeks on one fertile egg. The other 599 proved infertile, and he did not know it until they refused to hatch at the end of three weeks--a great waste of oil, but a greater waste of time,--three whole weeks in the best part of the season. Another man kept forty hens sitting three weeks with an average of one fertile egg to each bird, when three of them could have done all the hatching just as well, and then, at the end of four days, could have had the rest put upon better eggs. A great waste of hen power, you will say, with time lost, together with forty dozen eggs, which would have been just as good for table use had they been tested out in four days. It often happens in the winter, when eggs are apt to be infertile, that, after testing the contents of four trays, they can be contained in three, when the other can be filled with fresh eggs. Here is where the advantage of adjustable trays comes in. Often the operator running a large machine has not eggs enough to fill it without a part of the eggs becoming very old, and also losing ten or twelve days of valuable time; with the adjustable tray, eggs can be introduced at any time, and the same heat preserved on all. I usually test duck eggs at the end of the third day. The fertile germ is then plainly visible, and the eggs can be passed before the light, several at a time. The novice had better postpone the operation till the fourth day, when he, too, will have no trouble in detecting the germ. The same rule will hold good with all white eggs, but dark-brown eggs should not be tested till the sixth or seventh day. This can be done much sooner, but a large machine full cannot be tested in a minute, and the eggs should be far enough advanced so that the operator can take two or three in his hand at once, and passing them before the flame, readily detect the germ. I never use a tester for duck eggs, as a simple flame is sufficient, the egg being translucent. During the first stages of incubation the germ is very distinct, even at the third day. The clear eggs are reserved for family use or disposed of to bakers. An expert cannot distinguish them from a fresh-laid egg, either in taste or appearance. There is usually a small percentage of the eggs that are slightly fertilized, in which the germ will die during the second or third day. These can be readily detected at the end of the fifth day, and should be taken from the machine, and reserved as food for the young ducklings. Another and potent reason why all infertile eggs, and those with dead chicks in them, should be taken out of the machine, is that after the circulation begins in the egg, especially during the last part of the hatch, the temperature of a live egg is several degrees higher than that of a dead one. The one radiates heat, the other absorbs it; so that if the operator is running his machine 102 degrees, with his glass on a dead egg, he may be all unconsciously running it at 104 or 105 degrees on a live one. I had a letter from a man some time ago stating that his thermometers were developing strange freaks,--that though they registered the same while in water, at 103 degrees, when lying on the eggs a few inches from each other in the machine, they were several degrees apart, and wishing to know by which he should run, the higher or lower. I wrote him that his glasses were all right, and that he was the one at fault, and had he followed instructions and tested his eggs he would have had no such trouble. He wrote that as his machine was not quite full, and as he had plenty of room, he neglected to test them, thinking it would make no difference. I do not propose here to give my experience, together with the many experiments made during the last twenty years, but shall aim to give the reader simple instructions for hatching and growing ducks for market and selection of breeding stock. I would say here that the first thing for the operator to learn in turning the eggs is to do it carefully and well, without breaking or unnecessarily jarring them; and then, to do it as quickly as possible, especially if done in a cold atmosphere, so as not to derange the heat in the egg-chamber. The next thing is to maintain as even a temperature as possible during the hatch. I do not think that a variation of one degree is at all detrimental. But different people have different ideas of regularity. A man who did not have a first-class hatch, wrote me that he had kept the machine right to business, as it had run between 90 and 110 degrees during the entire hatch. Another man wrote that his machine had been as low as 100 degrees, and once up to 103 degrees, and wishing to know if I thought it would be fatal to his hatch. There is no such thing as accuracy in the composition of some men, things are run "hap-hazard," failure and misfortune are always attributed to conditions, circumstances, or hard luck,--never to themselves,--and in case of a poor hatch, always the incubator. Instructions go for nothing with them. An enterprising incubator maker told me one day that he believed that the world was composed of cranks and fools (at least the poultry part of it). The one-half did not know anything, while the other half had all that was worth knowing and despised all instructions and common-sense. In running your machine, the first step is to set it level and see that the glasses register alike in both ends of the machine. Next, procure good oil, 150 test (as poor oil will necessitate frequent trimming, besides crusting the wick). Do not use more flame than is necessary, as it will only be a waste of oil, and with some machines will increase the ventilation, and at the same time decrease the moisture. Be regular in both filling lamps and trimming them, as irregularity frequently involves forgetfulness, and that sometimes means disaster to the hatch. In trimming, it is well to turn on the same amount of flame in relighting your lamp as it had previously. In the Monarch Incubator this required amount can readily be seen at once by the action of the regulating bar. It informs the operator just when he has enough,--when too much and when too little. Keep both lamps and chimneys clean, and have stated periods for turning your eggs, which should be done twice each day. As I said before, an egg-tester is not required with duck eggs, as they are so transparent that the whole process can be plainly seen without in the flame of a common kerosene lamp. If a duck egg is carefully examined, after being subjected to a heat of 102 degrees for twenty-four hours, a small dark spot will be seen about the size of a large pin-head. This little spot, if the egg is gradually turned, will always float over the upper surface of the egg. This is the life germ, and the first indication of fertility in the egg, and is represented in Figure 1. [Illustration: FIGURE 1.--SHOWING FIRST INDICATION OF FERTILITY.] At the end of forty-eight hours this dark spot will have nearly doubled its size, and a faint haze will appear around its edges a shade darker than the surrounding contents of the egg. This haze is the first appearance of the blood veins radiating out from the germ. Figure 2 shows how the egg appears at this stage with the air-cell slightly enlarged. [Illustration: FIGURE 2.--EGG AT END OF 48 HOURS.] At the end of the third day the dark spot, which is the heart of the embryo duck, can still be seen; but not so distinctly, because a dark circle some three-quarters of an inch in diameter will now appear in the upper surface of the egg, in the centre of which the dark spot is visible. This circle is several shades darker than the rest of the egg, and no matter how the egg is turned will always float in its upper surface. Figure 3 represents the egg at this stage, with its enlarged air-cell. Figure 4 represents the egg as it appears at the end of the fourth day. The circle surrounding and inclosing the germ will have nearly doubled in size, and is of a still darker hue; indeed, the whole contents of the egg is perceptibly darkened. If the egg is broken carefully at this date a delicate tracery of veins will be found to have enveloped the entire yolk of the egg, all originating from the centre or heart of the embryo; the pulsations of which (if the shell is removed) can now be plainly seen with the naked eye. This net work of veins cannot be plainly seen with a common lamp, but with a powerful glass are very distinct. This latter is not at all necessary in testing the egg. [Illustration: FIGURE 3.--EGG AT END OF 72 HOURS.] [Illustration: FIGURE 4.--EGG AT END OF 96 HOURS.] The discovery and locations of the minute organisms may be interesting to the scientist, but not at all necessary to the operator, who simply wants to be assured of the life and health of the germ. This he can readily determine from the increased size and gradual development of the circle; it, and the contents of the egg, now assume a darker shade. Up to this time I use no moisture, and the contents of the eggs have gradually evaporated and the air-cell proportionately enlarged. This air-cell is slightly enlarged till the tenth day, when no further evaporation should take place. About three days before hatching the rapidly developing duck will gradually diminish the size of the air-cell, leaving himself just room enough to work out. Nature, in the case of the old hen, provides for her own contingencies, while we must resort to art to obtain the same conditions. While incubating under the hen during the first few days, the egg evaporates rapidly. Then the pores gradually become coated with an oily secretion from the feathers of the hen until evaporation ceases. Now, we cannot successfully fill the pores of the eggs, it is too delicate an operation to attempt; but we can easily obtain the same conditions in another way, and that is to prevent the further evaporation of the egg by vaporizing water in the egg-chamber, so that evaporation will not take place. Exactly when this should be done is already known, but exactly how much is quite another thing, and depends largely upon the conditions of the atmosphere outside. The point is this: the humidity inside the egg-chamber must be the same, whatever the conditions are outside. If your machine is in a warm, dry room, heated by a fire, far more evaporating surface will be required than in a cool, dry cellar, for the reason that water vaporizes just in proportion to its heat; and as the circulating pipes upon which the water-pans rest must necessarily be much warmer in a cold room than in a warm one, of course more surface must be exposed in a warm than in a cold one. The operator will always have to use his judgment more or less in that. It may perplex the novice somewhat, but it is easily understood when one becomes accustomed to it. As a rule, in our machines, we introduce one moisture pan about the 18th day for both duck's and hen's eggs. It makes some difference whether a machine is run in a humid atmosphere near the seashore or in a dry, rarified atmosphere at an altitude in the country. Figure 5 represents the egg at the end of the fifth day, the circle enlarged, shaded darker in color; the whole egg being slightly darker in hue. [Illustration: FIGURE 5.--EGG AT END OF 120 HOURS.] Figure 6, at the end of the sixth day, shows still more plainly the germ undergoing a gradual change in the egg, enlarging and assuming a darker hue. The outline of the circle is now gradually acquiring the form of an ellipse, and in a live embryo the line of demarkation should be distinct. If it is at all wavy and irregular in its outline, and instead, remaining intact, the contents of this ellipse show a disposition to assimilate with the surrounding liquids when the egg is revolved, it can be safely removed as a dead duck. [Illustration: FIGURE 6.--EGG AT END OF 144 HOURS.] Figure 7 represents a dead embryo, as it will appear from the seventh to the twelfth day. The germ being separated and appearing in dark irregular blotches over the entire surface of the egg; the egg having become nearly opaque over its entire surface. At this stage the egg, if it has not already become so, will soon be very offensive. These should be removed at once and handled carefully the while, as they are apt to explode and unpleasant consequences ensue. The operator should run no risks, as discoloration on the outside shell of a duck egg is a sure sign of decay, and they can safely be taken from the machine. There are always a certain number of duck eggs (especially during the month of August and the latter part of July) that have the appearance of fertility during the first three or four days of the hatch, but do not possess vitality enough to carry them through. These die at all stages of the hatch; neither operator nor machine is responsible for them. This is caused by the condition of the mother bird. [Illustration: FIGURE 7.--A DEAD EMBRYO.] In order to economize the room thus made by the removal of the fertile eggs, I run a small 150-egg machine, in connection with twenty-one of the largest size, using it, as it were, as a tender. When filling one of the larger machines, I always fill one tray in the smaller one so that when the eggs in the large one are tested, after the third day, there will usually be eggs enough in the small tray to replace those removed as infertile, so that the large machines are kept full during the entire hatch by the little one. Thus the small machine is made to accomplish far more than it would were it run through the hatch. I am thus enabled to have a hatch come off nearly every day, consequently our eggs are never older than that when introduced into the machine. Always date each day's quota of eggs--keep them by themselves, then there will be no mistakes made. I have known parties to keep one general receptacle for their eggs, and when filling their machine take them from the top, while the bottom ones were never disturbed, not even turned, and of course soon became worthless for any purpose. Figure 8 denotes the appearance of the egg during the eighth day of incubation. If portions of the shell are carefully removed at this stage, the rudimentary intestines may be plainly seen, together with the gradual development of the beak and eyes, as well as the trembling of the pulsating arteries through the whole embryo. [Illustration: FIGURE 8.--EGG AFTER 192 HOURS.] At this stage the operator should mark all doubtful eggs and return them to the machine, as he will find plenty of room there. He will soon become expert, and can detect life and death in the germ at a glance. Experience alone will give the operator an insight into this business. The incipient stages of decay, though easily detected by the expert, cannot be intelligently described by him. The application of a little heat for the short space of twenty days to an inert mass, developing it into active, intelligent life, is simply wonderful. The process and effect he can easily describe, but the procreative power behind it all is beyond his ken. Should a little duckling be taken from the shell on the thirteenth or fourteenth day it will resemble Figure 9. It will kick and struggle several moments after its removal. The yolk is not yet absorbed, but the process is just beginning and will continue until the twenty-fourth day, when it will be nearly absorbed. The egg, from the fourteenth day rapidly assumes a darker hue. [Illustration: FIGURE 9.] The extremities of the little bird gradually develop, the feathers grow, and at the twentieth day the egg is opaque. At this stage the embryo will endure greater extremes of heat or cold than at the earlier stage of the hatch. I should not advise the operator to presume upon this, however, but just make the conditions as favorable as he can, so that the little bird will have the strength to free himself from the shell. I need not say that this is the most critical time during the whole process, and matters should be made as favorable for the little duckling as possible. About the twenty-fourth day he will be already to break the shell, but, unlike the chick, who will make his way out of the shell a few hours after he has pipped, the duckling will lay for forty-eight hours before he is ready to come out. At this time there should be plenty of moisture in the egg-chamber, for should the orifice or broken parts become dry, and the little duckling, in consequence, be attached to the inside lining so that he cannot turn, he can never get out without help. [Illustration: FIGURE 10.] When the hatch is well underway a little more air should be allowed to circulate in the egg-chamber, and a part of the evaporating surface can be removed, for as each duckling makes its appearance he becomes a little sponge, until dried off, and furnishes plenty of moisture for the machine. When nearly dried off the duckling should be dropped into the nursery below the egg-trays. While hatching, the eggs should be kept pipped side up in the trays, as the birds sometimes get smothered when the orifice is underneath. The dry birds should be dropped below about once in four hours, for, if allowed to accumulate, they will roll the egg upside down, crowd the egg-shells over the pipped eggs, or pile themselves over the egg, smothering the young birds. This work should be done very quickly, so as not to derange the temperature of the machine. Be sure to keep the heat up in your machine, for its tendency is always to go down during hatching, for the reason that the egg radiates a great deal of heat, while the little duckling, with its woolly covering (which is a non-conductor), retains it. Many people advocate allowing the little fledglings to remain with the eggs until all are hatched, but this is all wrong, not only for the above reasons, but for one which is far more important than either. The amount of heat requisite to hatch the eggs is too much for the young birds already hatched and dried off. With chamber at 102 degrees, they will be seen crowding around the sides of machine with their little bills wide open, gasping for breath, when, had they been placed below, the proper temperature can be maintained in both, as the bottom of machine runs at least five degrees lower than the egg-trays. Be sure and Follow Instructions. Another fertile source of trouble is removing ducklings from machine, putting them behind the stove, or somewhere else to dry off. For every fifteen birds removed, the heat in egg-chamber is reduced at least one degree, as you are removing so many little stoves, and if the machine is not gauged higher, to correspond with the number of ducklings taken out, the result will be fatal to the unhatched eggs. I corresponded a whole summer with one man on this very point before I found out what he was doing. He said he had never been able to get out more than fifty per cent. of fertile eggs. His machine ran splendidly until his chicks were about half hatched, when it would drop down to 90 degrees, and the rest would die in the shell, after they were nearly all pipped. At last a letter came from him stating that he had just had a worse experience than ever. He had a most promising hatch of three hundred fertile eggs, nearly all of which were pipped, and that, after a little more than half were hatched, he took them out as usual, about one hundred and fifty in number, and put them behind the stove to dry off, and his machine dropped to 90 degrees at once, and not another chick came out. The cat was out of the bag. I wrote him at once that for every fifteen chicks he had taken out he had taken one degree of heat from his machine, and had he followed instructions he would not have suffered loss. He wrote back that he had shut up his machine for the season, but that he should run it one more hatch just to prove that I was wrong. At the end of three weeks a letter was received saying, "I tender you my hat. I got a splendid hatch of 88-1/2 per cent." Proving that occasionally there is danger of the operator knowing too much. After the ducklings are all out, the egg-trays should be removed, the valves opened, and the machine cooled down to 90 degrees, and the birds allowed to remain in the machine for at least twenty-four hours. I always cover the bottom of machine with an inch of fine wheat-bran, otherwise the ducklings would soon make it filthy and offensive. This acts both as absorbent and disinfectant. After each hatch there will be more or less fertile eggs left in the trays with dead ducklings in them. There will be, comparatively, but few of these in the spring of the year, but during the latter part of the summer there will be more of them, and many of the eggs will have but little vitality in them. Forcing the Bird Reduces the Vitality of the Egg. The reason is this: the bird in its natural condition does not produce her eggs in our climate until April. She will lay twenty-five to thirty eggs, then show a desire to incubate, then will recuperate, and set a second time, perhaps giving a total of thirty-five or forty eggs. Now, we have completely reversed nature in this respect. By judicious feeding, good care, warm quarters, and careful breeding, we have induced the bird to produce her eggs in winter instead of summer, and, not only that, we compel her to lay three or four times as many of them; and when the poor bird shows a desire to incubate and recuperate her exhausted frame, we induce a change of mind, as soon as possible, and set her at it again. As a natural consequence, as the warm season advances many of the birds are off duty, as it were, and the eggs not only decrease in numbers but in size as well, and during the extreme heat of summer, the later part of July and August especially, the eggs show a decided want of vitality. I never expect, at this season, to realize more than one duckling from two eggs. The same machine full of eggs that would give a hatch of 350 ducklings in the early spring, at this season will not give more than 175 to 200. The eggs appear to be as well fertilized during the first two or three days as in the early spring but evidently there is not vitality enough to carry them through, as the germs soon begin to die, and before the hatch is out you have taken nearly one-half of the eggs away as worthless. Nor is this all. There is always a far greater mortality among the later hatched birds than in those got out earlier. They are more uneven in appearance, and never attain the size of those hatched earlier in the season,--convincing evidence that the old birds have transmitted their enfeebled, debilitated constitutions through the egg to the young ones. The natural laws of cause and effect are plainly represented here. I have tried repeatedly to overcome this difficulty by changing the feed and quarters of the old birds, dividing their numbers, but without effect. This shows the absolute necessity of selecting large, vigorous breeding stock. This principle applies equally to both land and water fowl. The Absolute Necessity of Good Breeding Stock. Debilitated, degenerate stock will not produce healthy and vigorous young. This is a prime cause of failure with many of our poultry breeders. They say that they cannot afford to breed from their early-hatched stock. They are worth too much in the market, so they are sent to the shambles, and their owners breed from the later-hatched, inferior birds. A few years practice of this kind soon degenerates the stock so that you will hardly recognize the original in it, and both birds and eggs are not only thus, but a very small per cent. of those eggs can be induced to hatch, and no amount of petting and coaxing can induce those that are hatched to live. Every young breeder of poultry should inform himself of these facts before he starts in, for no living man can afford to breed from inferior stock. I passed through experiences of this kind many years ago, and always found that the laws of primogeniture cannot be lightly set aside. I invariably select the choicest of my early hatched birds for breeding stock, and no matter how high the price in market, I cannot afford to sell them. A gentleman, who is a large breeder, said to me the past spring: "How is it that your ducks are so much larger than mine? I bought stock from you four years ago, and have been breeding from it ever since, and now your birds are six or eight pounds per pair heavier than mine." "True, but you bought my latest-hatched birds, because they were cheap, and have been breeding from your latest-hatched birds ever since, while I have been breeding only from the choicest of my early birds. You have been steadily breeding your stock down, while I have been breeding mine up. There is now a wide gap between them." Caring for the Ducklings when Hatched. The little ducklings should be left in the machine for at least twenty-four hours longer. Be sure and open the air-valves and give them plenty of air, so that they may be well dried off. A uniform heat of 90 degrees should be held in the egg-chamber. The outer doors of the machine should be closed and the little fellows kept in darkness the first twelve hours. After that the outer doors should be let down. Then you will see some fun, for the little ducklings are far more active than chicks, and will begin to play at once. In the meantime the brooding-house should be prepared for the reception of the young brood. The heat should be started some twenty-four hours previous to use. The brooding-house should be the same whether you are growing on a small scale or a large one, with simply the length proportioned to your needs. But always recollect that heat should radiate from above on your ducklings, as bottom heat will soon cripple them in the legs and render them helpless. In fact, I do not consider bottom heat as essential even for chicks. The most successful grower I know of, who grows 3,000 chicks each spring, getting them all out between January 1st and March 1st, and closes up the whole business by July 1st, uses top heat exclusively. He has experimented fairly with both, and says he wants no more bottom heat. If the breeder is growing on a small scale it will be economy for him to use brooders instead of a heater. Figure 11 represents the best duck brooder I know of. As there is no patent on it anyone can make it who has the conveniences. This brooder is six and a half feet long by three feet wide, and will accommodate 150 ducklings. These brooders are of the most improved construction, are intended for both indoor and outdoor work, keeping the young ducks dry and warm in cold, stormy weather, even when located out of doors. The heat is generated in copper boilers, the water flowing through a galvanized iron tank, under which the young ducklings hover. This tank is five feet long, twelve inches wide, and about an inch thick, and is hung about eight inches from ends and back of brooder, leaving nearly eighteen inches in front the entire length of brooder, in which to feed the first day or two. The case of this brooder is made of matched boards and thoroughly ventilated and furnished with glass doors to admit light. This brooder should be used in the brooding-house during winter and early spring, after which it can be used to better advantage out of doors. [Illustration: FIGURE 11.--BROODER.] Let it be understood that a good brooder is, next to the incubator, the most important thing in the business. It is worse than useless to get out large hatches of strong, healthy birds, only to have them smothered or chilled in worthless brooders. Numbers of the patent brooders now on the market are made by men who never raised a chick or duck in their lives, and are regular fire and death traps. Many instances have come under my personal notice where not only ducks, chicks, and brooders, but the buildings themselves have been entirely consumed by these fire traps. Again, those brooders are always rated for higher than their actual capacity. Ignorant parties buy them, fill them up according to instructions, when a sad mortality is sure to follow from overcrowding and consequent overheating. This is especially the case with chicks. Ducklings never smother each other from overcrowding, but, of course, will not thrive when too closely packed. These 150-duck brooders can be run at an expense of two cents per day for oil. In extreme cold weather artificial heat should be kept up in these brooders for three weeks; in warm weather, a week is sufficient. The same brooders can be used over and over as fast as the new hatches come out. When brooders are removed, closed boxes can be used instead. When the operator does business large enough to require the use of five or six brooders, it would be cheaper for him to put in a heater at once, as the original cost of the heater would be less than that of the brooders. Years ago, when the question of heaters was first agitated, the cost was enormous, and the consumption of coal in proportion. Large hot-house boilers were used, often at a cost of several hundred dollars before the thing was ready for use. Now a good heating system can be arranged for a building one hundred feet long at an expense not exceeding $100. This, of course, would be much less than a complement of brooders for the same building. Advantages of the Heating System. The heating system has several marked advantages over the brooders. One is, that during the extreme cold of winter the building is always warm enough for the little birds, while with nothing but brooders it would often freeze around them, necessitating feeding inside the brooders, which would not be as healthy for the ducklings. Again there would be a great saving of labor, as a self-regulating heater would require no more care than a single brooder, while the oil consumed in the brooders would fully equal the cost of coal required for the heater. There is one point here which the beginner should always take into consideration in the selection of a heater, and that is, be sure and get one that will give you the greatest amount of heat for the fuel consumed. The patent steam and water heaters now upon the market are too numerous to mention. But there is a vast difference in the economy of these heaters. When contemplating the purchase of a heater, several years ago, I called upon a party who was running a newly-purchased heater. He seemed very much pleased with it, and said it ran admirably,--warmed his buildings nicely, and only cost about one dollar per day for coal. I made up my mind then and there that I should run my brooders a while longer. But on interrogating another party using one of a different pattern, he assured me that his heaters warmed both brooders and buildings in good shape at a cost of fifteen cents per day. This was presenting the matter in a new phase. The difference in cost of running these heaters one year would purchase two. I am now running three heaters called the "Bramhall-Deane Heater" and am heating two brooding houses (one 250 feet long, the other 175 feet long), at half the cost per day. Either steam or water may be used. I prefer water for both safety and economy. For instance, should the fire go out accidentally the heat would cease at once where steam was used, while water would hold its heat for hours, and would continue to circulate just so long as the water in the boiler was hotter than that in the pipes. I do not know but there are other heaters in the market just as economical as the "Bramhall-Deane," but I know of several prominent poultry men who are changing their heating principle, not because they are dissatisfied with the work done by that now in use, but solely on account of the expense attending it. Figure 12 represents our brooding-house as it appears outside. Its dimensions have already been given. It is boarded in with closely-fitting hemlock boards, the whole being covered on the outside with the heaviest quality of "Paroid" Roofing. [Illustration: BROODING HOUSE. (FIG. 12.)] This roofing is manufactured by F. W. Bird & Son, East Walpole, Mass. We have more than an acre under roofing, a large proportion of which is covered with Paroid. We find it strong, pliable, insusceptible to either heat or cold and to all appearances will be more durable than anything we have ever used. I have many buildings covered with this roofing. In applying it, begin at the eaves, lapping it 1-1/2 inches. It is so heavy that it does not require wooden strips to hold it down, simply nails and tin caps, which should be about an inch apart. A coat of the liquid, which goes with it, will glaze it over in good shape. For a flat roof, it is far better than shingles at less than half the cost. Interior Arrangement of Brooding-House. As the construction of this building has been already noticed, I will proceed to describe its interior arrangement for a brooding-house. In the first place, as in the breeding-house, there should be a walk three feet wide the entire length of the building on the back side. Next to the walk, and parallel with it, the brooder box should run. This box will be thirty inches wide, and like the walk, the entire length of the building. In my building the brooding arrangement is very simple, being a box with two sides resting on the ground, eight inches high in the clear, the ground being utilized as the bottom of brooder. This brooding-box consists of two parts. The sides, seven inches wide, are nailed securely, and constitute the sides of the pipe-stand. The cover is portable, with cleats nailed across the top to strengthen it, and with strips an inch wide nailed underneath, in front and in back, to keep it in position. These strips are supposed to rest on the seven-inch strips in the sides, and, when the cover is on, make a tight brooder. Figure 13 represents the interior of brooding-house, with these covers on the brooders and ready for use. Also, with two of the covers removed showing the heating pipes. These consist of a two-inch flow and return, running parallel with each other the entire length of the building, and lying ten inches apart from centre to centre. These pipes rest upon cross boards, whose length corresponds with the width of the brooder, and to which the sides are nailed; two-inch holes are cut out in the top of these boards into which the pipes are laid, the upper surface of which comes flush with the top of the boards, so that when the cover of brooders is in position it rests equally on pipes and boards. [Illustration: _PLAN OF BROODING HOUSE._ (FIG. 13.)] The distance between these boards corresponds with the width of pens outside of brooder, and constitute partitions for the same. The partitions are simply inch boards, twelve or fourteen inches wide, fitting into ground in front of building to keep them upright and in position. The front of the brooder leading into the pens is cut out in centre of brooder four feet long and four inches deep to allow the free passage of the ducklings. These openings in the first four pens are fringed with woolen cloth, cut up every four inches, to keep the brooder warmer in cold weather. The remaining brooders are not fringed, for reasons which will appear hereafter. The heater can be located in the end of building most convenient to the operator. The bottom of the pens should consist of sand which, when it becomes wet, and before it becomes offensive, should be covered with fine sawdust. This is a good absorbent and disinfectant as well. The inside of the four brooders next the heater should be filled up with hay chaff to within four inches of the pipes, the distance being gradually increased as you near the other end of the building, until the whole eight inches in height will be required, using simply sawdust enough to disinfect the bottom of brooder. This is my present brooding arrangement, with the exception of a common door handle screwed on each brooder cover to facilitate handling. It may not suit every one; some may want it more ornamental, more expensive; others may wish to simplify it still more. But such as it is, it is now all ready for use, with heat applied. But those little ducklings, who have been waiting all this time in the machine, are getting both hungry and impatient, and require immediate attention. The food which has already been prepared consists of a formula composed of four parts wheat-bran, one part corn-meal with enough of low grade flour to connect the mass without making it sticky or pasty, in fact, it should be crumbly so that the little birds can eat it readily. About five per cent. of fine, sharp grit should be mixed into their first feed, after that, one or two per cent. is all sufficient. This grit should be increased in size as the birds grow older. About the third day, a little fine beef-scrap should be introduced, soaking it a little before mixing. When a few days old, a little green rye, if obtainable, should be given them, or as a substitute, finely chopped cabbage or lettuce. When the birds are two weeks old, one part corn-meal to three parts bran should be used. This food should be scattered upon the feeding-troughs, which are simply one-half inch boards, nine or ten inches wide, by three or four feet long, with laths nailed on the sides and ends. Small water-cans, inverted in tin saucers, so that the ducklings can drink readily without getting wet, should stand convenient to the food. How to Remove the Ducklings Without Injury. To facilitate the removal of ducklings from the machine, I have a square basket some two and one-half feet long, by fifteen inches wide and one foot high, with close covers, hinged in the centre. In order to secure the ducklings, usually all that is necessary is to open one door of machine, hold this basket under it and make a little chuckling noise, and strange to say, the little fellows will run out over the pipes, over the glass door, down into the basket in dozens as fast as their little legs and wings can carry them. This basket will hold 100 ducklings conveniently. When full, it should be carried to the brooding-house and carefully inverted over the feeding-boards. The little birds will begin eating at once. This process can be repeated until the machine is emptied. There will be some of the later-hatched ones that should be allowed to remain in the machine ten or twelve hours longer, as they can be cared for better there. These can be readily detected, as they are not as active as the others, and perhaps not completely dried off. The ducklings should be put out, if possible, during the middle of the day, and while the sun shines through the windows, as they can be fed in the sun and put under the brooder later in the day. In event of there being no sun, it will not do to feed under the brooding-box, as it is too dark. I then take a one-half inch board, four feet long (to correspond with the length of opening in front of brooder) and six inches wide. I nail two pieces of the same width and height, one foot long, on to each end of this board, forming a parallelogram four feet long and one foot wide, minus one side. This is set up in front of the opening in brooder, and being of the same length, forms a little pen in front of brooder one foot wide, in which the feeding-trough can be placed with drinking fount. The ducklings can then run out and in and feed when they wish. This board will only be needed for a day or two, when it can be taken up and reserved for the next brood. The ducklings should be fed once in two hours, scattering a little food on the troughs. Be sure that they eat clean before more is given. At the end of a week the regular feed should be four meals each day. How to Feed. When I can get stale baker's bread I use that in connection with, and instead of, bran. It can be profitably mixed with milk, not too sour, when it can be had for a cent a quart. But do not give milk as drink,--the young birds will smear themselves all over with it, their beaks and eyes will be stuck up, the down will come off their little bodies in large patches, and they will be a constant aggravation. I was once called upon to visit an establishment, the owner of which complained that his ducklings did not grow, and he was very anxious for me to locate the trouble. I found six to eight hundred ducklings there of all ages, and, strange to say, nearly of one size; and one lot of nearly three hundred ducklings eight weeks old would not average one pound each, when they should have weighed four pounds. [Illustration] Such a sight I never saw before, and hope never to see again. Of all the miserable, squalid, contemptible looking objects, those ducklings took the lead. This man had not only mixed their food with milk, but had kept it by them in open troughs, and the birds had bathed in it and spattered it over each other until there was hardly a feather left on their emaciated bodies; and yet this man did not know what ailed his ducks. Is it strange that some people fail in the poultry business? When in full operation, we run twenty-one large machines, and as it requires twenty-seven days to close up each hatch, of course we have a hatch come off nearly every day. Now as each hatch is supposed to occupy two brooder-pens with the corresponding yards, in the course of five or six weeks that brooding-house will be filled with its complement of 3,000 ducklings. These will be of all ages, from the little puff-balls just from the machine, to the half-grown bird of six weeks old. The brooding pipes are supposed to radiate the same amount of heat at the extreme end of the building as they do next the heater, consequently the brooders are of the same temperature in all their parts. Not so the building. As the heater radiates a great deal of heat, the end in which this is located is always 12 or 15 degrees warmer than the other and is thus better adapted to the comfort of the newly hatched ducklings than the other, so I always put the birds fresh from the machine next the heater, while the older ones are passed down the building. This is a very simple process. One end of the partition board is lifted up a little, food scattered in a trough in the empty pen adjoining, the ducklings will rush under in a moment, then the board is dropped. The same process is continued until all are moved and the building filled. [Illustration: INSIDE PLAN OF DOUBLE BROODING HOUSE.] The building just described we term our nursery, and has a capacity of about 2,500 birds. When full, the older birds are probably about two weeks old, and of course these older ones must be removed to make room for successive hatches of younger birds. For this purpose, we constructed a building 125 feet long, 32 feet wide, which we style our double brooding house. It runs east and west with a walk four feet wide through the centre, with brooding-pens on each side. This building has the same capacity of a single building 250 feet long, and accommodates about 5,000 birds. On the south side of this walk our brooder boxes are arranged. At one end of the building is a heater, from which an inch-and-a-half flow and return pipe runs under the brooder boxes the entire length of the building and furnishes heat for the little birds. The brooder-boxes are located twenty inches from the side of the walk. The ducklings are fed and watered in this space, and are not allowed in it except for that purpose. To effect this, the covers of the brooding-boxes, which are six feet long by two feet wide, are cut in the centre the entire length, and hinged with a perpendicular lip, which when closed, meets an upright board below, some two inches high, shutting brooders tight, excluding ducklings from feeding apartment, so that it is always sweet and clean. By this arrangement, the ducklings are all fed and watered from the walk, thus reducing the labor to a minimum, while there is no danger of crushing the little birds under foot or under the troughs. The attendant is not hampered in his movements, but can work as quickly as he likes. All he has to do is to distribute the food and water, throwing the covers back as he goes, when the ducklings, which are always waiting, rush in and soon fill themselves. Twenty minutes is all that is required for them to eat and drink. A person of good judgment can easily determine about how much the birds will consume, though it is well for him to pass along the walk, giving a little more food where their wants are not satisfied, or taking up what is left over, shutting the covers down when the birds are through. As this building is well piped, distributing water at both ends, as well as at the mixing-box and heater, it makes the feeding almost a pastime, the work is done so easily. This building is just what we have been looking for. There are none on the place that pleases us so well. Its many advantages over a single building must be evident to all. The increased facility for doing the work, as well as its economy in housing many more birds for the money invested, are not the least. When planning this building, we had some misgiving about running it east and west as the lay of the land required, thinking that the exposure on the north side during the inclement weather of the early spring, would confine the young birds to the building and they would suffer for want of exercise, but we were agreeably disappointed as we found that they thrived equally as well, if not better, on the north side as on the south, proving what I have always known in duck culture, that the extreme heat of summer is more debilitating to young birds than the cold of winter, and that early hatched birds will always be of larger size and more robust physique than late ones. That is why I have always made it a point to select my early hatched birds for breeding purposes. I have never known any too good for that. I insert cuts of this double building, with the older ducklings on the north side and the younger ones on the south. Were I to build another, I should duplicate it in every respect. [Illustration] Regulation of Heat in Brooders. Now, as the birds grow larger, they naturally need less heat, and we must contrive to fix it so they do not get so much. As stated before, no fringe is used beyond the first four brooders,--the space in front being left open; and not only that, but we gradually raise the back of the cover next the walk until it opens an inch or more the entire length of the pen. Those ducklings, before they reach the other end of this brooding-house, will weigh (if well cared for) over a pound each. The brooder will not then be large enough to hold them, neither do they require the heat, in fact it would be injurious at this age; so before the birds reach the extreme end of the building I shut them off from the brooders entirely by placing a board in front of the opening. The young birds will always thrive better out of doors than in; and when two weeks old I always let them out during the sunny days of April, by opening the slides in front. At this stage of growth when the birds are from two to four weeks old, especially with the early hatches when confined as they usually are during the inclement weather in winter, unless extreme care is taken, a sad mortality is sure to follow. There is a great tendency at this stage of growth, when the birds are confined, to overfeed as well as to overheat in the brooders. This, coupled with too little exercise is sure to cripple the birds, weaken their legs and render them helpless. Even experienced growers sometimes get a little careless and lose whole hatches. We have numerous letters from all parts of the country in which people write "My ducklings are all crippled, cannot walk and are dying off fast. What shall I do?" There is only one thing; feed sparingly, and give all the exercise possible. Often, the want of grit will cause the same trouble. (Our yards have been prepared for this the previous autumn, and are now covered with a thick coat of green rye five or six inches high.) To accomplish this, I make pens outside the building in front, ten feet long, and of a width to correspond with the pens inside. I simply use old boards a foot wide, tacking them together with wire nails, as it is only a temporary arrangement. When snow falls it must be shoveled out at once. Just as soon as the weather and the condition of the ground will allow, I set up the partition wire outside to correspond with the width of pens inside. This wire partition runs the whole length of the yard; and as the yards are 100 feet deep, it gives the ducklings a yard 6x100 feet. I always feed outside whenever the weather will permit. It is needless to say that the sanitary arrangements in this building are of the utmost importance. Indeed, it will require constant watchfulness and care on the part of the attendant. The Sanitary Arrangements. With several thousand ducklings confined in one building, the tendency is decidedly filthy. The capacity of the duckling for filth is wonderful, and he comes honestly by it. It is simply astonishing how soon he will manage to mix the contents of his water-tank with that of his yard and make both sloppy and offensive. The chick is nowhere in comparison. It is true, the duck is not so easily affected by it as the chick, but it will not do to presume too much upon that. At this stage the attendant will be kept busy every moment from daylight to dark. Not only the regular feeding four times a day requires his attention, but the simple mixing of seventy-five to one hundred bushels of feed each day is quite a little job of itself, especially when the different ingredients should be exact. The water tanks also must be regularly cleaned and filled. The troughs should be carefully cleaned before feeding, as the ducks will readily eat all foreign matter together with the food. In short, the whole business must be systematized all the way through, and the attendant should understand that it is never safe to neglect a single detail. [Illustration: OUR DOUBLE BROODING HOUSE. (South side.)] I had always made a point of doing this duty myself. A few years ago, not feeling well and having other business requiring my attention, I engaged a man whom I considered competent to do this business for me. I took him over the yards, showed and told him just how the thing must be done; watched him to see that he did the work faithfully and complied with all its details. Things went on apparently well for a week or two, when, going home one day, I noticed a number of dead ducklings lying around, and looking under the brooder I found quite a number more. I at once interviewed the man and cautioned him. He insisted that he had followed the instructions to the letter. But the mortality did not abate, on the contrary it increased to an alarming extent; and I had lost more ducklings in one month than I had lost for ten years previous. I watched him and found that the feeding-troughs were not cleaned at all, and when the birds scattered the sawdust in them the food was thrown on that, the ducklings consuming both. The food was thrown partly in the trough and partly on the ground; apparently a matter of perfect indifference to him. The water-tanks were not rinsed out. Instead of stepping over the eighteen-inch partition wires he stepped on them, breaking down the standards and flattening down the wire, so that the birds were all mixed together promiscuously,--ducklings two weeks old with those of six weeks. The little ones were trodden down by the older ones and almost denuded of their feathers, and there was no thrift to be seen anywhere. To say that I was indignant does not express it. I had often seen such a condition of things elsewhere, but not before on my own ranch; I was absolutely ashamed to show visitors around the yards as long as this state of things existed. [Illustration: OUR DOUBLE BROODING HOUSE. (North side.)] That man was promptly discharged, and I undertook the feeding myself. The birds were sorted out and returned to their own yards, the wire replaced, the feeding-troughs cleaned, the pens carefully disinfected. In four days double the amount of food was consumed and things were decidedly improved. But those birds never acquired that uniformity of size and appearance which had always characterized my market birds. The best material to use in the pens inside the brooding-house is dry, fine sawdust, if it can be obtained. It is by far the best thing I know of for the purpose. The next best is finely chopped straw or hay, tanbark, etc. The brooders, like the pens, require close attention. The top should be scraped off before it becomes offensive, and new material applied. This can be easily done by simply lifting the edge of the cover next the walk and drawing it over into the walk, when it can be taken in a barrow or basket. The Necessity of Green Food. It must be remembered that as the broods grow older the cleaning process must be repeated oftener, as their capacity for generating filth will always be in proportion to their size. Those unacquainted with duck-culture have little idea how fast these birds will grow; how soon they will successively outgrow brooders, pens and yards, and how soon every vestige of green will disappear from yards that were thickly covered with rye. But the ducklings must be kept growing at all hazards, and a vegetable supply must be procured from outside. [Illustration: WEST SIDE OF LANE.] Rye comes first in the season (I always cultivate it for the purpose, and when coarse, it must be cut so that it can be readily eaten); then grass; and next corn fodder, which is best of all. It is astonishing how much of the latter these birds will consume--hundreds of pounds each day. It should be cut very fine, not more than one-third of an inch in length. Unlike the hen, the birds prefer the stalk to the leaf. Give them all they will eat, once each day. [But we have forgotten that empty machine. After the ducklings are taken out it will be found running at 85 to 90 degrees. I gauge it up to 102 and fill it with fresh eggs at once, not forgetting to fill one tray in the little tender.] There is one bad habit to which ducklings of four or five weeks old are addicted, and that is feather eating. First the down will begin to disappear from their backs; next, as the birds grow older, the quills which grow out from the end of the wings will disappear, and they are all exposed for tempting morsels. These quills bleed profusely when disturbed, which, of course, seriously retards the growth and progress of the birds. This vice should be checked at once, for vice it is,--superinduced by idleness and close confinement. When the first indications of these troubles appear, the attendant should watch the birds closely for a few moments, when the aggressors can soon be detected. They should be removed at once and confined by themselves, or placed in yards with older birds already feathered out, which affords them no temptation to practice their newly acquired art. If this is not done at once the vice becomes general, and disastrous consequences are sure to follow. If it has already attained headway, before the novice detects it, he must change them to new quarters; a grassy area is best, where they usually forget all about it. This can be readily done, as the operator should always have a spare roll of eighteen-inch wire netting on hand with which he can enclose a given area in a few moments. Too much cannot be said in favor of this wire, it is so cheap, portable and convenient. It can be taken up and removed in an incredibly short time to facilitate plowing and disinfecting the yards. While it effectually separates the birds, it affords little or no impediment to the attendant during the process of watering and feeding. I fasten this wire up to short stakes driven in the ground, using small staples for the purpose. When removed it can be rolled up, stakes and all, without disturbing the staples. [Illustration: OUR TWENTY-FIVE HUNDRED BREEDING DUCKS. Kodak standing in centre of yard.] [Illustration] [Illustration] It is then ready for resetting or stowing away for next season's work. This wire is now the cheapest of all fencing for poultry work,--much more so, even, than lath-fencing; and has the great advantage of being portable and far more durable than any other material. Two-inch mesh, No. 19 wire, can be had now for three-quarters cent a square foot by the single roll, and proportionately cheaper by the quantity. Never purchase No. 20 wire, as it will prove unsatisfactory in the end. It is not self-supporting and can only be kept in position by boards, both above and below. There is great difference in the quality of this wire; that made by some firms being of so soft material that it will not stand alone. The squares soon become ellipses, and your eighteen-inch wire settles to a foot. The best I have ever used is that made by the Gilbert & Bennett Manufacturing Company, Georgetown, Conn. Previous to this our oldest ducklings will have reached the extreme end of the brooding-house, and it will be filled to its utmost capacity. In order to make room for the successive hatches I drive the older hatches out and round to my cold buildings, two in number. These buildings are each seventy-five feet long, with contiguous yards one hundred feet deep. The slides in the buildings are left open, and the ducklings are at liberty to go out or in as they see fit,--a privilege of which they avail themselves as the state of the atmosphere inclines. These yards always have a thick mat of rye growing on them. The partition wires have been set up and the young birds are quietly driven to their respective quarters. After ducklings reach the age of six weeks, it is not necessary to confine them in buildings during the night. Indeed, they are far better not, unless it is extremely cold, or there is danger from vermin. Even severe rainstorms will not injure them. They should be watched carefully, however, as they are apt, during their antics, to fall over on their backs, when, through suction from the wet and muddy ground, they are seldom able to turn back again. Prompt assistance should be rendered, or it will surely be too late, as the back of a duckling is his most susceptible part. After the birds are six weeks old it will not be necessary to feed more than three times per day, gradually substituting meal for bran, until the birds are eight weeks old, when their food should be, at least, three-quarters meal. There should also be a steady increase of animal food after the seventh week. Careful Watering Even More Essential Than Food. Particular care should be taken at this time to give the birds all they need to drink, or your food will be thrown away, as they require more water during the warm weather. They will consume and waste vast quantities, and the water supply should be made as convenient as possible, to facilitate the business. Our water is forced by a windmill into a two hundred-barrel tank, and leads from there through pipes into brooding and breeding houses, into the yards and mixing room,--all with a view to saving labor and time. The water-pans in the buildings are raised six or eight inches from the ground to prevent the birds getting in or wasting the water. At this stage, during warm, dry spells, the dried excrement of the birds will accumulate on the surface of the ground. This, as a matter of economy, as well as a sanitary necessity, should be carefully swept up before a rain, as the birds will sometimes drink water from the puddles standing around, and it will often seriously affect their appetites, as both yards and droppings are very offensive when wet. Shade is absolutely necessary at this age during warm weather, as ducklings can never be made in good condition when exposed to the sun during the extreme heat of summer. It affects their appetites at once, reducing the consumption of food by one-half. It is always well, if possible, to locate your yards so that the birds can have access to shade. If not, artificial shade must be constructed to meet the ends. My plan is to set up four stakes, about 6x10 feet, forming a parallelogram. Sideboards should be nailed on these stakes about two feet high. These can be covered with old boards, pine boughs, bushes, or thatched over with meadow hay,--whatever is most convenient to the grower. Great care should be taken in feeding by giving all the concentrated food the birds can be made to eat, and no more, as the largest of them will be ready for market when nine weeks old. Frighten and excite the birds as little as possible while sorting them. The best way to do this is to use a wide board some ten feet long, with two holes cut in the upper side near the middle. These holes should be two feet apart, and large enough to admit the hands for convenient handling. Fifteen or twenty of the birds should be driven in a corner and confined with this board. The birds should now be taken by the neck, one at a time, the largest and choicest selected for market, the rejected ones put in a temporary yard by themselves. [Illustration] This process should be repeated until the whole hatch is sorted, when the culls can be returned to their old quarters. They will have a better chance than before, and in a few days will be as good as the others. The oldest hatches, which usually come out in February and March, are all sent to market. The price is too high to save for breeders, but from subsequent hatches, those that come out in April and May, we select our breeding stock. How to Select Breeding Stock. Even these birds will command a high price, but I cannot afford to wait longer. I am very particular in this selection. The birds must not only be of the largest size, but of the most perfect form. The contour of head and neck, size and shape of bill, length and width of body, all are taken into consideration. As a consequence, not more than one in ten will be found to fill the bill, and my 2,500 breeding birds will be selected from many thousands. The result of all this care and solicitude on my part has been extremely gratifying, as it has not only given me the control of the fancy market, but the birds have always commanded a higher price in the general market on account of their large size and fattening properties. As the ducklings are now ready for market, it is necessary that the grower should make some arrangements for disposing of them. He cannot afford to sell them alive to the carts, for though this may be a great convenience to persons who grow a few fowls, the profits which enable these parties to run their collecting carts all over the country, and hire men to pick and dress their fowls, will be quite an item in the pocket of the one who grows on a large scale. The best plan for him is to hire an expert to do his picking for him, and if he cannot get one, to take lessons of one so that he can do it himself. This is a very particular business, as there is a great knack in it. Years ago I thought I knew something about picking ducks, but after watching an expert for thirty minutes I was enabled to double my day's work. [Illustration] This usually has the same effect upon others. For though it may be weeks before the tyro will be able to do what would be called a fair day's work, yet if he keeps his wits about him, and is endowed with a fair share of energy, there will be constant improvement. I received a letter a short time since from a lady in Ohio, saying that she was very much interested in growing ducklings, and was satisfied that there was money in it, but that her greatest trouble was in getting them picked, as it cancelled a large share of the profits, and that she hired a woman for the purpose and paid her twenty-five cents apiece for picking; at the same time saying that she could not bear to pay the woman less, as it took her a half day to pick one duck. Method of Dressing Ducklings. A fair day's work for an expert is forty ducks per day, though I have had men who could pick seventy-five and do it well. The process is very simple. All that is necessary is a chair, a box 2x3 feet and 2 feet high for the feathers, a few knives, and a smart man to handle them. One knife should be double-edged and sharp-pointed, for bleeding. The bird should be held between the knees, the bill held open with the left hand, and a cut made across the roof of the mouth just below the eyes. The bird should then be stunned by striking its head against a post, or some hard substance. [Illustration] The picker seats himself in the chair, with the bird in his lap, its head held firmly between one knee and the box. The sooner he gets at it the better, and if he is smart he will have the bird well plucked by the time life is extinct. The feathers should be carefully sorted while picking; the wing and tail-feathers and pins thrown away and the body feathers, with the down, thrown into the box. Care should be taken about this, as the feathers are no mean source of income, and will always pay for the picking. A dull knife should be used in connection with the thumb in removing the long pins, and, in fact, all that can be removed without tearing the skin. The down can usually be rubbed off by slightly moistening the hand and holding the skin tight. As there are often some pins which cannot be taken out without tearing and disfiguring the skin, and some down that will not rub off, they must be shaved off. A knife should be kept for the purpose. This knife should be made of the finest oil-tempered steel, and must be sharper than the best razor. The tops of the wings should be left on, and the bird picked half way down the neck. The bird should not be drawn nor the head removed. All this is in reality done in much shorter time than is required to describe it. The expert performs his duties mechanically. The feathers actually seem to stick to his fingers, and he will in seven minutes pick a duck in far better shape than a novice would in an hour. The bird on being picked, should, after the blood is washed carefully from the head, be thrown into a barrel or tank of floating ice. It will harden up so that its rotundity of outline will be preserved. This method is far better than that practiced by some parties, who pack their birds in ice at once, where the bodies are compressed into all manner of shapes and harden up in that position, and never again can acquire that attractive appearance and rounded outline which a well-fattened duckling should present. After the birds are hardened they should be packed close in light boxes, back down, with the head under the wing, and if your market is within twelve hours ride, can be safely shipped without ice, and they will always arrive in good condition. Dealers like to have them come in this way, they look so much nicer and are far more saleable. I have boxes for the purpose, of different sizes, holding, when closely packed, twelve, eighteen and thirty-six pairs of birds. These boxes are light, made of five-eighth inch pine, are strongly cleated at the corners and ends, and are fitted with hinged covers, fastened down with clasps and screws. I find this much the best way, as the birds always preserve their shape and arrive in good condition, while express companies return the empty boxes free, and when they "get the hang of it" soon learn to deliver promptly and handle carefully. How to Ship Poultry. In shipping poultry the first thing the young poulterer should do is to establish a reputation among the first-class dealers in his vicinity. This can only be done by shipping first-class stock. Never kill a bird unless it is in good condition. Pick and dress them neatly, box them carefully, and they will always command a good price and a ready sale; while equally as good stock, slovenly and carelessly thrown together, will go begging. I have often seen good stock cut several cents per pound, owing to the shipper's carelessness. A prominent dealer in Boston said to me one day, pointing to a barrel of poultry, "The man who shipped that stuff is a fool! Look here!" He opened the barrel,--it was half full of ducks fairly well fatted and picked. But how those ducks looked. The shipper had evidently thrown those birds in head first, or any way to suit, and then had thrown a lot of ice on the top. The barrel not being very clean, he had introduced blue paper between the ducks and barrel. The ice had melted, the barrel had been capsized repeatedly during transit, and the paper had been completely disintegrated. It was stuck all over the ducks in little patches and rubbed in, while the birds had acquired a fine tint of blue that would have done credit to a laundryman. "There," said the dealer, "I shall have to cut that man four cents per pound." If occasionally you should have poor stock always ship it by itself, and notify your dealer of its quality. He will know it soon enough without you telling him, but, at the same time, he will know that you are not trying to put a poor article on him for a good one. One or two pairs of poor birds in a box of good ones will often affect the price of the whole. Never pack a bird till after the animal heat is out. By a close observance of the above, the time will soon come when you will have no trouble in selling your stock. You will have more orders than you will be able to fill. The past season has been a very satisfactory one to us, as we have not only largely increased our business, but the prices obtained have been better than ever before, while we have been overwhelmed with orders from dealers in New York and Boston which we have been wholly unable to fill. But to return to the feathers. They should be taken up every day and spread out thinly on a dry floor, turned occasionally, and, in a few days, when thoroughly dry, can be thrown in a heap. Do not neglect this, for if allowed to accumulate they soon become offensive, and nothing but superheated steam will ever deordize them, and be sure that the feather firms will always take advantage of this and charge you roundly for doing it. Disinfecting the Ground a Necessity. When we first begin shipping for market, our yards are usually filled to their utmost capacity, and we are often crowded for room. As fast as the yards are emptied, they should be disinfected by turning them and sowing a crop of oats at once. By the time these oats are two or three inches high they can be reoccupied by young birds, so that two crops can be grown upon the same ground each season. My plan is this: I do not heat my brooding-house artificially after the first of June, as the building will always be warm enough at that date for ducklings ten days old, without artificial heat. I locate some of my large duck-brooders a short distance apart out-of-doors, building a square pen in front of them, 8x12 feet, with boards a foot wide. Into these brooders I put the newly-hatched ducklings as they come out. They need artificial heat the first few days. Of course it would be poor policy to run the heater for the benefit of a few when it would be a decided injury to thousands. When the ducklings no longer require heat, which will be in a very few days, I remove them at once, either to the brooding-house or to the vacated yards above mentioned, when by this time the oats will be high enough to furnish them with green food. The business is managed in this way as long as there are eggs to hatch. I use the eggs for incubating long after I cease putting them out; for, if there is but one-third fertile, it is more profitable to hatch them than to market them, as the prices on young ducklings after the middle of October usually rule some three or four cents higher per pound than during August and September. During the spring and summer months, when things are under full headway, there is naturally great care and responsibility. It will not do to make too many mistakes or neglect necessary duties. The young birds must be fed regularly and given the differently prepared foods according to age,--water supplied, grass and corn fodder cut and distributed according to need. Lamps to trim and replenish, eight thousand eggs to turn twice each day; a new hatch of ducklings coming off nearly every day; the machine to be filled with nicely washed eggs; one to two thousand pounds of ducklings dressed and packed for market daily; cleaning and disinfecting yards; entertaining visitors, who flock here by dozens,--furnish all the occupation we need. Indeed, were it not for the immense profits attending the business, we might consider it rather more than we ought to do. I disinfect my duck yards with rye about Sept. 1. When, in this climate, frost has destroyed all green vegetable life, then rye is in its prime. If sowed September 1, in duck yards, it will attain a height of eighteen inches, and if sowed thickly will crop many tons to the acre. When corn-fodder is gone, we use green clover, then turnip, cabbage and green rye in turn and then just before a snow storm we cut a large quantity of the frozen rye and pile it up in the shade, where, of course, it will neither heat or thaw. Should we get out before the snow is gone, we always have surplus of clover-rowen cured for the purpose. This, together with refuse cabbage and boiled turnips, small potatoes, etc., makes a fine winter diet on which breeding ducks will always thrive if the other ingredients are properly mixed,--a diet upon which, combined with housing and plenty of exercise, the birds are bound to contribute a good quota of strong fertile eggs. I mention this particularly here, because the mortality among young birds will depend largely upon the strength and vitality of the eggs from which they come. Natural Duck-Culture. Doubtless some of my readers are getting impatient and saying to themselves, "Why do you not give us some ideas how to do this business in the natural way? Many of us wish to begin small. Every one has not the conveniences to use or the means to command incubators." I am coming to that. I have a vivid recollection of using hens to incubate with some twenty years ago; and the persistent obstinacy of the perverse birds, the large proportion of valuable eggs spoiled and broken, as well as the time consumed in caring for them, are still fresh in my memory. It was wholesome discipline for me. It will be the same to the reader, and enable him to appreciate a good incubator later on. A good, quiet hen, who attends closely to her business, will always hatch as large a proportion of her eggs as a good incubator; but there are so many with dispositions quite the opposite of this that it leaves the odds largely in favor of the machine. Success with hens depends quite as much with the operator as with machines. He must begin right and hold out to the end. As ducks seldom make good incubators, he will have to rely upon hens to do that business for him. The best breeds for that purpose I have found to be the Brahma or Plymouth Rock. A cross of these birds makes a good quiet sitter. The birds must be got out early so that they will begin laying in the fall and be ready to incubate by the time you want them. It is well to have a room for the purpose and have the sitters by themselves. The nests should be in rows around the room, the feeding and water-troughs in the centre, with the dust-bath at one end. The nest boxes should be some fourteen inches square and about a foot high. Each one should be furnished with a slide so that the bird can be confined when necessary. If the slide is planed, all the better, as the date of the sitter can then be marked on it. The first thing is to prepare the nests. There is quite a knack in this; indeed, success largely depends upon this one thing. The best material for this is soft hay or straw, cut six or eight inches long, placed upon a soil bottom. The sides of this nest should be packed hard, the bottom smooth and slightly concaved, not too much, as the tendency then would be to break the eggs if they crowded towards the centre. There should be plenty of room in the nest for the bird's feet and legs and the eggs too, so that she can turn at will without danger of breaking them. A piece of tarred paper five or six inches square, should be placed on the soil in the bottom of the nest; the whole covered with a half inch of finely cut straw. A few porcelain eggs should be placed in the nest, and when a hen shows a strong desire to incubate she should be placed upon the nest and the slide closed, giving the bird all the air she needs. This removal should be made after dark as the birds are always more gentle then. It is well to set a number of hens at once, if they can be had, for reasons that will shortly appear. If the birds take kindly to the porcelain eggs they can be removed the next evening and replaced with ducks' eggs. As they are much larger than hen's eggs, nine or ten will be enough in cold weather and eleven or twelve in warm; proportioned, of course, something to the size of the bird. I always take the birds from their nests at a certain time every day; they will learn to expect it. This should be done during the warmest part of the day. Handle Your Hens Carefully. Now is the time to exercise caution. Take your birds off carefully several at a time. If one should fly in your face, break her eggs and spatter the contents over your person, and you should feel like wringing her neck, don't do it; you would only be so much out. Take things easy, don't get mad; she may do better next time, if not, replace her with one that will. When taking your birds off in cold weather cover the eggs at once with a circular piece of heavy paper previously prepared, and they will not cool perceptibly during the fifteen minutes the birds are off. Be sure and return each bird to her own nest, for if you have an uneasy sitter, though she may spoil her own eggs, she should have no opportunity to spoil those of others. Besides, if you do not, hens that have been sitting but a day or two may be placed upon eggs just ready to hatch when she will not take kindly to the young birds as they hatch, and a great mortality is sure to follow. If you should be running 100 sitters, the more you can take off at a time the sooner you will get through. Have a sponge and warm water handy as you will have more or less broken eggs. The rest should be washed clean at once and returned to the nest. When hatching out be sure and remove the little ducklings, as fast as they come out, to a warm place to dry off, as owing to their long necks and peculiar shape the mother hen will unconsciously crush many more of them than she would of chicks. In fact, they should never see the hen after being taken away, as they can be grown to much better advantage, and with far less mortality, in brooders. And just here is the great economy of setting six or eight hens at the same time; the young ducklings can be all put together in one brooder and cared for with less trouble and with less mortality than that resulting from one hen with her brood. The ducklings should be confined in yards, the same care and feed given them as already recommended for artificially hatched birds. Allusion has already been made to the proverbial timidity of the Pekin duck. This sometimes causes trouble to the grower when the birds are confined together in large numbers. When six or eight weeks old, and even after they are full grown, they often get frightened, or gallied as it were, in dark nights. Being unable to see, one bird will touch another, he will spring away and come in contact with several more. In an instant the whole are in the most violent commotion, whirling and treading each other down. It will be a perfect stampede and will sometimes be kept up the entire night. After a night of such dissipation many of the birds will appear completely jaded out, and some of them unable to rise. Of course, this must be stopped at once or the grower may bid farewell to all fattening or laying on the part of the birds. Hanging lanterns in the yards at stated distances will usually restore order. It will not be needed when there is a moon. See that there are no sharp projections in either yards or breeding-pens, as both old and young birds are often lamed for life by simply coming in contact with them in the night. Too much care cannot be exercised on this point, as the bones of the birds are so small and their bodies so frail. As has been intimated before, ducks are not subject to so many diseases as hens,--while they are entirely free from lice or body parasites of any kind. Indeed, I never saw a louse on a duck in all my experience. Still, it cannot be denied that good sanitary conditions, together with plenty of pure air and water, will not only greatly increase the egg-production, but facilitate the growth and improve the properties of the duckling. Ducklings when confined to yards are sometimes troubled with sore eyes. The adjacent parts become inflamed, the head slightly swelled. This is caused by feeding sloppy food, and from filthy quarters. The feathers around the eyes become filled with the food, the dust adheres to them. The eye is naturally inflamed. Washing out thoroughly and bathing the eye with a little sweet oil will usually effect a cure. Diarrhoea. Young ducklings are sometimes afflicted with diarrhoea. This disease is caused more by overheating brooders and the exhausted condition of the mother bird than from improper food. Do not overfeed or overheat the ducklings. Feed bread or cracker crumbs, moistened with boiled milk, into which a little powdered chalk has been dusted. Abnormal Livers. This disease is the most dangerous to which young ducks are subject. It is seldom prevalent except during the warm weather, and usually in young birds of from two to six weeks of age. The livers of the young birds enlarge to such an extent as to force up their backs,--a deformity which will cling to them through life. It is caused by a complete stagnation of the digestive organs, and often makes its appearance after a heavy rain, or long wet spell, when the yards are invariably wet, sloppy and offensive. The young birds will, while in constant contact with this mud, absorb more or less of it, clogging the digestive organs, and deranging their appetites. Remove the birds to some dry, shady place, feed sparingly, and give a little of the "Douglas mixture" in the drinking water. Ducklings must be Carefully Yarded While Young. A great mortality often occurs to young ducklings when allowed free range during warm weather, from devouring injurious insects. Bees, wasps, hornets, bugs of all descriptions, are eagerly swallowed alive but not always with impunity, and the birds often pay the penalty with their lives. Always confine them, even when designed for breeding purposes, until they are six weeks old, when they can be allowed their liberty. The most of the diseases to which ducks and fowls are subject can usually be traced to some infraction of conditions, and of course are always more or less under the control of the careful operator. Two young men called here a short time ago wishing to know what was the trouble with their fowls. Hitherto they had occupied a cold building, so open that the snow sifted through on them, and they had never to their recollection had a diseased fowl. Within a year they had put up a nice, warm building with a glass front, and their fowls had been diseased ever since. They had shut their birds in a building that would run up to 100 degrees during the day and that would go down nearly to zero at night, subjecting their fowls to thermal changes, under which neither animal or vegetable life could possibly live, and then expect them to thrive. The amateur poulterer should understand in the beginning that it is far easier to anticipate disease in poultry than to cure it. Where fowls are kept in large numbers, their health and well-being can only be insured by extreme care and cleanliness, together with a free use of disinfectants. Buildings should be kept dry, clean and sweet, and not too warm. The greater the variety of food the better, so long as it is healthy and nutritious; while gravel, sand, shell and granulated charcoal should be kept by them during confinement in winter. I am often asked by parties, "Why do so many would-be poulterers fail if it is a legitimate business and fairly profitable?" I reply, I am not prepared to concede the point that the proportional number of failures in the poultry business is greater than among other vocations in life. Hundreds of men fail every year in mercantile, manufacturing and brokerage pursuits. People do not decry any legitimate business from this cause, because they know there are hundreds who are not only getting a livelihood, but are amassing fortunes at them. There are hundreds, yes thousands, of farms on the market in New England today, for less than the value of the buildings, because their owners have made failures of them. Do men denounce agriculture? No! Because they know that from time immemorial men have not only secured an honest living, but have gained a competence from tilling the soil. You simply say that it is the men. Why not be equally frank with the poultry business? They say the whole thing is contrary to nature, and you can't improve upon nature. Can't we? That is just what man is placed upon this sublunary sphere for, and he must begin by improving himself. With the present opportunities for obtaining information, no one has a right to remain ignorant because he begins by making a failure of himself; and when a man has failed in the poultry business or elsewhere, it is simply want of that indomitable pluck, energy, and perseverence, which are the requisites of success everywhere, coupled with a disinclination to sacrifice his comfort and ease, or conform his life to his business requirements. Again, we hear that artificially grown fowls are stunted and small, the flesh tasteless and insipid, and many other things which have no shadow of truth in them. I append the testimonials of some of the largest poultry dealers both in Boston and New York cities, who cheerfully and voluntarily testify to the superiority of our artificially-grown birds. These firms are square and honest dealers, and we heartily recommend them to any who stand in need of their services. I have endeavored in this little book to impart what little knowledge I possess on this important subject to the reader. If he can learn wisdom by my experience and avoid the errors into which I fell, it is all I ask. The business, as I have learned its details, has become more profitable each year; while the experience of the past season has been highly satisfactory, as the demand has been greater than ever before. FORMULAS FOR FEEDING DUCKS. For Breeding Birds. (Old and young, during the Fall.) We turn them out to pasture, when we can, in lots of 200. Feed three parts wheat-bran; one part low grade flour; one part corn meal; five per cent. of beef-scrap; three per cent. of grit, and all the green feed they will eat, in the shape of corn-fodder, cut fine, clover or oat-fodder. Feed this mixture twice a day, all they will eat. For Laying Birds. Equal parts of wheat-bran and corn meal; ten per cent. beef-scrap; twenty per cent. of low grade flour; ten per cent. of boiled turnips or potatoes; fifteen per cent. of clover-rowen, green rye or refuse cabbage, chopped fine; three per cent. of grit. Feed twice a day, all they will eat, with a lunch of corn and oats at noon. Keep grit and ground oyster shells constantly by them. We never cook the food for our ducks, but mix it with cold water. For Feeding at Different Stages of Growth. The first four days, feed four parts wheat-bran; one part corn-meal; one part low grade flour; five per cent. fine grit. Feed four times a day, what they will eat clean. When from four days to four weeks old, feed four parts wheat-bran; one part corn-meal; one part low-grade flour; three per cent. fine grit; five per cent. of fine ground beef-scrap, soaked. Finely cut green clover, rye or cabbage. Feed four times a day. When from four to eight weeks old, feed three parts wheat-bran; one part corn-meal; one part low-grade flour; five per cent. of fine grit; five per cent. of beef-scrap. Mix in green food. One per cent. fine oyster shells. Feed four times a day. When from six to eight weeks old, feed equal parts corn-meal; wheat-bran and fifteen per cent. low grade flour; ten per cent. of beef-scrap; ten per cent. of green food; three per cent. of grit. Feed three times a day. When from eight to ten weeks old, feed one half corn-meal; equal parts of wheat-bran and low grade flour; ten per cent. of beef-scrap; three per cent. of grit. Oyster shells and less green food. Feed three times a day. They should now be ready for market. Note.--The above ingredients should be made into a mash, and should be crumbly, not pasty. Proportions by measure, not weight. QUESTION BUREAU. QUESTION 1.--Why do my ducks not lay? I feed them all the corn they will eat. ANSWER.--Ducks will not lay on hard grain alone. They should have a mash composed of equal parts wheat-bran, corn-meal, and twenty per cent. low grade flour, with about one-quarter green food and vegetables; ten per cent. of beef-scrap, with grit and oyster shells. QUESTION 2.--My ducklings are weak in the legs, cannot stand, and soon die. What is the matter? ANSWER.--Your trouble is too highly concentrated food and too much of it. Feed on mash composed largely of wheat-bran, low-grade flour and about fifteen per cent. of corn-meal. Mix in plenty of green food, as green rye, clover, corn-fodder, etc. Ten per cent. of ground beef-scrap, or other animal food; five per cent. of coarse sand. This diet is absolutely necessary to properly develop the bird and form flesh, bone and feathers. Feed sparingly. This is essential, as it invites exercise, which is much needed during close confinement in inclement weather. QUESTION 3.--My ducklings are troubled with sore eyes and do not seem to thrive, what can I do for them? ANSWER.--This disease savors of filthy quarters, and yet it is not always attributed to that. Improper assimilation of food through want of grit and other ingredients will have a tendency in the same direction. A gummy secretion exudes from the eyes, hardening up among the feathers around them, seriously retarding the growth and development of the bird. Feed sparingly of light food with plenty of grit, and sprinkle a little ginger in their food. Remove the bird to clean quarters and a few days will usually effect a cure. QUESTION 4.--I am losing my ducklings from diarrhoea. Have but twenty left out of eighty, and they are not ten days old. Please counsel me? ANSWER.--This disease may have several causes, though I am convinced that the food has but little to do with it. It may originate through the degenerate condition of the parent bird, and consequent want of vitality in the egg from which the little bird comes out in no shape to live; or from the extremes of heat and cold to which the eggs have been subjected during the process of incubation; or from the same cause after the little duckling has been placed in the brooder. I am convinced that with a careful selection of the proper ingredients in feeding the old bird, and a reasonable control of the heat in the incubator and brooder (if they are good ones), there need be but little apprehension from this disease. QUESTION 5.--My breeding birds have the gapes. They stretch their necks and gape, eat nothing, and die in a few days. Can you diagnose the case and help me? ANSWER.--This is undoubtedly a lung trouble, for on dissecting the birds, I have always found the lungs not only highly inflamed but nearly gone. For years I had supposed this disease incurable, and incidental to bird and clime, but later experience has convinced me that it is not only largely under control but easily anticipated. First, I never knew a case in summer or early spring, when the birds were not confined to buildings but had free and open range, and only when confined during inclement weather, so that it is more or less a denizen of foul air and filthy quarters. I would much rather have my breeding houses freeze a little than to have them filled with foetid air, and the birds breathe over and over again the ammonia arising from their own excrements. It is one thing for the birds to be confined over their own ordure, their nostrils but a few inches from it, but quite another with the attendant in the walk with his nose six feet away. He may think his buildings quite clean and free from noxious gases, but could his ducks speak they would tell him a different story. This disease, if taken in the early stages, can usually be cured. Isolate the bird with the first appearance of trouble, in a warm, dry place. Feed on food formula for little ducklings. Mix a little cayenne pepper in the food, a little Douglas Mixture in the drinking water, and a large proportion of the affected birds may be saved. Keep your breeding birds dry and clean when confined. QUESTION 6.--I turned my ducklings out in a grass plot today and have lost nearly one-third of them. What is the cause? ANSWER.--This may result from two causes. Ducklings from two to four weeks old are ravenous birds and will devour all manner of insects within their reach, which they do not stop to kill. Bees, wasps, hornets and beetles of all descriptions are acceptable, and the little birds, themselves, often pay the penalty with their lives. Again, at that age, they are extremely sensitive to the heat of the sun, and they must have shade. Years ago, we sometimes lost twenty birds out of a hundred in thirty minutes, before we knew the cause. QUESTION 7.--How many birds should constitute a breeding-yard? ANSWER.--Twenty-five is enough unless the birds have free range, then fifty may run together with safety. QUESTION 8.--How shall I proportion the sexes for the best results? ANSWER.--Five ducks to one drake. Later in the season, six or eight ducks to one drake. QUESTION 9.--How can I distinguish the sexes? ANSWER.--It is easy for the expert to detect the sex of the bird when very young. The drake has a longer bill, neck and body, with a more upright carriage. At two months old the duck may be distinguished by her coarse quack, the drake by a fine, rasping noise, and later on by the curled feathers in his tail. QUESTION 10.--How soon will a young duck begin laying? ANSWER.--At about five months old, often at four and a half months old. At present, September 1st, we are getting some three dozen eggs per day from our young birds, and we are trying to hold them back all we can by light feeding. QUESTION 11.--Which will lay first, old or young birds? ANSWER.--Young birds will usually lay from two to three weeks before the old ones, but as the first eggs of the old birds are usually more fertile than eggs from the young ones, there is very little discrepancy in the result. QUESTION 12.--How many eggs will a Pekin duck lay in a season? ANSWER.--About one hundred and forty. Their fecundity is wonderful, excelling that of any other duck. We have birds in some yards with a record of one hundred and sixty-five eggs to each bird. QUESTION 13.--To what age is it profitable to keep a duck? ANSWER.--We have kept them till four years old with good results. If not forced they may be kept longer to advantage. QUESTION 14.--Is there a market for their eggs, and at what price? ANSWER.--Pekin duck eggs sell readily in market, as they are much larger than the other duck eggs. They command from five to ten cents per dozen more than hen's eggs. QUESTION 15.--How much does it cost to keep a duck each season? ANSWER.--From $1.75 to $2.00. They are gross feeders, of bulky food, but the greater number and value of the eggs in market over the average hen, makes the duck more profitable as an egg-producer than the hen. QUESTION 16.--At what season are the eggs of a duck most fertile? ANSWER.--During the months of February, March, April and May, though they are usually fertile with us during January, June, and even July. QUESTION 17.--What per cent. of the eggs will usually hatch? ANSWER.--That depends entirely upon how the mother-bird is cared for and fed. See formula for laying birds. QUESTION 18.--What is the average loss sustained in growing ducklings? ANSWER.--Not more than two per cent. with us, but it depends largely upon how the old birds are fed; how the eggs are incubated, and the young birds cared for. QUESTION 19.--How many birds can be safely kept in one brooder and one yard? ANSWER.--About one hundred, and as they grow older, unless the yards are of good size, a less number would grow and fat better. QUESTION 20.--At what age should the young birds be put upon the market? ANSWER.--When the prices are very high in the early spring we market them at about nine weeks old, when they will dress from ten to eleven pounds per pair. Later on, when prices are lower, we market them at ten to eleven weeks old, when they will dress from twelve to thirteen pounds per pair. QUESTION 21.--When and how do you select your breeding birds? ANSWER.--As soon as we can distinguish the quality and merits of the bird, and from our earliest hatches, as they always develop into larger and better birds. QUESTION 22.--How do you treat the young birds for breeding purposes? ANSWER.--Turn them out to pasture, and feed lightly on food calculated to develop bone, muscle and feathers. QUESTION 23.--What shall I do to keep my ducks still in the night, when they make a great noise and commotion? Some of them are broken down and cannot stand. ANSWER.--Hang a lantern in their yard. You must keep them still. QUESTION 24.--Can ducks be shipped safely any distance? ANSWER.--We ship ducks safely all over the United States, Canada and Europe. QUESTION 25.--Would you recommend incubator or hens for hatching duck's eggs? ANSWER.--Incubator, by all means, if hatched in large quantities. QUESTION 26.--Would you use brooders, if hatched under hens? ANSWER.--Brooders are better than hens, for two reasons. It is less trouble to care for them. Hens crush large numbers of them when small. QUESTION 27.--How long can the eggs be kept for hatching? ANSWER.--They can be kept three weeks, safely, if kept on end, in a cool place, but should prefer them fresher. QUESTION 28.--Can Pekin ducks be crossed with other breeds profitably? ANSWER.--From our experience, we can say no. In every case it has required longer time to mature the mongrels, and as the prices decline in the early spring, this is quite an item, besides the introduction of colored feathers injures the appearance of the dressed bird, as well as the quality of the feathers, which is also quite an item. QUESTION 29.--What is the price of duck's feathers in the market? ANSWER.--Formerly, white duck feathers commanded fifty cents per pound, but since white feathers have been imported from Russia in such quantities, ours average about forty-five cents per pound. QUESTION 30.--What makes their wings turn out from their bodies? ANSWER.--This is often caused by the rapid development of the bird. The resting feathers on the sides under the wings, do not keep pace with the rapid growth of the bird, and the constant efforts of the bird to keep the wings in place, tends to turn the wings outward. We have always noticed that these are invariably the best birds. QUESTION 31.--Which are the most profitable, ducks or chickens? ANSWER.--This will depend upon whether the grower is a care-taker, or whether he is careless, lazy or untidy. We think that ducks will bear more neglect than chicks, but it will not do to presume upon that, as ducks will not thrive in filth more than chicks. We think that the average price of chicks in market is rather higher than that of ducks, but as it costs at least two cents less per pound to produce duck flesh, than that of the chick, there is very little difference. QUESTION 32.--Where are the best markets for ducks? ANSWER.--Good markets may be found in all of our large cities, though we think New York and Boston the best. Sometimes, when large shipments produce a glut in the New York markets, the surplus is shipped to Boston, where it may be a cent or two higher. Then in a few days things may be reversed and the exodus be the other way, and as the freight is only one-half cent per pound between the two cities, I have known tons to be shipped at a time. QUESTION 33.--What would a plant cost, with a capacity of 5,000 ducklings, per year? ANSWER.--With good machines, and buildings barely practical, $1,500 (if economically expended) would cover cost, independent of land. QUESTION 34.--What effect does extremes of heat and cold have upon young ducklings? ANSWER.--After they are a week old they will stand much more of either than chicks. QUESTION 35.--Is the flesh of birds artificially grown, as good as that grown in the natural manner? ANSWER.--Just as good. The quality of the flesh depends entirely upon the care and feed given the birds. QUESTION 36.--How large should the yards be in which the breeding birds are kept? ANSWER.--At least one hundred feet long, where the buildings are long, and the width of the pens in which the birds are housed. QUESTION 37.--Do you think it will pay to grow celery to flavor the flesh of the birds? ANSWER.--We have never done so, and parties who have grown celery for that purpose, have discontinued it as being unprofitable in the end, as they were not able to obtain increased prices for their product. QUESTION 38.--What is the best green food for ducks, old and young? ANSWER.--Green clover, green corn-fodder, rye, oats and clover-rowen cured nicely, with green rye, in winter when ground is bare. QUESTION 39.--Should Pekin duck eggs be pure white? ANSWER.--Yes. QUESTION 40.--Should a pure bred Pekin have any black feathers? ANSWER.--No. The feathers should be a creamy white. Dark feathers are a sign of mongrel stock. QUESTION 41.--Will rain injure young ducklings? ANSWER.--They are as susceptible to rain as chicks up to three weeks of age, but after that, will endure more, and at eight or ten weeks old, will really enjoy a good rain storm. QUESTION 42.--How large do Pekin ducks grow? ANSWER.--We have had drakes to tip the scales at 13 pounds each, though this is somewhat rare. The past season, one of our drakes weighed 9-1/2 pounds, dressed, at 10 weeks old. QUESTION 43.--What is the weight of Pekin duck eggs? ANSWER.--In the height of the season, ours weigh about 3 pounds to the dozen. QUESTION 44.--Is wet, marshy land suitable for ducks? ANSWER.--Should prefer dry land contiguous to a stream or pond. QUESTION 45.--How many duck eggs should be placed under one hen? ANSWER.--From nine to eleven, depending upon the size of the hen. QUESTION 46.--How long does it require to incubate duck eggs? ANSWER.--Pekin eggs twenty-seven days. Muscovy eggs thirty-two days, same as geese. QUESTION 47.--Do Pekin ducks sit well on eggs? ANSWER.--No. They are unreliable. Hens are better. A good incubator still better. QUESTION 48.--If you were a young man, with the same experience you have now, would you enter the poultry business? ANSWER.--I certainly would, for two reasons. First, because it is a congenial occupation to me; second, it is by far the most profitable of any branch of farm industry. QUESTION 49.--Who is the best commission dealer in Boston market to whom I could consign my product? ANSWER.--We consider Adams and Chapman, North Market St., safe and reliable, and a first-class firm in every respect. QUESTION 50.--Who is the best retail dealer? ANSWER.--We consider Nathan Robbins Co., Quincy Market, as A-1. They have handled a large part of our product for many years, and we would heartily recommend them. Our Imperial Pekin Ducks. We run one of the largest duck farms in America; and the birds in our breeding pens are the very choicest, carefully selected, from the thousands we raise, and are all bred from our premium yards. We feel justly proud of our birds; for not only have they won all the premiums at New England State Fairs, but throughout the West, South and Canada. Our birds cannot be duplicated in North America. We confidently challenge competition; and, strange to say, the birds in our yards are now far superior to our best imported birds. They thrive better on our feed and in our climate than in that in which they originated. The Boston and New York marketmen have repeatedly assured us that our ducks are the best that come into the market, and as a natural consequence we have not been able to fill our orders for market ducks. Our birds have dressed, on an average, the past season, twelve pounds per pair, at nine and ten weeks old. We have now 2,500 of these mammoth birds in our breeding pens, and we are prepared to fill all orders for both birds and eggs at reasonable prices. Our young birds commence laying at five months old, lay through the fall months, moult slightly during the first of December, and about the middle of December begin again. The average number of eggs laid by our ducks we find, after careful computation, to be about 140 each year--more than our best hens. Our birds and eggs have given universal satisfaction wherever they have gone; and we have numerous letters from our patrons, expressing themselves as more than satisfied with their bargains. Our prices range as follows: Per pair, according to size and quality, from $4.00 to $6.00 Per trio, according to size and quality, from 6.00 to 9.00 Exhibition birds, each $5.00, or 10.00 per pair Eggs from our choice yards, per setting of 15 2.00 Eggs from our " per two settings 3.50 Eggs from our " per fifty 5.00 Eggs from our " per hundred 8.00 Eggs from our " per thousand 70.00 The above prices may seem large to some, but when it is known that many of the birds we now offer for sale were worth June 1st, $1.50 each in the market, and that we have kept them for the last six months at a cost of not less than fifty cents each, it is easy to see that the profits are not large. Our maximum price for market birds the present season was thirty cents per pound; the minimum, eighteen cents. Our ducks are all hatched and raised artificially, and are put upon the market at a cost not exceeding six cents per pound. TESTIMONIALS. PEKIN DUCKS. NILES, Ohio, Oct. 28, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- The ducks arrived safely and prompt, and I thank you very much for sending such fine large ducks--why they are more like geese as far as size. I also thank you for the prompt attention given my order. The poor little duck I kept of the ones raised by me this year looks very small--only about one-third the size of those received from you, and I thought her quite a respectable size before. I've long wanted some of your ducks, and I'm very much pleased with them. Wishing you greater success, I remain, Respectfully yours, CLARA G. CARATU. R. F. D. 1, Niles, Ohio. * * * * * RUSLERSTOWN, Md., Sept. 21, 1905. MR. JAS. RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- I beg to advise that the ducks have been received, and with them I am very much pleased. Am building a home for them in accordance with your plans, and when it is completed I shall want more ducks. Yours very truly, H. D. OWEN. * * * * * CAMBRIDGE SPRINGS, Pa., Sept. 18, 1905. Dear Sir-- Received the ducks all right. Am well pleased with them. Yours truly, M. F. TRAINER. * * * * * MT. HOLLY, Sept. 28, 1905. Dear Sir-- I received the ducks today, and I am well satisfied with them. Thanking you for your promptness, I remain JEREMIAH DONOVAN. R. F. D. No. 1. * * * * * TRADESMEN'S NATIONAL BANK. The United States Depository of Pittsburgh. May 20, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- The four (4) ducks you sent me arrived on the 16th, and I want to thank you for so promptly and satisfactorily filling my order. I am very highly pleased with them. Sincerely yours, T. B. BARNES. * * * * * WHITE PLAINS, Md., Mar. 27, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- We are pleased to say that duck eggs arrived safe, only four broken. We tested them and got 96 per cent. fertile. Very good. Thanks for promptness. May send for another 100 soon. Yours very respectfully, GOUGH BROS. & CO. * * * * * BALTIMORE, Md., Saturday, Jan. 1905. MR. RANKIN: The duck arrived safely yesterday. Very many thanks. She is a lovely large bird. MRS. E. C. ROBINSON. "Elgin." * * * * * BROOKLYN, N. Y., May 3, 1904. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The Pekin duck eggs you shipped me arrived safely, not one broken. Would have written sooner, but waited to see result of the hatch. I have ten little beauties. Should have had thirteen, but the chicken crushed three, two were unfertile. But I am very well pleased. Thank you for such fair treatment. Wishing you every success, yours sincerely, B. NICKLAUS. Vienna Ave. and Barby St. * * * * * ARLINGTON HEIGHTS, Mass., Jan. 17, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Received the drake and ducks all right, and I must in candor tell you how pleased my wife and daughter were with them. I have two ducks I was told were your strain, but they are eclipsed by those you sent me. I hope later on, I may send for more, as I am highly pleased with them. Yours respectfully, R. PARK. * * * * * COMMON PLEAS COURT, 10th District. BUCYRUS, Ohio, May 7, 1904. MR. JAMES RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- We received the ducks and they are good in every respect, and beside Mr. ----, make his look like culls. If he sends the same kind to every person, he is certainly a detriment to the business. He excused himself by saying that he was away from home; then he retains incompetent help. No criticism whatever can be made of your selection, and the ducks you sent us are as good as your reputation, and the latter is the best in this part of the country. We shall probably want a few show birds this fall, and will write you later. Yours truly, JAMES C. TOBIAS. * * * * * OWOSSO, Mich., Oct. 21, 1904. JAMES RANKIN, So. Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- I overlooked writing you in regard to the drakes. The first lot arrived nicely, except two. One seemed to be quite badly lamed, and the other a little. We took them out immediately on arrival, and the one that was slightly lamed has come out all right. The other fellow died. Probably got hard usage somewhere on the road. The lot right through was a very nice lot. The second lot arrived in fine condition, and the two lots together are entirely satisfactory every way. Do not see how any one could ask for anything nicer. The hundred we had from you last year were equally as good, however, in fact, can see no difference. Either the drakes or the ducks ought to be satisfactory to any reasonable person. Yours truly, E. F. DUDLEY. * * * * * GLEN WILD P. O., Sullivan Co., 1904. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The trio of Pekin Ducks arrived safe on Monday, Oct. 3d. They are exactly as represented. I like them very much. They seem to be very tame and easy to get along with. Very truly, (Mrs.) EDGAR KETCHAM. * * * * * U. S. S. "Forward.," KEY WEST, Fla., May 23, 1904. MR. J. RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- Sitting of eggs duly received last month. Got now ten lively ducklings, had eleven, but one got killed. Thanking you for prompt attention, I remain, Very truly yours, GEO. SCHOPFER. * * * * * HILL CITY, South Dakota, June 11, 1904. MR. RANKIN: I received ducks O. K. My other ducks are laying fine. They are all fine ones; although they cost me $4.92 1-2 apiece I would not take the money back for them. G. W. WALLACE. * * * * * PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE, Manitoba, Nov. 3, 1904. MR. JAMES RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- I am very much pleased with the ducks you sent me, they are the finest pair I ever saw. The people here say they are like geese. Thank you for the splendid selection you made for me. GEO. E. STACEY. * * * * * NORTH DETROIT, Mich., R. F. D. No. 2, Jan. 9, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The ducks arrived safe Saturday evening, Jan. 7, in good condition. I am very much pleased with your selection. They are certainly two fine birds. I remain, Yours truly, CHAS. GLARBON. * * * * * MORRIS, Ill., Jan. 24, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The ducks arrived in good condition, and they are the largest ducks I have ever seen. Thank you for your satisfactory shipment. Yours truly, L. L. NESS. * * * * * EAST BERLIN, Conn., March 29, 1905. MR. RANKIN: I received the duck eggs this afternoon in fine order, and I am delighted with them. They are beautiful eggs, and I feel sure of a good hatching. I only expected nine, as my friends all told me that nine was a sitting. I am more than pleased to receive 15. I will let you know how many birds I get later. Yours with many thanks, Mrs. S. McCRUM. * * * * * MONROE, N. Y., June 6, 1904. MR. RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Excuse me for not writing to you sooner. I have been so busy that I have not taken the time, but I received the duck eggs in due time, also the little book, for which I thank you very much. Received 15 eggs, more than I expected for a sitting. Two were cracked, as the basket looked as if it had been handled roughly by the Express Co. Out of the thirteen (13) remainder, were hatched eleven ducks, but the hen killed two of them on the nest. That left nine (9) fine little ducks, which are all alive at present and doing nicely--the largest I ever saw for their age. They are now but ten days old, but I would not take five dollars for them, as they look as if they were going to make fine big fellows. I don't mind buying eggs from a man like you, as you are sure to get your money's worth. Wishing you a prosperous season, CHAS. G. REINHARDT. * * * * * ELWOOD, Ind., Jan. 13, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The trio of Pekin ducks received in good condition. Am well pleased. Also the book on "Duck Culture" received and read, which was much enjoyed. Learned many new points in duck raising. Thanking you, I am Yours respectfully, Mrs. A. T. COX. * * * * * ELKTON, Md., Jan. 9, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Received ducks yesterday in good condition, and I am pleased with them. Can you let me have two more ducks at same price and as nice as these? If so, let me hear from you, and oblige, Yours respectfully, Mrs. J. B. CONNER. * * * * * EAST BERLIN, Ct., May 4, 1905. MR. RANKIN: Dear Sir-- I want to tell you how delighted I am with my little ducks. I had 13 out of 15 eggs. Only one egg that was bad, as there was one duckling in the egg, but was not strong enough to come out. But I am more than pleased with my 13. I feel sure they will grow to be fine, large ducks. Yours respectfully, Mrs. S. McCRUM. * * * * * ROCKAWAY, N. J., Jan. 9, 1905. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The two ducks and a drake you shipped me arrived in good condition. They are the finest birds of their class I ever saw. Different people who have examined them say they are the biggest and best ducks they ever looked at. Yours resptfully GEORGE S. STONE. Morris County. * * * * * LYNBROOK, Long Island, Oct. 16, 1905. MR. J. RANKIN: Sir-- The drake and duck arrived on Friday, P.M. in the very finest of shape. Thanking you for the selection you made for me, I remain, Respectfully, W. H. YOUNG. * * * * * 30 Bernard St., EAST ORANGE, N. J., Oct. 18, 1905. JAMES RANKIN, Esq., South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- Your shipment of one duck and one drake came to hand today, and they are a fine pair of birds. Thanks for your promptness in this matter. Yours truly, CHAS. H. WARING. * * * * * SUFFOLK, Va., June 2d, 1905. MR. JAS. RANKIN, South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- Just as the ducks came to hand I was called away from home, hence the delay in acknowledging receipt of them. They arrived safe and well, and it is but due to you to say, in size and beauty they exceeded my most sanguine expectations. They are indeed handsome birds. Many persons who saw them took them to be geese. I thank you for your promptness in filling my order, etc. Yours truly, V. S. KILBY. I. W. Morgan, Sr., Sec'y-Treas. * * * * * THE BOARD OF EDUCATION of the Town of Port Arthur. PORT ARTHUR, ONT., Aug. 30, 1905. JAMES RANKIN, Esq., South Easton, Mass.: Dear Sir-- The drake and two ducks you shipped to me on the 26th inst. arrived this evening, and are apparently in very good "trim" after their four days' journey. They are the finest looking ducks I ever saw and I have seen many thousands. I am more than pleased with them. Thanking you for your prompt and fair dealing with me I am sincerely yours, J. W. MORGAN, Sr., Port Arthur, Ont., Canada. * * * * * COMMISSION HOUSE OF W. H. RUDD & SON, No. 10 Merchants' Row, Boston. Friend Rankin--With the exception of yourself, we doubtless hatch and raise more poultry, by actual count, than any one on this continent. We do it entirely by artificial means, and shall never employ any other so long as we raise poultry at all and retain our senses. At our headquarters, in Boston, we receive and handle, to say the very least, as many market ducks as any firm in the city, and unless we are dull scholars, we ought to form a pretty accurate opinion of the relative merits of natural and artificial methods of incubation; or perhaps better expressed, the comparative quality of poultry raised by each, whether designed for market or other purposes. We were looking over our breeding stock the other day, and certainly never saw so handsome a lot for so large numbers, and we should have to travel as far as South Easton to find as fine a flock of ducks. The best market ducks that reach Boston (present company excepted, of course), are sent there by yourself and your brother, William Rankin of Brockton; not only are they two or three weeks in advance of others, but being grown with so great rapidity gives them that fineness and firmness of flesh, a superior flavor, and excellence in general appearance which cannot be found--or at least never is found--in ducks raised in the natural way, and which must necessarily be kept much longer to attain the same height. We could refer you to the proprietors of five of the leading hotels in the city, who state that the artificially-hatched ducks furnished by us during the last few years are by far the best they ever used, and that since the raising of ducks had thus been reduced to a science, fully twice as many as formerly are now daily called for by the guests, and consequently the demand is correspondingly increased, and we predict it will continue to increase indefinitely. Your ducks sell quicker and bring more per pound than any we get. Next come those raised and sent by Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Otis, both, like ourselves, using your machines. By the way, we have now secured Mr. Otis for our superintendent at the Brighton farm, and his well-known skill and experience, combined with our own, will render it necessary for you to keep your eye peeled and look to your laurels, lest you find yourself playing second fiddle. Fraternally and very truly, W. H. RUDD & SON. * * * * * What the Boston Marketmen Say About Our Ducks. BOSTON, Aug. 8, 1898. The ducks we received from Maple Farm Duck Yards are the largest and best we find in the market. NATHAN ROBBINS CO. * * * * * BOSTON, Aug. 6, 1898. We give the preference to ducks shipped us from Maple Farm Duck Yards over all others, as we consider them the largest and fattest on the market. We readily pay a higher price for them. B. S. COLE. * * * * * BOSTON, Aug. 9, 1898. We have handled ducks from Mr. Rankin's duck yards for many years, and find them superior in size and condition to all others, and readily command a higher price. NATHAN A. FITCH. * * * * * BOSTON, Aug. 8, 1898. We willingly pay a higher price for ducks shipped to us from Maple Farm Duck Yards, as we consider them the best on the market. GEO. W. KIMBALL & CO. * * * * * BOSTON, Aug. 5, 1898. We willingly acknowledge that the ducks received from J. Rankin's duck yards not only command the highest price, but are largest and finest that come into Boston market, and handle no others when we can get those. WILLIAM H. JONES & CO. * * * * * BOSTON, Aug. 6, 1898. We certify that the ducks shipped us from Maple Farm Duck Yards are the largest and best we have handled. H. L. LAWRENCE & CO. * * * * * COLUMBIA STA., O., Sept. 15, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- I received the pair of Pekin Ducks you sent me in good condition. People at the station thought they were geese. Am well pleased with them; will write you later. Yours very truly, THERON D. GOODWIN. * * * * * LACEYVILLE, Pa., Sept. 1, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The ducks arrived here safely Saturday morning. I was more than pleased with them. I have about one hundred ducks which I thought were large and were the admiration of all who saw them, but the ones from you beat anything I ever saw. Quite a number asked me what I was going to do with the geese, and could hardly believe they were ducks. When in want of any more ducks will send direct to you. Yours truly, W. E. SHOEMAKER. * * * * * BURLINGTON, Vt., Aug. 24, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Drake came today, and is very satisfactory. Hastily, ROBERT H. WILSON. * * * * * BAY CITY, Mich., July 7, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The eggs received in good order. Had a nice hatch of ten strong ducks; one dead in shell, have not lost one of the ten; am well pleased and satisfied. Truly yours, W. P. LATLIN. * * * * * ALEXANDRIA, Va., May 27, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- I am so pleased with the good hatch I had from the two sittings I bought of you this spring I wanted to let you know. From fifteen hen eggs I have fifteen nice, large, strong chicks, and from fifteen duck eggs hatched ten lovely ducklings. They are so large they are almost like goslings. Thanking you for your kindness and the feather, I am, Very respectfully, Mrs. LENA CARTER. * * * * * CASAWOOD, Station R, N. Y. City, Jan. 9, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The trio of handsome Pekin Ducks you sent me were promptly received. They seemed to me to be equal in size and beauty to those ducks which received prizes at the late Poultry Show in Madison Square Garden, and I regret now that I had not entered them. Yours truly, GRACE McVAY. * * * * * NANTUCKET, Jan. 8, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Ducks received in fine shape. They weighed just twenty pounds for the pair the day they arrived. A number of people thought they were geese. Please send me your catalogue and oblige, Yours truly, H. G. WORTH. * * * * * ROCKFORD, Ill., Jan. 2, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The drakes ordered of you a few days ago arrived in fine shape, and give perfect satisfaction in every way. Yours respectfully, J. A. BRECKENBRIDGE. * * * * * GEORGETOWN, Dec. 30, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The ducks arrived safe and in good condition. I am very well pleased with your selection, and to show you I appreciate it, I add my testimonial. Respectfully yours, LEON S. GIFFORD. * * * * * FALL RIVER, May 1, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- For that setting of duck eggs I received from you April 1st, I want to thank you now for giving me sixteen eggs when I did not expect but twelve. I should have written before, but I wanted to tell you how many I hatched out. They started to hatch out two days before I looked for them, so that now, May 1st, I have twelve little beauties. I am well satisfied with my dealings with you. I remain yours truly, Mrs. F. E. PALMER. * * * * * Riverview Poultry Yards, WOODSVILLE, N. H., Jan. 25, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The ducks arrived all right this A. M., and they are beauties. We are very much pleased with them and thank you for the selection. Yours respectfully, S. S. EVANS & SON. * * * * * POCOMOKE CITY, Md., Mar. 23, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- I am much indebted to you for the prompt and satisfactory way in which you filled my recent order for duck eggs. They arrived safe, and are the largest duck eggs that I have ever seen. I enclose here fifty cents, for which please send me your book on Duck Culture, Yours truly, J. PHILLIS CROCKETT. * * * * * SPRINGFIELD, Ill., Oct. 28, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Ducks arrived Monday evening (26th), in good shape. Am well satisfied with my bargain. Also received your book, "Duck Culture," for same I am very thankful. Respectfully yours, JOHN H. ROCKFORD. * * * * * NEW HAVEN, Conn., April 10, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- I received the eggs yesterday, and am more than pleased with their size and appearance. I also appreciate your method of doing business. You sent me forty-five eggs, when I ordered three dozen, a surplus for breakage, etc., of nine eggs, five of which were broken in shipping. This alone shows your business capacity. Hoping that we shall be able to do more business in the near future, I remain, Yours very truly, J. J. TOMKINS. * * * * * STERLING, LUEDOWN CO., Va., Oct. 31, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Ducks arrived O. K. and am very much pleased with them, as is everyone else. I shall let you hear from me very soon in regard to incubator. Yours truly, R. S. VAN DEVENTOR. * * * * * HULL, P. Q., Can., Dec. 4, 1896. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- The trio of Imperial Pekin Ducks that you sent me arrived Dec. 2d at Ottawa all right, and I must say they are beautiful birds of large size. The gentleman in charge of the Customs Examining Warehouse at Ottawa, says he never saw one like them before. He took your name and address. I had a number of visitors and they all admired them. I think I will send for one more drake. I thank you for your selection. * * * * * NO. DUXBURY, Mass., April 10, 1897. MR. JAMES RANKIN: Dear Sir-- Inclosed find $10.00. Please forward more Pekin duck eggs. Yours are the most fertile and produce the strongest ducks that I ever saw. Bill eggs--A. M. Fletcher, Mansfield, and oblige, Yours, A. M. FLETCHER. * * * * * THE INCUBATOR AND ITS USE By JAMES RANKIN A work compiled from over 30 years' experience by the author, telling the novice just how to manage his incubator, hatch his eggs and grow his chicks successfuly. PRICE, BY MAIL 25 CENTS We obtain the most of our cereals from the Washburn Crosby Co., CHAMBER OF COMMERCE BUILDING, BOSTON, MASS. We find them a reliable firm always having a first-class article on hand, at reasonable rates. * * * * * What is Worth Crowing Over MICO-SPAR CUBICAL GRIT? Mico-Spar Cubical Grit is a hard mineral product containing sodium, aluminum, magnesium, lime and iron, natural chemical properties which every poultry raiser knows are necessary to produce paying hens. Paying hens lay their share of eggs regularly and willingly, never needing to be "forced" because they are well and strong. These are the slow but sure kind, the kind that helps raise the mortgage. [Illustration] Mico-Spar Cubical Grit produces this kind of paying hens because it _makes_ and _keeps_ hens healthy. It creates perfect digestion because it keeps things in the crop on the move, owing to the fact that the corners of the cube always remain sharp. Honest, practical tests have shown that Mico Spar Cubical Grit is the hen's _choice_, and that the minutest cube left in the crop retains its sharp corners. Mico-Spar Cubical Grit is not a hen food or powder. Its use is to tone _naturally_ the entire system. It is an economical Grit because it does not crush in handling, because its bright shining surface in the scratching pen attracts the hen, thereby preventing loss, and because no oyster shells are needed. If you are a hen raiser put Mico-Spar Cubical Grit on the hen yard menu and you will prove that Mico Spar Cubical Grit is _worth crowing over_. INTERNATIONAL MINERAL CO. - - 120 TREMONT ST., BOSTON MICA CRYSTAL GRIT We buy this Grit by the carload and find it the best we have ever used. It is clean, sharp and economical, and we heartily recommend it to all. JAMES RANKIN, SOUTH EASTON, MASS. * * * * * PAROID ROOFING "IT LASTS" [Illustration: PAROID ROOFING IT LASTS Don't cover your barn with a mortgage. Use _Paroid Roofing_ the unexcelled permanent roofing for buildings of all kinds. Economical, durable and easy to apply. Any one can put it on and it stays where you put it. Complete roofing kit with each roll. Our book, "Building Economy," tells all about inexpensive buildings. It's free to you.] Paroid contains no tar. It is made of strong felt, thoroughly saturated and coated. It is proof against climatic changes--can be applied by anyone and does not require painting when first laid. Paroid, used as a siding, makes a neater job, keeps buildings warmer, and is less expensive than shingles and clapboards. MADE IN 1, 2, AND 3 PLY Put up in rolls 36 inches wide, containing 216 and 108 square feet. Complete kit for applying, inside of each roll. We have nearly one-half acre of roof covered with Paroid. It appears to be elastic and very strong, and unaffected by heat or cold, and we believe it will be very durable, and the cheapest thing on the market. We have one stable 100 feet long, 32 feet wide, covered with it. JAMES RANKIN SOUTH EASTON, MASS. SEND FOR PRICE LIST 
38606	----	Transcriber's Note. Hyphenation has been standardised. ================================== [Illustration: White Dorking Cock. Coloured Dorkings. Duck-winged and Black-breasted Red Game.] POULTRY A Practical Guide TO THE CHOICE, BREEDING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF FOWLS, TURKEYS, GUINEA-FOWLS, DUCKS, AND GEESE, FOR PROFIT AND EXHIBITION. BY HUGH PIPER, AUTHOR OF "PIGEONS: THEIR VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, AND DISEASES." ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT COLOURED PLATES. Fourth Edition. LONDON: GROOMBRIDGE & SONS. MDCCCLXXVII. LONDON: BARRETT, SONS AND CO., PRINTERS, SEETHING LANE. PREFACE. This work is intended as a practical guide to those about to commence Poultry keeping, and to provide those who already have experience on the subject with the most trustworthy information compiled from the best authorities of all ages, and the most recent improvements in Poultry Breeding and Management. The Author believes that he has presented his readers with a greater amount of valuable information and practical directions on the various points treated than will be found in most similar works. The book is not the result of the Author's own experience solely, and he acknowledges the assistance he has received from other authorities. Among those whom he has consulted he desires specially to acknowledge his obligations to Mr. Tegetmeier, whose "Poultry Book" (published by Messrs. Routledge & Sons, London) contains his especial knowledge of the Diseases of Poultry; and to Mr. L. Wright, whose excellent and practical Treatise, entitled "The Practical Poultry Keeper" (published by Messrs. Cassell, Petter & Galpin, London), cannot be too highly commended. CONTENTS. GENERAL MANAGEMENT. PAGE CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION 1 Neglect of Poultry-breeding--Profit of Poultry-keeping--Value to the Farmer--Poultry Shows--Cottage Poultry. CHAPTER II.--THE FOWL-HOUSE 6 Size of the House--Brick and Wood--Cheap Houses--The Roof--Ventilation--Light--Warmth--The Flooring--Perches--Movable Frame--Roosts for Cochin-Chinas and Brahma-Pootras--Nests for laying--Cleanliness--Fowls' Dung--Doors and Entrance-holes--Lime-washing--Fumigating--Raising Chickens under Glass. CHAPTER III.--THE FOWL-YARD 18 Soil--Situation--Covered Run--Pulverised Earth for deodorising--Diet for confined Fowls--Height of Wall, &c.--Preventing Fowls from flying--The Dust-heap--Material for Shells--Gravel--The Gizzard--The Grass Run. CHAPTER IV.--FOOD 27 Table of relative constituents and qualities of Food--Barley--Wheat--Oats--Meal--Refuse Corn--Boiling Grain--Indian Corn, or Maize--Buckwheat--Peas, Beans and Tares--Rice--Hempseed--Linseed--Potatoes--Roots--Soft Food--Variety of Food--Quantity--Mode of Feeding--Number of Meals--Grass and Vegetables--Insects--Worms--Snails and Slugs--Animal Food--Water--Fountains. CHAPTER V.--EGGS 40 Eggs all the Year round--Warmth essential to laying--Forcing Eggs--Soft Shells--Shape and Colour of Eggs--The Air-bag--Preserving Eggs--Keeping and Choosing Eggs for setting--Sex of Eggs--Packing Setting-eggs for travelling. CHAPTER VI.--THE SITTING HEN 48 Evil of restraining a Hen from sitting--Checking the Desire--A separate House and Run--Nests for sitting in--Damping Eggs--Filling for Nests--Choosing their own Nests--Choosing a Hen for sitting--Number and Age of Eggs--Food and Exercise--Absence from the Nest--Examining the Eggs--Setting two Hens on the same day--Time of Incubation--The "tapping" sound--Breaking the Shell--Emerging from the Shell--Assisting the Chicken--Artificial Mothers--Artificial Incubation. CHAPTER VII.--REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS 63 The Chicken's first Food--Cooping the Brood--Basket and Wooden Coops--Feeding Chickens--Age for Fattening--Barn-door Fattening--Fattening-Houses--Fattening-Coops--Food--"Cramming"-- Capons and Poulardes--Killing Poultry--Plucking and packing Fowls--Preserving Feathers. CHAPTER VIII.--STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING 75 Well-bred Fowls--Choice of Breed--Signs of Age--Breeding in-and-in--Number of Hens to one Cock--Choice of a Cock--To prevent Cocks from fighting--Choice of a Hen--Improved Breeds--Origin of Breeds--Crossing--Choice of Breeding Stock--Keeping a Breed pure. CHAPTER IX.--POULTRY SHOWS 83 The first Show--The first Birmingham Show--Influence of Shows--Exhibition Rules--Hatching for Summer and Winter Shows--Weight--Exhibition Fowls sitting--Matching Fowls--Imparting lustre to the Plumage--Washing Fowls--Hampers--Travelling--Treatment on Return--Washing the Hampers and Linings--Exhibition Points--Technical Terms. BREEDS. CHAPTER X.--COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES 93 CHAPTER XI.--BRAHMA-POOTRAS 101 CHAPTER XII.--MALAYS 105 CHAPTER XIII.--GAME 108 CHAPTER XIV.--DORKINGS 112 CHAPTER XV.--SPANISH 115 CHAPTER XVI.--HAMBURGS 118 CHAPTER XVII.--POLANDS 121 CHAPTER XVIII.--BANTAMS 124 CHAPTER XIX.--FRENCH AND VARIOUS 128 CHAPTER XX.--TURKEYS 132 CHAPTER XXI.--GUINEA-FOWLS 139 CHAPTER XXII.--DUCKS 142 CHAPTER XXIII.--GEESE 147 CHAPTER XXIV.--DISEASES 150 LIST OF PLATES. PAGE PLATE I.--Facing the Title-page. White Dorking Cock--Coloured Dorkings--Duck-winged and Black-breasted Red Game. PLATE II. 93 White and Buff Cochin-China--Malay Cock--Light and Dark Brahma-Pootras. PLATE III. 115 Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs--Black Spanish. PLATE IV. 121 White-crested Black Polish--Golden and Silver-spangled Polish. PLATE V. 124 White and Black Bantams--Gold and Silver-laced or Sebright Bantams--Game Bantams. PLATE VI. 128 French: Houdans--La Flêche Cock--Crêve-Coeur Hen. PLATE VII. 132 Turkey--Guinea-Fowls. PLATE VIII. 142 Toulouse Goose--Rouen Ducks--Aylesbury Ducks. PROFITABLE AND ORNAMENTAL POULTRY. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Until of late years the breeding of poultry has been almost generally neglected in Great Britain. Any kind of mongrel fowl would do for a farmer's stock, although he fully appreciated the importance of breeding in respect of his cattle and pigs, and the value of improved seeds. Had he thought at all upon the subject, it must have occurred to him that poultry might be improved by breeding from select specimens as much as any other kind of live stock. The French produce a very much greater number of fowls and far finer ones for market than we do. In France, Bonington Mowbray observes, "poultry forms an important part of the live stock of the farmer, and the poultry-yards supply more animal food to the great mass of the community than the butchers' shops"; while in Egypt, and some other countries of the East, from time immemorial, vast numbers of chickens have been hatched in ovens by artificial heat to supply the demand for poultry; but in Great Britain poultry-keeping has been generally neglected, eggs are dear, and all kinds of poultry so great a luxury that the lower classes and a large number of the middle seldom, if ever, taste it, except perhaps once a year in the form of a Christmas goose, while hundreds of thousands cannot afford even this. It is computed that a million of eggs are eaten daily in London and its suburbs alone; yet this vast number only gives one egg to every three mouths. "It is a national waste," says Mr. Edwards, "importing eggs by the hundreds of millions, and poultry by tens of thousands, when we are feeding our cattle upon corn, and grudging it to our poultry; although the return made from the former, it is generally admitted, is not five per cent. beyond the value of the corn consumed, whereas an immense percentage can be realised by feeding poultry." A writer in the _Times_, of February 1, 1853, states that, while it will take five years to fatten an ox to the weight of sixty stone, which will produce a profit of £30, the same sum may be realised in five months by feeding an equal weight of poultry for the table. Although fowls are so commonly kept, the proportion to the population is still very small, and the number of those who rear and manage them profitably still smaller, chiefly because most people keep them without system or order, and have not given the slightest attention to the subject. Nevertheless, it costs no more trouble and much less expense to keep fowls successfully and profitably, for neglected fowls are always falling sick, or getting into mischief and causing annoyance, and often expense and loss. "A man," says Mr. Edwards, "who expects a good return of flesh and eggs from fowls insufficiently fed and cared for, is like a miller expecting to get meal from a neglected mill, to which he does not supply grain." The antiquated idea that fowls on a farm did mischief to the crops has been proved to be false; for if the grain is sown as deeply as it should be, they cannot reach it by scratching; and, besides, they greatly prefer worms and insects. Mr. Mechi says, "commend me to poultry as the farmer's best friend," and considers the value of fowls, in destroying the vast number of worms, grubs, flies, beetles, insects, larvæ, &c., which they devour, as incalculable; and the same may be said as to their destruction of the seeds of weeds. They also consume large quantities of kitchen and table refuse, which is generally otherwise wasted, and often allowed to decay and become a source of disease, or at least of impurity. The enormous prices paid at the poultry shows of 1852 and 1853 for fancy fowls gave a new impulse to poultry-keeping; and many persons who formerly thought the management of poultry beneath their attention, now superintend their yards. Mrs. Ferguson Blair, now the Hon. Mrs. Arbuthnot, the authoress of the "Henwife," whose experience may be judged by the fact that she gained in four years upwards of 460 prizes in England and Scotland, and personally superintended the management of forty separate yards, in which above 1,000 chickens were hatched annually, says:-- "I began to breed poultry for amusement only, then for exhibition, and lastly, was glad to take the trouble to make it pay, and do not like my poultry-yard less because it is not a loss. It is impossible to imagine any occupation more suited to a lady, living in the country, than that of poultry rearing. If she has any superfluous affection to bestow, let it be on her chicken-kind and it will be returned cent. per cent. Are you a lover of nature? come with me and view, with delighted gaze, her chosen dyes. Are you a utilitarian? rejoice in such an increase of the people's food. Are you a philanthropist? be grateful that yours has been the privilege to afford a _possible_ pleasure to the poor man, to whom so many are _impossible_. Such we often find fond of poultry--no mean judges of it, and frequently successful in exhibition. A poor man's pleasure in victory is, at least, as great as that of his richer brother. Let him, then, have the field whereon to fight for it. Encourage village poultry-shows, not only by your patronage, but also by your presence. A taste for such may save many from dissipation and much evil; no man can win poultry honours and haunt the taproom too." For those who desire to encourage a taste for poultry keeping in young people, and their humbler neighbours, we would recommend our smaller work on the subject as a suitable present.[1] "It becomes," says Miss Harriet Martineau, "an interesting wonder every year why the rural cottagers of the United Kingdom do not rear fowls almost universally, seeing how little the cost would be and how great the demand. We import many millions of eggs annually. Why should we import any? Wherever there is a cottage family living on potatoes or better fare, and grass growing anywhere near them, it would be worth while to nail up a little penthouse, and make nests of clean straw, and go in for a speculation in eggs and chickens. Seeds, worms, and insects go a great way in feeding poultry in such places; and then there are the small and refuse potatoes from the heap, and the outside cabbage leaves, and the scraps of all sorts. Very small purchases of broken rice (which is extremely cheap), inferior grain, and mixed meal, would do all else that is necessary. There would be probably larger losses from vermin than in better guarded places; but these could be well afforded as a mere deduction from considerable gains. It is understood that the keeping of poultry is largely on the increase in the country generally, and even among cottagers; but the prevailing idea is of competition as to races and specimens for the poultry-yard, rather than of meeting the demand for eggs and fowls for the table." With the exception of prizes for Dorkings, which are chiefly bred for market, our poultry-shows have always looked upon fowls as if they were merely ornamental birds, and have framed their standards of excellence accordingly, and not with any regard to the production of profitable poultry, which is much to be regretted. Martin Doyle, the cottage economist of Ireland, in his "Hints to Small Holders," observes that "a few cocks and hens, if they be prevented from scratching in the garden, are a useful and appropriate stock about a cottage, the warmth of which causes them to lay eggs in winter--no trifling advantage to the children when milk is scarce. The French, who are extremely fond of eggs, and contrive to have them in great abundance, feed the fowls so well on curds and buckwheat, and keep them so warm, that they have plenty of eggs even in winter. Now, in our country (Ireland), especially in a gentleman's fowl yard, there is not an egg to be had in cold weather; but the warmth of the poor man's cabin insures him an egg even in the most ungenial season." Such fowls obtain fresh air, fresh grass, and fresh ground to scratch in, and prosper in spite of the most miserable, puny, mongrel stock, deteriorating year after year from breeding in and in, without the introduction of fresh blood even of the same indifferent description. Many an honest cottager might keep himself and family from the parish by the aid of a small stock of poultry, if some kind poultry-keeper would present him with two or three good fowls to begin with, for the cottager has seldom capital even for so small a purchase. Considerable profit may be made by the sale of eggs for hatching and surplus stock, if the breeds kept are good, and the stock known to be pure and vigorous. The "Henwife" says: "You may reduce your expenses by selling eggs for setting, at a remunerative price. No one should be ashamed to own what he is not ashamed to do; therefore, boldly announce your superfluous eggs for sale, at such a price as you think the public will pay for them." This is now done extensively by breeders of rank and eminence, especially through the London _Field_ and agricultural papers. But, "beware of sending such eggs to market. Every one would be set, and you might find yourself beaten by your own stock, very likely in your own local show, and at small cost to the exhibitor." The great secret of success in keeping fowls profitably is to hatch chiefly in March and April; encourage the pullets by proper feeding to lay at the age of six months; and fatten and dispose of them when about nineteen months old, just before their first adult moult; and never to allow a cockerel to exceed the age of fourteen weeks before it is fattened and disposed of. CHAPTER II. THE FOWL-HOUSE. In this work we shall consider the accommodation and requisites for keeping fowls successfully on a moderate scale, and the reader must adapt them to his own premises, circumstances, and requirements. Everywhere there must be some alterations, omissions, or compromises. We shall state the essentials for their proper accommodation, and describe the mode of constructing houses, sheds, and arranging runs, and the reader must then form his plan according to his own wishes, resources, and the capabilities of the place. The climate of Great Britain being so very variable in itself, and differing in its temperature so much in different parts, no one manner or material for building the fowl-house can be recommended for all cases. Plans for poultry establishments on large scales for the hatching, rearing, and fattening of fowls, turkeys, ducks, and geese, are given in our smaller work on Poultry, referred to on page 3. The best aspects for the fowl-house are south and south-east, and sloping ground is preferable to flat. "It is only of late years," says Mr. Baily, "poultry-houses have been much thought of. In large farmyards, where there are cart-houses, calf-pens, pig-styes, cattle-sheds, shelter under the eaves of barns, and numerous other roosting-places, not omitting the trees in the immediate vicinity, they are little required--fowls will generally do better by choosing for themselves; and it is beyond a doubt healthier for them to be spread about in this manner, than to be confined to one place. But a love of order, on the one hand, and a dread of thieves or foxes on the other, will sometimes make it desirable to have a proper poultry-house." Each family of fowls should, if possible, have a house and run; and if they are kept as breeding stock, and the breeds are to be preserved pure, this is essential. And where many kinds are kept, the various houses must be adapted to the peculiarities of the different breeds, in order to do justice to them all, and to attain success in each. The size of the house and the extent of the yard or run should be proportioned to the number of fowls kept; but it is better for the house to be too small than too large, particularly in winter, for the mutual imparting of animal heat. It is found by experience that when fowls are crowded into a small space, their desire for laying continues even in winter; and there is no fear of engendering disease by crowding if the house is properly ventilated, and thoroughly cleansed every day. Mr. Baily kept for years a cock and four hens in a portable wooden house six feet square, and six feet high in the centre, the sides being somewhat shorter, and says such a house would hold six hens as well as four. Ventilating holes were made near the top. It had no floor, being placed upon the ground, and could be moved at pleasure by means of two poles placed through two staples fixed at the end of each side. A few Cochin-Chinas may be kept where there is no other convenience than an outhouse six feet square to serve for their roosting, laying, and sitting, with a yard of twice that size attached. Mr. Wright "once knew a young man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his own construction, not more than three feet square, and a run of the same width, under twelve feet long." The French breeders keep their fowls in as small a space as possible, in order to generate and preserve the warmth that will induce them to lay; while the English breeders allow more space for exercise, larger houses, and free circulation of air. The French mode, is very likely the best for the winter and the English for the summer, but the two opposite methods may be made available by having one or more extra houses and runs into which the fowls can be distributed in the summer. A close, warm roosting-place will cause the production of more eggs in winter, when they are scarcest and most valuable, while air and exercise are necessary to rear superior fowls for the table; and if they can have the run of a farmyard or good fields in which to pick up grain or insects, their flesh will be far superior in flavour to that of fowls kept in confinement, or crammed in coops. Almost any outbuilding, shed, or lean-to, may be easily and cheaply converted into a good fowl-house by the exercise of a little thought and ingenuity. The best material to build a house with is brick, but the cheapest to be durable is board, with the roof also of wood, covered with patent felt. One objection to timber houses is their being combustible, and easily ignited, and houses had better be built of a single brick in thickness, unless cheapness is a great object. A lean-to fowl-house may be constructed for a very small sum, with boards an inch thick, against the west or south side of any wall. Whenever wood is employed it should be tongued, which is a very cheap method of providing against warping by heat, or admitting wind or rain; lying flat against the uprights, it saves material and has an external appearance far superior to any other method of boarding. If the second coat of paint is rough cast over with sand, it will greatly improve the appearance, and the house will not be unsightly even in the ornamental part of a gentleman's grounds. A house may be built very cheaply by driving poles into the ground at equal distances, and nailing weather-boarding upon their outside. If it is to be square, one pole should be placed at each corner, and two more will be required for the door-posts. The house may be made with five, six, or more sides, as many poles being used as there are sides, and the door may occupy one side if the house be small and the side narrow, otherwise two door-posts will be required. If the boards are not tongued together, the chinks between them must be well caulked by driving in string or tow with a blunt chisel, for it is not only necessary to keep out the rain but also to keep out the wind, which has great influence on the health and laying of the fowls. Where double boarding is employed for the sides, the house may be made much warmer by filling up the space with straw, or still better with marsh reeds, so durable for thatching. This plan, unfortunately, affords a shelter for rats, mice, and insects, and therefore, if adopted, it will be highly advantageous to form the inside boarding in panels, so as to be removable at pleasure for examination and cleansing. For the roof, tiles or slates alone are not sufficient, but, if used, must have a boarding or ceiling under them; otherwise all the heat generated by the fowls will escape through the numerous interstices, and it will be next to impossible to keep the house warm in winter. A corrugated roof of galvanised iron may be used instead, but a ceiling also will be absolutely necessary for the sake of warmth. A rough ceiling of lath and plaster not only preserves the warmth generated by the fowls and keeps out the cold, but has the great advantage of being easily lime-washed, an operation that should be performed at least four or five times a year. Boards alone make a very good and cheap roof. They may be laid either horizontally, one plank overlapping the other, and the whole well tarred two or three times, and once every autumn afterwards; or they may be laid perpendicularly side by side, fitting closely, in which case they should be well tarred, then covered with old sheeting, waste calico, or thick brown paper tightly stretched over it, and afterwards brushed over with hot tar, or a mixture of tar boiled with a little lime, and applied while hot; this, soaking through the calico, cements it to the roof, and makes it waterproof. But board covered with patent felt, and tarred once a year, is the best. The roof ought to project considerably beyond the walls, in order to prevent the rain from dripping down them. Ventilation is most important, and the house should be high, especially if there are many fowls, for by having it lofty a current of air can pass through it far above the level of the fowls, and purify the atmosphere without causing a draught near them. They very much dislike a draught, and will alter their positions to avoid it, and if unable to do so, will seek another roosting-place. Ventilation may be obtained by leaving out some bricks in the wall or making holes in the boarding; and when there is a shed at the side of the fowl-house, by boring a few holes near the top of the wall next to the shed; all ventilators should be considerably above the perches, in order to avoid a draught near to the fowls; and should be entirely closed at night in severe weather. The best method of ventilation for a fowl-house of sufficient size and height, is by means of an opening in the highest part of the roof, covered with a lantern of laths or narrow boards, placed one over the other in a slanting position, with a small space between them like Venetian blinds. Light is essential, not only for the health of the fowls, but in order that the state of the house may be seen, and the floor and perches may be well cleansed. It may be admitted either through a common window, a pane or two of thick glass placed in the sides, or glass tiles in the roof. It also induces them to take shelter there in rough weather. Warmth is the most important point of all. Fowls that roost in cold houses and exposed places require more food and produce fewer eggs; and pullets which are usually forward in laying will not easily be induced to do so in severe weather if their house is not kept warm. It is a great advantage when the house backs a fire-place or stable. A gentleman told Mr. Baily that he "had been very successful in raising early chickens in the north of Scotland, and he attributed much of it to the following arrangements. He had always from twenty to thirty oxen or other cattle fattening in a long building; he made his poultry-house to join this, and had ventilators and openings made in the partition, so that the heat of the cattle-shed passed into the fowl-house. Little good has resulted from the use of stoves, or hot-water pipes, for poultry; but by skilfully taking advantage of every circumstance like that above mentioned, and by consulting aspect and position, many valuable helps are obtained." A house built of wood in the north of England and Scotland must be lined, unless artificially warmed. Felt is the best material, as its strong smell of tar will keep away most insects. Matting is frequently used, and will make the house sufficiently warm, but it harbours vermin, and therefore, if used, should be only slightly fastened to the walls, so that it can be often taken down and well beaten, and, if necessary, fumigated. Various materials are recommended for the flooring. Boards are warm, but they soon become foul. Beaten earth, with loose dust scattered over it some inches deep, is excellent for the feet of the birds, but is a harbour for the minute vermin which are often so troublesome, and even destructive, to domestic fowls. Mowbray recommends a floor of "well-rammed chalk or earth, that its surface, being smooth, may present no impediment to being swept perfectly clean." Chalk laid on dry coal-ashes to absorb the moisture is excellent. A mixture of cow-dung and water, about the consistency of paint, put on the surface of the floor, no thicker than paint, gives it a hard surface which will bear sweeping down. It is used by the natives of India, not only for the floors, but often for the walls of their houses, and is supposed to be healthy in its application, and to keep away vermin. Miss Watts says: "Dig out the floor to about a foot deep, and fill in with burnt clay, like that used extensively on railways, the strong gravel which is called 'metal' in road-making, or any loose dry material of the kind. Let this be well rammed down, and then lay over it, with a bricklayer's trowel, a flooring of a compost of cinder-ashes, gravel, quick-lime, and water. This flooring is without the objections due to those which are cold and damp, and those which imbibe foul moisture. Stone is too cold for a flooring; beaten earth or wood becomes foul when the place is inhabited by living animals; and a flooring of bricks possesses both these bad qualities united." Bricks are the worst of all materials; they retain moisture, whether atmospheric or arising from insufficient drainage; and thus the temperature is kept low, and disease too often follows, especially rheumatic attacks of the feet and legs. However, trodden earth makes a very good flooring, and it or other materials may easily be kept clean by placing moveable boards beneath the perches to receive the fowl-droppings. The floor should slope from every direction towards the door, to facilitate its cleansing, and to keep it dry. Perches are generally placed too high, probably because it was noticed that fowls in their natural state, or when at large, usually roost upon high branches; but it should be observed that, in descending from lofty branches, they have a considerable distance to fly, and therefore alight on the ground gently, while in a confined fowl-house the bird flutters down almost perpendicularly, coming into contact with the floor forcibly, by which the keel of the breast-bone is often broken, and bumble-foot in Dorkings and corns are caused. Some writers do not object to lofty perches, provided the fowls have a board with cross-pieces of wood fastened on to it reaching from the ground to the perch; but this does not obviate the evil, for they will only use it for ascent, and not for descent. The air, too, at the upper part of any dwelling-room, or house for animals, is much more impure than nearer the floor, because the air that has been breathed, and vapours from the body, are lighter than pure air, and consequently ascend to the top. The perches should therefore not be more than eighteen inches from the ground, unless the breed is very small and light. Perches are also generally made too small and round. When they are too small in proportion to the size of the birds, they are apt to cause the breast-bone of heavy fowls to grow crooked, which is a great defect, and very unsightly in a table-fowl. Those for heavy fowls should not be less than three inches in diameter. Capital perches may be formed of fir or larch poles, about three inches in diameter, split into two, the round side being placed uppermost; the birds' claws cling to it easily, and the bark is not so hard as planed wood. The perches, if made of timber, should be nearly square, with only the corners rounded off, as the feet of fowls are not formed for clasping smooth round poles. Those for chickens should not be thicker than their claws can easily grasp, and neither too sharp nor too round. When more than one row of perches is required they should be ranged obliquely--that is, one above and behind the other; by which arrangement each perch forms a step to the next higher one, and an equal convenience in descending, and the birds do not void their dung over each other. They should be placed two feet apart, and supported on bars of wood fixed to the walls at each end; and in order that they may be taken out to be cleaned, they should not be nailed to the supporter, but securely placed in niches cut in the bar, or by pieces of wood nailed to it like the rowlocks of a boat. If the wall space at the sides is required for laying-boxes, the perches must be shorter than the house, and the oblique bars which support them must be securely fastened to the back of the house, and, if necessary, have an upright placed beneath the upper end of each. Some breeders prefer a moveable frame for roosting, formed of two poles of the required length, joined at each end by two narrow pieces; the frame being supported upon four or more legs, according to its length and the weight of the fowls. If necessary it should be strengthened by rails--connecting the bottoms of the legs, and by pieces crossing from each angle of the sides and ends. These frames can conveniently be moved out of the house when they require cleansing. Or it may be made of one pole supported at each end by two legs spread out widely apart, like two sides of an equilateral or equal-sided triangle. The perch may be made more secure for heavy fowls by a rail at each side fastened to each leg, about three inches from the foot. Mr. Baily says: "I had some fowls in a large outhouse, where they were well provided with perches; as there was plenty of room, I put some small faggots, cut for firing, at one extremity, and I found many of the fowls deserted their perches to roost on the faggots, which they evidently preferred." Cochin-Chinas and Brahma Pootras do not require perches, but roost comfortably on a floor littered down warmly with straw. It should be gathered up every morning, and the floor cleaned and kept uncovered till night, when the straw, if clean, should be again laid down. It must be often changed. A bed of sand is also used, and a latticed floor even without straw, and some use latticed benches raised about six inches from the floor. But we should think that latticed roosting-places must be uncomfortable to fowls, and the dung which falls through is often unseen, and, consequently, liable to remain for too long a time, while a portion will stick to the sides of the lattice-work, and be not only difficult to see, but also to remove when seen. The "Henwife" finds, however, "that if there are nests, there the Cochins will roost, in spite of all attempts to make them do otherwise." It is a good plan, in warm weather, occasionally to sprinkle water over and about the perches, and scatter a little powdered sulphur over the wetted parts, which will greatly tend to keep the fowls free from insect parasites. The nests for laying in are usually made on the ground, or in a kind of trough, a little raised; but some use boxes or wicker-baskets, which are preferable, as they can be removed separately from time to time, and thoroughly cleansed from dust and vermin, and can also be kept a little apart from each other. These boxes or troughs should be placed against the sides of the house, and a board sloping forwards should be fixed above, to prevent the fowls from roosting upon the edges. If required, a row of laying-boxes or troughs may be placed on the ground, and another about a foot or eighteen inches above the floor. The nest should be made of wheaten, rye, or oaten straw, but never of hay, which is too hot, and favourable besides to the increase of vermin. Heath cut into short pieces forms excellent material for nests, but it cannot always be had. The material must be changed whenever it smells foul or musty, for if it is allowed to become offensive, the hens will often drop their eggs upon the ground sooner than go to the nest. When the fowl-house adjoins a passage, or it can be otherwise so contrived, it is an excellent plan to have a wooden flap made to open just above the back of the nests, so that the eggs can be removed without your going into the roosting-house, treading the dung about, and disturbing any birds that may be there, or about to enter to lay. Where possible the nests in the roosting-houses should be used for laying in only; and a separate house should be set apart for sitting hens. Where there are but a few fowls and only one house, if a hen is allowed to sit, a separate nest must be made as quiet as possible for her.--_See_ Chapter VI. Cleanliness must be maintained. The _Canada Farmer_ suggested an admirable plan for keeping the roosting-house clean. A broad shelf, securely fastened, but moveable, is fixed at the back of the house, eighteen inches from the ground, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are placed on the ground beneath the board, which preserves them from the roosting fowl's droppings, and keeps them well shaded for the laying or sitting hen, if the latter is obliged to incubate in the same house, and the nests do not need a top. The shelf can be easily scraped clean every morning, and should be lightly sanded afterwards. Thus the floor of the house is never soiled by the roosting birds, and the broad board at the same time protects them from upward draughts of air. Where the nests and perches are not so arranged, the idea may be followed by placing a loose board below each perch, upon which the dung will fall, and the board can be taken up every morning and the dung removed. With proper tools, a properly constructed fowl-house can be kept perfectly clean, and all the details of management well carried out without scarcely soiling your hands. A birch broom is the best implement with which to clean the house if the floor is as hard as it ought to be. A handful of ashes or sand, sprinkled over the places from which dung has been removed, will absorb any remaining impurity. Fowls' dung is a very valuable manure, being strong, stimulating, and nitrogenous, possessing great power in forcing the growth of vegetables, particularly those of the cabbage tribe, and is excellent for growing strawberries, or indeed almost any plants, if sufficiently diluted; for, being very strong, it should always be mixed with earth. A fowl, according to Stevens, will void at least one ounce of dry dung in twenty-four hours, which is worth at least seven shillings a cwt. The door should fit closely, a slight space only being left at the bottom to admit air. It should have a square hole, which is usually placed either at the top or bottom, for the poultry to enter to roost. A hole at the top is generally preferred, as it is inaccessible to vermin. The fowls ascend by means of a ladder formed of a slanting board, with strips of wood nailed across to assist their feet; a similar ladder should be placed inside to enable them to descend, if they are heavy fowls; but the evil is that, even with this precaution, they are inclined to fly down, as they do from high perches, without using the ladder, and thus injure their feet. A hole in the middle of the door would be preferable to either, and obviate the defects of both. These holes should be fitted with sliding panels on the inside, so that they can be closed in order to keep the fowls out while cleaning the house, or to keep them in until they have laid their eggs, or it may be safe to let them out in the morning in any neighbourhood or place where they would else be liable to be stolen. Every day, after the fowls have left their roosts, the doors and windows should be opened, and a thorough draught created to purify the house. During the winter months all the entrance holes should be closed from sunset to sunrise, unless in mild localities. Where there are many houses, they should, if possible, communicate with each other by doors, so that they may be cleaned from end to end, or inspected without the necessity of passing through the yards, which is especially unpleasant in wet weather. The doors should be capable of being fastened on either side, to avoid the chance of the different breeds intermingling while your attention is occupied in arranging the nests, collecting eggs, &c. See that your fowls are securely locked in at night, for they are more easily stolen than any other kind of domestic animals. A good dog in the yard or adjoining house or stable is an excellent protection. Every poultry-house should be lime-washed at least four or five times a year, and oftener if convenient. Vermin of any kind can be effectually destroyed by fumigating the place with sulphur. In this operation a little care is requisite; it should be commenced early in the morning, by first closing the lattices, and stopping up every crevice through which air can enter; then place on the ground a pan of lighted charcoal, and throw on it some brimstone broken into small pieces. Directly this is done the room should be left, the door kept shut and airtight for some hours; care too should be taken that the lattices are first opened, and time given for the vapour to thoroughly disperse before any one again enters, when every creature within the building will be found destroyed. It is said that a pair of caged guinea-pigs in the fowl-house will keep away rats. In a large establishment, and in a moderate one, if the outlay is not an object, the pens for the chickens and the passages between the various houses may be profitably covered with glass, and grapes grown on the rafters. Raising chickens under glass has been tried with great success. CHAPTER III. THE FOWL-YARD. The scarcity of poultry in this country partly arises from all gallinaceous birds requiring warmth and dryness to keep them in perfect health, while the climate of Great Britain is naturally moist and cold. "The warmest and driest soils," says Mowbray, "are the best adapted to the breeding and rearing of gallinaceous fowls, more particularly chickens. A wet soil is the worst, since, however ill affected fowls are by cold, they endure it better than moisture. Land proper for sheep is generally also adapted to the successful keeping of poultry and rabbits." But poultry may be reared and kept successfully even on bad soils with good drainage and attention. The "Henwife" says: "I do not consider any one soil necessary for success in rearing poultry. Some think a chalk soil essential for Dorkings, but I have proved the fallacy of this opinion by bringing up, during three years, many hundreds of these _soi disant_ delicate birds on the strong blue clay of the Carse of Gowrie, doubtless thoroughly drained, that system being well understood and universally practised by the farmers of the district. A coating of gravel and sand once a year is all that is requisite to secure the necessary dryness in the runs." The best soil for a poultry-yard is gravel, or sand resting on chalk or gravel. When the soil is clayey, or damp from any other cause, it should be thoroughly drained, and the whole or a good portion of the ground should be raised by the addition of twelve inches of chalk, or bricklayer's rubbish, over which should be spread a few inches of sand. Cramp, roup, and some other diseases, more frequently arise from stagnant wet in the soil than from any other cause. The yard should be sheltered from the north and east winds, and where this is effected by the position of a shrubbery or plantation in which the fowls may be allowed to run, it will afford the advantage of protection, not only from wind and cold, but also shelter from the rain and the burning sun. It also furnishes harbourage for insects, which will find them both food and exercise in picking up. Indeed, for all these purposes a few bushes may be advantageously planted in or adjoining any poultry-yard. When a tree can be enclosed in a run, it forms an agreeable object for the eye, and affords shelter to the fowls. A covered run or shed for shelter in wet or hot weather is a great advantage, especially if chickens are reared. It may be constructed with a few rough poles supporting a roof of patent felt, thatch, or rough board, plain or painted for preservation, and may be made of any length and width, from four feet upwards, and of any height from four feet at the back and three feet in the front, to eight feet at the back and six feet in the front. The shed should, if possible, adjoin the fowl-house. It should be wholly or partly enclosed with wire-work, which should be boarded for a foot from the ground to keep out the wet and snow, and to keep in small chickens. The roof should project a foot beyond the uprights which support it, in order to throw the rain well off, and have a gutter-shoot to carry it away and prevent it from being blown in upon the enclosed space. The floor should be a little higher than the level of the yard, both in order to keep it dry and the easier to keep it clean; and it should be higher at the back than in the front, which will keep it drained if any wet should be blown in or water upset. If preferred, moveable netting may be used, so that the fowls can be allowed their liberty in fine weather, and be confined in wet weather. But the boarding must be retained to keep out the wet. The ground may be left in its natural state for the fowls to scratch in, in which case the surface should be dug up from time to time and replaced with fresh earth pressed down moderately hard. If the house is large and has a good window, a shed is not absolutely necessary, especially for a few fowls only, but it is a valuable addition, and is also very useful to shelter the coops of the mother hens and their young birds in wet, windy, or hot weather. By daily attention to cleanliness, a few fowls may be kept in such a covered shed, without having any open run, by employing a thick layer of dry pulverised earth as a deodoriser, which is to be turned over with a rake every day, and replaced with fresh dry pulverised earth once a week. The dry earth entirely absorbs all odour. In a run of this kind, six square feet should be allowed to each fowl kept, for a smaller surface of the dry earth becomes moist and will then no longer deodorise the dung. Sifted ashes spread an inch deep over the floor of the whole shed will be a good substitute if the dry earth cannot be had. They should be raked over every other morning, and renewed at least every fortnight, or oftener if possible. The ground should be dug and turned over whenever it looks sodden, or gives out any offensive smell; and three or four times a year the polluted soil below the layer, that is, the earth to the depth of three or four inches, should be removed and replaced with fresh earth, gravel, chalk, or ashes.[2] The shed must be so contrived that the sun can shine upon the fowls during some part of the day, or they will not continue in health for any length of time, and it is almost impossible to rear healthy chickens without its light and warmth; and it will be a great improvement if part of the run is open. Another shed will be required if chickens are to be reared. Fowls that are kept in small spaces or under covered runs will require a different diet to those that are allowed to roam in fields and pick up insects, grass, &c., and must be provided with green food, animal food in place of insects, and be well supplied with mortar rubbish and gravel. The height of the wall, paling, or fencing that surrounds the yard, and of the partitions, if the yard is divided into compartments for the purpose of keeping two or more breeds separate and pure, must be according to the nature of the breed. Three feet in height will be sufficient to retain Cochins and Brahmas; six feet will be required for moderate-sized fowls; and eight or nine feet will be necessary to confine the Game, Hamburg, and Bantam breeds. Galvanised iron wire-netting is the best material, as it does not rust, and will not need painting for a long time. It is made of various degrees of strength, and in different forms, and may be had with meshes varying from three-fourths of an inch to two inches or more; with very small meshes at the lower part only, to keep out rats and to keep in chickens; with spikes upon the top, or with scolloped wire-work, which gives it a neat and finished appearance; with doors, and with iron standards terminating in double spikes to fix in the ground, by which wooden posts are divided, while it can be easily fixed and removed. The meshes should not be more than two inches wide, and if the meshes of the lower part are not very small, it should be boarded to about two feet six inches from the ground, in order to keep out rats, keep in chickens, and to prevent the cocks fighting through the wire, which fighting is more dangerous than in the open, for the birds are very liable to injure themselves in the meshes, and, Dorkings especially, to tear their combs and toes in them. If iron standards are not attached to the netting, it should be stretched to stout posts, well fixed in the ground, eight feet apart, and fastened by galvanised iron staples. A rail at the top gives a neater appearance, but induces the fowls to perch upon it, which may tempt them to fly over. Where it is not convenient to fix a fence sufficiently high, or when a hen just out with her brood has to be kept in, a fowl may be prevented from flying over fences by stripping off the vanes or side shoots from the first-flight feathers of one wing, usually ten in number, which will effectually prevent the bird from flying, and will not be unsightly, as the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not used for flying. This method answers much better than clipping the quills of each wing, as the cut points are liable to inflict injuries and cause irritation in moulting. The openness of the feathers of fowls which do not throw off the water well, like those of most birds, enables them to cleanse themselves easier from insects and dirt, by dusting their feathers, and then shaking off the dirt and these minute pests with the dust. For this purpose one or more ample heaps of sifted ashes, or very dry sand or earth, for them to roll in, must be placed in the sun, and, if possible, under shelter, so as to be warm and perfectly dry. Wood ashes are the best. This dust-heap is as necessary to fowls as water for washing is to human beings. It cleanses their feathers and skin from vermin and impurities, promotes the cuticular or skin excretion, and is materially instrumental in preserving their health. If they should be much troubled with insects, mix in the heap plenty of wood ashes and a little flour of sulphur. A good supply of old mortar-rubbish, or similar substance, must be kept under the shed, or in a dry place, to provide material for the eggshells, or the hens will be liable to lay soft-shelled eggs. Burnt oyster-shells are an excellent substitute for common lime, and should be prepared for use by being heated red-hot, and when cold broken into small pieces with the fingers, but not powdered. Some give chopped or ground bones, or a lump of chalky marl. Eggshells roughly crushed are also good, and are greedily devoured by the hens. A good supply of gravel is also essential, the small stones which the fowls swallow being necessary to enable them to digest their hard food. Fowls swallow all grain whole, their bills not being adapted for crushing it like the teeth of the rabbit or the horse, and it is prepared for digestion by the action of a strong and muscular gizzard, lined with a tough leathery membrane, which forms a remarkable peculiarity in the internal structure of fowls and turkeys. "By the action," says Mr. W. H. L. Martin, "of the two thick muscular sides of this gizzard on each other, the seeds and grains swallowed (and previously macerated in the crop, and there softened by a peculiar secretion oozing from glandular pores) are ground up, or triturated in order that their due digestion may take place. It is a remarkable fact that these birds are in the habit of swallowing small pebbles, bits of gravel, and similar substances, which it would seem are essential to their health. The definite use of these substances, which are certainly ground down by the mill-like action of the gizzard, has been a matter of difference among various physiologists, and many experiments, with a view to elucidate the subject, have been undertaken. It was sufficiently proved by Spallanzani that the digestive fluid was incapable of dissolving grains of barley, &c., in their unbruised state; and this he ascertained by filling small hollow and perforated balls and tubes of metal or glass with grain, and causing them to be swallowed by turkeys and other fowls; when examined, after twenty-four and forty-eight hours, the grains were found to be unaffected by the gastric fluid; but when he filled similar balls and tubes with bruised grains, and caused them to be swallowed, he found, after a lapse of the same number of hours, that they were more or less dissolved by the action of the gastric juice. In other experiments, he found that metallic tubes introduced into the gizzard of common fowls and turkeys, were bruised, crushed, and distorted, and even that sharp-cutting instruments were broken up into blunt fragments without having produced the slightest injury to the gizzard. But these experiments go rather to prove the extraordinary force and grinding powers of the gizzard, than to throw light upon the positive use of the pebbles swallowed; which, after all, Spallanzani thought were swallowed without any definite object, but from mere stupidity. Blumenbach and Dr. Bostock aver that fowls, however well supplied with food, grow lean without them, and to this we can bear our own testimony. Yet the question, what is their precise effect? remains to be answered. Boerhave thought it probable that they might act as absorbents to superabundant acid; others have regarded them as irritants or stimulants to digestion; and Borelli supposed that they might really contribute some degree of nutriment." Sir Everard Home, in his "Comparative Anatomy," says: "When the external form of this organ is first attentively examined, viewing that side which is anterior in the living bird, and on which the two bellies of the muscle and middle are more distinct, there being no other part to obstruct the view, the belly of the muscle on the left side is seen to be larger than on the right. This appears, on reflection, to be of great advantage in producing the necessary motion; for if the two muscles were of equal strength, they must keep a greater degree of exertion than is necessary; while, in the present case, the principal effect is produced by that of the left side, and a smaller force is used by that on the right to bring the parts back again. The two bellies of the muscle, by their alternate action, produce two effects--the one a constant friction on the contents of the cavity; the other, a pressure on them. This last arises from a swelling of the muscle inwards, which readily explains all the instances which have been given by Spallanzani and others, of the force of the gizzard upon substances introduced into it--a force which is found by their experiments always to act in an oblique direction. The internal cavity, when opened in this distended state, is found to be of an oval form, the long diameter being in the line of the body; its capacity nearly equal to the size of a pullet's egg; and on the sides there are ridges in their horny coat (lining membrane) in the long direction of the oval. When the horny coat is examined in its internal structure, the fibres of which it is formed are not found in a direction perpendicular to the ligamentous substance behind it; but in the upper portion of the cavity it is obliquely upwards. From this form of cavity it is evident that no part of the sides is ever intended to be brought in contact, and that the food is triturated by being mixed with hard bodies, and acted on by the powerful muscles which form the gizzard." The experiments of Spallanzani show that the muscular action of the gizzard is equally powerful whether the small stones are present or not; and that they are not at all necessary to the trituration of the firmest food, or the hardest foreign substances; but it is also quite clear that when these small stones are put in motion by the muscles of the gizzard they assist in crushing the grain, and at the same time prevent it from consolidating into a thick, heavy, compacted mass, which would take a far longer time in undergoing the digestive process than when separated and intermingled with the pebbles. This was the opinion of the great physiologist, John Hunter, who, in his treatise "On the Animal Economy," after noticing the grinding powers of the gizzard, says, in reference to the pebbles swallowed, "We are not, however, to conclude that stones are entirely useless; for if we compare the strength of the muscles of the jaws of animals which masticate their food with those of birds who do not, we shall say that the parts are well calculated for the purpose of mastication; yet we are not thence to infer that the teeth in such jaws are useless, even although we have proof that the gums do the business when the teeth are gone. If pebbles are of use, which we may reasonably conclude they are, birds have an advantage over animals having teeth, so far as pebbles are always to be found, while the teeth are not renewed. If we constantly find in an organ substances which can only be subservient to the functions of that organ, should we deny their use, although the part can do its office without them? The stones assist in grinding down the grain, and, by separating its parts, allow the gastric juice to come more readily in contact with it." When a paddock is used as a run for a large number of poultry, it should be enclosed either by a wall or paling, but not by a hedge, as the fowls can get through it, and will also lay their eggs under the hedge. The paddock should be well drained, and it will be a great advantage if it contains a pond, or has a stream of water running through or by it. Mowbray advises that the grass run should be sown "with common trefoil or wild clover, with a mixture of burnet, spurry, or storgrass," which last two kinds "are particularly salubrious to poultry." If the grass is well rooted before the fowls are allowed to run on it, they may range there for several hours daily, according to its extent and their number, but it should be renewed in the spring by sowing where it has become bare or thin. A dry common, or pasture fields, in which they may freely wander and pick up grubs, insects, ants' eggs, worms, and leaves of plants, is a great advantage, and they may be accustomed to return from it at a call. Where there is a cropped field, orchard, or garden, in which fowls may roam at certain seasons, when the crops are safe from injury, each brood should be allowed to wander in it separately for a few hours daily, or on different days, as may be most convenient. "A garden dung-heap," says Mr. Baily, "overgrown with artichokes, mallows, &c., is an excellent covert for chickens, especially in hot weather. They find shelter and meet with many insects there." When horse-dung is procured for the garden, or supplied from your stables, some should be placed in a small trench, and frequently renewed, in which the fowls will amuse themselves, particularly in winter, by scraping for corn and worms. When fowls have not the advantage of a grass run they should be indulged with a square or two of fresh turf, as often as it can be obtained, on which they will feed and amuse themselves. It should be heavy enough to enable them to tear off the grass, without being obliged to drag the turf about with them. CHAPTER IV. FOOD. The following table, which first appeared in the "Poultry Diary," will show at a glance the relative constituents and qualities of the different kinds of food, and may be consulted with great advantage by the poultry-keeper, as it will enable him to proportion mixed food correctly, and to change it according to the production of growth, flesh, or fat that may be desired, and according to the temperature of the season. These proportions, of course, are not absolutely invariable, for the relative proportions of the constituents of the grain will vary with the soil, manure used, and the growing and ripening characteristics of the season. ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- |Flesh- |Warmth-| Bone- | Husk |Water.| |forming|giving |making | or | | There is in every | Food. | Food. | Food. | Fibre. | | 100 lbs. of +-------+-------+-------+---------+ | |Gluten,|Fat or |Starch,| Mineral | | | &c. | Oil. | &c. |Substance| | ------------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------+------- Oats | 15 | 6 | 47 | 2 | 20 | 10 Oatmeal | 18 | 6 | 63 | 2 | 2 | 9 Middlings or fine | | | | | | Sharps | 18 | 6 | 53 | 5 | 4 | 14 Wheat | 12 | 3 | 70 | 2 | 1 | 12 Barley | 11 | 2 | 60 | 2 | 14 | 1 Indian Corn | 11 | 8 | 65 | 1 | 5 | 10 Rice | 7 |a trace| 80 | a trace | -- | 13 Beans and Peas | 25 | 2 | 48 | 2 | 8 | 15 Milk | 4½ | 3 | 5 | ¾ | -- | 86¾ ------------------------------------------------------------------- Barley is more generally used than any other grain, and, reckoned by weight, is cheaper than wheat or oats; but, unless in the form of meal, should not be the only grain given, for fowls do not fatten upon it, as, though possessing a very fair proportion of flesh-forming substances, it contains a lesser amount of fatty matters than other varieties of corn. In Surrey barley is the usual grain given, excepting during the time of incubation, when the sitting hens have oats, as being less heating to the system than the former. Barley-meal contains the same component parts as the whole grain, being ground with the husk, but only inferior barley is made into meal. Wheat of the best description is dearer than barley, both by weight and measure, and possesses but about one-twelfth part more flesh-forming material, but it is fortunate that the small cheap wheat is the best for poultry, for Professor Johnston says, "the small or tail corn which the farmer separates before bringing his grain to market is richer in gluten (flesh-forming food) than the full-grown grain, and is therefore more nutritious." The "Henwife" finds "light wheats or tailings the best grain for daily use, and next to that barley." Oats are dearer than barley by weight. The heaviest should be bought, as they contain very little more husk than the lightest, and are therefore cheaper in proportion. Oats and oatmeal contain much more flesh-forming material than any other kind of grain, and double the amount of fatty material than wheat, and three times as much as barley. Mowbray says oats are apt to cause scouring, and chickens become tired of them; but they are recommended by many for promoting laying, and in Kent, Sussex, and Surrey for fattening. Fowls frequently refuse the lighter samples of oats, but if soaked in water for a few hours so as to swell the kernel, they will not refuse them. The meal contains more flesh-forming material than the whole grain. The meal of wheat and barley are much the same as the whole grain, but oatmeal is drier and separated from a large portion of the husk, which makes it too dear except for fattening fowls and feeding the youngest chickens, for which it is the very best food. Fine "middlings," also termed "sharps" and "thirds," and in London coarse country flour, are much like oatmeal, but cheaper than the best, and may be cheaply and advantageously employed instead of oatmeal, or mixed with boiled or steamed small potatoes or roots. Many writers recommend refuse corn for fowls, and the greater number of poultry-keepers on a small scale perhaps think such light common grain the cheapest food; but this is a great mistake, as, though young fowls may be fed on offal and refuse, it is the best economy to give the older birds the finest kind of grain, both for fattening and laying, and even the young fowls should be fed upon the best if fine birds for breeding or exhibition are desired. "Instead of giving ordinary or tail corn to my fattening or breeding poultry," says Mowbray, "I have always found it most advantageous to allow the heaviest and the best; thus putting the confined fowls on a level with those at the barn-door, where they are sure to get their share of the weightiest and finest corn. This high feeding shows itself not only in the size and flesh of the fowls, but in the size, weight, and substantial goodness of their eggs, which, in these valuable particulars, will prove far superior to the eggs of fowls fed upon ordinary corn or washy potatoes; two eggs of the former going further in domestic use than three of the latter." "Sweepings" sometimes contain poisonous or hurtful substances, and are always dearer, weight for weight, than sound grain. Some poultry-keepers recommend that the grain should be boiled, which makes it swell greatly, and consequently fills the fowl's crop with a smaller quantity, and the bird is satisfied with less than if dry grain be given; but others say that the fowls derive more nutriment from the same quantity of grain unboiled. Indeed, it seems evident that a portion of the nutriment must pass into the water, and also evaporate in steam. The fowl's gizzard being a powerful grinding mill, evidently designed by Providence for the purpose of crushing the grain into meal, it is clear that whole grain is the natural diet of fowls, and that softer kinds of food are chiefly to be used for the first or morning meal for fowls confined in houses (see p. 34), and for those being fattened artificially in coops, where it is desired to help the fowl's digestive powers, and to convert the food into flesh as quickly as possible. Indian corn or maize, either whole or in meal, must not be given in too great a proportion, as it is very fattening from the large quantity of oil it contains; but mixed with barley or barley-meal, it is a most economical and useful food. It is useful for a change, but is not a good food by itself. It may be given once or twice a week, especially in the winter, with advantage. From its size small birds cannot eat it and rob the fowls. Whether whole or in meal, the maize should be scalded, that the swelling may be done before it is eaten. The yellow-coloured maize is not so good as that which is reddish or rather reddish-brown. Buckwheat is about equal to barley in flesh-forming food, and is very much used on the Continent. Mr. Wright has "a strong opinion that the enormous production of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent connected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by French poultry-keepers." It is not often to be had cheap in this country, but is hardy and may be grown anywhere at little cost. Mr. Edwards says, he "obtained (without manure) forty bushels to the acre, on very poor sandy soil, that would not have produced eighteen bushels of oats. The seed is angular in form, not unlike hempseed; and is stimulating, from the quantity of spirit it contains." Peas, beans, and tares contain an extraordinary quantity of flesh-forming material, and very little of fat-forming, but are too stimulating for general use, and would harden the muscular fibres and give too great firmness of flesh to fowls that are being fattened, but where tares are at a low price, or peas or beans plentiful, stock fowls may be advantageously fed upon any of these, and they may be given occasionally to fowls that are being fattened. It is better to give them boiled than in a raw state, especially if they are hard and dry, and the beans in particular may be too large for the fowls to swallow comfortably. Near Geneva fowls are fed chiefly upon tares. Poultry reject the wild tares of which pigeons are so fond. Rice is not a cheap food. When boiled it absorbs a great quantity of water and forms a large substance, but, of course, only contains the original quantity of grain which is of inferior value, especially for growing chickens, as it consists almost entirely of starch, and does not contain quite half the amount of flesh-forming materials as oats. When broken or slightly damaged it may be had much cheaper, and will do as well as the finest. Boil it for half an hour in skim-milk or water, and then let it stand in the water till cold, when it will have swollen greatly, and be so firm that it can be taken out in lumps, and easily broken into pieces. In addition to its strengthening and fattening qualities rice is considered to improve the delicacy of the flesh. Fowls are especially fond of it at first, but soon grow tired of this food. If mixed with less cloying food, such as bran, they would probably continue to relish it. Hempseed is most strengthening during moulting time, and should then be given freely, especially in cold localities. Linseed steeped is occasionally given, chiefly to birds intended for exhibition, to increase the secretion of oil, and give lustre to their plumage. Potatoes, from the large quantity of starch they contain, are not good unmixed, as regular food, but mixed with bran or meal are most conducive to good condition and laying. They contain a great proportion of nutriment, comparatively to their bulk and price; and may be advantageously and profitably given where the number of eggs produced is of more consequence than their flavour or goodness. A good morning meal of soft food for a few fowls may be provided daily almost for nothing by boiling the potato peelings till soft, and mashing them up with enough bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff dry paste. The peelings will supply as many fowls as there are persons at the dinner table. A little salt should always be added, and in winter a slight sprinkling of pepper is good. "It is indispensable," says Mr. Dickson, "to give the potatoes to fowls not only in a boiled state, but hot; not so hot, however, as to burn their mouths, as they are stupid enough to do if permitted. They dislike cold potatoes, and will not eat them willingly. It is likewise requisite to break all the potatoes a little, for they will not unfrequently leave a potato when thrown down unbroken, taking it, probably, for a stone, since the moment the skin is broken and the white of the interior is brought into view, they fall upon it greedily. When pieces of raw potatoes are accidentally in their way, fowls will sometimes eat them, though they are not fond of these, and it is doubtful whether they are not injurious." Mangold-wurtzel, swedes, or other turnips, boiled with a very small quantity of water, until quite soft, and then thickened with the very best middlings or meal, is the very best soft food, especially for Dorkings. Soft food should always be mixed rather dry and _friable_, and not _porridgy_, for they do not like sticky food, which clings round their beaks and annoys them, besides often causing diarrhoea. There should never be enough water in food to cause it to glisten in the light. If the soft food is mixed boiling hot at night and put in the oven, or covered with a cloth, it will be warm in the morning, in which state it should always be given in cold weather. Fowls have their likes and dislikes as well as human beings, some preferring one kind of grain to all others, which grain is again disliked by other fowls. They also grow tired of the same food, and will thrive all the better for having as much variety of diet as possible, some little change in the food being made every few days. Fowls should not be forced or pressed to take food to which they show a dislike. It is most important to give them chiefly that which they like best, as it is a rule, with but few exceptions, that what is eaten with most relish agrees best and is most easily digested; but care must be taken not to give too much, for one sort of grain being more pleasing to their palate than another, induces them to eat gluttonously more than is necessary or healthy. M. Réaumur made many careful experiments upon the feeding of fowls, and among them found that they were much more easily satisfied than might be supposed from the greedy voracity which they exhibit when they are fed, and that the sorts of food most easily digested by them are those of which they eat the greatest quantity. No definite scale can be given for the quantity of food which fowls require, as it must necessarily vary with the different breeds, sizes, ages, condition, and health of the fowls; and with the seasons of the year, and the temperature of the season, much more food being necessary to keep up the proper degree of animal heat in winter than in summer; and the amount of seeds, insects, vegetables, and other food that they may pick up in a run of more or less extent. Over-feeding, whether by excess of quantity or excess of stimulating constituents, is the cause of the most general diseases, the greater proportion of these diseases, and of most of the deaths from natural causes among fowls. When fowls are neither laying well nor moulting, they should not be fed very abundantly; for in such a state over-feeding, especially with rich food, may cause them to accumulate too much fat. A fat hen ceases to lay, or nearly, while an over-fed cock becomes lazy and useless, and may die of apoplexy. But half-fed fowls never pay whether kept for the table or to produce eggs. A fowl cannot get fat or make an egg a day upon little or poor food. A hen producing eggs will eat nearly twice as much food as at another time. In cold weather give plenty of dry bread soaked in ale. Poultry prefer to pick their food off the ground. "No plan," says Mr. Baily, "is so extravagant or so injurious as to throw down heaps once or twice per day. They should have it scattered as far and wide as possible, that the birds may be long and healthily employed in finding it, and may not accomplish in a few minutes that which should occupy them for hours. For this reason every sort of feeder or hopper is bad. It is the nature of fowls to take a grain at a time, and to pick grass and dirt with it, which assist digestion. They should feed as pheasants, partridges, grouse, and other game do in a state of nature; if, contrary to this, they are enabled to eat corn by mouthfuls, their crops are soon overfilled, and they seek relief in excessive draughts of water. Nothing is more injurious than this, and the inactivity that attends the discomfort caused by it lays the foundation of many disorders. The advantage of scattering the food is, that all then get their share; while if it is thrown only on a small space the master birds get the greater part, while the others wait around. In most poultry-yards more than half the food is wasted; the same quantity is thrown down day after day, without reference to time of year, alteration of numbers, or variation of appetite, and that which is not eaten is trodden about, or taken by small birds. Many a poultry-yard is coated with corn and meal." If two fowls will not run after one piece, they do not want it. If a trough is used, the best kind is the simplest, being merely a long, open one, shaped like that used for pigs, but on a smaller scale. It should be placed about a foot from one of the sides of the yard, behind some round rails driven into the ground three inches apart, so that the fowls cannot get into the troughs, so as to upset them, or tread in or otherwise dirty the food. The rails should be all of the same height, and a slanting board be fixed over the trough. Some persons give but one meal a day, and that generally in the morning; this is false economy, for the whole of the nutriment contained in the one meal is absorbed in keeping up the animal heat, and there is no material for producing eggs. "The number of meals per day," says Mr. Wright, "best consistent with real economy will vary from two to three, according to the size of the run. If it be of moderate extent, so that they can in any degree forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least in summer, and should be given early in the morning and the last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, these will be the principal meals; but when the fowls are kept in confinement they will require, in addition, a scanty feed at mid-day. The first feeding should consist of soft food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night since they were last fed; and it is important, especially in cold weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the system, and not merely into the crop. But if grain be given, it has to be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested, and on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But, for the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the best food which can be supplied; it is digested slowly, and during the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the fowls." They should be fed at regular hours, and will then soon become accustomed to them, and not loiter about the house or kitchen door all day long, expecting food, which they will do if fed irregularly or too often, and neglect to forage about for themselves, and thus cost more for food. Grass is of the greatest value for all kinds of poultry, and where they have no paddock, or grass-plot, fresh vegetables must be given them daily, as green food is essential to the health of all poultry, even of the very youngest chickens. Cabbage and lettuce leaves, spinach, endive, turnip-tops, turnips cut into small pieces and scattered like grain, or cut in two, radish-leaves, or any refuse, but not stale vegetables will do; but the best thing is a large sod of fresh-cut turf. They are partial to all the mild succulent weeds, such as chickweed and _Chenopodium_, or fat-hen, and eat the leaves of most trees and shrubs, even those of evergreens; but they reject the leaves of strawberries, celery, parsnips, carrots, potatoes, onions, and leeks. The supply of green food may be unlimited, but poultry should never be entirely fed on raw greens. Cabbage and spinach are still more relaxing when boiled than raw. They are very fond of the fruit of the mulberry and cherry trees, and will enjoy any that falls, and prevent it from being wasted. Insect food is important to fowls, and essential for chickens and laying hens. "There is no sort of insect, perhaps," says Mr. Dickson, "which fowls will not eat. They are exceedingly fond of flies, beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets, but more particularly of every sort of grub, caterpillar, and maggot, with the remarkable exception of the caterpillar moth of the magpie (_Abraxas Grossularia_), which no bird will touch." M. Réaumur mentions the circumstance of a quantity of wheat stored in a corn-loft being much infected with the caterpillars of the small corn-moth, which spins a web and unites several grains together. A young lady devised the plan of taking some chickens to the loft to feed on the caterpillars, of which they were so fond that in a few days they devoured them all, without touching a single grain of the corn. Mr. Dickson observes, that "biscuit-dust from ships' stores, which consists of biscuit mouldered into meal, mixed with fragments still unbroken, would be an excellent food for poultry, if soaked in boiling water and given them hot. It is thus used for feeding pigs near the larger seaports, where it can sometimes be had in considerable quantity, and at a very reasonable price. It will be no detriment to this material if it be full of weevils and their grubs, of which fowls are fonder than of the biscuit itself." There is not any food of which poultry generally are so fond as of earthworms; but all fowls are not equally fond of them, and some will not touch them. They will not eat dead worms. Too many ought not to be given, or they will become too fat and cease laying. When fowls are intended for the table worms should not be given, as they are said always more or less to deteriorate the flavour of the flesh. A good supply may easily be obtained. By stamping hard upon the ground, as anglers do, worms will rise to the surface; but a better method is to thrust a strong stake or a three-pronged potato-fork into the ground, to the depth of a foot or so, and jerk it backwards and forwards, so as to shake the soil all around. By going out with a light at night in calm, mild weather, particularly when there is dew, or after rain, a cautious observer will see large numbers of worms lying on the ground, gravel-walks, grass-plots or pastures; but they are easily frightened into their holes, though with caution and dexterity a great number, and those chiefly of the largest size, may be captured. Mr. Dickson advises that cottagers' children should be employed to imitate the example of the rooks, by following the plough or the digger, and collecting the worms which are disclosed to view; and also to collect cock-chafers, "and, what would be more advantageous, they might be set to collect the grubs of this destructive insect after the plough, and thus, while providing a rich banquet for the poultry, they would be clearing the fields of a most destructive insect." Fowls are very fond of shell snails. They are still more fattening than worms, and therefore too many must not be given when laying, but they do not injure the flavour of the flesh. Some will eat slugs, but they are not generally fond of these, and many fowls will not touch them. One great secret of profitable poultry-keeping is, that hens cannot thrive and lay without a considerable quantity of animal food, and therefore if they cannot obtain a sufficient quantity in the form of insects, it must be supplied in meat, which, minced small, should be given daily and also to all fowls in winter, as insects are then not to be had. Mr. Baily says: "Do not give fowls meat, but always have the bones thrown out to them after dinner; they enjoy picking them, and perform the operation perfectly. Do not feed on raw meat; it makes fowls quarrelsome, and gives them a propensity to peck each other, especially in moulting time if the accustomed meat be withheld." They will peck at the wound of another fowl to procure blood, and even at their own wounds when within reach. Take care that long pieces of membrane, or thick skin, tough gristle or sinew, or pieces of bone, are not left sticking to the meat, or it may choke them, or form a lodgment in the crop. "Pieces of suet or fat," says Mr. Dickson, "are liked by fowls better than any other sort of animal food; but, if supplied in any quantity, will soon render them too fat for continuing to lay. Should there be any quantity of fat to dispose of, it ought, therefore, to be given at intervals, and mixed or accompanied with bran, which will serve to fill their crops without producing too much nutriment." It is a good plan when there are plenty of bones and scraps of meat to boil them well, and mix bran or pollard with the liquor before giving them to the fowls, as it makes the meat easier to mince, and extracts nourishment from the bones. When minced-meat is required for a large number of fowls, a mincing or sausage machine will save much time and prepare the meat better than chopping. They are as fond of fish, whether salted or fresh, as of flesh. Crumbs, fragments of pastry, and all the refuse and slops of the kitchen may be given them. Greaves, so much advertised for fowls, are very bad, rapidly throwing them out of condition, causing their feathers to fall off, spoiling the flavour of the flesh; they cause premature decrepitude, and engender many diseases, the most common being dropsy of an incurable character. Where there is no danger from thieves, foxes, or other vermin, and the run is extensive, it is the best plan to leave the small door of the fowl-house open, and the fowls will go out at daybreak and pick up many an "early worm" and insect. The morning meal may be given when the household has risen. A constant supply of fresh clean water is indispensable. Fountains are preferable to open vessels, in which the fowls are apt to void their dung, and the chickens to dabble and catch cold, often causing roup, cramp, &c. The simplest kind of water vessel is a saucer made of red pottery, containing several circular, concentric troughs, each about an inch wide, and of the same depth. Chickens cannot get drowned in these shallow vessels, but unless placed behind rails the water will be dirtied by the fowls. They are sold at all earthenware shops, and are used for forcing early mustard in. A capital fountain may be made with an earthenware jar or flower-pot and a flower-pot saucer. Bore a small hole in the jar or flower-pot an inch and a half from the edge of the rim, or detach a piece about three-quarters of an inch deep and one inch wide, from the rim, and if a flower-pot is used plug the hole in the bottom airtight with a piece of cork; fill the vessel with water, place the saucer bottom upwards on the top, press it closely, and quickly turn both upside down, when the water will flow into the saucer, filling up the space between it and the vessel up to the same height as the hole in the side of the jar or flower-pot, therefore the hole in the side of the rim of the vessel must not be quite so deep as the height of the side of the saucer; and above all the plug in the flower-pot must be airtight. This fountain is cheap, simple, and easily cleaned. Water may also be kept in troughs, or earthenware pans, placed in the same way. The fountains and pans should be washed and filled with fresh water once every day, and oftener in warm weather; and they should occasionally be scoured with sand to remove the green slime which collects on the surface, and produces roup, gapes, and other diseases. In winter the vessels should always be emptied at night, in order to avoid ice from forming in them, which is troublesome to remove, and snow must never be allowed to fall into them, snow-water being most injurious to poultry. CHAPTER V. EGGS. During the natural process of moulting, hens cease laying because all the superabundant nutriment is required for the production of the new feathers. Fowls moult later each time; the moulting occupies a longer period, and is more severe as it becomes later, and if the weather should be cold at its termination they seldom recommence laying for some time. But young fowls moult in spring. Therefore, by having pullets and hens of different ages, and moulting at different times, a healthy laying stock may be kept up. Pullets hatched in March, and constantly fed highly, not only lay eggs abundantly in the autumn, but when killed in the following February or March, are as fat as any one could or need desire them to be, and open more like Michaelmas geese than chickens. When eggs alone are wanted, you can commence by buying in the spring as many hens as you require, and your run will accommodate, not more than a year or eighteen months old. If in good health and condition, they will be already laying, or will begin almost immediately; and, if well housed and fed, will give a constant supply of eggs until they moult in the autumn. When these hens have ceased laying, and before they lose their good condition by moulting, they should be either killed or sold, unless they are Hamburgs, Brahmas, or Cochins, and replaced by pullets hatched in March or April, which will have moulted early, and, if properly housed and fed, will begin to lay by November at the latest, and continue laying until February or March, when they may be sold or killed, being then in prime condition, and replaced as before; or, as they will not stop laying for any length of time, the best may be kept until the autumn, when, if profit is the chief consideration, they must be disposed of.[3] But Brahmas, Cochins, and Hamburgs will lay through the winter up to their second, or even third year. If you commence poultry-keeping in the autumn you should buy pullets hatched in the preceding spring. The best and cheapest plan of keeping up a good stock is to keep a full-feathered Cochin or two for March or April sitting; and, if necessary, procure eggs of the breed you desire. The Cochin will sit again, being only too often ready for the task; and the later-hatched chickens can be fattened profitably for the table. But if you wish to obtain eggs all the year round, and to avoid replacing of stock, or object to the trouble of rearing chickens, keep only those breeds that are non-sitters, as the Hamburgs, Polands, and Spanish; but you must purchase younger birds from time to time to keep a supply of laying hens while others are moulting. Warmth is most essential for promoting laying. A severe frost will suddenly stop the laying of even the most prolific hens. "When," says M. Bosc, "it is wished to have eggs during the cold season, even in the dead of winter, it is necessary to make the fowls roost over an oven, in a stable, in a shed where many cattle are kept, or to erect a stove in the fowl-house on purpose. By such methods, the farmers of Ange have chickens fit for the table in the month of April, a period when they are only beginning to be hatched in the farms around Paris, although farther to the south." It is the winter management of fowls that decides the question of profit or loss, for hens will be sure to pay in the summer, even if only tolerably attended to. It is thought by many that each hen can produce only a certain number of eggs; and if such be the case, it is very advantageous to obtain a portion of them in winter when they are generally scarce and can be eaten while fresh, instead of having the whole number produced in the summer, when so many are spoiled from too long keeping in consequence of more being produced than are required for use at the time. When the time for her laying approaches, her comb and wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red, the eye brightens, the gait becomes more spirited, and sometimes she cackles for three or four days. After laying her egg on leaving the nest the hen utters a loud cackling cry, to which the cock often responds in a high-pitched kind of scream; but some hens after laying leave the nest in silence. Some hens will lay an egg in three days, some every other day, and others every day. Hens should not be forced. By unnaturally forcing a fowl with stimulating food, and more particularly with hempseed and tallow greaves, to lay in two years or so the eggs that should have been the produce of several, the hen becomes prematurely old and diseased; and it is reasonable to suppose that the eggs are not so good as they would have been if nature had been left to run its own course. The eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon when no more may be expected to be laid; for if left in the nest, the heat of the hens when laying next day will tend to corrupt them. When the shells of the eggs are somewhat soft, it is because the hens are rather inclined to grow too fat. It is then proper to mix up a little chalk in their water, and to put a little mortar rubbish in their food, the quantity of which should be diminished. We give the following remarks by an experienced poultry-keeper of the old school, as valuable from being the result of practice: "The hen sometimes experiences a difficulty in laying. In this case a few grains of salt or garlic put into the vent have been successfully tried. The keeper should indeed make use of the latter mode to find out the place where a hen has laid without his knowledge; for, as the hen will be in haste to deposit her egg, her pace towards the nest will be quickened; she may then be followed and her secret found out." "Though one particular form," says Mr. Dickson, "is so common to eggs, that it is known by the familiar name of egg-shaped, yet all keepers of poultry must be aware that eggs are sometimes nearly round, and sometimes almost cylindrical, besides innumerable minor shades of difference. In fact, eggs differ so much in shape, that it is said experienced poultry-keepers can tell by the shape of the eggs alone the hen that laid them; for, strange to say, however different in size the eggs of any particular hen may be occasionally, they are very rarely different in form. Among the most remarkable eggs may be mentioned those of the Shanghae, or Cochin-China fowl, which are of a pale chocolate colour; and those of the Dorking fowl, which are of a pure white, and nearly as round as balls. The eggs of the Malay fowls are brown; those of the Polish fowl, which are very much pointed at one end, are of a delicate pinkish white; and those of the Bantam are of a long oval." A very important part of the egg is the air-bag, or _folliculus æris_, which is placed at the larger end, between the shell and its lining membranes. It is, according to Dr. Paris, about the size of the eye of a small bird in new laid eggs, but enlarges to ten times that size during the process of incubation. "This air-bag," says Mr. Dickson, "is of such great importance to the development of the chick, probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen, that if the blunt end of the egg be pierced with the point of the smallest needle (a stratagem which malice not unfrequently suggests), the egg cannot be hatched, but perishes." An egg exposed to the air is continually losing a portion of its moisture, the place of which is filled by the entrance of air, and the egg consequently becomes stale, and after a time putrid. M. Réaumur made many experiments in preserving eggs, and found that, by coating them with varnish, it was impossible to distinguish those which had been kept for a year from those newly laid; but varnish, though not expensive, is not always to be had in country places, and it also remained on the eggs placed under a hen and impeded the hatching, while in boiling them, the varnish, not being soluble in hot water, prevented them from being properly cooked. He tried other substances, and found that fat or grease, such as suet, lard, dripping, butter, and oil, were well adapted for the purpose, the best of these being a mixture of mutton and beef suet thoroughly melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth into an earthen pan. It is only requisite, he says, to take a piece of the fat or butter about the size of a pea on the end of the finger, and rub it all over the shell, by passing and repassing the finger so that no part be left untouched; the transpiration of matter from the egg being as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat or grease as by a thick coating, so that no part of the shell be left ungreased, or the tip of the finger may be dipped into oil and passed over the shell in the same manner. If it is desired that the eggs should look clean, they may be afterwards wiped with a towel, for sufficient grease or oil enters the pores of the shell to prevent all transpiration without its being necessary that any should be left to fill up the spaces between the pores. They can be boiled as usual without rubbing off the fat, as it will melt in the hot water, and when taken out of the water the little grease that is left upon the egg is easily wiped off with a napkin. Eggs preserved in this manner can also be used for hatching, as the fat easily melts away by the heat of the hen; and by this means the eggs of foreign fowls might be carried to a distance, hatched, and naturalised in this and other countries. The French also find that a mixture of melted beeswax and olive oil is an excellent preservative. Eggs may also be preserved for cooking by packing them in sawdust, in an earthen vessel, and covering the top with melted mutton suet or fat; as fruit is sometimes preserved. They are also said to keep well in salt, in a barrel arranged in layers of salt and eggs alternately. If the salt should become damp, it would penetrate through the pores of the shell and pickle them to a certain extent. M. Gagne says that eggs may be preserved in a mixture made of one bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, with sufficient water to make it into a paste of a consistency to receive the eggs, which, it is said, may be kept in it fresh for two years; but eggs become tasteless when preserved with lime. It may be as well to mention here that eggs are comparatively wasted when used in making a rice pudding, as they render it too hard and dry, and the pudding without them, if properly made, will be just of the right consistency. "Another way to preserve eggs," says Mr. Dickson, "is to have them cooked in boiling water the same day they are laid. On taking them out of the water they are marked with red ink, to record their date, and put away in a cool place, where they will keep, it is said, for several months. When they are wanted for use, they are again put into hot water to warm them. The curdy part which is usually seen in new-laid eggs is so abundant, and the taste is said to be so well preserved, that the nicest people may be made to believe that they are new laid. At the end of three or four months, however, the membrane lining the shell becomes much thickened, and the eggs lose their flavour. Eggs so preserved have the advantage of not suffering from being carried about." "It ought not to be overlooked," says Mr. Dickson, "with respect to the preservation of eggs, that they not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell; but also by being moved about, and jostled when carried to a distance by sea or land. Any sort of rough motion indeed ruptures the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the chick in their proper places, and upon these becoming mixed, putrefaction soon follows." If the eggs are to be kept for setting, place a box, divided by partitions into divisions for the eggs of the different breeds, in a dry corner of your kitchen, but not too near to the fire; fill the divisions with bran previously well dried in an oven; place the eggs in it upright, with the larger ends uppermost, as soon as they are laid, and cover them with the bran. Mark each egg in pencil with the date when laid, and description of breed or cross. They should be kept in a cool place or a warm place according to the season. Airtight jars, closed with airtight stoppers, may be used if the eggs are intended to be kept for a very long time. In selecting eggs for setting, choose the freshest, those of moderate size, well-shaped, and having the air-vessel distinctly visible, either in the centre of the top of the egg, or slightly to the side, when the egg is held between the eye and a lighted candle, in a darkened room. Reject very small eggs, which generally have no yolk, those that are ill-shaped, and those of equal thickness at both ends, which latter is the usual shape of eggs with double yolks. These should be avoided, as they are apt generally to prove unfertile, or produce monstrosities. It has been stated that the sex of the embryo chicken can be ascertained by the position of the air-vessel; that if it be on the top the egg will produce a cockerel, and if on the side a pullet; but there is no proof of the truth of this, and, notwithstanding such assertions, it appears to be impossible to foretell the sex of the chick, from the shape of the egg or in any other way. In selecting eggs for the purpose of producing fowls that are to be kept for laying only, being non-sitters, choose eggs only from those hens that are prolific layers, for prolific laying is often as characteristic of some fowls of a breed as it is of the particular breeds, and by careful selection this faculty, like others, may be further developed, or continued if already fully developed. If carefully packed, eggs for setting may be carried great distances--hundreds and even thousands of miles--without injury; vibration and even moderate shaking, and very considerable changes of temperature, producing no ill effect upon the germ. The chief point is to prevent the escape of moisture by evaporation, and consequent admission of air. A hamper travels with less vibration than a box, and is therefore preferable, especially for a long journey. They should be packed in hay, by which they will be preserved from breakage much better than by being packed in short, close material like bran, chaff, oats, or sawdust; these being shaken into smaller space by the vibration of travelling, the eggs often strike and crack each other. The hamper or box should be large enough to admit of some soft, yielding packing material being placed all round the eggs. The bottom should be first covered with a good layer of hay, straw, or moss. It is a good plan to roll each egg separately in hay or moss, fastened with a little wool or worsted. They should be covered with well-rubbed straw, pressed down carefully and gently. The lid of the hamper should be sewed on tightly all round, or in three or four places at least. If a box is used, the lid should be fastened by cords or screws, but not with nails, as the hammering would probably destroy the germ of the egg. In procuring eggs for hatching, be sure that the parent birds are of mature age, but not too old, well-shaped, vigorous, and in perfect health; that one cock is kept to every six or seven hens; and that they are well fed and attended to. Have a steady broody hen ready to take the eggs. CHAPTER VI. THE SITTING HEN. All hens that are inclined to sit should be allowed to hatch and bring up one brood of chickens a year; for, if altogether restrained from sitting, a hen suffers much in moulting, and is restless and excited for the remainder of the season. It is unnatural, and therefore must be injurious. The period of incubation gives her rest from producing eggs. The hen that is always stimulated to produce eggs, and not allowed to vary that process by hatching and bringing up a young brood, must ultimately suffer from this constant drain upon her system, and the eggs are said to be unwholesome. But hens frequently wish to sit when it is not convenient, or in autumn or winter, when it is not advisable, unless very late or early chickens are desired, and every attention can be given to them. To check this desire, the old-fashioned plan with farmers' wives, of plunging the broody hen into cold water, and keeping her there for some minutes, was not only a cruel practice, but often failed to effect its object, and must naturally always have caused ultimate disease in the poor bird. When it is absolutely necessary to check the desire of a hen to sit, the best plan is to let her sit on some nest-eggs for a week, then remove and coop her for a few days, away from the place where she made her nest, low diet, as boiled potatoes and boiled rice, and water being placed near; meanwhile taking away the eggs and destroying the nest, and, not finding it on her return, she will generally not seek for another, unless she is a Cochin, or the desire exceedingly strong. When a hen wishes to sit, she utters a peculiar cluck, ruffles her feathers, wanders about, searches obscure corners and recesses, is very fidgety, feverishly hot, impatient, anxiously restless, and seeks for a nest. Highly-fed hens feel this desire sooner than those that are not so highly fed. A hen may be induced to sit at any season, by confining her in a dark room in a covered basket, only large enough to contain her nest, keeping her warm, and feeding her on stimulating food, such as bread steeped in ale, a little raw liver or fresh meat chopped small, and potatoes mashed warm with milk and oatmeal. Every large poultry establishment should have a separate house for the sitting hens, and the run that should be provided for their relaxation must be divided from that of the other fowls by wire or lattice work, to prevent any intrusion. Where there is a large number of sitting hens, each nest should be numbered, and the date of setting, number and description of eggs, entered in a diary or memorandum book opposite to the number; and the number of chickens hatched, and any particulars likely to be useful on a future occasion, should afterwards be entered. A separate house and run for each sitting hen is a great advantage, as it prevents other hens from going to the nest during her absence, or herself from returning to the wrong nest, as will often happen in a common house. The run should not be large, or the hen may be inclined to wander and stay away too long from her nest. A separate division for the sitting hen is often otherwise useful, for the purpose of keeping the cock apart from the hens, or for keeping a few additional birds for which accommodation has not been prepared, or for the use of a pen of birds about to be sent for exhibition. "Boxes, of which every carpenter knows the form," says Mowbray, "are to be arranged round the walls, and it is proper to have a sufficient number, the hens being apt to dispute possession, and sit upon one another. The board or step at the entrance should be of sufficient height to prevent the eggs from rolling out. Provision of a few railed doors may be made for occasional use, to be hung before the entrance, in order to prevent other hens from intruding to lay their eggs upon those which sit, a habit to which some are much addicted, and by which a brood is often injured. The common deep square boxes, uncovered at top, are extremely improper, because that form obliges the hen to jump down upon her eggs, whereas for safety she should descend upon them from a very small height, or in a manner walk in upon them. The same objection lies against hampers, with the additional one of the wicker-work admitting the cold in variable weather, during winter or early spring sittings. Many breeders prefer to have all the nests upon the ground, on account of the danger of chickens falling from the nests which are placed above." The ground is preferable for other reasons. The damp arising from the ground assists very materially in incubation. When fowls sit upon wooden floors, or in boxes, the eggs become so dry and parched as to prevent the chicken from disencumbering itself of the shell, and it is liable to perish in its attempts. Hens in a state of nature make their nests upon the ground; and fowls, when left to choose a nest for themselves, generally fix upon a hedge, where the hen conceals herself under the branches of the hedge, and among the grass. In general, the sitting places are too close and confined, and very different in this respect to those that hens select for themselves. But nests cannot always be allowed to be made on the ground, unless properly secured from vermin, particularly from rats, which will frequently convey away the whole of the eggs from under a hen. And other considerations may render it necessary to have them on a floor, in boxes on the ground, or placed above; in which cases the eggs must be kept properly moistened, for, unless the egg is kept sufficiently damp, its inner membrane becomes so hard and dry that the chicken cannot break through, and perishes. When a hen steals her nest in a hedge or clump of evergreens or bushes, she makes it on the damp ground. She goes in search of food early in the morning, before the dew is off the grass, and returns to her nest with her feathers saturated with moisture. This is the cause of the comparatively successful hatching of the eggs of wild birds. The old farmers' wives did not understand the necessity of damping eggs, but frequently complained of their not hatching, although chickens were found in them, which was, in most cases, entirely caused by want of damping. If, therefore, the weather is warm and wet, all will probably go well; but if the air should be very dry, moisture must be imparted by sprinkling the nest and eggs slightly, when the hen is off feeding, by means of a small brush dipped in tepid water. A small flat brush such as is used by painters is excellent for this purpose, as it does not distribute the water too freely. The ground round about, also, should be watered with hot water, to cause a steam. But the natural moisture of a damp soil is preferable, and never fails. The nest may be of any shape. A long box divided by partitions into several compartments is much used, but separate boxes or baskets are preferable as being more easily cleaned and freed from vermin. Wooden nest-boxes are preferable to wicker baskets in winter, as the latter let in the cold air, but many prefer wicker baskets in summer for their airiness. A round glazed earthen pan, with shelving sides, like those used in the midland counties for milk, and partially filled with moss, forms a good nest, the moss being easier kept moist in such a pan than in a box. The nest should be made so large that the hen can just fill it, not very deep, and as nearly flat inside at the bottom as possible, so that the eggs may not lean against each other, or they may get broken, especially by the hen turning them. The best filling for hatching nests is fine dry sand, mould, coal or wood ashes placed on a cut turf, covering it and lining the sides with a little well-broken dry grass, moss, bruised straw, lichen, or liverwort collected from trees, or dry heather, which is the best of all, but cannot always be had. Hay, though soft at first, soon becomes hard and matted, and is also said to breed vermin. Straw is good material, but must be cut into short pieces, for if long straw is used and the hen should catch her foot in it, and drag it after her when she leaves the nest, it will disturb, if not break, the eggs. The nests of the sitting hens in Her Majesty's poultry-yard at Windsor are made of heather, which offers an excellent medium between the natural damp hedge-nest of the hen and the dryness of a box filled with straw, and also enables her to free herself from those insects which are so troublesome to sitting hens. A thick layer of ashes placed under the straw in cold weather will keep in the heat of the hen. A little Scotch snuff is a good thing to keep the nests free from vermin. Where only a few fowls are kept, and a separate place cannot be found for the sitting hen, she can be placed on a nest which should be covered over with a coop, closed in with a little boarding or some other contrivance for a day or two, to prevent her being disturbed by any other fowls that have been accustomed to lay there. They will then soon use another nest. She should be carefully lifted off her nest, by taking hold of her under the wings, regularly every morning, exercised and fed, and then shut in, so that she cannot be annoyed. It is best to allow a hen to keep the nest she has chosen when she shows an inclination to sit; and if she continues to sit steadily, and has not a sufficient number of eggs under her, or the eggs you desire her to hatch, remove her gently at night, replace the eggs with the proper batch, and place her quietly upon the nest again. Hens are very fond of choosing their own nests in out of the way places; and where the spot is not unsafe, or too much exposed to the weather, it is best to let her keep possession, for it has been noticed that, when she selects her own nest and manages for herself, she generally brings forth a good and numerous brood. Mr. Tegetmeier observes that he has "reason to believe, indeed, that whatever care may be taken in keeping eggs, their vitality is better preserved when they are allowed to remain in the nest. Perhaps the periodical visits of the hen, while adding to her store of eggs, has a stimulating influence. The warmth communicated in the half-hour during which she occupies the nest may have a tendency to preserve the embryo in a vigorous state." It is a good plan, before giving an untried hen choice eggs, to let her sit upon a few chalk or stale eggs for a few days, and if she continue to sit with constancy, then to give her the batch for hatching. When choice can be made out of several broody hens for a valuable batch of eggs, one should be selected with rather short legs, a broad body, large wings well furnished with feathers, and having the nails and spurs not too long or sharp. As a rule, hens which are the best layers are the worst sitters, and those with short legs are good sitters, while long-legged hens are not. Dorkings are the best sitters of all breeds, and by high feeding may be induced to sit in October, especially if they have moulted early, and with great care and attention chickens may be reared and made fit for table by Christmas. Early in the spring Dorkings only should be employed as mothers, for they remain much longer with their chickens than the Cochin-Chinas, but the latter may safely be entrusted with a brood after April. Cochins are excellent sitters, and, from the quantity of "fluff" which is peculiar to them, keep the eggs at a high and regular degree of heat. Their short legs also are advantageous for sitting. A Cochin hen can always be easily induced to sit, and eggs of theirs or of Brahma Pootras for sitting, are not wanted in the coldest weather. Old hens are more steady sitters than pullets, more fond of their brood, and not so apt as pullets to leave them too soon. Indeed, pullets were formerly never allowed to sit before the second year of their laying, but now many eminent authorities think it best to let them sit when they show a strong desire to do so, considering that the prejudice against them upon this point is unfounded, and that young hens sit as well as older fowls. Pullets hatched early will generally begin to lay in November or December, if kept warm and well fed, and will sit in January or February. Broody hens brought from a distance should be carried in a basket, covered over with a cloth. The number of eggs to be set under a hen must be according to the extent of her wings and the temperature of the weather. Some say that the number may vary from nine to fourteen, but others would never give more than nine in winter and early spring, and eleven in summer, to the largest hen, and two fewer to the smaller fowls. A Cochin-China may have fifteen of her own in summer. A hen should not be allowed more eggs than she can completely cover; for eggs that are not thoroughly covered become chilled, and fewer and weaker chickens will be hatched from too large a number than from a more moderate allowance. It is not only necessary to consider how many eggs a hen can hatch, but also how many chickens she can cover when they are partly grown. In January and February, not more than seven or eight eggs should be placed under the hen, as she cannot cover more than that number of chickens when they grow large, and exposure to the cold during the long winter nights would destroy many. "The common order to set egges," says Mascall, "is in odde numbers, as seven, nyne, eleven, thirteen, &c., whiche is to make them lye round the neste, and to have the odde egge in the middest." Eggs for sitting should be under a fortnight old, if possible, and never more than a month. Fresh eggs hatch in proper time, and, if good, produce strong, lively chicks; while stale eggs are hatched sometimes as much as two days later than new laid, and the chickens are often too weak to break the shell, while of those well out fewer will probably be reared. It is certain, as a general rule, that the older the egg the weaker will be its progeny. Every egg should be marked by a pencil or ink line drawn quite round it, so that it can be known without touching, and if another be laid afterwards it may be at once detected and removed, for hens will sometimes lay several after they have commenced sitting. Place the eggs under the hen with their larger ends uppermost. Let the hen be well fed and supplied with water before putting her on the nest. Whole barley and soft food, chiefly barley-meal and mashed potatoes, should be given to her when she comes off the nest, and she must have as much as she will eat, for she leaves the nest but once daily, and the full heat of the body cannot be kept up without plenty of food; or she may have the same food as the general stock. A good supply of water must be always within her reach. A good-sized shallow box or pan, containing fine coal-ashes, sand, or dry earth, to cleanse herself in, should always be ready near to the nest. She should be left undisturbed, and, as far as possible, allowed to manage her own business. When a hen shows impatience of her confinement, and frequently leaves the nest, M. Parmentier advises that half only of her usual meal should be given, after which she should be replaced on the nest and fed from the hand with hemp or millet seed, which will induce her to stay constantly on her eggs. Others will sit so long and closely that they become faint for want of food. Such hens should not be fed on the nest, but gently induced with some tempting dainty to take a little exercise, for they will not leave their eggs of their own accord, and feeding on the nest has crippled many a good sitter. It is not healthy for the hen to feed while sitting on or close by the nest, for she requires a little exercise and rolling in the dust-heap, as well as that the eggs should be exposed for the air to carry off any of that stagnant vapour which M. Réaumur proved to be so destructive to the embryo chickens; and it has also been shown by physiologists that the cooling of the eggs caused by this absence of the hen is essential to allow a supply of air to penetrate through the pores of the shell, for the respiration of the chick. When there are many hens sitting at the same time, it is a good plan to take them off their nests regularly at the same time every morning to feed, and afterwards give them an opportunity to cleanse themselves in a convenient dusting-place, and, if possible, allow them exercise in a good grass run. A hen should never be caught, but driven back gently to her nest. A good hen will not stay away more than half an hour, unless infested with vermin, from want of having a proper dust-heap. But hens have often been absent for more than an hour, and yet have hatched seven or eight chickens; and instances have been known of their being absent for five and even for nine hours, and yet hatching a few. The following remarkable instance is recorded by an excellent authority: "Eggs had been supplied and a sitting hen lent to a neighbour, and, when she had set in a granary ten days, she was shut out through the carelessness of a servant. Being a stranger in the farmyard, the hen was not recognised, but supposed to have strayed in from an adjoining walk, and thirty hours elapsed before it was discovered that the hen had left her nest. The farmer's wife despaired of her brood; but, to her surprise and pleasure, eight chickens were hatched. The tiled roof of the granary was fully exposed to the rays of the sun, and the temperature very high, probably above 80 deg. during the day, and not much lower at night." Valuable eggs, therefore, should not be abandoned on account of a rather lengthened absence; and ordinary eggs should not be discarded as worthless if the hen has already sat upon them for a fortnight or so; but if she has been sitting for only a few days, it is safer to throw them away, and have a fresh batch. During the hen's absence, always look at the eggs, remove any that may have been broken, and very gently wash any sticky or dirty eggs with a flannel dipped in milk-warm water. See that they are dry before putting them back. If the nest is also dirty, replace it with fresh material of the same kind. Gently drive the hen back to her nest as quickly as possible, to prevent any damage from the eggs becoming chilled. If a hen should break an egg with her feet or otherwise, it should be removed as soon as it is seen, or she may eat it, and, liking the taste, break and eat the others. Some hens have a bad habit of breaking and eating the eggs on which they are sitting, to cure which some recommend to boil an egg hard, bore a few holes in it, so that the inside can be seen, and give it while hot to the culprit, who will peck at the holes and burn herself; but hens with such propensities should be fattened for the table, for they are generally useless either for sitting or laying. Some persons examine the eggs after the hen has sat upon them for six or seven days, and remove all that are sterile, by which plan more warmth and space are gained for those that are fertile, and the warmth is not wasted upon barren eggs. They may be easily proved by holding them near to the flame of a candle, the eye being kept shaded by one hand, when the fertile eggs will appear dark and the sterile transparent. Another plan is to place the eggs on a drum, or between the hands, in the sunshine, and observe the shadow. If this wavers, by the motion of the chick, the eggs are good; but if the shadow shows no motion, they are unfertile. If two hens have been sitting during the same time, and many unfertile eggs are found in the two nests, all the fertile eggs should be placed under one hen, and a fresh batch given to the other. The eggs should not be moved after this time, except by the hen, more especially when incubation has proceeded for some time, lest the position of the chick be interfered with, for if taken up a little time before its exit, and incautiously replaced with the large end lowermost, the chicken, from its position, will not be able to chip the shell, and must therefore perish. The forepart of the chicken is towards the biggest end of the egg, and it is so placed in the shell that the beak is always uppermost. When the egg of a choice breed has been cracked towards the end of the period of incubation, the crack may be covered with a slip of gummed paper, or the unprinted border that is round a sheet of postage stamps, and the damaged egg will probably yet produce a fine chick. It is a good plan to set two hens on the same day, for the two broods may be united under one if desirable, and on the hatching day, to prevent the newly-born chickens being crushed by the unhatched eggs, all that are hatched can be given to one hen, and the other take charge of the eggs, which are then more likely to be hatched, as, while the chickens are under the hen, she will sit higher from the eggs, and afford them less warmth when they require it most. The hen of all kinds of gallinaceous fowls, from the Bantam to the Cochin-China, sits for twenty-one days, at which time, on an average, the chickens break the shell; but if the eggs are new laid it will often lessen the time by five or six hours, while stale eggs will always be behind time. For the purpose of breaking the shell, the yet soft beak of the chicken is furnished, just above the point of the upper mandible, with a small, hard, horny scale, which, from the position of the head, as Mr. Yarrell observes, is brought in contact with the inner surface of the shell. This scale may be always seen on the beaks of newly-hatched chickens, but in the course of a short time peels off. It should not be removed. The peculiar sound, incorrectly called "tapping," so perceptible within the egg about the nineteenth day of incubation, which was universally believed to be produced by the bill of the chick striking against the shell in order to break it and effect its release, has been incontestably proved, by the late Dr. F. R. Horner, of Hull, in a paper read by him before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, to be a totally distinct sound, being nothing more than the natural respiratory sound in the lungs of the young chick, which first begins to breathe at that period. Of course there is also an occasional sound made by the tapping of the beak in endeavouring to break the shell. The time occupied in breaking the shell varies, according to the strength of the chick, from one to three hours usually, but extends sometimes to twenty-four, and even more. "I have seen," says Réaumur, "chicks continue at work for two days together; some work incessantly, while others take rest at intervals, according to their physical strength. Some, I have observed, begin to break the shell a great deal too soon; for, be it observed, they ought, before they make their exit, to have within them provision enough to serve for twenty-four hours without taking food, and for this purpose the unconsumed portion of the yolk enters through the navel. The chick, indeed, which comes out of the shell without taking up all the yolk is certain to droop and die in a few days after it is hatched. The assistance which I have occasionally tried to give to several of them, by way of completing their deliverance, has afforded me an opportunity of observing those which had begun to break their shells before this was accomplished; and I have opened many eggs much fractured, in each of which the chick had as yet much of the yolk not absorbed. Some chicks have greater obstacles to overcome than others, since all shells are not of an equal thickness nor of an equal consistence; and the same inequality takes place in the lining membrane, and offers still greater difficulty to the emergent chick. The shells of the eggs of birds of various species are of a thickness proportionate to the strength of the chick that is obliged to break through them. The canary-bird would never be able to break the shell it is enclosed in if that were as thick as the egg of a barn-door fowl. The chick of a barn-door fowl, again, would in vain try to break its shell if it were as thick and hard as that of an ostrich; indeed, though an ostrich ready to be hatched is perhaps thrice as large as the common chick, it is not easy to conceive how the force of its bill can be strong enough to break a shell thicker than a china cup, and the smoothness and gloss of which indicate that it is nearly as hard--sufficiently so to form, as may be often seen, a firm drinking-cup. It is the practice in some countries to dip the eggs into warm water at the time they are expected to chip, on the supposition that the shell is thereby rendered more fragile, and the labour of the chick lightened. But, though the water should soften it, upon drying in the air it would become as hard as at first. When the chick is entirely or almost out of the shell, it draws its head from under its wing, where it had hitherto been placed, stretches out its neck, directing it forwards, but for several minutes is unable to raise it. On seeing for the first time a chick in this condition, we are led to infer that its strength is exhausted, and that it is ready to expire; but in most cases it recruits rapidly, its organs acquire strength, and in a very short time it appears quite another creature. After having dragged itself on its legs a little while, it becomes capable of standing on them, and of lifting up its neck and bending it in various directions, and at length of holding up its head. At this period the feathers are merely fine down, but, as they are wet with the fluid of the egg, the chick appears almost naked. From the multitude of their branchlets these down feathers resemble minute shrubs; when, however, these branchlets are wet and sticking to each other, they take up but very little room; as they dry they become disentangled and separated. The branchlets, plumules, or beards of each feather are at first enclosed in a membranous tube, by which they are pressed and kept close together; but as soon as this dries it splits asunder, an effect assisted also by the elasticity of the plumules themselves, which causes them to recede and spread themselves out. This being accomplished, each down feather extends over a considerable space, and when they all become dry and straight, the chick appears completely clothed in a warm vestment of soft down." If they are not out in a few hours after the shell has been broken, and the hole is not enlarged, they are probably glued to the shell. Look through the egg then, and, if all the yolk has passed into the body of the chicken, you may assist it by enlarging the fracture with a pair of fine scissors, cutting up towards the large end of the egg, never downwards. "If," says Miss Watts, "the time has arrived when the chicken may with safety be liberated, there will be no appearance of blood in the minute blood-vessels spread over the interior of the shell; they have done their work, and are no longer needed by the now fully developed and breathing chick. If there should be the slightest appearance of blood, resist at once, for its escape would generally be fatal. Do not attempt to let the chicken out at once, but help it a little every two or three hours. The object is not to hurry the chicken out of its shell, but to prevent its being suffocated by being close shut up within it. If the chick is tolerably strong, and the assistance needful, it will aid its deliverance with its own exertions." When the chicken at last makes its way out, do not interfere with it in any way, or attempt to feed it. Animal heat alone can restore it. Weakness has caused the delay, and this has probably arisen from insufficient warmth, perhaps from the hen having had too many eggs to cover thoroughly, or they may have been stale when set. Should you have to assist it out of the shell, take it out gently with your fingers, taking great care not to tear any of its tender skin, when freeing the feathers from the shell. Mr. Wright says: "We never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from the shell. If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly; and we have always found that, even where the poor little creature survived at the time, it never lived to maturity. Should the reader attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been long chipped, and no further progress made, let the shell be cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane; if that be perforated, the viscid fluid inside dries and glues the chick to the shell. Should this happen, or should both shell and membrane be perforated at first, introduce the point of a pair of scissors and cut up the egg towards the large end, where there will be an empty space, remembering that, if blood flows, all hope is at end. Then put the chick back under the hen; she will probably squeeze it to death, it is true--it is so very weak; but it will never live if put by the fire, at least we always found it so. Indeed, as we have said, we consider it quite useless to make the attempt at all." The fact is, it is scarcely worth while to attempt to assist in the case of ordinary eggs, but if the breed is valuable the labour may be well bestowed. Some hens are reluctant to give up sitting, and will hatch a second brood with evident pleasure; but it is cruel to overtask their strength and patience, and they are sure to suffer, more or less, from the unnatural exertion. Some breeders use a contrivance called an "artificial mother" for broods hatched under the hen, and it may be employed very advantageously when any accident has happened to her. It is made in various forms, such as a wooden frame, or shallow box, open at both ends, and sloping like a writing-desk, with a perforated lid lined with sheep or lamb's skin, goose-down, or some similar warm fleecy material hanging down, under and between which the chickens nestle, heat being applied to the lid either by hot water or hot air, so as to imitate the warmth of the hen's breast. When chickens are hatched by artificial means, such as by the Hydro-Incubator, or the Eccaleobion, or in an oven according to the method practised by the Egyptians, these protectors are essential; for without a good substitute for the hen's natural warmth the chickens would perish. Artificial incubators are now extensively used, and where gas is laid on they are easily managed, but the chief difficulty is in rearing the chickens. For information on the subject see the works of Tegetmeier, Dickson, and Wright, on Poultry. CHAPTER VII. REARING AND FATTENING FOWLS. The first want which the chick will feel will be that of warmth, and there is no warmth so suited for them as that of the hen's body. Some persons remove the chicks from under the mother as soon as they are hatched, one by one, placing them in a basket covered up with flannel, and keep them there in a warm place, until the last chick is out, when they are put back under the hen. But this is very seldom necessary unless the weather is very cold and the hen restless, and is generally more likely to annoy than benefit her. Nor should the hen be induced to leave the nest, but be left undisturbed until she leaves of her own accord, when the last hatched chickens will be in a better condition to follow her than if she had been tempted to leave earlier. In a few hours they are able to run about and follow their parent; they do not require to be fed in the nest like most birds, but pick up the food which their mother shows them; and repose at night huddled up beneath her wings. The chicken during its development in the egg is nourished by the yolk, and the remaining portion of the yolk passes into its body previous to its leaving the shell, being designed for its first nourishment; and the chicken, therefore, does not require any food whatever during the first day. The old-fashioned plan, so popular with "practical" farmers' wives, of cramming a peppercorn down the throat of the newly-hatched chick is absurd and injurious. The first food must be very light and delicate, such as crumbs of bread soaked in milk, the yolk of an egg boiled hard, and curds; but very little of anything at first except water, for thirst will come before hunger. The thirsty hen will herself soon teach the little ones how to drink. If your chicks be very weakly, you may cram them with crumbs of good white bread, steeped in milk or wine, but at the same time recollect that their little craws are not capable of holding more than the bulk of a pea; so rather under than over feed them. As soon as the hen leaves the nest, she should have as much grain as she can eat, and a good supply of pure, clean water. In winter, or settled wet weather, she should, if possible, be kept on her nest for a day, and, when removed, be cooped in a warm, dry shed or outhouse; but in summer, if the weather be fine, and the chickens well upon their legs, they may be at once cooped out in the sun, on dry gravel, or if possible on a nice grass-plot, with food and water within her reach. The hen is cooped to prevent her from wearying the brood by leading them about until they are over-tired, besides being exposed to danger from cats, hawks, and vermin, tumbling into ditches, or getting wet in the high grass. They can pass in and out between the bars of the coop, and will come when she calls, or they wish to shelter under her wings. It is a good plan to place the coop for the first day out upon some dry sand, so that the hen can cleanse herself comfortably. The common basket coop should only be used in fine weather, and some straw, kept down by a stone, matting, or other covering, should be placed on the top, to shelter them from the mid-day sun; otherwise a wooden coop should be used, open in front only, about two and a half or three feet square; well-made of stout, sound boards, with a gabled roof covered with felt; and at night a thick canvas or matting should be hung over the front, sufficient space being left for proper ventilation, but not to admit cold draught, or to allow the chicks to get out. Mr. Wright describes an excellent coop which is "very common in some parts of France, and consists of two compartments, separated by a partition of bars, one compartment being closed in front, the other fronted with bars like the partition. Each set of bars should have a sliding one to serve as a door, and the whole coop should be tight and sound. It is best to have no bottom, but to put it on loose dry earth or ashes, an inch or two deep. Each half of the coop is about two feet six inches square, and may or may not be lighted from the top by a small pane of glass. The advantage of such a coop is that, except in very severe weather, no further shelter is required, even at night [if placed under a shed]. During the day the hen is kept in the outer compartment, the chickens having liberty, and the food and water being placed outside; whilst at night she is put in the inner portion of the coop, and a piece of canvas or sacking hung over the bars of the outer half. If the top be glazed, a little food and the water-vessel may be placed in the outer compartment at night, and the chicks will be able to run out and feed early in the morning, being prevented by the canvas from going out into the cold air. It will be only needful to remove the coop every two days for a few minutes, to take away the tainted earth and replace it with fresh. There should, if possible, be a grass-plot in front of the shed, the floor of which should be covered with dry, loose dust or earth." The hen should be kept under a coop until the brood has grown strong. Some breeders object to cooping, on account of its preventing the hen from scratching for worms and insects for her brood, and which are far superior to the substitutes with which they must be supplied, unless, indeed, a good supply of worms, ants' eggs, insects, or gentles can be had. The hen too has not sufficient exercise after her long sitting. Cooping thus has its advantages and disadvantages, and its adoption or not should depend upon circumstances. If it is preferred not to coop the hen, and she should be inclined to roam too far, a small run may be made with network, or with the moveable wire-work described on page 21. Winter-hatched chickens must be reared and fed in a warm place, which must be kept at an equal temperature. They return a large profit for the great care they require in hatching and rearing. Chickens should be fed very often; every two hours is not too frequently. The number of these meals must be reduced by degrees to four or five, which may be continued until they are full grown. Grain should not be given to newly-hatched chickens. The very best food for them, after their first meal of bread-crumbs and egg, is made of two parts of coarse oatmeal and one part of barley-meal, mixed into a thick crumbly paste with milk or water. If milk is used, it must be fresh mixed for each meal, or it will become sour. Cold oatmeal porridge is an excellent food, and much liked by them. After the first week they may have cheaper food, such as bran, oatmeal, and Indian meal mixed, or potatoes mashed with bran. In a few days they may also have some whole grain, which their little gizzards will then be fully able to grind. Grits, crushed wheat, or bruised oats, should form the last meal at night. Bread sopped in water is the worst food they can have, and even with milk is still inferior to meal. For the first three or four days they may also have daily the yolk of an egg boiled hard and chopped up small, which will be sufficient for a dozen chicks; and afterwards, a piece of cooked meat, rather underdone, the size of a good walnut, minced fine, should be daily given to the brood until they are three weeks old. In winter and very early spring this stimulating diet may be given regularly, and once a day they should also have some stale bread soaked in ale; and whenever chickens suffer from bad feathering, caused either by the coldness of the season or delicacy of constitution, they must be fed highly, and have a daily supply of bread soaked in ale. Ants' eggs, which are well known as the very best animal diet for young pheasants, are also excellent for young chickens; and when a nest can be obtained it should be thrown with its surrounding mould into the run for them to peck at. Where there is no grass-plot they should have some grass cut into small pieces, or other vegetable food minced small, until they are able to peck pieces from the large leaves. Onion tops and leeks chopped small, cress, lettuce, and cabbage, are much relished by all young poultry. The French breeders give a few dried nettle seeds occasionally. Young growing fowls can scarcely have too much food, so long as they eat it with a good appetite, and do not tread any about, or otherwise leave it to waste. Young poultry cannot thrive if overcrowded. They should not be allowed to roost on the branches of trees or shrubs, or otherwise out of doors, even in the warmest weather, or they will acquire the habit of sleeping out, which cannot be easily overcome; not that they would suffer much from even severe weather, when once accustomed to roosting out of doors, but from want of warmth the supply of eggs would decrease, and it would, in many places, be unsafe and, in most, inconvenient. The sooner chickens can be fattened, of course the greater must be the profit. They should be put up for fattening as soon as they have quitted the hen, for they are then generally in good condition, but begin to lose flesh as their bones develop and become stronger, particularly those fowls which stand high on the leg. Fowls are in perfection for eating just before they are fully developed. By keeping young fowls, especially the cockerels, too long before fattening them for market or home consumption, they eat up all the profit that would be made by disposing of them when the pullets have ceased laying just before their first adult moult, and the cockerels before their appetites have become large. Fowls intended to be fattened should be well and abundantly fed from their birth; for if they are badly fed during their growth they become stunted, the bones do not attain their full size, and no amount of feeding will afterwards supply these defects and transform them into fine, large birds. Poultry that have been constantly fed well from their birth will not only be always ready for the table, with very little extra attention and feeding, but their flesh will be superior in juiciness and rich flavour to those which are fattened up from a poor state. In choosing full-grown fowls for fattening, the short-legged and early-hatched should be preferred. In fattening poultry, "the well-known common methods," Mowbray observes, "are, first, to give fowls the run of the farmyard, where they thrive upon the offals of the stables and other refuse, with perhaps some small regular feeds; but at threshing time they become fat, and are thence styled barn-door fowls, probably the most delicate and high-flavoured of all others, both from their full allowance of the finest corn and from the constant health in which they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise; or secondly, they are confined during a certain number of weeks in coops; those fowls which are soonest ready being drawn as wanted." "The former method," says Mr. Dickson, "is immeasurably the best as regards the flavour and even wholesomeness of the fowls as food, and though the latter mode may, in some cases, make the fowls fatter, it is only when they have been always accustomed to confinement; for when barn-door fowls are cooped up for a week or two under the notion of improving them for the table, and increasing their fat, it rarely succeeds, since the fowls generally pine for their liberty, and, slighting their food, lose instead of gaining additional flesh." To fatten fowls that have not the advantage of a barn-door, Mowbray recommends fattening-houses large enough to contain twenty or thirty fowls, warm and airy, with well-raised earth floors, slightly littered down with straw, which should be often changed, and the whole place kept perfectly clean. "Sandy gravel," he says, "should be placed in several different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs for both water and food should be placed around, that the stock may feed with as little interruption as possible from each other, and perches in the same proportion should be furnished for those birds which are inclined to perch, which few of them will desire after they have begun to fatten, but it helps to keep them easy and contented until that period. In this manner fowls may be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a healthy state, their flesh being nearly equal in quality to the barn-door fowl. To suffer fattening fowls to perch is contrary to the general practice, since it is supposed to bend and deform the backbone; but as soon as they become heavy and indolent from feeding, they will rather incline to roost in the straw, and the liberty of perching has a tendency to accelerate the period when they wish for rest." The practice of fattening fowls in coops, if carried to a moderate extent, is not objectionable, and may be necessary in many cases. The coop may be three feet high, two feet wide, and four feet long, which will accommodate six or eight birds, according to their size; or it may be constructed in compartments, each being about nine inches by eighteen, and about eighteen inches high. The floor should not consist of board, but be formed of bars two inches wide, and placed two inches apart. The bars should be laid from side to side, and not from the back to the front of the coop. They should be two inches wide at the upper part, with slanting or rounded sides, so as to prevent the dung from sticking to them instead of falling straight between. The front should be made of rails three inches apart. The house in which the coops are placed should be properly ventilated, but free from cold draughts, and kept of an even temperature, which should be moderately warm. The fronts of the coops should be covered with matting or other kind of protection in cold weather. The coop should be placed about two inches from the ground, and a shallow tray filled with fresh dry earth should be placed underneath to catch the droppings, and renewed every day. When fowls are put up to fat they should not have any food given to them for some hours, and they will take it then more eagerly than if pressed upon them when first put into the coop. But little grain should be given to fowls during the time they are fattening in coops; indeed the chief secret of success consists in supplying them with the most fattening food without stint, in such a form that their digestive mills shall find no difficulty in grinding it. Buckwheat-meal is the best food for fattening; and to its use the French, in a great measure, owe the splendid condition of the fowls they send to market. If it cannot be had, the best substitute is an equal mixture of maize-meal and barley-meal. The meal may be mixed with skim milk if available. Oatmeal and barley-meal alternately, mixed with milk, and occasionally with a little dripping, is good fattening food. Milk is most excellent for all young poultry. A little chopped green food should be given daily, to keep their bowels in a proper state. The feeding-troughs, which must be kept clean by frequent scouring, should be placed before the fowls at regular times, and when they have eaten sufficient it is best to remove them, and place a little gravel within reach to assist digestion. Each fowl should have as much food as it will eat at one time, but none should be left to become sour. A little barley may, however, be scattered within their reach. A good supply of clean water must be always within their reach. If a bird appears to be troubled with vermin, some powdered sulphur, well rubbed into the roots of the feathers, will give immediate relief. The coops should be thoroughly lime-washed after the fowls are removed, and well dried before fresh birds are put up in them. It is a common practice to fatten poultry in coops by a process called "cramming," by which they are loaded with greasy fat in a very short time. But it is evident that such overtaxing of the fowls' digestive powers, want of exercise and fresh air, confinement in a small space, and partial deprivation of light, without which nothing living, either animal or vegetable, can flourish, cannot produce healthy or wholesome flesh. "Indeed," as Mowbray observes, "it seems contrary to reason, that fowls fed upon such greasy, impure mixtures can possibly produce flesh or fat so firm, delicate, high-flavoured, or nourishing, as those fattened upon more simple and substantial food; as for example, meal and milk, and perhaps either treacle or sugar. With respect to grease of any kind, its chief effect must be to render the flesh loose and of a coarse flavour. Neither can any advantage be gained, except perhaps a commercial one, by very quick feeding; for real excellence cannot be obtained but by waiting nature's time, and using the best food. Besides all this, I have been very unsuccessful in my few attempts to fatten fowls by cramming; they seem to loathe the crams, to pine, and to lose the flesh they were put up with, instead of acquiring flesh; and when crammed fowls do succeed, they must necessarily, in the height of their fat, be in a state of disease." Mr. Muirhead, poulterer to Her Majesty in Scotland, says: "With regard to _cramming_, I may say that it is _wholly_ unnecessary, provided the fowls have abundance of the best food at regular intervals, fresh air, and a free run; in confinement fowls may gain fat, but they lose flesh. None but those who have had experience can form any idea how both qualities can be obtained in a natural way. I have seen fowls reared at Inchmartine (which had never been shut up, or had food forced upon them), equal, if not superior, to the finest Surrey fowl, or those fattened by myself for the Royal table." If "cramming" is practised it should be done in the following manner: The feeder, usually a female, should take the fowl carefully out of the fatting-coop by placing both her hands gently under its breast, then sit down with the bird upon her lap, its rump under her left arm, open its mouth with the finger and thumb of the left hand, take the pellet with the right, dip it well into water, milk, or pot liquor, shake the superfluous moisture from it, put it into the mouth, "cram" it gently into the gullet with her forefinger, then close the beak and gently assist it down into the crop with the forefinger and thumb, without breaking the pellet, and taking great care not to pinch the throat. When the fowl has been "crammed" it should be carefully carried back to its coop, both hands being placed under its breast as before. Chickens should be "crammed" regularly every twelve hours. The "cramming" should commence with a few pellets, and the number be gradually increased at each meal until it amounts to about fifteen. But always before you begin to feed gently feel the fowl's crop to ascertain that the preceding meal has been digested, and if you find it to contain food, let the bird wait until it is all digested, and give it fewer pellets at the next meal. If the "crams" should become hardened in the crop, some lukewarm water must be given to the bird, or poured down its throat if disinclined to drink, and the crop be gently pressed with the fingers until the hardened mass has become loosened so that the gizzard can grind it. The food chiefly used in France for "cramming" fowls is buckwheat-meal bolted very fine and mixed with milk. It should be prepared in the following manner: Pour the milk, which should be lukewarm in winter, into a hole made in the heap of meal, mixing it up with a wooden spoon a little at a time as long as the meal will take up the milk, and make it into the consistency of dough, keep kneading it until it will not stick to the hands, then divide it into pieces twice as large as an egg, which form into rolls generally about as thick as a small finger, but more or less thick according to the size of the fowls to be fed, and divide the rolls into pellets about two and a half inches in length by a slanting cut, which leaves pointed ends, that are easier to "cram" the fowls with than if they were square. The pellets should be rolled up as dry as possible. The operation of caponising as performed in England is barbarous, extremely painful, and dangerous. In France it is performed in a much more scientific and skilful manner. But the small advantage gained by this unnatural operation is more than counterbalanced by the unnecessary pain inflicted on the bird, and the great risk of losing it. Capons never moult, and lose their previously strong, shrill voice. In warm, dry countries they grow to a large size, and soon fatten, but do not succeed well in our moist, cold climate. They are not common in this country, and most of the fowls sold in the London markets as capons are merely young cockerels well crammed. If capons are kept they should have a separate house, for the other fowls will not allow those even of their own family to occupy the same roosting-perch with them. The hens not only show them indifference, but decided aversion. Hen chickens, deprived of their reproductive organs in order to fatten them sooner, are common in France, where they are styled poulardes. Fattening ought to be completed in from ten to twenty days. When fowls are once fattened up they should be killed, for they cannot be kept fat, but begin to lose flesh and become feverish, which renders their flesh red and unsaleable, and frequently causes their death. Great cruelty is often ignorantly inflicted by poulterers, higglers, and others, in "twisting the necks" of poultry. An easy mode of killing a fowl is to give the bird a very sharp blow with a small but heavy blunt stick, such as a child's bat or wooden sword, at the back of the neck, about the second or third joint from the head, which will, if properly done, sever the spine and cause death very speedily. But the knife is the most merciful means; the bird being first hung up by the legs, the mouth must be opened wide, and a long, narrow, sharp-pointed knife, like a long penknife, which instrument is made for the purpose, should be thrust firmly through the back part of the roof of the mouth up into the brain, which will cause almost instant death. Another mode of killing is to pluck a few feathers from the side of the head, just below the ear, and make a deep incision there. Some say that fowls should not be bled to death like turkeys and geese, as, from the loss of blood, the flesh becomes dry and insipid. But when great whiteness of flesh is desired, the fowl should be hung up by its legs immediately after being killed, and if it has been killed without the flow of blood, an incision should be made in the neck so that it may bleed freely. Fowls that have been kept without food and water for twelve hours before being killed will keep much better than if they had been recently fed, as the food is apt to ferment in the crop and bowels, which often causes the fowl to turn green in a few hours in warm weather. If empty they should not be drawn, and they will keep much better. Fowls are easiest plucked at once, while warm; they should afterwards be scalded by dipping them for a moment in boiling water, which will give a plump appearance to any good fowl. Fowls should not be packed for market before they are quite cold. Old fowls should not be roasted, but boiled, and they will then prove tolerably good eating. The feathers are valuable and should be preserved, which is very easily managed. "Strip the plumage," says Mr. Wright, "from the quills of the larger feathers, and mix with the small ones, putting the whole loosely in paper bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some other warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the bags be baked three or four times for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each baking, and the process will be completed. Less trouble than this will do, and is often made to suffice; but the feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may occasionally become offensive." CHAPTER VIII. STOCK, BREEDING, AND CROSSING. Keep only good, healthy, vigorous, well-bred fowls, whether you keep them to produce eggs or chickens, or both. The ill-bred mongrel fowls which are so commonly kept, are the most voracious, and consume larger quantities of food, without turning it to any account; while well-bred fowls eat less, and quickly convert that into fat, flesh, and eggs. "Large, well-bred fowls," says Mr. Edwards, "do not consume more food than ravenous, mongrel breeds. It is the same with fowls as with other stock. I have at this moment two store pigs, one highly bred, the other a rough, ill-bred animal. They have, since they left their mothers, been fed together and upon the same food. The former, I am confident (from observation), ate considerably less than the latter, which was particularly ravenous. The former pig, however, is in excellent condition, kind, and in a measure fat; whereas the latter looks hard, starved, and thin, and I am sure she will require one-third more food to make bacon of." For the amateur who is content with eggs and chickens, and does not long for prize cups, excellent birds possessing nearly all the best characteristics of their breeds, but rendered imperfect by a few blemishes, may be purchased at a small cost, and will be as good layers or chicken-producers, and answer his purpose as well as the most expensive that can be bought. The choice of breed must depend upon the object for which the fowls are kept, whether chiefly for eggs or to produce chickens, or for both; the climate, soil, and situation; the space that can be allotted to them; and the amount of attention that can be devoted to their care. If fowls are to be bred for exhibition, you must be guided by your own taste, pocket, and resources, as well as by the suitability of the situation for the particular breed desired. The advantages, disadvantages, and peculiarities of the various breeds will be described under their respective heads. In commencing poultry-keeping buy only young and healthy birds. No one sign is infallible to the inexperienced. In general, however, the legs of a young hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles are soft and fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless when fattened for the table), rather light and graceful; whilst an old one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks; her comb and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. But any of these signs may be deceptive, and the beginner should use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "old look," which he will soon learn to know. All authorities agree that a cock is in his prime at two years of age, though some birds show every sign of full vigour when only four months old. It is agreed by nearly all the greatest authorities that the ages of the cocks and hens should be different; however, good birds may be bred from parents of the same age, but they should not be less than a year old. The strongest chickens are obtained from two-year old hens by a cockerel of about a year old; but such broods contain a disproportion of cocks, and, therefore, most poultry-keepers prefer to breed from well-grown pullets of not less than nine months with a cock of two years of age. The cock should not be related to the hens. It is, therefore, not advisable to purchase him from the same breeder of whom you procure the hens. Do not let him be the parent of chickens from pullets that are his own offspring. Breeding in-and-in causes degeneracy in fowls as in all other animals. Some birds retain all their fire and energy until five or even six years of age, but they are beyond their prime after the third, or at the latest their fourth year; and should be replaced by younger birds of the same breed, but from a different stock. Poultry-breeders differ with respect to the proper number of hens that should be allowed to one cock. Columella, who wrote upon poultry about two thousand years ago, advised twelve hens to one cock, but stated that "our ancestors did use to give but five hens." Stephanus gave the same number as Columella. Bradley, and the authors of the "Complete Farmer," and the article upon the subject in "Rees's Cyclopædia," give seven or eight; and those who breed game-cocks are particular in limiting the number of hens to four or five for one cock, in order to obtain strong chickens. If fine, strong chickens be desired for fattening or breeding, there should not be more than five or six hens to one cock; but if the supply of eggs is the chief consideration, ten or twelve may be allowed; indeed, if eggs are the sole object, he can be dispensed with altogether, and his food saved, as hens lay, if there be any difference, rather better without one. The russet red is the most hardy colour, white the most delicate, and black the most prolific. General directions for the choice of fowls, as to size, shape, and colour, cannot be applicable to all breeds, which must necessarily vary upon these points. But in all breeds the cock should, as M. Parmentier says, "carry his head high, have a quick, animated look, a strong, shrill voice (except in the Cochins, which have a fuller tone), a fine red comb, shining as if varnished, large wattles of the same colour, strong wings, muscular thighs, thick legs furnished with strong spurs, the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. He ought also to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself, as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens, quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night." To prevent cocks from fighting, old Mascall, following Columella, says: "Now, to slacke that heate of jealousie, ye shall slitte two pieces of thicke leather, and put them on his legges, and those will hang over his feete, which will correct the vehement heate of jealousie within him"; and M. Parmentier observes that "such a bit of leather will cause the most turbulent cock to become as quiet as a man who is fettered at the feet, hands, and neck." The hen should be of good constitution and temper, and, if required to sit, large in the body and wide in the wings, so as to cover many eggs and shelter many chickens, but short in the legs, or she could not sit well. M. Parmentier advises the rejection of savage, quarrelsome, or peevish hens, as such are seldom favourites with the cocks, scarcely ever lay, and do not hatch well; also all above four or five years of age, those that are too fat to lay, and those whose combs and claws are rough, which are signs that they have ceased to lay. Hens should not be kept over their third year unless very good or choice. Hens are not uncommon with the plumage and spurs of the cock, and which imitate, though badly, his full-toned crow. In such fowls the power of producing eggs is invariably lost from internal disease, as has been fully demonstrated by Mr. Yarrell in the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1827, and in the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1831. Such birds should be fattened and killed as soon as observed. By careful study of the characteristics of the various breeds, breeding from select specimens, and judicious crossing, great size may be attained, maturity early developed, facility in putting on flesh encouraged, hardiness of constitution and strength gained, and the inclination to sit or the faculty of laying increased. Sir John Sebright, speaking of breeding cattle, says: "Animals may be said to be improved when any desired quality has been increased by art beyond what that quality was in the same breed in a state of nature. The swiftness of the racehorse, the propensity to fatten in cattle, and to produce fine wool in sheep, are improvements which have been made in particular varieties in the species to which these animals belong. What has been produced by art must be continued by the same means, for the most improved breeds will soon return to a state of nature, or perhaps defects will arise which did not exist when the breed was in its natural state, unless the greatest attention is paid to the selection of the individuals who are to breed together." The exact origin of the common domestic fowl and its numerous varieties is unknown. It is doubtless derived from one or more of the wild or jungle fowls of India. Some naturalists are of opinion that it is derived from the common jungle fowl known as the _Gallus Bankiva_ of Temminck, or _Gallus Ferrugineus_ of Gmelin, which very closely resembles the variety known as Black-breasted Red Game, except that the tail of the cock is more depressed; while others consider it to have been produced by the crossing of that species with one or more others, as the Malay gigantic fowl, known as the _Gallus giganteus_ of Temminck, Sonnerat's Jungle Fowl, _Gallus sonneratii_, and probably some other species. At what period or by what people it was reclaimed is not known, but it was probably first domesticated in India. The writers of antiquity speak of it as a bird long domesticated and widely spread in their days. Very likely there are many species unknown to us in Sumatra, Java, and the rich woods of Borneo. The process by which the various breeds have been produced "is simple and easily understood," says Mr. Wright. "Even in the wild state the original breed will show some amount of variation in colour, form, and size; whilst in domestication the tendency to change, as every one knows, is very much increased. By breeding from birds which show any marked feature, stock is obtained of which a portion will possess that feature in an _increased degree_; and by again selecting the best specimens, the special points sought may be developed to almost any degree required. A good example of such a process of development may be seen in the 'white face' so conspicuous in the Spanish breed. White ears will be observed occasionally in all fowls; even in such breeds as Cochins or Brahmas, where white ear-lobes are considered almost fatal blemishes; they continually occur, and by selecting only white-eared specimens to breed from, they might be speedily fixed in any variety as one of the characteristics. A large pendent white ear-lobe once firmly established, traces of the white _face_ will now and then be found, and by a similar method is capable of development and fixture; whilst any colour of plumage or of leg may be obtained and established in the same way. The original amount of character required is _very_ slight; a single hen-tailed cock will be enough to give that characteristic to a whole breed. Any peculiarity of _constitution_, such as constant laying, or frequent incubation, may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner, all that is necessary being care and time. That such has been the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our poultry, is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful selection is needful to perpetuate them in perfection. If the very best examples of a breed are selected as the starting-point, and the produce is bred from indiscriminately for many generations, the distinctive points, whatever they are, rapidly decline, and there is also a more or less gradual but sure return to the primitive wild type, in size and even colour of the plumage. The purest black or white originally, rapidly becomes first marked with, and ultimately changed into, the original red or brown, whilst the other features simultaneously disappear. If, however, the process of artificial selection be carried too far, and with reference _only to one_ prominent point, any breed is almost sure to suffer in the other qualities which have been neglected, and this has been the case with the very breed already mentioned--the white-faced Spanish. We know from old fanciers that this breed was formerly considered hardy, and even in winter rarely failed to afford a constant supply of its unequalled large white eggs. But of late years attention has been so _exclusively_ directed to the 'white-face,' that whilst this feature has been developed and perfected to a degree never before known, the breed has become one of the most delicate of all, and the laying qualities of at least many strains have greatly fallen off. It would be difficult to avoid such evil results if it were not for a valuable compensating principle, which admits of _crossing_. That principle is, that any desired point possessed in perfection by a foreign breed, may be introduced by crossing into a strain it is desired to improve, and every other characteristic of the cross be, by selection, afterwards bred out again. Or one or more of these additional characteristics may be also retained, and thus a _new variety_ be established, as many have been within the last few years." Size may be imparted to the Dorking by crossing it with the Cochin, and the disposition to feather on the legs bred out again by judicious selection; and the constitution may be strengthened by crossing with the Game breed. Game fowls that have deteriorated in size, strength, and fierceness, by a long course of breeding in-and-in, may have all these qualities restored by crossing with the fierce, powerful, and gigantic Malay, and his peculiarities may be afterwards bred out. The size of the eggs of the Hamburg might very probably be increased without decreasing, or with very slightly decreasing, the number of eggs, by crossing with a Houdan cock; and the size would also be increased for the table. The French breeds, Crêve-Coeur, Houdan, and La Flêche, gain in size and hardiness by being crossed with the Brahma cock. The cross between a Houdan cock and a Brahma hen "produces," says the "Henwife," "the finest possible chickens for market, but not to breed from. Pure Brahmas and Houdans alone must be kept for that purpose; I have always found the second cross worthless." In crossing, the cockerels will more or less resemble the male, and the pullets the hen. "Long experience," says Mr. Wright, "has ascertained that the male bird has most influence upon the colour of the progeny, and also upon the comb, and what may be called the 'fancy points,' of any breed generally; whilst the form, size, and useful qualities are principally derived from the hen." Breed only from the strongest and healthiest fowls. In the breeding of poultry it is a rule, as in all other cases of organised life, that the best-shaped be used for the purpose of propagation. If a cock and hen have both the same defect, however trifling it may be, they should never be allowed to breed together, for the object is to improve the breed, not to deteriorate it, even in the slightest degree. Hens should never be allowed to associate with a cock of a different breed if you wish to keep the breed pure, and if you desire superior birds, not even with an inferior male of their own variety. "No time," says Mr. Baily, "has ever been fixed as necessary to elapse before hens that have been running with cocks of divers breeds, and afterwards been placed with their legitimate partners, can be depended upon to produce purely-bred chickens; I am disposed to think at least two months. Time of year may have much to do with it. In the winter the escape of a hen from one run to the other, or the intrusion of a cock, is of little moment; but it may be serious in the spring, and destroy the hopes of a season." Many poultry-keepers separate the cocks and hens after the breeding season, considering that stronger chickens will be thereby obtained the next season. Where there is a separate house and run for the sitting hen this can be conveniently done when that compartment is vacant. In order to preserve a breed perfectly pure, it will be necessary, where there is not a large stock of the race, to breed from birds sprung from the same parents, but the blood should be crossed every year by procuring one or more fowls of the same breed from a distance, or by the exchange of eggs with some neighbouring stock, of colour and qualities as nearly allied as possible with the original breed. CHAPTER IX. POULTRY SHOWS. A few years ago poultry shows were unknown. In 1846, the first was held in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, in the Regent's Park; Mr. Baily being the sole judge. It was a very fair beginning, but did not succeed, and it was not till the Cochin-China breed was introduced into this country, and the first Birmingham show was held, that these exhibitions became successful. In 1849, "the first poultry show that was ever held in 'the good old town of Birmingham,' was beset with all the untried difficulties of such a scheme, when without the experiences of the present day, then altogether unavailable, a few spirited individuals carried to a successful issue an event that has now proved the foster-parent of the many others of similar character that abound in almost every principal town of the United Kingdom. It is quite essential, that I may be clearly understood, to preface my narrative by assuring fanciers that in those former days poultry amateurs were by no means as general as at the present time; few and far between were their locations; and though even then, among the few who felt interest in fowls, emulation existed, generally speaking, the keeping of poultry was regarded as 'a useless hobby,' 'a mere individual caprice,' 'an idle whim from which no good result could by possibility accrue'; nay, sometimes it was hinted, 'What a pity they have not something better to employ them during leisure hours!' and they were styled 'enthusiasts.' But have not the records of every age proved that enthusiasts are invariably the pioneers of improvement? And time, too, substantiated the verity of this rule in reference to our subject; for, among other proofs, it brought incontestable evidence that the raising of poultry was by no means the unremunerative folly idlers supposed it to be, and hesitated not rashly to declaim it; likewise, that it simply required to be fairly brought under public notice, to prove its general utility, and to induce the acknowledgment of how strangely so important a source of emolument had been hitherto neglected and overlooked." At the Birmingham Show of 1852, about five thousand fowls were exhibited, and the specimens sold during the four days of the show amounted to nearly two thousand pounds, notwithstanding the high prices affixed to the pens, and that many were placed at enormous prices amounting to a prohibition, the owners not wishing to sell them. The Birmingham shows now generally comprise from one to two thousand pens of fowls and water-fowls, arranged in nearly one hundred classes; besides an equal proportion of pigeons. This show is the finest and most important, but there are many others of very high character and great extent. Poultry is also now exhibited to a considerable extent at agricultural meetings. Any one may see the wonderful improvement that has been made in poultry-breeding by visiting the next Birmingham or other first-class show, and comparing the fowls there exhibited with those of his earliest recollections, and with those mongrels and impure breeds which may still be seen in too many farmyards. Points that were said to be impossible of attainment have been obtained with comparative ease by perserverance and skill, and the worst birds of a show are now often superior to the chief prize fowls of former days. Indeed, "a modern prize bird," says the "Henwife," "almost merits the character which a Parisian waiter gave of a melon, when asked to pronounce whether it was a fruit or a vegetable, 'Gentlemen,' said he, 'a melon is neither; it is a work of art.'" Such shows must have great influence on the improvement of the breeds and the general management of poultry, though like all other prize exhibitions they have certain disadvantages. "We cannot but think," says Mr. Wright, "that our poultry shows have, to some extent, by the character of the judging, hindered the improvement of many breeds. It will be readily admitted in _theory_ that a breed of fowls becomes more and more valuable as its capacity of producing eggs is increased, and the quantity and quality of its flesh are improved, with a small amount of bone and offal in proportion. But, if we except the Dorking, which certainly is judged to some extent as a table fowl, all this is _totally_ lost sight of both by breeders and judges, and attention is fixed exclusively upon colour, comb, face, and other equally fancy 'points.' Beauty and utility might be _both_ secured. The French have taught us a lesson of some value in this respect. Within a comparatively recent period they have produced, by crossing and selection, four new varieties, which, although inferior in some points to others of older standing, are all eminently valuable as table fowls; and which in one particular are superior to any English variety, not even excepting the Dorking--we mean the very small proportion of bone and offal. This is really useful and scientific breeding, brought to bear upon _one_ definite object, and we do trust the result will prove suggestive with regard to others equally valuable. We should be afraid to say how much might be done if English breeders would bring _their_ perseverance and experience to bear in a similar direction. Agricultural Societies in particular might be expected in _their_ exhibitions to show some interest in the improvement of poultry regarded as _useful stock_, and to them especially we commend the matter." The rules and regulations relating to exhibitions vary at different shows, and may be obtained by applying to the secretary. Notices of exhibitions are advertised in the local papers, and in the _Field_ and other London papers of an agricultural character. In breeding birds for exhibition the number of hens to one cock should not exceed four or five, but if only two or three hens of the breed are possessed, the proper number of his harem should be made up by the addition of hens of another breed, those being chosen whose eggs are easily known from the others. If it is intended to rear the chickens for exhibition at the June, July, or August shows, the earlier they are hatched the better, and therefore a sitting should be made in January, if you have a young, healthy hen broody. Set her on the ground in a warm, sheltered, and quiet place, perfectly secure from rain, or from any flow of snow water. Feed her well, and keep water and small quantities of food constantly within her reach, so that she may not be tempted to leave the nest in search of food; for the eggs soon chill in winter. Mix the best oatmeal with hot water, and give it to her warm twice a day. A few grains of hempseed as a stimulant may be given in the middle of the day. The great difficulty to overcome in rearing early chickens is to sustain their vital powers during the very long winter nights, when they are for so many hours without food, the only substitute for which is warmth, and this can only be well got from the hen. Consequently a young Cochin-China with plenty of "fluff" will provide most warmth. The hen should not be set on more than five, or at most seven eggs; for if she has more, although she may sufficiently cover the chickens while very small, she will not be able to do so when they grow larger, and the outer ones will be chilled unless they manage to push themselves into the inside places, and then the displaced chickens being warm are sure to get more chilled than the others; and so the greater number of the brood, even if they survive, will probably be weakly, puny things, through the greedy desire to rear so many, while if she hatch but five chickens she will probably rear four. The hen should be cooped until the chickens are at least ten weeks old, and covered up at night with matting, sacking, or a piece of carpet. Give them plenty of curd, chopped egg, and oatmeal, mixed with new milk. Stiff oatmeal porridge is the best stock food. Some onion tops minced fine will be an excellent addition if they can be had. They should have some milk to drink. Feed the hen well. The best warmth the chickens can have is that of their mother, and the best warmth for her is generated by generous, but proper, food, and a good supply of it. Early chickens rearing for show should be fed twice after dark, say at eight and eleven o'clock, and again at seven in the morning, so that they will not be without food for more than eight hours. The hen should be fed at the same times, and she will become accustomed to it, and call the chickens to feed; it will also generate more warmth in her for their benefit. Yolk of egg beaten up and given to drink is most strengthening for weakly chickens; or it may be mixed with their oatmeal. The tender breeds should not be hatched till April or May, unless in a mild climate, or with exceptional advantages. For winter exhibition, March and April hatched birds are preferable to those hatched earlier. Not more than seven eggs should be set, for a hen cannot scratch up insects and worms and find peculiar herbage for more than six chickens. If the chickens have not a good grass run, they must be supplied with abundance of green food. They should not be allowed to roost before they are three months old, and the perches must be sufficiently large. Mr. Wright recommends a bed of clean, dry ashes, an inch deep, for those that leave the hen before the proper age for roosting, and does not allow his chickens, even while with the hen, to bed upon straw, considering the ashes to be much cleaner and also warmer. The chickens intended to be exhibited should be distinguished from their companions by small stripes of different coloured silks loosely sewn round their legs, which distinguishing colours should be entered in the poultry-book. A few good birds should always be kept in reserve to fill up the pen in case of accidents. Weight is more important in the December and later winter shows than at those held between August and November, but at all shows feather and other points of competitors being equal weight must carry the day, Game and Bantams excepted. It is not safe to trust to the apparent weight of a bird, for the feathers deceive, and it is therefore advisable to weigh the birds occasionally. Each should be weighed in a basket, allowance being made for the weight of the basket, and they should if possible be weighed before a meal. But fowls that are over-fattened, as some judges very improperly desire, cannot be in good health anymore than "crammed" fowls, and are useless for breeding, producing at best a few puny, delicate, or sickly chickens; thus making the exhibition a mere "show," barren of all useful results. Pullets continue to grow until they begin to lay, which almost or quite stops their growth; and therefore if great size is desired for exhibition, they should be kept from the cockerels and partly from stimulating food until a month before the show, when they will be required to be matched in pens. During this month they should have extra food and attention. If fowls intended for exhibition are allowed to sit, the chickens are apt to cause injury to their plumage, and loss of condition, while if prevented from sitting, they are liable to suffer in moulting. Their chickens may be given to other hens, but the best and safest plan is to set a broody exhibition hen on duck's eggs, which will satisfy her natural desire for sitting, while the young ducklings will give her much less trouble, and leave her sooner than a brood of her own kind. All the birds in a pen should match in comb, colour of their legs, and indeed in every particular. Mr. Baily mentions "a common fault in exhibitors who send two pens composed of three excellent and three inferior birds, so divided as to form perhaps one third class and one highly commended pen: whereas a different selection would make one of unusual merit. If an amateur who wishes to exhibit has fifteen fowls to choose from, and to form a pen of a cock and two hens, he should study and scan them closely while feeding at his feet in the morning. He should then have a place similar to an exhibition pen, wherein he can put the selected birds; they should be raised to the height at which he can best see them, and before he has looked long at them defects will become apparent one after the other till, in all probability, neither of the subjects of his first selection will go to the show. We also advise him rather to look for defects than to dwell on beauties--the latter are always prominent enough. The pen of which we speak should be a moveable one for convenience' sake, and it is well to leave the fowls in it for a time that they may become accustomed to each other, and also to an exhibition pen." Birds that are strangers should never be put into the same hamper, for not only the cocks but even the hens will fight with and disfigure each other. Some give linseed for a few days before the exhibition to impart lustre to the plumage, by increasing the secretion of oil. A small quantity of the meal should be mixed with their usual soft food, as fowls generally refuse the whole grain. But buckwheat and hempseed, mixed in equal proportions, if given for the evening meal during the last ten or twelve days, is healthier for the bird, much liked, and will not only impart equal lustre to the plumage, but also improve the appearance of the comb and wattles. Spanish fowls should be kept in confinement for some days before the show, with just enough light to enable them to feed and perch, and the place should be littered with clean straw. This greatly improves their condition; why we know not, but it is an established fact. Game fowls should be kept in for a few days, and fed on meal, barley, and bread, with a few peas, which tend to make the plumage hard, but will make them too fat if given freely. Dark and golden birds should be allowed to run about till they have to be sent off. Remove all scurf or dead skin from the comb, dry dirt from the beak, and stains from the plumage, and wash their legs clean. White and light fowls that have a good grass run and plenty of clean straw in their houses and yards to scratch in, will seldom require washing, but town birds, and country ones if not perfectly clean, should be washed the day before the show with tepid water and mild white soap rubbed on flannel, care being taken to wash the feathers downwards, so as not to break or ruffle them; afterwards wiped with a piece of flannel that has been thoroughly soaked in clean water, and gently dried with soft towels before the fire; or the bird may be entirely dipped into a pan of warm water, then rinsed thoroughly in cold water, wiped with a flannel, and placed in a basket with soft straw before a fire to dry. They should then be shut up in their houses with plenty of clean straw. They should have their feet washed if dirty, and be well fed with soft nourishing food just before being put into the travelling-basket, for hard food is apt to cause fever and heat while travelling, and, having to be digested without gravel or exercise, causes indigestion, which ruffles the plumage, dulls its colour, darkens the comb, and altogether spoils the appearance of the bird. Sopped or steeped bread is excellent. The hampers should always be round or oval in form, as fowls invariably creep into corners and destroy their plumage. They should be high enough for the cocks to stand upright in, without touching the top with their combs. Some exhibitors prefer canvas tops to wicker lids, considering that the former preserve the fowls' combs from injury if they should strike against the top, while others prefer the latter as being more secure, and allowing one hamper to be placed upon another if necessary, and also preserving the fowls from injury if a heavy hamper or package should otherwise be placed over it. A good plan is to have a double canvas top, the space between being filled with hay. A thick layer of hay or straw should be placed at the bottom of the basket. Wheaten straw is the best in summer and early autumn, and oat or barley straw later in the year and during winter. A good lining also is essential; coarse calico stitched round the inside of the basket is the best. Ducks and geese do not require their hampers to be lined, except in very cold weather; and the best lining for them is made by stitching layers of pulled straw round the inside of the basket. Turkeys should have their hampers lined, for although they are very hardy, cold and wet damage their appearance more than other poultry. Take care that the geese cannot get at the label, for they will eat it, and also devour the hempen fastenings if within their reach. Be very careful in entering your birds for exhibition; describe their ages, breed, &c., exactly and accurately, and see yourself to the packing and labelling of their hampers. Mr. F. Wragg, the superintendent of the poultry-yard of R. W. Boyle, Esq., whose fowls have a sea voyage from Ireland besides the railway journey, and yet always appear in splendid condition and "bloom," ties on one side of the hamper, "near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on the other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loaf, of which they will eat away all the soft part. Before starting, I give each bird half a tablespoonful of port wine, which makes them sleep a good part of the journey. Of course, if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that they, as well as myself, have 'refreshment' on the road."[A] The cabbage will always be a treat, and the loaf and wine may be added for long journeys. Birds are frequently over-fed at the show, particularly with barley, which cannot be properly digested for want of gravel and exercise; and therefore, if upon their return their crops are hard and combs look dark, give a tablespoonful of castor oil; but if they look well do not interfere with them. They should not have any grain, but be fed sparingly on stale bread soaked in warm ale, with two or three mouthfuls of tepid water, for liquid is most hurtful if given in quantity. They should not be put into the yard with the other fowls which may treat them, after their absence, as intruders, but be joined with them at night when the others have gone to roost. On the next day give them a moderate allowance of soft food with a moderate supply of water, or stale bread sopped in water, and a sod of grass or half a cabbage leaf each, but no other green food; and on the following day they may have their usual food. When the fowls are brought back, take out the linings, wash them, and put them by to be ready for the next show; and after the exhibition season, on a fine dry day, wash the hampers, dry them thoroughly, and put them in a dry place. Never use them as quiet berths for sick birds, which are sure to infect them and cause the illness of the next occupants; or as nesting-places for sitting hens, which may leave insects in the crevices that will be difficult to eradicate. In our descriptions of the various Breeds, we have given sufficient general information upon the Exhibition Points from the best authorities; but considerable differences of opinion have been expressed of late years, and eminent breeders dissent in some cases even from the generally recognised authority of the popular "Standard of Excellence." We, therefore, advise intending exhibitors to ascertain the standards to be followed at the show and the predilections of the judges, and to breed accordingly, or, if they object to the views held, not to compete at that exhibition. TECHNICAL TERMS. _Coverts._--The _upper_ and _lower wing coverts_ are those ranges of feathers which cover the primary quills; and the _tail coverts_ are those feathers growing on each side of the tail, and are longer than the body feathers, but shorter than those of the tail. _Dubbing._--Cutting off the comb and wattles of a cock; an operation usually confined to Game cocks. _Ear-lobe._--The small feathers covering the organ of hearing, which is placed a little behind the eye. _Flight._--The last five feathers of each wing. _Fluff._--The silky feathers growing on the thighs and hinder parts of Cochin-China fowls. _Hackles._--The _neck hackles_ are feathers growing from the neck, and covering the shoulders and part of the back; and the _saddle hackles_ those growing from the end of the back, and falling over the sides. _Legs._--The _legs_ are properly the lower and scaly limbs, the upper part covered with feathers and frequently mis-called legs, being correctly styled the _thighs_. _Primary Quills._--The long, strong quills, usually ten in number, forming the chief portion of each wing, and the means of flight. _Vulture-hocked._--Feathers growing from the thigh, and projecting backwards below the knee. [Illustration: Buff and White Cochin-China. Malay Cock. Light and Dark Brahmas.] CHAPTER X. COCHIN-CHINAS, OR SHANGHAES. Like many other fowls these possess a name which is incorrectly applied, for they came from Shanghae, not Cochin-China, where they were comparatively unknown. Mr. Fortune, who, from his travels in China, is well qualified to give an opinion, states that they are a Chinese breed, kept in great numbers at Shanghae; the real Cochin-China breed being small and elegantly shaped. But all attempts to give them the name of the port from which they were brought have failed, and the majority of breeders persist in calling them Cochins. In the United States both names are used, the feather-legged being called Shanghaes, and the clean-legged Cochins. The first Shanghae fowls brought to this country were sent from India to Her Majesty, which gave them great importance; and the eggs having been freely distributed by the kindness of the Queen and the Prince Consort, the breed was soon widely spread. They were first introduced into this country when the northern ports of China, including Shanghae, were thrown open to European vessels on the conclusion of the Chinese war in 1843; but some assign the date of their introduction from 1844 to 1847, and say that those called Cochins, exhibited by the Queen in 1843, were not the true breed, having been not only entirely without feathers on the shanks, but also altogether different in form and general characteristics. A pair which were sent by Her Majesty for exhibition at the Dublin Cattle Show in April, 1846, created such a sensation from their great size and immense weight, and the full, loud, deep-pitched crowing of the cock, that almost every one seemed desirous to possess some of the breed, and enormous prices were given for the eggs and chickens. With his propensity for exaggeration, Paddy boasted that they laid five eggs in two days, each weighing three ounces, that the fowls equalled turkeys in size, and "Cochin eggs became in as great demand as though they had been laid by the fabled golden goose. Philosophers, poets, merchants, and sweeps had alike partook of the mania; and although the latter could hardly come up to the price of a real Cochin, there were plenty of vagabond dealers about, with counterfeit crossed birds of all kinds, which were advertised to be the genuine article. For to such a pitch did the excitement rise, that they who never kept a fowl in their lives, and would hardly know a Bantam from a Dorking, puzzled their shallow brains as to the proper place to keep them, and the proper diet to feed them on." Their justly-deserved popularity speedily grew into a mania, and the price which had been from fifteen to thirty shillings each, then considered a high price for a fowl, rose to ten pounds for a fine specimen, and ultimately a hundred guineas was repeatedly paid for a single cock, and was not an uncommon price for a pair of really fine birds. "They were afterwards bred," says Miss Watts, "for qualities difficult of attainment, and, as the result proved, little worth trying for," and "fowls with _many_ excellent qualities were blamed for not being _perfect_," and they fell from their high place, and were as unjustly depreciated as they had been unduly exalted. "Had these birds," wrote Mr. Baily many years since, "been shy breeders--if like song birds the produce of a pair were four, or at most five, birds in the year, prices might have been maintained; but as they are marvellous layers they increased. They bred in large numbers, and consequently became cheaper, and then the mania ended, because those who dealt most largely in them did so not from a love of the birds or the pursuit, but as a speculation. As they had over-praised them before, they now treated them with contempt. Anything like a moderate profit was despised, and the birds were left to their own merits. These were sufficient to ensure their popularity, and now after fluctuating in value more than anything except shares, after being over-praised and then abused, they have remained favourites with a large portion of the public, sell at a remunerating price, and form one of the largest classes at all the great exhibitions." This has proved to be a perfectly correct view, and the breed is now firmly established in public estimation, and unusually fine birds will still sell for from five to twenty pounds each. The mania did great service to the breeding and improvement of poultry by awakening an interest in the subject throughout the kingdom which has lasted. They are the best of all fowls for a limited space, and not inclined to wander even when they have an extensive run. They cannot fly, and a fence three feet high will keep them in. But if kept in a confined space they must have an unlimited supply of green food. They give us eggs when they are most expensive, and indeed, with regard to new-laid eggs, when they are almost impossible to be had at any price. They begin to lay soon after they are five months old, regardless of the season or weather, and lay throughout the year, except when requiring to sit, which they do twice or thrice a year, and some oftener. Pullets will sometimes lay at fourteen weeks, and want to sit before they are six months old. Cochins have been known to lay twice in a day, but not again on the following day, and the instances are exceptional. Their eggs are of a pale chocolate colour, of excellent flavour, and usually weigh 2-1/4 ounces each. They are excellent sitters and mothers. Pullets will frequently hatch, lay again, and sit with the chickens of the first brood around them. Cochins are most valuable as sitters early in the year, being broody when other fowls are beginning to lay; but unless cooped they are apt to leave their chickens too soon, especially for early broods, and lay again. They are very hardy, and their chickens easy to rear, doing well even in bleak places without any unusual care. But they are backward in fledging, chickens bred from immature fowls being the most backward. Those which are cockerels show their flight feathers earliest. They are very early matured. A writer in the _Poultry Chronicle_ well says: "These fowls were sent to provide food for man; by many they are not thought good table fowls; but when others fail, if you keep them, you shall never want the luxury of a really new-laid egg on your breakfast table. The snow may fall, the frost may be thick on your windows when you first look out on a December morning, but your Cochins will provide you eggs. Your children shall learn gentleness and kindness from them, for they are kind and gentle, and you shall be at peace with your neighbours, for they will not wander nor become depredators. They have fallen in price because they were unnaturally exalted; but their sun is not eclipsed; they have good qualities, and valuable. They shall now be within the reach of all; and will make the delight of many by their domestic habits, which will allow them to be kept where others would be an annoyance." They will let you take them off their roost, handle and examine them, and put them back without struggling. The fault of the Cochin-Chinas as table birds is, that they produce most meat on the inferior parts; thus, there is generally too little on the breast which is the prime part of a fowl, while the leg which is an inferior part, is unusually fleshy, but it must be admitted that the leg is more tender than in other breeds. A greater quantity of flesh may be raised within a given time, on a certain quantity of food, from these fowls than from any other breed. The cross with the Dorking is easily reared, and produces a very heavy and well-shaped fowl for the table, and a good layer. "A great hue and cry," says Miss Watts, "has been raised against the Cochin-Chinas as fowls for the table, but we believe none have bestowed attention on breeding them with a view to this valuable consideration. Square, compact, short-legged birds have been neglected for a certain colour of feather, and a broad chest was given up for the wedge-form at the very time that was pronounced a fault in the fowl. It is said that yellow-legged fowls are yellow also in the skin, and that white skin and white legs accompany each other; but how pertinaciously the yellow leg of the Cochin is adhered to! Yet all who have bred them will attest that a little careful breeding would perpetuate white-legged Cochins. Exhibitions are generally excellent; but to this fowl they certainly have only been injurious, by exaggerating useless and fancy qualities at the expense of those which are solid and useful. Who would favour, or even sanction, a Dorking in which size and shape, and every property we value in them, was sacrificed to an endeavour to breed to a particular colour? and this is what we have been doing with the Cochin-China. Many breeders say, eat Cochins while very young; but we have found them much better for the table as fowls than as chickens. A fine Cochin, from five to seven months old, is like a turkey, and very juicy and fine in flavour." A peculiar characteristic of these birds, technically called "fluff," is a quantity of beautifully soft, long feathers, covering the thighs till they project considerably, and garnishing all the hinder parts of the bird in the same manner, so that the broadest part of the bird is behind. Its quality is a good indication of the breed; if fine and downy the birds are probably well-bred, but if rank and coarse they are inferior. The cocks are frequently somewhat scanty in "fluff," but should be chosen with as much as possible; but vulture-hocks which often accompany the heaviest feathered birds should be avoided, as they now disqualify at the best shows. "The fluff," says a good authority, "in the hen especially, should so cover the tail feathers as to give the appearance of a very short back, the line taking an upward direction from within an inch or so of the point of junction with the hackle." The last joint of the wings folds up, so that the ends of the flight feathers are concealed by the middle feathers, and their extremities are again covered by the copious saddle, which peculiarity has caused them to be also called the ostrich-fowl. A good Cochin cock should be compact, large, and square built; broad across the loins and hind-quarters; with a deep keel; broad, short back; short neck; small, delicately-shaped, well-arched head; short, strong, curved beak; rather small, finely and evenly serrated, straight, single, erect comb, wholly free from reduplications and sprigs; brilliant red face, and pendant wattles; long hanging ear-lobe, of pure red, white being inadmissible; bright, bold eye, approaching the plumage in colour; rich, full, long hackle; small, closely-folded wings; short tail, scarcely any in some fine specimens, not very erect, with slightly twisted glossy feathers falling over it like those of the ostrich; stout legs set widely apart, yellow and heavily feathered to the toe; and erect carriage. The chief defect of the breed is narrowness of breast, which should therefore be sought for as full as possible. The hen's body is much deeper in proportion than that of the cock. She resembles him upon most points, but differs in some; her comb having many indentations; the fluff being softer, and of almost silky quality; the tail has upright instead of falling feathers, and comes to a blunt point; and her carriage is less upright. Cochins lose their beauty earlier than any other breed, and moult with more difficulty each time. They are in their greatest beauty at from nine to eighteen months old. The cocks' tails increase with age. In buying Cochins avoid clean legs, fifth toes, which show that it has been crossed with the Dorking, double combs that betray Malay blood, and long tails, particularly taking care that the cock has not, and ascertaining that he never had, sickle feathers. The cock ought not to weigh less than ten or eleven pounds, and a very fine bird will reach thirteen; the hens from eight to ten pounds. The principal colours now bred are Buff, Cinnamon, Partridge, Grouse, Black, and White. The Buff and White are the most popular. Buff birds may have black in the tails of both sexes, but the less there is the better. Black-pencilling in the hackle is considered objectionable at good shows. The cock's neck hackles, wing coverts, back, and saddle hackles, are usually of a rich gold colour, but his breast and the lower parts of his body should match with those of his hens. Buff birds generally produce chickens lighter than themselves. Most birds become rather lighter at each moult. In making up an exhibition pen, observe that Grouse and Partridge hens should have a black-breasted cock; and that Buff and Cinnamon birds should not be placed together, but all the birds in the pen should be either Buff or Cinnamon. The Cinnamon are of two shades, the Light Cinnamon and the Silver, which is a pale washy tint, that looks very delicate and pretty when perfectly clean. Silver Cinnamon hens should not be penned with a pale Yellow cock, but with one as near to their own tint as can be found. Mr. Andrews's celebrated strain of Cochins sometimes produced both cocks and hens which were Silver Cinnamon, with streaks of gold in the hackle. In Partridge birds the cock's neck and saddle hackles should be of a bright red, striped with black, his back and wings of dark red, the latter crossed with a well-defined bar of metallic greenish black, and the breast and under parts of his body should be black, and not mottled. The hen's neck hackles should be of bright gold, striped with black, and all the other portions of her body of a light brown, pencilled with very dark brown. The Grouse are very dark Partridge, have a very rich appearance, and are particularly beautiful when laced. They are far from common, and well worth cultivating. The Partridge are more mossed in their markings, and not so rich in colour as the Grouse. Cuckoo Cochins are marked like the Cuckoo Dorkings, and difficult to breed free of yellow. The White and Black were introduced later than the others. Mr. Baily says the White were principally bred from a pair imported and given to the Dean of Worcester, and which afterwards became the property of Mrs. Herbert, of Powick. White Cochins for exhibition must have yellow legs, and they are prone to green. The origin of the Black is disputed. It is said to be a sport from the White, or to have been produced by a cross between the Buff and the White. By careful breeding it has been fixed as a decided sub-variety, but it is difficult, if not almost impossible, to rear a cock to complete maturity entirely free from coloured feathers. They keep perfectly pure in colour till six months old, after which age they sometimes show a golden patch or red feathers upon the wing, or a few streaks of red upon the hackle, of so dark a shade as to be imperceptible except in a strong light, and are often found on close examination to have white under feathers, and others barred with white. The legs in all the colours should be yellow. Flesh-coloured legs are admissible, but green, black, or white are defects. In the Partridge and Grouse a slight wash, as of indigo, appears to be thrown over them, which in the Black assumes a still darker shade; but in all three yellow should appear partially even here beneath the scales, as the pink tinge does in the Buff and White birds. Cochin-Chinas being much inclined to accumulate internal fat, which frequently results in apoplexy, should not be fed on food of a very fattening character, such as Indian corn. They are liable to have inflamed feet if they are obliged to roost on very high, small, or sharp perches, or allowed to run over sharp-edged stones. They are also subject to an affection called White Comb, which is a white mouldy eruption on the comb and wattles like powdered chalk; and if not properly treated in time, will spread over the whole body, causing the feathers to fall off. It is caused by want of cleanliness, over-stimulating or bad food, and most frequently by want of green food, which must be supplied, and the place rubbed with an ointment composed of two parts of cocoanut oil, and one of turmeric powder, to which some persons add one half part of sulphur; and six grains of jalap may be given to clear the bowels. CHAPTER XI. BRAHMA-POOTRAS. It is a disputed point among great authorities whether Brahmas form a distinct variety, or whether they originated in a cross with the Cochin, and have become established by careful breeding. When they were first introduced, Mr. Baily considered them to be a distinct breed, and has since seen nothing to alter his opinion. Their nature and habits are quite dissimilar, for they wander from home and will get their own living where a Cochin would starve, have more spirit, deeper breasts, are hardier, lay larger eggs, are less prone to sit, and never produce a clean-legged chicken. Whatever their origin, by slow and sure degrees, without any mania, they have become more and more popular, standing upon their own merits, and are now one of the most favourite varieties. "The worst accusation," says Miss Watts, "their enemies can advance against them is, that no one knows their origin; but this is applicable to them only as it is when applied to Dorkings, Spanish, Polands, and all the other kinds which have been brought to perfection by careful breeding, working on good originals. All we have in England are descended from fowls imported from the United States, and the best account of them is, that a sailor (rather vague, certainly) appeared in an American town (Boston or New York, I forget which) with a new kind of fowl for sale, and that a pair bought from him were the parents of all the Brahmas. Uncertain as this appears, the accounts of those who pretend to trace their origin as cross-bred fowls is, at least, equally so, and I believe we may just act towards the Brahmas as we do with regard to Dorkings and other good fowls, and be satisfied to possess a first-rate, useful kind, although we may be unable to trace its genealogical tree back to the root. Whatever may be their origin, I find them distinct in their characteristics. I have found them true to their points, generation after generation, in all the years that I have kept them. The pea-comb is very peculiar, and I have never had one chicken untrue in this among all that I have bred. Their habits are very unlike the Cochins. Although docile, they are much less inert; they lay a larger number of eggs, and sit less frequently. Many of my hens only wish to sit once a year; a few oftener than that, perhaps twice or even three times in rare instances, but never at the end of each small batch of eggs, as I find (my almost equal favourites) the Cochins do. The division of Light and Dark Brahmas is a fancy of the judges, which any one who keeps them can humour with a little care in breeding. My idea of their colour is, that it should be black and grey (iron grey, with more or less of a blue tinge, and devoid of any brown) on a clear white ground, and I do not care whether the white or the marking predominates. I believe breeders could bear me out, if they would, when I say many fowls which pass muster as Brahmas are the result of a cross, employed to increase size and procure the heavy colour which some of the judges affect." For strength of constitution, both as chickens and fowls, they surpass all other breeds. Brahmas like an extensive range, but bear confinement as well as any fowls, and keep cleaner in dirty or smoky places than any that have white feathers. They are capital foragers where they have their liberty, are smaller eaters and less expensive to keep than Cochins, and most prolific in eggs. They lay regularly on an average five fine large eggs a week all the year round, even when snow is on the ground, except when moulting or tending their brood. Mr. Boyle, of Bray, Ireland, the most eminent breeder of Dark Brahmas in Great Britain, says he has "repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in autumn, and _never stop_--let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm--for a single day till next spring." They usually lay from thirty to forty eggs before they seek to sit. The hens do not sit so often as Cochins, and a week's change of place will generally banish the desire. They put on flesh well, with plenty of breast-meat, and are more juicy and better shaped for the table than most Cochins; though, after they are six months old, the flesh is much inferior to that of the Dorking. A cross with a Dorking or Crêve-Coeur cock produces the finest possible table fowl, carrying almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality. The chickens are hardy and easy to rear. They vary in colour when first hatched, being all shades of brown, yellow, and grey, and are often streaked on the back and spotted about the head; but this variety gives place, as the feathers come, to the mixture of black, white, and grey, which forms the distinguishing colour of the Brahma. Mr. Baily has "hatched them in snow, and reared them all out of doors without any other shelter than a piece of mat or carpet thrown over the coop at night." They reach their full size at an early age, and the pullets are in their prime at eight months. Miss Watts noticed that Brahmas "are more clever in the treatment of themselves when they are ill than other fowls; when they get out of order, they will generally fast until eating is no longer injurious," which peculiarity is corroborated by the experienced "Henwife." The feathers of the Brahma-Pootra are said to be nearly equal to goose feathers. The head should have a slight fulness over the eye, giving breadth to the top; a full, pearl eye is much admired, but far from common; comb either a small single, or pea-comb--the single resembling that of the Cochin; the neck short; the breast wide and full; the legs short, yellow, and well-feathered, but not so fully as in the finest Cochins; and the tail short but full, and in the cock opening into a fan. They should be wide and deep made, large and weighty, and have a free, noble carriage, equally distinct from the waddle of the Cochin, and the erect bearing of the Malay. Unlike the Cochins, they keep constantly to their colour, which is a mixture of black, white, and grey; the lightest being almost white, and the darkest consisting of grey markings on a white ground. The colour is entirely a matter of taste, but the bottom colour should always be grey. "After breeding Brahmas for many years," says Miss Watts, "through many generations and crosses (always, however, keeping to families imported direct from America), we are quite confirmed in the opinion that the pea-comb is _the_ comb for the Brahma; and this seems now a settled question, for single-combed birds never take prizes when passable pea-combed birds are present. The leading characteristic of the peculiar comb, named by the Americans the pea-comb, is its triple character. It may be developed and separated almost like three combs, or nearly united into one; but its triple form is always evident. What we think most beautiful is, where the centre division is a little fluted, slightly serrated, and flanked by two little side combs. The degree of the division into three varies, and the peculiarities of the comb may be less perceptible in December than when the hens are laying; but the triple character of the pea-comb is always evident. It shows itself in the chick at a few days old, in three tiny paralleled lines." It is thick at the base, and like three combs joined into one, the centre comb being higher than the other, but the comb altogether must be low, rounded at the top, and the indentations must not be deep. Whether single or triple, all the combs in a pen should be uniform. The dark and light varieties should not be crossed, as, according to Mr. Teebay, who was formerly the most extensive and successful breeder of Brahmas in England, the result is never satisfactory. CHAPTER XII. MALAYS. This was the first of the gigantic Asiatic breeds imported into this country, and in height and size exceeds any fowl yet known. The origin of the Malay breed is supposed to be the _Gallus giganteus_ of Temminck. "This large and very remarkable species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "is a native of Java and Sumatra. The comb is thick and low, and destitute of serrations, appearing as if it had been partially cut off; the wattles are small, and the throat is bare. The neck is covered with elongated feathers, or hackles, of a pale golden-reddish colour, which advance upon the back, and hackles of the same colour cover the rump, and drop on each side of the base of the tail. The middle of the back and the shoulders of the wings are of a dark chestnut, the feathers being of a loose texture. The greater wing-coverts are of a glossy green, and form a bar of that colour across the wing. The primary and secondary quill feathers are yellowish, with a tinge of rufous. The tail feathers are of a glossy green. The under surface uniformly is of a glossy blackish green, but the base of each feather is a chestnut, and this colour appears on the least derangement of the plumage. The limbs are remarkably stout, and the robust tarsi are of a yellow colour. The voice is a sort of crow--hoarse and short, and very different from the clear notes of defiance uttered by our farmyard chanticleer. This species has the habit, when fatigued, of resting on the tarsi or legs, as we have seen the emu do under similar circumstances." In the "Proceedings of the Zoological Society" for 1832, we find the following notice respecting this breed, by Colonel Sykes, who observed it domesticated in the Deccan: "Known by the name of the Kulm cock by Europeans in India. Met with only as a domestic bird; and Colonel Sykes has reason to believe that it is not a native of India, but has been introduced by the Mussulmans from Sumatra or Java. The iris of the real game bird should be whitish or straw yellow. Colonel Sykes landed two cocks and a hen in England in June, 1831. They bore the winter well; the hen laid freely, and has reared two broods of chickens. The cock has not the shrill clear pipe of the domestic bird, and his scale of note appears more limited. A cock in the possession of Colonel Sykes stood twenty-six inches high to the crown of the head; but they attain a greater height. Length from the tip of the bill to the insertion of the tail, twenty-three inches. Hen one-third smaller than the male. Shaw very justly describes the habit of the cock, of resting, when tired, on the first joint of the leg." It is a long, large, heavy bird, standing remarkably upright, having an almost uninterrupted slope from the head to the insertion of the tail; with very long, though strong, yellow legs, quite free from feathers; long, stout, firm thighs, and stands very erect; the cock, when full grown, being at least two feet six inches, and sometimes over three feet in height, and weighing from eight to eleven pounds. The head has great fulness over the eye, and is flattened above, resembling that of the snake. The small, thick, hard comb, scarcely rising from the head, and barely as long, like half a strawberry, resembles that of a Game fowl dubbed. The wattles are very small; the neck closely feathered, and like a rope, with a space for an inch below the beak bare of feathers. It has a hard, cruel expression of face; a brilliant bold eye, pearled around the edge of the lids; skinny red face; very strong curved yellow beak; and small, drooping tail, with very beautiful, though short, sickle feathers. The hen resembles the cock upon all these points, but is smaller. Their colours now comprise different shades of red and deep chestnut, in combination with rich browns, and there are also black and white varieties, each of which should be uniform. The feathers should be hard and close, which causes it to be heavier than it appears. Malays are inferior to most other breeds as layers, but the pullets commence laying early, and are often good winter layers. Their eggs, which weigh about 2-1/2 ounces each, are of a deep buff or pale chocolate colour, surpass all others in flavour, and are so rich that two of them are considered to be equal to three of ordinary fowls. They are nearly always fertile. Their chief excellence is as table fowls, carrying, as they do, a great quantity of meat, which, when under a year old, is of very good quality and flavour. Crossed with the Spanish and Dorking, they produce excellent table fowls; the latter cross being also good layers. Malays are good sitters and mothers, if they have roomy nests. Their chickens should not be hatched after June, as they feather slowly, and are delicate; but the adult birds are hardy enough, and seem especially adapted to crowded localities, such as courts and alleys. "Malays," says Mr. Baily, "will live anywhere; they will inhabit a back yard of small dimensions; they will scratch in the dust-hole, and roost under the water-butt; and yet not only lay well, but show in good condition when requisite." Like the Game fowl, it is terribly pugnacious, and in its native country is kept and trained for fighting. This propensity, which is still greater in confinement, is its greatest disadvantage. When closely confined they are apt to eat each other's feathers, the cure for which is turning them into a grass run, and giving them a good supply of lettuce leaves, with an occasional purgative of six grains of jalap. The Chittagong is said to be a variety of the Malay. CHAPTER XIII. GAME. This is the kind expressly called the English breed by Buffon and the French writers, and is the noblest and most beautiful of all breeds, combining an admirable figure, brilliant plumage, and stately gait. It is most probably derived from the larger or continental Indian species of the Javanese, or Bankiva Jungle Fowl--the _Gallus Bankiva_ of Temminck--which is a distinct species, distinguished chiefly from the Javanese fowl by its larger size. (_See_ page 124.) Of this continental species, Sir W. Jardine states that he has seen three or four specimens, all of which came from India proper. The Game cock is the undisputed king of all poultry, and is unsurpassed for courage. The Malay is more cruel and ferocious, but has less real courage. Game fowls are in every respect fighting birds, and, although cock-fighting is now very properly prohibited by law, Game fowls are always judged mainly in reference to fighting qualities. But their pugnacious disposition renders them very troublesome, especially if they have not ample range, although it does not disqualify them for small runs to the extent generally supposed. A blow with his spur is dangerous, and instances have been recorded of very severe injuries inflicted upon children, even causing death. An old newspaper states that "Mr. Johnson, a farmer in the West Riding of Yorkshire, who has a famous breed of the Game fowl, has had the great misfortune to lose his little son, a boy of three years old, who was attacked by a Game cock, and so severely injured that he died shortly afterwards." High-bred hens are quite as pugnacious as the cocks. The chickens are very quarrelsome, and both cocks and hens fight so furiously, that frequently one-half of a brood is destroyed, and the other half have to be killed. Game fowls are hardy when they can have liberty, but cannot be well kept in a confined space. They eat little, and are excellent for an unprotected place, because by their activity they avoid danger themselves, and by their courage defend their chickens from enemies. The hen is a prolific layer, and, if she has a good run, equal to any breed. The eggs, though of moderate size only, are remarkable for delicacy of flavour. She is an excellent sitter, and still more excellent mother. The chickens are easily reared, require little food, and are more robust in constitution than almost any other variety. The flesh of the Game fowl is beautifully white, and superior to that of all other breeds for richness and delicacy of flavour. They should never be put up to fat, as they are impatient of confinement. "They are in no way fit for the fattening-coop," says Mr. Baily. "They cannot bear the extra food without excitement, and that is not favourable to obesity. Nevertheless, they have their merits. If they are reared like pheasants round a keeper's house, and allowed to run semi-wild in the woods, to frequent sunny banks and dry ditches, they will grow up like them; they will have little fat, but they will be full of meat. They must be eaten young; and a Game pullet four or five months old, caught up wild in this way, and killed two days before she is eaten, is, perhaps, the most delicious chicken there is in point of flavour." The Game-fowl continues to breed for many years without showing any signs of decay, and in this respect is superior to the Cochin, Brahma, and even to the Dorking. The cock's head should be long, but fine; beak long, curved, and strong; comb single, small, upright, and bright red; wattles and face bright red; eyes large and brilliant; neck long, arched, and strong; breast well developed; back short and broad between the shoulders, but tapering to the tail; thighs muscular, but short compared to the shanks; spur low; foot flat, with powerful claws, and his carriage erect. The form of the hen should resemble the above on a smaller scale, with small, fine comb and face, and wattles of a less intense red. The feathers of both should be very hard, firm, and close, very strong in the quills, and seem so united that it should be almost impossible to ruffle them, each feather if lifted up falling readily into its original place. Size is not a point of merit, from four to six pounds being considered sufficient, and better than heavier weights. Among the list of imperfections in Game cocks, Sketchley enumerates "flat sides, short legs, thin thighs, crooked or indented breast, short thin neck, imperfect eye, and duck or short feet." "It is the custom," says Miss Watts, "consequently imperative, that all birds which are exhibited should have been dubbed, and this should not be done until the comb is so much developed that it will not spring again after the dubbing. This will be safe if the chicken is nearly six months old, but some are more set than others at a certain age. A keen pair of scissors is the best instrument with which to operate. Hold the fowl with a firm hand, cut away the deaf ears and wattles, then cut the comb, cutting a certain distance from the back, and then from the front to join this cut, taking especial care not to go too near the skull. Some operators put a finger inside the mouth to get a firm purchase. We should like to see dubbing done away with, leaving these beautiful fowls as nature makes them; but since amateurs and shows will not agree to this, it is best to give directions for dubbing, as an operation bunglingly performed is sure to give unnecessary pain." To save the bird from excessive loss of blood his wattles are usually cut off a week later. Every superfluous piece of flesh and skin should be removed. The "Henwife" well says: "Why these poor birds are condemned to submit to this cruel operation is a mystery, unfathomable, I suspect, even by the judges themselves. Cock-fighting being forbidden by law, the cocks should, on principle, be left undubbed, as a protest against this brutal amusement. The comb of the Game male bird is as beautifully formed as that of the Dorking; why then rob it of this great ornament? It is asserted that it is necessary to remove the comb to prevent the cocks injuring each other fatally in fighting; but this is not true; a Dorking will fight for the championship as ardently as any Game bird, and yet his comb is spared. Cockerels will not quarrel if kept apart from hens until the breeding season, when they should be separated, and put on their several walks. If pugnaciously inclined I do not believe that the absence of the comb will save the weaker opponent from destruction; therefore I raise my voice for pity, in favour of the beautiful Game cock." The colours are various, and they are classed into numerous varieties and sub-varieties, of which the chief are--Black-breasted Red; Brown-Red; Silver Duck-wing Greys, so called from the feathers resembling those of a duck; Greys; Blues; Duns; Piles, or Pieds; Black; White; and Brassy-winged, which is Black with yellow on the lesser wing coverts. Colours and markings must be allowed a somewhat wide range in this breed; and figure, with courage, may be held to prove purity of blood though the colour be doubtful. Mr. Douglas considers the Black-breasted Red the finest feathered Game, and states that he never found any come so true to colour as a brood of that variety. White in the tail feathers is highly objectionable, though not an absolute disqualification. White fowls should be entirely white, with white legs. The rules for the coloured legs are very undecided. Light legs match light-coloured birds best. No particular colour is imperative, but it should harmonise with the plumage, and all in a pen must agree. The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow legs, and the worst the Greys. CHAPTER XIV. DORKINGS. This is one of the finest breeds, and especially English. A pure Dorking is distinguished by an additional or fifth toe. There are several varieties, which are all comprised in two distinct classes--the White and the Coloured. The rose-combed white breed is _the_ Dorking of the old fanciers, and most probably the original breed, from which the coloured varieties were produced by crossing it with the old Sussex, or some other large coloured fowl. "That such was the case," says Mr. Wright, "is almost proved by the fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured chickens, even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any important point is always an indication of mixed blood; and that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding, which has now rendered the fifth toe permanent, and finally established the variety." Mr. Brent says: "The _old_ Dorking, the _pure_ Dorking, the _only_ Dorking, is the _White_ Dorking. It is of good size, compact and plump form, with short neck, short white legs, five toes, a full rose-comb, a large breast, and a plumage of spotless white. The practice of crossing with a Game cock was much in vogue with the old breeders, to improve a worn-out stock (which, however, would have been better accomplished by procuring a fresh bird of the same kind, but not related). This cross shows itself in single combs, loss of a claw, or an occasional red feather, but what is still more objectionable, in pale-yellow legs and a yellow circle about the beak, which also indicates a yellowish skin. These, then, are faults to be avoided. As regards size, the White Dorking is generally inferior to the Sussex fowl (or 'coloured Dorking'), but in this respect it only requires attention and careful breeding. The pure White Dorking may truly be considered as fancy stock, as well as useful, because they will breed true to their points; but the grey Sussex, Surrey or Coloured Dorking, often sport. To the breeders and admirers of the so-called 'Coloured Dorkings' I would say, continue to improve the fowl of your choice, but let him be known by his right title; do not support him on another's fame, nor yet deny that the rose-comb or fifth toe is essential to a Dorking, because your favourites are not constant to those points. The absence of the fifth claw to the Dorking would be a great defect, but to the Sussex fowl (erroneously called a 'Coloured Dorking') it is my opinion it would be an improvement, provided the leg did not get longer with the loss." The fifth toe should not be excessively large, or too far above the ordinary toe. The White Dorking must have the plumage uniformly white, though in the older birds the hackle and saddle may attain a light golden tint. The rose-comb is preferable, and the beak and legs should be light and clear. The Coloured Dorking is now bred to great size and beauty. It is a large, plump, compact, square-made bird, with short white legs, and should have a well-developed fifth toe. The plumage is very varied, and may have a wide range, and might almost be termed immaterial, provided a coarse mealy appearance be avoided, and the pen is well matched. This latitude in respect of plumage is so generally admitted that the assertion "you cannot breed Dorkings true to colour," has almost acquired the authority of a proverb. They may be shown with either rose or single combs, but all the birds in a pen must match. The Dorking is the perfection of a table bird, combining delicately-flavoured white flesh, which is produced in greatest quantity in the choicest parts--the breast, merry-thought, and wings--equal distribution of fat, and symmetrical shape. Mr. Baily prefers the Speckled or Grey to the White, as "they are larger, hardier, and fatten more readily, and although it may appear anomalous, it is not less true that white-feathered poultry has a tendency to yellowness in the flesh and fat." Size is an important point in Dorkings. Coloured prize birds weigh from seven to fourteen pounds, and eight months' chickens six or seven pounds. The White Dorking is smaller. They are not good layers, except when very young, and are bad winter layers. The eggs are large, averaging 2-3/4 ounces, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. The hen is an excellent sitter and mother. The chickens are very delicate, requiring more care when young than most breeds, and none show a greater mortality, no more than two-thirds of a brood usually surviving the fourth week of their life. They should not be hatched before March, and must be kept on gravel soil, hard clay, or other equally dry ground, and never on brick, stone, or wooden flooring. This breed will only thrive on a dry soil. They are fond of a wide range, and cannot be kept within a fence of less than seven feet in height. When allowed unlimited range they appear to grow hardy, and are as easily reared as any other breed if not hatched too early. If kept in confinement they should have fresh turf every day, besides other vegetable food. Dorkings degenerate more than any breed by inter-breeding, and rapidly decrease in size. Dorkings are peculiarly subject to a chronic inflammation or abscess of the foot, known as "bumble-foot," which probably originated in heavy fowls descending from high perches and walking over sharp stones. The additional toe may have rendered them more liable to this disease. It may now arise from the same cause, and is best prevented by using broad, low perches, and keeping their runs clear of sharp, rough stones, but it also appears to have become hereditary in some birds. There is no cure for it when matured except its removal, and this operation fails oftener than it succeeds; but Mr. Tegetmeier states, that he has in early cases removed the corn-like or wart-like tumours on the ball of the foot with which the disease begins, and cauterised the part with nitrate of silver successfully. [Illustration: Golden-pencilled and Silver-spangled Hamburgs. Black Spanish] CHAPTER XV. SPANISH. This splendid breed was originally imported from Spain, and is characterised by its peculiar white face, which in the cock should extend from the comb downwards, including the entire face, and meet beneath in a white cravat, hidden by the wattles; and in the hen should be equally striking. The plumage is perfectly black, with brilliant metallic lustre, reflecting rich green and purple tints. The tail should resemble a sickle in the cock, and be square in the hen. The comb should be of a bright red, large, and high, upright in the cock, but pendent in the hen; the legs blue, clean, and long, and the bearing proud and gallant. With care they will thrive in a very small space, and are perhaps better adapted for town than any other variety. They are tolerably hardy when grown, but suffer much from cold and wet. Their combs and wattles are liable to be injured by severe cold, from which these fowls should be carefully protected. If frost-bitten, the parts should be rubbed with snow or cold water, and the birds must not be taken into a warm room until recovered. The Spanish are excellent layers, producing five or six eggs weekly from February to August, and two or three weekly from November to February, and also laying earlier than any other breed except the Brahma, the pullets beginning to lay before they are six months old. Although the hens are only of an average size, and but moderate eaters, their eggs are larger than those of any other breed, averaging 3-1/2 ounces, and some weighing 4-1/2 ounces, each. The shells are very thin and white, and the largest eggs are laid in the spring. The flesh is excellent, but the body is small compared to that of the Dorking. They very seldom show any inclination to sit, and if they hatch a brood are bad nurses. The chickens are very delicate, and are best hatched at the end of April and during May. They do not feather till almost three-parts grown, and require a steady mother that will keep with them till they are safely feathered, and therefore the eggs should be set under a Dorking hen, because that breed remains longer with the chicks than any other. They almost always have white feathers in the flight of the wings, but these become black. "In purchasing Spanish fowls," says an excellent authority, "blue legs, the entire absence of white or coloured feathers in the plumage, and a large white face, with a very large, high comb, which should be erect in the cock, though pendent in the hen, should be insisted on." Legginess is a fault that breeders must be careful to avoid. The cockerels show the white face earlier than the pullets, and a blue, shrivelly appearance in the face of the chickens is a better sign of future whiteness than a red fleshiness. Pullets are rarely fully white-faced till above a year old. "The white face," says an excellent authority, "should always extend well around the eye, and up to the point of junction with the comb, though a line of short black feathers is there frequently seen to intrude its undesired presence. It is certainly objectionable, and the less of it the better; but any attempt to remove or disguise this eyesore should be followed by immediate disqualification." Some exhibitors of Spanish shave the down of the edges of the white-face, in order to make it smooth and larger. This disgraceful practice is not allowed at the Birmingham Show. "One test of condition," says Mr. Baily, "more particularly of the pullets, is the state of the comb, which will be red, soft, and developed, just in proportion to the condition of the bird. While moulting--and they are almost naked during this process--the comb entirely shrivels up." The White-faced WHITE SPANISH is thought to be merely a sport of the White-faced Black Spanish. But, whatever their origin may have been, they possess every indication of common blood with their Black relatives, and their claims to appear by their side in the exhibition room are as good as those of the White Cochins and the White Polish. The plumage is uniformly white, but in all other respects they resemble the Black breed. From the absence of contrast of colour shown in the face, comb, and plumage of the Black Spanish, the White variety is far less striking in appearance. The ANDALUSIAN are so called from having been brought from the Spanish province of Andalusia. This breed is of a bluish grey, sometimes slightly laced with a darker shade, but having the neck hackles and tail feathers of a glossy black, with red face and white ears. The chickens are very hardy, and feather well, and earlier than the Spanish. The MINORCA is so called from having been imported from that island, and is a larger and more compactly-formed breed, resembling the Spanish in its general characteristics; black, with metallic lustre, but with red face, and having only the ear-lobes white; showing even a larger comb, and with shorter legs. They are better as table fowls than the Spanish, but the Andalusian are superior to either. The Minorca is the best layer of all the Spanish breeds, its chickens are tolerably hardy, and it is altogether far superior to the White-faced breed. ANCONA is a provincial term applied to black and white mottled, or "cuckoo," which on all other points resemble Minorcas, but are smaller. The "Black Rot," to which Spanish fowls are subject, is a blackening of the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, and general wasting of the system; and can only be cured in the earlier stages by frequent purgings with castor oil, combined with warm nourishing food, and strong ale, or other stimulants, given freely. They are also subject to a peculiar kind of swelled face, which first appears like a small knob under the skin, and increases till it has covered one side of the face. It is considered to be incurable. CHAPTER XVI. HAMBURGS. This breed is medium-sized, and should have a brilliant red, finely-serrated rose-comb, terminating in a spike at the back, taper blue legs, ample tail, exact markings, a well-developed white deaf-ear, and a quick, spirited bearing. They are classed in three varieties, the Pencilled, Spangled, and Black varieties, with the sub-varieties of Gold and Silver in the two former. The Pencilled Hamburg is of two ground colours, gold and silver, that is, of a brown yellow or white, and very minutely marked. The hens of both colours should have the body clearly pencilled across with several bars of black. The hackle in both sexes should be free from dark marks. In the Golden-pencilled variety the cock should be of one uniform red all over his body without any pencilling whatever, and his tail copper colour; but many first-class birds have pure black tails and the sickle feathers should be shaded with a rich bronze or copper. In the Silver-pencilled variety the cock is often nearly white, with yellowish wing-coverts, and a brown or chestnut patch on the flight feathers of his wing. The tail should be black and the sickle feathers tinged with a reddish white. The Speckled or Spangled Hamburg, also called Pheasant Fowl, from the false idea that the pheasant was one of its parents, is of two kinds, the Golden-speckled and Silver-speckled, according to their ground colour, the marking taking the form of a spot upon each feather. They have very full double and firmly fixed combs, the point at the end turning upwards, a dark rim round the eyes, blue legs, and mixed hackle. They were also called Moss Fowls, and Mooneys, the latter probably because the end of every feather should have a black rim on the yellow or white ground. In the Golden-spangled some judges prefer cocks with a pure black breast, but others desire them spangled. "One chief cause of discussion," says Miss Watts, "relating to the Hamburg, regarded the markings on the cocks. The Yorkshire breed, which had been a favourite in that county for many years, produced henny cocks--_i.e._ cocks with plumage resembling that of a hen. The feathers of the hackle were not narrow and elongated like those of cocks generally, but were short and rounded like those of the hen; the saddle-feathers were the same, and the tail, instead of being graced with fine flowing sickle feathers, was merely square like that of a hen. The Lancashire Mooneys, on the contrary, produce cocks with as fine flowing plumage as need grace any chanticleer in the land, and tails with sickle-feathers twenty-two inches long, fine flowing saddle-feathers, and abundant hackle. The hen-tail cocks had the markings, as well as the form, of the hen; the long feathers of the others cannot, from their form, have these markings. On this question party-spirit ran high: York and Lancaster, Cavalier and Roundhead, were small discussions compared with it; but the hen-cocks were beaten, and we now seldom hear of them. A mixture of the two breeds has been tried; but by it valuable qualities and purity of race have been sacrificed." The Black Hamburg is of a beautiful black with a metallic lustre, and is a noble-looking bird, the cocks often weighing seven pounds. There is little doubt that it was produced by crossing with the Spanish, which blood shows itself in the white face, which is often half apparent, and in the darker legs. But it is well established as a distinct variety, and good birds breed true to colour and points. The cocks' combs are larger, and the hens' legs shorter, than the other varieties. Bolton Bays and Greys, Chitteprats, Turkish, and Creoles or Corals, Pencilled Dutch fowls, and Dutch every-day layers, are but incorrect names for the Hamburgs, with which they are identical. The Hamburgs do not attain to their full beauty until three years old. "As a general rule," says Mr. Baily, "no true bred Hamburg fowl has top-knot, single comb, white legs, any approach to feather on the legs, white tail, or spotted hackle." The white ear-lobe being so characteristic a feature in all the Hamburgs, becomes most important in judging their merits. Weight is not considered, but still the Pencilled cock should not weigh less than four and a half pounds, nor the hen than three and a half; and the Spangled cock five pounds and the hen four. The Hamburgs are most prolific layers naturally, without over-stimulating feeding, surpassing all others in the number of their eggs, and deserve their popular name of "everlasting layers." Their eggs are white, and do not weigh more than 1-1/2 ounce to 1-3/4 ounce each; and the hens are known to average 240 eggs yearly. Not being large eaters, they are very profitable fowls to keep. The eggs of the Golden-spangled are the largest, and it is the hardiest variety, but the Pencilled lay more. The Black variety produces large eggs, and lays a greater number than any known breed. They very seldom show any desire to sit except when they have a free woodland range, for even if free it must be wild to induce any desire to perpetuate the species, and they never sit if confined to a yard. The chickens should not be hatched earlier than May, but in the South of England they will do very well if hatched by a Cochin-China hen at the beginning of March. They are small birds for table, but of excellent quality. Hamburgs do not bear confinement well, and will not thrive without a good run; a grass field is the best. Being small and light, even a ten-feet fence will not keep them within a small run. They may indeed be kept in a shed, but the number must be very few in proportion to its size, and they must be kept dry and scrupulously clean. They are excellent guards in the country, for if disturbed in their roosting-place they will make a great noise. The breed has improved in this country, and British bred fowls are much stronger than the imported birds. [Illustration: White-crested Black. Golden and Silver-spangled. POLISH.] CHAPTER XVII. POLANDS. This breed might with good reason be divided into more families, but it is usual to rank as Polands all fowls with their chief distinguishing characteristic, a full, large, round, compact tuft on the head. The breed "is quite unknown in Poland, and takes its name," says Mr. Dickson, "from some resemblance having been fancied between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers." It is much esteemed in Egypt, and equally abundant at the Cape of Good Hope, where their legs are feathered. Some travellers assert that the Mexican poultry are crested, and that what are called Poland fowls are natives of either Mexico or South America; but others believe that they are natives of the East, and that they, as well as all the other fowls on the Continent of America, have been introduced from the Old World. The Golden-spangled and Silver-spangled are the most beautiful varieties, the first being of a gold colour and the second white, both spangled with black. The more uniform the colour of the tuft is with that of the bird, the higher it is valued. The Black Poland is of a deep velvety black; has a large, white, round tuft, and should not have a comb, but many have a little comb in the form of two small points before the tuft. The tuft to be perfect should be entirely white, but it is rare to meet with one without a slight bordering of black, or partly black, feathers round the front. There are also Yellow, laced with white, Buff or Chamois, spangled with white, Blue, Grey, Black, and White mottled. All the sub-varieties should be of medium size, neat compact form, plump, full-breasted, and have lead-coloured legs and ample tails. The top-knot of the cock should be composed of straight feathers, growing from the centre of the crown, and falling over outside, but not so much as to intercept the sight, and form a circular crest. That of the hen should be formed of feathers growing out and turning in at the extremity, so as to resemble a cauliflower, and it should be even, firm, and as nearly round as possible. Large, uneven top-knots composed of loose feathers do not equal smaller but firm and well-shaped crests. The white ear-lobe is essential in all the varieties. "Beards" in Polands were formerly not admired. Among the early birds brought from the continent, not one in a hundred was bearded, and those that were so were often rejected, and it was a question of dispute whether the pure bird should have them or not. Bearded birds at shows were the exceptions, but an unbearded pen of Polands is now seldom or ever seen. There was formerly a breed of White, with black top-knots, but that is lost, although it seems to have been not only the most ornamental, but the largest and most valuable of all the Polish varieties. The last specimen known was seen by Mr. Brent at St. Omer in 1854, and it is possible that the breed may still exist in France or Ireland. The SERAI TA-OOK, or FOWL OF THE SULTAN, is the latest Polish fowl introduced into this country. They were imported in 1854 by Miss Watts, who says: "With regard to the name, Serai is the name of the Sultan's palace; Tä-ook is Turkish for fowl; the simplest translation of this is, Sultan's fowls, or fowls of the Sultan; a name which has the double advantage of being the nearest to be found to that by which they have been known in their own country, and of designating the country from which they came. In general habits they are brisk and happy-tempered, but not kept in as easily as Cochin-Chinas. They are very good layers; their eggs are large and white; they are non-sitters, and small eaters. A grass run with them will remain green long after the crop would have been cleared by either Brahmas or Cochins, and with scattered food they soon become satisfied and walk away. They are the size of our English Poland fowls. Their plumage is white and flowing; they have a full-sized compact Poland tuft on the head, are muffed, have a good flowing tail, short well-feathered legs, and five toes upon each foot. The comb is merely two little points, and the wattles very small. We have never seen fowls more fully decorated--full tail, abundant furnishing, in hackle almost touching the ground, boots, vulture-hocks, beards, whiskers, and full round Poland crests. Their colour is pure white." They are prolific layers during spring and summer. Their eggs are white, and weigh from 2 ounces to 2-1/4 ounces each, the Spangled varieties producing the largest. They rarely sit, and generally leave their eggs after five or six days, and are not good mothers. The chickens require great care for six weeks. They should never be hatched by heavy hens, as the prominence in the skull which supports the top-knot is never completely covered with bone, and very sensible to injury. Like the Game breed they improve in feather for several years. Polands never thrive on a wet or cold soil, and are more affected by bad weather than any other breed; the top-knots being very liable to be saturated with wet. They are easily fattened, and their flesh is white, juicy, and rich-flavoured, but they are not sufficiently large for the market. Mr. Hewitt cautions breeders against attempting to seize birds suddenly, as the crest obscures their sight, and, being taken by surprise, they are frequently so frightened as to die in the hand. They should, therefore, always be spoken to, or their attention otherwise attracted before being touched. CHAPTER XVIII. Bantams. Of this breed one kind is Game, and resembles the Game fowl, except in size; another is feathered to the very toes, the feathers on the tarsi, or beam of the leg, being long and stiff, and often brushing the ground. They are peculiarly fancy fowls. There are several varieties, the White, Black, Nankin, Partridge, Booted or Feather-legged, Game, and the Golden-laced and Silver-laced, or Sebright Bantam. All should be very small, varying from fourteen to twenty ounces in the hen, and from sixteen to twenty-four in the cock. The head should be narrow; beak curved; forehead rounded; eyes bright; back short; body round and full; breast very prominent; legs short and clean, except in the Booted variety; wings depressed; and the carriage unusually erect, the back of the neck and the tail feathers almost touching; and the whole bearing graceful, bold, and proud. [Illustration: Black. Sebright's Gold and Silver-laced. White. Game. BANTAMS.] "The Javanese jungle-fowl" (_Gallus Bankiva_), says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "the Ayam-utan of the Malays, is a native of Java; but either a variety or a distinct species of larger size, yet very similar in colouring, is found in continental India. The Javanese, or Bankiva jungle-fowl, is about the size of an ordinary Bantam, and in plumage resembles the black-breasted red Game-bird of our country, with, a steel-blue mark across the wings. The comb is high, its edge is deeply serrated, and the wattles are rather large. The hackle feathers of the neck and rump are long and of a glossy golden orange; the shoulders are chestnut red, the greater wing-coverts deep steel-blue, the quill feathers brownish black, edged with pale, reddish yellow, or sandy red. The tail is of a black colour, with metallic reflections of green and blue. The under parts are black the naked space round the eyes, the comb, and wattles are scarlet. The hen closely resembles a brown hen of the Game breed, except in being very much smaller. That this bird, or its continental ally, is one of the sources--perhaps the main source--of our domestic race, cannot be doubted. It inter-breeds freely with our common poultry, and the progeny is fertile. Most beautiful cross-breeds between the Bankiva jungle-fowl and Bantam may be seen in the gardens of the Zoological Society." "That the Bankiva jungle-fowl of Java, or its larger continental variety, if it be not a distinct species (and of which Sir W. Jardine states that he has seen several specimens), is one of the sources of our domestic breeds, cannot, we think, be for a moment doubted. It would be difficult to discover any difference between a clean-limbed, black-breasted red Bantam-cock, and a cock Bankiva jungle-fowl. Indeed, the very term Bantam goes far to prove their specific identity. Bantam is a town or city at the bottom of a bay on the northern coast of Java; it was first visited by the Portuguese in 1511, at which time a great trade was carried on by the town with Arabia, Hindostan, and China, chiefly in pepper. Subsequently it fell into the hands of the Dutch, and was at one time the great rendezvous for European shipping. It is now a place of comparative insignificance. From this it would seem that the jungle-fowls domesticated and sold to the Europeans at Bantam continued to be designated by the name of the place where they were obtained, and in process of time the name was appropriated to all our dwarfish breeds." Game Bantams are exact miniatures of real Game fowls, in Black-breasted red, Duck-wing, and other varieties. The cocks must not have the strut of the Bantam, but the bold, martial bearing of the Game cock. Their wings should be carried closely, and their feathers be hard and close. The Duck-wing cock's lower wing-coverts should be marked with blue, forming a bar across each wing. The SEBRIGHT, or GOLD AND SILVER-LACED BANTAM, is a breed with clean legs, and of most elegantly spangled plumage, which was bred and has been brought to great perfection by Sir John Sebright, after whom they are named. The attitude of the cock is singularly bold and proud, the head being often thrown so much back as to meet the tail feathers, which are simple like those of a hen, the ordinary sickle-like feathers being abbreviated and broad. The Gold-laced Sebright Bantams should have golden brownish-yellow plumage, each feather being bordered with a lacing of black; the tail square like that of the hen, without sickle feathers, and carried well over the back, each feather being tipped with black, a rose-comb pointed at the back, the wings drooping to the ground, neither saddle nor neck hackles, clean lead-coloured legs and feet, and white ear-lobes; and the hen should correspond exactly with him, but be much smaller. The Silver-laced birds have exactly the same points except in the ground feathering, which should be silvery, and the nearer the shade approaches to white the more beautiful will be the bird. Their carriage should resemble that of a good Fantail pigeon. The BLACK BANTAMS should be uniform in colour, with well-developed white ear-lobes, rose-combs, full hackles, sickled and flowing tail, and deep slate-coloured legs. The WHITE BANTAMS should have white legs and beak. Both should be of tiny size. The NANKIN, or COMMON YELLOW BANTAM, is probably the nearest approach to the original type of the family--the "Bankiva fowl." The cock "has a large proportion of red and dark chestnut on the body, with a full black tail; while the hen is a pale orange yellow, with a tail tipped with black, and the hackle lightly pencilled with the same colour, and clean legs. Combs vary, but the rose is decidedly preferable. True-bred specimens of these birds being by no means common, considerable deviations from the above description may consequently be expected in birds passing under this appellation." The BOOTED BANTAMS have their legs plumed to the toes, not on one side only like Cochin-Chinas, but completely on both, with stiff, long feathers, which brush the ground. The most beautiful specimens are of a pure white. "Feathered-legged Bantams," says Mr. Baily, "may be of any colour; the old-fashioned birds were very small, falcon-hocked, and feathered, with long quill feathers to the extremity of the toe. Many of them were bearded. They are now very scarce; indeed, till exhibitions brought them again into notice, these beautiful specimens of their tribe were all neglected and fast passing away. Nothing but the Sebright was cultivated; but now we bid fair to revive the pets of our ancestors in all their beauty." The PEKIN, or COCHIN BANTAMS, were taken from the Summer Palace at Pekin during the Chinese war, and brought to this country. They exactly resemble the Buff Cochins in all respects except size. They are very tame. The JAPANESE BANTAM is a recent importation, and differs from most of the other varieties in having a very large single comb. It has very short well-feathered legs, and the colour varies. Some are quite white, some have pure white bodies, with glossy, jet-black tails, others are mottled and buff. They throw the tail up and the head back till they nearly meet, as in the Fantailed pigeon. They are said to be the constant companions of man in their native country, and have a droll and good-natured expression. All the Bantam cocks are very pugnacious, and though the hens are good mothers to their own chickens, they will attack any stranger with fury. They are good layers of small but exquisitely-flavoured eggs. But no breed produces so great a proportion of unfertile eggs. June is the best month for hatching, as the chickens are delicate. They feather more quickly than most breeds, and are apt to die at that period through the great drain upon the system in producing feathers. When fully feathered they are quite hardy. The hens are excellent mothers. The chickens require a little more animal food than other fowls, and extra attention for a week or two in keeping them dry. Bantams are very useful in a garden, eating many slugs and insects, and doing little damage. CHAPTER XIX. FRENCH AND VARIOUS. The French breeds are remarkable for great weight and excellent quality of flesh, with a very small proportion of bones and offal; their breeders having paid great attention to those important, substantial, and commercial points instead of devoting almost exclusive attention to colour and other fancy points as we have done. As a rule they are all non-sitters, or sit but rarely. [Illustration: Houdans. La Flêche, cock. Crêve-Coeur, hen. FRENCH.] The CRÊVE-COEUR has been known the longest and most generally. This breed is said to derive its name from a village so called in Normandy, whence its origin can be distinctly traced; but others fancifully say, from the resemblance of its peculiar comb to a broken heart. It is scarce, and pure-bred birds are difficult to procure. The Crêve-Coeur is a fine large bird, black in plumage, or nearly so, with short, clean black legs, square body, deep chest, and a large and extraordinary crest or comb, which is thus described by M. Jacque: "Various, but always forming two horns, sometimes parallel, straight, and fleshy; sometimes joined at the base, slightly notched, pointed, and separating at their extremities; sometimes adding to this latter description interior ramifications like the horns of a young stag. The comb, shaped like horns, gives the Crêve-Coeur the appearance of a devil." It is bearded, and has a top-knot or crest behind the comb. They are very quiet, walk slowly, scratch but little, do not fly, are very tame, ramble but little, and prefer seeking their food on the dunghill in the poultry-yard to wandering afar off. They are the most contented of all breeds in confinement, and will thrive in a limited space. They are tame, tractable fowls, but inclined to roup and similar diseases in our climate, and therefore prosper most on a dry, light soil, and can scarcely have too much sun. They are excellent layers of very large white eggs. The chickens grow so fast, and are so inclined to fatten, that they may be put up at from ten to twelve weeks of age, and well fattened in fifteen days. The Crêve-Coeur is a splendid table bird, both for the quantity and quality of its flesh. The hen is heavy in proportion to the cock, weighing eight and a half pounds against his nine and a half, and the pullets always outweigh the cockerels. LA FLÊCHE is thus described by M. Jacque: "A strong, firm body, well placed on its legs, and long muscular feet, appearing less than it really is, because the feathers are close; every muscular part well developed; black plumage. The La Flêche is the tallest of all French cocks; it has many points of resemblance with the Spanish, from which I believe it to be descended by crossing with the Crêve-Coeur. Others believe that it is connected with the Brêda, which it does, in fact, resemble, in some particulars. It has white, loose, and transparent skin; short, juicy, and delicate flesh, which puts on fat easily." "The comb is transversal, double, forming two horns bending forward, united at their base, divided at their summits, sometimes even and pointed, sometimes having ramifications on the inner sides. A little double 'combling' protrudes from the upper part of the nostrils, and although hardly as large as a pea, this combling, which surmounts the sort of rising formed by the protrusion of the nostrils, contributes to the singular aspect of the head. This measured prominence of the comb seems to add to the characteristic depression of the beak, and gives the bird a likeness to a rhinoceros." The plumage is jet black, with a very rich metallic lustre; large ear-lobe of pure white; bright red face, unusually free from feathers; and bright lead-coloured legs, with hard, firm scales. They are very handsome, showy, large, and lively birds, more inclined to wander than the Crêve-Coeur, and hardier when full grown; but their chickens are even more delicate in wet weather, and should not be hatched before May. They are easily reared, and grow quickly. They are excellent layers of very large white eggs, but do not lay well in winter, unless under very favourable circumstances, and resemble the Spanish in the size and number of their eggs, and the time and duration of laying. Their flesh is excellent, juicy, and resembles that of the Game fowl, and the skin white and transparent, but the legs are dark. This breed is larger and has more style than the Crêve-Coeur, and is better adapted to our climate; but the fowls lack constitution, particularly the cocks, and are very liable to leg weakness and disease of the knee-joint, and when they get out of condition seldom recover. They are found in the north of France, but are not common even there. The HOUDAN has the size, deep compact body, short legs, and fifth toe of the Dorking. They are generally white, some having black spots as large as a shilling, are bearded, and should have good top-knots of black and white feathers, falling backwards like a lark's crest; and the remarkable comb is thus described by M. Jacque: "Triple, transversal in the direction of the beak, composed of two flattened spikes, of long and rectangular form, opening from right to left, like two leaves of a book; thick, fleshy, and variegated at the edges. A third spike grows between these two, having somewhat the shape of an irregular strawberry, and the size of a long nut. Another, quite detached from the others, about the size of a pea, should show between the nostrils, above the beak." Mr. F. H. Schröder, of the National Poultry Company, considered that this surpassed all the French breeds, combining the size, shape, and quality of flesh of the Dorking with earlier maturity; prolific laying of good-sized eggs, which are nearly always fertile, and on this point the opposite of the Dorking; and early and rapid feathering in the chickens, which are, notwithstanding, hardier than any breeds except the Cochin and Brahma. They are very hardy, never sick, and will thrive in a small space. They are smaller than the Crêve-Coeur or La Flêche, but well shaped and plump; and for combining size and quality of flesh with quantity and size of eggs nothing can surpass them. SCOTCH DUMPIES, GO LAIGHS, BAKIES, or CREEPERS, are almost extinct; but they are profitable fowls, and ought to be more common, as they are very hardy, productive layers of fine large eggs, and their flesh is white and of excellent quality. They should have large, heavy bodies; short, white, clean legs, not above an inch and a half or two inches in length. The plumage is a mixture of black or brown, and white. They are good layers of fine large eggs. They cannot be surpassed as sitters and mothers, and are much valued by gamekeepers for hatching the eggs of pheasants. The cocks should weigh six or seven and the hen five or six pounds. The SILKY fowl is so called from its plumage, which is snowy white, being all discomposed and loose, and of a silky appearance, resembling spun glass. The comb and wattles are purple; the bones and the periosteum, or membrane covering the bones, black, and the skin blue or purple; but the flesh, however, is white and tender, and superior to that of most breeds. It is a good layer of small, round, and excellent eggs. The cock generally weighs less than three, and the hen less than two, pounds. It comes from Japan and China, and generally thrives in our climate. The chickens are easily reared if not hatched before April nor later than June. They are capital foster mothers for partridges, and other small and tender game. The RUMPKIN, or RUMPLESS fowl, a Persian breed, not only lacks the tail-feathers but the tail itself. It is hardy, of moderate size, and varies in colour, but is generally black or brown, and from the absence of tail appears rounder than other fowls. The hens are good layers, but the eggs are often unfertile. They are good sitters and mothers, and the flesh is of fair quality. The FRIESLAND, so named from confounding the term "frizzled" with Friesland, is remarkable from having all the feathers, except those of the wings and tail, frizzled, or curled up the wrong way. It is small, very delicate, and a shower drenches it to the skin. BARN-DOOR fowl are a mongrel race, compounded by chance, usually of the Game, Dorking, and Polish breeds. CHAPTER XX. TURKEYS. Turkeys are not considered profitable except on light, dry soils, which is said to be the cause of their success in Norfolk. They prosper, however, in Ireland; but although the air there is moist, the soil is dry, except in the boggy districts. Miss Watts believes that "any place in which turkeys are properly reared and fed may compete with Norfolk. Very fine birds may be seen in Surrey, and other places near London." The general opinion of the best judges is, that they can barely be made to repay the cost of their food, which is doubtless owing to the usual great mortality among the chicks, which loss outbalances all profit; but others make them yield a fair profit, simply because, from good situation and judicious management, they rear all, or nearly all, the chicks. A single brood may be reared with ease on a small farm or private establishment without much extra expense, where sufficient attention can be devoted to them; but to make them profitable they should be bred on a large scale, and receive exclusive attention. They should have a large shed or house, with a boarded floor, to themselves. [Illustration: Turkey and Guinea-fowls.] Turkeys must have space, for they are birds of rambling habits, and only fitted for the farmyard, or extensive runs, delighting to wander in the fields in quest of insects, on which, with green herbage, berries, beech-mast, and various seeds, they greedily feed. The troop will ramble about all day, returning to roost in the evening, when they should have a good supply of grain; and another should be given in the morning, which will not only induce them to return home regularly every night, but keep them in good store condition, so that they can at any time be speedily fattened. Peas, vetches, tares, and most sorts of pulse, are almost poisonous to them. Their feeding-place must be separate from the other poultry, or they will gobble up more than their share. Turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house, and should have a very high open shed, the perches being placed as high as possible. They are extremely hardy, roosting, if allowed, on the highest trees in the severest weather. But this should be prevented, as their feet are apt to become frost-bitten in severe weather. The chickens are as delicate. Wet is fatal to them, and the very slightest shower even in warm weather will frequently destroy half a brood. The breeding birds should be carefully selected, any malformation almost invariably proving itself hereditary. The cock is at maturity when a year old, but not in his prime till he has attained his third year, and is entering upon his fourth, and he continues in vigour for three or four years more. He should be vigorous, broad-breasted, clean-legged, with ample wings, well-developed tail, bright eyes, and the carunculated skin of the neck full and rapid in its changes of colour. The largest possible hen should be chosen, the size of the brood depending far more upon the female than the male. One visit to the male is sufficient to render all the eggs fertile, and the number of hens may be unlimited, but to obtain fine birds, twelve or fifteen hens to one cock is the best proportion. The hen breeds in the spring following that in which she was hatched, but is not in her prime till two or three years old, and continues for two or three years in full vigour. The hen generally commences laying about the middle of March, but sometimes earlier. When from her uttering a peculiar cry and prying about in quest of a secret spot for sitting, it is evident that she is ready to lay, she should be confined in the shed, barn, or other place where the nest has been prepared for her, and let out when she has laid an egg. The nest should be made of straw and dried leaves, in a large wicker basket, in a quiet secluded place, and an egg or nest-egg of chalk should be placed in it to induce her to adopt it. Turkeys like to choose their own laying-places, and keep to them though their eggs are removed daily, provided a nest-egg is left there. They will wander to a distance in search of a secluded spot for laying, and pay their visits to the nest so cleverly that sometimes they keep it a secret and hatch a brood there, which, however, does not generally prove a strong or large one as in the case of ordinary fowls. When a hen has chosen a safe, quiet, and sheltered place for her nest, it is best to give her more eggs when she shows a desire to sit, and let her stay there. The hen generally lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, sometimes fewer and often many more. As soon as seven are produced, they should be placed under a good common hen, a Cochin is the best, and the remainder can be put under her when she wants to sit. The best hatching period is from the end of March to May, and none should be hatched later than June. The broody hens may be placed on their eggs in any quiet place, as they are patient, constant sitters, and will not leave their eggs wherever they may be put. A hen may be allowed from nine to fifteen eggs, according to her size. During the time the hen is sitting she requires constant attention. She must occasionally be taken off the nest to feed, and regularly supplied with fresh water; otherwise she will continue to sit without leaving for food, till completely exhausted. In general, do not let the cock go near the sitting hen, or he will destroy the eggs or chicks; but some behave well, and may be left at large with safety. She should not be disturbed or visited by any one but the person she is accustomed to be fed by, and the eggs should not be touched unnecessarily. The chickens break the shell from the twenty-sixth to the twenty-ninth day, but sometimes as late as the thirty-first. Let them remain in the nest for twenty-four hours, but remove the shells, and next morning place the hen under a roomy coop or crate, on boards, in a warm outhouse. Keep her and her brood cooped up for two months, moving the coop every fine day into a dry grass field, but keep them in an outhouse in cold or wet weather. The chicks having a great tendency to diarrhoea, the very best food for the first week is hard-boiled eggs, chopped small, mixed with minced dandelion, and when that cannot be had, with boiled nettles. They may then have boiled egg, bread-crumbs, and barley-meal for a fortnight, when the egg may be replaced by boiled potato, and small grain may soon be added. Do not force them to eat, but give them a little food on the tip of your finger, and they will soon learn to pick it out of the trough. A little hempseed, suet, onion-tops, green mustard, and nettle-tops, chopped very fine, should be mixed with their food. Curds are excellent food, and easily prepared by mixing powdered alum with milk slightly warmed, in the proportion of one teaspoonful of alum to four quarts of milk, and, when curdled, separating the curds from the whey. They should be squeezed very dry, and must always be given in a soft state. Water should be given but sparingly, and never allowed to stand by them, but when they have had sufficient it should be taken or thrown away. The water must be put in pans so contrived or placed that they cannot wet themselves. (_See_ page 38.) Fresh milk is apt to disagree with the young chicks, and is not necessary. If a chick shows weakness, or has taken cold, give it some carraway seeds. In their wild state the turkey rears only one brood in a season, and it is not advisable to induce the domesticated bird by any expedients to hatch a second, for it would be not only detrimental to her, but the brood would be hatched late in the season, and very difficult to rear, while those reared would not be strong, healthy birds. The coop should be like that used for common fowls, but two feet broad, and higher, being about three feet high in front and one foot at the back; this greater slant of the roof being made in order to confine her movements, as otherwise she would move about too much, and trample upon her brood. When they have grown larger they must have a larger coop, made of open bars wide enough apart for them to go in and out, but too close to let in fowls to eat their delicate food, and the hen must be placed under it with them. A large empty crate, such as is used to contain crockery-ware, will make a good coop for large poults; but if one cannot be had, a coop may be made of laths or rails, with the bars four inches apart; it should be about five feet long, four feet broad, and three feet high. Keep her cooped for two months, moving the coop every fine, dry day into a grass field, but on cold or wet days keep them in the outhouse. If she is allowed her liberty before they are well grown and strong, she will wander away with them through the long grass, hedges, and ditches, over highway, common, and meadow, mile after mile, losing them on the road, and straying on with the greatest complacency, and perfectly satisfied so long as she has one or two following her, and never once turning her head to see how her panting chicks are getting on, nor troubled when they squat down tired out, and implore her plaintively to come back; and all this arises from sheer heedlessness, and not from want of affection, for she will fight for her brood as valiantly as any pheasant will for hers. When full grown they should never be allowed to roam with her while there is heavy dew or white frost on the grass, but be kept in till the fields and hedgerows are dry. They will pick up many seeds and insects while wandering about in the fields with her, but must be fed by hand three or four times a day at regular intervals. They cease to be chicks or chickens, and are called turkey-poults when the male and female distinctive characteristics are fairly established, the carunculated skin and comb of the cock being developed, which is called "shooting the red," or "putting out the red," and begins when they are eight or ten weeks old. It is the most critical period of their lives--much more so than moulting, and during the process their food must be increased in quantity, and made more nourishing by the addition of boiled egg-yolks, bread crumbled in ale, wheaten flour, bruised hempseed, and the like, and they must be well housed at night. When this process is completed they will be hardy, and able to take care of themselves; but till they are fully fledged it will be advisable to keep them from rain and cold, and not to try their hardness too suddenly. Vegetables, as chopped nettles, turnip-tops, cabbage sprouts, onions, docks, and the like, boiled down and well mixed with barley-meal, oatmeal, or wheaten flour, and curds, if they can be afforded, form excellent food for the young poults; also steamed potatoes, boiled carrots, turnips, and the like. With this diet may be given buckwheat, barley, oats, beans, and sunflower seeds. When they are old enough to be sent to the stubble and fields, they are placed in charge of a boy or girl of from twelve to fifteen years old, who can easily manage one hundred poults. They are driven with a long bean stick, and the duties of the turkey-herd is to keep the cocks from fighting, to lead them to every place where there are acorns, beech-mast, corn, wild fruit, insects, or other food to be picked up. He must not allow them to get fatigued with too long rambles, as they are not fully grown, and must shelter them from the burning sun, and hasten them home on the approach of rain. The best times for these rambles are from eight to ten in the morning, when the dew is off the grass, and from four till seven in the evening, before it begins to fall. Turkeys are crammed for the London markets. The process of fattening may commence when they are six months old, as they require a longer time to become fit for the market than fowls. The large birds which are seen at Christmas are usually males of the preceding year, and about twenty months old. All experienced breeders repudiate "cramming." To obtain fine birds the chickens must be fed abundantly from their birth until they are sent to market, and while they are being fattened they should be sent to the fields and stubble for a shorter time daily, and their food must be increased in quantity and improved in quality. Early hatched, well fed young Norfolk cocks will frequently weigh twenty-three pounds by Christmas of the same year, and two-year-old birds will sometimes attain to twenty pounds. When two or more years old they are called "stags." The domesticated turkey can scarcely be said to be divided into distinct breeds like the common fowl, the several varieties being distinguished by colour only, but identical in their form and habits. They vary considerably in colour--some being of a bronzed black, others of a coppery tint, of a delicate fawn colour, or buff, and some of pure white. The dark coloured birds are generally considered the most hardy, and are usually the largest. The chief varieties are the Cambridge, Norfolk, Irish, American, and French. The Cambridge combines enormous size, a tendency to fatten speedily, and first-rate flavour. The tortoiseshell character of its plumage gives the adult birds a very prepossessing appearance around the homestead, and a striking character in the exhibition room. The colours may vary from pale to dark grey, with a deep metallic brown tint, and light legs. The legs should be stout and long. The Norfolk breed is more compact and smaller-boned, and produces a large quantity of meat of delicate whiteness and excellent quality. The cocks are almost as heavy as the Cambridge breed, but the hens are smaller and more compact. The Norfolk should be jet, not blue black, and free from any other colour, being uniform throughout, including the legs and feet. All the birds in a pen must be uniform. The American wild turkey has become naturalised in this country, but being of a very wandering disposition is best adapted to be kept in parks and on large tracts of wild land. It is slender in shape, but of good size, with uniform metallic bronze plumage, the flight feathers being barred with white, and the tail alternately with white, rich dark brown, and black, and with bright pink legs. The wattles are smaller than in the other breeds, and of a bluish tinge. They are very hardy, but more spiteful than others, and are said to be also more prolific. Crosses often take place in America between the wild and tame races, and are highly valued both for their appearance and for the table. Eggs of the wild turkey have also often been taken from their nests, and hatched under the domesticated hen. The flavour of the flesh of the American breed is peculiar and exceedingly good, but they do not attain a large size. CHAPTER XXI. GUINEA-FOWLS. The Guinea-fowl, Gallina, or Pintado (_Numida Meleagris_), is the true meleagris of the ancients, a term generically applied by Belon, Aldrovandus, and Gesner to the turkey, and now retained, although the error is acknowledged, in order to prevent confusion. It is a native of Africa, where it is extensively distributed. They associate in large flocks and frequent open glades, the borders of forests, and banks of rivers, which offer abundant supplies of grain, berries, and insects, in quest of which they wander during the day, and collect together at evening, and roost in clusters on the branches of trees or shrubs. Several other wild species are known, some of which are remarkable for their beauty; but the common Guinea-fowl is the only one domesticated in Europe. The Guinea-fowl is about twenty-two inches long, and from standing high on its legs, and having loose, full plumage, appears to be larger than it really is, for when plucked it does not weigh more than an ordinary Dorking. It is very plump and well-proportioned. The Guinea-fowl is not bred so much as the turkey in England or France, is very rare in the northern parts of Europe, and in India is bred almost exclusively by Europeans, although it thrives as well there as in its native country. It "is turbulent and restless," says Mr. Dickson, "continually moving from place to place, and domineering over the whole poultry-yard, boldly attacking even the fiercest turkey cock, and keeping all in alarm by its petulant pugnacity"; and the males, although without spurs, can inflict serious injury on other poultry with their short, hard beaks. The Guinea-fowls make very little use of their wings, and if forced to take to flight, fly but a short distance, then alight, and trust to their rapid mode of running, and their dexterity in threading the mazes of brushwood and dense herbage, for security. They are shy, wary, and alert. It is not much kept, its habits being wandering, and requiring an extensive range, but as it picks up nearly all its food, and is very prolific, it may be made very profitable in certain localities. The whole management of both the young and the old may be precisely the same as that of turkeys, in hatching, feeding, and fattening. This "species," says Mr. Dickson, "differs from all other poultry, in its being difficult to distinguish the cock from the hen, the chief difference being in the colour of the wattles, which are more of a red hue in the cock, and more tinged with blue in the hen. The cock has also a more stately strut." They mate in pairs, and therefore an equal number of cocks and hens must be kept, or the eggs will prove unfertile. To obtain stock, some of their eggs must be procured, and placed under a common hen; for if old birds are bought, they will wander away for miles in search of their old home, and never return. They should be fed regularly, and must always have one meal at night, or they will scarcely ever roost at home. They will not sleep in the fowl-house, but prefer roosting in the lower branches of a tree, or on a thick bush, and retire early. They make a peculiar, harsh, querulous noise, which is oft-repeated, and not agreeable. The hens are prolific layers, beginning in May, and continuing during the whole summer. Their eggs are small, but of excellent flavour, of a pale yellowish red, finely dotted with a darker tint, and remarkable for the hardness of the shell. The hen usually lays on a dry bank, in secret places; and a hedgerow a quarter of a mile off is quite as likely to contain her nest as any situation nearer her home. She is very shy, and, if the eggs are taken from her nest, will desert it, and find another; a few should, therefore, always be left, and it should never be visited when she is in sight. But she often contrives to elude all watching, and hatch a brood, frequently at a late period, when the weather is too cold for the chickens. As the Guinea-fowl seldom shows much disposition to incubate if kept under restraint, and frequently sits too late in the season to rear a brood in this country, it is a general practice to place her eggs under a common fowl--Game and Bantams are the best for the purpose. About twenty of the earliest eggs should be set in May. The Guinea-hen will hatch another brood when she feels inclined. They sit for twenty-six to twenty-nine or thirty days. When she sits in due season she generally rears a large brood, twenty not being an unusual number. The chickens are very tender, and should not be hatched too early in spring, as a cold March wind is generally fatal to them. They must be treated like those of the turkey, and as carefully. They should be fed almost immediately, within six hours of being hatched, abundantly, and often; and they require more animal food than other chickens. Egg boiled hard, chopped very fine, and mixed with oatmeal, is the best food. They will die if kept without food for three or four hours; and should have a constant supply near them until they are allowed to have full liberty and forage for themselves. They will soon pick up insects, &c., and will keep themselves in good condition with a little extra food. They are very strong on their legs, and those hatched under common hens may be allowed to range with her at the end of six weeks, and be fed on the same food and at the same times as other chickens. The Guinea-fowl may be considered as somewhat intermediate between the pheasant and turkey. After the pheasant season, young birds that have been hatched the same year are excellent substitutes for that fine game, and fetch a fair price. They should never be fattened, but have a good supply of grain and meal for a week or two before being killed. The flesh of the young bird is very delicate, juicy, and well-flavoured, but the old birds, even of the second year, are dry, tough, and tasteless. CHAPTER XXII. DUCKS. Ducks will not pay if all their food has to be bought, except it is purchased wholesale, and they are reared for town markets, for their appetites are voracious, and they do not graze like geese. They may be kept in a limited space, but more profitably and conveniently where they have the run of a paddock, orchard, kitchen garden, flat common, green lane, or farmyard, with ditches and water. They will return at night, and come to the call of the feeder. Nothing comes amiss to them--green vegetables, especially when boiled, all kinds of meal made into porridge, all kinds of grain, bread, oatcake, the refuse and offal of the kitchen, worms, slugs, snails, insects and their larvæ, are devoured eagerly. Where many fowls are kept, a few ducks may be added profitably, for they may be fed very nearly on what the hens refuse. Ducks require water to swim in, but "it is a mistake," says Mr. Baily, "to imagine that ducks require a great deal of water. They may be kept where there is but very little, and only want a pond or tank just deep enough to swim in. The early Aylesbury ducklings that realise such large prices in the London market have hardly ever had a swim; and in rearing ducks, where size is a desideratum, they will grow faster and become larger when kept in pens, farmyards, or in pastures, than where they are at and in the water all day." Where a large number of geese and ducks are kept, water on a sufficient scale, and easily accessible, should be in the neighbourhood. [Illustration: Toulouse Goose. Rouen and Aylesbury Ducks.] Ducks, being aquatic birds, do not require heated apartments, nor roosts on which to perch during the night. They squat on the floors, which must be dry and warm. They should, if possible, be kept in a house separate from the other poultry, and it should have a brick floor, so that it can be easily washed. In winter the floor should be littered with a thin layer of straw, rushes, or fern leaves, fresh every day. The hatching-houses should be separated from the lodging apartments, and provided with boxes for the purpose of incubation and hatching. In its wild state the duck pairs with a single mate: the domestic duck has become polygamous, and five ducks may be allowed to one drake, but not more than two or three ducks should be given to one drake if eggs are required for setting. Ducks begin laying in January, and usually from that time only during the spring; but those hatched in March will often lay in the autumn, and continue for two or three months. They usually lay fifty or sixty eggs, and have been known to produce 250. The faculty of laying might be greatly developed, as it has been in some breeds of fowls; but they have been hitherto chiefly bred for their flesh. They require constant watching when beginning to lay, for they drop their eggs everywhere but in the nest made for them, but as they generally lay in the night, or early in the morning, when in perfect health, they should therefore be kept in every morning till they have laid. One of the surest signs of indisposition among them is irregularity in laying. "The eggs of the duck," says Mr. Dickson, "are readily known from those of the common fowl by their bluish colour and larger size, the shell being smoother, not so thick, and with much fewer pores. When boiled, the white is never curdy like that of a new-laid hen's egg, but transparent and glassy, while the yolk is much darker in colour. The flavour is by no means so delicate. For omelets, however, as well as for puddings and pastry, duck eggs are much better than hen's eggs, giving a finer colour and flavour, and requiring less butter; qualities so highly esteemed in Picardy, that the women will sometimes go ten or twelve miles for duck eggs to make their holiday cakes." A hen is often made to hatch ducklings, being considered a better nurse than a duck, which is apt to take them while too young to the pond, dragging them under beetling banks in search of food, and generally leaving half of them in the water unable to get out; and if the fly or the gnat is on the water, she will stay there till after dark, and lose part of her brood. Ducks' eggs may be advantageously placed under a broody exhibition hen. (_See_ page 88.) A turkey is much better than either, from the large expanse of the wings in covering the broods, and the greater heat of body; but if the duck is a good sitter, it is best to let her hatch her own eggs, taking care to keep her and them from the water till they are strong. The nest should be on the ground, and in a damp place. Choose the freshest eggs, and place from nine to eleven under her. Feed her morning and evening while sitting, and place food and water within her reach. The duck always covers her eggs upon leaving them, and loose straw should be placed near the house for that purpose. They are hatched in thirty days. They may generally be left with their mother upon the nest for her own time. When she moves coop her on the short grass if fine weather, or under shelter if otherwise, for a week or ten days, when they may be allowed to swim for half an hour at a time. When hatched they require constant feeding. A little curd, bread-crumbs, and meal, mixed with chopped green food, is the best food when first hatched. Boiled cold oatmeal porridge is the best food for ducklings for the first ten days; afterwards barley-meal, pollard, and oats, with plenty of green food. Never give them hard spring water to drink, but that from a pond. Ducklings are easily reared, soon able to shift for themselves, and to pick up worms, slugs, and insects, and can be cooped together in numbers at night if protected from rats. An old pigsty is an excellent place for a brood of young ducks. Ducklings should not be allowed to go on the water till feathers have supplied the place of their early down, for the latter will get saturated with the water while the former throws off the wet. "Though the young ducklings," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "take early to the water, it is better that they should gain a little strength before they be allowed to venture into ponds or rivers; a shallow vessel of water filled to the brim and sunk in the ground will suffice for the first week or ten days, and this rule is more especially to be adhered to when they are under the care of a common hen, which cannot follow them into the pond, and the calls of which when there they pay little or no regard to. Rats, weasels, pike, and eels are formidable foes to ducklings: we have known entire broods destroyed by the former, which, having their burrows in a steep bank around a sequestered pond, it was found impossible to extirpate." If the ducklings stay too long in the water they will have diarrhoea, in which case coop them close for a few days, and mix bean-meal or oatmeal with their ordinary food. A troop of ducks will do good service to a kitchen garden in the summer or autumn, when they can do no mischief by devouring delicate salads and young sprouting vegetables. They will search industriously for snails, slugs, woodlice, and millipedes, and gobble them up eagerly, getting positively fat on slugs and snails. Strawberries, of which they are very fond, must be protected from them. Where steamed food is daily prepared for pigs and cattle, a portion of this mixed with bran and barley-meal is the cheapest mode of satisfying their voracious appetites. They should never be stinted in food. To fatten ducks let them have as much substantial food as they will eat, bruised oats and peameal being the standard, plenty of exercise, and clean water. Boiled roots mixed with a little barley-meal is excellent food, with a little milk added during fattening. They require neither penning up nor cramming to acquire plumpness, and if well fed should be fit for market in eight or ten weeks. Celery imparts a delicious flavour. The Aylesbury is the finest breed, and should be of a spotless white, with long, flat, broad beak of a pale flesh colour, grey eyes, long head and neck, broad and flat body and breast, and orange legs, placed wide apart. As it lays early, its ducklings are the earliest ready for market. They have produced 150 large eggs in a year, and are better sitters than the Rouen. The Rouen is hardy and easily reared, but rarely lay till February or March. They thrive better in most parts of England than the Aylesburys, and care less for the water than the other varieties. They are very handsome, and weigh eight or nine pounds each, and their flesh is excellent. The Muscovy duck is so called, says Ray, "not because it comes from Muscovy, but because it exhales a somewhat powerful odour of musk." Little is known of its origin, which is generally thought to be South America; nor has the date of its introduction into Europe been ascertained. "This species," says Mr. W. C. L. Martin, "will inter-breed with the common duck, but we believe the progeny are not fertile. The Musk duck greatly exceeds the ordinary kind in size, and moreover, differs in the colours and character of the plumage, in general contour, and the form of the head. The general colour is glossy blue-black, varied more or less with white; the head is crested, and a space of naked scarlet skin, more or less clouded with violet, surrounds the eye, continued from scarlet caruncles on the base of the beak; the top of the head is crested, the feathers of the body are larger, more lax, softer, and less closely compacted together than in the common duck, and seem to indicate less aquatic habits. The male far surpasses the female in size; there are no curled feathers in his tail." The male is fierce and quarrelsome, and when enraged has a savage appearance, and utters deep, hoarse sounds. The flesh is very good, but the breed is inferior as a layer to the Aylesbury or Rouen. The Buenos Ayres, Labrador, or East Indian, brought most probably from the first-named country, is a small and very beautiful variety, with the plumage of a uniform rich, lustrous, greenish-black, and dark legs and bills; the drake rarely weighing five pounds, and the duck four pounds. Their eggs are often smeared over with a slatey-coloured matter, but the shell is really of a dull white. CHAPTER XXIII. GEESE. Geese require much the same management as ducks. They may be kept profitably where there is a rough pasture or common into which they may be turned, and the pasturage is not rendered bare by sheep, as is generally the case; but even when the pasturage is good, a supply of oats, barley, or other grain should be allowed every morning and evening. Where the pasturage is poor or bad, the old geese become thin and weak, and the young broods never thrive and often die unless fully fed at home. A goose-house for four should not be less than eight feet long by six feet wide and six or seven feet high, with a smooth floor of brick. A little clean straw should be spread over it every other day, after removing that previously used, and washing the floor. Each goose should have a compartment two feet and a half square for laying and sitting, as she will always lay where she deposited her first egg. The house must be well ventilated. All damp must be avoided. A pigsty makes a capital pen. Although a pond is an advantage, they do not require more than a large trough or tank to bathe in. For breeding not more than four geese should be kept to one gander. Their breeding powers continue to more than twenty years old. It is often difficult to distinguish the sexes, no one sign being infallible except close examination. The goose lays early in a mild spring, or in an ordinary season, if fed high throughout the winter with corn, and on the commencement of the breeding season on boiled barley, malt, fresh grains, and fine pollard mixed up with ale, or other stimulants; by which two broods may be obtained in a year. The common goose lays from nine to seventeen eggs, usually about thirteen, and generally carries straws about previously to laying. Thirteen eggs are quite enough for the largest goose to sit on. They sit from thirty to thirty-five days. March or early April is the best period for hatching, and the geese should therefore begin to sit in February or early March; for goslings hatched at any time after April are difficult to rear. Food and water should be placed near to her, for she sits closely. She ought to leave her nest daily and take a bath in a neighbouring pond. The gander is very attentive, and sits by her, and is vigilant and daring in her defence. When her eggs are placed under a common hen they should be sprinkled with water daily or every other day, for the moisture of the goose's breast is beneficial to them. (See page 50.) A turkey is an excellent mother for goslings. She should be cooped for a few days on a dry grass-plot or meadow, with grain and water by her, of which the goslings will eat; and they should also be supplied with chopped cabbage or beet leaves, or other green food. They must have a dry bed under cover and be protected from rats. Their only dangers are heavy rains, damp floors, and vermin; and they require but little care for the first fortnight; while the old birds are singularly free from maladies of all kinds common to poultry. When a fortnight old they may be allowed to go abroad with their mother and frequent the pond. "It has been formerly recommended," says Mowbray, "to keep the newly-hatched gulls in house during a week, lest they get cramp from the damp earth; but we did not find this indoor confinement necessary; penning the goose and her brood between four hurdles upon a piece of dry grass well sheltered, putting them out late in the morning, or not at all in severe weather, and ever taking them in early in the evening. Sometimes we have pitched double the number of hurdles, for the convenience of two broods, there being no quarrels among this sociable and harmless part of the feathered race. We did not even find it necessary to interpose a parting hurdle, which, on occasion, may be always conveniently done. For the first range a convenient field containing water is to be preferred to an extensive common, over which the gulls or goslings are dragged by the goose, until they become cramped or tired, some of them squatting down and remaining behind at evening." All the hemlock or deadly nightshade within range should be destroyed. When the corn is garnered the young geese may be turned into the stubble which they will thoroughly glean, and many of them will be in fine condition by Michaelmas. Green geese are young geese fattened at about the age of four months, usually on oatmeal and peas, mixed with skim-milk or butter-milk, or upon oats or other grain, and are very delicate. In fattening geese for Christmas give oats mixed with water for the first fortnight, and afterwards barley-meal made into a crumbling porridge. They should be allowed to bathe for a few hours before being killed, for they are then plucked more easily and the feathers are in better condition. Their feathers, down, and quills are very valuable. Geese are very destructive to all garden and farm crops, as well as young trees, and must therefore be carefully kept out of orchards and plantations. Their dung, though acrid and apt to injure at first, will, when it is mellowed, much enrich the ground. The Toulouse or Grey Goose is very large, of uniform grey plumage, with long neck, having a kind of dewlap under the throat; the abdominal pouch very much developed, almost touching the ground; short legs; flat feet; short, broad tail; and very upright carriage, almost like a penguin. The Toulouse lays a large number of eggs, sometimes as many as thirty, and even more, but rarely wishes to sit, and is a very bad mother. The Emden or pure White is very scarce. The bill is flesh-colour, and the legs and feet orange. They require a pond. The Toulouse, crossed with the large white or dark-coloured common breed, produces greater weight than either, and the objection to the former as indifferent sitters and mothers is avoided; but is not desirable for breeding stock, and must have a pond like the White. CHAPTER XXIV. DISEASES. It is more economical to kill at once rather than attempt to cure common fowls showing symptoms of any troublesome disease, and so save trouble, loss of their carcases, and the risk of infection. But if the fowls are favourites, or valuable, it may be desirable to use every means of cure. See to a sick fowl at once; prompt attention may prevent serious illness, and loss of the bird. When a fowl's plumage is seen to be bristled up and disordered, and its wings hanging or dragging, it should be at once removed from the others, and looked to. Pale and livid combs are as certain a sign of bad health in fowls, as the paleness or lividness of the lips is in human beings. Every large establishment should have a warm, properly ventilated, and well-lighted house, comfortably littered down with clean straw, to be used as a hospital, and every fowl should be removed to it upon showing any symptoms of illness, even if the disease is not infectious, for sick fowls are often pecked at, ill treated, and disliked by their healthy companions. Bear in mind that prevention is better than cure, and that proper management and housing, good feeding, pure water and greens, cleanliness and exercise, will prevent all, or nearly all, these diseases. APOPLEXY arises from over-feeding, and can seldom be treated in time to be of service. The only remedy is bleeding, by opening the large vein under the wing, and pouring cold water on the head for a few minutes. Open the vein with a lancet, or if that is not at hand, with a sharp-pointed penknife; make the incision lengthways, not across, and press the vein with your thumb between the opening and the body, when the blood will flow. If the fowl should recover, feed it on soft, low food for a few days, and keep it quiet. It occurs most often in laying hens, which frequently die on the nest while ejecting the egg; and is frequently caused by too much of very stimulating food, such as hempseed, or improper diet of greaves, and also by giving too much pea or bean meal. HARD CROP, or being CROP-BOUND, is caused by too much food, especially of hard grain, being taken into the crop, so that it cannot be softened by maceration, and is therefore unable to be passed into the stomach. Although the bird has thus too large a supply of food in its crop, the stomach becomes empty, and the fowl eats still more food. Sometimes a fowl swallows a bone that is too large to pass into the stomach, and being kept in the crop forms a kernel, around which fibrous and other hard material collects. Mr. Baily says: "Pour plenty of warm water down the throat, and loosen the food till it is soft. Then give a tablespoonful of castor-oil, or about as much jalap as will lie on a shilling, mixed in butter; make a pill of it, and slide it into the crop. The fowl will be well in the morning. If the crop still remain hard after this, an operation is the only remedy. The feathers should be picked off the crop in a straight line down the middle. Generally speaking, the crop will be found full of grass or hay, that has formed a ball or some inconveniently-shaped substance. (I once took a piece of carrot three inches long out of a crop.) When the offence has been removed, the crop should be washed out with warm water. It should then be sewn up with coarse thread, and the suture rubbed with grease. Afterwards the outer skin should be served the same. The crop and skin must not be sewed together. For three or four days the patient should have only gruel; no hard food for a fortnight." The slit should be made in the upper part of the crop, and just large enough to admit a blunt instrument, with which you must gently remove the hardened mass. DIARRHOEA is caused by exposure to much cold and wet, reaction after constipation from having had too little green food, unwholesome food, and dirt. Feed on warm barley-meal, or oatmeal mashed with a little warm ale, and some but not very much green food, and give five grains of powdered chalk, one grain of opium, and one grain of powdered ipecacuanha twice a day till the looseness is checked. Boiled rice, with a little chalk and cayenne pepper mixed, will also check the complaint. When the evacuations are coloured with blood, the diarrhoea has become dysentery, and cure is very doubtful. GAPES, a frequent yawning or gaping, is caused by worms in the windpipe, which may be removed by introducing a feather, stripped to within an inch of the point, into the windpipe, turning it round quickly, and then drawing it out, when the parasites will be found adhering with slime upon it; but if this be not quickly and skilfully done, and with some knowledge of the anatomy of the parts touched, the bird may be killed instead of cured. Another remedy is to put the fowl into a box, placing in it at the same time a sponge dipped in spirits of turpentine on a hot water plate filled with boiling water, and repeating this for three or four days. Some persons recommend, as a certain cure in a few days, half a teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine mixed with a handful of grain, giving that quantity to two dozen of chickens each day. A pinch of salt put as far back into the mouth as possible is also said to be effectual. LEG WEAKNESS, shown by the bird resting on the first joint, is generally caused by the size and weight of the body being too great for the strength of the legs; and this being entirely the result of weakness, the remedy is to give strength by tonics and more nourishing food. The quality should be improved, but the quantity must not be increased, as the disease has been caused by over-feeding having produced too much weight for the strength of the legs. Frequent bathing in cold water is very beneficial. This is best effected by tying a towel round the fowl, and suspending it over a pail of water, with the legs only immersed. LOSS OF FEATHERS is almost always caused by want of green food, or dust-heap for cleansing. Let the fowls have both, and remove them to a grass run if possible. But nothing will restore the feathers till the next moult. Fowls, when too closely housed or not well supplied with green food and lime, sometimes eat each other's feathers, destroying the plumage till the next moult. In such cases green food and mortar rubbish should be supplied, exercise allowed, the injured fowl should be removed to a separate place, and the pecked parts rubbed over with sulphur ointment. Cut or broken feathers should be pulled out at once. PIP, a dry scale on the tongue, is not a disease, but the symptom of some disease, being only analogous to "a foul tongue" in human beings. Do not scrape the tongue, nor cut off the tip, but cure the roup, diarrhoea, bad digestion, gapes, or whatever the disease may be, and the pip will disappear. ROUP is caused by exposure to excessive wet or very cold winds. It begins with a slight hoarseness and catching of the breath as if from cold, and terminates in an offensive discharge from the nostrils, froth in the corners of the eyes, and swollen lids. It is very contagious. Separate the fowl from the others, keep it warm, add some "Douglass Mixture" (see "Moulting") to its water daily, wash its head once or twice daily with tepid water, feed it with meal, only mixed with hot ale instead of water, and plenty of green food. Mr. Wright advises half a grain of cayenne pepper with half a grain of powdered allspice in a bolus of the meal, or one of Baily's roup pills to be given daily. Mr. Tegetmeier recommends one grain of sulphate of copper daily. Another advises a spoonful of castor-oil at once, and a few hours afterwards one of Baily's roup pills, and to take the scale off the tongue, which can easily be done by holding the beak open with your left hand, and removing the scale with the thumbnail of your right hand; with a pill every morning for a week. If not almost well in a week it will be better to kill it. THE THRUSH may be cured by washing the tongue and mouth with borax dissolved in tincture of myrrh and water. PARALYSIS generally affects the legs and renders the fowl unable to move. It is chiefly caused by over-stimulating food. There is no known remedy for this disease, and the fowl seldom if ever recovers. Although chiefly affecting the legs of fowls, it is quite a different disease from LEG WEAKNESS. VERTIGO results from too great a flow of blood to the head, and is generally caused by over-feeding. Pouring cold water upon the fowl's head, or holding it under a tap for a few minutes, will check this complaint, and the bird should then be purged by a dose of castor-oil or six grains of jalap. MOULTING. All birds, but especially old fowls, require more warmth and more nourishing diet during this drain upon their system, and should roost in a warm, sheltered, and properly-ventilated house, free from all draught. Do not let them out early in the morning, if the weather is chilly, but feed them under cover, and give them every morning warm, soft food, such as bread and ale, oatmeal and milk, potatoes mashed up in pot-liquor, with a little pepper and a little boiled meat, as liver, &c., cut small, and a little hempseed with their grain at night. Give them in their water some iron or "Douglass Mixture," which consists of one ounce of sulphate of iron and one drachm of sulphuric acid dissolved in one quart of water; a teaspoonful of the mixture is to be added to each pint of drinking water. This chalybeate is an excellent tonic for weakly young chickens, and young birds that are disposed to outgrow their strength. It increases their appetite, improves the health, imparts strength, brightens the colour of the comb, and increases the stamina of the birds. When chickens droop and seem to suffer as the feathers on the head grow, give them once a day meat minced fine and a little canary-seed. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: Piper on Poultry: their Varieties, Management, Breeding, and Diseases; Price 1s. Groombridge & Sons, 5, Paternoster Row, London.] [Footnote 2: The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, Petter & Galpin.] [Footnote 3: The Practical Poultry Keeper. By Mr. L. Wright. Cassell, Petter & Galpin.] 
39235	----	Illustration: MISS MURRAY'S BLACK PUGS. _Frontispiece_ A MANUAL OF TOY DOGS HOW TO BREED, REAR, AND FEED THEM BY MRS. LESLIE WILLIAMS THIRD EDITION THIRD IMPRESSION LONDON EDWARD ARNOLD 41 & 48, MADDOX STREET, BOND STREET, W. 1919 _Copyright 1904 All rights reserved_ PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION This little book, in its earlier editions, met with so uniformly kind and gracious a reception, that I am encouraged to hope it may still make new friends on this, its third appearance. It has given me the greatest pleasure to hear from correspondents in many countries that they have found it as helpful as I hoped a manual drawn entirely from actual personal experience might prove to be. In the years which have elapsed since I first wrote upon dogs, there has been a wonderful advance in veterinary science and practice. Operative surgery under anæsthetics has become nearly as confident in relieving our pets as in abating our own miseries. Much disease, however, is still present among dogs for which there is no warrant in Nature, and which might be entirely conquered in the course of a few generations, could the prejudice against natural and rational diet be completely abandoned. To persuade dog-owners to give meat-feeding a trial--one honest experiment has never in my experience failed to convince the most sceptical--has been my constant endeavour, and I cannot let the "Toy Dog Manual" go forth on another journey without once more laying emphasis on the fact that the really successful dog-owner's secret is a very simple one, spelt in the four letters--MEAT. I have to thank numerous kind friends for help in providing the illustrations, nearly all pictures of actual present-day winning dogs, and examples not only of beauty and show points, but of perfect health. I am also greatly indebted to _The Illustrated Kennel News_ for the loan of blocks and for other kind courtesies, as also to _The Ladies' Field_, a paper devoted in its kennel columns to the best interest of dogs. M. L. WILLIAMS. SWANSWICK, BATH, _May 5th, 1910._ CONTENTS PAGE TOY DOGS FOR PROFIT 1 ON BREEDING 5 THE TOY BITCH WHEN PUPPING 9 ON REARING PUPS 14 ON FEEDING TOYS 19 EXHIBITING AND PREPARING FOR EXHIBITION 23 THE CHOICE OF BREEDS 30 AILMENTS AND ILLNESSES 42 CLUB STANDARDS, DESCRIPTIONS AND POINTS OF VARIOUS TOY BREEDS 80 INDEX 105 MANUAL OF TOY DOGS CHAPTER 1 TOY DOGS FOR PROFIT Perhaps the question which is most frequently asked anent toy dogs is whether the keeping them as a pleasure and hobby can be combined with profit by means of breeding them and selling the puppies. To such a query it is very hard to give a definite reply, for this reason--whether or not toy dog breeding can be made profitable depends, firstly, on the character of the enterpriser, and, secondly, on that inscrutable factor--Fate. Some of us devote ourselves to our dogs, take endless trouble for them, and spend money on them freely, with the poorest possible return; others, while not making nearly so much fuss about their pets, manage to turn out healthy litters at regular intervals, and sell them at remunerative prices. All that can be done is to put before the novice "how _not_ to do it," and leave to each individually the chances called luck, for which their star is answerable. Taking one year with another, and presupposing patience, perseverance, affection for the dogs, and some business-like qualities in the aspirant, I am of opinion that toy dogs can be made to pay their expenses, and leave a margin of profit; this in the case of non-exhibitors. Where exhibiting is contemplated, the luck element is still more to the front, and a degree of experience, both local and general, is essential to success. If success, however, in winning prizes is once attained, the sales of puppies become much more assured, and higher prices are naturally obtainable. As a means of eking out a small income, dog breeding is occasionally successful, supposing the breeder to possess advantages in the way of proper quarters, and plenty of time to spare, natural aptitude not being wanted; but I should greatly hesitate to suggest to a poor lady, without experience in dogs, that she should embark capital in such a venture. Many people seem possessed with the idea that they have only to buy a female dog, or dogs (generally the latter, since the novice is always inclined to split upon the rock of overcrowding and overstocking at first), and get it mated with some well-known sire, to ensure a fine, healthy litter of pups, which can be immediately sold at high prices, having in the meantime been fed on dog biscuit and attended to, more or less, by any one who happens to be at home. No greater mistake! If you want to succeed with toy dogs, you must, at any rate until you have considerable experience and, in addition, the ability to direct others and make them understand, which is never an easy task, look after the pets yourself, not spasmodically, but regularly; see that they have exercise and proper food in proper quantity and variety, and at fixed and regular hours; you must have an eye always open to notice the smallest beginnings of illness--a watchfulness servants, for example, never can comprehend, still less practise; and lastly, you must set an aim before you and keep to it with perseverance, even though you may, and probably will, often feel impatient and despairing. Then, too, you must be prepared to nurse the dogs properly if, or when, they are ill. Nobody can expect to be exempt from illness, dog or man, and good nursing is as needful in the one case as in the other. A sick toy dog must be kept clean, petted, sat with, talked to, and tempted with nice things, like a sick baby, for the little spirit has much to do with the tender frame, and pain and weakness need sympathy, and respond to it eagerly. A little toy bitch, accustomed to fly to her owner at every impulse, cannot be left to have puppies all alone--though her fussy preparations, which may last all night, are rather wearisome. Some one must stay with her and comfort her until her troubles are over; otherwise, she will fret and worry until, when the pups do appear, she has no milk for them. All these little requirements and necessities may seem absurd to those who think a dog is a dog and nothing more; but we have bred generation after generation of toys to be in our constant company, and made them almost humanly intelligent, while, naturally, their small brains have no human balance; and that a nervous toy dog _does_ need such consideration will be granted, I am sure, by all successful breeders. At the same time, I am by no means advocating the silly system of over-petting and over-feeding, whereby dogs can be made a nuisance to themselves and every one else. Because a child must be taken care of, it does not follow that it need be spoiled: we ought to put a hat on its head when it goes out in the sun, but we need not walk beside it, holding an umbrella over it; and so with our small dogs--they must be watched and cared for, but they need not, and should not, be coddled and made silly. I have no opinion of a dog which will not go out because it is raining, preferring to make itself objectionable in the house; or of one which leaves the small proportion of biscuit in its dinner and comes round scratching your arm for more meat; or of one which rushes back to the fire when a walk is suggested on a chilly day. Dogs like this have not been properly cared for; it is not affection for them, seeking their well-being, but downright silliness, which is responsible for their self-indulgent ways. Thanks be that toy dogs of this kind are becoming much less common, and indeed, in the case of any person desiring to keep them with an idea of profit, such ways would be discouraged by self-interest, for pampered dogs are not those which breed freely and do their puppies justice. Where it is necessary that the dogs shall pay their way, it is of the first necessity that the inevitable expenses of starting and gaining experience shall be carefully considered. It is not a bad plan to get a little cheap dog, and see it through a litter before embarking in a "paying" breed, as where these are concerned it is useless to expect return unless a really good price has been paid for valuable stock to begin with. One does occasionally see such toys as Japs and Poms advertised very cheaply; and I have known people who studied these advertisements with rosy visions of "picking up" a bitch from an excellent strain, at a guinea or two--with some slight fault, like a few white hairs, to cheapen her--of breeding show stock from her and making a little fortune. Chances like this seldom come in the way of the novice. The best start a would-be breeder who is without any experience can have, is by placing herself in the hands of some one who has been successful, buying a young bitch which comes of a winning strain, though it may possess some fault, at a fair price--which will not be a small one--and taking the breeder's advice as to mating, etc. Or it is by no means a bad plan to buy a brace of unrelated young puppies and rear them. Of this, more in the chapter on breeding. To buy imported or pedigreeless small toys for breeding is a complete lottery. Foreign breeders are extremely careless with regard to their strains, and purity of blood can never be depended on. Another point which must be insisted upon in relation to profitable toy breeding is the necessity for health in the kennel. I say kennel because it is a useful word, but am far from suggesting that toys of any kind should be kept in the way understood by "having a kennel" among larger dogs. The breeder who succeeds best is invariably the one who keeps one or two, or even four or five, _pet_ bitches, running about the house enjoying full liberty and all the happiness of personal favourites, with, it may be, a dog also of the party. The breeder who is most troubled with skin complaints, distemper, lengthy vet's bills, and all the expenses, such as sick diet, which eat up profits, is the one who has built or fitted "kennels," no matter at what expense, and filled them with dogs. CHAPTER II ON BREEDING Very small bitches, and especially those belonging to certain breeds which are known to be "shy," are not only often reluctant to breed at all, but are not infrequently very indifferent mothers, while there are great risks to the bitch in pupping where the sire is larger than herself, or where larger dogs occur in the immediate ancestry on either side. For these reasons, brood bitches are always wisely chosen of medium size, and mated to very tiny dogs. In all the breeds which come under the head of toys, smallness is a desideratum, but the practice of inbreeding which has been extensively resorted to cannot be too highly condemned; while the equally mistaken idea of attaining this end by under-feeding puppies has also contributed to the weakliness of constitution which is an immense drawback to some breeds. Reckoning size by weight is another faulty practice much against the true interests of toys, which we want to be small and healthy at the same time; for a very tiny dog, if compact and sturdy, may weigh much more than a leggy specimen which, to the eye, seems half as large again. A bitch from 5 lbs. to 7 lbs., if, as I said before, of a small strain, may be safely used for breeding, and the smaller the dog the better, provided he is healthy. The plan of sending away bitches to a stud dog saves the expense of buying a dog of one's own; the sire's wins help to sell the puppies very materially, and the good offices of his owner may generally be reckoned upon to assist the novice; but there are other facets to the question. These tiny dogs, which are frequently exhibited, are often very unreliable sires; they work too hard, and their owners are sometimes very indifferent as to whether the visiting bitches are satisfactorily attended to. True, the terms always do, or certainly always should, include a second visit free if the first proves fruitless, but there is the loss of time, the disappointment to the owner, and sometimes to the little bitch herself, who may have been quite anxious to breed and not have had a fair chance, and the trouble and expense of travelling for her. On the whole, I am much inclined to advise the novice to, at any rate, _begin_ by rearing up a male puppy of such breeds as Pekingese and Griffons, or the scarcer toy Bulldogs, and using it for the home stud; for the other plan is less likely to result in disappointment when a little knowledge has been gained of the kennel world in general. This, of course, unless the whole thing is gone into under the ægis of some experienced owner, as before suggested. Some little bitches are exceedingly capricious, and will not take the least notice of a strange dog, where they would willingly mate with one they knew and liked; others are so upset by a journey and a strange place as to be useless _pro tem._; others, again, instead of being ready to breed twice a year, as is the usual habit of female dogs, may only come in season once in twelve months, and then but fugitively. In such cases it is a positive necessity to have a dog on the spot. Where a sire must be chosen from among strangers, his points should correct any in which the bitch is deficient; your toy pug may have too small a head, with little wrinkle--you must look for a dog with good head properties as her mate; your Pom may be long in back, and you must seek a male with the opposite quality, and a plume well over and touching his frill. The first puppies of two young dogs are generally larger than the parents, but I do not believe the theory often advanced that the first litter is always the best. Puppies by a very old sire are usually small. A toy bitch, if sent away, should be carefully packed in a roomy, warm basket; the provision of draughty, tumble-to-pieces baskets is false economy, both for show and breeding purposes. If possible, a toy dog of either sex should have a cosy little basket kennel, with a door, which it can use at home as a sleeping-place, and in which it can travel; the basket can be fitted with an outer case of wood for greater security, but the dog will stand the journey much better if it is in a familiar basket. Something with a peaked or rounded top should be chosen; the ventilation being safer in this, as flat-sided and flat-topped packages may be so crowded upon with others in a guard's van as to suffocate the inmate. Illustration: GRIFFON BRUXELLOIS. _"Sparklets," the property of Miss Johnson._ The usual period of willingness to breed in a toy bitch is, more or less, one week. This is preceded by about a fortnight's preparation, a week or so of gradual enlargement of the parts concerned, and a week of a coloured discharge from the uterus and vagina. Either or all of the stages may last a longer or shorter time; but three weeks is generally accepted as the period. No attempt at mating the bitch should be made during the first two stages; it is when the discharge begins to cease that she is ready, and the correct judging of this time is what chiefly puzzles amateurs, though after they have once been through it they will not find any difficulty. As a rule, bitches are sent away too soon, and as the conveniences for keeping them at the stud dog's house are often few, they are cooped up for day after day, and may become quite "stale" and dull before the real mating time comes--a poor prospect. If the two dogs are in the house together, the male should be kept entirely away from the female from the very beginning of her attraction for him, until she is ready, otherwise he will worry her incessantly and become himself ultimately indifferent and useless in the matter. Toy dogs should never be left to themselves in breeding matters; it is highly dangerous to do so, especially if they are young and inexperienced, and I strongly advise the beginner either to get some experienced breeder to overlook matters and give advice, or failing this, when the female is ready, to send the two dogs for a few hours to some kind and sensible veterinary surgeon. They should be allowed to be together twice, either on consecutive days, or with a day between. Once mated, the little toy bitch must be petted and taken good care of: not over-fed, but given plenty of good, nourishing food, and systematically exercised. If she is in pup it will become evident about the fifth to the seventh week. Some dogs show it much more than others; whether she has puppies or not, she will have the natural provision of milk for them. If she does not pup, she may very likely come in season again in half the usual time. A failure to prove in pup is generally evidenced by a time of great heaviness and dullness, the bitch sleeping a great deal, getting very fat, and decidedly stupid; under these circumstances give her extra exercise and one or two small doses of sulphate of magnesia in food, to ward off skin irritation, a not uncommon correlative. People are far too apt to decide that "missing" is the bitch's fault; certainly she is apt to miss if she is too fat at the time of mating, and Nature often, and very sensibly, arranges that she shall do so when she has been regularly bred from at her seasons for a number of times; but outside these occasions it is quite as often the dog's fault as not. A question which is frequently asked is as to the desirability or otherwise of giving a toy bitch worm medicine, or an aperient, while she is in pup or just before her babies arrive. It is as well to give one mild dose of worm medicine about the end of the third week, if the bitch is known to be troubled with these parasites to any great extent; but it would be much better to have dosed her before her breeding time came on. As to the aperient before pupping which we often see advised, it is a totally unnecessary interference with Nature, and when castor oil, a violent irritant to dogs, is employed, it is a sheer piece of cruelty, likely to have very bad effects. CHAPTER III THE TOY BITCH WHEN PUPPING Too much interference is generally alternated in the case of dogs with a disregard of their natural feelings where the arrival of puppies is concerned. It is quite natural that the little bitch, feeling distressed and uneasy, should claim a great deal of notice and attention, and if she has been made a pet of she will expect, and deserve, to be allowed to have her puppies in her mistress's dressing-room or some similar luxury; in which she should be indulged. But once she has got over the preliminaries, which I will presently describe, she should, if possible, be left to herself as far as manual assistance goes. Nature will bring the puppies into the world far better than our clumsy hands, and the merest little tyro of a year-old bitch generally possesses the marvellous instinct teaching her to put her babies comfortably afloat on the sea of life. The disregard of a pet dog's feelings at which I have hinted may take the form of sending a tiny bitch out to the stable to pup under the care of a coachman or groom, and this may or may not be cruel according to whether she has any affection for the man or any knowledge of her temporary quarters; personally, I should consider it an unkind thing to do under any circumstances. The beginning of the toy bitch's trouble is apparent to her owner almost as soon as to herself. She pants, and runs about excitedly, scratching here and there, making wildly impossible and absurd nests for her puppies in all kinds of unsuitable places. This may last for days, but is generally only done for a few hours before the puppies arrive, which, by the way, will be nine weeks after mating. Some bitches shriek in a very distressing way before they pup, and, as a rule, food is refused, and the little mother that is to be is often sick. No anxiety, however, need be felt. As soon as she really means business she will quiet down and settle in the place prepared for her, which by choice should be a big, deep arm-chair, with a white blanket--any old thing will do that is clean--folded in the seat of it, and over this an old cotton sheet, likewise folded, and so secured that the bitch cannot scrabble it up in the foolish endeavour to improve human bed-making which always possesses dogs, and, if indulged, lands them in desperate discomfort on the top of a kind of volcano of rags! In nine cases out of ten a bitch chooses to pup in the night, and the hours often seem very long, while she may lie and sleep in evident uneasiness, getting up every now and then to make her bed, and panting as if exhausted. It is quite safe to leave her in this condition for twelve hours, but if by that time she seems to be getting weaker and no puppies have come, the vet's services should be requisitioned. Probably she will not eat, but she may be offered a little cold milk. On no account give her anything hot, externally or internally, and do not be tempted to do anything whatever to her; the only interference which is ever excusable is the application of a very little sweet oil or vaseline externally, which she will lick off, and which does no harm and no good, in my experience. If help is called for at all, it must be the skilled aid of a surgeon; any other is worse than useless. Illustration: FRENCH TOY BULLDOG. _"La Reine des Roses," owned by Mrs. Townsend Green._ The puppies are born singly, and if a bitch has a large litter they generally come in twos and threes, with a very short interval between the items of each brace or trio, and a long rest between the batches. The first services the mother has to render her babies are to free them from the bag of membranes in which they are born, and to bite the cord which joins each puppy to the afterbirth--a fleshy substance which comes away with or shortly after it. All animals intensely dislike being watched while they perform these operations; but every bitch who is anything at all of a mother will manage them perfectly. Next comes the licking of the puppies, which have been enclosed each in its membranous bag full of liquid (the _liquor amniæ_), and are consequently dripping wet. Here is the crucial test: a good mother licks her babies until they are warm and dry, then feeds them, and snuggles down with them into a contented heap of intense happiness. A bad mother, on the contrary, leaves her poor infants to dry as best they can, a process which invariably ends in their developing a kind of infantile skin complaint, which appears like a scab of cheesy substance attached to the roots of the hair. It grows away with the hair by degrees, and gets well without treatment, but is ugly and disfiguring for the time being, and a sad evidence of incompetence on the part of the mother. When the family have settled down, and the puppies are dry and comfortable, it is time to give them a little attention. Have a saucer full of nice, warm milk-gruel, made with patent groats as daintily as for an invalid, and let the mother drink it, which she will be sure to do with gratitude; she may have more at intervals during the first day. Then roll away the soiled folds of sheet from under her and the litter, which can now be done without disturbing them, and leave them cosily ensconced on the clean, warm blanket, which has been all the time underneath. A little later the mother may be put out into the garden for a few minutes, not more than two or three; but she must not be allowed to get chilled. After the first day she should go out for a little walk morning and afternoon, the time of her absence to be gradually lengthened as the puppies grow older. Until they begin to crawl, valuable toy puppies are much safer and better upstairs in a big chair as described, or in a flat basket with a folded blanket at the bottom set upon the chair, than they can possibly be in any stable or in the kitchen premises, for, no matter how warm, such places are draughty too. There is absolutely nothing about a litter of little toys, if healthy, to be in the least offensive anywhere, and a good mother will keep them in the very pink of perfection for nearly a month under such circumstances. Where a poor or weakly mother is concerned, and where the puppies are restless, squall, and seem damp and comfortless, it is another matter. By constant attention as to the changing of the bed, partial hand-feeding from a small old silver spoon with cream and hot water, and Plasmon or Lactol, half and half (better than milk, though _warm_ milk will do), and a great deal of patience, the mother may be helped out and the puppies saved; but where they are not valuable it is better to destroy all but one or two; and where they are so, a good foster-mother offers them by far the best chance of life and health. There are people who make it their business to supply fosters, and one of these should be applied to as soon as possible; taking pains to ensure, by careful examination on arrival, that the stranger has no skin disease and is free from objectionable insects. Small toy bitches sometimes have but little milk at first, but by giving warm food only for the first few days, and plenty of milk to drink, it generally comes all right, and so long as the pups seem fairly content, all is well; the flow is sure to increase. Both before and after pupping there is generally a little diarrhoea, which is of no consequence; but if it goes on beyond the second day after pupping, get the bitch on to her usual diet, with a little cold milk to drink, and stop all sloppy foods. Oatmeal, as gruel or otherwise, should never be given after the second day. A discharge, of mucus mixed with blood, is usual after pupping, and may continue for several weeks in gradually lessening amount. CHAPTER IV ON REARING PUPS An indispensable adjunct in the rearing of valuable toy puppies, which, as a general rule, do far better in the house than in any stable or out-of-door premises, is one of Spratt's or Boulton and Paul's little houses and runs. As personal and vicarious experiences are all that any writer can adduce to support theory, I may be allowed to describe the procedure which has been found successful with my own puppies--born, bred, and reared in house and garden as they are. Directly they leave the basket of their infancy (in which, _par parenthèse_, I must say, I think them more delightful, helpless little soft morsels, than even when they begin to run about, show intelligence, and need feeding) they are introduced to one of these useful abodes, comprising a sleeping house, provided with a cosy blanket, freely washable and often changed, and a little wired-in run about 4 ft. by 2 ft. The bigger this the better, of course; and if it has a floor, as some have, pierced with small holes and draining into a removable tray to be kept full of earth, or sawdust, it will be well. Mine is a humbler affair, floorless, and stands on a piece of oilcloth, covered with a large sheet of brown paper, which can be daily renewed; yet it answers its purpose very well. In this, with outings two or three times a day, for variety, the puppies live until they are seven weeks old; the mother, loose about the house, visiting them at her inclination and sleeping with them. At between three and four weeks old they must be taught to lap, which is easy enough with some pups and difficult with others. Warm, boiled milk should be the only addition to what the mother gives them until they are over a month old: it is a mistake to hurry puppies on to patent foods, bread and milk, and the like. Do not let them have a saucer and upset it, tumbling into it and getting themselves in a mess, to dry all sour and disagreeable, but hold their little heads one by one as they lap, for they _will_ nod into the saucer and send the milk flying. As soon as the puppies are strong on their legs, they need more exercise and fun than the run can allow them, and now is the time to take them off the carpets, which they will never respect in after life if they have been allowed to treat them evilly as elderly babies. It is not a bad plan to let them live in the kitchen from this time forth, various things being provisional. One is, that the presiding genius will see to their little meals under your supervision; that is, you feed them four times a day, and she or he undertakes to see that no one else does so. Another, that the kitchen opens into the, or a, garden, and that the puppies can run there in the sunshine, in warm weather, and so insensibly learn manners; yet another, that it is a warm, draughtless place, with a nice corner for their sleeping basket. Some folks, whose lower regions do not answer this description, or whose servants are not amenable, may have an occupied stable at command, where the puppies can have a loose box or stall. This plan I do _not_ recommend, for toy pups do far better in constant human companionship; but it, or the alternative one of keeping them in a room with an oilcloth floor, are all that offer themselves, failing the desirable kitchen. I have known toy pups do splendidly in a sunny little room, floored with cork carpet, provided with cosy sleeping boxes, and opening into a terrace-walk, where on all fine and sunny days they were allowed to play; but they were not too much left to themselves, and their apartment was carefully looked after, and brush and sawdust-pan kept going, just as, in my kitchen, the servants hasten to remove any unbecoming traces of their presence. This period, while toy pups are too young to be trained, too old for their mother to clean them up, and also so young as to require warmth and constant watching, is the troublesome one in their lives and the one in which so many of them die. Neglect, or dirty surroundings, are fatal to these little delicate atoms, which really call for the same attention we should give a baby; monotony--being kept shut up in one small room for hours or days--and lack of fresh air, carry off many; while sour milk, meals left about in odds and ends, irregular feeding, and lying to sleep in draughts, are all elements of danger. We want to give them warmth and dryness, without stuffiness and overheating; we want to give them sweet, tempting, _clean_ little meals, regularly, four times a day, just as much as they can eat eagerly and no more; we want to give them a cosy day-bed to go to sleep whenever they feel inclined--which will be often--and, lastly, to let them have all the fresh air and out-of-door sunshine they can get without fear of chill. Thus it is that summer puppies, born in the spring, with all the best weather before them, do so much better than those which have the critical teething period to pass through in winter time. A toy puppy grows more quickly than, for instance, a terrier, and, of course, is adult far sooner than a big dog; the short-haired varieties, again, coming to maturity sooner than the long-coated ones. A Yorkshire terrier is adult at a year, but does not get his full beauty of coat until he is two years old, or thereabouts. A toy Schipperke is, so to speak, grown-up at ten or eleven months, but goes on thickening and improving in shape, and probably increasing and hardening in coat for another year at least. A Pom's jacket gets grander at each moult until he is three years old. As a general rule it may be laid down that the dog is a puppy no longer at ten months, when his teething is almost always entirely completed. This same teething is a tiresome process, comprising the change of the first set of wee ivories for the permanent forty-two which are to carry the owner through life. Nearly every puppy suffers more or less in the process, some from fits, some from skin irritation, some from colds in the head and eyes, some from general feverishness; but the troubles are ephemeral, and generally subside between whiles, returning as each big tooth is cut. What makes the worst trouble is when the first teeth are severally not shed, but remain _in situ_, a second tooth forcing itself up at one side of the lingering intruder. This condition is pretty sure to mean teething fits, of which more anon. Dentition begins about the fourth month, and once safely over, the dog may be considered well reared. Illustration: POMERANIAN PUPPY. _At the ugly age._ Distemper, that is, the two diseases usually so described, are a bugbear, but it is enough to say that no puppy ought to have them. If he does, it is because some one has allowed him to get the contagion, by accident or carelessness; left to himself, he could not indulge in it, for it is not, cannot be, spontaneous. Small skin troubles, such as puppy pox, in which the skin in the under parts of the body is red, and small pustules form and suppurate, after the manner of chicken pox--though puppy pox is not catching--often affect the strongest puppies; and a pup which "teethes with a rash" is generally thought by breeders to be one which, if in the way of contagion, will not take "distemper" very badly, if at all, though whether there is any foundation for this opinion I cannot undertake to say. Personally, my puppies never have distemper, simply because they never have a chance; but where other dogs from the house are going to and fro to shows they are almost certain, sooner or later, to bring it home to the babies. Some day we shall have a crusade for stamping these horrible diseases out, or discover prophylactics, no doubt; at present they must be looked upon as ill-luck which _may_ never come our way. The training of puppies to the house is a task which is most easily accomplished by bringing them in from the kitchens, or wherever they live in a general way, to some sitting-room for a short time daily, and by degrees teaching them that each offence is instantly followed by dismissal to the garden, or out of doors. Beating little dogs is useless and unkind, but a mild scolding may be given and the infant be carried out by the scruff of its neck. The great thing is to make this sequel invariable, as dogs have a great sense of justice, and soon learn that they have done wrong in this case; whereas, if they are allowed to do a thing three times and beaten for it on the fourth occasion they quite fail to understand the reason of the rebuke. Some breeds of toys are much easier to teach than others; personally, I have found Poms comparatively difficult dogs to train to the house, and black-and-tan terriers are seldom altogether reliable; while fawn pugs are generally averse to going out of doors in wet or very cold weather; but patience and perseverance will do it in almost all cases. On the other hand, some little dogs take to the house at once, and give no trouble at all from the very first. A dog just off a journey, or strange to a place, is not generally well-behaved just at first, so that the buyer of a puppy, warranted trained, ought to give it a little law before deciding that its education is not properly complete. I am sometimes asked if there is not some magical preparation which cures dogs of untidy habits, but am compelled to own that, in the present state of our knowledge, such a thing not only does not exist, but does not seem likely to be discovered! Small puppies, under three or five months, are physically incapable of resisting any impulse, therefore it is quite useless to attempt to train them too soon. Comparison between the sexes in this matter is sometimes made; some preferring males as house dogs, and others females. I fancy there is not the least difference, and certainly, given a promising and intelligent individual, a little boy pup is as easy to teach manners to as a little girl, and _per contra_. Much depends upon character; here and there we find some toy dogs which have mean, cringing spirits, and these are generally the ones which won't go out in rain. They may be vulgarly described as "sneaks," and I would not keep a dog of this description. Mere timidity is a different thing altogether, and can be eradicated by kindness and judicious petting. The "sneak" is no companion, and should not be bred from. It will not follow well out of doors, is seldom a good mother, and is apt to transmit its faults of disposition to its offspring. CHAPTER V ON FEEDING TOYS In feeding toys, variety is essential, and it is also desirable to give them food which will nourish and support the constitution without fattening them unduly, or heating the blood. It is far better to give a toy a very small dinner, as far as bulk is concerned, of roast meat cut up; or a little boiled mutton and rice; or a bit of cutlet minced, than to give a much larger dinner of rice and biscuit flooded with milk or soup. Big, sloppy meals are most undesirable, and the last meal at night, above all, should be dry. Half a penny sponge cake makes an excellent supper for a toy dog, or a couple of Osborne biscuits. Toy dogs should never be given any biscuit containing oatmeal or Indian corn meal, or peameal. These two are much used in dog-biscuit making, on account of their cheapness, and they are both too heating for toy dogs, and, in quantity, indigestible, although oatmeal is occasionally valuable, as in the form of groats, to be made into milk gruel and given to bitches after confinement. Rice, well boiled, is used as a staple, to give bulk to meals, by all breeders of Yorkshire terriers, and it is a valuable food, for this purpose, for it does not fatten, and is as easily digested as any cereal can be. Although I advocate small, dry meals as against large, sloppy ones, I do not mean to say that a certain amount of bulk is not desirable--it is, for without it there would not be the natural stimulus of distension to the intestinal canal. But although the dog has a very large gullet and can swallow, and wishes to swallow, very large quantities as compared to its size, its stomach is not so very large in proportion, and the _juste milieu_--enough and not too much--is easy to ascertain. Eating between meals is quite as bad for dogs as for babies. They should be fed regularly, and restrained from picking up bits out of doors--which may be poisoned, and are sure to be unwholesome. Many dogs have a shocking habit of scavenging, which often means that they are anæmic and harbour worms; if a tonic and worm dose does not mend matters, a muzzle will. A toy dog of 5 lbs. or 6 lbs., which has a biscuit at breakfast time, a varied and tempting meal of meat or fish at lunch, and a piece of stale sponge cake in the evening, is being reasonably fed, and should have a healthy appetite. It is a mistake to feed only once a day, as such treatment is only suitable for dogs so far in a state of nature that they can gorge themselves to their fullest and sleep for hours afterwards; and then take hard exercise. It is quite a modern theory that the sins formerly laid to the charge of meat are all unproven, but it is a perfectly just one. Not only do skin complaints arise from malnutrition, or from improper feeding, or a too large amount of starchy food, but a cure for them is frequently found in changing the diet to one of raw or underdone _meat only_. This is modern veterinary practice, as set forth by the cleverest man of the day--Mr. Sewell--and others whose ability is unquestioned; in the olden times the vet's invariable dictum, whether he understood the case or not--and generally he was in dense ignorance as to whether mange, eczema, or erythema was the trouble--was "No meat!" This idea, like others primarily due to ignorance, dies hard, and these are still to be found people who, ignoring the way a dog's teeth are formed, pronounce his proper diet to be farinaceous, notwithstanding the fact that he was created among the carnivora. Of course, we cannot keep a house pet, altered by centuries of evolution, just as Nature kept him, on raw flesh--for one thing, because he is not living the same sort of life; but the conditions are not so different as to have turned a flesh-eating animal into a graminivorous one. I write, as I feel, strongly on this subject; for many a time have I been vexed to see how obstinacy in compelling a dog to live on utterly unnatural food, has made a miserable creature of one that would have been happy, properly fed; and the same applies to many a litter of puppies. It has long been a common habit to feed puppies on sloppy, farinaceous food, even up to the time when they are well on in getting their permanent teeth; if this is a mistake with larger dogs, it is a grievous folly with toys. People feed their pups four or five times a day on watery bread and milk, Indian corn meal and oatmeal, and powdered biscuit, all slopped with milk; they may even leave it about all day. Some of the puppies, the greedy ones to wit, nearly burst themselves, whereupon Nature rebels and relieves the pressure by means of diarrhoea; others, dainty feeders, are sickened after one or two doses, and can hardly be got to feed at all. They loathe their food, and getting them on is a constant worry; presently they begin to be often sick (this is the stomach's protest against being constantly distended with liquid food) and if they have, as most puppies have, the ova of worms inside them, these are immensely encouraged to develop, and lose no time in doing so. A nice preparation for the critical period of teething! If those who find toy puppies difficult to rear thus, would forsake slops and feed them rationally, they would, I think, share the success of a number of breeders, whose toys are noted for their health and beauty, and whose methods I rely upon to back up my contention. Up to the time the puppy can use its first teeth, give it nothing but milk, pure, sweet, fresh, and _warm_ mixed with plasmon or any other good dried milk powder; cold milk will give the baby colic. Teach it to lap from a saucer of warm milk; either good cow's milk, if you can rely on getting it free from boracic acid; pure cream and hot water to the thickness of milk; goat's milk, best of all; or, in the last resource, condensed milk, thinned with hot water. The latter must be the kind which is not over-sweetened, and _not_ the kind which has had the cream separated. Up to six weeks I find my puppies do best on milk only; when their little teeth are through, and their mother forsakes them, get them on to solids. A puppy loves to gnaw a lump of stalish sponge cake, or suck a rusk; it comforts him to use his sharp little needlepoints--feeds and amuses him at once. Let him then have milk for breakfast and tea; an Osborne biscuit broken up, a rusk of the kind known as "tops and bottoms," just softened with a little drop of milk, not made into a slop, or a bit of sponge cake, for his dinner and supper. At four weeks he may have a little minced chicken or boiled fish for dinner, or shredded boiled mutton; at two months he may be fed like his elders, but with no big lumps of meat. All meat given to puppies should be cut up finely, until they are six months old. As to bones, a big bone is good for a puppy to suck and gnaw; but he must not have any kind of bone which he can swallow in whole or part. For grown-up toys any bones, but those of chicken, game, and fish, are a permissible treat, one at a time, and that time at least a week from the next or the last. CHAPTER VI EXHIBITING AND PREPARING FOR EXHIBITION. Although the profits to be obtained from exhibiting are of a secondary nature, and relative simply to the influence exercised on sales and the way in which showing them brings dogs into public notice, it is well worth the while of the dog owner who has a really good little toy to exhibit it sometimes for the fun of the thing. At a show one can learn more about breeds and points, and all the little details which interest doggy folk, than is possible otherwise; compare notes with other owners, and obtain many useful hints. I am sorry to say that we can also see a good deal going on which would be well suppressed, and get glimpses of the less attractive side of human nature which keen competition and rivalry are apt to call forth, and which the socialistic mixture of all classes composing "the dog fancy" encourages. "Faking "--dyeing pale tan bright, pulling out coat, or tweaking white hairs, dusting disguising powder into the stained jackets of white dogs, training ears to fall or stand erect (temporarily) in the desired way, with other little improvements, such as clipping the hair from the edges of Poms' ears and from their paws and legs, are all practices nobody would own to, but which nevertheless exist; while even perfectly honest owners are able to bring their dogs to the front by legitimate methods which are unknown to the novice, and which she can learn from the initiated. As to the "cruelty" of showing, which Ouida so strongly deprecates, a word may be said. It is certainly not kind to send a little petted toy, accustomed to regular ways and the constant society of its owners to a show "on its own," unattended, and with no care but such as the show officials may feel disposed to bestow upon it--often of a perfunctory character. On the other hand, if its owner takes it to the show, establishes it in its pen, visits it from time to time, feeds it, and takes it out of the show at evening time to spend the night with her, as can always be arranged, I fail to see the slightest cruelty in the matter--in fact, many dogs enjoy being exhibited, and it is quite the exception to see a melancholy face in the rows of pens devoted to the well-cared-for toy section. The first thing to be thought of where exhibiting is contemplated is getting the dog, or dogs, up to their very best form. A toy which is properly looked after at home ought to be always, more or less, in show condition, that is, as far as Nature's arrangements for the shedding of coat, etc., permit; but a little extra care for a few weeks before a show is desirable. Short-coated dogs, which, _par parenthèse_, should never be washed at all if it can be helped, must certainly not be washed for at least a fortnight beforehand, but the least possible trace of vaseline or cocoa-nut oil may be applied to their jackets and polished off with a clean handkerchief; while brushing and hand-rubbing the right way of the hair get up a beautiful gloss and sheen upon their coat, and a little milk to drink daily helps this effect. Eyes should be washed, and if noses are, as some, unfortunately, are too prone to be, dry, a little vaseline well rubbed in with the finger twice a day will remedy the defect. Long-coated dogs, of course, need much more attention. They must have extra combing and brushing, and, if dirty or flat in coat, but not otherwise, should receive a tub about forty-eight hours before appearing in the ring. For this, use _soft_, warm water, with, in the case of Poms, whose jackets ought to stand out well, a teaspoonful of powdered borax and a quarter of an ounce of dissolved gelatine to each two quarts of water. The soap used should be carefully chosen, and of the best--Vinolia or E. Cook & Son's Toilet Soap for choice; common soaps are most unsuitable. Many people also use and much like this firm's Improved Dog Soap. These stiff, stand-out coats are encouraged by habitually brushing the wrong way of the hair, and this is advisable, too, for the manes of Schipperkes. Flat-coated dogs, like Yorkshires and toy spaniels, often spend their lives, the former especially, in the intervals of shows, like summer fire-irons, "in grease"--that is, their coats saturated with oil. To such an extent as this, the preparation may be left to the professional exhibitor (with whom, it is as well to remark, few inexperienced amateurs have much chance, as far as the Yorkshire terrier is concerned); but a little cocoa-nut oil, with the merest trace of cantharides, well rubbed into the roots of the hair for some weeks beforehand, encourages the coat to look its best. Great care is needful in washing white dogs, and only the best of soap should be used; also soft water, with a little borax in it, and a squeeze of a blue-bag in the rinsing-water, to prevent the hair from showing a yellow tinge. Yorkshire terriers must not be rubbed up and about anyhow in their bath; neither must Maltese nor toy spaniels; the hair so carefully kept parted down the middle of the back in the two former breeds must be sponged downwards from the parting, while hot towels and warmed, soft brushes should be used for drying, in such a way as to preserve the habit of growth, which is such a point in these dogs. Rubbing "all over" also encourages curliness--a fatal fault in the breeds mentioned--and this is an additional reason for care. In washing dogs great pains should be taken to dry the insides of the ears thoroughly, and the bath, which most dogs so detest, will be robbed of half its terrors if the head is not soaped or soused; it can be effectually washed with a sponge, thus avoiding the miseries of soap in nose and eyes. Washing, however, as an habitual thing, is most injurious to coat and skin, ruins the colour of black dogs, and should never be made a practice. Daily grooming with brush and comb will keep any properly-fed dog perfectly sweet and clean. Illustration: BLACK PUG. _"Fiji," owned by Miss Hyde._ Poodles are, perhaps, as troublesome to prepare for show as any dogs. There are, as yet, no corded toy poodles to speak of, but the curly toys are very delightful little dogs, deserving much more than their present popularity. Their shaving or clipping is, of course, an ever-recurring task, which must at no time be neglected, and is necessary once a month; but, after the first time or two, it is not at all difficult to manage. The shaved parts should be gone over, the dog having been washed the day before, with one of Spratt's Patent Poodle Clippers, a little machine exactly like a small horse-clipper, always working against the trend of the hair from the tail along the back to the middle of the body, and from the feet upwards. A pair of scissors, with curved-up points, will be needed for the face and toes, which are the most troublesome parts to do; but actual shaving with a razor is only done as a finishing touch just before a show. It makes the skin rather tender and is the one part of the toilet, not needful for everyday attire, which calls for expert aid. After clipping, the skin should be well rubbed with a very little white vaseline oil, which brings up a nice gloss and prevents the dog from taking cold. There are various professional poodle clippers in London, among them a lady, who will visit dogs at their own homes for the modest charge of five shillings; but country exhibitors are generally obliged to resort to home talent for the operation. The long hair is now fashionably arranged in a fluff, teased out with a comb, and well brushed until it stands out; the forelock is tied up on the top of the head with a big satin bow, and _voilà, la toilette de monsieur est fini_!--the indispensable bracelet and smart collar being alone wanting. Entering dogs for a show is a simple enough matter. Having ascertained what show you intend to patronise, send a card to the secretary, whose address will be found with the advertisements of the show in the doggy papers, asking for a schedule. On receiving it, read the rules carefully, and also the matter relating to specials, and enter the dog according to the form enclosed; if the show is held under Kennel Club rules, exhibits must first be registered with that body. If merely under Kennel Club licence, this is unnecessary. Occasionally, the reply to, or acknowledgement of, such registration, which is made on a form always sent with schedules and stud entry forms, and accompanied by an indispensable half-crown, is so much delayed that the novice-exhibitor trembles with fear lest her exhibit should be disqualified; but such terrors are groundless--so long as the entry has been sent in before the date of the show, all will be well. The next question is the burning one of escort. Personally I should not like to send little toy dogs to a show without some trusted attendant, and I cannot, therefore, advise anyone else to do otherwise. Taking them oneself, with maid or man in reserve to leave in charge, is the most pleasant way, for all parties, of arranging matters, and the paraphernalia accompanying is somewhat as follows:-- A warm and comfortable travelling basket for each dog--preferably a little house in which it can sleep at night. A campstool for the attendant. Standing about at shows is killing work, and chairs are not always obtainable. Coats for the dogs if the weather is at all cold, for exhibition buildings are almost invariably draughty. The Petanelle coats (sold by Spratt's), of French pattern, with storm collars, are specially warm and smart, and are also aseptic, and the Petanelle cushions are charming in every way. Some suitable food. Toy dogs will seldom eat what the show authorities provide, and are often too excited to take anything but what is specially dainty. A lunch-basket tin of small pieces of chicken or meat, ready cut up, with the dog's own little plate, will be found useful. Milk at shows is not always reliable, and if any is wanted it should be taken in a bottle, especially for litters. A brush and comb. A warm, large shawl. I say nothing about the millinery with which people often hang their pens, the satin cushions, etc., with which I can but say the dogs are often made to look extremely silly, but unless there is any rule in the schedule to the contrary, exhibitors are at liberty to provide anything which appeals to their taste in this line. The shawl, or blanket, is often useful for draping round wire pens to keep away draughts, and as such things cannot be got without much trouble once the show has begun, it is as well to be provided beforehand. Taking dogs out of the show at night can always be managed, usually on payment of a deposit; and the trouble is quite worth while, for fatal colds are apt to be the result of leaving delicate toys to shift for themselves in the colder hours of dark and dawn. Leading into the ring is, of course, the crux of the exhibitor's anxiety, for now comes the critical moment--will the dog show or not? Some dogs are born showers--brisk up, look smart and knowing, accept the judge's overtures graciously, and generally exhibit themselves to the best advantage. Others are variable, and cannot be depended upon; will sometimes show well, and at other times--if they are a little out of sorts, for instance, or do not like the look of their rivals in the ring--will not do themselves justice. Others, again, obstinately, lower tail and ears, crouch and cringe, or, worst of all, roll over on their backs. If a dog, after several attempts at showing him, persists in such conduct, it is generally best to give him up as far as exhibition is concerned. But a good deal may be done beforehand to teach little dogs how to show themselves. They may be made accustomed to being led about in a chain, and encouraged to strain from the collar after a ball, etc. Also, they should be taught to receive attention from strangers affably. Just one word as to the exhibitor's own conduct in the ring may not be amiss. Sometimes old hands at showing are by no means polite to new-comers, sad to say, and will very probably endeavour to screen the novice, if good enough to be a rival, from the judge's eye, by thrusting themselves and their exhibits forward; while, terrible to relate, such incidents as a sly poke with the foot, administered to a rival's shy dog, or the intentional treading on a toe, are not altogether unheard of. The novice should keep her dog well to the fore, disregard what other exhibitors are saying or doing, so far as strict politeness and good feeling allow, and, while not obtruding her exhibit on the judge's eye, try to get him to notice it in all legitimate ways. Speaking to a judge in the ring, and while acting, is a great breach of etiquette, unless some question is asked by him, which should be replied to audibly; but most judges are quite willing to give reasons for their decision, or a candid opinion, if asked to do so when the judging is over. It is, of course, needless to warn gentlewomen against any show of feeling at being overlooked, etc.; but the fact that lamentable exhibitions of disappointment do occasionally take place is one not to be denied, while, of course, strict justice is occasionally lacking. Still, taking things for all in all, a very little experience will enable the novice to take her proper place in the show world, where she will be sure to meet with much kindness and unselfish help--such, at least, is my experience; while exhibiting adds a zest to dog owning unobtainable by any other means. The principal shows where toy dogs are catered for are the Kennel Club Show, in October; the Toy Dog Shows and Cruft's, generally held in February, at the Agricultural Hall; with the shows arranged by the Ladies' Kennel Association, the best of which, from a toy owner's point of view, usually takes place in the summer, and with the provincial fixtures, such as Birmingham, Manchester, and Bristol, and numerous licence shows in all parts of the country, at all of which there is generally a fair classification for toys. All shows may be found advertised in the _Illustrated Kennel News_ and other dog papers. CHAPTER VII THE CHOICE OF BREEDS The choice of a breed to take up is generally dictated by personal preference, and fashion has a large spoke in the wheel. Just at present, the fashionable breeds among toys are certainly Pomeranians, or Spitz toys--commonly known as "Poms," Japanese spaniels, Pekingese or Chinese spaniels--sometimes called Chinese pugs, toy bulldogs, and Griffons Bruxellois. Of the choice of a breed for profit I have spoken before, and will now consider the question from the point of view of a lonely dame seeking a pet, or pets, and having no preconceived prejudices. The Pom, then, is a little dog, hard to get good, but really valuable when so secured. A good toy Pom means one as small as possible, certainly under 8 lbs., and preferably under 6 lbs., not long-legged and weedy, but short-backed and compact; with tiny erect ears, a fine-pointed muzzle, small dark eyes, tail--or plume, as it should be called--well over the exact median line of the back; small, fine, and delicate legs and feet, covered with short hair; and last, but far from least, a profuse coat standing out well all over the body, and amplified about the neck with the characteristic frill, and at the backs of the hind legs with the crinière. Bright brown and chocolate are very much more common than they were a year or two ago, when either was scarce and much desired, but blacks are always favourites. Black-pointed sables (wolf-coloured Poms) seldom have good stiff coats, and, like the beautiful orange sables, are apt to be flat-coated, thus are not so popular; while parti-coloured dogs depend for attraction upon their quality otherwise. Blues, which, unless large, generally have hairless ears, are very charming, and carry excellent coats, but are comparatively seldom seen. The usual faults of toy Poms are "apple-headedness"--a term which explains itself--scarcity of coat, coarseness in head or leg, tails badly carried, big ears, or protuberant eyes, legginess and weediness, or curliness. A wave in the coat spoils some from a show point of view, and though washing with borax and water, and combing out with a comb dipped in a weak solution of gelatine, will temporarily remedy the defect, it spoils the desirable bushy look of a Pom to a great extent. Poms are capital little companions, faithful, exceedingly sharp and intelligent, and generally devoted to one person; they are good with children if brought up with them; but they are fussy and excitable little things, bark a great deal, and have nerves. I do not consider the character some people give them of snappishness at all justified by facts; but here and there a sharp-tempered Pom may be found. Their quality of disdain towards strangers is one which ought to be considered a virtue in all pet dogs. They are not of the easiest dogs to train to the house, especially when kept in numbers, and are not always reliable in this way, mainly on account of their quick, nervous disposition; but for cleverness, affection, and beauty, they have few, if any, equals among toy dogs, and they are never likely to lose their popularity; a really good toy Pom is always immensely admired and courted wherever it is taken. Puppies are not now so easily saleable at high prices as was formerly the case, as so many people took them up that they have become plentiful: and it is not worth while to breed second-raters; but a good Pom will still sell. Illustration: SCHIPPERKE. _"Fandango," owned by Dr. Freeman._ Next to toy Poms I will mention toy Schipperkes, because, though they are not as yet so fashionable, and probably never will be, they resemble Poms in many ways. As house dogs they are eminently desirable, wonderfully clean and well-mannered, and like the Pom in cleverness and fidelity to one person, while they are much hardier and easier to rear and keep in good condition. They are not at all nervous dogs; but wildly full of life and greedy for exercise; their incessant activity vying with that of the merry little Spitz. They are decidedly "barky" and exceedingly inquisitive, good travellers, and dogs which settle themselves down anywhere, and are content so long as they are with the favourite "human" they specially possess. Schipperkes are extremely heavy dogs for their size, and quite a wee one will weigh four times as much as a Pom which hardly looks smaller. Both breeds require a meat diet and plenty of good food, which they work off by their active ways; but the bulk of the Schip's meals should be larger. As a rule, Schips are very good-tempered dogs, and, like Poms, sharp followers at heel. They are, however, pugnacious little things, and have only the grand forbearance of bigger dogs to thank for the prevention of many a tragedy due to uppish self-assertion. Black is their colour, and taillessness their most intimate quality; some, we are told, are born tailless, most--are not! Brown and fawn Schips are common enough in Belgium, the home of the race; and we have now not infrequently classes for them over here; while whites, which are really fawns, exist, occurring in litters now and then from a throwing back to some distant ancestor, and are really pretty dogs, though I confess the piquancy and charm of the blacks, with their sharply-pricked, thin ears, their rounded-off flank, hard, shiny coats, and dense masses of mane and _culotte_, the Schip's distinctive points, are to me lost in an "off-coloured" dog. Their faults, as toys, are soft, silky coats, toyish or apple or badly-shaped heads (that universal stumbling block), "Pommy," quality of coat (there is no blemish on a Schip's escutcheon greater than a putative cross with a Pom), white hairs or markings, ears which are rounded at the tip instead of pointed, too big, or badly carried, short faces, unlevel jaws, spread feet, crooked or distorted legs, and long backs. The whole appearance of the dog should be very smart and cobby, intensely alert, and altogether clean and well put together, qualities difficult to describe, but which "_sautent aux yeux_." Toy bulldogs are yearly becoming more popular. They are absolutely ideal dogs as to temper and all the other qualities necessary for a pet and companion, and almost uncannily intelligent, but alas! they are delicate beyond denying. They are hard to breed, and hard to rear; few of the bitches are good mothers, while their babies have little stamina; they are shy breeders moreover, and altogether need incessant care and watchfulness. If they can have this, well and good, and their puppies will sell immediately; so that, as a source of profit, they may be recommended, always provided luck and a capacity for taking much well-directed pains are on the owner's side. The prices obtained for these dogs, if really small and of good strain, are somewhat high for the ordinary amateur, while a small bulldog bred from bigger ones, such as can be most cheaply obtained, in the way of a toy, is but a poor speculation, since her first litter will probably kill her. The limit of weight at which a toy bulldog ends and the bulldog proper begins, has been matter of controversy, and the original limit of some 20 lbs. was found to present so many difficulties that many breeders desired to have it altered. An equal, or even greater, amount of discussion raged round the question of drop, rose, or bat ears--that is, of upright or falling ones. Finally the sensible decision of having two clubs, one for toys in all respects like the large English bulldogs, and one for dogs of French origin, though now of English breeding, with upright or "bat" ears, to be called French toy bulldogs, was arrived at. The English type is now known as the Miniature Bulldog. Illustration: PEKINGESE. _"Foo-Kwai of Newnham," owned by Mrs. W. H. Herbert._ Japanese spaniels are quite one of the _derniers cris_ of fashion.[1] With them I include Pekingese, as although the latter are hardier dogs altogether, and easier to manage, they are also Eastern, so making things even. Japs are pretty little dogs, of average intelligence and affection, if not quite equal in these respects to the first two breeds discussed. Up to the present "distemper" has been their chief scourge, and keeping them in numbers seems to be an invariable invitation for a visit from some pest, to the contagion of all which they seem peculiarly susceptible. Griffon breeders say that if a Griffon feels ill it dies, and this is in some measure applicable to Japs also. There is no reason why it should be so, for in their native country they are hardy enough, and the cause is traceable to inbreeding, occasioned by the difficulties put in the way of their importation both by the Japanese authorities and our own, and resorted to with the idea of keeping them small; the delicacy caused by the hardships of the voyage, which they stood very badly; to the pioneers of the race over here, and the rush for small sires, often too much used, and over shown. If breeders would buy young, unrelated puppies, feed them on meat, bring them up healthily, and so found fresh strains, this delicacy could surely be overcome with comparative ease. In appearance, Japs are extremely fascinating. Their colours are black and white, red and white, and yellow or lemon and white--the latter two combinations being the rarest; their coloured ears, like butterfly wings, the short-faced head between forming the body, their heavily fringed feet, and their plumed tail making up a charming and piquant _tout ensemble_. They are frequently confounded with Pekingese, which are whole coloured, red or yellow, with black markings, and whose ears are not set on at the same angle. A Pekingese pup is perhaps the _very_ prettiest puppy going, before it reaches the lanky stage, which breeders of all toys, except perhaps pugs and Schips, know means the utter indifference, even scorn, of the uninitiated public. The prices of Japs rule fairly high, and a good puppy cannot be obtained, unless by special luck, for less than £10 10s.; a larger female pup for a trifle less perhaps--but such, if good in points, are quickly snapped up for brood bitches. Japs have the same toy weight limit as Poms--8 lbs.--and the over toy weight dogs are far hardier and easier to breed than the midgets. Footnote 1: _Japanese Spaniels._--The five rules of Japanese spaniel beauty, according to the _Delhi Morning Post_, are these: (1) The butterfly head; (2) the sacred V; (3) the bump of knowledge; (4) vulture feet; (5) the chrysanthemum tail. To attain the "butterfly head" and the "sacred V," a Jap must own a broad skull with a white V-shape up it (the body of the butterfly), the small, black, V-shaped ears forming the butterfly's wings. The "bump of knowledge" is a small, round, black spot between the ears. The hair on the "vulture feet" feathers to a point in front, but must not widen the slender foot, and to the eye of faith the beautiful, silky, plumed tail, tightly curled over the back, presents the semblance of the national flower, the chrysanthemum. Griffons Bruxellois are quaintness personified, and their funny little characters, full of dignity and self-sufficiency, are indicated by their no less funny little exteriors. The characteristics of a good Griffon are smallness, hardness of coat, deep, rich red colour, huge black eyes, _à fleur de tête_, the shortest possible black-ended nose, as flat as may be with the face (this appearance generally aided by the breeder, who presses the baby cartilage upwards at every opportunity), and fine and sound legs and feet. The tail is docked, but the ears may not now be interfered with--a righteous rule. An undershot "monkey face" is the desideratum, and though sometimes shy breeders, these little dogs are well worth having, and make the best of house pets. Of black-and-tan toy terriers there is not much to be said, for the simple reason that they are at present quite out of fashion. A vague idea still, I believe, prevails that the bare and leathery, not to say mangy, appearance some of the former little creatures present about their appleheads and big ears, is a sign of good breeding; indeed, I have often been seriously invited to consider the high claims of a spidery, ill-shaped atom so affected to distinction on the score of aristocratic descent. In the show-ring things like this are not tolerated, and the really well-bred black-and-tan is not like the little abortions sold--but seldom now, though frequently of old--by itinerant vendors whose characters were far from being above suspicion, and by dog-dealers, as the _crême de la crême_ of pet dogdom. The show black-and-tan toy is like a miniature Manchester terrier--glossy of skin, long and neat in head, with small, dark eyes, oval, not round and goggling; fine, well-made limbs, with the correct pencilling of deep, rich tan on the toes. There must be no tan down the backs of the hind legs, and the ears must be neat and well carried; the tail a whip. Illustration: YORKSHIRE TERRIER. _"Trixie," owned by Miss O'Donnell._ Yorkshire terriers, if small and well coated, always find a sale, and will never be without friends. I like them much as single pet dogs, but a kennel of Yorkshires is a life's work, and only the enthusiast can give them all the care they need. A Yorkie _must_ be brushed (lengthily) every day: it _must_ be rubbed with oils and washes, especially when its hair is breaking, the process which turns the short-coated black-and-tan puppy into the full-blown blue-and-tan beauty of mature age. If the coat is to be done justice to, the puppy must, when necessary, be most carefully washed (though washed as little as possible), restrained from scratching by having little wash-leather socks kept upon its hind feet, and dieted with every attention directed towards the prevention of any skin disorder. No dog can carry a heavy coat unless well nourished, and the old idea that farinaceous foods sufficed for this is exploded. To avoid anæmia, keep the blood pure and rich, and give strength, a Yorkie must have the nourishment of meat. Withal, it is a merry little soul, and if its coat can be to some extent sacrificed, a good companion, fond of outdoor life, very barky and lively, and tolerably affectionate; but a really lovely show Yorkie is not a being for every day. The breed does not suffer much from "distemper," and, strange to say, in spite of generations of coddling and fussing, and breeding for smallness and coat, is a decidedly healthy one. The white Yorkshires, a new variety some folk have tried to push, is, I think, in no way especially desirable--the Maltese can do all that is necessary in that line; while the attempt to make "silver" Yorkshires popular, too, simply means that bad-coloured dogs without any tan (paleness of tan is the stumbling-block in many a Yorkshire's career), are classed by themselves and offered prizes. Toy pugs are, I think, invariably fascinating to those who have a liking for pug kind; they are big pugs in little, and everyone knows the points of a pug. My own toy fawn pugs loved their comforts too much to be perfect dogs for companioning a person of active outdoor habits, but they were sweet-tempered, gentle things, and, as such, to be commended. Pugs as a race seem strangely apt to skin trouble, and the toys are no exception. I have not seen many really good and very small fawn toys, but there are some, and where a pug is to be bought, a toy is really most desirable. They make good house dogs, and are seldom or never noisy, while those of a comparatively active strain, bred to plenty of outdoor fun, and not indulged in the greediness which, alas! is generally a feature in their character, need by no means acquire the stout, snoring wheeziness which some folk think an elderly pug cannot escape. All the same, I can but say that I prefer the black variety on the whole, for they unite the sweet temper, faithfulness, and gentleness of the fawns with an untiring energy, to my mind one of the best qualities a dog can possess. They are also hardier, less subject to "distemper" and kindred ills, and very alert and intelligent. One merit, if such it be, they do not share with the fawns--the latter are not expensive dogs, for they are almost always good mothers and prolific breeders. Not that the blacks fail in these respects, but as yet they are comparatively dear--that is, the really good ones. Head properties make much of their value just now, for a good-headed black pug, with a broad skull, large eyes, and plenty of skin and wrinkle, is not in every litter, and narrow skulls are much disliked, though Nature, with characteristic contrariety, seems to rejoice in producing them. Pugs cannot stand heating foods any more than Yorkshires, which agree with them in doing better upon boiled rice as an addition to meat to make needful bulk, than upon any other farinaceous food. Next to it in value comes wheat meal; oatmeal and Indian corn meal will surely bring skin disaster. Lean meat, underdone for choice, fish, and chicken, may be varied to make the meals, with a small amount of the needful staple as bulk. Toy spaniels in general are not difficult dogs to deal with. They are faithful and extremely affectionate dogs, and the Blenheims make good country pets, having often a considerable amount of sporting instinct, even when they come of stock which has been kept for show only for many years. The Marlborough Blenheims are, of course, examples of the sporting Blenheim, though they are not correct in show points; and there is no reason why one of these dogs, toys though they be, and fit to win, should not be a good little country companion. For towns, white long-haired dogs are not to be recommended, because of the occasional washing, which is a vexation alike to dog and owner. The colouring of the Blenheims is very taking, and one with all the show points, spot on the head included, is sure to be admired; but toy spaniels, as a race, the Jap and Pekingese excepted, are very much in the hands of professional exhibitors, and but seldom now seen as pets. The black-and-tan King Charles is inclined to be rather a silly dog, pretty enough, but not "brainy"; a loving little thing, but unintellectual--such, at least, is my experience of him. The faults of both breeds are generally too much leg, long heads and noses, instead of the big round skulls desired; small eyes, and curliness--the latter a direful mistake. The Prince Charles, or Tricolour, is the King Charles over again in three colours--black, tan, and white; and the Ruby is, as its name implies, all red; rather scarce, this is, to my mind, the prettiest of the toy spaniels. All are very susceptible to damp and cold, and should be carefully dried, especially as to the feet, after being out in rain or mud. They are sweet dogs in skin, and seldom smell "doggy"--a great virtue. Maltese have a good many friends. These are the oldest of all lap dogs, and a good specimen, with perfectly straight hair--which is, however, but seldom found--is really a thing of beauty. They should be treated like Yorkshire terriers, except that some of the ever-recurring tubs may be avoided by dusting flour or violet powder (pure starch) into the coat and well brushing it out again. They are often spoiled by brown noses, which are a great handicap, and also by the brown marks caused by running of the eyes, which are a great disfigurement in a white dog. Here I may break off to remark that these marks would also spoil white toy Poms, but for the fact that white toys of that breed are scarce. Breeders have done their best to get them, and a good many small ones--under 6 lbs.--have been bred, but the tiny whites shown are generally deficient in some point. Of toy whites, over 6 lbs. and under 8 lbs., there are now many, and good; especially in a certain west-country kennel; but some of the best are dangerously near the limit of weights. The "tear-channels" which led to this digression can be helped _not_ to exist by using a boracic acid lotion to the eye; but the stains are often ineffaceable. CHAPTER VIII AILMENTS AND ILLNESSES =Anæmia=--a condition of general depression in health, with impoverishment of the blood--is of all serious diseases the most common among dogs. It is this condition that causes dogs to have worms; it is this deficiency in the blood supply, both in quantity and quality, which brings about ninety out of every hundred cases of skin disease. The original cause of the disease in toy dogs was the way in which they were, and unfortunately often still are, kept, fed, and housed. A number of dogs kept together in some artificially-heated building, confined in small pens, obliged to breathe impure air, and fed on Indian meal, biscuits, oatmeal, and other cereals, with little or no meat--this is kennel life, and a splendid foundation for anæmia. We all know how worms and eczema and other skin troubles beset toys kept "in kennels," but not until the knowledge has caused people to give up keeping them thus, and handing on hereditary eczema and hereditarily vitiated blood to their puppies, shall we get rid of the inherited tendency to poverty of blood which makes so many toy dogs possessions of anxiety rather than sources of satisfaction to their owners. If a law could be passed obliging all dogs to receive a suitable daily allowance of good, fresh, underdone meat, and abolishing farinaceous feeding altogether, even for five years, it is not too much to say that at the end of this time eczma in its more common forms would have died out, worms be the infrequent exception rather than the rule, and "distemper" would have ceased to be a thing of terror. It is extraordinary how ignorant educated people, otherwise well informed, can show themselves on this subject. I have repeatedly received letters in which, after detailing a diet of milk puddings, oatmeal porridge, vegetables, bread and gravy, and so on, the writer gravely adds the assurance--"But I have never given a farinaceous diet!" Green vegetables and such starchy vegetables as potatoes are absolutely useless to dogs, and so indigestible as only to rank second to absolute poisons, like carrots and turnips. No dog can get the mineral salts necessary to healthy blood out of oatmeal, Indian corn meal, or any other meal, nor out of a little iron-hard, dried gristle or some similar substance, such as appears in some so-called "meat" foods. It can only get these substances out of its natural and proper food--meat. Puppies fed on meat from the time their teeth can bite it do not have anæmia, and are consequently free from skin trouble: their blood is rich and pure, and they do not harbour worms. I only ask any reader who doubts these statements to try the very simple experiment of separating a litter at seven weeks, and feeding half the pups on meat, of course varied, cut up small, and given in moderate quantity three times, and subsequently twice, a day, with a very small proportion of wheaten flour-stuff given merely as a treat and variety, in the form of small sweet biscuits or sponge cake, to afford the needful bulk to the meals. No gravy, milk, vegetables, nor any liquid but water to be given. The other pups in the litter can be fed on the old, artificial, unnatural plan of constant, large, sloppy meals of milk food. If the conditions are otherwise equal--plenty of fun, sunshine, and exercise being given--the difference between the two sets of pups will probably be quite sufficiently marked to uphold my argument, with the further addition that the meat-fed puppies will be found a good deal less objectionable in the house before their education begins, and infinitely easier to train, than their brethren on farinaceous diet. In cases of anæmia, as shown by skin trouble, bareness round the eyes, poor or capricious appetite, languor, unpleasant breath, thinness, and a general look of unthriftiness, a liberal meat diet is the first essential, and plenty of fresh air--not necessarily hard exercise, for which the patient is generally unfit--the next. A tonic is always desirable, and iron the most suitable. There are several forms of this useful drug. Reduced iron can be given in very small dosage; sulphate of iron is cheap and useful in pill form: both of these have a tendency to constipate. The saccharated carbonate of iron is a beautiful preparation that does not constipate--is, indeed, a little laxative in action. It is a powder, tasteless except for sweetness, and will be taken readily enough if sprinkled on meat, or it can be made into pills with the addition of a tonic bitter, as in the form of the Kanofelin tonic pills. It is the most expensive of the forms of iron, but that is not saying much, as all are absurdly low in price. The dose for a toy is from two to four grains twice a day, in, or immediately after, food. Cod liver oil is a useful medicine in bad cases of anæmia, especially where, by reason of having or having inherited, this habit of body, a long-haired toy is always poor in coat. Some dogs never grow coats, merely because they have not the strength to do so, and others inherit sparseness of hair. But if there is any hair in reserve, a course of cod liver oil will help it on, and better far than plain cod liver oil is its preparation with malt. Cheap cod liver oil, however, is horrid, and should never be given. It will only act as a purgative, and be worse than useless. Nor should a dog ever be forced to take this substance if he has a dislike to it. But if the anæmic, scantily-coated patient will take it readily, a teaspoonful of some good brand of cod liver oil and malt extract, besides three grains of saccharated carbonate of iron twice a day, with meat diet, will make a most marvellously different dog of him in six weeks' or two months' time. It is quite useless to give any tonic for a week or ten days, or irregularly. It must be given for a long time and with perfect regularity, or it does no good whatever: it must have time to be absorbed into the system, to permeate it, and be taken up by the blood. =Bad Teeth.=--The existence of canker in dogs' teeth is generally another consequence of bad rearing and farinaceous feeding. Meat-fed pups, from meat-fed parents, have conspicuously good sound teeth, whereas among kennelled dogs it is not at all uncommon to find specimens of mouths cankered throughout, and this condition is certainly sometimes transmitted to the offspring. The teeth look deep yellow, or brown, the dental enamel is soft, and in bad cases they drop out. The gums are soft and spongy and pale. The disease being constitutional, little or nothing can be done to arrest the decay of the teeth, which luckily seems painless. The dog should be carefully fed on the most nutritious underdone meat, and the mouth may be washed out daily with a very weak solution of permanganate of potash: just enough of the crystals to tinge warm water pink being used. The best way to perform this little operation--one to which most dogs object very strongly--is to get someone to hold the head, with the nose pointing downwards, over a basin, and to introduce the nozzle of a gutta-percha ball syringe between the lips at the back of one side, letting it enter that spot in the jaw where there is a hiatus between the lower teeth. Two or three squeezes of the ball will then wash out the mouth pretty effectually. This cankered condition of dogs' teeth may be brought about by the absorption of mercury into the system. A dog which had been troubled with very obstinate recurrent eczema, known to be inherited from ill-reared parents, was apparently cured as by magic when sent to a veterinary surgeon, who dressed him all over with mercurial ointment. The improvement in his condition continued for about three months, when it was discovered that he ate with difficulty. His mouth being examined, the teeth, previously sound, were found to be like so much dark, yellow-brown leather, and the gums sore. The next development was in the form of a cancerous growth in the posterior nares, and so the poor animal died, a victim to a cruel "fate," for which the surgeon had obtained the credit of a cure. Such cases are not at all uncommon. =Dental Caries=, such as affects our own teeth when they decay and have to be stopped, occasionally, though luckily not often, distresses dogs. They may bruise the dental pulp inside a tooth by biting very hard on a bone, or by playing too roughly, and more especially by carrying stones, a very bad practice. The only thing to be done is generally to extract the tooth under chloroform, since it is difficult to find dog-dentists who will stop a decayed tooth. A dog with toothache, rubbing his face on the ground and crying, is a pitiable sight. =Abscesses between or on the Toes= are a form of eczema, and should be treated constitutionally, as suggested under the heading of Anæmia, eczema's usual cause. Dogs will worry these sores, and must be prevented from doing so by having the foot encased in a sock made of strong washed calico, tied round the leg with tape. Before putting on the sock, dress the sore with iodoform powder or zinc ointment. =Docking Puppies.=--Being docked is not an ailment nor an illness, but as a very sad conclusion may be put to a valuable pup's life by the operation carelessly performed, it is as well to say a word about it. Docking should never be left until the eyes open and the nervous system is fully organized. At such an age it is a piece of gross cruelty and the risk of hæmorrhage is enormously increased. Unless puppies are very weakly, they should be docked at five days old at latest. Happy is the owner whose Poms or Pugs require no such improvement! The Schipperke owner has been especially commiserated or vituperated, as the case might be, but as a matter of fact there is, in the hands of a competent surgeon, used to operate on these and other dogs, not one iota more risk or more pain or more difficulty than in dealing with a terrier. Docking should be done by a skilled veterinary surgeon, with proper antiseptic precautions. His hands and the strong scissors used are first made thoroughly antiseptic by washing in carbolic or some other antiseptic solution, and the operation can be done without the pup's losing any blood at all to speak of. The wounds are dressed with iodoform powder and tannic acid powder, mixed, and in one hour the mother, who should be sent out for a walk while the surgeon is in the house, will be admitted to them, and they will be sucking as if nothing had happened. Occasionally, owing to some idiosyncrasy of the individual, a puppy may bleed after docking, and therefore a careful watch must always be kept. If there is any hæmorrhage, bathe with very cold water in which alum has been dissolved, and apply a styptic, as tannic acid or perchloride of iron. But it is always well to ask the operator to remain for an hour or so, until all risk is over. The blood vessels very quickly seal up at their ends (to use untechnical language), and the tongue of the mother, when re-admitted after the necessary interval, will do no harm. Though docking is neither dangerous nor cruel when properly done on puppies so young that they have little or no sensation in their undeveloped nerves, it is a barbarism to let any ignorant person, as a groom or coachman, do it; and the dog owner who will not sacrifice her own possible repugnance sufficiently to co-operate with the skilled surgeon in seeing it properly done, at least owes it as a duty to her dumb dependents to pay him to take all reasonable care, and bring an assistant to hold them, and stay until they are quite safe and comfortable. =Bilious Attacks.=--A slight chill, in east-windy times of year, or from any undue exposure to cold, will sometimes bring on a liver attack in dogs, while some are habitually subject to sick-headache after the manner of their owners. A bilious dog shivers, looks miserable, brings up a little yellow liquid or some froth, after a good deal of retching, and refuses to eat. Such an attack is always easy to diagnose, because the nose remains, as a rule, cold and moist, while there is no rise in temperature. The same symptoms, with feverishness, would probably mean commencing serious illness, necessitating skilled advice; but without rise of temperature are not important, unless they resist treatment and continue for longer than about twelve hours. The patient should be kept warm, covered up before the fire if the weather is severe, and given a soft pill of three grains of carbonate of bismuth and one grain of bicarbonate of soda, every four hours, until appetite returns. =Loss of appetite= is a symptom which should never be disregarded. It may be quite right for the owners of sporting dogs to use the phrase so frequently heard: "Oh, if he won't eat, he's better without it," but want of appetite in a toy dog should never be a matter of indifference to the owner. It may, of course, arise only from previous over-eating, and over-fed dogs are certainly subject to bilious attacks which do not call for much sympathy; but it is always desirable to assure oneself that nothing more serious is the matter before dismissing the subject. In cases where loss of appetite is the precursor and accompaniment of illness, as in distemper, it would be most unwise to leave the dog to itself, and by allowing it to go without food, pull down the vitality and give the disease a firmer hold. As a general rule, a dog may be allowed to miss one meal without much anxiety; but, if a second is refused, inquisition should be made, and the temperature be taken, without loss of time. A clinical thermometer is a most useful adjunct in the dog-room, and any temperature over 100 degs. or 101 degs.--the former the dog's normal one--is suspicious. The easiest way of taking it is by inserting the instrument between the thigh and the body, and, as it were, holding these together, over it. Puppies will often refuse food simply because their gums are sore from teething, and here, again, it would be extremely foolish to let them go on in a state of semi-starvation. When a puppy is seen to pick up his food with his front teeth, shake each piece, and turn it over indifferently, it is a pretty sure sign that he cannot eat comfortably; if the natural process of cutting the teeth is in fault, all that need be done is to give minced meat and soft though dry food--a sponge cake will nearly always be willingly negotiated--and keep a watch to see that he gets enough to maintain him in good condition and pull him through the critical time; if, as is sometimes the case with an older dog, a too-lingering first tooth is setting up irritation and needs extracting, the vet's services must be requisitioned, as it is not advisable for any amateur to try his hand at canine dentistry. The main characteristic of the "new" or Stuttgart disease, or of gastritis, by the way, is inability to take food, the mouth being ulcerated, in addition to stomach complications; and here, again, commencing loss of appetite must be regarded with suspicion. Simple biliousness is not common among properly-fed dogs, but is sometimes brought on in individuals by what I may be so technically medical as to call idiosyncrasy--to wit, inability to digest certain foods. Many toy dogs cannot eat vegetables, which of course are to all unnatural and very indigestible, and others are invariably sick if they are given milk, and the dog can no more help these peculiarities than human beings similarly afflicted. Biliousness, brought on either by over-eating, a chill on the liver, or some unsuitable food, is easily recognized, and here abstinence for a while _is_ advisable. The patient will be chilly, probably having cold paws, and may be sick several times, producing only a little yellow froth; most dogs eat grass and soon feel better, requiring no medicine; but if appetite does not return quickly, give a bismuth-and-soda pill every four hours, the proportion being three grains of bicarbonate of soda to one grain of carbonate of bismuth. =Indigestion= is by no means uncommon among toy dogs, and frequently leads to the odious habit of eating horrible things in the street, about which dog owners sometimes complain, and with reason. The presence of worms leads up to this habit, too, and where it exists they may be first suspected; and then, if their existence is disproved, indigestion comes in as the likely factor. Its treatment is not difficult, but the owner must make up her mind to persevere, and to feed her dog herself--no servant, no matter how careful, possesses judgment enough to deal with a case of this kind. Absolute regularity in feeding is necessary; the meals must be small, yet very nourishing, and the dog should not be allowed to drink immediately after eating. A digestive tonic containing nux vomica is almost invariably useful, but it is not a medicine which can be prescribed at large, for nux vomica is in itself a dangerous drug, and acts much more freely upon some dogs than upon others, making it most unwise to prescribe "so much" for all dogs alike. With this proviso, I will give a prescription intended for a Yorkshire terrier weighing about 6 lbs., which may be safely tried upon toys between 5 lbs. and 8 lbs. weight, the quantity of this particular ingredient being reduced by one-half for dogs between 4 lbs. and 5 lbs. and by two-thirds for toy puppies, upon whom its administration must be watched with extra vigilance: Rx pulv. nucis vom., 1/2 gr.; pulv. radix gentianæ, 1 gr.; carb. bismuthi, 4 grs.; bicarb, sodii, 1-1/2 grs.; ferri carb. sacch., 3 grs. M. H. D. Exhib. cum cib. bis vel ter die. A pill somewhat similar, but in some respects superior to this, is sold as one of the Kanofelin remedies. The symptom of too great susceptibility to the action of strychnine (nux vomica) will be, in bold language, twitching and nervousness, and where these are observed to follow a dose it must be diminished or stopped altogether, and in this latter case the powder without the first ingredient may be tried. =Disagreeable Breath and Eructation.=--Beta-naphthol, given in pills containing 1/2 gr. each, is a valuable drug in cases of indigestion where eructation and disagreeable breath are noticeable. For toys under 5 lbs. 1/4 gr. pills must be given; one pill in either case to be given about ten minutes after each meal. The effect of the drug is simply to check the fermentation of the food and the consequent formation of foul gases in the stomach. Where this form of indigestion is accompanied by diarrhoea, salol may be given instead of naphthol, in the same doses; but it and naphthol do not suit all dogs alike, though neither can do any harm, and if the patient is sick after a dose, the sign has been given that marks the treatment as unsuitable to his individuality. As in the case of human patients, the dog doctor may have to try several methods of treatment before he hits upon the cure. Pills are often troublesome to give, which fault cannot be found with powdered vegetable charcoal, to which few dogs make any objection when it is sprinkled upon their food and lightly covered with a few tiny bits of something very dainty; but where the owner prefers to give medicine apart from the food, enclosure of powder in a capsule is always practicable. A simple and tasteless powder is included among the Kanofelin Remedies, and may always have a trial, given with the food, in cases of indigestion. =The Bad Doer.=--Want of appetite for no particular reason, except general debility of the stomach, is the annoying characteristic of the kennel-man's horror--the "bad doer," who is characterised by thinness and bad coat. Here and there we find a thin little dog that nothing will fatten; hardly ever hungry, and dainty to the distraction of his owner; a dog who will not eat in a strange place or from an unusual plate, and who only grows the thinner and more miserable for what he _does_ eat. He is an unenviable possession, but we must make the best of him, coax him with small and frequent meals, for he will often accept a teaspoonful of raw meat minced, or a tablespoonful of cream, where he would not even look at an ordinary dog's meal, and get him up as well as we can for show with a daily new-laid egg, beaten up in a very little milk, and that useful and valuable dog-owner's aid, cod liver oil and malt. Most dogs will take this with a little tempting meat to help it down. Of course it must not be pushed at first, but given, to begin with, in very small doses, and gradually increased until our usefully typical 6 lb. dog is taking a full teaspoonful twice a day. It is a wonderful hair producer. Cod liver oil alone, without the malt, is of much less use, and cheap preparations of either or both are to be sternly avoided; in the nature of things, such a medicine cannot be cheap, if it is to be thoroughly good. And here, I may remark, that because we are _only_ dealing with a dog is no reason why we should put cheap drugs of any kind into him. His system is just as beautiful and delicate in its balance as that of a human being, though his teeth and his digestion may be stronger--such is not invariably the case by any means--and the administration of impure or adulterated medicine is just as great a cruelty to it as to the human machinery. To give a toy dog crude cod liver oil, imperfectly purified, because it is cheap, is like expecting to do fine carving upon oak with a hatchet, because it _is_ oak and not satin-wood. =Internal Parasites.=--In no case has modern progress in knowledge disclosed more fallacies, held formerly as firm beliefs, than where the internal parasites--which for our present purpose, this being only a popular manual, may be classed as tape-worms and round worms--of the dog are concerned. Only a few years ago, if a dog suffered from skin disease in any one of its several forms, "worms" were at once cited as the cause. Now we know--or rather, those among us know, who either have some understanding of canine anatomy and physiology or will take the word of the scientist for it--that worms cause nothing: they are not a cause, but an effect. They are a symptom of anæmia; and as skin trouble almost invariably accompanies any severe degree of anæmia in dogs, skin trouble and worms are usually found together. We cannot, therefore, cure dogs of harbouring worms by giving expellent doses, no matter how glowingly advertised and boomed, of the various irritant drugs which act as vermifuges. We can only by this means temporarily drive out the enemy, which is certain to return, because the conditions prevailing in an anæmic intestine suit it perfectly, and encourage its increase, whereas in the healthy intestine it more or less shares the fate of food on being digested, and is incapable of rapid or sustained increase. The effect of an anæmic or vitiated condition of the blood-supply to the villi, or, in non-scientific language, digesting pores which exist all over the mucoid lining of the intestinal tract, is to prevent their throwing out those strong juices or digestive fluids which they normally produce. Their secretions are altered and weakened, and have no injurious effect on the parasites, which then increase rapidly. When, therefore, it becomes evident, by the appearance of short yellowish-white segments, generally about an inch long, and varying in breadth from a mere line to about a quarter of an inch, dropped about by a dog, that tape-worm exists; or it is seen by his vomiting them up or otherwise, that he has round worms, which somewhat resemble earth-worms, what we have to do is to alter that condition of the general health which allows these pests to exist. In brief, we have to treat the dog for anæmia, which subject has been already discussed. It is, of course, occasionally possible for a healthy, meat-fed dog to become accidentally infected by swallowing tape-worm ova, and in such a case a few of the parasites may be harboured for a considerable time, not increasing, but now and then making their presence manifest. Infection is possible by the swallowing of fleas, which are intermediate hosts of tape-worm, or by eating the insides of rabbits, which usually swarm with these creatures, or, in the opinion of some authorities, by sniffing the ova up through the nasal passages and subsequently swallowing them. As, however, one cannot always be certain that the apparently healthy dog is not a trifle below par, it is always well to treat him with a course of iron, giving the powders or tonic pills advised for anæmia for a month, and at the expiration of that period, when the system is toned up so that the worms' position is almost untenable, and their expulsion will be final, one or two vermifuge doses may be given. All sorts of quack remedies have been praised and boomed as infallible, but many are exceedingly drastic, and some positively dangerous. Areca nut, so frequently advised, is a most violent irritant, actually poisonous in its effects on young puppies, and a very cruel remedy in all cases. Wormseed oil, an American preparation, possibly from one of the inulas, a family of plants known in English gardens, is sometimes an ingredient; also such highly unsuitable, inert, useless, or dangerous substances as sulphate of magnesia, salt, or cowhage, with strong doses of santonine, a drug that should never be given in unknown quantity. A violent purgative action often accompanies these secret remedies, adding to their danger. The intelligent dog owner should know what he is giving, and to some extent understand its action; but in a country where quack, much-advertised medicines are largely given to children, I suppose it will be difficult to prevent their being also administered to dogs. In any case, no worm medicine whatever, of any sort or kind, other than an iron tonic, should be given to young puppies, no known drug possessing a stronger action than iron upon the parasites being safe for toy pups under three months old. After that age it is safe to give very small doses of oil of male-fern and absolutely minute ones of santonine. These are best combined in a capsule, in which form they can be given without distressing the patient, and a perfectly safe capsule after this formula is, among the Kanofelin remedies--which are not secret, but are compounded after recognised formulæ, and equally suitable for dogs or children in the purity of their drugs and safety of their action. If any of the popular advertised remedies are used for adults, experiment should be made at first with much smaller doses than are cited, and safety thus assured, for a microscopic dose will often act quite severely enough for the toy dog owner's purpose, and dogs are as variously sensitive to drug action as we ourselves. In very young puppies the bringing up by the mouth of round worms is not at all unusual, especially when they are pups born of "kennel" parents, dogs crowded together in numbers, insufficiently fed (although possibly upon an excessive quantity of oatmeal and Indian corn meal), denied meat, and leading a completely unnatural life in every respect. It is rather a shock to an amateur when this occurs, but as a rule little anxiety need be felt, for if the puppy is properly fed upon small dry meals of a very digestible and nourishing nature, say two tablespoonfuls of good underdone rump-steak, or the same quantity of roast mutton, three times a day for a dog the size of a pug, and given a one-grain dose of iron with two of these meals, he will be pretty sure to grow out of his troubles. In any such case great attention must be paid to keeping up the strength of the patient, in order to tide him over the time when by reason of youth and his very tender little stomach, it is impossible to give him any stronger medicine with safety. Extreme thinness and loss of coat are sometimes attributed to that wonderful power worms, in old-fashioned eyes, possessed. Both of these symptoms are those of an anæmic condition, as is foetor of the breath. Finally, the treatment of that over-rated bugbear in the way of diseases, "Worms," is easily summarised thus--Meat feeding; an iron tonic; a vermifuge after the tonic course, and not before. After male-fern capsules it is quite unnecessary to give any aperient. Most inventors of "worm pills" and the like order castor oil to be given after their boluses, a terrible aggravation both to operator and patient. =Aperients.=--Some people have an idea that it is desirable to dose dogs periodically, on the quaint old "spring-medicine" principle, extended over all the year. No greater mistake can be made. A dog should never be given drugs of any kind unless really ill, and this it will never be in the direction indicated, if it is properly fed and regularly exercised. A dog's natural and proper food is meat; but the stimulus of distension must be given to the intestine by adding some bulk of innutritious food to the meat. We cannot give quite enough meat to afford this stimulus constantly, because by doing so we should overload the system. In a state of nature dogs ate the fur and skins of their prey, like other carnivora: now we must give them a certain proportion, but only a small one, of biscuits made of wheat (not of oatmeal or Indian corn meal, which are too indigestible) or of brown bread, to provide bulk without nourishment. They may, if any aperient be absolutely necessary, have a meal of boiled liver, a teaspoonful or two of pure olive oil poured over a little meat, or given from a spoon, or some cod liver oil, which may be voluntarily taken, and is equally efficacious. Milk is very laxative, and sometimes, where there is no biliousness, a small saucerful makes a good aperient. Always take a dog for his run at the same time of day, wet or fine, and never lose sight of the fact that a well-behaved clean little house-pet may bring upon itself a dangerous attack of constipation by its good manners if its appeal for a walk is ignored. Illustration: TYPICAL JAPANESE SPANIEL. =Distemper.=--As a matter of actual fact, there is no such disease as distemper. There are two diseases, or two groups of diseases, both more or less contagious, which, for want of skilled diagnosis, are indifferently so named, but their popular designation is so firmly rooted that "distemper" will be with us to the end of the chapter, and so long as the disease is properly treated it matters little whether we call it bronchial catarrh, gastro-enteritis, typhoid, or distemper. Perhaps, in a manual not intended for the learned, it will be most useful, as it is certainly most simple, and, I think, practical, to speak of "two forms of distemper," since the chest and lung diseases of the dog all call for one sort of home treatment, and the more ordinary diseases of the intestinal tract can with safety be lumped together as needing another fairly uniform style of treatment. Further than this the non-medical dog owner is not wise to venture, since it is quite as necessary that a canine patient should have skilled advice as that it should be called in for his master--that is, if his recovery is desired. Roughly speaking, then, there are two kinds of distemper--that which affects the nose, throat, and chest, and in slight cases may pass as being only a very bad cold, and that which affects the intestinal canal, involving the whole alimentary system. This latter is certainly the more troublesome for an amateur to treat, and decidedly the more fatal; but, fortunately, the former is the more common. It is very easy to tell when a dog is the subject of distemper in the catarrhal form, and when in this state he is, I think, much more likely to do well if carefully nursed at home; but in the typhoid form it requires skilled nursing to do the case justice, and the physical conditions are such that if--it is a big "if"--the right sort of vet can be found, the dog has a better chance with him. The symptoms of catarrhal distemper are shivering, feverishness--temperature generally not very high at first, but a degree or two over the normal--profuse discharge from the eyes and nose, and, in short, all those of a bad, feverish cold; and the treatment may be exactly that which we should give a child under the same circumstances. The great thing, in both forms, is to keep up the strength from the very beginning; this is far more important than giving medicine of any kind, and if the patient will not eat, he should be given food forcibly. I do not by this mean that a large quantity of food should be forced upon the unwilling animal; he should have about two teaspoonfuls of some invalid nourishment every two hours, and this should be as varied as possible, and kept as sweet and dainty as if for a human patient. A raw egg beaten up with the smallest possible quantity of milk; a little good beef-tea, made by cutting lean, raw beef into small cubes, and slowly drawing all the goodness out of it in an earthenware jar, tightly covered, in the oven, only two tablespoonfuls of water to the pound of meat being added; veal broth similarly made; arrowroot, with a few drops of the juice of raw meat added; strong chicken tea, with a little rice boiled in it and strained out--all these may be rung upon for change. Some dogs will eat solid food all through the disease, and this simplifies matters immensely. Where there is no appetite, liquids or semi-liquids must be given. Concentrated foods and other invalid preparations, though useful on occasion, very soon pall and sicken the patient, and while it saves trouble to use things like this, they have not the same effect in keeping up the strength as good, honest home-cookery. The necessity for thus dieting and feeding is the same in either form of distemper, and the dog must not be left all night without attention, but fed at intervals then also. Warmth and evenness of temperature come next in importance. A little flannel jacket or cross-over, made of thick, new flannel, is as good as poultices, and should be put, and kept, on well into convalescence, when, of course, it must not be left off too suddenly. I do not say anything about medicine, actual poulticing, etc., because a distemper patient, in view of the complications which are always apt to arise in this disease, should be nursed under skilled veterinary direction. I only insist on the need for feeding up and warmth. Distemper patients cannot go out of doors, in cold weather, unless there is to be no regard to the great risk they run in such a change of temperature; therefore, as soon as the disease declares itself, it is well to settle the patient somewhere where a tray of earth can be provided, absolute quiet maintained, and an even warmth kept up, and here let the disease run its course. Relapses from distemper are even more serious than the first attack, and they are very apt to occur where the patient is allowed to go out, or move about too soon or too much. Stimulants--brandy and port wine--are very useful where the weakness is great, and champagne will often be kept down where water or broth would be rejected. The "new" disease, commonly called the Stuttgart disease, which has created so much excitement among dog owners during the last year or two, and is of the nature of gastritis, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the stomach, spreading upwards and downwards, calls in some ways for quite a different treatment to that of the typhoid form of distemper. They are alike in this: that a teaspoonful or so of iced champagne or iced soda and milk, will sometimes be retained where nothing else will, but in gastric catarrh, or gastritis, the patient must not be allowed to drink water, or to make the slightest exertion. It may, perhaps, be as well to state what, I suppose, is not yet known to all dog owners--namely, the fact that it is by no means a necessity for a toy, or any other dog for that matter, to have distemper. Like scarlet fever in the human subject, distemper may occur in a dog's life, or may not. The child takes scarlet fever if it has been in the way of infection, and the dog distemper if the contagion has been conveyed to it either by some person who has been near an affected dog, by that dog itself, or by some article on which infected discharges of any kind have been deposited. The one quarrel we all have with shows is that they certainly offer opportunities of spreading distemper to people who do not consider its existence in their kennels a sufficient reason for withholding entries, and carry the contagion with them, although the dogs they exhibit may be in themselves unaffected. An old-fashioned piece of advice in distemper, and one always given, was that at the outset of the disease a dose of castor oil, or some other aperient, should be administered. I have no hesitation at all in saying that whereas castor oil--to the dog a violent irritant purgative--has carried off many and many a puppy and delicate adult that, if not so weakened just when all the reserve forces of strength were most needed, might have pulled through, this practice is a most mistaken one, to say the least of it. If there is any probability of there being any collection in the intestine which needs clearing away, pure olive oil will do all, and more than castor oil, and will neither cause the pain at the time nor the subsequent constipation, which will be the inevitable results, if there are no worse ones, of the stronger, and, I must call it, vile, drug. Another fallacy is the supposed desirability of constantly washing the eyes and nose with warm water. This is often not properly dried off, and chill results, while all the fuss and worry is quite needless and does no good. A little bit of old linen rag may be torn up and the fragments used to clean off the discharges and at once burnt. Once, or even twice, a day a sponge damped with boracic lotion can be used, but very sparingly. The watchword in distemper, as I said before, is nursing--good nursing alone will pull most dogs through--and I deliberately refrain from giving any prescriptions, because, as each case varies according to circumstances and the patient's constitution, each should be prescribed for on its merits. For far too long we have gone on in a rough-and-ready rule-of-thumb method of dosing dogs all in the same way, without regard to idiosyncrasy, which all the time has been as marked in them as in human kind--and the sooner we change all this and study each dog after its kind, the better for them and for us. =Skin Troubles.=--The most annoying thing about the skin complaints which occasionally beset toy dogs is the difficulty to the amateur of diagnosing them correctly. Even veterinary surgeons are sometimes hazy in this respect, and it is therefore well when a skin trouble refuses to yield to simple remedies, incapable of doing harm, to consult a man really experienced in toys, and not some uninterested, and even rather contemptuous, practitioner, who may even commit such a cruel barbarity as I have heard of, in the advising of _sheep dip_! The most common form of skin disease in adult dogs is eczema, which for purposes of rough, or popular, classification, may be divided into two forms, wet and dry. Weeping eczema is decidedly uncommon, but is the only form of skin disease offering open sores and raw surfaces likely to affect comparatively well-cared-for toy dogs. In this, as in the dry, severer forms of eczema, it is useless to attempt cure by mere outward applications. The mischief is in the blood, and until the blood is put right the external symptoms will continue, unless, indeed, strong mercurial lotion or ointment be used, which may fatally drive the disease in, and by clearing up the skin and so depriving the body of the safety-valve of outward lesions, eventually kill the animal. Such a proceeding is occasionally resorted to by unscrupulous persons whose only desire is to sell their mangy or eczematous dogs, for the immediate effect of dressing with mercurial ointment is often almost miraculously good to the eye. Therefore, my advice to the amateur is, under no circumstances to purchase a dog which is known to have suffered from any severe form of skin disease. Even if the complaint has not been doctored in the way described, and has been cured by honest methods, it may always break out again, for it is in the constitution. I must, of course, except cases in which contagious eczema has been given to the victim by some other dog, but in dealing with strangers, shops, or professional dealers, it is wisest to avoid a purchase where skin disease has existed. Some breeds are very much more subject to skin trouble than others, and all long-haired dogs are apt to suffer from simple eczema and erythema, the latter especially when young; while distemper of a severe kind is often followed by a disease of the skin, closely resembling mange, for which it is often unfortunately mistaken. It should be simply treated with a mild antiseptic ointment, while the constitutional weakness is the focus for attention. Puppies often teeth with a rash, called puppy-pox, which shows as general redness of the skin, generally on the bare parts of the body, under the forelegs, etc., and here and there groups of pustules, each of which contains a drop of thin pus. This is a complaint allied to chicken-pox in children, and by no means dangerous--in fact, a puppy which teethes with such a rash has generally the making of a strong and healthy dog. At the same time, whenever either this trouble, or bare patches about the legs and face, are seen on puppies, the teeth should be looked to, for it is probable they are in some way irritating the system. The existence of too many worms in puppies generally accompanies skin trouble in the form of bare patches, which may be well rubbed daily with a sponge dipped in an extremely simple, safe, and useful lotion, which I can recommend to be given a trial in all forms of skin disease, as in no case can it do harm, while in many cases it will effect a cure so far as any outward application is capable of doing. It is known as the Kanofelin lotion, a preparation of phenyl, which is not irritating, or in any way poisonous or disagreeable to the nose, but has a taste which prevents dogs from licking it off; should they do so, however, it will not harm them. The lotion, after being applied and well rubbed in with the sponge to smooth, bare places, where the skin is not broken, should be wiped off with a towel or handkerchief, as it is not wise to leave the dog wet. It should be used twice a day, and where the skin is broken, very gently with a soft sponge, and, of course, no rubbing in. Some dry and scaly skin eruptions, of which pityriasis is the most common, need different treatment. Where-ever bare places appearing on the toy dog look scurfy, and scales fall off, do not use any lotion, nor rub, but lightly dab on a little zinc ointment if the dog is not given to licking the parts; if he is, use a plain, rather thin, sulphur ointment: Sublimated sulphur, 1 oz.; vaseline, 4 ozs. This latter may also be used in cases where the Kanofelin lotion is useful, and then be well rubbed in; but the rule is no rubbing when scales or scurf are present. The Kanofelin ointment is harmless and useful in all cases. Applications can be much varied to suit cases, and where violent irritation is present, it is sometimes necessary to use a more complex preparation than those mentioned. The poisonous nature of some of the ingredients, included in the most efficacious of them, however, makes it very undesirable to use them otherwise than under the advice of a skilled surgeon. The following cream is a most useful application for use in cases where the skin is not broken, where great irritation and redness of the skin are present, and where the affected parts either cannot be reached by the patient, or the latter can be muzzled during treatment. It is, however, poisonous, on account of the carbolic acid and lead it contains: Liquor plumbi diacet., 4 drs.; liquor carbonis detergens, 40 mns.; boracic acid powder, 1 oz.; new milk, to 4 ozs. Shake well before use, and apply frequently with a bit of sponge. Label: _Poison_. In the treatment of medicated baths, usually composed of that most evil-smelling compound liver of sulphur and water--in professional language, "a sulphuretted potash solution"--I own I have little or no faith. A plain sulphur ointment is twice as efficacious, far easier to apply, and has no disagreeable smell; while, if well rubbed into the skin, as it and other skin ointments should be, and not left in the hair, it is not in any way unpleasant. In all cases where skin trouble is accompanied by a strong and most unpleasant smell, mange (either follicular, or, more commonly, sarcoptic), may be suspected. The latter is easier to cure than many forms of eczema, but it is absolutely needful to keep the patient smothered in a dressing of sweet oil and sulphur, than which there is nothing better, for several days, then to wash and dress again; and such cases are not suitable for home treatment, although no veterinary surgeon should be permitted to apply strong dressings like paraffin, mercurial ointment, or tar (otherwise creosote) to delicate toys. Mercurial dressings, in all cases, are rank poison, the absorption of the drug into the system having fatal effects for the future. Follicular mange, in which the insect causing the trouble burrows deep, is a horrible disease, about the worst a dog can have, and here skilled veterinary assistance cannot be dispensed with. But it is safe for the amateur, in all cases of commencing skin trouble, where there is no smell and the bare patches do not spread rapidly, to use the phenyl lotion or sulphur or Kanofelin ointment, according to the state of the skin, and to begin the more important internal treatment by a complete change of diet. A very dry or confined diet, certain meals, as oatmeal or Indian corn meals, either in biscuits or otherwise; too little food; more rarely too much; absence of meat from the dietary, or too little of it; as before, but very rarely too much--these are all incentives to skin trouble, while heredity has much to say to a tendency thereto. A dog which has not been having much meat, but has been chiefly fed on dog biscuit, may, on the appearance of skin irritation, be given plenty of good, underdone meat--roast mutton, sheep's head, and bullock's heart, all being very suitable. In no case of skin disease should either oatmeal or Indian corn be given; and sea air should be avoided, as it is always aggravating to skin troubles. Tripe is nourishing and very digestible, and fresh fish suits most of the invalids very well. Together with the entire change of diet--the hours for meals need not, of course, be altered--a course of iron and cod liver oil is always well worth trying. Personally, I pin my faith to the following method, which I have known most successful in difficult cases, and which, as I can say of the other remedies advised in this little book, can do no harm. Powerful drugs are often a source of danger in inexperienced hands, and a good many of the medicines one sees advised are, so to speak, extremely speculative. Get, then, a bottle of cod liver oil and malt, and 1 oz.--or more, if you please--of saccharated carbonate of iron. In your pet's dinner mix, at first, well covered over with cut-up meat of extra daintiness, a scant half-teaspoonful of the solution with a dust of the iron, which is a sweet powder. Nearly all dogs will take this without any trouble, and soon get very fond of the oil, even if they object to it at first; but they must not see the dose introduced into the meal. Let them think it an accident, or at any rate, in the natural way of things, and they are far less likely to object than if they see you making a parade of mixing and covering. The dose, given twice a day, in meat dinner and supper, should be gradually increased, until a dog of 6 lbs. is taking a full teaspoonful of the solution twice a day, with 3 grs. of iron to each dose; and patience will be needed, for, to do any good, this dosing must go on for at least a month. It may then be left off gradually, and resumed again if necessary. In obstinate cases of skin disease, arsenic is a most valuable remedy, and may with most effect be combined with the system of cod liver oil, malt extract, and saccharated carbonate of iron just described. Fowler's solution, which is generally recommended, should not be used, because it contains oil of lavender, which is very offensive to dogs, and sickens them; the British Pharmacopoeia solution should be the one used. Of this the dose is from one drop twice a day, to be gradually increased up to four drops twice a day for toys; the best way is to get the B.P. solution from your chemist, mixed with such a quantity of distilled water as that there are four drops in each teaspoonful. This may be given with iron and without the cod liver oil, or with cod liver oil without the iron, or alone, in food--it is tasteless--but is far better given in combination with the two. Mr. Appleby, Argyle Street, Bath, puts up the iron and arsenic together in a very easily used form, known as the "Kanofelin Blood Mixture," This, my own formula, I generally advise to my readers whose dogs do not or cannot take cod liver oil; he also, _inter alia_, puts up the worm capsules to my prescription as mentioned for the use of toy dog owners; and it is sometimes an advantage to get your medicines ready made. Arsenic is what is known as a cumulative drug; it produces no special effect until a good deal is stored up in the system. When enough has been given, the said system revolts, and now, when the dog's eyes begin to look watery, and the mucous membrane lining the mouth may be a little red, you have given enough, and must cease; for a time only if the disease is not subdued--in permanence if it be. One last word--arsenic is the _dernier ressort_, and should not be used until other means have failed, whereas some people fly to it when a much simpler treatment would have done all that was necessary. Another skin complaint which, is much more common than is generally supposed, is ringworm. I have often seen this diagnosed as eczema, whereas it really is very easy to tell its true nature, as it has very marked characteristics. It begins with tiny, round, bare spots, about as large as the head of a pin, which usually escape notice at first, but gradually spread round the edges, not always in a circular form, but sometimes as irregular patches, the skin appearing greyish, but not unhealthy. On looking closely it will be seen that the hairs have been broken off short, close to the skin, but are clearly visible, which is the chief feature of the disease and the infallible sign. Ringworm may be caught at any time, most frequently from a visit to some infested stable, but occasionally from chance contagion in the streets. Horses are subject to the same form of the complaint, and dogs generally catch it from them; it is sporadic, and the spores may, of course, fall about anywhere from an infected horse or another dog. It is extremely capricious in its inception; dogs in the same house may or may not catch it from one another, and sometimes a whole kennel will be infected, with the exception of one or two dogs apparently immune. There is, however, no excuse for allowing it to spread, as it is easy to cure. Some of the strongest tincture of iodine available should be well soaked into the spot, and round the edges thereof, using a little ball of cotton wool tied on to the end of a tiny stick, or an aural sponge, and rubbing the iodine somewhat in with this. Two applications will generally kill the spores--the disease is a parasitic fungus--and should be made at an interval of a couple of days. For some time fresh spots are likely to appear, and should be touched up at once. The muzzle, legs, and chest are generally most affected. If left quite alone the complaint would disfigure the dog terribly, but would, after a time, die out of its own accord. I have not found that human subjects were infected with this disease from the dog. A little iodide of potassium ointment may be put on the patches once or twice, to hasten the complete cure, or they may be washed with the phenyl lotion, in which the proportion is 1 in 40. The hairs are weakened, and take some little time to grow properly again, but the disease is by no means a serious one, and it is not necessary to use any such stronger and dangerous remedies as carbolic acid, as sometimes suggested. Erythema, a general redness and rash, most often seen over the inside of the thighs, and sometimes all over a dog's least hairy parts, is about the only skin disease--if we except the curious and rare condition, "hide-bound"--from which dogs very occasionally suffer, that, in a common way, arises from over-feeding. It is best treated by change of diet, _small_ nourishing meat meals, and the avoidance of any heating, farinaceous substances, milk, or greasy food of any kind. A small dose of sulphate of magnesia twice a week in food--as much as will lie, not heaped, on sixpence for a 6-lb. dog--is often all the medicine needful. Want of exercise is a frequent producer of skin disease. Dogs not sufficiently exercised, or kept much shut up in hot rooms, have inactive livers, whence all kinds of evils. I have never seen but one case of "hide-bound" in a house-dog, and that not in a toy. The skin was thickened and hard. Although the complaint is an interesting one from its rarity, that same fortunate quality renders it unnecessary for me to enter into the question--a veterinary surgeon must undertake such a case. =The Ears.=--The ears in toy dogs are often the seat of a slight congestion which has no particular cause, but is more common in some individuals than others, and generally occurs at intervals in those subjects which have once had it. If taken early, the cure of an attack is very simple; but if neglected, the congested state may increase and culminate in inflammation of the middle ear, otitis, and the bugbear "canker," of which we hear so much, and which is really extremely rare. There are many stages of the trouble, from the slightly hot and red external ear, which causes the dog to put two claws in the passage and try to scratch it, and sometimes succeed in making a sore place thereby, through the phases of rubbing the side of the head on the carpet or ground, groaning and shaking the head violently, and other manifestations of pain, up to the existence of real canker, when there is much soreness and redness externally, with swelling of the meatus, or passage, a profuse and very dark brown discharge, and a very disagreeable odour. There is always a slight characteristic smell about a "bad ear," which any experienced person can recognise in an instant, often before any other sign of trouble is seen. Some dogs--most, in fact--need watching in this respect. The moment the toy is seen to be a little one-sided as to head, or evinces any disposition to scratch his ear, a small lump of boric ointment should be put in the meatus, pushed in with the little finger, and worked about until it melts down into the passage and convolutions. Next day the ear may be cleaned out with the tip of the little finger covered with a very soft handkerchief, and the ointment again used, and this, in slight cases, will effect a cure. Never attempt to put any hard instrument, or, indeed, any instrument at all, other than the soft suppleness of a feeling finger, into a dog's ear. If the trouble has gone on a good while, and there is much brown discharge, it will be necessary to use a lotion. First of all use the ointment, as described, and clear away as much of the softened discharge as possible by this means, being, of course, exceedingly gentle in your manipulation, for these, at best, are very tender parts. Then take the following lotion: Warm water, 1/2 pt.; Goulard's extract of lead, 1 tablespoonful; powdered boracic acid, 1/2 dr. The boracic powder to be added to the water first, and the Goulard after, and the whole on no account to be used otherwise than nicely warm, or it will cause pain. The bottle can, of course, be filled at once, and a little of the contents warmed for use as needed. Lay the patient down on the sound side, with the bad ear uppermost, and get someone to hold him firmly. Then gently pour about half to one teaspoonful of the warm lotion into the ear, and work it about from outside. Keep him lying still for three or five minutes, then let him go, and fly! For he will shake the superfluous lotion all over you if you are not cautious. A great deal of remonstrant ploughing about generally follows, but the application does not really cause any pain, and will soon cure if persevered with--twice a day for a week or so. Such frightful and almost, if not quite, incurable cases as one sometimes meets with in sporting dogs, where the ears have become thoroughly diseased from, in the first place, getting wet and dirty, and being subsequently neglected, are, I rejoice to say, unknown among well-cared-for toys. People are sometimes alarmed because their puppies' ears do not stand erect when they should, or are pointing in all directions but the right when they should drop. This is a common thing enough during teething, and will generally come quite right later on. If it does not, no active remedy--by operation--is permissible if the dog is to be shown, but a good deal can be done by oiling the ears and manipulating them constantly in the desired direction by massage, while, in the case of youngish puppies, two or three thicknesses of horses' leg bandage plaster, cut to fit the inside and point of the ear, will either, if stuck in by warming it, help the ear to drop or to stand up, as is desired. This is a legitimate "fake," I may remark. But, of course, the process must not be used with any idea of deception, though it is allowable to aid Nature in the way she should go. =The Eyes.=--The eye of the dog is an even more delicate structure than the ear, and only skilled surgical aid should approach it in any but the simplest ailments. Of these are the simple catarrhal ophthalmia, the symptoms of which are redness of the lining membrane of the lids, and a greenish discharge, turning brown and dry later, which comes from cold and weakness of constitution. The victim of this must be kept in an even temperature, be not allowed to lie by the fire, or look into it, or to go out of doors in wind, hot sunshine, or cold, and be well fed with good nourishing meat and light, digestible food. The discharge should be wiped away from the eyes at morning and evening with a bit of sponge dipped in a warm boracic lotion which any chemist will supply of the proper strength; and immediately afterwards a little bit of yellow oxide of mercury ointment, about as large as a small split pea, should be gently introduced under the lid of the affected eye with a camel's hair brush. Do not, on any account, accept "golden ointment," if the chemist happens to offer you this old-fashioned remedy (I believe) for styes! It is made of the _red_ oxide of mercury, and is a very great deal stronger than the yellow oxide of mercury ointment, which, by the way, should be made in the strength of 2 grs. to the ounce. This latter ointment may also be used where, after distemper, a bluish film lingers in the eye. Amaurosis is not uncommon in the dog. The eyes look perfectly right, but the dog is blind. This may be an hereditary condition, but sometimes comes in as a result of weakness pure and simple. Iron tonics, cod liver oil, nux vomica, etc., may be given, and sometimes prove effectual. Good living is essential. These cases are occasionally cured rather suddenly, but as a rule are incurable. Simple cold in the eyes--or more often, only in one--is a very ordinary ailment, but distressing both to sufferer and owner. The affected eye waters more or less profusely, and is kept partly closed. Within, there is the same appearance as in catarrhal ophthalmia, but in a less degree, and there may be fever and constitutional disturbance, in which case the patient must be treated for a coryza, or "common cold." A boracic and poppy-head lotion is the quickest cure for cold in the eyes, and is also useful in the ophthalmic condition. It soothes the pain greatly, and is best applied by means of a small all-indiarubber ball syringe. On no account must a syringe with a bone or glass or vulcanite point be used: the indiarubber nozzle is soft, and from it one or two drops can easily be inserted between the eyelids. The amount of resistance the patient makes will be proportionate to the severity of the inflammation, and as this lessens he will endure the operation with serenity. To make the lotion at home, buy a poppy-head, price about a halfpenny, from any chemist, and boil it for an hour or longer in half a pint of water, adding to this as it evaporates. When the water is sherry-coloured, dissolve 10 grs. of boracic acid powder in each fluid ounce, allow to cool, and use as frequently as convenient--once every hour, while the congestion of the lining membrane of the eyelids is active. =Sore Feet.=--Eczema, or little boils between the toes and round the dew-claw on the front legs, is a trouble which besets some dogs. Constitutional treatment, as laid down for eczema, is needful, and as the dog will invariably worry the sores incessantly by licking, they should be dusted with zinc or ichthyol powder, and then bandaged or socked. If a dog is constantly licking its dew-claw, look at it to make sure it is not growing in. In this case it needs to be cut rather short, preferably by a veterinary surgeon, and the sore dressed. Dew-claws on the hind legs should always be removed by a veterinary surgeon in puppy-hood. =Colds and Coughs.=--Colds, or coryza, beset dogs as they do humans, but in lesser degree. A chest cold needs a flannel cross-over, sometimes a hot linseed poultice (in treating dogs it is much better to use, if possible, some dry poultice which will not leave the dog sopping after it is removed), or a mustard-leaf. Rubbing with white vaseline oil and ten drops of turpentine to each ounce, if vigorously done, is as good for colds as for rheumatism. Everyone knows what a cold is, and the toy dog's cold should be treated like one's own. The clinical thermometer should be used, and if the temperature exceeds 100°, a pill of 5 grs. of nitrate of potash should be given every four hours until it is normal again, or, if it cannot be got down thus, give 1/2 gr. of sulphate of quinine and 1 gr. of phenacetin, using the tabloids, and dividing them as desired. The strength must be well kept up. _Coughs_--the dog's hollow, deep-drawn brand--are a sore trial to the hearer. They sound terrible, but are seldom of much moment. If from cold, put a little vaseline or glycerine on the nose three or four times a day. It will be licked off, and give relief, while some dogs will eat glycerine lozenges if not flavoured with lemon. Vaseline, again, is an excellent thing for bronchial wheezing, such as pugs are especially subject to, and will always be taken if put on the nose. Cream also is soothing, and where is the dog that does not like it? =Chest Diseases.=--The worst-sounding coughs are often the least important, and may pass off in a few days without treatment, but a bronchial rattling in the throat calls for care. Bronchitis in toy dogs must be treated exactly as in children, and, needless to say, the dog must not go out until the acute stage is passed. Most clean dogs will go to a box of earth in a cellar. A bronchitis kettle must be kept going in the room, and the patient will need an invalidish diet and much petting and amusement to carry him through the dull hours of discomfort. Dogs have congestion of the lungs, pleurisy, pneumonia, just as people do, and need the same careful nursing. Medicine in such cases is usually unnecessary, because it worries the patient and can do little good. A mild fever mixture may be prescribed by the vet, who should always be called in the moment the breathing goes wrong. Dulness, lassitude, shivering, and a high temperature--the clinical thermometer is of all things needed here--with troubled breathing, are symptoms of the highest importance, and skilled aid should be immediately called to them. The amateur cannot diagnose these lung and chest troubles. =Stomach Coughs.=--Very dreadful coughs are sometimes heard proceeding entirely from the stomach. For these a little course of indigestion treatment often does wonders. Or, again, coughing _may_ be caused by a fish-bone or something similar in the throat, though this is the rarest of all causes in the dog, owing to his possessing a most tremendous gullet, quite out of proportion to his size. =Shivering.=--Shivering is a bad trick some dogs acquire, and others have by nature. It generally, if unaccompanied by a high temperature, means nothing whatever, unless it be nerves. But, short of the Weir Mitchell treatment, I imagine nothing benefits these latter more than a mild scolding, with admonitions "not to be so silly." =Hysteria.=--There are, most certainly, hysterical dogs, and their temperament is that of the habitual shiverer, though very thin-skinned toys sometimes really shiver from cold. A hysterical dog will bark itself quite out of breath at the least disturbance, and shriek exactly like its prototype human. Nature cannot be changed, but a tonic sometimes does good. Excitability and nervousness are characteristic of some breeds. Poms are, perhaps, the most excitable of small dogs, and pugs certainly the least so. =Obesity.=--Extreme fatness may be a disease in the dog as in the human being, and in this case it is cruel to accuse the poor creature of systematic over-eating, as it is everyone's impulse to do. The bromides and iodides are useful, but cannot be prescribed haphazard. Thyroid gland tabloids may also be tried, beginning with one once a day, and gradually creeping up to three a day, according to the dog's size. Their effect on the digestion is not always happy, so that the dog must be watched to assure the owner of its toleration of them. =Poison.=--Not an ailment, but a subject which needs a few words, is the taking of poison by toy dogs. Unluckily, there is always risk in a town, not only of the wilful poisoner, who apparently exists, but of the ingestion of poisoned meat or bread and butter put for rats or beetles, and afterwards thrown out. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred a poisoned dog has had strychnine, this being the favourite drug of all those who employ poison at all. Arsenic is too slow, and of other poisons, thank Providence! the vulgar have mostly no knowledge. The symptoms of strychnine poisoning are, firstly, excitement--the patient runs about, and barks with a peculiar strident shriek. According to the quantity of the poison taken and the quantity of food in the stomach at the time, this stage occupies a longer or shorter period. Taken shortly after a good meal, the poison seems less rapid in action than when the stomach is empty. Presently come convulsions, and constant shrieking; then the limbs stick out and are perfectly stiff and rigid. Even at this stage the dog can often be saved if means are at hand. Never be without a bottle of syrup of chloral in the house; it will keep indefinitely. First make the dog sick. Use sulphate of zinc in water, or weak mustard and warm water, and give plenty of this latter. The best way is by putting it in a phial, and running it down the throat by way of a pouch of lower lip drawn out from the teeth at the angle of the mouth. As soon as the patient has been sick, give a teaspoonful of the syrup of chloral in water. This is the antidote to strychnine. If you cannot wait to make the patient sick, give the chloral at once--but give it: and the dose may be repeated every two hours until the convulsions cease. For a tiny pup or dog under 5 lbs. the dose may be halved. Recovery from strychnine is very rapid, and it leaves, as a rule, no ill effects, though there is a widespread belief, and a mistaken one, that it subsequently affects the kidneys. All the other kinds of poison dogs are likely to get or be given work as irritants, and these need veterinary diagnosis. Salt, I may here remark, is so violent and irritating a purgative to the dog that it is next door to a poison, and the effects of castor oil in his intestine are not so very far behind. Constant drugging is a thing as much to be avoided in dogs as in their owners, and I cannot too strongly deprecate the foolish practice--foolish or worse--of giving doses of castor oil after shows, or as so-called prophylactics--preventives of illness. If a dog has been much confined at a show, and is likely to be irregular in consequence, a little pure olive oil with his dinner (not the nut oil often sold by grocers as olive oil) will do no harm, although a dinner of oatmeal gruel or boiled sheep's liver would be much more sensible and act better; if he seems well and lively, leave him alone. Some people actually go the length of dosing their puppies with castor oil at intervals, for no reason that I can ascertain beyond a vague idea that it "clears the system." So it does--of strength and the healthy mucoid secretion of the intestine, without which natural functions cannot be properly performed. Syrup of buck-thorn, or cascara sagrada, is another medicine that should never be given to small dogs: it is far too irritating and severe. When we have such excellent aperients as olive oil, magnesia, and rhubarb among drugs, and boiled sheep's liver among meats, we want no semi-poisonous irritant and violent drugs like castor oil, which, in the end, produce the very condition they were supposed to cure, and by pulling down the system, open the door to illness. =Fits.=--Of these, epileptic fits are the most dangerous and by far the least common. A dog suffering from epilepsy which is thoroughly established, is practically incurable, in the present state of canine medical science. Later, perhaps, the Röntgen rays may be beneficially applied to this disease in dogs, as in human beings. In a popular manual it is scarcely necessary to go further into the subject than to say that epilepsy need not be suspected unless the convulsive attacks are more or less recurrent, and so frequent as to exhaust the animal. Not until we have tried such treatment as an amateur can safely give, which is quite enough to cure ordinary teething or suckling fits due merely to some reflex irritation affecting the brain, and found it fail, need we fear epilepsy; and when we do fear it with any reason, skilled advice and diagnosis is absolutely needful, since the case must be watched and treated on its merits. Suckling fits are exceedingly common among small, highly-organised, and sensitive bitches. They generally begin about the end of the second week of nursing puppies, and do not seem to be in any way caused by overstrain; that is, a small female suckling five puppies is not more likely to suffer from these fits than one only bringing up a brace. Their exact cause is difficult to determine, since very healthy, well-fed animals may have them in common with those that are weak and miserable from under-feeding (which in this case is synonymous with feeding on a non-meat diet) or kennel life. Whatever the cause, the symptoms are always easy to recognise. The bitch first loses interest in her litter, though her milk-supply is seldom, if ever, lessened. She twitches, and her eyes look dull and filmy, or glassy and staring. She wanders restlessly about, and sometimes pants in the same way as she did when expecting her confinement. Now is the time to intervene, and give one teaspoonful of syrup of chloral with an equal quantity of water. If this is not done, the attack will proceed to staggering, shrieking, and more or less violent convulsions. The administration of the chloral generally causes the symptoms to subside gradually; but should the patient be no better in two hours, repeat the dose, and if giving bromide of potassium in 5-gr. doses twice or three times a day, immediately after food, does not keep her right, she must go on taking the chloral. Neither chloral nor bromide affects the milk; if any of it passes therein, the quantity is so very minute as to make no difference to the puppies. It is not at all necessary to take the bitch away from her litter; in fact, it is better to let her go on feeding them. Some will wish to leave their babies, and these should be taken to them and shut in with them, four times a day, and during the night. If she is thoroughly well fed, it never does the bitch any harm to bring up her family, and it would be a very great pity for the puppies to be lost when it is not necessary. But it is exceedingly important that she should be kept in a state of hyper-nutrition--that is, that she should have as much good, underdone meat as she can digest. Bromides are lowering, and besides this, the state of the nerves demands the highest possible feeding. It may be expensive to feed a "fitty" bitch on good beefsteak or roast mutton four times a day, giving her a sponge cake the last thing at night and a little milk, or, what is much better and more digestible, a raw new-laid egg or raw fresh cream, in the early morning; but it is, on the whole, a cheap way of saving a litter of valuable pups. If there are a large number of pups, some may be given to a foster-mother; but as a rule these are difficult to get, and not often satisfactory. Bromides should always be given immediately after food; on no account when the stomach is empty. Chloral may be given at any time when there is a necessity for it. The 5-gr. bromide tabloids obtainable at any chemist's are very useful; it is unnecessary to dissolve them in water for dogs, but, as before stated, they _must_ be given with or directly after food. Teething fits should be treated, as far as medicine goes, exactly as suckling fits. Just as a badly-reared, non-meat-fed bitch who, by reason of an anæmic habit, harbours worms, is a poor subject for the latter trouble, so is a puppy that has been brought up on milky slops and large, wet messes of oatmeal and bread and milk, and thus has a weakened digestion, very likely to suffer badly from fits that in a strong young dog would pass off with small trouble. There is usually some warning of teething fits, as staring eyes, etc.; but sometimes, and especially if a puppy of from six to ten months has been much excited, taken out walking on a hot day, allowed to play in the sun, or dragged unwillingly on a lead, they come on very suddenly. While out in hot sun, the dog may suddenly give a shriek and begin to run with all his might, taking no notice of calls. As a general rule, he has the sense to run home, unless some officious person on the way imagines him mad and acts as silly people do under such circumstances. If it is possible to catch the runaway, he should have his head covered to keep the light out of his eyes, and be taken home as quickly and quietly as possible to be shut in some cool and perfectly dark place until the fit passes off sufficiently to give him a dose of chloral. Afterwards he should have a diet of minced, underdone meat, with bromide of potassium to follow, for a day or two. A plunge into cold water will often stop a fit like this, but is too heroic a remedy to be safe unless the circumstances are very urgent. Cold sponging to the head is good, and quiet and darkness are essential. Some times teething fits go on increasing in frequency and severity until they merge into epilepsy, and the dog is lost. This is occasionally caused by allowing a very young, highly nervous, and excitable dog to be with others of the opposite sex, when these should be in seclusion. Fits, very much like mild teething fits, are not uncommon in run-down dogs suffering from anæmia and the likely corollary, worms. These are often very transient, and a course of tonic treatment, with rest from excitement, and good feeding, will banish them. CHAPTER IX CLUB STANDARDS, DESCRIPTIONS AND POINTS OF VARIOUS TOY BREEDS =Pomeranians.=--These are now divided into Pomeranians (over 7 lbs.) and Pomeranians Miniature, and the Committee of the Kennel Club have laid down the following standard, applying from June 1, 1909: THE POMERANIAN.--_Appearance._--The Pomeranian in build and appearance should be a compact, short-coupled dog, well-knit in frame. His head and face should be fox-like, with small erect ears that appear sensible to every sound. He should exhibit great intelligence in his expression, docility in his disposition, and activity and buoyancy in his deportment. In weight and size the Pomeranian varies considerably. He must be over 7 lbs., but preferably he should weigh about 10 to 14 lbs. _Head._--The head should be somewhat foxy in outline or wedge-shaped, the skull being flat, large in proportion to the muzzle, which should finish rather fine, and be free from lippiness. The teeth should be level, and on no account undershot. The hair on the head and face must be smooth and short-coated. THE POMERANIAN MINIATURE--_Appearance._--The Pomeranian Miniature in build and appearance should be a compact, short-coupled dog. His head and face should be like a miniature fox, with small, erect, and very mobile ears, pricked and brought well together, and in no case lop-eared. He should be full of life, intelligent in expression, and docile in disposition. The Pomeranian Miniature should preferably weigh about 3 to 5 lbs., but must not exceed 7 lbs. Dogs above 7 lbs. must be registered as Pomeranians. Dogs below 7 lbs. in weight must, at twelve months of age or after, be registered or re-registered as Pomeranians Miniature, and being so registered or re-registered, can never compete in classes for Pomeranians. _Head._--The head should be wedge-shaped and rather foxy in outline, but the skull may be rounder than the Pomeranian. STANDARD AND SCALE OF POINTS AS LAID DOWN BY THE POMERANIAN CLUB.--Secretary, G. M. Hicks, Esq., Granville House, Blackheath, London, S.E.[2] _Appearance._--The Pomeranian in build and appearance should be a compact, short-coupled dog, well-knit in frame. His head and face should be fox-like, with small, erect ears, that appear sensible to every sound; he should exhibit great intelligence in his expression, docility in his disposition, and activity and buoyancy in his deportments.--15 points. _Head._--Somewhat foxy in outline, or wedge-shaped, the skull being slightly flat (although in the toy varieties the skull may be rather rounder), large in proportion to the muzzle, which should finish rather fine, and be free from lippiness. The teeth should be level, and on no account undershot. The head in its profile may exhibit a little "stop," which, however, must not be too pronounced, and the hair on head and face must be smooth or short-coated.--5 points. _Eyes._--Should be medium in size, rather oblique in shape, not set too wide apart, bright and dark in colour, showing great intelligence and docility of temper. In a white dog black rims round the eyes are preferable.--5 points. _Ears._--Should be small, and carried perfectly erect, or pricked like those of a fox, and, like the head, should be covered with soft, short hair. No plucking or trimming is allowable.--5 points. _Nose._--In black-and-tan, or white dogs, the nose should be black; in other coloured Pomeranians it may more often be brown or liver coloured; but in all cases the nose must be self not parti-coloured, and never white.--5 points. _Neck and Shoulders._--The neck, if anything, should be rather short, well set in and lion-like, covered with a profuse mane and frill of long, straight, glossy hair, sweeping from under the jaw, and covering the whole of the front part of the shoulders and chest, as well as flowing on the top of the shoulders. The shoulders must be tolerably clean and laid well back.--5 points. _Body._--The back must be short, and the body compact, being well ribbed up, and the barrel well rounded. The chest must be fairly deep, and not too wide.--10 points. _Legs._--The forelegs must be perfectly straight, of medium length--not such as would be termed either "leggy" or "low on leg"--but in due proportion in length and strength to a well-balanced frame, and the forelegs and thighs must be well feathered, the feet small and compact in shape. No trimming is allowable.--5 points. _Coat._--Properly speaking, there should be two coats, an under and an over coat--the one a soft, fluffy under coat, the other a long, perfectly straight and glistening coat, covering the whole of the body, being very abundant round the neck and forepart of the shoulders and chest, where it should form a frill of long, flowing hair, extending over the shoulders, as previously described. The hindquarters, like those of a collie, should be similarly clad with long hair or feathering from the top of the rump to the hocks. The hair on the tail must be profuse and flowing over the back.--25 points. _Tail._--The tail is a characteristic of the breed, and should be well twisted right up from the root tightly over the back, or lying flat on the back, slightly on either side, and profusely covered with long hair, spreading out and flowing over the back.--10 points. _Colour._--The following colours are admissible: White, black, blue, brown, black-and-tan, fawn, sable, red, and parti-colours. The white must be quite free from lemon or any colour, and the blacks, blues, browns, black-and-tan, and reds free from white. A few white hairs in any of the self-colours shall not absolutely disqualify, but should carry great weight against the dog. In parti-coloured dogs, the colours should be evenly distributed on the body. Whole-coloured dogs with a white foot or feet, leg or legs, are decidedly objectionable, and should be discouraged, and cannot compete as whole-coloured specimens. In mixed classes--_i.e._, where whole-coloured and parti-coloured Pomeranians compete together--the preference should, if in other points they are equal, be given to the whole-coloured specimens.--10 points. Total--100 points. Footnote 2: In most cases the names of the Secretaries of the various clubs are given, but it must be remembered that an annual re-election takes place. Also catered for by the North of England Pomeranian Club. Secretary, J. Tweedale, Valley House, Oversley Ford, Wilmslow; and the Midland Counties Pomeranian Club. Hon. Secretary, Mrs. E. Parker, Meadowland, Uttoxeter Road, Derby. =Toy Spaniels= (English).--Points as defined by the Toy Spaniel Club. Hon. Secretary, Miss M. Hall, Chalk Hill House, Norwich. _Head._--Should be well domed, and in good specimens is absolutely semi-globular, sometimes even extending beyond the half-circle, and absolutely projecting over the eyes, so as nearly to meet the upturned nose. _Eyes._--The eyes are set wide apart, with the eyelids square to the line of the face--not oblique or fox-like. The eyes themselves are large, so as to be generally considered black; their enormous pupils, which are absolutely of that colour, increasing the description. From their large size, there is always a certain amount of weeping shown at the inner angles; this is owing to a defect in the lachrymal duct. _Stop._--The "stop" or hollow between the eyes, is well marked, as in the bulldog, or even more so; some good specimens exhibiting a hollow deep enough to bury a small marble. _Nose._--The nose must be short and well turned up between the eyes, and without any indication of artificial displacement afforded by a deviation to either side. The colour of the end should be black, and it should be both deep and wide, with open nostrils. _Jaw._--The lower jaw must be wide between its branches, leaving plenty of space for the tongue and for the attachment of the lower lips, which should completely conceal the teeth. It should also be turned up or "finished," so as to allow of its meeting the end of the upper jaw, turned up in a similar way, as above described. _Ears._--The ears must be long, so as to approach the ground. In an average-sized dog they measure 20 ins. from tip to tip, and some reach 22 ins., or even a trifle more. They should be set low on the head, and be heavily feathered. In this respect the King Charles is expected to exceed the Blenheim, and his ears occasionally extend to 24 ins. _Size._--The most desirable size is from 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. _Shape._--In compactness of shape these spaniels almost rival the pug, but the length of coat adds greatly to the apparent bulk, as the body, when the coat is wetted, looks small in comparison with that dog. Still, it ought to be decidedly "cobby," with strong, stout legs, broad back, and wide chest. The symmetry of the toy spaniel is of importance, but it is seldom that there is any defect in this respect. _Coat._--The coat should be long, silky, soft, and wavy, but not curly. In the Blenheim there should be a profuse mane, extending well down in the front of the chest. The feather should be well displayed on the ears and feet, where it is so long as to give the appearance of their being webbed. It is also carried well up the backs of the legs. In the King Charles the feather on the ears is very long and profuse, exceeding that of the Blenheim by an inch or more. The feather on the tail (which is cut to the length of about 3-1/2 ins. to 4 ins.) should be silky, and from 5 ins. to 6 ins. in length, constituting a marked "flag" of a square shape, and not carried above the level of the back. _Colour._--The colour varies with the breed. The King Charles is a rich, glossy black, and deep tan; tan spots over the eyes and on cheeks, and the usual markings on the legs are also required. The Ruby Spaniel is a rich chestnut red. The presence of a _few_ white hairs _intermixed with the black_ on the chest of a King Charles, or _intermixed with the red_ on the chest of a Ruby Spaniel, shall carry _very great weight against_ a dog, but shall not in itself absolutely disqualify; but a white patch on the chest, or white on any other part of a King Charles or Ruby Spaniel shall be a disqualification. The Blenheim must not on any account be whole-coloured, but should have a ground of pure pearly white, with bright, rich chestnut or ruby-red marking evenly distributed in large patches. The ears and cheeks should be red, with a blaze of white extending from the nose up to the forehead, and ending between the ears in a crescentive curve. In the centre of this blaze there should be a clear "spot" of red of the size of a sixpence. The tricolour, or Charles the First Spaniel, should have the tan of the King Charles, with markings like the Blenheim in black instead of red on a pearly-white ground. The ears and under the tail should also be lined with tan. The tricolour has no spot, that beauty being peculiarly the property of the Blenheim. The only name by which the tricolour, or black, white, and tan, in future shall be recognised is "Prince Charles." That in future the all-red toy spaniel be known by the name of "Ruby Spaniel." The colour of the nose to be black. The points of the "Ruby" to be the same as those of the "King Charles," differing only in colour. SCALE OF POINTS. _King Charles, Prince Charles, and Ruby Spaniels._ Symmetry, condition, and size 20 Head 15 Stop 5 Muzzle 10 Eyes 10 Ears 15 Coat and feathering 15 Colour 10 --- Total 100 _Blenheim._ Symmetry, condition, and size 15 Head 15 Stop 5 Muzzle 10 Eyes 10 Ears 10 Coat and feathering 15 Colour and markings 15 Spot 5 --- Total 100 =The Toy Trawler Spaniel.=--This little dog, having had some classes given for it at shows, deserves notice, and its standard and scale of points are appended, together with some remarks made upon it by a lady who has introduced it, and whose kennel of beautiful Toy Spaniels of all breeds is well known. _Points._--Head small and light, with very pointed, rather short, nose, fine and tapery, with a very slight curve upwards of tip of nose. A curve downwards (as in the Borzoi) should be an absolute disqualification. The "stop" well marked, and the skull rather raised, but flat on the top, not dome-shaped. Muzzle just finished, not overshot. Long ears, set high, and carried pricked forwards, framing the face. Large dark eyes, set wide apart, and showing the white when turned. They must be set perfectly straight, not obliquely, in the head. Whatever colour the dog may be, the nose and lips must be black. Neck arched. Back broad and short. Tail set on a level with the back, and carried gaily, though not straight up in the air, or curled over the back like a Pomeranian. It should be docked to about 4 or 5 inches, and well furnished with long feathering. General carriage very smart and gay. Legs reasonably short, and perfectly straight, bone light, though strong. Build square, sturdy, and compact, but never heavy. The action should be smart and prancing, coat very curly, but not woolly. It should be rather silky in texture, and very glossy. Liberal feathering, waistcoat, and breechings. Shape is all important; colour a secondary matter. Best colour a brilliant black, with white waistcoat. Next, red with white waistcoat, black and white, and red and white. Best size from 11 to 13 inches at shoulder. Any tendency to weediness should be carefully avoided, and the height at shoulders should just about equal the length from top of shoulders to root of tail. The size should not be judged by weight, but by height, as they should weigh heavily for their size. A dog about 13 inches high should weigh about 15 lbs. Very small specimens--_i.e._, under 9 inches high--are only desirable if the type, soundness, compactness, and sturdiness are unimpaired. Feet close, firm, and hard. They and the lower part of the legs should not be too heavily feathered. The expression of face should be very alert, and very sweet. The dogs should be very bold and courageous. Timidity is a great fault, and should tell against them in the ring. They are excellent ratters and rabbiters. As to proportion of head, if the total length of head be about 6 inches, the ears should be set about 4 inches apart. The whole head, seen from a bird's-eye point of view, should be triangle, with the tip of nose as apex. General appearance should be that of an exquisitely pretty little sporting dog, very strong, and exceedingly smart and compact. They must _not_ be confounded with Cockers, being a totally different type. SCALE OF POINTS. General appearance, including condition and smartness 12 Coat 10 Head and expression 15 Eyes 6 Curve and proportion of muzzle 6 Set on of ears 5 Legs and feet 5 Colour 5 Action and soundness of limb 10 Size 5 Compactness, levelness of back, and set of tail 10 Boldness and alertness 8 Soundness of teeth 3 --- Total 100 POINTS THAT SHOULD DISQUALIFY. 1. A flesh-coloured nose. 2. A downward curve of muzzle. 3. No "stop." 4. Hanging lips. 5. Crooked forelegs. 6. Light-coloured eyes. 7. Slanting eyes. 8. A very long body. 9. Bad action. POINTS THAT ARE VERY UNDESIRABLE. 1. Timidity. 2. A straight coat. 3. Low set ears. 4. Exaggeratedly short or long legs. 5. Sluggishness. 6. Exaggeration of any kind. 7. Drooping tail. 8. Showing teeth or tongue. 9. An "apple" head. MEASUREMENTS OF A PERFECT SPECIMEN. Inches. Breadth of skull at eyes from each outside corner of eyes across head 5 Length of skull 4 Length of nose 2-1/4 Circumference of skull 10-1/2 Circumference of muzzle under eyes 6-3/4 Space between eyes 1-3/8 Space between ears when not pricked 4-1/4 Length of ears (leather) 4 Height at shoulders 13 Length from top of shoulders to root of tail 13 Length of forelegs to elbow 7-1/2 Breadth at shoulders 6 Breadth at quarters 6 Girth 19 Feathering on tail flag 6 Waistcoat feathering 4 The origin of the breed is unknown, but it is supposed to be descended from the original curly King Charles Spaniel (see Mr. Watson's "Book of the Dog") and the old-fashioned curly Sussex Spaniel, now extinct. There is no certainty in this. The breed exists in Italy and Holland. Toy Spaniels also have the Northern Toy Spaniel Club. Secretary, Mrs. E. A. Furnival, Eastwood, Mauldeth Road, Heaton Mersey, Manchester. =Griffons Bruxellois.=--Points as defined by the Griffon Bruxellois Club. Hon. Secretary, Miss L. Feilding, 48, Grosvenor Gardens, London, S.W. _General Appearance._--A lady's little dog, intelligent, sprightly, robust, of compact appearance, reminding one of a cob, and captivating the attention by a quasi-human expression. _Head._--Rounded, and covered with coarse, rough hairs, somewhat longer round the eyes and on the nose, lips, and cheeks. _Ears._--Erect when clipped, semi-erect when not clipped. _Eyes._--Very large without being watery, round, nearly black; eyelids edged with black; eyelashes long and black, leaving the eye they encircle perfectly uncovered. _Nose._--Always black, short, surrounded with hair converging upwards and going to meet that which surrounds the eyes; the break (or stop in the nose) pronounced, but not exaggerated. _Lips._--Edged with black, furnished with moustache; a little black in the moustache is not a fault. _Chin._--Prominent, without showing the teeth, and edged by a small beard. _Chest._--Rather wide. _Legs._--As straight as possible, of medium length. _Tail._--Upward, and cut to the two-thirds. _Colour._--Red. _Texture of Coat._--Harsh and wiry, rather long. _Weight._--Light weight 5 lbs. maximum, and heavy weight 9 lbs. the maximum. _Faults._--Brown nose, pale-coloured eyes, silky tuft on the head, white spot on the chest or paw. SCALE OF POINTS. Hard coat 15 Reddish colour 10 Eyes 7 Nose and muzzle 7 Ears 3 Legs and body 5 Height and size 3 General appearance 10 --- Total 60 The Brussels Griffon Club of London (Secretary, Miss A. F. Hall, 2, Park Place Villas, Maida Hill, London, W.) offers practically the same standard, but makes a brown nose, white hairs, and a hanging tongue disqualify, while as faults it cites light eyes, silky hair on head, brown nails, and teeth showing; and its description of the typical coat is as follows:--Texture of coat harsh and wiry, irregular, rather long and thick. =Schipperkes.=--The description of the Schipperke adopted at a general meeting of the Belgian Schipperke Club, June 19th, 1888, has been adopted by the St. Hubert Schipperke Club, and is copyright. The Schipperke Club, England, advances the following scale of points, and the Secretary is G. H. Killick, Esq., Moor House, Chorley, Lancashire. _Head._--Foxy in type; skull should not be round, but broad, and with little "stop." The muzzle should be moderate in length; fine, but not weak; should be well filled out under the eyes. _Nose._--Black and small. _Eyes._--Dark brown, small, more oval than round, and not full; bright and full of expression. _Ears._--Shape: Of moderate length, not too broad at the base, tapering to a point. Carriage: Stiffly erect, and, when in that position, the inside edge to form as near as possible a right angle with the skull, and strong enough not to be bent otherwise than lengthways. _Teeth._--Strong and level. _Neck._--Strong and full, rather short, set broad on the shoulders, and slightly arched. _Shoulders._--Muscular and sloping. _Chest._--Broad and deep in brisket. _Back._--Short, straight, and strong. _Loins._--Powerful, well drawn up from the brisket. _Forelegs._--Perfectly straight, well under the body, with bone in proportion to the body. _Hindlegs._--Strong, muscular; hocks well let down. _Feet._--Small, catlike, and standing well on the toes. _Nails._--Black. _Hindquarters._--Fine compared to the foreparts; muscular and well-developed thighs; tailless; rump well rounded. _Coat._--Black, abundant, dense, and harsh, smooth on the head, ears, and legs; lying close on the back and sides, but erect and thick round the neck, forming a mane and frill, and well feathered on back of thighs. _Weight._--About 12 lbs. _General Appearance._--A small, cobby animal, with sharp expression, intensely lively, presenting the appearance of being always on the alert. _Disqualifying Points._--Drop or semi-erect ears. _Faults._--White hairs are objected to, but are not disqualifying. RELATIVE VALUE OF POINTS. Head, nose, eyes, and teeth 20 Ears 10 Neck, shoulders, and chest 10 Back and loins 5 Forelegs 5 Hindlegs 5 Feet 5 Hindquarters 10 Coat and colour 20 General appearance 10 --- Total 100 The St. Hubert Schipperke Club standard is practically identical with that of the Schipperke Club, England, the only variation being as regards the weight limits, which this club, however, also fixes at a maximum of 12 lbs. for small-sized dogs, while it allots 30 points to coat and colour, and none to general appearance. They also have the Northern Schipperke Club. Hon. Secretary, T. W. Markland, Ingersley, Links Gate, St. Anne's-on-the-Sea. =Pugs.=--Standard and acknowledged points: THE STANDARD. Symmetry 10 Size 5 Condition 5 Body 10 Legs 5 Feet 5 Head 5 Muzzle 5 Ears 5 Eyes 10 Mask 5 Wrinkles 5 Tail 5 Trace 5 Coat 5 Colour 5 General carriage 5 --- Total 100 ACKNOWLEDGED POINTS. Illustration: BLACK PUG. _"Larchmoor Peter Pan," owned by Mrs. Lyle._ _Symmetry._--Symmetry and general appearance, decidedly square and cobby. A lean, leggy pug and a dog with short legs and a long body are equally objectionable. _Size and Condition._--The pug should be _multum in parvo_, but this condensation (if the word may be used) should be shown by compactness of form, well-knit proportions, and hardness of developed muscle. Weight from 13 lbs. to 17 lbs., dog or bitch. _Body._--Short and cobby, wide in chest, and well ribbed up. _Legs._--Very strong, straight, of moderate length, and well under. _Feet._--Neither so long as the foot of the hare nor so round as that of the cat; well split-up toes, and the nail black. _Muzzle._--Short, blunt, square, but not up-faced. _Head._--Large, massive, round, not apple-headed, with no indentation of the skull. _Eyes._--Dark in colour, very large, bold, and prominent, globular in shape, soft and solicitous in expression, very lustrous, and, when excited, full of fire. _Ear._--Thin, small, soft, like black velvet. There are two kinds, the "rose" and "button." Preference is given to the latter. _Markings._--Clearly defined. The muzzle or mask, ears, moles on cheeks, thumb-mark or diamond on forehead, back-trace, should be as black as possible. _Mask._--The mask should be black. The more intense and well-defined it is the better. _Wrinkles._--Large and deep. _Trace._--A black line extending from the occiput to the tail. _Tail._--Curled tightly as possible over the hip. The double curl is perfection. _Coat._--Fine, smooth, soft, short, and glossy, neither hard nor woolly. _Colour._--Silver, or apricot fawn. Each should be decided, to make the contrast complete between the colour and the mask and trace. _N.B._--The points of black pugs, except as to colour, are the same as those for fawns. The London and Provincial Pug Club. Secretary, J. Fabian, 460, Camden Road, London, N. =Toy Bulldogs.=--POINTS OF TOY BULLDOGS.--The general appearance of the toy bulldog must, as nearly as possible, resemble that of the big bulldog. The skull should be large, forehead flat, the skin about it well wrinkled, the "stop" broad and deep, extending up the middle of the forehead. Eyes of moderate size, situated low down on the skull, and as wide apart as possible. Ears to be "rose," if possible; "tulip" ears are allowable, but not to be encouraged; "button," or terrier-like ears are a decided fault. Face to be as short as possible, nose jet black, deeply set back, almost between the eyes. Muzzle to be short, broad, and turned upwards. The lower jaw should project considerably in front of the upper and turn up. Teeth not to be shown. Neck to be short, with much loose skin about it. "Frogginess" is objectionable. Chest to be very wide, round, and deep. Back short and strong, narrow towards the loins, and broad at the shoulder. A roach back is desirable. Tail to be short, and not carried above the back. Forelegs to be short in proportion to the hindlegs. Hindquarters much lighter in proportion than forequarters. The most desirable weight is below 20 lbs., and dogs and bitches that exceed 22 lbs. should be disqualified. The Miniature Bulldog Club. Secretary, Miss A. Bruce, 42, Hill Street, Berkeley Square, London, W. SCALE OF POINTS. General appearance and character 10 Head 15 Ears 15 Body 10 Size and weight 20 Tail 5 Legs 15 Chest 10 Total 100 Illustration: FRENCH TOY BULLDOG. _"Barkston Billie," owned by Mrs. Townsend Green._ DESCRIPTION AND POINTS OF THE FRENCH TOY BULLDOG.--_General Appearance._--The French bulldog ought to have the appearance of an active, intelligent, and very muscular dog, of cobby build, and heavy in bone for its size. _Head_ is of great importance, large and square. Forehead nearly flat, the muscles of the cheek well developed, but not prominent. The "stop" should be as deep as possible. The skin of the head should not be tight, and the forehead should be well-wrinkled. The muzzle should be short, broad, turn upwards, and be very deep. The lower jaw should project considerably in front of upper, and should turn up, but should not show the teeth. _The eyes_ should be of moderate size and of dark colour. No white should be visible when the dog is looking straight in front of him. They should be placed low down and wide apart. _The nose_ must be black and large. _Ears._--Bat ears ought to be of a medium size, large at the base and rounded at the tips. They should be placed high on the head and carried straight. The orifice of the ear looks forward, and the skin should be fine and soft to the touch. _The neck_ should be thick, short, and well arched. _The body._--The chest should be wide and well down between the legs, and the ribs well sprung. The body short and muscular, and well cut up. The back should be broad at the shoulder, tapering towards the loins, preferably well roached. _The tail_ should be set on low, and be short, thick at the root, tapering to a point, and should not be carried above the level of the back. _Legs._--The forelegs should be short, straight, and muscular. The hindquarters, though strong, should be lighter in proportion to the forequarters. Hocks well let down. _Feet_ should be compact and strong. _Coat_ should be of a medium density: black in colour is very undesirable. Their Club is the Bouledogue Français Society. Secretary, F. Everard, 11, Milk Street, London, E.C. SCALE OF POINTS. General appearance and character 15 Skull 15 Under jaw (special points for) 10 Weight[3] 20 Body 15 Tail 5 Ears (bat) 10 Legs 5 Chest 5 --- Total 100 Footnote 3: No dog to win the maximum of points unless under 22 lbs. _Weights._--When three classes are provided, weights shall be as follows: (1) Under 20 lbs.; (2) 20 lbs. and under 24 lbs.; (3) 24 lbs. and under 28 lbs. When only two classes are provided, weights shall be as follows: (1) Under 24 lbs.; (2) 24 lbs., not exceeding 28 lbs. These weights are subject to alteration. _Yorkshire Terriers._--Points of the Yorkshire Terrier, as laid down by the Yorkshire Terrier Club. Secretary, Mr. F. W. Randall, "The Clone," Hampton-on-Thames. _General Appearance._--Should be that of a long-coated pet dog, the coat hanging quite straight and evenly down each side, a parting extending from the nose to the end of the tail. The animal should be very compact and neat, the carriage being very upright, and having an important air. Although the frame is hidden beneath a mantle of hair, the general outline should be such as to suggest the existence of a vigorous and well-proportioned body. _Head._--Should be rather small and flat, not too prominent or round in the skull, nor too long in the muzzle, with a perfectly black nose. The fall on the head to be long, of a rich golden tan, deeper in colour at the sides of the head about the ear roots, and on the muzzle, where it should be very long. The hair on the chest a rich bright tan. On no account must the tan on the head extend on to the neck, nor must there be any sooty or dark hair intermingled with any of the tan. _Eyes._--Medium, dark, and sparkling, having a sharp, intelligent expression, and placed so as to look directly forward. They should not be prominent, and the edge of the eyelids should be of a dark colour. _Ears._--Small V-shaped, and carried semi-erect or erect, covered with short hair, colour to be of a very deep rich tan. _Mouth._--Perfectly even, with teeth as sound as possible. An animal having lost any teeth through accident not a fault, providing the jaws are even. _Body._--Very compact, and a good loin. Level on the top of the back. _Coat._--The hair on body as long as possible, and perfectly straight (not wavy), glossy like silk, and of a fine silky texture. Colour, a dark steel blue (not silver blue) extending from the occiput (or back of skull) to the root of tail, and on no account mingled with fawn, bronze, or dark hairs. _Legs._--Quite straight, well covered with hair of a rich golden tan, a few shades lighter at the ends than at the roots, not extending higher on the forelegs than the elbow, nor on the hindlegs than the stifle. _Feet._--As round as possible, and the toe-nails black. _Tail._--Cut to medium length; with plenty of hair, darker blue in colour than the rest of the body, especially at the end of the tail, and carried a little higher than the level of the back. _Tan._--All tan hair should be darker at the roots than in the middle, shading to a still lighter tan at the tips. _Weight._--Three classes: 5 lbs. and under; 7 lbs. and under, but over 5 lbs.; over 7 lbs. ="Silver" Yorkshire.=--Points identical with those of the Standard Yorkshire, as described above, except colouring, which should be as follows: _Back._--Silver. _Head._--Pale tan or straw colour. _Muzzle and Legs._--Light tan. _Ears._--A shade darker tan. VALUE OF POINTS IN JUDGING. Quantity and length of coat 15 Quality and texture of coat 10 Richness of tan on head and legs 15 Colour of hair on body 15 Head 10 Eyes 5 Ears 5 Legs and feet 5 Tail (carriage of) 5 Mouth 5 Formation and general appearance 10 --- Total 100 =Italian Greyhounds.=--The Italian Greyhound is somewhat fuller in proportion than the English Greyhound, and the nose is somewhat shorter. In other respects this beautiful dog follows the lines of its prototype as closely as possible, due allowance being made for difference in size. The colour most prized is a golden fawn, then cream, or blue fawn, followed by reds and whites; mixtures are not considered desirable. Coat should be very fine, soft, and glossy. The best size is that of a dog of about 8 lbs. weight.--From Rawdon Lee's "Modern Dogs." Hon. Secretary of Club, Mrs. Scarlett, Went House, West Malling, Kent. =Maltese.=--This is probably the oldest of the toy dogs, having been highly prized by the ladies of ancient Greece, and doubtless of other nations at the same time. The coat is very long, straight, and silky (in first-rate specimens sweeping the ground), quite free from woolliness and from the slightest curl. Colour, pure white. Nose should be black, also roof of the mouth. Ears moderately long, the hair on them mingling with that on the neck. Tail short and well feathered, curled tightly over back. Size should not exceed 5 lbs. or 6 lbs., the smaller the better, other points being correct.--Rawdon Lee's "Modern Dogs." They have the Maltese Club of London. Hon. Secretary, Arthur Stevenson, 52, Holloway Road, N. =Poodles.=--Points of the perfect black poodle, as defined by the Poodle Club. Secretary, Mr. L. W. Crouch, The Orchard, Swanley Village, Kent. _General Appearance._--That of a very active, intelligent, and elegant-looking, dog, well built, and carrying himself very proudly. _Head._--Long, straight, and fine, the skull not broad, with a slight peak at the back. _Muzzle._--Long (but not snipy) and strong; not full in cheek; teeth white, strong, and level; gums black; lips black and not showing lippiness. _Eyes._--Almond-shaped, very dark, full of fire and intelligence. _Nose._--Black and sharp. _Ears._--The leather long and wide, low set on, hanging close to the face. _Neck._--Well proportioned and strong, to admit of the head being carried high and with dignity. _Shoulders._--Strong and muscular, sloping well to the back. _Chest._--Deep and moderately wide. _Back._--Short, strong, and slightly hollowed, the loins broad and muscular, the ribs well sprung and braced up. _Feet._--Rather small and of a good shape, the toes well arched, pads thick and hard. Illustration: POODLES. _Photo by J. J. Gibson, Penge._ _Champion "Orchard Admiral" and "L'Enfant Prodigue," owned by Mrs. Crouch._ _Legs._--Fore set straight from shoulder, with plenty of bone and muscle; hindlegs very muscular and well bent, with the hocks well let down. _Tail._--Set on rather high, well carried, never curled, or carried over back. _Coat._--Very profuse, and of good, hard texture; if corded, hanging in tight, even cords; if non-corded, very thick and strong, of even length, the curls close and thick, without knots or cords. _Colours._--All black, all white, all red, all blue. The white poodle should have dark eyes, black or very dark liver nose, lips, and toe-nails. The red poodle should have dark amber eyes, dark liver nose, lips, and toe-nails. The blue poodle should be of even colour, and have dark eyes, lips, and toe-nails. All the other points of white, red, and blue poodles should be the same as in the perfect black poodle. _N.B._--It is strongly recommended that only one-third of the body be clipped or shaved, and that the hair on the forehead be left on. Also catered for by the Curly Poodle Club, Hon. Secretary, Miss F. Brunker, Whippendell House, King's Langley, Herts. VALUE OF POINTS. General appearance and movement 15 Head and ears 15 Eyes and expression 10 Neck and shoulders 10 Shape of body, loin, back, and carriage of stern 15 Legs and feet 10 Coat, colour, and texture of coat 15 Bone, muscle, and condition 10 --- Total 100 =The Black-and-Tan Terrier.=--Points and standard, as given by the Black-and-Tan Terrier Club. Secretary, Mr. S. J. Atkinson, 184, Adelaide Road, London, N.W. _Head._--Long, flat, and narrow, level and wedge-shaped, without showing cheek muscles, well filled up under the eyes, with tapering, tightly-lipped jaws and level teeth. _Eyes._--Very small, sparkling, and dark, set fairly close together, and oblong in shape. _Nose._--Black. _Ears._--Small and V-shaped, hanging close to the head above the eye. _Neck and Shoulders._--The neck should be fairly long, and tapering from the shoulders to the head, with sloping shoulders, the neck being free from throatiness, and slightly arched at the occiput. _Chest._--Narrow, but deep. _Body._--Moderately short, and curving upwards at the loin; ribs well sprung; back slightly arched at the loin, and falling again at the joining of the tail to the same height as the shoulders. _Legs._--Must be quite straight, set on well under the dog, and of fair length. _Feet._--More inclined to be cat than hare-footed. _Tail._--Moderate length, and set on where the arch of the back ends, thick where it joins the body, tapering to a point, and not carried higher than the back. _Coat._--Close, smooth, short, and glossy. _Colour._--Jet black and rich mahogany tan, distributed over the body as follows: On the head the muzzle is tanned to the nose, which, with the nasal bone, is jet black; there is also a bright tan spot on each cheek and above each eye; the under jaw and throat are tanned, and the hair inside the ear is of the same colour. The forelegs tanned up to the knee, with black lines (pencil marks) up each toe, and a black mark (thumb mark) above the foot. Inside the hindlegs tanned, but divided with black at the hock joint, and under the tail also tanned, and so is the vent, but only sufficiently to be easily covered by the tail; also slightly tanned on each side of chest. Tan outside of hindlegs, commonly called "breeching," a serious defect. In all cases the black should not run into the tan, or _vice versa_, but the division between the two colours should be well defined. _General Appearance._--A terrier, calculated to take his own part in the rat-pit, and not of the whippet type. _Weight (for toys)._--Not exceeding 7 lbs. SCALE OF POINTS. Head 20 Eyes 10 Ears 5 Legs 10 Feet 10 Body 10 Tail 5 Colour and markings 15 General appearance (including terrier quality) 15 --- Total 100 Illustration: PEKINGESE. _"Yen Chu of Newnham" owned by Mrs. W. H. Herbert._ =Japanese and Pekingese Spaniels.=--Points of the Japanese spaniel, as set forth by the Japanese and Pekingese Club. This Club is now divided into the Japanese Chin Club and the Pekingese Club, the Secretary of both being Mr. E. T. Cox, 65 and 66, Chancery Lane, London, E.C. _General Appearance._--That of a lively, highly-bred little dog, with dainty appearance, smart, compact carriage, and profuse coat. These dogs should be essentially stylish in movement, lifting the feet high when in motion, carrying the tail (which is heavily feathered) proudly curved or plumed over the back. In size they vary considerably, but the smaller they are the better, provided type and quality are not sacrificed. When divided by weight, classes should be for under and over 7 lbs. _Coat._--The coat should be long, profuse, and straight, free from curl or wave, and not be too flat; it should have a tendency to stand out, more particularly at the frill, with profuse feathering on the tail and thighs. _Colour._--The dogs should be either black-and-white or red-and-white--_i.e._, parti-coloured. The term "red" includes all shades of sable, brindle, lemon, and orange, but the brighter and clearer the red the better. The white should be clear white, and the colour, whether black or red, should be evenly distributed patches over the body, cheek, and ears. _Head._--Should be large for size of dog, with a broad skull, rounded in front; eyes large, dark, set far apart; muzzle very short and wide, and well cushioned--_i.e._, the upper lips rounded on each side of the nostrils, which should be large and black, except in the case of red-and-white dogs, when a brown-coloured nose is as common as a black one. _Ears._--Should be small, set wide apart, and high on the dog's head, and carried slightly forward, V-shaped. _Body._--Should be squarely and compactly built, wide in chest, "cobby" in shape. The length of the dog's body should be about its height. _Legs and Feet._--The legs should be straight and the bone fine; the feet should be long and hare-shaped. The legs should be well feathered to the feet on the front legs and to the thighs behind. The feet should also be feathered. The points of Pekingese (as given by the same club). _General Appearance._--That of a quaint and intelligent little dog, rather long in body, with heavy front chest, and bow legs--_i.e._, very much out at elbow--the body falling away lighter behind. The tail should be carried right up in a curve over the animal's back, but not too tightly curled. In size these dogs vary very much, but the smaller the better, provided type and points are not sacrificed. When divided by weight, classes should be for under 10 lbs. and over 10 lbs. _Legs._--Should be short and rather heavy in bone, but not extravagantly so, as coarseness is to be avoided in every point; they should be well out at elbow, and the feet turned outwards also. Both legs and feet should be feathered. _Head._--Should be of medium size, with broad skull, flat between ears, but rounded on the forehead, muzzle very short (_not_ underhung), and very wide. The face should be wrinkled and nostrils black and full. Eyes large and lustrous; ears set high in the head, and V-shaped; they should be moderate in size (the tips never coming below the muzzle), and should be covered with long, silky hair, which extends much below the leather of the ear proper. _Colour._--These dogs should either be red, fawn, sable, or brindle, with black masks, face and ear shadings, or else all black. White patches on feet or chest, although not a disqualification, should not be encouraged. _Coat._--Should be long, flat, and rather silky, except at the frill, where it should stand out, like a lion's mane. The feathering on thighs and tail should be very profuse, and it is preferable that it should be of a lighter colour than the rest of the coat. There is also the Pekin Palace Dog Association. Secretary, Miss L. C. Smythe, 115, Delaware Mansions, Sutherland Avenue, London, W. Some other clubs are as follows (but it is in many cases usual to change the Secretary annually, so that these addresses are not all permanent, though letters generally find their mark): Halifax and District Yorkshire Terrier Club (Secretary, T. Whiteley, 10, High Street, Halifax). Manchester and District Yorkshire Terrier Club (Secretary, J. Hardman, 9, Richmond Street, Newton Heath, Manchester). Oldham Toy Dog Society (Hon. Secretary, A. E. Stansfield, 209, Park Road, Oldham). Yorkshire Pom Club (Hon. Secretary, E. Poppleton, 1, Clarendon Street, Wakefield). Toy Dog Society of Scotland (Secretary, James Cameron, 61, Lothian Road, Edinburgh). North of England Toy Dog Club (Secretary, R. Weatherhead, 14, Arctic Parade, Great Horton, Bradford). Toy Dog Society (Secretary, E. T. Cox, 65 and 66, Chancery Lane, E.C.). INDEX Abscesses on toes, 46 Amaurosis, 71 Anæmia, 42 Aperients, 56 Appetite, loss of, 48 Areca-nut, 54 Arsenic, 66 Bad doer, the, 51 Bare patches, 63 Bat ears, 34 Baths, medicated, 64 Biliousness, 48 Black-and-tan terriers, 37 standard of, 100 Black pugs, 40 standard of, 92 Blenheims, 40 standard of, 86 Bones, 23 Breed, choice of, 30 Breeding, 5 Bronchitis, 74 Bulldogs, toy, 34 standard of, 93 Buying dogs, 4 Canker in ears, 69 in teeth, 45 Caries, dental, 45 Castor oil, 76 Catarrhal distemper, 58 Chest diseases, 74 Chill, 48 Clinical thermometer, 48 Clubs, supplementary list, 104 Coat, 24, 44 Cod liver oil, 44 Cold in eyes, 72 Colds, 73 Conditioning, 72 Coughs, 73 Dew-claws, 73 Digestive tonic, 50 Disagreeable breath, 51 Discharge after pupping, 13 Distemper, 57 Docking, 46 Ears, 69 to alter carriage of, 70 Eczema, 61, 72 Entering dogs for shows, 27 Epilepsy, 77 Erythema or puppy-pox, 62, 68 Etiquette of shows, 29 Exhibiting, 23 Eyes, 71 "Faking," 23 Fatness or obesity, 75 Feeding of Toys, 19, 42, 65 Feet, sore, 72 Fits, 77 French toy bulldog, standard of, 94 Gastritis, 60 Golden ointment, 71 Griffons Bruxellois, 37 standard of, 89 Hysteria, 75 Indigestion, 50 Internal parasites, 52 Iron tonic, 44 Italian greyhound, standard of, 97 Japanese spaniel, 35 standard of, 101 Kanofelin remedies, 63 Maltese, 41 standard of, 98 Mange, follicular and sarcoptic, 64 Mating bitches, 5 Meat diet, 21, 42 Mercury, 45, 62 Milk, 22 Missing, 8 Ophthalmia, 71 Pekingese spaniels, 35 standard of, 101 Pityriasis, 63 Poison, 75 Pomeranians, 31 standard of, 80 Poodles, 27 standard of, 98 Preparing for exhibition, 23 Pugs, 39 standard of, 91 Puppies, birth of, 10 house for, 14 rearing of, 14 size of, 6 skin troubles of, 62 training of, 18 Pupping, 9 Rashes, 62 Relapse from distemper, 59 Requisites for shows, 28 Ringworm, 67 Round worms, 55 Salt, 76 Scavenging, 20 Schipperkes, 32 standard of, 90 Season, 7 Shivering, 74 Shows, chief, 30 Shyness in ring, 29 Skin diseases, 61 Stomach coughs, 74 Strychnine, 76 Stuttgart disease, 49, 60 Suckling fits, 77 Sulphur ointment, 63 Tape-worms, 52 Tear channels, 42 Teeth, bad, 45 Teething, 17 fits, 79 Temperature, to take, 49 Toothache, 46 Toy spaniels, standard of, 83 Washing, 26 Worm medicines, 54 Yorkshire terriers, 38 standard of, 96 * * * * * BILLING AND SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, GUILDFORD. * * * * * =FROM MR. EDWARD ARNOLD'S LIST.= BY THE SAME AUTHOR. DARLING DOGS. BY MARGARET LILITH WILLIAMS. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. Price 5s. net. TIMES.--"An attractive book of talk, light and serious, and of experiences of many kinds, about dogs in the particular and in the abstract by an enthusiast." GLOBE.--"A delightful volume, especially so to dog-lovers." WORLD.--"That it is written by one whose heart and soul is in her subject is apparent in the first few pages, and for that very reason they go straight to the heart of every dog-lover. Altogether, a charming volume, excellently illustrated." DAILY EXPRESS.--"An account of the intimate life of certain dogs, and to those who make dear friends and companions of them it may be confidently recommended." EVENING STANDARD.--"Practical as well as enthusiastic." LADY'S FIELD.--"All women who really love dogs--and perhaps all those who love animals of any kind--will like to have 'Darling Dogs,' ... charmingly illustrated and written from the author's heart." * * * * * LONDON: EDWARD ARNOLD, 41 & 43 MADDOX ST., W. 
39244	----	By the same Author. _THE CAMPAIGN OF CHANCELLORSVILLE._ It is not easy to say which part of this book is best, for it is all good.--_The Nation._ We do not hesitate to pronounce it one of the ablest, fairest, and most valuable books that we have seen.--_Southern Historical Papers._ _A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF OUR CIVIL WAR_ Is all that could be desired: gives perhaps a clearer, more vivid view, a more accurate outline than any other available record.--_London Saturday Review._ The material of the work well serves to consolidate and orient the knowledge of what was done in the Great Rebellion and of those who did it.--_Journal Military Service Institution._ We do not hesitate to commend the book most warmly as the work of an able, painstaking soldier, who has honestly endeavored to ascertain and frankly to tell the truth about the war.--_Southern Historical Papers._ The book is written in a spirit of impartiality and of just discrimination concerning the merits and defects of the generals who led the armies of the North and South.--_Army and Navy Journal._ [Illustration: PLATE I. PATROCLUS.] PATROCLUS AND PENELOPE _A Chat in the Saddle_ BY THEODORE AYRAULT DODGE BREVET LIEUTENANT-COLONEL UNITED STATES ARMY, RETIRED LIST; AUTHOR OF "THE CAMPAIGN OF CHANCELLORSVILLE," "A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF OUR CIVIL WAR," ETC., ETC. BOSTON HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY New York: 11 East Seventeenth Street The Riverside Press, Cambridge 1885 Copyright, 1885, BY THEODORE AYRAULT DODGE. _All rights reserved._ _The Riverside Press, Cambridge_: Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton and Company. To THE COUNTRY CLUB OF BOSTON, WHICH HAS FOSTERED A TRUE APPRECIATION OF GOOD HORSEMANSHIP IN OUR CITY OF BEAUTIFUL ENVIRONMENTS, AND WHOSE GENEROUS AND ABLE ADMINISTRATION HAS AFFORDED THE LOVERS OF THE SADDLE SO MANY OCCASIONS OF RARE ENTERTAINMENT, These Pages are Inscribed BY A MEMBER. _Since--as it has been our fortune to be long engaged about horses--we consider that we have acquired some knowledge of horsemanship, we desire also to intimate to the younger part of our friends how we think that they may bestow their attention on horses to the best advantage._ XENOPHON on Horsemanship, I. I. Transcriber's Note: The Table of Contents have been moved from the back of the book to the front. CONTENTS. PAGE I. Patroclus and I 19 II. Saddles and Seats 22 III. Patroclus on a Rack 28 IV. The Rack and Single-Foot 29 V. Patroclus Trotting 32 VI. Thoroughbred or Half-Bred 33 VII. The Saddle Mania 35 VIII. Park-Riding 37 IX. A Fine Horse not necessarily a Good Hack 39 X. Soldiers have Stout Seats 41 XI. A Gate and a Brook 44 XII. The Old Trooper 48 XIII. Instruction in Riding 49 XIV. Chilly Fox-Hunting 51 XV. Is Soldier or Fox-Hunter the Better Rider? 55 XVI. The School-Rider 56 XVII. Patroclus happy 59 XVIII. Photography versus Art 61 XIX. A One-Man Horse 69 XX. Baucher's Favorite Saddle Horse 70 XXI. Patroclus sniffs a Friend 73 XXII. Riding-Schools and School-Riding 74 XXIII. Is Schooling of Value? 76 XXIV. Manuals of Training 82 XXV. Result of Training 83 XXVI. Qualities of the Horse 86 XXVII. Dress, Saddles, and Bridles 87 XXVIII. Mounting 89 XXIX. How to hold the Reins 92 XXX. How to begin Training 94 XXXI. Penelope's Unrestrained Courage 97 XXXII. Hints before beginning to train a Horse 98 XXXIII. Guiding by the Neck 104 XXXIV. What an Arched Neck means 109 XXXV. Flexions of the Neck 113 XXXVI. Flexions of the Croup 116 XXXVII. The Canter 121 XXXVIII. Leading with either Shoulder 125 XXXIX. The Horse's Natural Lead 131 XL. The Best Way to teach the Lead 135 XLI. Change of Lead in Motion 138 XLII. Suggestions 141 XLIII. How to begin Jumping 143 XLIV. The Reins in the Jump 148 XLV. Odds and Ends of Leaping 152 XLVI. Hunting and Road-Riding 155 XLVII. Advantages of True Rack 157 XLVIII. Who is the Best Rider? 160 XLIX. Vale! 166 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. PATROCLUS _Frontispiece._ 2. A QUIET AMBLE 12 3. THE RACK OR RUNNING WALK 24 4. A SHARP SINGLE-FOOT 36 5. AN EASY CANTER 48 6. A TEN-MILE TROT 60 7. RISING TO A HURDLE 72 8. FLYING A HURDLE 84 9. CLEAN ABOVE IT 96 10. TAKING OFF AT WATER 108 11. DOING IT HANDILY 120 12. A TWENTY-FOOT JUMP 132 13. ABOUT TO LAND 144 14. LANDING 156 BEFORE MOUNTING. But a few months since, the author, whose thirty odd years in the saddle in many parts of the world have, he trusts, taught him that modesty which should always be bred of usage, was showing some of the instantaneous photographs of his horse Patroclus to a group of Club men. Most of the gentlemen were old friends, but one of the photographs having been passed to a by-stander, whose attire marked him as belonging to the most recently developed Boston type of horsemen, elicited, much to his listeners' entertainment, the remark that "naw man can wide in a saddle like that, ye know, not weally wide, ye know! naw _fawm_, ye know! wouldn't be tolewated in our school, ye know!" The author was informed by a mutual acquaintance that the gentleman was taking a course of lessons at the swellest riding academy of the city, and had recently imported an English gelding. In deference to such excellent authority, whose not unkindly meant, if somewhat brusquely uttered, criticism may be said to have inspired these pages, otherwise perhaps without a suitable _motif_, an explanation appears to be called for, lest by some other youthful equestrian critics the physician be advised to heal himself. The exclusive use of the English hunting-rig and crop for all kinds and conditions of men at all times and in all places is well understood by old horsemen to be but a matter of fashion which time may displace in favor of some other novelty. For their proper purpose they are undeniably the best. But to the newly fledged equestrian who makes them his shibboleth, and who discards as "bad form" any variation upon the road from what is eminently in place after hounds, the author, with an admiration for the excellencies of the English seat derived from half a dozen years' residence in the Old Country and many a sharp run in the flying-counties, and with the consciousness that, if tried in the balance of to-day's Anglomania, his own seat, as shown in some of the illustrations, may chance to be found wanting, desires to explain that, during the Civil War, outrageous fortune, among other slings and arrows, sent him to the rear with the loss of a leg; but that far from giving up a habit thus become all the more essential because he could no longer safely sit a flat saddle, he concluded to supplement his lack of grip (as the Marquis of Anglesea for a similar reason had done before him) by the artificial support which is afforded in the rolls and pads of a somerset or demi-pique, as well as to adopt the seat best suited to his disability. And it was such a saddle, of a pattern perhaps too pronounced to suit even the author's eye, however comfortable and safe,--particularly so in leaping, which provoked the censure, perhaps quite justifiable according to the light of the critic, which has been quoted above. This variation, however, by no means conflicts with the author's belief in, and constant advocacy of, the flat English saddle _in its place_. But he has seen so many accomplished riders in quite different saddles, that he became long ago convinced that the English tree by no means affords the only perfect seat. In fact, the saddle best suited to universal use, that is, the one which might best serve a man under any conditions, approaches, in his opinion, more nearly the modified military saddle of to-day than the hunting type. Nor because a local fashion, set but yesterday, prescribes strict adherence to a style he cannot follow, is the author less ready to venture upon giving a friendly word of advice to many of our young and aspiring riders. There are not a few gentlemen in Boston, whose months in the saddle number far less than the author's years, to whose courage and discretion as horsemen he yields his very honest admiration, and whose stanch hunters he is happy to follow across country, nor ashamed if he finds he has lost them from sight. He regrets to say that he has also seen not a few who affect to sneer at a padded saddle or a horse with a long tail, who seem incapable of throwing their heart across a thirty inch stone wall in a burst after hounds, although upon the road they seek to impress one as constantly riding to cover. It is unnecessary, however, to say that the author has too long been a lover of equestrianism _per se_ not to admire the good and be tolerant of the bad for the total sum of gain which the horseback mania of to-day affords. He is old enough to remember that human nature remains the same, however fast the world may move, and is firm in the belief that we shall soon grow to be a nation of excellent horsemen. [Illustration: PLATE II. A QUIET AMBLE.] There is no pretense to make these pages a new manual for horse-training or for riding. There are plenty of good books on horsemanship now in print; but unfortunately there are few riders who care for anything beyond a superficial education of either their horses or themselves. More than rudimentary--if viewed in the light of the High School--the hints in this volume can scarcely be considered. If any incentive to the study of the real art and to the better training of saddle beasts is given, all that these pages deserve will have been gained. The plates are phototype reproductions from photographs of Patroclus, taken in action by Baldwin Coolidge. Their origin lay in the belief that a fine-gaited horse could be instantaneously photographed, and still show the agreeable action which all horse-lovers admire, and have been habituated to see drawn by artists, instead of the ungainly positions usually resulting from the instantaneous process. The object aimed at--to show an anatomically correct and artistically acceptable horse in each case--has, it is thought, been gained, so far, at least, as motion arrested can ever give the idea of motion. Out of thirty photographs taken, the fourteen herein given, and one or two others, much resembling some of these, showed an agreeable action. The best positions of the horse were often the poorest photographs. In enlarging them by solar prints for the phototype process, the shadows of the horse have been darkened, or in some instances, where a negative has been blurred or injured, an indistinct line has been strengthened. In some plates the photograph was so clear (as Plates IV. and V.) that no darkening of the shadows was necessary. In others (as Plates VII. and VIII.) the negative, though showing excellent position, was so weak as to require a good deal of treatment. But in even the most indistinct ones the outline and crude shadows were clearly shown by the negatives, and followed absolutely in treating the solar prints. The plates are thus obtained intact from the original instantaneous negatives, and faithfully represent the action and spirit of the horse. The jumping pictures were taken against the natural background, the others against a screen or building. In the latter, the entire background has been made white, for greater distinctness. The water-jump was in reality a dry ditch of eleven feet wide from bar to bank. But being hidden in the original negatives by the heaps of earth thrown up in digging it, and several of the negatives being blurred in the foreground, the water was added in the solar prints. To preserve anatomical accuracy, the finer results of both photography and of the phototype process have had to be sacrificed. To state that the author has often witnessed the prize leaping at the Agricultural Hall Horse Show in London, as well as watched the contest of many a noted English steeple-chase, will absolve him from any suspicion of parading these photographs as examples of excellent performance. They were all taken in cold blood on one occasion, and Patroclus was ridden alone over the obstacles at least a dozen times for each good picture secured. Every horseman knows that this is a pretty sound test of a willing jumper, if not a crack one. Moreover, the author has been acquainted with too many masters of equitation, at home as well as abroad, to harbor any but a very modest opinion of his own equestrian ability. He would be much more sensitive to criticism of Patroclus than of himself, for he knows the horse to be an exceptionally good one within his limitations, while always conscious that his own seat lacks the firmness of ante-bellum days. It used to be said in the Old Country that an Englishman keeps his seat to manage his horse, and that a Frenchman manages his horse to keep his seat. The author is obliged to confess that to-day he is often reduced to the latter practice. The hurdles were somewhat over four feet high; behind each was a bar just four feet from the ground. The water-jumps were from fifteen to eighteen feet from taking-off to landing. On a number of occasions (as in Plate XII.) Patroclus covered over twenty measured feet in this jump. As is manifest from a few of the plates, it was the action of the horse, and not the "form" of the rider, which it was aimed to secure. It is easy to make engravings in which the seat of the rider shall be perfect; but in all the wood-cut illustrations of books on equitation the horse is usually anatomically incorrect, however artistically suggestive. One never sees the photograph of a horse clearing an obstacle in which the rider's form is as perfect as it is apt to be depicted in engravings or paintings. And in some of the within illustrations of road gaits there is apparent a carelessness in both seat and reins which would scarcely do in the accomplishment of the high airs of the _manège_, but into which a rider is sometimes apt unconsciously to lapse. No one is probably better aware of what is good and bad alike in these plates than the author himself. He appreciates "form" at its exact value, but is constrained to believe that the true article comes from sources far removed from, and of vastly more solid worth than the pigskin which covers a rider's saddle, or the shears which bang his horse's tail. The searching power of photography, however, is no respecter of form or person. A word of thanks should not be omitted to Mr. Coolidge, whose excellent judgment and keen eye in taking these pictures, without other apparatus than his lens, is well shown by the result, nor to the Lewis Engraving Company for their careful reproductions from material by no means perfect. Perhaps it should be said that Master Tom and Penelope, who figure in these pages, are as really in the flesh as Patroclus, and by no means mere fictions of the imagination. There is no instruction pretended to be conveyed by these plates, as there is in the similarly obtained illustrations of Anderson's excellent "Modern Horsemanship." Their purpose is less to point a moral than to adorn a tale. But an apology to all is perhaps due for the very chatty manner in which the author has taken his friend, the reader, into his confidence, and to experienced horsemen for the very elementary hints sometimes given. The pages devoted to Penelope are meant for young riders who, like Master Tom, really want to learn. THEODORE AYRAULT DODGE. BROOKLINE, MASS., _April, 1885_. PATROCLUS AND PENELOPE. A CHAT IN THE SADDLE. I. We are fast friends, Patroclus, and many's the hour since, five years ago, I bought you, an impetuous but good-tempered and intelligent three-year-old colt, whom every one thought too flighty to be of much account, that you and I have spent in each other's company upon the pretty suburban roads of Boston. And many's the scamper and frolic that we've had across the fields, and many's the quiet stroll through the shady woods! For you and I, Patroclus, can go where it takes a goodish horse to follow in our wake. I wonder, as I look into your broad and handsome face, whether you know and love me as well as I do you. Indeed, when you whinny at my distant step, or rub your inquisitive old nose against my hands or towards my pocket, begging for another handful of oats or for a taste of salt or sugar; or when you confidingly lower your head to have me rub your ears, with so much restful intelligence beaming from your soft, brown eyes, and such evident liking for my company, I think you know how warm my heart beats for you. And how generous the blood which courses through your own tense veins your master knows full well. If I had to flee for my life, Patroclus, I should wish that your mighty back, tough thews, and noble courage could bear me through the struggle. For I never called upon you yet, but what there came the response which only the truest of your race can give. No, Pat! you've got all the sugar you can have to-day. My pockets are not a grocer's shop. Stand quiet while I mount, and you and I will take our usual stroll. * * * * * Patroclus is said to have been sired in the Old Country out of a cavalry mare brought over by an English officer to Quebec, and there foaled in Her Majesty's service. Even this much I had on hearsay. But he has the instincts of the charger in every fibre,--and perhaps the most intelligent and best saddle beasts among civilized nations belong to mounted troops. As old Hiram Woodruff used to say, Patroclus makes his own pedigree. I know what he is; I care not whence he came. No need to extol your points. Though there be those of higher lineage, and many a speedier horse upon the turf, or perchance a grander performer after hounds, thrice your value to whoso will find fault or blemish upon you, my Patroclus! You are blood-bay and glossy as a satin kerchief. You are near sixteen hands; short coupled enough to carry weight, and long enough below to take an ample stride. You tread as light as a steel watch-spring quivers. A woman's face has rarely a sweeter or more trusting look than yours in repose; a falcon's eye is no keener when aroused. You will follow me like a dog, and your little mistresses can fondle you in stall or paddock. You have all the life and endurance of the thoroughbred, the intelligence of the Arab, the perfect manners of the park, and the power and discretion of a Midland Counties hunter. Like the old song, you have "A head like a snake, and a skin like a mouse, An eye like a woman, bright, gentle, and brown; With loins and a back that would carry a house, And quarters to lift you smack over a town." May it be many a year yet, Patroclus, before I must pension you off for good! * * * * * You stand for me to mount as steady as a rock. And you know your crippled master's needs so well that you would do it in the whirl of a stampede. I will leave the reins upon your neck and let you walk whither your own fancy dictates, for I am lazily inclined; though indeed I know from your tossing head that you fain would go a livelier gait. So long as you can walk your four full miles an hour, you will have to curb your ardor for many a long stretch, while your master chews the cud of sweet and bitter fancies. * * * * * As we saunter along, the reflections bred of thirty odd years in the saddle come crowding up. From a Shelty with a scratch-pack in Surrey a generation since, to many a cavalry charge with bugle-clash and thundering tread on Old Dominion soil now twenty years ago, the daily life with that best of friends,--save always one,--the perfect saddle horse, brings many thoughts to mind. What if we jot them down? II. The most common delusion under which the average equestrian is apt to labor in every part of the world is that his own style of riding is the one _par excellence_. Whether the steeple-chaser on his thoroughbred, or the Indian on his mustang is the better rider, cannot well be decided. The peculiar horsemanship of every country has its manifest advantages, and is the natural outgrowth of, as well as peculiarly adapted to, the climate, roads, and uses to which the horse is put. The cowboy who can defy the bucking broncho will be unseated by a two-year-old which any racing-stable boy can stick to, while this same boy would hardly sit the third stiff boost of the ragged, grass-fed pony. The best horseman of the desert would be nowhere in the hunting-field. The cavalry-man who, with a few of his fellows, can carve his way through a column of infantry, may not be able to compete at polo with a Newport swell. The jockey who will ride over five and a half feet of timber or twenty feet of water would make sorry work in pulling down a lassoed steer. Each one in his element is by far the superior of the other, but none of these is just the type of horseman whom the denizen of our busy cities, for his daily enjoyment, cares to make his pattern. The original barbarian, no doubt, clasped his undersized mount with all the legs he had, as every natural rider does to-day. When saddle and stirrups came into use, followed anon by spurs, discretion soon taught the grip with knee and thigh alone, the heels being kept for other purposes than support. It must, however, be set down to the credit of the original barbarian that he probably did not ride in the style known as "tongs on a wall." This certainly not admirable seat originated with the knight in heavy armor, and has since been adhered to by many nations, and, through the Spaniards, has found its way to every part of the Americas. But as a rule, wild riders have the bent knee which gives the firmest bareback seat. The long stirrup and high cantle must not be condemned for certain purposes. When not carried to the furthest extreme they have decided advantages. It is by no means sure that any other seat would be equally easy on the cantering mustang for so many scores of miles a day as many men on the plains customarily cover. And though for our city purposes and mounts it is distinctly unavailable, one must be cautious in depreciating a seat which is clung to so tenaciously by so many splendid riders. It is a mistake to suppose that the Southerners and Mexicans, as well as soldiers, all ride with straight leg. While you often see this fault carried to an extreme among all these, the best horsemen I have generally observed riding with a naturally bent knee. And it takes a great deal to convince a good rider of any of these classes that a man who will lean and rise to a trot knows the A B C of equestrianism. [Illustration: PLATE III. THE RACK OR RUNNING WALK.] Whether the first saddle had a short seat and long stirrups, _à la militaire_, or a long seat with short ones, _à l'Anglaise_, matters little. Though the original home of the horse boasts to-day the shortest of stirrups (and even in Xenophon's time this appears to have been the Asiatic habit), a reasonably long one would seem to have been the most natural first step from the bareback seat. If so, what is it that has gradually lengthened the seat of the Englishman, who represents for us to-day the favorite type of civilized horsemanship, and if not the best, perhaps nearest that which is best suited to our Eastern wants? No doubt, in early days, horses were mainly ridden on a canter or a gallop. If perchance a trot, it was a mere shog, comfortable enough with a short seat and high cantle. The early horse was a short-gaited creature. But two things came gradually about. Dirt roads grew into turnpikes; and the pony-gaited nag began, about the days of the Byerly Turk, nearly two hundred years ago, to develop into the long-striding thoroughbred. The paved pike speedily proved that a canter sooner injures the fetlock joints of the forelegs and strains the sinews of the hind than a trot, and men merciful unto their beasts or careful of their pockets began to ride the latter gait. But when the step in the trot became longer and speedier as the saddle horse became better bred, riders were not long in finding out that to rise in the stirrups was easier for both man and beast, and as shorter stirrups materially aid the rise, the seat began to grow in length. It has been proved satisfactorily to the French, who have always been "close" riders, that to rise in the trot saves the horse to a very great percentage, put by some good authorities at as high a figure as one sixth. Moreover, it was not a strange step forward. That it is natural to rise in the trot is shown by there being to-day many savage or semi-civilized tribes which practice the habit in entire unconsciousness of its utility being a disputed point anywhere. Another reason for shortening the leathers no doubt prevailed. The English found the most secure seat for vigorous leaping to be the long one. Of course a little obstacle can be cleared in any saddle; but with the long seat, the violent exertion of the horse in a high jump does not loosen the grip with knees and calves, but at most only throws one's buckskin from the saddle, as indeed it should not even do that. For the knees being well in front of, instead of hanging below, the seat of honor, enables a man to lean back and sustain the jar of landing without parting company with his mount, while a big jump with stirrups too long, if it unseats you at all, loosens your entire grip, or may throw you against the pommel in a highly dangerous manner. Moreover, with short stirrups, the horse is able on occasion to run and jump "well away from under you," while, except during the leap itself, the weight for considerable distances may be sustained by the stirrups alone, and thus be better distributed for the horse over ground where the footing is unsteady, as it is in ridge and furrow. No better illustration of the uses of these several seats than an English cavalry officer. On parade he will ride with the longest of stirrups compatible with not sitting on his crotch. To rise in the saddle is a forbidden luxury to the soldier. Despite some recent experiments in foreign service, and the fact that on the march the cavalry-man may be permitted to rise, nay, encouraged to do so, what more ridiculous than a troop of cavalry on parade, each man bobbing up and down at his own sweet will? The horse suitable for a trooper is a short, quick-gaited, handy animal, chosen largely for this quality, and made still more so by being taught to work in a collected manner by the _manège_. You can very comfortably sit him with a military saddle at a pretty sharp parade trot. Now, suppose our cavalry officer is going for a canter in Rotten Row,--he will at once shorten his stirrup-leathers a couple of holes; and if he were going to ride cross-country, he would shorten them still a couple more. Experience has taught him the peculiar uses of each position. Some writers claim that one seat ought to suffice for all occasions. And so it can be made to do. This one seat may, however, not always be the best adapted to the work immediately in hand, or to the animal ridden. A slight change is often a gain. Every one has noticed that different horses, as well as different ground ridden over, vary the rider's seat in the same saddle. But excellent as is the long hunting-seat in its place, one can conceive no more ridiculous sight than the English swell I once saw in Colorado, who had brought his own pigskin with him, and started out for a ten days' ride across the prairie on an Indian pony, the only available mount. The pony's short gait was admirable for a long day's jaunt in a peaked saddle, but so little suited to a cross-country rig, that the swell's condition at the end of the first fifty miles must have been pitiable. This unusual "tenderfoot" exhibition elicited a deal of very natural laughter, and its butt, who was an excellent but narrow-minded horseman, though he stuck with square-toed British pluck to his rig for a few days, came back to Denver equipped _à la_ cowboy. His Piccadilly saddle had been abandoned to the prairie-dogs. III. Patroclus watches his rider's mood. He has become contemplative too, and has taken kindly to our sober pace. But you shall have your turn, my glossy pet. Let us get off this macadamized road where we can find some cantering ground. As I shorten the reins, 'tis indeed a pleasure to see your head come up, neck arched, eye brightening, alternate ears moving back to catch your master's word, feet at once gathered under you, and nerves and muscles on keenest tension. Every motion is springy, elastic, bold, and free, as full of power as it is of ease. No wonder, Patroclus, that eyes so often turn to watch you. No wonder that you seem conscious that they do. For though we both know that the first test of the horse is performance, yet having that, there is pleasure to us both in your graceful gaits. To give the reins the least possible shake will send you into the most ecstatic of running walks, as fast as one needs to go, and so easy that it is a constant wonder how you do it. This is no common amble or bumping pace, but the true four beat rack. And as you toss your head and champ your bit, Patroclus, with the pleasure of your accelerated motion, how well you seem to know the comfort of your rider. IV. This running walk or rack, by the way, is one of the most delightful of gaits. Its universal adoption in the South by every one who can buy a racker is due to the roads, which, for many months of the year, are so utterly impassable that you have to pick your way in and out of the woods and fields on either side, and rarely meet a stretch where you can start into a swinging trot. But a horse will fall from a walk into a rack, or _vice versa_, with the greatest of ease to himself and rider, and if the stretch is but a hundred yards will gain some distance in that short bit of ground. If you have a fifty mile ride over good roads in comfortable weather, perhaps a smart trot, if easy, of course alternating with the walk, is as good a single gait as you can ride. But you need to trot or canter a goodly stretch, not to shorten rein at every dozen rods, for the transition from a walk to either of these gaits or back again, though slight, is still an exertion; while from the walk to the rack and back the change is so imperceptible that one is made conscious of it only by the patter of the horse's feet. Here again, the country's need, roads, and climate have bred a most acceptable gait. But it has made the Southerner forget what an inspiriting thing a swinging twelve-mile trot can be along a smooth and pretty road; and you cannot give away a trotting horse for use in the saddle south of Mason and Dixon. The rack soon grows into the single-foot, which only differs from it in being faster, and the latter is substituted for the trot. To go a six or eight mile gait, holding a full glass of water in the hand, and not to spill a drop, is the test of perfection in the racker. And for a lazy feeling day, or for hot weather, anywhere, it is the acme of comfort. Or it is, indeed, a useful gait in winter, when it is too cold for a clipped horse to walk and your nag has yet not stretched his legs enough to want to go at sharper speed. It must, however, be acknowledged that it is very rare that a horse will rack perfectly as well as trot. He is apt to get the gaits mixed. A rack is half way between a pace and a trot. In the pace, the two feet of each side move and come down together; in the trot, the two alternate feet do so. In the running walk, or in the single-foot, each hind foot follows its leader at the half interval, no two feet coming to the ground together, but in regular succession, so as to produce just twice as many foot-falls as a trot or a pace. Hence the _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_, patter of the horse gives to the ear the impression of very great rapidity, when really moving at only half the apparent speed. The result of the step is a swaying, easy back, which you can sit with as much ease as a walk. Rackers will go a six-mile gait, single-footers much faster. I once owned a single-footing mare, who came from Alexander's farm and was sired by Norman, who could single-foot a full mile in three minutes. As a rule, the speed is not much more than half that rate. And either a rack or single-foot is apt to spoil the square trot; or if you break a horse to trot, you will lose the other gaits. A perfect all-day racker or a speedy single-footer can scarcely be aught else. V. I did not mean to apply that rule to you, Patroclus! We both of us know better. For the exceptional horse can learn to rack or single-foot without detriment to his other paces, if he be not kept upon these gaits too long at any time. Half a mile ahead of us is the little grass-grown lane, where we can indulge in a canter or a frolicsome gallop. Shall we quicken our speed a trifle? Simply a "Trot, Pat!" and on the second step you fall into as square and level a trot as ever horse could boast. I know how quickly you obey my voice, old boy, and but one step from my word I am ready to catch the first rise, and without the semblance of a jar we are in a full sharp trot. How I love to look over your shoulder, Patroclus, and see your broad, flat knee come swinging up, and showing at every step its bony angles beyond the point of your shoulder; though, indeed, your shoulder is so slanting that the saddle sits well back, and your rider is too old a soldier to lean much to his trot. And you will go six to--I had almost said sixteen--miles an hour at this gait, nor vary an ounce of pressure on your velvety mouth. How is it, Patroclus, that you catch the meaning of my hands so readily? VI. The fancy of to-day is for the daisy-clipping thoroughbred. And when they do not run to the knife-blade pattern, they may be the finest mounts a man can throw his leg across. But my fancy for the road has always been for the higher stepping half-bred. Granted that on the turf or across a flying country blood will tell. Granted that brilliant knee action is mainly ornamental. Still, in America, the half-bred will average much better in looks, and vastly more satisfactory in hardy service. Where shall we again find the equivalent of the Morgan breed, now all but lost in the desire to get the typical running horse? For saddle work, and the very best of its kind, there was never a finer pattern than the Morgan. Alas, that we have allowed him to disappear! His worth would soon come to the fore in these days of saddle pleasures. The thoroughbred's characteristic is ability to perform prodigies of speed and endurance at exceptional times. But the strong, every-day-in-the-year good performer is usually no more than half-bred, if even that. Moreover, you can find a hundred daisy-clippers for one proud stepper, be he thoroughbred or galloway. There is such a thing as waste of action. No one wants to straddle a black Hanoverian out of a hearse. But the horse who steps high may be as good a stayer as the one who does not, and high action is a beauty which delights men's eyes and opens their purses. Because the long stride of the turf is better for being low, it is not safe to apply this rule to the road. There are many more worthless brutes among thoroughbreds than among the common herd. While it is easy to acknowledge that the perfect thoroughbred excels all other horses, the fact must also be noted that he is of extremest rarity, and even when found is infrequently up to weight. If we use the word advisedly, only the horse registered in the Stud Book is a thoroughbred. These have no early training whatever, except to allow themselves to be mounted, and to run their best. If they stand the initial test of speed, they are reserved for the turf, and there wholly spoiled for the saddle or for any other purpose of pleasure. If they do not, they are turned adrift, half spoiled in mouth and manners by tricky stable-boys, and may or may not fall into good hands. For one thoroughbred with perfect manners, sound, and up to weight, there are a score of really good half-breds, as near perfection as their owners choose or are able to make them. What we in America are apt colloquially to call a thoroughbred is only a horse which, in his looks, shows some decided infusion of good blood, or is sired by a well-bred horse. But it is to be remembered that of two horses with an equal strain of pure blood, one may have reverted to a coarse physical type, and the other to the finer. And the one who has inherited the undeniable stamp of the common-bred ancestor may also have inherited from the other side those qualities of constitution, courage, intelligence, and speed, which sum up the value of high English blood. Not one fine-bred horse in one hundred--I speak from the ownership of, and daily personal intimacy for considerable periods with, over fifty good saddle beasts,--has as many of the admirable qualities of pure blood as Patroclus. And yet (_absit omen_), he has a wave in his tail, and though his feet and legs are perfect in shape, and as clean as a colt's, they are far beyond the thoroughbred's in size. He shows that his ancestry runs back both to the desert and the plough. In America, surely, handsome is that handsome does. Let us value good blood for its qualities, not looks, and ride serviceable half-breds, instead of sporting worthless weeds because they approach to the clothes-horse pattern, or have necks like camels. VII. One of the most distinctly promising features of the athletic tendencies of to-day is the mania for the saddle. Fifteen years ago, the boys along the Boston streets used to hoot at your master, Patroclus. Not, indeed, that he had a poor seat or needed to "get inside and pull down the blinds," as the London cad might phrase it, for a good or bad seat was all alike to them; rather at the wholly unusual sight of a man on horseback--outside of politics. But the number of good horsemen, and horsewomen too, is growing every day. Here comes a couple at a brisk round trot. How can we notice the lad, Patroclus, when the lassie looks so sweetly? In her neat habit, with dainty protruding foot and ankle, sitting her trappy-gaited mount with ease and grace, the bloom of health fairly dazzling you as she rushes by, so that you doubt whether it be her pretty eye and white teeth or her ruddy skin and happy face which has set even your ancient heart a-throbbing, how can a woman look more attractive? [Illustration: PLATE IV. A SHARP SINGLE-FOOT.] But the alluring sight is not long-lived. Following hard upon them comes, not the first rider who has chased a petticoat, a young Anglomaniac. He fancies that his hunting-crop, his immaculate rig, and his elbows out-Britishing the worst of British snobs, as he leans far over his pommel, make him a pattern rider. You can see the daylight under his knees. A sudden plunge would send him, Lord knows where! Haply his dock-tailed plug remembers the shafts full well and steadily plods ahead. But bless his little dudish heart! he will learn better. As his months in the saddle increase, he will find his seat as well as his place. We Americans are the making of an excellent race of horsemen. It is a pleasure to see the increase in the number of promising riders who seek the western suburbs every day. We shall all ride, as we manage to do everything, well,--after a while. There is of course a lot of rubbish and imported--rot, shall we call it? But what odds? so there is in art, music, politics, religion. VIII. You see the corner of the lane, Patroclus, while I have been thus musing, and your lively ear and instinctively quickened gait rouse my half-dazed thoughts. Here we are. Shall we take our accustomed canter? You always wait the word, though you are eagerness itself, for you do not yet know when I want you to start, or which foot I may ask you to lead with. Though, indeed, you will sometimes prance a bit, and change step in the alternate graceful bounds of the passage, to invite and urge my choice. The least pressure of one leg, and off you go, leading with the opposite shoulder. And you will keep this foot by the mile, Patroclus, or change at every second step, should I ask you so to do. You need but the slightest monition of my leg, and instantly your other shoulder takes the lead. I see you want to gallop, boy! But not quite yet. You must not forget that you have been taught, as they say in Kentucky, to canter all day long in the shade of an apple tree, if so be it your master wishes. You shall have your gallop anon. But you must never forget that a horse who can only walk or go a twelve-mile trot or hand-gallop, though he may lead the hunt cross-country, is an unmitigated nuisance on the road. Slow and easy gaits are as valuable to the park-hack as long wind and speed to the racer. And although Boston, as yet, boasts no Rotten Row, are not the daily rides through its exquisite environments the equivalent of the canter in that justly celebrated resort, rather than the mere country tramp upon a handy roadster or the ride to cover on a rapid covert-hack? And yet our imitation of our British cousins has approximated less to the pleasure ride than to the cross-country style. Perhaps, in our eagerness to convince ourselves that we have learned all there is worth knowing in the art, we have aped what is confessedly the finest of horseback sports, and forgotten the more moderate fashion of Hyde Park. Let us remember that we can saunter on the road every day, while riding to hounds is for most of us a rarish luxury. IX. Because a horse can go well to hounds, it does not follow that he is fit for park or road work any more than the three-year-old who wins the Derby or St. Leger is fitted for a palfrey. A horse whose business it is to run and jump must have his head; while a horse, to be a clever and agreeable hack, should learn that the bit is a limitation of his action, and that the slightest movement of the hand or leg of the rider has its meaning. What is impossible in galloping over ploughed fields is essential to comfort on the road. In the field, everything must be subservient to saving the horse; the rider's comfort is the rule of the park. It is every day that we may see a rider who deems his excellent hunter a good saddle beast, when, however clever cross-country, he is absolutely ignorant of the first elements of the _manège_. He forgets that each is perfect in his own place and may be useless in the other's. I am the owner of a fine-bred mare, whom I have as yet had no opportunity to school. She is the perfect type of a twelve-stone hunter. After hounds she will attract the eye of the whole field for distinguished beauty, and ridden up to her capacity, can always be in the first flight. She has speed, endurance, and fine disposition, is as sound and hardy as a hickory stick, and in her place unsurpassed. Almost any of the horsemen of to-day's Modern Athens would select this mare in preference to Patroclus. And yet, a four-in-hand of her type, as she now is, Tantivy coach thrown in for make-weight, are not worth one Patroclus for real saddle work, because she has no conception of moderate gaits. She is bound to go twelve miles an hour if you let her out of a walk, or fret at the restraint. I can ride Patroclus twenty-five miles without fatigue. If I ride the mare ten miles, I come in tired, drenched with heat, and probably with my temper somewhat ruffled, while she has fretted to a lather more than once, and we have both been so hot during the entire ride that, if the day is raw, it has been dangerous to ease into a walk. If I ride Patroclus over the same ground in the same time, we shall both come in fresh as a daisy, dry, and each well-pleased with the other. While this mare can gallop fast and is easy and kind, a man must work his passage to make her canter a six-mile gait. She has no more ambition than Patroclus, but she does not curb it to the will of her rider. With a knowledge of all which, however, most of our young swells would select the mare for simple road-riding, because she looks so like a thoroughbred hunter, and rather suggests the impression that they habitually ride to hounds. As well saunter in the park in a pink coat and with "tops carefully dressed to the color of Old Cheddar." X. The _manège_ need not mean all the little refinements of training which, however delightful to the initiated, are unnecessary to comfort or safety. But no horse can be called a good saddle beast whose forehand and croup will not yield at once to the lightest pressure of rein or leg. Most horses will swing their forehands with some readiness, if not in a well-balanced manner. But not many are taught to swing the croup at all; very few can do so handily. The perfect saddle horse should be able to swing his croup about in a complete circle, of which one fore foot is the immovable centre, or his forehand about the proper hind foot, in either direction at will. He should come "in hand," that is, gather his legs well under him, so as to be on a perfect balance the moment you take up the reins and close your legs upon him. He should in the canter or gallop start with either foot leading, or instantly change foot in motion at the will of his rider. He should have easy, handy gaits, the more the better, if he can keep them distinct and true. These accomplishments, added to a light mouth and a temper of equal courage and moderation, or, in short, "manners," make that rare creature,--the perfect saddle horse. It is in this that the English err. In their perfect development of the hunter and the racer they neglect the training of the hack. Though it be heresy to the mania of the day to say so, it is none the less true that while you seek your bold as well as discreet and experienced cross-country rider in England, you must go to the Continent, or among the British cavalry, to find your accomplished horseman. It is the general impression among men who ride to hounds, and still more among men who pretend to do so, that leaping is the _ultima thule_ of equestrianism; and that a man who can sit a horse over a four-foot hurdle has graduated in the art of horsemanship. The corollary to this error is also an article of faith among men who hunt, that is, that no other class of riders can leap their horses boldly and well. But both ideas are as strange as they are mistaken. The cavalry of Prussia, Austria, and Italy show the finest of horsemanship. More than a quarter century ago, the author spent three years in Berlin under the tuition of a retired major-general of the Prussian army, and saw a great deal of the daily inside life, as well as the exceptional parade life, of the army. He has often seen a column of cavalry, with sabres drawn, ride across water which would bring half the Myopia Hunt to a stand-still on an ordinary run after hounds. Why should not men whose business it is to ride, do so well? Think you there was not good horsemanship at Vionville, when von Bredow (one of the author's old school friends, by the way) with his six squadrons, to enable Bruddenbrock to hold his position till the reinforcements of the Tenth Corps could reach him, rode into the centre of the Sixth French Corps d'Armée? In slender line, he and his men, three squadrons of the Seventh Cuirassiers, and three of the Sixteenth Uhlans, charged over the French artillery in the first line, the French infantry in line of battle, and reached the mitrailleuses and reserves in the rear, where they sabred the gunners at their guns. What though but thirteen officers and one hundred and fifty men out of near a thousand returned from that gallant ride? Though no Tennyson has sung their glorious deed, though we forget the willing courage with which they faced a certain sacrifice for the sake of duty to the Fatherland, think you those men rode not well, as a mere act of horsemanship? Think you that the handful of men of the Eighth Pennsylvania, at Chancellorsville, when they charged down upon Stonewall Jackson's victorious and elated legions, riding in column through the chapparal and over the fallen timber of the Wilderness, carving their path through thousands of the best troops who ever followed gallant leader, sat not firmly in their saddles? Think you that the men who followed Sheridan in many a gallant charge, or Fitz Hugh Lee, forsooth, could not ride as well as the best of us across a bit of turf, with a modest wall now and then to lend its zest to the pleasure? Neither we nor our British cousins can monopolize all the virtue of the world, even in the art equestrian. As there is no doubt that fox-hunting is one of the most inspiriting and manly of occupations, or that the English are preëminent in their knowledge of the art, so there is likewise no doubt that equally stout riders sit in foreign saddles. And though each would have to learn the other's trade, I fancy you could sooner teach a score or a hundred average cavalry officers of any nation to ride well across country, than an equal number of clever, fox-hunting Englishmen to do the mere saddle work of any well-drilled troops. Leaping is uniformly practiced and well-taught, in all regular cavalry regiments of every army with which I have been familiar in all parts of the world. XI. Well, Patroclus, you have earned your gallop. I loosen in the least my hold upon the reins, and shaking your head from very delight, off you go like the wind. Never could charger plunge into a mad gallop more quickly than you, Patroclus. Your stride is long, your gather quick, and the reserve power in your well-balanced movements so inspiring, that I would almost ride you at the Charles River, in the expectation that you would clear it. But the lane is all too short. Steady, sir, steady! and down you come in a dozen bounds to a gait from which you can fall into a walk at word. But what is that? A rustling in the woods beside us! That sounds indeed frightsome enough to make you start and falter. You are not devoid of fear, Patroclus. No high-couraged horse can ever be. But though you may tremble in every limb, if I speak to you, I may safely throw the reins upon your neck. So, boy! To face danger oftener insures safety than to run from it. To the right about, and let us see what it means. Steady, again! Now stand, and let it come. There, Patroclus, despite your snort of fear, it is only a couple of stray calves cutting their ungainly capers as they make their way towards home. Their bustle, like that of so many of the rest of us, far exceeds their importance. Was not this much better seen than avoided? You would have hardly liked this pleasant lane again had we not seen the matter through. I have never kept you in condition, Patroclus, to stand heavy bursts after hounds, or indeed any exceptionally long or sharp run. That means too much deprivation of your daily company. Nor indeed, be it confessed, is your master himself often in the condition requisite to do the sharpest work. It will generally be noticed that the clear eye and firm muscle of the rider is a factor in the problem of how to be in at the death, as well as the lungs and courage of the hunter. And yet, Patroclus, you are, within your limits, a model jumper, and always seem to have a spare leg. No horse delights more in being headed at a wall or ditch than you, even in cold blood. For any horse worthy the name will jump after a fashion in company. At the end of our lane we can take the short cut towards the great highway, over the gate and the little brook and hedge. As I talk to you, I can see that you catch my purpose, for as we draw near the place, the might of conscious strength seems to course through all your veins. Perhaps I have unwittingly settled into my seat as I thought of the four-foot gate. Here we are, and there is just enough bend in the road to ride at the gate with comfort. Head up, ears erect, eyes starting from out their sockets, no need to guide you towards it, my Patroclus! No excitement, no uncertainty, no flurry. You and I know how surely we are going over. A quiet canter, but full of elastic power, to within about fifty feet of the jump, and then a short burst, measuring every stride, till with a "Now boy!" as you approach the proper gather, I give you your head, and you go into the air like a swallow. Just a fraction of a second--how much longer it seems!--and we land cleverly, well together, and in three strides more you have fallen into a jog again. And now you look back, lest, perchance, the lump of sugar or Seckel pear which used to reward you when you were learning your lesson should be forthcoming now. But no, Patroclus, my good word and a kindly pat for your docility and strength must be your meed to-day. Canter along on the soft turf till we come to the little brook. We will call it a brook, and think of it as a big one, though it is barely eight feet wide. But never mind. We can jump thrice its width just as well as across it. Remember, Patroclus, water requires speed and well-set purpose, as height does clean discretion. At it, my boy! Take your own stride. There's lots of room this side and more on the other bank. "Harden your heart, and catch hold of the bridle, Steady him! Rouse him! Over he goes!" In the air again; this time it seems like a minute almost. There, Patroclus, if it had been twenty feet of water, you would not have known the odds. Now for the road and company. XII. The same reasoning may be applied to saddles as to gaits. To pull down a bull, the Texan must be furnished with a horn-pommel, which would have been highly dangerous to his rider if Patroclus had happened to come down over the gate just leaped. Indeed, nothing but the flattest of saddles is safe to the steeple-chaser. On the contrary, the soldier rides a trot, or uses his sabre to much better advantage with a cantle sufficiently high to lean against. And any man is liable to have some physical conformation requiring a peculiar saddle. [Illustration: PLATE V. AN EASY CANTER.] The present generation of new-fledged riders would fain tie us down to the English hunting-seat by laws like the Medes and Persians. This is a good pattern for our Eastern needs, but let us not call it the only one. It is, of course, well when in Rome to do as the Romans do, or at least so nearly like them as not to provoke remark. But every one cannot do this, and the old trooper is not apt to ride this way. And yet, there are thousands of ancient cavalry soldiers all over this country, North and South, who, naked weapon in hand, have done such feats of horsemanship as would shame most of the stoutest of to-day's fox-hunting, polo-playing riders. I do not refer to the obstacles they used to ride at,--which meant a vast deal more than merely an ugly tumble over a three-foot stone wall; I refer to their stout seats in the saddle, and the rough ground they were wont to cover when they rode down upon and over a belching wall of fire. For all which, whenever we see one of these old troopers out for a ride, modestly (for he is always modest) airing his army saddle, strong curb, and long and hooded stirrups, we may, perchance, notice the jeer of the stripling, whose faultless dress and bang-tailed screw are but a sham which hides his lack of heart. It always gives one's soul a glow of pride to see the well-known seat, and one is fain tempted to ride up to the old comrade and grasp him by the hand. A thorough rider will recognize his equal under any garb. It is pretense alone which merits a rebuke. You cannot make a poor rider a good one by mounting him in a fashionable saddle, any more than you can make a worthless brute a good horse by giving his tail the latest dock. XIII. Until within no great time the modified military seat has been the one which formed the basis of instruction. The riding-master, I presume, still insists, with civilian and recruit alike, on feet parallel with the horse, heels down, toes in, knee grip, and a hold of reins utterly unknown in the hunting-field. And with a certain reason, though indeed the old whip's rule of "'eels and 'ands down, 'ead and 'eart 'igh," is the whole of the story, after all. For the man who begins with a knee grip will never forget what his knees are for, and will not, like the good little dude we passed a while ago, show daylight between them and the saddle-flap at every rise. But the knee grip alone will not suffice for all occasions, despite our military or riding-school friends. A madly plunging horse or a big leap will instinctively call out a grip with all the legs a man can spare. Moreover, the closer you keep your legs to the horse without clasping him, the better. Go into the hunting-field or over a steeple-chase course, and you will find that the inside of your boot-tops--and not only yours, but every other jockey's as well--have been rubbed hard and constantly against the saddle. There lies the proof. At West Point, and in fact at every military school, the cadets are sometimes practiced to ride with a scrap of paper held to the saddle by the knee while they leap a bar, and at the same time thrust or cut with the sabre at a convenient dummy foe. I have seen a silver dollar so held between the knee and saddle. But the bar is not a succession of high stone walls, nor is the cadet riding a burst of several miles. And with a longer stirrup it is more natural to keep the foot parallel with the horse's side. To-day, the best riders do not so hold their feet. Cross-country a man certainly does not. The proof is forthcoming at the Country Club on any race-day, or at every meet here or in England, that a man riding over an obstacle of any size will use all the legs he can without digging his spurs into his horse's flanks, in a way he could not do with the feet parallel to the horse's sides. The modern dispensation differs from the old one in not being tied to the military seat. The Rev. Sydney Smith objected to clergymen riding, but modified his disapproval in those cases when they "rode very badly and turned out their toes." A generation ago, a man was always thinking of the position of his feet, as he cares not to do to-day, if he sits firmly in the saddle, and boasts light hands. XIV. While on this subject, one cannot refrain from indulging in a friendly laugh at the attempt to bend our unreasonable Eastern weather to the conditions of a fox-hunting climate. The hunting season is that time of the year when the crops are out of the ground. In England, during the winter months, the weather is open and moist, and the soft ground makes falling "delightfully easy," as dear old John Leech has it. And the little hedges and ditches of some of the good hunting counties, or indeed the ox-fences and grassy fields of Leicestershire, are such as to make a day out a positive pound of pleasure, with scarce an ounce of danger to spice it, if you choose to ride with moderation. For the best rider in the Old Country is not the hare-brained cockney who risks both his horse's and his own less valuable neck in the field; it is he who chooses discreetly his course, and makes headway with the least exertion to his hunter compatible with his keeping a good place in the field. The man who appreciates how jumping takes strength out of a horse, or who is any judge of pace, is apt to save, not risk him. Few men willingly jump an obstacle which they can readily avoid without too much delay. Read the legends of the famous hunting-men of England, and you will find discretion always outranking valor. Any fool can ride at a dangerous obstacle. Courage of that kind is a common virtue. But it takes a make-up of quite a different nature to be in, as a rule, at the death. How many five-barred gates will a man jump when he can open them? How much water will he face when there is a bridge near by? Does not every one dismount in hilly countries to ease his horse? A good rider must be ready to throw his heart over any obstacle possible to himself and his horse, when he cannot get round it. But a discreet horseman puts his horse only at such leaps as he must take, or which will win him a distinct advantage. England is naturally a hunting country. But here, Lord save the mark! there are no foxes to speak of. Scent won't lie, as a general thing, with the thermometer below thirty (though scent is one of those mysterious things which only averages according to rules, and every now and then shows an unaccountable exception), and the obstacles are snake fences or stone walls with lumpy, frozen ground to land on, or, belike, a pile of bowlders or a sheet of ice. A bad fall means potentially broken bones or a ruined horse, and while you are beating cover for the fox who won't be found, you are shaking with the cold, and your clipped or over-heated beast is sowing the seeds of lung-fever. You, Patroclus, were once laid up five months by landing on a snag the further side of a most harmless-looking stone wall, and tearing out some of the coronal arteries. There are plenty of good horseback sports without a resort to what is clearly out of the latitude. If you wait for good hunting weather, the crops interfere with your sport, and our farmers have not the English inducement to welcome the hunt across the fields, tilled at the sweat of their brow. In the South, both weather and much waste land make fox-hunting more easy to carry on. But even there it does not thrive. Here in the East it will not be made indigenous. Not but what, on a bright sunny day, a meet at which equine admirers can show their neat turn-outs and glossy steeds and discuss horseflesh in the general and the particular is a delightful experience. And indeed, wherever crops and covers do not monopolize the country, a good drag-hunt may often be had before cold weather mars the sport. Perchance, in time, Reynard may take up his abode with us, when vulpicide shall be punished by real ostracism. For has not the Ettrick Shepherd proven conclusively that Reynard loves the chase? But far from underrating the caged fox or anise-seed bag, hare and hounds would seem to afford the better sport. For the hares, an they will, can carry you across a country where each one can choose his own course, instead of being obliged to follow a leader through wood-paths, and through second growth which is all but jungle, where, if one happens to blunder at an obstacle, your follower will come riding down atop of you, and where you are bound to be "nowhere" unless you get away with the first half-dozen men. But spite of all its drawbacks, Patroclus, you and I enjoy in equal measure a run under fair conditions as much as the best of them. And let us hope the hunting fever will be kept up in healthy fashion, for we two can select our weather, and we are not afraid of our reputation if we drop out before the finish. This kind of work soon shakes our novices into the saddle, and its many excellencies far outweigh its few absurdities. Let him who runs it down try rather a run with the pack some sunny day. If he does not find it manly sport, and stout hearts in the van of the field, he can tell us why thereafter. The outcome of to-day's riding mania is well ahead of the young men's billiard-playing and bar-drinking of twenty years ago. XV. There are good riders in every land and in every species of saddle. Facts are the best arguments. The North American Indian and the follower of the Prophet each performs his prodigies of horsemanship, the one bareback with hanging leg, the other in a peaked saddle with knee all but rubbing his nose. Whoso has laughed over Leech's sketches of Mossoo, who makes a _promenade à cheval_, or indeed has watched him in the Bois, is fain to doubt that a Frenchman can ride well. And yet he does. Was not Baucher the father of fine horsemanship? A rough and tumble, plucky rider, or one who is experienced and discreet after hounds as well, is more frequently found in Great Britain; a highly skilled equestrian (is the author nearing a hornet's nest?) in France, or elsewhere across the Channel. But we naturally must seek the Continental rider in the camp, for is not the Continent itself one vast camp? It is perhaps hard to decide whether the cavalry officer who is master of the intricacies of the _manège_ or the country gentleman who has won a reputation with the Pytchley or the Belvoir may be properly called the more accomplished horseman. Each in his place is unequaled. But is it not true, that the former can more quickly adapt himself to the habits of hunting than the latter to those of the Haute Ecole? And do not the methods of the School give us more capacity for enjoying our daily horseback exercise, than any amount of experience with hounds? XVI. It is sometimes said in England that a School-rider reining in his steed never looks as if he were having a thoroughly good time, as does the man who lets his horse go his own inspiriting gait along the road. But why not? Is inspiration only found in excess of physical motion? If so, to use an exaggerated comparison, why does not Paddy at Donnybrook Fair, trailing his coat and daring some one to tread on the tail of it, enjoy himself more thoroughly than the man who quietly plays a game of chess or whist? Or to use a more nearly equal simile, may not a man find as great enjoyment in a skilled game of tennis, as in the violent rushes of foot-ball, where two hundred and twenty pounds of mere blubber will assuredly bear down all the prowess and aptness of his own say one hundred and forty? It is as certain that the pleasure of riding a trained horse is greater than that of merely sitting a vigorously moving untrained one, as that the delight of intellectual study exceeds the excitement of trashy reading. _Omne ignotum pro magnifico_ seems not to be uniformly true, for riders unfamiliar with the training of the High School almost as invariably run down its methods, as self-made business men are apt to discountenance a college education as a preliminary discipline for the struggles of life. It is a fact that no man who has once been a School-rider ever abandons either the knowledge he has gained or its constant practice. No one can underrate the pleasure of simple motion upon a vigorous horse. But the School-rider has this in equal degree with the uneducated horseman, coupled with a feeling of control and power and ability to perform which the mere man on horseback never attains. Moreover, all the powers of the School-rider's horse are within the grasp of his hand; and that the powers of the high-strung steed of the average equestrian are all too often resident mainly in the animal itself is shown by the chapter of accidents daily reiterated in the news-columns. The School-man is apt to ride more moderately, and to indulge in a bracing gallop less frequently, because to him the pleasure of slow and rhythmic movement on a fleet and able horse is far greater than mere rapidity can ever be; the untrained rider resorts to speed because this is the one exhilaration within the bounds of his own or his horse's knowledge. I do not wish to be understood as advocating the School habit of _always_ keeping a horse collected. However much for some purposes I admire it, I do not practice it. I often saunter off a half-dozen miles without lifting the rein, while Patroclus wanders at his own sweet will. I often trot or gallop at my nag's quite unrestrained gait. But if I want to collect him, if I want that obedience which the School teaches him to yield, he must, to be to me a perfect horse, at my slightest intimation give himself absolutely to my control, and take all his art from me. I feel that I am a good judge of either habit of riding, as I have well tried both, and absolutely adhere to neither. I pretend by no means, in School-riding, to have carried my art so far as to be even within hail of the great masters of equitation; but I have not for many years been without one or more horses educated in all the School airs which are applicable to road-riding, and I know their value and appreciate it. Because, then, the cowboy is nowhere in the hunting-field; or because the hard-riding squire and M. F. H. cannot drop to the further side of his horse while he shoots at his galloping enemy, or pick up a kerchief from the ground at a smart gallop; or because the Frenchman has to learn his racing trade from an English jockey, it will not do to say that each is not among the best of horsemen, or that either is better than the other. The style of riding is always the outgrowth of certain conditions of necessity or pleasure, and invariably fits those conditions well. With us in the East the English habit is no doubt the most available; but it can only be made the test of our own needs or fashions, not of general equestrianism. XVII. While all this has been buzzing through your master's brain, you, Patroclus, knowing full well that the loosely hanging rein has meant liberty within reason to yourself, have wandered away to the nearest thicket, and begun to crop the tender leaves and shoots as peacefully as you please. To look at your quiet demeanor at this moment one would scarcely think that you were such a bundle of nerves. You can be as sedate as Rosinante till called upon. But when the bit plays in your mouth, you are as full of life and action as the steeds of Diomed with flowing manes. Your eye and ear are an index to your mood, and you reflect your rider's wish in every step. No man ever bestrode a more generous beast than you. Do you remember, Patroclus, the days when you carried your little twelve-year-old mistress, and how her first lessons in fine equitation were taken in your company? And cleverly did she learn indeed. Do you remember how we used to put you on your honor, though you were only a five-year-old and dearly loved to romp and play? Ay, Patroclus, and fairly did you answer the appeal! With the gentle burden on your broad, strong back, her golden-red hair streaming behind her in the breeze from under her jaunty hat, you would have ridden through fire, my beauty, rather than betray your trust. However tempted to a bound, or however startled at some fearsome thing, one word--a "Quiet, Pat!"--from that soft girlish voice, now hushed for both of us, would never fail to keep you kind and steady. And you were ever willing, with even more than your accustomed alacrity, to perform your airs at the slightest encouragement of the soft hands and gentle voice; and having done so would lay back your ears and shake your head with very pleasure at the rippling laughter in which your pretty rider's thanks were wont to be expressed. I knew, Patroclus, that in your care the little maid was quite as safe as with her doll at home. [Illustration: PLATE VI. A TEN-MILE TROT.] XVIII. And now a word about the horse in action, as shown by instantaneous photography, and about the war waged between artists and photographers. Some disciples of Muybridge would fain have the artist depict an animal in an ungainly attitude, because the lens is apt to catch him at a point in his stride which looks ungainly, there being many more such points than handsome ones. It is the moving creature which we admire. The poetry of motion is rarely better seen than in a proudly stepping horse. But arrest that motion and you are apt to have that which the human eye can neither recognize nor delight itself withal. Arrested motion rarely suggests the actual motion we aim to depict. The lens will show you every spoke of a rapidly revolving wheel, as if at rest. The eye, or the artist, shows you a blur of motion. And so with other objects. The lens works in the hundredth part of a second; the eye is slower far. To a certain extent photography, _quoad_ art, is wrong and the limner is right. There are some horses which possess a very elegant carriage. In their action there are certain periods--generally those at which one fore and one hind leg are slowing up at the limit of their forward stride--when the eye catches an agreeable impression which is capable of being reduced to canvas,--though it is after all the proud motion itself which pleases, and this can only be suggested. Now, photography robs you of almost all the suggestiveness of the horse's action, unless you select only those photographs which approach the action caught by the human eye. Even after long study of the Muybridge silhouettes, the artistic lover of the horse feels that he must reject all but a small percentage of these wonderful anatomical studies. If there are periods in the horse's stride which are agreeable to the eye, why should the artist not select these for delineation? Why indeed does his art not bind him to do so? * * * * * You, Patroclus, are peculiarly elegant in motion. It is difficult to pick a flaw in the symmetry of your gaits. Slow or fast, fresh or tired, your motion is always proud and graceful. And yet out of many photographs, few suggest your action at all, fewer still even passably; none convey to its full extent what all your intimates well know. * * * * * To photograph well, a horse must have a good deal, but not an excessive amount of action, and with unquestioned grace of curves. The reason why horses in very rapid motion photograph illy is to be found in the too extreme curves described by their legs in the powerful strides of great speed, any position in which, arrested by the lens, looks exaggerated,--sprawling. The reason why, on the other hand, the photograph of a daisy-clipper moving slowly looks tame is the lack of action to suggest the motion which the eye follows in real life. Many of the best performers are plain in action. Some of the most faultless movers, so far as results or form are concerned, even when agreeable to the eye, will show unsightly photographs. Let any one who desires to test this matter have a half-dozen instantaneous photographs of his pet saddle beast taken. He will surely be convinced that a horse must be extremely handsome in motion to give even a passable portrait. If he gets one picture in four which shows acceptably, he may be sure that he owns a good-looking nag. Among the silhouettes in the Stanford Book, scarcely one in twenty shows a handsome outline. This seems to be owing, as above explained, to the speed exhibited in almost all the performances; and in the slow gaits, to the want of action in the subjects. Still, if the pictures had shown the light and shade which instantaneous photography is now able to give, many of the plates would have made artistic pictures. There are certainly many minutiæ in which the artist can learn from the photograph. To give an instance: before reaching the ground, the leg in every gait must be stiffened, and the bottom of the foot brought parallel to the surface traveled over, or a stumble will ensue. This, at first blush, may look awkward; but it is not really so. The artist often forgets that a horse must sustain his weight on stiff legs, and that these straighten from their graceful curves to the supporting position in regular gradation, and reach this position just before the foot comes down. Some in other respects most attractive sketches fail in this. Often one sees the picture of an otherwise handsomely moving horse whose fetlock joint of the foot just being planted is so bent forward as to make a drop inevitable. This is certainly without the domain of true art. The origin of such drawing lies probably in the fact that the eye catches the bent rather than the straight position of the fetlock, because the former occurs when the foot is higher above the ground, while the latter position is not so noticeable as being more out of the line of sight. But such stumbling pictures are as much a worry to the horseman's eye as the ugliest of the Muybridge gallopers is to the artist's; and they are wholly unnecessary. There are many such minor points of criticism of the usual artistic work, which the artists should not deem beyond consideration. It is quite possible to make the truthful and the artistic go hand in hand. Except, perhaps, in the gallop. This most disheartening gait _will_ not be reduced to what we have been taught to like. There is but one of the five "times" of the gallop which suggests even tolerable speed,--the one when all four feet are in the air and gathered well under the horse. At the instant when one of the hind legs is reaching forward to land, there is sometimes a suggestion of great speed and vigor. But the successive stilted strides when the straightened legs in turn assume the body's weight oppress the very soul of the lover of the Racing Plates. It must fain be left to the wisest heads, and perhaps better to time, to bring daylight from this darkness. The late John Leech, as far back as the forties, essayed to draw running horses as his very keen eye showed him that they really looked; but he was laughed out of the idea, and thenceforth stuck to the artist's quadruped, though he had been, in his new departure, much more nearly approaching anatomy than any one was then aware. And thirty years ago, on Epsom Downs, it was revealed to the author, as it has no doubt been to thousands of others, that it is the gathered and not the spread position of the racer which is impressed upon the eye. This is most clearly shown by watching the distant horses through a glass. But still we stick to the anatomically impossible spread-eagle stride of the turf, and feel that it conveys the idea of speed which is not compassed by the set _fac-similes_ of photography. It has been alleged that a horse never does, nor can take the spread position of the typical racer of the artist. This is true enough, for he never does extend himself to so great a degree. But at one part of the leap he may do this very thing, though by no means to the extent usually depicted (see Plate XI.). It is, however, certain that he cannot do so at all in the gallop. At the only time when all his feet are off the ground in this gait, they are all close together under his girths. At all other times there are one or more feet on the ground, with legs straight, and at greater or less inclination to the body. From front to rear the legs move almost like the spokes of a wheel. What the pictures of the turf in the future may be it is hard indeed to say. And yet, the longer one examines the many hundred silhouettes of running horses, so well grouped for anatomical study in the Stanford Book, the more reconciled to what there is of truth in them one may become. Many years ago, I sat during the forenoon in the Turner Room of the National Gallery in London, in the company of a friend, herself no mean artist, and of decidedly strong artistic taste and correct judgment, whose ideas of Turner had been founded solely on what she had read, or seen and heard in America, and whose prejudice against his apparently overwrought work was excessive. For a full hour few words were passed. Then, rising to go: "If I sit here any longer, I shall end by liking the man!" quoth she. It seems to me that the power in these Muybridge photographs grows upon you. It is universally acknowledged that one does not see the running horse as he is usually drawn; in other words, that the artist's run is incorrect. Now, if the retina has anything impressed upon it, it must assuredly be either one of the positions actually taken by the galloping animal, or else a mere blur of motion. The artist draws a blurred wheel because he sees it blurred, and it suggests rapid motion. But he will not draw blurred legs, because such drawing will not suggest what he desires to convey in his picture. And yet, if he is true to what his eye has seen, he must draw some of the positions the horse has been in, and not positions which he cannot by any possibility have passed through in this gait. I take it for granted that the eye catches the gathered positions, and these are the ones in which the horse is entirely in the air, with his legs under his girths, and with hind feet reaching forward to land. Why should not the artist draw these positions, in their thousand variations, in lieu of the one single impossible position now universally in vogue? Without alleging that he should do so, will the artist tell me why he should not? For unless it be assumed that the usually drawn position is a sort of geometrical resultant of the rapid series of positions passed through, and is hence adopted because the eye mathematically and unconsciously reduces these positions to the resultant, where is the truth which the artist aims to produce? For I understand art to be the reproduction of what the eye can see, or at least its close suggestion. And though there may be room to doubt what the eye may see, there is no room to doubt what the horse actually does in the gallop. It is probable that the spread-eagle position is a mere outgrowth of the canter, which in a slight degree approximates to the action of the artist's run, and that the latter has been exaggerated as a means of conveying the idea of increased speed. I have yet heard no allegation that the eye catches any but the gathering positions of the horse's gallop. Now, given this, given an artist equal to and interested in the task, and the anatomical results of photography, and it would seem as if a sincere desire to reconcile the eye with positions which the retina must certainly catch as the horse bounds by might evoke more satisfactory results. Here is a life-work worthy of the best of animal painters. Who will take it up? I plead for "more light." XIX. To return to our muttons, it is not too much to aver that any well-trained horse knows much more than the average good equestrian. It requires a light and practiced hand to evoke Patroclus' highest powers. He has never refused an obstacle with his master, or failed to clear what he fairly went at. But the least uncertainty betrayed in the hand, and Patroclus knows something is wrong, and acts accordingly. I learned a good lesson about spoiling him for my own comfort not long ago, when asked the privilege of riding him over a few hurdles on my lawn by a friend who had an excellent seat in the saddle, but liked, and had been used to a horse who seized hold of the bridle. Patroclus took the first, but to my own and my friend's surprise quite refused the second, and could by no means be persuaded to face it. On my friend's yielding me the saddle, I mounted, and walked Patroclus up to the hurdle with a firm word of encouragement; and though he wavered, he took it on a standing jump. The slight reward of a tuft of grass and a pat made him do better on the second trial, but for weeks afterwards he was nervous at that particular hurdle, though at anything else he went with his accustomed nerve. My friend and I were both unaware of how his hands had erred, but the horse's fine mouth had felt it. Patroclus is essentially a one-man horse. He will always serve well for the wage of kindness, but it would take a hard taskmaster but a short week to transform him into the semblance of the Biblical wild ass's colt. He will change his gaits at will from any one to any other. But his rider's hands must be steady and as skilled as his own soft mouth, or how can the lesser mind comprehend? He may, at the bidding of uncertain reins, change from gait to gait and foot to foot, seeking to satisfy his ignorant rider, who, meanwhile, unable to catch his meaning, will dub him a stupid, restless brute. A well-trained horse needs an equally well-trained rider. XX. There are two kinds of "perfectly trained" saddle horses. One is the well-drilled cow of the riding-schools, fit only to give instruction to class after class of beginners, and who is safe because worked beyond his courage and endurance. The other is the School-horse, of perfect vigor and fine manners, who is obedient to the slightest whim of the clever rider, but who is so entire an enigma to the untrained one, that he is unable to ride him at even his quiet gaits. One of my friends in Touraine used in his youth to be a pupil of the famous Baucher. He once told me how, at the instigation of his classmates, he begged hard for many days to be allowed to ride the master's favorite horse, with whom he was apt to join his higher classes. My friend flattered himself that he could manage any horse, as he had long ridden under Baucher's instruction. As an example to the class, the master finally gave way. But the experiment was short. My friend soon found that he was so much less accomplished than the high-strung beast that he was utterly unable to manage or control him, much less to perform any of the School airs, and he was by no means sorry when his feat of equitation was terminated by so dangerous a rear that Baucher deemed it wise to come to the rescue. My friend's hands, though well-drilled, were so much less delicate than the horse's mouth, that the latter had at first mistaken some peculiar unsteadiness as the indication for a _pirouette_, to which he had obediently risen; but then, on feeling some additional unsteadiness of the reins, he had, in his uncertainty and confusion, reared quite beyond control. Yet under the master this horse's habit of obedience was so confirmed that he was apparently as moderate as any courageous horse should be, though actually of a hyper-nervous character. Nothing but time will make a thorough horseman; but a few months will make a tolerable horseman of any man who has strength, courage, intelligence, and good temper. If a man confines his ambition to a horse whom he can walk, trot, and canter on the road in an unbalanced manner, and who will jump an ordinary obstacle, so as to follow the hounds over easy country, it needs but little time and patience to break in both man and beast to this simple work. If a man wants what the High School calls a saddle beast, a full half year's daily training is essential for the horse, and to give this the man must have had quite thrice as much himself. Fix the standard at an 'alf and 'alf 'unter and your requirements are soon met. Raise the standard of education to a horse well-balanced, who is always ready to be collected and always alert to his rider's wants and moods, and who can do any work well, and you need much more in both teacher, pupil, and rider. No horse can be alike perfect in the field and in the park. But the well-trained road horse can always hunt within the bounds prescribed by his condition, speed, and jumping ability; the finest hunter is apt to be either a nuisance on the road or too valuable for such daily work. It will not do to quote this as an invariable rule. But it certainly has few exceptions. [Illustration: PLATE VII. RISING AT A HURDLE.] Moreover, a hunter requires many weeks to be got into fine condition, and can then perform well not exceeding half a dozen days a month, and needs a long rest after the season. And it is not the average man who is happy enough to own a stable so full or to boast such ample leisure as to tax his horseflesh to so very slight an extent. XXI. But what is that, Patroclus? Up goes your head, your lively ears pricked out, with an inquisitive low-voiced whinny. What is it you sniff upon the softly-moving air? Well, well, I know. That neigh and again a neigh betrays you. As sure as fate it is one of your stable-mates coming along the road. Perhaps our young friend Tom, upon his new purchase, Penelope. We will go and see, at all events. I never found you wrong, and I never knew your delicate nose to fail to sniff a friend before the eye could catch him, or your pleasant whinny fail to speak what you had guessed as well. Sure enough, there he comes and Nell has heard you too. Both Tom and she are out for the lesson which either gives the other. Now for a sociable tramp and chat in the company you like so well. And you and I will try to give Penelope and Master Tom a few hints which he has often asked, and of which all young horses and riders are apt to stand in need. XXII. Good-morrow, Tom, and how are you, sleek Nelly? A fine day this for a tramp. Patroclus sniffed you a long way off, and now is happy to rub his nose on Nelly's neck, while she, forsooth, much as she likes the delicate attention, lays back her ears with a touch-me-not expression characteristic of the high-bred of her sex. A lucky dog are you to throw your leg across such a dainty bit of blood! You, Tom, are one of numberless young men who want to learn that which they have not the patience to study out of technical books and will hardly acquire in a riding-school; who, in other words, rather than learn on tan-bark, have preferred to purchase a horse and teach themselves. A man may do well in a school or on a horse hired in a school, and yet not know how to begin the training of a horse which has been only broken in to drive, as most of our American colts are, however eager to improve him for the saddle. Let us compare notes as we saunter along the road. Do not understand me to depreciate the value of riding-schools, nor the training which they inculcate. On the contrary, School-training carried far enough and properly given is just what I do advocate. But between the riding-school and School-riding, there is a great gulf fixed. The capital letter is advisedly used. A horse which has been given a good mouth, and has been taught as far as the volte and demi-volte, simple and reversed (though indeed the riding-school volte and the volte of the Haute Ecole are different things), certainly knows a fairish amount, and may be able to teach his rider much of what he knows. But riding in a school is not road-riding, although a school-horse may have profited well by his education. Leaping a school hurdle is not riding to hounds. A thoroughly good riding-school horse may be a very brute when in the park. Perfect manners within four walls may disappear so soon as the horse gets a clear mile ahead of him. Assuredly, it is well enough to learn the rudiments at a good riding-school. But if you ever want to become a thorough horseman and have equally good horses, study the art for yourself,--there is no mystery about it,--and learn what a horse should know and how to teach him. When you have done this, you will have a satisfactory saddle beast. If you expect a groom or a riding-school master to train your horses for you, you will not have a perfect mouth or good manners once in a hundred times. If the master is expert, he will be too busy to do your horses full justice short of an exorbitant honorarium. The groom is, as a rule, both ignorant and impatient, if not brutal. XXIII. I know of no better foundation for a man to begin upon than the breaking-in to harness, which an American horse has usually received at the hands of an intelligent farmer, before he is brought to the city for sale. Starting with the horse, then, say at five years old, if you will learn how to give him his saddle education, and do it yourself, you will have, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, a better saddle beast in six months than any groom can, or any riding-master is apt to make. There is somewhat of a tendency among the English, and much more among their American imitators, to decry as unnecessary the training of horses beyond a mouth somewhat short of leather and two or three easy road gaits; or, in hunters, the capacity to do well cross-country. But there is vastly more to be said on the side of High School training. By a three months' School course stubborn horses may be made tractable, dangerous horses rendered comparatively safe, uncomfortable brutes easy and reliable. Vices may be cured, stumbling may be made far less dangerous, if the habit cannot be eradicated, physical defects, unfitting a horse for saddle work, may often be overcome, and the general utility of the average horse vastly increased. All this, and much more, may be done, without touching upon the gain in ease to the rider, the pleasure to be derived when both man and beast are enabled to work in unison, the ability schooling gives to the weakest hand to hold the most high-strung horse, and the great variety of motions, speeds, and paces which may be taught to subserve the comfort and delight of the rider. Whoso will claim that the reader of the last French play enjoys as great a privilege and pleasure as the student of Hamlet, or that the day laborer is the equal of the skilled artisan, may deny the utility of schooling the horse for saddle work. No reference is here intended to be made to racing-stock, or to hunters kept as such. These stand in a class by themselves, requiring different aptitudes and treatment. An interesting proof of the general value of training has been recently developed in the Sixth U.S. Cavalry, stationed in New Mexico. In some of the troops the horses have been drilled to lie down and allow the men to fire over them,--a most valuable bit of discipline, peculiarly suited to Indian warfare. From the course of training necessary to bring about this end has resulted an unexpected but very natural docility in the horses, which are Californian bronchos, and a poor class of animal. Horses formerly considered dangerous have become quite gentle, and the entire condition of the command has been changed. So far as the belief goes that what are called the High School airs are unessential, it is easy to agree with the English opinion; but it is clear that the saddle horse should have far more training than he generally receives in England, and certainly than he receives here. It would seem that the better position lies midway between the Haute Ecole of the Continent and the half and half training of Great Britain. I do not mean to imply that there are not many beautifully trained saddle beasts in England. You see in Rotten Row, among a vast lot of brutes, probably more fine mounts than you will find in any other known resort of fashion, more than anywhere in the world outside of cavalry barracks. But the ordinary run of English hacks are taught to trot and canter, and there their training ceases. And so entirely is the education of horses left to grooms and riding-masters, that even the most elaborate English works on equitation, while they say that a horse should be taught to do thus and so, and give excellent instructions for riding a trained horse, afford no clue to the means of training. On the other hand, the High School manuals go far beyond what most men have patience to follow or a desire to learn, excellent as such an education may be for both horse and rider. I should be sorry indeed to be understood to underrate the horsemanship of England. I do not suppose that the excellence and universality of the equestrianism of Englishmen has any more sincere admirer than myself. But it is true that equitation as an art exists only among the military experts of the Old Country, and that the training of English horses is not carried beyond bare mediocrity among civilians for road work. For racing or hunting, the English system is perfect. The burden of my song is that we Americans shall not too closely imitate one single English style for all purposes. If we will truly imitate the best English methods, each in its appropriate place, and not pattern ourselves solely on the fox-hunting type, we shall do well enough; though in riding, as in all the arts, it is wisest, as well as most American, to look for models in every direction, and select the best to follow. What I wish to protest against is the dragging of the hunting-field into the park, and what I wish to urge is the higher education of--horses. One has only to go back to the thirties in England to find all the niceties of the Haute Ecole in full bloom. Not only the young swells, but the old politicians and the celebrated generals, used to go "titupping" down the Row, passaging, traversing, and piaffing to the admiration of all beholders. But the age which, in the race for the greatest good to the greatest number, has brought about simplicity in men's dress, and has reduced oratory to mere conversation; which has given the layman the right to abuse the church, and the costermonger the privilege of running down royalty, has changed all this. And as we have doubtless gone too far in many directions, in our desire to make all men free and equal, may we not have also gone too far in discarding some of the refinements of equestrianism? And is it not true, and pity, that the old-fashioned outward courtesy to women (for the courtesy of the heart, _Dieu merci_, always remains to us), whose decrease is unhappily so apparent to-day, and among the young is being supplanted by a mere _camaraderie_, is being swept from our midst by the same revulsion towards the extremely practical, which has discarded the beruffled formalities of our forebears and the high airs of equitation? We have, in the East, been so imbued with an imitative mania of the hunting style of England, that if one rides a horse on any other than an open, or indeed an all but disjointed walk, trot, or canter, he is thought to be putting on airs, in much the same measure as if he should dress in an unwarranted extreme of fashion upon the street. But if we are to ape the English, why not permit on Commonwealth Avenue--or by and by, we trust, the Park--what is daily seen in Rotten Row? No one who has tasted it can deny the exhilarating pleasure given you by a horse who is fresh enough to bound out of the road at any instant, who conveys to you in every stride that glorious sense of power which only a generous heart as well as supple muscles ever yield, and who is yet well enough schooled to rein down to a five-mile canter, with his haunches well under him; while, though he is burning with eagerness to plunge into a gallop, he curbs his ambition to your mood, and rocks you in the saddle with that gentle combination of strength and ease to which an uneducated gait is no more to be compared than Pierce's cider (good as it is in its place) to Mumm's Cordon Rouge. When one is riding for the pleasure of riding, why not use all the art which will add zest to your pleasure, rather than aim to give the impression that you are sauntering to cover, well ahead of time, and don't want to tire your horse, because you expect to tax him severely during the day with the Myopia beagles across the pretty country near Weld Farm? A celebrated English horseman says: "The park-hack should have, with perfection of graceful form, graceful action, an exquisite mouth, and perfect manners." "He must be intelligent, for without intelligence even with fine form and action he can never be pleasant to ride." "The head should be of the finest Oriental type; the neck well arched, but not too long." "The head should be carried in its right place, the neck gracefully arched. From the walk he should be able to bound into any pace, in perfectly balanced action, that the rider may require." And yet such a horse, though esteemed a prize in Rotten Row, would be all but tabooed on the streets of Boston, because he is not the type of a fine performer to hounds. XXIV. There are so many manuals of the equestrian art from which any aspiring and patient student of equitation may derive the information requisite to become an expert horseman, that beyond a few hints for the benefit of those who, like you, Tom, know nothing and want to learn a little about the niceties of horseback work, it would be presumptuous to go. If a man desires to learn how to train a horse thoroughly, he must go back to Baucher, or to some of Baucher's pupils. All the larger works which cover training contain the elements of the Baucher system. The recent work of Colonel E. L. Anderson, late of General George H. Thomas' staff, written in England and published by David Douglas of Edinburgh, is a most excellent work. I have found as a rule that abstruse written explanations are very difficult to understand. In a recent excellent book on riding-school training (not School-riding mind you), though I know perfectly well what the riding-school volte and demi-volte are, as well as the School-volte and demi-volte, simple and reversed, I have read certain paragraphs dozens of times, without being able to make the words mean what the movement really is. Colonel Anderson's book is very clear, though it goes fully into the refinements of the art, except the quasi-circus tricks and airs, and from it, with time and patience, a man can make himself an accomplished rider and his steed equal to any work--outside the sawdust ring. But you, Tom, do not aspire to go so far in the training of Penelope. XXV. You must not suppose that a man who teaches his horse all the airs of the Haute Ecole constantly uses them, any more than an eminent divine is always in the act of preaching, or a _prima donna assoluta_ is at all times warbling or practicing chromatic scales, when each ought to be engaged in the necessary but prosaic details of life. The best results of School-training lie in the ability of the horse and rider to do plain and simple work in the best manner. Because a horse can traverse or perform the Spanish trot, his rider need not necessarily make him traverse or passage past the window of his inamorata, while he himself salutes her with the air of a grandee of Aragon. For this would no doubt be bad style for a modern horseman in front of a Beacon Street mansion; though truly it might be eminently proper, as well as an interesting display of horsemanship, for the same rider to traverse past his commanding general while saluting at a review on Boston Common. Nor because a horse can perform the reversed pirouette with perfect exactness will a School-rider stop in the middle of a park road and parade the accomplishment. But this same reversed pirouette is for all that the foundation of everything that a well-trained horse should be able to do, and if he knows it, he is ready to make use of it at all times for the greater ease, safety, and pleasure of his master. [Illustration: PLATE VIII. FLYING A HURDLE.] You may ask of what use it can ever be. Suppose you were riding with a lady, on her left,--which is the safe and proper, if not the fashionable side,--and her saddle should begin to turn, say toward you, as it is most apt to do. If your horse minds the indication of your leg, you can keep him so close to your companion's as to afford her suitable assistance, even to the extent of bodily lifting her clear of her saddle. If your horse is only half trained, you cannot, perhaps, bring him to the position where you want him in season to be of any service at all. Have you never seen a man who was trying to open a gate at which a score of impatient, not to say objurgatory, riders were waiting, while the field was disappearing over the hills and far away, and who could neither get at it nor out of the way, because his crack hunter didn't know what the pressure of his master's legs meant, and fought shy of the gate, while keeping others from coming near it? Have you never stood watching a race at the Country Club, with a rider beside you whose horse took up five times the space he was entitled to, because he could not be made to move sidewise? Has not every one seen occasions when even a little training would have been a boon both to himself and his neighbors? Talking of opening gates, one of the best bits of practice is to unlock, open, and ride through a common door and close and lock it after you without dismounting. Let it be a door opening towards you. If your horse will quickly get into and stand steady in the positions necessary to enable you to lean over and do all this handily at any door, gates will cease to have any terrors for you. Nor must you suppose that every schooled horse is of necessity kept in his most skilled form at all times. As few college graduates of twenty years' standing can construe an ode of Horace, though indeed they may understand the purport and read between the lines as they could not under the shadow of the elms of Alma Mater, so Patroclus, for instance, is by no means as clever in the intricate steps of his School performances as he was when fresh from his education. But the result is there; and for all the purposes of actual use in the saddle, the training he has had at all times bears its fruit. After this weary exordium of theory, Tom, for which my apologies, let us turn to a bit of practice. XXVI. And first about the horse himself. If you buy one, do so under such advice as to get soundness, intelligence, courage, and good temper. Our American horses, unless spoiled, generally have all these in sufficient measure, and can be made everything of. You have been exceptionally fortunate in your purchase of Penelope. She is light gaited, not long and logy in her movements, and carries her own head. She has remarkable good looks, an inestimable quality after you get performance; but beware of the May-bird which has good looks alone. She is fifteen three, nearly as high at the rump, and with tail set on right there, fine-bred, but with barrel enough to weigh about a thousand and twenty pounds. She looks like a thoroughbred hunter, Tom, every inch of her. This is a good height and weight for you, who ride pretty heavy for a youngster, and are apt soon to run up to "twel' stun eight." You say Penelope is six years old. From five to eight is the best age, the nearer five the better. An old horse does not supple so readily. And she was well broken to harness? A good harness training is no harm to any horse, nor occasional use in light harness, whatever pride one may take in a horse which has never looked through a collar. In fact, many hunters in the Old Country are purposely used as tandem, or four-in-hand leaders during the summer, to give them light work, and bring them towards the season in firmer condition than if they had run at large and eaten their heads off. It is only the pulling or holding back of heavy weights which injures saddle gaits, and this because a saddle beast should be taught to keep his hind legs well under him, and remain in an elastic equilibrium; and dragging a load brings about the habit of extending the legs too much to the rear, while holding back gives a habit of sprawling and stiffening which is sadly at variance with a "collected" action. XXVII. You ask about dress. Wear anything which is usual among riders. Enamel boots as now worn are convenient to the constant rider, as the mud does not injure them as it does cloth, and water at once cleanses them. But plain dark trousers, cut a mere trifle longer than you wear them on the street, and strapped under the feet, are excellent to ride in. If cut just right they are the neatest of all gear for park riding in good weather. The simpler your dress the better. Gentlemen to-day dress in boots when riding with ladies, and fashion, of course, justifies their use now as it did fifty years ago. But within half that term, in England, a man who would ride in boots with a pretty horsebreaker considered trousers _de rigeur_, if he was going to the Park with his wife or daughters. To saddle and bridle your horse, you must know your own needs and his disposition and mouth. But the English saddle and a bit and bridoon bridle, such as you have, are the simplest, and meet most wants, providing they fit the back and mouth. We do not have to suit such varying tempers and mouths in this country as they do abroad. Our horses are singularly tractable. It is rather a stunning thing to be mounted on the fashionable type of horse who "won't stand a curb, you know,"--and there are some such,--but, as a fact, ninety-nine American horses out of one hundred will work well in a port and bridoon bridle properly adjusted. Always buy good things. Cheap ones are dear at any price. Your saddle should fit so that when you are in it you can thrust your riding-whip under the pommel and to the cantle along the horse's backbone; otherwise you may get sore withers. The bits should hang in the mouth just above where a horse's tush grows. Penelope's sex, you see, Tom, precludes her having any. XXVIII. When you bought Penelope, she knew nothing of saddle work, and I told you to ride her a few times on a walk or a trot, anywhere and anyhow, so as to get used to her, and her used to you, before you began to teach her anything. She had presumably always been ridden to and from the blacksmith's shop, and worked kindly under saddle. You have got good legs, Tom, and any man with average legs can keep his seat after a fashion on a decently behaved horse. You were afraid you could not sit Penelope when you first bought her, and had not ridden for so long that you felt strange in the saddle. So I advised you to hire an old plug for a few rides until you were sure you would feel at home when you mounted her, meanwhile exercising her in harness. The better part of valor will always be discretion, now as in Falstaff's time, while the best of horses will get a bit nervous if kept long in a half-dark stable. Regular exercise is as essential to a horse as oil is to an engine, if either is to work smoothly. You ask me the proper way to mount. Let us stop while you dismount, and I will show you the usual way. It is simple work. Stand opposite Nelly's near shoulder, a foot or so away from her, and facing towards the cantle of your saddle. Gather up your snaffle reins just tight enough to feel, but not pull on her mouth, and seize a part of her mane with your left hand. Insert your toe in the stirrup, just as it hangs, using your right hand if necessary. Then seize the cantle of the saddle with your right hand, and springing from your right foot, without touching the horse's flank with your left toe, raise yourself into the stirrup, pause a moment, and then throw the leg across the horse, moving your right hand away in season. If you were shorter, you might have to spring from your foot before you could touch the cantle. As in everything else, there are other and perhaps better ways to mount, and pages can be written upon the niceties of each method. But the above suffices for the nonce. You can choose your own fashion when you have tried them all. An active youngster, like yourself, should be able to vault into the saddle without putting the left foot into the stirrup at all. In all Continental gymnasiums, this is one of the usual exercises, on a horse-block with imitation saddle, and is an excellent practice. By all means learn it. XXIX. You do not seem to hold your reins handily, Tom. Of all the methods of holding reins I prefer the old cross-country way of a generation back, still recommended, I was pleased to see, in the very excellent article "Horse" of the edition of the "Cyclopædia Britannica" now publishing, and I fancy yet much in vogue. The School method is different; but the School requires that the curb and snaffle shall be used for different indications or "aids" to convey the rider's meaning to the horse, and not at the same time. In ordinary saddle work it is generally convenient to employ the reins together. Gather your reins up with me. The near curb outside little finger, near snaffle between little and third fingers, off snaffle between third and middle, off curb between middle and index, all four gathered flat above index and held in place by thumb, knuckles up. Or easier, take up your snaffle by the buckle and pass the third finger of left hand between its reins; then take up the curb and pass the little, third, and middle fingers between its reins. The snaffle reins, you see, are thus inside the curb reins, each is easily reached and distinguished and you can shift hold from left hand to right, or _vice versa_, more readily than in any other way, by merely placing one hand, with fingers spread to grasp the reins, in front of the other. By having the loop of each rein hanging separate so that the free hand can seize it quickly, either can be shortened or lengthened at will, or they may be so together. Moreover, this hold affords the easiest method of changing from one to both hands and back. For if you insert your right little finger between the off reins, and your third finger inside the snaffle rein, and draw the off reins from your left hand slightly, you have a very handy means of using both hands, with the additional value that you can either drop the right reins by easing the length of the left ones to equalize the pressure on the horse's mouth; or by grasping the left reins with right middle finger over snaffle and first finger over curb, you can shift to the right hand entirely. When in this position you can again use the left hand by inserting its fingers in front of the right one and closing upon the reins, as already indicated. In fact, without lengthening the near reins, but merely by placing the right hand in any convenient way on the off ones, you may be ready to use both hands in entirely proper fashion. And in this day of two-handed riding, it is advisable to be able to follow the fashion quickly. For School airs, this also affords an easy way of using separately curb and snaffle, as is often necessary. If you are riding with single reins, you will place them on either side of third or little finger, or embracing little, third, and middle fingers and up under thumb in similar manner. A single rein may be held in many ways. With all other double-rein methods, except the one described, you have to alter the position of reins in shifting from hand to hand. With this one the order of reins and fingers remains the same. Any other system of holding the reins which you prefer will do as well, if you become expert at it. I have tried them all, from Baucher's down, and have always reverted to what was shown me thirty odd years ago. Your curb chain should be looser than it is, Tom. A horse needing a stiff curb is unsuited to any but an expert rider, and must have a great many splendid qualities to make up for this really bad one. Some people like a mouth they can hold on by, but they do not make fine horsemen. Never ride on your horse's mouth, or, as they say, "ride your bridle." Many men like a hunter who "takes hold of you," but this won't do on the road, if you seek comfort or want a drilled horse. You see that Nelly keeps jerking at the curb. Let out a link, at least. An untrained horse seeks relief from the curb by poking out his nose, the trained one by giving way to it and arching his neck. It is better at first only to ride on your snaffle rein, leaving your curb rein reasonably loose; or else you may use only a snaffle bit and single rein for a while. But unless you very early learn that your reins are to afford no support whatever to your seat, you will never be apt to learn it. Don't use a martingale unless your horse is a star-gazer, or else tosses his head so as to be able to strike you. It tends to make you lean upon the rein and confines your horse's head. XXX. You have now been out a half-dozen times with your new purchase, Tom, and you have managed to get along much to your own satisfaction. You have neither slipped off, nor has Penelope misbehaved. But you are intelligent enough to see that there is something beyond this for you and her to learn. I do not know how ambitious you are. If you want to make Nelly's forehand and croup so supple that you can train her into the finest gaits and action, you must go to work on the stable floor with an hour a day at least of patient teaching, for a number of weeks. For this purpose you must have a manual of instruction, such as I have shown you, and quite a little stock of leisure and particularly of good temper. The ordinary English trainer thinks that a good mouth may be made in two weeks, by strapping a colt's reins to his surcingle for an hour or two daily, and by longeing with a cavesson. But excellent as cavesson work may be, this means alone will by no means produce the quality of mouth which the Baucher method will make, or which you should aim to give to Nelly. Still I know that you have but limited time, Tom, and that you want your daily ride to educate both yourself and your mare. This can be accomplished after a fashion; but it is only what the primary school is to the university,--good, as far as it goes. The trouble with beginning to supple a horse's neck when in motion is that you ask him to start doing two things at once, that is, move forward at command and obey your reins, and he will be apt to be somewhat confused. He will not as readily understand what you want him to do, as if standing quiet and undisturbed. With plenty of courage, Tom, Penelope seems to have a very gentle disposition. Almost all of our American horses have. They are not as apt to be spoiled in the breaking-in as they are abroad. And I fancy she is intelligent. You should have no difficulty in training her, and in teaching her a habit of obedience which she will never forget. It is all but an axiom that an unspoiled horse will surely do what he knows you want him to do, unless he is afraid to do it, or unless, as is generally the case, you yourself are at fault. The difficulty lies in making him understand you. Remember this, and keep your patience always. If a horse is roguish, as he often will be, it is only a moment's play, and he will at once get over it, unless you make it worse by unnecessary fault-finding. I generally laugh at a horse instead of scolding him. He understands the tone if not the words, and it turns aside the occasion for a fight or for punishment. Never invite a fight with a horse. Avoid it whenever you can accomplish your end by other means. Never decline it when it must come. But either win the fight or reckon on having a spoiled horse on your hands, who will never thoroughly obey you. And remember that a horse who obeys from fear is never as tractable, safe, or pleasant as one who has been taught by gentle means, and with whom the habit of obeying goes hand in hand with love for his master and pleasure in serving him. I do not refer to those creatures which have already been made equine brutes by the stupidity or cruelty of human brutes. One of these may occasionally need more peremptory treatment, but under proper tuition even such an one needs it rarely. [Illustration: PLATE IX. CLEAN ABOVE IT.] XXXI. Let us have a trot, and see how Penelope moves, and how you sit. You, Tom, will take your pace from me. There is nothing more unhorsemanlike and annoying than for a rider to keep half a horse's length in front of his companion. Your stirrup should be even with mine. A gentleman can be a foot or two in front of a lady, for safety and convenience, but men should ride as they would walk, all but arm in arm. Now you can see the effects of education. Penelope insists on trotting a twelve-mile gait, and no wonder, for she has such fine, open action, that a sharp gait is less effort to her than a slow one. On the contrary, I, who, as the senior, have the right to give the pace, am satisfied with two-thirds that speed; and Patroclus, who, as you well know, can easily out-trot, or, I fancy, out-run your mare, and would dearly like to try it, yields himself to my mood without an ounce of pull or friction. Look at his reins. They are quite loose. Now look at yours. Nelly is pulling and fretting for all she is worth, while you are working your passage. Two miles like that will take three out of her and five out of you. She will fume herself into a lather soon, while Pat will not have turned a hair. She certainly is a candidate for training. You appear to need all the strength of your arms to pull her down to a walk, whereas a simple turn of the wrist, or a low-spoken word, should suffice. By the way, always indulge in the habit of talking to your horse. You have no idea of how much he will understand. And if he is in the habit of listening for your words, and of paying heed to what you say, he will be vastly more obedient as well as companionable. Patroclus and I often settle very knotty questions on the road. We think we helped elect Cleveland. And I must confess that occasionally a passer-by fancies that I am talking to myself, whereas, if he but knew the meaning of Patroclus' lively ears, he would see what a capital comrade I have, and one, moreover, who, like one's favorite book, is never impertinent enough to answer back, or flout you with excessive wisdom. It is certainly a very pleasant study to see how many words or phrases a horse can learn the meaning of, and act intelligently when he hears them. XXXII. What, then, shall you do first in the way of education? Well, let us see. As Nelly has been broken to harness, she can probably only walk and trot. You, yourself, seem to stick fairly well to the saddle. But how about your own position? Your leathers are a trifle long. They should be of just such length that, when you are in the middle of the saddle, on your seat, not your crotch, with the ball of your foot in the stirrups, your feet are almost parallel with the ground, the heel a trifle lower than the toes. Your toes are below your heels, you see. You should be able to get your heels well down when you settle into your saddle. The old rule of having the stirrups just touch the ankle-bone when the foot is hanging is not a bad one. The arm measure is unreliable, and physical conformation, as well as different backed horses, often require, even in a sound man, odd lengths of leathers. You should not attempt to ride with your feet "home" until you can keep your stirrup under the ball of your foot without losing it, whatever your horse may do; and when you do ride "home," you should occasionally change back to the ball of your foot, so as to keep in practice. Moreover, you can train a horse much more easily, riding with only the ball of the foot in the stirrup, for you can use your legs to better advantage. My disability obliges me to ride "home" at all times, and I have always found it much more difficult to teach a horse the right leg indications than the left. I have to employ my whip not infrequently, in lieu of my leg. Your stirrup should be larger and heavier, for safety. I don't like your fine, small stirrups; and your saddle should have spring bars, which you should always keep from rusting out of good working order. They have saved many a man's collar-bone. Be in the habit of using your knees and thighs alone for grip, though the closer you clasp the saddle without getting your legs _around_ the horse, the better. In the leap, or with a plunging horse, you may use the upper part of the calf, or as much more as your spurs will allow you to use. But of all equestrian horrors the worst is the too common habit of constantly using the calves instead of the knees to clasp the saddle-flaps. To such an extent is this often carried by a tyro (and no man gets beyond this stage who does it), that you can see an angle of daylight between the points where his thigh and calf touch the saddle, showing that his knee, which ought to be his main and constant hold, does not touch the saddle at all. The stirrup-leathers, especially if heavy, as they should be, often hurt the knee, if you are new to the saddle, and perhaps are the main inducement to this execrable habit. But you must either get your knees hardened, or else give up the saddle. Keep a steady lookout for this. You will never ride if you don't use your knees. If you do use them properly, your feet will look after themselves. Ride with the flat of the thigh and the knee-bone at all times close to the saddle. Sit erect, but avoid rigidity. It is good practice to sit close, that is, without rising, on a slow jog-trot. Let us try. Sit perfectly straight and take the bumping. On a jog-trot, it is an unpardonable sin to lean forward at all. You will find that shortly it does not bump you so much, and by and by it will not at all. But don't lean back either. That is the country bumpkin's prerogative. Nelly is evidently easy enough, only she has not been taught to curb her ambition. Nothing shakes a man into the saddle better than this same jog-trot. Nothing is more absurd than the attempt to rise when the horse is only jogging, or, as it were, the attempt to make your horse begin to trot by beginning to rise. It looks like an attempt to lift yourself up by your boot straps. Teach him some other indication to start a trot. It is useless to rise unless a horse is going at least a six-mile gait. Some School-riders taboo the jog, but all the cavalry of the world use it; it is the homeward gait of the tired hunter, and it does teach a man a good, easy, safe seat. It is true that a horse who won't walk at speed, but who falls from a slow walk into a jog whenever you urge him, is a nuisance. Moreover, the uneducated jog is neither a fashionable nor a desirable gait. But a schooled jog, which the horse does under your direction and control, is quite another thing, and a jog greatly relieves a tired horse. It seems to be unjustly tabooed. Unless, then, you are ultra-fashionable, make a habit of jogging now and then. By this I mean jogging with your horse "collected," so that you have not an ounce of hold on his mouth, and he is still under your absolute control, your seat meanwhile being firm and unshaken. But never let the horse jog of his own motion. That may spoil his walk. Make him jog only when you want him to do so, and when walking, do not let him fall into a jog unbidden. The jog I mean should be almost a parade gait; too slow to rise to, but still perfect in action, and so poised that from it your horse can bound into any faster gait at word. Your hands are too high. They want to be but a couple of inches above the pommel, better lower than higher. A man whose reins wear out the pigskin on his pommel is all right. A horse who carries his head high needs lower hands. Some low-headed horses require the hands to be held a bit higher to stimulate the forehand. It is difficult to say thus much without saying a great deal more; for this is but a hint of what is essential to correct such a physical defect as a low-carried head. But what I tell you will whet your appetite for a thorough knowledge, and this you will find in the books of Baucher's followers. The use of snaffle and curb, each for its best purpose, is very delicate. Let me again repeat, of all things never hang on your horse's mouth. You may have to do so on Penelope's, or rather Penelope may hang on your hands, till you get her suppled, but you must try to do that soon. You don't want to be a "three legged rider." If you cannot learn to ride at any gait and speed smoothly and well, with your reins so loose that you might as well not have them in your hands, you will never do anything but "ride the bridle." This applies to your seat, not to Penelope. It is not wise habitually to ride with reins too loose; you should always feel your horse's mouth. But you can feel it without a tight rein. Good driving horses often pull. A good riding horse should never do so. Nelly seems to be sure-footed. If she is apt to stumble, sell her. Your neck is worth more than your pocket. By School-training and its consequent habit of keeping the hind legs well under him, a stumbler will learn instinctively to bring up the succeeding hind foot to the support of the yielding fore foot, so as to save himself a fall; but you don't want an imperfect horse, Tom. If Nelly can trot without stumbling, it is excellent practice for you to tie the reins in a knot on her neck, and to ride along the road without touching them. When you feel as secure this way as any other, your seat is strong. You do not want to do this _en evidence_. But get off on the country roads and practice it. This is one advantage of a careful riding-master and a good school; a pupil is taught the seat apart from and before the uses of the reins. XXXIII. As I think you have already mastered all that I have told you, you may begin to teach Penelope a bit. But remember that, as you are both intelligent, she will be teaching you at the same time. I notice that you have to use two hands to guide your mare, and I presume you want to learn some better way, for however necessary two hands may occasionally be, a horse must at times be managed by one. There are three methods of guiding a horse under saddle. The simplest, and the one requiring the least education, is the same which you are using, and which is the common way of driving, by holding the rein or reins of each side in one hand, and by pulling rein on the side you wish Nelly to turn to. It is possible to guide this way with one hand by a suitable turn of the wrist, but unless the horse is well collected, as few of our horses nowadays are, it is a poor reliance in any unusual case. The next method is guiding by the neck, by which the horse is made to turn to the right if you draw the rein across or lay it upon the left side of his neck, and _vice versa_. The third method combines the two others, and the horse obeys either indication. It requires the highest art in man and beast, and is superb in results when learned. The animal may be guided by the bit with the reins held in one hand, applying the pressure by the turn of the wrist, or may be turned by the neck while the bit is used to lighten one or other side. But this requires a hand and mouth of equal delicacy, and a horse always in a state of equilibrium. You will need only the first two to begin with, and Nelly already knows the first. Most horses now and then require you to use both hands, and School-riding calls for their use in the more difficult feats. But an agreeable saddle beast should guide by the neck readily at all times. Stonehenge calls this a "highly desirable accomplishment," but it is really only the beginning of the alphabet of the horse's education; and indeed in the School airs, though both hands be used, the forehand is constantly thrown to one or the other side by the neck pressure, the direct tension of the rein being used to give the horse quite a different indication at the same moment. Moreover, you will not always be able to devote two hands to Nelly. You may need one of them for something else. It would be embarrassing not to be able to use your whip or crop, or to button your glove, or to take off your hat, and at the same time to turn a corner or avoid a team. I have often ridden with people who so entirely relied upon both hands, that they had to draw rein for so simple a thing as the use of their handkerchief, lest their horse should fly the track while their right hand was so engaged. And while I am to a certain extent an advocate for the use of two hands, I cannot agree with the habit of the day of so constantly employing two that the horse and rider both lose the power of doing satisfactory work with one. By all means teach Nelly to guide by the neck. When you have done this, you may resort to both hands again whenever you desire. And the habit of using both hands is certainly more apt to keep your shoulders, and hence your seat straight. But a horse who cannot be guided with one hand under all but the most exceptional conditions is not fit for saddle work on the road. In the more intricate paces of the School, indeed, the soldier uses but one hand; and though often more delicate hints can be imparted to a horse's mind by two, yet all except the greatest performances of the _manège_ can be accomplished with one, and a horse who is unable to rehearse perfectly all the road gaits and movements with the indications of one hand and two heels is sadly lacking in the knowledge he should boast. You very naturally ask how this is to be taught. It is by no means difficult. Have you never noticed a groom riding a horse in a halter? Any steady horse can be so ridden. The halter rope is usually on the left side of the neck because the man has it in his hand when he jumps on, and he guides the horse by a pull on the halter rope if he wants him to turn to the left, and by laying the rope upon and pulling it across the neck pretty well up if he wants him to turn to the right. Now you will notice that if you hold the reins far up on Nelly's neck, half way from withers to ears, and pull them across the left (near) side of her neck, she will, after a little uncertainty, be apt to turn to the right, although the pull is on the left side of the bit. Try it and see. There,--she has done it, after some hesitation. And she did it because she felt that her head was being forced to the right and she very naturally followed it. The reverse will occur if you will pull the reins across the right (off) side of the neck. Some horses seize this idea very quickly, and it is only a matter of practice to keep them doing the same thing as you gradually bring the reins farther and farther down the neck till they lie where they should be, near the withers. If Nelly will thus catch the idea, a week or ten days will teach her a good deal, and in a month she will guide fairly well by the neck;--after which, practice makes perfect. If she had not seemed to catch the idea, and had turned the other way, it would have been because the pull on the bit impressed her mind rather than the pressure on the neck acting in the opposite way. Under such circumstances you should, when you press the rein on the near side of her neck, take hold of the off rein also and force her to turn to the right, trying to make the neck pressure a little more marked than that on the bit. A horse quickly learns to appreciate the difference between the direct pull of the rein on the bit and the indirect one made across the neck. None of the neat movements of the _manège_ can be executed unless a horse has learned absolutely to distinguish between an indication to turn, and one which is meant to lighten one side in order to prepare for a School movement, or to enable him to lead or exhibit pronounced action with that side. [Illustration: PLATE X. TAKING-OFF AT WATER.] At first you had perhaps better teach Penelope to guide only one way by the neck, using the rein alone for the other turn. But you can determine this by her intelligence. If there is any place where you can ride in an irregular circle or quadrangle, you can, after Nelly gets used to turning in a certain direction at the corners, press the reins on the opposite side of her neck as she is about to turn, so that she may get to associate this pressure with the movement in the direction away from it. This is the way horses learn in a riding-school. Or if she is going towards home and knows the corners she has to turn, do not let her make them of her own accord, but hold her away from them until you give her the neck pressure. Or you can zig-zag along the road if you are in a quiet place where people will not think that you are _toqué_, or that your mare has the staggers. It will thus not be long before Nelly gets the idea, and the mere idea, once caught, is quickly worked into a habit. Sometimes I have got a horse to guide passably well by the neck in a day. Oftener, it takes a week or two, while delicacy comes by very slow degrees. XXXIV. When you have got Nelly to the point where she guides fairly well by the neck, what next? It is evident that the muscles of your mare's neck are rather rigid, for she carries it straight, though her crest is well curved. From this rigidity springs that resistance to the bit which she so constantly shows. A neck which arches easily means, as a rule, obedience to it. It is extremely rare that a horse will arch his neck, except when very fresh, so as to bring his mouth to the yielding position and keep it there, of his own volition; and then he is apt to pull on your hands. You must not suppose that an arched neck means that the horseman is worrying his beast to make him appear proud or prance for the purpose of showing off. It is precisely this which a good horseman never does. He always uses his bits gently. It is cruelty, as well as ruin to the horse's mouth, to hold him by the curb until his neck tires, and he leans upon it, held suspended by the equal torture of the chain and the aching muscles. A horse never should pull on a curb. If your hands are light, the curb rein may be loose and still the horse's head be in its proper position, that is, about perpendicular. The well-trained horse, without the slightest effort, arches his neck to the curb or snaffle alike, and keeps it so. It is only when his rider releases it, or chooses to let him "have his head" that he takes it. Often, in fact, a horse will not do so when you give him the chance. Patroclus here will get tired out, certainly completely tire me out, long before his bit becomes irksome. When trotting, or when galloping across the fields or in deep snow, I am often apt to let him carry his head as he chooses on account of the change or the extra exertion. But with his well-suppled neck I always feel certain that the slightest intimation of the bit will bring his head in place instead of meeting resistance. And he generally seems to prefer to bring his head well into the bit, so, as it were, to establish agreeable relations with you. I often notice that he feels unsteady if I give him his head too much. And when tired, he seems to like the encouragement given by light and lively hands all the more. The first thing, then, to do is to get Penelope's neck suppled. This means that the naturally rigid muscles of the neck shall be by proper exercises made so supple as to allow the mare to bring her head to the position where there can be a constant "give and take" between your hands and her mouth. The usual outward sign of such suppleness is an arched neck, though as occasionally an habitual puller will arch his neck naturally, this is not an infallible sign. And some horses, especially thoroughbreds, however good their wind, will roar if you too quickly bring their heads in. This is because the wind-pipe of such horses is compressed too much by arching the neck. Thoroughbreds on the turf are wont to stick their noses out while running, because this affords them the best breathing power at very high speed. This habit becomes hereditary, and among them there are not a few who cannot readily be brought in by the bit. Sometimes, except as a feat, you can never supple such necks. Oftener, it only needs more time and patience,--in other words a slower process. A limber-necked thoroughbred has, however, the most delightful of mouths, except for the fact that he seems occasionally to draw or yield almost a yard of rein, owing to the length of his neck, and your hands have to be watched accordingly. If he has such a neck, the only safety, if he is high-strung, is never to let him beyond the hand. The result of the suppling of the neck is a soft mouth under all conditions. How shall you begin to supple Nelly's neck, you ask, without the long process of the Schools? You cannot perfectly, but you may partially do this under saddle. Whenever you are on a walk you may, as a habit, let your horse have his head, and encourage him to keep at his best gait. A dull walker is a nuisance. A little motion of the hands or heels and an occasional word will keep him lively and at work, and get him into the habit of walking well, if he has enough ambition. The School-rider keeps his horse "collected" on the walk at all times, and though the steps are thus shortened, they become quicker and more springy, and the speed is not diminished. I do either way, as the mood takes me, for though I incline to the method of the School-riders, I do not think that it hurts a horse to have entire freedom now and then. Some amblers are slow walkers, but the five-mile amble takes the place of the rapid walk, and is often more agreeable. Few horses walk more than three and a half miles an hour. A four-mile walk is a good one. Exceptionally, you may reach the ideal five miles. I once knew a horse in Ohio who walked (and not a running walk either, but a square "heel and toe" walk) six miles in an hour, on wagers. But our confab, Tom, often gets too diffuse. Let us go on with our lesson. XXXV. Here we are quietly walking along the road. Suppose you draw up the reins a bit, the curb somewhat the more. Nelly will at once bring up her head, and very naturally stick out her nose in the endeavor to avoid the pressure of the curb chain. At the same time, as you see, she will shorten her steps. Don't jerk or worry her, but still exert a gentle pressure on the curb, and keep up a slight vibrating movement of the hands, speaking to her kindly. In a moment or two, she will arch her neck, and the bit will hang loosely in her mouth. There, you see, her nose comes down, and a handsome head and neck she has! Now pat her, and speak caressingly to her, and after a few seconds release her head. When these exercises are done on the stable floor, the use of the snaffle will accomplish the same result, and this is very desirable. But if you begin these flexions on the road you must use the curb, because Nelly now understands the snaffle to be for another purpose. The use of the curb is apt to lower a horse's head, and with some horses too much. The snaffle may be employed to correct this low carriage, but this use of it involves more than I can explain to you now. If Nelly's head gets too low, raise your hands a bit. Try it over again, and each time prolong the period of holding her head in poise. But never hold it so long that her neck will ache and she begin to lean upon the bit. If she should do so before you release her head, play gently with the rein for an instant to get her back to the soft mouthing of the bit, caress her, and then release her head. This is on the principle that you should always have your way with a horse, and not he his. And kindness alone accomplishes this much more speedily and certainly than severity. If the occasion ever comes when you cannot have your way with Nelly, give a new turn to the matter by attracting her attention to something else, so as not to leave on her mind the impression that she has resisted you. Notice two things, Tom, while Nelly is thus champing her bit. She has an almost imperceptible hold of your hands and her gait is shorter and more elastic. This has the effect of a semi-poised position, from which she can more readily move into any desired gait than from the extended looseness of the simple walk. This is one step towards what horsemen call being "in hand," or "collected;" and grooms, "pulled together," though indeed the "pulling together" of the groom but very distantly approaches the fine poise of the Schools. Of all means of destroying a good mouth, to allow the horse to lean upon the curb is the surest. Avoid this by all means. But so long as Nell will bring in her head and play with the bit, keep her doing so at intervals. After a week or two she will be ready to walk quite a stretch with her head in position, and you will both of you have gained something in the way of schooling her mouth and your hands. You can then try her on a trot, and if you can keep your seat without holding on by the reins, she will learn to do the same thing at this gait too, and later at the canter and the gallop. But unless your own seat is firm and your hands are light, you will only be doing her future education an injury. Every twitch on her sensitive mouth, occasioned by an insecure seat or jerky hands, will be so much lost. Moreover, your curb chain must neither be too long nor too short. If too long, Nelly will not bring down her head at all. If too short, it will worry her unnecessarily. You can judge of it by her willingness gradually to accustom herself to it without jerking her head or resisting it, and without lolling her tongue. This suppling of Nelly's neck which you will give her on her daily ride is only of the muscles governing the direct up and down motion of the head and neck. You are not overcoming the lateral rigidities. This requires stable exercises. If you have leisure for these (and you very likely will make some when you find the strides in comfort and elegance Nelly is making), you will buy one of the manuals I have told you about. What you have taught her, however, is excellent so far as it goes, and is time well employed. It will serve its purpose upon the road, if it does not suffice for the more perfect education. XXXVI. The next step will be for you to try to supple the croup or hind-quarters of your mare. The two things can go on together, though it is well to get the forehand fairly suppled before beginning on the croup. The flexions of the croup are fully as important, if not more so, than those of the forehand, and in their proper teaching lies the root of your success. If you wear spurs, you should be absolutely sure you will never touch Nelly with them by accident. Spurs need not to be severe in any event. It is uselessly cruel to bring the blood, except in a race, where every ounce of exertion must be called for. Spurs in training or riding should never be used for punishment. They will be too essential in conveying your meaning to Penelope for you to throw away their value in bad temper. The horse should learn that the spur is an encouragement and an indication of your wishes, and should be taught to receive its attack without wincing or anger. The old habit of the _manège_ was to force all the weight of the horse, by the power of a severe curb bit, back upon his haunches, and oblige him to execute all the airs in a position all but poised upon his hind legs. The modern dispensation endeavors to effect better results by teaching the animal to be constantly balanced upon all four legs, and, by having his forces properly distributed, to be in a condition to move any of them at the will of his rider in any direction, without disturbing this balance. Moreover, the element of severity has been eliminated from training altogether. Suppose, then, that you are walking Nelly and are holding her head in poise. Now bring your legs gently together, so as to slightly touch her sides. You will see that she at once moves quickly towards the bit. Here she must find herself held in check by it. The result of the two conditions will be that she will get her hind legs somewhat more under her than usual. It is just this act, properly done, which produces the equilibrium desired. When a horse is what is termed "collected," or "in hand," he has merely brought his hind feet well under him, and has yielded his mouth to your hands in such a way that he can quickly respond to your demands. This he cannot do when he is in an open or sprawling position. It were better to teach Nelly this gathering of the hind legs under her by certain preliminary exercises on foot; but you can by patient trial while mounted accomplish a great part of the same result. And between bit to restrain her ardor and spur to keep her well up to it, the mare will get accustomed to a position of equilibrium from which she can, when taught, instantly take any gait, advance any foot, or perform any duty required. She will be really in the condition of a fine scale which a hair's weight will instantly affect. Do not suppose that bit and spur are to be used harshly. On the contrary, the bit ought to play in her mouth loosely, and with the trained horse the barest motion of the leg towards the body suffices. The spur need very rarely touch her flank. The delicacy of perception of the schooled horse is often amazing. But the co-efficient of a balanced horse is a rider with firm seat and light hands. Either is powerless without the other. Moreover, a generous and intelligent beast, reasonably treated, learns the duty prescribed to him without the least friction. To respond to a kindly rider's wants seems to be a pride and a pleasure to him instead of a task. Among the most agreeable incidents of horse-training is the evident delight which the horse takes in learning, the appreciation with which he receives your praise, and the confiding willingness with which he performs airs requiring the greatest exertion, and often a painful application of the spur, without any idea of resistance or resentment, even when his strength, endurance, intelligence, and good temper are taxed to the severest degree. I have sometimes wondered at a patience, which I myself could never have exhibited, in a creature which could so readily refuse the demands made upon him, as well as at the manifest pleasure he will take in the simple reward of a gentle word. There is much difference in the nomenclature of horse-training. Unless one needs to be specific, as in describing the methods of the Haute Ecole, "in hand" and "collected" are frequently used interchangeably. But they should really be distinct in meaning, "in hand" being the response to the bit, "collected," the response to bit and legs, and "in poise," a very close position of equilibrium, preceding the most difficult movements of the School. Now, in order to get Penelope accustomed to respond to the pressure of the legs, you must practice bringing your legs towards her flanks while her head is well poised, at frequent intervals. Whenever she responds by bringing her hind legs under her--and you will notice when she does so by her greater elasticity and more active movement--speak a good word to her, and keep her gathered in this way only so long as she can comfortably remain so, gradually prolonging the terms during which you hold her thus "collected." You will find that her step will soon become lighter and the speed of her response to your own movements a great contrast to the sluggishness of the horse moving his natural gait in the saddle. Her carriage will begin to show the same equilibrium in which the practiced fencer stands "in guard," or more properly, it will show that splendid action of the horse at liberty which he never exhibits in the restraint of the saddle, except when trained. Whoever has watched a half-dozen fine horses just turned loose from the stall into a pretty paddock, will have noticed that, in their delighted bounds and curvetings, each one will perform his part with a wonderful grace, ease, and elegance of action. You may see the passage, piaffer, and Spanish trot, and even the passage backwards, done by the untrained horse of his own playful volition, urged thereto solely by the exuberance of his spirits. Under saddle he will not do this, unless taught by the methods of the School. But so taught, he will perform all these and more, with readiness and evident satisfaction to himself. [Illustration: PLATE XI. DOING IT HANDILY.] I must again impress upon you, Tom, that for perfect success, even in little things, you will need vastly more careful training than this; and that what I am discussing with you is but a very partial substitute for the higher education. I am indeed sorry to feel tied down to such simple instruction. But I want to tell you just enough to lead you to experiment for yourself, and to catch sufficient of the fascination of the art to study it thoroughly. I am, however, anxious that you should by no means understand me to say that you can, by any such simple means as I shall have detailed to you, perfect the education of your mare. You can improve her present condition vastly, and make her light and handy compared to what she naturally is. But the best results involve far other work. XXXVII. You tell me that Nelly can only trot and walk, and you want to teach her the canter and hand-gallop. Many horses will naturally fall into a canter if you shake the reins; but some who come of trotting stock will not do so without considerable effort; and still such a horse is often the best one to buy. Now the easiest way to get Nelly into a canter, if she persists in trotting, is to push her beyond her speed, for which purpose you should select a soft piece of ground. So soon as she has broken into a gallop, unless she has been trained to settle back into a trot, you can readily slow up without changing her gait. If it has been attempted to train her as a trotter, you will have harder work to do this. But there is a little vibrating movement of the hands, sometimes called "lifting," which tends to keep a horse cantering, just as a steady pull keeps him trotting. This movement is in the little what the galloping action of a horse is in the great. The hands move very slightly forward and upward, and pass back again on an under line. Apparently, Nelly has been broken in the usual way, for she trots naturally on a steady rein or on the snaffle. Now, you will find that a moving rein or the curb is apt to break her trot, and make her do something else,--either prance, or trot with high unsettled steps, or canter. It is for your own hands, when she gets to the canter, to hold her there. This may take you some time, but you can certainly do it by repeated trials. Having accomplished it, you may, between curb bit and spurs, both gently used, mind you, gradually teach her to carry her head properly at this pace, and get her haunches well under her; and it will give you pleasure to notice how much more natural it is for her to come "in hand" than on the trot. As the canter is the natural gait of the horse, you will find Nelly soon keep to it if she understands that you so desire. But remember that you should canter or gallop habitually only on soft ground. Hard roads soon injure the fore feet and fetlock joints if a horse is constantly cantered or galloped upon them, because the strides are longer and the weight comes down harder, and always more upon the leading fore foot than upon the other. Moreover, the canter with the hind legs well gathered is apt to be somewhat of a strain to the houghs of the horse unless it is properly--rhythmically--performed, and unless the animal is gradually broken in by proper flexions. But to canter is one thing. You have yet to teach Penelope to canter on either foot at will, leading off with left or right and changing foot in motion. This is quite another matter, and you will find that it will take some time and a vast deal of patience in both of you. Let us suppose that you have brought Nell down to a fairly slow canter. Until you can, without effort to her or you, rein her down to quite a slow one, she does not know the rudiments of the gait. To canter properly, she must, without resistance, pull, or fret, come down to a canter quite as slow as a fast walk, even slower, and not show the least attempt to fall into a jog; all this while so poised that she can bound into a gallop at the next stride. Any plug can run. Few of the saddle horses you meet on the road seem to canter slowly, and yet it is one of the most essential of gaits and a great relief from a constant trot, especially for a lady. It may perhaps look more sportsmanlike--I don't like to use the word "horsey"--for a lady always to trot; but no lady, apart from this, begins to look as well upon the trot as when sitting the properly timed park canter of a fresh and handsome horse. Moreover, it requires vastly less art to ride the trot usually seen with us than to bring a high-couraged horse down to a slow parade canter and keep him there, not to dilate upon the gloriously invigorating and luxurious feeling of this gait when executed in its perfection. Some lazy horses find that they can canter as easily as walk and nearly as slowly, but this disjointed, lax-muscled progress is a very different performance from the proud, open action of the generous horse, whose stride is so vigorous that you feel as if he had wings, but who curbs his ardor to your desires, and with the pressure of a silken thread on the bit will canter a five-mile gait. XXXVIII. You have probably noticed that Nelly sometimes canters with one shoulder forward and sometimes with the other. Almost all sound horses will change lead of their own accord, but not knowing why. When a horse shies at a strange object, or hops over anything in his path, or gets on new ground, or changes direction, he will often do this. If a horse does not frequently change, it is apt to be on account of an unsound foot, hough, or shoulder, which makes painful or difficult the lead he avoids. But occasionally a sound horse will always lead with the same leg, until taught to change. For a lady the canter is generally easier with the right shoulder leading, and some horses are much easier with one than the other lead. In fact, on the trot, many horses are easier when you rise with the off than when you rise with the near foot, or _vice versa_; and some writers have said that a horse leads with one or other foot in trotting. But as the trot should be a square and even gait, the peculiarity in question is owing to excess of muscular action in one leg and not to anything approaching the lead in the canter or the gallop. It is possible to teach a horse to start with either or to change lead in the canter without more flexing of the croup than you can give him on the road; but it is worth your while to put Nelly through some exercises which I will explain to you. It will save time in the end. Their eventual object is so to supple the croup as to render the hind-quarters subject to the rider's will, and absolutely under the control of the horse as directed by him. The flexions of the croup are in reality more important than those of the forehand. Unless a horse's hind-quarters are well under him and so thoroughly suppled as to obey the slightest indication of the rider's leg, he is lacking in the greatest element of his education, if he is to be made a School-horse. At the same time a supple croup and a rigid forehand cannot work in unison. Both should be elastic in equal degree. For the purpose of beginning the croup flexions, you can best use the stable floor, or other convenient spot, say after mounting as you start, or before dismounting as you return from your ride, or, better, both. And this is what you should do. Suppose you are standing on the stable floor, mounted. Any other place will do, but you want to be where you are quite undisturbed. Bring Nelly in hand by gathering up the reins quietly, so as not to disturb her equanimity or her position. Perhaps you had better hold the reins in both hands for these exercises. At all times, indeed, it is well that a horse should be kept acquainted with the feel of the two hands. In many respects, and for many purposes, I am an advocate of two hands in riding. Do not misunderstand me on this point. My plea is for such education that one hand may suffice for all needs, when the other can be better employed than with the reins; but I myself often use both my hands, perhaps even half the time. Nelly being collected, gently press one foot towards her flank, if need be till the spur touches her. She will naturally move away from it by a side step with her hind feet. You should have kept her head so well in hand that she will not have moved her fore feet. So soon as she makes this one side step, stop and caress her. Try once more with the same foot. Same result, and you will again reward her with a kind word. Do not at first try to make her take two steps consecutively. If you do so, she may, having failed to satisfy you with one step, and imagining that you want something else, try to step towards the spur instead of away from it, and you will have thus lost some ground. A horse argues very simply, and if one course does not seem to comply with his rider's will, he almost always and at once tries the other. After a few days, you will find that Nelly will side step very nicely, one or two steps at a time, and before long she will do so in either direction. You cannot, however, consider her as perfect until she can handily complete the circle, with the opposite fore foot immovably planted, in either direction at will, and without disturbing her equilibrium. But this is much harder to do, and if you propose to give Nelly a college education you must first qualify yourself as professor. You should now at the same time test how well you have taught Penelope to guide by the neck. If you will use the pressure of your legs judiciously, so as to prevent her from moving her hind feet at all, you should be able to describe part of a circle about them by such use of the reins as to make her side step with the fore feet. When she can take two or three steps with fore or hind feet to either side quickly, and at will, keeping the hind or fore feet in place, you have made a very substantial gain in her training. There can be, of course, only one pivot foot. It is the one opposite the direction in which you are moving the croup or forehand. But to teach Nelly to use the proper pivot foot you must begin much more carefully, and it is perhaps not necessary, if you aspire only to train her for road use, to be so particular. Properly speaking, you ought about this time to give Nelly a little side suppling of the neck, so as to make the parts respond readily to your will. This is done first on foot, by gently turning the mouthpiece of the curb bit in a horizontal plane, so as to force her head to either side and make her arch her neck, without allowing her to shift feet. Later, it is done by drawing one curb rein over her neck so as to bring her head sidewise down towards the shoulder, while steadying her with a less marked pressure on the other rein. To do this properly, the Baucher diagrams, or a longer description, would be useful. When the neck is in this exercise perfectly flexed, she will be looking to the rear. With some little practice Nelly will thus readily, at call, bring her head way round to the saddle-flap, with neck arched, and mouthing her bit. Later still, you can practice this flexion mounted, by holding both reins, and pulling a trifle more strongly on one curb than on the other, and steadying her by voice and leg to prevent her from moving. This exercise will make it physically easier for Nelly by and by to respond to your demands, for her neck will be flexible enough for her to hold her head in any desired position without undue effort. And the same thing can be done in motion, if this is not too rapid. As already said, the circular movement described (termed a pirouette about the hind, and a reversed pirouette about the fore feet) should be made on one absolutely unmoved fore or hind foot as pivot. For, plainly, both feet cannot act as one pivot without twisting the legs. This pirouette is really a "low pirouette," the pirouette proper being a movement by the horse poised on his hind legs alone, describing the circle with fore legs in the air, which is a vastly finer performance. It will suffice for you, though, Tom, if Nelly will make the pirouette, simple or reversed, without substantially shifting the position of the two pivot feet. But you must remember that if you start with a half-and-half education, it is more difficult to perfect the training than if you start in a more systematic manner; and I do not pretend that these are the proper, but only easy methods. It is by the union of the side steps of forehand and croup, the former always a trifle in advance, that a horse is taught to "traverse," that is, to move sideways at a walk, trot, or gallop. But the traverse is a School gait rarely needed on the road, and a horse may be trained to entire usefulness without being able to traverse, _as a gait_, if he can willingly make a few quick side steps in either direction. Moreover, to properly traverse, a horse should be taught the passage, which is a gait in which the feet are raised much higher, by the inducement of the spur and the indication of the rein, than the horse would naturally lift them. The passage is put to use in very many of the airs of the _manège_. XXXIX. To revert now to the canter, for which the pirouettes are preparations. There are two or three ways of teaching a horse to lead with either foot, but the best way is to begin with the flexions which I have just described to you, and the more perfect these are, the easier and quicker the progress, and the more satisfactory the result. If you have not patience to wade through all these, you may try the following plan, which is founded on the natural instincts and balance of the horse, but for the execution of which, with your load on his back, he has not been prepared. A horse will lead with the off foot most readily if he is going round a circle to the right; with the near foot, if circling to the left. In other words, the foot which will quickest sustain his weight against the centrifugal motion is the one which is planted first, that is, the foot not leading. The way a horse is taught in a riding-school to lead with either foot is by associating the proper indication to do so with the lead he naturally takes as he canters around the right or left of the ring, or changes direction in what are called the voltes in teaching pupils. But I have seen many horses who would do this very readily inside school walls, who were very stupid or refractory on a straight bit of road. I think this is universally true, in fact, and that is why I recommend road teaching whenever practicable. It cannot be alleged that every horse will always use the proper foot in the lead. A horse unused to cantering with a rider's weight upon his back may do all kinds of awkward things which at liberty, or when trained, he will not attempt to do. But the above way of leading is the natural thing, and that which a horse generally does when at liberty; and it is not hard to induce him to do what comes naturally to him, nor by practice to strengthen the habit. [Illustration: PLATE XII. A TWENTY-FOOT LEAP.] The action of the legs of the leading side is higher in the canter and the gallop than that of the other pair. A horse is said to be "false" in his canter or gallop if he turns with a wrong lead, that is, if he turns to the right until he alters his lead to the right shoulder, unless he is already so leading, or _vice versa_. This is true of sharp turns, which may indeed cause a dangerous fall if "false," but a horse can safely make turns with a long radius and good footing without altering his lead, and this is often convenient to be done. But if the ground is slippery, it is a risk to turn a sharp corner with a wrong lead. I have often seen men punish a horse for slipping at such a turn, when it was solely owing to the false lead that he did so; and the false lead was either the lack of education in the horse or the rider, or both. Sometimes a horse will be leading with one shoulder, and following with the alternate hind leg. He is then said to be "disunited," or "disconnected." The leg or spur, applied on either side to bring him to the proper lead, will soon correct this error, as it is equally disagreeable to horse and rider, and it is a relief to both to change it. Now, acting on this theory of the horse having a natural lead, suppose you canter Nelly about in a circle small enough to induce her to use the proper leg in the lead. A circle fifty feet in diameter will do. At the same time apply a constant but slight pressure of your leg on the side opposite her leading shoulder. She will by and by associate this pressure with what you want her to do. Stick to one direction long enough, say three or four days, to impress the idea on her mind, and she will be rather apt to keep it in memory. Then try the other direction with opposite pressure, and you will gradually get the opposite result. Again, a horse canters best with off shoulder leading, if moving along the side of a hill which slopes up to his right, and _vice versa_. Thus, if you keep on the left side of most roads, where the grade slopes towards the gutter, you will find that Nelly will lead best with her right shoulder. This is for the same reason. She wishes to plant quickest that foot which will keep her from slipping down hill. If she is on the right of the road she will lead best with the left shoulder. She will, perhaps, not do this as readily as on the circle, but she will be apt to do it. If you should watch a horse in the circus ring, you would notice that this is apparently not true. But the slanting path of the circus ring is really not on a slant at all, when we calculate the centrifugal force of the motion around so small a circle. It is as if a horse were moving on a horizontal plane, for he is really perpendicular to the slanting path; and its tipped position is governed by the same mathematical rule as the road-bed of a railroad curve. You may utilize this slanting instinct also in the same fashion as the circle first mentioned for getting the elementary idea into Nelly's head that pressure on one side means leading with the opposite shoulder. Moreover, the side of the road, which is the slope most handy, has the additional advantage of being generally the softest cantering ground. There is an upward play of the rein, which can be explained only to the student who has advanced some distance in the art, which tends to lighten, or invigorate one or the other side of a horse, and thus induce him, coupled with other means, to make the long strides, that is, lead, with the lightened or active shoulder. But you, Tom, will not be able to use this until you have devoted more time to study as well as practice. After you have tried the circle to your satisfaction, try cantering in a figure eight of sufficient size. Nelly will thereby learn instinctively to change step as she comes to the loops. You can probably find a field or lawn somewhere on which you can practice. Out-of-door instruction is always preferable to riding-school work, if equally good, both for man and beast. And such instruction as these hints are intended to enable you to give, will teach you more than the average riding-school ever does. I by no means refer to those schools which teach equitation as a true art, instead of merely drilling you in the bald elements of riding. Nor is there any better place to give Nelly proper instruction than a riding-school, unless it be the lawn or field. What you teach Nelly out-of-doors you will find her much more willing and able to put into use on the road than if she had gone through the same drill in a school. XL. The above is, of course, the crudest of methods compared with the best School systems, but if you have taught Nelly her side steps (or pirouettes), as I have described them to you, or in other words have to a certain extent suppled her forehand and croup by the proper flexions, you can start in a more certain way. You must not expect to succeed at once. Success depends upon Nelly's intelligence, your own patience, and the delicate perceptions of both. I assume that you will have already taught Nelly to canter whenever you wish her to do so, though she may have been selecting her own lead. Now, you can, of course, see, when you want her to canter, that if you keep her head straight with the reins and press upon her near flank with your leg, she will throw her croup away from your leg, and be for the moment out of the true line of advance. This is bad for the walk or the trot, but just what you want to induce her to start the canter with the off shoulder leading. For if you can keep her in this position until she takes the canter, she will be more apt to lead off with her right shoulder, because the forcing of her croup to the right has also pushed this shoulder in advance of the other. If at the same time she is traveling along a slope which runs up from her right, say the left side of the road, or on a circle turning to the right, she will be all the more apt to do this. You can aid her also by a little marked play with the right rein, which will tend to enliven that side, and by giving it increased action, aid in bringing it forward, even if not done with entire expertness. A number of English writers state that the proper indication for the lead with the right foot is a tap of the whip on the right side, but this appears to be lacking in good theory, and might prove very confusing to a horse, despite the fact that the animal can be made to learn anything as an indication. A tap of the whip under the right elbow would be more consistent with the horse's action, although it is quite possible, as a feat, to teach a horse to lead with the off shoulder by pulling his off ear, or his tail, for the matter of that. But indications are best when they tally with a sound theory of the horse's motions. Reverse causes will induce Nelly to lead with the left shoulder. Not, of course, at once. For though she will do it in a circle or figure eight, on the road she may still be often confused. It requires much time and practice to make her perfect. But once Nelly catches the idea, you can surely succeed in impressing it on her for good and all, and though she will blunder often enough, she will in the end learn it thoroughly. When you start out to make Nelly lead off with one shoulder, be sure you accomplish your object. If she leads off with the other, stop her at once, and try again. Always succeed with a horse in what you undertake. If you cannot, on any given day, make Nelly lead right, do not let her canter at all, but keep her on a trot or a walk. It requires a number of successful trials to make it plain to the intelligence of a horse that he has done what you want, and is to do it again on similar indications. It is, therefore, well for him not to have to learn too many new lessons at once. XLI. To change lead in motion is harder for the horse and rider both to learn, and there is no better test of a well-trained horse than an immediate and balanced change of lead on call. A canter is a gait somewhat similar to the gallop, though the feet move and come down in different progression. But at certain times one or more of the four feet are successively sustaining the weight, and there is an interval when the horse is unsupported in the air, or has only one hind foot upon the ground. It is this last period which the horse chooses in which to change his lead. Now, suppose you are cantering with Nelly's right shoulder leading, and want her to change to the left. If you press upon her right flank with your leg, she will want to shift her croup to the left. This will incline her naturally to turn her head to the right, which inclination you must counteract with as little motion as possible of the reins. Nelly will thus find that she is cantering uncomfortably to herself, and if you will keep along in this way for a few strides, she will very likely shift to her left lead, because the constraint of your leg and the bit are irksome while she continues to lead with the right, and she will try what she can do to get rid of the restraint. She certainly will change after a while, particularly if aided by the circle or slope, even if she does it because she does not know what else to do. And by rousing or lightening the left shoulder by a play of the left rein you will materially aid the change. So soon as she has changed, reward her by a few words, and canter along on the new lead. The reverse accomplishes a similar result. It will probably take you many weeks to bring about all this. If you do it in a few weeks, you will succeed far beyond the average. But the process of teaching an intelligent horse, if you are patient, is as pleasant as the result of the lessons is agreeable, after they have had their due effect. A horse should be so well trained as to be ready to turn with a "false" lead if you ask him to do so. Left to himself, he should take the proper lead at the moment of turning. But he must obey you to the extent of doing what he would otherwise not do, and should properly not do, if you give him the indication. And this without becoming confused, so as to fail to do the proper thing on the next occasion. Though I by no means hold up Patroclus to-day as a model performer of School-paces, which I am perhaps too lazy to keep him as perfect in as I ought to do, the results of good training still remain. I sometimes, when out of sight, canter him quite a stretch, say quarter of a mile, changing lead, first every fourth stride, then every third stride, then every second, in regular rhythmic succession. If Patroclus fails to do this feat with exactness, I can always recognize my own error in too late an indication, rather than his in obeying it. It is possible to canter him very slowly with a change of lead at every stride, but such work is very exhausting to a horse, and I have not often done it. This latter feat must be done so slowly that the gait is properly not a canter; but Patroclus can perform the true canter, and change at every second step readily for several hundred yards. There are undoubtedly many well-trained horses in Boston, very likely more highly trained ones than I am aware of; but certainly the great majority of saddle beasts possess scarcely the rudiments of an education. This seems to be a pity, when it requires so little labor to give them one, if their owners will but learn how to do so. Not long ago a friend of mine, and an old rider too, was exhibiting to me a recently purchased horse, for whom he had paid a high price, because he was said to have come fresh from the hands of some noted trainer. The horse would fall into a canter with his own lead readily enough, but when, after a struggle of some hundred yards, he was made to lead with the foot selected by the rider, it was thought to be a triumph of cleverness. Is not this a common case? And would it not be well to rectify it? XLII. There are a number of little exercises which you ought by no means to omit, as, for instance, practicing Nelly in backing quickly, handily, and without losing her balance. This is only to be done by slow degrees, a few steps at a time, and by generously rewarding progress as she increases her number of backward steps. Never force her. Use persuasion only. In doing this, watch that she is always well poised. Otherwise she cannot back properly. You must also teach her, by that use of the reins and legs which you will already have learned, to change direction as she backs, as easily as she does in moving forward. These necessary things she has already been crudely taught in her breaking-in. If Nelly has the pride of a courageous horse, as I should judge by her bright eye that she had, she will be fairly greedy of kind words and caresses. And I trust you will never allow her to become afraid of the whip. You should be able to switch your whip all about her face without her heeding it. Reward goes much farther than punishment. The latter needs very rarely to be resorted to. I have never used it, barring in isolated cases, but what afterwards I was ashamed of it, and not infrequently I have made most sincere apology and amends to the sufferer. But the harm done has always been hard to eradicate. An impatient man quickly loses his standing in the confidence and affection of an intelligent horse. In your training, a whip will be much more useful than a crop. The latter is but a badge of fashion, of absolutely no use on the road, and of but little in education. Now, Tom, I have suggested to you a number of very crude rules for training your mare. Like Captain Jack Bunsby I ought to add that "the bearings of this observation lays in the application on it." But by the patient aid of even these simple methods, intelligently used, you will have given Nelly an easy mouth, you will have suppled her forehand and croup, and you will have taught her to canter with either foot in the lead. Everything which I have told you can be put to use by a lady as well as a man. But a lady needs preliminary teaching in a school, because it is neither pleasant nor safe for her to be on the road quite untaught. But having acquired a seat and some little control of her horse, she can apply all the rules I have given you, using her whip as a man would use his right leg. The short skirts of the day enable her to use her left leg as readily as you can. The gallop comes of itself, and needs but care that your own position is good and does not lose firmness or interfere with your hands. Better sit down to the gallop. The jockey habit of galloping in the stirrups is rarely of use except as a means of changing your own seat and sometimes of easing your horse across ploughed fields or bad ground. It is never proper for the road. XLIII. Having got thus far, you will surely want to teach the mare to jump and yourself to sit her firmly when she does so. Perhaps you may choose to defer the tedious processes described and go at jumping at once. If you think you can sit a fairish jump, probably the best plan is to follow the hounds in a quiet way some day, if it happens to be in their season. A great many horses will jump imitatively when in company and do pretty clean simple work. There is a bit of a chance for a blunder this way, because a horse unused to jumping cannot gauge his work and may come down. But by taking him slowly at his fences, perhaps at a walk, there is comparatively little risk. It is the exceptional horse who will jump well in cold blood, like Patroclus in the illustrations. But any horse can be taught to do so in a measure, and no horse can be called a hunter unless he will do so cleverly. If you first go out with the hounds, there is some danger that if your seat is insecure you will drag Nelly back from her leaps, and worry or confuse her so much that you will lose a deal of ground. Though, indeed, she will be less readily spoiled if she gets excited by the chase, than if put at equally high jumps as a lesson, because her eagerness to keep up with the other horses will exceed her annoyance at your unsteady hands. I would advise you, on the whole, to have a little practice in some quiet spot all by yourself. A horse who will only jump in company is far from perfect in this accomplishment. A well-trained horse should jump a three and a half foot gate or an eight foot ditch at any time as willingly as start into a sharp gallop. [Illustration: PLATE XIII. ABOUT TO LAND.] I assume that Nelly knows nothing of leaping. Wander off into the fields somewhere. Find a place where there is a gate or fence of several bars. Let all these down but one or two,--leaving enough in height for Nelly to step over if she lifts her feet way up,--say twenty inches. A fallen log is an excellent thing to try on. Make her cross and recross the bar or log a number of times, by persuasion only. Any horse will step over a high bar if you stand him in front of it and encourage him. Don't scold or strike her. Nothing disheartens the learning or courageous horse so much. From the days of Xenophon down, any one who loses his temper in training a horse, or uses any but gentle means, violates the precept, practice, and experience of all successful horsemen. "But never to approach a horse in a fit of anger is the one great precept and maxim of conduct in regard to the treatment of a horse; for anger is destitute of forethought, and consequently often does that of which the agent must necessarily repent." Xen. Horsemanship, vi. 13. Curiously enough, in spite of this rule, Xenophon advocates the use of the whip and spur in teaching a horse to leap--the gravest error, I think, of this exceedingly sensible horseman. It has been said that you should not make a horse keep on jumping the same obstacle, because he sees no reason for doing it, and feels that you are making a fool of him. But my experience is that a horse likes to jump at any well-known thing, if he has been petted or rewarded for cleverly clearing it. A horse who has been given a bit of sugar or apple after jumping is far from feeling that he has been made a fool of, even if he is jumped a dozen times over the same obstacle. And every horse goes with double confidence at a thing he has leaped before. It is the horse who knows the country who makes easiest headway and quickest after hounds, and is oftenest in at the death. At the same time it is true that a horse can be spoiled by leaping him in cold blood much more easily than when in the company of many others. And it is also true that if a horse is ridden at different things in succession, if such can be readily found, he learns to take whatever comes in his path more handily than if he is confined to only one jump. Still, after once learning to jump any one obstacle, the lesson is easily carried farther by riding across simple bits of country. As soon as Nelly walks right over the bar without hesitation or any pause longer than enough to lift her feet, walk or jog her up to it a bit faster. She will soon find that it is less exertion for her to rise to it with both feet at once, and hop over it, than to lift her feet so high. As soon as she has caught this idea, reward her with a nibble of something, for she has made her first step in learning the lesson. A little sugar, salt, or a bit of apple, or a green leaf or two, or a bunch of grass you will find to be wonderful incentives. Don't raise the bar too soon or too much. When Nelly is quite familiar with the small jump at a slow gait, trot her at it. Most horses can jump well from a trot. In fact some of the best riders always trot up to timber. It is a temptation of Providence to try to fly a stiff bit of timber, unless you have a wonderful jumper who knows you well, or unless you are at the beginning of a run, when your horse is in his best condition; and Providence should never be tempted except when a considerable result lies trembling in the balance. When Nelly takes the obstacle cleverly from a trot, canter her at it, and gradually she will take pleasure in hopping over it, particularly if she now and then gets a tidbit at the other side. Moreover, this tidbit will accomplish another object. It will teach your mare not to rush as soon as she clears her fence, which a horse who is whipped at his jumps almost always does. By insensible degrees and within a few weeks you will get Nelly to jump three feet high, or even three and a half. If she can do this in cold blood, "clane and cliver," she will be able to do anything within reason which you need when in company. You can try her in just the same way at small, then at large ditches, always keeping to the familiar place and rewarding success, until Nelly learns what jumping in the abstract is. After that, try her at all kinds of things in moderation. There is more than a grain of good sense in the idea that a horse does not want to be made to jump unnecessarily. And it is true that some horses get stubborn if always put at the same obstacle without an object. But if a horse associates praise and reward with jumping, he will be ready for it at any proper time. You should, however, avoid making a tired horse leap except when it is absolutely necessary. Let him do this work when he is fresh. You of course know that a really stanch horse is usually fresher after five or ten miles of average speed than at the start. The best of stayers are often quite dull until they get their legs stretched and their bodies emptied. This particularly applies to aged horses. And perhaps the very worst time to jump a horse is when he is just out of the stall. XLIV. How about holding the reins in the jump? Well, now we come to debatable ground. To-day's fashion tells you to use both hands. The old-fashioned English habit, as well as the necessary habit of the soldier and of all other riders who have work to do, is to use the bridle hand alone. I prefer the latter habit. Only a half-trained horse needs both hands. A good jumper ought to want to jump, not have to be steered and shoved over an obstacle. I am willing to allow that some brutes have to be so steered; but if a horse is well-taught, likes to leap, and can be safely ridden at an obstacle with one hand, why use two? If a man is astride a horse who must be steered, let him use both. If he can teach his horse to be true at his jumps with but one hand, both will have gained a point, and be one hand better off. For two hands may be used at any time, if called for. A sound and vigorous horse, who has been properly taught to jump, will take anything which he feels that his rider himself means to go over. If you want utterly to spoil your Nelly, ride her at things you yourself feel uncertain about clearing. She will quickly find out your mood from your hands. The only rule for keeping your mare true to her work is never to ride at anything which you have not made up your mind to carry her over. Be true to yourself in your ambition to jump, and Nelly will be true to you. It is usually the horses that have been fooled by uncertain hearts and tremulous hands who fail you at the critical moment, or who have to be steered over their fences. So long as your horse has jumping ability, and you have a "warm heart and a cool head," you can go anywhere. A generation ago no one was ashamed of even letting his right arm fly up now and then, for it was not in olden times the extremity of "bad form" which it is now pronounced to be. Look over Doyle or Leech for proof of this. But the main argument against the unnecessary use of two hands is that you may absolutely require your right hand for something else, while it certainly argues a poor training or character in a horse to make it a _sine qua non_ for you to employ both at every leap. Of what avail would a trooper be in a charge, with his horse bounding over dismounted companions, dead, or, worse still, wounded and struggling horses, and all manner of obstacles, if he had to steer his horse with his sword-hand? And not infrequently you will find, in the peaceful charge after harmless Reynard, that your right arm is better employed in fending off blows from stray branches or in opening a passage through a close cover, than in holding on to one of your reins. Have you never been through a bullfinch where you must part the clustering branches if you were to scramble through and avoid the wondrous wise man's bramble-bush experience? Have you never felt your hat going at the instant your horse was taking off? Have you never seen just the neatest place in the hedge obstructed by a single branch, which your right arm could thrust aside as you flew over? Have you never, O my hunting brother, had to make an awfully sudden grab at your horse's mane? And while I am happy to defer to the opinion of some of the most noted steeple-chasers and first-flight men in this controversy, when they call single-hand jumping a hateful practice, and ascribe to it half the bad habits of the hunter and the crooked seats of the rider, I am satisfied to look at the portraits of such wonderful equestrians as Captain Percy Williams, or Tom Clarke, huntsman of the Old Berkshire, and a dozen others that could be instanced, all using the bridle hand alone, and some of them even forgetting that it is "bad form" to let the right elbow leave the side. Bad form, forsooth! These portraits would scarcely have been thus painted if the habit had met the disapproval of the celebrated horsemen in question. So far as you are concerned, Tom, you will learn while Penelope is learning. Use your snaffle bit alone. A man needs light hands to jump with a curb, or else his horse must have a leather mouth. Whenever Nelly has made up her mind to jump, let her have her head. Don't try to tell her when to take off. Leave that to her, and don't flurry her while she is making up her mind when and where to do it. Leave that to the very experienced rider. If she is jumping from a stand, or slow trot, you can say a word of encouragement to her, but by no means do so at a gallop, when within a stride or two of the jump. Be ready, however, to draw rein sufficient to give her some support as soon as she has landed. You will find that when Nelly jumps, the strong and quick extension of her hind legs will throw you into the air and forward. To obviate this settle down in your seat, in other words, "curl your sitting bones under you," use your legs (not your heels), and lean back just enough not to get thrown from your saddle. Don't try any of the fancy ideas about first leaning forward to ease her croup while she takes off. You will come a cropper if you do. Lean back. It will not take you long to find out how much, and the leaning forward will come of itself. XLV. It is often alleged by old cross-country riders that the best hunters land on their hind feet. Many no doubt land so quickly and so well gathered that they give to the eye the appearance of so doing. But I doubt if photography would really show them to land other than on one fore foot, instantly relieved by the second one planted a short stride farther on, and followed by the corresponding hind ones in succession. Plate XIV. shows what I mean, and the same thing appears in all the Muybridge photographs. But your eye can by no means catch Patroclus in this position. His hind legs seem to follow his fore legs much more closely; and he always lands cleverly and so well gathered as to make not the slightest falter in his new stride. It is also said that the best water-jumpers skim and do not rise much to the jump. But I fancy that every horse rises more to water than the fancy drawn pictures show. Gravitation alone, it seems, would make this necessary. Photography would prove the fact, but there are probably not enough such photographs extant to-day to decide upon the question. You may read a dozen volumes about jumping, Tom, but a dozen jumps will teach you a dozen times as much as the printer's ink. And remember that a standing or an irregular jump, even if small, or that the leap of a pony, is harder to sit than a well-timed jump of twice the dimensions on a full grown horse. I have been nearly dismounted in teaching a new horse much oftener than in the hunting-field. It is only when your horse comes down, or when a bad jumper rushes at his fence and then swerves or refuses suddenly, that there is any grave danger of a fall in riding to hounds. Don't be afraid of a fall. It won't hurt you much in nineteen cases out of twenty. If you find you are really going and can't save yourself, don't stiffen. Try to flop, the more like a drunken man the better. It is rigid muscles which break bones. This is a hard rule to learn. Many falls alone teach its uses. A suggestion will by no means do so. But hold on to your reins for your life, Tom, when you fall. This is one of the most important things to remember. It has saved many a man from being dragged. A man who brags that he has never had a fall may be set down as having never done much hard riding. Many a time and oft have the very best riders and their steeds entered the next field in Tom Noddy's order: Tom Noddy 1. T. N.'s b.g. Dan 2. And yet how few bones there are broken for the number of falls. A good shaking up is all there is to it, as a rule. When a man mellows into middle life--(how much farther on in years middle life is when we are well past forty than when we are twenty-five!)--he is apt to feel discreet, because conscious that a bad spill may hurt him worse than in his youth, and he will look upon a "hog-backed stile" as a thing requiring a deal of deliberation, if not a wee bit jumping-powder. He will avoid trying conclusions whenever he can. But at your age and with your legs, on that mare of yours, Tom, you should go anywhere, if she will learn to jump cleverly. Your feet should be "home" in the stirrups, and you will naturally throw them slightly backward as you hold on, toes down, because it both gives you the better grip and keeps your stirrup on your foot. In this particular, Tom, I bid you heed my precept, and not study my example, which is by no means of the best, as I am reduced to jumping with a straight leg, and to fastening my stirrup to my foot, lest I should not find it when I land. XLVI. The Englishman's method and seat for cross-country riding is undeniably the best, and perhaps is hardly to be criticised. But a good seat or hands for hunting are not necessarily good for all other saddle work. That firmness in the saddle which will take a man over a five-foot wall may not be of the same quality as will give him absolutely light hands for School-riding. For as a rule, Englishmen prefer hunters who take pretty well hold of the bridle, and work well up to the bit. And for this one purpose, perhaps they are right. Such a hold will not, however, teach a man the uses of light hands in the remotest degree. In a sharp run to hounds, a horse must have his head. For high pace or great exertions of mere speed, the horse must be free. A twitch on the curb may check him at a jump and give him a bad fall. As in racing, a horse has to learn that his duty is to put all his courage, speed, and jumping ability into his work, subject only to discreet guidance and management. But on the road, the exact reverse should be the rule. There is surely less enjoyment in your Penelope, who to-day can only walk, or else go a four-minute gait without constant friction, than there will be when she can vary her gaits and keep up any desired rate of speed, from a walk to a fifteen-mile trot or a sharp gallop, at the least intimation of your hands and without discomfort to herself. I know of nothing more annoying than to be forced by a riding companion of whichever sex into a sharper gait than either of you wish to go, because mounted on a fretting horse, who cannot be brought down to a comfortable rate of speed until all but tired out. In the hunting-field you expect to go fast for a short time, and it is alone the speed and the occasional obstacle which lend the zest to the sport. But for the ride on the road, which to many of us is a lazy luxury, you need variety in speed as well as gaits for both comfort and pleasure. Patroclus here will walk, amble, rack, single-foot, trot, canter, gallop, and run, or go from any one into any other at will; and every one of these gaits is unmistakably distinct, crisp, and well performed. Nor have I ever found him any the less accomplished cross-country, within his limitation of condition and speed, for having had a complete education for the road. When I give him his head and loosen my curb, I find him just as free as if I had never restrained him from choosing his own course. Who can deny that the pleasure to be derived from such a horse for daily use does not exceed that to be got from one who can only trot on the road, or run and jump in the field? [Illustration: PLATE XIV. LANDING.] Perhaps Nelly will never learn so much, for Patroclus is an exceptionally intelligent and well-suppled horse. But she can learn a good deal of it. Patroclus had no idea of any gait but a walk or trot when I bought him, nor did he start with any better equipment than Penelope; and in less than a year he knew all that he knows now, and much that he has forgotten. For in the many High School airs which he once could at call perform, he is altogether rusty from sheer lack of usage. But the "moral" may remain, though the fable may have long since passed from the memory. XLVII. Some horses, who trot squarely, will go naturally from a walk into a little amble or pace, which is sometimes called a "shuffle." Often this is an agreeable and handsome gait, but not infrequently far from pleasant. Often, too, it will spoil the speed of the walk, as the horse will insensibly fall into it if pushed beyond his ease. A slower rate at a faster pace is always easier to a horse than the extreme of speed at the lesser gait. It is scarcely worth while in the East to try to teach a horse to amble or rack if he does not naturally do so, though it can often be done. Apart from the agreeable and useful side of the true rack as a gait, it has not a few further advantages. In coming from a canter to a walk, a horse may be taught to slow up into a rack, and then drop to the walk, or to stop in the same manner. This enables him to come down without the least suspicion of that roughness which almost all horses show when stopping a canter, particularly if done quickly; unless, indeed, they be "poised" before being stopped, as a School-ridden horse always is from every gait. Moreover, when you rein a cantering horse down within the slowest limit of his speed at that pace, as to allow a team to pass, or for a similar purpose, if he knows how, he will fall into a rack, from which he can with much more comfort to himself and you resume the canter, than if he had fallen into a walk. A rack is not an interruption of the canter, as is a jog or walk, but a mere _retardando_, as it were. Still a rapid walk, a trot which varies from six to ten miles, and a well-collected canter suffice for any of our Eastern needs. These, and the gallop, moreover, are considered the only permissible paces by the School-riders of Europe. In our Southern States rackers are bred for, and the instinct is confirmed by training. In many warm countries, ambling is bred for. I do not think that any horse with practically but a single gait, as is usually the case with the ambler or racker, comes up to the requisite standard of usefulness. Of the two, I should give my preference, in our latitude, to a mere trotter, if easy, who had a busy walk beside. But in addition to the trot and canter, any comfortable gait may often be a relief, and it is eminently desirable, if the horse can learn it without spoiling his proper paces. Such a gait adds vastly to a horse's value for the saddle. I cannot agree with the School-riders that a rack may not be a good School gait. Patroclus' rack, when collected, is certainly as clean a performance as any of his other gaits. From it he will drop back to a walk, or fall into a canter or gallop with either lead, or into a square trot. And this more quickly than from another gait, for if, in a canter, the indication to trot be given him out of season, he may be obliged to complete one more stride before he can execute the order; whereas, from a rack, which is always a mid-stride for any gait, he can instantly fall into the one commanded. The indication and execution are often all but instantaneous from the rack. He is really more neatly collected on the rack proper than on any other gait, except the canter; and though the rack is unrecognized as a School pace, I feel certain that I could convince any master of the Haute Ecole that within proper limits it is an addition, not a loss, to the education of a horse. What School-riders mean when they exclude the rack from School-paces is that a racker has rarely any other gait; and in the usual loose-jointed rack of the South a horse is certainly not well enough poised for use in School performances. XLVIII. To come back to our original text, then, it is quite impossible to say, as a whole, what seat is intrinsically the best, or what nation furnishes the best of riders. It appears to me that there is such a thing as a _natural_ seat. Such a seat is clearly shown on the frieze of the Parthenon, and in a less artistic way may be seen among any horsemen riding without stirrups. Although Xenophon has been misunderstood in this particular, I feel convinced that his description calls for what I understand to be the natural seat. And the best military riders make the nearest approach to this position. By military seat I by no means intend to convey the idea of a straight leg, forked radish style. That is not the military seat proper. It is only in spite of such a seat, or in spite of the short stirrup of the East, and because they are always in the saddle, that the Mexican gaucho and the Arab of the desert both ride as magnificently as they do. The best military rider should, and does, carry the leg as it naturally falls when sitting on his breech, not his crotch, on the bare back of a horse. The steeple-chaser, or cross-country rider, for perfectly satisfactory reasons, has a much shorter stirrup. But on the road, he should, and generally does, come back more nearly to the natural length. The main advantage in the very long stirrup which obtains among so many peoples lies in the possibility of sitting close on a trot with greater ease, and of using the lasso or whip, or in having a free hand for their sundry sports or duties. And a high pommel and cantle are advantageous in helping the rider preserve his seat when he might be dragged--not thrown--from it in some of his peculiar experiences. But the perfectly straight leg always bears a suggestion of the parting advice of the groom to a Sunday rider just leaving the stable: "Look straight between his hears, sir, and keep your balance, and you _can't_ come hoff." On the other hand, the advantages of an extremely short stirrup, such as prevails in the Orient, are very difficult to be understood at all. The military riders of every civilized country, where enlistments are long enough, and where proper care is given to the instruction in equestrianism, are excellent. It would be curious indeed if men who devote their lives to the art should not be so. Some of our old army cavalry officers rode gloriously. Our volunteer cavalry, late in the war, rode strongly, though not always handsomely. During the past twenty years the severe work and long marches of our regular mounted troops have militated greatly against equestrianism as an art. Some of the most accomplished riders I have ever known have been in the United States Army. Philip Kearny, that _preux chevalier_, the "one-armed devil," was in every sense a superb rider. I have seen him with his cap in one hand, his empty sleeve blowing outward with his speed, and his sword dangling from his wrist, ride over a Virginia snake fence such as most of us would want to knock at least the top rail off. "How he strode his brown steed! How we saw his blade brighten In the one hand still left,--and the reins in his teeth! He laughed like a boy when the holidays heighten, But a soldier's glance shot from his visor beneath!" And a man who could not follow him did not long remain upon his staff. One of my lost opportunities occurred for such a reason during Pope's campaign, when General Kearny, who had dispatched right and left all his aides, beckoned to me at dusk one evening to ride out and draw the fire of some of the enemy's troops supposed to be on the edge of a wood, some half a mile or so distant. My own horse had been shot, and my equipments lost. I had captured an old farm-horse without a saddle, and had extemporized a rope bridle. The course lay athwart some open fields, with a number of fences still standing. My desire to do this work stood in inverse ratio to my steed's ability to second me. And no sooner had I ridden up and touched my cap for orders, than the general had gauged the poverty of my beast and rig, and speedily selected a better mounted messenger. During the war, among the volunteer troops, we used in some of the divisions to organize steeple-chases during a long term of inactive operations, and good ones we frequently had; the old style steeple-chase over an unknown course being the fashion, and the steeple generally a prominent tree, at a distance of a couple of miles. Often the course was round a less distant tree and back again. Not a few good riders and horses were forthcoming to enter for such an event, and I have rarely seen better riding than there. An unknown course over Virginia fences, and through patches of Virginia second growth, especially after heavy rains, when mere gutters became rivers for a number of hours, and the ground was much like hasty-pudding, could be a test to try the best of horses and horsemen. These are but isolated examples, instanced only as showing that every species of hard saddle work is very naturally apt to be cultivated among men whose duty keeps them in the saddle the better part of every day. And it is well known that English army officers are among the very best cross-country riders, and not a few have occupied the dignity of M. F. H., and done it credit. Surely such a rider, trained in the niceties of the _manège_, as well as experienced in riding to hounds, may fitly be placed at the head of the equestrian roll of honor. * * * * * After excluding professionals, then (and exceptional individuals), I am afraid I must brave criticism in calling the officers of civilized mounted troops distinctly the best class of riders. Next--perhaps you will say in the same category--comes that class in England which makes its one pleasure the prosecution of the most splendid of all sports, fox-hunting, and has reached perfection in the art. Excluding all riders who do not belong to the classes available for our imitation, there comes next, _longo intervallo_, the civilian rider everywhere. It is impossible to draw any comparison between the above classes and even our own cowboys, whose peculiar duties and untamed mustangs prescribe their long leathers and horned pommel. Nor can the equatorial style be fairly contrasted with what meets the wants of the denizens of the civilized cities of the temperate zone. In this country, the Southerner is the most constantly in the saddle, and a good rider in the sunny South is a thoroughly good rider. But I have often wondered at the number of poor ones it is possible to find in localities where everybody moves about in the saddle. Many men there, who ride all the time, seem to have acquired the trick of breaking every commandment in the decalogue of equitation. Using horses as a mere means of transportation seems sometimes to reduce the steed to a simple beast of burden, and equestrianism to the bald ability to sit in the saddle as you would in an ox-cart. I think I have seen more graceful equestriennes in the South than anywhere else,--than even in England. But I must admit that all women who ride well possess such attractions for me as perhaps to warp my judgment in endeavoring to draw comparisons. Who but a Paris could have awarded the apple? Although the Southern woman refuses to ride the trot, she has a proper substitute for it, and her seat is generally admirable. Though I greatly admire a square trot well ridden in a side-saddle, it is really the rise on this gait which makes so many crooked female riders among ourselves and our British cousins. This ought not to be so, but ladies are apt to resent too much severity in instruction, and without strict obedience to her master, a lady never learns to ride gracefully and stoutly. In the South, ladies ride habitually, and moreover a rack, single-foot, and canter are not only graceful, but straight-sitting paces for a woman. It is not to-day risking much, however, to prophesy that within the lapse of little time our Eastern cities will boast as many clever Amazons as are to be found in the South. Who can contend that our Yankee women have not the intelligence, courage, vigor, and grace to rank with the riders of any clime? XLIX. And now, Master Tom, let me again impress upon you that I have been giving you only the most rudimentary idea of how to train your mare. By no means expect that Nelly will ever execute the traverse, pirouette, Spanish trot, or piaffer, let alone trot or gallop backwards, as these airs should be performed, by any such superficial education. But you will certainly find her more agreeable, more tractable, safer, and easier, and you will have both enjoyed the schooling. And I feel assured that having gone so far you will not stop short of the next step, the study and practice of the art in its true refinements. I may, moreover, safely assume that after you have once owned a School-trained horse, you will never again be content with what might be appropriately termed the "perfect saddle horse" of commerce. Our roads part here,--yours towards the studious shades of Harvard, mine towards the rolling uplands of Chestnut Hill. Fare you well! * * * * * PATROCLUS AND PENELOPE _A CHAT IN THE SADDLE_ BY THEODORE AYRAULT DODGE BREVET LIEUTENANT-COLONEL UNITED STATES ARMY (RETIRED LIST); AUTHOR OF "THE CAMPAIGN OF CHANCELLORSVILLE," "A BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE CIVIL WAR," ETC., ETC. ILLUSTRATED WITH FOURTEEN PHOTOTYPES OF THE HORSE IN MOTION _Since--as it has been our fortune to be long engaged about horses--we consider that we have acquired some knowledge of horsemanship, we desire also to intimate to the younger part of our friends how we think that they may bestow their attention on horses to the best advantage._ XENOPHON _on Horsemanship_ HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY BOSTON AND NEW YORK PATROCLUS AND PENELOPE: A Chat in the Saddle. By THEODORE AYRAULT DODGE, Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, U.S.A. (Retired List), author of "The Campaign of Chancellorsville," "A Bird's-Eye View of the Civil War," etc. Illustrated with fourteen phototypes of the Horse in motion. In one volume, octavo, gilt top, half roan, $3.00. CONTENTS: Patroclus and I; Saddles and Seats; Patroclus on a Rack; The Rack and Single-Foot; Patroclus Trotting; Thoroughbred or Half-Bred; The Saddle Mania; Park-Riding; A Fine Horse not necessarily a Good Hack; Soldiers have Stout Seats; A Gate and a Brook; The Old Trooper; Instruction in Riding; Chilly Fox-Hunting; Is Soldier or Fox-Hunter the Better Rider? The School-Rider; Patroclus Happy; Photography versus Art; A One-Man Horse; Baucher's Favorite Saddle Horse; Patroclus sniffs a Friend; Riding-Schools and School-Riding; Is Schooling of Value? Manuals of Training; Result of Training; Qualities of the Horse; Dress, Saddles, and Bridles; Mounting; How to hold the Reins; How to begin Training; Penelope's Unrestrained Courage; Hints before beginning to train a Horse; Guiding by the Neck; What an Arched Neck means; Flexions of the Neck; Flexions of the Croup; The Canter; Leading with either Shoulder; The Horse's Natural Lead; The Best Way to teach the Lead; Change of Lead in Motion; Suggestions; How to begin Jumping; The Reins in the Jump; Odds and Ends of Leaping; Hunting and Road-Riding; Advantages of True Rack; Who is the Best Rider? Vale! _This book is written from an experience extending over thirty years,--in the English hunting-field, the Prussian army, the plains of the West, active service during the Civil War, and daily riding everywhere. The author has studied equestrianism as an art, and, although believing in the Haute Ecole of Baucher, enjoys with equal zest a ride to hounds or a gallop on the western prairies._ _The experienced equestrian will be delighted by the author's breezy talk and thorough knowledge of his subject. The young horseman who may have purchased a colt just broken to harness can by the use of its hints make him as clever as Patroclus. Even the man who rides but a dozen times a year will be interested in the book, while the every-day reader will be charmed by its simplicity, geniality, and heartiness._ NOTICES OF THE PRESS. The reader must feel that he is in distinctively good company. It is a running commentary on saddle-riding, and gives the reader much the same advantages he would have from a season's riding in company with a gentleman who has ridden in all countries, on all sorts of animals, and under all sorts of conditions.... One of the most attractive of recent books.--_Boston Advertiser._ We all love Isaak Walton's talks about fish or John Burroughs's essays on birds; in the same spirit is this delightful book of Col. Dodge's.... It is a familiar chat of a man who knows all about horsemanship and can tell you how to mount or ride, what saddle or bridle to use, and, at the same time, touch upon life in the saddle with words which will make your blood tingle.--_Saturday Evening Gazette_ (Boston). It consists of a series of essay-like chapters written in a lively, chatty, conversational manner which makes it charming reading. The advice is full of hints and suggestions to the experienced horseman as well as of instructions of the utmost value to the new initiate in the equestrian art. We are in sympathy with the author before the first page is turned.--_Yale Literary Magazine_ (New Haven). The volume consists of a most charming series of chats about horses and horsemanship by a man who is thoroughly in the spirit of his subject, and who is not a hidebound partisan of any school of equestrianism, holding to the catholic belief that there are good riders in every land and in every species of saddle.--_Army and Navy Journal_ (New York). It abounds in excellent suggestions, the fruit of sound experience, accurate observations, and good common sense. It is an excellent book for the amateur. Withal it is told in a pleasant, easy way, as if it had been written in the saddle instead of at the desk.--_Christian Register_ (Boston). Col. Dodge combines to an altogether uncommon degree the merit of a close acquaintance with and real enthusiasm in his subject, and the quality of a trained literarian. The aspiring equestrian will gain instruction from the lips of a masterly instructor.--_Christian Union_ (New York). Col. Dodge has given the beginner in the art of horsemanship the best possible introduction to his pleasurable task. The author has had a much wider store of practical experience in horsemanship than his predecessors in this field of instruction.--_New York Evening Post._ The practical horseman cannot fail to admire the firm, easy seat which the beginner will do well to copy. "Patroclus" is ably described, and, if up to what is said of him, must be a gem of the first water.--_New York Times._ One who has had some experience in the saddle will derive from it the same sort of profit and entertainment which might be expected from an accomplished, observant, clear-headed, and good-natured companion on the road.--_New York Tribune._ Col. Dodge rode his horse at the time the photographs were taken, and his skill in horsemanship is exhibited by a seat that was undisturbed by even the most violent exertions of his steed.--_Sporting and Dramatic News_ (London). His horse "Patroclus" is his hero, his mare "Penelope" his heroine, and the adventures undertaken with the aid of these two good animals make a story which will fire the blood of every reader.--_Brooklyn Union._ Col. Dodge has succeeded in giving much excellent advice on the management of the horse, while at the same time holding the reader's attention by the interest of the narrative.--_Herald-Crimson_ (Cambridge). The beginner who will follow the excellent and simple rules of training given by our author will be sure to win success in the art and a great deal of pleasure by the way.--_The Nation_ (New York). Considerable as is the space allotted to jumping, it is not too great in view of the popularity of cross-country riding. We find in it nothing to criticise.--_Philadelphia Record._ Written in a pleasant, sympathetic vein and in almost conversational form, it has an abundance of keen hints and graceful thoughts on horseback riding as an art.--_Cincinnati Commercial Gazette._ He covers the whole ground of good horsemanship, not as an amateur or theorist, but as one who knows all the facts with which he deals.--_San Francisco Chronicle._ Col. Dodge is an expert in all the finesse and paraphernalia of horses and horseback-riding.... The advice is sound and simple and very direct.--_The Critic_ (New York). The chapters on the training of horse and rider are full of sound information, clearly stated, and practical to the last.--_Journal of Military Service Institution_ (New York). A lover of horses will find in this volume a book which will give him unlimited pleasure.--_The Book-Buyer_ (New York). This book will be given an enthusiastic welcome by all lovers of equestrianism.--_Chicago Journal._ The hearty animal spirits which gallop through its pages are catching.--_New York Mail and Express._ Col. Dodge is a charming teacher.--_Boston Herald._ HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY, _Publishers_, BOSTON AND NEW YORK. 
39357	----	TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. BULLETIN NO. 102. JANUARY 1908 -------------------------- DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. College Station, Texas. [Photograph: Honey Bee on Horse-mint] _Honey Bee on Horse-mint_ TEXAS HONEY PLANTS. C. E. Sanborn, U. S. Cooperative Entomologist and Acting State Entomologist. E. E. Scholl, Assistant State Entomologist and Apiarist. -------------------------- Postoffice, COLLEGE STATION, BRAZOS COUNTY, TEXAS. * * * * * TEXAS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS -------------------------- OFFICERS. -------------------------- GOVERNING BOARD. (Board of Directors A. & M. College.) K. K. LEGGETT, President Abilene T. D. ROWELL, Vice President Jefferson A. HAIDUSEK La Grange J. M. GREEN Yoakum WALTON PETEET Dallas R. T. MILNER Austin L. L. McINNIS Bryan W. B. SEBASTIAN Breckenridge STATION OFFICERS. H. H. HARRINGTON LL. D., President of the College and Director J. W. CARSON Assistant to Director and State Feed Inspector W. G. WELBORN Vice Director and Agriculturist M. FRANCIS Veterinarian E. J. KYLE Horticulturist JOHN C. BURNS Animal Husbandry R. L. BENNETT Cotton Specialist O. M. BALL Botanist G. S. FRAPS Chemist C. E. SANBORN Co-Operative Entomologist N. C. HAMNER Assistant Chemist E. C. CARLYLE Assistant Chemist L. McLENNAN Deputy Feed Inspector A. T. POTTS Deputy Feed Inspector J. H. RODGERS Deputy Peed Inspector H. E. HANNA Deputy Feed Inspector C. W. CRISLER Chief Clerk W. L. BOYETT Clerk Feed Control F. R. Navaille Stenographer A. S. Ware Stenographer STATE SUB-STATIONS. W. S. HOTCHKISS, Superintendent Troupe, Smith County S. A. WASCHKA, Superintendent Beeville, Bee County NOTE--The main station is located on the grounds of the Agricultural and Mechanical College, in Brazos County. The postoffice address is College Station, Texas. Reports and bulletins are sent free upon application to the Director. PREFACE. This preliminary bulletin on Texas Honey Plants represents work of the Department of Entomology dating through the office tenures of Professors Mally, Newell, Sanderson and Conradi. They each have authorized and aided in the collection of the flora and data contained in this publication. To Mr. Louis H. Scholl, of New Braunfels, Texas, Assistant and Apiarist from 1902 until 1906, the Department is directly indebted for the material contained herein, except as is otherwise designated. Mr. Ernest Scholl, now Assistant and Apiarist, has furnished material as shown herein. He is now working on a continuation of the subject. Mr. D. C. Milam, of Uvalde, formerly Foul Brood Inspector, has also contributed, as is shown. The main body of the work, however, has been accomplished through the services of Mr. Louis H. Scholl, and much credit is due him, since he has done more in this Department, and perhaps more than any other person in helping to build up the Bee Industry of Texas. His data are followed by this mark * INTRODUCTION. This publication treats of many of the Texas honey plants in a brief technical manner. In addition, wherever possible, the common name is used in connection with the description. The sequence followed by Coulter in his Botany of South West Texas is herein mainly followed. In some instances quotations from Small's Botany of Texas were used, as is shown in the publication. The plants are discussed by families. Not only is the honey producing qualities of the plants mentioned, but frequent mention is also made of the respective quality and yield of pollen and propolis. Data are included in many instances concerning the weather conditions and its effects upon the yield of certain plants. It is hoped that this will be a great help to apiarists in selecting locations for bees, since the value of bees depends entirely on the environment under which they may be placed. Again it may help in selecting certain plants to be planted that might prove to be very beneficial to an established apiary. The geographical distribution is given in a general brief way, so that one is less apt to be confused concerning the abundance in nature of certain plants. In this connection it must be remembered, however, that on account of extended cultivation in Texas, some of the common wild plants are becoming less numerous than formerly, while cultivated varieties are becoming more common. Two indices are contained in this bulletin. The first contains all the common or vernacular names, and the second contains the latin or technical names. The latter is complete, since some plants are known only by the technical appellation. ***** TRIPLE-LEAFED BARBERRY. Berberis trifoliata Moric. Barberry family. Berberideae. "On gravelly slopes and foothills from the Gulf coast to the Limpia mountains." (Coulter). Hunter, gravelly hills; honey yield abundant, also pollen; fine for early brood rearing. January and February.* PRICKLY POPPY. Argemone platyceras (Link. and Otto.) Poppy family. Papaveraceae. "Abundant in valleys and along dry hillsides." (Coulter). Roadsides, waste fields and prairies. Honey yield unimportant, but abundance of pollen during the dearth of summer. May and July.* "This plant is abundant along the Brazos valley. Bees work heavily on it in June, carrying heavy loads of pollen, which they store in nearly every comb, thus making it disagreeable in the honey combs sometimes." (E. Scholl). POPPY. Papaver rhoeas L. Poppy family. Papaveraceae. Cultivated in flower gardens. Honey yield not important and plants few. May.* PEPPERGRASS. PEPPERWORT. Lepidium Virginicum L. Mustard family. Cruciferae. "In all situations, Quebec to Minnesota, Kansas, Florida, Texas and Mexico. Naturalized in Europe." (Small). Found in all kinds of places; honey yield not important; some pollen. June to August.* GREGGIA. Greggia camporum Gray. Mustard family. Cruciferae. "Mountains of Western Texas." (Coulter). Honey yield early but not abundant; also pollen helps early brood rearing. Hunter; waste fields and fertile prairies. Honey yield early, but not abundant; also pollen; helps early brood rearing. February.* COMMON TURNIP. Brassica rapa L. Mustard family. Cruciferae. Cultivated and sometimes escaped; bees work on the blossoms, honey and pollen. June and July.* BLACK MUSTARD. Brassica nigra Koch. Mustard family. Cruciferae. Cultivated and escaped; bees sometimes busy on it. June and July.* MIGNONETTE. Reseda odorata L. Mignonette family. Resedaceae. College: cultivated on Apiary Experimental plats. Honey yield good; plants not plentiful enough for surplus. June and July.* PORTULACA. Portulaca grandiflora Hook. Purslane family. Portulaceae. Cultivated in ornamental flower beds. Honey yield good as it comes during time when few others in bloom; also abundance of highly colored pollen, red, orange and yellows. June until frost.* SALT CEDAR. Tamarix gallica L. Tamarisc family. Tamariscineae. "A common European Mediterranean shrub which seems to have escaped in many places in Texas." (Coulter). "On roadsides, in thickets and waste places; warmer parts of Southern United States, naturalized from Southern Europe." (Small). College Station; cultivated ornamental shrub bees worked well on it, but number of trees scarce. May and June.* FRINGED POPPY MALLOW. Callirrhoe digitata Nutt. Mallow family. Malvaceae. "Common on prairies and in valleys." (Coulter). Hunter; prairies and lowlands. Honey yield not important; some pollen. May and June. A good pollen yielder during May at College Station.* SPANISH APPLE. Malvaviscus drummondii. Torr & Gray. Mallow family. Malvaceae. "From Rio Grande to the Colorado and Northeastward." (Coulter). In lowlands and along streams. June and July.* "Plentiful along Comal and Guadalupe rivers, New Braunfels, Texas. Not important." (E. Scholl). ROSE OF SHARON. SHRUBBY ALTHAEA. Hibiscus Syriacus L. Mallow family. Malvaceae. "In various situations New Jersey and Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas." (Small). Cultivated ornamental, in gardens and parks; honey yield not important and plants few, but bees work busily on it; honey and pollen. May to Sept.* SPRING SIDA. Sida spinosa L. Mallow family. Malvaceae. "In cultivated grounds, waste places on roadsides, New York to Iowa, Florida and Texas. Widely distributed in the tropics." (Small). Waste places, fields and along roads; some honey and pollen; not important. June to August.* NARROW-LEAFED SIDA. Sida angustifolia Lam. Mallow family. Malvaceae. "In dry soil Texas to Arizona; also in Mexico and tropical America." (Small). In dry soils; bees found upon it; yields pollen. June to August.* COTTON. Gossypium herbaceum L. Mallow family. Malvaceae. Cultivated staple crop in the fields for fibre. Honey yield good, steady flow till frost, honey white and of good quality. Main source throughout cotton belt. Nectar glands on ribs of leaves and on bracts of buds, blooms and bolls. June to frost.* JAPANESE VARNISH TREE. Firmiana platinifolia (L.) R. Br. Chocolate family. Buettneriaceae. HBK. College Station: Cultivated ornamental tree on campus; honey yield very heavy but of short duration some seasons longer. May and June.* BASSWOOD. AMERICAN LINDEN. Tilia Americana L. Linden family. Tiliaceae. "A large and handsome tree of the Atlantic States, extending in Texas to the Valley of the San Antonio River." (Coulter). On forests of Eastern Texas, yields large quantities of excellent honey. May and June.* LARGE-FLOWERED CALTROP. Tribulus cistoides L. Bean-caper family. Zygophylleae. Hunter: in fields and waste lands; honey yield good until noon when flowers close; also much pollen. April, August.* GREATER CALTROP. Kallstroemia maxima (L) T. & G. Bean-caper family. Zygophylleae. "Tribulus maxima." (Coulter). "Common in dry soil throughout Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: in fields and waste lands. Honey yield good in morning, blossoms closing by noon except in cool weather; good as it comes in the dearth of summer; also abundance of pollen. April to August.* YELLOW WOOD SORREL. Oxalis stricta L. Geranium family. Geraniaceae. "Eastern and Southern Texas." (Coulter). Waste soils and open woodlands; not plentiful for bee forage. May, August.* TOOTH-ACHE TREE. PRICKLY ASH. SEA ASH. PEPPERWOOD. Xanthoxylum clava-Herculis L. Rue family. Rutaceae. "Colorado to Rio Grande." (Coulter). "Along or near the coast, Virginia to Florida, Arkansas and Texas." (Small). Hunter: woodland prairies; honey yield good; bees work busily on it. April, June.* HOP TREE. Ptelea trifoliata L. Rue family. Rutaceae. "Throughout Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). In woodlands and along rivers and creeks. Honey yield good; very good in favorable seasons where abundant. May and July.* HARDY ORANGE. Citrus trifoliata L. Rue family. Rutaceae. College: planted for hedges, scarce; honey yield fair for early brood. Bees worked on it abundantly. March.* TREE OF HEAVEN. Ailanthus glandulosus Desf. Quassia family. Simarubaceae. "In waste places and along streams, more or less extensively naturalized in the United States and Southern British America. Native of China." (Small). Hunter: cultivated for shade and escaped. Honey yield fair in good seasons, pollen; also nectar glands on leaf blades. April.* UMBRELLA CHINA TREE. Melia azedarach L. Melia family. Meliaceae. "A favorite shade tree and extensively naturalized in Central and Southern Texas." (Coulter). Cultivated ornamental shade tree and escaped. Honey yield helps early brood rearing. February, March.* POSSUM HAW. BEAR BERRY. Ilex decidua Walt. Holly family. Ilicineae. "A species of Southern States and extending in Texas to the Valley of the San Antonio." (Coulter). College; along lowlands, creeks and streams. Honey yield good but short; in warm spring early and valuable for early brood. March, May.* YOUPON. Ilex Caroliniana Trelease. Holly family. Ilicineae. "A species of the Gulf States and extending into Texas. Limit uncertain." (Coulter). Hunter: low woodland thickets; not important. March, April.* BRASIL WOOD. LOGWOOD. Condalia obovata Hook. Buckthorn family. Rhamneae. "From the Guadalupe to the Rio Grande and west of New Mexico." (Coulter). Hunter: in woodlands, dry soils; honey yield not very important but comes well in dearth of summer. July, August.* "Abundant along Carter's Creek. Honey yield good during May." (E. Scholl). RATTAN VINE. Berchemia scandens Trelease. Buckthorn family. Rhamneae. "A species of the Southern States extending into Texas where its western limit is uncertain." (Coulter). Along ravines and low woodlands; honey yield good, giving surplus in favorable years but dark amber colored, used in manufacturing-houses. April.* COLUMBRINA TEXENSIS. Gray. Buckthorn family. Rhamneae. "From the Colorado to the Rio Grande westward to New Mexico." (Coulter). Floresville, slopes, adobe hills. Honey yield good but not enough for surplus. Also some pollen. April.* CULTIVATED WINE GRAPES. Vitis (?) (Varieties). Vine family. Ampelidaceae. Cultivated in orchards; good for pollen. April, May.* MOUNTAIN GRAPE. Vitis monticola Buckley. Vine family. Ampelidaceae. "Peculiar to the hilly limestone regions of Western Texas, not extending to the low country nor to the granite mountains." (Coulter.) Hunter: in woods and forests; honey yield fairly good and pollen valuable for brood rearing. March.* COW ITCH. Cissus incisa Desmoul. Vine family. Ampelidaceae. "In shady places from the Colorado to the Rio Grande and westward. An ornamental vine known as "Yerba del buey." (Coulter). Hunter: along fences and edge of thickets; honey yield keeps bees out of mischief during dearth. Surplus where plentiful. April, to August.* SOAPBERRY. WILD CHINA. Sapindus marginatus Willd. Soapberry family. Sapindaceae. "Common along creeks throughout Texas from Louisiana to New Mexico and Mexico. Smaller west of the Colorado river." (Coulter). Along rivers and creeks and sometimes along uplands; honey yield good, heavy flow in favorable seasons gives surplus. June.* Evergreen shrub, blooms in April; yields quantities of honey and pollen where enough bushes." (Milam, Uvalde). COMMON BALLOON VINE. Cardiospermum Halicacabum L. Soapberry family. Sapindaceae. "Guadalupe to Rio Grande." (Coulter). "In thickets and waste places New Jersey, Missouri, Florida, Texas and tropical America; summer and fall." (Small). Hunter: in creek bottoms; honey yield fair but plants not abundant. April, July.* MEXICAN BUCKEYE. Ungnadia speciosa Endl. Soapberry family. Sapindaceae. "Common along rocky valleys and in the mountains from the Valley of the Trinity through Western Texas to New Mexico." (Coulter). Hunter: "mountainous woodlands. Honey yield good in dearth but not plentiful. July." DWARF SUMACH. Rhus copallina L. Sumach family. Anacardiaceae. "A sumach of the Atlantic States extending through Eastern and Southern Texas to the Rio Grande." (Coulter). Hunter: small shrubby tree rocky hillsides and woodland prairies. Honey yield good giving surplus in favorable seasons depending upon rains. Reported as a honey plant in most of the beekeepers reports received. August.* GREEN SUMACH. Rhus virens Lindh. Sumach family. Anacardiaceae. "From the Colorado to the Rio Grande and westward." (Coulter). In stony, hilly woodlands. Bees are some seasons busy on it. October.* BLUE LUPINE. BLUEBONNET. Lupinus subcarnosus Hook. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Common lupine of Southern and Western Texas, 'covering fertile slopes with a carpet of purple blue.' (Harvard), as early as March." (Coulter). Hunter: places in open woodlands. Honey yield good; also pollen of very bright and orange colors. March, April.* ALFALFA OR LUCERNE. Medicago sativa L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "An extensively cultivated forage plant which has long been an introduced plant in Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). Cultivated for hay crops; honey yield fair; early summer and fall; better in irrigated regions. May, August.* "Large number of bees were seen on it at New Braunfels, Texas. June 19th, 1907. A good thing in North Texas." (E. Scholl). MEDICK. BURR CLOVER. Medicago denticulata Willd. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Naturalized in Western Texas." (Coulter). College: abundant on campus lawns. Honey yield sparingly in summer, not important. February to May.* SWEET CLOVER. Melilotus alba Desv. Pulse family. Leguminosae. Distribution not definite. Cultivated and along fence rows; honey yield good and of fine quality; scarce and should be cultivated for honey. May to October.* "An important honey plant in North Texas." (E. Scholl). YELLOW SWEET CLOVER. Melilotus officinalis (L) Lam. Pulse family. Leguminosae. Colorado along roadsides, escaped. Honey yield good; claimed to be superior to and earlier than M. alba by beemen. Should be cultivated on the poor soils of Texas. April to September.* RED CLOVER. Trifolium pratense L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. College Station: cultivated on experimental plats. Blooms in summer; not important, not much grown and deep corollas. June.* WHITE CLOVER. Trifolium repens L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "May be found wild in Texas." (Coulter). Along roadsides and on lawns. Cultivated at College, but did not grow as conditions were too dry. Honey yield good and one of main sources in States north of Texas. June, July.* EYSENHARDTIA. Eysenhardtia amorphoides. H B K. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Throughout Southern and Western Texas, South of the Colorado." (Coulter). Hunter: on light soils and woodlands and known as "Rock Brush" by beemen. Honey yield abundant. Blooming after heavy rains. Honey fine quality. March, May.* BLACK LOCUST. Robinia Pseudacacia L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Native from Pennsylvania to Iowa, Georgia and Indian Territory. Also naturalized in the northeastern part of North America." (Small). College: cultivated on campus; honey yield good if no cold weather; bees work on it abundantly. March, April.* CASSIA. Daubentonia longifolia (Cav.) DC. Pulse family. Leguminosae. Low and damp places; sandy soils; bees on it frequently but apparently of little value. July, September.* MEXICAN GROUND-PLUM. Astragalus Mexicanus. A. DC. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Prairies throughout Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: in open prairies honey yield abundant when season is favorable; drouth injures it. June.* COW PEA. Vigna (sp.) Pulse family. Leguminosae. Honey yield good; fair quality, light color. Cultivated for forage crops and for enriching soils. June, August.* COW PEA. Vigna Sinensis (L) Endl. (Var. ?). Pulse family. Leguminosae. Cultivated for forage crops and for enriching soils; honey yield good; fair quality, light color. June, August.* JAPANESE DELCHOS. Dolichos lablab L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. Cultivated in Apiary Experimental plats; no bees on it; other plants in bloom. June, August.* GARDEN PEA. Pisum sativum L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. Hunter: cultivated widely; honey yield unimportant, some pollen; not visited much by bees. March, April.* RED BUD. Cercis occidentalis Torr. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Far Western and North Mexican species extending into Western Texas." (Coulter). Aids early brood rearing. March.* RED BUD. JUDAS TREE. Cercis Canadensis L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "In rich soil Ontario to Minnesota, New Jersey, Florida and Texas." (Small). Hunter: in woodlands. Honey yield fair, aiding in early brood rearing. March, April.* RETAMA. Parkinsonia aculeata L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Throughout Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). In sandy soils and low swamps. Blooms spring and throughout summer; bees work on it more or less all summer. May, Sept.* HONEY LOCUST. Gleditschia triacanthos L. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "An Atlantic species extending at least to the Valley of the Brazos river and common in cultivation." (Coulter). College Station: Along ravines and valleys; very heavy honey yield but of short duration. April.* MEZQUIT TREE. SCREW BEAN. Prosopis juliflora DC. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "The chief woody plant of the wooded table-lands and high valleys throughout southern and western Texas, often forming impenetrable thickets." (Coulter) Hunter: throughout the black land prairies; honey yield abundant, main source in State, good light honey. April, and again in June.* Neptunia lutea Benth. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "In Eastern and Southern Texas, extending as far up the Rio Grande as Eagle Pass." (Coulter). College, open prairies; not plentiful, bees rarely found on it; some pollen. May.* SENSITIVE BRIAR. Schrankia angustata Torr. and Gray. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Found in Texas as far as San Diego and probably in the San Antonio region." (Coulter). Hunter: open prairies; honey yield not important; plants scarce; pollen. April to September.* HUISACHE. Acacia Farnesiana Willd. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "From San Antonio to the Gulf Coast and lower Rio Grande." (Coulter). Very plentiful in richer soil of Southwest Texas; honey yield good for stimulating early brood rearing; also pollen. February, April.* HUAJILLI. Acacia Berlandiera Benth. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "From the Nueces to the Rio Grande and west to Devil's River. Common on the bluffs of the lower Rio Grande." (Coulter). On dry and rocky hills in solid masses generally. Honey yield very heavy and main surplus in Southwest Texas; fine quality, white; considered the best honey in Texas in quality. April.* PARADISE FLOWER. CATSCLAW. DEVILS CLAWS. Acacia Greggii Gray. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "In dry or rocky soil, Texas, New Mexico." (Small). Floresville: All over Southwest Texas. Honey yield very abundant, a main yielder of fine quality honey. April.* ROUND-FLOWERED CATSCLAW. Acacia Roemeriana Schlecht. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "Throughout Texas south of the Colorado and west to El Paso." (Coulter). Hunter: in brushy woodlands; honey yield is heavy, of fine quality, but plants not abundant. April and May.* Acacia amentacea DC. Pulse family. Leguminosae. "From the Guadalupe to the lower Rio Grande and west to the Pecos." (Coulter). Very plentiful throughout Southwest Texas, on prairies. Honey yield of no importance. Bees gather pollen from it occasionally in early summer.* PLUM. Prunus domestica L. Rose family. Rosaceae. Hunter: in orchards and escaped. Honey yield good with "fruit bloom." Helps to build up colonies of bees. February.* WILD PLUM. Prunus (sp.) Rose family. Rosaceae. College Station: planted on campus. Honey yield good but of short duration. March.* PEACH. Amygdalus Persica L. Rose family. Rosaceae. "In waste places and cultivated grounds throughout the United States." (Small). Cultivated in orchards; honey yield good; with "fruit bloom" builds up colonies in spring. January to April.* BRIDAL WREATH. Spiraea Virginiana Britt. Rose family. Rosaceae. Cultivated ornamental shrub. Honey yield unimportant; bees sometimes busy on it. March.* DEW-BERRY. Rubus trivialis Michx. Rose family. Rosaceae. "A Southern blackberry, apparently common in Eastern, Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). Common wild, little cultivated; bees on it busy; honey and pollen. February, April.* ROSE. Rosa Tourn. Cultivated widely; honey yield unimportant; pollen gathered from it sometimes. Spring, summer and fall.* APPLE. Malus malus (L) Britt. Rose family. Rosaceae. Cultivated in orchards; honey yield early; helps in brood rearing; good where abundant. March, April.* PEAR. Pyrus communis L. Rose family. Rosaceae. A much cultivated fruit tree, important for early honey and pollen. February, March.* HAWTHORN. WHITE THORN. Crataegus spathulata Michx. Rose family. Rosaceae. "A species of the Gulf States and extending to the lower Colorado in Texas." (Coulter). In woodlands and creeks; good for honey and pollen. April.* HAWTHORN. WHITE THORN. Crataegus arborescens Ell. Rose family. Rosaceae. "A species of the Gulf States and extending to the lower Colorado in Texas." (Coulter). College Station; in woodlands and creek banks; honey yield good, bees found busily on it; also pollen. April.* CREPE MYRTLE. Lagerstroemia Indica L. Loose strife family. Lythraceae. "In waste places in and near gardens; widely cultivated and sparingly naturalized from Maryland, Florida and Texas." (Small). Cultivated ornamental on campus; honey yield occasionally good and visited much by bees. June, October.* JUSSIAEA. Jussiaea repens L. Evening Primrose family. Onagrarieae. "In streams from the San Antonio northward and eastward." (Coulter). In water edge of rivers and lakes. Not affected by drouth; it is important for bees during dearth. June to September.* JUSSIAEA. Jussiaea diffusa Forskl. Evening Primrose family. Onagrarieae. "In and about ponds, Kentucky to Kansas, Florida and Texas, also in tropical America and Asia." (Small) In water edge of pasture tanks and pools. Honey yield good; important as it is not affected by drouths but better after rains. June, August.* Gaura filiformis Small. Evening Primrose family. Onagrarieae. Sandy soils and along creeks; honey yield good; sometimes yielding surplus in spurts when favorable season and rains prevail. June, October.* MUSK MELON. Cucumis Melo L. Gourd family. Cucurbitaceae. Hunter: cultivated. Honey yield good; abundant during dewy mornings. Also pollen. Early summer to fall. Important in melon growing sections, South Texas. July and September.* CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativa. Gourd family. Cucurbitaceae. Cultivated; honey yield very good; short duration; pollen; but plants not abundant. April, July.* WATERMELON. Citrullus Citrullus (L) Small. Gourd family. Cucurbitaceae. Cultivated; honey yield good; abundant during dewy mornings, also pollen; from early summer to frosts in late autumn. May to October.* "Successful in honey plant plot at College in 1905." (E. Scholl). WILD GOURD. Cucurbita foetidissima HBK. Gourd family. Cucurbitaceae. "Abundant in the valleys of Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: in a variety of places. Honey yield not important; plants scattered and few, good for pollen. April, July.* COMMON PUMPKIN. Cucurbita pepo L. Gourd family. Cucurbitaceae. Cultivated: not important for honey, but much pollen. May, June.* COMMON CACTUS OR PRICKLY PEAR. Opuntia englemannii Salm. & Dyk. Cactus family. Cactaceae. "Common throughout Southern and Western Texas. This seems to be common "prickly pear" of Texas, though all the flat-jointed opuntias bear that name. The joints are commonly spoken of as "leaves" and form an important food for grazing of animals, under the name of "nopal." The "nopal leaf" is also much used for poultices, etc." (Coulter). Hunter: over entire Southwestern Texas; Honey yield abundant; sometimes surplus; honey of rank flavor when first stored. May, June.* DOGWOOD. Cornus asperifolia Michx. Dogwood family. Cornaceae. "An Eastern species extending to Central Texas where the variety Drummondii is the common form." (Coulter). Lowlands and along banks; honey yield good and bees fairly roam over blossoms, but species not plentiful. March, April.* ELDER. Sambucus Canadensis L. Honey suckle family. Caprifoliaceae. "Moist grounds throughout Texas." (Coulter). Along rivers and wet places; honey yield good but not plentiful. April, May.* BLACK HAW. Virburnum prunifolium L. Honey suckle family. Caprifoliaceae. "An Atlantic species, extending westward into Texas as far as the valley of the Guadalupe and probably the San Antonio." (Coulter). Hunter: in woodlands and forests. Honey yield good, early, valuable for brood rearing. March, April.* CORAL BERRY. INDIAN CURRANT. Symphoricarpos symphorlcarpos (L) MacM. Honey suckle family. Caprifoliaceae. "An Atlantic species extending into Texas. Near New Braunfels. (Lindheimer)." (Coulter). In woodlands along rivers and rocky soil. Honey yield good and of long duration. July, September.* BUSH HONEYSUCKLE. Lonicera fragrantissima Lindle. Honey suckle family. Caprifoliaceae. Shrubby vine; cultivated species on campus; honey yield extremely early, valuable to stimulate bees if weather is favorable; also pollen. January.* WHITE-FLOWERED HONEYSUCKLE. Lonicera albiflora Torn. & Gray. Honey suckle family. Caprifoliaceae. "Abundant throughout Western Texas and especially in the mountains west of the Pecos." (Coulter). Hunter: cultivated for ornamental purposes. Honey yield good, but few plants. May, July.* HOUSTONIA. Houstonia angustifolia Michx. Madder family. Rubiaceae. "Throughout Texas." (Coulter). College Station: on dry soils and prairies. Bees work on it well but plants not abundant. May, July.* BUTTON BUSH. Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Madder family. Rubiaceae. "Swamps and along streams throughout Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: along rivers and creeks. Bees work on it. July.* BUTTON WEED. Diodia teres Walt. Madder family. Rubiaceae. "Sandy soil, low grounds of Texas to mouth of Rio Grande." (Coulter). Low sandy soils; honey yield good and valuable as it comes during drouth. No surplus. July, August.* BROOMWEED. Gutierrezia Texana T. & G. Composite family. Compositae. "Sterile plains throughout Texas." (Coulter). In open prairies; honey yield good in fall for winter stores; dark amber and strong flavor. September, October.* GOLDENROD. Solidago sp. (?). Composite family. Compositae. Occurs in all parts of Texas. September. See A. B. C. 173. Parthenium Hysterophorus L. Composite family. Compositae. "Throughout Eastern and Central Texas. Dr. Harvard remarks that it is one of the commonest weeds about the streets of San Antonio." (Coulter). Hunter: in waste places and open town lots of which it takes possession. Honey yield good in favorable seasons when not too dry. White pollen. April, November.* ROMAN WORMWOOD. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia L. Composite family. Compositae. "A common weed of waste grounds, extremely variable." (Coulter). Dry upland soils and waste places; probably pollen only. July, August.* TALL RAGWEED. Ambrosia aptera DC. Composite family. Compositae. "Low grounds in Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: along field fences and low places. Some honey but more pollen of a resinous nature. July and August.* GREAT RAGWEED. Ambrosia trifida L. Composite family. Compositae. "Moist river banks throughout Eastern and Central Texas." (Coulter). College: in low moist creeks and along Brazos river. Honey yield not important, but yields much pollen. July and August.* COCKLE-BURR. CLOT BURR. Xanthium Canadense Mill. Composite family. Compositae. "Alluvial shores and waste ground." (Coulter). Hunter: along creeks, in pastures and fields; not important; furnishes pollen late in the fall. September, October.* CONE FLOWER. NIGGER HEAD. Rudbeckia hirta L. Composite family. Compositae. "Dry and open ground throughout Texas." (Coulter). Waysides and prairies; of no importance; bees gather propolis from resinous heads sometimes. May, June.* CONE FLOWER. NIGGER HEAD. Rudbeckia bicolor Nutt. Composite family. Compositae. "Pine woods or sandy soil, Eastern and Southern Texas." (Coulter). "In woods and sandy soil, Arkansas to Alabama and Texas." (Small). Waysides and prairies; of no importance; bees gather propolis from resinous heads sometimes. May, June.* COMMON SUNFLOWER. Helianthus annuus L. Composite family. Compositae. "Abundant in all valleys." (Coulter). Hunter: along roadsides and in waste fields. Honey yield sometimes good in the fall but strong in flavor. Much propolis gathered from the large composite heads of the flower and stems and leaves of the plant. May, September.* VIRGINIAN CROWN-BEARD. Verbesina Virginica L. Composite family. Compositae. "Rich dry soil from the Mississippi and Gulf States through Texas to Mexico." (Coulter). In rich soils, lowlands and woodlands; honey yield very abundant, depending upon seasons; fine quality of honey. October.* SNEEZE WEED. BITTER WEED. Helenium tenuifolium Nutt. Composite family. Compositae. "River bottoms, etc., extending from the Gulf and Mississippi States to Western Texas." (Coulter). College: abundant on open woodland prairies and plains of Eastern Texas. Honey yield good in favorable seasons; pollen; honey golden yellow, heavy body but very bitter, as if 50 per cent quinine and some pepper was added. June to October.* MARIGOLD. Gaillardia pulchella Foug. Composite family. Compositae. "Extending from plains of Arkansas and Louisiana through Texas to those of Arizona and Mexico." (Coulter). Hunter: waysides and prairies. Honey yield of good quality, dark amber colored. A main yielder of surplus. May, June.* BLUE THISTLE. Cnicus altissimus Willd. Composite family. Compositae. "Borders of woods and open ground. Common in the Atlantic States and extending into Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: scattered over open prairies; honey yield unimportant; some pollen. July, August.* "Bees working heavily on it in June, 1907 along Guadalupe River, New Braunfels, Texas, where some of the pastures were literally covered with it." (E. Scholl). AMERICAN KNAPWEED. Centaurea Americana Nutt. Composite family. Compositae. "Extending from the plains of Arkansas and Louisiana through Texas to Arizona and adjacent Mexico." (Coulter). Hunter: open prairies and pastures. Not important. July, August.* DANDELION. Taraxacum officinale Weber. Composite family. Compositae. "Common everywhere; an introduction from Europe." (Coulter). See A. B. C. of Bee Culture. February.* MARIGOLD. Tagetes patalus L. Composite family. Compositae. Cultivated in flower gardens; honey yield not important; bees only occasionally visiting it. July.* NARROW-LEAFED IRON WOOD. Bumelia angustifolia Nutt. Appodilla family. Sapotaceae. "Valley of the lower Rio Grande." (Coulter). Specimen sent from the Nueces River. (Cotulla). June.* MEXICAN PERSIMMON. Diospyros Texana Scheele. Ebony family. Ebenaceae. "Woods along streams, Matagorda Bay to the Concho River and southward." (Coulter). "Mexicans call it "Chapote," also known as "black persimmon." Often found on rocky mesas but thrives best in canyons and on the edges of ravines." (Harvard). Hunter: in woodlands: honey yield abundant, not harmed by showers on account of bell-shaped flowers. April.* PERSIMMON (COMMON). Diospyros Virginiana L. Ebony family. Ebenaceae. "A common tree of the Atlantic States. Extending Into Texas to the valley of the Colorado." (Coulter). Throughout East Texas; honey yield good, not long and trees not abundant. Bell-shaped blossoms are protected in rain. April.* CALIFORNIA PRIVET. Ligustrum vulgare L. Olive family. Oleaceae. "Thickets and on roadsides, Ontario to Pennsylvania and North Carolina." (Small). Ornamental shrub cultivated for hedges, etc., honey yield good; flowering trees scarce, trimmed and kept down in hedges. April, May.* "A good flow at College Station in 1906." (E. Scholl). SILVER BERRY. Elaeagnus argentia, Pursh. Oleaster family. Elaeagnaceae. College Station; cultivated ornamental on campus. Honey yield abundant in narrowly funnel-shaped blossoms hanging downward. Nectar runs to mouth of flower. Protected from rains. Corolla 8mm. deep. Long-tongue bees would be of advantage. October, November.* SWEET OLIVE. Elaeagnus angustifolia L. Oleaster family. Elaeagnaceae. College Station: cultivated ornamental shrub on campus; honey yield good; bees work on blossom. April.* SILK WEED. Asclepias sp. Milk weed family. Asclepiadeae. Beeville; on plains and prairies. Honey yield good but pollen attaches to bee's feet and cripples them. March.* DENSE-FLOWERED PHACELIA. Phacelia congesta Hook. Water-leaf family. Hydrophyllaceae. "Throughout Texas." (Coulter). Rich places and moist woods; honey yield sparing. April, June.* Phacelia glabra Nutt. Water-leaf family. Hydrophyllaceae. "Low prairies Arkansas and East Texas." (Coulter). On prairies Eastern Texas. March, April.* BORAGE. Borage officinalis L. Borage family. Boragineae. College: cultivated; honey yield good; bees working busily on it during June. Old stalks die down in July and large lower leaves protect root stock during severe drouth and sprout out for bees to work on bloom in August. June, July.* MORNING GLORY. Ipomoea Caroliniana Pursh. Convolvulus family. Convolvulaceae. Most common in cultivated fields. Honey yield light, pollen. June to November.* NIGHT-SHADE. Solanum rostratum Dunal. Night-shade family. Solanaceae. "Plains throughout Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: waste lands, prairies and roadsides. Honey very little; some pollen. May, October.* TRUMPET CREEPER. TRUMPET FLOWER. Campsis radicans (L) Seem. Bigonia family. Bignoniaceae. "Moist soil, extending from Atlantic and Gulf States into Texas and common in cultivation." (Coulter). Cultivated and along river bottoms: honey yield of little importance; external nectar glands; pollen from flowers. July to October.* LARGE-FLOWERED VERBENA. Verbena urticaefolia L. Vervain family. Verbenaceae. "Waste or open grounds, extending from the Atlantic regions through Texas to tropical America." (Coulter). College Station: in waste open ground. April, August.* BLUE VERVAIN. Verbena xutha Lehm. Vervain family. Verbenaceae. "Extending from Louisiana through Texas to Southern California and Mexico." (Coulter). College: in sandy soils, honey yield sparing and scattering throughout its season. April, August.* SPATULATE-LEAFED FOG-FRUIT. Lippia nodiflora Michx. Vervain family. Verbenaceae. "Low ground extending from the Gulf States to Western Texas." (Coulter). In moist places, rivers and creeks; honey yield very light and of little importance. July.* WHITE BRUSH. Lippia ligustrina Britt. Vervain family. Verbenaceae. "Common on rocky slopes throughout Texas." (Coulter). "Foliage eaten by cattle, sheep and goats." (Harvard). All over Southwest Texas; honey yield very heavy of fine quality but very short duration, only a few days; blooms after each rain during season. May to November.* LANTANA. Lantana Camara L. Vervain family. Verbenaceae. "Extending from the Gulf States through Southeastern Texas to tropical America." (Coulter). On light soils of Southwest Texas; unimportant; bees seldom on it. April, October.* FRENCH MULBERRY. Callicarpa Americana L. Vervain family. Verbenaceae. "Rich or moist grounds, extending from Gulf States to Southern Texas." (Coulter). Brazos bottoms, College; rich soil in woods, abundant: honey yield only fair. May.* ROEMER'S SAGE. Salvia Roemeriana Scheele. Mint family. Labiatae. "In light fertile soils, Western Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: rich soils in forests. Unimportant as a honey plant; not abundant; deep corollas. May, June.* BLUE SAGE. Salvia azurea Lam. Mint family. Labiatae. "From Gulf States to extreme Western Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: dry soil and waste places; corolla deep and visited much more frequently by bumble bees than honey bees. April, October.* CATNIP. Nepeta cataria L. Mint family. Labiatae. Cultivated on Apiary Experimental Plats, 1904; only a few plants grew and bloomed. A few bees visited it. Soon died. July.* WILD BERGAMONT. Monarda fistulosa L. Mint family. Labiatae. "Dry soil throughout Texas, etc." (Coulter). College: along banks of ravines. Honey yield good but plants not abundant. May, July.* HORSE-MINT. Monarda clinopodioides Gray. Mint family. Labiatae. "Eastern and Southern Texas." (Coulter). Prairies and waste land; honey yield abundant; one of the main yielders; honey compared to bass-wood in flavor. May, June.* HORSE-MINT. Monarda punctata L. (See frontis-piece). Mint family. Labiatae. "Sandy ground extending from the Atlantic regions to Southern and Western Texas." (Coulter). In open prairies and waste land; honey yield abundant; one of the main crop yielders; honey compared with basswood. May, July.* "A good yielder in Brazos bottoms. College Station, Texas, in 1907, June." (E. Scholl). DRUMMOND'S SKULL-CAP. Scutellaria drummondii Benth. Mint family. Labiatae. "Common throughout Texas in damp rich soil." (Coulter). "On prairies, Kansas to Texas." (Small). Hunter: waste places in fields and prairies. Honey yield abundant in spring; much visited by bees. April, May.* COMMON HOARHOUND. Marrubium vulgare L. Mint family. Labiatae. "A common escape in waste or open ground." (Coulter). Hunter: most all parts of the South; fertile places; fence corners and pens; honey yield abundant; steady flow; dark amber colored. Claimed bitter by some. February, July.* COLEUS. Coleus blumei Benth. Mint family. Labiatae. College; ornament for borders, etc. Honey yield of no importance. Bees gather pollen from it only occasionally. July.* COMMON PIGWEED. Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranth family. Amaranthaceae. "Throughout Texas." (Coulter). Waste lands and fields; honey yield of no importance; some pollen. July, September.* THORNY AMARANTH. Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranth family. Amaranthaceae. "From Tom Green County to Laredo." (Coulter). Annual weedy herbs. In waste places and cultivated soils presumably pollen only; not important. August.* MADEIRA VINE. Anredera scandens (L). Moq. Goosefoot family. Chenopodiaceae. "From the upper Pecos to the lower Rio Grande, (Ringgold)." (Coulter). Hunter. Texas; cultivated for shade on verandas; honey yield fair, bees work on it industriously, but the plants are scarce. May, September.* JAPANESE BUCKWHEAT. Fagopyrum fagopyrum (L) Karst. Buckwheat family. Polygonaceae. Cultivated in fields in a small way; honey yield good on favorable moist mornings, not in dry weather. Honey very dark and strong in flavor; not important for bees in Texas. June, July.* "A good yielder to bridge over from early spring flower to cotton bloom at College Station, Texas." (E. Scholl). AMERICAN MISTLETOE. Phoradendron flavescens Nutt. Mistletoe family. Loranthaceae. "From Eagle Pass to Central Texas. Reported on Ulmus, Prosopis, Quercus, etc." (Coulter). Honey yield abundant and also pollen, very valuable for early brood rearing. The first source for bees in the season. December, January.* "Blooms in January and February if weather is not too cold, yields pollen and honey." (Milam, D. C, Uvalde, Texas). SPURGE. Euphorbia marginata Pursh. Spurge family. Euphorbiaceae. "Throughout the valleys of the Pecos and Rio Grande." (Coulter). Along valleys and lowlands; honey yield of no importance. June, October.* SONORA CROTON. Croton Sonorae Torr. Spurge family. Euphorbiaceae. "On rocky bluffs of the upper Llano." (Coulter). Hunter: open places in woodland bluffs; honey yield only light, but comes in dearth and good if rains; pollen. July, August.* CROTON CAPITATUS MICHX. Spurge family. Euphorbiaceae. "From the Pecos to Southern and Central Texas." (Coulter). Roadsides and prairies; unimportant; some pollen when no other bloom. July, September.* "Plenty of pollen at College Station in August, 1907." (E. Scholl). TEXAS CROTON. Croton Texensis Muell. Spurge family. Euphorbiaceae. "From the staked plains to Corpus Christi." (Coulter). Hunter: roadsides and fields; honey yield very light, not important. June, August.* ONE-SEEDED CROTON. Croton monanthogynus Michx. Spurge family. Euphorbiaceae. "Central and Southern Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: open prairies and pastures; honey yield fair, but unimportant. May, June. CASTOR-OIL PLANT. Ricinus communis L. Spurge family. Euphorbiaceae. "Cultivated extensively for ornament and sparingly escaped in Missouri and southwestward to Central Mexico." (Coulter). Planted for ornamental purposes; honey yield good in favorable seasons; pollen; has glands at base of leaves. March, April.* AMERICAN OR WHITE ELM. Ulmus Americana L. Nettle family. Urticaceae. "Extending westward to the streams of Southern and Central Texas." (Coulter). College: along moist creeks and streams; honey yield good but not very plentiful. August.* WINGED ELM or WAHOO. Ulmus alata Michx. Nettle family. Urticaceae. "On streams extending to the valley of the Trinity." (Coulter). Tree with corky winged branches, along streams and low soils in woods; honey yield good sometimes giving surplus; much pollen; honey of amber color and strong characteristic aroma. August, September.* GRANJENO. Celtis pallida Torr. Nettle family. Urticaceae. "Very common on all mesas and foot-hills of Western and Southern Texas." (Coulter). Beekeepers value it as an important plant in Southwest Texas. March, April.* HACKBERRY. Celtis Mississippiensis Bosc. Nettle family. Urticaceae. "Extending to Central Texas." (Coulter). In woodlands; much planted for shade; honey yield fair, valuable for pollen in the spring. March, April.* HACKBERRY. Celtis occidentalis L. Nettle family. Urticaceae. "Very common in the valleys of Western and Southwestern Texas, 'Palo Blanco'" (Coulter). In woods and valleys, planted for shade; honey yield fair, much pollen, valuable for early brood rearing. March, April.* OSAGE ORANGE. Toxylon pomiferum Raf. Nettle family. Urticaceae. "Near waters from Eastern to Central and Southern Texas. Extensively used for hedges." (Coulter). Planted for hedges and timber; honey yield not important on account of scarcity of trees. April.* PECAN-NUT. Hicoria Pecan (Marsh) Britt. Walnut family. Juglandeae. "Extending from the Mississippi States to the streams of Central and Southwestern Texas as far west as Fort Concho." (Coulter). Along rivers and creeks; honey yield where plentiful; valuable for brood rearing on account of its pollen. March.* MOCKERNUT. WHITEHEART HICKORY. Hicoria alba (L) Britt. Walnut family. Juglandeae. "Extending to the Valley of the Brazos." (Coulter). College Station, Brazos River. Abundant in the sandy valley land; some honey and pollen. March.* BLACK WALNUT. Juglans nigra L. Walnut family. Juglandeae. "Extending from the east to the valley of the Colorado and San Antonio." (Coulter). In forests, along creeks and rivers; some honey, more pollen; good to stimulate bees. March.* POST OAK. Quercus minor (Marsh) Sarg. Oak family. Cupuliferae. "Sandy or sterile soils, extending from the Atlantic States to Central Texas." (Coulter). In sandy land sections of the country; honey yield inferior but with large amount of pollen; good for early brood rearing. March, April.* LIVE OAK. Quercus Virginiana Mill. Oak family. Cupuliferae. "Common along water courses extending from the Gulf States through Southern and Western Texas to the mountains of New Mexico." (Coulter). Hunter: in forests, honey yield good, poor in quality, dark; valuable for early brood rearing; much pollen. March.* RED OAK. Quercus rubra L. Oak family. Cupuliferae. "Extending to the valleys of the Colorado and San Antonio. Not abundant and timber poor." (Coulter). Along creeks and low-lands; scarce; pollen. March, April.* SWAMP, SPANISH, or PIN OAK. Quercus palustris Du Roi. Oak family. Cupuliferae. "Low grounds extending to the valley of the Colorado." (Coulter). Forests; good honey yield and also pollen; valuable for brood rearing, March, April.* WATER OAK. Quercus aquatica Walt. Oak family. Cupuliferae. "Wet grounds extending from the South Atlantic States to the valley of the Colorado." (Coulter). College: along creeks and streams; scarce and scattering; pollen. March.* BLACK JACK or BARREN OAK. Quercus nigra L. Oak family. Cupuliferae. "Extending to the valleys of the Colorado and Nueces." (Coulter). In post oak woods in sandy sections of the country; early pollen. March, April.* BLACK WILLOW. Salix nigra Marsh. Willow family. Salicineae. "On banks bending over the water of most streams of Western Texas." (Coulter). Along rivers and creeks; honey yield good and valuable for brood rearing, and for abundance of pollen. February to April.* COTTONWOOD. NECKLACE POPLAR. Populus monilifera Ait. Willow family. Salicineae. "Extending into the mountains of Western Texas." (Coulter). Lowlands and along streams; some honey but more pollen; valuable for early brood rearing. March.* GREEN BRIAR. CAT BRIAR. Smilax bona-nox L. Lily family. Liliaceae. "Abundant along the Rio Grande and Pecos." (Coulter). "In thickets Massachusetts to Florida and Texas. Stretch berry." (Small). In thickets; honey yield fair; bees work on it well, but of short duration. April.* ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officinalis Linn. Lily family. Liliaceae. "In waste places and salt marshes. New Brunswick to Georgia and Louisiana. Naturalized from Europe." (Small). Cultivated for its young shoots for food; honey yield of no importance, but good for pollen. March, April.* VIRGINIAN SPIDERWORT. Commelina Virginica L. Spiderwort family. Commelinaceae. "Moist thickets and borders of rivers southern and southwestern Texas." (Coulter). Hunter: moist fence corners and open woods; honey yield unimportant, valuable for pollen. April, May.* SPIDERWORT. Tradescantia gigantea Rose. Spiderwort family. Commelinaceae. "On plains or prairies, Texas." (Small). New Braunfels; in and about hedges of woodlands; honey yield unimportant but good for early pollen. March, May.* SORGHUM. Sorghum vulgare Pers. Grass family. Gramineae. Hunter: cultivated for hay crops, etc., valuable for abundant yield of pollen; some honey. June, August.* INDIAN CORN. Zea mays L. Grass family. Gramineae. "Cultivated in fields for grain; honey yield not positively known; valuable for its pollen in abundance. May, June.* INDEX Latin or Technical Names. Acacia amentacea Acacia Berlandiera Acacia Farnesiana Acacia Greggii Acacia Roemeriana Ailanthus glandulosus Amaranthaceae Amaranthus retroflexus Amaranthus spinosus Ambrosia aptera Ambrosia artemisiaefolia Ambrosia trifida Ampelidaceae Amygdalus Persica Anacardiaceae Anredera scandens Argemone platyceras Asclepiadeae Asclepias sp Asparagus officinalis Astragalus Mexicanus Berberideae Berberis trifoliata Bignoniaceae Berchemia scandens Borage officinalis Boragineae Brassica nigra Brassica rapa Bumelia angustifolia Callicarpa Americana Callirrhoe digitata Cactaceae Campsis radicans Caprifoliaceae Cardiospermum Halicacabum Celtis pallida Celtis occidentalis Celtis Mississippiensis Centaurea Americana Cephalanthus occidentalis Cercis Canadensis Cercis occidentalis Chenopodiaceae Cissus incisa Citrullus Citrullus Citrus trifoliata Cnicus altissimus Coleus blumei Columbrina Texensis Commelinaceae Commelina Virginica Compositae Condalia obovata Convolvulaceae Cornaceae Cornus asperifolia Crataegus arborescens Crataegus spathulata Croton Capitatus Croton monanthogynus Croton Sonorae Croton Texensis Cruciferae Cucumis Melo Cucumis sativa Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita foetidissima Cucurbita pepo Cupuliferae Daubentonia longifolia Diodia teres Diospyros Texana Diospyros Virginiana Dolichos lablab Ebenaceae Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus angustifolia Elaeagnus argentia Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia marginata Eysenhardtia amorphoides Firmiana platinifolia Fagopyrum fagopyrum Gaillardia pulchella Gaura filiformis Geraniaceae Gleditschia triacanthos Gossypium herbaceum Gramineae Greggia camporum Gutierrezia Texana Helenium tenuifolium Helianthus annuus Hibiscus syriacus Hicoria alba Hicoria Pecan Houstonia angustifolia Hydrophyllaceae Ilex Caroliniana Ilex decidua Ilicineae Ipomoea Caroliniana Juglandeae Juglans nigra Jussiaea diffusa Jussiaea repens Kallstroemia maxima Labiatae Lagerstroemia Indica Lantana Camara Leguminosae Lepidium virginicum Ligustrum vulgare Liliaceae Lippia ligustrina Lippia nodiflora Lonicera albiflora Lonicera fragrantissima Loranthaceae Lupinus subcarnosus Lythraceae Malus malus Malvaceae Malvaviscus drummondii Marrubium vulgare Medicago denticulata Medicago sativa Meliaceae Melia azedarach Melilotus alba Melilotus officinalis Monarda clinopodioides Monarda fistulosa Monarda punctata Nepeta cataria Neptunia lutea Oleaceae Onagrarieae Opuntia englemannii Oxalis stricta Papaveraceae Papaver rhoeas Parkinsonia aculeata Parthenium Hysterophorus Phacelia congesta Phacelia glabra Phoradendron flavescens Pisum sativum Polygonaceae Populus monilifera Portulaceae Portulaca grandiflora Prosopis juliflora Prunus (sp.) Prunus domestica Ptelea trifoliata Pyrus communis Quercus aquatica Quercus minor Quercus nigra Quercus palustris Quercus rubra Quercus Virginiana Reseda odorata Resedaceae Rhamneae Rhus copallina Rhus virens Ricinus communis Robinia Pseudacacia Rosa Rosaceae Rudbeckia bicolor Rudbeckia hirta Rubiaceae Rubus trivialis Rutaceae Salicineae Salix nigra Salvia azurea Salvia Roemeriana Sambucus Canadensis Sapindaceae Sapindus marginatus Sapotaceae Schrankia angustata Scutellaria drummondii Sida spinosa Sida angustifolia Simarubaceae Smilax bona-nox Solanaceae Solanum rostratum Solidago sp. (?) Sorghum vulgare Spiraea Virginiana Symphoricarpos symphorlcarpos Tagetes patalus Tamariscineae Tamarix gallica Taraxacum officinale Tilia Americana Tiliaceae Toxylon pomiferum Tradescantia gigantea Tribulus cistoides Trifolium pratense Trifolium repens Ulmus Americana Ulmus alata Ungnadia speciosa Urticaceae Verbenaceae Verbena urticaefolia Verbena xutha Verbesina Virginica Vigna sinensis (Var. ?) Vigna (sp). Virburnum prunifolium Vitis monticola Vitis (?) (Varieties) Xanthium Canadense Xanthoxylum clava-Herculis Zea mays Zygophylleae INDEX Vernacular or Common Names. Alfalfa or Lucerne Amaranth family American Knapweed American mistletoe American or White elm Apple Appodilla family Asparagus Barberry family Basswood. American linden Bean-caper family Bigonia family Black haw Black jack or Barren oak Black locust Black walnut Black willow Blue lupine. Bluebonnet Blue sage Blue thistle Blue vervain Borage Borage family Brasil wood Bridal wreath Broomweed Buckthorn family Buckwheat family Bush honeysuckle Button bush Button weed Cactus family California privet Cassia Castor-oil plant Catnip Catsclaw Cockle-burr. Clot-burr Coleus Common Balloon Vine Common cactus or Prickly pear Common hoarhound Common pigweed Common pumpkin Common Sunflower Common turnip Composite family Cone flower. Nigger Head Convolvulus family Coral berry. Indian currant Cotton Cottonwood. Necklace poplar Cow itch Crepe myrtle Cucumber Cultivated wine grapes Cow pea Dandelion Dense-flowered phacelia Devils claws Dew-berry Dogwood family Drummond's skull-cap Dwarf sumach Ebony family Elder Evening primrose family Eysenhardtia French mulberry Fringed poppy mallow Garden pea Geranium family Goldenrod Goosefoot family Gourd family Grass family Granjeno Greater caltrop Great ragweed Green briar. Cat briar Green sumach Greggia Hardy orange Hackberry Hawthorn. White thorn Holly family Honey locust Honey suckle family Hop tree Horse-mint Houstonia Huajilla Huisache Indian corn Japanese buckwheat Japanese delchos Japanese varnish tree Jussiaea Lantana Large-flowered caltrop Large-flowered verbena Lily family Linden family Live oak Loose strife family Madder family Madeira vine Mallow family Marigold Medick. Burr clover Melia family Mezquit tree. Screw bean Mexican buckeye Mexican ground plum Mexican persimmon Mignonette Mignonette family Milk weed family Mint family Mistletoe family Mockernut. Whiteheart Hickory Morning glory Mountain grape Musk melon Mustard family Narrow-leafed iron wood Narrow-leafed sida Nettle family Night-shade Night-shade family Oak family Oleaster family Olive family One-seeded croton Osage orange Paradise flower Peach Pear Pecan-nut Persimmon (common) Peppergrass. Pepperwort Plum Poppy family Portulaca Possum haw. Bear berry Post oak Prickly poppy Pulse family Purslane family Quassia family Rattan vine Red bud Red bud. Judas tree Red clover Red oak Retama Roemer's sage Roman wormwood Rose Rose family Rose of sharon. Shrubby althaea Round-flowered catsclaw Rue family Salt cedar Sensitive briar Silk weed Silver berry Sneeze weed. Bitter weed Soapberry. Wild china Soapberry family Sonora croton Sorgum Spanish apple Spatulate-leafed fog-fruit Spiderwort family Spring sida Spurge Spurge family Sumach family Swamp, Spanish, or Pin oak Sweet clover Sweet olive Tall ragweed Tamarisc family Texas croton Thorny amaranth Tooth-ache tree. Prickly ash. Sea ash. Pepperwood Tree of heaven Triple-leafed barberry Trumpet creeper. Trumpet flower Umbrella china tree Vervain family Vine family Virginian crown-beard Virginian spiderwort Walnut family Water-leaf family Watermelon Water oak White brush White clover White-flowered honey suckle Willow family Wild bergamont Wild gourd Wild plum Winged elm or Wahoo Yellow Wood sorrel Yellow sweet clover Youpon ---------------------------------------------------------------------- [Transcriber's note: Electronic version produced by Frank Zago - April 2nd, 2012. Notes about this edition: only the obvious typos were fixed; and several missing opening or closing quotes were added. Otherwise no other change was made. The original book used is freely available from Texas A&M University at: http://repository.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/3440] 
35448	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) Transcriber's Notes: Bold text is set off by =equal signs= and italic text by _underscores_. Subscripted asterisks are shown by an underscore and the asterisk in curly brackets. _{*} HERD RECORD OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF Thorough-Bred Neat Stock. SHORT HORNS. HARTFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY & WATERMAN. 1863. NOTICE. OWING to circumstances beyond the control of the Committee of Publication, or of the Committees on the Pedigrees of the various classes of stock, it has been impossible to publish the first volume of the Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-bred Neat Stock at an earlier day. The desire to obtain as large a representation of stock as possible, and to extend the advantages of the Association as widely among breeders as they could, has induced the committees on the various classes of stock to hold open their books, and the delays incident upon tracing doubtful pedigrees, through in many instances a long correspondence with owners and breeders, have prevented them from furnishing the copy to the Publication Committee in season to have the work finished sooner. Every care has been taken to have the records perfect, and to admit no pedigrees of doubtful character. It is believed this has been successfully accomplished, and that the animals here recorded may be relied upon as of undoubted purity of blood. H. A. DYER, } _Committee_ S. I. BARTLETT, } _of Publication._ INDEX TO BREEDERS AND OWNERS Allen, J. S., 12, 27, 33, 44, 60, 61, 74, 75, 76 Alexander, R. A., 38, 47, 68, 72 Bartlett, S. W. & Son, 25, 34, 37, 43, 48, 51, 63, 71, 79, 84 Bartlett, D. W., 25, 44, 46, 49, 53, 84 Barber, C. H., 19, 55, 46, 51, 52, 78 Becar, N. J., 49, 21 Beach, A. H., 22 Birnie, Wm., 37, 38, 62, 73 Bissell, J., 29, 74, 78 Bissell, J. H., 73 Bissell, S. T., 39 Boyd, S., 27 Booth, J., 22 Bolden, S. E., 47 Buffum, S. W., 11, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 33, 40, 41, 42, 44, 54, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 73, 79 Bragg, N. W., 16 Carter, N., 13, 24, 35, 39, 49, 51, 54, 69, 77, 80, 82, 83 Chapman, J. B., 60 Chapin, H. J., 14, 17, 34 Clement, I. S., 28 Collins, D. C., 23, 63 Cowles, Thomas, 67 Cowles, Solomon, 54 Clark, A. & J. A., 36, 45, 83 Cummins, A. O., 26, 43, 50, 53, 55, 56, 68 Ely, E. C., 12, 19, 50, 52, 66 Fogg, J., 16, 26, 36, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70, 72 Fosgate, James, 79 Goodale, J. H. & Co., 26 Goodwin Morgan & Son, 83 Haight, D. B., 14, 31, 43, 69 Haines, B. & C. S., 40, 70 Holman, E. M., 45, 47, 81 Hubbard, R. B., 41, 65 Hubbard, G. F., 43, 48 Huntington, T. P. & O. H. Smith, 60 Howitt, John, 14, 24 Hurst, Wm., 16, 22, 23, 28, 47, 70, 78, 83 Ives, Wm. J., 82 Lathrop, P., 10, 19, 21, 25, 31, 35, 37, 41, 43, 56, 57, 60, 62, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 82, 84, 85 Lathrop, Wells, 18, 84, 85 Loomis, Burdett, 22 Lubbock, Sir John, 35 Lyman, Wm., 13 Mather, Timothy, 15, 18, 27, 36, 37, 49, 50, 51, 70 Moseley, David, 23, 27, 52 North, F. H., 81 Noble, F. A., 10, 12, 45, 53, 60 Phelps, E. A., 35, 36, 37, 51, 77 Porter, Norman, 25, 48, 60, 61, 71, 80 Robbins, S. W., 14, 32, 38, 56, 68, 72, 73, 82 Rockwell, Dr. W. H., 79 Rotch, F., 70 Rotch, F. M., 39 Sessions, Wm. Vine, 39 Sherwood, J. M., 53, 55, 58, 80 Smith, Lawrence, 63 Smith, M. J. & Son, 20, 21, 25, 29, 30, 37, 39, 46, 61, 78 State Lunatic Asylum Worcester, Mass., 27 State Reform School, Conn., 18 Stedman, P., 17, 21, 25, 32, 33, 45, 69, 73, 74 Stedman, B. H., 11, 15, 29, 30, 31, 48, 54, 61, 71 Stebbins, E. W., 15 Stone, F. W., 12, 19, 59, 73 Tanqueray, J. S., 41 Taylor, G. E., 33, 77 Taylor, J. S., 38, 55 Taylor, J. S. & G. E., 16 Taber, S. T., 9, 10, 18, 31, 33, 36, 39, 40, 62, 78, 82 Taintor, D., 12 Thorne, S., 13, 14, 18, 22, 24, 32, 41 Vail, George, 24 Viets, A. P., 9, 10, 36 Wadsworth, J. & E., 63, 79 Walton, J., 10 Webb, Jonas, 59 Wells, H. L., 82 White, H. G., 12, 13, 17, 18, 22, 40, 43, 50, 53, 56, 57, 62, 63, 69, 74, 77, 84 Winslow, A. M., 11, 20, 25, 40, 58, 59, 64, 65, 72, 76, 80, 83 Wilson, Wilbur, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 24, 26, 29, 34, 35, 39, 45, 48, 52, 71 Wood, A. C. & J. G., 14, 18, 19, 23, 26, 31, 45, 48, 59, 60, 67, 70, 72, 78, 81 SHORT HORNS. THE pure, improved Short Horn, having become an established variety of Neat Stock for useful and farm purposes throughout the Northern and Western States, and proved themselves to be all that can reasonably be expected of them when established on soil productive of an abundance of grass, it is desirable to preserve their blood as pure as possible, and the animals herein inserted have had their pedigrees examined and approved by the Committee appointed for that purpose. It must be admitted that the Short Horns present themselves to notice under circumstances of peculiar interest; possessing in themselves a combination of desirable qualities, and rendered attractive to the eye by their splendid frames, and beautiful varied colors, it is not surprising they have become objects of public interest. Great temptation is laid before a class of men to manufacture _pure bloods_ to suit their purposes, being able to afford them at a much less price than a genuine article. Great facilities are within the reach of all at the present day, who desire to become acquainted with their history and their great performance at the shambles, and for the dairy, and general usefulness as farm stock. The beef producers, and beef dealers uniformly acknowledge their great superiority over common stock. In the month of November, 1817, the improved Durham Short Horn Bull, Young Denton, (963) then sixteen months old, arrived in Boston, sent out from England by Samuel Williams, of London, a present to his brother Stephen Williams, of Northboro', Worcester Co., Mass.; he remained there until 1827 or 1828, when he was taken to the State of Maine, where he died, April 16, 1830. His Sire was Denton, (198); his G. Sire Comet, (155); was sold for 1000 guineas in 1810. In 1822, Mr. Williams received the Short Horn Cow, Arabella, from the same source; her Sire was North Star, (460); Dam, Aurora by Comet, (155). Both of these animals were bred by that eminent breeder, John Wetherel, who was one of the four spirited purchasers of Comet (155) in 1810, at the price before mentioned. It has been claimed by those who have gone before us, that Young Denton (963) was the first improved Durham Short Horn Bull, imported into the United States. From these two imported animals sprang a very numerous progeny, and their descendants are scattered through all of the Northern States. In 1823 the Bull Admiral, (1608) and Cow Arabella, were sent out from the same herd as a present from Admiral Sir Isaac Coffin, to the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, who placed them under the charge of E. Hersey Derby, Esq., of Salem, Mass., who bred from them successfully a few years, when the stock on hand was sold and removed to Hartford Co., Conn. Many animals of the present day, trace back to this importation. About the same period, Israel Monson, Esq., of Boston, a large landholder, brought out the Cow, Tube Rose, also from the herd of Mr. Wetherel. She produced but one Heifer in this country, (Rose by Young Denton), which, with her Mother and Daughter, (Nellie by Admiral, (1608)) died about the year 1830. In 1823. Mr. John S. Skinner, then editor of the American Farmer, Baltimore, imported two Heifers, Conquest and Pansey, and a Bull, Washington, (1566) for Gen. Stephen Van Renselaer, of Albany, N. Y., all from the herd of Mr. Champion, Blythe, England. Many of their descendants are recorded in this book, and are scattered through all the Northern States. All of the above mentioned animals possessed a very high order of excellence for milking capacity, both quality and quantity, and their descendants maintain that character in a very high degree at the present day. In 1829, Mr. Benjamin Rodman, of New Bedford, Mass., imported three Heifers, Adaliza, Dulcibella, and Galatea, and a Bull, Devonshire, (966) bred by Mr. Whitaker, of Burley, Yorkshire,--these were selected by Mr. Francis Rotch, then in England. One of them, Dulcibella was in calf when purchased, and produced Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) from which has sprung a numerous family of Cows, celebrated for their superior dairy qualities. In 1830, Mr. Enoch Silsby, of Boston, Mass., sent to England and brought out the Cow, Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) and Bull, Boston, (1735) both bred by Mr. Curry, of Brandon. These animals left a numerous progeny, justly celebrated for strong constitutions as well as rich handling and dairy qualities; many of their descendants are also recorded in this book. It is not claimed the instances of Short Horn excellence herein cited are superior to many others; they are those that have been noted and the facts made public. _Beef Qualities._ In 1843 a thorough bred Heifer, Regina, three years and a half old, having nursed her calf through the summer, was in thin flesh in the fall. Her bag having been deformed by accident, and she not being in calf, was put into a distillery stall in November, fed on slops and straw, and slaughtered in April following, and her dressed weight, beef, hide and tallow, 1005 pounds; beef of the finest quality. In 1857, Lucy, a thorough bred Heifer, was turned to pasture with reference to making beef of her, she having proved barren, being then nearly four years old. She was put into the stable in November, fed on good hay and a very small quantity of meal, it being the design to feed her a long time. On the fourth day of January following she was sold to a butcher for ten dollars per cwt., estimated at 1,000 pounds. She was slaughtered at Hartford, Conn., being four years and five months old, having eaten less than _two bushels_ of meal in her life. Her beef was sold, all the prime pieces at twenty-five cents per pound; was a very beautiful animal, with handling properties of the very highest order of excellence. In the month of January, 1862, Pocahontas, a thorough bred Heifer, was sold and slaughtered, then five years and one month old. Her dressed weight was as follows: hide, ninety pounds; tallow, one hundred and twenty-seven pounds; quarters, eleven hundred and eighteen pounds; total dressed weight, thirteen hundred and thirty-five pounds; was sold for eight cents per pound, making $106.80. Her feed, other than hay and grass, being twenty and one-half bushels of meal in all. _Dairy Qualities._ Lucilla, a thorough bred Heifer, at four years old, gave in June fifty-five pounds of milk on an average for one month; her greatest yield in one day was fifty-nine pounds and eight ounces, and during this month yielded fourteen pounds and eight ounces of butter in one week; her feed, grass, with three quarts of meal daily. At five years old the first week in June, her milk yielded fifteen pounds three ounces of butter, on grass only. Dorothy, a thorough bred Cow, gave thirty-nine pounds eight ounces of milk per day, three months after calving, on grass only; and in seven days made fifteen pounds one ounce of butter, in October. Nymph 5th, in the month of June, 1860, gave twenty-four quarts of milk daily for two weeks in succession, and made butter at the rate of two pounds four ounces per day, or fifteen pounds three ounces per week, on grass only. Rose 2d, a thorough bred Cow, produced seventeen pounds four ounces of butter from one week's milk in June, on grass only. _Longevity._ Princess, a thorough bred Cow, bred regularly up to eighteen years old; was then dried off and turned to grass for beef, and slaughtered in the fall without stall-feeding, and made merchantable beef. Arabella, a thorough-bred Cow, bred regularly up to seventeen years old, and died in 1861, at eighteen years old. Lilac 4th, a thorough-bred Cow, bred regularly up to nineteen years old, and died in 1861. _Scale of Points for Short Horn Bulls._ Points. ART. 1.--Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam reputed for docility of disposition, early maturity, and aptitude to fatten. Sire a good stock getter. Dam a good breeder, and giving a large quantity of milk, or such as is superior for making butter or cheese. 4 ART. 2.--Head muscular and fine. The horns fine and gradually diminishing to a point; of a flat, rather than of a round shape at the base; short and inclined to turn up; those of a clear, waxy color to be preferred, but such as are of a transparent white, slightly tinged with yellow, admissible. Ears small, thin, and covered with soft hair; playing quick and moving freely. Forehead short and broad, especially between the eyes, and slightly dished. Eyes bright, placid, and rather prominent than otherwise, with a yellow rim round them. Lower part of the face clean, dished, and well developing the course of the veins. Muzzle small. Nose of a clear orange or light chocolate color. Nostrils wide and open. Lower jaw thin. Teeth clean and sound. 5 ART. 3.--Neck fine, and slightly arched; strongly and well set on to the head and shoulders; harmoniously widening, deepening, and rounding as it approaches the latter point. No dewlap. 2 ART. 4.--Chest broad, deep and projecting--the brisket on a lower line than the belly. 5 ART. 5.--Shoulders broad, strong, fine, and well placed. Fore legs short, straight, and standing rather wide apart than narrow. Fore arm muscular, broad, and powerful; slightly swelling and full above the knee; the bone fine and flat. Knees well knit and strong. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle; horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear, waxy color. 2 ART. 6.--Barrel round and deep, and well ribbed up the hips. 4 ART. 7.--Back short, strong, straight and broad from the withers to the setting of the tail. Crops round and full. Loins broad. Huckle bones on a level with the back. Tail well set, on a level with the back, or very slightly below it; fine and gradually diminishing to a point, and hanging without the brush an inch or so below the hock, at right angles with the back. 4 ART. 8.--Hind quarters from the huckle to the point of the rump, long and well filled up. Twist well let down and full. Hind legs short, straight, and well spread apart; gradually swelling and rounding above the hock; the bone fine and flat below. Foot flat, and in shape making an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear, waxy color. Legs not to cross each other in walking, nor to straddle behind. 3 ART. 9.--Skin of a medium thickness; movable and mellow; a white color is admissible, but a rich cream or orange much preferable. Hair well covering the hide; soft and fine, and if undercoated with soft, thick fur in the winter, so much the better. Color, pure white, red roan, bright red, or reddish yellow and white. (A black or dark brown nose or rim round the eye; black or dark spots on the skin and hair decidedly objectional, and indicative of coarse meat and bad blood.) 3 ART. 10.--Good handling. 4 ART. 11.--Sure stock-getter. 4 ART. 12.--Stock, when made steers, certain to feed kindly for beeves at any age, and make prime beef. 5 ART. 13.--General appearance. 2 -- Perfection. 50 _Scale of Points for Short Horn Cows._ Points. ART. 1.--Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam reputed for docility of disposition, early maturity and aptitude to fatten. Sire a good stock getter. Dam a good breeder; giving a large quantity of milk, or such as is superior for making butter or cheese. 7 ART. 2.--Head small and tapering; longer and narrower in proportion than that of the bull. Horns fine and gradually diminishing to a point; of a flat rather than of a round shape at the base; short, and inclined to turn up; those of a clear waxy color to be preferred, but such as are of a transparent white slightly tinged with yellow, admissible. Ears small, thin, and well covered with soft hair; playing quick and moving freely. Forehead of good breadth between the eyes, and slightly dished. Eyes bright, placid, and rather prominent than otherwise, with a yellow rim round them. The lower part of the face clean, dished, and well developing the course of the veins. Muzzle small. Nose of a clear orange, or light chocolate color--the former much preferred. Nostrils wide and well opened. Lower jaw thin. Teeth clear and sound. 5 ART. 3.--Neck fine and thin, straight, and well set on to the head and shoulders, harmoniously widening, deepening, and slightly rounding in a delicate feminine manner as it approaches the latter point. No dewlap. 2 ART. 4.--Shoulders fine and well placed. Fore legs short, straight, and well spread apart. Fore arm wide, muscular, slightly swelling, and full above the knee; the bone fine and flat below. Knees well knit and strong. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear waxy color. 2 ART. 5.--Chest broad, deep and projecting--the brisket on a lower line than the belly. 5 ART. 6.--Barrel round, deep, and well ribbed up to the hips. 4 ART. 7.--Back short, strong and straight, from the withers to the setting of the tail. Crop round and full. Loin broad. Huckle bones on a level with the back. Tail well set, on a level with the back or very slightly below it; fine and gradually diminishing to a point; and hanging without the brush, an inch or so below the hock, at right angles with the back. 4 ART. 8.--Hind quarters from the huckles to the point of the rump long and well filled up. Twist well let down and full. Hind legs short, straight, and well spread apart; gradually swelling and rounding above the hock; the bone fine and flat below. Foot flat and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound and of a clear waxy color. Legs not to cross each other in walking, nor to straddle behind. 3 ART. 9.--Udder broad, full, extending well forward along the belly, and well up behind. Teats of a good size for the hand; squarely placed with a slight oblique pointing out; wide apart; when pressed by the hand the milk flowing from them freely. Extra teats, indicative of good milking qualities, but should never be milked, as they draw the bag out of shape. Milk veins large and swelling. Milk excelling either in quantity or quality for making butter or cheese. 5 ART. 10.--Skin of a medium thickness; movable and mellow; a white color is admissible, but a rich cream or orange much preferable. Hair well covering the hide; soft and fine, and if undercoated with soft, thick fur in the winter, so much the better. Color pure white; red roan; bright red; red and white; spotted roan, or reddish yellow and white. (A black or dark brown nose, or rim round the eye; black or dark brown spots on the skin and hair decidedly objectionable, and indicative of coarse meat and bad blood.) 3 ART. 11.--Good handler. 4 ART. 12.--Sure and good breeder. 4 ART. 13.--General appearance. 2 -- Perfection. 50 HERD RECORD OF ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF THOROUGH-BRED NEAT STOCK. SHORT HORNS. The figures in parenthesis, thus, (00) refer to the numbers in the English Herd Books; the open figures thus, 00 refer to the American Herd Books; the figures at the right of the asterisk, thus, _{*}00 refer to the numbers adopted by this Association in its volumes. BULLS. =_{*}1 Arch Duke, 3649.= Light roan, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Berkshire Co., Mass.: calved April 1st, 1859; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Calla, by Lamartine, (11662),-- 2d dam Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 3d--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 4th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 5th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 6th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =_{*}2 Berkshire Duke, 3675.= Red and white, bred and owned by A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Berkshire Co., Mass.: calved March 6th, 1860; got by Chaos, 1347, Dam Cassiopeia, by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578,-- 2d dam Jeanett, by Backwoodsman, 226, 3d--Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 4th--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 5th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 6th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 7th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =_{*}3 Berkshire Boy,= Red and white, bred and owned by A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Berkshire Co., Mass.: calved April 2d, 1861; got by Arch Duke, _{*}1, 3649, Dam Cassiopeia, by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578,-- 2d dam Jeanett, by Backwoodsman, _{*}6, 226, 3d--Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 4th--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 5th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 6th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 7th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =_{*}4 Buncomb=, 1302. Roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved December 11th, 1855; got by Prince of Orange, 872, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}5 Bonaparte,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved August 22d, 1861; got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Rose, 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407,-- 2d dam Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th------ by Patriot, (486). =_{*}6 Backwoodsman=, 226. Roan, bred by JOHN WALTON, C. W., late the property of S. T. TABER, Duchess Co., N. Y.: calved April 20th, 1847; got by Brilliant, 30, Dam Young Favorite, by Comet, 1385,-- 2d dam Favorite, by Hewood, (2114) 3d--Sweet Apple, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Ribstone Pippin, by Cleaveland, (146) 5th--Golden Pippin, by North Star, (459) 6th--Beauty, by Favorite, (252) 7th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 8th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252). =_{*}7 Capt. Wilkes,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved December 21st, 1861; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}10, 3850, Dam Alida, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Autumn, by North American, 116, 3d--Adaliza, by Agate 2, 4th--Adaline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Annabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}8 Cæsar,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved August 23d, 1861; got by Rob Roy, 4320, Dam Yarico 17th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Yarico 6th, by Prince Leopold, 869, 3d--Yarico 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 4th--Yarico, by North American, 116, 5th--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}9 Chicopee,= Red and white, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved October 3d, 1861; got by Hampden, _{*}31, 2949, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) by 7th-- ---- Marske, (418). =_{*}10 Comet, 3772.= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved August 23d, 1859; got by 2d Prince of Orange, _{*}59, 2183, Dam Pocahontas 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168, 3d--Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 4th--Princess by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ----by Prince, (521) 9th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}11 Cow Boy,= Red and white, bred by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.; property of E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.: calved May 24th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Eva 2d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Eva, by Logan, 95, 3d--Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Dorcas by Boston, (1735) 6th--imported Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington (683) 8th--by Admiral, (4) 9th--by Sir Harry, (1444) 10th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 13th--by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 12th--by Son of Hubback, (319). =_{*}12 Commodore,= 3777. Roan, bred by F. W. STONE, Moreton Lodge, Guelph, C. W.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved May 26th, 1857; got by imported John O'Gaunt 2d, (13089) Dam Duchess, 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}13 Duke of Worcester,= 3896. Light roan, bred by DANIEL TAINTOR, Worcester, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved May 4th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Cara, by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 3d--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Elvira by Young Comet, (3437) 5th--Emma by Rockingham, (560) 6th--imported Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}14 Dupont,= Red and white, bred by F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved January 17th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Kathleen, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½, 3d--Alice by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252), &c. =_{*}15 Duke of Argyle,= Roan, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved February 6th, 1862; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Tube Rose 4th, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 4th--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281), &c., as in Tube Rose, 4th. =_{*}16 Duke of Windsor,= Red star in the face, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved February 11th, 1862; got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Windsor Belle, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansey, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th------ by Patriot, (486.) =_{*}17 Duke of Carlisle=, 3850. Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Thornedale, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 22d, 1859; got by 2d Grand Duke, (12961) Dam Clover, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Countess, by 3d Duke of Oxford, (9047) 3d--Careless, by Short Tail, (2621) 4th--by son of Second Hubback, (2683). NOTE.--Clover was the winner of the first prize and Silver Medal to the _breeder_ at the New York State Show, at Syracuse, in 1858. =_{*}18 Duke of Wilbraham,= Red and white, bred by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.; owned by WILLIAM LYMAN, Wilbraham, Mass.: calved July 29th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Fancy, by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478, 3d--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Young Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}19 Derby,= Bred and owned by JOHN HOWITT, Guelph, C. W.: calved in 1848; got by Prince Albert, _{*}56, Dam Moss Rose, by imported Reformer, 898,-- 2d dam Ruby, by Agricola, (1614) 3d--imported Beauty, by Snowball, (2647) 4th--by Lawnsleeves, (365) 5th-- ---- by Mr. Mason's Charles, (127). =_{*}20 Duc D'Argentine,= Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved April 11th, 1859; got by 2d Grand Duke, (12961) Dam Darlington, 6th by 4th Duke of Oxford, (11387),-- 2d dam Darlington, 1st by Thomas, (5471) 3d--Pretty Maid, by Eryholme, (3736) 4th--by Reformer, (4914) 5th--by Young Favorite, (3770) 6th--by Wellington, (2825). =_{*}21 Duke of Springfield,= Roan, bred by H. J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved August, 1861; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 478, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =_{*}22 2d Duke of Kent,= Red roan, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved April, 1861; got by Duke of Kent, 2768; Dam Red Rose 3d, by imported Duke of Athol, 445,-- 2d dam Red Rose, by Plow Boy, 824, 3d--Lucilla, 2d, by Guarionez, 68, 4th--Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 6th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 8th--by Admiral, (4) 9th--by Sir Harry, (1444). =_{*}23 Dacotah=, 3800. Red and white, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved May 8th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Virgillia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}24 Double Marmion,= Red and white, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 29th, 1861; got by Young Marmion, _{*}37, 3602, Dam Nymph 5th, by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}24½ Fourth of July,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. W. STEBBINS, Deerfield, Mass.: calved July 4th, 1859; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858,-- 2d dam Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 3d--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 4th--Sally, by Major (441) 5th--Old Sally, by grand son of Favorite, (252) 6th--by Punch, (531) 7th--by Hubback, (319.) =_{*}25 Fabius 3d,= Red roan, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved April 3d, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60. 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ------ by Comus, 161, 7th-- ------ by Marske. =_{*}26 Franklin,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved December 1st, 1861; got by Prince of Wales, 4276, Dam Molly, by Hiawatha, 1666,-- 2d dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =_{*}27 Finellas Neptune,= Dark roan, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved January 20th, 1860; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 3d--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 4th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 5th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 6th------ by Young Pilot, (497) 7th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 8th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). =_{*}28 General Sale,= Red, bred by J. S. & G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne Falls, Mass.: calved July 29th, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Knight, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258). =_{*}29 Granite State,= Red, bred by JAMES FOSGATE, Winchester, N. H.; property of NATHANIEL W. BRAGG, Royalston, Mass.: calved June 3d, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Victoria, by Ashuelot, 1213,-- 2d dam Victoria, by imported Cerdic, (5843) 3d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ----- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 11--by Hubback, (319). =_{*}30 Gov. Hancock= Red and white, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved April 8th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Lucy, by Osceola, 789,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Logan, 95, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252)7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th by Marske, (418). =_{*}31 Hampden=, 2949. Roan, bred by P. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 30th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Young Dorothy, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Dorothy, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Red Romp, by Agate 2, 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th--by Prince, (521) 10th--by Patriot, (486). =_{*}32 Hannibal,= Red and white, bred by H.J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 8th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, _{*}34, 1667, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, &c., as in Hamilcar. =_{*}33 Hamilcar,= Red and white, bred by H.J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON; Agawam, Mass.: calved November, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia by Major, (2252), &c. =_{*}34 2d Hiawatha, 1667= Light roan, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved September 29th, 1856; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Yarico, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 3d--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th------ by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =_{*}35 Humboldt,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Dover Plains, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of STATE REFORM SCHOOL, Meriden, Conn.: calved May, 1859; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Laura, by North American, 116, 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th------ by Admiral, (4) &c., &c. =_{*}36 6th Hiawatha, 2971.= Red and white, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved September 17th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Yarico 3d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, 155, &c. =_{*}37 Highflyer, 578.= Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved December 14th, 1854; got by Duke of Gloster, (11382) Dam imported Diana Gwynne, by Duke of Lancaster, (10929),-- 2d dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422) 3d--Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 4th--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 5th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 6th--Nelle Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 7th--Nelle Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th------ by Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--by Weistel's Bull, (669) 13th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 14th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626.) =_{*}38 Honest Abe, 4026.= Red and white, bred by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 12th, 1860; got by Brother Jonathan, 2570, Dam Ruth, by Uncle Tom, 1056,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5292) 6th--Flora by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}39 John Bell, 4068.= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; calved January 12th, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Lady Chesterford 2d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam imported Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799) 3d--Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691) 4th--Lady Ann, by Pam, (6272) 5th--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 6th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 7th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax (220) 8th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 12th--Fortune, by Bolinbroke, (86) 13th-- ---- by Foljambe, (263) 14th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =_{*}40 John Bull, 3025.= Red and white, bred by FREDERIC W. STONE, Guelph, C. W.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved July 6th, 1857; got by John O'Gaunt, (13089) Dam imported Bianca, by Minstrel, (11818)-- 2d dam Banksie, by Shepherds Purse, (10804) 3d--Raspberry, by Mozart (11830) 4th--Cherry, by Sterling, (5330) 5th--Wide 2d, by Frederic, (3836) 6th--Old Wide, by Favorite, (3768) 7th-- ---- by Fathwell Studley, (5401) 8th-- ----by Son of Waddingworth, (668). =_{*}41 John P. Hale,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 28th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Dawn, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Luna, by Nebraska, 738, 3d--Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 4th--Aurora, by North American, 116, 5th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 7th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 8th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 9th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 11th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 12th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =_{*}42 Leonidas, 4094.= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved August 17th, 1860; got by 2d Prince of Orange, _{*}59, 2183, Dam Pocahontas 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168, 3d--Pocahontas, by North American, 119, 4th--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ----by Prince, (521) 9th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}43 Lucifer,= Red, bred and owned by MILO J. SMITH & Son, Northampton, Mass.: calved September 9th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Colona, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}44 Marmion, 1843.= Roan, bred by N. J. BECAR, property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, and MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved October 2d, 1855; got by Duke of Gloster, (11382) Dam Zoe, by 5th Duke of York, (10168),-- 2d dam Janetta, by Lycurgus, (7180) 3d--Jacosta, by Friar Tuck, (3848) 4th---L. Junta, by Warden, (5595) 5th--Joyance, by Javelin, (4093) 6th--Joy, by Blythe, (797) 7th--Jeanette, by Wellington, (684) 8th-- ---- by Phenomenon, (491) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 11th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 12th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 13th-- ---- by Weistel's Bull, (669) 14th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626). =_{*}45 Marmion,= Roan, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved August 1st, 1862; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam White Rose, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127). =_{*}46 Marmion 2d,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 21st, 1862; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Dianna Gwynne, by Duke of Lancaster, (10929),-- 2d dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422) 3d--Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 4th--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 5th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 6th--Nell Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 7th--Nell Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--by Weistel's Bull, (669) 13th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 14th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626). =_{*}47 Major Anderson,= Red roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 4th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Dianna Gwynne, by Duke of Lancaster, (10929),-- 2d dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422) 3d--Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 4th--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 5th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 6th--Nell Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 7th--Nell Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Favorite, (252) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th-- ----by Weistel's Bull, (669) 13th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 14th-- ----by the Studley Bull, (626). =_{*}48 Monarch,= Red and white, bred by A. H. BEACH, Merwinsville, Conn.; property of BURDETT LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.: calved June 23d, 1860; got by Duke of Ash Grove, 2745, Dam Belle 3d, by the Count, 1028,-- 2d dam imported Belle, by Monarch, (7249) 3d--Barmaid, by Hurricane, (4061) 4th--Spotted Boughton, by Crusader, (7939) 5th--Bombazine, by Regent, (544). =_{*}49 Middlesex,= Red and white, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 30th, 1862; got by Thorndyke, _{*}68, 4422, Dam Laurestina 2d, by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025,-- 2d dam Laurestina, by Earl of Warwick, 465, 3d--Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869, 4th--Laura, by North American, 116, 5th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 6th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 8th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 9th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 10th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 11th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, 319, 12th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =_{*}50 Neptune,= Light roan, bred by JOHN BOOTH, Killerby, England; imported by SAMUEL THORNE, owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.; got by Water King, (11024) Dam Bloom, by Buckingham, (3239),-- 2d dam Hawthorn Blossom, by Leonard, (4210) 3d--Blossom 3d, by Young Red Rover, (4905) 4th--Blossom, by Isaac, (1129) 5th--Blossom, by Pilot, (496) 6th--Twin Cow, by Albion, (14). =_{*}51 Napier,= Dark roan, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved March 10th, 1861; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 3d--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 4th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 5th--Flora, by Isaac, 1129, 6th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 7th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 8th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143.) =_{*}52 Nonesuch, 1935½.= Red and white, bred by D. C. COLLINS, Hartford, Conn.; property of DAVID MOSELY, Westfield, Mass.: calved April 2d, 1853; got by Monarch, 718, Dam Novice, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Nina, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155.) =_{*}53 Osceola,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved May 24th, 1861; got by Duke of Winchester, 2792½, Dam Lucky, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Aurelia, by Osceola, 789, 3d--Adeliza, by Agate 2, 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th--by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =_{*}54 Prince of Wales, 4275.= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Millbury, Mass.: calved October 11th, 1860; got by Highflyer, _{*}34, 587, Dam Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799,)-- 2d dam Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691) 3d--Lady Anna, by Pam, (6272) 4th--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 5th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 6th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax, (220) 7th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 11th--Fortune, by Bolingbroke, (86) 12th-- ---- by Foljambe, (263) 13th-- ----by Hubback, (319.) =_{*}55 Pluto,= Red and white, bred by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 4th, 1860; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Eva 3d, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Eva, by Logan, 95, 3d--Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Young Agatha, by imported Boston, (1735) 5th--Dorcas, by imported Boston, (1735) 6th--imported cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (1683), &c. =_{*}56 Prince Albert,= White, bred by GEORGE VAIL, Troy, N. Y.; property of JOHN HOWITT, Guelph, C. W.: calved June 19th, 1846; got by Meteor, 104, Dam Splendor, by Symmetry, (2723),-- 2d dam Pomona, by Bedford, Jr., (1701) 3d-- ---- by Isaac, 1129, 4th-- ----by Whitworth, (1584) 5th-- ---- by White Comet, (1582) 6th-- ---- by Son of Kitt, (2179.) =_{*}57 Prince of Oxford, 3308.= Red roan, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved July 3d, 1857; got by Duke of Gloster, (11382) Dam Maid of Oxford, by Lord of Eryholme, (12205),-- 2d dam Oxford 13th, by 3d Duke of York, (10166) 3d--Oxford 5th, by Duke of Northumberland, (1940) 4th--Oxford 2d, by Short Tail, (2621) 5th--Matchem Cow, by Matchem, (2281) 6th-- ---- by Young Wynyard, (2859.) =_{*}58 Planet,= Red and white, bred by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved August 15th, 1861; got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Fancy, by Berlin Hero, (257,)-- 2d dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478, 3d--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155.) [Illustration: PRINCE OF OXFORD, 2 Years Old, 3308. Vol. 4, A. H. B. THE PROPERTY OF NEWTON CARTER, HARTFORD, CONN.] =_{*}59 2d Prince of Orange, 2183.= Light roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved May 24th, 1856; got by Prince of Orange, 872, Dam Novice, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Nina, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}60 Red Duke, 4295.= Red, bred by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 2d, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Young Dorothy, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Dorothy, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Red Romp, by Agate 2, 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}61 Red Blaize, 3325.= Red, bred by D. W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved May, 1857; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592),-- 2d dam Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 3d--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}62 Rising Star,= Red roan, bred and owned by MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved August 21st, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Starlight, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Aurora, by North American, 116, 4th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, 198, 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ----by Danby, (190). =_{*}63 Roan Duke,= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; got by Highflyer, _{*}34, 578, Dam imported Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799), 2d dam Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691) 3d--Lady Ann, by Pam (6272) 4th--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 5th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 6th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax, (220) 7th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 11th--Fortune, by Bolingbroke, (86) 12th-- ---- by Foljambe, (263) 13th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 14th-- ---- bred by Mr. Maynard. =_{*}64 Rebel, 3023.= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved March 2d, 1862; got by John Bright, 3023, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}65 Star,= Red, star in the face, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved April 9th, 1862; got by Buncomb, _{*}4, 1302, Dam Rose, by Young America, 2404,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th--by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =_{*}66 Son of Highflyer,= Red, bred by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; property of J. H. GOODELL & CO., Millbury, Mass.: calved February 2d, 1862; got by Highflyer, _{*}34, 578, Dam Jessie, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858, 3d--Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 4th--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 5th--Sally, by Major, (401) 6th--Old Sally, by grandson of Favorite, (252) 7th-- ---- by Punch, (530) 8th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =_{*}67 Stephenson,= Red and white, bred by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 7th, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Nymph 5th, by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ---- by Danby, (190). NOTE.--This is a three-fourth Stephenson and one-fourth Bates blood Bull. J. S. A. =_{*}68 Thorndyke, 4422.= Light roan, bred at the STATE LUNATIC ASYLUM, Worcester, Mass.; property of SAMUEL BOYD, Marlboro', Mass.: calved January 15th, 1861; got by Young Monarch, 3605, Dam Yarico 2d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ----by Danby, (190). =_{*}69 Woronoco,= Red and white, bred and owned by DAVID MOSELY, Westfield, Mass.: calved April 16th, 1858; got by Nonesuch, _{*}52, 1935½, Dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}70 Young Marmion, 3602.= Light roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved July 6th, 1858; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Nymph 5th, by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =_{*}71 Young Humboldt,= Red and white, bred by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.; property of ISAAC S. CLEMENT, Saratoga Co., N. Y.: calved April 19th, 1859; got by Humboldt, 1678, Dam Minnie, by Lord Eryholme 2d, (11715),-- 2d dam Agnes, by Lamartine, (11662) 3d-- ---- by Plowboy, 824, 4th--Pocahontas, by Harlem Comet, 71, 5th--Fose, by Greenbush, 2940, 6th--Young Lily, by imported Albion, 2483, 7th--imported Flora, by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Ossian, (476) COWS. =Arabella,= Red and white, bred by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; the property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved July 8th, 1858; got by Connecticut, 369, out of Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 2d,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved October 6th, 1861; got by Fabius 3d, _{*}25, 3920, Dam Arabella, by Connecticut, 369,-- 2d dam Arabella by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 2d,= Red and white, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; the property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass: calved April, 1846; got by Fabius, 60, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 3d,= Red, bred by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; the property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 8th, 1856; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60. 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 4th,= Red, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved October 14th, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Arabella 3d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 5th,= Red roan, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 18th, 1860; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Arabella 3d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 6th,= Roan, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved June 5th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 6th,= Red, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass: calved December 15th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Arabella 3d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 7th,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved September 13th, 1860; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Arabella 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 8th,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved October 2d, 1860; got by Dacotah, 3800, Dam Arabella, by Connecticut, 369,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arabella 4th,= Roan, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved January 28th, 1858, got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Arazonia,= Roan, bred by SAMUEL T. TABER, owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; calved June 23d, 1857; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Arabella, by Major, 398, 6th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Ann Gwynne,= Red and white, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Dover Plains, Duchess Co., N. Y.; the property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved 1851; got by Prince Albert, 853, Dam Daisy 2d, by Danby, 50,-- 2d dam Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 3d--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 4th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900) 5th-- ---- by Mr. Wilkinson's Bull, (2838) 6th-- ---- by Mr. Greathead's Grey Bull, (3936) 7th-- ---- by Mr. Ellerton's Roan Bull, (3708). =Atalanta 3d,= Roan, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved September 20th, 1857; got by Duke of Windsor, 451, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, 1787, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, _by_ Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Atalanta 4th,= Red and white; bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; calved September 11th, 1859; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Ariadne,= Red, bred by SAMUEL THORNE, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved April 10th, 1859; got by Neptune, _{*}50, (11847) Dam Alma, by Young Balco, (12426),-- 2d dam Aurora, by 3d Duke of York, (10166) 3d--Allspice, by 2d Duke of Northumberland, (3646) 4th--Young Amazon, by Crusader, (934) 5th--Amazon, by Sultan, (1485) 6th--Bellona, by Mars, (411) 7th--Rolla, by North Star, (485). =Ariadne 2d,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved December 7th, 1861; got by Duc de Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Ariadne, by Neptune, (11847),-- 2d dam Alma, by Young Balco, (12426) 3d--Aurora, by 3d Duke of York, (10166) 4th--Allspice, by 2d Duke of Northumberland, (3646) 5th--Young Amazon, by Crusader, (934) 6th--Amazon, by Sultan, (1485) 7th--Bellona, by Mars, (411) 8th--Rolla, by North Star, (485). =Adda,= Red and white, bred and owned by G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved September 6th, 1861; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734,-- 2d dam Cherry, by King Philip, 85, 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, 2038, 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Aurora,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 14th, 1861; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Dawn, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Luna, by Nebraska, 738, 3d--Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 4th--Aurora, by North American, 116, 5th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 7th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 8th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 9th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 11th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 12th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Alida,= Light roan, bred by S. T. TABER, Hempstead Branch, Queens County, N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved August 8th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Autumn, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Adeliza, by Agate 2, 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ----by Danby, (190). =Atalanta 2d,= Red and white, bred by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; the property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved November 3d, 1856; got by Red Jacket, 891, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- Marske, (418). =Autumn Rose,= Red, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 7th, 1861, got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Fair Star, by King Philip, 1740,-- 2d dam Phoebe, by Berlin Hero, 257, 3d--Lily, by Logan, 95, 4th--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 5th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 6th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 7th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 8th--Lilac, by imported Young Denton, (963) 9th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 11th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 12th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Belladonna,= Red and white, bred by H. J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved October 22d, 1856; got by Duke of Windsor, 451, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252), &c. =Belladonna 2d,= Red and white, bred by H. J. CHAPIN, Springfield, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 28th, 1860; got by Hampden, 3949, Dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, &c., as in Belladonna above. =Belladonna 3d,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved February 18th, 1861, got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Belladonna, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580, 3d--Stella, by Fabius 2d, 478, 4th--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 5th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 6th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 7th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 8th--Delicia, by Major, (2252.) =Belladonna 4th,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 10th, 1862; got by Buncomb, 1302, Dam Belladonna, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Belladonna, by Holyoke, 580, 3d--Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487, 4th--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 5th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 6th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878), &c., as in Belladonna. =Bellflower 3d,= Red and white, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Hartford County, Conn.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 11th, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Bellflower, by Harvester, 1641,-- 2d dam Mayflower, by North American, 116, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Bianca,= Red and white, bred by Sir JOHN LUBBOCK, Kent, Eng.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved January 25th, 1854; got by Minstrel, (11818) Dam Banksia, by Shepherds Purse, (10804),-- 2d dam Raspberry, by Mozart, (11830) 3d--Cherry, by Sterling, (5330) 4th--Wide 2d, by Frederic, (3836) 5th--Old Wide, by Favorite, (3768) 6th-- ---- by Tathwell Studley, (5401) 7th-- ---- by Son of Waddingworth, (668). =Bianca 2d,= Red, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 4th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam imported Bianca, by Minstrel, (11818),-- 2d dam Banksia, by Shepherds Purse, (10804) 3d--Raspberry, by Mozart, (11830) 4th--Cherry, by Sterling, (5330) 5th--Wide 2d, by Frederic, (3836) 6th--Old Wide, by Favorite, (3768) 7th-- ---- by Tathwell Studley, (5401) 8th-- ---- by Son of Waddingworth, (668). =Cassy,= Light roan, bred by A. & J. A. CLARK, Granby, Mass.; property of JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved October 10th, 1854; got by Young Meteor, 1147, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2242) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Casseopia,= Red and white, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of Rev. A. P. VIETS, Hancock, Mass.: calved April 9th, 1857; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Jeannette, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Jane, by Young Magog, (2247) 3d--Laura, by Budget, (1759) 4th--Strawberry, by Sandoe, (2598) 5th--Old Red Rose, by Copeland, (1871) 6th--Grey Hook, by Marquis, (407). =Cheapside,= Light roan, bred by and property of JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved February 28th, 1861; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpareil, by imported Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th--by Danby, (190). =Coriander,= Red, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved September 11th, 1856; got by Monarch, 718, Dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Coriander 2d,= Red and white, bred by and property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved December 7th, 1860; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Coriander, by Monarch, 718,-- 2d dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382, 3d--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, 85, 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Cinderella 2d,= Red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved July 13th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Cinderella, by Harvester, 1641,-- 2d dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382, 3d--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85), &c., as above. =Cora,= Red and white, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Conn.; property of WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved May 20th, 1853; got by Harvester, 1641, Dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Cora 3d,= Roan, bred by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved November 4th, 1861; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Cora 2d, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Cora, by Harvester, 1641, 3d--Carnation, by Coxcomb, 382, 4th--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 9th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 10th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Cora 4th,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved June 12th, 1862; got by Brigham Young, 3702, Dam Cora, by Harvester, 1641,-- 2d dam Carnation, by Coxcomb, 381, 3d--Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Chance 5th,= Roan, bred by R. A. ALEXANDER, Woodford County, Ky.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved December 23d, 1857; got by Duke of Airdrie, (12730) Dam Chance 2d, by full brother to Mercer, (11807),-- 2d dam Chance, by Renick, 903, 3d--Bantam, by Cossack, (3503) 4th--Claudine, by Prince Charles, (2461) 5th--Orbit by Oliver, (2387) 6th-- ---- by Contention, (3479) 7th-- ---- by San Martin, (2599) 8th-- ---- by Paul Jones, (4661). =Cherry 5th,= Roan, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved November 1st, 1860; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2979, Dam Cherry 4th, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734, 3d--Cherry, by King Philip, 85, 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639), &c. =Cherry 6th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved October 24th, 1861; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Cherry 4th, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734, 3d--Cherry, by King Philip, 85, 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963). =Carnation,= Red and white, bred by F. M. ROTCH, Otsego Co., N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 19th, 1850; got by Coxcomb, 382, Dam Coral, by Bertram 2d, 21-- 2d dam Conquest, by Washington, (1566) 3d--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 4th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 5th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 6th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 7th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Colona,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved May 14th, 1858, got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th--Ada, by Denton (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Dew Drop,= Red and white, bred by S. T. BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved May 2d, 1854; got by Holyoke, 580, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (5252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske (418). =Dew Drop,= Red, bred by WILLIAM VINE SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved August 12th, 1858; got by Buncomb, 1302, Dam Atalanta 2d, by Logan 2d, 652,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155.) =Dora Haines,= Roan, bred by B. & C. S. HAINES, Elizabeth, N. J.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved February 4th, 1860; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Anna, by imported Duke of Exeter, 449,-- 2d dam Gertrude, by Paular, 807, 3d--Snowstorm, by imported Duke of Wellington, (3654) 4th--Old Snowstorm by Alexander, 4, 5th--Fashion, by Otto, (9463) 6th--Kicker, by Moscow, (9413) 7th--Princess, by Wellington, (684) 8th--Old Princess, by Wynyard, (703). =Dora Haines 2d,= Red roan, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 26th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Dora Haines, by Marmion, 1843,-- 2d dam Anna, by imported Duke of Exeter, 449, 3d--Gertrude, by Paular, 807, 4th--Snowstorm, by Duke of Wellington, (3654) 5th--Snowstorm, by Alexander, 4, 6th--Fashion, by Otto, (9463) 7th--Kicker, by Moscow, (9413) 8th--Princess, by Wellington, (684) 9th--Old Princess, by Wynyard, (703). =Dawn,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; calved July 12th, 1857; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Luna, by Nebraska, 738,-- 2d dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Aurora, by North American, 116, 4th--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Dairy Maid,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved June 9th, 1862; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Topsy, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, 3d--Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Diana Gwynne,= Roan, bred by J. S. TANQUERAY, Hendon, England; imported by SAMUEL THORNE; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved January 28th, 1852; got by Duke of Lancaster, (10929) Dam Dolly Varden, by Ribblesdale, (7422),-- 2d dam Dorothy Gwynne, by Conservative, (3472) 3d--Cripple, by Marmion, (406) 4th--Daphne, by Merlin, (430) 5th--Nell Gwynne, by Layton, (366) 6th--Nell Gwynne, by Phenomenon, (491) 7th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 8th-- ----by Favorite, (252) 9th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 11th-- ---- by Weistel's Bull, (669) 12-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 13th-- ---- by the Studley Bull, (626). NOTE.--Diana Gwynne sold to George Bachelder, Stanstead, Canada East. =Duchess 4th,= Red, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 15th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592),-- 2d dam Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Duchess 6th,= Roan, bred by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; property of R. B. HUBBARD, Amherst, Mass: calved March 5th, 1860; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Duchess 7th,= (twin with Duchess 6th), White, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved March 5th, 1860; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Duchess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Duchess 8th,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 17th, 1861; got by Duke of Winchester, 2792½, Dam Duchess 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Duchess 7th. =Duchess 9th,= Roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 12th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Duchess 7th and 8th. =Duchess 10th,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 28th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Duchess 4th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Duchess 2d, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Duchess 7th. =Duchess 11th,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 15th, 1862, got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Duchess 7th, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Duchess 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869, &c., as in Duchess 7th. =Dimity,= White, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved July 15th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North America, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ----by Danby, (190). =Duchess of Naubuc,= Red, bred by GEORGE F. HUBBARD, Glastenbury, Conn.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 15th, 1859; got by King Philip, 1740, Dam Dew Drop, by Holyoke, 580,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½, 3d--Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Danæ, by Carlos, (1787) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Drusilla,= Red and white, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 1st, 1862; got by Duke of Worcester, _{*}13, 3896, Dam Virgilia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Eva,= Light roan, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Dover Plains, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of A. O. CUMMINS, Millbury, Mass.: calved March 15th, 1855; got by Backwoodsman, _{*}6, 226, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy, by imported King Charles 2d, 84, 4th--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Emma,= Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 4th, 1860; got by Duke of Winchester, 292½, Dam Alida, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Autumn, by North American, 116, 3d--Adeliza, by Agate 2, 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Eva,= Roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved June 15th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Lily of the Valley, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Lucy, by Rough and Ready, 930, 3d--Miss Lathrop, by North American, 116, 4th--Lily, by Grafton, 1623, 5th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 6th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Eva 2d,= Red, bred by D. W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved August 3d, 1856; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Eva, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Agatha, by Fabius 60, 3d--Young Agatha, by imported Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by imported Boston, (1735) 5th--imported Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Eva 3d,= Red, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 17th, 1861; got by Red Duke, 4295, Dam Eva 2d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Eva, by Logan, 95, 3d--Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735,) 5th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 6th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 7th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683), &c., as in Eva 2d. =Eva 3d,= Roan, bred by P. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved December 7th, 1857; got by Duke of Windsor, 451, Dam Eva, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152). =Eulalie,= Red and white, bred by and property of E. M. HOLMAN, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved February 1st, 1860; got by Cayuga Prince, 2609, Dam Eva, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Danby, 50, 4th--Daisy, by imported King Charles 2d, 84, 5th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 6th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Emma,= Red and white, bred by and property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved October 6th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Evelina,= Roan, bred by A. & J. A. CLARK, Granby, Mass.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved January 20th, 1857; got by Granby, 544, Dam Cara by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 3d--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Elvira, by Young Comet, (3437) 5th--Emma, by Rockingham, (569) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Esmerelda,= Red and white, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 14th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Dew Drop, by Buncomb, 1302,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Logan 2d, 652, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3437) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--imported Anabella, by Major, (389) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Ethelind,= Red, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved January 1st, 1862; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, dam Rena, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Aurora, by North American, 116, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Ella,= Light roan, bred and owned by CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved July 19th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Elaine,= Roan, bred and owned by DANIEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April, 1862; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Windsor Lass, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Fairy Belle,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. M. HOLMAN, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved April 11th, 1862; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Tube Rose 7th, by Tornado, 1040,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) &c., as in Tube Rose 6th. =Finella,= Red, bred by S. E. BOLDEN, Lancaster, England, imported by R. A. ALEXANDER, Ky.; property of WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved June 30th, 1852; got by Grand Duke, (10284) Dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082),-- 2d dam Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 3d--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 4th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 5th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 6th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 7th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). =Fairy,= Roan, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved January 24th, 1862; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam Florence, by imported Sirius, (13737)-- 2d dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284) 3d--Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 4th--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 5th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 6th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 7th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 8th-- ----by Pilot, (496) 9th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). Florence, Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved December 16th, 1858; got by imported Sirius, (13737) Dam imported Finella, by Grand Duke, (10284),-- 2d dam Fay, by Foig-a-Ballagh, (8082) 3d--Fame, by Raspberry, (4875) 4th--Farewell, by Young Matchem, (4422) 5th--Flora, by Isaac, (1129) 6th-- ---- by Young Pilot, (497) 7th-- ---- by Pilot, (496) 8th-- ---- by Julius Cæsar, (1143). =Fair Star,= Red, bred by GEORGE F. HUBBARD, Glastenbury, Conn.; property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved January 17th, 1858; got by King Philip, 1740, Dam Phoebe, (bred by S. W. BARTLETT), by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Lily, (bred by Norman Porter, Berlin), by Logan, 95, 3d--Lilac 8th, (bred by J. B. Chapman, East Windsor, Conn.,) by Superior, (5360), 4th--Lilac 4th (bred by J. Pasco, East Windsor), by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, (bred by Stephen Williams, Northboro' Mass.,) by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, (bred by Mr. Williams), by Frederick, (2038) 7th--Lilac, (bred by Mr. Williams), by Young Denton, (963) 8th--imported Arabella, (bred by Mr. Wetherel), by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, (bred by Mr. Wetherel), by Comet, (155). =Fancy,= Red and white, bred by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved March 15th, 1855; got by Berlin Hero, 257, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Flora,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved April, 1860; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Virgilia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Florence,= Red and white, bred by and property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved June 19th, 1860; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 4th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900), &c. [Illustration: GRACE, 4 Years Old, Vol. 4, A. H. B. THE PROPERTY OF NEWTON CARTER, HARTFORD, CONN.] =Guenever,= Red, bred and owned by DANIEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.: calved March 12th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Windsor Lass, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Grace,= Red, bred by N. J. BECAR, Smithtown, L. I.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn: calved November 24th, 1854; got by Marquis of Carrabas, 3122, Dam Garland 2d, by Pestalozzi, (10603),-- 2d dam Garland, by Hector, (4000) 3d--Moss Rose, by Emperor, (1974) 4th--Rose Bud, by Margrave, (2243) 5th-- ---- by Leopold, (2199) 6th-- ---- by Hector, (2103) 7th-- ---- by Traveller, (655) 8th-- ---- by Surly, (2715) 9th-- ----by Colonel, (152). =Hartford Lady,= Red and white, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 21st, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332,-- 2d dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 872, 3d--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 4th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 5th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 6th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Hartford Lady 2d,= Roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved May 13th, 1861; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Hartford Lady, by Red Rover, 2109,-- 2d dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332, 3d--Helen, by Prince of Orange, 827, 4th--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 5th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 6th--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 7th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 8th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 9th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Hartford Belle,= Roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 22d, 1860; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332,-- 2d dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 878, 3d--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 4th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 5th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 6th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Highland Maid 2d,= Red, bred by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved March 5th, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Lady Sale 5th, by Red Jacket, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 14th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 16th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 17th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626) 18th-- ---- (bred by Mr. Stephenson, of Ketton, in 1739). =Harvest Rose,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.: calved October 26th, 1861; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Rose 5th, by Duke of Windsor, 451,-- 2d dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025, 3d--Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 4th--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 7th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 8th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 9th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 10th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 11th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Holiday,= Roan, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Conn.; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved December 25th, 1856; got by Valiant, 2332, Dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 872,-- 2d dam Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marigold, by Major, 678, 4th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 5th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Holiday 2d,= Roan, bred and owned by TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 1st, 1861; got by Young Marmion, _{*}70, 3602, Dam Holiday, by Valiant, 2332,-- 2d dam Helen, by Prince of Orange, 872, 3d--Moss Rose, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 4th--Marigold, by Major, 678, 5th--Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 6th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Hyacinth,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved July 9th, 1858; got by Connecticut, 369, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Isabel,= Red and white, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 21st, 1860; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Miranda, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Lucilla 2d, by Guarionez, 68, 3d--Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir _Harry_, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319). =Ida,= Red and white, bred by and property of DAVID MOSELEY, Westfield, Mass.: calved August 21st, 1859; got by Nonesuch, 1935½, Dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Ilda,= Red and white, bred and owned by CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 6th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Stella, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Juda,= Red and white, bred and owned by DAVID MOSELEY, Westfield, Mass.: calved September 3d, 1860; got by Nonesuch, 1935½, Dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ----by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). JUNE ROSE, Red and white, bred by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 10th, 1860; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Rose 5th, by Duke of Windsor, 451,--- 2d dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025, 3d--Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 4th--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 6th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 7th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 8th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 9th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 10th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 11th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Jessie,= Roan, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved July 24th, 1857; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858,-- 2d dam Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 3d--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 4th--Sally, by Major, (401) 5th--Old Sally, by Grandson of Favorite, (252) 6th-- ---- by Punch, (531) 7th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). JENNIE, Red and white, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved November 15th, 1861; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Katrina, by Murat, 729,-- 2d dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734, 3d--Red Lily, by King Philip, 85, 4th--Rosabella, by Dictator, (3591) 5th--White Tulip, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Tulip, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 8th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 9th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 10th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Juliette,= Dark roan, bred and owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved October 1st, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Eva, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 4th--Daisy, by imported King Charles 2d, 84, 5th--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 6th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900), &c. =Kathleen,= Red and white, bred by D. W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May, 1855; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½,-- 2d dam Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Kitty,= Red and white, bred and owned by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved June 27th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Kathleen, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Atalanta, by Prince Albert, 847½, 3d--Alice, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Danae, by Carlos, (1787) 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 8th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 9th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Katrina,= Red, bred by SOLOMON COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved September 15th, 1852; got by Murat, 729, Dam Cherry 2d, by Napoleon, 734,-- 2d dam Red Lily, by King Philip, 85, 3d--Rosabella, by Dictator, (3591) 4th--White Tulip, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Tulip, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Kate Louisa,= Red, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved April 20th, 1859; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Miranda, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Lucilla 2d, by Guarionez, 68, 3d--Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319). =Kate Louisa 2d,= Red, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved February 6th, 1862, got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Kate Louisa, &c., as above. =Lady 3d,= Roan, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved June 14th, 1861; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Stella, by Tecumseh, 1025,-- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 4th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, 460, 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lady 4th,= Red roan, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved June 25th, 1861; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Lady 2d, by 4th Hiawatha, 2970,-- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 152, &c., as in Lady 3d. =Lady 5th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved May 26th, 1862; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Stella, by Tecumseh, 1025,--- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 151, &c., as in Lady 3d. =Lady Sale 5th,= Red, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved June 20th, 1855; got by Red Jacket, 890, Dam Lady Sale 3d, by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941),-- 2d dam Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 4th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 5th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 6th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, 58, 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 9th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 12th-- ----by Hubback, (319) 13th-- ---- by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 14th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626). =Lady Finley,= Red roan, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved September 24th, 1861; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Maid Marion, by 5th Albion, 2482,-- 2d dam Maid Marion 2d, by Lord John, (11728) 3d--Maid Marion, by Robin Hood, (9555) 4th--Lily, by Young Zealot, (8797) 5th--Lily, by Young Van Dyke, (8733) 6th--Duchess, by Young Spectator, (8619) 7th-- ---- by Phantassie, (8389) 8th-- ---- by Young Rockingham, (8498). =Lady Lathrop,= Red, bred by A. O. CUMMINS, Millbury, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved November 10th, 1859; got by Young Monarch, 3605, Dam Lady Sale 5th, by Red Jacket, 890.-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, 58, 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 14th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 16th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 17th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626). =Laura 3d,= Red and white, bred and owned by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 29th, 1851; got by Prince Leopold, 869, Dam Laura, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 3d--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 4th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 5th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 6th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 7th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 8th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 9th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Laura 5th,= Red and white, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved May 1st, 1860; got by Brother Jonathan, 2570, Dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Laura, by North American, 116, 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ----by a Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Laura 6th,= Nearly red, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 6th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Laura, by North American, 116, 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Laurestina 2d,= Roan, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 10th, 1860; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Laurestina, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Laura 3d, by Prince Leopold, 869, 3d--Laura, by North American, 116, 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Lady Sale 6th,= Red, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved November 29th, 1856; got by Red Knight, 890, Dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034,-- 2d dam imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 4th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 5th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 6th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 9th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 14th--Beauty, (bred by Thomas Hall,) by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, (bred by C. Pickering,) by the Studley Bull, (626) 17th-- ----(bred by Mr. Stephenson, of Ketton, in 1739.) =Lady Sale 7th,= Red, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved June 19th, 1860; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Knight, 890-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099), &c., as in Lady Sale 6th. =Lady Sale 8th,= Red, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved June 15th, 1861; got by 2d Prince of Orange, 2183, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Knight, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--imported Lady Sale, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (6238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 14th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, (bred by Thomas Hall,) by Masterman's Bull, (422) 16th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 17th--Tripes, (bred by C. Pickering,) by the Studley Bull, (626). =Lady Sale 9th,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved May 5th, 1862; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Lady Sale 6th, by Red Jacket, 890,-- 2d dam Lady Sale 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, 3d--imported Lady Sale 2d, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 4th--Lady Sale, by General Sale, (8099) 5th--Clara, by Napier, (1238) 6th--Maid of Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258) 7th--Helena, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Favorite, (252) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 14th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 15th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (273) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (621). =Lady Chesterford,= Roan, bred by JONAS WEBB, of Babraham, Cambridgeshire, England, imported by F. W. STONE, Guelph, C. W.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved April 19th, 1854; got by Earl Ducie, (12799) Dam Lady Jane, by Red Roan Kirtling, (10691),-- 2d dam Lady Ann, by Pam, (6272) 3d--Countess, by Vanguard, (5545) 4th--Dodona, by Alabaster, (1616) 5th--No. 6, by Dr. Syntax, (220) 6th-- ---- by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th--Lydia, by Favorite, (252) 9th--Nell, by the White Bull, (421) 10th--Fortune, by Bolingbroke, (86) 11th-- ----by Foljambe, (263) 12th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 13th-- ---- bred by Mr. Maynard. =Lady Chesterford 2d,= White, bred and owned by A. C. &. J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved July 19th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 611, Dam Lady Chesterford, by Earl Ducie, (12799), &c., as in Lady Chesterford. =Lady Gwynne,= Red, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50. 3d--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 4th--imported Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900) 6th-- ----by Mr. Wilkinson's Bull, (2838), &c. =Lena,= Red roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved January 2d, 1860; got by Cayuga Prince, 2609, Dam Evelina, by Granby, 544,-- 2d dam Cara, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 4th--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Elvira, by Young Comet, (3437) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Letty,= Red and white, bred by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.; property of F. A. NOBLE, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April 17th, 1852; got by Fabius 2d, 487, Dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360),-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lelia Ada,= Red and white, bred by T. P. HUNTINGTON & C. H. SMITH, Hadley, Mass.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved November 29th, 1860; got by Holyoke, 2979, Dam Ada, by Earl of Warwick, 465,-- 2d dam Atalanta 3d, by Logan 2d, 652, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lilac 5th,= Red, bred by J. B. CHAPMAN, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved February, 1849; got by Windsor Comet, 1105, Dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592),-- 2d dam Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639) 3d--Young Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lilac 6th,= Red and white, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 20th, 1860; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Lilac 5th, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac 3d, by Whisker, (5639), _&c._, as in Lilac 5th. =Lilac 7th,= Roan, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved October 13th, 1861; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Lilac 5th, by Windsor Comet, 1105, &c., as in Lilac 6th above. =Lilac 7th,= Red, bred by B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved December 1st, 1856; got by Red Jacket, 891, Dam Lilac 6th, by Windsor Comet 2d, 1106,-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lilac 8th,= Red roan, bred by and property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved May 25th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Lilac 7th, by Red Jacket, 891,-- 2d dam Lilac 6th, by Windsor Comet 2d, 1106, 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592), &c., as in Lilac 5th. =Lilac 9th,= Red and white, bred and owned by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved June, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360),-- 2d dam Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Lily,= Light Roan, bred by and property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved April 7th, 1861; got by Fabius 3d, _{*}25, 3920, Dam Virgilia, by Prince Royal, 880,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rolla, 152, 3d -- Stella, by North American, 116, 4th --Stately, by North Star, (4592) 5th -- Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th -- Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th -- Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 8th -- imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th -- Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th -- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th -- ---- by Danby, (190). =Louisa,= Roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved August 19th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Victoria, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 3d -- Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th --Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th -- Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th ------ by Admiral, (4) 7th -- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 8th -- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Louisa 2d,= White, bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: calved May 15th, 1859; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Louisa by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, &c., as in Louisa. =Lucky,= Red and white, bred by S. T. TABER, Hempstead Branch, Queens Co., N. Y.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved July 19th, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Aurelia, by Osceola, 780,-- 2d dam Adaliza, by Agate 2, 3d -- Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 4th --Emma, by Wellington, (683) 5th -- Anabella, by Major, (398) 6th -- Ada, by Denton, (198) 7th -- Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th -- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th ------ by Danby, (190). =Lily of the Valley,= Roan, bred by J. & E. WADSWORTH, Livermore Falls, Me.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved July 1st, 1852; got by Comet, 358, Dam Lucy by Rough and Ready, 930,-- 2d dam Miss Lathrop, by North American, 116, 3d--Lily, by Grafton, 2623, 4th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 5th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Lucy,= Roan, bred by LAWRENCE SMITH, Middlefield, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved April 22d, 1857; got by Osceola, 789, Dam Arabella 2d, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =May Queen,= Roan, bred by and property of SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 29th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 478,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Madonna,= Red and white, bred by D. C. COLLINS, Hartford, Conn.; property of JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved September 18th, 1852; got by imported Wolviston, 1109, Dam Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189,-- 2d dam Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th------ by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Madonna,= Red, bred by and property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved November 1st, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet (155). =Madonna 3d,= Light roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved March 15th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Marchioness, by Yorkshireman, 189, 3d--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 4th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Madonna 4th,= Light roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved September 6th, 1860; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th---Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Madonna 5th,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved July 20th, 1861; got by 2d Prince of Orange, 2183, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington,--- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, (1109) 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Madonna 6th,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved May 25th, 1862; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Madonna 3d, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Madonna, by imported Wolviston, 1109, 3d--Marchioness, by imported Yorkshireman, 189, 4th--Narcissus, by Bertram 2d, 21, 5th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Maud,= Roan, bred by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; property of R. B. HUBBARD, Amherst, Mass.: calved December 1st, 1860, got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Peach Bud, by Lauderdale, 1759,-- 2d dam White Rose, by Derby, 19, 3d--Favorite, by Prince Albert, 56, 4th--Cowslip, by imported Reformer, 898, 5th--Pedigree, by Mynheer, (2345) 6th--Vanda, by Marske, (419) 7th--Trinket, by Meteor, (432) 8th--Princess, by Western Comet, (689) 9th--Selina, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Countess, by Cupid, (177) 11th--Lady, by Grandson of Bolingbroke, (280) 12th--Phoenix, by Foljambe, (263) 13th--Favorite, by R. Alcock's Bull, (19) 14th-- ---- by Smith's Bull, (608) 15th--Strawberry, by Jolly's Bull, (337). =Magnolia,= Red and white, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved February 10th, 1857; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Agatha, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 3d--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ----by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by a Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Mag,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.; calved April 14th, 1861; got by Fourth of July, _{*}24½, Dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =May Flower,= Red and white, bred and owned by E. C. ELY, Longmeadow, Mass.: calved May 24th, 1861; got by Frank Forrester, 2868, Dam Ruth, by Uncle Tom, 1056,-- 2d dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Stella, by North American, 116, 4th--Stately, by North Star (4592) 5th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 6th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 7th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Miss Oxford,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved February 28th, 1862; got by Marmion, _(*)44, 1843, Dam Sally, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Stella, by Logan, 95, 3d--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Miss Oxford 2d,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved April 29th, 1862; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Peach Bud, by Lauderdale, 1759,-- 2d dam White Rose, by Derby, 19, 3d--Favorite, by Prince Albert, 56, 4th--Favorite, by imported Reformer, 898, 5th--imported Pedigree, by Mynheer, (2345) 6th--Vanda, by Marske, (419) 7th--Twinkle, by Meteor, (432) 8th--Princess, by Western Comet, (689) 9th--Selina, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Countess, by Cupid, (177) 11th--Lady, by Grandson of Bolingbroke, (280) 12th--Phoenix, by Foljambe, (263) 13th--Favorite, by R. Alcock's Bull, (19) 14th-- ---- by Smith's Bull, (608) 15th--Strawberry, by Jolly's Bull, (337). =Miss Fannie,= Light roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved November 13th, 1860; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Sally, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Stella, by Logan, 95, 3d--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 9th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 10th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Mountain Queen,= Roan, bred and owned by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved May 15th, 1859; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Lily of the Valley, by Comet, 358,-- 2d dam Lucy, by Rough and Ready, 930, 3d--Miss Lathrop, by North American, 116, 4th--Lily, by Grafton, 1623, 5th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5074) 6th--Lilac 2d, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 10th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 11th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Morning Glory,= Red, bred by THOMAS COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved March 31st, 1855; got by Prince of Orange, 872, Dam Novice, by Coxcomb, 382,-- 2d dam Nina, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Molly,= Light roan, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved May 30th, 1859; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Milly,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved June 25th, 1860; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Arabella, by Agate 2,-- 2 dam Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 3d--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 4th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 5th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 6th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Maid Marion 5th,= Roan, bred by R. A. ALEXANDER, Woodford County, Ky.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved October 26th, 1858; got by Albion, 2482, Dam Maid Marion 2d, by Lord John, (11728),-- 2d dam Maid Marion, by Robin Hood, (9555) 3d--Lily, by Young Zealot, (8797) 4th--Lily, by Young Vandyke, (8733) 5th--Duchess, by Young Spectator, (8619) 6th-- ---- by Phantasie, (8389) 7th-- ---- by Young Rockingham, (8498). =Mille Maud,= Roan, bred and owned by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved January 1st, 1860; got by Cayuga Prince, 2609, Dam Jessie, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 853, 3d--Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 4th--Arabella, by Victory, (5565) 5th--Sally, by Major, (401) 6th--Old Sally, by Grandson of Favorite, (252) 7th-- ---- by Punch, (531) 8th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). =Minnie Moore,= Red, bred and owned by A. O. CUMMINS, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved December 22d, 1860; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Jessie, by Double Duke, 1451½,-- 2d dam Regetta, by Prince Albert 3d, 858, 3d--Lydia, by Walter, 1072, 4th--Arabella, by Victory, (5565), &c., as in Mille Maud above. =Minnehaha,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved May 2d, 1858; got by Hiawatha, 1666, Dam Cassy, by Meteor, 1147,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th--by Marske, (418). =Mary,= Red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved January 1st, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Magnolia, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Agatha, by Fabius, 60, 2d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 3d--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319). MEADOW MAID, Roan, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved May 23d, 1861; got by Double Duke, 1451½, Dam Young Dorothy, by Windsor Comet, 1105,-- 2d dam Dorothy, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Red Romp, by Agate 2, 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127). =Miranda,= Red roan, bred by D. B. HAIGHT, Washington, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved March 9th, 1855; got by Backwoodsman, _{*}6, 226, Dam Lucilla 2d, by Guarionez, 68,-- 2d dam Lucilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ----by Son of Hubback, (319). MARY ANN, Red, bred and owned by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved May 3d, 1862; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Miranda, by Backwoodsman, 226, &c., as in Miranda. =Nymph,= Red and white, bred by FRANCIS ROTCH, Otsego Co., N. Y.; property of WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved in 1844; got by Bertram 2d, 21,-- 2d dam Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ----by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). NYMPH 5TH, Red and white, bred by B. & C. S. HAINES, Elizabeth, N. J.; property of TIMOTHY MATHER, Hartford, Conn.: calved January 15th, 1854; got by imported Lord Vane Tempest, 669½, Dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21,-- 2d dam Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Nelle,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.; calved April 7th, 1862; got by Prince of Wales, 4276, Dam Milly, by Hampden, 2949,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Onesima,= Red and white, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved March 6th, 1861; got by Cayuga, Prince, 2609, Dam Princeton Belle, by Highflyer, 578,-- 2d dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853, 3d--Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 4th--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 5th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 6th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Phoebe,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.; property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved July 20th, 1855; got by Berlin Hero, 257, Dam Lily, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Phoebe 2d,= Red and white, bred by and property of B. H. STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved April 11th, 1861; got by Fabius 3d, _{*}25, 3920, Dam Phoebe, by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Lily, by Logan, 95, 3d--Lilac 8th by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Pink,= Red and white, bred by and property of NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved May 1860; got by Red Blaize, 3325, Dam Lucy, by Berlin Hero, 257,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Pocahontas 2d,= Red and white, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.; calved June, 1848; got by Tam O'Shanter, 168, Dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Princess, by Washington, (1566) 3d--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 4th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 5th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 6th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 7th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Pocahontas 4th,= Red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved December 31st, 1855; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168,-- 2d dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 3d--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Pocumtuck,= Red and white, bred and owned by JOSIAH FOGG, Deerfield, Mass.: calved October 1st, 1860; got by Sultan, 2270½, Dam Minnehaha, by Hiawatha, 1666,-- 2d dam Cassy, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418.) =Princeton Belle,= Red and white, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved July 18th, 1859; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Ann Gwynne, by Prince Albert, 853,-- 2d dam Daisy 2d, by Dandy, 50, 3d--Daisy, by King Charles 2d, 84, 4th--Daffodil, by Sampson, (5081) 5th--Young Daisy, by Danby, (1900). =Pearlette 3d,= Roan, bred by R. A. ALEXANDER, Woodford County, Ky.; property of S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved September 24th, 1858; got by Albion 2842, Dam Pearlette, by Benedict, (7828),-- 2d dam Pearl 2d, by Senator, (8551) 3d--Pearl, by Homer, (2134) 4th--Windemere, by Emperor, (1974). =Pride,= Dark roan, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved September 27th, 1861; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Pearlette 3d, by Albion, 2482,-- 2d dam Pearlette, by Benedict, (7828) 3d--Pearl 2d, by Senator, (8551) 4th--Pearl, by Homer, (2134) 5th--Windemere, by Emperor, (1914). =Peach Bud,= Red roan, bred by F. W. STONE, Guelph, C. W.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved August 5th, 1858; got by Lauderdale, 1759, Dam White Rose, by Derby, _{*}19,-- 2d dam Favorite, by Prince Albert, 56, 3d--Cowslip, by Reformer, 898, 4th--Pedigree, by Mynheer, 2345, 5th--Vanda, by Young Marske, (419) 6th--Trinket, by Meteor, (432) 7th--Princess, by Western Comet, (689) 8th--Selina, by Favorite, (252) 9th--Countess, by Cupid, (177) 10th--Lady, by Grandson of Bolingbroke, (280) 11th--Phoenix, by Foljambe, (263). =Rosa,= Roan, bred by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.; property of JOHN H. BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.: calved February 1st, 1862,; got by Commodore, _{*}12, 3777, Dam Louisa, by Kirkleavington, 610,--- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, 3d--Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 9th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 10th-- ---- by Hubback, (319.) =Rose 8th,= White, bred and owned by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.: calved September 17th, 1861; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127). =Rose,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved December 25th, 1859; got by Young America, 2404, Dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, (407),-- 2d dam Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet. (85). =Rose 2d,= Roan, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved June 1856; got by Dan O'Connell, 407, Dam Rose, by Splendid (5297),-- 2d dam Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 4th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Rose 7th,= Light roan, bred by PHINEAS STEDMAN, Chicopee, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved June 3d, 1860; got by Hampden, 2949, Dam Rose 3d, by Tecumseh, 1025,-- 2d dam Rose 2d, by Dan O'Connell, 407, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566), 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76), &c., as in Rose 2d. =Ruby,= Red, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June, 1851; got by Logan, 95, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 2d,= Red, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved September 1st, 1855; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 3d,= Red, bred by and property of J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved February, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 4th,= Roan, bred and owned by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved June 20th, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Ruby 2d, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Ruby, by Logan, 95, 3d--Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 4th--Arabella, by Agate 2, 5th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 6th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 7th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 8th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 9th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 5th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 10th, 1860; got by Prince Arthur, 3296, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 7th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 8th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Ruby 6th,= Red, bred and owned by J. S. ALLEN, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May 1st, 1861, got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Ruby, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60, 3d--Arabella, by Agate 2, 4th--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 5th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 6th--Delicia, by Major, (2252). =Red Rose,= Red, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved July 25th, 1861; got by Comet, 3772, Dam Topsy, by Kirkleavington, 610,-- 2d dam Victoria, by North American, 116, 3d--Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (9020) 4th--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319.) =Red Rose 8th,= Red, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 4th, 1860; got by Charles 2d, 3745, Dam Red Rose 6th, by Earl of Seaham, 1499,-- 2d dam Red Rose 4th, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Red Rose 2d, by Napier, (6238) 4th--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 5th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 6th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 7th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (419) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 13th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 14th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626) 17th------ (bred by Mr. Stephenson of Ketton, in 1739). =Rosabel,= Red and white, bred by E. A. PHELPS, Avon, Conn.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved June 10th, 1858; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Tube Rose 4th, by imported Wolviston, 1109,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941) 3d--Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 4th--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 5th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3112) 6th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 7th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 8th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 9th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 10th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 11th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 12th-- ---- (owned by Robert Colling, sister to his white bull,) by Favorite, (252) 13th-- ---- by Hubback, (319) 14th-- ---- by Masterman's Bull, (422) 15th-- ---- by Harrison's Bull, (292) 16th--Tripes, by the Studley Bull, (626) 17th-- ---- (bred by Mr. Stephenson of Ketton, in 1739). =Red Rose 9th,= Mostly red, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; owned by H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved August 9th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Red Rose 6th, by Earl of Seaham, 1499,-- 2d dam Red Rose 4th, by Earl of Chatham, (10176) 3d--Red Rose 2d, by Napier, (6238), &c., as in Red Rose 8th. =Rose,= Red and white, bred and owned by G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved December 20th, 1861; got by 4th Hiawatha, 2970, Dam Marilla, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Luna, by Rollo, 152, 3d--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5704) 4th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Rose 2d,= Red and white, bred and owned by G. E. TAYLOR, Shelburne, Mass.: calved January 22d, 1862; got by General Sale, _{*}28, Dam Statira, by Champion, 328,-- 2d dam Stella, by Tecumseh, 1025, 3d--Luna, by Rollo, 152, 4th--Young Lilac, by Sampson, (5704) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Stella,= Roan, bred and owned by A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved February 4th, 1861; got by Highflyer, _{*}37, 578, Dam Evelina, by Granby, 544,-- 2d dam Cara, by Young Meteor, 1147, 3d--Double Rose, by Prince Hal, 137, 4th--Rosilla, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Elvira, by Young Comet, (3437) 6th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 7th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 8th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Stella,= Red and white, bred by JOHN BISSELL, East Windsor, Conn.; property of CHARLES H. BARBER, East Windsor, Conn.: calved May, 1850; got by Fabius 2d, 487, Dam Arabella 2d, by Fabius, 60,-- 2d dam Arabella, by Agate 2, 3d--Dew Drop, by Charles, (878) 4th--Dulcibella, by Frederic, (1060) 5th--Delicia, by Major, (2252) 6th-- ---- by Comus, (161) 7th-- ---- by Marske, (418). =Starlight,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Dover Plains, Duchess Co., N. Y.; property of MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.: calved August 13th, 1857; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Aurora, by North American, 116, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Sea Nymph,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.; got by imported Neptune, _{*}50, 3192, Dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21,-- 2d dam Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 3d--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ----by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Spot,= Red and white, bred and owned by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April 24th, 1862; got by Red Duke, _{*}60, 4295, Dam Letty, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 3d--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 4th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 5th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 6th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Sally,= Red and white, bred by J. & E. WADSWORTH, Livermore Falls, Me.; property of S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.: calved May 6th, 1852; got by Comet, 358, Dam Stella, by Logan, 95,-- 2d dam Stately, by North Star, (4592) 3d--Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 5th--Nonpariel, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Senorita,= Red, bred by S. W. BUFFUM, Winchester, N. H.; property of Dr. W. H. ROCKWELL, Vermont State Lunatic Asylum, Brattleboro: calved September 16th, 1861; got by Duke of Carlisle, _{*}17, 3850, Dam Gem, by Backwoodsman, 226,-- 2d dam Frolic, by King Charles 2d, 84, 3d--Gaily, by Sir Thomas Fairfax, (5196) 4th--Granville, by Hubback, (2142) 5th--Germanville, by Son of Young Warlaby, (2812) 6th-- ---- by Imperial, (2151) 7th-- ---- by Young Comet (905). =Topsy,= Red and white, bred and owned by JAMES FOSGATE, Winchester, N. H.: calved June 1st, 1862; got by Scipio, 4354, Dam Victoria, by Ashuelot, 1213,-- 2d dam Victoria, by Cerdic, (5843) 3d--Young Agatha, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Dorcas, by Boston, (1735) 5th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 6th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 7th-- ---- by Admiral, (4) 8th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 9th-- ---- by Colonel, (152) 10th-- ---- by Grandson of Hubback, (319) 11th-- ---- by Son of Hubback, (319). =Topsy,= Light roan, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved October 10th, 1856; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Victoria, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (9020) 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Cow Boston, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683) 6th------ by Admiral, (4) 7th-- ---- by Sir Harry, (1444) 8th-- ---- by Colonel, (152), &c. =Tulip,= Red, bred and owned by NORMAN PORTER, Berlin, Conn.: calved May, 1860, got by Red Blaize, 3325, Dam Young Lily, by Fabius 2d, 487,-- 2d dam Lily, by Logan, 95, 3d--Lilac 8th, by Superior, (5360) 4th--Lilac 4th, by North Star, (4592) 5th--Lilac, by Whisker, (5639) 6th--Lilac, by Frederic, (2038) 7th--Lilac, by Young Denton, (963) 8th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 9th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Tube Rose 3d,= Roan, the property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved January, 1852; got by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034, Dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174)-- 2d dam Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 3d--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 4th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 5th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 6th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 7th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 8th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 9th--Princess, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--Beauty, by J. Masterman's Bull, (422) 13th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292). =Tube Rose 4th,= Roan, bred by J. M. SHERWOOD, Auburn, N. Y.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved December 29th, 1854; got by imported Wolviston, 1109, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941),-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281), &c., as in Tube Rose 3d. =Tube Rose 6th,= Red and white, bred by F. H. NORTH, New Britain, Conn.; property of A. C. & J. G. WOOD, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved May 5th, 1857; got by Tornado, 1040, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by imported 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 4th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 5th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 6th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491), &c., as in Tube Rose 3d. =Tube Rose 7th,= Red and white, bred by F. H. NORTH, New Britain, Conn.; property of E. M. HOLMAN, Grass Hill, Millbury, Mass.: calved August 8th, 1859; got by Tornado, 1040, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, 1034,-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 4th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 5th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 6th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (491) 9th--Anne Boleyn, by Favorite, (252) 10th--Bright Eyes, by Hubback, (319) 11th--Bright Eyes, by Snowdon's Bull, (612) 12th--Beauty, by Masterman's Bull, (422) 13th--Duchess of Athol, by Harrison's Bull, (292). =Tube Rose 7th,= Roan, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved November 24th, 1861; got by Marmion, _{*}44, 1843, Dam Tube Rose 3d, by 3d Duke of Cambridge, (5941),-- 2d dam Tube Rose 2d, by Earl of Antrim, (10174) 3d--Tube Rose, by South Durham, (5281) 4th--Rose Ann, by Bellerophon, (3119) 5th--Rosette, by Belvidere, (1706) 6th--Red Rose, by Waterloo, (2816) 7th--Moss Rose, by Baron, (58) 8th--Angelina, by Phenomenon, (419), &.c, as in Tube Rose 7th above. =Twinkle,= Red, bred by S. T. TABER, Chestnut Ridge, Duchess County, N. Y.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved July 13th, 1858; got by Earl of Warwick, 465, Dam Aurora 2d, by East Windsor, 56,-- 2d dam Aurora, by North American, 116, 3d--Atalanta, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Adeline, by Young Comet, (3427) 5th--Emma, by Wellington, (683) 6th--Anabella, by Major, (398) 7th--Ada, by Denton, (198) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Venus,= Red, bred by P. LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILLIAM J. IVES, Meriden, Conn.: calved June 26th, 1851; got by King Philip, 85, Dam Victoria, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Lady Holyoke, by Hero, (4020) 3d--Louisa, by Boston, (1735) 4th--Agatha, by Sir Charles, (1440) 5th--Duchess, by Wellington, (683). =Victoria,= Red and white, bred by NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.; property of H. L. WELLS, East Windsor, Conn.: calved January 20th, 1862; got by Red Rover, 2109, Dam Wall Flower, by Monarch, 71,-- 2d dam May Flower, by North American, 116, 3d--Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 4th--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 5th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 6th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 7th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 8th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85). =Valley Maid,= Red, bred and owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Wethersfield, Conn.: calved October 14th, 1861; got by Duc D'Argentine, _{*}20, Dam Chance 5th, by Duke of Airdrie, (12730),-- 2d dam Chance 2d, by full brother to Mercer, (11807) 3d--Chance, by Renick, 903, 4th--Bantam, by Cossack, (3503) 5th--Claudine, by Prince Charles, (2461) 6th--Orbit, by Oliver, (2387) 7th-- ---- by Contention, (3479) 8th-- ---- by San Martin, (2599) 9th-- ---- by Paul Jones, (4661). =Victoria,= Red roan, bred and owned by AARON M. WINSLOW, Putney, Vt.: calved July 11th, 1862; got by Marmion, 1843, Dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168,-- 2d dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 3d--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (621) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Virgilia,= Red and white, bred by A. & J. A. CLARK, Granby, Mass.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved September 20th, 1855; got by Prince Royal, 880, Dam Stella 2d, by Rollo, 152,-- 2d dam Stella, by North American, 116, 3d--Stately, by North Star, (4592) 4th-- ----Princess, by Splendid, (5297) 5th--Flora, by Patriot, (2412) 6th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 7th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 8th--Aurora, by Comet, (155), &c. =Wall Flower,= Red and white, bred by MORGAN GOODWIN & SON, West Hartford, Conn.; property of NEWTON CARTER, Hartford, Conn.: calved May 23d, 1856; got by Monarch, 718, Dam May Flower, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Rose, by Splendid, (5297) 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Wood Nymph,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: calved February 27th, 1862; got by imported Neptune, 3192, Dam Sea Nymph, by imported Neptune, 3192,-- 2d dam Nymph, by Bertram 2d, 21, 3d--Nannette, by Patriot, (2412) 4th--Nonpareil, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th---Aurora, by Comet, (155) 7th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 8th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Windsor Belle,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.; property of H. G. WHITE, South Framingham, Mass.: calved February 29th, 1856, (leap year); got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Red Romp, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 4th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Windsor Lass,= Red and white, bred by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.; property of DANIEL W. BARTLETT, East Windsor, Conn.: calved April 4th, 1857; got by Powhatan, 829, Dam Red Romp, by Agate 2,-- 2d dam Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 3d--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 4th--imported Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). =Windsor Lady,= Light roan, bred and owned by SAMUEL W. BARTLETT & SON, East Windsor, Conn.: calved March 2d, 1859; got by 2d Hiawatha, 1667, Dam Windsor Belle, by Powhatan, 829,-- 2d dam Red Romp, by Agate 2, 3d--Romp, by Enchanter, (3729) 4th--Rachel, by Washington, (1566) 5th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 6th--Primrose, by Charles, (121) 7th-- ---- by Blythe Comet, (85) 8th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 9th-- ----by Patriot, (486). =Yarico 7th,= Roan, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved October 21st, 1853; got by Prince Leopold, 869, Dam Yarico, by North American, 116,-- 2d dam Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 3d--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 4th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 5th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 6th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 7th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Yarico 17th,= Roan, bred by WELLS LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved November 6th, 1858; got by Kirkleavington, 610, Dam Yarico 6th, by Prince Leopold, 869.-- 2d dam Yarico 2d, by East Windsor, 56, 3d--Yarico, by North American, 116, 4th--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 5th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 6th--imported Arabella, by North Star, (460) 7th--Aurora, by Comet, (155) 8th-- ---- by Henry, (301) 9th-- ---- by Danby, (190). =Yarico 22d,= Red and white, bred by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.; property of WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved September 2d, 1859; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Yarico 23d,= Red, bred and owned by PAOLI LATHROP, South Hadley Falls, Mass.: calved August 5th, 1860; got by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025, Dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869,-- 2d dam Yarico, by North American, 116, 3d--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038) 4th--Miranda, by Young Denton, (963) 5th--Arabella, by North Star, (460) 6th--Aurora, by Comet, (155). =Yarico,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved January 18th, 1862; got by Hamilcar, _{*}33, Dam Yarico, 22d, by John Bull, _{*}40, 3025,-- 2d dam Yarico 7th, by Prince Leopold, 869, 3d--Yarico, by North American, 116, 4th--Young Miranda, by Frederic, (2038), &c., as in Yarico 22d above. =Young Pocahontas,= Red and white, bred and owned by WILBUR WILSON, Agawam, Mass.: calved July 4th, 1861; got by Plato, 2032, Dam Pocahontas 2d, by Tam O'Shanter, 168,-- 2d dam Pocahontas, by North American, 116, 3d--Princess, by Washington, (1566) 4th--Pansy, by Blaize, (76) 5th--Primrose, by Charles, (127,) 6th-- ----by Blythe Comet, (85) 7th-- ---- by Prince, (521) 8th-- ---- by Patriot, (486). NOTE.--On page 27, the note at bottom of _{*}27, Stephenson, should read, this is a three-fourth Stephenson blood Bull. HERD RECORD OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF Thorough-Bred Neat Stock. AYRSHIRES. HARTFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY & WATERMAN. 1863. NOTICE. OWING to circumstances beyond the control of the Committee of Publication, or of the Committees on the Pedigrees of the various classes of stock, it has been impossible to publish the first volume of the Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-bred Neat Stock at an earlier day. The desire to obtain as large a representation of stock as possible, and to extend the advantages of the Association as widely among breeders as they could, has induced the committees on the various classes of stock to hold open their books and the delays incident upon tracing doubtful pedigrees, through in many instances a long correspondence with owners and breeders, have prevented them from furnishing the copy to the Publication Committee, in season to have the work finished sooner. Every care has been taken to have the records perfect, and to admit no pedigrees of doubtful character. It is believed this has been successfully accomplished, and that the animals here recorded may be relied upon as of undoubted purity of blood. H. A. DYER, } _Committee_ S. I. BARTLETT,} _of Publication._ INDEX. Adams, Charles Francis, 24 Agricultural Society for the District of Montreal, 19, 24, 55 Aiton, Andrew, 18 Aiton, Hugh, 42 Ames, Frederic L., 18, 30, 48, 54 Anderson, James, 26 Archibald, Hugh, 55, 57 Ball, William, 14, 21, 45, 50, 53, 59 Barrett, George M., 50, 60 Baron de Longuiell, 19 Birnie, William, 13, 17, 23, 24, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 41, 45, 46 Bill, John, 58 Borrie, Mr. 11 Bradley, C. S., 19 Brodie, Hugh, 28 Brooks, John, 14 Brodie, James, 47, 63 Bruce, Alexander, 52 Cameron, David, 32 Campbell, Ivie, 21, 32, 36, 52, 55, 57, 59 Camp, B. F., 29 Cabot, J. S., 11, 49, 60 Carter, Rufus, 17 Chapin, H. O., 15, 27 Collins, H. S., 20, 24, 36, 54, 55 Collins, A. L., 22 Crookshank, Y. Otty, 28 Craig, James, 40, 50, 51, 52, 61 Cushing, J. P., 20 Dane, Nathan Jr., 12, 20, 28, 33, 39, 41, 43, 45, 49, 54, 59 Day, Horatio E., 17, 21, 37, 38, 39, 46, 47 Daws, Thomas & Son, 24, 26, 36, 40, 47, 50, 53, 55 Davidson, Thomas, 28 Denison, Richard L., 18, 19, 31 Dods, John, 18 Dods, Thomas, 23, 26, 46, 50 Drennan, James, 18 Drew, L., 30, 33, 48, 50, 51, 53, 63 Dunlop, John, 49 Forristall, Geo. D., 12 Fields, Thomas J., 12 Gilbert, H. G., 22 Girvan, Mr., 26 Glasgow, Lord, 36, 55, 57 Gordon, Geo., 19 Gray, John, 58 Gray, Robert, 15, 16, 28, 33, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 49, 59 Griswold, R. S., 43 Hatch, Thomas E., 18, 24, 37, 50 Harris, C. & S., 14, 18, 19, 31, 36, 43, 53, 58, 60, 62, 63 Hayes, T. M., 59 Hendrie, James, 11 Hoffman, Mr., 37 Hubbard, H. & R., 25 Hungerford & Brodie, 12, 17, 22, 38, 39, 47, 63 Hungerford, S. D., 13 Hurst, William, 22 Jardine, R., 28, 33 Kellogg, M. S., 20, 32, 42, 47, 62 Kilgour, John, 49, 50, 51, 52, 59 Kirkwood, Mr., 24 Lambie, John, 58 Lambie, Hugh, 58 Lawson, Peter, 42, 49, 50 Lincoln, W. S., 42, 49, 60 Logan, James, 23, 36, 40, 43, 47, 58, 60, 63 Logan, Robert, 22 Loomis, Byron, 39, 53, 58 Loring, Geo. B. 11, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 32, 39, 44, 50, 51, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61 Lyman, Geo. W., 19, 25, 54, 56 Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 11, 16, 18, 19, 20, 24, 25, 31, 32, 39, 42, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 60 Martin, Capt. 50, 51 McNaughton, James, 48 McHenry, R., 37, 42 McGregor, Andrew, 28, 33 Meikle, John, 14, 21, 27, 44, 58 Meikle, James, 59 Morton, James, 35, 52 Murray, James, 44 Murdock, Mr., 17 Nye, E., 12, 21, 28, 37, 43, 45, 48, 55, 58 Oswald, Alexander, 20, 55 Oswald, Richard, 33 Otis, Ephraim, 16, 40 Parker, John 15, 16, 24, 32, 48, 54, 55 Parker, Mr., 36, 49, 61 Peabody, Geo., 31 Peters, H. H. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 63 Penner, John, 19 Pearce, E. D., 19, 32 Peate, James, 48, 51 Pierce, T. W., 11, 48 Pond, C. M., 21, 22, 26, 28, 31, 32, 33, 39, 42, 44, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58, 61, 62 Portland, Duke of, 37, 55 Prentice, E. P., 14, 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 41, 45, 46, 47 Randall, Capt., 15, 17, 19, 25, 33, 34, 41, 60 Reid, James, 39 Richmond, A., 23, 26, 28, 40, 46, 47, 50, 63 Richmond, George, 38, 60 Robbins, S. W., 26 Roger, Hugh, 41 Ross, R. L. 31 Rogers, John, 14, 16, 42, 43 Shepherd, R. D., 42 Smith, John C. 42 Smith, George G. 49, 52 Speares, Mr. 35 Stewart, Henry L., 13, 14, 21, 37, 38, 39, 42, 45, 47, 51, 53 Stetson, C. A., 15, 60, 61 Stone, Bela J., 17 Starr, John 17, 46 Struthers, Alexander, 30, 53 Sweetser, Luke, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 27, 28, 29, 32, 58, 62 Thurber, H. N., 27, 54, 56 Todd, James, 37, 38 Todd, Thomas, 39, 46 Tredwell, A. M., 17, 20, 22, 29, 36, 38, 43, 45, 46, 47, 63 Trustees of State Reform School, Mass., 11 Wheeler, William F., 24 Walker, J. D., 16 Warren, N. H., 20, 42, 47 Ward, Samuel, 14, 20, 29 Ward, Mr., 41 Watson, William, 17, 20, 29, 35, 38, 46 Wilson, Hugh, 15 Wilson, David, 32 Wilson, Alex, 52, 60, 63 Young, James, 23, 60, 63 Young, Mr., 36, 52, 60, 61 PREFACE. THE Committee appointed to examine and prepare for publication pedigrees of Ayrshire Stock, having completed their labors, offer the following as their Report. In arranging the pedigrees, we have endeavored to render them simple and exact, and to trace each animal to a direct importation. In a few instances this latter has been impossible, and we have been obliged to be content with tracing the pedigrees to the herds of well known breeders, having their assurances that the animals in question were thorough-bred Ayrshire. Many breeders, who have taken the utmost pains, and have been at great expense to keep their herds pure, have not been careful to keep accurate records of the pedigrees of their stock, feeling that as long as they themselves were satisfied, their assurances would be sufficient to convince purchasers. This course answered when there were but few cattle of this breed in the country, and the necessity of an organized effort to preserve the purity of the blood had not been recognized; but hereafter it is hoped that every one liberal enough to breed thorough-bred stock, will see the advantages and the necessity of a record of pedigrees, and assist in swelling the next edition of the work, to a size more nearly commensurate with the importance of the subject. The Committee thought best to have a short history of the Ayrshires, together with the points given by the Ayrshire Agricultural Association, printed as an introduction to the work, and applied to Sanford Howard, Esq., of Boston, who kindly consented to write such an article. Mr. Howard's opportunities of studying this breed, both in Scotland and in this country have been such, that he is eminently fitted to write with authority on the subject. The Committee did not follow his suggestion and give in the Herd Book the lists of premiums taken by the animals at the various Agricultural Fairs, knowing that many of the premiums in this country have been awarded for want of competition, and by judges not acquainted with the excellencies or the peculiarities of the breed. Should this Society ever hold exhibitions, a record of the premiums taken at them would be of great value to breeders in selecting animals for stock purposes. HENRY H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass., } THOS. E. HATCH, Keene, N. H., }_Committee._ WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass., } INTRODUCTION. THE breed of cattle now know as the Ayrshire, undoubtedly originated in the county of that name, in Scotland; but by what special means it was formed cannot be particularly told. Youatt (1835) says, "A century ago there was no such breed in Ayrshire or in Scotland;" and he asks, "Did the [present] Ayrshire cattle arise entirely from a careful selection of the native breed?" adding, "If they did it is a circumstance unparalleled in the history of agriculture. The native breed may be ameliorated by careful selection; its value may be incalculably increased; some good qualities may for the first time be developed; but yet there will be some resemblance to the original stock." A comparison of the modern breed with the description given by Aiton of the cattle which he says occupied Ayrshire fifty years before the time when he wrote (1806), will show that the difference is great. He says, "The cows kept in the districts of Kyle and Cunningham [districts of Ayrshire], were of a diminutive size, ill-fed, ill-shaped, and they yielded but a scanty return in milk; they were mostly of a black color, with stripes of white along the chine or ridge of their backs, about their flanks and on their faces. Their horns were high and crooked, * * * their pile [hair] was coarse and open; and few of them yielded more than three or four Scotch pints [six to eight wine quarts] of milk a day." Those who are acquainted with the Ayrshire cattle of to-day, will readily admit that they present a wide contrast with the old stock, according to the above description of the latter; and the suggestion of Youatt, that the present breed could not have arisen entirely by selection from the old, seems reasonable. It follows, then, that the Ayrshire, like the modern or "improved" Short Horn breed, originated in crossing. The question as to the breeds from which it was derived, will be briefly considered, although the attempt will not be made to give precise details on this point. Various accounts represent that the Earl of Marchmont, some time between 1724 and 1740, introduced to his estates, in Berwickshire, some cattle, conjectured (their history was not positively known) to be of the Holderness or Teeswater breed, and that, not long afterwards, some of the stock was carried to estates belonging to the same nobleman, in that part of Ayrshire called Kyle. But, perhaps, the main nucleus of the improved breed was the "Dunlop stock," so called, which appears to have been possessed by a distinguished family by the name of Dunlop, in the Cunningham District of Ayrshire, as early as 1780. This stock, it is said, was derived, at least in part, from animals imported from Holland. The Dunlop cows soon became noted. Rawlin (as quoted by Youatt), who wrote in 1794, speaking of the cattle of Ayrshire, says, "They have another breed, called the Dunlop, which are allowed to be the best race for yielding milk in Great Britain, or Ireland, not only for large quantities, but also for richness and quality." This, though extravagant praise, perhaps, shows that the stock possessed remarkable qualities at that early day. It was, indeed, held in great esteem still earlier. In Youatt's Treatise, it is mentioned, when speaking of the cattle of Dumfrieshire, that the poet Burns, when he occupied a farm near the city of Dumfries, "not content with the Galloway breed, introduced some of the West-Country cows, which he thought would produce more milk." In the poet's published correspondence, allusion is made, in a letter dated November 13th, 1788, to a heifer which had been presented to him by the proprietor of Dunlop House, as "the finest quey in Ayrshire." Mrs. Dunlop, it will be remembered, was a special friend and correspondent of the poet.[A] Col. Le Couteur, in a paper on the Jersey or Alderney cow, published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, refers to a statement by Quayle, that the Ayrshire was a cross of the Short Horn and Alderney; and adds himself that "there is a considerable affinity between the two breeds." Rawlin also says, in reference to the Ayrshire breed, "It is said to be a mixture by bulls brought from the island of Alderney, with their own or the old race of cows." Martin says, "At some period or other there has evidently been a cross with the Durham or Holderness, and, perhaps, also with the Alderney." Professor Low, in his "Illustrations of British Quadrupeds," says, "From all the evidence which, in the absence of authentic documents, the case admits of, the dairy breed of Ayrshire cows, owes the characters which distinguish it from the older race, to a mixture of the blood of the races of the continent and of the dairy breed of Alderney." So far, the authorities quoted have, doubtless, given the main facts in regard to the originals of the present Ayrshire cattle. But there is evidence that the present leading type of the breed was formed, in part, by an infusion of the blood of the Kyloe, or West-Highland breed. This appeared in the first instance, probably, in what has been called the Swinley variety. The facts, which the writer has obtained in Scotland in regard to it, are substantially as follows: Theophilus Parton, of Swinley Farm, near Dairy, Ayrshire, about forty to forty-five years ago, took great pains to establish a herd of what were deemed the _best_ Ayrshire cattle, into which he infused a strain of the West-Highland blood, the particular degree of which is not publicly or generally known. The Swinley stock differs from the older Ayrshire in having a shorter head, with more breadth across the eyes, more upright and spreading horns, more hair, and generally better constitutions. They are also somewhat smaller boned than the old stock, though from their superior symmetry, and greater tendency to fatten, they are fully equal to the former in weight of carcass when slaughtered. The following points given by the Ayrshire Agricultural Association, 1853, "as indicating superior quality," will give an idea of the standard for Ayrshire cattle, as recognized by the leading breeders: Head short, forehead wide, nose fine between the muzzle and the eyes; muzzle moderately large, eyes full and lively, horns widely set on, inclining upwards and curving slightly inwards. Neck long and straight from the head to the top of the shoulders, free from loose skin on the underside, fine at its junction with the head, and the muscles symmetrically enlarging towards the shoulders. Shoulders thin at the top, brisket light, the whole fore-quarter thin in front and gradually increasing in depth and width backwards. Back short and straight, spine well defined, especially at the shoulders, short ribs arched, the body deep at the flanks, and the milk-veins well developed. Pelvis long, broad and straight, hook [or hip] bones wide apart, and not much overlaid with fat, thighs deep and broad, tail long and slender, and set on a level with the back. Milk-vessel [udder] capacious and extending well forward, hinder-part broad and firmly attached to the body, the sole or under surface nearly level. The teats from two to two and a half inches in length, equal in thickness, and hanging perpendicularly; their distance apart at the sides should be equal to about one-third the length of the vessel, and across to about one-half the breadth. Legs short, the bones fine and the joints firm. Skin soft and elastic, and covered with soft, close and woolly hair. The colors preferred are brown, or brown and white, the colors being distinctly defined. Weight of the animal, when fattened, about forty imperial stones, sinking the offal [that is 560 pounds], the quarters or meat only. From what has already been said, it will be understood, that the dairy is the leading object with the breeders of Ayrshires. At the same time the fact has not been overlooked, that to breed and perpetuate a profitable dairy stock, regard must be had to hardiness and strength of constitution, and also to such fattening tendencies as will insure a profitable return from calves fattened for veal, from steers reared for beef, and for cows, which having served their turn in the dairy, are at last dried of their milk and prepared for the shambles. The importance of these properties is not sufficiently regarded by keepers of dairy stock in this country. The remark has not unfrequently been heard that the "_looks_ of a cow are nothing." People who hold this absurd notion will never be distinguished for breeding profitable dairy stock. Even if milk were the sole object, it would be impossible to preserve a breed possessing superior qualities, in this respect, without giving attention to those points of form which denote strength of constitution. It has been well observed by Magne, that in the breeding of dairy stock, we should "make choice only of animals possessing the _two-fold character of general vigor, and activity of the mammary system_." The leading breeders of Ayrshire, in Scotland, have followed these principles to some extent, if not to the full degree to which they should be observed. Hence, they claim a high rank for the breed in reference to general usefulness. Aiton, speaking of what the Ayrshire cow would do, says, "She yields much milk, and that of an oily or butyraceous, or caseous nature, and after she has yielded very large quantities of milk for several years, she shall be as valuable for beef as any other breed of cows known; her fat shall be much more mixed through the whole flesh, and she shall fatten faster than any other." Whatever may be said in regard to the extent of these claims, it will be admitted that they indicate the confidence which was long ago placed in the breed in regard to the properties mentioned. Youatt, who wrote twenty-five years after Aiton, says, "The breed has been much improved since Mr. Aiton described it." It is thirty years since Mr. Youatt made this remark, and in this time the breed has been still further improved in reference to general usefulness. I have been assured by some of the most experienced breeders in Scotland, that while nothing has been lost on the score of dairy properties, considerable has been gained in hardiness and thrift, and in the faculty of giving a greater return, both in milk and flesh, for the food consumed. Of course it is the return obtained in proportion to the food eaten, that constitutes the true criterion of value in all animals. In Scotland, the calves of the Ayrshire breed, that are not wanted for keeping up the breeding or dairy stock, are either fattened for veal, or turned for beef at an early age. The larger portion, perhaps, of the males are killed for veal. In fact, in some districts, veal is an article of considerable importance, and the ability of Ayrshire cows to make fat calves is considered one of the excellencies of the breed. Thus Haxton observes, "For all medium soils and climates throughout the United Kingdom, there is no breed equal to the Ayrshire, for profit, whether the produce is converted into cheese, butter, or _veal_." A portion of the males are castrated and fattened when about three to three and half years old. Scotch farmers, who are in the practice of fattening stock of various breeds, assured me that Ayrshire steers of this age fattened to as much profit as any, reaching the weight of 700 to 800 pounds the four quarters, and afforded beef excelled in quality only by the Galloways and the West-Highlanders. At present the Ayrshire cattle have not been tried in America to a great extent. There have been various importations, mostly made within the last twenty years, and so far as there have been such trials as would justify a conclusion in regard to their merits, they have answered all reasonable expectations. The leading object in keeping them here is the same as it is in Scotland--the dairy--but their ability to fatten readily and make beef of good quality, should be taken into consideration in estimating their value. In regard to the latter property, but few trials have as yet been made here. Most of the males have been kept for bulls, and the females have seldom been fattened till too far advanced in years to breed. It may be worthy of consideration, whether it would not be an object to give some good steers of the breed a fair chance to show what they could make in beef at three to four years old. It is also desirable to ascertain what are the capabilities of the breed in regard to the performance of labor. On this point we are without any evidence from abroad, as oxen are not worked in Scotland. The results of the few trials that have been made with full-bloods, have been highly favorable in reference to the qualities of the breed for this purpose. Judging by their points, there is no reason why Ayrshire oxen should not be equal to any others, of their size, for any kind of labor. They have clean, firm legs, well-placed muscles, and are remarkably quick walkers. The advantages of a Registry, or Herd Book, for this breed of cattle, are too obvious to require argument. For the Short Horns, Herefords, and Devons, registers have been prepared, and the benefits which have been derived therefrom are such as will insure their continuance. An accurate record of the pedigrees of animals, together with a record of such premiums as they may have taken, cannot fail to afford a guide, to some extent, in breeding with reference to special objects--the principle, that "Like begets Like," being admitted as a general law. The subject of publishing a Herd Book for Ayrshires, in Scotland, has been agitated on several occasions, but, down to the present time, no direct action has been taken on it. The enterprise of the American breeders of this variety of cattle, in taking the lead in this matter, is highly creditable, and, if properly followed up, will be sure to bring a just recompense of reward. S. H. BOSTON, January 1st, 1863. FOOTNOTE: [A] As a further explanation of the preference given by Burns for the "West-Country cows," the writer would mention, that in 1858, he had several interviews with the poet's sister, the late Mrs. Begg, of Ayr, in one of which, she stated that her brother, during his occupancy of the farm of Ellisland, near Dumfries, kept a dairy, and made considerable quantities of cheese. Thus his efforts to procure the Ayrshire cow, shows that they had, even at that time, a high reputation for this object. HERD RECORD ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF THOROUGH-BRED NEAT STOCK. AYRSHIRES. BULLS. =1 Albert,= Brownish red and white; calved Autumn of 1856; bred by JAMES HENDRIE, Drummock, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1859; owned at the STATE REFORM SCHOOL, Westboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock, bred by Mr. Borrie, of Riccarton, 2d Sire, Geordie, bred by Mr. Hendrie, Dam, Kirstie, by Geordie, 2d Dam, Nancy, by Kilburnie. =2 Alfred,= Brownish red; calved November 18th, 1859; bred by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by T. W. PIERCE, Boston: Sire, Troon, 75, Dam, Lily, 129. =3 Allard,= Brown, with a little white; calved November 16th, 1859; bred by J. S. CABOT, Salem, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Margery, 135. =4 Archie,= Red and white; calved May 9th, 1862; bred and owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Geordie, 23, Dam, Kate, 114. =5 Argyle,= White, with yellow and brindle about the head; calved March 18th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Brenda, 28. =6 Argyle,= Light red and white; calved April 21st, 1859; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by THOMAS J. FIELDS and others, Northfield, Mass.: Sire, Scotland, imported from the Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, by E. Nye, Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =7 Ayrshire Lad,= Dark brown, flecked with white; calved September 20th, 1856; bred by HUNGERFORD & BRODIE, Adams, N. Y.; owned by HENRY H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass., in 1857, 1858 and 1859: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Ayrshire Lass, imported by Hungerford & Brodie. =8 Ayrshire Lad 2d,= Red, flecked with white; calved March 9th, 1862; bred and owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Daisy, 43. =9 Bertram,= Light red and white; calved March 11th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by GEORGE D. FORRISTALL, Holliston, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Queen 2d, 181. =10 Blossom,= Red and white; calved October 10th, 1856; bred by S. D. HUNGERFORD, Adams, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1852, Dam, Cherry Blossom, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1854. =11 Blossom 2d,= Red and white; calved March 24th, 1859; bred and owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Kitty 5th, 118. =12 Blossom 3d,= Red and white; calved June 29th, 1860; bred and owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =13 Bruce,= Red and white; calved January 14th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Cowslip, 36. =14 Count,= Red and white; calved February 10th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mary 4th, 137. =15 Dick,= Red, with small white spots; calved May 18th, 1862; bred and owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Jenny, 99. =16 Dr. Hornbook,= Light red, with white spots; calved March, 1857; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, of Brownhill, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1858, and owned by JOHN BROOKS, Princeton, Mass.: Sire and Dam both bred by John Meikle. =17 Donald,= White and red; calved March 12th, 1862; bred by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.; owned by WM. BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Sir Colin, Jr., 68, Dam, Mountain Maid, 158. =18 Don Juan,= Red; calved May 17th, 1860; bred and owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jenny Willet, 102. =19 Douglas,= White and red; calved June 19th, 1860; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Alice, 1. =20 Dundee 8th,= Dark red and white, with a little brindle about the head; calved October 18th, 1856; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 3d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Sire, Dundee 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 3d Sire, Dandy, imported by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Jennie Deans, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Jennie, bred by E. P. Prentice, 3d Dam, Mida 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice, 4th Dam, Ayr 1st, imported by Samuel Ward, Lenox, Mass. =21 Eglinton,= Dark brown and white; calved in 1859; bred by JOHN PARKER, Irvine, Scotland; imported and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, The Carrick Bull, bred by Mr. Parker, Dam, Goldie, of Mr. Parker's Goldie family. =22 Essex,= Brown and white; calved 1854; bred by C. A. STETSON, Swampscot, Mass.; owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, a Bull imported by Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, Mass., Dam, Strawberry, imported by C. A. Stetson. =23 Geordie,= Light red, with little white; calved 1858; bred by HUGH WILSON, Oatmains, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1859, and owned by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.: Sire, Sandy, Dam, Sall. =24 Glengarry,= Red, with white spots; calved June 3d, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Corslet, 37. =25 Hampden,= Red and white; calved December 25th, 1861; bred by L. SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by H. O. CHAPIN, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Beauty 2d, 10. =26 Hampshire,= Red and white; calved May 1st, 1862; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Beauty, 8. =27 Highlander,= Dark red and white; calved February 16th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by J. D. WALKER, Northboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Young Merryton, 2d, 217. =28 Holyoke,= Red and white; calved May 31st, 1862; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Tulip, 209. =29 Irvine,= Red; calved May, 1858; bred by JOHN PARKER, of Nether Broomlands, Scotland; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858. =30 Jock,= Red and white; calved April 10th, 1860; bred by EPHRAIM OTIS, Kittery, Me.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jane, 90. =31 Jock 2d,= Red and white; calved April 10th, 1861; bred by EPHRAIM OTIS, Kittery, Me.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jane, 90. =32 Jock the Laird 2d,= Red; calved April, 1858; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird, imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Flora, bred by Robert Gray, from stock imported by himself. =33 John Anderson,= Brindle and white; calved June 16th, 1860; bred by BELA J. STONE, Southbridge, Mass.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Zachary Taylor, 78, 2d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, Dam, Effie, bred by Mr. Murdock, of Milton, Parish Cadder, Ayrshire, imported by Rufus Carter, of Worcester, Mass., 1858. =34 Johnnie,= Brown and white; calved December 17th, 1860; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Star, 199. =35 John,= Red; calved August 14th, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Lady Prentice, 124. =36 Killicrankie,= Dark red and white; calved December 4th, 1859; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.; owned by JOHN STARR, Woodbury, N. J.: Sire, Young Kelburn, out of Frolic, 82, 2d Sire, Kelburn 2d, out of Mary Gray, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 3d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Flora, by Oswald, imported by William Watson, Westchester, N. Y., 2d Dam, Julia, imported by William Watson. =37 Kilmarnock,= White, with a little red; calved June 16th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mary 3d, 136. =38 Kilmarnock,= Dark brown, spotted with white; calved March 8th, 1859; bred by ANDREW AITON, Craigend, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, Troon, 75, Dam, Mavis, 138. =39 Kilmaurs,= Red; calved January 2d, 1862; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.; Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Star, 199. =40 King Coil,= Light red and white; calved in 1857; bred by JOHN GRAY, Tarbolton, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Cardigan, Dam, a cow owned by Mr. Gray. =41 King Philip,= Red and white; calved April 3d, 1862; bred by THOS. E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Argyle, 6, Dam, Fanny, 70. =42 Laddie,= Yellow and white; calved December 17th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Empress, 65. =43 Lippincott,= Light brindle and white; calved May, 1858; bred by JOHN DODS, Montreal, C. E.; owned by RICHARD L. DENISON, Dover Court, Toronto, C. W.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull imported by John Dods, Dam, an Ayrshire Cow imported by John Dods. =44 Logan,= White with red spots, red line on back; calved May 16th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Queen 3d, 182. =45 Logan,= Red and white; calved February 14th, 1862; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Douglas, 19, Dam, Heather Bell, 86. =46 McIvor,= Brown and white; calved April 5th, 1860; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by E. D. PEARCE, and C. S. BRADLEY, Providence, R. I.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Miss Morton, 153. =47 Marquis,= Brown and white; calved June 1st, 1851; bred by BARON DE LONGUIELL, Wolf Island, near Montreal, C. E.; owned by RICHARD L. DENISON, Dover Court, Toronto, C. W.: Sire, a thorough-bred Ayrshire Bull, bred by John Penner, Lachine, C. E., Dam Marchioness, bred by John Penner, from a cow imported by Geo. Gordon, by a bull imported by the Agricultural Society, for the District of Montreal, C. E. =48 Middlesex,= Brown and white; calved March 26th, 1860; bred by GEORGE W. LYMAN, Waltham, Mass.; owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Zachary, out of Swinley, imported by Capt. Randall, of New Bedford, 2d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Young Swinley, 2d Dam, Swinley, imported by Capt. Randall. =49 Montgomery,= Yellow, with white spot in forehead; calved May 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jean Armour, 91. =50 Norribo,= Red and white; calved November, 1858; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, N. J.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, Malcolm, out of Beith, imported by William Watson, Westchester, N. Y., 2d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Rosa Lee, 2d Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =51 Oswald,= Red and white; calved July, 1854; bred by WILLIAM WATSON, Westchester, N. Y.; owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Beith, imported by William Watson. =52 Oswald,= Brownish red, with white spots; calved April 18th, 1860; bred by ALEXANDER OSWALD, near Ayr, Scotland; imported by H. H. Peters, Southboro', Mass., 1859; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock Parker, Dam, Pink, 173. =53 Prince Albert,= Bright red and white; calved November 1st, 1857; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Major, out of Susy, imported by J. P. Cushing, Watertown, Mass., 2d Sire, Old Ayrshire, bred by Samuel Ward, of Lenox, Mass., from a pair imported by himself, Dam, Young Jennie Deans, by Prince Albert, 2d Dam, Jennie Deans. Both Prince Albert and Jennie Deans were imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =54 Prince,= Dark red, with a few small white spots, brown about the head; calved May 4th, 1861; bred and owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Fanny, 71. =55 Robert,= Red and white; calved August 15th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Strawberry, 201. =56 Robert,= White and red; calved December 17th, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Lady Ellen, 123. =57 Robert Burns,= Red and white; calved April, 1857; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, of Brown Hill Farm, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1858 and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Wallace, 2d Sire, a Bull bred by Ivie Campbell, of Dalgig, Scotland, Dam, Beauty, 6. =58 Rob Roy,= Red and white; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Oswald, 51, Dam, Beauty, 8. =59 Rob Roy,= Dark red and white, brown about the head; calved April 11th, 1860; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by WM. BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Firefly, out of Jenny Lind, 101, 2d Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, Dam, Fanny, 70. =60 Rob Roy,= Red and white; calved December 23, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Drew 2d, 150. =61 Roderick,= Red, with some white spots; calved May 26th, 1859; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Young Kelburn, out of Frolic, 82, 2d Sire, Kelburn 2d, out of Mary Gray, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 3d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Jessica, by Oswald, 51, 2d Dam, Jessie 1st, 105. =62 Roderick,= Red and white; calved January 5th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Pink, 173. =63 Samson,= Red and white; calved 1861; bred by CHARLES M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by A. L. COLLINS, West Meriden, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Bella, 13. =64 Scotia,= Red and white; calved January 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Ruth 2d, 194. =65 Schodack,= Red and white; calved June 22d, 1858; bred by H. G. GILBERT, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 2d Sire, Geordie, bred by Robert Logan, Kilbournie Mains, Scotland, Dam, Red Rose 2d, by Kelburn, 2d Dam, Red Rose, imported by Hungerford & Brodie. =66 Sir Colin,= Red, with little white; calved November 30th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Gentle, 83. =67 Sir Colin,= Dark red and white; calved April 26th, 1857; bred by JAMES YOUNG, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire; imported and owned by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.: Sire, Charlie, Dam, Stately, 200. =68 Sir Colin, Jr.,= White and red; calved April 8th, 1860; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, Heather Bell, 86. =69 Sir Walter,= Brownish red, with little white; calved December 25th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Daisy, 40. =70 Sir Walter,= Red and white; calved April 3d, 1861; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, White Cherry, 214. =71 Souter Johnnie,= Brown and white; calved March 10th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =72 Tam,= Red and white; calved April 20th, 1860; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, imported by the Montreal Agricultural Society, Dam, Queen of Scots, imported by the Montreal Agricultural Society. =73 Tam O'Shanter,= Dark red and white; calved May 11th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Rosa, 184. =74 Tam O'Shanter,= Brown and white; calved April 4th, 1862; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 3d, 12, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =75 Troon,= Brownish red, with a few small white spots; calved 1856; bred by Mr. KIRKWOOD, of Highland Muir, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Quincy, Mass.: Sire, bred by John Parker, Nether Broomlands, near Irvine, Scotland, Dam, bred by Mr. Kirkwood. =76 Walter Scott,= Dark brindle, with some white; calved January 14th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by WILLIAM F. WHEELER, Grafton, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Flora, 74. =77 Willie Winkie,= Light red, with a few white spots; calved December 15th, 1861; bred and owned by THOMAS E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.: Sire, Argyle, 6, Dam, Rose, 192. =78 Zachary Taylor,= Brown and white; bred and owned by G. W. LYMAN, Waltham, Mass.: Sire, Prince Albert, imported by Capt. RANDALL, New Bedford, Mass., Dam, Gowan, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =79 Zachary Swinley,= Dark brown, with whitish brown spots; calved 1857; bred by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by H. & R. HUBBARD, Charlestown, N. H.: Sire, Zachary Taylor, 78, Dam, Young Swinley, 2d Dam, Swinley, imported by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Mass. COWS =1 Alice,= Dark red and white; calved in 1857; bred by Mr. GIRVAN, Mackailston, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =2 Amy,= Dark red and white; calved January 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Merryton 2d, 217. =3 Annie Laurie,= White and red, spotted; calved April 2d, 1861; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, Lady Wallace, 125. =4 Ayrshire Lassie,= Red and white; calved spring of 1857; bred by JAMES ANDERSON, of Kirkhill, St. Quivox, Ayrshire; imported in 1859, and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =5 Ayrshire Lassie 2d,= Red and white; calved June 29th, 1861; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by S. W. ROBBINS, Waterford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Ayrshire Lassie, 4. =6 Beauty,= Red and white, mixed; calved in 1853; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, Brownhill, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, a Bull of Mr. Meikle's, Dam, bred from the stock of James Meikle, Cloxton. =7 Beauty 2d,= Red and white speckled; calved August 15th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Beauty, 6. =8 Beauty,= Dark red and white; calved 1854; bred in Scotland; imported in 1855 and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass. =9 Beauty 4th,= Dark red and white; calved May 30th, 1861; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Beauty, 8. =10 Beauty 2d,= Light red and white; calved August 26th, 1858; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by H. O. CHAPIN, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Beauty, 8. =11 Beauty,= Red and white; calved March 20th, 1862; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: owned by H. N. THURBER, Pomfret, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jessie, 111. =12 Beauty,= Red and white; calved May, 1853; bred by Y. OTTY CROOKSHANK, St. John, New Brunswick; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock, bred by R. Jardine, St. John, N. B., out of an imported Ayrshire cow, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, imported by R. Gray, Fredericton, N. B., 1849, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, bred by Andrew McGregor, Damhead, Kilmarnock, Scotland, Dam, Ceres, imported by Thomas Davidson, St. John, N. B., 1848. =13 Bella,= Red and white; calved spring of 1855; imported in 1859, and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =14 Belle,= Red and white; calved April 8th, 1857; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, (out of Beauty, by Ajax,) Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =15 Belle of Scotland,= White and red, spotted; calved April 11th, 1854; bred in Ayrshire; imported by Hugh Brodie, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn. =16 Bessie,= Red, with large patches of white; calved 1854; bred in Scotland; imported in 1855, and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass. =17 Bessie 2d,= Dark red and white; calved June 20th, 1858; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Bessie, 16. =18 Bessie 3d,= Red and white; calved May 12th, 1862; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Bessie, 16. =19 Bessie,= Red and white; calved December, 1858; bred by B. F. CAMP, Westchester County, N. Y.; owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Bruce, bred by William Watson, New York, 2d Sire, Wellington, bred by William Watson, 3d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Eliza, imported by William Watson. =20 Bessy 5th,= Red and white; calved November 8th, 1856; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 3d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Sire, Dundee 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Betty 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Betty 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice. =21 Bessy 6th,= Red and white; calved April 10th, 1859; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Bessy 5th, 20. =22 Betty 2d,= Dark red and white; calved August 27th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Betty, 152. =23 Betty 4th,= Red and white; calved December 23d, 1855; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Betty 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Betty 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice, 3d Dam, Ayr, imported by Mr. Ward, Lenox, Mass. =24 Betty 5th,= Red and white; calved June 28th, 1858; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Betty 4th, 23. =25 Betty 6th,= Red and white; calved July 3d, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Betty 4th, 23. =26 Blanche,= Red, with a few white spots; calved May 14th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Mary 3d, 136. =27 Blanche,= Red and white; calved March 3d, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =28 Brenda,= Dark brindle and white; calved in 1857; bred by ALEXANDER STRUTHERS, near Hamilton, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Mr. L. Drew's Sandy 2d, Dam, descended from Lawrence Drew's stock. =29 Brenda 2d,= Black with white spots; calved April 5th, 1860; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, Merryton, Lanarkshire, Scotland; imported by H. H. Peters, Southboro', Mass.; owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, Bull, owned by Lawrence Drew, Dam, Brenda, 28. =30 Butter Cup,= Light yellow with little white; calved May 27th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro,' Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jane, 88. =31 Butter Cup,= Red and white; calved 1850; bred by R. L. ROSS, near Montreal, C. E.; owned by R. L. DENISON, Dover Court, Toronto, C. W.: Sire, an imported Ayrshire Bull, Dam, an imported Ayrshire Cow. =32 Butter Cup,= Brownish red and white; calved December 12th, 1859; bred by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; owned by GEORGE PEABODY, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Tam Sampson, imported by Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Pansy, 167. =33 Cherry,= Red and white; calved May 31st, 1862; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Ayrshire Lassie, 4. =34 Cora,= Red and white; calved May 17th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Duchess 2d, 57. =35 Cornelia,= Red and white; calved April 8th, 1862; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, Rhode Island: Sire, Douglas, 19, Dam Heather Bell, 86. =36 Cowslip,= Red and white mixed; calved April 9th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =37 Corslet,= Dark red and white; calved 1857; bred by DAVID CAMERON, Mearns, Scotland, imported by H. H. Peters, Southboro', Mass.: owned by EDWARD D. PEARCE, Providence, R. I.: Sire a Son of Cardigan, Dam, a Cow bred by Ivie Campbell, Dalgig, Scotland. =38 Dainty,= Red and white; calved May 18th, 1860; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Ayrshire Lassie, 4. =39 Daisy,= Red and white; calved January 9th, 1862; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Tulip 2d, 210. =40 Daisy,= Brown and white; calved 1857; bred by DAVID WILSON, Irvine, Scotland, imported by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEO. B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, bred by John Parker, Nether Broomlands, Scotland, Dam bred by David Wilson. =41 Daisy,= White and light red; calved December 29th, 1861; bred and owned by GEO. B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Albert, 1, Dam, Daisy, 40. =42 Daisy,= Red and white; calved July 18th, 1861; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jenny, 98. =43 Daisy,= Light red and white; calved April, 1853; bred by R. JARDINE, St. John, N. B., owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Maine: Sire, Jock the Laird 5th, bred by Robert Gray, Fredericton, N. B., 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire Jock the Laird 2d, bred by Andrew McGregor, Damhead, Kilmarnock, Scotland, Dam, Gowan, bred by Richard Oswald, Auchencraive, Ayrshire, and imported by R. Jardine, 1848. =44 Daisy,= Red and white; calved January 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam Miss Betty, 152. =45 Daisie 2d,= Red and white; calved December 12th, 1847; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, of Merryton, Scotland; imported by Capt. RANDALL, of New Bedford, Mass.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass. =46 Daisie 4th,= Red and white; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Daisy 2d, 45. =47 Daisie 5th,= Red and white; calved March 26th, 1858; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.; Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Daisie 2d, 45. =48 Daisie 6th,= Red and white; calved September 11th, 1858; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WM. BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Daisy 3d, by Jock the Laird, bred by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Mass., 2d Dam, Daisie 2d, 45. =49 Daisie 7th,= Red and white; calved September 15th, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Daisie 4th, 46. =50 Daisie 8th,= Red and white; calved December 2d, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Daisie 5th, 47. =51 Daisie 9th,= Red and white; calved October 15th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Daisie 6th, 48. =52 Daisie 10th,= Red and white; calved October 7th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Daisie 5th, 47. =53 Dolly,= Red and white; calved December 6th, 1855; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dandy 5th, out of Daisie 2d, 45, 2d Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Maggie, by Dundee 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Jennie Deans 3d, 95. =54 Dolly 2d,= Red and white; calved April 29th, 1859; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Dolly, 53. =55 Dolly 3d,= Red and white; calved April 8th, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Dolly 2d, 54. =56 Dolly 4th,= Red and white; calved October 11th, 1861; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom 2d, 11, Dam, Dolly, 53. =57 Duchess 2d,= White, with dark red spots; calved in 1857; bred by JAMES MORTON, Drumley, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, bred by Mr. Speares, farmer, Bogend, Dam, Duchess. =58 Duchess 3d,= Red and white spotted; calved July 19th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Duchess 2d, 57. =59 Duchess 4th,= Deep red and white; calved February 15th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Duchess 3d, 58. =60 Effie,= White, with red spots; calved July 23d, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Beauty, 6. =61 Effie,= White and red; calved February 27th, 1855; bred by WILLIAM WATSON, New York; owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Malcolm, (out of Beith, imported by William Watson, New York,) 2d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, Dam, Flora, by Oswald, imported by Wm. Watson, 2d Dam, Julia, imported by William Watson. =62 Effie,= Red and white; calved 1858; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Thomas Daws & Son, Lachine, C. E. =63 Effie,= White, with red spots; calved July 23d, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Beauty, 6. =64 Eppie,= Dark brown and white; calved September 10th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Nannie, 156. =65 Empress,= Light yellow and white; calved April 5th, 1860; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a Bull Mr. Parker purchased from Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Dam, Queen 2d, 181, 2d Dam, Old Queen, 3d Dam, Blackie, 4th Dam, a Cow purchased of Lord Glasgow, in 1837. =66 Eva,= Red and white; calved June 3d, 1861; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.; Sire, Bonny Scot, 2d Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, Snow Flake, 197. =67 Fairy, (twin with Fancy.)= White and red, red stripe on back; calved March 28th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =68 Fancy, (twin with Fairy.)= Principally white mixed with red; calved March 28th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =69 Fanny,= Red and white mixed; calved May 19th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro' Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Drew, 149. =70 Fanny,= Red with a few white spots; calved April 8th, 1848; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by THOS. E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.: Sire, The Duke, imported by E. NYE, from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, 1845, Dam, Marion, imported by E. Nye from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire. =71 Fanny,= Light red with a few small white spots; calved August 6th, 1855; bred by RAMSAY MCHENRY, Maryland; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire Dandy, imported by E. P. Prentice, Albany, N. Y., Dam, Maid of Ayr, bred by R. McHenry, from Ayrshire Stock, imported by Mr. Hoffman, Baltimore, Md. =72 Fanny Ellsler,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES TODD, Dunure Mains, Scotland, imported in 1859, and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =73 Fanny Ellsler 2d,= Red and white; calved September 1st, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Fanny Ellsler, 72. =74 Flora,= Dark red and white; calved 1857; bred by GEORGE RICHMOND, Scotland, imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =75 Flora 2d,= Red with little white; calved December 22d, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Flora, 74. =76 Flora,= Dark red and white, spotted with brown about the head; calved March 15th, 1853; bred by WILLIAM WATSON, New York; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Oswald imported by William Watson, New York, Dam, Julia, imported by William Watson, New York. =77 Flora Gray,= White, with red spots; calved April 14th, 1854; bred by HUNGERFORD & BRODIE, Adams, N. Y.; owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Mary Gray, imported. =78 Florence,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES TODD, of Dunure Mains, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =79 Florence 2d,= Red and white; calved April 20th, 1860; bred by THOMAS TODD, Dunure Mains, Scotland; imported and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Jock the Laird, Dam, Florence, 78. =80 Florence 3d,= Red and white; calved November 28th, 1861; bred and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Florence, 78. =81 Folly,= Red and white; calved September 4th, 1862; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by BYRON LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.: Sire, Samson, 63, Dam, Rosemount, 189. =82 Frolic,= Pale red, with a few small white spots; calved October 25th, 1855; bred by HUNGERFORD & BRODIE, Adams, N. Y.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Adams, N. Y., 1852, Dam, Cherry Blossom, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1854. =83 Gentle,= Light red; calved 1856; bred by JAMES REID, Torcross, near Tarbolton, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass. =84 Gowan,= Spotted red and white; calved April 4th, 1859; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire cow, imported by Robert Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849, Dam, Peerless, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =85 Gypsie,= Red and white; calved April 17th, 1859; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Thomas Daws & Son, Lachine, C. E. =86 Heather Bell,= Red and white; calved 1853; bred by ANDREW MCFARLANE, Scotland; imported 1858, by James Logan, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Heather Jack. =87 Helen Mar,= White and red spotted; calved April 5th, 1859; bred by THOMAS DAWS & Son, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Thomas Daws & Son. =88 Jane,= Light red with little white; calved 1856; bred by JAMES CRAIG, of Polquheys, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =89 Jane 2d,= Light red and white; calved January 16th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jane 88. =90 Jane,= White with red spots; calved April, 1858; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Oak Park, New Brunswick; owned by EPHRAIM OTIS, Kittery, Maine: Sire, Jock the Laird, imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Jane, bred by Robert Gray, from his own importation, 1849. =91 Jean Armour,= Light red with little white; calved May 1st, 1856; bred in Scotland, by HUGH ROGER, Attiquin Maybole; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Wellington, Dam, Mary. =92 Jean Armour 2d,= Red, with but little white; calved May 23d, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Jean Armour, 91. =93 Jeanie,= Red and white; calved June 18th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Ruth, 193. =94 Jean,= Dark red, with little white; calved April 24th, 1854; bred by Robert Gray, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by R. Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, imported by R. Gray, 1849, Dam, Jenny Willet, imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =95 Jennie Deans 3d,= Red and white; calved June 8th, 1850; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Jock the Laird, bred by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Mass., 2d Sire, imported by Capt. Randall, Dam, Jennie Deans 1st, by Highlander, 2d Dam, Mida, by Wallace, 3d Dam, Ayr 2d, sired in Scotland, 4th Dam, Ayr, imported in 1842, by Mr. Ward, Lenox, Mass. =96 Jenny,= Dark red and white; calved October 25th, 1860; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Bull, bred by William S. Lincoln, Worcester, Mass., 2d Sire, McGregor, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Young Jenny Deans, by Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 2d Dam, Jenny Deans, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1844. =97 Jenny,= Red; calved July 27th, 1861; bred and owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 2d, 32, Dam, Jenny Willet, 102. =98 Jenny,= Red and white; calved spring of 1856; bred by HUGH AITON, Cumnock, Ayrshire; imported in 1858 and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =99 Jenny,= Dark red, with a few small white spots, brown about the head; calved July 13th, 1859; bred by JOHN C. SMITH, Baltimore County, Md.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Brutus, out of Jenny Deans, imported by R. McHenry, Md., 2d Sire, Brutus, imported by R. D. Shepherd, Va., Dam, Fanny, 71. =100 Jenny Lind,= Red and white; calved December 21st, 1861; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Bull, bred by William S. Lincoln, Worcester, Mass., 2d Sire, McGregor, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Jennie Deans 4th, by Major, 2d Dam, Jenny Deans 2d, by McDuff, imported by Peter Lawson, Dracut, Mass., 3d Dam, Jenny Deans, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1844. =101 Jenny Lind,= Red and white; calved June 13th, 1849; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, The Duke, imported by E. Nye, from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, 1845, Dam, Nan, imported from the same herd, 1840. =102 Jenny Willet,= Red and white; calved April, 1858; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Oak Park, N. B.; owned by JOHN ROGERS, Kittery, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird, imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Jenny Willet, bred by Robert Gray, from stock of his own importation, 1849. =103 Jenny Willet,= Very dark red with white spots; calved March 12th, 1853; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred by Robert Gray, in Ayrshire, and imported by him in 1849, Dam, Jenny Willet, imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =104 Jessie,= Light red and white; calved April 7th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Miller, 151. =105 Jessie 1st,= Calved March 14th, 1849; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.: Sire, Juba, imported by R. S. Griswold, Dam, Whitey, imported by R. S. Griswold. =106 Jessie,= Red and white; calved spring of 1859; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.; Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, White Cherry, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E. =107 Jessie,= Brownish red and white; calved June, 1855; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, Brown Hill, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported July, 1858, and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Sam, bred by John Meikle, 2d Sire, Dody, bred by Mr. Meikle, Closton, 3d Sire, Screw, bred by Mr. Meikle, Closton, Dam, Jenny, bred by John Meikle, Tarbolton, 2d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Meikle, Closton. =108 Jessie 2d,= Brownish red and white; calved January 23d, 1860; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Jessie, 107. =109 Jessie 3d,= Brownish red; calved December 29th, 1860; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Jessie, 107. =110 Jessie 4th,= Brownish red and white; calved January 10th, 1862; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Jessie, 107. =111 Jessie,= Red and white; calved June, 1856; bred by JAMES MURRAY, Cumnock, Ayrshire; imported in 1858, and owned by C. M. POND, of Hartford, Conn. =112 Juno,= Light red and white; calved January 13th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Queen 2d, 181. =113 Kate,= Red and white; calved April 7th, 1858; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, Dam, Fanny, 70. =114 Kate,= Light red, with white spots; calved May 12th, 1857; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire Cow imported by Robert Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 1849, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849, Dam, Peerless, bred and imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =115 Katy,= Pale red, with a few small white spots; calved April 12th, 1861; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, of Madison, N. J.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Roderic, 61, Dam, Frolic, 82. =116 Kitty,= Red, with a few small white spots; calved March 18th, 1862; bred by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.; owned by WILLIAM BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Fanny, 71. =117 Kitty 4th,= Red and white; calved June 13th, 1855; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 5th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Tibby 2d, bred by E. P. Prentice, 2d Dam, Tibby 1st, bred by E. P. Prentice. =118 Kitty 5th,= Red and white; calved May 12th, 1857; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Duke, out of Tibby 3d, 2d Sire, Dundee 4th, bred by E. P. Prentice, Dam, Kitty 4th, 117. =119 Kitty 6th,= Red and white; calved July 29th, 1860; bred and owned by WILLIAM BIRNIE, Springfield, Mass.: Sire, Blossom, 10, Dam, Kitty 5th, 118. =120 Lassie,= White and red mixed; calved June 7th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Ruth, 193. =121 Lady Burns,= Red and white; calved April 21st, 1861; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E., owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, Gypsie, 85. =122 Lady Clare,= Roan and white; calved June 4th, 1859; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris County, N. J.; owned by JOHN STARR, Woodbury, N. J.: Sire, Malcolm, out of Beith, imported by William Watson, New York, 2d Sire, Oswald, imported by William Watson, New York, Dam, Frolic, 82. =123 Lady Ellen,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES TODD, Dunure Mains, Scotland; imported 1859, and owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =124 Lady Prentice,= Red; calved 1854; bred by E. P. PRENTICE, Albany, N. Y.; owned by HORATIO E. DAY, Hartford, Conn. =125 Lady Wallace,= White and red spotted; calved May 3d, 1856; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E., Dam, an Ayrshire cow, owned by Thomas Daws & Son, Lachine, C. E. =126 Leila,= Red and white; calved May 12th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Miss Drew, 149. =127 Lily,= Red and white; calved January 11th, 1862; bred by N. H. WARREN, Concord, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Bull, bred by WILLIAM S. LINCOLN, Worcester, Mass., 2d Sire, McGregor, imported by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Jenny Deans 2d, by McDuff, imported by Peter Lawson, Dracut, Mass., 2d Dam Jenny Deans, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1844. =128 Lily,= Dark red and white spotted; calved May 4th, 1861; bred by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, N. J.; owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, White Lily's Kelburn, out of White Lily, imported by James Brodie, 2d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, 1852, Dam, Flora, 76. =129 Lily,= Brownish red and white; calved 1857; bred by JOHN PARKER, Nether Broomlands, Scotland, imported by Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by T. W. PIERCE, Boston, Mass.: Sire, bred by JOHN PARKER, Dam, bred by John Parker, of the Cardigan stock. =130 Lily of Smithfield,= Red and white; bred by JAMES MCNAUGHTON, Smithfield, Ayrshire, imported in 1859 and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn. =131 Little Dorrit,= Red and white; calved April 18th, 1857; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; Sire, Scotland, imported by E. NYE from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, Dam, Fanny, 70. =132 Maggie,= Red; calved in 1857; bred by JAMES PEATE, Browcastle, Scotland, imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Mr. Drew's Sandy, Dam, a cow bred by Mr. Peate. =133 Maggie 2d,= Red and white spotted; calved August 5th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Maggie, 132. =134 Mailie,= Red with white spots; calved March 15th, 1861; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Brenda, 28. =135 Margery,= Dark brown with white spots; calved April 6th, 1854; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, Noltmire, Scotland, imported September, 1858, and owned by JOSEPH S. CABOT, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Jamie, Dam, Lillias. =136 Mary 3d,= Light red and white; calved 1857; bred in Scotland by JOHN PARKER, Irvine, imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, Dam, Mary 2d, 2d Dam, Mary, Dam of Cardigan, all bred by Mr. Parker. =137 Mary 4th,= Yellow and white; calved August 9th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Mary 3d, 136. =138 Mavis,= Brownish red and white spotted; calved 1856; bred by JOHN DUNLOP, near Stewarton, Ayrshire; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE G. SMITH, Marblehead, Mass. =139 May,= Dark red, with white spots; calved June 12th, 1857; bred by ROBERT GRAY, Fredericton, N. B.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Robert Gray, 2d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, imported by Robert Gray, 1849, Dam, Mary, imported by Robert Gray, 1849. =140 May Flower,= Light red and white; calved May 1st, 1861; bred by THOMAS E. HATCH, Keene, N. H.; owned by WILLIAM BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Argyle, 6, Dam, Fanny, 70. =141 May Flower,= White and brown; calved 1854; bred by GEORGE M. BARRETT, Concord, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, imported by Peter Lawson, Dracut, Mass., Dam, bred by G. M. Barrett, from stock imported by Mr. Lawson. =142 May Queen,= Spotted light red and white; calved April 9th, 1861; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Bonnie Scot, imported by Thomas Dods, Montreal, C. E., Dam, Bell of Scotland, 15. =143 Merryton 3d,= Dark red and white; calved January 30th, 1860; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, Merryton, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Cardigan, Dam, Young Merryton 2d, 217. =144 Merryton 4th,= Dark red, white spot on hip; calved May 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Oswald, 51, Dam, Merryton 3d, 143. =145 Miller 2d,= Red and white; calved April 2d, 1859; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, near Ayr, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Sir Colin, 2d Sire, Jock, bred by James Craig, Polquheys, Dam, Miss Miller, 151, 2d Dam, Martha, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 3d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 4th Dam, Captain, bred by Capt. Martin. =146 Milly,= White, with red neck and head; calved April 7th, 1862; bred and owned by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Flora, 76. =147 Minna,= Red and white; calved in 1857; bred by JAMES PEATE, Lanarkshire, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire and Dam bred by James Peate. =148 Minna 2d,= Dark red and white; calved August 20th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Minna, 147. =149 Miss Drew,= Red and white spotted; calved in 1857; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, of Merryton, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Sandy, bred by Lawrence Drew, Dam, a Cow bred by Lawrence Drew. =150 Miss Drew 2d,= Red and white spotted; calved July 5th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Miss Drew, 149. =151 Miss Miller,= White, with dark red spots; calved March 18th, 1856; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, Noltmire, Scotland; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock, bred by James Craig, Dam, Martha, bred by James Craig, 2d Dam, Bella, bred by James Craig, 3d Dam, Captain, bred by Capt. Martin. =152 Miss Betty,= Dark red and white, dark about the face; calved April 20th, 1856; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, Noltmire, Scotland; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock, bred by James Craig, Dam, Cherry, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 2d Dam, Martha, bred by Mr. Kilgour, 3d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Kilgour. =153 Miss Morton,= Red and white, dark about the face; calved in 1855; bred by JAMES MORTON, Tarbolton, Scotland; imported in 1858, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Young Geordie, Dam, Brawney. =154 Miss Morton 2d,= Red and white in bands; calved May 7th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, 2d Sire, Cardigan, Dam, Miss Morton, 153, 2d Dam, Brawney. =155 Miss Anderson,= White and brownish red; calved 1856; bred by ALEXANDER BRUCE, Shawe, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858, owned by GEORGE G. SMITH, Marblehead, Mass. =156 Mistress 2d,= Brown and white; calved in 1858; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a Bull, purchased of Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Dam, Mistress, 2d Dam, Madam, 3d Dam, a Cow bought of Mr. Wilson, Bargower. =157 Mistress 3d,= Dark about the head, brown with much white about the body; calved March 27th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mistress 2d, 156. =158 Mountain Maid,= Red and white; calved 1857; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, imported by Thomas Daws & Son, 1855, Dam, a thorough-bred Ayrshire Cow, owned by Thomas Daws & Son. =159 Mysie,= Red, with a few small white spots; calved April 19th, 1862; bred by HENRY L. STEWART, Middle Haddam, Conn.; owned by WILLIAM BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Dundee 8th, 20, Dam, Frolic, 82. =160 Myrtle,= Red and white; calved April 9th, 1861; owned by BYRON LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jessie, 111. =161 Nannie,= Light red and white; calved 1857; bred by ALEX. STRUTHERS, near Hamilton, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Mr. L. Drew's Sandy 2d, Dam, descended in part from L. Drew's stock. =162 Nannie Nye,= Red and white; calved July 20th, 1856; bred and owned by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.: Sire, Jersey Blue out of Marion, imported by E. Nye, 2d Sire, Juniper, imported by E. Nye, Dam, Jenny Lind, 101. =163 Nannie,= Red and white; calved December 12th, 1861; bred and owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn: Sire, Norribo, 50, Dam, Effie, 62. =164 Nannie 2d,= Yellow with a few white spots; calved July 25th, 1860; bred by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.; owned by FREDERIC L. AMES, North Easton, Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Nannie, 161. =165 Nellie,= Dark red and white; calved March 15th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Miss Morton, 153. =166 Nelly,= Dark red with white spots; calved April 16th, 1862; bred and owned by N. DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Maine: Sire, Geordie, 23, Dam, May, 139. =167 Panzy,= Brownish red with a little white; calved 1857; bred by JOHN PARKER, Nether Broomlands, Scotland, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by T. W. PIERCE, Boston, Mass.: Sire, bred by John Parker, also, Sire of Cardigan, Dam, bred by John Parker. =168 Peerless,= White with red spots; calved November, 1858; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris Co., N. J.: Sire, Malcolm out of Beith, imported by William Watson, N. Y., 2d Sire, Oswald imported by William Watson, Dam, Jessie 1st, 105. =169 Peggy,= Dark red and white; calved July 7th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Maggie, 132. =170 Pet,= Red and white; calved April 30th, 1860; bred by THOMAS DAWS & SON, Lachine, C. E.; owned by H. S. COLLINS, Collinsville, Conn.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, imported by the Montreal Agricultural Society, Dam, Effie, 62. =171 Phoebe,= Red and white, mixed; calved February 11th, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Mistress 2d, 156. =172 Phillis,= White, with red spots; calved April 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Rosa, 184. =173 Pink,= Dark red, with little white; calved in 1857; bred by ALEXANDER OSWALD, near Ayr, from stock in possession of the Oswald family for many years, derived from the Duke of Portland, crossed on the side of the sire of this heifer with the stock of John Parker, Nether Broomlands, Irvine; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =174 Pink 2d,= Dark red and white; calved December 22d, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Pink, 173. =175 Pink,= Brownish red; calved April 10th, 1858; bred and owned by GEO. B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, bred by G. W. Lyman, Waltham, Mass., 2d Sire, Zach. Taylor, bred by Mr. Lyman, 3d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Lady Newell, bred from stock imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1846. =176 Pink,= Red and white; calved March 21st, 1862; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by H. N. THURBER, Pomfret, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Rose of Brownhill, 190. =178 Polly,= White and red; calved October 5th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Nannie, 161. =179 Posy,= Brownish red and white; calved April 10th, 1858; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, bred by G. W. Lyman, Waltham, Mass., 2d Sire, Zach. Taylor, bred by Mr. Lyman, 3d Sire, Prince Albert, imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Dam, Lady Newell, bred from stock imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =180 Posy 2d,= Brownish red; calved August 10th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Posy, 179. =181 Queen 2d,= Red and white; calved 1855; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Jock of Hazeldean, 2d Sire, Geordie 3d, 3d Sire, Geordie 2d, 4th Sire, Old Geordie, Dam, Old Queen, 2d Dam, Blackie, 3d Dam, a Cow purchased by Lord Glasgow in 1837. =182 Queen 3d,= Dark red and white; calved 1858; bred by IVIE CAMPBELL, Dalgig, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a Bull, purchased of Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Scotland, Dam, Queen 2d, 181. =183 Queen 4th,= Dark brown, with little white; calved March 26th, 1861; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Queen 3d, 182. =184 Rosa,= Light red and white; calved in 1856; bred by HUGH ARCHIBALD, near Dalry, Scotland; imported in 1859, and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =185 Rosa 2d,= Red and white, white face; calved July 4th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Ayrshire Lad, 7, Dam, Rosa, 184. =186 Rosa,= Red and white; calved spring of 1858; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Baldie, imported by James Logan, Dam, a thorough-bred Ayrshire Cow, owned by James Logan. =187 Rosa,= Light red and white; calved 1856; bred by JOHN LAMBIE, near Tarbolton, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Alexander, bred by Hugh Lambie, Dam, Jean, bred by Hugh Lambie. =188 Rosa 2d,= Light red, with a little white; calved November 30th, 1861; bred and owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Irvine, 29, Dam, Rosa, 187. =189 Rosemount,= Red and white; calved February 28th, 1860; bred by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.; owned by BYRON LOOMIS, Suffield, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Jessie, 111. =190 Rose of Brown Hill,= Red and white; calved May, 1856; bred by JOHN MEIKLE, Brown Hill Farm, Tarbolton, Ayrshire; imported in 1858, and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire bred by John Bill, Enterkine, Ayrshire, Dam, bred by James Drennan, Annebank House, Ayrshire. =191 Rose,= Light red and white; calved April 4th, 1860; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by H. O. CHAPIN, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Beauty, 8. =192 Rose,= Red, with large patches of white; calved March 3d, 1859; bred by E. NYE, Clinton, N. J.; owned by WM. BALL, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Scotland, imported by E. Nye, from Duke of Portland's estate, Ayrshire, Dam, Little Dorrit, 131. =193 Ruth,= Light red and white; calved in 1858; bred by JOHN KILGOUR, near Ayr; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, a bull bred by James Craig, Polquheys, Dam, Cherry, 2d Dam, Martha, 3d Dam, Bella, bred by Mr. Kilgour. =194 Ruth 2d,= White, with red spots; calved August 10th, 1860; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Ruth, 193. =195 Ruth,= Light brown, with a little white; calved 1857; bred by JAMES MEIKLE, Cloxton, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Cardigan, Dam, bred by Mr. Campbell, Dalgig, Scotland. =196 Sonsie,= Dark red, with little white; calved June 15th, 1861; bred by T. M. HAYES, Saco, Me.; owned by NATHAN DANE, Jr., Kennebunk, Me.: Sire, an Ayrshire Bull, bred by Robert Gray, Fredericton, N. B., 2d Sire, Duncan, out of an Ayrshire Cow, imported by Robert Gray, 3d Sire, Jock the Laird 4th, out of Helen, imported by Robert Gray, 4th Sire, Jock the Laird 3d, bred and imported by Robert Gray, Dam, Bessie, by Duncan, 2d Dam, Jean, 94. =197 Snow Flake,= Red and white; calved spring of 1859; bred by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.; owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Sir Colin, 61, Dam, imported by James Logan, 1857. =198 Spot,= White, with numerous brown spots; calved April 17th, 1858; bred and owned by JOSEPH S. CABOT, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Bull, bred by W. S. Lincoln, from stock imported by Capt. Randall, New Bedford, Dam, an Ayrshire Cow, owned by G. M. Barrett, Concord, Mass. =199 Star,= Brownish red and white; calved 1856; bred by GEORGE RICHMOND, near Dalrymple, Scotland; imported by the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, 1858; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Geordie, 2d Sire, Kilmaurs, Dam, Sister to Young Crummey. =200 Stately,= White and dark red; calved April 20th, 1854; bred by JAMES YOUNG, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire; imported and owned by JAMES LOGAN, Montreal, C. E.: Sire, Geordie, bred by Alexander Wilson, Forehouse, Kilbrachan, Scotland, Dam, Old Stately, bred by James Young, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire. =201 Strawberry,= Brown and white; calved 1856; bred by C. A. STETSON, Swampscot, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, Essex, 22, Dam, Strawberry, imported by C. A. Stetson. =202 Strawberry 2d,= Brown and white; calved June 16th, 1860; bred by C. A. STETSON, Swampscot, Mass.; owned by GEORGE B. LORING, Salem, Mass.: Sire, a Bull, out of Strawberry, (imported by C. A. Stetson,) by Essex, 22, Dam, Strawberry, 201. =203 Strawberry,= Red and white; calved May 14th, 1862; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Bella, 13. =204 Susan,= Light yellow and white; calved 1856; bred by JAMES CRAIG, Polquhey's, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. =205 Susan 2d,= White and red; calved April 2d, 1860; bred by JAMES CRAIG, Polquheys, Scotland; owned and imported by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Clarendon, 2d Sire, Major, 3d Sire, a bull Mr. Parker purchased from Mr. Young, Kilmaurs Mains, Dam, Susan, 204. =206 Susan 3d,= Dark red and white; calved January 21st, 1863; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, Eglinton, 21, Dam, Susan 2d, 205. =207 Sylvia,= Red and white; calved September 18th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Susan, 204. =208 Topsy,= Red and white; calved June 1st, 1861; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Bonny Scot, 2d Sire, Sir Colin, 67, Dam, Jessie, 106. =209 Tulip,= Bright red and white; calved July 3d, 1857; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire, Oswald. 51, Dam, Tulip, imported by Luke Sweetser, 1855. =210 Tulip 2d,= Red and white; calved September 1st, 1859; bred by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.; owned by M. S. KELLOGG, Chicopee, Mass.: Sire, Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Tulip 1st, 2d Dam, Tulip, 209. =211 Tulip 3d,= Dun and white; calved September 18th, 1860; bred and owned by LUKE SWEETSER, Amherst, Mass.: Sire Rob Roy, 58, Dam, Tulip, 209. =212 Violet,= Red and white; calved May 20th, 1862; bred and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass.: Sire, King Coil, 40, Dam, Duchess 2d, 57. =213 Violet,= Red and white; calved May 28th, 1862; bred and owned by C. M. POND, Hartford, Conn.: Sire, Robert Burns, 57, Dam, Lily of Smithfield, 130. =214 White Cherry,= Light red and white; calved May 8th, 1855; bred by JAMES YOUNG, Kilbride, Stewarton, Ayrshire, imported by James Logan, Montreal, C. E.; owned by A. RICHMOND, Brooklyn, Conn.: Sire, Geordie bred by Alex. Wilson, Forehouse, Kilbracham, Scotland. =215 Winnie,= Red and white; calved February 27th, 1862; bred and owned by C. & S. HARRIS, Riverpoint, R. I.: Sire, Douglass, 19, Dam, Rosa, 186. =216 Young Bessie,= Red and white; calved November 22d, 1861; bred and owned by A. M. TREDWELL, Madison, Morris Co., N. J.: Sire, White Lily's Kelburn out of White Lily, imported by James Brodie, 2d Sire, Kelburn, imported by Hungerford & Brodie, Dam, Bessie, 19. =217 Young Merryton 2d,= Dark red with little white; calved 1856; bred by LAWRENCE DREW, Merryton, Scotland; imported in 1859 and owned by H. H. PETERS, Southboro', Mass. AMERICAN DEVON HERD BOOK, PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF Thorough-Bred Neat Stock. ARRANGED BY HORACE MILLS SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Hampden Co., Mass. VOLUME I. HARTFORD: PRESS OF WILLIAMS, WILEY & WATERMAN. 1863. NOTICE. OWING to circumstances beyond the control of the Committee of Publication, or of the Committees on the Pedigrees of the various classes of stock, it has been impossible to publish the first volume of the Herd Record of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-bred Neat Stock at an earlier day. The desire to obtain as large a representation of stock as possible, and to extend the advantages of the Association as widely among breeders as they could, has induced the committees on the various classes of stock to hold open their books and the delays incident upon tracing doubtful pedigrees, through in many instances a long correspondence with owners and breeders, have prevented them from furnishing the copy to the Publication Committee, in season to have the work finished sooner. Every care has been taken to have the records perfect, and to admit no pedigrees of doubtful character. It is believed this has been successfully accomplished, and that the animals here recorded may be relied upon as of undoubted purity of blood. H. A. DYER, } _Committee_ S. I. BARTLETT, } _of Publication._ INDEX. ALLEN, JOHN, Coldwater, Mich., 14 Pedigrees. BULLS--Shakspeare 110. COWS--Beauty 16, Cleopatra 64, Dairymaid 71, Duchess 83, Fancy 106, Flora 119, Jenny Lind 167, Julia 175, Lily 2d 208, Lucy 218, Mayflower 230, Sophia 323, Young Fairy 349. ANDREWS, B. H., Waterbury, Conn., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Barton 8, Brandywine 17, George Turner 44, Reuben 106, Tiger 122. COWS--Beauty 2d 20, Capitola 55, Chloe 62, Gipsy 3d 138, Lady 188, Lady 2d 189, Rosa 307, Topsy 332. AUGUR, P. M., Middletown, Conn., 8 Pedigrees. BULLS--Prince Albert 88. COWS--Beauty 18, Beauty 2d 10, Fanny 109, Flora 117, Jessie Davy 2d 173, Mary Hurlbut 235 (1394), Mary Hurlbut 2d 236. BAKER, TRUMAN, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bishop 11. COWS--Blossom 46, Cherry 59, Curly 68, Daisy 72, Edith 84, Extra 93, Fairy 94, Flora 118, Nancy Dawson 257, Rosa 308, Rosa Belle 311, Tiptoe 331. BALLARD, M. M. & O. W., Niles, Mich., 10 Pedigrees. BULLS--Oneida 82, Oxford 85, Sultan 116, Victor 138, Wolverine 143, Wyoming 144. COWS--Fancy 102, Jessie 169, Red Lady 2d 303, Red Lady 3d 304. BASSENGER, J. B., Denville, N. J., 2 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bangor 7. COWS--Dolly Dutton 78. BENT, C. D., Iowa City, Iowa, 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Monitor 69. COWS--Flora 2d 120, Flora 3d 121, Flora 4th 122, Flora 5th 123, Iowa Belle 160. BIDERMAN, ANTHONY, Wilmington, Del., 5 Pedigrees. BULLS--Carroll Eclipse 18, Hector 46. COWS--Cowslip 67, Hyacinth 152, Lilac 202. BIDWELL, THOMAS, Wentworth, Lake County, Ills., 3 Pedigrees. BULLS--Prince of Wales 92. COWS--Grace 139, May Queen 3d 232. BILL, JAMES A., Lyme, Conn., 12 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bobolink 12, Nero 78. COWS--Beauty 17, Bessy 41, Hetty 149, Ida May 158, Jennie 163, Kate 180, Lily 203, Nina 269, Phebe 287, Rose 312. BLAKESLEE, J. N., Watertown, Conn., 1 Pedigree. COWS--Victoria 342. BLISS, ELAM C., Westfield, Chautauqua County, N. Y., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bonaparte 13, Boney Pate 14, Boxer 16, Curly 29. COWS--Beauty A 21, Beauty B 22, Beauty C 23, Beauty 5th 24, Betsy 43, Clio 65, Imogene 159, Pauline 279, Pauline 2d 280. BUCKINGHAM, JAMES, Duncans Falls, Ohio, 11 Pedigrees. BULLS--Cute 30, General 40, Muskingum 73, Rebellion 97. COWS--Emily Sibley 88, Julia 176, Lady Day 193, Lizzie B 211, Meme 239, Pearlette 282, Twinkle 338. CAPRON, HORACE, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills., 21 Pedigrees. BULLS--Glaucus 45, Sumter 119, Yorktown 145. COWS--Adeline 2, Blanche 44, Bloom 45, Brenda 50, Corinne 66, Florence 127, Gem 133, Grace 140, Heroine 151, Jessica 168, Josephine 2d 174, Norma 273, Octavia 275, Pauline 281, Princess 296, Queen of Oaks 298, Robin 306, Stella 326. CATLIN, ABIJAH, Harwinton, Conn., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Sam 108. COWS--Jessie 170, Julia 177, Lola 213, Mary 2d 234, Pedley 283. COLLINS, LEWIS G., Linden, Montgomery County, Ind., 30 Pedigrees. BULLS--Bounty 15, Crusader 28, Frank Quartly 39, New Year's Day 80, Priam 87, Printer 95, Red Jacket 98, Triumph 129. COWS--Active 1, Alice 5, Antic 7, Blossom 47, Buttercup 54, Daisy 73, Daisy 2d 74, Daisy 3d 75, Fancy 103, Helen 145, Hollyhock 154, Kitty 186, Laura 199, Lily 204, Peony 284, Pink 289, Primrose 295, Rose 313, Snowdrop 321, Sprightly 325, Sukey 328, Venus 339. CORNELL, EZRA, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y., 5 Pedigrees. COWS--Baltimore 8th 13, Baltimore 9th 14, Beaver 37, Helena 16th 148, Yuba 3d 350. CORP, JOHN, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Fancy's Valiant 35, Montezuma 71, Veruna 136. COWS--Nineveh 270, Nonsense 271, Norah Vane 272. CUSHING, CHARLES W., South Hingham, Mass., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Independence 48, Mayboy 62. COWS--Annie 6, Florence 128, Minnie 250, Sontag 322. DYER, HENRY A., Brooklyn, Conn., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Lavega 56. FLAGG, W. C., Moro, Madison County, Ills., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Red Jacket 99, Red Path 101. COWS--Breda 49, Norna 274. GARDNER, J. H., Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich., 11 Pedigrees. BULLS--Baltimore 4, Beck 9, St. Jo 107. COWS--Bessy 42, Cherry 2d 61, Ellen 2d 87, Fanny 110, Flora 124, Lady 190, Lily 205, Nelly 261. GLEASON, ROLLIN, Benson, Vt., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Duke 33, Meriden 67, Victor 137. COWS--Cherry 60. GOLD, T. S., West Cornwall, Conn., 3 Pedigrees. BULLS--General Scott 42. COWS--Fairy 6th 96, Nelly Bly 266. GORTON, WILLIAM, JR., Waterford, Conn., 4 Pedigrees. COWS--La Belle 187, Lily 206, Silver Medal 320, Waterbury Beauty 347. GRIFFIN, M. H., Middletown, Conn., 7 Pedigrees. BULLS--General Mansfield 41, Matchless 61. COWS--Bridget 51, Long Horn Fancy 214, Minerva 2d 241, Rosa 309, Venus 340. GRISWOLD, STANLEY, Torringford, Conn., 20 Pedigrees. BULLS--Monitor 70, Watch 2d 140, Weehawken 141. COWS--Agnes 4, Belle 38, Blossom 48, Dot 79, Dot 2d 80, Fancy 104, Hetty 2d 150, Ida 155, Jenny 165, Jessie 171, May 1st 227, May 2d 228, Nellie 259, Pink 290, Rose 316, Topsy 333, Victoria 2d 343. HEALY, WALDO M., Dudley, Mass., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Turk 133. COWS--Fie 115, Julia 178, Juliet 179. HENDERSON, W. W., Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo., 1 Pedigree. COWS--Lily 207. HOLCOMB, B. L., Devon Dale, near Newcastle, Del., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--General Taylor 43. HOTCHKISS, HENRY, Smithville, Chenango County, N. Y., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Baltimore 3. HURLBUT, S. & L., Winchester, Conn., 44 Pedigrees. BULLS--John 50, McClellan 64, Ned 74, Nelson 75, Sam 2d 109, Young Exeter 148, Young Tecumseh 151. COWS--Beck 2d 15, Bessie 40, Daisy 76, Darling 77, Ella 86, Fancy 2d 107, Fancy 5th 108, Flora 2d 126, Fruitful 130, Gipsy 137, Gipsy 2d 136, Grace 141, Hattie 143, Hattie 2d 144, Jane 162, Kate 183, Lib 200, Lizzie 210, Lophorn 215, Lottie 216, Lovely 217, Lulu 221, Maud 238, May 226, May Queen 2d 231, Minnie 252, Nannie 258, Nettie 268, Pansy 276, Pink 291, Rose 315, Spot 324, Strawberry 327, Susan 329, Tilly 330, Topsy 1st 335, Topsy 2d 336. HURST, WILLIAM, Albany, N. Y., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Empire 2d 34. HYDE, E. H., Stafford, Conn., 52 Pedigrees. BULLS--Abe Lincoln 2, Ben Butler 10, Connewango 25, Kossuth 53, Kossuth 2d 54, Kossuth 3d 55, Megunticook 65, Nero 79, Owasco 84, Prince John 3d 91, Roscius 104, Stafford 114, Stafford 2d 115, Young Comet 141, Ypsilanti 152. COWS--Beauty 25, Beauty 2d 26, Beauty 3d 27, Beauty 4th 28, Beauty 6th 29, Belle 39, Chance 57, Chance 2d 58, Eva 90, Fairy 4th 99, Fairy 5th 100, Fairy 9th 101, Fancy 105, Gem 134, Gem 2d 135, Jane 161, Kate 181, Lady Dodge 192, Lady Jane 195, Lizzie 212, Lulu 222, Majestic 224, Majestic 2d 225, Minnehaha 3d 242, Minnie 251, Moss Rose 255, Myrtle 256, Nellie 260, Nelly Bly 264, Nelly Bly 265, Nelly Bly 4th 267, Pansy 277, Princess Royal 2d 297, Red Lady 302, Red Rose 305, Venus 341, Young Fancy 349. JOHNSON, JOHN J, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y., 4 Pedigrees. BULLS--Frank Baker 38. COWS--Jenny 166, Lida 201, Lily 3d 209. KNOWLTON, H. W., Freeport, Ills., 3 Pedigrees. BULLS--Baltimore 2d 5, Baltimore 3d 6. COWS--Polly 293. LAMBARD, ALLEN, Augusta, Maine, 17 Pedigrees. BULLS--Franklin 37, Kennebec 51, Kentucky 52, Penobscot 86, Rob Roy 102, Roderick Dhu 103, Somerset 113, Waldo 139. COWS--Baltimore 3d 11, Baltimore 4th 12, Helena 3d 146, Helena 4th 147, Jessie 172, Nelly 162, Nelly 2d 163, Rebe 300, Rebe 2d 301. LINSLEY, R., West Meriden, Conn., 5 Pedigrees. BULLS--Comet 22, Hiawatha 47, Prince John 90. COWS--Fairy 97, Minnehaha 243. LOCKWOOD, GEORGE B., Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y., 18 Pedigrees. BULLS--Czar 31, Dan 32, Logan 58, Mars 60, Mayboy 63, Neptune 77, Uncas 135. COWS--Aunt Chloe 9, Cassy 56, Clara 63, Effie 85, Emma 89, Maud 237, Mina 240, Patsy 278, Pocahontas 2d 292, Ruby 318, Topsy 334. LOGAN, S. S., Washington, Conn., 14 Pedigrees. BULLS--Charter Oak 19, Clement 21, Crittenden 27, Nelson 76, Young Albert 146, Young Herod 149, Young Roscius 150. COWS--Beauty 30, Beauty 2d 31, Hattie 142, Kate 184, Kate 2d 185, Victoria 3d 345, Victoria 4th 346. MERRICK, A. N., Brimfield, Mass., 2 Pedigrees. BULLS--Sigel 111. COWS--Fairy 3d 98. MERRICK, D. B., Wilbraham, Mass., 5 Pedigrees. BULLS--Red Jacket 100. COWS--Beauty 32, Beauty 1st 33, Beauty 2d 34, Beauty 3d 35. MUNSON, JOSEPH M., Watertown, Conn., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Jerry 49, Orphan Boy 83. COWS--Adelaide 3, Curl 3d 70, Kate 182, Rose 314. NORTH, A. W., East Maine, Broome County, N. Y., 1 Pedigree. BULLS--Messenger 68. ROOT, SILAS, Westfield, Mass., 2 Pedigrees. COWS--Pet 4th 285, Pet 5th 286. SESSIONS, HORACE MILLS, South Wilbraham, Mass., 12 Pedigrees. BULLS--Abe 1, Commodore 24, Major 59, Meriden 66, Reubens 2d 105. COWS--May Beauty 229, Minneola 244, Minnie 1st 245, Minnie 2d 246, Minnie 3d 247, Minnie 4th 248, Wynona 348. STEINMETZ, DANIEL, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Lion 57, Musician 72, Norfolk 81, Prince of Wales 93, William Tell 142. COWS--Curly 69, Fairy 95, Flora 125, Flotilla 129, Phlox 288, Pretty 294, Queen Victoria 299, Tracy 337. TILLOTSON, HEZEKIAH, Farmington, Conn., 6 Pedigrees. BULLS--Comet 23. COWS--Arabella 8, Aurora 10, Beauty 8th 36, Rosette 317, Ruby 319. TOMS, SAMUEL, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio, 7 Pedigrees. BULLS--Chipaway 20, Prince of Wales 94, Prince Albert 89. COWS--Ida 2d 156, Ida 4th 157, Lady Gapper 2d 194, Victoria 3d 344. VAN RENSSELAER, R. H., Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., 21 Pedigrees. BULLS--Taurus 120, Thunderer 121, Tiger 123, Tinsel 124, Tippo 125, Tom Thumb 126, Tornado 127, Trinket 128, Trump 130, Turk 131, Tuscarora 134. COWS--Fanny 112, Fanny 2d 113, Flame 116, Funny 131, Ladybird 2d 191, Lady Slipper 196, Lalla Rookh 197, Lantern 198, Lucy 219, Lucy 2d 220. WENTWORTH, JOHN, Chicago, Ills., 13 Pedigrees. BULLS--Putnam 96, Sir Charles 112, Summit Prince 117, Sumter 118, Turk 132. COWS--Fantine 114, Gazelle 132, Jennie 164, Minnie 249, Miss Gay 253, Model 254, Rosa 310. WILLIAMS, LEVI, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y., 7 Pedigrees. BULLS--Forest City 36. COWS--Broad Horned Beauty 2d 52, Broad Horned Beauty 3d 53, Dover 81, Dover 2d 82, Excelsior 2d 91, Excelsior 3d 92. WILSON, R. H., Cambridge, Ohio, 2 Pedigrees. BULLS--Consul 26. COWS--Maggie 223. HISTORY OF THE DEVONS. _Ancient Races._ IN preparing the following article, we have consulted the principal Agricultural Reports and Journals of this country, and Youatt, and Martin, and Low's histories of British Cattle; we are also indebted to many of our importers and breeders, who have furnished statements in regard to their respective herds. That the Devons are an ancient race of cattle, there can be no doubt. There is no race in England that can claim such undisputed antiquity. They bear all the characteristic marks of resemblance of the ancient races of the south of England and Wales; even the color, red, is traced in the Devon, Sussex and Hereford. The distinction between a "breed" and "race," Goodale defines as follows: "By breeds are understood such varieties as were originally produced by a cross or mixture, and subsequently established by selecting for breeding purposes only the best specimens, and rejecting all others. In process of time deviations become less frequent, and greater uniformity is secured, and this is in proportion to the time which elapses and the skill employed in selecting. Races are varieties moulded to their peculiar type by _natural_ causes, with no interference of man, and no intermixture of other varieties; that have continued substantially the same, for a period beyond which the memory and knowledge of man does not reach. Such are the North Devon Cattle." There seems to have been three distinct races of these ancient cattle: the Long Horns, the Middle Horns, and Hornless, or Polled Cattle. The Middle Horns represented the cattle of the region of Devonshire. These races of cattle were bred by the Ancient Celtic inhabitants, and constituted their chief subsistence. Youatt says: "the native inhabitants were proud of their country, and prouder of their cattle, their choicest possession." When their country was invaded by their enemies, they fled to the mountains for safety and protection, and took with them their cattle upon which to subsist, and thus were preserved both themselves and their cattle, so that the races of cattle in these districts have been the same from time immemorial. In a few instances the wild forest cattle have been kept distinct, in a wild state, to this day; as in the parks of Chillingham and Chartley; and are said to be similar to those that existed in the tenth century; and also bear a strong resemblance to the present domestic breeds of that region. The cattle in these parks are white, with red ears. _Color._ Black or white were the principal colors, though where these were found the memory of the red prevails. "It seems the people had a superstitious reverence attached to it, (in Scotland and Wales), in the tradition of the country; the milk of the red cow was considered a remedy for every disease, and a preservative from every evil." The breeders of the improved Devons adhere scrupulously to the deep red color of the hair, and reject individuals that have a tendency to produce white. And it seems that in this way, if no other, the color of the Devons has been established and perpetuated. The deep red color of the pure bred Devon is implanted so strongly, that there is no race in which an admixture of foreign blood is so easily traced; nor is there a race that has remained so free from foreign intermixture. Their color is generally stamped on the progeny, in a cross with any other breed. _English Improved Devons._ The improvement of these ancient races of cattle, which has resulted in the present perfected breed, was commenced about one hundred and fifty years ago. John Tanner Davy, of Rose Ash, England, the Editor of the English Devon Herd Book, inherited the herd of his father, who had carefully bred the Devons for fifty years. Mr. Francis Quartly, whose engraving adorns the first volume of Davy's Devon Herd Book, endeavored by a long course of selection, and by an intimate knowledge of the principles of breeding, to combine the various elements in the different herds, so as to attain the great object of the Devon breeder, the lessening of the parts of the animal frame least useful to man, as the bone and offal, and at the same time the increase of such other parts, as fat and flesh, that furnish food, and to do this at the earliest possible age, and with the least consumption of food. That Mr. Quartly succeeded in fully establishing these characteristics of the breed, we need no better evidence than that nine-tenths of the pedigrees of the present herds in Davy's Herd Book, go directly back to the old Quartly stock; twenty-seven out of twenty-nine of the prize bulls mentioned in that work are descendants from the bull Forester, (46): and twenty-nine out of thirty-four prize cows mentioned there, descended from the cow Curly, (92). Hundred Guinea (56), another noted ancestor of the Quartly tribe, stands in the pedigrees of this breed, as Hubback among the short horns. Among others who have done much to improve their herds, and bring the breed to its present state of perfection, may be mentioned, the Earl of Leicester, James Davy, Mr. Richard Merson, James and John Quartly who also inherited the herds of their fathers, and continued their well begun improvement. Mr. George Turner, of Barton, whose herd was made up from the other breeders, Mr. Samuel Farthing, of Somerset, Mr. John Halse, of Moland, Mr. Wm. Hole, of Somerset, Mr. T. B. Morle, of Cummington, Mr. George Shapland, of Oakford, and Mr. John Ayre Thomas, of Rose Ash, Devon, with many others have caught the spirit of improvement, and continued to progress towards perfection. _Qualities._ Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of the late Earl of Leicester's estate, at Holkam Hall, Norfolk, England, has, by careful attention, greatly improved the size and quality of the Devons, and increased their milking properties, so that he obtained a prize for having produced an average annual yield of 200 pounds of butter per cow, in a dairy of twenty cows, or equal to four pounds per week the year round; and he offered to milk forty pure Devons from his own herd against an equal number of cows in any one herd of any breed found in England, without finding a competitor. At the Smithfield show of fat cattle, held at the London market place, in 1858, the gold medal for the best ox or steer of any breed in the show yard was awarded to a Devon, bred and owned by the Earl of Leicester. They are highly esteemed in the Smithfield market, not only for the excellence of the meat, but because its size is more agreeable on most tables than the huge joints of some other breeds. In weight they are much excelled, but the opinion of the Devon breeder is, that more meat can be made from them, with a given amount of food, than from any other breed. The quality of the Devon beef is unsurpassed, even rivalling the little black West Highland ox, in the estimation of the London west-end butcher, whose fastidious customers oblige him to kill none but beef of the finest quality and flavor. In the New York market the "red oxen of Connecticut" most generally bring the highest price, they being Devon Grades. The Devons have the preference of all other breeds for the yoke, being strong, active, and of great endurance; and are remarkable for docility and good temper. The cattle in many sections of New England resemble the Devons in many respects, and the fact that most of the early settlers were from the south of England, renders it quite probable that they selected their cattle from that region. The first account that we have of the importation of cattle into New England was in the ship Charity, in the spring of 1623, in the care of Mr Winslow, then agent of the colony of Plymouth. Their descendants show by their color that they were Devons, or Devon grades. _American Improved Devons._ The first importation of improved North Devons into this country was in 1817. Mr. Coke, then Earl of Leicester, presented to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Baltimore, Md., six heifers and one bull, Taurus (320). Taurus was bred by Mr. Denny, a tenant of Mr. Coke, then Earl of Leicester, who paid fifty guineas for him. His dam, in 1820, made thirteen pounds of butter per week. Three of these heifers Mr. Patterson gave to his father-in-law, Mr. Richard Caton, the other three he gave to his father, Mr. William Patterson; they were all bred to Taurus. In 1835, Mr. George Patterson came in possession of the herd of his father, Mr. William Patterson, and, in 1836, imported the bull Anchises (140), for a cross, from one of the best dairies in Devonshire; he afterward imported Eclipse (191); in 1846, Herod (214), and in 1852, Norfolk (266). By comparing the records the fact is apparent, that the pedigree of animals dates further back in this country than in England. Thus the bull Taurus (320), was calved in 1816, and imported in 1817, when a yearling, by Mr. Robert Patterson, of Md.; Holkham (215), calved 1819; the cow Fancy (709), calved 1818, and Strawberry 1st (1062), calved 1819. While the oldest record of English pedigrees is the bull Forester (46), calved in 1827, and Hundred Guineas (56), calved in 1837; the cows Flower (187), calved in 1820, Countess (77), in 1828, Curly (92), and Pretty Maid (364), were calved in 1830. Messrs. S. & L. Hurlbut, of Winchester, Conn., commenced their herd in 1819, from a pair procured of Mr. Patterson, Holkham (115), and Fancy (709), with additions from the same source every few years. In 1850 they imported Albert (2), whose progeny has stood high in the country, and received more premiums than the progeny of any other bull lately imported. Beauty (523), bred by Mr. Hurlbut, in 1836, from Fancy (709), and Exchange (197), produced sixteen pounds of butter per week, in June, 1850. Mr. Coleman, says, in his European Agriculture, "the most productive cow in butter, which I have found, was a North Devon, which, for several weeks in succession, without extra feed, produced twenty-one pounds of butter per week. The character of the owner places the fact beyond a doubt." Mr. L. F. Allen, of Black Rock, N. Y., commenced breeding in 1835, from stock obtained from the Hon. James L. King, of New York, whose father imported them about the year 1819, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester; in 1842 he added to his herd from Mr. Patterson's stock. In 1844 the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture imported four cows and one bull, Bloomfield (372), from the Earl of Leicester. They were boarded and bred for the Society on the farm of Elias Phiney, of Lexington, till his death, the object being to present a pair to each of the County Societies in the State. In 1848, Mr. C. S. Wainwright, of Rhinebeck, N. Y., commenced importing and breeding his herd; his first importation was the bull Megunticook (251), and the cows Nonpareil (924), and Helena (774); Helena gave as high as twenty-two quarts of milk per day, and made fifteen pounds of butter per week. In 1851 he imported May Boy (71), whose granddam, Old May Flower, made over seventeen pounds of butter per week. In 1853, Mr. George Vail, of Troy, N. Y., imported one bull and two heifers from the herds of Mr. Davy and the Earl of Leicester. In 1850 and '52, Col. L. G. Morris, of New York, imported animals from the herds of the Earl of Leicester, the Messrs. Quartly and John Ayer Thomas. Abijah Catlin, of Conn., imported in 1851, Rubens (116), and two heifers. Many others have imported animals equally meritorious, among whom may be mentioned, Ambrose Stevens, of Batavia, N. Y., E. G. Faile, West Farms, N. Y., R. Linsley, West Meriden, Conn., R. W. Sanford, Orwell, Vt., E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y., and R. H. Van Rensselaer, of Morris, N. Y. Importations have occurred almost annually up to the present year. These importations, with many others not mentioned, are sufficient to form the basis of a superior race of Devons in America, not excelled by those in any other country. _Devon Herd Book._ The _First Herd Book_ of the Devons was published in 1851, by John Tanner Davy, of Rose Ash, near Southmolton, Devon, England. The pedigrees of 132 bulls and 483 cows, in all 615 animals, were recorded; all bred in England, and contributed by thirty-seven different breeders. The _second volume_, published in 1854, contained the pedigrees of 221 bulls and 657 cows, 837 animals in all; and was edited by Mr. Davy, in England, and Sanford Howard, in America, comprising animals bred and owned in both countries, sixty breeders contributing in England, and eighteen in America. The _third volume_ was published in 1859, on both sides of the Atlantic, by Messrs. Davy and Howard, independent of each other, Mr. Davy's third volume recorded 204 bulls and 609 cows, in all 810 pedigrees, from forty-one different herds in England, and eight in America. Mr. Howard's recorded 258 bulls and 399 cows, in all 657 pedigrees, from eighty-four different herds, and all from America. The whole number recorded to the end of Howard's third volume is 2150 animals, comprising 611 bulls, and 1539 cows. _American Devon Herd Book._ The present work, the first volume of the American Devon Herd Book, published in March, 1863, under the direction of the Association of Breeders of Thorough-Bred Neat Stock, was commenced about two years since. It has progressed amid many discouraging circumstances, to say nothing of the jealousy occasioned by the locality of its origin; and has gradually won upon public confidence till the present time. It has been the design of the Committee on Devon pedigrees to perfect a Devon Herd Book that would meet the wants of all American Breeders of Devon cattle. To accomplish this they have been untiring in their labors, sparing no pains to thoroughly investigate each pedigree; and have decided upon each, according to the facts received from the testimony given. While some have been rejected, others have been deferred till more light can be given to prove their purity of blood, which may be done in season for the second volume. How far the Committee have accomplished their designs the present volume will show for itself. It is a relief, however, to the Committee to know, that the errors which may occur, can be corrected in future volumes, or the present volume can be perfected and republished. It was also designed to make _this_ the first of a series of volumes, to be published once in four years, or as often as the wants of the Devon breeders demand; and that would be worthy of the title of the American Devon Herd Book, and receive the universal patronage of all the Breeders of Devon Stock in America. Considering the state of the country, and that the attention and time of the great mass of the people are engaged in the all-absorbing and dreadful reality, civil war, and that many of our breeders and importers of Devon stock are personally engaged in their country's service, and that all the Southern States of our Union have withdrawn themselves from all connection with the Northern; considering all this, the breeders of Thorough-Bred Devon Stock have contributed for the work far beyond our most sanguine hopes. _Fifteen states_ are represented in this work by _fifty-three_ different breeders, with the pedigrees of 151 bulls and 350 cows, making in all 501 animals which are recorded in this volume, and all owned in America. POINTS OF EXCELLENCE IN A =NORTH DEVON BULL.= Purity of blood indispensable; and traced back satisfactorily to importations of both sire and dam from known English breeders, or as found in the lately established Herd Book for North Devons. Points. ART. 1.--_Head_, should be rather elevated above the line of the back, short, broad and dishing between the eyes, with full, firm frontal bone over them; muzzle fine with nostrils full and open. 4 ART. 2.--_Nose_, of a light delicate orange color. 5 ART. 3.--_Eye_, should be bright, prominent and clear; but gentle in expression, as indicative of that spirited docility so necessary to cattle that must bear the yoke; a beautiful orange colored ring should invariably surround the eye. 4 ART. 4.--_Ear_, thin, rather below medium size; of a rich orange color within, with a quick ready movement expressive of attention. 2 ART. 5.--_Horns_, light, tapering and round; gaily as well as symmetrically placed on the head, with an upward form. 2 ART. 6.--_Neck_, set on fine at the head, gently rising from the shoulder; full and muscular, an indication of strength and constitution; the gullet clean and free from dewlap, full at its junction with the shoulder. 5 ART. 7.--_Chest_, deep and round, carrying its fullness well back of the elbows, thus affording abundant room for the full and free action of the heart and lungs, without extreme width forward, or protuberance of the shoulder points. 12 ART. 8.--_Brisket_, full and oval, setting the arms wide apart at their junction with the body, indicative of a good feeding quality. 4 ART. 9.--_Shoulder_, should take a somewhat sloping position, with its points less projecting, the blade blending with and forming a fine wither rising to a line with the back. 4 ART. 10.--_Crops_, full and even, forming a true line with the shoulder and level back. 3 ART. 11.--_Back_, loin, hips; broad, level and wide, the hip bones prominent but not pointed. 6 ART. 12.--_Rumps_, lying broad apart without slope or drop, full and well covered. 5 ART. 13.--_Twist_, full and broad in its seam, well down between the thighs. 3 ART. 14.--_Quarters_, long, and well filled between the hip bones and the rumps, showing a well turned finish; with a good muscular development extending to the hocks. 6 ART. 15.--_Flanks_, moderately deep, full and mellow according to condition. 3 ART. 16.--_Legs_, of moderate length standing square under the body, with sufficient angle at the gambrel joint to secure strength and activity, the toes pointing straight to the forward feet; the bone fine and flat below the hock, sinews large and clear; the forearm well developed; the bone below the knee quite small, coming nearer together as they approach the ground; hoofs, black and broad. 5 ART. 17.--_Tail_, set on round and full, on a level with the back, without loose, flabby skin underneath; tapering gradually to the end, which is invariably furnished with a tassel of white hair. 2 ART. 18.--_Carcass_ or _Barrel_, round, straight on the back and belly, its posterior ribs extending well back, and springing nearly horizontal with the back bone. Medium size being preferable for stock breeding in the Devon. 3 ART. 19.--_Color_, always red, but admits of different shades, the medium red are considered as combining the largest amount of valuable qualities. The very dark red being less thrifty, and generally hard handlers; while the very light red, with a thin papery skin are less hardy in a cold climate. 1 ART. 20.--_Hair_, should be soft, thick and fine, and not much curly. 2 ART. 21.--_Carriage_, this is an important quality in the Devon, as he is destined for the yoke, as well as for the butcher. He should shew by his sprightly active movements, and graceful gait, that he is fitted for his proper place. 4 ART. 22.--_Quality_, on the thriftiness, the feeding properties, the value of the animal depends: and upon the _touch_ or handling qualities, rests in a great measure the graziers and butchers' judgment. If the handling be good, some deficiency in minor qualities may be excused; but if it be hard and stiff, nothing can compensate for so unpromising a feature. In raising the skin from the body between the thumb and finger, it should present a soft, flexible and substantial feel, and pressed by the out spread hand it should move easily with and under it, as if resting on a soft, elastic, cellular substance, which becomes firmer as the animal ripens. 15 --- Perfection. 100 POINTS OF EXCELLENCE IN A DEVON COW. Purity of blood indispensable. Points. ART. 1.--_Head_, should be lean and bony; forehead wide and somewhat dishing between the eyes; face straight but not long. 2 ART. 2.--_Nose_, of a light orange color; a black or mottled nose should be rejected. 3 ART. 3.--_Eye_, should be bright, prominent and clear, surrounded by a bright orange colored ring. 3 ART. 4.--_Ear_, thin, rather below medium size, orange color within, with a quick movement, expressive of attention. 2 ART. 5.--_Horns_, light, tapering, of a waxy color, somewhat long and spreading gaily towards the tips. 2 ART. 6.--_Neck_, clean in the throat, fine at the junction with the head, and full at the shoulder. 2 ART. 7.--_Chest_, deep and round, carrying its fulness well back of the elbows, thus affording abundant internal room for the action of the heart and lungs. 6 ART. 8.--_Brisket_, full and round, spreading the fore legs well at the junction with the body; not projecting, but forming a regular slant, without dewlap, to the throat. 4 ART. 9.--_Shoulder_, in this breed is a beautiful and important point, and should in a degree approximate to that of the horse; with points less prominent and in a more sloping position than in most other breeds, indicative of activity and good traveling quality. 5 ART. 10.--_Crops_, full and even, forming a line with the shoulder and back, extending well down the shoulder blade so as to prevent a cavity between the shoulder and the barrel. 5 ART. 11.--_Back_, full, loin broad, with the short bones extending full to the hoop ribs; hip bones wide and on a level with the sacrum, and setting on of the tail. 8 ART. 12.--_Rumps_, broad, full, and well covered. 3 ART. 13.--_Escutcheon_, this should be broad, maintaining an even breadth from the udder to the sacrum. 8 ART. 14.--_Quarters_, long, and well filled between the hip bones and the rumps, with a good muscular development at a regular slant to the hocks. 6 A pork ham objectionable. ART. 15.--_Flanks_, moderately deep, full and mellow in proportion to condition. 4 ART. 16.--_Legs_, fore legs of medium length, spread wide at the brisket, straight, with well developed, round, muscular arm, firmly knit at the knee, fine shank bone with large sinews, drawing nearer together as they approach the feet; hind legs with a gradual taper from the patella to the gambrel joint, which should be wide, leg below, fine and flat, with large sinews, forming an angle of thirty-three degrees, and moving in a straight line with the fore legs. 5 Crooked knees or gambrels, causing an outward projection of the feet, deduct 3. ART. 17.--_Tail_, set on full and round, at a level with the back, small in the cord, and finishing with a tassel of white hair. 2 ART. 18.--_Carcass_ or _Barrel_, round and straight, its posterior ribs springing nearly horizontal from the vertebra, with less curve as they approach the posterior plates, with full and well developed anterior plates covering deep the springing rib. 4 ART. 19.--_Color_, always red, but of different shades. A medium red should be preferred; the very dark red coming slower to maturity, their beef of poorer quality, of less weight, and inferior milking qualities; the light red less hardy, but claim earlier maturity and superior beef qualities. Some white about the udder is common to all the various shades, but confined to that part alone. In all cases the color grows lighter about the muzzle, while a color, verging almost to a black and growing yet darker about the head, always was a very objectionable color for the true North Devon, and when accompanied with a dark nose should be rejected. 2 ART. 20.--_--Hair_, should be short, thick, and fine; even throughout the body, and short about the head; a long, coarse foretop, accompanied by harsh, wiry hair elsewhere, objectionable. 2 ART. 21.--_Udder_, should be wide and well spread, projecting well forward and back, wide between the teats but not hanging; with milk veins large and extending well forward. 9 ART. 22.--_Carriage_, the Devons having, from their excellence in the yoke, another destiny besides that of the butcher's block, it is important that the animal's carriage should indicate as much; to obtain this, something of the heavy, inert, squarely moulded frame of the merely beefing animal must be relinquished for a lighter and more active frame. 3 ART. 23.--_Quality_, to combine this with the other highly important and characteristic properties of the Devon, requires no small skill, observation, and care in the breeder. For without this, in the eye of the experienced grazier and butcher, the animal is considered nearly worthless. No beauty of form can compensate for a hard, stiff feature, unyielding to the touch. The skin should have, when pressed between the thumb and finger, a mellow, yet substantial feel, and when beneath the outspread hand it should move easily with it, back and forth, as though resting on a soft, elastic, cellular substance, which becomes firmer as the animal ripens, forming a beautiful marbled beef, which is highly esteemed in the London market. 10 A thin papery skin is objectionable in a cold climate. --- Perfection. 100 The foregoing Scale of Points of Devon Cattle which the Association has adopted, is mainly that published by the New York State Agricultural Society, with such alterations and additions as the Committee deemed proper. The numbers affixed to the points described form the _maximum_ that is allowed for each; and in proportion as the animal under examination is deficient in any point, so must the number be decreased, even should nothing be allowed for that point. Points which are characteristic, and therefore _common to the breed_, though very valuable in themselves, are marked comparatively low, because they are easily obtained, and demand but little attention on the part of the breeder; nevertheless an animal _not_ possessing the characteristics of _the breed_, must of necessity be almost worthless. On the other hand, points of less value, which are characteristic _deficiencies_ in the breed, or at any rate difficult to sustain at their maximum excellence, are marked numerically high, as they go _far_ to complete the natural excellence of the animal. H. M. SESSIONS, SO. WILBRAHAM, Ms., } _Committee_ B. H. ANDREWS, WATERBURY, Conn., } _on Devon_ EPHRAIM H. HYDE, STAFFORD, Conn., } _Pedigrees._ The following _Blank Table_ is for the use of _Judges_ in their examination of _Devon Cattle_, according to the _Scale of Points_ adopted by the _Cattle Breeders' Association_. _No premium_ should be awarded to an animal having less than seventy-five Numbers or approved Points. --------+----------------------------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | Name or Number of Animal. |Comet, 00 | 00 | | | | +----------------------------+ | | | | | | | Maximum | | | | | | | | Number. |Pedigrees.| --> | | | | | +------+------+ | | | | | Article.| Points. |Bulls.| Cows.| | | | | | --------+--------------+------+------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ 1 | Head, | 4 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 2 | Nose, | 5 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 3 | Eye, | 4 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 4 | Ear, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 5 | Horns, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 6 | Neck, | 5 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 7 | Chest, | 12 | 6 | 0 | | | | | 8 | Brisket, | 4 | 4 | 0 | | | | | 9 | Shoulder, | 4 | 5 | 0 | | | | | 10 | Crops, | 3 | 5 | 0 | | | | | 11 | Back, Loins, | | | | | | | | | Hips, | 6 | 8 | 0 | | | | | 12 | Rumps, | 5 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 13 | Twist, | 3 | -- | 0 | | | | | 14 | Escutcheon, | -- | 8 | 0 | | | | | 15 | Quarters, | 6 | 6 | 0 | | | | | 16 | Flanks, | 3 | 4 | 0 | | | | | 17 | Legs, | 5 | 5 | 0 | | | | | 18 | Tail, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 19 | Carcass, or | | | | | | | | | Barrel, | 3 | 4 | 0 | | | | | 20 | Color, | 1 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 21 | Hair, | 2 | 2 | 0 | | | | | 22 | Udder, | -- | 9 | 0 | | | | | 23 | Carriage, | 4 | 3 | 0 | | | | | 24 | Quality, | 15 | 10 | 0 | | | | | | PERFECTION, | 100 | 100 | 00 | | | | | --------+--------------+------+------+----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ HERD RECORD OF ASSOCIATION OF BREEDERS OF THOROUGH-BRED NEAT STOCK. =DEVONS.= EXPLANATION.--The figures in parenthesis with the letter E, thus, (00E) refer to Davy's third volume of English Devon Herd Book. The figures in parenthesis, thus, (00) refer to Davy's first and second volumes, and Howard's third volume. The figures, thus 00, refer to numbers adopted by the Association for this volume. =BULLS.= =1 Abe,= Calved September 2d, 1861; bred by H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet (162). Dam WYNONA 348 (1524) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =2 Abe Lincoln,= Calved July 9th, 1861; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. the property of A. L. BENTON, Tolland, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53. Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported from the Earl of Leicester by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =3 Baltimore,= Calved 1861; bred by JAMES R. BLACKMAN, Butternuts, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of HENRY HOTCHKISS, Smithville, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire PONTIAC (527); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam bred from stock imported by George Patterson, Maryland. =4 Baltimore,= Calved May 30th, 1859; bred by JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire YOUNG ZACH. TAYLOR, bred by W. H. Miller, Moscow, Mich., out of Young Fairy 349; 2d sire Zack. Taylor, bred by E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y.; 3d sire Dibble (176) imported. Dam YOUNG FAIRY 349 by Baltimore, (364); 2d dam Fairy, bred by J. W. Collins, Sodus, N. Y., by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Caroline (1200) by a bull bred by the Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =5 Baltimore 2d,= Calved April 24th, 1857; bred by E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y.; the property of H. W. KNOWLTON, Freeport, Ill. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam VICTORIA (1512) by Exchange (197); 2d dam Fancy 2d by Holkham (217); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 7th dam Fancy old (709) by Taurus (302); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =6 Baltimore 3d,= Calved September 16th, 1861; bred by and the property of H. W. KNOWLTON, Freeport, Ill. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364); 3d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam POLLY 293 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Rose by Rover (353); 3d dam from the Beck & Garbut stock. =7 Bangor,= Calved July 21st, 1860; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of J. B. BASSENGER, Denville, N. J. Sire ILLINOIS (456); 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam FANNY (715) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers the Earl of Leicester presented to Mr. Patterson in 1817. =8 Barton,= Calved March 12th, 1859; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. WASHINGTON, Goldsborough, N. C. Sire WATERBURY (586); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam GIPSY MAID (1303); 2d dam Pretty Maid (971) bred by George Turner, England. =9 Beck,= Calved April 13th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE 2D (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam ELLEN 2D 87 by Coke (160); 2d dam Ellen (682) by Santa Anna (306); 3d dam Crescent (601) by Holkham (217). =10 Ben Butler,= Calved July, 1861; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =11 Bishop,= Calved April 6th, 1846; bred by H. W. WASHBON, Butternuts, Otsego County, N. Y.; and owned by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER. Sire BALTIMORE 143; 2d sire imported by Mr. Geo. Patterson. Dam FROZENFOOT, a cow imported by Mr. John Cowlin, Truxton, Courtland County, N. Y. Bishop drew the first prize at the New York State Fair at Syracuse, in 1849. =12 Bobolink, (368)= Calved June 9th, 1857; bred by Dr. DANIEL F. GULLIVER, Norwich, Conn.; sold to STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; now the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire WATCH (585). Dam BESS (1181); 2d dam Emma by Young Eclipse, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 3d dam Rose by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =13 Bonaparte,= Calved June 29th, 1859; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BLOOMING DALE, bred by B. H. Andrews, Waterbury, Conn.; 2d sire Duke of York. Dam CLIO (1206) by Baltimore, (364); 2d dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =14 Boney Pate,= Calved May 1st, 1862; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385). Blooming Beauty received the first premium at the New York State Fair in 1855, in the class of Devon Cattle from the other States and Canada. =15 Bounty,= Calved December 20th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122); 3d sire Northampton (86). Dam ADALINE by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam a Coke Devon. =16 Boxer,= Calved May 24th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385); 2d dam Beauty by Young Exchange, he by Exchange (197) and out of a cow of the Patterson stock; 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =17 Brandywine,= Calved September 26th, 1860; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam LONG HORN FANCY 214 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). He was awarded the first prize at the Connecticut State Fair in 1862, as a two year old. =18 Carroll Eclipse,= Calved 18--; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Md.; the property of S. T. C. BROWN, Carroll County, Md. Sire imported NORFOLK (266); 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam a Coke Devon. =19 Charter Oak,= Calved March 25th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148; 3d sire Exeter (198). Dam MAY QUEEN (882) by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =20 Chipaway,= Calved May, 1857; bred by J. W. HAMLIN, Erie Co., N. Y.; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire CHINGAGOOK from imported Helena (774); 2d sire Uncas (324); 3d sire Megunticook (251). Dam LADY GAPPER bred by J. W. Hamlin, Willink, N. Y., from the Gapper Stock, C. W.; 2d dam Fairy, bred by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W., by Duke of Devon (405) imported by Mr. Gapper and received the first premium of the United States Agricultural Society, in 1857; 3d dam Rose, bred by Mr. Gapper, by Billy, imported; 4th dam Beauty, imported by Mr. Gapper. =21 Clement,= Calved May 11th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148. Dam MAUD 238 by Herod 2d, bred by Mr. Patterson, Md.; 2d dam Darling 77 by Roscius (267); 3d dam Beauty 7th (528) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 5th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =22 Comet,= Calved January, 1851; imported in the cow; the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported in 1850, by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam CURLY (610) by Tremayne (321); 2d dam Young Curly (99) by Young Sillifant (121); 3d dam Curly (95) by a son of Forester (46); 4th dam Tulip bred by Mr. Merson, Brinsworthy, Devonshire. =23 Comet,= Calved April 9th, 1860; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =24 Commodore,= Calved August 30th, 1862; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam WYNONA 348 (1524); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =25 Connewango,= Calved May 5th, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam LULU 222 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester; 4th dam imported by the same Society. =26 Consul,= Calved April 10th, 1861; bred by J. E. SISSON, Va.; the property of R. H. WILSON, Cambridge, Ohio. Sire STEPHEN (564); 2d sire Marion (485). Dam VIRGINIA BELLE (1518) by Marion (485); 2d dam by Herod (214); 3d dam by Eclipse (191); 4th dam, bred by George Patterson, by Anchises (140). =27 Crittenden,= Calved April 1st, 1862; bred by and property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148. Dam DARLING 77 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Beauty 7th (528) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =28 Crusader,= Calved February 21st, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire FRANK QUARTLY 39; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess, imported by the late Hon. Rufus King, Long Island, in 1819, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =29 Curly,= Calved June 15th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINA (1436) by Bonaparte (369); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (353); 3d dam a Devon cow of Mr. Garbut, Wheatland, N. Y. =30 Cute,= Calved February, 1860; bred by J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio; the property of T. G. Cox, Hopewell, Muskingan County, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUTY (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam LADY DAY 193 by Beauty (565); 2d dam Flora (285) by Rollo (546); 3d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =31 Czar,= Calved April 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =32 Dan,= Calved April 27th, 1854; bred by DAVID C. HOWE, of Brutus, Cayuga County, N. Y.; the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire YOUNG CRITERION, bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown, Ellridge, Onondaga County, N.Y., who purchased her dam of Messrs. Beck & Garbut; 2d sire Criterion, bred by Beck & Garbut; 3d sire Dibble (176). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Devon (658). =33 Duke,= Calved June 30th, 1862; bred by R. GLEASON, Benson, Vt. Sire MERIDEN 67; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam CHERRY 60 by York Boy (596); 2d dam Alma (1144) by Blucher (149); 3d dam imported Lily (263) by Baronet (6). =34 Empire 2d,= (425) Calved November 30th, 1857; bred by JOSEPH HILTON, New Scotland, Albany County, N. Y.; the property of WILLIAM HURST, Albany, N. Y. He was awarded the second prize at the New York State Fair, at Syracuse, in 1858, as a calf; and the second prize at the State Show in Albany, 1859, as a yearling. Sire EMPIRE (424); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105). Dam imported EDITH (155) bred by Earl of Leicester and imported by L. G. Morris; she was awarded the first prize at the New York State Fair, at Buffalo, in 1857, as the best imported cow; 2d dam Emily (158) by Spenser; 3d dam Ellen (157) by Quartly; 4th dam Evergreen (159) bred by Earl of Leicester. =35 Fancy's Valiant,= Calved January 7th, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire VALIANT (578); 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam FANCY (1268) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =36 Forest City,= Calved March, 1860; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAM, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam EXCELSIOR (1257) by Norfolk (266); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. =37 Franklin,= Calved May 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E); 3d sire Mayboy (71). Dam BALTIMORE 3D 71 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =38 Frank Baker,= Calved March, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN J. JOHNSON, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire FRANK MORRIS (433) winner of the 1st prize at the New York State Fair, in 1858; 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205) imported. Dam LIDA 201 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Lily, bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, Morris, N. Y., by Bright Eyes, bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore, bred by Mr. Patterson, Md., and owned H. N. Washbon, Morris, N.Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, Truxton, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Caulin, Truxton, Courtland County, N. Y.; 3d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes, imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, N. Y. =39 Frank Quartly,= Calved May 19th, 1855; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported in 1846, from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England, by Mr. George Patterson, Md. Dam, bred by George Patterson, Md., by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140) imported in 1836, from the Earl of Leicester, by Mr. G. Patterson, Springfield, Carroll County, Md.; 3d dam, bred by Mr. Patterson; 4th dam a Coke Devon, presented to Mr. Patterson by the Earl of Leicester, in 1817. =40 General,= Calved May 15th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. Buckingham, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =41 General Mansfield,= Calved March 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, in 1850. Dam LONG HORN FANCY 214 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam, presented, with Taurus, by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Robert Patterson, Md., in 1817. =42 General Scott,= Calved December 9th, 1861; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of T. S. GOLD, West Cornwall, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 114; 2d sire Stafford 115; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture; 3d dam, imported by the same Society from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, England. =43 General Taylor,= Calved April 16th, 1861; bred by ANTHONY BIDERMANN & WILLIAM WILLMOT, Wilmington, Del.; the property of F. P. HOLCOMB & BRYAN JACKSON, now the property of B. L. HOLCOMB, New Castle, Del. Sire WILLIAM TELL (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LUCERNE (1388) by Godwin (207); 2d dam Edith (679). =44 George Turner,= Calved June 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (689); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam GIPSY MAID 2D (1302) by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Gipsy Maid (1303); 3d dam Pretty Maid by Baron, both imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn., from the herd of George Turner, England. =45 Glausus,= Calved ---- 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam LAVINIA (1370) by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by Mr. Patterson, Md., from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester, England. =46 Hector,= Calved January 8th, 1859; bred by S. Y. C. BROWN, Carroll County, Md., brother-in-law to Mr. George Patterson; the property of ANTHONY BIDERMANN, Wilmington, Del. Sire CARROLL ECLIPSE 18; 2d sire imported Norfolk (266). Dam DEAR by imported Herod (214); 2d dam by imported Anchises (140); 3d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =47 Hiawatha,= Calved February 1st, 1856; bred by and the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut; 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam NELLY BLY (1423) by Megunticook (251) imported by C. S. Wainright, Reinbeck, N. Y.; 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty, (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam, one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester, in 1817, with the bull Taurus (320) to Mr. Patterson, Md. =48 Independence,= Calved July 16th, 1860; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING. Sire MAYBOY 62 (489); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam SONTAG 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =49 Jerry,= Calved March 29th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam BESSY (1182) by Robin (542); 2d dam Rose (1468) by Remus, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 3d dam Emma by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Rosa by Exchange (197); 5th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197). =50 John,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam JANE 162 (788) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =51 Kennebeck,= Calved June 5th, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E). Dam HELENA 4TH 147 by Omar Pasha (513) (473E) imported; 2d dam Helena 3d 143 (776) by Mayboy (71) imported; 3d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251) imported; 4th dam Helena (774) imported. =52 Kentucky,= Calved May 11th, 1859; bred by C. S. WAINWRIGHT, Rhinebeck, N. Y.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire HORICAN (452) (439E); 2d sire Mayboy (71). Dam KATE KEARNEY (811) imported by Mr. Wainwright, by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Round Head by Prince Albert (102); 3d dam Beauty by Nelson (81). =53 Kossuth,= Calved April 25th, 1853; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of D. B. MERRICK & CO., Wilbraham, Mass. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FANCY 105 (1271) bred by Bela Tiffany, Southbridge, Mass., from a pair purchased of S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =54 Kossuth 2d,= Calved April 17th, 1862; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE & Rev. J. W. EATON, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =55 Kossuth,= Calved April 28th, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of R. O. STONE, Esq., Webster, Mass. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844; 3d dam imported by the same Society. =56 Lavega,= Calved July 12th, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HENRY A. DYER, Brooklyn, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65 from Minnehaha 243 (1409); 2d sire Hiawatha 47 from Nelly Bly 265 (1423); 3d sire Comet 22 (162) from Curl (610) imported by A. Stevens. Dam VENUS 341 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192 by Earl of Leicester, bred by Harvey Dodge, Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372). =57 Lion,= Calved June 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam PHLOX 288 by Springfield, bred by George Patterson, Md.; 2d dam Edith, bred by G. Patterson; 3d dam was presented, when in calf, to Mr. Edward Kimley, by George Patterson, Md. =58 Logan,= Calved May 23d, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (502). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam (658). =59 Major,= Calved October 25th, 1860; bred by H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass.; the property of ALBERT K. HOMER, Monson, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet (162). Dam WYNONA 348 (1524) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =60 Mars,= Calved April 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam TOPSY 334 by Comet, bred by Daniel C. Howe, Brutus, N. Y., from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Flora, bred by Mason & Brown, Ellridge, N.Y., from stock purchased of Beck & Garbut; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =61 Matchless,= Calved November 28th, 1860; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BARTON 8; 2d sire Waterbury (586); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam SMITH 3D (1048) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320.) =62 Mayboy,= (489) Calved May 10th, 1855; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; and purchased, when a calf, by B. V. FRENCH, Braintree, Mass.; now the property of CHARLES W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire REUBENS (116); 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2) imported by the Messrs. Hurlbut, in 1850; 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported in 1817, by Robert Patterson, Md. =63 Mayboy,= Calved May 22d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam POCAHONTAS 2D 292 by Somerville (563); 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =64 McClellan,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of S. &. L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam JANE 162 (788) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =65 Megunticook,= Calved June, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEHAHA 243 (1409) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4); 3d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Mr. Merson; 4th dam bred by Mr. Dee by Forester (46). =66 Meriden,= Calved April 16th, 1859; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire HIAWATHA 47, bred by R. Linsley, from Nelly Bly 265 (1423); 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam imported Fairy (696) by Baron (4); 3d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Mr. Merson; 4th dam bred by Mr. Dee by Forester (46). He gained the first prize at the Hampden County Fair, in 1861. =67 Meriden,= Calved March, 1859; bred by LINSLEY BROTHERS, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of ROLLIN GLEASON and W. R. SANFORD, Vermont. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 97 (696) by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Richard Merson, Eng. =68 Messenger,= Calved August 16th, 1857; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, of Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of A. W. NORTH, East Maine, Broome County, N. Y. Sire PONTIAC (527) (483E); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam LADY BIRD (820) by Venture; 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). Messenger gained the first prize at the Cortland County Fair, in 1860. =69 Monitor,= Calved March 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire MAYBOY (71) imported; 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam BELLE OF WINCHESTER (1180) by Albert (2) imported; 2d dam Lora by Albert (2); 3d dam Strawberry (1061) by Bloomfield (148). =70 Monitor,= Calved April 18th, 1861; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385). =71 Montezuma,= Calved March 10th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire JUPITER (463); 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam MAYFLOWER (1399) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes whose sire and dam were imported; 3d dam imported by Francis Rotch, N. Y. =72 Musician,= Calved December 19th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam TRACY 337 by imported Herod (214); 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, by Eclipse (191); 3d dam a Coke Devon, imported. =73 Muskingam,= Calved February 22d, 1858; bred by J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio; the property of E. & A. B. BATTELLE, of Newport, Ohio. Sire KIRK AYRS, full brother to the bull Beauty (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam RENA (1461) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =74 Ned,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam FANCY 5TH 108 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Fancy 4th (713) by Albert(2); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =75 Nelson,= Calved April, 1857; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam STRAWBERRY (1061) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry (1062) by Taurus (320). Nelson received the first premium as a two year old at the Connecticut State Fair; also, the first premium at the Connecticut State Fair, in 1862. =76 Nelson,= Calved June 24th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN 50; 2d sire Young Exeter 148. Dam STRAWBERRY 327 (1061) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 3d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =77 Neptune,= Calved April 10th, 1860; bred by GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y.; the property of W. F. PECK, Kingston, Pa. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Devon (658). =78 Nero,= Calved April, 1855; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLAIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam MARY bred by John Boyd, of Winchester, Conn., by Henry, a bull bred by the Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Clara by George, both bred by J. P. E. Stanley, of Baltimore, Md.; 3d dam Finella, bred by Mr. Stanley. =79 Nero,= Calved July, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65, from Minnehaha (1409); 2d sire Hiawatha 47, from Nelly Bly (1423). Dam NELLIE 260 by Stafford 2d 115; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192 by Earl of Leicester; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372). =80 New Year's Day,= Calved January 1st, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire FRANK QUARTLY 39; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess, imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, in 1819. =81 Norfolk,= Calved July 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam FLORA 125 by imported Norfolk (266); 2d dam by imported Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam a Coke Devon, imported. =82 Oneida,= Calved December 19th, 1862; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire OXFORD 85; 2d sire Jack Downing (459); 3d sire Dibble (176). Dam RED LADY (1460) by Coke (160); 2d dam Julia (1346) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Ticket (1079) by Red Jacket (289); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =83 Orphan Boy,= Calved April 2d, 1854; bred by WILLIAM SCOVILLE, Watertown, Conn.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire REUBENS (116) imported in 1852 for Abijah Catlin and C. N. Case, Harwinton, Conn.; 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam FANCY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =84 Owasco,= Calved November 25th, 1860; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert(2). Dam MYRTLE 256 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Dodge 192; 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the Earl of Leicester. =85 Oxford,= Calved June 25th, 1859; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire JACK DOWNING (452); 2d sire Dibble (176). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =86 Penobscot,= Calved May 8th, 1861; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E); 3d sire Mayboy (71) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam HELENA 3D 146 (767), by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251) imported by C. S. Wainwright; 3d dam Helena (774) imported by Mr. Wainwright from the herd of George Turner, England. =87 Priam,= Calved in 1853; sired in England and calved in America; the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire SULTAN (122); 2d sire Northampton (86); 3d sire Prince Albert (102); 4th sire Hundred Guinea (56); 5th sire Sillifant (120); 6th sire bred by Mr. Quartly. Dam bred by Mr. Bloomfield, of Norfolk, England, and imported in 1852 by Mr. George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md. Priam drew the first premium at the first United States Cattle Fair, at Springfield, Ohio, in 1854, of $50; also, the second premium of $25, at the fifth United States Exhibition, at Louisville, Ky.; and the first premium at the Missouri and Indiana Fairs, in 1857, of $25 and $30. =88 Prince Albert,= Calved April 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MARY HURLBUT 235 (1394) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =89 Prince Albert,= Calved April 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of SAMUEL, TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire GOVERNOR, bred by C. M. Crippen, Coldwater, Mich., from stock bred by E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y.; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405) imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West. Dam IDA 1ST (1325) by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176) imported; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176). =90 Prince John,= Bred by and the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert(2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam MAJESTIC 224 (1471E) by a full brother of Abd-el-Kader (134); Majestic was imported by Mr. Linsley, and bred by George Turner, of Barton, England; 2d dam Wallflower (472) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56). =91 Prince John 3d,= Calved September 5th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire PRINCE JOHN 90; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam FAIRY 3D 98 (1266) by Hiawatha 47; 2d dam Fairy 2d (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 3d dam Fairy (696) imported, by Baron (4). =92 Prince of Wales,= Calved September 29th, 1860; bred by JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ill.; the property of THOMAS BIDWELL, of Wentworth, Lake County, Ill. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71); 3d sire Duke of York (37). Dam PRINCESS 2D (986) by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Princess (380) by Duke (30); 3d dam Princess (379) by Hundred Guinea (56). =93 Prince of Wales,= Calved April 15th, 1861; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam QUEEN VICTORIA 299 by imported Norfolk (266); 2d dam by imported Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by G. Patterson, Maryland. =94 Prince of Wales,= Calved April 1st, 1862; bred by and the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire GOVERNOR bred by C. M. Crippen, Coldwater, Mich., from stock bred by E. P. Beck, Sheldon, N. Y.; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405) imported by P. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W. Dam VICTORIA 3D 344 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176) imported; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176). =95 Printer,= Calved April 25th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 325 by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland; 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported from the Earl of Leicester, England, by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =96 Putnam,= Calved April 12th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert(2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam NELLY BLY 265 (1423) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =97 Rebellion,= Calved June, 1861; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire BEAUTY (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam YOUNG DEVON by Dibble (176); 2d dam Devon (658) by Holkham (450) imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, in 1819. =98 Red Jacket,= Calved April 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122); 3d sire Northampton (86). Dam bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from the Earl of Leicester, England. =99 Red Jacket,= Calved September 1st, 1861; bred by W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo.; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire RED PATH 101; 2d sire Megunticook (251) imported. Dam VICTORIA (1514) by Candy (153); 2d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217); 3d dam Devon (658). =100 Red Jacket,= Calved February 20th, 1862; bred by and the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported; 3d sire Duke of Cornwall (33); 4th sire Portman bred by Mr. Quartly. Dam BEAUTY 32 (1167) by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from Mr. Bloomfield, England. =101 Red Path,= Calved January 22d, 1860; bred by C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251) imported; 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam VICTORIA (1514) by Candy (153); 2d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217); 3d dam Devon (658). =102 Rob Roy,= Calved December 3d, 1855; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Esq., Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Rob Roy took the first premium at Framingham, Mass., in September, 1858, as the best Devon bull. =103 Roderick Dhu,= Calved March 6th, 1860; bred by ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine; the property of A. P. DILLINGHAM, Esq., Sidney, Maine. Sire ROB ROY 102; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield, (148). Dam JESSIE 172 by Alexander, owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 2d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =104 Roscius,= Calved September 20th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the Earl of Leicester. =105 Reubens 2d,= (552) Calved May 1st, 1854; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS (116) imported for C. N. Case and Abijah Catlin, of Harwinton, Conn.; 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2) imported; 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported; 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Robert Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. He gained the first prize in his class, in 1855 and 1857, at the Hampden County Fair; also, the first prize at the Massachusetts State Fair, at Boston, in 1857. =106 Reuben,= Calved March, 1857; bred by ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn.; the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam PEDLEY 283 (334) bred by George Turner, England, and imported by Mr. Catlin. =107 St. Jo,= Calved April 13th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE 2D (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CHERRY 2D 61 by Coke (160); 2d dam Cherry (578) by Dibble (176) imported; 3d dam Victoria (1107) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Devon (658). =108 Sam,= Calved March, 1855; bred by and the property of ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire REUBENS (116) imported in 1851 by D. W. Catlin, New York City; 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam PEDLEY 283 (334) by Baronet (6); Pedley was imported from the herd of George Turner, Barton, England; 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 3d dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =109 Sam 2d,= Calved June, 1859; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam HATTIE 143 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Jane 162 (788) by Albert (2); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =110 Shakspeare,= Calved March, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire SHAKSPEARE from Victoria 342; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland: 3d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam LILY (1373) by Prince Albert (278); 2d dam Beauty (504). =111 Sigel,= Calved October 1st, 1862; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of AMBROSE N. MERRICK, Springfield, Mass. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65 from Minnehaha 243 (1409); 2d sire Hiawatha 47 from Nelly Bly 265 (1423). Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =112 Sir Charles,= Calved September 19th, ----; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, of Chicago, Ills. Sire SUMTER 118; 2d sire Chibiabus (387) (384E); 3d sire Mayboy (71) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam LADY GAY (1357) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Ladybird (820E) by Venture; 4th dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =113 Somerset,= Calved August 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E). Dam HELENA 3D 146 (776E) by Mayboy (71) imported; 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Helena (774) imported by C. S. Wainwright from the herd of George Turner, England. =114 Stafford,= Calved June 14th, 1855; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of E. S. PENNIMAN, North Woodstock, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =115 Stafford 2d,= Calved September, 1857; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of F. W. COWLES, Manchester, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 114; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =116 Sultan,= Calved May 6th, 1860; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of O. T. NILES, Mishawaka, Ind. Sire SULTAN (565); 2d sire Major (476). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =117 Summit Prince,= Calved July 26th, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71); 3d sire Duke of York (37); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105); 5th sire Prince Albert (102); 6th sire Hundred Guinea (56); 7th sire Sillifant (120). Dam PRINCESS 2D (986) by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Princess (380) by Duke (30); 3d dam Princess (379) by Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam Princess by Forester (46); 5th dam Dairymaid bred by Mr. Quartly. =118 Sumter,= Calved July 2d, 1859; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam PRINCESS 2D (986) by Earl of Exeter (38); 2d dam Princess (380) imported, by Duke (30); 3d dam Princess (379) by Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam Princess by Forester (46); 5th dam Dairymaid bred by Mr. Quartly. =119 Sumter,= Calved October 27th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam OCTAVIA 275 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140); 3d dam bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester, Norfolk, England. =120 Taurus,= Calved September 14th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N.Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LADY OF THE LAKE (1362) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Ladybird (820E); 4th dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =121 Thunderer,= Calved October 3d, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TURK 131; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 4th sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LALLA ROOKH 197 by Pontiac (527) (483E); 2d dam Ladybird (820E); 3d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =122 Tiger,= Calved June 10th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589). Dam CHLOE 62 by Young Exeter 146; 2d dam Smith 3d (1048) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =123 Tiger,= Calved August 30th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of Mr. MARK GILL, Pittsfield, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire imported Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANNY (1274) by imported Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by imported Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) by Eclipse (191). =124 Tinsel,= Calved April 28th, 1860; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LUCY 219 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b). =125 Tippo,= Calved September 4th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567)(535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LADY OF THE LAKE (1362) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b) imported. =126 Tom Thumb,= Calved 1860; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567)(535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =127 Tornado,= Calved April 28th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LALLA ROOKH 197 by Pontiac (527); 2d dam Ladybird (820b) imported. =128 Trinket,= Calved May 30th, 1861; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =129 Triumph,= Calved March 12th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122); 3d sire Northampton (86). Dam PINK 289 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Mr. George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, in 1817. =130 Trump,= Calved May 31st, 1859; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; the property of G. J. HATHAWAY, Maine, Broome County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire imported Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b) by Venture by Sillifant (120); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =131 Turk,= Calved April 24th, 1860; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567)(535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANNY 112 (1274) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) by Eclipse (191). =132 Turk,= Calved December 24th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam CAMILLA (562) by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson; 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. Camilla is now the property of Mr. Wentworth. =133 Turk,= Calved June 29th, 1853; bred by WILLIAM BUCKMINSTER, Framingham, Mass.; the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam JESSICA, bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, sold to William Stickney, of Vermont, and bought at the Stickney auction, Westminster, Vt., by William Buckminster, of Framingham, Mass. =134 Tuscarora,= Calved April 1st, 1857; bred by and the property of EDWARD G. FAILE, West Farms, Westchester County, N. Y. Sire TECUMSEH (567) (535E); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam imported BOWLEY (42) by Duke of Cornwall (33); 2d dam Cadbury (56) by Quartly's Prince of Wales (105). =135 Uncas,= Calved June 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam AUNT CHLOE 9 by Dan 32; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =136 Veruna,= Calved March 21st, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire FANCY'S VALIANT 35; 2d sire Valiant (578); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MAYFLOWER (1399) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes imported from the herd of the Duke of Norfolk, England. =137 Victor,= Calved July 22d, 1861; bred by R. GLEASON, Benson, Vt.; the property of N. A. SAXTON, Waltham, Vt. Sire MERIDEN 67; 2d sire Comet (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam CHERRY 60 by York Boy (596); 2d dam Alma (1144) by Blucher (149); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). Lily was imported by W. R. Sanford, of Orwell, Vt., from the herd of G. Turner, England. =138 Victor,= Calved May 24th, 1862; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of DAVID O. WOODRUFF, Niles, Mich. Sire MAJOR (476); 2d sire Coke (160); 3d sire Major (237). Dam DAIRY MAID (1226) by Splendid (314); 2d dam Crescent (1212) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Betty (1183) by Dibble (176). =139 Waldo,= Calved April 4th, 1861; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horican (452) (439E). Dam REBE 300 by Comet owned by H. G. White, South Framingham, Mass.; 2d dam Jessie 172 by Alexander owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 3d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =140 Watch 2d,= Calved April 6th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire WATCH (585). Dam FANCY owned by John Tuttle, of Torringford, Conn., bred by William L. Cowles, of Farmington, Conn., by Young Holkham, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, from Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Nellie by Young Eclipse, bred by George Patterson, Maryland, from Eclipse (191); 3d dam Nell by Red Rover (352); 4th dam Ellen, R. L. Colt's prize Devon cow; 5th dam Miss Brooks, George Law's full-blood Devon cow, of Baltimore, Md. =141 Weehawken,= Calved April 5th, 1862; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam VICTORIA 1ST by Young Eclipse bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, and owned by William L. Cowles, Farmington, Conn.; 2d dam Victoria bred by Mr. Patterson, by Eclipse (191); 3d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from Mr. Bloomfield's herd, Norfolk, England. =142 William Tell,= (588) Calved October 18th, 1854; bred by L. G. MORRIS, New York; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire FRANK QUARTLY (205); 2d sire Earl of Exeter (38); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam VIRTUE (469) imported; 2d dam Venus (459) by Derby (23). =143 Wolverine,= Calved December 27th, 1861; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of L. W. ARCHER, Roylton, Berrien County, Mich. Sire SULTAN (565); 2d sire Major (476); 3d sire Coke (160). Dam ROSE (1473) by Jack Downing (459); 2d dam Rosewood (1482) by Dibble (176). =144 Wyoming,= Calved February 26th, 1862; bred by M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich.; the property of SAMUEL WITTER, South Bend, Ind. Sire MAJOR (476); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =145 Yorktown,= Calved February 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam GRACE 140 by Eclipse 2d, he by Bloomfield (373) and out of Josephine (1345); 2d dam Adeline 2 by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214). =146 Young Albert,= Calved March 1st, 1861; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire TOM bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d sire Young Tecumseh 151. Dam KATE 184 by John 50 bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =147 Young Comet,= Calved March 17th, 1863; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam NELLY BLY 265 (1423) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =148 Young Exeter,= Calved 1857; bred by E. G. FAILE, West Farms, N. Y.; the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire EXETER (198); 2d sire General (50). Dam PATTERSON COW bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, and owned by E. G. Faile, of West Farms, N. Y. =149 Young Herod,= Calved June 1st, 1861; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire TOM bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Young Tecumseh 151. Dam BEAUTY 30 by Herod 2d bred by George Patterson, Maryland; 2d dam Kate 184 by John 50 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 3d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 5th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =150 Young Roscius,= Calved 1861; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire TOM bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d sire Young Tecumseh 151. Dam HATTY 142 by Nelson 75; 2d dam Kate 184 by John 50; 3d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 5th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =151 Young Tecumseh,= Calved 1858; bred by E. G. FAILE, West Farms, N. Y.; the property of S. &. L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire TECUMSEH (567); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam CLEOPATRA (582) imported by Mr. Faile, by Louis Napoleon (231); 2d dam Hawthorn (218) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam old Mayflower who won three prizes. =152 Ypsilanti,= Calved February 18th, 1863; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65; 2d sire Hiawatha 47. Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the Earl of Leicester, England. COWS. =1 Active,= Calved March 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire RED JACKET 98; 2d sire Priam 87; 3d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 311 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md., from the herd of Mr. Coke, England, then the Earl of Leicester. =2 Adeline,= Calved April 1st, 1852; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire imported ECLIPSE (191). Dam ELLA (1246) by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson from stock of the Earl of Leicester, England. =3 Adelaide,= Calved March 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire ORPHAN BOY 83; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam ROSE 314 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Fancy bred by Mr. Washbon, of Otsego, N. Y., from imported stock. Adelaide gained the first prize at the Connecticut State Fair, in 1862. =4 Agnes,= Calved March 2d, 1861; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire WATCH 2D 140; 2d sire Watch (585). Dam VICTORIA 2D 343 by Albert 2d bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Victoria bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, by Eclipse (191); 3d dam a cow imported by Mr. Patterson from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England. =5 Alice,= Calved April 15th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 2D 74 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported in 1819 by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of Mr. Coke, then the Earl of Leicester. =6 Annie,= Calved March 31st, 1862; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire INDEPENDENCE 48; 2d sire Mayboy 62 (489); 3d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam MINNIE 250 by Mayboy 62 (489); 2d dam Sontag 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 3d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =7 Antic,= Calved April 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 325 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =8 Arabella,= Calved March 25th, 1859; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =9 Aunt Chloe,= Calved June 5th, 1858; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire DAN 32. Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Devon (658). =10 Aurora,= Calved March 22d, 1860; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =11 Baltimore 3d,= Calved May, 1848; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn., who sold her when a heifer to G. G. Hubbard, West Needham, Mass.; she was afterwards sold to James Brown, Watertown, Mass., and again to Dr. Joseph Burnett, Southboro', Mass., who sold her to her present owner, ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. She took the first prize as the best Devon cow at the Middlesex County Fair, held at Framingham, Mass., in 1855. =12 Baltimore 4th,= Calved April 14th, 1860; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire ROB ROY 102; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =13 Baltimore 8th,= Calved March 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BALTIMORE 6TH (1063) by Valiant (578); 2d dam Baltimore (1160) by Eclipse (191); 3d dam one of Mr. Patterson's imported cows. =14 Baltimore 9th,= Calved December 3d, 1861; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BALTIMORE 5TH (1162) by Valiant (578); 2d dam Baltimore (1160) by Eclipse (191); 3d dam one of Mr. Patterson's imported cows. =15 Beck 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BECK by Roscius (267); 2d dam Pink 291 (957) by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =16 Beauty,= Calved April, 1855; bred by JOHN ALLEN; the property of A. B. ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West, and received the first premium of the United States Agricultural Society in 1857. Dam SOPHIA 323 by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Camilla Scott by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1513). =17 Beauty,= Calved March, 1861; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam KATE 180; 2d dam Rowena bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from the Stanley stock of Baltimore, by Henry, a thorough-bred bull bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =18 Beauty,= Calved September, 1857; bred by WILLIAM L. COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire GLADIATOR (438); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205) imported. Dam CHERRY by Remus, a bull bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Janet by Waverly, bred by Mr. Patterson of Maryland, he by Anchises (140); 3d dam Effie imported by George Patterson, of Maryland. =19 Beauty 2d,= Calved February 28th, 1863; bred by and the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162). Dam BEAUTY 18 by Gladiator (438). =20 Beauty 2nd,= Calved May 19th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Albert(2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut; 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY (1171) by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Fanny (715) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143). =21 Beauty A,= Calved September 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385); 2d dam Beauty by Young Exchange, he by Exchange (197) and out of a cow of Mr. Patterson's stock; 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =22 Beauty B,= Calved June 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of ELAM C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1190) by Champion (385). =23 Beauty C,= Calved May 25th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Her pedigree the same as Beauty A 21. =24 Beauty 5th,= Calved June 10th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam BEAUTY A 21 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Blooming Beauty (1190) by Champion (385). =25 Beauty,= Calved March 2d, 1853; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the Earl of Leicester, England. =26 Beauty 2d,= Calved April, 1856; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =27 Beauty 3d,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116); 3d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =28 Beauty 4th,= Calved April 20th, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. Hyde, Stafford, Conn.; now the property of AMASA MORSE, Union, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BEAUTY 6TH (527) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =29 Beauty 6th,= Calved July, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire PRINCE JOHN 90; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BEAUTY 3D by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =30 Beauty,= Calved 1858; bred by L. A. THRALL, Torrington, Conn.; the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire HEROD 2D bred by George Patterson, Maryland; 2d sire Herod (214). Dam KATE 184 by John bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =31 Beauty 2d,= Calved May 5th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NERO from Belle 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. Dam BEAUTY 30 by Herod 2d, bred by George Patterson, of Maryland; 2d dam Kate 184 by John 50. (See Beauty 30.) =32 Beauty,= (1167) Calved May 27th, 1853; bred by MILO J. SMITH & SON, Northampton, Mass.; the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire EARL OF LEICESTER bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from Mr. Bloomfield, England; 2d sire Bloomfield (372). Dam BEAUTY bred by Mr. Dodge from stock imported as above. =33 Beauty 1st,= Calved September 21st, 1858; bred by and the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire DON MIGUEL (396); 2d sire Otsego _alias_ Major bred by H. N. Washbon, Otsego County, N. Y. Dam BEAUTY 32 (1167) by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society, in 1844, from Mr. Bloomfield, England. =34 Beauty 2d,= Calved May, 1856; bred by J. N. BLAKESLEE, Watertown, Conn.; the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire HEROD 2D bred by George Patterson, of Maryland, and sold to Mr. Blakeslee; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam NANCY DAWSON (1419) bred by D. H. Curtis, Woodbury, Conn., by Otsego _alias_ Major bred by H. N. Washbon, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y.; Major by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Beauty bred by E. M. White from stock bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =35 Beauty 3d,= Calved February, 1862; bred by and the property of D. B. MERRICK, Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam BEAUTY 1ST 33 by Don Miguel (396); 2d dam Beauty 32 (1167) by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, of Sutton, Mass., from stock imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, England. =36 Beauty 8th,= Calved 1852; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut in 1850; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY 4TH (525) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =37 Beaver,= Calved 1861; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BEAUTY (1174) by Somerville (563); 2d dam Beauty by Valiant (578); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =38 Belle,= Calved September 4th, 1853; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire CHAMPION (385); 2d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BELINDA bred by Gad Lewis, Bristol, Conn., from Hurlbut's stock, sold to William Scoville, Watertown, sold by Scoville to C. B. Smith; Belinda by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =39 Belle,= Calved July 15th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =40 Bessie,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam PINK 291 (957) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =41 Bessy,= (1182) Calved April 11th, 1856; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire ROBIN (542); 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam ROSE 302 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Emma, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Rosa by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =42 Bessy,= Calved April 22d, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire DICK bred by William Garbut, Wheatland, N. Y.; 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CRESCENT (1237E) by Major (240); 2d dam Young Crescent (603) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Crescent (602) by Sir Walter (311). =43 Betsy,= Calved June 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINE (1436) by Bonaparte (369); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (353); 3d dam from the Garbut stock. =44 Blanch,= Calved February 26th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam GEM 133 by Eclipse 2d, he by Bloomfield (373), and out of Josephine (1345); 2d dam Margaret by Bloomfield (373); 3d dam Lavinia (1370) by Herod (214). =45 Bloom,= Calved April 16th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam JANE (1330) by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by George Patterson, of Maryland. =46 Blossom,= Calved November 14th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam JENNY LIND (1338) by Major (237); 2d dam Beauty (1169) by Bloomfield (148). Jenny Lind received the second premium at the New York State Fair, in 1859. =47 Blossom,= Calved May 1st, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 3D 75 by Herod (214); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King of Long Island, N.Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, then a Mr. Coke. =48 Blossom,= Calved April 16th, 1860; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire NERO out of Belle 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. Dam HETTY 2D 139; 2d dam Hetty (1321) by Albert 2d bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 3d dam Rose 316 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th dam Emma by Bloomfield (148); 5th dam Rose by Exchange (197); 6th dam Fancy (710). =49 Breda,= Calved September 16th, 1861; bred by W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo.; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire RED PATH 101; 2d sire Megunticook (251) imported. Dam LILY 207 by Herod (214); 2d dam Duchess by Anchises (140); 3d dam bred by George Patterson, of Maryland. =50 Brenda,= Calved April 5th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam CORINNE 66 by Eclipse 2d, he by Bloomfield (373) and out of Josephine (1345); 2d dam Lavinia (1370) by Herod (214). =51 Bridget,= Calved May 22d, 1859; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire CHARTER OAK (384); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GIPSY (1301) by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Gipsy Maid (1303) by Baron, imported by Mr. Allen, of Saybrook, Conn.; 3d dam Pretty Maid (971) imported by Mr. Allen, by Earl of Exeter (38). =52 Broad Horned Beauty 2d,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam (1193) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =53 Broad Horned Beauty 3d,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY 36; 2d sire Forest City (429); 3d sire Norfolk (266). Dam BROAD HORNED BEAUTY (1193) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =54 Buttercup,= Calved May 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam SPRIGHTLY 325 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by George Patterson, of Springfield, Carroll County, Md., from the herd of Mr. Coke, England, then Earl of Leicester. =55 Capitola,= Calved June 21st, 1859; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BLOSSOM (1191) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =56 Cassy,= Calved June 13th, 1858; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire DAN 32. Dam PATSY 278; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Devon (658). =57 Chance,= Calved in 1856; bred by R. LINSLEY; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4). =58 Chance 2d,= Calved June, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam CHANCE 57 by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 2d (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 3d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4). =59 Cherry,= Calved June 10th, 1858; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EXTRA 93 by Bishop 11; 2d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Maryland. =60 Cherry,= Calved May, 1859; bred by ROLLIN GLEASON, Benson, Vt. Sire YORK BOY (596); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam ALMA (1144) by Blucher (149); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). Lily (263) was imported by W. R. Sanford, Orwell, Vt., from the herd of George Turner, England. =61 Cherry 2d,= Calved May, 1855; bred by E. P. BECK, Sheldon, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE (160); 2d sire Major (237). Dam CHERRY (578) by Dibble (176); 2d dam Victoria Young (1107) by Dibble (176) imported. =62 Chloe,= Calved March 22d, 1859; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam SMITH 3D (1048) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =63 Clara,= Calved June 23d, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam RUBY 318 by Somerville (563); 2d dam Patsy 278; 3d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 4th dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =64 Cleopatra,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess 83; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam BEAUTY 16 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =65 Clio,= Calved May 4th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam CLIO (1206) by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =66 Corinne,= Calved May 14th, 1857; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire ECLIPSE 2D from Josephine (1345); 2d sire Bloomfield (373); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam LAVINIA (1370) by Herod (214) imported in 1846 by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =67 Cowslip,= Calved April 10th, 1862; bred by and the property of ANTHONY BIDERMAN and WILLIAM WILLMOT, near Wilmington, Del. Sire HECTOR 46; 2d sire Carroll Eclipse 18. Dam MEADOW SWEET (1402) by William Tell (587); 2d dam Kalmia (808). =68 Curly,= Calved April 15th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire FRANK MORRIS (433); 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EDITH 84 by Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 2d dam Premium, bred by Messrs. Bakers, by Baltimore (364); 3d dam Extra 92 by Bishop 11. =69 Curly,= Calved June 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam TRACY 337 by Herod (214) imported; 2d dam by imported Eclipse (191); 3d dam imported from the Earl of Leicester, England. =70 Curl 3d,= Calved September 5th, 1853; bred by DAYTON MATTOON, Watertown, Conn.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire CHAMPION (385); 2d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam CURL 2D, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Curl 1st bred by the Hurlbuts. =71 Dairy Maid,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire YOUNG DUKE from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam DUCHESS 83 by Young Duke as above; 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =72 Daisy,= Calved September 14th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam BEAUTY (1169) by Bloomfield (148); Beauty received the first premium at the New York State Fair in 1848; 2d dam Massachusetts bred by Messrs. Hurlbuts, Winchester, Conn. =73 Daisy,= Calved April 15th, 1844; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire ANCHISES (140) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1836. Dam DUCHESS imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the Earl of Leicester, England. =74 Daisy 2d,= Calved May 13th, 1854; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102); 3d sire Hundred Guinea (56). Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =75 Daisy 3d,= Calved April 28th, 1855; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported. Dam DAISY 73 by Anchises (140); 2d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, of Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =76 Daisy,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire Roscius (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam SPOT 324 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =77 Darling,= Calved 1855; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire Roscius (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 7TH (528) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =78 Dolly Dutton,= Calved September 6th, 1860; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of J. B. BASSENGER, Denville, N.J. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2) imported in 1850 by S. & L. Hurlbut, of Winchester, Conn. Dam MINERVA 2D (1408) by Champion (385); 2d dam Minerva (1407) by Albert (2); 3d dam Fancy 2d 105 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, in 1817. =79 Dot,= Calved March 27th, 1859; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire WATCH (585). Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385). =80 Dot 2d,= Calved June 17th, 1860; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385). =81 Dover,= Calved March, 1855; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire WINCHESTER (590); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam LONG HORNS by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =82 Dover 2d,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY 2D 36; 2d sire Forest City (429). Dam DOVER 81 by Winchester (590); 2d dam Long Horns by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =83 Duchess,= Calved March 15th, 1854; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire YOUNG DUKE, bred by F. V. Smith, owned by E. M. Crippen, Coldwater, Mich., from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam SOPHIA 323 by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Camilla Scott by Dibble (166); 3d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176). =84 Edith,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PREMIUM, bred by Messrs. Baker, by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Extra 93 by Bishop 11; 3d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, of Maryland. =85 Effie,= Calved February 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam CASSY 56 by Dan 32; 2d dam Patsy 278; 3d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 4th dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =86 Ella,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam FANCY 4TH (713) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =87 Ellen 2d,= Calved April 1856; bred by E. P. BECK, Sheldon, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (160); 2d sire Major (237). Dam ELLEN (682) by Santa Anna (306); 2d dam Crescent (601) by Holkham (217). =88 Emily Sibley,= Calved December 25th, 1858; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam LADY DAY 193 by Beauty (365); 2d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (516); 3d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =89 Emma,= Calved April 16th, 1862; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam PATSY 278; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =90 Eva,= Calved May, 1861; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam NELLIE 260 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =91 Excelsior 2d,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam EXCELSIOR (1257) by Norfolk (266); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =92 Excelsior 3d,= Calved May, 1862; bred by and the property of LEVI WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N. Y. Sire FOREST CITY (429); 2d sire Norfolk (266). Dam EXCELSIOR (1257) by Norfolk (266); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d dam bred by Mr. Patterson, of Maryland. =93 Extra,= Calved September 10th, 1848; bred by LEWIS FRANCHOT, Otsego, N. Y.; the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire BISHOP 11 bred by H. N. Washbon, Butternuts, N. Y.; 2d sire Baltimore (143). Dam LONG HORNED BALTIMORE, bred by Mr. Patterson, and purchased by H. N. Washbon, of Butternuts, Otsego County, N. Y. =94 Fairy,= Calved April 15th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANCY (1272) by Baltimore (363); 2d dam Red Lady bred by H. N. Washbon, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., from the stock of Mr. Patterson. =95 Fairy,= Calved September 28th, 1860; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire imported Frank Quartly (205). Dam FLORA 125 by Norfolk (266); 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson by Eclipse (191); 3d dam by Anchises (140). =96 Fairy 6th,= Calved June 3d, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. Hyde, Stafford, Conn.; now the property of T. S. GOLD, West Cornwall, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 3D 98 (1266) by Hiawatha 47; 2d dam Fairy 2d (1263) by Comet 22 (162). =97 Fairy,= (696) Calved 1851; bred by G. SHAPLAND, Oakford, England; the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire BARON (4); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FORESTER COW (735) by a bull bred by R. Merson; 2d dam bred by Mr. Dee, by Forester (46). =98 Fairy 3d,= (1266) Calved 1858; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; now the property of AMBROSE N. MERRICK, Brimfield, Mass. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy (696) imported by Ambrose Stevens, Batavia, N. Y.,--the property of R. Linsley, West Meriden, Conn.,--by Baron (4). =99 Fairy 4th,= Calved 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by Mr. Merson. =100 Fairy 5th,= Calved May 8th, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4). =101 Fairy 9th,= Calved July 16th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FAIRY 4TH 99; 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4). =102 Fancy,= Calved May 28th, 1860; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire WYOMING (595); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CURLY (1220) by Coke (160); 2d dam Beauty (1173) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Silvy (1041) by Sir Walter Raleigh (311); 4th dam Slickey (1044) by Holkham (217); 5th dam Devon (658). =103 Fancy,= Calved April 12th, 1843; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire ANCHISES (140) imported in 1836 by G. Patterson. Dam a cow imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., from the herd of the Duke of Norfolk, England. Fancy was bred in Otsego County, N. Y., where Mr. Collins lived at that time, and Anchises (140) was then owned by H. N. Washbon. =104 Fancy,= Calved May, 1852; bred by WILLIAM L. COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire ARCHER bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented to Mr. Patterson, of Maryland, by the Earl of Leicester, in 1817. =105 Fancy,= (1271) Calved 1843; bred by BELA TIFFANY, Southbridge, Mass.; the property of H. M. Sessions, South Wilbraham, Mass.; now the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire and dam bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., and sold by them to Mr. Tiffany. =106 Fancy,= Calved May, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess 83; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam JENNY (1332) by Blucher (149); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). =107 Fancy 2d,= (711) Calved 1847; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY (710) by Exchange (197); 2d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 3d dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Mr. Patterson, in 1817. =108 Fancy 5th,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FANCY 4TH (713a) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =109 Fanny,= Calved June 13th, 1862; bred by and the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire PRINCE JOHN 90; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MARY HURLBUT 2D 236 by Hiawatha 47; 2d dam Mary Hurlbut 235 by Comet 22 (162); 3d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =110 Fanny,= Calved July 20th, 1860; bred by WILLIAM GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam MAY (875) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Young Lady (1127) by Honest Tom (218); 3d dam Lady (818) by Holkham (217); 4th dam Devon (658). =112 Fanny,= (1274 corrected) Calved July 22d, 1855; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (371). Dam FANCY (1268) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =113 Fanny 2d,= Calved July 26th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TINSEL 124; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam FANNY 112 (1274 corrected) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =114 Fantine,= Calved June 17th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam FAIRY 2D (1263) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) by Baron (4); 3d dam Forester Cow (735); 4th dam by Forester (46). =115 Fie,= Calved April 1st, 1859; bred by and the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire TURK 133; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield (148); 4th sire Eclipse (191) imported by Mr. Patterson from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England. Dam JULIA 178 by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Juliet (1347) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut from stock obtained of George Patterson, Maryland, =116 Flame,= Calved June 16th, 1859; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam FANNY 112 (1274 corrected) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) by Eclipse (191). =117 Flora,= Calved September 2d, 1862; bred by M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MINERVA 2D 241 (1408) by Champion (385) bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d dam Minerva (1407) by Albert (2); 3d dam Fancy 2d (711) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =118 Flora,= Calved January 25th, 1858; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam JENNY LIND 2D (1339) by Baltimore (363) bred by George Patterson; 2d dam Jenny Lind (1338) by Major (237); 3d dam Beauty (1169). Jenny Lind 2d received the second prize at the New York State Fair in 1858. =119 Flora,= Calved April, 1859; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire YOUNG DUKE from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam JENNY LIND 167 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =120 Flora 2d,= Calved the spring of 1849; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills.; the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. There has been twenty-one pounds of butter made from the milk produced by this cow in nine successive days. Sire imported ECLIPSE (191). Dam JOSEPHINE (1345) by Anchises (140). =121 Flora 3d,= Calved March 22d, 1860; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Peoria County, Ills.; the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORA 2D 120 by Eclipse (191); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140). =122 Flora 4th,= Calved March 14th, 1861; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORA 2D 120 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140). =123 Flora 5th,= Calved March 8th, 1862; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORA 2D 120 by Eclipse (191); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by Anchises (140) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =124 Flora,= Calved June 1st, 1861; bred by and the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire DICK bred by William Garbut, Wheatland, N. Y.; 2d sire Coke (160). Dam LILY 205 by Coke (386); 2d dam Silvy 3d (1642E) by Major (240); 3d dam Young Selvy (1042) by Splendid (314). =125 Flora,= Calved 1857; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Maryland; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire imported NORFOLK (266); 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam a Coke Devon imported. =126 Flora 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FLORA (726) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =127 Florence,= Calved January 2d, 1854; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire BLOOMFIELD (373); 2d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam CLARA (1204) by imported Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by Mr. Patterson from the Earl of Leicester stock. =128 Florence,= Calved June 24th, 1861; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire MAYBOY 62 (489); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam SONTAG 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =129 Flotilla,= Calved April 23d, 1860; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205) imported; 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam PHLOX 288 by Springfield bred by George Patterson; 2d dam Edith bred from stock imported by George Patterson. =130 Fruitful,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =131 Funny,= Calved April 28th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, N. Y.; the property of FRANCHOT VAN RENSSELAER. Sire TINSEL 124; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam FLAME 116 by Tuscarora 134; 2d dam Fanny 112 by Mayboy (71); 3d dam Fancy (1268) by Megunticook (251); 4th dam Rose of Baltimore (1476) (1614E) by Eclipse (191). =132 Gazelle,= Calved July 21st, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam FAIRY 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by R. Merson's bull; 3d dam by Forester (46). =133 Gem,= Calved March 31st, 1862; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire ECLIPSE 2D from Josephine (1345); 2d sire Bloomfield (373). Dam MARGARET by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Lavinia (1370) by Herod (214); 3d dam by Eclipse (191) and bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =134 Gem,= Calved February 26th, 1856; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the Earl of Leicester, England. =135 Gem 2d,= Calved May 9th, 1862; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK 65; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England; 3d dam imported by the same Society. =136 Gipsy 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GIPSY 137 (749) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fanny (715) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =137 Gipsy, (749)= Calved 1853; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FANNY (715) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197) 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =138 Gipsy 3d,= Calved June 15th, 1861; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire REUBEN 106 from imported Pedley; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam GIPSY MAID (1302) by Baron imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn., from the herd of George Turner, England; 2d dam Pretty Maid imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn. =139 Grace,= Calved May, 1858; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of THOMAS BIDWELL, Wentworth, Lake County, Ills. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam PINK 291 (957) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented to Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1817, by the Earl of Leicester. =140 Grace,= Calved April 6th, 1857; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire ECLIPSE 2D from Josephine (1345); 2d sire Bloomfield (373). Dam ADELINE 2 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214) imported in 1846 by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =141 Grace,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam PINK 291 (957) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =142 Hattie,= Calved in 1859; bred by L. A. THRALL, Torrington, Conn.; the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam KATE 184 by John bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Strawberry 6th by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 4th dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =143 Hattie,= Calved 1854; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam JANE 162 (788) by Albert (2); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =144 Hattie 2d,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam HATTIE 143 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Jane 162 (788) by Albert (2); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197). =145 Helen,= Calved February 27th, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dam by Anchises (140); 5th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of Mr. Coke, then Earl of Leicester, England. =146 Helena 3d,= (776) Calved October 29th, 1853; bred by C. S. WAINWRIGHT, Rhinebeck, N. Y.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire MAYBOY (71) imported; 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam BRENDA (547) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Helena (774) imported by Mr. Wainwright from the herd of George Turner, England. Helena 3d was the winner of the first prize as a two year old at the United States Show at Philadelphia in 1856. =147 Helena 4th,= Calved April 3d, 1860; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire OMER PASHA (513) (473E) imported by C. S. Wainwright; 2d sire Louis Napoleon (231). Dam HELENA 3D 146 (776) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Helena (774) imported. =148 Helena 16th,= Calved April 20th, 1859; bred by C. S. WAINWRIGHT, Rhinebeck, N. Y.; the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire OMER PASHA (513); 2d sire Louis Napoleon (231). Dam HELENA 3D 146 (776) by Mayboy (71); 2d dam Brenda (547) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Helena (774) by Mr. Tapp's bull. She won the first prize in her class as a yearling heifer at the New York State Fair at Elmira, in 1860; also, the _special prize_, a silver medal, as the best Devon female of any age over one year at the same Fair. =149 Hetty,= (1321) Calved May 22d, 1855; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire ALBERT 2D bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam ROSE 312 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and sired by Exchange (197); 2d dam Emma bred by Messrs. Hurlbut by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Rose by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =150 Hetty 2d,= Calved January 15th, 1858; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire LEO out of Lily bred by John Boyd, Winsted; 2d sire Watch (585). Dam HETTY (1321) by Albert 2d bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Rose 316 (1468) by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =151 Heroine,= Calved October 4th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam OCTAVIA 275 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Josephine (1345) by imported Anchises (140). =152 Hyacinth,= Calved January 2d, 1862; bred by and the property of ANTHONY BIDERMAN, Wilmington, Del. Sire HECTOR 46; 2d sire Carroll Eclipse 18. Dam LUCERNE (1388) by Godwin (207); 2d dam Edith (679). =154 Hollyhock,= Calved May 10th, 1856; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Dam by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam also by Anchises (140); 4th dam a Coke Devon imported by George Patterson, Springfield, Carroll County, Md. =155 Ida,= Calved March 21st, 1860; bred by C. B. SMITH, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam ALICE by Albert 2d, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut and sold to Phelps & Cook, Wolcottville, Conn.; 2d dam Belinda bred by Gad Lewis, Bristol, Conn., from Hurlbut stock, by Remus bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =156 Ida 2d,= Calved April 20th, 1853; bred by C. M. CRIPPEN, Coldwater, Mich.; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported. Dam IDA 1ST (1325) by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176). =157 Ida 4th,= Calved April 12th, 1861; bred by E. A. ELY, Elyria, Ohio; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire CHIPAWAY 20; 2d sire Chingagook from Helena (774); 3d sire Uncas (324). Dam IDA 2D 156 by Duke of Devon; 2d dam Ida 1st (1325) by Red Rover (352); 3d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176) imported by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W. =158 Ida May,= Calved January, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., in 1850. Dam ROSE 312 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Clara bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from stock bought of J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =159 Imogene 2d,= Calved October 21st, 1859; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam IMOGENE (1328) by Candy (153); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (553); 3d dam of the Garbut stock. =160 Iowa Belle,= Calved April 24th, 1861; bred by and the property of C. D. BENT, Iowa City, Iowa. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251) imported; 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam BELLE OF WINCHESTER (1180) by Albert (2) imported. =161 Jane,= (1329) Calved October 6th, 1854; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; sold to H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam TOPSY 1ST 335 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =162 Jane,= (788) Calved 1852; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BROAD HORNED BEAUTY (552) by Baltimore (143); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =163 Jennie,= Calved March 8th, 1855; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLAIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported. Dam KATE 180 bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from stock bought of J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =164 Jennie,= Calved March 6th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71); 3d sire Duke of York (37); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105); 5th sire Prince Albert (102); 6th sire Hundred Guinea (56); 7th sire Sillifant (120). Dam PRECOCITY by Puritan (283); 2d dam Lady Morris (1363) by Frank Quartly (205); 3d dam Camilla (562) by Herod (214); 4th dam bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Camilla is now the property of Mr. Wentworth. =165 Jenny,= Calved March 20th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267). Dam CLARA by Henry, bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and sold to John Boyd, Winchester, Conn.; 2d dam Flora by Front de Boeuf; 3d dam Clara by George, bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md.; 4th dam Finella bred by Mr. Stanley. =166 Jenny,= Calved March, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN J. JOHNSON, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire a bull bred by Truman Baker, Earlville, N. Y.; 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam LILY 3D 209 by Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 2d dam Lily bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, sired by Bright Eyes, bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore, bred by George Patterson, Maryland, and owned by H. N. Washbon, Morris, N. Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, Truxton, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Couland, Truxton, Cortland County, N. Y.; 3d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes, imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =167 Jenny Lind,= Calved April, 1856; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported. Dam SOPHIA 323 by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Camilla Scott by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176). =168 Jessica,= Calved August 17th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam ADELINE 2 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Ella (1246) by imported Herod (214). =169 Jessie,= Calved March 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire MAJOR (476); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam MAYFLOWER (1400) by Coke (160); 2d dam Rosa (1466) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Beauty (1172). =170 Jessie,= Calved 1855; bred by and the property of A. CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire REUBENS (116); 2d sire Duke of Cornwall (33). Dam LOLA 213 by Prince of Oldenburg (104); 2d dam Pedley 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 4th dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =171 Jessie,= Calved May 6th, 1861; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam JENNY 165 by Nelson 75. =172 Jessie,= Calved February, 1854; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Maine. Sire ALEXANDER owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass. Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. She gained the first prize in Framingham in 1855, as the best yearling; also, the first premium at the Worcester Show, 1857, as the best of her class. =173 Jessie Davy 2d,= Calved 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam JESSIE DAVY (1418E) imported by R. Linsley, by Richmond (292); 2d dam Floweret (1358E) by Earl of Exeter (38); 3d dam Flower (190) by Brinsworthy bred by R. Merson, England. =174 Josephine 2d,= Calved July 19th, 1859; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam JOSEPHINE (1345) by Anchises (140); 2d dam bred by George Patterson, Maryland, from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester. =175 Julia,= Calved April, 1860; bred by and the property of A. B. ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire HANNIBAL from Duchess 83; 2d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam BEAUTY 16 by Duke of Devon (405); 2d dam Sophia 323 by Red Rover (352). =176 Julia,= Calved September 12th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam EMILY SIBLEY 88 by Duke of Beaufort (400); 2d dam Lady Day 193 by Beauty (365); 3d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (546); 4th dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =177 Julia,= Calved April, 1854; bred by and the property of A. CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire EMPEROR bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LOLA 213 by Prince of Oldenburg (104); 2d dam Pedley 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 4th dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =178 Julia,= Calved June 3d, 1853; bred by WILLIAM BUCKMINSTER, Framingham, Mass.; the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam JULIET (1347) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., and sold to William Buckminster, Framingham, Mass. =179 Juliet,= Calved April 22d, 1858; bred by and the property of WALDO M. HEALY, Dudley, Mass. Sire TURK 133; 2d sire Paul Dombey (523); 3d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam JULIA 178 by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Juliet (1347) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., from stock obtained of Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =180 Kate,= Calved April, 1853; bred by JOHN BOYD, Winchester, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire RICHARD bred by Mr. Boyd from the Stanley stock; 2d sire a bull bred by Mr. Colt, Paterson, N.J. Dam ROWENA bred by Mr. Boyd, by Henry, a thorough-bred bull, bought of S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d dam Flora by Front de Boeuf, bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md.; 3d dam Clara by George and from Finella, both bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =181 Kate,= Calved October 9th, 1858; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =182 Kate,= Calved February 14th, 1859; bred by and the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire ORPHAN BOY 83; 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam ROSE 314 by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Fancy bred by H. N. Washbon from imported stock; 3d dam Emily imported by Mr. Couland, New York. =183 Kate,= Calved 1855; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 3D (524) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =184 Kate,= Calved 1856; bred by LEWIS A. THRALL, Torrington, Conn.; the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire JOHN bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam STRAWBERRY 6TH by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 3d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers the Earl of Leicester gave Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =185 Kate 2d,= Calved February 16th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NERO from Belle 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Dam KATE 184 by John 50. (See Kate 184.) =186 Kitty,= Calved February 20th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214) imported in 1846; 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dam by Anchises (140); 5th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of Mr. Coke then Earl of Leicester. =187 La Belle,= Calved January 3d, 1855; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of WILLIAM GORTON, Jr., Waterford, Conn. Sire DUKE OF YORK bred by Mr. Andrews; 2d sire Red Jacket bred by Mr. Andrews; 3d sire Juno bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BLOOMING BEAUTY (1196) by Champion (385). Blooming Beauty won the first prize at the New York State Fair in 1857, and a silver medal to her breeder, B. H. Andrews. =188 Lady,= Calved April 10th, 1859; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198); 3d sire General (50). Dam LONG HORN FANCY 214 by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =189 Lady 2d,= Calved April 29th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY 188 by Young Exeter 148; 2d dam Long Horn Fancy 214 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =190 Lady,= Calved April 2d, 1858; bred by WILLIAM GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam SILVY (1041) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Slickey (1044) by Holkham (217). =191 Ladybird 2d,= Calved June 26th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TURK 131; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =192 Lady Dodge,= Calved October 18th, 1851; bred by HARVEY DODGE, Sutton, Mass.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire EARL OF LEICESTER bred by Harvey Dodge, Sutton, Mass., from the Massachusetts imported stock; 2d sire Roebuck bred from same stock; 3d sire Bloomfield (372) imported by the Massachusetts Society in 1844. Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. =193 Lady Day,= Calved June 12th, 1857; bred by J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio; the property of Rev. M. A. HOGE, Zanesville, Ohio. Sire BEAUTY (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =194 Lady Gapper 2d,= Calved April, 1860; bred by J. W. HAMLIN, Aurora, Erie County, N. Y.; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire CHINGAGOOK from Helena (774); 2d sire Uncas (324); 3d sire Megunticook (251) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam LADY GAPPER bred from stock imported by R. C. Gapper; 2d dam Fairy bred by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W., by Duke of Devon (405); 3d dam Rose bred by Mr. Gapper from imported stock. =195 Lady Jane,= Calved July, 1849; bred by ELIAS PHINNEY, Lexington, Mass.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (372) imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. Dam imported by the Massachusetts Society at the same time. =196 Ladyslipper,= Calved November 15th, 1859; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LADY OF THE LAKE (1362) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b); 3d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =197 Lalla Rookh,= Calved July 4th, 1858; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire PONTIAC (527) (483E); 2d sire imported Exeter (198). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =198 Lantern,= Calved September 27th, 1862; bred by and the property of R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TURK 131; 2d sire Tuscarora 134; 3d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LADYSLIPPER 196 by Tuscarora 134; 2d dam Lady of the Lake (1362) by Megunticook (251); 3d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37). =199 Laura,= Calved March 1st, 1859; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214); 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dam by Anchises (140); 5th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. =200 Lib,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam FANCY 2D 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =201 Lida,= Calved February, 1857: bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER; the property of H. O. BANKS, McDonough, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102); 3d sire Hundred Guinea (56). Dam LILY, bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, by Bright Eyes bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore, bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, and owned by H. N. Washbon, Morris, N. Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, Truxton, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Couland, Truxton, Cortland County, N. Y.; 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =202 Lilac,= Calved November 30th, 1862; bred by and the property of ANTHONY BIDERMAN, Wilmington, Del. Sire HECTOR 46; 2d sire Carroll Eclipse 18. Dam LUCERNE (1388) by Godwin (207); 2d dam Edith (679). =203 Lily,= Calved April 16th, 1855; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLAIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., in 1850. Dam FLORA, bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., sired by Front de Boeuf bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Md.; 2d dam Clara by George and from Finella, both bred by Mr. Stanley, Baltimore, Md. =204 Lily,= Calved May 10th, 1854; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, in 1846. Dam FANCY 103 by Anchises (140) imported in 1836; 2d dam a cow imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =205 Lily,= Calved August 4th, 1858; bred by WILLIAM GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam SILVY 3D (1642E) by Major (240); 2d dam Young Silvy (1042) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Silva (1041) by Sir Walter (311); 4th dam Slickey (1044) by Holkham (217). =206 Lily,= Calved April 13th, 1860; bred by and the property of WILLIAM GORTON, Jr., Waterford, Conn. Sire WATERBURY (586); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam SILVER MEDAL 320 by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Blooming Beauty (1190) by Champion (385). =207 Lily,= Calved May, 1856; bred by L. G. COLLINS, Indiana; the property of W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. Dam DUCHESS by Anchises (140); 2d dam bred by George Patterson, Maryland. =208 Lily 2d,= Calved April, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam LILY (1373) by Prince Albert (278); 2d dam Beauty (504). =209 Lily 3d,= Calved April 1st, 1858; bred by and the property of JOHN J. JOHNSON, North Pitcher, Chenango County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205); 3d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam LILY, bred by R. H. Van Rensselaer, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y., by Bright Eyes bred by Samuel C. Gilbert, Butternuts, N. Y., whose sire was Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Maryland, and owned by H. N. Washbon, Morris, N. Y., and whose dam was bred by Mr. Titus, direct from a cow and bull imported by the late John Couland, Truxton, Cortland County, N. Y.; 2d dam Leonora (1371) by Sweepstakes, imported in the cow by Francis Rotch, Morris, N. Y. =210 Lizzie,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 7TH (528) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =211 Lizzie B.,= Calved April 29th, 1861; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam LADY DAY 193 by Beauty (365); 2d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (546); 3d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =212 Lizzie,= Calved January 27th, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =213 Lola,= Calved March, 1852; bred by and the property of ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire PRINCE OF OLDENBURG (104); 2d sire Earl of Exeter (38). Dam PEDLEY 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 3d dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =214 Long Horn Fancy,= Calved March, 1847; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; formerly the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; now the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY (710) by Exchange (197); 2d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =215 Lophorn,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BOBTAIL BEAUTY by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =216 Lottie,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam KATE 183 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =217 Lovely,= (858) Calved 1853; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY 4TH (525) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =218 Lucy,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire MAJOR from Duchess; 2d sire Young Duke from Duchess imported by R. C. Gapper, Canada West; 3d sire Duke of Devon (405). Dam LILY (1373) by Prince Albert (278); 2d dam Beauty (504). =219 Lucy,= Calved April 27th, 1856; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102); 3d sire Hundred Guinea (56). Dam imported LADYBIRD (820b); 2d dam Lady by Hundred Guinea (56). =220 Lucy 2d,= Calved April 18th, 1862; bred by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. Sire TUSCARORA 134; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E). Dam LUCY 219 by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Ladybird (820b); 3d dam Lucy by Hundred Guinea (56). =221 Lulu,= Calved 1857; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam BROAD HORNED BEAUTY (552) by Baltimore (143); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =222 Lulu,= Calved May, 1859; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =223 Maggie,= Calved April 26th, 1862; bred by and the property of R. H. WILSON, Cambridge, Ohio. Sire STEPHEN (564); 2d sire Marion (485). Dam PRAIRIE BIRD (1445) by Marion (485); 2d dam by Roderick (544); 3d dam by Herod (214); 4th dam by Anchises (140). =224 Majestic,= (1471E) Calved 1855; bred by G. TURNER, Barton, Exeter, England; imported by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; now the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire ABD-UL-MEDJID full brother to Abd-el-Kader (134). Dam WALLFLOWER (472) by Duke of York (37); 2d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56); 3d dam old Mayflower. =225 Majestic 2d,= Calved June 8th, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam MAJESTIC 224 (1471E) by full brother of Abd-el-Kader (134); 2d dam Wallflower (472) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Mayflower (290) by a son of Hundred Guinea (56); 4th dam old Mayflower. =226 May,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam SPOT 324 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =227 May 1st,= Calved May 7th, 1862; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam DOT 79 by Watch (585); 2d dam Belle 38 by Champion (385). =228 May 2d,= Calved May 11th, 1862; bred by and the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch (585). Dam BELLE 38 by Champion (385); 2d dam Belinda bred by Gad Lewis, Bristol, from stock bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and sold to William Scoville, Watertown, Conn., by the bull Remus bred Messrs. Hurlbut. =229 May Beauty,= Calved May 1st, 1862; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire YOUNG TECUMSEH 151; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam TOPSY 2D 336 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Topsy (1090) by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =230 Mayflower,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire SHAKSPEARE from Victoria 242; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland; 3d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam JENNY (1332) by Blucher (149); 2d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6). =231 May Queen 2d,= Calved 1854; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam MAY QUEEN (882) by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =232 May Queen 3d,= Calved June, 1860; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; the property of THOMAS BIDWELL, Wentworth, Lake County, Ills. Sire YOUNG TECUMSEH 151; 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam MAY QUEEN 2D 231 by Roscius (267); 2d dam May Queen (882) by Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut; 3d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320) imported. =234 Mary 2d,= Calved April, 1857; bred by and the property of A. CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam MARY 1ST by Reubens (116); 2d dam Pedley 283 (334) by Baronet (6); 3d dam Lily (263) by Baronet (6); 4th dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =235 Mary Hurlbut,= (1394) Calved in 1858; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam BEAUTY 6TH (527) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). Beauty 6th (527) gained the first prize at the American Institute, as a calf, in 1849. =236 Mary Hurlbut 2d,= Calved January, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of P. M. AUGUR, Middletown, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam MARY HURLBUT 235 by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Beauty 6th (527) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =237 Maud,= Calved April 17th, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire TORONTO (611); 2d sire Tecumseh (567) (535E); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam TOPSY 334; 2d dam Flora bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown from the Beck & Garbut stock; 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =238 Maud,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire HEROD 2D bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam DARLING 77 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Beauty 7th (528) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =239 Meme,= Calved February 28th, 1858; bred by and the property of J. BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire KIRK AYRS full brother to the bull Beauty (365); 2d sire Rollo (546). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =240 Mina,= Calved March 19th, 1861; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire SOMERVILLE (563); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PATSY 278 by Comet bred by Daniel C. Howe from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =241 Minerva 2d,= (1408) Calved May 3d, 1858; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire CHAMPION bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam MINERVA (1407) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy 2d (711) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 4th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =242 Minnehaha 3d,= Calved May, 1862; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire HIAWATHA 47; 2d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEHAHA 243 (1409) by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Fairy 97 (696) imported, by Baron (4). =243 Minnehaha,= (1409) Calved 1855; bred by and the property of R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Darn FAIRY 97 (696) by Baron (4); 2d dam Forester Cow (735) by a bull bred by R. Merson; 3d dam bred by Mr. Dee, by Forester (46). =244 Minneola,= (1412) Calved June 22d, 1857; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =245 Minnie 1st,= Calved May 15th, 1860; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy 1st (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =246 Minnie 2d,= Calved May 17th, 1861; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy 1st (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =247 Minnie 3d,= Calved March 25th, 1862; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 6th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Maryland, in 1817. =248 Minnie 4th,= Calved February 26th, 1863; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire MERIDEN 66; 2d sire Hiawatha 47; 3d sire Comet 22 (162). Dam MINNEOLA 244 (1412) by Reubens 2d 105 (552); 2d dam Jane 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 3d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =249 Minnie,= Calved December 6th, 1860; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire CHIBIABUS (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam CAMILLA (562) bred by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, and now the property of J. Wentworth, Chicago, Ills., by Herod (214); 2d dam bred by Mr. Patterson. =250 Minnie,= Calved June 30th, 1859; bred by and the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire MAYBOY 62 (489); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam SONTAG 322 (1498) by Paul Dombey (523); 2d dam Blanche (1188) by Bloomfield (148). =51 Minnie,= Calved February 20th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =252 Minnie,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam STRAWBERRY 327 (1061) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Strawberry by Exchange (197); 3d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =253 Miss Gay,= Calved June 22d, 1857; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire PONTIAC (527) (483E); 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam LADY GAY (1357) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Ladybird (820b) by Venture. =254 Model,= Calved May 21st, 1860; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Ills. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6). Dam EMPRESS EUGENIE (1308E) by Duke of Wellington (187); 2d dam Lily (1446E) by Earl of Exeter (38); 3d dam Sylph (1069) by Duke of Devonshire (35); 4th dam Sylph (434) by Prince Albert (102); 5th dam Picture bred by Quartly; 6th dam Picture by Forester (46). =255 Moss Rose,= Calved June 2d, 1860; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of R. O. STORRS, Mansfield, Conn. Sire COMET 22, (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam BEAUTY 2D 26 by Kossuth 53: 2d dam Beauty 25 by Albert (2); 3d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 4th dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, Norfolk, England. =256 Myrtle,= Calved August 11th, 1858; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester bred by Harvey Dodge, Sutton, Mass., from the Massachusetts imported stock; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =257 Nancy Dawson,= Calved September 5th, 1857; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EXTRA 93 by Bishop 11; 2d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Maryland. =258 Nannie,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam MAY QUEEN 2d 231 by Roscius (267); 2d dam May Queen (882) by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =259 Nellie,= Calved March 25th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire ORPHAN BOY, 83; 2d sire Reubens, (116). Dam CURL 3D by Baltimore (364); 2d dam Curl 2d by Champion (385); 3d dam Curl bred by S. & L. Hurlbut by Bloomfield (148). =260 Nellie,= Calved June, 1859; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of E. S. PENNIMAN, North Woodstock, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =261 Nelly,= Calved May 15th, 1859; bred by WM. GARBUT, Wheatland, N. Y.; the property of J. H. GARDNER, Centerville, St. Joseph County, Mich. Sire COKE (386); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam CRESCENT (1237E) by Major (240); 2d dam Crescent (603) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Crescent (602) by Sir Walter (311). =262 Nelly,= Calved August, 1858; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire PLOUGHMAN (226); 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BALTIMORE 3D 11 bred by Messrs. Hurlbut. =263 Nelly 2d,= Calved March 8th, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horicon (452) (439E). Dam NELLY 162 by Ploughman, (226); 2d dam Baltimore 3d bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =264 Nelly Bly,= Calved February 12th, 1859; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY JANE 195 by Bloomfield (372); 2d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =265 Nelly Bly=, (1423) Calved 1851; bred by S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn.; sold to R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn., now the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251) imported; 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam BEAUTY 3D (524) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =266 Nelly Bly 2d=, (1424) Calved 1853; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; sold to E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn., now the property of T. S. GOLD, West Cornwall, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam NELLY BLY 252 (1423) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield 148; 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =267 Nelly Bly 4th,= Calved April 26th, 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET, 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam NELLY BLY 265 (1423) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =268 Nettie,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam GIPSY 137 (749) by Albert (2); 3d dam Fanny (715) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Sukey (1066) by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =269 Nina,= Calved April 12th, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire imported Albert (2). Dam LILY 203 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Flora bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., by Front de Boeuf bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore; 3d dam Clara by George and from Finella, both bred by Mr. Stanley, Baltimore. =270 Ninevah,= Calved July 30th, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN CORP, Freetown, Cortland Co., N. Y. Sire MESSENGER 68; 2d sire Pontiac (527) (483E). Dam NANCY DAWSON (912) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Nonpareil (925) by Sultan (122). =271 Nonsense,= Calved May 6th, 1862; bred by and the property of J. HENRY CORP, Freetown, Cortland Co., N. Y. Sire FANCY'S VALIANT 35; 2d sire Valiant (578). Dam NONSENSE (1429) by Megunticook, (251) 2d dam Nonpareil, (925) by Sultan (122). =272 Nora Vane,= Calved May 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of CHAUNCEY B. CORP, Freetown, Cortland County, N. Y. Sire FANCY'S VALIANT 35; 2d sire Valiant (578). Dam NANCY DAWSON (912) by Megunticook (251); 2d dam Nonpareil (925) by Sultan (122). =273 Norma,= Calved November 2d, 1858; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire imported MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORENCE 127 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Clara (1204) by Herod (214); 3d dam by Eclipse (191), and bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. =274 Norna,= Calved October 10th, 1861; bred by W. W. HENDERSON, Bridgeton, St. Louis County, Mo.; the property of W. C. FLAGG, Moro, Madison County, Ills. Sire RED PATH 101; 2d sire Megunticook (251) imported. Dam MAUD (1397) by Albert (2); 2d dam Smith 4th (1049) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Smith 1st (1046) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =275 Octavia,= Calved October 26th, 1855; bred by HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire BLOOMFIELD (873); 2d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam JOSEPHINE (1345) by Anchises (140); 2d dam bred by George Patterson, Md., from stock imported from the Earl of Leicester. =276 Pansey,= Calved 1859; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire YOUNG EXETER, 148; 2d sire Exeter (198). Dam DAISY 76 by Roscius (267); 2d dam Spot 324 by Albert (2); 3d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 4th dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =277 Pansy,= Calved February, 1861, bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire STAFFORD 2D 115; 2d sire Stafford 114; 3d sire Kossuth 53; 4th sire Albert (2). Dam BEAUTY 25 by Albert (2); 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported in 1844 by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =278 Patsy,= Calved April 6th, 1855; bred by DAVID C. HOWE, Brutus, Cayuga County, N. Y.; the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, N. Y. Sire COMET bred by Mr. Howe from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d sire Criterion bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown, Ellridge, Onondaga County, N. Y., who purchased her dam of Messrs. Beck & Garbut; 3d sire Criterion bred by Messrs. Beck & Garbut; 4th sire Dibble (176). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =279 Pauline,= Calved August 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINE, (1436) by Bonaparte (369); 2d dam Rosa by Rover (353); 3d dam from the Garbut stock. =280 Pauline 2d,= Calved May 2d, 1862; bred by and the property of E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y. Sire BALTIMORE 2D 5; 2d sire Baltimore (364). Dam PAULINE (1436) by Bonaparte (369). =281 Pauline,= Calved May 10th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAY BOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam AMBER by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Adeline 2 by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214). =282 Pearlette,= Calved February 12th, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam FLORA (1285) by Rollo (546); 2d dam Flora (1284) by Eclipse (191). =283 Pedley,= (334) Calved March, 1850; imported from the herd of GEORGE TURNER, Barton, England, in September, 1851 by D. W. CATLIN, New York city; the property of ABIJAH CATLIN, Harwinton, Conn. Sire BARONET (6); 2d sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (105); 3d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam LILY (263) by Baronet (6); 2d dam by Hundred Guinea (56). =284 Peony,= Calved March 25th, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery Co., Indiana. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam HOLLYHOCK 154 by Herod (214) imported in 1846; 2d dam by Eclipse (191); 3d and 4th dams by Anchises (404); 5th dam a Coke Devon, imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland. =285 Pet 4th,= Calved July, 1855; bred by L. F. ALLEN, Black Rock, N. Y.; the property of SILAS ROOT, Westfield, Mass. Sire QUARTLY (284); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam PET 2D by Red Rover (352); 2d dam Pet by Red Rover (353); 3d dam descended from stock imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y. =286 Pet 5th,= Calved April, 1862; bred by and the property of SILAS ROOT, Westfield, Mass. Sire DUKE OF CAMBRIDGE (401) bred by L. F. Allen, N. Y.; 2d sire imported Candy (153). Dam PET 4TH 285 by Quartly (284); 2d dam Pet 2d by Red Rover (352); 3d dam Pet by Red Rover (353); 4th dam descended from the stock imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y. =287 Phebe,= Calved April 1st, 1860; bred by and the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire NERO 78; 2d sire Kossuth 53; 3d sire imported Albert (2). Dam JENNIE 163 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Kate 189 by Richard, bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from the Stanley stock. =288 Phlox,= Calved March 4th, 1852; bred by ANTHONY BIDERMAN, Wilmington, Del.; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster Co., Pa. Sire SPRINGFIELD, bred by George Patterson, Maryland; 2d sire imported Eclipse (191). Dam EDITH; 2d dam was presented, when in calf, to Edward Kinley, by Geo. Patterson. =289 Pink,= Calved April 15th, 1858; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery Co., Ind. Sire HEROD, (214) imported in 1846 by Mr. Patterson. Dam by ECLIPSE (191); 2d and 3d dams by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Mr. Patterson, Maryland, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =290 Pink,= Calved March 15th, 1860; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK 12 (368); 2d sire Watch, (585). Dam NELLIE by Albert 2d, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Fancy by Young Holkham, bred by the Messrs. Hurlbut, from Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Nelly by Young Eclipse from Eclipse (191); 4th dam Nell by Red Rover (352); 5th dam Ellen, R. L. Colt's prize Cow; 6th dam Miss Brooks, owned by George Law, Baltimore, Maryland. =291 Pink,= (957) Calved 1853; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2) 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam FANCY 2d 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320.) =292 Pocahontas 2d,= Calved May 10th, 1859; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire SOMERVILLE (563); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam POCAHONTAS (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 2d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =293 Polly,= Calved August 29th, 1858; bred by E. C. BLISS, Westfield, N. Y.; the property of H. W. KNOWLTON, Freeport, Ills. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam ROSE by Rover (353); 2d dam from the Beck & Garbut stock. =294 Pretty,= Calved June 5th, 1861; bred by and the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire WILLIAM TELL 142 (588); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PHLOX 288 by Springfield, bred by G. Patterson. =295 Primrose,= Calved April 15th, 1857; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1846. Dam LILY 204 by Herod (214); 2d dam Fancy 103 by Anchises (140) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1836; 3d dam imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego County, N. Y. =296 Princess,= Calved August 19th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam FLORENCE 127 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Clara (1204) by Herod (214). =297 Princess Royal 2d,= Calved 1861; bred by R. LINSLEY, West Meriden, Conn.; the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162); 2d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam EMPRESS EUGENIE bred by R. Linsley, West Meriden, Conn. by Comet 22 (162); 2d dam Empress Eugenie (1308E) (imported by R. Linsley) by Duke of Wellington (187); 3d dam Lily (1446E) by Earl of Exeter (38); 4th dam Sylph (1069) by Duke of Devonshire (35); 5th dam Sylph (434) by Prince Albert (102). =298 Queen of Oaks,= Calved March 23d, 1856; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire BLOOMFIELD (373); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam ADELINE 2 by imported Eclipse (191); 2d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1846. =299 Queen Victoria,= Calved 1856; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Md.; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck, Lancaster County, Pa. Sire imported NORFOLK (266); 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam bred by Mr. Patterson by Eclipse (191). =300 Rebe,= Calved October 24th, 1857; bred by JOSEPH BURNETT, Southboro', Mass.; the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire COMET owned by H. G. White, South Framingham, Mass. Dam JESSIE 172 by Alexander owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 2d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =301 Rebe 2d,= Calved December 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of ALLEN LAMBARD, Augusta, Me. Sire KENTUCKY 52; 2d sire Horicon (452) (439E); 3d sire Mayboy (71) imported by C. S. Wainwright, Rhinebeck, N. Y. Dam REBE 300 by Comet owned by H. G. White, South Framingham, Mass.; 2d dam Jessie 172 by Alexander owned by Samuel Chandler, Lexington, Mass.; 3d dam Baltimore 3d 11 bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =302 Red Lady,= Calved May 27th, 1861; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. =303 Red Lady 2d,= Calved February 16th, 1861; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire WYOMING (595); 2d sire Coke (160). Dam RED LADY (1460) by Coke (160); 2d dam Julia (1346) by Splendid (314): 3d dam Ticket (1079) by Red Jacket (289); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham, (217). =304 Red Lady 3d,= Calved December 26th, 1861; bred by and the property of M. M. & O. W. BALLARD, Niles, Mich. Sire WYOMING (595): 2d sire Coke (160). Dam RED LADY (1460) by Coke (160); 2d dam Julia (1346) by Splendid (314); 3d dam Ticket (1079) by Red Jacket (289); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =305 Red Rose,= Calved May, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire COMET 22 (162). Dam GEM 134 by Kossuth 53; 2d dam Lady Jane (195) by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =306 Robin,= Calved April 6th, 1860; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71); 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam QUEEN OF OAKS 298 by Bloomfield (373); 2d dam Adeline 2 by Eclipse (191); 3d dam Ella (1246) by Herod (214). =307 Rosa,= Calved February 27th, 1862; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut. Dam BRIDGET 51 by Charter Oak (334); 2d dam Gipsy (1301) by Hannibal (441); 3d dam Gipsy Maid 1303; by Baron imported by John Allen, Saybrook, Conn., from the herd of George Turner, England; 4th dam Pretty Maid also imported by Mr. Allen. =308 Rosa,= Calved March 15th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & Son, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire FRANK MORRIS (433); he received the first premium at the New York State Fair in 1858; 2d sire Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 3d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam ROSA BELLE 311 by Sir Walter Raleigh (560); 2d dam Extra 93 by Bishop 11; 3d dam Long Horned Baltimore bred by George Patterson, Md. =309 Rosa,= Calved February 27th, 1862; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. Dam BRIDGET 51 by Charter Oak (334); 2d dam Gipsy (1301) by Hannibal (441); 3d dam Gipsy Maid (1303) by Baronet (6). =310 Rosa,= Calved May 31st, 1861; bred by and the property of JOHN WENTWORTH, Chicago, Illinois. Sire CHIBIABUS, (387) (384E); 2d sire Mayboy (71) imported. Dam LADY GAY (1357) by Megunticook (251) imported; 2d dam Lady Lightfoot (824) by Duke of York (37); 3d dam Lady Bird (820b). =311 Rosa Belle,= Calved March 25th, 1856; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON of Earlville, Madison Co., N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam EXTRA 93 by Bishop 11; 2d dam Long Horned Baltimore, bred by Mr. Patterson and purchased by H. N. Washbon, Butternuts, Otsego Co., N. Y. =312 Rose,= Calved April, 1854; bred by R. B. CHAMBERLIN, Coventry, Conn.; the property of JAMES A. BILL, Lyme, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2) imported by Messrs. Hurlbut in 1850. Dam CLARA bred by John Boyd, Winchester, Conn., from Finella and George, both bred by J. P. E. Stanley, Baltimore, Maryland. =313 Rose,= Calved February 25th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery Co., Indiana. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam PRIMROSE 295 by Herod (214); 2d dam Lily 204 by Herod (214); 3d dam Fancy 103 by Anchises (140); 4th dam imported by Francis Rotch, Morris, Otsego Co., New York, from the Duke of Norfolk, England. =314 Rose,= Calved 1849; bred by WASHBURN & BLACKMAN, Butternuts, Otsego Co., N. Y.; the property of JOSEPH M. MUNSON, Watertown, Conn. Sire BALTIMORE, (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY bred by Mr. Washburn; 2d dam Emily imported by Mr. Couland, Truxton, Courtland Co., N. Y. =315 Rose,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FANCY 4TH (713) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =316 Rose,= (1468) Calved February, 1850; bred by F. W. COWLES, Farmington, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire REMUS, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d sire Exchange, (197). Dam EMMA bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Rosa by Exchange (197); 3d dam Fancy (710). =317 Rosette,= Calved April 10th, 1858; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam FANCY 4TH (713) by Albert (2); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =318 Ruby,= Calved July 3d, 1859; bred by and the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire SOMERVILLE (563); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam PATSY 278 by Comet bred by David C. Howe, Brutus, N. Y., from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Pocahontas (1444) by Sir Walter (311); 3d dam Fairy (1260) by Dibble (176). =319 Ruby,= Calved April 10th, 1859; bred by and the property of HEZEKIAH TILLOTSON, Farmington, Conn. Sire NELSON 75; 2d sire Roscius (267). Dam BEAUTY 8TH 36 by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 4th (525) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =320 Silver Medal,= Calved May 2d, 1857; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of WM. GORTON, JR., Waterford, Conn. Sire HANNIBAL (441); 2d sire Albert (2); 3d sire Baronet (6); 4th sire Quartly's Prince of Wales (106). Dam LA BELLE 187 by Duke of York bred by Mr. Andrews; 2d dam Blooming Beauty (1190) by Champion (385). =321 Snowdrop,= Calved March 14th, 1862; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire FRANK QUARTLY 39; 2d sire Herod (214) imported. Dam BLOSSOM 47 by Priam 87; 2d dam Daisy 3d 75 by Herod (214); 3d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 4th dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y., in 1819 from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =322 Sontag,= Calved April 23d, 1853; bred by WM. BUCKMINSTER, Framingham, Mass.; the property of C. W. CUSHING, South Hingham, Mass. Sire PAUL DOMBEY (523); 2d sire Bloomfield (148); 3d sire Eclipse (191). Dam BLANCHE (1188) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =323 Sophia,= Calved April 15th, 1852; bred by J. W. HAMLIN, West Aurora, N. Y., the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire RED ROVER (352); 2d sire Rover (353). Dam CAMILLA SCOTT bred by J. W. Hamlin by Dibble (176); 2d dam Victoria (1513) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 4th dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (215); 5th dam Devon (658). =324 Spot,= Calved 1854; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ALBERT (2); 2d sire Baronet (6). Dam BEAUTY 3D (524) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy 709 by Taurus (320). =325 Sprightly,= Calved June 10th, 1854; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire HEROD (214) imported by Mr. Patterson, Md. in 1846, from the herd of Mr. Bloomfield, Norfolk, England. Dam by Eclipse (191); 2d dam by Anchises (140); 3d dam imported from the Earl of Leicester by George Patterson, Springfield, Carroll County, Md. =326 Stella,= Calved November 12th, 1858; bred by and the property of HORACE CAPRON, Robins Nest, Peoria County, Ills. Sire MAYBOY (71) imported; 2d sire Duke of York (37). Dam CLARA (1204) by Herod (214) imported by Mr. Patterson in 1846. =327 Strawberry=, (1061) Calved October, 1850; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam STRAWBERRY by Exchange (197); 2d dam Strawberry 1st (1062) by Taurus (320). =328 Sukey,= Calved May 10th, 1861; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 3D 75 by Herod (214); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, in 1819, from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, England. =329 Susan,= Calved 1851; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire MEGUNTICOOK (251); 2d sire Prince Albert (102). Dam FANCY 2D 107 (711) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 3d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =330 Tilly,= Calved 1858; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire SAM 108; 2d sire Reubens (116). Dam BEAUTY 7TH (528) by Bloomfield (148); 2d dam Broad Horned Beauty (552) by Baltimore (143); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =331 Tiptoe,= Calved September 20th, 1859; bred by and the property of S. BAKER & SON, Earlville, Madison County, N. Y. Sire SIR WALTER RALEIGH (560); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam JENNY LIND (1338) by Major (237); 2d dam Beauty (1169) by Bloomfield (148). =332 Topsy,= Calved April 11th, 1862; bred by and the property of B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn. Sire BURLINGTON (371); 2d sire Winchester (589); 3d sire Albert (2) imported by Mr. Hurlbut. Dam CAPATOLA 55 by Hannibal (441); 2d dam Blossom (1191) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam by Baltimore (143); 4th dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 5th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =333 Topsy,= Calved March 20th, 1860; bred by and property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire NERO out of Bell 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. Dam ROSE 316 (1468) by Remus, bred by S. & L. Hurlbut; 2d dam Emma by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Rose by Exchange (197); 4th dam Fancy (710). =334 Topsy,= Calved May 25th, 1855; bred by DAVID C. HOWE, Brutus, N. Y.; the property of GEORGE B. LOCKWOOD, Victory, Cayuga County, N. Y. Sire COMET bred by Mr. Howe from the Beck & Garbut stock. Dam FLORA bred by Messrs. Mason & Brown, Ellridge, N.Y., from the Beck & Garbut stock; 2d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (217). =335 Topsy 1st,= Calved 1851; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire BLOOMFIELD (148); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FANCY 1ST (710) by Exchange (197); 2d dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 3d dam one of the heifers the Earl of Leicester presented to Robert Patterson, Md., in 1817. =336 Topsy 2d,= Calved 1856; bred by and the property of S. & L. HURLBUT, Winchester, Conn. Sire ROSCIUS (267); 2d sire Albert (2). Dam TOPSY (1090) by Albert (2); 2d dam Beauty 3d (524) by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Beauty (523) by Exchange (197) 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =337 Tracy,= Calved 1853; bred by GEORGE PATTERSON, Md.; the property of DANIEL STEINMETZ, Sheaneck County, Pa. Sire imported HEROD (214). Dam bred by Mr. Patterson, by Eclipse (191). =338 Twinkle,= Calved September 29th, 1862; bred by and the property of JAMES BUCKINGHAM, Duncans Falls, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF BEAUFORT (400); 2d sire Candy (153). Dam MEME 239 by Kirk Ayrs, full brother to the bull Beauty (365); 2d dam Flora (1285) by Rollo (546). =339 Venus,= Calved April 14th, 1860; bred by and the property of L. G. COLLINS, Linden, Montgomery County, Ind. Sire PRIAM 87; 2d sire Sultan (122). Dam DAISY 3D 75 by Herod (214); 2d dam Daisy 73 by Anchises (140); 3d dam Duchess imported by the late Rufus King, Long Island, N. Y., from the herd of the Earl of Leicester. =340 Venus,= Calved April 4th, 1861; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterbury, Conn.; the property of M. H. GRIFFIN, Middletown, Conn. Sire REUBEN 105; 2d sire Roscius (267); 3d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY 177 by Young Exeter 148; 2d dam Long Horn Fancy 214 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320). =341 Venus,= Calved July, 1860; bred by and the property of E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam LADY DODGE 192 by Earl of Leicester; 2d dam Lady Jane 195 by Bloomfield (372); 3d dam imported by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, in 1844. =342 Victoria,= Calved April, 1847; bred by and the property of J. N. BLAKESLEE, Watertown, Conn. Sire JUNO bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn.; 2d sire Bloomfield (148). Dam BEAUTY bred by E. M. White, Danbury, Conn., by Matchless 2d bred by J. F. Baird, both bred from stock procured from S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn. =343 Victoria 2d,= Calved June, 1854; bred by Messrs. PHELPS & COOK, Wolcottville, Conn.; the property of STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn. Sire ALBERT 2D bred by Messrs. Hurlbut and owned by N. B. Phelps, Wolcotville, Conn.; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam VICTORIA bred by George Patterson, Md., by Eclipse (191); 2d dam imported by Mr. Patterson from Mr. Bloomfield's herd, Norfolk, England. =344 Victoria 3d,= Calved January 1st, 1859; bred by C. F. WEST, Elyria, Ohio; the property of SAMUEL TOMS, Red House Farm, Elyria, Ohio. Sire DUKE OF DEVON (405) imported by R. C. Gapper, Toronto, C. W.; and bred by Mr. Davy, North Molton, England. Dam VICTORIA (1513) by Dibble (176) imported; 2d dam Sophia (1053) by Dibble (176); 3d dam Victoria (1106) by Holkham (215). =345 Victoria 3d,= Calved March 27th, 1859; bred by STANLEY GRISWOLD, Torringford, Conn.; the property of SETH S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire BOBOLINK (368) 2d sire Watch (585). Dam VICTORIA 2D 343 by Albert 2d bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 2d dam Victoria bred by George Patterson, Md., bought by Mr. Colt, N. J., and sold to W. L. Cowles, Farmington, Conn., by Eclipse (191); 3d dam presented to Mr. Patterson in 1817, by the Earl of Leicester. =346 Victoria 4th,= Calved February 15th, 1862; bred by and the property of S. S. LOGAN, Washington, Conn. Sire NERO from Bell 38; 2d sire Herod 2d bred by Mr. Patterson, Md. Dam VICTORIA 3d 345 by Bobolink (368); 2d dam Victoria 2d 343 by Albert (2); 3d dam Victoria bred by George Patterson, Md., by Eclipse (191). =347 Waterbury Beauty,= Calved March 2d, 1856; bred by B. H. ANDREWS, Waterford, Conn.; the property of WM. GORTON, Jr., Waterford, Conn. Sire DUKE OF YORK bred by Mr. Andrews; 2d sire Red Jacket bred by Mr. Andrews; 3d sire Juno bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 4th sire Bloomfield (148). Dam ELLA bred by Messrs. Hurlbut, and exported to Canada in 1856. =348 Wynona,= (1524) Calved May 8th, 1858; bred by and the property of H. M. SESSIONS, South Wilbraham, Mass. Sire REUBENS 2D 105 (552); 2d sire Reubens (116) imported. Dam JANE 161 (1329) by Albert (2); 2d dam Topsy 1st 335 by Bloomfield (148); 3d dam Fancy 1st (710) by Exchange (197); 4th dam Old Fancy (709) by Taurus (320); 5th dam one of the heifers presented by the Earl of Leicester to Robert Patterson, Md., in 1817. =349 Young Fairy,= Calved June, 1855; bred by W. H. MILLER, Mosco, Mich.; the property of JOHN ALLEN, Coldwater, Mich. Sire BALTIMORE (364); 2d sire Eclipse (191). Dam FAIRY bred by J. W. Collins, Sodus, N. Y., by Eclipse (191); 2d dam Caroline (1200) by a bull bred by Messrs. Hurlbut; 3d dam Victoria (1512) by Exchange (197). =350 Young Fancy,= Calved March 1st, 1859; bred by E. H. HYDE, Stafford, Conn.; the property of HUBBARD TUCKER, Vernon, Conn. Sire KOSSUTH 53; 2d sire Albert (2). Dam FANCY 105 (1271) from a pair bred by S. & L. Hurlbut, Winchester, Conn., and sold to Bela Tiffany. =351 Yuba 3d,= Calved December 4th, 1859; bred by and the property of EZRA CORNELL, Ithaca, Tompkins County, N. Y. Sire FORDHAM (432); 2d sire Frank Quartly (205). Dam YUBA (1529) by Uncas (324); 2d dam Rose (1020) by Major (237) 3d dam Cherry (581). Yuba 3d won the first prize as a heifer calf, at the New York State Fair at Elmira, in 1860. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Text uses both Nonpariel and Nonpareil. The individual listing of cattle is in only slightly alphabetical order. For example, Dawn comes after Dora Haines and before Dairy Maid and Diana. This was retained. Some of the names were probably misprints such as the occurrence of both Phatasie and Phantassie, but, as each only occurred once and you may name a cow whatever you like, these were retained. First section: Page 6, "Rotch, F. M." was out of order on the list of owners. It originally came after "Robbins". It was relocated. Page 8, "prefererable" changed to "preferable" (orange much preferable) Page 14, "Howit" changed to "Howitt" (owned by JOHN HOWITT) Page 16, "Mamaluke" changed to "Mameluke" (Orleans, by Mameluke, (2258)) Page 37, "prop-" changed to "property" (Conn.; property) Page 41, "Gywnne" changed to "Gwynne" (Gwynne, by Phenomenon) Page 44, "propperty" changed to "property" (Windsor, Conn.; property) Page 54, repeated word "and" deleted. Original read (white, bred and and) Second Section: Page 25, word "of" added to text (for the Promotion of) Page 29, "Willam" changed to "William" (Eliza, imported by William) Page 30, "importted" changed to "imported" (Lanarkshire, Scotland; imported) Page 31, "Tustees" changed to "Trustees" (Trustees of Massachusetts Society) Page 51, "Lannarkshire" changed to "Lanarkshire" (JAMES PEATE, Lanarkshire) Section Three: Page 6, "Chatauqua" changed to "Chautauqua" (Westfield, Chautauqua Co.) Page 20, (under 11 Bishop) "Renselear" changed to "Rensselaer" (by R. H. VAN RENSSELAER) Page 20, "Canadas" changed to "Canada" (other States and Canada) Page 29, (under 47 Hiawatha) "Hurlburt" changed to "Hurlbut" (Hurlbut; 3d sire Baronet) Page 33, "Sumerville" changed to "Somerville" (292 by Somerville (563)) Page 37, "Jannary" changed to "January" (Calved January 1st, 1860) Page 71, "Beuaty" changed to "Beauty" (Dam BEAUTY 16) Page 119, "Stawberry" changed to "Strawberry" (Dam STRAWBERRY 327) Page 123, "proporty" changed to "property" (property of E. H. HYDE) Page 134, "Hrrlbut" changed to "Hurlbut" (property of S. & L. HURLBUT) Page 142, "Water-" changed to "Waterford" (B. H. ANDREWS, Waterford, Conn.) 
37901	----	COPYRIGHT 1914 BY CARL DARE Profitable Squab Breeding By CARL DARE A complete practical guide for the beginner as well as the experienced breeder. Reliable information gleaned from the experience of a lifetime in the work. Full instructions on all points from the installation of the plant to the marketing of the product. Des Moines, Iowa 1914 [Illustration: CARL DARE Des Moines, Iowa, October 1, 1914.] TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I Profits of Squab Raising--Will It Pay? CHAPTER II Best Breeds for Squabbing--The Kind to Buy CHAPTER III The Construction of Houses--Pigeon House Plans--Nests--Water Fountains--Bathing Dishes--Keeping House in Sanitary Condition CHAPTER IV Feeds and Feeding--Breeding Habits CHAPTER V Increasing the Flock--Selecting Future Breeders--Banding--Mating CHAPTER VI Making a Market--Preparing Squabs for Market CHAPTER VII Diseases of Pigeons CHAPTER VIII Miscellaneous Information--Catching Mated Pairs [Illustration: A Typical Mammoth Homer. The Most Profitable for Squab Raising.] INTRODUCTORY PREFACE No business has had such a wonderful growth within the last few years as the raising of squabs for market. Only a few years ago the use of squabs for food was confined to a few of the most wealthy families. Game was plentiful and cheap and those who were not very well off preferred quail and other game birds to paying the high prices asked for the few squabs which were sent to market. Gradually the demand for squabs grew larger, as more people became acquainted with their delicacy and good qualities as food, and this led to larger numbers being produced. Soon all the larger markets furnished squabs and then the smaller ones began to supply them and now many a comparatively small market is not complete without squabs as a part of the supplies of food kept on hand or provided on order. Game birds have become scarce and high-priced, and squabs have taken their place in such a manner that the demand for game is not so large as it was, while the demand for squabs continually increases. The rearing of squabs for market is immensely profitable as well as easy. Squab-raising can be conducted on a scale large enough to make it worth while in the back yard of a town lot, or it can be conducted on a scale large enough to require several acres with equal profit on every dollar invested in the business. Squab-breeding is a business which is profitable when conducted as a side line on a small space and all the work may be done by women, children, or those who are not strong enough for the more laborious occupations of life. At the same time it is a business which men of affairs need not hesitate to undertake as there are squab farms on which pigeons are kept by tens of thousands with great profit. The squab business may be commenced with small capital and rapidly increased from the increase of the flock, as each pair of breeding birds will produce at least twelve in a year so the increase is very rapid. So great has the demand for a book which would give all the details of the business of squab-raising become, that we have felt compelled to publish this book. It is written to teach people, beginners mostly, not merely how to raise squabs, but how to conduct a squab and pigeon business successfully. We have found breeders of squabs who knew how to raise them fairly well and took pleasure in doing so, but were weak on the business end of the industry. The fancier, who raises animals because he likes their looks or their actions, or because he hopes to beat some other fancier at an exhibition, is not the man for whom we have written this book. We have developed utility pigeons and the squabbing industry solely because they are staples, salable in any market at a remunerative price. The success of squabs as we handle them depends on their earning capacity. They are a matter of business. Our development of squabs is based on the fact that they are good eating, that people now are in the habit of asking for and eating them, and there is a large traffic in them which may be pushed to an enormous extent without weakening either the market or the price. If, as happens in this case, pigeons are a beautiful pet stock as well as money makers so much the better. It is just as easy to pet a practical animal as an impractical animal, and much more satisfying. This book is the latest and most comprehensive work we have done, giving the results of our experience as fully and as accurately as we can present the subject. It is intended as an answer to the hundreds of letters we receive, and we have tried to cover every point which a beginner or an expert needs to know. It has been our experience in handling this subject and bringing it home to people that the little points are the ones on which they most quickly go astray, and on which they wish the fullest information. After they have a fair start, they are able to think out their operations for themselves. Accordingly we have covered every point in this book in simple language and if the details in some places appear too commonplace, remember that we have erred on the side of plainness. It has surprised a great many people to learn that pigeons are such a staple and workable article. They have been handled by the old methods for years without their great utility value being made plain. When we first learned about squabs, we were struck by the impressive fact that here was something which grew to market size in the incredibly short period of four weeks and then was marketed readily at a good profit. The spread of that knowledge will make money for you. Show your neighbors the birds; you tell them the facts, and perhaps give them a squab to eat, then you will find a quick call for all the live breeders you can supply. We have tried to answer all the questions which a beginner would ask and give all the details so plainly that any one can begin breeding pigeons and raising squabs with success. The instructions given are based on actual experience in raising squabs and we have tried to write so plainly that any one can understand just how to begin and continue in the business. Those who follow the instructions given may look forward with confidence to a successful career as pigeon-breeders provided they begin with the right kind of breeding stock, the kind which produces heavy-weight, plump, white-fleshed squabs. CARL DARE. Des Moines, Iowa, October 15, 1914. [Illustration: A Pair of Beautiful Blue Bar Mammoth Homers, Straight American Bred.] CHAPTER I PROFITS OF SQUAB RAISING--WILL IT PAY? In first considering squab breeding the beginner always asks, "Will It Pay Me to Raise Squabs?" It is well to consider this phase of any business before making very much of an investment. The squab business is comparatively new in this country although it has already reached such proportions that there can not be any doubt but it is the most profitable and pleasant business in which any one may engage. Under the methods outlined in this book there is no chance for a conscientious worker to fail. This country is filled with plants large and small and I have yet to find a plant that is not paying a handsome profit unless there be something wrong with the stock or methods employed. I have visited the great squab plants of California where thousands upon thousands of birds are left to fly at will and nest in open boxes protected only from the sun, and here I find that the squabs are paying a fine return on the investment and thousands of tourists visit these large plants annually and pay an admission fee of fifty cents each so that the revenue from this source is considerable. I have visited also the great squab district in South Jersey where the squabs are produced for the large cities of the East; the plants also in Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania, and I find that on the best equipped and best paying plants the methods employed are practically identical with those outlined in this book. The fact that experienced breeders in such widely separated sections of the country have adopted almost identical methods is certainly proof that we have the right idea and that the advice we give here to the beginner will be well worth while. The largest plants in the country are in the far East and far West as indicated, but I believe there is no one other state that has so many up-to-date plants as the state of Iowa. You will find a paying squab farm in nearly every city of this state, and in some of them there are two or three large and up-to-date, well equipped plants. In one little town in the northern part of the state there is a plant where over fifteen thousand breeders are kept right along. The proprietor of this plant has told me that when he began with a few pairs of Homers of indiscriminate breeding he had hardly enough funds to pay for the birds and their feed for the first few months. He now owns the large plant of several thousand birds of the purest stock with suitable buildings, and a beautiful home and drives an up-to-date seven-passenger auto-mobile. His son and daughter are both attending a university in the East and every cent of his money has been made with pigeons. If his were the only case of such kind there would still be proof enough of the profits in the squab business to justify careful consideration by anyone, but I personally know of thousands of others who have made a success, some of them on a larger scale, and there can no longer be any doubt of the opportunity of making money in this business. THE PROFITS OF SQUAB RAISING In another place in this book we have shown how easy it is to arrange a place in which to keep squabs. Hundreds of people are so situated that they could raise squabs who could not possibly take care of a flock of chickens, because they lack both time and space. In raising squabs the cost of attendance is reduced to the minimum. There are no eggs to be gathered, no setting hens or incubators to be looked after, no young birds to be fed and cared for. The pigeon-breeder simply puts his birds in the loft, feeds and waters them and they build their own nests and feed their young. The space that would be needed by a dozen hens will comfortably keep fifty or a hundred pairs of pigeons, and the revenue from a pair of pigeons in a year is about the same as from a good laying hen. The squab-breeder gets his money in four weeks, while the man who raises chickens must wait at least twelve weeks before he can sell his birds. The manure from a loft of pigeons can be sold as a garden fertilizer for enough to pay for the cost of feeding the birds. In many cities and towns florists consider pigeon manure the best fertilizer they can get for flowers and garden crops and large tanneries use tons of it in tanning leather. It usually sells for 50 cents a bushel in town for fertilizing lawns, flower and vegetable gardens. It will cost just about $1.00 to keep a pair of pigeons one year. When the writer visited the great squab farms of South Jersey, he particularly inquired about the cost of feeding a pair of pigeons one year. In that country most of the grain is shipped from the West and from Canada. The wheat comes from New York, Ohio, or states further west, the kaffir corn mostly comes from Kansas and the hemp seed from Kentucky. The peas come from Canada. All these grains are sold with the freight added to the initial price and the feed dealer's profit, of course. In the Mid-West the freight charges would be much smaller than they are in the East, so the cost of keeping a pair of pigeons would be considerably reduced. In the South Jersey squab district we found that the cost of keeping a pair of breeding Homers one year ranges from $1.10 to $1.25 a year. In other sections of the country the cost runs as low as 85 cents per pair. If a certain loft contains pigeons of extra breeding qualities, it will cost more for feed, as the old birds have more squabs to feed than would be the case where less productive birds were kept. It should be understood that when we give the cost of keeping a pair of breeding pigeons the cost of raising their squabs is included. That is when we say it costs about $1.00 to keep a pair of pigeons a year, we mean it will cost this amount to keep the pair and all the squabs they produce in a year. [Illustration: Fig. 1. A Handy, Home-made Net For Catching the Birds.] CHAPTER II THE BEST BREEDS FOR SQUAB RAISING--THE KIND TO BUY In selecting a breed, the beginner is at once struck by the hundreds of different varieties, each one with some merit, and each one put forward by breeders of more or less reputation as the one best variety to be handled. I believe I have thoroughly tried and tested the merits of all the leading varieties of squab producing pigeons and right here I wish to caution the beginner against paying fancy prices for highly advertised cross-bred stock. There is no advantage to be gained by crossing the blood lines of two or more varieties for breeding purposes. This is true in pigeons the same as it is true in every other line of pure bred stock. The best results will always be obtained by using pure bred birds and in selecting the variety to stock your plant you must have in mind the investment which you expect to make and the market on which you will sell your squabs. In all cities the squabs are graded according to size and quality and the heavier birds will bring a premium over those of light weight but in some cases the extra heavy birds bring such a premium that it is worth while to produce squabs of unusual size, while in the average market the extra heavy birds bring a little more than those of good weight but not enough to justify the increased expense in producing them. After an experience of twenty years in this business I do not hesitate to say that for the general market under all conditions, the best paying investment for the beginner is the straight American bred Homer. Reputable breeders of this variety will furnish stock of good size and they are the best workers and best feeders and will stand more abuse and mistreatment than any of the other varieties I have ever handled. Squabs from the best American bred Homers usually weigh eight and ten pounds per dozen with occasional lofts that will produce squabs weighing as heavy as twelve pounds to the dozen. Inferior stock that has not been properly fed will produce squabs much smaller than the above, but at the same time you will find their squabs weighing six or seven pounds to the dozen. If the squabs are plump and of good quality, they will bring a fair price. The Homers are the fastest workers and the best feeders and they will produce squabs under unfavorable conditions that would discourage all other varieties. For a second selection for the experienced squab breeder who has a market for large squabs of extra quality I would suggest the Giant Carneaux (pronounced Karno). These birds come to us from France and Belgium and they are a little larger than the Homers, fast workers and produce squabs of the whitest meat. Breeding stock in this variety is higher in price and usually costs two or three times as much as the Homer stock, and bearing in mind the added cost of foundation stock it would be noted at once that the returns must be larger from this variety to justify the increased expenditure. The Carneaux is a bold appearing, beautiful bird and comes in solid red, solid yellow, and red and white splashed. The latter color being much preferred by squab breeders. The Swiss Mondaine is an extra large variety that has met with considerable favor in this country, and the squabs from this variety often weigh as heavy as twenty-four or thirty ounces each. These birds very much resemble the American bred Homer in appearance except, of course, they are much larger. They are slower workers and the squabs require about two weeks longer to mature for market. Breeding stock is usually quite high in price. Duchess, Runts and Maltese Hens are all large birds and have some merit but I have not found them as profitable as the Homers or Carneaux because they are much slower to mature and do not breed as rapidly, moreover the stock is much higher in price. There are many Runt-Homers, Runt-Carneaux and other crosses on the market being widely advertised and boosted as great squab producers, but the infusion of the blood of any of the larger varieties is bound to make such birds slower workers and less prolific. Taking all of these things into consideration and as a result of many years in the business and after carefully testing the merits of so many varieties I must insist that the beginner will do the best with straight American Bred Homers of the right quality, or the Giant Carneaux. BUYING THE STOCK Always buy of a reputable breeder whose word may be taken for the quality of his birds. The reputable breeder sells in the hope of selling again and sells only such birds as he can recommend and knows will give satisfaction. If the reputable breeder says the pair he sells are mated it may be depended upon that there are an equal number of each sex in a purchase and that these pairs are already mated and ready to go to work almost as soon as they are in their new homes. The beginner must not be impatient if the birds after shipment are a little slow in going to work, for he must remember that many of these birds have been taken from their nests and their young and shipped many miles with indifferent care en-route and some of the matings may have been more or less broken up. Many beginners fuss too much with their birds and disturb them until the birds have little chance to settle down in their new homes and go to work. If you provide clean fresh water and feed as directed in this book and leave the birds to themselves they will soon be working. Some very reputable breeders sell young birds with the understanding that they are sold just as they come from the nests, the buyer knowing when he buys these birds that they are not mated and that he must wait until the birds have arrived at mating age and get ready to mate themselves. When birds are bought just as they come from the nests, there are always more cocks than hens among them, as about nine times in ten when only one bird is reared in a nest that bird is a cock; but there is nothing unfair in this sort of sale, as the buyer gets his birds at a lower price than he would have to pay for mated pairs ready to go to work. If it should be found when the birds are settled to work in their new home that some mistake has been made in selecting mated pairs and odd birds are found in the loft any reputable breeder will furnish birds of the opposite sex to mate with these odd birds at a reduced price, so the purchaser will have nothing but mated and working pairs for his money. WHAT IS MEANT BY MATED PAIRS When we say mated pairs, we do not mean simply an equal number of birds of each sex. We mean pairs which have mated and married and are ready to go to work and rear squabs without further waiting after they have been received. Pigeons mate in pairs and remain constant to each other for life, as a rule. Matings are some times broken by the birds themselves especially when some accident has befallen the young in the nest, or when the birds are being disturbed by rats or mice, or when cooped and shipped with a number of other birds in small shipping coops. [Illustration: Pure White Maltese Hen Pigeon.] When a pair have gone through the courting stage and have mated ready to build a nest and hatch young, they remain true to each other as long as they live, or as long as they are allowed to remain together. If a mating is broken by death or separation, the birds will mate with other birds. This rule of constancy is rarely broken and may generally be depended upon. Some pigeon books say that a beginner can do as well with the common pigeons that fly about the streets as with the straight Homers. This statement is absurd on the face of it. The common pigeon has bred indiscriminately and inbred until the squab produced by it is thin, light in weight, skinny and dark fleshed to such a degree that they sell for about $1.50 a dozen in the markets. Most people would willingly pay three times that for the plump, meaty squabs from straight American bred Homers. The beginner who secures the right kind of stock has made the first long step toward success as a squab-breeder and he should not hesitate to pay the price which good breeding stock is worth, for poor breeding stock means failure and loss in the end. Your success depends upon the stock you buy. It is much better to buy good stock at a fair price than it is to get poor stock for nothing. No man can tell by looking at a lot of breeding pigeons whether they are good breeders or not. No man can tell whether they will produce squabs with white flesh or dark, squabs that will weigh ten pounds to the dozen or six pounds. No one can even guess at the age of a pair of pigeons and those which are old and worn out look just as nice as those which are only a year old. The whole future of the beginner depends upon getting stock which is right in every way. Imported birds are usually of all ages and qualities. American-bred birds, if bought of a reputable breeder, may be depended upon to produce a large proportion of heavy, light-fleshed squabs and properly selected and mated pairs will go to work and breed regularly as soon as they have become accustomed to their new home. For these reasons I would not advise the purchase of imported birds except on rare occasions after carefully investigating the stock and the circumstances of their importation. [Illustration: Fig. 2. Showing a Well Arranged Squab Plant of Moderate Size With Colony Coop for Poultry in the Foreground.] CHAPTER III The Construction of Houses PIGEON HOUSE PLANS--NESTS--WATER FOUNTAINS--BATHING DISHES--KEEPING THE HOUSE IN SANITARY CONDITION No doubt many a person has been deterred from making a start in the business of raising squabs on account of the fancied expense of building suitable houses. No one should make the mistake of thinking that a costly house is necessary. To be sure a well built, nicely painted house is ornamental and adds to the appearance of a squab-breeding plant; but this will come before long if the beginner has the proper qualifications and the ability to increase the size of his flock as rapidly as he may with good care and attention to his business. The writer has traveled all over the great squab-breeding sections of the East and West and found about every kind of a pigeon house that the ingenuity of man has ever been able to build. We have seen houses which cost thousands of dollars and those which were built of the odd boards that were picked up about the farm. We have seen as fine birds and as large squabs in a house improvised from piano boxes as we ever saw in any of the great squab-breeding plants. It is not so much a question of looks in a house as it is of comfort and good care. One of the finest squab-breeding plants in this country has grown up from a few birds which were housed at first in a corner of the barn. The owner persevered and kept adding to his flock as he made money from it, and he now has fine buildings and thousands of birds, all earned from an initial investment of something like $25. Not a cent was ever added to the original investment, all the increase and improvement in buildings having been paid for out of the earnings of the birds themselves. Before we go further, let us say that the pigeon-breeders do not talk about pigeon houses. A house or room in which pigeons are kept is called a "loft," whether it is on the ground floor or in the peak of a barn. The pigeon house is a loft and the flock of pigeons kept in a loft is called a loft of pigeons. It is just as well to get the proper terms used in the business at first, as pigeon-breeders always use them. To return to our pigeon loft. A loft may be made in the corner of a stable or other out-house, with a fly outside. We might explain for the benefit of the beginner that a pigeon "fly" is a wired-in yard, a sort of big cage in which the pigeons are kept within limits. The flies are made by setting up posts about eight feet high and stretching two-inch mesh poultry netting on them. A fly is usually about ten feet wide and from twelve to thirty feet long. This is covered over the top with the same kind of poultry netting that is used on the sides. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Showing End View of House No. 1.] We have seen as good pigeon lofts as any one would need made in the loft of a stable, the fly being on the roof. Posts were so set up on the roof that their tops were even with the peak of the roof. The enclosure was then shut in, sides and top, with poultry netting and the birds had a roomy and dry fly which was always clean, as the rains washed the droppings off the roof at frequent intervals. In Chicago, we saw an extensive pigeon loft on the top of a flat-topped building high above the street; and a very well-known squab breeding establishment in a southern state is on top of a big hotel, the owner breeding the squabs he needs for his hotel in this high-placed situation. From the foregoing it will be seen that the question of housing the breeding pigeons is not a very complicated one, as there is a wide latitude for action. Some breeders even allow their birds to fly at large not using flies at all; but this practice is not recommended. In the first place, the birds do not produce so many squabs as they do under confinement and they are liable to accidents, such as being caught by hawks, shot by boys, or some other mishap which causes the owner to lose them and often lose squabs which such birds have in their nests. It has been found best to keep the birds strictly confined. One well-known squab-raiser has a pen of fifty pairs of birds in his lofts which have been confined in the same place for seven years and are still working well. The writer visited this loft at the end of the seventh year of their confinement and noticed that they were producing squabs at a good rate. For the convenience of beginners, we give ground plan and elevation of two styles of pigeon lofts. The loft designed as No. 1, may be built at a cost as low as $15.00, for one room, or it may be made to cost $50 or even more. It will be seen that the plan is for two rooms, but this is not the limit of size that is possible. We have seen lofts with a dozen rooms in them, but would recommend about four rooms as the most convenient limit where pigeons are kept extensively. Where a four-room house is built for lofting purposes, the plan should include a storeroom unless the owner has a room which conveniently can be used for a storeroom for feed and as a place for dressing and packing the squabs. In House No. 2, it will be seen that an alleyway is built in the house back of the lofts. The partition between this alleyway and the lofts is made of two-inch poultry netting, but the partitions between the rooms are solid and as air tight as the outside walls. A good many breeders are now using stout muslin instead of glass in the windows, as this gives light, lets the warmth of the sun enter the rooms and provides a good system of ventilation. Houses in which cloth windows are used are found to be fully as warm as those having glass windows. On the side of the house next the fly, a series of openings is made near the roof, but low enough to open under the top of the fly. These openings may be about eight inches square with a six-inch wide shelf even with the bottom inside and outside. These are the doors through which the pigeons go back and forth to and from the fly, and the shelves beneath them are the lighting perches. These openings should be provided with a sliding door so that they can be closed when it is desirable to shut out the cold or to confine the birds for any reason. NESTS In providing nests for a loft, at least two nests for each pair of birds should be provided. This gives the birds a chance to build a new nest to use while the squabs are maturing in another, as after the birds begin to breed they will have eggs in one nest while they have a pair of squabs in another. Some breeders provide 120 nests for fifty pairs of birds, but this is rather more than is necessary. The nest boxes are easily made. The illustration on page 21 shows very clearly the manner of constructing them. In practice, boards one foot wide on which cleats one inch square are nailed across, one foot apart, are set against the wall in perpendicular lines one foot apart and firmly secured, the edge being to the wall, of course. This leaves the cleats opposite each other. Then boards one foot square are cut and laid on these cleats. When the work is done, we have a series of nests one foot every way, each shelf forming the bottom of a nest and the top of the one under it. If nappies are not used, a cleat should be nailed on the front edge of the shelves in order that the nesting will not be worked out by the birds. Nests made in this way are very easily cleaned, as the shelves may be drawn out and cleaned without trouble. NAPPIES Nappies are dishes or bowls of a peculiar shape which are made for pigeon nests. These nappies are used by a great many pigeon-breeders, but we have not found them necessary as the birds are perfectly able to build their own nests and will do so if the nest boxes are provided. Where only a few pairs of birds are kept, we have seen boxes used for nests. Boxes about the size of orange crates are used, these being divided into two compartments and fastened to the wall by nails driven through the bottom. We recommend that regular nests be provided as they give a nearer appearance to the lofts and are more easily cleaned. NESTING MATERIAL A good supply of nesting material should be provided for the pigeons. This may be short straw, or coarse hay in short lengths, but the best material is tobacco stems which may be bought at about one cent a pound from the stores that keep pigeon and poultry supplies. These tobacco stems prevent insects from being harbored in the nests and save a great deal of trouble in this way. The ideal nest is one made of tobacco stems for a foundation and then finished with soft straw. [Illustration: Fig. 4. Showing a Cheap and Convenient Arrangement for Nests. Many Breeders Prefer to Use This Style of Nest Box Without the Nappies, Tacking a Strip Across the Front to Hold the Nesting Material.] WATER FOUNTAINS Pigeons are great drinkers and should be watered at least twice a day as they need a plentiful supply of fresh water. The best way to supply this is by using the regular watering fountains which are made for this purpose. These may be bought through almost any breeder who sells pigeons. If the one of whom the pigeons are bought does not keep them for sale, he will give the name of a firm which handles them. These fountains cost only a small sum and they keep the water clean, whereas if open water vessels are used, the water becomes foul with dirt and dust. BATHING Pigeons must be provided with facilities for bathing, as they will not keep in good health if they cannot have a bath regularly. They delight in getting into water and bathing themselves all over. An ordinary big dishpan makes a good bath-tub for pigeons, or a barrel so cut off as to be four inches deep makes a good tub for bathing purposes. Empty the bath-tub as soon as the pigeons have finished their baths to prevent them from drinking the foul water. SANITATION A pigeon loft must be kept free from insects and disease germs by carefully attending to sanitary conditions. The free use of lice-killers, cleaning the nests out as soon as the squabs are taken from them and whitewashing the whole interior of the loft at least twice a year will keep the enemies of the birds from gaining a foothold, as well as destroy stray disease germs which may be floating in the air. DRYNESS Pigeons must have a dry loft or they will fall victims to disease. To keep the houses dry they should have the floor at least a foot from the ground and the location should be such that water does not stand around the house or under it. Make the floor double, so that it will be air-tight and let the air circulate under the house freely. Two objects are accomplished by having the floor off the ground; the rooms are kept dry and rats will not burrow under the house. FLOOR COVERING The floor of the pigeon houses should be kept covered with about an inch of sand, if this can be procured handily. Otherwise keep it covered with chaff, which should frequently be renewed. [Illustration: Fig. 5. Showing Construction of Crate for Nesting Material. The cover is removable and protects the material from the droppings and filth. Tobacco stems, straw or hay cut into lengths of six or eight inches, should be kept before the birds at all times and this crate is the handiest and best way to furnish this material.] CLEANLINESS It is necessary to keep the pigeon lofts clean. Some breeders advocate cleaning them every week, we think a good cleaning once a month will do. Every time the lofts are cleaned, the birds must be disturbed more or less, and this results in some little loss, so the matter of cleanliness should not be carried to extreme. If the house is dry and light, the droppings will quickly dry up and will not become offensive for several weeks. [Illustration: Fig. 6. Showing Ground Plan of House No. 1.] [Illustration: Fig. 7. Showing Ground Plan of House No. 2.] CHAPTER IV FEEDS AND FEEDING--BREEDING HABITS Pigeons are exclusive grain eaters. They do not require animal food of any kind, nor is green food necessary for them. Occasionally a nice tender head of lettuce may be given to each loft and they will eat it with relish, but such green foods as grass, lawn clippings, or cut clover should never be given them. The lettuce is not necessary but may be given by way of variety, but not more than one head to fifty pairs of birds. The principal feeds are red wheat, sifted cracked corn, Canada peas, kaffir corn, hemp seed and German millet seed. Besides these, buckwheat, barley, and canary seed may sometimes be given; but the first-named constitute a good variety and should be used as a constant feed. All of them are necessary and they should be properly rotated. SOUND GRAIN NECESSARY We want to emphasize the fact that all grain used for feeding pigeons must be sound and wholesome. It is the very poorest kind of economy to feed shrunken, musty, or damaged grain of any kind. WHEAT The wheat used should be sound red wheat which has been thoroughly dried. New wheat should never be used. Good No. 2 red wheat, at least six months out of the straw, should be selected. PEANUTS In many localities Canada Peas are so high in price that breeders can hardly afford to feed them but the cheapest raw peanuts may be obtained at a low price and these will take the place of the Canada Peas and give just the same results. I have found them very satisfactory as a feed and hundreds of my customers have reported excellent results with them. CRACKED CORN Sound, well dried, No. 2 sifted cracked corn should be used for pigeons. By well dried, we mean that the corn should be of the crop of the previous year. It should be cracked so that the pieces will be about the size of wheat grains. It should be sifted to separate the fine meal, as the pigeons will not eat the meal and if it is left in the food troughs it will sour and produce bowel trouble in the birds, old and young. CANADA PEAS Canada peas should be well dried out, selecting those of the previous year as they are thoroughly dry and sound. This is the highest priced feed the pigeon-keeper will need to buy but it is not fed largely, being used sparingly on account of the great nutritive qualities, which cause squabs to grow rapidly and make heavy breast meat. KAFFIR CORN Kaffir corn has become a regular article of sale and can be bought almost anywhere. It is between wheat and corn in value and makes a very good pigeon feed. Buy seed of the previous year when buying for pigeons. HEMP SEED But a small quantity of hemp seed is used. If too much were given the birds they would become very fat and get lazy. A good plan is to throw a handful of hemp seed on the floor once a week on a stated day, say Wednesday. Never put hemp seed in a feed trough, as the first birds to get to the trough would "hog" all the seed. MILLET SEED The seed of the German millet makes an excellent pigeon feed. It also is quite fattening and must be used sparingly. It is usually quite cheap, compared with its food value, and should be kept on hand at all times. BUCKWHEAT Buckwheat is very fattening and should be fed sparingly. The pigeon-breeder need not take any special pains to get it for his birds, but in some localities buckwheat is raised extensively and in these places the grain may be used by way of variety. Buckwheat is very heating and therefore is best used in severe cold weather. CANARY SEED Canary seed is too costly to use as a regular feed, but birds relish a small feed once in a while. In some parts of this country canary seed might be grown very easily and it would find a large sale if enough of it were produced to meet the demand which would soon grow up. [Illustration: Fig. 8. Showing End View of House No. 2.] OTHER FOOD REQUISITES Pigeons require, besides the grain they eat, salt, grit, and charcoal. These should be kept in the lofts constantly, so that the birds can get at them at any time. GRIT Pigeons must have grit and plenty of it at all times. Moreover this grit should contain some tonic mixture and other essentials to keep the birds in the best of working order. Many breeders fail to supply their birds with grit of the right sort and for that reason do not get the best results from their birds. There are many so-called "Health Grits" on the market and many of them with more or less merit but grits are heavy and freight and express charges are high so it is usually best for the breeder to secure clean sharp sand and mix the grit at home. There is great saving in this and at the same time better results are obtained. SALT Salt is absolutely necessary to the health of the pigeons. It should never be given them in the form of table salt, because they will eat too much of it. If rock salt can be secured, it is the best form in which to give salt to the pigeons. If this is not procurable, buy a five-pound bag of table salt and wet it. Then put it in the oven and dry it, when it will become almost as hard as the original rock salt. Put a bag in each loft and let the pigeons pick out the salt through the bag. CHARCOAL Charcoal keeps the birds in good condition and a cigar box full of charcoal, broken into bits about the size of wheat grains, should constantly be kept before the birds. This crushed charcoal is to be found in poultry supply stores. If none of these are within reach, the pigeon-breeder may make his own charcoal by burning wood to a coal and then extinguishing the fire with water. Corn cobs, charred in this way, make an excellent charcoal for pigeons. [Illustration: Swiss Mondaine. Very large but usually slow workers.] HOW TO FEED It is usually best to feed pigeons by hand. They should be fed twice every day. In summer, feed at 7:30 a. m., and at winter 4:30 p. m. In winter, feed an hour later in the morning and an hour earlier in the evening. Of course, these hours may be varied but the feeding should be done at the same hour every day, morning and evening, as the birds soon become accustomed to the feeding hours and if not fed on time become very restless. Many successful breeders feed their birds in hoppers thereby greatly reducing the labor of feeding. This method is successful unless the birds get to picking out only certain grains and then more or less trouble will be met. It is always necessary to construct hoppers in such form that the birds cannot get into them and foul the grain, but this is a very simple matter as shown by the illustration on next page. Mixed grains sufficient for several days feeding may be placed in these hoppers and the birds will eat only what they need for each meal. FEED TROUGHS Feed troughs should be ten inches wide, six feet long and three inches deep. These are easily made and are much better than any of the automatic hoppers on the market. Where the feed is given in hoppers the birds will eat the kind they like best and waste much of the rest of the feed. MIXTURES RECOMMENDED For the morning mix equal parts of wheat, cracked corn and Canada peas. Give three quarts of this mixture to each fifty pairs of birds. For the evening feed kaffir corn, cracked corn, millet and Canada peas, equal parts. Give three quarts to each fifty pairs of birds. Every third day, substitute hemp seed for millet, or feed a little less of the regular ration and throw a handful or two of hemp seed on the floor as recommended above. If broken rice can be bought cheaply a small feed of this may be substituted for one of the feeds of hemp seed each week. Peanuts may be substituted for Canada peas wherever it will mean a saving in cost. ALWAYS FEED INDOORS Never feed pigeons out of doors, as any feed left over is likely to be damaged by the weather; and in bad weather they must be fed indoors, so it is best to feed them indoors at all times. [Illustration: Fig. 9. Showing Construction of Feeding Hoppers. Fig. A shows end construction of the double hopper from which the birds may feed at both sides and Fig. B shows construction of the single hopper. The style illustrated may be made in a few minutes from an old box and will hold about four bushels of grain. This method of feeding saves a great amount of time and labor.] ECONOMICAL FEEDING The pigeon breeder should always feed his birds, so that he will know it is properly done. If at any time any of the grain from a previous feed is left in the troughs, the ration should be reduced a little. If the troughs are emptied in a way that shows the birds have not plenty to eat, add a little to the quantity given them. Pigeons which are feeding squabs require more feed than those not working, as they must eat enough for the squabs and for themselves also. Squabs are fed by the parents in a most peculiar way. The old birds, male and female, eat the grain and drink water freely. This is partially digested until it is formed into a milky liquid mass. Then the squab puts its beak inside that of the parent bird and the parent by a peculiar jerking motion of the head and neck "pumps" this liquid food into the crop of the young bird. This feed is called "pigeon's milk" and is very nutritious, young squabs growing more rapidly than any other kind of young birds. BREEDING HABITS The breeding habits of pigeons are peculiar. When a male has selected the female he desires for his mate, there follows a course of true love-making in which the male struts around his favorite, coos to her and evidently tries to show her what a grand bird he is. The female, if attracted by her wooer, becomes friendly with him and the two "bill" each other very much as if they were exchanging kisses. The two then select a nesting place and build a nest therein and the cock bird becomes very anxious for the hen to begin laying. If she does not promptly attend to her duties, he will drive her about the loft, talking angrily to her and striking her with his wings. Finally the hen takes to her nest and deposits an egg. Then she misses a day and deposits a second egg, this usually being all that are laid at one time. As soon as the first egg is laid, brooding begins. The hen occupies the nest from about four in the afternoon until ten the next forenoon. The cock then sits while his mate eats and rests. In this order the brooding goes on and at the end of about seventeen days the first laid egg hatches, and in due course the last one hatches if no accidents have happened to it. In this way it happens that one of the young birds is two days older than the other and almost invariably the first hatched is a male, the latter one being a female. The old birds now begin to feed the young, and they grow marvelously. They are kept stuffed full of "pigeon milk" and on this they seem to grow while one watches them. In a few days the hen is ready to lay again, and if there is a spare nest box the pair makes another nest and the hen lays two eggs, after which the couple are kept very busy brooding one pair of eggs and at the same time feeding a pair of rapidly growing squabs. When the squabs are about four weeks old they are heavier than they ever will be again in their lives, as they have reached full size and are very fat. It is at this time that they are taken from the nest and sent to the market. If not taken from the nest about this time, the old birds, desiring to start with another pair of eggs, turn the squabs out and they fall on the floor of the loft so fat they can hardly get about. Here they become lean while learning to eat for themselves, and soon become sleek and trim, instead of being unwieldy with fat. This doubling up with families shows the necessity of providing at least two nest boxes for each pair of pigeons in a loft. It is even better to have more than two nests for each pair, as this gives them some liberty of choice and often saves quarreling between two couples. As pigeons mate for life, it is very important that only mated and married pairs are kept together. If an odd cock or an odd hen is left in a loft, there are family troubles without end; and the quarrels which arise from this cause result in broken eggs and squabs killed in the fights. It sometimes happens that a pair will not produce young. This is usually because the hen is barren. In such a case the hen should be disposed of and a new mate for the cock furnished. It is best to shut the two in a box with a wire partition between the two until they become acquainted with each other, after which they will usually mate, although they do not invariably do so. DETERMINING THE SEX. It is very difficult to determine the sex of pigeons without watching them at work in the fly. Various breeders have methods by which they are sometimes able to distinguish the male from the female but at best, these methods are only a guess and the only safe way is to place the birds in a mating coop or in a fly with others and watch them carefully. As a rule the bones at the vent of a female are wider apart and softer than those of a male, especially in older birds that have laid and hatched young. Sometimes the sex may be determined by an examination of the tail feathers, those of the male being worn on the under side at the ends from throwing the tail down against the ground or the roof of the loft when strutting. Others hold the bird by the beak in one hand and the feet in the other and then when the bird is stretched out, the male will usually hold the tail close to the body, while the female will throw her tail out. These signs are only indications of the sex and even the most experienced breeder will often be badly fooled in handling unmated birds. The best and safest way is to watch the birds, as stated above, and it will quickly be noted that the male is livelier than the female and is usually cooing and strutting about her and will turn entirely around in his flirting while the female seldom turns more than half way around. [Illustration: Fig. 10. Showing the Construction of a Practical and Convenient Fly.] CHAPTER V INCREASING THE FLOCK--SELECTING FUTURE BREEDERS BANDING--MATING Almost everyone who raises squabs finds that he must constantly increase the number of breeding pigeons in his lofts in order to keep pace with the increasing demand for squabs. The most economical way to increase a flock is to save the best squabs from the first breeding stock bought; and to do this it is necessary to select squabs for this purpose as they are hatched, the object being to improve the quality of the flock by keeping only the best of the squabs. Where a flock is being increased, it is a good plan to buy some new stock which has been banded and mate the cocks which have been bought with home-raised hens and the hens which have been bought with some home-raised cocks. This saves inbreeding. Close inbreeding soon runs down the vitality of a flock and should be avoided. This matter will be taken up further on. As we have said, the first pigeon to hatch in the nest is almost invariably a cock and the last one a hen. This rule is so constant that it may be depended upon. In selecting squabs for breeding stock, always select those from the nests of pairs which produce squabs most regularly. Such squabs are more likely to be good producers themselves. Select the squabs which grow most rapidly and weigh the most at the time they are ready for the market. Such squabs are from pairs which are good feeders and will be most likely to become good feeders themselves. Be sure to select squabs which have light-colored flesh, as these will produce squabs like themselves and light flesh brings the highest price in the market, unless they are sent in too soon. When we say the light color in flesh of a squab denotes that it will produce light-fleshed squabs, it is to be understood that this will be the case if the parents are properly fed according to directions given in a previous chapter. Pigeons which are kept confined and properly fed always produce more and better squabs than those allowed to run at large. Having selected the squabs which are to be retained for breeding purposes, band them at once. Open pigeon bands can be bought at about a cent each. The best plan is to band the cocks right leg and the hens on the left, using consecutive numbers for each pair. Thus, 111 might be a cock and 112 hen. In making matings, the owner would know at once that these two were not to be allowed to mate together, as they would be brother and sister. If, in any case, nest mates show inclination to mate together, they should be shut away from each other, and forced to mate with non-related birds. A forced mating is made by using a mating pen. This is a cage with two compartments in it, separated by a wire screen, such as two-inch mesh poultry netting. Put the cock in one side and the hen with which you want him to mate in another, and leave them in the pen until they are acquainted with each other. Then shut them in the same compartment and usually they will mate up with each other all right. Squabs which are to be kept for breeding should be taken away from the older birds as soon as they have learned to eat for themselves. Feed them well all the time, and at the age of about six months they will begin to mate and then require regular attention, as they should be kept under close supervision at this time. As soon as a male bird is seen "driving" a female, both should be caught and their bands examined. If they are nest mates they should be separated as recommended in the beginning of this chapter and forced to mate with other birds. It will only be necessary to remove the cock bird, substituting another cock in his place. If the cock and the hen he is driving are not nest mates, their band numbers should be recorded in a book kept for this purpose. Such a record gives the owner an opportunity to keep account of the number of squabs a given pair produces and to pick squabs for breeding in the future, knowing what the parents have done. The record should give the number of the cock and hen and a brief description of each. The following form is recommended: Cock 111--Red Check, Hen 222--Blue Bar. Each pair should have a space in which to keep account with it. After the number and description may be a ruled space in which to keep account of the number of squabs the pair produces month after month. If they regularly produce and raise two squabs of good size and light color, they are valuable as the parents of breeding stock and should be kept. If a pair does not produce squabs, the chances are then the hen is barren and she would be sold for what she will bring in the market and the cock mated with another bird. If the eggs are infertile, the trouble is likely with the cock and the matings should be broken and two birds tried again. If the eggs still are infertile, the cock should be sold in the market. Usually there are more cocks than hens in a given lot of squabs and it is easier to give a hen which lays infertile eggs a new mate and sell the cock without experimenting further. Barren hens and impotent cocks are not common in well bred birds, and very little trouble may be anticipated from such causes. When one of a pair of squabs dies, the chances are about nine out of ten that the female of the pair dies. This is because she is two days younger than her brother and has less chance to get a start. Thus it happens that every loft produces more cocks than hens, a circumstance which has led some of the hucksters who sell pigeons as squab-raisers to send out lots of birds in which there were many more cocks than hens. This is why we have insisted that the buyer should buy from a reliable breeder and buy mated pairs. In a loft containing fifty young cocks and fifty young hens it almost always happens that the matings are not all made up, as some birds refuse to mate with certain other ones, and there may be a few birds which have not mated. In this case the odd birds may be put among other young birds and so find mates that suit them. In catching pairs at the time they are being recorded, or when they are to be sold as breeders, two people should do the work. A catching net, which is a netted bag the mouth of which is fastened to a hoop with a long handle, is used. The pigeon breeder soon gets so expert that he can trap a pigeon in such net without fail and without disturbing the other birds in the loft. When a couple of pigeons is found driving, the one who does the catching traps one of them with the net while his helper keeps watch on the other one of the pair. The captured pigeon is examined and its band number put on the record. Then the helper takes the net and catches the one he has been watching and the band number is taken, always remembering that a bird with a band on the right leg is a cock and one with a band on the left is a hen. If the method here recommended is followed, the pigeon-keeper will be able to know just what each pair of birds is doing and keep a pedigree of every bird in his flock by a simple method of bookkeeping as follows: When the squabs that are to be kept as breeders are being banded the band numbers of the parent birds should be taken and set down in this way: Squab numbers Parent numbers Cock 111 84-67 Hen 112 84-67 In making this record the number under the head "Parent numbers" is always set down in the same way, the name of the father first and the mother next. It is but very little trouble to keep such records and the value of them is very great, for the pigeon-keeper can refer to his records at any time and find how any bird that was hatched in his lofts has been bred. This enables him to select the best producers and feeders and improve his stock all the time, selling off its inferior ones and keeping up a high standard, which will in time give him a reputation for squabs or breeding stock that will be valuable to him, as he will get higher prices than he could get for ordinary stock. On a large plant this method means an endless amount of bookkeeping work so it has not been attempted. The largest breeders do not bother to band their birds or keep a record of squab production for each individual pair but usually have a pen of select breeders that have proven their worth and from these are raised the new breeders to replenish or increase the flocks. When a bird dies out of the working flock it is dissected to determine the sex and another of the same sex is placed in the fly to mate with the odd bird. These two soon get together and the fly is once more filled with mated, contented workers. CHAPTER VI MAKING A MARKET--PREPARING SQUABS FOR MARKET We make one of the sub-heads of this chapter, "Making a Market," although the market for squabs is already established, and the demand for them in the larger cities is constantly increasing. Notwithstanding this, the enterprising squab-breeder will make his own market and get better prices than he can get if he sends his squabs to the larger cities. In the beginning he may be obliged to ship to the cities, but he can build up a home trade among those who like to have the best the market affords and by degrees his home demand will grow until he will find a ready sale nearby and will be saved freight and commission charges as well as the cost and trouble of packing and icing for the longer shipments. We know of numerous cases where squab-breeders have built up a home demand which takes all the squabs and brings them high prices the year around. Very often the enterprising beginner will turn his attention to raising squabs to sell to others for breeding purposes, and finds this very profitable, although a good market for squabs is about the same as a good demand for breeding stock. Other squab breeders arrange to sell their young stock to those who do breed pigeons to sell as breeding stock and thus have a regular and constant demand for their young birds. All these ways of disposing of the increase of the loft are open to the beginner, but the food market is the one that should be cultivated. We know of a case where a beginner started in with a view of selling breeding stock only, as he thought he was not so located that he would have any demand for his squabs in the handiest market, a small interior city, where squabs had never been put on sale. After he got started he found that he could sell a few pairs of squabs to one or two restaurants and the best hotel in the town. He began supplying orders from these places and others began to call on him for squabs for special occasions, such as local banquets, receptions and other social functions. He started with fifty pairs of breeders. He selected his best squabs to keep for the purpose of increasing his flock and sold the others in his nearest market. At the end of a year he had saved another fifty pairs for breeding and found he had sold squabs enough to pay for a new house and all of the feed he had bought during this time. Then he concluded to begin advertising squabs for sale as breeders. He received quite a number of orders, but the demand for squabs for the market became so strong that he gave up the breeding part of the business and began to sell in the market only. At last so many were sold in the town that a prominent provision firm came to him and made him a flat offer of $4.00 a dozen for all the squabs he would raise. He refused this offer, as he was getting more than this for a good many of his squabs and did not think he could afford to make a binding contract on a market where the price was increasing all the time. This same breeder now has a thousand pairs of breeding pigeons and hires a man to take care of them, while he attends to his own business, and makes about $1,000.00 clear money from his pigeons every year. Another way to build up a private trade is to introduce nicely dressed squabs among the wealthiest families of a town. This can be done by presenting them with two or three pairs, nicely put up in a box, and asking them to try them. One breeder who started out in this way now sells all his squabs at $1.00 a pair. He dresses them neatly, puts a pair in a nice white box with a colored bit of "baby ribbon." He has a demand for all he can get at $1 a pair, although he lives near a large city where the price is often lower than this. The enterprising squab breeder will be able to find a market for the product of his loft, no matter where he lives. The express companies carry squabs at the regular dressed-poultry rates, and in many places there are fast freight lines which take butter and eggs to distant markets in the shortest possible time. The Parcel Post now brings a large field of customers right to your door, for dressed squabs may be sent many miles for a few cents and the package will be promptly delivered in good order to your customer. This new branch of the Postal service opens up greater possibilities for the squab producer and the live breeder who first takes advantage of this service will reap the rewards. Squabs properly packed may be sent 1,000 miles to market and yet be profitable, but there is hardly a place in this country where a good market can not be found within 200 or 300 miles, and even a thousand miles is not a long distance for an express train. The trouble will not be so much where to find a market as how to produce squabs enough, once the breeder has been in the business long enough to make a name for himself. If any breeder sends squabs of good size and color and keeps up the quality regularly, it will not be long before there will be a call for his particular brand of squabs, and after that it will be a question of meeting the demand, for this will grow all the time. DRESSING AND PACKING SQUABS Squabs are usually ready to send to the market when four weeks old. Some well-fed ones, or those bred from the best parents, will come to market condition a few days earlier and some a few days later. As a rule, it will be about four weeks from the time they are hatched until they are ready to send to market. They should be dressed just about the time they are ready to leave the nest, for they are heavier and fatter at that time than they ever will be again. They should be dressed at the time all the pin feathers are out. They then have a solid feeling about the abdomen and the breast is plump and full. It is very easy to learn the exact time that squabs should be sent to market, and anyone can learn it at once. Go over the nests in the evening and select the squabs which are to be dressed the next day. These should be put in a coop by themselves, where they can not get anything to eat, so their crops will be empty when they are dressed. If they are sent to market with full crops, the contents of the crop will sour and ferment and spoil the squabs for food purposes in a short time. When dressed with the crops empty and properly iced in warm weather, they will remain fresh until they can be sold in the market. A "killing rack" should be made before dressing begins. This consists of a frame not quite shoulder high, a 2x4 scantling making a good cross-piece for the top. In the side of this cross-piece drive ten-penny nails about six inches apart, leaving half the length of the nail protruding. [Illustration: Fig. 11. Showing the Arrangement of a Small Plant on a Back Lot.] Make a loop of stout cord, looping it over both feet of the squab, and by this string hang it on one of the nails. Then cross the wings over the back in such a way that they are locked. This prevents fluttering and is painless. To lock the wings, turn the pigeon with the back to you and cross the hands. Then take a wing in each hand and pass one under the other in such a position that the "elbows" lock together. With the small blade of a pen-knife in the right hand take the head of the squab in the left hand in such a way that the thumb and forefinger may be used to hold the mouth open. If held in the right way, the shoulders of the birds will be in the palm of the hand. Run the blade of the knife up through the top of the mouth into the brain and immediately pass to another squab, letting the one just killed bleed, as it is necessary for the bird to be free from blood to prevent red spots from appearing along its back after it has been killed a few hours. These red spots are called "blisters" and injure the selling qualities of a squab which shows them. After the birds are thoroughly bled, carefully pick the feathers from them, being careful not to tear the skin in any place, as this also lowers the value in the market. The English method of killing is rapidly gaining in favor in this country and is superior in many ways to the use of the knife. By this method the operator grasps the bird firmly in the left hand with the thumb and fingers about the neck and the breast and wing, butts held securely in the hand. The bird's head is caught in the right hand with the thumb over and at the back of the head and the first and second fingers at the throat. Then with a firm pull, the neck is dislocated and the jugular vein is ruptured so the bird is killed instantly and thoroughly bled, all of the blood however remaining inside the skin of the neck. A little practice will enable anyone to learn this method and it is much faster, neater and cleaner than the old method. When a squab is plucked clean, throw it into a tub of water from a spring or well from thirty minutes to an hour. Then it should be thrown into a tub of ice-cold water to further cool and solidify the flesh, for all the animal heat must be chilled out before a squab is packed or it will not keep well, arriving in the market soft and unattractive in appearance. Be very careful to have the second chilling water almost cold enough to freeze the birds. In cold weather they soon cool out in water which has been exposed to the air, but at any time in the year first cool them in well or spring water of normal temperature. After the squabs are picked and cooled, pack them in ice in barrels or boxes. We prefer rather small boxes, say about the size of soap-boxes, but many thousand pairs are sent to market in clean barrels. Empty apple barrels or cracker barrels may be used. In the bottom of the packet put a good layer of cracked ice. A good many times the ice is not cracked as small as it should be. It should be broken into pieces about the size of a hickory nut, so the pieces will work down through the space between the birds. After the bottom is covered with ice, put in a layer of squabs, pack down and so the carcasses are closely packed but not squeezed together. Over these put another layer of ice and again a layer of birds until within two or three inches of the top. Fill the remaining space with cracked ice and fasten the package. Be liberal about using ice, for it is necessary that the birds should be kept cool and the express companies make allowance for the weight of the ice in weighing squabs packed this way. If any grain has been found in the crop of a squab as it is being dressed, it should be removed. Cut a very small slit in the breast over the crop and wash out the grain. A small hose with light pressure from a tank or water system is very handy for this purpose. Before packing the birds, carefully wash all the blood from them and wash the feet and legs until they are bright and red. If there is a shade of difference in the quality of squabs, select the best for the top of the package and take pains that the top layer is very carefully laid in so that it will look nice when the package is opened. If there happens to be a number of dark-fleshed or rather light-weight squabs in a killing, these should be packed by themselves and sent on in anticipation of receiving a low price for them. Nothing is gained by putting some poor squabs among a number of good ones, for they will reduce the price of the whole package. If fine ones are put by themselves and marked "Firsts" and the poorer ones sent without any particular mark the prices obtained for the whole shipment will be larger than it would have been if good and poor had been packed together. It is best to kill on a certain day in the week, the day depending on the distance to market. In South Jersey they kill on Monday or Tuesday and send the squabs to New York and usually get a check for them by Saturday. Some kill Thursday in order to catch the Saturday markets, but as a rule it is best to reach the market Friday morning, so as to give the commission merchant two days in which to sell the birds. Often an early shipment gets the best price. At the same time the squabs are sent to market, mail a letter to the commission man, advising him of the number of birds you sent to him and by what express company or freight line. Give him any particulars which may help him to make a good sale, if you think of anything that might interest him. In the eastern market squabs are graded by weight and quality. They are called 10-pound, 9-pound, 8-pound, 7-pound and 6-1/2 pound, and the prices range accordingly. When 10-pound squabs are worth $6.00 a dozen, those weighing 6-1/2 pounds will sell for from $1.50 to $2.75 a dozen, according to the state of the market, the high-priced ones always selling first, unless a buyer has a special reason for securing a lot of light-weights. When breeding straight Homers, one can reasonably expect 80 or 90 per cent which will run 8 pounds or over to the dozen. About two-thirds of the remainder will run close to 8 pounds to the dozen and one-third will be classed among the lowest quality. When 10-pound squabs are selling for $6 a dozen, a lot weighing more than 10 pounds to the dozen will bring a premium of from 50 cents a dozen up; but as a rule the most profitable squabs are the 8- and 10-pounders. In picking squabs, some leave them hanging where they are killed, while others take them in the hand. The weight of practice is in favor of holding them in the hand. NUMBERS OF SQUABS TO THE PAIR Some enthusiastic or dishonest sellers of breeding pigeons talk about their birds producing nine or ten pairs of squabs each year. There are occasional pairs of very select birds which will do this, but they cannot be bought at any reasonable price. No pair of birds will raise two squabs every time they hatch, for accidents will happen, and one squab or both, in some brooding periods, will die. Occasionally an egg will be broken, and once in a while an egg will prove infertile. These accidents, which happen in the best cared-for lofts, come to every pigeon-breeder. If a large loft of pigeons average six pairs of pigeons a year, it will do as much as can be expected of it. More will fall below that than run above it, because there are more careless pigeon-breeders than careful ones. Say, for the sake of a basis from which to arrange, that a loft of a good strain of Homers, properly housed and fed, will produce an average of six pairs of squabs each year. As pigeons breed ten months in the year, this average should be easily made. This would be an even dozen squabs for each pair of pigeons in the loft. These we will put at the very low price of $3 a dozen, a price they will bring in a country town of any size, and we have $3 as the gross returns from a pair of fair breeding Homers. Deducting from this the highest estimated prices for the feed of a pair of pigeons, we have $1.75 left. This will be the returns from which the pigeon-breeder must get his profits. The manure will pay well for the labor of feeding the birds, so this item is eliminated from the bill of cost. It will not cost more than 25 cents per pair to pay for the other labor of caring for a loft of pigeons where any number above 100 pairs are kept. The owner of such a loft could do all the work before working hours in the morning and after hours in the evening so the birds would not interfere with his regular work. The cost of ice, the cost of killing and picking the birds, and the cost of packages may be put at 25 cents a dozen, which is a very liberal estimate. This leaves $1.25 clear profit, after paying all expenses and paying the owner for the time he puts in feeding his birds, this work having been done when he would otherwise have been idle or not earning money. Say, it cost $1.00 for each pair of birds kept in a house and the birds costs $2.50 a pair. The interest on this investment at 6 per cent a year would be 21 cents, thus leaving $1.04 as absolutely net profit from a pair of pigeons in a year, after paying all expenses at a liberal rate and paying good interest on the investment. There is no other business open to those who have a small capital which will give such large returns. For every 100 pairs of pigeons kept, it is perfectly safe to say that a clean and clear profit of $100 may be made. Where a large number are kept, it is not uncommon for the owner to realize $1.50 net profit from a pair of Homers. The one who begins with ten, twenty-five, or fifty pairs of birds will get proportionate returns from his investment in the way of increased number in his flock and will soon be in position to consider himself an extensive pigeon-breeder, because he may expect to have at least four pairs of first-class breeders from each pair he started with at the beginning of any year, having kept only the best and sold the poorest of the squabs. These estimates are very conservative for it is our intention in this book to give the beginner only the facts on which he may rely. If he fails to do much better than these figures after some experience in the business, he may well feel that he is not gaining the fullest measure of success. The business is only in its infancy and those who start in now or any time soon may expect to reap a rich reward in the way of profits. [Illustration: A Flock of Mammoth White Homers in far off Alaska.] The illustrations on this page and succeeding pages show the rapid development of squabs from the egg to the market in four weeks. [Illustration: Eggs in the Nest.] [Illustration: Squabs One Day Old.] You Can Almost See Them Grow [Illustration: Squabs One Week Old.] [Illustration: Squabs Two Weeks Old.] [Illustration: Squabs Three Weeks Old.] [Illustration: Squabs Four Weeks Old. Just Prime for Market.] CHAPTER VII DISEASES OF PIGEONS The very best way to escape trouble from diseases among pigeons is to prevent them by always keeping the lofts and flies in first-class condition. Carelessness is the worst disease that affects pigeons, and this is always manifest in the owner before it has any effect on the birds. If the lofts are kept clean, the feed supplied is sound and sweet, the water pure and the feeding regular, the birds themselves will not often be troubled with diseases of any kind. However, with all possible care, diseases will appear at times, and it is well to know what to do to prevent them from spreading and causing serious loss. Epidemic diseases will never appear in a flock which has been properly cared for, unless they are brought in through putting newly purchased birds among the healthy ones. It is just as well to use caution when introducing new birds even if there is not the least suspicion that they are not perfectly healthy. When new stock is bought it should be kept by itself for a week to determine if it is free from disease. Not once in a hundred times will birds bought of a reliable breeder be found unhealthy, but prevention is better than cure any time, so precautions should be taken. In such cases it is much better to be over cautious than to have losses occur through lack of precaution. GOING LIGHT "Going Light" is the common name for tuberculosis in pigeons. It is brought on by drinking impure water, eating unsound feed, lack of good supply of grit, or from natural lack of vitality. This disease never attacks healthy and vigorous birds, but takes for its victims those which have become weak from any reason. If it is not taken in hand at once, the bird wastes away and becomes nothing but "skin and bones" and dies. The first symptoms are usually diarrhoea, the droppings being thin and watery. The bird does not eat, but sits around with its head drawn down and really starves to death because it has no appetite to eat. If a bird which has started to go light, is taken in hand at once it is very often possible to save it for future usefulness. Give it a dose of castor oil, giving about five or six drops. Put in a coop by itself and the next day give it ten drops of cod liver oil. Repeat the dose of cod liver oil every day until the bird is cured. Give it hempseed every day and be very certain the seed is sound and free from mustiness. A good health grit or tonic is the best preventive to be used. CANKER Canker is a disease of the same nature as diphtheria in human beings. It appears occasionally in lofts where it never before has been found, and seems to be contracted from germs which float in the air. It often attacks the birds in one nest and not the one next to it, although if it is not taken in hand it will soon spread to all the birds in the loft. It no doubt comes from a cold very often and for that reason birds which show symptoms of having caught cold should be carefully watched. The first appearance of this disease shows in little yellowish white blisters on the lining or mucous membrane of the mouth and throat. These rapidly increase in size and spread to other parts of the throat and form a cheesy growth until they show outside around the mouth, and the bird chokes to death. When canker appears in a squab only and the parent bird shows no sign of it, the best thing to do is to kill the squab, disinfect the loft and stay the disease in this way. It may be cured by using a little patience, unless it has gone too far before it is discovered. Remove the sick bird from the loft and keep it in some place not adjacent to the pigeon house. Take a small sharp splinter of wood, such as sharpened match, and scrape the cankers off, doing this as gently as possible. This will leave a raw red spot, which should be gently swabbed with a solution of peroxide of hydrogen and water, half and half. The solution will foam as if it were boiling, but it is entirely painless and does not hurt the bird in the least. Repeat the swabbing, putting on plenty of the solution, until it ceases to foam. It does not matter if a little of the solution goes down the throat of the bird, as it is perfectly harmless when swallowed by man, beast or bird, and it is the best germicide known, being non-poisonous and odorless. Some good authorities recommend painting the cankers with lemon juice and putting a piece of alum in the drinking water, but we prefer the peroxide of hydrogen treatment. Do not return a bird to the loft until it is entirely well, and always disinfect the loft when a case of canker is found in it. Directions for disinfecting are given further on in this chapter. If the disease does not respond quickly to treatment, it is sometimes best to turn the affected birds out of the fly and let them shift for themselves without restraint. The open air and scanty supply of food together with whatever they are able to find of nature's remedies will effect a cure in nearly every case. Sometimes a bird will leave and never return but just as well this loss as to kill the bird, or have others in the fly affected. By this method I have often cured young birds just beginning to shift for themselves and older breeders in the last stages of Canker and when the bird is entirely recovered from the disease it may easily be caught and returned to the loft without endangering the rest. ROUP Roup sometimes appears in a loft, especially during damp weather or when the birds have not had proper housing. It is shown by the discharge from the nostrils, which has a very offensive odor. It is highly contagious in its later stages, and if not cured before it takes on the contagious form is incurable. When a bird has reached the last stages it should be killed and burned or buried far from the loft. If a bird is noticed to have a discharge from the nostrils it should be attended to at once as the disease is very easy to cure at that time. Put some coal oil in a sewing machine can and squirt some of the oil up each nostril and in the slit in the top of the mouth. This usually effects a cure, but if it is not better in a few hours use camphorated oil in the same way. Any druggist will supply the camphorated oil. CHOLERA Cholera is a dreadful disease to contend with, but no pigeon-breeder who keeps his birds properly need fear it, as it is caused by cold, dampness and filth in nine cases out of ten. It is very contagious and it is very hard to cure. Happily, the disease does not worry the careful breeder, but once it gets started in a loft it may kill off every bird in it unless vigorous measures are taken to stop its progress. When a bird is attacked with cholera it presents a very miserable appearance. Its plumage is ruffled up, its crop fills with water which has a very offensive odor, and diarrhoea appears. The disease runs its course rapidly and soon the victim is dead. To stop the progress of cholera in a loft, put ten drops of carbolic acid in a gallon of drinking water for two days. Feed only the very best feed. Follow the carbolic acid by putting a tablespoonful of tincture of gentian in each gallon of drinking water for ten days. Disinfect the house thoroughly twice a week until the disease disappears. VERTIGO Vertigo is a brain affection which is incurable, although it does not usually kill quickly. It is characterized by turning the head over the shoulder and convulsions. These convulsions often occur when anyone enters the loft, while at other times the bird is quiet. There is no cure and it is best to kill the bird to put it out of its misery, as it will never again be of any use as a breeder. EGG-BOUND Young hens are often affected by becoming egg-bound; that is; they are unable to force the passage of the egg from the ovary to the nest. When a hen shows signs of distress, catch her and carefully feel of her abdomen. If she is egg-bound, the egg can be felt. Anoint the passage with vaseline and introduce the finger as far as possible, being careful not to break the egg. Then hold the hen over steam as hot as can be borne without scalding, until the parts are thoroughly steamed and relaxed. After this, carefully put the hen on the nest and usually she will be able to pass the egg. PIGEON POX Sometimes a disease similar to small pox in human beings and chicken-pox in poultry appears in a loft. This is known by small sores which appear about the head and face. When this disease appears, wash the sores with a solution of copper sulphate or a solution of peroxide of hydrogen and water, equal parts. Either of these solutions will cure the disease in a short time. SUDDEN COLDS Sometimes a pigeon will sit out in a cold rain or sleep in a stray draft and catch cold. This makes it sick and stupid, and it should be cared for at once. To cure a cold of this kind, give five-drops of castor oil and the next day a one grain capsule of quinine. Follow this with ten drop doses of cod liver oil for a few days and the bird will soon be as lively as ever. LEG WEAKNESS Leg weakness is usually caused by inbreeding or an accidental weakness. There is no certain cure for it, because we never know just what has caused the trouble. If a bird seems weak in the legs rub some camphorated oil on the hock joint and repeat the operation as long as necessary. The short-legged varieties like the Homer very seldom have any trouble with their legs. WING DISEASE Wing disease is a trouble of the "elbow." It is caused by a hurt, and the injured bird becomes lame in the wing. Presently a lump forms on the elbow and this increases in size, filling with a yellowish cheesy matter, causing the bird to drag the wing. The only thing to do is to run camphorated oil on the injured spot, and when the swelling has reached full size cut it open. Usually the bird is not injured as a breeder, but it must make its nest on the floor, as it can not fly. If the disease is noticed at the very start, it sometimes may be cured; but if the trouble is neglected, a crippled bird is the result. For the sake of the appearance of the flock such birds should not be allowed to remain in the loft. If your windows or openings from the loft to the fly are good size there is little danger of this trouble for it is usually caused by the bird striking the wing in its rush to get outside. Birds that are wild or too often disturbed are more liable to this trouble. WORMS Worms sometimes bother pigeons. If a bird has a varying appetite and seems to be running down, watch its droppings and it is likely that worms may be found in them. If the worms are not found, it is not conclusive evidence that they are not sapping the vitality of the bird and it should be treated. A bit of garlic every morning will usually cure the disease. The piece of garlic should be about the size of a pea. A pill of powdered areca nut mixed with butter is also an effective remedy, or a pill as large as a small pea of gum aloes will kill the worms. Give any one of these remedies and expect a cure. Give the remedy before the bird has eaten in the morning. LICE Lice are not a disease, but they can do more damage than any disease. If they once get a start in the pigeon loft, it requires heroic treatment to get them subdued. If attention is paid to cleanliness, old nests taken out and burned as soon as they are empty, insect powder sprinkled in the nest boxes and tobacco stems are used for nesting material, lice will never get a foothold in the loft. If it should happen that lice get a start, take the birds out of the loft and clean it thoroughly. Then paint the walls and nest boxes with kerosene and afterward whitewash every part of the inside with lime. DISINFECTANTS Any druggist will supply a good disinfectant and give direction how to mix it for use. This should be sprinkled about the floor once in two or three weeks, and always mixed with the whitewash which is used on the loft. A mild disinfectant should be sprinkled on the floor at least once a week, and twice a week is better. Go quietly into the loft and gently sprinkle the solution on the floor, but not on the nests, as this frightens the birds. Keep the air of the lofts always smelling sweet and pure and there will be no trouble with disease. DOUGLAS MIXTURE Douglas Mixture is an old-time tonic, much esteemed by a good many breeders of pigeons and poultry. It is made by dissolving eight ounces of iron sulphate (copperas) in two gallons of water and then very slowly adding one ounce of sulphuric acid. Put in jugs and it will keep indefinitely. If a tablespoon of this is put in the drinking water occasionally, it will act as a tonic and make the blood richer. It is especially recommended for use during the molting season. GENTIAN AS A TONIC Compound tincture of gentian is highly recommended as a tonic for pigeons. If the birds seem out of condition, a tea-spoonful of this in the drinking water will tone them up and give them good appetites again. When the birds are molting during the months of September, October and November, a tablespoonful of compound extract of gentian in the drinking water every Sunday morning will keep the birds in condition, but this should not be used if the Douglas Mixture is used as a tonic. SWEET FERN TEA For looseness of the bowels, sweet fern tea has been found a very good remedy. Looseness of the bowels occurs from feeding too much wheat that has not been well dried. It also comes from impure water or unsound feed of any kind. To cure it a good handful of the leaves is put into three gallons of water and boiled down to one-half. Put a teacupful of this in two gallons of drinking water. NUX VOMICA Some breeders recommend nux vomica very highly as a tonic, and we mention it so those who follow the directions in this book may have their choice. Sixty drops of the tincture of nux vomica is put in two gallons of the drinking water twice a week, during the molting season. At other times in the year it is given when the flock seems to lack liveliness or to be droopy for any reason. The tincture of nux vomica is about the easiest of all the tonics to use, as enough for a year can be kept in a small bottle and put into the water without trouble at any time it is needed. THE MEDICINE CHEST Every pigeon-breeder should have a small box in which to keep a supply of the medicines which may be needed. This box should contain a pot of carbolated vaseline to be used on cuts or bruises, as in wing trouble. There should be a four-ounce bottle of peroxide of hydrogen, a small bottle of camphorated oil, an ounce or two of carbolic acid, a few quinine capsules, a bottle of cod liver oil and a bottle filled with kerosene. There should also be a medicine dropper, such as is used to fill fountain pens, and a small sewing machine oil can to use in cases of roup. Such a medicine chest will come handy many times a year. Don't get into the habit of dosing your birds for every imaginary trouble. If pigeons are given a dry, light house, good sound grain, plenty of grit, salt, charcoal and perfectly pure water to drink, with good facilities for bathing, there will be little call for use of medicines. Only doctor sick birds when necessary, and then take them out of the loft and keep them out until they are well. The careful pigeon-breeder will always learn to know his birds by sight and will notice any symptoms of disease as soon as they appear. Once any disease is noticed, apply the remedy at once without giving the ailment opportunity to become chronic. If the directions given in this book are followed, the pigeon-breeder, although he may start without practical knowledge of the business, will be able to carry his birds along in good health and promote productiveness in such a manner that he may anticipate the best results from his work. [Illustration] CHAPTER VIII MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION--CATCHING MATED PAIRS When it is desired to catch mated pairs, take the catching net into the fly with you. Drive all the pigeons out in the fly and shut them out of the house. Then take another person with you and go into the fly. Watch until a cock begins to drive a hen and trap him in the net, while your helper watches the hen. Take the cock out of the net and hand it to your helper, who will catch the hen. Then band the two, putting the band on the right leg of the cock and on the left leg of the hen. If squabs are banded in the nest, nearly all of them will be found banded correctly if the band has been put on the right leg of the squab first hatched and on the left leg of the one hatched later. STARTING A LOFT Buy from ten to fifty mated pairs, according to the amount with which you decide to begin. Keep all the best squabs hatched during the year, so cross-mating them as not to have nest mates mated up for breeding. Dispose of all under-sized squabs, and when the birds have grown up sell all those which prove inferior. In this way you will learn to manage your loft and get your breeding stock at the lowest possible cost. THE PRICE OF BREEDING STOCK It does not pay to start with poor breeding stock. Buy of a reliable breeder and pay a fair price. No one can afford to sell first-class breeding stock except in certain seasons at less than $1.50 a pair in large numbers or less than $2.00 a pair when from ten to twenty-five pairs are sold in a lot. It is poor economy to buy common pigeons as squab-breeders at any price and just as bad management to buy cheap Homers and run the risk of getting old and worn out birds. BEST WEIGHT FOR SQUABS Squabs that weigh less than eight pounds to the dozen are not desirable, as they sell at a price which drops rapidly as they run below eight pounds to the dozen. It costs just as much to raise a dark-fleshed and light-weight squab as it does to raise a big plump bird with white flesh; and a pair of pigeons which produce dark squabs of light weights should be disposed of. Select all the time for heavy weights in your squabs and get the top of the market. LENGTH OF BREEDING PERIOD Pigeons will breed regularly for seven or eight years, so it is to the interest of the breeders to keep only the best in his lofts. The good breeder watches what kind of squabs each pair produces and keeps selecting the best from time to time until he has a loft full which may be depended upon. DON'T OVERCROWD Don't overcrowd your lofts. It is better to waste a little room than to have too many birds together. Give each fifty pairs a room eight by ten feet and a fly at least ten by twenty-four feet. SQUAB HOMERS Health and vigor are the foundation on which success must be built. The well-bred squab Homer carries its head erect, its plumage is smooth and sleek, and its neck carries the colors of the rain-bow. When it stands still, it seems on wires and when you go in to your loft in the morning and look over the flock any bird which does not in turn give you a looking over is not fit for a breeder. The eye is the index of health of pigeons. If the eye is dull or the bird sits winking in a listless manner, there is something wrong about it. Sickly birds shun society and mope in dark corners. The droppings should be noticed. If the birds are healthy, there should be a fair proportion of pure white in them, and they should be rather firm. The squab Homer in health is a beautiful bird, alive every moment and noticing keenly everything that passes. INCREASING PRICES Squabs have constantly increased in price in the larger markets for several years, and hundreds of new towns have come in with a call for good squabs. Everyone who begins to raise squabs for the market makes the demand for them larger. There is no danger of overdoing the business and it will continue to grow larger as game birds decrease in numbers. Many restaurants now serve squab when there is an order for quail on toast, and those who like good things usually go back and want some more of that same kind of "quail." Good restaurants now keep squabs on hand and put them on their tables under their proper name, having learned that it pays to do so. THE SOUTH JERSEY SQUAB DISTRICT The great business of raising squabs which is carried on in South Jersey started with one man and has spread out until almost every one in the country for miles around Bridgeton keeps pigeons and sells squabs. About 7,000 squabs are sent out of this district every week, equal to 365,000 in a year, and there is never a time but these squabs sell as soon as they reach the market at prices which make it very profitable to produce them. Men, women and children raise squabs in this district, nearly every one of them being sold in New York City. THE PROFESSION OF SQUAB BREEDING Only a few years ago the man who spent his time breeding pigeons was thought to be engaged in a small business. Now it has become a profession and is followed by all sorts of men as a profitable way of putting in spare time. The professional man raises squabs as a diversion, the clerk or shop operative keeps a loft to help out on his income, young men pay their way through college on the profits of the squab business, old men who have got beyond the harder work of life make a good living from squabs; and still the insistent food markets call for more squabs at better prices. There is no risk in going into the squab business, if the birds are properly cared for. REGULARITY Have a certain time to do all the work and work to the schedule you have prepared. Clean the house on a certain day in the week, kill the squabs on the day which best suits your market. Feed as nearly at the same time every day as possible, for the birds soon learn to know when feeding time comes, and the squabs even learn to know when to look for the parents to feed them. Keep everything going like clock work, and the work will be properly done and the birds thrive better for the regular habits they learn. GO QUIETLY There will always be a number of birds sitting, others will be feeding the young, and quick motions or loud noises disturb them and cause them to stop feeding or to leave their nests. Keep the birds tame by going among them but go quietly. THE BEST AGE A pair of pigeons begin to breed at about six months of age, but young birds are not very profitable as breeders. After they are one year old they are in full working condition and for the next seven or eight years may be depended on to produce regularly, if they are the right kind of stock. DON'T KILL TOO YOUNG Do not kill your squabs too young. They should be killed just before they are ready to leave the nest, but not before their flesh has become firm and solid. A squab which is killed too young never brings a good price, as the buyers in the cities know one immediately they have felt of it, and a few squabs which have been killed too soon decrease the price of the whole package. Remember that the price paid for squabs in a given package is made on the basis of all of them being as poor as the poorest in the package. MICE IN NESTS If you find some of your squabs smashed flat in the nests, look out for mice. These little pests like to nest with a pair of pigeons, and particularly in cold weather have a fashion of crawling between the parent bird and the squab. This causes the parent to move about and kill the young. To kill the mice, take a large cigar box--or any box of about that size--and cut a small hole in one end. Put under this box a mouse-trap baited with bits of toasted cheese and on top of the box put a heavy weight so the pigeons can not get at the trap. Set a few traps around the feed bin also, and it will not be long until the last mouse is caught, as they like cheese better than the grain which has brought them to the pigeon house at first. A good cat kept around the feed room is often a good investment, but do not forget that a cat likes squabs very much and must be carefully kept outside the breeding lofts. FEED A VARIETY In the proper place we have given directions for mixing feed. We refer to it in this place to emphasize the necessity of feeding a variety of grains and the mixtures we recommend on previous pages will be found such as will produce results. Never feed one grain for the reason that it is cheaper than the other. It does not pay to economize in this way. True economy in feeding is to feed the proper kinds and just as much as the birds will eat without wasting. They always pick out the kind they like the best first, but they should be compelled to eat the whole of the feed each time and should be fed just as much as they will clean up from one feeding to another. VENTILATION Most pigeon-breeders keep their houses closed too tight during the winter. If cloth is used in the windows instead of glass, there will be good ventilation all the time as the muslin used for the windows allows the air to get in and keeps it pure inside; but where glass is used, the fly holes should be left open nearly every night during the winter or the air will become so impure that it will be likely to breed disease. Pigeons when they are not breeding, do not mind cold weather, but breeding birds should have a tight house on account of the squabs. See to it that the ventilation is attended to. TESTING PIGEON EGGS If you want to know whether an egg is going to hatch after the hen has been sitting for some time look through it, if it is clear it will not hatch and might as well be thrown away. If it is partly clouded, the egg will hatch but not for several days. If it is dark all over except at the large end, the young bird will hatch in three or four days, or it has died. To find if it is alive, put some water in a pan having it as warm as the hand can be held in it without burning. Set the pan down and put the egg in the water, little end down and let it float. If the bird is alive it will struggle in the egg and cause it to bob around in the water. Testing eggs is not necessary unless it is noticed that a certain pair have set for a suspiciously long time. SELECTING A SITE In selecting a site for the pigeon house as much care and judgment should be exercised as in choosing the location of one's own home. An unhealthy location for man would most likely prove unhealthy for the birds. A damp place, or one exposed to extremes of heat, cold or wind, is to be rejected. The spot selected should be well drained, should be facing the south or east, should be free from obstructions which shut out the rays of the morning sun and be sheltered either by trees or buildings from the north and west winds. Such a place, with a shallow stream of pure running water for drinking and bathing--so essential to the health of pigeons--will be an ideal site, and will require a minimum of expense and daily work in caring for the stock. Of course, such sites can only be obtained in the country. In no case should a house be built for more than 250 pairs nor more than 50 pairs be kept in each section. It must be so designed as to be well ventilated and easily kept clean, secure from attacks of mice, rats, and other animals and not subject to drafts of air. If feeding hoppers are used they should be of good size and properly constructed. If you do not provide a liberal supply of mixed grit in a suitable hopper, you should keep at least a peck of clean sharp sand on the floor of each pen all the time. Provide salt, charcoal and oyster shell and keep a clean supply of each before the birds at all times. It is usually better, however, to procure a good health grit or the tonic ingredients and mix the grit yourself. In these receptacles should be kept a generous supply of sifted cracked corn, Canada peas, wheat, German millet, kaffir corn and hemp. These are the six principal feeds. A room 8 by 10 feet will accommodate 50 pairs very comfortably. The fly should be extended 32 feet if possible. Pigeons should be fed twice a day--in the summer time at 6:30 a. m., and 4:30 p. m.; in the winter at 7:30 a. m., and 3:00 p. m. The best kinds of feeds to use are cracked corn, red wheat, kaffir corn, millet, peas, hemp and rice. In the morning give wheat, cracked corn, and peas in equal parts; in the afternoon give equal parts of cracked corn, peas, kaffir corn, and millet. The birds should be fed in the pen rather than in the fly. Water the birds every morning before feeding using nothing except fresh pure water. Always clean out the fountains before filling. Bathing is very essential to the health of pigeons. In summer they should have an opportunity to bathe at least every other day. In winter the bath should be given only on bright, sunny days. It is essential to clean house every week. After cleaning the nests, put powdered carbolated lime in all cracks, corners, and damp places. Sprinkle the floor with lime and sprinkle a bucket of sand evenly over the lime. [Illustration: Six Mammoth Homer Squabs weighing full six pounds when dressed for the market.] INDEX Page Banding, 37 Bathing, 22 Best Breeds, 11 Breeding Habits, 26 Breed for Years, 62 Buckwheat, 27 Buying Stock, 11 Canada Peas, 27 Canary Seed, 27 Carneaux, 12 Canker, 54 Catching Mated Pairs, 39-61 Charcoal, 29 Cholera, 55 Cleanliness, 23 Corn, 26 Cost of Feeding, 9-48 Common Pigeons, 15 Cooling the Squabs, 45 Diseases, 53 Disinfecting, 58 Douglas Mixture, 58 Dressing and Packing, 43 Dry Lofts, 22 Duchess, 12 Egg Bound, 56 Feeding, 26-31-64 Feed Troughs, 31 Feed Hoppers, 32 Floors, 23 Fly, How Built, 19 Gentian Tonic, 58 Going Light, 53 Grading for Market, 46-47 Grit, 12 Growth of Squabs, 50-51-52 Hemp Seed, 27 Homers, 11-62 Houses, Cost, 17 Houses, Plans, 24-25 Increasing the Flock, 31 Kaffir Corn, 27 Killing, 45-64 Killing, English Method, 45 Leg Weakness, 57 Lice, 58 Making a Market, 41 Maltese Hens, 12-14 Mated Pairs, 13 Mice, 64 Millet Seed, 27 Mondaines, 12-30 Nappies, 21 Nests, 21-34 Nesting Material, 21 Nesting Material, Crate for, 23 Number of Squabs, 47 Nux Vomica, 59 Over-crowding, 62 Parcel Post, 42 Peanuts, 26 Pox, 56 Prices Increasing, 62 Prices of Breeders, 61 Profits, 61 Profession of Squabbing, 63 Quiet, 63 Record of Breeding, 40 Regularity, 63 Roup, 55 Runts, 12 Salt, 29 Sanitation, 22 Sex, How Determined, 35 Site for Plant, 65 Sound Grain, 26 South Jersey District, 63 Starting a Loft, 61 Sweet Fern Tea, 59 Testing Eggs, 65 Ventilation, 65 Vertigo, 56 Water Fountains, 22 Weight of Squabs, 61 Wheat, 26 Wing Disease, 57 Worms, 57 A. B. MORSE COMPANY, ST. JOSEPH, MICHIGAN 
37997	----	file was produced from scans of public domain works at the University of Michigan\'s Making of America collection.) [Illustration: A West Highland Ox The Property of Mr. Elliott of East Ham Essex.] THE AMERICAN REFORMED CATTLE DOCTOR; CONTAINING THE NECESSARY INFORMATION FOR PRESERVING THE HEALTH AND CURING THE DISEASES OF OXEN, COWS, SHEEP, AND SWINE, WITH A GREAT VARIETY OF ORIGINAL RECIPES, AND VALUABLE INFORMATION IN REFERENCE TO FARM AND DAIRY MANAGEMENT; WHEREBY EVERY MAN CAN BE HIS OWN CATTLE DOCTOR. THE PRINCIPLES TAUGHT IN THIS WORK ARE, THAT ALL MEDICATION SHALL BE SUBSERVIENT TO NATURE; THAT ALL MEDICINAL AGENTS MUST BE SANATIVE IN THEIR OPERATION, AND ADMINISTERED WITH A VIEW OF AIDING THE VITAL POWERS, INSTEAD OF DEPRESSING, AS HERETOFORE, WITH THE LANCET AND POISON. BY G. H. DADD, M. D., VETERINARY PRACTITIONER, AUTHOR OF "ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE." BOSTON: PHILLIPS, SAMPSON, AND COMPANY, 110 WASHINGTON STREET. 1851. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by G. H. DADD, M. D., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. STEREOTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION, 9 CATTLE. Importance of supplying Cattle with pure Water, 15 Remarks on feeding Cattle, 17 The Barn and Feeding Byre, 21 Milking, 24 Knowledge of Agricultural and Animal Chemistry important to Farmers, 25 On Breeding, 30 The Bull, 34 Value of Different Breeds of Cows, 35 Method of preparing Rennet, as practised in England, 36 Making Cheese, 37 Gloucester Cheese, 38 Chester Cheese, 39 Stilton Cheese, 40 Dunlop Cheese, 41 Green Cheese, 42 Making Butter, 44 Washing Butter, 45 Coloring Butter, 46 Description of the Organs of Digestion in Cattle, 47 Respiration and Structure of the Lungs, 53 Circulation of the Blood, 54 The Heart viewed externally, 55 Remarks on Blood-letting, 58 Efforts of Nature to remove Disease, 67 Proverbs of the Veterinary Reformers, 70 An Inquiry concerning the Souls of Brutes, 72 The Reformed Practice--Synoptical View of the Prominent Systems of Medicine, 75 Creed of the Reformers, 79 True Principles, 80 Inflammation, 88 Remarks, showing that very little is known of the Nature and Treatment of Disease, 94 Nature, Treatment, and Causes of Disease in Cattle, 105 Pleuro-Pneumonia, 107 Locked-Jaw, 115 Inflammatory Diseases, 121 Inflammation of the Stomach, (Gastritis,) 121 Inflammation of the Lungs, (Pneumonia,) 122 Inflammation of the Bowels, (Enteritis.--Inflammation of the Fibro-Muscular Coat of the Intestines,) 124 Inflammation of the Peritoneal Coat of the Intestines, (Peritonitis,) 125 Inflammation of the Kidneys, (Nephritis,) 125 Inflammation of the Bladder, (Cystitis,) 126 Inflammation of the Womb, 126 Inflammation of the Brain, (Phrenitis,) 127 Inflammation of the Eye, 128 Inflammation of the Liver, (Hepatitis,) 128 Jaundice, or Yellows, 130 Diseases of the Mucous Surface, 132 Catarrh, or Hoose, 133 Epidemic Catarrh, 134 Malignant Epidemic, (Murrain,) 135 Diarrhoea, (Looseness of the Bowels,) 136 Dysentery, 138 Scouring Rot, 139 Disease of the Ear, 140 Serous Membranes, 140 Dropsy, 141 Hoove, or "Blasting," 144 Joint Murrain, 147 Black Quarter, 149 Open Joint, 151 Swellings of Joints, 152 Sprain of the Fetlock, 153 Strain of the Hip, 154 Foul in the Foot, 154 Red Water, 157 Black Water, 160 Thick Urine, 160 Rheumatism, 161 Blain, 162 Thrush, 163 Black Tongue, 163 Inflammation of the Throat and its Appendages, 163 Bronchitis, 164 Inflammation of Glands, 164 Loss of Cud, 166 Colic, 166 Spasmodic Colic, 167 Constipation, 168 Falling down of the Fundament, 171 Calving, 171 Embryotomy, 175 Falling of the Calf-Bed, or Womb, 176 Garget, 177 Sore Teats, 178 Chapped Teats and Chafed Udder, 178 Fever, 178 Milk or Puerperal Fever, 182 Inflammatory Fever, 183 Typhus Fever, 186 Horn Ail in Cattle, 189 Abortion in Cows, 191 Cow-Pox, 194 Mange, 195 Hide-bound, 196 Lice, 196 Importance of keeping the Skin of Animals in a Healthy State, 197 Spaying Cows, 201 Operation of Spaying, 204 SHEEP. Preliminary Remarks, 209 Staggers, 219 Foot Rot, 220 Rot, 221 Epilepsy, 222 Red Water, 223 Cachexy, or General Debility, 224 Loss of Appetite, 224 Foundering, (Rheumatism,) 224 Ticks, 225 Scab, or Itch, 225 Diarrhoea, 227 Dysentery, 227 Constipation, or Stretches, 228 Scours, 230 Dizziness, 231 Jaundice, 232 Inflammation of the Kidneys, 232 Worms, 233 Diseases of the Stomach from eating Poisonous Plants, 233 Sore Nipples, 234 Fractures, 234 Common Catarrh and Epidemic Influenza, 235 Castrating Lambs, 236 Nature of Sheep, 237 The Ram, 238 Leaping, 239 Argyleshire Breeders, 239 Fattening Sheep, 240 Improvement in Sheep, 244 Description of the Different Breeds of Sheep, 249 Teeswater Breed, 249 Lincolnshire Breed, 250 Dishley Breed, 250 Cotswold Breed, 250 Romney Marsh Breed, 251 Devonshire Breed, 251 Dorsetshire Breed, 251 Wiltshire Breed, 252 South Down Breed, 252 Herdwick Breed, 253 Cheviot Breed, 253 Merino Breed, 253 Welsh Sheep, 254 SWINE. Preliminary Remarks, 255 Natural History of the Hog, 259 Generalities, 262 General Debility, or Emaciation, 263 Epilepsy, or Fits, 264 Rheumatism, 264 Measles, 265 Ophthalmia, 266 Vermin, 266 Red Eruption, 267 Dropsy, 267 Catarrh, 267 Colic, 268 Diarrhoea, 268 Frenzy, 268 Jaundice, 269 Soreness of the Feet, 269 Spaying, 270 Various Breeds of Swine, 271 Berkshire Breed, 271 Hampshire Breed, 271 Shropshire Breed, 272 Chinese Breed, 272 Boars and Sows for Breeding, 272 Rearing Pigs, 273 Fattening Hogs, 275 Method of Curing Swine's Flesh, 277 APPENDIX. On the Action of Medicines, 279 Clysters, 281 Forms of Clysters, 283 Infusions, 286 Antispasmodics, 287 Fomentations, 287 Mucilages, 289 Washes, 289 Physic for Cattle, 290 Mild Physic for Cattle, 291 Poultices, 292 Styptics, to arrest Bleeding, 296 Absorbents, 296 Forms of Absorbents, 297 VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA, embracing a List of the various Remedies used by the Author of this Work in the Practice of Medicine on Cattle, Sheep, and Swine, 299 General Remarks on Medicines, 312 Properties of Plants, 315 Potato, 316 TREATMENT OF DISEASE IN DOGS--Preliminary Remarks, 323 Distemper, 325 Fits, 326 Worms, 327 Mange, 328 Internal Abscess of the Ear, 329 Ulceration of the Ear, 329 Inflammation of the Bowels, 329 Inflammation of the Bladder, 330 Asthma, 331 Piles, 331 Dropsy, 332 Sore Throat, 332 Sore Ears, 332 Sore Feet, 333 Wounds, 333 Sprains, 333 Scalds, 334 Ophthalmia, 334 Weak Eyes, 335 Fleas and Vermin, 335 Hydrophobia, 335 MALIGNANT MILK SICKNESS of the Western States, or Contagious Typhus, 339 BONE DISORDER IN COWS, 351 INTRODUCTION. There is no period in the history of the United States when our domestic animals have ranked so high as at the present time; yet there is no subject on which there is such a lamentable want of knowledge as the proper treatment of their diseases. Governor Briggs, in a recent letter to the author, says, "You have my thanks, and, in my opinion, are entitled to the thanks of the community, for entering upon this important work. While the subject has engaged the attention of scientific men in other countries, it has been too long neglected in our own. Cruelty and ignorance have marked our treatment to diseased animals. Ignorant himself both of the disease and the remedy, the owner has been in the habit of administering the popular remedy of every neighbor who had no better powers of knowing what should be done than himself, until the poor animal, if the disease would not have proved fatal, is left alone, until death, with a friendly hand, puts a period to his sufferings: he is, however, often destroyed by the amount or destructive character of the remedies, or else by the cruel mode of administering them. I am persuaded that the community will approve of your exertions, and find it to their interest to support and sustain your system." The author has labored for several years to substitute a safer and a more efficient system of medication in the treatment of diseased animals, and at the same time to point out to the American people the great benefits they will derive from the diffusion of veterinary education. That many thousands of our most valuable cattle die under the treatment, which consists of little else than blood-letting, purging, and blistering, no one will deny; and these dangerous and destructive agents are frequently administered by men who are totally unacquainted with the nature of the agents they prescribe. But a better day is dawning; veterinary information is loudly called for--demanded; and the farmers will have it; _but it must be a safer and a more efficient system than that heretofore practised_. The object of the veterinary art is not only congenial with human medicine, but the very same paths that lead to a knowledge of the diseases of man lead also to a knowledge of those of brutes. Our domestic animals deserve consideration at our hands. We have tried all manner of experiments on them for the benefit of science; and science and scientific men should do something to repay the debt, by alleviating their sufferings and improving their condition. We are told that physicians of all ages have applied themselves to the dissection of animals, and that it was by analogy that those of Greece and Rome judged of the structure of the human body. For example, the Greeks and Arabians confined themselves to the dissection of apes and other quadrupeds. Galen has given us the anatomy of the ape for that of man; and it is clear that his dissections were restricted to brutes, when he says, that "if learned physicians have been guilty of gross errors, it is because they neglected to dissect animals." We advocate the establishment of veterinary schools, and the cultivation of our reformed system of veterinary medicine, on the broad principles of humanity. These poor animals are as susceptible to pain and suffering as we are. Has not the Almighty given us dominion over them, and placed them under our protection? Have we done our duty by them? Can we render a good account of our stewardship? In almost every department of science the spirit of inquiry is abroad, investigation is active; yet, in this department, every thing is left to chance and ignorance. Men of all professions find it for their interest to protect property. The merchant, previous to sending his vessel on a voyage to a distant port, seeks out a skilful navigator to pilot that vessel into her desired haven with safety. He protects his property. We protect our property against the ravages of fire by insurance--we defend our houses from the lightning by conducting that fluid down the sides of the building into the earth. And shall we not protect our animals? Is not property invested in live stock as valuable, in proportion, as that invested in real estate? Can we permit live stock to degenerate and die prematurely from a want of knowledge of the fundamental laws of their being? Can we look on and see their heart's blood drawn from them--their flesh setoned, burned, and blistered--simply because it was the misguided custom of our ancestors? We appeal to the American people at large. They have great encouragement to educate young men in this important branch of study; for the beneficial results will be, that the diseases of all classes of domestic animals will be better understood, and the great losses which this country sustains will, in a few years, be materially diminished. This is not all. The value of live stock will be increased at least twenty-five per cent! Look for a moment at the amount of capital invested in live stock; and from these statistics the reader will perceive that not only the farmers, but the whole nation, will be enriched. There are in the United States at least 6,000,000 horses and mules; these, at the rate of $50 per head, amount to $300,000,000. It is also estimated that there are 20,000,000 of neat cattle; reckon these at $25 per head, and we get the snug little sum of $500,000,000. We have also 20,000,000 sheep, worth the same number of dollars. The number of swine have been computed at 24,000,000; and these, at $3 per head, give us $72,000,000. Hence the reader will see that the capital invested in this class of live stock reaches the enormous sum of $892,000,000. Add the 25 per cent. just alluded to, and we get a clear gain of $223,000,000. This sum would be sufficient to build veterinary schools and colleges capable of affording ample accommodations to every farmer's son in the Union. Hence we entreat the farming community to ponder on these subjects. They have only to say the word, and schools for the dissemination of veterinary information shall spring up in every section of the Union. Does the reader wish to know how the _farmers_ can accomplish this important object? We answer, there are four millions of men engaged in agricultural pursuits. Their number is three times greater than that of those engaged in navigation, the learned professions, commerce, and manufactures. Hence they have the numerical power to control the government of these United States, and of course can plead their own cause in the halls of congress, and vote their own supplies for educational purposes. When the author first commenced a warfare against the lancet and other destructive agents, his only hopes of success were based on the coöperation of this mighty host of husbandmen; he well knew that there were many prejudices to be overcome, and none greater than those existing among his brethren of the same profession. The farmers have just begun to see the absurdity of bleeding an animal to death, with a view of saving life; or pouring down their throats powerful and destructive agents, with a view of making one disease to cure another! If the cattle doctors, then, will not reform, they must be reformed through the giant influence of popular opinion. Already the cry is, and it emanates from some of the most influential agriculturists in the country,--"_No more blood-letting!_" "_Use your poisons on yourselves._" To the cattle-rearing interest, at the hands of many of whom the author has received aid and encouragement, the following pages are dedicated; they are intended to furnish them with practical information, with a view of preventing disease, increasing the value of their stock, and restoring them to health when sick. In reference to our reformed system of veterinary medication, it will be sufficient, in the present place, just to glance at the fundamental principles. In the succeeding pages these principles will be more fully explained. We contemplate the animal system as a complicated piece of mechanism, subject to the uncompromising and immutable laws of nature, as they are written upon the face of animate nature by the finger of Omnipotence. All our intentions of cure being in accordance with nature's laws, (viz., promoting the integrity of the living powers,) we have termed our system a _physiological_ one, though it is sometimes termed _botanic_, in allusion to the fact that most of our remedial agents are derived from the vegetable kingdom. We recognize a conservative or healing power in the animal economy, whose unerring indications we endeavor to follow; considering nature the physician, and the doctor her servant. Our system proposes, under all circumstances, to restore the diseased organs to a healthy state, by coöperating with the vitality remaining in those organs, by the exhibition of sanative means, and, under all circumstances, to assist, and not oppose, nature in her curative processes. Poisonous substances, blood-letting, or processes of cure that act pathologically, cannot be used by us. The laws of animal life are physiological: they never were, nor ever will be, pathological. The agents we use are just as we find them in the forest and the field, compounded by the Great Physician. Hence the reader will perceive that our aim is to depart from the popular debilitating and life-destroying practice, and approach as near as possible to the sanative. G. H. D. THE AMERICAN REFORMED CATTLE DOCTOR. IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLYING CATTLE WITH PURE WATER. In order to prevent many of the diseases to which cattle are liable, it is important that they be supplied with pure water. Cattle have often been known to turn away from the filthy fluid found in some troughs, which abound in slime and decayed vegetable matter; and, indeed, the common stagnated pond water is no better than the former. Such water has, in former years, proved itself to be a serious cause of disease; and, at the present day, death is running riot among the stock of our western, and also our northern farmers, when, to our certain knowledge, the cause exists, in some cases, under their very noses. The farmers ofttimes see their best stock sicken and die without any apparent cause; and the cattle doctors are running rough-shod through the _materia medica_, pouring down the throats of the poor brutes salts by the pound, castor oil by the quart; aloes, lard, and a host of kindred trash, follow in rapid succession, converting the stomach into a sort of apothecary's shop; setons are inserted in the "dewlap;" the horns are bored, and sometimes sawed off; and, as a last resort, the animals are blistered and bled. They sometimes recover, in spite of the violence done to the constitution; yet they drag out a low form of vitality, living, it may be said, yet half dead, until some friendly epidemic puts a period to their sufferings. The author's attention was first called to this subject on reading an article in an English work, the substance of which is as follows: A number of working oxen were put into a pasture, in which was a pond, considered to abound in good water. Soon after putting them there, they were attacked with scouring, upon which they were immediately removed to another field. The scouring continued. They still, however, drank at the same pond. They were shifted to another piece of very sweet pasture without arresting the disease. The farmer thought it evident that the pastures were not the cause of the disease; and, contrary to the advice of his friends, who affirmed that the spring was always noticed for the excellence of its water, fenced his pond round, so that the cattle could not drink; they were then driven to a distance and watered. The scouring gradually disappeared. The farmer now proceeded to examine the suspected pond; and, on stirring the water, he found it all alive with small creatures. He now stirred into the water a quantity of lime, and soon after an immense number of animalculæ were seen dead on the surface. In a short time, the cattle drank of this water without any injurious results. There is no doubt but that inferior kinds of water produce derangement of the digestive organs, and subsequently loss of flesh, debility, &c. We have frequently made _post mortem_ examinations of animals that have died from disease induced by debility, and have often found a large number of worms in the stomach and intestines, which, we firmly believe, had their origin either primarily from the water itself, or subsequently from its effects on the digestive function. All decayed animal and vegetable matter tends to corrupt water, and render it unfit for the purposes of life. Now, if the farmer has the best spring in the world, and the water shall flow from it, as it sometimes does, through whole fields of gutter or dike, abounding in decayed filth, such water will be impregnated with agents that will more or less affect its purity. REMARKS ON FEEDING CATTLE. Many of the most complicated diseases of cattle originate from the food: for example, it may be given in too large quantities--more than is needed to build up and repair the waste that is constantly going on. The consequence is, the animals get into a state of plethora, which is known by heaviness, dulness, unwillingness to move; there is a disposition to sleep, and they will lie down and often go to sleep in damp places. A chill of the extremities, or collapse of the capillaries, takes place, resulting in diseases of the lungs and pleura. At other times, if driven a short distance, and made to walk fast, they are liable to disease of the brain and other organs, which frequently terminates fatally. The food may be of such a nature as shall be very difficult of digestion, such as cornstalks, foxgrass, frosted turnips, &c. The clover and grasses may abound in woody fibre, in consequence of being cut too late; they will then require more than the usual amount of gastric fluids to insalivate them, and more time to masticate, and, finally, extract their nutrimental properties. The stomach becomes overworked, producing sympathetic diseases of the brain and nervous structures. The stomach not being able to act on fibrous matter with the same despatch as on softer materials, the former accumulates in its different compartments, distends the viscera, interferes with the motion of the diaphragm, presses on the liver, seriously interfering with the bile-secreting process. In order to prevent the grass and clover from becoming tough and fibrous, it should be mowed early, and while in flower, and should be afterwards almost constantly attended to, if the weather is favorable; the more it is scattered about, the better will it be made, and the more effectually will its fragrance and other good qualities be preserved. The food may also be deficient in nutriment. The effects of insufficient food are too well known to need much description: debility includes them all; it invades every function of the animal economy. And as life is the sum of the powers that resist disease, if disease is only the instrument of death, it follows, of course, that whatever enfeebles life, or, in other words, produces debility, must predispose to disease. Many cattle, during the winter, live on bad hay, which does not appear to contain any of that saccharine and mucilaginous matter which is found in good hay. When the spring comes, they are turned out to grass, and thus regain their flesh. Many, however, die in consequence of the sudden change. It has been satisfactorily proved that fat cattle, of the best quality, may be produced by feeding them on boiled food. Dr. Whitlaw says, "On one occasion, a number of cows were selected from a large stock, for the express purpose of making the trial: they were such as appeared to be of the best kind, and those that gave the richest milk. In order to ascertain what particular food would produce the best milk, different species of grass and clover were tried separately, and the quality and flavor of the butter were found to vary very much. But what was of the most importance, many of the grasses were found to be coated with silecia, or decomposed sand, too hard and insoluble for the stomachs of cattle. In consequence of this, the grass was cut and well steamed, and it was found to be readily digested; and the butter, that was made from the milk, much firmer, better flavored, and would keep longer without salt than any other kind. Another circumstance that attended the experiment was that, in all the various grasses and grain that were intended by our Creator as food for man or beast, the various oils that enter into their composition were so powerfully assimilated or combined with the other properties of the farinaceous plants, that the oil partook of the character of essential oil, and was not so easily evaporated as that of poisonous vegetables; and experience has proved that the same quantity of grass, steamed and given to the cattle, will produce more butter than when given in its dry state. This fact being established from numerous experiments, then there must be a great saving and superiority in this mode of feeding. The meat of such cattle is more wholesome, tender, and better flavored than when fed in the ordinary way." (For process of steaming, see Dadd's work on the Horse, p. 67.) A mixed diet (boiled) is supposed to be the most economical for fattening cattle. "A Scotchman, who fattens 150 head of Galloway cattle, annually, finds it most profitable to feed with bruised flaxseed, boiled with meal or barley, oats or Indian corn, at the rate of one part flaxseed to three parts meal, by weight,--the cooked compound to be afterwards mixed with cut straw or hay. From four to twelve pounds of the compound are given to each beast per day." The editor of the Albany Cultivator adds, "Would it not be well for some of our farmers, who stall-feed cattle, to try this or a similar mode? We are by no means certain that the ordinary food (meaning, probably, bad hay and cornstalks) would pay the expense of cooking; but flaxseed is known to be highly nutritious, and the cooking would not only facilitate its digestion, but it would serve, by mixing, to render the other food palatable, and, by promoting the appetite and health of the animal, would be likely to hasten its thrift." Mr. Hutton, who has long been celebrated for producing exceedingly fat cattle at a small cost, estimates that cost as follows:-- s. d. "13 lbs. of linseed, bruised, or 2 lbs. per day for six days, and 1 lb. for Sunday, 1 9 32 lbs. of ground corn, or 5 lbs. per day for six days, and 2-1/2 lbs. for Sunday, at 1 d. per lb., 2 8 35 lbs. of turnips, given twice a day for six days, and thrice on Sunday, 1 6 Oats, 1-1/2 d.: labor on each beast, 6 d., 7-1/2 --------- Total cost of each beast per week, 6 6-1/2 "The horses, cows, and young stock are also fed on this food, evidently with great advantage." Mr. Workington, a successful dairyman, combining cut feed and oil-cake with different sorts of green food, found that, by giving a middle-sized cow sixteen pounds of green food and two of boiled hay, with two pounds of ground oil cake, (_linseed would be preferable_,) and eight pounds of cut straw, the daily expense of her keep was only 5-1/2 d., (about ten cents.) The oil-cake he found to be much more productive of milk when given with steamed food, than when employed without it. Varying their food from time to time is found to be of much more advantage to the cow; and this may probably arise from the additional relish with which the animal eats, or from the superior excitement of a new stimulus on the different secretions. The following table represents the nutritive properties in each article of food:-- ------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------- | | Husk, or |Starch, |Gluten, | | | | woody |gum, and|albumen,| Fatty |Saline | Water. | fibre. | sugar. | &c. | matter |matter ------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------- Oats, | 16 | 20 | 45 | 11 | 6 | 2.5 Beans, | 14 | 8 to 11 | 40 | 26 | 2.5 | 3 Pease, | 14 | 9 | 50 | 24 | 2.1 | 3 Indian corn,| 14 | 6 | 70 | 12 | 5 to 9 | 1.5 Barley, | 15 | 14 | 52 | 13.5 | 2 to 3 | 3 Meadow hay, | 14 | 30 | 40 | 7.1 | 2 to 5 |5 to 10 Clover hay, | 14 | 25 | 40 | 9.3 | 3 to 5 | 9 Pea straw, |10 to 15| 25 | 45 | 12.3 | 1.5 |4 to 5 Oat straw, | 12 | 45 | 35 | 1.3 | 0.8 | 6 Carrots, | 85 | 3 | 10 | 1.5 | 0.4 |1 to 2 Linseed, | 9.2 | 8 to 9 | 35.3 | 20.3 | 20.0 | 6.3 Bran, | 13.1 | 53.6 | 2 | 19.3 | 4.7 | 7.3 ------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+-------- The most nutritious grasses are those which abound in sugar, starch, and gluten. Sugar is an essential element in the formation of good milk; hence the sweet-scented grasses are the most profitable to cultivate and feed to milch cows. At the same time, the farmer, if he does not, ought to know that large quantities of saccharine matter are extracted from clover and sweet grasses by the bees. Mr. White tells us that, "on a farm situated a few miles from London, the eldest son of the occupier had the management and profit of the bees given him, which induced him to increase the number of stocks beyond what had ever been kept on the farm before. It so happened that the sheep did not thrive so well as in former years, and on the farmer complaining at the cause to his man, as they had plenty of keep, the man replied, '_You will never have fat sheep so long as you suffer my young master to keep so many stocks of bees; they suck all the honey from the flowers, so that the clover is not half so nourishing, and does not produce half such good milk._'" Had this man been acquainted with agricultural and animal chemistry, he would have had a clear conception of the seeming absurdity. All our labor or efforts to improve stock or crops will be fruitless, unless guided by chemical science. We must have sugar, starch, gluten, and other materials, to perfect animal organization. The animal may be in good health, the different functions free and unobstructed, and possess the power of reproducing the species; yet, if fed on substances which lack the materials necessary to the composition of bones, blood-vessels, and nerves, sooner or later its health becomes impaired. Reader, if you own cattle, and wish to preserve their health, give them boiled food occasionally; let them have their meals at regular hours, in sufficient quantity, and no more, unless they are intended for the butcher; then, an extra allowance may be given, with a view of fattening. They should be well littered, and the barns well ventilated; finally, keep them clean, avoid undue exposure, and govern them in a spirit of kindness and mercy. THE BARN AND FEEDING BYRE. It is well known that the more cleanly and comfortable cattle are kept, and the better the order in which their food is presented to them, the better they will thrive, and the more profitable they will be to the owner. Dr. Gunthier remarks, that "constant confinement to the barn is opposed to the nature of oxen, and becomes the source of numberless diseases. Endeavors are made to promote the lacteal secretion in cows, and the fattening of oxen, by means of heat: for this purpose, stables [barns] are converted into real stoves, either by not making them sufficiently large, or by crowding them to excess, or by preventing the access of air from without; and all this without recollecting that the skin, thus over-excited, must necessarily fall into a state of atony in a short time. Besides, the moist heat and the emanations of the dung cannot fail to exercise a destructive influence on the lungs and entire system. To these causes if we add the absolute want of exercise and the excess of food, we shall not be surprised at the number of diseases resulting from these different practices, and at the extraordinary forms which they ofttimes assume. "Persons propose to themselves, by feeding in the barn, to augment the mass of dung; and the beasts are left in their excrement, sometimes up to the very knees. Seldom is there any care taken to cleanse their skin, and still less attention is directed to the feet. What wonder, then, if they exhibit so many forms of disease?" The byre recommended by Mr. Lawson consists of two apartments--an inner apartment, or byre for feeding the cattle, and an outer apartment, or barn for containing the fodder. The byre is constructed at right angles with the barn, as follows: "At the distance of about three feet and a half from the side of the building, within, there are constructed, on the ground, in a straight line, a trough, having ten partitions for feeding ten animals. The troughs are so constructed, that there is a small and gradual declivity from the first or innermost to the last or outermost one; and the partitions separating them being made with a small arch at the bottom, a bucket of water, poured in at the uppermost, runs out at the last one through a spout in the wall; and a sweep of the broom carries off the whole remains of the food, rendering all the troughs quite clean and sweet. The whole food of the cattle is thus kept perfectly clean at all times. "In a line with the feeding troughs, and immediately over them, runs a strong beam of wood, from one end of the byre to the other; which is strengthened by two strong upright supporters to the roof, placed at equal distances from the ends of the byre; and the main beam is again subdivided by the cattle stakes and chains, so as to keep each of the ten oxen opposite to his own feeding trough and stall. "The three and a half feet of space between the troughs and outer wall, lighted by a glazed window, is the cattle feeder's walk, who passes along it in front of the cattle, and, with a basket, deposits before each of the cattle the food into the feeding trough of each. To prevent any of the cattle from choking on small pieces of turnips, &c., as they are very apt to do, the chains at the stakes are contrived of such a length, that no ox can raise his head too high when eating; for in this way, it is observed, cattle are generally choked. "At the distance of about six feet eight inches from the feeding troughs, and parallel to them, is a dung grove and urine gutter. Here too, like the trough, there is a gradual declivity; so that the moment the urine passes from the cattle, it runs to the lowest end of the gutter, whence it is conveyed through the outer wall, in a spout, and deposited in the urinarium outside of the building. At this place is a large enclosed space, occupied as a compost dung-court. Here all sorts of stuff are collected for increasing the manure, such as fat, earth, cleanings of roads, ditches, ponds, rotten vegetables, &c.; and the urine from the byre, being caused to run over all these collected together, which is done very easily by a couple of wooden spouts, moved backwards and forwards to the urinarium at pleasure, renders the whole mass, in a short time, a rich compost dunghill; and this is done by the urine alone, which, in general, is totally lost. The dung of the byre, again, is cleared several times each day, and deposited in the dung-court. Along the edge of the dung-court a few low sheds are constructed, in which swine are kept, and these consume the refuse of the food. "In the side wall of the byre, and opposite to the heads of the cattle, are constructed three ventilators; these are placed at the distance of about two feet four inches from the ground, in the inside of the byre, and pass out just under the roof. The inside openings of these are about thirteen inches in length, seven in breadth, and nine in depth; and they serve two good purposes. The breath of cattle being superficially lighter than atmospheric air, the consequence is, that in some byres the cattle are kept in a constant heat and sweat, because their breath and heat have no way to escape; whereas, by means of the ventilators, the air of the barn is kept in proper circulation, which conduces as much to the health of the cattle as to the preservation of the walls and timber of the byre, by drying up the moisture produced from the breath and sweat of the cattle, which is found to injure those parts of the building." MILKING. The operation of milking should, if possible, always be performed by the same person, and in the most gentle manner; the violent tugging at the teats by an inexperienced hand is apt to make the animal irritable and uneasy during the operation, and unwilling to be milked. Many of the diseases of the teats and udder can be traced to violence done to the parts under the operation of milking. Young animals are often unwilling to be milked: here a little patience and kindness will perform wonders. It is not the quantity of milk that gives value to the dairy cow; for the milk of one good cow will make more butter than that of two poor ones, each giving the same quantity of milk. Its most abundant principles are cream, caseous matter or curd, and whey. In these are also contained a saccharine matter, (sugar of milk,) muriate and phosphate of potassa, phosphate of lime, acetic acid, acetate of potassa, and a trace of acetate of iron. The three principal constituents (cream, curd, and whey) can easily be separated: thus the cream rises to the surface, and the curd and whey will separate if the milk becomes sour, or a little rennet is poured into it. When milk is intended to be made into cheese, no part of the cream should be separated. Good cheese is, consequently, rarely produced in those dairies where much butter is made; the former being robbed for the sake of the latter. Sir J. Sinclair says, "If a few spoonfuls of milk are left in the udder of the cow at milking; if any of the implements used in the dairy are allowed to be tainted by neglect; if the dairy-house be kept dirty, or out of order; if the milk is either too hot or too cold at coagulation; if too much or too little rennet is put into the milk; if the whey is not speedily taken off; if too much or too little salt is applied; if butter is too slowly or too hastily churned; or if other minute attentions are neglected, the milk will be in a great measure lost. If these nice operations occurred once a month, or once a week, they might be easily guarded against; but as they require to be observed during every stage of the process, and almost every hour of the day, the most vigilant attention must be kept up during the whole season." A KNOWLEDGE OF AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL CHEMISTRY IMPORTANT TO FARMERS. It is a well-known fact that plants require for their germination and growth different constituents of soil, and that animals require different forms of food to build up the waste, and promote the living integrity--the vital powers. Its order to supply the materials necessary for animal and vegetable nutrition, we require alternate changes--the former in the diet, and the latter in the soil. Experience has proved that the cultivation of a plant for several successive years on the same soil impoverishes it, or the plant degenerates. On the contrary, if a piece of land be suffered to lie uncultivated for a short time, it will yield, in spite of the loss of time, a greater quantity of grain; for, during the interval of rest, the soil regains its original equilibrium. It has been satisfactorily demonstrated that a fruit-tree cannot be made to grow and bring forth good fruit on the same spot where another of the same species has stood; at least not until a lapse of years. This is a fact worth knowing, for it applies more or less to all forms of vegetation. Another fact of experience is, that some plants thrive on the same soil only after a lapse of years, while others may be cultivated in close succession, _provided the soil is kept in equilibrium by artificial means_; these are subsoiling, &c. Some kinds of plants improve the sod, while others impoverish or exhaust it. Professor Liebig tells us, "turnips, cabbages, beets, oats, and rye are considered to belong to the class which impoverish the soil; while by wheat, hops, madder, hemp, and poppies, it is supposed to be entirely exhausted." Many of our farmers expend large sums of money in the purchase of manure, with a view of improving the soil; and they suppose that their crops will be abundant in proportion to the amount of manure; yet many have discovered that, in spite of the extra expense and labor, the produce of their farms decreased. The alternation of crops seems destined to effect a great change in agriculture. A French chemist informs us that the roots of plants imbibe matter of every kind from the soil, and thus necessarily abstract a number of substances, which are not adapted to the purposes of nutrition, and that they are ultimately expelled by the excretory vessels, and return to the soil as excrement. The excrementitious portion of the food also returns to the soil. Now, as excrement cannot be assimilated by the same animal or plant that ejected it, without danger to the organs of digestion or eliminations, it follows that the more vegetable excrement the soil contains, the more unfitted must it be for plants of the same species; yet these excrementitious matters may, however, still be capable of assimilation by another kind of plant, which would absorb them from the soil, and render it again fertile for the first. In connection with this, it has been observed that several plants will flourish when growing beside each other; but it is not good policy to sow two kinds of seed together: on the other hand, some plants mutually prevent each other's development. The same happens if young cattle are suffered to graze and sleep in the barn together; the one lives at the expense of the other, which soon shows evidences of disease. The injurious effects of permitting young children to sleep with aged relatives are known to many of our readers; yet some parents see their children sicken and die without knowing the why or wherefore. From such facts as these,--which we might multiply to an indefinite extent, were it necessary,--we learn that nature's laws are immutable and uncompromising; and woe be to the man that transgresses them: they are a part of the divine law, which cannot be set at nought with impunity. Ignorance on these important subjects has existed too long: yet we perceive in the distant horizon a ray of intellectual light, streaming through our schools and agricultural societies. The result will be, that succeeding generations will be better acquainted with nature's laws, from which shall flow untold blessings. Chemistry teaches us that animals and vegetables are composed of a vast number of different compounds, which are nearly all produced by the same elementary principles. Vegetables consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; and the same substances, with the addition of nitrogen, are the principal constituents of the animal economy. In a word, all the constituents of animal creation have actually been discovered in vegetables: this has, we presume, led to the conclusion that "all flesh is grass." Many horticulturists complain that certain fruits and seeds have "_run out_," or degenerated. Has the stately oak, the elm, or the cedar degenerated? No. Each has preserved its identity, and will continue so to do, at least just as the Divine Artist intended they should, unless man, by his fancied improvements, interferes; and here, reader, permit us to ask if you ever knew a piece of nature's mechanism improved by human agency. Can we make a light better adapted to the wants of animate and inanimate creation than that which the sun, moon, and stars afford? Whenever we attempt to improve on immutable laws, as they are written on the face of creation, that moment we prevent the full and free play of these laws. Hence the practice of grafting scions of delicious fruit-trees on stock of an inferior order compromises its identity; and successive crops will show unmistakable evidences of encroachment. A son of the lamented Mr. Phinney tells us that he had some very fine sows, that he was desirous of breeding from, with a view of making "improvements." He bred in a close degree of relationship: in a short time, to use his own expression, "their sides appeared like two boards nailed together." Does the farmer wish to know how to prevent seeds and fruit "running out"? Let him study chemistry. Chemistry furnishes the information; it also teaches the husbandman the fact, that to put a plant, composed of certain essential elements, on a soil destitute of those elements,--or to graft a scion, requiring a certain amount of sap or juice, on a stock destitute of such sap or juice, expecting that they will germinate, grow to perfection, and preserve their identity,--would be just as absurd as to expect that a dry sow would nourish a sucking pig. Agriculture being based on the equilibrium of the soils, a knowledge of chemistry is indispensable to every one who is desirous of keeping pace with the reforms of the age; for it is through the medium of that science alone that we are enabled to ascertain with certainty how this equilibrium is disturbed by the growth of vegetation. Then is it not a matter of deep interest to the farmer to know how this equilibrium is restored? Does the farmer wish to know what kind of soil is necessary to nourish and mature a plant? Chemistry solves the problem. Does the farmer wish to know how to improve the soil? Let him refer to chemistry. Chemistry will teach the farmer how to analyze the soil; by that means he will learn which of the constituent elements of the plants and soil are constant, and which are changeable. By making an analysis of the soil at different periods, through the process of germination, growth, and maturity, we are enabled to ascertain the amount of excretory elements given out. Bergman tells us that he found, by analysis, in "100 parts of fertile soil, coarse silex 30 parts, silecia 30 parts, carbonate of lime 30 parts:" hence the fertility of the soil diminishes in proportion as one or the other of these elements predominates. Ashes of wheat contain, among other elementary substances, 48 parts of silecia. Now, what farmer could expect to raise a good crop of wheat from a soil destitute of silecious earth, since this earth constitutes a large amount of the earthy part of wheat? There is no barrier to agricultural improvement so effectual as for farmers to continue their old customs purely because their forefathers did so. But prejudices are fast dying away before the rays of intellectual illumination; the farmers are fast seceding from the supposed infallibles of their forefathers, and will soon become "book" as well as practical husbandmen. "Book farming," assisted by practical knowledge, teaches that manures require admixture of milder materials to mitigate their force; for some of them communicate a disgusting or offensive quality to vegetables. They are charged with imparting a biting and acrimonious taste to radishes and turnips. Potatoes and grapes are known to borrow the foul taint of the ground. Millers observe a strong, disagreeable odor in the meal of wheat that grew upon land highly charged with the rotten recrements of cities. Stable dung is known to impart a disagreeable flavor to vegetables. The same effects may be illustrated in the animal kingdom. Ducks are rendered so ill tasted from stuffing down garbage as sometimes to be offensive to the palate when cooked. The quality of pork is known by the food of the swine, and the peculiar flavor of water-fowl is rationally traced to the fish they devour. Thus a portion of the elements of manure and nutrimental matter passes into the living bodies without being entirely subdued. For example, we can alter the color of the cow's milk by mixing madder or saffron in the food; the odor may be influenced by garlic; the flavor may be altered by pine and wormwood; and lastly, the medicinal effect may be influenced. In the cultivation of grass the farmer will find it to his advantage to cultivate none but the best kinds; the whole pasture lands will then be filled with valuable grass seeds. The number of grass seeds worth cultivating is but few, and these should be sown separately. It is bad policy to sow different kinds of grass seed together--just as bad as to sow wheat, oats, turnips, and corn promiscuously. The reason why the farmers, as a community, will be benefited by sowing none but the best seed is, because grass seeds are distributed through neighboring pastures by the winds, and there take root. Now, if the neighboring pastures abound in inferior grasses, the fields will soon be filled with useless plants, which are very difficult to be got rid of. We refer those of our readers who desire to make themselves acquainted with animal chemistry to Professor Liebig's work on that science. ON BREEDING. Large sums of money have, from time to time, been expended with a view of improving stock, and many superior cattle have been introduced into this country; yet, after a few generations, the beautiful form and superior qualities of the originals are nearly lost, and the importer finds to his cost that the produce is no better than that of his neighbors. What are the causes of this deterioration? We are told--and experience confirms the fact--that "like produces like." Good qualities and perfect organization are perpetuated by a union of animals possessing those properties: of course it follows, that malformation, hereditary taints, and vices are transmitted and aggravated. The destructive practice of breeding "in and in," or, in other words, selecting animals of the same family, is one of the first causes of degeneracy; and this destructive practice has proved equally unfortunate in the human family. Physical defects are the result of the intermarriage of near relatives. In Spain, the deformed and feeble state of the aristocracy arises from their alliances being confined to the same class of relatives through successive generations. But we need not go to Spain to verify such facts. Go into our churchyards, and read on the tombstones the names of thousands of infants,--gems withered in the bud,--young men, and maidens, cut down and consigned to a premature grave; and then prove, if you can, that early marriages and near alliances are not the chief causes of this great mortality. Mr. Colman, in an article on live stock, says, "There seems to be a limit beyond which no person can go. The particular breed may be altered and improved, but an entirely new breed cannot be produced; and in every departure from the original there is a constant tendency to revert back to it. The stock of the improved Durham cattle seems to establish this fact. If we have the true history of it, it is a cross of a Teeswater bull with a Galloway cow. The Teeswater or Yorkshire stock are a large, coarse-boned animal: the object of this cross was to get a smaller bone and greater compactness. By attempting to carry this improvement, if I may so call it, still further by breeding continually in and in, that is, with members of the same family, in a close degree of affinity, the power of continuing the species seems to become extinct; at least it approximates to such a result. On the other hand, by wholly neglecting all selection, and without an occasional good cross with an animal of some foreign blood, there appears a tendency to revert back to the large-boned, long-legged animal, from which the _improvement_ began. "There are, however, several instances of superior animals bred in the closest affinity; whilst, in a very great majority of cases, the failure has been excessive." Overtaxing the generative powers of the male is another cause of deterioration. The reader is probably aware of the woful results attending too frequent sexual intercourse. If he has not given this subject the attention it demands, then let him read the records of our lunatic asylums: they tell a sad tale of woe, and prove to demonstration that, before the blast of this dire tornado, _sexual excess_, lofty minds, the suns and stars of our intellectual world, are suddenly blotted out. It spares neither age, sex, profession, nor kind. Dr. White relates a case which substantiates the truth of our position. "The Prince of Wales, who afterwards became George the Fourth, had a stud horse of very superior qualities. His highness caused a few of his own mares to be bred to this stallion, and the produce proved every way worthy of the sire. This horse was kept at Windsor for public covering without charge, except the customary groom's fee of half a guinea. The groom, anxious to pocket as many half guineas as possible, persuaded all he could to avail themselves of the prince's liberality. The result was, that, being kept in a stable without sufficient exercise, and covering nearly one hundred mares yearly, the stock, although tolerably promising in their early age, shot up into lank, weakly, awkward, good-for-nothing creatures, to the entire ruin of the horse's character and sire. Some gentlemen, aware of the cause, took pains to explain it, proving the correctness of their statement by reference to the first of the horses got, which were among the best horses in England." There is no doubt but that brutes are often endowed with extraordinary powers for sexual indulgence; yet, when kept for the purpose alluded to, without sufficient muscular exercise,--breathing impure air, and living on the fat of the farm,--his services in constant requisition,--then it is no wonder, that if, under these circumstances, the offspring are weak and inefficient. Professor Youatt recommends that "valuable qualities once established, which it is desirable to keep up, should thereafter be preserved by occasional crosses with the best animals to be had of the same breed, but of a different family. This is the great secret which has maintained the blood horse in his great superiority." The live stock of our farmers frequently degenerates in a very short space of time. The why and the wherefore is not generally understood; neither will it be, until animal physiology shall be better understood than it is at the present time. Men are daily violating the laws of animal organization in more ways than one, in the breeding, rearing, and general management of all kinds of domestic animals,--until the different breeds are so amalgamated, that, in many cases, it is a difficult task to ascertain, with any degree of certainty, their pedigree. If a farmer has in his possession a bull of a favorite breed, the neighboring stock-raisers avail themselves of his bullship's services by sending as many cows to him as possible: the consequence is, that the offspring got in the latter part of the season are good for nothing. The cow also, at the time of impregnation, may be in a state of debility, owing to some derangement in the organs of digestion; if so, impregnation is very likely to make the matter worse; for great sympathy exists between the organs of generation and those of digestion, and females of every order suffer more or less from a disturbed state of the stomach during the early months of pregnancy. In fact, during the whole stage they should be considered far from a state of health. Add to this the fact that impregnated cows are milked, (not generally, yet we know of such cases:) the foetus is thus deprived of its due share of nourishment, and the extra nutrimental agents, necessary for its growth and development, must be furnished at the expense of the mother. She, in her turn, soon shows unmistakable evidences of this "robbing Peter to pay Paul" system, by her sunken eye, loss of flesh, &c., and often, before she has seen her sixth month of pregnancy, liberates the foetus by a premature birth--in short, pays the penalty of disobedience to the immutable law of nature. On the other hand, should such a cow go safely through the whole period of gestation and parturition, the offspring will not be worth keeping, and the milk of the former will lack, in some measure, those constituents which go to make good milk, and without which it is almost worthless for making butter or cheese. A cow should never be bred from unless she shall be in good health and flesh. If she cannot be fatted, then she may be spayed. (See article _Spaying Cows_.) By that means, her health will improve, and she will be made a permanent milker. Degeneracy may arise from physical defects on the part of the bull. It is well known that infirmities, faults, and defects are communicated by the sexual congress to the parties as well as their offspring. Hence a bull should never be bred to unless he possesses the requisite qualifications of soundness, form, size, and color. There are a great number of good-for-nothing bulls about the country, whose services can be had for a trifle; under these circumstances, and when they can be procured without the trouble of sending the cow even a short distance, it will be difficult to effect a change. If the farming community desire to put a stop to this growing evil, let them instruct their representatives to advocate the enactment of a law prohibiting the breeding to bulls or stallions unless they shall possess the necessary qualifications. [Illustration: A First Prize Short Horned Bull] THE BULL. Mr. Lawson gives us the following description of a good bull. It would be difficult to find one corresponding in all its details to this description; yet it will give the reader an idea of what a good bull ought to be. "The head of the bull should be rather long, and muzzle fine; his eyes lively and prominent; his ears long and thin; his horns white; his neck rising with a gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head; his shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine and chest backwards, and to the neck-vein forwards; his bosom open; breast broad, and projecting well before his legs; his arms or fore thighs muscular, and tapering to his knees; his legs straight, clean, and very fine boned; his chine and chest so full as to leave no hollows behind the shoulders; the plates strong, to keep his belly from sinking below the level of his breast; his back or loin broad, straight, and flat; his ribs rising one above another, in such a manner that the last rib shall be rather the highest, leaving only a small space to the hips, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcass; his hips should be wide placed, round or globular, and a little higher than the back; the quarters (from the hips to the rump) long, and, instead of being square, as recommended by some, they should taper gradually from the hips backwards; rump close to the tail; the tail broad, well haired, and set on so as to be in the same horizontal line with his back." VALUE OF DIFFERENT BREEDS OF COWS. Mr. Culley, in speaking of the relative value of long and short horns, says, "The long-horns excel in the thickness and firm texture of the hide, in the length and closeness of the hair, in their beef being finer grained and more mixed and marbled than that of the short-horns, in weighing more in proportion to their size, and in giving richer milk; but they are inferior to the short-horns in giving a less quantity of milk, in weighing less upon the whole, in affording less fat when killed, in being generally slower feeders, in being coarser made, and more leathery or bullish in the under side of the neck. In a few words, the long-horns excel in hide, hair, and quality of beef; the short-horns in the quantity of beef, fat, and milk. Each breed has long had, and probably may have, their particular advocates; but if I may hazard a conjecture, is it not probable that both kinds may have their particular advantages in different situations? Why not the thick, firm hides, and long, closer set hair, of the one kind be a protection and security against tempestuous winds and heavy fogs and rains, while a regular season and mild climate are more suitable to the constitutions of the short-horns? But it has hitherto been the misfortune of the short-horned breeders to seek the largest and biggest boned ones for the best, without considering that those are the best that bring the most money for a given quantity of food. However, the ideas of our short-horned breeders being now more enlarged, and their minds more open to conviction, we may hope in a few years to see great improvements made in that breed of cattle. "I would recommend to breeders of cattle to find out which breed is the most profitable, and which are best adapted to the different situations, and endeavor to improve that breed to the utmost, rather than try to unite the particular qualities of two or more distinct breeds by crossing, which is a precarious practice, for we generally find the produce inherit the coarseness of both breeds, and rarely attain the good properties which the pure distinct breeds individually possess. "Short-horned cows yield much milk; the long-horned give less, but the cream is more abundant and richer. The same quantity of milk also yields a greater proportion of cheese. The Polled or Galloway cows are excellent milkers, and their milk is rich. The Suffolk duns are much esteemed for the abundance of their milk, and the excellence of the butter it produces. Ayrshire or Kyloe cows are much esteemed in Scotland; and in England the improved breed of the long-horned cattle is highly prized in many dairy districts. Every judicious selector, however, will always, in making his choice, keep in view not only the different sons and individuals of the animal, but also the nature of the farm on which the cows are to be put, and the sort of manufactured produce he is anxious to bring to market. The best age for a milch cow is betwixt four, or five, and ten. When old, she will give more milk; but it is of an inferior quality, and she is less easily supported." METHOD OF PREPARING RENNET, AS PRACTISED IN ENGLAND. Take the calf's maw, or stomach, and having taken out the curd contained therein, wash it clean, and salt it thoroughly, inside and out, leaving a white coat of salt over every part of it. Put it into an earthen jar, or other vessel, and let it stand three or four days; in which time it will have formed the salt and its own natural juice into a pickle. Take it out of the jar, and hang it up for two or three days, to let the pickle drain from it; resalt it; place it again in the jar; cover it tight down with a paper, pierced with a large pin; and let it remain thus till it is wanted for use. In this state it ought to be kept twelve months; it may, however, in case of necessity, be used a few days after it has received the second salting; but it will not be as strong as if kept a longer time. To prepare the rennet for use, take a handful of the leaves of the sweet-brier, the same quantity of rose and bramble leaves; boil them in a gallon of water, with three or four handfuls of salt, about a quarter of an hour; strain off the liquor, and, having let it stand until perfectly cool, put it into an earthen vessel, and add to it the maw prepared as above. To this add a sound, good lemon, stuck round with about a quarter of an ounce of cloves, which give the rennet an agreeable flavor. The longer the bag remains in the liquor, the stronger, of course, will be the rennet. The amount, therefore, requisite to turn a given quantity of milk, can only be ascertained by daily use and observation. A sort of average may be something less than a half pint of good rennet to fifty gallons of milk. In Gloucestershire, they employ one third of a pint to coagulate the above quantity. MAKING CHEESE. IT is generally admitted that many dairy farmers pay more attention to the quantity than the quality of this article of food; now, as cheese is "a surly elf, digesting every thing but itself," (this of course applies to some of the white oak specimens, which, like the Jew's razors, were made to sell,) it is surely a matter of great importance that they should attend more to the quality, especially if it be intended for exportation. There is no doubt but the home consumption of good cheese would soon materially increase, for many thousands of our citizens refuse to eat of the miserable stuff "misnamed cheese." The English have long been celebrated for the superior quality of their cheese; and we have thought that we cannot do a better service to our dairy farmers than to give, in as few words as possible, the various methods of making the different kinds of cheese, for which we are indebted to Mr. Lawson's work on cattle. "It is to be observed, in general, that cheese varies in quality, according as it has been made of milk of one meal, or two meals, or of skimmed milk; and that the season of the year, the method of milking, the preparation of the rennet, the mode of coagulation, the breaking and gathering of the curd, the management of the cheese in the press, the method of salting, and the management of the cheese-room, are all objects of the highest importance to the cheese manufacturer; and yet, notwithstanding this, the practice, in most of these respects, is still regulated by little else than mere chance or custom, without the direction of enlightened observation or the aid of well-conducted experiment. GLOUCESTER CHEESE. "In Gloucestershire, where the manufacture of cheese is perhaps as well understood as in any part of the world, they make the best cheeses of a single meal of milk; and, when this is done in the best manner, the entire meal of milk is used, without any addition from a former meal. But it not unfrequently happens that a portion of the milk is reserved and set by to be skimmed for butter; and at the next milking this proportion is added to the new milk, from which an equal quantity has been taken for a similar purpose. One meal cheeses are principally made here, and go by the name of _best making_, or simply _one meal cheeses_. The cheeses are distinguished into _thin_ and _thick_, or _single_ and _double_; the last having usually four to the hundred weight, (112 pounds,) the other about twice that number. The best double Gloucester is always made from new milk. "The true single Gloucester cheese is thought by many to be the best, in point of flavor, of any we have. The season for making their thin or single cheese is mostly from April to November; but the principal season for the thick or double is confined to May, June, and the early part of July. This is a busy season in the dairy; for at an earlier period the milk is not rich enough, and if the cheese be made later in the summer, they do not acquire sufficient age to be marketable next spring. Very many cheeses, however, can be made even in winter from cows that are well fed. The cows are milked in summer at a very early hour; generally by four o'clock in the morning, before the day becomes hot, and the animals restless and unruly. CHESTER CHEESE. "After the milk has been strained, to free it from any impurities, it is conveyed into a cooler placed upon feet like a table, having a spigot at the bottom for drawing off the milk. This, when sufficiently cooled, is drawn off into pans, and the cooler again filled. In so cases, the cooler is large enough to hold a whole meal's milk at once. The rapid cooling thus produced (which, however, is necessary only in hot weather, and during the summer season) is found to be of essential utility in retarding the process of fermentation, and thereby preventing putridity from commencing in the milk before two meals of it can be put together. Some have thought that the cheese might be improved by cooling the evening's milk still more rapidly, and that this might be effected by repeatedly drawing it off from and returning it into the cistern. When the milk is too cold, a portion of it is warmed over the fire and mixed with the rest. "The coloring matter, (annatto,) in Cheshire, is added by tying up as much of the substance as is thought sufficient in a linen rag, and putting it into a half pint of warm water, to stand over night. The whole of this infusion is, in the morning, mixed with the milk in the cheese-tub, and the rag dipped in the milk and rubbed on the palm of the hand as long as any of the coloring matter can be made to come away. "The next operation is salting; and this is done, either by laying the cheese, immediately after it comes out of the press, on a clean, fine cloth in the vat, immersed in brine, to remain for several days, turning it once every day at least; or by covering the upper surface of the cheese with salt every time it is turned, and repeating the application for three successive days, taking care to change the cloth twice during the time. In each of these methods, the cheese, after being so treated, is taken out of the vat, placed upon the salting bench, and the whole surface of it carefully rubbed with salt daily for eight or ten days. If it be large, a wooden hoop or a fillet of cloth is employed to prevent renting. The cheese is then washed in warm water or whey, dried with a cloth, and laid on what is called the _drying bench_. It remains there for about a week, and is thence removed to the _keeping house_. In Cheshire, it is found that the greatest quantity of salt used for a cheese of sixty pounds is about three pounds; but the proportion of this retained in the cheese has not been determined. "When, after salting and drying, the cheeses are deposited in the cheese-room or store-house, they are smeared all over with fresh butter, and placed on shelves fitted to the purpose, or on the floor. During the first ten or fifteen days, smart rubbing is daily employed, and the smearing with butter repeated. As long, however, as they are kept, they should be every day turned; and the usual practice is to rub them three times a week in summer and twice in winter. STILTON CHEESE. "Stilton cheese is made by putting the night's cream into the morning's new milk along with the rennet. When the curd has come, it is not broken, as in making other cheese, but taken out whole, and put into a sieve to drain gradually. While this is going on, it is gently pressed, and, having become firm and dry, is put into a vat, and kept on a dry board. These cheeses are exceedingly rich and valuable. They are called the Parmesan of England, and weigh from ten to twelve pounds. The manufacture of them is confined almost exclusively to Leicestershire, though not entirely so. DUNLOP CHEESE. "In Scotland, a species of cheese is produced, which has long been known and celebrated under the name of _Dunlop_ cheese. The best cheese is made by such as have a dozen or more cows, and consequently can make a cheese every day; one half of the milk being immediately from the cow, and the other of twelve hours' standing. Their method of making it is simple. They endeavor to have the milk as near as may be to the heat of new milk, when they apply the rennet, and whenever coagulation has taken place, (which is generally in ten or twelve minutes,) they stir the curd gently, and the whey, beginning to separate, is taken off as it gathers, till the curd be pretty solid. When this happens, they put it into a drainer with holes, and apply a weight. As soon as this has had its proper effect, the curd is put back again into the cheese-tub, and, by means of a sort of knife with three or four blades, is cut into very small pieces, salted, and carefully mixed by the hand. It is now placed in the vat, and put under the press. This is commonly a large stone of a cubical shape, from half a ton to a ton in weight, fixed in a frame of wood, and raised and lowered by an iron screw. The cheese is frequently taken out, and the cloth changed; and as soon as it has been ascertained that no more whey remains, it is removed, and placed on a dry board or pine floor. It is turned and rubbed frequently with a hard, coarse cloth, to prevent moulding or breeding mites. No coloring matter is used in making Dunlop cheese, except by such as wish to imitate the English cheese. GREEN CHEESE. "Green cheese is made by steeping ever night, in a proper quantity of milk, two parts of sage with one of marigold leaves, and a little parsley, after being bruised, and then mixing the curd of the milk, thus _greened_, as it is called, with the curd of the white milk. These may be mixed irregularly or fancifully, according to the pleasure of the operator. The management in other respects is the same as for common cheese." * * * * * Mr. Colman says, "In conversation with one of the largest wholesale cheesemongers and provision-dealers in the country, he suggested that there were two great faults of the American cheese, which somewhat prejudiced its sale in the English market. He is a person in whose character and experience entire confidence may be placed. "The first fault was the softness of the rind. It often cracked, and the cheese became spoiled from that circumstance. "The second fault is the acridness, or peculiar, smart, bitter taste often found in American cheese. He thought this might be due, in part, to some improper preparation or use of the rennet, and, in part, to some kind of feed which the cows found in the pastures. "The rind may be made of any desired hardness, if the cheese be taken from the press, and allowed to remain in brine, so strong that it will take up no more salt, for four or five hours. There must be great care, however, not to keep it too long in the brine. "The calf from which the rennet is to be taken should not be allowed to suck on the day on which it is killed. The office of the rennet, or stomach of the calf, is, to supply the gastric juice by which the curdling of the milk is effected. If it has recently performed that office, it will have become, to a degree, exhausted of its strength. Too much rennet should not be applied. Dairymaids, in general, are anxious to have the curd 'come soon,' and so apply an excessive quantity, to which he thinks much of the acrid taste of the cheese is owing. Only so much should be used as will produce the effect in about fifty minutes. For the reason above given, the rennet should not, he says, be washed in water when taken from the calf, as it exhausts its strength, but be simply salted. "When any cream is taken from the milk to be made into butter, the buttermilk should be returned to the milk of which the cheese is to be made. The greatest care should be taken in separating the whey from the cheese. When the pressing or handling is too severe, the whey that runs from the curd will appear of a white color. This is owing to its carrying off with it the small creamy particles of the cheese, which are, in fact, the richest part of it. After the curd is cut or broken, therefore, and not squeezed with the hand, and all the whey is allowed to separate from it that can be easily removed, the curd should be taken out of the tub with the greatest care, and laid upon a coarse cloth attached to a frame like a sieve, and there suffered to drain until it becomes quite dry and mealy, before being put into the press. The object of pressing should be, not to express the whey, but to consolidate the cheese. There should be no aim to make whey butter. All the butter extracted from the whey is so much of the proper richness taken from the cheese." MAKING BUTTER. It is a matter of impossibility to make a superior article of butter from the milk of a cow in a diseased state; for if either of the organs of secretion, absorption, digestion, or circulation, be deranged, we cannot expect good blood. The milk being a secretion from the blood, it follows that, in order to have good milk, we must have pure blood. A great deal depends also on the food; certain pastures are more favorable to the production of good milk than others. We know that many vegetables, such as turnips, garlic, dandelions, will impart a disagreeable flavor to the milk. On the other hand, sweet-scented grasses and boiled food improve the quality, and, generally, increase the quantity of the milk, provided, however, the digestive organs are in a physiological state. The processes of making butter are various in different parts of the United States. We are not prepared, from experience, to discuss the relative merits of the different operations of churning; suffice it to say, that the important improvements that have recently been made in the construction of churns promise to be of great advantage to the dairyman. The method of churning in England is considered to be favorable to the production of good butter. From twelve to twenty hours in summer, and about twice as long in winter, are permitted to elapse before the milk is skimmed, after it has been put into the milk-pans. If, on applying the tip of the finger to the surface, nothing adheres to it, the cream may be properly taken off; and during the hot summer months, this should always be done in the morning, before the dairy becomes warm. The cream should then be deposited in a deep pan, placed in the coolest part of the dairy, or in a cool cellar, where free air is admitted. In hot weather, churning should be performed, if possible, every other day; but if this is not convenient, the cream should be daily shifted into a clean pan, and the churning should never be less frequent than twice a week. This work should be performed in the coolest time of the day, and in the coolest part of the house. Cold water should be applied to the churn, first by filling it with this some time before the cream is poured in, or it may be kept cool by the application of a wet cloth. Such means are generally necessary, to prevent the too rapid acidification of the cream, and formation of the butter. We are indebted for much of the poor butter, (_cart-grease_ would be a more suitable name,) in which our large cities abound, to want of due care in churning: it should never be done too hastily, but--like "Billy Gray's" drumming--well done. In winter the churn may be previously heated by first filling it with hot water, the operation to be performed in a moderately warm room. In churning, a moderate and uninterrupted motion should be kept up during the whole process; for if the motion be too rapid, heat is generated, which will give the butter a rank flavor; and if the motion is relaxed, the butter will go back, as it is termed. WASHING BUTTER. "When the operation is properly conducted, the butter, after some time, suddenly forms, and is to be carefully collected and separated from the buttermilk. But in doing this, it is not sufficient merely to pour off the milk, or withdraw the butter from it; because a certain portion of the caseous and serous parts of the milk still remains in the interstices of the butter, and must be detached from it by washing, if we would obtain it pure. In washing butter, some think it sufficient to press the mass gently between the hands; others press it strongly and frequently, repeating the washings till the water comes off quite clear. The first method is preferable when the butter is made daily, for immediate use, from new milk or cream; because the portions of such adhering to it, or mixed with it, contribute to produce the sweet agreeable flavor which distinguishes new cream. But when our object is to prepare butter for keeping, we cannot repeat the washings too often, since the presence of a small quantity of milk in it will, in less than twelve hours after churning, cause it sensibly to lose its good qualities. "The process of washing butter is usually nothing more than throwing it into an earthen vessel of clear cool water, working it to and fro with the hands, and changing the water until it comes off clear. A much preferable method, however, and that which we believe is now always practised by those who best understand the business, is to use two broad pieces of wood, instead of the hands. This is to be preferred, not only on account of its apparently greater cleanliness, but also because it is of decided advantage to the quality of the butter. To this the warmth of the hand gives always, more or less, a greasy appearance. The influence of the heat of the hand is greater than might at first have been suspected. It has always been remarked, that a person who has naturally a warm hand never makes good butter." COLORING BUTTER. As butter made in winter is generally pale or white, and its richness, at the same time, inferior to that which is made during the summer months, the idea of excellence has been associated with the yellow color. Means are therefore employed, by those who prepare and sell butter, to impart to it the yellow color where that is naturally wanting. The substances mostly employed in England and Scotland are the root of the carrot and the flowers of the marigold. The juice of either of these is expressed and passed through a linen cloth. A small quantity of it (and the proportion of it necessary is soon learned by experience) is diluted with a little cream, and this mixture is added to the rest of the cream when it enters the churn. So little of this coloring matter unites with the butter, that it never communicates to it any peculiar taste. DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION IN CATTLE. _Oesophagus_, or _Gullet_.--This tube extends from the mouth to the stomach, and is the medium through which the food is conveyed to the latter organ. This tube is furnished with spiral muscles, which run in different directions. By this arrangement, the food ascends or descends at the will of the animal. The inner coat of the gullet is a continuation of the same membrane that lines the mouth, nostrils, &c. The gullet passes down the neck, inclining to the left side of the windpipe, until it reaches the diaphragm, through a perforation of which it passes, and finally terminates in the stomach. The food, having undergone a slight mastication by the action of the teeth, is formed into a pellet, and, being both moistened and lubricated with saliva, passes down the gullet, by the action of the muscles, and falls immediately into the paunch, or rumen; here the food undergoes a process of maceration, or trituration. The food, after remaining in this portion of the stomach a short time, and being submitted to the united action of heat and moisture, passes into another division of the stomach, called _reticulum_, the inner surface of which abounds in cells: at the bottom, and indeed in all parts of them there are glands, which secrete from the blood the gastric fluids. This stomach possesses a property similar to that of the bladder, viz., that of contracting upon its contents. In the act of contracting, it squeezes out a portion of the partly masticated food and fluids; the former comes within the spiral muscles, is embraced by them, and thus ascends the gullet, and passes into the mouth for remastication. The soft and fluid parts continue on to the many plus and true digestive stomach. The second stomach again receives a portion from the paunch, and the process is continued. Rumination and digestion, however, are mechanico-vital actions, and can only be properly performed when the animal is in a healthy state. Now, a portion of the food, we just observed, had ascended the gullet by the aid of spiral muscles, and entered the mouth; it is again submitted to the action of the grinders, and a fresh supply of saliva; it is at length swallowed a second time, and goes through the same routine as that just described, passing into the manyplus or manifolds, as it is termed. The manyplus abounds internally in a number of leaves, called laminæ. Some of these are attached to the upper and lower portion of the division, and also float loose, and penetrate into the oesophagian canal. The laminæ have numerous projections on their surface, resembling the papillæ to be found on the tongue. The action of this stomach is one of alternate contraction and expansion: it secretes, however, like the other compartments of the stomach, its due share of gastric fluids, with a view not only of softening its contents, but for the purpose of defending its own surface against friction. The mechanical action of the stomach is communicated to it partly by the motion of the diaphragm, and its own muscular arrangement. It will readily be perceived, that by this joint action the food is submitted to a sort of grinding process. Hence any over-distention of the viscera, from either food or gas, will embarrass and prevent the free and full play of this organ. The papillæ, or prominences, present a rough and sufficiently hard exterior to grind down the food, unless it shall have escaped the reticulum in too fibrous a form: foxgrass, cornstalks, and frosted turnips are very apt to make sad havoc in this and other parts of the stomach, owing to their unyielding nature; for the stomach, like other parts of the organization, suffers from over-exertion, and a corresponding debility ensues. The fourth division of the stomach of the ox is called _abomasum_. It somewhat resembles the duodenum of the horse in its function, it being the true digestive stomach. It is studded with numerous nerves, blood-vessels, and small glands. It is a laboratory admirably fitted up by the Divine Artist, and is capable of carrying on the chemico-vital process as long as the animal lives, provided its healthy functions are not impaired. The glands alluded to secrete from the blood a powerful solvent, called the _gastric juice_, which is the agent in reducing the food to chyme and chyle. This, however, is accomplished by the united agency of the bile and pancreatic juice. Both these fluids are conveyed into the abomasum by means of small tubes or canals. Secretions also take place from the inner membrane of the intestines, and, as the result of the united action of all these fluids, aided by the muscular motion just alluded to, which is also communicated to the intestines, a substance is formed called _chyle_, which is the most nutritious portion of the food, and has a milky appearance. The chyle is received into a set of very minute tubes, called _lacteals_, which are exceedingly numerous, and arise by open mouths from the inner surface of the abomasum and intestines. They receive the chyle; from thence it passes into a receptacle, and finally into the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct opens into a vein leading directly to the heart; so that whatever portion of the chyle is not actually needed by the organism is thoroughly mixed with the general mass of blood. That portion of chyme which is not needed, or cannot be converted into chyle, descends into the intestines, and is finally carried out of the body by the rectum. The manner in which the gastric fluids act on alimentary matter, is by solution and chemical action; for cornstalks and foxgrass, that cannot be dissolved by ammonia or alcohol, yield readily to the solvent power of the gastric secretion. Bones and other hard substances are reduced to a pulpy mass in the stomach of a dog; while, at the same time, many bodies of delicate texture remain in the stomach, and ultimately are ejected, without being affected by the gastric fluids. This different action on different subjects is analogous to the operation of chemical affinity, and corroborates the theory that digestion is effected by solution and chemical action. _The Spleen_, or _Milt_, is an oblong, dark-colored substance, having attachments to the paunch. It is composed of blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, united by cellular structure. It appears to serve as a reservoir for the blood that may be designed for the secretions of bile in the liver. P. M. Roget says, "Any theory that assigns a very important function to the spleen will be overturned by the fact, that in many animals the removal of this organ, far from being fatal, or interrupting, in any sensible manner, the continuance of the functions, seems to be borne with perfect impunity." Sir E. Home, Bichat, Leuret, Lassaigne, and others, suppose that "the spleen serves as a receptacle for the superfluous quantity of fluid taken into the stomach." _The Liver_ is a dense gland, of a lobulated structure, situated below the diaphragm, or "skirt." It is supplied, like other organs, with arterial blood, by vessels, called _hepatic_ arteries, which are sent off from the great aorta. It receives also a large amount of venous blood, which is distributed through its substance by a separate set of vessels, derived from the venous system. The veins which receive the blood that has circulated in the usual manner unite together into a large trunk, called vena portæ, (gate vein,) and this vein, on entering the liver, ramifies like an artery, and ultimately terminates in the branches of the hepatic veins, which transmit the blood, in the ordinary course of circulation, to the vena cava, (hollow vein.) Mr. Kiernan says, "The hepatic veins, together with the lobules which surround them, resemble, in their arrangement, the branches and leaves of a tree, the substance of the lobules being disposed around the minute branches of the veins like the parenchyma of a leaf around its fibres. The hepatic veins may be divided into two classes, namely, those contained in lobules, and those contained in canals formed by lobules. The first class is composed of interlobular branches, one of which occupies the centre of each lobule, and receives the blood from a plexus formed in the lobule by the portal vein; and the second class of hepatic veins is composed of all those vessels contained in canals formed by the lobules, and including numerous small branches, as well as the large trunks terminating in the inferior cava. The external surface of every lobule is covered by an expansion of '_Glisson's capsule_,' by which it is connected to, as well as separated from, contiguous lobules, and in which branches of the hepatic duct, portal veins, and hepatic artery ramify. The ultimate branches of the hepatic artery terminate in the branches of the portal vein, where the blood they respectively contain is mixed together, and from which mixed blood the bile is secreted by the lobules, and conveyed away by the hepatic ducts. The remaining blood is returned to the heart by the hepatic veins, the beginnings of which occupy the centre of each lobule, and, when collected into trunks, pour their contents into the inferior cava. Hence the blood which has circulated through the liver, and has thereby lost its arterial character, is, in common with that which is returning from other parts, poured into the vena portæ, and contributes its share in furnishing materials for the biliary secretion. The hepatic artery furnishes nutrition to the liver itself." The bile, having been secreted, accumulates in the gall-bladder, where it is kept for future use. When the healthy action of the fourth stomach is interrupted, the bile is supposed to be reabsorbed,--it enters into the different tissues, producing yellowness of the eyes; the malady is then termed _yellows_, _jaundice_, &c. Sometimes the passage of the bile is obstructed by calculi, or gall-stones; they have been found in great numbers in oxen. _The Pancreas_ is composed of a number of lobules or glands; a small duct proceeds from each; they unite and form a common canal, which proceeds towards, and terminates in, the fourth stomach. The pancreatic juice appears to be exceedingly analogous, both in its sensible properties and chemical composition, to the saliva. "The recent researches of MM. Bouchardat, Sandras, Mialhe, Bareswil, and Bernard himself, have placed beyond a doubt the existence of a ferment, in some of the fluids which mix with the alimentary mass, destined to convert starchy matters into sugar. They have proved that the gastric juice has for its peculiar office the solution and digestion of azotized substances. There remained to be ascertained the real agent for the digestion of fatty matters; that is to say, the agent in the formation of chyle out of those substances. "M. Bernard has proved that this remarkable office is performed by the pancreatic juice; he has demonstrated the fact by three conclusive proofs. "1. The pancreatic juice, pure and recently formed, forms an emulsion with oils and fats with the greatest facility. This emulsion may be preserved for a long time, and the fatty substance soon undergoes a fermentation which separates its constituent acids. "2. The chyle only begins to appear in the lacteals below that part of the intestinal tube where the pancreatic juice enters it to mix with the alimentary matters. "3. In disorders of the pancreas, we find that the fatty matters, contained in the food, pass entire in the evacuations." The above is an extract from the report of a body composed of several members of the French Academy of Sciences. "M. Bernard" (continues the report) "has exhibited to us the first of these experiments, and has furnished us with the means of repeating it with the several varieties of the gastric juice. We have not the slightest doubt on the subject. It is incontestable that fatty substances are converted into an emulsion by this juice, in a manner easy and persistent, and it is no less true that the saliva, the gastric juice, and the bile are destitute of this property. "The second demonstration can be given in various modes; but the author has discovered, in the peculiar arrangement of the digestive apparatus of the rabbit, an unexceptional means of obtaining it with the greatest precision, and at will. The pancreatic juice enters the intestinal tube of this animal about fourteen inches below the point where the bile is poured in. Now, as long as the food is above the region where it mixes with the pancreatic juice, there appears to be no formation and separation of a milky chyle; nothing shows that the fatty matters are reduced to an emulsion. On the contrary, as soon as the pancreatic juice mixes with the alimentary matters, we observe the fat to be converted into an emulsion, and a milky chyle to fill the corresponding lacteals. Nothing can give an idea of the result of these experiments, which have all the accuracy of a chemical operation performed in the laboratory, and all the beauty of the most perfect injection. "We are not, therefore, surprised that divers pathological cases, hitherto imperfectly understood, should come to confirm the views of M. Bernard, by proving that, in diseases of the pancreas, fatty matters have been observed to pass unchanged in the dejections. "The committee cannot hesitate to conclude that the author has perfectly demonstrated his physiological propositions; that he has completed the general characters of the theory of digestion, and that he has made known the mode of formation of the fatty matter of the chyle, and the manner of the digestion of the fatty matters." _The Kidneys._--Their office is, to secrete from the blood the useless or excrementitious fluids in the form of urine. When the skin is obstructed, the secretion is augmented, and profuse perspiration lessens it. From a cavity in the centre of each kidney a canal or tube proceeds, by which the urine is conveyed into the bladder. These tubes are named _ureters_. As the ureters enter the bladder, they pass forward, a short distance between its coats; which effectually prevents the urine from taking a retrograde course. The urine is expelled by the muscular power which the bladder possesses of contracting upon its contents. RESPIRATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS. The organs of respiration are the larynx, the trachea, or windpipe, bronchia, and the lungs. The air is expelled from the lungs principally by the action of the muscles of respiration; and when these relax, the lungs expand by virtue of their own elasticity. This may be exemplified by means of a sponge, which may be compressed into a small compass by the hand, but, upon opening the hand, the sponge returns to its natural size, and all its cavities become filled with air. The purification of the blood in the lungs is of vital importance, and indispensably necessary to the due performance of all the functions; for if they be in a diseased state,--either tuberculous, or having adhesions to the pleura, their function will be impaired; the blood will appear black; loaded with carbon; and the phlebotomizer will have the very best (worst) excuse for taking away a few quarts with a view of purifying the remainder! The trachea, or windpipe, after dividing into smaller branches, called _bronchia_, again subdivides into innumerable other branches, the extremities of which are composed of an infinite number of small cells, which, with the ramifications of veins, arteries, nerves, and connecting membranes, make up the whole mass or substance of the lungs. The internal surface of the windpipe, bronchia, and air-cells, is lined with a delicate membrane, highly organized with blood-vessels, &c. The whole is invested with a thin, transparent membrane--a continuation of that lining the chest, named _pleura_. It also covers the diaphragm, and, by a duplication of its folds, forms a separation between the lobes of the lungs. CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. The blood contains the elements for building up, supplying the waste of, and nourishing the whole animal economy. On making an examination of the blood with a microscope, it is found full of little red globules, which vary in their size and shape in different animals, and are more numerous in the warm than in the cold-blooded. Probably this arises from the fact that the latter absorb less oxygen than the former. When blood stands for a time after being drawn, it separates into two parts. One is called _serum_, and resembles the white of an egg; the other is the clot, or crassamentum, and forms the red coagulum, or jelly-like substance. This is accompanied by whitish tough threads, called _fibrine_. [Illustration: THE HEART VIEWED EXTERNALLY. _a_, the left ventricle; _b_, the right ventricle; _c_, _e_, _f_, the aorta; _g_, _h_, _i_, the carotid and other arteries springing from the aorta; _k_, the pulmonary artery; _l_, branches of the pulmonary artery in the lungs; _m_, _m_, the pulmonary veins emptying into the left auricle; _n_, the right auricle; _o_, the ascending vena cava; _q_, the descending vena cava; _r_, the left auricle; _s_, the coronary vein and artery. (See _Circulation of the Blood_, on the opposite page.)] When blood has been drawn from an animal, and it assumes a cupped or hollow form, if serum, or buffy coat, remains on its surface, it denotes an impoverished state; but if the whole, when coagulated, be of one uniform mass, it indicates a healthy state of that fluid. The blood of a young animal, provided it be in health, coagulates into a firm mass, while that of an old or debilitated one is generally less dense, and more easily separated. The power that propels the blood through the different blood-vessels is a mechanico-vital power, and is accomplished through the involuntary contractions and relaxations of the heart; from certain parts of which arteries arise, in other parts veins terminate. (See Plate.) The heart is invested with a strong membranous sac, called _pericardium_, which adheres to the tendinous centre of the diaphragm, and to the great vessels at its superior portion. The heart is lubricated by a serous fluid, secreted within the pericardium, for the purpose of guarding against friction. When an excess of fluid accumulates within the sac, it is termed dropsy of the heart. The heart is divided into four cavities, viz., two auricles, named from their resemblance to an ear, and two ventricles, (as seen at _a_, _b_,) forming the body. The left ventricle is smaller than the right, yet its walls are much thicker and stronger than those of the latter: it is from this part that the large trunk of the arteries proceed, called the _great aorta_. The right cavity, or ventricle, is the receptacle for blood returned by the venous structure after having gone the rounds of the circulation; the veins terminating, as they approach the heart, in a single vessel, called _vena cava_, (see plate, _o_, _q_, ascending and descending portion.) The auricle on the left side of the heart receives the blood that has been distributed through the lungs for purification. Where the veins terminate in auricles, there are valves placed, to prevent the blood from returning. For example, the blood proceeds out of the heart along the aorta; the valve opens upwards; the blood also moves upwards, and raises the valve, and passes through; the pressure from above effectually closes the passage. The valves of the heart are composed of elastic cartilage, which admits of free motion. They sometimes, however, become ossified. The heart and its appendages are, like other parts of the system, subject to various diseases, which are frequently very little understood, yet often fatal. Now, the blood, having passed through the veins and vena cava, flows into the right auricle; and this, when distended, contracts, and forces its contents into the right ventricle, which, contracting in its turn, propels the blood into the pulmonary arteries, whose numerous ramifications bring it in contact with the air-cells of the lungs. It then, being deprived of its carbon, assumes a crimson color. Having passed through its proper vessels, it accumulates in the left auricle. This also contracts, and forces the blood through a valve into the left ventricle. This ventricle then contracts in its turn, and the blood passes through another valve into the great aorta, to go the round of the circulation and return in the manner just described. Many interesting experiments have been made to estimate the quantity of blood in an animal. "The weight of a dog," says Mr. Percival, "being ascertained to be seventy-nine pounds, a puncture was made with the lancet into the jugular vein, from which the blood was collected. The vein having ceased to bleed, the carotid artery of the same side was divided, but no blood came from it; in a few seconds afterwards, the animal was dead. The weight of the carcass was now found to be seventy-three and a half pounds; consequently it had sustained a loss of five and a half pounds--precisely the measure of the blood drawn. It appears from this experiment, that an animal will lose about one fifteenth part of its weight of blood before it dies; though a less quantity may so far debilitate the vital powers, as to be, though less suddenly, equally fatal. In the human subject, the quantity of blood has been computed at about one eighth part of the weight of the body; and as such an opinion has been broached from the results of experiments on quadrupeds, we may fairly take that to be about the proportion of it in the horse; so that if we estimate the weight of a horse to be thirteen hundred and forty-four pounds, the whole quantity of blood will amount to eighty-four quarts, or one hundred and sixty-eight pounds; of which about forty-five quarts, or ninety pounds, will commonly flow from the jugular vein prior to death; though the loss of a much less quantity will deprive the animal of life." REMARKS ON BLOOD-LETTING. The author has been, for several years, engaged in a warfare against the use of the lancet in the treatment of the various diseases of animals. When this warfare was first commenced, the prospect was poor indeed. The lancet was the great anti-phlogistic of the allopathic school; it had powerful, talented, and uncompromising advocates, who had been accustomed to resort to it on all occasions, from the early settlement of America up to that period. The great mass had followed in the footsteps of their predecessors, supposing them to be infallible. Men and animals were bled; rivers of blood have been drawn from their systems; yet they often got well, and men looked upon the lancet as one of the blessings of the age, when, in fact, it is the greatest curse that ever afflicted this country: it has produced greater losses to owners of domestic animals than did ever pestilence or disease. A few philanthropic practitioners have, from time to time, in other countries, as well as in this, labored during their life, and on their death-bed, to convince the world of the destructive tendency of blood-letting in human practice; but none that we know of ever had the moral courage to wage a general warfare against the practice in the veterinary department, until we commenced it. We have met with great success, and have given the blood-letting gentry who practise it at the present day ("just to please their employers or to make out a case") a partial quietus: in a few more years, unless they abandon their false theories, their occupation, notwithstanding their pretensions to cure _secundum artem_, will, like Othello's, be "gone." But we are not writing for doctors. Our business is with the farmers--the lords of creation. The former are mere lords of pukes and purges; they, like the farmers, have the materials, however, to mould themselves into men of common sense; but the fact is, they are hide-bound; they want a national sweat, to rid their systems, especially their upper works, of the theories of Sydenham and Paracelsus, which have shipwrecked many thousands of the medical profession. They shut their eyes to the results of medical reform, and cling, with all their soul, and with all their might, worthy a better cause, to a system that "always was false." Lord Byron, like many other learned men, was well acquainted with the impotency of the healing art, and held the lancet in utter abhorrence: when beset, day and night, to be bled, the bard, in an angry tone, exclaimed, "You are, I see, a d----d set of butchers; take away as much blood as you like." "We seized the opportunity," says Dr. Milligan, "and drew twenty ounces; yet the relief did not correspond to the hopes we had formed." On the 17th, the bleeding was twice repeated, dangerous symptoms still increasing, and on the 19th he expired, just about bled to death. Washington, a man whose name is dear to every American, died from the effects of an evil system of medication. He was attacked with croup: his physician bled him, and gave him calomel and antimony. The next day, physicians were called in, (to share the responsibility of the butchery,) and he was subjected to two more copious bleedings: in all he lost ninety ounces of blood. Which of our readers, at the present day, would submit to such unwarrantable barbarity? We just said we were not writing for doctors; yet we find ourselves off the track in thus administering a small dose, as a sample of "_good and efficient treatment_." In reference to the success attending our labors in veterinary reform, we do not claim the whole credit: much of it is due to the intelligence of the American farmers, in appreciating the value and importance of a safer and a more effectual system of medication; such a system as we advocate. They have witnessed the results attending the practice of cattle doctors generally, and they have seen the results of our sanative system of medication, and a great majority in Massachusetts have decided in favor of the latter. We have demonstrated to the satisfaction of our patrons, and we are ready and willing to repeat our experiments on diseased animals for the satisfaction of others, in showing that we can restore an animal, when suffering under acute attacks of disease, in a few hours, when, by the popular method, it takes weeks and months, if indeed they ever recover from the effects of the destructive agents used. We are told that "horses and cattle are bled and get well immediately." This may apply to some cases; but, in very many instances, the animals are sent for a few weeks to "Dr. Green,"[1] to put them in the same condition they were at the time of bleeding. But suppose that some animals do get well after bleeding; is it thus proved that more would not get well if no blood were drawn from any? A cow may fall down, and, in so doing, lacerate her muscles, blood-vessels, &c., and lose a large quantity of blood. She may get well, in spite of the violence and loss of blood. So we say of blood-letting, if the abstraction of a certain number of gallons of blood will kill a strong animal, then the abstraction of a small quantity must injure it proportionately. There is in the animal economy a power, called the vital principle, which always operates in favor of health. If the provocation be gentle, and does not seriously derange the machinery, then this power may overcome both it and any disease the animal may at the time labor under. For example, a horse falls down in the street, perhaps laboring under a temporary congestion of the brain: now, if he were let alone until nature has restored an equilibrium of the circulating fluid and nervous action, he would soon get up and proceed on his way, as many thousands do when a knife or lancet is not to be had. But, unfortunately, people are too hasty. The moment a beast has fallen, they are bound to have him on his perpendiculars in double quick time. The teamster cannot wait for nature; she is "too slow a coach" for him. He tries what virtue there is in the whip; this failing, he obtains a knife, if one is to be had, and "_starts the blood_." By this time, nature, about resuming her empire, causes the horse to show signs of returning animation, and the credit is awarded to the blood-starter. Animals are often bled when diseased, and the prominent symptoms that previously marked the character of the malady disappear, or give place to symptoms of another order, less evident, and men have supposed that a cure is effected, when, in fact, they have just sown the seeds of a future disease. We are not bound to prove, in every case, how an animal gets well after two or three repeated bleedings. It is enough for us to prove that this operation always tends to death, which can easily be produced by opening the carotid artery of an animal. Permit us, dear reader, at this stage of our article, to observe, that "confession is good for the soul." We mean to put it in practice. So here goes. We plead guilty to bleeding, blistering, calomelizing, narcotizing, antimonializing, a great number of patients of the human kind. We did it in our verdant days, because it was so scientific and popular, and because we had been taught to reverence the stereotyped practice of the allopathists. We have, however, done penance, and sought forgiveness; and through the aid of a few men, devoted to medical reform, we have been washed in the regenerating waters flowing through the vineyard of reason and experience, and now advocate and observe the self-regulating powers of the laws of life. On the other hand, we are free from the charge of bleeding or poisoning domestic animals, and can say, with a clear conscience, that we have never drawn a drop of blood from a four-footed creature, (except in surgical operations, when it could not be avoided;) neither will we, under any circumstances, resort to the lancet; for we are convinced that blood-letting is a powerful depressor of the vital powers. Blood is the fuel that keeps the lamp of life burning; if the fuel be withdrawn, the light is extinguished. Professor Lobstein says, "So far from blood-letting being beneficial, it is productive of the most serious consequences--a cruel practice, and a scourge to humanity. How many thousands are sent by it to an untimely grave! Without blood there is no heat, no motion in the body." Dr. Reid says, "If the employment of the lancet was abolished altogether, it would perhaps save annually a greater number of lives than pestilence ever destroyed." The fact of blood-letting having been practised by horse and cattle doctors from time immemorial is certainly not a clear proof of its utility, nor is it a sufficient recommendation that it may be practised with safety. During my professional career, the preconceived theories have commanded a due share of consideration; and, when weighed in the scale of uninfluenced experience, they never failed of falling short. If we grant that any deviation from the healthy state denotes debility of one or more functions, then whatever has a tendency to debilitate further cannot restore the animal to health. The following case will serve to illustrate our position: "A horse was brought to be bled, merely because he had been accustomed to it at that season of the year. I did not examine him minutely; but as the groom stated there was nothing amiss with him, I directed a moderate quantity of blood to be drawn. About five pints were taken off; and while the operator was pinning up the wound, the horse fell. He appeared to suffer much pain, and had considerable difficulty of breathing. In this state he remained twelve hours, and then died. Judging from the appearances at the post mortem examination, it is probable that a loss of a moderate quantity of blood caused a fatal interruption of the functions of the heart." It is strange that such cases as these do not open men's eyes, and compel them to acknowledge that there is something wrong in the medical world. Such cases as these furnish us with unanswerable arguments against blood-letting; for as the blood, which is the natural stimulus of, and gives strength to, the organs, is withdrawn, its abstraction leaves all those organs less capable of self-defence. Horse and cattle doctors have recommended bleeding when animals have been fed too liberally, or if their systems abound in morbific matter. Now, the most sensible course would be, provided the animal had been overfed, to reduce the quantity of food, or, in other words, remove the cause. If the secretions are vitiated, or in a morbid state, then regulate them by the means laid down in this work. For we cannot purify a well of water by abstracting a few buckets; neither can we purify the whole mass of blood by taking away a few quarts; for that which is left will still be impure. If the different parts had between them partitions impervious to fluids, then there would be some sense in drawing out of the vessels over-filled; but unfortunately, if you draw from one, you draw from all the rest. In every disease wherein bleeding has been used, complete recovery has been protracted, and the animal manifests the debility by swelled legs and other unmistakable evidences. In some cases, however, the ill effects of the loss of blood, unless excessive, are not always immediately perceived; yet such animals, in after years, are subject to staggers, and diseases of the lungs, pleura, and peritoneum. Dr. Beach says, "The blood is properly called the _vital fluid_, and the life of a person is said to be in the blood.[2] We know that just in proportion to the loss of this substance are our vigor and strength taken from us. When taken from the system by accident or the lancet, it is succeeded by great prostration of strength, and a derangement of all the functions of the body. These effects are invariably, in a greater or less degree, consequent on bleeding. Is it not, then, reasonable to suppose, that what will debilitate the strongest constitution in a state of health, will be attended with most serious evils when applied to a person laboring under any malady? Is it not like throwing spirits on a fire to extinguish it? "Bleeding is resorted to in all inflammatory complaints; but did practitioners know the nature and design of inflammation, their treatment would be different. In fever it is produced by an increased action of the heart and arteries, to expel acrid and noxious humors, and should be promoted until the irritating matter is dislodged from the system. This should be effected, in general, by opening the outlets of the body, inducing perspiration; to produce which a preternatural degree of heat or inflammation must be excited by internal remedies. Fever is nothing more or less than a wholesome and salutary effort of nature to throw off some morbific matter; and, therefore, every means to lessen this indication proves injurious. Bleeding, in consequence of the debility it produces, prevents such indication from being fulfilled." The inveterate phlebotomizers recommend and practise bleeding when "_the animal has too much blood_." There may be at times too much blood, and at others too little; but suppose there is--has any body found out any better method of reducing what they please to term an excess, than that of regular exercise in the open air, combined with a less quantity of fodder than usual? Or has any body found out any method of making good healthy blood, other than the slow process of nature, as exhibited in the results of digestion, secretion, circulation, and nutrition? Have they discovered any artificial means of restoring the blood to its healthful quantity when it is deficient? Have they found any means of purifying the blood, save the healthful operations of nature's secreting and excreting laboratory? Finally, have they found any safety-valve or outlet for the reduction of this excess other than the excrementitious vessels? And if they have, are they better able to adjust the pressure on that valve than He who made the whole machinery, and knows the relative strength of all its parts? In an article on blood-letting, found in the Farmer's Cyclopædia, the author says, "In summer, bleeding is often necessary to prevent fevers." Now, it is evident that nature's preventives are air, exercise, food, water, and sleep. Attention to the rules laid down in this work, under the heads of _Watering_, _Feeding_, &c., will be more satisfactory and less dangerous than that recommended by the Cyclopædia. If the directions given in the latter were fully carried out, the stock of our farms would be swept away as by the blast of a tornado. Such a barbarous system would entail universal misery and degeneracy on all classes of live stock; and we might then exclaim, "They are living, yet half dead--victims to an inconsistent system of medication!" But thanks to a discerning public, they just begin to see the absurdity and wickedness of draining the system of the living principles. Veterinary reform has germinated in the New England States, and, in spite of all opposition, has struck its roots deep into the minds of a class of men who have the means and power to send forth its healing branches, and apply them to their own interest and the welfare of their stock. The same author continues: "Some farmers bleed horses three or four times a year." We hope the farmers have too much good sense to follow the wicked example of the former. Frequent bleeding is an indirect mode of butchery--killing by inches; for it gives to the blood-vessels the power to contract and adapt themselves to the measure of blood that remains. It impoverishes the blood, and leads to hydrothorax, (accumulation of water in the chest,) and materially shortens life. Mackintosh says, "Some are bled who cannot bear it, and others who do not require it; and the result is death." The conservative power of life always operates in favor of health, and resists the encroachments upon her province with all her might, and often recovers the dominion; but by frequent bleedings, she is exhausted, and, on taking a little more blood than usual, the animal drops down and dies; and the owner attributes to disease what, in fact, is the result of bad treatment. "Patients who recover after general and copious bleedings have been employed, may attribute their recovery to the strength of their constitution. "If you should ask a modern _Sangrado_ what was most necessary in the treatment of disease, doubtless he would reply, 'Bleeding.' "Our modern pathologists, surgeons and others, think bleeding the _factotum_ in all maladies; it is the _ne plus ultra_, when drawn in large quantities. Blood-letting, say these authors, is not only the most powerful and important, but the most generally used, of all our remedies. Scarcely a case of acute, or, indeed, of chronic, disease occurs in which it does not become necessary to consider the propriety of having recourse to the lancet." (??) To what extent blood-letting is carried, in our modern age, may be learned by reading Youatt and others, who recommend it "when animals rub themselves, and the hair falls off; when the eyes appear dull and languid, red or inflamed; in all inflammatory complaints, as of the brain, lungs, kidneys, bowels, womb, bladder, and joints; in all bruises, hurts, wounds, and all other accidents; in cold, catarrh, paralysis, and locked-jaw." Yet, strange to say, one of these authors qualifies his recommendations as follows: "No man, however wise, can tell exactly how much blood ought to be taken in a given case." Now, it is well known that the draining of blood from a vein, though it diminishes the vital resistance, and lessens the volume of fluids, does not mend the matter; for it thus gives to cold and atmospheric agents the ascendant influence. A collapse takes place, the secretions become impaired, the animal refuses its food, "looks dumpish," &c. We might continue this article to an indefinite length; but as we shall, in the following pages, have occasion to refer to the use of the lancet as a destructive agent, we conclude it with the following remarks of an English physician: "Our most valuable remedies against inflammation are but ill adapted for curing that state of disease. They do not act directly on the diseased part; the action is only indirect; therefore it is imperfect. Bleeding, the best of any of these remedies, is in this predicament." FOOTNOTES: [1] A piece of pasture land. [2] Then the life of an animal is also in the blood; and the same evil consequences follow its abstraction. EFFORTS OF NATURE TO REMOVE DISEASE. "Nature is ever busy, by the silent operations of her own forces, in curing disease."--_Dixon._ Whenever any irritating substance comes in contact with sensitive surfaces, nature, or the _vis medicatrix naturæ_, goes immediately to work to remove the offending cause: for example, should any substance lodge on the mucous surface, within the nostril, although it be imperceptible, as often happens when the hay is musty, it abounds in particles whose specific gravity enables them to float in atmospheric air; they are then inhaled in the act of respiration, and nature, in order to wash off the offending matter, sends a quantity of fluid to the part. The same process may be observed when a small piece of hay, or other foreign matter, shall have fallen into the eye: the tears then flow in great abundance, to prevent that delicate organ being injured. "When a blister is applied to the surface, it first excites a genial warmth, with inflammation of the skin; and nature, distressed, goes instantly to work, separates the cuticle to form a bag, interposes serum between the nerves and the offensive matter, then prepares another cuticle, that, when the former, with the adhering substance, shall fall off, the nervous papillæ may be again provided with a covering. "The same reasoning will apply to the operation of emetics and cathartics; for not only is the peristaltic motion either greatly quickened or inverted, according to the urgency of the distress, but both the mucous glands and the exhalent arteries pour forth their fluids in abundance to wash away the offending matter, which at one time acts chemically, at others mechanically." If a horse, or an ox, be wounded in the foot with a nail, and a portion of it is broken off and remains in the wound, inflammation sets in, producing suppuration, and the nail is discharged. A few days ago, we were called to see a horse, said to have swelling on the _tarsus_, (hock.) On an examination, it proved to be an abscess, well developed; the matter could be distinctly felt at the most prominent part. We should certainly have been justified (at least in the eyes of the medical world; and then it would have looked so "doctor-like"!) in displaying a case of instruments and opening the tumor. If ulceration, gangrene, &c., set in and the horse ultimately became lame, no blame could be attached to us, because the practice is _scientific_!--recognized by the schools as good and efficient treatment. What was to be done? Why, it was evident that we could not do better than to aid nature. A relaxing, anti-spasmodic poultice was confined to the parts, and in six hours after, the sac discharged its contents, and with it a piece of splinter two inches in length. The pain immediately ceased, and the animal is now free from lameness. We here see the design of nature: the consequent inflammation was to produce suppuration, and make an outlet for the splinter. Professor Kost says, "The laws of all organic life are remarkably peculiar; they possess, in an eminent degree, the power of self-regulation. When interrupted, disease, indeed, supervenes; but unless the circumstances are particularly unfavorable, the physiological state will soon be restored. All observation most clearly corroborates this fact. The healing of wounds, restoration of fractured bones, expulsion of obtruded substances, and particularly the manner in which extravasated matter or pus is removed from internal organs, as in case of abscess in the liver, in which exit may be gained by ulceration through the parietes, or by an adhesion to and ulceration into the intestines, or even by the adhesions to the diaphragm and lungs, in such a manner as, by ulceration into the bronchia, a passage may be gained, and the pus thus removed by expectoration,--all evince a most singular conservative power. What is most remarkable in cases like the latter, is, that the adhesions are so formed as to prevent the escape of the pus into the peritoneal sac, which accident must inevitably prove fatal. "Some very interesting experiments have been performed to test the restorative power of the different tissues of the animal body. If a portion of the intestines of a dog be taken out, and tied, so as to obstruct completely the passage, it will be found that the adjacent portions of the intestine will reunite, the ligature will separate into the canal and be discharged, and the gut will heal up so as to preserve its normal continuity, and the animal, in a fortnight, will have recovered entirely from the effects of this fearful operation. "When noxious or poisonous substances are thrown into any of the cavities of the body from which their escape is impracticable, a cyst will often form around them, and they thus become isolated from absorption and the circulation, so as to prevent their doing harm. "The less remarkable instances of this character are of more common occurrence; and the self-regulating power of the laws of life, alias _vis conservatrix naturæ_, is so universally known and depended on, that it is rare, indeed, that indisposed persons take medicine, until they have first waited at least a little, to see what nature would do for them; and they are seldom disappointed, as it may perhaps be safely asserted, that nine tenths of all the attacks of disease (taking the slight indispositions; for such are most of them, as they are checked before they become severe) are warded off by the vital force, unassisted. Such, then, are the facts deduced from observing the operations of nature in disease _unassisted_." Dr. Beach says, "We are well aware, from what passes in the system daily, that the Author of nature has wisely provided a principle which is calculated to remove disease. It is very observable in fevers. No sooner is noxious or morbid matter retained in the system, than there is an increased action of the heart and arteries, to eliminate the existing cause from the skin; or it may pass off by other outlets established for that purpose. With what propriety, then, can this provision of nature be denied, as it is by some? A noted professor in Philadelphia or Baltimore ridicules this power in the constitution; he says to his class, 'Kick nature out of doors.' It was this man, or a brother professor, who exclaimed to his class, 'Give me mercury in one hand and the lancet in the other, and I am prepared to cope with disease in every shape and form.' I have not time to stop here, and comment upon such palpable and dangerous doctrine. I have only to say, let the medical historian record this sentiment, maintained in the highest medical universities in America in the nineteenth century. I am pleased, however, to observe, that all physicians do not coincide with such views." PROVERBS OF THE VETERINARY REFORMERS. The merciful man is merciful to his domestic animals. "Avoid blood-letting and poisons, for they are powerful depressors of the vital energies. There are two medical _fulcra_--reason and experience. Experience precedes, reason follows; hence, reasoning not founded on experience avails nothing. He who cures by simples need not seek for compounds."--_Villanov._ "The physician _destitute of a knowledge of plants_ can never properly judge of the power of a plant."--_Whitlaw._ "The vegetable kingdom is the most noble in medicines."--_Ibid._ "Innocent medicines, which approach as near to food as possible, preserve health, while chemical compounds destroy it. Heroic medicines (such are antimony, copper, corrosive sublimate, lead, opium, hellebore, arsenic, belladonna) are like the sword in the hands of a madman. "Nature unassisted by art sometimes effects miracles."--_Whitlaw._ "It is the part of a wise physician to decline prescribing in a lost case."--_Ibid._ Whenever there is free, full circulation of blood, there is animal heat. If the heat of a part becomes deficient, the circulation is correspondingly diminished. As soon as voluntary motion in a part ceases, so soon the circulation becomes enfeebled; and if continued, the part will wither and waste away. The strength and health of an animal depend on a due share of exercise, pure air, and suitable food. Deprive an animal of these, and he will cease to exist. We believe in the great doctrine that the duty of the physician is to aid nature in protecting herself in the enjoyment of health, by proper attention to breeding, rearing, ventilation, and proper farm and stable management. "The tinsel glitter of fine-spun theory, or favorite hypothesis, which prevails wherever allopathy hath been taught, so dazzles, flatters, and charms human vanity and folly, that, so far from contributing to the certain and speedy cure of diseases, it hath, in every age, proved the bane and disgrace of healing art."--_Graham_, p. 15. "Those physicians generally become the most distinguished who soonest emancipate themselves from the tyranny of the schools of physic."--RUSH. "Availing ourselves of the privileges we possess, and animated by the noblest impulses, let us cordially coöperate to give to medicine a new direction, and attempt those great improvements which it imperiously demands."--_Ther._, vol. i. p. 51. "It has been proved by allopathists themselves, that 'a physician should be nature's servant;' that 'bleeding tends directly to subdue nature's efforts;' that 'all poisons suddenly and rapidly destroy a great proportion of the vitality of the system;' that whatever be the quantity, use, or manner of application, all the influence they inherently possess is injurious, and that they are not fatal in every instance of their use only because nature overpowers them."--_Curtis._ AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE SOULS OF BRUTES. "Are these then made in vain? Is man alone, Of all the marvels of creative love, Blest with a scintillation of His essence-- The heavenly spark of reasonable soul? And hath not yon sagacious dog, that finds A meaning in the shepherd's idiot face; Or the huge elephant, that lends his strength To drag the stranded galley to the shore, And strives with emulative pride t' excel The mindless crowd of slaves that toil beside him; Or the young generous war-horse, when he sniffs The distant field of blood, and quick and shrill Neighing for joy, instils a desperate courage Into the veteran trooper's quailing heart,-- Have they not all an evidence of soul, (Of soul, the proper attribute of man,) The same in kind, though meaner in degree? Why should not that which hath been--be forever? And death, O, can it be annihilation? No,--though the stolid atheist fondly clings To that last hope, how kindred to despair! No,--'tis the struggling spirit's hour of joy, The glad emancipation of the soul, The moment when the cumbrous fetters drop, And the bright spirit wings its way to heaven! "To say that God annihilated aught, Were to declare that in an unwise hour He planned and made somewhat superfluous. Why should not the mysterious life that dwells In reptiles as in man, and shows itself In memory, gratitude, love, hate, and pride, Still energize, and be, though death may crush Yon frugal ant or thoughtless butterfly, Or, with the simoom's pestilential gale Strike down the patient camel in the desert? "There is one chain of intellectual soul, In many links and various grades, throughout The scale of nature; from the climax bright, The first great Cause of all, Spirit supreme, Incomprehensible, and unconfined, To high archangels blazing near the throne, Seraphim, cherubim, virtues, aids, and powers, All capable of perfection in their kind;-- To man, as holy from his Maker's hand He stood in possible excellence complete, (Man, who is destined now to brighter glories,-- As nearer to the present God, in One His Lord and Substitute,--than angels reach;) Then man has fallen, with every varied shade Of character and capability, From him who reads his title to the skies, Or grasps, with giant-mind, all nature's wonders, Down to the monster-shaped, inhuman form, Murderer, slavering fool, or blood-stained savage; Then to the prudent elephant, the dog Half-humanized, the docile Arab horse, The social beaver, and contriving fox, The parrot, quick in pertinent reply, The kind-affectioned seal, and patriot bee, The merchant-storing ant, and wintering swallow, With all those other palpable emanations And energies of one Eternal Mind Pervading and instructing all that live, Down to the sentient grass and shrinking clay. In truth, I see not why the breath of life, Thus omnipresent, and upholding all, Should not return to Him and be immortal, (I dare not say the same,) in some glad state Originally destined for creation, As well from brutish bodies, as from man. The uncertain glimmer of analogy Suggests the thought, and reason's shrewder guess; Yet revelation whispers nought but this,-- 'Our Father careth when a sparrow dies,' And that 'the spirit of a brute descends,' As to some secret and preserving Hades. "But for some better life, in what strange sort Were justice, mixed with mercy, dealt to these? Innocent slaves of sordid, guilty man, Poor unthanked drudges, toiling to his will, Pampered in youth, and haply starved in age, Obedient, faithful, gentle, though the spur, Wantonly cruel, or unsparing thong, Weal your galled hides, or your strained sinews crack Beneath the crushing load,--what recompense Can He who gave you being render you, If in the rank, full harvest of your griefs Ye sink annihilated, to the shame Of government unequal?--In that day When crime is sentenced, shall the cruel heart Boast uncondemned, because no tortured brute Stands there accusing? Shall the embodied deeds Of man not follow him, nor the rescued fly Bear its kind witness to the saving hand? Shall the mild Brahmin stand in equal sin Regarding nature's menials, with the wretch Who flays the moaning Abyssinian ox, Or roasts the living bird, or flogs to death The famishing pointer?--and must these again, These poor, unguilty, uncomplaining victims, Have no reward for life with its sharp pains?-- They have my suffrage: Nineveh was spared, Though Jonah prophesied its doom, for sake Of sixscore thousand infants, and 'much cattle;' And space is wide enough for every grain Of the broad sands that curb our swelling seas, Each separate in its sphere to stand apart As far as sun from sun; there lacks not room, Nor time, nor care, where all is infinite."--_Tupper._ THE REFORMED PRACTICE. SYNOPTICAL VIEW OF THE PROMINENT SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE. Some of our readers, especially the non-medical, may desire to know what the following remarks, which appear to apply generally to the human family, have to do with cattle doctoring. We answer them in the language of Professor Percival. "The object of the veterinary art is not only congenial with human medicine, but the very same paths which lead to a knowledge of the diseases of man, lead also to a knowledge of those of brutes. An accurate examination of the interior parts of their bodies; a studious survey of the arrangement, structure, use, connection, and relation of these parts, and of the laws by which they act; as also of the nature and properties of the various food and other agents which the earth so liberally provides for their support and cure,--these form, in a great measure, the sound and sure foundation of all medical science, whatever living individual animal be the subject of our consideration. Whether we prescribe for a man, horse, dog, or cat, the laws of the animal economy are the same; and one system, and that based upon established facts, is to guide our practice in all. "The theory of medicine in the human subject is the theory of medicine in the brute; it is the application of that theory--the practice alone--that is different. "We might as well, in reference to the principles of each, attempt to separate surgery from medicine, as insist that either of these arts, in theory, is essentially different from the veterinary: every day's experience serves to confirm this our belief, and in showing us how often the diseases of animals arise from the same causes as those of a man, exhibit the same indications, and require a similar method of cure. "The science of medicine, like others, consists of a collection of facts of a common and not a specific character. These, therefore, admit of arrangement into different systems, according to the notions of theorists, and the various species of philosophy, brought to bear on the subject. "The first regular system was founded by Hippocrates, about three hundred and eighty years before Christ. It was founded upon _theory_, and comprised the doctrines of the ancient dogmatic school. Its pathology rested upon a supposed change of the humors of the body, particularly the blood and bile; and here are the first elements of the '_humoral pathology_.' Its remedial intentions were founded upon the existence of the _'vis conservatrix' et 'medicatrix naturæ;'_ and, although often maintaining direct antipathic principles of action, it rested mainly on physo-dynamic influence for the accomplishment of its therapeutic purposes. "About two hundred and ninety years before Christ, Philinus of Cos introduced the ancient _Empiric System_, which was founded upon _experience_ and _observation_. About one hundred years before the Christian era, the _Methodic System_ was introduced by Asclepiades of Bithynia. This system was got up with an avowed opposition to that of Hippocrates, which was called 'a study of death.' Themison of Laodicea, pupil of Asclepiades, gives an exposition of the fundamental principles of the methodic system; and it seems that all physiological and pathological action was considered to be dependent upon the _strictum_ and _laxum_ of the organic pores, or increased and decreased secretion, and that all medicines act only on two principles, _i. e._, by inducing contraction and relaxation, or an increase and decrease of the secretions. "It would seem that, in the first century of the Christian era, the methodic system was divided into various subordinate ones--the _Pneumatic_, _Episynthetic_, and _Eclectic_. The pneumatic system, which was the most popular of the fragments of the methodic, was most indebted to Athenæus of Attalia for its successful introduction. This system contemplated the doctrine of the Stoics, which recognized the existence of a spirit governing and directing every thing, and which, when offended, would produce disease; hence the name _pneumatic_. The indications of cure were more _moral_ than _physical_. Fire, air, water, &c., were not considered elements, but their properties--heat, cold, dryness, moisture, &c.--were alone entitled to the name. "In the second century, the _Galenic System_ was founded by Claudius Galenus. This might, indeed, only be considered the revival of the dogmatic or Hippocratean system. Galen professed to have selected what he found valuable from all the prevailing systems, and has embraced the elements and ruling spirit of the pneumatic school. Thus he explained the operation of medicines by reference to their elementary qualities,--that is, heat, cold, dryness, and moisture,--of each of which he admitted four degrees. But he was governed by a prevailing partiality for the system of Hippocrates, which, he states, was either misunderstood or misrepresented by all theorists, ever since the establishment of the empiric and methodic schools. He devoted most of his time to commenting upon and embellishing it, and thus again established a system, founded on reason, observation, and sound induction, which maintained its character, without a rival, for more than one thousand five hundred years. "Near the middle of the sixteenth century, Paracelsus introduced the _Chemical System_. This was strongly opposed by Bellonius and Riverius, who maintained the doctrine of Hippocrates and Galen. But the presumptuous Paracelsus burned, 'in solemn state,' the works of the ancients; and being succeeded by the indefatigable Van Helmont, the whole science of medicine was overwhelmed by the mysticism of the alchemical doctrines and languages. The chemical theory, in the main, rejects the influence, or even the existence, of the _vis medicatrix naturæ_, and explains all physiological, pathological, and therapeutic operations upon abstract chemical laws. Thus chemical or inorganic agents, and many of the most virulent poisons, as arsenic, mercury, antimony, &c., were placed among the most prominent remedies. "Soon after the introduction of the chemical system, medical science, if we make one exception, became less eccentric, but much less marked for the permanency of its systems. Boerhaave ingeniously blended most of the prominent doctrines of the Galenic and chemical systems; and by an application of several of the newly-developed natural sciences, especially mathematics and natural philosophy, he led his successors into a more even path and fixed method of investigation; for no more do we find any abstract physical laws the sole basis of a system. But these were the highest honors allowed Boerhaave; his particular system was soon subverted by Stahl, who proved the supreme superintendence of an immaterial, vital principle, corresponding to that pointed out by Hippocrates. To this he ascribes intelligence, if not moral attributes. Hoffman led Cullen into the path that brought him into the fruitful field of _nervous pathology_ and solidism, which, with a modification of Stahl's ruling _immaterial essence_, formed the groundwork of his admired system. "If, now, we except the eccentricities of Brown, comprising his system, founded on the _sthenic_ and _asthenic_ diathesis, we find little interruption to the general prevalence of the Cullenian system, till nearly the present juncture. The succeeding authors, colleges, and medical societies have only modified and amplified the general theory, and regulated the practice into a comparative uniformity, which now constitutes the popular _Allopathic System_. But notwithstanding the comparatively settled state of medical science, it could not be supposed that in this remarkable age of improvement, while all other liberal sciences and arts are progressing as if prosecuted by superhuman agency, medicine should fail to undergo corresponding improvement. "Several new systems of medicine date themselves within the last forty years, viz.: 1. The _Homæopathic_, introduced by Hahnemann, and founded upon the principle, _similia similibus curantur_. 2. The _Botanic_, established by a new class of medical philosophers, within the last twenty years. 3. The _Eclectic_, corresponding, in its essential doctrines, with the ancient eclectic system." CREED OF THE REFORMERS. We believe that a perfect system of medical science is that which never allows disease to exist at all; which prevents disease, instead of curing it, by means of a perfect hygienic system, proper modes of life, attention to diet, ventilation, and exercise. We believe that the next best system is that which, after disease has made its appearance, promptly meets its development by the use of such agencies as are perfectly in harmony with the laws of life and health, and physiological in their action; such, for example, as water, air, heat and cold, friction, food, drink, and medicines that are not usually regarded as poisons, and are known to prove congenial to the animal constitution. We have no attachment to any remedy which experience shows unsafe; but, on the contrary, we rejoice in the success of every attempt to substitute sanative for disease-creating agents, and believe that a number of the articles which are still occasionally used in the old school, will in time become obsolete, as medical science progresses. We hold that our opposition to any course of medical treatment should be in proportion to the mischief it produces, entirely irrespective of medical theories. Hence our hostility to the lancet. We do not profess to know more about anatomy, physiology, surgery, &c., than our allopathic brethren; but the superiority which our system claims over others is, in the main, to be found in our therapeutic agents, all of which are harmless, safe, and efficient. While they arouse the energies of nature to resist the ravages of disease, they act harmoniously with the vital principle, in the restoration of the system from a pathological to the physiological state. TRUE PRINCIPLES. "Our objection to the old school," says Professor Curtis, "has ever been, that they not only have no true principles to guide their practice, but they have adopted, fixed, and obstinately adhered to principles the very reverse of the true. They have resolved that, in disease, nature turns a somerset--reverses all her normal laws, and requires them to do the same. They have decreed that the best means and processes to cure the sick are those which will most speedily kill them when in health. In the face of all reason and common sense, they have adhered to this doctrine and practice for the last three centuries, and they have been constrained to confess that the destruction they have produced on human life and health has far exceeded all that has been effected by the sword, pestilence, and famine. Still they obstinately persevere. They say their science is progressive--improving; yet its progression consists in contriving new ways and means to take part of the life's blood, and poison all the balance. "Medicine, being based on the laws of nature, is in itself an exact science; and every process of the act should be directed by those laws. "Medicine is a demonstrative science, and all its processes should be based on fixed laws, and be governed by positive inductions. Then, and not till then, will it deserve to be ranked among the exact sciences, and contemplated as a liberal art. "Truth is stationary; it never progresses. What was true in principle in the days of Adam is so still. To talk of progress in principle is ridiculous. Neither does a given practice progress. That which was ever intrinsically good is so still. To talk, then, of the progress in principles of medicine is absurd. We may learn the truth or error of principles, and the comparative value or worthlessness of practices; but the principles are still the same. This is our progress in knowledge, not the progress of science or art. The constant changes that have taken place in the adoption and rejection of various principles and practices have ever been an injury to the healing art. Both truth and falsehood, separately and combined, have been alternately received and rejected; and this is that progress which is made in a circle, and not in lines direct. The fault of the cultivators of medicine has been, not that they never discovered the truth nor adopted the right practice, but that they adopted wrong principles and practices as often as the right, and rejected the right as readily as the wrong. They have ever been ready to prove many, if not all things; but to cast off the bad and hold fast to the good, they seem to have had but little discrimination and power. They say truly, that the object of the healing art is to aid nature in the prevention and cure of her diseases; yet, in practice, they do violence to nature in the use of the lancet and poison." We are told by the professors of allopathy that their medicines constitute a class of deadly poisons, (see "Pocket Pharmacopoeia;") "that, when given with a scientific hand, in small doses, they cure disease." We deny their power to cure. If antimony, corrosive sublimate, &c., ever proved destructive, they always possess that power, and can never be used with any degree of assurance that they will make a sick animal well. On the other hand, we have abundant every-day evidence of their ability to make a well animal sick at any time. What difference does it make whether poisons are given with a scientific or an unscientific hand? Does it alter the tendency which all poisons possess, namely, that of rapidly depriving the system of vitality? The veterinary science was ushered into existence by men who practised according to the doctrines of the theoretical schools. We may trace it in its infancy when, in England, in the year 1788, it was rocked in the cradle of allopathy by Sainbel, its texture varying to suit the skill of Clark, Lawrence, Field, Blaine, and Coleman; yet with all their amount of talent and wisdom, their pupils must acknowledge that the melancholy triumph of disease over its victims clearly evinces that their combined stock of knowledge is insufficient to perfect the veterinary science. Dr. J. Bell says, "Anatomy is the basis of medical skill;" yet, in another part of his work he says, "It enables the physician to GUESS _at the seat, or causes, or consequences of disease_!" This is what we propose hereafter to call the science--the science of guessing! If such is the immense mortality in England, (amounting, as Mr. Youatt states, in loss of cattle, alone, to $50,000,000,)--a country that boasts of her veterinary institutions, and embraces within her medical halo some of the brightest luminaries of the present century,--what, we ask, is the mortality in the United States, where the veterinary science scarcely has an existence, and where not one man in a hundred can tell a disease of the bowels from one of the lungs? Profiting by the experience of these men, we are in hopes to build up a system of practice that will stand a tower of strength amid the rude shock of medical theories. We have discovered that the lancet is a powerful depressor of vitality, and that poisons derange, instead of producing, healthy action. That they are generally resorted to in this country, no one will deny, and often by men who are unacquainted with the nature of the destructive agents they making use of. Hence our business, as reformers, is to expose error, and disseminate true principles. In doing so, we must be guided by the light of reason, and interpret aright the doctrines of nature as they are written by the Creator on the tablets of the whole universe, animate and inanimate. In our reformed practice, we have true principles to guide us, which no man can controvert; for they are based on the recognition of a curative power in nature, identical with the vital principle, and governed by the same laws that control its action in the healthy state. While, therefore, this system must not change, it may improve; and while it remains on the same foundation, it should progress. The necessity of aiding nature, in all our modes of medication, is the only true principle which should guide us. This we do by the aid of medicines known to be harmless, at the same time paying proper attention to diet, ventilation, exercise, &c., rejecting all processes of cure that depress the vital energy, or destroy the equilibrium of its action. Our reformed principles teach us that, "Fever is the same in its essential character, under all circumstances and forms which it exhibits. The different kinds, as they are called, are but varieties of the same condition, produced by variations in the prevailing cause, or the strength of vital resistance, or some other peculiarity of the patient. Facts in abundance might be stated to justify this position. Again, fever is not to be regarded as disease, but as a sanative effort; in other words, as an increased or excited state of vital action, whose tendency is to remove from the system any agents or causes that would effect its integrity. Or, perhaps, it might be more properly said, that fever is the effect, or symptom, of accumulated vital action--an index pointing to the progress of causes, operating to ward off disease and restore health. "Our indications of cure and modes of treatment are to be learned from those manifestations of the vital operations uniformly witnessed in the febrile state. If fever marks the action of the healing power of nature, which we must copy to be successful, why should we not consult the febrile phenomena for our rule of action? Now, what are the indications of cure which we derive from this source? In other words, what are the results which nature designs to accomplish through the instrumentality of fever? They are, an equilibrium of the circulation, a properly-proportioned action of all the organs, and an increased depuration of the system, principally by cutaneous evacuations." Suppose the resistance of some local obstruction, as, for example, an accumulation of partly digested food in the manyplus of the ox, and, for want of a due portion of the gastric fluids to soften the mass and prevent friction, it irritates the mucous covering of the laminæ. The result is inflammation, (local fever,) then general excitement, manifested in an increased state of the circulation generally. The consequences of this general excitement of the mass of the circulation are, a more equal distribution of the blood, and the stimulation of every organ to do a part, according to its capacity, in removing disease. In such cases, the cattle doctors, generally, suppose that the inflammation is confined to the part, (manyplus;) yet it is evident that nature has marshalled her forces and produced a like action on the external surface. How can we prove that this is the case? By the heat, and red surfaces of the membrane lining the nostril, by the accelerated pulse, thirst, &c. Without heat there is no vitality in the system. Now, if the surface be hot, it proves that a large quantity of blood is sent there for the purpose of relieving the deranged internal organ. Hence the reader will perceive, that the cattle doctor whose creed is, "The more fever, the more blood-letting," must be one of the greatest opponents nature has to deal with. Then it is no wonder that so many cattle, sheep, and oxen die of fever. The practice of purging, in such a case, would be almost as destructive as the former; for many articles used as purges act on the mucous surfaces of the alimentary canal as mechanical irritants. Nature would, in this case, have to recall her forces from the surface, and concentrate them in the vicinity of parts where they were not wanted, had not man's interference conflicted with her well-planned arrangement, and made her "turn a somerset." When the increased action and heat are manifested on the surface, does it not prove that the different organs are acting harmoniously in self-defence? And is not this action manifested through the same channels in a state of health? Then why call it _disease_? If obstructions exist as the cause of fever, will the mode of evacuation be different from that of health? Certainly not. Hence the marked tendency of fever to evacuation by the skin or the bowels; the former by perspiration, and the latter by diarrhoea. Fever, then, is a vital action, and the reformers have correct principles. On the other hand, the allopathists tell us that they know very little about fever, but that it is disease, and they treat it as such; hence, then, five, ten, and fourteen days' fever, and often the death of the patient. Our treatment is not directed with a view of combating the fever: we generally aid it by following the indications which it presents; and we often find it necessary, although the surface of the animal shall be hot, and feverish symptoms appear, to use stimulants, (not alcoholic,) combined with antispasmodics and relaxants. (See _Stimulants_, in the APPENDIX.) This class of medicines, aided by warmth and moisture, favors the cutaneous exhalation, and promotes the free and full play of all the functions. That the allopathist has but few principles to guide him is evident from the following quotations:-- Veterinary surgeon Haycock says, "The profession may flatter itself that it is advancing: for my part, however, I see little or no advancement. Our labors, for the last ten years, have been little more than a repetition of what has gone before. Our books are things of shreds and patches; the system which is followed in the investigation of disease, in the treatment of disease, and in the reporting of it, is altogether so crude and barbarous, that I am thoroughly ashamed of the whole matter. "I have heard much noise about a _charter_, [which, we presume, means a charter by which men may be licensed to kill _secundum artem_, and '_no questions_ ASKED,'] the clamor of which may be compared to the rattling of peas in a dried bladder, or to a storm in a horse-pond. I have also read much which has been said about the _spirit_ of this charter. Until I am convinced that it is the best term which can be applied to it, verily the whole is a spirit; for no one, I am persuaded, has ever yet discovered the substance.[3] It is not charters that we want, _but it is that quiet spirit of earnestness which characterizes the true laborer on science_. We require men who will labor for the advancement of the profession from the pure love of the thing; we want, in fact, a few John Fields, or men who know how to work, and who are possessed of the will to do it." We hear a great deal said about sending young men from this country to Europe to acquire the principles of the veterinary art, with a view to public teaching. Now, it appears to us that the United States can boast of as great a number of talented physicians, as well qualified to soon learn and understand the fundamental principles of the veterinary art, as their brethren of the old world. There is no country, probably, that can boast of such an amount of talent, in every department of literature and art, in proportion to the population, as the United States. We know that the veterinary art, with one exception, had its existence from human practitioners, received their fostering care and attention, and grew with their growth. Have we not the materials, then, in this country, to educate and qualify young men to practise this important branch of science? Most certainly. Just send a few to us, for example, and if we do not impart to them a better system of medication than that practised in Europe, by which they will be enabled to treat disease with more success and less deaths, then we will agree to "throw physic to the dogs," and abandon our profession. The greatest part of the most valuable time of the students of veterinary medicine is devoted to the study of pathology, in such a manner as to afford little instruction. For example, we are told that in "Bright's" disease of the kidneys they have detected albumen. What does this amount to? Does it throw any rational light on the treatment other than that proposed by us, of toning up the animal, and restoring the healthy secretions? They have studied pathology to their hearts' content; yet any intelligent farmer in this country, with a few simple herbs, can beat them at curing disease. We would give details, were it necessary. Suffice it to say, that it is done here every day, and often through the aid of a little thoroughwort tea, or other harmless agent. The pathologist may discover alterations in tissues, in the blood, and the various organs, and tell us that herein lie the cause and seat of disease; yet these changes themselves are but results, and preceding these were other manifestations of disorder; therefore pathology must always be imperfect, because it is a science of consequences. The most powerful microscopes have been used to discover the seat of disease; yet this has not taught us to cure one single disease hitherto incurable. The old school boast that their whole system of blood-letting, purging, and poisoning is based on _enlightened experience_! yet their victims have often discovered, by dear-bought "experience," (_many of whom are now doing penance with ulcerated gums, rotten teeth, and foetid breath_,) that, however valuable this "experience" may be to the M. D.'s, they, the recipients, have not derived that benefit which they were led to expect would accrue to them. From what has already been written in this work, the reader, provided he divests himself of all prejudice, will perceive that allopathic experience is not to be trusted, for their principles are false; hence their experience is also false. Professor Curtis, to whom we are indebted for much valuable information, says, "Do not the old school argue that the most destructive agents in nature may be made to '_aid the vital forces in the removal of disease_ by the judicious application of them'? Does not Professor Harrison say, that the lancet is the great anti-inflammatory agent of the _materia medica_, that opium is the _magnum Dei donum_ (the great gift of God) for the relief of pain, and that mercury is the great regulator of all the secretions?" Anatomy and physiology are now being taught in our public schools. The people will, ere long, constitute themselves umpires to decide when doctors disagree. We apprehend it will then be hard work to convince the intelligent and thinking part of the community that poisons and the lancet are sanative agents. FOOTNOTE: [3] Mr. White says, "According to the present system of teaching in these chartered institutions, there is very little benefit to be derived by the student." Mr. Blane experienced in his own person the results of this imperfect system of teaching. He was sent for to fire a valuable horse, and gives the following account of it: "It was my first essay in firing on my own account, and _fired_ as I was with my wishes to signalize myself, I labored to enter my novitiate with all due honor. The farrier of the village was ordered to attend, a sturdy old man, civil enough, but looking as though impressed with no very high respect for a _gentleman farrier's knowledge_. The horse was cast, awkwardly enough, and secured, as will appear, even more so. I, however, proceeded to show the superiority of the new over the old schools. I had just then left the veterinary college, not as a pupil, but as a teacher, which I only mention to mark the climax. On the very first application of the iron, up started my patient, flinging me and my assistants in all directions from him, while he trotted and snorted round the yard with rope, &c. at his heels. As may be supposed, I was taken aback, and might have gone back as I came, had not the old farrier, with much good humor, caught the horse round the neck with his arms, and by some dexterous manoeuvre brought him on his knees; when, with a jerk, as quick as unexpected, he threw him at once on his side, when our immediate assistants fixed him, and we proceeded. It is needless to remark that I retired mortified, and left the village farrier lord of the ascendant." "It cannot be doubted that the best operators in this case are always the common country farriers, who, from devoting themselves entirely to the occupation, soon become proficient." This admission on the part of a regular graduate of a veterinary institution of London shows that the veterinary science, as taught at the present day, is a matter for reproach. The melancholy triumph of disease over its victims shows that the science is mere moonshine; that, in regard to its most important object, the _cure of disease_, it is mere speculation, rich in theory, but poverty-stricken in its results. Hence we have not only proof that the American people will be immense gainers by availing themselves of the labors of reforms, but, as interested individuals, they have great encouragement to favor our more rational system of treatment. (For additional remarks on this subject, see the author's work on the Horse, p. 105.) INFLAMMATION. Inflammation has generally been considered the great bugbear of the old school, and the scarecrow of the cattle doctor. But what do they know about it? Let us see. Dr. Thatcher says, "Numerous hypotheses or opinions respecting the true nature and cause of inflammation have for ages been advanced, and for a time sustained; but even at the present day, the various doctrines appear to be considered altogether problematical." Professor Percival says, "Inflammation consists in an increased action of the arteries, and may be either _healthy_ or _unhealthy_[4]--a distinction that appears to relate to some peculiarity of the constitution." We find inflammation described by most old school authors as disease, and they treat it as such. Professor Payne says, "A great majority of all the disorders to which the human frame is liable begin with inflammation, or end in inflammation, or are accompanied by inflammation in some part of their course, or resemble inflammation in their symptoms. Most of the organic changes in different parts of the body recognize inflammation as their cause, or lead to it as their effect. In short, a very large share of the premature extinctions of human life in general is more of less attributable to inflammation." The term _inflammation_ has long been employed by medical men to denote the existence of an unusual degree of redness, pain, heat, and swelling in any of the textures or organs of which the body is composed. Professor Curtis says, "But as inflammation sometimes exists without the exhibition of any of these symptoms, authors have been obliged to describe it by its causes, in attendant symptoms, and its effects. It is not more strange than true, that, after studying this subject for, _as they say_, four thousand years, experimenting on it and with it, and defining it, the sum of all their knowledge and definitions is this--inflammation in the animal frame is either a simple or compound action, increased or diminished, or a cessation of all action; it either causes, or is caused, or is accompanied, by all the forms of disease to which the body is subject; it is the only agent of cure in every case in which a cure is effected; it destroys all that die, except by accident or old age; it is both disease itself, and the only antidote to disease; it is the pathological principle which lies at the base of all others; it is that which the profession least of all understand." Who believes, then, that the science of medicine is based on a sure foundation? The following selections from the allopathic works will prove what is above stated. "Pure inflammation is rather an effort of nature than a disease; yet it always implies disease or disturbance, inasmuch as there must be a previous morbid or disturbed state to make such an effort necessary."--_Hunter_, vol. iv. pp. 293, 294. "As inflammation is an action produced for the restoration of the most simple injury in sound parts which goes beyond the power of union by the first intention, we must look upon it as one of the most simple operations in nature, whatever it may be when arising from disease, or diseased parts. Inflammation is to be considered only a disturbed state of parts, which requires a new but salutary mode of action to restore them to that state wherein a natural mode of action alone is necessary. Therefore inflammation in itself is not to be considered a disease, but a salutary operation consequent either to some violence or to some disease."--_Ibid._ vol. iv. p. 285. "A wound or bruise cannot recover itself but by inflammation_."--Ibid._ p. 286. "From whatever cause inflammation arises, it appears to be nearly the same in all; for in all it is an effort intended to bring about a reinstatement of the parts to their natural function."--_Ibid._ p. 286. _Results of Inflammation._--"Inflammation is said to terminate in resolution, effusion, adhesion, suppuration, ulceration, granulation, cicatrization, and mortification. All these different terminations, except the last, may be regarded as so many _vital_ processes, exerted in different parts of the animal economy."--_Prof. Thompson_, p. 97. "Inflammation must needs occupy a large share of attention of both the physician and the surgeon. In nine cases out of ten, the first question which either of them asks himself, on being summoned to the patient, is, _Have I to deal with inflammation here?_ It is constantly the object of his treatment and watchful care. It affects all parts that are furnished with blood-vessels, and it affects different parts very variously.... It is by inflammation that wounds are closed and fractures repaired--that parts adhere together when their adhesion is essential to the preservation of the individual, and that foreign and hurtful matters are conveyed out of the body. A cut finger, a deep sabre wound, alike require inflammation to reunite the divided parts. Does ulceration occur in the stomach or intestines, and threaten to penetrate through them--inflammation will often forerun and provide against the danger--glue the threatened membrane to whatever surface may be next it.... The foot mortifies, is killed by injury or by exposure to cold--inflammation will cut off the dead and useless part. An abscess forms in the liver, or a large calculus concretes in the gall-bladder: how is the pus or the calculus to be got rid of?... Partial inflammation precedes and prepares for the expulsion; the liver or the gall-bladder becomes adherent to the walls of the abdomen on the one hand, or to the intestinal canal on the other; and then the surgeon may plunge his lancet into the collection of pus, or the abscess; or the calculus may cut its own way safely out of the body, through the skin or into the bowels."--_Watson_, p. 94. "The salutary acts of restoration and prevention just adverted to, are such as nature conducts and originates. But we are ourselves able, in many instances, to direct and control the effect of inflammation--nay, we can excite it at our pleasure; and, having excited it, we are able, in a great degree, to regulate its course. And for this reason it becomes, in skilful hands, an instrument of cure."--_Ibid._ p. 94. The above quotations are not complete. They are selections from the sources whence they are drawn of those portions which testify that fever and inflammation are one and the same thing, and that this same thing consists in a salutary effort of nature to protect the organs of the body from the action of the causes of disease, or to remove those causes and their effects from the organs once diseased. That the same authors teach the very contrary of all this in the same paragraphs, and often in the same sentences, the following extracts will clearly prove:-- _Inflammation produces disease._--"When inflammation cannot accomplish that salutary purpose, (a cure,) as in cancer, scrofula, &c., it does mischief."--_Hunter_, p. 285. "Inflammation is occasionally the cause of disease."--_Ibid._ p. 286. "In one point of view, it may be considered as a disease itself."--_Ibid._ "It may be divided into two kinds, the healthy and the unhealthy.... The unhealthy admits of a vast variety," &c.--_Ibid._ "Inflammation often produces mortification or death in the inflamed part."--_Ibid._ vol. iv. p. 305. "In the light of such authorities, it is surely not strange that no definite knowledge can be obtained of the nature, character, or tendency of inflammation. Of course, no one will dispute the proposition, that medicine, as taught in the schools, is a superstructure without a foundation, and should be wholly rejected."--_Prof. Curtis._ If the regulars have no correct theory of inflammation, then their system of blood-letting is all wrong. This they acknowledge; for many with whom we have lately conversed say, "We do not use the lancet so often as formerly." One very good reason is, the sovereign people will not let them. Would it not be better for them to abolish its use altogether, as we have done, and avail themselves of the reform of the age? The following remarks, selected from an address delivered by our respected preceptor, Professor Brown, ought to be read by every friend of humanity. "The very air groans with the bitter anathemas the people pronounce upon calomel, antimony, copper, zinc, arsenic, arsenious acid, stramonium, foxglove, belladonna, henbane, nux vomica, opium, morphia, and narcotin. "Hear their bitter cries, borne on every breeze, 'Help! help! help!' See the dim taper of life; it glimmers--'tis gone! Vitality struggled, and struggled manfully to the last. The poisonous dose was repeated, till the citadel was yielded up. "The doctor arrives and attempts to comfort and quiet the broken-hearted widow, and helpless, dependent, fatherless children, by recounting the frailties of poor human nature, and reminding them of the fact that all men must die. "And thus the work of death goes on: the tenderest ties are severed; children are left fatherless; parents are bereaved of their children; families are reduced to fragments; society deprived of her best citizens, and the world filled with misery, confusion, and poverty, in consequence of an evil system of medication.... "The ball is in motion, the banner of medical reform waves gracefully over our beloved country. Hosts of the right stripe are coming to the rescue. Poisons are condemned, the lancet is growing dull, the effusion of blood will soon cease, the battles are half fought, and the victory is sure.... While we would have you adhere to the well-established, fundamental principles of reformed medical science, as taught in this school, we would have you recollect that discoveries in knowledge are progressing.... Never entertain the foolish, absurd, and dangerous idea, that because you have been to college, you have learned all that is to be learned--that your education is finished, and you have nothing more to learn. The college is a place where we go to learn how to learn, and the world is the great university, in which our educational exercises terminate with our last expiring breath." The author craves the reader's indulgence for introducing Dr. Brown's remarks at this stage of the work. It is intended for a class of readers (_the farmers_) who have not the time to make themselves acquainted with all that is going on in the medical world. We aim to make the book acceptable to that class of men. If we fail, the fault is in us, not in our subjects. FOOTNOTE: [4] Inflammation is a vital action, and cannot be properly termed _diseased_ action. The only action that can be properly termed _diseased_ is the chemical action. REMARKS, SHOWING THAT VERY LITTLE IS KNOWN OF THE NATURE AND TREATMENT OF DISEASE. Mr. Percival details a case of peritonitis,[5] after the usual symptoms in the early stage had subsided. "The horse's bowels became much relaxed: suspecting that there was some disorder in the alimentary canal, and that this was an effort of nature to get rid of it, I promoted the diarrhoea by giving mild doses of cathartic medicine, in combination with calomel!" [Nature did not require such assistance: warm drinks, composed of marshmallows, or slippery elm, would have been just the thing.] "On the third day from this, prolapsus ani (falling of the fundament) made its appearance. After the return of the gut, the animal grew daily duller, and more dejected, manifesting evident signs of considerable inward disorder, though he showed none of acute pain; the diarrhoea continued; swelling of the belly and tumefaction of the legs speedily followed: eight pounds of blood were drawn, and two ounces of oil of turpentine were given internally, and in spite of another bleeding, and some subordinate measures, carried him off [the treatment, we presume] in the course of a few hours. "Dissection: a slight blush pervaded the peritoneum; at least the parietal portion of it, for the coats of the stomach and intestines preserved their natural whiteness. About eight gallons of water were measured out of the belly.[6] The abdominal viscera, as well as the thoracic, showed no marks of disease." We have stated, in the preceding pages, that the farmers can generally treat some cases of disease, by simple means, with much better success than some of the regulars; yet there are exceptions. Some of them have been inoculated with the virus of allopathy; and when an animal is taken sick, and manifests evident signs of great derangement, they seem to suppose that the more medicine they cram down the better, forgetting, perhaps not knowing, that the province of the physician is to know when to do nothing. Others err from want of judgment; and if they have an animal sick, they send for the neighbors; each one has a favorite remedy; down go castor oil, aloes, gin and molasses, in rapid succession. "He has inflammation of the insides," says one; "give him salts." No sooner said than done; the salts are hurried down, and, of course, find their way into the paunch. These, together with a host of medicines too numerous to mention, are tried without effect: all is commotion within; fermentation commences; gas is evolved; the animal gives signs of woe. As a last resort, paunching, bleeding, &c., follow; perhaps the horns are bored, or some form of barbarity practised, and the animal dies under the treatment. A case similar to the above came under our notice a few months since. A cow, of a superior breed, was sent a few miles into the country to winter. Having always had the very best of feed, the owner gave particular instructions that she should be fed accordingly; instead of which, however, she was fed on foxgrass and other indigestible matter, in consequence of which she was attacked with acute indigestion, (gastric fever, as it is generally called,) more popularly known, in barn-yard language, as a "stoppage." A man professing to understand _cow-doctoring_ was sent for, who, after administering "every thing he could think of" without success, gave a mixture of hog's lard and castor oil. When asked what indication he expected to fulfil, he replied, "My object was to wake up the cow's ideas"! Unfortunately, he awoke the wrong ideas; for the cow died. On making a post mortem examination, about half a bushel of partly-masticated foxgrass was found in the paunch, and the manyplus was distended beyond its physiological capacity. On making an incision into it, the partly-digested food was quite hard and dry, and the mucous covering of the laminæ--even the laminæ themselves--could be detached with the slightest force. The farmer will probably inquire, What ought to be done in such cases? Before we answer the question, a few remarks on the nature of the obstruction seem to be necessary. In the article _Description of the Organs of Digestion_, the reader will learn the modes by which the food reaches the different compartments of the stomach. In reference to the above case, the causes of derangement are self-evident, which will be seen as we proceed. The animal had, previous to the journey, (thirty miles,) received the greatest care and attention; in short, she had been petted. Being pregnant at the time, the stomach was more susceptible to derangement than at any other time. The long journey could not act otherwise than unfavorably: first, because it would fatigue the muscular system; secondly, because it would irritate the nervous. Here, then, are the first causes; and it is important, in all cases of a deviation from health, to ascertain, as near as possible, the causes, and remove them. _This is considered the first step towards a cure._ If we cannot remove the causes, we are enabled, by an inquiry into them, to adopt the most efficient means for the recovery of the animal. The animal having had a bountiful meal before starting on the journey, and not being allowed sufficient time to remasticate, (rumination is partially or totally suspended during active exercise,) probably, combined with the above causes, an acute attack of the stomach set in--subsided after a few days, and left those organs in a debilitated state. The sudden change in diet also acted unfavorably, especially as the foxgrass required more than ordinary gastric power to reduce it to a pulpy mass, fit to enter the fourth, or true digestive stomach. For want of a due share of vital action in the abomasum, (fourth stomach,) it was unable to perform its part in the physiological process of digestion; hence the accumulation found in the manyplus. The causes of the detachment of laminæ, and the blanched appearances,--for it was as white as new linen,--were partly chemical and partly mechanical. The mechanical obstruction consisted in over-distention of the manyplus from food, thereby obstructing the circulation of the blood through its parietes, (walls,) and depriving it not only of nutriment, from the nerves of nutrition, but paralyzing its secretive function. It then became a prey to chemical action and decomposition. The indications of cure were, to arouse the digestive organs by stimulants, then by anti-spasmodic, relaxing, and tonic medicines, (for which see APPENDIX:) the digestive organs would probably have recommenced their healthy action, and the life of the animal might have been saved. Oil and grease, of every description and kind, are not suitable remedies to administer to cattle when laboring under indigestion; for at best their action is purely mechanical, and cannot be assimilated by the nutritive function so as to act medicinally. Linseed oil is, however, absorbed and diffused. If the animal labors under obstinate constipation, and it is evident that the obstruction is confined to the intestines, then we may resort to a dose of oil. The reader will perceive the benefits to be derived from a knowledge of animal physiology and veterinary medicine, when based upon sound principles and common sense. He will also see the importance of having educated and honorable men employed in cattle-doctoring. No doubt there are such; but surely something is "rotten in Denmark;" for we are repeatedly told by our patrons that they "judge of the merits of the veterinary art by the men they find engaged in it." _Scientific Treatment of Colic, or Gripes._--"On the 5th September, 1824, a young bay mare was admitted into the infirmary with symptoms of colic, for which she lost eight pounds of blood before she came in. The following drench was prescribed to be given immediately: laudanum and oil of turpentine, of each, three ounces, with the addition of six ounces of decoction of aloes. In the course of half an hour, this was repeated! But shortly after, she vomited the greater part by the mouth and nostrils. No relief having been obtained, twelve pounds of blood were taken from her, and the same drink was given. In another hour, this drench was repeated; and, for the fourth time, during the succeeding hour; both of which, before death, she rejected, as she had done the second drink. Notwithstanding these active measures were promptly taken, she died about three hours after her admission." (See Clark's _Essay on Gripes_.) It appears that the doctors made short work of it. Twelve ounces of laudanum, and the same of turpentine,[7] in three hours! But this is "_secundum artem_" "skilful treatment"--a specimen of "science and skill," and justifiable in every case where the symptoms are "alarming." Let the reader, if he has ever seen a case of colic treated by us, contrast the result. Had the case been treated with relaxing, anti-spasmodic, carminative drinks, warmth and moisture externally, injections internally, and frictions generally, the poor animal would, probably, have been saved. We have attended many cases of the same sort, and have not yet lost the first one. _Extraordinary case of "cattle doctoring"!--which ought to be termed cattle-killing._--We were requested by Mr. S. of Waltham, December 18, 1850, to see a sick cow. The following is the history of the case: The cow, as near as we could judge, was of native breed, in good condition, and in her eighth pregnant month; pulse, 80 per minute; respirations, 36 per minute; external surface, ears, horns, and legs, cold. She had not dunged for several days. She was found lying on her belly, with her head turned round towards the left side. She struggled occasionally, and appeared to suffer from abdominal pain. She uttered a low, moaning sound when pressure was made on the abdominal muscles. The following facts were related to us by the owner, which we give in his own language. "I bought the cow, and drove her about 200 miles to this place. She had been here about a week, when I perceived she did not eat her feed as well as usual. She became sick about nine days ago, I thought it best to begin to doctor her! I employed a man who was reputed to be a pretty good cattle doctor. She got pretty well dosed between us, for we first gave her one pound of salts. The next day we gave her another pound. Finding this also failed to have the desired effect, we gave her one pound eight ounces more. She kept getting worse. We next gave her a quart of urine. She still grew worse. Two table-spoonfuls of gunpowder and a quarter of a pound of antimony were then given; still no improvement. As a last resort, we gave her eight drops of croton oil; a few hours afterwards, nine drops more were given; and a final dose of twenty drops of the same article was administered. The cow rolled her eyes as if she were about to die. I then called in the neighbors to kill her, when one of them advised me to come and see you." The reader will here perceive that we had a pretty desperate case; having been called in just at the eleventh hour. We may here remark that the cow had been under treatment nine days, during which time she had eaten scarcely any food, and passed but very little excrement. The medicine had been given at different stages during that period. There was evidently no accumulation of excrement in the rectum, for she had been raked and received several injections. As we were not requested to take charge of the case, the owner being unwilling to incur additional expense, we, therefore, with a view of giving present relief, and fulfilling the necessary indications, ordered the following: Powdered slippery elm, 1 table-spoonful. " caraways, 1 tea-spoonful. " marshmallows, 1 table-spoonful. " skullcap, 1 tea-spoonful. " grains of paradise, 1 tea-spoonful. A sufficient quantity of boiling water to form it into the consistence of thin gruel; a junk bottle full to be given every two hours. Directions were given to rub the ears and extremities until they were warm, and the strength of the animal to be supported with thin flour gruel. The indications to be fulfilled were as follows:-- 1st. To lubricate the mucous surfaces, and defend them from the action of the drugs. 2d. To arouse the digestive function, and prevent the generation of carbonic acid gas. 3d. To allay nervous excitement, and remove spasms. Lastly. To equalize the circulation. The first indication can be fulfilled by slippery elm and marshmallows; the second, by caraway seeds; the third, by skullcap; and the fourth, by grains of paradise. We have not been able, up to the present time, to ascertain the result. Here, then, are a few examples of horse and cattle doctoring, which we might multiply indefinitely, did we think it would benefit the reader. We ask the reader to ponder on these facts, and then answer the question, "What do horse and cattle doctors know about the treatment of disease?" It gives us much pleasure, however, and probably it will the reader, to know that a few of the veterinary surgeons of London are just beginning to see the error of their ways. The following contribution to the Veterinarian, from the pen of Veterinary Surgeon Haycock, will be read with interest. The quotations are not complete. We only select those portions which we deem most instructive to our readers. The disease to which it alludes, _puerperal fever_, has made, and is at the present time making, sad havoc among the stock of our cattle-growing interest; and it stands us in hand to gather honey wherever we can find it. "Of the various questions which present themselves to traders and owners of cattle respecting puerperal fever, the following are, perhaps, a few of the most important: First. At what period of their life are cows the most liable to be attacked with puerperal fever? Secondly. At what period after the animal has calved does the disease generally supervene? Thirdly. What is the average rate of mortality amongst cows attacked with this disease? Fourthly. What is the best method to pursue with cattle, in order, if possible, to prevent the disease? Fifthly. What is the best mode of treatment to be pursued with cattle when so attacked? To these several questions I shall endeavor to reply as fully as my own knowledge of the matter will allow me. They are questions which ought to have been answered years ago; [so they would have been, doctor, if, as Curtis says, your brethren had not been _progressing in a circle, instead of direct lines_;] but no one appears to have thought it necessary. They are questions of great importance to the agriculturist; if they were fully answered, he would be able to form a pretty accurate estimate as to the amount of risk he was likely at all times to incur with respect to puerperal diseases of a febrile nature. For instance, suppose it was fully ascertained, from data furnished by the correct observations of a number of practitioners, at what period of the cow's life the animal is most liable to be attacked with puerperal fever; the agriculturist and cow-keeper would be able, in a considerable degree, to guard against it, either by feeding the animal, or taking such other steps as a like experience proved to be the best. It is of no earthly use practitioners writing 'grandiloquent' papers upon diseases like puerperal fever; or in their telling the world, that puerperal fever is a disease of the nervous system; or that the name which is given to it is very improper, _and not suggestive; or that bleeding and the administration of a powerful purgative are proper to commence with_; together with hosts of stereotyped statements of a like nature--statements which are unceasingly repeated, and which are without one jot of sound experience to substantiate them. [All good and sound doctrine.] "Question First. _At what period of their lives are cows the most liable to be attacked with puerperal fever?_ I have in my possession notes and memoranda of twenty-nine cases of this disease, which notes and memoranda I have collected from cases I have treated from the month of July, 1842, to the month of July, 1849--a period of seven years; and with reference to the above question the figures stand thus: Out of the twenty-nine, three of them were attacked at the third parturient period, five ditto at the fourth, sixteen at the fifth, two at the sixth, and three at the eighth. "It appears, then, from the above numbers, that cows are the most liable to puerperal fever at the fifth parturient period--a fact which is noticed by Mr. Barlow. "Secondly. _At what period after the animal has calved does the disease generally supervene?_ With reference to this question, the twenty-nine cases stand thus:-- 5 cows immediately after parturition. 8 " in 20 hours " " 6 " in 23 " " " 5 " in 24 " " " 3 " in 30 " " " 2 " in 36 " " " 1 " in 72 " " " "It appears, then, from the above, that after the twentieth and twenty-fourth hours, the animals, comparatively speaking, may be considered as safe from the disease; and that after the seventy-second or seventy-third hour, all danger may be considered as past, beyond doubt. "Thirdly. _What is the average rate of mortality amongst cows attacked with this disease?_ Out of the 29 cases, 12, I find, recovered and 17 died; which loss is equivalent to somewhere about 59 per cent.--a loss which, I am inclined to think, is not so great as that of many other practitioners. [It will be still less if you reject poison as well as the lancet.] "Mr. Cartwright, in the May number of the Veterinarian of the present year, states that, 'Although I have seen at least a hundred cases, chiefly in this neighborhood, [Whitchurch,] during the last twenty-five years, yet I am almost ashamed to confess that I cannot call to recollection that I ever cured a single case, [neither will you ever cure one as long as the lancet and poison are coöperative,] nor have I ever heard of a case ever being cured by any of the quacks in the neighborhood.' [Of course not, for the quacks follow in the footsteps of their prototypes, the _regular_ veterinary surgeons.] "Fourthly. _What is the best method to pursue with cattle, in order, if possible, to_ PREVENT _the disease?_ This is a question which I hope to see amply discussed by veterinarians. I have but little to offer respecting it myself; but I labor under a kind of feeling that something valuable may not only be said, but done, by way of prevention. With reference to preventing the disease, Mr. Barlow, in his Essay, says, 'There is a pretty certain preventive in milking the cow some time before calving in full _blood-letting_ before or immediately after; in purgatives, very limited diet, and other depletive measures; each and all tending to illustrate the necessity of a vascular state of the system for its development!'" Mr. Haycock continues: "So far as my own experience is concerned, it is at variance with almost every one of my observations. In the table which I have given respecting question 2, the reader will recollect that I stated that puerperal fever supervened in five cows immediately after parturition. Now, it is worthy of remark, of these five cases, that every animal had been milked many hours previous to calving. The full udder, under such circumstances, is a powerful excitant to the uterus: this is a well-known fact, and the consequence is, that if this natural excitant be withdrawn, the action of the process at once becomes diminished. I have known many cases, in addition to those already given, where the parturient process was prolonged for hours in consequence of the animal's being milked, in whom fever supervened almost immediately afterwards. The prolonged process, I think, greatly weakens the animal, and, as a natural result, the vital energies become less capable of maintaining their normal integrity. With reference, again, to bleeding and purging as preventives, I have nothing to offer in favor of either mode. I do not believe that they are preventives. [Good, again, doctor: you are one of the right stripe. It would give us pleasure to see a few such as you on this side of the water.] First of all, we require to know what percentage of calving cows are liable to be affected with puerperal fever; then, whether that percentage becomes reduced in number in consequence of such preventive measures being brought into force: these are the only modes whereby the matter can be proved; and, so far as I know, no one has ever brought the question to such a test. That bleeding and purging are considered as preventives by people in general, I know perfectly; but, like many other popular opinions, the thing which is believed requires first to be proved ere it becomes truth. "I perfectly agree with Mr. Barlow in recommending spare diet. I regard it, in fact, as the great preventive.... When I say spare diet, I do not mean poor diet. The food should be good, but they should not have that huge bulk of matter which they are capable of devouring, and which they appear so much to desire. I should commence the process for eight or ten days prior to calving, or even, with some animals, much earlier; and the diet I would give should consist of beans, boiled linseed, and boiled oats, with occasionally small portions of hay. I should not always feed upon one mixture. I might occasionally substitute boiled barley in place of oats; and when the time for calving was very near at hand, say within a day or so, I should become more sparing with my hay, and more copious with my allowance of bran. With regard to the diet after calving, I should pursue much the same course I have named: perhaps for the first thirty hours I might allow the animal nothing but gruel and bran mash, in which I should mix a little oatmeal, or very thick gruel. I have sometimes thought--_but hitherto it has not gone beyond a thought with me_--that a broad cotton or linen bandage, fixed moderately tight round the cow's body immediately after calving, might prove of some assistance as a preventive. I have had no experience in its benefit myself; I merely suggest the thing; and if it did nothing more, it would prevent, in some measure, the animal from feeling that sensation of vacuity which must necessarily exist immediately and for some time after calving, and which, I think, under some conditions of the system, may be injurious to the animal. I am told by a medical friend of mine, that he has known puerperal fever produced in women solely from midwives' neglecting to bandage them after delivery; at any rate, a bandage, or a broad belt having straps and buckles attached, and placed securely round the cow's body immediately after calving, and kept there for a day or two, could do no harm, if it failed of doing good. "Fifthly. _Which is the best method of treatment to pursue with cows when attacked with puerperal fever?_ Upon this question I feel that I could say much; but at present I defer its consideration.... Suffice it to say, then, that I never either bleed or administer purges. I used once to do both, but my experience has shown me, in numerous cases, that neither is necessary.... This malady I have written upon is fearfully destructive; and if such diseases cannot be met with powers capable of wrestling with it, I, for one, shall say that it is a stigma upon our art--I will say that when we are most wanted, we are of the least use." FOOTNOTES: [5] Inflammation of the peritoneum. [6] Water very frequently accumulates in the belly or chest, after blood-letting. [7] On remonstrating with a man who was about to administer half a pint of turpentine to a cow, he replied, "She has no business to be a cow!" We presume that some of the regulars have just as much, and not a particle more, of the milk of animal kindness as this man seemed to show. NATURE, TREATMENT, AND CAUSES OF DISEASE IN CATTLE. The pathology, or doctrine of diseases, is, as we have previously stated, little understood. Many different causes have been assigned for disease, and as many different modes of cure have been advocated. We shall not discuss either the ancient or modern doctrines any further than we conceive they interfere with correct principles. In doing so, we shall endeavor to confine ourselves to truth, reason, and nature. We entirely discard the popular doctrine that _fever_ and _inflammation_ are disease. We look upon them as simple acts of the constitution--sanative in their nature. Then the reader may ask, "Why do you recommend medicine for them?" We do not. We only prescribe medicine, for the purpose of aiding nature to cure the diseases of which _they_ (the fever and inflammation) are symptoms, and we do not expect to accomplish even that by medicine alone. Ventilation, diet, and exercise, in nine cases out of ten, will do more good than the destructive agents that have hitherto been used, and christened "cattle medicines." The great secret of curing diseases is, by accurately observing the indications of nature to carry off and cure disease, and by observing by what critical evacuations she does at last cast off the morbid matter which caused them, and so restores health. By thus observing, following, and assisting _nature_, agreeably to her indications, our practice will always be more satisfactory. Whenever the great outlets (skin, lungs, and kidneys) of the animal body are obstructed, morbific and excrementitious substances are retained in the system; they irritate, stimulate, and offend nature in such a manner, that she always exerts her power to throw them off. And she acts with great regularity in her endeavors to expel the offending matter, and thus restore the animal to a healthy state. Suppose an animal to be attacked with disease, and fever supervenes; the whole system is then aroused to cast out this disease: nature invariably points to certain outlets, as the only passages through which the enemy must evacuate the system; and it is the province of the physician to aid in this wise and well-established effort; but when such means are resorted to as in the case of the cow at Waltham, (p. 98,) instead of rendering nature the necessary assistance, her powers and energies are entirely crushed. Let us suppose a horse to have been exercised; during that exercise, there is a determination of heat and fluids to the surface: the pores of the skin expand and permit the fluids to make their exit: now, if the horse is put into a cold stable, evaporation commences, leaving the surface cold and the pores constricted, so that, after the circulating system has rested a while, it commences a strong action again, to throw off the remaining fluids that were thus suddenly arrested; there is no chance for their escape, as the pores are closed; the skin then becomes dry and harsh, the "coat stares," and the animal has, in common parlance, taken cold, and "it has thrown him into a fever." Now, the cold is the real enemy to be overcome, and the fever should be aided by warmth, moisture, friction, and diffusables. If, at this stage, the cold is removed, the fever will disappear; but if the disease (the cold) has been allowed to advance until a general derangement or sympathetic action is set up, and there is an accumulation of morbific matter in the system, then the restorative process must be more powerful and energetic; constantly bearing in mind that we must assist nature in her endeavors to throw off whatever is the cause of her infirmities. Instead of attacking the disease with the lancet and poison,--which is on the principle of killing the horse to cure the fever,--we should use remedies that are favorable to life. It matters not what organs are affected; the means and processes are the same, and therefore the division of inflammation and fever into a great number of parts designated by as many names, and indicated by twenty times as many complications of symptoms which may never be present, only serve to bewilder the practitioner, and render his practice ineffectual. PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. As very little is, at present, known of the nature of this disease, we give the reader the views of Mr. Dun, who received the gold medal offered by the Agricultural Society for the best essay on this subject. "The causes of the disease, both immediate and remote, are subjects full of interest and importance; and a knowledge of them not only aids in the prevention of disease, but also leads the practitioner to form a more correct prognosis, and to pursue the most approved course of treatment. It is, however, unfortunate that the causes of pleuro-pneumonia have not as yet been satisfactorily explained. No department of the history of the disease is less understood, or more involved in doubt and obscurity. But in this respect pleuro-pneumonia is not peculiar: it is but one of an extensive class which embraces most epidemic and epizoötic diseases. And if the causes which produce influenza, fevers, and cholera, were clearly explained, those which produce pleuro-pneumonia would, in all probability, be easy of solution. "Viewing the wide-spread and similar effects of pleuro-pneumonia, we may surmise that they are referable to some common cause. And although much difference of opinion exists upon this subject, it cannot be denied that _contagion_ is a most active cause in the diffusion of the disease. Indeed, a due consideration of the history and spread of pleuro-pneumonia over all parts of the land will be sufficient to show that, in certain stages of the disease, it possesses the power of infecting animals apparently in a sound and healthy condition, and otherwise unexposed to the action of any exciting cause. The peculiarity of the progress of this disease, from the time that it first appeared in England, is of itself no small evidence of its contagious nature. Its slow and gradual progress is eminently characteristic of diffusion by contagion; and not only were the earlier cases which occurred in this island distinctly proved to have arisen from contact with the Irish droves, but also subsequent cases, even up to the present day, show numerous examples in which contagion is clearly and unequivocally traceable.... Although pleuro-pneumonia is not produced by the action of anyone of these circumstances alone, [referring to noxious effluvia, &c.,] yet many of them must be considered as predisposing to the disease; and although not its immediate exciting causes, yet, by depressing the physical powers, they render the system more liable to disease, and less able to withstand its assaults. Deficient ventilation, filth, insufficient and bad food, may indeed predispose to the disease, concentrate the animal effluvia, and become the _matrix_ and _nidus_ of the organic poison; but still, not one, alone, of these circumstances, or even all of them combined, can produce the disease in question. There must be the subtle poison to call them into operation, the specific influence to generate the disease." "On the other hand, it appears probable that the exciting cause, whether it be contagion, or whatever else, cannot, of itself, generate the disease; but that certain conditions or predisposing causes are necessary to its existence, and without which its specific effects cannot be produced. But although these _remote_ or _predisposing_ causes are very numerous, they are often difficult of detection; nay, it is sometimes impossible to tell to what the disease is referable, or upon what weak point the exciting cause has fixed itself. A source of perplexity results from the fact.... The predisposing causes of the disease admit of many divisions and subdivisions; they may, however, be considered under two general heads--_hereditary_ and _acquired_. "With reference to the former, we know that good points and properties of an animal are transmitted from one generation to another; so also are faults, and the tendencies to particular diseases. As in the same families there is a similarity of external form, so is there also an internal likeness, which accounts for the common nature of their constitution, modified, however, by difference of age, sex, &c. "Among the acquired predisposing causes of pleuro-pneumonia may be enumerated general debility, local weakness, resulting from previous disease, irritants and stimulants, exposure to cold, damp or sudden changes of temperature, the want of cleanliness, the breathing of an atmosphere vitiated by the decomposition of animal or vegetable matters, or laden with any other impurity. In short, under this head may be included every thing which tends to lower the health and vigor of the system, and consequently to increase the susceptibility to disease. "The primary symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia are generally obscure, and too often excite but little attention or anxiety. As the disease steals on, the animal becomes dull and dejected, and, if in the field, separates itself from its fellows. It becomes uneasy, ceases to ruminate, and the respirations are a little hurried. If it be a milk-cow, the lacteal secretion is diminished, and the udder is hot and tender. The eyes are dull, the head is lowered, nose protruded, and the nostrils expanded. The urine generally becomes scanty and high-colored. It is seldom thought that much is the matter with the animal until it ceases to eat; but this criterion does not hold good in most cases of the disease, for the animal at the outset still takes its food, and continues to do so until the blood becomes impoverished and poisoned; it is then that the system becomes deranged, the digestive process impaired, and fever established. The skin adheres to the ribs, and there is tenderness along the spine. Manipulation of the trachea, and percussion applied to the sides, causes the animal to evince pain. Although the beast may have been ill only three days, the number of pulsations are generally about seventy per minute; but they are sometimes eighty, and even more. In the first stage, the artery under the jaw feels full and large; but as the disease runs on, the pulse rapidly becomes smaller, quicker, and more oppressed. The breathing is labored, and goes on accelerating as the local inflammation increases. The fore extremities are planted wide apart, with the elbows turned out in order to arch the ribs, and form fixed points for the action of those muscles which the animal brings into operation to assist the respiratory process. In pleuro-pneumonia, the hot stage of fever is never of long duration, [_simply because there is not enough vitality in the system to keep up a continued fever_.] The state of collapse quickly ensues, when the surface heat again decreases, and the pulse becomes small and less distinct. We have now that low typhoid fever so much to be dreaded, and which characterizes the disease in common with epizoötics. "... The horse laboring under pleuro-pneumonia, or, indeed, any pulmonary disease, will not lie down; but, in the same circumstances, cattle do so as readily as in health. They do not, however, lie upon their side, but couch upon the sternum, which is broad and flat, and covered by a quantity of fibro-cellular substance, which serves as a cushion; while the articulation between the lower extremities of the ribs admits of lateral expansion of the chest. In this position cattle generally lie towards the side principally affected, thus relieving the sounder side, and enabling it to act more freely. There is sometimes a shivering and general tremor, which may exist throughout the whole course of the disease. (This is owing to a loss of equilibrium between the nerves of nutrition and the circulation.) ... As the case advances in severity, and runs on to an unfavorable termination, the pulse loses its strength and becomes quicker. Respiration is in most cases attended by a grunt at the commencement of expiration--a symptom, however, not observable in the horse. The expired air is cold, and of a _noisome_ odor. The animal crouches. There is sometimes an apparent knuckling over at the fetlocks, caused by pain in the joints. This symptom is mostly observable in cases when the pleura and pericardium are affected. The animal grinds its teeth. The appetite has now entirely failed, and the emaciation becomes extreme. The muscles, especially those employed in respiration, become wasted; the belly is tucked, and the flanks heave; the oppressive uneasiness is excessive; the strength fails, under the convulsive efforts attendant upon respiration, and the poor animal dies. "In using means to prevent the occurrence of the disease, we should endeavor to maintain in a sound and healthy tone the physical powers of the stock, and to avoid whatever tends to depress the vital force. Exposure to the influence of contagion [and infection] must be guarded against, and, on the appearance of the disease, every precaution must be used to prevent the healthy having communication with the sick. By a steady pursuance, on the part of the stock proprietor, of these precautionary measures, and by the exercise of care, prudence, and attention, the virulence of the disease will, we are sure, be much abated, and its progress checked." As the reader could not be benefited by our detailing the system of medication pursued in England,--at least we should judge not, when we take into consideration the great loss that attends their _best efforts_,--we shall therefore proceed to inform the reader what the treatment ought to be in the different stages of the disease. _General Indication of Cure in Pleuro-Pneumonia._--Restore the suppressed evacuations, or the secretions and excretions, if they are obstructed. If bronchial irritation or a cough be present, shield and defend the mucous surfaces from irritation. Relieve congestions by equalizing the circulation. Support the powers of the system. Relieve all urgent symptoms. * * * * * _Special Practice._--Suppose a cow to be attacked with a slight cough. She appears dull, and is off her feed; pulse full, and bowels constipated; and she is evidently out of condition. Then the medicines should be anti-spasmodic and relaxant, tonic, diaphoretic, and lubricating. The following is a good example:-- Powdered golden seal, (tonic,) 1 table-spoonful. " mandrake, (relaxant,) 2 tea-spoonfuls. " lobelia, (anti-spasmodic,) 1 tea-spoonful. " slippery elm or mallows, (lubricating,) 1 table-spoonful. " hyssop tea, (diaphoretic,) 1 gallon. After straining the hyssop tea, mix with it the other ingredients, and give a quart every two hours. In the mean time, administer the following injection:-- Powdered lobelia, } of each, half a " ginger, } table-spoonful. Boiling water, 1 gallon. When cool, inject. Particular attention must be paid to the general surface, If the surface and the extremities are cold, then employ friction, warmth, and moisture. The animal must be in a comfortable barn, neither too hot nor too cold; if it be imperfectly ventilated, the atmosphere may be improved by stirring a red-hot iron in vinegar or pyroligneous acid, or by pouring either of these articles on heated bricks. The strength is to be supported, provided the animal be in poor condition, with gruel, made of flour and shorts, equal parts; but, as it frequently happens (in this country) that animals in good flesh are attacked, in such case food would be inadmissible. Suppose the animal to have been at pasture, and she is not observed to be "ailing" until rumination is suspended. She then droops her head, and has a cough, accompanied with difficult breathing, weakness in the legs, and sore throat. Then, in addition to warmth, moisture, and friction, as already directed, apply to the joints and throat the following: Boiling vinegar, 1 quart. African cayenne, 1 table-spoonful. The throat being sore, the part should be rubbed gently. The joints may be rubbed with energy for several minutes. The liquid must not be applied too hot. Take Virginia snakeroot, } of each, 2 ounces. Sage, } Skullcap, (herb,) 1 ounce. Pleurisy root, 1 ounce. Infuse in boiling water, 1 gallon. After standing for the space of one hour, strain; then add a gill of honey and an ounce of powdered licorice or slippery elm. Give a quart every four hours. Should the cough be troublesome, give Balsam copaiba, 1 table-spoonful. Sirup of garlic, 1 ounce. Thin gruel, 1 quart. Give the whole at a dose, and repeat as occasion may require. A second dose, however, should not be given until twelve hours have elapsed. Injections must not be overlooked, for several important indications can be fulfilled by them. (For the different forms, see APPENDIX.) If the disease has assumed a typhus form, then the indications will be,-- First. To equalize the circulation and nervous system, and maintain that equilibrium. This is done by giving the following:-- Powdered African cayenne, 1 tea-spoonful. " flagroot, 1 table-spoonful. Skullcap, 1/2 ounce. Marshmallows, 4 ounces. Put the whole of the ingredients into a gallon of water; boil for five minutes; and, when cool, strain; sweeten with a small quantity of honey; then give a quart every two hours. The next indication is, to counteract the tendency to putrescence. This may be done by causing the animal to inhale the fumes of pyroligneous acid, and by the internal use of bayberry bark. They are both termed antiseptics. The usual method of generating vapor for inhalation is, by first covering the animal's head with a horse-cloth, the corners of which are suffered to fall below the animal's nose, and held by assistants in such a manner as to prevent, as much as possible, the escape of the vapor. A hot brick is then to be grasped in a pair of tongs, and held about a foot beneath the nose. An assistant then pours the acid, (_very gradually_,) on the brick. Half a pint of acid will be sufficient for one steaming, provided it be used with discretion; for if too much is poured on the brick at once, the temperature will be too rapidly lowered. In reference to the internal use of bayberry, it may be well to remark, that it is a powerful astringent and antiseptic, and should always be combined with relaxing, lubricating medicines. Such are licorice and slippery elm. The following may be given as a safe and efficient antiseptic drink:-- Powdered bayberry bark, half a table-spoonful. " charcoal, 1 table-spoonful. Slippery elm, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 1 gallon. Mix. Give a quart every two hours. The diet should consist of flour gruel and boiled carrots. Boiled carrots may be allowed (provided the animal will eat them) during the whole stage of the malady. The object of these examples of special practice is to direct the mind of the farmer at once to something that will answer a given purpose, without presuming to say that it is the best in the world for that purpose. The reader will find in our _materia medica_ a number of articles that will fulfil the same indications just as well. LOCKED-JAW. Mr. Youatt says, "Working cattle are most subject to locked-jaw, because they may be pricked in shoeing; and because, after a hard day's work, and covered with perspiration, they are sometimes turned out to graze during a wet or cold night. Over-driving is not an uncommon cause of locked-jaw in cattle. The drovers, from long experience, calculate the average mortality among a drove of cattle in their journey from the north to the southern markets; and at the head of the list of diseases, and with the greatest number of victims, stands 'locked-jaw,' especially if the principal drover is long absent from his charge." The treatment of locked-jaw, both in horses and cattle, has, hitherto, been notoriously unsuccessful. This is not to be wondered at when we take into consideration the destructive character of the treatment. "Take," says Mr. Youatt, "twenty-four pounds of blood from the animal; or bleed him almost to fainting.... Give him Epsom salts in pound and a half doses (!) until it operates. Purging being established, an attempt must be made to allay the irritation of the nervous system by means of sedatives; and the best drug is opium.[8] The dose should be a drachm three times a day. [One fortieth part of the quantity here recommended to be given in one day would kill a strong man who was not addicted to its use.] At the same time, the action of the bowels must be kept up by Epsom salts, or common salt, or sulphur, and the proportion of the purgative and the sedative must be so managed, that the constitution shall be under the influence of both.[9] A seton of black hellebore root may be of service. It frequently produces a great deal of swelling and inflammation.[10] ... If the disease terminates successfully, the beast will be left sadly out of condition, and he will not thrive very rapidly. He must, however, be got into fair plight, as prudence will allow, and then sold; for he will rarely stand much work afterwards, or carry any great quantity of flesh." The same happens to us poor mortals when we have been dosed _secundum artem_. We resemble walking skeletons. Our own opinion of the disease is, that it is one of nervous origin, and that the tonic spasm, always present in the muscles of voluntary motion, is only symptomatic of derangement in the great, living electro-galvanic battery, (the brain and spinal cord,) or in some of its wires (nerves) of communication. Mr. Percival says, "Tetanus consists, in a spasmodic contraction, more or less general, of the muscles of voluntary motion, and especially of those that move the lower jaw; hence the vulgar name of it, _locked-jaw_, and the technical one of _trismus_." In order to make ourselves clearly understood, and furnish the reader with proper materials for him to prosecute his inquiries with success, a few remarks on the origin of muscular motion seem to be absolutely necessary. It is generally understood by medical men, and taught in the schools, that there are in the animal economy four distinct systems of nerves. 1st system. This consists of the sensitive nerves, which are distributed to all parts of the animal economy endowed with feeling; and all external impulses are reflected to the medulla oblongata, &c. (See _Dadd's work on the Horse_, p. 127.) In short, these nerves are the media through which the animal gets all his knowledge of external relations. 2d system. The motive. These proceed from nearly the same centre of perception, and distribute themselves to all the muscles of voluntary motion. It is evident that the muscle itself cannot perform its office without the aid of the nerves, (electric wires;) for it has been proved by experiment on the living animal, that when the posterior columns of nervous matter, which pass down from the brain towards the tail, are severed, then all voluntary motion ceases. Motion may, however, continue; but it can only be compared to a ship at sea without a rudder, having nothing to direct its course. It follows, then, that if the nerves of motion and sensation are severed, there is no communication between the parts to which they are distributed and the brain. And the part, if its nutritive function be also paralyzed, will finally become as insensible as a stone--wither and die. 3d system. The respiratory. These are under the control of the will only through the superior power, as manifested by the motive nerves. For the animal will breathe whether it wishes to or not, as long as the vital spark burns. 4th system. The sympathetic, sometimes called _nutritive nerves_. They are distributed to all the organs of digestion, absorption, circulation, and secretion. These four nervous structures, or systems, must all be in a physiological state, in order to carry on, with unerring certainty, their different functions. If they are injured or diseased, then the perceptions of external relations are but imperfectly conveyed to the mind. (_Brutes have a mind._) On the other hand, if the brain, or its appendages, spinal marrow, &c., be in a pathological state, then the manifestations of _mind_ or _will_ are but imperfectly represented. Now, it is evident to every reasonable man, that the nerves may become diseased from various causes; and this explains the reason why locked-jaw sometimes sets in without any apparent cause. The medical world have then agreed to call it _idiopathic_. This term only serves to bewilder us, and fails to throw the least light on the nature of the malady, or its causes. Many men ridicule the idea of the nerves being diseased, just because alterations in their structure are not evident to the senses. We cannot see the atoms of water, nor even the myriads of living beings abounding in single drop of water! yet no one doubts that water contains many substances imperceptible to the naked eye. We know that epizoötic diseases are wafted, by the winds, from one part of the world to another; yet none of us have ever seen the specific virus. Can any man doubt its existence? Hence it appears that diseases may exist in delicately-organized filaments, without the cognizance of our external perceptions. It is further manifest that locked-jaw is only symptomatic of diseased nervous structures, and that a pathological state of the nervous filaments may be brought about independent of a prick of a nail, or direct injury to a nerve. Hence, instead of tetanus consisting "in a spasmodic contraction of the muscles of voluntary motion," it consists in a deranged state of the nervous system; and the contracted state of the muscles is only symptomatic of such derangement. Then what sense is there in blistering, bleeding, and inserting setons in the dewlap? Of what use is it to treat symptoms? Suppose a man to be attacked with hepatitis, (inflammation of the liver:) he has a pain in the right shoulder. Suppose the physician prescribes a plaster for the latter, without ascertaining the real cause, or perhaps not knowing of its existence. We should then say that the doctor only treated symptoms. "And he who treats symptoms never cures disease." Suppose locked-jaw to have supervened from an attack of acute indigestion: would it not be more rational to restore the lost function? Suppose locked-jaw to have set in from irritating causes, such as bots in the stomach, worms in the intestines, &c.: would bleeding remove them? would it not render the system less capable of recovering its physiological equilibrium, and resisting the irritation produced by these animals on the delicate nervous tissues? Suppose, as Mr. Youatt says, that locked-jaw sets in "after turning the animal out to graze during a cold night:" will a blister to the spine, or a seton in the dewlap, restore the lost function of the skin? In short, would it not be more rational, in cases of locked-jaw, to endeavor to restore the healthy action of all the functions, instead of depressing them with the agents referred to? Then the question arises, What are the indications to be fulfilled? _First._ Restore the lost function. _Secondly._ Equalize the circulation, and maintain an equilibrium between nervous and arterial action. _Thirdly._ Support the powers of life. _Fourthly._ If locked-jaw arise from a wound, then apply suitable remedial agents to the part, and rescue the nervous system from a pathological state. To fulfil the fourth indication, we commence the treatment as follows:-- Suppose the foot to have been pricked or wounded. We make an examination of the part, and remove all extraneous matter. The following poultice must then be applied: Powdered skunk cabbage, } " lobelia, } equal parts. " poplar bark, } Indian meal, 1 pint. Make it of the proper consistence with boiling water. When sufficiently cool, put it into a flannel bag, and secure it above the pastern. To be renewed every twelve hours. After the second application, examine the foot, and if suppuration has commenced, and matter can be felt, or seen, a small puncture may be made, taking care not to let the knife penetrate beyond the bony part of the hoof. In the mean time, prepare the following drink:-- Indian hemp or milkweed, (herb,) 1 ounce. Powdered mandrake, 1 table-spoonful. Powdered lobelia seeds, 1 tea-spoonful. " poplar bark, (very fine,) 1 ounce. Make a tea, in the usual manner--about one gallon. After straining it through a cloth, add the other ingredients, and give a quart every two hours. A long-necked bottle is the most suitable vehicle in which to administer; but it must be poured down in the most gradual manner. The head should not be elevated too high. A liberal allowance of camomile tea may be resorted to, during the whole stage of the disease. Next stimulate the external surface, by warmth and moisture, in the following manner: Take about two quarts of vinegar, into which stir a handful of lobelia; have a hot brick ready, (_the animal having a large cloth, or blanket, thrown around him_;) pour the mixture gradually on the brick, which is held over a bucket to prevent waste; the steam arising will relax the surface. After repeating the operation, apply the following mixture around the jaws, back, and extremities: take of cayenne, skunk cabbage, and cypripedium, (lady's slipper,) powdered, each two ounces, boiling vinegar two quarts; stir the mixture until sufficiently cool, rub it well in with a coarse sponge; this will relax the jaws a trifle, so that the animal can manage to suck up thin gruel, which may be given warm, in any quantity. This process must be persevered in; although it may not succeed in every case, yet it will be more satisfactory than the blood-letting and poisoning system. No medicine is necessary; the gruel will soften the fæces sufficiently; if the rectum is loaded with fæces, give injections of an infusion of lobelia. FOOTNOTES: [8] This is a narcotic vegetable poison; and although large quantities have been occasionally given to the horse without apparent injury, experience teaches us that poisons in general--notwithstanding the various modes of their action, and the difference in their symptoms--all agree in the abstraction of vitality from the system. Dr. Eberle says, "Opiates never fail to operate perniciously on the whole organization." Dr. Gallup says, "The practice of using opiates to mitigate pain is greatly to be deprecated. It is probable that opium and its preparations have done seven times the injury that they have rendered benefit on the great scale of the civilized world. Opium is the most destructive of all narcotics." [9] This is a perfect seesaw between efforts to kill and efforts to cure. [10] Then it ought not to be used. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES. INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH, (GASTRITIS.) Such a complicated piece of mechanism is the stomach of the ox, that organ is particularly liable to disease. Inflammation, being the same as local fever, (or a high grade of vital power, concentrated within a small space,) may be produced by over-feeding, irritating and indigestible food, or acrid, poisonous, and offensive medicines. The farmer must remember that a small quantity of good, nutritious food, capable of being easily penetrated by the gastric fluids, will repair the waste that is going on, and improve the condition with more certainty than an abundance of indifferent provender. _Cure._--The first indication will be to allay the irritability of the stomach; this will moderate the irritation and lessen the fever. Make a mucilaginous drink of slippery elm, or marshmallows, and give half a pint every two hours. All irritating food and drink must be carefully avoided, and the animal must be kept quiet; all irritating cordials, "including the popular remedy, gin and molasses," must be avoided. These never fail to increase the malady, and may occasion death. If there is an improper accumulation of food in the viscera, the remedies will be, relaxing clysters, abstinence from food, and a tea of sassafras and mandrake, made thus:-- Sassafras, (_laurus sassafras_,) 1 ounce. Mandrake, (_podophyllum peltatum_,) 4 drachms. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Let the mixture stand until quite cool, and give a pint every four hours. Almost all animals, when suffering under acute symptoms, require diluting, cooling drinks. This at once points out the use of water, or any weak gruel of which water is the basis; the necessity of diluting liquors is pointed out by the heat and dryness of the mouth, and rigidity of the coat. When the thirst is great, the following forms a grateful and cooling beverage: Take lemon balm, (_melissa officinalis_,) two ounces; boiling water, two quarts; when cool, strain, and add half a tea-spoonful of cream of tartar. Give half a pint at intervals of two hours. If the stomach continues to exhibit a morbid state, which may be known by a profuse discharge of saliva from the mouth, then administer camomile tea in small quantities: the addition of a little powdered charcoal will prove beneficial. _Remarks._--Gastritis cannot be long present without other parts of the system sharing the disturbance: it is then termed gastric fever. This fever is the result of the local affection. Our object is, to get rid of the local affection, and the fever will subside. Authors have invariably recommended destructive remedies for the cure of gastritis; but they generally fail of hitting the mark, and always do more or less injury. A light diet, rest, a clean bed of straw in a well-ventilated barn, will generally perfect the cure. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS, (PNEUMONIA.) _Causes._--Errors in feeding, over-exertion, exposure in wet pastures, or suffering the animal, when in a state of perspiration, to partake too bountifully of cold water, are among the direct causes of a derangement of vital equilibrium. Want of pure air for the purpose of vitalizing the blood, the inhalation of noxious gases, and filth and uncleanliness, may produce this disease in its worst form; yet it must be borne in mind that the same exciting causes will not develop the same form of disease in all animals. It altogether depends on the amount of vital resistance, or what is termed the peculiar idiosyncrasy of the animal. On the other hand, several animals often suffer from the same form of disease, from causes varying in their general character. Hence the reader will see that it would be needless, in fact impossible, to point to the direct cause in each grade of disease. The least obstruction to universal vital action will produce pneumonia in some animals, while in others it may result in disease of the bowels. _Cure._--No special treatment can be successfully pursued in pneumonia; for the lungs are not the only organs involved: no change of condition can occur in the animal functions without the nervous system being more or less deranged; for the latter is essential to all vital motions. Hence disease, in every form, should be treated according to its indications. A few general directions may, however, be found useful. The first indication to be fulfilled is to equalize the blood. Flannels saturated with warm vinegar should be applied to the extremities; they may be folded round the legs, and renewed as often as they grow cold. Poultices of slippery elm, applied to the feet, as hot as the animal can bear them, have sometimes produced a better result than vinegar. If the animal has shivering fits, and the whole surface is chilled, apply warmth and moisture as recommended in article "_Locked-Jaw_." At the same time, endeavor to promote the insensible perspiration by the internal use of diaphoretics--_lobelia or thoroughwort tea_. A very good diaphoretic and anti-spasmodic drink may be made thus:-- Lobelia, (herb) 2 ounces. Spearmint, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Let the above stand for a few minutes; strain, then add two table-spoonfuls of honey. Give half a pint every hour, taking care to pour it down the oesophagus very gently, so as to insure its reaching the fourth or true digestive stomach. The following clyster must be given:-- Powdered lobelia, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 3 quarts. When sufficiently cool, inject with a common metal syringe. These processes should be repeated as the symptoms require, until the animal gives evidence of relief; when a light diet of thin gruel will perfect the cure. It must ever be borne in mind that in the treatment of all forms of disease--those of the _lungs more especially_--the animal must have pure, uncontaminated atmospheric air, and that any departure from purity in the air which the animal respires, will counteract all our efforts to cure. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS, (ENTERITIS,--INFLAMMATION OF THE FIBRO-MUSCULAR COAT OF THE INTESTINES.) _Character._--Acute pain; the animal appears restless, and frequently turns his head towards the belly; moans, and appears dull; frequent small, hard pulse; cold feet and ears. _Causes._--Plethora, costiveness, or the sudden application of cold either internally or externally, overworking, &c. _Cure._--In the early stages of the disease, all forms of medication that are in any way calculated to arouse the peristaltic motion of the intestines should be avoided; hence purges are certain destruction. Relax the muscular structure by the application of a blanket or horse-cloth wrung out in hot water. In this disease, it is generally sufficient to apply warmth and moisture as near the parts affected as possible; yet if the ears and legs are cold, the general application of warmth and moisture will more speedily accomplish the relaxation of the whole animal. After the application of the above, injections of a mild, soothing character (slippery elm, or flaxseed tea) should be used very liberally. A drink of any mucilaginous, lubricating, and innocent substance may be given, such as mallows, linseed, Iceland moss, slippery elm. During convalescence, the diet must be light and of an unirritating character, such as boiled carrots, scalded meal, &c. INFLAMMATION OF TILE PERITONEAL COAT OF THE INTESTINES, (PERITONITIS.) This disease requires the same treatment as the latter malady. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, (NEPHRITIS.) The usual symptoms are a quick pulse; loss of appetite; high-colored urine, passed in small quantities, with difficulty and pain. Pressure on the loins gives pain, and the animal will shrink on placing the hand over the region of the kidneys. _Causes._--Cold, external injury, or injury from irritating substances, that are often sent full tilt through the kidneys, as spirits of turpentine, gin and molasses, saleratus. It is unnecessary to detail all the causes of the disease: suffice it to say, that they exist in any thing that can for a time obstruct the free and full play of the different functions. _Treatment._--This, too, will consist in the invitation of the blood to the surface and extremities, and by removing all irritating matter from the system, _in the same manner as for inflammation of the bowels_. The application of a poultice of ground hemlock, or a charge of gum hemlock, will generally be found useful. The best drinks--and these should only be allowed in small quantities--are gum arabic and marshmallow decoctions. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER, (CYSTITIS.) During the latter months of pregnancy, the bladder is often in an irritable state, and a frequent desire to void the urine is observed, which frequently results from constipation. A peculiar sympathy exists between the bladder and rectum; and when constipation is present, there is a constant effort on the part of the animal to void the excrement. This expulsive action also affects the bladder: hence the frequent efforts to urinate. The irritable state of the bladder is caused by the pressure of the loaded rectum on the neck of the former. The common soap-suds make a good injection, and will quickly soften the hardened excrement; after which the following clyster may be used:-- Linseed tea, 3 quarts. Cream of tartar, 1 ounce. After throwing into the rectum about one third of the above, press the tail on the anus. The object is, to make it act as a fomentation in the immediate vicinity of the parts. After the inflammation shall have subsided, administer the following in a bottle, or horn:-- Powdered blackroot, (_leptandra virginica_,) half an ounce. Warm water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose, if the symptoms are not relieved. INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. This may be treated in the same manner as the last-named disease. The malady may be recognized by lassitude, loss of appetite, diminution in the quantity, and deterioration in the quality, of the milk. As the disease advances, there is often a fetid discharge from the parts; a constant straining, which is attended with a frequent flow of urine. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN, (PHRENITIS.) In this disease, the pia mater, arachnoid membrane, or the brain itself, may be inflamed. It matters very little which of the above are deranged, for the means of cure are the same. We have no method of making direct application to either of the above, as they all lie within the cranium. Neither can we act upon them medicinally except through the organs of secretion, absorption, and circulation. Post mortem examinations reveal to us evident marks of high inflammatory action, both in the substance of the brain and in its membranes; and an effusion of blood, serum, or of purulent matter, has been found in the ventricles of the brain. _Treatment._--The indications are, to equalize the circulation by warmth and moisture externally, and maintain the action to the surface by rubbing the legs with the following counter-irritant:-- Vinegar, 1 quart. Common salt, 2 ounces. Set the mixture on the fire, (_in an earthen vessel_,) and allow it to simmer for a few moments; then apply it to the legs. After the circulation is somewhat equalized, give the following drench:-- Extract of butternut, half an ounce. Tea of hyssop, 1 pint. A stimulating clyster may then be given, composed of warm water, into which a few grains of powdered capsicum may be sprinkled. If due attention be paid to counter-irritation, and the head kept cool by wet cloths, the chances of recovery are pretty certain. INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. This disease is too well known to require any description; we shall therefore, at once, proceed to point out the ways and means for its cure. _Treatment._--First wash the eyes with a weak decoction of camomile flowers until they are well cleansed; then give a cooling drink, composed of Cream of tartar, 1 ounce. Decoction of lemon balm, 1 quart. Repeat this drink every six hours, until the bowels am moved. Should the disease occur where these articles cannot be procured, give two ounces of common salt in a pint of water. Should the eye still continue red and swollen, give a dose of physic. (See _Physic for Cattle_.) If a film can be observed, wash with a decoction of powdered bloodroot; and if a weeping remain, use the following astringent:-- Powdered bayberry bark, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 1 pint. When cool, pour off the clear liquor. It is then fit for use. Inflammation of the eye may assume different forms, but the above treatment, combined with attention to rest, ventilation, a dark location, and a light diet, will cover the whole ground. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER, (HEPATITIS.) Cattle very frequently show signs of diseased liver. Stall-fed oxen and cows kept in cities are most liable to derangement of the liver; in such animals, (after death,) there is an unusual yellowness of the fat. A disease of the liver may exist for a long time without interfering much with the general health. Mr. Youatt informs us that "a chronic form of diseased liver may exist for some months, or years, not characterized by any decided symptom, and but little interfering with health." _Symptoms._--Permanent yellowness of the eyes; quick pulse; dry muzzle; hot mouth; considerable pain when pressure is made on the right side. Occasionally the animal looks round and licks the spot over the region of the liver. _Treatment._--First give half pint doses of thoroughwort tea, at intervals of one hour, (_to the amount of two quarts_.) This will relax the system, and equalize vital action. The following drench is then to be given:-- Extract of butternut, half an ounce. Warm water, 1 quart. If the butternut cannot be obtained, substitute a dose of physic. (See APPENDIX.) Stimulate the bowels to action by injections of soap-suds. If the extremities are cold, proceed to warm them in the manner alluded to in article _Inflammation of the Bowels_. On the other hand, if the surface of the body is hot and dry, and there is much fever present, indicated by a quick pulse and dry muzzle, then bathe the whole surface with weak saleratus water, sufficiently warm to relax the external surface. The following fever drink may be given daily until rumination again commences:-- Lemon balm, 2 ounces. Cream of tartar, 1 ounce. Honey, 1 gill. Water, 2 quarts. First pour the boiling water on the balm; after standing a few minutes, strain; then add the above ingredients. JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS. THIS disease is well known to every farmer; the yellow appearance of the skin, mouth, eyes, and saliva at once betray its presence. It consists in the absorption of unchanged bile into the circulation, which bile becomes diffused, giving rise to the yellow appearances. In the treatment of jaundice, we first give a dose of physic, (see APPENDIX,) and assist its operation by injections of weak lie, made from wood ashes. The animal may roam about in the barn-yard, if the weather will permit; or rub the external surface briskly with a wisp or brush, which will answer the same purpose. The following may be given in one dose, and repeated every day, or every other day, as the symptoms may require:-- Powdered golden seal,(_hydrastus canadensis_), 1 table-spoonful. " slippery elm, 2 ounces. Water sufficient to make it of the consistence of gruel. Should a diarrhoea set in, it ought not to occasion alarm, but may be considered as an effort of nature to rid the system of morbific matter. It will be prudent, however, to watch the animal, and if the strength and condition fail, then add to the last prescription a small quantity of powdered gentian and caraway seeds. There are various forms of disease in the liver, yet the treatment will not differ much from that of the last-named disease. There is no such thing as a medicine for a particular symptom, in one form of disease, that is not equally good for the same symptom in every form. In short, there is no such thing as a specific. Any medicine that will promote the healthy action of the liver in one form of jaundice will be equally good for the same purpose in another form of that disease. Mr. Youatt states, "There are few diseases to which cattle are so frequently subject, or which are so difficult to treat, as jaundice, or yellows." Hence it is important that the farmer should know how and in what manner the disease may be prevented. And he will succeed best who understands the causes, which often exist in overworking the stomach, with a desire to fatten. Men who raise cattle for the market often attempt to get them in fine condition and flesh, without any regard to the state of the digestive organs, the liver included; for the bile which the latter secretes is absolutely necessary for the perfection of the digestive process. They do not take into consideration the state of the animals' health, the climate, the quality of food, and the quantity best adapted to the digestive powers; and what is of still greater importance, and too often overlooked, is, that all animals should be fed at regular intervals. Some men suppose that so long as their cattle shall have good food, without any regard to quantity,--if they eat all day long, and cram their paunch to its utmost capacity,--they must fatten; when, in fact, too much food deranges the whole digestive apparatus. As soon as the paunch and stomach are overloaded, they press on the liver, interfering with the bile-secreting process, producing congestion and disorganization. Diseases of the liver may be produced by any thing that will for a time suspend the process of rumination: the known sympathy that exists between the stomach and liver explains this fact. Digestion, like every other vital process, requires a concentration of power to accomplish it: now, if an ox should have a bountiful meal, and then be driven several miles, the process of digestion, during the journey, will be partly suspended. The act of compelling an ox to rise, or annoying him in any way, will immediately suspend rumination, which may result in an acute disease of the liver. In most cases, however, the stomach is primarily affected. Dealers in cattle often overfeed the animals they are about to dispose of, in order to improve their external appearance, and increase their own profits: the consequence is, that such animals are in a state of plethora, and are liable at any moment to be attacked with congestion of the liver or brain. Again. If oxen are driven a long journey, and then turned into a pasture abounding in highly nutritious grasses or clover, to which they are unaccustomed, they fill the paunch to such an extent that it becomes a matter of impossibility on the part of the animal to throw it up for rumination; this mass of food, being submitted to the combined action of heat and moisture, undergoes fermentation; carbonic acid gas is evolved; the animal is then said to be "blown," "hoven," or "blasted." Post mortem examination, in such cases, reveals a highly-congested state of the liver and spleen. In fattening cattle, the injury done to the organs of digestion is not always observed in the early stages; for the vital power, which wages a warfare against all encroachments, endeavors to accommodate itself to the increased bulk; yet, by continuing to give an excess of diet, it finally yields up the citadel to the insidious foe. Chemical action then overpowers the vital, and disease is the result. Thousands of valuable cattle are yearly destroyed by being too well, or, rather, injudiciously fed. Many diseases of the liver and digestive organs result from feeding on unwholesome, innutritious, and hard, indigestible food. Bad water, and suffering the animal to partake too bountifully of cold water when heated and fatigued, are among the direct causes of disease. DISEASES OF THE MUCOUS SURFACE. The mucous membrane is a duplicature of the skin, and is folded into the external orifices of the animal, as the mouth, ears, nose, lungs, stomach, intestines, and bladder; but not being so much exposed to the action of external agents, it is not so strong or thick as the skin. It performs, however, nearly the same office as the skin. If the action of one is suppressed, the other immediately commences the performance of its office. Thus a common cold, which collapses the skin, immediately stops insensible perspiration, which recedes to the mucous membrane, producing a discharge from the nose, eyes, bowels, &c. So, when great derangement of the mucous membrane exists, debilitating perspiration succeeds. In the treatment of diseases of the mucous membrane, we endeavor to remove the irritating causes from the organs affected, restore the general tone of the system, and invite action to the external surface. CATARRH, OR HOOSE. This disease often arises from exposure to wet or cold weather, and from the food being of a bad quality, or deficient in quantity. If the animal is enfeebled by poor feed, old age, or any other cause, then there is very little resistance offered against the encroachments of disease: hence young beasts and cows after calving are often the victims. _Treatment._--It is necessary to attend to this disorder as soon as it makes its appearance; for a common cold, neglected, often lays the foundation of consumption. On the other hand, a little attention in the early stages, and before sympathetic action sets in, would set all right. The first indication to be fulfilled is to invite action to the surface by friction and counter-irritants. The following liniment may be applied to the feet and throat:-- Olive oil, 4 ounces. Oil of cedar, 1 ounce. Liquid ammonia, half an ounce. Rub the mixture in well; then give Gruel, 1 quart. Powdered licorice, 1 ounce. Composition, half a tea-spoonful. Give this at a dose, and repeat two or three times during the twenty-four hours. A drink of any warm aromatic tea, _such as pennyroyal, hyssop, catnip or aniseed will have a good effect_. The diet should consist of scalded meal, boiled carrots, flaxseed, or any substance that is light and easy of digestion. Should the discharge increase and the eyelids swell, recourse must be had to vapor, which may be raised by pouring vinegar on a hot brick; the latter held, with a pair of tongs, beneath the animal's nose, at the same time covering the head with a blanket. A small quantity of bayberry bark may occasionally be blown up the nostrils from a quill. It is very important, during the treatment, that the animal be in a warm situation, with a good bed of straw to rest on. If the glands under the jaw enlarge, the following mixture should be rubbed about the throat:-- Neat's foot oil, 4 ounces. Hot drops, 2 ounces. Vinegar, 1 gill. If the disease assumes a chronic form, and the animal is evidently losing flesh, then give the following:-- Golden seal, powdered, 1 table-spoonful. Caraway seeds, " 1 " Divide into three parts; which may be given daily, (in thin gruel,) until the animal is convalescent. EPIDEMIC CATARRH. This often prevails at particular seasons, and spreads over whole districts, sometimes destroying a great number of cattle. It is a disorder whose intensity varies considerably, being sometimes attended with a high grade of fever, at other times quickly followed by general debility. _Treatment._--This requires the same treatment as the last-named disease, but only more thoroughly and perseveringly applied; for every portion of the system seems to be affected, either through sympathetic action or from the absorption of morbid matter. Hence we must aid the vital power to maintain her empire and resist the encroachments on her sanative operations by the use of antiseptics and stimulants. The following is a good example:-- Powdered charcoal, 1 ounce. " bayberry bark, half an ounce. " pleurisy root, 1 ounce. Honey, 1 table-spoonful. Thin gruel, 1 quart. MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC, (MURRAIN.) This disease has been more or less destructive from the time of Pharaoh up to the present period. For information on the origin, progress, and termination of this malignant distemper, the reader is referred to Mr. Youatt's work on cattle. _Treatment._--The indications to be fulfilled are, first, to preserve the system from putrescence, which can be done by the use of the following drink:-- Powdered capsicum, 1 tea-spoonful. " charcoal, 2 ounces. Lime water, 4 ounces. Sulphur, 1 tea-spoonful. Add to the capsicum, charcoal, and sulphur, a small quantity of gruel; lastly, add the lime water. A second and similar dose may be given six hours after the first, provided, however, the symptoms are not so alarming. The next indication is, to break down the morbid action of the nervous and vascular systems; for which the following may be given freely:-- Thoroughwort tea, 2 quarts. Powdered assafoetida, 2 drachms. Aid the action of these remedies by the use of one of the following injections:-- Powdered lobelia, 2 ounces. Oil of peppermint, 20 drops. Warm water, 2 quarts. _Another._ Infusion of camomile, 2 quarts. Common salt, 4 ounces. In all cases of putrid or malignant fever, efforts should be made to supply the system with caloric, (by the aid of stimulants,) promote the secretions, and rid the system of morbific materials. DIARRHOEA, (LOOSENESS OF THE BOWELS.) In the early stages of this disease, it is not always to be checked. It is often a salutary operation of nature to rid the system of morbific materials, and all that we can do with safety is, to sheathe and lubricate the mucous surfaces, in order to protect them from the acrid and stimulating properties of the agents to be removed from the alimentary canal. When the disease, of which diarrhoea is only a symptom, proceeds from exposure, apply warmth, moisture, friction, and stimulants to the external surface, aided by the following lubricant:-- Powdered slippery elm, 1 ounce. " charcoal, 1 table-spoonful. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Common starch, or flour, may be substituted for slippery elm. The mixture should be given in pint doses, at intervals of two hours. When the fecal discharges appear more natural and less frequent, a tea of raspberry leaves or bayberry bark will complete the cure. When the disease assumes a chronic form, and the animal loses flesh, the following tonic, stimulating, astringent drink is recommended:-- Infusion of camomile, 1 quart. Powdered caraway seeds, 1 ounce. Bayberry, powdered, half an ounce. Mix for one dose. _Remarks._--In the treatment of this disease, it is necessary for the farmer to know, that through the instrumentality of the nervous structure, there is constantly a sympathy kept up between the different parts of the animal; whenever any part is affected, the corresponding part feels the influence. Thus the external surface is opposed to the internal, so that, if the function of the former be diminished, or excessive, or suspended, that of the latter will soon become deranged; and the restoration of the lost function is the only true way to effect a cure. For example, if an animal be suffered to feed in wet lands, the feet and external surface become cold; and hence diarrhoea, catarrh, garget, dysentery, &c. If the circulation of the blood is obstructed by exposure, we should restore the lost function by rubbing the surface, and by the application of warmth and moisture. If the animal is in poor condition, and there is not enough vitality to equalize the circulation, give warm anti-spasmodics. (See APPENDIX.) In cases where diarrhoea results from a want of power in the digestive organs to assimilate the food, the latter acts on the mucous surfaces as a mechanical irritant, producing inflammation, &c. Inflammation is the concentration of the available vital force too much upon a small region of the body, and it is invited there by irritation. Now, instead of the popular error,--bleeding and purging,--the most rational way to proceed is, to remove the cause of irritation, (no matter whether the stomach or bowels are involved,) and invite the blood to the surface by means already alluded to, and distribute it over the general system, so that it will not be in excess any where. There is generally but little difficulty in producing an equilibrium of action; the great point is to sustain it. When the blood accumulates in a part, as in inflammation of the bowels, the sensibility of the part is so highly exalted that the least irritation causes a relapse; therefore the general treatment must not be abandoned too early. DYSENTERY. The disease is generally ushered in with some degree of fever; as, trembling, hot and cold stages, dryness of the mouth, loss of appetite, general prostration, drooping of the head and ears, heaving of the flanks; there are frequent stools, yet these seldom consist of natural excrement, but are of a viscid, mucous character; the animal is evidently in pain during these discharges, and sometimes the fundament appears excoriated. _Causes._--The cause of this complaint appears to be, generally, exposure. Dr. White says, "Almost all the diseases of cattle arise either from exposure to wet or cold weather, from their food being of a bad quality, or deficient in quantity, or from the animal being changed too suddenly from poor, unwholesome keep to rich pasture. It is necessary to observe, also, that the animal is more liable to be injured by exposure to wet and cold, when previously enfeebled by bad keep, old age, or any other cause; and particularly when brought from a mild into a cold situation. I have scarcely met with a disease that is not attributable to a chill." _Treatment._--This must be much the same as in diarrhoea--sheathing the mucous membrane, and inviting action to the surface. The animal must be warmly housed, well littered, and the extremities clothed with flannel bandages. The diet must consist of flour gruel, scalded meal. Raspberry tea will be the most suitable drink. Much can be done by good nursing. Mr. Ellman says, "If any of my cattle get into a low, weak state, I generally recommend nursing, which, in most cases, is much better than a doctor; [meaning some of the poor specimens always to be found in large cities;] having often seen the beast much weakened, and the stomach relaxed, by throwing in a quantity of medicine injudiciously, and the animal lost; when, with good nursing, in all probability, it might have been otherwise." SCOURING ROT. _Cause._--Any thing that can reduce the vital energies. _Symptoms._--A gradual loss of flesh, although the animal often feeds well and ruminates. The excrements are of a dark color, frothy, and fetid, and, in the latter stages, appear to be only half digested. There are many symptoms and different degrees of intensity, during the progress of this disease, indicate the amount of destruction going on; yet the author considers them unimportant in a practical point of view, at least as far as the treatment is concerned; for the disease is so analogous to dysentery, that the same indications are to be fulfilled in both; more care, however, should be taken to prevent and subdue mortification. In addition to the treatment recommended in article _Malignant Epidemic_, the following injection may be substituted for the one prescribed under that head:-- Powdered charcoal, a tea-cupful. Common salt, 2 ounces. Pyroligneous acid,[11] half a wine-glass. Warm water, 2 quarts. Throw one quart of the above into the rectum, and the remainder six hours after the first. FOOTNOTE: [11] Vinegar obtained from wood. DISEASE OF THE EAR Diseases of the ear are very rare in cattle; yet, as simple inflammatory action does now and then occur, it is well that the farmer should be able to recognize and treat it. _Symptoms._--An unnatural heat and tenderness about the base of the ear, and the animal carries the head on one side. _Cure._--Fomentations of marshmallows; a light diet of scalded shorts; an occasional drink of thoroughwort tea. These with a little rest, in a comfortable barn, will perfect the cure. _Remarks._--If any irritating substance is suspected to have fallen into the ear, efforts must be made to remove it: if it cannot be got at, a small quantity of olive oil may be poured into the cavity; then, by rotating the head, with the affected ear downwards, the substances will often pass out. SEROUS MEMBRANES. These membranes derive their name from the serous or watery fluid they secrete, by which their surface is constantly moistened. They are to be found in the three cavities of the chest; namely, one on each side, containing the right and left lung, and the intermediate cavity, occupied by the heart. The portion of the membrane lining the lungs is named the _pleura_, and that lining and covering the heart is called the _pericardium_. The membrane lining the abdomen is named the _peritoneum_. The ventricles of the brain are also lined by this membrane. The serous membranes, after lining their respective cavities, are extended still farther, by being reflected back upon the organs enclosed in their cavities; hence, if it were possible to dissect these membranes from off the parts which they invest, they would have the appearance of a sac without an opening. In the natural state, these membranes are exceedingly thin and transparent; but they become thickened by disease, and lose their transparency. The excessive discharge of fluids into cavities lined by these membranes constitutes the different forms of dropsy, on which we shall now treat. DROPSY. This disease consists in the accumulation of fluid in a cavity of the body, as the abdomen or belly, the chest, and ventricles of the brain, or in the cellular membrane under the skin. As the treatment of the several forms of dropsy requires that the same indications shall be fulfilled,--viz., to equalize the circulation, invite action to the surface, promote absorption, and invigorate the general system,--so it matters but little whether the effusion takes place under the skin, producing anasarca, or within the chest or abdomen. The popular treatment, which comprehends blood-letting, physicking, and the use of powerful diuretics, has proved notoriously unsuccessful. Blood-letting is charged as one of the direct causes of dropsy: how then can it be expected that a system that will produce this form of disease can ever cure it? In reference to physicking, if the bowels are forced to remove the excess of fluids in a short time, they become much exhausted, lose their tone, and do not recover their healthy power for some time. Dr. Curtis says, "May we not give diuretics and drastic cathartics in dropsy? I answer, if you do, and carry off the fluids of the body in those directions, as you sometimes may, you have not always removed the cause of the disease, which was the closing of the surface, or stoppage of some natural secretion, while you have rendered the patient liable to other forms of disease, quite as much to be dreaded as the dropsy which was exchanged for it." Mild diuretic medicines may, however, be given, provided attention he paid at the same time to the lungs and external surface. The kidneys, lungs, and external surface constitute the great outlets through which the excess of fluids finds egress; and if one of these functions be excited to dislodge an accumulation of fluid, without the coöperation of the rest, the excessive action is sure to injure the organ; hence it is an injurious practice, and ought to be rejected. _Causes._--Dropsy will occasionally be produced by the sudden stopping of any evacuation; for example, if a diarrhoea be checked too suddenly, it frequently results in dropsy of the belly. In pleurisy, and when blood-letting has been practised to any extent, dropsy of the chest will be the consequence. Exposure, poor diet, diseases of the liver and spleen, want of exercise, and poisonous medicines are among the general causes of dropsy. _Treatment._--It is a law of the animal economy that all fluids are determined to those surfaces from which they can most readily escape. Now, instead of cramming down nauseous and poisonous drugs, with a view of carrying off the fluid by the kidneys, we should restore the lost function of the external exhalents, by warmth, moisture, friction, and the application of stimulating embrocations to the general surface. The following embrocation may be applied to the spine, ears, belly, and legs:-- Oil of cedar, 1 ounce. Oil of juniper, 1 ounce. Soft soap, 1 pound. A portion of the above should be rubbed in twice a day. The best medicine is the following:-- Powdered mandrake, 1 ounce. " lobelia, 1 ounce. Poplar bark, 2 ounces. Lemon balm, 4 ounces. Boiling water, 3 quarts. Let the whole stand in a covered vessel for an hour; then strain, and add a gill of honey. Give half a pint every third hour. If the animal be in poor condition, the diet must be nourishing and easy of digestion. Flour gruel and scalded meal will be the most appropriate. A drink made by steeping cleavers, or hyssop, in boiling water may be given at discretion. If there is not sufficient vitality in the system to equalize the circulation, (which may be known by the surface and extremities still continuing cold,) the following drink will be found efficacious:-- Hyssop tea, 2 quarts. Powdered cayenne, (African,) 1 tea-spoonful. " licorice, 1 ounce. Mix. To be given at a dose, and repeated if necessary. Should inflammatory symptoms make their appearance, omit the cayenne, and substitute the same quantity of cream of tartar. The treatment of all the different forms of dropsy is upon the plan here laid down. They are one and the same disease, only located in different parts; and from predisposing causes the fluid is sometimes found in the thorax, at others in the abdomen. Whenever costiveness occurs in dropsy, the following laxative may be given:-- Wormwood, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Set them over the fire, and let them boil for a few moments; then add two ounces of castile soap and a gill of molasses or honey. The whole to be given at one dose. The operation of tapping has been performed, but with very little success; for, unless the function of the skin be restored, the water will again accumulate. If, however, the disease shall be treated according to the principles here laid down, there is no good reason why the operation should not prove successful. It may be performed for dropsy of the belly in the following manner: Take a common trocar and canula, and after pinching upwards a fold of the skin, about three inches from the line, (_linea alba_,) or centre of the belly, and about seven from the udder, push the trocar through the skin, muscles, &c., into the abdominal cavity; withdraw the trocar, and the water will flow. The operation is usually performed on the right side, taking care, however, not to wound the milk vein, or artery. HOOVE, OR "BLASTING." When cattle or sheep are first turned into luxuriant pasture, after being poorly fed, or laboring under any derangement of the digestive organs, they are apt to be hoven, blown, or blasted. _Treatment._--Should the symptoms be very alarming, a flexible tube may be passed down the gullet. This will generally allow a portion of gas to escape, and thus afford temporary relief, until more efficient means are resorted to. These consist in arousing the digestive organs to action, by the following stimulant and carminative drink:-- Cardamom seeds, 1 ounce. Fennel seeds, 1 ounce. Powdered charcoal, 1 table-spoonful. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Let the mixture stand until sufficiently cool; then strain, and administer in pint doses, every ten minutes. The following clyster should be given:-- Powdered lobelia, 2 ounces. " charcoal, 6 ounces. Common salt, 1 table-spoonful. Boiling water, 2 quarts. When cool, strain, and inject. If the animal is only blasted in a moderate degree, this treatment will generally prove successful. Some practitioners recommend puncturing the rumen or paunch; but there is always great danger attending it, and at best it is only a palliative: the process of fermentation will continue while the materials still remain in the paunch. Some cattle doctors make a large incision into the paunch, and shovel out the contents with the hand; but the remedy is quite as bad as the disease. For example, Mr. Youatt tells us that "a cow had eaten a large quantity of food, and was hoven. A neighbor, who was supposed to know a great deal about cattle, made an incision into the paunch; the gas escaped, a great portion of the food was removed with the hand, and the animal appeared to be considerably relieved; but rumination did not return. On the following day, the animal was dull; she refused her food, but was eager to drink. She became worse and worse, and on the sixth day she died." In all dangerous cases of hoove, we must not forget that our remedies may be aided by the external application of warmth and moisture; flannels wrung out in hot water should be secured to the belly; at the same time, the legs and brisket should be rubbed with tincture of assafoetida. These remedies must be repeated until the animal is relieved. Steady and long-continued perseverance in rubbing the abdomen often succeeds in liberating the gas. If the animal recovers, he should be fed, very sparingly, on scalded food, consisting of equal parts of meal and shorts, with the addition of a few grains of caraway seeds. A drink composed of the following ingredients will aid in rapidly restoring the animal to health:-- Marshmallows, 2 ounces. Linseed, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Set the mixture near the fire, and allow it to macerate for a short time; after straining through a sieve or coarse cloth, it may be given and repeated at discretion. _Remarks._--As prevention is much more convenient and less expensive than the fashionable system of making a chemical laboratory of the poor brute's stomach, the author would remind owners of stock that the practice of turning the latter into green, succulent pasture when the ground is damp, or permitting them to remain exposed to the night air, is among the direct causes of hoove. The ox and many other animals are governed by the same laws of nature to which man owes allegiance, and any departure from the legitimate teachings, as they are fundamentally ingrafted in the animate kingdom by the Omnipotent Creator, is sure to subject us to the penalty. We are told that, during the night, noxious gases and poisonous miasmata emanate from the soil, and that plants throw off excrementitious matters, which assume a gaseous form, and are more or less destructive. Now, these animals have no better powers of resisting the encroachments on their organization (through the agency of these deleterious gases) than we have; they must have atmospheric air to vitalize the blood; any impurity in the air they breathe must impair their health. Still, however, the powers of resistance are greater in some than in others; this explains the reason why all do not suffer. Sometimes, the gases are not in sufficient quantities to produce instant death, but only derange the general health; yet if an animal be turned into a pasture, the herbage and soil of which give out an excess of nitrogen and carbonic acid, the animal will die; just as a man will, if you lower him into a well abounding in either of these destructive agents. From these brief remarks, the farmer will see the importance of housing domestic animals at night. JOINT MURRAIN. This malady, in its early stages, assumes different forms; sometimes making its appearance under a high grade of vital action, commonly called inflammatory fever, and known by the red appearance of the sclerotica, (white of the eye,) hurried breathing, expanded nostrils, hot tongue, and dry muzzle, pulse full and bounding, manifestations of pain, &c. &c. Different animals show, according to local or constitutional peculiarities, different symptoms. This disease, in consequence of its assuming different forms during its progress, has a host of names applied to it, which rather embarrass than assist the farmer. We admit that there are numerous tissues to be obstructed; and if the disease were named from the tissue, it would have as many names as there are tissues. If it were named from the location, which often happens, then we get as many names as there are locations; for example, horn ail, black leg, quarter evil, joint murrain, foot rot, &c. In the above disease, the whole system partakes more or less of constitutional disturbance; therefore it is of no use, except when we want to avail ourselves of local applications, to decide what particular muscle, blood-vessel, or nerve is involved, seeing that the only rational treatment consists in acting on all the nerves, blood-vessels, and muscles, and that this can only be accomplished through the healthy operations of nature's secreting and excreting processes. The indications of cure, according to the reformed principles, are, to relax spasm, as in locked-jaw, stoppages of the bladder or intestines, obstructed surfaces, &c.; to contract and strengthen weak and relaxed organs, as in general or local debility, diarrhoea, scouring, lampas, &c.; to stimulate inactive parts, as in black leg, joint murrain, quarter ill, foot rot; to equalize the circulation, and distribute the blood to the external surface and extremities, as in congestions; to furnish the animal with sufficient nutriment for its growth and development. No matter what the nature of disease may be, the treatment should be conducted on these principles. The farmer will overcome a host of obstacles, that might otherwise fall in his way, in the treatment of joint murrain, when he learns that this malady, together with black leg, quarter ill or evil, black quarter, and dry gangrene are all analogous: by the different names are meant their grades. In the early or mild forms, it consists of congestion in the veins or venous radicles, and effusions into the cellular tissue. When chemical action overpowers the vital, decomposition sets in; it then assumes a putrid type; mortification, or a destruction of organic integrity, is the result. _Causes._--Its proximate causes exist in any thing that can for a time interrupt the free and full play of any part of the vital machinery. Its direct cause may be found in over-feeding, miasma, exposure, poisonous plants, poor diet, &c. The milk of diseased cows is a frequent cause of black leg in young calves. The reason why the disease is more likely to manifest itself in the legs is, because they are more exposed, by the feet coming in contact with damp ground, and because the blood has a kind of up-hill work to perform. _Treatment._--In the early stages of joint murrain and its kindred maladies, if inflammatory fever is present, the first and most important step is to relax the external surface, as directed in article _Pneumonia_, p. 107. Should the animal be in a situation where it is not convenient to do so, give the following anti-spasmodic:-- Thoroughwort, 1 ounce. Lemon balm, 2 ounces. Garlic, bruised, a few kernels. Boiling water, 3 quarts. Allow the infusion to stand until cool; then strain, and give it a dose. If the bowels are constipated, inject the following:-- Soft soap, half a pint. Warm water, 2 quarts. Rub the joints with the following embrocation:-- Oil of cedar, } equal parts. Fir balsam, } Keep the animal on warm, bland teas, such as catnip, pennyroyal, lemon balm, and a light diet of powdered slippery elm gruel. BLACK QUARTER. _Symptoms._--Rapid decomposition, known by the pain which the slightest pressure gives the animal. Carbonic acid gas is evolved from the semi-putrid state of the system, which finds its way into the cellular tissue, beneath the skin. A crackling noise can then be heard and felt by pressing the finger on the hide. _Causes._--Among the chief causes are the blood-letting and scouring systems recommended by writers on cattle doctoring. In the inflammatory stage, we are told, "The first and most important step is copious bleeding. As much blood must be taken as the animal will bear to lose; and the stream must flow on until the beast staggers or threatens to fall. Here, more than in any other disease, there must be no foolish directions about quantities. [_The heroic practice!_] As much blood must be taken away as can be got; for it is only by the bold and persevering use of the lancet that a malady can be subdued that runs its course so rapidly." (See Youatt, p. 359.) From these directions we are led to suppose that there are some hopes of bleeding the animal to life; for the author above quoted seems to entertain no apprehension of bleeding the animal to death. Mr. Percival and other veterinary writers inform us, that "an animal will lose about one fifteenth part of its weight of blood before it dies; though a less quantity may so far debilitate the vital powers, as to be, though less suddenly, equally fatal." The latter portion of the sentence means simply this; that if the bleeding does not give the animal its quietus on the spot, it will produce black quarter, gangrene, &c., which will be "equally fatal." In the latter stages of the disease now under consideration, and, indeed, in dry gangrene, there is a tendency to the complete destruction of life to the parts involved: hence our remedies should be in harmony with the vital operations. We should relax, stimulate, and cleanse the whole system, and arouse every part to healthy action, by the aid of vapor, injections, stimulating applications, poultices of charcoal and capsicum, to parts where there is danger of rapid mortification; lastly, stimulating drinks to vitalize the blood, which only requires distribution, instead of abstraction. In reference to the scouring system, (purging,) as a cause of mortification, we leave the reader to form his own views, after reading the following: "After abstracting as much blood as can be got away, purging must immediately follow. A pound and a half of Epsom salts dissolved in water or gruel, and poured down the throat as gently as possible, should be our first dose. If this does not operate in the course of six hours, another pound should be given; and after that, half pound doses every six hours until the effect is produced"!!--_Youatt_, p. 359. _Treatment._--As the natural tendency of these different maladies is the complete destruction of life to all parts of the organization, efforts must be made to depurate the whole animal, and arouse every part to healthy action in the manner recommended under article _Joint Murrain_. Antiseptics may be freely used in the following form:-- Powdered bayberry bark, 2 ounces. " charcoal, 6 ounces. " cayenne, 1 tea-spoonful. " slippery elm, 1 ounce. Add boiling water sufficient to make it of the consistence of thin gruel. All sores and foul ulcers may be washed with Pyroligneous acid, 1 ounce. Water, 1 gill. _Another._ Chloride of lime, 1 ounce. Water, 1 pint. _Another._ Chloride of soda, 1 ounce. Water, 6 ounces. The affected parts should be often bathed with one of these washes. If the disease is not arrested by these means, repeat them, and put the animal on a diet of flour gruel. OPEN JOINT. Joints are liable to external injury from wounds or bruises, and, although a joint may not be open in the first instance, subsequent sloughing may expose its cavity. The ordinary effects of disease in membranes covering joints are, a profuse discharge of joint oil, (_synovia_,) and a thickening of the synovial membrane. Sometimes the joint is cemented together; it is then termed anchylosis. _Treatment._--The first object is, to promote adhesion, by bringing the edges of the wound together, and confining them in contact by stitches. A pledget of lint or linen, previously moistened with tincture of myrrh, should then be bound on with a bandage forming a figure 8 around the joint. If the parts feel hot and appear inflamed, apply a bandage, which may be kept constantly wet with cold water. If adhesion of the parts does not take place, apply the following:-- Powdered bayberry bark, 1 ounce. Fir balsam, sufficient to form a thick, tenacious mass, which may be spread thickly over the wound; lastly, a bandage. Should a fetid discharge take place, poultice with Powdered charcoal, } equal parts. " bayberry, } In cases where the nature of the injury will not admit of the wounded edges being kept in contact, and a large surface is exposed, we must promote granulation by keeping the parts clean, and by the daily application of fir balsam. Unhealthy granulations may be kept down by touching them with burnt alum, or sprinkling on their surface powdered bloodroot. The author has treated several cases, in which there was no hope of healing by the first intention, by the daily use of tincture of capsicum, together with tonic, stimulating, astringent, antiseptic poultices and fomentations, as the case seemed to require, and they always terminated favorably. In all cases of injury to joints, rest and a light diet are indispensable. SWELLINGS OF JOINTS. Swellings frequently arise from bruises and strains; they are sometimes, however, connected with a rheumatic affection, caused by cold, exposure to rain, or turning an animal into wet pasture lands after active exercise. In the acute stage, known by tenderness, unnatural heat, and lameness, the animal should be put on a light diet of scalded shorts, &c.; the parts to be frequently bathed with cold water; and, if practicable, a bandage may be passed around the limb, and kept moist with the same. If the part still continues painful, take four ounces of arnica flowers, moisten them with boiling water, when cool, bind them around the part, and let them remain twenty-four hours. This seldom fails. On the other hand, should the parts be in a chronic state, which may be recognized by inactivity, coldness, &c., then the following embrocation will restore the lost tone:-- Oil of wormwood, 1 ounce. " " cedar, 1 ounce. Hot drops, 4 ounces. Vinegar, 1 pint. Mix, and rub the part faithfully night and morning. Friction with the hand or a brush will materially assist to cure. In all cases where suppuration has commenced, and matter can be distinctly felt, the sooner the following poultice shall be applied, the better:-- Powdered slippery elm, } equal parts. " linseed, } Boiling water sufficient to moisten; then add a wine-glass of vinegar. To be renewed every twelve hours, until the matter escapes. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. Sprain, or _strain_, as it is commonly termed, sometimes arises from violent exertions; at other times, by the animal unexpectedly treading on some uneven surface. _Treatment._--First wash the foot clean, then carefully examine the cleft, and remove any substance that may have lodged there. A cotton bandage folded around the claws and continued above the fetlock, kept wet with the following lotion, will speedily reduce any excess of inflammatory action that may exist:-- Acetic acid, 1 ounce. Water, 1 pint. _Another._ Vinegar, 1 pint. Water, 3 pints. STRAIN OF THE HIP. This may sometimes occur in working oxen. Rest is the principal remedy. The part may, however, be bathed daily with the following:-- Wormwood, 4 ounces. Scalding vinegar, 2 quarts. The liquor must be applied cold. _Strain of the knees_ or _shoulder_ may be treated in the same manner as above. FOUL IN THE FOOT. A great deal of learned nonsense has been written on this subject, which only serves to plunge the farmer into a labyrinth from which there is no escape. The author will not trespass on the reader's patience so much as to transcribe different authors' opinions in relation to the nature of the disease and its treatment, but will proceed at once to point out a common-sense explanation of its cause, and the proper mode of treating it. The disease is analogous to foot rot in sheep, and is the consequence of feeding in wet pastures, or suffering the animals to wallow in filth. A large quantity of morbific or excrementitious matter is thrown off from the system through the surfaces between the cleft. Now, should those surfaces be obstructed by filth, or contracted by cold, the delicate mouths of these excrementitious vessels, or outlets, are unable to rid the parts of their morbid accumulations: these vessels become distended beyond their usual capacity, communicate with each other, and, when no longer able to contain this mass of useless material, an artificial drain, in the form of "foot rot," is established, by which simple method the parts recover their reciprocal equilibrium. In this case, as in diarrhoea, we recognize a simple and sanative operation of nature's law, which, if aided, will generally prove beneficial. That "foul in the foot" is caused by the sudden stoppage of some natural evacuation is evident from the following facts: First, the disease is most prevalent in cold, low, marshy countries, where the foot is kept constantly moist. Secondly, the disease is neither contagious nor epidemic. (See _Journal de Méd. Vét. et comparée_, 1826, p. 319.) _Treatment._--In all cases of obstruction to the depurating apparatus, there is a loss of equilibrium between secretion and excretion. The first indication is, to restore the lost function. Previously, however, to doing so, the animal must be removed to a dry situation. The cause once removed, the cure is easy, provided we merely assist nature and follow her teachings. As warmth and moisture are known to relax all animal fibre, the part should be relaxed, warmed, and cleansed, first by warm water and soap, lastly by poultice; at the same time bearing in mind that the object is not to produce or invite suppuration, (formation of matter,) but only to liberate the excess of morbid materials that may already be present: as soon as this is accomplished, the poultice should be discontinued. _Poultice for Foul Feet._ Roots of marshmallows, bruised, half a pound. Powdered charcoal, a handful. " lobelia, a few ounces. Meal, a tea-cupful. Boiling water sufficient to soften the mass. _Another_. Powdered lobelia, } Slippery elm, } equal parts. Pond lily, bruised, } Mix with boiling water. Put the ingredients into a bag, and secure it above the fetlock. Give the animal the following at a dose:-- Flowers of sulphur, half an ounce. Powdered sassafras bark, 1 ounce. Burdock, (any part of the plant,) 2 ounces. The above to be steeped in one quart of boiling water. When cool, strain. All that is now needed is to keep the part cleansed, and at rest. If a fetid smell still remains, wet the cleft, morning and evening, with Chloride of soda, 1 ounce. Water, 6 ounces. Mix. _Another._ Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Water, a pint. Mix. _Another._ Common salt, 1 table-spoonful. Vinegar, a wine-glass. Water, 1 quart. Whenever any fungous excrescence makes its appearance between the claws, apply powdered bloodroot or burnt alum. RED WATER. This affection takes its name from the high color of the urine. It is not, strictly speaking, a disease, but only a symptom of derangement, caused by high feeding or the suppression of some natural discharge. If, for example, the skin be obstructed, then the insensible perspiration and excrementitious matter, which should pass through this great outlet, find some other mode of egress; either the lungs of kidneys have to perform the extra work. If the lot falls on the latter, and they are not in a physiological state, they give evidence of febrile or inflammatory action (caused by the irritating, acrid character of their secretion) in the form of high-colored urine. In all cases of derangement in the digestive apparatus, liver included, both in man and oxen, the urine is generally high colored; and the use of diuretic medicines is objectionable, for, at best, it would only be treating symptoms. We lay it down as a fundamental principle, that those who treat symptoms alone never cure disease, for the animal often dies a victim to the treatment, instead of the malady. Whenever an animal is in a state of plethora, and the usual amount of morbific matter cannot find egress, some portion of it is reabsorbed, producing a deleterious effect: the urine will then be high colored, plainly demonstrating that nature is making an effort to rid the system of useless material, and will do so unless interfered with by the use of means opposed to the cure, such as blood-letting, physicking, and diuretics. The urine will appear high colored, and approach a red hue, in many cows after calving, in inflammation of the womb, gastric fever, puerperal fever, fevers generally, inflammation of the kidneys, indigestion; in short, many forms of acute disease are accompanied by high-colored urine. The treatment, like that of any other form of derangement, must be general. Excite all parts of the system to healthy action. If the bowels are constipated, give the following:-- Golden seal, 1 table-spoonful. Thoroughwort tea, 2 quarts. To be given at a dose. Scalded shorts will be the most suitable food, if any is required; but, generally, abstinence is necessary, especially if the animal be fat. If the surface and extremities are cold, give an infusion of pennyroyal, catnip, sage, or hyssop; and rub the belly and legs with Hot vinegar, 1 quart. Powdered lobelia or cayenne, 1 ounce. If the kidneys are inflamed,--which may be known by tenderness in the region of the loins, and by the animal standing with the legs widely separated,--the urine being of a dark red color, then, in addition to the application of stimulating liniment to the belly and legs, a poultice may be placed over the kidneys. _Poultice for inflamed Kidneys._ Slippery elm, 8 ounces. Lobelia, 4 ounces. Boiling water sufficient. _Another._ Linseed, } equal parts Marshmallows, } Boiling water sufficient. Lay the poultice on the loins, pass a cloth over it, and secure under the belly. A drink of marshmallows is the only fluid that can with safety be allowed. If the horns, ears, and surface are hot, sponge the whole surface with weak lie or saleratus water, and give the following antifebrile drink:-- Lemon balm, 2 ounces. Cream of tartar, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Honey, 1 gill. When cold, strain, and give a pint every fifteen minutes. If the bowels are constipated, use injections of soap-suds. Suppose the animal to be in poor condition, hide bound, liver inactive, the excrement of a dark color and fetid odor. Then use Powdered golden seal, 2 ounces. " caraways, 1 ounce. " cayenne, 1 tea-spoonful. Poplar bark, or slippery elm, 2 ounces. Mix, divide into ten parts, and give one, in thin gruel, three times a day. The animal should be fed on boiled carrots, scalded shorts, into which a few handfuls of meal or flour may be stirred. In short, consider the nature of the case; look beyond the symptoms, ascertain the cause, and, if possible, remove it. An infusion of either of the following articles may be given at discretion: marshmallows, linseed, juniper berries, pond lily roots, poplar bark, or queen of the meadow. Mr. Cole remarks that "red water is most common in cows of weak constitution, a general relaxation, poor blood, &c." In such cases, a nutritious diet, cleanliness, good nursing, friction on the surface, comfortable quarters at night, and an occasional tonic will accomplish wonders. _Tonic Mixture._ Powdered golden seal, 1 tea-spoonful. " balmony, 2 tea-spoonfuls. Mix the above in shorts or meal. Repeat night and morning until convalescence is established. In cases of great prostration, where it is necessary to act with promptitude, the following infusion may be substituted:-- Thoroughwort, } Golden seal, } of each, 1 ounce. Camomile flowers, } Boiling water, 2 quarts. After standing one hour, strain, and give a pint every four hours. BLACK WATER. My plan of treatment, in this malady, is similar to that for red water. In both cases, it is indispensable to attend to the general health, to promote the discharge of all the secretions, to remove all obstructions to the full and free play of all parts of the living machinery. The same remedies recommended in the preceding article are equally good in this case, only they must be more perseveringly applied. THICK URINE. Whenever the urine is thick and turbid, deficient in quantity, or voided with difficulty, either of the following prescriptions may be administered:-- Juniper berries, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Strain. Dose, 1 pint every four hours. _Another._ Slippery elm, 1 ounce. Poplar bark, 2 ounces. Make a tea; sweeten with molasses, and give pint doses every four hours. _Another._ Make a tea of cedar or pine boughs, sweeten with honey, and give it at discretion. RHEUMATISM. Rheumatism thrives in cold, damp situations, and in wet, foggy weather. It is often confined to the membranes of the large joints, and sometimes consists in a deficiency of joint oil, (_synovia._) It is liable to become chronic, and involve the fibro-muscular tissues. Acute rheumatism is known by the pain and swelling in certain parts. Chronic rheumatism is recognized by coldness, rigidity about the muscles, want of vital action, &c. When lameness, after a careful examination, cannot be accounted for, and is found to go off after exercise, and return again, it is probably rheumatism. _Treatment of Acute Rheumatism._--Bathe the parts with an infusion of arnica flowers, made thus:-- Arnica flowers, 4 ounces. Boiling water, 3 quarts. When sufficiently cool, it is fit for use. Give the following:-- Sulphur, 2 ounces. Cream of tartar, 3 ounces. Powdered pleurisy root, 1 ounce. " licorice, 2 ounces. Indian meal, 1 pound. Mix. Give a table-spoonful three times a day in the feed. A light diet and rest are indispensable. _Treatment of Chronic Rheumatism._--Put the animal on a generous diet, and give an occasional spoonful of golden seal or balmony in the food, and a drink of sassafras tea. The parts may be rubbed with stimulating liniment, for which, see APPENDIX. BLAIN. Some veterinary writers describe this disease as "a watery tumor, growing at the root of the tongue, and threatening suffocation. The first symptoms are foaming at the mouth, gaping, and lolling out of the tongue." The disease first originates in the mucous surfaces, which enter into the mouth, throat, and stomach. It partakes somewhat of the character of thrush, and requires nearly the same treatment. Make an infusion of raspberry leaves, to which add a small quantity of borax or alum. Wash the mouth and tongue with the same by means of a sponge. If there are any large pustules, open them with the point of a penknife. After cleansing them, sprinkle with powdered bayberry bark, or bloodroot. Rid the system of morbid matter by injection and physic, (which see, in APPENDIX.) The following antiseptic drink will then complete the cure:-- Make a tea of raspberry leaves by steeping two ounces in a quart of boiling water; when cool, strain; then add Powdered charcoal, 2 ounces. " bayberry bark, 1 ounce. Honey, 2 table-spoonfuls. Give a pint every four hours. The diet should consist of scalded meal, boiled turnips, carrots, &c., to which a small portion of salt may be added. If the glands under the ears and around the throat are sympathetically affected, and swollen, they must be rubbed twice a day with the stimulating liniment. (See APPENDIX.) The disease is supposed, by some veterinarians, to originate in the tongue, but post mortem examinations lead us to determine otherwise. Mr. Youatt informs us that "post mortem examination shows intense inflammation, or even gangrene, of the tongue, oesophagus, paunch, and fourth stomach. The food in the paunch has a most offensive smell, and that in the manyplus is hard and dry. Inflammation reaches to the small intestines, which are covered with red and black patches in the coecum, colon, and rectum." THRUSH. _Thrush_, and all eruptive diseases of the throat and internal surface, are treated in the same manner as laid down in Blaine. BLACK TONGUE. Black Tongue appears when the system is deprived of vital force, as in the last stages of blaine, &c. The indications to be fulfilled are the same as in blaine, but applied with more perseverance. INFLAMMATION OF THE THROAT AND ITS APPENDAGES.[12] In many cases, if attended to immediately, nothing more will be necessary than confining the animal to a light diet, with frequent drinks of linseed tea, warmth and moisture applied locally in the form of a slippery elm poultice, which may be kept in close contact with the throat by securing it to the horns. But, in very severe attacks, mullein leaves steeped in vinegar and applied to the parts, with an occasional stimulating injection, (see APPENDIX,) together with a gruel diet, are the only means of relief. FOOTNOTE: [12] This includes the larynx, pharynx, and trachea. BRONCHITIS. Bronchitis consists in a thickening of the fibrous and mucous surfaces of the trachea, and generally results from maltreated hoose or catarrh. _Symptoms._--A dry, husky, wheezing cough, laborious breathing, hot breath, and dry tongue. _Treatment._--Warm poultices of slippery elm or flaxseed, on the surface of which sprinkle powdered lobelia. Apply them to the throat moderately warm; if they are too hot they will prove injurious. In the first place administer the following drink:-- Powdered licorice, 1 ounce. " elecampane, half an ounce. Slippery elm, 1 ounce. Boiling water sufficient to make it of the consistence of thin gruel. If there is great difficulty of breathing, add half a tea-spoon of lobelia to the above, and repeat the dose night and morning. Linseed or marshmallow tea is a valuable auxiliary in the treatment of this disease. The animal should be comfortably housed, and the legs kept warm by friction with coarse straw. INFLAMMATION OF GLANDS. There are numerous glandular bodies distributed over the animal structure. Those to which the reader's attention is called are, first, the parotid, situated beneath the ear; secondly, the sub-lingual, beneath the tongue; lastly, the sub-maxillary, situated just within the angle of the jaw. They are organized similarly to other glands, as the kidneys, &c., possessing arteries, veins, lymphatics, &c., which terminate in a common duct. They have also a ramification of nerves, and the body of the gland has its own system of arterial vessels and absorbents, which are enclosed by a serous membrane. They produce a copious discharge of fluid, called saliva. Its use is to lubricate the mouth, thereby preventing friction; also to lubricate the food, and assist digestion. Inflammation of either of these glands may be known by the heat, tenderness, enlargement, and difficulty of swallowing. They are usually sympathetically affected, as in hoose, catarrh, influenza, &c., and generally resume their natural state when these maladies disappear. _Treatment._--In the inflammatory stage, warm teas of marshmallows, or slippery elm, and poultices of the same, are the best means yet known to reduce it; they relax constricted or obstructed organs, and by being directly applied to the parts affected, the more speedily and effectually is the object accomplished. Two or three applications of some relaxing poultice will be all that is needed; after which, apply Olive oil, or goose grease, 1 gill. Spirits of camphor, 1 ounce. Oil of cedar, 1 ounce. Vinegar, half a gill. Mix. _Another._ Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Beef's gall, 1 gill. Cayenne, 1 tea-spoonful. To be rubbed around the throat as occasion may require. All hard or indigestible food will be injurious. LOSS OF CUD. Loss of Cud is a species of indigestion, and may be brought on by the animal's eating greedily of some food to which it has been unaccustomed. Loss of cud and loss of appetite are synonymous. _Compound for Loss of Cud._ Golden seal, powdered, 1 ounce. Caraway, " 2 ounces. Cream of tartar, half an ounce. Powdered poplar bark, 2 ounces. Mix. Divide into six powders, and give one every four hours in a sufficient quantity of camomile tea. COLIC. Colic is occasioned by a want of physiological power in the organs of digestion, so that the food, instead of undergoing a chemico-vital process, runs into fermentation, by which process carbonic acid gas is evolved. _Symptoms._--The animal is evidently in pain, and appears very restless; it occasionally turns its head, with an anxious gaze, to the left side, which seems to be distended more than the right; there is an occasional discharge of gas from the mouth and anus. _Treatment._--Give the following carminative:-- Powdered aniseed, half a tea-spoonful. " cinnamon, " " To be given in a quart of spearmint tea, and repeated if necessary. _Another._ Powdered assafoetida, half a tea-spoon. Thin gruel of slippery elm, 2 quarts. Oil of aniseed, 20 drops. To be given at a dose. If the animal suffers much pain, apply fomentations to the belly, and give the following injection:-- Powdered ginger, half an ounce. Common salt, 1 table-spoonful. Hot water, 1 gallon. SPASMODIC COLIC. This affection may be treated in the same manner as flatulent colic, aided by warmth and moisture externally. The author has in many cases cured animals of spasmodic colic with a little peppermint tea, brisk friction upon the stomach and bowels, and an injection of warm water; whereas, had the animals been compelled to swallow the usual amount of gin, saleratus, castor oil, salts, and other nauseous, useless drugs, they would probably have died. The reader, especially if he is an advocate of the popular poisoning and blood-letting system, may ask, What good can a little simple peppermint tea accomplish? We answer, Nature delights in simples, and in all her operations invites us to follow her example. The fact is, warm peppermint tea, although in the estimation of the learned it is not entitled to any confidence as a therapeutic agent, yet is an efficient anti-spasmodic in the hands of reformers and common-sense farmers. It is evident that if any changes are made in the symptoms, they ought to be for the better; yet under the heroic practice they often grow worse. CONSTIPATION. In constipation there is a retention of the excrement, which becomes dry and hard. It may arise from derangement of the liver and other parts of the digestive apparatus: at other times, there is a loss of equilibrium between the mucous and external surface, the secretion of the former being deficient, and the external surface throwing off too much moisture in the form of perspiration. In short, constipation, in nine cases out of ten, is only a symptom of a more serious disorder in some important function. The use of powerful purges is at all times attended with danger, and in very many cases they fall short of accomplishing the object. Mr. Youatt tells us that "a heifer had been feverish, and had refused all food during five days; and four pounds of Epsom salts, and the same quantity of treacle, and three fourths of a pint of castor oil, and numerous injections, had been administered before any purgative effect could be produced." Several cases have come under the author's notice where large doses of aloes, salts, and castor oil had been given without producing the least effect on the bowels, until within a few minutes of the death of the animal. If the animal ever recovers from the dangerous effects resulting from powerful purges, it is evident that the delicate membranes lining the alimentary canal must lose their energy and become torpid. All mechanical irritants--for purges are of that class--divert the fluids of the body from the surface and kidneys, producing watery discharges from the bowels. This may be exemplified by a person taking a pinch of snuff; the irritating article comes in contact with the mucous surfaces: they endeavor to wash off the offending matter by secreting a quantity of fluid; this, together with what is forced through the membranes in the act of sneezing, generally accomplishes the purpose. A constant repetition of the vile habit renders the parts less capable of self-defence; they become torpid, and lose their natural power of resisting encroachments; finally, the altered voice denotes the havoc made on the mucous membrane. This explains the whole _modus operandi_ of artificial purging; and although, in the latter case, the parts are not adapted to sneezing, yet there is often a dreadful commotion, which has destroyed many thousands of valuable animals. An eminent professor has said that "purgatives, besides being uncertain and uncontrollable, often kill from the dangerous debility they produce." The good results that sometimes appear to follow the exhibition of irritating purges must be attributed to the sanative action of the constitution, and not to the agent itself; and the life of the patient depends, in all cases, on the existing ability of the vital power to counteract the effects of purging, bleeding, poisoning, and blistering. The author does not wish to give the reader occasion to conclude that purgatives can be entirely dispensed with; on the contrary, he thinks that in many cases they are decidedly beneficial, when given with discretion, and when the nature of the disease requires them; yet even such cases, too much confidence should not be placed on them, so as to exclude other and sometimes more efficient remedies, which come under the head of laxatives, aperients, &c. _Treatment._--If costiveness is suspected to be symptomatic of some derangement, then a restoration of the general health will establish the lost function of the bowels. In this case, purges are unnecessary; the treatment will altogether depend on the symptoms. For example, suppose the animal constipated; the white of the eye tinged yellow, head drooping, and the animal is drowsy, and off its feed; then give the following:-- Powdered mandrake, 1 tea-spoonful. Castile soap, in shavings, quarter of an ounce. Beef's gall, half a wine-glass. Powdered capsicum, third of a table-spoon. Dissolve the soap in a small quantity of hot water, then mix the whole in three pints of thin gruel. This makes a good aperient, and can be given with perfect safety in all cases of constipation arising from derangement of the liver. The liquid must be poured down the throat in a gradual manner, in order to insure its reaching the fourth stomach. Aid the medicine by injections, and rub the belly occasionally with straw. Suppose the bowels to be torpid during an attack of inflammation of the brain; then it will be prudent to combine relaxants and anti-spasmodics, in the following form:-- Extract of butternut, half an ounce. Powdered skunk cabbage, " Cream of tartar, " Powdered lobelia, 2 drachms. First dissolve the butternut in two quarts of hot water; after which add the remaining ingredients, and give it for a dose. The operation of this prescription, like the preceding, must be aided by injection, friction, and warm drinks made of hyssop or pine boughs. Suppose the bowels to be constipated, at the same time the animal is hide-bound, in poor condition, &c.; the aperient must then be combined with tonics, as follows:-- Extract of butternut, half an ounce. Rochelle salt, 4 ounces. Golden seal, 1 ounce. Ginger, 1 tea-spoonful. Hot water, 3 quarts. Dissolve and administer at a dose. In order to relieve the cold, constricted, inactive state of the hide, recourse must be had to warmth, moisture, and friction. A simple aperient of linseed oil may be given in cases of stricture or intussusception of the bowels. The dose is one pint. FALLING DOWN OF THE FUNDAMENT. Return the prolapsed part as quickly as possible by gently kneading the parts within the rectum. In recent cases, the part should be washed with an infusion of bayberry bark. (See APPENDIX.) The bowel may be kept in position by applying a wad of cotton, kept wet with the astringent infusion, confined with a bandage. A weak solution of alum water may, however, be substituted, provided the bayberry or white oak bark is not at hand. Should the parts appear swollen and much inflamed, apply a large slippery elm poultice, on the surface of which sprinkle powdered white oak or bayberry bark. This will soon lessen the swelling, so that the rectum may be returned. The diet must be very sparing, consisting of flour gruel; and if the bowels are in a relaxed state, add a small quantity of powdered bayberry. CALVING. At the end of nine months, the period of the cow's gestation is complete; but parturition does not always take place at that time; it is sometimes earlier, at others later. "One hundred and sixteen cows had their time of calving registered: fourteen of them calved from the two hundred and forty-first day to the two hundred and sixty-sixth day,--that is, eight months and one day to eight months and twenty-six days; fifty-six from the two hundred and seventieth to the two hundred and eightieth day; eighteen from the two hundred and eightieth to the two hundred and ninetieth; twenty on the three hundredth day; five on the three hundred and eighth day; consequently there were sixty-seven days between the two extremities." Immediately before calving, the animal appears uneasy; the tail is elevated; she shifts from place to place, and is frequently lying down and getting up again. The labor pains then come on; and by the expulsive power of the womb, the foetus, with the membranes enveloping it, is pushed forward. At first, the membranes appear beyond the vagina, or "shape," often in the form of a bladder of water; the membranes burst, the water is discharged, and the head and fore feet of the calf protrude beyond the shape. We are now supposing a case of natural labor. The body next appears, and soon the delivery is complete. In a short time, a gradual contraction of the womb takes place, and the cleansings (afterbirth) are discharged. When the membranes are ruptured in the early stage of calving, and before the outlet be sufficiently expanded, the process is generally tedious and attended with danger; and this danger arises in part from the premature escape of the fluids contained within the membranes, which are intended, ultimately, to serve the double purpose of expanding or dilating the passage, and lubricating the parts, thereby facilitating the birth. Under these circumstances, it will be our duty to supply the latter deficiency by carefully anointing the parts with olive oil; at the same time, allow the animal a generous supply of slippery elm gruel: if she refuses to partake of it, when offered in a bucket, it must be gently poured down the throat from a bottle. At times, delivery is very slow; a considerable time elapses before any part of the calf makes its appearance. Here we have only to exercise patience; for if there is a natural presentation, nature, being the best doctor under all circumstances, will do the work in a more faithful manner unassisted than when improperly assisted. "A meddlesome midwifery is bad." Therefore the practice of attempting to hurry the process by driving the animal about, or annoying her in any way, is very improper. In some cases, however, when a wrong presentation is apparent, which seems to render calving impracticable, we should, after smearing the hand with lard, introduce it into the vagina, and endeavor to ascertain the position of the calf, and change it when it is found unfavorable. When, for example, the head presents without the fore legs, which are bent under the breast, we may gently pass the hand along the neck, and, having ascertained the position of the feet, we grasp them, and endeavor to bring them forward, the cow at the same time being put into the most favorable position, viz., the hind quarters being elevated. By this means the calf can be gently pushed back, as the feet are advanced and brought into the outlet. The calf being now in a natural position, we wait patiently, and give nature an opportunity to perform her work. Should the expulsive efforts cease, and the animal appear to be rapidly sinking, no time must be lost; nature evidently calls for assistance, but not in the manner usually resorted to, viz., that of placing a rope around the head and feet of the calf, and employing the united strength of several men to extract the foetus, without regard to position. Our efforts must be directed to the mother; the calf is a secondary consideration: the strength of the former, if it is failing, must be supported; the expulsive power of the womb and abdominal muscles, now feeble, must be aroused; and there are no means or processes that are better calculated to fulfil these indications than that of administering the following drink:-- Bethroot, 2 ounces. Powdered cayenne, one third of a tea-spoon. Motherwort, 1 ounce. Infuse in a gallon of boiling water. When cool, strain, then add a gill of honey, and give it in pint doses, as occasion may require. Under this treatment, there is no difficulty in reëstablishing uterine action. If, however, the labor is still tedious, the calf may be grasped with both hands, and as soon as a pain or expulsive effort is evident, draw the calf from side to side. While making this lateral motion, draw the calf forward. Expulsion generally follows. If, on examination, it is clearly ascertained that the calf is lying in an unnatural position,--for example, the calf may be in such a position as to present its side across the outlet,--in such cases delivery is not practicable unless the position is altered. Mr. White says, "I have seen a heifer that it was found impossible to deliver. On examining her after death, a very large calf was found lying quite across the mouth of the uterus." In such cases, Mr. Lawson recommends that, "when every other plan has failed for taming the calf, so as to put it in a favorable position for delivery, the following has often succeeded: Let the cow be thrown down in a proper position, and placed on her back; then, by means of ropes and a pulley attached to a beam above, let the hind parts be raised up, so as to be considerably higher than the fore parts; in this position, the calf may be easily put back towards the bottom of the uterus, so as to admit of being turned, or his head and fore legs brought forward without difficulty." We must ever bear in mind the important fact that the successful termination of the labor depends on the strength and ability of the parent; that if these fail, however successful we may be in bringing about a right presentation, the birth is still tedious, and we may finally have to take the foetus away piecemeal; by which process the cow's life is put in jeopardy. To avoid such an unfortunate occurrence, support the animal's strength with camomile tea. The properties of camomile are antispasmodic, carminative, and tonic--just what is wanted. Mr. White informs us that "instances sometimes occur of the calf's head appearing only, and so large that it is found impossible to put it back. When this is found to be the case, the calf should be killed, and carefully extracted, by cutting off the head and other parts that prevent the extraction; thus the cow's life will be saved." In cases of malformation of the head of the foetus, or when the cranium is enormously distended by an accumulation of fluid within the ventricles of the brain, after all other remedies, in the form of fomentations, lubricating antispasmodic drinks, have failed, then recourse must be had to embryotomy. EMBRYOTOMY. For the following method of performing the operation we are indebted to Mr. Youatt's work. The details appeared in the London Veterinarian of 1831, and will illustrate the operation. M. Thibeaudeau, the operating surgeon, says, "I was consulted respecting a Breton cow twenty years old, which was unable to calve. I soon discovered the obstacle to the delivery. The fore limbs presented themselves as usual; but the head and neck were turned backwards, and fixed on the left side of the chest, while the foetus lay on its right side, on the inferior portion of the uterus." M. Thibeaudeau then relates the ineffectual efforts he made to bring the foetus into a favorable position, and he at length found that his only resource to save the mother was, to cut in pieces the calf, which was now dead. "I amputated the left shoulder of the foetus," says he, "in spite of the difficulties which the position of the head and neck presented. Having withdrawn the limb, I made an incision through all the cartilages of the ribs, and laid open the chest through its whole extent, by which means I was enabled to extract all the thoracic viscera. Thus having lessened the size of the calf, I was enabled, by pulling at the remaining fore leg, to extract the foetus without much resistance, although the head and neck were still bent upon the chest. The afterbirth was removed immediately afterwards." This shows the importance of making an early examination, to determine the precise position of the foetus; for if the head had been discovered in such position in the early stage of labor, it might have been brought forward, and thus prevented the butchery. FALLING OF THE CALF-BED, OR WOMB. When much force used in extracting the calf, it sometimes happens that the womb falls out, or is inverted; and great care is required in putting it back, so that it may remain in that situation. _Treatment._--If the cow has calved during the night, in a cold situation, and, from the exhausted state of the animal, we have reason to suppose that the labor has been tedious, or that she has taken cold, efforts must be made to restore the equilibrium. The following restorative must be given:-- Motherwort tea, 2 quarts. Hot drops, 1 table-spoonful. Powdered cinnamon, 1 tea-spoonful. Give a pint every ten minutes, and support the animal with flour gruel. The uterus should be returned in the following manner: Place the cow in such a position that the hind parts shall be higher than the fore. Wash the uterus with warm water, into which sprinkle a small quantity of powdered bayberry; remove any extraneous substance from the parts. A linen cloth is then to be put under the womb, which is to be held by two assistants. The cow should be made to rise, if lying down,--that being the most favorable position,--and the operator is then to grasp the mouth of the womb with both hands and return it. When so returned, one hand is to be immediately withdrawn, while the other remains to prevent that part from falling down again. The hand at liberty is then to grasp another portion of the womb, which is to be pushed into the body, like the former, and retained with one hand. This is to be repeated until the whole of the womb is put back. If the womb does not contract, friction, with a brush, around the belly and back, may excite contraction. An attendant must, at the same time, apply a pad wetted with weak alum water to the "shape," and keep it in close contact with the parts, while the friction is going on. It is sometimes necessary to confine the pad by a bandage. GARGET. In order to prevent this malady, the calf should be put to suck immediately after the caw has cleansed it; and, if the bag is distended with an overplus of milk, some of it should be milked off. If, however, the teats or quarters become hot and tender, foment with an infusion of elder or camomile flowers, which must be perseveringly applied, at the same time drawing, in the most gentle manner, a small quantity of milk; by which means the over-distended vessels will collapse to their healthy diameter. An aperient must then be given, (see APPENDIX,) and the animal be kept on a light diet. If there is danger of matter forming, rub the bag with the following liniment:-- Goose oil, } equal parts. Hot drops, } If the parts are exceedingly painful, wash with a weak lie, or wood ashes, or sal soda. In spite of all our efforts, matter will sometimes form. As soon as it is discovered, a lancet may be introduced, and the matter evacuated; then wash the part clean, and apply the stimulating liniment. (See APPENDIX.) SORE TEATS. First wash with castile soap and warm water; then apply the following:-- Lime water, } equal parts. Linseed oil, } CHAPPED TEATS AND CHAFED UDDER. These may be treated in the same manner. If the above preparation is not at hand, substitute bayberry tallow, elder or marshmallow ointment. FEVER. _Description and Definition._--Fever is a powerful effort of the vital principle to expel from the system morbific or irritating matter, or to bring about a healthy action. The reason why veterinary practitioners have not ascertained this fact heretofore is, because they have been guided by false principles, to the exclusion of their own common experience. Let them receive the truth of the definition we have given; then the light will begin to shine, and medical darkness will be rendered more visible. Fever, we have said, is a vital action--an effort of the vital power to regain its equilibrium of action through the system, and should never be subdued by the use of the lancet, or any destructive agents that deprive the organs of the power to produce it. Fever will be generally manifested in one or more of that combination of signs known as follows: loss of appetite, increased velocity of the pulse, difficult respiration, heaving at the flank, thirst, pain, and swelling; some of which will be present, local or general, in greater or less degree, in all forms of disease. When an animal has taken cold, and there is power in the system to keep up a continual warfare against encroachments, the disturbance of vital action being unbroken, the fever is called pure or persistent. Emanations from animal or vegetable substances in a state of decomposition or putrefaction, or the noxious miasmata from marshy lands, if concentrated, and not sufficiently diluted with atmospheric air, enter into the system, and produce a specific effect. In order to dethrone the intruder, who keeps up a system of aggression from one tissue to another, the vital power arrays her artillery, in good earnest, to resist the invading foe; and if furnished with the munitions of war in the form of sanative agents, she generally conquers the enemy, and dictates her own terms. While the forces are equally balanced, which may be known by a high grade of vital action, it is also called _unbroken_ or _pure_ fever. The powers of the system may become exhausted by efforts at relief, and the fever will be periodically reduced; this form of fever is called _remittent_. By remittent fever is to be understood this modification of vital action which rests or abates, but does not go entirely off before a fresh attack ensues. It is evident, in this case, also, that nature is busily engaged in the work of establishing her empire; but being more exhausted, she occasionally rests from her labors. It would be as absurd to expect that the most accurate definition of fever in one animal would correspond in all its details with another case, as to expect all animals to be alike. There are many names given to fevers; for example, in addition to the two already alluded to, we have milk or puerperal fever, symptomatic, typhus, inflammatory, &c. Veterinary Surgeon Percival, in an article on fever, says, "We have no more reason--not near so much--to give fever a habitation in the abdomen, than we have to enthrone it in the head; but it would appear from the full range of observation, that no part of the body can be said to be unsusceptible of inflammation, (local fever,) though, at the same time, no organ is invariably or exclusively affected." From this we learn that disease always attacks the weakest organ, and that our remedies should be adapted to act on all parts of the system. The same author continues, "All I wish to contend for is, that both idiopathic and symptomatic fevers exhibit the same form, character, species, and the same general means of cure; and that, were it not for the local affection, it would be difficult or impossible to distinguish them." Fever has always been the great bugbear, to scare the farmer and cattle doctor into a wholesale system of blood-letting and purging; they believe that the more fever the animal manifests, the more unwearied must be their exertions. The author advises the farmer not to feel alarmed about the fever; for when that is present it shows that the vital principle is up and doing. Efforts should be made to open the outlets of the body, through which the morbific materials may pass: the fever will then subside. It will be difficult to make the community credit this simple truth, because fever is quite a fashionable disease, and it is an easy matter to make the farmer believe that his cow has a very peculiar form of it, that requires an entirely different mode of treatment from that of another form. Then it is very profitable to the interested allopathic doctor, who can produce any amount of "learned nonsense" to justify the ways and means, and support his theory. The author does not wish, at the present time, to enter into a learned discussion of the merit or demerit of allopathy: the object of this work is, to impart practical information to farmers and owners of stock. In order to accomplish this object, an occasional reference to the absurdities of the old school is unavoidable. A celebrated writer has said, "The very medicines [meaning those used by the old school, which kill more than they ever cure] which aggravate and protract the malady bind a laurel on the doctor's brow. When, at last, the sick are saved by the living powers of nature struggling against death and the physician, he receives all the credit of a miraculous cure; he is lauded to the skies for delivering the sick from the details of the most deadly symptoms of misery into which he himself had plunged them, and out of which they never would have arisen, but by the restorative efforts of that living power which at once triumphed over poison, blood-letting, disease, and death." In the treatment of disease, and when fever is manifested by the signs just enumerated, the object is, to invite the blood to the external surface; or, in other words, equalize the circulation by warmth and moisture; give diaphoretic or sudorific medicines, (see APPENDIX,) with a view of relaxing the capillary structure, ridding the system of morbific materials, and allaying the general excitement. If the ears and legs are cold, rub them diligently with a brush; if they again relapse into a cold state, rub them with stimulating liniment, and bandage them with flannel. In short, to contract, to stimulate, remove obstructions, and furnish the system with the materials for self-defence, are the means to be resorted to in the cure of fevers. We shall now give a few examples of the treatment of fever; from which the reader will form some idea of the course to be pursued in other forms not enumerated. But we may be asked why we make so many divisions of fever when it is evidently a unit. We answer the question, in the words of Professor Curtis, whose teachings first emancipated us from the absurdity of allopathic theories. "These divisions were made by the learned in physic, and we follow them out in their efforts to divide what is in its nature indivisible, to satisfy the demands of the public, and to give it in small crumbs to those practitioners of the art who have not capacity enough to take in the whole at a single mouthful." In the treatment of fevers, we must endeavor to remove all intruding agents, their influences and effects, and reëstablish a full, free, and universal equilibrium throughout the system. "The means are," says Professor Curtis, "antispasmodics, stimulants, and tonics, with emollients to grease the wheels of life. Disprove these positions, and we lay by the pen and 'throw physic to the dogs.' Adhere strictly to them in the use of the best means, and you will do all that can be done in the hour of need." MILK OR PUERPERAL FEVER. _Treatment._--Aperients are exceedingly important in the early stages, for they liberate any offending matter that may have accumulated in the different compartments of the stomach or intestines, and deplete the system with more certainty and less danger than blood-letting. _Aperient for Puerperal Fever._ Rochelle salts, 4 ounces. Manna, 2 ounces. Extract of butternut, half an ounce. Dissolve in boiling water, 3 quarts. To be given at a dose. By the aid of one or more of the following drinks, the aperient will generally operate:-- Give a bountiful supply of hyssop tea, sweetened with honey. Keep the surface warm. Suppose the secretion of milk to be arrested; then apply warm fomentations to the udder. Suppose the bowels to be torpid; then use injections of soap-suds and salt. Suppose the animal to be in poor condition; then give the following:-- Powdered balmony or gentian, 1 ounce. Golden seal, 1 ounce. Flour gruel, 1 gallon. To be given in quart doses, every four hours. Suppose the bowels to be distended with gas; then give the following:-- Powdered caraways, 1 ounce. Assafoetida, 1 tea-spoonful. Boiling water, 2 quarts. To be given at a dose. Any of the above preparations may be repeated, as circumstances seem to require. Yet it must be borne in mind that we are apt to do too much, and that the province of the good physician is "to know when to do nothing." The following case from Mr. Youatt's work illustrates this fact:-- "A very singular variety of milk fever has already been hinted at. The cow is down, but there is apparently nothing more the matter with her than that she is unable to rise; she eats and drinks, and ruminates as usual, and the evacuations are scarcely altered. In this state she continues from ten days to a fortnight, and then she gets up well." Yes, and many thousands more would "get up well," if they were only let alone. Nature requires assistance sometimes; hence the need of doctors and nurses. All, however, that is required of the doctor to do is, just to attend to the calls of nature,--whose servant he is,--and bring her what she wants to use in her own way. The nearer the remedies partake or consist of air, water, warmth, and food, the more sure and certain are they to do good. If a cow, in high condition, has just calved, appears restless, becomes irritable, the eye and tongue protruding, and a total suspension of milk takes place, we may conclude that there is danger of puerperal fever. No time should be lost: the aperient must be given immediately; warm injections must be thrown into the rectum, and the teats must be industriously drawn, to solicit the secretion of milk. In this case, all food should be withheld: "starve a fever" suits this case exactly. INFLAMMATORY FEVER. Inflammatory fever manifests itself very suddenly. The animal may appear well during the day, but at night it appears dull, refuses its food, heaves at the flanks, seems uneasy, and sometimes delirious; the pulse is full and bounding; the mouth hot; urine high colored and scanty. Sometimes there are hot and cold stages. _Remarks._--When disease attacks any particular organ suddenly, or in an acute form, inflammatory fever generally manifests itself. Now, disease may attack the brain, the lungs, kidneys, spleen, bowels, pleura, or peritoneum. Inflammatory fever may be present in each case. Now, it is evident that the fever is not the real enemy to be overcome; it is only a manifestation of disorder, not the cause of it. The skin may be obstructed, thereby retaining excrementitious materials in the system: the reabsorption of the latter produces fever; hence it is obvious that a complete cure can only be effected by the removal of its causes, or, rather, the restoration of the suppressed evacuations, secretions, or excretions. It is very important that we observe and imitate nature in her method of curing fever, which is, the restoration of the secretions, and, in many cases, by sweat, or by diarrhoea; either of which processes will remove the irritating or offending cause, and promote equilibrium of action throughout the whole animal system. In fulfilling these indications consists the whole art of curing fever. But says one, "It is a very difficult thing to sweat an ox." Then the remedies should be more perseveringly applied. Warm, relaxing, antispasmodic drinks should be freely allowed, and these should be aided by warmth, moisture, and friction externally; and by injection, if needed. If the ox does not actually sweat under this system of medication, he will throw off a large amount of insensible perspiration. _Causes._--In addition to the causes already enumerated, are the accumulation of excrementitious and morbific materials in the system. Dr. Eberle says, "A large proportion of the recrementitious elements of perspirable matter must, when the surface is obstructed, remain and mingle with the blood, (unless speedily removed by the vicarious action of some other emunctory,) and necessarily impart to this fluid qualities that are not natural to it. Most assuredly the retention of materials which have become useless to the system, and for whose constant elimination nature has provided so extensive a series of emunctories as the cutaneous exhalents, cannot be long tolerated by the animal economy with entire impunity." Dr. White says, "Many of the diseases of horses and cattle are caused by suppressed or checked perspiration; the various appearances they assume depending, perhaps, in great measure, upon the suddenness with which this discharge is stopped, and the state of the animal at the time it takes place. "Cattle often suffer from being kept in cold, bleak situations, particularly in the early part of spring, during the prevalence of an easterly wind; in this case, the suppression of the discharge is more gradual, and the diseases which result from it are slower in their progress, consequently more insidious in their nature; and it often happens that the animal is left in the same cold situation until the disease is incurable." It seems probable that, in these cases, the perspiratory vessels gradually lose their power, and that, at length, a total and permanent suppression of that necessary discharge takes place; hence arise inflammatory fever, consumption, decayed liver, rot, mesenteric obstructions, and various other complaints. How necessary, therefore, is it for proprietors of cattle to be provided with sheltered situations for their stock! How many diseases might they prevent by such precaution, and how much might they save, not only in preserving the lives of their cattle, but in avoiding the expense (too often useless, to say the least of it) of cattle doctoring! _Treatment._--We first give an aperient, (see APPENDIX,) to deplete the system. The common practice is to deplete by blood-letting, which only protracts the malady, and often brings on typhus, black quarter, joint murrain, &c. Promote the secretions and excretions in the manner already referred to under the head of _Puerperal Fever_; this will relieve the stricture of the surface. A drink made from either of the following articles should be freely given: lemon balm, wandering milk weed, thoroughwort, or lady's slipper, made as follows:-- Take either of the above articles, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. When cool, strain, and add a wine-glass of honey. If there is great thirst, and the mouth is hot and dry, the animal may have a plentiful supply of water. If the malady threatens to assume a putrid or malignant type, add a small quantity of capsicum and charcoal to the drink, and support the strength of the animal with flour gruel. TYPHUS FEVER. _Causes._--Sudden changes in the temperature of the atmosphere, the animal being at the same time in a state of debility, unable to resist external agencies. _Treatment._--Support the powers of the system through the means of nutritious diet, in the form of flour gruel, scalded meal and shorts, bran-water, &c. Give tonics, relaxants, and antispasmodics, in the following form:-- Powdered capsicum, 1 tea-spoonful. " bloodroot, 1 ounce. " cinnamon, half an ounce. Thoroughwort or valerian, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 1 gallon. When cold, strain, and give a quart every two hours. Remove the contents of the rectum by injections of a stimulating character, and invite action to the extremities by rubbing them with stimulating liniment, (which see.) A drink of camomile tea should be freely allowed; if diarrhoea sets in, add half a tea-spoon of bayberry bark to every two quarts of the tea. These few examples of the treatment of fever will give the farmer an idea of the author's manner of treating it, who can generally break up a fever in a few hours, whereas the popular method of "smothering the fire," as Mr. Youatt terms the blood-letting process, instead of curing, will produce all forms of fever. Here is a specimen of the treatment, in fever of a putrid type, recommended by Dr. Brocklesby. He says, "Immediately upon refusing fodder, the beast should have three quarts of blood taken away; and after twelve hours, two quarts more; after the next twelve hours, about three pints may be let out; and after the following twelve hours, diminish a pint of blood from the quantity taken away at the preceding blood-letting; lastly, about a single pint should be taken away in less than twelve hours after the former bleeding; so that, when the beast has been blooded five times, in the manner here proposed, the worst symptoms will, it is hoped, abate; but if the difficulty and panting for breath continue very great, I see no reason against repeated bleeding." (See Lawson's work on cattle, p. 312.) The author has consulted several authorities on the treatment of typhus, and finds that the use of the lancet is invariably recommended. We do not expect to find, among our American farmers, any one so reckless, so lost to the common feelings of humanity, and his own interest, as to follow out the directions here given by Dr. B.; still blood-letting is practised, to some extent, in every section of the Union, and will continue to be the sheet-anchor of the cattle doctor just so long as the influential and cattle-rearing community shall be kept in darkness to its destructive tendency. Unfortunately for the poor dumb brute, veterinary writers have from time immemorial been uncompromising advocates for bleeding; and through the influence which their talents and position confer, they have wielded the medical sceptre with a despotism worthy of a better cause. It were a bootless task to attempt to reform the disciples of allopathy; for, if you deprive them of the lancet, and their _materia medica_ of poisons, they cannot practise. They must be reformed through public opinion; and for this purpose we publish our own experience, and that of others who have dared to assail allopathy, with the moral certainty that they would expose themselves to contempt, and be branded as "medical heretics." No treatment is scientific, in the estimation of some, unless it includes the lancet, firing-iron, setons, boring horns, cramming down salts by the pound, and castor oil by the quart. The object of this work is to correct this erroneous notion, and show the _farming community_ that a safer and more efficient system of medication has just sprung into existence. When the principles of this reformed system of medication are understood and practised, then the veterinary science will be a very different thing from what it has heretofore been, and men will hail it as a blessing instead of a "curse." They will then know the power that really cures, and devise means of prevention. And here, reader, permit us to introduce the opinions of an able advocate of reform in human practice:[13] the same remarks apply to cattle; for they are governed by the same universal laws that we are, and whether we prescribe for a man or an ox, the laws of the animal economy are the same, and require that the same indications shall be fulfilled. "A little examination into the consequences of blood-letting will prove that, so far from its being beneficial, it is productive of the most serious effects. "Nature has endowed the animal frame with the power of preparing, from proper aliment, a certain quantity of blood. This vital fluid, subservient to nutrition, is, by the amazing structure of the heart and blood-vessels, circulated through the different parts of the system. A certain natural balance between what is taken in and what passes off by the several outlets of the body is, in a state of health, regularly preserved. When this balance, so essential to health and life, is, contrary to the laws of the animal constitution, interrupted, either a deviation from a sound state is immediately perceived, or health from that moment is rendered precarious. Blood-letting tends artificially to destroy the natural balance in the constitution." (For more important information on blood-letting, see the author's work on the Horse; also page 58 of the present volume.) FOOTNOTE: [13] Dr. Beach. HORN AIL IN CATTLE. On applying the hand to the horn or horns of a sick beast, an unnatural heat, or sometimes coldness, is felt: this enables us to judge of the degree of sympathetic disturbance. And here, reader, permit us to protest against a cruel practice, that is much in fashion, viz., that of boring the horns with a gimlet; for it does not mend the matter one jot, and at best it is only treating symptoms. The gimlet frequently penetrates the frontal sinuses which communicate with the nasal passages, and where mucous secretion, if vitiated or tenacious, will accumulate. On withdrawing the gimlet, a small quantity of thick mucus, often blood, escapes, and the interested operator will probably bore the other horn. Now, it often happens that after the point of the gimlet has passed through one side of the horn and bony structure, it suddenly enters a sinus, and does not meet with any resistance until it reaches the opposite side. Many a "mare's nest" has been found in this way, usually announced as follows: "The horn is hollow!" Again, in aged animals, the bony structure within the horn often collapses or shrinks, forming a sinus or cavity within the horn: by boring in a lateral direction, the gimlet enters it; the horn is then pronounced hollow! and, according to the usual custom, must be doctored. An abscess will sometimes form in the frontal sinuses, resulting from common catarrh or "hoose;" the gimlet may penetrate the sac containing the pus, which thus escapes; but it would escape, finally, through the nostrils, if it were let alone. Here, again, the "horns are diseased;" and should the animal recover, (which it would, eventually, without any interference,) the recovery is strangely attributed to the boring process. An author, whose name has escaped our memory, recommends "cow doctors to carry a gimlet in their pocket." We say to such men, Lead yourselves not into temptation! if you put a gimlet into your pocket, you will be very likely to slip it into the cow's horn. Some men have a kind of instinctive impulse to bore the cow's horns; we allude to those who are unacquainted with the fact that "horn ail" is only a symptom of derangement. It is no more a disease of the horns than it is of the functions generally; for if there be an excess or deficiency of vital action within or around the base of the horn, there must be a corresponding deficiency or excess, as the case may be, in some other region. "Horn ail," as it is improperly termed, we have said, may accompany common catarrh, also that of an epidemic form; the horns will feel unnatural if there be a determination of blood to the head: this might be easily equalized by stimulating the external surface and extremities, at the same time giving antispasmodic teas and regulating the diet. The horns will feel cold whenever there is an unnatural distribution of the blood, and this may arise from exposure, or suffering the animal to wallow in filth. The author has been consulted in many cases of "horn ail," in several of which there were slow fecal movements, or constipation; the conjunctiva of the eyes were injected with yellow fluid, and of course a deficiency of bile in the abomasum, or fourth stomach; thus plainly showing that the animals were laboring under derangement of the digestive organs. Our advice was, to endeavor to promote a healthy action through the whole system; to stimulate the digestive organs; to remove obstructions, both by injection, if necessary, and by the use of aperients; lastly, to invite action to the extremities, by stimulating liniments. Whenever these indications are fulfilled, "horn ail" soon disappears. ABORTION IN COWS. Cows are particularly liable to the accident of "slinking the calf." The common causes of abortion are, the respiration and ultimate absorption of emanations from putrid animal remains, over-feeding, derangement of the stomach, &c. The filthy, stagnant water they are often compelled to drink is likewise a serious cause, not only of abortion, but also of general derangement of the animal functions. Dr. White, V. S., tells us that "a farm in England had been given up three successive times in consequence of the loss the owners sustained by abortion in their cattle. At length the fourth proprietor, after suffering considerably in losses occasioned by abortion in his stock, suspected that the water of his ponds, which was extremely filthy, might be the cause of the mischief. He therefore dug three wells upon his farm, and, having fenced round the pond to prevent the cattle from drinking there, caused them to be supplied with the well water, in stone troughs erected for the purpose; and from this moment the evil was remedied, and the quality of the butter and cheese made on his farm was greatly improved. In order to show," says the same author, "that the accident of abortion may arise from a vitiated state of the digestive organs, I will here notice a few circumstances tending to corroborate this opinion. In 1782, all the cows of the farmer D'Euruse, in Picardy, miscarried. The period at which they warped was about the fourth or fifth month. The accident was attributed to the excessive heat of the preceding summer; but, as the water they were in the habit of drinking was extremely bad, and they had been kept on oat, wheat, and rye straw, it appears to me more probable, that the great quantity of straw they were obliged to eat, in order to obtain sufficient nourishment, and the injury sustained by the third stomach in expressing the fluid parts of the masticated or ruminated mass, together with the large quantity of water they drank, while kept on this dry food, were the real causes of the miscarriage. "A farmer at Chariton, out of a dairy of twenty-eight cows, had sixteen slip their calves at different periods of gestation. The summer had been very dry; they had been pastured in a muddy place, which was flooded by the Seine. Here the cows were generally up to their knees in mud and water. In 1789, all the cows in a village near Mantes miscarried. All the lands in this place were so stiff as to be, for some time, impervious to water; and as a vast quantity of rain fell that year, the pastures were for a time completely inundated, on which account the grass became bad. This proves that keeping cows on food that is deficient in nutritive properties, and difficult of digestion, is one of the principal causes of miscarriage." Mr. Youatt says, "It is supposed that the sight of a slipped calf, or the smell of putrid animal substances, are apt to produce warping. Some curious cases of abortion, which are worthy of notice, happened in the dairy of a French farmer. For thirty years his cows had been subject to abortion. His cow-house was large and well ventilated; his cows were in apparent health; they were fed like others in the village; they drank the same water; there was nothing different in the posture; he had changed his servants many times in the course of thirty years; he pulled down the barn and cow-house, and built another, on a different plan; he even, agreeably to superstition, took away the aborted calf through the window, that the curse of future abortion might not be entailed on the cow that passed over the same threshold. To make all sure, he had broken through the wall at the end of the cow-house, and opened a new door. But still the trouble continued. Several of his cows had died in the act of abortion, and he had replaced them by others; many had been sold, and their vacancies filled up. He was advised to make a thorough change. This had never occurred to him; but at once he saw the propriety of the counsel. He sold every beast, and the pest was stayed, and never appeared in his new stock. This was owing, probably, to sympathetic influence: the result of such influence is as fatal as the direst contagion." My own opinion of this disease is, that it is one of nervous origin; that there is a loss of equilibrium between the nerves of voluntary and involuntary motion. The direct causes of this pathological state exist in any thing that can derange the organs of digestion. Great sympathy is known to exist between the organs of generation and the stomach: if the latter be deranged, the former feels a corresponding influence, and the sympathetic nerves are the media by which the change takes place. It invariably follows that, as soon as impregnation takes place, the stomach from that moment takes on an irritable state, and is more susceptible to the action of unfavorable agents. Thus the odor of putrid substances cases nausea or relaxation when the animal is in a state of pregnancy; otherwise, the same odor would not affect it in the least. Professor Curtis says, "The nervous system constitutes the check lines by which the vital spirit governs, as a coachman does his horses, the whole motive apparatus of the animal economy; that every line, or pencil, or ganglion of lines, in it, is antagonistic to some other line or ganglion, so that, whenever the function of one is exalted, that of some other is depressed. It follows, of course, that to equalize the nervous action, and to sustain the equilibrium, is one of the most important duties of the physician." In addition to the causes of abortion already enumerated, we may add violent exercise, jumping dikes or hedges, sudden frights, and blows or bruises. _Treatment._--When a cow has slipped her foetus, and appears in good condition, the quantity of food usually given should be lessened. Give the following drink every night for a week:-- Valerian, (herb,) 1 ounce. Powdered skunk cabbage, 1 tea-spoonful. Steep in half a gallon of boiling water. When cold, strain and administer. Suppose the animal to be in poor condition; then put her on a nourishing diet, and give tonics and stimulants, as follows:-- Powdered gentian, 1 ounce. " sassafras, 1 ounce. Linseed or flaxseed, 1 pound. Mix. Divide into six portions, and give one, night and morning, in the food, which ought to consist of scalded meal and shorts. A sufficient quantity of hay should be allowed; yet grass will be preferable, if the season permits. Suppose the animal to have received an injury; then rest and a scalded diet are all that are necessary. As a means of prevention, see article _Feeding_, page 17. COW-POX. This malady makes its appearance on the cow's teats in the form of small pustules, which, after the inflammatory stage, suppurate. A small quantity of matter then escapes, and forms a crust over the circumference of each pustule. If the crust be suffered to remain until new skin is formed beneath, they will heal without any interference. It often happens, however, that, in the process of milking, the scabs are rubbed off. The following wash must then be resorted to:-- Pyroligneous acid, a wine-glass. Water, 1 pint. Wet the parts two or three times a day; medicine is unnecessary. A few meals of scalded food will complete the cure. MANGE. "Mange may be generated either from excitement of the skin itself, or through the medium of that sympathetic influence which is known to exist between the skin and organs of digestion. We have, it appears to me, an excellent illustration of this in the case of mange supervening upon poverty--a fact too notorious to be disputed, though there may be different ways of theorizing on it." Mr. Blanie says, "Mange has three origins--filth, debility, and contagion." _Treatment._--Rid the system of morbific materials with the following:-- Powdered sassafras, 2 ounces. " charcoal, a handful. Sulphur, 1 ounce. Mix, and divide into six parts; one to be given in the feed, night and morning. The daily use of the following wash will then complete the cure, provided proper attention be paid to the diet. _Wash for Mange._ Pyroligneous acid, 4 ounces. Water, a pint. The mange is known to be infectious: this suggests the propriety of removing the animal from the rest of the herd. HIDE-BOUND. This is seldom, if ever, a primary disease. The known sympathy existing between the digestive organs and the skin enables us to trace the malady to acute or chronic indigestion. _Treatment._--The indications to be fulfilled are, to invite action to the surface by the aid of warmth, moisture, friction, and stimulants, to tone up the digestive organs, and relax the whole animal. The latter indications are fulfilled by the use of the following:-- Powdered balmony, (snakehead,) 2 ounces. " sassafras, 1 ounce. Linseed, 2 pounds. Sulphur, 1 ounce. Mix together, and divide the mass into eight equal parts, and give one night and morning, in scalded shorts or meal; the better way, however, is, to turn it down the throat. A few boiled carrots should be allowed, especially in the winter season, for they possess peculiar remedial properties, which are generally favorable to the cure. LICE. _Treatment._--Wash the skin, night and morning, with the following:-- Powdered lobelia seeds, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 1 quart. After standing a few hours, it is fit for use, and can be applied with a sponge. IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING THE SKIN OF ANIMALS IN A HEALTHY STATE. This is a subject of great importance to the farmer; for many of the diseases of cattle arise from the filthy, obstructed state of the surface. This neglect of cleansing the hide of cattle arises, in some cases, from the absurd notion (often expressed to the author) that the hide of cattle is so thick and dense that they never sweat, except on the muzzle! For the information of those who may have formed such an absurd and dangerous notion, we give the views of Professor Bouley. "In all animals, from the exterior tegumentary surface incessantly exhale vaporous or gaseous matters, the products of chemical operations going on in the interior of the organism, of which the uninterrupted elimination is a necessary condition for the regular continuance of the functions. Regarded in this point of view, the skin may be considered as a dependency of the respiratory apparatus, of which it continues and completes the function, by returning incessantly to the atmosphere the combusted products, which are water and carbonic acid. "Therefore the skin, properly speaking, is an expiratory apparatus, which, under ordinary conditions of the organism, exhales, in an insensible manner, products analogous to those expired from the pulmonary surface; with this difference, that the quantity of carbonic acid is very much less considerable in the former than in the latter of these exhalations; according to Burbach, the proportion of carbonic acid, as inhaled by the skin, being to that expired by the lungs as 350 to 23,450, or as 1 to 67. "The experiments made on inferior animals, such as frogs, toads, salamanders, or fish, have demonstrated the waste by general transpiration to be, in twenty-four hours, little less than half the entire weight of the body." The same author remarks, "Direct experiment has shown, in the clearest manner, the close relation of function existing between the perspiratory and respiratory membranes." "M. Fourcault, with a view of observing, through different species of animals, the effect of the suppression of perspiration, conceived the notion of having the skins of certain live animals covered with varnish. After having been suitably prepared, some by being plucked, others by being shorn, he smeared them with varnish of variable composition; the substances employed being tar, paste, glue, pitch, and other plastic matters. Sometimes these, one or more of them, were spread upon parts, sometimes upon the whole of the body. The effects of the operation have varied, showing themselves, soon or late afterwards, decisively or otherwise, according as the varnishing has been complete or general, or only partial, thick, thin, &c. In every instance, the health of the animal has undergone strange alterations, and life has been grievously compromised. Those that have been submitted to experiment under our eyes have succumbed in one, two, three days, and even at the expiration of some hours." (See _London Veterinarian_ for 1850, p. 353.) In a subsequent number of the same work we find the subject resumed; from which able production we select the following:-- "The suppression of perspiration has at all times been thought to have a good deal to do with the production of disease. Without doubt this has been exaggerated. But, allowing this exaggeration, is it not admitted by all practitioners that causes which act through the medium of the skin are susceptible, in sufficient degree, of being appreciated in the circumstances ushering in the development of very many diseases, especially those characterized by any active flux of the visceral organs? For example, is it not an incontestable pathological fact, that catarrhal, bronchial, pulmonic, and pleuritic affections, congestions of the most alarming description in the vascular abdominal system of the horse, inflammation of the peritoneum and womb following labor, catarrhal inflammations of the bowels, even congestions of the feet, &c., derive their origin, in a great number of instances, from cold applied to the skin in a state of perspiration? What happens in the organism after the application of such a cause? Is its effect instantaneous? Let us see. Immediately on the repercussive action of cold being felt by the skin, the vascular system of internal parts finds itself filled with repelled blood. Though this effect, however, be simply hydrostatic, the diseased phenomena consecutive on it are far otherwise. "It is quite certain that, in the immense system of communicating vessels forming the circulating apparatus, whenever any large quantity of blood flows to any one particular part of the body, the other vessels of the system must be comparatively empty.[14] The knowledge of this organic hydrostatic fact it is that has given origin to the use of revulsives under their various forms, and we all well know how much service we derive from their use. "But in what does this diseased condition consist? Whereabouts is it seated? "The general and undefined mode it has of showing its presence in the organism points this out. Immediately subsequent to the action of the cause, the actual seat of the generative condition of the disease about to appear is the blood; this fluid it is which, having become actually modified in its chemical compositions under the influence of the cause that has momentarily obstructed the cutaneous exhalations, carries about every where with it the disordered condition, and ultimately giving rise, through it, to some local disease, as a sort of eruptive effort, analogous in its object, but often less salutary in its effect; owing to the functional importance of the part attacked, to the external eruptions produced by the presence in the blood of virus, which alters both its dynamic and chemical properties. "But what is the nature of this alteration? In this case, every clew to the solution of this question fails us. We know well, when the experiment is designedly prolonged, the blood grows black, as in _asphyxia_, (loss of pulse,) through the combination with it of carbonic acid, whose presence is opposed to the absorption of oxygen. But what relation is there between this chemical alteration of blood here and the modifications in composition it may undergo under the influence of instantaneous suppression, but not persistent, of the cutaneous exhalations and secretions? The experiments of Dr. Fourcault tend, on the whole, to explain this. His experiments discover the primitive form and almost the nature of the alteration the blood undergoes under the influence of the cessation of the functions of the skin. They demonstrate that under these conditions the regularity of the course of this fluid is disturbed--that it has a tendency to accumulate and stagnate within the internal organs: witness the abdominal pains so frequently consequent on the application of plasters upon the skin, and the congestions of the abdominal and pulmonary vascular systems met with almost always on opening animals which have been suffocated through tar or pitch plasters. "They prove, in fact, the thorough aptitude of impression of the nervous system to blood altered in its chemical properties, while they afford us an explication of the phenomena of depression, and muscular prostration, and weakness, which accompany the beginning of disease consecutive on the operation of cold. "How often do we put a stop to the ulterior development of disease by restoring the function of the skin by mere [dry] friction, putting on thick clothing, exposing to exciting fumigation, applying temporary revulsives in the shape of mustard poultices, administering diffusible stimuli made warm in drenches, trying every means to force the skin, and so tend, by the reëstablishment of its exhalent functions, to permit the elimination of blood saturated with carbonic matters opposed to the absorption by it of oxygen! "Do we not here perceive, so to express ourselves, the evil enter and depart through the skin? "M. Roche-Lubin gives an account of some lambs which were exposed, after being shorn, to a humid icy cold succeeding upon summer heat. These animals all died; and their post mortem examination disclosed nothing further than a blackened condition of blood throughout the whole circulating system, with stagnation in some organs, such as the liver, the spleen, or abdominal vascular system. "From the foregoing disclosures, which might be multiplied if there was need of it, we learn that the regularity or perversion of the functions of the skin exercises an all-powerful influence over the conservation or derangement of the health, and that very many diseases can be traced to no other origin than the interruption, more or less, of these functions." These remarks are valuable, inasmuch as they go to prove the importance, in the treatment of disease, of a restoration of the lost function. Our system of applying friction, warmth, and moisture to the external surface, in all cases of internal disease, here finds, in the authors just quoted, able advocates. FOOTNOTE: [14] What a destructive system, then, must blood-letting be, which proposes to supply this deficiency in the empty vessels by opening a vein and suffering the contents of the overcharged vessels to fall to the ground! If the blood abstracted from the full veins could be returned into those "empty" ones, then there would be some sense in blood-letting. SPAYING COWS. The castration of cows has been practised for several years in different parts of the world, with such remarkable success, that no one will doubt there are advantages to be derived from it. For the benefit of those who may have doubts on this subject, we give the opinions of a committee appointed by the Rheims Academy to investigate the matter. "To the question put to the committee-- "1st. Is the spaying of cows a dangerous operation? "The answer is, This operation, in itself, involves no more danger than many others of as bold a character, (as puncture of the rumen,) which are performed without accident by men even strangers to the veterinary art. Two minutes suffice for the extraction of the ovaries; two minutes more for suturing the wound. "2dly. Will not the spaying of cows put an end to the production of the species? "Without doubt, this is an operation which must be kept within bounds. It is in the vicinity of large towns that most benefit will be derived from it, where milk is most generally sought after, and where pasturage is scanty, and consequently food for cows expensive. On this account it is not the practice to raise calves about the environs of Paris. Indeed, at Cormenteul, near Rheims, out of one hundred and forty-five cows kept, not more than from ten to fifteen calves are produced yearly. "3dly. Is spaying attended with amelioration of the quality of the meat? "That cows fatten well after being spayed is an incontestable fact, long known to agriculturists. "4thly. Does spaying prolong the period of lactation, and increase the quantity of milk? "The cow will be found to give as much milk after eighteen months as immediately after the operation; and there was found in quantity, in favor of the spayed cows, a great difference. "5thly. Is the quality of the milk ameliorated by spaying? "To resolve this question, we have thought proper to make an appeal to skilful chemists resident in the neighborhood; and they have determined that the milk abounds more by one third in cheese and butter than that of ordinary cows." Mr. Percival says, "No person hesitates to admit the advantages derivable from the castration of bulls and stallions. I do not hesitate to aver, that equal, if not double, advantages are to be derived from the same operation when performed on cows." "It is to America we are indebted for this discovery. In 1832, an American traveller, a lover of milk, no doubt, asked for some of a farmer at whose house he was. Surprised at finding at this farm better milk than he had met with elsewhere, he wished to know the reason of it. After some hesitation, the farmer avowed, that he had been advised to perform on his cows the same operation as was practised on the bulls. The traveller was not long in spreading this information. The Veterinary Society of the country took up the discovery, when it got known in America. The English--those ardent admirers of beefsteaks and roast beef--profited by the new procedure, as they know how to turn every thing to account, and at once castrated their heifers, in order to obtain a more juicy meat. "The Swiss, whose principal employment is agricultural, had the good fortune to possess a man distinguished in his art, who foresaw, and was anxious to realize, the advantages of castrating milch cows. M. Levrat, veterinary surgeon at Lausanne, found in the government of his country an enlightened assistant in his praiseworthy and useful designs, so that, at the present day, instructions in the operation of spaying enter into the requirements of the programme of the professors of agriculture, and the gelders of the country are not permitted to exercise their calling until they have proved their qualifications on the same point."--_London Vet._ p. 274, 1850. For additional evidence in favor of spaying, see Albany Cultivator, p. 195, vol. vi. We have conversed with several farmers in this section of the United States, and find, as a general thing, that they labor under the impression that spaying is chiefly resorted to with a view of fattening cattle for the market. We have, on all occasions, endeavored to correct this erroneous conclusion, and at the same time to point out the benefits to be derived from this practice. The quality of the milk is superior, and the quantity is augmented. Many thousands of the miserable specimens of cows, that the farmer, with all his care, and having, at the same time an abundance of the best kind of provender, is unable to fatten, might, after the operation of spaying, be easily fattened, and rendered fit for the market; or, if they shall have had calves, they may be made permanent, and, of course, profitable milkers. If a cow be in a weak, debilitated state, or, in other words, "out of condition," she may turn out to be a source of great loss to the owner. In the first place, her offspring will be weak and inefficient; successive generations will deteriorate; and if the offspring be in a close degree of relationship, they will scarcely be worth the trouble of rearing. The spaying of such a cow, rather than she shall give birth to weak and worthless offspring, would be a great blessing; for then one of the first causes of degeneracy in live stock will have been removed. Again, a cow in poor condition is a curse to the farmer; for she is often the medium through which epidemics, infectious diseases, puerperal fever, &c., are communicated to other stock. If there are such diseases in the vicinity, those in poor flesh are sure to be the first victims; and they, coming in contact with others laboring under a temporary indisposition, involve them in the general ruin. If prevention be cheaper than cure,--and who doubts it?--then the farmer should avail himself of the protection which spaying seems to hold out. OPERATION OF SPAYING. The first and most important object in the successful performance of this operation is to secure the cow, so that she shall not injure herself, nor lie down, nor be able to kick or injure the operator. The most convenient method of securing the cow is, to place her in the trevis;[15] the hind legs should then be securely tied in the usual manner: the band used for the purpose of raising the hind quarters when being shod must be passed under the belly, and tightened just sufficient to prevent the animal lying down. Having secured the band in this position, we proceed, with the aid of two or more assistants, in case the animal should be irritable, to perform the operation. And here, for the benefit of that portion of our readers who desire to perform the operation _secundum artem_, we detail the method recommended by Morin, a French veterinary surgeon; although it has been, and can again be, performed with a common knife, a curved needle, and a few silken threads to close the external wound. The author is acquainted with a farmer, now a resident of East Boston, who has performed this operation with remarkable success, both in this country and Scotland, with no other instruments than a common shoemaker's knife and a curved needle. The fact is, the ultimate success of the operation does not depend so much on the instruments as on the skill of the operator. If he is an experienced man, understands the anatomy of the parts, and is well acquainted, by actual experience, with the nature of the operation, then the instruments become a matter of taste. The best operators are those who devote themselves entirely to the occupation. (See Mr. Blane's account of his "first essay in firing," p. 85, note.) Morin advises us to secure the cow, by means of five rings, to the wall. (See Albany Cultivator, vol. vi. p. 244, 1850.) "The cow being conveniently disposed of, and the instruments and appliances,--such as curved scissors, upon a table, a convex-edged bistoury, a straight one, and one buttoned at the point, suture needle filled with double thread of desired length, pledgets of lint of appropriate size and length, a mass of tow (in pledgets) being collected in a shallow basket, held by an assistant,--we place ourselves opposite to the left flank, our back turned a little towards the head of the animal; we cut off the hair which covers the hide in the middle of the flanks, at an equal distance between the back and hip, for the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference; this done, we take the convex bistoury, and place it open between our teeth, the edge out, the point to the left; then, with both hands, we seize the hide in the middle of the flank, and form of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, and running lengthwise of the body. "We then direct an assistant to seize, with his right hand, the right side of this wrinkle. We then take the bistoury, and cut the wrinkle at one stroke through the middle, the wrinkle having been suffered to go down, a separation of the hide is presented of sufficient length to enable us to introduce the hand; thereupon we separate the edges of the hide with the thumb and fore finger of the left hand, and, in like manner, we cut through the abdominal muscles, the iliac, (rather obliquely,) and the lumbar, (cross,) for a distance of a centimetre from the lower extremity of the incision made in the hide: this done, armed with the straight bistoury, we make a puncture of the peritoneum, at the upper extremity of the wound; we then introduce the buttoned bistoury, and we move it obliquely from above to the lower part up to the termination of the incision made in the abdominal muscles. The flank being opened, we introduce the right hand into the abdomen, and direct it along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind the paunch and underneath the rectum, where we find the horns of the uterus; after we have ascertained the position of these viscera, we search for the ovaries, which are at the extremity of the _cornua_, or horns, (fallopian tubes,) and when we have found them, we seize them between the thumb and fore finger, detach them completely from the ligaments that keep them in their place, pull lightly, separating the cord, and the vessels (uterine or fallopian tubes) at their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nails of the thumb and fore finger, which presents itself at the point of touch; in fact, we break the cord, and bring away the ovarium. "We then introduce again the hand in the abdominal cavity, and we proceed in the same manner to extract the other ovarium. "This operation terminated, we, by the assistance of a needle, place a suture of three or four double threads, waxed, at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a little less, from the lips of the wound; passing it through the divided tissues, we move from the left hand with the piece of thread; having reached that point, we fasten with a double knot; we place the seam in the intervals of the thread from the right, and as we approach the lips of the wound, we fasten by a simple knot, being careful not to close too tightly the lower part of the seam, so that the suppuration, which may be established in the wound, may be able to escape. "The operation effected, we cover up the wound with a pledget of lint, kept in its place by three or four threads passed through the stitches, and all is completed. "It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles of which we have before spoken, we cut one or two of the arteries, which bleed so much that there is necessity for a ligature before opening the peritoneal sac, because, if this precaution be omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, and may occasion the most serious consequences." The best time for spaying cows, with a view of making them permanent milkers, is between the ages of five and seven, especially if they have had two or three calves. If intended to be fattened for beef, the operation should not be performed until the animal has passed its second year, nor after the twelfth. We usually prepare the animal by allowing a scalded mash every night, within a few days of the operation. The same precaution is observed after the operation. If, after the operation, the animal appears dull and irritable, and refuses her food, the following drink must be given:-- Valerian, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Set the mixture aside to cool. Then strain, and add infusion of marshmallows (see APPENDIX) one quart; which may be given in pint doses every two hours. If a bad discharge sets up from the wound,--but this will seldom happen, unless the system abounds in morbific materials,--then, in addition to the drink, wash the wound with Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Water, 2 quarts. Mix. FOOTNOTES: [15] Although we recommend that cows be confined in the trevis for the purpose of performing this operation, it by no means follows that it cannot be done as well in other ways. In fact, the trevis is inadmissible where chloroform is used. The animal must be cast in order to use that agent with any degree of safety. If the trevis is not at hand, we should prefer to operate, having the cow secured to the floor, or held in that position by trusty assistants. We lately operated on a cow, the property of Mr. C. Drake of Holliston, in this state, under very unfavorable circumstances; yet, as will appear from the accompanying note, the cow is likely to do well, notwithstanding. The history of the case is as follows: We were sent for by Mr. D. to see a heifer having a swelling under the jaw, which proved to be a scirrhous gland. After giving our opinion and prescribing the usual remedies, the conversation turned upon spaying cattle; and Mr. D. remarked that he had a five year old cow, on which we might, if we chose, operate. This we rather objected to at first, as the cow was in a state of plethora, and the stomach very much distended with food; yet, as the owner appeared willing to share the responsibility, we consented to perform the operation. The cow was accordingly cast, in the usual manner, she lying on her right side, her head being firmly held by an assistant. We then made an incision through the skin, muscles, and peritoneum. The hand was then introduced, and each ovary in its turn brought as near to the external wound as possible, and separated from its attachment with a button-pointed bistoury. The wound was then brought together with four interrupted sutures, and dressed as already described. Directions were given to keep the animal quiet, and on a light diet: the calf, which was four weeks old, to suckle as usual. The operation was performed on the 17th of January, 1851, and on the 27th, the following communication was received:-- DR. DADD. Dear Sir: Agreeably to request, I will inform you as regards the cow. I must say that, so far as appearances are concerned, she is doing well. She has a good appetite, and chews her cud, and the wound is not swelled or inflamed. Yours truly, C. DRAKE. HOLLISTON, _Jan 27, 1851_. [Illustration: Three South Down Wethers The Property of Mr. Jonas Webb of Babraham, near Cambridge, which obtained Prizes in their respective classes at the Smithfield Cattle Show, Decr. 1839.] SHEEP. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. Many of the diseases to which sheep are subject can be traced to want of due care in their management. The common practice of letting them range in marshy lands is one of the principal causes of disease. The feet of sheep are organized in such a manner as to be capable, when in a healthy state, of eliminating from the system a large amount of worn-out materials--excrementitious matter, which, if retained in the system, would be injurious. The direct application of cold tends to contract the mouths of excrementitious vessels, and the morbid matter accumulates. This is not all. There are in the system numerous outlets,--for example, the kidneys, lungs, surface, feet, &c. The health of the animal depends on all these functions being duly performed. If a certain function be interrupted for any length of time, it is sure to derange the system. Diseases of the feet are very common in wet situations, and are a source of great loss to the farming community. Hence it becomes a matter of great importance to know how to manage them so as to prevent diseases of the feet. Professor Simonds says, "No malady was probably so much feared by the agriculturist as the rot; and with reason, for it was most destructive to his hopes. It was commonly believed to be incurable, and therefore it was all important to inquire into the causes which gave rise to it. Some pastures were notorious for rotting sheep; on other lands, sheep, under all ordinary circumstances, were pastured with impunity; but, as a broad principle, it might be laid down that an excess of moisture is prejudicial to the health of the animal. Sheep, by nature, are not only erratic animals, wandering over a large space of ground, but are also inhabitants of arid districts. The skill of man has increased and improved the breed, and has naturalized the animal in moist and temperate climates. But, nevertheless, circumstances now and then take place which show that its nature is not entirely changed; thus, a wet season occurs, the animals are exposed to the debilitating effects of moisture, and the rot spreads among them to a fearful extent. The malady is not confined to England or to Europe; it is found in Asia and Africa, and occurs also in Egypt on the receding of the waters of the Nile. "These facts are valuable, because they show that the cause of the disease is not local--that it is not produced by climate or temperature; for it is found that animals in any temperature become affected, and on any soil in certain seasons. A great deal had been written on rot in sheep, which it were to be wished had not been. Many talented individuals had devoted their time to its investigation, endeavoring to trace out a cause for it, as if it originated from one cause alone. But the facts here alluded to would show that it arose from more causes than one. He had mentioned the circumstance with regard to land sometimes producing rot, and sometimes not; but he would go a step further, and ask, Was there any particular period of the year when animals were subject to the attack? Undoubtedly there was. In the rainy season, the heat and moisture combined would produce a most luxuriant herbage; but that herbage would be deficient in nutriment, and danger would be run; the large quantity of watery matter in the food acting as a direct excitement to the abnormal functions of the digestive organs. Early disturbance of the liver led to the accumulation of fat, (state of plethora;) consequently, an animal being 'touched with the rot' thrived much more than usual. This reminded him that the celebrated Bakewell was said to be in the habit of placing his sheep on land notorious for rotting them, in order to prevent other people from getting his stock, and likewise to bring them earlier to market for the butcher." Referring to diseases of the liver, Professor S. remarked, that "the bile in rot, in consequence of the derangement of the liver being continued, lost the property of converting the chymous mass into nutritious matter, and the animal fell away in condition. Every part of the system was now supplied with impure blood, for we might as well expect pure water from a poisoned fountain as pure blood when the secretion of bile was unhealthy. This state of the liver and the system was associated with the existence of parasites in the liver. "Some persons suppose that these parasites, which, from their particular form, were called flukes, were the cause of the rot. They are only the effect; yet it is to be remembered that they multiply so rapidly that they become the cause of further diseased action. Sheep, in the earlier stages of the affection, before their biliary ducts become filled with flukes, may be restored; but, when the parasites existed in abundance, there was no chance of the animal's recovery. Those persons who supposed flukes to be the cause of rot had, perhaps, some reason for that opinion. Flukes are oviparous; their ova mingle with the biliary secretion, and thus find their way out of the intestinal canal into the soil; as in the feculent matter of rotten sheep may be found millions of flukes. A Mr. King, of Bath, (England,) had unhesitatingly given it as his opinion that flukes were the cause of rot; believing that, if sheep were pastured on land where the ova existed, they would be taken up with the food, enter into the ramifications of the biliary ducts, and thus contaminate the whole liver. There appeared some ground for this assertion, because very little indeed was known with reference to the duration of life in its latent form in the egg. How long the eggs of birds would remain without undergoing change, if not placed under circumstances favorable to the development of life in a more active form, was undecided. It was the same with the ova of these parasites; so long as they remained on the pasture they underwent no change; but place them in the body of the animal, and subject them to the influence of heat, &c., then those changes would commence which ended in the production of perfect flukes. Take another illustration of the long duration of latent life: Wheat had been locked up for hundreds of years--nay, for thousands--in Egyptian mummies, without undergoing any change, and yet, when planted, had been found prolific. ... He was not, then, to say that rot was in all cases a curable affection; but at the same time he was fully aware that many animals, that are now considered incurable, might be restored, if sufficient attention was given to them. About two years ago, he purchased seven or eight sheep, all of them giving indisputable proof of rot in its advanced stage. He intended them for experiment and dissection; but as he did not require all of them, and during the winter season only he could dissect, he kept some till summer. They were supplied with food of nutritious quality, free from moisture; they were also protected from all storms and changes of weather, being placed in a shed. The result was, that without any medicine, two of these rotten sheep quite recovered; and when he killed them, although he found that the liver had undergone some change, still the animals would have lived on for years. Rot, in its advanced stage, was a disease which might be considered as analogous to dropsy. A serous fluid accumulates in various parts of the body, chiefly beneath the cellular tissue; consequently, some called it the _water_ rot, others the _fluke_ rot; but these were merely indications of the same disease in different stages. If flukes were present, it was evident that, in order to strike at the root of the malady, they must get rid of these _entozoa_, and that could only be effected by bringing about a healthy condition of the system. Nothing that could be done by the application of medicine would act on them to affect their vitality. It was only by strengthening their animal powers that they were enabled to give sufficient tone to the system to throw off the flukes; for this purpose many advocated salt. Salt was an excellent stimulative to the digestive organs, and might also be of service in restoring the biliary secretion, from the soda which it contained. So well is its stimulative action known, that some individuals always keep salt in the troughs containing the animal's food. This was a preventive, they had good proof, seeing that it mattered not how moist the soil might be in salt marshes; no sheep were ever attacked by rot in them, whilst those sent there infected very often came back free. Salt, therefore, must not be neglected; but then came the question, Could they not do something more? He believed they could give tonics with advantage.... "The principles he wished to lay down were, to husband the animals' powers by placing them in a situation where they should not be exposed to the debilitating effects of cold storms; to supply them with nutritious food, and such as contained but a small quantity of water; and, as a stimulant to the digestive organs, to mix it with salt." The remarks of Professor S. are valuable to the American farmer. First, because they throw some light on the character of a disease but imperfectly understood; secondly, they recommend a safe, efficient, and common-sense method of treating it; and lastly, they recommend such preventive measures as, in this enlightened age, every farmer must acknowledge to be the better part of sheep doctoring. The reader will easily perceive the reason why the food of sheep is injurious when wet or saturated with its own natural juices, when he learns that the digestive process is greatly retarded, unless the masticated food be well saturated with the gastric fluid. If the gastric fluid cannot pervade it, then fermentation takes place; by which process the nutritive properties of the food are partly destroyed, and what remains cannot be taken up before it passes from the vinous into the acetous or putrefactive fermentation; the natural consequence is, that internal disease ensues, which often gravitates to the feet, thereby producing rot. This is not all. Such food does not furnish sufficient material to replenish the daily waste and promote the living integrity. In short, it produces debility, and debility includes one half the causes of disease. It must be a matter of deep interest to the farmer to know how to prevent disease in his flock, and improve their condition, &c.; for if he possessed the requisite knowledge, he would not be compelled to offer mutton at so low a rate as from three to four cents a pound, at which price it is often sold in the Boston market. We have already alluded to the fact that neat cattle can, with the requisite knowledge, be improved at least twenty-five per cent.; and we may add, without fear of contradiction, that the same applies to sheep. If, then, their value can be increased in the same ratio as that of other classes of live stock, how much will the proprietors of sheep gain by the operation? Suppose we set down the number of sheep in the United States at twenty-seven millions,--which will not fall far short of the mark,--and value them at the low price of one dollar per head: we get a clear gain, in the carcasses alone, of six millions seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The increase in the quantity, and of course in the value, of wool would pay the additional expenses incurred. It is a well-known fact that, when General Washington left his estate to engage in the councils of his country, his sheep then yielded five pounds of wool. At the time of his return, the animals had so degenerated as to yield but two and a half pounds per fleece. This was not altogether owing to the quality of their food, but in part to want of due care in breeding. It is well known that many diseases are propagated and aggravated through the sexual congress; and no matter how healthy the dam is, or how much vital resistance she possesses,--if the male be weak and diseased, the offspring will be more or less diseased at birth. (See article _Breeding_.) Dr. Whitlaw observes, "The Deity has given power to man to ameliorate his condition, as may be truly seen by strict attention to the laws of nature. An attentive observer may soon perceive, that milk, butter, and meat, of animals that feed on good herbage, in high and dry soils, are the best; and that strong nourishment is the produce of those animals that feed on bottom land; but those that feed on a marshy, wet soil produce more acrid food, even admitting that the herbage be of the bland and nutritious kind; but if it be composed in part of poisonous plants, the sheep become diseased and rotten, much more so than cattle, for they do not drink to the same degree, and therefore (particularly those that chew the cud) are not likely to throw off the poison. Horses would be more liable to disease than cattle were it not for their sagacity in selecting the wholesome from the poisonous herbage. "A great portion of the mutton slaughtered is unfit for food, from the fact that their lungs are often in a state of decomposition, their livers much injured by insects, and their intestines in a state of ulceration, from eating poisonous herbs." Linnæus says, "A dry place renders plants sapid; a succulent place, insipid; and a watery place, corrosive." One farmer, in the vicinity of Sherburne, (England,) had, during the space of a few weeks, lost nearly nine hundred sheep by the rot. The fear of purchasing diseased mutton is so prevalent in families, that the demand for mutton has become extremely limited. In the December number of the London Veterinarian we find an interesting communication from the pen of Mr. Tavistock, V. S., which will throw some light on the causes of disease in sheep. The substance of these remarks is as follows: "On a large farm, situated in the fertile valley of the Tavey, is kept a large flock of sheep, choice and well bred. It is deemed an excellent sheep farm, and for some years no sheep could be healthier than were his flock. About eighteen months ago, however, some ewes were now and then found dead. This was attributed to some of the many maladies sheep-flesh is 'heir to,' and thought no more about. Still it did not cease; another and another died, from time to time, until at length, it becoming a question of serious consequence, my attention was called to them. I made, as opportunities occurred, minute post mortem examinations. The sheep did not die rapidly, but one a week, and sometimes one a fortnight, or even three weeks. No previous illness whatever was manifested. They were always found dead in the attitude of sleep; the countenance being tranquil and composed, not a blade of grass disturbed by struggling; nor did any circumstance evidence that pain or suffering was endured. It was evident that the death was sudden. We fancied the ewes must obtain something poisonous from the herbage, and the only place they could get any thing different from the other sheep was in the orchards, since there the ewes went at the lambing time, and occasionally through the summer. But so they had done for years before, and yet contracted no disease. Well, then, the orchards were the suspected spots, and it was deemed expedient to request Mr. Bartlett, a botanist, to make a careful examination of the orchards, and give us his opinion thereon. The following is the substance of his report:-- "The part of the estate to which the sheep unfortunately had access, where the predisposing causes of disease prevailed, was an orchard, having a gradual slope of about three quarters of a mile in extent, from the high ground to the bed of the river, ranging about east and west; the hills on each side being constituted of argillaceous strata of laminated slate, which, although having an angle of inclination favoring drainage on the slopes, yet in the valleys often became flat or horizontal, and on which also accumulated the clays, and masses of rock, in detached blocks, often to the depth of twenty feet--a state of things which gives the valley surface and soil a very rugged and unequal outline; the whole, at the same time, offering the greatest obstruction to regular drainage. "These are spots selected for orchard draining in England; the truth being lost sight of, that surfaces and soil for apple-tree growth require the most perfect admixture with atmospheric elements, and the freest outlet for the otherwise accumulating moisture, to prevent dampness and acidity, the result of the shade of the tree itself, produced by the fall of the leaf. "On this estate these things had never been dreamt of before planting the orchards. The apple-tree, in short, as soon as its branches and leaves spread with the morbid growth of a dozen years, aids itself in the destructive process; the soil becomes yearly more poisonous, the roots soon decay, and the tree falls to one side, as we witness daily, while the herbage beneath and around becomes daily more unfit to sustain animal life. Numerous forms of poisonous fungi, microscopic and otherwise, are here at home, and nourished by the carburetted and other forms of hydrogen gas hourly engendered and saturating the soil; while on the dampest spots the less noxious portions of such hydrates are assimilated by the mint plant in the shape of oil; and which disputes with sour, poisonous, and blossomless grasses for the occupancy of the surface, mingled with the still more noxious straggling forms of the ethusa, occasionally the angelica, vison, conium, &c. "This state of things, brought into existence by this wretched and barbarous mode of planting orchard valleys, usually reaches its consummation in about thirty years, and sometimes much less, as in the valley under notice. Thus it is that such spots, often the richest in capabilities on the estate, (the deep soil being the waste and spoil of the higher ground and slopes,) become a bane to every form of useful vegetation; and, at the same time, are a hotbed of luxuriance to every thing that is poisonous, destructive, and deleterious to almost every form of animal life. And such an animal as the sheep, while feeding among such herbage, would inhale a sufficiency of noxious gases, especially in summer, through the nostrils alone, to produce disease even in a few hours, though the herbage devoured should lie harmless in the stomach. But with regard to the sheep in the present case, we fear they had no choice in the matter, and were driven by hunger to feed, being shut into these orchards; and thus not only ate the poisoned grasses, but with every mouthful swallowed a portion of the water-engendering mint, the acrid crowfoot, ranunculus leaves, &c., surrounding every blade of grass; while the other essential elements of vegetable poison, the most virulent forms of agarici and their spawn, with other destructive fungi, were swallowed as a sauce to the whole. This fearful state of things, to which sheep had access, soon manifested its results; for although a hog or a badger might here fatten, yet to an animal so susceptible to atmospheric influences, unwholesome, undrained land, &c., as the sheep, the organization forbids the assimilation of such food; and although a process of digestion goes on, yet its hydrous results (if we may use such a term) not only overcharge the blood with serum, but, through unnatural channels, cause effusion into the chest, heart, veins, &c., when its effects are soon manifested in sudden and quick dissolution, being found dead in the attitude of sleep." It is probable that the gases which arose from this imperfectly drained estate played their part in the work of destruction; not only by coming in immediate contact with the blood through the medium of the air-cells in the lungs, but by mixing with the food in the process of digestion. This may appear a new idea to those who have never given the subject a thought; yet it is no less true. During the mastication of food, the saliva possesses the remarkable property of enclosing air within its globules. Professor Liebig tells us that "the saliva encloses air in the shape of froth, in a far higher degree than even soap-suds. This air, by means of the saliva, reaches the stomach with the food, and there its oxygen enters into combination, while its nitrogen is given out through the skin and lungs." This applies to pure air. Now, suppose the sheep are feeding in pastures notorious for giving out noxious gases, and at the same time the function of the skin or lungs is impaired; instead of the "nitrogen" or noxious gases being set free, they will accumulate in the alimentary canal and cellular tissues, to the certain destruction of the living integrity. Prof. L. further informs us that "the longer digestion continues,--that is, the greater resistance offered to the solvent action by the food,--the more saliva, and consequently the more air, enter the stomach." STAGGERS. This disease is known to have its origin in functional derangement of the stomach; and owing to the sympathy that exists between the brain and the latter, derangements are often overlooked, until they manifest themselves by the animal's appearing dull and stupid, and separating itself from the rest of the flock. An animal attacked with staggers is observed to go round in a giddy manner; the optic nerve becomes paralyzed, and the animal often appears blind. It sometimes continues to feed well until it dies. _Indications of Cure._--First, to remove the cause. If it exist in a too generous supply of food, reduce the quantity. If, on the other hand, the animal be in poor condition, a generous supply of nutritious food must be allowed. Secondly, to impart healthy action to the digestive organs, and lubricate their surfaces. Having removed the cause, take Powdered snakeroot, 1 ounce. " slippery elm, 2 ounces. " fennel seed, half an ounce. Mix. Half a table-spoonful may be given daily in warm water, or it may be mixed in the food. _Another._ Powdered gentian, 1 ounce. " poplar bark, 2 ounces. " aniseed, half an ounce. Mix, and give as above. If the bowels are inactive, give a wine-glass of linseed oil. The animal should be kept free from all annoyance by dogs, &c.; for fear indirectly influences the stomach through the pneumogastric nerves, by which the secretion of the gastric juice is arrested, and an immediate check is thus given to the process of digestion. For the same reason, medicine should always be given in the food, if possible. In cases of great prostration, accompanied with loss of appetite, much valuable time would be lost. In such cases, we must have recourse to the bottle. FOOT ROT. When a sheep is observed to be lame, and, upon examination, matter can be discovered, then pare away the hoof, and make a slight puncture, so that the matter may escape; then wash the foot with the following antiseptic lotion:-- Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Water, 3 ounces. Suppose that, on examination, the feet have a fetid odor; then apply the following:-- Vinegar, half a pint. Common salt, 1 table-spoonful. Water, half a pint. Mix, and apply daily. At the same time, put the sheep in a dry place, and give a dose of the following every morning:-- Powdered bayberry bark, half an ounce. " flaxseed, 2 pounds. " sulphur, 1 ounce. " charcoal, 1 ounce. " sassafras, 1 ounce. Mix. A handful to be given in the food twice a day. _Remarks._--Foot rot is generally considered a local disease; yet should it be neglected, or maltreated, the general system will share in the local derangement. ROT. The progress of this disease is generally very slow, and a person unaccustomed to the management of sheep would find some difficulty in recognizing it. A practical eye would distinguish it, even at a distance. The disease is known by one or more of the following symptoms: The animal often remains behind the flock, shaking its head, with its ears depressed; it allows itself to be seized, without any resistance. The eye is dull and watery; the eyelids are swollen; the lips, gums, and palate have a pale tint; the skin, which is of a yellowish white, appears puffed, and retains the impression; the wool loses its brightness, and is easily torn off; the urine is high colored, and the excrement soft. As the disease progresses, there is loss of appetite, great thirst, general emaciation, &c. The indications are, to improve the secretions, vitalize the blood, and sustain the living powers. For which purpose, take Powdered charcoal, 2 ounces. " ginger, 1 ounce. " golden seal, 1 ounce. Oatmeal, 1 pound. Mix. Feed to each animal a handful per day, unless rumination shall have ceased; then omit the oatmeal, and give a tea-spoonful of the mixed ingredients, in half a pint of hyssop, or horsemint tea. Continue as occasion may require. The food should be boiled, if possible. The best kind, especially in the latter stages of rot, is, equal parts of linseed and ground corn. If the urine is high colored, and the animal is thirsty, give an occasional drink of Cleavers, (_galium aparine_,) 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. When cold, strain. Dose, one pint. To be repeated, if necessary. EPILEPSY. This is somewhat different from staggers, as the animal does not remain quietly on the ground, but it suffers from convulsions, it kicks, rolls its eyes, grinds its teeth, &c. The duration of the fit varies much, sometimes it terminates at the expiration of a few minutes; at other times, a quarter of an hour elapses before it is perfectly conscious. In this malady, there is a loss of equilibrium between the nervous and muscular systems, which may arise from hydatids in the brain, offering mechanical obstructions to the conducting power of the nerves. This malady may attack animals in apparently good health. We frequently see children attacked with epilepsy (fits) without any apparent cause, and when they are in good flesh. The symptoms are not considered dangerous, except by their frequent repetition. The following may be given with a view of equalizing the circulation and nervous action:-- Assafoetida, one third of a tea-spoonful. Gruel made from slippery elm, 1 pint. Mix, while hot. Repeat the dose every other day. Make some change in the food. Thus, if the animal has been fed on green fodder for any length of time, let it have a few meals of shorts, meal, linseed, &c. The water must be of the best quality. Suppose the animal to be in poor condition; then combine tonics and alteratives in the following form:-- Assafoetida, 1 tea-spoonful. Powdered golden seal, 1 ounce. " slippery elm, 2 ounces. Oatmeal, 1 pound. Mix thoroughly, and divide into eight equal parts. A powder to be given every morning. RED WATER. This is nothing more nor less than a symptom of deranged function. The cure consists in restoring healthy action to all parts of the animal organization. For example, high-colored urine shows that there is too much action on the internal surfaces, and too little on the external. This at once points to the propriety of keeping the sheep in a warm situation, in order to invite action to the skin. _Compound for Red Water._ Powdered slippery elm, } " pleurisy root, } of each, 1 ounce. " poplar bark, } Indian meal, 1 pound. Mix. To be divided into ten parts, one of which may be given every morning. CACHEXY,[16] OR GENERAL DEBILITY. _Indications of Cure._--First. To build up and promote the living integrity by a generous diet, one or more of the following articles may be scalded and given three times a day: carrots, parsnips, linseed, corn meal, &c. Secondly. To remove morbific materials from the system, and restore the lost functions, one of the following powders may be given, night and morning, in the fodder:-- Powdered balmony, (snakehead,) 1 ounce. " marshmallows, 1 ounce. " common salt, 1 table-spoonful. Linseed meal, 1 pound. Mix. Divide into ten powders. FOOTNOTE: [16] It implies a vitiated state of the solids and fluids. LOSS OF APPETITE. This is generally owing to a morbid state of the digestive organs. All that is necessary in such case is, to restore the lost tone by the exhibition of bitter tonics. A bountiful supply of camomile tea will generally prove sufficient. If, however, the bowels are inactive, add to the above a small portion of extract of butternut. The food should be slightly salted. FOUNDERING, (RHEUMATISM) In this malady, the animal becomes slow in its movements; its walk is characterized by rigidity of the muscular system, and, when lying down, requires great efforts in order to rise. _Causes._--Exposure to sudden changes in temperature, feeding on wet lands, &c. _Indications of Cure._--To equalize the circulation, invite and maintain action to the external surface, and remove the cause. To fulfil the latter indication, remove the animal to a dry, warm situation. The following antispasmodic and diaphoretic will complete the cure: Powdered lady's slipper, (_cypripedium_,) 1 tea-spoonful. To be given every morning in a pint of warm pennyroyal tea. If the malady does not yield in a few days, take Powdered sassafras bark, 1 tea-spoonful. Boiling water, 1 pint. Honey, 1 tea-spoonful. Mix, and repeat the dose every other morning. TICKS. Ticks, or, in short, any kind of insects, may be destroyed by dropping on them a few drops of an infusion or tincture of lobelia seeds. SCAB, OR ITCH. Scab, itch, erysipelas, &c., all come under the head of cutaneous diseases, and require nearly the same general treatment. The following compound may be depended on as a safe and efficient remedy in either of the above diseases:-- Sulphur, 2 ounces. Powdered sassafras, 1 ounce. Honey, sufficient to amalgamate the above. Dose, a table-spoonful every morning. To prevent the sheep from rubbing themselves, apply Pyroligneous acid, 1 gill. Water, 1 quart. Mix, and wet the parts with a sponge. _Remarks._--In reference to the scab, Dr. Gunther says, "Of all the preservatives which have been proposed, inoculation is the best. It has two advantages: first, the disease so occasioned is much more mitigated, and very rarely proves fatal; in the next place, an entire flock may get well from it in the space of fifteen days, whilst the natural form of the disorder requires care and attention for at least six months. It has been ascertained that the latter kills[17] more than one half of those attacked; whilst among the sheep that have been inoculated, the greatest proportion that die of it is one per cent." Whenever the scab makes its appearance, the whole flock should be examined, and every one having the least abrasion eruption of the skin should be put under medical treatment. In most cases, itch is the result of infection. A single sheep infected with it is sufficient to infect a whole flock. If a few applications of the pyroligneous wash, aided by the medicine, are not sufficient to remove the malady, then recourse must be had to the following:-- Fir balsam, half a pint. Sulphur, 1 ounce. Mix. Anoint the sores daily. The only additional treatment necessary in erysipelas is, to give a bountiful supply of tea made of lemon balm, sweetened with honey. FOOTNOTE: [17] More likely the remedies. They are tobacco and corrosive sublimate--destructive poisons. DIARRHOEA. This is not always to be considered as a disease, but in many cases it proves salutary operation of nature; therefore it should not be too suddenly checked. We commence the treatment by feeding on boiled meal. We then give mucilaginous drink made from marshmallows, slippery elm, or poplar bark. If, at the end of two days, symptoms of amendment have not made their appearance, the following draught must be given:-- Make a strong infusion of raspberry leaves, to a pint of which add a tea-spoonful of tincture of capsicum, (hot drops,) and one of charcoal. To be repeated every morning, until healthy action is established. DYSENTERY. This malady may be treated in the same manner as diarrhoea. Should blood and slime be voided in large quantities, the excrement emit a fetid odor, and the animal waste rapidly, then, in addition to the mucilaginous drink, administer the following:-- Powdered charcoal, 1 tea-spoonful. " golden seal, half a tea-spoonful. To be given, in hardhack tea, as occasion may require. A small quantity of charcoal, given three times a day, with boiled food, will frequently cure the disease, alone. Dysentery is sometimes mistaken for diarrhoea; but they may be distinguished by the following characteristics:-- 1st. Diarrhoea most frequently attacks weak animals; whereas dysentery ofttimes attacks animals in good condition. 2d. Dysentery generally attacks sheep in the hot months; on the other hand, diarrhoea terminates at the commencement of the hot season. 3d. In diarrhoea, there are scarcely any feverish symptoms, and no straining before evacuation, as in dysentery. 4th. In diarrhoea, the excrement is loose, but in other respects natural, without any blood or slime; whereas in dysentery the fæces consist of hard lumps, blood, and slime. 5th. There is not that degree of fetor in the fæces, in diarrhoea, which takes place in dysentery. 6th. In dysentery, the appetite is totally gone; in diarrhoea, it is generally better than usual. 7th. Diarrhoea is not contagious; dysentery is supposed to be highly so. 8th. In dysentery, the animal wastes rapidly; but by diarrhoea, only a temporary stop is put to thriving, after which it makes rapid advances to strength, vigor, and proportion. CONSTIPATION, OR STRETCHES. By these terms are implied a preternatural or morbid detention and hardening of the excrement; a disease to which all animals are subject, unless proper attention be paid to their management. It mostly arises from want of exercise, feeding on frosted oats, indigestible matter of every kind, impure water, &c. Costiveness is often the case of flatulent and spasmodic colic, and often of inflammation of the bowels. Mr. Morrill says, "I have always found that the quantity of medicine necessary to act as an _opiate_ on this dry mass [alluding to that found in the manyplus and intestines] will kill the animal. If I am mistaken, I will take it kindly to be set right." You are quite right. Let us see what Professor J. A. Gallup says, in his Institutes of Medicine, vol. ii. p. 187. "The practice of giving opiates to mitigate pain, &c., is greatly to be deprecated; it is not only unjustifiable, but should be esteemed unpardonable. It is probable that, for forty years past, opium and its preparations have done _seven times the injury_ that they have rendered benefit"--killed seven where they have saved one! Page 298, he calls opium the "most destructive of all narcotics," and wishes he could "speak through a lengthened trumpet, that he might tingle the ears" of those who use and prescribe it. All the opiates used by the allopathists contain more or less of this poisonous drug. Opiates given with a view of softening mass alluded to will certainly disappoint those who administer them; for, under the use of such "palliatives," the digestive powers fail, and a general state of feebleness and inactivity ensues, which exhausts the vital energies. It will be found in stretches, that other organs, as well as the "manyplus," are not performing their part in the business of physiological or healthy action, and they must be excited to perform their work; for example, if the food remains in either of the stomachs in the form of a hard mass, then the surface of the body is evaporating too much moisture from the general system; the skin should be better toned. Pure air is one of the best and most valuable of nature's tonics. Let the flock have pure air to breathe, and sufficient room to use their limbs, with proper diet, and there will be little occasion for medicine. _Treatment._--The disease is to be obviated by proper attention to diet, exercise, and ventilation; and when these fail, to have recourse to bitter laxatives, injections, and aperients. The use of salts and castor oil creates a necessity for their repetition, for they overwork the mucous surfaces, and their delicate vessels lose their natural sensibility, and become torpid. Scalded shorts are exceedingly valuable in this complaint, as also are boiled carrots, parsnips, &e. The derangement must be treated according to its indications, thus:-- Suppose the digestive organs to be deranged, and rumination to have ceased; then take a tea-spoonful of extract of butternut, and dissolve it in a pint of thoroughwort tea, and give it at a dose. Use an injection of soap-suds, if necessary. Suppose the excrement to be hard, coated with slime, and there be danger of inflammation in the mucous surfaces; then give a wine-glass of linseed oil,[18] to which add a raw egg. It is scarcely ever necessary to repeat the dose, provided the animal is allowed a few scalded shorts. If the liver is supposed to be inactive, give, daily, a tea-spoonful of golden seal in the food. If the animal void worms with the fæces, then give a tea made from cedar boughs, or buds, to which add a small quantity of salt. FOOTNOTE: [18] Olive oil will answer the same purpose. SCOURS. In scours, the surface evaporates too little of the moisture, and should be relaxed by diffusible stimulants in the form of ginger tea. The treatment that we have found the most successful is as follows: take four ounces raw linseed oil, two ounces of lime water; mix. Let this quantity be given to a sheep on the first appearance of the above disease; half the quantity will suffice for a lamb. Give about a wine-glass full of ginger tea at intervals of four hours, or mix a small quantity of ginger in the food. Let the animal be fed on gruel, or mashes of ground meal. If the above treatment fails to arrest the disease, add half a tea-spoonful of powdered bayberry bark. If the extremities are cold, rub them with the tincture of capsicum. DIZZINESS. Mr. Gunther says, "Sheep are often observed to describe eccentric circles for whole hours, then step forwards a pace, then again stop, and turn round again. The older the disease, the more the animal turns, until at length it does it even in a trot. The appetite goes on diminishing, emaciation becomes more and more perceptible, and the state of exhaustion terminates in death. On opening the skull, there are met, either beneath the bones of the cranium, or beneath the dura mater,[19] or in the brain itself, hydatids varying in number and size, sometimes a single one, often from three to six, the size of which varies: according as these worms occupy the right side or the left, the sheep turns to the right or left; but if they exist on both sides, the turning takes place to the one and the other alternately. "The animal very often does not turn, which happens when the worm is placed on the median line; then the affected animal carries the head down, and though it seems to move rapidly, it does not change place. When the hydatid is situated on the posterior part of the brain, the animal carries the head high, runs straight forward, and throws itself on every object it meets." _Treatment._--Take Powdered worm seeds, (_chenopodium } 1 ounce. anthelminticum_,) } " sulphur, half an ounce. " charcoal, 2 ounces. Linseed, or flaxseed, 1 pound. Mix. Divide into eight parts, and feed one every morning. Make a drink from the white Indian hemp, (_asclepias incarnata_,) one ounce of which may be infused in a quart of water, one fourth to be given every night. FOOTNOTE: [19] The membrane which lines the interior of the skull. JAUNDICE. This malady generally involves the whole system in its deranged action. It is recognized by the yellow tint of the conjunctiva, (white of the eye,) and mucous membranes lining the nostrils and mouth. We generally employ for its cure Powdered mandrake, 1 tea-spoonful. " ginger, 1 tea-spoonful. " golden seal, 2 tea-spoonfuls. Mix. Divide into two parts. Give one dose in the morning, and the other at night. An occasional drink of camomile tea, a few bran mashes, and boiled carrots, will complete the cure. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. A derangement of these organs may result from external violence, or it may depend on the animal having eaten stimulating or poisonous plants. Its symptoms are, pain in the region of the kidneys; the back is arched, and the walk stiff and painful, with the legs widely separated; there is a frequent desire to make water, and that is high colored or bloody; the appetite is more or less impaired, and there is considerable thirst. The indications are, to lubricate the mucous surfaces, remove morbific materials from the system, and improve the general health. We commence the treatment by giving Poplar bark, finely powdered, 1 ounce. Pleurisy root, " " 1 tea-spoonful. Make a mucilage of the poplar bark, by stirring in boiling water; then add the pleurisy root; the whole to be given in the course of twenty-four hours. The diet should consist of a mixture of linseed, boiled carrots, and meal. WORMS. The intestinal worms generally arise from impaired digestion. The symptoms are, a diminution of rumination, wasting away of the body, and frequent snorting, obstruction of the nostrils with mucus of a greater or less thickness. _Compound for Worms._ Powdered worm seed, } " skunk cabbage, } equal parts. " ginger, } Dose, a tea-spoonful night and morning in the fodder. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH FROM EATING POISONOUS PLANTS. _Treatment._--Take the animal from pasture, and put it on a boiled diet, of shorts, meal, linseed, and carrots. The following alterative may be mixed in the food:-- Powdered marshmallows, 1 ounce. " sassafras bark, 2 ounces. " charcoal, 2 ounces. " licorice, 2 ounces. Dose, one table-spoonful every night. SORE NIPPLES. Lambs often die of hunger, from their dams refusing them suck. The cause of this is sore nipples, or some tumor in the udder, in which violent pain is excited by the tugging of the lamb. Washing with poplar bark, or anointing the teats with powdered borax and honey, will generally effect a cure. FRACTURES. The mending of a broken bone, though somewhat tedious, is by no means difficult, when the integuments are not torn. Let the limb be gently distended, and the broken ends of the bone placed in contact with each other. A piece of stiff leather, of pasteboard, or of thin shingle, wrapped in a soft rag, is then to be laid along the limb, so that it may extend an inch or two beyond the contiguous part. The splints are then to be secured by a bandage of linen an inch and a half broad. After being firmly rolled up, it should be passed spirally round the leg, taking care that every turn of the bandage overlaps about two thirds of the preceding one. When the inequality of the parts causes the margin to slack, it must be reversed or folded over; that is, its upper margin must become the lower, &c. The bandage should be moderately tight, so as to support the parts without intercepting the circulation, and should be so applied as to press equally on every part. The bandage may be occasionally wet with a mixture of equal parts of vinegar and water. COMMON CATARRH AND EPIDEMIC INFLUENZA. The seat of the disease is in the mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the external skin, folded into all the orifices of the body, as the mouth, eyes, nose, ears, lungs, stomach, intestines and bladder; its structure of arterial capillaries, veins, arteries, nerves, &c., is similar to the external skin; its most extensive surfaces are those of the lungs and intestines, the former of which is supposed to be greater than the whole external surface of the body. The healthy office of this membrane is to furnish from the blood a fluid called mucus, to lubricate its own surface, and protect it from the action of materials taken into the system. The mucous membrane and the external surface of the body seem to be a counterpart of each other, and perform nearly the same offices; hence, if the action of one is suppressed, the other commences the performance of its office; thus a cold which closes the skin immediately stops the perspiration, which is now forced through the mucous membrane, producing the discharge of watery humors, pus intermixed with blood, dry cough, emaciation, &c. There are two varieties of this disease; the first is called _common catarrh_, which proceeds from cold taken in pasture that is not properly drained, also from atmospheric changes; it may also proceed from acrid or other irritating effluvia inhaled in the air, or from poisonous substances taken in the stomach in the form of food. The second variety is called _epidemic influenza_, and is produced by general causes; the attack is sometimes sudden; although of nearly the same nature as the first form, it is more obstinate, and the treatment must be more energetic. It is very difficult to lay down correct rules for the treatment of this malady, under its different forms and stages. The principal object to be kept in view is, to equalize the circulation, remove the irritating causes from the organs affected, and restore the tone of the system. For this purpose, we make use of the following articles:-- Horehound, (herb,) 1 ounce. Marshmallow, (root,) 1 ounce. Powdered elecampane, (root,) half an ounce. " licorice, " half an ounce. Powdered cayenne, half a tea-spoonful. Molasses, 2 table-spoonfuls. Vinegar, 2 table-spoonfuls. Mix, pour on the whole one quart of boiling water, set it aside for two hours, then strain through cotton cloth, and give a table-spoonful night and morning.[20] If the bowels are constipated, a dose of linseed oil should precede the mixture. No water should be allowed during the treatment. The following injection may be used:-- Powdered bayberry bark, 1 ounce. " gum arabic, half an ounce. Boiling water, 1 pint. Stir occasionally while cooling, and strain as above. The legs and ears should be briskly rubbed with tincture of capsicum; this latter acts as a counter-irritant, equalizes the circulation, and, entering into the system, gives tone and vigor to the whole animal economy. FOOTNOTE: [20] This preparation undergoes a process of fermentation in the course of forty-eight hours, and should therefore only be made in sufficient quantities for present use. CASTRATING LAMBS. The lambs are first driven into a small enclosure. Select the ewe from the ram lambs, and let the former go. Two assistants are necessary. One catches the lambs; the other is seated on a low bench for the purpose of taking the lamb on his lap, where he holds it by the four legs. The operator, having previously supplied himself with a piece of waxed silk and the necessary implements, grasps the scrotum in his left hand. He then makes an incision over the most prominent part of the testicle, through the skin, cellular structure, &c. The testicle escapes from the scrotum. A ligature is now passed around the spermatic artery, and tied, and the cord is severed, bringing the testicle away at one stroke of the knife. As soon as the operation is completed, the animal is released. The evening is the best time for performing the operation, for then the animal remains quiet during the night, and the wound heals kindly. NATURE OF SHEEP. "The sheep, though in most countries under the protection and control of man, is not that stupid and contemptible animal that has been represented. Amidst those numerous flocks which range without control on extensive mountains, where they seldom depend upon the aid of man, it will be found to assume very different character. In those situations, a ram or a wether will boldly attack a single dog, and often come off victorious; but when the danger is more alarming, they have recourse to the collected strength of the whole flock. On such occasions, they draw up into a compact body, placing the young and the females in the centre, while the males take the foremost ranks; keeping close by each other. Thus an armed front is presented to all quarters, and cannot be easily attacked, without danger or destruction to the assailant. In this manner they wait with firmness the approach of the enemy; nor does their courage fail them in the moment of attack; for when the aggressor advances to within a few yards of the line, the rams dart upon him with such impetuosity, as to lay him dead at their feet, unless he save himself by flight. Against the attack of a single dog, when in this situation, they are perfectly secure." THE RAM. Mr. Lawson says, "It may be observed that the rams of different breeds of sheep vary greatly in their forms, wools, and fleeces, and other properties; but the following description, by that excellent stock-farmer, Mr. Culley, deserves the attention of the breeder and grazier. According to him, the head of the ram should be fine and small; his nostrils wide and expanded; his eyes prominent, and rather bold or daring; his ears thin; his collar fall from his breast and shoulders, but tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join, which should be very fine and graceful, being perfectly free from any coarse leather hanging down; the shoulders full, which must, at the same time, join so easy to the collar forward, and chine backward, as to leave not the least hollow in either place; the mutton upon his arm or fore thigh must come quite to the knee; his legs upright, with a clean fine bone, being equally clear from superfluous skin and coarse, hairy wool from the knee and hough downwards; the breast broad and well forward, which will keep his fore legs at a proper width; his girt or chest full and deep, and instead of a hollow between the shoulders, that part by some called the fore flank should be quite full; the back and loins broad, flat, and straight, from which the ribs must rise with a fine circular arch; his belly straight; the quarters long and full, with the mutton quite down to the hough, which should neither stand in nor out; his twist, or junction of the inside of the thighs, deep, wide, and full, which, with the broad breast, will keep his legs open and upright; the whole body covered with a thin pelt, and that with fine, bright, soft wool. "It is to be observed that the nearer any breed of sheep come up to the above description, the nearer they approach towards excellence of form." LEAPING. "The manner of treating rams has lately received a very great improvement. Instead of turning them loose among the ewes at large, as heretofore, and agreeably to universal practice, they are kept apart, in a separate paddock, or small enclosure, with a couple of ewes only each, to make them rest quietly; having the ewes of the flock brought to them singly, and leaping each only once. By this judicious and accurate regulation, a ram is enabled to impregnate near twice the number of ewes he would do if turned loose among them, especially a young ram. In the old practice, sixty or eighty ewes were esteemed the full number for a ram. [Overtaxing the male gives rise to weak and worthless offspring.] "The period during which the rams are to go with the ewes must be regulated by climate, and the quantity of spring food provided. It is of great importance that lambs should be dropped as early as possible, that they not only be well nursed, but have time to get stout, and able to provide for themselves before the winter sets in. It is also of good advantage to the ewes that they may get into good condition before the rutting season. The ram has been known to live to the age of fifteen years, and begins to procreate at one. When castrated, they are called _wethers_; they then grow sooner fat, and the flesh becomes finer and better flavored." ARGYLESHIRE BREEDERS. In Argyleshire, the principal circumstances attended to by the most intelligent sheep-farmers are these: to stock lightly, which will mend the size of the sheep, with the quantity and quality of the wool, and also render them less subject to diseases; (in all these respects it is allowed, by good judges, that five hundred sheep, kept well, will return more profit than six hundred kept indifferently;) to select the best lambs, and such as have the finest, closest, and whitest wool, for tups and breeding ewes, and to cut and spay the worst; to get a change of rams frequently, and of breeding ewes occasionally; to put the best tups to the best ewes, which is considered necessary for bringing any breed to perfection; not to top three-year-old ewes, (which, in bad seasons especially, would render the lambs produced by them of little value, as the lambs would not have a sufficiency of milk; and would also tend to lessen the size of the stock;) to keep no rams above three, or at most four years old, nor any breeding ewes above five or six; to separate the rams from the 10th of October, for a month or six weeks, to prevent the lambs from coming too early in the spring; to separate the lambs between the 15th and 25th of June; to have good grass prepared for them; and if they can, to keep them separate, and on good grass all winter, that they may be better attended to, and have the better chance of avoiding disease. A few, whose possessions allow them to do it, keep not only their lambs, but also their wethers, ewes, &c., in separate places, by which every man, having his own charge, can attend to it better than if all were in common; and each kind has its pasture that best suits it. FATTENING SHEEP. We are indebted to Mr. Cole, editor of the New England Farmer, for the following article, which is worthy the attention of the reader:-- "Quietude and warmth contribute greatly to the fattening process. This is a fact which has not only been developed by science, but proved by actual practice. The manner in which these agents operate is simple, and easily explained. Motion increases respiration, and the excess of oxygen, thus taken, requires an increased quantity of carbon, which would otherwise be expended in producing fat. So, likewise, _cold robs the system of animal heat_; to supply which, more oxygen and more carbon must be employed in extra combustion, to restore the diminution of temperature. Nature enforces the restoration of warmth, by causing cold to produce both hunger and a disposition for motion, supplying carbon by the gratification of the former, and oxygen by the indulgence of the latter. The above facts are illustrated by Lord Ducie:-- "One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate twenty pounds of Swedish turnips each per day; whilst another hundred, in the open air, ate twenty-five pounds each; and at that rate for a certain period: the former animals weighed each thirty pounds more than the latter; plainly showing that, to a certain extent, _warmth is a substitute for food_. This was also proved, by the same nobleman, in other experiments, which also illustrated the effect of exercise. "No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, between the 21st of November and the 1st of December. They consumed ninety pounds of food per day, the temperature being 44°. At the end of this time, they weighed two pounds less than when first exposed. "No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shelter, and allowed to run at a temperature of 49°. They consumed at first eighty-two pounds, then seventy pounds, and increased in weight twenty-three pounds. "No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same shed, but not allowed any exercise. They ate at first sixty-four pounds, then fifty-eight pounds, and increased in weight thirty pounds. "No. 4. Five sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and covered. They ate thirty-five pounds per day, and increased in weight eight pounds. "A similar experiment was tried by Mr. Childers, M. P. He states, that eighty Leicester sheep, in the open field, consumed fifty baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil cake. On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able to consume only thirty baskets, and soon after but twenty-five, being only one half the quantity required before; and yet they fattened as rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. "From these experiments, it appears that the least quantity of food, which is required for fattening, is when animals are kept closely confined in warm shelters; and the greatest quantity when running at large, exposed to all weather. But, although animals will fatten faster for a certain time without exercise than with it, if they are closely confined for any considerable time, and are at the same time full fed, they become, in some measure, feverish; the proportion of fat becomes too large, and the meat is not so palatable and healthy as when they are allowed moderate exercise, in yards or small fields. "As to the kinds of food which may be used most advantageously in fattening, this will generally depend upon what is raised upon the farm, it being preferable, in most cases, to use the produce of the farm. Sheep prefer beans to almost any other grain; but neither beans nor peas are so fattening as some other grains, and are used most advantageously along with them. Beans, peas, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, &c., may be used along with Indian corn, or oil cake, or succulent food, making various changes and mixtures, in order to furnish the variety of food which is so much relished by the sheep, and which should ever be attended to by the sheep fattener. This will prevent their being cloyed, and will hasten the fattening process. A variety of food, says Mr. Spooner, operates like cookery in the human subject, enabling more sustenance to be taken. "The quantity of grain or succulent food, which it will be proper to feed, will depend upon the size, age, and condition of the sheep; and judgment must be used in ascertaining how much they can bear. Mr. Childers states that sheep (New Leicester) fed with the addition of half a pint of barley per sheep, per day, half a pound of linseed oil cake, with hay, and a constant supply of salt, became ready for the butcher in ten weeks; the gain of flesh and tallow, thirty-three pounds to forty pounds per head. (One sheep gained fifty-five pounds in twelve weeks.) "This experiment shows what is about the largest amount of grain which it is necessary or proper to feed to New Leicester sheep, at any time while fattening. The average weight of forty New Leicester wethers, before fattening, was found by Mr. Childers to be one hundred and twenty-eight pounds each. By weighing an average lot of any other kind of sheep, which are to be fattened, and by reference to the table of comparative nutriment of the different kinds of food, a calculation may be readily made, as to the largest amount, which will be necessary for them, of any article of food whatever. "When sheep are first put up for fattening, they should be sorted, when convenient, so as to put those of the same age, size, and condition, each by themselves, so that each may have a fair chance to obtain its proportion of food, and may be fed the proper length of time. "They should be fed moderately at first, gradually increasing the quantity to the largest amount, and making the proper changes of food, so as not to cloy them, nor produce acute diseases of the head or intestines, and never feeding so much as to scour them. "Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than three times a day, viz., morning, noon, and evening. In the intervals between feeding, they may fill themselves well, and will have time sufficient for rumination and digestion: these processes are interrupted by too frequent feeding. But they should be fed with regularity, both as to the quantity of food and the time when it is given. When convenient, they should have access to water at all times; otherwise a full supply of it should be furnished to them immediately after they have consumed each foddering. "When sheep become extremely fat, whether purposely or not, it is generally expedient to slaughter them. Permitting animals to become alternately very fat and lean is injurious to all stock. Therefore, if animals are too strongly inclined to fatten at an age when wanted for breeding, their condition as to flesh should be regulated by the quantity and quality of their food or pasture." IMPROVEMENT IN SHEEP. No country in the world is better calculated for raising sheep than the United States. The diversity of climate, together with the abundance and variety of the products of the soil, united with the industry and perseverance of the agriculturist, renders this country highly favorable for breeding, maturing, and improving the different kinds of sheep. The American people, taken as a whole, are intellectually stronger than any other nation with the like amount of population, on the face of the globe; consequently they are all-powerful, "for the mind is mightier than the sword." All that we aim at, in these pages, is to turn the current of the American mind to the important subject of improvement in the animal kingdom; to show them the great benefits they will derive from practical experience in the management of all classes of live stock; and, lastly, to show them the value and importance of the veterinary profession, when flourishing under the genial influence of a liberal community. If we can only succeed in arresting the attention of American stock raisers, and they, on the other hand, direct their whole attention to the matter, then, in a few years, America will outshine her more favored European rivals, and feel proud of her improved stock. What the American people have done during the last half century in the improvement of the soil, manufactures, arts, and sciences, is an earnest of what they can do in ameliorating the condition of all classes of live stock, provided they take hold of the subject in good earnest. Let any one who is acquainted with the subject of degeneration, its causes and fatal results, not only in reference to the stock itself, but as regards the pocket of the breeder, and the health of the whole community,--let such a one go into our slaughter-houses and markets, and if he does not see a wide field for improvement, then we will agree to let the subject sink into oblivion. In order to show what a whole community can accomplish when their efforts are directed to one object, let us look on what a single individual, by his own industry and perseverance, has accomplished simply in improving the breed of sheep. The person referred to is Mr. Bakewell. His breeding animals were, in the first place, selected from different breeds. These he crossed with the best to be had. After the cross had been carried to the desired point, he confined his selections to his own herds or flocks. He formed in his mind a standard of perfection for each kind of animals, and to this he constantly endeavored to bring them. That he was eminently successful in the attainment of his object, cannot be denied. He began his farming operations about 1750. In 1760, his rams did not sell for more than two or three guineas per head. From this time he gradually advanced in terms, and in 1770 he let some for twenty-five guineas a head for the season. Marshall states that, in 1786, Bakewell let two thirds of a ram (reserving a third for himself) to two breeders, for a hundred guineas each, the entire services of the ram being rated at three hundred guineas the season. It is also stated that he made that year, by letting rams, more than one thousand pounds. "In 1789, he made twelve hundred guineas by three '_ram brothers_,' and two thousand guineas from seven, and, from his whole letting, full three thousand guineas. Six or seven other breeders made from five hundred to a thousand guineas each by the same operation. The whole amount of ram-letting of Bakewell's breed is said to have been not less, that year, than ten thousand pounds, [forty-eight thousand dollars.] "It is true that still more extraordinary prices were obtained for the use of rams of this breed after Mr. Bakewell's death. Pitt, in his 'Survey of Leicestershire,' mentions that, in 1795, Mr. Astley gave three hundred guineas for the use of a ram of this breed, engaging, at the same time, that he should serve _gratis_ twenty ewes owned by the man of whom the ram was hired; making for the entire use of the ram, that season, four hundred and twenty guineas. In 1796, Mr. Astley gave for the use of the same ram three hundred guineas, and took forty ewes to be served gratis. At the price charged for the service of the ram to each ewe, the whole value for the season was five hundred guineas. He served one hundred ewes. In 1797, the same ram was let to another person at three hundred guineas, and twenty ewes sent with him; the serving of which was reckoned at a hundred guineas, and the ram was restricted to sixty more, which brought his value for the season to four hundred guineas. Thus the ram made, in three seasons, the enormous sum of _thirteen hundred guineas_. "We have nothing to do, at present, with the question whether the value of these animals was not exaggerated. The actual superiority of the breed over the stock of the country must have been obvious, and this point we wish kept in mind. "This breed of sheep is continued to the present day, and it has been remarked by a respected writer, that they will 'remain a lasting monument of Bakewell's skill.' As to their origin, the testimony shows them to have been of _mixed blood_; though no breed is more distinct in its characters, or transmits its qualities with more certainty; and if we were without any other example of successful crossing, the advocates of the system might still point triumphantly to the Leicester or Bakewell sheep. "But what are the opinions of our best modern breeders in regard to the practicability of producing distinct breeds by crossing? Robert Smith, of Burley, Rutlandshire, an eminent sheep-breeder, in an essay on the 'Breeding and Management of Sheep,' for which he received a prize from the Royal Agricultural Society, (1847,) makes the following remarks: 'The crossing of pure breeds has been a subject of great interest amongst every class of breeders. While all agree that the first cross may be attended with good results, there exists a diversity of opinion upon the future movements, or putting the crosses together. Having tried experiments (and I am now pursuing them for confirmation) in every way possible, I do not hesitate to express my opinion, that, by proper and judicious crossing through several generations, a most valuable breed of sheep may be raised and established; in support of which I may mention the career of the celebrated Bakewell, who raised a _new_ variety from other long-wooled breeds by dint of perseverance and propagation, and which have subsequently corrected all other long-wooled breeds.'" We have alluded to the low price of some of the mutton brought to the Boston market. We do not wish the reader to infer that there is none other to be had: on the contrary, we have occasionally seen as good mutton there as in any European market. There are a number of practical and worthy men engaged in improving the different kinds of live stock, and preventing the degeneracy to which we refer. They have taken much interest in that class of stock, and they have been abundantly rewarded for their labor. But the great mass want more light on this subject, and for this reason we endeavor to show the causes of degeneracy, to enable them to avoid the errors of their forefathers. Mr. Roberts, of Pennsylvania, says, "Early in my experience, I witnessed the renovation of a flock of what we call country sheep, that had been too long propagated in the same blood. This was about the year 1798. An imported ram from England, with heavy horns, very much resembling the most vigorous Spanish Merinos, was obtained. The progeny were improved in the quality of fleece, and in the vigor of constitution. On running this stock in the same blood for some twelve years, a great deterioration became apparent. A male was then obtained of the large coarse-wooled Spanish stock: improvement in the vigor of the progeny was again most obvious. A Tunis mountain ram was then obtained, with a result equally favorable. In this process, fineness of fleece or weight was less the object than the carcass. In 1810, a male of not quite pure Merino blood was placed with the same stock of ewes; and a change of the male from year to year, for some time, produced a superior Merino stock. Wool of a marketable quality for fine cloths was now the object; and it was not an unprofitable husbandry, when it would sell in the fleece, unwashed, from eighty-six cents to one dollar. The Saxon stock then became the rage, and the introduction of a tup of that country diminished greatly the weight of the fleece, without adequately improving its fineness. A male of the Spanish stock would give sometimes nine pounds; and the marsh graziers say that they went as high as fifteen pounds. Saxon males scarcely exceed five pounds, and the ewes two and a half pounds. By running in the same blood, and poor keeping, the fleece may be made finer, but it will be lightened in proportion, and of a weak and infirm texture. There are few stock-keepers who have mixed the Spanish with the Saxon breeds but what either do or will have cause to regret it. In this part of the country, a real Spanish Merino is not to be obtained. Sheep-raising has ceased to be a business of any profit nearer to the maritime coast than our extensive mountain ranges, whether for carcass or fleece. I sold, the last season, water-washed wool, of very fine quality, for thirty cents per pound. At such a price for wool, land near our seaports can be turned to better account, even in these dull times, than wool-growing. Stock sheep do best in stony and elevated locations, where they have to use diligence to pick the scanty blade. Sheep on the sea-board region should be kept more for carcass than fleece; and feeding, more than breeding, ought to be the object for some one hundred miles from tide water. It is now a well-ascertained fact, that health and vigor can only be perpetuated by not running too long on the same blood. The evils I have witnessed were due to a want of care on this head more than to any endemical quality in our climate. Sheep kept on smooth land and soft pasture are liable to the foot rot. The hoofs of the Merino require paring occasionally, for want of a stony mountain side to ascend. It is no longer a problem that this is to be a great wool-growing country, as well as a wool-consuming one. There is, in our wool-growing country, land in abundance, held at a price that will enable the wool-grower to produce the finest qualities at thirty cents per pound, the cloths to be manufactured in proportion, and the market to be steady. I have seen Merino wool, since 1810, range from one dollar per pound to eighteen and three fourths cents, though I do not recollect selling below twenty-two cents. The best variety of sheep stock I have seen, putting fineness of fleece aside, was the mixed Bakewell and South Down, imported by Mr. Smith, of New Jersey. The flesh of the Merino has been pronounced of inferior flavor. This, however, does not agree with my experience, as I have found the lambs command a readier sale than any other, from being preferred by consumers." DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SHEEP. Mr. Lawson tells us that "the variety in sheep is so great, that scarcely any two countries produce sheep of the same kind. There is found a manifest difference in all, either in the size, the covering, the shape, or the horns." TEESWATER BREED. "This is a breed of sheep said to be the largest in England. It is at present the most prevalent in the rich, fine, fertile, enclosed lands on the banks of the Tees, in Yorkshire. In this breed, which is supposed to be from the same stock as those of the Lincolns, greater attention seems to have been paid to size than wool. It is, however, a breed only calculated for warm, rich pastures, where they are kept in small lots, in small enclosures, and well supported with food in severe winter seasons. The legs are longer, finer boned, and support a thicker and more firm and heavy carcass than the Lincolnshires; the sheep are much wider on the backs and sides, and afford a fatter and finer-grained mutton. LINCOLN SHIRE BREED. "This is a breed of sheep which is characterized by their having no horns; white faces; long, thin, weak carcasses thick, rough, white legs; bones large; pelts thick; slow feeding; mutton coarse grained; the wool from ten to eighteen inches in length; and it is chiefly prevalent in the district which gives the name, and other rich grazing ones. The new, or improved Lincolns, have now finer bone, with broader loins and trussed carcasses, are among the best, if not actually the best, long-wooled stock we have. THE DISHLEY BREED. "This is an improved breed of sheep, which is readily distinguished from the other long-wooled sorts; having a fulness of form and substantial width of carcass, with peculiar plainness and meekness of countenance; the head long, thin, and leaning backward; the nose projecting forward; the ears somewhat long, and standing backward; great fulness of the fore quarters; legs of moderate length, and the finest bone; tail small; fleece well covering the body, of the shortest and finest of the combing wools, the length of staple six or seven inches. COTSWOLD BREED. "This is a breed of sheep answering the following description: long, coarse head, with a particularly blunt, wide nose; a top-knot of wool on the forehead, running under the ears; rather long neck; great length and breadth of back and loin; full thigh, with more substance in the hinder than fore quarters; bone somewhat fine; legs not long; fleece soft, like that of the Dishley, but in closeness and darkness of color bearing more resemblance to short or carding wool. Although very fat, they have all the appearance of sheep that are full of solid flesh, which would come heavy to the scale. At two years and a half old, they have given from eleven to fourteen pounds of wool each sheep; and, being fat, they are indisputably among the larger breeds. ROMNEY MARSH BREED. "This is a kind which is described, by Mr. Young, as being a breed of sheep without horns; white faces and legs; rather long in the legs; good size; body rather long, but well barrel-shaped; bones rather large. In respect to the wool, it is fine, long, and of a delicate white color, when in its perfect state. DEVONSHIRE BREED. "This is a breed or sort of sheep which is chiefly distinguished by having no horns; white faces and legs; thick necks; backs narrow, and back-bones high; sides good; legs short, and bones large; and probably without any material objection, being a variety of the common hornless sort. Length of wool much the same as in the Romney Marsh breed. It is a breed found to be prevalent in the district from which it has derived its name, and is supposed to have received considerable improvement by being crossed with the new Leicester, or Dishley. THE DORSETSHIRE BREED. "This breed is known by having the face, nose, and legs white, head rather long, but broad, and the forehead woolly, as in the Spanish sort; the horn round and bold, middle-sized, and standing from the head; the shoulders broad at top, but lower than the hind quarters; the back tolerably straight; carcass deep, and loins broad; legs not long, nor very fine in the bone; the wool is fine and short. It is a breed which has the peculiar property of producing lambs at any period of the season, even so early as September and October, so as to suit the purposes of the lamb-suckler. THE WILTSHIRE BREED. "This is a sort which has sometimes the title of _horned crocks_. The writer on live stock distinguishes the breed as having a large head and eyes; Roman nose; wide nostrils; horns bending down the cheeks; color all white; wide bosom; deep, greyhound breast; back rather straight; carcass substantial; legs short; bone coarse; fine middle wool, very thin on the belly, which is sometimes bare. He supposes, with Culley, that the basis of this breed is doubtless the Dorsets, enlarged by some long-wooled cross; but how the horns came to take a direction so contrary, is not easy, he thinks, to conjecture; he has sometimes imagined it must be the result of some foreign, probably Tartarian cross. THE SOUTH DOWN BREED. "This is a valuable sort of sheep, which Culley has distinguished by having no horns; gray faces and legs; fine bones; long, small necks; and by being rather low before, high on the shoulder, and light in the fore quarter; sides good; loin tolerably broad; back-bone rather high; thigh full; twist good; mutton fine in grain and well flavored; wool short, very close and fine; in the length of the staple from two to three inches. It is a breed which prevails on the dry, chalky downs in Sussex, as well as the hills of Surrey and Kent, and which has lately been much improved, both in carcass and wool, being much enlarged forward, carrying a good fore flank; and for the short, less fertile, hilly pastures is an excellent sort, as feeding close. The sheep are hardy, and disposed to fatten quickly; and where the ewes are full kept, they frequently produce twin lambs, nearly in proportion of one third of the whole, which are, when dropped, well wooled. THE HERDWICK BREED. "This is a breed which is characterized by Mr. Culley as having no horns, and the face and legs being speckled; the larger portion of white, with fewer black spots, the purer the breed; legs fine, small, clean; the lambs well covered when dropped; the wool, short, thick, and matted in the fleece. It is a breed peculiar to the elevated, mountainous tract of country at the head of the River Esk, and Duddon in Cumberland, where they are let in herds, at an annual sum; whence the name. At present, they are said to possess the property of being extremely hardy in constitution, and capable of supporting themselves on the rocky, bare mountains, with the trifling support of a little hay in the winter season. THE CHEVIOT BREED. "This breed of sheep is known by the want of horns; by the face and legs being mostly white; little depth in the breast; narrow there and on the chine; clean, fine, small-boned legs, and thin pelts; the wool partly fine and partly coarse. It is a valuable breed of mountain sheep, where the herbage is chiefly of the natural grass kind, which is the case in the situations where these are found the most prevalent, and from which they have obtained their name. It is a breed which has undergone much improvement, within these few years, in respect to its form and other qualities, and has been lately introduced into the most northern districts; and from its hardiness, its affording a portion of fine wool, and being quick in fattening, it is likely to answer well in such situations. THE MERINO BREED "In this breed of sheep, the males have horns, but the females are without them. They have white faces and legs; the body not very perfect in shape; rather long in the legs; fine in the bone; a production of loose, pendulous skin under the neck; and the pelt fine and clear; the wool very fine. It is a breed that is asserted by some to be tolerably hardy, and to possess a disposition to fatten readily. THE WELSH SHEEP. "These, which are the most general breed in the hill districts, are small horned, and all over of a white color. They are neat, compact sheep. There is likewise a polled, short-wooled sort of sheep in these parts of the country, which are esteemed by some. The genuine Welsh mutton, from its smallness and delicate flavor, is commonly well known, highly esteemed, and sold at a high price." [Illustration: A Boar. Bred and fed by Willm. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. of Marks Hall, Coggleshall, Essex for which a Prize of £10 was awarded at the Meeting of the R.A.S of E. at Derby 1843.] SWINE. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. Swine have generally been considered "unclean," creatures of gross habits, &c.; but these epithets are unjust: they are not, in their nature, the unclean, gross, insensible brutes that mankind suppose them. If they are unclean, they got their first lessons from the lords of creation, by being confined in narrow, filthy sties--often deprived of light, and pure air, by being shut up in dark, underground cellars, to wallow in their own excrement; at other times, confined beneath stables, dragging out their existence in a perfect hotbed of corruption--respiring the emanations from the dung and urine of other animals; and often compelled to satisfy the cravings of hunger by partaking of whatever comes in their way. All manner of filth, including decaying and putrid vegetable and animal substances, are considered good enough for the hogs. And as long as they get such kind of trash, and no other, they must eat it; the cravings of hunger must be satisfied. The Almighty has endowed them with powerful organs of digestion; and as long as there is any thing before them that the gastric fluids are capable of assimilating, although it be disgusting to their very natures, rather than suffer of hunger, they will partake of it. Much of the indigestible food given to swine deranges the stomach, and destroys the powers of assimilation, or, in other words, leaves it in morbid state. There is then a constant sensation of hunger, a longing for any and every thing within their reach. Does the reader wonder, then, at their morbid tastes? What will man do under the same circumstances? Suppose him to be the victim of dyspepsia or indigestion. In the early stages, he is constantly catering to the appetite. At one time, he longs for acids; at another, alkalies; now, he wants stimulants; then, refrigerants, &c. Again: what will not a man do to satisfy the cravings of hunger? Will he not eat his fellow, and drink of his blood? And all to satisfy the craving of an empty stomach. We know from experience that, if young pigs are daily washed, and kept on clean cooked food, they will not eat the common city "swill;" they eat it only when compelled by hunger. When free from the control of man, they show as much sagacity in the selection of their food as any other animals; and, indeed, more than some, for they seldom get poisoned, like the ox, in mistaking noxious for wholesome food. The Jews, as well as our modern physiologists, consider the flesh of swine unfit for food. No doubt some of it is, especially that reared under the unfavorable circumstances alluded to above. But good home-fed pork, kept on good country produce, and not too fat, is just as good food for man as the flesh of oxen or sheep, notwithstanding the opinion of our medical brethren to the contrary. Their flesh has long been considered as one of the principal causes of scrofula, and other diseases too numerous to mention: without doubt this is the case. But that good, healthy pork should produce such results we are unwilling to admit. We force them to load their stomachs with the rotten offal of large cities, and thus derange their whole systems; they become loaded with fat; their systems abound in morbific fluids; their lungs become tuberculous; their livers enlarge; calcerous deposits or glandular disorganization sets in. Take into consideration their inactive habits; not voluntary, for instinct teaches them, when at liberty, to run, jump, and gambol, by which the excess of carbon is thrown off. Depriving them of exercise may be profitable to the breeder, but it induces a state of plethora. The cellular structures of such an animal are distended to their utmost capacity, preventing the full and free play of the vital machinery, obstructing the natural outlets (excrementitious vessels) on the external surface, and retaining in the system morbid materials that are positively injurious. At the present time, there is on exhibition in Boston a woman, styled the "fat girl;" she weighs four hundred and ninety-five pounds. A casual observer could detect nothing in her external appearance that denoted disease; yet she is liable to die at any moment from congestion of the brain, lungs, or liver. Any one possessing a knowledge of physiology would immediately pronounce her to be in a pathological state. Hence, the laws of the animal economy being uniform, we cannot arrive at any other conclusion in reference to the same plethoric state in animals of an inferior order. Professor Liebig tells us that excess of carbon, in the form of food, cannot be employed to make a part of any organ; it must be deposited in the cellular tissue in the form of tallow or oil. This is the whole secret of fattening. At every period of animal life, when there occurs a disproportion between the carbon of the food and the inspired oxygen, the latter being deficient,--which must happen beneath stables and in ill-constructed hog-sties,--fat must be formed. Experience teaches us that in poultry the maximum of fat is obtained by preventing them from taking exercise, and by a medium temperature. These animals, in such circumstances, may be compared to a plant possessing in the highest degree the power of converting all food into parts of its own structure. The excess of the constituents of blood forms flesh and other organized tissues, while that of starch, sugar, &c., is converted into fat. When animals are fed on food destitute of nitrogen, only certain parts of their structure increase in size. Thus, in a goose fattened in the manner alluded to, the liver becomes three or four times larger than in the same animal when well fed, with free motion; while we cannot say that the organized structure of the liver is thereby increased. The liver of a goose fed in the ordinary way is firm and elastic; that of the imprisoned animal is soft and spongy. The difference consists in a greater or less expansion of its cells, which are filled with fat. Hence, when fat accumulates and free motion is prevented, the animal is in a diseased state. Now, many tons of pork are eaten in this diseased state, and it communicates disease to the human family: they blame the pork, when, in fact, the pork raisers are often more to blame. The reader is probably aware that some properties of food pass into the living organism being assimilated by the digestive organs, and produce an abnormal state. For example, the faculty of New York have, time and again, testified to the destructive tendency of milk drawn from cows fed in cities, without due exercise and ordinary care in their management, giving it as their opinion that most of the diseases of children are brought about by its use. If proof were necessary to establish our position, we could cite it in abundance. A single case, which happened in our own family, will suffice. A liver, taken from an apparently healthy sow, (yet abounding in fat, and weighing about two hundred pounds,) was prepared in the usual manner for dinner. We observed, however, previous to its being cooked, that it was unusually large; yet there was no appearance of disease about it; it was quite firm. Each one partook of it freely. Towards night, and before partaking of any other kind of food, we were all seized with violent pains in the head, sickness at the stomach, and delirium: this continued for several hours, when a diarrhoea set in, through which process the offending matter was liberated, and each one rapidly recovered; pretty well convinced, however, that we had had a narrow escape, and that the liver was the sole cause of our misfortune. Hence the proper management of swine becomes a subject of great importance; for, if more attention were paid to it, there would be less disease in the human family. When we charge these animals with being "unclean creatures of gross habits," let us consider whether we have not, in some measure, contributed to make them what they are. Again: the hog has been termed "insensible," destitute of all those finer feelings that characterize brutes of a higher order. Yet we have "learned pigs," &c.--a proof that they can be taught something. A celebrated writer tells us that no animal has a greater sympathy for those of his own kind than the hog. The moment one of them gives a signal, all within hearing rush to his assistance. They have been known to gather round a dog that teased them and kill him on the spot; and if a male and female be enclosed in a sty when young, and be afterwards separated, the female will decline from the instant her companion is removed, and will probably die--perhaps of what would be termed, in the human family, a broken heart! In the Island of Minorca, hogs are converted into beasts of draught; a cow, a sow, and two young horses, have been seen yoked together, and of the four the sow drew the best. A gamekeeper of Sir H. Mildmay actually broke a sow to find game, and to back and stand. Swine are frequently troubled with cutaneous diseases, which produce an itching sensation; hence their desire to wallow and roll in the mire and dirt. The lying down in wet, damp places relieves the irritation of the external surface, and cools their bodies. This mud and filth, however, in which they are often compelled to wallow, is by no means good or wholesome for them. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG. "The hog," says Professor Low, "is subject to remarkable changes of form and characters, according to the situations in which he is placed. When these characters assume a certain degree of permanence, a breed or variety is formed; and there is none of the domestic animals which more easily receives the characters we desire to impress upon it. This arises from its rapid powers of increase, and the constancy with which the characters of the parents are reproduced in the progeny. _There is no kind of live stock that can be so easily improved by the breeder, and so quickly rendered suitable for the purposes required._ "The body is large in proportion to the limbs, or, in other words, the limbs are short in proportion to the body; the extremities are free from coarseness; the chest is broad, and the trunk round. Possessing these characters, the hog never fails to arrive at early maturity, and with a smaller consumption of food than when he possesses a different conformation. "The wild boar, which was undoubtedly the progenitor of all the European varieties, and of the Chinese breed, was formerly a native of the British Islands, and very common in the forests until the time of the civil wars in that country." We are told, that the wild hog "is now spread over the temperate and warmer parts of the old continent and its adjacent islands. His color varies with age and climate, but is generally a dusky brown, with black spots and streaks. His skin is covered with coarse hairs and bristles, intersected with soft wool, and with coarser and longer bristles upon the neck and spine, which he erects when in anger. He is a very bold and powerful creature, and becomes more fierce and indocile with age. From the form of his teeth, he is chiefly herbivorous in his habits, and delights in roots, which his acute sense of smell and touch enables him to discover beneath the surface. He also feeds on animal substances, such as worms and larvæ, which he grubs up from the earth, the eggs of birds, small reptiles, the young of animals, and occasionally carrion; he even attacks venomous snakes with impunity. In the natural state, the female produces a litter but once a year;[21] and in much smaller numbers than when domesticated. She usually carries her young about four months. "In the wild state, the hog has been known to live more than thirty years; but when domesticated, he is usually slaughtered before he is two years old. When the wild hog is tamed, it undergoes the following amongst other changes in its conformation: the ears become less movable, not being required to collect distant sounds; the formidable tusks of the male diminish, not being necessary for self-defence; the muscles of the neck become less developed, from not being so much exercised as in the natural state; the head becomes more inclined, the back and loins are lengthened, the body rendered more capacious, the limbs shorter and less muscular; and anatomy proves that the stomach and intestinal canals have also become proportionately extended along with the form of the body. The habits and instincts of the animal change; it becomes diurnal in its habits, not choosing the night for its search of food; is more insatiate in its appetite, and the tendency to obesity increases. "The male, forsaking its solitary habits, becomes gregarious, and the female produces her young more frequently, and in larger numbers. With its diminished strength, and its want of active motion, the animal loses its desire for liberty. "The true hog does not appear to be indigenous to America, but was taken over by the early voyagers from the old world, and it is now spread and multiplied throughout the continent. "The first settlers of North America and the United States carried with them the swine of the parent country, and a few of the breeds still retain traces of the old English character. From its nature and habits, the hog was the most profitable and useful of all the animals bred by the early settlers in the distant clearings. It was his surest resource during the first years of toil and hardship." Their widely-extended foreign commerce afforded the Americans opportunity of procuring the varieties from China, Africa, and other countries. The large consumption of pork in the United States, and the facilities for disposing of it abroad, will probably cause more attention to be paid to the principles of breeding, rearing, feeding, &c. The American farmers are doing good service in this department, and any attempt on their part to improve the quality of pork ought to meet with a corresponding encouragement from the community. We have no doubt that many stock-raisers find their profits increase in proportion to the care bestowed in rearing. Here is an example: A Mr. Hallock, of the town of Coxsackie, has a sow which raised forty pigs within a year, which sold for $275,--none of them being kept over nine months. Mr. Little, of Poland, Ohio, states, in the Cultivator, that he has "a barrow three years old, a full-blood Berkshire, which will now weigh nearly 1000 pounds, live weight. He was weighed on the 3d of October, and then brought down 880; since which he has improved rapidly, and will doubtless reach the above figures. I have had this breed for seven years _pure_,--descended from hogs brought from Albany and Buffalo, and a boar imported by Mr. Fahnestock, of Pittsburg, Pa., from England, (the latter a very large animal.) The stock have all been large and very profitable--weighing, at seven to ten months old, from 250 to 300 pounds. Several individuals have weighed over 400, and the sire of this present one reached 750. This is, however, much the largest I have yet raised." FOOTNOTE: [21] In the domesticated state, the sow is often permitted to have two and even three litters in a year. This custom is very pernicious; it debilitates the mother, overworks all parts of the living machinery, and being in direct opposition to the laws of their being, their progeny must degenerate. Then, again, let the reader take into consideration the fact that members of the same litter impregnate each other, in the same ratio, and he cannot but come to a conclusion that we have long since arrived at--that these practices are among the chief causes of deterioration. GENERALITIES. Dr. Gunther observes, that "the robust constitution of the pig causes it to be less liable to fall sick than oxen and sheep. It would be still less liable to disease, if persons manifested more judgment in the choice of the animals to be reared, and if more care were shown in the matter. With reference to the latter point, it is very true that the voracity of the pig urges it to eat every thing it meets; but to keep it in a state of health, it is, notwithstanding, necessary to restrict its regimen to certain rules. The animal which it is proposed to fatten should remain under the roof, and receive good food there, whilst the others may be sent out for the greater part of the year, care being taken to avoid fields that are damp and marshy, and that the pigs be preserved from the dew. It is also of importance that they should not be driven too hard during warm days. "There are two other points which deserve to be taken into consideration, if we wish swine to thrive: these are, daily exercise in the open air whenever the weather permits, and cleanliness in the sty. Constant confinement throws them into what may be called a morbid state, which renders their flesh less wholesome for man. The manner in which the animal evinces its joy when set at liberty proves sufficiently how disagreeable confinement is to it. A very general prejudice prevails, viz., that dung and filth do not injure swine; this opinion, however, is absurd." GENERAL DEBILITY, OR EMACIATION. The falling off in flesh, or wasting away, of swine is in most cases owing to derangement in the digestive organs. The cure consists in restoring the tone of these organs. We commence the treatment by putting the animal on a boiled diet, consisting of bran, meal, or any wholesome vegetable production. The following tonic and diffusible stimulant will complete the cure:-- Powdered golden seal, } " ginger, } equal parts. Dose, a tea-spoonful, repeated night and morning. When loss in condition is accompanied with cough and difficulty of breathing, mix, in addition to the above, a few kernels of garlic with the food. The drink should consist of pure water. Should the cough prove troublesome, take a tea-spoonful of fir balsam, and the same quantity of honey; to be given night and morning, either in the usual manner, or it may be stirred into the food while hot. EPILEPSY, OR FITS. The symptoms are too well known to need any description. It is generally caused by plethora, yet it may exist in an hereditary form. _Treatment._--Feed with due care, and put the animal in a well-ventilated and clean situation; give a bountiful supply of valerian tea, and sprinkle a small quantity of scraped horseradish in the food; or give Powdered assafoetida, 1 ounce. " capsicum, 1 tea-spoonful. Table salt, 1 table-spoonful. Mix. Give half a tea-spoonful daily. RHEUMATISM. _Causes._--Exposure, wallowing in filth, &c. _Symptoms._--It is recognized by a muscular rigidity of the whole system. The appetite is impaired, and the animal does not leave its sty willingly. _Treatment._--Keep the animal on a boiled diet, which should be given to him warm. Remove the cause by avoiding exposure and filth, and give a dose of the following: Powdered sulphur, } " sassafras, } equal parts. " cinnamon, } Dose, half a tea-spoonful, to be given in warm gruel. If this does not give immediate relief, dip an old cloth in hot water, (of a proper temperature,) and fold it round the animal's body. This may be repeated, if necessary, until the muscular system is relaxed. The animal should be wiped dry, and placed in a warm situation, with a good bed of straw. MEASLES. This disease is very common, yet is often overlooked. _Symptoms._--It may be known by eruptions on the belly, ears, tongue, or eyelids. Before the eruption appears, the animal is drowsy, the eyes are dull, and there is sometimes loss of appetite, with vomiting. On the other hand, if the disease shall have receded towards the internal organs, its presence can only be determined by the general disturbance of the digestive organs, and the appearance of a few eruptions beneath the tongue. _Treatment._--Remove the animal from its companions to a warm place, and keep it on thin gruel. Give a tea-spoonful of sulphur daily, together with a drink of bittersweet tea. The object is to invite action to the surface, and maintain it there. If the eruption does not reappear on the surface, rub it with the following liniment:-- Take one ounce of oil of cedar; dissolve in a wine-glass of alcohol; then add half a pint of new rum and a tea-spoonful of sulphur. Almost all the diseases of the skin may be treated in the same manner. OPHTHALMIA. _Causes._--Sudden changes in temperature, unclean sties, want of pure air, and imperfect light. _Treatment._--Keep the animal on thin gruel, and allow two tea-spoonfuls of cream of tartar per day. Wash the eyes with an infusion of marshmallows, until a cure is effected. VERMIN. Some animals are covered with vermin, which even pierce the skin, and sometimes come out by the mouth, nose, and eyes. _Symptoms._--The animal is continually rubbing and scratching itself, or burrowing in the dirt and mire. _Treatment._--First wash the body with a strong lie of wood ashes or weak saleratus water, then with an infusion of lobelia. Mix a tea-spoonful of sulphur, and the same quantity of powdered charcoal, in the food daily. RED ERUPTION. This disease is somewhat analogous to scarlet fever. It makes its appearance in the form of red pustules on the back and belly, which gradually extend to the whole body. The external remedy is:-- Powdered bloodroot, half an ounce. Boiling vinegar, 1 pint. When cool, it should be rubbed on the external surface. The diet should consist of boiled vegetables, coarse meal, &c., with a small dose of sulphur every night. DROPSY. _Symptoms._--The animal is sad and depressed, the appetite fails, respiration is performed with difficulty, and the belly swells. _Treatment._--Keep the animal on a light, nutritive diet, and give a handful of juniper berries, or cedar buds, daily. If these fail, give a table-spoonful of fir balsam daily. CATARRH. _Symptoms._--Occasional fits of coughing, accompanied with a mucous discharge from the nose and mouth. _Causes._--Exposure to cold and damp weather. _Treatment._--Give a liberal allowance of gruel made with powdered elm or marshmallows, and give a tea-spoonful of balsam copaiba, or fir balsam, every night. The animal must be kept comfortably warm. COLIC. Spasmodic and flatulent colic requires antispasmodics and carminatives, in the following form:-- Powdered caraway seeds, 1 tea-spoonful. " assafoetida, one third of a tea-spoonful. To be given at a dose in warm water, and repeated at the expiration of an hour, provided relief is not obtained. DIARRHOEA. For the treatment of this malady, see division SHEEP, article _Scours_. FRENZY. This makes its appearance suddenly. The animal, having remained in a passive and stupid state, suddenly appears much disturbed, to such a degree that it makes irregular movements, strikes its head against every thing it meets, scrapes with its feet, places itself quite erect alongside of the sty, bites any thing in its way, and frequently whirls itself round, after which it suddenly becomes more tranquil. _Treatment._--Give half an ounce of Rochelle salts, in a pint of thoroughwort tea. If the bowels are not moved in the course of twelve hours, repeat the dose. A light diet for a few days will generally complete the cure. JAUNDICE. This disease is recognised by the yellow tint of the _conjunctiva_, (white of the eye,) loss of appetite, &c. The remedy is,-- Powdered golden seal, half an ounce. " sulphur, one fourth of an ounce. " blue flag, half an ounce. Flaxseed, 1 pound. Mix, and divide into four parts, and give one every night. The food must be boiled, and a small quantity of salt added to it. SORENESS OF THE FEET. This often occurs to pigs that have travelled any distance: the feet often become tender and sore. In such cases, they should be examined, and all extraneous matter removed from the foot. Then wash with weak lie. If the feet discharge fetid matter, wash with the following mixture:-- Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Water, 4 ounces. In the treatment of diseased swine, the "issues," as they are called, ought to be examined, and be kept free. They may be found on the inside of the legs, just above the pastern joint. They seem to serve as a drain or outlet for the morbid fluids of the body, and whenever they are obstructed, local or general disturbance is sure to supervene. SPAYING. This is the operation of removing the ovaries of sows, in order to prevent any future conception, and promote their fattening. (See article _Spaying Cows_, p. 201.) It is usually performed by making incision in the middle of the flank, on the left side, in order to extirpate or cut off the ovaries, (female _testes_,) and then stitching up the wound, and wetting the part with Turlington's balsam. An able writer on this subject says, "The chief reason why a practice, which is beneficial in so many points of view to the interests and advantages of the farmer, has been so little attended to, is the difficulty which is constantly experienced from the want of a sufficient number of expert and proper persons to perform the operation. Such persons are far from being common in any, much less in every district, as some knowledge, of a nature which is not readily acquired, and much experience in the practice of cutting, are indispensably necessary to the success of the undertaking. When, however, the utility and benefits of the practice become better understood and more fully appreciated by the farmer, and the operators more numerous, greater attention and importance will be bestowed upon it; as it is capable of relieving him from much trouble, of greatly promoting his profits, and of benefiting him in various ways. The facts are since well proved and ascertained, that animals which have undergone this operation are more disposed to take on flesh, more quiet in their habits, and capable of being managed with much greater ease and facility in any way whatever, than they were before the operation was performed. It may also have advantages in other ways in different sorts of animals; it may render the filly nearly equal to the gelded colt for several different uses; and the heifer nearly equal to the ox for all sorts of farm labor. The females of some other sorts of animals may likewise, by this means, be made to nearly equal the castrated males in usefulness for a variety of purposes and intentions, and in all cases be rendered a good deal more valuable, or manageable, than they are at present." VARIOUS BREEDS OF SWINE. BERKSHIRE BREED. This breed is distinguished by being in general of a tawny, white, or reddish color, spotted with black; large ears hanging over the eyes; thick, close, and well made in the body; legs short; small in the bone; having a disposition to fatten quickly. When well fed, the flesh is fine. The above county has long been celebrated for its breed of swine. The Berkshire breeders have made a very judicious use of the pug cross, by not repeating it to the degree of taking away all shape and power of growing flesh, in their stock. This breed is supposed by many to be the most hardy, both in respect to their nature and the food on which they are fed. Their powers of digestion are exceedingly energetic, and they require constant good keep, or they will lose flesh very fast. They thrive well in the United States, provided, however, due care is exercised in breeding. HAMPSHIRE BREED. This breed is distinguished by being longer in the body and neck, but not of so compact a form as the Berkshire. They are mostly of a white color, or spotted, and are easily fattened. The goodness of the Hampshire hog is proverbial, and in England they are generally fattened for hams. SHROPSHIRE BREED. These are not so well formed as those of the Berkshire kind, or equal to them in their disposition to fatten, or to be supported on such cheap food. Their color is white or brinded. They are flat boned; deep and flat sided; harsh, or rather wiry-haired; the ear large; head long, sharp, and coarse; legs long; loin, although very substantial, yet not sufficiently wide, considering the great extent of the whole frame. They have been much improved by the Berkshire cross. There are various other breeds, which take their name from the different counties in the mother country. Thus we have the Herefordshire, Wiltshire, Yorkshire, &c. Yet they are not considered equal to those already alluded to. Many of the different English breeds might, however, serve to improve some species of breed in this country. CHINESE BREED. This is of small size; the body being very close, compact, and well formed; the legs very short; the flesh delicate and firm. The prevailing color, in China, is white. They fatten very expeditiously on a small quantity of food, and might be reared in the United States to good advantage, especially for home consumption. BOARS AND SOWS FOR BREEDING. Mr. Lawson says, "The best stock may be expected from the boar at his full growth, but no more than from three to five years old.[22] No sows should be kept open for breeding unless they have large, capacious bellies. "It may be remarked, in respect to the period of being with young, that in the sow it is about four months; and the usual produce is about eight to ten or twelve pigs in the large, but more in the smaller breeds. "In the ordinary management of swine, sows, after they have had a few litters, may be killed; but no breeder should part with one while she continues to bring good litters, and rear them with safety." Pregnant sows should always be lodged separately, especially at the time of bringing forth their young, else the pigs would most probably be devoured as they fall. The sow should also be attended with due care while pigging, in order to preserve the pigs. It is found that dry, warm, comfortable lodging is of almost as much importance as food. The pigs may be weaned in about eight weeks, after which the sow requires less food than she does while nursing. In the management of these animals, it is of great utility and advantage to separate the males from the females, as it lessens their sexual desires. FOOTNOTE: [22] Sows are generally bred from too early--before they come to maturity. This not only stints their own growth, but their offspring give evidence of deterioration. A sow should never be put to the boar until she be a year old. REARING PIGS. "As the breeding of pigs is a business that affords the farmer a considerable profit and advantage in various views, it is of essential importance that he be provided with suitable kinds of food in abundance for their support. Upon this being properly and effectually done, his success and advantage will in a great measure depend. The crops capable of being cultivated with the most benefit in this intention are, beans, peas, barley, buckwheat, Indian corn, potatoes, carrots, parsnips, Swedish turnips, cabbages, &c. "The sows considerably advanced in pig, and those with pigs, should be fed in a better manner than the stone pigs. The former should be supplied with boiled meal, potatoes, carrots, &c., so as to keep them in good condition. The sows with pigs should be kept with the litters in separate sties, and be still better fed than those with pig. When dairying is practised, the wash of that kind which has been preserved for that purpose while the dairying was profitable, must be given them, with food of the root kind, such as carrots, parsnips, &c., in as large proportions as they will need to keep them in condition." Pea-soup is an admirable article when given in this intention; it is prepared by boiling six pecks of peas in about sixty gallons of water, till they are well broken down and diffused in the fluid: it is then put into a tub or cistern for use. When dry food is given in combination with this, or of itself, the above writer advises oats, as being much better than any other sort of grain for young pigs, barley not answering nearly so well in this application. Oats coarsely ground have been found very useful for young hogs, both in the form of wash with water, and when made of a somewhat thicker consistence. But in cases where the sows and pigs can be supported with dairy-wash and roots, as above, there will be a considerable saving made, by avoiding the use of the expensive articles of barley-meal, peas, or bran. Mr. Donaldson remarks, that in the usual mode, the pigs reared by the farmer are fed, for some weeks after they are weaned, on whey or buttermilk, or on bran or barley-meal mixed with water. They are afterwards maintained on other food, as potatoes, carrots, the refuse of the garden, kitchen, scullery, &c., together with such additions as they can pick up in the farmyard. Sometimes they are sent into the fields at the close of harvest, where they make a comfortable living for several weeks on the gleanings of the crop; at other times, when the farm is situated in the neighborhood of woods or forests, they are sent thither to pick up the beech-nuts and acorns in the fall of the year; and when they have arrived at a proper age for fattening, they are either put into sties fitted up for the purpose, or sold to distillers, starch-makers, dairymen, or cottagers. Nothing tends more effectually to preserve the health and promote the growth of young pigs than the liberal use of hay tea. The tea should be thickened with corn meal and shorts. This, given lukewarm, twice a day, will quicken their growth, and give the meat a rich flavor. A few parsnips[23] or carrots (boiled) may be made use of with much success. FOOTNOTE: [23] The Sussex (Eng.) Express says, "At our farm we have been in the habit of employing parsnips for this purpose for some time. Upon reference to our books, we find that on the 11th of October, 1847, we put up two shotes of eleven weeks old, and fed them on skim milk and parsnips for three months, when they were killed, weighing 231 and 238 pounds. They were well fattened, firm in flesh, and the meat of excellent flavor. The quantity of parsnips consumed by them was nine bushels each." FATTENING HOGS. F. Dodge, of Danvers, Mass., states that, in the spring of 1848, he "bought, from a drove, seven shotes, the total weight of which was 925 pounds. The price paid for them was seven cents per pound. They were fed an average of 184 days, and their average gain was 179 pounds of net pork. The cost of the food they consumed was as follows:-- 68 bushels corn at 53 cents, $36 04 30 " " damaged, at 35 cents, 10 50 50 " " at 65 cents, 32 50 8 " meal at 65 cents, 5 20 ------- $84 24 Add first cost of pigs, 64 75 ------- Making a total cost of $148 99 "The whole quantity of pork afforded by the pigs killed was 2178 pounds, which was sold at 6-1/3 cents per pound, amounting to $141 57; leaving a balance against the pigs of $7 42. The inference from this statement is, that, at the above prices of grain, pork could not be profitably produced at six and a half cents per pound. But it is suggested that something might be saved by breeding the stock, instead of purchasing shotes at seven cents per pound, live weight. It is thought, however, that the manure afforded by the hogs would be of sufficient value to more than overbalance any deficiency which might appear in the account by only crediting the pork." The food in the above case was too costly. One half of it, mixed with parsnips, carrots, beets, or turnips, would have answered the purpose better. The balance would then have been in favor of the pigs. We are told, by an able writer on swine, that they will feed greedily, and thrive surprisingly, on most kinds of roots and tubers, such as carrots, beets, parsnips, potatoes, &c., particularly when prepared by boiling. It may be taken as a general rule, that boiled or prepared food is more nutritious and fattening than raw cold food; the additional expense and labor will be more than compensated by the increased weight and quality. Cornstalks might be used as food for swine by first cutting them[24] in small pieces, and then boiling them until they are quite soft; a small quantity of meal is then to be mixed in the fluid, and the stalks again added, and fed to the pigs twice a day. Mr. P. Wing, of Farmersville, C. W., gives us his experience in feeding swine; and he requests his brother farmers to make similar experiments with various kinds of food, and, by preparing them in various ways, to ascertain what way it will yield the most nutriment--that is, make the most pork. He says,-- "I now give the result of feeding 100 bushels of good peas to sixteen hogs, of various mixed breeds, as found in this section. The peas were boiled until fine, making what I call thick soup. After having fed the hogs on the same kind of food for two weeks, I gave them their morning feed, and weighed each one separately, noting the weight. Twelve of them were about eighteen months old; one was a three year old sow, and three pigs were seven and half months old when weighed. I found their total weight 4267 lbs.; and after consuming the above amount, which took forty-two days, I weighed them again, and found that they had gained 1358 lbs.; and on the supposition that as they gained in flesh they shrunk in offal, I estimated their net gain to have been 1400 lbs. Their drink consisted of ten pails of whey per day. It was allowed to stand forty-eight hours, and the cream was skimmed off. "I find that there is a great difference in breeds of hogs. The three year old sow small framed, and pretty full-fleshed, weighing 504 lbs. Her gain in the forty-two days was 66 lbs. The three pigs were from her, and showed traces of three distinct breeds of hogs. Their first weight and gain were as follows: the first weighed 253 lbs.--gain, 97 lbs.; the second, 218 lbs.--gain, 75 lbs.; the third, 171 lbs.--gain, 46 lbs. When butchered, the smallest one was the best pork, being the fattest. Two of the most inferior of the hogs gained 1-1/2 lbs. per day; six, mixture of the Berkshire, (I should think about one fourth,) gained 1-3/4 lbs. per day; three of the common stock of our country gained 2-1/2 lbs.; and one of a superior kind weighted 318 lbs., and in the forty-two days gained 134 lbs. They were weighed on the 20th September, the first time. They were kept confined in a close pen, except once a week I let them out for exercise, and to wallow, for the most pint of a day." METHOD OF CURING SWINE'S FLESH. "In the county of Kent, when pork is to be cured as bacon, it is the practice to singe off the hairs by making a straw fire round the carcass--an operation which is termed _swaling_. The skin, in this process, should be kept perfectly free from dirt of all sorts. When the flitches are cut out, they should be rubbed effectually with a mixture of common salt and saltpetre, and afterwards laid in a trough, where they are to continue three weeks or a month, according to their size, keeping them frequently turned; and then, being taken out of the trough, are to be dried by a slack fire, which will take up an equal portion of time with the former; after which, they are to be hung up, or thrown upon a rack, there to remain until wanted. But in curing bacon on the continent, it is mostly the custom to have closets contrived in the chimneys, for the purpose of drying and smoking by wood fires, which is said to be more proper for the purpose. And a more usual mode of curing this sort of meat is that of salting it down for pickled pork, which is far more profitable than bacon. "In the county of Westmoreland, where the curing of hams has long been practised with much success, the usual method is for them to be at first rubbed very hard with bay salt; by some they are covered close up; by others they are left on a stone bench, to allow the brine and blood to run off. At the end of five days, they are again rubbed, as hard as they were at first, with salt of the same sort, mixed with an ounce of saltpetre to a ham. Having lain about a week, either on a stone bench or in hogsheads amongst the brine, they are hung up, by some in the chimney, amidst the smoke, whether of peat or coals; by others in places where the smoke never reaches them. If not sold sooner, they are suffered to remain there till the weather becomes warm. They are then packed in hogsheads with straw or oatmeal husks, and sent to the place of sale." A small portion of pyroligneous acid may be added to the brine. It is a good antiseptic, and improves the flavor of ham and bacon. (See _Acid, Pyroligneous_, in the _Materia Medica_.) APPENDIX. ON THE ACTION OF MEDICINES. In reference to the action of medicines and external agents on the animal body, we would observe, that warmth and moisture always expand it, and bayberry bark, tannin, and gum catechu always contract it; and that these agents have these effects at all times (provided, however, there be sufficient vitality in the part to manifest these peculiar changes) and under all circumstances. If a blister be applied to the external surface of an animal, and it produces irritation, it always has a tendency to produce that effect, whatever part of the living organism it may be applied to. So alcohol always has a tendency to stimulate; whether given by the mouth, or rubbed on the external surface, it will produce an excitement of nerves, heart, and arteries, and of course the muscles partake of the influence. Again, marshmallows, gum acacia, slippery elm, &c., always lubricate the mucous surfaces, quiet irritation, and relieve inflammatory symptoms. It follows, of course, 1st. That when any other effects than those just named are seen to follow the administration of these articles, they must be attributed to the morbid state of the parts to which they are applied; 2d. That a medicine which is good to promote a given effect in one form of disease, will be equally good for the same purpose in another form of disease in the same tissue. Thus, if an infusion of mallows is good for inflammation of the stomach, and will lubricate the surface, and allay irritation in that organ, then it is equally good for the same purpose in inflammation of the bowels and bladder. What we wish the reader to understand is this: that a medicine used for any particular symptom in one form of disease, if it be a sanative agent, is equally good for the same symptom in every form. Medical men range their various remedies under different heads. Thus opium is called narcotic, aloes purgative or cathartic, potass diuretic, &c. And because the same results do not always follow the administration of these articles, they are perplexed, and are compelled to try every new remedy, in hopes to find a specific; not knowing that many of their _"best medicines"_ (opium, for example) war against the vital principle, and as soon as they get into the system, nature sets up a strong action to counteract their effects; in short, to get them out of the system in the quickest possible manner: sometimes they pass through the kidneys; at other times, the intestinal canal, the lungs, or surface, afford them egress. And because a certain agent does not always act in their hands with unerring certainty, they seem to suppose that the same uncertainty attends the administration of every article in the _materia medica_. The medicines we recommend owe their diuretic, astringent, diaphoretic, and cathartic powers to their aromatic, relaxing, antispasmodic, lubricating, and irritating properties; and if we give them with a view of producing a certain result, and they do not act just as we wish, it is no proof that they have not done good. The fact is, all our medicines act on the parts where nature is making the greatest efforts to restore equilibrium; hence they relieve the constitution, whatever may be the nature of their results. Many of the remedies recommended in this work are denounced by the United States Dispensatory a "useless, inert," &c.; yet many of our most celebrated physicians are in the daily habit of using them. Mr. Bracy Clark, V. S., recommends tincture of allspice for gripes. And Mr. Causer, an experienced veterinarian, says, "I ordered a dessert spoonful (about two drachms) of tincture of gentian and bark to be given twice a day in a case of gripes. Scarcely an hour after the animal had taken the first dose, he began to eat some hay, and on the next day he ate every thing that was offered him. After this, I ordered a quart of cold boiled milk to be given him every morning and evening. By these means, together with the good care of the coachman, he recovered his strength." Mr. White, V. S., says, "I have been assured by a veterinary surgeon, that he once cured a horse of gripes by a dose of hot water; and it is by no means unlikely that a warm infusion of some of our medicinal herbs, such as peppermint, pennyroyal, rosemary, &c., would be found effectual." Mr. Gibson says, "It is a fact that cannot be too generally known, that an infusion of garlic has, to my certain knowledge, cured several cases of epilepsy--a dreadful disease, that seems to have baffled, in most instances, every effort of medical skill." An intelligent farmer assures Dr. White that he has had forty sheep at a time hoven or blasted from feeding on vetches, and so swollen that he hardly knew which would drop first. His usual remedy was a quart of water for each sheep; and that generally had the desired effect, though many died before it could be given. We might give our own experience in favor of numberless simple agents, which we are in the constant habit of using, were it necessary; suffice it to say, that at the present time we use nothing else than simple means. CLYSTERS. _Remarks._--As the more general use of clysters is recommended by the author, especially in acute diseases, he has thought proper to introduce, in this part of the work, a few remarks on them, with examples of their different forms. They serve not only to evacuate the rectum of its contents, but assist to evacuate the intestines, and serve also to convey nourishment into the system; as in cases of locked-jaw, and great prostration. They soften the hardened excrement in the rectum, and cause it to be expelled; besides, by their warm and relaxing powers, they act as fomentations. A stimulating clyster in congestion of the brain, or lungs, will relieve those parts by counter-irritation. An animal that is unable to swallow may be supported by nourishing clysters; for the lacteals, which open into the inner cavity of the intestines, absorb, or take up, the nourishment, and convey it into the thoracic duct, as already described. Some persons deny the utility of injections. We are satisfied on that point, and are able to convince any one, beyond a reasonable doubt, that fluids are absorbed in the rectum, notwithstanding the opinion of some men to the contrary. In administering clysters, it ought always to be observed that the fluids should be neither too hot nor too cold: they should be about the temperature of the blood. The common sixteen-ounce metal syringe, with a wooden pipe about six inches in length, and gradually tapering from base to point, is to be preferred. It is, after being oiled, much more easily introduced into the fundament than one that is considerably smaller; and, having a blunt point, there is no danger of hurting the animal, or wounding the rectum. The following injections are suitable for all kinds of animals. The quantity, however, should be regulated according to the size of the patient. Thus a quart will suffice for a sheep or pig, while three or four quarts are generally necessary in the case of horses and cattle. If clysters are intended to have a nutritive effect, they must be introduced in the most gentle manner, and not more than one pint should be given at any one time, for fear of exciting the expulsive action of the rectum. In constriction and intussusception of the intestines, and when relaxing clysters are indicated, they should not be too long persevered in, for falling of the rectum has been known, in many instances, to arise from repeated injections. Efforts should be made to relax the whole animal by warmth and moisture externally, and in the use of antispasmodic teas, rather than to place too much dependence on clysters. FORMS OF CLYSTERS. _Laxative Clyster._ Warm water, 3 or 4 quarts. Linseed oil, 8 ounces. Common salt, (fine,) 1 table-spoonful. _Another._ Warm water, 4 quarts. Soft soap, 1 gill. Fine salt, half a table-spoonful. _Use._--Either of the above clysters is useful in obstinate constipation, "stoppage," or whenever the excrement is hard and dark colored. _Emollient Clyster_. Slippery elm bark, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Let them simmer over the fire for a few minutes, then strain through a fine sieve, and inject. The following articles may be substituted for elm: flaxseed, lily roots, gum arabic, poplar bark, Iceland moss. _Use._--In all cases of irritation and inflammation of the intestines and bladder. _Stimulating Clyster._ Thin mucilage of slippery elm or linseed tea, 3 quarts. African cayenne,[25] 1 tea-spoonful. _Another._ Powdered ginger, half a table-spoonful. Boiling water, 3 quarts. When cool, inject. _Use._--In all cases, when the rectum and small intestines are inactive, and loaded with excrement, or gas. _Anodyne Clyster._ Lady's slipper, (_cypripedium_,) 1 ounce. Camomile flowers, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 3 quarts. Let the mixture stand a short time, then strain through a fine sieve, when it will be fit for use. _Use._--To relieve pain and relax spasms. _Diuretic Clyster._ Linseed tea, 3 quarts. Oil of juniper, 1 table-spoonful. Or, substitute for the latter, cream of tartar, half an ounce. _Use._--This form of clyster may be used with decided advantage in all acute diseases of the urinary organs. This injection is useful in cases of red water, both in cattle and sheep; and when the malady is supposed to result from general or local debility, the addition of tonics (golden seal or gentian[26]) will be indicated. _Astringent Clyster_. Take an infusion of hardhack, strain, and add a table-spoonful of finely-pulverized charcoal to every three quarts of fluid. _Another._ An infusion of witch hazel. _Another._ Powdered bayberry bark, 1 table-spoonful. Boiling water, 3 quarts. When cool, it is fit for use. _Use._--Astringent injections are used in all cases where it is desired to contract the living fibre, as in scouring, dysentery, scouring rot, diarrhoea, bloody flux, falling of the womb, fundament, &c. _Nourishing Clyster._ Nourishing clysters are composed of thin gruel made from flour, &c. _Injection for Worms._ Make an infusion of pomegranate, (rind of the fruit,) and inject every night for a few days. This will rid the animal of worms that infest the rectum; but if the animal is infested with the long, round worm, (_teres_,) then half a pint of the above infusion must be given for a few mornings, before feeding. _Another for Worms._ Powdered lobelia, 1 ounce. Wood ashes, a handful. Boiling water, 3 quarts. When cool, it is fit for use. FOOTNOTES: [24] Messrs. Parker & White, in Boston, have shown us an excellent machine used for the purpose of cutting cornstalks. Every farmer should have one in his possession. [25] A large portion of the cayenne found in the stores is adulterated with logwood, and is positively injurious, as it would thus prove astringent. [26] Their active properties may be extracted by infusion. INFUSIONS. These are made by steeping herbs, roots, and other medicinal substances in boiling water. No particular rules can be laid down as to the quantity of each article required: it will, however, serve as some sort of a guide, to inform the reader that we generally use from one to two ounces of the aromatic herbs and roots to every quart of fluid. A bitter infusion, such as wormwood or camomile, requires less of the herb. All kinds of infusions can be rendered palatable by the addition of a small quantity of honey or molasses. As a general rule, the human palate is a good criterion; for if an infusion be too strong or unpalatable for man, it is unfit for cattle or sheep. We do not depend so much on the strength of our agents: the great secret is to select the one best adapted to the case in view. If it be an agent that is capable of acting in concert with nature, then the weaker it is, the better. In short, nature requires but slight assistance under all ordinary circumstances, unless the animal is evidently suffering from debility; then our efforts must act in concert with the living powers. We must select the most nutritious food--that which can be easily converted into blood, bones, and muscles. If, on the other hand, we gave an abundance of provender, and it lacked the constituents necessary for the purposes in view, or was of such an indigestible nature that its nutritive properties could not be extracted by the gastric fluids, this would be just as bad as giving improper medicines, both in reference to its quantity and quality. An infusion of either of the following articles is valuable in colic, both flatulent and spasmodic, in all classes of animals: caraways, peppermint, spearmint, fennel-seed, angelica, bergamot, snakeroot, aniseed, ginseng, &c. ANTISPASMODICS. By antispasmodics are meant those articles that assist, through their physiological action, in relaxing the nervous and muscular systems. Hence the reader will perceive, by the definition we have given of this class of remedies, that we cannot recommend or employ the agents used by our brethren of the allopathic school, for many of them act pathologically. The class we use are simple, yet none the less efficient. Professor Curtis says, when alluding to the action of medicinal agents, "Experiments have shown that many vegetable substances, which seem in themselves quite bland and harmless, are antidotes to various poisons. Thus the skullcap (_scutellaria laterifolia_) is said to be a remedy for hydrophobia, the _alisma plantago_ and _polemonium reptans_ for the bites of serpents, and lobelia for the sting of insects. They are good; but why? Because they are permanently relaxing and stimulating, and depurate the whole system." Natural antispasmodics are warmth and moisture. The medicinal ones are lobelia, Indian hemp, castor musk, ginseng, assafoetida, pleurisy root, Virginia snakeroot, camomile, wormwood. The above are only specimens. There is no limit to the number and variety of articles in the vegetable kingdom that will act as antispasmodics or relaxants. They may be given internally or applied externally: the effect is the same. FOMENTATIONS. This class of remedies is usually composed of relaxants, &c., of several kinds, combined with tonics, stimulants, and anodynes. They are very useful to relieve pain, to remove rigidity, to restore tone, and to stimulate the parts to which they are applied. _Common Fomentation._ Wormwood, } Tansy, } equal parts. Hops, } Moisten them with equal parts of boiling water and vinegar, and apply them blood warm. _Use._--For all kinds of bruises and sprains. They should be confined to the injured parts, and kept moist with the superabundant fluid. When it is not practicable to confine a fomentation to the injured parts, as in shoulder or hip lameness, constant bathing with the decoction will answer the same purpose. _Anodyne Fomentation._ Hops, a handful. White poppy heads, 1 ounce. Water and vinegar, equal parts. Simmer a few minutes. _Use._--In all painful bruises. _Relaxing Fomentation_ Powdered lobelia, 2 ounces. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Simmer for a few minutes, and when sufficiently cool, bathe the parts with a soft sponge. _Use._--In all cases of stiff joints, and rigidity of the muscles. Animals often lie down in wet pastures, from which rheumatism and stiffness of the joints arise. In such cases, the animal must be taken from grass for a few days, and the affected parts be faithfully bathed. _Stimulating Fomentation._ Cedar buds, or boughs, any quantity, to which add a small quantity of red pepper and ginger, boiling water sufficient. _Use._--This will be found very efficacious in chronic lameness and paralysis, for putrid sore throat, and when the glands are enlarged from cold and catarrh. MUCILAGES. Mucilages are soft, bland substances, made by dissolving gum arabic in hot water; or by boiling marshmallows, slippery elm, or lily roots, until their mucilaginous properties are extracted. A table-spoonful of either of the above articles, when powdered, will generally suffice for a quart of water. _Use._--In all cases of catarrh, diarrhoea, inflammation of the kidneys, womb, bladder, and intestines. They shield the mucous membranes, and defend them from the action of poisons and drastic cathartics. WASHES. Washes generally contain some medicinal agent, and are principally used externally. _Wash for Diseases of the Feet._ Pyroligneous acid, 4 ounces. Water, 8 ounces. _Use._--This wash excels every other in point of efficacy, and removes rot and its kindred diseases sooner than any other. _Cooling Wash for the Eye._ Rain water, 1 pint. Acetic acid, 20 drops. _Use._--In ophthalmia. _Tonic and Antispasmodic Wash._ Camomile flowers, half an ounce. Boiling water, 1 pint. When cool, strain through fine linen. _Use._--In chronic diseases of the eye, and when a weeping remains after an acute attack. _Wash for unhealthy (or ulcerated) Sores._ A weak solution of sal soda or wood ashes. _Wash for Diseases of the Skin._ Take one ounce of finely-pulverized charcoal, pour on it one ounce of pyroligneous acid, then add a pint of water. Bottle, and keep it well corked. It may be applied to the skin by means of a sponge. It is also an excellent remedy for ill-conditioned ulcers. PHYSIC FOR CATTLE. Extract of butternut, (_juglans cinerea_,) half an ounce. Cream of tartar, 1 tea-spoonful. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Mix. When cool, administer. _Another._ Extract of blackroot, (_leptandra virginica_,) half an ounce. Rochelle salts, 1 ounce. Powdered ginger, 1/2 tea-spoonful. Dissolve in two quarts of warm water. _Another._ Powdered mandrake, 1 table-spoonful. Cream of tartar, 1 tea-spoonful. Hot water, 2 quarts. Here are three different forms of physic for cattle, which do not debilitate the system, like aloes and salts, because they determine to the surface as well as the bowels. They may be given in all cases where purges are necessary. One third of the above forms will suffice for sheep. MILD PHYSIC FOR CATTLE. Sirup of buckthorn, 2 ounces. Sulphur, half a table-spoonful. Ginger, half a tea-spoonful. Hot water, 2 quarts. _Aperient._ Linseed oil, 1 pint. Yolks of two eggs. Mix. _Another._ Sweet oil, 1 pint. Powdered cayenne, half a tea-spoonful. Mix. A sheep will require about one half of the above. _Stimulating Tincture._ Boiling vinegar, 1 pint. Tincture of myrrh, 2 ounces. Powdered capsicum, 2 tea-spoonfuls. _Use._--For external application in putrid sore throat. _Another._ Tincture of camphor, 4 ounces. Oil of cedar, half an ounce. Tincture of capsicum, (hot drops,) 4 ounces. To be rubbed around the throat night and morning. _Stimulating Tincture for Chronic Rheumatism._ Tincture of capsicum, 4 ounces. Oil of cedar, 1 ounce. Oil of wormwood, 1 ounce. Vinegar, half a pint. Goose grease, 1 gill. Mix. To be applied night and morning. The mixture should be kept in a well-corked bottle, and shaken before being used. POULTICES. _Preliminary Remarks._--As oxen, sheep, and pigs are liable to have accumulations of matter, in the form of abscess, resulting from injury or from the natural termination of diseases, it becomes a matter of importance that the farmer should rightly understand their character and treatment. If a foreign substance enters the flesh, the formation of matter is a part of the process by which nature rids the system of the enemy. A poultice relaxing and lubricating will then be indicated. If, however, the foreign body shall have entered at a point where it is impossible to confine a poultice, then the suppurative stage may be shortened by the application of relaxing fomentations, and lastly, by stimulants. It is a law of the animal economy, that, unless there be some obstacle, matter always seeks its exit by an external opening; and it becomes part of our duty to aid nature in her efforts to accomplish this salutary object. Nature requires aid in consequence of the unyielding character of the hide, and the length of time it takes to effect an opening through it. Animals are known to suffer immensely from the pressure a large accumulation of pus makes on the surrounding nerves, &c., and also from the reabsorption of this pus when it cannot readily make its exit. This is not all; for, if pus accumulates, and cannot in due time find an outlet, it produces destruction of the blood-vessels, nerves, and surrounding tissues. These vessels are distributed to the different surfaces; their supply of blood and nervous energy being cut off, they decompose, and in their turn become pus, and their open mouths allow the morbid matter to enter the circulation, and thus poison the blood. Hence it becomes our duty, whenever matter can be distinctly felt, to apply that sort of poultice which will be most likely to aid nature. There is no article in the _materia medica_ of so much value to the farmer as marshmallows; he cannot place too much value on it. Whether he uses it in his own family or confines it exclusively to cattle practice, it is equally valuable. It has numerous advantages over many similar remedies: the most important one to the farmer is, that it can be procured in this country at a small cost. We have used it for a number of years, and in many cases we consider it our sheet-anchor. In short, we cannot supply its place. Mr. Cobbett says, "I cannot help mentioning another herb, which is used for medicinal purposes. I mean the marshmallows. It is amongst the most valuable of plants that ever grew. Its leaves stewed, and applied wet, will cure, and almost instantly cure, any cut, or bruise, or wound of any sort. Poultices made of it will cure sprains; fomenting with it will remove swellings; applications of the liquor will cure chafes made by saddles and harness; and its operation, in all cases, is so quick that it is hardly to be believed. Those who have this weed at hand need not put themselves to the trouble and expense of sending to doctors and farriers on trifling occasions. It signifies not whether the wound be old or new. The mallows, if you have it growing near you, may be used directly after it is gathered, merely washing off the dirt first. But there should be some always ready in the house for use. It should be gathered just before it blooms, and dried and preserved just in the same manner as other herbs. It should be observed, however, that, if it should happen not to be gathered at the best season, it may be gathered at any time. I had two striking instances of the efficacy of mallows. A neighboring farmer had cut his thumb in a very dangerous manner, and, after a great deal of doctoring, it had got to such a pitch that his hand was swelled to twice its natural size. I recommended the use of the mallows to him, gave him a little bunch out of my store, (it being winter time,) and his hand was well in four days. He could go out to his work the very next day, after having applied the mallows over night. The other instance was this. I had a valuable hog, that had been gored by a cow. It had been in this state for two days before I knew of the accident, and had eaten nothing. The gore was in the side, making a large wound. I poured in the liquor in which the mallows had been stewed, and rubbed the side well with it. The next day the hog got up and began to eat. On examining the wound, I found it so far closed that I did not think it right to disturb it. I bathed the side again; and in two days the hog was turned out, and was running about along with the rest. Now, a person must be criminally careless not to make provision of this herb. Mine was nearly two years old when I made use of it upon the last-mentioned occasion. If the use of this weed was generally adopted, the art and mystery of healing wounds, and of curing sprains, swellings, and other external maladies, would very quickly be reduced to an unprofitable trade." _Lubricating and healing Poultice._ Powdered marshmallow roots, } Marshmallow leaves, } equal parts. Moisten with boiling water, and apply. _Use._--In ragged cuts, wounds, and bruises. _Stimulating Poultice._ Indian meal, } Slippery elm, } equal parts. Mix them together, and add sufficient boiling water to moisten the mass. Spread it on a cloth, and sprinkle a small quantity of powdered cayenne on its surface. _Use._--To stimulate ill-conditioned ulcers to healthy action. Where there is danger of putrescence, add a small quantity of powdered charcoal. _Poultice for Bruises._ Nothing makes so good a poultice for recent bruises as boiled carrots or marshmallows. _Poultice to promote Suppuration._ Indian meal, a sufficient quantity. Linseed, a handful. Cayenne, 1 tea-spoonful. To be moistened with boiling vinegar, and applied at the usual temperature. STYPTICS, TO ARREST BLEEDING. Witch hazel, (winter bloom,) bark or leaves, 2 ounces. Make a decoction with the smallest possible quantity of water, and if the bleeding is from the nose, throw it up by means of a syringe; if from the stomach, lungs, or bowels, add more water, and let the animal drink it, and give some by injection. _Styptic to arrest external Bleeding._ Wet a piece of lint with tincture of muriate of iron, and bind it on the part. There are various other styptics, such as alum water, strong tincture of nutgalls, bloodroot, common salt, fine flour, &c. ABSORBENTS. _Remarks._--Absorbents are composed of materials partaking of an alkaline character, and are used for the purpose of neutralizing acid matter. The formation of an acid in the stomach arises from some derangement of the digestive organs, sometimes brought on by the improper quantity or quality of the food. It is useless, therefore, to give absorbents, with a view of neutralizing acid, unless the former are combined with tonics, or agents that are capable of restoring the stomach to a healthy state. This morbid state of the stomach is recognized in oxen by a disposition to eat all kinds of trash that comes in their way, such as dirt, litter, &c. They are frequently licking themselves, and often swallow a great deal of hair, which is formed into balls in the stomach, and occasions serious irritation. Calves, when fattening, are often fed so injudiciously, that the stomach is incapable of reducing the food to chyme and chyle: the consequence is, that a large amount of carbonic acid gas is evolved. Many calves and lambs die from this cause. A mixture of chalk, saleratus, and soda is often given by farmers; yet they do not afford permanent relief. They do some good by correcting the acidity of the stomach; but the animals are often affected with diarrhoea, or costiveness, loss of appetite, colic, and convulsions. Attention to the diet would probably do more than all the medicine in the world. Yet if they do get sick, something must be done. The best forms of absorbents are the following: they restore healthy action to the lost function at the same time that they neutralize the gas. FORMS OF ABSORBENTS. Powdered charcoal, 1 table-spoonful. " snakeroot, half a table-spoonful. " caraways, 1 tea-spoonful. Hot water, 1 quart. Mix. To be given at one dose, for a cow; half the quantity, or indeed one third, is sufficient for a calf, sheep, or pig. _Another._ Powdered charcoal, 1 table-spoonful. To be given in thoroughwort tea, to which may be added a very small portion of ginger. _Another, adapted to City Use._ Subcarbonate of soda, 1 tea-spoonful. Tincture of gentian, 1 ounce. Infusion of spearmint, 1 pint. Mix. Give a cow the whole at a dose, and repeat daily, for a short time, if necessary. One half the quantity will suffice for a smaller animal. _Drink for Coughs._ Balm of Gilead buds, half an ounce. Honey, 2 table-spoonfuls. Vinegar, 1 wine-glassful. Water, 1 pint. Set the mixture on the fire, in an earthen vessel; let it simmer a few minutes. When cool, strain, and it is fit for use. Dose, a wine-glassful, twice a day. _Another._ Balsam copaiba, 1 ounce. Powdered licorice, 1 ounce. Honey, 2 table-spoonfuls. Boiling water, 1 quart. Rub the copaiba, licorice, and honey together in a mortar: after they are well mixed, add the water. Dose, half a pint, night and morning. _Another._ Balsam of Tolu, half an ounce. Powdered marshmallow roots, 1 ounce. Honey, half a gill. Boiling water, 2 quarts. Min. Dose, half a pint, night and morning. _Drink for a Cow after Calving._ Bethwort, 1 ounce. Marshmallows, 1 ounce. First make an infusion of bethwort by simmering it in a quart of water. When cool, strain, and stir in the mallows. Dose, half a pint, every two hours. VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA, EMBRACING A LIST OF THE VARIOUS REMEDIES USED BY THE AUTHOR OF THIS WORK IN THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE ON CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE. ACACIA, CATECHU, or JAPAN EARTH. It is a powerful astringent and tonic, and given, in half tea-spoonful doses, in mucilage of slippery elm or mallows, is a valuable remedy in diarrhoea, or excessive discharges of urine. ACACIA GUM makes a good mucilage, and is highly recommended in diseases of the mucous surfaces and urinary organs. It is highly nutritious, and consequently can be given with advantage in locked-jaw. ACETUM, (vinegar.) This is cooling, and a small portion of it, with an equal quantity of honey, administered in thin gruel, makes an excellent drink in fevers. Diluted with an equal quantity of water, it is employed externally in bruises and sprains. It neutralizes pestilential effluvia, and, combined with capsicum, makes a good application for sore throat. ACID, PYROLIGNEOUS. This is one of the most valuable articles in the whole _materia medica_. Diluted with equal parts of water, it is applied to ill-conditioned sores and ulcers; it acts as an antiseptic and stimulant. It is obtained from wood by destructive distillation in close vessels. This acid is advantageously applicable to the preservation of animal food. Mr. William Ramsay (_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, iii. 21) has made some interesting experiments on its use for this purpose. Herrings and other fish, simply dipped in the acid and afterwards dried in the shade, were effectually preserved, and, when eaten, were found very agreeable to the taste. Herrings slightly cured with salt, by being sprinkled with it for six hours, then drained, next immersed in pyroligneous acid for a few seconds, and afterwards dried in the shade for two months, were found by Mr. Ramsay to be of fine quality and flavor. Fresh beef, dipped in the acid, in the summer season, for the short space of a minute, was perfectly sweet in the following spring. Professor Silliman states, that one quart of the acid added to the common pickle for a barrel of hams, at the time they are laid down, will impart to them the smoked flavor as perfectly as if they had undergone the common process of smoking. ALDER BARK, BLACK, (_prinos verticillatus_.) A strong decoction makes an excellent wash for diseases of the skin, in all classes of domestic animals. ALLIUM, (garlic.) This is used chiefly as an antispasmodic. It improves all the secretions, and promotes the function of the skin and kidneys. It is useful also to expel wind and worms. A few kernels may be chopped fine and mixed with the food. When used for the purpose of expelling worms, an ounce of the root should be boiled in a pint of milk, and given in the morning, about an hour before feeding. ALOES. The best kind is brought from the Island of Socotra, and is supposed to be more safe in its operation than the other kinds. In consequence of the irritative properties of aloes, they are ill adapted to cattle practice; and as a safer article has been recommended, (see _Physic for Cattle_,) we have entirely dispensed with them. ALTHEA, (marshmallows.) See _Remarks on Poultices_. ALUM. It possesses powerful astringent properties, and, when burnt and pulverized, is useful to remove proud flesh. AMMONIACUM. Gum ammoniacum is useful for chronic coughs. The dose is two drachms daily, in a quart of gruel. ANISEED. A good carminative in flatulent colic. The dose is about one ounce, infused in a quart of boiling water. ANTHEMIS, (camomile.) It is used as a tonic in derangement of the digestive organs, &c. An ounce of the flowers may be infused in a quart of water, and given when cool. It is useful also as an external application in bruises and sprains. ASH BARK, WHITE. This is a useful remedy in loss of cud, caused by disease of the liver. Dose, one ounce of the bark, infused in boiling water. When cool, pour off the clear liquor. ASSAFOETIDA. This article is used as an antispasmodic. The dose is from one to two drachms, administered in thin gruel. BALM, LEMON. See _Fever Drink_. BALM OF GILEAD BUDS. One ounce of the buds, after being infused in boiling water and strained, makes a good drink for chronic coughs. BALMONY. A good tonic and vermifuge. BALSAM, CANADA, is a diuretic, and may be given in slippery elm, in doses of one table-spoonful for diseases of the kidneys. BALSAM OF COPAIBA, or CAPIVI, is useful in all diseases of the urinary organs, and, combined with powdered marshmallows and water, makes a good cough drink. Dose, half an ounce. BALEAM OF TOLU. Used for the same purpose as the preceding. BARLEY. Barley water, sweetened with honey, is a useful drink in fevers. BAYBERRY BARK. We have frequently prescribed this article in the preceding pages as an antiseptic and astringent for scouring and dysentery. BEARBERRY, (_uva ursi_.) This is a popular diuretic, and is useful when combined with marshmallows. When the urine is thick and deficient in quantity, or voided with difficulty, it may be given in the following form:-- Powdered bearberry, 1 ounce. " marshmallows, 2 ounces. Indian meal, 2 pounds. Mix. Dose, half a pound daily, in the cow's feed. BITTER ROOT, (_apocynum androsæmifolium_.) Given in doses of half an ounce of the powdered bark, it acts as an aperient, and is good wherever an aperient is indicated. BLACKBERRY ROOT, (_rubus trivialis_.) A valuable remedy for scours in sheep. BLACK ROOT, (_leptandra virginica_.) The extract is used as physic, instead of aloes. (See _Physic for Cattle_.) A strong decoction of the fresh roots will generally act as a cathartic on all classes of animals. BLOODROOT, (_sanguinaria canadensis_.) It is used in our practice as an escharotic. It acts on fungous excrescences, and is a good substitute for nitrate of silver in the dispersion of all morbid growth. One ounce of the powder, infused in boiling vinegar, is a valuable application for rot and mange. BLUE FLAG, (_iris versicolor_.) The powdered root is a good vermifuge. BONESET, (_eupatorium perfoliatum_.) This is a valuable domestic remedy. Its properties are too well known to the farming community to need any description. BORAX. This is a valuable remedy for eruptive diseases of the tongue and mouth. Powdered and dissolved in water, it forms an astringent, antiseptic wash. The usual form of prescription, in veterinary practice, is,-- Powdered borax, half an ounce. Honey, 2 ounces. Mix. BUCKTHORN, (_rhamnus catharticus_.) A sirup made from this plant is a valuable aperient in cattle practice. The dose is from half an ounce to two ounces. BURDOCK, (_arctium lappa_.) The leaves, steeped in vinegar, make a good application for sore throat and enlarged glands. The seeds are good to purify the blood, and may be given in the fodder. BUTTERNUT BARK, (_juglans cinerea_.) Extract of butternut makes a good cathartic, in doses of half an ounce. It is much safer than any known cathartic, and, given in doses of two drachms, in hot water, combined with a small quantity of ginger, it forms a useful aperient and alterative. In a constipated habit, attended with loss of cud, it is invaluable. During the American revolution, when medicines were scarce, this article was brought into use by the physicians, and was esteemed by them an excellent substitute for the ordinary cathartics. CALAMUS, (_acorus calamus_.) A valuable remedy for loss of cud. CAMOMILE. See _Anthemis_. CANELLA BARK is an aromatic stimulant, and forms a good stomachic. CAPSICUM. A pure stimulant. Useful in impaired digestion. CARAWAY SEED, (_carum carui_.) A pleasant carminative for colic. CARDAMOM SEEDS. Used for the same purpose as the preceding. CASSIA BARK, (_laurus cinnamomum_.) Used as a diffusible stimulant in flatulency. CATECHU, (see ACACIA.) CATNIP, (_nepeta cataria_.) An antispasmodic in colic. CEDAR BUDS. An infusion of the buds makes a good vermifuge for sheep and pigs. CHARCOAL. This is a valuable remedy as an antiseptic for foul ulcers, foot rot, &c. CLEAVERS, (_galium aparine_.) The expressed juice of the herb acts on the skin and kidneys, increasing their secretions. One tea-spoonful of the juice, given night and morning in a thin mucilage of poplar bark, is an excellent remedy for dropsy, and diseases of the urinary organs. An infusion of the herb, made by steeping one ounce of the leaves and seeds in a quart of boiling water, may be substituted for the expressed juice. COHOSH, BLACK, (_macrotrys racemosa_.) Useful in dropsy. COLTSFOOT, (_tussilago farfara_.) An excellent remedy for cough. CRANESBILL, (_geranium maculatum_.) Useful in scours, dysentery, and diarrhoea. DILL SEED, (_anethum graveolens_.) Its properties are the same as caraways. DOCK, YELLOW, (_rumex crispus_.) Good for diseases of the liver and of the skin. ELECAMPANE, (_inula helenium_.) An excellent remedy for cough and asthma, and diseases of the skin. ELDER FLOWERS, (_sambucus canadensis_.) Used as an aperient for sheep, in constipation. ELM BARK, (_ulmus fulva_.) This makes a good mucilage. See Poultices. ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT. Used for flatulent colic. One ounce is the usual dose for a cow. To be given in warm water. FENNEL SEED. Useful to expel wind. FERN, MALE, (_aspidium felix mas_.) Used as a remedy for worms. FLAXSEED. A good lubricant, in cold and catarrh, and in diseases of the mucous surfaces. It makes a good poultice. FLOWER OF SULPHUR. This is used extensively, in veterinary practice, for diseases of the skin. It is a mild laxative. FUMIGATIONS. For foul barns and stables, take of Common salt, 4 ounces. Manganese, 1 ounce and a half. Let these be well mixed, and placed in a shallow earthen vessel; then pour on the mixture, gradually, sulphuric acid, four ounces. The inhalation of the gas which arises from this mixture is highly injurious; therefore, as soon as the acid is poured on, all persons should leave the building, which should immediately be shut, and not opened again for several hours. Dr. White, V. S., says, "This is the only efficacious _fumigation_, it having been found that when glanderous or infectious matter is exposed to it a short time, it is rendered perfectly harmless." GALBANUM. This gum is used for similar purposes as gum ammoniac and assafoetida. GALLS. They contain a large amount of tannin, and are powerfully astringent. A strong decoction is useful to arrest hemorrhage. GARLIC. See _Allium_. GENTIAN. This is a good tonic, and is often employed to remove weakness of the stomach and indigestion. GINGER. A pure stimulant. Ginger tea is a useful remedy for removing colic and flatulency, and is safer and better adapted to the animal economy, where stimulants are indicated, than alcoholic preparations. GINSENG, (_panax quinquefolium_.) It possesses tonic and stimulant properties. GOLDEN SEAL, (_hydrastis canadensis_.) A good tonic, laxative, and alterative. GOLDTHREAD, (_coptis trifolia_.) A strong infusion of this herb makes a valuable application for eruptions and ulcerations of the mouth. We use it in the following form:-- Goldthread, 1 ounce. Boiling water, 1 pint. Set the mixture aside to cool; then strain, and add a table-spoonful of honey, and bathe the parts twice a day. GRAINS OF PARADISE. A warming, diffusible stimulant. HARDHACK, (_spiræa tomentosa_.) Its properties are astringent and tonic. We have used it in cases of "scours" with great success. It is better adapted to cattle practice in the form of extract, which is prepared by evaporating the leaves, stems, or roots. The dose is from one scruple to a drachm for a cow, and from ten grains to one scruple and a half for a sheep, which may be given twice a day, in any bland liquid. HONEY, (_mel_.) Honey is laxative, stimulant, and nutritious. With vinegar, squills, or garlic, it forms a good cough mixture. Combined with tonics, it forms a valuable gargle, and a detergent for old sores and foul ulcers. HOPS, (_humulus_.) An infusion of hops is highly recommended in derangement of the nervous system, and for allaying spasmodic twitchings of the extremities. One ounce of the article may be infused in a quart of boiling water, strained, and sweetened with honey, and given, in half pint doses, every four hours. They are used as an external application, in the form of fomentation, for bruises, &c. HOREHOUND, (_marrubium_.) This is a valuable remedy for catarrh and chronic affections of the lungs. It is generally used, in the author's practice, in the following form: An infusion is made in the proportion of an ounce of the herb to a quart of boiling water. A small quantity of powdered marshmallows is then stirred in, to make it of the consistence of thin gruel. The dose is half a pint, night and morning. For sheep and pigs half the quantity will suffice. HORSEMINT, (_monarda punctata_.) Like other mints, it is antispasmodic and carminative. Useful in flatulent colic. HORSERADISH. The root scraped and fed to animals laboring under loss of cud, from chronic disease of the digestive organs, and general debility, is generally attended with beneficial results. If beaten into paste with an equal quantity of powdered bloodroot, it makes a valuable application for foul ulcers. HYSSOP, (_hyssopus officinalis_.) Hyssop tea, sweetened with honey, is useful to promote perspiration in colds and catarrh. INDIAN HEMP, (_apocynum cannabinum_.) An infusion of this herb acts as an aperient, and promotes the secretions. It may be prepared by infusing an ounce of the powdered or bruised root in a quart of boiling water, which must be placed in a warm situation for a few hours: it should then be strained, and given in half pint doses, at intervals of six hours. A gill of this mixture will sometimes purge a sheep. INDIGO, WILD, (_baptisia tinctoria_.) We have made some experiments with the inner portion of the bark of this plant, and find it to be very efficacious in the cure of eruptive diseases of the mouth and tongue, lampas, and inflamed gums. A strong decoction (one ounce of the bark boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water) makes a good wash for old sores. A small quantity of powdered slippery elm, stirred into the decoction while hot, makes a good emollient application to sore teats and bruised udder. JUNIPER BERRIES, (_juniperus_.) These are used in dropsical affections, in conjunction with tonics; also in diseases of the urinary organs. KINO. This is a powerful astringent, and may be used in diarrhoea, dysentery, and red water, after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided. We occasionally use it in the following form for red water and chronic dysentery:-- Powdered kino, 20 grains. Thin flour gruel, 1 quart. To be given at a dose, and repeated night and morning, as occasion requires. LADY'S SLIPPER, (_cypripedium pubescens_.) This is a valuable nervine and antispasmodic, and has been used with great success, in my practice, for allaying nervous irritability. It is a good substitute for opium. It is, however, destitute of all the poisonous properties of the latter. Dose for a cow, half a table-spoonful of the powder, night and morning; to be given in bland fluid. LICORICE. Used principally to alleviate coughs. The following makes an excellent cough remedy:-- Powdered licorice, 1 ounce. Balsam of Tolu, 1 tea-spoonful. Boiling water, 1 quart. To be given at a dose. LILY ROOT, (_nymphæa odorata_.) Used principally for poultices. LIME WATER. This article is used in diarrhoea, and when the discharge of urine is excessive. Being an antacid, it is very usefully employed when cattle are hoven or blown. It is unsafe to administer alone, as it often deranges the digestive organs: it is therefore very properly combined with tonics. The following will serve as an example:-- Lime water, 2 ounces. Infusion of snakehead, (balmony,) 2 quarts. Dose, a quart, night and morning. LOBELIA, (herb,) (_lobelia inflata_.) This is an excellent antispasmodic. It is used in the form of poultice for locked-jaw, and as a relaxant in rigidity of the muscular structure. MANDRAKE, (_podophyllum peltatum_.) Used as physic for cattle, (which see.) MARSHMALLOWS. See _Althea_ MEADOW CABBAGE ROOT, (_ictodes foetida_.) This plant is used as an antispasmodic in asthma and chronic cough. Dose, a tea-spoonful of the powder, night and morning; to be given in mucilage of slippery elm. MOTHERWORT, (_leonurus cardiaca_.) A tea of this herb is valuable in protracted labor. MULLEIN, (_verbascum_.) The leaves steeped in vinegar make a good application for sore throat. MYRRH. The only use we make of this article, in cattle practice, is to prepare a tincture for wounds, as follows:-- Powdered myrrh, 2 ounces. Proof spirit, 1 pint. Set it aside in a close-covered vessel for two weeks, then strain through a fine sieve, and it is fit for use. OAK BARK, (_quercus alba_.) A decoction of oak bark is a good astringent, and may be given internally, and also applied externally in falling of the womb or fundament. OINTMENTS. We have long since discontinued the use of ointments, from a conviction that they do not agree with the flesh of cattle. Marshmallows, or tincture of myrrh, will heal a wound much quicker than any greasy preparation. We have, however, often applied fresh marshmallow ointment to chapped teats, and chafed udder, with decided advantage. It is made as follows: Take of white wax, mutton tallow, and linseed oil, each a pound; marshmallow leaves, two ounces. First melt the wax and tallow, then add the oil, lastly a handful of mallows. Simmer over a slow fire until the leaves are crisp, then strain through a piece of flannel, and stir the mixture until cool. OLEUM LINI, (flaxseed oil.) This is a useful aperient and laxative in cattle practice, and may be given in all cases of constipation, provided, however, it is not accompanied with chronic indigestion: if such be the case, a diffusible stimulant, combined with a bitter tonic, (golden seal,) aided by an injection, will probably do more good, as they will arouse the digestive function. The above aperient may then be ventured on with safety. The dose for a cow is one pint. OLIVE OIL. This is a useful aperient for sheep. The dose is from half a gill to a gill. OPODELDOC. The different preparations of this article are used for strains and bruises, after the inflammatory action has somewhat subsided. _Liquid Opodeldoc._ Soft soap, 6 ounces. New England rum, 1 pint and a half. Vinegar, half a pint. Oil of lavender, 2 ounces. The oil of lavender should first be dissolved in an equal quantity of alcohol, and then added to the mixture. PENNYROYAL, (_hedeoma_.) This plant, administered in warm infusion, promotes perspiration, and is good in flatulent colic. PEPPERMINT, (_mentha piperita_.) An ounce of the herb infused in a quart of boiling water relieved spasmodic pains of the stomach and bowels, and is a good carminative, (to expel wind,) provided the alimentary canal is free from obstruction. PLANTAIN LEAVES, (_plantago major_.) This article is held in high repute for the cure of hydrophobia and bites from poisonous reptiles. The bruised leaves are applied to the parts; the powdered herb and roots to be given internally at discretion. PLEURISY ROOT, (_asclepias tuberosa_.) We have given this article a fair trial in cattle practice, and find it to be invaluable in the treatment of catarrh, bronchitis, pleurisy, pneumonia, and consumption. The form in which we generally prescribe it is,-- Powdered pleurisy root, half a table-spoonful. " marshmallow roots, 1 ounce. Boiling water sufficient to make a thin mucilage. The addition of a small quantity of honey increases its diaphoretic properties. POMEGRANATE, (_punica granatum_.) The rind of this article is a powerful astringent, and is occasionally used to expel worms. A strong decoction makes a useful wash for falling of the womb, or fundament. Given as an infusion, in the proportion of half an ounce of the rind to a quart of water, it will arrest diarrhoea. POPLAR, (_populus tremuloides_.) It possesses tonic, demulcent, and alterative properties. It is often employed, in our practice, as a local application, in the form of poultice. The infusion is a valuable remedy in general debility, and in cases of diseased urinary organs. PRINCE'S PINE, (_chimaphila_.) This plant is a valuable remedy in dropsy. It possesses diuretic and tonic properties. It does not produce the same prostration that usually attends the administration of diuretics, for its tonic property invigorates the kidneys, while, at the same time, it increases the secretion of urine. The best way of administering it is by decoction. It is made by boiling four ounces of the fresh-bruised leaves in two quarts of water. After straining, a table-spoonful of powdered marshmallows may be added, to be given in pint doses, night and morning. PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. See _Acid_. RASPBERRY LEAVES, (_rubus strigosus_.) An infusion of this plant may be employed with great advantage in cases of diarrhoea. ROMAN WORMWOOD, (_ambrosia artemisifolia_.) This plant is a very bitter tonic, and vermifuge. An infusion may be advantageously given in cases of general debility and loss of cud. A strong decoction may be given to sheep and pigs that are infested with worms. If given early in the morning, and before the animals are fed, it will generally have the desired effect. ROSE, RED, (_rosa gallica_.) We have occasionally used the infusion, and find it of great value as a wash for chronic ophthalmia. The infusion is made by pouring a pint of boiling water on a quarter of an ounce of the flowers. It is then strained through fine linen, when it is fit for use. SASSAFRAS, (_laurus sassafras_.) The bark of sassafras root is stimulant, and possesses alterative properties. We have used it extensively, in connection with sulphur, for eruptive diseases, and for measles in swine, in the following proportions:-- Powdered sassafras, 1 ounce. " sulphur, half a table-spoonful. Mix, and divide into four parts, one of which may be given, night and morning, in a hot mash. The pith of sassafras makes a valuable soothing and mucilaginous wash for inflamed eyes. SENNA A safe and efficient aperient for cattle may be made by infusing an ounce of senna in a quart of boiling water. When cool, strain, then add, manna one ounce, powdered golden seal one tea-spoonful. The whole to be given at a dose. SKULLCAP, (_scutellaria lateriflora_.) This is an excellent nervine and antispasmodic. It is admirably adapted to the treatment of locked-jaw, and derangement of the nervous system. An ounce of the leaves may be infused in two quarts of boiling water. After straining, a little honey may be added, and then administered, in pint doses, every four hours. SNAKEROOT, VIRGINIA, (_aristolochia serpentaria_.) This article, given by infusion in the proportion of half an ounce of the root to a pint of water, acts as a stimulant and alterative. It is admirably adapted to the treatment of chronic indigestion. SOAP. This article acts on all classes of animals, as a laxative and antacid. It is useful in obstinate constipation of the bowels, in diseases of the liver, and for softening hardened excrement in the rectum. By combining castile soap with butternut, blackroot, golden seal, or balmony, a good aperient is produced, which will generally operate on the bowels in a few hours. SQUILL, (_scilla maritima_.) A tea-spoonful of the dried root, given in a thin mucilage of marshmallows, is an excellent remedy for cough, depending on an irritability of the lungs and mucous surfaces. SULPHUR. This is one of the most valuable articles in the veterinary _materia medica_. It possesses laxative, diaphoretic and alterative properties, and is extensively employed, both internally and externally, for diseases of the skin. The dose for a cow is a tea-spoonful daily. Its alterative effect may be increased by combining it with sassafras, (which see.) SUNFLOWER, WILD, (_helianthus divaricatus_.) The seeds of this plant, when bruised and given it any bland fluid, act as a diuretic and antispasmodic. Half a table-spoonful of the seeds may be given at a dose, and repeated as occasion requires. TOLU, BALSAM OF. This balsam is procured by making incisions into the trunk of a tree which flourishes in Tolu and Peru. It has a peculiar tendency to the mucous surfaces, and therefore is very properly prescribed for epizoötic diseases of catarrhal nature. The dose is half a table-spoonful every night, to be administered in a mucilage of marshmallows. One half the quantity is sufficient for a sheep. VINEGAR. See _Acetum_. WITCH HAZEL BARK, (_hamamelis virginica_.) A decoction of this bark is a valuable application for falling of the fundament, or womb. Being a good astringent, an infusion of the leaves is good for scouring in sheep. WORMSEED, (_chenopodium anthelminticum_.) A tea-spoonful of the powdered seeds, given in a tea of snakeroot, is a good vermifuge: it will, however, require repeated doses, and they should be given at least an hour before the morning meal. GENERAL REMARKS ON MEDICINES. Here, reader, is our _materia medica_; wherein you will find a number of harmless, yet efficient agents, that will, in the treatment of disease, fulfil any and every indication to your entire satisfaction. They act efficiently in the restoration of the diseased system to a healthy state, without producing the slightest injury to the animal economy. The Almighty has furnished us, if we did but know it, a healing balm for every malady to which man and the lower animals are subject. Yet how many of these precious gifts are disregarded for the more popular ones of the chemist! Dr. Brown, professor of botany in the Ohio College, says, "Of the twenty or more thousand species of plants recognized and described by botanists, probably not more than one thousand have ever been used in the art of healing; and not more than one fourth of that number even have a place in our _materia medica_ at present. The glorious results, however, attending the researches of those who have preceded us, should inspire us with that confidence and spirit of investigation which will ultimately result in the selection, preparation, and systematic arrangement, of a full, convenient, and efficient _materia medica_." Unfortunately, the medical fraternity, as well as the farmers, have been accustomed to judge of the power of the remedy by its effects, and not in proportion to its ultimate good. Thus, if a pound of salts be given to a cow, and they produce liquid stools,--in short, "operate well,"--they are styled a good medicine, although they leave the mucous surface of the alimentary canal in a weak, debilitated state, and otherwise impair the health; yet this is a secondary consideration. For, if the symptoms of the present malady, for which the salts were given, shall disappear, nothing is thought of the after consequences. The cow may be constipated for several succeeding days, and finally refuse her food; but who suspects that the salts were the cause of it? Who believes that the abstraction of ninety ounces of blood cut short the life of our beloved Washington? We do, and so do others. We are told, in reference to the treatment of a given case, that "the patient will grow worse before he can get better." What makes him worse? The medicine, surely, and nothing else. Now, if ever symptoms are altered, they should be for the better; and if the medicines recommended in this work (provided, however, they are given with ordinary prudence) ever make an animal worse, then we beg of the reader to avoid them as he would a pest-house. This is not all. If any article in this _materia medica_, when given, in the manner we recommend, to an animal in perfect health, shall operate so as to derange such animal's health,--in short, act pathologically,--then it does not deserve a place here, and should not be depended on. But such will not be the result. We recommend farmers to select and preserve a few of these herbs for family use; for they are efficient in the cure of many diseases. And as the services of a physician are not always to be had in small country towns, a little experience in the use and application of simple articles to various diseases seems to be absolutely necessary. It was by the aid of a few of these and similar simple remedies, that we were enabled to preserve the health of the passengers of that ill-fated ship, the Anglo-Saxon. The following testimony has never, until the present time, been made public, and we would not now make use of it, were it not that we wish to show that there are men, and women too, that can appreciate our labors:-- "The undersigned, passengers in the Anglo-Saxon from Boston, feeling it a duty they owe to Dr. G. H. Dadd, surgeon of the ship, would here bear testimony to the valuable medical services and advice rendered by him to us, whilst on shipboard; believing his attendance has been conducive of the greatest benefit; at times almost indispensable, not only during the short passage, but also through the trying period subsequent to the wreck through all of which, the coolness and devotion to the best interests of his employers and of the passengers, exhibited by him, deserve at our hands the highest terms of commendation. ROBERT EARLE, S. C. AMES, BENJAMIN CHAMPNEY, LEWIS JONES, HAMILTON G. WILD, W. A. BARNES, GIDEON D. SCULL, W. ALLAN GAY, ISAAC JENKINS, PRESCOTT BIGELOW, A. M. EARLE, ROSALIE PELBY, OPHELIA ANDERSON, HELEN C. DOVE, ELEANOR TERESA MCHUGH, JOHN HILLS, FRANCES BLENKAM, HARRIET PHILLIPS, LOUISA A. BIGELOW, EASTPORT, May 9, 1847." Notwithstanding this disaster, Enoch Train, Esq., of Boston, with a liberality which does him credit, appointed us surgeon of the ship Mary Ann, commanded by Captain Albert Brown; thus giving us a second opportunity of proving what we had asserted, viz., _that the emigrants might be brought to the United States in better condition, and with less deaths, than had heretofore been done_. It must be remembered that about this time the typhus, or ship fever, was making sad havoc amongst all classes of men, and many talented professional men fell victims to the dire malady. We left Liverpool at a sickly season, having on board two hundred persons, and were fortunate enough to land them in this city, all in good health. Several ships which sailed at the same time, bound also to different ports in the United States, lost, on the passage, from ten to twenty persons, although each ship was furnished with a medical attendant. Here, then, is a proof that our agents cure while others fail. PROPERTIES OF PLANTS. Professor Curtis tells us that "herbs, during their growth, preserve their medicinal properties, commencing at the root, and continuing upward, through the stem and leaves, to the flowers and seeds, until fully grown. When the root begins to die, the properties ascend from it towards the seed, where, at last, they are the strongest. Even the virtues of the leaves, after they get their full growth, often go into the seed, which will not be so well developed if the leaves are plucked off early; as corn fills and ripens best when the leaves are left on the stalks till they die. In the annual and biennial plants, the root is worthless after the seed is ripe, and the stem also is of very little value; what virtue there is residing in the bark and leaves also lose their properties as fast as they lose their freshness. All leaves and stems that have lost their color, or become shrivelled, while the roots are in the earth, have lost much of their medicinal power, and should be rejected from medicine." Seeds and fruit should be gathered when ripe or fully matured. Flowers should be gathered just at the time they come into bloom. Leaves should be gathered when they have arrived at their full growth, are green, and full of the juices of the plant. Barks should be gathered as early in the spring as they will peel. Roots should be gathered in the fall, after they have perfectly matured, or early in the spring, before they commence germinating and growing. POTATO. Boiled potatoes, mixed up with steamed cornstalks, shorts, &c., make an excellent compound for fattening cattle; yet, at the present time, they are too expensive for general use. We hope, however, that ere long our farmers will take hold of this subject in good earnest,--we allude to the causes of potato rot,--and restore this valuable article of food to its original worth. A few remarks on this subject seem to be called for. _Remarks on the Potato Rot._ Where are the fine, mealy, substantial "apples of the earth" gone?--and Echo answers, "Where?" They are not to be found at the present day. The farmers have suffered great losses, in some instances by a partial, and in others by a total, failure of their crops. Numberless experiments have been tried to prevent this great national calamity, yet they have all proved abortive, for the simple reason that we have been only treating the symptoms, while the disease has taken a firmer hold, and hurried our subjects to a premature decay. Different theories have been suggested with a view of explaining the causes of the potato rot, none of which are satisfactory. We have the "fungous theory," "insect theory," "moisture theory," "theory of _degeneration_," and "the chemical theory of defective elements." In relation to the "fungous theory" we observe that fungi inhabit decaying organic bodies. They are considered to be a common pest to all kinds of plants, like parasites, living at the expense of those plants. We do not expect to find fungi in good healthy vegetables, at least while they possess a high grade of vital action. It is only when morbid deposits and chemical agencies overcome the integrity or vital affinity of the vegetable that fungous growth commences. In the fungous development, the living parts of the vegetable are not always destroyed; yet these fungi obstruct vital action by their deposits or accumulations; hence the small vessels that lead from centre to surface are partly paralyzed, and the power peculiar to all vegetables of throwing off useless or excrementitious matter is intercepted. This is not all. The process of imperceptible elimination, which might restore the balance of power in any thing like a vigorous plant, is thus impaired. Now, it is evident that the fungi are not the cause of the potato rot; they are only the mere effects, the symptoms: preceding these were other manifestations of disorder, and these manifestations, in their different grades, might with equal propriety be charged as causes of the potato rot. The deterioration of the potato has been going on in a gradual manner for a long time. A mild form of disease has existed for a number of years, making such imperceptible change that it has escaped the observation of many until late years, when the article became so unpalatable that our attention has been called to it in good earnest; and by the aid of the microscope we have discovered the fungi. Has this discovery benefited the agriculturist? Not a particle. The theory of degeneration, without doubt, will assist us to explain the why and wherefore of the potato rot. But this is not all; the community want to know the cause of this degeneracy. We have spent some time in the investigation of this subject, and now give the public, in a condensed form, our opinion of this matter. We may err, but our progress is towards the full discovery of the _direct cause_, and the ways and means best adapted to prevent this sad calamity. The potato came into existence at a certain period in the history of the world. After its discovery, it was taken from the mother soil, the land of its nativity, planted in different parts of the world, and grew to apparent perfection. Our opinion is, that the transplanting was one of the causes of this degeneracy. It is generally known that indigenous plants do not thrive so well on foreign soil as in their native; for example, the plants of the sunny south cannot be made to flourish here in the same degree of perfection as at the south; they require the genial warmth of the sun's rays, which our northern climates lack. The soil, too, mast be adapted to each particular plant. It is true we do cultivate them by ingenuity and chemical agency; yet they seldom equal the original. Need we ask the farmer if he can, from the soil of New England, produce a St. Michael orange equal to one grown on its native soil? or if a squash will grow in the deserts of Arabia? All vegetables, as well as animals, possess a certain amount of vital power, which enables them to resist, to a certain degree, all encroachments on their healthy operations. The potato, having been deprived, in some measure, of its essential element, lost its reciprocal equilibrium, and has ever since been a prey to whatever destructive agents may be present, whether they exist in the soil or atmosphere. Yet we conceive that its total destruction is dependent on another cause, which has been entirely overlooked; for, in spite of the gradual deterioration alluded to, the potato will, for a number of years, continue to keep up a low form of vitality, and result in something like a potato. In order to comprehend the subject, let us, for a moment, consider the conditions necessary for the germination and perfection of vegetable bodies. We shall then be able to decide as to whether or not we have complied with such conditions. The first condition is, we must have _a perfect germ_; secondly, _a ripe seed_; and lastly, _nutrimental agents in the sail, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen_. The potato requires but a small quantity of moisture to develop the germinating principle; for we have every day evidences of its ability to send forth its fibres, even in the open air. Now, the premature development of these fibrous radicles, or roots, debilitates the tuber; in short, we have a sick potato. Is the potato, under such circumstances, a perfect germ? No. If you examine the potato, with its roots and stem, you will find the cutis, or skin, and mucous membrane. This external skin, _including that of plant, stalk, leaf, and ball_, is to the potato what the skin and lungs are to animals; they, each of them, absorb atmospheric food, and throw off excrementitious matter; the roots and fibres are to the vegetable what the alimentary canal is to the animal. A large portion of the food of vegetables is found in the soil, and enters the vegetable system, through its capillary circulation, by the process of imperceptible elimination and absorption. Now, you must bear in mind that the fibres, stem, and leaves are delicate and tender organs; they are studded with millions of little pores, covered with a membrane of delicate texture, easily lacerated. When these delicate organs are rudely torn off or lacerated, the potato immediately gives evidence of the encroachments of disease; it shrinks, withers, and, although the soil abounds in all that is necessary for its growth and future development, it is not in a fit state to carry on the chemico-vital process. We often take the potato from the soil with a view of preserving it for seed, without any definite knowledge of the exact time of its maturity; as the season arrives for again replanting, the fibres are torn off, and the potato itself is often cut up into two or three pieces; sometimes, however, the smaller potatoes are used for seed. Both practices are open to strong objection. Oftentimes the cut surfaces of the potato are exposed to atmospheric air; evaporation commences, they lose their firm texture, and are more fit for swine than for planting. The cause of the total destruction may exist in a loss of polarity! We know that all organic and inorganic bodies are subject to the laws of electricity--each has its polarity. Men who are engaged in mining can testify that the stratification of the earth is alternately negative and positive. The hemispheres of the earth are also governed by the same law; for, if you take a magnetic needle and toss it up in this hemisphere, which is negative, the positive end will come to the ground first; but if you pass the magnetic equator, which crosses the common equator in 23° 28', and then toss the needle up, its negative end will fall downwards. Hence we infer that the potato has a polarity, just as man has; and this is the reason of their definite character. Take a bean, and destroy its polarity by cutting it into several pieces, as you do the potato, and all the men on earth cannot make it germinate and grow to perfection. It will die just as a man will, if you destroy the polarity of his brain by wounding it. Take an egg, and destroy its polarity by making a small puncture through it, and you can never get a chicken from it. A man or an animal will die of locked-jaw, caused by a splinter entering the living organism; and why? Because their electrical equilibrium, or their polarity is destroyed. Some of our readers may desire to know how we can prove that electricity plays a part in the germination and growth of animals and vegetables. In verification of it, we will give a few examples. A dish of salad may, by the aid of electricity, be raised in an hour. Hens' eggs can be hatched by a similar process in a few hours, which would require many days by animal heat. By the aid of electricity, water, which consists of oxygen and hydrogen, may be decomposed, and its elements set free. The poles of a galvanic battery may be applied to a dead body, and that body made to imitate the functions of life. And lastly, it is through the medium of electrical attraction which bodies have for each other, that all the chemical compositions and decompositions depend. Bodies must be in opposite states of electricity in order to produce a result. Now, if the polarity of the potato is destroyed in the manner we have just alluded to, or should it be destroyed by coming in contact with the blade of a knife, _the latter conducting off the electrical current_, or by any other means, it must deteriorate. We are told that "the potato has several germinating points, and that a part will grow just as well as the whole." Such reasoning will not stand the test of common experience. For example: the Almighty has endowed man with various faculties, and the perfection of his organism depends on these faculties, as a whole. Now, he may lose a leg, and yet be capable of performing the ordinary duties of life; but this does not prove that he might not perform them much better with both legs. So in reference to the potato. The fact of its ability to reproduce its kind from a small portion of the whole--a mere bud--should not satisfy us that a perfect germ is unnecessary. Then the question arises, How shall we restore the original identity of this valuable article of food? We have, in the early part of this work, recommended the farmers to study the laws of vegetable physiology. This will furnish them with the right kind of information. We would, however, suggest to those who are desirous of making experiments, to comply with the conditions already alluded to, viz., plant a perfect germ, by which means the potato may be improved. Yet, in order to restore its identity, we must commence by germinating from the seed, and plant that on soil abounding in the constituents necessary for its development. Elevated land abounding in small stones, and hill sides facing the south, are the best situations. Potatoes should never be cultivated on the same spot for two successive years. In relation to the insect theory, we would observe, that it throws no light on the cause of the potato rot; for, in its gradual decay, that vegetable undergoes various changes; the particles of which it is composed assume new forms, and enter into new combinations; its elementary substances are separated, giving birth to new compounds, some of which result in an insect. We all know that animal and vegetable bodies may remain in a state of putrefaction in water, and be dissolved in the dust; yet some of their original atoms appear in a new system. Hence the insect theory has no more to do with the cause of the potato rot than the fungus. TREATMENT OF DISEASE IN DOGS. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. A good watch dog is of inestimable value to the farmer; and as very little is at present understood of the nature and treatment of their maladies, we have thought that a few general directions would be acceptable, not only to the farmer, but to every man who loves a dog. We have paid considerable attention to the treatment of disease in this class of animals, and have generally found that must of their maladies will yield very readily to our sanative agents. Most of the remedies recommended by _allopathic_ writers for dogs, like those recommended for horses and cattle, would at any time destroy the animal; consequently, if it ever recovers, it does so in spite of the violence done to the constitution. We hope to rescue the dog, as well as other classes of domestic animals, from a cruel system of medication; for this we labor, and to this work our life is devoted. We ask the reader to take into consideration the destructive nature of the articles used on these faithful animals. Some of them are the most destructive poisons that can be found in the whole world. For example, several authors recommend, in the treatment of disease in the canine race, the following:-- _Tartar emetic_, a very few grains of which will kill a man--yet recommended for dogs. _Calomel_, a very fashionable remedy, used for producing ulcerated gums and for rotting the teeth of thousands of the human family, as the dentists can testify. Not fit for a dog, yet prescribed by most dog fanciers. _Lunar caustic_, recommended by Mr. Lawson for fits; to be given internally with cobwebs!! Our opinion is, that it would be likely to give any four-footed creature "_fits_" that took it. Cowhage, corrosive sublimate, tin-filings, sugar of lead, white precipitate, oil of turpentine, opium nitre--these, together with aloes, jalap, tobacco, hellebore, and a very small proportion of sanative agents, make up the list. In view of the great destruction that is likely to attend the administration of these and kindred articles, we have substituted others, which may be given with safety. Why should the poor dog be compelled to swallow down such powerful and destructive agents? He is entitled to better treatment, and we flatter ourselves that wherever these pages shall be read, he will receive it. In reference to the value of dogs, Mr. Lawson says, "Independent of his beauty, vivacity, strength, and swiftness, he has the interior qualities that must attract the attention and esteem of mankind. Intelligent, humble, and sincere, the sole happiness of his life seems to be to execute his master's commands. Obedient to his owner, and kind to all his friends, to the rest he is indifferent. He knows a stranger by his clothes, his voice, or his gestures, and generally forbids his approach with marks of indignation. At night, when the guard of the house is committed to his care, he seems proud of the charge; he continues a watchful sentinel, goes his rounds, scents strangers at a distance, and by barking gives them notice that he is on duty; if they attempt to break in, he becomes fiercer, threatens, flies at them, and either conquers alone, or alarms those who have more interest in coming to his assistance. The flock and herd are even more obedient to the dog than to the shepherd: he conducts them, guards them, and keeps them from capriciously seeking danger; and their enemies he considers as his own." DISTEMPER. _Symptoms._--If the animal is a watch dog, (such are usually confined in the daytime,) the person who is in the daily habit of feeding him will first observe a loss of appetite; the animal will appear dull and lazy; shortly after, there is a watery discharge from the eyes and nose, resembling that which accompanies catarrh. As the disease advances, general debility supervenes, accompanied with a weakness of the hind extremities. The secretions are morbid; for example, some are constipated, and pass high-colored urine; others are suddenly attacked with diarrhoea, scanty urine, and vomiting. Fits are not uncommon during the progress of the disease. _Treatment._--If the animal is supposed to have eaten any improper food, we commence the treatment by giving an emetic. _Emetic for Dogs._ Powdered lobelia, (herb,) 1 tea-spoonful. Warm water, 1 wine-glass. Mix, and administer at a dose. (A table-spoonful of common salt and water will generally vomit a dog.) If this dose does not provoke emesis, it should not be repeated, for it may act as a relaxant, and carry the morbid accumulations off by the alimentary canal. If the bowels are constipated, use injections of soap-suds. If the symptoms are complicated, the following medicine must be prepared:-- Powdered mandrake, 1 table-spoonful. " sulphur, 1 tea-spoonful. " charcoal, 2 tea-spoonfuls. " marshmallows, 1 table-spoonful. Mix. Divide the mass into six parts, and administer one in honey, night and morning, for the first day; after which, a single powder, daily, will suffice. The diet to consist of mush, together with a drink of thin arrowroot. If, however, the animal be in a state of plethora, very little food should be given him. If the strength fails, support it with beef tea. Should a diarrhoea attend the malady, give an occasional drink of hardhack tea. FITS. Dogs are subject to epileptic fits, which are often attended with convulsions. They attack dogs of all ages, and under every variety of management. Dogs that are apparently healthy are often suddenly attacked. The nervous system of the dog is very susceptible to external agents; hence whatever raises any strong passion in them often produces fits. Pointers and setters have often been known to suffer an attack during the excitement of the chase. Fear will also produce fits; and bitches, while suckling, if burdened with a number of pups, and not having a sufficiency of nutriment to support the lacteal secretion, often die in convulsive fits. Young puppies, while teething, are subject to fits: simply scarifying their gums will generally give temporary relief. Lastly, fits may be hereditary, or they may be caused by derangement of the stomach. In all cases of fits, it is very necessary, in order to treat them with success, that we endeavor, as far as possible, to ascertain the causes, and remove them as far as lies in our power: this accomplished, the cure is much easier. _Treatment._--Whenever the attack is sudden and violent, and the animal is in good flesh, plunge him into a tub of warm water, and give an injection of the same, to which a tea-spoonful of salt may be added. It is very difficult, in fact improper, to give medicine during the fit; but as soon as it is over, give Manna, 1 tea-spoonful. Common salt, half a tea-spoonful. Add a small quantity of water, and give it at a dose. _Another._ Make an infusion of mullein leaves, and give to the amount of a wine-glass every four hours. With a view of preventing a recurrence of fits, keep the animal on a vegetable diet. If the bowels are constipated, give thirty grains of extract of butternut, or, if that cannot be readily procured, substitute an infusion of senna and manna, to which a few caraways may be added. If the nervous system is deranged, which may be known by the irritability attending it, then give a tea-spoonful of the powdered nervine, (lady's slipper.) The diet must consist of boiled articles, and the animal must be allowed to take exercise. WORMS. Worms may proceed from various causes; but they are seldom found in healthy dogs. One of the principal causes is debility in the digestive organs. _Indications of Cure._--To tone up the stomach and other organs,--by which means the food is prevented from running into fermentation,--and administer vermifuges. The following are good examples:-- Oil of wormseed, 1 tea-spoonful. Powdered assafoetida, 30 grains. To be given every morning, fasting. Two doses will generally suffice. _Another._ Powdered mandrake, half a table-spoonful. " Virginia snakeroot, 1 tea-spoonful. Divide into four doses, and give one every night, in honey. _Another._ Make an infusion of the sweet fern, (_comptonea asplenifolia_,) and give an occasional drink, followed by an injection of the same. _Another._ Powdered golden seal, half a table-spoonful. Common brown soap, 1 ounce. Rub them well together in a mortar, and form the mass into pills about the size of a hazel-nut, and give one every night. MANGE. This disease is too well known to need any description. The following are deemed the best cures:-- _External Application for Mange._ Powdered charcoal, half a table-spoonful. " sulphur, 1 ounce. Soft soap sufficient to form an ointment. To be applied externally for three successive days; at the end of which time, the animal is to be washed with castile soap and warm water, and afterwards wiped dry. The internal remedies consist of equal parts of sulphur and cream of tartar, half a tea-spoonful of which may be given daily, in honey. When the disease becomes obstinate, and large, scabby eruptions appear on various parts of the body, take Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Water, 1 pint. Wash the parts daily, and keep the animal on a light diet. INTERNAL ABSCESS OF THE EAR. In this complaint, the affected side is generally turned downwards, and the dog is continually shaking his head. _Treatment._--In the early stages, foment the part twice a day with an infusion of marshmallows. As soon as the abscess breaks, wash with an infusion of raspberry leaves, and if a watery discharge continues, wash with an infusion of white oak bark. ULCERATION OF THE EAR. External ulcerations should be washed twice a day with Pyroligneous acid, 2 ounces. Water, 8 ounces. Mix. As soon as the ulcerations assume a healthy appearance, touch them with Turlington's balsam or tincture of gum catechu. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. Whenever inflammation of the bowels makes its appearance, it is a sure sign that there is a loss of equilibrium in the circulation; and this disturbance may arise from a collapse of the external surface, or from irritation produced by hardened excrement on the mucous membrane of the intestines. An attack is recognized by acute pain in the abdominal region. The dog gives signs of suffering when moved, and the bowels are generally constipated. _Treatment._--Endeavor to equalize the circulation by putting the animal into a warm bath, where he should remain about five minutes. When taken out, the surface must be rubbed dry. Then give the following injection:-- Linseed oil, 4 ounces. Warm water, 1 gill. Mix. To allay the irritation of the bowels, give the following:-- Powdered pleurisy root, 1 tea-spoonful. " marshmallow root, 1 table-spoonful. Mix, and divide into three parts; one to be given every four hours. Should vomiting be a predominant symptom, a small quantity of saleratus, dissolved in spearmint tea, may be given. Should not this treatment give relief, make a fomentation of hops, and apply it to the belly; and give half an ounce of manna. The only articles of food and drink should consist of barley gruel and mush. If, however, the dog betrays great heat, thirst, panting, and restlessness, a small quantity of cream of tartar may be added to the barley gruel. The bath and clysters may be repeated, if necessary. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. This requires the same treatment as the preceding malady. ASTHMA. Dogs that are shut up in damp cellars, and deprived of pure air and exercise, are frequently attacked with asthma. Old dogs are more liable to asthma than young ones. _Treatment._--Endeavor to ascertain the cause, and remove it. Let the animal take exercise in the open air. The diet to consist of cooked vegetables; a small quantity of boiled meat may be allowed; raw meat should not be given. _Compound for Asthma._ Powdered bloodroot, } " lobelia, } of each, 1 tea-spoonful. " marshmallows, } " licorice, } Mix. Divide into twelve parts, and give one night and morning. If they produce retching, reduce the quantity of lobelia. The object is not to vomit, but to induce a state of nausea or relaxation. PILES. Piles are generally brought on by confinement, over-feeding, &c., and show themselves by a red, sore, and protruded rectum. Dogs subject to constipation are most likely to be attacked. _Treatment._--Give the animal half a tea-spoonful of sulphur for two or three mornings, and wash the parts with an infusion of white oak bark. If they are very painful, wash two or three times a day with an infusion of hops, and keep the animal on a light diet. DROPSY. Dropsy is generally preceded by loss of appetite, cough, diminution of natural discharge of urine, and costiveness. The abdomen shortly afterwards begins to enlarge. _Treatment._--It is sometimes necessary to evacuate the fluid by puncturing the abdomen; but this will seldom avail much unless the general health is improved, and the suppressed secretions restored. The following is the best remedy we know of:-- Powdered flagroot, } of each a quarter of " male fern, } an ounce. Scraped horseradish, a tea-spoonful. Mix. Divide into eight parts, and give one night and morning. Good nutritious diet must be allowed. SORE THROAT. A strong decoction of mullein leaves applied to a sore throat will seldom fail in curing it. SORE EARS. A dog's ears may become sore and scabby from being torn, or otherwise injured. In such cases, they should be anointed with marshmallow ointment. SORE FEET. If the feet become sore from any disease between the claws, apply a poultice composed of equal parts of marshmallows and charcoal; after which the following wash will complete the cure:-- Pyroligneous acid, 1 ounce. Water, 6 ounces. Mix, and wash with a sponge twice a day. WOUNDS. Turlington's Balsam is the best application for wounds. Should a dog be bitten by one that is mad, give him a tea-spoonful of lobelia in water, and bind some of the same article on the wound. SPRAINS. For sprains of any part of the muscular structure, use one of the following prescriptions:-- Oil of wormwood, 1 ounce. Tincture of lobelia, 2 ounces. Infusion of hops, 1 quart. Mix. Bathe the part twice a day. _Another._ Wormwood, } of each a handful. Thoroughwort, } New England rum, 1 pint. Set them in a warm place for a few hours, then bathe the part with the liquid; and bind some of the herb on the part, if practicable. SCALDS. If a dog be accidentally scalded, apply, with as little delay as possible,-- Lime water, } equal parts. Linseed oil, } OPHTHALMIA. Ophthalmia is supposed to be contagious; yet a mild form may result from external injury, as blows, bruises, or extraneous bodies introduced under the eyelid. The eye is such a delicate and tender organ, that the smallest particle of any foreign body lodging on its surface will cause great pain and swelling. _Treatment._--Take a tea-spoonful of finely-pulverized marshmallow root, add sufficient hot water to make a thin mucilage, and with this wash the eye frequently. Keep the animal in a dark place, on a light diet; and if the eyes are very red and tender, give a pill composed of twenty-nine grains extract of butternut and ten grains cream of tartar. If purulent discharge sets in, bathe the eye with infusion of camomile or red rose leaves, and give the following:-- Powdered pleurisy root, } " bloodroot, } equal parts. " sulphur, } Dose, half a table-spoonful daily. To be given in honey. When the eyelids adhere together, wash with warm milk. WEAK EYES. It often happens that, after an acute attack, the eyes are left in a weak state, when there is a copious secretion of fluid continually running from them. In such cases, the eyes may be washed, night and morning, with pure cold water, and the general health must be improved: for the latter purpose, the following preparation is recommended:-- Manna, 1 ounce. Powdered gentian, 1 tea-spoonful. " mandrake, half a tea-spoonful. Rub them together in a mortar, and give a pill, about the size of a hazel-nut, every night. If the manna is dry, a little honey will be necessary to amalgamate the mass. FLEAS AND VERMIN. Fleas and vermin are very troublesome to dogs; yet they may easily be got rid of by bathing the dog with an infusion of lobelia for two successive mornings, and afterwards washing with water and castile soap. HYDROPHOBIA. Whenever one dog is bitten by another, and the latter is supposed to labor under this dreadful malady, immediate steps should be taken to arrest it; for a dog once bitten by another, whatever may be the stage or intensity of the disease, is never safe. The disease may appear in a few days; in some instances, it is prolonged for eight months. _Symptoms._--Mr. Lawson tells us that "the first symptom appears to be a slight failure of the appetite, and a disposition to quarrel with other dogs. A total loss of appetite generally succeeds. A mad dog will not cry out on being struck, or show any sign of fear on being threatened. In the height of the disorder, he will bite all other dogs, animals, or men. When not provoked, he usually attacks only such as come in his way; but, having no fear, it is very dangerous to strike or provoke him. The eyes of mad dogs do not look red or fierce, but dull, and have a peculiar appearance, not easy to be described. Mad dogs seldom bark, but occasionally utter a most dismal and plaintive howl, expressive of extreme distress, and which they who have once heard can never forget. They do not froth at the mouth; but their lips and tongue appear dry and foul, or slimy. They cannot swallow water." Mr. Lawson, and indeed many veterinary practitioners, have come to the conclusion that all remedies are fallacious![27] _Remarks._--In White's Dictionary we are informed that the tops of yellow broom have been used for hydrophobia in the human subject with great success; and we do not hesitate to say that they might be used with equal success on beasts. Dr. Muller, of Vienna, has lately published, in the _Gazette de Santé_, some facts which go to show that the yellow broom is invaluable in the treatment of this malady. Dr. White tells us that "M. Marochetti gave a decoction of yellow broom to twenty-six persons who had been bitten by a mad dog, viz., nine men, eleven women, and six children. Upon an examination of their tongues, he discovered pimples in five men, three children, and in all the women. The seven that were free from pimples took the decoction of broom six weeks and recovered." The same author informs us that "M. Marochetti, during his residence at Ukraine, in the year 1813, attended fifteen persons who had been bitten by a mad dog. While he was making preparations for cauterizing the wounds, some old men requested him to treat the unfortunate people according to the directions of a peasant in the neighborhood, who had obtained great reputation for the cure of hydrophobia. The peasant gave to fourteen persons, placed under his care, a strong decoction of the yellow broom; he examined, twice a day, the under part of the tongue, where he had generally discovered little pimples, containing, as he supposed, the hydrophobic poison. These pimples at length appeared, and were observed by M. Marochetti himself. As they formed, the peasant opened them, and cauterized the parts with a red-hot needle; after which the patients gargled with the same decoction. The result of this treatment was, that the fourteen patients returned cured, having drank the decoction six weeks." The following case will prove the value of the plantain, (_plantago major_.) We were called upon, October 25, 1850, to see a dog, the property of Messrs. Stewart & Forbes, of Boston. From the symptoms, we were led to suppose that the animal was in the incipient stage of canine madness. We directed him to be securely fastened, kept on a light diet, &c. The next day, a young Newfoundland pup was placed in the cellar with the patient, who seized the little fellow, and crushed his face and nose in a most shocking manner, both eyes being almost obliterated. The poor pup lingered in excruciating torment until the owner, considering it an act of charity, had it killed. This act of ferocity on the part of the patient confirmed our suspicions as to the nature of the malady. We commenced the treatment by giving him tea-spoonful doses of powdered plantain, (_plantago major_,) night and morning, in the food, and in the course of a fortnight, the eye (which, during the early stage of the malady, had an unhealthy appearance) assumed its natural state, and the appetite returned; in short, the dog got rapidly well. We feel confident that, if this case had been neglected, it might have terminated in canine madness. We are satisfied that the plantain possesses valuable antiseptic and detergent properties. Dr. Beach tells us that "a negro at the south obtained his freedom by disclosing a nostrum for the bites of snakes, the basis of which was the plantain." A writer states that a toad, in fighting with a spider, as often as it was bitten, retired a few steps, ate of the plantain, and then renewed the attack. The person deprived it of the plant, and it soon died. _Treatment._--Let the suspected dog be confined by himself, so that he cannot do injury. Then take two ounces of lobelia, and one ounce of sulphur, place them in a common wash tub, and add several gallons of boiling water. As soon as it is sufficiently cool, plunge the dog into it, and let him remain in it several minutes. Then give an infusion of either of the following articles: yellow broom, plantain, or Greek valerian, one ounce of the herb to a pint of water. An occasional tea-spoonful of the powdered plantain may be allowed with the food, which must be entirely vegetable. If the dog has been bitten, wash the part with a strong infusion of lobelia, and bind some of the herb on the part. The treatment should be continued for several days, or until the animal recovers, and all danger is past. (For information on the causes of madness, the reader is referred to my work on the Horse, p. 108.) FOOTNOTE: [27] They probably only allude to cauterization, cutting out the bitten part, and the use of poisons. It cannot be expected that such processes and agents should ever cure the disease. Let them try our agents before they pronounce "all remedies fallacious." Let them try the _alisma plantago_, (plantain,) yellow broom tops, _scutellaria_, (skullcap,) lobelia, Greek valerian, &c. MALIGNANT MILK SICKNESS OF THE WESTERN STATES, OR CONTAGIOUS TYPHUS. This name applies to a disease said to be very fatal in the Western States, attacking certain kinds of live stock, and also persons who make use of the meat and dairy products of such cattle. The cause, nature, and treatment of this disease is so little understood among medical men, and such an alarming mortality attends their practice, that many of the inhabitants of the west and south-west depend entirely on their domestic remedies. "It is in that country emphatically one of the _opprobria medicorum_." Nor are the mineralites any more successful in the treatment of other diseases incidental to the Great West. Their Peruvian bark, _quinine_, and calomel, immense quantities of which are used without any definite knowledge of their _modus operandi_, fail in a great majority of cases. If they were only to substitute powdered charcoal and sulphur for calomel, both in view of prevention and cure, aided by good nursing, then the mortality would be materially diminished. The success attending the treatment of upwards of sixty cases of yellow fever, by Mrs. Shall, the proprietress of the City Hotel, New Orleans, only one of which proved fatal, is attributed to good nursing. She knew nothing of blood-letting, calomelizing, narcotizing. The same success attended the practice of Dr. A. Hunn, of Kentucky, in the treatment of typhus fever, (which resembles milk sickness,) who cured every case by plunging his patients immediately into a hot bath. "The whole indication of cure in this disease is to bring on reaction, to recall the poison which is mixed with the blood and thrown to the centre, which can only be done by inducing a copious perspiration in the most prompt and energetic manner. If I mistake not, where sweating was produced in this complaint, recovery invariably followed, while bleeding, mercury, &c., only aggravated it." From such facts as these, as well as from numerous others, we may learn, that disease is not under the control of the boasted science of medicine, as practised by our allopathic brethren. Many millions of animals, as well as members of the human family, have died from a misapplication of medicine, and officious meddling. The destruction that in former years attended milk sickness may be learned from the fact, that in the western settlements, its prevalence often served as a cause to disband a community, and compel the inhabitants to seek a location which enjoyed immunity from its occurrence. The legislatures of several of the Western States have offered rewards for the discovery of the origin of the milk sickness. No one that we know of has ever yet claimed the reward. In view of the great lack of information on this subject, we freely contribute our mite, which may serve, in some degree, to dispel the impenetrable mystery by which it is surrounded. We shall first show that it is not produced by the atmosphere alone, which by some is supposed to be the cause. "It is often found to occupy an isolated spot, comprehending an area of one hundred acres, whilst for a considerable distance around it is not produced." If the disease had its sole origin in the atmosphere, it would not be thus confirmed to a certain location; for every one knows, that the gentlest zephyr would waft the enemy into the surrounding localities, and there the work of destruction would commence. The reader is probably aware that bodies whose specific gravity exceeds that of air, such as grass, seeds, &c., are conveyed through that medium from one field to another. The miasma of epidemics is said to be conveyed from one district to another "on the wings of the wind." Hence, if milk sickness was of atmospheric or even epidemic origin, it would prevail in adjoining states. This is not the case; for we are told that "this fatal disease seldom, if ever, prevails westward of the Alleghany Mountains or in the bordering states." The atmosphere which surrounds this globe was intended by the divine Artist for the purpose of respiration, and it is well adapted to that purpose: it cannot be considered a pathological agent, or a cause of disease. In crowded assemblies, and in close barns and stables, it may hold in solution noxious gases, which, as we have already stated in different parts of this work, are injurious to the lungs; but as regards the atmosphere itself, in an uncontaminated state, it is a physiological agent. It always preserves its identity, and is always represented by the same equivalents of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid gas. Liebig says, "One hundred volumes of air have been found, at every period and in every climate, to contain twenty-one volumes of oxygen." Thus oxygen and nitrogen unite in certain equivalents: the result is atmospheric air; and they cannot be made to unite in any other proportions. Suppose the oxygen to be in excess, what would be the result? A universal conflagration would commence; the hardest rocks, and even the diamond, (considered almost indestructible,) would melt with "fervent heat." If, on the other hand, nitrogen was in excess, then every living thing, including both animal and vegetable, would instantly die. Hence we infer that the atmosphere cannot be considered as the cause of this disease. _Causes._--A creeping vine has been supposed to occasion the disease. This cannot be the case, for it occurs very frequently when the ground is covered with snow. We are satisfied, although we may not succeed in satisfying the reader, that no one cause alone can produce the disease: there must be a diminution of vital energy, and this diminution may result, first, from poor diet. Dr. Graff tells us that the general appearance of these infected districts is somewhat peculiar. The quality of the soil is, in general, of an inferior description. The growth of timber is not observed to be so luxuriant as in situations otherwise similar, but is scrubby, and stunted in its perfect development, in many instances simulating what in the west is denominated '_barrens_.' We can easily conceive that these barrens do not furnish the proper amount of carbon (in the form of food) for the metamorphosis of the tissues; and if we take into consideration that the animal receives, during the day, while in search of this food, a large supply of oxygen, and at the same time the waste of the body is increased by the extra labor required to select sufficient nutriment,--it being scanty in such situations,--then it follows that this disproportion between the quantity of carbon in the food, and that of oxygen absorbed by the skin and lungs, must induce a diseased or abnormal condition. The animal is sometimes fat, at others lean. Some of the cows attacked with this disease were fat, and in apparent health, and nothing peculiar was observed until immediately preceding the outbreak of the fatal symptoms. The presence of fat is generally proof positive of an abnormal state; and in such cases the liver is often diseased; the blood then becomes loaded with fat and oil, and is finally deposited in the cellular tissues. The reader will now understand how an animal accumulates fat, notwithstanding it be furnished with insufficient diet. All that we wish to contend for is, that in such cases vital resistance is compromised. We have observed that, in the situation alluded to, vegetation was stunted, &c., and knowing that vegetables are composed of nearly the same materials which constitute animal organization,--the carbon or fat of the former being deposited in the seeds and fruits, and that of the latter in the cellular structure,--then we can arrive at but one conclusion, viz., that any location unfavorable to vegetation is likewise ill adapted to preserve the integrity of animal life. In connection with this, it must be remembered that during the night the soil emits excrementitious vapors which are taken into the animal system by the process of respiration. In the act of rumination, vapor is also enclosed in the globules of saliva, and thus reach the stomach. Many plants which during the day may be eaten with impunity by cattle, actually become poisonous during the night! This, we are aware, will meet with some opposition; to meet which we quote from Liebig:-- "How powerful, indeed, must the resistance appear which the vital force supplies to leaves charged with oil of turpentine or tannic acid, when we consider the affinity of oxygen for these compounds! "This intensity of action, or of resistance, the plant obtains by means of the sun's light; the effect of which in chemical actions may be, and is, compared to that of a very high temperature, (moderate red heat.) "During the night, an opposite process goes on in the plant; we see then that the constituents of the leaves and green parts combine with the oxygen of the air--a property which in daylight they did not possess. "From these facts we can draw no other conclusion but this: that the intensity of the vital force diminishes with the abstraction of light; that, with the approach of night, a state of equilibrium is established; and that, in complete darkness, all those constituents of plants which, during the day, possessed the power of separating oxygen from chemical combinations, and of resisting its action, lose their power completely. "A precisely similar phenomenon is observed in animals. "The living animal body exhibits its peculiar manifestations of vitality only at certain temperatures. When exposed to a certain degree of cold, these vital phenomena entirely cease. "The abstraction of heat must, therefore, be viewed as quite equivalent to a diminution of the vital energy; the resistance opposed by the vital force to external causes of disturbance must diminish, in certain temperatures, in the same ratio in which the tendency of the elements of the body to combine with the oxygen of the air increases." _Secondly._ In the situations alluded to, we generally find poisonous and noxious plants, with an abundance of decayed vegetable matter. An English writer has said, "The farmers of England might advantageously employ a million at least of additional laborers in clearing their wide domains of noxious plants,[28] which would amply repay them in the superior quality of their produce. They would then feel the truth of that axiom in philosophy, "that he who can contrive to make two blades of grass, or wholesome grain, grow where one poisonous plant grew before, is a greater benefactor to the human race than all the conquerors or heroes who have ever lived." The noxious plants found in such abundance in the Western States are among the principal causes, either directly or indirectly, of the great mortality among men, horses, cattle, and sheep. The hay would be just as destructive as when in its green state, were it not that, in the process of drying, the volatile and poisonous properties of the buttercup, dandelion, poppy, and hundreds of similar destructive plants found in the hay, evaporate. It is evident that if animals have partaken of such plants, although death in all cases do not immediately follow, there must be a deficiency of vital resistance, or loss of equilibrium, and the animal is in a negative state. It is consequently obvious that when in such a state it is more liable to receive impressions from external agents--in short, is more subject to disease, and this disease may assume a definite form, regulated by location. _Thirdly._ A loss of vital resistance may result from drinking impure water. (See _Watering_, p. 15.) Dr. Graff tells us that "another peculiar appearance, which serves to distinguish these infected spots, is the breaking forth of numerous feeble springs, called oozes, furnishing but a trifling supply of water." Such water is generally considered unwholesome, and will, of course, deprive the system of its vital resistance, if partaken of. _Fourthly._ A loss of vital resistance may result from exposure; for it is well known that cattle which have been regularly housed every night have escaped the attacks of this malady, and that when suffered to remain at large, they were frequently seized with it. _Lastly._ The indirect causes of milk fever exist in any thing that can for a time prevent the free and full play of any part of the animal functions. The direct causes of death are chemical action, resulting from decomposition, which overcomes the vital principle. Professor Liebig tells us, that "chemical action is opposed by the vital principle. The results produced depend upon the strength of their respective actions; either an equilibrium of both powers is attained, or the acting body yields to the superior force. If chemical action obtains the ascendency, it acts as a poison." _Remarks._--Let us suppose that one, or a combination of the preceding causes, has operated so as to produce an abnormal state in the system of a cow. She is then suffered to remain in the unhealthy district during the night: while there, exposed to the emanations from the soil, she requires the whole force of her vital energies to ward off chemical decompositions, and prevent encroachment on the various functions. A contest commences between the vital force and chemical action, and, after a hard conflict in their incessant endeavors to overcome each other, the chemical agency obtains the ascendency, and disease of a putrid type (milk fever) is the result. The disease may not immediately be recognized, for the process of decomposition may be insidious; yet the milk and flesh of such an animal may communicate the disease to man and other animals. It is well known that almost any part of animal bodies in a state of putrefaction, such as milk, cheese, muscle, pus, &c., communicate their own state of decomposition to other bodies. Many eminent medical men have lost their lives while dissecting, simply by putrefactive matter coming in contact with a slight wound or puncture. Dr. Graff made numerous experiments on dogs with the flesh, &c., of animals having died of milk sickness. He says, "My trials with the poisoned flesh were, for the most part, made on dogs, which I confined; and I often watched the effect of the poison when administered at regular intervals. In the space of forty-eight hours from the commencement of the administration of either the butter, cheese, or flesh, I have observed unequivocal appearances of their peculiar action, while the appetite remains unimpaired until the expiration of the fourth or fifth day." From the foregoing remarks, the reader will agree with us, that the disease is of a putrid type, and has a definite character. What is the reason of this definite character? All diseases are under the control of the immutable laws of nature. They preserve their identity in the same manner that races of men preserve theirs. Milk sickness of the malignant type luxuriates in the locations referred to, for the same reasons that yellow fever is peculiar to warm climates, and consumption to cold ones; and that different localities have distinct diseases; for example, ship fever, jail fever, &c. Before disease can attack, and develop itself in the bodies of men or animals, the existing equilibrium of the vital powers must be disturbed; and the most common causes of this disturbance we have already alluded to. In reference to the milk, butter, cheese, &c., of infected animals, and their adaptation to develop disease in man, and in other locations than those referred to, we observe, that when a quantity, however small, of contagious matter is introduced into the stomach, if its antiseptic properties are the least deranged, the original disease (milk sickness) is produced, just as a small quantity of yeast will ferment a whole loaf. The transformation takes place through the medium of the blood, and produces a body identical with, or similar to, the exciting or contagious matter. The quantity of the latter must constantly augment; for the state of change or decomposition which affects one particle of the blood is imparted to others. The time necessary to accomplish it, however, depends on the amount of vital resistance, and of course varies in different animals. In process of time, the whole body becomes affected, and in like manner it is communicated to other individuals; and this may take place by simply respiring the carbonic acid gas, or morbific materials from the lungs, of diseased animals in the infected districts. We are told that the latent condition of the disease may be discovered by subjecting the suspected animal to a violent degree of exercise. This is a precaution practised by butchers before slaughtering animals in any wise suspected of the poisonous contamination;[29] for according to the intensity of the existing cause, or its dominion over the vital power, it will be seized with tremors, spasms, convulsions, or even death. The reader is, probably, aware that an excess of motion will sometimes cause instant death; for both men and animals, supposed to be in excellent health, are known to die suddenly from excessive labor. In some cases of excess of muscular exertion, the active force in living parts may be entirely destroyed in producing these violent mechanical results: hence we have a loss of equilibrium between voluntary and involuntary motion, and there is not sufficient vitality left to carry on the latter. Professor Liebig says, "A stag may be hunted to death. The condition of metamorphosis into which it has been brought by an enormous consumption both of force and of oxygen continues when all phenomena of motion have ceased, and the flesh becomes uneatable." A perfect equilibrium, therefore, between the consumption of vital force for the supply of waste, protecting the system from encroachments, and for mechanical effects, must exist; the animal is then in health: the contrary is obvious. _Treatment._--The greatest care must be taken to secure the patient good nutritious food, pure air, and water. The food should consist of a mixture of two or more of the following articles, which must be cooked: linseed, parsnips, shorts, carrots, meal, apples, barley, oats, turnips, slippery elm, oil cake, &c. We again remind the reader that no single or compound medicine can be procured that will be suitable for every stage of the disease; it must be treated according to its indications. Yet the following compound, aided by warmth, moisture, and friction, externally, will be found better than any medicine yet known. It consists of Powdered charcoal, 8 ounces. " sulphur, 2 ounces. Fine salt, 3 ounces. Oatmeal, 2 pounds. Mandrake, (_podophyllum peltatum_,) 1 ounce. After the ingredients are well mixed, divide the mass into fourteen parts, and give one night and morning. _Special Treatment with reference to the Symptoms._--Suppose the animal to be "off her feed," and the bowels are constipated; then give an aperient composed of Extract of butternut, 2 drachms. Powdered capsicum, one third of a tea-spoonful. Thoroughwort tea, 2 quarts. To be given at a dose, taking care to pour it down the throat in a gradual manner; for, if poured down too quick, it will fall into the paunch. If the rectum is suspected to be loaded with excrement, make use of the common soap-suds injection. If the animal appears to walk about without any apparent object in view, there is reason to suppose that the brain is congested. This may be verified if the _sclerotica_ (white of the eye) is of a deep red color. The following will be indicated:-- Mandrake, (_podophyllum peltatum_,) 1 table-spoonful. Sulphur, 1 tea-spoonful. Cream of tartar, 1 tea-spoonful. Hot water, 2 quarts. To be given at a dose. At the same time apply cold water to the head, and rub the spine and legs (below the knees) with the following counter-irritant:-- Powdered bloodroot or cayenne, 1 ounce. " black pepper, half an ounce. Boiling vinegar, 1 quart. Rub the mixture in while hot, with a piece of flannel. If a trembling of the muscular system is observed, then give Powdered ginger, } " cinnamon, } of each half " golden seal, } a tea-spoonful. To be given at a dose, in half a gallon of catnip tea. Aid the vital powers in producing a crisis by the warmth and moisture, as directed in the treatment of colds, &c. It is necessary to keep the rectum empty by means of injections, forms of which will be found in this work. The remedies we here recommend can be safely and successfully used by those unskilled in medicine; and, when aided by proper attention to the diet, ventilation, and comfort of the patient, we do not hesitate to say (provided, however, they are resorted to in the early stages) they will cure forty-nine cases out of fifty, without the advice of a physician. FOOTNOTES: [28] The American farmers are just beginning to wake up on this subject, and before long we hope to see our pasture lands free from all poisonous plants. Dr. Whitlaw says, "A friend of mine had two fields cleared of buttercups, dandelion, ox-eye, daisy, sorrel, hawk-weed, thistles, mullein, and a variety of other poisonous or noxious plants: they were dried, burnt, and their ashes strewed over the fields. He had them sown as usual, and found that the crops of hay and pasturage were more than double what they had been before. I was furnished with butter for two successive summers during the months of July and August of 1827. The butter kept for thirty days, and proved, at the end of that time, better than that fresh churned and brought to the Brighton or Margate markets. It would bear salting at that season of the year." [29] Unfortunately, they do not all practise it. Dr. Graff says, "There is a murderous practice now carried on in certain districts, in which the inhabitants will not themselves consume the butter and cheese manufactured; but, with little solicitude for the lives or health of others, they send it, in large quantities, to be sold in the cities of the west, particularly Louisville, Kentucky, and St. Louis, Missouri. Of the truth of this I am well apprised by actual observation; and I am as certain that it has often caused death in those cities, when the medical attendants viewed it as some anomalous form of disease, not suspecting the means by which poison had been conveyed among them. Physicians of the latter city, having been questioned particularly on this subject, have mentioned to me a singular and often fatal disease, which appeared in certain families, the cases occurring simultaneously, and all traces of it disappearing suddenly, and which I cannot doubt were the result of poisoned butter or cheese. This recklessness of human life it should be our endeavor to prevent; and the heartless wretches who practise it should be brought to suffer a punishment commensurate with the enormity of their crime. From the wide extent of the country in which it is carried on, we readily perceive the difficulties to be encountered in the effort to put a stop to the practice. This being the case, our next proper aim should be to investigate the nature of the cause, and establish a more proper plan of treatment, by which it may be robbed of its terrors, and the present large proportionate mortality diminished." BONE DISORDER IN COWS. We have frequently seen accounts, in various papers, of "bone disorder in milch cows." The bony structure of animals is composed of vital solids studded with crystallizations of saline carbonates and phosphates, and is liable to take on morbid action similar to other textures. Disease of the bones may originate constitutionally, or from derangement of the digestive organs. We have, for example, _mollities ossium_, (softening of the bones;) the disease, however, is very rare. It may be known by the substance of the bones being soft and yielding, liable to bend with small force. We have also _fragilitas ossium_, (brittleness of bones.) This is characterized by the bony system being of a friable nature, and liable to be fractured by slight force. We have in our possession the fragments of the small pastern of a horse, the bone having been broken into seventeen pieces, by a slight concussion, without any apparent injury to the skin and cellular substance; not the slightest external injury could be perceived. There are several other diseases of the bones, which, we presume, our readers are acquainted with; such as _exostosis_, _caries_, &c., neither of which apply to the malady under consideration. We merely mention these for the purpose of showing that the bones are not exempt from disease, any more than other structures; yet it does not always follow that a lack of the phosphate of lime in cow's milk is a sure sign of diseased bones. Reader, we do not like the term "_bone disorder_:" it does not throw the least light on the nature of the malady; it savors too much of "_horn ail_," "_tail ail_"--terms which only apply to symptoms. We are told also that, in this disease, "_the bones threaten to cave in--have wasted away_." If they do threaten to cave in, the best way we know of to give them an outward direction is, to promote the healthy secretions and excretions by a well-regulated diet, and to stimulate the digestive organs to healthy action. If the bones "have wasted away," we should like to have a few of them in our collection of morbid anatomy. That the bones should waste away, and be capable of assuming their original shape simply by feeding bone meal, is something never dreamt of in our philosophy.[30] Besides, if the cows get well, (we are told they do,) then we must infer that the bones possess the properties of sudden expansion and contraction, similar to those of the muscles. It may be well for us to observe, that not only the bones, but all parts of animal organization, expand and contract in an imperceptible manner. Thus, up to the period of puberty, all parts expand: old age comes on, and with it a gradual wasting and collapse. This is a natural result--one of the uncompromising laws of nature, over which human agency (bone meal included) has not the least control. If the bones are diseased, it results either from impaired digestion or a disproportion between the carbon of the food and the oxygen respired; hence the "bone disorder," not being persistent, is only a result--a symptom; and as such we view it. As far as we have been able to ascertain the nature of the malady, as manifested by the symptoms, (_caving in_, _wasting_, _absence of phosphate of lime in the milk_, &c.,) we give it as our opinion,--and we think our medical brethren will agree with us, (although we do not often agree,)--that "bone disorder" is a symptom of a disease very prostrating in its character, originating in the digestive organs; hence not confined to the bones, but affecting all parts of the animal more or less. And the only true plan of treatment consists in restoring healthy action to the whole animal system. The ways and means of accomplishing this object are various. If it is clearly ascertained that the animal system is deficient in phosphate of lime, we see no good reason why bone meal should not be included among our remedial agents; yet, as corn meal and linseed contain a large amount of phosphate, we should prefer them to bone dust, although we do not seriously object to its use. The value of food or remedial agents consists in their adaptation to assimilation; in other words, an absence of chemical properties. These may be very complex; yet, if they are only held together by a weak chemical action, they readily yield to the vital principle, and are transformed. Atoms of bones are held together by a strong chemical affinity; and the vital principle, in order to convert bone dust into component parts of the organism, must employ more force to transform them than it would require for the same purpose when corn meal or linseed were used, their chemical affinity being weaker than that of bones. In the treatment of any disease, we always endeavor to ascertain its causes, and, if possible, remove them; and whatever may be indicated we endeavor to supply to the system. Thus, if phosphates were indicated, we should use them. In cases of general debility, however, we should prefer linseed or corn meal, aided by stimulants, to bone dust. Why not use the bone dust for manure? The animal would then have the benefit of it in its fodder. In reference to a deficiency of phosphate of lime in the milk, we would observe, that it may result either from impaired digestion, (in such cases, a large amount of that article may be expelled from the system in the form of excrements,) or the food may lack it. We then have a sick plant, for we believe that the phosphate of lime is as necessary for the growth of the plant as it seems to be for animal development. If the plant lacks this important constituent, then its vitality, as a whole, will be impaired. This is all we desire to contend for in the animal, viz., that the disease is general, and cannot be considered or treated as a local affection. It has been observed that successive cultivation exhausts the soil, and deprives it of the constituents necessary for vegetable development. If so, it follows that there will be a deficiency of silecia, carbonate of lime,--in short, a loss of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, not of phosphate of lime alone. The fields might be made to produce the requisite amount of nutriment by replacing every year, in the form of animal excrement, straw, wood-ashes, and charcoal, as much as we remove from them in the form of produce. An increase of crop can only be obtained when we add more to the soil than we take away from it. "In Flanders, the yearly loss of the necessary matters in the soil is completely restored by covering the fields with ashes of wood or bones, which may, or may not, have been lixiviated. The great importance of manuring with ashes has been long recognized by agriculturists as the result of experience. So great a value, indeed, is attached to this material in the vicinity of Marburg, and in the Wetterau,--two well-known agricultural districts,--that it is transported, as a manure, from the distance of eighteen or twenty-four miles. Its use will be at once perceived, when it is considered that the ashes, after being washed with water, contain silicate of potass exactly in the same proportion as in the straw, and that their only other constituents are salts of phosphoric acid." It is well known that phosphate of lime, potass, silecia, carbonate of lime, magnesia, and soda are discharged in the excrement and urine of the cow; and this happens when they are not adapted to assimilation as well as when present in excess. If it is clearly proved that the bones of a cow are weak, then we should be inclined to prescribe phosphates; if they are brittle, we should prescribe gelatinous preparations; but not in the form of bone dust: we should use linseed, which is known to be rich in phosphates. At the same time, the general health must be improved. It is well known that some cows cannot be fattened, although they have an abundance of the best kind of fodder. In such cases, we find the digestive organs deranged, which disturbs the equilibrium of the whole animal economy. The food may then be said to be a direct cause of disease. The effects of insufficient food are well known; debility includes them all. If there is not sufficient carbon in the food, the animal is deprived of the power of reproducing itself, and the cure consists in supplying the deficiency. At the same time, every condition of nutrition should be considered; and if the function of digestion is impaired, we must look to those of absorption, circulation, and secretion also, for they will be more or less involved. If the appetite is impaired, accompanied by a loss of cud, it shows that the stomach is overloaded, or that its function is suspended: stimulants and tonics are then indicated. A voracious appetite indicates the presence of morbid accumulations in the stomach and bowels, and they should be cleansed by aperients; after which, a change of diet will generally effect a cure. When gas accumulates in the intestines, we have evidence of a loss of vital power in the digestive organs; fermentation takes place before the food can be digested. The cure consists in restoring the lost function. Diarrhoea is generally caused by exposure, (taking cold,) or by eating poisons and irritating substances; the cure may be accomplished by removing the cold, and cleansing the system of the irritants. Costiveness often arises from the absorption of the fluids from the solids in their slow progress through the intestines; exercise will then be indicated. An occasional injection, however, may be given, if necessary. General debility, we have said, may arise from insufficient food; to which we may add the popular practice of milking the cow while pregnant, much of which milk is yielded at the hazard of her own health and that of her foetus. Whatever is taken away from the cow in the form of milk ought to be replaced by the food. Proper attention, however, must be paid to the state of the digestive organs: they must not be overtaxed with indigestible substances. With this object in view, we recommend a mixed diet; for no animal can subsist on a single article of food. Dogs die, although fed on jelly; they cannot live upon white bread, sugar, or starch, if these are given as food, to the exclusion of all other substances. Neither can a horse or cow live on hay alone: they will, sooner or later, give evidences of disease. They require stimulants. Common salt is a good stimulant. This explains why salt hay should be occasionally fed to milch cows; it not only acts as a stimulant, but is also an antiseptic, preventing putrefaction, &c. A knowledge of the constituents of milk may aid the farmer in selecting the substances proper for the nourishment of animals, and promotive of the lacteal secretion; for much of the food contains those materials united, though not always in the same form. "The constituents of milk are cheese, or caseine--a compound containing nitrogen in large proportion; butter, in which hydrogen abounds; and sugar of milk, a substance with a large quantity of hydrogen and oxygen in the same proportions as in water. It also contains, in solution, lactate of soda, phosphate of lime, (the latter in very small quantities,) and common salt; and a peculiar aromatic product exists in the butter, called butyric acid."--_Liebig._ It is very difficult to explain the changes which the food undergoes in the animal laboratory, (the stomach,) because that organ is under the dominion of the vital force--an immaterial agency which the chemist cannot control. Yet we are justified in furnishing the animal with the elements of its own organization; for although they may not be deposited in the different structures in their original atoms, they may be changed into other compounds, somewhat similar. Liebig tells us that whether the elements of non-azotized food take an immediate share in the act of transformation of tissues, or whether their share in that process be an indirect one, is a question probably capable of being resolved by careful and cautious experiment and observation. It is possible that these constituents of food, after undergoing some change, are carried from the intestinal canal directly to the liver, and that there they are converted into bile, where they meet with the products of the metamorphosed tissues, and subsequently complete their course through the circulation. This opinion appears more probable, when we reflect that as yet no trace of starch or sugar has been detected in arterial blood, not even in animals that have been fed exclusively with these substances. The following tables, from Liebig's Chemistry, will give the reader the difference between what is taken into the system and what passes out. FOOD CONSUMED BY A COW IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. ------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- |Weight|Weight| | | | | Salts Articles |in the|in the|Carbon.|Hydrogen.|Oxygen.|Nitrogen.| and of food. |fresh | dry | | | | |earthly |state.|state.| | | | |matters. ------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Potatoes, | 15000| 4170| 1839.0| 241.9 | 1830.6| 50.0 | 208.5 After grass,| 7500| 6315| 2974.4| 353.6 | 2204.0| 151.5 | 631.5 Water, | 60000| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 50.0 ------------+-------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Total, | 82500| 10485| 4813.4| 595.5 | 4034.6| 201.5 | 889.0 ------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- EXCRETIONS OF A COW IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Weight|Weight | | | | | Salts Excretions.|in the|in the |Carbon.|Hydrogen.|Oxygen.|Nitrogen.| and |fresh | dry | | | | |earthly |state.|state. | | | | |matters. -----------+------+-------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Excrements,| 28413| 4000.0| 1712.0| 208.0 | 1508.0| 92.0 | 480.0 Urine, | 8200| 960.8| 261.4| 25.0 | 253.7| 36.5 | 384.2 Milk, | 8539| 1150.6| 628.2| 99.0 | 321.0| 46.0 | 56.4 -----------+------+-------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Total, | 45152| 6111.4| 2601.6| 332.0 | 2082.7| 174.5 | 920.6 -----------+------+-------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Total of | | | | | | | first part | 82500|10485.0| 4813.4| 595.5 | 4034.6| 201.5 | 889.0 of this | | | | | | | table, | | | | | | | -----------+------+-------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Difference,| 37348| 4374.6| 2211.8| 263.5 | 1951.9| 27.0 | 31.6 -----------+------+-------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- FOOD CONSUMED BY A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. --------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+--------- Articles|Weight|Weight| | | | | Salts of food.|in the|in the|Carbon.|Hydrogen.|Oxygen.|Nitrogen.| and |fresh | dry | | | | | earthy |state.|state.| | | | |matters. --------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+--------- Hay, | 7500| 6465 | 2961.0| 323.2 | 2502.0| 97.0 | 581.8 Oats, | 2270| 1927 | 977.0| 123.3 | 707.2| 42.4 | 77.1 Water, | 16000| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 13.3 --------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+--------- Total,| 25770| 8392 | 3938.0| 446.5 | 3209.2| 139.4 | 672.2 --------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+--------- EXCRETIONS OF A HORSE IN TWENTY-FOUR HOURS. --------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- |Weight|Weight| | | | | Salts Excretions. |in the|in the|Carbon.|Hydrogen.|Oxygen.|Nitrogen.| and |fresh | dry | | | | | earthy |state.|state.| | | | |matters. --------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Urine, | 1330| 302 | 108.7| 11.5 | 34.1 | 37.8 | 109.9 Excrements, | 14250| 3525 | 1364.4| 179.8 |1328.9 | 77.6 | 574.6 | | | | | | | --------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Total, | 15580| 3827 | 1472.9| 191.3 |1363.0 | 115.4 | 684.5 --------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Total of first| | | | | | | part of this| 25770| 8392 | 3938.0| 446.5 |3209.2 | 139.4 | 672.2 table, | | | | | | | --------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- Difference, | 10190| 4565 | 2465.1| 255.2 |1846.2 | 24.0 | 12.3 --------------+------+------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------- The weights in these tables are given in grammes. 1 gramme is equal to 15.44 grains Troy, very nearly. It will be seen from these tables that a large proportion of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and earthy matters are again returned to the soil. From this we infer that more of these matters being present in the food than were requisite for the purpose of assimilation, they were removed from the system in the form of excrement. Two suggestions here present themselves for the consideration of the farmer, viz., that the manure increases in value in proportion to the richness of food, and that more of the latter is often given to a cow than is necessary for the manufacture of healthy chyle. In view, then, of preventing "bone disorder," which we have termed _indigestion_, we should endeavor to ascertain what articles are best for food, and learn, from the experience of others, what have been universally esteemed as such, and, by trying them on our own animals, prove whether we actually find them so. Scalded or boiled food is better adapted to the stomach of animals than food otherwise prepared, and is so much less injurious. The agents that act on the internal system are those which, in quantities sufficient for an ordinary meal, supply the animal system with stimulus and nutriment just enough for its wants, and contain nothing in their nature inimical to the vital operations. All such articles are properly termed food. (For treatment, see _Hide-bound_, p. 196.) FOOTNOTE: [30] Whenever there is a deficiency of carbon, bone meal may assist to support combustion in the lungs, and by that means restore healthy action of the different functions, provided, however, the digestive organs, aided by the vital power, can overcome the chemical action by which the atoms of bone meal are held together. +-----------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the | | original document have been preserved. | | | | Typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | Page 36 selecter changed to selector | | Page 48 relaxents changed to relaxants | | Page 54 bronchea changed to bronchi | | Page 85 relaxents changed to relaxants | | Page 112 relaxent changed to relaxant | | Page 135 antispetics changed to antiseptics | | Page 162 BLAINE changed to BLAIN | | Page 181 crums changed to crumbs | | Page 186 puarts changed to quarts | | Page 236 Marshallow changed to Marshmallow | | Page 247 Merinoes changed to Merinos | | Page 307 cypripedum changed to cypripedium | | Page 312 duretic changed to diuretic | | Page 316 peal changed to peel | | Page 341 similating changed to simulating | +-----------------------------------------------+ 
38189	----	A TREATISE ON SHEEP: THE BEST MEANS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT, GENERAL MANAGEMENT, AND THE TREATMENT OF THEIR DISEASES, WITH A CHAPTER ON WOOL, AND HISTORY OF THE WOOL TRADE; AND THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA. BY AMBROSE BLACKLOCK. [Illustration: Sheep have golden feet, and wherever the print of them appears, the soil is turned into gold.--SWEDISH PROVERB.] Twelfth Edition. LONDON: GROOMBRIDGE & SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW. 1853. Printed by C. and J. Adlard, Bartholomew Close TO SIR C. G. STUART MENTEATH, OF CLOSEBURN, HART., VICE-LIEUTENANT OF DUMFRIES-SHIRE, &c. &c. &c WHOSE INTEGRITY AND URBANITY HAVE ENDEARED HIM TO SOCIETY; AND WHOSE ZEAL FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SOIL, AND FOR THE PROSPERITY OF THE FARMER, HAVE RAISED HIM, BY COMMON CONSENT, TO THE FIRST RANK AS AN AGRICULTURIST, AND AS A LANDLORD; THIS TREATISE ON SHEEP IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BY HIS VERY HUMBLE SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. [Illustration: PLATE I] [Illustration: PLATE II] [Illustration: PLATE III] [Illustration: PLATE IV] [Illustration: PLATE V] [Illustration: PLATE VI] [Illustration: PLATE VII] [Illustration: PLATE VIII] PREFACE. The truth of the Greek proverb, that "_a great book is a great evil_," is no where more apparent than in the construction of works on agricultural concerns. Those who have attended to the subject well know, that the profitable management of live-stock is by far the most difficult branch of farming, as it is here that improvement is peculiarly tardy; and from this we might infer that authors would endeavour so to arrange and simplify their treatises as to enable every one to obtain the bearings of the study at the smallest possible expense and trouble. Such, however, is not the case. Many would appear to have done their best so to dilute and mystify the little which is known about the matter, that it is nearly impossible for any one, not gifted with more than ordinary power of application, to arrive at any thing like just conclusions. To avoid this error has been my object in the following pages. Such points only as are of real importance have been noticed; every thing having been rejected which could not admit of a practical application. For this reason, also, I have omitted all allusion to foreign _varieties_ of the sheep, an account of which is, in some similar works, made to occupy so large a space. The general laws by which animal bodies are governed, and the changes to which they are rendered liable by their subserviency to man, are here--and for the first time as regards the sheep--gone into at considerable length. Too little value is in general attached to such inquiries; though, when endeavouring to improve a domesticated race, we must be perfectly aware, that without this species of knowledge we are like a ship at sea without the guiding aids of the rudder and the compass, and liable to be carried in the right or in the wrong direction only as chance directs. In conclusion, I need make no apology for any defects that may appear in this little work, having done my best to make it useful to the farmer. CASTLE STREET, DUMFRIES, _July, 1838_. CONTENTS. PREFACE iii References to the Plates xi CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. (1) Origin of the Sheep;--(2) The Argali of Siberia and Mouflon of Sardinia;--(3) The Mouflon of America;--(4) The Mouflon of Africa;--(5) British Breeds;--(6) The Lincolnshire;--(7) The Teeswater;--(8) The Dishley or New Leicester;--(9) The Devonshire Nots;--(10) The Dorsetshire Sheep;--(11) Herefordshire or Ryeland Sheep;--(12) The South Down;--(13) The Cheviot Sheep;--(14) Mugg Sheep;--(15) The Black-faced or Heath Sheep;--(16) The Merino;-- (17) Teeth of Sheep;--(18) Distinctions between the Sheep and Goat; --(19) Horns of Sheep;--(20) Structure of the Stomach;--(21) Digestion;--(22) Period of Conception;--(23) Names applied to Sheep 1 CHAPTER II. WOOL. (24) Wool-bearing Animals;--(25) Structure of the Skin;--(26) Sebaceous follicles;--(27) Connexion of the Hair with the Skin--Yolk;--(28) Periodical decidence of Wool;--(29) Falling off of Wool prevented by Clipping;--(30) Form of Woolly Fibre;--(31) Structure and Properties of Hair and Wool;--(32) Particular soils injurious to Wool;--(33) Felting;--(34) Different kinds of Wool;--(35) Alterations caused by _Crossing_;--(36) Bratting prejudicial to Wool 16 CHAPTER III. BRITISH WOOL TRADE. (37) Origin of the Wool Trade;--(38) Invention of Weaving;--(39) Early progress of the Wool Trade;--(40) Introduction of Weaving into Britain;--(41) Importance of the British Woollen Manufacture;--(42) Weavers brought by Edward III. from Flanders;--(43) Regulations regarding _Staples_;--(44) Rapid advance of the Wool Trade in the 14th century;--(45) Subsidies raised by Edward III.;--(46) Progress of the Wool Trade during the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII., and Edward VI.;--(47) Encouragement given by Elizabeth to the Trade;--(48) Woollen Cloth monopolized by the Merchant Adventurers;--(49) Consumption of Wool in England increased;-- (50) Severity of the Prohibitory Enactments relating to Wool reprobated;--(51) Emigration of English families to Holland, and Prosperity of the Dutch Manufactures;--(52) Fluctuating state of the Trade between 1635 and 1698;--(53) King William discourages the Irish manufactures;--(54) Statistics of the British Wool Trade in 1699;--(55) British Woollen Manufacturers rivalled by the Swedes;--(56) Regulations relating to Wool from 1740 to 1742; --(57) Impulse given to the Trade by the improvements in Machinery; --(57) Commencement of the 19th century; Duty imposed on imported Wool;--(59) Restrictions on Foreign Wool removed; increase in Manufacturing prosperity;--(60) Countries from which we derive our Wool;--(61) Statistics of the Wool Trade from 1800 to 1830;--(62) Do. in 1832 28 CHAPTER IV. IMPROVEMENT OF THE BREEDS. (63) Introductory remarks;--(64) Early Improvers of the Sheep;--(65) Modern Breeders and Improvements;--(66) Varieties among Animals, how induced;--(67) Varieties induced by temperature;--(68) Adaptation of the Sheep to climate;--(69) Changes produced by climate;--(70) Temperature preferred by Sheep;--(71) Extent of the alterations produced by climate;--(72) Increase in the number of the Horns;--(73) Causes of the various forms of the Horn;--(74) The proper temperature required for Sheep;--(75) Geographical limits of the Sheep;--(76) Particular forms induced by geographical limit;--(77) Influence of vegetation on form and disposition;--(78) Breeds required for Britain--(79) Varied nature of the food of Sheep;--(80) Influence of food on the quality of Mutton;--(81) Differences in the quality of Mutton;--(82) Abuses in Feeding;--(83) Tendency to acquire Fat;--(84) Frequent change of Pasture necessary;--(85) Varieties induced by apparently trivial causes;--(86) Varieties from mode of Breeding; --(87) Breeding _in_ and _in_;--(88) Opponents of _in_ and _in_ Breeding;--(89) Breeding from different families of the same race;--(90) Crossing;--(91) Things to be attended to in Crossing; --(92) Choice of Parents;--(93) Influence of Sex;--(94) Method of obtaining a greater number of one Sex, at the option of the Proprietor 67 CHAPTER V. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. (95) Introductory remarks;--(96) Putting Tups to Ewes;--(97) Early Lambs;--(98) Lambing-time;--(99) Washing;--(100) Shearing;--(101) Weaning;--(102) Smearing;--(103) Fatting 128 CHAPTER VI. ACCIDENTS AND OPERATIONS. (104) Introductory observations;--(105) Wounds;--(106) Stoppage of Bleeding;--(107) Removal of Extraneous Matter from Wounds;-- (108) Closure of Wounds;--(109) Bandaging;--(110) After-treatment of Clean Cuts;--(111) After-treatment of Punctures;--(112) Bruises and Sprains;--(113) Wounds of Joints;--(114) Poisoned Wounds;-- (115) Fractures;--(116) Cutting Lambs;--(117) Blood-letting;-- (118) Removal of Hydatids from the Head 148 CHAPTER VII. DISEASES OF SHEEP. (119) Introductory remarks;--(120) Cautions in Prescribing;--(121) Classification of Diseases;--(122) Blown or Blast;--(123) Treatment of Blown;--(124) Braxy or Sickness;--(125) Symptoms of Braxy;--(126) Appearances on Dissection;--(127) Causes of Braxy;--(128) Treatment of Braxy;--(129) Prevention of Braxy;--(130) Pining. Symptoms and Causes;--(131) Treatment and Prevention of Pining;--(132) Staggers; --(133) Diarrhoea;--(134) Treatment of Diarrhoea;--(135) Dysentery or Cling. Symptoms;--(136) Causes of Dysentery;--(137) Treatment of Dysentery;--(138) Prevention of Dysentery;--(139) Scab or Itch. Symptoms and Causes;--(140) Treatment of Itch;--(141) Prevention of Itch;--(142) Erysipelas or Wild-fire;--(143) Red-water;--(144) Leg-evil. Symptoms and Causes;--(145) Treatment of Leg-evil;--(146) Prevention of Leg-evil;--(147) The Fly and Maggot;--(148) Treatment of Fly-blown Sheep, and Prevention of attacks from the Fly;--(149) The Sheep-Fag or Ked, and the Tick;--(150) The OEstrus bovis;--(151) Sore Teats;--(152) Foot-rot;--(153) Causes of Foot-rot;--(154) Treatment and Prevention of Foot-rot;--(155) Insects in the Air Passages;--(156) Removal of Insects from the Nostril;--(157) Coryza; --(158) Treatment of Coryza;--(159) Rot. Introductory remarks;-- (160) Symptoms of Rot;--(161) Appearances on Dissection;--(162) The Liver-fluke;--(163) The Hydatid;--(164) Causes of Rot;--(165) Treatment of Rot;--(166) Prevention of Rot;--(167) Jaundice;--(168) Dropsy;--(169) Sturdy;--(170) Treatment and Prevention of Sturdy; --(171) Trembling;--(172) Treatment of Trembling;--(173) Inflamed Eyes;--(174) Soft cancer of the Eye 161 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES PLATE I. _Fig._ 1. The Mouflon of Sardinia. _Fig._ 2. and 3. _p._ The first stomach or paunch; _b._ the second stomach, bonnet, king's-hood, or honey-comb; _o._ the third stomach, or omasum; _a._ the fourth stomach, or abomasum; _g._ the gullet; _py._ the pylorus. _Fig._ 4. Section of a sheep's toe; _g._ _g._ the gland secreting the hoof; _c._ _c._ the crust; _s._ the sole. _Fig._ 5. View of the interdigital gland; _g._ the gland; _d._ the duct leading from it. _Fig._ 6. The fluke-worm; _a._ the mouth; _b._ the reproductive apparatus; _c._ _c._ vessels for the distribution of the blood. PLATE II. _Fig._ 1. Dorsetshire Ram. _Fig._ 2. South Down Ram. The figures in this plate are borrowed from the beautiful cuts in the work on _Sheep_, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. PLATE III. _Fig._ 1. New Leicester Ram. _Fig._ 2. Cheviot Ram. The portrait of a very superior animal, in the possession of my friend Mr Laurie of Terregles town. Premiums were awarded to Mr Laurie for both of these sheep at the last meeting of the Highland Society in Dumfries. _Fig._ 3. View of the veins of the face and neck; _f.v._ facial vein; _j.v._ jugular vein. PLATE IV. _Fig._ 1. Black-faced Ram. _Fig._ 2. Merino Ram. PLATE V. _Figs._ 1. 2. 3. from the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, represent the most approved mode of washing and shearing sheep. _Fig._ 4. Tubular structure of hair and wool. _Fig._ 5. Relative positions of the layers of the skin, mode in which the hairs rise from, and situation of, the sebaceous follicles; _a._ the cuticle; _b._ the mucous layer; _c._ the true skin; _d._ sebaceous follicles; _e._ hairs rising from the true skin; _f._ the yolk. PLATE VI. _Fig._ 1. Section of the lung of a sheep which has been over-driven. _Fig._ 2. Section of the lung of a sheep which has been affected with Rot. PLATE VII. _Fig._ 1. The _Cysticercus tenuicollis_. _Fig._ 1. _a._ Head of the same magnified. _Fig._ 2. The _Coenurus Cerebralis_. _Fig._ 2. _a._ Heads of the _Coenurus_ magnified. _Fig._ 3. The _pentastoma_. Hitherto supposed to exist only in the dog and wolf, but discovered recently in the frontal sinus of the sheep by my friend Mr Rhind of Edinburgh, by whom the drawing for this figure was kindly furnished. PLATE VIII. _Fig._ 1. Hydatid in the brain of a sheep (from a drawing by my friend Dr Kirk of Deal); _a._ the right lobe of the cerebellum or lesser brain distended with fluid, inclosed in a membraneous bag, as shown at _b._, where an incision has been made to expose it; and at _c._ where it is shining through the _pia mater_, one of the coverings of the brain. _Fig._ 2. Showing the extent to which hydatids sometimes distend the ventricles of the brain; _a._ the dilated ventricle of the left side; _b._ _b._ convolutions passing from back to front; _c._ _d._ depth of the furrows. THE SHEEP. CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. (1.) _Origin of the Sheep._--As the origin of our domesticated animals has afforded scope for much curious speculation, so none have attracted a greater degree of attention in this respect than the sheep. Into these arguments, however, it would be absurd to enter; I shall therefore content myself with such opinions as are deemed the best. Placed in the Class Mammalia, and Order Ruminantia, the innumerable varieties at present existing may, according to Cuvier, whose tact in arranging animals is universally acknowledged, all be referred to four species--the Argali of Siberia, the Mouflon of Sardinia, the Mouflon of America, and the Mouflon of Africa--though to be rigidly accurate in natural distinctions he would refer them all to three, thereby excluding the third. (2.) _The Argali of Siberia_ (_Ovis Ammon_) inhabits the mountains of Asia, where it attains the size of a fallow deer. The male has very large horns, with three rounded angles at the base, flattened in front, and striated transversely. The horns of the female are compressed, and hook-shaped. The hair is short in summer, and of a fawn-coloured grey; in winter it is thick, rigid, and of a reddish grey, with some white about the muzzle, throat, and under the belly. The Mouflon of Sardinia (_Ovis Musimon_, Fig. 1. Pl. I.) differs from it only in its inferior size, and in the smallness of the horns of the female. (3.) _The Mouflon of America_ (_Ovis Montana_) closely resembles the Argali, and is supposed by some to be identical with it, and to have crossed from Asia to America at Behring's Straits by means of ice. (4.) _The Mouflon of Africa_ (_Ovis Tragelaphus_) is distinguished by its soft and reddish hair, by its short tail, and by a long mane hanging under the neck, and another at each ancle; it inhabits the rocky districts of Barbary, and has been observed in Egypt. (5.) _British Breeds._--The breeds of our island, as they at present stand, may be divided into two kinds--long-woolled and short-woolled; the former embracing the Lincolnshire, the Teeswater, the Dishley, or New Leicester, and the Devonshire Nots; while the latter will include those of Dorset, Herefordshire, and Sussex, with the Cheviot, Mugg, and Black-faced variety.[1] [1] Encyclopedia Britannica, 7th Edition, Article Agriculture. (6). _The Lincolnshire_ has no horns; the face is white; the carcass long and thin; the legs thick, white, and rough; bones large; pelts thick; and the wool from 8 to 10 inches in length. The ewes weigh from 14 lbs. to 20 lbs. per quarter; and three-year old wethers 20 lbs. to 30 lbs. The fleece weighs from 8 lbs. to 14 lbs., and covers a coarse-grained slow-feeding carcass; so slow, indeed, at feeding, that it cannot be fattened at an early age, except upon rich land; but the breed is encouraged, from the great weight of wool that is shorn from them every year. It and its sub-varieties are extremely common in the English counties. (7.) _The Teeswater_ sheep were originally bred from the same stock as the former, but have become different, from the size having received greater attention than the wool, which is inferior both in length and weight. They stand upon higher and finer boned legs, which support a firmer and heavier carcass, much wider upon the back and sides, and afford a fatter and finer-grained mutton--the two-year-old wethers weighing from 25 lbs. to 30 lbs. per quarter. Marshall, in his work on Yorkshire, remarks, that they are not so compact, nor so complete in their form, as the Leicestershire sheep; nevertheless, the excellency of their flesh and fatting quality is not doubted, and their wool still remains superior. For the banks of the Tees, or any other rich fat land, they are singularly excellent. (8.) _The Dishley_, or _New Leicester_, is distinguished from other long-woolled breeds, by clean heads, straight broad flat backs, round bodies, small bones, thin pelts, and a disposition to fatten at an early age. But more of this hereafter. The weight of three-year-old ewes is from 18 lbs. to 26 lbs. per quarter; and of two-year old wethers from 20 lbs. to 30 lbs. The wool averages from 6 lbs. to 8 lbs., and is thought by some to be inferior in quality to that of Cheviot sheep; but, from being fully fed at all seasons, they yield great quantities of it. Fig. 1. Pl. III. (9.) _The Devonshire Nots_ form the fourth hornless variety of long-woolled sheep. Forty or fifty years ago, they ranked as middle-woolled sheep; but they now figure among the long-wools, under the name of Bamptons--their fleece having been lengthened, and rendered finer, by crossing with the Leicesters. There is yet, however, much room for improvement in these crosses. They have white faces and legs, the latter being short, and the bones large, while the necks are thick, the backs high, and the sides good. They approach in weight to the Leicester, but the wool is heavier and coarser. In Devonshire are found a white-faced and horned variety, which are known as the Exmoor kind, from the place of their nativity. Though delicate in bone, they are not good, having a narrow flat-sided carcass; while the weight of the quarters and fleece is a third short of the former variety. (10.) _The Dorsetshire sheep_ are horned and white-faced, with a long thin carcass, and high small white legs. Three-year-old wethers weigh from 16 lbs. to 20 lbs. a quarter; but the wool, being fine and short, weighs only from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. a fleece. It is, however, amply compensated for by the mutton, which is of superior quality. The peculiar and most valuable property of this breed is the forwardness of the ewes, which take the ram at any period of the year, often lambing, so early as September or October. They are, on this account, extremely useful for supplying large towns with house-lamb at Christmas. Fig. 1, Pl. II. (11.) _Herefordshire_ or _Ryeland sheep_ have white legs and faces, and no horns. The wool grows close to the eyes. They are a small breed, suited to every market, weighing from 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. a-quarter. The carcass is tolerably well-formed, and the wool fine and short, each fleece weighing from 1-1/2 lb. to 2-1/2 lbs., rarely, however, exceeding 2 lbs. They were called _Ryeland_ sheep, from a district in the southern part of Herefordshire being thought capable of growing nothing but rye. Though their figure is good, the back is not so level, nor the ribs so well rounded, as in the improved breeds. They fatten easily, however, and arrive soon at maturity, though reckoned inferior in these respects to the Cheviot variety. (12.) _The South Down_, like the Ryeland, are, from the delicacy of their constitution, unadapted for bleak situations, but sufficiently hardy and active for a low country; their average weight is from 15 lbs. to 18 lbs. a-quarter; that of the fleece, which is very short and fine, being from 2-1/2 lbs. to 3 lbs. They are without horns, have grey faces and legs, a neck low set and small, and a breast neither wide nor deep; their mutton is fine in the grain, and of an excellent flavour, having been brought to great perfection by Mr Ellman of Glynd, and other intelligent breeders. They are mostly found in Sussex, on dry chalky downs producing short fine herbage, and arrive early at maturity; in which respect they are equal to the Cheviot, though inferior to them in quantity of tallow. Formerly they would not take on fat till four years old; now they are always at market when about two years of age, and many are killed before that period. Fig. 2. Pl. II. (13.) _The Cheviot Sheep_ have a bare head, with a long jaw, and white face, but no horns. Sometimes they have a shade of grey upon the nose, approaching to dark at the tip; at others, a tinge of lemon colour on the face, but these markings scarcely affect their value. The legs are clean, long, and small-boned, and covered with wool to the hough; but there is a sad want of depth at the breast, and of breadth both there and on the chine. A fat carcass weighs from 12 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, and a medium fleece about 3 lbs. The purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain-farms which lie between that range and the source of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, provided the pasture resembles the Cheviot hills, in containing a good proportion of rich herbage. Fig. 2. Pl. III. (14.) _Mugg Sheep._--"In this variety," says Dr Fleming, in his History of British Animals, "the face and legs are white, or rarely spotted with yellow, and the forehead covered with long wool. This is the native breed in Scotland, to the north of the Forth and Clyde. They are of small size, and seldom weigh above 8 or 10 lbs. per quarter. Some tribes have horns; others are destitute of them, and they vary in the length of the tail. They may be considered as the stock of the numerous modern and valuable varieties, which are bred in the best cultivated districts. The Shetland sheep belongs to this kind. The fur consists of firm wool next the skin, with long coarse hairs, indications of an inhabitant of an arctic climate." (15.) _The Black-faced or Heath Sheep_ are known by their large spiral horns, wild-looking eyes, black legs and faces, with short firm carcasses, covered by long coarse wool, which weighs from 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. As the form of this sheep has lately been much improved, by inducing a short and round carcass, they have acquired the name of _short_ sheep, in contradistinction to the Cheviots, which are termed long sheep. When three years old, they fatten well, affording excellent highly-flavoured mutton, and weighing from 10 lbs. to 16 lbs. a-quarter. They are the most valuable upland sheep in Britain, abounding in all the western counties of England and Scotland, and are now becoming great favourites in the London market. Fig. 1. Pl. IV. (16.) _The Merino._--Though many foreign breeds have from time to time appeared in this country, yet almost all of them have been viewed merely as objects of curiosity, and, as such, have speedily been disregarded. Far different, however, was the reception of the Merinos. Brought into England under the most favourable auspices, and placed at once under the fostering protection of royalty, their native merits could not but be speedily appreciated and diffused throughout the kingdom. They have received the name of _Merino_ from a peculiar buff or reddish hue of the countenance, and are supposed to have come originally from Africa; at least Marcus Columella, having seen a strange variety from that country exhibited at Rome, during some public games or shows, took them to his farm, and, having crossed them with the breeds of Tarentum, sent the offspring to Spain. There they throve remarkably, attracting the attention of other nations, to whom they were from time to time exported, and at present may be found in almost every part of the world. Merinos were brought to England for the first time in 1788, but attracted little attention, owing to the want of rams. Lord Somerville went to Portugal in 1801, for the purpose of selecting such animals as appeared valuable, from uniting a good carcass with a superior fleece, and he succeeded, notwithstanding the disturbed state of the country, in obtaining specimens, which called forth the praises of the shepherds, through whose travelling flocks they passed. Public attention was attracted to them on the commencement of his Majesty's sales in 1804; and their distribution over the country was accomplished in 1811, by the formation of the principal landed proprietors and eminent breeders into a Merino Society. The Merinos had much prejudice to encounter on being first brought before the public in 1804; but they soon rose in favour and value, and steadily progressed till the Merino Society was established, when, strange though it may appear, all these advantages were at once destroyed. This paradox may, perhaps, be explained, by supposing that the institution of local committees, which immediately followed, allowed the enemies of the change, in distant parts of the kingdom, ample opportunity of striking at the scheme, now that it was entrusted, in many instances, to persons ill qualified for the task either of making converts, or retaining the advantages already gained. The horns of the Merino are of large size, twisted spirally and extended laterally, approaching closely in these characters to the sheep of Mount Parnassus, a specimen of which is delineated in the work by E. T. Bennett, on the Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society. The face has a characteristic velvety appearance, but the cheeks and forehead are disfigured by coarse hair. The legs are long and small in the bone; the breast and back are narrow, the sides flat, and too much of the weight is expended on the coarser parts. There is a peculiar looseness of skin beneath the throat, which is admired in Spain as denoting a tendency to weight and fineness of wool, though regarded in this country as a sign of a bad skin and want of aptitude to fatten. The average weight of the fleece in Spain is, 8 lbs. from the ram, and 5 lbs. from the ewe. The abundance of the yolk enables the wool to detain all the filth which comes in contact with it, so much so, that by washing the weight is diminished about three-fifths. The fibre of the wool is finer than that of any other sheep, and the carcass, when fat, averages from 12 lbs. to 16 lbs. a-quarter. They are quiet and tractable, and possessed of many good qualities, but they are liable to abortion, are bad nurses, and require a large supply of food, for which, owing to an unprofitable form, they yield no return. Fig. 2. Pl. IV. The Merinos were at one time in great request in various countries, from a supposition that they would speedily supplant other breeds; but this has never been the case, as the animal soon degenerates when out of Spain, and is only valuable so far as giving rise to varieties, which are equal, if not superior to itself. Large profits were at first expected from their wool, but these were reduced to a trifle when the loss of weight, and fineness in the carcass were taken into account. Mr Hose of Melton Mowbray, put a certain number of Leicester ewes to a ram of the same breed, and an equal number to a merino ram. The result was, that the Leicester fleece weighed 7 lbs., and the one from the cross with the merino, 8 lbs.; and that the former brought in the market 1s. per lb., and the latter 1s. 6d., being a gain of 5s. on the fleece. The carcass of the former, however, weighed 27 lbs. per quarter, and the latter only 25 lbs., being a loss of 5 lbs. on mutton. Much advantage may, however, be expected from our crosses with the Saxon merino, which is in every respect well suited to our notions of a fine animal, as it yields a good wool, and is little inferior in carcass to some of our best breeds. (17.) _Teeth of Sheep._--In common with the rest of the ruminating animals, sheep have eight incisors in the lower jaw, unopposed by any in the upper, a callous pad, which is substituted, being attached to the distal end of the intermaxillarv bones. Between the incisors and molars, or grinding teeth, there is a vacant space of about an inch and a half. There are twenty-four molars, six on each side of each jaw; their crowns are marked with two double crescents, the convexity of which is turned inwards in the upper, and outwards in the lower jaw. The lamb, when newly dropped, is devoid of incisor teeth, though the two central ones are occasionally above the gum even at this early period. When one month old, the first set of incisive teeth are complete. The two fore-teeth of the under jaw drop out at the end of the first year; six months after the two next to these are lost; and at the end of five years the teeth are all renewed. When the permanent teeth are fully grown, it is almost impossible to ascertain the age of the animal, as the soil, the texture of the provender, and the original form of the teeth, have all a greater or less influence over their durability. (18.) _Distinctions between the Sheep and Goat._--Though a comparison of the most common domesticated breeds of sheep and goats, tends to confirm the broad distinctions drawn between them, yet these differences almost entirely disappear, when we attempt to define the characteristics of those races, which still exist in a wild state in various parts of both Continents, where it is so far impossible to determine the precise division to which they belong, that Cuvier holds them unworthy of a generic separation. Sheep and goats, in fact, agree in so many points as regards structure, form, stature, and habit, that were it not that sheep, according to that naturalist, have "their horns directed backwards, returning more or less forwards in a spiral manner, with a generally convex line of profile, and no beard," while the goats have "their horns directed upwards and backwards, their chins generally decorated with a long beard, and their line of profile almost always concave," there would hardly exist a difference worth the noting. Some writers place great reliance on the differences indicated by the different coverings of the animals, ascribing wool to the sheep, and hair to the goat, forgetting that most of the wild sheep, and some of the domesticated races, are covered with hair, while some goats, as those of Thibet and Angora, are remarkable for the fineness of their wool. Even supposing these distinctions to hold good, we have still to combat the fact, that _sheep and goats produce mongrels capable of reproduction_, a consideration sufficient of itself to prove, that the sheep and goat can never be made to form the types of separate genera.[2] [2] For further information on this subject, see that excellent paper on the Natural History of the Sheep and Goat, by James Wilson, Esq. in No. IX. of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. (19.) _Horns of Sheep._--As the Chevrotains or Musks are distinguished, with the Camels, from other animals of this order by the absence of horns, so are sheep, oxen, goats, and antelopes, distinguished from the rest of the horned genera of the order, by the persistence of their frontal prolongations. The horn is an elastic sheath of _agglutinated hairs_, which appears within the first twelve months, though sometimes present at birth, and increases by layers, one being added every year, so that the age of a ram may be known by the number of rings. The ewes have commonly no horns, but only a protuberance in place of them. The horn is supported by, and serves to cover, a highly vascular prolongation of the frontal bone, and it is at its root, where large vessels, and nervous filaments are entering, that blows occasion so great agony to the animal, apart from the damage which the other bones sustain by the infliction of violence on so powerful a level. (20.) _Structure of the Stomach._--The term ruminating, indicates the power possessed by this animal, in common with many others, of masticating its food a second time, by returning it to the mouth after a short maceration. This they are enabled to do, from the structure of the stomachs, or, more correctly speaking, stomach; as anatomists have now concluded, from all animals being constructed on one common principle, that ruminating animals are not possessed of four stomachs, as formerly supposed, but only of one, which they view as being divided into four compartments. In drawing precise conclusions, we are bound only to admit the existence of two compartments, the other two belonging properly to the gullet; and being equivalent to the cheek pouches of monkeys, or the crop and membranous stomach of birds, may be viewed as an apparatus designed to serve a nearly similar purpose (that of moistening and macerating the food); while the real stomach will cease to excite wonder, or puzzle the ignorant, on being contrasted with that of other animals, in many of which a division exists, and from which even the human stomach, though generally a single sac, is not always exempt,--Dr Knox, of Edinburgh, being in possession of one that resembles a pair of small globes joined by a narrow tube, and which, when taken from the body of a person who was advanced in life, bore every mark of soundness in texture, and must, therefore, have been congenital. (21.) _Digestion._[3]--The food descends by the gullet after being partially crushed, into what is called the first stomach, or paunch, in Latin, _rumen_, or _ingluvies_, in which cavity are found those morbid concretions so much, and so superstitiously, prized in the Eastern world, under the name of Bezoar stones; from this it passes into the second, termed bonnet, king's hood, or honey-comb, in Latin _reticulum_, which is much smaller than the other, and receives its name from the inner coat being arranged into cells; here it is moistened, made into pellets, and, while the animal is at rest, impelled by the antiperistaltic motion of the tube to the mouth, and after undergoing a complete mastication, is returned through the gullet to the third stomach, or smallest compartment, which goes under the name of _omasum_, or many-plies, from its resembling a rolled up hedgehog, and sometimes from the longitudinal _laminæ_ of its mucous membrane that of leaflet. The food remains but a short time in the omasum, proceeding into the fourth division, or obomasum, which in its structure, especially in that of the mucous, or inner membrane, is nearly allied to the same organ in the human being, and is, by the French, from its power of coagulating milk, called _caillette_. The last compartment is the largest of the four, so long as the animal continues to live on milk; but the paunch speedily surpasses it in magnitude when grass becomes the sole provision. The milk always passes at once into the fourth stomach, there being no reason why it should be returned. [3] See Figs. 2 and 3, Plate I. with their references. The intestinal canal is long, commencing at the pylorus or lower opening of the stomach, and averaging from ninety to one hundred feet. There are but few enlargements in the great intestines. The fat, like that of all ruminating animals, becomes, on cooling, hard and brittle. (22.) _Period of Conception._--In this climate, ewes fed on good pastures admit the ram in August; but September or October is the time when such would occur if left to nature. They go with young five months, and in warm climates bring forth thrice a-year; but in Britain, France, and most of Europe, they do so only once. They give milk for seven or eight months; live ten or twelve years; and if well managed, are capable of bringing forth during life, though generally useless for that process after the seventh or eighth year. The ram lives from twelve to fourteen years, though instances are recorded of their enduring till twenty, and becomes unfit for propagating at eight. (23.) _Names applied to Sheep._--The age of sheep is never dated from the time that they are dropped, as that would be attended with many inconveniences, but from the time that they are first subjected to the shears, by which means the first year includes a period of at least fifteen or sixteen months. The following is a condensed arrangement of the names by which sheep are designated at different periods of their existence, in various parts of England and Scotland:-- _From Birth till Weaning._ MALE. FEMALE. Tup, Ram lamb, Heeder, Pur. | Ewe or Gimmer lamb, Chilver. _From Weaning till first Clip._ Hog, Hogget, Hoggerel, Teg. | Gimmer hog, Ewe hog, Teg, Lamb hog, Tup hog, Gridling, | Sheeder ewe, Thrave. and, if castrated, a Wether | hog. | _From first to second Clip._ Shearling, Shear hog, Heeder, | Shearing ewe or gimmer, Diamond or Dinmont ram, or | Double-toothed ewe or tup, and, when castrated, a | Teg, Yill gimmer. Shearing wether. | _From second till third Clip._ Two shear ram, young wedder. | Two shear ewe, Counter. _From third till fourth Clip._ Three shear ram, old wedder. | Three shear ewe, Fronter. And so on, the name always taking its date from the time of shearing. Broken-mouthed ewes are called _crones_ in Suffolk and Norfolk; _kroks_, or _crocks_, in Scotland; and _drapes_ in Lincolnshire. In Scotland, ewes which are neither with lamb, nor giving milk, are said to be _eild_, or _yield_. CHAPTER II. WOOL. (24.) _Wool-Bearing Animals._--In most dictionaries wool is defined as the fleece of sheep, as if, in fact they were the only animals which yield it, than which nothing can be more erroneous; since we are assured by the ablest naturalists, that almost every animal, from the butterfly up to man, possesses more or less of this covering, and that some indeed rival the sheep in the quantity they bear. Though wool is possessed in considerable quantity by carnivorous animals, especially bears, yet the herbivorous quadrupeds, never to mention the sheep, are principally noticed for its growth, and for affording a commodity which becomes an article of profit in the hands of some tribes. Heriot, in his travels through Canada, remarks, that "the savage women manufacture thread of the wool of the buffalo, and weave it into cloth. Most parts of the body are invested with a dusky wool, which is of a quality extremely fine--is much valued--and can with great facility be used in manufactures. The quantity usually contained on one skin is about eight pounds." So far from the sheep being invariably a wool-bearing creature, it would appear as liable to be entirely destitute of it as some other animals; for in Tartary, the eastern parts of India, China, and some parts of Africa, a hair of varying quality forms their sole covering; and Sir Joseph Banks imported three from Spain, which were smooth, sleek, and as short-haired as a horse. (25.) _Structure of the Skin._--The skin is composed of three coats, or layers; the outermost, the cuticle or scarf-skin, is a thin delicate membrane, devoid of feeling, and of a scaly texture, pierced by innumerable small holes, for the passage of the hairs, and perspiration, and covering the next, or mucous coat, so named from its pulpy appearance. In this resides the colouring matter, which imparts its peculiar tints to the hair, and which can only be satisfactorily demonstrated in the dark races. The existence of this coat has been by some denied; but it is probable that, though present in all, it can only be exhibited in such as have depth of tint, to admit of the display. It is here that sensation principally resides; the nerves, or rather their terminations, ramifying minutely in its substance, at which they have arrived by piercing the third tunic, or true skin, a dense firm elastic membrane, in which the roots of the hairs are imbedded, and from which, in fact, they take their origin. (26.) _Sebaceous Follicles._--The skin is studded over by small glands, or what, in anatomical language, would be called sebaceous follicles, which vary in number in different breeds, and different parts of the body, being most numerous on the breast and shoulders, and secreting a peculiar unctuous semi-solid matter, which, as we shall immediately see, possesses alkaline properties. (27.) _Connection of the hair with the skin_--_Yolk._--A hair implanted in the skin may be compared to a plant growing in a flower-pot which has been sunk in the earth, as the root of the hair does not rise directly from the true skin, but from a little cup extending from it to the cuticle, and receiving nourishment from surrounding vessels. After coming to the surface of these tunics it has, in the sheep, yet another, and, in some respects, remarkable covering to pierce, one which has occupied the attention of the most distinguished chemists, and given rise to a good deal of disputation on the subject of salving--we allude to the Yolk. It is supposed by many to be the inspissated secretion of the sebaceous follicles, and receives its name from its adhesiveness and colour. It is most plentiful on fine-woolled sheep, those of the south possessing more than those of the north of our island, while merinos possess most of all; so that there is apparently some connection between a fine fleece, and a good supply of this matter. According to the analysis of M. Vauquelin, it consists principally of a soapy matter, with a basis of potash; a small quantity of carbonate of potash; a minute quantity of acetate of potash; lime in an unknown state of combination; and an atom of muriate of potash. It owes its odour to a small quantity of animal oil, and is in every respect a true soap, which would permit the sheep to be completely washed in a stream, but for the existence in the fleece of an uncombined fatty matter, which remains attached to the wool, and renders it rather glutinous. Many have tried to account for the uses of the Yolk, but nothing like satisfactory conclusions have been come to: some considering it goes to form the filament, and is consolidated into a transparent mass while the pile is growing; while others argue, that it is a peculiar secretion which exudes through the skin, and by mixing with the pile renders it soft and pliable, affecting it in the way that oil does a piece of leather. In the latter opinion I coincide. For my part, I view it as a secretion, depending very much on good food and steadiness of temperature, and, therefore, indicative of a fine fleece only so far as the health of the animal is concerned. In the human being the state of the skin may often guide us, though blind-fold, to the quality of the hair, so that the latter may be pronounced either dry and coarse, or glossy, soft, and silky, as the skin may prove either harsh and ungrateful, or pleasant, and, if I may be allowed the expression, alkaline to the touch. Every thing having a tendency to affect the health may always be considered as calculated to diminish this secretion, and, consequently, to deteriorate the quality of the wool. The relative positions of the layers of the skin, the mode in which the hairs rise from them, and the form and situation of the sebaceous follicles, will be better understood by referring to the following cross section Fig 5. Pl. V., in which the line marked _a_ Represents the cuticle, _b_ The mucous layer, _c_ The true skin, _d_ Sebaceous follicles, _e_ Hairs rising from the true skin and inflections of the upper layers and piercing, _f_ The thin film of the yolk. (28.) _Periodical decidence of Wool._--It is affirmed that the only real difference between hair and wool is in the latter falling off periodically; but the same change takes place in animals totally covered with hair; in fact, almost every animal is subject to moulting, or a periodical decidence of its protecting covering. The fleece of the sheep has been proved in many instances not to be liable to _annual_ changes of this description;--Lord Western having, among others, shown that the wool of the merino may be retained at least three years without the slightest disposition to separate. The annual employment of shearing, to anticipate this falling off of the wool, is now common in most parts of the world; yet some, as the Icelanders and Kamtschadales, still retain the primeval custom of _rowing_, or pulling off the fleece in a mass, about the end of May, at which time it is nearly loosened. This loosening of the attachments of the fibre is supposed to be owing to a diminution, during winter, of the nutritive process at the root of the hair, so that the fibre is liable to give way at the tender part when the fleece becomes heavy during Spring. This attempt at an explanation meets, however, with the insurmountable objection, that long-woolled are less liable than short-woolled sheep to this occurrence, a circumstance which ought to be the reverse, if weight had any thing to do in the case. (29.) _Falling off of Wool prevented by Clipping._--Clipping has a curious influence over the duration of the covering of animals, as is well exemplified by the correct popular idea, that the only way to prevent the hair of children dropping off (as it sometimes has a tendency to do) is to cut it short: we may suppose the benefit in this case to result from the removal of a _portion_ of each hair, which, if allowed to remain, would lead to a sacrifice of the _whole_, by robbing the root of a quantity of nutritious matter, which, owing to a diminution of reproductive power, it could ill afford. In this way only can we account for the power which shearing evinces, in putting a stop to the attempt sometimes made by nature to change the coverings of some sheep. In the valley which separates the most eastern chain of the Cordilleras from the central, the wool grows upon the lambs in the same manner as in temperate climates, provided they are sheared so soon as it has arrived at a certain thickness; in which case the wool grows again, preserving the same order. But, if the period for denuding the animal be allowed to pass, the wool detaches itself in flakes, leaving behind a short, glossy, and compact hair, exactly resembling that of the common goat in the same climate. (30.) _Form of woolly fibre._--The fibre of wool is circular, differing in diameter in the various breeds, and different parts of the same fleece. The following _à propos_ observations are from the article on the Sheep, in the Library of Useful Knowledge: "The filaments of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are semitransparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, in others curiously encrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering appearance. Very irregularly placed minuter filaments are sometimes seen branching from the main trunk, like boughs from the principal stem. This exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good condition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really brilliant; but, when the sheep has been half starved, the wool seems to have sympathized with the state of the constitution, and either a wan pale light, or sometimes scarcely any, is reflected." The more transparent the filament the better is the fleece, and its value is impaired by the transparency being different in the same fleece, or, as often happens, in the same filament; while that which possesses fineness with a close ground, pureness, elasticity, colour, tenacity, and not much pitch-mark, is the most esteemed, and preferred by the manufacturer. Wethers have considerably more wool than ewes. In every fleece there are several qualities, even so many as nine different sorts, which are all separated from each other in England by men called woolstaplers, who are appointed for the purpose, and sworn to do justice between the grower, and the merchant or manufacturer. In this manner the latter obtains, without trouble or risk, the very kind which he knows will suit his purpose; for though the sorter, surrounded by a number of baskets, divides the wool according to its properties without the slightest hesitation, and with a rapidity truly surprising, yet such is the amount of the dexterity acquired by practice, that a mistake seldom occurs, and his judgment can as rarely be disputed. (31.) _Structure and properties of Hair and Wool._--Each hair is composed of a number of filaments, or smaller hairs, ranged side by side, and this we can perceive without the slightest trouble, from the tendency it sometimes has to unravel at the apex; and again, by drawing a hair through the fingers from point to root, when we feel a roughness occasioned by projecting filaments, which only proceed a certain distance up the trunk, the longest being most internal. Pl. V. Fig. 5, _e_, exhibits those points in a hair considerably magnified. These projections, or serrations, which vary in number in different specimens of wool, are what it depends on for its felting properties. They are sharper and more numerous in felting wools than in others, and the better the felting properties of the wool, the more numerous the curls; because what induces curling on the animal's back leads to felting in the hands of the manufacturer. In felting, these projections catch one upon another, and occasion the hair to move in one direction, which is invariably root foremost, as we perceive on giving it a twirling motion between the finger and thumb; and it is only by the union of curve and serration, that felting can be accomplished certainly and perfectly. Woolly fibre consists of a semitransparent stem, or stalk, supposed to be hollow, as represented at Fig. 4, Pl. V. and is partly distinguished from hair by the latter being opaque. Next to soundness, there are few qualities deserving of so much attention as softness, of which the ancient writers make frequent mention, and for the prevalence of which in our present wools fashion has done not a little. It is a quality that tends, in a material degree, to the cheap and easy working of the cloth, and, as such, is said to render wool 25 per cent. more valuable to the manufacturer than a harsh and brittle pile. It apparently depends on the fineness of the fibre, which should not, however, go the length of weakness. Fineness is in turn mainly connected with the yolk, the secretion of which ought, on that account, to be promoted by attention to the general management of the animal, as it is well known to undergo a change of properties by starvation, exposure, or any neglect whatever. (32.) _Particular soils injurious to Wool._--Soil, also, has much influence on the pliability of wool. Chalky lands, which are so notorious for injuring the fleece, are supposed to act in the manner of a corrosive, but the correct explanation is, not that the chalky particles attack the fibre in a direct way, but that they render it brittle, by absorbing the oily moisture with which it is naturally imbued. Moreover, the plants growing in such situations cannot but be injurious to sheep, owing to their impregnation, though a slight one, with calcareous matter; for grooms know well how soon a horse's coat becomes disordered by the frequent use of hard or well water, and prefer, therefore, the river for their steeds.[4] [4] I am surprized to find it asserted at page 76 of the book on Sheep, published by the Society for the diffusion of Useful Knowledge, that the depilatory action of lime-water on raw hides is a "_striking elucidation_" of the injurious effects of chalk on wool. Lime removes hair from a skin because it is a powerful caustic, and, as such, speedily decomposes the animal matter, but the carbonate of lime (chalk) is perfectly innocuous to wool, except so far as it combines with its oil; and is as little _corrosive_ to the fleece, as pipe-clay to a soldier's coat. (33.) _Felting._--The felting of wool may be defined as a property depending on the curls and serrations of the fibre, by which it is allowed to move only with the root foremost, and by which it is enabled to catch and retain a hold on fibres that are near it, so as to form a web or cloth. Felting is best brought into operation by alternate pressure and relaxation, which may be produced in a variety of ways: the ancient method, and one still pursued by the Tartars, was to tramp on a mass or layer of moist unwrought wool, so as to form a coarse cloth or carpet; while the modern, and more perfect plan is, either, as in hat making, to apply pressure with the hands, or, as in the finishing of cloth, to pass the fabric repeatedly through rollers. The way in which a close fabric is formed, by the juxta-position of a few scattered hairs, gave rise for long, as well it might, to serious disputations among philosophers; and the favourite theories of each, unbased as they were on observation, might till now have agitated the scientific portion of our manufacturers, had not the microscope brought to light much of what is true and valuable in our researches. Moisture appears to be of service during the felting of wool, as it induces it to curl, enabling the fibres to expand, and catch one on another, after they have been bent and compressed, by the force applied to them, and is of itself sufficient to felt a fabric, as we frequently perceive in the instance of stockings, which have been allowed to remain too long in water, when they become short from undergoing contraction, and resemble after such treatment an imperfect cloth. It is for this reason that the hatter, after tumbling over, in all directions, the fur of which the hat is to be made, wets it before applying pressure; and, that the woollen manufacturer, after freeing the web from grease, soaps it before its subjection to the action of the rollers. Without felting, cloth would resemble a net, and would unravel on being cut, from the fibres crossing only in two directions; but the strokes of the mill put an end to this, by laying the fibres in every possible direction, and so twining them one with another, as to render them a coherent mass. (34.) _Different kinds of Wool._--The wool of this country is divided into two great classes--long and short: the former varies in length from three to eight inches, and before being made into stuffs and worsted goods, requires to be deprived of its felting tendencies, by passing it through heated iron combs, which remove the feathery parts, or serrations, and make it resemble silk or cotton. The shorter combing wools are in general used for hose, and are softer than the long combing wools. Short wool is employed in the cloth manufacture, and is, on that account, frequently called clothing wool. It should approach in colour as much as possible to white, as a clear white ground is required for all cloths that are to be dyed bright colours, as well as for those dressed white: grey or black hairs injure the fleece very much, even though few and minute, as they give rise to reddish spots where the cloth is stoved. Herefordshire sheep are entirely free from this defect, and are, therefore, reckoned particularly valuable for clothing purposes. (35.) _Alterations induced by Crossing._--The breed exercises considerable influence on the wool, some sheep, as the merinos, being distinguished for the softness and beauty of the fleece; while others, as some of our small northern varieties, are famed for the very opposite characteristics. According to the opinion on the continent, any race of ewes, however coarse and long in the fleece, will, on the fourth cross of the merino ram, give progeny with short wool equal to the Spanish. The truth of this proposition is however doubted, in a communication to the Board of Agriculture, by Dr Parry of Bath; but it is certain, he adds, that one cross more will in most cases effect the desired purpose. "If we suppose," he says, "the result of the admixture of the blood of the merino ram to be always in an exact arithmetical proportion, and state the native blood in the ewe as 64, then the first cross would give 32/64 of the merino, the second 48/64, the third 56/64, the fourth 60/64, the fifth 62/64, and so on. In other words, the first cross would leave 32 parts in 64, or half of the English quality; the second 16 parts, or one-fourth; the third 8 parts, or one-eighth; the fourth four parts, or one-sixteenth; the fifth 2 parts or one-thirty-second; the sixth 1 part, or one-sixty-fourth; and so on. Now, if the filament of the Wiltshire, or any other coarse wool, be in diameter double that of the Ryeland, it is obvious that, according to the above statement, it would require exactly one cross more to bring the hybrid wool of the former to the same fineness as that of the latter. This, I believe, very exactly corresponds with the fact. The difference between one-eighth and one-sixteenth is very considerable, and must certainly be easily perceived, both by a good microscope, and in the cloth which is manufactured from such wool. In the latter method, it certainly has been perceived; but I have had hitherto no opportunity of trying the difference by the former. The fifth cross, as I have before observed, brings the merino-Wilts wool to the same standard as the merino-Ryeland." (36.) _Bratting injurious to Wool._--Wool rendered fine by clothing sheep, is never equal to that which owes its perfection to natural causes. The Saxon wool, which is principally produced by _artificial_ means, has been compared, from its inelastic sickly appearance, to grass that has been secluded from the sun. The custom of _bratting_ is therefore not to be recommended, and indeed is now nearly laid aside. Housing sheep with the same intentions is also bad, inasmuch as it must affect their health, and destroy the curl of the fibre. Shelter is however absolutely necessary from extremes both of heat and cold, as temperature has much influence on the covering of animals, and in none more than the sheep. CHAPTER III. BRITISH WOOL TRADE. (37.) _Origin of the Wool Trade._--Wool, since Eden closed its gates on our progenitors has been a current coin, an important material, on which has been employed the skill and industry of almost every tribe, and been the means of raising many a petty people to the hard-won dignity of a nation. Man, at first placed in a comfortable temperature, needed little as a defence against the weather; while fashion, then unthought of, or only as a sport, failed to interest the simple-minded races in the cut or texture of the coverings they wore. That the first dresses of mankind were formed from vegetable materials, we have the highest authority for believing; and even at present, the garb of the natives of some of our lately discovered islands, consists of a simple girdle formed from rough-cut reeds. But as the dawn of knowledge smiled upon the savage, and animal sacrifice tutored him in the uncouth rudiments of a coarse anatomy, the superior comfort, even of the untanned hide would be remarked, and the clumsy mantle of the Caffre hordes welcomed as a change. Time would not long elapse till roving dispositions, and the encounter of unstable climates, would show the wanderer the necessity of a fabric better adjusted by shape and pliancy, to the nature of his wants; while the clinging of lock to lock of woolly fibre would plainly tell the superfluous nature of the supporting skin, and point the way to make an ill-closed cloth. (38.) _Invention of Weaving._--Weaving is not absolutely necessary for the manufacture of cloth, since wool will felt, though far from evenly, without the preliminary process of being laid in threads, so that cloth may have been almost coeval with mankind without our being required to assign much mechanical ingenuity to its inventors. But we have tolerably clear evidence in the inspired writings, that weaving was known in the earliest ages, and that it was trusted principally to the women:--Thus Delilah wove Samson's hair when he slept in her lap; and a short time after, it is written, that the mother of Samuel "made him a little coat, and brought it to him from year to year." At a later period, Solomon thus describes a good wife:--"She seeketh wool and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands."[5] That garments were in those early ages made of several pieces, joined by needle work, is evident on a perusal of Genesis, xxxvii. 3; Judges, v. 30; and 2 Samuel, xiii. 13; and this plan is allowed to be even more ancient than the weaving of flax. Job, who flourished, or is supposed to have flourished, before the Israelites left Egypt, shows clearly by his words that flannel clothing was then in vogue: "Let me be condemned if I have seen any perish for want of clothing, or any poor without covering; if his loins have not blessed me, and if he were not warmed with the fleece of my sheep;" and that the cloth was woven, and not produced by beating, is evident from his saying, when complaining of his sad estate, "My days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle." [5] The art of weaving was first practised at Arach in Babylonia, and spread thence to neighbouring cities, and in process of time to the most remote parts of the world.--_Bryant's Ancient Mythology_, Vol. v. p. 173. (39.) _The early progress of the Wool Trade_ is veiled in much obscurity, and only to be discovered by seeking for it in a mass of fable, which in many instances enabled the old writers to string together the dry details of history, in a manner suited to the taste and habit of their time. The following may be taken as a specimen. Phryxus, the son of Athamas king of Thebes, fleeing with his sister, Hellé, from their stepmother, and riding upon (carrying with him) a ram which had a golden (valuable) fleece, sought to cross the Dardanelles, when Hellé was drowned, and the sea was ever after called the Hellespont: but Phryxus arrived safely at Colchis, between the Black and Caspian seas, and having sacrificed the ram to Mars, hung the fleece in a temple dedicated to that god. By this the ancients no doubt meant to intimate, either that Boeotia, the birth-place of so many talented Greeks, furnished the people of Colchis with sheep, or that they sent them sums of money in exchange for the wool of Caucasus. That the latter is the more probable, is apparent from Ovid's account of the Argonautic expedition, in which he shows the hardships which Jason encountered in his successful endeavours (B.C. 1225) to bring the golden fleece from Colchis back to Greece--implying the value of the article, and leading us to believe, that the Colchians had, by the aid of severe penalties, long monopolized the growth of wool. Moreover, Mount Caucasus and its neighbourhood form the favoured nursery whence the improved fleece-bearing animals have gradually spread over the world; and as such would be looked upon, at the time I speak of, by adjacent tribes with jealousy and hatred; for where is the nation that can calmly behold a compeer engrossing a hoard of wealth, without struggling to lower their prices by a market of their own? Thus one country after another became impressed with the advantages to be derived from the husbandry of sheep. Nation after nation improved its agriculture, by the introduction of the animal, till at last the Romans became pre-eminent for their attention to its culture, and to the manufactures of which it is the fruitful source. Generous even to an enemy, and attacking only to enrich the countries they subdued, England may bless the hour which saw the legions of the world's mistress planting the Imperial Eagle on her shores. Instead of following the progress of the wool trade among foreign nations in later times, the limits of the present work compel me to confine myself to an outline of the British trade from its origin, at the time of the invasion by the Romans, to the present period. (40.) _Introduction of Weaving into Britain._--It is evident from ancient history, that the first inhabitants of all the countries of Europe were either naked, or nearly so, owing to their ignorance of the clothing art. Such, in particular, was the uncomfortable condition of the inhabitants of this island, who are supposed to have used the bark of trees, and to have smeared themselves with unctuous matter, after the manner of other savages, to protect themselves from cold. Some writers are of opinion, that the inner bark of trees alone was employed, and that not till woven into a kind of cloth, such as the South Sea islanders at present make. They continued the abominable practice of anointing their bodies, long after the people of France, Spain, and Germany, were decently clothed, so differently were they situated in regard to intercourse with strangers, and opportunities of acquiring the useful arts. It is impossible to discover with certainty when, or by whom, the custom of wearing clothes was introduced into Britain. Some suppose that the Greeks, and after them the Phoenicians, who visited the Scilly islands, and sometimes the continent of Britain, for trading purposes, first awakened in the breasts of our savage ancestors a desire for comfortable coverings, as both these nations were celebrated for elaborate attention to their attire. "The Britons," says Cæsar, "in the interior parts of the country are clothed in skins." These are supposed not to have been sewed together, but to have been cast over the shoulders as a mantle. Their stiffness, however, rendered them aught but pleasant, as we may guess from their endeavours to make them soft and pliable, by steeping in water, beating them with stones and sticks, and rubbing them with fat. The people of the southern parts are supposed to have been well acquainted with the dressing, spinning, and weaving, both of flax and wool, having been instructed by a Belgic colony, long before the invasion by the Romans. Two kinds of cloth, which they manufactured at this period, were much esteemed by their invaders; the one a thick harsh cloth, worn in cold climates as a sort of mantle, and agreeing in many respects with our Lowland plaids; the other made of fine wool, dyed of different colours, woven into chequered cloth, and corresponding to our Highland tartan. They are also believed to have made felts of wool, without either spinning or weaving, and to have stuffed mattresses with the portions shorn from it in dressing. The Britons must have been well acquainted with the dyeing of wool, as the Gauls were then celebrated, according to Pliny, for the invention of a "method of dyeing purple, scarlet, and all other colours, only with certain herbs." The plant, which they chiefly used for the purpose, was the glastum or woad, and they seem to have been led to the discovery of its value in dyeing cloth, from their former use of it in staining their bodies. A deep blue having been the colour they stained their skins, it long continued a favourite; particularly, with the Caledonians, as a tint for all their dresses. Though the most civilized of the ancient Britons were tolerably versed in the most essential branches of the woollen manufacture, yet that useful art was not diffused over our island till the landing of the Romans, whose soldiers, being almost all drawn from the plough, were well adapted, when settled in the country, to foster the arts of peace. In order to benefit themselves and the island, their emperors were at great pains to discover and procure the best artificers of every description, particularly the best manufacturers of woollen and linen cloths, whom they formed into colleges, or corporations, endowed with various privileges, and governed by a procurator, who was under the direction of that great officer of their empire, the Count of the Sacred Largesses. In this manner it appears that the first woollen manufactory was established at Venta Belgarum, now Winchester, a hundred years after the conquest of the country. It has been believed, from Britain having been partly peopled from Spain, that our sheep were originally Spanish; and, as Giraldus Cambrensis (Collectan. de Reb. Hibern.) affirms, that the Irish in his time were clothed in black garments, from the wool of their sheep being so coloured, some have supposed the sheep of that island were imported from Spain, a supposition rendered probable by Southey telling us, in his letters from that country, that in the north of the Peninsula the animals are almost all of a black colour. No mention ever occurs in the ancient writers, of the importation of sheep into Britain, from which it may be supposed, that they had found their way into it long before its forcible separation from the continent by natural convulsions. Cambden, in his work on Britain, quotes from an old orator, part of a beautiful panegyric on the great Constantine, in which the happiness of Britain is eloquently described, and its advantages in regard to sheep graphically depicted. "Innumerable are thy herds of cattle, and thy flocks of sheep, which feed thee plentifully, and clothe thee richly." So that, even allowing for the high-flown nature of the verbiage, the sheep of the island must have been far from indifferent, and well worthy of any trouble the grasping Romans may have been put to, in the erection of manufactories. (41.) _Importance of the British Woollen Manufacture._--The history of our wool, and the woollen manufacture, is, at one period and in one point of view, the history of our public revenue, while in a succeeding period it becomes the capital object of our commerce, and the important subject of our political councils. The preserving and supporting it against foreign rivals, the due regulation of its numerous branches, and the proper restrictions deemed requisite to ensure to this country the commercial benefits resulting from it, have occupied our ablest statesmen for many centuries. The wools of England have always been in the highest repute, and that more abroad than at home. Their fineness and abundance have been ascribed by many to the sweet short grass on most of our downs and pastures, and to the sheep having the privilege of feeding, all the year round, without being shut in folds; but it cannot be denied, that, though food and climate may have much concern in the matter, the energetic industry and persevering attention with which an Englishman devotes himself to the attainment of an object, have tended more than any other circumstance to the advancement of our wools, and woollen manufactures, and to the consequent prosperity of our island. The reason of the existence of so many laws relating to wool is, that it continued for ages to be the principal commodity, meeting all demands for the support of armies, and payment of public revenues, and affording aids to the crown, which were in general granted therein. The scarcity of money in England before the discovery of America, rendered it necessary to levy taxes frequently in kind, and as wool was abundant, it often figured as the representative of a more portable currency. Part of the £300,000 demanded by the Emperor of Germany as the ransom of Richard I., was raised by a loan of wool. Edward I., the great reformer of our laws, imposed a duty of 6s. 8d. on every sack of wool exported, and the like sum on every 300 wool-fells; but soon after, when his necessities demanded a larger income, he laid those additional duties on foreign merchants, which afterwards became the tonnage and poundage, so famous in England's history. Among these additions, the former taxes on wool and fells were increased by forty pence, while at the same time, like other monarchs of the period, he occasionally received subsidies of wool. In the same way Edward III., in attempting, during the twelfth year of his reign, to wrest the crown of France from the house of Valois, procured a grant of half the wool in England, amounting to 20,000 packs, which, taking it as valued by some authors at £40 a pack, must have realized the sum of £800,000. (42.) _Weavers brought from Flanders._--Commerce and industry were at a very low ebb during the time of Edward III., the principal export being wool, which only brought into the kingdom about £450,000. Edward promoted the woollen manufacture by bringing, in 1331, John Kemp, with seventy Walloon families, weavers, from Flanders, and, owing to the want of native skill in this department, gave every encouragement to foreign weavers. (11 Edward III. cap. 5.)[6] A further encouragement was given to the home manufacture, by the enactment of a law (11 Edward III. cap. 2) which prohibited every one from wearing any cloth not of English fabric. Parliament, however, in an evil hour, thwarted these benefits, by prohibiting the exportation of woollen goods, certainly an injurious step, so long as wool was allowed to be shipped from our ports. [6] Macpherson, in his Annals of Commerce, agrees with Bloomfield the historian of Norfolk, that a colony of Flemish weavers settled so early as 1327, at Worsted, a village in that county, and bestowed upon it the name it bears. On the introduction of the Flemish weavers, Kendal became the metropolis of this branch of industry, and was soon equalled in the extent of its manufactories by many other towns, as Norwich, Sudbury, Colchester, and York; while woollens were spun and wove, though to a less extent, in Devonshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Hampshire, Berkshire Sussex, and Wales. (43.) _Regulations regarding Staples._--The _staple_, or market for wool, was fixed by act of Parliament (27 Edward III.) in particular towns of England, but was afterwards removed by law to Calais, and English merchants were prohibited from exporting any goods from the staple, or, in other words, foreign navigation was abandoned. To the custom of taking subsidies in kind, may be traced the principle of those multifarious regulations which fixed the staple in certain towns, either in England, or more commonly on the continent; and to the fluctuating state of politics may be ascribed the shiftings which those staples so frequently underwent; but it is not easy to see the drift of many of the provisions relating to it, some of which tend to the benefit of foreign, rather than of British, commerce. (44.) The progress which this manufacture made in a very short period, may be well illustrated by the following table of exports and imports in woollen, about the middle of the fourteenth century, or twenty years after the arrival of John Kemp and his establishment. EXPORTS. Thirty-one thousand, six hundred and fifty-one and a half of wool, at L.6 value each sack, £189,909 0 0 Three thousand, thirty-six hundred and sixty-five fells, at 40s. value, each hundred at six score, 6,073 1 8 Whereof the custom amounts to 81,624 1 1 Fourteen last, seventeen dicker, and five hides of leather, after L.6 value the last 89 5 0 Whereof the custom amounts to. 6 17 6 8,061-1/2 of worsted, after 16s. 8d. value, the price is 6,717 18 4 Whereof the custom amounts to 215 13 7 --------------- Summary of the out-carried commodities in value and custom, £285,635 17 2 --------------- IMPORTS. 1,832 cloths, after L.6 value each, 10,922 0 0 Whereof the custom amounts to 91 12 0 --------------- Summary of the in-brought woollens in value and custom, £11,013 12 0 That the imported cloths were much finer than those exported, may be inferred from their comparative value as here stated, and we may conclude pretty justly, that the fabrication of coarse cloths exclusively occupied the manufacturers of Britain, while the finer fabrics were still brought from abroad, and that, in fact, the wants of the _mass_ of the people were the regulators of British industry. (45.) _Subsidies raised by Edward III._--In 1338, Edward took a fifteenth of all the commonalty of his realm in wool, rating the price of every stone of 14 lbs. at 2s., although, in the previous November, he had sent the Bishop of Lincoln, and the Earls of Suffolk and Northampton, with one thousand sacks of wool, into Brabant, which, being sold at L.40 a sack, procured him L.40,000. Edward was apparently not very sure how far his subjects would submit to so sweeping a taxation, as we find him addressing a letter, dated Berwick-upon-Tweed, March 28th, 1338, to the Archbishops of York and Canterbury, desiring the favour of their prayers, and requesting that they would excuse him to his people, on account of the great taxes he was obliged to lay upon them. During the summer of 1339, the laity granted to the king the one-half of their wools throughout the whole realm, a favour his majesty is reported to have received most graciously; but of the clergy he levied the whole, compelling them to pay nine merks for every sack of the best wool. Knighton, who held an office in the Abbey of Leicester, says that that house alone furnished eighteen sacks. The revenue officers during this reign appear to have exercised their calling with great strictness, and to have interfered in an especial manner with the secret trade of the inhabitants of Bristol, but this was terminated by the king granting a licence, dated Langley, November 25th, 1339, to their weavers, allowing them "to make woollen cloth without being liable to any molestation from the king's officers." (46.) _Progress of the trade under Henry VII., Henry VIII., and Edward VI._--During the bloody and destructive wars of the white and red roses, when success graced the arms alternately of York and Lancaster, commercial enterprise was almost at a stand. This unhappy period brought, however, with all its evils, blessings in its train, and Henry VII. not only did more for the advancement of the wool-trade than his predecessors, but also gave it greater vigour than it could lay claim to at any former period. Fine cloths were much improved in his reign, and luxury began to be attended to in an article, which, till then, had only been rendered amenable to comfort. The ostentatious reign of Henry VIII., gave an additional impulse to the trade, and cloth was sold in 1512 for five merks, which fifty years before would only have brought about forty shillings; while, in consequence of increasing wealth, population, and consumption, the demand was materially increased. A new market was also opened up for the exit of their woollens, by the establishment of an intercourse in 1516 with several islands in the Archipelago, and a few of the towns on the coast of Syria. Edward VI., or rather his ministers, for he was then a minor, attempted to lay a poll-tax upon sheep, every ewe kept in a separate pasture being charged threepence, every wedder twopence, and all sheep kept on commons three-halfpence; but it was found to be so oppressive, so annoying to the people, and so difficult to collect, that it was repealed during the next year. England made a distinguished figure in this reign as a commercial nation. The manufacture of woollens was raised to a great height. Cloth, besides being exported to Flanders, found its way to Holland, Hamburgh, Sweden, and Russia, whose coarse warm stuffs were very much wanted, and the trade wore such an air of affluence, that a tax of eightpence in the pound was laid upon all cloth made for sale in England. This, however, was speedily repealed, a very short time serving to point out, that, though made for an endurance of three prosperous years, the people who were galled by a trifling impost on their sheep, would not, unless under very favourable circumstances, submit to imposts on the fabrics which they wore. During the reigns of Henry VII., Henry VIII., and Edward VI., an undue preference was given to grazing. Acts were framed to put a stop to this mismanagement, which was fast ruining the country, by driving people from it. Henry VII. exempted Norwich from the penalties of the law, on account of the decay of manufactures from the want of hands; and shortly after the whole county of Norfolk obtained a like exemption in regard to some branches of the woollen trade. The practice of depopulating the country, by abandoning tillage, and throwing the lands into pasturage, had run to so great an extent in the time of Henry VIII., that an enactment was made, whereby the king became entitled to half the rents of the land where any farm-houses were allowed to fall to decay. The number of sheep in a flock was at the same time limited to two thousand. Hume conjectures, in his _History of England_, that unskilful husbandry was probably the cause why the proprietors found no profit in tillage;--thus leading a farmer to keep a flock sometimes of twenty-four thousand as expressed in the statute. This had the effect of increasing the price of mutton, a remarkable coincidence, which parliament attributes to the commodity having gotten into few hands, though Hume ascribes it to the daily increase of money, thinking it almost impossible that such an article could be engrossed. At the commencement of the reign of Edward VI., the people were still sadly deficient in a knowledge of agriculture--a profession, which, as Hume wisely remarks, of all employments, requires the most reflection and experience. A great demand having arisen for wool both at home and abroad, whole estates were laid waste, while the tenants, regarded as a useless burden, were expelled their habitations, and the cottagers deprived even of the commons on which they fed their cows; no wonder there was a decay of the people! (47.) _Wool Trade encouraged by Elizabeth._--Elizabeth extended her protection to the Protestants who fled from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva in the Low Countries, and the woollen manufactories became more flourishing than ever--so much so, that, although in 1552, a large quantity of raw material was exported, yet in less than thirty years, the people of Germany, Poland, France, Flanders, Denmark, and Sweden, were covered with British cloths; two hundred thousand pieces being annually exported, though the price was nearly tripled. At that time the processes by which woollens are rendered beautiful were unknown in England, and as our exports consisted in white undressed cloth, the profits upon dyeing and finishing, amounting to nearly a million a year, were lost. This was attempted to be remedied by prohibiting the exportation of white cloths, but the Dutch and Germans, who benefitted by the dyeing processes, forbade the entrance of any English woollens dyed in the piece, into their territories, and the export consequently fell immediately from 200,000 to sixty pieces. Then the restriction was taken off. It was at this crisis that the fabrication of medley cloths, or mixtures of wool dyed of different colours and wrought into the same web, was commenced. (48.) _Woollen Cloth monopolized by the merchant adventurers._--Though nine-tenths of the commerce of the kingdom consisted in the time of James I. of woollen goods, wool was allowed to be exported till the nineteenth year of his reign, when it was forbidden by proclamation, but never strictly enforced. The cloth was very little admired even at home, and though it was the staple commodity of the realm, a company of merchant adventurers were allowed by a patent, to possess the sole disposal of it. Elizabeth at one time attempted to rescue this important trade from the hands of these merchants, but they instantly conspired, and ceased to make purchases of cloth, when the queen was necessitated to restore the patent. A board of trade was brought together by James I. in 1622, and one of the purposes contemplated was to remedy the low price of wool, which was leading the people to complain of the decay of the woollen manufacture; but Hume supposes, and with every appearance of probability, that this fall of prices proceeded from an increase of wool. (49.) _English consumption of Wool increased._--Till the fifteenth century our wool was sold in the fleece to such as came to buy it. Among the principal of our customers were numbered the Flemings, and Brabanters, and in particular the merchants of Ghent, and Louvain, who took off vast quantities for the supply of two manufactories, that had flourished in those cities from the tenth century, and had furnished the greater part of Europe, and even England itself, with every kind of woollen cloth. Thus they might have continued, to the great loss of our island, had not the democratic hands employed in those manufactories repeatedly revolted, owing to their determination to resist a tax on looms, and being at length punished and dispersed, found their way in no long time to Holland. While in the last place, the spirit of sedition still being dominant, certain of their party attacked and killed some of the civil authorities, for which they had to make a precipitate flight to England, where they settled as peaceful citizens, and instructed our people in the working of wool. This occurred in 1420, from which time neither skill, money, nor enactments, have been spared to enable us to retain so valuable a trade. In the reign of Edward IV., every pack of English wool was liable when exported to a custom of 50s., a goodly sum in those days, and one which brought a yearly revenue of L 250,000. This excessive custom, almost amounting to a prohibition, added to the above mentioned opportunities, in a manner compelled the people to manufacture for themselves, and in this they succeeded so well, that by the time of Elizabeth, the exportation of live sheep and wool was prohibited on pain of having the right hand struck off. It does not appear that this enactment was ever repealed, though supposed to be so by the 12th of Charles II. cap. 32, see. 3, which, without taking away the penalties imposed by former statutes, imposes a new penalty;--20s. for every sheep exported, or attempted to be exported, together with the forfeiture of the sheep. (50.) _Severity of prohibitory enactments reprobated._--By the 14th of Charles II. chap. 18 the exportation of wool was deemed felony, and punished accordingly. This tended in no slight degree to the defeat of the ends intended, by hindering all who were not cold-blooded from bringing to justice the actors in so trifling an offence. This was soon however seen through, and corrected, by the 7th and 8th of William III. chap. 28, sec. 4, in which it was declared, that "Whereas the statute of the 13th and 14th of King Charles II., made against the exportation of wool, among other things in the said act mentioned, doth enact the same to be deemed felony, by the severity of which penalty the prosecution of offenders hath not been so effectually put into execution; be it therefore enacted, by the authority aforesaid, that so much of the said act, which relates to the making the said offence felony, be repealed and made void." Adam Smith, when commenting in his "Wealth of Nations," on the laws relating to wool, reprobates severely the ill-judged compliance of our government, in yielding to the solicitation of our merchants, and allowing them to sway with iron rule the commerce of the world. "The severity of many of the laws which have been enacted for the security of the revenue, is very justly complained of, as imposing heavy penalties upon actions, which, antecedent to the statutes that declared them to be crimes, had always been understood to be innocent. But the cruelest of our revenue laws, I will venture to affirm, are mild and gentle in comparison to some of those which the clamour of our merchants and manufacturers has extorted from the legislature, for the support of their own absurd and oppressive monopolies. Like the laws of Draco, these laws may be said to be all written in blood." None of the laws, however, were effectual, not even the one passed in the middle of the seventeenth century, by which the offence was rendered capital. In spite of the vigilance of our government, a contraband trade in wool was long carried on between the inhabitants of the French and English coasts, especially those of Sussex, by a class of men called _Owlers_, from their only venturing abroad in the night, and who were tempted to despise the penalty, with an intrepidity astonishing to the rest of Europe, by the high prices that were sure to be afforded to them in the Gallic market. Again, during the first half of the eighteenth century, large quantities of wool were constantly smuggled from Ireland to France, by which our trading interests were considerably injured, and the plans for suppressing exportation shown to be worse than useless. (51.) _Prosperity of the Dutch Manufacturers._--The woollen manufactures of the Hollanders were first established in 1636, or 1637, by one hundred and forty English families, who went from Norfolk and Suffolk, to settle at Leyden, and Alkmaer. The Dutch manufacture of fine woollen cloths was, however, commenced much earlier, or about 1624, at which time they began to interfere with the English trade in the Netherlands; insomuch that, in the twenty-second year of the reign of James I., a certificate was given to the Parliament of 25,000 cloths having been made that year in Holland. Upon this the House of Commons resolved, 1st, "That the merchant adventurers setting impost upon our cloth, is a grievance, and ought not to be continued; and that all other merchants promiscuously, as well as that company, may transport everywhere northern and western kersies, and new draperies." 2dly. "That other merchants, besides the Merchant Adventurers' Company, may freely trade with dyed and dressed cloths, and all sorts of coloured cloths, into Germany and the Low Countries." Much annoyance appears to have resulted to this island, from the progress which the manufacturers in Holland still continued to make, and some curious speculations were of course formed in the minds of the ingenious. In 1651, a scheme was laid before the English commonwealth, for obtaining from the court of Spain an exclusive right to purchase _all_ the Spanish wool; or, in other words, to ruin the Holland market, by stopping the supplies. The projector observed, "That this proposed preemption would totally dissolve the woollen manufacture of Holland, which, by means of that wool (Spanish), hath of late years mightily increased, to the destruction of the vent of all fine cloths, of English manufacture, in Holland, France, and the east country; and hath drawn from us considerable numbers of weavers, dyers, and cloth workers, now settled at Leyden, and other towns in Holland, by whose help they have very much improved their skill in cloth, and have made in that one province (one year with another) 24,000 or 26,000 cloths yearly. That the Hollanders have of late years bought and exported from Biscay, four-fifth parts at least of all their wools, and have sold there proportionally of their own country stuffs." This was certainly a novel method of accomplishing an end by a sweeping monopoly; but the theory was too fine-spun ever to be reducible to practice. (52.) _Fluctuating State of the Trade between 1635 and 1693._--By the great act of tonnage and poundage, passed in 1660, on the restoration of Charles II., taxes were imposed, among other things, on the exportation of woollen manufactures, and it was not till the reign of William, that the wretched policy of such regulations was discovered, and a law was passed in 1700, by which the duties on woollens were abolished, because in the words of the act (ll & 12 William III. chap. 20), "the wealth and prosperity of the kingdom doth, in a great measure, depend on the improvement of its woollen manufactures, and the profitable trade carried on by the exportation thereof." In the time of Charles II., an act was passed for the erection of manufactories (Par. I, Sess. I, Cap. 40), by which it is enacted, that no native or stranger is to export wool nor skins with wool upon them, until made into work, or put to the best advantage, under the pain of first value thereof, half to the king, and half to the informer. It is also, in this act, ordered, "that none forestall the mercat of wooll, nor keep up the same to a dearth, under the pain against regrators and forestallers, and that for eschewing the deceit of putting stones, or the like stuffs therein, no wooll be wrapt up in the fleece, under the pain of confiscation, half to the king, and half to the discoverer and pursuer, declaring always that the Exchequer may licence the export of wool and skins, as they shall see cause." The French refugees, in 1635, brought money and talent into England, and contributed greatly to the erection of manufactories for _slight_ stuffs, and other French fabrics, never before made in England. The former law for burying in woollen not being well observed, it was repealed by an Act of Parliament, in the thirtieth year of that king (cap. 3.), which enacted a register to be kept in every parish, by the incumbent or his substitute, that every thing about the corpse of the deceased was made of sheep's wool, of which an affidavit was to be made by the relation of the deceased, and lodged with the incumbent, under the penalty of £5, a moiety of which went to the poor of the parish; the rest to the informer. But this was a sorry check, as vanity was so predominant among the rich, that they paid the penalty rather than want the pleasure of adorning their departed relatives with lace and linen. In 1667, France supplanted England in many foreign markets, owing to the care that Colbert at that time took to bring the French woollens to perfection. The English immediately turned their attention to other manufactures, in which, as in that of paper, they quickly excelled, and thus compelled the French to abandon markets, in which they had long remained without a rival. In 1698, a problem was started concerning the manufactures of the country--whether or not a general linen manufacture would prove beneficial to England? As London at this time abounded with new projects and schemes, all promising as usual a hoard of wealth, the question caused much excitement. It was at last determined that a novelty of this kind would lead to the sowing of a great quantity of flax in England, and the neglect of the woollen manufacture, which would follow, might probably lower the price of land; for, as they said at the time, "it requires about twenty acres of land to breed wool, for setting on work the same number of hands which one acre of flax would employ; and yet, in the end, the woollen manufacture will be found to employ by far the greatest number of hands, and yield the most profit to the public, as well as to the manufacturers." (53.) _Irish Manufactures discouraged._--In the same year (1698), the English house of Peers addressed King William with the view of inducing him to discourage the woollen manufactures of Ireland, which, in spite of many restrictions, still continued to cause much vexation to the monopolizers of England. The address ran thus:--"The growing manufacture of cloth in Ireland, both by the cheapness of all sorts of the necessaries of life,[7] and _the goodness of materials for making all manner of cloth_, doth invite his subjects of England, with their families and servants, to leave their habitation to settle there, to the increase of the woollen manufacture in Ireland, which makes his loyal subjects in this kingdom very apprehensive, that the further growth of it may greatly prejudice the said manufacture here; and praying, that his Majesty would be pleased, in the most public and effectual way that may be, to declare to all his subjects of Ireland, that the growth and increase of the woollen manufacture there, hath long, and will ever be, looked upon with great jealousy by all his subjects of this kingdom." A similar address was presented by the Commons, and this most liberal and enlightened monarch was pleased to answer, "_Gentlemen, I will do all that in me lies to discourage the woollen manufacture of Ireland._" This was certainly altogether a strange proceeding, especially when viewed in conjunction with the cruel prohibitions of former periods.[8] Their foreign trade is said by some to have been much diminished by this coolness; but much of the poignancy and crushing animosity of the request are lost when we consider that encouragement was at the same time given by England to the making of Irish linen, his Majesty being desired in the same address, to forward that manufacture, pursuant to the dictates of an act passed in 1696. Nay, some are of opinion that these measures resulted from the soundest views of the relative situations of the countries, and that the prudent tenor of English enactments was never better exhibited, than in the discouragement of the woollen and encouragement of the linen manufactures of Ireland. [7] The people of Ireland produced worsted and woollen yarn at a cheaper rate than we could, owing to their poor being able to work on lower terms than those of England. This was owing to the rent of land being less in Ireland than in England. [8] By the 18th of Charles II. the importation from Ireland into England of great cattle, sheep, swine, beef, pork and bacon, and shortly after of mutton, lamb, butter, and cheese, was declared a common nuisance, and forbidden on pain of forfeiture. Thus, the principal resource of a poor country in the neighbourhood of a rich one, was unfeelingly denied to it, till the reign of George III., when the hated edict was repealed. (54.) _British Trade in 1699._--In 1699 there were 12,000,000 sheep and lambs in Britain, and the yearly increase was supposed to be about 3,600,000. The value of each sheep, besides the skin, was 7s. 4d. The stock was valued at £4,400,000. The value of the wool yearly shorn, at 3s. 4d. per fleece, came to about £2,000,000. The woollens manufactured in Britain amounted in value to £5,000,000 per annum, while our yearly exports of the same were valued at £2,000,000. Many were at that time afraid of the sinking of the woollen manufacture, because the accounts of the fine draperies exported were larger than usual; but, says an anonymous essayist of the period, "such do not contemplate, that, though the old may be lessened, what is commonly called the new draperies have increased, consisting in bays, serges, and stuffs. So that upon the whole, infinitely more of the material of wool has of late years been wrought up for foreign use, than in former times; and herein our merchants have been only forced to follow the modes and humours of those people with whom they deal, and the course they have pursued has hitherto not been detrimental to the public." * * * "'Twere better, indeed, that the call from abroad were only for the fine draperies, because then we should be in a manner without a rival; no country, but England, and Ireland, having a sward or turf that will rear sheep, producing the wool of which most of our draperies are made. 'Tis true the wool of Spain is fine above all others; but 'tis the wear only of the richer sort, and of Spanish cloths not above nine thousand pieces are sent abroad, one year with another." (55.) _British Woollens rivalled by those of Sweden._--Before the peace of Utrecht in 1713, we had no rival in the woollen trade but the Dutch, over whom we had many natural advantages, such as situation, goodness of our ports, and excellence of the principal constituents of the manufacture. They were obliged to furnish themselves with the materials at second-hand. When the trade in woollens was properly set a-foot in England, during the long and happy reign of Elizabeth, the interest of money was pretty much the same in both countries; but the Dutch were engaged in a hazardous and bloody war, and in establishing their Commonwealth, and East India trade; and, therefore, had not much time to think of improving any manufacture. Owing to these circumstances, we came into possession of all the principal marts for woollens, both in Asia and Europe, and retained them till the beginning of the war with France and Spain; we then prohibited trade with both these countries. About the year 1720, our exportations to Sweden, of cloth, stuffs, and other woollen manufactures, amounted to £50,000. The Swedes, however, though situated in a severe climate, tried experiments with English sheep, and with so great success, that, in 1765, they could boast of wool little inferior to that of England. They then erected manufactories, and we were compelled to relinquish a market, which we had long held to our profit and advantage. (56.) _Regulations from 1740 to 1742._--In the 12th year of King George II. it was enacted by a statute (cap. 21), "That whereas the taking off the duties upon woollen or bay yarn imported from Ireland, may be a means to prevent the exportation of wool, and of woollen manufactures, from Ireland to foreign parts, and may also be of use to the manufacturers of Great Britain, that from the first of May, 1740, the same shall be no longer payable; excepting only the duties upon worsted yarn of two or more threads twisted or thrown, or on crewel imported from Ireland." At this time more than 1,500,000 persons were employed on woollen articles, and were supposed to earn, one with another, sixpence a-day for 313 working days, amounting in all to £11,737,500 yearly. In 1742, the English poor suffered much from the contempt with which home manufactures were regarded by the nobility, in consequence of which the latter were speedily the losers. The importation of woollen broad-cloth, of the manufacture of France, into ports of the Levant, on behalf of British subjects, being not only prejudicial by discouraging the woollen manufactures of Britain, but likewise a means of affording relief to an enemy, and discoveries having been made of British subjects fraudulently shipping from Leghorn quantities of French woollen goods for Turkey, under the denomination of British, to the great detriment of English woollens; an act was passed in the 23d year of King George II. by which provision was made against these and other fraudulent practices. (57.) _Improvements in the manufacturing of Woollens._--At the commencement of the reign of George III. the woollen manufactures advanced with a rapidity almost unparalleled in modern times as regards other branches of trade. Till about the year 1770 most of the processes were conducted by hand. The wool was spun by various persons at scattered residences, the manufacturers receiving the yarn periodically from the numerous spinners. This arrangement caused much loss of time, and gave rise to frequent squabbles between the masters and their workmen. In fact, all the operations were tardy in the extreme. But at this period, the spirit of public and private inquiry was happily directed to our deficiencies in the machinery of manufactures. Inventions of great beauty and ingenuity were slowly brought forward to facilitate our commercial acquirements. Human labour has thus been lightened and abridged,--a greater number of hands have been profitably employed, and an excellent lesson afforded to the lovers of use and wont, which will not speedily be forgotten. By these improved means the cloth is possessed of greater evenness, less injury is sustained in the dressing and shearing, and greater beauty is imparted to its appearance. A great advantage is also obtained by the master knowing the exact duration of each process, so that he can time his goods for any hour, or market, and is enabled to circulate his capital with a degree of certainty, and despatch, formerly looked upon as quite impossible. A few years ago the late Sir John Throckmorton sat down to dinner, dressed in a coat, the wool of which, on the same morning, was on the sheep's back. The animals were sheared, the wool washed, carded, spun, and woven; the cloth was scoured, fulled, sheared, dyed and dressed, and then made into a coat. All these complex operations were gone through without hurry, and without deducting from the work any part of the time usually devoted to similar fabrics. So great was the advantage derived from this application of machinery, that in the year 1800 the produce was three times larger than in the year 1739, though the number of persons employed was the same in the one year as in the other. (58.) _Duty imposed on imported Wool._--For three centuries a free importation of foreign wool was permitted by our government, and it was not till 1803 that any one thought of laying a duty upon it. This duty was at first comparatively light, amounting only to a halfpenny a-pound, and it continued under a penny a-pound, till 1819, when Mr Vansittart raised it to six-pence. The impolicy of this measure is evident, when we consider, that we were losing our ascendancy in this manufacture, that our export of woollen goods had been declining for three years previous to 1819, and that the competition was becoming every moment more severe. This tax was much dreaded by our merchants, who, clearly perceiving the state of matters, warned Mr Vansittart, by representing to him, in the strongest terms, the fatal influence it would have upon our trade. Its effects are best exhibited by its disastrous influence on the foreign trade in woollens, which fell off about a fourth in value, almost immediately after the imposition. The following table places this in the clearest point of view:-- _Declared value of woollens exported._ 1816, £9,387,455 1817, 7,847,280 1818, 7,177,335 1819, 8,145,327 1820, (_duty increased_) 5,989,622 1821, (_ditto_) 5,587,758 1822, (_ditto_) 6,465,988 1823, (_ditto_) 6,490,454 1824, (_ditto_) 5,635,776 1825, (_ditto_) 6,045,240 The opinions of our merchants ought to have formed the best of all beacons in pointing the course to be pursued by Mr Vansittart; but, even if they had been silent on the subject, the evidence of Mr Bainbridge, before the Committee of the House of Commons, appointed in 1820, to inquire into the state of the foreign trade of the country, might have informed him of the true position of the wool trade, and directed him in so hazardous an undertaking. When Mr B. was asked whether he thought that an increase in the means of paying for our manufactures would produce an increased consumption of them in Russia, Sweden, and Prussia, he replied:--"I believe the woollen manufactures in Prussia are in such a state as to be able to compete with us completely; I speak of it particularly, because we are in the habit of having transactions with the United States of America; and I find that a very considerable proportion of fine woollens, and stuffs, are absolutely shipped from the Netherlands, and from ports contiguous, part of which I understand to come from the interior of Germany, and from Saxony in particular; so that a portion of the trade, which we have been in the habit of transacting with the United States, is finding its way from the north of Europe. I, therefore, conceive, that their manufactures are competing with the manufactures of this country, and, consequently, they would not come to us to receive a supply of those articles which they can purchase from their own manufacturers at home." In 1825, at the earnest and obviously well-founded representations of the manufacturers, Mr Huskisson reverted to the old system: and it was then wisely enacted, that all foreign wool imported for home consumption, of the value of 1s. a-pound and upwards, should pay a duty of 1d. a-pound, but when the value of foreign wool was under 1s., the duty was reduced to a halfpenny per pound. A boon was at the same time conferred upon the agriculturists, by the introduction of a new system with respect to the exportation of British wool, the growers of which were allowed, for the first time, to send it to foreign markets, on payment of a penny per pound. (59.) _Removal of the Restrictions on Foreign Wool._--The importation of wool was, by these reductions, speedily increased, and with it the consumption of our woollens by foreign nations. The wool of our own gradually augmented flocks being inadequate to the demand, and that of Spain having been absorbed by our manufactories, large quantities were imported from Prussia, Saxony, and many parts of the continent of Europe, from which, antecedent to this run, little had been drawn. The average annual import of wool during 1765-66-67 was 4,241,364 pounds--the average annual export of woollens during the same period was £4,630,384; while the average annual import of wool for the years 1822-23-24 was 18,884,876 pounds, and the average annual export of woollens during the same time, amounted to £6,200,548, showing that the importation of foreign wool was absolutely necessary for the well-being of our manufactures. The importation of forty-four millions of pounds weight, in the year ending 5th January, 1826, must be ascribed as much to the spirit of over-trading, which then affected every branch of industry, as to the reduction of the duty; but the large importations during 1827, afforded an additional proof of the necessity of foreign wool to the successful formation of a most important article of commerce. Mr Gott of Leeds, in his evidence before the Lords' Committee, on being asked if he could carry on to the same extent as at present, if he manufactured his cloth of British wool, replied, that, in certain descriptions of cloth, "_he could not make an article that would be merchantable at all for the foreign market, or even for the home market, except of foreign wool_." He then proceeds to state, that though the competition is very strong in every department of the manufacture, yet that foreigners are decidedly superior to us in some description of low cloths. The following question was then put, and plainly and emphatically answered:--"Speaking of the finer cloths, is the competition such as to render an additional duty on the importation of foreign wool likely to injure the export trade? _I have no doubt, speaking on my oath, that it would be fatal to the foreign cloth trade of the country. I would further say, that it would be equally injurious to coarse manufactures of all kinds made of English wool._ The competition now with foreigners is as nearly balanced as possible, and the disturbing operation of attacks of that description would necessarily enable the foreigner to buy his wool cheaper than we should do it in this country; the result would be, that foreigners would, by such a premium, be enabled to extend their manufactures to the exclusion of British manufactures of all descriptions." In another part of his evidence Mr Gott says, "If two pieces of cloth at 10s. a-yard were put before a customer, one made of British wool, the other of foreign wool; one would be sold, and the other would remain on hand; I could not execute an order with it. If any person sent to me for cloth at 7s. or 8s. a-yard, and if it were made of English wool it would be sent back to me, and I must resort to foreign wool, or foreign mixed with British, to execute that order." In fine, the British wool could not be got rid of without a copious importation of foreign wool to aid the manufacturer in his disposal of it, as fine cloths are so much better and more durable in their wear than coarse cloths, that they are coming more and more into demand, to the almost total exclusion of the latter. Moreover, the good old custom of making home-spun cloth is reviving among our farmers, and as it is excellently suited for work-day wear, though necessarily of an inferior gloss, coarse cloths will, to a considerable extent, cease to be the concern of our manufacturers. The only cloth, indeed, which the bulk of the people will require, will be a finer material to form the garb for Sunday and holiday recreation. (60.) _Countries from which we derive our Wool._--Our markets are supplied with foreign wool principally from the following places:--Australia, Van Dieman's Land, Cape of Good Hope, Peru, Germany, Spain, and Russia. The Tasmanian fleeces are preferred to the Australian, and fetch, in general, higher prices, owing to their being fit for combing, while the latter, though making considerable advances in fineness, are still of short staple. Both are favourites with our manufacturers, from their being firm in the pile, a quality resulting from the constant good health of the animal in those countries. The German wool takes precedence of the Spanish, and has done so since 1819 or 1820. The King of Spain, about the year 1800, presented the Elector of Saxony with a small merino flock, and, from that period, our importations from Spain have diminished, as those from Germany have increased. From the period of its first introduction into Germany, till 1814, when peace once more fell to the lot of Europe, these sheep were gradually spread over the kingdom of Saxony, and when, by the events of 1815, the continental trade was thrown completely open, the Saxon dealers, perceiving the value of this new commercial article, commenced a regular trade in it with England. By this new supply, the Spanish wool, as here shown, was slowly beaten from its hold on the British manufacturers. _Importations into England of Wool from Spain and Germany, at three separate periods._ 1800. 1814. 1827. Germany, 421,850 lbs. 3,595,146 lbs. 22,007,198 lbs. Spain and Portugal, 7,794,758 lbs. 9,234,991 lbs. 4,349,643 lbs. At these periods the ports of these countries were open to British merchandize, so that we have here a convincing proof, that the wool growers of Spain do not owe their losses, as supposed by some, to the hostile incursions of the French, but to the friendly competition of a neighbouring state. Wool, both of coarse and fine quality, is daily becoming a more and more important export from the Black Sea, owing to the great range of pasturage in Southern Russia. The ordinary wools are very coarse, and the fleeces dirty and full of grass seeds. Though not subject to export duty, it is not supposed that it will ever turn out a lucrative article for the British manufacturer. (61.) _Wool Trade from 1800 to 1830._--The latest tabular accounts on which much reliance can be placed, are to be found in _M'Culloch's Commercial Dictionary_, but of these I am compelled to offer only an abridgment, and in general nothing but the sum total of his detailed statements. The number of short-woolled sheep in England in 1800 was 14,854,299; the number of long-woolled sheep in England in the same year was 4,153,308. The quantity of British wool in 1800 amounted to 325,269 packs; while in 1808 it had increased to 414,502 packs. The sheep and lambs' wool imported into Great Britain from foreign parts in 1810 was 10,914,137 lbs.; in 1815, 13,640,375 lbs.; in 1820, 9,789,020 lbs.; in 1825, 43,795,281 lbs.; in 1830, 32,313,059 lbs. The increase here observable in 1825 is accounted for above in our notice of the state of the taxes before and at that period. The exports of British sheep and lambs' wool in 1830 amounted to 2,951,100 lbs.; those of woollen and worsted yarn to 1,108,023 lbs. By far the larger proportion of these exports was intended for France and the Netherlands. The number of persons employed in the manufacture is estimated at from 480,000 to 500,000, and their wages at £9,600,000. The value of the raw material is calculated at £6,000,000; the total value of the manufactured articles at £18,000,000 (as wool is supposed in general to be trebled in value by passing through the hands of the manufacturer); and the interest on capital, sum to replace wear and tear, and manufacturers' profits at £2,400,000. (62.) _Wool Trade in 1832 and 1835._--"The total number of pounds of sheep and lambs' wool imported into the United Kingdom, in 1832, was--foreign, 28,128,973; produce of the Isle of Man, 13,516; quantity retained for home consumption, charged 1d. per lb. duty, 23,619,901; ditto 1/2d., 1,571,328; ditto 6d. (red wool), 1,130; duty free (produce of British possessions), 2,473,991; total retained for home consumption, 27,666,350; total quantity re-exported, 555,014. Quantity of foreign wool warehoused under bond, 5th January, 1833, 3,165,651. The total quantity of British wool and woollen yarn exported from the United Kingdom in 1832 was, of the former, 4,199,825 lb.; of the latter, 2,204,464 lb. The exportation of British woollen manufactures in 1832 was as follows:--Cloths of all sorts, 396,661 pieces; napped countings, doffels, &c., 23,453 pieces; kerseymeres, 40,984 pieces; baizes, 34,874 pieces; stuffs, woollen or worsted, 1,800,714 pieces; flannel, 2,304,750 yards; blankets and blanketing, 1,681,840 yards; carpets and carpeting, 690,042 yards; woollens mixed with cotton, 1,334,072 yards; stockings, woollen or worsted, 152,810 dozen pairs. Sundries, viz., hosiery, rugs, coverlids, tapes, and smallwares, £55,443 1s. 8d. value. Declared value of British woollen manufactures exported, £5,244,478 10s. 10d."[9] [9] Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. 24. "The total quantity of wool imported into the United Kingdom, in the year 1835, was by weight 42,208,949 pounds, which is rather more than 4,000,000 pounds under the importation of 1834; but on the 5th January, 1835, 6,494,266 pounds remained warehoused under bond; whereas, on the 5th January, 1836, there were no more than 2,846,014 pounds so locked up. This is an important difference of stock on hand, which, no doubt, has tended, and will tend, to keep up the price of the article. The country from which we import the greatest quantity of wool is Germany. In 1835, the amount was nearly 24,000,000 pounds weight. From Russia, to which our exports of manufactured woollens is comparatively small, we imported upwards of 4,000,000 pounds; from New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land, taken together, about 209,000 pounds weight more than from Russia. The next largest importations are from Spain, Turkey, and Italy, which, taken together, supply us with nearly 4,000,000 pounds. Portugal furnishes 683,000 pounds; Holland, 201,000 pounds; and Belgium, 231,000 pounds. Of the foreign wool which we have imported, we re-exported in its unmanufactured state 4,101,700 pounds during 1835. And of the total quantity imported in 1835, we retained for manufacture 41,718,514 pounds. This is nearly 1,000,000 pounds more than was taken up by the manufacturers in the preceding year. "The whole amount of British wool _exported_ in 1835, was 4,642,604 pounds, and of this 3,000,000 pounds were sent to Belgium, and 1,500,000 pounds to France. "In 1835, the 'declared value' (which, be it observed, is a real thing, and very different from the 'official value,' which is of no use except as an indication of quantity)--the total declared value was £6,840,511; and of this amount upwards of £2,600,000 worth of woollen goods went to the United States alone. Next after the United States in the scale of our customers for woollens comes the East Indies and China. To these we send the value of upwards of £800,000; to our North American colonies the value of £418,000; and to the West Indies, £114,200 worth. "In Europe, our best customer is Germany, which, in 1835, took £631,000 worth. Besides the more fully manufactured goods, Germany took from us, in the same year, 1,191,000 pounds weight of woollen yarn. Of European customers, next after Germany come Portugal, which took, in 1835, to the amount of £368,000; Holland, £245,629; Italy, £243,582; and Belgium, £123,727. Russia took only £93,025 worth of woollen goods. The South American States begin to be good customers; Brazil took, in 1835, £337,788 worth, and Mexico and other States, £356,700 worth. "Looking at the aggregate, the export of 1835 was fully a million sterling in value above that of 1834; but as the price was higher in 1835, this is no certain guide to the proportion of increase in _quantity_. In the year 1835, we exported to France only £68,000 worth of woollen manufactures. "We have already stated the _exports_ of woollen goods to the South American States in 1835; the _import_ of unmanufactured wool from these States in the same year was £2,176,000 pounds; from France it was 104,000 pounds. "We have only to add, as fiscal information connected with the foregoing analysis, that of the wool imported in 1835, 26,877,780 pounds paid to the revenue a duty of a penny per pound; 10,198,526 pounds paid one halfpenny per pound; and 6,397 pounds of 'red wool' paid sixpence per pound. "The wool imported from British possessions does not pay duty. Of that there were, in 1835, 4,635,811 pounds imported." CHAPTER IV. IMPROVEMENT OF THE BREEDS. (63.) This subject requires for its due consideration some slight attainments in anatomy and physiology, but as such attainments, slight though they may be, are as rarely met with as required among the bulk of mankind, so the want of them may be the less regretted, seeing it is possible to render even the intricacies of the study plain and simple, by an appeal to facts of every-day occurrence; which, having attracted the notice of the most unthinking, will serve as hooks on which I shall try to hang the better part of an interesting inquiry. (64.) _Early Improvers of Sheep._--There cannot be a more certain sign of the rapid advances of a people in civilization and prosperity, than increasing attention to the improvement of live-stock. It tells of a population limited in regard to soil, and making every effort to remedy the want, by an economical doubling of the return for the usual outlay: for, while a tribe wanders at large, remaining at a particular place only so long as provender holds out, and, striking the tent, departs for some far-off field, so long will their flocks be suffered to roam neglected, and flourish or decay, as chance directs. From the time of Jacob, the possibility of determining the nature of the offspring, by impressions on the parents, has been apparent to all; and the best means of perpetuating a good quality, or removing a bad one, have continued from time to time, to occupy the attention of patriotic individuals. As much appears to have been known about sheep two thousand years ago as at present, so true is it, that nothing new is to be met with; yet, that does not rob our modern improvers of their merits, for though they deserve little as inventors, they are to be admired for that strength of mind, and determined perseverance, which enabled them to rouse their fellows from their lethargy, and compel them to become in turn, benefactors of their country, and themselves. The signs of a good ram are concisely laid down by Varro, by Virgil in his third Georgic, and by Columella; and, though the Spanish nobility were looked upon with wonder, (till eclipsed by our own extravagance,) in giving two hundred ducats, or fifty pounds for a ram; yet Strabo assures us, that in his day (under Tiberius), they gave more than three times that sum for one of the breed of the Coraxi, a Pontic nation, believed to have the finest fleece in the world. The greatest recorded improvers of the sheep in ancient times were Lucius Columella, and his uncle Marcus Columella, Spaniards of distinction, who removed to Rome in the reign of Tiberius, and made agriculture the study and business of their lives. The former commenced his celebrated treatise on husbandry during the reigns of Tiberius, and Caligula, and appears to have finished it A.D. 55. It is a work which may be read with advantage even at present, as it abounds with much that is valuable, and is accessible to all through its English translation.[10] [10] I allude to this, as the author of the work on Sheep, published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, at page 123 of that book, laments the want of an English translation of Columella. An excellent quarto translation of his twelve books on Husbandry, and one on Trees, was published at London, in 1745. (65.) _Modern Breeders._--It is only within a very recent period, that the mode of improving live-stock by skilful breeding, has been properly attended to. The perfection of breeding formerly, was to have cows in calf once a-year, and rear calves on as little milk as possible; and, even yet, there are only a scattered few who devote to it the attention it requires. The first, in modern times, who arrived at any thing like eminence in this department, was Joseph Allom, of Clifton, who raised himself by dint of industry, from a ploughboy, and for a long time contrived to keep his methods secret, being supposed by many to have bought his ewes in Lincolnshire, at the very time he was constantly bringing them from the Melton quarter of Leicestershire. Though possessing talent, he does not appear to have had education enough to avail himself of it, and accordingly never gained the extensive popularity which fell to the lot of his successors. As the introducers of new and important plans of management in agriculture, are always rewarded by large profits, and the gratitude of their countrymen, so none were ever more generously dealt with in either respect, than Mr Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, and Mr Ellman, of Glynde. The former, who may be said to have created a _variety_, considered that a tendency to acquire fat was the first quality to be looked to in an animal destined for the food of man; and on this, with him a fundamental principle, was based the whole of his proceedings. Different opinions will of course be held on the merits of the theory on which he acted but all must acknowledge, that we are indebted to his skill and experience, for the exertions which have been subsequently made to improve the qualities of live-stock, in every district of the kingdom. It was by his example, in fact, that the farmers all over the country were stimulated to exertion, and be the system bad or good, it ought to have our veneration, seeing that it was the commencement of a new and most important agricultural era. John Ellman derives his well-earned fame, from the zealous manner in which he improved the Southdown sheep, and spread them through the empire. Till he directed his attention to the subject, every thing connected with the management of the flock was left to chance, or at least to the guidance of farm-servants, with whom, of course, it could not be a matter of interest to select, or _sort_, suitable animals for the continuance of the race. He speedily, however, corrected this mismanagement, and aided by the introduction of turnip-feeding, in no long time, and without any admixture of foreign blood, materially improved the breed. About seventy years ago, improvements also commenced in Scotland. Till then, in many parishes, no farmer could keep sheep through the winter, and no place was reckoned so fatal to these animals as the undrained, and unsheltered parish of Eskdale-Muir, in Dumfriesshire. At last one William Bryden rented the farm of Aberlosk, and soon, by the _original_ plan of draining, and building stone enclosures, made it, to use the words of his able biographer, Mr Scot of Selkirkshire, "like the land of Goshen, good for cattle which it is to this day." (66.) _Varieties among Animals._--All organized matter is subject to variety. It may be doubted whether, since the creation of the world, there have ever occurred, either at the same, or at separate periods, two individuals in every respect perfectly alike. A plant, or an animal, may resemble the rest of its species in chemical constitution, and in the number and situation of its organs, but is sure to differ from all in size, general configuration, and disposition of its parts: These shades of difference, endless though they are, may be referred to two leading causes--climate and descent; the former embracing deviations induced by temperature and resources of subsistence; the latter including changes occasioned by management, modes of breeding, and influence of sex. (67.) _Varieties induced by Temperature._--The influence of temperature extends chiefly to the _colour_ and _development_ of animals. In cold regions the skin of the human race is fair, and the person squat and stunted, but as we approach the equator, the hue becomes deeper and deeper, till it is jetty black, while at the same time, the stature attains nearer and nearer to the tallest proportions to which mankind seem naturally entitled. The animals of the arctic regions are, for the greater part of the year, covered with a clothing of the purest white, which is, however, in many of them, abandoned for one of deeper tints as the solar heat begins to gain the ascendant. But how very different do we not find the colours of intertropical animals. There vivid tints, and an almost metallic lustre, pervade animated beings, from the coral in its submarine abode, to the gallinaceous birds, the coxcombs of the forest. In this, as in every other department of nature, the most beautiful harmony, or, in other words, a union of what is pleasing to the eye, and suited for the comfort of the creature, every where prevails. The colour of an animal envelope is never at variance with the tints of surrounding objects. A painter, for example, would not place a flower or animal of brilliant hue amidst the monotonous aspect of an arctic landscape; neither would he picture the faintly-tinted beings of a polar latitude, as surrounded by the warm and flashy colouring characteristic of an oriental climate. As temperature, then, determines in a marked degree the colour and dimensions of every animal, such variations render the division of living beings into races and varieties, a matter of necessity. Thus all human beings belong only to one species, which may, however, be divided into five races, and these again into an infinity of varieties. The differences between a race and a variety are, that the latter is a subdivision of the former, and that in the former the modifications are more profound, the changes not being confined to the surface, but extending to the frame-work of the body; whereas, to constitute a variety, nothing more is necessary than the superficial influence of heat and light on the skin, and its appendages the hairs. The Negro and the Abyssinian are precisely similar in colour, yet they are by no means of the same race, as their different features will distinctly prove; the Abyssinian approaching as much in cast of countenance to the European, as the negro does to the higher orders of the ape. The same may be noticed among sheep, but this is sufficient for the present. The changes induced by climate, result from the working of a power inherent in most animals and vegetables, by which they are suited within certain limits, for bearing up against removal from their ordinary localities, and assuming a different cast, as the place of their exile may differ in degree from that which they have left. This gradual adaptation to circumstances by an accommodating power is termed, in philosophical language, acclimation. (68.) _Adaptation of the Sheep to Climate._--No animal varies more than the sheep, and none so speedily adapts itself to climate; it would almost appear that nature, convinced of its great utility, had bestowed upon it a constitution so pliant, as to enable it to accommodate itself to any point in a wide scale of temperature; for though its natural situation as a wool-bearing animal, like that of man appears to be the wine countries, yet with him, it has spread to every quarter of the globe, becoming impressed at every change with some peculiarity, alterable only by a change of situation, and varying, we might almost affirm, with the weather; for, where the temperature is equable, there does the animal preserve unchanged an atmospheric stamp, and defies our efforts to alter the breed; while under a fluctuating sky we can model it at will, though in this case, continued exertions are required to secure them for any length of time in an undeviating course. (69.) _Changes produced by Climate._--The wonderful power of temperature in effecting changes upon animals, is well illustrated by the Portuguese, who, after a residence of three hundred years in India, are said to be at present almost as black as Caffres. Bishop Heber, speaking of India, says, "It is remarkable to observe how surely all these classes of men (whites--Persians, Greeks, Tartars, Turks, and Arabians), in a few generations, even without any inter-marriage with the Hindoos, assume the deep olive tint, little less dark than a negro, which seems natural to the climate." Buchanan also in his travels through the same country, alludes to a tribe of black Jews who have, in all probability, been settled in the district ever since the period of the captivity under Nebuchadnezzar, 3000 years ago, and who retain all the national peculiarities of their race, with the exception of their colour, which is now as dark as that of the surrounding tribes. These examples, however, it may be affirmed, are not to the point, as embracing theories in regard to peculiar changes in an animal different from the sheep, but such objections are perfectly groundless, as what will affect colour in mankind, will lead to changes even of a more wonderful nature in the sheep, seeing that it is abandoned more entirely to such an influence. (70.) _Temperature preferred by Sheep._--Sheep, though capable of thriving in a great variety of climates, seem to prefer such as are temperate, and in these only do they arrive at perfection. They are common on the Cordilleras at an elevation of from 3300 to 8200 feet, within which limits they propagate readily without any care; but the reverse is the case in hotter regions, it being difficult to rear lambs in the plains of Meta, and no sheep are to be met with from the river to the foot of the Cordilleras, though their skins, from being in demand for making parchment, sell as high as those of the ox. Sheep were at one time, according to Thunberg, the scarcest articles in Batavia, as their woolly coat rendered the heat of the climate quite insupportable; but this inconvenience was at last remedied by sending them, on their arrival from the Cape, further up the country, to the Blue Mountains, where the air is several degrees colder. The question then naturally occurs, if an elevation of temperature is, as in this instance, fatal to these animals, how do they happen to have spread over a vast tract of country in spite of such extremes? Simply for the reason, that when an animal is left to the exercise of its own free will, and the dominion of its instincts, it will not subject itself to the danger of an extreme in any thing. It will not traverse several hundred miles in a single season, and thus expose itself to sudden changes. The natural dispersion of all animals is gradual, so that their constitutions are enabled, from the slowness of the transition, to accommodate themselves, by an alteration in covering and habit, to surrounding circumstances, which would, were the variations abrupt, speedily destroy it. The reason why a race of animals occasionally thrives so well in a country to which it may be removed, appears to lie in its being suited, I may say, accidentally, by peculiar conformation, to the temperature to which it is transplanted. There are some happy climates where, introduce what animals you will, no matter how stunted they are, or how different the degree of warmth may be, their offspring will thrive, proving large and vigorous, and every way worthy of being placed at the head of its species. These are, however, cases where the transition is from an extreme of heat or cold to a temperate atmosphere. Witness what Mr Dawson, the manager of the Australian Agricultural Company, says in his private journal (quoted in _Cunningham's New South Wales_). "Both the climate and the soil appear by nature intended to produce fine wool, and fine animals too, _even from the worst beginnings_. The latter seems a paradox. The extensive range afforded to every animal keeps it in good condition, and, perhaps, the natural grasses may have more of good in them than their appearance indicates. However this may be, the climate clearly has a wonderful effect on the size of all animals, even upon man, who is universally tall here, though born of diminutive parents. From this I am led to believe, that the climate governs chiefly, and thus every breeding animal introduced here will attain a size not known in Europe." (71.) _Extent of the Alterations produced by Climate._--Changes occasioned by climate are always limited to the fleece, horns, and disposal of the fat, and never extend to those parts, on the permanence of which the animal depends for its station in the scale of being, as the feet, teeth, and digestive organs. In tropical countries we find the fleece approaching more to hair than wool, as in the sheep of Thibet, so celebrated for the silky nature of their coat. Burchell remarks, that the skins he brought from the Cape of Good Hope were often taken for those of an unknown quadruped, from the _furry_ nature of their wool, if such it can be called, and thinks it is owing as much to the pasture, which is well adapted for giving these animals a soft and useful _fur_, though not suited, like New South Wales, for the growth of the finest wool, and that the colony might turn this to great advantage. In cold regions the hairy covering is more developed and fully coarser, but always mingled with a proportion of hard rough wool. The influence of climate on portions of the fleece and skin is well illustrated by circumstances which have occurred in Galloway, even within the limits of our traditionary writings.[11] The native sheep of the Highlands of that district is supposed to have been a small, handsome, _white-faced_ breed; at least so thinks John MacLellan, who wrote an account of Galloway in 1650, from the wool being much praised, and eagerly bought up by merchants, which would not have been the case if taken from the _black-faced_ animal; yet how happens it that at present the native breed exists only in the lower parts of Kirkcudbrightshire, the high country exhibiting _black-faced_ sheep, which, after every trial, have been found best adapted to the climate, and pasture of the moors and Highlands; while Chalmers owns that it has not been ascertained when or whence this hardy breed were brought to their present locality? Why, it is tolerably plain, that though the _white-faced_ sheep might be placed there originally, yet they would speedily lose every trace of their origin, and become _black-faced_ when placed on a hilly country, and subjected to the slow but certain influence of peculiar food and climate. [11] Chalmers' Caledonia--Article, Galloway. Mr Culley imagines, that the dun-faced sheep were the earliest tenants of the Scottish hills, but so far as my researches extend, that supposition is entirely contradicted. Chalmers remarks, that the black-faced animals superseded the goats, which were at one time a source of subsistence to the farmers, and it is exceedingly probable, that as the old white-faced began to change their appearance, and became gradually able to withstand the rigours of a mountain fare, and winter under a dun skin, and short rough wool, so would they recommend themselves as the best of all stock to the hard-driven agriculturalist. (72.) _Increase of the Number of the Horns._--As much wonder is sure to be excited by the fact, that bony prominences are subjected with as great certainty to the modelling hand of climate as softer parts, I give the following from a recent work, entitled, "_Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society Delineated_," premising, however, that, in my opinion, temperature has a vast deal more to do with alterations in the horns than domestication or cultivation. "One of the most curious modifications produced by cultivation in the domesticated sheep consists in the augmentation of the number of its horns; two, three, or even four supplementary appendages of this description being occasionally produced in addition to the normal number. Under these circumstances the additional horns usually occupy the upper and fore part of the head, and are of a more slender shape, and take a more upright direction than the others, thus approaching in character to those of the goats, while the true horns retain more or less of the spiral curve that distinguishes those of the sheep. There exists a strong tendency to the propagation of this monstrosity, which is extremely frequent in the Asiatic races, but is also met with in a breed that is common in the north of Europe, and is said to have been originally derived from Iceland, and the Feroe Islands. In this case it is unconnected with any other anomaly, but in the flocks of the nomad hordes of Tartary, it is usually combined with an enlargement of the tail, and adjacent parts, by the deposition of fat, frequently to an enormous extent." (73.) _Causes of the various forms of the Horn._--Horns are seldom met with in the sheep of hot climates, occurring more frequently in cold and temperate regions; thus following closely the development of the other coverings, to which, as before stated (19), they are strictly analogous. The fleece consists of two portions--hair and wool, the one predominating more or less over the other, as the climate may direct. The form of the horns is always in unison with the character of the fleece: thus, if the animal is covered with hair, as in the goat, the horns will be straight; but if it is clothed with wool, as in the sheep, the horns will be curved. The same holds good in other animals. The reason of this appears to lie in the tendency which the hair or wool, constituting the horny sheath, has to model the form of the supporting bone. The fibre of hair is nearly straight; that of wool is, on the other hand, remarkable for the number of tufted curls, or small spiral ringlets, into which it naturally contracts; so that a Merino ram, for example, will never be found with rectilinear horns, nor a true goat with twisted ones. The truth of these remarks is borne out by observations on animals on whose heads more than two horns are occasionally met with. We always in such instances notice, that the additional horns are straight, thus indicating the presence of a considerable quantity of hair among the wool. The curve will be more decided, and the twists more numerous, in proportion as the fibre comes nearer and nearer to a perfect wool--evidence of which we have in the beautifully-tufted and spiral horns of the Merino ram, which are as opposite in this respect to those of the goat, as is its fleece to the hairy coat of the latter. From these considerations I am led to believe, that the form of the horn, when present, is an excellent guide to the nature and quality of the other coverings, and an index to every gradation which can possibly occur between wool and hair. (74.) _The proper Temperature required for Sheep._--Regular warmth is absolutely necessary for the production of a good animal and a fine fleece, and is only to be obtained by attending to the draining and clearing of land, so as to dissipate moisture, and allow currents of air to play freely across the country.[12] An atmosphere which holds suspended a large quantity of watery vapour, is always extremely chilling to an animal body. This is accounted for by the well-known fact, that a moist air, being a better conductor of caloric than a dry one, robs an animal more quickly of heat. Thus, in passing from the dry air of the hills into the vapour of the valleys in a winter morning, we feel as if the transition had been from a temperate to an icy region. Hence one of the reasons why sheep thrive best in a rather elevated situation. Moist air, however, is exceedingly oppressive in hot weather, because evaporation, from the surface of the body, is to a great extent diminished; and it is only by the perspiration being allowed to escape rapidly, and to convey away the heated particles, that we can manage to be in any degree comfortable during the heat of summer. This free evaporation we endeavour in every way to obtain, and often in a manner that ignorant people would consider as the reverse of sensible. It is well known that draughts of _cold liquids_ are very far from answering the purpose of lowering our temperature when above a pleasant standard; but we find that a basin _of hot soup, or tea_, will speedily bring about the desired end, by producing a copious determination of fluid to the skin. Yet, if the air contained no moisture, we should experience sensations just as unpleasant as those already mentioned; for evaporation from our bodies would proceed at such a rate, that we would soon be parched. It is to counteract this tendency of dry air that the Americans are in the habit of placing a small vessel of water on their stoves, by which contrivance a quantity of vapour is diffused through the apartment, sufficient to balance the loss from the arid warmth of the fire. [12] It is to secure equality of temperature that the Spanish flocks are twice in the year exposed to the hazard of an overland journey of 400 miles, that they may pass the summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter in the southern plains. That an equable temperature is only to be obtained by draining and clearing a marshy and wooded country, is sufficiently authenticated. In the thickly wooded and swampy territories of Guiana, rain falls continually during nearly eight months of the year; and the cold is so intense, that fires are necessary in the houses throughout the night. But in Cayenne and its neighbourhood, which were cleared of wood about one hundred and fifty years ago, the increase of temperature is now so great, that during the night the people are annoyed by the warmth, and the rains are neither so frequent nor so heavy as in the rest of the country. Paris and Quebec are nearly under the same latitude; yet the air of the latter is much colder than that of the former, evidently from its being surrounded by forests so dense and umbrageous, that sun and wind are alike denied access to the earth. The difference between a cleared and an uncleared country, in regard to wool, is well illustrated, by contrasting North America, its heavy woods and stagnant atmosphere, with the thinly timbered surface and constantly renovated air of New South Wales. It is only within the last few years that Canada has been enabled to compete with Britain in the article of wool, and that the sheep, which were of the coarsest kind, have been so improved as to do away with the prejudices against their mutton. Australia, on the other hand, has, from its earliest colonization, figured as a sheep-rearing country of the first importance; and nothing has conduced so much to this as its freedom from closely planted trees, by the absence of which the settler is enabled at once to stock his farm with the best of sheep. Nature, in fact, could never have intended sheep to pasture in a wooded country, as is clearly evinced by their coat, to which every thing in the shape of bush or tree is in the highest degree inimical. (75.) _Geographical limits of the Sheep._--Every plant and animal has certain geographical limits, out of which it cannot exist. With the exception of man and the dog, no animal has a wider range than the sheep, extending as it does from Iceland almost to the equator, and from a few degrees south of that to the polar extremity of South America. But though existing under so great a variety of exposures, it must not be inferred that it can come to perfection in them all. On the contrary, it rather delights in the temperate zones, and can evidently only be raised to its highest point of excellence in the countries of the vine. The western parts of continents produce better sheep than the eastern, and the southern hemisphere better than the northern; as in the former situations the temperature is more nearly equable than in the latter. The same may be said of maritime districts, as compared with such as are inland. Temperature is affected in the same way by elevation as by northern or southern position--the mean heat diminishing in the same ratio when ascending a mountain, as in receding from the equator. On this account, Humboldt compared the earth to two mountains with their bases at the equator, and their summits at the poles. The mean temperature, when resulting from the height of the place above the level of the sea, is at the same time influenced by the nature of the aspect, as we notice in the Alps, where the Glacier exists on the northern side, at the same elevation at which the vineyard yields a perfect fruit upon the southern. (76.) _Particular forms induced by certain limits._--The character which a predominance of heat, or cold, impresses on the animal as a whole, extends also to individual parts of the body. The sheep of South Africa are, as all the world know, remarkable for the magnitude of the tail, which forms an immense fatty appendage. The sheep of Persia, Tartary, and China, are distinguished from all others by the tail forming a _double globe_ of fat. The North of Europe, and North of Asia, are overrun by a breed in which the tail is almost wanting, while that of Southern Russia, India, and Guinea, stands pre-eminent from the elongation of the tail, and, in respect to that of the two last named places, also of the legs. (77.) _Influence of vegetation on form and disposition._--Vegetation influences, to a great extent, the form and disposition of the animal. Such changes may be brought about either by the plenty, or scarceness, of the herbage; or by the nature of the country on which that herbage is produced. Animals found on hilly countries are always widely different from those of the plains. Their bodies are light, their legs long, and their habits of that unquiet kind which renders them hostile to any thing like restraint. It is for these reasons, that when once a flock attaches itself to a range of hills, and becomes suited to the means of subsistence, it may preserve itself for ages apart from neighbouring varieties, and present, after a long series of years, those qualities in their native purity for which it was noted by the earliest observers. The sheep of a level country are distinguished, on the contrary, by heavy bodies, short legs, and easy tempers. They are, in fact, constructed on Dutch proportions, and are imbued, as a natural consequence, with those imperturbable and steady-going habits so characteristic of the bulbous bottomed Hollander. Subdued as they are by the nature of their locality, they readily submit to man, who tutors them at will, and works on them those profitable changes from which have originated our improved varieties. As connected with the unquiet dispositions of hill sheep, I may mention the prevalence of a notion, that domesticated sheep cannot by any possibility become wild. From all that I have seen, and read, I am led to believe, though the sheep, according to Greek, Roman, and Oriental philosophers, was the first animal domesticated, that when at liberty it will soon return to its primitive and instinctive habits. Bonnycastle, in his work on Spanish America, remarks, that sheep are found in a state of nature, in the northern parts of New Spain, "having multiplied to an extraordinary degree in the wide-spread plains, and savannahs." In ascending our Scottish mountains, every one must observe the state bordering upon wildness, in which the sheep appear, roving in detached but well-led parties; bounding away to the most inaccessible places on the approach of danger, and peering from the eminences in all the pride of scornful independence. Professor Blumenbach at one time doubted the possibility of domestic sheep ever becoming wild; but his opinion was changed on perusing the work of Vincentius, where there occurs a remarkable passage, in which Nearchus, when speaking of the desert island of Cataia, on the coast of Caramania, says, that the inhabitants of the neighbouring islands yearly carried thither sheep, as offerings to Venus and Mercury, and that, in course of time, they became wild in the deserts.[13] Constant attendance is, therefore, called for on the part of man, to ensure that untroubled reliance on his care so conducive to the welfare of the flock, for even on a temporary cessation of his protection, those instincts, which can be subdued but not eradicated, are brought into operation, and their presence will go far to retard the advancement of those qualities, on the perfection of which a profit can alone be hoped for. [13] Edin. Philosophical Journal. (78.) _Breeds required for Britain._--Of the numerous breeds at present in our island, a few only are indispensably necessary for the continuance of its prosperity. These stand, according to Marshall, thus:--A very long-woolled sheep, as the Lincolnshire, or Teeswater, for the richest grass lands, and finest worsted manufactures--the New Leicester, for less fertile grass land, and for rich enclosed arable land, on which the fold is not used; intended to supply coarser worsted, stockings, coarse cloths, blankets, and carpets--a middle-woolled breed, as the Wiltshire, the Norfolk, or the Southdown, for arable lands on which folding is practised, and for cloths of middle qualities--a fine-woolled, as the Ryeland, for the finest cloths; and a hardy race for heathy mountains. Some argue, and rightly, that only three breeds are necessary for Scotland, inasmuch as only three are required by the nature of the country. Scotland may be regarded, in an agricultural point of view, as divided into highland, upland, and plain. The highland consists of primitive rocks, covered by peaty soil and heath, on which these indefatigable gleaners, the black-faced sheep, alone can gain a subsistence. The upland is formed by the transition series of rocks, covered with grass; and to it the Cheviots appear indigenous. The plain is formed by alluvial deposits, covered with rich pasture, and capable of supporting races of large sheep, as the Leicesters. Sheep are the only kind of live-stock which ought to be kept in mountainous districts, especially when green crop cannot be cultivated. Sheep-farming must necessarily prevail in the Highlands, where there are few tracts suited for the pasturage of black cattle: The value of its adaptation to the natural circumstances of that district is proved by the rapid progress which it made, and the profits which resulted to the individuals with whom it originated. Places which formerly were not of the slightest utility, now yielded heavy rents. The spots among the mountains, susceptible of cultivation, were found to be advantageously kept in grass, to serve as pasture for the flock during the rigour of winter, and it was well ascertained that more than double rent might be paid by stocking with sheep in preference to cattle. The Dishley sheep are excellent specimens of what may be done with the form of an animal, when the endeavours of the breeder are seconded by a pasture suitable for the intended breed. They are admirably adapted, as every breed ought to be, to the soil and situation where they were called into existence; and their crosses are now spread over most part of the country; principally the corn districts, as they are supposed to be the most profitable kind on farms where the best tillage crops are combined with the fattening of livestock, though Marshall supposes they will only be reckoned profitable so long as other breeds of long-woolled sheep remain with thin chines, and loose mutton; or, in other words, that there are plenty of kinds which would prove equal, if not superior, to the present, if they only received the same studied attention. (79.) _Varied nature of the food of Sheep._--Sheep will take, sometimes from choice, sometimes from necessity, to food of a directly opposite nature to what they have been used. "The mutton," says the Rev. George Low, writing of Orkney, "is here in general but ordinary, owing to the sheep feeding much on sea-ware, to procure which these creatures show a wonderful sagacity, for no sooner has the tide of ebb begun to run, but they, though at a great distance, immediately betake themselves full speed, one and all, to the shore, where they continue till it begins to flow." The sheep of Iceland are content during severe winters to feed, and be preserved, on messes of chopped fish-bones, being all that the ingenuity of their masters can provide in the way of a precarious sustenance. During the long continuance of snow-storms, when the herbage is beyond the reach of their utmost efforts, sheep are known to devour the wool on each other's backs, and, in some instances to acquire a relish for this unnatural food, which adheres to them through life. This, though on first thoughts hardly credible, is scarcely more wonderful than the partiality which cows display, when instigated by the depraved appetites created by pregnancy, for blankets, and any similar domestic articles which may be exposed to the gratification of their longings. The Puruk sheep of Ladusk, in the Himalaya mountains, is, as described by Mr Moorecraft, in the _Transactions of the Asiatic Society_, in respect to the varied nature of its food, a most remarkable animal. "The Puruk sheep, if permitted, thrusts its head into the cooking pot, picks up crumbs, is eager to drink the remains of a cup of broth, and examine the hand of its master for barley, flour, or a cleanly picked bone, which it disdains not to nibble; a leaf of lettuce, a peeling of turnip, the skin of the apricot, give a luxury; and the industry is indefatigable with which this animal detects, and appropriates substances, so minute and uninviting as would be unseen and neglected by ordinary sheep; perhaps the dog of the cottager is not so completely domesticated as it is." That Mr Moorecraft is correct in this statement of its omnivorous propensities, there cannot be the slightest doubt, as any farmer can testify from what he has seen of lambs reared by children for amusement. The celebrated John Hunter showed, that a pigeon might be made to live on flesh, and that its stomach became adapted to the nature of this food: and I have somewhere read of a sheep, which, after being long on ship-board, and accustomed, from scarcity of vegetables, to an animal diet, could never after be prevailed upon to take to grass. Nor need these circumstances excite surprise, since the food of every living creature is, for a certain period at the commencement of existence, limited to such as is purely animal. But to keep to our subject. Those in the habit of opening the stomachs of sheep, must have remarked the eroded appearance which the inner coat occasionally presents. This phenomenon is owing to the action of the gastric juice, which, if competent to turn at once from the food with which it is mingled to attack the texture which has secreted it, will also be, during life, capable of digesting with tolerable ease, such dead animal matter as may be brought into contact with it. In regard to vegetable food, they will, when necessary, devour such as is even of an acrid nature, and calculated to poison any animals but themselves. Thunberg, while in Southern Africa, frequently noticed sheep eating, with impunity, the _Mortimia acris_, the _Rhus lucidum_, and the _Lycium afrum_, which are all of a poisonous nature; and, in this country, hemlock is known to be quite innocuous to sheep. What is poison to one animal often constitutes a wholesome food for others, and that which will, when given in immediate large doses, destroy an animal, will, when taken in a gradually-increasing allowance, prove extremely salutary. (80.) _Influence of the food on the quality of Mutton._--Diet has a powerful influence on the constituents of the body. A rank succulent pasture taints the flesh, or renders it insipid and unpleasant, while a dry aromatic herbage communicates a delightful flavour, and enables people versed in the pleasures of the table easily to discriminate between turnip-fed and grass-fed mutton; and again, between the latter, and that which has spent its existence on the hills. In Touchwood's Syllabus of Culinary Lectures, appended to the _Cook and Housewive's Manual_, by Mistress Dods, we are briefly informed, that "the black-faced, or short-sheep, are best for the table, though _more depends on the pasture than the breed_." More, in fact, depending on feeding and management, than on the variety of the animal, though this of course is not to be neglected. A notion has been advanced in this country, that artificial pastures are less nutritious than natural ones, and that the animals which are raised upon them are, consequently, of a laxer fibre, and the flesh less wholesome, as well as less savoury. This, I have no doubt, is perfectly correct, as many _diseases_ may be traced to such improper food, and what is calculated to produce in some cases actual disease, cannot fail to prove at all times capable of retarding the advancement of the animal. These soft succulent pastures appear not to be positively poisonous, but to be negatively so from their deficiency in saline matter; the rapid growth of the plant preventing the elimination and absorption, of many of these ingredients with which the soil abounds. This is proved by the greater necessity which exists for the use of salt in the food of the herbivorous animals of hot climates, than in that of such as inhabit temperate, or cold latitudes; vegetation being in the former more rapid in its details, and in certain states of the atmosphere hurried in the extreme, while in the latter the process proceeds with that leisure which enables the plant to make good the measure of its constituents, as it increases in size. In many parts of North America it is well known, that, at certain seasons, the wild animals make eagerly for the salt _licks_; and, following up this hint, the settlers easily induce their oxen to keep near their dwellings, by serving them periodically with salt. When the wild cattle of South America had greatly increased, it was discovered that they could not exist unless they had access to streams which had acquired brackish particles from the soil. _If salt, in places devoid of it, was not furnished to them by man, they became stunted, unfruitful, and the herds soon disappeared._ Even in this country, the free use of salt is found to be highly beneficial to our domestic animals, preventing the occurrence of many of those diseases which are otherwise sure to follow the use of food such as is mentioned above, and ensuring that sound health which is so conducive to the accumulation of fat. (81.) _Differences in the quality of Mutton._--I shall now enter a little into the manner in which the _quality_ of the flesh may be affected, and the methods of judging of the different states or conditions, in which it may be found under various circumstances; premising that it requires much experience, to enable a person to pronounce with confidence, as to the value of the muscular parts, from the inspection of a living animal:--The flesh of different specimens of the same animal, varies not so much from breed or descent, as from age, feeding, and exercise. That of the young is soft and gelatinous, the fibres being small, weak, and much interspersed with a substance termed, from its loose appearance, cellular tissue. This tissue exhibits in the spaces between the muscles (_layers of flesh_) small masses of delicate fat. The greater bulk of the latter is situated immediately beneath the skin, and occasions that beautiful rotundity so much admired in children. As the animal advances in life, the fibres become firmer, larger, and more approximated, the cellular tissue disappears to a great extent, the fat shifts from the outward to the inward parts, allowing the outline of the muscles to be distinctly seen, but giving at the same time to the figure that portly symptom of good keeping, so unpleasant to the eye when carried to the extent of Aldermanic dignity. All these appearances are, however, varied by exercise, which tends, in a marked degree, to increase the muscular parts at the expense of the fat--the former becoming, when employed within proper limits, large, and unyielding to the touch, while at the same time the colour is heightened from a pale or purple hue, to the bright vermilion so justly relied upon by housewives, as a guarantee for the superior qualities of the article. The wild horses in South America, which form the principal part of Indian diet, are said by these epicures to be much improved for the table by gentle labour, and to be quite on a par when thus cared for, with some of our best beef. This plan is, however, only pursued for the purpose of rendering the flesh of their horses moderately firm; but where an opposite effect is desired it is readily, though cruelly, produced by putting the animal to a lingering death; examples of which practice are to be met with in the annals of most civilized nations; as in the German mode of whipping pigs, and the English custom of baiting bulls;[14] both tending to the same end, by so exhausting vital contractibility as to prevent its last and faint display in the stiffening of the carcass. [14] By the old English law, no bull beef could be sold unless the bull had been baited. Marshall, who touches very slightly on the subject, says, "The flesh of sheep when slaughtered is well known to be of various qualities: some is composed of large coarse grains, interspersed with wide empty pores, like a sponge; others of large grains, with wide pores filled with fat; others of fine close grains with smaller pores filled with fat; and a fourth of close grains without any mixture of fatness. The flesh of sheep when dressed is equally well known to possess a variety of qualities: some mutton is coarse, dry, and insipid,--a dry sponge affording little or no gravy of any colour. Another sort is somewhat firmer, imparting a light-coloured gravy only. A third plump, short, and palatable, affording a mixture of white and red gravy. A fourth likewise plump, and well-flavoured, but discharging red gravy only, and this in various quantities. It is likewise observable that some mutton, when dressed, appears covered with a thick, tough, parchment-like integument; others with a membrane comparatively fine and flexible." This membrane ought to be rather thin than thick, as, when of the latter texture, you may safely affirm that the animal was aged. _Looseness_ is reckoned a bad quality of the flesh of sheep during life, as indicating a coarse-grained porous mutton, and as equally exceptionable with that of _hardness_: while _mellowness_, and firmness, are much to be desired, as forming a happy mixture, deemed by some the point of perfection. The tendency to become fat at an early age, though a valuable one in some points, is not so in others. Premature decay is always the result, showing with certainty that a healthy action has not been going on. An animal when _loaded_ with fat cannot be looked upon otherwise than as in a diseased state, and liable to embarassment of many organs, especially of the heart and brain. Sudden death on any hurried exertion is far from rare, and life, from the difficulty of enjoying it, is any thing but desirable. (82.) _Abuses in Feeding._--The custom of over-feeding was carried to an absurd extent on the promulgation of Bakewell's method, nothing less being aspired to than the glory of laying seven or eight inches of fat on the ribs of sheep. This folly however had its day: the ridiculous parts of the system have to a great extent disappeared, while attention to the production of an increased quantity of mutton, without too great an abundance of fat, has remained to prove to the world the value of the benefits which the English farmer conferred upon his country. Overgrown sheep are indeed good for nothing "save" in the words of Meg Dods, "to obtain premiums at cattle shows, and deluge dripping-pans with liquid fat;" and in this every one will agree, excepting always boarding-school cooks, and others who depend for their principal perquisites on the over-roasting of oily meat! The fat, though not reckoned as offal in the slaughter-house, will speedily show itself as such in the kitchen, by the waste during the cooking process, even in England where fat meat is so much admired; and it is surely absurd to pay the price of good mutton for tallow, when if the latter were really wanted, it could be procured at a cheaper rate by itself, than when forming part of a dear commodity. The only way in which over-fat meat can at all be reckoned profitable, is in its application to the wants of the working classes, whose bodily labour enables them to enjoy what would to others prove displeasing in the extreme, and to digest and assimilate with ease, food which to the sons of sloth would prove a poison. So far as these wants have been supplied, the attempt of Bakewell has been attended with the happiest results, as he and his disciples have placed by their well-spent exertions much good food within the reach of the poorer classes, which they must otherwise have gone without; while in many instances it has driven bacon from the market, being a cheaper and more palatable commodity, which cannot but contribute to the health of the people, seeing the continued use of salted meat is calculated to injure the body, and render it liable to many diseases. Marshall remarks, that fat, like charity, covers a multitude of faults: and he is right, for an ill-shaped animal if well fed, has all its angles speedily effaced, and if its ugliness has not amounted to absolute deformity, it acquires that rotundity of contour so pleasing to the eye, and so apt to mislead us. The rapidity is various with which animals take on fat, much depending on hereditary predisposition, and the nature of the food; and much also on the state of the atmosphere, and quiet habits; a moist and rather warm air tending greatly to the advancement of the process, some birds becoming fat in twenty-four hours of wet weather. Children that have been emaciated by diseases often resume their original plump condition in a few days; and animals that have been famished, as hogs, afterwards fatten very rapidly. Moderate and repeated bleedings, mild farinaceous diet, and emasculation conjoined, tend to the repletion of the body, and to the speedy deposition of fat; yet it would appear, that when acquired in this rapid manner, it never possesses the value in a culinary point of view, that is yielded to such as has been slowly formed, when, as one may say, the worthless particles have had time to be removed, and the remaining part to become a firm and healthy deposit. It is partly owing to this, that animals are never at their best when forced to take on fat at an early age, but are most esteemed by the gourmand when they, as in the case of the sheep, have lived from three to four years. (83.) _Tendency to acquire Fat._--A disposition to early obesity, as well as a tendency to that form which indicates a propensity to fatten, is materially promoted by a good supply of rich food, while the animal is in a growing state. The Spanish shepherds are so well aware of this, that half of the lambs are annually killed, that the survivors may obtain every indulgence in the way of milk. Care should be taken never to place animals suddenly on food much superior in feeding qualities to what they have left. Very lean sheep are never put to full turnips in winter, nor to rich pastures in summer, but are prepared for turnips on good grass lands, and kept on second years' leys, and afterwards given a moderate allowance of turnips if they are to be fatted on pastures. It is an invariable rule with all good managers, never to allow this or any other animal, reared solely for the shambles, to lose flesh from its earliest age till it is sent to the butcher as more food is necessary to bring it to a certain condition than to keep it at it. In the case of the Dishleys, it is customary to keep all in a state of fatness, except those intended for breeding, and after full feeding on turnips during winter and spring, to finish them on the first year's clover early in summer, when the prices of meat are usually the highest; so that this variety is always fit for market at eighteen months, while the Highland breeds, though prepared by means of turnips, a year at least, sooner than in former times, do not usually go to the shambles till from three to four years old. (84.) _Frequent change of Pasture necessary._--Sheep ought never to be permitted to remain too long on one pasture:--Great benefit will be derived from their removal from time to time to different parts even of the same farm, by which arrangement a change of herbage will be ensured. No animal can be kept for any length of time in health, if restricted to one unvarying routine of diet. This has been satisfactorily proved by the experiments of Majendie, who found that health could not be sustained on one or even two kinds of food beyond the thirtieth day. Now, though such immediate injury cannot result to a flock from retention on a particular pasture, owing to the variety of sustenance being considerable, yet proportional harm will ensue sufficient to induce us not to repeat the risk. Nature, the best of guides in all that relates to the protection of her creatures, is no where more pointed in her directions than on this head. A necessity for a variety of food, and a desire to secure it, are implanted in the disposition of every animal; and where is the creature more prone to extensive rambles than the sheep? We limit it to a paltry pasture-ground of roods and acres, but does it not show, by its determination to transgress our barriers, that such is not the treatment nature has designed for it? There is something more than wildness of character, and restless disposition, in the powerful attempts it continually makes to defy our artificial boundaries. There is in these efforts a longing for fresh fields and other herbage, an instinctive feeling that all is not as it ought to be; and yet we attend not to the hint! Nothing will conduce so much to the health of the sheep, and to the speedy taking on of fat, as the frequent shifting of the flock. Disease will doubtless still affect the animals, but illness will be rare, and mortality diminished, if by the care of their rulers, they are enabled to obtain what instinct tells them is the best of medicine. (85.) _Varieties induced by apparently trivial causes._--Surrounded in a civilized state, by all that can minister to the supply of wants, whether real or supposed, man is not on that account to be imagined as always so situated. Look to savage nations, and remark their destitute condition, their dependence on the uncertain proceeds of the chase, and their reliance on modes of agriculture as unprofitable as they are unmatured. Countries there are certainly to be found, where the "elements of temperature," are so fortunately balanced and combined as to produce only good effects, and in which the rude inhabitants reap the fruits of a spontaneous plenty; but these form only a small proportion of the globe, and in most regions man must give his unceasing endeavours to the cultivation of a plant or animal, before he can raise it from the miniature condition in which he finds it, to such a size and richness as will satisfy his wants. Nor need we go far for illustrations. The crab has been transformed into the apple, and the sloe into the plum. None of our cereal grasses, as now cultivated, are to be met with in a wild state; they have evidently been brought to their present fulness by the care of ages. The red cabbage and the cauliflower are the altered descendants of a widely different sea-side plant. The different races of cabbages are examples of a wonderful deviation from the natural type, and they all require much nicety in cultivation to prevent them assuming the characters of the original stock, as, when permitted to grow wild, especially on a sterile soil as that of the sea coast, they are sure in no long time to become exact counterparts of their originals. Cultivation, also, though taken in rather a different sense, influences to a great extent the form and features of animals. In proof of this may be adduced the differences that exist between different ranks of inhabitants in almost all countries. Buffon says, that in France you may distinguish by their aspect not only the nobles from the peasantry, but the superior orders of nobility from the inferior--these from citizens, and citizens from peasants. The African field-slaves in America, are extremely different from the domestic servants of the former nation, retaining as they do their original peculiarities from poor living and degrading duties; while the latter have nearly approached to the habits and modes of thinking of their masters, from living with them, and being well treated under the same roof. "The South Sea islanders," says Dr Elliotson, "who appear to be all of one family, vary according to their degree of cultivation. The New Zealanders, for example, are savages, and chiefly black; the New Hollanders half civilized, and chiefly tawny; the Friendly islanders are more advanced, and not quite so dark; several are lighter than olive colour, and hundreds of European faces are found among them." Indeed the examples are almost endless which I could bring forward to aid my explanations; but these it would be needless to give, since it is in the power of every one to study the differences in form and features of the classes of society in our own island, and by so doing understand the influence of otherwise trivial and unimportant circumstances, on an animal at all times so easily moulded to situation as the sheep. (86.) _Varieties from mode of Breeding._--Changes are wrought for the most part by attention to the mode of propagation of the plant or animal, by the plan of crossing; and by careful selection of the parent stock. Every one must be struck with the varieties constantly occurring in the vegetable world: Flowers change their colours, and become double; and these characters can be perpetuated by seed. Hedge-row plants may be observed to vary even in the limits of an ordinary walk, and to be continued as varieties so long as they remain in the same locality. The following striking example of the extent to which plants may be made to vary by altering their circumstances, is related by Mr Herbert in the _Horticultural Transactions_, vol. iv:--"I raised from the natural seed of an umbel of a highly manured red cowslip, a primrose, a cowslip, oxlips of the usual and other colours, a black polyanthus, a hose-in-hose cowslip, and a natural primrose bearing its flower on a polyanthus stalk. From the seed of that very hose-in-hose cowslip, I have since raised a hose-in-hose primrose. I therefore consider all these to be only local varieties, depending upon soil and situation." "Fifty years ago," says Buffon (writing in 1749), "our pot-herbs consisted of a single species of succory, and two of lettuce, both very bad; but we have now more than fifty kinds of lettuce and succory, all of which are good. Our best fruits and nuts, which are so different from those formerly cultivated that they have no resemblance but in the name, must likewise be referred to a very modern date. In general, substances remain, and names change with times: but in this case names remain, and substances are changed. Our peaches, our apricots, our pears, are new productions with ancient names. To remove every doubt upon this subject, we have only to compare our flowers and fruits with the descriptions, or rather notices of them transmitted to us by the Greeks and Romans. All their flowers were single, and all their fruit-trees were wild stocks, and their species very ill-chosen. Their fruits of course, were small, dry, sour, and had neither the flavour nor the beauty of ours. These new and good species originally sprung from the wild kinds; but how many times have their seeds been sown before this happy effect was produced? It was only by sowing and rearing an infinite number of vegetables of the same species, that some individuals were recognized to bear better and more succulent fruit than others; and this first discovery, which supposes much care and observation, would have remained for ever useless if a second had not been made, which implies an equal degree of genius as the first required of patience--I mean the mode of multiplying by engrafting those precious individuals which unfortunately cannot propagate or transmit their excellent qualities to their posterity. * * * In the animal kingdom, most of those qualities which appear to be individual are propagated and transmitted in the same manner as their specific qualities. It was therefore more easy for man to have influence upon the nature of animals than upon that of vegetables. Particular races in any species of animals, are only constant varieties, which are perpetuated by generation. But in the vegetable kingdom there are no races, no varieties so constant as to be perpetuated by reproduction. In the species of the hen and pigeon, a great number of races have been very lately produced, all of which propagate their kinds. In other species, we daily rear and improve races by crossing the breeds." (87.) _Breeding in-and-in._--Though there are several methods pursued by breeders for the improvement of flocks, the one most in vogue is, that of choosing individuals of the same family, and breeding _in-and-in_. It is however a plan requiring, for the safety of the flock, either very great skill in selecting the males and females, or only to be followed to a very limited extent. No subject ever called forth so much random controversy, and no evil has ever so clearly shown itself as such; yet it is only recently, that people have opened the intellectual eye to the dangers of a practice, against which the ablest pens were long and vainly blunted. The object of breeding _in-and-in_ is to strengthen good qualities and get rid of bad ones, as speedily as possible; and it is plain, that if we happen to select animals with slight imperfections, these imperfections will become hereditary, and will go on assuming a worse and worse type till the breed be destroyed. Culley, however, was of opinion, that less risk is run by breeding _in-and-in_ than is generally supposed, and instances the wild cattle in Chillingham Park, in the county of Northumberland, which, having been confined for several hundred years without intermixture, must have bred from the nearest affinities, and yet are just as they were five hundred years since. With all due deference, however, to the opinion of the late Mr Culley, I must assert, that I cannot perceive in what manner wild cattle can be made to illustrate the case in point, as it must be evident, that animals in a state of nature differ essentially from those in charge of man, in regard to the propagation of infirmities, as the former, if born with a radical defect, will, ten to one, never see the age which suits them for reproduction; while the latter, from the care bestowed upon them, will, even when very delicate, in many instances be bolstered up till they have entailed upon posterity an accumulation of their already aggravated maladies. The system of breeding _in-and-in_ proves, in fact, as destructive to flocks, as marriages of near relations to the human kind. We would not witness an every-day entailment of diseases, if people would forego their unnatural love of money, and cease their endeavours to keep it in "the family," by forming matrimonial alliances with those who are near of kin. The law of God forbids us to wed those who stand in certain degrees of propinquity; but, if we and our descendants avail ourselves of the limits of this law, and marry on its verge a certain number of times, misery must infallibly be the lot even of the tenth generation; and instead of being fathers of a mighty people, few and full of sorrow will be the days of our children; while in place of retaining in their possession our darling wealth, it will, ere long, pass into the hand of the stranger. (88.) _Opponents of in-and-in breeding._--Different individuals at various times, and in widely separate places, have by their observations rendered the criminal absurdity of this system perfectly apparent to all, who, unbiased by party principle, are anxious for a knowledge of the truth. A few of these I shall mention. Ezra L'Hommedieu, Vice-president of the Agricultural Society of New York, collected, in the year 1800, a great many observations on the breeding of sheep, and came to the conclusion, that changing and crossing the breed of the animals is a matter of great importance, in preventing a dwindling and degeneracy of the flock. Dr Coventry, in his pamphlet on _Live-Stock_, gives it as his opinion, that "The most perfect race of animals may be debased by improper mixture, or injured by improper treatment. Indiscriminate matches in breeding, and inattentive management in rearing, are alike capable of producing a worthless progeny." Here the matter is made very plain, from comparing an evil, the progress of which is insidious, with the injurious consequences, which the most unobserving can easily trace to a parallel neglect. Mr Dick of Edinburgh, so well known for the valuable and trustworthy information he has accumulated, has been informed by eminent farmers, "that cattle bred _in-and-in_, are very subject to _clyers_ in the throat after they have attained their first year." By clyers are meant enlarged lymphatic glands, which are a sure sign of what is termed a scrofulous habit, a breaking up of the constitution, which, though produced by a variety of causes, is yet frequently the result of an "_owr sib_" connection. These are, I may say, the accidental opinions of men who had no point to make good, in which their credit was at all at stake, and who are not endeavouring to support the crude opinions of former years. For these reasons, they possess a value which ought to give them a proportional weight in an investigation like the present. Mr Bakewell succeeded in bringing his sheep to great perfection as regards form, and rapidity of fattening, by breeding in the same family for a great many years; but it was attended with considerable deterioration in the quality of the wool, and engendered a liability to disease, sufficient to deter any one from proceeding a similar length in the same track, to what is so dubiously called improvement. See what Mr Dickson says to this effect, in a recent number of the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_. "The evil of breeding _in-and-in_, or in other words, producing too great refinement of tone, is manifested in the first instance by a tenderness of constitution; the animals not being able to withstand the extremes of heat and cold, rain and drought. If the evil is prolonged through several generations, the forms of the animals become affected, the bone becomes very small, the neck droops, the skin of the head becomes tight and scantily covered with hair, the expression of the eye indicates extreme sensibility, the hair on the body becomes thin and short, and the skin as thin as paper; the _points_ continue good, and predisposition to fatness increases, but the whole carcass becomes much diminished in size, though retaining its plumpness, and beautiful symmetry. The evil, however, does not terminate in the production of these symptoms. Internal diseases ensue, such as disorganization of the liver, or rot, polypi in the trachea, clyers, malformation of the bones of the neck and legs, and general deformity." This position, however, will be strengthened by drawing attention to insulated portions of our race, where the effects of such a system are exhibited on a considerable scale. The Members of the Society of Friends were, at one time, supposed to be of all others the least subject to insanity; but the very reverse is the case; being, from the limited nature of their sect, driven to frequent intermarriages, and to a consequent deterioration of the most active part of the human frame--the brain. It is for the same reason, that almost every royal family contains a large proportion of idiots, or, at the best, persons of very weak intellect; and, such will continue to occur, till legislators fall on some plan of striking at the groundwork of the mischief. If the laws of God and man define to us so clearly the evils of intermarrying with relatives; and if, as all animals are constructed on one grand plan, we admit the proximity of the sheep to the human race, it follows, that what is destructive, in this respect, to the one, is destructive to the other; and that we should seek, by a nearly similar, if not wider, range of rules, to obviate many of those diseases of which, when under our protection, they are so frequently the subjects. (89.) _Breeding from different families of the same race._--Mr Culley, though believing that no great harm can result from breeding in-and-in, yet appears to have in a manner preferred the preferable practice of breeding from different families of the same race; as he, for many years, hired his rams from Mr Bakewell, at a time when other breeders were paying a liberal price for his own valuable animals. This is of all methods deservedly the best, as the males, which are inter-changed, have always had shades of difference impressed upon them, by various soils and treatment, so that the defects of each family have a good chance to be counteracted by the perfections of the other. By this means the bad points are gradually exhausted, and their valuable properties as gradually heightened. Breeders have been much aided in the furtherance of this desirable plan, by the rearing of superior rams having become, of late years, a separate pursuit. The letting of them out to distant parts of the country has long been a branch of this speculation; diffusing some of the most valuable points of particular breeds, and leading to a spirit of competition. The practice has been reprobated, but, I presume, rather hastily; for with all its attendant evils, such as leading to deception, by what is termed the _making up_ of rams, it possesses excellencies which will, I hope, lead to its continuance. (90.) _Crossing._-The only other method of improving a breed is by crossing two distinct races, one of which possesses the properties it is desirable to acquire, and wants the defects we wish to remove. This, however, is a measure not to be recommended, and only to be resorted to when neither of the others will do; for it is scarcely possible to obtain the desirable properties without at the same time imparting qualities sufficient to neutralize them; and with which, in fact, we would rather dispense. To cross, as Mr Cleghorn remarks, any mountain breed with Leicester rams, with a view to obtain a propensity to fatten at an early age, would be attended with an enlargement of size, which the mountain pasture could not support, and the progeny would be a mongrel race, not suited to the pastures of either of the parent breeds. The folly of such a proceeding is beautifully shown in the failure of the attempts made, some years ago, to better the fleece of the mountain sheep, in the South of Scotland. To effect this desirable end, rams were brought from the Cheviot range of hills, and the consequences were, as described by Mr William Hogg, of Stobbo, in the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, just what a preliminary consideration of the existing circumstances would have proved to be unavoidable. "The independent habits of the mountain flocks were lost, and a mongrel progeny, of a clumsy figure, occupied the lowest and warmest of the pastures. As they were very improper subjects to breed from, they were often a drug in the market: _but the store-master had no other resource, but to struggle on against the opposition which the animal itself made to the change_, and, also, against the influence of bad seasons, in order to get the influence of the Cheviot breed fully established. * * * With its shaggy coat the animal lost its bold independent look, its stout shape, its unvitiated taste, and its sound constitution. A course of severe winters too occurred during the time of changing, while every property calculated to resist privation and fatigue was unconfirmed in the progeny; and, in consequence, the ravages by rot, and poverty, among the flocks that occupied soft pastures were immense." How did it happen, that the store-master had no other resource but to persevere in an unprofitable course? Was he obliged to strive against natural obstacles, which even a short experience might have taught him were, in that manner, insurmountable? Why not recur _at once_ to the old mode of management, rather than injure himself by kicking against the pricks. "Sundry store-masters were not aware," says Mr Hogg, "that their old breed would so obstinately resist the impression of the Cheviot blood, nor did they ever dream that the mongrel issue would be so easily subdued by the hardships and cold of winter: thus finding their scheme opposed, at points where they anticipated little resistance, they gave up the experiment ere it was _half completed_, and introduced mountain rams to the mongrel issue." Enough, however, has been said to prove that this plan ought not to be pursued: let me now say a few words as to the reasons which should deter us from its adoption. To take a familiar illustration:--How would one of the worshipful company of Aldermen, or a dignitary of the Church, manage to keep up an _appearance_, if suddenly transported from the luxurious plenty which surrounds him, to the meagre fare, and churlish climate, of our Highlands? Would their offspring, which ten to one would be prone to rapid growth, and, therefore, requiring at the least a large supply of porridge and milk; would they, I ask, arrive at a healthy maturity, if supported only on the oaten cake, and _whang_ of skimmed-milk cheese, of the hardy Northern? The answer is, they would not. They would, doubtless, bear the climate; but the habit of body imprinted on them, by the full living of the parents, would require a more nutritious food to bring it to the adult age, than what might be necessary for the sustenance of any child descended from the possessors of the soil. If such then is the case with the young of an animal shielded from inclemency on every hand, how can we expect the progeny of a rather heavy variety of a defenceless creature like the sheep to thrive, in defiance of every thing ungenial, on a pasture which requires for its collection, in any quantity, a degree of experience and activity, the result of time and well-trained instinct. The mongrel is not unfitted for the locality, as Mr Hogg would have it, by a weakness resulting from "the constant and continued exertions of the two bloods, the one endeavouring to overpower the other," there is no war waging in the progeny between the blood of sire and dam; the secret lies in the animal being unsuited for the pasture where it is produced. Place it in a country possessing a herbage something between that of the Highland and Cheviot hills, and it will do passing well; but do not ascribe the want of success to a natural hatred of the breeds. Again, do not fall into the error, that "the figure, wool, and other qualities, of the Cheviot ram, are most conspicuous (in this cross) in the smallest and feeblest of the progeny, while the properties of the mountain breed are more fully exhibited in the strongest and most robust lambs," a circumstance which, unfortunately, induced many of the store-farmers "to throw aside the best of the lambs, and select those to breed from, which had apparently most of the Cheviot figure;" or, in other words, do not suppose, as Mr Hogg strangely enough infers, that only the weak animals took on the Cheviot form, and only the strong ones assumed the Highland character. The correct explanation is, that such as had most Cheviot blood were sure to become puny, from being unadapted to a herbage on which those that resembled the mountain stock throve tolerably well. Strength and feebleness were, in this instance, mere secondary matters. (91.) _Things to be attended to in Crossing._--The fact is, that, if you wish to have a _particular kind_ of sheep, you must first of all be in possession of a pasture suitable for the new comers. You must consider the influence of the individual parents on the progeny, the size of the animals, their habits and dispositions, and their peculiarities in regard to the time of their maturity, and fattening properties; and, having anticipated these apparently trifling affairs, you must see that the surface of your farm, its degree of exposure, and the quantity and quality of its productions, are calculated for the profitable maintenance of the animal in view. Far too little attention is bestowed, at the commencement of such an undertaking, on these all-swaying matters. Farmers enter upon this, the most arduous of all professions, with the settled conviction, that nothing is so simple as the engrafting of a race of animals on a particular part of a country. They have read, or heard, of others who have gained fame, and a fortune, by successful endeavours of the kind, and they think that nothing is easier than to follow their example; but they forget the thoughtful hours, and irksome duties, these men had to tolerate, before they could speak of any thing like success. No animal can be made to forego at once a long used food, an ancient locality, peculiarity of clime and season, and the instinctive habits that have been long nurtured by these, without both it and its progeny suffering from the change:--Nature cannot thus be made to bend to human intention; it will give way in the attempt. In crossing there are several important things to be attended to. Well formed parents ought to be selected, and, if enlargement of the carcass be wanted, the issue should be better fed than its originators, which ought to be of a size rather under, than above what the pasture is capable of supporting. The size of the parents should not be much disproportioned at first, as nature abhors sudden extremes, and does every thing in the most gradual manner. It is better, when some increase has been attained, to bring the breed to the required size by one or two crossings.[15] In choosing a breed, we should adopt that which affords the greatest quantity of market produce, in return for the food consumed;[16] and a particular breed ought always to be preferred to the sheep of a district. We must not imagine, that when, by dint of crossing, we have obtained the variety wanted, that it will remain in the condition to which we have brought it, without the slightest liability to alter. Many farmers believe they have done all that is required, if they subject their stock to three or four crossings with a breed of acknowledged excellence. They think that the improved animals they have obtained will support their acquired characters, uninfluenced by extraneous agency. Now nothing can be more faulty than this mode of management, as is proved by a comparison of stock so treated, with flocks which have uninterruptedly received that undeviating attention, which can alone ensure a continuance of the properties desired. Such men forget, that the climate is operating with as great certainty on the animals as on the rocks around; and that as the herbage is determined by the nature of the adjacent rocks, so are the peculiarities of the sheep influenced by the herbage; and that if they manage to change the characters of the breed, it can, in a majority of cases, be only for a time, unless the tendencies of the surrounding elements are counteracted, by a constant recurrence to the originators of the flock. "I am sorry," says Little, in his valuable practical observations, "to say, that there are too many examples of those, who thought themselves at the head of improvement in stock, relaxing their exertions, and keeping by their own stock; and the consequence has been, that such stocks have degenerated, become delicate, tender, and diminutive in size; and from no other cause but that the same pains have not been taken to preserve the improvement, that was taken to effect it. I could mention many improvers who were of the first class formerly, but who are now only in the second." Changes, in fact, by crossing are not to be effected in a short space of time; you must look forward to several years of constant exertion, before you can hope, in this manner, to alter your stock.[17] Then, again, we must be aware of the tendency which nature, in numerous instances, displays to perpetuate diseases, dispositions, and aberrations from the normal structure. Many qualities and diseases, are known, in man, to be hereditary; of the former, I may instance peculiarities in walking, and writing; a passion for intoxicating liquors, and other habits too trivial to mention; and of the latter, gout, pulmonary consumption, and blindness from cataract, which are well known to harass a family for generations. Features, in like manner, may remain for ages of the same undeviating cast; thus the Jews of to-day are the very counterparts of the Jews of three thousand years back, and, in all likelihood, will so remain till the end of time. A predisposition to many diseases is engendered in the sheep, by too great a refinement in breeding, which tends to diminish the size of the animal, prevents them feeding to perfection, destroys their fecundity, and imparts great tenderness of constitution. Accidental deviations from the natural type may, also, be hereditary, as is seen in those races of dogs which have a supernumerary toe on the hind foot, and tarsal bones to correspond. In the human race also several generations of a particular family have been distinguished, by having six fingers and six toes, on their hands and feet. It is in like manner to an accidental malformation, that the Americans are indebted for their Otter breed of sheep. Mr Livingston, who wrote in 1811, thus describes them: "The Otter sheep were first discovered on some island, on the eastern coast, and have spread to the adjoining states. The sheep are long-bodied rather than large, and weigh about 15 lbs. a quarter. Their wool is of a medium fineness, and a medium length; but that which particularly characterizes these sheep is the length of their bodies, and the shortness of their legs, which are, also, turned out in such a manner as to appear rickety. They cannot run, or jump, and they even walk with some difficulty. They appear as if their legs had been broken and set by some awkward surgeon. They can scarcely exist in a deep country, and they cannot possibly be driven to a distant pasture or market." Dr Dwight, in his travels in New England, remarks of this curious variety, that the fore legs are remarkably short, and bent inward, "so as distinctly to resemble what are called club-feet."[18] I believe this to be the only instance where man has availed himself of a defect in the animal kingdom, and turned it to his advantage. Attention ought also to be bestowed on the order in which different parts of the animal are subjected to changes during crossing. These, according to Dr Sturm, the latest observer on this head, are first exhibited in those parts that possess a power of being reproduced, as the hair, horns, and hoofs. The fleshy parts change slowly, in proportion as the mother has much of the blood of the original race. The first changes take place in the head, and are gradually developed towards the hind quarters. Lastly, look to the condition in which your sheep are as regards fatness. If fat, they will be averse to becoming pregnant, and considerable annoyance will, in all likelihood, be experienced. A moderately low diet is most suitable for ewes, for some time before the ram is admitted, in the same way that fruit trees, when unproductive in a rich soil, are rendered fertile by placing straw and stones between their roots and the too nutritious earth. A rather poor diet, also, during pregnancy, will be found to obviate many of those risks which are sure to be incurred from repletion during this period. [15] Dr Cline, in a communication to the Board of Agriculture, observes on this point: "Experience has proved, that crossing has only succeeded in an eminent degree, in those instances in which the females were larger, than in the usual proportion of females to males, and that it has generally failed when the males were proportionally large." [16] It was owing to a peculiar view taken of this maxim, that so enormous sums were asked and given, for the hire of rams, at the time Mr Bakewell brought the new Leicester to perfection. That gentleman would never have obtained 1200 guineas for the hire of three rams if the speculators had not intended to procure nearly similar prices for the use of the offspring of these animals; and it may be pretty safely affirmed, that this traffic was ultimately the cause of much mischief to the breed in question, by inducing many to speculate on what was likely to prove a fashionable article, without caring much for the endurance of the really valuable points. [17] Dr Sturm, professor of Agriculture, at Bonn, says, that a new race may be produced in the same number of years as are required for perfecting the teeth. [18] Sheep are as liable to distortions of the skeleton as other animals. The Museum of Guy's Hospital contains a very good specimen of distorted spine taken from a sheep. (92.) _Choice of Parents._--However faulty sheep may be, some are always to be found surpassing their fellows, and these it ought to be the aim of every breeder to discover. Without acknowledge of an animal's _points_, it is in vain that the breeder can hope for improvement. He may by accident make a lucky hit, but, unless he has studied his business from the bottom, he cannot follow up and avail himself of an advantage, which a more knowing individual would, from previous training, turn at once to a profitable account. Much may be done by letter-press description; and this I shall endeavour to achieve; but more will be accomplished by a close and attentive examination of a few well-selected animals, which it is now no difficult matter to get a view of, as, thanks to the spirited exertions of the Highland Society, valuable specimens are far from rare. In breeding and rearing rams, two divisions of these animals are recognised,--ram getters, and wedder getters,--the former, from their fineness, being kept for the procreation of animals like themselves, while the latter, from their coarseness, are set aside as fitted only for parent stock for grazier's sheep, the mere grazier liking a ram no worse for having a massy frame, and being less scrupulous about his form than the ram breeder, whose grand object is fineness, and who trusts to the ewes for giving the offspring size and substance. The principal ram-breeders are guided in the choice of their ram-lambs, more by blood or parentage, than by form, on which, at so early an age, little dependance can be placed. In the case of the Dishleys, they allow them every indulgence, from the time of weaning till that of shearing, as they push them forward with the intent of letting them the first season, while yet yearlings. It is this early arrival at maturity, which is, with truth, supposed by some to occasion their early falling off; for by a law of the animal economy, premature adult age is always succeeded by premature decay; life appearing to be dated from the time the animal enters on the fulfilment of the ends for which it was created. According to Mr Bakewell, the shape which should be the criterion of a sheep, is that of a hogshead or firkin, truly circular, with small and as short legs as possible: upon the plain principle, that the value lies in the barrel, not in the legs; and all breeds the backs of which rise in the least ridge are bad. Their bodies should be as true barrels as can be seen, their backs round and broad, and their legs not much exeeeding six inches in length. The following is a measurement of a three-years' old ram of Mr Bakewell, Feet. Inches. Girth, 5 10 Height, 2 5 Breadth of Collar, 1 4 Breadth of shoulders, 1 11-1/2 Breadth across the ribs, 1 10-1/2 Breadth across the hips, 1 9-1/2 A most unusual proof of kindly feeding in the animals of this shape, is their feeling quite fat, just within their fore legs, on the rib; a point in which sheep are seldom examined, from common breeds never carrying fat there. They are particularly distinguished by the lightness of the offal, the bones being one-half smaller than in some other breeds, and the meat proportionally thicker, while the pelt is thin, and the head small--a thing of some consequence in most parts of England, where that Scottish luxury, sheep-head broth, is so cordially despised. The best form for a cheviot ram is thus described by Mr Cully, in his excellent work on _Live-Stock_: "His head should be fine and small; his nostrils wide and expanded; his eyes prominent, and rather bold or daring; ears thin; his collar full from his breast and shoulders, but tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join, which should be very fine and graceful, being perfectly free from any coarse leather hanging down; the shoulders broad and full, which must at the same time join so easy to the collar forward and chine backward, as to leave not the least hollow in either place; the mutton upon his arm or fore-thigh must come quite to the knee; his legs upright, with a clean fine bone, being equally clear from superfluous skin and coarse hairy wool from the knee and hough downwards; the breast broad and well forward, which will keep his forelegs at a proper wideness; his girth or chest full and deep, and instead of a hollow behind the shoulders, that part by some called the fore-flank, should be quite full; the back and loins broad, flat, and straight, from which the ribs must rise in a fine circular arch; his belly straight; the quarters long and full, with the mutton quite down to the hough, which should neither stand in nor out; his twist deep, wide and full, which, with the broad breast, will keep his four legs open and upright; the whole body covered with a thin pelt, and that with bright soft wool. The nearer any breed comes up to the above description, the nearer they approach towards excellence of form." As an amusing contrast to this well drawn picture, I give an extract from the work of that ancient agriculturist Columella. "Therefore, the way to judge and approve of a ram, is not only that of observing if he is clothed with a white fleece, but also if his palate and tongue are of the same colour with his wool; for when these parts of his body are black or spotted, there arises a black or speckled offspring. And this, among other things, the same poet I mentioned above, (Virgil, Georg. Lib. iii.) has excellently pointed out in such numbers as these:" "Reject him, tho' the ram himself be white, Under whose ousy palate lies concealed A black or spotted tongue; for with black spots He'll stain the fleeces of his future race." After some amusing remarks on the same subject, delivered in a very quaint way, he concludes his description with the mention of "twisted horns,"--"not because this last is more useful, (for a ram without horns is better,) but because horns that are twisted and bended inwards are not at all so hurtful as those that are set upright and expanded. Nevertheless, in some countries where the climate is wet and windy, we would wish for he-goats and rams even with the very largest horns; because, when they are high and extended, they defend the greatest part of the head from the storm." It is thus that among some of his most beautiful remarks, we have generally a something occurring which upsets the gravity of the whole by its childish absurdity. (93.) _Influence of Sex._--In early ages, the greater share of attention appears to have been bestowed on _male_ domesticated animals, on account of the more numerous offspring of which they would become the parents; and from this, as the Rev. Henry Berry, of Acton Beauchamp, Worcestershire, supposes, (in a valuable essay on the breeding of live stock, published in the _British Farmer's Magazine_,) has originated the prevalent idea, that the male has a more decided influence, than the female, on the form of the progeny. "The ideas entertained respecting the useful qualities of an animal would (in former times) be very similar, and lead to the adoption of a general standard of excellence, towards which it would be required that each male should approximate; and thus there would exist, among what may be termed fashionable sires, a corresponding form and character, different from, and superior to, those of the general stock of the country. This form and character would, in most instances, have been acquired by _perseverance in breeding from animals which possessed the important or fancied requisites_, and might, therefore, be said to be almost _confirmed_ in such individuals. Under these circumstances, striking results would doubtless follow the introduction of these sires to a common stock; results which would lead superficial observers to remark, that individual sires possessed properties as _males_, which, in fact, were only assignable to them as _improved_ animals." In general, the qualities of the male and female parents are visible to an equal extent in the offspring, as is well exemplified among horses, in the mixture of the blood and cart breed, where the great difference in form and character is nicely blended; but, occasionally, the peculiarities of the male, or female, are visible only on some particular part of the offspring, as in the crossing of the Merino ram with the Ryeland ewe, when the former affects the fleece, and the latter the carcass. Though there are many opinions as to the comparative influence of the sexes on the progeny, yet, as before stated, the majority of voices represent the male as the more influential. Mr Boswell, in his essay on this subject, published in the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, and in the _Farmer's Magazine_, is decidedly of this opinion, "Being fully convinced of the power of the male on the offspring, I have always accounted it as a loss to put a bad male to a high bred female, and have never done so. I have, however, observed, where the country people have purchased high bred sheep at any sale of mine, and bred from them with the ordinary rams, that the breed very quickly got bad: whereas, when a Bakewell ram had been purchased, I have seen a most remarkable change on the quality of the sheep; and, in several instances, where the ewes (Highlanders) had been tolerable from which they had bred, the cross was so nearly resembling a new Leicester, as to deceive any one who was not a thorough judge." Bewick, the natural historian, supports this opinion when speaking of the original breed of wild cattle, still to be found in a few English and Scottish parks. They are uniformly pure white, with black or red ears and noses. He says, that cows, when in season, used often to be turned into the park at Chillingham Castle, in Northumberland, and that, when covered by the wild bull, _all their produce was uniformly white, with red ears and noses_. On the other hand, the female is, also, prevalently believed to have some share in the matter, and much may be adduced as evidence of its power over the form of the offspring, equally authentic with the former. Mr Ferguson, in a paper on live-stock, in the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, relates the following apposite and amusing story:-- "Naturalists are, I believe, nearly agreed, that the influence of the male exceeds that of the female in communicating qualities to the offspring, and a very providential arrangement it is, in respect that good points may be thus diffused with far more rapidity than could otherwise occur. The choice of the female is by no means, however, a matter of indifference, and it is only by due attention to both that perfection can be looked for. I recollect several years ago, at a distinguished breeder's in Northumberland, meeting with a shrewd Scottish borderer, (indeed, if report be true, the original and identical Dandy Dinmont,) who, after admiring, with a considerable _spice of national pique_, a very fine short-horn bull, demanded anxiously to see the dam. The cow having been accordingly produced, and having undergone a regular survey, Dandy vociferated, with characteristic _pith_, '_I think naething o' your bull now, wi' sic a caumb_;' and, unquestionably, the mould or '_caumb_' must have its own share in producing shapes, though in his haste to detract, (as he thought,) from the merits of the bull, poor Dandy totally overlooked the additional compliment paid to the judgment of the '_Southron_.'" It is in general supposed, that if the female be by descent small, that the length of the legs of the issue will not be influenced by the male. The weight of the carcass is a good deal affected by the male, but not so much as by the female. The impressions of one or other, especially of the male, do not cease on the birth of the fruits of a connection, for though he may have no further meeting with that female, yet are the succeeding offspring tinged with his peculiar colour, or modelled after his form. This is well illustrated by a fact which came under the notice of the Earl of Morton. His lordship bred from a male quagga and a mare of seven-eights Arabian blood, a female hybrid, displaying in form and colour her mixed origin. The mare was then given to Sir Gore Ouseley, who bred from her first a filly and afterwards a colt, by a fine black Arabian horse, but both these, in their colour and in the hair of their manes, strongly resembled the quagga. This isolated fact would be, however, but of small value if unsupported by others, which are luckily now of common occurrence, among which the following tends strongly to its corroboration:--In the _Philosophical Transactions_ for 1821, Dr Wollaston relates that D. Giles, Esq., had a sow of the black and white kind, which, after littering by a chestnut boar of the wild breed, was put, some time after the death of this, to boars of quite a different variety, yet the offspring were covered with chestnut marks, so as closely to resemble the long-departed animal. The progeny of most domesticated animals often bear a striking resemblance to the grandmother or grandfather, and it is well known that the desired changes cannot be effected on a breed, or that the desired breed cannot be produced, till the third, fourth, or even the fifth crossing, so that the importance of having few defects in a stock will be readily admitted, seeing their debasing consequences are carried through whole generations, and that though absent in one remove, yet that they may appear in the next. Both sire and dam should be chosen as free from defects as possible, a thing often neglected in rearing domestic animals, especially horses, where the opinion is in vogue, that no matter how debilitated and worn out may be the dam, yet that if coupled with a young and perfect sire, a healthy handsome offspring will be the issue; than which idea nothing can be more absurd, as such animals, if left to nature, would seldom or never come in contact, owing to the one party never attaining a decrepit age, but perishing on its verge. (94.) _The sex of the progeny is supposed to be the result of the relative ages of the parents_; thus, issue from a young male and an old female will in general be feminine, while that from an old male and a young female will generally be masculine; and it has been proposed to turn this, apparently a law of nature, to account, in the management of flocks, as it must often be of consequence to obtain, at will, a considerable increase of the sex most wanted. On this subject there will be found an interesting paper in the first number of the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, entitled, "A method of obtaining a greater number of One Sex at the option of the Proprietor, in the Breeding of Live-Stock," and from this I extract the following:-- "In the _Annales de l'Agriculture Française_, Vols. xxxvii. and xxxviii., some very interesting experiments are recorded, which have lately been made in France, on the breeding of live-stock. M. Charles Girou de Buzareingues proposed, at a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Séverac, on the 3d of July, 1826, to divide a flock of sheep into two equal parts, so that a greater number of males or females, at the choice of the proprietor, should be produced from each of them. Two of the members of the society offered their flocks to become the subjects of his experiments, and the results have now been communicated, which are in accordance with the author's expectations. "The first experiment was conducted in the following manner:--He recommended very young rams to be put to the flock of ewes from which the proprietor wished the greater number of females in their offspring and also, that during the season when the rams were with the ewes, they should have more abundant pasture than the other; while to the flock from which the proprietor wished to obtain male lambs chiefly, he recommended him to put strong and vigorous rams, four or five years old. The following tabular view contains the result of his experiment:-- +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | Flock for female lambs. | Flock for male lambs. | +---------------------+------------+----------------------+-----------+ | Age of the mothers. |Sex of the | Age of the mothers. |Sex of the | | | Lambs. | | Lambs. | |---------------------+------+-----+----------------------+------+----+ | |Males.| Fem.| |Males.|Fem.| |Two years, | 14 | 26 |Two years, | 7 | 3 | |Three years, | 16 | 29 |Three years, | 15 | 14 | |Four years, | 5 | 21 |Four years, | 33 | 14 | | | -- | -- | | -- | -- | | Total, | 35 | 76 | Total, | 55 | 31 | |Five years and older,| 18 | 8 |Five years and older, | 25 | 24 | | | -- | -- | | -- | -- | | Total, | 53 | 84 | Total, | 80 | 55 | | | | |N.B.--There were three twin-births|N.B.--There were no twin-births | |in this flock. Two rams |in this flock. Two strong | |served it; one fifteen months, |rams, one four, the other five | |the other nearly two years old. |years old, served it. | +----------------------------------+----------------------------------+ "The general law, as far as we are able to detect it, seems to be, that when animals are in good condition, plentifully supplied with food, and kept from breeding as fast as they might do, they are most likely to produce females. Or, in other words, when a race of animals is in circumstances favourable for its increase, Nature produces the greatest number of that sex which, in animals that do not pair, is most efficient for increasing the number of the race. But if they are in a bad climate, or on a stinted pasture, or if they have already given birth to a numerous offspring, then Nature, setting limits to the increase of the race, produces more males than females. Yet, perhaps, it may be premature to attempt to deduce any law from experiments which have not yet been sufficiently extended. M. Girou is disposed to ascribe much of the effect to the age of the ram, independent of the condition of the ewe." CHAPTER V. MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. (95.) Those who have attended to the subject are well aware, that the profitable management of livestock is the most difficult department in the business of a farm. So much depends on the nature of the locality where sheep are kept, and on its situation in regard to markets for the disposal of its produce, that little but what is of general application need be written on this head. Precise rules for agricultural conduct can seldom be laid down with any probability of their being followed, as it must necessarily vary less or more with the peculiar circumstances of the estate, and must, therefore, to a great extent, be trusted to the intelligence of the farmer. All, therefore, that I shall aim at in treating of this division, will be the giving an outline of the more important matters connected with sheep-husbandry, leaving the tyro to use it as circumstances may point out. For obvious reasons, a natural arrangement of the subject is the best; and to this, therefore, I shall, as much as possible, adhere. (96.) _Putting Tups to Ewes._ The middle of November is the time at which this is usually done, but the season is anticipated or delayed according as the spring provender is expected to be early or late, plentiful or scarce. When the sheep are spread over a wide track, one ram is in general allotted to thirty ewes; but when the latter are on a limited range of pasture, the proportion of one to fifty may be reckoned ample. The rams ought not to be left with the ewes above four or five weeks, as it does not do to have lambs dropped after the middle of May; indeed much trouble will be saved to the shepherd if he can contrive to have all the lambs yeaned about the same time, as the flock will, from its numbers being of a similar standing, be healthier, and every way easier to manage, than one in which there is a great diversity of ages. Such ewes, therefore, as have not evinced an inclination for the male, ought, before the above period has elapsed, to be driven into a barn or small inclosure, and made to run about till they have become a little heated, after which, when the ram is introduced, the desired effect will doubtless follow. Delay will in many cases be unavoidable, owing to the ewes being in too high condition; but this the shepherd should try to obviate, by administering one or two doses of Epsom salts, which, by reducing the plethora, will increase the activity of the animal, and render it in many ways more prone to pregnancy. As it is an object of some importance to retard the yeaning of gimmer hogs till the spring be well advanced, the rams are never sent to them till a fortnight after they have been put to the older ewes. Much nicety is always required in choosing the time at which rams mould be put to gimmers, as they are in general sorry nurses, and sure, in bad seasons, to lose many lambs. When a farm is provided with suitable enclosures, careful selection of both ewes and rams should always be attended to, taking care to make the good points of the one remedy the defects of the other; but where a farm is destitute of such accommodation, the next best plan is to send the finest rams to the ewes for a few days before the rest of the males are admitted. Great ewes ought always to be well looked after. The driest and best sheltered fields should be set apart for them, and turnips, when forming part of their food, should, when they are about to yean, always be carted to their pasture. When they roll _awald_, and cannot regain their feet, prompt assistance should be afforded them, else they will soon die. Death in this case occurs from suffocation, though the morbid appearances exhibited by the carcass are frequently mistaken for those of braxy. Udder locking ought never to be attempted, as it often leads to abortion, and is, besides, not of the slightest utility. (97.) _Early Lambs._ Though in the greater number of our breeds the arrival of the rutting season is fixed and regular, yet there are several in which pregnancy may, by proper management, be induced at any period. Of these the Dorsetshire and Wicklow varieties are the most noted, and are on this account selected for the rearing of house-lambs in the vicinity of towns, the inhabitants of which are opulent enough to create a demand for so expensive an article. The beginning of June is the time chosen for the admission of the rams, so that by the month of January the greater proportion of the ewes have yeaned. According to the plan pursued in Middlesex, "The sheep, which begin to lamb about Michaelmas, are kept in the close during the day, and in the house during the night, until they have produced twenty or thirty lambs. These lambs are then put into a lamb-house, which is kept constantly well littered with clean wheat straw; and chalk, both in lump and in powder, is provided for them to lick, in order to prevent looseness, and thereby preserve the lambs in health. As a prevention against gnawing the boards, or eating each other's wool, a little wheat straw is placed, with the ears downwards, in a rack within their reach, with which they amuse themselves, and of which they eat a small quantity. In this house they are kept with great care and attention until fit for the butcher. "The mothers of the lambs are turned, every night at eight o'clock, into the lamb-house to their offspring. At six o'clock in the morning these mothers are separated from their lambs, and turned into the pastures; and, at eight o'clock, such ewes as have lost their own lambs, and those ewes whose lambs are sold, are brought in and held by the head till the lambs by turns suck them clean: they are then turned into the pasture; and at twelve o'clock, the mothers of the lambs are driven from the pasture into the lamb-house for an hour, in the course of which time each lamb is suckled by its mother. At four o'clock, all the ewes that have not lambs of their own are again brought to the lamb-house, and held for the lambs to suck; and at eight, the mothers of the lambs are brought to them for the night. "This method of suckling is continued all the year. The breeders select such of the lambs as become fat enough, and of proper age (about eight weeks old) for slaughter, and send them to the market during December and three or four succeeding months, at prices which vary from one guinea to four, and the rest of the year at about two guineas each. This is severe work for the ewes, and some of them die from exhaustion. However, care is taken that they have plenty of food; for when green food (viz. turnips, cole, rye, tares, clover, &c.) begins to fail, brewers' grains are given them in troughs, and second-crop hay in racks, as well to support the ewes as to supply the lambs with plenty of milk; for if that should not be abundant, the lambs would become stunted, in which case no food would fatten them. "A lamb-house to suckle from one hundred and sixty to one hundred and eighty lambs at a time, should be seventy feet long and eighteen feet broad, with three coops of different sizes at each end, and so constructed as to divide the lambs according to their ages."[19] [19] Middlesex Report, p. 355. In the county of Wicklow it is the practice to divide the twenty-four hours by four equal periods, and to feed the lambs with ewe's milk and cow's milk alternately. When commencing with cow's milk, a quarter of a pint is given, twice a-day, to each lamb, and this is gradually increased to a pint, exclusive of the milk from the ewe. This method of feeding has been cavilled at, but I think unjustly, as the ewe is thus saved from the bad effects of exhaustion, and the lambs are fit for the butcher when six weeks old, or sooner. (98.) _Lambing time._ When the ewes begin to drop their lambs, a time which ordinarily happens in the first or second week of April, but which, in other modes of management, must be dated twenty-two weeks after the tupping season, the shepherd has many calls upon his skill and watchfulness. In bad seasons, sheep are apt to prove unkind to their offspring, and none more so than the Cheviots. In this event, the best pastures should be selected for them, or turnips may be carted to them; but as gimmer hogs are often quite incapable of furnishing the necessary quantity of milk, the shepherd ought always to be provided with a bottle of milk, which he should drop from his own mouth into that of any lambs which may require it. Such mothers as appear to suffer in bringing forth, should be relieved with the utmost gentleness; and when a miscarriage occurs, if the weather be at the same time unfavourable, the dam ought to receive the shelter of a roof. When the ewe is lost in yeaning, her lamb, if it survive her, must be reared by another dam. Some little artifice is always necessary to induce a ewe to adopt the offspring of another. Covering the lamb with the skin of her own dead one, is sometimes resorted to, but this is hardly required, as any dam will take to another's offspring if the parties be shut up for some time together. Ewes that are late in lambing should be collected together, so as to be more under the care of the shepherd, and ought to be well fed, for the sake of bringing forward their lambs. Those lambs which are very far behind the rest must be prepared for the butcher, as they would make but a poor figure at the Lammas sales. (99.) _Washing._ The time for clipping varies much, being earlier in seasons which have been preceded by favourable weather and an unstinted allowance of food, than in such as have followed a rigorous winter, disease, or any other cause calculated to arrest the growth of wool. The season may be said to be limited by the middle of May and the middle of July; but this should not be taken as a rule of conduct, the best guide being the state of the new coat, which ought always to be well above the skin before shearing is attempted. The wool, unless among some mountain flocks, is always, in this country, washed prior to its removal from the sheep's back; but in Spain that operation is always deferred till the fleeces have been collected, when they are subjected to a thorough scouring, in public buildings appropriated to the purpose, and termed _lavatories_. This is a plan in many respects superior to ours. Its adoption by our farmers has been recommended by Dr Parry. There cannot be a doubt of its being the preferable mode as regards the saving it would effect in the lives of sheep; but as it is well known that shearing is much facilitated by washing, and that on the neatness with which the clipping is accomplished the quality of the succeeding crop in a great measure depends, some little time will be necessary to determine the comparative value of either mode. In New South Wales it is customary to make the sheep swim across a stream for two or three mornings before being washed, by which means the yolk is softened, and the removal of grease and dirt much promoted; but this, though a good plan in that mild and even climate, could not be looked upon as safe in a temperature so variable as that of Britain. In cases however, where great nicety is required, the plan in vogue in the former country, that of dipping each sheep, before washing, into a caldron of warm water, might be beneficially adopted. Mountain sheep are cleaned by being forced to swim across a pool, but the finer or lowland breeds are washed entirely by the hand. The latter method alone demands a short explanation. Dry, and, if possible, sunny weather, is selected for the operation, on the morning of which the lambs are separated from the flock, and the latter is conveyed to the margin of some pebbly-bottomed pool. Here they are penned or otherwise kept together, while they are seized, one by one, by a man standing mid-thigh deep near the water-edge, and turned back downwards, the head alone being above the surface. Plate V. fig. 1.[20] It is then turned from side to side, and moved backwards and forwards, so as to make the wool catch upon the stream and wave about. When the first washer has held it for a few minutes, and partially cleansed the fleece, he passes it _up the river_ to the next, who goes through the same routine, and, on being convinced that the skin is free from filth, compels the sheep to land by swimming in an oblique direction up the water. Three and even four men are sometimes employed in washing sheep, but two, as here described, will, under ordinary circumstances, be found sufficient. The bank on which the dripping sheep are collected, should have a clean and firm turf, and the flock should, till fairly dry and fit for shearing, be kept on heavy grass land, or, what is better, in straw-bedded folds. [20] For the figures 1, 2 and 3 in Plate V. I am indebted to the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_ for 1832, p. 869. (100.) _Shearing._ After allowing eight days, off or on, to elapse from the time of washing, so as to permit the wool to gain a fresh supply of yolk, and along with it lustre and elasticity, the sheep may be stripped of its fleece. As there is no saving in employing an unskilful clipper, every encouragement should be given to induce servants to cut close, smoothly and evenly, and to avoid injuring the skin, or going twice over the same part. There are two ways in this country of depriving sheep of their wool. In the first, or coarser method, which is only adopted in the case of Cheviot and heath sheep, the operator sits upon the ground, and placing the animal on its back between his knees, shears the wool first from the belly and legs, and then, after tying the latter, proceeds to clear the back. In the second method, the legs are never tied, as the disposition of the sheep is such as to render it unnecessary. The animal is placed as in Fig. 2, Plate V., and the shearer clips first one side, cutting from the middle of the belly to that of the back, down to the loins. It is then placed on its side, as in Fig, 3, Plate V., the knee of the operator pressing on its neck, and the wool is removed from the legs and buttocks. The fleece is next rolled up, with the cut side outwards, commencing at the tail, and using the wool of the other extremity as a fastening for the bundle. A cool dry apartment should be selected in which to store the wool, always remembering that _heat_ and _damp_ are equally injurious to it, and that the greater the perfection in which it retains its _natural oily moisture_, the more valuable will it prove both to the grower and the manufacturer. (101.) _Weaning_, where milking is not practised, ought to be set about in the end of July or beginning of August. In some places the ewe lambs are never speaned, but allowed to go at large with their mothers; and though by this plan the dam is apt to be kept in poor condition, yet is this counterbalanced by the comparative freedom of the hogs from braxy. As an improvement, however, the gimmer lambs may be withheld for a fortnight from their mothers, and at the end of that time may be permitted to pasture with them. In the few places where the farmer continues to manufacture ewe-milk cheese and butter, speaning is carried into effect somewhat earlier, and is of course attended, in the long run, with no little detriment to the stock and its proprietor. The sooner that the practice be laid aside the better; for though ewe-milk cheese is pretty universally relished and admired, yet those who are acquainted with the scenes which happen at the bughts, know well that the cheese itself cannot but contain much, the mere mention of which would pall at once the appetite even of the least fastidious. In addition to this, a great waste of grass is occasioned by the sheep going to and from the bught, while the inconveniences they are on every hand exposed to, at a season when they are peculiarly liable to disease and accident, ought of themselves to lead to the abolition of the practice. When the udders of the ewes appear, after their separation from the lambs, to be much distended, they may be once or twice milked, to prevent bad consequences; but it is much better to obviate the necessity for this, by reducing their allowance of food for a few days. When the animal seems to suffer much irritation about the udder, it will always be safe to give a brisk dose of any of the common saline purgatives. The store lambs are at this period sent to good pasture, or, where the farm cannot afford it, are _summered_ at a distance; that is to say, the farmer pays so much a head for permission to feed his flock, during a couple of months, on another person's ground, at the end of which period they are turned upon the pasture which has just been vacated by the gimmers, they having been sent to join the older ewes. (102.) _Smearing_, in those places where it is still carried on, is performed in two ways, according to the quality of the wool. _Slipping_, as the one method is termed, is only employed in high, wet districts, where the sheep are covered with long wool; while _rolling_, as the other is usually called, is only required for such as, in dry situations, are surrounded by a short close pile. In pursuing the former plan, the smearer takes up the mixture on the forefinger of his right hand, and while holding the locks of wool apart with his arms and left hand, allows the salve to drop into the groove or shed, along which it is spread by the other fingers. In _rolling_, a small quantity only of smearing stuff is raised on the _point_ of the forefinger, with which it is laid evenly upon the skin. This is by far the neater way of salving, as less of the ointment is permitted to get upon the wool; but as it is altogether a tardier process, it is not so frequently resorted to. November is the month usually chosen for this operation, but as it cannot be properly done unless the day fixed upon has been preceded by dry weather, the time ought rather to be selected by the aspect of the season. The composition of smearing stuffs is so very various, that it is quite beyond my power to give the reader even a list of the ordinary ingredients and their proportions; nor need I recommend any of them in particular to the attention of the shepherd, knowing, as I do, the bigoted opinions which are held upon the subject, and the aversion with which every one regards a mixture not of their own composing. I can only observe, that where tar is employed, it ought to be well diluted with grease, so as to enable two English quarts of it to be spread over six sheep. In this way it will be less liable to adhere to the wool, and will be much more readily laid upon the skin. When sheep are salved without due attention to the even spreading of the mixture, the insects with which the skin is infested are, instead of being destroyed, allowed here and there a resting place; and as the severity of their attack is in proportion to the limited nature of their range, the skin at these points soon becomes crusted with scabs. The smaller the quantity of tar employed, as consistent with the keeping down of vermin, so much the better, as the wool is of more value to the manufacturer, the sheep is saved the discomfort of having its fleece plastered and matted, and the shepherd is spared the vexation of losing lambs through their inability to reach an udder surrounded by locks of hard and tangled wool. (103.) _Fatting._ The age at which sheep are prepared for the butcher depends upon the breed, its situation, and its propensity to take on fat. The heath sheep may be considered as requiring to be the greatest length of time in the hands of the farmer, and the Leicesters as the reverse; wethers of the former variety being usually disposed off when from three to four years old, and ewes when from four to five; while wethers of the latter kind are fit for market often at eighteen months, and the ewes are in general fed off after the third year. Sheep, in spring and autumn, are peculiarly liable to diseases of the intestines, a circumstance mainly to be ascribed to the changes which are, in these seasons, constantly occurring in the nature of their food. Much of this is owing to careless management in the economy of the pastures, and to restricting them for great lengths of time to one kind of provender, a thing guarded against by all good breeders. Sudden transitions, however, from a poor to a nutritive pasture, and the reverse, are always bad, and therefore to be avoided; but change of feeding ground, with these restrictions, cannot be too much inculcated--it is, in fact, the soul of sheep husbandry. The bleakest portions of a farm should be pastured off in autumn, so as to reserve the sheltered spots for winter use. The cast ewes may then be drafted off to feed on a more succulent herbage, previous to being penned on turnips. Most of the points worthy of attention in sheep feeding having already been detailed in the article on _Crossing_, I shall only add a few particulars in regard to management on turnips. When sheep are fed on turnips, they are in general confined to a particular portion of the field by nets or hurdles. The latter, when made of Scotch fir, cost about a shilling each; but, when constructed of larch, the price is fourteen-pence. Those made of larch are by far the more durable, and will last three years if kept under cover during summer. Two men are required to set them up, besides a horse and cart to take them to the field, on which account nets have a decided preference, being easy of transportation, and requiring little house-room. Though valuable in windy situations, nets cannot be used to enclose horned sheep, as their heads become entangled with the cords. They will seldom serve for more than three years, but as they cost only threepence per yard, they may be considered as every way cheaper than hurdles. When the turnips allotted to the sheep, which seldom exceed a week's supply, are consumed, another portion of the field is enclosed; while the shells are torn up with a two-pronged hook, and either left there to be consumed by the flock, or carted to another field for the use of sheep not then intended to be fattened. A fresh supply should always be afforded them before the old one is eaten clean, otherwise their fattening will be much retarded. It is usual to allow them at the same time plenty of salt, placed up and down the field in troughs or boxes,[21] and about a ton of hay in the ten or fourteen days, to every hundred sheep; though that number, if supplied with what, and permitted to run about, will consume that quantity in a week. In spring, from half a pound to a pound of oil cake is given daily to each of them, along with turnips. [21] Old casks, wanting ends, form the best of all contrivances for holding salt for sheep, as when laid on their sides, and retained in that position by stakes, they allow the sheep free admission, at the same time that the salt is defended from rain. In places where the cold during spring is any way severe, the Swedish turnip ought always to be preferred for feeding sheep, as from the formation of the upper part of the bulb, water cannot collect within it as it does in other varieties, to their serious injury when frost sets in. Turnips must be cut for such sheep as are shedding their teeth. The mouths of those that refuse to eat them should be examined, that in the event of a tooth being loose or broken it may be removed. Occasionally a sheep will be unable to gnaw a turnip, owing to a peculiar formation of the head, the lower jaw being so very short as to give the profile some resemblance to that of a pig. Such deformed animals are said in this quarter to be _grun_-(ground)-mouthed: I believe from the elongation of the nose suiting them better for poking in the earth than for feeding in the usual way. The fattening of sheep on turnips is much promoted by their having access to a grass field, more especially if it happen to contain whins or heather. It is from want of attention to this that sheep are so liable to disease when eating turnips, for, apart from the benefit that accrues to them from a dry lair, they are enabled to turn their food to better account when consuming bitter herbs. It is no unusual thing for turnip-fed sheep and cattle to become quite lean, as the farmers say, "almost at the lifting," for no other reason than that they have been confined too strictly to one article of diet. They have been denied access to plants containing of all things the one most necessary for the maintenance of their health--_bitter extractive matter_--as it is called by chemists--without a due proportion of which the most nutritious substances cannot be turned to account. "As an essential ingredient in the provender of herbivorous animals, it may, I think, be admitted as a fact, that its importance is _in an inverse ratio_ with the nutritive powers of the food."[22] Thus accounting for the length of time that sheep will continue to thrive on turnips alone. [22] Paris's Pharmacologia, sixth edition, vol. i. p. 147. With all the advantages, however, which accrue to the sheep when on turnips, from the quantity of nutritive matter which these roots contain, its progress when restricted to them frequently falls very far short of the expectations of the owner. In the greater number of instances, also, farmers are unable to account for their want of success in this department, so that I may be excused for endeavouring to point out, at some length, the causes of their failure. To proceed:-- The point in sheep management in which our farmers are most deficient, is turnip-feeding; one upon which most will pique themselves as being perfect, though, speaking guardedly, hardly one man in twenty understands the rudimentary principles on which sheep-feeding should be conducted. They are unacquainted with the habits of the wild animal, and, unlike any other class of men, interest themselves little in the fundamental study of their calling. There is not a showman, or a bird-fancier, but knows to a tittle the peculiarities of the creature that he has in charge, and endeavours, to the best of his ability, to provide such food as its instincts crave. Not so, however, with the store-farmer. He cares not to inquire whether the sheep is naturally calculated to subsist on one kind of nutriment; and if so, whether they will, when left to the exercise of instinct, resort to turnips of their own accord; whether the sheep is usually restricted to confined localities similar to our fields, or is the unrestrained rover over an extensive pasture. Yet it is from investigations of this kind that we are to derive our mode of treating sheep, and are to form plans beneficial to ourselves, from their being, in a manner, improvements upon nature. We find, from a perusal of the works of travellers, and from the anatomical peculiarities of the sheep, that it is fitted for residence in countries precipitous in surface, and scantily supplied with herbage; consequently, it must range over a vast extent of ground for a subsistence, and its food must, owing to the varied features of the country, consist, not of one or of a few plants, but of a most extensive mixture of herbage. Experiment also points out that the deductions from these observations are correct. Sheep, in fact, consume a greater number of plants than any other domestic animal. Linnæus, in examining into this subject, found, by offering fresh plants to such animals, in the ordinary mode of feeding, that horses ate 262 species, and refused 212; cattle ate 276 species, and refused 218; while sheep took 387 species, and only refused 141. We find, too, great difficulty in preventing sheep from springing over the dykes and hedges that we place as boundaries to their rambling habits, yet how seldom do we see the true cause of their determination to set them at defiance. We may partly account for it by considering their analogy to the goat, and their propensity to scale rugged eminences; but I think these movements rather indicate an anxiety to change a pasture already exhausted of variety, for fresh fields, and herbage abounding in that miscellaneous provision which nature apparently reckons essential for them. Shepherds own as much, and will tell you that frequent change of pasture is the soul of sheep husbandry, though they see no reason why sheep should not be kept for many successive weeks on a patch of turnips. They admit the necessity of a frequent shifting in the one case, but deny it in the other. Magendie, a celebrated French physiologist, has shown, by experiment, that it is impossible to keep an animal in a healthy state longer than six weeks on one article of diet, death frequently taking place even before the end of that period; but our sheep-farmers, in happy ignorance of the fact, confine their flocks for months to turnips only. And what, may I ask them, is the consequence of the practice? Why, that it is not unusual to meet with sheep-owners who lose at least one out of every fifteen, and all owing, as may easily be proved, to this mode of management. In the first place, the turnip is a kind of food entirely foreign to the nature of the sheep, and one to which, at first, they evince great repugnance. There are many varieties of sheep incapable of feeding on turnips, owing to the form of the face, the upper-jaw projecting considerably past the lower, hindering the chisel-shaped teeth from being brought to bear upon the root. None of our British breeds certainly have this as a regular feature, nevertheless they are liable to it; and there are few farmers that have not, several times in their lives, met with _grun-mouthed_ sheep, as they are called in Scotland, from their profile resembling that of the pig, and suiting them for poking in earth, rather than for eating in the usual way. Again, if the structure of the sheep's mouth proves that it is not adapted for eating turnips, the composition of the turnip no less satisfactorily shows that it is not calculated as food for sheep. Bitterness is essentially necessary in the food of all herbivorous animals; without it, indeed, they sooner or later fall into ill health. This property is shown by chemists to reside in the extractive matter of plants, which has, therefore, been called _bitter extractive_. The quantity is also found to be in the inverse ratio of the nutritive powers of the plant; that is to say, where the plant abounds in alimentary matter, the proportion of bitter extractive is small, compared with what it is where the former is deficient. Turnips contain a large quantity of matter capable of affording nourishment to the body, but they yield little or none of the bitter principle. In consequence of this, sheep acquire fat rapidly for a time, when placed on turnips; but, experiencing a want of the medicinal bitter, begin with equal rapidity to lose the advantages they so recently gained. Their appetite becomes depraved, and, from being shut out from access to the stomachic intended for them by nature, they take to devouring earth, or any substance capable of serving as a substitute for it. "With regard to the natural use of bitter extractive, it may be laid down as a truth, that it stimulates the stomach,--corrects putrefying and unwholesome nutriment,--promotes tardy digestion,--increases the nutritive powers of those vegetable substances to which it is united,--and furnishes a natural remedy for the deranged functions of the stomach in particular, and through the sympathetic medium of that organ, for the atony of remote parts in general."[23] All, indeed, concur in setting a high value on this constituent of plants--all, with the exception of those whose interests are most deeply concerned in a knowledge of its importance. Farmers, in general, cannot perceive the utility of attending to concerns apparently so trifling, though in the right conduct of these they depend materially for success. Nay, I have known men arguing, that in six weeks they have given ordinary sheep an excellent coating of fat, by keeping them on turnips only; though, on strict inquiry being made into the nature of the field in which they had been penned, it has always turned out that the sheep had access to other things, their owners having wilfully shut their eyes to the true circumstances of the case. Depend on it, no sheep will continue in health during six weeks on turnips alone, much less will it continue throughout that time to take on fat. Much of the mischief attending a want of bitter matter is obviated by the plan of allowing the sheep corn, salt, oilcake, and hay, which, serve, especially the last, as tolerable substitutes for it. Good hay ought always to be plentifully supplied to sheep on turnips, as, from the variety of the plants composing it, it contains much that is not to be found in turnips. Besides, one of the most useful bitters with which we are acquainted (the _Bogbean--Menyanthes Trifoliata_) occurs in meadow hay, and is a plant sufficient of itself to save the animal from the consequences of neglect. Whenever you hear of remarkable instances of sheep becoming quickly fat on turnips, you may safely believe they have had liberty to nibble something in addition to the ordinary provender. They have had access to broom or whins, perhaps only to bushes that are laid as a defence on dykes, or only to the scanty pickings on the edges of fields--still they have by such means in a manner satisfied the craving for bitter aliment, and enabled their stomachs to turn to better account the otherwise unprofitable turnips. Broom is at all times an excellent medicine for sheep, and one which they are partial to, and which ought, therefore, to be placed, if possible, within their reach. [23] Paris's Pharmacologia, vol. i. p. 146. CHAPTER VI. ACCIDENTS AND OPERATIONS. (104.) Sheep being about as liable as other animals to a variety of accidents, it is necessary that the shepherd should possess a competent knowledge of the means which art affords for the remedy of those mishaps. It is from a want of such knowledge that farmers are frequently led to slaughter valuable sheep, though only labouring under the effects of some commonplace disease or accident. If the animal is attended by a professional person, an expense is sure to be incurred nearly equal to the worth of the patient, and in so far as they endeavour to obviate this, by killing the sheep, they are free from blame; but why not rather contrive to save the cost of veterinary attendance, by making themselves conversant with its diseases, and able to prescribe for their own flocks, in which there can be no difficulty, as the remedies are, in the majority of cases, few, simple, and of easy application. In the surgical and medical management of flocks, much mystery has, as in other matters, all along existed; but that fantastic age is well nigh its close, and thanks to the spirit of candid inquiry now abroad, we may hope ere long to boast of valuable information in this department. The spread of correct ideas regarding the nature and treatment of accidents and diseases, has from first to last been prevented by the diffuseness of those who have written on the subject, and by their so clothing it in a mass of verbiage, as to render scarcely intelligible what would otherwise be easy of acquirement. To obviate the liability to a similar charge, the following observations are given as briefly as is consistent with a due regard to the importance of the subject. (105.) _Wounds._ All the wounds which can be inflicted may be classed under the heads of incised, punctured, and lacerated. An incised wound is one made by a cutting instrument, such as a knife or a piece of glass. Punctured wounds are those produced by sharp pointed bodies, such as pins or thorns. Lacerated wounds are those occasioned by blunt bodies, as the teeth of the dog, tearing rather than cutting the flesh. When a sheep has received any of these injuries, the following rules ought to be attended to, and in the order here recommended:-- 1st. Arrest the bleeding, if profuse, and likely to endanger life. 2d. Clip away the wool for a few inches around the injured part. 3d. Remove dirt or other foreign body from the wound. 4th. Bring the separated parts as nearly together as circumstances will at the moment permit, and retain them there by suitable apparatus. (106.) _To stop Bleeding._ Bleeding will, if no large arteries are divided, cease on the free exposure of the surface for a few minutes to the air; but when a large vessel has been cut, more determined means must be had recourse to. Pressure on the bleeding surface and its neighbourhood will in many cases succeed, but this or any similar method is far inferior to that of securing the open vessel by a thread. To accomplish this, the mouth of the vein or artery must be slightly drawn out from the contiguous surface, by means of a small hook, called by surgeons a tenaculum, and easily procured from any blacksmith. While the mouth of the vessel is thus held exposed, an assistant must surround it with a noose of thread, which, on being secured with a double knot, will effectually close it. The thread ought to be of white silk, though any undyed thread, which is firm, round, and capable of standing a pull, will answer the purpose. Care must be taken to place the thread, before tying it, fairly behind the point of the tenaculum, so as to avoid including the instrument within the ligature, a circumstance which would lead to the slipping of the noose and failure of the operation. The hook is now to be withdrawn, and one end of the ligature cut off by scissars within a little of the noose. The remaining threads are allowed to hang out of the wound, so as to admit of their removal when they become loose, which does not, however, take place till the termination of the first four days, and they are frequently retained for a much longer period. At each time the wound is dressed, after the fourth day, the ligatures should be _gently pulled_, or, which is preferable, _twisted_, to disengage them, if at all loose, so that the wound may be more speedily closed. Before proceeding to any operation where bleeding is expected, the operator should provide himself with a few well-waxed threads, each twelve inches long, so that no delay may ensue on a division of large vessels. (107.) _Removal of Extraneous Matter._ Dirt is best removed by washing with a sponge or old linen rag and warm water. Other foreign bodies may in general be extracted by the finger and thumb. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to dilate or enlarge the wound with a fine-edged knife, in order to facilitate the removal of substances which, from their shape or situation, cannot be otherwise displaced. (108.) _Closure of a Wound._ The last thing to be done is to bring the edges of the wound into as accurate contact as the state of the parts will at the moment permit, without, however, using any force. This, with a little care, is readily accomplished, the only difficulty being to retain them in the desired position. They may be held in contact either by _stitches_, (sutures,) _plasters_, or _bandages_, or by a union of the three. Stitches are only required when the wound gapes to a considerable extent, as it will always do when running across a muscle. They may be applied in the following manner. Transfix one side of the wound with a curved needle (armed with a well waxed thread) forcing the needle _from without_ obliquely towards the bottom of the wound, then carry it through the opposite side _from within_, taking care to bring it out about the same distance from the edge as that at which it entered on the other margin. The needle must now be removed, by cutting the threads close to its eye, and while the ends are allowed to hang loose, the same operation should be repeated, at the distance of an inch or an inch and a half from the first stitch, as often as the length of the wound may render necessary. Your assistant will now bring the sides of the wound together as accurately as possible, and retain them there till you have tied the corresponding ends of the threads in a double knot. (109.) _Bandaging._ Adhesive plaster is in some instances of service, but upon the whole ought rather to be dispensed with, being of difficult application, and moreover tending to the accumulation of filth and the discomfort of the animal. Nothing will be found to serve the purpose of supporting the parts so well as a properly adjusted bandage, which is useful in every instance, and sure to stay on if sewed here and there to the fleece. The bandage should never be omitted where the wound has any tendency to gape, as too great a strain upon the stitches cannot but lead to delay in the healing process. In bandaging a limb or part of a limb, commence _always at the foot_, and proceed upwards; in other parts of the body begin where you find it most convenient. Before applying a bandage to an injured surface, a couple of pieces of old linen of cotton rag should be folded into pads or compresses, and laid _one on each side of the cut_, and over these the bandage should be rolled, evenly and with moderate and uniform firmness. By this plan the separated surfaces are supported and preserved in close juxtaposition, especially at the bottom of the wound, a thing of some importance where the cavity is deep. Transverse cuts of the limbs of sheep require more careful and more complicated treatment than cuts in other parts, as there is a constant tendency of the edges to retract. This retraction of the edges may be in some degree obviated by the application of a splint, which may be made of a slip of stiff leather (such as is used for saddle flaps) well wetted, so as to be easily adapted to the form of the limb. It is intended to impede the motion of the leg, which occasions the gaping of the wound, and must therefore be made to pass over one or more joints as circumstances may require. Tow must be laid along the surface (a sound one if possible) on which the leather is to be placed, and a bandage then rolled over it so as to make all secure. (110.) _Clean cuts_, as every one knows, heal readily in a healthy animal, seldom demanding above three dressings; lacerations, on the other hand, require a longer period for their reparation, inasmuch as the process which nature goes through is more complicated. In the former, the parts are speedily glued together, so soon almost as in contact, and the union is generally complete within the first thirty-six hours. Not so, however, with the latter. Here the parts are bruised, torn, and perhaps to a considerable extent awanting. Some of the bruised portions may die, and are of course to be renewed. This is a process requiring a great effort on the part of the vital powers, which are often inadequate to the task, and on this account we ought, when the injury is severe, to sacrifice the animal rather than run the risk of its dying during the process of the attempted cure. To replace the lost part, suppuration, or the formation of _matter_ commences; while under cover of this, a crop of fleshy particles (granulations) rise to fill the vacancy. Granulations are best promoted by warm emollient applications, such as poultices of oatmeal, linseed-meal, or barley-flour, which ought to be frequently renewed to prevent their becoming cold or dry. When the granulations become too luxuriant, and rise, as they are apt to do, above the level of the skin, the poultices must be laid aside, the sore washed once or twice a-day with a _solution_ of sulphate of copper (made by dissolving two or three drachms of blue vitriol in an English pint of soft water), and covered carefully over with a pledget of fine tow, spread with lard, or any simple ointment, by which means, conjoined with cleanliness, a cure will easily be accomplished. (111.) _Punctured Wounds._ The orifice being small in these, and the depth considerable, the sides are apt to adhere irregularly, and prevent the free escape of matter, which is certain to collect at the bottom. To avoid such occurrences, it is in many cases proper to convert a punctured into an incised wound. When, from neglecting this, the matter is denied an outlet, an incision must be made to allow it to escape, otherwise much harm will ensue from its burrowing between the different textures. Fomentations will also here be serviceable, and should be preferred to poultices. To apply them, place well-boiled meadow hay, when very hot and moist, within a fold of old blanket or woollen cloth, and lay it on the injured parts, taking care to renew the heat frequently, by dipping the bundle in the hot decoction. (112.) _Bruises and Sprains._ These, unless severe, need not be interfered with. When the shepherd, however, considers it necessary to make any application, he cannot do better than foment the part for an hour or so with meadow hay, in the same manner as recommended for punctured wounds. (113.) _Wounds of Joints._ Such wounds are highly dangerous and apt to baffle the most experienced. _The grand object in every case, however, where a cure is attempted, is to produce a speedy union of the wound, as directed in_ (108) to (109). If the injury be extensive, the best thing the farmer can do is to slaughter the animal. (114.) _Poisoned Wounds._ It is said that sheep are sometimes bitten by snakes, and strange stories are told of their milk being sucked by these reptiles. In such a case but small dependence can be placed on any inward treatment, beyond the administration of one or two full doses of castor oil. If the bite can be discovered, the part should be frequently fomented with a decoction of meadow hay and foxglove (_fairy-cap_ of the Irish, and _bluidy-finger_ of the Scotch). (115.) _Fractures._ If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone being simply broken, the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, as recommended at (109), taking care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, you cannot do better than open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the size and condition of the animal and the urgency of the symptoms. The exhibition of purgatives should never be neglected. Epsom salt, in one ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three weeks to a month, the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone protruding, recovery is very uncertain, and it will become a question whether it would not be better at once to convert the animal into mutton; indeed, removal of portions of bone and amputation, of which some well known writers on the surgery of the sheep speak so learnedly and confidently, may be viewed, as, in this case, chimerical, if not absurd. OPERATIONS. (116.) _Cutting Lambs._ Polled sheep should be castrated about the tenth day after birth, but the end of the fifth week is soon enough for horned sheep, as early castration has always a tendency to spoil the beauty of the horns. The risk is always in proportion to the age, therefore no great length of time ought ever to elapse from the period of birth to that of the operation. A large flock of ewes and lambs should never be collected preparatory to cutting, as the latter, from the excitement and crowding, are less likely to recover from the operation. It is much better to take up a small number so soon as they are ready. Instead of driving them about in attempts to secure them, it will be safer to station a person at a division of the fold, who may lay hold of them individually as they are made to pass through slowly. The best method of cutting is to grasp the bag containing the testicles with the left hand, so as to tighten the skin, and push them forward, after which an incision may be made through the skin at the end of the bag, large enough to permit the stones to pass. They may then be removed either by cutting or tearing; the latter plan, however, is the better, as there is little risk of bleeding, which is almost sure to prove troublesome if the former be adopted. At this time a portion of the tail ought to be removed, if it has not been done at an earlier period, as a remedy for pinding. The bleeding will serve to lessen the danger consequent on the previous operation. When all have been operated on, the ewes may be allowed to find their lambs, and the whole conducted _quietly_ to their pasture. (117.) _Blood-letting._ In describing this operation, too much stress is always laid on the importance of opening particular veins, or divisions of a vein, in certain diseases. Such directions are altogether unnecessary, as _it matters not from what part of the animal the blood be drawn, provided it be taken quickly_. Nothing tends so much to the recovery of an animal from a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of the blood from a large orifice. Little _impression_ can be made on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accommodate themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do, as well be dispensed with. Either bleed rapidly or not at all. The nearer the commencement of an ailment, in which you employ bleeding, the operation is resorted to, the greater the chance of its doing good; no time ought, therefore, to be lost in using the lancet, when once it is known to be required. Bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail does very well where no great deal of blood is required, but it is not to be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be opened. These are to be taken in preference to a vein on the leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vein (_f.v._ Fig. 3. Pl. III.) commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw, where it may be felt within two inches of the angle, or opposite the middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be made, the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein, so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make it _rise_. Some prefer opening the jugular vein (_j.v._ Fig. 3. P1.), which commences behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. This vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, being better covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or made to swell. _Stringing_ is the mode commonly resorted to for this end; that is to say a cord is drawn tightly round the neck, close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circulation through the vein, and render it perceptible to the finger. A lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding, though a well-pointed pen knife will do at a pinch. The opening must always be made obliquely, in the direction marked in the cut; but before attempting this, the animal must be secured, by placing it between the operator's legs, with its croup against a wall. The selected vein is then fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand, so as to prevent it rolling or slipping before the lancet. Having fairly entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated, at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which motion it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein. _A prescribed quantity of blood should never be drawn_, for the simple reason that this can never be precisely stated. If the symptoms are urgent, as in all likelihood they will, your best plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is about to fall. When this occurs, run a pin through the edges of the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool. (118.) _Removal of Hydatids from within the head._ This animal, and the symptoms which it causes, I have fully described at (169). Their removal has been attempted in a variety of ways, but the simplest method, and one most likely to succeed, is that followed in this quarter. A couple of incisions, forming when completed the letter T, are made in the integument covering the soft part of the bone under which the hydatid is supposed to be. Two flaps are in this way marked out, and are dissected back so as to expose the skull. The yielding portion of the latter is then pared away, which brings the sac into view. This will be seen alternately to sink and rise, following in this respect the motions of the brain. A moderate-sized needle, slightly curved and filled with thread, is now passed through the exposed portion of the cyst, and the thread allowed to remain. The fluid is thus permitted slowly to escape, and at the same time the sac becomes collapsed, after which it is easily removed by pulling gently at the thread with which it is connected. As good a hold should be taken with the string as possible, and all the water should be allowed to flow out before any attempt is made to extract the remains of the hydatid. To conclude the operation, lay down the flaps of skin in their original position, covering them with a small piece of folded linen smeared with lard, and over all apply a cap. Never try to save the bone which you cut, by turning it back in the form of a lid, for by so doing you will only endanger the life of the animal, which is otherwise in little jeopardy. It will often happen that the hydatid, from being in the interior of the brain, will not be brought into view by the removal of a portion of the skull. In this case the brain must be punctured in order to reach the sac and evacuate its contents. When the skull above the eye is very thin, the disease may be at once ended by cautiously thrusting a short, stout, sharp-pointed piece of steel wire through the skin and bone down towards the centre of the brain, taking care to pull the skin a little to one side before making the puncture, so that on letting it loose the openings in the skull and integument will not be opposite to one another. This plan is much superior to that of thrusting a needle up the nostril, in the manner devised by Mr Hogg, as in his way we are always poking in the dark, in ignorance of the situation of the instrument, and are in all probability doing so much injury to the delicate parts within the nose as to preclude the possibility of recovery. Indeed, I some time ago examined a head on which Mr Hogg's operation had been twice unsuccessfully performed, and found traces of inflammation at the upper part of the nostril severe enough of itself to have occasioned death. The needle had not entered the brain, but the ethmoid was very much injured. I believe the instrument is very seldom pushed more than half way through the bone, at least it never reaches the hydatid, which would appear to be destroyed rather by the inflammatory process which follows the attempt, unfitting the brain for supplying it with the secretions on which it lives, than by any direct injury done to it by the needle. CHAPTER VII. DISEASES OF SHEEP. (119.) There is no department in the management of sheep so little understood as the nature and treatment of their diseases. Every part of the sheep itself has been used, at one time or another, in this country, as medicine for _man_, a folly still prevailing among the boors of Southern Africa, who, according to Thunberg, employ the inner coat of the stomach, dried and powdered, as a safe emetic. Quackish absurdities of so glaring a nature have, however, long been scorned in civilized society. Not so, however, when the sheep is the object of treatment. Scientific innovations have been slow in reaching it, and specimens of barbarian usage are far from rare. We may feel for the benighted credulity which could place reliance, for a rescue from mortal ailment, on the secretions or excretions of a sheep; but we are compelled to laugh on reading, in the _Family Dictionary_, published in 1752, the following:-- "In general, 'tis affirmed that the belly of a sheep boiled in water and wine, and given the sheep to drink, cures several diseases incident to them." Only fancy a farmer dosing a sheep with mutton broth, and adding, for its stomach's sake, a little wine! I suspect the prescriber was, in this instance, putting himself, in point of intellect, far below the level of his patient. Thanks to him, however, for the benefit he has thus unwittingly conferred, by holding ignorance up to the derision it so richly merits; no means being so powerful as broadly-drawn caricatures in exposing the extent of such delusions. Though faith has long since ceased to be reposed in the medicinal virtues of mutton broth, a variety of nostrums have from time to time appeared, the composition and application of which are invaluable for the amount of _negative_ information they are calculated to convey. Further notice of these trashy recipes it is not my intention to take, as a list of them alone would make a volume;--they are in the hands of every one. (120.) _Cautions in prescribing._ Great reliance is in general placed upon prescriptions, which profess to suit diseases in every stage and circumstance.--Than this, however, scarcely any thing can be more absurd. It is an opinion engendered not so much by ignorance as by laziness, a determination not to be put about by thinking of a remedy for the evils which surround us, but, while we contrive to soothe ourselves by doing _something_, to leave every thing to the hit-or-miss practice of charlatans.[24] There are many, who on being informed of the presence of disease in a neighbour's flock, confidently advise the employment of a favourite nostrum, on the empirical supposition that because it cured, or was thought to cure, one flock, it will cure another. Nothing is taken into account saving that, in both cases, the affected animals are sheep; and it is at once concluded, that what benefited one will benefit another. The many niceties in prescribing are never thought of: oh no, that would be of no use! of course it can be of no importance to give a moment's attention to age and sex, pasture and situation, or to leanness or fatness, or to the presence of pregnancy! These are of trifling moment, and only to be despised by a person armed with a recipe, which some one has shown to be capable of walking like a constable through the body, and bearing off the intruder! But enough of this; sufficient has, I think, been said to prove the utter folly of confiding in things of the above nature or intention, and to show that such confidence can lead to nothing but a waste of life and capital. Even though the remedy is a harmless one, it ought (unless calculated from _known_ powers to arrest the disease) to be viewed with distrust, as incurring a loss of time, during which other and better measures might have been resorted to. [24] Whenever we hear a person recommending a medicine of universal virtues, we may safely set him down either for a fool or an impostor. Things which are good for every thing are good for nothing. (121.) _Classification of diseases._[25] As the acquirement of correct ideas regarding the treatment of diseases is much facilitated by a simple arrangement of the diseases themselves, numerous attempts have been made to accomplish it, and in a variety of ways. The best of these tabular views with which I am acquainted is the one laid before the Highland Society some years ago, by Mr Stevenson, who appears to have been the first to publish any thing like a satisfactory classification. His arrangement is, however, defective in several points, more especially as it necessitates the placing in the same division diseases of organs essentially different. Thus he is compelled to admit under "Diseases of the head" _Scabs on the mouth_ side by side with _Sturdy_, and _Louping ill_: in this way mingling affections of the skin with diseases of totally different organs--the brain and spinal marrow--and causing much embarassment to the reader. To obviate this inconvenience, as well as to render the remembrance of the remedies an easy matter, I have adopted the above arrangement, in which each disease is placed opposite the textures it invades. [25] Diseases affecting {Blown or Blast. {Braxy, Sickness, or Blood. The Stomach and {Pining, Daising, Vinquish or Vanquish. Intestines. {Staggers. {Diarrhoea or Rush. {Dysentery, Cling, Breckshaw or { Breckshuach. {Scab or Itch. {Erysipelas or Wild-fire. {Red Water. {Leg Evil or Black-leg.[26] The Skin and {Inflammatory {1. Maggot. Hoofs. { appearances {2. Ked. { caused by the {3. Tick. { {4. OEstrus bovis. {Sore Teats. {Foot-rot. {Inflammation {1. OEstrus ovis. The Air Passages. { caused {2. Pentastoma. { by the {3. Strongylus filaria. {Coryza. Glandular tissues,{Rot. --viz. the Lungs, {Jaundice. Liver, & Kidney. {Dropsy. {Sturdy, {1. Hydatids or Bloba. { Gid or Dizzy, {2. Hydrocephalus, or The Brain and { caused by { Water in the Head. Spinal Marrow. {Trembling, Thwarter or Leaping-ill. {Wood Evil. The Eye. {Ophthalmia. {Soft Cancer. [26] Leg evil ought properly to be classed with diseases of the vascular system, being in many instances merely a symptom of disease in the heart or great vessels; but as the same results are arrived at by placing it under the present head, nicer distinctions would only tend to create confusion. (122.) _Blown or Blast._ Can scarcely be reckoned a disease as it is but a symptom caused by a mechanical impediment to respiration and circulation. When a sheep has been brought from a poor pasture to a rich one it is prone to gorge itself to an extent which may endanger life. The lower end of the gullet becomes obstructed, the gases which accumulate in the paunch are hindered from escaping, and the latter becomes so enormously distended as speedily to suffocate the animal by being forced into the chest. (123.) _Treatment[27] of Blown._ If the difficulty in breathing be only slight, keep the sheep moving _gently_ up and down as the air will thus have a chance of escaping from the stomach. If the symptoms are more alarming, pass the elastic tube employed in the same complaint in cattle down the throat, or if that cannot be procured use a cane with an ivory or wooden bullet at the end of it. Never _stick_ the animal, as recovery by this plan is almost hopeless. If you cannot obtain the aforesaid instruments, bleed the animal till it becomes very faint, and if this is of no avail proceed to kill it. Shepherds often prescribe a purgative dose after this occurrence. In general, however, it is not required. To prevent a flock becoming _blown_, always when, for the first time on rich pasture, make the dog move leisurely among them so as to prevent them feeding hastily. [27] In speaking of remedial measures, the word treatment ought to be used in preference to "_cure_" which figures at the head of the medical advice in veterinary works. It is sheer nonsense to blazon such a word in pages having any pretentions to candour, for how seldom are we able conscientiously to affirm that our endeavours will be followed by a _cure_. All we can do is to pursue the _treatment_ best adapted for the attainment of so desirable an end. (124.) _Braxy or Sickness._ Six or eight species of braxy are enumerated by shepherds, but as they all bear a striking resemblance one to another, in their origin and progress, it is preferable to treat of them as one disease. Indeed wire-drawn distinctions, though occasionally serviceable in cattle-medicine, ought in most instances to be avoided, as they are of but little avail, and in this disease straw-splitting can only serve to tantalize the farmer, by giving rise to ideas of finical modes of treatment, which before the Chapter ends are reduced to the simplest aids which medicine affords. Whatever may be the seat or seats of the disease, the identically same resources are employed in all:--why therefore ought the reader to be troubled with a hundred trifling phases, which, not being _essential_ to the malady, can only tend to perplex him in his search for the little that is practically available. (125.) _Symptoms of Braxy._ In those rare cases where the animal is seen at the commencement of the disease, it will appear uneasy, lying down and rising up repeatedly, loathing food, and drinking frequently. In a little while the symptoms become more decided, and fever shows itself. The wool is clapped, the skin hot, the pulse quick and strong, respiration is rapid and laborious, while the blood is thick and black, issuing from the orifice, in attempts at bleeding, drop by drop. Sometimes the heart beats irregularly: the mouth is parched, and the eyes are red, languid, partly closed, and watery. The head is down, the back drawn up, and the belly swollen; there is scarcely any passage through the bowels, the urine is small in quantity, high coloured, and sometimes bloody. The sheep shuns the flock, slowly dragging itself to some retired spot, where convulsed and screaming it shortly dies. Death may occur in a few hours, or may, in some rare cases, be delayed for a week. A fatal termination is not so sudden as some have fancied, since the animal is in general seriously ill for many hours before it is discovered. (126.) _Appearances on dissection._ Though many parts are commonly implicated in the _sickness_, there is every reason for believing the _reed_ to be primarily affected. Inflammatory appearances, and mortification, the usual result of violent inflammation in this quarter, are visible on its coats, especially at the pyloric extremity (Plate I. Fig. 2, _py_.) The inner coat presents a blackish-red, and gelatinous appearance,--the entire bowel being soft, pulpy, and easily permeable to the finger. The intestines, kidneys, and bladder, will, in all probability, exhibit similar changes, while the lining membrane of the abdomen (the _peritoneum_) is frequently affected: when this membrane has been much inflamed, the intestines are glued together, are surrounded with bloody or floculent serum, occasioning before death tumidity of the under part of the belly, and communicating, when struck, a feeling of fluctuation to a hand placed at a distance from the blow. The muscles in various parts of the body frequently participate in the disease, bloody serum being infiltrated between the layers. As the brain, in severe cases, exhibits symptoms of oppression, so on dissection it will be found red and turgid, enabling us to account for the convulsive movements during the termination of the malady. The whole body, more particularly the abdomen, gives out a fetid gangrenous odour, which has procured for braxy the pastoral appéllation of "_stinking ill_" and renders the dissection far from pleasant. After death putrefaction goes on with great rapidity, especially in moist weather, hence the necessity of testing the solidity of the carcass by giving it, as is customary in some parts, _three shakes_ before proceeding to prepare it for household use! (128.) _Causes of Braxy._ Whatever tends to constipate the bowels may be reckoned a predisposing cause. Whenever constipation occurs, especially if on a sickrife pasture, the sheep may be looked upon as ripe for the disease. Any crude indigestible substance, taken into the stomach when the animal is in this state, will have a tendency to kindle braxy, and the liability to it will not only be heightened, but the chances of recovery will also be lessened, by the animal being in high condition. Wedder hogs are peculiarly its victims, but only when hirsled, as when allowed to pasture with their mothers they are less liable to it. This is accounted for by the fact, that hirsled hogs are comparatively _dull_, not being familiar with the proper times for feeding, and incapable of selecting the suitable herbage, from having wanted the tutoring of the mother. From the beginning of November till the middle of March, _sickness_ commits its greatest ravages, especially among heath sheep, from their being more confined than others to dry binding provender. Frozen grass is also a common exciting cause, rapidly inducing inflammation by lowering the temperature of the stomachs so very much as to arrest digestion, and lead to its acting as an irritant. The succulent grass in the sheltered hollows of mountains is more liable to frost than a sapless herbage, and to it, owing to its moisture, the young sheep resort, devouring it eagerly to assuage their thirst. Braxy, however, may arise from other and more obvious causes. The sheep, perhaps when heated by rash dogging, is suddenly chilled by exposure to a shower, or a plunge in a morass, and if the bowels be at the time any way bound up, immediate mischief cannot but ensue. One of the rarest accidents to which it has been attributed is the prevention of the passage of the fæces by a knot, or intussusception, forming on the intestines, but this occurrence would be of difficult discovery, and even if made known, our treatment, though not differing much from that of braxy, could hardly be successful. (128.) _Treatment of Braxy._ Recovery is in many instances almost hopeless, owing to the length of time which in general elapses between the onset of the disease and the shepherd's discovery of the animal. Nevertheless, the best treatment ought in every instance to have a proper trial, as life may often be saved when such a result is least expected. Many plans have been resorted to, but none are found to suit so well as that of bleeding and purging. The first thing to be attempted is the procuring of a copious flow of blood, but, as before mentioned, this is a difficult matter, owing to the stagnant state of the circulation at the surface of the body. Its abstraction may, however, be rendered easy, by placing the sheep in a tub of warm water, or, where this cannot be procured, by rolling a blanket wrung out of hot water round the body of the animal. The tub of water should always be preferred, and the moment the sheep is placed in it, the tail should be nicked, and one or both jugular veins opened. Retain the sheep in the bath for half an hour, adding hot water from time to time, so as to sustain the original temperature. This of itself will alleviate the sufferings of the animal. When a copious flow of blood has been obtained, remove the sheep from the tub, and administer two ounces of Glauber's or Epsom salt, dissolved in warm water, substituting a handful of common salt when these cathartics cannot be procured. It is needless to give a purgative without bleeding, as, till this is done, it will not operate. When in spite of this the bowels continue obstinately constipated, give a glyster of tobacco decoction, made by boiling a drachm of the leaf (the full of a pipe will do) for a few minutes in a pint of water. Half of this only should be injected, using the other if circumstances require it. Place the sheep in a house, or any comfortable situation, bed it with straw, throw a horse-rug over it, and promote the purging by warm gruels. When out of danger supply it with moderate quantities of laxative provender, and keep it for ten days apart from its fellows, by which time it will, in all likelihood, be well recruited. (129.) _Prevention of Braxy._ Change of pasture will at once suggest itself. Let it be to a succulent one, on which old sheep have been for some time feeding; the hogs will thus be hindered from filling their paunches too rapidly. But, if heathy food is the staple provender, allow your sheep four or five hours of turnips in the twenty-four, permitting at the same time free access to common salt. These, from their laxative effects, will serve as antidotes to the dry sapless grasses, which have led to the disease. Such places as mossy soils, abounding in evergreen plants, will also serve the purpose. Burn your ley heather, as nothing is more decidedly prejudicial, not only from its constipating qualities, but also from being surrounded by a grass, which is so much relished by the sheep, that they resort to the spot long after it has been eaten to the quick, and devour in their eagerness much that is foul and unwholesome from frequent puddling. You thus obtain a good supply of sprouts, as invaluable for opening qualities, as the old heather is to be dreaded for its astringency. Finally, be aware that careful herding is not the least efficacious of preventives; a quiet, even-tempered, and thoughtful shepherd, being here of far more value than the stores of the apothecary. (130.) _Pining._ _Symptoms and Causes._ The name has arisen from the rapid wasting, which is a prominent symptom in this complaint. A farm can hardly be subject to a more ruinous distemper, as the same sheep will be affected by it year after year, and if a ewe be attacked during autumn it is ten to one she will not have a lamb in the ensuing season. Pining only seizes on thriving sheep, preferring young ones, those more especially of the larger breeds, and is confined to farms where the land is principally micaceous and covered with occasional stripes of benty grasses. A whole flock sickens at once, their usual alacrity appears to have deserted them, their eyes are dull, and the whole animal seems weary and languid. At a more advanced stage the wool acquires a bluish tinge, the blood becomes thick, diminishing in quantity, and the muscles assume a pale and bloodless appearance. The bowels are constipated, and to this the feverish symptoms apparently owe their origin. If the disease progress, death will ensue in about a month.[28] [28] A gradual wasting of the animal, similar to what occurs in pining, may result from the irritation consequent on swallowing pointed bodies, as pins or needles. I have in my possession a very stout needle, given me by Mr Wilkin of Tinwald Downs, which was found buried in the coats of the stomach of a young sheep which died under the above symptoms, having been ill about three months. (131.) _Treatment and Prevention._ The first object is to obtain a free discharge from the bowels by means of purgatives, as, whenever a flux appears, the animal is safe. Two ounces of Castor oil given in a gruel, or the same quantity of Epsom salts, will do, care being taken that the purging be carried to some length. Removal to a rich pasture is the only preventive. That pasture should be preferred which contains a good proportion of bitter plants, for the emaciation appears to be owing in a considerable degree to torpor of the bowels occasioned by long abstinence from these necessaries. (132.) _Staggers._ The symptoms nearly resemble those of sturdy, which I have afterwards to describe, and with which indeed I might have classed it, were it not that it appears to be merely the result of a poisonous plant being taken into the stomach. It is rarely seen hereabouts; I shall, therefore, quote the account of it presented to the Highland Society by Mr Stevenson:--"This is a disease seldom or never affecting the sheep in this country, those excepted which feed in forests, or amongst planting. The symptoms of it are more violent than those of sturdy, during the time of their continuance. The animal, after staggering for some time, falls on the ground, when a general trembling comes on over the limbs; they are violently convulsed, and quite insensible to every thing. During the continuance of the paroxysm they throw the body into various positions, and sometimes roll to a considerable distance. The fit continues for a quarter, sometimes half an hour, or an hour. When they rise, they seem perfectly bewildered, till they regain the flock, when they continue to feed well, till another paroxysm supervenes. This disease appears in Autumn, and various causes are said to produce it. Improper food, the leaves of the oak, from their astringent quality, cobwebs sprinkled with dew, have all been reckoned as causes. I am inclined, however, to suppose, that it arises from the action of a poisonous grass (_Lolium temulentum_), which is the only one of that description in this country, and grows only in those situations where staggers prevail. What effect these causes have on the brain to produce this disease, I cannot explain. When it continues for any time on the same individual, it is apt to be fatal." "Change of pasture is the only effectual cure for it." (133.) _Diarrhoea._ By this is meant a constant purging, affecting the younger portions of the flock between April and June, leading to great emaciation, and proceeding from one of the following causes. 1st. Eating a soft tathy pasture, particularly if fouled by the inundations of the previous winter. 2d. Feeding on too rich a pasture, or a sudden change from an herbage deficient in nutritive qualities, to one that is much superior. 3d. Transitions from heat to cold. 4th. Weakness and relaxation of the bowels. (134.) _Treatment of Diarrhoea._ When either of the first two causes has given rise to purging, a moderate allowance of good hay will gradually stop it. This may be discontinued when the sheep has _taken_ with its altered fare. When diarrhoea has been occasioned by exposure to damp, or sudden transitions from heat to cold, it may be arrested by keeping the animal in a house for a few days, and feeding it on any dry aliment, but when crude trashy matter has been swallowed, and keeps up irritation by its presence, medicine must be resorted to. Administer an ounce of castor oil in gruel, adding twenty drops of Laudanum if there has been straining or evidences of pain. When the bowels have been _thoroughly cleared_ by this cathartic, it will be proper, if the discharge still continue, to check it by astringents. The medicine found by experience to answer best, is prepared as follows:-- Take of Logwood four ounces, Extract of Catechu (Japan earth) one drachm, Cinnamon two drachms, Water three English pints. Boil for a quarter of an hour, strain, and then add sixty drops of Laudanum. Administer half an English pint of this night and morning so long as the flux continues. Diarrhoea seldom proves fatal, and is indeed an easily managed disease; but as it is frequently only a symptom of some other affection, or a critical effort of the constitution to ward off some more serious mischief, the attempts at stopping it should always be cautiously conducted. (135.) _Dysentery.--Symptoms._ The pulse is quick and the respirations hurried. The skin is harsh and hot, and the wool in general clapped. The mouth is dry, the eyes red and languid, and the ears drooping. Food is taken only in small quantities and rumination is stopped. The discharges from the bowels are frequent, slimy, sometimes green, and a little further on in the disease are mixed with blood. The belly is drawn towards the back. It is knotted and lumpy to the touch and a rumbling noise (_borborygmus_) is heard within it. As a careless observer might have some difficulty in distinguishing dysentery from diarrhoea the following diagnostic summary, drawn up by Professor Duncan, will be found of service. 1. Diarrhoea attacks chiefly hogs and weak gimmers and dinmonts; whereas dysentery is frequent among older sheep. 2. Diarrhoea almost always occurs in the spring, and ceases about June, when dysentery only commences. 3. In diarrhoea there is no fever or tenesmus, or pain before the stools, as in dysentery. 4. In diarrhoea the fæces are loose, but in other respects natural, without any blood or slime; whereas in dysentery, the fæces consists of hard lumps passed occasionally without any blood or slime. 5. There is not that degree of foetor in the fæces in diarrhoea which takes place in dysentery. 6. In dysentery, the appetite is totally gone, in diarrhoea it is rather sharper than usual. 7. In dysentery, the animal wastes rapidly, but by diarrhoea only a temporary stop is put to its thriving, after which it makes rapid advances to strength, vigour and proportion. If dysentery continue to advance it will terminate fatally within a fortnight. Death is generally preceded by the "_black scour_," which is only an aggravation of the purging, the stools being mixed with shreds of dark gangrenous matter from the decomposed interior of the intestines. (136.) _Causes of Dysentery._ Many absurd opinions have gone abroad regarding the contagious nature of this affection. Contagion, however, has nothing to do with the matter, the spread of the disease depending entirely on the state of the atmosphere and the nature of the locality. When dysentery occurs the weather is usually sultry, the ground upon which the flock has been going, foul, and the management of the sheep so improper, as to be sufficient of itself to produce the disease very generally. There is in fact only one proof of a disease being infectious, viz., its immediate occurrence on the introduction of an affected animal among such as are in good health, on sound food, and in easy circumstances. This proof, however, in regard to dysentery has never been established, and no medical person will now affirm that it is contagious. Some think that it travels from flock to flock in the direction of the wind, but its appearing simultaneously in many folds ought rather to be charged to the fact of the predisposing causes being nearly similar in all. (137.) _Treatment of Dysentery._ Bleed freely if the disease has continued only for a few days, but moderately if a longer time has unfortunately elapsed. Stoving, by which is meant shutting the animal in a wash-house, and allowing the apartment to become filled with steam, though urged by some writers, cannot here be recommended. The intended object is the promotion of perspiration, by exciting the action of the skin, but this may be brought about by means much more conducive to the safety of the animal. After the bleeding immerse the sheep in a tub of hot water, and retain it there for twenty minutes; then administer an ounce of Castor oil, with thirty drops of Laudanum, and cover the sheep up in a snug corner. After the oil has operated, thin well-boiled flour-porridge, given at intervals, in small quantities, will help to defend the ulcerated bowels, sooth the pain, and stop the purging. If these fail, you may use the astringent mixture recommended in diarrhoea at page 175, and in the same manner, adding to each dose a grain of ipecacuanha. When the appetite returns, and the stools begin to acquire consistency, speedy recovery may be prognosticated. During recovery part of the wool always falls off. (138.) _Prevention of Dysentery._ If you wish your sheep to take the disease, do as some wiseacres recommend--put tar upon their tails, and noses; you will thus render them feverish, and uncomfortable, and every way fit for an attack. Gathering sheep into confined places is always bad, nothing will tend more to ward off dysentery than an open frequently-changed easy-lying pasture, combined with gentle usage on the part of the shepherd. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. (139.) _Scab, or Itch._--_Symptoms and Causes._ These are so well known that they hardly merit a description. Little white specks appear upon the wool, and are soon followed by a small pustule at the root. The pustules are produced by a minute insect burrowing in the skin, which accounts for one external application of any active substance being sufficient to eradicate the malady. The infected sheep is restless, tearing off the wool with its teeth, and rubbing itself against every resisting body. The skin is red and fretted, discharging an ichor which hardens into crusts. These gradually extend, inducing a premature failure of the wool. If the sheep be not relieved, it sinks under its accumulated miseries. Scab was little known any where, but in the Highlands, and the south of England, till the good old custom of smearing with tar and butter gave way before the elegant modern innovations. Into flocks anointed in the old manner it may be carried by infection, but will seldom or never arise spontaneously among them. It usually commences in spring among hogs, making its first appearance among the rams, especially those of the fine-woolled breeds, and is supposed to be induced by overheating, want, or even excess of nutriment, or pasturing on wet lands in rainy seasons. (140.) _Treatment of Itch._ Subject the flock to a minute examination whenever the movements of any animal excite suspicion, and remove every one that is in the least affected. Place them in a separate enclosure, and apply either of the following recipes. Take of Mercurial Ointment four pounds, Venice Turpentine half a pound, Oil of Turpentine one pint: mix thoroughly. Separate the wool from the head to the tail and draw the fore finger loaded with a portion of the ointment, along the bottom of the groove. Then make lines from the middle of the back down each leg and score them in the same manner, thus concluding the operation. Some farmers prefer rubbing the size of a walnut of the ointment into the delicate skin inside the thigh. The former plan is, however, the better of the two, and is the one recommended by Sir Joseph Banks, who communicated the recipe to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in the 7th volume of whose transactions it was published. A most important benefit to be derived from the application of the mercurial ointment, is the security it affords the sheep from the attack of the sheep fag or ked (_Hippobosca ovina_). The wool of sheep annoyed by this fly always contains joints or knots, owing to the occasional stoppage of its growth consequent on the fretting of the irritated animal. On this account dealers in wool are said to give a higher price for fleeces having the mercurial tinge, as they are supposed to be sound in the pile from having been exempted from the fly. The next prescription is one of very great efficacy where the disease has reached the length of scabs, and has, with many variations, gone the round of almost every agricultural publication. The form I prefer is one submitted to me by Mr Wilkin of Tinwald Downs, near Dumfries, who at one time, several years ago, applied it with immediate good effects, to six hundred infected sheep. Take of Tobacco scrapings one pound, Strong decoction of Broom six gallons: boil for half an hour, and then add three English pints of spirit of tar. This quantity is sufficient to cover two dozen of sheep. The scabs, if large, should be raised a little with a knife to permit the free contact of the fluid, and no more of it should be applied than is here directed; for though it be in this dose comparatively harmless, a very small addition will destroy the animal. A very good French remedy is made by melting a pound of fat or suet, and mixing with it (when off the fire) a fourth part of oil of turpentine. Rub it into the affected parts. Whatever outward means may be employed, laxative medicines ought never to be neglected. One of the best and most generally used, consists of a tea-spoonful of flour of sulphur, given for two or three successive nights in double the quantity of molasses. If ill-conditioned sheep are the victims of itch, convey them to a better pasture, but where the animals are fat, reduce their diet, and give each a dose of Epsom salts. (141.) _Prevention of Itch._ Do not turn a healthy flock on to pasture, from which itchy sheep have recently been driven. If the disease occasionally breaks out on your ground, apply the mercurial ointment at clipping time: and, when you salve, add a pound of sulphur to every tub of smearing composition whatever it may be. (142.) _Erysipelas or wild-fire._ This is an inflammatory affection of the skin, sometimes accompanied by blebs or blisters, occurring in August and September, and spreading rapidly through a flock. Though there is considerable ambiguity in the employment of these terms, I believe they are synonymous with red-water, the disease of which I have next to treat. (143.) _Red-water._ The occurrence of this disease among sheep is very rare. Its nature and treatment are however allowed, by those who have seen it, to be admirably described by Mr Stevenson, in the 3d vol. of the _Highland Society's Transactions_. "This disease commonly makes its appearance about the beginning, or end of winter, and first affects about the breast and belly, although at times it spreads itself over other parts of the body. It consists in an inflammation of the skin, that raises it into blisters which contain a thin, reddish, and watery fluid. These continue for a short time, break, discharge their matter, and are followed by a blackish scab. When the sheep are exposed to cold or wetness, the skin being fretted makes the blisters rise, or they often arise from cold, affecting the animal internally, thus producing a slight fever, which throws out these vesicles on the body, similar to the scabby eruptions, which appear about the face, and more particularly the mouth of those persons affected with cold. The blood in this disease is but little affected, though a little of it oozes into the vesicles on the skin, and communicates to them that reddish tinge, which gives origin to the name. "Red-water is a disease that but seldom appears in this country, and is almost never fatal. In cases where the disease is violent, a little blood should be taken. * * * * The sheep should be placed in a fold by itself, * * * * and the following medicine may be given for three or four mornings successively:-- Take of Flour of Sulphur two ounces, Molasses three ounces: mix them, and divide them into six doses, of which one may be given every morning, in half a pound (half a mutchkin) of warm water. If this is found unsuccessful, half an ounce of nitre, mixed with the foregoing recipe, will be attended with good effects; after which, a dose of salts may be given, and the body washed with lime-water upon the part affected." (144.) _Leg Evil._--_Symptoms and Causes._ Like many other diseases, this is usually supposed to be contagious, merely because it often spreads quickly through a flock; the obvious fact of the exposure of the animals composing it to the same causes, such as peculiar diet and atmospheric variations, being entirely overlooked; but, as I have already remarked in paragraph (136), the only proof of a disease being contagious, is its spreading rapidly on the introduction, from a distance, of an infected individual into a previously-healthy flock. Sheep which acquire fat at an early age, are peculiarly liable to this disease: a sufficient argument, if all others were wanting, against the unnatural and foolish practice of accumulating a load of grease on the bodies of young animals. By so doing, the action of the heart and lungs is materially embarrassed, and, on the animal being chilled, or the balance of its circulation otherwise accidentally deranged, mortification (leg evil) is almost certain to occur. Even simple scratches are often fatal in these over-fat animals, from inducing gangrene. The first intimation the shepherd has of the approach of leg evil, is the occurrence of fever and lameness, accompanied by blue or livid patches on the leg, generally about the upper part of the hoof or knee. The skin on the affected parts, in a few days, exhibits scattered vesicles, not unlike the blebs which form in erysipelas; it then gives way, and the parts beneath are seen of a darker tinge, soft, pulpy, and completely gangrenous. Leg evil may prove fatal in a few days, or not for several weeks, much depending on the extent of the sloughing portions, which may include the entire leg, or legs, or may be limited to a single patch. (145.) _Treatment of Leg Evil._ When the animal is in high condition, and the disease has arisen spontaneously, bleeding is the first thing to be thought of. It must, however, be conducted cautiously, it being better to use the lancet a second time, than, by withdrawing too much blood, to reduce the vital powers below the standard which is necessary for replacing the gangrenous portions. Should a leg be affected to any extent, the sheep must be at once destroyed, as there is scarcely a possibility of its surviving, without a degree of care and nicety in the treatment, which it is beyond the power of unprofessional persons to bestow. Where the livid spots are limited, rags dipped in spirit of turpentine, which has been heated by immersing the bottle containing it in hot water, may be laid upon the skin; but when dead portions have begun to separate, the best application is either a warm poultice, made of carrots, which have been boiled and mashed, or one made of boiled oatmeal, which has been fermented by adding to it a table-spoonful of yeast, and placing it for an hour before a fire. When the sore is becoming clean, and the granulations are rising freely, pursue the methods recommended in paragraph (110). (146.) _Prevention of Leg Evil._ Remove the diseased animals from the flock, and, in dressing their sores, never use a sponge, or any thing which, from its value, is apt to be preserved, and, perhaps, applied in no long time to the cuts or scratches of a healthy animal; for, though leg evil is not communicable by ordinary means, yet is it readily excited by inoculation, or the application of putrid matter to a broken surface. If the odour from the affected parts is any way offensive, wash them with, and sprinkle round the fold, either a weak solution of _chloride of lime_, or the disinfecting liquid of Labarraque, articles which may now be procured from every provincial apothecary. Finally, let the shepherd _wash his hands carefully_ before going from diseased to healthy sheep, using, if need be, a little of either of these solutions; and let him look well to any injuries which his charges may receive in July, August, and September, for these are the months most favourable to the occurrence of leg evil. (147). _Inflammation caused by Maggots._ The insects passing under the name of "Fly," though most troublesome in August, attack the sheep from the month of May to September, inclusive, depositing their eggs among the wool, in general about the tail, the roots of the horns, or any part which affords, from its filthy appearance, a prospect of suitable provision for the maggot. When these eggs are hatched, a process which is, in sultry weather, almost instantaneous, the maggot erodes the skin, and speedily brings the adjacent parts into a fit condition for the reception of succeeding numbers of its species. The backs of long-woolled sheep are, from their exposure, more liable to be selected by the flies, as a receptacle for their eggs, than the corresponding parts in such as are covered by a short thick fleece. No sooner has the maggot begun its operations, than the sheep becomes uneasy and restless, rubbing itself on stones and trees, and endeavouring, by every means in its power to free itself from the annoyance. Teazed by the constant irritation, fever soon sets in, and, if the sheep be unrelieved by the shepherd's aid, death ensues in four-and-twenty hours. It is only lately that attention has been paid to the history of the insect pests which originate the mischief, so little damage do they appear to have occasioned in former periods. In a valuable paper, containing the result of observations made on this subject in the Highlands, and published in the second number of the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, they are thus described:-- "The fly which is the immediate cause of this disease, seems, as far as my observations could extend, to consist of four species, viz.--the _Musca Ceasar_, _Cadaverina_, _Vomitoria_, and _Carnaria_, of Linnæus. * * * "_M. Ceasar_ is of a shining green colour. "_M. Cadaverina_, the thorax shining bluish, the abdomen green, like the _Ceasar_. "_M. Vomitoria_, thorax black, or dark-blue grey, abdomen dark glossy blue. This is the common _Blue-Bottle_ or _Flesh-fly_. "_M. Carnaria_, grey; the thorax has three black longitudinal markings on the upper surface; the abdomen is checquered, in some positions shining whitish. "In all those instances in which I observed them, the green flies were the first to attack, and this is the common opinion among the shepherds. After a time, when the larvæ (maggots) commenced gnawing the flesh, the putrid stench, which was thereby occasioned, attracted numerous other species. The _Vomitoria_ (_blue-bottle_) was very common, more numerous than both the former species, and perhaps contributed most to accelerate the death of the animal, after the others had commenced. The _Carnaria_ was rare. I observed but few of them, and these seemed not concerned; which is the more remarkable, as in the fenny counties of England it is said to be most troublesome. All the species of this genus resemble one another closely, both in appearance and mode of life. They are exceedingly voracious, feeding upon carcasses and filth of every description. In five days after being hatched they arrive at full growth, provided they have plenty of food; they then cease to eat, and seek to assume the pupa state, crawling under ground two or three inches. Here they remain about fourteen days, when the shell cracks, and the imago, or fly, appears. In this last state, they feed also on putrid juices, sucking them through their probosces." The correctness of this description of their transformations I can attest, from having watched their habits during my anatomical pursuits in the summer months. (148.) _Treatment of Fly-blown Sheep._ When the sheep is fly-blown, dislodge the maggots with a knife, and shake a little powdered white lead into the wound. Do not apply tar to the abraded surface, as, from its cauterizing effects, the wound will be enlarged, and a repetition of the visit speedily ensured. To ward off the onset of the flies, various substances noxious to them are rubbed or poured upon the wool. Tar, in small quantities, and of pungent quality, is by some daubed upon the ears, horns, and tail. Others prefer rubbing a little melted butter, thickened by flour of sulphur, along the sheep's back: this is an effectual preventive. Some, again, prefer dressing the sheep, when in low situations, with the following recipe, which I take the liberty of copying from Mr Mather's paper on the fly, in the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, No. XXIV. "Take of Arsenic, finely pounded, one pound Potash twelve ounces, Common yellow soap six ounces, Rain or river water thirty gallons. "Boil the ingredients together for fifteen minutes. * * * * The liquid is in no degree injurious to wool. It cleans and dries the offensive perspiration of the sheep, and destroys the smell caused by the dew in the mornings, or by damp hot weather. In most situations, one dressing in July and another in August will suffice; but as the expense is trifling, and the process simple, it may be better to apply it more frequently, especially in low and damp situations." The liquid is applied only in dry weather. A teapot, or any vessel of a similar form, is filled with it, and one person pours it on the wool, while another rubs the fleece to facilitate the passage of the fluid. At the times of using the solution, all superfluous wool ought to be shorn from the buttocks, but not too closely. When the insects are very troublesome, drive the sheep if possible to higher ground. Examine carefully all wounds and ulcers, however trifling, and dress them with any simple ointment containing a small proportion of sulphur, mercury, or white-lead. Lastly, bury all useless carcasses as speedily as possible, by which means you will keep down the number of the flies. (149.) _The Sheep-Fag or Ked_ (_Hippobosca ovina_) and _The Tick_ (_Acarus reduvius_), are destroyed or stopped in their attacks by the same remedies and preventives detailed in the preceding paragraphs on the fly. (150.) _Inflammation produced by the OEstrus bovis._ This insect infests not only cattle but also sheep and goats, depositing its eggs on the back of the animal, where it forms a small tumour, in which the larvæ remain from autumn till the commencement of the ensuing summer. Only the fattest and most vigorous animals are attacked, and the larvæ are very difficult to destroy. Fischer found, from numerous experiments, that even spirits, and a strong solution of salt, could not affect them. The fumes of burning sulphur alone seemed to annoy them, and to it they speedily fell victims. This, however, is a remedy which cannot be applied to the skin of the sheep, so that our only resource is the repeated application of turpentine to the tumours on the back, taking care to slit them up so as to facilitate its action. (151.) _Sore Teats._ When a ewe is observed to hinder the lamb from sucking, its teats should be examined. If much inflamed, a poultice should be applied, and the lamb placed under the charge of another nurse. Suppuration will thus be promoted, and the matter may be allowed to escape by making an opening for it at the place it points. If there is only a little tenderness of the skin, all that is required is the washing it with a solution either of sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, eight grains to the ounce of water. (152.) _Foot-rot._ No disease occasions more acute suffering to the sheep, and annoyance to the farmer, than foot-rot, and no disease has led to longer arguments as to its contagious or non-contagious nature. Thanks, however, to Mr Dick of Edinburgh, these disputes are closed for ever, as any one may be convinced, by perusing his clever and sarcastic paper at page 852, Vol. ii. of the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_. His excellent remarks on the popular ideas of the infectious nature of foot-rot, I have not space to quote, but shall lay before the reader his views as to the situations and circumstances which give origin to the disease.[29] [29] To enable the reader more easily to understand Mr Dick's views of this disease, I have added a drawing of the foot of the sheep, which it may be well to consult before entering on the subject. _Fig. 4. Plate._ I. Section of a toe:--_c.c._ Crust of the hoof; _s._ Sole; _g.g._ Gland which secretes the hoof. (153.) _Causes of Foot-rot._ "What do we gain," says Mr Dick, "by enticing the sheep from his native and natural haunts to the richer pasturage of our meadows or lawns? There the animal enjoys a more luxuriant repast; it fattens to a larger size, and will, in this respect, repay the increased allowance which has been made to it. But instead of moving about in small troops, with the alacrity of the wild kinds, the sheep are seen in flocks of thousands, moving slowly over their pastures, and gorging themselves to an extent which cuts short the thread of life, by the advancement of various diseases. Instead of wandering from the summit of one peak to another, in quest of a scanty subsistence, or instead of being compelled to descend from the summits of the mountain in the morning, and ascend again in the evening, they are compelled, in many cases, to remain within a few yards of a particular spot for weeks together, and there engorge themselves to satiety. "But what, it may be asked, has this to do with the foot-rot? More, I am inclined to think, than is generally imagined. The hoofs of the sheep being intended to receive a degree of friction from hard surfaces, are not acted upon when the animal is placed under such circumstances; and the necessary consequence is an overgrowth of the hoof. The crust,--the part naturally intended to support the weight of the animal, and to endure the greatest share of fatigue,--is here allowed to grow out of all due bounds, because the softness of the pasturages, upon which it now moves, presents little, if any, of that rough friction to which the feet of the animal is naturally intended to be exposed. The crust, therefore, grows unrestrained, until it either laps over the sole, like the loose sole of an old shoe, and serves to retain and accumulate earth and filth, or is broken off in detached parts, in some cases exposing the quick, or opening new pores, into which the particles of earth or sand force their way, until reaching the quick, an inflammation is set up, which, in its progress, alters or destroys the whole foot." * * * * * "The finest and richest old pastures and lawns are particularly liable to this disease; soft, marshy, and luxuriant meadows are equally so; and it is also found in light, soft or sandy districts. In the first of these it is perhaps most prevalent in a moist season, and in the latter in a dry one; in short, it exists to a greater or less extent in every situation which has a tendency to increase the growth of the hoofs without wearing them away, and more especially where they are kept soft by moisture. It is so prevalent in fine lawns and pleasure grounds, that they are, in many instances, reduced in value to a mere trifle as a pasture for sheep; they are said to be _infected_ with this disease, and having once become so, the vicissitudes of _seven_ seasons are scarcely sufficient to destroy the contagion! A luxuriant herbage, on soft pastures, is equally subject to it; and, in both cases, the disease is increased in a wet season. "The reason why, in these situations, sheep are so liable to the disease, is quite obvious. They are generally brought from lands where their range of pasturage was greater than in these situations. In their former state, from the exercise which the animal took, and the nature of the grounds on which it pastured, the hoof was worn down as it grew; but, under the state in question, the hoofs not only continue to grow, but, where the land is moist, that growth is greatly increased; and the animal does not tread upon hard ground, nor has it exercise to wear them down. Now, in the case of man himself, when the nails of his fingers or toes exceed the proper length, they break, or give him such uneasiness as to induce him to pare them. And the same takes place with the hoof of sheep. But there is this difference in the case of the latter, that when their hoof once breaks, as the animal has not the power of paring it, the part thus broken must continue a wound. Some parts grow out of their natural and proper proportions; the crust of the hoof (_c.c._) grows too long; and the overgrown parts either break off in irregular rents and unnatural forms, or, by over-shooting the sole (_s._), allow small particles of sand or earth to enter into the pores of the hoof. These particles reach the quick, and set up an inflammation, which is followed by the destructive effects which are too well known to require description. "Similar effects are produced on soft, wet grounds. The feet, in such a situation, are not only not subject to a proper degree of friction to wear down the hoofs, but the growth of the hoofs is materially increased by the soft and moist state in which they are kept. And this state renders the feet the more liable to the disease, as it opens up the pores of the horn, and allows the earth or sand to penetrate, and wound the quick, in the manner I have already stated. On soft sandy ground, of a dry nature, the same circumstances may occur. The soft sand gives way by the weight of the animal, and the crust of the hoof is not worn down. The sand penetrates between the sole and the crust, as has been already explained, and produces inflammation. The disease, however, is not so common on sand as in the other situations to which I have alluded, the sand seldom being found in such a loose state." Another variety of foot-rot is produced by the friction of long grass between the hoofs, but is mostly confined to hill sheep, when first pastured on lowland districts. These animals, from having been accustomed to collect their food on extensive ranges of bare pasture, are more exposed than heavy breeds to this frequent exciting cause of the complaint. The rubbing of the grass frets the skin in the cleft of the hoof, the gland in that situation swells, becomes enlarged, and suppurates, and in no long time the animal is compelled to rest upon its knees.[30] This complaint is, however, more readily remedied than the former, and does not cause nearly so much suffering to the sheep. [30] _Fig. 5. Plate._ I. Gives a view of the inner surface of the toe of a sheep, with the interdigital gland laid open. _g._ The gland. _d._ The duct of the gland, opening upon the anterior surface of the leg. When the interdigital gland is much enlarged, it becomes necessary to cut it out. This ought to be a last resource, as the part appears to be of too much importance to be easily dispensed with. (154.) _Treatment and Prevention of Foot-rot._ As foot-rot, in nine cases out of ten, is an attempt on the part of nature to get rid of a portion of the hoof, which ought, in the proper course of things, to have been worn away as fast as it appeared, the prevention and treatment of the first stage of the complaint will naturally suggest themselves. "As this disease," says Mr Dick, at the conclusion of the aforementioned paper, "arises in consequence of the hoofs not being exposed to sufficient friction to wear them down, or keep them in their proper state, or where their natural growth is increased by the nature and moisture of the ground, the hoofs of all the flock should be regularly rasped or pared at short intervals, say from eight days to a fortnight, according to the rapidity with which a particular pasture produces the disease. In certain situations, they might be made to travel upon a hard surface, similar to natural sheep tracts, or be folded in a place purposely prepared, upon which they could move about and wear their hoofs. For that purpose, they should be placed in it every day." When foot-rot has fairly commenced, pare the hoof from the affected part, and trim away any ragged portions, wash the foot with soap and water, and place the animal in a situation where as few irritating things as possible will be in the way of the tender surface, and give a purgative. If not properly attended to, the suppuration soon terminates in mortification. Cleanliness in every stage and variety of foot-rot, is of the first importance. Many corrosive preparations are recommended for the cure of this disease, but I have decided objections to one and all of them. When the foot is clean, endeavour, by frequent applications of soap and water, to keep and treat the ulcers as directed in paragraph 110. (155.) _Inflammation produced by Insects in the Air Passages._ Much annoyance is caused to the sheep by the presence of animals in the air passages. The _OEstrus ovis_ deposits its eggs on the margin of the nostril in autumn; these are soon hatched, and the larvæ immediately find their way up the interior of the nose, till they arrive at the frontal sinus, a cavity situated between the layers of the frontal bone, and of considerable size in the sheep. Here they remain till the following spring, when they quit their hold, become winged insects, and enter upon the career of torment so ably gone through by their predecessors. The _Pentastoma_, an animal supposed at one time only to exist in the frontal sinus and lungs, and on the surface of the liver, of the dog, wolf, and horse, as well as in some reptiles, has been discovered by an able naturalist, my friend Mr Rhind of Edinburgh, in the frontal sinus of the sheep. It spends its whole existence there, and is distinguished from other entozoa by having the mouth between two pores on each side, through which a spicular process comes out. Figure 3, Plate VII. is taken from a drawing kindly furnished by Mr Rhind. (156.) _Removal of Insects from the Nostril._ The _OEstrus ovis_ occasions much distress to the sheep at the moment of depositing its eggs within the nostril. The animal on feeling the movements of the fly, rubs its nose against the ground, or, carrying it low, darts off at a rapid pace, vainly endeavouring to escape from its tormentor. During this period, a thin limpid fluid distils from the nostrils, leading a careless observer to confound the symptoms with those which accompany Coryza. In general the irritation is now terminated, as, while in the larvæ state, the insects are incapable of offensive measures. If they are clustered in considerable numbers in the frontal sinuses, they will doubtless lead to great suffering, parallel to what is recorded to have followed the nestling of insects in the same situation in the human being; and it is, therefore, advisable, when the cause of sturdy (paragraph 169) is in any way doubtful, first to apply those substances to the nostril, which are calculated to destroy both these larvæ and the _pentastoma_, should they happen to be there. Tobacco smoke is the only available remedy, and a very good one, being easily brought in contact with the worms, and, when properly administered, certain in its effects. One person secures the sheep holding the head in a convenient position, while another, having half filled a pipe with tobacco, and kindled it in the usual manner, places one or two folds of a handkerchief over the opening of the bowl, then passes the tube a good way up the nostril, applies his mouth to the covered bowl, and blows vigorously through the napkin. When this has continued for a few seconds, the pipe is withdrawn, and the operation repeated on the other nostril. The round hair-worm (_strongylus filaria_) has been found in great numbers in the trachea and bronchii of calves by Camper, and of the sheep by Daubeuton. It has also been found in the reed and duodenum of the latter animal by Rudolphi. Two other species of the genus _Strongle_, the _S. contortus_ and _S. filicollis_, have been detected in the sheep, the former in the belly, the latter in the small intestines. They all appear to originate only in such sheep as are exposed to the sapping influence of low damp situations, combined with stinted diet. Those occuring in the air tubes give rise to irritation, and a consequent harassing cough, which is only to be arrested by removing the sheep to a dry airy locality, and a nutritious pasture. Unless portions of the worms are thrown up during coughing, they cannot be pronounced with confidence to exist, as the symptoms which they produce are very similar to those which accompany the two following diseases. (157.) _Coryza._ During the winter months, this affection is of very frequent occurence among sheep; but health is only in a few instances seriously affected. It is brought on by the exposure of the animal to intense cold, or to sudden chills, after it has been heated. In slight cases, the only annoyance to which the sheep is subjected, is from matter accumulating in the nostril, and plugging up the orifice, so that the poor creature is compelled to raise its head every three or four minutes, and labour hard for breath.[31] When the inflammation extends further down the air tubes, the symptoms assume a severer type, and death soon occurs, in general from suffocation. If the inflammation of the bronchial tubes becomes chronic, that is to say, if it goes on in a mild form for a length of time, pulmonary consumption (rot) will in all probability succeed, and destroy the sheep in a more lingering manner. [31] The sheep is more inconvenienced by Coryza than other animals, owing to the naturally small calibre of the nostrils, the inferior turbinated bone being of large dimensions, and occupying the greater part of the nasal cavity. It is from this peculiar formation of the nose, that sheep are so very easily blown, when made to exert themselves in running. (158.) _Treatment of Coryza._ Should this disease prevail in a lenient form among your sheep, removal to a sheltered field, and a dose of purgative medicine, are all that is required. If, however, the feverish symptoms are severe, besides giving a purgative, bleed at the outset of the disease, and administer ten grains of the following fever powder, dissolved in a tea-cupful of warm water:-- Take of powdered Digitalis (Foxglove) half a drachm. Tartarized Antimony fifteen grains Nitre two drachms. Rub them well together, and divide the mixture into fifteen parts or powders. Half an hour after the powder is swallowed, give the sheep a basin of warm gruel, and repeat the powder at the end of six hours, if the symptoms are not considerably abated. When the sheep is recovering, keep it on juicy food, and do not expose it to inclement weather, as it will be very liable to another and more severe attack. Those sheep which are subject to cough on slight changes of temperature, should always be picked out, fattened for the market, and disposed of at the earliest opportunity, as they will, in all probability, sooner or later, fall victims to the following disease. (159.) _Rot._ Every animal, from the serpent up to man, that is to say, every animal possessed of lungs, is liable to _rot_. The inelegance of the term might be overlooked, provided a precise meaning were attached to it. Every one, however, seems to place some peculiar signification, and to hang some favourite theory, upon it, so that little wonder need be expressed either at the varying tenor of the treatment, or at the unsatisfactory conclusions which have been drawn regarding it. The word "_rot_," when employed in speaking of man, implies what, in popular language, is called "_consumption_," and is applied to that disease only when it affects the lungs. Thus the fork-grinders of Sheffield, who, from the nature of their employment, are much exposed to the exciting causes of consumption, and who, at an early age, fall victims to it, are said, by the people of that town, to die of rot. The term, however, so far as it has yet been used in relation to the sheep, has figured as the representative of a host of diseases, and, in becoming standard from frequent usage, has only rendered confusion worse confounded. "_Rot_," says the late Professor Coventry, in his _Introductory Discourses_, "is a word which has been employed to express a variety of disorders affecting this animal, with no small confusion and detriment. Indeed, in few instances has senseless indiscrimination done more mischief; for means inapt and injurious have been had recourse to, where skilful and timely interference would have had the happiest effects. Sheep are sometimes said to have the rot, when they labour under _phthisis pulmonalis_ (consumption of the lungs), which they do but rarely; or under disorders of the liver, as _hepatitis chronica_, and that state of the same organ produced, or attended by the _fasciolæ hepaticæ_ (fluke worms), _hydatides_, &c., which affections of the liver are not unfrequent. But the most common rot is still another and very distinct disorder, resembling, in many points, and probably the very same in its nature with, _scorbutus_ (scurvy) in the human species, or that _miseranda lues_, that direful ruin of the general health and constitution, which silently supervenes from deficient or depraved aliment; and from which, as numerous observations testify, every flock, every sufferer, may be recovered by simple means seasonably used; but against which, in its advanced stage, all remedies prove of no avail. Perhaps, as the last symptoms of debility are very similar, and are most taken notice of by ordinary observers, the different kinds of rot might conveniently enough pass under the names of pulmonic, hepatic, and general rot." Setting aside, for the moment, the inaccuracy of part of the above observations, I shall only remark, that, though Dr Coventry, in thus calling attention to the conflicting state of opinions on the subject, has accomplished much in reconciling discrepancies, he has still left something to be done in simplifying the matter; while he has, at the same time, rendered that something difficult of execution, from his own high authority being associated with the blunder. The only way, therefore, to remedy the thing, is to quit for the present the views of that learned gentleman, while I endeavour to give a plain account of the disease, its causes, and effects. (160.) _Symptoms of Rot._ The first thing which indicates the presence of the disease, is the unwillingness of the affected animal to move about. It lags behind the flock, ascends a slope with difficulty, and has a listless, heavy, pithless appearance. Cough varying in frequency and violence, but extremely harassing, is present at every period of the disease, and is always increased on the slightest exertion.[32] At first this is accompanied by expectoration of the mucus of the air tubes; but in no long time purulent matter, indicative of more extensive inroads on the constitution, begins to be coughed up, and goes on increasing in quantity and becoming worse in quality till the termination of the disease. The wool becomes fine, white, thin, and brittle in the pile, and is easily brought away in masses by the slightest pull. The appetite is, throughout the disease, voracious, and though all the bad symptoms may be present, still the animal keeps up an appearance of plumpness. This, however, is hollow and deceitful, and the rapid loss of flesh which immediately succeeds, shows with what insidious certainty the malady has been progressing. Owing to the falling off in flesh and in fat, the neck appears to have acquired additional length, and the eyes to have sunk within the head. Sooner or later the skin beneath the neck becomes distended with serous fluid, and from this the disease has acquired the name of _Poke_. The word, however, is far from applicable, as it might, with equal propriety, stand for any other disease attended with dropsical accumulations. Violent purging soon terminates the disease, death being generally preceded by the evacuation of a quantity of blackish matter. [32] It is quite possible that a sheep may die of true pulmonary consumption and yet have scarcely any cough. (161.) _Appearances on Dissection._ The first thing which strikes a person on viewing the carcass of a sheep which has died of rot, is its leanness. In conducting the examination, the fell appears of a bluish white, the muscles are pale and wasted, and fat hardly to be met with. Where it once existed, a tough yellow substance alone remains, which is so destitute of all pretentions to the name of suet, that it cannot, even when thrown upon a fire, be made to blaze. Dropsical accumulations are found in the legs, chest, neck, and belly. On opening the chest, the lungs are often seen adhering at intervals to the lining membrane of the ribs, and have always a shrunk, diminutive appearance. These adhesions are frequently seen where there are no tubercles, and are in that case simply the result of exposure to cold; but where they are coincident with tubercles, they may be ascribed either to the animal having been exposed to cold, or to the inflammatory action set up by the tubercles themselves. The lungs are always the principal, and I may also, from my own experience, add, the primary seat of the affection. When examined in the early stage of rot, they have a hard lumpy feel, especially at the upper part or lobe, and at this time a great number of irregular yellowish white, patchy-looking bodies (_Plate_ VI. _fig. 2._), will be seen shining through the membrane, _pleura_, which surrounds the organ. These _tubercles_, as the hard white bodies are called, vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a pea. They are sprinkled through all parts of the lung, and will in every dissection, be found in a variety of stages, from the firm condition in which they were deposited, to the softened state which denotes their speedy expectoration. Each tubercle, however small, usually holds a particle of calcareous matter in its centre. The lungs, in the advanced stage of rot, will be full of cells or caverns, owing to the destruction of its texture by suppuration in those parts where tubercles existed. The cells or sacs are of all sizes, from that of a bean to that of a goose egg; but if the animal has been taken care of during the progress of the complaint, and lingered long, the abscesses will be so numerous, and so closely situated, as to give the remains of the lung the appearance of a large bag. Extreme cases of this nature are, however, rare; as the sheep, in general, either falls before the knife, or is killed from exposure to cold long ere the disease has reached its farthest limit. These sacs contain purulent matter, of all shades and odours, and identical with that which the animal coughed up. Tubercles, and all their concomitants as above detailed, are also met with in the liver, though not so frequently as in the lungs. They constantly occur in the _clyars_ (mesenteric or lacteal glands) which on this account are much above their usual size, and are occasionally found in other parts; but I need not proceed in their description, as sufficient has been said about them to enable the unprofessional reader to understand their relation to the complaints. Fluke worms and hydatids are almost constant attendants on rot, and seemingly most important ones, especially the former, which have, I may say, kept a great bulk of the learned and unlearned for many years in a perpetual bustle, and have so effectually hoodwinked writers on this subject, as to prevent them seeing the truly important points in the disease. For this reason, I hold them worthy of particular description; as it is only by becoming acquainted with their history and habits that we can form correct ideas either of their mode of origin or of their supposed ability to cause rot. (162.) _The Liver Fluke_ (_fasciola hepatica_ or _distoma hepaticum_, _Fig. 6._ _Plate_ I.) derives its name from the resemblance it bears to the plaice or flounder, though its shape has been more aptly compared to that of a melon seed. It is flat and oval, of a brownish-yellow colour, and varies in size from that of a pin-head to one inch in length, and half an inch in breadth. Each worm is bisexual or hermaphrodite, on which account they multiply with great rapidity. The generic name--_distoma_--signifies having two pores, _a.b. Fig. 6, Plate_ I., and is for this reason applied to it. The nipple-like body at the extremity _a._ contains the orifice of the pore or opening leading to the female division of the generative apparatus, situated between _a._ and _b._ In this cavity are formed the eggs, which are at intervals protruded, to be hatched when floating in the sheep's bile. The male organ is situated in front of the ventral pore. The anterior opening _b._ is equivalent to a mouth, and leads inwards and backwards, communicating with the intestinal canals _c._, which are easily made out in the recent animal, from their containing dark bile, and which, as in other creatures low in the scale of being, serve the double purpose of a digestive and circulatory apparatus; that is to say, the stomach first prepares a fluid which is equivalent to blood, and then distributes it throughout the body.[33] [33] The examination of fluke worms is much facilitated by placing several of various sizes flat upon a slip of glass, and allowing them to dry in this position. On holding the glass between a bright light and a lens, and looking through the latter, the distribution of the vessels, and the position and form of the eggs, are beautifully displayed. Flukes are never found in the _arteries_ of the liver, as has been erroneously stated by some writers, their abode being limited to the gall bladder and its ducts. In these they are often present in such numbers as to cause great distention of the sac and tubes, and in some instances the irritation produced by them leads to the thickening of the walls of the gall bladder, and to a deposition of calcareous matter between its coats; frequently also to complete obliteration of portions of the ducts. Hence the crackling sound sometimes perceived when handling the liver of a rotten sheep. (163.) _The Hydatid or Blob_ (_Cysticercus tumicollis_, _Fig. 1._ _Plate_ VII.) so frequently found in sheep, is in form one of the simplest of the entozoa (literally dwellers within), being little more than a bag containing a quantity of fluid. As relates to outline, this hydatid bears no small resemblance to a Florence flask. It is said to have a head, _h._--a neck, _n._--a body, _b._-- and a posterior or caudal vesicle, _c.v._ Its claims to the title of an animal have been much disputed, but as it has been seen to move spontaneously, and as the contained fluid is always essentially different from that by which the hydatid is surrounded, the question may be looked upon as set at rest.[34] [34] The property of acting on organized matter, so as to convert it into substances similar to those which constitute the agent, is characteristic of a vital power. The method of their reproduction is in unison with their structure, simple in the extreme. Nothing, however, very precise is known about the process. The vesicle which acts as heart and stomach serves also as the reproductive cavity, but how or by what means it is fecundated would be difficult to determine. The young hydatids are found adhering to the inner surface of the parent cavity. When they have attained maturity, the parent dies and shrivels, and the young ones begin to eliminate their nourishment from the juices of the quadruped which they infest. These entozoa are found in general on the surface of the intestines, between them and their outer membrane (_peritoneum_), and on the exterior of the lungs and liver. They are always included in a cyst, to the inner surface of which they adhere by means of two hook-shaped processes projecting from the head. These cysts are always on the surface of the different viscera of the sheep, and in this way may be distinguished from another sacular animal, or rather supposed animal, termed acephalocyst or headless bag, which is sometimes found in clusters in the substance of the lungs, liver, &c. and is often confounded with the true hydatid. (164.) _Causes of Rot._ If any one had been asked, thirty years ago, the cause or rather causes of the appearances which pass under the name of rot, he could not have enumerated them even in a day, for at that time each symptom was a disease, and as such was reckoned worthy of a separate and proximate cause. Nor could any person have had the courage to promulgate a common-sense opinion on the subject; for simple views regarding the diseases of domestic animals were then either not deemed worthy of a moment's notice, or, if considered, were swept at once, by the strong current of prejudice, into the foul ocean of predetermined disapproval. Opinions in cattle medicine were at that time valued according to the prolixity of their detail; and the more improbable the dependence of the effects upon the cause assigned, so much more was its discoverer lauded, and in like proportion was the chimerical fabric he had raised admired. Times are, however, now happily changed; that potent oculist, the march of intellect, has cleared the film from the public eye, and no one need, at present, be afraid to state the unaspiring fact, that _tubercles_ are the sole and proximate cause of the disease called rot. The observations of the late Dr Coventry, already quoted, would lead us to suppose that tubercles are of rare occurrence in the lungs of sheep, but in refutation of this assertion, I need only request the reader to take a ramble through a butcher-market, and he will perceive, even on cursory inspection, the fallacy of this conclusion. What the state of the liver is which is attended with flukes and hydatids, he has left us to make out. Chronic hepatitis, which accompanies tubercles in the liver, goes for nothing as a disease of sheep, and therefore does not require a notice; besides, it is not rot, and is quite incompetent of itself to cause it. As for the scurvy of which he speaks, he evidently means the disease now generally known by the name of _Pining_, but which, as it has no connexion with rot, and has only become prevalent within the last sixteen years, could not be very well known to him. The following questions will naturally occur to many of my readers. What gives rise to these tubercles? what are the predisposing causes which lead to their formation? and, when formed, how do these apparently unirritating bodies produce effects so baneful? Queries like these, however, cannot shortly be replied to, leading, as they do, to discussions which embrace many curious theories; but as the negative mode of teaching is often of avail where the positive or more direct would fail to bring conviction, I shall, before proceeding to allude to what the causes are, endeavour to state what they are not. _Imaginary Causes of Rot._ The liver-fluke has long been looked upon as the origin of rot, and this opinion has now become so deeply rooted, and taken so fast a hold of the public mind, that if I were to contradict it by plain assertion, I should only be striving to buffet singly a tide of opposition. The best way, therefore, will be to examine a few of the theories supposed to be confirmatory of the notion that fluke worms are the beginning of the mischief, and then see whether their supporters have managed to make good the point. I. The fluke is supposed to get into the liver of the sheep by being swallowed, and this, according to our theorists, may be brought about in some of the following ways:-- 1. The eggs may be floating in the air, and thus accidentally reach their destination. This is the view taken by the celebrated Clater; but if he had been, in this instance, a man of experiment, rather than of idle conjecture, he would have found, as any one readily may, that the eggs of the fluke worm sink in water, and, consequently, that they cannot float in air.[35] [35] To obtain the eggs of the fluke worm for examination, hold a saucer under the gall bladder, make an opening in it with scissors, and the bile containing the eggs will flow into the dish. Pick out any fluke worms that may be in the fluid, then dilute it with about twelve times its bulk of water, agitate for a few minutes, and filter. The eggs will be found in the corner of the filtering paper. 2. The Rev. Dr Singer, to whom Scotland at large, and Dumfries-shire in particular, is much indebted for numerous and valuable papers on agricultural subjects, states, in the third volume of the _Highland Society's Transactions_, page 478, that "The spawn or eggs of the liver fluke are most probably _conveyed upon the grass_ by summer watering, and afterwards taken into the stomach with it." A few lines further on, he speaks of the eggs being "wafted thither by harvest waterings." Now, as the fluke is only produced within the sheep, I need only put the unanswerable questions--How are they conveyed to the grass? and from whence are they wafted? to refute at once this hasty notion. 3. The eggs may be voided by the sheep, may fall upon the herbage, and there remain till they are eaten. Such is the supposition published by Mr King of Hammersmith, in the _Quarterly Journal of Agriculture_, No. XXXI. p. 331, in which, after showing the vast number of eggs which must fall upon the grass, he says, "We must cease to wonder that so many sheep die of rot; the miracle is, that every sheep does not die of it."! I cannot, however, for my part, see a miracle in the matter, for the simple reason, that the eggs of the entozoa are not capable of retaining their vitality when absent even for a very short time from the place of their nativity, and therefore may be eaten with impunity. II. Supposing the eggs to have reached the sheep's stomach in a condition to allow of their being hatched, they, according to popular voice, find their way into the gall bladder by one of two routes. 1. Mr King, the gentleman above spoken of, conjectures, in the same paper, that the fluke, after leaving the egg in the stomach of the sheep, _makes its way up the gall vessels_. This is, I am sorry to say, a very idle conjecture, as, from the valvular nature of the opening of the gall duct into the duodenum, an entrance from that intestine to the gall bladder is perfectly impracticable to any of the entozoa.[36] [36] The notion that rot is occasioned by animalcules getting into the liver is not confined to this country. Leake, in his travels in the Morea, alludes to an opinion prevalent there, that the _vidhéla_ (rot) is caused by the sheep feeding in marshy places in August and September, when it is imagined that an insect from the plants finds its way into the biliary vessels. 2. The eggs are believed by a writer in the _Letters of the Bath Society of Agriculture_, for 1781, to be taken into the blood along with the chyle from the small intestines, and to be arrested in the liver by the secretory ducts. This, it must be clear to every one, is the most absurd of all the notions; for if a globule of blood, which we must suppose to be the largest body capable of being absorbed from the intestine, is only about 1/3000 of an inch in diameter, how can the egg of a fluke worm pass through the same channel, when Mr King has, by careful observation, shown it to be 1/300 an inch in its shortest measurement. Again, allowing that they are taken into the blood, would they not frequently be hatched there, and would they not also be found in other quarters besides the liver. But do we ever find them in the blood? Do we ever see them in other organs? Certainly not. Not one of these theories would ever have been broached had their authors been aware of two important circumstances. 1. That M. Schreiber, the director of the Museum at Vienna, has proved that worms and their ova are not capable, under ordinary circumstances, of resisting the action of the digestive organs, and, therefore, that they cannot be introduced into the body by this channel. "During six months, he fed a pole-cat almost exclusively on various kinds of intestinal worms, and their eggs mixed up with milk; and on killing and examining it, at the end of this period, not a single worm of any kind was found in it."[37] The reader may perhaps object to this illustration, on the ground that there is so vast a difference between a sheep and a pole-cat, that a comparison in regard to their digestive habits cannot possibly hold good, but if he will turn to paragraph (96), he will see that the stomach of a sheep is as well fitted as that of a carnivorous quadruped for the digestion of animal matters. 2dly, the fluke worm has been found by Frommen in the foetus of the sheep, into which it could not have been conveyed by transmission from the mother, as there is no direct vascular communication between the foetal and maternal side. [37] Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine, Vol. iv. p. 524. From a consideration of all these data, the conclusion must at once be drawn, that as living flukes cannot reach the liver from without, they must of a necessity be produced only in particular states of the animal they inhabit. How they originate we cannot of course determine, and this is not the place to hazard physiological conjectures; but it will be found that their appearance in the bile is always preceded by tuberculous deposits in the lungs or liver. This I have proved by numerous dissections, in which I have occasionally found tubercles without flukes, but never met with flukes where I did not at the same time discover tubercles. Fluke worms, therefore, can never be regarded as a cause of rot, they must be looked upon merely as a symptom. We cannot, however, say that tubercles give rise to the liver-fluke, for tubercles are often present in cases where flukes are absent; and if the latter were the effect of the former, their presence under such circumstances would in all probability be constant. III. Particular plants have been said to cause rot, but the proofs of their evil tendencies being in every instance about as logically supported as the fluke theories already mentioned, I need not trouble myself or the reader by proceeding to details. _Real Causes of Rot._ Everything that has a tendency to weaken the animal, will be more or less liable to lead to rot. Exposure to cold and wet, mishaps at lambing time, food bad in quality or deficient in quantity, and over-driving, will all predispose the constitution to the deposition of tubercles. It is from the causes being in this way common to the whole flock, that contagious properties have been ascribed to rot, it having been observed, from the time of Virgil, to break out in many animals at once.[38] [38] "Nor oftener are the floods disturb'd with wind Than sheep with rots; nor doth the sickness find One to destroy, but suddenly doth fall On root and branch, stock and original." _Virgil's Georgics_, Lib. III. The reason of so many different things having, from first to last, been reckoned capable of producing this disease, appears to lie in the known fact, that if a sheep be exposed to any of the above depressing agents, rot, if the animal be as yet untainted, will not, at the moment, shew itself; but a chain of morbid actions will in all probability then commence, and, being beyond the ken of ordinary observers, will pass unheeded, till some slight mismanagement in food or shelter, hastens their progress, and renders them apparent to the plainest understanding. The final symptoms of rot may thus occur on any kind of pasture, and the scene of the catastrophe will incur a stigma which ought to be attached to herbage which the sheep have consumed at some distant place or date. Bad food is justly regarded as one of the most common causes of rot, and ranks, in my estimation, next to cold and wet, in its power of producing it. I shall only remark, on this point, that of all the food on which sheep can possibly be kept, none is known to act so deleteriously as grass which has sprouted quickly. Rot is well known to occur most frequently on land which has been irrigated during summer, for at this season any excess of moisture is peculiarly injurious to the economy of a plant. When plants by heat and moisture are stimulated to increased exertion on a poor soil, they acquire bulk without having it in their power to obtain at the same time those saline matters which constitute a healthy plant, becoming in fact, to the eye of an inexperienced person, thriving vegetables, while to the palate they prove wersh and watery. The same result may follow from a different process. The saline matter may not be taken up, even when the soil is rich in such ingredients, from the functional derangement into which the roots or digestive organs have been thrown by the unnatural circumstances in which it has been placed. A plant is composed, like all organized bodies, of a certain number of proximate principles, which are more or less numerous in different kinds. These are combined with varying quantities of potass, soda, lime, magnesia, and iron, which, though formerly supposed to be too trifling in quantity materially to affect the quality of the plant, have yet been recently and satisfactorily proved completely to change the character of the compound, even when the excess or deficiency amounts only to a 1/10000th part so that, supposing an animal to thrive on plants which contain salts of any or all of the above bodies, it will soon fall off if these plants are in any way deprived of a single adjunct; for by the removal of that one salt, their nature has been entirely altered. The certainty and rapidity with which Bakewell could rot his sheep, by pasturing them, in Autumn, on land over which water had been allowed to flow during the previous summer, may seem to controvert what I have above stated, as to time and frequent change of pasture often intervening between the origin of the disease, and its termination; but when it is recollected that he pursued the destructive system of breeding _in_ and _in_, of itself sufficient to induce a tuberculous predisposition, the reader will perceive that his sheep were, in all likelihood, more or less tainted, and therefore, sure to fall victims to the disease the moment they were subjected to the deleterious influence of an unwholesome pasture.[39] [39] When parcels of Mr Bakewell's best sheep became, from any defect, unserviceable to him, he used to fatten them for the butcher. But as there was a _probability_ of their becoming valuable in other hands, he always gave them the rot before he sold them! An example, which, I hope, for the sake both of man and sheep, never to see followed. Over-driving and hurrying of every kind, is, in my opinion, a fruitful source of rot, not only from the fatigue it causes, or the risk it leads to of taking cold, but also from the injury, which in many cases results, to the delicate texture of the lungs. As shown in the note to paragraph (157), no animal is more easily put out of breath by running, than the sheep. Whenever the breathing is hurried, the circulation through the lungs is quickened also. If the tissue of the lungs be in any way delicate, the force with which the blood is propelled is sure to make it yield, and in this manner the animal is often suffocated by the large quantity of blood, which issues into the air tubes at once from many points. Fig. 1, Plate VI. exhibits a good illustration of this taken from a sheep. Numerous red points are seen sprinkled over the surface of the section, indicating that blood has been effused from many minute torn vessels. Now, if this animal had survived, each speck of blood would have formed a centre, round which tuberculous matter, as in Fig. 2, Plate VI. would have been secreted, and death from rot, at some ulterior period, would, in all probability, have been the result.[40] [40] Pathologists differ as to whether tubercle is the cause or consequence of _hemoptysis_, as this effusion of blood into the tissue of the lungs is termed. Andral, however, is decidedly of opinion that hemoptysis is one of the exciting causes, and, in domestic animals, I believe it to precede tubercle more frequently than is generally imagined. (165.) _Treatment of Rot._ As reason and experience have taught us that tathy herbage is a common cause of this complaint, we should, when it shows itself, at once remove the animals to a better pasture, where they should be exempted from teazing of every kind. Salt appears, after every trial, to be the best medicine, and to this they should have, at all times, ready access. Should the disease be rather far advanced, the breathing hurried, and the cough annoying, occasional doses of the following infusion will be of service, in enabling the farmer to keep down the disease, till such time as he can conveniently dispose of the animal. Take of Leaves of Foxglove two ounces, Boiling water two English pints: pour the water on the leaves, cover up the vessel, and keep it in a warm place for six or eight hours, then strain. Two tea-spoonfuls morning and evening may be given to a sheep, but as the plant is an active poison, and the strength of its infusion liable to vary, a couple of days should always intervene between every six doses. About the year 1800, a notion prevailed in this country, that an effectual remedy for rot had been discovered by the Dutch, but this was quite unfounded, no _cure_ ever having been hit upon for this sweeping malady; indeed, a cure is fairly out of the question: its prevention and palliation, but not its eradication, being all that we can hope for. Sundry plausible plans of treatment have, however, at one time or another been contrived, some of them, in all conscience, harmless enough, but others again as well adapted for the destruction of the animal, as the removal of the disease. As fluke worms have usually been reckoned the cause of rot, so the treatment has principally consisted in attempts to effect their extermination. With this view, Sir George Steuart Mackenzie of Coule, in defiance of all preconceived medical opinion, advocated, in his work on _Sheep_, published in 1809, the employment of mercury to stay the progress of rot, and in the same work, _or one very like it_, as lately published anonymously by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, under the title of the _Mountain Shepherd's Manual_, the utility of this dangerous procedure is as firmly maintained. At the same time Sir George, though rather in the dark as to the real nature of the disease, admits, in both editions, that tubercles exist in rot, especially in the lungs. Now, if he had inquired of any medical person what drug ought, when tubercles are present, of all others to be avoided, he would have found that medicine to be mercury. The administration of it therefore in rot, no matter what may be the form or mode in which it is exhibited, will to a certainty aggravate the symptoms, and shorten life. If, for the sake of doing something, you will _endeavour_ to remove the worms, Chabert's animal oil will be found a safe and efficacious remedy; but, if my opinion can have any weight, I would recommend the farmer to allow them to remain. Sheep, when displaying symptoms of rot, should always be kept dry and warm. If they must be retained throughout the winter, good sound solid food, such as well made hay or oats, should be afforded them, and the shelter of a straw yard should if possible be obtained. A liberal supply of salt should be given with all their provender; and if they do not seem to relish it, give them occasionally a small quantity in water as a drench. (166.) _Prevention of Rot._ On this head I need do little more than remark that attention to the causes will go a great way to point out the necessary means for its prevention. Admission of the sheep to rank soft grass, heavy stocking, short allowance of food during winter, every thing in fact which leads to the exposure of the animal should be scrupulously avoided. The strongest constitution cannot with impunity be tampered with, and the soundest habit will fall before the mining attacks of want and weather. Keep your stock always in as high health as possible, for such is the surest prevention of tuberculous disease. As rot is hereditary,[41] the importance of weeding out ewes from the flock on their first exhibiting appearances of unsoundness, is acknowledged by all. Many ways have been pointed out for detecting the incipient symptoms, but none plainer and better than those written by the late Mr Beattie of Muckledale, and published in the 3d vol. of the _Highland Society's Transactions_. "The first thing to be observed," says Mr Beattie, "is in the spring, when they are dropping their lambs. A sound ewe, in good order, drops a lamb covered with a thick and yellow slime, which the ewe licks off it, and the rule is, the sounder and the higher the condition the ewe is in, the darker and thicker will be the slime; but when they observe a ewe drop a lamb covered with thin watery bubbles, and very white, they note her down as unsound." [41] MM. Dupuy and Andral have seen tubercles in the foetus of the sheep. "About the month of September, when they intend to dispose of their draught ewes, they put all their sheep into a fold, and draw them by the hand, that is, they catch them all, viz. the ewes they design to sell any of, and clapping their hand upon the small of the back, they rub the flesh backwards and forwards between their fingers and thumb and the ends of the short ribs: if the flesh be solid and firm, they consider her as sound; if they find it soft and flabby, and if, when they rub it against the short ribs, it ripples, as we term it, that is, a sort of crackling is perceived, as if there were water or blubber in it, they are certain she is unsound. This is the most certain of all symptoms, but is not to be discerned with any degree of certainty but by an experienced hand; for although, as I have here related it, it seems a very simple affair, and easily acquired, yet it is well known that many shepherds, who have followed sheep all their lives, never arrived at any thing like certainty in judging by the hand, whilst men of superior skill will seldom be mistaken, and will draw by no other rule. Yet still it must be acknowledged that the seeds of this disease will sometimes lie so occult, as to baffle all skill, and that no man can with absolute certainty draw a stock tainted with the rot. There is another method, to which men of inferior skill resort, which is more easily acquired. They take a sheep's head between their hands, and press down the eyelids, they thereby make the sheep turn its eyeball so that they get a view of the vessels in which the eyeball rolls: if these are thin, red, and free of matter, they consider the sheep as sound; but if they are thick, of a dead white colour, and seem as if there was some white matter in them, they are confident she is rotten. This is a pretty general rule, and easily discerned; but I think it is not so certain as when they are judged by the back; for in firm healthy lands the eye of a sheep is far redder than it is in sheep upon grassy lands. And in some boggy lands the eye is never very red, be the sheep ever so sound, so that there you cannot so well judge by the eye; but when you see the eye of a sheep a good deal whiter and thicker, and more matter in it (I mean the vessels in which the eyeball rolls) than the run of the flock amongst which it feeds, you have reason to suspect it is not sound. "There is another method by which I have seen some men attempt to judge of the soundness of sheep. It is a well known fact, that when sheep are rotten the lungs swell to a greater size; they therefore lay the sheep down upon its broad side, and pressing the skin in at the flank, up below the ribs, _pretend_ to feel the lungs. But if there is anything to be learned by this I could never perceive it, and have seen some men, who pretended to know most by it, very often mistaken. "These are the principal rules by which the Highland farmers draw their stocks; and they relate all to ewe stocks; for as to wedders, they are generally all sold off when they are three years old, and those that buy them for feeding mostly buy them by the condition they appear outwardly to be in at the time, and the character of the ground upon which they were bred." (167.) _Jaundice._ I have never seen this disease in the sheep, and have heard almost nothing of it; indeed it is very rare, few having ever witnessed cases of it. It is consequently very imperfectly understood, every one who has written about it assigning for its occurrence a different cause. The principal symptoms to be depended on, according to those who have treated it, are a yellowness of the eyes, and an obstinate sluggishness of the animal, almost amounting to sleep. Copious bleeding and two ounce doses of Glauber salts have been recommended for the treatment, which must be gone about promptly, as the disease is said to be quickly fatal. Reasoning from what is known about jaundice in man, I would, were a case to occur to me in the sheep, give a good dose of calomel, say 15 grains, in conjunction with the salts, unless the disease had supervened on rot, when I would substitute ten grains of ipecacuanha for the mercury. (168.) _Dropsy._ When it is the concluding symptom of a disease, it may be reckoned part of the complaint itself, and treated accordingly. Often, however, it is the first thing which attracts the attention of the shepherd, and when such is the case it will usually be traced to long exposure to cold and wet. In this event the best plan is to bleed largely, and give two or three smart doses of Epsom salts. When it occurs in young lambs, sweet spirit of nitre, given in the quantity of a tea-spoonful twice a-day, is found to be attended with the happiest effects. Tapping, or, as it is popularly termed, _stabbing_, or _sticking_, to permit the escape of the water, is the cure resorted to in South Africa, when it appears in old sheep, after exposure to rain; but this ought never to be resorted to unless under the guidance of a medical person. It would be much better at once to kill the sheep. (169.) _Sturdy._ As shown in the tabular view of the diseases, in foot-note to paragraph (121), this affection may be the result either of pressure on the brain from an animal growth, or from the accumulation of a fluid. Serum is in both cases the mechanical cause of the symptoms, but in the former it is eliminated from neighbouring parts by a hydatid, while in the latter it is merely deposited in some of the natural cavities (the ventricles) of the brain, owing to a congested state of the spinal marrow, the result of continued cold upon the back. Figure 2, Plate VII., taken from Rudolphi, exhibits a view of the animal which gives rise to the first variety of sturdy. It is the many-headed hydatid of the brain, _Coenurus Cerebralis_ of naturalists. Like the _Cysticercus tenuicollis_, already described under the head of Rot, it consists of a thin membranous cyst, full or otherwise of serous fluid; but, unlike the aforementioned animal is studded over with groups of little velvety appendages or heads, each of which has a series of barbs projecting round the mouth. Figure 2, _a_, Plate VII., is a highly magnified representation of two of these heads. A good idea of the hydatid, as it exists in the sheep, may be derived from an inspection of Fig 1. Pl. VIII., which has been engraved from a sketch kindly furnished to me by my friend Dr Kirk of Deal. Fig. 1 represents the brain of a sheep two years old, which has been affected with sturdy. The right lobe, _a_, of the cerebellum or lesser brain, is much distended with fluid, which is enclosed in a membraneous bag, as shown at _b_, where an incision has been made to expose it, and at _c_, where it is shining through one of the coverings of the brain, the pia mater. The hydatid is found of all sizes, from that of a pea to that of Fig. 2, Plate VII. Large ones are far from rare, and the ventricle is frequently enormously distended. The hydatid in the brain from which Fig. 2, Plate VIII. was taken, though not filled to repletion, contained ten drachms of serum. The ventricle was consequently much dilated, as shown at _a_ in that figure, and the usual course and size of the convolutions completely altered. Instead of being folded, like the intestines, upon themselves, they proceeded, as seen at _b b_, from back to front of the brain; while the furrows between them, which are, in the healthy animal, usually too shallow to be measured, were in several places as deep as the length of the lines at _c d_. This excessive accumulation of fluid within the brain leads, as might be expected, to the dilatation of the skull, and to the absorption of its walls, when the bones, young though the animal be when affected with sturdy, can no longer be made to yield. For this reason the skull, towards the termination of the disease, generally becomes thin and soft in front of the root of the horn, and in this way offers a spot which, from its being easily pierced, is frequently made the seat of surgical operations. Other parts of the skull also undergo considerable thinning, more so indeed than in front of the horn. The attention of the farmer has hardly, if ever, been called to this fact, though I believe that, for one instance in which perforation occurs in the frontal bone, it will be noticed a score of times on the sides of the head. In a head with which I was favoured by Mr Grieve, Branxholm braes, each temple, exactly beneath the superior extremity of the upright branch of the lower jaw, displayed a circular opening entirely through the bone, wide enough to permit the passage of an ounce bullet. Whatever may produce pressure on the brain, the symptoms which indicate it are nearly always the same. The sheep has a dull, stupid look, turns very often round and round, and will, when water is in its way, stand staring at it till at last, giddy and confused, it plumps fairly in. If, when the symptoms are very unpromising, convulsive movements should occur, they may be taken as a favourable sign, as they indicate a diminution of the pressure on the brain. A minute description of the morbid appearances in hydrocephalus could serve no good purpose, I therefore pass on to the prevention of sturdy. (170.) _Treatment and Prevention of Sturdy._ The variety caused by hydatids can only be prevented by the use of dry, well grown, wholesome food. Dr Jenner found that he could cause hydatids to form in rabbits at will, by feeding them on green succulent provision; and it is well known that this form of sturdy prevails among sheep chiefly in marshy places, as the fens of Lincolnshire. Water in the head is generally induced, as first pointed out by the Ettrick Shepherd, in the _Farmer's Magazine_ for 1812, by the back of the animal being chilled, as is evident from the following facts:-- "1. It is always most general after a windy and sleety winter. "2. It is always most destructive on farms that are ill-sheltered, and on which the sheep are most exposed to those blasts and showers. "3. It preys only on sheep rising their first year, the wool of which separates above, leaving the back quite exposed to the wet and cold. "4. If a piece of cloth or hide is sewed to the wool, so as to cover the back, such a sheep will not be affected with the disease." Bratting is therefore the best preventive, and it is as cheap as it is effectual. One pair of old blankets, worth only some four or five shillings, will furnish coverings for forty hogs, and if laid carefully aside in spring, they will continue serviceable for two or three years. An operation can avail nothing--slaughtering the sheep is therefore the only expedient. When the existence of a hydatid near the surface of the brain is denoted by the skull yielding, at some particular spot, to the firm pressure of the thumb, its extraction must be set about in the manner described in paragraph (118), where I have also given my objections to the common modes of operating. (171.) _Trembling._ Several affections are included under the name of _trembling_ or _leaping-ill_, all having, in common, more or less of the symptoms which these names denote. They may be considered as arising from exposure to cold and damp, especially on long fatiguing journies, as in bringing sheep from the Highlands to the south of Scotland, when it frequently prevails to so great an extent, on reaching the low country, as to oblige the shepherd to leave eight or ten behind him at every stage. Injuries of the loins, either inflicted by themselves in jumping and running, or by others from rough usage in the fold, are common causes of the disease; but in this variety the hind quarters only are powerless. Another species is owing to oppression of the brain from congestion, in this way resembling incipient sturdy, and occurring only in very fat sheep. (172.) _Treatment of Trembling._ The first variety is best met by rest, shelter, and a supply of nutritious food; but as the animal is incapable, in many cases, of collecting it, the shepherd must lift it from one rich part of the field to another, so soon as it has cleared away the grass within its reach. In the second kind, as caused by accident, the sheep must be slaughtered, as, should a cure be attempted, the treatment will be too tedious and complicated to succeed in ordinary hands. Copious blood-letting, and doses of Epsom salts, will be found of most advantage in the third species; but if the sheep can be disposed of so much the better, as this kind of _trembling_ is almost certain, unless combated by energetic depletion, to end in sturdy. (173.) _Wood Evil_ is nothing more than a cramp of the hind legs, owing to water dripping upon them from trees after a shower of rain, and is best treated by enveloping them in flannel, wrung out of hot water; but if the sheep is at the time very chill, gentle friction must first be used, else dangerous consequences will ensue. Rubbing with warm turpentine has been recommended, and is apparently worthy of a trial. (174.) _Inflamed Eyes._ The pollen of flowers getting into the eyes while feeding, is a common cause of this annoyance, which need not be described, as, from being visible, it is known to all. Examine the eyes, and remove any irritating body. Then, if the disease be of recent date, bleed the animal largely from the jugular vein, and give it several doses of Epsom, or Glauber's salt. After the inflammation is subdued, or should it be in the suppurating stage when first noticed, hold the lids asunder, and drop upon the eye, three or four times a day, a solution of white vitriol, five grains to the ounce of water. Where this cannot be had, pure _cold_ water dashed against the eyes and head several times a day will serve as a substitute. Though sheep are not so much incommoded by blindness as other animals, from the instinctive care usually taken of the sufferer by the rest of the flock, still such a mishap should always be prevented by energetic treatment at the commencement of the symptoms. (175.) _Soft Cancer of the Eye_, or, as it is also called by medical men, _Fungus Hematodes_, is of very rare occurrence among sheep, and indeed would not have deserved a notice here, were it not that, from being a malignant disease, it might be looked upon as quite incurable. I can only describe it as a soft, spongy tumour, rising from the bottom of the eye, involving all the textures of that organ, so as to render them scarcely recognizable, and bleeding on the slightest touch. It is readily removed by passing a stout thread through the front of the eye with a needle, so as to afford the operator a hold by which to pull it outwards with the left hand, while, with the right, he cuts round it with a narrow-bladed knife. The operation is attended only with slight pain, but must not be considered the sole curative means; the sheep must have, at the same time, a frequent change of pasture, to prevent a recurrence of the tumour. There is a very large tumour of this description at present in the museum of Guy's Hospital, taken from a sheep which recovered perfectly. APPENDIX REMARKS ON THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA. As the preceding pages were not written so much for the well-educated farmer, as for those who practise sheep-husbandry without previous training, it may not be considered amiss, consistently with the plan of the work, to sum up the chief points to be attended to in the management of sheep in Australia. This I shall do from the best authorities, and guided by the direct advice of extensive sheep proprietors who have long resided there, and had every experience in the subject. Though it was for some time, according to Dr Lang,[42] a matter of controversy in the colony, whether the Merino or the Saxon Merino produced the finer wool or was more profitable for the sheep-farmer; the preference is now given to the Saxon breed, as they not only yield an excellent fleece, but are much superior in carcass to the pure Merino. The fact, however, of Australia having been considered, from its earliest colonization, as unrivalled by any country in the quality of its wool, goes far to prove that, with ordinary care, almost any variety may be brought to yield a very superior produce. The mildness of the climate, the extensive range of pasture, the steady supply of food, and the consequent unvarying health of the animal, give the poorest breeds a superiority which could hardly be attained in any other quarter of the world. Indeed, as noticed at paragraph (70.), Australia appears by nature intended to produce fine wool, and fine animals, even from the worst beginnings. [42] History of New South Wales, Vol. i. p. 309. Great, however, as the capabilities of the colony are for the growth of the finest wools, the intending emigrant must not suppose that he will obtain them without devoting to the subject a particular portion of his regard. Mild warm air, and abundant diet, will go far towards putting him in possession of a superior flock; but without earnest attention to the minor details required in the management of his sheep, the most favourable locality will avail him little. Let Australia be ever so much praised, as being peculiarly adapted for the rearing of sheep, they have there, in common with every kind of animal in every part of the world, a certain liability to disease. With all its boasted steadiness of climate, bad seasons occasionally occur, and lead to sickness among the flocks, and in addition to the usual chances of loss arising from this cause in other countries, there is, in some parts of it, a still more dreaded mischief resulting almost unavoidably from the moral constitution of its society. A convict-servant who has a pique at his master, has it often entirely in his own power to subject the flocks under his charge to some one or other of the serious diseases to which sheep in all countries are peculiarly liable. He may pasture them on an improper spot, and thus induce diarrhoea, or even rot; or he may drive them a few miles from their usual feeding ground, as Dr Lang remarks, when there is nobody present to take cognizance of the fact, and thereby bring them into contact with a scabbed flock. "The chief source of the wealth and prosperity of the colony," says Dr Lang, "is thus, in great measure, at the mercy of the most worthless of men; and so much is this the case, that a highly respectable and intelligent magistrate, observed in the course of a short conversation I had with him before embarking for England, that if there should not be a large annual importation of free emigrant shepherds from the mother country into the colony, the owners of sheep throughout the territory will in future be under the necessity of reducing, or rather of preventing the increase of, their flocks." Thus circumstanced, the Australian settler has surely sufficient reasons for inducing him to make himself familiar with the management and diseases of the animal, on which he is placing his principal dependence. When the country is destitute of timber, the sheep are very easily managed, and so many as a thousand may be trusted to a single shepherd; but in general, they are divided into flocks of about three hundred breeding ewes, or four hundred wethers. "Every flock," says Mr Cunningham, "has a shepherd, who takes his sheep out to graze before sunrise in the morning, and brings them in after sunset at night. He keeps always before the flock to check the forward among them from running onwards, and wearing out the old, sick, and lame; making all thus feed quietly, so as to keep them in good condition. In summer, he sees too that they have water during the heat of the day; and in drawing up under a tree for shade, when it is too hot for feeding, he passes occasionally gently among them, spreads them out and makes them take a fresh position in as small groups as possible, under another tree; because when they remain too long together in one place, they are apt to become broken winded. It is a rule that sheep should never remain in one spot so long as to paddle the ground much with their feet; and hence, in riding round your sheep stations, you have something whereby to judge whether or not your instructions are attended to. The shepherd takes out his victuals with him, and is required to be on the alert all day long, to prevent the sheep from being lost in the woods, or the native dogs from pouncing in among them. They must always be driven slowly to pasture, and if you perceive that the shepherd can walk quietly among them, without disturbing them, you may set him down as a gentle and careful man; for if he uses his flock harshly, they will be naturally terrified by him. Three flocks are always penned together under the charge of a watchman, who counts each regularly _in_ at night, and the shepherds again count them _out_ in the morning; so that they form a regular check upon each other, and prevent losses from carelessness or depredation. The watchman has a small weather-proof watch-box to sleep in, and is assisted by a watch-dog; he keeps up a good fire, which generally deters all native dogs from approaching the fold. The hurdles are made of light swamp oak, iron bark, or gum, measuring seven feet long, with five bars, so close together that a young lamb cannot creep through, and usually cost about 1s. 6d. a-piece. They are shifted to fresh ground daily, being sloped outwards, and propped together by means of forked sticks, driving a stake through between the bars here and there to keep the hurdles firm, and prevent the wind from blowing them over, little support being derived from their feet, which are pressed but slightly into the ground. All branches of trees are carefully removed from the hurdled grounds before the sheep are driven in, to prevent any of the latter being staked; the hurdles too are never pitched where ant hills are, or under a tree with rotten boughs upon it, while the trees with black bark are carefully denuded thereof, to prevent discolouration of the wool." Bells are attached to the necks of the stoutest leaders, to keep the flock together, and give warning of any thing going wrong within the fold. The breeding season is, in some instances, at the commencement of summer, in others, at the commencement of winter, but in general it is in March or April, the rams having been put to the ewes in October. This deviation from our practice of spring lambing, is owing, according to Mr Cunningham, to the breeders finding that the pasture is particularly good in the autumn, from a sort of second spring taking place, while the lambs stand the cold better than the heat, and are less annoyed by the gad-flies. The sheep usually double their number every four years. Sheep-shearing takes place at the beginning of summer. The usual plan of washing is previously had recourse to (see paragraph 99.), but of late it has become customary, with some proprietors, to wash them with a spout. This is done by bringing them one by one under a stream of water, falling from a moderate height; but it is not likely that it will ever be generally adopted, as it requires very peculiar facilities in regard to water, and is besides a plan fraught with danger to the sheep. It ought to be kept in mind, that a stream of water playing on the body, produces a very stunning effect, which may destroy life in an inconsiderable time, and has, in this way, been often employed for putting criminals to death. Be this as it may, the Australian sheep-farmers have doubtless been led to resort to the spout, owing to the fleeces being so full of filth as to be cleaned with difficulty in the common way. The finer the wool, the more abundant is the yolk or viscid secretion on the skin, and the greater, consequently, is the quantity of filth which sticks to it. The dirtiness of the wool becomes, in this way, no mean test of the value of the sheep. Some of the fleeces lose fully three-fifths of their weight by washing. The average weight of the fleeces from the improved breeds, is from two to two-and-a-half pounds. The ewe fleece seldom exceeds one pound and a half. "The wool is packed in bales, wrapped in canvass, and forwarded for exportation to Sydney, on drays drawn by oxen. Some of the more extensive sheep-farmers send home their wool direct to their agents in London, where it is sold according to its quality, at from one to three shillings, (the freight to London being only three-halfpence) a pound."[43] [43] Historical Account of New South Wales, by John Dunmore Lang, D.D., Vol. i. p. 350. The highest prices yet obtained for some of the picked parts of the finest fleeces, are 10s. 6d. per pound. This, however, has been given only once. The quantity of wool shipped in 1835, was 3,776,191 lbs., and was valued at £380,000 sterling. Three acres are required on an average for the support of each sheep, but on account of the mildness of the climate, there is no necessity for providing winter food. The range of pasture is so extensive that the sheep are liable to comparatively few diseases. The great dryness of the climate, keeps the fleece always in so comfortable a state, that they are almost never struck by the fly which, as explained at (147.), always deposits its eggs on the moistest part of the skin. Mr Cunningham once observed summer-dropt lambs with milk blotches, become fly blown, but this was in wet weather. Scab, or itch, is the most common disease, but of it I need not say any thing here. It never presents much variety, and is a disease better understood than almost any other. Ample directions for its treatment are given at (140.). It is easily checked if the job is gone about with determination. The great points are to take it in hand the moment it appears--for when it gains ground, all chances of a wool-crop are at an end for that year at least--and to use tobacco-juice most liberally, as it not only leads to the immediate death of the itch insect, but appears to have a specific effect in leading to the restoration of the wool. The balm of Columbia, which is at present so lauded for accelerating the growth of hair, is supposed, on good grounds, to be an incognito preparation of tobacco-juice. Rot is the only other important sheep-disease in the colony. It was unknown till 1827, when it broke out in a wet lying part of the Bathurst district, and succeeded, as Cunningham says, in that part of the country scourged by it, to a long fall of heavy rains, which supersaturated the blades of grass. For the method of treating this disease, fortunately rare in Australia, I must, in conclusion, refer to the body of the work. 
38831	----	THE BARB AND THE BRIDLE; A HANDBOOK OF EQUITATION FOR LADIES, AND MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN THE SCIENCE OF RIDING, FROM THE PREPARATORY SUPPLING EXERCISES ON FOOT, TO THE FORM IN WHICH A LADY SHOULD RIDE TO HOUNDS. _Reprinted from_ "The Queen" _Newspaper._ By "VIEILLE MOUSTACHE." LONDON: THE "QUEEN" OFFICE, 346, STRAND. 1874. LONDON: PRINTED BY HORACE COX, 346, STRAND, W.C. [Illustration: THE LADY'S HORSE.] INTRODUCTION. Having received numerous applications from ladies desirous of information, as to the true principles and practice of equitation, I venture to put before the public, in book form, a series of articles which appeared originally in the columns of the _Queen_ newspaper on ladies' riding. Commencing with the calisthenic practices so necessary to a young lady before beginning her mounted lessons, these papers enter into every detail (less those of the _Haut École de Manége_) connected with the science of riding as it should be acquired by all who wish to become efficient horsewomen. As the rules laid down are precisely those upon which I have successfully instructed a great number of ladies, as my experience is of many years' standing, and acquired in the best schools in Europe, I trust the following pages may prove useful; for, while it is quite true that neither man nor woman can learn to ride by simply reading a book on the subject, still a carefully-compiled manual of equitation is always a ready means of refreshing the memory upon points of importance in the art, which, however clearly explained by the oral instruction of a first-class master, may yet in time escape the recollection of the pupil. "VIEILLE MOUSTACHE." THE BARB AND THE BRIDLE. CHAPTER I. Riding, considered as a means of recreation, as a promoter of health, or as the best mode in which to display to the greatest advantage beauty and symmetry of face and form, is perhaps unequalled among the many accomplishments necessary to a lady. Out of doors croquet may be interesting as a game, and fascinating enough when a lady has an agreeable partner, but as an exercise physically its healthfulness is doubtful. There is too much standing about, often on damp grass, too little real exertion to keep the circulation up properly, and too many intervals of quiescence, wherein a lady stands perfectly still (in a very graceful attitude no doubt) long enough in the chill evening air to create catarrh or influenza. Archery, although a far more graceful exercise than croquet, is open to the same objection as regards danger of taking cold. Skating, though both healthful and elegant, is so seldom available as scarcely to be reckoned among the exercises beneficial to ladies. Moreover, it is attended with considerable danger in many cases. _To be well_ is to look well. Healthy physical exertion is indispensable to the former state, and in no way can it be so well secured as by riding. Mounted on a well-broken, well-bred horse, and cantering over a breezy down, or trotting on the soft sward, on the way to covert, a lady feels a glow of health and flow of spirits unattainable by any other kind of out or in door recreation. That the foregoing truths are fully appreciated by the ladies of the Upper Ten Thousand is abundantly proved by the goodly gathering of fair and aristocratic equestrians to be seen in Rotten Row during the London season, and at every fashionable meet of hounds in the kingdom in the winter time. Nor is riding confined to those only whose names figure in the pages of "Burke" or "Debrett." Within the last twenty years the wives and daughters of professional men and wealthy tradesmen, who were content formerly to take an airing in a carriage, have taken to riding on horseback. And they are quite right. It is not (with management) a bit more expensive, while it is beyond comparison the most agreeable and salubrious mode of inhaling the breeze. The daughter of the peer, or other great grandee of the country, may be almost said to be a horsewoman to the manner born. Riding comes as naturally to her as it does to her brothers. Both clamber up on their ponies, or are lifted on, almost as soon as they can walk, and consequently "grow" into their riding, and become at fifteen or sixteen years of age as much at home in the saddle as they are on a sofa. In the hunting field they see the best types of riding extant, male and female, and learn to copy their style and mode of handling their horses, while oral instruction of the highest order is always at hand to supplement daily practice. To the great ladies of England, then, all hints on the subject would be superfluous. Most of them justly take great pride in their riding, spare no pains to excel in it, and are thoroughly successful. In fact, it is the one accomplishment in which they as far surpass the women of all other countries in the world as they outvie them in personal beauty. A German or French woman possibly may hold her own with an Englishwoman in a ball room or a box at the opera; but put her on horseback, and take her to the covert side, she is "not in it" with her English rivals. Although the advantages and opportunities I speak of, however, render words of advice upon female equitation unnecessary to ladies of the _sangre azul_, I trust they may be found useful to others who may not have had such opportunities. In the upper middle classes nothing is more probable than the marriage of one of the daughters of the house with a man whose future lot may be cast in the colonies, where if a woman cannot ride she will be sorely at a loss. Unlike the ladies of high degree above alluded to, the daughter of a man in good position in the middle class will often not have opportunities of learning to ride until she is fifteen or sixteen, and by this time the youthful frame, supple as it may appear, has acquired (so to speak) "a set," which at first renders riding far from agreeable; because it calls into action whole sets of muscles and ligaments heretofore rarely brought into play, or rather only partially so. Hence the unpleasant stiffness that always follows the first essays of the tyro in riding of the age I speak of, and which painful feeling too often so discourages beginners that they give up the thing in disgust. Now this unpleasant consequence of the first lessons may be easily obviated by the following means. Bearing in mind that pain or stiffness is the result of want of _supplesse_, the first desideratum is to acquire this most desirable elasticity. To accomplish this, three months before the pupil is put on horseback she should begin a course of training in suppling and extension motions on foot, precisely similar to those drilled into a cavalry recruit in the army. No amount of dancing will do what is required. Even the professional _danseuse_, with her constant exercise of the _ronde de jambe_, never possesses that mobile action of the waist and play of the joints of the upper part of the figure so thoroughly to be acquired by the exercises I speak of, which also have the further greater advantage of giving development and expansion to the chest. I therefore respectfully advise every careful mother, who is desirous of seeing her daughters become accomplished horsewomen, before taking them to the riding master (of whom more hereafter), in the first place to employ a good drill master. Possibly, the young ladies may have had drill instruction at school; but experience tells me that such instruction is too often slurred over, or only practised at such long intervals that its effect is confined to causing the pupil to walk upright and carry herself well--a very desirable matter, but not all that is requisite as a preparation for riding. Drill, to be effective for the above purposes, _should be practised daily_. The course of instruction should begin with very short lessons, lasting not more than twenty minutes at first; but these, _given in the presence of mamma_, should be _most rigidly and minutely carried out, otherwise they are useless_. They should gradually be increased in length, according to the strength of the pupil, until she can stand an hour's drilling without fatigue. The course should include instruction in the use of dumb-bells, very carefully given. The weight of these should in no case exceed seven pounds for a young lady of fifteen or sixteen, and may judiciously be confined to three and four pounds for those of a more tender age. The great use of dumb-bells is to give flexibility to the shoulder joints and expansion to the chest. The first lessons should not last more than five minutes, and in no case be continued an instant after the pupil exhibits the slightest symptom (easily discernable) of fatigue. Of the course of drill instruction, the lessons called the "extension motions" are the most effectual in promoting flexibility of the whole figure; but they must be gone into by very gradual and careful induction, and their effect will then be not only beneficial, but pleasant to the pupil. As it is possible that this may meet the eye of some lady who resides where no eligible drill master is available, I propose in my next chapter to give a programme of the exercises I speak of, which may then be practised under the superintendence of the lady herself or her governess. But in all cases where the services of a competent and thoroughly practised drill master are to be had it is always best to employ them. Simple as the instruction may appear, the art of imparting it has to be acquired in a school where the most minute attention is paid to every detail, where nothing is allowed to be done in a careless or slovenly manner, and where (so to speak) the pupil is never asked to read before he can spell. It is this jumping _in medias_ with beginners in riding that so often causes mischief and disgusts the pupil, who begins by thinking that it is the easiest thing in the world to ride well, but when she is put on horseback finds to her dismay that it is anything but easy until acquired by practice and thoroughly good instructions. CHAPTER II. I proceed now to describe the suppling and extension exercises I have before alluded to. [Illustration: Fig. 1.] [Illustration: Fig. 2.] These are simple enough in themselves, certain not to be forgotten when once learnt, and easy to impart in the way of instruction. Their great efficacy depends, however, upon the judgment with which the instructor varies them, so as to call into action alternately opposite sets of muscles and ligaments, as it is by such a process only that complete _supplesse_ can be attained. The first suppling practice is performed as follows: Place the pupil in a position perfectly upright, the heels close together, the toes at an angle of 45 (military regulation), the figure well drawn up from the waist, the shoulders thrown back, chest advanced, the neck and head erect, arms hanging perpendicularly from the shoulder, elbows slightly bent, the weight of the body thrown upon the front part of the foot. Then the instruction should be given thus: On the word "one," bring both hands smartly up to the full extent of the arms, in front and above the forehead, the tips of the fingers joining (Fig. 1); on the word "two," throw the hands sharply backwards and downwards until they meet behind the back (Fig. 2). This exercise should be commenced slowly, and gradually increased in rapidity until the pupil can execute it with great quickness for several minutes consecutively. The object is to throw the shoulders well back and give expansion to the chest. [Illustration: Fig. 3.] [Illustration: Fig. 4.] Second practice.--On the word "one," bring the hands together (from their position perpendicular from the shoulder) in front of the figure, the tips of the fingers joining (Fig. 3). On the word "two," raise the hands, still joined, slowly above and slightly in front of the head, to the full extent of the arms (Fig. 4). "Three," separate the hands, and, turning the palms upwards, lower them to the level of the shoulders, the arms fully extended (Fig. 5). Simultaneously with the lowering of the hands the heels should be raised slowly from the ground, so as to bring the weight of the body upon the toes. On the word "four," lower the hands gradually to the sides, carrying them at the same time well to the rear (Fig. 6). The heels are also to be lowered to the ground as the hands are carried backwards. This exercise should always be done slowly, as its object is the gradual flexing and suppling of the shoulder and elbow joints, and giving mobile action to those of the feet. In using dumb-bells the first practice with them may be identical with the above, the dumb-bells being grasped firmly in the centre. [Illustration: Fig. 5.] [Illustration: Fig. 6.] Third practice.--On the word "one," close the hands firmly by the sides; "two," raise them up quietly, bending the elbows until the hands are touching the points of the shoulders (Fig. 7); "three," carry the hands, still firmly closed, forwards and upwards, to the full extent of the arms, well above and a little in front of the head (Fig. 8); "four," bring the hands with a quick, sharp motion down to the level of the shoulders, carrying the elbows well to the rear (Fig. 9). The first two motions of this exercise should be performed very slowly, the last very rapidly. It can also be practised with advantage with the dumb-bells, and is then of great service in strengthening and developing the muscles of the chest and arms. [Illustration: Fig. 7.] [Illustration: Fig. 8.] There are a great many other suppling practices, but the above, varied occasionally by the use of the dumb-bells, will be found sufficient for all practical purposes. Coming now to the extension exercises, I select the third as being most effective. 1st motion. Bring the hands together in front of the figure, as in the second suppling practice, the points of the fingers joining, the whole frame erect and well drawn up from the waist. 2. Raise the hands slowly above the head to the full extent of the arms, turn the palms of the hands outwards, and lock the thumbs together, the right thumb within the left (Fig. 10). 3. Keeping the body, head, and neck perfectly erect, place the head between the arms, the thumbs still firmly locked together. 4. _Keeping the knees perfectly straight_, lower the hands, and bend the back gradually and very slowly forward and downwards, until the points of the fingers touch the instep (Fig. 11). 5. Raise the body and head (the latter still between the arms), quietly up in the same slow time, bringing the hands again well above the head (Fig. 12). 6. Lower the hands gradually (turning the palms upwards), first to the level of the shoulders, making a momentary pause there, and then quietly to the sides, carrying the hands in their descent from the shoulder as much as possible to the rear, while the weight of the body is thrown entirely upon the front of the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 9.] [Illustration: Fig. 10.] In this exercise all depends upon keeping the knee joints perfectly straight, and the head, in the bending-down movement, as much as possible between the arms. The object of the practice is to give suppleness to the waist, freedom to the knee joint by well suppling the ligaments at the back of the knee, and at the same time to expand the chest. For these purposes, if carefully and judiciously carried out, it is most effective, calling alternately upon every portion of the frame wherein suppleness is indispensable to easy and graceful riding. [Illustration: Fig. 11.] [Illustration: Fig. 12.] Great care should be taken not to hurry this lesson, and if the pupil is of a figure that renders it difficult for her to reach her instep in bending down, it should not be insisted on; but it is necessary that she should bend the back as much as possible _without bending the knees_, as any yielding of the knee joint destroys the whole value of the exercise. To perform the above named practices comfortably, the pupil should wear a loose dress which throws no constraint upon any part of the figure. Slippers, too, are better than boots, as the latter confine the foot and ankle too much for complete liberty of movement. The duration of any of these lessons should at first be carefully proportioned to the strength of the learner, and gradually increased as to time day by day, until she can stand an hour's work without fatigue; but be the lesson long or short, it should be practised every day. It will be found that, with plenty of fresh air and walking exercise, the pupil, by the aid of these suppling and extension practices, will develope rapidly in elasticity of movement and in general health, and that a couple or three months of such preparation will help her very much as an introduction to her course of equitation. Any good drill master who might be employed to "set up" a young lady would most likely teach her all the above, and much more; but I have ventured to detail these practices, assuming that a family may be located in a neighbourhood in which no such man is available, in which case the exercise can be imparted and superintended by the governess of the family. These ladies are always clever and intelligent enough to master in a few minutes such very simple details as those above described. Before quitting this subject a word about gymnastics may not be out of place. Many heads of families consider them highly beneficial when practised with bars and similar apparatus. My experience induces me to differ from this notion, and I believe my view of the matter would be borne out by the highest medical authority. For boys even, gymnastic exercises should be most carefully watched, in order that no undue strain should be thrown upon the yet unset muscle and cartilage of the frame. For young ladies I believe gymnastics to be not only unnecessary, but injurious, and that every practical result desirable can be arrived at by the use of such exercises as I have endeavoured to describe, varied occasionally by the moderate use of the dumb-bells, a few minutes of which at one time is always sufficient. Where there is a number of young people together, there is sure to be a tendency to outdo each other whenever physical exercises of any kind are introduced; and, while it is easy enough to control the pupils in the simple suppling practices I speak of, it is very difficult for any but the most experienced persons to determine how far a young lady may go without injury to herself in the exercises of the horizontal bars or trapeze ropes. If any kind of gymnastic exercises are allowed for a young lady, the best, in my opinion, are those practised with the "Ranelagh," because no hurtful strain can possibly be thrown upon the pupil; and for boys I believe the Ranelagh to be a first-rate invention, as is also the "Parlour Gymnasium," and several others on similar principles, which ignore the practice of the bars. The full practice of the gymnasium, however, for young men whose frames have attained a certain amount of maturity, is no doubt good if not carried to excess. I speak, however, only of young ladies of tender age. Assuming then, that our pupil has been prepared for riding as above described, let us proceed to consider the style of dress most suitable for her early attempts in the saddle. For very young ladies, say under twelve years of age, I believe in hair cut short in preference to flowing locks, because the latter are very apt to blow into the eyes and seriously interfere with riding. For the very juvenile equestrian tyro, the hat should be one that fastens under the chin with ribbon or something _that is not elastic_. Nothing is more important in beginning with young people on horseback than to give them confidence, and nothing so completely puts them out as anything loose about the head. For young ladies over fifteen or sixteen, hats which are fastened to the hair may be worn. But, having regard to the progress of the pupil rather than to appearance, I recommend every beginner, no matter what her age, to leave no doubt about the security of her headdress. As regards riding habits, to begin with, while they should fit sufficiently to indicate the outline of the lady's figure, all tightness should be avoided. Tight habits are very sightly to the eye; but, in common with tight corsets, steel or whalebone anywhere about the dress is fatal to that perfect liberty of movement so essential to success in a beginner. Loose jackets of course should not be worn, because the instructor would be unable to see in what form his pupil was sitting. Nothing is better, in the first place, than a jacket, of any coarse material the rider chooses, made in the ordinary form, with plenty of room, especially about the waist and shoulders. The skirt should not be too redundant or too long, as in the latter case it is apt to get trodden on by the horse, and in windy weather blows about, to the great annoyance of the rider. A skirt that reaches about 12in. below the foot is amply long. As to breadth, it should be just large enough to give space to move easily in. A more voluminous garment is unsightly. The skirt, made independent of the jacket, should fasten under it with a broad band. No clothing should be worn under the skirt except riding trousers. Under-skirts of any kind will utterly spoil the appearance of the fair equestrian, and render her ride one of discomfort. Riding trousers, the making of which should only be entrusted to people who are well accustomed to it, may be made of cloth or chamois leather, booted with cloth. The boots, whether Wellingtons (if they are not out of date), side springs, or lace boots, should be made purposely for riding. Fashion is imperious, and that of the present day dictates a boot with a very high, narrow heel, and a waist which is almost triangular; both are quite unsuited for riding. The heel of a riding boot should be quite as broad as the foot of the wearer, and should come well forward into the waist, after the manner of a man's hunting boot, and the waist itself should be perfectly flat, so as to give a firm level bearing on the stirrup-iron. A sharp, narrow-waisted boot will be found not only impossible to keep in place in the iron, but will hurt the sole of the foot very much. Of spurs (very necessary in an advanced state of proficiency, and inadmissible, of course, to a beginner) I shall say something hereafter. Of gloves, the best kind for riding is a dogskin glove or gauntlet _two sizes too large_. Six and a-half kid gloves do not admit of sufficient freedom in the hand properly to manipulate the reins. The pupil should be provided with a straight riding whip which is not too flexible, because with a very supple whip she may inadvertently touch the horse at the wrong time and upset him. Having said thus much as to the equipment of our fair tyro, I leave all observations as to dress fit for the hunting-field, or such promenade riding as that of Rotten Row, for a future paper, and proceed to say something about that very important consideration, the matter of the riding master. In the first place, then, it is necessary that the professor of equitation should be one who has been regularly brought up to his business. If such a man is not within reach, then I submit that it is better to entrust the riding education of the young lady to any staid middle-aged gentleman who is a thoroughly good horseman, and who will undertake the task _con amore_. If the gentleman has daughters of his own, all the better. I do not recommend young men for the office, because, naturally enough, they are more likely to be engrossed with the charms of their pupils than the progress they are making with their riding. Youthful preceptors, too, have a tendency to "make the pace a trifle too good," and there are not even wanting instances where they have "bolted" with their pupils altogether. This by the way. To return to the professional riding master. I may add that, in addition to thoroughly understanding his craft, he should be a man of education and a gentleman. Of such men there are several in the metropolis; in the provinces they are few and far between. In most of our fashionable watering-places one sees very neatly got-up horsey-looking men, duly booted, spurred, and moustached, tittuping along with a small troop of young ladies, who, with their skirts ballooned out with the fresh breeze from the "briny," and "sitting all over the saddle," are making themselves very uncomfortable, when they could have enjoyed the bracing air just as well, for less money, in an open fly. The riding master, in all probability, has promoted himself from the office of pad groom. He knows how to saddle and turn out a lady's horse, and how to put the lady into the saddle; he knows, also, the cheapest market in which to go for fashionable-looking screws upon which to mount his customers. There his qualifications as a riding master end. The inductive steps by which a lady should be taught, the reason for everything she is asked to do, the "aids" by which she should control her horse and establish a good understanding with him, are all sealed mysteries to the stamp of man I speak of. From such men and their ten-pound screws there is nothing to be learnt in the way of riding. Assuming, then, that some of my fair readers may be so placed as to render access to a professional riding master impossible, I have ventured upon this brief manual of "Equitation for Ladies," because I believe that there are many gentlemen, good horsemen, who would willingly undertake the teaching of their young friends, but that the former are unacquainted with the readiest way of going to work. Let me hope that the following may be of use in such case, both to preceptor and pupil. Addressing myself first to the former, let me advise him to be guided from first to last by the following maxims: 1st. Never do anything to shake the confidence or nerve of your pupil, and never give away a chance of doing it to the horse she rides. 2nd. Never talk to her about lesson No. 2 until she thoroughly understands lesson No. 1. While tittuping hacks are useless, and it is necessary to have an animal, even for a beginner, that has still plenty of life, vigour, and action in him, such a horse requires to be thoroughly well-broken to carry a woman, and should have plenty of work, so as to do away with the possibility of his flirting when she is mounted. It should be borne in mind that, although a woman who has had years of practice will be equally at home on almost every horse upon which you can put her, yet only a particular stamp of animal is adapted to carry her in her earlier essays. Let me endeavour to give my idea of him. In height he should be from 15.2 to 15.3. A very tall woman may look better on a taller horse, but it is rarely that one finds an animal over 15.3 with the requisite proportions to ensure good action. Colour is of little account, except that grey horses in the summer time part with their coats so freely as to spoil a lady's habit. Quality is indispensable. A three-part-bred horse, however, is the best, because he is likely to have more substance in the right place than a thoroughbred. A good blood-like head and neck are warranty for fashion. Good shoulders, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, are not always good shoulders for a lady's horse, because while they should be clean and sloping as to the scapula, the withers should not be too fine. A little thickness there causes a side saddle to fit better for the comfort of the rider. There should be plenty of depth in the girth and rare good back ribs, for a woman's riding calls very much on a horse's power. A short back is not conducive to ease for the rider, whatever it may be as to the staying powers of the horse. On the contrary, what is generally called a long-backed horse carries a lady most pleasantly; but there must be plenty of power in the quarters, muscular upper thighs, and strong hocks. The quarters, too, should be good, and the setting on of the tail such as finishes the topping of the horse well, and gives him a fashionable appearance. If conjoined to the above-named points he stands on moderately short legs, with plenty of bone, and has good round and sound feet, he will be found as nearly as possible what is required. CHAPTER III. If a horse has been broken, so as to be obedient to the hand and leg of a man, and steady to sights and sounds, it is considered by many that the animal has only to be ridden with a skirt, and accustomed to strike off without hesitation with its off legs in the canter, and it is fit to carry a lady. This is a great mistake. It is true that teaching it to canter collectedly with its off legs is necessary, as well as habituating it to the skirt, but there are other and important matters to be considered which are too often overlooked. In the first place, a man, to break a horse properly for a lady, must be sufficiently well up at his craft to train the animal to obey the lightest possible application of the aids of the leg; because a lady, having but one leg to the horse, cannot give him the same amount of support that can be given by a man, who applies both. To supply the absence of the leg on the off side, in the case of the lady, the only substitute is the whip. But all men accustomed to breaking know that the effect of the whip is altogether different from that of the leg, and that while the whip is occasionally necessary to rouse a slightly lazy horse, and put him into his bridle, in the case of one very free, or at all hot, the whip must be used with great caution by a lady. As I have remarked elsewhere, most young horses are inclined to strike off in the canter with the near leg, which is most unpleasant to the fair equestrian. To correct this, the breaker applies certain well-known aids, which it is unnecessary here to repeat. But in order to confirm the horse in his lesson of cantering with his off leg, the man must give the animal a considerable amount of support with both his own and both hands. If this is continued after the horse is advanced to the stage of breaking where the trainer begins to fit him for a lady, and carried on until she rides him, he will be far from a pleasant mount to her, because, missing the support of the man's legs, the horse will not understand the light and delicate ones which the lady will use. It is necessary, therefore, that the breaker should accustom his charge readily to obey the slightest indication of the rider's will, and then ride him in a side-saddle, in precisely the same way as he will afterwards be ridden by the lady. I remember once seeing a man, really a capital rider in his own way, giving a lady a lesson on a horse of her own which he had broken for her. Both master and pupil were sorely puzzled--the former because the horse would not obey the hand and leg of the rider, as directed by the master, and the pupil, by finding that all she was doing produced an effect diametrically opposite to that which was intended. Perhaps the horse, too, was as much puzzled to know what to be at as either rider or master. The animal was a very shapely chesnut, nearly thoroughbred, very good-tempered, but full of courage. Evidently he was unaccustomed to carry a lady, and was beginning to give indications that his temper was getting up. The object was to canter him to the right round the school, "going large," as it is technically called. He had trotted to the other hand well enough, and the young lady had ridden him fairly; but when turned to the reverse hand, and the word "canter" was given, he evidently missed the support afforded by the legs of a male rider. When pressed gently forward to a shortened rein, he stepped very high in his trot. "Touch him on the right shoulder with the whip sharply, miss," said the riding master. In answer to the sharp cut of the whip, the horse jumped off passionately in a canter, with his near legs first--a dangerous thing when going round the school to the right. "Stop him, miss," said the preceptor; "take him into the corner, bend his head to the right. Now the leg and whip again." The same result followed--the lady flurried as well as her horse. The riding master at last took the lady off, and mounted the horse himself; but he rode with a man's seat, not a woman's. The horse cantered collectedly and well into his bridle when the master asked him. "You see, miss, it is easy enough," said the master; "a little patience, and you will do it presently." But the second essay of the lady was as unsuccessful as the first; nay more so, as the horse was getting very angry. "What can be the reason?" at last said the lady, halting her horse; "I must be very stupid." "It is some peculiarity in your hand," said the master, soothingly; "it will be all right by-and-by." "Do you think," said the lady, deferentially, "that the difference of seat--your leg on the right side--has anything to do with it?" "Not a bit," replied the preceptor. But it had all to do with it, and eventually the lady had to be put upon an old school hack for her ride in the park, leaving her own horse at the riding school. When the lady was gone the master observed, "Most extraordinary thing! I can't get this horse to do wrong, and Miss A. cannot get him to go a yard." "Did you ever ride him in a side-saddle?" I inquired. "I? Certainly not," was the answer; "no man can break a horse in a side-saddle" (this was true enough as regards the early stages), "and," continued the professor, "I can't ride a bit in a side-saddle." The latter observation settled the matter in my mind; for it has been always clear to me that, if a man cannot acquire a true and firm seat himself on a side-saddle, it is impossible he can teach a woman to ride. He may teach her to sit square and upright on an old horse that has been carrying women for years, but "going about" on such an animal is not riding--my idea of which, as regards a lady, is, that on a horse still full of courage and action (though not too fresh or short of work) the rider should be able, by the application of aids sound in theory and practice, to render the horse thoroughly obedient to her will. This is riding. Cantering along upon an old tittuping hack is merely taking horse exercise in a mild form. As regards a man riding in a side-saddle, I may say that some years ago a young friend of mine, now deceased--than whom there never was a better man with hounds--hunted in a side-saddle for three or four seasons before his death. He had injured his right foot so badly in a fall as to necessitate amputation at the instep, and he preferred the side-saddle seat to the awkward and disagreeable feeling occasioned by trusting to a cork foot in the off-side stirrup. Some of your readers may probably remember the dashing youngster I allude to, who was always to be seen going true and straight in the front rank, when he hunted eighteen years ago with the Royal Buckhounds. I can safely say that the horses he rode in his side-saddle were the perfection of ladies' hunters, and that he was one of the best instructors of female equitation I ever met. I repeat, then, that before a horse can be pronounced fit to carry a lady he should have been ridden in a side-saddle for some time by a man. Riding in this way, the breaker's first object should be to make the horse walk truly and fairly up to his bridle, without hurrying or shuffling in his pace, than which nothing is more unpleasant to a lady, especially if she is engaged in conversation with a companion. Of course it is indispensable that a horse should be a good natural walker, but at the same time the animal should be carefully taught to work right up to his bit in this most important pace; action in the others can then be easily developed. In the trot the breaker should gradually accustom the animal to go with the least possible amount of support from the leg. This he will easily do by using a very long whip, and, when he feels the horse hanging back from his work, touching him lightly on the hind quarters instead of closing the leg. In the foregoing I am assuming that the horse has been previously well broken, mouthed, and balanced to carry a man. To teach a horse readily to obey such delicate aids of hand or leg, as a lady can apply, I have found the following method most effectual: Use a side-saddle which has no head crutch on the off side; this gives more freedom of action to the right hand. Ride without a stirrup; your balance is sure then to be true. Use a long whip, and wear a spur on the left heel, furnished with short and not very sharp rowels. Make your horse walk well, and trot well up to his bridle, with as little leg as possible, touching him sharply with the spur if he tries to shirk his work. The long whip on the off side will prevent him from throwing his haunches in. Before cantering, collect him well. Keep his forehand well up, and his haunches under him. Keep his head well bent to the right; take him into the corner of the school or _manége_; then, keeping him up to his work rather by the aid of the spur and whip than by the leg, strike him lightly off to the right. A sharp touch of the spur behind the girth, and a light firm feeling of both reins, the inward the strongest, will cause him to strike off true. Where no riding house or walled _manége_ is available, the above may be successfully carried out in a small paddock, having tolerably high fences and corners nearly square. _Manner_ in riding the horse at this stage of his breaking is of vital importance. The hands, while kept well back, should be light and lively; the whip and spur (never to be unnecessarily applied) should be used so as to let the horse know that they are always ready if he hangs back from his work; and the rider, sitting easily and flexibly in the saddle, should ride with spirit and vivacity, making much of the horse from time to time as he answers with alacrity to the light and lively aids applied. A dull rider makes a dull horse, and _vice versâ_. Gradually, a well bred, good tempered animal will learn to answer smartly to the slightest indication of the rider's will, and while giving a good _appui_ to the hand, will convey a most enjoyable feeling from his well-balanced elastic movement, without the necessity of strong or rough aids. In a very brief time the long whip can be dispensed with, and all inclination to throw the haunches in will cease. The animal has then acquired the _aplomb_ necessary to fit him for the lady equestrian. He should then be taught by gradually inductive lessons to walk quietly up to his fences and jump freely, his haunches well under him; and subsequently to execute his leap from a steady, collected canter, without rush or hurry. During the latter part of each lesson he should be ridden with a skirt or rug on. He should then be accustomed to all kinds of sights and sounds, from the rattle of a wheelbarrow to the pattering file firing at a review, and the loud report of a great gun; and especially he should be habituated _to having all sorts of colours_ about him. I well remember seeing a fine horse, that had been some time in the breaker's hand, and was perfect in his mouth and paces, put a general officer and his lady into a complete fix. The lady went to a review, having been assisted into her saddle by her husband in his mufti costume before he dressed for parade. After the review, the lady dismounted to partake of luncheon in a marquee, and, after the repast, the general proceeded to put his wife on her horse; but the gallant steed by no means understood the dancing plume of red and white feathers in the officer's cocked hat, and he would none of him. He snorted, pawed the ground in terror, ran back, and did everything but stand still, although he had stood the marching past and firing well enough. Unluckily the groom had been sent home, and there was nobody in mufti on the ground who could put the lady on her saddle. Even when the general took off his cocked hat, the horse, having taken a dislike to him, would not let his master come near him. Finally, as there was no carriages on the ground, the lady had to walk a considerable distance, her horse led by an orderly. The above goes to show that to make a horse perfect for a lady, nothing likely to occur in the way of sights or sounds should be overlooked. If the horse possesses the requisite power and form to fit him for a hunter, and the lady for whom he is intended graces the hunting field with her presence, the animal should be ridden quietly in cubhunting time as often as possible, in long trots, _beside_ the hounds going to covert, and accustomed gradually to the music of the "sylvan choir," to stand quietly at the covert side, and take no heed of scarlet coats. If the horse has been otherwise well broken, the above is simply a question of time and patience. Let me now say something with regard to saddlery and appointments. The most important of these, of course, is the side-saddle, as to the form of which considerable diversity of opinion exists. My own experiences induce me to believe in a saddle which is as nearly as possible _flat_ from between the pommels to the cantle; any dip in the stretcher of the tree, while it renders the lady's seat less secure, has also the effect of throwing her weight too much upon the horse's forehand, and thus cramping his action. When a lady has acquired skill and confidence in her riding, a saddle with a very low-cut pommel on the off side is best, because it not only admits of the rider getting her hands lower (for which occasion may frequently occur), but on the off side it gives the lady and the horse a far better appearance, the high off side pommel spoiling the graceful contour of figure in both. Worked or plain off-side flaps are matters of taste, and have nothing to do with utility. The stirrup should be a Victoria, well padded. The leather should be fitted on the near side, in a similar manner to a man's stirrup leather, and be quite independent of the quarter strap. The reason for this is obvious. If you fit a lady's stirrup leather ever so carefully after she is up, you cannot tell how much the horse "will give up" in his girth after an hour's riding, or even less; and the leather which takes up on the off side may give to the extent of three or four holes, thereby greatly incommoding the rider, especially if she is in the hunting field and has to jump her horse, as it is ten to one, although she has the power of pulling up the leather herself, if, in the excitement of the chase, either she or anybody else will notice the rendering of the leather, and a drop leap may bring the rider to grief, whereas the near side arrangement is a fixture, and always reliable. For really comfortable riding, I believe also that it is quite as necessary that a saddle should be made in such proportion as to _fit the lady_, as that it should fit the horse. Even a thoroughly accomplished horsewoman cannot ride easily in a saddle that is too short from pommel to cantle, or too narrow in the seat. In either case, both discomfort and ungainly appearance are the result; while to a lady of slight _petite_ figure, a saddle too long from front to rear is equally unsightly, though possibly not quite so uncomfortable to the rider. Broad girths of the best materials are indispensable. There should be three of them. The quarter strap or girth should lead from the near side fork of the tree to a buckle piece attached to a ring on the off-side quarter, the ring giving the quarter strap a better bearing. A crupper should never be used; a horse that requires one is not fit for a lady. Saddle cloths are unnecessary to a carefully-pannelled saddle, and hide the symmetry of the horse. Breastplates or neck straps may be used for hunting, or the fitting of martingales (necessary sometimes). But the less leather about the horse, where it can be dispensed with, the better he will look. As to bridles, as a rule, I maintain that a lady's horse properly broken should ride right into an ordinary double bridle, bit, and bridoon, the port of the bit proportioned to the contour and setting on of the horse's head and neck, as should also be the length of the cheek piece and jaw of the bit; while the question of a plain or twisted bridoon or snaffle must be regulated by the hand of the rider and the mouth of the horse. For park or promenade riding, fashion of late years inclines to a single rein bridle or "Hanoverian," or hard and sharp. No doubt they are very sightly and neat in appearance; but with a high-couraged horse they require very nice and finished hands, and in the majority of cases, in my humble opinion, are safe only for the most accomplished female riders. I leave the question of bridle-fronts, bound with ribbon of pink, blue, or yellow, to the taste of my readers; when neatly put on and fresh, they look gay in the park. But either there or in the hunting field, I believe more in the plain leather front, as having, if I may so express it, a more workmanlike appearance. Having now endeavoured to describe the best preparations on foot for the pupil, the style of dress most suitable for her first lessons in equitation, the stamp of horse a lady should ride, the training he should undergo for the special service required of him, and the kind of saddlery and equipment he will travel best in, in my next chapter I will attempt briefly, but minutely, to detail the first step in the riding lesson proper, namely, the form in which the pupil should approach her horse in order to be assisted into the saddle, and the mounting motions, all of which are of great importance, as each motion should be executed gracefully, without hurry, and in a well defined and finished manner. Nothing connected with riding stamps the style and _tournure_ of a lady more than the fashion in which she mounts her horse and arranges her habit; it ought, in fact, to be a matter as carefully looked to by the instructor as her mode of entering a room would be to a master of deportment. CHAPTER IV. The manner in which a lady should approach her horse in order to be assisted to mount should be carefully looked to by the instructor. Anything like hurry, while it is calculated to render the horse unsteady, is at the same time ungraceful, and the beginning of a bad habit always to be avoided. Everything in the way of mounting or dismounting a horse, either by a lady or gentleman, should be done with well-defined and deliberate, although smart motions. This precision once acquired is the good habit which becomes second nature to the rider, and is so highly indicative of good manners in equitation. To some persons the formula I am about to describe may appear too punctilious, and possibly carried to too nice a point of precision. But my idea is that in all these matters it is well to begin by _overdoing them_ a little. We are all more or less prone to become careless in our carriage and bearing, both on foot and horseback, as we grow older; therefore overdoing them a trifle with young people may safely be pronounced an error on the right side. I have frequently heard the remark that it is of no consequence how a man or woman gets upon a horse, provided they can ride when once up. I maintain that graceful riding is true riding, and that if it is worth while to ride gracefully, it is equally worth while to mount gracefully. Let us then suppose the lady to be dressed and ready for her ride in school or _manége_. She should take the skirt of her habit in the full of both hands, holding her whip in the right; the skirt should be raised sufficiently to admit of the wearer walking freely. Then she should walk from a point in the school at right angles with her horse quietly to his shoulder, and face square to her left, standing just behind the animal's near elbow and parallel to his side. Thus facing to the front, and still holding her skirt with both hands, she should pass her whip from her right hand into the left, and "make much of her horse" by patting him on the near shoulder--the best method anybody (man or woman) can adopt as a first step to acquaintance with a strange horse; at the same time she should speak soothingly to her new equine friend. The horse should be held by a groom standing in front of him, and holding him by both reins. On the assistant approaching to lift the pupil to the saddle, the lady should return the whip to the right hand and drop her habit. She should then take the snaffle or bridoon rein in the centre with the left hand, at the end close to the buckle piece with the right, and draw them through the left until she has a light and equal feeling upon both sides of the horse's mouth. The right hand should then be placed firmly on the near side upper crutch of the saddle, the snaffle rein held between the pommel and the hand, the whip in the full of it. The left hand should then grip the reins, and the lady should resume her position square to the front, without moving her right hand or relaxing her grasp of the pommel of the saddle. The assistant (who should be _a gentleman_, not a groom) should then stoop low enough to place both his hands locked together in such a position that the pupil can place her left foot firmly on them, the left knee slightly bent. At the same time she should also place the flat of her left hand firmly on the right shoulder of the assistant, keeping her arm perfectly straight. The instructor should then give her the following directions: "On the word 'one,' bend the right knee; on the word 'two,' spring smartly up from the right foot and straighten the left knee." If the pupil executes these movements simultaneously, keeping her left elbow perfectly firm and the arm straight, the assistant can lift her with the greatest ease to the level of the saddle, where, firmly grasping the pommel, she has only to make a half turn to her left, and she is seated sideways on her horse. The assistant should then straighten the skirt down, and taking the slack of it in his left hand, lift it over the near side upper crutch while the lady turns in her saddle, and facing square to her point, lifts her right knee over the pommel, bringing her right leg close to the forepoint of the saddle, with the leg well drawn back, and the toe raised from the instep. The assistant should then place the lady's foot well home in the stirrup. Before raising the right knee over the pommel, the lady should lift the snaffle reins with her right hand high enough to admit of her moving the leg without interfering with them. The right knee being firmly placed between the pommels, and the left foot in the stirrup, the pupil should then place her right hand with the snaffle reins between the finger and thumb and the whip in the full of the hand, firmly on the off-side pommel of the saddle. She should then draw her left foot well back, and getting a firm bearing on the stirrup, raise herself well up from the saddle, leaning forward sufficiently to preserve her balance. She should then pass her left hand back, and pull her skirt well out, so that there remains no ruck or wrinkle in it, and then quietly lower herself down to the saddle again. This act of clearing the slack of the skirt is one which it is so frequently necessary for the lady to execute when riding that she should practise it frequently in her early lessons. It is true that when the assistant first places her on the horse he can arrange her habit as she rises from the saddle; but, for some time, until she has acquired firmness and perfect balance, her habit will inevitably ride up, particularly in trotting, and it is necessary that she should learn to be independent in this respect of the gentleman who attends her. Moreover, as to arrange the habit gracefully requires considerable practice, it should form a distinct part of the lesson at first when the horse is standing perfectly still, afterwards at a walk, and finally at a trot. In cantering it cannot be done. Having arranged the hind part of her skirt, the lady should then take the front in her left hand, and pull it well forward, raising her right knee at the same time, to insure that she has perfect freedom of action for it. The left knee should then be placed firmly against the leaping crutch (or, as it is generally called, the third crutch) of the saddle; although with saddles devoid of an off-side pommel, it is, in fact, the second crutch. This important adjunct to a lady's firmness and security in riding should always be most carefully looked to by Paterfamilias when purchasing the saddle, and by the master after it is bought. I can well remember when the third crutch was unknown; and in these days, when its efficiency has been so abundantly proved, it really seems marvellous how ladies years ago could not only ride well without it, but even acquit themselves creditably in the hunting field. The secret of the matter, however, lies in this: First, although there was no third support for the rider, the off-side and near-side pommels were much closer together than those now made; the off-side one was well padded, and in most cases where ladies rode hunting it was usual to have an extra pad, which fitted on to the off-side crutch, and again narrowed the interval, according to the size of the lady, until her leg fitted tightly between the two crutches, thus giving her a very firm hold with the right knee. Nevertheless, it is evident that only the truest balance would enable the fair equestrians of those days to maintain their seats. When a young lady is first put on horseback, I believe in anything that can give her confidence, and for this purpose the third crutch is admirable, because she finds a firm purchase between the crutch and the stirrup. As this hold, however, is apt to degenerate into a complete reliance on the third pommel, it is necessary in a more advanced stage of the lessons in equitation to use a saddle without any such support for the pupil. The third crutch, when forming part of a side-saddle, _should never be removed_, as is too frequently done by grooms for the purpose of cleaning the saddle. The crutch itself is so constructed as to screw into a socket in the tree. By constantly screwing and unscrewing it, the thread of the screw wears out; in fact, this will occur much sooner than would be supposed. The consequence is that, let the lady or her assistant turn the third crutch to what angle they may in order to suit the length and formation of the lady's leg, the crutch will not remain in its proper position, but is continually shifting, turning, and wobbling, to the great discomfort of the rider; nay, I have seen more than one case where the crutch has turned edgeways to the rider's leg, and caused severe pain and bruising of the delicate limb. Let it be a strict injunction then, to your groom, "Never unscrew the third crutch;" and if you find the support shifting in its socket, shift the groom as soon as possible, and send the saddle to the saddler to be firmly fixed in. Why saddlers should fit these supports to turn at all, I can see no good reason. Some men, it is true, say that in putting a lady on horseback it is necessary to turn the third crutch round, so as to prevent it from catching the skirt; but for my own part I could never find any necessity for this, or any difficulty in clearing a lady's skirt when lifting her to the saddle. In purchasing a side-saddle, I repeat, the greatest judgment is necessary as regards the third crutch; while it should be long enough to give a good purchase and be well padded, it should be but _slightly curved_. A crutch that forms a considerable segment of a circle is both inconvenient and dangerous--inconvenient because it is a support of this description (if any) that is in a lady's way in mounting, and dangerous because, if in the hunting field a horse should chance to fall with his fair rider, she would be unable to extricate herself from her fallen steed, inasmuch as the nearly half-circular crutch would completely pin her leg to the horse. It is, in fact, almost as dangerous as if a man were to strap himself to his saddle (which, by the way, I once saw a very determined hunting man do when suffering from weakness in one leg). He had no opportunity, however, of testing his experiment, as the master of the hounds very judiciously told him that, if he persevered, he (the master) would take the hounds home. Nor is there any possible use in the enveloping of the leg by the thick crutch of the side-saddle. With the slightest possible bend, the support is sufficient if the rider sits fair and true in her saddle, while plenty of stuffing is necessary to avoid bruising the leg, especially in leaping. These "stumpy-looking" third crutches are certainly less sightly in the saddle-room than the more circular ones; but I submit that, inasmuch as it is not seen when the lady is up, it is of more consequence to consult her comfort and safety than the eye of the groom. When the lady has arranged her dress to her satisfaction, as above described, the next section of the lesson should consist in teaching how she should take up her reins; and here again the greatest care should be taken by the instructor that this is done coolly and _gracefully_, without hurry or "fumbling." A great deal of trouble in this way may be saved by the instructor teaching the lady how to take up her reins on foot. Thus, take an ordinary double bridle, let a lad hold the upper part of the head-stall in one hand, and the bits in the other, and stand opposite the pupil. Hang both reins over your left arm just as they would rest on the neck of the horse, the curb rein underneath, the bridoon rein above. Let the pupil then take hold of _both reins_ at the end with the right hand; place the second finger of the left hand between the bridoon reins with the nearside rein uppermost, and the little finger of the same hand between the curb reins, the near-side curb rein uppermost. Let her then place both bridoon and bit reins perfectly flat over the middle joint of the forefinger of the left hand, and drop the end of the reins over the knuckles, then close the thumb firmly down on them. She will find then both bit and bridoon reins equally divided, and an equal facility of causing them to act on the horse's mouth, according to the direction in which she turns the wrist of her left or bridle hand proper, or assists it with her right hand, according to the aids hereafter to be described. The mode of holding the reins above laid down is called in the French school "Mode de Paysanne," or civilian method. The military fashion, which is far more elegant, but not so well adapted at first for a beginner, is as follows. The pupil takes the end of the bridoon reins between the finger and thumb of the right hand, and passes them over the full of the left, or, to render the explanation still more simple, passes all the fingers of the left hand between them, the off side rein above, and the near side one below; the buckle piece on the knuckle of the forefinger, the rest of the rein hanging loosely down. Let the lady then take the bit or curb reins between the finger and thumb of the right hand, and pass the little finger of the left between them, the near side rein uppermost. With the right hand then let her draw the reins through the left, until--keeping the left hand perfectly quiet--she has a light, almost imperceptible, feeling on the horse's mouth. Let her then turn the bit reins over the middle joint of the forefinger of the left hand, and close the thumb down closely and firmly on them. The reins will then be precisely in the form in which a dragoon's reins are arranged when he is riding a finished horse at a field day or elsewhere. This method is therefore called the "mode militaire." But inasmuch as only a highly-finished horse can be ridden on the bit rein alone by an equally finished rider, in order to assist the latter, and to prevent the horse unduly feeling the action of the curb on his mouth, it is necessary that the rider should draw up the bridoon reins so as to obtain an equal feeling upon both bit and bridoon. Nothing can be more simple than to do this, as the rider has only with the right hand to take hold of the bridoon rein on the left or near side of the buckle or centre, and draw it up until the part passing under the lower edge of the hand is of equal length with the bit reins. She then closes her left thumb on both reins, and shortens the right bridoon rein until it is of equal length with the others. The rider has then an equal feeling of all four reins. She should then hold the ends with her right hand, and let the reins slip through the left until both hands are drawn back close to her waist, the wrists slightly rounded outwards, the back towards the horse's head, and the elbows drawn slightly back behind the waist. The instructor having placed the pupil's hands, should then proceed to correct her general position. The figure should be well drawn up from the waist, shoulders perfectly square and well thrown back, head and neck erect, the upper part of the arm hanging almost perpendicular from the shoulder, the elbows well back, so that a thin rod would pass between them and the waist; the obvious reason for this position of the hands and elbows being that, if they are allowed to go forward, the whole flexibility of the waist--upon which depends the comfort, grace, and security of the pupil's riding--is destroyed, and the lithe figure of the fair rider becomes rigid and wooden in appearance, and stiff in action. The upper part of the figure being thus placed, the master's attention should be directed to the position of the feet and legs. That of the right leg I have already described. The left leg, with the knee well bent, should be placed firmly against the third crutch, the heel well sunk, the toe raised from the instep, the foot at first well home in the stirrup. By well stretching down the heel the rider braces all the muscles at the back of the leg, and this, joined to drawing the figure well up from the waist, secures that true balance so indispensable to good riding. The right leg should be well bent and drawn back as near as possible to the left leg. This should be the position at a walk, the aids for which, and the turns I leave for another chapter. CHAPTER V. Let me now offer a few remarks on a subject upon which considerable diversity of opinion exists, namely, whether the teaching of a young lady in riding may or may not be entrusted to a female professor of equitation in preference to a man. At the first glance, there seems to be good reason for preferring the tuition of the lady but, on careful consideration, I believe most of those interested in the matter will agree with me that, under many circumstances likely to occur, one lady, however good a horsewoman herself, is likely to be quite unable to render the desired assistance to a pupil, conceding, at the same time that, as regards the details of dress, the opinion of a lady who has had long practice in the saddle may be very useful. In the first place, the placing of the pupil on the horse and taking her off cannot possibly be as well done, to say the least, by a lady instructor as it can by a gentleman; neither would the performance of such an office be graceful or convenient to either. Secondly, all that portion of the instruction which should be given by the instructor on foot while the pupil is on horseback can be better given by a man who understands his business than by a lady, because, although the tone of voice in which the instruction is conveyed should be kindly, and the manner cheerful and encouraging, a degree of _firmness_ and _conciseness_ is necessary, which few ladies possess, for the reason that the art of teaching riding, like riding itself, requires a considerable practice and long drilling into the instructor in a school where smartness of diction and expression form part of the education of an intended professor of equitation. Thirdly, assuming both instructor and pupil to be in the saddle, a lady, although thoroughly mistress of her own horse, is unable to aid her pupil as easily as a man can. In the early lessons given (the instructor being on horseback), it is necessary that the latter should be close enough to the pupil's horse on the off side to be able at any moment to place the hands of the learner, to check any exuberant action of the horse by laying the left hand firmly upon the reins; and in the first essays made by the pupil in the trotting lesson, to assist her by the left hand of the instructor placed under the right elbow of the beginner. And finally, should any necessity arise during a ride for dismounting the pupil, a lady instructor labours under this difficulty, that having dismounted herself, and both pupil and teacher being on the ground, the act of mounting again by two ladies, unattended by a man, is one of considerable difficulty and possible danger. From the very necessity of her position in the saddle, a lady teaching another cannot, without inconvenience to both legs (the left especially), approach near enough to her pupil's horse to assist the latter with her left hand, because her left leg is always in danger of coming in contact with the other horse; while on a windy day the skirt of her habit is likely enough to be blown into his flank, and thereby make him unsteady. Not long since I saw two ladies who were riding, unattended by a man, in a very awkward predicament. Both are practised riders, possessing capital seats and hands, and are equal to any contingency likely to occur as long as they are in the saddle; nay, one of the ladies is, I believe, the most accomplished horsewoman I ever saw. Her seat is both fine and graceful to a degree; her hands perfection, her nerve first-rate, and her experience in riding even difficult horses with hounds considerable. This lady was the elder of the two; her companion was considerably younger, but although a very accomplished rider, she lacked the experience of her friend. Something had gone amiss with the younger lady's saddle, and both ladies dismounted to arrange it. The elder was quite equal to this, for I have seen her many times saddle and bridle her own horse, and with one that would stand quietly (being herself exceedingly supple and active), she can put her hands on the upper pommel and vault into the saddle without any assistance. But in the case I allude to she was completely fixed. Her horse was a chesnut thoroughbred, only four years old; and, although, despite all difficulty I believe, had she been alone, she would have succeeded in mounting, her friend and her horse placed her in an awkward dilemma. She was compelled from time to time to use one hand to disengage the folds of her habit, and she had to hold both horses, even if her friend could have gained her saddle unassisted. Neither horse would stand still; the one, as is invariably the case in such little difficulties, setting a bad example, which the other was not slow to follow. To hold two horses, keep clear of her own habit, while the horses were shifting their positions continually, and give her friend even the least help in mounting, proved too much even for the highly-finished lady equestrian, and as the _contretemps_ occurred on a lone country road, I believe they would have been compelled to lead their horses a considerable distance, had I not chanced opportunely to arrive. In such places as Rotten-row a lady instructor may get on tolerably well with her pupil, because, in case of any mishap, there are plenty of men always at hand who know what a horse is; but in out-of-the-way country places it is very different. The British rustic, whatever other good qualities he may possess, is not celebrated, as a rule, for over politeness to ladies--strangers particularly. In proof of the above, there is a story current in this neighbourhood which is likely enough to be true, although I cannot vouch for it myself. The tale runs thus:--A lady (one of the daughters of a noble house) having married, had gone abroad with her husband, and been absent from the home of her early days so long that the uprising generation of young people about the estate knew her not. She was taking a ride one day unattended, and mounted on a steady cob, had been visiting the long-cherished scenes of her childhood, when she came to a very awkward bridle gate, seated on which was a juvenile "wopstraw" in duck frock, leather leggings, and wideawake. The boy jumped down and opened the gate for the lady, at the same time taking off his hat. Now the fair recipient of this delicate attention was well aware of the fact that the village people on the paternal estate were celebrated in the county for their rough manners to strangers, ladies forming no exception, so she was agreeably surprised at the exceptional good behaviour of the youngster, the more so as she was quite sure he did not know her. Taking a shilling out of her purse she gave it to him, observing: "You are a very good boy," and added, laughing, "I am sure you were not born at D." (the name of the principal village on the estate). But to the donor's horror the youngster, grasping his hat firmly in one fist and the shilling in the other, with a fiery glare of indignation in his fat face and flashing eye, replied, "Thou be'st a loyar (liar), I wor." _Verbum sap._ All rustics are not so ill behaved as the one above mentioned. But as very few of them will go far out of their road to assist a stranger, it is as well that ladies riding in remote country parts should be attended by a gentleman; and I repeat, for all purposes of instruction, the attendance of a man will be found far more efficient than that of a lady. CHAPTER VI. The frontispiece represents the stamp of horse best calculated to carry a lady, and is a very truthful likeness of a five-year-old horse, named Prince Arthur, a son of the celebrated racehorse Stockwell, his dam a half-bred Arab mare. The subject of the plate, therefore, has some of the very best English blood in his veins, in conjunction with that Eastern strain from which in all probability our magnificent British thoroughbreds derive a considerable proportion of their power of endurance, or, in turf phraseology, their staying quality. The horse is a first-class hack, as good a performer over the great Leicestershire pastures and formidable oxers which so often bar the way in that sporting county, as he has already proved himself in the _manége_; and, as he possesses, in addition to true and most elastic action, fine temper and indomitable courage, I venture to present his likeness as my type of the sort of animal adapted either for Rotten-row or to hold his own in the "first flight" over a country. A common error is that any weedy thoroughbred, too slow for racing, and without the "timber" and substance to enable him to carry a 10-stone man to hounds, is good enough for a lady's riding. There can be no greater mistake. While quality and fashion are indispensable in a woman's horse, strength and substance are equally necessary. As I have before observed, the very conditions upon which the comfort and safety of a lady's riding depend, leave her horse without that support in his action which he would derive from the riding of a good man; while, however true the balance of the lady may be, still the horse's powers are called upon in a long ride, either on the flat or over the country, in a way which tests him severely. There must therefore be plenty of wear and tear in the right place--great strength in the loins, a back _not too short_, aided by strong and well-arched back ribs, which are at the same time not too closely locked up. The Arab horse proper, despite his great capability of endurance, his symmetrical contour and extraordinary sagacity, is still a trying mount for a lady unaccustomed to him. With great power in his hind quarters (as a rule), he is short in the back, low and short in front of the saddle. The consequence is that from his powerful back action, he pitches too much in his collected paces to ride pleasantly to a woman, although when striding away at top speed he is easy enough. On the other hand, the English horse that possesses length enough to enable him to travel easily under the fair equestrian too often has the length in the wrong place, and cannot stay--a defect fatal to enjoyable riding for a lady, at all events in the hunting field. It is to the admixture of Eastern and Western blood, therefore, that one has to look for symmetry of topping conjoined to length in the right place, power, and substance. I now proceed to say a few words as to the "aids" to be employed to put the horse in motion. In order to impress these thoroughly upon the memory of the fair tyro, the preceptor should adopt a form of question and answer to the following effect: Q. What are the aids to make a horse walk?--A. A pressure of the leg to his side, at the same time easing the hand. Q. How is the hand to be eased?--A. From the wrist; the arm being kept perfectly steady, and the little finger yielding towards the horse's neck. Q. How many lines of action should the little finger of the bridle hand move on?--A. Four. First, towards the waist; second, towards the horse's neck; third, towards the right shoulder; fourth, towards the left. Q. What are the objects of these motions?--A. First, to collect, halt, or rein back the horse. Second, to give him facility of moving forward. Third, to turn him to the left. Fourth, to turn him to the right. The upper part of the rider's figure to be slightly turned from the waist, by bringing forward the right shoulder when turning to the left and _vice versâ_, in order to enable her to move exactly on the same line as the horse, and so to preserve completely her due _aplomb_ or balance in the saddle. The above, in a slightly modified form, is the instruction laid down in the "Military Aid Book," as is the following. Q. What is meant by a light hand?--A. An almost imperceptible easing and feeling of the bridle hand, so as to preserve the natural delicacy of the horse's mouth. The foregoing, however, while it indicates correctly and concisely what a light hand is, is scarcely explicit enough for a beginner. I believe the best definition to be this: when a horse is "light in hand," according to the technical meaning, it should by no means be understood that he has so delicate a mouth that he fears the action of the bit in it. On the contrary, having in his breaking been fairly balanced, the greater part of the weight on his haunches, and ridden well up to his bridle, he should admit of a steady _appui_ between his mouth and the rider's hand, while he bends in the poll of the neck. Thoroughly balanced, and bending as above described, his mouth yields to the action of the rider's hand, and is "light" in the true sense of the principles of equitation. A great deal of nonsense is talked about ladies' hands being so much more light and delicate than those of a man. The truth is, that, assuming both male and female rider to be equally practised in the saddle, there is no difference whatever in the feeling or _appui_ given by the horse. Thoroughly habituated to obey certain indications conveyed to him through the medium of the bridle reins and leg or other aid of the rider, he will answer to them precisely in the same manner to a lady as he would to a man; while, on the other hand, if these indications are not given with well-defined clearness and precision, he will not answer to anybody's riding. There is a point, however, as regards the action of the hands, to which I beg to call the particular attention both of young ladies commencing their lessons in equitation and of gentlemen (non-professional) who may undertake the task of teaching riding. A great difference of opinion exists as to whether the action of the bridle hand should be from the wrist only, or whether (spring like, if I may use the expression) the "give and take" action should be conveyed by the upper part of the arm being quite mobile at the shoulder joint and in conjunction with the forearm, the latter kept, however, close to the side, and moving easily and freely to the horse's action. The latter theory is warmly advocated by many thoroughly experienced horsemen and professors of female equitation, who maintain that to teach a young lady to keep the arm firm to the side, in the manner adopted in the military riding school, is not only to give her a rigid wooden appearance on her horse, but also to destroy the proper flexibility of her figure. On the other hand, some instructors--those especially who are veterans of the cavalry _manége_--insist that firmness of the arm should in all cases be rigidly demanded. My experience induces me to come to a conclusion which is midway between these opposing theories. In the first lessons given to a lady on horseback it is well to insist upon her keeping the arm steady, because otherwise she is ready not only to yield her hand to every movement of the horse, be that yielding right or wrong, but gradually and imperceptibly to herself her hands will steal forward until they are eight or ten inches in front of her, the consequence being that the muscles of the waist become rigid, and the flexibility of her figure at its most important point, as regards riding, is lost, while the hands remain in the awkward and ungainly position I allude to. For the above reason, therefore, it is desirable to inculcate firmness of the lower part of the arm to the side in the early lessons; the hands drawn back close to the waist. And, in order to make this form of riding more easily comprehensible to the pupil at her first essay, the following will be found highly effective: Let the instructor stand in front of the horse, and taking the bridle reins one in each hand, let him caution the pupil _not_ to yield to him if he pulls against her. Let him then take a quick, sharp pull at the reins in the same way as a horse would when trying to get his head free from the rider's control. The master will find that, despite the caution, both the pupil's hands will come forward at once; and if this action on the bridle had been executed by the horse instead of his master, the former would have gained his first step in having his own way, and, for instance, from a collected canter could increase his pace at his own will. Now, there is nothing more important in the action of the hand in controlling the horse than firmness and instantaneous decision in yielding or maintaining the _appui_. "If" (say some theorists) "a horse pulls against you, drop your hand to him." This is rather a vague expression, which, in fact, conveys no real meaning to an inexperienced person; among horsemen it is intended to convey that you should yield to the horse whenever he pulls or takes a liberty with the hand. Now, the direct reverse of this is the course to be adopted by all riders who wish to acquire good hands. When a horse endeavours to forereach upon the rider, the latter, instead of yielding, should close his hands firmly on the reins, and keep the arms perfectly steady, _without pulling an ounce_ against the horse; at the same time closing his leg with equal firmness. In the next stride or two the horse will yield to the hand, which should instantly yield to him; and thus he learns that you are master of him, and goes well together, or, as it is technically called, collectedly and within himself; whereas if the hand is freely yielded whenever he takes a liberty or romps for his head, in a very brief time he will be all abroad, and going in any form but that best for himself or his rider. To ensure firmness and steadiness of the hands, however, equal firmness and steadiness are requisite in the arms, and, for that reason, the pupil should be taught to keep them close to the side; an additional reason being that, if this is neglected, a beginner, as it were, disconnects the figure from the waist upwards, and loses her true balance. When the pupil has had sufficient practice to ensure steadiness in the saddle, the injunction as to arms perfectly steady may be relaxed; and gradually, while there is no lateral motion of the arm from the side or sticking out of the elbows, the lady will learn to give easy play to the shoulder joint without destroying the neatness of her riding or her power to fix her arms for a moment if the horse tries to get his head away. In short, my theory is that it is impossible for the pupil to learn the true _appui_, or acquire what is usually called a light hand, until she has acquired a steady one. It is easy enough to tell her to "give and take" to the cadence of the horse's action; but the precise moment at which to do this must be made clear to the learner by some well defined and easily comprehensible rule. I submit that the readiest way of defining it is that I have attempted in the foregoing. Having carefully given the above instruction, see that the pupil is sitting fair and true in the saddle, and be careful to correct any tendency to throwing forward the right shoulder, which is both inelegant and destructive of balance. See that the right knee is in a firm, but still flexible form on the upper pannels. Caution the pupil while she draws her figure well up from the waist to stretch the left heel well down; and let her then, keeping her hands perfectly quiet, press the horse forward into a walk with the leg, while she yields the little finger from the wrist only. Let her make the horse walk freely out, but up to his bridle, the whip being applied, if necessary, on the off shoulder if he hangs back behind his work. Nearly all young people, when first put on horseback, are anxious to be off in a canter at once, and it is a sore trial to their patience to be kept at a walk. But there can be no greater mistake than to allow them to canter a horse until they have learnt the "alpha" of their business--that important lesson, how to make a horse walk true and fair. This accomplished, "going large" round school or paddock, the pupil should be carefully instructed how to turn her horse square to the right or left, and to rein him back. And in order to make the instruction as clear and concise as possible, again, in a modified form, the "Book of Aids" may be called upon. The formula there laid down, in the shape of question and answer, is as follows:-- Q. How do you turn a horse to the right or left?--A. By a double feeling of the inward rein, retaining a steady feeling of the outward. The horse kept up to the hand by pressure of both legs. The outward by the strongest. Now, as in the case of a lady, there is no right leg to support the horse, in turning, he is liable to lean upon the hand; the rider should close the left leg firmly, and touch him lightly on the off-side with her whip, which will at once cause him to keep his forehand up and his haunches under him. After being once or twice so corrected he will turn carefully, without hurry or coming on his shoulder. The pupil should then be taught to turn her horse right and left about in the centre of the _manége_, the aids being simply continued until the animal faces the reverse way, the pupil turning her horse upon his centre in the middle of the _manége_, instead of his haunches, as at the side. Plenty of practice should be given in making these turns, because by them the pupil learns to bring up the right or left shoulder according to the hand turned to, the right shoulder in turning to the left, and _vice versâ_; and this should be most carefully attended to by the master, otherwise the body of the pupil is moving on one line and the horse on another, and in case of his flirting the pupil is already half-way out of her saddle. Too much attention therefore cannot be given to this vital point in the _aplomb_ for this obvious reason--if a lady once acquires the habit (which unfortunately too many do) of allowing the horse to turn without "going with him," it is quite on the cards that some day a horse, a trifle too fresh, may jump round with her. If the above principle of "going" with the horse has been thoroughly well taught her in her early lessons she will have no difficulty in accompanying the action of the horse, if she even fail in checking it; but if she is permitted so to sit as to be looking over her horse's left ear when she turns him to the right, she is leaving the question of her seat entirely to the generosity of the steed. And it may be as well to say at once that, with the best intentioned, broken, or mannered horse, it may be laid down as a golden rule in riding to leave nothing to his generosity. Horses are very keen in their perceptions, and can detect in a manner little suspected by the inexperienced when they have one at a disadvantage. Reining back may be practised from time to time. To do this well, again clearly defined instructions should be given. First the horse should be halted. Thus: A light _firm_ feeling of both reins, to check his forward movement; the leg closed tightly at the same time, to keep him up to the hand; the reins to be eased as soon as the horse is halted. The aids for reining back should then be explained as follows: Closing the hands firmly on the reins, the rider should feel the horse's mouth as though the reins were made of silken thread instead of leather, and close her leg quietly to keep him up to the hand. There should be no dead pull at the horse's mouth, but the reins should be eased at every step he takes backwards, which, if the aids are smoothly and truly applied, he will do without throwing his haunches either in or out. In the early lessons the pupil should not be allowed to rein her horse back more than two or three steps at a time. The use of reining back is to bring the greater weight from the horse's forehand to his haunches, to collect him and make him light in hand. (See "Aid Book.") It is also of great use in assisting the pupil to correct her own _aplomb_ in the saddle, and acquire a true _appui_ on the horse's mouth. Every movement of the hand of the rider, however, and every step of the horse, should be carefully watched by the instructor. The horse should never be allowed to _hurry_ back, as that will at once enable him to get behind his bridle. These lessons at a walk, the turns to the right and left, turns about and reining back, should be continued until the pupil executes them with precision. Her position should be rigidly attended to, all stiffness avoided, and nothing in the shape of careless sitting allowed to pass unnoticed. I repeat, the early lessons should, if anything, be a little overdone in the way of exactness, because any careless habit acquired at such a stage is most difficult to get rid of afterwards. When the pupil is thoroughly _au fait_ at her walking lesson, she should commence the next important section, that, namely, of learning to trot, the formula of which I will endeavour to explain in my next chapter, concluding this with a description of the form in which a lady should dismount, and the assistance that should be afforded by the master. Having halted the horse in the centre of the school, his head should be held by a steady groom. The lady should then pass the reins from the right hand to the left, and quietly lift her skirt with the right hand until she can easily disengage her right knee from the upper pommels. At the same moment her left foot should be disengaged by the assistant from the stirrup, and her skirt from the near-side pommel or third crutch. The lady should then drop the reins on the horse's neck, and having disengaged her right knee, turn quietly to the left in her saddle, and face the assistant. She should then with both hands take up the slack of her habit until her feet are quite clear of it, otherwise, on alighting she is liable to trip and fall, possibly right into the arms of the assistant, which is not, by any means, according to rule. Having gathered up the skirt, the lady should then carry her hands forward about eight or ten inches from her knees, and rest both her hands firmly on those of the assistant, who should raise them up well for the purpose. It remains only then for the lady to glide smoothly down from the saddle, and, slightly supported by the assistant, she will alight easily and gracefully on _terra firma_. Some riding masters have a fashion of taking a lady off her horse by placing both hands on her waist and allowing her to throw her weight forward upon them. Such a practice is _outré_, inelegant, and unsafe, because the lady is likely enough to throw more weight forward than the master anticipated, in which case both may come to the ground, to the great discomfiture of the fair equestrian. CHAPTER VII. THE TROTTING LESSON. This, once thoroughly mastered, gives the pupil confidence and security on her horse, and is the great inductive step by which she learns the value of balance. Some years ago it was considered that if a lady could sit her horse gracefully at a walk, and securely at a canter, she had accomplished all that was correct or necessary in female equitation. Trotting was altogether ignored, for the simple reason that ladies found it extremely difficult to do, and impossible to find anybody who could help them out of their difficulty by teaching them the right way. In those days most of the riding masters were men who had been instructors in the cavalry. In that arm of the service, trotting according to regulation is quite a different thing to the easy rise and fall seat practised by civilians on horseback. It is a necessity in cavalry, in order to preserve the dressing in line, that a man should sit down in his saddle at a trot, and allow the horse to shake him fair up and down in it. If the rising seat were allowed, it would be impossible to preserve anything like dressing. This shake-up, or "bumping" seat, however, as men out of the army call it, is by no means so distressing as some people imagine, unless the horse is unusually rough in his action. The reason is that the military trot is taught upon the principle of balance. The man sits fair down on his seat, and, keeping his knee forward and his heel well down, does not cling to the horse by muscular grasp; consequently the bumping, so terrific to the eye of the civilian, is scarcely felt by the soldier, and in continental armies, where rough trotting horses are exceptional, the motion or jolt is scarcely perceptible. There are a great many popular fallacies about military riding--as, for instance, that a dragoon rides with a very long stirrup; that his seat is insecure; that the bumping gives a horse a sore back; and that, except a sailor and a tailor, a dragoon officer is about the worst horseman to be found. This is not exactly the place to enter into any controversy on the subject; but I may as well observe at once, and I do so because I am sure the old soldiers are not altogether despised by the ladies, even in this non-military country, that all the foregoing are so many mistakes. A dragoon, any time within my memory, rode just the same length as a man does over a country--that is to say that, measuring the cavalry man's leather and iron by the length of his arm and hand, which is the right length for a civilian, you have exactly the cavalry regulation length. The stirrup of a lancer indeed is somewhat shorter than that used by most hunting men. Finally, an acquaintance with the _habitués_ of such places as Melton would prove to unbelievers in the riding of cavalry officers that the names of most of the men who go to the front in the hunting-field, and keep there, are to be found in the "Army List." I have been tempted thus to digress by having referred to the military riding school, from which in former days, most, if not all, the riding masters who taught ladies came. Now, although I stand up (as in duty bound) for the military system of riding _per se_, it does not produce the right man to teach a woman to ride, if the experience of the preceptor has been acquired in the riding school only. Excellent as is our system (or, rather, the German system, for it is imported from the Prussian service), for making a man a first-class dragoon, as regards anything connected with a lady's seat or the principle of her balance, it is useless. As regards her hands, or the application of the "aids" of the _manége_, it is highly beneficial, because nothing can be more clear or concise than the simple rules laid down in military equitation for the application of the "helps," by which a horse's easy movement is controlled and regulated. It was principally to the want of men who could teach a lady to ride, however, that the absence of a trotting in the side saddle was to be attributed "lang syne." It is altogether different now. Riding masters took to riding across country, and their daughters took to it also, naturally. Awkward spills occurred; and long journeys home after hunting, all done at a canter, terribly shook the horse's legs and the temper of the head of the family. "Why the deuce can't you let your horse trot?" I once heard the worthy sire of a blooming girl of sixteen say to his daughter, who was pounding away on the hard road on the _retour de chasse_. "For God's sake let him trot, Carry. You'll hammer his legs all to pieces. Why don't you let him trot?" "Because, pa, he won't let me trot," was the unanswerable reply. True enough; Carry knew nothing about it, and there was nobody to tell her. She was riding on a saddle that fitted neither her nor her horse. She had no third crutch, and she had a slipper stirrup (that worst of abominations in ladies' saddlery). Looking back at those days, the only wonder to me is, how ladies managed to ride at all. That they did ride is certainly proof (if any were wanting) of their courage and perseverance under difficulties. The necessity for trotting having become apparent as ladies took more to riding, it at length called the attention of one or two thoroughly practical men to the subject. The first of these, I believe, was the celebrated steeple race jockey, Dan Seffert, who had been a riding master in his early days, and who was equally at home in the _manége_ or between the flags over a country. The running made by Mr. Seffert was soon taken up by other first-class horsemen, among whom were Mr. Oldacre, and Mr. Allen, of Seymour-place. The third crutch was added to the side saddle, and numerous improvements effected in it, which rendered trotting not only practicable, but pleasant and easy to a lady, provided she was taught the right way. I believe we owe the third crutch and padded stirrup to Mr. Oldacre, a first-class judge of female equitation; but I am not quite certain upon this point. The saddle having been rendered practicable for the purpose, the next thing requisite was a comprehensible and simple set of rules, by which the lady could be taught to trot, without distressing either her horse or herself. To whom these rules owe their origin is immaterial; as to their efficiency, such as they are, I have found them highly so, and therefore beg leave to submit them to your readers. After the usual walking lesson (abridged, however, to allow more time for what is to follow), the pupil should ride her horse to the centre of the school, and halt him there, so that the instructor has perfect facility of getting at the horse on any side, and seeing the exact form in which his pupil moves. The lady should then be instructed to take a firm hold with the right knee on the upper pommel of the saddle, grasping it well between the thigh and the lower part of the leg, and carrying the latter well back, with the heel sunk as close as possible to the left leg. By sinking the heel well, she will give great firmness to her hold with the right leg upon the upper pommels. To accomplish this, however, she should get well forward in her saddle, and care should be taken that her stirrup is not too short, otherwise she will be thrown too far back to enable her to take the necessary grip with the upper leg. The left leg should then be well drawn back, the front of the thigh pressed firmly against the third crutch, the left heel well sunk, and the toe raised from the instep, because a firmness is thus given to the leg and thigh which would otherwise be wanting. The body, from the waist upwards, should be inclined slightly forward, and the angle at which the left foot is drawn back from the perpendicular line from the knee to the foot should be regulated by the inclination of the body forward, so as exactly to balance it. Having placed his pupil in this position, and seen that her hands are well drawn back and arms firm, the instructor should then _take her foot out of the stirrup_, and give the following concise instructions: "On the word 'one,' raise the body slowly from the saddle as high as possible." Now, to do this without the aid of the stirrup can only be accomplished by keeping the heel well down and the leg back (in the first place, in order to balance the body), and then raising the figure by the action of the right knee and its grasp upon the upper pommel. At first the pupil will find this difficult, even when the horse is perfectly motionless, and when the riding master assists her by putting his left hand under her left elbow; but after a few efforts she will succeed. This is the first step in learning the rise with precision. Having accomplished it, the pupil should not lower herself again to the saddle until the instructor gives her the word "two," when she should lower herself as slowly as she rose. If she has been well tutored in the extension and suppling practices alluded to in my second chapter, she will understand what "one, two" time means in this way as well as in dancing, and her knowledge of balance on foot will assist her on horseback. These rising and falling motions should be continued until the pupil executes them with precision, fair intervals of rest being allowed. The master should then place the lady's foot again in the stirrup. The absence of this support in the previous lesson will have prevented the pupil from leaning to the near side, and throwing her weight out of the perpendicular--a most pernicious habit, which ladies who try to learn their trotting in one lesson are very apt to fall into, and it is a fault very difficult to correct. In fact, the main object in beginning without a stirrup is to avoid this error. With the support of the stirrup the pupil will find the act of rising and maintaining an upright or slightly bent forward position (the figure raised well up from the saddle) a comparatively easy matter, and the lesson should be continued thus for a quarter of an hour longer. However trying to the patience this riding without gaining ground--"marking time" in the saddle--may be, the lady maybe assured, that it is by rigid attention to such minutiæ only that she can become a first-class horsewoman, and that she is in reality losing no time. When we hear the singing of Mme. Titiens, or recollect the unrivalled dancing of Taglioni, we are apt to forget that with all the natural talent of these great artistes, it was close attention to rudimentary elements that laid the foundations of their excellence. It is so in riding, to excel in which is far more difficult than in dancing. It is those only who are content with mediocrity who ignore detail. We come now to the second section of this lesson, in which the pupil will begin to find the first fruit of her previous exertion. The master having led her horse to the side of the school, should give her instruction to walk him freely out, riding him, however, well up against the snaffle, if necessary for this purpose using her whip sharply. The horse will then take fairly hold of her hand, and give her a good _appui_. The rising and falling should then be continued at a walk, and assisted by the impetus given by the horse's forward motion, and the stirrup, the pupil will find her work still easier than when the horse was at a standstill. The instructor should now count his "one," "two," in different times, allowing a longer or shorter interval between each word, according to whether he means to convey to the pupil the notion of quick sharp action in the horse, or long dwelling action. Thus, when the horse trots, he will be able to count his time in exact accordance with the animal's movements. Be the time quick or slow that he counts, he should exact rigid conformity of action in the pupil; because this harmony of motion to the counting is as important to success in the riding master as it is to the music master. Time and cadence in action are vital points in equitation. As soon as the instructor is satisfied that his pupil can easily accommodate her action to his word, he should prepare to test both in the trot. But if he takes a week to get the pupil to do the two previous lessons (one of them even) properly, they should be continued until she does it; nobody can spell until he knows the alphabet. To carry on the lesson in the trot, the instructor should mount a cob or pony of such height as will admit of his easily placing his left hand under the right elbow of the pupil. He should ride with his reins in his right hand, and be sure that the horse he gets on is a perfectly steady one. He should now put plenty of vivacity into his own manner; he will then easily impart it to his pupil and her horse. The latter should be smartly "woke up" if at all behind his work--pressed up to the bridle with whip and leg, and "made ready" to increase his pace at any moment. The master should then caution his pupil that on the words "Prepare to trot," she should strengthen her grasp on the upper pommel, her pressure against the third crutch, and well stretch down the left heel, while she carries back the left leg, and inclines the body slightly forward from the waist, arms very firm, fingers shut tight on the reins; and while the body inclines forward there should be no outward or lateral curvature of the spine, nor should the head be dropped. The shoulders pressed well back, and the hands close to the waist, will give firmness and suppleness to the whole figure. Directly the master is satisfied with the pupil's position, he should place his left hand under her right elbow, urge his own horse smartly on, and give the word "Trot," on which the pupil should, without altering her position or yielding her hand, touch her horse smartly on the shoulder with the whip; he will then trot forward. At the first step he takes the master should help the pupil up with his left hand, and commence counting his "one," "two" in exact accordance with the horse's action. In nine cases out of ten the lady will succeed, with a fair stepping horse, in catching at the first attempt the rise at the right moment, and the increased impetus given by the horse will assist her, while her preparatory lessons in rising and falling will now prove their value. Should any failure, however, attend the first effort, both horses should again be brought to the walk; the lady should be allowed to re-arrange her habit, and recover from the inevitable flurry which attends any failure of this sort. Patience, concise explanation, and cheerful manner on the part of the master will presently find their reward. All ladies do not possess great nerve, but most of them have great courage and perseverance, and after a false start or two they get on their mettle, and are sure to catch the true action. When once they have it, the master should make the pace sharp and active three or four times round the school, which is long enough for a first attempt. A couple more turns of equal duration should terminate the first trotting lesson. The lady should walk her horse round the school until both are cool, make much of him by patting him on the neck, and then be taken off. Day by day the instructor can slightly increase the length of the lesson, always beginning it, however, as above described, until the rise and fall of the pupil at a trot is perfectly true and fair. There should be no twist from the waist, the shoulders perfectly square, every movement in exact harmony with the horse's action. After the lady can rise and fall in the saddle unaided by the master, he is better on foot, because he can stand behind his pupil, and at once correct any fault in her position or riding; and no fault, be it remembered, however trivial, should be allowed to pass uncorrected. For some time the lady should continue trotting out round the school, riding altogether upon the snaffle and sending her horse well up against it. There should be no "give-and-take" action in the hand in this case; but while she does not pull the weight of a feather against her horse, she should make him maintain the _appui_ by taking well hold of her hand; his trot will then be regular and fair. After about ten days or a fortnight of such practice, the master may commence the third section of his trotting lesson, namely, that in which the pupil begins to collect her horse, raise his forehand, and bring his haunches under him. The first step in this should be to ascertain that the lady is not dependent upon the horse's mouth for any part of her firmness in the saddle, or, more correctly speaking, to see that her balance is right unaided by the bridle, because, although perhaps imperceptible to the rider (man or woman), the _appui_ of the mouth has more to do with the seat than most people imagine. In good schools of equitation men tell you "There are no hands without legs." True, and if we were to ask many a good man that we see crossing a country to ride over a big fence without a bridle we should perceive that there are few seats without hands. It is to correct the tendency to trust for support to the horse's mouth that the efforts of the instructor should now be directed. To carry this out, he should be mounted upon a horse of about equal height to that of his pupil, on the off side, and close to whom he should place himself. He should direct her to drop her reins entirely, and then take them in his left hand, riding his own horse with his right. He should then instruct the lady to place her hands behind her waist, the right hand grasping the left elbow, as described in the suppling practices. Cautioning her again as to firmness of grasp and good balance, he should then urge both horses into a smart trot, and keep them going round the school two or three times, carefully watching the action of the pupil, and if he perceives the least indication of distress pull up immediately. The exertion necessary to execute this lesson is severe if the pupil has not been well suppled before being put on horseback. If she has, there will be considerably less effort in it; but, in any case, on first practising it, the fair tyro requires every encouragement to persevere, because in doing one thing well, she is very apt to forget another. Constantly reminded as to her position as the trot goes on, she will succeed in doing all well. After two or three such turns (the arms of course disengaged during the interval), the lady should take up her reins again; this time the curb and snaffle reins of equal length, and in the form (No. 1) described in a previous chapter. She should then trot her horse freely out round the school, and she will find the full benefit of her recent drilling without reins, inasmuch as her seat will be many degrees firmer, and her balance more true, leaving her more liberty of action in hand and leg to apply the necessary aids to her horse in the coming lesson, in which at a well-regulated and collected pace, she will learn to turn him in any direction at her will, to rein him back, to make the inclines and circles, and prepare him for the cantering lesson by finally riding him in his trot entirely on the curb rein, and throwing him well upon his haunches. CHAPTER VIII. THE TROTTING LESSON (_continued_). I come now to the final section of the trotting lesson--that which, thoroughly acquired, I may term the thorough base of the matter. Having satisfied himself that his pupil has command of her horse, steady seat and hands, and true balance when riding equally on the snaffle and curb, the master should proceed to instruct her as to the mode of arranging the reins so as to ride on the curb alone. As this has been already described, it is needless to repeat the formula. I may observe, however, that, in order to give increased facility of action to the bridle hand, and avoid anything like sudden jerk or rough pull upon the horse's mouth, it is best for the lady to retain the end of the curb reins between the fore finger and thumb of her right hand, by doing which she is enabled, keeping her left hand perfectly steady, and opening and closing the fingers, to give easy play to the reins. Without this she would find riding on the curb alone difficult at first with the left hand only, because all the motion must come from the wrist, and considerable practice is necessary to accommodate this motion exactly to the action of the horse. Care should be taken that the elbows are kept well back, so as to preserve the suppleness of the waist, and by this time also the pupil ought to have acquired sufficient steadiness in the saddle to admit of her giving easy play to the upper part of the arm at the shoulder joint. But until complete firmness of seat is gained this should not be attempted, because in the case of a novice it disconnects the figure, and interferes with the horse's mouth materially. The most rigid attention also should be given to the pupil's general position, and the firmness and correct placing of both legs--the heels well down, the upper part of the body well drawn up from the waist, "the whole figure pliant and accompanying every movement of the horse" (see "Military Aid Book"). The lady should commence the lesson by walking her horse two or three times round the school; and it is here, by close attention, that she will learn that light hands are neither "heaven-born" nor impossible to acquire. On pressing the horse forward with her leg or whip, so as to make him walk up against the curb, it is possible her hand may be a little heavy, and that the horse may resist it. In this case, if not cautions and carefully watched, she will let her hands go forward. It is for the instructor to take special care of this, and point out to his pupil how she can ease the reins through her left hand by the aid of the right, so as to catch the true _appui_, without yielding altogether to the horse. In other words, she should allow sufficient rein to go through her hand to enable the horse to walk freely forward; and then, closing her fingers again firmly, make him go up to every hair's breadth of rein she has given him, and fairly against the curb. There should not be a particle of slack rein. In fact, it may be received as a sound principle in riding that there should never be slack reins, no matter what the pace. If you give your horse the full length of the reins even, make him go up to them. When once the lady has gained the above-named _appui_ (the right hand assisting the left), she should be instructed to halt her horse lightly on his haunches preparatory to reining back. And again she should do this by drawing the reins through the fingers of her left hand with the right, keeping the former perfectly steady, and drawing her own figure well up, in order to avoid any tendency to lean forward. On the word "Rein back," which should be given in a very quiet tone of voice, and in the exact cadence in which the master desires his pupil to move her horse to the rear, the lady should feel both reins lightly but firmly for a moment, closing at the same instant her leg so as to keep her horse's haunches under him, in the manner before described when using the snaffle only, but in the present case with greater care and precision. _Lightly_ and _firmly_ feeling the curb reins while pressed by the leg, the horse will take a step back. The reins should be yielded the instant he does so. Two or three steps back are sufficient, when the word "Forward" should be given, preceded by the caution to close the fingers firmly on the reins, and, with whip and leg, keep the horse well up to his work. Feeling this amount of constraint laid upon him, the horse will be inclined at any moment to canter. But here the tact of the master should be exhibited in instructing his pupil to release the horse from his fore-shortened position, by allowing about six inches of rein (or more, if necessary), to pass through her left hand as she presses the horse forward into a free trot (about eight miles an hour). All her firmness of seat will be necessary now, because any irregular action on her part will cause her hand to become heavy, and make the horse canter. The great thing is, not to continue trotting on the curb-rein alone too long. Short lessons often repeated, and intervals in which to correct everything are best for pupil and instructor. When the lady can accomplish trotting out for twenty minutes without allowing her horse to break, she should then be instructed to collect him to a slower pace, bringing him more upon his haunches, and with his forehand more up. This requires the nicest tact and discrimination on the part of the rider, perfect steadiness in the saddle, and firm pressure of the left leg; while the reins should be drawn through the left hand with as much care as though the lady feared to break them. The shortened pace should be smart and active, and the horse so collected as to be ready to turn to the right, or left, or about, or make the inclines at any moment. All these exercises should then be practised in the same order as when the pupil rode, assisted by or on the snaffle only. After the lady has performed these to the satisfaction of the master, she should bring her horse to the walk and be instructed to carry the end of the curb reins, which she has held hitherto in her right hand, through the full of the left hand, and place both reins (the off-side one uppermost) over the middle joint of the fore finger, and close the thumb firmly on them. The end of the reins should be dropped to the off-side of the horse, and hang down outside the off-side crutch; the whip (with the point _downwards_) kept quiet. Raising the point of the whip, when a lady is trotting a horse on the curb alone, and unassisted by her right hand, is very apt to make him break, because the point of the whip is always in motion, and causes the horse to turn his eye back at it. The instructor should now carefully place the lady's bridle hand, with the wrist rounded outwards and the thumb pointing square across the body, the back of the hand towards the horse's head, and the little finger turned upwards and inwards towards the waist, the arm perfectly firm, and the wrist quite supple--as in this case it is from the wrist only that every indication to turn, to halt, or rein back is given, aided by the whip on the off side and the leg on the near side. The pupil can then be taught to turn her horse to either hand, or about, at a walk, without any motion of the bridle hand perceptible to a looker-on, although perceptible enough to the horse. In turning to the right, the little finger should be turned down towards the left shoulder, and the back of the hand turned up. This movement will shorten the right rein, and cause it to act on the right jaw of the bit. The whip should be closed firmly (not with a blow) just behind the flap of the saddle on the off side. The left leg supporting this will cause the horse to turn square to his right. Exactly the reverse movement will turn him to the left. Right or left about, aids continued, until the horse has reversed his front. The trotting lesson may then be gone through again, the pupil riding entirely with the left hand. But in beginning these lessons care should be taken to let them be very short, because, in spite of all previous supplying, considerable constraint is thrown upon the wrist at first. Any yielding to the horse is accomplished by turning the little finger towards his neck, while to collect him simply the little finger is turned up again towards the waist. But the fingers and thumb of the bridle hand must be kept firmly shut upon the reins, otherwise the hand becomes heavy and uneven in its action. By lessons, gradually increased in length, the pupil should be accustomed thus to ride her horse throughout the trotting lesson, and trot him out, riding with one hand. It is not usual for ladies to continue for any length of time riding in this form; but it is highly necessary that they should be thoroughly well practised at it, otherwise an important part of their course of equitation will be neglected. The same may be said of the bending lesson, previous to cantering. It is rarely put in practice by any but professional female equestrians. But a lady ought to be thoroughly acquainted with its formula, because it teaches the principle upon which a horse acquires his _souplesse_, which is just as necessary to his freedom of action and pleasant riding as the early suppling lessons of the pupil herself were conducive to her own progress. CHAPTER IX. THE BENDING AND CANTERING LESSON. According to the ordinary acceptation of the term, a horse is supposed "to bend well" when he arches his neck, yields to the bit, and uses his knees and hocks freely. This alone by no means conveys an adequate idea, however, of what is meant by bending a horse in the scientific sense. The "Military Aid Book" supplies the following question and answer, which gives in a very concise form a better notion of the matter. Question: What is the use of the "bending lesson"?--Answer: To make the horse supple in the _neck_ and _ribs_, to give free action to his shoulder, and teach him to obey the pressure of the leg. It will be seen, then, that "bending a horse" really means rendering him supple in every portion of his frame, and especially in his ribs and intercostal muscles, as it is suppleness in that part that gives him the lithe, easy motions so pleasant to the rider. I have before observed that I do not consider an intimate knowledge of the "haut école de manége" indispensable for ordinary riding purposes, either for a lady or gentleman. But, although the "bending lesson" thoroughly carried out may be said to be the very gist of "_haut école_ riding," even in its _simple form_, unaccompanied by the higher aids, it is of great service in rendering a horse docile and obedient to hand and leg, and for that purpose is always resorted to in our schools of military equitation. Now, although I do not expect every lady to acquire the art of suppling her own horses, still a knowledge of the "bending lesson" will make her thoroughly acquainted with the reasons why a horse renders ready obedience to her aids of hand and leg; and, on the contrary, why he resists them. Stiffness (as it is technically termed) has more to do with what is commonly called restiveness than most people imagine. A horse is asked to do something that calls upon him to bend or supple a joint in which, even in early youth, he is still far from supple. He cannot do it. The rider perseveres, and the horse resists. Whereas, when he is thoroughly suppled, he does not know how to disobey his rider (supposing the latter to know what he is about). If a lady, therefore, will pay close attention to the instruction of her master, she will discover that her horse will obey her more readily, and move with more ease to himself and her, when she applies her aids "smoothly" (without which the bending lesson cannot be done), than by the application of sudden or violent indications of her will. For it must be borne in mind that a double bridle is an instrument of great power in a horse's mouth, and that what may seem light handling to the uninitiated rider may be rough to the horse. A fair amount of practice, therefore, in the above-named exercise will have the effect of rendering a lady's hands remarkably true and steady; and, although the lesson may be a little trying to the patience, the pupil will find her reward in increased confidence and proficiency. For all practical purposes the "bending lesson" proper may be divided into two sections, namely, the "passage" and the "shoulder in," all other movements of the lesson being simply variations from the above named. The "half passage" may be looked upon as an introduction to the "full passage," but admits of being practised with facility at an increased pace at the trot or canter, and at the latter is a very elegant exercise. To begin with the "shoulder in." Let us suppose a horse standing parallel to the boards at the side of the school. To place him in the desired position it is necessary to bring his forehand in, so that his fore and hind legs are placed upon two lines, parallel to each other and to the boards, and then to bend his head inwards at the poll of the neck. No more correct idea, I believe, can be conveyed of the position than that given in the "Aid Book," which furnishes the following answer to the question, How should a horse be placed in "shoulder in"? "Ans.: When a horse is properly bent in 'shoulder in,' the whole body from head to croup is curved; the shoulders leading, fore and hind feet moving on two lines parallel to each other, hind feet one yard from the boards." Again. "Q. What are the aids for working this lesson?--A. On the word 'right or left shoulder in,' the horse's forehand is brought in by a double feeling of the inward rein, the outward leg closed, so as to bring the horse's hind feet one yard from the boards." The outward rein leads, the inward preserves the bend; a pressure of the inward leg (of the rider) compels the horse to cross his legs; the outward leg keeps him up to the hand and prevents him from swerving. The horse should be well bent in the pole of the neck, and well kept up to the hand with the outward leg, the shoulders always leading. It will be seen from the above that the rider compels, or rather _coaxes_, the horse, by very firm and steady aids, to move with his forehand well up, and his whole figure bent (neck and ribs), with his feet moving on two distinct parallel lines--the effect being to call upon every important joint, and thoroughly to supple the ligaments and tendons, as well as to create muscular development, in a way similar to that of gymnastic or extension exercises in the human being. With young horses in training it is necessary to watch this lesson very carefully, and never to "ask too much" at one time, because any forcing of it would certainly result in restiveness; the strain, even with naturally supple horses, is considerable, and must not be persevered with one moment after it is evidently painful. Of course, in the case of a lady practising the lesson, it must be done upon a horse that has gone through a long course of teaching, and to whom, therefore, the movements cause no inconvenience. But even here the pupil will find that she must use her hand and leg with firmness, steadiness, and decision, without hurry or impatience, or the horse will not answer to her. The movement must be executed very slowly, and at first only by a few steps at a time, because, however _au fait_ at his work the horse may be, the pupil will find considerable difficulty in continuing to apply the aids. In working the "shoulder in" to the right, it is necessary for the master, after putting the horse and rider in true position, to place himself on the horse's off side, when he should give the word, "Right shoulder in--march!" The lady then, firmly closing her left leg to keep the horse up to the hand, should keep her right hand well back and low down close to the saddle, lead the horse off with the left rein, and close her whip to his ribs on the off side, just behind the flap of the saddle. If the horse has been accustomed to work the lesson, with a lady he will obey these aids. But in some cases it is necessary for the master (to supply the absence of the right leg of a man to the horse), to push firmly with his left hand against the horse's ribs to move him off. The rider, while leading the horse off with the left rein, should keep up a continual, light easy play of the right rein, so as to preserve the bend inwards. The instructor should count "one, two," in very slow time, as the horse moves first his fore and then his hind leg. After a few steps onward the horse should be halted, by the rider feeling both reins, and closing the whip firmly on the off side. He should then be made much of and moved on again. A quarter of an hour is ample for the first lesson. After the pupil understands and can apply the aids for the "shoulder in" (riding on the snaffle), she maybe taught to do it on snaffle and curb together, and then on the curb alone, when she will find the nicest balance in her seat and the most careful and delicate manipulations of the reins necessary--joined, however, to distinct and perceptible feeling upon the horse's mouth. And on moving her horse forward she will find that her hand is true and steady. The "shoulder in" having been neatly done, the lady should rein her horse lightly back and ride him forward, _making the corner_ of the school quite square, and then halt at the centre marker. On the word "right half passage," she should turn the horse's head square down the centre of the school, and exactly reverse the aids by which she worked the "shoulder in"; that is, she should lead the horse off with the right or inward rein, well balancing and assisting its power by the outward one; with her leg she should press the horse until he places one foot before the other, gaining ground to his front, and obliquely to his right at the same time, until he arrives at the boards, when he will completely have changed the hand he was working to, and at a canter would, if necessary, be called upon to strike off with the left leg instead of the right. After executing the "half passage" correctly, the pupil may practice the "full passage," the difference between which and the "shoulder in" is again concisely explained in the "Aid Book." "Q. What is the difference between the 'passage' and 'shoulder in'?--A. In the passage the horse bends and looks the way he is going. The outward are crossing over the inward legs, and the inward rein leads. In the 'shoulder in' the horse does not look the way he is going. The inward are crossing over the outward legs, and the outward rein leads." "Q. What is the difference between the full and half passage?--A. In the 'full passage' the horse crosses his legs. In the 'half passage' he only half crosses them, placing one foot before the other." The pupil will find the passage much more easy to execute than the "shoulder in," though, I repeat, no horse would do the former up to the hand as he ought to do unless he has been well drilled in the latter. The greatest care on the part of both master and pupil is indispensable to carry out this lesson. The slightest inadvertence or false movement is at once answered on the part of the horse by his taking advantage of it and putting himself in a wrong position, whereas if he is carefully ridden, and kept well up to the hand, the subsequent cantering lesson will be much more easy to perform. It must be clearly understood, however, that for a lady to attempt to execute the "bending lesson" by written directions alone, and unaided by the vigilant superintendence and oral instruction of a first-rate master would be a mistake. Clear and concise as the language of the "Aid Book" is, it is impossible for any man writing such directions to indicate the precise moment at which each movement of hand and leg is to be made, any more than the man who writes the score in music can regulate the hand of the instrumental executant of it. There must be energy, patience, and close attention on the part of the pupil; vigilance, patience, temper, and thorough knowledge of his craft on the part of the instructor. Master and pupil thus in accord, the latter will derive great advantage and insight into the elegant accomplishment she is endeavouring to acquire, while anything like carelessness on either side will be fatal to the utility of the lesson. It should be thoroughly well done or not at all. After the careful execution of the above lesson, the pupil should prepare her horse for cantering by reigning him back lightly on his haunches; touching him if necessary smartly with her whip, in order to put him well up to his work. A step or two back (_well up to the bridle_) is sufficient, when she should move forward, and the instructor should give her the aids for cantering; which (once more to quote the simple language of the "Aid Book") are as follows: "A light firm feeling of _both_ reins to raise the horse's forehand, a pressure of both legs to keep his haunches under him, a double feeling of the inward rein, and a stronger pressure of the outward leg, will compel the horse to strike off true and united." The above of course is intended as instruction to a man; but substituting a light tap of the whip on the off shoulder for the pressure of the inward leg of the man, and very light for strong aids, the instruction holds good in the case of the lady. Now, I have observed before that a horse to be thoroughly broken to carry a woman should be taught to answer to very light aids, and require, in fact, very little leg in order to understand and answer to the indications of his rider's will. If this has been properly carried out the lady will have no difficulty in striking her horse off to the right, _true and united_, which means in cantering to the right (as nearly every hack and lady's horse does) with the off fore, followed by the off hind leg. A charger or "high _manége_" horse--which must use either leg with equal facility, and go to the left as well as the right--in cantering to the former hand will go with the near fore, followed by the near hind, and be still "true and united" in his pace. When he goes with the near fore, followed by the off hind, or _vice versâ_, he is "disunited." A point of vital importance to be looked to by the master is that his pupil at her first attempt at cantering her horse is perfectly cool and self-possessed, and that she applies her aids _smoothly_, without hurry or excitement, for so great is the sympathy of the horse in this respect, that flurry on the part of the rider is sure to cause passionate, excited action in the horse. The manner of the master has much to do with this; while it should be such as to keep his pupil and her horse _vif_ and on their metal, he should be careful not to crowd the former with too much instruction at once. Her position should be corrected before she is allowed to strike her horse off. Care should be taken that her arms are firm, and hands well back. The waist should be bent slightly forward, which will give it more suppleness. She should have a firm grip of the upper crutches, both heels well down, and at her first effort she should ride equally upon the snaffle and curb reins. To do this (assuming that she is riding with her bridle in military form), it is only necessary that she should draw up the slack of the near-side snaffle rein with her right hand until it is level with and under the near-side curb rein; then carry the snaffle rein thus shortened over the middle joint of the forefinger of the left hand, and shut the thumb firmly on them. She can then place the slack of the off-side snaffle rein for a moment under the left thumb, while she places the rein between the third and little finger of the right hand, brings the rein through the full of the hand over the middle joint of the forefinger, and closes the thumb firmly on it. The whip should be held in the full of the hand, the point downwards. With her hands and figure in the above-named form, the lightest application of the aids ought to strike her horse off "true and united;" but if by any chance he takes off with the wrong leg or "disunited," as may sometimes happen with the best broken horse, from a little over-eagerness or anxiety on the part of the pupil, or a little unsteadiness of hand, the master should cause her to bring her horse again to the walk, and reassure her--taking care, however, on these occasions that she never "makes much of" or caresses her horse, which would tend to confirm him in a bad habit, but reins him back, and again puts him up to his bridle. It is a rare occurrence when a horse (thoroughly well-broken) strikes off incorrectly; but I am endeavouring to write for every contingency. Assuming the horse to have struck off smoothly to the instructor's word _Ca-a-n-te-r_--which should be given in a quiet, soothing tone of voice, and drawn out as if every letter were a syllable--the horse should be allowed to canter freely forward, although without rush or hurry. The pace should not be too collected at first; the military pace of manoeuvre is about the correct thing; eight miles an hour or thereabouts; the cadence true; the horse well ridden into his bridle, and in this case _yielding to the bit_--because, in cantering, it is necessary to have an _appui_ upon the mouth, quite different from that to be maintained in trotting, in which it is best for the lady that the horse should feel her hand fairly and firmly, and that there should be little "give-and-take" action of the latter. In cantering, on the other hand, an easy give-and-take play of the hands is indispensable, to cause the horse to bend in the poll of his neck, yield to the hand, and go in true form. By this time the pupil should have acquired sufficient firmness and _aplomb_ in the saddle to justify the instructor in commencing to impart to her that mobile action and flexibility of the upper arm at the shoulder joint, which may be regarded as the artistic finishing of her course of equitation. But it will not do to commence this (so goes my experience) at the outset of the cantering lesson, wherein at first it is best to insist upon firmness of the arms, otherwise the pupil is most likely (imperceptibly to herself) to allow her hands to glide forward, and thus destroy the flexibility of her waist, which is a point always to be most carefully watched. It is possible that at first the figure of the pupil, from over-anxiety to maintain her position and ride her horse correctly at the same time, may be somewhat rigid; but complete flexibility cannot be expected at once. It must be remembered that, although the action of cantering in a horse is much easier than trotting, still it is novel to the rider, who moreover has to keep her horse up to his work. It is not the case of putting a young lady upon an old tittuping hack that can do little else than canter along behind the bridle and "drag his toe" at a walk. A horse that has any action or quality in him, and has been taught to trot up to his bridle, requires "asking" to canter, and in the early efforts of the pupil requires keeping to his work a little after he has struck off in his canter, otherwise he will drop into a trot again. Such a horse, however, is the only one upon which to teach a lady to ride. The easy-going old hack above alluded to is fit only for an invalid to take the air on. At the same time it is asking a good deal from the pupil in her early cantering lessons to keep her horse up to his work, and to maintain her own position correctly; and if she exhibits a little stiffness or formality (if I may use the expression) at first, it may fairly be passed over until increased confidence permits the master to give his attention to what I may perhaps call the "unbending" of his pupil. After a few days' cantering as above described, the lady may begin to collect her horse; and by this time also she should be fitted with a spur, of which the best I know is Latchford's patent. An opening in the skirt on the inside is necessary. The shank of the spur should not be too short, otherwise it is very apt to cut holes in the habit. The pupil, when the spur is first fitted on, should be cautioned to keep her left toe as near the horse's side as the heel, in order to avoid hitting him when he does not require it; and, indeed, the wearing of the steel aid is in itself a good exercise as to the true position of the left leg, while the blunt head of a Latchford (when not pressed hard to the horse's side) does away with any danger. The use of the spur in a lady's riding is objected to by some; but I cannot consider any rider (man or woman) worthy of the name who cannot use one and be safe enough in the saddle at the same time. One objection to spurs for ladies is, that they are apt to do all sorts of mischief in the event of the lady being thrown from her horse. Now, the latter is a contingency which (except in the hunting field) I do not admit as possible, if the lady has men about her who know their business in the horse way. If she has not such people about her, she is better without spurs decidedly; and there is another thing she is better without, namely, a horse of any sort. If a horse is properly broken, and has a man about him who will give him plenty of work, and keep him from getting above himself, and his fair owner has been as well taught as her horse, she ought to be as safe on his back as in her brougham, in any kind of riding, except in exceptional cases in the hunting field. By exceptional cases I mean where a lady, unaccompanied by a good pilot, takes a line of her own when hounds are going fast in a big grass country, and rides (jealous of the field) at impracticable places. In such case she is likely enough to get down, horse and all. But even so--and I have witnessed more than one such accident--I have never found that the lady got hurt by the spur when she wore the sort I allude to; and again, I think it is only just to that clever loriner, Mr. Latchford, to say that he has invented a lady's stirrup which renders danger from it in the event of a fall next to impossible--certainly she cannot be dragged by it. In this stirrup there is no opening at the side by means of springs or complicated machinery of any sort. It requires neither diagram or drawing to describe it, because it is the perfection of mechanism--extreme simplicity. One has only to imagine an ordinary stirrup, rather elongated than usual from the opening for the leather, the bottom bar broad and flat; the latter perforated with two holes. Within the above-named stirrup another, a size smaller, but fitting nicely into it. On the lower side of the bottom bar of the inner stirrup two projections, or obtuse points of steel, which fit into the holes of the lower bar of the outer stirrup. Now, as long as the lady is in her saddle the inner stirrup must, from its mechanism, remain in its place; but in the event of her being thrown her weight acts upon the lower part of the outer stirrup, which turns over and releases the inner stirrup entirely. To return, however, to the question proper of spurs for a lady, I must say that they are of the greatest assistance to her when, having acquired the necessary degree of steadiness on her horse, she desires to "wake him up." Too much whip is a bad thing. In riding in the country a lady must perforce have to open a bridle gate sometimes for herself, and if she is always using a whip to liven her horse up, she will find it difficult to get him to stand still, even while she opens the lightest of gates. As regards the pupil in the school, I repeat she should be habituated to wear a spur as soon as her progress justifies it. CHAPTER X. THE CANTERING LESSON (_continued_). Having satisfied himself as to the proficiency of his pupil in cantering "going large"--that is, round the school or _manége_,--the attention of the instructor should next be directed to teaching her to make the turns and circles, and execute the "half passage" with precision. The use of these exercises is to confirm (while riding upon both snaffle and curb reins) the steadiness of hand and seat and true balance of the rider, because, although these may appear good enough while a lady is riding her horse on a straight line, or only with the turns at the corners of the school, many shortcomings will be detected when she attempts to turn him square from the boards, or asks him to make a true circle, in which the hind legs follow exactly over the same track as the fore legs. To commence this lesson in proper form, the pupil should collect her horse, by reining him quietly back, then move him forward well up to the hand, at a walk and at a smart active pace. When she arrives at the centre marker at the end of the school, the master should give the word "down the centre," when the rider should turn her horse square to the right (assuming, as is usually the case, that she commences her lesson to that hand). The aids for turning at a walk having been already given, it is only necessary to say that the turn down the centre requires only a trifle stronger application of the left leg, to counteract any tendency of the horse to throw his haunches outwards, and that, looking steadily to the centre marker at the other end of the school, the pupil should sight that marker well between her horse's ears, and ride true and straight to it, taking care, by closing the leg in time, that the horse does not cut off any of the ground, but plants his near fore foot close to the boards and makes the corner equally square, because whenever a horse is allowed to "cut the corners off" he endeavours to get behind the bridle, and generally succeeds. The pupil, therefore, should be cautioned in time by the instructor, and if she fails to make good every inch of ground, the word "halt" should be given and the horse reined back. Arrived about midway down the school, the turns to the right should be made square from the boards, the horse's haunches kept under him so that he does not hit the side of the school with his hind feet. His doing which is at once a proof that he is out of hand. Arrived at the centre of the school, the words "right turn" should be given again, instead of allowing the pupil to ride right across the school to the boards on the opposite side. She should then ride a couple of lengths down the centre, and again turn her horse, by word from the master, square to the right, and once more to the left, when arrived at the boards. This, repeated two or three times, is a good preparation for executing the circle; in order to facilitate the correct riding of which, the master should cause his pupil to halt her horse at the side, and himself walk over the ground he desires her to ride over. If he does this correctly, the pupil will find little difficulty in riding the circle with precision. Starting from a point close to the boards, a couple of horses' lengths in front of the pupil, the master should make an incline to the right, at an angle of about forty-five, until he is half-way between the boards and the centre of the school; he should then bring up his left shoulder, and make another incline at the same angle to the centre of the school. Down the centre he should walk straight, the distance of a horse's length; again bring up his left shoulder, and make two inclines to the side. The figure he will thus describe does not quite represent a circle as he walks; but when the horse is called upon to move his fore and hind legs on the same track, it will be a circle in his case as nearly as possible. Having caused the pupil to move her horse forward, the instructor should give her the aids for circling, which are a double feeling of the inward rein, the horse well supported with the outward, and well kept up to the hand by the leg. In circling to the right, the horse to be well bent to the right, so that the rider can see his inward eye; fore and hind legs moving exactly on the same track, the horse not throwing his haunches out. The great use of this circling is, that as the horse changes his direction no less than six times in a small space, to keep him up to his work the lady must bring up her left shoulder as many times as the horse alters his direction. To do this, she must be quite supple in the waist, and circling is therefore a capital practice to insure this freedom of action at that portion of the figure. To render the lesson still more easy to the pupil, I have found it answer well, after walking over the ground, to mark it out on the tan with a stick. In military schools the circle to the right or left is followed by the "circle and change," in which, when arrived at the boards, the pupil, instead of turning the horse's head to the hand he is working to, changes the bend, and turns to the reverse hand. This, however, cannot be executed at a canter with due precision without the use of the right leg, and is therefore (in my opinion) better omitted in a lady's course of equitation, an additional reason being that, when she is taught to make the change at a canter, she can do it much more effectually and elegantly by the "half passage." The circles having been neatly done, the pupil should rein her horse back, put him well upon his haunches, and strike him off at a collected canter, about five miles an hour, the cadence true, the position of the rider correct. It is at this point that the instructor should begin carefully to get his pupil to supple herself in the saddle, while she still rides her horse well up to his work. It should be borne in mind that a horse cannot make turns or circles at the "pace of manoeuvre" without considerable danger to himself and his rider, because at such a pace it is next to impossible to keep him fairly balanced, and he is liable, even on well-kept tan, to slip up, whereas at a very collected pace, with his haunches well under him, there is no danger whatever, although at first it will call very much upon the energy and close attention of the rider. Having her horse well into his bridle, the give-and-take action of the hand should now come gradually from the shoulder joint, and the pupil should be frequently reminded to avoid resisting the action of the horse in his canter, but to endeavour, on the other hand, to accompany him in his short stride. This is to be done by simply keeping both heels well down, the hands back, the waist bent slightly forward and perfectly supple, and avoiding too strong a grasp with the right leg upon the upper crutches of the saddle. The figure from the waist upwards, however, should be perfectly erect, leaning neither backwards nor forwards, either position being both unsafe and ungainly. Nothing is more common than to see a lady sitting with the upper part of her figure bent forward in a canter, and, if not overdone, the effect is by no means ungraceful to the eye of a looker-on. But it is a habit likely to increase in degree, and unsafe in any case, because it is opposed to the principle of true balance. With the shoulders well back, the body, neck, and head upright, the waist slightly bent forward, the hands well back, and acting by an easy play of the upper arm at the shoulder joint--sitting, in fact, with freedom in the saddle--the action of the horse at a collected pace will give the rider a slightly _gliding_ motion from the cantle towards the pummels, and gradually she will thus acquire the habit of suppling herself on her horse; ready, however, at any moment "to seize her seat" (to use the expression of old Sam Chifney) by muscular grip if the horse flirts or plunges, which, however, it is difficult for him to do when going well within himself and up to his bridle. The left leg at a canter should not be drawn back, as in trotting, but kept close to the horse's side, with the heel down, and the foot as nearly as possible under the knee. Of course, the above-described easy deportment in the saddle is not to be acquired in a single lesson; it requires considerable practice and close watching by both master and pupil. Once learnt, however, the lady has gained another important step in her equitation. The length of time requisite to insure complete _souplesse_ at this point is dependent upon several circumstances, over which the master has only a moderate amount of control. The figure of the pupil is an important point in the matter. If she is naturally lithe and has been well suppled on foot, the task will be considerably easier. If, on the contrary, she is of a square figure--short in the neck and waist, and stiff in the shoulders--considerably more time is requisite. But with care, attention, and perseverance it can be acquired by all in early youth. I know a lady who rides with both dash and judgment with hounds who is anything but a good figure; but she began under proper tuition when she was very young, and, although no longer so, she has preserved the _souplesse_ and true balance acquired in her early days. Natural aptitude, too, is of great assistance to both master and pupil, and should be energetically developed by the former; at the same time, care should be taken that the pupil does not overrun her lessons. As an instance of what can be accomplished even at a first essay by a lady gifted with natural talent for riding, I cannot refrain from relating the following:--Some years ago I chanced to be at the school of a fashionable riding master in London, when a class of young ladies was going through a ride. In the gallery from which I was observing them was also the mother of one of the young ladies who was riding, and of another much younger, who was standing by her side watching with the most intense interest the riding below. The younger lady was not more than ten or eleven years old, but of a form and figure exactly fitted for performing well in the saddle, being tall of her age, and lithe and supple in her movements. She did not speak, but I could see from the excitement of her manner, the glitter of her large dark eyes, and her changing colour, that she was heart and soul with the fair equestrians. The ride finished with a leaping lesson, and there was some capital jumping over a gorsed bar, hurdles double and single, and an artificial brook. The last performance completely overcame the little spectator in the gallery. Bursting into a violent fit of sobbing and weeping, she clutched her mother's dress, and cried convulsively, "Dear mamma, let me ride, let me ride." The lady, quite surprised and very much affected by the emotion and excited state of the child, nevertheless, refused, declaring she was too young. But the young supplicant for equestrian honours was not to be denied; she continued to implore and weep, and, the riding master coming to her aid, the mother gave way. Her little daughter was put on a quiet horse, and the master himself led him round the school at a walk, but this by no means satisfied our ambitious little tyro. "Let me trot," she said; "I am sure I can trot." The professor was quite sure she could not, and told her so; and, to convince her, he started the horse trotting, and ran by his side. He was never more mistaken. The lessons the pupil had been witnessing from the gallery must have made a strong impression on her mind; for, to the surprise of all of us, she caught the action of the horse at the first step, and made the best attempt at trotting I ever saw for a beginner. Feeling that trotting fatigued her, she asked to be allowed to canter, and this she did in very good form. But the crowning part of the thing was, that when we were about to take her off her horse, she begged to be allowed to have a jump. I confess, I thought the riding master wrong in consenting to this. But again our little friend electrified us all. A hurdle was put up, well sloped, so as to make the jump a very moderate one, the little pupil's hands placed, and her position rectified. No sooner had the horse turned the corner of the school, and before the riding master had time to check her, than the girl's eye lit up just as I had seen it in the gallery. She caught the horse fast by the head, hit him with her heel, put down her hands, and sat as though she had been hunting for years. It was too late to stop her, and any interference at the moment would have done more harm than good. With my heart in my mouth, I saw the horse go at the hurdle. He was one that had "an eye in every toe," and did not know how to make a mistake. But his daring little rider had roused him thoroughly, and he jumped high enough to clear a big fence, and far enough to take him over a small brook. Just as the horse took off, I shouted involuntarily, "Sit back;" and the little enthusiast answered as though my voice had been inspiration. Her lithe little figure was bent from the waist, precisely at the right moment; and she landed safe, except that the concussion threw her slightly up in the saddle. Her marvellous aptitude (talent the professionals would have called it) induced the riding master to let her make another attempt, and this time, putting her horse at the hurdle at the same dashing pace (which, by the way, with her wonderful nerve and confidence, made it easier for her), she sat in the saddle, as the old groom who tended the hurdles said, "as if she had grown there," and landed fair and true without jolt or concussion. This young lady is now one of the most brilliant horsewomen in England. Her genius (if I may be permitted the expression), joined to close application and the best of opportunities of riding good horses, enabled her in a brief space to far outstrip all her youthful competitors, and in less than twelve months after the time I speak of she could execute most of the "bending lesson," at a canter as well as a professional rider, while over the country with hounds she was always close to her pilot, than whom there was no better man. This when she was barely thirteen years old. Such instances of extraordinary aptitude, nerve and courage, combined with the necessary elasticity and physical power to ride, are very rare indeed; in fact, in a long experience of such matters, I do not know of a parallel case. Nevertheless, if the natural dash and fitness for riding possessed by this young lady had not been carefully watched, moulded into proper form, and restrained within due bounds, they would inevitably have run riot with her, and brought her to grief. It is in such cases as the above, or rather such as tend in that direction, that the tact and judgment of a riding master is required. If the young lady I speak of had been allowed, and the opportunity had offered, she would have mounted without hesitation any brute that would carry a saddle, and mischief, of course, would have resulted. To return to the cantering lesson proper. When the instructor has succeeded in completely regulating the cadence of the horse in his pace and the position of his pupil, he should give her due caution to wait for the _last sound_ of his word, to keep her body back and her leg close, supporting the horse well with the outward rein, and he should then give the word, well drawn out, gently and without hurry, "right turn," when the pupil should turn her horse from the boards with the same aids as at a walk, but more firmly applied, and if the horse leans upon her hand she should keep him up with her spur. "Many a horse" (says the "Aid Book") "keeps a tolerable canter on a straight line, but when turned he feels too much constraint laid upon him, and leans upon the rider's hand. If at such a moment the rider yields the reins instead of closing the hand firmly on them, turning the little fingers up towards the waist, and closing the leg firmly, the horse comes upon his forehand." Concise as the above passage is, it describes exactly what occurs on first making a turn at a canter, and it calls upon all the energy and attention of the pupil to keep the horse up to his work. But as in other exercises in the course of equitation, her reward will be in her thorough command over her horse under all circumstances, because by learning to ride him with such minute precision she is always able to anticipate his every movement. The first three or four turns at a canter should be made square across the school, from side to side, and no second word should be given on arriving at the boards; the pupil turning her horse again to the right without any caution, and continuing to "go large" round the school until she again gets the word to turn. This practice will teach her to be constantly on the alert, and to maintain such a balance as will enable her in turning to move exactly on the same line as her horse, bringing her left shoulder up precisely at the right moment. Three or four turns are quite sufficient for the first lesson, because the horse before completing these must go several times round the school, and the pupil should ride him well up to his bit. After a few turns, smoothly and correctly made, the pupil should bring her horse to the walk, halt, make much of him, and sit at ease. Making much of a horse when he has performed well is always a judicious mode of letting him know that he has been doing right; at the same it affords him an interval of rest, which is quite necessary. This may appear absurd to those who are accustomed to see horses continue galloping for hours. But it must be remembered that the sort of work I have been endeavouring to describe is altogether artificial; that the animal thrown upon his haunches only goes through the lesson with considerable exertion, and that if he is kept too long at it, this can only be done by an amount of fatigue on the part of the rider which would be far from beneficial to a lady. The object of the lesson is to induct the pupil into a mode in which she can obtain complete mastery over her horse. It is, as it were, a gymnastic exercise for both steed and rider, and must not be persevered with too long at one time. After about ten minutes' rest the pupil should again collect her horse, rein him back, and prepare him again for cantering. She should then strike him quietly off, and ride him very collectedly, so as to be ready to make the circles. These should be made from about midway down the boards; and on the last sound of the words "circle right," the pupil should turn her horse's head from the boards, and, supporting him well with the left leg and rein, ride in a figure exactly similar to that she described at a walk. She will find, however, that the horse requires considerably more support in making the circles than he did in the simple turns. Being on the bend from the time he leaves the boards until he arrives at them again, the nicest riding is necessary to keep his fore and hind feet on the same track, and prevent him from throwing his haunches out. The pace, too, should be more collected than when the turns were made. Four miles to four miles and a half an hour is quite fast enough, and, if necessary, the horse must be halted and reined back several times in order to get him thoroughly collected. Two circles well done are quite sufficient. The pupil should then again halt, "sit at ease," and make much of her horse. By this time both he and the pupil will have gone through a tolerably severe lesson, because the collected pace necessary to execute it, and especially the circles, necessitates a great deal of cantering before a beginner can ascertain the true cadence--without which, and a considerable amount of support from her hand and leg, it is unsafe and useless for her to attempt her turns and circles; frequently, too, a horse will have to go several times round the school before the instructor can see the opportunity to give the word. Reining back again, and collecting him, call very much upon the horse's powers, while, on the other hand, over-fatigue is specially to be avoided as regards the pupil. After resting ten minutes or so, the lady should conclude this lesson by walking him quietly about till he is quite cool. CHAPTER XI. THE CANTERING LESSON (_continued_)--THE HALF PASSAGE AND CHANGE. Although the last-named exercises belong, strictly speaking, more to the curriculum of the military riding school than to female equitation, still, to be able to execute them with precision is of great advantage to a lady, because they teach her that by getting a good bend on her horse, and placing him in a certain position by the application of the proper aids, she can compel him at her pleasure to canter with either near or off foot leading; and, although it may not be agreeable to her to keep her horse going with the near leg, unless she is riding on the off side, nevertheless, the practice of the half passage and change is an admirable, and indeed very elegant, mode of acquiring ready facility in the effective use of hand and leg. I have said before that the horse in the "half passage" places one foot before the other, instead of crossing his legs completely, as in the full passage. The former mode of progression enables the horse therefore to gain ground diagonally to his front, instead of moving upon a line at right angles with the boards as in the latter. The aids by which the half passage is executed are the same as those of the "full passage," with the following exceptions. First, there is a lighter pressure of the leg on the outward side; and in the case of a lady it is necessary that she should use her whip on the off side behind the saddle alternately with her leg on the near side, in order to cause the horse to gain ground to the front, as well as to place one foot before the other. After starting her horse at a walk, "going large," the rider should rein him back, collect and balance him--riding equally upon snaffle and curb reins--she should make the corner perfectly square; and when midway between it and the centre marker, the instructor should give the word "right half passage," upon which the pupil should still further collect her horse into the slow pace she used in the bending lesson, and, having arrived at the centre marker, she should bring the horse's forehand in, by a double feeling of the right rein; the outward leg closed, to prevent the haunches from flying out. The inward rein leads; the outward balances and assists the power of the inward. A pressure of the left leg causes the horse to place one foot before the other (see Aid Book). The whip used in alternate action with the leg will cause him to move to his right front, towards the boards. A very light and delicate application of the leg, in unison with a similar application of the whip, is sufficient with a well-broken horse to enable the rider to do the "half passage" correctly at a walk. The point at which, strictly speaking, she should arrive at the boards is just midway between the ends of the school; and in a properly-regulated one there should always be a white marker on the wall, just above the place where the sockets for the leaping bar are inserted in it. Keeping her eye upon this marker, the rider should lead her horse's forehand lightly with the right rein, maintaining an easy, playful, feeling of the snaffle in his mouth, and carefully balancing his every step with the left rein, while she presses him up to his work with the leg and whip. The horse's head should be bent to the right, so that his right eye is visible to the rider as she sits perfectly square in the saddle. The pace can scarcely be too slow, but every step must be taken up to the bridle, the horse's forehand up, and his haunches well under him. In no part of a lady's course of equitation is it necessary for the instructor to pay more close attention to his pupil than in this: the temptation to the latter to relax her position, and sit, as it were, "all over the saddle" is great, from the difficulty she at first experiences in applying the aids effectually, and her anxiety to do well, causing her to twist her figure in pressing the horse with the left leg. The horse, too, is moving with his fore and hind feet in two distinctly different lines, which renders it far from easy, without considerable practice, to sit fair and square in the saddle. Close attention and quiet correction, however, will obviate all this. Many people, I am aware, assert that riding with such precision is unnecessary to a lady. From this opinion I beg leave to dissent _in toto_, my idea being that a course of equitation for a lady means teaching her everything (less the lessons of the "Haute École") connected with the subject, and that whether she chooses hereafter to practise the "bending lesson," "half passage," and change at a canter or not, a thorough knowledge of them will give her a facility of riding unattainable by any other means, and make her also thoroughly _au fait_ to the reason for everything she does in order to control the animal under her. Again, I can see no possible reason why the nicest precision should be considered unnecessary in a lady's riding any more than it is in music; and, to try back on my old simile, I submit that as the same scale is written for a Thalberg as for the fair daughter of the house who performs on the pianoforte for the _post prandial_ amusement of paterfamilias, and inasmuch as the mode in which the music is performed is dependent in a great measure upon precision and practice, so in riding it is necessary to make a young lady acquainted with the principles of equitation in their minutest details, and carefully to watch that she executes them with the most rigid exactness. To return to the half passage. On arriving at the boards the lady should halt her horse for a moment and make much of him, then rein him back, and again walk him round the school to the left. The half passage should then be done to that hand, reversing the aids, and using the whip instead of the left leg. This will bring the horse again upon the right rein. He should now be well put up to his work, and pressed smartly off at a very collected canter. The instructor should be most careful that the proper cadence in pace is arrived at before he gives the word, and should caution the pupil also that when she arrives at the boards she should bring her horse to the walk. To facilitate this exercise also, it may be advisable in some cases to take the whole school instead of half of it; but in that case the horse should go over the same ground in the "half passage" at a walk, as he afterwards does at a canter. When the exercise is done at the latter pace, no attempt should be made at the first effort to change the horse at the boards. The master should give the word very quietly directly the pupil turns the corner of the school, and she should then press her horse well up, and turn his head smoothly from the centre marker, applying her aids with firmness and decision, endeavouring at the same time to prevent him from hurrying his pace. This, however, at the first attempt, it is scarcely to be expected that she will accomplish. If the whole school is taken, the point of arrival at the boards should be about a horse's length from the end, where he should be brought quietly to a walk, the rider for this purpose keeping the body back, turning the little fingers of both hands up towards the waist, and drawing the hands themselves well towards her waist. The bend of the horse's head should then be changed to the left, by allowing the off side reins to slip through the right hand about two inches, and drawing the near-side reins through the left hand, with the right, to an equal extent. The near-side reins should then be passed into the right hand, while with the left the rider "makes much" of her horse on the near side. This, of course, should only be done if he has executed the movement with reasonable precision, for (to repeat) perfection cannot be expected in the pupil's first effort. Plenty of time should be taken between these "half-passage" lessons, because they are severe, calling very much upon the physical powers of both horse and rider. In order to give both a fair chance, the lesson should be again done at a walk, then at a canter, the pupil carefully instructed on arriving at the boards to strike the horse off collectedly _to the left_. To do this she should quietly change the bend to that hand, carry her left foot well forward towards the horse's shoulder, so as to use an action of her leg reverse to that she had recourse to in striking him off to the right. She should keep him well bent, but well supported with the outward rein. When she has him in the corner of the school, and bent both in his neck and ribs (which in turning and putting his off fore foot into the angle must be the case, if she applies her whip smartly behind the flap of the saddle, and presses her left foot to his near elbow, keeping his forehand well up at the same time), he can scarcely refuse to strike off with his near leg; but it must be borne in mind that a lady cannot be expected to execute this movement with any certainty unless the horse has been previously taught by a man to obey the aids the lady applies as above directed. This, however, every breaker who knows his business can easily do. When a fair amount of proficiency is acquired in this lesson, the change may be made from what is technically called a "half halt," which means simply that, the horse being thrown more upon his haunches, the aids are applied with great firmness, and the horse compelled to change his leg without being brought completely to the walk. The degree of proficiency, however, should be when the pupil can change her horse with certainty after halting him. The pace at which the half passage is done should be very collected, and, I repeat, if the rider and horse do it only reasonably well (that is, the latter continuing true and united in his pace, and changing freely after being halted), that for some little time it should be considered sufficient, and every allowance made for the fact that the lady, unlike the male rider, cannot give support to her horse with both legs. Most likely at first the horse will throw his haunches out a little, and the rider slightly lose her position. Practice and the close application most ladies give to riding will suffice to correct all this, and in due time the pupil will be able to execute the lesson with smoothness and ease to herself and her horse. She will then be sufficiently advanced to commence cantering on the curb rein alone. This, as regards finish in the rider's hand, is in equitation what tone is in music. Every motion of the little finger, or the slightest turn of the wrist, acts upon the curb when it is unrelieved by the snaffle with so much more power, that the greatest care is necessary to keep the bridle hand steady at first, and to avoid anything approaching to suddenness or roughness of action. This steadiness is best accomplished by causing the pupil to ride with the reins arranged military fashion, with the snaffle reins hanging over the full of the left hand, the off side rein uppermost, and the right hand holding the end of the curb reins, as before described, which affords greater facility for easing and feeling them than can at first be expected, when the action is given altogether from the left wrist. In the latter case, the hand without considerable practice would be far too heavy, even when the arm was kept quite firm, and unbearably heavy to the horse if there was any motion from the shoulder of the rider. I must repeat that the lines of action of the little finger of the bridle hand are four--namely, towards the right and left shoulder respectively, according as the rider desires to turn the horse right or left; and towards his neck and her own waist, as she wishes to collect, rein back, or move him forward. Now, while in trotting on the curb rein only the hand and arm should be kept as steady as possible, in order that the horse may make a free _appui_ between mouth and hand, "taking hold a little of the latter;" in cantering the direct reverse of this is the case, and the hand of the rider should give and take to every stride of the horse. It is in the mode of timing these give-and-take motions in exact harmony with the action of the horse that fine and finished hands consist; and I will endeavour to give an idea of the readiest way in which this delicate manipulation may be acquired, with as much precision as the fair rider can exercise when pressing the keys of a pianoforte. Let us suppose, then, that in preparing for the cantering lesson on the curb, in order nicely to collect the horse, the reins are drawn quietly through the left hand by the right, as above described, the object being to rein the horse back a step or two, and balance him well with forehand up and haunches under him. By the above-named drawing up of the reins a firmer _appui_ is created against the horse's mouth. By closing both leg and whip, however, while still maintaining this _appui_, the horse will step back. The instant he does the reins should be yielded to him, and he will bend in the poll of the neck and yield to his rider's hand. So that the _appui_ is then scarcely perceptible. This alternate action of hand and leg, aided by the whip, should be repeated just as many times as it is desired to rein the horse so many steps backward, the latter moving very slowly; a couple or three steps for the purpose above named are always sufficient. To move the horse to the front again at a walk, the leg should be closed, and the reins eased until he moves forward, when he should be again collected. But if the rider desires to strike him off at once at a canter, at the moment she eases her hand she should apply her spur smartly just behind the girth, and touch the horse lightly on the off shoulder with her whip. Being properly bent and prepared, he will then strike off with his right leg first, and well within himself; but having eased the reins as the horse takes his first short stride forward, the rider should feel them again the next instant, keeping her left hand well back, her arm steady, and manipulating the reins with the right hand and the fingers of the left, so that she feels them just as the horse's fore foot is on the ground, and eases them as he raises it. This may appear to the uninitiated a very difficult matter, but in reality it is not at all so, any more than it is difficult in dancing to keep time to music, or for the musician to count the time to himself; and by careful watching it can be mastered as well as either of the above, or the stroke in swimming. Anybody who has witnessed a cavalry field day will have noticed that the regimental band and the action of the horses both in trotting and cantering past the commanding officer are in exact harmony; and many people believe that the horses are taught to canter to the music. The reverse of this, however, is the case. The leader of the band, having himself passed through a course of equitation, knows the exact cadence of the pace of manoeuvre, and regulates the time of the music accordingly; but it is because he is able to count the time of the horses' footfall so well that he is also able to set the time of the music. In like manner the fair equestrian, with a little practice, can learn to count the time of her horse's canter to herself, and regulate the action of her hand accordingly. The pupil must throw plenty of _life_ into her riding, and, while she sits easily and flexibly as regards her whole figure on the saddle, should keep the horse equally upon his mettle. In a riding school he requires more calling upon than when out of doors, and more "pressing up," as it is technically called; but when once the rider has him going, well balanced, and bending nicely, the great thing is to "let well alone," and not ask too much, by which she would only fret and upset him. In bringing the horse to the walk, the pupil should be cautioned to feel him up very gradually, avoiding any sudden jerk on his mouth. The gradual stronger feeling for two or three strides, of the taking action of the hand, followed by a much slighter giving of the reins, will bring the horse smoothly to the walk. The body of the rider should be inclined slightly back from the perpendicular. When the lady has acquired ease and freedom in riding on the curb, the turn, circles, "half passage" and change may be practised, close attention being given that the aids are applied smoothly and quietly. After a few such lessons, the pupil may commence riding with the left hand entirely unassisted by the right. For this purpose it is necessary first to carry that portion of the reins held in the right hand over the middle joint of the fore finger of the left; close the thumb firmly down on them, and drop the slack of the rein to the off side of the saddle near the horse's shoulder. The give-and-take action must at first be from the wrist only, the arm being kept firm, and the hand opposite the centre of the body. For a time this will be a little difficult, especially in turning, when the rider has only the motion of the little finger to depend upon for the action of the bit in the horse's mouth; but by supporting the horse well with the leg and whip, she will find that he will presently answer readily to her aids. In turning to the right, the hand must be turned with the knuckles up, and the little finger down towards the left shoulder, the whip pressed to the horse's side, and the leg kept close, in order to make the turn square. In turning to the left, the little finger should be directed inwards and upwards towards the right shoulder, and the left leg pressed to assist the turn, while the whip on the off side insures its squareness. The wrist must be quite easy and supple. In collecting, reining back, halting, or bringing the horse to the walk, the action by which he is restrained should again at first be altogether from the wrist, because motion from the shoulder would be too heavy. In yielding to the horse, nothing more is necessary than to turn the knuckles up and the little finger towards the horse's neck. By degrees, as the pupil learns to command her horse riding in this form she must be instructed once more to give free and mobile action to the arm at the shoulder joint, as when riding on both snaffle and curb reins. But at first firmness of the arm is essential to give steadiness to the hand. A good deal has been said about turning horses by pressure of the rein against the neck without acting upon the metal in his mouth; and opinions very diverse have been expressed on this point. With all deference to the disputants, I submit that both are right and both wrong in some respects. For instance, when the rider has the reins divided and the hands well apart (a section of the lady equitation I propose to say something about hereafter), if the rider turns the horse square to the right or left he must use his legs as well as his hands, and imperceptibly perhaps to himself (even if he has not been taught by rule) he closes both the outward leg and feels the outward rein firmly, in order to support the horse and prevent him from falling, which otherwise he would be in danger of doing. Now, this support with the outward rein causes it to press against the horse's neck, and to some extent gives him the indication of the rider's will. But still it is simply impossible to do this without acting on the snaffle or bit rein, as the case may be, on one side or the other, as long as the reins are attached to a bit of any sort. And after all, it is the leg which gives the surest indication of the rider's will. One sees a lad in an Irish fair riding with a flat-headed halter turned through the horse's mouth, and, with the rope only on one side, he will put the horse through his paces, jump him, and turn him to either hand. There is no metal at all in the mouth, although the hemp is not a bad substitute; but the rope being only on one side, it is evident that it is not pressure upon the neck that turns the horse, but the action of the boy's leg against the intercostal muscles of the horse, and the inflection of the lad's body to the hand he desires to turn to. Moreover, in the case, let us say of a dragoon, we will suppose at riding school drill, it would be utterly out of the question to turn horses by pressure on the neck and preserve order at the same time. Let us suppose a double ride--seven mounted men on either side of a school or _manége_. They are going large round the place, and the instructor gives the word "Right and left turn." If each man of the fourteen were to turn his horse by pressure of the reins against the neck, instead of by the aid of leg and hand, the result would be that in place of making a square turn at right angles with the boards, each horse would describe a segment of a circle, more or less large, according to the susceptibility of his neck, and the stiffness or otherwise of his ribs. The consequence would be that the two sides, instead of passing left hand to left hand through the intervals (and it must be remembered that there is little room to spare), would be on the top of each other, and in confusion at once. And if this would be bad at a walk, it would be still worse at a canter. In either case it would be impossible, by the application of such aids, to preserve the dressing. The above, I submit, is a sufficient reason, where the utmost precision in riding is required, why turning a horse by the action of the rein against his neck (if, indeed, it can be done at all without the leg) is objectionable; and another objection in the case both of the dragoon and the lady rider is that the motions by which such aids could be applied are _too wide_ for neat and elegant riding. Horses in their breaking may be taught to answer all sorts of "cross aids;" but for simplicity and ease of comprehension there is nothing in equitation so good as the system practised in the German and our own cavalry riding schools, the proof of which lies in the fact that, although years ago one did not get even an average amount of intelligence as a rule in our rank and file, yet every cavalry soldier could readily understand the simple system upon which he was taught. It is because that system forms, after all, the basis of much that applies to female equitation that I have so frequently quoted from and alluded to it. When the instructor finds that his pupil is quite at her ease, riding her horse with one hand only, that she can do this, giving due freedom of action to the arm at the shoulder joint, has perfect command of him, and plenty of liberty and confidence in her own deportment on his back, he should take her out and ride with her in the park or road, and subsequently prepare her to extend her horse at a gallop, and commence her leaping lessons. At this stage a more finished style of equestrian toilette will of course be adopted, in lien of the loose habiliments hitherto used. I do not pretend to lay down any arbitrary rule on this subject. Much of course depends upon the taste of the lady herself, and in this respect English ladies are pre-eminent; a good deal also upon the judgment and experience of those about her. But as I have good opportunities of seeing the best types of fashionable attire for ladies' riding, I venture to suggest some of them. CHAPTER XII. DRESS FOR PARK RIDING, AND THE EXTENDED PACES. In no department of the charming art of dressing well is a lady so much shackled by conventional usages as in her "get up" for riding. In all other kinds of dress, from the full Court costume to simple morning wrapper, such is the almost endless variety of style that there is something to suit every woman, from the lady of high degree to "Dolly Varden," and the "Molly Duster;" and the selection made is conclusive as to the good or bad taste of the wearer. In riding dress it is altogether different. "Chimney pot" hats, tight-fitting jackets, and flowing skirts of orthodox dark rifle-green seem to be _de rigueur_, whatever may be the figure, style, or complexion of the wearer. I submit (and in this opinion I am borne out by several accomplished lady riders, to one of whom I am indebted for the following suggestions) that this is wrong, and that some modifications as regards shape and colour would be advantageous both as regards the comfort of the ladies themselves, and as a matter of taste. To begin with head-dress. It is manifest that whereas a lady of tall, lithe figure, with an oval Grecian style of face, and classical contour of head, will appear to the greatest advantage on horseback in a plain or gentleman's hat, and with her hair so arranged as to show the outline of the head and neck, one of the Hebe style of beauty, particularly if slightly inclined to the "_embon._," if so accoutred, would not look by any means well. Yet one constantly sees the same sort of head-dress worn by ladies whose general style is in direct contrast, the reason presumably being that fashion admits of such little latitude for choice. Again, as regards the jacket. A lady of slight figure (for effect) can scarcely wear anything that fits too close, consistently with her freedom of motion; but the fair equestrian whose proportions are not "sylph like" is badly equipped in such a garment. To revert to the hat for the latter type of lady, the most becoming style seems to be one with a low crown, and brim more or less wide, according to the features of the wearer, as such hats admit of great variety, both in material, and, what is more important, in colour; and consequently it is not difficult for a lady to obtain that which is exactly suitable to her both as regards feature and complexion. Some of these hats for park or road riding, ornamented with ostrich or other feathers, are exceedingly elegant and becoming, and protect the skin from the rays of the sun, without any necessity for a veil, which cannot be said of the plain black or gentleman's hat. For the hunting field, of course, feathers or ornaments are out of place; but nevertheless most elegant low-crowned, wide-rimmed hats, made of fine felt and without ornament, of shapes suitable to every class of feature, are obtainable in Melton, and I presume are equally accessible in London. The form of jacket most suitable for a lady whose proportions incline to fulness is a tunic, made Hussar fashion, that is, it should have two seams in the back and be well sprung inwards towards the waist without fitting tight; the short skirt made full, and reaching well down to the saddle; the sleeves wide. Broad braiding judiciously arranged on such tunics, too, will have the effect of considerably diminishing the appearance of redundant fulness of figure in the wearer. Two rows of braiding, commencing at the lower edge of the tunic behind, should bend inwards towards the waist; but instead of diverging thence to the shoulder points, as in a military coat, should pass over the shoulders, about midway between them and the neck, and thence be continued with a turn (ornamental or plain) to the front of the tunic on both sides, and reaching down to its lower extremity. There should be no braiding round the bottom edges of the jacket. These tunics can be made either single or double breasted, but in either case should have broad lappets in front; and neckties of any colour suitable to the wearer's complexion, arranged as a gentleman ties his neckcloth, and fastened with gold horseshoe pins, jewelled or plain, are very effective. The single-breasted tunic should be fastened with hooks and eyes, covered by the braid; the double-breasted jacket should fasten with plain silk buttons. The advantage of these tunics is that, while they afford plenty of room to the rider, and while they in no way cramp her flexibility in the saddle, they tend to diminish to a degree scarcely conceivable the appearance of redundant fulness or squareness of form, and give a very elegant _tournure_ to a figure that would look by no means well in a tight-fitting jacket. Again, neckties of moderately large pattern, and ornaments in the way of feathers and pins, or other fastenings for the cravat, all tend to diminish to the eye the appearance of weight and size, and as a rule, are as becoming on horseback to ladies of full figure as rigid plainness in habits, collars, &c., are to those of spare and delicate form. It should be borne in mind that it is on the off side that the figure of a lady equestrian is most critically noticed by the observer. On the near side the skirt has a great effect in increasing or diminishing the apparent size and form of the rider. On the off side every defect in form or dress is patent, and it is on the off side that the gentleman attendant rides. Close-fitting jackets, then, I repeat; plain gentleman's hats, with or without lace lappets, and extreme simplicity of get up, will be most effective on the off side in the case of a lady of slight figure. The style of hat and tunic I have attempted to describe is most suitable to those whose _physique_ is more developed. As regards skirts, a fair amount of fullness, according to the size of the rider, for road or park, gives a very graceful appearance on the near side, care of course being taken that the habit is not so long as to admit of the horse treading on it. For hunting skirts can scarcely be too circumscribed, as long as they afford the wearer freedom of action. A word now about colours. I repeat that except in the arbitrary dictum of fashion there is no warranty for the all but universal prevalence of dark rifle-green for riding habits. It must be evident that a lady who is a "brunette" will look far better in a riding dress the colour of which is dark chocolate or purple than she will in green of any sort; and on the other hand a "blonde" would be more suitably attired in a habit of a shade of light blue suitable to her complexion than in anything of more sombre hue. Again, in the hunting field why should our patrician ladies who grace these sporting _réunions_, with their presence, and go as straight and well as any men, shewing always in the front rank, be debarred by fashion or conventional usage from wearing scarlet jackets. Scarlet is worn on foot--for opera cloaks, in shawls, in whole dresses. Why not scarlet on horseback? I saw a lady this season riding with one of our crack Midland packs who wore a scarlet jacket of very fine cloth; a light blue silk cravat, fastened with a diamond horseshoe pin; a skirt of very dark blue, and a plain man's hat of Melton style. She was a blonde with golden hair, mounted on a bright chestnut blood-like hunter; and, as she was of slight, lathy figure, and rode exceedingly well, the _ensemble_ was quite charming. This lady was the cynosure of all eyes, not only on account of her capital riding but her dress, which I heard deprecated by some as "_too loud_." My humble opinion was that it was exactly in harmony with the place and the sport, most becoming to the wearer, and calculated to give _dash_ and _brilliancy_ to the _coup d'oeil_ afforded by the field as they streamed away after the hounds; moreover, the lady herself had that thoroughbred stamp and aristocratic bearing that would have rendered any innovation in equestrian costume admissable in her case. But when the complexion and style of any lady admits of it, I can see no reason why she should not wear scarlet with foxhounds as well as her brother or her husband. In summer time, too, is not dark rifle-green or any dark colour and thick cloth which attracts the rays of the sun to the certain discomfort of the wearer an absurdity, when the fair equestrian would look far better, because more seasonably attired, in light grey, light blue, or even in a habit of perfectly white linen, or similar fabric? As I have ventured to point out a pleasing alteration of conventional dress in the hunting field, I trust I may be pardoned for describing what appeared to me an equally consistent innovation in summer costume for the saddle. Last summer I saw four young ladies taking an early morning canter over a breezy down in this neighbourhood. The weather was sultry. Three of the ladies wore habits of different shades of grey, according to their respective complexions, the fabric evidently very thin. Their equipment was completed by felt hats of different shapes, exceedingly becoming. The fourth lady, who was very fair, wore a perfectly white habit, made, I presume, of linen; the jacket edged with a narrow light blue cord; her headdress was a yachting hat of Tuscan straw, encircled by and also fastened under her chin with light blue ribbon. In the front of her jacket she wore a moss rosebud. She was riding an Arab-like blood horse, and being, like her companions, not only well mounted, but a first-rate horsewoman, the effect was not only pleasing to the eye and full of "dash," but, I am sure, most conducive to the comfort of the fair riders themselves. Fashion apart, I may fairly ask, would not these four ladies have looked equally well, and felt as much at their ease, in Rotten Row as on the springy Leicestershire turf? I devoutly hope yet to see some of the leaders of fashion in the gay London season inaugurate some such change as I venture to suggest; and certain I am if they did so, Rotten Row in the month of May would present a brilliant Watteau-like appearance, very different from that produced by the prevalence of sombre colours now worn by the equestrian _habitués_ of that fashionable ride. To return to our fair pupil (having made such selection of riding dress as is most suitable to her style). Her first outdoor rides should be taken on some quiet and little frequented road until she becomes accustomed to control her horse; for there is a great difference in the form of going of the same animal in the riding school and on the road, as many horses that require considerable rousing in the school are all action and lightheartedness out of doors. On the road, especially when they are hard, walking and trotting should be the pace, the pupil riding equally on snaffle and curb reins; the pace free and active; the trot about eight to eight and a half the hour. Cantering should never be practised on hard ground, as it is certain, sooner or later, to cause mischief to the horse's legs. Where there is a good broad sward by the roadside, as in the Midland counties, a good stretching canter for miles may always be had where the ground is good going. But such places are not to be found in the neighbourhood of the metropolis; and it is necessary therefore to select some open common, such as Wimbledon or Wormwood Scrubs, for cantering at first. By degrees the pupil should be accustomed to ride through thoroughfares where there is considerable traffic, and may then make her _début_ in Rotten Row; and here I may remark that nobody, lady or gentleman, should ever attempt riding in this fashionable equestrian resort until they have thorough command of their horses, and, indeed, know scientifically what riding is. The place, strictly speaking, is a ride intended for royalty alone; and I believe I am correct in saying that the admission of the general public to it is by no means a matter of right. Great pains are bestowed to keep it in good order throughout the year; especially, it is always soft and good for a horse's legs. But as a great concourse of equestrians, male and female, is always in the Row in the London season, and as the horses are nearly all well bred and high couraged, there is considerable danger, both to themselves and others, in persons with indifferent seats and hands venturing to ride in the fashionable crowd, the danger being considerably enhanced by the fact that such people are altogether ignorant of the risk they are running. For my own part, after seeing some corpulent citizen rehearsing "John Gilpin" in Hyde Park, with his trousers half-way up to his knees, and his feet the wrong way in the stirrups, the wonder has always been to me not that accidents occur in Rotten Row, but that there are not a great many more. There are adventurous ladies, too, who occasionally create a sensation among the crowd, not at all flattering to themselves if they only knew the sentiments of those about them; and I really think it would be a capital plan to appoint some competent gentlemen to take charge by turns of the Row in the London season, and order the mounted police on duty quietly to see everybody out of it who was unable to command their horses. Matters, since the mounted constables have been put on, are not quite so bad as formerly; but there is plenty of room for improvement still, both as regards dogs, pretty horsebreakers, and tailors. At all events, I recommend any man taking a young lady into the Park in the height of the London season "to have his eyes about him" in every direction, lest some "dashing equestrian," male or female, should come bucketing a horse in rear of his charge, and to keep a close watch also upon the latter--to see that she _rides her horse_ all the time she is in the place, keeping him well into his bridle, which reduces to a minimum the chances of his suddenly flirting. Elsewhere I have gone at considerable length into the subject of possible accidents in the Park. It is perhaps necessary that I repeat the gist of it here, which is simply that no young lady, however accomplished a horsewoman she may be, should be allowed by her friends to ride in the Row unattended by a male companion, who is not only a thoroughly good horseman, but accustomed to ride beside a lady and _anticipate_ anything in the shape of bad manners on the part of her horse; that the attendance of a groom, who rides at a considerable distance in rear of the lady (whatever appearance of conventional style it may give to the fair equestrian), is utterly useless to her in case of accident, nay, in more than one instance that I have known has been productive of it from the groom galloping up at a critical moment, and still further exciting the lady's horse. Finally, that no lady should ever ride a horse of high breed and courage that has been allowed to "get above himself," by remaining day after day in the stable, or having insufficient work, when exercised, to keep down exuberant freshness. There is no danger to a thoroughly good horsewoman in riding a horse that is "light-hearted." But there is risk to everybody, man or woman, in riding one "mad fresh," ready to jump out of his skin, as the grooms say, in a crowd of other horses. For my own part, of two evils, I would rather see a lady jammed into a lane with twenty or thirty horses, after hounds had just got away, and everybody was struggling to get out, than I would see her in the Park unattended by a gentleman, and mounted upon a well-bred horse that was very fresh. I do not by any means deprecate riding in the Row. It is a splendid piece of riding ground, and relieved to some extent, as it now is, of overcrowding by the ride on the upper side of the Park; it is a glorious place for a canter. But I repeat, let everybody who takes a horse there be able to ride him, and have eyes for his neighbours as well as himself; and especially let gentlemen who attend ladies there be always on the _qui vive_ for the adventurous Gilpins and "pretty horsebreakers." The canter for the Row, conventionally and wisely, should be almost as collected as that of the riding school. It is an understood thing, in fact, that no lady or gentleman (properly so called) "sets a horse going" there; and trotting when practised should also be done very collectedly, both paces admitting of the display of talent and proficiency in equitation of the rider. For the more extended paces, it is necessary again to have recourse to open heath or common; and, before the pupil attempts to "set her horse going," the difference between cantering, in the "andante" pace, and galloping, should be clearly explained to her. The main difference in this cantering is to some extent an artificial pace, because, when practised collectedly, the greater weight of the horse is brought from his forehand on to his haunches; and the shorter the pace, the more his weight is on his hind legs. It is for this reason that very collected cantering should not be continued for any great length of time, from its tendency to strain the hocks, nevertheless cantering, like trotting, cannot fairly be pronounced altogether artificial, because anybody who has had the handling of a great number of young horses must have seen many of them running loose who would canter the length of a paddock at quite a short pace, both legs on the same side (generally the near side); and I have seen a foal at a mare's foot trot, true and fair, for a considerable distance. Galloping, however, like walking, is a perfectly natural pace, although it is a mistake to say that in the gallop the horse moves both fore and hind legs together, in what is frequently termed "a succession of jumps." That he does this in his top speed, and especially in making a supreme effort, as in a desperate finish of a race, is perfectly true: but it is equally certain that at half or three quarter speed he is leading with either near or off fore leg, and that anything but a _full speed_ gallop is simply a very extended canter. Any man who has ridden a race must know that where the distance is great, say four miles or more, and men do not force the pace, for perhaps two-thirds of the way every horse (say of a score of them) will be leading with either near or off leg, generally the former, and that a very hot excitable horse, eager to get to the front, will _change his leg_ when he finds his rider keeps his hands down, and his horse back. It may be said that this is not galloping but cantering; but I beg to assure all those who maintain this opinion that such a canter is faster than any gallop resorted to, apart from racing, that, in short, such a gallop is a very extended canter. Whatever the term, however, may be most applicable to it, half racing speed is quite as fast as a lady will have occasion to ride, unless in cases of desperate emergency. At such speed the horse has altogether a different balance to that maintained in the short canter; and, although he does not go altogether on his shoulders, still, to afford him freedom of action, he must be allowed to extend his head and neck, because, if too much bent, his action will be clambering, instead of sending him freely to his front. To gallop a horse in good form the lady should adopt a different arrangement of the reins to any heretofore used. It is simply to divide them, so that the little fingers of both hands pass between the snaffle and curb reins, the latter under the little finger, and a little longer than the former, the _appui_ being principally upon the snaffle, although there should be no slack rein on the curbs. Her hands should be kept well apart, and as low down as she can get them. The reason for separating the hands is, that it is far more difficult for a lady to set her hands down than for a man to do the same thing, because the front forks of the saddle are very much in her way. If, however, she rides with a saddle, the off side crutch of which is "cut down," and she places her right hand outside her right knee, and her left hand outside the near side upper crutch, she will have the reins at nearly the same angle, and about the same feeling on the horse's mouth, as would be obtained by a man in setting his horse going. In order to counteract any tendency of this position of the hands to interfere with the rider's proper balance, the left foot should be carried well forward, while the leg is pressed firmly against the third crutch, and an equally firm grasp of the upper crutch is taken with the right knee. A slight bend forward of the figure from the waist upwards is admissible, but great care should be taken by the instructor that this is not overdone, but regulated by the angle at which the left foot is placed. With the slight bend forward, however, there should be no rounding of the back or shoulders, or dropping of the head. Neither should the hands be allowed to get too forward; they will be somewhat in advance of their position at a canter, but not be more than six or eight inches from the body--the hands with the knuckles upwards, the elbows only slightly bent. The ground selected for this exercise should be well known to the instructor--sound, good-going turf, perfectly free from rabbit holes or rotten places. The pace should be gradually increased from a free canter to about half-racing speed, the master making the pace himself, and carefully watching his pupil in every stride her horse takes. The lady should be instructed to let her horse "take fairly hold" of her, and press him with the leg until he strides freely along in his gallop. She should keep her hands shut firmly on the reins, and rest the former against the saddle. The horse then, while taking well hold of her, will not _pull_, nor will she pull an ounce against him, the consequence being that when she desires to decrease her speed, she has only to lean back gradually from her galloping position, bringing the body first perfectly upright, and then inclining back at about the same angle she previously carried it forward, raise her hands up from the saddle, and carry them back to her waist, while she turns the little fingers inwards and upwards towards it, which will cause her to feel the curb reins with a double feeling to the snaffle, and in about a dozen strides she can thus collect her horse into a steady canter and bring him subsequently to a walk. The length and speed of these rides must be carefully regulated by the master according to the nerve and strength of his pupil. Without a fair amount of both nerve and physical power such gallops should not be attempted at all. Where there is plenty of both, a half-mile spin is admissible to begin with, and, with good going ground, this may be increased gradually to a couple of miles. The instructor should be very careful in cautioning his pupil to diminish the speed of her horse by degrees and in the manner above described, especially avoiding any sudden pull at him, or any unsteadiness of the hands. Carefully practised, these gallops will give the pupil great freedom and confidence in the saddle; and they are, moreover, wonderful promoters of health. CHAPTER XIII. THE LEAPING LESSON. I come now to a section of our courses of instruction, which, if not as some suppose the most difficult to impart or acquire, is nevertheless of great importance. The principles, however, upon which a horse "does a fence" neatly and safely, and those upon which depend the secure riding of the lady, once properly understood, the rest is a question of practice, the thorough training of the horse and his complete fitness for his task being assumed. The two latter points are, however, of such vital consequence that I will endeavour to direct attention to several matters connected with them, which I trust may be useful. In the first place, then, it should be borne in mind that whereas every horse of every breed in the world can be taught to jump, jumping comes so aptly to some as to be perfectly natural, and no more trouble to them with a fair weight than walking or galloping. Such horses are easily taught to be _clever_; that is to say, to do "doubles," "in and out," and crooked places, with almost the surefootedness of a goat, as well as to jump clean timber or fly sixteen or eighteen feet of water. The sort of animal I speak of is fond of jumping, and consequently when carefully broken learns to _balance himself_ with the greatest nicety; and, provided the ground is sound, you cannot get him down, while he does not know what refusing means, except in the case of utterly impracticable places. It is upon such horses, or those which approach the nearest to them in their qualifications, that a lady should be mounted, not only for the hunting field itself, but in her initiation in the riding school into the art of riding her horse over a fence. Horses that rush at their jump, are hot-headed, or intemperate in any way, are utterly unfit for a lady to attempt leaping with, either indoors or out. There should be blood and quality undoubtedly, as well as substance and power, but these must be joined to the best of temper. Possibly the very perfection of a horse exists in that wonderful little animal the Lamb, who has just exhibited at Liverpool the most extraordinary feats of _cleverness_ and endurance, coupled with splendid action, speed, and temper, ever yet shown by any horse. The form in which, galloping at top speed, he jumped over two horses lying _hors de combat_ right in his way, and cleared both and their riders without further injury to any, will live always in the memory of those who witnessed it; while his unflinching and determined effort to win under a weight that scarcely admitted of hope stamp the Lamb as a horse without equal in our day. In my opinion no price in reason could be too much to ask or give for such animal. A short time ago I had the great honour and privilege accorded me by his noble owner of a close inspection at his private training quarters of this unrivalled little equine gem; and I am bound to say that, although I never quite believed in perfection of a horse until I saw the action, manner, and general form of the Lamb, as far as my judgment or experience goes, I freely accord to him the palm over every horse I have seen in a lifetime spent among horseflesh in one quarter or another of the world; but, although it is not possible in my humble opinion to find his equal as a cross-country horse, our endeavours should be directed to obtain for a lady hunter that which approximates most closely to the Lamb. Let me briefly point out what are the qualities that render such horses the fittest for carrying a lady to hounds. In the first place, the connecting points of such an animal are so true in their relative adjustment, that while in galloping he does not _clamber_ or fight the air, he goes with action so safe as always to clear any of those apparently insignificant obstacles, which too often bring to grief a gallant-looking steed and his fair rider. When "ridge and furrow" (as must sometimes occur) run the wrong way, he can go safe from land to land; and this is of greater consequence to a lady's riding than many suppose. The stamp of horse I speak of, too, will gallop with his hind legs well under him, while he maintains a proper balance of his fore hand without getting his head too low. He will do his fences without rush or passion, and measure his distance to perfection. Secondly, his breeding gives him the power to endure through long runs, while his temper prevents that feverish excitement so detrimental in its reaction on a hot horse after a long day's hunting. To return to the detail of the leaping lesson. This should always be commenced either in a riding school or in a space so inclosed as to do away as nearly as possible with any chance of the horse refusing. It is not possible always to procure one that is quite a "Lamb;" and, however well trained the animal on which the fair pupil is put, no possible temptation to do wrong should ever be allowed to remain in his way. A gorse-bound bar, a wattled hurdle or common sheep hurdle are all equally good for the first attempt, care being taken not to make the leap too high. But I do not, from experience, believe in putting the bar or other obstacle on the ground, because the effort a well-broken horse makes to clear it is so slight, that it puts the rider off her guard; and when afterwards he rises higher in his jump, he is very apt to shift her in the saddle. There is a very natural inclination on the part of a tyro in riding, lady or gentleman (having seen a horse jump under another person), to suppose that some effort of the hand is necessary _to lift_ the horse over the obstacle. It should be the duty of the instructor carefully to warn his pupil against any such effort, and in the first attempt to attend only to her true equilibrium, while she presses the horse well up to his bridle, keeping her hands perfectly steady, well back, and well down. She should take a firm hold of the upper crutch of the saddle with her right knee; sit well _into_ the saddle, and not on the back of it, because the further back she sits, the greater the concussion when the horse alights. She should put her left foot well home in the stirrup, and press her leg firmly against the third crutch, while she keeps the left knee quite flexible, and the left foot well forward. She should draw her figure well up from the waist, which should be bent slightly forward; and she should avoid _stiffening_ the waist, because it is from that point that she is able to throw the upper part of the figure backwards at the proper moment, and at the true angle, to preserve her balance. She should direct her glance straight between the horse's ears, and well in front of him to the end of the school, because if she looks down at her hands or the bar, she relaxes her upright position. The horse should be led up to the bar by the instructor, who should be able to jump lightly over the obstacle with the horse; and another assistant should follow with a whip, the presence of which the horse will recognise in an instant, without any noise being made with it, and he will go at once into his bridle, and "take hold" of the rider's hand. A groom should hold the end of the bar or hurdle so lightly, that if the horse touches it, it will fall; while another groom should stand in such a position, about a horse's length to half a one outside the instructor, as to do away with all chance of the horse swerving from any nervous action of the rider's hand. In jumping, at first the pupil should ride entirely upon the snaffle rein. In fact, for early leaping lessons, it is best to put a good broad reined snaffle in the horse's mouth, instead of a double bridle, because it prevents any confusion about the reins, and consequent derangement of nerve in the pupil. On approaching the bar, the latter should incline the body back from the waist upwards, at such an angle, that a line from the back point of the shoulder would fall about a couple of inches behind the cantle of the saddle. This is not according to the strict formula laid down by high-class professors of equitation; on the contrary. "The Aid Book" tells us that "the body should be inclined forward as the horse rises, and backwards as he alights." But I have found in teaching _ladies_ to jump their horses that, particularly with a quick jumping one, any such attempt would result in the horse hitting the lady in the face with his head, and thereby thoroughly disgusting her with leaping lessons, to say nothing of possible disfigurement or injury. The instructor cannot be too quiet, simply keeping well hold of his horse, making him walk close to the boards, and cautioning his pupil to sit back--_not away from the crutches_ of the saddle, but to throw the upper part of her figure back _the instant the horse drops his head_. Any more instruction will only confuse her. The master should jump with the horse, _but not hold the habit_, as is customary with some preceptors of riding, because no man is so clever on his legs but that some inequality in the tan or turf might cause him to stumble, in which case assuredly he would pull the lady off her horse. After the first jump the master is better away from both horse and pupil. In nine cases out of ten I have found that the above simple directions to the latter result in her landing all right, except a little derangement of equilibrium to the front; but the easy spring of a well-bred and well-broken horse, and the hold he takes of her hands, reassure her. She has made her _première pas_ in jumping, and finds that it is by no means so difficult a matter as she anticipated. In her second attempt, if she exhibits good nerve, as most young ladies of the present day do, the instructor need only walk up the side of the school with her, close to the horse's shoulder, quietly correcting her if she allows her reins to become slack, because in that case she loses the _appui_ on the horse's mouth, which in her early attempts at leaping is of vital importance to her. In fact, it is necessary, in order to give the pupil confidence, that the horse should jump with a firm hold upon her hand. Many authorities on riding tell us that a horse's jump is simply a higher stride of his gallop; from this notion I beg entirely to dissent. In leaping, a horse first raises his forehand upwards with a half rear, both feet quitting the ground at the same instant, the height he rises corresponding to the angle at which he takes off. Secondly, from his hind legs he propels himself forwards, both hind legs moving together, and, if he is a good jumper, well under him. If leaping, therefore, is to be compared to any other action of a horse, it must resemble a plunge gaining ground to the front. There is no possible gain in teaching, however, by comparing a horse's leap to his any other movement. Instinct tells him what to do in order to clear his legs of the obstacle, and, like walking or galloping, the action is by no means artificial, inasmuch as a thoroughly unbroken young horse loose in a paddock will jump through a gap on an ill-kept farm (if his dam makes the running) with precisely the same action as a finished hunter; and, therefore, in one sense I endorse the dictum once expressed to me by an Irish farmer when I asked his opinion as to the natural paces of a horse. His reply was, "Sure some of 'em goes no way natural, but just the way you don't want thim to go; and there's some of thim that nothing's so natural to as to ate a lot of good oats a man never sees the price of again. Thim's bad ones. But if you're spaking of a good maning, rale Irish horse, the most natural pace he has is to jump well." I quite agree, bar the word pace, that jumping to a horse is as natural as any other instinctive action. The weight, however, to be carried, and the mode in which that weight is distributed at the critical moment, makes a material difference to both horse and rider. Therefore, the early leaping lessons should be confined to causing the pupil to do as little as possible to impede the action of the horse, while she preserves her due balance. Like the breaking of a young colt in the case of a pupil learning to ride over a fence, if you ask too much at once or confuse the learner, you obtain nothing but discomfiture. As regards this portion of the course of equitation, it is specially necessary to bear in mind the old French maxim, _C'est ne pas le première pas qui coûte_. At the same time it is quite possible, if the first step is injudiciously taken, to spoil the whole of your previous work. Special care should be taken that the horse does not take off too soon; and if, from any unevenness of the rider's hands or legs, he attempts this, the instructor should be quickly at his head again, and compel him to do his work coolly and collectedly. "The standing leap," as this is technically called, is considerably more difficult as regards catching the precise moment at which to throw the weight of the body back than the "flying leap," because in the standing leap the horse, being nearer to the obstacle, pitches himself forward with a much rougher action, and does not land so far on the other side of the fence; whereas when he canters freely at it, the difference in the shock to the rider is as great as that experienced in the pitch of a boat in a short chopping sea, and the boat's rise and fall in a long swell, the pace also causing the horse to take more freely hold of the rider's hand. Complete confidence, however, must be established before a lady should be asked to ride her horse at a fence out of a walk; and nearly as much time should be expended over this new step in the series of lessons as were occupied in trotting. I have not, however, to define the principle upon which, in either standing or flying leap, security of seat must be sought. Some say that in leaping it is by muscular grasp only that a lady can retain her true equilibrium in the saddle; others adhere to the notion that it is all done by balance. Now the truth lies midway between these two theories. It is quite possible for a man to ride over a fence by balance only. Witness what one sees frequently in a circus, where some talented equestrian maintains his footing on a bare-backed steed, while the latter jumps a succession of bars. Here there is nothing to keep the rider on the horse but sheer balance; and, of course, if this can be done by one man standing up, it can be much more easily done by another sitting down in the saddle, although very few men ride across country in such form, nor indeed is it either safe or desirable to do so. The thing, nevertheless, is quite easy. It is not so easy with a lady, because her position on the saddle is altogether an artificial one; and, moreover, the weight of the skirt is sufficient to render riding by balance alone most difficult. It is by a combination of firm grasp on the crutches, _seized_ just before the horse arrives at his fence, and a true balancing of the body from the waist upwards, that security of seat in jumping is obtained. A most necessary adjunct to the above, however, is firmness of the arms, because, if the latter are allowed to fly out from the sides, the whole figure becomes, as it were, disconnected, and the proper _aplomb_ is lost. By taking a firm hold of the upper crutch of the saddle with the right leg, the rider is enabled to balance her body as the horse rises, while the pressure of the left leg against the third crutch prevents the concussion of his landing from throwing her forward, provided always she throws back her weight at precisely the right moment. This requires practice, and well-timed assistance from the instructor, thus: As soon as the pupil acquires sufficient confidence to ride her horse fairly up to the fence, and keep his head straight to it, the master should stand far enough from her to obtain a good view of the whole contour of figure of horse and rider. He should place the hands of the latter _well_ apart, cause her to shut her fingers firmly on the reins, which give firmness to the body; keep her hands well down and her figure well drawn up, ready on the instant to throw the weight back. He should then caution her to execute the last-named movement on his giving the _single sharp word_ "Now." The pupil should then press her horse well up against her hand, and keep his head steady and straight to the bar. The instant he rises the instructor should give his word sharply, and the rider will then catch the true time at which to act upon it. This requires only close attention and watching by instructor and pupil, both being "vif" and thoroughly on the alert. After a few efforts the lady is then sure to find out the time without any word. I have taught a great many very young ladies as well as gentlemen to ride over a fence by the aid of the word given in the above form, and have found it always of the greatest assistance both to myself and pupils. Special attention is necessary to keeping the hands well down and well apart, and the shoulders quite square, because there is a natural tendency on the part of most ladies in the first leaping lessons to throw the right shoulder forward, which not only destroys her balance but causes her to pull the horse's head to the near side. The hands cannot be kept too quiet at first, for any effort to give and take to the action of the horse is nearly certain to result in the pupil checking him at the very moment he springs forward, and pulling him upon his fence. A well-broken horse, when put up to his bridle, will take a good hold of the rider's hand, and if sufficient length of rein is given him will clear the bar without the necessity of the rider moving her hands a hair's breadth. Subsequently, when she has had sufficient practice to feel quite at home, she can be taught how to assist him when he does a long striding leap over water or a strong double fence with ditches on both sides. After the standing leap is executed neatly, and in good form by rider and horse, the flying leap should at once be practised. The pupil should put her horse into a steady canter, going to the left round the school; and for this purpose the hurdle or bar should for the time be removed, so as to enable the lady to get her horse into a good free stride. When the instructor sees that she has her horse in proper form, the hurdle should be put up again and well sloped, because, even so, the horse will jump considerably higher in all probability than the rider expects. This is the moment at which the master requires to be thoroughly on the alert. He should caution the lady not to let her horse _hurry_ when he turns the corner and sees the hurdle, which many horses are very apt to do. "Hands down," "Sit back," "Press him against your hand," and the "Now!" at the right moment should be the concise words, given in a tone at once lively and encouraging. The result will be a clean, clever jump, well done by horse and rider, when the former should be "made much of." A couple or three leaps so executed are quite enough in a school, because nothing so worries most horses as to keep them continually jumping at the same place, and if the leap is too often repeated, they are apt to sulk or blunder at it. Within the walls of a good riding house almost every kind of obstacle can be represented which can be met with out of doors. The double, the artificial brook or painted wall, all give the pupil sufficient insight into the form in which a well-taught horse will negotiate any of the fences to be met with in the hunting field; and the lady should be carefully taught how to _stop_ and _steady_ her horse at a crooked or cramped place. When once the leaping lessons are commenced, one should be given every day, either before or after the riding out. If the ride is intended to be a long one, the jumping should be done while the horse is fresh, and has all his powers in hand. When the pupil can do the standing and flying leap, the in and out or double in good form, riding on the snaffle, she should again return to her double bridle, which should be fitted with a curb chain with broad links; and the whole of it should be well padded and covered with soft leather, to prevent any jar upon the horse's mouth in jumping. The reins should be separated and placed as for galloping, the greatest care being taken by the instructor that the curb is no tighter than just to keep it in place, for which a good lip strap should be used, and the curb chain fitted so as to admit the play of quite two fingers between it and the horse's jaw. In placing the reins, the master should see that the greater _appui_ is on the snaffle, and that after the pupil closes her hands upon the reins she does not shift her hold of them in the slightest degree. Having now four reins instead of two as formerly, there will be a tendency to "fidget" with them, or obtain a better hold. This must instantly be corrected if it occurs, otherwise ten to one but the lady gets the curb rein too short, and pulls her horse on his fence. At the same time there should be no slack curb rein hanging down, but it should be of such length that, on landing, the horse can just feel the action of the curb, and the reason for this is obvious. In school all leaping may be accomplished on the snaffle; but in the hunting field it is far otherwise. In deep ground a horse requires holding together, and no lady could do this with a snaffle bridle. And, again, in a long run, when a horse has been severely called on, he may make a blunder on landing from a drop in a bit of boggy ground, in which case the curb rein is necessary in aid of the snaffle. As, therefore, it is in the school that the pupil should be prepared for every outdoor eventuality, riding over her fences with both curb and snaffle must be practised; and, finally, over a small jump she must be taught to ride with the curb alone. CHAPTER XIV. THE LEAPING LESSON (_continued_). It may fairly be accepted as a general rule, that a horse should not be ridden over a fence upon the curb alone. The rule, however, has its exceptions. One of these is the possible case of a lady being placed in such a predicament that she has no alternative in the presence of imminent danger but that of leaping her horse to avoid it, and in such case it may be (and, indeed, in my own experience has occurred) when the lady was riding her horse with a single curb bridle. If the fair equestrian so placed lacks the necessary nerve, dexterity of hand, and firmness of seat, she must come to certain grief. It is therefore highly desirable that, although on ordinary occasions she should use both snaffle and curb in leaping, she should also be thoroughly _au fait_ at doing it, if the necessity arises, upon a "hard and sharp," or single "Hanoverian." Again, leaping on the curb rein only teaches the pupil the full value of every particle of her balance and muscular grasp on the saddle, while it also shows her that, although as a rule a horse requires to be kept well together, there are exceptional instances in which it is necessary to yield the hands freely to him. The above-named is one of these cases. The leaping lessons, however, which lead up to the point of proficiency at which the pupil should be permitted to attempt so critical and difficult a piece of riding must be carefully and inductively given. Assuming that the fair tyro rides her horse boldly and confidently over the ordinary fences used in a school, and can execute an "in and out" jump without derangement of seat or hand, the effort of the master should next be directed towards teaching his pupil how to cause her horse to extend himself over a jump where there is considerable width as well as height. I must repeat that, for this purpose, a horse should be used that is thoroughly up to his business--one that will stride freely away and _gallop_ at his fence. The best practice to begin with, in what I may perhaps call "fast jumping" for a lady, is at an artificial brook. This is easy enough to arrange in a riding school. It requires only a sheet of canvas, painted the colour of water, of such dimensions that the people in the school can increase or diminish its width at pleasure. This canvas should be long enough to extend from one side of the school to the other, which can be managed by fastening the canvas to a couple of light rollers. On the taking-off side of this artificial brook there should be some low wattles, gorse bound, or otherwise; and these also should extend quite across the school. There is then no chance of a well-broken horse refusing. Before the canvas arrangement is stretched across the riding-house, the pupil should be instructed to set her horse going at a free striding canter--as fast as is compatible with safety in turning the corners, which should be well cut off in this case, the pupil riding a half-circle at both ends of the school. After two or three turns round the house at this pace, in order to get the horse well into his stride, the assistants should arrange the jump while the instructor prepares his pupil for it. And now let me endeavour to explain the difference in the position and action of the hands of the rider necessary for a long jump as compared with that requisite in a short one. In the latter, safety consists in a horse jumping well together or collectedly, because in a cramped or crooked place speed is almost certain trouble. Where, on the contrary, there is a broad sheet of water to be got over, "plenty of way" on the horse--sufficient speed to give great momentum to his effort, is indispensable. In the short leap or crooked place, then, the horse should be made to jump throughout right into his bridle; and for this purpose the position and steadiness of hand described in the last article, accompanied by such pressure of the leg as will keep him up to it, is the true mode of "doing such places." But to clear a wide jump, it should be remembered that the horse must not only go a good pace on it, but he must be allowed to extend his head and neck the instant he takes off. If this is neglected, the fair equestrian, in attempting a water jump, will inevitably find herself in the brook. Now, a man in riding at water has this great advantage over a lady in the same case, that, having equal power with both legs, he can force his horse up to any length of rein, no matter how long, in reason, and compel him to face it, thus enabling the rider to hold him through every inch of his jump, while he gives him plenty of scope to extend himself. For a lady to do this is impossible. Too much pressure of the left leg or repeated use of the spur, even if counteracted on the off side with the whip, would cause the horse to throw his haunches to one side, and he would not jump straight. Steadiness of seat, hand, and leg are therefore indispensable to the lady. The horse ought to be well practised at the particular jump before she is allowed to attempt it, and therefore should require no rousing or urging, to get plenty of way on, for his effort. But before the pupil faces her horse towards the brook, she should be emphatically but quietly enjoined by the instructor to respond to his word "now" as follows: Let it be understood that her elbows should be drawn back until they are three inches or thereabouts behind her waist, the hands about the same distance below the elbows, the former about six inches apart, with the fingers closed firmly on the reins and turned _inwards_ and _upwards_ until they touch the _waist_, the reins divided, as for galloping, but with the slightest possible feeling upon the curb. With her hands in the above-named form she should ride her horse to his jump, never moving them until she hears the sharp sound of the word "Now!" from the instructor, when at the same instant the body, from the waist upwards, should be thrown back and the hands shot forward, the elbows following, until they are just level with the front of the waist. As the hands go forward, the little fingers should be turned downwards and the knuckles upwards; this will bring the middle joints of both hands with the nails downwards against the right thigh, about four to six inches above (or, as the rider sits, behind) the knee; and this turning down of the nails and forward motion of hands and elbows will give the horse free scope of his head and neck, while the hands coming in contact with the right thigh will still maintain the proper _appui_, and support the horse when he lands in his jump. Although the foregoing appears prolix in description, it occupies little time to explain _vivâ voce_; and with the instructor by her side the lady may practise the action two or three times while her horse is standing still before he faces his jump. The instructor should then quit the lady's side and place himself near the brook in such a position that he has a fair view of the horse as he takes off. The pupil should turn her horse quietly about, and ride to the _left_ into the corner of the school, and as soon as the horse's head is square to the jump, and himself square to the boards, the master should give the word smartly, "Canter." With plenty of vivacity, the pupil should immediately strike her horse into a striding pace, keeping her hands well back and hitting him smartly once with the spur. An assistant with a whip should also crack it slightly behind the horse. Let the master then closely watch the moment at which the horse's fore feet quit the ground, and give his word quickly and sharply, and in nine cases out of ten the jump will be a success. The artificial brook should be arranged about two-thirds of the distance down the school, so as to give the horse plenty of space to get into his stride before he comes to it, while there will be sufficient room to collect him after he lands. If he does it well the first time (and with the above described handling he will scarcely fail to do so), and the rider performs her part moderately well, the jump should not be repeated. If, however, it is necessary again to go through the instruction, the horse should not be put at the place back again, but the end of the canvas be rolled up and the wattle removed, so as to admit of his passing to the longer reach of the school. These lessons should be given daily until the pupil executes them with the requisite energy and correctness of riding, the instructor taking special care never to ask his pupil, however, to do such jumps unless he sees that she is quite equal in health and good spirits to the occasion. For riding which requires any extra "dash" about it must never be attempted by anybody if they are at all out of nerve. After the pupil does the brook well, it may be replaced by a double set of gorsed hurdles, placed just so far apart as to necessitate their being done at a single jump. In this case, however, the pupil, while giving her horse by the action of her hands sufficient scope to allow him to jump a considerable distance, should not be allowed to ride so fast at the obstacle, about half the speed necessary to do water being quite sufficient; and the off-side hurdles should be so placed that if the horse strikes them they will give way. As a rule ladies do not perform, even in Leicestershire, over big double fences, or very strong oxers, and the _indication_ of what is required to do them should be sufficient for riding school practice. As I have elsewhere observed, a horse will jump higher and further when going with hounds than you can with safety ask him to do when in cool blood, or when only roused to extraordinary effort by the use of the spur or whip. And no man in his senses in the hunting field would ever think of piloting a lady to a place which he would only ride at himself at a pinch. Such jumps, therefore, as I have endeavoured to describe within doors should represent the biggest which most ladies are likely to encounter with in a fair hunting country. As regards riding over a fence, with the curb rein unrelieved by the snaffle, the practice should be as follows: A hurdle should be well sloped, so as to render the leap a very moderate one. The rider should quit her hold of the reins, which should be knotted and fastened by a thong to the mane. A leading rein should then be attached to the ring of the snaffle, and the horse led quietly up to the fence, and halted. The pupil should then draw her hands back until they are in the same position as she would place them in putting her horse at his jump, with the hands closed firmly, which will give steadiness to the body. She must take a determined hold of the upper pommel with her right knee, and be ready with the figure perfectly poised to throw her weight back at the proper moment; placing her left thigh also firmly against the third crutch, her foot well home in the stirrup and well forward, the shoulders perfectly square, and the waist quite pliant. An assistant should then crack a whip smartly in rear of the horse, without hitting him; this will cause him to spring lightly over the hurdle. If the position of the pupil before the horse takes off is carefully looked to, there will be little derangement of seat. This lesson should be repeated until it is executed with precision. At the same time, two or three jumps of this sort are quite sufficient in one day, because, if repeated too often, the horse, missing the support of the hand, is apt to blunder. When the lady can ride over her fence in the above-named form, she should take up and arrange her reins, so that, while that of the snaffle is not in the horse's way, she feels him on the curb only. She should give him fair length of rein, draw her left hand back to her waist, and place the right hand lightly on the left, just in front of the knuckles; but the reins should be held military fashion--the little finger between them, the leather over the middle joint of the forefinger, the thumb closed firmly on it, the little finger well turned up towards the waist. The horse must be ridden at a smart walk, well up against the curb, until he is close enough to the hurdle to jump. The whip must again be used, and the instructor's word again sharply given, when the pupil should yield both hands freely, turning the little fingers downwards, and slipping the elbows forward. Great firmness and steadiness of seat are necessary to do this lesson well, and considerable practice is necessary to insure complete unity of action in the body and hands, the former being yielded quickly as the latter is actively thrown back. To assist the pupil in her first attempts at this portion of the leaping lesson, the curb chain should be slackened as much as possible, and it should be one that is broad and well padded. As the lady acquires the requisite lightness of manipulation and additional firmness in the saddle, the curb (link by link) may be tightened until it is in its proper place, namely, so that it admits of the play of one finger only between it and the jaw of the horse. But the greatest care on the part of the instructor is necessary in watching how both horse and rider behave before this can be accomplished. The lesson is called technically "jumping from the hand," and once thoroughly acquired, the pupil has little to learn, as regards indoor work, in the way of riding over her fences. She may in that respect be considered fit to take her place any time at the covert side, and hold her own, under proper pilotage, with hounds, where of course she will use snaffle and curb reins equally, or according to the temper and breaking of her mount. During the leaping lessons, and in fact throughout the whole course of equitation up to this point, the pupil should be put upon as many different horses as possible consistent with her progress, care always being taken that she is thoroughly master of one before she is put upon another. The action of horses varies so much in degree, no matter how much from similarity of breed and form it may assimilate in kind, that to attain anything like proficiency the rider's mount requires frequent changing; otherwise, when put upon a strange horse, she would find herself sorely at a loss. With the exception of one practice, which in some degree resembles the leaping lesson, we may now safely dismiss our fair pupil from technical indoor instruction, except in the way of an occasional refresher, whenever those about her discover any inclination to lapse into a careless form of riding. This both men and women are so apt to do (imperceptibly to themselves), that an occasional sharp drilling does no harm to the most practised rider of either sex. The final instruction to be given in the school is called the "Plunging Lesson," and maybe briefly described as follows, premising that although it is the bounden duty of every man who has anything to do with a lady's riding to avoid by every means allowing her to be put on a restive horse, yet it is always possible that, from some unavoidable cause, a lady (especially in the colonies) may some day find herself on a bad-mannered animal that will "set to" with her. In order, therefore, that in such an undesirable case she may not be at a loss, it is well that when thoroughly practised in leaping, she should be put upon a horse that will kick smartly whenever he is called upon by the master. Such a horse is useful for the above purpose, and is generally to be found in most riding establishments. The trick is easily enough taught, and requires no description. Neither is it at all incompatible with general good manners. The first thing, then, as regards the pupil, is to impress upon her that whenever a horse "sets to" kicking with her, that her tactics should consist first in keeping his head up, and, secondly, in finding him something else to do than kick. A horse cannot have his head and his tail up at the same time, therefore, when he kicks, his first effort is to get his head down. This should be immediately counteracted by the rider sitting well back, keeping her hands up as high as her elbows, feeling the horse firmly on the curb reins as well as the snaffle held in one hand, while she applies the whip vigorously across his neck. This will have the effect of causing him to keep his head up and go to the front. The same firm treatment will be successful in most cases where a horse attempts to plunge. But in the latter case the hand must be yielded if there is any attempt to rear, and if the last-named dangerous vice is carried to any length, the rider should not hesitate to take fast hold of the mane, or put her hand in front of the horse's neck. Both rearing or plunging, however, may be effectually prevented by the use of the circular bit and martingale, described under the heading "Rearing Horses and Runaway Dogs" in the _Field_ of Nov. 11, 1871. In my humble opinion, every lady going to India and the colonies should have one or two such bits among her outfit of saddlery, and if properly fitted in the horse's mouth, all risk of rearing or even violent flirting is done away with. Such tackle, however, does not prevent a horse from _kicking_, and although no lady should ever attempt to ride one that is possessed habitually of this vice, a sudden accession of kicking may arise in an otherwise good-meaning horse from some ill-fitting of the saddle, or similar casualty, causing tender back or otherwise upsetting him. Of course, no punishment should be resorted to in these cases; but it is as well for a lady to be able to keep her seat in such an emergency, and this she will easily do if she keeps the horse's head up, and her leg well pressed against the third crutch. On Brighton Downs, some years ago, I saw a young lady thoroughly master a kicking horse in the manner above described, accompanied, however, with a considerable amount of punishment, most resolutely applied with a formidable whalebone whip. No second glance was necessary to perceive that in this case the lady was well aware of the horse's propensity, and had come out for the purpose of thoroughly taking it out of him, which certainly she did effectually, and as he was a vicious-looking weedy thoroughbred, "it served him right." But I must again enter my protest against ladies running such risks, however accomplished they may be as horsewomen. Let them accept the respectful advice of a veteran, and avoid vicious horses. Brutes that run back, plunge, rear, or kick from sheer vice (and there are many that do) are fit only for the riding of the rougher sex, and only of such of them as have the ill fortune to be compelled to get their living by riding. The so-called plunging lessons above alluded to, however, will give a lady a thorough insight into the form in which to ride in case of emergency. CHAPTER XV. THE HUNTING FIELD. We enter now upon a new and important phase of our pupil's education in the saddle. Before doing so, however, I feel bound to observe that from time to time a vast amount of "twaddle" is ventilated on the question of the propriety of ladies riding with hounds. All sorts of absurd objections have been brought forward against the practice; as, for instance, that hunting as regards ladies is a mere excuse for display and flirtation, and that it is both unfeminine and dangerous. I believe that these objections, made by people who never knew the glorious exhilaration of hunting, may be very briefly disposed of. I reside where the very cream of the midland hunting is carried on, and I perceive that year after year the number of ladies of high rank and social position who grace the field with their presence is on the increase; while to the best of my belief no female equestrians _who are not ladies_ have been seen with hounds in Leicestershire or its vicinity for some years. So much for the stamp of woman that hunts nowadays. As regards flirtation and display, I am at a loss to understand why anti-foxhunting cynics should have selected the covert side, or the road to it, for their diatribes; for there _can_ be no time for flirting when hounds are once away. It must be manifest to every man who has the most remote notion of what manner of people our aristocracy and gentry are, that they will only know at the covert side precisely the same stamp of person they meet elsewhere in society. In that society there are dinner parties, flower shows, balls, the opera, all affording equal or better opportunities for flirtation than the hunting field. As to hunting being unfeminine, it is difficult, I submit, to pronounce it any more so than riding in Rotten-row. And finally, as regards danger, I propose to show how it can be rendered all but impossible if due care and forethought are exercised by the male friends or relatives of the hunting lady. Let us now, therefore, having traced out the course of instruction in the riding school, on the road, and in the park, consider how safety is best ensured to the beginner. As regards the stamp of horse the fair _débutante_ of the chase should ride, I have already endeavoured to give my idea. I have only to add that he should be very fit for his work, the pink of condition, without being above himself; and, finally, that no temptation as to fine action or clever fencing should ever induce a lady to ride a hunter that has a particle of vice about him. With the best of piloting it is impossible always to keep her out of a crowd, where she is in a woeful dilemma if mounted on a horse that kicks at others. I have seen this more than once, and have heard expressions from the suffering riders that must have been far from pleasing to refined feminine ears. I must, however, record a special instance of politeness under difficulties which I witnessed during the past season. Hounds were running with a breast-high scent, the pace very fast, when the leading division had their extended front diminished to single file by a big bullfincher, practicable only in one place. Among those waiting their turn to jump was a lady who always rides very forward. She was mounted on a rare-shaped, blood-like animal, that looked all over like seeing the end of a long day, but exhibited considerable impatience at the check. In some cases, as all hunting people know, the difficulty is always increased to those who are compelled to wait by a ruck of riders crowding up from the rear. The case I allude to was no exception to this rule, and among others came a welter middle-aged gentleman, riding a horse quite up to his weight--a grand hunting looking animal, that appeared intent upon clearing every obstacle in his path, not excepting the impatient ones who were doing the gap in Indian file. The veteran, however, who was a capital horseman, managed to pull up his too-eager steed just in rear of the lady's horse, and was forthwith accommodated with a most vicious kick with his near hind leg. Fortunately, the distance was too great to admit of the stout gentleman receiving the full benefit of the intended favour, which nevertheless made his boot-top rattle, and materially altered the genial expression of his rubicund visage. Turning gracefully in her saddle, the fair votary of the chase expressed her deep regret at the bad behaviour of her horse. "I am very sorry--awfully sorry; I hope you are not hurt," she said, in a tone which ought to have consoled any middle-aged sportsman for a broken shin. "I never knew him to do it before," continued the lady. "Pray don't say a word, Miss," replied the old gentleman, taking off his hat with a genuine thoroughbred air; "don't say a word; they are only dangerous when they do it behind." Whether they do it "behind" or "before," kick in a crowd at other horses, or hit at hounds with their fore feet (as some thoroughbreds will do when excited), they are equally disqualified for ladies' hunters, however gaily they may sail over the turf or clear the obstacles in their way. To proceed with our lessons. Before venturing to take our aspirant for the honours of the chase to a regular meet of foxhounds--where she is apt to become excited, and possibly unnerved by the imposing array of "pink," gallant horsemen, and aristocratic ladies riding steeds of fabulous price, dashing equipages, and thrusting foot people, always ready to embarrass a beginner--it is best to seek out a quiet line nearly all arable land, where the fences will be small, where there are few ditches to be met with, and where the going on the stubble or fallow will be good enough when the crops are off the ground. The pupil should wear a "hunting skirt" properly so called--that is, one not too redundant, made of strong cloth, and booted with leather about eight or ten inches wide round the bottom. This is a very necessary precaution, because it prevents the skirt from hanging up in the fences and getting torn. Hunting boots also should be worn, back-strapped, tongued in at the foot, and reaching nearly to the knee, the upper part made of thick but very flexible leather--buckskin is the best. It is soft, and at the same time thick enough to save the leg from a blow from a strong binder, which occasionally hits very hard in its rebound, having been previously bent forward by somebody who has just jumped the fence. A "Latchford" spur of the sort before described is also requisite, and the question of the arrangement of skirt necessary to enable the rider to use the spur effectively has caused considerable diversity of opinion among _cognoscenti_ on hunting matters. Some ladies have an opening made in the skirt, through which the shank of the spur passes; and in order to keep the latter in its place, it is usual to have a couple of strings strongly stitched on to the inside of the skirt. These are tied round the ankle, and prevent the skirt to a great extent from getting foul of the spur. But this method decidedly involves a certain amount of risk, because, in case of the horse making a blunder and falling, the lady has not the free use of her leg. Again, there is a method of letting the spur shank through a small opening similar to a large eyelet hole, made of strong elastic, and let into the skirt, the point of insertion having been previously measured when the rider is in the saddle and her left leg and foot are properly placed as regards the third crutch and stirrup. But a still better way is that which I have seen adopted lately by several ladies who go very straight with hounds. It is as follows. After the skirt has been carefully measured and _marked_ (the lady up), an opening is made perpendicularly, large enough to admit of the lady's foot passing through it. This opening should be made about six or eight inches above the place where the ankle will touch the skirt, when the left leg is fairly stretched down, the knee bent, and the heel sunk. When the instructor has assisted his pupil into the saddle, he should put her foot in the stirrup, and wait until she has carefully arranged her habit; he should then take her foot out again, and the lady should lift it high enough to enable her attendant to pass it _through the opening_. The foot can then be replaced in the stirrup, and the spur buckled on. The upper leather (by the way) should be broad and slightly padded. By these means the left foot and the leg from six to eight inches above the ankle will be entirely clear of the skirt, which will give the rider perfect freedom of action, while the opening is not sufficiently wide to admit of the skirt being blown clear of the leg. This, moreover, is prevented by the leather booting; in fact, in a well-made hunting skirt there should be no slack cloth for the winds to play with at all. The kind of whip to be used is the crop (without the thong) of a hunting whip; a Malacca crop is the best for a lady, because the lightest. It should have a good crook to it, well roughened on the outside, and be furnished, moreover, with a roughened nail head, in order to prevent the crop slipping when the rider attempts to open a gate. Gauntlet gloves with strong leather tops are best, because they prevent the possibility of the rider's hands being scratched or injured in jumping a ragged fence; but if the lady dislikes gauntlets, the sleeve of the jacket should be made to fasten with three buttons close to the wrist, because the sleeves now so much in fashion, being very wide at the wrist, are apt in taking a fence to catch and get torn, in addition to the risk of the rider being pulled off her horse. These casualties, which of course cannot occur with the clean-made jump taken in the riding school, are likely enough to happen in the field, and should be carefully guarded against. As regards the shape and make of the jacket I have already said so much, that I must leave it to the taste and figure of the rider, always assuming that while she allows herself plenty of freedom of movement, she does not wear anything too loose, or any _steel_ supports about her, as for hunting these are highly dangerous. As regards headgear, the same style of thing that sufficed for the riding school may not be considered sufficiently effective for the hunting field; and, without venturing upon ground so delicate as an opinion or even knowledge of ladies' "coiffure," I may say that at Melton and other fashionable hunting centres there has for some time existed an artful combination between the ladies' hat makers and the hairdressers, by means of which that very elegant affair the "Melton hat" is deftly fitted with an arrangement of hair behind which is immovable, no matter where the wearer jumps in hunting. The hairdresser's services are first called into requisition; possibly he imparts the "arcana" of his craft to the lady's maid; but one or other succeeds in making such an arrangement of the hair as renders it at once secure in riding and becoming to the style of the lady herself. The hat with the hair attached behind is then placed on the head, and secured by an invisible elastic band. Should any of my readers desire information on these matters, so important to a lady's comfort in the hunting field, I can furnish them with the names of the people in Melton and elsewhere who can give them every detail. Having our pupil accoutred as before described, and taken her to a quiet farm, the instructor should pick out a line, start at a walk in front of his charge, pop his horse quietly over the fences, and see that his pupil does them with equal coolness and without rush or hurry. When she can do this well, the pace should be increased to a steady canter; and the master riding beside her should be careful that she _steadies_ her horse three or four lengths before he takes off, always riding him well into the bridle. This kind of practice should be continued for some days, until the pupil is quite at home at her work, and the master should then proceed to instruct her as to the mode in which to make her horse "crawl" through gaps and crooked, cramped places, and do "on and off" jumps and doubles. The animal best adapted for this sort of practice is one that is _clever_ rather than _fast_. An Irish horse, out of a ditch and bank country, is preferable. But the instructor should take special care, by first doing these "on and off" jumps himself, to ascertain that the banks are sound; otherwise there is danger of just the worst kind of fall a woman can have. We have lately had a lamentable instance of this in the case of a noble lady, one of the most brilliant horsewomen in England. For my own part, I am entirely against a lady jumping her horse in the field at any place where there can be the slightest doubt as to good foothold, unless she is preceded by a man to pilot her. If the latter gets down, he can always (assuming him to be a good workman) get clear of his steed, whereas at these rotten places a lady and her horse are likely to fall "all of a heap," and injury greater or less is a certainty to the rider. Not long since I saw a little girl, about ten years old, riding with hounds on a mite of a pony which was as clever as a monkey. The little heroine took a line of her own (no doubt she knew the country well), and kept her place among the foremost for some time; presently she disappeared, and we found her impounded, pony and all, up to the back of the latter in a piece of rotten ground which had let them in like a "jack in the box." Neither the pony nor his plucky little rider were hurt, but (as they say in Ireland) that was more by good luck than good guiding. I maintain that children at that age should never be left in the hunting field to their own devices, however well they may ride, and that, either in their case or that of young ladies of riper age, they should never be allowed to go with hounds, unless accompanied by a man who is not only a thorough horseman and judge of hunting, but is also well acquainted with the country he is riding over, and accustomed to pilot ladies. After the pupil has learned to make her horse "creep" in the manner above described--to insure success in which, however, the closest watching is necessary on the part of the instructor, and directions requisite in each individual case, utterly impossible in written general instructions--she should be carefully taught to open gates for herself, because it is nearly sure hereafter to occur that she may have to ride at a pinch in a country place where her route lies through a line of bridle gates, and the attendance of a man to open them for her may not be available. Nothing is easier than for a lady to open a well-hung and well-latched gate, the hinges of which are on the off side. Bridle gates occur most frequently in great grazing countries, such as Leicestershire, Warwickshire, or Northamptonshire, by reason of the necessity of confining cattle within certain limits. The gates are generally heavy, well poised on their hinges, and opening either with wooden latching or iron spring ones, easily reached at the top. If the gate is hung on the off side, all the lady has to do is to ride her horse with his head in an oblique direction between the gatepost and the gate, so that when she has the latter open she can continue moving on in the same slanting direction. She should first press the end of her crop down upon the latch, if it is a wooden one, keeping herself perfectly upright in the saddle, and steadily seated in it. Directly the latch lifts she should press firmly against it with the rough crook, push the gate open, and press her horse onwards in the same oblique direction, by which the animal's croup clears the gate sooner, and all risk of its closing on him is avoided. If there is a long iron spring latch to the gate, it must first be pulled open with the crop, so that the latch rests against the hasp, and a steady purchase must then be taken against the upper bar with the crop, and the gate thus quietly pushed forward: this if it opens _from_ the rider. If the reverse, the horse's head should be kept perfectly square close to the gate post, until the latch is lifted and rested on the hasp. The gate should then be _pulled_ open, and the horse's head inclined just the reverse way to that adopted when the gate opens _from_ the rider. But in no case should she _lean_ forward, or put herself out of her balance, in order to get hold of the latch or the gate itself, and she should be particularly careful that the reins do not catch against the long iron hasps so common to the gates I speak of. Only last year, I met a lady who rides a good deal unattended, and, seeing her about to open a gate I knew to be rather an awkward one, I trotted on to assist her; but (possibly desiring to show me that she could do it unassisted) she leant forward to give the gate _a lift_, and in doing so she dropped the reins upon her horse's neck, when the animal immediately hooked the headstall of a single curb bridle upon a long iron hasp, and, finding himself fast to it, drew back suddenly and broke the headstall, the bit fell out of his mouth, and the lady (utterly helpless) had no alternative but to slip off as quickly as possible. Fortunately, the animal was a very quiet one, or the consequences might have been serious; as it was, we managed to change bridles, and, having spliced the broken one, went on our separate ways. But, I repeat, one cannot be too careful or methodical in opening gates. When one opens from the _near_ side, the reins must be passed into the right hand, the crop into the left, and the greatest care taken, if the gate opens _to_ the rider, to _push it_ well back behind the horse's quarters before she moves on, riding with her horse's head _towards the hinges_. When a near-side hung gate opens _from_ the rider, there is less difficulty, it being only necessary after lifting the latch to push against the gate with the crop, sitting quite upright, and giving swing enough to the gate to enable the rider to get clear of it. But in either case, to or from, with a gate hung on the near side the latch should first be lifted, by using the crop in the _right hand_, resting the latch if possible against the hasp, and then changing hands with the crop and reins as before mentioned. If this is not done, and the rider attempts to lift the latch with her left hand, she must change the direction of her horse's head when the gate is open, at the great risk of bringing it on his quarters. These directions, like others I have ventured upon, may appear too minute; but it should be remembered that, whereas, carefully followed out, a lady on a steady horse accustomed to gates can open them with safety, any carelessness may result in a bad accident, because the steadiest horse, if "hung up" in a gate, will become furious if he cannot instantly get clear of it. When, therefore, the pupil is well practiced at this sort of work, and has learned to feel her way in cramped places as well as to do her fences at a steady canter, a fair half-speed gallop may be ventured on, the pupil setting her horse going, and pressing him if necessary with the spur, to take his fences in his stride, the spur being used, however, some distance from the fence. The master should ride beside his pupil in this lesson, carefully watching the pace of the horse and the action of the rider. A nice easy line of about a couple of miles should be taken, and the pace maintained throughout. A month of this kind of practice will form a capital introductory step to hunting: and when, in the mild misty mornings of russet-brown October, foxhounds begin to beat up the quarters of the vulpine juveniles, abjuring her "beauty sleep," the lady may with advantage, before the "early village cock proclaims the dawn," don her hunting habiliments, and, under the careful tutelage of her "pilot," trot off to covert and see the "beauties" knock the cubs about. This is by far the best way to begin hunting in reality. There are very few people about at that early hour, and those only who are thorough enthusiasts about the sport; consequently there is more time for the new votary of Diana to get accustomed to the alteration in her horse's form of demeaning himself. For be it known to the uninitiated that even an old horse, that requires kicking and hammering along a road when ridden alone, is quite a different animal and mover the instant he sees the hounds, and will show an amount of vivacity perhaps very little expected by his rider; while a well-bred young one requires a great deal of riding on such occasions. The short bursts sometimes obtained in "cub hunting" are capital practice for a lady; while occasionally a veteran fox, some wily old purloiner of poultry, affords a good twenty or five-and-twenty minutes, even when the fences are blind. I recommend our pilot, however, to keep his charge out of these latter matters, for blind jumping is always bad for a lady. As regards taking a beginner out with harriers, I am against it. It is very well for invalids or corpulent gentlemen who are "doing a constitutional;" but it teaches a young lady nothing of what is really meant by hunting--which, however, she is in a first-rate position to learn with the cubs. Staghunting with a deer turned out from a cart and caught with a whipthong, is equally inefficacious, because the hunting as a rule only commences when the run is over. Moreover, there is always a crowd of people who come out for riding only, and care nothing about hunting, and these are the most likely to get into a lady's way, and bring her to grief. The same may be said of drag hunting, which I hold to be no place for a lady, any more than steeplechasing. Let us then, legitimately to inaugurate our pupil into the usages and forms of hunting proper, stick to cub hunting until November opens the fences and gives her a chance to prove the value of her previous instruction. Before closing this article, I cannot refrain from citing an instance of the great value of a lady learning to cross the country well, irrespective of the sport of foxhunting and its health-giving and exhilarating effects. Within ten miles of where I write this resides a lady, young, wealthy, and beautiful, who, although not a religious _recluse_, is as thorough and sincere a devotee of religion as any cloistered nun. Her whole time is spent in acts of charity, and ministering to the spiritual and bodily welfare of the poor for miles round her residence. No weather is too inclement, no night too dark, to stop her on her errands of mercy and charity. If summoned even at the dead of night to attend the bedside of a sick or dying person, as frequently happens, she will dress herself quickly in rough habiliments suitable to it--maybe in tempestuous weather--saddle and bridle a horse herself if her people are not quick enough for her, and, provided with cordials, a prayer book, and a long hunting crop, she will gallop off the nearest way to her destination, taking the fences, if they lie in the road, as they come; and one bright moonlight night I saw her do two or three places that would stop half the men that ride to hounds hereabouts. This lady, who may fairly and without exaggeration be called the "ministering angel" of the district, does not, it is true, hunt now; but it was in riding to hounds that she acquired her wonderful facility of getting over the country. The above is no sensational story. The lady, her brilliant riding, her true religion, and her charities, are well known, and can be vouched for by hundreds of people in this part of the world. Who shall say after this that hunting is unfeminine? I have a word more to add, according to promise, as regards the fitting of the circular bit. This bit, which can always be procured at Messrs. Davis's, saddler, 14, Strand, is fitted in the horse's mouth above the mouthpiece of a snaffle or Pelham bridle. It has a separate headstall, and is put on before the ordinary bridle. It requires no reins, is secured by a standing martingale to a breastplate, and is a certain remedy for horses flirting or rearing when too _fresh_ (which, however, I repeat, for a lady's riding should never be allowed). The strap between the breastplate and the ring bit should be just long enough to enable the horse to move freely forward, without liberty enough to admit of his rearing. In the next chapter I will endeavour to describe what regular hunting for a lady means; point out the readiest way of getting to our most fashionable packs of hounds; and how ladies residing even in the metropolis may enjoy a day or two of good sport on this fine grass country at the least necessary expense, may witness and enjoy hunting in its perfection, and, if requisite, may breakfast in Mayfair or Belgravia, have a glorious gallop over the Midland pastures, and return to a late dinner. Of course I am aware that neither of the above-named localities is likely to hold many hunting ladies in November. But the fashionable quarters of London are not deserted in February, and spring hunting is perhaps after all the most enjoyable. CHAPTER XVI. THE HUNTING FIELD (_continued_). Among the many advantages afforded by the "iron road" to lovers of hunting there is none more appreciable than the facility it affords to those who reside in a non-foxhunting country of getting to hounds with ease and rapidity. Without any greater inconvenience than the necessity of early rising, a lady who lives in Tyburnia or Belgravia may easily enjoy a day's hunting in Warwickshire or Leicestershire, and be in her own home again in reasonable time in the evening. During the early spring hunting of the present year, several ladies came to Market Harborough and Melton on these sporting expeditions, and returned the same day thoroughly satisfied. One party, consisting of three ladies and as many gentlemen, seemed to me to have been admirably organised, and to be quite a success throughout. They left Saint Pancras at eight o'clock in the morning, in a saloon carriage, arrived at Melton at half-past ten, and were at the meet at eleven, with military punctuality. They enjoyed a capital day with the Quorn hounds, left Melton at half-past six, after riding a considerable distance back, and arrived in town at nine o'clock. A novel and agreeable feature in the arrangement was that the party dined in their luxurious carriage while being whirled back to the metropolis, a first-class dinner and the best of wines having been furnished from the hotel, and served in admirable form. After the journey and the sport one of the ladies (I was told) held a numerously attended and fashionable reception at her own house the same evening; and with a brougham in waiting at St. Pancras, and a pair of fast horses, joined to the wonderful "smartness" (if I may be permitted the expression) displayed by the fair and aristocratic votary of Diana in the field, I should think the thing quite possible as regarded time. The above-named party was mounted at Melton by some friends; but, by giving fair notice, thoroughly good and well-made hunters can always be secured by any of the Midland hunting centres by those who do not care to rail their own horses from London. Market Harborough is still more accessible than Melton, being but two hours from London, and situated in the centre of a splendid grass country, hunted by Mr. Tailby; while a smart trot of eight miles would bring the sporting _voyageur_ to Kilworth Sticks and the Pytchley, provided the right day was selected. Rugby, too, is equally accessible, and boasts a fair hotel, where the charges are not more extortionate than they are at Harborough, which is saying a good deal. The hunting in the vicinity of Rugby, however, amply compensates for a little overdoing in the matter of charges. It is scarcely possible to go to Rugby the wrong day to get at hounds within a reasonable distance, and some of the meets of that admirable pack, the North Warwickshire, are frequently at such picturesque and convenient trysting places as Bilton Grange--now celebrated by the Tichborne trial, and sworn to as the place where the "Claimant" was not. However this may be, a straight-necked and wily gentleman is generally to be found at home, either in the plantations of the grand old demesne or close by at Bunker's Hill or Cawston Spinney, who is tolerably certain to lead the claimants for his brush a merry dance across the glorious grass country to Barby, Shuckborough, or Ashby St. Leger. The fences, too, in this part of the Midlands are just the thing for a lady's hunting, and, while quite big enough in most cases to require a little doing, they are by no means so formidable as those in High Leicestershire and the Quorn country. The old-fashioned bullfincher is rare, and double ox fences equally so, while there is a pretty variety of nice stake-and-binders, pleached hedges, and fair-water jumping, with an occasional flight of rails, big enough to prove that the fair equestrian's hunter can do a bit of timber clean and clever. In fact, I know no country I would as soon select for a young lady to commence regular hunting in as that in the vicinity of Rugby. Combe Abbey, Misterton, and Coton House are all sweetly English, as well as thoroughly sporting places of meeting, and the truly enjoyable trot or canter over the springy turf, which everywhere abounds by the roadside in these localities, and makes the way to covert so pleasant, has more than once been pronounced by hunting critics to be more desirable than hunting itself in parts of England where the road is all "Macadam," and the land plough, copiously furnished with big flint stones, such as one sees in Hampshire. _Apropos_ of which charming country there is a sporting tale prevalent in this real home of the hunter. A rich, middle-aged, single gentleman, a thorough enthusiast about foxhunting, had a nephew, a very straight-going youngster, who the "prophetic soul" of his uncle had decided should one day be _the_ man of the country in the hunting field, and second to none over our biggest country; and, to enable "Hopeful" to lead the van, the veteran mounted him on horses purchased regardless of expense. Furthermore, determined that no casualty in the way of breaking his own neck should suddenly deprive his favourite nephew of the golden sinews of the chase, the old Nimrod made a very proper will, leaving all his large property to his fortunate young relative. Things, indeed, looked rosy enough for our young sportsman. Youth, health, wealth, a capital seat, and fine hands upon his horse, any quantity of pluck, a thorough knowledge of hunting, and plenty of the best horses to carry him--who could desire more? Alas that it should be so! even the brightest sunshine may become overcast--the fairest prospect be marred--by causes never dreamt of by the keenest and most far seeing among us. At the termination of a capital season in the Midland, our youngster, not content to let well alone, and, like that greedy boy Oliver still "asking for more," unknown to his worthy uncle, betook himself to the New Forest in Hampshire. "Hopeful" was a sharp fellow enough, and he did not believe that all was gold that glittered; but he was under a very decided impression that wherever there was a good open stretch of green level turf it was safe to set a horse going. Alas! the luckless young sportsman was not aware that in the New Forest this is by no means a certainty, and one day, when riding to some staghounds, determined to "wipe the eye" of the field, he jumped a big place which nobody else seemed to care for, and, taking his horse by the head, set him sailing along the nearest way to the hounds. A lovely piece of emerald-green turf was before him; he clapped his hat firmly on, put down his hands, and, regardless of wild cries in his rear, made the pace strong. Suddenly and awfully as the Master of Ravenswood vanished from the sight of the distracted Caleb Balderstone and was swallowed up in the Kelpie's Flow, so disappeared "Hopeful" and his proud steed; both were engulfed in a treacherous bog, and, before either horse or man could be extricated, "the pride of the Shires" was smothered in mud beneath his horse. Next season, at a "coffee-housing" by a spinney side, where hounds were at work, an old friend of the bereft uncle ventured to condole with him on his loss. "Sad business," he said, shaking his old hunting chum warmly by the hand; "sad business that about poor Charlie down in Hampshire!" "Sad, indeed," replied the veteran uncle, returning the friendly squeeze. "Who would have thought my sister's son would have ever done such a thing? Staghunting was bad enough," he continued, as the irrepressible tear coursed down his furrowed cheek; "staghunting was bad enough, but to go at it in Hampshire--I shall never get over it. As to his being smothered, of course that served him perfectly right." Turning, however, from the above melancholy instance of degeneracy in sport to the pleasanter theme of the right locale in which a lady should commence foxhunting, I must not forget Leamington, the neighbourhood of which beautiful and fashionable watering place affords some capital sport to those who delight in "woodland hunting." The woods at Princethorpe, Frankton, and the vicinity, hold some stout foxes that afford many a nice gallop, while the country is rideable enough for a lady if she keeps out of the woods. Leamington, too, has first-rate accommodation for hunting people. There are, indeed, no better hotels to be met with anywhere than the "Regent" or the "Clarendon," or more moderate charges for first-class houses; while the "Crown" and the "Bath" afford capital quarters for gentlemen, and ample provision for doing their horses well. The charming Spa, moreover, is at an easy distance from Rugby, and by railing a horse to the latter place, ready access can be had to hunting in the open country, six days in the week. My advice, then, to young ladies, who desire to witness foxhunting in perfection, is to select one of the above-named localities, and to put herself at once under the guardianship in the field of a thoroughly good pilot who knows the country. Words of advice to the latter are superfluous. All the men who undertake the responsible office of guiding a lady after hounds hereabouts are quite at home at their business, and it may be satisfactory to my fair readers to know, that, although there are a great number of ladies riding regularly with hounds in the North Warwickshire, Pytchley, and Atherstone country, no accident attended with injury to a lady rider has occurred within my recollection, which extends over a long series of years. The initiation at cub hunting will have given our pupil confidence, and accustomed her to the excitement shown more or less by every horse at the sight of hounds; and careful attention to the rules of jumping before laid down will insure safety if she adheres carefully to her pilot's line. It is as well, however, that she should understand wherein consists the reason for what her hunting guide does, and what should be done and left undone, from the time of arrival at the meet until the _retour de chasse_. In the first place, then, while her mentor will of course see to her girths and horse appointments before a start is made to draw a covert, the lady should carefully look to her own dress, head gear, &c., and be certain that everything is in its place, and shows no signs of giving way. But if anything chances to be out of order--if she has ridden to the meet any considerable distance--it is best to dismount and repair damages at once. As a rule, there are always houses available for this, and nimble-fingered dames zealous in the service of any lady who desires their assistance. When the fair votary of the chase travels to the meet on wheels, I recommend her by all means the use of a warm overcoat, of which the Ulster is very convenient, and was very much worn for the above purpose last season. In proceeding from the meeting place to the covert a great thing is to keep out of the crowd--no matter how well-behaved a horse the rider may be on--because in a ruck there is always more or less danger of her being kicked herself. The most likely position for a good start will of course be selected by the pilot; but it should be remembered that to be quiet while hounds are at work in covert is a fixed law of the hunting code; to avoid heading a fox when he breaks away, another vital point; and no exclamation of surprise or wonder should be allowed to escape the lips, even if a fox (as I have seen happen more than once) should run between the horses' legs. Foxes, though it may be assumed that they all possess a large amount of craft and cunning, differ as much in nerve and courage as other animals; and while one will sometimes dash through a little brigade of mounted people, the shout of a small boy on foot may turn him back; and while Reynard, again, will frequently rush off close to a lady's horse and take no notice of either him or his rider if both remain quiet, the waving of a handkerchief, or even the slightest movement of the lady on her steed, may cause Sir Pug to alter his mind, and thus a good thing may be spoilt. For the foregoing reasons, therefore, to be perfectly quiet and remain steady, if near a possible point at which a fox can break away, is indispensable. When hounds are settling on his track great care should be taken to avoid getting in their road, or in any way interfering with them. After they have settled, the object should be to _go well to the front and keep there_--first, because the greatest enjoyment in hunting, viz., seeing the hounds work, is by that means attained; and, secondly, whenever there is a check, a lady riding well forward gets all the benefit of it for her horse, whereas those who lose ground at the start, and have to follow on the line, keep pounding away without giving their horses a chance of catching their wind--a very material thing in a quick run. A check of a few minutes, affording a good horse time, has enabled many a one to stay to the end of the longest run, when an equally good animal has been "pumped" in the same thing for want of such a respite from his exertions. Again, a great point to be observed is to maintain such a position as will enable the rider to turn with the hounds at the right moment; resolutely resisting any temptation in order to cut off ground, to turn too soon, and risk spoiling sport by crossing their line. It should be remembered that it is quite as easy to jump the fences when one is in the front rank, as it is when sculling along with the rear guard, and much safer, because the ground always affords better foothold and landing, when it has not been poached up by a number of people jumping. This is especially the case after a frost, when the going is at all greasy. Even in cases when hounds slip an entire field, and get the fun all to themselves, still those who get away well at first will have all the best of the "stern chase." If, fortunately, our fair tyro is well up when a fox is run into and killed, she should carefully avoid getting too close to the hounds when they are at their broken-up prey. There are always keen eyes about that can discern on these occasions whether a lady has been riding straight and well, and there will not be wanting some gallant cavalier to offer her the tribute due to her "dash" and good workmanship, in the shape of that coveted trophy of the chase, the brush. There may, however, be more than one lady up on these occasions (I have seen several after very good things), and, as a rule, the brush is most likely to be offered to the lady of the highest rank. These trophies, therefore, are scarcely to be counted upon as a reward for even the best and straightest riding--the less so as of late years it has been observed that in most cases a very stout and straight-necked fox succeeds in eluding his pursuers, and "lives to fight another day." In beginning regular hunting, one good run in a day for a lady should suffice for some little time. In November the days are very short, and often enough a fox started after three o'clock will be running strong when darkness comes on. For a lady, and a beginner especially, it is best to leave off and trot quietly home while there is yet daylight. As regards "get up" or equipment, I must add to my former suggestions that a lady for the hunting field should be provided always with a waterproof overcoat, which should be rolled up in as small a compass as possible, and is better carried by her pilot or her second horseman (if she has one out) than attached by straps to the off-side flap of her own saddle; as, in addition to spoiling the symmetry of the saddle on that side, I have seen instances of things so attached hanging up in ragged fences, no matter how carefully they may have been put on. A sandwich case and flask are highly necessary also. Hunting is a wonderful promoter of appetite, and it is not beneficial to a young lady's health to go from early breakfast to late dinner time without refreshment; while it is quite possible--nay, very probable in a grass country--that she may be a long way from head-quarters when she leaves the hounds, and in a part where refreshment for a lady cannot be had for love or money. The Melton people have met this requirement very efficiently. Thus, into a very flat, flexible flask, with a screw-cup top, they put a most succulent liquid, composed of calves' foot jelly and sherry. This flask is accompanied by a very neat little leather case, which contains half a dozen nice biscuits, or, in some instances, a small pasty, composed of meat. These cases, with the flask, are made to fit into the pocket of the saddle on the off-side under the handkerchief, and the flap of the pocket is secured by a strap and buckle. To roll a waterproof neatly, the following plan is the best: Lay the garment down flat, opened out, on a table, the inside upwards; turn the collar in first, then turn the sleeves over to the inside, laying them flat; next turn in both sides of the coat from the collar downwards, about eight or ten inches; then turn in the bottom of the garment about the same distance, when it will form a pocket. One person should hold this steady while another rolls the collar end very tightly up towards the pocket; it will then fit into it so closely as to make a very small and compact roll of the whole coat. I must not omit to say that, in addition to the first-rate hunting to be had in the Midlands, there is some good sport with hounds obtainable nearer the metropolis, namely, in the Vale of Aylesbury, with that noble patron of sport, Baron Rothschild. But still I must award the palm to Leicestershire, Warwickshire, and Northamptonshire as far away superior to anything in the hunting way to be seen in any other part of England. In whatever part, however, the fair lover of hunting seeks her sport, she should bear in mind that when she is once away with hounds she cannot be too particular as to riding her horse with the utmost care and precision, and to avoid taking liberties with him by jumping big places for the sake of display. It cannot be too strenuously impressed upon her mentor that, as long as the true line to the hounds can be maintained, the less jumping that is done, the longer the horse will last; that one big jump takes as much out of him as galloping over three big fields; and that he should be _ridden every inch of the way_, because when hounds get off with a good scent it is impossible to say that they may not keep on running for a couple of hours, in which case, if too much is done with him at first, he will inevitably, to use a racing phrase, "shut up." The light weight of most hunting ladies is a point in favour of the horse; but it is more than counterbalanced by the absence of support which a man who rides well can give with the right leg. It is the absence of this support in the case of a lady's horse, however well ridden, that causes him to tire sooner than he would if ridden by a gentleman; and hence the necessity in selecting a horse to carry a woman with hounds for having not only staying power, but two or three stone in hand. Nevertheless, although unable to give to the animal as much help as can be afforded by a gentleman, ladies can do much by the exercise of that tact and judgment which is their peculiar gift. Every lady who hunts is sure to be more or less an enthusiast about horses, and is always, according to my experience, ready to adopt any suggestion which tends to their well doing. I therefore venture to point one or two matters which I trust will be found useful. In the first place, when the hounds have settled to their fox and people have shaken themselves into their places, the fair rider in her early essays in the field should bestow her principal attention upon the animal, upon which depends much of her sport. With a good man by her side, she will run no risk from thrusting neighbours, and although she cannot too soon begin to have "one eye for the hounds and another for the horse," it is the latter which demands all her energies. The whole business is exciting. The genuine dash, the vigour, the reality, that is so striking to a novice when hounds come crashing out of covert, through an old wattle, or bounding over a strong fence; the up-ending and plunging of impatient young horses, the brilliant throng of fashionable equestrians, the rattle of the turf under the horses' feet as they stride away--all these, or any of them, are quite sufficient to warm up even old blood, and are certain to send that of the young going at such a pace that all rule and method in riding is very apt to be forgotten, or thrust aside in the eager desire "to be first." It is just at this critical moment that I would advise my fair readers to lay to heart the necessity of controlling their excitement, because it is at such a time that a horse, especially at the beginning of the season (if allowed), will "take out of himself" just what he will want hereafter, assuming a stout fox that means business to be to the front. A soothing word or two, and "making much" of the excited steed, will generally cause him to settle in his stride and cease romping; whereas, if the rider is excited as well as the horse, we have oil upon fire at once. Again, it cannot be too forcibly impressed upon ladies riding with hounds that the latter require _plenty of room to work_. "Place aux dames" is a rule rigidly observed by gentlemen in the hunting field. Room for the hounds should form an equally inviolable law with ladies in the same place. And it is the more necessary to impress this upon beginners, because many a first-rate man who pilots ladies, although bold as a lion over a country, and cautious to a degree as to the line he takes for his fair _compagnon de chasse_, is oftentimes far too modest to check her exuberant riding, and the consequence is, many an anathema--not loud, but deep--is bestowed upon both by exasperated masters and huntsmen. Unlike the professional riding master, a first-rate pilot--such, I mean, as is paid for his services--though well behaved and respectful, is likely enough to lack much education, except such as he has received in the saddle or on practical farming matters; and his awe of a lady, properly so called, is so considerable as to preclude his exercise of the _fortiter in re_ altogether, no matter how much his charge is unwittingly infringing the rules of sport. I saw an amusing instance of this not long ago. A lady, the widow of a wealthy civil servant in India, having returned to her native land laden with the riches of the East, being still young and excessively fond of riding, purchased a stud of first-class hunters, took a nice little hunting box in Leicestershire for the season, and engaged the services of a very good man to pilot her. As a rule every lady rides in India--some of them ride very well; but a rattling gallop at gun fire, in the morning, over the racecourse at Ghindee or Bangalore, is quite a different matter to a gallop with the Pytchley hounds. The "Bebe sahib" (great lady) had no idea, mounted as she was, of anybody or anything (bar the fox) being in front of her. And be it known to those who have never been in India that "great ladies" there are "bad to talk to," being in the habit pretty much of paying very little attention to anything in the way of counsel coming from their subordinates. Our Indian widow was no exception. So she did all sorts of outrageous things in the field in riding in among the hounds--and, indeed, before them--to the disgust of the master and everybody else, including her pilot, who in her case was certainly no mentor--but the latter was too well paid to risk offending the peccant lady; he ventured a gentle hint or two, and, being snubbed, gave it up for a bad job. He was so severely rated, however, by the masters of hounds in the district--one of whom declared he would take them home directly he saw the lady and her pilot with them--that the latter was fairly at his wits' end to know how to keep the too dashing widow within bounds. Sorely puzzled, he sat in his spacious chimney nook one night smoking his pipe in moody silence, his wife knitting opposite him. "What's the matter, John?" began his spouse. "Matter!" he replied; "it's enough to drive a man mad; Mrs. Chutnee's going again to-morrow, and, as sure as fate, she'll ride over the hounds or do something, and get one into trouble." "What makes her go on so, John?" again inquired the _cara sposa_.--"Go on! it is go on: I think that the name for it. Go on over everything! no fence is too big for her. I like her for that, but she never knows when to stop. Last week she knocked an old gentleman over, and he lost a spick span new set of teeth as cost, I dare say, a matter of twenty guineas; and the day before yesterday she lamed a hound as was worth a lot of money, to say nothing of hurting the poor brute. I don't know what to be at with her, and that's a fact, because, barring her going so fast, she is the best-hearted lady ever I see." And John relapsed into silence, blowing mighty clouds of smoke, while his wife plied her knitting-needles. But a woman's wit, in difficult cases, is proverbial; and in the watches of the night a bright notion, based upon knowledge of her own sex, flashed upon the anxious mind of the snoring John's wife. The result was as follows. Next morning, true to time, John was in attendance to accompany the fair widow to the field. They had some distance to ride to covert, and after a smart spurt of a mile or two on the sward, the lady pulled her horse up to walk up a hill. "John," said the lady (who was in high spirits), "what do people here think of my riding?"--"Well, some thinks one thing, and some thinks another," was the reply. "That's no answer," observed the fair interlocutor; "what do they say? that is the thing. I know one thing they can't say; none of them can say they can stop me over any part of the country, no matter how big it is." Opportunity, says some wise man, is for him who waits. Now was John's opportunity to avail himself of his clever little wife's bright idea. "Stop you, my lady! no, that's just what they do all say; and what's more, they say you can't stop yourself--that you ain't got no hands, and your horse takes you just where he pleases, if it's even right over the hounds." The "Bebe sahib" was bitterly chagrined, for she prided herself justly upon her capital hands upon a horse. She was silent for a few minutes, and then she said, "I want you to tell me what to do, just to let these people know, as you do, that I have hands."--"Then I will tell you, my lady," said John, brightening up. "Just you do this: when the hounds get away, you let me go first, and keep your horse about a hundred yards behind me. I'll pick out a line big enough, I'll warrant, and that will show them all about your seat and your jumping. Then about the hands; if you please, whenever I pull up, you do the same. They say as you can't stop your horse, you know." "Can't I?" said the little lady, "can't stop my horse when I like! I'll let them see that. Can't stop! I should like to know what a woman can't do if she makes up her mind to do it." John's wife was a capital judge; there was no more riding over hounds or disarranging of elderly gentlemen's teeth. But the "Bebe sahib" has taken me to the extremity of my space, and I must pull up, reserving further observations and suggestions on the hunting field for my next chapter. CHAPTER XVII. THE HUNTING FIELD (_continued_). On reading my previous observations on Fox-hunting, it may occur to many ladies that in order to enjoy the sport, great nerve and physical power, as well as a thorough knowledge of the principles of equitation and long practice, are indispensable, and that in default of either of the above qualifications they ought not to venture into the field. This, however, would be an extreme view of the case. It is quite true that to go straight to hounds and take the country and the fences as they come it is necessary that a lady should be in vigorous health, as well as a thoroughly accomplished horsewoman. But, grant the latter condition, those of even more delicate constitutions, and consequently lacking the nerve and strength to take a front-rank place and keep it, may still participate to a great extent in all the enjoyable and healthy excitement of the chase, if they follow it out in a grass country, and put themselves under the guidance of a man who knows that country well. It cannot be too generally known to those who are not strong enough to sail away with the hounds over big fence or yawning brook that one great advantage as regards hunting afforded by a grass country is that a lady who is attended by a man well up at the topography of the district can generally find her way through easily opened bridle gates from point to point, from whence, throughout the best part of even a long day, she can witness and enjoy the sport, although she is not with the hounds; and this without pounding on the macadam and shaking her horse's legs; for all our Leicestershire roads are set, as it were, between borders of green velvet in the hunting season. All that is necessary to a most enjoyable day (if it is fine) is a horse that can get over the ground in tiptop form--a good bred one that can gallop and stay. On such a one, lots of grand hunting may be seen if it cannot be done by even a timid lady who dare not essay jumping. Turning, however, from the delicate and timid to those whose health and physique enable them to hold their own in the front rank, I venture to point out a possible casualty that may happen in hunting, which, although not of frequent occurrence, may easily be attended with dangerous results if the fair rider with hounds is unacquainted with the means of counteracting it. I allude to the possibility of a horse in crossing a ford, where the stream is rapid and the bottom uneven, losing his footing. I have seen this occur more than once, both to good men and to ladies, and the result was not only an immersion over head and ears, but considerable danger as well. This is easily to be prevented, as follows: The fact of a horse losing his footing in deep water is at once apparent by his making a half plunge, and commencing to swim, which instinct teaches him to do directly he feels that he is out of his depth. At such a moment, if the rider confines the horse, he will inevitably roll over in his struggle. The great thing, therefore, on such an occasion is at once to give him his head, quitting the curb rein entirely, and scarcely feeling the snaffle, "while any attempt to guide the horse should be done by the slightest touch possible" (see "Aid Book"). The reins should be passed into the right hand, with which, holding the crop also, the rider should take a firm hold of the upper crutch of the saddle. She should, at the same time, with her left hand raise her skirt well up, disengage her left leg (with the foot, however, still in the stirrup), and place it _over the third crutch_. By these means she will avoid any risk of the horse striking her on the left heel with his near hind hoof, which otherwise in his struggle he would be almost certain to do. If a horse is left to himself he will swim almost any distance with the greatest ease, even with a rider on his back; and there is no more difficulty in sitting on him in the form above named than in cantering on _terra firma_. It is absolutely necessary, however, to get the foot--and especially the stirrup--out of the way, otherwise there is always danger of his entangling himself with them or with the skirt. When the horse recovers his footing on the bottom he will make another struggle, but the hold of the right hand upon the pommel will always preserve the seat of the rider. To be quite safe in such a predicament is simply a question of knowing what to do, and having the presence of mind to do it _quickly_. To show that the necessity for swimming a horse may occur to a lady as well as to a gentleman the following case, I trust, will suffice. Many years ago I was riding with a lady from the village of Renteria _en route_ to San Sebastian, in the north of Spain. The way was round a couple of headlands, between which was a deep bay, running up to the hamlet of Lezo. This bay was all fine sand up to some low but rather precipitous cliffs at the head of the inlet, but at the extremity of either headland careful riding was requisite by reason of rough rocky places. On the occasion I allude to the tide was flowing when we rounded the first point. Having been long accustomed to the place, however, we both considered that we had ample time safely to turn the other extremity of the bay; but a lively spring tide, aided by a brisk north-easterly wind, caused the sea, running in through the narrow gut of "Passages," to increase in velocity to such an extent that we were completely out in our reckoning. Seeing the tide gaining rapidly on us, we set our horses going at top speed over the level sand, racing (as it were) with the "hungry waters" for the distant point. When we neared it, however, I saw at once that it was hopeless to attempt rounding it, for our horses were already above the girths in water, keeping their feet with difficulty on the level sand, and I knew that to try to keep them on their legs on the shelving and rocky bottom at the extremity of the point would result in their rolling over us. There was nothing, therefore, for it but to try back, endeavour to regain the head of the inlet, and make the attempt, however difficult, to clamber up the steep but still sloping face of the cliff. Long before we reached our point, however, both horses were swimming; but they made scarcely a perceptible struggle in doing so, as the rising water lifted them from the level sand bodily off their feet. The lady (who was at first a little flurried) lost no time in getting her habit and her leg out of the way of mischief, and quickly regaining her nerve laid fast hold of the saddle, and laughing, declared it was "capital fun." I confess, on her account, and that of the horses, I did not think so; but encouraged her in her fearlessness. We gave the horses their heads, and they struck out bravely towards the cliff. As soon as they recovered their footing, the lady, having been previously cautioned to extricate her foot from the stirrup, slipped off her horse, the water taking her up to her waist. I lost no time in following her example, and turning the horses loose, we drove them at the sharp and slippery incline up the hill. Both horses scrambled up, with no further damage than the breaking of a bridle; but to get the lady (encumbered as she was with her wet garments) up the steep hillside was a task I have not forgotten to this day. The face of the cliff was studded with patches of gorse here and there, which assisted us certainly at the expense, of my companion, of severely scratched hands and torn gloves. But the ground was so slippery that our wet boots caused us continually to slip back, both of us in this respect being at a great disadvantage with the horses, whose iron shoes and corkings enabled them to obtain better foothold. Partly, however, by dragging, partly by cheering the lady to persevere, I succeeded in gaining the level ground with her, while the sea broke in heavy, noisy surges below, and sent the spray flying over us. The lady, who had borne up bravely so far, fainted from reaction when we gained the level sward, where the horses were grazing quietly, none the worse for their bath. But there were three stalwart Basque peasants at work hard by, turning up the soil with their four-pronged iron forks. Their cottage was close at hand, and having partially revived the fair sufferer, we carried her to the house, where she received every attention from the padrona, and no further evil resulted, except scratches and torn garments. But while I was sensibly impressed with the courage displayed by my companion, who was a slight, delicate woman, I am quite certain that ignorance of the right thing to do at the right time would have been fatal to both of us. As the tide gained so rapidly upon us, had the lady allowed her horse to flounder or plunge in it, she would inevitably have become entangled with him and drowned, despite any effort of mine to save her. I have witnessed many other instances of the facility with which horses will extricate their riders from difficulties in deep water. Among these I know none more worthy of record than the following. Some years ago a large Government transport, conveying troops and horses, was wrecked at Buffalo, Cape of Good Hope. Among the troops was a detachment of light cavalry. The ship parted on the rocks, and despite the efforts of the people on shore, the greater part of the troops (officers and men) were drowned. An officer of the cavalry party, however, determined to make an effort to reach the shore, upon which a heavy sea and tremendous surf were breaking. He launched his horse overboard, and, plunging quickly after him into the tumbling sea, seized the horse by the mane, and succeeded in retaining his grasp, while the plucky and sagacious animal gallantly dragged his master in safety through the surf. I repeat, then, Be always on your guard in crossing deep water with a horse, or in fording a stream where the current is rapid. In India and other tropical countries the necessity for being able to swim a horse occurs more frequently than at home; and, in the monsoon time especially, it behoves everybody who is going a journey on horseback to be extremely careful how they attempt to cross a swollen stream, as the freshets come down with such rapidity that I have frequently seen a horse carried off his legs by the force of the current when the water has not been more than knee-deep, and, when once the foothold is gone in such places, it is extremely difficult frequently to find a place at which to get out again, on account of the precipitous formation of most of the banks. In any case, however, the above-named directions will be found effectual, and the horse, if left to himself, will find a landing place, even if he swims a considerable distance to gain it. A point of considerable importance as regards hunting also is for ladies to avoid riding home in open carriages, no matter how fine the weather may be, or how well they may be wrapped up. Riding _to_ the meet on wheels is all very well, particularly if the distance is great and by a cross-country road, and the time short. But, after galloping about during the greater part of the day, no conveyance home other than her horse is fit for a lady, except the inside of a close carriage on rail or road, and a good foot warmer at the bottom of the carriage; and if there has been much rain, riding home on horseback is by far the safest plan. I have frequently ridden home sixteen and eighteen miles after dark with a lady whom I had the honour of escorting on her hunting excursions, sometimes in very bad weather, and I can safely say that, rain, snow, or sleet, she never took cold. After leaving the hounds my first care was always to make for some hospitable farmhouse near the road, or in default thereof, some decent roadside inn, where we could have the horse's legs well washed, and the lady's waterproof carefully put on if there was rain about. I always carried for her a second pair of dry knee boots, carefully folded up in a waterproof havresack. These boots were made with cork soles within and without, and, as such boots are easily carried by any man who pilots a lady (of course I don't mean the pilot who rides in scarlet), I specially recommend them to consideration. The most difficult thing after riding a long day's hunting, in which, now and again, a good deal of it will be in wet weather, is to keep the feet warm. Throughout all the rest of the system the circulation may be kept going by the exercise even of slow steady trotting; but the wet, clammy boot, thoroughly saturated, it may be, by more than one dash through a swollen rivulet, strikes cold and uncomfortable in the stirrup iron even to a man, who has a better opportunity of counteracting it by the use of alcoholic or vinous stimulants. It is therefore highly conducive to a lady's comfort after her gallop with hounds, if she has far to go home, to change her boots; and this, with a little care and foresight on the part of her attendant, can always be accomplished. With a dry pair of boots, a good waterproof overcoat, and a cambric handkerchief tied round her neck, a lady may defy the worst weather in returning from hunting. A word now about second horsemen, in a country like this, where the _habitués_ of it know tolerably well, if hunting is to be done in a certain district, that a fox, given certain conditions of wind, is most likely to make for certain points, and that if a covert is drawn blank, the next draw will be in a certain locality, it is not difficult for a good second horseman to be ready at hand when the lady requires a fresh charger. But (assuming always that she can afford to have a second horse out) nothing connected with her hunting requires more discrimination than the selection of a second horseman. Any quantity of smart, good-looking, light-weight lads, who can turn themselves out in undeniable form, and ride very fairly, are always to be had, with good manners and equally good characters; but one thing requisite is that they should know every inch of the country they are in. Thus a lad, however willing, from Scotland or Ireland, would be of very little use as a second horseman in the midland district of England; and therefore weight, up to ten stone at all events, is of less consequence than an intimate knowledge of the topography of the surrounding country. To have a second horse at the right spot at the right time, and with little or nothing taken out of him, requires in most cases considerable foresight and judgment on the part of the lad who is on him, and therefore a fair amount of intelligence, in addition to careful riding, is indispensable, as well as natural good eye for country. The different form in which second horses are brought to the point where they are required is conclusive as to the foregoing, for one constantly sees two animals, up to equal weight and in equal condition, arrive at the same spot, one not fit to go much further, and the other with scarcely the stable bloom off his coat. CHAPTER XVIII. THE CONDITION OF HUNTERS. As the value of most of the foregoing suggestions as regards a lady riding to hounds is more or less dependent upon the form and condition in which the horse destined to carry her in the chase is put, I trust a few words upon this important subject may be acceptable. In the first place, then, experience proves that the getting of a horse into really good condition is a work of considerable time, and that when once the animal has arrived at the desired point of physical health which will enable him to make the most of his powers, as a rule, it is considered to the last degree undesirable that anything should be done to throw him out of his form. Many years ago it was considered that a horse that had been hunted regularly through a season should be turned out to grass throughout the summer, and that if he was taken up when the crops were off the ground, there was time enough to get him fit by November; while it was considered altogether unnecessary to give him more than one feed of corn a day while turned out. In numerous cases I have known he had none from April to September. The present form of treating hunting horses is diametrically the reverse of the foregoing. A horse once "wound up" (as it is technically called) for hunting is generally kept up all the year round; his spring and summer training consisting of long, slow, steady work, principally walking exercise. Now, my own opinion, based upon many years of experience and close observation, does not agree with either of the foregoing practices. The first evidently was wrong, because a horse, even running in and out throughout the entire summer, though well kept on corn, will put up an amount of adipose substance, which cannot be got off in two months, with due regard to the preservation of proper quality and muscular fibre. While, on the other hand, I believe that, although by keeping your horse up all the year round you will bring him out in rare form in November, yet still he will not last you so long as one that has had fair play given to his lungs by a few weeks' run when the spring grass is about; for, however good the sanitary arrangements of our modern stables and the ventilation of boxes may be, the air breathed in them cannot be so pure as that of a fresh green meadow. Men and women require a change of air once a year at least, and everybody who can afford it looks forward with pleasurable anticipation to their autumn holiday. Why should the noble animal who has carried us so well and so staunchly through many a hard run be denied his relaxation and his change of air in the spring? As a substitute for turning horses out for a brief run in the spring, it is customary in some stables to cut grass and give it, varied by vetches and clover, to the horse in his box. These salutary alteratives are good in themselves, but there is still wanting the glorious fresh air of the open paddock, which, when all nature is awakening from the long slumber of winter, is so renovating to the equine system. It is best to fetch your horse up at night, because it is in the night when turned out that he eats the most; but the object of giving the animal his liberty is not that he may blow himself out with grass, but that, in addition to the purifying effect to the blood of spring herbage, he shall also breathe the spring air unadulterated. If this is carried out, I believe those who practise it will find that their hunters will last them many years longer than those that are kept at what may be called "high stable pressure" all the year round. Prejudice, however, is strong as regards the foregoing matter, as in others connected with the stable treatment and general handling of horses. People are far too apt to go into extremes and adopt a line of treatment because it is in vogue with some neighbour or friend who is supposed to be well up on the subject, and must therefore be right in everything he does. The best way, I submit, is to call common sense into play, and be satisfied that the oracular friend has some good reason "which will hold water" for what he does. I respectfully recommend the spring run then, by all means; and, if I may venture so far to infringe the imperious laws of fashion, I would venture to suggest that hunters might be allowed just a little bit more tail, for the purpose for which nature intended it--namely, to keep off the flies, which in summer will find them out, in or out of the stable. Extremes in fashion as to the trimming of horses are nearly as absurd as one sees from time to time in the dress of ladies and gentlemen, and quite as devoid of sense or reason. Who has not seen the old racing pictures in which Diamond or Hambletonian figure with a bob tail, and who has not laughed at the grotesque figure (according to modern notions of a racehorse) of these "high-mettled ones," all but denuded of their caudal appendages? As a matter of taste and good feeling, therefore, I venture to plead for a trifle more tail for hunters than is at present allowed. To a good stableman it gives no trouble, and in spring and summer time it is of great use to the horse. When the latter is brought up from the spring run, the question of restoring his hunting form (if, indeed, he can be said to have lost any of it) is simple enough; in fact, there are few subjects on which more twaddle is talked than about the "conditioning of hunters," stablemen being particularly oracular and mysterious about it. Roomy, clean, and well-ventilated boxes, good drainage, four and five hours' walking exercise every day, the best oats procurable given _whole, not crushed_, with a moderate allowance to old horses of good beans, and a fair allowance of good old hay or clover, perfect regularity in exercise and stable times, the attendance of a thoroughly good-tempered cheery lad who knows his business, and the total prohibition of drugging or physicking of any sort, unless by order of a veterinary surgeon--these are the arcana of the much talked-of "conditioning." Some tell you that a hunter should have scarcely any hay. I have yet to learn why not, because I am quite sure that really good hay assists a horse to put up muscle. Of course he is not supposed to gorge himself with it, as some ravenous animals would do if allowed. But the same thing may be said of a carriage horse or a charger. Waste of forage is one thing, the use of it another; and as there has been considerable discussion of late as to the cost of feeding a horse, I beg to say that on a fair average those even in training, requiring the best food, can be kept, when oats are 32s. or 33s. a quarter, for 15s. a week. I speak of course of the absolute cost of forage of the best kind. Where horses are delicate feeders, and this is the case with some who are rare performers in the field, the appetite should be coaxed, by giving small quantities of food at short intervals, making the horse, in fact, an exception to the ordinary stable rule of feeding four times a day. A really good groom will carefully watch the peculiarities of such a horse as regards feeding, and come in due course to know what suits the animal, the result being plenty of good muscle, equal to that of more hearty "doers." But stimulating drugs, I repeat, should never be permitted. Carrots as an alterative are good, but they should be given only when ordered by a veterinary surgeon, in such quantities as he orders. They should be put in the manger whole, never cut up, as there is nothing more dangerous than the latter practice in feeding, because numerous instances are on record of horses choking themselves with pieces of carrot. When hunting time approaches, a little more steam as regards pace at exercise may be put on. Trotting up hills of easy ascent serves materially to "open the pipes," and, despite a very general prejudice to the contrary, I maintain that, for some weeks before hunting commences, a horse is all the better for a steady canter of moderate length every morning. A very good reason why stud grooms as a rule object to this is, simply because it involves a great deal more work in the stable. If horses are only walked or trotted at exercise, one man generally can manage very well to exercise two horses, riding one, and leading the other with a dumb jockey or bearing reins on him; but, if the horse is to be cantered, there must be a man or boy to every horse, and, consequently, exercise would occupy considerably more time. It is quite clear that the horse will have to gallop when hunting begins, and, as all training should be inductive, it is absurd to say that he should do nothing up to the 31st of October but walking and trotting, while on the first day of November his owner may come down from town and give him a rattling gallop with hounds. Surely such extremes are not reconcilable with common sense! Let me now say a word about washing horses, about which also considerable diversity of opinion exists, some maintaining that the brush and wisp alone ought to keep the horse's skin in proper form, and others advocating washing partially. In my time I have tried all sorts of stable management, and I believe the truth is as follows: Nothing is more conducive to a horse's health than washing, with either cold or tepid water. But if you adopt the cold water system, you must be sure that it is done in a place where there is no draught. It should be commenced in summer time. There should be two thoroughly good stablemen in the washing box, and a boy to carry water from the pump. The horse's head and neck should be thoroughly washed, brushed, scraped, sponged, and leathered, and a good woollen hood put on. His body washed thoroughly in the same way, and a good rug put on. Then his legs equally well done, and bandaged. Let him then be put into his box for a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes, stripped and dressed by a man who will let his shoulder go at him, not one who will play with him. When thoroughly dressed his coat will shine like new satin, and his whole manner will tell you how refreshed he is by his bath. The washing cannot be done too quickly consistent with thorough good work. Two good men and a smart boy ought to wash, clothe, and bandage a horse in five minutes, or they are not worth their salt. If the cold water system is begun in summer, and regularly followed up, it can be carried on throughout the winter, no matter how severe the weather may be, and an incalculable advantage of the system is that a horse so treated is almost impervious to cold or catarrh. But to carry the treatment out, a lot of first-class stablemen are indispensable, men who--no "eye servants"--do their work _con amore_, and take a genuine pride in their horses. If the thing is negligently done, or dawdled over, it is likely enough to be productive of mischief. Where the stable staff is limited in number and not first-rate in quality, if washing is resorted to, tepid water must be used, because one smart man can wash a horse in tepid water in a proper washing house unassisted. But a special veto should be put upon washing a hunter's legs, as is too often done, outside in the yard, the horse tied to a ring in the wall, with the cold night air blowing on him. No matter if warm or cold water is used, whether or not mischief follows is mere matter of chance if the foregoing bad treatment is permitted. Briefly, then, it may be said, if you have good men about you and enough of them use cold water, beginning in the summer and continuing it regularly. If you are short of really good stablemen, use tepid water; but use it in a washing box built for the purpose, and never let it be done out of doors. CHAPTER XIX. Having endeavoured to mark out the course of equitation from the preparatory suppling practices to the orthodox conventionalities of the hunting field, I conclude this series of papers with a few hints which I trust will be useful to ladies about to proceed to India or the colonies. In the first place, as regards riding habiliments, I recommend ladies going to India to procure everything in the shape of habits, trousers, and hats in this country. In India they cost a hundred per cent. more than at home, and the natives can only make them by pattern. Riding boots can be procured in the East quite as well made and as durable as those made in England, and at a fifth of the price. Saddlery should be taken out from England. It is also just a hundred per cent. dearer in India. One good side-saddle, such as I have previously described, will with care last a lady many years. Of bridles she should take at least half a dozen double ones (bit and bridoon). Horse clothing of any sort as used in England is not required in India. As regards the horse itself on which the fair emigrant to the East will take her health-preserving morning gallop at gun-fire, I must say little. I have endeavoured elsewhere to give some idea of what Arab horses are; and, as every lady going to India is certain to know some male friend who is well up at buying a lady's horse, I need only say that, if the animal purchased is a young unbroken one, the best plan is to send him to the nearest cavalry or horse artillery station, and have him broken precisely in the same form as an officer's charger. The Arab dealers from whom the horse, if unbroken, is most likely to be purchased, know nothing, and care less, about breaking, and the people about them have the very worst hands upon a horse I have ever seen. All riding in India, except in cases of absolute necessity, should be done very early in the morning. The lady should be in the saddle soon after gun-fire (five o'clock). By the time she arrives at the galloping ground (in a large station or cantonment generally the racecourse) the sun will be up, so quickly does it rise, with scarcely any twilight, in India; but its rays are not then vertical, nor is the heat either oppressive or injurious until much later in the day. A couple or three hours' riding is sufficient for health, and the great thing is to go home quite cool; the bath and breakfast are then most enjoyable. Evening promenades are as a matter of fashion, and indeed, of reason, usually attended by ladies in carriages. There are many, however, who prefer riding on horseback again in the latter part of the day; but experience proves that evening riding on horseback is not good, as a rule, for ladies. Exposure to the sun on horseback, or indeed in any way, should be specially avoided, as should also violent exercise of any kind, that on horseback not excepted. The rattling gallop, which is not only exhilarating but healthful in Leicestershire, is inadmissible in most parts of India, where extremes of any kind are injurious. Finally, I would respectfully impress upon every lady who is likely to go to India, those especially who, having been born there, have been sent home for their education, that they should avail themselves of every opportunity in this country of becoming efficient horsewomen. To be able to ride well is very desirable for a lady who is to pass her life in Europe, in India it is absolutely indispensable; and if the lady's equitation is neglected in early days at home, she will find herself sadly at a loss when she arrives in India; for although there are plenty of thoroughly competent men there who could instruct her, their time is taken up with teaching recruits at the early time of the day at which a lady could avail herself of their services. As regards riding in Australia, the Cape, New Zealand, Canada, or the West Indies, briefly it may be said that again it is best to take out saddlery from this country, because, although it can be procured in any of the above-named colonies far cheaper than in India, it is still considerably dearer, and generally not so good as at home. At the Cape, in Australia, and in New Zealand--the two former colonies especially--long journeys have frequently to be done by ladies on horseback; and if a thoroughly practical education in the saddle is necessary to health, as regards a sojourn in India; it is equally so as a matter of convenience in other of the British dependencies abroad. Let me, then, close my humble efforts at carefully tracing out the readiest way for a lady to become a thorough horsewoman by again recommending them all to begin early, and to pay implicit attention to the tuition of a first-class instructor; always to throw their whole heart into their riding, fixing their minds rigidly on it while learning, and never, however proficient or confident they may be, venture, unless upon a life-and-death emergency, upon half-broken horses. During the Indian mutiny instances occurred in which ladies owed their lives to their nerve and courage in mounting horses ill-adapted to carry them, and by dint of sheer determination urging them into top speed and safety to the fair fugitives. In such desperate emergencies there is no alternative but to accept the lesser risk; but in ordinary cases my advice (the result of long experience) is to all lady riders, never mount an untrained horse, and never allow your horse to become too fresh for want of work. A casualty which may be attended with trifling consequences to a man may have the most serious results in the case of a lady; while I am firmly of opinion that no such thing as an accident ought ever to occur to her on horseback if due care and foresight are exercised by those about her, and if the lady herself will be careful whenever or under whatever circumstances she approaches or mounts a horse to be always on her guard, to _ride_ all the time she is on him, to remember that in all matters that relate to riding the homely old adage, "Afterwit is not worth a penny an ounce" is strictly applicable, and that the golden rule is, "Never give away a chance to your horse." * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Hyphen variations left as printed. 
39501	----	[Illustration: A woman dressed in riding clothes] LADIES ON HORSEBACK. LEARNING, PARK-RIDING, AND HUNTING, WITH HINTS UPON COSTUME, AND NUMEROUS ANECDOTES. BY MRS. POWER O'DONOGHUE (NANNIE LAMBERT). AUTHORESS OF "THE KNAVE OF CLUBS," "HORSES AND HORSEMEN," "GRANDFATHER'S HUNTER," "ONE IN TEN THOUSAND," "SPRING LEAVES," "THOUGHTS ON THE TALMUD," ETC., ETC. LONDON: W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W. 1881. [_All rights reserved._] LONDON: PRINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, S.W. TO MY FRIEND ALFRED E. T. WATSON, ESQ., AUTHOR OF "SKETCHES IN THE HUNTING FIELD," ETC., TO WHOM I OWE MUCH OF MY SUCCESS AS A WRITER, THESE PAGES ARE GRATEFULLY INSCRIBED. Transcriber's Note: The 15 pages of advertisements preceding the title page have been moved to the end of this book. INTRODUCTION. In preparing this work for the press, I may state that it is composed chiefly of a series of papers on horses and their riders, which appeared a short time since in the columns of _The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News_. How they originally came to be written and published may not prove uninteresting. One day, in the middle of February 1880, a goodly company, comprising many thousands of persons, assembled upon the lawn of a nobleman's residence in the vicinity of Dublin; ostensibly for the purpose of hunting, but in reality to gaze at and chronicle the doings of a very distinguished foreign lady, who had lately come to our shores. I was there, of course; and whilst we waited for the Imperial party, I amused myself by watching the moving panorama, and taking notes of costume and effect. Everybody who could procure anything upon which to ride, from a racehorse to a donkey, was there that day, and vehicles of all descriptions blocked up every available inch of the lordly avenues and well-kept carriage-drives. There is for me so great an attraction in a number of "ladies on horseback" that I looked at them, and at them alone. One sees gentlemen riders every hour in the day, but ladies comparatively seldom; every hunting morning finds about a hundred and fifty mounted males ready for the start, and only on an average about six mounted females, of whom probably not more than the half will ride to hounds. This being the case, I always look most particularly at that which is the greater novelty, nor am I by any means singular in doing so. On the day of which I write, however, ladies on horseback were by no means uncommon: I should say there were at least two hundred present upon the lawn. Some rode so well, and were so beautifully turned out, that the most hypercritical could find no fault; but of the majority--what can I say? Alas! nothing that would sound at all favourable. Such horses, such saddles, such rusty bridles, such riding-habits, such hats, whips, and gloves; and, above all, such _coiffures_! My very soul was sorry. I could not laugh, as some others were doing. I felt too melancholy for mirth. It seemed to me most grievous that my own sex (many of them so young and beautiful) should be thus held up to ridicule. I asked myself was it thus in other places; and I came to London in the spring, and walked in the Row, and gazed, and took notes, and was not satisfied. Perhaps I was too critical. There was very much to praise, certainly, but there was also much wherewith to find fault. The style of riding was bad; the style of dressing was incomparably worse. The well-got-up only threw into darker shadow the notable defects visible in the forms and trappings of their less fortunate sisterhood. I questioned myself as to how this could be best remedied. Remonstrance was impossible--advice equally so. Why could not somebody write a book for lady equestrians, or a series of papers which might appear in the pages of some fashionable magazine or journal, patronised and read by them? The idea seemed a good one, but I lacked time to carry it out, and so it rested in embryo for many months. Last June, whilst recovering from serious illness, my cherished project returned to my mind. Forbidden to write, and too weak to hold a pen, I strove feebly with a pencil to trace my thoughts upon odd scraps of paper, which I thrust away in my desk without any definite idea as to what should eventually become of them. In July, whilst staying at a country house near Shrewsbury, I one day came upon these shorthand jottings, and, having leisure-time upon my hands, set to work and put them into form. A line to the Editor of _The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News_, with whom, I may state, I had had no previous acquaintance, brought an immediate reply, to send my work for consideration. I did so; called upon him by appointment when I came a few days later to London; made all arrangements in a three-minutes interview; and the first of my series of papers appeared shortly after. That they were successful, far beyond their deserts, is to me a proud boast. On their conclusion numerous firms negotiated with me for the copyright: with what result is known; and here to my publishers I tender my best thanks. In arranging now these writings--put together and brought before the public at a time when I had apparently many years of active life before me--it is to me a melancholy reflection that the things of which they treat are gone from my eyes,--for alas! I can ride no more. Never again may my heart be gladdened with the music of the hounds, or my frame invigorated by the exercise which I so dearly loved. An accident, sudden and unexpected, has deprived me of my strength, and left me to speak in mournful whispers of what was for long my happiest theme. Yet why repine where so much is left? It is but another chapter in our life's history! We love and cling to one pursuit--and it passes from us; then another absorbs our attention,--it, too, vanishes; and so on--perhaps midway to the end--until the "looking back" becomes so filled with saddened memories, that the "looking forward" is alone left. And so we turn our wistful eyes where they might never have been directed, had the prospect behind us been less dark. A few more words, and I close my preliminary observations and commence my subject. I cannot but be aware, from the nature of the correspondence which has flowed in upon me, that although far the greater number of my readers have agreed with me and entirely coincided in my views, not a few have been found to cavil. Let not such think that I am oblivious of their good intentions because I remain unconvinced by their arguments, and still prefer to maintain my own opinions, which I have not ventured to set forth without mature deliberation, and the most substantial reasons for holding them in fixity of tenure. I have spent some considerable time in turning over in my mind the advisability, or otherwise, of publishing, as a sort of appendix to this volume, a selection from the letters which were printed in _The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News_ with reference to my writings in that journal. After much deliberation I have decided upon suffering the entire number, with a few trifling exceptions, to appear. They only form a very small proportion of the voluminous correspondence with which the Editor and myself were favoured; but, such as they are, I give them--together with my replies,--not merely because they set forth the views and impressions of various persons upon topics of universal interest, but because I conceive that a large amount of useful information may be gleaned from them, and they may also serve to amuse my lady readers, who will doubtless be interested in the numerous queries which I was called upon to answer. Whether or not I have been able to fight my battles and maintain my cause, must be for others to determine. I likewise subjoin a little paper on "Hunting in Ireland"--also already published--which brought me many letters: some of them from persons whose word should carry undoubted weight, fully coinciding in and substantiating my views with regard to the cutting up of grass-lands; whilst further on will be found my article entitled "Hunting in America," originally published in _Life_, and copied from that journal into so many papers throughout the kingdom, and abroad, that it is now universally known, and cannot be here presented in the form of a novelty,--but is given for the benefit of those who may not have chanced to meet with it, and for whom the subject of American sports and pastimes may happen to possess interest. N. P. O'D. CONTENTS. PART I. LEARNING. CHAPTER I. A Popular Error.--Excellence in Riding attainable without any Youthful Knowledge of the Art.--The Empress of Austria.--Her Proficiency.--Her Palace.--Her Occupations.--Her Disposition. --Her Thoughts and Opinions.--The Age at which to learn.-- Courage indispensable.--Taste a Necessity 1 CHAPTER II. Learner's Costume.--The Best Teacher.--Your Bridle.--Your Saddle.--Your Stirrup.--Danger from "Safety-stirrup."--A Terrible Situation.--Learning to Ride without any support for the Foot 11 CHAPTER III. Mounting.--Holding the Reins.--Position in the Saddle.--Use of the Whip.--Trotting.--Cantering.--Riding from Balance.--Use of the Stirrup. Leaping.--Whyte Melville's opinion 23 PART II. PARK AND ROAD RIDING. CHAPTER IV. How to Dress.--A Country-girl's ideas upon the subject.--How to put on your Riding-gear.--How to preserve it.--First Road-ride.--Backing.--Rearing, and how to prevent it 44 CHAPTER V. Running away.--Three Dangerous Adventures.--How to act when placed in Circumstances of Peril.--How to Ride a Puller.-- Through the City.--To a Meet of Hounds.--Boastful Ladies.--A Braggart's Resource 62 PART III. HUNTING. CHAPTER VI. Hunting-Gear.--Necessary Regard for Safe Shoeing.--Drive to the Meet.--Scene on arriving.--A Word with the Huntsman.--A Good Pilot.--The Covert-side.--Disappointment.--A Long Trot 81 CHAPTER VII. Hounds in Covert.--The First Fence.--Follow your Pilot.--A River-bath.--A Wise Precaution.--A Label advisable.--Wall and Water Jumping.--Advice to Fallen Riders.--Hogging.--More Tail 98 CHAPTER VIII. Holding on to a Prostrate Horse.--Is it Wise or otherwise?--An Indiscreet Jump.--A Difficult Finish.--The Dangers of Marshy Grounds.--Encourage Humanity.--A Reclaimed Cabby! 111 CHAPTER IX. Selfishness in the Field.--Fording a River.--Shirking a Fence. --Over-riding the Hounds.--Treatment of Tired Hunters.--Bigwig and the Major.--Naughty Bigwig.--Hapless Major 120 CHAPTER X. Feeding Horses.--Forage-biscuits.--Irish Peasantry.--A Cunning Idiot.--A Cabin Supper.--The Roguish Mule.--A Day at Courtown. --Paddy's Opinion of the Empress 131 CHAPTER XI. The Double-rise.--Pointing out the Right Foot.--The force of Habit.--Various kinds of Fault-finding.--Mr. Sturgess' Pictures.--An English Harvest-home.--A Jealous Shrew.--A Shy Blacksmith.--How Irishmen get Partners at a Dance 144 CHAPTER XII. Subject of Feeding resumed.--Cooked Food recommended.--Effects of Raw Oats upon "Pleader."--Servants' Objections.--Snaffle-bridle, and Bit-and-Bridoon.--Kindness to the Poor.--An Unsympathetic Lady.--An Ungallant Captain.--What is a Gentleman?--_Au Revoir!_ 159 PART IV. HUNTING IN IRELAND 173 PART V. HUNTING IN AMERICA 183 CORRESPONDENCE 192 LADIES ON HORSEBACK. PART I. LEARNING. CHAPTER I. A POPULAR ERROR.--EXCELLENCE IN RIDING ATTAINABLE WITHOUT ANY YOUTHFUL KNOWLEDGE OF THE ART.--THE EMPRESS OF AUSTRIA.--HER PROFICIENCY.--HER PALACE.--HER OCCUPATIONS.--HER DISPOSITION.--HER THOUGHTS AND OPINIONS. --THE AGE AT WHICH TO LEARN.--COURAGE INDISPENSABLE.--TASTE A NECESSITY. It is my belief that hints to ladies from a lady, upon a subject which now so universally occupies the female mind--hints, not offered in any cavilling nor carping spirit, but with an affectionate and sisterly regard for the interests of those addressed--cannot fail to be appreciated, and must become popular. Men write very well for men, but in writing for us ladies they cannot, however willing, enter into all the little delicacies and minutiæ of our tastes and feelings, and so half the effect is lost. I do not purpose entering upon any discussion, nor, indeed, touching more than very lightly upon the treatment and management of the horse. A subject so exhaustive lies totally outside the limits of my pen, and has, moreover, been so ably treated by men of knowledge and experience, as to render one word further respecting the matter almost superfluous. I shall therefore content myself with surmising that the horses with which we may have to do throughout these remarks--be they school-horses, roadsters, or hunters--are at least sound, good-tempered, and properly trained. Their beauty and other attributes we shall take for granted, and not trouble ourselves about. And now, in addressing my readers, I shall endeavour to do so as though I spoke to each separately, and so shall adopt the term "you," as being at once friendly and concise. My subject shall be divided into three heads. First the acquirement of the equestrian art; second, road and park riding; third, hunting; with a few hints upon the costume, &c. required for each, and a slight sprinkling of anecdote here and there to enliven the whole. I shall commence by saying that it is a mistake to imagine that riding, in order to be properly learnt, must be begun in youth: that nobody can excel as a horsewoman who has not accustomed herself to the saddle from a mere child. On the contrary some of the finest _équestriennes_ the world has ever produced have known little or nothing of the art until the spring-time of their life was past. Her Imperial Majesty the Empress of Austria, and likewise her sister the ex-Queen of Naples, cared nothing about riding until comparatively late in life. I know little, except through hearsay, of the last-named lady's proficiency in the saddle, but having frequently witnessed that of the former, and having also been favoured with a personal introduction at the gracious request of the Empress, I can unhesitatingly say that anything more superb than her style of riding it would be impossible to conceive. The manner in which she mounts her horse, sits him, manages him, and bears him safely through a difficult run, is something which must be seen to be understood. Her courage is amazing. Indeed, I have been informed that she finds as little difficulty in standing upon a bare-backed steed and driving four others in long reins, as in sitting quietly in one of Kreutzman's saddles. In the circus attached to her palace at Vienna she almost daily performs these feats, and encourages by prizes and evidences of personal favour many of the Viennese ladies who seek to emulate her example. There has been considerable discussion respecting the question of the Empress's womanliness, and the reverse. Ladies have averred--oh, jealous ladies!--that she is _not_ womanly; that her style of dressing is objectionable, and that she has "no business to ride without her husband!" These sayings are all open to but one interpretation; ladies are ever envious of each other, more especially of those who excel. The Empress is not only a perfect woman, but an angel of light and goodness. Nor do I say this from any toadyism, nor yet from the gratitude which I must feel for her kindly favour toward myself. I speak as I think and believe. Blessed with a beauty rarely given to mortal, she combines with it a sweetness of character and disposition, a womanly tenderness, and a thoughtful and untiring charity, which deserve to gain for her--as they have gained--the hearts as well as the loving respect and reverence of all with whom she has come in contact. I was pleased to find, whilst conversing with her, that many of my views about riding were hers also, and that she considered it a pity--as I likewise do--that so many lady riders are utterly spoilt by pernicious and ignorant teaching. I myself am of opinion that childhood is not the best time to acquire the art of riding. The muscles are too young, and the back too weak. The spine is apt to grow crooked, unless a second saddle be adopted, which enables the learner to sit on alternate days upon the off-side of the horse; and to this there are many objections. The best time to learn to ride is about the age of sixteen. All the delicacy to which the female frame is subject during the period from the thirteenth to the fifteenth year has then passed away, and the form is vigorous and strong, and capable of enduring fatigue. I know it to be a generally accepted idea that riding is like music and literature--the earlier it is learnt the better for the learner, and the more certain the proficiency desired to be attained. This is an entirely erroneous opinion, and one which should be at once discarded. I object, as a rule, to children riding. They cannot do so with any safety, unless put upon horses and ponies which are sheep-like in their demeanour; and from being accustomed to such, and to none other, they are nervous and frightened when mounted upon spirited animals which they feel they have not the strength nor the art to manage, and, being unused to the science of controlling, they suffer themselves to be controlled, and thus extinguish their chance of becoming accomplished horsewomen. I know ladies, certainly, who ride with a great show of boldness, and tear wildly across country after hounds, averring that they never knew what fear meant: why should they--having ridden from the time they were five years old? Very probably, but the bravery of the few is nothing by which to judge of a system which is, on the whole, pernicious. It is less objectionable for boys, because their shoulders are not apt to grow awry by sitting sideways, as little girls' do; nor are they liable to hang over upon one side; nor have they such delicate frames and weakly fingers to bring to the front. Moreover, if they tumble off, what matter? It does them all the good in the world. A little sticking-plaister and shaking together, and they are all right again. But I confess I _don't like_ to see a girl come off. Less than a year ago a sweet little blue-eyed damsel who was prattling by my side as she rode her grey pony along with me, was thrown suddenly and without warning upon the road. The animal stumbled--her tiny hands lacked the strength to pull him together--she was too childish and inexperienced to know the art of retaining her seat. She fell! and the remembrance of uplifting her, and carrying her little hurt form before me upon my saddle to her parents' house, is not amongst the brightest of my memories. We will assume, then, that you are a young lady in your sixteenth year, possessed of the desire to acquire the art of riding, and the necessary amount of courage to enable you to do so. This latter attribute is an absolute and positive necessity, for a coward will _never_ make a horsewoman. If you are a coward, your horse will soon find it out, and will laugh at you; for horses can and do laugh when they what is usually termed "gammon" their riders. Nobody who does not possess unlimited confidence and a determination to know no fear, has any business aspiring to the art. Courage is indispensable, and must be there from the outset. All other difficulties may be got over, but a natural timidity is an insurmountable obstacle. A cowardly rider labours under a two-fold disadvantage, for she not only suffers from her own cowardice, but actually imparts it to her horse. An animal's keen instinct tells him at once whether his master or his servant is upon his back. The moment your hands touch the reins the horse knows what your courage is, and usually acts accordingly. No girl should be taught to ride who has not a taste, and a most decided one, for the art. Yet I preach this doctrine in vain; for, all over the world, young persons are forced by injudicious guardians to acquire various accomplishments for which they have no calling, and at which they can never excel. It is just as unwise to compel a girl to mount and manage a horse against her inclination, as it is to force young persons who have no taste for music to sit for hours daily at a piano, or thrust pencils and brushes into hands unwilling to use them. A love for horses, and an earnest desire to acquire the art of riding, are alike necessary to success. An unwilling learner will have a bad seat, a bad method, and clumsy hands upon the reins; whereas an enthusiast will seem to have an innate facility and power to conquer difficulties, and will possess that magic sense of _touch_, and facile delicacy of manipulation, which go so far toward making what are termed "good hands,"--a necessity without which nobody can claim to be a rider. CHAPTER II. LEARNER'S COSTUME.--THE BEST TEACHER.--YOUR BRIDLE.--YOUR SADDLE.-- YOUR STIRRUP.--DANGER FROM "SAFETY-STIRRUP."--A TERRIBLE SITUATION. --LEARNING TO RIDE WITHOUT ANY SUPPORT FOR THE FOOT. Having now discussed your age, your nerve, and your taste, we shall say a few words about your costume as a learner. Put on a pair of strong well-made boots; heels are not objectionable, but buttons are decidedly so, as they are apt to catch in the stirrup and cause trouble. Strong chamois riding-trousers, cloth from the hip down, with straps to fasten under the boots, and soft padding under the right knee and over the left, to prevent the friction of the pommels, which, to a beginner, generally causes much pain and uneasiness. A plain skirt of brown holland, and any sort of dark jacket, will suit your purpose quite well, for you are only going to learn; not to show off--yet. Your hat--any kind will do--must be securely fastened on, and your hair left flowing, for no matter how well you may fancy you have it fastened, the motion of the horse will shake it and make it feel unsteady, and the very first hairpin that drops out, up will go your hand to replace it, and your reins will be forgotten. As soon as you have put on a pair of strong loose gloves, and taken a little switch in your hand, you are ready to mount. The nicest place in which you can learn is a well-tanned riding-school or large green paddock, and the nicest person to teach you is a lady or gentleman friend, who will have the knowledge and the patience to instruct you. Heaven help the learner who is handed over to the tender mercies of John, the coachman, or Jem, the groom! Servants are rarely able to ride a yard themselves, and their attempt at teaching is proportionately lame. Your horse having been led out, your attendant looks to his girthing, &c., as stable servants are not always too particular respecting these necessary matters. The pleasantest bridle in which to ride is a plain ring-snaffle. Few horses will go in it; but, remember, I am surmising that yours has been properly trained. By riding in this bridle you have complete control over the movements of your horse--can, in fact, manage him with one hand, and you have the additional advantage of having fewer leathers to encumber and embarrass your fingers. A beginner is frequently puzzled to distinguish between the curb and the snaffle when riding with a double rein, and mistaking one for the other, or pulling equally at both, is apt to cause the horse much unnecessary irritation. It is lamentable to see the manner in which grown men and women, who ought to know so much better, tug and strain at their horses' mouths with an equal pull upon both reins, when riding, as is the custom, in a bit and bridoon. Perhaps of the two they draw the curb the tighter. It is not meant for cruelty--they do not appear to be aware that it _is_ cruel: but there is no greater sign of utter ignorance. Horses are not naturally vicious, and very few of them who have had any sort of fair-play in training, really require a curb, or will go as well or pleasantly upon it as if ridden in a snaffle-bridle. Your saddle is another most important point. Never commence, be your age ever so tender, by riding upon a pad. Accustom yourself from the beginning to the use of a properly constructed saddle, made as straight as a board, seat perfectly level, and scarcely any appearance of a pommel upon the off-side. A leaping-head, or what is commonly termed a third crutch, is, in my opinion, indispensable. To procure a saddle such as I describe you must have it made to order, for those of the present day are all made with something of a dip, which is most objectionable. I do not like the appearance of much stitching about a saddle. It has always appeared to me absurd to see the amount of elaborate embroidery which every old-fashioned saddle carries upon the near flap. Nothing could be more unnecessary than an outlay of labour upon a portion of the article which is always concealed beneath the rider's right leg. There might be some sense, although very little, in decorating the off-side and imparting to it something of an ornamental appearance; but in my opinion there cannot be too much simplicity about everything connected with riding appointments. A plainness, amounting even to severity, is to be preferred before any outward show. Ribbons, and coloured veils, and yellow gloves, and showy flowers are alike objectionable. A gaudy "get up" (to make use of an expressive common-place) is highly to be condemned, and at once stamps the wearer as a person of inferior taste. Therefore avoid it. Let your saddle be, like your personal attire, remarkable only for its perfect freedom from ornament or display. Have it made to suit yourself--neither too weighty, nor yet too small--and if you want to ride with grace and comfort, desire that it be constructed without one particle of the objectionable dip. There is a very old-established and world-noted firm in Piccadilly--Peat & Co.--where you can obtain an article such as I describe, properly made, and of durable materials, at quite a moderate cost. I can say, speaking from experience, that no trouble will be spared to afford you satisfaction, and that the workmanship will be not only lasting, but characterised by that neatness for which I am so strong an advocate. You should ride _on_ your saddle, not _in_ it, and you must learn to ride from balance or you will never excel, and this you can only do by the use of the level seat. A small pocket on the off-side, and a neat cross strap to support a waterproof, are of course necessary items. Your stirrup is the next important matter. I strongly disapprove of the old-fashioned slipper, as also of the so-called "safety" stirrup, which is, in my opinion, the fruitful source of many accidents. Half the lamentable mischances with which our ears are from time to time shocked, are due to the pertinacity with which ladies will cling to this murderous safety stirrup. So long as they will persist in doing so, casualties must be looked for and must occur. The padding over the instep causes the foot to become firmly imbedded, and in the event of an accident the consequences are dire, for the mechanism of the stirrup is almost invariably stiff or out of order, or otherwise refuses to act. Mr. Oldacre was, I believe, the inventor of the padded stirrup, and for this we owe him or his memory little thanks, although the gratitude of all lady riders is undoubtedly due to him for his admirable invention and patenting of the third crutch, without which our seat in the saddle would be far less comfortable and less secure. I dare say that I shall have a large section of aggrieved stirrup-makers coming down upon me with the phials of their wrath for giving publicity to this opinion, but in writing as I have done I merely state my own views, which I deem we are all at liberty to do; and looking upon my readers as friends, I warn them against an article of which I myself have had woful experience. I once purchased a safety stirrup at one of the best houses, and made by one of the best makers. The shopman showed it off to me in gallant style, expatiating upon its many excellencies, and adroitly managing the stiff machinery with his deft fingers, until I was fairly deceived, and gave him a handful of money for what subsequently proved a cause of trouble. I lost more than one good run with hounds through the breaking of this dearly-bought stirrup, having upon one occasion to ride quite a long distance away from the hunt to seek out a forge at which I might undergo repairs. Nor was this the worst, for one day, having incautiously plunged into a bog in my anxiety to be in at the death, my horse got stuck and began to sink, and of course I sought to release myself from him at once; but no, my foot was locked fast in that terrible stirrup, and I could not stir. My position was dreadful, for I had outridden my pilot, my struggling steed was momentarily sinking lower, and the shades of evening were fast closing in. I shudder to think what might have been my fate and that of my gallant horse had not the fox happily turned and led the hunt back along the skirts of the bog, thus enabling my cries for help to be heard by one or two brave spirits who came gallantly to my rescue. I have more than once since then been caught in a treacherous bog when following the chase, but never have I found any difficulty in jumping from my horse's back and helping him to struggle gamely on to the dry land, for I have never since ridden in a safety-stirrup, nor shall I ever be likely to do so again. It may be said, and probably with truth, that my servant had neglected to clean it properly from day to day, and that consequently the spring had got rusted and refused to act. Such may possibly have been the case, but might not the same thing occur to anyone, or at any time? Servants are the same all over the world, and yet you must either trust to them or spend half your time overlooking them in the stable and harness-room, which for a lady is neither agreeable nor correct. There is nothing so pleasant to ride in as a plain little racing-stirrup, from which the foot is in an instant freed. I have not for a long while back used anything else myself, nor has my foot ever remained caught, even in the most dangerous falls. I conceive it to be an admirable plan to learn to ride without a stirrup at all. Of course I do not mean by this that a lady should _ever_ go out park-riding or hunting _sans_ the aid of such an appendage, but she should be taught the necessity of dispensing with it in case of emergency. The benefits arising from such training are manifold. First, it imparts a freedom and independence which cannot otherwise be acquired; secondly, it gives an admirable and sure seat over fences; thirdly, it is an excellent means of learning how to ride from balance; and fourthly, in spite of its apparent difficulties, it is in the end a mighty simplifier, inasmuch as, when the use of the stirrup is again permitted, all seems such marvellously plain sailing, that every obstacle appears to vanish from the learner's path. In short, a lady who can ride fairly well without a support for her foot, must, when such is added, be indeed an accomplished horsewoman. I knew a lady who never made use of a stirrup throughout the whole course of an unusually long life, and who rode most brilliantly to hounds. Few, however, could do this, nor is it by any means advisable, but to be able occasionally to dispense with the support is doubtless of decided benefit. I have often found my training in this respect stand me in good stead, for it has more than once happened that in jumping a stiff fence, or struggling in a heavy fall, my stirrup-leather has given way, and I have had not alone to finish the run without it, but to ride many miles of a journey homeward. Nothing could be more wearisome to an untutored horsewoman than a long ride without a stirrup. The weight of her suspended limb becomes after a moment or two most inconvenient and even painful, whilst the trot of the horse occasions her to bump continuously in the saddle,--for the power of rising without artificial aid would appear a sheer impossibility to an ordinary rider whose teaching had been entrusted to an ordinary teacher. I would have you then bear in mind that although I advocate _practising_ without the assistance of a stirrup, I am totally against your setting out beyond the limits of your own lawn or paddock without this necessary support. CHAPTER III. MOUNTING.--HOLDING THE REINS.--POSITION IN THE SADDLE.--USE OF THE WHIP.--TROTTING.--CANTERING.--RIDING FROM BALANCE.--USE OF THE STIRRUP. --LEAPING.--WHYTE MELVILLE'S OPINION. Having now seen that your bridle, saddle, and stirrup are in proper order, you prepare to mount, and this will probably take you some time and practice to accomplish gracefully, being quite an art in itself. Nothing is more atrocious than to see a lady require a chair to mount her animal, or hang midway against the side of the saddle when her cavalier gives her the helping hand. Lay your right hand firmly upon the pommel of your saddle, and the left upon the shoulder of your attendant, in whose hand you place your left foot. Have ready some signal sentence, as "Make ready, go!" or "one, two, three!" Immediately upon pronouncing the last syllable make your spring, and if your attendant does his duty properly you will find yourself seated deftly upon your saddle. As I have already stated, this requires practice, and you must not be disappointed if a week or so of failure ensues between trial and success. As soon as you are firmly seated, take your rein (which, as I have said, should be a single one) and adjust it thus. Place the near side under the little finger of your left hand, and the off one between your first and second fingers, bringing both in front toward the right hand, and holding them securely in their place with the pressure of your thumb. This is merely a hint as to the simplest method for a beginner to adopt, for there is really no fixed rule for holding reins, nor must you at all times hold them in one hand only, but frequently--and always when hunting--put both hands firmly to your bridle. Anything stiff or stereotyped is to be avoided. A good rider, such as we hope you will soon become, will change her reins about, and move her position upon the saddle, so as to be able to watch the surrounding scenery--always moving gracefully, and without any abrupt or spasmodic jerkings, which are just as objectionable as the poker-like rigidity which I wish you to avoid. How common it is to see ladies on horseback sitting as though they were afraid to budge a hair, with pinioned elbows and straightly-staring eyes. This is most objectionable; in fact, nothing can be more unsightly. A graceful, easy seat, is a good horsewoman's chief characteristic. She is not afraid of tumbling off, and so she does not look as though she were so; moreover, she has been properly taught in the commencement, and all such defects have been rectified by a careful supervision. With regard to your whip, it must be held point downwards, and if you have occasion to touch your horse, give it to him down the shoulder, but always with temperance and kindly judgment. I once had a riding-master who desired me to hold my whip balanced in three fingers of my right hand, point upwards, the hand itself being absurdly bowed and the little finger stuck straight out like a wooden projection. My natural good sense induced me to rebel against anything so completely ridiculous, and I quietly asked my teacher why I was to carry my whip in that particular position. His answer was--"Oh, that you may have it ready _to strike your horse on the neck_." Shades of Diana! this is the way our daughters are taught in schools, and we marvel that they show so little for the heaps of money which we hopefully expend upon them. Being then fairly seated upon your saddle, your skirt drawn down and arranged by your attendant, your reins in your hand and your whip arranged, you must proceed to walk your horse quietly around the enclosure, having first gently drawn your bridle through his mouth. You will feel very strange at first: much as though you were on the back of a dromedary and were completely at his mercy. Sit perfectly straight and erect, but without stiffness. Be careful not to hang over upon either side, and, above all things, avoid the pernicious habit of clutching nervously with the right hand at the off pommel to save yourself from some imaginary danger. So much does this unsightly habit grow upon beginners, that, unless checked, it will follow them through life. I know grown women who ride every day, and the very moment their horse breaks into a canter or a trot they lay a grim grip upon the pommel, and hold firmly on to it until the animal again lapses into a walk. And this they do unconsciously. The habit, given way to in childhood, has grown so much into second nature that to tell them of it would amaze them. I once ventured to offer a gentle remonstrance upon the subject to a lady with whom I was extremely intimate, and she was not only astonished, but so displeased with me for noticing it, that she was never quite the same to me afterwards; and so salutary was the lesson which I then received that I have since gone upon the principle of complete non-interference, and if I saw my fellow _équestriennes_ riding gravely upon their horses' heads I would not suggest the rationality of transferring their weight to the saddle. And this theory is a good one, or at least a wise one; for humanity is so inordinately conceited that it will never take a hint kindly, unless asked for; and not always even then. To sit erect upon your saddle is a point of great importance; if you acquire a habit of stooping it will grow upon you, and it is not only a great disfigurement, but not unfrequently a cause of serious accident, for if your horse suddenly throws up his head, he hits you upon the nose, and deprives you of more blood than you may be able to replace in a good while. As soon as you can feel yourself quite at home upon your mount, and have become accustomed to its walking motion, your attendant will urge him into a gentle trot. And now prepare yourself for the beginning of sorrows. Your first sensation will be that of being shaken to pieces. You are, of course, yet quite ignorant of the art of rising in your saddle, and the trot of the horse fairly churns you. Your hat shakes, your hair flaps, your elbows bang to your sides, you are altogether miserable. Still, you hold on bravely, though you are ready to cry from the horrors of the situation. Your attendant, by way of relieving you, changes the trot to a canter, and then you are suddenly transported to Elysium. The motion is heavenly. You have nothing to do but sit close to your saddle, and you are borne delightfully along. It is too ecstatic to last. Alas! it will never teach you to ride, and so you return to the trot and the shaking and the jogging, the horrors of which are worse than anything you have ever previously experienced. You try vainly to give yourself some ease, but fail utterly, and at length dismount--hot, tired, and disheartened. But against this latter you must resolutely fight. Remember that nothing can be learned without trouble, and by-and-by you will be repaid. It is not everybody who has the gift of perseverance, and it is an invaluable attribute. It is a fact frequently commented upon, not alone by me but by many others also, that if you go for the hiring of a horse to any London livery-stable you will be sent a good-looking beast enough, but he will not be able to trot a yard. Canter, canter, is all that he can do. And why? He is kept for the express purpose of carrying young ladies in the Row, and these young ladies have never learnt to trot. They can dress themselves as vanity suggests in fashionably-cut habits, suffer themselves to be lifted to the saddle, and sit there, looking elegant and pretty, whilst their horse canters gaily down the long ride; but were the animal to break into a trot (which he is far too well tutored to attempt to do), they would soon present the same shaken, dilapidated, dishevelled, and utterly miserable appearance which you yourself do after your first experience of the difficulties which a learner has to encounter. The art of rising in the saddle is said to have been invented by one Dan Seffert, a very famous steeplechase jockey, who had, I believe, been a riding-master in the days of his youth. If this be true--which there is no reason to doubt--we have certainly to thank him, for it is a vast improvement upon the jog-trot adopted by the cavalry, which, however well it may suit them and impart uniformity of motion to their "line-riding," is not by any means suited to a lady, either for appearances or for purposes of health. You come up for your next day's lesson in a very solemn mood. You are, in fact, considerably sobered. You had thought it was all plain sailing: it _looked_ so easy. You had seen hundreds of persons riding, trotting, and even setting off to hunt, and had never dreamed that there had been any trouble in learning. Now you know the difficulties and what is before you. You recall your sufferings during your first days upon the ice, or on the rink. How utterly impossible it seemed that you could ever excel; how you tumbled about; how miserably helpless you felt, and how many heavy falls you got! Yet you conquered in the end, and so you will again. You take courage and mount your steed. First you walk him a little, as yesterday; and then the jolting begins again. How are you ever to get into that rise and fall which you have seen with others, and so much covet? How are you to accomplish it? Only by doing as I tell you, and persevering in it. As your horse throws out his near foreleg press your foot upon your stirrup, in time to lift yourself slightly as his off foreleg is next thrown out. Watch the motion of his legs, press your foot, and at the same time slightly lift yourself from your saddle. For a long while, many days perhaps, it will seem to be all wrong; you have not got into it one bit; you are just as far from it apparently as when you commenced. You are hot and vexed, and you, perhaps, cry with mortification and disappointment, as I have seen many a young beginner do; bitterly worried and disheartened you are, and ready to give up, when, lo! quite suddenly, as though it had come to you by magic and not through your own steady perseverance, you find yourself rising and falling _with_ the trot of the horse, and your labours are rewarded. After this your lessons are a source of delight. You no longer come from them flushed and worried, but joyous and exultant and impatient for the next. You have begun to feel quite brave, and to throw out hints that you are longing for a good ride on the road. You now know how to make your horse trot and canter; the first by a light touch of your whip and a gentle movement of your bridle through his mouth; the second by a slight bearing of the rein upon the near side of his mouth, so as to make him go off upon the right leg, and a little warning touch of your heel. You fancy, in fact, that you are quite a horsewoman, and have already rolled up your hair into a neat knot, and hinted to papa that you should greatly like a habit. But, alas! you have plenty of trouble yet before you, plenty to learn, plenty of falls to get and to bear. At present you can ride fairly well on the straight; but you know nothing of keeping your balance in time of danger. Your horse is very quiet, but if he chanced to put back his ears you would be off. You are taught to maintain your balance in the following way:-- Your attendant waits until your horse is cantering pretty briskly in a circle from left to right, when he suddenly cracks his whip close to the animal's heels, who immediately swerves and turns the other way. You have had no warning of the movement, and consequently you tumble off, and are put up again, feeling a little shaken and a good deal crestfallen. Most likely you will fall again and again, until you have thoroughly mastered the art of riding from balance. This is a method I have seen adopted, especially in schools, with considerable success, but it is certainly attended with inconvenience to the learner, and with a goodly portion of the risk from falls which all who ride _must_ of necessity run. To ride well from balance is not a thing which can be accomplished in a day, nor a month, nor perhaps a year. Many pass a life-time without practically comprehending the meaning of the term. They ride every day, hold on to the bridle, guide their horses, and trust to chance for the rest; but this is not true horsemanship. It could no more be called _riding_ than could a piece of mechanical pianoforte-playing be termed music. When you have, after much difficulty and delay, mastered the obstacles which marred your progress, you will then have the happy consciousness of feeling that however your horse may shy or swerve, or otherwise depart from his good manners, you can sit him with the ease and closeness of a young centaur. This art of riding from balance is not half sufficiently known. It is one most difficult to acquire, but the study is worth the labour. Nine-tenths of the lady equestrians, and perhaps even a greater number of gentlemen, ride from the horse's head; a detestable practice which cannot be too highly condemned. I must also warn you against placing too much stress upon the stirrup when your horse is trotting. You must bear in mind that the stirrup is intended for a support for the foot--not to be ridden from. By placing your right leg firmly around the up-pommel, and pressing the left knee against the leaping-head, you can accomplish the rise in your saddle with slight assistance from the stirrup; and this is the proper way to ride. The lazy, careless habit into which many women fall, of resting the entire weight of the body upon the stirrup, not only frequently causes the leathers to snap at most inconvenient times, but is the lamentable cause of half the sore backs and ugly galls from which poor horses suffer so severely. Having at length perfected yourself in walking, trotting, cantering, and riding from balance, you have only to acquire the art of leaping--and then you will be finished, so far as teaching can make you so. Experience must do the rest. It is a good thing, when learning, to mount as many different horses as you possibly can; always, of course, taking care that they are sufficiently trained not to endeavour to master you. Horses vary immensely in their action and gait of going: so much so, that if you do not accustom yourself to a variety you will take your ideas from one alone, and will, when put upon a strange animal, find yourself completely at sea. Do not suffer anything to induce you to take your first leap over a bar or pole similar to those used in schools. The horse sees the daylight under it, knows well that it is a sham, goes at it unwillingly, does not half rise to it, drops his heels when in the air, and knocks it down with a crash,--only to do the same thing a second time, and a third, and a fourth also, if urged to do that which he despises. Choose a nice little hurdle about two feet high, well interwoven with gorse; trot your horse gently up to it, and let him see what it is; then, turn him back and send him at it, sitting close glued to your saddle, with a firm but gentle grip of your reins, and your hands held low. To throw up the hands is a habit with all beginners, and should at once be checked. Fifty to one you will stick on all right, and, if you come off, why it's many a good man's case, and you must regard it as one of the chances of war. The next day you may have the gorse raised another half-foot above the hurdle, and so on by degrees, until you can sit with ease over a jump of five feet. Always bear in mind to keep your hands quite down upon your horse's withers, and never interfere with his mouth. Sit well back, leave him his head, and he will not make a mistake. Of course, I am again surmising that he has been properly trained, and that you alone are the novice. To put a learner upon an untrained animal would be a piece of folly, not to say of wickedness, of which we hope nobody in this age of enlightenment would dream of being guilty. In jumping a fence or hurdle do not leave your reins quite slack; hold them lightly but firmly, as your horse should jump against his bridle, but do not pull him. A gentle support is alone necessary. That absurd and vulgar theory about "lifting a horse at his fences," so freely affected by the ignorant youth of the present day, cannot be too strongly deprecated. That same "lifting" has broken more horses' shoulders and more _asses'_ necks than anything else on record. A good hunter with a bad rider upon his back will actually shake his head free on coming up to a fence. He knows that he cannot do what is expected of him if his mouth is to be chucked and worried, any more than you or I could under similar circumstances, and so he asserts his liberty. How often, in a steeplechase, one horse early deprived of his rider will voluntarily go the whole course and jump every obstacle in perfect safety, even with the reins dangling about his legs, yet never make a mistake; whilst a score or so of compeers will be tumbling at every fence. And why? The answer is plain and simple. The free horse has his head, and his instinct tells him where to put his feet; whereas the animals with riders upon their backs are dragged and pulled and sawn at, until irritation deprives them of sense and sight, and, rushing wildly at their fences (probably getting another tug at the moment of rising), they fall, and so extinguish their chance of a win. I do not, of course, in saying this, mean for a moment to question the judgment and horsemanship of very many excellent jockeys, whose ability is beyond comment and their riding without reproach. I speak of the rule, not of the few exceptions. Half the horses who fall in the hunting-field are thrown down by their riders; this is a fact too obvious to be contradicted. Men over-riding their horses, treating them with needless cruelty, riding them when already beaten: these are the fruitful causes of falls in the field, together with that most objectionable practice of striving to "lift" an animal who knows his duties far better than the man upon his back. It is a pity, and my heart has often bled to see how the noblest of God's created things is ill-treated and abused by the human brute who styles himself the master. It is, indeed, a disgrace to our humanity that this priceless creature, given to a man with a mind highly wrought, sensitive, yearning for kindness, and capable of appreciating each word and look of the being whose willing slave it is, should be treated with cruelty, and in too many cases regarded but as a sort of machine to do the master's bidding. Who has not seen, and mourned to see, the tired, patient horse, spurred and dragged at by a remorseless rider, struggling gamely forward in the hunting-field, with bleeding mouth and heaving, bloody flanks, to enable a cruel task-master to see the end of a second run, and even of a third, after having carried him gallantly through a long and intricate first? It is a piece of inhumanity which all humane riders see and deplore every day throughout the hunting season. We cannot stop it, but we can speak against it and write it down, and discountenance it in every possible way, as we are all bound to do. Why will not men be brought to see that in abusing their horses they are compassing their own loss? that in taxing the powers of a beaten animal they are riding for a fall, and are consequently endangering the life which God has given them? There is much to be learnt in the art of fencing besides hurdle-leaping. A good timber-jumper will often take a ditch or drain in a very indifferent manner. I have seen a horse jump a five-barred gate in magnificent style, yet fall short into a comparatively narrow ditch; and _vice versâ_; therefore, various kinds of jumps must be kept up, persevered in, and kept constantly in practice. Two things must always be preserved in view; never sit loosely in your saddle, and always ride well from balance, never from your horse's head. In taking an up jump leave him abundance of head-room, and sit _well_ back, lest in his effort he knock you in the face. If the jump is a down one--what is known as an "ugly drop"--follow the same rules; but, when your horse is landing, give him good support from the bridle, as, should the ground be at all soft or marshy, he might be apt to peck, and so give you an ugly fall. It is a disputed point whether or not horses like jumping. I am inclined to coincide in poor Whyte-Melville's opinion that they do not. He was a good authority upon most subjects connected with equine matters, and so he ought to know; but of one thing I am positively certain: they abhor schooling. However a horse may tolerate or even enjoy a good fast scurry with hounds, there can be no doubt that he greatly dislikes being brought to his fences in cold blood. He has not, when schooling, the impetus which sends him along, nor the example or excitement to be met with in the hunting-field. The horse is naturally a timid animal, and this is why he so frequently stops short at his fences when schooling. He mistrusts his own powers. When running with hounds he is borne along by speed and by excitement, and so goes skying over obstacles which appal him when trotted quietly to them on a schooling day. It is just the difference which an actor feels between a chilling rehearsal and the night performance, when the theatre is crowded and the clapping of hands and the shouting of approving voices lend life and spirit to the part he plays. You will probably get more falls whilst schooling than ever you will get in the hunting-field, but a few weeks' steady practice over good artificial fences or a nice natural country, will give you a firm seat and an amount of confidence which will stand to you as friends. PART II. PARK AND ROAD RIDING. CHAPTER IV. HOW TO DRESS.--A COUNTRY-GIRL'S IDEAS UPON THE SUBJECT.--HOW TO PUT ON YOUR RIDING-GEAR.--HOW TO PRESERVE IT.--FIRST ROAD-RIDE.--BACKING. --REARING, AND HOW TO PREVENT IT. Having now mastered the art of riding, you will of course be desirous of appearing in the parks and on the public roadways, and exhibiting the prowess which it has cost you so much to gain. For your outfit you will require, in addition to the articles already in your possession, a nice well-made habit of dark cloth. If you are a very young girl, grey will be the most suitable; if not, dark blue. If you live in London, pay a visit to Mayfair, and get Mr. Wolmershausen to make it for you; if in Dublin, Mr. Scott, of Sackville Street, will do equally well; indeed, for any sort of riding-gear, ladies' or gentlemen's, he is not to be excelled. If you are not within easy distance of a city, go to the best tailor you can, and give him directions, which he must not be above taking. Skirt to reach six inches below the foot, well shaped for the knee, and neatly shotted at end of hem just below the right foot; elastic band upon inner side, to catch the left toe, and to retain the skirt in its place. It should be made tight and spare, without _one inch_ of superfluous cloth; jacket close-fitting, but sufficiently easy to avoid even the suspicion of being squeezed; sleeves perfectly tight, except at the setting on, where a slight puffiness over the shoulder should give the appearance of increased width of chest. No braiding nor ornamentation of any sort to appear. A small neat linen collar, upright shape, with cuffs to correspond, should be worn with the habit, no frilling nor fancy work being admissible--the collar to be fastened with a plain gold or silver stud. The nicest hat to ride in is an ordinary silk one, much lower than they are usually made, and generally requiring to be manufactured purposely to fit and suit the head. Of course, if you are a young girl, the melon shape will not be unsuitable, but the other is more in keeping, more becoming, and vastly more economical in the end, although few can be induced to believe this. It is the custom in many households to purchase articles for their cheapness, without any regard to quality or durability, and this you should endeavour to avoid. Speaking from experience, the best things are always the cheapest. I pay from a guinea to a guinea and a half for a good silk hat, and find that it wears out four felt ones of the quality usually sold at ten and sixpence. There is no London house at which you can procure better articles or better value than at Lincoln, Bennett, & Co., Sackville Street, Piccadilly. For nearly half a century they have been the possessors of an admirable contrivance, which should be seen to be appreciated, by which not alone is the size of the head ascertained, but its precise shape is definitely marked and suited, thus avoiding all possibility of that distressing pressure upon the temples, which is a fruitful source of headache and discomfort to so many riders. Hats made at this firm require no elastics--if it be considered desirable to dispense with such--as the fit is guaranteed. Never wear a veil on horseback, except it be a black one, and nothing with a border looks well. A plain band of spotted net, just reaching below the nostrils, and gathered away into a neat knot behind, is the most _distingué_. Do not wear anything sufficiently long to cover the mouth, or it will cause you inconvenience on wet and frosty days. For dusty roads a black gauze veil will be found useful, but avoid, as you would poison, every temptation to wear even the faintest scrap of colour on horseback. All such atrocities as blue and green veils have happily long since vanished, but, even still, a red bow, a gaudy flower stuck in the button-hole, and, oh, horror of horrors! a pocket handkerchief appearing at an opening in the bosom, looking like a miniature fomentation--these still occasionally shock the eyes of sensitive persons, and cause us to marvel at the wearer's bad taste. I was once asked to take a young lady with me for a ride in the park, to witness a field-day, or polo match, or something or another of especial interest which happened to be going forward. I would generally prefer being asked to face a battery of Zulus rather than act as _chaperone_ to young lady _équestriennes_, who are usually ignorant of riding, and insufferably badly turned out. However, upon this occasion I could not refuse. The lady's parents were kind, amiable country folks, who had invested a portion of their wealth in sending their daughter up to town to get lessons from a fashionable riding-master, and to ride out with whomsoever might be induced to take her. Well, the young lady's horse was the first arrival: a hired hack--usual style; bones protruding--knees well over--rusty bridle--greasy reins--dirty girths--and dilapidated saddle, indifferently polished up for the occasion. The young lady herself came next, stepping daintily out of a cab, as though she were quite mistress of the situation. Ye gods! What a get up! I was positively electrified. Her habit--certainly well made--was of bright blue cloth, with worked frills at the throat and wrists. She wore a brilliant knot of scarlet ribbon at her neck, and a huge bouquet in her button-hole. Her hat was a silk one, set right on the back of her head, with a velvet rosettte and steel buckle in front, and a long veil of grey gauze streaming out behind. When we add orange gloves, and a riding-whip with a gaudy tassel appended to it, you have the details of a costume at once singular and unique. I did not at first know whether to get a sudden attack of the measles or the toothache, and send her out with my groom to escort her, but discarding the thought as ill-natured, I compromised matters by bringing her to my own room, and effecting alterations in her toilet which soon gave her a more civilised appearance. I set the hat straight upon her head, and bound it securely in its place, removed from it the gauze and buckle, and tied on one of my own plain black veils of simple spotted net. I could not do away with the frillings, for they were stitched on as though they were never meant to come off; but the red bow I replaced with a silver arrow, threw away the flowers, removed the whip-tassel, and substituted a pair of my own gloves for the cherished orange kid. Then we set out. I wanted to go a quiet way to the park, so as to avoid the streets of the town, but she would not have it. Nothing would do that girl but to go bang through the most crowded parts of the city, the hired hack sliding over the asphalte, and the rider (all unconscious of her danger) bowing delightedly to her acquaintances as she passed along. Poor girl! that first day out of the riding-school was a gala day for her. The nicest gloves for riding are pale cream leather, worked thickly on the backs with black. A few pairs of these will keep you going, for they clean beautifully. A plain riding-whip _without_ a tassel, and a second habit of dark holland if you live in the country, will complete your necessary outfit. I shall now give you a few hints as to the best method of putting on your riding gear, and of preserving the same after rain or hard weather. Your habit-maker will, of course, put large hooks around the waist of your bodice, and eyes of corresponding size attached to the skirt, so that both may be kept in their place, but if you have been obliged to entrust your cloth to a country practitioner, who has neglected these minor necessaries, be sure you look to them yourself, or you will some day find that the opening of your skirt is right at your back, and that the place shaped out for your knee has twisted round until it hangs in unsightly crookedness in front of the buttons of your bodice. Let it be a rule with you to avoid using any pins. Put two or three neat stitches in the back of your collar, so as to affix it to your jacket, having first measured to see that the ends shall meet exactly evenly in front, where you will fasten them neatly with a stud. The ordinary system of placing one pin at the back of the collar and one at either end is much to be deprecated. Frequently one of these pins becomes undone, and then the discomfort is incalculable, especially if, as often occurs, you are out for a long day, and nobody happens to be able to accommodate you with another. Pinning cuffs is also a reprehensible habit, for the reason just stated. Two or three little stitches where they will not show, upon the inner side of the sleeve, will hold the cuff securely in its place and prevent it turning round or slipping up or down, any of which will be calculated to cause discomfort to the rider. It is not a bad method, either, to stitch a small button at the back of the neck of the jacket, upon the inner side, upon which the collar can be secured, fastening the cuffs in the same manner to buttons attached to the inner portion of each sleeve. In short, anything in the shape of a device which will check the unseemly habit of using a multiplicity of pins, may be regarded as a welcome innovation, and at once adopted. It is a good plan, when you undress from your ride, to ascertain whether your collar and cuffs are sufficiently clean to serve you another day, and if they are not, replace them at once by fresh ones; for it may happen that when you go to attire yourself for your next ride, you may he too hurried to look after what should always be a positive necessity, namely, perfectly spotless linen. There is a material, invented in America and as yet but little known amongst us here, which is invaluable to all who ride. It is called Celluloid, and from it collars, cuffs, and shirt-fronts are manufactured which resemble the finest and whitest linen, yet which never spot, never crush, never become limp, and never require washing, save as one would wash a china saucer, in a basin of clear water, using a fine soft towel for the drying process. I do not know the nature of the composition, but I can certainly bear testimony to its worth, and being inexpensive as well as convenient, it cannot fail, when known, to become highly popular. The adjusting of your hat is another important item. Stitch a piece of black elastic (the single-cord round kind is the best) from one side--the inner one of course--to the other, of just sufficient length to catch well beneath your hair. This elastic you can stretch over the leaf of your hat at the back, and then, when the hat is on and nicely adjusted to your taste in front, you have only to put back your hand and bring the band of elastic deftly under your hair. The hat will then be immovable, and the elastic will not show. In fastening your veil, a short steel pin with a round black head is the best. The steel slips easily through the leaf of the hat, and the head, being glossy and large, is easily found without groping or delay, whenever you may desire to divest yourself of it. I shall now tell you how to proceed with the various items of your toilet on coming home, after being overtaken by stress of weather. No matter how wealthy you may be, or how many servants you may be entitled to keep, always look after these things yourself. Hang the skirt of your habit upon a clothes-horse, with a stick placed across inside to extend it fully. Leave it until thoroughly dry, and then brush carefully. The bodice must be hung in a cool dry place, but never placed near the fire, or the cloth will shrink, and probably discolour. Dip your veil into clear cold water, give it one or two gentle squeezes, shake it out, and hang it on a line, spreading it neatly with your fingers, so that it may take no fold in the drying. Your hat comes next. Dip a fine small Turkey sponge, kept for the purpose and freed from sand, into a basin of lukewarm water, and draw it carefully around the hat. Repeat the process, going over every portion of it, until crown, leaf, and all are thoroughly cleansed; then hang in a cool, airy place to dry. In the morning take a soft brush, which use gently over the entire surface, and you will have a perfectly new hat. No matter how shabby may have been your headpiece, it will be quite restored, and will look all the better for its washing. This is one of the chief advantages of silk hats. Do not omit to brush after the washing and drying process, or your hat will have that unsightly appearance of having been ironed, which is so frequently seen in the hunting-field, because gentlemen who are valeted on returning from their sport care nothing about the management of their gear, but leave it all to the valet, who gives the hat the necessary washing, but is too lazy or too careless to brush it next day, and his master takes it from his hand and puts it on without ever noticing its unsightliness. Sometimes it is the master himself whose clumsy handiwork is to blame; but be it master or servant, the result is too often the same. Should your gloves be thoroughly, or even slightly wetted, stretch them upon a pair of wooden hands kept for the purpose, and if they are the kind which I have recommended to you--I mean the best quality of double-stitched cream leather--they will be little the worse. Having now, I think, exhausted the subject of your clothing, and given you all the friendly hints in my power, I am ready to accompany you upon your first road ride. Go out with every confidence, accompanied of course by a companion or attendant, and make up your mind never to be caught napping, but to be ever on the alert. You must not lose sight of the fact that a bird flitting suddenly across, a donkey's head laid without warning against a gate, a goat's horns appearing over a wall, or even a piece of paper blown along upon the ground, may cause your horse to shy, and if you are not sitting close at the time, woe betide you! Always remember the rule of the road, keep to your left-hand side, and if you have to pass a vehicle going your way, do so on the right of it. Never neglect this axiom, no matter how lonely and deserted the highway may appear, for recollect that if you fail to comply with it, and that any accident chances to occur, you will get all the blame, and receive no compensation. Never trot your horse upon a hard road when you have a bit of grass at the side on which you can canter him. Even if there are only a few blades it will be sufficient to take the jar off his feet. If you meet with a hill or high bridge, trot him up and walk him quietly down the other side. If going down a steep decline, sit well back and leave him his head, at the same time keeping a watchful hand upon the rein for fear he should chance to make a false step, that you may be able to pull him up; but do not hold him tightly in, as many timid riders are apt to do, thus hobbling his movements and preventing him seeing where he is to put his feet. If he has to clamber a steep hill with you, leave him unlimited head-room, for it is a great ease to a horse to be able to stretch his neck, instead of being held tightly in by nervous hands, which is frequently the occasion of his stumbling. Should your horse show temper and attempt to back with you, leave him the rein, touch him lightly with your heel, and speak encouragingly to him; should he persist, your attendant must look to the matter; but a horse who possesses this dangerous vice should never be ridden by a lady. I have surmised that yours has been properly trained, and doubtless you might ride for the greater portion of a lifetime without having to encounter a decided jibber, but it is as well to be prepared for all emergencies. Should a horse at any time rear with you, throw the rein loose, sit close, and bring your whip sharply across his flank. If this is not effectual, you may give him the butt-end of it between the ears, which will be pretty sure to bring him down. This is a point, however, upon which I write with considerable reserve, for many really excellent riders find fault with the theory set forth and adopted by me. One old sportsman in particular shows practically how seriously he objects to it by suffering himself to be tumbled back upon almost daily by a vicious animal, in preference to adopting coercive measures for his own safety. My reasons for striking a rearing horse are set forth with tolerable clearness in one of the letters which form an appendix to this volume; but, although I do it myself, I do not undertake the responsibility of advising others to do likewise, especially if a nervous timidity form a portion of their nature. I am strongly of opinion, however, that decisive measures are at times an absolute necessity, and that the most effectual remedy for an evil is invariably the best to adopt. I have heard it said by two very eminent horsemen that to break a bottle of water between the ears of a rearing animal is an excellent and effectual cure. Perhaps it may be--and, on such authority, we must suppose that it is--but I should not care to be the one to try it, although I consider no preventive measure too strong to adopt when dealing with so dangerous a vice. A horse may be guilty of jibbing, bolting, kicking, or almost any other fault, through nervousness or timidity, but rearing is a vicious trick, and must be treated with prompt determination. It would be useless to speak encouragingly to a rearer; he is vexing you from vice, not from nervousness, and so he needs no reassurance--do not waste words upon him, but bring him to his senses with promptitude, or whilst you are dallying he may tumble back upon you, and put remonstrance out of your power for some time to come, if not for ever. In striking him, if you do so, do not indulge in the belief that you are safe because he drops quickly upon his fore-legs, but on the contrary, be fully prepared for the kick or buck which will be pretty sure to follow, and which (unless watched for) will be likely to unseat even a most skilful rider. Both rearing and plunging may, however, be effectually prevented by using the circular bit and martingale, procurable at Messrs. Davis, saddlers, 14, Strand, London. This admirable contrivance should be fitted above the mouthpiece of an ordinary snaffle or Pelham bridle. It is infinitely before any other which I have seen used for the same purpose, has quite a separate headstall, and should be put on and arranged before the addition of the customary bridle. Being secured to the breastplate by a standing martingale, it requires no reins. CHAPTER V. RUNNING AWAY.--THREE DANGEROUS ADVENTURES.--HOW TO ACT WHEN PLACED IN CIRCUMSTANCES OF PERIL.--HOW TO RIDE A PULLER.--THROUGH THE CITY.--TO A MEET OF HOUNDS.--BOASTFUL LADIES.--A BRAGGART'S RESOURCE. In the event of a horse running away, you must of course be guided by circumstances and surroundings, but my advice always is, if you have a fair road before you, let him go. Do not attempt to hold him in, for the support which you afford him with the bridle only helps the mischief. Leave his head quite loose, and when you feel him beginning to tire--which he will soon do without the support of the rein--flog him until he is ready to stand still. I warrant that a horse treated thus, especially if you can breast him up hill, will rarely run away a second time. He never forgets his punishment, nor seeks to put himself in for a repetition of it. I have been run away with three times in my life, but never a second time by the same horse. It may amuse you to hear how I escaped upon each occasion. The first time, I was riding a beautiful little thoroughbred mare, which a dear lady friend--now, alas! dead--had asked me to try for her. The mare had been a flat-racer, and, having broken down in one of her trials, had been purchased at a cheap rate, being still possessed of beauty and a considerable turn of speed. Well, we got on splendidly together for an hour or so on the fifteen acres, Phoenix Park, but, when returning homewards, some boys who were playing close by struck her with a ball on the leg. In a second she was off like the wind, tearing down the long road which leads from the Phoenix to the gates. She had the bit between her teeth, and held it like a vice. My only fear was lest she should lose her footing and fall, for the roadway was covered from edge to edge with new shingle. On she went in her mad career, amidst the shrieks of thousands, for the day was Easter Monday, and the park was crowded. Soldiers, civilians, lines of policemen strove to form a barrier for her arrest. In vain! She knocked down some, fled past others, and continued her headlong course. All this time I was sitting as if glued to my saddle. At the mare's first starting I had endeavoured to pull her up, but finding that this was hopeless, I left the rein loose upon her neck. Having then no support for her head, she soon tired, and the instant I felt her speed relaxing I took up my whip and punished her within an inch of her life. I _made_ her go when she wanted to stop, and only suffered her to pull up just within the gates, where she stood covered with foam and trembling in every limb. Her owner subsequently told me that during the three years which she afterwards kept her she never rode so biddable a mare. I must not forget to mention the comic side of the adventure as well as the more serious. It struck me as being particularly ludicrous upon that memorable occasion that an old gentleman, crimson with wrath, actually attacked my servant in the most irate manner because he had not clattered after me during the progress of the mare's wild career. "How dare you, sir," cried this irascible old gentleman, "how dare you attempt to neglect your young lady in this cowardly manner?" Nor was his anger at all appeased when informed that I as a matron was my own care-taker, and that my attendant had strict injunctions _not_ to follow me in the event of my horse being startled or running away. My next adventure was much more serious, and occurred also within the gates of the Phoenix Park. Some troops were going through a variety of manoeuvres preparing for a field-day, and a knot of them had been posted behind and around a large tree with fixed bayonets in their hands. Suddenly they got the order to move, and at the same instant the sun shone out and glinted brilliantly upon the glittering steel. I was riding a horse which had lately been given me; a fine, raking chestnut, with a temper of his own to manage. He turned like a shot, and sped away at untold speed. I had no open space before me; therefore I durst not let him go. It was an enclosed portion of the park, thickly studded with knots of trees, and I knew that if he bore me through one of these my earthly career would most probably be ended. I strove with all the strength and all the art which I possessed to pull him up. It was of no use. I might as well have been pulling at an oak-tree; it only made him go the faster. Happily my presence of mind remained. I saw at once that my only chance was to breast him against the rails of the cricket-ground, and for these I made straight, prepared for the shock and for the turn over which I knew must inevitably follow. He dashed up to the rails, and when within a couple of inches of them he swerved with an awful suddenness, which, only that I was accustomed to ride from balance, must have at once unseated me, and darted away at greater speed than ever. Right before me was a tree, one heavy bough of which hung very low--and straight for this he made, nor could I turn his course. I knew my fate, and bent on a level with my saddle, but not low enough, for the branch caught me in the forehead and sent me reeling senseless to the ground. I soon got over the shock, although my arm (which was badly torn by a projecting branch) gave me some trouble after; but the bough was cut down the next day by order of the Lord Lieutenant, and the park-rangers still point out the spot as the place where "the lady was nearly killed." My third runaway was a hunting adventure, and occurred only a few months since. I had a letter one morning from an old friend, informing me that a drag-hunt was to take place about thirty miles from Dublin to finish the season with the county harriers, and that he, my friend, wished very much that I would come down in my habit by the mid-day train and ride a big bay horse of his, respecting which he was desirous of obtaining my opinion. I never take long to make up my mind, so, after a glance at my tablets, which showed me that I was free for the day, I donned my habit, and caught the specified train. At the station at the end of my journey I found the big bay saddled and awaiting me, and having mounted him I set off for the kennels, from a field near which the drag was to be run. I took the huntsman for a pilot, knowing that the servant, who was my attendant, was rather a duffer at the chase. The instant that the hounds were laid on and the hunt started, my big mount commenced to pull hard, and by the time the first fence was reached his superior strength had completely mastered mine. He was pulling like a steam-engine, head down, ears laid backward, neck set like iron. My blistered hands were powerless to hold him. He rushed wildly at the fence, and striking the horse of a lady who was just landing over it, turned him and his rider a complete somersault! I subsequently learned that the lady escaped unhurt, but I could not at the moment pause to inquire, for my huge mount, clearing the jump and ten feet beyond it, completely took head, and bore me away from the field Over park, over pale, Through bush, through briar, until my head fairly reeled, and I felt that some terrible calamity must ensue. Happily he was a glorious fencer, or I must have perished, for he jumped every obstacle with a rush; staked fences, wide ditches--so wide that he landed over them on his belly--tangled gorse, and branches of rivers swollen by recent rains; he flew them all. At length, when my strength was quite exhausted and my dizzy brain utterly powerless and confused, I beheld before me a stone wall, a high one, with heavy coping-stones upon the top. At this I resolved to breast him, and run my chance for life or death in the turn over, which, from the pace at which we were approaching it, I knew must be a mighty one. In a moment we were up to it and, with a cry to heaven for mercy, I dug him with my spur and sent him at it. To my utter astonishment, for the wall was six and a half feet high, he put down his head, rushed at it, cleared it without ever laying a shoe upon the topmost stones, and landed with a frightful slip and clatter, but still safely on his feet--where? in the midst of a farm-yard. Were it not that this adventure actually occurred to myself, I should be strongly tempted to question its authenticity. That there are horses--especially Irish ones--quite capable of compassing such a jump, there cannot be the slightest doubt; but I have never before or since seen one who could do it without being steadied as he approached the obstacle. In the ordinary course of events a runaway steed would strike it with his head and turn over,--which was what I expected and desired--but no such thing occurred, and to the latest hour of my life it must remain a mystery to me that upon the momentous occasion in question neither horse nor rider was injured, nor did any accident ensue. Nothing more disastrous than a considerable disturbance in the farm-yard actually occurred; but it was indeed a mighty one. Such a commotion amongst fowls was surely never witnessed; the ducks quacked, the turkeys screeched, the hens ran hither and thither; two pigs, eating from a trough close by, set up a most terrific squalling, dogs barked, and two or three women, who were spreading clothes upon a line, added to the general confusion by flinging down the garments with which they had been busy and taking to their heels, shrieking vociferously. In the meantime the big bay, perceiving that he had run to the end of his tether, stood snorting and foaming, looking hither and thither in helpless amazement and dismay; whilst I, relieved at length of my anxiety, burst first into tears, and then into shouts of hearty laughter, as I fully took in the absurdity of the situation. After a considerable delay one of the women was induced to come forward and listen to a recital of my adventure; and the others, being assured that "the baste" would not actually devour them, came near me also, and we held an amicable council as to the possibility of my ever getting out, for the gates were locked, and the owner of the property was away at a fair in the neighbouring town and had the key stowed away in his pocket. To jump the wall again was impracticable. No horse that ever was foaled could do it in cool blood; nor was I willing to risk the experiment, even if my steed made no objection. At length we decided upon the only plan. I dismounted, and, taking the rein over my arm, led my mighty hunter across the yard, induced him to stoop his head to enter by a back door through a passage in the farmhouse, and from thence through the kitchen and front door, out on to the road. I have a cheerful recollection of an old woman, who was knitting in the chimney-corner, going off into screams and hysterics as I and my big steed walked in upon her solitude, a loose shoe and a very audible blowing making the entrance of my equine companion even more _prononcé_ than it would otherwise have been. The poor old creature flung down her needles, together with the cat which had been quietly reposing in her lap, and kicking up her feet yelled and bellowed at the top of a very discordant voice. It took the combined efforts of all four women to pacify her, and she was still shrieking long after I had mounted the big bay and ridden him back to inform his owner of how charmingly he had behaved. I have now told you three anecdotes, partly for your amusement and partly for your instruction; but I would not have you think that it would be at all times and under all circumstances a wise thing to ride a runaway horse against so formidable an obstacle as a stone wall. Mine was, I hope, an exceptional case. When the animal was led down to meet me at the station, I saw, not without misgiving, that I was destined to ride in a so-called "safety-stirrup," and at the time when he took head with me my foot was fixed as in a vice in this dangerous and horrible trap, from which I could not succeed in releasing it. Feeling that my brain was whirling, and that I could not longer maintain my seat in the saddle, I rode for an overthrow, which I deemed infinitely better than being dragged by the foot over an intricate country, and most probably having my brains scattered by a pair of crashing heels. If a horse should at any time run away with you, keep your seat whilst you _can_ do so, and whilst you have anything of a fair road before you; but if there is any danger of your being thrown or losing your seat whilst your foot is caught, then by all means ride for a fall; put your horse at something that will bring him down, and when he _is_ down struggle on to his head, that he may not rise until somebody has come to your assistance. Of course the experiment is fraught with excessive danger, but it is not _certain_ death, as the other alternative must undoubtedly be. I cannot, however, wish you better than to hope most fervently that you may never be placed in a position which would necessitate your making a choice between two such mighty evils. Avoid riding strange horses. No matter how accomplished a horsewoman you may become, do not be too ready to comply with the request to try this or that unknown mount. I have done it myself, often, and probably shall again;[1] but my experience prompts me to warn others against a practice which is frequently fraught with danger to a lady. A horse knows quite well when a strange or timid rider gets upon his back, and if he does not kill you outright, he will probably make such a "hare" of you as will not be at all agreeable, either for yourself or for the lookers-on. [1] This was written previous to the accident which has disabled me. Whenever you take a young horse upon grass, whether he be a stranger to you or otherwise, be prepared for a certain show of friskiness which he does not usually exhibit upon the road. The soft springy turf beneath his feet imbues him with feelings of hilarity which he finds himself powerless to resist, and so you, his rider, must prepare for his little vagaries. He will, most probably, in the first place try a succession of bucks, and for these you must prepare by sitting very close to your saddle, your knee well pressed against the leaping-head, and your figure erect, but not thrown back, as the shock, or shocks to your spine would in such a case be not only painful but positively dangerous, and should therefore be carefully avoided. He will next be likely to romp away, pulling you much harder than is at all agreeable, and seemingly inclined to take head with you altogether. As a remedy against this you must neither yield to him nor pull against him. I have heard fairly good riders advocate by turns both systems of management, especially the former; indeed, the expression, "Drop your hands to him," has become so general amongst teachers of the equestrian art, that it has almost passed into a proverb. I do not advocate it, nor do I deem it advisable ever to pull against a pulling horse. When an animal tries to forereach you, you should neither give up to him nor yet pull one ounce against him. Close your fingers firmly upon the reins and keep your arms perfectly motionless, your hands well down, without giving or taking one quarter of an inch. In a stride or two he will be sure to yield to your hand, at which moment you should immediately yield to him, and his wondrous powers of intelligence will soon enable him to discern that you are not to be trifled with. Were you to give up to him when he rushes away or romps with his head he would very soon be going all abroad, and would give you a vast amount of trouble to pull him into proper form. Above all things, keep clear of trees, of which I myself have an unbounded dread. Should you have occasion to ride through a city, give your eyes and attention to your horse, and not to passing acquaintances, for in the present dangerous tangle of tramlines, slippery pavements, and ill-driven vehicles, it will require all your energies to bring you safely through. Never trot your horse through a town or city: walk him quietly through such portion of it as you have to pass, and leave him abundant head-room, that his intelligence may pick out a way for his own steps. A very nice ride for a lady is to a meet of the hounds, if such should occur within reasonable distance, say from four to eight miles. The sight is a very pretty one, and there is not any reason why you should not thoroughly enjoy it; but having only ridden to see the meet, you must be careful not to interfere with, nor get in the way of those about to ride the run. Nothing is more charming than to see three or four ladies, nicely turned out, arrive to grace the meet with their presence, but nothing is more abominable than the same number of amazons coming galloping up in full hunting toggery, although without the least idea of hunting, and rushing hither and thither, frightening the hounds and getting in everybody's way, as though they were personages of the vastest possible importance, and meant to ride with a skill not second to that of the Nazares. Such women are the horror and spoliation of every hunting-field. They dash off with the hounds the moment the fox is found, but happily the first fence stops them, and a fervent thankfulness is felt by every true lover of the chase as they pause discomfited, look dismally at the yawning chasm, and jog crestfallen away to the road. There are many ladies, and estimable ladies, too, who take out their horses every hunting-day, and by keeping upon the roadways see all that they can of the hounds. Sometimes they are fortunate, sometimes not; it depends upon the line of country taken. Their position is, in my opinion, a most miserable one; yet they must derive enjoyment from it, else why do they come? They surely cannot imagine that they are participating in the hunt; yet it affords them amusement to keep pottering about, and enables them to make their little harmless boast to credulous friends of their "hunting days," and the "runs" they have seen throughout the season. Indeed, so far does this passion for boasting carry the fair sex, that I myself know two young ladies who never saw a hound in their lives, except from the inside of a shabby waggonette, yet who brag in so audacious a manner that they have been heard to declare to gentlemen at evening dances, "Really we cawn't dawnce; we are so tired! Out all day with the Wards--and had _such a clipping run_!" This sort of thing only makes us smile when we hear it amongst ladies, but when men resort to it we become inspired with sufficient contempt to feel a longing desire to offer them severer chastisement than our derision. I once asked a little mannikin, who had given himself the name and airs of a great rider, if he would be kind enough to pilot me over an intricate piece of country with which I was unacquainted. The creature pulled his little moustaches, and sniffed, and hemmed and hawed, and finally said, "Aw, I'm sure I should be delighted, but you see I ride _so deuced hard_, I should not expect a lady to be able to keep up with me." I said nothing, but acted as my own pilot, and took opportunity to watch my hard-riding friend during the course of the run. He positively never jumped a fence, but worked rampantly at locks of gates, and bribed country-folks to let him pass through. The last I saw of him he was whipping his horse over a narrow ditch, preparatory to scrambling it himself on foot. And this man was only one of many, for the really accomplished rider never boasts. PART III. HUNTING. CHAPTER VI. HUNTING-GEAR.--NECESSARY REGARD FOR SAFE SHOEING.--DRIVE TO THE MEET.--SCENE ON ARRIVING.--A WORD WITH THE HUNTSMAN.--A GOOD PILOT.--THE COVERT SIDE.--DISAPPOINTMENT.--A LONG TROT. Now that you are thoroughly at home on your saddle--in the park, on the road, and over the country--you are doubtless longing to display your prowess in the hunting-field, and thither we shall have much pleasure in accompanying you. Your outfit will be the first thing to consider; and do not be alarmed when I tell you that it will require a little more generosity on the part of papa than you have hitherto called upon him to exercise. To commence with your feet--which I know is contrary to custom--you will need two pairs of patent Wellington boots. These are three guineas per pair, but are a beautiful article, and will last a long time with care. Woollen stockings of light texture, with a pair of silk ones drawn over, are the most comfortable for winter wear. A small steel spur to affix to your left heel will be the next item required. The nicest kind are those with a strap attached, which crosses the instep, and buckles securely at the side. Of course, all ladies' spurs are spring ones, displaying no rowels which could tear the habit, but simply one steel projection with spring probe within, which, when pressed to the horse's side, acts most efficiently as an instigator. Latchford's patent is the best. Two pairs of chamois riding-trousers, cloth from the hip down, and buttoning quite close at the ankle to allow of the boot going over, will be the next necessary; and you must also provide yourself with two riding corsets of superior shape and make. Three habits of strong dark cloth, one of them thoroughly waterproof, will be required--the skirts to be made so short as barely to cover the foot, and so spare as to fit like glove, without fold or wrinkle. If a hunting-habit be properly cut it will require no shotting, which will be an advantage to your horse in diminishing the weight which he would otherwise have to carry. An elastic band nicely placed upon the inside in position to catch around the toe of the right foot will be sufficient to answer all purposes. You cannot do better, to procure an article such as I describe, than entrust your order to Wolmershausen (whom I believe I have already named in a former chapter), corner of Curzon Street, Mayfair, where you will not fail to find your instructions intelligently carried out. This firm has a speciality for skirt-cutting,--is, indeed, unapproachable in this particular branch, of what is in reality an ART; and even in these days of eager competition the old-established house suffers from no rivalry, and holds its own in the widely-contested field. A very neatly-made waterproof jacket will be an addition to your wardrobe, as also a cape with an elastic band from the back to fasten around the waist, and hold the front ends securely down. This latter is an almost indispensable article. It is so light that it can be carried with ease in your saddle-strap, and in case of an unexpected shower can be adjusted in a single instant and without assistance, which is not the case with a jacket. It should be made with a collar, which can be arranged to stand up close around the neck, and thus prevent the possibility of damp or wet causing you cold or inconvenience. I approve of the jacket for decidedly wet days, when it should be donned on going out, but for a showery day the cape is preferable, as it can be much more easily taken off and again put on. Two silk hats, with the addition of a melon-shape if you desire it--a long-lashed hunting-whip, and a plentiful supply of collars, cuffs, gloves, veils, and handkerchiefs, will complete your outfit. I, hunting four days a week, find the above quite sufficient, and if you care your things (having got them in the first instance of the best quality) it is surprising how long they may be made to serve. I have told you _how_ to take care of them, but believe me, if you leave the task to servants the end will prove disappointing. You will never be one-half so well turned out, and your outlay will be continual. It is an excellent precaution for a hunting-day, to look the previous morning at your horse's shoes; and do this yourself, for it not unfrequently happens that a careless groom will suffer him to go out with a loose shoe which gradually becomes looser, and finally drops off, perhaps in the middle of an exciting run, and obliges you to leave your place with the hounds and seek the nearest forge. All this sort of thing could, in nine cases out of ten, be obviated by a little care and forethought, but the majority of riders are too grand, or too careless, or too absurdly squeamish about the "propriety" of entering a stable, and not unfrequently too ignorant of things they ought to know, to see to such matters themselves, and so they are passed over and neglected. A groom is too often utterly careless. He is bound to send your horse from the yard looking shiny, and sleek, and clean. Any deviation from this would at once attract your attention, and arouse your displeasure. The groom knows this, and acts accordingly; but he also knows what you do not--that one of the shoes is three-parts loose; it will probably hold very well until you begin to go, and then it will drop off and leave you in a fix, perhaps miles away from a village where the damage could be repaired. The groom knew all about it, very likely, the day before, but he saw that you were not troubling yourself, and why should he? You never made any inquiry about such matters, nor seemed to interest yourself in them, and why should he be troubled concerning them? A loose shoe is nothing to him: it does not cause _him_ any inconvenience, not it; then why worry himself? He does not want to bring the horse down to the forge through mud and rain, and stand there awaiting the smith's convenience; not a bit of it. He is much more comfortable lolling against the stable-door and smoking a pipe with Tom, Dick, or Harry. It frequently occurs in the hunting-field that a horse loses a shoe in going through heavy ground, or in jumping a fence where he brings his hind feet too close upon the front ones, and, catching the toe of the hind shoe in the heel of the front, drags the latter forcibly off, and leaves it either on the ground behind him or carries it for a field or two hanging by one or two nails to his hoof, before it finally drops off. The moment you are made aware that your horse has cast a shoe, which will generally be by somebody informing you of the fact, ascertain at once which of the animal's feet has been left unprotected. If the lost shoe happens to be a hinder one, the matter is less serious, but if a front one should be cast, do not lose any time in inquiring your road to the nearest smithy, and, whilst wending your way thither, be careful to keep as much as possible upon the grass by the roadside, that the shoeless foot may not become worn, nor suffer from concussion by coming in contact with the hard road. It is a good plan to send your horse early to the meet: quite in the morning; or, should the distance be a long one, despatch him the previous evening in charge of a careful servant, and stable him for the night as near as possible to the point at which you may require him upon the following day. If you are fortunate enough to have a friend's house to send him to, so much the better a great deal; but under any circumstances it is pleasanter both for you and your animal that he should be fresh and lively from his stable, and not that you should get upon him when he is half-jaded and covered with mud, after a long and tiresome road journey. To drive to the meet or go by train yourself is the most agreeable way. Some ladies ride hacks to covert, and then have their hunters to replace them, but this is tiresome, and not to be advocated for various reasons. If the morning is fine the drive will be pleasant, and you can then send your conveyance to whatever point you deem it most likely the hunt will leave off. You must, of course, exercise your judgment in the endeavour to decide this, but you may assist it considerably by asking the Master or the huntsman to be kind enough to give you a hint as to the direction in which they will most probably draw. We will, then, surmise that you drive to the meet. It is an excellent plan, whether you drive or go by train, to take with you a small bag containing a change of clothing; leave this in charge of your servant, with directions where he is to meet you in the evening, and then, should you come to grief in a dyke or river you can console yourself with the knowledge that dry garments are awaiting you, and that you will not have to encounter the risk of cold and rheumatism by sitting in drenched habiliments in a train or vehicle. You will also, if wise, take with you a foot-pick and a few yards of strong twine. Even if you should not require them yourself you may be able to oblige others, which is always a pleasure to a right-minded and unselfish huntress. Take, likewise, a few shillings in your pocket to reward, if necessary, the wreckers, whose tasks are at all times difficult and laborious, and too often thankless. Arrived at the meet, your horse and servant are waiting for you in good time and order; but it is a little early yet, and so you look about you. What a pretty sight it is! How full of healthful interest and charming variety! The day is bright and breezy--a little bit cloudy, perhaps, but no sign of rain. A glorious hunting morning altogether. Numbers of vehicles are drawn up, filled with happy-looking occupants, mostly ladies and children. There are a good many dog-carts, polo-carts, and a few tandems, from which gentlemen in ulsters and long white saving-aprons are preparing to alight. It is nice to see their steeds, so beautifully groomed and turned out, led up to the trap-wheels for them to mount, without the risk of soiling their boots. Very particular are these gentlemen. The day is muddy, and they know they must be splashed and spattered as they ride to the covert-side, but they will not leave the meet with a speck upon horse or rider. There is a military-looking man--long, tawny moustache, and most perfect get-up--divesting himself of his apron, and frowning because his snow-white breeches are disfigured by just one speck of dirt; probably it would be unobservable to anybody but himself, yet he is not the less annoyed. A dapper little gentleman, in drab shorts and gaiters, is covertly combing his horse's mane; and a hoary old fox-hunter, who has just mounted, has drawn over close to the hedge, and extends first one foot and then the other for his servant to remove the blemishes which mounting has put upon his boots. This extreme fastidiousness is carried by some to an absurd excess. I remember upon one occasion seeing a gentleman actually re-enter his dog-cart and drive sulkily away from the meet because he considered himself too much splashed to join the cavalcade which was moving away to the covert, although he was fully aware that a trot of a few hundred yards upon the muddy road in company with numerous other horses would, under any circumstances, have speedily reduced him to the condition which he was then lamenting. A few ladies come upon the scene, and many more gentlemen; and then comes the huntsman in proud charge of the beauties. The whips and second horsemen come also, and the Master drives up about the same time, and loses not a moment in mounting his hunter. The pack looks superb, and many are the glances and words of commendation which it receives. Always have a smile and pleasant word for the huntsman and whips. They deserve it, and they value it. I always make it a point to have a little conversation with them before we leave the meet--in fact, I know many of the hounds in the various packs by name, and I love to notice them. Nothing pleases the huntsman more than to commend his charge: it makes him your friend at once. Many a time when I have been holding good place in a run, we have come across some dangerous fence which it would be death to ride in a crowd, and the huntsman's shout of "Let the lady first!" has secured me a safe jump, and a maintenance of my foremost position. All being now ready, you mount your horse. It would be well if some gentleman friend or relative would look first to his girths, &c.; but, should such not be available, do not be above doing it yourself. Servants, even the best, are, as aforesaid, often careless, and a horse may be sent out with girths too loose, throat-lash too tight, runners out, or any of the thousand and one little deficiencies which an interested and careful eye will at once detect. Of course you have not come to hunt without having secured a good pilot. You have, I hope, selected somebody who rides well and straight--boldly, and yet with judgment--for, believe me, a display of silly recklessness does not constitute good riding, however it may be thought to do so by ignorant or silly persons. Your pilot will ride a few yards in advance of you, and it will be your duty to keep him well in view, and not to get separated from him. This latter you may at times find difficult, as others may ride in between, but you must learn smartness, and be prepared for all emergencies. Moreover, if your pilot be a good one, he will see that you keep close to him, and, by glancing over his shoulder after clearing each obstacle, will satisfy himself that you also are safely over, and that no mischance has befallen you. Any man who will not take this trouble is unfit to pilot a lady, for whilst he is careering onward in all the glories of perfect safety, she may be down in some ugly dyke, perhaps ridden on, or otherwise hurt; and, therefore, it is his bounden duty to see that no evil befals her. I cannot say that I consider the position of a trusty pilot at all an enviable one, and few men care to occupy it in relation to a beginner or timorous rider, although they are ever anxious to place their services at the disposal of a lady who is known to "go straight." In selecting a pilot, do so with judgment. Choose one who knows the country, and who will not be too selfish nor too grand to take care of you; for, remember, you are only a beginner, and will need to be taken care of. If, then, you have secured the right sort of man, and your own heart is in the right place, you may prepare to enjoy yourself, for a real good day's hunting is the keenest enjoyment in which man or woman can hope to participate in this life. The trot to the covert-side is usually very pleasant. You and your horse are quite fresh. You meet and chat with your friends. The two, three, or four miles, as the case may be, seem to glide away very fast. Then comes the anxious moment when the beauties are thrown in, and all wait in eager suspense for the whimper which shall proclaim Reynard at home. But not a hound gives tongue this morning. You can see them--heads down, sterns up, beating here and there through the gorse--but, alas! in silence; and, after a while, someone says, "No fox here!" and presently your ear catches the sound of the huntsman's horn, and the hounds come trooping out, almost as disappointed as the field. Then the master gives the order for the next or nearest covert, and there is a rush, and a move, and a long cavalcade forms upon the road, headed, of course, by the hounds. Get well in front, if you can, so as to be quite up when they reach their next try, for sometimes they find as soon as ever they are thrown in, and are far away over the country before the stragglers come up, and great, then, are the lamentations, for hunting a stern-chase is, to say the least of it, not cheerful. You will have another advantage, also, in being well forward, for your horse will get the benefit of a temporary rest, whilst those who, by lagging, have lost time at the start, are obliged to follow as best they can upon the track, bucketing their horses, and thus depriving them of the chance of catching their wind--which is, in a lengthened run, of very material consequence. One especial difference you observe between road-riding and hunting: you are obliged to trot at a fast swinging pace such long tiresome distances from covert to covert, without pause or rest, and you feel already half tired out. Hitherto, when riding on the road, or in the park, if you felt fatigued you have only had to pull up and walk; but on hunting days there is no walking. The time is too precious, these short, dark, wintry days, to allow of such "sweet restings." The evening closes in so rapidly that we cannot afford to lose a moment of our time, and so we go along at a sweeping pace. Nobody who is unable to trot long distances without rest has any business hunting. CHAPTER VII. HOUNDS IN COVERT.--THE FIRST FENCE.--FOLLOW YOUR PILOT.--A RIVER-BATH. --A WISE PRECAUTION.--A LABEL ADVISABLE.--WALL AND WATER JUMPING. --ADVICE TO FALLEN RIDERS.--HOGGING.--MORE TAIL. You have now arrived at the next covert, and have seen the hounds thrown in. In an instant there is a whimper, taken up presently by one and another, until the air rings with the joyous music of the entire pack, as they rattle their game about, endeavouring to force him to face the open. The whips are standing warily on the watch, the huntsman's cheery voice is heard encouraging the hounds, the Master is galloping from point to point, warning off idlers whose uninvited presence would be sure to send the "varmint" back into his lair. Your pilot, knowing that a run from here is a certainty, selects his vantage ground. Being a shrewd man, he knows that no fox will face a keen nor'-easter, nor will he be likely to brave the crowd of country bumpkins, who, despite the Master's entreaties, are clustering about yonder hedge. In short, there is only one point from which he _can_ well break, and so your pilot prepares accordingly. Another anxious moment ere the "Gone away! Tally-ho!" rings out upon the keen air; and then follows that glorious burst which is worth giving up a whole year of one's life to see. Hounds running breast high, fairly flying, in fact; huntsmen, whips, horsemen, all in magnificent flight, each riding hard for the foremost place, amid such a chorus of delicious music as is never heard from any save canine throats; and then, when the first big fence is reached, such hurry and scurry! such tumbling and picking up again! such scrambling of dogs and shouting of men! such cold baths for horses and riders! and oh, such glory amongst the wreckers, as they stand tantalizingly at the edge of the chasm in which so many are hopelessly struggling, whilst their audacious cries of "What'll you give me, sir?" "Pull you out for a sovereign, captain!" are heard and laughed at by the fortunate ones who are safe upon the other side. Your pilot has been a wise man. He selected his starting-point at the sound of the very first opening out, and when the general scrimmage took place he had his line chosen, and so has led you wide of the ruck, yet in the wake of the hounds. And here suffer me to advise you, if you should ever chance to be left without a leader, do not fall into the mistake of following the others, for my experience of hunting is that nine-tenths of those out do not know _where_ they are going, nor where fox or hounds have gone before them. Cut out a line for yourself, and follow the pack. A pilot is, of course, a great acquisition, if he be a _good_ one, but throughout some of my best runs I have performed the office for myself, and have succeeded in being in at the death. But then I am not a beginner, and I am surmising that _you_ are. Keep about six yards behind your leader; follow him unswervingly, and jump after him, but not on him. Always wait till he is well out of the way before you take the fence in his wake. Your horse will jump more readily having the example of his before him, but I cannot too well impress upon you the necessity of allowing him to get well over before you attempt to follow. One of the ugliest falls I ever got in my life was through riding too close upon my leader. The run was a very hot one, and only four of us were going at the time. None, in fact, but those who had first-rate horses had been able to live through it. We came to a wide branch of a river, swollen by recent rains. My pilot, going a rare pace, jumped it safely; I came too fast upon him. My horse's nose struck his animal's quarters, which, of course, threw my gallant little mount off his balance, and prevented his landing. He staggered and fell back, and we both got a drowning! I was dragged up with a boat-hook, the horse swam on until he found a place to scramble up the bank, and then galloped off over the country. I recollect standing dismally by that river, my pilot and two wreckers scraping the mud from me, and wringing my drenched garments, whilst two or three more were scouring the adjacent lands in search of my truant steed. When, at length, he was caught, I had eleven miles to ride to the place at which I had left my trap, and was obliged on arriving to change every atom of my clothing, and wash off the superabundant mud in a horse-bucket, kindly lent for the occasion. The fall involved the loss of the run, the loss of a habit, the loss of many odd shillings to wreckers, the loss of my temper, a wound from the boat-hook, and a heavy cold, the result of immersion on a perishing winter day. All these disasters were the punishments consequent upon my impetuosity in coming too close upon my leader; therefore, having thus myself suffered, I warn you, from woful experience, never to tread upon the horse jumping in advance of you. Allowing, even, that you do not cannon against him, there is another casualty which may not improbably occur. Supposing that he falls and throws his rider, your horse may in alighting just chance to plant a foot upon the empty saddle of the prostrate animal, the slippery nature of which throws him off his balance, and you and he roll upon the earth together--perhaps receiving a kick from your pilot's struggling mount. From this species of accident many evils have from time to time arisen, and therefore I dutifully endeavour to put you well upon your guard. I would also again remind you that if you really mean to ride an intricate country, you should never under any circumstances neglect to bring a change of clothing, for you may at any moment be dyked, and to remain in wet garments is highly dangerous,--not so long as you are exercising, but during the journey to your home. It is not in the saddle, but in vehicles and railway carriages that colds are contracted and the seeds of disease are sown. It may not be out of place here to offer you a piece of wholesome advice. Should you at any time have the ill-fortune to be riding a kicking horse in the midst of a crowd, always put back your hand when the cavalcade pauses, to warn those behind not to come too close to the heels of your unquiet steed. By so doing you may save an accident, and may, moreover, guard yourself from more than one anathema. I once saw the horse of a fiery old General kicked by the mount of a young nobleman, who thought it not worth his while to offer an apology. "See here, young man," said the irate officer, riding up to the offender's side, "whenever you come out to hunt on brutes like that you should paste a danger-card upon your back, and not run the risk of breaking valuable bones. I have said my say," he added, "and now _you may go to the devil_!" A few hints next as to jumping. If, in the course of a run, you meet with stone walls, do not ride too fast at them. Always steady your horse at such obstacles, and follow my oft-repeated advice of leaving him abundant head-room. If you have to cross a river or very wide ditch, come fast at it, in order that the impetus may swing you safely over; few horses can cross a wide jump without having what is called a "run at it." Never expect your animal to take such obstacles at a stand, or under the disadvantages consequent upon coming at them at a slow pace. Should the leap be a river or wide water-jump, suffer your horse to _stretch forward his head and neck_ when coming up to it. If you fail to do so, you will most probably go in, for an animal who accomplishes his work requires his liberty as an absolute necessity, and, if denied it, will teach you, at the cost of a good wetting, to treat him next time with greater consideration. You will frequently see men ride pretty boldly up to some yawning chasm or ugly bullfinch--stop and look at it, hesitate an instant, and then, by cruel spurring, urge an exhausted animal to take it at a stand. This is truly bad horsemanship, and leads to many direful results. A good rider will, on perceiving that the obstacle is a formidable one, turn his horse round, take him some little distance from it, and then, again turning, come fast at it--quick gallop, hands down, horse's head held straight and well in hand, but without any pulling or nervous reining in. Such a one will be pretty sure to get safely over. Should your horse, in jumping a fence, land badly, and slip his hind legs into a gripe or ditch, do not wait more than an instant to see if he can recover himself; you will know in that time whether he will be likely to do so. The best advice I can give you is to kick your foot free of the stirrup and jump off before he goes back. You will thus keep your own skin dry; and, if you have been fortunate enough to retain a light hold of the rein, you can rescue your horse without much difficulty; for an animal, when immersed, makes such intelligent efforts to release himself, that a very trifling assistance upon your part will enable him to struggle safely to your side, when you can remount him and try your chances of again picking up the hounds. Be cautious, however, in pulling him up, that you do so over smooth ground. I had a valuable young horse badly staked last season through being dragged up over a clump of brushwood after a fall into the Lara river. Should your steed peck on landing over a fence you will be pretty certain to come over his head, for this is an ugly accident, and one very likely to occur over recently-scoured drains. You _may_, however, save both yourself and him, if you are _smart_ in using your hands in assisting him to recover his lost equilibrium. In the event of your horse jumping short with you, either from having taken off too soon or from any other cause, and falling upon you into a gripe, you may (when you gain a little experience) be able to stick to him without leaving the saddle. The first effort a fallen animal makes is to try to get up; therefore, if you are not quite thrown, hold on to his mane, and as he struggles to right himself make your effort to regain your seat. Be guided, however, in doing this by observing with a quick glance whether there are thorns or brambles overgrowing the place, for if there are, and your horse on recovering himself strides onward in the ditch, seeking a place at which he may get out, your face will undoubtedly suffer. This sort of thing once occurred to me in the course of a day's hunting. I held on to my animal when he fell, and regained my seat without very much difficulty, but before I could recover my hold of the bridle he had rushed forward, and my face was terribly punished by the overhanging brambles. Be very careful, in this matter of holding on to a fallen animal, not to confound the mane with the rein. By clinging to the former you assist yourself without in the smallest degree impeding the movements of your horse; by clinging to the latter you seriously interfere with his efforts at recovery, and most probably pull him back upon you. And this brings me to the subject of hogging horses' manes. Never, under any circumstances, allow an animal of yours to be thus maltreated. Not only is it a vile disfigurement, depriving the horse of Nature's loveliest ornament, but it also deprives the rider of a very chief means of support in case of accident. Many a bad fall have I been saved by clutching firmly at the mane, which an ignorant groom had oft implored me to sacrifice; and many a good man and true have I seen recover himself by a like action, when a hog-maned animal would undoubtedly have brought him to grief. Grooms are especially fond of this system of "hogging," and many a beauteous adjunct of Nature's forming has been ruthlessly sacrificed to their ceaseless importunities to be permitted to "smarten the baste." Tails, too, are remorselessly clocked by these gentlemen of the stable; not that they really think it an improvement, any more than they veritably admire the hogging process, but it saves them trouble, it lightens their labours, they have less combing and grooming to attend to. Tails were sent by Nature, not merely as an ornament, but to enable the animal to whisk away the flies, which in hot weather render its life a burthen. Man, the ruthless master, by a cruel process of cutting and searing, deprives his helpless slave of one of its most valued and most necessary possessions. I do not myself advocate long switch tails, which are rarely an ornament, being usually covered with mud; but I maintain that "docking" is cruel and unnecessary, keeping the hairs closely and evenly cut being quite sufficient for purposes of cleanliness, without in any way interfering with the flesh; therefore, do not reject my oft-repeated plea for "a little more tail." CHAPTER VIII. HOLDING ON TO A PROSTRATE HORSE.--IS IT WISE OR OTHERWISE?--AN INDISCREET JUMP.--A DIFFICULT FINISH.--THE DANGERS OF MARSHY GROUNDS.--ENCOURAGE HUMANITY.--A RECLAIMED CABBY! To return to the subject of jumping. In the event of an ordinary fall in landing over a fence, it is a vexed question whether or not it is advisable to hold on by the rein whilst your horse is on the ground. I do not now mean when he is sunk in a ditch, but when he is prostrate upon even grass-land or upon smooth earth. Many first-rate riders affirm that it is a highly dangerous practice, therefore I am afraid to advocate it, and must speak with reserve--as I did respecting the management of a rearing animal--but for my own part I always do it. My experience is, that when a horse struggles to his feet his movement is almost invariably retrograde. He tries to get away, consequently his heels are turned from me; and so long as I keep my hold of the bridle his head will be nearest me and his feet furthest. He will not think of turning to kick me, unless he be a vilely vicious brute, not worth his keep; and so I can hold him with safety until I am up myself and ready to remount him. When my horse falls with me on the flat, I roll clear of him without letting go the rein, and as the only danger of a kick is whilst he is getting up, I shield my head with one arm and slip the rein to its fullest length with the other, thus allowing the animal so much head-room that he is enabled to make that retrograde movement, or "dragging away," which is natural to him, and which saves me from the possible contact of his heels. This is, in my opinion (which I cannot, of course, pretend to think infallible), the best course to pursue. It is the one which I always adopt, and I have never yet, except in one trifling instance, received a kick from a fallen horse. I remember one day, a couple of seasons ago, I was riding hard against a very beautiful Imperial lady, who dearly loves a little bit of rivalry. Neck and neck we had jumped most of the fences for forty minutes or so, and both our steeds were pretty well beaten, for the running had been continuous, without a check. We came to an awful obstacle--a high thick-set hedge, so impenetrable that there was no chance of knowing what might be on the other side. There was but one little apology for a gap, and at this the Empress's pilot rode--immediately putting up his hand as a warning to us not to follow, and pointing lower down. I knew that when Bay Middleton thought there was danger, it did, indeed, exist; but I was too much excited to stop. We had the hunt all to ourselves, the hounds running right in front of us, and not a soul with them. I came at the fence with whip, spur, and a shout! My horse--than which a better never was saddled--rose to the leap, and landing upon his head after a terrific drop, rolled completely over. I was not much hurt, and whilst he was on his knees getting up, I scrambled back to the saddle, and went on; but, oh! under what dire disadvantages! My rein had caught upon a stake in the fence and was broken clean off, and I fancy it was this chuck to my animal's mouth which had thrown him out of his stride and caused him to blunder, for it was the first and last mistake he ever made with me, nor could I, in the hurry of regaining my seat unassisted, get my foot into the stirrup; so I finished the run as if by a miracle, and astonished myself even more than anybody else by bringing home the fox's brush as a trophy that I was in at the death. Always bear in mind when hunting that you are bound to save your horse as much as possible. Jump no unnecessary fences; look out for a friendly gate whenever you can find one at hand; and in going up hill or over ploughed land, ease your animal and take your time. By acting thus judiciously you will be able to keep going when others are standing still. Always avoid bogs and heavy bottoms; they are most treacherous, and swamp many an unwary hunter in their dangerous depths. If you should ever have the bad fortune to be caught in one, dismount at once, and lead your horse. It is not a pleasant thing to have to do, but if you remain upon him, your weight, added to his own, will probably sink him up to his saddle-girths, and there he will stick. I would desire particularly to impress upon you that if your horse carries you safely and brilliantly through one good run, you ought to be contented with that, and not attempt to ride him a second. It is through the unwise and cruel habit of riding beaten animals that half the serious accidents occur. Also remember that if you are waiting at a covert-side where there seems likely to be a delay, after your steed has had a gallop or a long trot, you should get off his back and shift your saddle an inch one way or the other, generally backwards, as servants are usually apt in the first instance to place the saddle too close upon the withers. By adopting this plan you will, when you again get upon him, find him a new animal. If you or I were carrying a heavy burthen upon our shoulders for a certain number of hours in precisely the same position, would it not make a new being of us to have it eased and shifted? And exactly so it is with the horse. A selfish man will sit all day upon his beast, rather than take the trouble of getting off his back; but against himself does it tell, for his animal is fagged and jaded when that of a merciful man is able to keep its place in the run. There is nothing which should more fully engross the thoughts of the humane hunter than kindly consideration towards the noble and beautiful creature which God has sent to be the help of man. Your horse should be your companion, your friend, your loved and valued associate, but never your wronged and over-tasked slave. Humanity cries out with ready uproar against the long list of grievances which animals have to endure, yet how few of us exert ourselves to lighten the burthen by so much as one of our fingers! There is not one of us who may not, if he choose, be daily and hourly striving to curtail the load of misery which the equine race is called upon to bear. We may not be fortunate enough to possess horses ourselves upon which to exercise our humanity, but can we not do something--yea, much--for others? Surely we can, if we only possess the courage and the will. Even a word judiciously spoken will often effect more than we could have hoped or supposed. Two years ago I saw a cabman in Dublin cruelly ill-treating his horse. The poor animal was resting its worn and tired body upon the stand, ready for the wrench which its jaw would receive as soon as the next prospect of a "fare" should excite the cupidity of its owner. One would have thought that the sight of so much patient misery would have moved the stoniest heart to suffer the hapless creature to enjoy its few moments of needed repose. But no; the driver wanted some amusement, he was weary of standing by himself, without some sort of employment to divert his ignoble mind, and so he found such out. How? By beating upon the front legs and otherwise cruelly worrying with the whip the poor ill-used slave which he should have felt bound to protect. I saw it first from a distance--more fully as I came near--and with a heart bursting with sorrow and indignation, I crossed over and remonstrated with the man. I said very little; only what I have tried to inculcate in these pages--that humanity to quadrupeds is not only a duty which we owe to their Creator, but will in time repay ourselves. I expected nothing but abuse, and, indeed, the man's angry face and half-raised whip seemed to augur me no good; but, suddenly, as something that I said came home to him, his countenance softened, and, laying his hand quite gently upon the poor beaten side of the animal which he had been ill-treating, he said: "Well, if there was more like _you_, there 'ud be less like me! _that's_ the thruth, at all events." And then he said no more, for he was satisfied that I knew I had not spoken in vain. For two years that man has been my constant driver. He is almost daily at my door: he drives me to and from the trains when going to and returning from the hunts, and dearly loves to hear something of the runs; nor is there a more humane driver nor a better cared horse in any city of the empire. I have related this true incident, not from any egotism--God is my witness--but merely to show you how good is "a word in season." You may speak many which may be, or may seem to be, of none effect, but, like the "bread upon the waters," you know not when it may return unto you blessed. CHAPTER IX. SELFISHNESS IN THE FIELD.--FORDING A RIVER.--SHIRKING A FENCE.-- OVER-RIDING THE HOUNDS.--TREATMENT OF TIRED HUNTERS.--BIGWIG AND THE MAJOR.--NAUGHTY BIGWIG.--HAPLESS MAJOR. You must be particularly cautious in the hunting-field to avoid being cannoned against. There is no other place in the whole world where there is so little ceremony; and so very, very little politeness. It is verily a case of "Every man for himself, and the devil take the hindmost!" There is scarcely one man in the entire field who will not in his heart of hearts resent your presence, and so he will pay you no court. The crowding at gaps, and at certain negotiable places in different well-known fences is simply disgraceful; and persons--I cannot call them gentlemen--ride each other down like dogs. At such places you will be fortunate if you can enlist a friend to ride behind you, and thus prevent your being jumped upon in the event of a fall. I must not omit to remind you that in crossing a ford your horse will be very apt to lose his footing. You will know when he does so by his making a kind of plunge, and an endeavour to swim, which he only does when he feels himself out of his depth. If at such a time you interfere with his mouth, he will _inevitably_ roll over. Your only chance is to throw him the reins, and let him scramble or swim as he finds easiest. If the latter, lift your left leg (with foot still in the stirrup) completely over the third crutch, that he may not strike your heel with his near hind foot, or become in any way entangled with the stirrup or in your skirt. At the same time grasp the up-pommel firmly with your hand, that you may not be unseated when he makes his second struggle, which he will do as soon as he recovers his footing at the bottom of the water. A horse who shirks his fences is a terrible infliction to have to ride. Of course the first refusal condemns you to lose your place, for it is the etiquette of the hunting-field that if your horse refuses you must at once draw aside and let the whole field go by before you again essay it. But, provoked though you may be, do not allow yourself to be vanquished. If you do not now gain the victory your horse will always be your conqueror. Bring him again to the leap, keeping his head straight and your hands low and firm. If he refuses a second time, bring him round again and again, always turning him from right to left--that is, with the pressure upon you right rein--and not suffering him to have his own way. Remember that if you suffer him to conquer you or bring him to any other part of the fence than that which he is refusing, you will thoroughly spoil him. Do not, however, treat him with harshness. Coax him and speak gently to him. It may be nervousness, not temper; and if so, you will soon get him over by kindly encouragement. The horse is essentially a timid creature. He is oftentimes subjected to cruelties for his "obstinacy," where a little kindness and a few reassuring words would be infinitely more effectual. Every glance of your eye, every look upon your countenance is noted by your horse whilst he can see you, and, when you are upon his back, your words fall upon highly sensitive ears. A horse's soul is full of affection for his owner. He _yearns_ to please him. He would yield his life to serve him. Alas! how is such nobility requited? Man's cruelty converts a peerless and incomparable companion into a terrified and trembling slave. Young limbs are heavily weighted before they have had time to grow; dark, wretched, solitary confinement too early takes the place of the open air and free pasturage to which the creature would fain a little longer cling; young heads, pining for freedom, are tied or chained up in melancholy imprisonment. The numerous little devices with which the captive strives to while away the tedium of its captivity are punished as "vices" by heartless and ignorant grooms. Nervousness is called bad temper, and timidity regarded as a punishable offence. All the horrors of the modern stable are brought to bear upon the priceless creature who is born to freedom, and whose fettered limbs he is scarce permitted to stretch. A rack of dry, and oftentimes vitiated hay is placed _above_ the head which was created to stoop to gather the juicy grasses of the earth. A measure of hard dry corn, or a bucket of water, is periodically brought and thrust before the prisoner, who eats and drinks for mere pastime, often without appetite, and whose frequent rejection of the offered dainties is regarded as "sulkiness" or "vice." The whole system of modern stable management is lamentably at fault. I cannot hope to remedy it. I cannot persuade obstinate humanity that the expenditure of a few shillings will turn in as many pounds: that by the bestowal of proper care, proper housing, light, and exercise, and proper clothing, food, and drink, the slave will repay by longer life and more active service the care and kindness which Christianity should deem a pleasure and privilege, instead of, as now, a compulsory and doled-out gift. I cannot expect to remedy these wide and universal evils, nor yet can you; but we are bound--you and I--to guard against such things in our own management. If your horse oppose you through nervousness, you can conquer him by kindness; if through obstinacy, which is occasional but not frequent, you must adopt a different plan. Use your spur and whip, and show that you will not be mastered, though you stay there till the stars come out. You will be sure to conquer ere long, unless your horse is one of those inveterate brutes which are, fortunately, rarely to be met with, and when you succeed in getting him over the obstacle at which he has sulked, put him at it again, making him take it backwards and forwards, and he will not be likely to trouble you by a repetition of his pranks. You must be very cautious in the hunting-field not to leave yourself open to any suspicion of over-riding the hounds; keep close to them, but never so near as to be upon them. Over-riding hounds is a piece of unpardonable caddishness of which no gentleman, and certainly no lady, would be guilty; yet it is done; and then, when the master's wrath is aroused, the innocent suffer with the guilty, for many who are not absolutely offenders, ride too close in their zeal for the pleasures of the chase. When your day's sport is over, and you are riding back to the place at which you expect to meet your trap, remember that the easiest way to bring your horse in is in a quiet jog-trot. It is nonsense to walk him, for he will only stiffen, and will be the longer away from his stable and his needed rest. If you chance to come across a piece of water, ride him to it and let him have a few "go downs,"--six or eight, but not more. When you get off his back, see that his girths are loosed at once, and, if very tired, a little water thrown over his feet. He should then be taken quietly home--if by road, in the same easy trot--and just washed over and turned into a loose box, where he can tumble and luxuriate without submitting to any of the worries of professional grooming. Fifteen minutes after my return from hunting, my horse--sheeted and comfortable--is feeding quietly in his stall, enjoying his food and rest; instead of standing in some wet corner of a cold yard, with his unhappy head tied up by an unsympathizing rope, and a fussy groom worrying his tired body with a noisy display of most unnecessary zeal. And this is as it ought to be. Horses are like human beings,--they like to _rest_ when wearied, and their chief desire--if we would only believe it--is to be left alone. But we are incredulous, and so we hang about them, and fuss and worry the fagged and patient creatures who would fain appeal to us for a cessation of our attentions. There are few things more truly delightful than a mutual understanding and affection between horse and rider, and this can easily be arrived at by kindness and care. I have a hunter--Bigwig, son of The Lawyer--who follows me all over the place, knows my voice from any distance, rubs his nose down my dress, puts it into my pocket to look for apples, and licks my hands and face like a dog; yet I have done nothing to induce all this, except treating him with uniform justice and kindness. He has carried me most brilliantly through three successive seasons without one single display of sulk or bad temper. He knows not the _touch_ of a whip. I carry one, that the long lash, passed through his bridle, may assist him when necessary in getting over a trappy fence, at which I may deem it prudent to dismount, but the sight of it never inspires him with fear; if I showed it to him, he would probably lick it, and then gaze inquiringly at me to see if I were pleased with the novel performance. To me, this noble and beautiful creature is a priceless companion; yet, strange to say, nobody else (not even the most accomplished rider) can obtain any good of him. It is not that he displays vice, but he simply will not allow himself to be ridden. I once happened to mention this fact at our private dinner-table, in presence of a distinguished major, who had been boasting largely of his prowess in the saddle, and who at once offered to lay me ten to one that he would master the animal in question within five minutes. "I do not bet," I said, "but I will venture to assert that you will not be able to ride him out of the yard within as many hours." He took me up at once, and, as a good many sporting men were dining with us, who evidently enjoyed the prospect of a little excitement, I quietly called a servant, and sent orders to the groom to saddle Bigwig without delay. It was a lovely evening in summer, and we all adjourned to the yard to view the performance. The moment my beautiful pet saw me he whinnied joyously and strove to approach me, but I dared not go near him, in case it should be thought that by any sort of "Freemasonry" I induced him to carry out my words. The sight was most amusing; the gentlemen all standing about, smoking and laughing; the horse suspicious, and not at ease, quietly held by the groom, whose face was in a grin of expectation, for none knew better than he what was likely to ensue. The major prepared to mount, and Bigwig stood with the utmost placidity; although I must confess he was naughty enough to cast back an eye, which augured no good to the gallant representative of Her Majesty's service. He mounted without difficulty, took up the reins, and evidently prepared for a struggle; but none such ensued. Bigwig tucked his tail very tight to his body, walked quietly forward for a yard or two, and then, suddenly standing up as straight as a whip, the defeated major slid over his tail upon the hard ground, whilst the horse trotted back to his box. I have related for you this anecdote, not merely for your amusement, but to teach you never to boast. A braggart is ever the first to fall, and nobody sympathizes with him. If you become ever so successful in your management of horses, do not exert yourself to proclaim it. Suffer others to find it out if they will; but do not tell them of it, lest some day you share the fate of the prostrate and discomfited major. CHAPTER X. FEEDING HORSES.--FORAGE-BISCUITS.--IRISH PEASANTRY.--A CUNNING IDIOT.--A CABIN SUPPER.--THE ROGUISH MULE.--A DAY AT COURTOWN.-- PADDY'S OPINION OF THE EMPRESS. I said at the commencement of these pages that I should offer little or no discourse upon the general management of horses; yet, in one reserved instance, I may be permitted to break through my rule. If you want your hunters to thrive, do not let them have a single grain of raw oats. People have laughed at me when I said this, and have scarcely waited for the turning of my back to call me a mad woman; but a few of the scoffers have since come to thank me, and if you adopt my plan you will think that this little volume would have been cheap at a ten-pound note. There are, of course, times when raw oats must be given, for your horse may not always be in your own stable. At such times it is a good plan to mix chopped clover or grass through the feeding, taking care that grain and clover be thoroughly mingled. The judicious mixture of green meat will go far towards counteracting the binding effects which raw oats will be likely to have upon a horse not accustomed to it, and will also induce him to masticate his food, which an animal inured to softer feeding will otherwise be apt to neglect, wasting the corn by dropping it from his mouth in a slobbering fashion, making no use whatever of his grinders, and swallowing a certain portion without chewing it at all. I am, for various tried reasons, a thorough advocate for Mayhew's and Shingler's style of feeding upon cooked food, mingled, of course, with good sweet hay, or an admixture of the juicy grasses upon which the animal in its unfettered state would be prone to live. In my stable-yard are a large boiler and an unlimited supply of good water. The groom boils sufficient oats to do for two or three days, and, when cool, mixes through it a small proportion of bruised Indian corn. On this the horses are fed as with ordinary oats three times daily, and so enjoy the feeding that not one grain is left in the mangers, which are placed _low upon the ground_. The surest proof of the efficacy of this excellent and economical feeding is that my horses never sweat, never blow, never tire. When other hunters are standing still, mine have not turned a hair; and, as prize-winners and brilliant goers, they cannot be excelled. The principle I go on is this:--If I eat a cupful of raw rice, it certainly does me no good; but if I boil it, it makes three or four times the quantity of good, wholesome, digestible food, every grain of which goes to the nourishment of my body. And it is precisely so with the oats and the horse. In addition to this feeding, I give abundance of good, sweet, _moist_ hay, varied by green food in summer, substituting carrots in the winter-time, of which vegetable they are particularly fond. The carrots are given whole, either from my hand or put loosely in the manger. I never suffer them to be cut up, unless it be done _very finely_, either by myself or under my supervision, to induce a delicate feeder to taste his food through which the chopped carrots are rubbed. Grooms, with their accustomed ignorance, are almost always in favour of the "cutting up," but I regard it as a most dangerous practice. If the carrot be left whole the horse will nibble at it, and will bite off just such pieces as he knows he can chew and swallow, but there is more than one instance upon record of horses choking themselves with pieces of cut carrot, and very many who have nearly done so. I can feed my horses upon this system for very little more than half the sum which my neighbours are expending, with advantages which are certainly fourfold. I consider it an excellent plan to vary horses' feeding, as it tells quite as beneficially upon animals as upon ourselves;--and for this purpose there cannot, in my opinion, be anything better than the forage-biscuits, manufactured by Spratt & Co., Henry Street, London, ten of which are equal to one good feed of oats, and are so relished that not so much as a crumb is suffered to go to waste. They combine all the most nutritious of grains, with dates and linseed added in such proportions as experience has pointed out to the inventor to be the best. They are then baked, and thoroughly dried, so that they are entirely deprived of moisture, and will consequently keep good for any length of time. The baking process being complete, they are, when eaten, practically half-digested,--or, as I may say, they present the materials to the horse in the most digestible form in which it is possible to give them. There are certain chemicals used in very minute quantities in the manufacture of these biscuits, which are productive of highly beneficial effects upon animals thus fed,--improving their muscular development, and imparting to their coats a peculiarly healthy and brilliant appearance. One feed of the forage-biscuits three or four times weekly is the proper allowance,--and they should be given whole, as the same objection applies to the breaking of them as I have set forth in my dissertation upon the cutting up of carrots. I now desire to warn you that if you hunt in Ireland you must be prepared for the laughable and most ingenious frauds which the poor people--alas! _how_ poor--will certainly endeavour to practise upon you. I can, and do most fully, commiserate their poverty, but with their attempts at imposition I have long since lost patience. Doubtless they think that everybody who hunts is of necessity a rich person, and conceive the idea that by fleecing the wealthy they will aid in blotting out the poverty of the land. Nothing delights the old cottage-woman more than to kill an ancient hen or duck on a hunting-morning, and then, when the hunt comes sweeping past her door, out rushes the beldame with the bird concealed beneath her apron, and throwing it deftly--positively by a species of sleight of hand--beneath your horse's hoofs, kicks up a mighty whining, and declares that you have "kilt her beauty-ful fowl!" I was so taken aback upon the first of these occasions that I actually stopped and paid the price demanded; but, finding that the same thing occurred the following week in a different locality, I ascertained that it was a trick and declined to be farther hocussed. It is likewise a common thing for a man to accost you, demanding a shilling, and declaring that it was he who pulled your ladyship's horse out of the ditch or quagmire on such and such a day. You do not remember ever having seen his face before; but if you are a hard-riding lady you will be so frequently assisted out of difficulties that you cannot undertake to say who nor how many may have helped you unrewarded, and, being unwilling that any should so suffer, you bestow the coin, most likely in many instances, until you find that your generosity has become known and is consequently being traded upon. I remember one day, a couple of winters ago, when returning from hunting, I lost my way, and being desirous of speedily re-finding it, I accosted a ragged being whom I saw standing at a corner where four roads met, and inquired of him the most direct route to the point which I was desirous of reaching. The creature hitched his shoulders, scratched his collarless neck, pushed the hat from his sunburnt forehead, and, finally, looking down and rubbing the fore-finger of his right hand upon the palm of his left, thus delivered himself: "I axed him for a ha'penny, and he wouldn't give it to me; but he put his hand into his pocket and pulled out a pinny, and gave it to me, and I took it in--ho, ho! and he gave me a letter to take up to Mrs. Johnston, and when I took it to her, she opened it and read it. Now, didn't I give her the letter?" "Really," said I, "I know nothing about Mrs. Johnston nor her letter. I want to know the nearest way to Dunboyne station." "I axed him for a ha'penny," began the man again. And then I had the whole story of the "pinny" and "Mrs. Johnston" repeated for me over and over, without a smile or any variation, until my vexation vanished, and I fairly roared with laughter. Guessing at once how the land lay, I produced a little coin with which I presented him, and which he immediately pocketed, and, touching his ragged feather, pointed down one of the roads, and said quite sensibly, "That's the right road, my lady." And so I found it. This man, I was subsequently informed, made quite a respectable maintenance by stationing himself at the cross-roads on daily duty, and informing every passer-by that he "axed for a ha'penny" but was generously treated to a "pinny," together with the story of Mrs. Johnston and her letter, accompanied by all the shruggings, and scratchings, and sniffings, which never failed to provoke the laughter of the hearer and to elicit the coveted coin. The Irish, with all their little failings, are a hospitable people, and full of pungent wit. I was one evening wending my way to Sallins station, after a long and wearisome day's hunting. My tired horse was suffering from an over-reach, and I was taking him as quietly as I could, consistently with my anxiety to be in time to catch the train by which I desired to return to town. So utterly jaded were we both--I and my steed--that the way appeared very long indeed, and I asked the first countryman whom I met how far it was to Sallins. "Three miles," he told me, and I jogged on again. When we had traversed quite a long distance, and I thought I must be very near my journey's end, I ventured upon asking the same question of a farmer whom I met riding a big horse in an opposite direction to that in which I was myself going. It was a matter of about two miles, he told me, or mayhap three, but not more he thought, and I was certainly not going wrong; I was on the right road, and no mistake. I took out my watch. No hope for me now. I was undoubtedly late for the train which I had hoped to catch, and must wait two long hours for the next. A poor-looking little cottage was close at hand; to it I trotted, and looked in at the door. The family were at supper, all gathered about a narrow table, in the middle of which lay a pile of unpeeled potatoes and a little salt. The mule, upon which much of their fortune depended, was supping with them; thrusting his poor attenuated nose over the shoulders of the children, and occasionally snatching a potato, always receiving a box for so doing, to which, however, he paid no sort of heed. I was at once invited to enter, and gladly accepted the invitation, for I was cold and tired, pleased to ease my horse and get him a draught of meal and water. I sat down in the chimney-corner, thankful for the rest, but determined to withstand all entreaties to share the family supper, and my risible faculties were sorely put to the test, when my host, balancing a potato upon his fork and dipping it in the salt, presented it to me, saying, "Arrah! take it my lady, just _for the jig o' the thing_!" Of course I took it; and never have I enjoyed the richest luxury of an _à la Russe_ dinner more than that simple potato in a poor man's cabin, in company with the mule and the pigs. When I stood up to go I carefully inquired the distance, for it was dark, and I had long since lost the remainder of my party. The man offered to accompany me to the station, and I believe he was actuated solely by civility, and not by any hope of gain. My horse was sadly done up; he had stiffened on the over-reach, and limped painfully. We proceeded but slowly, and, sighing for the patient suffering of my dearly-loved steed, I made the observation that the miles were very long indeed. "They _are_ long, my lady," said the man, who was walking before me with a lanthorn; "but, shure and faith, if they're long they're narra'!" And with this most intelligent observation he closed his mouth, and left me to ponder upon it undisturbed until we arrived at the station. One more anecdote, and I have done with them. On one of last season's hunting-days the hounds met at Courtown, and great excitement was abroad, for the Imperial lady was expected to join the chase. She was, however, prevented through indisposition from attending, but Prince Liechtenstein and a very distinguished company came over from Summerhill. As we were trotting to the covert the country-folks were all on the alert, for not having heard of the disappointment respecting the Empress they were anxiously expecting her, and many were the surmises respecting her identity. I was riding close to the front, escorted by Lord Cloncurry, and as we swept past one of the wayside cottages, two men and a woman rushed out to stare at us and to give their opinions upon the "Impress." "Which is she?" cried the female, shading her eyes to have a good look,--"That must be _her_ in front, with his lordship. Oh! isn't she lovely? A quane, every inch!" "Arrah! shut up, woman," said one of the men, testily interrupting her. "That's not her at all, nor a taste like her! _The Impress is a good-lookin' woman._" I need not say that this genuinely-uttered remark took the wind completely out of my sails, and that I have never since dreamed of comparing my personal appearance with that of any woman whom an Irishman would call "good-lookin'." CHAPTER XI. THE DOUBLE-RISE.--POINTING OUT THE RIGHT FOOT.--THE FORCE OF HABIT. --VARIOUS KINDS OF FAULT-FINDING.--MR. STURGESS' PICTURES.--AN ENGLISH HARVEST-HOME.--A JEALOUS SHREW.--A SHY BLACKSMITH.--HOW IRISHMEN GET PARTNERS AT A DANCE. I shall now touch very briefly upon one or two points which I have not before mentioned, but which may, nevertheless, prove interesting to some lady riders. Firstly, then, I shall speak of the annoyance--sometimes a serious one--which ladies experience from what is known as the _double rise_ in the trot. I have been asked is it preventible. Before suggesting a remedy for anything--be it ailment or habit--we must endeavour to get at the _cause_ of the evil complained of. The most successful medical men are those who first take time and pains to ascertain the wherefore, and then seek to effect the cure. The extremely ungraceful and unpleasant motion known as the "double rise" is attributable to two distinct causes. It is due either to the horse or to the rider, and to the one quite as frequently as to the other. A large, heavy animal, with slow and clumsy action will, if ridden by a lady, be almost certain to necessitate the double rise. This I know by the certainty derived from experience. I was staying some time ago at a house in the midst of our finest hunting county in Ireland, namely, royal Meath. The owner was a great hunting-man in both senses of the word, for he was a superb cross-country rider, and, if put in the scales, would pull down sixteen stone. Being a top-weight he always rode immense horses--elephants I used to call them, greatly to his indignation. Very good he was about lending me one of these huge creatures whenever I felt desirous of joining the chase, which I confess was but seldom, for the first day upon which I accepted a mount we left off eighteen miles from home, and I was so exhausted by the time we arrived there, that I fairly fainted before reaching my own chamber. It was not the distance which tired me, although it was a pretty good one, but the fact that I was troubled with the double-rise all the way. I strove in vain to remedy it by urging my gigantic steed to a faster trot, and making him go up to his bridle; but the moment I began to experience a little relief, my companion--dear old man, now in heaven!--would say, "Well, that is the worst of ladies riding: they must always either creep in a walk, or bucket their horses along at an unnecessary pace. _Why_ can't you jog on quietly, as I do?" He was clearly not suffering from the annoyance which was vexing and fatiguing me. I looked at him closely, watched his motion in the saddle--that slow, slow rise and fall--I compared it with mine, our pace being the same, and the mystery was at once solved. Both horses were trotting exactly together, keeping step, as the saying goes, yet my companion was at ease whilst I was in torment. Why was this? Because he had a leg at either side of his mount, his weight equally distributed, and an equal support upon both sides; in fact, he had, as all male riders have, the advantage of a _double_ support in the rise; consequently, at the moment when his weight was removed from the saddle, it was thrown upon both feet, and this equal distribution enabled him to accomplish without fatigue that slow rise and fall which is so tiring to a lady, whose weight when she is out of the saddle is thrown entirely upon one delicate limb, thus inducing her to fall again as soon as possible, which, if riding a clumsy animal, she is constrained to do _at variance_, as it were, with his tedious and heavy motion, and hence the inconvenience of the double rise. To illustrate my meaning, and explain more fully how it happens that men never complain of this particular evil: a man will be able to stand in his stirrups for a considerable time, even to ride a gallop so doing, because he transfers his weight _equally_ to this feet; but how rarely do we see a lady balanced upon one leg! Never, except it be for a single instant whilst arranging her skirt or trying her stirrup. The sensation is not agreeable, and would be, moreover, unpleasantly productive of wrung backs. A heavy horse is never in any way suitable to a lady. It _looks_ amiss. The trot is invariably laboured, and if the animal should chance to fall, he gives his rider what we know in the hunting-field as "a mighty crusher!" It is, indeed, a rare thing to meet a perfect "lady's horse." In all my wide experience I have met but two. Breeding is necessary for stability and speed--two things most essential to a hunter; but good _light_ action is, for a roadster, positively indispensable, and a horse who does not possess it is a burden to his rider, and is, moreover, exceedingly unsafe, as he is apt to stumble at every rut and stone. The double rise may also, as I said, be quite attributable to the rider. A careless way of riding may occasion it, sitting loosely in the saddle, and allowing your horse to go asleep over his work. Pull you mount together, so as to throw his weight upon his haunches, not upon his shoulders. Keep your reins close in hand. Rise, so that you shall be out of the saddle when his off fore-leg is thrown out, and I do not think you will have much to complain of from the annoyance occasioned by the double rise. I have dwelt upon this subject because so many have asked me privately for a cure for it, and I have surmised that numerous others, who have not had opportunity--nor perhaps courage--to ask, will nevertheless be pleased to receive a hint. It has also been inquired of me whether there is any remedy for that excessively unsightly practice of sticking out the right foot when in the saddle, as we have seen so many ladies do, until the toe is positively almost resting upon the horse's neck. There is, of course, a remedy; a most effectual one. _Don't do it._ It is quite possible and even easy to keep the right leg as close to the saddle as the left, the toe pointing downward, and the knee well bent. I know, however, that in some cases the position objected to is consequent upon the up-pommel of the saddle being placed too near the off one, thus there is not sufficient space for the leg to lie easily, and consequently it sticks out in the ungraceful manner so often seen and deplored. In many instances, also, it is habit; a bad practice, indulged in at first without notice, and then, when confirmed, most difficult to eradicate. These pernicious habits are extremely apt to grow upon all of us, unless most carefully watched, I have seen ladies utterly disfigure their appearance in the saddle by placing a hand upon their side, or, worse again, behind their back, and riding along in this jaunty style with an air as though they thought themselves the most elegant creatures in creation. Others keep their elbows a-kimbo, and fairly churn themselves in the saddle with every rise and fall. Others, again, acquire a habit of tipping their horse with the whip in an altogether unnecessary manner. It is not actually enough to hurt the animal, but is amply sufficient to worry and ruffle his temper. No horse fit to carry a lady requires to be constantly reminded of his work. A whip in a woman's hand should be more for show, and to give completeness to the picture, than for purposes of castigation. Nothing looks worse nor more ungentle than to see it wantonly applied. It has been said, "Spare the rod and spoil the child," but I cannot agree with the theory. Rod and whip may be alike useful in (happily) isolated cases, but I do not envy the disposition of child or animal who cannot be made amenable by less ungentle means. Practices which are the result of habit may be checked, and quite effectually, by the bestowal of a little care. We want first some kindly friend to tell us of them; we next require the common sense and good feeling not to be offended at the telling; and, finally, we need the patience and perseverance which are born of the _determination_ to overcome the fault. With regard to the telling, how few of us know how to tell! There are just the two ways, or perhaps I should say three. There is the cold, carping, disagreeable fault-finding manner, which picks holes for the mere pleasure of picking them, and the unworthy delight of seeing how the victim writhes beneath the torture. There is the snake-like, insidious fault-finding--the worst and most dangerous of all--which invariably commences with the words, "You know, my dear, I am only telling you for your own good." This species of fault-finding is peculiar to the _female_ friend, and is invariably served up with an admixture of honey and gall, so skilfully compounded that the very soul of the listener is exercised and deceived. "Her words were smoother than oil, yet were they drawn swords." Lastly, there is the genuine, honest, open-hearted, fault-finding, which bears no malice, and is too true to clothe itself with the garment of deceit. By this alone we should be influenced or seek to influence others; but, for my own part, as I have already said, I have found the world so inordinately self-opinionated and determined _not_ to be advised, that I have long since ceased to offer counsel, and only give it when requested. Long ago, when I first began to write, I was jealous of all interference, and invariably prefaced my letters to my Editors with, "Please do not alter anything in my MS." Poor blind child I was then, groping about in the dark, and sadly needing the helping hand which I was so obstinately rejecting. Well, we gain sense with years, and wisdom with experience. Now that I have got on in the world, in every sense of the word, I am only too anxious for advice, and ready to grasp at every friendly hint. And so it should be with riding as with writing. Take all kindly counsel in good part, and if given advice ask for more. Bad habits grow upon us with giant force; they strengthen with our strength, because we know not of them, or blindly refuse to be controlled. I dare say a good many of us are acquainted with a very famous queen of song who always holds her hands crossed and her thumbs turned stiffly up whilst she is singing. I do not believe she is at all aware of the peculiarity of her attitude, and perhaps she could not sing half so well nor sweetly if she altered it. In like manner I told you, in the earlier portion of this volume, of a young lady who could not ride a yard without laying a firm grip upon the off-pommel of her saddle. These things are habit; we do them without consciousness; we are not aware of anything unusual in ourselves, but when the knowledge comes to us (which it soon will if we are known to possess sufficient sweetness to take a hint) we should turn it to advantage, and so improve with time. I recollect that when these writings of mine were first issued in the journal to which they originally owed their appearance, a dear lady wrote to me all the way from Rhode Island, U.S.A., asking me for hints upon various subjects, and likewise offering me a few such, with so much sweetness that I not alone accepted, but welcomed and adopted them. She asked me many questions relative to the pictures with which my various subjects were illustrated, and admired very warmly the spirited drawings which Mr. Sturgess had made of my leap into the farmyard and also of "The first fence." Many of my readers may recollect them; and as there was, at the time, much discussion respecting the position of my feet as portrayed in the former picture, I take this opportunity of ranging myself upon the artist's side, for, after much thoughtful inspection of the picture, I arrived at the conclusion that he was perfectly correct, and the position quite such as must of necessity be, in the event of a runaway steed clearing such an obstacle with a wearied and startled rider scarce able to retain her seat upon his back. Even had the artist been mistaken--which I am bound to say he was not--the matter need scarcely have evoked criticism, for his strong point is his delineation of horses, and as he has no equal in this particular branch of art, he may well be forgiven if such trifles as a lady's feet occasionally puzzle him a little! Moreover, he draws with a view to producing effect as much as ensuring stereotyped correctness. I recollect when I saw that picture I sounded my protest against the flowing skirt and flying veil: two things quite foreign to my style of riding-dress, which is always severely close-fitting and _curtailed_. His answer certainly carried weight. The skirt and veil were necessary to impart an appearance of rapid motion, or flying through the air. He was quite right, and I was decidedly wrong. I felt ashamed of myself, begged his pardon mentally, and atoned for my audacity by henceforward believing blindly in his judgment. I recollect laughing much at the time at a grave suggestion made to me by a dear old lady, who thought there might be a particular reason why Mr. Sturgess was (in her opinion) less successful in depicting lady equestrians than when pursuing any other branch of his enchanting art. Neither she nor I had or have, unfortunately, the pleasure of his personal acquaintance, but we thought there might possibly be somebody in authority who strongly objected to his studying the details of the fair creatures whom he has occasionally to draw. To show that such things may be, and actually are, in real life, I recollect that when I was staying some two or three years ago at a famous house in the north of England, a gay harvest-home took place, and the servants and labourers had a dance in the barn. I and my husband, our host and hostess, and numerous guests staying at the castle, went out to see the fun, and greatly was I struck with the gallant appearance of the old barn, so gaily decorated with corn, and the fiddler fiddling away upon a beer-barrel! A mighty cheer was raised for us when we all, in full evening dress, joined the motley company of revellers, and the lord of the soil led off a country dance with a blushing mountain-lass, followed by her ladyship with an equally humble partner. The blacksmith was an Irishman, and looked very shy, as Irishmen invariably do in presence of the fair sex(?) I knew him as a workman upon the estate--I knew also that his wife, a very ugly woman, was a terribly jealous shrew--and, actuated by a spirit of mischief, I went and asked him to dance; but he only grinned, blushed, and said, "No, thank you, ma'am; _I'm a married man!_" My husband, who was standing by, said laughingly, "Why, Brian, you ought to feel flattered to be asked. Give Mrs. O'Donoghue your arm, and take your place for the dance." "O, faix," said Brian, hastening to obey, "if _you_ have no objection, I'm sure _I_ have none. _Let her come on!_ Only," he added, pausing and scratching his head, "begorrah, _I hope my wife won't see me!_" CHAPTER XII. SUBJECT OF FEEDING RESUMED.--COOKED FOOD RECOMMENDED.--EFFECTS OF RAW OATS UPON "PLEADER."--SERVANTS' OBJECTIONS.--SNAFFLE-BRIDLE, AND BIT-AND-BRIDOON.--KINDNESS TO THE POOR.--AN UNSYMPATHETIC LADY.--AN UNGALLANT CAPTAIN.--WHAT IS A GENTLEMAN?--_AU REVOIR!_ My remarks upon the subject of feeding horses, having gained publicity through the columns of the press, have called forth much comment and adverse criticism. Some have evidently considered--and have not hesitated to say--that I have written the veriest twaddle; but happily there is a reverse side to the picture, and many (including one very august personage indeed) have expressed a determination to adopt my system. Beans are such excellent feeding that I cannot object to an admixture of them, and to most English horses they are almost a necessity; but in Ireland we care little about them. It is unwise to give too much hay. I said "abundance" on a former page, but the word, as I used it, did not signify a large quantity. For horses fed three times daily upon a plentiful measure of oats, crushed Indian corn, and beans if desired, a few handfuls of hay will be amply sufficient, and this should be placed where the horse can stoop to it, but never above him, as in the effort to disengage it from the rack the seeds fall in his eyes and produce irritation, and sometimes permanent disease. A bran-mash on a Saturday night, or after a hard day, forms an admirable variety to the ordinary feeding routine. Let the bran be thoroughly well steeped and mixed, and a portion of cooked oats or chopped carrots intermingled with it. This will induce almost any animal to partake of the bran, from which otherwise many delicate feeders will resolutely turn. I have strongly recommended cooked feeding, even against the uproar of a general outcry against it, because I have seen and proved its efficacy. Last November, on the first Tuesday in the month--the opening day with the Kildare hounds--we had a splendid run, during which, however, I was amazed to find that my great horse, Pleader, sweated heavily--a thing which had never previously been the case. In fact, it had always been my boast that when other horses were thoroughly done, mine had not turned a hair; but, on the day in question, he was in a white lather, and I thought appeared distressed. Upon coming home, and speaking about it in my stable, I was informed that the boiler was in some way out of order, and the horses had, unknown to me, been fed upon uncooked oats during the preceding three days. Had I required any confirmation of my theory, this circumstance would certainly have furnished it, and entirely defeats the general supposition that cooked food renders horses soft. I have now given the best advice I can upon the subject of feeding, and I shall not again refer to it, nor to anything connected with the treatment or stable management of horses, as the subject is an endless one, everybody entertaining an opinion of his own, which it shall not be my ambition to upset. What I have said has been in kindness, and with a view to benefiting both man and beast; but I do not by any means expect the majority of my readers to coincide in my views. There is a stolid determination general throughout the world to stick to old customs and old-fashioned ways and habits, no matter how excellent the modern ones may be, and so the "horse and mill" go daily round. Masters object to my system because it involves an outlay in the erecting of a proper boiler and other necessary adjuncts; servants object to it because it gives them a little additional trouble. It is far easier to lounge to the oat-bin, fill a measure from it, and thrust it before the animal, not caring whether it is rejected or otherwise, than to fetch the water and fill the boiler and go through the labours of a process which, in itself exceedingly simple, is made to appear complicated and laborious by the amount of fuss and discontent which are brought to bear upon the work. There is an old saying, "If you want a thing well done, do it yourself"; but, unfortunately, there are some things--and this is one--which ladies and gentlemen cannot do, and there is no doubt whatever that servants accustomed to the old style of management will never willingly adopt the new--unless they belong to that rare and select and most exclusive _few_ who have their masters' interest at heart. Much information has been asked of me relative to the subject of holding reins. How often shall I say that there is no fixed rule, and that a method which may look well for park-riding will be totally out of place in the hunting-field. I have been asked how I hold my own bridle, and I shall answer that I almost invariably ride with a single rein, and you can understand my method readily if you will follow me whilst I endeavour to explain. Take your pocket-handkerchief, pass it through the back of any ordinary chair, and bring the ends evenly towards you, holding them for an instant with your right hand, which must, _pro tem._, represent the buckle. Place your left hand within the loop thus formed, the little finger resting firmly against the near-side, about four inches above the right hand; grasp the opposite side between the forefinger and thumb, left hand (the two sides of the handkerchief representing the reins); press the off-side slightly inward with the pressure of your thumb, slipping it entirely away from the control of the right hand; then bring the near-side, which still is held loosely by the right, under the thumb of the left, and hold it firmly. You will thus see that you establish a sort of "cross rein," and that you have, and are able to maintain, a secure grip upon either side. By an outward movement or slight turning of the wrist, accompanied by pressure of the little finger, you will control your horse upon the near-side of his mouth, whilst by an inward movement and pressure of the forefinger you will be able to command him upon the other or off-side. It must be borne in mind that these movements should be from the wrist _only_, and not from the arm or shoulder. A good rider will keep the elbows close to the sides, just drawing the line finely between that pinioned look which is so disfiguring, and the detestable flapping, like the wings of an unquiet bird, in which so many riders, both male and female, so frequently indulge. I have seen ladies, who wished to have an appearance of hard riding, leaning forward in the saddle and working their elbows in an unsightly manner, the hands (influenced by the elbows) sawing also, and the poor horse, with open mouth and straining jaws, staggering along in distress, fighting his bridle, and presenting altogether a melancholy spectacle. A firm even seat, elbows close, head erect, and strong steady hands held _low_--these are the characteristics of a good and lady-like rider. In going across country put _both_ hands to your bridle, and keep your horse's head straight and well in hand, but do not attempt to pull him nor interfere with him at his fences, or you will undoubtedly come to grief. If you ride with a bit and bridoon my advice is, ride your horse--even though he be a puller--upon the snaffle, and keep the curb rein looped over your little finger, hanging quite loose, yet in such a position that you can if necessary take it up at a second's notice. I cannot too often impress upon you the advisability of being conciliatory and kind in your manner to everybody with whom you may come in contact. No matter how exalted your rank may be, you can all the better afford to be courteous to those beneath you. Kind words cost nothing, and are as balm to the hearer. Many of the lower orders are quite as much gentry at heart, and far more so, than those who hide their unworthiness beneath the convenient shadow of a "family tree." I have been more than once pained upon hunting days by the extreme contempt and rudeness with which ladies have treated the poor, who have asked nothing from them save the innocent and inexpensive privilege of seeing them mount and canter away with the field. It is all very well to say, "I do not like to be stared at," but even to those who _most_ dislike it, surely it is worth a little self-sacrifice to see the undisguised enjoyment and listen to the original observations of the Irish peasantry, to whom a sight of the hounds--especially when followed by ladies--is a treat they never care to miss. I was riding last winter in company with a lady, very noble, very handsome, very proud. We came up to a branch of a river, upon the brink of which some country folk had gathered, with the innocent desire of seeing it jumped. A poor man, very quiet-looking and harmless, was actually knocked down and immersed in the water by a reckless young officer, who galloped over him, and went on without even glancing back at the spot where the poor half-drowned creature stood wringing his dripping clothing, yet not uttering a syllable of reproach. My companion roared with laughter, first at the catastrophe, and then at me for sympathising with the sufferer. "Apologise!" she cried, in a high key. "_How_ could Captain Dash apologise to a man like that? It would be different had he been a _gentleman_." I thought so too, if the meaning of the word "he" had only been reversed; but I said nothing, and we went on. A few fields further we came to a terrible obstacle--a high post and rails, with a deep and yawning ditch upon the landing side. Three or four of us went at it: the rest turned away and sought the road. I got over safely, my noble Pleader proving himself, as usual, worthy of my confidence. Captain Dash came next, safely also; and then my ill-starred lady friend, whose horse (an inferior timber-jumper) bungled, and left her completely prostrate upon the wet earth. Never a pause did Captain Dash make in his onward career, although he glanced back when he heard her shriek, and, incredible as it may appear, I thought I saw him smile, for it was ever his saying that ladies had no business hunting, and always deserved mischance; but the poor man, at whose immersion she had laughed a few moments before, came running to her relief, rendered her every assistance in his power, replaced her in the saddle, expressed regret for her accident, and positively declined to accept of any remuneration for his services. Which of these men, think you, was the gentleman? I know what I thought respecting the question; and I judged that my friend's opinion was formed as mine, for she now loves and cares the poor, and suffers the rich to care themselves, as every true-hearted and Christian woman should; and, moreover, on glancing over a book of my poems which I lent her some time later, I found a leaf turned down, as though to mark these lines-- "What is a gentleman? Is it a thing Decked with a scarf-pin, a chain, and a ring, Dressed in a suit of immaculate style, Sporting an eye-glass, a lisp, and a smile? Talking of operas, concerts, and balls, Evening assemblies, and afternoon calls, Sunning himself at "at homes" and bazaars, Whistling mazurkas, and smoking cigars? "What is a gentleman? Say, is it one Boasting of conquests and deeds he has done, One who unblushingly glories to speak Things which should call up a flush to his cheek? One who, whilst railing at actions unjust, Robs some young heart of its pureness and trust; Scorns to steal money, or jewels, or wealth, Thinks it no crime to take honour by stealth? "What is a gentleman? Is it not one Knowing instinctively what he should shun, Speaking no word that could injure or pain, Spreading no scandal and deep'ning no stain? One who knows how to put each at his ease, Striving instinctively always to please; One who can tell by a glance at your cheek When to be silent, and when he should speak? "What is a gentleman? Is it not one Honestly eating the bread he has won, Living in uprightness, fearing his God, Leaving no stain on the path he has trod? Caring not whether his coat may be old, Prizing sincerity far above gold, Recking not whether his hand may be hard, Stretching it boldly to grasp its reward? "What is a gentleman? Say, is it birth Makes a man noble, or adds to his worth? Is there a family-tree to be had Shady enough to conceal what is bad? Seek out the man who has God for his Guide, Nothing to blush for, and nothing to hide; Be he a noble, or be he in trade, _This_ is the Gentleman NATURE has made." Now, kind reader, farewell. If I have given you instruction, called a laugh to your lips, or taught you to prize and cherish the priceless creature which God has generously sent for our enjoyment and our use, I shall cheerfully lay aside my pen, happy in the conviction that I have not written in vain. Yet, shall I say in the song-words, "_Au revoir. Pas adieu!_" for we meet again, I trust, soon and often; but the subject upon which I have been writing has come to an end. Whilst acknowledging the kindness of my friends, I would desire also to shake hands with my enemies. Life is short, and so it behoves us to bear no malice. To those who have unkindly criticised me I offer freely a forgiving hand and heart. I have never wilfully offended any, and if my efforts have not come quite up to the standard of excellence which certain captious critics have set up, I have at least done my best, and have been careful, in propounding theories which might appear new and uncommon, to state that such things were according to my notions, in which, however, I did not expect all persons to coincide. So long as the world lasts so long will there be differences of opinion; but it is not because such exist that ill-feeling should creep in, and Christian charity become a thing of nought. In ancient days, when the Apostles were upon the earth, these things were as they are now; yet the Great Example, to whose pure and simple teaching we all hopefully look, inspired the command, "_Let brotherly love continue._" So be it, reader, with you and with me. PART IV. HUNTING IN IRELAND. There is at present a mighty outcry in our poor land. Not against "battle, murder, and sudden death," landlord-killing, and "Boycotting," but against our royal pastime--hunting. The tenant-farmers are uproarious in their opposition to it; and, with a headstrong determination which cannot be too strongly condemned, refuse to listen to the voice of the reasoner. We are but in the beginning of our season, yet is our prospect marred and our pleasure spoilt by the blind idiotcy, not of the few, but, unfortunately, of the many. They have but one cry, "You are ruining our grass-lands!" A more egregious error could not possibly exist. Is it wilful blindness or merely the desire to banish landlordism from the country which induces this senseless outcry? If the latter, there is unhappily every probability that the outcriers will succeed; if the former, there may be some hope of ultimately unclosing their sealed eyelids. A body of horsemen galloping over grassland during the hunting season can never occasion injury; it is simply an absurdity to endeavour to maintain a contrary theory. A great friend of mine and a most practical gentleman, who possesses a large common attached to his grounds, upon which he can, if desirable, exercise his horses, always prefers doing so throughout the winter upon his finest grass-land. He maintains, and correctly, that they do it an immensity of good, and once offered (to prove the correctness of his judgment) to give the use of the said land to the colonel of a cavalry regiment stationed in his vicinity--to do all his work upon throughout the winter months. The offer, after some demur, was accepted, and proved to be most advantageous to the land-owner. Being an enthusiastic follower of the Ward Union stag-hounds, I am enabled to state that I have galloped with them, in company with at least two hundred other riders, across the Ward Country and over the Fairyhouse lands, which are--as is well known--of a singularly wet and holding nature; and this not once, but many times throughout the season. Yet, so early as April, at which date the famous Fairyhouse races take place, no track or footmark can be seen upon the luxuriant grass. Again, when riding in winter through Phoenix Park, I have been struck by the state of mud to which it has been reduced through the frequent galloping of horses over its surface; yet, in summer it grows the finest grass, and is as smooth as a billiard-table. One day in June, three years ago, a grand Review was held there in honour of the Queen's birthday. A terrible shower came down--one of those mighty floods which can, in a few moments, transform a beauteous green sward into a hideous mass of unsightly mire and dirt. Those on foot ploughed patiently through it, sinking ankle-deep at every step; those upon horseback, myself included, churned it beneath their horses' feet, until not a trace was visible of the emerald carpet, which, one short hour before, had afforded firm footing for many thousands of spectators. Three weeks later, I rode through that park again; the velvety turf was green and fresh as ever, nor was there visible _one trace_ of the countless feet which had, as it were, waded over it so short a time before. The day upon which St. Stephen's Park was, through the princely generosity of Lord Ardilaun, opened to the public, was a wet, or at least a damp one, and thousands upon thousands of roughly-shod feet cut up the grassy sward; yet, in a few brief days, it was rich and verdant as before. Nor do I think there is in our noble Phoenix Park a more luxuriant stretch of grass-land than is "the nine acres" upon which polo players continually assemble. Having thus, then, endeavoured to prove that the galloping of horses is in no way injurious to pasture lands, I shall proceed to the consideration of other matters connected with the subject in question. If hunting in Ireland were abolished, then indeed might the cries of her children ascend heavenward, for I know not what would become of her! The gentry who are now resident landlords, maintaining large and costly establishments, would migrate to other countries and more genial climes. Servants would seek in vain for employment. Boot-makers, clothiers, saddlers, harness-makers, would find no custom. The farmer would sigh vainly for a price for his corn. Hay and straw would be a drug in the market. Hunting-lodges would remain unlet, growing mouldy with time and damp. Butchers, bakers, poulterers, butter-makers would be alike involved in one common ruin; for the houses of the gentry would be empty, and desolation would overspread the land! No buyers then for high-priced hunters and promising colts, which now command so high a figure; no merging of grades and mingling of classes in that happy contact which the hunting-field so well engenders; none of that delicious feeling of equality which the peer and the peasant seem alike to acknowledge whilst participating side by side in the dangers and excitement of the chase. All would be stillness, solitude, and gloom! Suffer me, then, to implore my countrymen and countrywomen to do all in their power to promote the pleasures of hunting. It must immensely benefit even those who do not actually participate in the sport, inasmuch as it brings rich and poor into happy contact, and causes a vast amount of money to be circulated, which enriches the pockets of the poorer classes, and brings grist to many a mill which would otherwise stand desolate, with disused and motionless wheel. To us who _do_ participate in it, there is no need for speech. Which of us does not know the pleasures of preparing for the glorious sport? the early rousing up from slothful slumber, the anxious outward glance at the weather, that fitful tyrant which makes or mars our enjoyment; the donning of hunting garments, the packing of sandwich boxes, the filling of flasks with whisky, or better, _far_ better, with strong cold tea; the cheery drive to the meet, the many happy faces assembled there, the greetings amongst friends, the praisings of the pack, the trot to the covert, the dashing of the hounds into the gorse, the sweet music which proclaims that Reynard is at home, the joyous sound of the "Gone away!" the hurry-scurry to be first and foremost in their wake, the anathemas hurled against those who are over-riding them, the tumbling at the fences, the picking up again, the drowning in the rivers, the fishing out by the wreckers, the maddening excitement of traversing an intricate country, the wild desire to be in at the death, the saving of our horses over holding lands, the riding of them up to their bridles where the going is good, the last mighty effort, the final fence cleared, and the canter up to where the huntsman is holding aloft the brush and mask, and the hounds are breaking up their fox! Who that has ever experienced these joys will be likely to forget them, or will fail to promote, by every means in his power, so health-giving and enlivening a sport? We have one very serious drawback to our hunting in Ireland, and, indeed, in many other places also--namely, wire fencing. I saw something of a tragic incident occur last season whilst hunting with the Meath hounds. We came up to an impassable fence, and all made for the gate, which was open; but the owner of the land rushed out from his dwelling, shut it in our faces, and insolently refused to allow us to pass. Threats and entreaties were alike vain. He called us every name in the calendar, and consigned us all to a very ugly place, in language which was certainly not parliamentary. Many of the field turned off and sought another way, but two or three of the bold ones charged the gate, and got over, clearing man and all! I and one other took the fence--a mad proceeding, which gave us both an ugly fall; but we scrambled up somehow, and succeeded in picking up the hounds. Late in the evening, whilst hunting another fox, he led us over the same identical ground, and a hard-riding gentleman, first at this mighty obstacle, charged it boldly, but, alas, with what a result! The farmer had, during our absence, run a stiff wire through the fence, which, catching the horse in the breast, turned him completely over, breaking the rider's arm, and otherwise severely injuring him. Some members of the hunt, seeing what had occurred, besieged the offender's dwelling, and he had an extremely uncomfortable ten minutes. I have heard persons aver that the man was badly treated, and that he had a perfect right to wire his fences if he so willed. Undoubtedly he had, if it were done openly and in such a way that the wiring could be discerned, but not, by petty treachery, to imperil the safety, if not the lives, of a large number of persons. My advice to farmers would be this; wire the fences if necessary; but, at the commencement of the hunting season, cut away, say twenty yards of the wiring at the poorest point of the field, and mark the spot with a pole and flag. Every rider would assuredly make for it as being the only jumpable place, and at the close of the season a few boys with five-grained forks would speedily set all to rights; nor can there be any doubt that the best crop in the field would be on that particular spot. Allowing even for a moment, for argument's sake, that expense, trouble, or loss might be thus occasioned, there is not a master of hounds in all Ireland--neither, I fancy, in any other country--who would not willingly and cheerfully indemnify the owner of the land. But so long as the world lasts, so long will there be blindness; and until the "happy hunting-grounds" are reached, horses and horsemen will be daily anathematised by the self-willed cultivators of our native soil. PART V. HUNTING IN AMERICA. There is a great land across the Atlantic where they do great things, and utter great sayings, and patent great inventions, and erect great buildings--and where, in short, the inhabitants beat us (as they themselves say) "all to fits!" A mighty nation they are, too--God prosper them as they deserve; but there is one thing at least in which we can say, without boasting, we are able to beat them, and that is, in our hunting. A fox-hunt in America is a very tame and inglorious proceeding, and one which decidedly would not come under our definition of "sport." American hunting differs in the first instance from ours, inasmuch as it is always a summer pastime. The extreme severity of the winters necessitates this, as during the cold season neither men nor horses can work. The disadvantages of summer hunting are of course numerous. The heat is excessive, and the crops are in the ground. Most of the American farmers and graziers own their land, and the greater number of them will not suffer hoofs to cross it. This is partly from a spirit of surly independence--partly from an ignorant determination to hold with stolid obstinacy to that most erroneous belief, that the galloping of horses is injurious to grass-lands. But, anyhow, the objection exists; and as it is vain to attempt to overrule it, a compromise is effected between hunting under difficulties and not hunting at all. The system pursued is this. A man--usually a stout-limbed peasant--is sent out, who drags an aniseeded bag across country, and over the lands and fences of such as will permit it, or who are themselves in the habit of joining in the chase. Then, when the field has assembled, the hounds are laid on, and work their way after the drag, a "bag-man" being provided to blood them at the finish. Sometimes the pack comes too close upon the dragger, and then a nasty scene ensues, which is pleasanter not described. Fortunately for men, horses, and hounds, hunting is but little indulged in throughout America. I mean, of course, fox-hunting, for I cannot attempt to cry down the many splendid and manly hunts of other descriptions in which the Americans carry off the palm. In many parts of the country--more especially in the States--the people so affect trotting-horses, that the matter has become a craze. It is a fact, which has more than once been proved, that four legs capable of carrying any sort of frame a mile in less than two-and-a-quarter minutes, will easily fetch a thousand pounds; and if the animal is in condition to repeat the performance several times in one day, his price will range correspondingly higher. The usual arrangement--very seldom varied--is that the "trots" shall be mile heats; and as the horses are, generally speaking, pretty well done up at the finish, owing to pace, excitement, and temperature, twenty minutes are allowed between each heat for "cooling off" purposes. When a horse is distanced in one of these trials, he is at once withdrawn; and the judges have the privilege, which they use, of distancing a horse for breaking--or, as we would say, commencing to run--which is, as may be supposed, a thing most difficult to prevent. Sometimes a racehorse is hitched double with a trotter. This is called, in American parlance, a running-mate. The runner takes all the weight and draft of the "sulky," and the trotter merely trots alongside of him. It requires a very level-headed horse to keep evenly to his trot, with a runner tearing away at sweeping pace beside him, and the trial is regarded as simply one of skill, and is rarely successful. A trotter who can coolly and evenly maintain his trot when hitched with a racer, can command for his owner any amount of money, even though he be in all other respects comparatively worthless. Races, of which many are held at Rhode Island, are as distinct as possible from trots. The courses are made circular; as much so, at least, as the lie of the land will permit, and are beautifully constructed, the grading being especially attended to. They are generally enclosed by a very high boarded fence, an admission fee being charged at the opening. This arrangement is found to answer admirably, as the amount demanded--although not an extravagant one--is sufficient to exclude a goodly number of racing roughs, whose interest in the sport is not more keen than their desire to investigate the contents of their neighbours' pockets. Trotting-tracks are constructed upon the same principles as race-courses, but the track is harder. Sometimes, however, although not frequently, races and trots are held over the same course, and when this is done the track is carefully softened for the races, by a harrowing process, which is most carefully carried out. Most of the hacks and hunters in use in America--a very large portion, at least, of the saddle-horses--are racers which have been rejected from the racing-stables. This is particularly the case at East Greenwich, and throughout the States. Some of these horses are "weeds," but a few of them are well worthy of the high prices given for them, being really splendid animals, in spite of the crabbing which they receive at the judge's hands before they are thrown out of the contest, and passed over to the proprietorship of dealers in hacks. Very fine horses of the hunter class are bred in Kentucky--the Yorkshire of America--and are sold at comparatively low rates. I saw a magnificent chestnut, seventeen two in height, with grand action, and so superbly ribbed-up and built as to be capable of carrying twenty stone, which had been sold there to an enterprising Irish speculator for three hundred and twenty dollars, a good deal less than eighty pounds of our money. The animal afterwards fetched upwards of six hundred guineas at Tattersall's, to carry a top-weight millionaire with the Whaddon Chase hounds. This was, however, an exceptional case, for it is not usually an easy thing, nor even possible, to make money by trading in Kentucky hunters. A few speculative European dealers have from time to time tried it, but their efforts have not been crowned with the anticipated reward, the reason being, that travelling expenses swallow up profits. Seven days and nights of constant journeying must be gone through before the animals are brought to the Atlantic sea-board; and then there is the crossing to encounter, with its cost and perils. Altogether, it is scarcely a profitable venture, and some who have embarked in it will, I know, be quite ready to endorse my opinions upon the subject. Stag-hunting used to be very prevalent in distant parts of America. Strangers traversing tracts of country north of the Ohio will be told this by guides and fellow-travellers, and will marvel that in such a district it could ever have been a popular sport. Anything more perilous it would be impossible to conceive, the "going" being principally up and down precipitous inclines, dotted at frequent intervals with huge boulders, half buried in the reedy grass, over which the horses blunder and stumble at almost every stride,--not unfrequently hurling their riders headlong down some dangerous ravine. Those who have enjoyed the very doubtful pleasure of hunting at the Cape, know something of the perils of the Mimosa tree, which grows there in such deadly luxuriance. A similar danger-trap exists in the stag-hunting districts of America, the long sharp thorns proving terribly destructive to the flesh of man and beast. It is almost impossible to escape these trees. They grow singly and in groups, with long, light, swaying branches, treacherously outstretched; and if an excited steed, or an unwary rider comes too near to one of them, no close-set company of razors could do more cruel injury, nor make greater havoc of saddlery and clothing. When we come to regard the question of district hunting in a comparative light, few will hesitate to admit that in spite of all the drawbacks consequent upon wire-fencing, fox-trapping, and hound-poisoning, there are worse countries to hunt in than dear old England; and we who know the sweet delights of a good gallop over rich grass-lands, dotted picturesquely with the harmless beech or elm, and with nothing more dangerous to negotiate than fair broad fences and five-barred gates, need never sigh for the yawning ravines of foreign hunting-grounds, with their treacherous boulders and dangerous Mimosas. CORRESPONDENCE. LADIES ON HORSEBACK. To the Editor of _The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News_. SIR,--I have read with keen interest the article on "Ladies on Horseback" in your last number. I find several things in it which differ from my preconceived ideas, but it is impossible not to perceive that the writer, Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, speaks from an experience which makes her an undoubted authority. With reference to safety-stirrups, for instance. I have always seen that the ladies of my family were provided with them, and your contributor's objection seems not to be based upon the mechanism of the stirrup when in proper order, but on the circumstance that it is "almost invariably stiff," through neglect. I must admit that I have seen a lady hung up in a safety-stirrup; but surely it is possible to see that the stirrup will work before setting out for a ride or a day's hunting, and if the iron is large enough, so that "the padding over the instep" will not "cause the foot to become firmly embedded," are we to understand that the safety-stirrup is objectionable? Mrs. Power O'Donoghue has a poor opinion of "John the coachman, and Jem the groom," but I am lucky in having trustworthy people in my stable. What stirrup would your contributor have instead of the one with which so large a proportion of ladies ride? Another thing that I should like to know more about is the saddle recommended in the article. "Accustom yourself from the beginning to the use of a properly constructed saddle, made as straight as a board, no dip whatever," this writer says. Now I have never, so far as my recollection goes, even seen such a saddle, and may I ask what are the advantages of a thoroughly straight saddle, and what are the disadvantages of the inevitable slope or dip? I ask purely for information, for I am perfectly ready to submit my judgment and hitherto received notions to the dictum of a lady who is clearly so competent to treat the matter as your contributor. Would the lady have straight saddles also for men? is a question which incidentally occurs to me. I am far from supposing that a thing must be right because it is in general use, but there seem good reasons for the adoption of the ordinary shaped saddle, and I should be very glad if your contributor would let us know her reasons for departing from custom. Before concluding, let me thank you for a series of articles which cannot fail to be of value to those for whom they are intended. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, H. DE V. R. * * * * * SIR,--I feel bound to answer the letter of "H. de V. R." which appeared in your journal of last week's issue. With regard to the "safety-stirrup," there could not be much objection to it if it were made sufficiently large to prevent the padding over the instep from causing the foot to become embedded; and if, likewise, some careful and competent person were ready and willing to give the machinery of it a thorough examination immediately before entrusting the safety of a lady to such an uncertain support. But how seldom is this the case? Servants--even the most careful--are, to say the least of it, apt to overlook these important details; and when the steed is led to the door the cavalier who is to escort the lady is too much occupied in admiring his fair charge, talking to her, arranging with her where they shall ride, fastening her gloves, or performing a like office for himself, to worry his head about such an apparently insignificant thing as her stirrup. Provided he ascertains that it is the required length, he troubles himself no further about it, and probably in nine cases out of ten the dandy youth would not even comprehend the meaning of the term "safety" as applied to the article in question. No doubt it often happens that an elderly father, a matter-of-fact husband, a phlegmatic uncle, or a careful brother may be upon the spot, with wits and hands ready to avert danger; but how frequently, also, is it the fashionable stripling who escorts the lady--a cousin, or a lover, perhaps--ignorant of all connected with riding, except the pleasure of it; or the booted and belted servant, who touches his hat, and thinks he has done his duty because the saddle is clean and the horse sleek and shiny; or the riding-master, who has come out in a hurry, anxious and flurried at the last moment to see that everything _looks_ right, and who has had no time to see after such minor accessories as stirrups, or has left the matter (if he thought of it at all) in the hands of the groom, who has left it alone altogether. This being the case, I maintain that a stirrup encumbered with machinery is unsuited to a lady, because, although she may have an escort who will look after it, there is the possibility that she may not have such good fortune. Moreover, a stirrup made sufficiently large to bear padding over the instep, and yet enable the foot to slip easily in and out, must of necessity be a considerable weight, and this alone would be an objection, especially to a hunting lady, who calculates to a nicety every ounce which her steed has to carry. I have said that a small racing, or jockey-stirrup, is the _nicest_ in which a lady can ride, and I am bound to adhere to my judgment. So much for the first portion of "H. de V. R.'s" letter. Now we come to the second. My "poor opinion of John, the coachman, and Jem, the groom," is based, not upon their untrustworthiness, but upon their want of capacity as teachers of the equine art. I have never yet, in all my experience, met with any servant who was capable of instructing a lady how to ride; yet I have been fairly astonished to find the contrary idea quite general amongst parents in the country, who fondly hope that their daughters may one day adorn a saddle and grace a hunting-field. "I shall have Mary and Jenny taught immediately now," said a lady to me one day in the course of last summer,--"They shall have a pony a-piece, and John (the groom) shall teach them." Of course, I said nothing, my principle of noninterference standing me in good stead; but when an hour or so later, I beheld the said John disporting himself, and showing off his equestrian skill upon one of the carriage-horses, I really felt pity for the two charming little girls who were so soon to be handed over to his doubtful tuition. And now for the third portion of your correspondent's letter: namely, the question of the straight saddle. "H. de V. R." says he has never seen any such; and I consider this extremely probable, for he will recollect my saying that a saddle such as I described should be made to order, as it is certainly not in general use--but I am not altogether singular in my advocacy of it. Peat and Co., Piccadilly, or Box and Co., Abbey Street, Dublin, will manufacture saddles of this description in excellent style, but only to order, for they have not yet found sufficient favour--or, to express it better, are not sufficiently known--to have become popular, and manufacturers therefore will not keep them in stock. The advantages of a straight saddle are manifold. Firstly, it is the only means by which a lady can learn the necessary art of riding from balance. This can be acquired by sitting _on_ a saddle, but never by sitting _in_ one. Secondly, she can, when riding upon a straight saddle, change and shift her position, which as a necessary consequence changes her weight upon the horse's back, and saves him from being galled. A noble lady wrote to me some time since, "I know not how it is; all my horses are laid up with sore backs; and yet my saddle is well padded." I guessed the secret at once; she was riding in a sort of well, or chair, from which her heavy weight could never for an instant shift, and hence the trouble of which she complained. I sent her a sketch of my saddle, with the address of the man who had made it, and she has since been a staunch upholder of my theory. Thirdly, the best figure in the world would look to disadvantage if seated in a saddle with a dip or slope; whereas a well-made woman, attired in a habit properly fitted about the waist and hips, never looks to such complete advantage as when sitting gracefully and at ease upon a well constructed straight-made saddle. Fourthly, if in taking an up-jump the horse misses his footing and struggles in an unsuccessful effort to recover himself, the lady may--if riding upon a straight saddle--succeed in slipping from it to a situation of comparative safety; but, if she has a high projection of iron and stiff leather just behind her, it bars her movement, and as a consequence the horse falls back _upon_ her, and catching her between his weight and the edge of the ditch or furrow, as the case may be, injures her spine, sometimes fatally, and frequently in a serious manner. The question, "Do I also advocate straight saddles for men's use?" is answered by my reminding "H. de V. R." that there is no analogy between a gentleman's position upon horseback and that of a lady. What would be a necessity, or at least a _luxury_, for the one would be eminently unsuited for the other. A man's superior activity and greater liberty of motion place him ever at an advantage. And whilst upon this subject I would strongly urge upon all humane riders, especially the male portion of them, to have their saddles made high _in front_, so as not to press upon the horse's withers, causing him much needless suffering. A space capable of accommodating at least two fingers should be between withers and saddle, and were this attended to we should see fewer skin abrasions and unsightly lumps upon poor submissive animals, and less of that stuffing of handkerchiefs between cruel leather and bleeding flesh which so frequently pains the sorrowing eyes of sensitive and pitying persons. I think I have now dealt fully with "H. de V. R.'s" letter, and must thank the writer of it for his complimentary observations, and his kindly appreciation of my labours in a cause which I certainly have very much at heart. Apologising for trespassing thus far upon your valuable space. I am, Sir, Yours obediently, NANNIE POWER O'DONAGHUE. October 12, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--Many readers of _The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News_ hope that Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, in her very interesting letters upon "Ladies on Horseback," will touch fully on the most important thing, viz. "the ladies' horse." One sees ladies riding all sorts; some too big, some too small, some good shoulders and no backs, others just the reverse; not one out of twenty what it ought to be. Also, up to what weight should it be? What is the average weight of ladies, and the difference in ordinary dress to the habit? It is often said that, owing to the peculiar seat, the weight being all on one side, a lady tires a horse much more than a man; certainly you often see ladies' horses going short with the near hind leg, possibly from this cause. Could not the weight of side-saddles be reduced? Those used by the Empress of Austria could not have weighed 8 lb., and she was herself a light woman. Anything on this subject will interest many readers. I am, &c. EQUES. * * * * * SIR,--There is one point to which I should like to call the attention of the writer of the able and interesting articles on "Ladies on Horseback," which she appears to have altogether overlooked in her enumeration of the articles of a lady's riding attire. It is the use of a spur by lady equestrians. The recently invented lady's spur consists of one sharp point so constructed as not to injure the habit. In hunting, a spur is indispensable, and in park-riding is very desirable for a lady, who has so much less control over her horse than a man. Young girls just beginning to ride will find the use of a spur most beneficial in managing their steeds. Hired horses are never altogether to be trusted, and in the case of their showing temper or laziness, two or three pricks with a lady's spur will subdue them far more quickly than the application of a whip. I have more than once ridden a horse that was a confirmed jibber, and have always found a few determined thrusts with my spur, combined with an efficiently applied whip, never failed to bring him down. I confidently recommend all ladies, and especially young girls just beginning the art of equitation, to procure a lady's spur, and never to mount a horse without it. I am, &c. MABEL FLORENCE RAYNE. The Firs, Cheltenham, Oct. 18th, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--I suppose it would be impossible to advance any opinions to which there would not be objections raised, but I write, not in a cavilling spirit, but as one really anxious for information, to know whether Mrs. Power O'Donoghue would seriously advocate striking a horse between the ears when it rears. Surely such a thing would be exceedingly dangerous for any lady to attempt, and, as your correspondent is writing solely for ladies, I conclude she refers to them in the present instance. I feel very strongly upon this point, because an uncle of mine, some years ago, when out riding tried this experiment at the advice of a friend. The horse (not a vicious one) suddenly reared; my uncle loosened the reins and urged it forward, but finding this ineffectual, struck it violently between the ears with his hunting-whip. The animal, maddened, I presume, by the pain, reared straight on end and fell backward; its rider being a very agile man, slipped off sideways, and thus escaped nearly certain death; but had the rider been a lady instead of a gentleman the consequences must have been fatal; and with so light a switch as a lady usually carries, a blow between the ears could only serve to irritate without producing any good effect. I would ask one more question: Why does your correspondent so strongly object to the use of the "old-fashioned slipper" stirrup? I am rather curious on this point, because I have ever since the tender age of four, when my riding experiences began, used the shoe-stirrup, and I have always thought it so safe, because my foot slips out in a second. I am aware that it is extremely unfashionable, as in Rotton Row you hardly see a lady using it; but I keep to it still, not so much with the idea of its safety, but for comfort, especially in trotting. I find it extremely difficult to keep an iron stirrup from slipping back into the instep, and, being used to rise pressing on the toes, I think that rising from the instep is more difficult and doubles the exertion of trotting. In conclusion, I must express a hope that Mrs. Power O'Donoghue will not give me credit for writing in a spirit of unfriendly criticism; but as I am exceedingly fond of riding, I feel an interest in working out this subject to its fullest extent. I am sure all lady riders must feel grateful to Mrs. Power O'Donoghue for the valuable and useful instructions contained in her interesting letters, and one has only to pay a visit to the Row between 12 and 2 in the season, to see how much they are needed by the generality of the "ladies on horseback." I am, &c. EQUESTRINA. October 13th, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--Though not an "aggrieved stirrup-maker," it may not be out of place if I, as a saddler of many years' experience and a great lover of horses, offer a few comments on the "hints and instructions" set forth in your paper for the benefit of ladies on horseback, written by one of the sex who is evidently an authority on the subject she treats so ably. There is no doubt these articles will be read with great interest by very many ladies who desire to acquit themselves well on horseback, and also by their gentlemen friends who are anxious to conduce to the safety and comfort of their fair companions in that delightful exercise, but cannot have the same knowledge to impart the theoretical instructions now given by your lady writer, whose criticisms will therefore be valuable to both. In following her remarks, it occurs to me that I may perhaps venture on a little comment without being considered too intrusive. The objection taken to children riding is no doubt formed on good grounds, but I think that with care young ladies might be permitted at a much earlier age than sixteen to acquire some practice in the saddle; it is true that young girls are liable to curvature of the spine, when allowed to ride day after day on the same side of their pony, but I have understood that this danger is obviated by changing their position to the other side on alternate days, and I should be glad to learn what are the objections to this. It seems to me rather desirable that ladies should have equal facility in riding on either side, but there may be reasons against it of which I am ignorant. This lady says that the nicest bridle for a beginner is a plain ring-snaffle, but states further that few horses will go in it; the latter remark, if correct, (which I should venture to doubt), raises a fatal objection to the ring-snaffle, as I fear that not one young lady in twenty, under amateur teaching, would be put upon a perfectly trained nag, desirable as this must be; and thus an ordinary stout mouth plain snaffle, or plain bar with single rein, would surely be preferable. I fancy it would be found of much advantage if riding was taught in the first instance without the use of reins at all, the horse simply being led by an attendant; the learner thus gets a proper balance, without depending on the bridle for support, as many are found to do. For a young girl I should like to know what is the objection to a pad, or pilch as they are called, made for use on either side. These, having no tree, are nearly level, but there is perhaps a chance of its turning round if the rider does not sit straight; for a grown girl, the properly made saddle is better every way. In common with your correspondent "H. de V. R.," I fail quite to understand how a side-saddle is to be made "as straight as a board." A saddle is made on a foundation, or tree, of wood and iron, which should be shaped for the back intended to bear it, and must be raised slightly in front for the wither and behind to clear the backbone; but it is right that the seat should be as level as possible. This is probably the lady's meaning. It is very essential that the saddle should fit the horse correctly and be of suitable size and shape for the rider; the former consideration is too often overlooked and thus entails discomfort to both. There are saddles, and saddles, as ladies often find to their cost. A very large proportion in use here, and more abroad, are put together in Birmingham and Walsall on the slop system; they will please the eyes of an inexperienced purchaser, but are formed with little regard to the requirements of the poor animals who suffer under them, or of their riders' comfort, and it is probable that these are the saddles against which ladies are very properly warned. It is really indispensable for a lady's comfort in riding that she should have a good saddle, made by a competent and conscientious saddler, whose business it is to see that it is suitable. Considering the number of years that a good saddle with care will last, it is inconceivable that the comparatively small additional price should be grudged for a perfect and satisfactory article by a maker of repute, instead of the machine-made slop rubbish, by which many a good animal is injured and the temper of his rider seriously chafed. Enough about saddles for the present, so I will go to the next point under discussion--the stirrup. Your lady rider must have been very unfortunate in her use of the safety-stirrup, which, in my opinion, does in practice usually justify its name. I have known very many instances in which ladies have owed immunity from serious accident to its use. As "H. de V. R." justly says, the mechanism of the stirrup (which is very simple) should not be allowed to get out of order by neglect; surely the lady or her friends, particularly if so "knowledgeable" as the writer of the article, might [They "_might_." That they so often do not, and that danger so frequently results from the neglect, is the grievance and complaint of our contributor.--ED. _I.S. & D.N._] take the trouble personally to see that her stirrup is not out of order from rust, and in no other way but one can it be so; the other way is that if the groom ignorantly or carelessly adjusts the stirrup for use hind part before, the inner stirrup cannot be released, and the rider's foot, in case of a fall, will be helplessly fixed in the stirrup. This eventuality, however, does not detract from the real value of the safety-stirrup, for neglect and ignorance will entail direful consequences in all ways. Next to the safety-stirrup, I quite believe that a plain steel stirrup of suitable size, with side pieces at the bottom to take sharp pressure off the foot, is the most suitable for ladies' use, and I always condemn the small padded stirrup, which is, indeed, a fruitful source of danger to lady riders. With the rest of Mrs. O'Donoghue's dissertation I cordially agree, and believe it would be beneficial if both men and ladies practised riding without the aid of the stirrup; and the same rule applies to and is generally practised by men, as I saw a few days ago on a German barrack-ground, where an awkward squad was being trained in that manner. The art of putting a lady up is one that should be practised more than it is by horsemen; my first attempt resulted in the lady slipping down again, and on my hat, which suffered even more than my self-esteem. On one occasion in the Crimea, years ago, I was riding with a lady and her husband, the former dismounted at Mrs. Seacole's for refreshment, and on being put up again by her husband with more vigour than skill, the poor lady was sent over her horse's back to the ground on the other side, and being somewhat portly, was shaken severely. I fear many ladies have suffered in the same way from the awkwardness of their attendants, but I have seen ladies so agile as to mount from the ground without assistance--rather a difficult feat, and requiring much practice. Having trespassed so much on your space I must not proceed further now, but shall be happy to air my notions again, if agreeable to your readers and riders. Yours, &c. JERMYN. * * * * * SIR,--My papers entitled "Ladies on Horseback" have called forth many letters. Some of these you have printed, some have been forwarded to me from your office, and many have been received at my own house. I shall regard it as a favour if you will permit me to reply to a few of them through the medium of your paper, as in answering one I shall answer many who have written upon the same subject. J. V.--When the horse took head with me and leaped into the farm-yard (as depicted by Mr. Sturgess) I had no way of getting out except by the passage and kitchen of the farm-house, as the gates of the yard were locked, and the owner of the place--who was away at the neighbouring town--had the key in his pocket. EQUES.--The reason why ladies ride "all sorts of horses" is that comparatively few keep horses of their own, and those who are without them and are fond of riding, jump eagerly at the offer of a friend's mount, whether it be suitable or otherwise. A nice horse for a lady may be thus described: Height about 15-3; Colour dark bay or brown, well-set sloping shoulders, good back, arched loins, firm and graceful neck, small head and ears, shapely clean-cut legs, and good firm feet. A horse of this description will be well up to 13 or 14 st. For a heavy weight an animal should be selected with a short wide back, powerful quarters, big healthy hocks, and stoutly-built fore-legs. The _average_ weight of ladies is about 9st. Summer costume and riding gear would weigh about equally, but velvet or sealskin would outweigh a habit. A lady seated upon a properly-made saddle, if she has been well taught, will never have her weight "all on one side." The reason why horses go short with the near hind leg is because ladies ride from the stirrup, leaning their full weight upon it, and galling the animal's back. The stirrup is meant to assist, not to _support_, the rider. Old-fashioned side-saddles are all too heavy; but a well-constructed modern saddle can scarcely be improved upon. It is a mistake to ride in too light a saddle, as it brings the weight of the body too near the horse's back. That used by the Empress of Austria weighed 12 lbs., which is about a correct standard. LADYBIRD.--Nobody who has any regard for life and limb now rides through Dublin. All wise persons gave it up when pavement and tram-lines made the city what it is. Consequently the park is deserted, and only a solitary horseman is seen in Stephen's Green. INQUIRER.--The shoe should be made to _fit the foot_. It is most cruel, and is a fruitful source of lameness, to pare the foot away to make it fit a ready-made shoe. If you cannot trust your farrier, change him. This advice also applies to JAMES R., but I do not undertake to answer questions respecting the treatment or management of the horse. MABEL FLORENCE RAYNE.--I had not forgotten nor overlooked the important uses of the spur. You will find the subject treated in my papers upon hunting and hunting-costume. I do not, however, _at all_ approve of its use for beginners, as such are certain, through nervousness, to press the left heel close to the horse's side, and, if furnished with a spur, would cause him much needless pain and irritation, besides endangering their own safety. ROBERT KEATING.--Best thanks for letter and papers. G. ELLIOT.--For riding with a bit and bridoon, place a rein between each finger of your left hand, and hold them securely with your thumb, reserving your right hand for your whip; or take your reins in both hands, and ride your horse upon the curb, or snaffle, according to his temperament. For riding with a single rein, place the near leather under your little finger and the off one between the first and second fingers, which is as good a way as any; but I have already said that there is no fixed rule for holding reins, and a good rider will constantly change them about, and move the bridle in her horse's mouth, which prevents him hanging upon his bit. JANE CARR.--I scarcely know whether to regard your letter as a compliment or the reverse. My labours have been _totally_ unassisted; nor has my experience of this world shown me that its occupants are sufficiently philanthropic to labour that another may reap the merit and the reward. L. K.--The subject is not within my province. Mayhew's _Horse Management_, published by Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, London, is the best I can recommend. HUNTSMAN.--It is for ladies I am writing. ELEANOR.--Thanks; but if I adopted one half of the suggestions offered, a strange result would ensue. Happily my papers went to press without _anybody_ (save the Editor) having had a glance at them. He generously accepted them upon their merits; but had I shown them to others I should either have altered something in every second line or have given offence to numerous well-meaning persons. When I was a child I committed to memory the inimitable fable of "The Miller, his Son, and his Ass," and have taken the moral of it as a guide through life. GOODALL.--A short hunting-crop without a lash would do. EQUESTRINA.--If a horse rears with me in a vicious manner I hit him between the ears, but I do not by any means expect my readers to coincide in all my views, and those who know a better plan can, of course, adopt it. If an animal rears slightly I lean forward against his neck, touch him with my heel, and speak to him. If he persists, and I see any danger of his falling back, I hit him between the ears with the butt-end of my whip, not sufficiently heavily to "madden him," nor even to cause him the least pain, but to occasion him to duck his head, which he invariably does; and if at that instant I hit him sharply with my heel, he drops at once and lashes out behind. Allowing for a moment that such a mode of action may be open to objection, is it not better (seeing that it is frequently efficacious) than sitting quietly and permitting one's-self to be fallen back upon, without making any effort to avert the catastrophe? My objection to the slipper-stirrup is founded on the knowledge that it encourages ladies to lean their weight upon it. "It feels so comfortable," I heard a lady say, "so like a resting-board beneath my foot, that I _cannot help_ riding from it." An iron stirrup with the foot well home is the proper thing to ride in; and remember it is from the instep and _not_ from the toes that you should rise. The iron should meet the waist of the boot-sole, and a long flat heel (I do not mean one of those atrocities known as a _high_ one) should be worn on the boot. JERMYN.--Your letter almost answers itself. The pad or pilch _is_ apt to turn round, for it is only one little girl in twenty who sits straight. You judge my meaning rightly about the straight saddle, but I opine that it is the stuffing which should be arranged to guard the backbone from pressure, and that it is in no way necessary to raise the _seat_ at the back. I must again say, for the third time, that a plain ring-snaffle is the _nicest_ for a lady's use, and also maintain my opinion that few horses will go in it, according to _my_ ideas of "going." A horse who goes well in a ring-snaffle must have a perfect temper and a perfect mouth, a combination as rare in the equine as in the human tribe. For ordinary hunters and roadsters I do not recommend it, simply because they will not go in such a bridle; but I shall ever hold to my opinion that it is the nicest and the least puzzling for a beginner. KATIE.--Not worth denying. It is one of those worthless untruths which I have long since learned to treat with contempt. LIVERPUDLIAN.--Your suggestion is so good that I shall certainly adopt it. Nothing could be better adapted for riding in than a warm jersey, buttoned in front. Being elastic it would allow full play for the arms and shoulders, and would also display a good figure to advantage. If you, or some other, would only get up a sufficient amount of courage to turn a deaf ear to the hateful and oft-recurring "What will be said?" we might have many useful and elegant innovations of which at present we know nothing. YOUNG WIFE.--There can be no impropriety in what you say. "Honi soit qui mal y pense?" So long as you have a good conscience and your husband's approval you need care little for what the world says. X. Y. Z., DASHAWAY, and COUNTRYMAN.--I cannot reply to your letters. Thanking you, Sir, for your kindness in granting me so much of your valuable space, I am, &c. NANNIE POWER O'DONOGHUE. October 25. * * * * * SIR,--The "recently-invented lady's spur," mentioned in your last issue by "Mabel Florence Kayne," was patented towards the close of the last century, and illustrations of it, and of other spurs on the same principle, can be seen at the Patent Office. I quite concur in the recommendation that a lady should always wear a spur, and it will be seen from the last article by Mrs. Power O'Donoghue that a spur forms part of her hunting equipment; but I strongly advise ladies to wear a spur with a rowel having only five points, which should be long and sharp. The spur with one point and a spring sheath is commonly sold by saddlers for ladies' use, but is liable to break or get out of order, and is always discarded in favour of the one with a five-pointed rowel by ladies who have tried the latter. Mrs. Power O'Donoghue is doing good service to ladies by protesting against the stirrups facetiously so-called "safety." I always advise a lady to use a perfectly plain steel stirrup, but a tolerably heavy one. Why cannot the stirrup be attached to a lady's saddle in the same manner as to a gentleman's? Then, in case of accident, the stirrup and leather would come away together. An excellent bit for a lady's horse is a curb-bit, suspended in the horse's mouth by two large rings, to which the snaffle-reins are also attached. This bit is very light or very severe, at the rider's wish. I am, &c. SOUTHERN CROSS. October 26, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--Continuing my remarks on this subject, I am bound to say that your contributor gives sufficient answer to the question of the safety-stirrup in explaining that the objection is removed providing the inner stirrup is large enough for the foot to be easily extricated; the stirrup being made in three different sizes, this is a matter easily adjusted. The shoe-stirrup referred to by "Equestrina" was in use by ladies for many years, and in point of safety I think no objection can be raised to it; the same shape of stirrup is much affected by men in South America. The instructions in Part Second of Mrs. Power O'Donoghue's writings are very admirable, except that I do not see the utility of a lady's striking a rearing horse between the ears, with the few ounces of whip usually carried. I have known men do so with a loaded whip, and knocking a horse down to cure him of this vice, but it would be scarcely advisable for a lady to try this. I am rather surprised to see it stated as a fact that both rearing and plunging maybe entirely prevented by using the so-called anti-rearing bit martingale. It certainly may prevent rearing on the first attempt if the horse's head is kept down tightly by this martingale attached to the breastplate, but as the latter is seldom worn except for hunting, it cannot be intended to recommend it for that purpose, for it would infallibly follow that the fixed martingale would bring both horse and rider to grief at the very first fence they attempted to clear, and if the horse had sufficient liberty of action to jump freely, the martingale would be no obstruction to his rearing. I know from my own experience that a horse can be knocked down by a blow on the head. I was once doing a little private mounted practice at sword exercise, preparatory to a prize competition, and grasping my sword with thick gloves on, the weapon somehow turned in my hand, caught my mare below the ear on the bridle-hand, and knocked her completely off her legs, to our mutual amazement, though no great harm was done. I do not see what analogy there can be between the powerful Chifney bit and a rearing martingale; the effect of the latter may be secured by attaching a split martingale, with leather or spring billets, to the mouth-rings of any bit in use, snaffle or Pelham; but I believe that a horse can, if determined, rear all the same, and it certainly would not prevent plunging or bucking. For a restive or jibbing horse in saddle I have always found a short running martingale very useful; the rider should shorten and lower the right rein well down the horse's shoulder, apply the right leg and spur sharply, and turn the horse round like a teetotum until he is dizzy, then give him both spurs when his head is in the right direction. This will set him going before he knows where he is, and is a practice I have found very efficacious, but not easily applicable by ladies. On the subject of bits, my own favourite is the Hanoverian Pelham; it will generally hold the strongest puller, and, with a light hand, I have never met a horse that would not face it. For show or park riding there is none better; it is, however, not suited to those who trust to the bridle-reins for their balance in the saddle. "Eques" inquires "what is the average weight of ladies?" This is a difficult query, but as ladies ride at all weights between six and eleven stone, with a margin each way, I should suppose the average would be about 8-1/2 stone, exclusive of saddle, &c. A lady who is an indifferent rider would throw more weight on one side than the other, one cause of so many sore backs from side-saddles; but a thoroughly good horsewoman would sit with as level a balance as a man. The weight of good modern side-saddles is much reduced, but they cannot well be made under 14 lb., with furniture, and are usually considerably more. If the Empress of Austria uses a saddle of 8 lb. only (as some have averred), she must ride on a man's steeplechase-saddle, which perhaps would not be a difficult performance for a lady who is said to be in the habit of driving four-in-hand. I am much impressed by the recital of your contributor's adventures and hair-breadth escapes on the saddle, particularly on the occasion she refers to when invited by a friend to ride the big bay horse. If the friend was a gentleman, I must repeat the opinion I heard expressed by a lady when reading the article--that any man who would wilfully expose a woman to risk her life on such a brute behaved disgracefully. There is no object in creation to my mind more attractive than a graceful woman controlling with ease a fine and well-trained horse; but no one with due respect for the sex would wish to see her taking the place of a rough rider. Yours, &c. JERMYN. * * * * * SIR,--Although I care nothing for anything that may be said about myself, I am ever loyal to my friends, and it seems to me hard that one of the truest of them should be spoken of as having "behaved disgracefully" by a writer who, with more impetuosity than judgment, jumps at conclusions without waiting to hear the truth. When I was riding homeward after the leap into the farm-yard, I met the owner of the horse upon the road, driving out with a friend. The moment he heard what had occurred he took me off the animal, changed my saddle to the very quiet horse he was driving, and actually, after nearly an hour's delay, succeeded in putting the harness upon the "big bay," and, having done so, drove him home regardless of his own safety, or rather of his danger, which was imminent. I do not think there are many men at his time of life, and in his delicate state of health, who would have done the same thing rather than chance a second runaway. He had _no_ reason to suppose that any such thing would, in the first instance, have happened, and I believe it was attributable to the fact that the horse had been ridden a day or two previously by a very wild rider, who had spoilt his mouth and manners, and who subsequently apologised to me for having been the cause of what occurred. I might have mentioned all this before, and certainly should have done so had I thought that such necessity should have arisen. I would remind "Jermyn" that my observations respecting the martingale were confined to my papers on _road-riding_, not on hunting, and would also thank him, with my best obeisance, for calling me a rough-rider. I am, Sir, Yours obediently, NANNIE POWER O'DONOGHUE. October 31, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--I must, in justice to myself, ask you to be so kind as to grant me space in your influential journal to reply to the very serious charge "Jermyn" brought against me in your issue of the 30th of the past month. I am the friend who asked Mrs. Power O'Donoghue to ride "the big bay," and yet I believe that nobody in all the world has a higher esteem for that lady, nor a truer regard for her safety than I have. Indeed there are few men in Ireland (if one) worth being called the name, who would not willingly lay down their own lives rather than imperil the life of one so universally beloved. The horse up to the day of the runaway had been perfectly quiet and most easily managed. He carried me two seasons to hounds, never making a mistake nor pulling in the least. Not being able to ride, having shortly before met with a very serious accident, I lent "the big bay" to a hard-riding young officer for a day's hunting. He unfortunately must have made too free use of his long-necked spurs, and, totally unknown to me, ruffled the horse's temper; the animal remembering the treatment he received, and finding but a feather on his back, when excited by the music of the hounds, overpowered his rider; but, thank Heaven, no serious accident occurred. I was unutterably shocked and distressed on hearing of the occurrence, and may state that on the day in question I was driving in my dog-cart, accompanied by a gentleman (late an officer in Her Majesty's service) who can vouch for the truth of my statement, when Mrs. O'Donoghue came up to me and told me of her very narrow escape. I did not hesitate an instant to say, "I will take out the horse I am driving. You know him to be a perfect mount, and I will put 'the big bay' in my trap." The lady did not wish me to do so, knowing the risk I ran in putting a horse in harness that had never been in such before. I at last succeeded in prevailing on her not to lose the day's sport, changed the saddle with great difficulty, and attached "the big bay" to my dog-cart; after a few plunges and an endeavour to get away, he settled down, and has since gone grandly. My friend, though a very bold man, would not get in with me for some time. I hope after this explanation your correspondent will be sufficiently generous to allow that I did all in my power to insure the safety of a most precious life. With regard to the term "rough-rider," as applied by "Jermyn" to Mrs. O'Donoghue, I feel assured if he knew the lady he would not for worlds have used such an expression. I am, Sir, Your most obedient servant, ONE WHO HAS RIDDEN TO HOUNDS FOR OVER SIXTY YEARS. * * * * * SIR,--I should by no means recommend a young lady to wear a spur when learning in a riding-school, but from my own experience I strongly advise all girls beginning to ride on the road never to mount their steeds without a sharp spur on their left boot. The second time I went out riding, when I was fourteen, my cob, startled by some noise, suddenly began to rear and pitch vigorously. I applied my whip sharply across his flank, but without effect. I then gave him a series of sharp pricks with my spur, which completely subdued him. Had I been without a spur I should probably have been thrown and severely injured. I should certainly prefer a spur with a rowel as "Southern Cross" recommends, but would it not be apt to tear the habit? I am, &c. MABEL FLORENCE RAYNE. The Firs, Cheltenham, November 1, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--A correspondent in your last number advises ladies to use a rowel spur, with five prongs, long and sharp, so, as a friend of horses, I am inclined to write an objection to their taking this advice. In the first place, from the nature of a lady's seat, her armed heel would often unintentionally irritate and annoy the horse; and in the second place many would probably use this instrument of torture too severely, and therefore cruelly. A rowel spur, with five long and sharp prongs--in fact, a jockey's spur--is a much more severe instrument than is required for ordinary riding, either by man or woman, and the advantage of the ladies' bore spur is, that it can only be applied when intended, and then is quite sufficiently severe. I have no objection to ladies, who are good horsewomen, wearing a spur, and using it, too, as severely as necessary, but I have great objections to any unnecessary pain or annoyance being given to my friends, the horses. Another lady correspondent of yours says that a spur is quite indispensable for hunting. If she means that it should always be worn in case it is required, I agree; but I have ridden a courageous high-tempered horse for years with hounds without ever using the spur. I am, &c. FAIR PLAY. Glasgow, 1st November 1880. * * * * * SIR,--As the subject of spurs and other riding equipment for ladies seems at the present time to occupy and interest many of your fair readers, permit me, on behalf of my sisters, who are horsewomen of some experience, both at home and in the colonies, and who have practically tried most known riding-costumes, to recommend, through the medium of your columns, the following as a comfortable and serviceable riding-dress for a lady, for long country rides, picnics, &c.; of course not for the Park, or a lawn meet. Habit--a short, strong hunting-skirt, short enough to walk in with comfort, with jacket of same cloth as skirt, made loose enough to admit of a jersey being worn under it if required; a wide leather belt for the waist, fastening with a buckle. This belt will be found a great comfort and support when on horseback for many hours. Hat of soft felt, or a melon-shaped hat. Pantaloons of chamois leather, buttoning close at the ankles. Hussar or Wellington boots, reaching to about four inches of the knee, to be worn over the pantaloons, made of Peel leather with _moderate_-sized heels, tipped with brass, and soles strong but not thick. A leather stud should be sewn on the left boot, about 2-1/2 inches above the heel, on which stud the spur should rest, and thus be kept in its place without tight buckling. The spur found to be the most useful after the trial of many is a rowel spur of plated steel, about two inches to two and-a-half inches long, strong and light, hunting shape, and fastened with a strap and buckle, the foot-strap of plated steel chain. This chain foot-strap looks neater than a leather one, and does not become cut or worn out when on foot on rough or rocky ground. The rowel pin is a screw pin; thus the rowel can be changed at pleasure, and a sharp or a blunt one fitted as is required by the horse one rides. The spur I mention can be obtained of Messrs. Maxwell & Co., Piccadilly, London; or of Mr. Thompson, saddler, Dawson street, Dublin. Some ladies affect two spurs--one, the right, being fitted with a blank rowel; this is, of course, for appearance sake when dismounted. I have not often seen two spurs worn. I am not alluding to Miss Bird's riding-costume, as described in her books, _Life in the Sandwich Islands_ and _The Rocky Mountains_. She rode _à la cavalière_, in a Mexican saddle, and wearing big rowel Mexican spurs, and appears from her account to have preferred this style of riding to the modern style and side-saddle. Some years ago I saw a photograph of the Queen of Naples (I think in 1860), representing the queen mounted _à la cavalière_, wearing a high felt hat, a long white cloak, patent-leather jack-boots, and gilt spurs. Can any of your readers inform me if this style of riding for ladies is a custom of Southern Italy as well as Mexico and the Sandwich Islands? I am, &c. JACK SPUR. * * * * * SIR,--I cannot regret that my letter has given the authoress of this work, and also the owner of the "big bay" horse, an opportunity of explaining the circumstances attending her mount on that puissant but headstrong animal, and of repudiating the erroneous construction put upon it, as probably the same idea may have occurred to many other readers of the anecdote, who may not have cared to express their sentiments. I must say, however, that I am very sorry if my remarks occasioned pain to either of your correspondents. The explanation given shows clearly that no blame was really attributable to the gentleman who offered the mount, and I can well believe he never dreamt of danger with the horse in such skilful hands. No one would doubt the sincerity of the statement given, that the horse was put in harness for the first time and driven away, after such an experience of his temper; but it speaks more highly for the courage than discretion of his owner, and I can well understand the friend's hesitation to share the driving-seat, for there are few things more trying to the nerves than to sit behind a determined bolter. Perhaps I write feelingly, having been in that predicament myself three years ago, resulting in a fractured hip and permanent lameness. I will most certainly admit that the chivalrous gentleman did all, and more than was necessary, to avert further peril to the lady who had so narrow an escape. As for the obnoxious term "rough rider," to which exception is taken, it was intended to be used generally and not individually; if it has unfortunately happened that Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, whom I have never had the pleasure of seeing, took it in a personal sense, I most sincerely beg her forgiveness, and will ask her rather to accept, as applicable to herself, the earlier remarks about ladies on horseback at the conclusion of my letter, and the assurance of my belief that such a gentlewoman as she is described could never be a _rough_ rider in any way. I am, &c. JERMYN. * * * * * SIR,--The spur with a five-pointed rowel was strongly recommended for ladies' use many years ago in the _Queen_, and is worn by many: it does not tear the habit, and is not more severe than the spring-sheath spur with a point of the same length, as only one point of the rowel can prick the horse at a time; indeed, it is not so severe, as it can be applied with a very slight touch, which generally is all that is required, whilst the spring-sheath spur must be applied with sufficient force to overcome the resistance of the spring, with the result that the horse is often more sharply pricked than the rider intends. The points of a lady's spur should be long enough to be effective if the skirt of the habit intervenes, as, with any arrangement, it sometimes will do, when, if the points are too short, the horse does not feel it. I dissent from the statement of "Fairplay" that, "from the nature of a lady's seat, her armed heel would often unintentionally irritate and annoy her horse." If applied to a clumsy rider the statement is accurate, but a lady who is a moderately good rider has no difficulty in keeping her foot in the proper position, and a lady's left foot should be in the same position as a man's; whilst, as a lady has the third crutch to steady her left leg, she has less excuse than a man would have for the unintentional use of the spur; but this evil carries its own antidote, for the lady would soon perceive the result of the irritation, and become more careful. The best way to cure a boy of turning out his toes and holding on with his heels is to give him a pair of long-necked spurs, and then put him on a fidgetty horse; a few minutes' experience teaches him more than a month of lecturing. I never knew of a mishap occurring to a lady through accidentally spurring her horse, but I have known many instances of ladies being put to great inconvenience and annoyance through not wearing a spur, and I do not understand why a lady should be more likely than a man to use it with undue severity. That it is an advantage to a lady is clearly shown by the fact that a lady who once tries one always continues its use. "Fairplay" is also mistaken about the spring-sheath spur, for it is as readily applied as any other, though more force is required, which is objectionable, and especially so in park riding, when the spring of the horse to an unintentionally sharp application betrays the action of the rider. I claim to be as good a friend of horses as "Fairplay," but I have some regard for the rider as well as for the horse, and I consider that, whilst we are justified in riding horses, we are justified in using such reasonable aids as we find most satisfactory to ourselves; and I have no sympathy with anyone who objects to a lady availing herself of the convenience and assistance so readily supplied by a judiciously-used spur, which every horseman knows cannot, in very many cases, be obtained by any other means, and which he never hesitates to avail himself of. In these days of locomotion a lady loses a great deal of the pleasures of travelling, and of the opportunities of seeing the countries she may visit, unless she can and will ride such horses as she may meet with in those countries; and even in the rural districts of England there is many an old nag of the "Proputty Proputty" type, which (though not possessed of the special points of a lady's horse--"Oh! such a lovely mane and tail") will carry a lady tolerably well if he feels the spur occasionally. If "Mabel Florence Rayne" tries the rowel spur and the bit I mentioned in my former letter, I am sure she will be satisfied with them, and perhaps she will write her opinion for the benefit of others. The excellent and sensible letters of Mrs. Power O'Donoghue will probably convince people that a horse, when he has a lady on his back, is very much the same kind of animal, and requires very much the same kind of management, as when he is ridden by a man. If Mrs. Power O'Donoghue can obtain this result, she will sweep away many of the peculiar prejudices and ideas that now prevail as to all matters appertaining to ladies on horseback. I am, &c. SOUTHERN CROSS. * * * * * SIR,--In the article under the above-mentioned heading, published in your issue of the 6th November, Mrs. Power O'Donoghue recommends that horses' tails should not be docked. Dealers, when offering horses for sale, do not usually volunteer any information as to whether the horses have been docked. I wish, therefore, to inform any intending purchasers who may not know how to ascertain whether a horse has been docked, and who may wish to obtain some which have not been disfigured in this manner, that if the dock (that is, the portion of the tail which consists of bones and muscles, &c.) is in its natural state, the hair grows thickly at the end or tip of it, and there is no bare space there; but if it has been shortened by a portion of it being cut off (or docked), there is at the end or tip of it a circular space of about an inch in diameter, entirely bare of hair. When a horse has been docked, the hair of the tail scarcely grows after it has reached to within six or seven inches above the hocks. The hocks of a large horse are about twenty-five inches above the ground. It is a general custom with London dealers to cut the hair of the tail very short before offering a horse for sale, so that it does not come down lower than to a distance of about nine inches above the hocks. The buyer cannot then tell to what length the tail is likely to grow. If customers would refuse to buy horses with the hair of the tail cut short, perhaps the practice in question would be discontinued by the dealers. I am, Sir, &c. X. Y. Z. London, November 10, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--In your paper of last week I notice a letter on the advisability of ladies on horseback adopting the cross-saddle in place of the side, that is to say, in plain English, ride astride. This I have done abroad when far beyond conventional bondage, and it is incomparably better. Your correspondent points out the evils resulting from the one-sided twisted seat, which a lady now has, and also, in the same paper, the authoress of _Ladies on Horseback_ says how impossible it is with only one foot in the stirrup to rise comfortably to a high trotter. Now I should never have dared to name such a change had it not been thus mooted. Society will shriek out and say, "Woman would be indeed out of place thus." Why? I am sure with a proper dress there is nothing to hurt the extremely proper feelings of the most modest. All who have hunted know that the _very_ short skirted habits at times display, well, say the leg of the fair _equestrienne_ most liberally. Now the dress for the cross-horse style is much the same as a bathing suit, loose Zouave drawers drawn close below the knee, and fastened tightly over the boot at the ankle; a loose tunic, long enough to come almost to the knee when mounted, lightly belted at the waist, a cape falling over the shoulders, not quite to the elbows. This is my attire when free to ride in the _only_ really comfortable way, a foot in each stirrup. Oh, no woman would ever be twisted and packed on to a side saddle again if she could help it, after once enjoying the ease and freedom, as well as complete control of her horse which a man's seat gives. So far as exhibitions of limbs go, it is much more delicate, and there is nothing to offend the most sensitive lady in this style. Only it is not fashionable. When shall we cease to prostrate ourselves before that Juggernaut of fashion? For all paces and in every instance it is better, and the risk of accidents is reduced at _least one half_. It is a wonderful ease in long rides to _vary the stirrup length_. The military, almost straight-leg, trot, I think the easiest, but, on the other hand, some of the best riders I have ever seen abroad ride with a very short stirrup; it is a matter of habit and custom. But if the fashion were once introduced here, I know it would prove a priceless boon to ladies who love riding. Let some lady who has the opportunity once try it in her own private grounds (at first) or in some quiet, out-of-the-way country lane or moorland, and she will be surprised. It is a _new existence on horseback_, and _nothing_ indelicate about it, clad as I have named. Oh, what a difference it does make. It is twenty-three years now since I first took the idea from a book published by a lady, entitled, _Unprotected Females in Norway_, and whenever I can, I always ride so, of course abroad or even in the far north of Scotland. What a sensation in the Row would a party of ladies make thus mounted! Again, it is much easier for the horse, having your weight fairly distributed, not all perched on one side. Your seat is much firmer; leaping is, oh, so easy; in fact, your power seems doubled in every way. In case of conflict with your horse, you feel a veritable centaur compared with the side seat, where you have no grip, only the aid of the saddle, but with the aid of your own knees and a foot on each side of the horse I think I _could not be thrown_. Oh, I wish it could be initiated, dear Mr. Editor. Do use your influence in this direction. And it really looks well when the dress is well-made and tasty, and you feel so very free and at ease, can turn about any way, not pinned on to your horse, or rather on to your saddle, as ladies are. I could give full directions to make an outfit for going abroad in this style; you would smile at my saddle I know, but it is so comfortable. I can hardly bear to ride on an orthodox one now. That is the worst of it. I have been mounted on mules in this manner in Honduras, and ridden immense distances without being stiff or tired unduly. Some of these are the animals to try _your mettle and seat_, and I was only once thrown, owing to a stirrup-leather breaking. Then a lady is able to use spurs as easily as possible, no trouble about habit skirts tearing or getting in the way of the spur. With a sharp spur on each foot you can do anything with your horse, so very different from the wretched box spurs, eternally entangled in your habit or out of order. I do wish an association could be formed to carry out the idea; one or two could not do it, it must be simultaneous. For little girls it would be simply invaluable as an improvement on the present style, which really does cause distortion of the spine and a one-sided carriage when girls ride much. Do please ventilate this question, and oblige very much, Yours, &c. HERSILIE. P.S.--I have taken your paper ever since October 2nd, when I first saw _Ladies on Horseback_ in it, and have been much pleased with it, and also much amused with the correspondence thereon, but I never expected to see ladies' change of seat advocated, and am so glad to-day to find that it is. * * * * * SIR,--Permit me to state that the object in having the screw rowel-pin in the spur, recommended by me for the use of ladies in your number of November 13th, is in order to enable the wearers to use a mild or a severe rowel, according to the requirements of the horses they ride. I am very much against sharp spurs for ladies (or gentlemen either), unless they are absolutely required; but from some experience, both at home and abroad, I am quite convinced that the wearing of a spur should be the rule and not the exception. If the rowel is moderately sharp only, no cruelty can arise, less I maintain than in the use of a whip. I strongly object to the use of the sheath spur because of its severity; it must be applied with a _kick_ to be of any use, and the effect is usually much more punishing than there is any necessity for. If ladies will use rowel spurs with _moderately_ sharp rowels, such as are usual in gentlemen's park spurs, they will find that they are in possession of a very useful aid (certainly not a cruel one), and if fitted on a neat patent leather hussar or Wellington boot, a very ornamental one as well. I am, &c. JACK SPUR. December, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--The correspondence on Mrs. Power O'Donoghue's articles has contained many remarks on ladies' spurs, but I have noticed scarcely any reference to one point which I think is worth consideration--namely, the mode of fastening. I think ladies would find it an advantage to wear what are known as "spring" or "box" spurs, instead of those fastening with the usual straps, or strap and chain. I have never seen a lady's spur of this description, but possibly they are made--if not, they easily could be. They are much the most easy to attach or remove, and there is no chance of a strap being cut in walking or otherwise, or of an over-tight buckle hurting the foot. Their principal advantage, however, is not one of mere convenience, but of safety; the absence of strap and buckle removes one element in a great danger--that of the foot sticking in the stirrup in a fall. Captain Whyte-Melville speaks from observation of the risk of the buckle catching in the angle of the stirrup-iron, and says he has never seen a spurless boot so entangled. He is arguing against the wearing of spurs at all; but the risk is avoided if box spurs be worn. Since I became convinced that the strap and buckle were a quite possible, though perhaps unlikely, source of danger, I have altogether discarded them, and have felt my feet more free in the stirrups in consequence. Box spurs are certainly not fashionable in the hunting-field, and I have often seen people looking askance at them; I suppose a particular man misses the finish that the strap gives to the boot. But I don't think that matters much, and to ladies it would not matter at all, as the difference could very seldom be detected. In getting spurs or boxes, I find it convenient to adhere always to the regulation cavalry size, because then one's old spurs fit one's new boots, and _vice versâ_. It would be well to have a uniform standard for ladies' spurs also. I have not ventured to say anything on the subject of spurs generally--my own opinion is that legitimate occasion for their use is excessively rare--and I dare say my suggestion may seem very trivial. But I do not think any precaution is trivial which lessens, however slightly, the risk of that most disagreeable and dangerous of accidents--getting "hung up." I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, OXONIAN. Ball. Col., Oxon., December, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--I cannot but feel flattered that my _Ladies on Horseback_ papers should have called forth so large a correspondence. I have read every letter most carefully, and on perusing that of "Hersilie," which appeared in last week's issue, it struck me, from two of her observations, that persons might suppose I had said something to advocate the style of riding of which she approves. Permit me to say, emphatically, that I have never done so, and that I fervently hope, in the interests of my sex, that such a practice may never be introduced. Modesty is, in my opinion, a woman's most exquisite attribute; once this, or the semblance of it, is lost, her fairest charm is gone. Nothing could be more ungraceful or more unwomanly than for women to ride like men; and for short women or "little girls," it would be _most_ objectionable. I maintain that a lady who knows how to sit has a far safer and surer seat on a side-saddle than a man can ever have, and that her grip of the pommels affords her infinitely greater security than a man's "grip of the knees." "Hersilie" is correct in saying that short-skirted hunting-habits frequently ride up, but she might just as well say that hunting-hats frequently fall off, and that ladies' back hair frequently comes down--giving these facts as a reason for discarding head-gear, whether natural or artificial. As a rule, nothing that is properly made and properly adjusted ever comes to grief. It is by going to cheap and incompetent habit-makers, neglecting to stitch elastics to their hats, and plaiting the hair too loosely (being also too sparing of hair-pins), that ladies are inconvenienced and made to blush. Two yards wide round the hem is ample for a hunting-habit, which should fit like a glove about the hips. First-class tailors always have a model horse, upon which they mount their lady customers, and thus secure the right position for the slope at the knee, upon which so much of the "set" of the skirt depends. A well-dressed woman, sitting properly upon a well-constructed saddle, cannot, in my opinion, be improved upon for style and comfort, and I hope it will be long indeed before ladies strive to follow in any way the customs or callings of the sterner sex. I may add that one of the chief recommendations of a box spur is that it does _not_ get out of order, nor can it possibly become entangled, unless the habit-skirt be one of those which some ladies still persist in wearing--nearly twice too long, and quite three times too wide. I earnestly hope "Hersilie" will take these observations in good part. I make them in a perfectly friendly spirit. I feel kindly towards all ladies, especially those who love horses; and so I offer "Hersilie" a warm shake-hands, and hope she will fight me as much as ever she likes--in a friendly way, of course! Now, a word to "Jack Spur." I think he is under a mistake in averring that there is any severity in the sheath spur. He says it must be applied with a _kick_. As I always ride with one, and never with any other description, I must entirely differ from him in this opinion. A slight pressure is alone necessary. No gentlewoman would be guilty of kicking her horse. I strongly object to rowels, as I hold to the belief that almost anybody--except a really first-class _équestrienne_--would be likely to hurt or worry the horse in an unnecessary manner. Strange to say, I had only got thus far in my letter when the post brought me a communication from Stirling, signed "Reform," begging of me to advocate ladies riding upon the cross-saddle. Were it not that the writer says so many nice, kind things of myself (for which I beg to thank her) I should be really angry at the tremendous display of zeal thus wasted upon so unworthy a subject. It is true that a lady's seat on horseback prevents her pressing her horse up to his bridle as a man can, _unless_--but there _is_ the unless--she knows how to do it. A good stout hunting-crop, properly used, will admirably fulfil the duties of the second leg; but in all my experience, and it is a pretty wide one, I have never seen more than two lady riders who had any idea of making a horse gallop or sending him up to his bit. I do not mean riding his head off--we unfortunately see too much of that; but pressing him up to his work, and riding him with firm, _accomplished_ hands, such as are only to be obtained by good teaching, long and constant practice, and real love of the art. To give some idea of the hazy notion which most persons have about riding, a lady who came to call upon me in London, and who certainly meant to be most kind and polite, said, as we sat at our afternoon tea, "I am looking at your hands; how well-developed they are, from _pulling your horses_, I suppose!" She thought I was offended when I told her that my riding gloves were No. 6, and that I never pulled my horses; but I am not captious, nor would it be possible to take offence with one who so little intended to cause it. The offer which I made at the conclusion of my _Ladies on Horseback_, to answer private inquiries, has led to such a host of letters that, although I regularly devote one hour every morning to the task of replying to each in turn, I find it impossible to keep pace with the work. Will you, therefore, sir, with the kindness extended to me upon a former occasion, suffer me to answer a few of my correspondents through the medium of your columns. RICHARD R.--One measure three times daily, with a good double-handful of Indian corn mixed through it. CAPTAIN SWORDARM.--The oats will require two waters. The grains should swell and separate, like rice boiled for curries. EVELYN HARKESS.--Your parcel has not reached me. My tailor will endeavour to please you. JANE V.--A very cruel practice. REFORM.--You will see that I have acknowledged your letter. Judging by the postmark it should have come to hand three days ago, but you gave the wrong address, and it went on a seeking expedition. "Dublin" will at any time find me. This is also for "Quilp," "B. Max," and "Violet Grey." ELLA.--Your horse is evidently a rough trotter, and can never be pleasant to ride. Try to exchange or sell him. MARY PERPLEXED.--The pommels of your saddle are most likely too far apart; that is, the leaping head is placed too low. If you cannot change it, ride with a longer stirrup-leather. I have been lately shown the preparation for an improved side-saddle, by Messrs. F. V. Nicholls & Co., of 2 Jermyn Street, comprising a patented arrangement for the third crutch or leaping-head. I think that this will be a great boon to those ladies who, like myself, have suffered inconvenience and accident from the leaping-head being a fixture, and not in the position required to afford a proper degree of support, and at the same time to admit of the stirrup-leather being used of correct length for an easy, secure, and graceful seat. The improvement of the new saddle consists in a sliding socket or apparatus, by which the leaping-head can be moved freely backward or forward to any position, and instantly fixed firmly by the rider herself, thus enabling a lady to alter at any time the length of her stirrup, and yet gain every requisite support from the third crutch. Another little innovation by the same experienced saddlers in riding bridles, an adaptation of my favourite double-ring snaffle. The loose rings of the snaffle have some extra loops, appended to which is a short noseband, acted upon by one rein, giving a powerful effect in stopping a runaway horse, whilst the use of the other rein singly has the pleasant and easy nature of the ordinary snaffle-bridle. The principle of this bridle, which is called "the improved Newmarket snaffle" is, of course, equally applicable to the use of persons of either sex. GILES.--Have the shoe taken off and give him rest. URSA MAJOR.--There is no real cure for ringbone. Do not waste your money. CLAUDE, EMMA VANE, N. PARKES, HENRY B., RHODA, NELLIE K., and thirty-one others, write to me for--photographs! I am sorry that "for lack of gold" I cannot supply a kindly public with my pictures, and I am not vain enough to state publicly where they may be had. NIMROD.--Pleader was purchased from me last week by the Earl of Eglinton. It will, therefore, be unnecessary for me to reply to any further inquiries respecting him. I named his price and made no change, nor was I asked to do so. CROPPER.--You were evidently sitting loosely, and thus suffered for your carelessness. You will not be caught napping the next time. ANXIOUS, MARTHA, and a host of others have asked me a very familiar question, "How I learned to ride?" I have hitherto avoided answering, rather than introduce a name whose owner did not wish me to do so. But I think I may hope to win his pardon. Most, if not all, my skill in the saddle is mainly due to the kind and untiring patience of my dear old friend and teacher, Mr. Allan McDonogh, who--despite his threescore years and ten--was, up to the time of his lamentable accident, ever ready to act as my pilot and instructor. ENQUIRER.--Ride a steady horse, and your nerve will come back again. Mine did, after a much more terrible mischance. CORSICAN BROTHER.--It is not true. CRITIC.--You only discovered one mistake, but there are really _three_ in my story, "In Search of a Wonder," which appeared in the Christmas Number of this journal. In place of "hustled me out _of_ a sort of enclosure," read "_to_ a sort of enclosure." Also, "suddenness" requires two n's, and "carr_a_ttella" is the correct way to spell a word which signifies a small cart or rough carriage peculiar to the Piedmontese. These are all printer's errors, and should have been corrected by me, but I revised my proof in a crowded coffee-room of a London hotel, with at least a dozen persons talking to me as I did so, and thus, being also pressed for time, a few mistakes escaped my notice. To you, sir, and to all my friends, best wishes for the New Year, and many grateful thanks for more kindness than I can deem myself worthy of. Yours obediently, NANNIE POWER O'DONOGHUE. Dublin, December 1880. * * * * * SIR,--In case no one more able than myself answers "Hersilie's" letter in this week's number of your valuable paper, will you allow me, in the name of many lady riders who "can" use the side-saddle, to write and protest against the idea cropping up of our riding like men? I cannot help feeling justly indignant with those who try to introduce such a radical change, for, surely, we are already too much inclined to follow all the ways and pursuits of the opposite sex without so far forgetting ourselves as to wish to ride as they do. I do not want to criticise what one is often obliged to do in foreign lands; there it may prove a necessity, for the riding is not simply for pleasure, but often the only means of transport, and the horses may not be fitted for our saddles, nor we accustomed to their paces; but, in England, the idea of a number of ladies fantastically dressed and mounted like men must shock many of your readers. I hope "X. Y. Z.," who first wrote in favour of this change some weeks ago, may pardon me if I say that the ladies of his or her acquaintance who, in consequence of only one stirrup, cannot avoid inclining the head and shoulders too much to the left, &c., and in addition gall their horses' backs, had better not attempt to ride at all. What is a prettier sight than a neatly-dressed Englishwoman riding a horse, "as a lady," and should we retain the same respect we now get if we gave up, in this particular, the few feminine tokens left to us. Why not let us accept the male attire altogether? It would be far more to our comfort in getting about on foot, and if one change is so advisable, surely the other is quite as sensible. I agree with "Hersilie" in thinking that the habits of the present day are indelicately short, and I cannot see that ladies ride any better showing their boots and with their arms akimbo than they did a year or so ago, when their feet were covered and no daylight showed between their arms. I come of as "horsey" a family as any in England, and have ridden ever since I could sit upright; but I never experienced, or knew that my sisters experienced, any of the troubles "X. Y. Z." and "Hersilie" complain of. My father, who was our sole instructor, put us on any animal that he thought likely to suit his own riding, and no matter where we were, in the hunting-field or elsewhere, the least deviation from sitting square would bring from him the sharp reprimand of, "What are you doing? Bring that left shoulder up, and don't let me see any daylight between your arms!" He also insisted that our stirrups should be short, even to discomfort, until we got used to it; but this prevented any chance of our hurting the horse's back, which most frequently comes from a lady riding with a long stirrup, and when she trots having to seek her stirrup, which constantly moves her saddle, and makes her as well look most awkward and one-sided. If not trespassing too much, may I say one other little word in the interest of the horses I love so well? Over and over again, lately, have I seen the advice given in your paper that we should never be without a spur. Now, sir, if my experience can have any weight, I will say that I have hunted and ridden across country in all parts of Gloucestershire all my young days, that I was put on horses whether they or I liked it or not, both kind, unkind, or violent ones, and I am thankful to say that the idea of my wearing a spur never entered my father's head nor mine. It seems to me such an underhand way of punishing one's horse--a real feminine species of torture, for no one sees the dig, dig, dig, but there it is all the time; and many a horse, I firmly believe, comes to grief with its rider simply because, not understanding its power, she taxes it beyond its strength. Not one horse in twenty will refuse, or need either whip or spur if he knows his mistress, and if he does he is not fit for inexperienced riders. I wish every girl was taught as I have been, "that a horse can do no wrong." This made me study the peculiarities of every animal I was put upon, and I have never had an accident of any kind. Every horsewoman who loves riding must be proud of the feats accomplished by Mrs. Power O'Donoghue in the side-saddle, but would she be admired or respected as she is if she turned out as a man and rode as men do? It is being able to sit square and ride straight on a side-saddle, that we should be vain of, and not wish to make a change, which could only bring Englishwomen down in the estimation of all those who are now so justly proud of them on horseback. I am, Sir, Yours, &c. THE LADYBIRD. December 18, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--Will you allow me to make one or two remarks upon a letter I read last night in your valuable paper? It is from a correspondent speaking of the ill effects produced by the use of side-saddles. In the first place your correspondent should remember that the back of the horse, as well as the shoulder, is soft and tender when not in condition, that is, in constant work, and not fit for either riding or driving long distances at once, without damage. Get the back carefully and well seasoned, or accustomed to the side-saddle, during the time the horse is getting into condition for the hunting-field, and use a leather saddle-cloth under the saddle; let it be long enough, and not the shape of the saddle, and have all properly put on the horse, and you will not come to grief with six or seven hours' work, or before the lady is tired; that is, provided the lady will sit well down and steady in her saddle, and keep her horse as much from trotting as possible. Her horse must learn to canter slowly both to cover and home, it will be much better for the horse and much easier for the lady when she is accustomed to it; she will not be troubled any more with horses with sore backs. Another remark from "X. Y. Z." is, it is said that curvature of the spine sometimes ensues from children being taught at too early an age to ride on side-saddles. I fear the mistake is by the said children not having been taught how to sit or to put themselves in form for their own comfort, but left to sit as they like on horseback and get bad habits they cannot get rid of, never throwing the weight of the body in its proper place. Then, as to the remark about the riding-habit on the pommels, that disadvantage either has, or ought to have, passed away a long time ago; for I am well satisfied that a lady can so dress herself for the hunting-field in boots, Bedfords, and plenty of flannel that she can keep herself warm and comfortable without a great, strong, heavy, long riding-habit. Let the habit be short and very light, and by no means bound round the bottom part with anything strong, but left so that it will give way either in a fall or in leaping through a high fence. I wonder if Mr. Lovell had his knife in his pocket when he saw his daughter suspended by the habit, which would neither tear nor be removed; had it been of light, thin material, and short, the sad accident would not have occurred. I am satisfied a little care and proper attention will put all things right of which your correspondent complains. I am, &c. O. P. December, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--In your issue of the 4th December, "Farmer" writes that his horses are fed upon oats which have been soaked in cold water, and that he has the corn thus prepared because he could not easily manage to have a steaming apparatus for cooking the food in the way that is recommended by Mr. Edward Mayhew M.R.C.V.S., in his _Illustrated Horse Management_. The plan that I have adopted during the last two months has been to have the oats put in a pail (made of oakwood) in the evening, and to pour upon them from a kettle a sufficient quantity of boiling water to rise a little above the oats; a sack is placed over it to keep in the heat, and the oats are then left to soak during the night; on the following morning the husk is so much softened that it will yield to the pressure of the thumb and finger. In this state the oats are more easily digested by the horse, and it is better for his teeth than to have to bite a hard substance. A wooden pail is preferable to a zinc one, because it does not conduct the heat from the oats so much as one of the latter description does. A lid would be, perhaps, better than a sack. The pail should not be filled with the oats, because the latter will swell when soaked. In the stall in our stable there is no water-trough at the side of the manger, and in order that the horse may have water within reach during the day and night, a zinc pail is placed in and at the end of the manger, and the handle of it is secured by a chain to the iron bars forming the upper part of the partition between the two stalls. In the loose-box, a pail containing water is suspended by a chain to some iron bars placed inside the window. I am, &c. X. Y. Z. London, December, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--I cannot but feel flattered that Mrs. O'Donoghue has so frankly and kindly invited me to "break a lance" with her. I do, with both my hands and with all my heart, reciprocate her "warm shake-hands," and, vizor down and spear in rest, ride full tilt at her in fair and open fight to do my poor _devoirs_, if you will allow me once again to enter the lists in your paper. If Mrs. O'Donoghue will read her paper in your number for November 27th she will find these words: "My companion was in ease while I was in torture." Why was this? "Because he had a leg on either side of his mount, his weight equally distributed, and an equal support upon both sides; in fact, he had, as all male riders have, the advantage of a double support in the rise; consequently, at the moment when his weight was removed from the saddle, it was thrown upon both sides, and this equal distribution enabled him to accomplish without fatigue that slow rise and fall which is so tiring to a lady whose weight, when she is out of the saddle, is thrown entirely upon one delicate limb, thus inducing her to fall again as soon as possible." Again, in the very next paragraph, Mrs. O'Donoghue says, "A man will be able to stand in his stirrups for a considerable time, even to ride at a gallop, so doing because he transfers his weight equally to his feet; but how rarely do we see a lady balanced upon one leg! The sensation is not agreeable, and would, moreover, be unpleasantly productive of wrung backs." These are verbatim extracts from "Part Three continued." I think my preference for a leg on each side of my horse, and a distribution of my weight equally on to each foot, is most eloquently and forcibly justified by Mrs. O'Donoghue when she wrote the above. I did not suggest, or at any rate did not mean to suggest, that she advocated a cross-seat for ladies, but that she unmistakably pointed out the great advantages of such a seat her own words abundantly testify. Again, some of the healthiest children I have ever seen are poor little gipsy girls, who, from being able to mount a donkey, have always ridden astride when once past the pannier period of their nomadic life. Also, some of the short, stout peasant women of Normandy ride thus, as well as the Indian squaws, and certainly these will compare favourably as to robust health with their side-saddle sisters of civilisation; to say nothing of the South American ladies. We have also the testimony of many lady travellers as to the superiority of a cross-seat when horseback is the only mode of transit. I cannot admit that in any case, even for "short women" or "little girls," it would be "most objectionable," that is, from a hygienic point of view. On the score of modesty, _de gustibus_, &c. &c. But then I allow a great latitude on such a point (our highest order carries the truest motto, _honi soit qui mal y pense_). In fact, I do not regard it as a question of modesty at all; simply of convenience, efficiency, and comfort. Mrs. O'Donoghue also says how rare it is to meet with a perfect lady's horse. "In all my wide experience I have met but two." Why? because a lady (and mainly on account of her side-seat, as I believe) is heavily handicapped as compared with a man in her choice of a horse, or, I should say, in her requirements from her horse. Every remark in the whole of the papers, "Ladies on Horseback," as to kindness, temper, and gentleness in the treatment of a horse I most cordially endorse, and I have to thank the fair authoress for the pleasure I have had in their perusal. A word or two in answer to "The Ladybird." In reply to her opening remarks, I merely observe, "use is second nature," and had she happened to have lived before "Anne of Bohemia" introduced side-saddles she would have had no room for "indignation"; possibly in that case she would have always ridden pillion. Oh! if we could only once realise how much we are the slaves of fashion, how soon would the yoke be broken! Contrast the crinoline of 1857 and the umbrella-case attire of 1877; put a fashionable belle of the latter alongside her sister of only twenty years earlier mode. What a satire on taste, on modesty so called! But I would also ask "Ladybird" (if it be worth her while) to read again my letter of the 18th, and she will find I did not complain of the side-saddle, which I have an idea I _can_ use, but pointed out its great inferiority (which I maintain) to the cross-saddle. The best test perhaps is the foreign one. Mount a horse without a saddle, but properly bitted, and then decide which is the more natural and easier seat; in one case you feel an appendage; in the other almost part of the horse. In the name of womanhood I repudiate the suggestion of an "underhand way of punishment," being "a real feminine species of torture." Perhaps it is, under the skirts of a habit, possible to "dig, dig, dig," for no one sees, truly; but surely no lady could, or would, spur her horse for the sake of tormenting him; in my attire at any rate it would not be unseen. The extraordinary teaching that a "horse can do no wrong" is an axiom with which I cannot agree. I have been mounted on horses that "could do no right," or if they could do it would not. And it has taken me all my time and taxed all my energies to prevent them from doing the things which they ought not to do; for I do object to a horse attempting to erect himself in a perpendicular attitude, either from a fore or aft basis, when I am on his back, and I rejoice to know that I have (in such cases) on each foot a sharp spur to use with him as a cogent argument in convincing him that ordinary progression on four legs is infinitely better than saltimbantique performance on two--at least from my, his rider's, point of view. On a well-bred, highly-trained animal a spur is scarce ever required to be used, but even then the emergency may arise. I really laughed outright when I read what you, Sir, said of the "shoals of letters" arriving from fair correspondents "desiring to ride" as "Hersilie" suggested, but this only convinces me that there are many ladies who feel that it would be--just exactly as I described it--"a new life on horseback." I could add much more on the subject, but have already trespassed too long on your space. I only repeat, let any lady once fairly try it, and she will always prefer it. I do not for a moment imagine she will always do it. I admit we must conform to custom, and I strongly deprecate individual eccentricity, especially in a lady. I shall continue to read all that appears in your paper on this and kindred topics with deep interest. Again, I specially thank Mrs. Power O'Donoghue for her genial and kindly expression of goodwill, and again heartily shake the shadowy hand she offers. I quite believe a No. 6 gloved hand can control a horse as well as any 7, 7½, or 8, if it only be possessed of the cunning. And thanking you, sir, for your kindness, allow me as a woman to have the last word, and again assert, "the cross seat is much the better." Yours, &c. HERSILIE. Ambleside (_pro tem._), Dec. 1880. * * * * * SIR,--Kindly permit me to say a few words in reply to "Hersilie's" letter, which appeared in your issue of last week. I am referred to my own paper in your number for November 27, but "Hersilie" does not quote correctly, or perhaps the error is the printer's. I think I said "My companion was _at_ ease, whilst I was in torture." Now, I merely related the incident with which these words were associated in order to instruct ladies how to avoid the double rise--not to advocate for a single instant their riding upon a cross-saddle. I am quite ready to reiterate my statement that the position of a man enables him to ride a rough or clumsy trotter with infinitely greater ease than can a woman; but women should not, in my opinion, ride such _at all_, nor should I have done so, as related in your paper of November 27, were it not that my host, an immensely heavy man, had none but big rough horses in his stable, and I was obliged either to accept a mount upon one of them, for at least _once_, or give offence to a dear kind friend, which I would not do to avoid even a greater amount of inconvenience than I experienced upon the occasion in question. The cross-seat is not the only thing which ladies may envy the sterner sex, without at the same time advocating the propriety of encroaching upon their privileges. For my own part I never yet set out to walk on a wet or muddy day without sincerely envying every man who passed me, his big boots, tucked-up trousers, and freedom from the petticoats and furbelows which encumber us and make us feel miserable in the rain; yet I certainly never felt the _smallest_ desire to adopt his costume. Nor have I ever seen two persons, or two big dogs, engaged in fighting, that I did not envy the man who rushed between the combatants and stopped the unseemly exhibition; yet I decidedly experienced no wish to do it myself. It would not be my place. Men have their costume, their avocations, their sayings and doings, their varied callings in the world, and women have theirs. Each should be separate and distinct from the other. A manly woman, or a womanly man, is, in the eyes of all rightly-judging persons, a most objectionable creature. There are many things which a woman may legitimately admire, and, in a certain sense, _envy_, yet with which she should never desire to meddle, unless she is ambitious to merge her womanhood in the semblance of man. The cross-saddle is one of these. It may do very well in the wilds of a country whose inhabitants are from childhood accustomed to it, and where all ride alike, but not in civilised England. As well seek to advocate the dress (or undress) of the Indian squaws, as to endeavour to introduce their style of riding into a land whose daughters are as modest as they are fair. "Hersilie" says:--"I do not regard it as a question of modesty at all, simply of convenience, efficiency, and comfort." The subject is one upon which a woman can touch but very lightly, yet may I affirm that if all women were to lay aside their chief charm, and simply go in for "convenience, efficiency, and comfort," society would present fewer attractions than it at present does? I shall leave "The Ladybird" to answer for herself, but I cannot help saying that I think "Hersilie" is _hard_ upon her. She and I have met but once, yet I know that she is gentle and highborn, and worthy of nothing but the love of which her own Christian heart is composed. You, sir, must also fight your own little battle, and tell "Hersilie" she is not to "laugh outright" at any of your "Circular Notes." She may laugh, of course, at small fry like myself, but I really _can't_ have my Editor laughed at! nor my sweet "Ladybird" crushed! And now, having said so much, I once again offer a shadowy hand to my adversary, and hope that though at present we see one another but darkly, we may yet do so "face to face," and meet as friends. A word, with your permission, to correspondents:-- EVELYN HARKESS.--I have discovered your parcel. I thought you were sending it addressed to _me_. You shall have the contents in a few days. FLINK.--There is never one worth buying, although unwise persons bid fast and high. Try a private source, and beware of imposition. R. KING.--The horse is sold. H. DUNBAR, SHAMUS O'BRIEN, W. HATFIELD, and ROSE MARIE.--Your questions are of too personal a nature. If time permits I will answer privately. IGNORAMUS.--Dose him with aloes until he is dead sick; then put a saddle on him, with a sand-bag at either side, and ring him for an hour. I warrant he will allow a man upon his back after this, nor will he seek to dislodge him either. It is much better and more humane than the whipping and spurring which is so grievous to a sensitive looker-on. HUGH.--Apply to Mr. Chapman, Oaklands, Cheltenham. I. STARK.--How shall I thank you? but I know not when I can ride again. Your recipe, if effectual, would be indeed invaluable. I shall look for a purchaser for your cob. MAY-BLOSSOM.--The nicest modern saddles have no stitching about them. Call at 2, Jermyn Street. NIMROD II.--I have nothing that would suit you, nor do I ever sell my horses, unless under exceptional circumstances. I am, of course, flattered that so many are desirous of possessing what I have ridden, but my stable is _extremely_ limited. See my reply to HUGH. HANNAH POWELL.--I shall answer by letter. SYNNORIX.--I said in a former letter that there was no cure for ringbone; I have since heard of one which I consider invaluable, and the lady who possesses it would sell it for a trifling sum. Apply to Mrs. Slark, Rose Cottage, Bletchley. I hope URSA MAJOR will see this reply to SYNNORIX, and will profit by my advice, which is to apply at once for the cure. K. C., REDCAR.--I am pleased you found my system effectual, but are you sure you did not carry it out too rigorously? Few would have such courage. JOCKEY.--An authority says Fairyhouse, and I dare say he is right, although there is a double at Punchestown--a big one--at which many a good man and true has come to signal grief. I saw a fine young racer killed there last year. To EDITH, PAUL PRY, JANE BURKITT, CONSTANCE HAYE, and MOUSQUETAIRE, many thanks. If you write to the Editor he may perhaps give you information as to the possibility of what you ask. Yours obediently, NANNIE POWER O'DONOGHUE. * * * * * SIR,--As I learned from a recent letter from that most amiable and talented lady, Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, that her teacher has been the fine old sportsman, Allen McDonogh, I need wonder no longer at her having become the very brilliant horsewoman which undoubtedly she is. A finer or more graceful horseman than her teacher was, has never lived. Since growing years and increasing weight prevented him from riding his own horses he has brought out very many crack gentlemen riders within the past twenty years, some of them quite shining lights. Amongst some may be enumerated his great friend, Captain Tempest, 11th Hussars; Captain Prichard Rayner, 5th Dragoon Guards; Mr. Laurence, 4th Hussars; Captain, now Major, Hutton, 1st Royal Dragoons; Captain Brown, of the Royal Horse Artillery, who unfortunately was killed a few years since crossing the railway returning from a steeplechase meeting held near London; Captain Ricardo, 15th Hussars; Lieutenant-Colonel McCalmont, 7th Hussars; Captain Soames, 4th Hussars; and the ever-to-be-regretted Captain the Hon. Greville Nugent; and last, but by no means least, Mr. Thomas Beasley, besides many others, all these gentlemen, excepting Mr. Laurence, having their first winning mount on Mr. McDonogh's horses. As professionals, he brought out Paddy Gavin and George Gray, the former of whom, when scarcely more than a child, and weighing but 4 st. 7 lb., rode and won the Prince of Wales' Steeplechase, at Punchestown, on Blush Rose. I think I may be permitted to mention two of Mr. McDonogh's daring feats. When riding Sailor in a steeplechase, over an awfully severe country, close to the town of Bandon, Co. Cork (where started, amongst nine others, the celebrated horses Monarch and Valentine, the latter running second, two years later, for the Liverpool Grand National, and the former sold soon afterwards to the great Marquis of Waterford for a large sum, showing that the company at Bandon was by no means a contemptible lot), in this race, the distance of which was 4-1/2 miles, Sailor fell four times, each time unseating his rider; yet so active was his pilot in those days that he was as quickly in the saddle as out of it. At his fourth and last fall, the horse chested the bank, flung his rider some distance from him, and having a tight hold of the bridle reins, the throat-lash gave way, and the bridle came off the horse's head. As Sailor was getting on his legs, Mr. McDonogh jumped into the saddle, and setting his horse going was soon in pursuit of the leaders. There were in the 1-1/2 miles that had yet to be travelled nearly ten awkward double-posted fences. The third last impediment was a narrow lane--called in Irish a "boreen"--with an intricate bank into and out of it. The riders of Valentine and Monarch had bridles; consequently they could steady their horses and jump in and out "clever." Not so Mr. McDonogh, who had nothing to guide his horse but his whip. Steering the animal, however, for the "boreen" he put him at his best pace, and without ever laying an iron on it, he went from field to field and landed alongside the leaders. The riders of the other horses, seeing he had no power to guide his mount, endeavoured to put him outside a post that had to be gone round to make the turn into the straight line for home; but the young jockey, stretching his arms almost round his horse's nose, by some means got him straight, and, making the remainder of the running, won easily. Valentine's rider at the scales objected to Sailor for not having carried a bridle, but Mr. McDonogh was able to draw the weight, and was declared the winner amidst the wildest enthusiasm. The other extraordinary performance occurred one day on his pet mount, the celebrated Brunette, at Cashel. When riding Mountain Hare the previous day over the same course he was crossed by an old woman at an ugly up bank. The horse struck the woman in the chest and very nearly put an end to his rider also, who, in the fall, got his collar-bone and six ribs broken. The late Dr. Russell, of Cashel, was quickly by his side, and telling the Marquis of Waterford of the serious injuries Mr. McDonogh had received, that most noble-hearted man instantly sent for his carriage, which, with two post-horses, speedily took the invalid to the hotel in Cashel. The collarbone being set and ribs bandaged, he passed a miserable night. Brunette was in a race the next day, and as he would allow no man to sit on her back, he got out of his bed, mounted the mare, and, bandaged as he was and in great pain, won the race. Lord Waterford's Regalia was second, his lordship jestingly remarking that if he had known Brunette's master would have ridden her he would have left him lying at the bank, In conclusion, Mr. Editor, permit me to say that we Irish are charmed with Mrs. O'Donoghue's writings, as also with your most interesting and beautifully got-up paper. Yours, &c. MAURICE LAWLOR. Battlemount, Ballytore, Co. Kildare. * * * * * SIR,--Notwithstanding the enterprise of the large number of ladies who, you say, desire to ride after the fashion of the Mexican senoras, I venture to hope that the present custom of riding in a side-saddle will not be departed from by ladies, except in case of necessity; and I point out that in India, South Africa, and all the Australian colonies the side-saddle is always used, though there can be no doubt that if there was any real advantage in the Mexican style it would be readily adopted in new countries. Many persons appear to be quite unaware of what the lady's seat in the side-saddle should be. I describe it thus: let a man seat himself properly in his saddle, shorten the left stirrup two or three holes, and then, without moving his body or his left leg, put his right leg over the horse's wither; the man will then be seated on his horse precisely as a lady should be seated in her side-saddle. A lady's seat in a side-saddle, of the size suited to her, is extremely firm; any one who has not tried a side-saddle with the third crutch has no idea of the firm seat that a lady has. I was quite astonished when I tried it, and I believe that, after practising for a day or two to get the balance, I could ride any horse in a side-saddle that I could ride at all; whilst the exploits of ladies show clearly that a change of style is not required for the purpose of obtaining a more secure seat. One of the greatest difficulties that ladies have to contend with in this country in learning to ride is that they often get such poor instructors. Many of those who call themselves riding masters are little better than grooms, and the people who offer to turn out accomplished horsewomen in twelve easy lessons for £2 2s. must know that, except in a few cases of natural special aptitude, they cannot do much more than teach a lady how to avoid tumbling too quickly out of the saddle. On the other hand, a lady who has been through a full course of instruction from a good master, has little to learn except those matters of detail which experience alone can teach; but far better than any professional instruction is that constant and careful supervision from a good horseman, such as Mrs. Power O'Donoghue and "The Ladybird" mentioned in a late issue, one who will not be afraid of being called a "bother" when he points out and corrects every fault, however small. I consider, sir, that you have given good advice to ladies when you say, "I think a lady should wear a spur," though she may not often find it necessary to use it. In your last issue two experienced ladies give their opinions on this subject; one disapproves of the spur, the other says she always wears one. Everyone will agree with "The Ladybird" that when it is "dig, dig, dig" all the time, such use of a spur is improper; for though a sharp stroke is required sometimes--for instance, Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, when describing her flight into the farmyard, says: "I dug him with my spur"--the proper way to apply a spur is, in general, as described by Mrs. Power O'Donoghue in your last issue, by pressure. The term "box spur" is usually applied to spurs that fit into spring boxes or sockets in the heels of the boots; a spur with a spring sheath over the point is usually called a "sheath spur"; for hunting, anything that will act as a goad will answer the desired purpose, but for park or road riding the spur should be one with which a very slight touch or a sharp stroke can be given, as may be required. I know that the spur with a five-pointed rowel is preferred by ladies who have tried it to any other; but, whatever spur is selected, a lady should take care that the points are long enough to be effective when the habit intervenes. I think, sir, with you, that a lady should always wear a spur; and I notice in this correspondence, the ladies who denounce the use of a spur almost invariably say that they have never tried one; whilst ladies who have once experienced the advantage and convenience of it, never willingly mount a horse without one. There is not any real mystery about ladies' riding or ladies' horses; almost any horse that will carry a man will carry a woman, and the latter, when on horseback, ought to be provided, as nearly as possible, with the same aids and appliances as are required by the former. It is not every lady who can indulge in the luxury of a three-hundred-guinea saddle-horse, and the treatment that may answer with such a horse is not necessarily suited to an ordinary hack; yet some of the handsomest and most highly-trained ladies' horses in the Row are ridden with a spur, and it is only proper that they should be; they have been trained by the professional lady riders with a spur, and they are accustomed to receive from a slight touch of the spur the indications of the rider's wish; whilst as to the common livery-stable hacks, it is often painful to ride them until they feel that you are provided with spurs, when their whole nature appears to change, and you can enjoy a tolerably pleasant ride. "The Ladybird" says she was taught "that a horse can do no wrong." As a matter of theory the idea is a very pretty one, but I can only say, as a simple matter of fact, that I have often known a horse exhibit a very large amount of what the late Mr. Artemus Ward called "cussedness"; and I know of nothing that, when a horse is in that frame of mind, will bring him to his senses so quickly, so effectually, and with so much convenience to the rider, as a sharp spur. In far-off lands, I was once nearly two hours doing a distance of some seven miles on a new purchase. I was then without spurs; but the next day, when I was provided with them, the same animal did the same distance easily and pleasantly in about forty minutes. I very much dislike to see a lady use a whip to her horse: and, as I have always proved spurs to be a great convenience, I recommend a lady to wear one, and to use it _when necessary_ in preference to the whip. I am, &c. SOUTHERN CROSS. December, 1880. * * * * * SIR,--Since I have come to London I have been asked so many questions respecting the reason why ladies so often "pull their horses," that I feel I may accomplish some good by answering, or may at least assist in doing away with a very crying evil. My opinion is that there is usually but one reason, viz. because the horses pull them; but for a woman to pull against a pulling horse only increases the evil. It is a fallacy, and can never accomplish the desired end. A determined puller cannot, under any circumstances, be suitable to a lady, and should never be ridden by one, unless she be a sufficiently good rider and have sufficiently good hands to make the horse's mouth, which is not the case with one woman in five hundred, or, I might almost say, one man either. Horses that pull have been almost invariably spoilt in the training. Occasionally a fine-mouthed animal will be ruined by an ignorant or cruel rider, but I must say, in justice to my sex, that they are seldom guilty of doing it. The fault lies amongst men. Many women are ignorant riders; but, thank God! the blot of cruelty rarely defaces their name. Women are naturally gentle, kindly, and--_cowardly_; three things calculated not to injure a horse, except it be the latter, which enables him to discover that he can be master if he please. Doubtless there are cruel women, also, who cut and lash, and tug and spur, and treat heaven's noble gifts as though they were mere machinery, and not flesh and blood like ourselves; but how often shall I say, in answer to the numerous cases cited to me, that in writing upon this or any other subject I speak of the rule, not of the isolated exceptions. When a man begins to break a horse he regularly prepares for combat. He sets himself to work with a resolute determination to fight and be fought, as though he had a strong rebellious spirit to deal with and conquer, instead of a loving, kindly, timid nature, which needs nought save gentleness to make it amenable to even the rudest hand. The man begins by pulling; the horse, on the schoolboy "tit for tat" principle, pulls against him in return; is sold before his education (bad as it has been) is half completed; is ridden out to exercise by grooms with heavy iron hands; is handed over to the riding-school and to carry young ladies when every bit of spirit has been knocked out of him, except the determined one of pulling--pulls resolutely against the feeble hands striving to control him; is pulled and strained at in return, and becomes in time a confirmed and unmanageable brute. I wish I could persuade ladies _not_ to pull their horses. In a former number I endeavoured to tell them the proper method of managing or dealing with a pulling animal: neither to drop their hands to him, nor to pull one ounce against him. He will be certain after a few strides to yield a bit, when the hands--hitherto firm, should immediately yield to him, thus establishing a sort of give and take principle, which will soon be perfectly understood by the intelligent creature under control. We do not half appreciate our horses. Every touch of our fingers, every word we utter, every glance from our eye is noted by the horse, and is valued or resented as it deserves. So many animals are made unruly by the undue use of a severe curb that I strongly advise a trial of the snaffle only, holding the curb-rein loosely over the little finger, so that it may be in an instant taken up in case it prove necessary, which, in my opinion, it rarely will. To illustrate my meaning, on Monday last I rode a mare for a lady, who was very desirous of ascertaining whether the animal was capable of carrying a lady with safety. The groom, who was to accompany me, was evidently extremely nervous. He told me, as we started, that the mare had never done any saddle work, except with a very wild young gentleman-rider, who had bitted her severely, and yet found her difficult to manage; and he implored me earnestly to keep a good hold of the curb. I found that she hung desperately upon her bridle, kept her head between her knees with a strong, determined, heavy pull upon the bit, and rough, jerky action, which was most unpleasant. When I got her into the Row she nearly pulled my arms out in her canter--the tug she had upon the bridle was quite terrific; and, evidently prepared for the accustomed fight, she put back her ears and shook her wicked head angrily. I rode her from Palace Gate to Hyde Park Corner in the same manner as I have sought to impress upon my lady readers--namely, not pulling one atom against her, but keeping my hands low and firm, and yielding slightly to her in her stride. By the time we had turned at the Corner she had quite given up fighting. I then dropped the curb, and rode her entirely upon the snaffle. The effect was magical. She lifted her head, ceased pulling altogether, and went along in a pleasant joyous canter, going well up to her bridle, but not attempting any liberties whatever, In an hour's time, as you, sir, who were riding with me will bear testimony, I was holding her with _one hand_, stooping forward, and making much of her with the other, an attention which she evidently regarded as a pleasing novelty, and highly appreciated. Finding her slightly untractable during the ride homeward I once more lightly took up the curb. It maddened her in a moment. She turned round and round, ran me against a cart, and behaved so excitedly that it required my best skill, confidence, and temper to restore her equanimity and steer her safely (using the snaffle only) to her destination. On dismounting I observed to the groom that considering the amount of exercise and excitement through which she had passed, it was wonderful she had not sweated. His answer was that she was always fed upon cooked food, and that the chief sustenance of the horse which he himself was riding--a remarkably fine three-year-old--was boiled barley. I have never, myself, tried this feeding, but if looks and condition may be regarded as recommendation, it must be most excellent. I am, Sir, Yours obediently, NANNIE POWER O'DONOGHUE. * * * * * SIR,--I have been very greatly interested by the remarks on saddles, spurs, &c., made by your lady correspondents. My husband is a large ranchero, or cattle-farmer, on the Rio Grande, between Mexico and Texas, and naturally I have had much experience of hard as well as long-distance riding. Having been accustomed to hunting when I was a girl, I came out here with an exaggerated idea of my skill in horsemanship. My first ride in Mexico was one of three hundred miles, which we did in seven days; I rode on an English hunting-saddle almost, if not quite, as "straight as a board." After the second day I found it as uncomfortable a seat as could be desired, and was glad to change it for the peon's ordinary Mexican saddle, which I found perfectly easy and comparatively comfortable to my English one. This last I have found exceedingly fatiguing and ill-adapted to a long journey, although very good for a few hours' ride after wild cattle, which is a certain approach to hunting, although the jumping is not stiff. Lately I had another saddle sent out from England, which was a little deeper, and I find it much more useful for long distances. As ladies are not in the habit of riding steeplechases, I would venture to suggest that, for hard riding, such as hunting, the saddle might rather be heavier than lighter, as I am sure that this must give more relief to the horse's back. In fact, I believe that the sore backs so often produced by ladies' saddles are more frequently caused by the saddle being too light than too heavy. I quite agree with some of your correspondents that the padded stirrup is most dangerous, as it is not easy to get the foot out quickly if anything should happen. The principle, as stated by the Mexicans, of striking a horse between the ears is not to bring him down by _fright_, but to bring him down by _force_, so as to "stun" him. Now, do you think that any of your fair correspondents could accomplish this with a light park or hunting-whip? I may be very bold to offer any suggestions, but the lady's sidesaddle of the nineteenth century is very far from being pleasant. Why should not ladies in this age of progression begin to ride on saddles shaped like a man's, with the same seat a man uses? It would be much more comfortable, as even a stout lady could not look much more ungraceful than she does now, besides materially lessening the danger. I send you a sketch of a Mexican saddle. I am, &c. CAMPESINA. San Antonio de Bexar, Texas, U.S.A. P.S.--I would not like you to imagine that I intend to slight such an admirable authority as Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, but I should be much obliged to any of your correspondents for the design of an improved saddle, suitable alike for riding a young nervous horse and for journey purposes. I have a design for such a saddle, but I do not know how far it may be practicable. I think if ladies would give their ideas upon this subject through the medium of your columns, some real improvement might be arrived at. C. * * * * * Sir,--In your issue of the 27th November my letter appeared, recommending that the use of side-saddles should be discontinued. Your correspondent, "Jack Spur," mentions, in a letter published on the 13th November, that in some works concerning the Sandwich Islands, in the Northern Pacific Ocean, and the Rocky Mountains, North America, the authoress, Miss Isabella L. Bird, states that she was accustomed, while there, to ride on horseback astride. A few extracts from her above-mentioned writings will probably interest your readers. When in Hawaii, or Owyhee, one of the Sandwich Islands, the authoress referred to accompanied some friends on horseback to the Anuenue Falls on the Wailuku river (a river which forms a boundary between two great volcanoes), and on that occasion used a side-saddle, but was afterwards advised by one of the party to follow the native fashion of riding astride. Having acted upon this advice, she was well satisfied with the result of the trial, and continued to adopt that style while in the Sandwich Islands, and also in the Rocky Mountains, where she remained nearly four months. The following extract from a letter written by her about the 28th of January, from Hilo, Hawaii, and published in _The Hawaiian Archipelago: Six Months in the Sandwich Islands_, 1875, page 66, gives further particulars of her visit to the Anuenue Falls, above referred to:-- "Everything was new and interesting, but the ride was spoiled by my insecure seat in my saddle, and the increased pain in my spine which riding produced. Once, in crossing a stream, the horses had to make a sort of downward jump from a rock, and I slipped round my horse's neck; indeed, on the way back I felt that on the ground of health I must give up the volcano, as I would never consent to be carried to it, like Lady Franklin, in a litter. When we returned, Mr. Severance suggested that it would be much better for me to follow the Hawaiian fashion, and ride astride, and put his saddle on the horse. It was only my strong desire to see the volcano which made me consent to a mode of riding against which I have so strong a prejudice; but the result of the experiment is that I shall visit Kilanea thus or not at all. The native women all ride astride on ordinary occasions in the full sacks, or holukus, and on gala days in the pan, the gay winged dress which I described in writing from Honolulu. A great many of the foreign ladies in Hawaii have adopted the Mexican saddle also" (this means that they ride astride) "for greater security to themselves and ease to their horses on the steep and perilous bridle-tracks, but they wear full Turkish trousers, and jauntily-made dresses reaching to the ankles." After leaving the Sandwich Islands she went to the Rocky Mountains, and in a letter dated the 23rd of October, and published in _A Lady's Life in the Rocky Mountains_, 1879, she writes from the Colorado District, North America:-- "I rode sidewise till I was well through the town, long enough to produce a severe pain in my spine, which was not relieved for some time even after I had changed my position. It was a lovely Indian summer day, so warm that the snow on the ground looked an incongruity." From the fact that many ladies, when in the Sandwich Islands, ride astride, and that Miss Bird found this position preferable in many respects to that which a side-saddle obliges the rider to take, I infer that ladies in England would be pleased if a change in the mode of riding were introduced. Proprietors of circuses will perhaps permit me to offer for their consideration that by allowing this mode of riding to form a part of some of the circus performances, they might do a great deal towards causing it to be recognised by the public as the correct style, and that one great obstacle in the way of its being generally adopted by horsewomen would then be removed. I wish also to suggest that it should be taught at several riding-schools, so that a large number of pupils may commence at the same time. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, X. Y. Z. * * * * * SIR,--The letters of your correspondent, Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, are very instructive and trustworthy, because founded upon practical experience. In her letter of last week she recommends the feeding of hunters upon _cooked food_. This to many sportsmen will be a new theory; not so to me, and I wish to confirm her views, but I carry them out in a more economical way. My establishment is but a small one. I cannot afford space or attendance for a cooking-house, but I believe I arrive at the same results as she does, by steeping my oats in cold water for a given number of hours, and adding a pound of Indian meal, with a handful of chopped hay and oaten straw to each feed three times a day. My horses have a constant supply of water in a manger in a convenient corner of their stables. I believe horses fed upon dry oats and hay suffer much from thirst. I observe my horses take many sups of water through the day, but take much less on the whole than when watered upon the old practice twice daily. Practically, I find my horses very healthy, strong, and enduring, and I would freely recommend the adoption of this mode of feeding hunters to my sporting friends. FARMER. * * * * * SIR,--I am still so inundated with correspondence--many writers asking me precisely the same questions--that I shall regard it as a favour if you will again allow me to answer a few of them through the medium of your paper. CONN. DASHPUR.--You and your horse were immersed in the river, simply because you did not give him sufficient head-room to enable him to take the jump with safety. In coming up to a wide stretch of water you should always leave your mount abundant opportunity to extend his head and neck, nor should you wait to do this until you are just on the brink,--it will then, most likely, be too late to save you and him a wetting. A horse stretches his neck coming up to a water-jump, partly that he may see well what is before him, and partly because his intelligence tells him that he cannot compass it if tightly reined in. Leave him his head, and if he is a hunter worth riding he will calculate his distance and bear you safely over. At the same time you must remember to give him sufficient support when he lands, or he may peck, or roll, and give you an ugly fall. A horse is much more liable to come down over a water-jump than at a fence, for the swinging pace at which you must necessarily send him at it--combined with the _absolute_ necessity for leaving him complete freedom of his head--forbids that "steadying" process, which, at the hands of an accomplished rider, usually ensures safety over wall or ditch. Questions similar to yours have been asked me by H. CADLICOTT, MAURICE HONE, and GUY. In answering one, therefore, I reply to each. ELLICE GREENWAY.--Your MS. never reached me; you must have misdirected it,--but in any case I could not have been of service to you, as I have no time for revising other people's work, nor would my recommendation carry any weight. Publishers judge for themselves. Your papers must go in on their merits, and be accepted or rejected accordingly. I quite agree with you that declined MSS. should--when accompanied by a stamped and addressed envelope--be returned to the sender with the least possible delay. No matter how great or hurried may be the business of an office, there is in reality no excuse for inattention to this rule. The very best and busiest of the weekly journals comply with it, and persons who do not want to be treated with snobbish indifference had better not write for any other. Perhaps if you call, or send a line privately to the Editor, you may succeed in getting back your work; but do not be expectant. KING LEAR.--The horse you name attained his victory in 1878. He carried 12 st. 7 lbs. G. HUNT.--Beauparc; but he did not win. P. RYALL.--At Thirsk. He fell at the second obstacle, and although speedily remounted, his chance was extinguished. Pinnace ran well, and was in great form. His defeat was a surprise, but your informant has not given you reliable details. JAMES.--Read _Silk and Scarlet_, one of the "Druid" series. Thanks for too flattering opinion. FORDHAM.--The course is a most trying one, and the feat was one never before attempted by a lady. I did it to show that my horse was capable of accomplishing the task, and the risk was not what you describe it, for he was too clever to put a foot astray. Major Stone of the 80th accompanied me, and gave me a good lead. The only time I passed him was when his horse refused at an ugly post and rail. It is not true that he was thrown. He rode splendidly, managing a difficult horse. There was no "crowd," and in short it is evident that you have received an exaggerated account of the affair. J. DUNNE.--He won at Newcastle in 1879. COLLINS W.--She was, in my opinion, unfairly handicapped, and the verdict was general respecting the matter. DOUGLAS.--The horse was not shot for five hours after, and lay quivering all that time. The owner was absent, and four of us galloped in search of him. Nobody was to blame. Mr. W. B. Morris, 7th Hussars, was the rider, and no better ever wore silk. MONTAUBAN.--I have already detailed at some length my objections to children riding before they have strength and judgment sufficient to enable them to manage a horse. Moreover, if a child--say a little girl--gets a severe fall, the shock to her nervous system is most likely to be a lasting one, and in some cases is never got over; whereas grown girls are less liable to fall, if they have any sort of fair teaching, and certainly have stronger nerves and firmer resolution to enable them to bear the casualties attendant upon the practice of the art. CURIOUS.--Griffin and Hawkes, of Birmingham, by the burning of whose premises some of my most valued MSS. were lost. JESSICA.--It is quite untrue. Her Imperial Majesty dresses and mounts in ordinary fashion. There is not one word of truth in the widely-circulated statement that her habit is buttoned on after she has mounted, nor is her jacket ever made "tight." It is close-fitting and beautifully adapted to her figure, but sufficiently large to leave her abundant room to move in. The Empress despises tight stays, gloves, and boots. Her waist is small, but not wasp-like. The absurd announcement that it measured but twelve inches (recently published in one of the weekly journals) is as false as it is foolish. Nobody could exist with such a deformity. The Empress takes morning exercise upon a trapeze. Her hair is dark, shaded to gold-colour, like a wood in autumn. The report that she dyes it is one of the many calumnies of which she is the subject, but which happily cannot harm her. She is _not_ affable; her manner is stately in the extreme, to all except those with whom she desires to converse. She speaks fair but not fluent English. This reply to JESSICA is also for FRANK KURTZ, AMY ROBSART, and ALICIA BOND. JULIUS.--It was not I who wrote it. I got the credit of it, but did not covet the distinction. GEORGE K.--Nobody assists me. Of course you mean as an amanuensis: otherwise your question would be an offence. I write my thoughts in short-hand, and copy at leisure for the press. My time for writing is when the house is quiet,--generally from 10 P.M. to 2 or 3 in the morning. I have answered you--but against my will, as I much dislike personal questions. Were I to reply to such in general, my entire life would be laid bare to the eyes of a disinterested public, in order to gratify a few persons, who have no motive save one of idle curiosity. T. CANNON.--_Grandfather's Hunter_ is sold out. _Horses and Horsemen_ is to be had, but its price puts it beyond the pale of ordinary purchasers. Try Bumpus, or Mudie. OXONIAN.--You are wrong,--nor have I asked your opinion. It is easier to criticise than to write. Having done the former, pray do the latter, and submit to others' criticism. MARCIA FLOOD.--Two yards round the hem is amply sufficient width. I consider the price you name quite exorbitant. Try one of those mentioned by me in my chapter upon riding-gear. Thanking you, Sir, for your kindness in granting me so much of your valuable space. I am, yours obediently, NANNIE POWER O'DONOGHUE. * * * * * SIR,--In a recent edition "Jack Spur" asks if it is usual in any country for ladies to ride _à la_ Duchess de Berri, _i.e._ as a gentleman, astride. In Mexico and the States of the River Plate this is the usual mount of the fair ones of the district, and, clad in loose Turkish pantalettes tucked into the riding-boots of soft yellow leather, a loose sort of tunic secured by a belt, and wearing the _ladies'_ "sombrero," very charming these fair _équestriennes_ look, and splendid horsewomen they are. Talk of ladies, your "Fair Play" should see the long, sharp, Mexican spurs attached to the heels of these fair prairie-rangers, and witness how unsparingly they are used. Sometimes I, who am no namby-pamby rider, and have seen my share of rough work, have ventured to remonstrate in a half-jocular manner (as became a stranger and foreigner) when riding along with a Mexican lady, who generally keeps her steed at a full gallop by the remorseless application of these instruments of punishment. But the reply was merely a silvery laugh, and "Ah, senor, here horses are cheap, and when one is finished we have plenty more for the catching. Come along!" My experience of ladies on horseback as a rule is that they are more severe than men; perhaps it is thoughtlessness, but certainly for hard riding and severe spurring I have never seen any to surpass a Mexican senora, whose favourite pace is a stretching gallop without cessation, until her steed is perfectly pumped out, and as horseflesh is of no value whatever, and no Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals exists, I am afraid I must record a verdict of cruelty against some of the most charming women I ever met. To their fellow mortals all kindness and goodness, but when mounted on their mustang they seem to forget that he can feel either fatigue or pain. Certainly the temptation is great. A horse is of no value; you seldom mount the same twice on a journey, and across the beautiful prairies a wild gallop is the pace. But I should be sorry to see an English lady dismount from her steed, leaving him utterly exhausted and pumped out, and his flanks streaming with blood from deep spur-strokes. This I have too often seen in South America. Everyone does it, and it is little thought of; but by all means let us cherish a better feeling, and not give any needless pain to that noble animal, the horse. Let the ladies avoid the use of sharp spurs; most horses ridden by ladies here are perfectly amenable to the whip and rein, and the use of the spur is somewhat inharmonious with the gentle character of our English women. GUACHO. St. Leonards, 1880. * * * * * "The correspondence upon this subject, called forth by Mrs. Power O'Donoghue's admirable papers 'Ladies on Horseback,' has been so voluminous, and appears likely to go on for such a lengthened period, that I am reluctantly obliged to bring it to a close, in order to make space for other matter."--ED. _Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News._ London: Printed by W. H. Allen & Co., 13, Waterloo Place, S.W. WORKS PUBLISHED BY W. H. ALLEN & CO. HOW TO RIDE AND SCHOOL A HORSE, With a System of Horse Gymnastics. BY EDWARD L. ANDERSON. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. * * * * * MAYHEW (EDWARD) ILLUSTRATED HORSE DOCTOR. Being an Accurate and Detailed Account, accompanied by more than 400 Pictorial Representations, characteristic of the various Diseases to which the Equine Race are subjected; together with the latest Mode of Treatment, and all the requisite Prescriptions written in Plain English. BY EDWARD MAYHEW, M.R.C.V.S. 8vo. 18s. 6d. CONTENTS.--The Brain and Nervous System.--The Eyes.--The Mouth.--The Nostrils.--The Throat.--The Chest and its contents.--The Stomach, Liver, &c.--The Abdomen.--The Urinary Organs.--The Skin.--Specific Diseases.--Limbs.--The Feet.--Injuries.--Operations. "The book contains nearly 600 pages of valuable matter, which reflects great credit on its author, and, owing to its practical details, the result of deep scientific research, deserves a place in the library of medical, veterinary, and non-professional readers."--_Field._ "The book furnishes at once the bane and the antidote, as the drawings show the horse not only suffering from every kind of disease, but in the different stages of it, while the alphabetical summary at the end gives the cause, symptoms, and treatment of each."--_Illustrated London News._ MAYHEW (EDWARD) ILLUSTRATED HORSE MANAGEMENT.--Containing descriptive remarks upon Anatomy, Medicine, Shoeing, Teeth, Food, Vices, Stables; likewise a plain account of the situation, nature, and value of the various points; together with comments on grooms, dealers, breeders, breakers, and trainers; Embellished with more than 400 engravings from original designs made expressly for this work. By E. MAYHEW. A new Edition, revised and improved by J. I. LUPTON, M.R.C.V.S. 8vo. 12s. CONTENTS.--The body of the horse anatomically considered. PHYSIC.--The mode of administering it, and minor operations. SHOEING.--Its origin, its uses, and its varieties. THE TEETH.--Their natural growth, and the abuses to which they are liable. FOOD.--The fittest time for feeding, and the kind of food which the horse naturally consumes. The evils which are occasioned by modern stables. The faults inseparable from stables. The so-called "incapacitating vices," which are the results of injury or of disease. Stables as they should be. GROOMS.--Their prejudices, their injuries, and their duties. POINTS.--Their relative importance, and where to look for their development. BREEDING.--Its inconsistencies and its disappointments. BREAKING AND TRAINING.--Their errors and their results. * * * * * DAUMAS (E.) HORSES OF THE SAHARA, AND THE MANNERS OF THE DESERT. By E. DAUMAS, General of the Division Commanding at Bordeaux, Senator, &c. &c. With Commentaries by the Emir Abd-el-Kadir (Authorized Edition). 8vo. 6s. "We have rarely read a work giving a more picturesque and, at the same time, practical account of the manners and customs of a people, than this book on the Arabs and their horses."--_Edinburgh Courant._ THURSTON & CO. BILLIARD TABLE MANUFACTURERS. LAMP MAKERS AND GAS FITTERS. _BY APPOINTMENT TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, AND HER ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCESS OF WALES._ ESTABLISHED A.D. 1814. 16, CATHERINE STREET, STRAND, LONDON. _PRIZE MEDAL, SYDNEY, 1879, FIRST AWARD._ S. & H. HARRIS'S 57, MANSELL STREET, E., EBONITE WATERPROOF BLACKING FOR HUNTING OR WALKING BOOTS. REQUIRES NO BRUSHING. HARNESS COMPOSITION (Waterproof). SADDLE PASTE (Waterproof). JET BLACK OIL, For Harness. BLACK DYE, FOR STAINING HARNESS, And all kinds of Leather. WATERPROOF DUBBIN, For Boots and Harness. BREECHES POWDER, For Cleaning Hunting Breeches. POLISHING PASTE, For Cleaning Metals and Glass. S. & H. HARRIS, 57, MANSELL STREET, E. H. PEAT & CO., 173, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W., SADDLERS & HARNESS MAKERS TO THEIR ROYAL HIGHNESSES The Prince of Wales, the Duke of Edinburgh, _Her Majesty's Cavalry and the Crown Agents for the Colonies._ [The following advertisements have been moved from the beginning of the book.] [Illustration: Silver Medal Vienna 1873. Paris 1878. Philadelphia 1876.] SWAINE ADENEY, WHIP MANUFACTURERS, _To THE QUEEN, THE PRINCE and PRINCESS OF WALES and the ROYAL FAMILY_, 185, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W. WHIPS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION FOR RIDING, DRIVING, & HUNTING, &c. WHIPS MOUNTED IN GOLD AND SILVER, FOR PRESENTATION, ALWAYS ON HAND. HUNTING FLASKS, HORNS, &c. THE NEW LEVEL-SEAT SIDE SADDLE, WITH ADJUSTABLE THIRD CRUTCH AND OTHER IMPROVEMENTS, As recommended and used by Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, Authoress of "LADIES ON HORSEBACK," &c. &c. This perfect Side Saddle is moderate in price, light and elegant in appearance, faultless in materials and workmanship, ensures ease, comfort, and security to the rider, and obviates sore backs with horses. MADE TO ORDER AND MEASURE BY F. V. NICHOLLS & CO., HUNTING & MILITARY SADDLERS, Manufacturers of Harness, Horse Clothing, Whips, and Stable Requisites, 2, JERMYN STREET, HAYMARKET, LONDON. The Gentleman's narrow-grip "Brough" Saddle, any size and weight, from £7, complete. The Gentleman Rider's Racing Saddle, £3 to £4, complete, very roomy, with Buckskin Flaps, &c. THE IMPROVED NEWMARKET & ING GUY SNAFFLE BRIDLES, FOR PULLING HORSES. Branch Business: 18, ARTILLERY PLACE, WOOLWICH. ROWLANDS' ODONTO OR PEARL DENTIFRICE has been celebrated for more than half a century as the best, purest, and most fragrant preparation for the teeth ever made. Health depends in a great measure upon the soundness of the teeth, and all dentists will allow that neither washes nor pastes can possibly be as efficacious for polishing the teeth and keeping them sound and white as a pure and non-gritty tooth-powder; such Rowlands' Odonto has always proved itself to be. Great care must be taken to ask for ROWLANDS' ODONTO, of 20, Hatton Garden, London, and to see that each box bears the 3d. Government Stamp, without which no ODONTO is genuine. ROWLANDS' MACASSAR OIL is universally in high repute for its unprecedented success during the last 80 years in promoting the growth, restoring, improving, and beautifying the human hair. For children it is especially recommended, as forming the basis of a beautiful head of hair, while its introduction into the nursery of Royalty is a sufficient proof of its merits. It is perfectly free from any lead, mineral, or poisonous ingredients. ROWLANDS' KALYDOR produces a beautiful pure and healthy complexion, eradicates freckles, tan, prickly heat, sunburn, &c., and is most cooling and refreshing to the face, hands, and arms during hot weather. _Ask any Perfumery dealer for ROWLANDS' Articles, of 20, Hatton Garden, London, and avoid spurious worthless imitations._ MESSRS. JAY _Have the honour to solicit a visit from the Beau Monde to inspect a variety of Elegant Silk Costumes, Mantles, Artistic Millinery, Hats, also Novelties in Dress, specially selected in Paris from the best Artistes representing the Fashions of the Season._ 243, 245, 247, 249, 251, & 253, Regent Street, W. W. FAULKNER, LADIES' & GENTLEMEN'S HUNTING, SHOOTING, & WALKING BOOT MAKER, 52, SOUTH MOLTON STREET, BOND STREET, W. _Manufacturer of the Celebrated Edinburgh Boot Varnish, Blacking, and Waterproof Leather Dressing._ MILITARY BOOTS. The "Bective" Boots and Shoes to match Costumes. Improved Flexura Boots. Mountain Boots. Skating Boots. [Illustration: A Boot] Lawn Tennis Shoes. Oxford Shoes. Slippers to any style. LADIES' RIDING & HUNTING BOOTS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. _The Shape of the Feet taken and Lasts Modelled on the most approved, anatomical principles, and kept exclusively for each customer._ W. FAULKNER begs most respectfully to call the attention of Ladies and Gentlemen to the BOOT TREE Branch. Boot Trees assist to keep the boots in proper shape, preventing them from wrinkling and shrinking after they have been worn in the wet; they can be cleaned better, and do not require so much blacking, thereby preventing the deleterious effect produced by its frequent application. Lasts and Boot Trees of every description Manufactured on the Premises. Ladies residing in the Country can have Boots or Boot Trees sent their exact size by forwarding an Old Boot by Post. _To H.R.H. PRINCESS CHRISTIAN._ SYKES, JOSEPHINE, & CO. "CORSETS." 280, REGENT STREET, LONDON, AND 56A, OLD STEYNE, BRIGHTON. RIDING CORSETS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION MADE TO ORDER. MANUFACTORIES {RUE RAMBUTEAU, PARIS. {GREAT CASTLE STREET, LONDON. HOW TO RIDE AND SCHOOL A HORSE BY E. L. ANDERSON. _Crown 8vo. Price, 2s. 6d._ "It requires the study of only a very few pages of this book to convince the reader that the author thoroughly understands his subject."--_Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News._ "Concise, practical directions for riding and training, by which the pupil may become his own master."--_Land and Water._ "A useful and carefully-written volume."--_Sporting Times._ "It is sensible and practical."--_Whitehall Review._ "We cordially commend this book."--_Indian Daily News._ "The work is a good riding-master's book, with no superfluous words, and with plain, straightforward directions throughout. The chapter on 'The Walk and the Trot' seems to us especially practical and good."--_Farmer._ "Goes straight to the core of the subject, and is throughout replete with sound sense."--_Home News._ "Cannot fail to be of service to the young equestrian, while it contains many hints that may be advantageously borne in mind by experienced riders."--_Scotsman._ "Mr. Anderson gives good practical advice, and we commend the work to the attention of our readers."--_Live Stock Journal._ London: W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 Waterloo Place. THE ILLUSTRATED HORSE DOCTOR Being an Accurate and Detailed Account, accompanied by more than 400 Pictorial Representations, characteristic of the various Diseases to which the Equine Race are subjected; together with the latest Mode of Treatment, and all the requisite Prescriptions written in Plain English. By EDWARD MAYHEW, M.R.C.V.S. 8_vo._, 18_s._ 6_d._ CONTENTS.--The Brain and Nervous System.--The Eyes.--The Mouth.--The Nostrils.--The Throat.--The Chest and its contents.-- The Stomach, Liver, &c.--The Abdomen.--The Urinary Organs.--The Skin.--Specific Diseases.--Limbs.--The Feet.--Injuries.--Operations. "The book contains nearly 600 pages of valuable matter, which reflects great credit on its author, and, owing to its practical details, the result of deep scientific research, deserves a place in the library of medical, veterinary, and non-professional readers."--_Field._ "The book furnishes at once the bane and the antidote, as the drawings show the horse not only suffering from every kind of disease, but in the different stages of it, while the alphabetical summary at the end gives the cause, symptoms and treatment of each."--_Illustrated London News._ ILLUSTRATED HORSE MANAGEMENT. Containing Descriptive Remarks upon Anatomy, Medicine, Shoeing, Teeth, Food, Vices, Stables; likewise a plain account of the situation, nature, and value of the various points; together with comments on grooms, dealers, breeders, breakers, and trainers. Embellished with more than 400 engravings from original designs made expressly for this work. By E. MAYHEW. _A New Edition, Revised and Improved_, 8_vo._, 12_s._, By J. I. LUPTON, M.R.C.V.S. CONTENTS:--The body of the horse anatomically considered. _Physic._ --The mode of administering it, and minor operations. _Shoeing._-- Its origin, its uses, and its varieties. _The Teeth._--Their natural growth, and the abuses to which they are liable. _Food._--The fittest time for feeding, and the kind of food which the horse naturally consumes. The evils which are occasioned by modern stables. The faults inseparable from stables. The so-called "incapacitating vices," which are the results of injury or of disease. Stables as they should be. _Grooms._--Their prejudices, their injuries, and their duties. _Points._--Their relative importance, and where to look for their development. _Breeding._--Its inconsistencies and its disappointments. _Breaking and Training._--Their errors and their results. LONDON: W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 WATERLOO PLACE. SELECTION FROM W. H. Allen & Co.'s Catalogue. SKETCHES FROM NIPAL. Historical and Descriptive, with Anecdotes of Court Life and Wild Sports of the country in the Time of Maharaja Jang Bahadur, G.C.B. With Illustrations of Religious Monuments, Architecture, and Scenery, from the Author's own Drawings. By the late HENRY AMBROSE OLDFIELD, M.D., many years Residency Surgeon at Khatmandu, Nipal. 2 vols. 8vo., 36_s._ "The work is full of facts, intelligently observed and faithfully recorded."--_Saturday Review._ "We have nothing but unqualified praise for the manner in which Dr. Oldfield's manuscript has been edited and published by his relatives. The sketches have just claims to rank very high amongst the standard works on the Kingdoms of High Asia."--_Spectator._ RECORDS OF SPORT AND MILITARY LIFE IN WESTERN INDIA. By the late Lieutenant-Colonel G. T. FRASER, formerly of the 1st Bombay Fusiliers, and more recently attached to the Staff of H.M.'s Indian Army. With an Introduction by Colonel G. B. MALLESON, C.S.I. Crown 8vo., 7_s._ 6_d._ "The style is free from humbug and affectation, and none of the stories are incredible.... Some of the anecdotes about the early life of Outram confirm the opinion of that gallant officer held by his contemporaries."--_Saturday Review._ "Records his experience in a very simple and unaffected manner, and he has stirring stories to tell."--_Spectator._ THIRTEEN YEARS AMONG THE WILD BEASTS OF INDIA; THEIR HAUNTS AND HABITS. From Personal Observation; with an account of the Modes of Capturing and Taming Wild Elephants. By G. P. 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"He is well worthy of a hearing."--_Bell's Life._ "There is no reason why the careful reader should not be able, by the help of this little book, to train as well as ride his horse."--_Land and Water._ "Each successive stage of the school system is carefully traced, and anyone accustomed to the management of horses will therefore be able to follow and appreciate the value of Mr. Anderson's kindly method of training."--_Daily Chronicle._ London: W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 Waterloo Place. HOUSE! STABLE! FIELD! W. CLARK'S ELASTIC WATERPROOF POLISH, for Hunting, Shooting, and Fishing Boots; also for Ladies' and Gentlemen's ordinary Walking Boots and Shoes. W. CLARK'S BROWN BOOT-TOP FLUID, for restoring Brown Top-Boots to their original colour; also a Cream for Polishing, making them equal to new. W. CLARK'S BREECHES PASTE, for softening and preserving Hunting Breeches, Gloves, &c. W. 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SPECIALITIES-- RIDING HABITS, _From specially prepared Melton Cloths, &c._ JOHN REDFERN and SONS would particularly draw the attention of Ladies to their Improvements in the cut of Riding Habit Skirts, on the proper set of which depends the whole effect of the Habit. These improvements, while maintaining a tight, well-fitting appearance, give perfect comfort and safety to the rider. DRIVING COATS, _From Waterproofed Box-Cloths, Faced Cloths, Tweeds, &c._ These, together with J. R. and Son's Improved Newmarket Coats, will be found most useful for driving to meet and for constant wear. Branch Businesses at Cowes, Isle of Wight, and 242, Rue de Rivoli (Place de la Concorde), Paris. "The most noted Firm of Ladies' Tailors in the world, and, be it said, the most original."--Extract from _Court Journal_. _By Appointment to H.M. THE QUEEN OF ENGLAND._ _By Appointment to H.M. THE QUEEN OF DENMARK._ REDFERN, LADIES' TAILORS, By Special Appointments TO H.R.H. THE PRINCESS OF WALES AND H.I.H. 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[Illustration: LADIES' NEWMARKET RIDING BOOT, Cloth legs, 50s.] NOTE.--_To order, 2s. per pair extra for fitting and keeping special lasts._ LADIES' SPURS, Silver Plate, Strap, & Buckle complete, 9s, 6d. _PRICE LIST of a few Leading Articles, Ladies' Department_:-- BOOTS. Button or Lace 17s. 0d. Do. do. Hessians, from 19s. 6d. Do. do. Cork Clumps 24s. 0d. Do. High Glacé Louis XV. Heels 27s. 29s. SHOES. Oxford Tie, Morocco 14s. 0d. Do. do. Glacé 16s. 0d. Do. Richelieu, Louis XV. Heels 23s. 0d. Patent Court Heels and Bows 8s. 6d. Glacé Kid, Embroidered. 11s. 6d. A GREAT VARIETY of very Fashionable Ladies' Dress Shoes in Glace Kid or Satin (various Colours), Embroidered Jet, Gold, Steel, or Bijou. A LARGE ASSORTMENT OF CHILDREN'S BOOTS AND SHOES, AND EVERY VARIETY OF GENTS' RIDING, WALKING, & DRESS BOOTS & SHOES. Goods sent on approval on receipt of satisfactory references (a London tradesman preferred), or cheque for the amount. An old boot or shoe should be sent as a guide for size, paper patterns and other measurements being of little use. Goods that do not suit will be exchanged or the money returned. FIVE PER CENT. DISCOUNT FOR CASH. _PLEASE NOTE--70, REGENT STREET QUADRANT, as there is another house of the same Surname in the street._ 
39605	----	Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. Bold text has been marked with =equals signs=. [Illustration] HAND-BOOK FOR HORSEWOMEN. BY H. L. DE BUSSIGNY, FORMERLY LIEUTENANT OF CAVALRY AND INSTRUCTOR OF RIDING IN THE FRENCH ARMY. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET. 1884. COPYRIGHT, 1884, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. PREFACE. For many years two styles of riding have prevailed in Western Europe--the English and the continental or school system. The two are usually supposed to be somewhat antagonistic, so much so that the followers of each are not unapt to regard the other with feelings of more or less dislike, not to say contempt; the one side being sneered at as pedants, the other despised as barbarians. To the unprejudiced both seem somewhat unreasonable. The English method, originating in the national taste for field sports, has developed a race of horsemen worthy of that noblest of animals, the thorough-bred horse. The chief essential for the race-course and the hunting-field, however, being high speed on lines that are practically straight, the tendency of Englishmen is to leave their horses very much alone, provided they can gallop and jump and are sufficiently under control not to run away, the rider usually keeping a pretty even pressure on the bit and making comparatively little attempt to regulate the animal's action by the use of his own legs. The school, on the other hand, is the nursery of cavalry; and, for the army, speed is not so much needed as uniformity of movement and general handiness in rapid and complicated evolutions. Hence the great military riders of the continent have aimed at bringing the horse under complete control, and to this end they have applied themselves to the problem of mastering his hind legs, which are the propelling power, and therefore the seat of resistance. And it is precisely this subjection that horses dislike and try to evade with the utmost persistence. To accomplish the result, the rider is taught so to use his own legs and spurs as to bring the animal's hind legs under him, and thus carry him forward, instead of letting him go forward in his own way, as the English do. By balancing the effect of leg and spur upon the hind quarters, against the effect of hand and bit upon the mouth, the horse is brought into a position of equilibrium between the two, either at rest or in motion; he is then in complete subjection, and can be moved in any direction at his master's will. This is the basis of the whole manege system, and it is thus that horses are made to _passage_, to _piaffer_, or even to trot backward. The objection to the method is that, as equilibrium is gained, initiative is diminished, and this, together with the pedantry of the old-fashioned professors of the _haute école_, served to bring the whole theory into disrepute. Looked at impartially, nevertheless, it must be admitted that each system is well adapted to accomplish its own peculiar objects, and thus it seems at least reasonable to suppose that ordinary people may be the better for learning something from both. Amateurs, and especially ladies, do not expect to confine themselves to the silk jacket or even to the hunting-field, any more than they propose to give _haute école_ exhibitions in the circus. What the majority of men and women need for the park, the road, or even for hunting, is well-bitted, well-gaited animals, with light mouths, broken to canter on either leg, and easily gathered for a jump. But such horses when bought are not to be ridden off-hand. To begin with, the finer the training the more likely the beast is to turn restive if the rider leans on the reins. A seat independent of rein and stirrup is therefore the first requisite. Secondly, supposing the seat satisfactory, no one can know, by the light of nature, how to stop a highly-broken horse, to say nothing of making it change its leg or gather for a jump. A certain amount of the art of management must therefore be learned to make an accomplished rider. Now, beginners can get a seat in one of two ways. As children in the country they may be brought up on horseback, as they often are in the Southern States and in England, in which case the difficulty will quickly settle itself; and this is doubtless best if practicable. But supposing it to be impossible, a pupil may be well taught by exercises in the school, just as officers are taught at West Point or at Saumur. One thing alone is certain: seat can never be acquired by desultory riding or by riding exclusively on the roads or in parks. Next, as to management. Without doubt the English dash and energy--in a word, rough-riding--is the first essential for any one who hopes to be either safe or happy on a horse. It is the foundation, without which nothing can avail. It means seat, confidence, and decision. Yet there is something more that may be learned without at all impairing these qualities. To handle the horse rapidly and neatly, a control more or less complete must be established over his hind legs. In no other fashion can the thing be done. To attain this, it is not necessary or even desirable to go into all the niceties of the _haute école_. Horsemen want to arrive at certain practical results for their own safety and comfort, and the problem to be solved is, how to accomplish them by rational and gentle means. Ladies certainly do not care to _passage_ in the streets, but they do want to know how to stop their horses cleverly when they take fright, to turn their corners neatly at the trot without danger of a fall, and to avoid instantly any obstacle they may unexpectedly meet. It is also well to understand something of the simpler methods of regulating gaits. All these things may be learned best by studying the rudiments of the school system, and it is with rudiments only that this treatise pretends to deal. During the last twenty-five years many hand-books on equitation have been written for men, but few for women. This is the more remarkable as a woman's seat is such that she can not produce the same effects or use the same means as a man. Instruction for him is therefore largely useless for her. Men astride of a horse hold him between their legs and hands in a grip from which he can not escape, and can direct and force him with all the resolution and energy they possess. Women, sitting on the left side, must supply the place of the right leg as well as they can. They are, of course, obliged to resort to various expedients, all more or less artificial and unsatisfactory certainly, but still the best they can command. Yet it is for these very reasons far more important for women than for men to understand the art of management, since they must rely entirely on tact, skill, and knowledge, not only to overcome the difficulties of the cramped and unnatural seat imposed on them by fashion, but to supply their lack of physical strength. Still, there is no reason for discouragement, for that these obstacles can be surmounted by intelligence and patience, and that women can learn to ride on something like an equality with the best men, the number of undoubtedly fine horsewomen sufficiently proves. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION 11 CHAPTER I. Mounting--Dismounting--The position on horseback--Manner of holding the reins 22 CHAPTER II. Exercises of pupils in private lessons--Words of command--Walking--Turning to the right or left--Voltes and reversed Voltes--Trotting 38 CHAPTER III. Classes--Successive and individual movements--The gallop--Leaping--Suggestions for riding on the road 51 CHAPTER IV. Resistances of the horse 66 INTRODUCTION. It has been held by some professors of the art of horsemanship that it is impossible for a lady to ride with as much ease and as much control of her horse as a man, on account of the disadvantages of her high saddle and the absence of the right leg as a controlling agent; but the result of my experience has shown me that this is a mistaken opinion. Under the systems according to which riding was formerly taught, however, the judgment was a just one, because the object to be attained was the maintenance of the horse in what may be called a state of momentary equilibrium, or equilibrium of the second degree, by means of a double bit, curb and snaffle, aided by repeated slight pressure of the spurs. Under the more modern system the double bit is often replaced by a simple snaffle with one direct rein and one passing through a running martingale. The results obtained are more scientific and delicate, and the horse may be kept in a state of sustained equilibrium, or equilibrium of the first degree, in which condition he is entirely under the control of the lady who knows how to make a judicious use of her whip in place of the absent spur. There are two very different ways of riding; the more usual, because the easier, consists in letting the horse go forward at a walk, a trot, or a gallop, the rider contenting herself with guiding him, and staying on his back; while, in the other, the will as well as the action of the animal is controlled, and he is _carried_ forward in obedient and intelligent sympathy with his rider. This requires study, tact, and discretion; but the result well repays the labor, and, until it is reached, no lady, however well she may look on horseback, can be reckoned a horsewoman. I can not too strongly recommend to parents the greatest care in the choice of a teacher for their children, as in later years it always takes more time and trouble to correct bad habits than it would have done to acquire good ones in the beginning. As a general rule, riding-teachers are promoted grooms, or men of that class, who may be able to show boys how to become good rough-riders, but who are quite incompetent to teach a young lady the scientific principles by which alone she can obtain a thorough mastery of her horse. And here I hope that my readers will allow me to offer them, with the deepest respect, a few suggestions in regard to dress, as years of teaching have shown me that much of a lady's power on horseback depends upon her feeling at ease in the saddle, and consequently free to give her attention to her teacher and her horse. For full dress, such as park-riding, no hat is so distinguished as a plain high silk one; but in the riding-house, or in the country, the low Derby shape, or a soft felt, is now generally worn. If the shape is stiff, it should be carefully fitted to the head, for greater security and to avoid the risk of headache, and in any case an elastic should hold it firmly in place. Little girls usually wear their hair flowing on their shoulders, which saves trouble; but older riders should braid it closely to the back of the head below the hat, and pin it very securely, as the motion of the horse is apt to shake it loose, and a teacher can scarcely expect much attention from a pupil whose hat vacillates on her head at every step, or who is obliged to stop her horse in order to replace rebellious hair-pins. It may be laid down as a rule that ornaments of every kind, and even flowers, charming as they are at other times when worn by a lady, are out of place now that horsewomen have deigned to copy in their dress the simplicity of the sterner sex. Rings are especially to be avoided, as they are apt to cause the fingers to swell, and thus hinder a firm grasp of the reins. The best gloves are of thin, flexible dog-skin, and they should be a size larger than those usually worn, to allow the hand and wrist as much freedom as possible. If a lady does not object to sacrificing appearances, she will find great benefit from riding sometimes without gloves. A horse's mouth is often a very delicate instrument, and the vibrations which it gives to the reins are felt much more readily by the bare hand. Tailors almost always try to make a habit very tight fitting, especially at the waist; but a lady's position on horseback is at best an artificial one, and unless she is at ease in her habit she will never look at home on her horse. The constraint caused by a tight collar or arm-hole soon becomes intolerable, and the chances are that a tight waist will give the rider a pain in her side if her horse leaves a walk. Whether trousers or breeches are worn, they should fit closely, and no seams should be allowed where they will come between the wearer and the saddle, for a seam, or even a fold, is apt in a short time to mean a blister. Trousers should be kept in place by straps of cloth about two inches wide, which pass under the feet. Gaiters are warm and comfortable for winter; but care must be taken to have very flat buttons on the outside of the right leg, as that presses against the flaps of the saddle; and, for the same reason, when breeches and boots are worn, the buttons which fasten the former above the ankle should be on the inside of the right leg. It is better to wear laced boots instead of buttoned, with trousers, because the Victoria stirrup, which is now generally used, is liable to press against the buttons and catch them in a way that is uncomfortable, and may be on occasion even dangerous. Woven merino under-clothing will be found more comfortable than linen, as that is apt to get into folds and wrinkles, and ladies may also find it convenient to have their collars and cuffs attached to a sort of shirt, as that will remove the necessity for pins and elastics, which are always likely to get out of place. Although her single spur is at times a most valuable adjunct to a lady, it should never be worn by beginners, nor until its use has been thoroughly taught in the course of study. It is with regret that I see the riding-whip becoming superseded by the handle of the English hunting-crop, as this is neither rational nor practical, being too short and light to replace the right leg advantageously or to give efficient punishment if it is needed. A good whip, flexible, without being limp, rather long than short, not too heavy, but well balanced, is best, especially in the riding-school. I would strongly recommend to parents that, when a daughter begins to ride, it should be on her own saddle, made on her measure, or at least amply large for her, as riding on a short saddle leads to a cramped and ungraceful seat. The correct size should allow the space of three fingers between the end of the saddle and the base of the spine, when the right knee is round the second pommel. Some teachers recommend that the saddles of young pupils should be covered with buckskin, and this is often very useful; but when a firm and well-balanced seat is once acquired, there is nothing like pig-skin. The third pommel, or leaping-horn, is an important and now almost invariable addition to a lady's saddle, and should be so placed that it does not press, nor even touch, the left leg, while it is not needed, and yet so that its aid may be obtained at any time by slightly drawing up the left leg. It should stand out enough from the saddle to cover the top of the thigh, and be slightly curved but not too much. I have seen this pommel made so long and so sharply curved that the left leg was fairly inclosed, and this may be dangerous. As it is movable, a pupil need not be allowed to become dependent on it; nor should it be too tightly screwed into place, as, during a long ride or lesson, it is sometimes a relief for a lady to be able to turn it slightly. The slipper stirrup is often used for children and beginners, and has the advantage of being warm in winter, but the disadvantage that a habit of pushing the foot too far home is easily acquired, and not so easily got rid of when the Victoria, or, better still, a plain, open stirrup, is used later. The material and workmanship of a saddle should be of the best quality, and the less stitching and ornamentation the better. Style on horseback depends on simplicity. Girths seem to hold better if crossed--that is to say, if the girth which is buckled to the forward strap on the right side of the saddle is fastened to the second strap on the left; and the saddle should be so firm in its place that a lady may hang for a moment by her hands from the first pommel on the right side, or the second on the left, without causing it to shift its position. The stirrup-leather should pass under the horse outside the girths, and be connected with another strap on the right side of the saddle, in order to counterbalance the pressure on the stirrup. I may as well say here that a lady's saddle is well placed when there is a space, of the breadth of four fingers, between the right side and the upper end of the shoulder. I am accustomed to use for my pupils a simple snaffle with double reins and martingale, as by this means beginners do less harm to the mouth; and my own experience, as well as that of many others who have given it a thorough trial, is that this bit is preferable to any other for the riding-school, the road, or perhaps even for hunting, both on account of the simplicity of its effects upon the horse and of its mildness, so much greater than that of the curb, which often irritates and exasperates a spirited animal. No horses are more ready to bolt than the thorough-breds on the race-track, yet jockeys never ride with anything but a snaffle. They allow their horses to gain a pressure on the bit, and, as the jockey pulls, the horse quickens his pace. If you do _not_ permit your horse to bear on the bit, you will gain by its simple means all those "effects of opposition" of which I shall speak later, and which are difficult to master, especially for beginners. I am aware that this opinion is contrary to that usually held both here and in Europe, as it certainly is to the teaching of Mr. Baucher. Yet, as it is the final result of many years of experience, I venture to submit it to the public, although I can hardly hope that it will win general assent. It may be necessary to add that success with the snaffle presupposes a fine seat and some experience, as tact and skill must replace the loss of leverage. I consider the "Baucher" snaffle the best, as the bars on either side prevent it from slipping into the horse's mouth under a strong lateral pressure. Almost all riding-teachers have been educated in the army, where the reins must be held in the left hand, to leave the right free for the saber, and they continue to teach as they were taught, without considering that in civil life the right hand is practically unoccupied. When the horse is moving in a straight line, it is easy to gather the reins into one hand; but when the rider wishes to turn him to the right or left, or make him give to the bit, two hands are just twice as good as one, and I can see no reason for always riding with the reins in one hand. I have been often asked at what age a little girl should begin to ride, and I should suggest eight years as a reasonable time. If a child begins thus early, it is as well that she should take her first half-dozen lessons in her jacket and trousers, as the correct position of the legs is of great importance, and it is, of course, much more difficult for a teacher to judge of this through a skirt. Riding lessons are best begun in the autumn, as winter is apt to be cold for beginners, who are not able to keep themselves warm by trotting, and in summer flies often make the horses nervous, which may disturb young or timid pupils. The duration of the first lesson should be from twenty-five to forty-five minutes. The older the pupil is the shorter the lesson ought to be, although this rule is not without exceptions. The usual proportion is: From 8 to 12 years, 45 minutes; from 12 to 20 years, 30 minutes; after 20 years, 25 minutes. After the first five or six lessons they may be gradually lengthened, day by day, until an hour is reached, and one hour in the riding-school under instruction, if the pupil holds herself in the correct position, is sufficient. When the lesson is over, the pupil should rest for a short time before changing her dress, and walk about a little in order to re-establish a free circulation of the blood. It is always wise for a lady to walk her horse for at least ten minutes before she dismounts, both for his sake and her own. The morning after her first lesson the pupil will feel tired and stiff all over, especially in the shoulders, legs, and arms. The second day the stiffness will be worse, and on the third it will be at its height, after which it will gradually wear away--that is to say, if she continues to ride every day; but if she stops between her lessons the stiffness will come back after each one. If a child has any organic weakness, the teacher should, of course, be told of it, in order that he may allow intervals for rest during the lesson; and it is probably needless to add that a child should not be allowed to ride during digestion. Here I should like to say a few words to the pupils themselves. Never hesitate to ask your teacher to repeat anything you are not certain you understand. Teachers often take too much for granted, and in riding all depends on mastering the rudiments. Have confidence in your teacher, and do not be disappointed if your progress is not perfectly regular. There are days in which you may seem able to do nothing right, and this is discouraging, and may last for several days at a time; but, on looking back at the end of a week, or, better still, a month, you will see how much ground you have gained. Remember that upon your teacher rests a grave responsibility. Other instructors are only brought into contact with one will, and that one harmless; while the riding-master has to deal with two: that of the pupil, which is dangerous from inexperience, and that of the horse, which is dangerous from his strength, consequently he is often obliged to speak with energy in order to keep the attention of the horses as well as their riders. To ride well on horseback is to place yourself, or cause yourself to be placed, upon a saddle; to remain there at ease in a position which has been calculated and regulated by certain rules, and to make your horse go when, where, and as you will. You cannot learn to do this if you are impatient of correction or sensitive to criticism, even though sometimes severe. CHAPTER I. Mounting--Dismounting--The position on horseback--Manner of holding the reins. MOUNTING. The custom which prevails in many riding-schools of allowing pupils to mount from steps or platforms seems to me not only unscientific, but irrational, unless, indeed, the pupil is too small, too old, or too stout to be mounted in any other way; unscientific, because there is a correct and prescribed method of mounting from the ground, and irrational, because, if a lady dismounts away from the riding-school, and has not been taught this method, she will be obliged to go to the nearest house in search of a chair or bench, or at least must find a fallen tree-trunk or a big stone before she can mount again. The pupil should advance to the left side of her horse, which is supposed to be standing quietly with a groom at his head, to whom she will hand her whip, taking care not to flourish it in such a manner as to startle the animal. She should then turn and face in the same direction as the horse, let her skirt fall, and put her right hand on the second pommel of her saddle, her left hand on the right shoulder of her assistant, who is stooping in front of her, and her left foot, the knee being bent, into his left hand. She should then count three aloud: at one, she should prepare to spring, by assuring herself that she is standing squarely on her right foot; at two, she should bend her right knee, keeping the body straight; and at three, she should spring strongly from her right leg, straightening also her left as she rises, and steadying herself by a slight pressure on the shoulder of her assistant, who rises as she springs. She must be careful not to push his hand away with her left foot, as this weakens his power to help her, and as she rises she should turn her body slightly to the left, so that she will find herself, if she has calculated her spring rightly, sitting on the saddle sideways, facing to the left. She will then shift her right hand from the second to the first pommel, turn her body from left to right, lift her right leg over the second pommel, and put her left foot into the stirrup. Afterward she will arrange her skirt smoothly under her with her left hand. Two elastic straps are usually sewn on the inside of a riding-skirt to prevent it from wrinkling. The right foot is intended to be slipped into the upper one, the left into the lower, and, if possible, the pupil should do this just before she mounts, as it will save her and her assistant time and trouble after she is in the saddle. As soon as she can mount with ease, she should also learn to hold her whip in the right hand, which rests on the second pommel. These are trifling details, but they help to render a lady self-reliant, and it may happen to her at some time to ride a horse who will not stand patiently while straps are being arranged and a whip passed from hand to hand. I offer here a few suggestions for the use of any gentleman who may wish to assist a lady to mount. He should stand facing her at the left side of the horse, his right foot slightly in front of his left. He should then stoop and offer his left hand for her foot. Unless the lady is an experienced rider, he should place his right hand lightly under her left arm to steady her as she rises. He should count aloud with her, one, two, three, and at three he should straighten himself, giving a strong support for her left foot. There are two other ways of helping a lady to mount: the first consists in offering both hands, with the fingers interlaced, as a support for her foot; and in the second he appears to kneel, almost touching the ground with his left knee, and holding his right leg forward with the knee bent, in order that she may step on it and mount as if from a platform. Both these ways seem to me to be dangerous, as, in case the horse moves his hind-quarters suddenly to the right, as the lady rises, which is not uncommon, she will be suspended in space, with nothing to steady her but her hand on the pommel, and may fall under the horse's feet. If a lady wears a spur she should always tell her assistant, who will then be careful that her left heel does not touch the animal's side. I have often been asked if it is possible for a lady to mount alone; and it is certainly possible, although not very convenient. She may either avail herself of a fallen tree, a stump, a fence, or any slight elevation, which is, of course, as if she were to mount from a platform in the school; or she may let down her stirrup as far as she can by means of the strap on the right side of the saddle, take firm hold of the second pommel with her left hand and the back of the saddle with her right, put her left foot into the stirrup, and give a quick spring with her right leg, which, if she is active, will land her in the saddle, after which she can shorten her stirrup-leather. A lady will probably never in her life be called upon to mount alone in a flat country, but she can never have too many resources, and it is easy to make the attempt some time when riding alone in the school. DISMOUNTING. The horse having come to a full stop, the pupil may let the reins fall on his neck if he is very docile, slip her left foot out of the stirrup and both feet out of their elastic straps, pass her right leg over the second pommel, and sit sideways on her saddle for an instant; then give her left hand to her assistant, who stands at the side of the horse, and let herself slip to the ground. If she should be very stout, or if her feet are cold, or she is tired, it will be easier for her to drop both reins and to place her hands on the shoulders of her assistant, who can steady her arms with his hands. A lady may, of course, dismount without help by keeping her right hand on the second pommel and slipping down; but she must be careful not to jerk her horse's mouth with the reins, which she should hold in her right hand. I strongly recommend teachers and parents to insist that these exercises of mounting and dismounting be practiced frequently, as their usefulness is great. THE POSITION ON HORSEBACK. It has often surprised me to see the indifference of parents to the manner in which children carry themselves and manage their bodies and limbs, whether standing, walking, or sitting. Although they have sometimes more than enough of science, literature, and music, their physical culture has been neglected, so that they are not conscious of the bad habits into which they have fallen, and which become deeply rooted and almost second nature. At last the riding-master is called upon to render graceful the bodies which have been allowed for years to acquire ungraceful tricks. If a lady wishes to ride really well, and to look well on her horse, she must be supple and straight, without stiffness, as rigidity precludes all idea of ease and elegance, to say nothing of the fact that no horse looks at his ease under a stiff rider. During the first lessons a pupil is apt to have a certain unconscious fear, which causes a contraction of the muscles; and it is in order to overcome this fear, and consequent rigidity, that the following gymnastic exercise is recommended: The pupil should be mounted on a very quiet horse and led into the middle of the school, where the teacher, standing on the left side, takes in his left hand her right foot, and draws it very gently, and without any jerk, back toward the left leg; the pupil should then place her left hand in his right, and her right hand on the first pommel, and, thus supported, lean back until her body touches the back of the horse, straightening herself afterward with as little aid from the teacher as possible, and chiefly by the pressure of the right knee on the second pommel. This movement should be repeated, the pupil leaning not only straight back, but to the left and the right, the teacher holding the right foot in place and making the pupil understand that it is to the fixity of contact between her right knee and the pommel that she must look for the firmness and consequent safety of her seat on horseback. When the pupil has acquired some ease in this exercise, the teacher will allow her to practice it without his hold on her right foot, and will afterward withdraw the support of his right hand, until finally she becomes able to execute the movements while the teacher leads the horse at a walk in a circle to the left, his right hand being always ready to replace her foot in position if she should extend it forward. This exercise will indicate at once to the teacher any muscular rigidity on the part of the pupil, which he can therefore correct by the following movements: Stiffness of the neck may be removed by flexions to the right, to the left, back and to the right, back and to the left, straight forward, and straight back, always gently and without any abruptness. For stiffness in the spine, the pupil should lean far forward and then backward, bending easily at the waist and keeping the shoulders well down and back. If the shoulders are stiff, the pupil should keep her elbows close to her body, the fore-arm being curved, and the wrists on a level with the elbow; then let her move her shoulders as far forward, backward, up, and down as she can, first separately, then together, and at last in different directions at the same time. Very often rigidity in the shoulder comes from stiffness in the arm, when the following flexion will be found useful: The arm should be allowed to fall easily by the side, and afterward lifted until the wrist is on a level with the elbow, the fingers being shut. The elbow should then be moved out from the sides and raised until it is on a level with the shoulder, with the fore-arm horizontal; after which the wrist should be raised in the air, keeping the elbow bent at a right angle, and the fingers in front, the arm being afterward stretched to its full length perpendicularly, and finally returned to its place by the side, after going through the same motions in reversed order. This exercise should be done first with one arm, then the other, then with both together; it is somewhat complicated, but no force of habit can resist its good effect. Another simpler flexion consists in first raising and then lowering the arm, stretching it out in front and behind, and at last turning it round and round, the shoulder acting as a pivot. It is impossible to see whether a pupil has too much stiffness in the knees, but she can ascertain for herself by stretching out both her feet in front and then bending them as far back as they will go, and she may also correct the same fault in her ankles by turning her feet from left to right, from right to left, and up and down, without moving the leg. All this gymnastic practice must be done slowly, quietly, and patiently, however tiresome it may seem, as the result in the future will be of the greatest importance, and it must also be done intelligently, for the object is not to learn a certain number of movements, but to gain flexibility and ease throughout the body. Parents can help a teacher considerably by making children go through these flexions at home; and it seems scarcely necessary to add that the greatest care and discretion must be used in order not to fatigue pupils, especially young girls. When the teacher is satisfied that his pupil has overcome all nervousness and stiffness, so that she feels at home in the saddle, he should explain to her the details of the position during motion, and should insist that she correct her faults without help from him, in order that she may learn the quicker to take the initiative and be responsible for herself. Experience has shown me that it is easier for a pupil to keep her shoulders on the same line, and sit square, if she holds a rein in either hand; therefore I recommend this method. And I have also found that to learn by heart the following rules produces excellent results, especially in cases where ladies really wish to study, and to improve any bad habits into which they may have fallen: =The head straight, easy, turning upon the shoulders in every direction, without involving the body in its movement.= If the head, being at the end of the spinal column, is stiff, this stiffness will be communicated to all the upper part of the body; if it can not turn freely without making the shoulders turn also, the stability of the seat will be impaired each time that the head moves. =The eyes fixed straight to the front, looking between the horse's ears, and always in the direction in which he is going.= If the eyes are dropped, the head will tend to droop forward, and little by little a habit of stooping will be acquired, which will destroy the balance and steadiness of the seat; while, if the rider does not look out ahead, she may not be able to communicate with her horse in time to avoid accidents--as he is not supposed to know where he is going, and the responsibility of guiding him rests with her. =The upper part of the body easy, flexible, and straight.= If the upper part of the body is not easy, its stiffness will extend to other parts which should be free to give to the motion of the horse, and thus avoid any shock; if it is not straight, the effect is lost of the perpendicular line upon the horizontal one of the horse's back, which corrects the displacement of equilibrium when the animal is in motion. =The lower part of the body firm, without stiffness.= If it were not firm, the spine would bend forward or back from the perpendicular, and derange the center of gravity, with dangerous results in case the horse made a sudden bound; but there must be no stiffness, as that detracts from the ease and suppleness indispensable to a good seat. =The shoulders well back, and on the same line.= Well back, in order to give the lungs full space to breathe, and to prevent stooping. The most common fault among ladies who ride is, that the right shoulder is held farther forward than the left, which is not only ungraceful, but bad for the horse, as the rider's weight does not come evenly on his back. =The arms falling naturally, the elbows being held close to the body without stiffness.= If the arms are held as if tied to the body, or if the elbows are stuck out, the wrists and hands can not guide the horse with ease. =The fore-arm bent.= Forming with the upper arm a right angle, of which the elbow is the apex, in order to give the wrist an intermediate position, whether the hand is held high or low. =The wrists on a level with the elbows.= Because, if the wrists are held too low, the rider will get into the habit of resting her hands on her right knee, and will consequently neglect to occupy herself with her horse's mouth. =Six inches apart.= In order to give the rider a fixed intermediary position between the movements of the hands forward, to the left, or to the right, by which she governs her horse: if the wrists are held farther apart, the elbows will appear pinioned to the sides; if nearer together, the elbows, on the contrary, will stick out in an angle. =The reins held in each hand.= I attach great importance to this disposition of the reins, as it gives a novice confidence, makes it easier for her to sit square in the saddle, and easier also to manage her horse. =The fingers firmly closed, facing each other, with the thumbs extended on the ends of the reins.= The fingers should face each other, because, if they are turned up or down, the elbows will get out of position; and the reins must be held firmly and kept from slipping by the thumb, as the horse will be quick to take advantage if he feels the reins lengthen whenever he moves his head. =The right foot falling naturally on the panel of the saddle, the point forward and somewhat down, and the right side of the leg held closely to the saddle.= As the firmness of the seat depends greatly upon a close hold of the pommel by the muscles of the right knee, it is important that they should have as free play as possible; and, if the foot is turned outward, not only is the effect ungraceful, but the muscles soon become fatigued and the whole position constrained, even that of the right shoulder, which will be held too far forward. =The left foot in the stirrup, without leaning on it.= If a lady leans her weight on the stirrup, her natural tendency will be to sit over too much to the left, which may cause the saddle to turn, and is very hard on the horse's back; besides, as she is out of equilibrium, any sudden movement will shake her loose in her seat. =The point of the foot turned slightly to the right, and the heel held lower than the rest of the foot.= If the point is turned somewhat in, the whole leg will rest more easily and closely against the saddle; and, if the heel is lower than the ball of the foot, additional contact of the leg will be gained, which is important in managing a horse, and, when a spur is worn, it will not be so apt to touch him at a wrong time. =The part of the right leg between the knee and the hip-joint should be turned on its outer or right side, and should press throughout its length on the saddle; while, on the contrary, the inside of the left leg should be in permanent contact with the saddle. The knees should, in their respective positions, be continually in contact, without any exception. The lower or movable part of the leg plays upon the immovable at the knee-joint, the sole exception being when the rider rises to the trot, at which time the upper part of the leg leaves the saddle.= This position on horseback may be called academic, or classical; and, from the beginning, a lady should endeavor to obtain it, without, of course, becoming discouraged if, for some time, she fails to attain perfection. I have met with excellent results by allowing my pupils to leave this correct position, and then resume it again, at first standing still, then at other gaits progressively. "Progression" in horsemanship means the execution of a movement at a trot or gallop after it has been learned and practiced at a walk. In this way pupils soon become conscious both of the right and the wrong seats, and the difference between them, and it is consequently easy to correct any detail in which they may find themselves defective. I have done this in accordance with a principle in which I firmly believe, i. e., that the best teacher is he who soonest makes his pupil understand what is expected of her, and how to accomplish it. The former is theoretical, the latter practical horsemanship, and there is a great difference between them. If the teacher finds it hard to make a pupil understand the foregoing position, he may help her in the following manner: He should take her right foot, as indicated in the flexions, and, going as far back as he can, place his right elbow on the horse's croup, with his fore-arm perpendicular, and his fingers open and bent backward. He will then request the pupil to lean back until she feels the support of the teacher's hand between her shoulders, and to allow her head and shoulders to go back of their own weight, when it will be easy for him, by pressure of his hand, to straighten the body until it is in the correct position. Some teachers adopt the Hungarian method of passing a round stick through the arms and behind the back; but this is only practicable when a horse is standing still, or at a walk, and even then great care should be used, as the rider is quite helpless. It has also the disadvantage of making tall and slender persons hollow their backs unduly. Pupils should be warned to avoid, as much as may be, clasping the pommel too tightly with the right knee, as a constant strain will fatigue them and take away the reserve force which they may need at a given moment; indeed, a rider should be taught from the first to economize his strength as much as possible. As soon as the pupil can sit her horse correctly, at a walk, holding the reins in both hands, she should practice holding them in the left hand only, in case she should wish to use her right hand during the lesson. The English method of holding the reins of a double bridle is, to bring all four up straight through the fingers; for instance, the curb-reins, being outside, go outside the little finger and between the first and second fingers, while those of the snaffle come between the fourth and middle and the middle and first fingers. In France and in this country the reins are crossed, the curb being below, outside the little finger, and between the third and middle fingers, while the snaffle comes between the fourth and middle and the second and first fingers. The latter method seems to me preferable, as it is easier to separate the reins, and also to regulate the amount of tension required on one pair or the other. In either position, the hand is held in front of the body, with the palm and shut fingers toward it, and the reins are held firmly in place by the pressure of the thumb. The teacher should explain that, as the curb is a much more severe bit than the snaffle, its effects must be used with delicacy, and he should give his pupils plenty of practice in taking up, separating, and reuniting the reins, in order that they may learn to handle them quickly and with precision at any gait. CHAPTER II. Exercises of pupils in private lessons--Words of command--Walking--Turning to the right or left--Voltes and reversed voltes--Trotting. Although private lessons can not begin to take the place of exercises in class, it is advisable that the pupil should have some lessons by herself first, in order that she may learn to manage her horse to some extent at the walk, trot, and canter. Words of command in the riding-school are of two kinds; the first being preparatory, to enable the pupil to think over quickly the means to be employed in order to obey the second or final order. Example: "Prepare to go forward"--preparatory. "Go forward"--final order, given in a loud voice, with emphasis on each word or syllable. Between the two orders, the teacher should at first explain to the pupil what is wanted, and the means of obtaining it, and later should require her to repeat it herself, so that she may learn it by heart. The teacher commands the pupil, the pupil demands obedience from the horse, and the horse executes the movement; but this triple process needs time, all the more because a novice is likely to hesitate, even if she makes no mistake. By giving the pupil time to think, she will gain the habit of making progressive demands on her horse, through means which she has calculated, and she will thus gradually become a true horsewoman, able to make her horse know what she wants him to do; for, in almost every case, obstinacy or resistance on the part of the horse comes from the want of due progression between the demand made of him and its execution. When the teacher is satisfied that the pupil is in a regular and easy position, before allowing her to go forward, he will give her the directions necessary to stop her horse, and will make sure that his explanation has been understood. To stop: The horse being at the walk, to stop him, the pupil should place her leg and whip in contact with his sides, lift her hands and bring them close to the body, and lean her body back, drawing herself up. When the horse has come to a stand-still, she should resume the normal position. To go forward: The whip and leg should be placed in contact, the hands moved forward, and the body inclined also forward. When the pupil has a clear idea of these movements, the teacher will give the orders: 1. _Prepare to go forward._--2. _Forward._ And, after some steps have been taken, 1. _Prepare to stop._--2. _Stop._ While making his pupils advance at a walk, the teacher will explain succinctly the mechanism of locomotion. The horse at rest is said to be square on his base when his four legs are perpendicular between two parallels, one being the horizontal line of the ground, the other the corresponding line of his back. If his hind legs are outside of this square, he is said to be "campé," or planted, because he can neither move forward nor back unless he changes this position. If his fore legs are outside this line, he is "campé" in front, as, for instance, when kicking; if, on the contrary, his fore legs are inside his base, he is said to be "under himself" in front; and it is a bad sign when a horse takes this position habitually, as it shows fatigue or weakness in those limbs. The horse goes forward, backward, trots or gallops, by a contraction of the muscles of the hind quarters, the duty of the fore legs being to support his weight and get out of the way of the hind ones; and the whole art of riding consists in a knowledge of the means which give the rider control of these muscular contractions of the hind quarters. The application of the left leg and of the whip on the sides of the horse serve to make him go forward, backward, to the right or left, and the reins serve to guide and support him, and also to indicate the movement required by the whip and leg. 1. _Prepare to turn to the right._--2. _Turn to the right._ To turn her horse to the right, the pupil should draw her right hand back and to the right, incline her body also to the right, turning her head in the same direction, and use her whip lightly, without stopping the pressure of her left leg. When her horse has turned far enough, she will cease pressure on the right side, and carry her horse straight forward. In the beginning, regularity of movement is not so important as that the pupil should understand the means by which she executes it; that is to say, that she disturbs the equilibrium of her horse by carrying the weight of her body to the right; and, while her hand and whip combine on that side, the left leg prevents him from stopping or straggling over the ground. Riders in a school are said to be on the right hand when the right side of the body is toward the middle of the ring; and this is the easier way for inexperienced pupils, because they are less shaken when their horses move to the right, as they sit on the left side of their saddles. It follows, naturally, that to be on the left hand is to have the left side toward the middle; and, when riding on the right hand, all movements are executed to the right, and _vice versâ_. The teacher must watch carefully that pupils do not allow their horses to turn the corners of their own accord, as a regular movement to the right should be executed by the pupil at each corner when riding on the right hand, and to the left when going the other way. If left to guide himself around a school, the horse will describe a sort of oval, rounding the corners, instead of going into them, and thus much valuable practice is lost to the rider. The pupil being at a walk, and on the right hand, the teacher will give the word of command: 1. _Prepare to trot._--2. _Trot._ To make her horse trot, she must advance her wrists, lean the body forward, and use the leg and whip, resuming the normal position as soon as her horse obeys her. In order not to fatigue the pupil, the teacher will only allow her to trot a short distance, and will remind her to keep her right foot well back and close to the saddle, and to sit close without stiffness. He will also take care that she passes from the walk to the trot gradually, by making her horse walk faster and faster until he breaks into a slow trot. Each time that a pupil changes from a slow to a faster gait, she should accelerate the former as much as possible, and begin the latter slowly, increasing the speed gradually up to the desired point; and the same rule holds good, reversing the process, if she wishes to change from a fast to a slower gait. As the pupil gains confidence, and feels at home in the trot, the teacher will let her practice it at shorter intervals, and for a longer time, taking care, however, that she does not attempt to rise to it; if she loses the correct position, she must come to a walk, and, having corrected her fault, resume the trot. In the intervals of rest, in order not to lose time, the pupil should repeat at a walk the movements which she has learned already, the teacher becoming gradually more exacting in regard to the correctness of the positions and effects, adding also the three following movements, which are more complicated, and which complete the series, dealing with changes of direction. The volte is a circular movement, executed by the horse upon a curved line, not less than twelve of his steps in length. The pupil being at a walk, and on the right hand of the school, the teacher will say: 1. _Prepare to volte._--2. _Volte_, explaining that the pupil should direct her horse to the right, exactly as if she merely meant to turn him in that direction, continuing, however, the same position, and using the same effects, until the twelve paces have been taken, which will bring her to the point of beginning, when she will resume the normal position, and go forward on the same hand. The half-volte, as its name implies, comprises the first part of the movement, the pupil coming back to her place by a diagonal line. 1. _Prepare to half-volte._--2. _Half-volte._ The pupil uses the same effects as in the volte, but, when she has described half the circle, she returns to her starting-point by a diagonal, using the same effects, but with much less force, since, to regain her place by the diagonal, she will only have one fourth of a turn to the right to make; then, at the end of the diagonal, she must change her effects completely, in order to execute three fourths of a turn to the left, which will bring her back to her track, but on the left hand. 1. _Prepare for the reversed half-volte._--2. _Reversed half-volte._ To make her horse execute a reversed half-volte, the pupil uses the same means and effects as in the preceding movement, exactly reversing them at the end; that is to say, when on the diagonal, about six paces from her track, she makes a half-circle to the left, following the rules prescribed for the volte. The teacher must be careful to explain that, in the voltes, the pupil does not change the direction in which she is going, because she describes a circle; but in the half-volte, if she is on the right hand at the beginning, she will be on the left at the end. He must also see that her horse executes all these movements at a steady pace; and, if she will practice faithfully these different changes of direction, with the positions and effects which govern them, she will, in time, acquire the habit of guiding her horse promptly and skillfully in any direction. _To go backward._--The pupil, being at a stand-still, the teacher will give the word of command: 1. _Prepare to back._--2. _Back._ _Explanation._--To make her horse go backward, the pupil should draw herself up and lean back very far, using her leg and whip together, in order to bring the horse's legs well under him, and at the same time raise both wrists and bring them near the body. As soon as the horse has taken his first step backward, the pupil should stop the action of her leg, whip, and hands, only to resume them almost immediately to determine the second step; to stop backing, she will stop all effects, and resume the normal positions. After a few steps, the teacher should say: 1. _Prepare to stop backing._--2. _Stop backing._ The movement is only correct when the horse backs in a straight line, and step by step. If he quickens his movement, he must be at once carried vigorously forward with the leg and whip. When the pupil begins to have a firm seat at the trot, the teacher will gradually let her pass the corners at that gait, and, at his discretion, will also let her execute some of the movements to the right and left. To do this, she will use precisely the same means as at the walk, the only difference being that, as the gait is quicker, the changes of equilibrium are greater for both horse and rider, and the effects should be lighter and more quickly employed and stopped. I have given most of the movements to the right, to avoid useless repetition, but they should be frequently reversed; and care must always be taken to avoid over-fatigue. When the teacher is fully satisfied that his pupil has advanced far enough to profit by it, he may begin to teach her to rise at the trot; but he must not be in too great a hurry to reach this point, and he must make her understand that to rise is the result of a good seat, and that a good seat does _not_ result from rising. For the last fifteen years I have looked in vain, in all the treatises on riding, for the reason of that rising to the action of the horse known as the "English trot," and yet I have seen it practiced among races ignorant of equestrian science, who ride from childhood as a means of getting from one place to another. The Arabs, Cossacks, Turks, Mexicans, and Apaches, all employ it, in a fashion more or less precise and rhythmical, rising whether their stirrups are short or long, and even if they have none. It is certain that this way of neutralizing the reaction spares and helps the horse; and it was calculated, at the meeting of the "Equestrian Committee" at Paris, in 1872, that each time a rider rises he relieves the horse's back of one third of the weight which must rest on it permanently if he sits fast; and since that time rising at the trot has been practiced in all the cavalry of Europe. After the siege of Paris, in 1871, I was obliged to undertake the training of the horses of my regiment, which was then stationed at Massy. These horses were all young and unbroken; and, as a result of their youth and the fatigues they had undergone, they were in poor condition, and nearly all had sore backs. I directed all the teachers who were under me, and the men who rode the horses during their training, to rise at the trot; and, three months later, the young horses were in perfect health, while their riders, who had been exhausted by a severe campaign, had gained on an average seven pounds in weight; and it was this experiment which was submitted by me to the "Equestrian Committee." I was tempted to make this digression, which I hope will be forgiven me, because I have heard in this country a great deal of adverse and, in my opinion, unjust criticism of the English trot, which I ascribe to the neglect of teachers, and the indifference of ladies brought up in the old school of riding to prefer horses which cantered all the time, or were broken to artificial gaits, like racking and pacing. The rider who wishes to rise to the trot should be careful that the stirrup is not so short as to keep her left leg in constant contact with the third pommel, or leaping-horn, as, unless there is the space of three or four fingers between the pommel and the leg, the latter may be bruised, and the rider forced down too soon. In order to explain this movement, the teacher may proceed as follows: Placing himself at the left side of the horse, he will ask the pupil to take the reins in her left hand and put her right hand on the first pommel, with the thumb inside and the palm of the hand on the pommel; he will then take her left foot in his left hand, in order to prevent her from pushing it forward, explaining that, by pressing on the stirrup, she will develop the obtuse angle formed by her leg, of which the knee is the apex; whereas, if she pushes her foot forward, the angle will cease to exist, and she can not lift herself. With his right hand placed under her left arm, he will help her to lift herself perpendicularly; while she is in the air he will count one, will let her pause there for a short space of time, and will then help her to let herself slowly down, continuing the pressure on the stirrup, and, when she has regained her saddle, he will count two; then he will recommence the movement of rising, and will count three while she is in the air, and four when she is again seated; and this may be continued until he sees that she is beginning to be tired. The foot must only be one third of its length in the stirrup; for, if it is pushed home, she will lose the play of the ankle, which will tend to stiffen the knee and hip. When the pupil begins to understand, the teacher will let her go through the movement rather more quickly, still counting one, two, three, four; then he will allow her to practice it without his help: all this preparatory work being done while the horse is standing still. It is important that she should not drop into her saddle, but let herself down by pressing on the stirrup; and on no account should the right knee cease to be in contact with the second pommel, as this is the sole case in which the lower part of this leg is motionless while the upper part moves. As soon as the pupil can rise without too much effort, and tolerably quickly, she may practice it at the walk, and then at the trot, counting for herself, one, two, three, four; and she must put a certain amount of energy into it, for all the theory in the world will not teach her to rise in time with the horse unless she also helps herself. The theory of the rhythmical cadence is easy enough to give: the rider rises when the horse takes one step, and sinks back at the second, to rise again at the third; but the cadence itself is not so easy to find; and to rise at the wrong step is like beginning on the wrong beat of a waltz. Many young persons get into the bad habit of lowering the right knee when they rise, and lifting it when they regain their seat; but this is a mistake, as the right knee should be immovable, and in constant contact with the second pommel. As soon as the pupil has struck the cadence (and, once found, it comes easily afterward), she should discontinue the use of her right hand on the pommel, and the teacher may be more exacting as to the regularity of her position than is necessary in her first efforts. During rising to the trot, the upper part of the body should be very slightly bent forward; and, if the teacher notices that the pupil is rising from right to left, or left to right, instead of perpendicularly, he should make her put the fingers of her right hand on the top of her saddle behind, and thus give herself a little help in rising, until she gets used to it. Each time that the rider wishes to make her horse trot, she should sit close while he changes from a walk to a trot, and until he is trotting as fast as is necessary, because he does not arrive at that speed instantly, but by hurrying his steps, so that there is no regular cadence of the trot to which she can rise; and she should follow the same rule when she makes him slacken his pace before coming to a walk. The teacher must be careful to see that the hands do not follow the movements of the body, as they must keep quite still, the arms moving at the elbow. There is not, nor can there be, any approximate calculation of the height to rise, as that depends entirely upon the gait of the horse. If he takes short steps, the rider must rise oftener, and consequently not so high; but, if he is long-gaited, she must rise high, in order not to get back into the saddle before he is ready to take his second step. CHAPTER III. Classes--Successive and individual movements--The gallop--Leaping--Suggestions for riding on the road. When the pupil has taken from ten to fifteen lessons, she ought to be able to execute the movements she has studied with a certain degree of correctness, and to remain a full hour on horseback without fatigue; and she should then, if possible, be placed in a class composed of not less than twelve nor more than twenty-four members. Children in a class should be of the same sex, and, as near as may be, of the same age and equestrian experience. It is not necessary that the class should meet every day; it may come together one, two, or three times a week, under the guidance of the same teacher, and this need not prevent a pupil who is in it from coming to the school at other times to practice the various movements by herself. All concerned should do their best to have all the members of the class present, and the school should be kept clear of other riders during such classes. The presence of spectators is objectionable, particularly where there is a class of young girls. Granted that they are the parents, for instance, of one or two of the pupils: to the rest they are strangers, who cause constraint, as the teacher is obliged to criticise, correct, and, in a word, instruct, in a loud voice, so that the observation made to one may serve as a suggestion to all. The difference of progress between classes and individual pupils is so great that one may calculate that, after one hundred private lessons, a pupil will not ride so well as if she had taken fifty lessons in class. In a class she is obliged to keep her horse at a certain distance from the others, and in his own place, and, in her turn, go through exercises directed by a will other than her own, while the constant repetition of principles by the teacher fixes them in her memory. On the other hand, the private pupil takes her time to make her horse go through a movement; and, that movement once understood, there is no reason for the repetition of the explanations which can alone make the theory and principle of riding familiar. I am certainly not an advocate for theory without practice; but I insist that a rider must know what she ought to do before she can do it really well, as all good results in riding are obtained by long practice, based on a rational theory. The teacher should choose out of his class the four most skillful pupils, whose horses are free and regular in their gaits, to serve as leaders, one at the head and one at the end of the two columns, which should be drawn up on the long sides of the school, each rider having a space of at least three feet between the head of her horse and the tail of the one in front of her, the heads of the leaders' horses being about six feet from the corner of the school. While the columns are standing still, the teacher should explain distinctly the difference between distance and interval, and he had better be on foot at the end of the school, facing the columns. By "distance" is meant the space between the tail of one horse and the head of the next in the column. "Interval" is the space between two horses who are standing or going forward on parallel lines. All movements are executed singly or in file: in the first case each pupil goes through the movement, without regard to the others; in the second, the pupils execute the movement in turn after the leaders of the column. A movement in file, once known, may be repeated individually, but only at a walk in the beginning, in order to insure attention. The columns should both be on the right hand; consequently the head of one will be opposite the end of the other as they are drawn up on their respective sides. First order: 1. _Prepare to go forward._--2. _Go forward._ When the final word of command is given, the pupils will advance simultaneously, each one using the same effects as if she were alone, and being careful to preserve the correct distance. The two leaders should so regulate the gait of their horses as to pass the opposite corners of the school at the same moment, and this gait should be uniform. If a pupil loses her distance, she should regain it by making her horse walk faster; but she should try to keep her place, as the whole column must quicken its pace when she does, and all suffer from the carelessness of one. When the columns are on the short sides of the school, the teacher should give the order: 1. _Prepare to halt_; and when they are on the long side, 2. _Halt._ When they are again going forward, always on the right hand, the order should be given: 1. _Prepare to turn to the right._--2. _Turn to the right._ At the final order each pupil will turn to the right on her own account, and according to the rules already prescribed; at the end of this movement all will find themselves on parallel lines, and about twelve feet apart; they should then turn the head somewhat to the right, in order to see that they are on the same line, and cross the width of the school in such a way that the columns will meet and pass each other in the middle. When they have reached the opposite side, they will turn to the right without further order, the leaders at the end of the column being now at its head. This movement should _never_ be executed except at a walk. To replace the columns in their accustomed order, the teacher should have this movement executed a second time. When the columns are going forward on the right hand, the order will be given: 1. _Prepare to volte in file._ In this movement the same principles and the same means are used as in a private lesson; the leaders, however, describe a larger circle proportionate to the length of their columns, and at the end their horses' heads should be about three feet behind the tails of the last horses in their respective columns. The other pupils then, in turn, execute the movement upon the same ground as the leader. The leaders having moved two thirds down one of the long sides, the teacher will order: 2. _Volte in file_; and, when the columns are again going forward on the right hand, 1. _Prepare to half-volte in file._ The leaders turn to the right, describe their half-circle, and go forward on a diagonal line ending just behind the last rider in the column; once there, they turn to the left and fall into line, being duly followed by each pupil over the same ground. When the leaders are about eighteen feet from the corner of the school, the teacher will order: 2. _Half-volte in file._ The next order should be: 1. _Prepare for the reversed half-volte in file._ The leaders must execute diagonals proportional to the lengths of their respective columns, in such a manner as will enable them to begin their half-circles when about thirty feet down the long sides, and thirty-five or forty feet before the turn or corner, followed in turn by the other pupils, as in the foregoing movements. As soon as the leaders are on the long sides, having passed the second corners, the teacher will order: 2. _Reversed half-volte in file._ The columns being on the long sides, and on the right hand, the next order should be: 1. _Prepare to back._--2. _Back._ And, to execute this movement correctly, each pupil will make her horse back as she would in a private lesson, being careful to keep in a line with her companions. When the class can execute these movements correctly at a walk, the teacher will allow them to be practiced at a trot, insisting, however, that the pupils shall stop rising as soon as the preparatory order is given, not to begin again until they have returned to the side of the school at the end of the movement. When there is a full class, it is better not to allow turns to the right or left to be attempted at a trot, as the riders may strike one another's knees in crossing. When these movements in file, at the walk and the trot, have given the pupils the habit of controlling their horses with decision and regularity, the teacher should explain to them the difference between these and individual movements. The column being at a walk, and on the right hand, the teacher will say: 1. _Prepare to volte singly._ Each pupil leaves the line at the same moment as the others, executes a circular line of twelve steps as in a private lesson, and takes her place in the line again. 2. _Volte singly._ Next in order comes: 1. _Prepare to half-volte singly._ This is done exactly as in a private lesson, the pupils taking care to do it in time with one another, in order to reach their places at the same moment. 2. _Half-volte singly._ 1. _Prepare for the reversed half-volte singly._ The pupils leave their places simultaneously by a diagonal line, and return to the same track; but, on the other hand, by a circular line of six steps. 2. _Reversed half-volte singly._ These movements are here given on the right hand; but they may, of course, be done equally well on the left hand by reversing the terms. I recommend teachers not to keep their pupils too long on the left hand, but to seize that opportunity to rectify any incorrect positions of the feet. When the class can execute the foregoing movements correctly at the walk and the trot, the teacher may explain to them the canter or gallop. A horse is said to "lead" at a canter with his right foot when the lateral movement of his right foot is more marked than that of his left. This causes a reaction from left to right, which makes this lead easier for a lady, who sits on the left side, than that of the left foot, where the reaction is from right to left. When a horse who is leading with his right foot turns to the left, he must change his lead, and _vice versâ_. To make her horse lead at a canter with his right foot, the rider must put her left leg very far back to act in opposition with her whip, which should make very light attacks, incline the upper part of her body forward, and lift her hands, without, however, drawing them nearer her body. When the horse has obeyed, she will resume the normal position for hands and body, renewing the pressure of her whip and leg from time to time to keep the gait regular. During the canter or gallop the right foot should be held well back, close to the saddle, without rigidity, and the rider should sit firm in her saddle, while allowing the upper part of her body to give freely to the motion of the horse, in order to neutralize any shock. To change his lead from right to left at a gallop, the horse pauses for an imperceptible space of time, immediately puts his left hind leg in front of his right, and, by the contraction of the muscles of his left leg, projects his body forward to the left, his equilibrium being again disturbed, but in a new direction; to compensate which, his left fore leg comes at the first step to support the weight by putting itself before the right, which, until then, has been carrying it all. It requires a great deal of tact, the result of long practice, to make a horse change his feet when he is galloping in a straight line, and I therefore recommend teachers to proceed with their classes in the following manner: The column being at a gallop, each pupil should execute a half-volte in file, turning at the gallop, coming down to a trot on the diagonal, and resuming the gallop when she is on the opposite track and on the other hand. As the horse is galloping with his right foot, the rider will calculate the movement of his right shoulder by watching it without lowering her head, and, when she sees that shoulder move to put down the right leg, she must instantly change her effects of leg and whip, and lift her hands, the right rather more than the left, to support the horse while he pauses with his right shoulder, while an energetic action of her leg will make him bring his left hind leg under him and put it in front of the right; and, if she holds her left hand low, the left fore leg will be free to take its place in front of the right. Care must be taken not to throw a horse while he is changing his feet, that is to say, he must not be turned suddenly to the right in order to be jerked suddenly to the left; and, during the short time which it takes him to change his feet, the rider should sit close in order not to disturb him by a shifting weight. When the pupils can make their horses change their feet by changing their gait, they should be made to execute half-voltes and reversed half-voltes in file, at a gallop, without changing to a trot; and, when they can do this, they may execute them individually, according to the rules already prescribed. I must again recommend great prudence, that accidents may be avoided, and plenty of pauses for rest, that the horses may not become discouraged. A lady's equestrian education can not be considered complete until she can make her horse leap any obstacle which is reasonable, considering her age and experience and the capacity of her horse. When her seat has become flexible and firm at the walk, trot, and gallop, when she is mistress of her horse in changes of direction, of gait, and of feet, the teacher should allow her to leap a hurdle not less than two nor more than three feet high. The class being formed into a single column, close together, each rider should make an individual turn to the right on the long side of the school opposite where the hurdle is to be placed, as she can thus see for herself any faults which may be committed by her companions. Leaping should be practiced by the pupils one at a time, at a walk, a trot, and, finally, a gallop. The class being drawn up in line, the teacher will proceed to explain to them the animal mechanism of the leap. If a horse is at a walk, and wishes to jump over an obstacle, he draws his hind legs under him to support his weight, pauses for an instant, then lifts his fore legs from the ground, thus throwing all his weight upon his hind legs; whereupon, by a powerful contraction of the muscles, these latter project his body forward and upward, and it describes a curve through the air, alighting on the fore legs, braced to receive the shock, the hind legs dropping on the ground in their turn, only to contract again sufficiently to form a forward motion. The pause before a leap is more noticeable at a walk than at a trot, and least of all at a gallop. The most favorable gait for leaping is what is known as a hand-gallop, which is an intermediate pace between a riding-school canter and the full gallop of the race-track, as, while he is at this gait, the horse is impelled forward with his hind legs constantly under him. In order to aid and support her horse at a leap, the rider should bring him straight up to the obstacle at a slow and regular gait, and should put her own right foot very far back, that she may make her seat as firm as possible; at the moment when he pauses she should lean back and lift both of her hands a little, in order to enter into the slight approach to rearing, without encouraging it too much; then, as soon as she feels the horse project himself forward, she must give her hand, straighten herself, and lean back as the horse goes over, lifting her wrists with energy as soon as he touches the ground. When he has begun the motion of rearing, a simultaneous action of the whip and leg will help to determine his leap. It may be noticed that I use the words "aid" and "support" instead of "_make_," and also that I indicate first the positions of the body, next of the hands, and last the effects of the leg and whip, to the end that the pupil may not be confused as to the very short time in which these latter may be rightly used. Before leaping, the teacher may allow the pupils to practice their positions in the following manner: He should make them count one, leaning the body and drawing the wrists backward; two, the body and wrists forward; three, the body and wrists backward again. This series, slow in the beginning, may be quickened little by little until it is as near as may be to the speed necessary in these movements during the short duration of a leap. When the pupils have gone through these motions intelligently, the teacher will take his place in front and to the right of the hurdle, facing the wall. The hurdle should always be placed in the middle of one of the long sides; and ladies prefer to jump on the left hand, in order to avoid touching the wall with their legs if the horse should go too near it. Notwithstanding this, if the horses are free jumpers, and the school well arranged, I prefer the right hand, because a fall to the right is then clear of the wall. This is a case in which an instructor must depend upon his own judgment. The teacher stands as I have indicated above, holding a whip with a long lash, not to strike the horses, but to prevent refusals. One after another the pupils should leave the line, and advance at a walk, until they get on the side of the school where the hurdle has been placed, when they will canter, but without any excitement; and they will find it useful to count one, two, three, until the three movements of the body have become mechanical from practice. During the course of the more advanced lessons, it will still be useful to practice some flexions, in order to be sure that pupils keep supple. They should also learn to take the foot out of the stirrup at any gait, and replace it without stopping, and to rise at the trot, the foot being out of the stirrup, which is not so difficult as it appears. They should also be drilled to walk, trot, or gallop by twos and threes, to learn to accommodate their horses' gait to that of a companion. The teacher should be sure that, at the end of their lessons, the pupils can trot or gallop for at least a mile without stopping; and, to gain this result, he must proceed by degrees, with the object of developing the lungs and giving a freer respiration. Nothing is more ridiculous than to see a rider, who has proposed a trot or canter to her companion, obliged to pull up after a few steps, puffing and panting for breath. She is apt to ruin her own horse; and gentlemen who have spirited animals are likely to avoid riding with her. Except in the prescribed effects of the whip and leg, there is no definite position in which a lady is obliged to hold her whip, and she should learn to carry it as suits her best. She should be able to arrange her skirt while at a walk, without assistance, and also to shorten or lengthen her stirrup by the strap on the right side of the saddle, without taking her foot out. From the very beginning of the lessons the teacher should suppress all the little chirpings and clackings of the tongue, which, however useful they may be to a coachman or a horse-trainer, are out of place in the mouth of a lady. I was once invited to accompany a lady in Central Park, in New York; and, as I had been told that she rode very well, I did not hesitate to ride Général, a noble animal, whose education in the _haute école_ I was just finishing. We started. She managed her horse with her tongue as an effect on the right side, instead of using her whip. The consequence was, that my horse, hearing these appeals, and not knowing whether they were meant for him or not, remained at the _passage_ all the way from the gate to the reservoir, where I took it upon myself to beg her to do as she chose with her own horse, but to allow mine to be under my own control. I recommend not giving dainties to horses before mounting, unless they are allowed time to eat them. If a horse has a piece of sugar or apple in his mouth, the bit will be worse than useless; it will irritate him, as he can not open his mouth without dropping the delicacy, and he can not swallow it if he gives his head properly. I have noticed that most gentlemen riding with ladies place themselves on the right side; but this seems to me a mistake, where the rule of the road is to pass to the right, because it is the lady who protects her companion, and not he who shields her. Besides, he takes the place where his horse is most likely to be quiet, as no one has the right to pass inside him. Still further, should the lady's horse become frightened, he will be seriously embarrassed on the right side, with the reins in his left hand; and, if she should fall, what can he do? He can only transfer his reins to the right hand, and endeavor to push her into her saddle with his left; and, if they are going fast, this will not be easy. I may say here, that in ninety-five cases out of a hundred the lady falls to the right. If the gentleman is riding on her left, he gives up to her the best place, and protects her legs; she can use her whip more freely; he has the use of his right hand to stop or quiet her horse; he can arrange her skirt, should she need his help; if she falls, he has but to seize her left arm, and draw her toward him, calculating the strength which he employs, and he may even lift her from the saddle. CHAPTER IV. Resistances of the horse. In all the best riding-schools of Europe two posts are firmly fixed into the ground, parallel with and about twenty paces from one of the short sides of the school. These are called pillars, and between them is fastened a horse who is trained to rear or to kick at command, in order that the teacher may explain to his pupils what they must do when they encounter one or other of these resistances. These pillars are almost unknown in riding-schools in this country, and the reason of their absence may be found, I think, in the moral qualities of the American horse, which are really astonishing when looked at from the point of view of animal character. A teacher should, however, give his pupils some instructions about the most common tricks or vices of the horse, which are usually only defensive action on his part. Before any active form of resistance, the horse always makes a well-marked pause; for instance, in order to rear, he stops his motion forward, draws his hind legs under him, throws his weight on them, and lifts his fore legs from the ground, holding his head high. When he is almost upright on his hind legs, he stands for a longer or shorter time, moving his fore feet as if beating the air, and then either comes down to earth again or falls backward, which is acknowledged to be the most dangerous thing which can happen on horseback. If the rider feels that her horse is on the point of going over with her, she must instantly slip her foot out of the stirrup, loosen the hold of her leg on the pommel, and lean as far to the right as she can, turning her body to the left in order to fall on the right of the horse, who almost always falls to the left, and, as soon as she is on the ground, she must scramble away from her horse as quickly as possible. The best way of preventing a horse from rearing is not allowing him to stop; and, if it should be too late or too difficult to manage this, all effects of the hands should stop at once, and the rider should attack his right flank with her whip vigorously. If a horse rears habitually, he should be got rid of. In order to kick, on the contrary, the horse braces himself with his fore legs, lifting his hind quarters by a contraction of his hind legs; and, when his croup is in the air, he kicks as hard as he can with his hind legs, and brings them suddenly to the ground again, holding his head low and sticking out his neck meanwhile. An inexperienced rider may be frightened by the shock of this movement, which is very disagreeable, besides being dangerous to people behind; but, with calm presence of mind and a little energy, this trick may be fought without too much annoyance. In this case also the great thing is to hinder the horse from stopping, by keeping his head up; and, if, in spite of the rider, he gets it down and his legs braced in front of him, she should lean very far back and strike one or two vigorous blows with her whip on the lower part of the neck where it joins the chest, trying at the same time to lift the head with the reins. Some teachers recommend using the whip on the flank, as in rearing, and I usually do this myself; but I have always noticed that the horse kicks again at least once while going forward; so I do not recommend this for a lady. In bucking, the horse puts his head down, stiffens his fore legs, draws his hind legs somewhat under him, and jumps forward, coming down on all four feet at once, and jumping again almost immediately. Without being particularly dangerous, this vice is very unpleasant, as it jars the rider terribly. To neutralize the shock, therefore, as much as she can, she must sit very far back, lean her body back, lift her hands vigorously, and try to make her horse go forward and slightly to the right. When a horse refuses to slacken his pace, or to stop when his rider wishes it, he is running away with her, and he does this progressively--that is, if he is at a walk he will not stop when he feels the bit, but shakes his head, quickens his pace to a trot, throws his head into the air, or holds it down, bearing against the bit, breaks into a gallop, and goes faster and faster until he is at full speed; and, once arrived at this point, he is quite capable of running straight into a wall or jumping over a precipice. Some high authorities maintain that this state of the horse is one of temporary insanity; and this theory is admissible in certain cases where, when the animal is stopped, the nostrils are found to be very red and the eyes bloodshot; but, in most cases, horses run away through sudden fright, or from fear of punishment, or because they are in pain from one cause or another. When a horse is subject to this fault, his rider should give him to a man, either a skilled amateur or a professional rider, as I have seen very few ladies who could undertake the proper treatment without danger. Such a horse being put into my hands for training, I take him to some place where the footing is good and where he can have plenty of space, which means plenty of time for me; and, once there, I provoke him to run away, in order that I may find out why he does so. If he fights against my hand, shuts his mouth, or throws his head in the air, as soon as he has stopped I carefully examine his mouth, his throat, his breathing, his sight, his loins, and his houghs. Sometimes the mouth is without saliva, the lips are rough and irritated, the bars are dry, bruised, and even cut; and in that case I try to see whether the bad habit does not come from severe bitting, or too tight a curb-chain, or perhaps the teeth may be in bad order. A few flexions of the jaw and neck will tell me at once if the mouth is the cause of the trouble; but I must make sure that this bad state of the mouth is the cause, and not the consequence. The sight of a horse is often defective; the sun in his eyes dazzles and frightens him; or else a defective lens makes objects appear larger to him than they really are; or he may be near-sighted, and consequently nervous about what he can not see; and a moving bird, or a bit of floating paper, is enough to make him bolt. Sometimes the throat is sore inside, and then the horse suffers from the effect of the bit on the extremity of his neck when he gives his head. Bolting is often caused by suffering in some internal organ; and in that case the breathing is apt to be oppressed. But in seven cases out of ten the cause of a horse's running away is to be found in his hind quarters. The loins are too long, weak, and ill-attached, so that when he carries a heavy weight the spinal column feels an insupportable pain. What man would not become mad if he were forced to walk, trot, and gallop, carrying a weight which caused him frightful suffering? The remembrance of an old wound made by the saddle is sometimes enough to cause a nervous and sensitive animal to bolt. The legs are sometimes beginning to throw out curbs or spavins, or they may be too straight and narrow, lacking the strength necessary to carry the horse at a regular gait; so he suffers, loses his head, and runs away. We will suppose the horse to be well-proportioned, with his sight and organs in a normal condition, his mouth only being hurt as a consequence, not as a cause. I change the bit, and substitute an easier one, treating the mouth meanwhile with salt, or alum, or marsh-mallow; and yet my horse still runs away. In that case it is from one of two reasons: either it is from memory and as a habit, or else it is the result of ill-temper. If the former, I take him to some spot where I can have plenty of space and time, preferably a sea-beach with soft sand, or a large ploughed field; and there I let him go, stopping when he stops, and then making him go on again, and in this way he soon learns that submission is the easiest way for him. If he should be really ill-tempered, I would mount him in the same place with sharp spurs and a good whip, and before long his moral condition would be much more satisfactory. But often a horse takes fright and runs away when one least expects it. Allow me to say that nothing which a horse can do should ever be unexpected. On horseback one should be ready for emergencies; and the best way to avoid them is to prevent the horse from a dangerous initiative. Besides, the horse does not get to his full speed at once; and, if the rider keeps calm, she will probably be able to master him before he reaches it. But, if, in spite of herself, her horse is running at a frightful pace, what should be done? In the first place, she must try to see that he does not slip and fall; and, in any case, she should take her foot out of the stirrup, let her whip drop if necessary, choose at once a straight line, if that be possible, and give to her horse with hands and leg, calming him with the voice, and speaking loud, in order that it may reach his ear. She should endeavor to remain calm, and to take long breaths; then, when his first rush is over, she should lift her wrists, holding the reins short, lean very far back, and saw his mouth vigorously with the bridle, two reins being in either hand. "Sawing" is the successive action of the two hands acting separately on the mouth of the horse, and, by pulling his head from side to side, it throws him out of his stride and checks his speed. I can not say too often that it is easier to prevent a horse from running away than it is to stop him when he is once fairly off. It would be very difficult to foresee all the possible defensive actions of the horse and the means of counteracting them; but, as the rider gains experience, she will get to recognize these actions from the outset, and counteract them so naturally that she will scarcely think about it. To a good rider there is no such thing as a restive horse. The animal either knows what to do, or he does not. If he knows, the rider, by the power of her effects, forces the horse to obey; if he does not know, the rider trains him. If a horse resists, there is always a cause; and that cause should be sought and destroyed, after which the horse will ask no better than to behave himself. If a horse fidgets and frets to get back to the stable (which is a common and annoying trick), he should be turned round and walked for a moment or two in an opposite direction, away from home, and in a fortnight he will have lost the bad habit. Horses often have a trick of fighting the hand by running out their heads and trying to pull the reins through the fingers of their riders. This comes from stiffness in the hind quarters, and will stop as soon as the horse has been taught, by progressive flexions, to keep his hind legs under him. A timid horse may always be reassured and quieted by a persevering rider, provided his sight is not bad; and he should never be punished for shying, as that comes from fright; he should be allowed time to get used to the sight or sound of a terrifying object, and, when he is convinced that it will not hurt him, he will disregard it in future, as, although timid, he is not a coward. For instance: if a horse shies at a gnarled stump in a country lane, his rider should stop and let him come slowly up to it, which he will do with every appearance of fear. She should cheer him with her voice, and caress him with her hand; and, when once he has come near enough to smell the dreaded shape, he will give a contemptuous sniff, and never notice it after. If a horse should fall with his rider, she should at once slip her foot out of the stirrup, lift her right leg over the pommel, and turn her body quickly to the left. If the horse falls to the right, she will fall on him, which will deaden the shock, and, as his legs will be on the left, she can get away from his feet easily; if he falls to the left, she must try to let her head fall to the right, and, if she has time, she will attempt to fall to the left, on her knees, and must get away from the horse on her hands and knees with all speed. If she should be thrown from her saddle, she must not stiffen herself, and must keep her head as high as possible. CONCLUSION. Before closing this slight treatise, I would most respectfully say a parting word to the ladies for whose use I have prepared it. The principle of the proper control of a horse by a lady may be thus roughly summed up: Keep him well under your control, but also keep him going forward; _carry_ him forward with the pressure of your left leg and with the whip, which must take the place of the right leg. Never let a horse take a step at his own will; and, as soon as he shows the first sign of resistance, try to counteract it. Great care and tact must be used to avoid sudden changes of gait, which irritate a horse by throwing him off his balance and measure; and he should never be teased with the whip and spur in order that he may prance and fidget, for such foolishness on horseback proves nothing, and is only fit to amuse ignorant spectators. Be prudent; accidents always happen too soon. Be calm, if you wish your horse to be so. Be just, and he will submit to your will. Remember that, in riding, the greatest beauty consists in being simple in your means of control; do not appear to be always occupied with your horse, for you and he should seem to have the same will. Do not read or study one method only; there is good to be found in all. THE END. HYGIENE FOR GIRLS. By IRENÆUS P. DAVIS, M. D. _18mo. Cloth, $1.25._ "Many a woman whose childhood was bright with promise endures an after-life of misery because, through a false delicacy, she remained ignorant of her physical nature and requirements, although on all other subjects she may be well-informed; and so at length she goes to her grave mourning the hard fate that has made existence a burden, and perhaps wondering to what end she was born, when a little knowledge at the proper time would have shown her how to easily avoid those evils that have made her life a wretched failure."--_From Introduction._ "A very useful book for parents who have daughters is 'Hygiene for Girls,' by Irenæus P. Davis, M. D., published by D. Appleton & Co. And it is just the book for an intelligent, well-instructed girl to read with care. It is not a text-book, nor does it bristle with technical terms. 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40157	----	Breeding Minks in Louisiana FOR THEIR FUR A Profitable Industry [Illustration] BY WILLIAM ANDRÉ ELFER FOR SALE BY THE GESSNER CO., 611 CANAL ST., NEW ORLEANS, LA. COPYRIGHTED BY W. A. ELFER 1909 Press of J. G. Hauser "The Legal Printer" 620-622 Poydras St. New Orleans PREFACE This little volume is issued in illustration of the feasibility of breeding minks in Louisiana for their fur. It is the result of experiments conducted by the author himself, and he feels that it should be of interest to many and of value to the few who are looking for fields for profitable investment. It is the author's aim to issue a more elaborate work on the same subject sometime during the early part of next year. W. A. E. [Illustration: A Louisiana Mink. Notice the Small Eyes, and the Low, Rounded Ears, Scarcely Projecting Beyond the Adjacent Fur.] For the following description of the American mink I am indebted to the Encyclopædia Britannica: "In size it much resembles the English polecat--the length of the head and body being usually from fifteen to eighteen inches; that of the tail to the end of the hair about nine inches. The female is considerably smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the end. The ears are small, low, rounded, and scarcely project beyond the adjacent fur. The pelage consists of a dense, soft, matted under-fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all parts of the body and tail. The gloss is greatest on the upper parts; on the tail the bristly hairs predominate. Northern specimens have the finest and most glistening pelage; in those from the southern regions there is less difference between the under- and over-fur, and the whole pelage is coarser and harsher. In color, different specimens present a considerable range of variation, but the animal is ordinarily of a rich, dark brown, scarcely or not paler below than on the general upper parts; but the back is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly black. The under jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle of the mouth, is generally white. In the European mink the upper lip is also white, but, as this occasionally occurs in American specimens, it fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail is tipped with white. The fur, like that of most of the animals of the group to which it belongs, is an important article of commerce." The fur market has always been a good market. It has grown firmer and stronger from year to year, while the prices for furs have been advancing steadily and rapidly with the growing demand for furs in Europe and America, and with the general increasing scarcity of all fur-bearing animals. Mink fur advanced about fifty per cent. during the last two seasons, and there is every reason to believe that the mink fur in Louisiana will advance to about six dollars within the coming three years. The minks caught in Louisiana last season were sold at an average price of three dollars. [Illustration: Resting in a Warm Place. Notice the Long Body and Its Shape.] [Illustration: In a Position to Jump. Notice the Long Tail.] Fur-bearing animals are becoming scarce where they were once so plentiful, and, like the buffaloes that roamed this country in such great numbers, they will soon, many of them, become extinct if the present rate of trapping continues to obtain in America. Already certain fur animals are almost trapped out and are rare. Even the alligator, which was so plentiful a few years ago in the swamps of Louisiana, is hardly sought after any more for its hide because of its scarcity. The laws enacted by the various State legislatures for the protection of fur-bearing animals, in fact, offer no protection; for most furs caught out of season have no market value, and for that reason are not caught. In Louisiana a trapper has to procure a hunting license if he wishes to carry a gun while trapping, which license costs only one dollar and is good for one season only. Such a low license, while it may bring a large revenue to the State, clearly has no element of protection in it. On the contrary, it is a truth that it stimulates both hunting and trapping, as there were more trappers in Louisiana last season than before the law requiring this license came into effect. Every trapper procures a hunting license whether he carries a gun or not, and most trappers believe the law requires them to have this license to trap. Whatever is being done for the protection of fur-bearing animals in Louisiana, the fact remains that they are fast disappearing. Old and experienced trappers will tell you that minks were very difficult to trap last season as compared with the seasons of a few years ago, when they could be so easily trapped in dead-falls. Raccoons, too, which were so numerous in the rear of old cornfields during the trapping seasons, have diminished at a surprising rate within the last three years. [Illustration: A Female of Two Years.] While laws are being adopted by different States for the regulation of trapping to protect fur-bearing animals, it is time for those who expect to make money with fur in the future to begin raising their own animals. The time is almost here when trapping will be unprofitable. Fur animals will be too scarce to make anything at it. Then people will have to build farms in which to breed minks for their fur, and mink farms will become common. Minks are the most valuable fur-bearing animals in Louisiana, being the most numerous, and they are also the easiest and most profitable to breed for their fur. Breeding minks in Louisiana for their fur can be made a very profitable industry. There is more to be made at it than raising horses, hogs or cattle. After a farm is once completed and stocked, all expense is about over if there is a large-enough pond in it to supply the minks with sufficient food. Under the present condition of the fur market, each female will average a profit of forty dollars a year. A farm stocked for the first time during the winter with five hundred female minks should bring its owner the following winter approximately twenty thousand dollars. This is figured at three dollars a fur; but within three years the mink fur in Louisiana should be selling for what the mink fur in the North sold last season. With this increase in the price of fur, a farm stocked with the same number should bring forty thousand dollars. [Illustration: The Fur During the Summer Is Very Poor, and Not So Dark as It Is During the Winter.] [Illustration: An Excited Mink Trying to Climb.] Minks require little room, and thousands can be raised each year on a farm of ten acres. The larger the farm, however, the better chances they will have to procure food for themselves, as birds will enter a large farm more freely than a small one. For this reason, in building a mink farm the first and most important requirement is a good location. A small island consisting of low land covered with trees and grasses, with the opposite shore at least three-quarters of a mile distant, would make an excellent farm, provided the surrounding water supplies an abundance of small fishes. Such an island would, of course, preclude the necessity of using material for holding the minks in captivity. If a suitable island cannot be found, a good farm can be made with five or more acres of low swampy land having a natural growth of trees, grasses and underbrush, such as can be found in Southern Louisiana. But the piece of land selected for a farm must inclose a large pond, or several small ponds, containing a good quantity of small fishes, especially crayfish. The trees and grasses will attract birds, which, in addition to fish and rabbits, form a large part of food for the minks. Feeding minks is pretty costly, and is hardly to be considered by one entering the business of breeding them for their fur. The walls surrounding a mink farm can be made either with bricks or with sheets of corrugated, galvanized iron. The latter material makes an excellent wall, and costs less than a brick wall. It should be used in sheets measuring twelve feet in length by about twenty-six inches in width. These sheets should be used in an upright position, and at least five feet should be underground and seven feet aboveground. They should be allowed to lap two inches, and the dirt should be firmly packed against them. Two rows of wooden strips nailed on the outside of the wall, one about two feet above the ground, and the other along the top edge of the sheets, will greatly strengthen the wall and also prevent the wind from shaking it. [Illustration: A Young Female Mink Walking Along the Walls of a Small Farm.] The following photograph shows a small pentagonal farm, the walls of which are made with sheets of corrugated, galvanized iron. Each side measures sixteen feet in length, extending four feet underground and four feet aboveground. Wire netting is used to cover the farm, not to prevent the minks from jumping over, although the walls are too low, but to prevent chickens, cats and buzzards from entering and eating the food put in for the minks. A wooden shed also covers a part of the small farm and serves to keep out some of the rain and heat, there being no shrubs or trees therein. There are two small troughs in the ground for holding water, and in the center of the farm there is a place for the minks to live during the day, which consists of boards laid five inches above the surface of the ground with about fourteen inches of dirt on top. Under these boards it is dark during the day and always damp and cool. There are also several barrels in this farm filled with corn shucks and hay for the minks to enter during cold weather. The minks in this little farm are fed with the spleen of cattle, different meats, crayfish and other small fishes. The cost of this farm, or pen, which has been used for experimental purposes only, amounts to approximately forty-two dollars. It is large enough to raise two hundred minks if they are properly fed and cared for. [Illustration: A Small Mink Farm.] [Illustration: Part of Interior of Small Farm, Showing Boards With Dirt on Top for the Minks to Live Under During the Day.] Sometimes an island can be used for a farm even when it has opposite shores or islands within two hundred feet or less, provided the water surrounding it has an average depth of from four to six feet. In such a case, the walls inclosing the island should be built in the water at a distance of fifty or one hundred feet from its shores. Sheets of metal should be used, as previously described, by placing them upright in the water and nailing them together with strips running along the outside. It is not essential that the lower wall should be in the ground or even touching it; posts can be driven in the ground to strengthen the wall, or to support it entirely. [Illustration: A Mink Farm Made Out of an Island. The Water Surrounding Has a Uniform Depth of Five Feet.] In a small farm where minks are in close captivity and have to be fed, the old ones used for the purpose of stocking it will at first do considerable digging near the walls. They will dig into loose earth to a depth ranging from a few inches to three feet in their attempts to liberate themselves. But they will cease to dig after they have been in captivity for about four months. Those born in a farm will not dig or try to get out. They will climb, however, to a height of fifteen feet on reclining trees or on bushes, and for this reason all trees, bushes and pieces of lumber should be removed from the inside of the walls before any minks are turned loose in a farm. They will ordinarily jump to a height of four feet. They can climb wooden walls as swiftly as a cat, or any wall made of soft material. [Illustration: Disturbed in Her Sleep. Notice the Bushy Tail.] The following sketch shows the very best mink farm that can be made. It requires a rectangular piece of land of five or ten acres, running along and separated by a large bayou in the swamps of Louisiana. Covering this land there should be the necessary trees, shrubbery and grasses. The walls are built along the bayou about one hundred feet from the middle, and extend underground to a depth of six feet. The walls at the ends of the farm where they cross the bayou should be very carefully constructed. At these places where the walls cross the bayou should have a depth of at least twelve feet or more, so that the walls can be made to extend nine feet below the water surface for one-third the width of the stream and still have sufficient openings below the walls to permit the water to flow through freely. For example, if the bayou is fifty feet wide, fifteen feet of the wall crossing it can be elevated so that there will be a large-enough opening below for the water to flow. The remaining portion of the wall (that lying near the shore) should be driven in the ground for about one foot, as minks will not dig under water. A farm of five acres, similar to the one just described, would cost, completed, approximately eight hundred dollars. The minks in such a farm, owing to the continuous change of water in the bayou, would always have an abundance of food. The banks of the bayou would afford a natural breeding-place, as minks usually burrow in the banks of small streams or along canals and have their young near the water. If the water in the bayou falls, wire netting could be used over the opening at the ends below the walls. [Illustration: A Mink Farm Inclosing Portion of a Bayou, Allowing the Water to Flow Through.] [Illustration: An Angry Mink.] "Minks eat birds, small mammals and eggs. The principal food of minks comes from water, fish, frogs, crayfish."--_International Encyclopædia._ The minks I have been experimenting with have persistently refused to eat frogs. I penned one up separately and attempted to feed her on frogs only, and I believe she would have starved rather than eat frogs. Minks can be raised in any kind of pen or cage, and water is not essential to their happiness. They are easily tamed and like to be petted. Habits of the Mink in Louisiana Minks in Louisiana have two litters a season, the number of young in each brood varying from four to eight. Sometimes, however, but very rarely, there will be only two in a brood, and almost as infrequently, on the other hand, there will be three litters a season instead of two. Captive animals breed more profusely than the wild, and will occasionally have three litters where they are in close captivity. They begin to breed when they are about one year old, and in captivity will raise an average of fourteen a year. Normally, they live to be about nine years old, but they will live longer in captivity where they are well treated and given all the water and the different foods required by them. Like all other industries, the business of breeding minks for their fur necessitates an outlay of capital. A farm cannot be built without money, and the cost of one sufficiently large to breed minks profitably ranges from five hundred to a thousand dollars. Of course, a farm can be made any size and costing any amount of money; but large farms are not necessary, and it is much better to have several small farms of six or ten acres than one very large one. [Illustration: A Female Mink Resting With Eyes Open.] After a farm is completed it has to be stocked, and the task is no easy or inexpensive one. Trappers will have to be employed to trap minks with No. 1 steel traps, as these small traps do not injure them very much unless they are permitted to remain caught too long. Those that have badly-broken bones should not be bought, as suffering will cause them to eat their leg off, in which case they will always die. The author intends to organize a company styled the "Louisiana Mink Company," the objects and purposes of which shall be to build mink farms and to breed minks in this State for their fur. No matter what capital is involved, or expense incurred, in entering into the business of breeding minks for their fur, the returns will be so big that this will appear small in comparison. And those who are so fortunate as to start in the industry now will, when minks will have become so rare that trapping will be unprofitable, and the demand so great that the prices for mink fur will soar higher and higher--those persons, I say, of foresight, who had the good fortune to start in the business early, will reap each year the steady advances in the price of mink fur, and be able, in a word, to command the fur market of both Europe and America. Transcriber's Notes All obvious typographical corrections were made. All original spelling and gramatic constructs were retained. Some images were moved to rejoin split paragraphs. Where the first letter in a paragraph was displayed in Old English font, it was assumed that represented a new "section". 
40220	----	HOW WOMEN SHOULD RIDE by "C. DE HURST" Illustrated [Illustration] New York Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square 1892 Copyright, 1892, by HARPER & BROTHERS. All rights reserved. TO E. E. F. TO WHOM I OWE THE EXPERIENCE WHICH HAS ENABLED ME TO WRITE OF RIDING THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY AND AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED INTRODUCTION It has not been the intention of the author of this little volume to present the reader with elaborate chapters of technical essays. Entire libraries have been written on the care and management of the horse from the date of its foaling; book upon book has been compiled on the best and proper method of acquiring some degree of skill in the saddle. The author has scarcely hoped, therefore, to exhaust in 248 pages a subject which, after having been handled on the presses of nearly every publisher in this country and England, yet contains unsettled points for the discussion of argumentative horse-men and horse-women. But it happens with riding--as, indeed, it does with almost every other subject--that we ignore the simpler side for the more intricate. We delve into a masterpiece, suitable for a professional, on the training of a horse, when the chances are we do not know how to saddle him. We stumble through heavy articles on bitting, the technical terms of which we do not understand, when if our own horse picked up a stone we probably would be utterly at a loss what to do. We, both men and women, are too much inclined to gallop over the fundamental lessons, which should be conned over again and again until thoroughly mastered. We are restive in our novitiate period, impatient to pose as past-masters in an art before we have acquired its first principles. Beginning with a bit of advice to parents, of which they stand sorely in need, it is the purpose of this book to carry the girl along the bridle-path, from the time she puts on a habit for the first attempt, to that when she joins the Hunt for a run across country after the hounds. There is no intention of wearying and confusing her by a formidable array of purely technical instruction. The crying fault with nearly all those who have handled this subject at length has been that of distracting the uninformed reader by the most elaborate dissertation on all points down to the smallest details. This author, on the contrary, has shorn the instruction of all hazy intricacies, with which the equestrienne has so often been asked to burden herself, and brought out instead only those points essential to safety, skill, and grace in the saddle. No space has been wasted on unnecessary technicalities which the woman is not likely to either understand or care to digest, but everything has been written with a view of aiding her in obtaining a sound, practical knowledge of the horse, under the saddle and in harness. CONTENTS CHAPTER I A WORD TO PARENTS Page 3 Dangers of Early Riding, 4.--Vanity, 9. CHAPTER II GIRLS ON HORSEBACK 13 Hints to Mothers, 13.--The Beginner's Horse, 14.--Costuming, 16.--Preparatory Lessons, 16.--Instructors, 20.--Balance, 21.--Hands, 23.--Position, 25.--Management, 26. CHAPTER III BEGINNING TO RIDE 31 Form, 32.--Insufficient Training, 33.--Mounting, 34.--Dismounting, 37.--Stirrup, 38. CHAPTER IV IN THE SADDLE 43 Below the Waist, 44.--Above the Waist, 48.--Hands and Wrists, 49.--Reins, 53. CHAPTER V EMERGENCIES 63 Eagerness to Start, 63.--Shyers, 65.--Stumblers, 66.--Rearers, 66.--Plungers, 67.--Buckers, 68.--Pullers, 70.--Runaways, 72.--Punishment, 76. CHAPTER VI CHOOSING A MOUNT 83 An Adviser, 83.--Park Hack, 87.--Measurement, 88.--Conformation, 90.--Hunter, 94.--Gait and Manners, 95. CHAPTER VII DRESS 99 Skirt, 100.--Safety Skirt, 100.--Divided Skirt, 102.--Bodice, 103.--Waistcoat, 104.--Corsets, 105.--Boots, Breeches, Tights, 106.--Collars and Cuffs, 110.--Gloves, 111.--Hair and Hat, 112.--Veil, 113.--Whip or Crop, 113.--Spur, 114. CHAPTER VIII LEAPING 121 Requirements, 121.--In the Ring, 122.--Approaching Jump, 122.--Taking off, 124.--Landing, 125.--Lifting, 126.--Out-of-Doors, 127.--Pilot, 128.--Selecting a Panel, 128.--Stone Wall, 130.--In Hand, 131.--Trappy Ground and Drops, 131.--In and Out, 133.--Picket and Slat Fences, 134.--Wire, 135.--Combined Obstacles, 136.--Refusing, 136.--Timidity, 137.--Temper, 138.--Rider at Fault, 139. CHAPTER IX LEAPING (continued) 145 Rushers, 145.--Balkers, 147.--Sluggards, 149.--Falls, 150. CHAPTER X RIDING TO HOUNDS 159 Courtesy, 159.--The Novice, 161.--Hard Riding, 162.--Jealous Riding, 163.--Desirable Qualities, 164.--Getting Away, 165.--Indecision, 166.--Right of Way, 167.--Funk, 168.--Excitable and Sluggish Horses, 169.--Proximity to Hounds, 170.--Choosing a Line, 172. CHAPTER XI SYMPATHY BETWEEN HORSE AND WOMAN 179 Talking to Horse, 180.--In the Stall, 183.--On the Road, 185.--Cautions, 187. CHAPTER XII PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE STABLE 193 Stabling, 193.--Picking up Feet, 194.--Grooming, 197.--Bitting, 197.--Clipping, 199.--Bridling, 200.--Noseband, 202.--Martingale, 203.--Breast-plate, 204.--The Saddle, 205.--Stirrup, 208.--Girths, 209.--Saddling, 210. CHAPTER XIII SOMETHING ON DRIVING 215 Desirability of Instruction, 215.--Vulgar Display, 218.--Bad Form, 219.--Costume, 220.--Cockade, 221.--Confidence, 222.--The Family-Horse Fallacy, 222.--On the Box, 223.--Position of Reins, 224.--Handling Reins, 225.--A Pair, 226. CHAPTER XIV SOMETHING MORE ON DRIVING 231 Management, 231.--Stumbling, 232.--Backing, 232.--Rearing and Kicking, 234.--Rein under Tail, 236.--Bolting and Running, 238.--Crowded Driveways, 239.--Road Courtesy, 241.--Tandems and Teams, 243.--Reins, 244.--Unruly Leader, 245.--Turning, 246. Illustrations CORRECT POSITION _Facing p._ 24 INCORRECT POSITION " 26 INCORRECT LEFT LEG AND HEEL 43 CORRECT LEFT LEG AND HEEL 44 INCORRECT RIGHT THIGH AND KNEE 46 CORRECT RIGHT THIGH AND KNEE 47 CORRECT KNUCKLES, SIDE VIEW 50 INCORRECT POSITION OF HANDS 51 HANDS IN GOOD FORM, FRONT VIEW 52 SNAFFLE OUTSIDE, CURB INSIDE, FRONT VIEW 54 SNAFFLE OUTSIDE, CURB INSIDE, SIDE VIEW 55 REINS IN TWO HANDS, SNAFFLE OUTSIDE, CURB INSIDE _Facing p._ 56 POSITION OF REINS AND HANDS IN JUMPING, CURB OUTSIDE, SNAFFLE INSIDE 57 REINS IN TWO HANDS, CURB OUTSIDE, SNAFFLE INSIDE, SIDE VIEW 58 HANDS AND SEAT IN REARING _Facing p._ 66 CROP 114 A GOOD SPUR 115 TAKING OFF _Facing p._ 124 ABOUT TO LAND " 126 DOUBLE BRIDLE FOR GENERAL USE " 202 CORRECT SADDLE 205 UNDESIRABLE SADDLE 206 SAFETY STIRRUP, CLOSED 209 SAFETY STIRRUP, OPEN 210 A WELL-BALANCED CART _Facing p._ 220 POSITION IN TANDEM DRIVING " 244 I A WORD TO PARENTS Riding has been taken up so generally in recent years by the mature members of society that its espousal by the younger element is quite in the natural order of events. We can look upon the declaration of Young America for sport with supreme gratification, as it argues well for the generation to come, but we should not lose sight of the fact that its benefits may be more than counterbalanced by injudiciously forcing these tastes. That there is danger of this is shown by the tendency to put girls on horseback at an age much too tender to have other than harmful results. It is marvellous that a mother who is usually most careful in guarding her child's safety should allow her little one to incur the risks attendant upon riding (which are great enough for a person endowed with strength, judgment, and decision) without proper consideration of the dangers she is exposed to at the time, or a realization of the possible evil effects in the future. [Sidenote: Dangers of Early Riding] Surely parents do not appreciate what the results may be, or they would never trust a girl of eight years or thereabouts to the mercy of a horse, and at his mercy she is bound to be. No child of that age, or several years older, has strength sufficient to manage even an unruly pony, which, having once discovered his power, is pretty sure to take advantage of it at every opportunity; and no woman is worthy the responsibilities of motherhood who will permit her child to make the experiment. Even if no accident occurs, the knowledge of her helplessness may so frighten the child that she will never recover from her timidity. It is nonsense to say she will outgrow it; early impressions are never entirely eradicated; and should she in after-life appear to regain her courage, it is almost certain at a critical moment to desert her, and early recollections reassert themselves. The vagaries of her own mount are not the only dangers to which the unfortunate child is exposed. Many accidents come from collisions caused by some one else's horse bolting; and it is not to be expected, when their elders often lose their wits completely, that shoulders so young should carry a head cool enough to make escape possible in such an emergency. It is a common occurrence to hear parents inquiring for a "perfectly safe horse for a child." Such a thing does not exist, and the idea that it does often betrays one into trusting implicitly an animal which needs perhaps constant watching. If fresh or startled, the capers of the most gentle horse will not infrequently create apprehension, because totally unexpected. On the other hand, if he is too sluggish to indulge in any expressions of liveliness, he is almost sure to require skilful handling and constant urging to prevent his acquiring a slouching gait to which it is difficult to rise. A slouching horse means a stumbling one, and, with the inability of childish hands to help him recover his balance, he is likely to fall. Supposing the perfect horse to be a possibility--a girl under sixteen has not the physique to endure without injury to her health such violent exercise as riding. From the side position she is forced to assume, there is danger of an injured spine, either from the unequal strain on it or from the constant concussion, or both. If a mother can close her eyes to these dangers, insisting that her child shall ride, a reversible side-saddle is the best safeguard that I know of against a curved spine; but it only lessens the chances of injury, and is by no means a sure preventive, although it has the advantage of developing both sides equally. Another evil result of beginning too young is that if she escapes misadventures and does well, a girl is sure to be praised to such an extent that she forms a most exaggerated idea of her prowess in the saddle. By the time she is sixteen she is convinced that there is no room for improvement, and becomes careless, lapsing into many of her earlier faults. Parents should guard against this. It is often their affection which permits them to see only the good points of their daughter's riding, and their pride in her skill leads to undue flattery, which she is only too willing to accept as her due. Later I shall mention some of the principles a young rider should acquire, and it is the duty of those who have put her in the saddle when too young to judge for herself to see that she follows them correctly. The necessity of riding in good form cannot be too firmly impressed on her mind. One often hears: "Oh, I only want to ride a little in the Park; so don't bother me about form. I ride for pleasure and comfort, not work"--all of which is wrong; for, whether in the Park, on the road, in the country, or in the hunting-field, nothing is of more importance than to ride in good form. To do so is to ride easily, being in the best position to manage the horse, and therefore it is also to ride safely. [Sidenote: Vanity] The desire to attract attention often induces women to ride. Young girls soon learn to do likewise, and their attempts at riding for the "gallery" by kicking the horse with the heel, jerking its mouth with the curb, that she may impress people with her dashing appearance, as the poor tormented animal plunges in his endeavors to avoid the pressure, are lamentable and frequent sights in many riding-schools. Objectionable as this is in an older person, it is doubly so in a child, from whom one expects at least modesty instead of such boldness as this betokens. It is to be hoped that those in authority will discourage her attempts at circus riding, and teach her that a quiet, unobtrusive manner will secure her more admirers than an air of bravado. II GIRLS ON HORSEBACK [Sidenote: Hints to Mothers] Notwithstanding these numerous reasons to the contrary, mothers will undoubtedly continue to imperil the life and welfare of children whom it is their mission to protect, and, such being the case, a few directions as to the best and least dangerous course to pursue may be of service to them. Sixteen is the earliest age at which a girl should begin to ride, as she is then strong enough to control her mount, has more judgment, is better able to put instruction into practice, more amenable to reason, and more attentive to what is told her. If the parents' impatience will not admit of waiting until this desirable period, it is their duty to see that the child has every advantage that can facilitate her learning, and to assure her such safety as is within their power. [Sidenote: The Beginner's Horse] A common theory is that any old screw, if only quiet, will do for a beginner. Nothing could be more untrue. The horse for a novice should have a short but square and elastic trot, a good mouth, even disposition, and be well-mannered; otherwise the rider's progress will be greatly impeded. Even if the child is very young, I think it is a mistake to put her on a small pony for her first lessons, as its gaits are so often uneven, interfering with all attempts at regular rising to the trot. Ponies are also more liable to be tricky than horses, and, from the rapidity of their movements, apt to unseat and frighten a beginner. They are very roguish, and will bolt across a road without any reason, or stand and kick or rear for their own amusement; and, being so quick on their feet, their various antics confuse a child so that she loses her self-possession and becomes terrified. It is just as bad to go to the other extreme, as a large, long-gaited horse will tire the muscles of the back, and, if combined with sluggish action, require twice the exertion needed for a free traveller. Furthermore, it destroys the rhythm of the movement by making the time of her rise only half as long as necessary, thus giving her a double jolt on reaching the saddle. Having secured the right sort of horse, the saddle should be chosen with great care. [Sidenote: Costuming] It is a shame that little girls are made to ride in the ill-fitting habits seen half the time. They must set properly, or the best riders will be handicapped and appear at a disadvantage. A child's skirt should not wrinkle over the hips more than a woman's, nor should it ruck up over the right knee, exposing both feet, while the wind inflates the superfluous folds. Above all things, a girl should not lace nor wear her habit bodice tight, as no benefit can possibly be derived from riding with the lungs and ribs compressed. [Sidenote: Preparatory Lessons] It often happens that a child is put into the saddle before she has had the opportunity of becoming familiar with a horse, either by visiting it in its stall or going about it when in the stable. A more harmful mistake could not be made; the child is likely to be afraid of the animal the first time she is placed on its back, and nothing so interferes with tuition as terror. Many of the difficulties of instructing a little girl will be overcome if her familiarity with the horse she is to ride has given her confidence in him. She should frequently be taken to the stable, and encouraged to give him oats or sugar from her hand, and to make much of him. Meanwhile whoever is with her must watch the animal, and guard against anything which might startle the child. She may be lifted on to his back; and if he is suitable to carry her, he will stand quietly, thus assuring her of his trustworthiness and gaining her affection. Before being trusted on a horse, a beginner should have the theory of its management explained to her; and here is another drawback to infantile equestrianism, as a young mind cannot readily grasp the knowledge. Nevertheless, she must be made to understand the necessity of riding from balance, instead of pulling herself up by the horse's mouth, and be shown the action of the curb chain on the chin, that she may realize why the snaffle should be used for ordinary purposes, so that in case of an emergency she may have the curb to fall back upon. She must know that if she pulls against him, the horse will pull against her, and therefore she must not keep a dead bearing on his mouth. Unyielding hands are the almost invariable result of riding before realizing the delicate manipulation a horse's mouth requires. A light feeling on the curb and a light touch of the whip will show her how to keep the horse collected, instead of allowing him to go in a slovenly manner. She must not try to make the horse trot by attempting to rise. Until the animal is trotting squarely she should sit close to the saddle, instead of bobbing up and down, as he jogs or goes unevenly at first. When wishing to canter, in place of tugging at the reins, clucking, and digging the animal in the ribs with her heel, the child should be told to elevate her hands a trifle, and touch him on the shoulder with the whip. No habit is more easily formed than that of clucking to a horse, and it is a difficult one to cure. It is provocative of great annoyance to any one who is near, and who may be riding a high-spirited animal, as it makes him nervous and anxious to go, for he cannot tell whether the signal is meant for him or not, and springs forward in response, when his owner has perhaps just succeeded in quieting him. Thus can one make one's self an annoyance to others near by, in a manner which might so easily have been avoided in the beginning. After being familiarized with such rudimentary ideas of horsemanship, comes the time for putting them into practice. [Sidenote: Instructors] It is a pity that there are not more competent instructors in the riding-schools, for it is of great importance to begin correctly; to find a teacher, however, who possesses thorough knowledge of the subject is, unfortunately, rare. Their inefficiency is amply demonstrated by the specimens of riding witnessed every day in the Park; and either their methods, if they pretend to have any, must be all wrong, or they are but careless and superficial mentors, as the results are so often far from satisfactory. There are, to be sure, plenty of teachers who ride well themselves, but that is a very different matter from imparting the benefit of their knowledge and experience to others. With the best intentions in the world, they may fail to make their pupils show much skill in the saddle. Skill, and the power of creating it in the pupil, is an unusual combination. [Sidenote: Balance] If a young girl is to ride, she should be put in the saddle and not permitted to touch the reins. Her hands may rest in her lap, and the horse should be led at a walk, while the teacher shows her the position she must try to keep, and tells her what she must do when the pace is increased. As she becomes used to the situation, and understands the instructions, the horse may be urged into a slow trot, she being made to sit close, without, at first, any attempt at rising. Then a quiet canter may be given her, but on no account should the child be allowed to clutch at anything to assist in preserving her balance. It is that she shall not rely on the horse's mouth for balance that I have advocated keeping the reins from her, and it is a plan which men and women would do well to adopt. Dependence on the reins is one of the commonest faults in riding, and every one should practise trotting (and even jumping, if the horse be tractable) with folded arms, while the reins are left hanging on the animal's neck, knotted so they will not fall too low. If the importance of riding from balance above the waist were more generally recognized, the seat would of necessity be firmer, the hands lighter, and horses less fretful. [Sidenote: Hands] Too much emphasis cannot be put on the importance of good hands. Good hands are hands made so by riding independently of the reins. Intuitive knowledge of the horse's intentions, sympathy and communication with him, which are conveyed through the reins in a manner too subtle for explanation, must accompany light hands to make them perfect. Such qualities are absolutely impossible with heavy hands, which are incapable of the necessary delicate manipulation of the horse's mouth. Light hands, therefore, should be cultivated first, and experience may bring the rest. A child, beginning as I have advised, will early have this instilled into her mind, and not be obliged to overcome heavy hands when from experience she has learned their disadvantages. After sitting close to the trot and the canter, the beginner must be told to rise to the trot. At first she will find it difficult to make her effort correspond to the action of the horse's fore-legs, but, having once caught the motion, she will soon have no trouble in rising regularly. When she rises correctly and without much effort, the reins may be given her. A snaffle will be the best to use until she is sure of not letting them slip through her fingers, or of not interfering with the horse's mouth. She should hold the reins in both hands, as this lessens the probability of sitting askew, although as she becomes more certain of her seat she may transfer them to the left hand, and carry a whip or crop in the right. If a double bridle has been substituted for the snaffle, the instructor must show the child that the left snaffle rein goes outside of her little finger, the left curb between the little and third fingers, the right curb between the second and third fingers, and the right snaffle between the first and second. [Illustration: CORRECT POSITION] Now, as the child begins to have confidence in herself, is the time to guard against the formation of bad habits, which would later, if uncorrected, be difficult to eradicate. If parents will take the trouble to make an impartial criticism of their daughter's riding, they can aid her by insisting upon her doing as she ought, which is beyond the authority of the riding-master. [Sidenote: Position] They should see that her body is held erect, her shoulders squarely to the front and thrown back, head up, chin held back, arms hanging straight to the elbows, hands low and close together, her right knee immovable, as from there she must rise. Her left leg must be held quiet, and the heel away from the horse, the ball of the foot resting on the stirrup; but she must be kept from placing too much reliance on that support, by practising without it every time she rides, taking care that, in relinquishing that aid, she does not instead take hold of the horse's mouth. [Illustration: INCORRECT POSITION] [Sidenote: Management] As the most trustworthy mount will at times be frisky or make a mistake, a child should be prepared for such a contingency, and know how to meet it. If a horse stumbles, she must sit well back and pull his head up. In rearing, the reins must be left loose and the body thrown forward. A tendency to back must be met with a sharp crack of the whip. In shying, she must try to sit close, and in case of a runaway she should understand that no good will come of throwing herself off. To stick close and try to direct him is all she can do, for she cannot hope to stop him when once started. If a horse falls with her, it is best to try and hold on to the reins, as then he cannot reach her with his heels; but if she cannot succeed in doing this, she must endeavor to get clear of him and as far away as possible, to avoid being rolled on or trampled upon as he makes his effort to get up. When I consider the trials and dangers she must pass through, a girl who is allowed to ride before she is sixteen has my sympathy, while I look with indignation on the mothers who thus thoughtlessly expose children to all the evils attendant upon a too early attempt at riding. III BEGINNING TO RIDE That riding is increasing in popularity is clearly attested by the crowded bridle-path of Central Park. It is greatly to be hoped, however, that with its growth in public favor a more than superficial knowledge of horsemanship will be sought for by those who desire to experience all the pleasure which may be derived from this sport. Women especially, laboring as they do under the disadvantages of a side-saddle and imperfectly developed muscles, should try to follow the most efficacious means of managing their horses, a result best attained by riding in good form. [Sidenote: Form] Even those who consider themselves first-class horsewomen, and who are undoubtedly competent to manage an unruly animal, often have defects in form which destroy the grace and ease of their appearance, and prevent them, in case of an emergency, from employing the full amount of power of which they are capable. Besides this, there are so many benefits to be derived from the exercise--if one will take it in a common-sense manner--that every endeavor should be made to extract from it the full amount of good. This cannot be done with any undue strain on the muscles arising from either a poor saddle, a back bent almost double, the arms nearly pulled out by improper handling of the horse's mouth, or with that abomination--a tight waist. Sense in dressing and attention to form are the two indispensable attributes by which women can make riding a means to improved health. Under such conditions all the organs are stimulated, and good digestion, an increased appetite, quieted nerves, better spirits, and sound sleep follow. With such advantages in sight, it is strange that more of an effort is not made to bring about these results by overcoming bad habits. [Sidenote: Insufficient Training] In most instances the faults come either from improper instruction, or vanity which will not permit or heed criticism. If her horse has been docile, and refrained from any attempt to throw her, a woman is sometimes so impressed with her skill that after a few lessons she no longer regards the advice of her instructor, and thinks she is beyond the necessity of heeding his admonitions. Having acquired so little knowledge, she will soon have numerous objectionable peculiarities in form, resulting from her imperfect conception of horsemanship. Occasionally, too, a woman considers herself "a born rider, with a natural seat," and the result of this belief is a combination of pitiful mistakes, when, had her taste for the sport been properly trained and cultivated, instead of being allowed to run wild, she would probably have become a rider. There might yet remain hope of her acquiring a seat could she be convinced that there really is some knowledge on the subject that she has not yet mastered. In reference to those who have been taught by incompetent masters, a great deal is to be said, both to enable them to adopt the right way, and to prevent those who are desirous of learning from falling into their mistakes. [Sidenote: Mounting] Unfortunately it is almost impossible for a woman to mount without assistance, unless she be very tall and her horse small. In this case she can reach the stirrup with her foot, and pull herself up by the saddle. Sometimes the stirrup can be let down and used to mount with, then drawn up when seated in the saddle. But this can only be done when the stirrup leather buckles over the off flap, which is not usual. Another method is to lead the horse to a fence or wall, climb that, and jump on to his back; but all these methods require a very quiet horse, and even then are not always practicable. It is advisable to learn to mount from the ground as well as from a block. This is done by placing the right hand containing whip and reins on the upper pommel, the left foot, with the knee bent, in the clasped hands of the attendant, the left hand on his shoulder, and, at a signal, springing from the right foot and straightening the left leg. Nine out of ten women, after mounting, first carefully adjust the habit, and have the stirrup or girths tightened before putting the knee over the pommel, while some even button their gloves before; and, as a secondary consideration, when everything else has been seen to, they take up the reins, which have been loose on the horse's neck. He might easily wrench himself from the groom at his head, and without her hold on the pommel she would fall heavily to the ground; or if she were seated, but without reins, the horse might bolt into a tree, a wall, or another horse. She would probably grasp the first rein at hand, perhaps the curb, and then the horse might rear dangerously, and if she did not relax her hold on his mouth at once would be likely to fall backwards with her--the worst thing that can happen to a woman on a horse. All this may be avoided by taking the reins before mounting, and upon touching the saddle, instantly putting the right knee over the pommel. The reins should then be transferred to the left hand, with the snaffle on the outside, and the curb inside, but loose. It will then be the proper time to arrange the skirt and the stirrup. [Sidenote: Dismounting] To dismount she must transfer the reins to her right hand, take her left foot from the stirrup, and lift her right knee over the upper pommel, making sure that her skirt is not caught on any part of the saddle. She must then take a firm hold of the pommel with the hand containing the reins and the whip, the latter held so that it will not touch the horse. If there is some one to assist her she may reach out her left arm, and by this she can be steadied as she dismounts. In jumping down she should keep hold of the pommel and turn slightly, so that as she lands she is facing the horse, ready to notice and guard against signs of kicking or bolting. Until she is fairly on the ground she must not let go of the reins or the pommel, for should the horse start she might be dragged with her head down, if her skirt or her foot caught, and without the reins she could not stop him. [Sidenote: Stirrup] It is well to discard the stirrup for some time during each ride, first at the canter, then at the trot, to make sure that too much weight is not rested on this support, and that the rise is from the right knee. If too much dependence is placed on the stirrup the seat is sure to be too far to the left, unless the leather is too short, when the body will be as much too far to the right, instead of directly on top of the horse. If these directions are observed, a very firm seat will be the result, which gives a confidence that enables one to be thoroughly flexible above the waist without fear of going off, and dispels a dread that often accounts for a stiff or crouching position. A test as to whether one is sitting sufficiently close in the canter is to put a handkerchief on the saddle, and note if the seat is firm enough to keep it there. IV IN THE SADDLE [Illustration: INCORRECT LEFT LEG AND HEEL] [Sidenote: Below the Waist] The first impulse of a novice is to grasp the horse with her left heel, while the leg is bent back from the knee so that it almost reaches his flank. Instead of this, the leg from the knee, which should not be more than half an inch below the pommel, must hang naturally in a perpendicular line, and the foot parallel with the horse, the heel being held away from his side and slightly depressed, the ball of the foot resting on the stirrup. This alters the grip entirely, and gives the greatest possible purchase, with the knee firmly in the angle between the pommel and the saddle flap, the thigh close to the saddle above, and the inside of the calf below, where one should be able to hold a piece of paper without having it fall out while trotting. The left foot will, of necessity, remain quiet--a most desirable point often neglected. [Illustration: CORRECT LEFT LEG AND HEEL] Now for the right leg. The first direction usually given is to grasp the pommel with it. That is all very well, but it leads to a grievous error. In the endeavor to obey the order, the right knee is pressed hard to the left--against the pommel, it is true, but in such a manner that there is considerable space between the leg and the saddle, extending from the knee half-way up the thigh. Thus the rider rises, owing to her grip being too high, so that a person on the right can often see the pommel beneath her. [Illustration: INCORRECT RIGHT THIGH AND KNEE] The first thing to do is to sit well back on the saddle, with the shoulders square to the front, and press down from the hip to the knee until as close to the saddle as possible. Then, when sure that the knee is down, taking care that it does not leave the saddle in the slightest degree, grasp the pommel. It is from this knee that one must rise, and the most essential point is to have it absolutely firm, with a secure hold on as extended a surface as possible. From the knee the leg hangs straight, kept close to the horse, with the toe depressed just enough to avoid breaking the line of the skirt. It is seldom realized that the right leg below the knee should be held as firmly against the horse as the left, but such is the case. [Illustration: CORRECT RIGHT THIGH AND KNEE] [Sidenote: Above the Waist] The body should be held erect at all times, the back straight while rising, instead of appearing to collapse with each movement, or rising from right to left with a churning motion instead of straight up and down; shoulders should be level--the right one is inclined to be higher than the left, as well as farther forward--well back and equidistant from the horse's ears, chest expanded, and chin held near the neck, as nothing is more unsightly than a protruding chin. The arms should fall naturally at the sides, bending inward from the elbow, but on no account to such an extent as to cause the elbows to leave the sides or form acute angles. All stiffness should be avoided. Some difficulty may be experienced at first, though, in attempting to relax the muscles above the waist while keeping the lower ones firm. A little practice will accomplish this, and, as a stiff carriage is most frequently the result of self-consciousness, it will be desirable to practise where there are no spectators. As the woman becomes more accustomed to riding she will lose some of her rigidity; but she must not go to the other extreme and be limp or careless in her way of holding herself. A woman's body should be at right angles to her horse's back, neither inclining backwards nor giving evidence of a tendency to stoop. Her anxiety to comply with these directions may render her conscious and awkward for a while; but if she will persevere, bearing them all in mind, they will become as second nature, and she will follow them naturally and gracefully. [Sidenote: Hands and Wrists] The hands should be held about two thirds of the way back between the right knee and hip, and as low as possible. They should be perfectly steady, and in rising never communicate the motion of the body to the horse's mouth. If the right knee is used to rise from, the seat will not need to be steadied by the reins. In the canter, however, the hands, as well as the body above the waist, should sway slightly with the horse's stride, but not more than is necessary; for that, and rising too high in the trot, give an appearance of exertion not compatible with grace. [Illustration: CORRECT KNUCKLES, SIDE VIEW] [Illustration: INCORRECT POSITION OF HANDS] The wrists should be bent so that the knuckles point straight ahead with the thumbs up, thus giving the horse's mouth play from the wrist, instead of, as is often the case, from the shoulder, the former admitting of much greater delicacy of handling, and the give-and-take movement being not so easily observed. Most teachers instruct a pupil to keep her finger-nails down, but this also necessitates all movement coming from the shoulder, or else sticking out the elbows. [Illustration: HANDS IN GOOD FORM, FRONT VIEW] [Sidenote: Reins] Many hold their reins in the left hand, allowing the right to hang at the side. This does not look well, and in case of an emergency, such as stumbling, the hand being so far from the reins precludes the possibility of rendering the quick assistance required. The reins should be held in the left hand, but the right should be on them, lightly feeling the horse's mouth, thereby anticipating his movements. The left snaffle-rein should go outside of the little finger, the left curb between the little and third fingers, the right curb between the third and middle fingers, and the right snaffle between the middle and first fingers. They must all be brought through the hand, over the second joint of the first finger, where they must lie flat and in order, held there by the thumb. The third finger of the right hand should rest on the right snaffle, leaving the first and second free to use the curb if required, thus giving equal bearing on all four reins. [Illustration: SNAFFLE OUTSIDE, CURB INSIDE, FRONT VIEW] If the use of the curb alone is wanted, the third finger of the right should release the right snaffle, the first and second retaining their hold on the curb, and the desired result will be produced. [Illustration: SNAFFLE OUTSIDE, CURB INSIDE, SIDE VIEW] If only the snaffle is desired, it may be brought to bear more strongly by keeping hold of the right rein with the third finger of the right hand, and reaching over on the left snaffle with the first finger. When this method is pursued there is no necessity for shifting the reins or hauling at them, and constantly changing their position and length. When a rein has slipped through the fingers of the left hand, instead of pushing it back from in front it should be pulled to the proper length from back of the left hand. [Illustration: REINS IN TWO HANDS, SNAFFLE OUTSIDE, CURB INSIDE] It is quite correct, though inconvenient, to hold the reins in both hands; but the hands should be held close together, with the thumbs up, and always on the reins to prevent slipping. The little fingers then separate the reins, the left snaffle being outside of the left little finger, the left curb between the little and third fingers, with the reins drawn over the first finger; the right snaffle outside of the right little finger, the right curb between the little and third fingers, and these also drawn over the first finger, in both instances held by the thumbs. In this way the right reins may quickly be placed in the left hand by inserting the middle finger of the left hand between them without displacing the others. Sometimes the ends of the left reins are passed over the first finger of the right hand as well as of the left one, and carried on past the little finger, the same being done to the right reins, thus giving additional purchase should the horse pull. [Illustration: POSITION OF REINS AND HANDS IN JUMPING, CURB OUTSIDE, SNAFFLE INSIDE] It is well to know several ways of holding the reins, and to practise them all. For instance, the positions of the snaffle and curb may be reversed; indeed, many expert riders always hold their reins with the curb outside and the snaffle inside, especially in jumping, where the curb is not used, and therefore requires a less prominent place in the hand. [Illustration: REINS IN TWO HANDS, CURB OUTSIDE, SNAFFLE INSIDE, SIDE VIEW] Another position of the reins is to have the middle finger of the left hand separate the snaffle and the little finger the curb, both right reins being above the left ones. However, unless a horse is bridle-wise this plan is not a convenient one, because the right and left reins alternate. A horse so trained may be guided by a turn of the wrist. To turn him to the left the hand should be moved in that direction, pressing the right reins against his neck, and to go to the right the hand should be carried to that side, the thumb turned downward, thus pressing the left reins against the horse's neck. V EMERGENCIES Although she may ride in good form, and, when her horse goes quietly, feel at home in the saddle, no woman can be considered proficient until she is prepared for any emergency, and knows how to meet it. [Sidenote: Eagerness to Start] Many horses show restlessness while being mounted, some carrying it to such an extent as to back and rear or swerve most unpleasantly. The groom at his head should hold him lightly but firmly by the snaffle, or, better still, the cheeks of the bridle; not lugging or jerking at him, but endeavoring to soothe him. If the horse swerves from her, he should be made to stand against a wall. The woman must get settled in the saddle as expeditiously as she can, not taking any unnecessary time in the arrangement of her skirt, which might augment the animal's uneasiness. Once mounted she must walk the horse quietly for a few minutes, using the snaffle only, as his restlessness may have come from expecting the spur on starting, as is customary with the horses of those who care for display rather than good manners. Before long she should dismount, and, at a different place, repeat the lesson without fighting him, even should he fail to show much progress at first. If he rears, the attendant should let go of his head until he comes down; then, before starting, try to make him stand a few moments. Each time the rider mounts she should increase the period of his standing, doing it firmly while talking to him, but without force or harshness, and presently he will obey as a matter of course and without an idea of resistance. [Sidenote: Shyers] The most common fault of a horse is shying, and though no one who has a secure seat should be inconvenienced thereby, its treatment needs some discrimination. Shying often arises from defective vision. If, however, the animal's eyes are in good condition, it may come from timidity, but in either case the horse should be soothed and coaxed up to the object of his aversion and shown its harmlessness. If it is merely a trick, then playing with his mouth and speaking in a warning tone when approaching anything likely to attract his notice will usually make him go straight. As a rule the whip should not be used, because the horse may learn to associate a blow with the object he has shied at, and the next time he sees it is likely to bolt in order to avoid the impending chastisement--thus going from bad to worse. [Sidenote: Stumblers] For the same reason, I object to a horse being punished for stumbling. Disagreeable as it is, the fault usually comes from defective muscular action or conformation, or from not being kept collected by his rider. It is not fair to punish the horse for these causes. The thing to do is to sit well back and give the reins a sharp pull to bring his head up, and then keep him going up to the bit, for if the rider is careless the horse will follow her example. [Illustration: HANDS AND SEAT IN REARING] [Sidenote: Rearers] A rearing horse is not fit for a woman to ride. If she finds herself on one which attempts it, she must throw her weight forward and a little to the right, because she can lean farther forward on this than on the left side, to help the horse preserve his balance, as well as to prevent being struck by his head. If necessary she can clutch his mane, but on no account must she touch his mouth in the slightest degree. As he comes down, a vigorous kick with the heel, a shake of the snaffle, and a harsh exclamation may send him along. I cannot advocate a woman's striking him, for if he has a temper, it may arouse it to such an extent that he will throw himself back. [Sidenote: Plungers] Those with a strong seat have no reason to fear a horse that plunges, if it does not develop into rearing or bucking. They should sit close and urge the horse to a faster pace, as it stands to reason that if he is kept going briskly he cannot so easily begin his antics as he could at a slower gait. [Sidenote: Buckers] A woman is seldom if ever required to ride a horse which bucks, and if he is known to do it viciously she had better not try any experiments with him, as he will surely exhaust her in a fight. By bucking I do not mean the mild form of that vice which is usually found under that name in the East. Here an animal that plunges persistently and comes down hard is said to buck; while if his head is lowered, that settles the question in the minds of those ignorant of what a real bucking horse is capable. In encountering the Eastern variety of this species, the woman must elevate the horse's head, sit well back, and firmly too, for even the mild form of bucking is not easy to sustain undisturbed. The genuine article, the real Western bucker, is quite another matter. Newspapers have published instances of women who have managed to stay on one through all his various and blood-stirring antics; but such cases are in fact unknown outside of Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, and there the animals have been taught to perform to order. When the bronco bucks, he gives no preliminary warning by harmless plunging; he simply throws his head down between his knees, humps his back like a cat, and proceeds to business. He jumps into the air, coming down to one side of where he started, with all four feet bunched and legs stiffened, only to bound into space again. An occasional squeal adds to the general hilarity of the scene, and the alacrity with which that meek-looking mustang can land and go into the air again would astonish one not accustomed to the sight. [Sidenote: Pullers] In riding a puller, his head must be kept in a correct position, neither low nor high, by lightly feeling his mouth until he gives to the motion. Should he have his head up and nose out, elevating the hands and drawing the snaffle across the bars sometimes causes the bit to bear in such a manner that the horse will drop his nose, and at that moment an effort must be made to keep it there. This method is exceptional, however, and should be resorted to only when other means fail, and the horse's head is so high, with the nose protruding, that the bit affords no control. Ordinarily, the hands should be low, one on each side of the withers, and quietly feeling the snaffle until he obeys its signal. If he pulls with his head down, almost between his knees, the curb must not be touched, but the snaffle should be felt and the hands held higher than usual and a little farther forward, playing with his mouth. This may make him raise his head; but if not, then several determined pulls, yielding the hand between them, given without temper and with a few soothing words, may stop him. If he has the bit between his teeth, quick give-and-take movements will probably surprise him into releasing it. It is useless for a woman to try to subdue him by force. It is well to have a horse's teeth examined for pulling, as one which has become displaced or sensitive causes excessive pain, and often results in this habit. When a horse shows a tendency to kick, by putting his ears back or a peculiar wriggle of the body, his head must instantly be pulled up and kept there, for in that position he will not attempt it. [Sidenote: Runaways] A runaway nearly always frightens a woman so that she loses her head. Composure will best enable her to escape without accident. As the horse starts she must keep her heel well away from his side and her hands down, and instantly begin sawing his mouth with the reins; then a succession of sharp jerks and pulls should be resorted to--never a dead pull--and possibly he may be brought down. Once well in his stride, no woman can stop a horse. She must then be governed by circumstances, and, if in a crowd or park, try to keep him clear of all objects, and not exhaust herself and excite the horse by screaming. Some one will try to catch him; and as a terrific jerk will be the result, she must brace herself for it. If the horse runs where there is open country, and she is sure his running is prompted by vice, not fright, she should urge him on when he tires and keep him going up-hill or over heavy ground if possible, using the whip freely, and not permit him to stop until he is completely done. There are some good riders who advise pulling a horse into a fence to stop him, but there is always a chance of his attempting to jump it, while, as the rider tries to prevent this, the horse may be thrown out of his balance or stride and fall over the fence. If he is driven at a high wall or other insurmountable obstruction the horse will stop so suddenly that the rider is likely to be precipitated over the animal's head, even if she have a good seat. Again, the horse may miscalculate the distance and run into the object, perhaps seriously hurting himself and his rider. If this method is to be employed, a grassy or sandy embankment should be chosen, if possible, as there will then be fewer chances of injury. Others believe in throwing the horse, which may be done by letting him have his head for a few strides, then suddenly giving a violent tug at the reins. If he can thus be made to cross his legs, he will go down. Another way is for a woman to put all her strength into pulling one rein, and if she can use enough force he may be twisted so that he will lose his balance and fall. Then the danger is that a woman will not get clear of him before he regains his footing and starts off, in which case she might better have remained on his back than risk being dragged at his heels. If some one else's horse is running instead of the one she is on, and it is coming towards her, a woman should instantly, but quietly, wheel her horse, and keep him as much to one side of the road as possible; and if she is sure of her control over him, a brisk canter will be the safest gait. Thus, if the runaway strikes her horse, it will not be with the same force as it would had they met from opposite directions. Besides, it is almost impossible to tell which way a frightened horse may turn, and in endeavoring to avoid him, if they are facing, a collision may result. If a horse falls, from crossing his legs for instance, to keep hold of the reins must be the first thought, and then to get clear of him as quickly as possible and out of his way if he seems likely to roll. If the rider retains her hold on the reins, he cannot kick her, as his head will be towards her; nor can he get away, leaving her to walk home. [Sidenote: Punishment] Punishment of a horse should never be begun without the certainty that what has given displeasure is really his fault, wilfully committed. Even then a battle should always be avoided, if possible, for it is better to spend a half-hour, or even much more, gently but firmly urging a horse to obedience than to fight him. It sometimes drives him to such a state of excitement and temper that the effects of it will be perceptible for days, sometimes weeks, in a nervous, highly strung animal, and he will, perhaps, prepare for a combat whenever the same circumstances again arise. That which comes from misconception on the part of the horse is often treated as though it were vice, and such unjust chastisement, without accomplishing its object, bewilders and frightens the unfortunate victim. Therefore one should know positively that it is obstinacy or vice, not dulness or timidity, which has made the horse apparently resist his rider's authority. A horse with much temper may only be made worse by the punishment he undoubtedly deserves; therefore, forbearance and ingenuity should be exercised to bring him into submission. Discipline must be administered at the time of insubordination, or it loses its meaning to the horse. It is folly to postpone punishing him, for then he fails to connect it with the act of resistance which has provoked it. Another great mistake, and one to be strongly censured, is that of venting one's impatience or temper on the poor brute, which may be doing its best to understand the clumsy and imperfect commands of a cruel taskmaster. Having calmly decided that the horse requires punishment, it should be given in a firm and temperate manner, no more severity being employed than is necessary. However, the whip should fall with force and decision, or it is worse than useless; and if a moderate amount of whipping or spurring does not result in victory, it must be increased, as, once begun, the fight must end in the conquest of the animal, or the woman on his back will thenceforth be unable to control him. It must be done dispassionately and continuously, and no time allowed him to become more obstinate by a cessation of hostilities when he might be about to give in. At the first sign of yielding, he should be encouraged, and the punishment cease, until he has had an opportunity to do what is desired of him. While using the whip, the right hand should never be on the reins, as that necessitates jerking the horse's mouth and hitting from the wrist, a weak and ineffectual method. The blow should fall well back of the saddle and with the force given by the full swing of the arm. A woman usually expends her energy in hitting the saddle-flap, making some noise, to be sure, but not producing the desired effect. If these suggestions are followed, there will be comparatively little trouble in learning to properly handle a horse that he may be kept up to the mark. Until having laid a solid foundation for one's self, it is useless to hope to obtain the best results from the horse, which will surely appreciate and take advantage of any incompetency on the part of the rider. Even if not aspiring to more than ordinary park riding, attention to these hints will add so materially to the comfort and safety of both horse and woman that it will be a subject of wonder to the latter how she could have found the wrong way pleasant enough to admit of any hesitation in giving the correct one at least a fair trial. VI CHOOSING A MOUNT Much of a woman's comfort will depend on the horse she chooses. She is too often inclined to procure a showy one, which pleases the eye, even though she cannot control his antics, rather than a trustworthy and less conspicuous mount. [Sidenote: An Adviser] In choosing a horse, she should not rely exclusively on her own judgment. Few women are aware of the artifices resorted to by dishonest dealers to render presentable some animal which in its natural condition she would at once reject; therefore she should enlist the services of some man in whose knowledge of horse-flesh she has reason to place confidence, and of whose disinterestedness she is certain. When a horse is found which appears to fulfil her requirements, she should insist upon a trial of him herself; for, although he may go well and comfortably with her friend, a woman might not possess the qualities which had assured success in the former trial by the man. The horse would recognize the difference, take advantage of her inexperience or lack of skill, and act as he would not think of doing under an expert. Furthermore, gaits which would suit a man are often too hard for a woman, and a horse which he might think merely went well up to the bit would to her weaker arms seem a puller. After being approved of by her friend, the woman should try the animal herself, outside, alone and in company. If he proves satisfactory, she should endeavor to have him in her stable for a few days, and during that time to have him examined by a veterinary surgeon, obtaining his certificate of the horse's soundness. An animal absolutely sound and without blemish is a rare sight; but there are many defects which do not lessen the horse's practical value, although their presence lower his price, and may enable her to secure something desirable which would otherwise have been beyond her means. Such a horse should be accepted only after a thorough examination by the veterinary, and upon his advice. It is well to avoid purchasing a horse from a friend, unless one is perfectly familiar with the animal, as such transactions frequently lead to strained relations, each thinking bitterly of the other. Some, having pronounced their horse sound, would take offence should a veterinary be called; while if he were not consulted the horse might go wrong, and the purchaser would perhaps think the former owner had disposed of him with that expectation, or at least knowing the probability of it, yet their social relations would prevent accusation or explanation. Furthermore, a difference of opinion as to the price is awkward, and altogether it requires more tact, discretion, and liberality than most people possess to make a satisfactory horse-trade with a friend. Having decided as to whose advice she will take, a woman should not be influenced by the comments and criticisms of others. If she waits until all her friends approve of her choice she will never buy a horse. However, by listening to what the best informed of them say, she may gain much instruction and knowledge. As a woman may wish to know what points are desirable in a horse, and what to look for, a general idea of this may be welcome. It is only by comparison that she will learn to distinguish whether certain parts are long or short, normal or excessive, therefore she should critically notice horses at every opportunity, and observe in what they differ from one another. [Sidenote: Park Hack] If a woman could have a Park hack made to order, the following points would be the most prominent: A horse should always be up to more weight than he will have to carry; and as, in the Park, appearances are of importance, a woman should buy a horse on which she will look well. Much will depend upon her mount being of an appropriate size and build. A woman of medium size will look her best on a horse of about 15.2. No exact height can be fixed upon, as the present system of measurement is so incomplete. [Sidenote: Measurement] A horse standing 15.2 at the withers, where it is always measured, may be much higher there than anywhere else, his quarters being disproportionately low. On the other hand, the withers might be low and the rump high, giving the strength, power, and stride to a horse of 15 hands which might be expected in one of several inches higher. In races and shows it enables low-withered horses to run and compete against those which, although high at the withers, have not the posterior conformation to justify their being in the same class. The more common-sense and accurate method of measurement, if it would only be generally adopted, is to take the height at the withers and also at the rump, average it, and call that the size of the horse. For instance, a horse 15.3 at the withers and 15.2 at the rump should be registered as measuring 15.2-1/2. The fashionably bred trotting horse often measures higher at the rump than at the withers, while the properly proportioned saddle horse should measure as high, or highest, at the withers. In a saddle horse there are other points than height to be considered. If the woman is stout, the horse should be of substantial build, very compact, and like a cob. If she is slight, she will look best on a horse of light build and possessed of quality. In my opinion, three quarters, or a trifle more, thoroughbred blood makes the pleasantest mount for a woman. Five to seven is a good age at which to buy a horse, as he will then have been through the early ailments of young horses and be just entering his prime. [Sidenote: Conformation] As to his points, his head should be small and clear-cut, with delicately pointed ears, prominent eyes, a fine muzzle, full nostrils, clean-cut angle at the throttle, and the head carried somewhat less than vertical to the ground; the crest curved, and the neck thin and supple, but muscular and well set on to broad shoulders. These should be long and oblique, thus reducing the concussion and making the horse easier to ride as well as safer, because his forelegs are proportionately advanced, giving less weight in front of them to cause a fall should he trip. The true arms (commonly called lower bones of the shoulders), extend from the points of the shoulders to the elbows, and should be short, or the forelegs will be placed too far back. The forearms, extending from the elbows to the knees, should be large and muscular and rather long. Broad, flat knees are indicative of strength, and they should have considerably more width than the forearms or the shanks. Below the knees and to the fetlocks the legs should be rather short, flat, deep, and fine, no swelling to prevent one from feeling distinctly, especially near the fetlocks, the tendons and ligaments quite separate from the shanks or cannons and the splint-bones. The fetlock-joints much developed give evidence of overwork, therefore any undue prominence is not desirable. Long, slanting pasterns give elasticity to a horse's gait and prevent disagreeable concussion; but if the length is excessive, there will be too much strain on the back tendons. The fetlocks reach to the coronet, below which are the feet, which must be of good shape and absolutely sound. The thorax must be either broad or deep and full, so that the lungs and heart may have plenty of room to expand. It should be well supplied with muscle where the forelegs are joined to it, and these should be straight, with the feet pointing straight ahead. The toe should be under the point of the shoulder. High withers are preferred to low ones, but if they are too high they place a side-saddle at an uncomfortable angle, which needs an objectionable amount of padding at the back to rectify the fault. The back should not sink perceptibly, but it may be somewhat longer in a woman's horse than in a man's, as her saddle occupies so much more space; but the ribs should be long in front and short back of the girth, running well up to the hips. This conformation will prevent the saddle from working forward; a tendency to slip back may be checked by using a breast-plate. A horse should be broad across the loins; if these are strong, and the horse well ribbed up, there will be no unsightly sinking of the flanks even in front of hips that are broad, as they should be. The thighs extend from the lower part of the haunches or hips to the stifle-joints, and these and the haunches are covered with powerful muscles, which, when well developed, form strong quarters. A well-placed tail, carried at a correct angle, adds greatly to a horse's appearance. From the stifles to the hocks are found the lower thighs, and these should be long and strong. The hocks should be prominent, clearly defined, and free from all puffiness or swelling. From the hocks to the fetlocks the leg should descend perpendicularly, neither bent under him nor back of him. The same rule applies to these fetlocks as to the fore ones; and the same may be said of the feet, but the latter are too important to dismiss without further comment. The hoofs when on the ground should be at an angle of about forty-five degrees from the toe to the coronet. Any unevenness or protrusions on the wall of the hoofs, or a sinking-in at the quarters, should be viewed with suspicion. Breadth is desirable at the heels, and the bars should not be cut away. The frog should be nearly on a level with the shoes, and the soles should be slightly concave. [Sidenote: Hunter] If a hunter is to be chosen, looks are not of so much importance, although I like him to be almost if not quite thoroughbred. However, if the animal can gallop and jump, has good staying qualities and a strong constitution, a kind disposition and a light mouth, good manners and plenty of power, he should not be discarded because he lacks beauty. A large head, ewe neck, ragged hips, rat-tail, poor coat, and other such ungainly points, are not bad enough to condemn him if he has the other qualities I have mentioned; and often a peculiarly shaped animal will out-jump a horse of the most correct conformation. [Sidenote: Gait and Manners] After carefully looking over the horse, a woman should have some one trot and canter him, to see that his action is what she wants. A Park hack should have free, easy gaits, with good knee and hock action, and travel evenly and without brushing, cutting, interfering, dishing, or showing any such irregularities of gait. She should watch him from in front, from behind, and at the sides; and, after his trial by a man, the woman should ride him, and find out what his faults are under the saddle. His manners should be perfect: no sign of bolting, or rearing, or other vices; nor should he be a star-gazer, nor lug on the bit, as a good mouth is very essential to her comfort. However, if he is green--that is, unaccustomed to his surroundings and to being ridden--he should not be rejected without a fair trial, to ascertain whether his cramped gait, shying, and other such failings are the result of inexperience under the saddle, or are established traits. The most desirable points are a light but not over-sensitive mouth, even gait, with swinging (not jerky or shuffling) action, a kind disposition--with which quality considerable friskiness need not condemn him--good manners, and freedom from tricks and vices. He should be practically sound and of correct conformation--a more valuable attribute for safety and ease than high action. VII DRESS Simplicity is the rule for the habit. It should be of Thibet cloth--black, dark brown, or blue for winter, tan or a medium shade of gray for summer. All conspicuous colors and materials are to be avoided. It is well to have the skirt made of a heavy-weight cloth, which will help to make it set properly without the assistance of straps; while the bodice may be of a medium weight of the same cloth, that it may fit better and be less bulky. For very warm weather in the country a habit made of heavy gingham or white duck is cool and comfortable, and will wash. The skirt and bodice may be of the same material, or a silk or cheviot shirt and leather belt may be worn with the skirt. A straw sailor-hat completes this convenient innovation, but it should be reserved for use out of town. [Sidenote: Skirt] The skirt should reach only far enough to cover the left foot, and be too narrow to admit of any flowing folds. Fashion and safety both demand this. A skittish horse is often frightened by a loose skirt flapping at his side. [Sidenote: Safety Skirt] I should be very glad to see the safety skirt, which is worn in the hunting-field, adopted in general riding. Its advantages are manifold. Although it appears the same, less cloth is used, therefore it is cooler; there is nothing between the pommel and the breeches, thus improving the hold, and in case of accident it is impossible to be dragged. There are several kinds in use, but the less complicated the more desirable it is. The simplest is made like any other skirt, except that where the pommels come there is a large piece of the cloth cut out, extending in a circle at the top, and then straight down, at both sides, so that there is no cloth near the pommels or where it could catch in case of a fall. This leaves enough to extend under both legs when in the saddle, and looks like an ordinary one. Under the right knee, where the skirt is rounded out, a small strip of cloth buttons from this point on to the piece which is under the leg; this and an elastic strap on the foot keep it in place; but neither is strong enough to stand any strain, therefore would not be dangerous in a fall. Another pattern has eyelet holes made on each side from where the cloth has been taken, and round silk elastic laced through them, thus preventing the possibility of disarrangement. Both of these skirts loop at the back, and can be kept from appearing unlike others if the wearer will immediately fasten them on dismounting. An ordinary skirt may be made safer by having no hem. [Sidenote: Divided Skirt] We hear a great deal now of the divided skirt, and the advisability of women riding astride. The theory is good, as having a leg each side of the animal gives much greater control over his movements. For most women, however, it is impracticable, since they cannot sit down in the saddle and grip with their knees as they should, owing to the fact that their thighs are rounded, instead of flat like a man's. It might be possible for a lean and muscular woman to acquire a secure seat, but not for the average one. Being short is another drawback to a strong seat against which most of them would have to contend. This is particularly trying, as so much of her weight is above the waist, making it difficult to ride from balance, which might otherwise replace the deficient leverage of the short thigh. Again, if on a large or broad horse, the constant strain on the muscles necessary when astride him must be injurious. Aside from any physical reasons, the position for a woman is, in my opinion, most ungraceful and undignified, while few of them possess the strength to profit by the changed seat in forcing the horse up to his bridle or keeping him collected; and I cannot blame those who think it open to the charge of impropriety. [Sidenote: Bodice] The bodice should be single-breasted, long over the hips, reaching almost to the saddle in the back, and cut away in front to show a waistcoat, the upper edge of which makes a finish between the collar and lapels of the waist and the white collar and Ascot or four-in-hand. The waistcoat gives more of an opportunity for the exercise of individual taste. The most desirable, I think, has a white background, on which is a black, brown, blue, or red check. It may be all tan or a hunting pink, plain, figured, or striped, so long as too many colors are not combined; but, as a rule, something quiet and simple will be the most desirable. In summer a piqué waistcoat is worn, or something similar, that is light, cool, and will wash. A black or white cravat always looks well, or one which, without being glaring, harmonizes with the waistcoat. [Sidenote: Waistcoat] Sense, health, and comfort all demand that the waist shall not be laced to the painful extent endured by many foolish and vain women. They would let out an inch or two if they could realize that the blood is forced from their waists to their faces, making them scarlet at any exertion, while they have difficulty in conversing except in gasps, and are compelled to walk their horses at frequent intervals to catch their breath. [Sidenote: Corsets] It is so invigorating to feel the lungs expanded by a long, deep breath, and the blood, quickened by the motion of the horse, coursing unrestrained through all the veins, while the muscles of the back and abdomen are allowed full play, that those who go along panting and aching lose half the beneficial effects of riding, and more pleasure than they can possibly derive from trying to make people believe that they have small waists. The corsets are of great importance and must be of good quality and not very stiff, small bones being used instead of large ones or steels. They must be short in front and over the hips, that the movements may not be unnecessarily restricted, or the skin become raw from rubbing against the ends of the bones. A plain corset-cover should be worn over them, as the lining of the habit-waist sometimes discolors the corsets if this precaution is not taken. [Sidenote: Boots, Breeches, Tights] Considerable latitude is permitted a woman in the choice of what she shall wear under her skirt. Boots and breeches are considered better form than shoes and trousers; but there is no reason why the latter should not be used, especially if the shoes lace. Boots and tights, however, are the most comfortable of all. Breeches are made of stockinette, re-enforced with chamois skin, and reach half-way down the calf, where they should button close to the leg--the buttons being on the left side of each leg, that the right may not be bruised by the buttons pressing against the saddle. Chamois skin is sometimes used to make breeches, but it is not very satisfactory. At first they are soft and pliable, but after being worn a few times they become stiff and unyielding, and rain will render them hard as boards. Tan box-cloth gaiters, extending from the instep almost to the knee, are sometimes worn with breeches and shoes. They are made exactly like those for men, and take the place of boots. Boots may be of calf-skin or patent leather, with wrinkled or stiff legs, the tops reaching a few inches above the bottom of the breeches. In warm weather tan boots are often worn; but, of whatever variety they may be, they should always be large, with broad, thick soles and low, square heels. Trousers are of the same material as the skirt, and are also re-enforced. Elastic bands passing under the shoes keep the trousers down. Tights should be of the color of the habit, and fit smoothly without being stretched. They come in different weights, and either silk, cotton, or wool may be worn. They should have feet woven on them, thus doing away with the necessity for all underclothing below the waist. When breeches or trousers are worn, tights may advantageously be substituted for the other usual garments worn under such conditions. If tights are not worn, whatever replaces them should fit snugly and be without starch or frills. The stockings should be kept up from the waist, as garters chafe the knee when it presses the pommel, and often interfere with the circulation. Some women wear union garments, which are practically tights extending from the neck to the feet, taking the place of shirts. However, when a shirt is worn it will be most comfortable if of a light-weight wool. This absorbs the perspiration, and is therefore pleasanter to wear than silk, and more likely to protect from a cold. Outside of this should be the corset. When it is cold a chamois-skin waist with long sleeves should be worn under the bodice, as this is much better than a fur cape, which is often used, and which confines the arms. A covert coat is the most convenient, but the former is more readily obtained. A wool shirt, short corsets, plain corset-cover, and tights are all the underclothing needed for riding. Some women wear a linen shirt, with collar and cuffs attached, like a man's, except that it is narrowed at the waist. With this the corset-cover is not needed. [Sidenote: Collars and Cuffs] Separate collars and cuffs are more generally used, and the scarf should be pinned to the collar at the back, as these have a way of parting company that is most untidy. To make it more certain, a clasp or pin such as men use to hold a four-in-hand tie in place should fasten the ends of the scarf to the shirt-front or corset-cover, thus securing it against slipping. The cuffs should not be pinned to the sleeve, as the lining of the coat will be torn, and the pin will catch on the habit and stretch and roughen it in places. A small elastic band put over a button at the wrist of the sleeve, and attached to the cuff-button, will answer every purpose. [Sidenote: Gloves] Gauntlets should be discarded, and gloves worn large enough to admit of the muscles of the hand being used freely. Dogskin of a reddish shade of tan is the best material for gloves. The stitching is such as to form slight ridges of the glove itself on the back of the hand, the red stitches being scarcely perceptible at a little distance. It is difficult to find women's gloves broad enough for comfort in riding, and it is a good plan to buy boys' gloves, which give the desired freedom. They have only one button, an advantage over women's, which have two or three that are in the way under the cuff. Should the wrists need more protection from the cold, wristlets may be worn, as they take up but little room. For cold weather, gloves come in a softer kid, like chevrette, and have a fleecy lining, very warm, but too soft and light to make the gloves clumsy. Flowers and jewelry are decidedly out of place on horseback, and a handkerchief should never be thrust into the front of the bodice. It should be put in the slit on the off saddle-flap, or in the pocket at the left side of the skirt where it opens. [Sidenote: Hair and Hat] The hair should be firmly coiled or braided on the neck, and not worn on top of the head. A top hat is correct, especially on formal occasions, but it should not be allowed to slip to the back of the head. However, I prefer usually a derby, as being more comfortable and looking more business-like. It should be kept on by an elastic which fastens under the hair. Pins through the crown are an uncalled-for disfigurement, and a hat may be made just as secure without them. In fact, they will be of but little use if the hair is not done high. A large hair-pin on each side should pin the hair over the elastic; and if the wind or anything else causes the hat to become displaced, it will not come off entirely, forcing some one to dismount and restore it to the woman, who cannot get it alone. Hair-pins should be long and bent half-way up each prong, so that they will not easily slip out. [Sidenote: Veil] [Sidenote: Whip or Crop] When a veil is worn, it should be of black net or gauze, never white or figured, and the ends should be neatly pinned out of sight, instead of being allowed to float out behind, like smoke from a steam-engine. If a whip is carried for use, it should be a substantial stiff one, held point down, not a flimsy thing that a sound blow will break, nor should it be made absurd by a bow or tassel being tied to it. If for style, then a crop is the correct thing, with the lash-end held up. The handle should be of horn, rather than silver or gold, and the stick quite heavy and somewhat flexible. Short bamboo sticks are in favor just now, and are often tipped with gold, and have a gold band a few inches from the end where it is held. [Illustration: CROP] [Sidenote: Spur] I do not approve of a spur for women, as it is difficult to use it just right, and its unintentional application often has disastrous results, while should she be dragged by the foot, it will keep hitting the horse, urging him faster and faster. In mounting, the spur sometimes strikes the horse, making him shy just as the rider expects to reach the saddle, and a nasty fall is the consequence. Where a man would use it advantageously, a woman cannot produce the same effect, having it only on one side. Moreover, a horse suitable for her to ride should not require more than her heel and her whip. [Illustration: A GOOD SPUR] Some horses are very cunning, and will shirk their work if they discover that there is no spur to urge them, but such may be taught that a whip in skilful hands is quite as effective. In a crowd a spur is of value, as it may be applied noiselessly, and without danger of startling other horses, as a whip will do. In leaping, a spur on one side of the horse and the whip on the other form a combination which will often compel him to jump when, from sulkiness or indolence, he has been refusing. It requires some practice, however, to use it in the right place and at the right moment; a woman's skirt has an unhappy faculty of intercepting the spur when it should strike him, and her heel of hitting the horse when it should leave him alone. For these reasons I am in favor of women riding without a spur when it is possible, for, although it looks well as a finish to a boot, its adoption by inexpert riders may lead to sad results. If a spur is to be worn, there are several kinds from which to choose. I prefer a box-spur with a rowel, such as men use, but having a guard, which prevents it from catching in the habit, and lessens the probabilities of its unintentionally punishing a horse. When it is applied with force, the rowel comes through the guard, which works on a spring, and upon releasing the pressure the guard again protects the sharp rowel. They may be of the kind that fit in a box which has been put in the heel of the boot, or they may have straps and buckle over the instep. VIII LEAPING [Sidenote: Requirements] When a woman has attained some degree of proficiency in the saddle, she will probably desire to perfect herself in riding by learning to leap. Her equestrian education cannot be considered complete without this, but she should not attempt it until she has learned thoroughly how to ride correctly on the road. A secure seat, light hands, a cool head, quick perception, judgment, and courage form a combination which will enable her in a short time to acquire skill in jumping. Few women possess all these qualities, but an effort should be made to obtain as many of them as possible before trying to jump. [Sidenote: In the Ring] The first lessons should be on a horse which has been well trained to this work and requires no assistance from his rider. He should inspire confidence, and jump easily and surely rather than brilliantly. I think it is well to begin in a school over bars, as there the rider is not under the necessity of choosing a good take-off or landing, and is thus free to give undivided attention to herself. [Sidenote: Approaching Jump] Three feet is high enough to put the bars at the start; or they may be even lower should the rider feel timid. As she approaches the jump she must sit firmly in the middle of the saddle (not hanging either to the right or to the left, thereby upsetting the horse's balance), and she must look straight at the obstacle, with her head up and her body thrown a trifle back. The reins should at first be held in both hands, for several reasons. It lessens the chances of sitting crooked, and it prevents throwing up the right arm as the horse jumps--a common and unsightly practice, calculated to frighten him and distract his attention from his work, and to jerk his mouth, while it has no redeeming features. In addition to this, when the horse lands, the reins are not so liable to slip through two hands as through one. Approaching the jump, the horse should break into a moderate canter, and the only rule his rider will be likely to remember at the first trial will be to "lean back as he jumps and give him his head." As she becomes accustomed to the action, her attention must be called to details. While nearing the jump, she must keep her hands low, and just feel her horse's mouth with the snaffle without interfering with it or shifting her hold on the reins. Quiet, steady hands are indispensable to success. [Illustration: TAKING OFF] [Sidenote: Taking off] [Sidenote: Landing] By watching his stride one can tell when he will take off. At that moment he will stretch out his neck; then she must, by instantly pushing them forward, let her hands yield to his mouth. This must be accurately calculated, for should the pressure on his mouth be varied too suddenly and at the wrong time, it would throw him out of his stride by letting go of his mouth when he needed steadying. Some advocate leaning forward before leaning back as the horse takes off, but the slight involuntary motion communicated to the body by thrusting the hands forward will be sufficient to precede the backward movement. Before he has finished his effort, she must lean back just enough (but no farther) to avoid being thrown forward by the action of his quarters or by the angle at which he comes down. Her left heel should not come in contact with him after he has taken off, although she may strike him with it to urge him on if he goes at the jump too slowly. Below the waist she must be firm and immovable; above, yielding and flexible. As the horse lands, she regains her upright position, and should be careful that he does not pull the reins through her fingers. Under all circumstances she must have too firm a hold on the reins to admit of such an occurrence. If the horse stumbles at the moment of landing, he needs the support of her hands; or should he bolt, it must not be necessary to pull in the slack rein before being able to check him. [Sidenote: Lifting] One of the most erroneous theories extant is that it is desirable to "lift" a horse at his fences. Doing so only necessitates carrying the weight of his rider's hands on his mouth, and risks pulling the horse into the jump, while he is hindered from stretching his neck, as he must to land safely and correctly. Hanging on to his mouth is often the cause of a horse's landing on all four feet at once, or dropping too close to the jump. The pull on the reins holds him back, thus inducing these bad habits, and will often make him refuse or dread to jump, knowing that it entails a sharp jerk on his sensitive mouth. To a casual or ignorant observer it sometimes looks as though a good rider were "lifting" his horse; but it only appears so because, knowing intuitively at just what instant his hands must yield, he so accurately gives to the animal's mouth that the action of the horse's mouth and the rider's hands is simultaneous. [Illustration: ABOUT TO LAND] [Sidenote: Out of Doors] After some practice in the ring, a woman may try jumping out-of-doors, for inside there is not a sufficient variety of obstacles; and she should then have a breast-plate attached to her saddle. By this time she should, in jumping, hold her reins in one hand, the snaffle inside, curb outside, and quite loose. As she goes towards a jump, her right hand should be placed in front of the left on the snaffle to steady the horse. In this way she can remove it without leaving an uneven pressure on the horse's mouth, as would be the case if, as is customary, her hand had rested on the two right reins, then been suddenly withdrawn in order to urge the horse with the whip, or to protect the face from overhanging branches. [Sidenote: Pilot] The most favorable conditions under which a woman may begin jumping in the country are when she can go across fields with a capable pilot to give her a lead over some easy timber or walls. She must never forget to see that the horse in front of her is well away from the fence before she jumps, or she will risk landing on top of him if he makes a mistake; or if he refuses, her horse, if too near, would be forced to do likewise. She should not allow herself to become dependent on the services of a pilot, or let her horse become accustomed to jumping only when he has a lead; therefore she must learn to choose a panel of the fence for herself. [Sidenote: Selecting a Panel] Supposing the fences to be moderate, she must decide, as she canters towards the first, where she will jump, and there are a number of considerations by which she must be governed. First, to find a panel which is low, for in riding across country it is wise to save one's mount, as all his strength may be needed at a big place later on. Then the take-off must be looked to, sound level turf being chosen if possible; and if the landing is plainly visible, so much the better. A moderately thick top rail is often safer to put a horse at than a very thin round one, which is liable to be a sapling, that will not break if a horse tries to crash through it, as he is sometimes tempted to do by its fragile appearance. It is well to send a horse at the middle of a panel; for, should he hit it, this, being the weakest spot, may break, while should he hit nearer the end, where it is strong, he may be thrown. Such details as these she will observe instinctively with a little practice. Having decided where she will jump, her horse's head must be pointed straight at the place, and her mind must not waver. If the rider is determined to go, and has no misgivings, the horse is sure to be inspired with the same confidence. Having once put him at a panel, she should avoid changing her mind without good reason, as her uncertainty will be imparted to him. A fence such as described is jumped just as are the bars in the ring; safely over it, the next obstacle must be examined. [Sidenote: Stone Wall] If it be a stone wall, it may often be taken in one of two places--either where it is high and even, or where it is lower and wide, because of the stones which have fallen from the top. In the first instance it should be jumped in a collected manner, but at a slower pace than the second requires. At the latter some speed is necessary, as the horse must jump wide enough to avoid the rolling stones on both sides. [Sidenote: In Hand] Few riders remember that it is as important to keep a horse collected when going fast as at any other time. When he is hurried along, no chance is given him to measure his stride or get his legs well under him, but he is nevertheless expected to take off correctly and clear the obstacle. A good rider will always have her horse well in hand, and never hustle him at his fences, even if she goes at them with considerable speed. [Sidenote: Trappy Ground and Drops] If the take-off looks treacherous, or is ploughed or muddy, the horse should be brought to it at a trot, well collected, and allowed to take his time at it. When the ground approaching the jump is uphill, or descending, the same tactics should be pursued, and unlimited rein given the horse. On encountering a drop on the far side of a fence or wall, a woman must lean back as far as possible, leaving the reins long, but ready to support the horse's head as he lands. At a trappy place, where, for instance, there might be a broken-down fence among some trees, overgrown with vines and bushes, the horse must be taken quietly and slowly and made to crawl through the gap. His rider will even then have enough trouble in keeping her feet clear of the vines, and in preventing the branches from hitting her face, which she could not do if a jump were made with a rush. If her horse carries his head high, she can probably pass where it has been without injury by leaning forward over his withers, to the right, and raising her right arm to ward off the branches with her whip or crop. [Sidenote: In-and-out] Sometimes she will not notice a limb or other obstruction until almost under it, when it will be necessary for her to lean back, resting her shoulders on the horse's quarters. Under these circumstances it is most important that her right arm should guard her eyes from pieces of bark or other falling particles. Where two fences are within a few feet of each other, forming an "in-and-out," the pace needs to be carefully regulated. If the horse goes very fast, he will jump so wide that he will land too close to the second fence to take off as he should. Therefore if he is rushing, his stride must be shortened and his hind-legs brought well under him. On the other hand, he must not go so slowly that all impetus for the second effort is lost, as he would then be likely to refuse. It is difficult to turn him in so short a space and get him into his stride before he is called upon to jump. At a ditch or stream considerable speed is needed to gain the momentum necessary to cover the distance, and the horse must have plenty of rein given him. [Sidenote: Picket and Slat Fences] A picket fence is usually regarded as a very formidable obstacle, but if negotiated properly it is no worse than others. It should be taken at a good rate of speed, for the danger is that the horse will get hung up on it and be cut with the points by not having enough impetus. It is not so dangerous to hit this fence in front, for it is frail and the top of the pickets will snap off at the binder if hit with force. A slat fence is more to be dreaded, on account of the ledge on the top of it formed by the binder. This should be taken with deliberation, as the thing to be guarded against is having the horse hit his knees on the ledge which protrudes a couple of inches beyond the fence. The lower slats give way easily if they are approached from the side where the posts are; if from the opposite direction, they are braced against the posts and offer great resistance. [Sidenote: Wire] Any fence that has wire on it should be avoided if possible, unless the horse has been trained to jump it. When it extends along the top of a fence, the horse should be made to jump a post, as it is not safe to count on his seeing the wire. If the fence is made of strands of wire, with only a binder of timber, it should be taken slowly, so that the horse will not attempt to crash through it, under the impression that it is a single bar. [Sidenote: Combined Obstacles] A stone wall having a rail on top must be taken in the horse's stride, for considerable swing is required, as there is width as well as height to clear. When a ditch is on the near side of a wall or fence, the horse should be allowed time to see it. When it is on the landing side, he should be sent at it fast enough to carry him safely over. Thus far I have been supposing that the horse has gone without a mistake. Under these circumstances he should not be struck--just to encourage him, as some maintain--or he will grow to dislike jumping if associated with a blow. No woman who rides much can expect to be always so perfectly mounted; therefore, a few suggestions as to what she should do in emergencies may be of practical value. [Sidenote: Refusing] [Sidenote: Timidity] The most common fault of the jumper is refusing, and it must be dealt with according to its cause. If it arises from weakness in the hocks, the horse hesitating to propel himself by them, or from weak knees, or corns that cause him to dread the concussion of landing, he should not be forced to jump--it is both cruel and unsafe. If he be sound and well, and the fence not beyond his capabilities, the rider must know whether the disinclination to jump comes from timidity or from temper. She will soon learn to distinguish between the two, but it is difficult to lay down any rule for recognizing the difference. If she thinks it is for the former reason, the cause may be that he was not in his stride when he should have taken off, and was allowed to sprawl as he cantered. She should take him back and keep him well collected, making him take short, quick strides in the canter, measuring the distance, and giving him his head when he should take off. If he seems inclined to swerve or hesitate, the whip, applied just when he should rise, will often prevent his stopping. When over, a caress and a word of praise will greatly encourage him. [Sidenote: Temper] Temper is a very different and a very difficult thing to manage. Coaxing and ingenuity may accomplish something; turning him short at another place will often surprise him into jumping before he realizes it. The human voice has great power over animals, and a few loud, sharp exclamations, with a quick use of the whip, may make him take off when otherwise he would have refused. A really obstinate horse, having made up his mind not to jump, needs such a thrashing as a woman is seldom able to give him. If she begins it, she must keep it up until she has conquered him, or he will try the same trick constantly. As a horse almost invariably turns to the left when he refuses, a sharp crack on the near shoulder, being unusual and unexpected, sometimes prevents his turning. When, in one way or another, he finally has been forced to yield, he should be rewarded by a few words of approval. At the next fence a firm hold, keeping his head straight and his legs well under him, will be of more service than a whip, unless he refuses again, when the lesson must be repeated. [Sidenote: Rider at Fault] At least half of the refusals are the fault of the rider, and it is most unjust to punish a horse at such times. Unfortunately, conceit is such a common failing that few of us are willing to acknowledge ourselves in the wrong, therefore the poor horse suffers for our error. The timid rider sends the horse at an obstacle in such a half-hearted way that he does not know whether he is expected to jump or not; or, feeling his rider waver, he imagines there must be unknown dangers connected with the place, and so hesitates to encounter them. One of a woman's frequent failings is shifting the reins as she nears a jump. This form of nervousness is very disconcerting to a horse, and takes his mind from the work in front of him. Lack of skill makes one lug at a horse's mouth just as he is getting ready to jump, thus throwing him out of his stride and frustrating his effort. After one or two refusals, a woman often puts her horse at the place in a mechanical way, fully expecting the animal to stop, and doing nothing to guard against such an occurrence. If she would instead then summon all her courage, and determine to go either over or through the fence, and ride at it with resolution, the horse would be infected with her spirit and probably clear the obstacle, as he would have done at first had his rider's heart then been in the right place. In such cases it does not seem fair to punish a horse for our own want of nerve. IX LEAPING--(_Continued_) [Sidenote: Rushers] On a horse which rushes when put at a jump, the use of the whip will only make matters worse. This habit of rushing comes most frequently from the horse having been frightened while being taught to jump, either by extreme harshness and punishment or from having hurt himself severely. Even if it comes from viciousness, quiet, kind treatment will do more to eradicate the tendency than coercive measures. Such a horse should be walked towards a fence until within half a dozen strides of it. This can best be achieved by not indicating that he will be expected to jump, but by approaching it as though by chance. Otherwise the restraint will make him the more unmanageable when he does start. He should be induced to stand a few moments, while his rider strokes him and talks to him in a soothing way. The snaffle should then be gradually and quietly shortened until there is a light but firm feeling on the reins, when a pressure of the leg (not of the heel, which might suggest a spur) will put him to a trot. If the hands be held low and steady and the voice be soft and pacifying, they will probably prevail upon him to trot all the way, although he may break into a canter a stride before the jump. When over it he should be gently, not sharply, pulled up, and coaxed to walk again, or, better still, to trot slowly. When he has learned to jump from the trot he will soon do so from a slow canter, which will be more trying for him, as it has a closer resemblance to the gait at which he has been in the habit of rushing, and he will therefore be inclined to return to his old failing. [Sidenote: Balkers] Sometimes a horse will not go near a fence, and on being urged will back or rear. If he persists in backing, his head should be turned away from the jump, and when he finds his movements only bring him nearer the fence, he will stop. If then he is made to wheel suddenly, and can be kept going by whip or spur, he will be likely to jump. Should he, instead, face the direction in which he should go, and rear whenever an attempt is made to urge him forward, the whip only inciting him to rear higher, the woman who hopes to triumph over him must resort to strategy; she must not whip him, at the risk of his falling back on her. A ruse which may prove successful is to occupy his attention by playing with his mouth while he is allowed to go diagonally towards the fence. He will be apt to concede this point, in the hope of bolting alongside of it; but when he has been inveigled into a closer proximity to the jump, even if he be parallel to it, and before he has time to divine his rider's intention, he should be turned sharply to the fence. He must be ridden at it resolutely and with a firm hand, while a determined swing of the body, corresponding to his stride, conveys to his mind the impression that he will be forced to jump. If he can be kept moving forward, he cannot rear; therefore, should he attempt to swerve or bolt, a blow from the whip will keep him straight, and when he should take off, another will guard against a refusal. [Sidenote: Sluggards] A sluggish animal calls for constant watching, as he cannot be trusted at small places any more than at large ones. He is always liable to rap, or even fall, at his fences, because of the careless, slovenly manner in which he moves. He should be forced up to the bit, and kept active by the whip, the noise of which is desirable in his case, as it will assist in rousing him. If his laziness or sulkiness is such that he will endeavor to crash through fences, he is not suitable for any woman to ride. He may miscalculate his power and come in contact with a rail which withstands his weight, when a fall will ensue. In this case the lunging-rein should be resorted to, and, either in a ring or out-of-doors, the horse should be put over some stiff bars, that he may learn he will be hurt if he touches them. I do not approve of intentionally throwing him by pulling him in the jump; there are too many chances of his being injured, even though he has no weight to carry. The bars should be strong enough to sustain his weight, without breaking, so that if he hits them hard he will have a tumble and a lesson. The top bar should, if possible, be covered with straw, to protect the knees from sharp edges. Some forcible raps and a few tumbles will teach the horse the necessity of exerting himself, and how to bend his knees and lift his hind-legs over a jump. [Sidenote: Falls] A fall is, at the best, a dangerous and often a disastrous affair for a woman, whose very position on a horse lessens the chance of escape from such a predicament without injury. A safety skirt will prevent her being dragged; but much harm may result from the fall, even though she be clear of the horse when he gets up. If she is not hurt, there is still danger that the shock to her nerves will weaken her pluck. Should such symptoms appear, she should remount at once; for the longer she waits the greater will be her apprehension, and it might end in her never regaining her nerve. She should make as light of the casualty as possible, and not regard it seriously if she has been only somewhat bruised or shaken up. It is marvellous how many and what ugly falls one can encounter without being any the worse for them; nevertheless, no precaution should be neglected to prevent exposure to them. When a woman has experienced several, she will know instinctively what to do; but at first she should try to bear in mind some points which may help her on such occasions. A rider not accustomed to jumping will probably lose her seat if the horse hits a fence with much force; as she feels herself going she should try to grasp the animal's neck, and not attempt to keep on by the aid of the reins, for by so doing she might throw him. Even if she has gone farther than the saddle, if she can fling her weight, above the waist, to the off side of the horse's neck, she will balance there for a moment, and that will give her time to grasp the saddle and pull herself back. Should she find herself beyond that, then as she slips off she can keep her head from the ground by seizing hold of the breast-plate with one hand, but without letting go of the reins. These must always be retained, as their possession renders it impossible for the horse to reach her with his heels, and precludes the chance of his getting away. If the horse bungles the jump, or comes down on his knees without disturbing his rider's equilibrium, and seems likely to fall, a woman cannot disentangle herself from him in time to get away. If he should go down, therefore, she must sit evenly, leaning back, that her weight may be taken from his fore-legs, while he is allowed plenty of rein. He may thus regain his balance or his footing after a scramble; but it will be impossible, in a slow fall like this, for a woman to be thrown clear of him. As he will not roll immediately, the closer she sits the better; so that if he tumbles on his near side, the force of the blow will be broken by the pommels, which, if she be sitting close, will hit the ground first, thus protecting her legs from the concussion. Moreover, if she were half out of the saddle, the pommels might strike her chest or crush a rib, and she would be more likely to be kicked. As the horse makes an effort to get up, she must be ready to extricate herself from him and scramble as far away as possible, as the danger then is that he will not regain his feet, but will sink down a second time and thus roll over his prostrate rider. If he should fall on his off side, a woman must strive to get clear on that side as he lands, and not where the horse's feet are. Where a ditch has caused a fall, it is usually from unsound banks; therefore, in attempting to climb out, firmer ground should be chosen. If the woman has been thrown and the horse has landed on top of her, the ditch being deep or narrow, she must try to keep his head down until help arrives, so that he cannot strike her, as he might do, because of the limited space, in his struggles to get up. In a stream, if she has preserved her seat, she must keep the horse moving, or he will be inclined to lie down. If she has been thrown into the water, she must obtain a hold on the saddle and the reins, but use only the former to support herself until the horse reaches the shore. In all of these events a cool head and presence of mind will be of the greatest assistance; but when a horse turns completely over at a fence, or falls heavily and without warning, to drop her stirrup, relax her muscles, and get clear of him as best she may is all a woman can do. Occasionally, after a number of jumps, the girths become loosened and the saddle begins to turn. In such an emergency the horse's mane should be firmly grasped and the foot taken out of the stirrup. The horse should be quieted and stopped, if he is not too much startled by the turning saddle. With a breast-plate it will probably not turn all the way, and her hold of the mane will enable a woman to keep her head up until some one comes to the rescue. It will probably be a long time before such a variety of contingencies as I have mentioned will happen to any one rider. A well-mounted woman may jump a great deal and escape with only a few tumbles. If she perseveres, there will be so many delightful experiences to counterbalance each mishap that she will gladly risk the consequences of indulging in a sport which, to so great an extent as leaping, develops her nerve, skill, and self-possession. X RIDING TO HOUNDS Whether hounds are running on the scent of a fox or a drag, a woman who is following them should always remember certain points to guide her in her conduct and in the management of her horse while in the field. [Sidenote: Courtesy] Many a beginner renders herself objectionable by striving to take a place among the hard riders of the first flight. It is not to be expected that a woman without experience in the hunting-field can keep up with those who have followed hounds for several seasons; and should she attempt it, the probable result would be a fall not only endangering herself and her horse, but compelling some man to come to her assistance, and thereby perhaps lose the remainder of the run. Even though too well mounted to have this occur, there are countless ways in which a novice, in endeavoring to keep on even terms with the leaders, may unwittingly call down anything but blessings on her head from those for whose good opinion she most cares. It is a mistake for her to suppose that people are watching her, ready to admire her pluck and dash, when she crashes through fences because her horse was not collected, or rides so close to the hounds as to risk hitting them. If she flatters herself that she is cutting out the work, it is pretty certain she has no business to be so far forward, and that she will add to the number of men who consider the hunting-field no place for women. [Sidenote: The Novice] A beginner should be content to stay behind the first flight until, by experience and skill, she has earned the right to take a better place. At first she should find out which of the men go straight, yet ride cautiously and manage to keep the hounds in sight. Such a one she should choose as her pilot, rather than a reckless rider or one who shirks his fences. Unless she is very well acquainted with him, a woman should not let a man know that she is following him. It annoys him to think that some one is "tagging on behind," or that he is responsible for the jumps she takes. Above all things, she must invariably give him or any one in front of her time to get well away from a jump before she takes it. This is of the utmost importance, and is a point neglected by men and women alike in the excitement and impatience of a run. If she desires to be looked upon otherwise than as a nuisance, she must be as unobtrusive and cool-headed as possible, always courteous to and considerate of others, patient when waiting for her turn at a narrow place, and not try to take jumps that well-mounted, hard-riding men deem impracticable. [Sidenote: Hard Riding] Women seldom need to be urged on in the hunting-field; they require rather to be cautioned and restrained. If they are new at it, they do not know the dangers to which they are exposed, so go recklessly; if they appreciate the chances they take, they grit their teeth and go desperately; if they are timid they nevertheless resolve not to be outdone, and, trusting all to their horse, go blindly, even closing their eyes at a critical moment. Therefore hard riding does not prove that a woman has either pluck or skill. She is an exception who goes straight and keeps with the hounds without taking foolish risks, unnecessarily tiring her mount, or interfering with others, for this requires judgment, discretion, skill, and nerve. [Sidenote: Jealous Riding] An undesirable trait observed in many instances is jealous riding. This cannot be too strongly condemned, not only for the unsportsmanlike spirit it betrays, but because it often threatens the safety of others than those who ride in that manner. A jealous rider crowds past people, jumps too close to them, and is constantly trying to be among the first, regardless of the consequences to those he or she hurries by. The motive that usually actuates a woman in such a case is vanity. She cannot bear to see another woman ahead of her, so she dashes along unmindful of the rules of etiquette and the hunting-field, until by pushing, crowding, and taking big chances for herself and against others, she reaches the object of her jealousy, thinking to wrest from her the admiration of the field. If the other woman is of the same mind and objects to being passed, a steeple-chase will ensue that may end in accidents, disabled hounds, and bad feelings. Admiration is far from the minds of the spectators, who do not fail to see that jealousy and vanity, not eagerness for sport, are the incentives to such hard riding. [Sidenote: Desirable Qualities] When a woman begins riding to hounds, she should already have had some experience in larking a horse across country, and be acquainted with the way to take the different kinds of jumps she will encounter during a run. If she starts with a good seat and hands, pluck and nerve, a little time and practice will add composure, judgment, and discretion, and the experience necessary to cross a stiff country without mishap. She may then discard the services of a pilot and ride her own line. [Sidenote: Getting Away] When hounds are thrown in, she must watch them, and, although not interfering with their work, be ready to get away on good terms with them when they begin to run. Indecision at the first two jumps may cost one dearly, for during that moment of hesitation hounds slip away, horses crowd one another and begin to refuse, while the few who make the most of their opportunities ride on ahead with the hounds. Much hard galloping may retrieve the lost ground, but a stern chase is always disheartening to horse and rider. By getting away in front, both are encouraged, and start with mutual good-will and satisfaction--relations which should always exist between a hunter and his rider. [Sidenote: Indecision] If, after pointing her horse's head at a certain part of a jump, she thinks another place is more inviting, she must not change her course, unless certain that she can do so without inconveniencing some one else who may have been going straight at it. It is inexcusable to turn from one place to another by cutting in ahead of following riders. It throws their horses out of their stride, and may force them to pull up in order to avoid a collision. Therefore, in suddenly changing her direction, a woman must assure herself that she is at least half a dozen lengths in front of her follower, who is going straight, or she must wait until she has been passed. [Sidenote: Right of Way] When a horse refuses, the rule is that the rider shall immediately pull out and give the next a chance to jump. This is so often overlooked in the field, that a few words seem desirable to impress its importance upon the minds of those who hunt. Women particularly seem to consider themselves privileged to keep their horse at a fence while he refuses at each trial, blocking the way, if there is no other place to jump, of those in their rear. Frequently, when her horse refuses, his rider thinks there is time to try it again before the next one reaches the place; she puts him at the fence, in her hurry turning him so short he could not jump if he wanted to, and the result is that he stops just as the other horse arrives, whose rider is thereby obliged to pull up. Had the woman pulled to one side in the first place, and waited until her follower had given her horse a lead, which would probably have induced him to jump, both would have been in the next field much sooner than her impatience in the first instance eventually permitted. [Sidenote: Funk] A horse should not be ridden behind one that is likely to refuse, or he may be inclined to imitate the misdoings of his predecessor. In the same way, it is injudicious to take a horse to a place where others are refusing, either from their own or their riders' timidity. He is liable to be infected with their faint-heartedness; for it needs an unusually sensible, reliable horse to be the first to jump out from a crowd at a place that has stopped those in front of him. It is far better for a woman to choose another way of reaching the hounds than to risk adding to the number of refusers, unless she be so well mounted as to be sure of giving the rest a lead. [Sidenote: Excitable and Sluggish Horses] A hot-headed, excitable horse will go more quietly if he can be made to think he is ahead of the others. Therefore his rider should choose a line for herself, apart from the others, and if he is a good performer it will be safer to put him at a big jump where he can take it coolly than to trust him at a smaller place where other horses are crowding and goading him into a state of such impatience that in his anxiety to overtake any one in front of him he will jump without calculation, and endanger all in his vicinity by kicking, rearing, or rushing. A sluggish horse, on the contrary, should be kept near others, that their lead and example may arouse his ambition and keep up his heart. It will not do to allow such a horse to fall far behind, as he will probably get discouraged and refuse to jump without a fight, at the end of which the hunt may have disappeared in the distance. [Sidenote: Proximity to Hounds] It is never wise to ride on the line of hounds, but rather to the right or left of them. Horses directly behind them frighten the hounds and interfere with their hunting. It also makes a few run very fast to keep from being galloped over, while many others sneak away or get behind the horses, of whose heels they stand in terror. It is a nuisance to be obliged to stop and give some slow hound a chance to get by, or, if not considerate enough to do this, no rider likes to see a hound going through a fence with the probability of having a horse jump on him, should he pause for a moment on the other side. A woman will escape these occurrences if she will keep to one side of the pack. In this position it is permissible to ride farther up than when so doing would bring her too near the pack; but the leading hounds must be watched closely, and should always be allowed plenty of room to turn sharp to the side where she is, without bringing them in contact with her horse. The instant they check, or even hover, for a moment, a woman must stop, and for two reasons: In the first place, because she does not want to be in the way should it be necessary to cast the hounds in her direction; and, secondly, because she should seize every opportunity of giving her horse a few moments' respite, which she can afford to do if well enough up to notice what the hounds are doing. [Sidenote: Choosing a Line] She must be guided as to her course by the character of the country over which she is riding. If the hounds run over a succession of small hills, much unnecessary exertion may often be spared the horse by galloping around the base of them, instead of over their crest. But the hounds must not be lost sight of too long, or a sharp turn may hide them from view and conceal the line they have taken. When a very steep hill is to be descended, it should be done by going down sideways in a zig-zag course, so that in case of a slip or stumble the horse will not roll over, as he might if attempting to make the descent in a straight line. If the going is rough or through furze or some low growth of underbrush, a woman should sit well back in her saddle, and although guiding her horse, allow him plenty of rein to stretch his neck and see where he is putting his feet. Should he stumble or step into a hole, she will in this way have the best chance of keeping her seat, and he of regaining his balance. If riding in a district where wire is extensively used for fencing, it will not do for a woman to go very far to one side of the hounds or to try to cut out a line for herself, unless she knows the country. Otherwise she may get pocketed by the wire, which few horses here are trained to jump, and which, therefore, should not be ridden at. In this case she would have to go back the way she came until she could get clear of it. In jumping towards the sun, extra precautions should be taken. A horse is often quite blinded, and unable to accurately gauge the size of the jump he is to take, especially if it is timber. When the rays are directly in his eyes, the best thing to do is to walk him up to and alongside of the fence for a few yards, giving him a chance to measure it, then take him back and put him at it. This must not be done where it will interfere with any one else, but in any case such a jump must be approached slowly. Wide ditches and streams are probably shirked as often as any kind of jump. Too much preparation for them excites the horse's suspicions and makes him hesitate, then refuse. A horse must be kept collected, yet sent along too fast to admit of any faltering on his part, and there must be no involuntary checking of his stride as the rider tries to see the depth or width of ditch or stream. When such are in sight, it is well to quicken the horse's pace, that he may reach the place before he sees any horse refusing, or before the banks have been made unsound by the jumping of the others. Each horse will probably widen the distance as the ground gives way beneath him, so a woman must use her own judgment in deciding where she will jump, instead of following some one else. A bog or swamp is a most disagreeable place in which to be caught, and calls for calmness to get out without a wetting or fall. To quiet the horse is the first thing, and prevent his plunging into it deeper and deeper, as he will with every struggle. Should he be sinking, his rider must get off, keeping hold of the reins, for, although their combined weight would cause the bog to give beneath them, they might separately be able to keep on the surface, and quietly and gradually work their way to firm ground. Whenever one comes upon something that cannot be seen at a distance, such as a hole, a drop, or a wire, the first person who discovers it should warn those behind by shouting back what it is, and, if possible, motioning where it is, that those in the rear may avoid it, each person cautioning the next one. XI SYMPATHY BETWEEN HORSE AND WOMAN The advantages derived from the existence of sympathy between horse and rider cannot be too highly estimated. When a woman gives her horse to understand that he will be ruled by kindness, he is very certain to serve her far more willingly and faithfully than if she tried to control him by force. If he has learned to be fond of her voice, it will calm and reassure him in moments of excitement which might otherwise result in a runaway; it will stimulate him to expend his best energies at her command, when force or punishment would fail, and will do more to establish a mutual understanding in a few weeks than would be gained in as many months of silent control. A horse soon learns to distinguish the intonation of words of praise from those of censure, terms of endearment from admonition, and will often respond to them more readily than to severe discipline. Few horses are so dull as not to be susceptible to kindness, or so vicious as not to be influenced by gentle treatment. [Sidenote: Talking to Horse] I do not approve of a woman, once she is in the saddle, entering upon a lengthy address of endearment to her horse if she is riding with friends. They may care for a little of her attention themselves; it is just as well not to show them the horse is the more interesting, even if she feels so. Moreover, incessant chatter becomes after a little time so familiar to the animal that the voice loses its power when intended to convey a definite meaning, and he fails to distinguish the difference between commands and idle pettings. It is only necessary to reprove him, to give words of command, such as "walk," "trot," "canter," "whoa," which he may easily be taught to obey, and a few words accompanied by a caress to soothe, encourage, or command him when the occasion presents itself. When living in the country, with a stable near the house, a woman is afforded the most favorable opportunity of making friends with her horse. A good way to begin will be to dismount at the stable after a ride and take off the saddle and bridle. It is very simple, for it is only to unbuckle the outside leather girth, stirrup leather, two inside girths, and perhaps a balance strap, and take off the saddle, unfasten the throat latch, lip strap, and curb chain on the bridle, throw the reins over his head, and take hold of the headstall, when he will withdraw his head. She must have his halter ready to put on at once, or he might pull away. This will give him a pleasant impression of her, which is an important point gained. Should she through some mistake find no one in the stable, and the horse in a heat at the end of her ride, she should not hesitate to scrape him herself, brush the mud off his legs, put a light blanket on him, give him only a mouthful of water, and put him in his stall with a little hay. If she will rub his ears, and sponge out his mouth, it will be a great relief to him. All this should be accomplished in a quiet manner, nothing done to alarm or excite him; and she may talk to him most of the time, and thus become quite friendly with him. [Sidenote: In the Stall] When she visits him in the stall, she should always speak before touching him or entering, otherwise he might be startled and kick or plunge from fright. If in a standing stall, entrance should always be made at the near side of the horse. I greatly prefer a loose box in which the horse may turn at his pleasure. If he eats too much of his bedding, it is better to keep a leather muzzle on him than to tie his head up. Before opening the door of the box, he should be induced to face it, to avoid the possibility of his kicking. This can be managed by offering him some sugar, carrots, or oats, which he will come for, held quietly on the palm of the hand, with the fingers out of his reach. It is well for a woman, at first, to keep a light hold of the halter, so that he cannot crush her against the wall or hit her with his head. She should never put her head above his, or a severe knock may be the result. She should pet him, avoiding all sudden movements, and accustom him to her voice; when it has become familiar to him, he will listen for it, and neigh at her approach. If he seems inclined to kick, the closer she keeps to him the better, as then she will receive only a shove, instead of the full force of the blow. If he shows a tendency to nip or bite, from play or mischief, he should be muzzled until, by coaxing and kindness, he has been made to give it up. To strike him would be to turn his playful though dangerous prank into a vicious habit. In petting him she should begin by stroking his neck, and gradually work down and backwards with a firm, light touch, until he does not resent being handled. He must be taught to let her lean on any part of him, and not to fear her skirts. This is often of value in case a woman is thrown and her habit catches on the saddle; for if the horse were accustomed to her weight and skirt being against him, he would not become frightened. Knowing her voice, he might be quieted by it, and had he learned the important lesson of stopping at the word "whoa," she might escape being dragged. [Sidenote: On the Road] If in the course of a ride a woman dismounts at a house or stable, she should always be sure that a light blanket is immediately thrown over her horse. She should not start for a ride until some time after her horse has been fed, or his digestion will become impaired, as would hers under similar circumstances. After mounting, it is always well, by a light hold of the snaffle, to make a horse walk a short while; it is most annoying to have him start with a series of plunges or an inclination to bolt. If he is so fresh that he will not walk without restraint likely to irritate him, perhaps spoiling his temper for the rest of the ride, it will be better to let him indulge in a brisk trot, after which he may be brought back to a walk. The next time, if having had more work, he will walk at first, while had his mouth been jerked the previous time, or a fight ensued, he would remember it, and prepare for a repetition of the performance. A horse should not of his own will be allowed to change his gaits, but his rider must think to vary them; for if the horse is kept on one too long, it tires him unnecessarily and causes him to travel carelessly. Whatever gait she makes him adopt, it should be distinct and regular, and he should be kept collected and not urged beyond the pace at which he can comfortably travel. [Sidenote: Cautions] A jog-trot, trotting in front and cantering behind, and other such eccentricities, should not be permitted in a park hack. In turning a corner, the horse should always be somewhat supported, and have his hind-legs brought well under him, or he will be liable to slip. He should never be cantered around a corner unless leading with the foot towards which he will turn. He should not be pulled up abruptly, unless to avoid sudden obstacles, but his pace should be gradually decreased until it is as required. A sharp stop entails considerable strain on the back tendons and hocks, and if done too often would be apt to make the horse throw a curb. In going downhill, a walk is the gait which should be taken, or the horse's fore-legs will suffer. Should the ground be uneven and rough, or covered with rolling stones, the horse ought to be permitted to walk. His head should not be held too tightly, or he will be unable to see where he is going, while if the reins are slack he will appreciate that he must pick his way, and then will seldom put a foot wrong. It is most undesirable to canter where there is a hard road; nothing will more quickly use up a horse than pounding along, each stride laying the foundation of windgalls and stiffness, if nothing more serious results from this ill-advised practice. If a horse is at all warm, he must never be allowed to stand in a draught; five minutes of it might founder him, so that he would be ruined, or thrown into pneumonia. If, while on her ride, a woman should be forced to wait, she must keep her horse moving in a circle or any other way, keeping his chest from the wind as much as possible. Before reaching home, the horse should be walked for some time, so that he may enter the stable cool, and not be endangered by draughts if not attended to at once. When riding with others, their horses should be regarded; and as the woman sets the pace, she should not make it faster than that which her companions' horses can easily maintain. XII PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE STABLE [Sidenote: Stabling] The woman should visit her horse in the stable, and there she cannot talk to him too much. If it be a private one, I assume that it is constructed on hygienic principles; but as horses are frequently boarded at livery-stables, a woman should not leave the choice of a stall to her groom. She should see that of those procurable it is the best drained and ventilated, though free from draughts, and well lighted. If these conditions are not obtained, sickness and incapacity may be looked for in the horse. She should notice the feed occasionally, and see that her horse is supplied with all he requires, and of the best quality, and that he has an abundance of good bedding. A frequent or indiscriminate use of physics is to be deprecated. Pure air, good food, careful grooming, and regular, moderate exercise are the best tonics. [Sidenote: Picking up Feet] She must learn to pick up her horse's feet, as she should examine his shoes personally, and ascertain that they have been made to fit the feet, instead of the horn being rasped away to fit the shoes. The soles must be pared, but the frogs and bars should not be interfered with. She cannot expect to have the shoes on more than a month; although, if the horse has not had enough work to wear them down, they may be removed and put on again, for were they worn too long, corns and inflammation, causing lameness, would be the result. Another reason for knowing how to lift his feet is that he might pick up a stone on the road, and if alone she would be obliged to take it out, or run the risk of seriously laming him. While a woman is playing with him is an excellent opportunity for her to look at her horse's feet, which should be taken up in the following manner. She must stand on his near side, a trifle back of his fore-legs, and facing his hind ones. She should run her left hand from his knee to his fetlock, behind, and inside of his near fore-leg, grasping just below his fetlock, with the fingers on the coronet and the thumb above on the pastern. A horse which has been broken will yield his foot, bending his knee at once, but sometimes with such force that she must keep her head held up, so that there be no chance of contact with his heel. With the right hand she can examine his foot, after which she may pass to his off fore-foot, and then to the near hind-leg. For this she must stand close to his side, and stroke him firmly from the quarters to the hock. Passing her right hand under his hock to his fetlock, and grasping his foot as she did the fore one, she must raise it, letting the hock rest in the angle of her arm, while with her right hand she turns up the foot for inspection. She must not lean too far over or get back of the horse, or she is likely to be kicked if he offers any resistance. Then, too, she may unfasten the roller and throw back his blanket, that she may be sure the saddle has not rubbed his back. A slight abrasion of the skin, if treated at once, will require only a day or two to heal; but if neglected for some days, the time will be greatly prolonged. If any soreness is detected, the saddle should be looked to immediately and the cause of the trouble remedied. [Sidenote: Grooming] A shining coat is not positive proof that the horse is properly groomed. The hair should be rubbed the wrong way, and if the skin leaves a whitish deposit on the fingers, it will be well for the horse's owner to watch the groom the next time the horse is dressed, and to insist upon its being thoroughly done. [Sidenote: Bitting] Much of what seems to be vice in a horse comes from his having been imperfectly bitted when young, or from subsequently having his mouth roughly handled. He should always be ridden in as easy a bit as possible, as some horses go well and quietly in a plain snaffle, and will pull, bolt, or run in a curb or any severe contrivance. No rule can be given as to what bit will best control certain tendencies. Experimenting with each kind will be the only means of finding out, but pulling is as likely to arise from an over-sensitive mouth as from a hard one, in which case a rubber snaffle might prove efficacious where a Chifney would fail. Sometimes certain parts of the mouth become callous, and a bit bearing on a different place might produce the desired result. Most horses will go well in a bit and bridoon, varied to suit their peculiarities by the height of the port, the length of the branches, and the pressure of the curb-chain. There are certain points which should always be regarded. The mouth-piece must fit the horse's mouth exactly, being neither so narrow as to pinch him, nor so wide as to lose its power. The port should be the same width as the tongue-channel, and no higher than required to leave room for the tongue. The curb-chain must be sufficiently tight to furnish leverage for the branches, yet not so tight as to pinch the jaw when no force is applied. [Sidenote: Clipping] Clipping horses in winter I have heard objected to on the ground of its being unsafe to deprive them of the thick coat which affords protection from the cold. If their coat is thick and long, it is, in my opinion, much wiser to clip them, and for several very good reasons. Their work is rarely continuous, and the alternating of the heated with the cooling-off condition is very liable to work more or less injury. A heavy-coated horse which has been driven until very warm, and then left for half an hour to stand outside of a shop or house and become chilled by the wind striking the heavy wet coat, which frequently does not dry for hours, is likely to become a subject for the veterinary. On the other hand, if the horse is clipped, he does not get so warm in the first place, and, in the second, would cool off more quickly and without danger of becoming chilled. In very cold weather quarter blankets will furnish all the protection necessary, and prevent the wind from striking the horse while standing. With saddle horses, although not so important, it is an advantage to have them clipped, because a cold day is certain to make the rider go steadily to keep warm, and the horse, becoming overheated (if his coat is heavy), is in great danger of taking cold if permitted to stand for a moment in a draught. [Sidenote: Bridling] No woman who rides should be without a practical knowledge of how to saddle and bridle her horse, as the groom often turns him out imperfectly bitted or girthed; and unless she knows how to do it herself, she will not perceive that anything is wrong until too late to prevent mischief. She should learn to hold the bridle by the headstall, in her left hand, as with the right she slips off the horse's halter, and throws the reins over his head. Then change it to the right hand, putting her left on the bits, which she gently inserts between his jaws. With the right she must pull his ears under the headstall, and then turn her attention to fitting the bridle. She must see that the headstall fits, that the forehead-band is not too tight, and that there is plenty of room between the throat-latch and the throat. The snaffle-rein is fitted by the buckles of the cheek-piece, and should fall a trifle below the angle of the mouth. The curb needs careful adjustment, that the mouth-piece may rest exactly on the bars of the mouth. Then the chain must be hooked when quite flat on the chin-groove, but not tight enough, unless used vigorously, to inconvenience the horse. The lip-strap should pass through the small ring attached to the curb-chain, thus keeping it in place. I like a bridle with buckles, or billets as they are called, rather than one which is stitched to the rings. In the first place, it is frequently desirable to change the bits, especially in a large stable, and being sewed would necessitate a bridle for each bit. Furthermore, when the bits are washed, the leather gets wet, and the stitching is apt to become rotten, and unexpectedly give way at a critical moment, when some unusual strain is put on it. [Illustration: DOUBLE BRIDLE FOR GENERAL USE] [Sidenote: Noseband] A noseband furnishes additional control over a horse; but it should not be attached to the bridle, or it may interfere with the action of the bit. It should have a headstall and cheek-pieces, and be buckled tight enough to prevent the horse from opening his mouth too wide, but it must not restrain his breathing. [Sidenote: Martingale] If a martingale is used, I much prefer a running to a standing one. It is useful with star-gazers or horses that get their noses out too far. Some horses need one to steady them in hunting, but the running martingale is the only one which should be tolerated in jumping, and then not be used unless necessary. It is attached to a girth, and at the two upper ends are sewed rings through which the snaffle passes. With a running martingale there must be a stop on each snaffle, considerably larger than the rings of the martingale; otherwise there is danger of these rings getting caught in the bits, frightening the horse, and making him rear or back, as there is no way to release the pressure thus brought on his mouth. The length should be carefully regulated, so that it will keep the horse's head at the desired height. This admits of considerable play to the horse, but within control of the rider, while with a standing martingale no liberty is attainable. Once mounted, the rider cannot influence its bearing; and should the horse trip, he cannot fling up his head, as he must to regain his balance. [Sidenote: Breast-plate] For ordinary riding a breast-plate is not always used, but in hunting it is almost indispensable, and is always a safeguard against a woman's saddle slipping back. It is put on over the horse's head with the reins, and one strap passes between his fore-legs, through the loop of which one of the girths passes. Two other ends buckle, one on each side of the saddle, near the horse's withers, and it should be loose enough to admit of free movement in galloping and jumping. [Illustration: CORRECT SADDLE] [Illustration: UNDESIRABLE SADDLE] [Sidenote: The Saddle] The saddle should be very plain in appearance. It must have a level seat, which can only be obtained in those having the tree cut away above the withers; otherwise, to clear them, the saddle must be so elevated in front that it is sometimes six inches higher than the cantle, placing the knee in an awkward and fatiguing position, and it is impossible to rise without an unusual amount of exertion, which will lead to arching the back, thrusting the head forward, and probably galling the horse's withers. There should be no third pommel, such as there formerly was on the right side of the saddle, bending to the left over the right leg. The two pommels must fit the knees exactly, or the circulation will be impeded, and a cramp brought on which renders the muscles powerless to grip the pommels. The seat must extend about an inch beyond the line of the spine, and, although I usually object to it, for a child the seat should be covered with buckskin. No more padding should be used than is required to fit the horse's back, as it looks badly for the top of the saddle to be several inches above the horse. Moreover, the nearer one is to the animal's back, the greater will be the control. It enables one more readily to detect the stiffening of the muscles when mischief is contemplated, and to be prepared to thwart it. It should not have any superfluous straps, stitching, or attempts at ornamentation: the simpler the style the better; even the slit on the saddle-flap for the pocket is now frequently dispensed with. A safety pommel-band is sometimes fastened from the extreme upper forward end of the right saddle-flap to the top of the right pommel, thence to the left. This lessens the likelihood of a skirt becoming caught. [Sidenote: Stirrup] On no account should a slipper stirrup be used, but a safety stirrup without any padding, and one which does not work by having the bottom drop out, as these are apt to come to pieces when least desired, leaving the foot without any support. The best kind have the inner half-circle jointed in the middle and working on a hinge at both sides, so that it can open only on being pulled from below, as in case of a fall. Next to this in safety comes a plain, small racing stirrup. [Illustration: SAFETY STIRRUP, CLOSED] [Sidenote: Girths] The Fitz-William web girths are the best for a woman's saddle, white being used in preference to darker shades. There are braided raw-hide and also cord girths, the former being very serviceable, but they do not look so well as either of the others. [Illustration: SAFETY STIRRUP, OPEN] [Sidenote: Saddling] When the saddle is in position, free from the play of the shoulders, the first girth is taken up, then the back one, and kept clear of the horse's elbows, that his action may not be impeded. Although pulling the girths excessively tight is to be avoided, it will not do to leave them loose, as a woman's unevenly distributed weight might cause the saddle to turn. Any wrinkles in the skin caused by the girthing should be smoothed away by passing the fingers between the girths and the horse. Then the stirrup-leather is buckled, after this the outside leather strap that keeps the saddle-flap in place, and finally the balance-strap, which must be fairly tight, assists in keeping the saddle in position. Before mounting she should always glance at the saddle and bridle, and be sure that they are properly put on; otherwise her ride may be rendered uncomfortable, if not dangerous. XIII SOMETHING ON DRIVING [Sidenote: Desirability of Instruction] Ninety-nine women out of every hundred are firmly convinced that instruction is by no means necessary to their driving safely and in good form. Four men out of five labor under the same delusion. It is a sad error, that leads to numberless failures, and many accidents which might so easily be avoided if the services of a competent teacher were employed at the beginning. Having seen others drive without any apparent difficulty, the novice conceives the notion that there is nothing to learn which cannot be mastered without assistance after one or two attempts. If such a one escapes a bill of damages, it should be credited to the ministering care of her guardian angel. She may indeed escape accident; she may learn to start without dislocating the neck of every one in the trap, and get around the corner without an upset; but she will never learn to _drive_. There is something more for her to know than that she must pull the off rein to turn to the right and the near one to go to the left, though this appears to be the extent of knowledge deemed necessary. Women, even more than men, require a thorough understanding of what they are doing, for they lack the strength to rectify a miscalculation at the last moment. The ignorance, indecision, and weakness frequently displayed by women in driving are what so often render them objects of apprehension to experienced whips. It is folly for any woman to flatter herself that she needs only a little practice, and that the rest "will come." If she has not begun correctly, practice will only wed her to the faults she must have acquired. Assuming, however, for the sake of argument, that, after having discounted her call on an all-protecting Providence and stricken with terror her long-suffering friends, she manages to guide the family nag along the turnpike without the aid of a civil escort to clear the road before her--what of it? She hasn't learned anything; her form is execrable; and in case of an emergency she is quite as unprepared as when she took up the reins weeks before, with the ill-conceived notion that she was not of the common clay, and that, a whip, rather than a rattle, had been the insignia of her infantile days. How much better, safer, and more sensible to acquire good form than by its neglect to become an object of ridicule to those who, by their knowledge of driving and exposition of superior horsemanship, are entitled to criticise others who have disregarded proper instruction, and, wise in their own conceit, relied on their ignorance for guidance. [Sidenote: Vulgar Display] Some women there are who drive only because they consider it the "proper thing." Absorbed in the opportunity for display, and ignorant of the fitness of things, they array themselves in the treasures of their wardrobe, more likely than not to be a gay silk, and, with every discordant ribbon and flounce of their _bizarre_ costume loudly challenging the attention of the on-lookers, they sally forth perched on the box of a spider phaeton, Tilbury, or dog-cart, indifferent to, because ignorant of, the incongruity of their turnout, unconscious of the signal they have flung to the breeze, which unmistakably proclaims their lack of early instruction. [Sidenote: Bad Form] These are they who in the handling of their animals instantly call to mind the puppet-shows of our childhood days, and fill us with an almost irresistible desire to look under the box-seat and discover who is working the invisible wires. Every movement is spasmodic--the arms work as though an alternating electric current were constantly being turned through them--the hands finger the reins nervously; and if the vehicle happens to be a two-wheeler, the unhappy driver looks as though every jolt of the poorly balanced cart would send her into the road from her very insecure seat. Another harrowing spectacle is that of the woman leaning forward, a rein in each hand, with her arms dragged almost over the dash-board by her horse's mouth, a look of direful expectancy in her eyes, and a much be-flowered and be-ribboned hat occupying unmolested a rakish position over one ear, where it has fallen during her hopeless struggle with the reins. [Illustration: A WELL-BALANCED CART] [Sidenote: Costume] It is strange women should not have a sufficiently clear idea of the fitness of things to realize that elaborate toilets of silks, laces, and flowers, and large hats, although appropriate in a victoria, are inconvenient and totally out of place when driving a sporting-trap, such as a dog-cart. A plain, neatly fitting, but not tight cloth suit, with a small hat, which will not catch the wind, is far more serviceable and in better taste. However, she should avoid the other extreme affected by the woman who desires to appear masculine and "sporty," and who, showing a large expanse of shirt front, wears a conspicuous plaid suggestive of a horse-blanket. This specimen of feminine "horsy-ness" invariably drives with her hands held almost under her chin, and her whip in as vertical a position as herself. She is as powerless to control her animal as is the one who leans over the dash-board. [Sidenote: Cockade] This is the sort of woman who compels her groom, if she have one, to wear a cockade in his hat, in ignorance of the fact that we in this country have no claim to its use. In Great Britain it is the distinguishing mark of either the royal family or the military, naval, or civil officers of the government; but used here it is only a meaningless affectation. [Sidenote: Confidence] To achieve success, and to obtain a business-like appearance in driving, a woman must possess confidence in her power to control her horses, and it must be the confidence derived from knowledge and skill, and not that born of ignorance or fool-hardiness. She must know what to do, and how to do it promptly, under all circumstances, and this necessitates a thorough comprehension of the sport she is pursuing. It is to be hoped she will gain this from competent instruction, and that she will embrace every opportunity of adding to her information on the subject. [Sidenote: The "Family-Horse" Fallacy] A quiet, steady old horse, such as one might expect to see doing farm-work, cannot always be recommended even to a beginner, for he generally requires so little management that when he does occasionally become unruly it is so unusual that the woman is taken unawares. Moreover, it makes one careless and slovenly always to drive a horse which goes along in a leisurely manner, without any display of life. A woman who has been accustomed to such an animal will be at a loss to manage a spirited pair, should she be called upon to do so. If she begin with a horse which goes well into his collar and does his work generously, she will learn twice as much as she would in the same time with a lazy horse, and will sooner be able to drive a pair. [Sidenote: On the Box] The position on the driving seat should be comfortable and firm, which cannot be the case when it is used merely to lean against, instead of to sit upon. From the knee down, the leg should be but slightly bent, with the feet together and resting against the foot-rail. The elbows should be held near the body, and the reins in the left hand, with the little finger down, and the knuckles pointing straight ahead, about on a line with or a trifle below the waist, and in the middle of the body. Whether driving one or two horses, the manner of holding the reins is the same; but more strength and decision, as well as the judgment which, of course, experience will bring, are required for the pair. [Sidenote: Position of Reins] The near rein belongs on top of the first finger, held there firmly by the thumb, and the off rein should be between the second and third fingers. The gloves should be large, broad across the knuckles, and long in the fingers; otherwise cold, stiff hands will result from the impeded circulation. The right hand, close to the left, should contain the whip, which must be held at an angle of a little less than forty-five degrees, and at the collar, about eight to ten inches from the butt, so that it balances properly. [Sidenote: Handling Reins] When about to start, the reins should be tightened, to feel the horse's mouth, and a light touch of the whip will suffice to send him forward. The hand should then yield, so that as he straightens the traces there will be no jerk on his mouth. In turning to the right or to the left, the reins must not be separated. The right hand should be placed on the rein, indicating the desired direction, until the turn has been made; but a slight pressure on the opposite rein should keep the horse from going too near a corner. The left hand must not relax its hold, so that when the right is removed the reins will be even, as they were before. In stopping, the body is not to be bent backwards, suggestive of an expected shock, and the hands raised to the chin. It cannot be too strongly impressed on the woman's mind that the less perceptible effort she makes, the more skilful will she appear. Therefore, if she take hold of the reins with her right hand as far in front of the left as she can handily reach, and then draw them back, she will have accomplished her purpose in a quiet and easy manner. [Sidenote: A Pair] Driving a pair is much the same as driving one horse; but allowances should be made for the peculiarities of each, and they should not be treated as though machines of identical construction. Frequently a woman driving a nervous horse with a quiet one will hit them both with the whip, when, should she touch the quiet one only, the sound of it would urge the other as much as the blow does the dull one. Here is another objection to clucking to horses: one of them needs it much more than the other, yet they hear it with equal clearness, and simultaneously; therefore the high-mettled horse increases his pace sooner and more than his sluggish companion, and does more than his share of the work. Several noiseless touches of the whip, administered in quick succession to the laggard, will do more to equalize their pace than would a sharp, loud cut or any amount of clucking. Sometimes a woman will experience great inconvenience from not having her horses properly bitted and harnessed. This should always be seen to, either by herself or some one who is competent to judge for her. When she has more than one horse to control, she will soon become tired if one of them pulls and the other will not go into his collar. A judicious readjustment of the curb-chain and the coupling-rein will often make the difference between discomfort and ease. XIV SOMETHING MORE ON DRIVING [Sidenote: Management] While a horse is doing his work in a satisfactory manner he should not be irritated by having his mouth jerked and the whip applied for the driver's amusement. It is a pity all women do not realize that a horse will accomplish, with less fatigue, much more work when taken quietly than he will if fretted and tormented by needless urging or restraint. Constant nagging affects an animal in the same way as it does a human being; and though a horse is usually subjected to such treatment through want of thought, it is none the less exasperating to him. One result of this ordeal is that it prompts him to break into a canter as he becomes restless; and then he must be brought back to a trot by decreasing the speed and keeping the hands steady. [Sidenote: Stumbling] A stumbling horse must be kept awake and going at a medium rate of speed. In either a very fast trot or a slow one he is likely to trip, and unless his driver is prepared for it, and ready to keep him up, he will probably fall, and she may be pulled over the dash-board. A bearing-rein may assist in keeping him on his feet, but an habitual stumbler can never be considered safe. Such a horse must not be driven with loose reins, as a feeling on his mouth is necessary at all times. [Sidenote: Backing] When a horse persistently backs, there are two great dangers: first, he may upset the carriage, unless it cuts under; and, secondly, he may back into something or over an embankment. If the road be level, a woman must try to keep the horse from backing to one side, although in case of a steep declivity it may be necessary to pull him sideways, and risk an overturn rather than a fall over a bank. In all events, the whip should be vigorously applied, in the hope of starting the horse forward; if the woman have a groom with her, he should go to the horse's head at once and lead him. Occasionally, backing may arise from sore shoulders caused by an ill-fitting collar; but if there is no such excuse for his action, and it should become a habit, the horse is not suitable for any woman to drive. If desirous of making a turn in a narrow lane, it will often be necessary to back off the road, between trees or on to a foot-path, to obtain room. Some horses will not back under these circumstances, nor from a shed where they have been tied. In most instances all that will be required is to get out, take the horse by his bridle, and by lightly tapping one foot make him raise it, at the same time pushing him back by the bit. The other foot should be moved in the same way, and this repeated until he has gone far enough. After a few steps the woman may resume her seat, with the probability of the horse backing without further resistance. [Sidenote: Rearing and Kicking] If the horse is nervous, the pull at his mouth may make him back so fast that in his excitement he will rear. In this event the reins should be loosened a moment and the animal quieted, after which the backing process may be continued. If the rearing comes from temper, and takes place when he has been going forward, there should be no weight on his mouth while he seems in danger of falling backward, but a cut of the whip administered as he comes down may prevent his trying it again. It is important to feel his mouth at this juncture, as the whip will make him plunge forward, and the hold on his mouth must be firm enough to keep the traces loose as he lands; otherwise there would be a sudden strain on them, and consequently an unpleasant jerk, which might bring the carriage on to his hocks, as he stopped to gather himself for another effort, and, even if it did not make him kick or run, he would probably be bruised. A determined kicker needs to have his head kept up, and for this purpose a bearing-rein will be found of great service. He should be driven with a kicking-strap, but it must not be too tight, or it will induce the habit it is intended to cure. He may kick if the crupper is too tight, so this also should be looked to. [Sidenote: Rein under Tail] When a rein gets under the tail of a horse, under no circumstances should an attempt be made to pull it away. It should be pushed forward, and the horse spoken to in a reassuring manner. If he does not then release it, a slight cut of the whip may divert his attention; he will whisk his tail, and at this instant the rein must be allowed to fall to one side, as were it pulled directly up, it would be likely to be caught again. If these methods do not prove efficacious, a woman must try to keep the horse straight, and prevail upon him to walk until some one sees her predicament and comes to her assistance. In some traps she might be able to reach forward and remedy the difficulty, meanwhile watching for any symptoms of kicking. But whether she does it herself or directs some one else, she must see that the tail is lifted, instead of an effort being made to pull the rein away. Many mishaps come from this seemingly trivial occurrence, and a horse frightened by improper treatment is liable to bolt or run. It is always an excellent plan to have a horse trained to stop short at the word "whoa!" This expression is usually misapplied, being made to do duty for "steady" or "quiet," and it will be difficult to teach a horse its true significance unless he is never driven without this end in view, and the term employed only when it is meant. [Sidenote: Bolting and Running] In the event of a horse bolting, the chances are very great against a woman's checking him. If she can do it at all, it will be by sawing his mouth, and giving a succession of sharp jerks, while endeavoring to control his course. The most dangerous and irrational thing she can do is to jump out of the trap. Severe injuries almost invariably attend such a proceeding; and if it be possible to stay in, she should do so, never relinquishing her hold on the reins. If from the swaying of the carriage she seems in danger of being thrown out, a woman must make sure that her skirts are not caught on anything, and that her feet are clear of the reins. Men sometimes pull a runaway horse into a ditch or up a steep bank, which stops him; but a smash or an overturn is inevitable; and should a woman attempt this, there is great danger of her being unable to extricate herself from the tangle. She is handicapped by her skirts, which are more than likely to cause her to be dragged should the horse manage to start off again. Besides this, after a struggle such as she will have had, a woman will seldom have enough strength left to force a horse from the direction he has chosen. [Sidenote: Crowded Driveways] In whatever pranks horses indulge, the dangers are multiplied and intensified when encountered by a woman who ventures to drive in a crowded park or avenue during the afternoon. Women of culture and refinement, realizing this, and wishing to avoid making themselves conspicuous on public highways, are content to be driven at this hour, reserving the mornings for the pleasure of handling the reins themselves. Some women there are who drive better than most coachmen, and a few of these may desire to display their skill and their well-appointed traps when the spectators are most numerous. They may be competent to make their way through such a maze as one finds on popular carriage roads, but they do it in defiance of the condemnation they will receive from people of more refined ideas. The majority of women who drive are unable to control their horses, and they need not flatter themselves that their immunity from accidents is the result of their skill. They owe their safety to the fact that men, appreciating the uncertainty of their movements, give them plenty of room, and keep as far as they can from anything driven by a woman. [Sidenote: Road Courtesy] Such women would be less objectionable if they were more considerate of others. For example, they should keep on their own side of the drive, and, if they are going slowly, as much to the right of it as possible, that those who desire to pass may not have their way blocked. Again, they should remember that some one is behind them, and that they should not endeavor to turn or stop abruptly without having intimated their intention to those in the rear. Another heedless thing they do is, in passing a leading trap to turn in ahead of it so sharply that a more careful driver is forced to pull up rather than endanger his horses by having the wheels swing against them. Women seem to forget now and then that they must always pass to the left of a vehicle in front of them, and not try to get through a small space on its right. If they would only take a few lessons in driving, pay attention to the instruction they receive, and cultivate consideration for others, their presence on the box might be welcomed more frequently and with greater warmth than it now is. It would be well if equestrians rode with more regard for the convenience of those who are driving. When a bridle-path is provided for them, there is no reason why they should usurp any of the road intended for carriages. They would feel outraged, and justly so, if one vehicle should appear on their road; yet swarms of them daily use the drive, occupying much-needed space, and clattering and darting along, unmindful of startled horses and the narrow escapes of their own mounts from collisions with many wheels. [Sidenote: Tandems and Teams] Comparatively few women are so fortunate as to have an opportunity to drive tandem or four-in-hand. If they are so situated that they would be likely to do so frequently, they should not hesitate to take lessons, as otherwise they would slowly learn from many dangerous and costly experiences what a trustworthy teacher could have shown them with safety and expedition. However, it is well to be prepared for all contingencies, and therefore many women may desire to know something about these branches of driving, in case they should in some unforeseen manner have an opportunity to essay them. If, for instance, she were driving with a friend who offered to let her take the reins, a woman would not be expected to look to the harnessing and bitting, but there are a few points she might be glad to know. [Sidenote: Reins] The reins are held the same in tandem and team-driving. The first finger separates the leaders' reins, and the second those of the wheelers, with each near rein above the off one. Thus over the first finger will be the near leader, under it the off leader, and between this rein and the second finger the near wheeler, with the off wheeler between the second and third fingers. The right hand must be free to hold the whip and to manipulate the reins. The off-wheel rein will often need attention, as the third finger is not so strong as the other two used, and therefore this rein will more readily slip through. In changing a rein it must always be done by pushing it back from in front of the hand, instead of pulling it through from behind. [Illustration: POSITION IN TANDEM] The correct handling of the whip can be mastered only after much patience and constant practice, but its proper use is of paramount importance. Women will find driving tandem easier than driving four, because, although it requires more skill to keep the horses straight, it does not call for the amount of muscle needed to manage four horses, the brake, and whip. [Sidenote: Unruly Leader] At first the weight alone of the reins would tire her, and of course there are more chances of mishaps with four horses than with two. In the latter the leader has no horse at his side to steady him; but if well trained he will travel straight, and not attempt to turn around and join the wheeler. Should he do this, and not respond to the reins, the whip should hit his neck with force sufficient to make him change his mind. As a last resort, the wheeler must be turned to follow him, and then they must both be made to proceed in the direction desired by the driver. If the leader, instead of being exactly in front of the wheeler, gets too far to the right, his near rein should be shortened; but the wheeler must be made to meet him half-way by pulling his off rein at the same time. In the opposite case the off-lead and near-wheel reins must be shortened. [Sidenote: Turning] To turn a corner, say to the left, with a tandem or a four, the near-lead rein should be looped by taking up several inches, pushing it back of the forefinger, and holding it there in this shape with the thumb. The right hand must be placed on both off reins, to guard against the turn being made too sharply, and the cart or coach being brought into contact with the corner. To turn to the right, the reverse tactics are employed, but it is more difficult to loop the off rein. When the corner has been successfully rounded, the right hand should be taken away and the left thumb raised, thus leaving the horses in a position to go straight. In going downhill all the reins should be shortened, and care taken that the leaders' traces particularly are loose, or they may pull the wheelers down when these should be holding back the coach. The wheelers should always, if possible, start and stop the load. In going uphill the leaders must do their full share, and on the level each horse must be kept up to his work. An unnecessary nervous fingering of the reins should be avoided, as, besides being most unworkmanlike, it irritates the horses. It is the height of folly for a woman to attempt to drive a tandem or a four-in-hand until she is thoroughly familiar with one horse and a pair. She may understand the theory of it, but until she has had some practice under proper instruction she should not take the reins, unless some one is near to assist her, or she will endanger not only her own safety, but jeopard that of those who may accompany her. FINIS * * * * * BLAIKIE'S HOW TO GET STRONG. How to Get Strong, and How to Stay So. By WILLIAM BLAIKIE. Illustrated. 16 mo, Cloth, $1 00. Mr. Blaikie has treated his theme in a practical common-sense way that appeals at once to the judgment and the understanding. A complete and healthful system of exercise is given for boys and girls; instructions are set down for the development of every individual class of muscles, and there is sound advice for daily exercise for children, young men and women, business men and consumptives. There are instructions for home gymnastics, and an easy routine of practice laid out.--_Saturday Evening Gazette_, Boston. Every word of it has been tested and confirmed by the author's own experience. It may be read with interest and profit by all.--_Christian Instructor_, Chicago. A successful performance, everything in the line of gymnastic exercise receiving copious illustrations by pen and pencil. The author's aim is genuinely philanthropic, in the right sense of the word, and his work is a useful contribution to the cause of physical culture.--_Christian Register_, Boston. Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York. _The above work will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, Canada, or Mexico, on receipt of the price._ BLAIKIE'S SOUND BODIES. Sound Bodies for our Boys and Girls. By WILLIAM BLAIKIE. With Illustrations. 16 mo, Cloth, 40 cents. A manual of safe and simple exercises for developing the physical system. Mr. William Blaikie's new manual cannot fail to receive a warm welcome from parents and teachers, and should be introduced as a working text-book into thousands of schools throughout the country.--_Boston Herald._ A book which ought to be placed at the elbow of every school-teacher.--_Springfield Union._ The directions are so simple and sensible that they appeal to the reason of every parent and teacher.--_Philadelphia Press._ The influence of judicious exercise upon mind as well as body cannot be overestimated, and this will be a safe guide to this end, requiring no costume nor expensive apparatus.--_Presbyterian_, Philadelphia. Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York. _The above work will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, Canada, or Mexico, on receipt of the price._ * * * * * Transcriber's note: Obvious typographical errors were corrected. Hyphenation variants were retained as in the original. Illustration List: "Hands and Seat in Rearing ... facing P. 66." The illustration was actually facing P. 64; it has been moved to P. 66. 
40256	----	produced from scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print project.) TRANSCRIBER NOTES: Words in italics are indicated with an underscore (_) at the begining and end. Words in bold are indicated with an equal sign (=) at the begining and end. Subscripts contained in chemical notations are indicated as _{ }. The table on page 32 has been modified to fit by the use of keys to replace some of the information. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY--BULLETIN NO. 129. B. T. GALLOWAY, _Chief of Bureau_. BARIUM, A CAUSE OF THE LOCO-WEED DISEASE. BY ALBERT C. CRAWFORD, PHARMACOLOGIST, POISONOUS-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. ISSUED AUGUST 22, 1908. [Illustration] WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1908. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. _Physiologist and Pathologist, and Chief of Bureau_, Beverly T. Galloway. _Physiologist and Pathologist, and Assistant Chief of Bureau_, Albert F. Woods. _Laboratory of Plant Pathology_, Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge. _Investigations of Diseases of Fruits_, Merton B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge. _Laboratory of Forest Pathology_, Haven Metcalf, Pathologist in Charge. _Cotton and Truck Diseases and Plant Disease Survey_, William A. Orton, Pathologist in Charge. _Plant Life History Investigations_, Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge. _Cotton Breeding Investigations_, Archibald D. Shamel and Daniel N. Shoemaker, Physiologists in Charge. _Tobacco Investigations_, Archibald D. Shamel, Wightman W. Garner, and Ernest H. Mathewson, in Charge. _Corn Investigations_, Charles P. Hartley, Physiologist in Charge. _Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant Breeding Investigations_, Thomas H. Kearney, Physiologist in Charge. _Soil Bacteriology and Water Purification Investigations_, Karl F. Kellerman, Physiologist in Charge. _Bionomic Investigations of Tropical and Subtropical Plants_, Orator F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. _Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations and Tea Culture Investigations_, Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge. _Physical Laboratory_, Lyman J. Briggs, Physicist in Charge. _Crop Technology and Fiber Plant Investigations_, Nathan A. Cobb, Crop Technologist in Charge. _Taxonomic and Range Investigations_, Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge. _Farm Management Investigations_, William J. Spillman, Agriculturist in Charge. _Grain Investigations_, Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealist in Charge. _Arlington Experimental Farm_, Lee C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge. _Vegetable Testing Gardens_, William W. Tracy, sr., Superintendent. _Sugar-Beet Investigations_, Charles O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge. _Western Agricultural Extension Investigations_, Carl S. Scofield, Agriculturist in Charge. _Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations_, E. Channing Chilcott, Agriculturist in Charge. _Pomological Collections_, Gustavus B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge. _Field Investigations in Pomology_, William A. Taylor and G. Harold Powell, Pomologists in Charge. _Experimental Gardens and Grounds_, Edward N. Byrnes, Superintendent. _Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction_, David Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer in Charge. _Forage Crop Investigations_, Charles V. Piper, Agrostologist in Charge. _Seed Laboratory_, Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge. _Grain Standardization_, John D. Shanahan, Crop Technologist in Charge. _Subtropical Laboratory and Garden, Miami, Fla._, Ernst A. Bessey, Pathologist in Charge. _Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal._, W. W. Tracy, jr., Assistant Botanist in Charge. _South Texas Garden, Brownsville, Tex._, Edward C. Green, Pomologist in Charge. _Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration Work_, Seaman A. Knapp, Special Agent in Charge. _Seed Distribution_ (Directed by Chief of Bureau), Lisle Morrison, Assistant in General Charge. _Editor_, J. E. Rockwell. _Chief Clerk_, James E. Jones. POISONOUS-PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Rodney H. True, _Physiologist in Charge_. C. Dwight Marsh, _Expert in Charge of Field Investigations_. Albert C. Crawford, _Pharmacologist_. Arthur B. Clawson, _Expert in Field Investigations_. Ivar Tidestrom, _Assistant Botanist, in Cooperation with Forest Service_. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, _Washington, D. C., April 10, 1908_. SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a technical bulletin entitled "Barium, a Cause of the Loco-Weed Disease," prepared by Dr. A. C. Crawford, Pharmacologist, under the direction of Dr. Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge of Poisonous-Plant Investigations, and to recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 129 of the series of this Bureau. For many years the stockmen in many parts of the West have reported disastrous consequences following the eating of so-called loco weeds characteristic of the regions involved. While many have doubted any causal relation between the plants in question and the stock losses, the reality of the damage has remained and has seemed to require a thoroughgoing sifting of the evidence concerning the part played by the plants. Accordingly, in the spring of 1905 a station for the experimental study of the problem was established at Hugo, Colo., in charge of Dr. C. Dwight Marsh, Expert, in cooperation with the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. Later a further feeding experiment was undertaken at Imperial, Nebr., in cooperation with the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station. Parallel with the feeding work in the field, laboratory work, designed to test under laboratory conditions the poisonous action of the plants from given areas, was undertaken at Washington by Dr. A. C. Crawford, Pharmacologist. A further phase of his part of the work was an attempt to ascertain the nature of such poisonous substance or substances as might occur in the loco plants. In both of these lines of work Doctor Crawford has been successful, and the technical results of his work are here collected. Respectfully, B. T. GALLOWAY, _Chief of Bureau_. Hon. JAMES WILSON, _Secretary of Agriculture_. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. A scientific understanding of the so-called loco-weed disease has been demanded and sought after for several decades for most practical purposes, but, in spite of the great amount of attention which this problem has received, no general agreement has been found among the results obtained. The field investigations have given such contradictory evidence that until the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture turned its attention to the matter the whole subject of the loco disease was regarded by many as a kind of delusion and the existence of a distinct entity was freely doubted. Not only did this confusion characterize the field aspect of the matter, but the situation viewed from the standpoint of laboratory study was also much obscured. Some investigators claimed to have separated poisonous substances of various sorts from the loco weeds, while others of equal scientific standing denied the presence of any poisonous substance in the plants under general suspicion--the so-called loco weeds. In view of the great seriousness of the loco situation from the standpoint of the stock interests, an active campaign both in the line of feeding experiments in the field and laboratory study at Washington was undertaken by the Office of Poisonous-Plant Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The feeding experiments carried out at Hugo, Colo., in cooperation with the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, before the close of the first season developed evidence that there was in reality such a thing as a loco disease. The investigator in charge was enabled to describe the disease in its most important manifestations and made it possible to sift the facts from the large number of contradictory statements in the literature. The laboratory work, undertaken and carried on simultaneously, consisted of a pharmacological study, under laboratory conditions and with the usual laboratory subjects, of the action of plant material sent in from the field. The acute phase of loco-weed poisoning, as well as a more prolonged type of the disease, was studied. In plants found in this preliminary feeding to be harmful, the poisonous principle was sought, with the very striking results fully described in this paper. The demonstration of the presence of barium in the plants was followed by barium feeding, with the production of symptoms which agreed with those produced in the laboratory with loco extracts and in the field experiments with the loco plants as seen growing on the range. By comparing these laboratory results with those produced in connection with the field work, it became possible to sift the wheat from the chaff in the mass of contradictory evidence detailed in the literature of this subject. The practical importance of the discovery of the true nature of the active poisonous principle of the loco weeds is very great. It not only sheds light on the loco situation and enables one to explain many hitherto inexplicable things, but it also adds much to our knowledge of barium in its medical bearings. It opens up most important problems concerning the soils and the relation of the flora to them. It should be borne in mind that although barium is shown to be chiefly responsible for the poisonous properties of loco weeds in eastern Colorado, it is entirely possible that in other regions other substances may be equally or even more significant. This discovery also seems likely to provide a basis for a rational treatment of locoed stock. Unfortunately, the discovery of the fact that barium is the poisonous constituent of loco weeds came too late to aid in the search for remedial measures on the range during the period covered by this report, but those empirically arrived at have received additional support from these laboratory results. Thus the work in field and laboratory, undertaken after repeated attempts and discouraging failures by others, has yielded results to persistent scientific research and promises practical aid to the now suffering live-stock interests. The results of the laboratory work are presented in this bulletin. RODNEY H. TRUE, _Physiologist in Charge_. CONTENTS. Page. Geographical distribution of the loco-weed disease and allied conditions 9 Plants associated with the locoed condition 10 Clinical symptoms of locoed animals as described in literature 12 Conditions similar to loco-weed poisoning in other parts of the world 16 Pathological conditions in locoed animals as described on the range 18 Historical sketch of loco investigations from a pharmacological standpoint 19 Notes on various members of the loco-weed family 35 Laboratory experiments--physiological 36 Experiments on rabbits 36 Acute cases 36 Chronic cases 38 Pregnant animals 42 Subcutaneous injections 43 Summary of feeding experiments on rabbits 44 Experiments on sheep 44 Laboratory experiments--chemical 46 Effect of the aqueous extract of ashed loco plants 49 Total ash determinations of loco plants 54 Barium determinations in the ash of loco plants 55 Analysis of soils 57 Feeding experiments with barium salts on animals in the laboratory 57 Barium poisoning in man 62 Pathological lesions in experimental barium poisoning 65 Toxicity of various aqueous extracts of loco plants 66 Theoretical antidote for loco-weed poisoning 71 Action of barium on domestic and farm animals 72 Application of the results of these investigations to the range 74 Conclusions 75 Index 77 BARIUM, A CAUSE OF THE LOCO-WEED DISEASE. =GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LOCO-WEED DISEASE AND ALLIED CONDITIONS.= In our Western States there is a marked annual loss of stock due to various causes. Some of these animals die in a condition known as "locoed," a term derived from the Spanish word "loco," meaning foolish or crazy. This disorder extends from Montana to Texas and Mexico, and from Kansas and Nebraska to California.[1] In 1898 the United States Department of Agriculture sent out, under the immediate direction of Mr. V. K. Chesnut, a request for information concerning the ravages of the loco disease. It was found that in the ten States of California, Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Texas, and Wyoming the loss in 1898 was $144,850. Of this amount, $117,300 was attributed to Colorado alone; in fact, the disorder spread so that this State expended more than $200,000 in two years and over $425,000 in a period of nine years in attempts to eradicate the loco plants, the supposed cause of the trouble.[2] The loss in one area of 35 by 120 miles in southwestern Kansas amounted to 25,000 cattle in 1883.[3] This loss in stock has been so great that the raising of horses has of necessity been abandoned in certain areas on account of the prevalence of these loco weeds. It is difficult to obtain accurate data, as the ranchmen believe that any information as to the prevalence of the disorder would interfere with the value of their stock.[4] Dr. James Fletcher, of the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, testified before the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization that he had never seen a case in the North-west of a Canadian bred animal being locoed, although the loco plants were prevalent. He explained this absence of loco disease by the abundance of grass on the range, because of which the animals do not acquire the habit of eating loco plants.[5] Cases have been reported, however, in Manitoba.[6] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [1] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 271. 1887. [2] Bur. Animal Industry, 6th and 7th Ann. Repts. (1889 and 1890), p. 272. 1891. [3] Day, M. G. Loco-Weed. In F. P. Foster's Reference-Book of Practical Therapeutics, vol. 1, p. 587. 1896. [4] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 18. 1893. [5] Fletcher, J. Evidence Before the Select Standing Comminttee on Agriculture and Colonization. Ottawas, 1905, p. 53. [6] Fletcher, J. Experimental Farms Reports for 1892, p. 148. 1893. =PLANTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE LOCOED CONDITION.= The condition known as "locoed" is popularly believed to be due to eating various plants, especially the members of the Astragalus and Aragallus genera of the Leguminosæ, or pea family, but particularly to _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_. These plants have therefore received the name "loco plants,"[7] or crazy weed. But others, as _Astragalus mortoni_,[8] _A. hornii_, _A. lentiginosus_, _A. pattersoni_,[9] _A. nuttallianus_, _A. missouriensis_, _A. lotifloras_, _A. bisulcatus_, _A. haydenianus_,[10] _A. tridactylicus_,[11] _Crotalaria sagittalis_, _Lotus americanus_,[12] _Sophora sericea_, _Caprioides aureum_, _Aragallus deflexa_,[13] _A. campestris_,[14] _A. lagopus_,[15] _Malvastrum coccineum_, _Amaranthus graecizans_, and _Rhamnus lanceolata_, are considered by some as loco plants.[16] In other places _Stipa vaseyi_, _Leucocrinum montanum_, _Fritillaria pudica_, _Zygadenus elegans_,[17] and even species of Delphinium are considered loco plants, so widely has this name been used. In Mexico the term "locoed" embraces a condition due to the action of _Cannabis sativa_ and various members of the nightshade family. This term has been much abused and has been made to embrace many groups of symptoms. In fact, if an animal dies while showing more or less stupor it is said to be locoed.[18] The early Spanish settlers seemed to be unfamiliar with the disease, or at least of any causative relation between the plant and the disease. The Spanish name for _Astragalus mollissimus_ was "Garbanzillo," from its resemblance to Garbanzo (_Cicer arietinum_), which is used in Spain as a food.[19] The term as applied to this condition seems to be of comparatively recent origin.[20] A somewhat similar condition to the loco in stock is sometimes attributed by the ranchmen of our Western States to eating various sages.[21] In Texas the loco disease is known as "grass staggers."[22] Hayes[23] has described as follows a condition known as grass staggers, which apparently has little resemblance to loco and is supposed to be due to eating overripe grass, especially rye. The symptoms, generally, take two or three days to become developed. The animal gradually becomes more or less unconscious and paralyzed and staggers if forced to walk. Although he may have great difficulty in keeping on his legs, he is extremely averse from going down and leans for support against any convenient object. He breathes in a snoring manner. The mucous membranes are tinged with yellow. Convulsions, or spasms, like those of tetanus, may come on. Recovery may be expected in cases which are not marked by extreme symptoms. If animals are not regularly salted, they visit salt deposits and eat the alkalis. This some sheepmen believe to be the cause of the locoed condition, but this is disproved by the occurrence of locoed animals in ranges without salt. Others modify this view by claiming that the vitiation in taste from eating these alkalis leads to a desire for the loco weeds and thus to the locoed condition.[24] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [5] Fletcher, J. Evidence Before the Select Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization. Ottawa, 1905, p. 53. [7] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, p. 555. 1887.--Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Report. (1886), p. 271. 1887. [8] Eastwood, A. The Loco Weeds. Zoe, vol. 3, p. 53. 1892. [9] Chesnut, V. K. Preliminary Catalogue of Plants Poisonous to Stock. Bur. Animal Industry, 15th Ann. Rept. (1898), p. 404. [10] Williams, T. A. Some Plants Injurious to Stock. S. Dak. Agric. Coll. and Exper. Sta. Bul. 33, p. 21. 1893. [11] Givens, A. J. Loco or Crazy Weed. Med. Century, vol. 1, p. 22. 1893. [12] Eastwood, A., l. c. 1892. [13] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, p. 555. 1887. [14] Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Proc. for 1879, vol. 27, p. 611. 1880. [15] Kelsey, F. D. Another Loco Plant. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 20. 1889. [16] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Kans. State Board Agric., 5th Bienn. Rept., p. 209. 1887. [17] Anderson, F. W. Poisonous Plants and the Symptoms They Produce. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 180. 1889.--Pammel, L. H. Loco Weeds. Vis Medicatrix, vol. 1, p. 44. 1891. [18] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 275. 1887.--Anderson, F. W. Poisonous Plants and the Symptoms They Produce. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 180. 1889. NOTE.--The symptoms described in Janvier's interesting story, "In Old Mexico" (Scribner's Magazine, vol. 1, p. 67, 1887), would coincide with those due to some member of the nightshade family (probably _Datura stramonium_). See also Pilgrim, C. W., Does the Loco Weed Produce Insanity? in Proc. Amer. Medico-Psycholog. Assoc., vol. 5, p. 167. 1898. [19] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Kans. State Board Agric., 5th Bienn. Rept., p. 209. 1887. [20] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 272. 1887. [21] Mayo, N. S. Loco. The Industrialist, vol. 30, p. 473. 1904. [22] Science, vol. 9, p. 32. 1887. [23] Hayes, M. H. Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners, London, 1903, p. 425.--Compare Woronin, M. Ueber die Taumelgetreide in Süd-Ussurien. Bot. Zeit., vol. 49, p. 80. 1891. [24] Chesnut, V. K., and Wilcox, E. V. Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot., Bul. 26, p. 88. 1901. NOTE.--The wide distribution of these plants is claimed to be partly due to the buffalo. See Blankinship, J. W., The Loco and Some Other Poisonous Plants in Montana, in Mont. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bul. 45, p. 79. 1903. =CLINICAL SYMPTOMS OF LOCOED ANIMALS AS DESCRIBED IN LITERATURE.= The animals usually affected are sheep, horses, cattle, mules,[25] donkeys,[26] and goats. It is claimed that practically all herbivorous animals are liable to the disease, even antelopes being affected.[27] Hogs are said to be unaffected,[28] but definite information is lacking. Cows seem to be less sensitive to this form of intoxication.[29] The condition is usually a chronic one, although acute cases are said to occur at times. The symptoms consist of digestive disturbances, associated with emaciation and various symptoms suggesting lesions in the nervous system, central or peripheral. The animals lose their appetite from the first, begin to emaciate, and show symptoms of malnutrition and starvation. The head trembles, the gait becomes feeble and uncertain, the eyes become sunken and have a "flat, glassy look."[30] There is a general sluggishness, muscular incoordination, and difficulty in motion; finally all control of the limbs is lost and the animal is unable to stand; the coat becomes rough and loses its luster, and, in fact, all the typical symptoms of starvation appear. In some cases diarrhea is also present. All of Nockolds's animals, however, were constipated and the stools were covered with mucus.[31] The dependent portions of the body may swell, simply as an expression of the anæmia.[32] Sometimes there are symptoms indicating acute pain,[33] the animals running about as if affected with colic. They may belch and their abdomens swell. Some claim that the animals are markedly salivated so that the saliva trickles from their mouths. In other cases the mouth may be dry.[34] The eyes may be rolled up so that the whites alone show. In some cases the pupil has been noted to be dilated, as in atropine poisoning,[35] but Wilcox states that they are contracted as after the use of eserine.[36] The temperature of the animal falls from 1/2 degree to 1-1/2 degrees F. below normal.[37] Tetanic symptoms may occur,[38] or the muscles of the mouth and tongue becoming paralyzed may interfere with mastication. When water is offered to the animal, it gazes stupidly at it and may not drink for days. One of the symptoms noted is the loss of power to back properly.[39] Cows during the first two or three months of gestation are almost sure to abort.[40] This is claimed by Knowles, however, to be due to malnutrition. As a result of these observations, suggesting some uterine action, the drug has been proposed as an emmenagogue.[41] The psychical symptoms are shown by errors of judgment. The animal becomes dull and spiritless and wanders about half dazed. The mental dullness passes into stupor. This dull, stupid condition has been compared to intoxication with opium. If the locoed horse is led across a stick lying on the ground he often jumps high as if it were a great obstacle. The animal may now have maniacal attacks, during which he rears and may fall backward,[42] and makes unreasonable jumps and other unexpected movements, thus rendering himself dangerous to man.[43] Other symptoms due to disturbances of the central nervous system are hallucinations of various sorts. Though the optic nerve itself is apparently not affected, the animal will stare at an object for a long time without any apparent comprehension of its nature. This disturbance in the visual function McCullaugh claims to be one of the first symptoms of this disease. The animal seems to lose all idea of distance, as he will butt against an obstruction as if oblivious of its presence. Any sudden or violent motion made before him may cause him to fall. According to some, the animal loses the sense which guides him in finding water. A cow may fail to recognize her calf.[44] There is more or less loss of control of the limbs[45] and tremors;[46] the feet are lifted abnormally high when trotting, and, if crowded, the animal falls headlong and will jump over little hollows as if they were wide ditches.[47] The horse may shy without apparent cause and kick at imaginary objects,[48] and, in fact, the reasoning powers seem to be lost. These attacks are brought on by sudden excitement or when crossing water.[49] There may be cutaneous hyperæsthesia. The animals may remain with the herd, but they often wander away. Stalker records the following observations: I have seen a single animal miles away from any other individual of the herd, carefully searching as if for some lost object, and when a loco plant is found he would devour every morsel of it with the greatest relish. As soon as one plant was eaten he would immediately go in search of more, apparently oblivious to everything but the intoxication afforded by his one favorite article of food.[50] All of Nockolds's animals which were locoed were mares more than 6 years of age.[51] According to Stalker there is a passive type in which the animal shows symptoms only on being disturbed; the animal then becomes unmanageable. This happens even with old, well-broken saddle horses.[52] There are few published reports as to the symptoms occurring in sheep which are locoed. Stalker[53] says sheep "become loco-eaters, grow stupid, emaciated, and eventually die." One of the few descriptions of the symptoms is that of Ruedi,[54] in which he claims that the symptoms in sheep are those comparable to the symptoms of cerebro-spinal meningitis except that there is an absence of fever. Ruedi speaks of sheep "lying flat on the ground, not able to stand, and not able even to lift their heads to drink the offered water; the head and the vertebra in opisthotonus position; the four legs stretched out and stiff; breathing was stertorous, pulse slow, abdomen much distended, diarrhea present. * * * The heart * * * was very slow and insufficient." The teeth (in sheep) may blacken and fall out.[55] It is mainly the young animals, such as lambs and colts, that are affected, probably due to the fact that their attention is more easily directed to the flower of the loco[56] plants. It is claimed (on slight evidence) that men have become locoed. The symptoms in them are nausea and headache.[57] Schuchardt[58] has called attention to the resemblance of the symptoms in locoed animals to those which occur in so-called lathyrism, but most observers in this country have especially marked the resemblance of the symptoms to those induced by the habitual use of narcotic drugs.[59] As a rule the loco plants are refused by animals save when there is lack of other food, although at times animals have shown the keenest relish for these plants, rejected all other forage, and devoted their whole attention to searching for the loco plants.[60] Stalker says that animals not too long addicted to the use of these plants, if confined, soon lose their taste for them (after two or three months),[61] although old loco eaters do not readily lose the habit. Stalker also says that "it is to be presumed that the plant is possessed of some toxic property that has a specific effect on the nervous centers, and that these effects have a marked tendency to remain permanent."[62] The fundamental character of the disorder seems to be a progressing anæmia. The interpretation of psychical symptoms in herbivora, and especially on the range, must often be fallacious. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [25] Kingsley, B. F. The Loco Plant. Daniel's Texas Medical Journal, vol. 3, p. 522. 1888. [26] Schwartzkopff, O. The Effects of "Loco-Weed." Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 12, p. 162. 1888. [27] McCullaugh, F. A. Locoed Horses. Journ. Comp. Med. & Vet. Archives, vol. 13, p. 435. 1892. [28] Eastwood, A. The Loco Weeds. Zoe, vol. 3, p. 57. 1892. [29] Vasey, G. Plants Poisonous to Cattle in California. Report of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1874, p. 159. 1875. [30] Vasey, G., l. c., p. 159. [31] Nockolds, C. Poisoning by Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 20, p. 570. 1896-7. [32] Patterson, A. H. Starvation OEdema. Med. Rev., vol. 56, p. 715, 1899. [33] Vasey, G. Botanical Notes, Monthly Reports of Dept. Agriculture for 1873, p. 504. 1874. [34] Anderson, F. W. Poisonous Plants and the Symptoms They Produce. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 180. 1889. [35] Schwartzkopff, O. The Effects of "Loco-Weed." Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 12, p. 161. 1888. [36] Wilcox, T. E. Treatment of "Loco" Poisoning in Idaho Territory. Med. Rec., vol. 31, p. 268. 1887. [37] Mayo, N. S. Some Observations Upon Loco. Kans. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 35, p. 118. 1893. [38] McCullaugh, F. A. Locoed Horses. Journ. Comp. Med. and Vet. Archives, vol. 13, p. 436. 1892. [39] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 12. 1893. [40] Knowles, M. E. Loco Poisoning. Breeders' Gaz., vol. 39, p. 973. 1901.--Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Kans. State Board of Agric., 5th Bienn. Rept., p. 211. 1887.--Ruedi, C. Loco Weed. Trans. Colo. State Med. Soc., p. 422. 1895. [41] Miller, C. H. The Loco Weed: Its Probable Usefulness as an Emmenagogue. Southern Clinic, vol. 11, p. 269. 1888. [42] Vasey, G. Botanical Notes. Monthly Reports of Dept. Agriculture for 1873, p. 504. 1874. [43] Parker, W. T. The Loco-Weed. Science, vol. 23, p. 101. 1894. [44] Vasey, G. Botanical Notes. Monthly Reports of Dept. Agriculture for 1874, p. 513. 1875. [45] Anderson, F. W. Poisonous Plants and the Symptoms They Produce. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 180. 1889. [46] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., vol. 36, p. 111. 1888. [47] Nockolds, C. Poisoning by Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 20, p. 570. 1896-7. [48] Knowles, M. E. Loco Poisoning. Breeders' Gaz., vol. 39, p. 972. 1901. [49] Vasey, G. Botanical Notes. Monthly Reports of Dept. Agriculture for 1873, p. 504. 1874. [50] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 272. 1887.--Nockolds, C. Poisoning by Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 20, p. 570. 1896-7.--Maisch, J. M. Poisonous Species of Astragalus. Amer. Journ. Pharm., vol. 51, p. 239. 1879. [51] Nockolds, C. Poisoning by Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 20, p. 570. 1896-7. [52] Stalker, M., l. c., p. 273. [53] Stalker, M., l. c., p. 274. [54] Ruedi, C. Loco Weed (Astragalus Mollissimus): A Toxico-Chemical Study. Trans. Colo. State Med. Soc., 1895, p. 417. [55] Blankinship, J. W. Loco and Some Other Poisonous Plants in Montana. Mont. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bul. 45, p. 81. 1903. [56] Blankinship, J. W., l. c. [57] Day, M. G. Loco-Weed. In F. P. Foster's Reference Book of Practical Therapeutics, vol. 1, p. 588. 1896.--Pilgrim, C. W. Does the Loco-Weed Produce Insanity? Proc. Amer. Medico-Psycholog. Assoc., vol. 5, p. 167. 1898. [58] Schuchardt, B. Die Loco-Krankheit der Pferde und des Rindviehs. Deutsch. Zeits. f. Thiermed., vol. 18, p. 405. 1892.--Parker, W. T. Loco-Weed. Science, vol. 23, p. 101. 1894. [59] McCullaugh, F. A. Locoed Horses. Journ. Comp. Med. and Vet. Archives, vol. 13, p. 435. 1892. [60] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 272. 1887. [61] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 272. 1887.--See also Linfield, F. B. Sheep Feeding, in Mont. Agric. Coll. Exper. Sta. Bul., 59. 1905.--Special Report on Diseases of Cattle. Bur. Animal Industry, 1904, p. 66.--Wilcox, E. V. Plant Poisoning of Stock in Montana. Bur. Animal Industry, 17th Ann. Rept., p. 115. 1900. [62] Stalker, M., l. c., p. 275. =CONDITIONS SIMILAR TO LOCO-WEED POISONING IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD.= According to Maiden[63] a condition similar to loco is met with among animals in Australia and is there believed to be due to eating various species of Swainsona.[64] As Maiden says, "Its effect on sheep is well known; they separate from the flock, wander about listlessly, and are known to the shepherds as 'pea-eaters' or 'indigo-eaters.' When once a sheep takes to eating this plant it seldom or never fattens, and may be said to be lost to its owner." Horses, after eating this herb, "were exceptionally difficult to catch, and it was observed how strange they appeared. Their eyes were staring out of their heads and they were prancing against trees and stumps. The second day two out of nine died, and five others had to be left at the camp." Martin[65] experimentally studied these cases of intoxication and sums up his work as follows: 1. That one can by feeding sheep upon Darling pea reproduce all the symptoms which are attributed by pastoralists to this cause. Briefly stated these symptoms are: Stupidity, loss of alertness and an agonized expression, followed by stiffness and slight staggering and frequently trembling of the head or limbs. Later, clumsiness and unsteadiness ensue, which slowly advance until the animal often falls down. In this stage, the action of the animal in running over small obstacles is characteristic. It jumps over a twig as if it were a foot in height. When first it commences to tumble about, it is able more or less readily to regain its feet, but in the advanced stage of the disease this is impossible and, after exhausting itself in efforts to do so, it remains lying down until it dies. During the whole time the sheep become progressively more bloodless, and in advanced cases the blood when shed appears to the naked eye lighter in color. It contains fewer red blood-cells (about two-thirds to one-half the usual number). (The corpuscles were estimated in several cases by means of a hæmocytometer.) All these symptoms are much aggravated by driving. Thus, an animal in which the symptoms are little marked may exhibit them in a striking degree after being driven. In addition to the above the teeth (especially in young sheep) frequently become loose, and consequently displaced or even dislodged. 2. That the time which elapses before the onset of definite symptoms is three to four weeks in sheep of 2 to 3 years old. (It is probable, however, that with younger animals the time is shorter.) 3. That under the conditions of the experiment, the animals survived about three months. They lived, however, an invalid's life. Everything was brought to them, and it is improbable that if feeding exclusively upon the pea, and left to shift for themselves in the paddocks, they would survive more than two months. 4. That if a sheep be returned to proper fodder after one month to six weeks feeding upon the pea, and before the symptoms are fully established, it may recover completely. 5. That when once the paralytic symptoms are established it will not recover; but if returned to proper food, will remain in much the same condition, becoming neither better nor worse. 6. That Darling pea contains a very fair amount of nourishing material so that animals may, provided they eat it readily, retain their condition on it for some weeks, until the poisonous principle contained has had time to exert its effects. These plants, if fed with other herbage, do not seem to be injurious and apparently lose their harmful action upon being cultivated.[66] As long as salt is properly fed the animals will not eat this plant[67] and are said to suffer no effects from it. Physiological study has shown the presence of a body with marked sudorific power which causes rapid emaciation in frogs.[68] It has been claimed that these symptoms are due to the presence of a narcotic poison in the plant.[69] Post-mortem examinations were negative save for the presence of a peripheral neuritis.[70] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [63] Maiden, J. H. Plants Reputed to be Poisonous to Stock in Australia. Dept. Agric., New South Wales, Misc. Pub. No. 477, pp. 15, 16. 1901. [64] Notes on Some American and Australian Plants Injurious to Stock. Agric. Gaz., New South Wales, vol. 4, p. 677. 1894.--Notes on Weeds. The Darling Pea. Agric. Gaz., New South Wales, vol. 3, p. 330. 1893. [65] Martin, C. J. Report on an Investigation into the Effects of Darling Pea (Swainsona Galegifolia) upon Sheep. Agric. Gaz., New South Wales, vol. 8, p. 366. 1898. [66] Woolls, W. On the Forage-Plants Indigenous in New South Wales. Linn. Soc., New South Wales, Proc., vol. 7, pp. 315-316. 1882. [67] Guthrie, F. B., and Turner, F. Supposed Poisonous Plant. Agric. Gaz., New South Wales, vol. 4, p. 86. 1894. [68] Bailey, F. M., and Gordon, P. R. Plants Reputed Poisonous and Injurious to Stock, Brisbane, 1887, p. 25. [69] Guthrie, F. B., and Turner, F. Supposed Poisonous Plant. Agric. Gaz., New South Wales, vol. 4, p. 87. 1894. [70] Martin, C. J. Report on the Investigation into the Effects of Darling Pea (Swainsona Galegifolia) upon Sheep. Agric. Gaz., New South Wales, vol. 8, p. 367. 1898. (Further literature on the indigo disease will be found in Bailey, F. M., and Gordon, P. R. Plants Reputed Poisonous and Injurious to Stock, Brisbane, 1887, p. 25). NOTE.--In Canada a chronic disease associated with cirrhosis of the liver results from eating ragwort, or _Senecio jacobaea_. See Dept. of Agriculture, Canada, Rept. of Veterinary Director General, 1905, Ottawa, 1906, p. 31.--In South Africa a disorder known as nenta appears in goats after eating certain plants, especially _Cotyledon ventricosa_. See Hutcheon, D., Nenta, in Agric. Journ. Cape of Good Hope, vol. 14, p. 862. 1899. =PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS IN LOCOED ANIMALS AS DESCRIBED ON THE RANGE.= The pathological features as described by previous writers are a softening and ulceration of the stomach walls[71] and a degeneration of the walls of the intestines with or without perforations. The peritoneum may be found inflamed.[72] The peritoneum and omentum in one case (cow), reported by Sayre, were covered with small nodules. These were probably tubercular in origin. The colon in one horse was found enormously distended, while the coecum and small intestines were normal,[73] save that the walls appeared thin. Ulcers have been found at times in the kidneys, but were probably secondary in origin, as other cases are reported with normal kidneys. Faville has found in some cases amyloid degeneration. The pancreas and spleen are reported normal. The abdominal cavity may contain a slight effusion.[74] The liver has been found cirrhotic, and at times shows tubercular lesions of a secondary nature. The inner coat of the bladder has been found softened, and in sheep the bladder may be markedly distended at the autopsy. The cerebral membranes are congested and perhaps adherent,[75] and there may be blood clots over the longitudinal sinus or at the base of the brain. Effusions have been especially noted around the medulla. The arachnoid has also shown slight congestion, and in other cases the membranes showed a slight thickening. The middle ventricle was found filled with yellow serum, while the fourth ventricle contained a hemorrhagic effusion,[76] and the base of the brain was covered by a clot. The hemorrhage may become organized and the brain be held to the membranes by tough organized fibers. In many cases serous effusion is present in the lateral ventricles. The arachnoid space is also in some cases similarly filled. Microscopic examination of the brain in the case of a steer showed atrophy of Purkinjie's cells.[77] In sheep the post-mortem examination showed paleness, anæmia of the muscles, and great distention of the abdomen. The intestines were found filled with gases, and the mesenteric blood vessels filled with blood. No peritonitis, or ascites, or ecchymoses in the mucous membranes were noted in the autopsies made on sheep by Ruedi. The liver has been seen enlarged. In sheep the brain was anæmic. Microscopically the brain showed atrophy and the Purkinjie's cells disappeared or their processes atrophied. In these sheep the brain was so anæmic that the distinction between the gray and the white matter was hard to define.[78] The membranes of the cord have been found inflamed and adherent, but the spinal cord was usually normal.[79] In some cases, however, the spinal cord has been found softened[80] and oedematous. The arteries of the limbs were gorged with blood,[81] and at the same time there was a collection of serum in the abdominal cavity. Death is thought to be due to starvation.[82] In other words, the pathological condition, according to published accounts, shows little that is characteristic save some action on the gastro-intestinal tract. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [71] Anderson, F. W. Poisonous Plants and the Symptoms They Produce. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 180. 1889. [72] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, p. 558. 1887. [73] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 12. 1893. [74] Faville, in O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 11. 1893. [75] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, p. 559. 1887. [76] Stalker, M. The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Rept. (1886), p. 274. 1887--Sayre, L. E. Loco-Weed. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Proc., vol. 38, p. 108. 1890.--O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, pp. 16, 17. 1893. [77] Mayo, N. S., l. c., p. 118. [78] Ruedi, C. Loco Weed (Astragalus Mollissimus): A Toxico-Chemical Study. Trans. Colo. State Med. Soc., 1895, p. 418. [79] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, p. 559. 1887. [80] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 12. 1893.--Klench, J. P. Rattleweed or Loco Disease. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol 12, p. 399. 1888. [81] Anderson, F. W. Poisonous Plants and the Symptoms They Produce. Bot. Gaz., vol. 14, p. 180. 1889. [82] McCullaugh, F. A. Locoed Horses. Journ. Comp. Med. and Vet. Archives, vol. 13, p. 436. 1892. =HISTORICAL SKETCH OF LOCO INVESTIGATIONS FROM A PHARMACOLOGICAL STANDPOINT.= During the western immigration of 1849 the Indians along the Missouri River described to the immigrants a plant (_Astragalus mollissimus_) producing death in horses and cattle, which was preceded by various forms of excitement.[83] The attention of the United States Department of Agriculture was first called to the toxic action of the loco plants in 1873, when specimens of the plants, which were identified as _Astragalus hornii_ and _A. lentiginosus_,[84] were sent from California by Mr. O. B. Ormsby, with the statement that they were poisonous to stock, especially to horses. Mrs. J. S. Whipple also corroborated this information. The botanist of the Department, Dr. George Vasey,[85] published a note and requested further information concerning the plants. These notes were enlarged by a similar contribution by Dr. P. Moffat on _Aragallus lamberti_.[86] The following year Vasey reported with more fullness, and his description of the action of the plants is substantially what we find in most of the books of to-day. In 1876 Lemmon[87] noted that _Astragalus mortoni_ was "a deadly sheep poison." At the same time Rothrock,[88] botanist of the United States Geographical Survey under Lieutenant Wheeler, described these plants, and Kellogg,[89] a botanist in California, reported that _Astragalus menziesii_ was causing great losses in horses, sheep, and cattle and claimed that the stockmen had been familiar with this disorder for at least ten or fifteen years. This report of Kellogg was followed by that of Rothrock[90] in 1877. In 1876 a specimen of _Aragallus lamberti_ was sent from Colorado to Professor Prescott, of the University of Michigan, under the name of "crazy weed," with the statement that it was poisonous to horses and cattle and that, while the Mexicans often used it in making beer, it sometimes caused symptoms in men. His pupil, Miss Watson, undertook a study of its chemical properties. She failed to isolate any pure chemical compound, but claimed that in the root there was a body giving alkaloidal reactions and that there was also a resinous body present. Another of his pupils, W. R. Birdsall, took the ground-up root himself in doses of 20 grains at various intervals for several days and later 40-grain doses in one and a half hours, but without experiencing any marked symptoms except colicky pains. A kitten also was given about one and a half ounces of the fluid extract without effect. Prescott[91] sums up by saying that "it would seem that the dried ground root possesses no poisonous properties." The work of Miss Watson was considered of sufficient importance to be abstracted in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1878 (1879), page 134. Gradually the Department of Agriculture became more and more interested in this subject, and Peter Collier, chief chemist, in 1878, examined the roots and leaves of _Aragallus lamberti_ for alkaloids, but found none.[92] In 1880 Peter Collier published a proximate analysis of _Astragalus mollissimus_ made by Francis A. Wentz, of Kansas. His investigations showed it to have an ash content of 6.76 per cent, while the _Aragallus lamberti_, analyzed by L. F. Dyrenforth, of Chicago, showed an ash content of 4.32 per cent. Collier[93] sums up by saying: From the additional work done at this Department it seems probable that the deleterious effects observed from animals eating this plant may be due principally to the fact that the sweet taste causes cattle to reject more nutritious food and strive to subsist upon the Oxytropis only. This plant is mechanically a very unfit substance for food, being of a tough, fibrous, and indigestible character. It is possible that, when the animal becomes somewhat enfeebled by lack of proper nourishment, the small amount of alkaloid may have a direct poisonous action. Again, it seems probable that the plant may contain much larger proportions of alkaloid at certain stages in its development than at others, or the seeds may prove to be the most injurious portion. The departmental work was continued by further short notices by Vasey[94] in 1884, 1886, and 1887, and by the report of Stalker in 1887. This report by Stalker is still the best description on the clinical side of the question. Rothrock,[95] meeting the loco plants in his survey work, describes their effects on animals as follows: Certain it is, however, that, once commenced, they continue it, passing through temporary intoxication to a complete nervous and muscular wreck in the later stages, when it has developed into a fully marked disease which terminates in death from starvation or inability to digest a more nourishing food. The animal toward the last becomes stupid or wild, or even vicious, or, again, acting as though attacked with "blind staggers." Under the name of Crotalaria, H. Gibbons,[96] in 1879, refers to a plant growing in California which it was claimed was producing characteristic symptoms of poisoning in horses and sheep. This plant Professor Maisch afterwards identified as _Aragallus lamberti_. Dr. Isaac Ott[97] undertook the physiological study of the question and used an alcoholic extract of _Astragalus mollissimus_. He found from its action on frogs, rabbits, and cats that the plant had decided physiological action, as follows: (1) It decreases the irritability of the motor nerves. (2) Greatly affects the sensory ganglia of the central nervous system, preventing them from readily receiving impressions. (3) Has a spinal tetanic action. (4) Kills mainly by arrest of the heart. (5) Increases the salivary secretion. (6) Has a stupefying action on the brain. (7) Reduces the cardiac force and frequency. (8) Temporarily increases arterial tension, but finally decreases it. (9) It greatly dilates the pupil. Doctor Stockman, in England, about this time tried the action of the aqueous and alcoholic extracts of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ sent from Texas. He experimented with frogs and rabbits in increasing doses, but without result.[98] In 1888 Hill reported that a species of Astragalus was acting detrimentally on cattle, goats, and sheep in Cyprus and that these animals fell down as if intoxicated, and also that the natives in time of great drought feed their cattle with this plant mixed with straw, but that they were always made sick until they became used to it. In 1885 Professor Sayre, of the University of Kansas, undertook the investigation of the loco question. His first report was made in the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Sciences for 1885, and his reports have been continued at various periods up to 1904. The results of his experiments on various animals--dogs, cats, and frogs[99]--have been entirely negative. He administered alcoholic preparations to himself and took them until they became too nauseous to continue, and found they produced absolutely no symptoms besides the nausea. He suggests, however, that if the plant really is poisonous it is due to its fine hairs, which might mechanically cause death. Sayre has stated that he has sent thousands of pounds of the dried loco plants to various investigators in America and Europe, but all reports were negative as to pharmacological activity. He has, however, done some work on the pure chemistry of the plant and found that the plant contained 10 per cent of moisture and yielded 12.01 per cent of ash. Of this ash, 25 per cent was soluble in water, while 50.6 per cent was soluble in HCl. The insoluble portion consisted largely of silica. He found CaO, K_{2}O, MgO, Al_{2}O_{3}, and Fe_{2}O_{3}, with the acid radicals SO_{3}, Cl, P_{2}O_{5}, CO_{2}, and SiO_{2}.[100] Although Sayre claims that the plant is physiologically inactive, he tried by chemical means to isolate a physiologically active body and, naturally enough under the circumstances, failed to find one. He claims that while the plant might give alkaloid reactions, he was unable to isolate this body in a pure state, and that alfalfa reacted similarly. The investigation on animals was continued by Kennedy.[101] He administered an infusion of 1/2 ounce of green _Astragalus mollissimus_ to a fasting dog weighing 23 pounds, but there were no symptoms after 12 hours. A decoction of 1 ounce of the green plant and one of 4 ounces of the dried plant were likewise without action. Extracts with hydrochloric acid were also inactive. When 400 grams of the dried and powdered plant were fed in substance the result was merely to increase the appetite. The organic acid obtained from 4 ounces of the plant was also found to be inert. Kennedy did not state in what season the plant was collected and from what locality it was obtained, but says simply that the plant extract was inactive to a dog, a carnivorous animal, and that therefore the plant is nonpoisonous. He adds that death might be due to the tough fibers and indigestible character of the plant. He overlooks, however, the fact that the plant might vary in its toxicity, and he infers from the experiments on carnivorous animals that these results would hold good for herbivora, yet he does not claim that carnivora become locoed in nature. Kennedy found that the plant lost 80 per cent in weight on drying and that the water extract which represented 30.6 per cent of the powdered and dried plant contained magnesium sulphate and sodium chlorid, tannic acid, gum, coloring matter, an extractive, and a "peculiar organic acid." The ashed plant yielded 20 per cent of ash, consisting of magnesium sulphate, sodium chlorid, alumina, silica, and a trace of iron. "The abundant precipitate produced by the alkaline hydrates, potassium, sodium, and ammonium was found to consist of magnesium hydrate, an abundance of this base being present in the plant." Kennedy also obtained alkaloidal reactions, but failed to isolate the body giving these reactions. In 1889 the investigations were greatly stimulated by the report of Doctor Day,[102] then of the University of Michigan. She claimed that she was able to produce marked physiological symptoms, using both _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_ in her work. She administered daily 60 to 70 c.c. of a decoction[103] of the plants to kittens, together with abundant milk and other food. She states that in two days-- The kittens became less active, the coat grew rough, appetite for ordinary food diminished and fondness for the "loco" increased, diarrhea came on, and retching and vomiting occasionally occurred. The expression became peculiar and characteristic. Emaciation and the above symptoms progressively increased until the eighteenth day, when periods of convulsive excitement supervened. At times the convulsions were tetanic in character; frothing at the mouth and throwing the head backward as in opisthotonus were marked. At other times the kitten would stand on its hind legs and strike the air with its forepaws, then fall backward and throw itself from side to side. These periods of excitement were followed by perfect quiet, the only apparent sign of life being the respiratory movements. After a short interval of quiet the convulsive movements would recur. These alternate periods of excitement and quiet lasted thirty-six hours, when the posterior extremities became paralyzed, and the kitten died about two hours afterward. There was no apparent loss of consciousness before death. The post-mortem examination revealed the presence of ulcers in the stomach and duodenum. Some of the ulcers had nearly perforated the walls of the stomach and duodenum. The heart was in diastole; brain and myel appeared normal. As might be expected from the emaciated condition, the entire body was anæmic. In a second case 60 to 70 cubic centimeters of a more concentrated decoction were fed daily, with other food as before, to a vigorous adult cat. The symptoms of inactivity, loss of appetite, rough coat, diarrhea, and the peculiar expression of countenance were as in the first case. By the twelfth day the cat was wasted almost to a skeleton, and was correspondingly weak. Paralysis of the hind limbs came on, and the cat died on the thirteenth day. There were no periods of excitement in this case. These cats developed a craving for the decoction and "would beg for it as an ordinary kitten does for milk, and when supplied would lie down contented." Doctor Day made controls with healthy animals under the same conditions, with the exception that they received no loco plant. She also fed a young wild jack rabbit on milk and grass for a few days and then substituted fresh loco plants for grass. At first the "loco" was refused, but after two or three days the "loco" was eaten with as much relish as the grass had been. After ten days of the milk and "loco" diet the rabbit was found dead, with the head thrown back and the stomach ruptured. Subcutaneous injections of the concentrated decoction caused nervous twitchings in frogs and kittens, and if large amounts were used death followed in from one to two hours from paralysis of the heart. The same symptoms were produced in frogs by the injection of an alcoholic extract of the residue left after the evaporation to dryness of the decoction. In other words, Doctor Day was able to produce a chronic form of loco poisoning with the characteristic symptoms so often described save in the occurrence of diarrhea. Diarrhea is not usually noted on the range. Sayre had already reported an ulcerated condition of the intestines of a locoed cow similar to that described by Doctor Day as occurring in cats. Doctor Day urged that the reason previous experimenters failed to produce symptoms was that they had used too small an amount of the plant and that by systematic feeding to healthy cats cases of loco disease may be produced. Storke states that "Dr. V. C. Vaughan, of the University of Michigan, has since fully corroborated Dr. Day's views."[104] In her experiments Doctor Day used the leaves, roots, and stems of the plants gathered in September. She believed that the greatest amount of poison is present in autumn and winter. She later undertook the isolation of the active principle, and proceeded as follows:[105] The roots, stems, and leaves were boiled ten hours, strained, and the decoction concentrated to a sirup, poured, while hot, into a hot flask, corked and set away. At the end of ten days the sirup had separated into two layers--the upper a blackish liquid, the lower a brownish sediment. The liquid was poured into a flask and covered with six times its volume of very dilute alcohol, 30 per cent (the sediment also was washed with dilute alcohol, to insure a complete removal of the liquid), corked, and let stand three days; agitated occasionally, then filtered, and the filtrate slowly evaporated in the air, when crystals were formed. It was found important not to hurry the evaporation, for when this took place too rapidly the crystals did not form. These crystals are microscopic in size, blue-white in color, and of a variety of forms. The most characteristic are slender and pointed, arranged in rosettes or grouped in various ways. They are soluble in distilled water and very dilute alcohol, very sparingly soluble in strong alcohol, not soluble in chloroform or ether. The evaporated mass containing the crystals, when dissolved in distilled water, is slightly acid in reaction. A small amount of this fed to a kitten produced the train of characteristic toxic symptoms--sleepiness, loss of appetite, retching, and diarrhea--that is produced by quite large amounts of the decoction. The crystals Sayre[106] claims to have already seen. He says that they gave no precipitate with Mayer's reagent, platinum chlorid, or with ammonia, but that barium chlorid and ammonium oxalate gave a precipitate, and he believes that they were in reality an inorganic combination of calcium, so that while Doctor Day may have obtained an extract which produced characteristic symptoms she certainly has not isolated any pure active principle. Later she admitted that it was not possible "to make positive statements as to the chemical character of the active principle."[107] In 1884 there was a fatal outbreak of a disorder in horses in portions of the Missouri Valley in Iowa, Nebraska, and Dakota. This was almost uniformly fatal in a few weeks or months. The animals lost strength and became emaciated, although they were kept in pasture where there was abundant grass. There was marked stupor, the animals falling asleep while eating, and they "would remain standing for a whole week, sleeping much of the time, with the head resting upon some object." The post-mortem examination showed that "in every instance there was marked hemorrhagic effusion into the fourth ventricle, the liver and spleen were abnormally dense, the walls of the intestines were almost destitute of blood, and the stomach enormously distended with undigested food." The post-mortem find and clinical symptoms suggested to Stalker[108] that this disorder was due to some plant analogous to _Astragalus mollissimus_. He found abundant in these regions _Crotalaria sagittalis_, or rattle-box, one of the so-called loco weeds, and by the administration per os to a young horse of an infusion of 15 pounds of the plant, given in two days, produced the clinical symptoms and the post-mortem condition of the brain which he previously observed on the range. Power and Cambier[109] undertook the chemical study and the isolation of the active principle of this plant, together with that of _Astragalus mollissimus_. They found that the _Astragalus mollissimus_ if distilled with water yielded a distillate which possessed a peculiar odor, which they thought due to a trace of volatile oil. On distilling with alkali they obtained ammonia and a trace of trimethylamine. In the case of Crotalaria only ammonia was found.[110] They argued that because trimethylamine was not obtained in this case choline was not present. On distilling the _Astragalus mollissimus_ with acidulated water (H_{2}SO_{4}) the distillate was found to contain acetic acid--settling the nature of the "peculiar organic acid" described by Kennedy. From this plant they obtained a resin or mixture of resinous bodies by extracting the plant with alcohol, and after concentration precipitating with acid water. These resins in doses of from 2 to 5 grains failed to produce any symptoms in kittens. An albuminoid which was obtained by precipitating a concentrated aqueous extract of _Astragalus mollissimus_ by means of alcohol likewise was found to be inactive to a kitten in doses corresponding to 50 grams of the crude plant. A globulin which was isolated by precipitation from a 10 per cent sodium chlorid solution proved also to be inactive in doses of 0.2 gram. They then extracted 3 kilograms of these plants with 1/2 per cent sulphuric acid, and after evaporation to a thick gum the mass was extracted with strong alcohol, the alcoholic solution was evaporated, and the alcoholic residue taken up in water and precipitated by neutral and basic lead acetates, and after removing the lead with sulphureted hydrogen the filtrate gave precipitates with various alkaloidal reagents. The sirupy residue which they obtained from _Astragalus mollissimus_ by decomposing the precipitate with Mayer's solution administered to kittens in doses of 0.1 gram produced merely frothing at the mouth with profuse flow of saliva, but the animals soon recovered. The presence of a large amount of calcium was shown but not estimated quantitatively. Power and Cambier summed up their conclusions by stating that both the Astragalus and the Crotalaria contain very small amounts of toxic alkaloids, to which they believe the symptoms of poisoning produced were due. Their work from a chemical standpoint is excellent, but from a pharmacological point of view seems to be deficient; in fact, Power does not claim to be a pharmacologist. What would seem to be the proper course would have been to test for themselves the action of the plant on various animals and, after deciding which reacted most characteristically, test, after various precipitations, both the precipitates and filtrates on various animals to see whether the original symptoms and pathological lesions could be produced. They failed, however, to test their mother substance. It is well recognized that plants grown under varying conditions and on different soils vary in the amount of the physiologically active principle they contain. In the case of Crotalaria, Power and Cambier had before them the experiment of Stalker, in which he reproduced the disorder by feeding the plant extract to horses, yet they claimed that the body which they administered was the active principle, merely because it produced some frothing at the mouth and salivation in a kitten. The percentage of active principle they found would be too small to account for the symptoms, except in the case of a very active compound. Certain of these precipitates were also later examined physiologically by O'Brine.[111] He also found the resin precipitated from an alcoholic extract of the plant and also the alcoholic extract from 2.2 pounds of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ to be physiologically inactive. Oatman,[112] using Power and Cambier's method with alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), obtained a noncrystalline mass which when given in 0.1 gram dose caused frothing at the mouth in a kitten, but no serious symptoms. This 0.1 gram represented about 5 pounds of powdered leaves and tops of the plants. Since the appearance of Power and Cambier's work Sayre has published various papers on the loco weeds in the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Sciences for 1903-4, vol. 19, p. 194, 1905; 1901-2, vol. 18, p. 141; Seventh Biennial Report of the State Board of Agriculture of Kansas, vol. 12, p. 97, 1891; Journal of the Kansas Medical Society, vol. 4, pp. 222 and 241, 1904, etc. He has contributed nothing especially new, but says that "the old theory that an alkaloidal poison is secreted in the plant causing the loco trouble has not been found tenable," but wishes to be understood that he does not discredit the ground for the opinion that in some mysterious way certain disorders occur in cattle in connection with what is commonly called loco-weed. He suggests that this connection might be somewhat similar to the relationship between the disorder caused by over-feeding half-starved animals on clover or alfalfa[113] and has had the plant analyzed as to its nutritive value, giving the table in the Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Sciences, vol. 19, p. 194. He makes the suggestion that any injurious action the plants may have might be due to the fine, hair-like projections on the plant which mechanically set up irritation. This supposition can be thrown out at once by the experiment of Day and others, who induced symptoms in animals by extracts of the plant, and by the fact that other coarse plants do not act similarly. This fine, hair-like material was found to constitute about 33 per cent of the plant on grinding. But Sayre himself does not seem to be positive as to any conclusion. He, like O'Brine and others, has obtained alkaloidal reactions from the plant, but states he has obtained similar ones from alfalfa.[114] At one time he said: I do not consider loco directly or indirectly the cause of the condition, but am of the opinion that what is called "locoed" is, first, congestion of the brain and spinal marrow (causing blindness and first symptoms), and, second, softening to a greater or less extent.[115] These terms describing the alleged symptoms of "locoism" might occur in well recognized diseases resulting from brain lesions, which latter occur in so-called forage poisoning and poisoning from foul drinking water, etc. We are not prepared to affirm or deny that the loco-weed produces a train of symptoms characteristic of the plant.[116] Again Sayre states: It seems not unreasonable to suppose that the peculiar condition of the animals of the plains, when they gorge themselves with this highly nitrogenous weed, has something to do with the disease. A condition of malnutrition may set in and give rise to the rapid growth of a toxic-producing micro-organism or an irritating principle. This principle may be capable of cultivation and of producing disease artificially. Be this as it may, we feel warranted in saying that the so-called poison is a development within the animal, not a product preexisting in the weed itself. Sayre also suggests the possibility of the plants producing hydro-cyanic acid, which, it is well known, occurs in sorghum.[117] In the Journal of the Kansas Medical Society (vol. 4, p. 243), he claims to have isolated a crystalline body, but this he has not tested physiologically. Sayre especially deserves credit for keeping the loco investigation alive, and no doubt his change in position is due to his lack of facilities for pharmacological testing. Carl Ruedi[11] fed rabbits daily by a stomach tube with 10 c.c. of an extract (unstated strength) of _Astragalus mollissimus_ and recorded the following results: After only five injections one of the rabbits died, and the post-mortem showed to a nicety the congestion of the whole tract of the vena portæ and the anæmia of the brain. I put six rabbits under the influence of loco, and the effect was marked, but not rapid, if not given in very concentrated solutions. The solutions were prepared differently, and each of the rabbits had its own preparation, but the effect was nearly the same. In the beginning loco acts as a stimulant; the animals get lively, hilarious, running about; cleaning themselves, etc. This lasts about eight hours, then they become very quiet, sit in a corner of a box, and one can do with them pretty nearly what one likes; they do not move from the place, or just run into another corner, to fall back into the same complacent reverie. One can leave the door open and hammer away at the box, but they do not show any inclination to run away. During the excitement, however, they become fierce, and I had once the opportunity to watch one of the drollest things possible: One of the rabbits, two hours after dosing it, got loose and ran under a porch. A heavy tomcat came near this hole, and commenced sniffing about; this offended the rabbit highly, and it jumped on the neck of the cat, bit it through the skin, and the cat ran screaming away. When the animals are first under the influence of moderate doses of loco, they suffer greatly from hyperæsthesia of the cutaneous nerves; when one touches them with a stick while lying in a corner, without hurting them, one sees the platysma working away very forcibly, and sometimes they utter sounds of pain. According to my experiments the loco-weed works slowly but surely; as soon as the anæmia of the brain sets in, the animals act in every respect mad like; one hour they are excitable, and then again dull and languid as can be. The rabbits eat, when well, very quickly, and whenever they have opportunity; not so the locoed rabbit; he eats slowly for a minute or two, then he goes into a corner and meditates, comes forward to nibble at a carrot or a piece of cabbage, but he never eats greedily, and does not steal it from the mouth of his neighbor, or only very exceptionally. I observed these rabbits for ten days; they did not die, because I gave them weaker solutions; but they all became very ill, and as I had to leave the park I killed them with the needle inserted into the medulla oblongata, and made the post-mortem. In all of these cases I found great congestion in the abdomen, and marked anæmia of the brain. The congestion of the vena portæ commences certainly very early, but still the first symptoms are the nervous symptoms, first as excitants, then depressing or sedative, with a marked hyperæsthesia of the cutaneous nerves. Ruedi made an attempt to isolate the active principle and separated a base, which he calls "locoin," from an ether shaking. This base, however, he found to be physiologically inactive, but believes the activity to be due to a body which he calls "loco-acid," which is present in the mother liquid after the shaking with ether. He, however, has not obtained this in any degree of purity and gives no chemical data to substantiate this statement save that the fluid was acid. Experiments made at the University of Pennsylvania with certain loco plants on cats, dogs, and rabbits proved negative.[119] Other experiments on rabbits have been made by Doctor Lewis. These rabbits were fed on the leaves, stem, and whole plant, and also extracts of one of the loco plants (presumably _Astragalus mollissimus_) for one or two months, without producing any noticeable effect.[120] This uncertainty in the results of the investigation as to the cause of the loco disease turned the attention of observers into other lines. President Ingersoll,[121] of the State Agricultural College of Colorado, in his autopsies on sheep was struck by the presence of tapeworms (_Taenia expansa_) in the gall duct and small intestines. He apparently tried to prove a relationship between the tapeworms and the locoed condition by feeding the extract of a loco plant to sheep, and thus showing its harmlessness. He prepared a decoction from 20 pounds of loco plant (the species was not stated) and boiled this down from 12 gallons to 1 quart. This concentrated extract was fed in three days to a bottle-fed lamb; this lamb showed no symptoms, although kept under observation for two weeks. This theory of the causation of loco by worms was also considered by Curtice,[122] and later brought forward by Steele[123] and Marshall.[124] This idea is very suggestive when considered in relation to the etiology of bothriocephalous anæmia.[125] Others, again, have claimed that the disease is due to a parasite found upon the loco plants, but all specimens examined by entomologists proved to be harmless.[126] Lloyd, from his study of the subject, says: From first to last I have failed in obtaining a characteristic proximate principle, either from the fresh or dried plant. The disease called loco was as murky as the milk sickness so prevalent in the new settlements of Indiana and Kentucky in early days, and, like the numberless herbs that have been presumed to produce that obscure peculiar disease, milk sickness, loco was unresponsive to my chemistry.[127] It may be safely said that if a specimen of the plant were to be examined in the ordinary manner by a chemist who had no idea of its importance he would report that it did not contain a characteristic proximate constituent.[128] Can it be that an admixture of loco and some undetermined plant or earth infected with bacteria taken with the roots, each innocuous under other conditions, can by digestion together in the stomach and intestines result in the production of a poison?[129] To sum up, it seems to the writer that the poison of loco is a product, and not an educt.[130] But Lloyd adds, in speaking of the reports of various experts and ranchmen: Their description concerning its toxic action on animals agreed, and it was folly to argue that so many observers from so many sections of the country could be misled. There must be an undetermined something behind the loco-weed.[131] In 1893 O'Brine, from Colorado, and Mayo, from Kansas, reported on their work with the loco plants. O'Brine failed to isolate any alkaloidal or other poisonous body, and his feeding experiments on himself and on rabbits having failed, he sums up in despair: "The more I examine the loco question, the more I am persuaded that we must look for some other cause besides the loco-weed."[132] At the end of his report he gives some ash analyses but fails to interpret them. He also fails to give details as to the method of obtaining and estimating his ash. O'Brine's ash analyses are as follows: KEY TO ASH ANALYSIS: A = SiO_{2}. B = Fe_{2}O_{3} and Al_{2}O_{3}. C = CaO. D = MgO. E = K_{2}O. F = Na_{2}O. G = H_{2}SO_{4} H = Cl. I = P_{2}O_{5}. J = CO_{2} ------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+ Plant.|Total| | | | | | | | | | | |ash. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | ------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+ AM |12.15|32.77|16.26| 6.05|3.11|13.30|3.21|3.9 |0.47|6.12|10.55| | | | | | | | | | | | | AL |13.52|17.08|12.21|14.27|2.62|17.26|5.75|3.22|3.87|3.30|17.37| | | | | | | | | | | | | AC |12.36| 7.82| 5.97|12.10|3.55|23.35|3.38|5.56|9.0 |4.67|20.62| | | | | | | | | | | | | ------+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+----+-----+ KEY TO PLANTS: AM = _Astragalus mollissimus_ (whole plant) AL = _Aragallus lamberti_ (whole plant) AS = _Astragalus caryocarpus_ These analyses are evidently incorrect, as O'Brine estimates a carbon content of 4.13 per cent for the first, and for the second 2.22 per cent, showing incomplete combustion. Mayo[133] experimented with alcoholic and aqueous extracts of dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ on guinea pigs, with negative results, and was first led to deny a relationship between the disease and the plants. Later, as a result of the post-mortem findings, he was convinced that his first conclusion was wrong and that "the disease is certainly the result of animals feeding upon the loco-weed." Mayo says: A careful survey of the experiments performed and observations noted leads me to the opinion that the disease known as "loco" is the result of malnutrition, or a gradual starvation, caused by the animals eating the plants known as "loco weeds," either _Astragalus mollissimus_ or _Aragallus lamberti_. If there is a narcotic principle in the plant, chemists have failed to find it and a fluid extract does not possess it, and a ton of the plant eaten by an animal ought to contain enough of the poisonous properties to destroy an animal. Kobert[134] has also tested the activity of _Astragalus mollissimus_ and says, "Ich fand _Astragalus mollissimus_ ziemlich unwirksam." Doctor McEackran[135] fed dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_ mixed with feed to a stabled animal for two months without result. (Animal not stated).[136] Similar negative experiments are reported from the State of Washington, but the amounts used were too small to form any conclusions.[137] Mr. V. K. Chesnut[138] has busied himself with the loco problem, but mainly in an executive capacity, his own efforts being directed to the study of the relation of the loco plants to the disease on the range. He has done no laboratory work. Chesnut and Wilcox made numerous autopsies on sheep and experiments on animals. They claimed that an extract of _Aragallus spicatus_ produced some slight narcotic action in rabbits. Their pathological examinations failed to show any characteristic lesion, but they state that the cerebral membranes were in all cases slightly congested. They deny any causative relationship to the presence of worms or with feeding upon alkalis. They believe that sheep are more likely to become locoed if not salted regularly. Chesnut describes one case in which a lamb became locoed by nursing from a locoed mother. In 1901 Reid Hunt, at that time a special agent of the United States Department of Agriculture, studied the loco question in Montana, working mainly with _Aragallus spicatus_. He moistened the ground-up plant with 93 per cent ethyl alcohol and then percolated it until exhausted. This extract was evaporated and taken up with water so that 1 c.c. of the solution corresponded to 10 grams of the plant. This was fed to an active young rabbit weighing 490 grams, 6 c.c. being fed by the mouth and followed in about an hour by 10 c.c. more, and two hours after this by 15 c.c. This rabbit showed no symptoms during the following day. The next day it was very dull and there was marked muscular weakness, as the rabbit's legs were spread wide apart and his nose rested on the ground. Later respiration became very slow and the pupils were dilated. The paralytic symptoms increased and finally, after a convulsive movement, the animal died, thirty-six hours after the first feeding. Hunt merely states of the post-mortem examination that the stomach was well filled and that the "walls seem normal." Hunt tried to isolate an active principle by the Dragendorff method, but failed to obtain any physiologically active shakings. He tried hypodermic injections of 80 per cent alcohol extractions of the fresh green plant, and after the injection of an extract corresponding to 60 grams of the fresh plant there was no effect produced. He tried to induce symptoms by feeding the plant itself to rabbits, but was unsuccessful, as the rabbits refused to eat the plant. He was not able to induce symptoms with the extracts of the dried plant.[139] Marshall[140] studied the loco question with regard to sheep and practically denies the existence of a locoed condition due to eating the loco plants, but believes the condition due to bad feeding, parasitism, etc. He lays great stress upon the presence of worms, but fails to see that they may be merely a secondary infection superimposed upon an already morbid condition produced by eating the plants. Others have claimed that the cause is an insect living upon the loco plants. Others, again, have suggested an analogy with trypanosome disorders. Chesnut has held the view that many of the cases of so-called locoed sheep were really due to parasites, but that there was a true locoed condition due to eating the loco weeds. The lack of agreement in the results of the investigators has caused many to doubt any positive relation between the plant and the disease, and even as late as 1904 Payne[141] practically says these diseases are due to lack of nutrition and not to the loco plant. The matter has been summed up in a recent work as follows: Though many chemists have sought for the constituents, none have been able to locate the active properties, the trace of alkaloids, resins, volatile and fixed oils having each in turn been found destitute of it. Yet the poisonous properties are fully established by field observations. The destructiveness of these plants to stock is so great as to have probably caused upward of a million dollars loss in the aggregate, and large bounties have been offered by State governments for an effective method of avoiding such losses. It is considered very probable that the poisonous constituent is albuminoidal.[142] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [83] Storke, B. F. The Loco Weed. Med. Current, vol. 8, p. 155. 1892.--Kellogg, A. California and Colorado "Loco" Poisons. Cal. Acad. Sci. Proc. for 1875, vol. 6, p. 3. 1876. NOTE.--The very early reports of these loco plants were purely botanical. See Torrey, J., Botany, in Report on the United States and Mexican Boundary Survey, by W. H. Emory, vol. 2, p. 56, 1859; also Botanical Register, London, vol. 13, pl. 1054, 1827. [84] Vasey, G. Plants Poisonous to Cattle in California. Rept. of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1874, p. 159. 1875. [85] Vasey, G. Botanical Notes. Monthly Reports of Dept. Agriculture for 1873, p. 503. 1874. [86] Vasey, G. Botanical Notes. Monthly Reports of Dept. Agriculture for 1874, p. 513. 1875. [87] Brewer, W. H., and Watson, S. Geological Survey of California, Botany, vol. 1, p. 155. 1876. [88] Rothrock, J. T. Notes on Economic Botany, in G. M. Wheeler's Report upon U. S. Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, vol. 6, p. 43. 1878. [89] Kellogg, A. California and Colorado Loco Poisons. Cal. Academy of Sciences, Proc., 1875, vol. 6, p. 3. 1876. [90] Rothrock, J. T. Poisonous Properties of the Leguminosæ. Acad. of Nat. Sci., Phila., Proc., vol. 29, p. 274. 1877. [91] Prescott, A. B. Laboratory Notes--A Partial Analysis of the Oxytropis Lamberti. Amer. Journ. Pharm., vol. 50, p. 564. 1878. [92] Rept. of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1878, p. 134. 1879. [93] Rept. of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1879, pp. 89, 90. 1880. [94] Rept. of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1886, p. 75. 1887. Rept. of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1884, p. 123. 1884. [95] Rothrock, J. T. Notes on Economic Botany, in G. M. Wheeler's Report upon U. S. Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, vol. 6, p. 43. 1878. [96] Gibbons, H. Poisonous Effects of Crotalaria--Vulgo Rattle Weed, Loco Weed. Pacific Med. and Surg. Journ., vol. 21, p. 496. 1878-79. [97] Ott, I. Physiological Action of Astragalus Mollissimus. New Remedies, vol. 11, p. 227. 1882. [98] Hill, J. R. Note on a Species of Astragalus from Cyprus. Pharm. Journ. and Trans., 3 s., vol. 18, p. 712. 1887-88. [99] Sayre, L. E. Loco-Weed. Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., vol. 36, p. 112. 1888. [100] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, p. 556. 1887. [101] Kennedy, J. Loco Weed (Crazy Weed). Pharm. Rec., vol. 8, p. 197. 1888. [102] Day, M. G. Experimental Demonstrations of the Toxicity of the "Loco Weed." N. Y. Med. Journ., vol. 49, p. 237. 1889. [103] Presumably a 10 per cent decoction, U. S. P. [104] Storke, R. F. The Loco Weed. Med. Current, vol. 8, p. 157. 1892. [105] Day, M. G. The Separation of the Poison of the "Loco Weed." N. Y. Med. Journ., vol. 50, p. 604. 1889. [106] Sayre, L. E. Active Principle of Loco Weed. Notes on New Remedies, vol. 2, No. 12, p. 1. [107] Day, M. G. Loco Weed, in F. P. Foster's Reference-Book of Practical Therapeutics, vol. 1, p. 588. 1896. [108] Stalker, M. 1st Ann. Rept. State Vet. Surg. Iowa, p. 16. 1885. [109] Power, F. B., and Cambier, J. Chemical Examination of Some Loco-Weeds. Pharm. Rundschau, vol. 9, p. 8. 1891.--Power, F. B. Notes on the So-called Loco Weeds. Pharm. Rundschau, vol. 7, p. 134, 1889.--See also Hoffmann, F., Loco-Weeds, in Pharm. Rundschau, vol. 7, p. 168. 1889. [110] Kennedy, J. Pharm. Rec., vol. 8, p. 197. 1888. Kennedy also obtained ammonia from _Astragalus mollissimus_. [111] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 18. 1893. [112] Oatman, H. C. The Poisonous Principle of Loco Weed. Notes on New Remedies, vol. 4, p. 14. 1891-92. [113] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Kans. Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 18, p. 141. 1903. [114] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weeds. 7th Bienn. Rept. Kans. State Board Agric. for 1889-90, vol. 12, pt. 2, p. 99. 1891. [115] Sayre, L. E. Further Report on Loco Weeds. Notes on New Remedies, vol. 4, p. 80. 1891-92. [116] Sayre, L. E. The Loco Disease. Journ. Kans. Med. Soc., vol. 4, pp. 241-243. 1904.--What is Insanity in Lower Animals? Journ. Kans. Med. Soc., vol. 4, p. 222. 1904. [117] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Kans. Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 18, p. 144. 1903. [118] Ruedi, C. Loco Weed (Astragalus Mollissimus): A Toxico-Chemical Study. Trans. Colo. State Med. Soc., p. 418. 1895.--Also Treatment of Animals Poisoned by Loco Weed (unpublished article). [119] The "Loco Disease." Therap. Gaz., vol. 12, p. 30. 1888. [120] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Kans. Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 18, p. 142. 1903. [121] Sayre, L. E. Loco Weeds. 7th Bien. Rept. Kansas State Board Agric. for 1889-1890, pt. 2, p. 98. 1891. [122] Curtice, C. Tape-Worm Disease of Sheep of the Western Plains. Bur. Animal Industry, 4th and 5th Ann. Rept., p. 167. 1889. [123] Steele, C. D. New Theory about Loco. Farm and Ranch, vol. 20, No. 35, p. 1. 1901. [124] Marshall, H. T. Loco Weed Disease of Sheep. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bul., vol. 15, p. 181. 1904.--Data as to these parasites of sheep may be found in Curtice, C., The Animal Parasites of Sheep, Bur. Animal Industry, Rept., 1890. [125] Faust, E. S., and Tallquist, T. W. Ueber d. Ursachen der Bothriocephalus-anämie. Arch. f. Exp. Path., vol. 57, p. 367. 1907. [126] Walshia Amorphella and the Loco Weed. Insect Life, vol. 2, p. 50. 1889-90. Snow, F. H. Loco-Weed. Science, vol. 9, p. 92. 1887. [127] Lloyd, J. U. Loco, or Crazy Weed. Eclectic Med. Journ., vol. 53, p. 482. 1893. [128] Lloyd, J. U., l. c., p. 483. [129] Lloyd, J. U., l. c., p. 484. NOTE.--Eccles had previously announced a somewhat similar idea. Sayre, L. E. Loco Weed. Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., vol. 36, p. 115. 1889. [130] Lloyd, J. U., l. c., p. 486. [131] Lloyd, J. U., l. c., p. 483. [132] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on the Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 17. 1893. [133] Mayo, N. S. Some Observations on Loco. Kans. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 35, p. 116. 1893. [134] Kobert, R. Lehrb. d. Intoxikationen, p. 615. 1893. [135] O'Brine, D. Progress Bulletin on Loco and Larkspur. Colo. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 25, p. 13. 1893. [136] After the manuscript of this bulletin was sent to the printer it was learned through Professor Carpenter that the animal was a horse. [137] Nelson, S. B. Feeding Wild Plants to Sheep. Bur. Animal Industry, Bul. 22, p. 12. 1898. [138] Chesnut, V. K., and Wilcox, E. V. Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Bot., Bul. 26, p. 95. 1901.--Wilcox, E. V. Plant Poisoning of Stock in Montana. Bur. Animal Industry, 17th Ann. Rept., p. 111. 1900. NOTE.--The writer wishes to acknowledge the great literary help Mr. Chesnut's card catalogue has been to him in the preparation of this paper. [139] Unpublished report. [140] Marshall, H. T. Loco Weed Disease of Sheep. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bul., vol. 15, p. 182. 1904. [141] Payne, J. E. Cattle Raising on the Plains. Colo. Agric. Expt. Sta. Bul. 87, p. 16. 1904. [142] National Standard Dispensatory, p. 868. 1905. NOTE.--The field experiments of Harding and Tudor are rather conclusive as to the relation of these plants to this disorder. Sayre, L. E., Loco Weed, Amer. Vet. Rev., vol. 11, pp. 553-554, 1887--Blankinship, J. W., Loco and Some Other Poisonous Plants in Montana, Mont. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bul. 45, pp. 83-84, 1903--Loco Disease, Therap. Gaz., vol. 12, p. 30. 1898. =NOTES ON VARIOUS MEMBERS OF THE LOCO-WEED FAMILY.= _Astragalus caryocarpus_ is at times eaten in some of the Western States, but is claimed by some at certain stages of its growth to contain a poisonous principle. Frankforter,[143] from experiments on himself, however, denies this. _Astragalus glycophyllus_ has been used as a diuretic and _Astragalus exscapus_ in the treatment of syphilis.[144] "The seed of _A. boeticus_, planted in Germany and England, are found to be the very best substitute for coffee yet tried, and so used--roasted, parched, and mixed with coffee."[145] _Astragalus nuttallianus_, according to Smith,[146] is a highly nutritious forage plant in spring. _Astragalus crassicarpus_ has been prophesied by him to be a valuable addition to early spring soiling crops. _Astragalus adsurgens_ (_nitidus_) and one or two other species of Astragalus are still used in Chinese medicine.[147] The Indians of the Southwest are familiar with certain loco plants.[148] The Tewans of Hano are said to eat the root of _Aragallus lamberti_, and _Astragalus mollissimus_ is applied locally for headaches by some of the Arizona Indians. One of these species is used as a flavoring material by the Coahuillas and is mixed with other plants as spices.[149] _Astragalus kentrophyta_ had a reputation among the Navajos for the treatment of rabies.[150] The use of certain loco plants--_Astragalus mollissimus_--has been advocated on theoretical grounds in the treatment of certain forms of insanity, but without favorable results.[151] In Peru and Chile _Astragalus garbancillo_, _A. unifultus_, and _A. ochroleucus_ have been considered injurious to animals.[152] _Astragalus glyciphyllus_ and _A. alpinus_ have been used in Europe as food for stock.[153] Details as to the use of other Astragali can be found in Planchon, G., Sur les Astragales, in Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, 5th series, vol 24, p. 473, 1891; 5th series, vol. 25, pp. 169, 233, 1892. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [143] Frankforter, G. B. A Chemical Study of Astragalus Caryocarpus. Amer. Journ. Pharm., vol. 72, p. 320. 1900. [144] Maisch, J. M. Poisonous Species of Astragalus. Amer. Journ. Pharm., vol. 51, p. 240. 1879.--Fleurot. Chimiques et Pharmaceutiques sur la Racines d'Astragale sans Tiges. Journ. de Chim. Med., vol. 10, p. 656. 1834. [145] Porcher, F. P. Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, p. 204. 1869. [146] Smith, J. G. Fodder and Forage Plants. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Agrost., Bul. 2 (rev. ed.), p. 12. 1900. [147] Holmes, E. M. Notes on Chinese Drugs. Pharm. Journ. and Trans., vol. 21, 3 s., p. 1149. 1891. [148] Hough, W. Environmental Interrelations in Arizona. Amer. Anthropologist, vol. 11, pp. 143, 147. 1898. [149] Barrows, D. P. Ethno-Botany of the Coahuilla Indians of Southern California, p. 67. 1900. [150] Matthews, W. Navajo Names for Plants. Amer. Nat., vol. 20, p. 772. 1886. [151] Givens, A. J. Loco or Crazy Weed. Med. Century, vol. 1. p. 21. 1893.--Compare Hurd, H. M. Amer. Journ. Insanity, vol. 42, p. 178. 1885-86. [152] Rosenthal, D. A. Synopsis Plantarum Diaphoricarum, Erlangen, 1861, p. 1004. Greshoff, M. Beschrijving d. Giftige en Bedwelmeude Planten bij de Vischvangst in Gebrulk, p. 51. 1900. [153] Pott, E. Handb. d. tierisch. Ernährung, vol. 2, p. 113. 1907. =LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS--PHYSIOLOGICAL.= The first point in our investigations was to determine whether the plant exerted any poisonous action and to find some animal which responded regularly to it; then to ascertain if the lack of results of previous investigators was not due to insufficient doses, and later to see if by feeding smaller amounts at repeated intervals symptoms comparable to those described as occurring on the range could not be produced. The animal finally selected was the rabbit. =EXPERIMENTS ON RABBITS.= =ACUTE CASES.= _Experiment No. 1._--On September 8, 1905, an aqueous extract of 333 grams of fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, made in Hugo, Colo., and shipped preserved in chloroform,[154] killed a rabbit weighing 1,616 grams in one hour and thirty-five minutes, while an extract corresponding to 167 grams merely caused drowsiness and loss of appetite in a rabbit weighing 765 grams. _Experiment No. 2._--On November 29, 1905, a rabbit weighing 1,162.3 grams was fed with a concentrated aqueous extract of 500 grams of fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, which had been shipped from Hugo, Colo., preserved in chloroform in sealed vessels. This animal died in one hour and ten minutes. The symptoms consisted in dullness, rapid respiration, and signs of pain. At autopsy the stomach and upper part of the small intestines showed hemorrhagic ecchymoses, with dilation of the dural vessels of the brain and cord, with a clot over a portion of the spinal cord. _Experiment No. 3._--On February 13, 1906, a rabbit weighing 992 grams was fed with a concentrated aqueous extract of 500 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, collected in September and preserved in chloroform water. Before feeding, the rabbit's ears were warm and the rabbit struggled when any attempt was made to turn him on his back. The temperature at 10.50 a.m., the time of feeding, was 103.5°F.; at 11.15 a.m., 102.5°F. At 11.30 a.m. the rabbit was breathing very rapidly and would stay on his back for some time if placed so. The temperature at this time was 102.6°F. Both pupils, the one exposed to the light and the one protected, were contracted. At 12.02 p.m. convulsive movements of the legs appeared. The rabbit made one leap, the temperature rose to 103.6°F., and after a few convulsive movements of the limbs the anus relaxed and a small stool appeared, the pupils dilated, and the animal died at 12.06 p.m. _Experiment No. 4._--The feeding of the extract of 464 grams induced a fall in temperature of 2.4°F. in three hours, and the rabbit died several hours later (at night). _Experiment No. 5._--March 2, 1906, a rabbit weighing 928 grams was fed with a concentrated extract of 500 grams of the fresh seeds and pods of _Astragalus mollissimus_, made in September, 1905, and preserved with chloroform water. This animal died in one hour and seven minutes. The animal showed the usual post-mortem conditions. It was thus found that the aqueous extract of 500 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_ would cause death in about one hour in rabbits weighing about 2 pounds (907 grams), these rabbits showing constant clinical symptoms--urination, paralysis, more or less convulsive muscular twitchings, often terminating in general convulsions, drowsiness, and stupor, with more or less anesthesia. The pupils at the time of death were often unequal. At first there was usually a slight rise in temperature, but this was soon succeeded by a fall. Often there were soft stools. The post-mortem lesions in these cases were marked congestion, with hemorrhages in the stomach walls and a secretion of thick mucus. The portions of the stomach walls most affected were the dependent portions near the cardiac end. The intestines showed dilatation of the blood vessels. The mesenteric vessels and also the vessels in the cerebral portions of the dura were markedly dilated; in some cases there were clots, especially at the posterior portion of the brain, between the cerebrum and the cerebellum. At times there were clots over the dorsal portion of the cord. On cutting into the brain the brain substance itself did not appear to be congested. The cord seemed about normal, but the vessels of its membranes were well marked. The other organs showed nothing characteristic macroscopically. These experiments were repeated many times and found to be constant. These acute symptoms were likewise produced by an extract of 500 grams of the fresh _Aragallus lamberti_ from Arizona preserved in chloroform water (rabbit weighing 1,998 grams). An aqueous extract of 150 grams of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_[155] from Imperial, Nebr. (1906), caused death in one hour and fifty-eight minutes in a rabbit weighing 1,530 grams, and an extract of 100 grams killed in one hour and twenty-two minutes a rabbit weighing 736 grams. An aqueous extract of 100 grams of the dried _Astragalus bigelowii_ induced death in one hour and thirty-eight minutes, the rabbit weighing 1,502 grams. An aqueous extract of 150 grams of _Astragalus nitidus_ collected at Woodland Park, Colo., in 1906 induced death in three hours and five minutes, the rabbit weighing 1,672 grams. An aqueous extract of 200 grams of the dried _Astragalus bisulcatus_ caused death after several hours (at night), the rabbit weighing 2,423 grams. In certain cases this production of acute symptoms was not entirely a question of salt action, as was shown by certain other experiments. In other cases salt action seems to be the important factor, so that the production of these acute symptoms can not always be considered characteristic. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [154] In all cases in which the plants were preserved with chloroform sealed vessels were used for shipping. The chloroform was carefully evaporated off in vacuo before feeding the extract, the evaporation requiring several hours. The plants were collected by Dr. C. Dwight Marsh, in charge of the field investigations at Hugo, Colo. [155] All extracts from dried material were made at Washington. =CHRONIC CASES.= _Experiment No. 6._--February 19, 1906, a large gray rabbit weighing 2,055.3 grams was fed with 60 c.c. of fluid representing the concentrated aqueous extract of 250 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, collected September 18, 1905, and preserved in chloroform. This rabbit was very hard to hold. The ears rested on the body. The temperature at the time of feeding, 1.30 p.m., was 102.3°F. At 2.57 p. m. the animal looked dull but resisted handling. At 3.30 p.m. it urinated. At 4.15 p.m. the temperature was 98.5°F., the pupils were about the same size as before feeding, and the animal became much duller. The next day at 12.50 p.m. the temperature was 102.4°F., and at this time the animal could be handled with greater ease. The animal ate in the morning. The same amount of extract was again fed at 1.24 p. m. At 1.35 p.m. the animal was much duller and could be turned on his back with ease. If disturbed he ran against the wall as if utterly unconscious of the obstruction. The animal had soft, liquid, brown stools and tried to lie down as much as possible. If turned on its back with the feet up it would stay so almost indefinitely. Temperature, 103.8°F.; respiration very rapid. At 2.40 p.m. the temperature was 99.8°F., and the animal died a few minutes later. After death the pupils were much contracted. The vessels of the dura covering the brain were much dilated, but the vessels inside the brain were not dilated. The stomach walls were congested and marked with numerous petechiæ and covered with mucus. _Experiment No. 7._--On February 19, 1906, a white and brown rabbit whose temperature was 103.2°F. was fed 30 c.c. of aqueous fluid representing the concentrated extract of 125 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, collected September, 1905, and preserved with chloroform. The rabbit weighed 1,502.5 grams. This extract was fed at 1.45 p.m., and at 4.15 p.m. the temperature was 102.6°F., but there were no marked symptoms. The following day at 2.04 p.m. the temperature registered 102.5°F. The same amount of extract was given at 2.09 p.m. The temperature at 4 p.m. was 99.8°F., the animal was dull, and the pupils were perhaps a little smaller. The animal could not be turned over without resistance. The following day, February 21, at 1.30 p.m. the temperature was 102.6°F., and at 1.45 the same amount of extract was given. At 1.54 p.m. the animal was much duller and the breathing was very rapid. At 4.10 p.m. the temperature was 101.3°F. The animal had been dull ever since the feeding was begun. It nibbled food shortly before the last feeding. On February 23 the same amount of extract was given at 2.16 p.m., temperature 99°F. The breathing was very rapid, the ears shaking, and there was a sleepy, dull look about the animal. At 3.30 p.m. the animal was dull, but would still walk about if disturbed. At this time the animal weighed 1,445.8 grams. At 4.30 p.m. the temperature was 102°F. and the pupils were about normal size. There was a marked sleepy look about the animal, which sat quietly in its cage. February 24, at 1 p.m., the animal was very dull and could with ease be turned on its back with its feet in the air. It would sit in its cage perfectly quiet. The weight at this time was 1,417.5 grams, the temperature 96.6°F. On February 26 the animal weighed 1,360.8 grams. It was dull and refused to eat. The abdomen felt very distended and tympanitic. February 27 the weight was still 1,360.8 grams, and the animal sat in its cage as if asleep, with eyes half closed. There was no diarrhea and the abdomen was very distended. At 11.15 a.m. there was a general convulsion and the animal fell over. At 12 m. the abdomen seemed even more swollen, the animal was hardly able to walk, and it fell over, uttering a cry. Pupils were about normal--perhaps a little smaller. The animal died at 12.10 p.m. The post-mortem, made immediately after death, showed the abdomen markedly tympanitic, and the large intestines could be outlined through the abdominal walls with ease. The large intestines were of a chocolate color, intensely congested, and marked with hemorrhages. On opening the abdomen there was a decided putrefactive odor, and about an ounce of bloody fluid was found in the peritoneal cavity, together with fibrin flakes. The stomach was pale, the first three inches of the small intestine up to where it turned sharply were pale, and below this the intestines were injected and full of gas and of a dark red color. The kidneys were 3-1/2 centimeters long and were pale, capsules easily peeled off; cortex pale. Liver pale and infected with some coccideæ. The gall bladder was one-quarter inch wide and one inch long. Spleen a trifle pale; lungs pale, nothing abnormal; heart relaxed. On opening the stomach gas and fluid, with some food, exuded. The walls were pale, but pink in some places. There was no marked congestion or hemorrhage or perforation. The mesenteric vessels were dilated. The upper portion of the intestines contained a little mucus-like fluid, but lower down became bloody, and still lower contained pus-like fluid. The walls were hemorrhagic. The large intestine contained a soft, fecal-like fluid, very foul. Its walls were much congested and full of hemorrhagic points. The cortex of the suprarenal bodies was sharply defined, the medullæ brownish. Brain pale, some dural vessels well marked, no clots or hemorrhages. Base of brain pale. No congestion seen on cutting into the brain. Spinal cord showed no hemorrhages or lymph effusions. _Experiment No. 8._--On February 18, 1906, at 2 p.m., a rabbit whose temperature was 102.2°F. was fed with the aqueous extract of 125 grams of fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, collected in September, 1905, and preserved in chloroform, 30 c.c. of the fluid being used. At 4.25 p.m. the temperature was 102.4°F. No symptoms were noted. This rabbit weighed 1,644.3 grams. On February 20 at 2.09 p.m. the temperature was 102.2°F. and the rabbit showed no symptoms. The same dose was repeated at 2.15 p.m. At 4 p.m. the temperature was 100.3°F. The rabbit was dull but could not be turned over without a struggle. February 21 at 1.30 p.m. the temperature was 101.4°F. The same amount of extract was fed at 1.45 p.m. At this time the animal was dull and breathed more rapidly. At 4.10 p.m. the temperature was 97.3°F. Next day the same amount of extract was again given at 2 p.m. At 2.16 p.m. the breathing became rapid and the animal duller. The ears were directed forward. At 4.15 p.m. the temperature was 101.6°F.; weight 1,757.7 grams; animal slightly dull. February 24, temperature 102°F., weight 1,786 grams. March 5, weight 1,729.3 grams. The animal was fed at 3.20 p.m. with a concentrated extract of 125 grams of _Astragalus mollissimus_, collected in September. Temperature at time of feeding 100.4°F.; 3.40 p.m., no symptoms; 4 p.m., temperature 102°F. March 7, weight 1,644.3 grams; March 8, weight 1,672.6 grams; March 10, weight 1,701 grams; March 12, weight 1,658.4 grams; March 14, weight 1,701 grams. In this case, where the same dose was given in a period of five days, very little effect on the rabbit was noted. _Experiment No. 9._--On March 1, 1906, a black rabbit weighing 2,664.8 grams was fed with a concentrated aqueous extract of 250 grams of fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, collected in the fall of 1905. On March 5 the weight was 2,296.3 grams. The animal was then given the same amount of extract. During the afternoon it passed mucus and thick pieces of feces and was dull; respiration very rapid. March 6, weight 2,282 grams; March 7, 3 p.m., animal very dull and would not eat; sat hunched up, but resisted being disturbed: weight 2,310.5 grams. March 8, weight 2,183 grams; March 9, weight 2,069.5 grams. Pupils dilated; finger could be run almost against the eye, provided the lashes were not touched, without the animal winking or paying any attention. Rabbit ate very little and had not urinated since the preceding day. Left ear had fallen to the side as if the animal were unable to support it. Weight, 1,912.8 grams. From March 9 to March 11, 67 c.c. of cloudy urine were voided. This did not clear with acetic acid. Left eye tearing. March 10, head held to right side. March 12, weight 1,786 grams. Left pupil smaller than right, neither responding to light. Rabbit very weak. March 14, weight 1,729.3 grams. Would not eat. March 16, weight 1,644.3 grams. Right pupil larger than left, neither responding to light. Diarrhea present. Breathing noisy. In sitting down she raised herself on her forelegs, evidently to take the pressure off her abdomen, which was distended. If disturbed, she would butt against the side of the cage, apparently oblivious of its presence. Knee jerks were very active, almost a clonus. Reflex from tendo Achillis active. March 17, forelegs spread out, head falling to left side. The temperature had fallen below 94°F. and would not register on the ordinary clinical thermometer. The ears twitched, the head was thrown back, the abdomen was distended, and the rabbit gritted its teeth. Died. Weight, 1,559.2 grams. Brain and spinal cord pale. Dural vessels plainly seen but not marked. Intestinal vessels congested. Stomach pale; nothing apparent macroscopically save a small pin-point ulcer.[156] Heart relaxed. Post-mortem examination otherwise negative macroscopically. _Experiment No. 10._--A mouse-colored rabbit weighing 1,927.8 grams was fed February 18, 1906, at 2.26 p.m., with a concentrated aqueous extract of 250 grams of fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_ collected in September, 1905, and preserved in chloroform water. The temperature of this rabbit was 102.6°F. The fluid given was 40 c.c. At 2.45 p.m. the rabbit urinated and at 2.57 p.m. was dull and the respiration became rapid. The animal then aborted and had three young, two of which showed some movement after birth, but were apparently premature. On February 23 the temperature of this rabbit was 102.9°F. at 1.40 p. m. She was then fed with the same amount of the extract as before. At 2.16 p.m. she lay down and became much duller; left ear fallen to side. At 3.30 p.m. the rabbit was unable to stand. The pupil of the eye exposed to the light was dilated. The animal died without a struggle. The stomach contained much bloody mucus. In the dependent portion of the stomach near the cardiac end were marked petechiæ in the walls, with bright-red blood in the stomach itself. The heart was relaxed. The intestines showed nothing abnormal. The dural vessels of the brain were dilated; there was a clot on the dura over the fourth ventricle. Spinal cord and kidneys normal, the capsules not adhering. Weight, 1,786 grams at death. _Experiment No. 11._--On March 1, 1906, a rabbit weighing 2,126.2 grams was fed with a concentrated aqueous extract of 250 grams of the fresh _Aragallus lamberti_ preserved in chloroform water. On March 5 this dose was repeated, 37.5 c.c. of the fluid being used. March 6 the rabbit weighed 1,956 grams; March 7, 1,913.6 grams; March 8, 1,828.5 grams; March 9, 1,701 grams; March 12, 1,672.6 grams; March 14, 1,644.3 grams. _Experiment No. 12._ January 19, 1906, a concentrated aqueous extract of 500 grams of the fresh _Aragallus lamberti_ preserved with chloroform water was fed to a rabbit weighing 785 grams. The temperature at 12.10 p.m., the time of feeding, was 101.6°F. The temperature 1 hour and 43 minutes later was 94.6°F., and the animal died shortly after, showing the same condition as occurred after feeding extracts of _Astragalus mollissimus_. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [156] Compare Plönius, W., Beziehungen d. Geschwürs u. d. Erosionen d. Magens z. d. funktionell. Störungen u. Krankh. d. Darmes, Arch. f. Verdauungsk., vol. 13, pp. 180, 270, 1907, and Tixier, L., Anémies Exper. Conséc. aux Ulcér. du Pylore, Comp. Rend. Hebd. Soc. de Biol., vol. 62, p. 1041, 1907. =PREGNANT ANIMALS.= _Experiment No. 13._--A large, gray, pregnant rabbit weighing 2,891.6 grams was fed on February 22, 1906, with 42 c.c. of fluid, corresponding to the aqueous extract of 250 grams of _Astragalus mollissimus_ collected in September and October, 1905, and preserved with chloroform. At 4 p.m. the animal was dull, but still resisted efforts to handle. On February 24 this animal weighed 2,778.2 grams, and on February 26 it bore a litter of seven young rabbits. One or two of these showed movements of the limbs, but were apparently immature. This rabbit on March 10 weighed 2,537.3 grams; March 12, 2,438 grams; March 14, 2,508.9 grams; March 22, 2,494.7 grams. _Experiment No. 14._--On March 1, 1906, a black rabbit weighing 2,721.6 grams was fed at 12.15 p.m. with a concentrated aqueous extract of 250 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_ collected in September, 1905. On March 2 it weighed 2,438 grams; at 2.58 p.m. it still resisted efforts to turn it on its back; at 3.15 p.m. it could be turned on its back with ease. March 6 the weight was 2,338.8 grams; March 7 the animal was very dull, would not eat, pupils dilated, hind legs paralyzed; died during the night; weight, 2,267.9 grams. The stomach walls were pale save at the dependent portion near the cardiac end, where there was a hemorrhagic, ulcerated area about 1-1/2 by 1-1/2 inches. The intestines were full of gas, but not hemorrhagic. The uterus contained eight immature foeti. The uterine walls were hemorrhagic. The kidneys weighed 9-1/2 grams; their medullæ were dark and the straight tubules well defined. The cerebral dural vessels were congested and the spinal dural vessels were well defined. The bladder was found contracted. The blood gave no bands for methæmoglobin, but showed merely those of oxyhæmoglobin on spectroscopic examination. _Experiment No. 15._--Control experiments made by feeding water were negative, except when a large quantity (150 c.c.) of water was given to a rabbit weighing 1,020.5 grams. The animal died in 12 hours with marked pallor of the tissues (hydræmia), a pathological condition quite different from that obtained by feeding extracts of the loco plants, and no such results were secured with the amount of water used in our feeding experiments, 50 to 70 c.c. =SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTIONS.= _Experiment No. 16._--On February 28, 1906, a white rabbit weighing 581.2 grams was injected subcutaneously at 10.35 a.m. with a concentrated aqueous extract of 83 grams of fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_ collected in September, 1905, and preserved with chloroform. The temperature before injection was 102.1°F. At 1.40 p.m. the animal was dull; at 3.12 p.m. the temperature registered 99.8°F. The animal died during the night. The post-mortem examination was negative. Stomach pale; heart relaxed save left ventricle, which seemed contracted; dural vessels of the brain dilated; kidneys perhaps normal. No microscopical examination. _Experiment No. 17._--February 28, 1906, at 10.25 a.m., a guinea pig weighing 496 grams was injected subcutaneously with a concentrated aqueous extract of 83 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_ preserved in chloroform water. At 1.40 p.m. there was muscular twitching. The animal was dull and could be easily turned on his back. The hind legs began to show weakness. At 1.50 p.m. the hind legs were almost completely paralyzed and the animal could be easily turned on his back. Muscles of the limbs twitched and semen was expelled. Animal died at 2.15 p.m. Post-mortem showed dural vessels of cord and brain full of blood. Stomach pinker than normal: mesenteric vessels dilated. Heart almost empty of blood. Kidneys congested. =SUMMARY OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS ON RABBITS.= These experiments indicate that an acute form of poisoning may be induced by feeding concentrated aqueous extracts of _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_ from Hugo, Colo., and Imperial, Nebr., to rabbits, and that if the extract is given in smaller and repeated doses a more prolonged or chronic condition may follow. The rabbits showing the chronic effects of these plants exhibit symptoms which have a marked parallelism with those reported as occurring in larger herbivora (horses and cattle) on the range when locoed; that is, the loss of appetite (Experiment No. 9), the emaciation and loss in weight (Experiment No. 9), the dullness and stupor, with more or less anesthesia (Experiment No. 7), the disturbance in the visual function (Experiment No. 9), and the mental symptoms (Experiment No. 6). The occasional abortion compares with what has been observed in larger animals. The dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_ still retained their poisonous properties, as we were able to kill with aqueous extracts of the dried plants made in the laboratory under the proper conditions. =EXPERIMENTS ON SHEEP.= _Experiment No. 1._--On May 31, 1906, a sheep weighing 32.2 kilos was fed with a concentrated aqueous extract of 1,000 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_ preserved in chloroform water. The temperature at 11 o'clock, the time of feeding, was 103.4°F. At 11.45 a.m. this dose was repeated. At 12 o'clock the temperature was 104.1°F. At 12.45 the animal urinated. At 1.10 p.m. a similar extract of 2,000 grams was fed. The total liquid used was 1,500 c.c. On June 1 no symptoms were noted. On June 5 an extract of 3,000 grams of fresh _Aragallus lamberti_ and 3,000 grams of _Astragalus mollissimus_ was fed. After feeding this the animal could be easily turned over on its back and its ear pricked with impunity. The animal at this time weighed 30.8 kilos. On June 6, at 11 a.m., the temperature was 104°F. The sheep had numerous soft stools, and was very dull, and would not eat. On June 7 the temperature was 103.7°F. and the sheep still refused to eat. On the 8th the temperature was 103.2°F. at 10.40 a.m., and the stools were still numerous and soft. There were then fed 640 c.c., representing the aqueous extract of 4,000 grams of the fresh _Aragallus lamberti_. The animal could be easily turned on its back. It weighed at this time 28.57 kilos. On June 9, at 10.47 a.m., the temperature was 103.4°F. The sheep still did not eat, but had no diarrhea. It now weighed 27.9 kilos, and the temperature was 103°F. at 10.45 a.m. On June 13 the animal began to eat, and 1,700 c.c. of fluid, representing 5,500 grams of the fresh _Aragallus lamberti_, were fed. The temperature at 12.30 p.m. was 103°F. On June 14 the temperature was 103.4°F., the animal weighed 28.3 kilos, and refused food. On June 16 the weight was 28.3 kilos; the temperature at 2 p.m. was 103.5°F. There was no diarrhea. On June 19 the aqueous extract of 1,000 grams of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ was fed with 420 c.c. of water. The temperature was 102.6° F. On June 20 the temperature was 102.9°F. at 10.45 a.m. On June 21 500 c.c., representing the aqueous extract of 1,000 grams of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_, were again fed. The animal now weighed 26.9 kilos. On June 26 the animal weighed 26 kilos, and its gait was very uncertain. The temperature was 104.2°F. It was fed 300 c.c. of fluid, representing the extract of 400 grams of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_. On June 29 the animal weighed 26.8 kilos and the temperature was 102.8°F. It was fed the extract of 1,000 grams of dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ in 500 c.c. of water. On June 30, at 10.45 a. m., the temperature was 104.2°F. The animal was very dull and died at night. At autopsy the intestines and stomach merely appeared pale. There were no worms, and the lungs and other organs appeared normal. _Experiment No. 2._--A lamb weighing 15.4 kilos was fed on July 6, at 1.10 p.m., with 640 c.c. of fluid, representing the extract of 2,000 grams of _Astragalus mollissimus_. At 1.17 p.m. the animal could be turned on its back, and it regained its feet with difficulty. At 1.24 p. m. it urinated and had a stool. The lamb died during the night. The autopsy the following morning showed the heart filled with clots; lungs normal save for hypostatic congestion. The cerebral and dural vessels were dilated. About 1-1/2 teaspoonfuls of bloody serum were found at the base of the brain. There was none in the lateral ventricles, and no clots. The kidneys exhibited no marked congestion. There was no fluid found in the peritoneal or the pleural or pericardial cavities. The first stomach, however, contained small hemorrhagic spots, and the second was black. There were small hemorrhages in the intestines. _Experiment No. 3._--July 13, 1906, a sheep weighing 19.5 kilos was fed with 640 c.c. of fluid, representing the extract of 2,000 grams of _Aragallus lamberti_. The temperature at the time of feeding, 1.10 p. m., was 105.3°F. At 1.49 p.m. the sheep could be easily turned on its back. At 2.23 p.m. the temperature was 103.6°F. At 3.42 p.m. the temperature was 103.5°F. At 4.20 p.m. the respiration was fairly rapid. On July 14, at 11.15 a.m., the temperature was 103.6°F. The sheep would run about but could easily be turned over. It had not eaten, but there was diarrhea present. July 15, at 3.30 p.m., the temperature was 104°F. The animal had eaten. On July 17 the temperature was 104°F. and the animal weighed 18.8 kilos. On the 27th it weighed 17.2 kilos; on August 29, 20.8 kilos. _Experiment No. 4._--A lamb weighing 19 kilos was fed August 21, 1906, with 740 c.c., representing the aqueous extract of 2,500 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, shipped to Washington in September, 1905. This animal ate at night, but the following day was dull. When seen on August 27 there was diarrhea present and the animal was still dull. On the 28th the animal died, weighing 16.7 kilos. There was no autopsy on account of decomposition. _Experiment No. 5._--A lamb weighing 15.6 kilos was fed on September 4, 1906, with an aqueous extract representing 3,500 grams of the dried _Aragallus lamberti_, 1,000 c.c. of water being used. The temperature at the time of feeding was 104.3°F. At 2.48 p.m. the animal on rising to its feet developed a slight tremor of the fore legs and showed marked disinclination to stand on its feet. The temperature was 104°F. The animal died at 4.25 p.m. The post-mortem was negative, save for some reddening of the second stomach.[157] These feeding experiments in sheep can not be considered quantitative, because, as is shown later, aqueous extracts of dried plants are often inactive, yet poisonous principles may be obtained from the plants by treatment with digestive fluids. Extracts of dried loco plants vary much in their toxicity; with some the writer was unable to kill rabbits, even when an extract of 300 grams of the dried plant was used. It is interesting to note that when the field station was established at Hugo, Colo., in 1905, almost all the aqueous extracts of dried specimens sent to Washington would produce the acute symptoms of poisoning in rabbits, but during the third season of its existence many of the samples sent from the same area were much less active, if not inactive. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [157] There was a slight odor of chloroform noticed on opening the stomach, so that perhaps the imperfect removal of the chloroform due to a hurried evaporation of the extract should be taken into consideration in this case. =LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS--CHEMICAL.= The fact that the aqueous extract of 500 grams of the fresh _Astragalus mollissimus_, or of 200 grams (in some cases 100 grams) of the dried plant, when fed by mouth, would regularly kill a rabbit weighing about 907 grams, with certain definite clinical symptoms and pathological lesions, was at first arbitrarily selected as our test to aid in the isolation of the active principle. Later the production of chronic symptoms by the aqueous extract or digestion of 200 grams of these dried plants given in doses of 100 grams each on two successive days was considered essential. Carnivora, such as dogs and cats, vomit so easily as to render them unsuitable for these investigations. The aqueous extract was distilled with and without steam, also after acidifying with sulphuric acid, and likewise after the addition of magnesium oxid, but in all cases the distillate was inactive. The concentrated aqueous extract was shaken by the Dragendorff method with petroleum ether, benzol, chloroform, ether, and amyl alcohol, both in alkaline and acid condition, but the shakings yielded no physiologically active body. Shakings by the Otto-Stas method also proved inactive. Lead acetate, lead subacetate, silver nitrate, mercuric chlorid, alcohol, phosphotungstic acid, trichloracetic acid, ammonium hydrate, sodium carbonate, sodium hydrate, Mayer's solution, uranyl acetate, silver oxid, and barium carbonate also failed to remove the active constituent. They gave heavy precipitates in all cases, but these proved inactive. Hydrocyanic acid was sought for with negative results. The pathological lesions in the very acute cases suggested in some respects oxalic acid, a saponin, a metal, or perhaps a toxalbumin as the active principle, but none of the precipitants for saponins, such as lead and copper, or the magnesium oxid method yielded a body which was active. Proteids were excluded by the fact that the various proteid precipitants--alcohol, trichloracetic acid, lead subacetate, mercuric sulphate or chlorid, and salting out with ammonium sulphate and sodium chlorid (complete saturation and half saturation)--failed to give an active precipitate. Glucosidal or alkaloidal bodies were also excluded. On dialysing for twenty-four hours, some of the active principle went into the dialysate and some remained in the dialyser. Ether yielded a precipitate from alcoholic solution which failed to kill. The possibility of the activity of the plants being due to its normal acidity was excluded by neutralizing the extract with sodium hydrate and precipitating the salts with alcohol. The filtrate proved active after removing the alcohol. The negative results in looking for active alkaloidal, or glucosidal, or proteid bodies suggested that perhaps the action was due to some inorganic constituent. The writer then boiled the extract three minutes and as the filtrate was still found active and the proteid precipitate inactive became convinced of the inorganic nature of the active constituents, and finally incinerated the plant. The acid extract from this was also active, but death was delayed several hours. This was believed to be due to the insoluble form into which the compound was converted.[158] In fact, the question of solubility and the avoidance of an acid reaction, which of itself may kill, are the main points to keep in mind. These experiments indicated that the injurious action toward rabbits of the _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_ collected at Hugo, Colo., was due to one or more inorganic constituents,[159] but it does not follow that all loco plants have the same poisonous principle nor that the same species occurring on all soils has the same poisonous action.[160] Of _Astragalus mollissimus_ from Imperial, Nebr., collected in 1906, 200 grams were ashed in a platinum bowl and extracted with water. This aqueous extract when neutralized produced no marked symptoms in a rabbit and the weight of the animal remained about the same. The ash undissolved after this extraction was then treated with acetic acid and water overnight, and after carefully evaporating off the acetic acid on the bath (tested by litmus paper) the residue was fed, partly in solution and partly suspended in water, to a rabbit weighing 1,800.2 grams. Next day the rabbit weighed 1,771.8 grams, showed paralysis of the limbs, and died during the morning. The stomach was intensely reddened and contracted. An extract of a similar ash was made by boiling the same amount with a large quantity of 94 per cent alcohol. This was evaporated in vacuo and taken in water and fed to a rabbit weighing 1,459.9 grams. On the sixth day the animal died, having lost 70.9 grams in weight. The stomach showed reddening but no ulcers. An acetic acid aqueous extract, made from the ash after the alcoholic extraction, proved inactive, showing that the alcohol had removed the active bodies. A 70 per cent alcohol extract of another ashed lot proved active, killing the rabbit overnight. Of _Astragalus mollissimus_ from Imperial, Nebr., 200 grams were ashed in a platinum bowl and the ash treated with acetic acid water. After freeing from acid, one half of the solution and emulsion was fed one day and the second half fed the following day. The rabbit at the time of feeding weighed 1,275.7 grams. Fourteen days later the animal died, weighing 1,105.6 grams. No autopsy. A similar extract of the ash from between 100 and 150 grams of the same dried plant produced death in a rabbit weighing 1,190 grams in two hours and fifty-eight minutes. The acetic acid extract of the ash of 125 grams of a mixture of the dried _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_ received from Hugo, Colo., June, 1907, after freeing from acid, was fed to a rabbit weighing 1,304 grams on July 29. On July 30 it weighed 1,332.4 grams. August 1 it weighed 1,219 grams, and it died the same day. The stomach was reddened and showed ulcers. A similar extract from 250 grams of the same dried plants on boiling gave a heavy precipitate, but this precipitate was inactive, while the filtrate killed a rabbit in four hours. Of dry _Aragallus lamberti_ collected in September, 1906, 200 grams were extracted with water and fed to a rabbit weighing 1,516.7 grams. Two days later the animal weighed 1,360 grams and died the same day. The ash from 200 grams of the same dried plant was extracted with acetic acid, and after evaporating off the acid this was fed to a rabbit weighing 2,045.3 grams. Seven days later the animal weighed 1,729.3 grams, having lost 316 grams in weight. The ash from 250 grams of the same species of plant, after similar treatment with acetic acid, induced death in a rabbit weighing 2,069 grams in 2 hours and 20 minutes. The stomach was inflamed. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [158] Work is now being done by the writer on the inorganic constituents of various plants. [159] Scattered throughout the veterinary literature one finds cases of poisoning in animals with symptoms similar to those occurring in locoed animals which are attributed to eating plants grown on a peculiar soil, as in Oserow, Ueber Krankh. d. Pferde, welche Aehnlichkeit mit der Cerebro-spinal meningitis haben, aber durch Vergiftungen mit Gräsern von Salzgründen (Salzmooren) verursacht werden, Journ. f. Allgem. Veterinär-Medicin, St. Petersburg, p. 486, 1906. Abstract in Jahresber. über d. Leistungen auf dem Gebiete d. Veterinär-Medicin, vol. 26, p. 226, 1906.--Compare also Étude sur Quelques Plantes Vénéneuses des Regions Calcaires, Bul. Soc. Cent. de Méd. Vét., vol. 48, p. 378. 1894. [160] After completing this work the writer found that Sayre had said that he "had the suggestion that the harm coming from this plant is due to the inorganic constituents; this clue has been followed up, but like the others has brought us no nearer to the solution of the problem." Kans. Acad. Sci. Trans., vol. 18, p. 144. 1903. =EFFECT OF THE AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF ASHED LOCO PLANTS.= The filtrate from the ash from 200 grams of dried _Astragalus mollissimus_, from Imperial, Nebr., after similar treatment with acetic acid water and freed from free acid, killed a rabbit in several hours. Hydrochloric acid also rendered the toxic agent of the ash soluble in water, but proved unsuitable for our work, as it was found impossible to obtain neutral residues by mere evaporation on the bath. At first one of the heavy metals or members of the H_{2}S group[161] was suspected, but on passing H_{2}S into the slightly acid extract of the ash no active precipitate resulted, but the filtrate remained active.[162] A special Marsh test was, however, made for arsenic and antimony with negative results. A test for tungsten with zinc and hydrochloric acid proved negative. Members of the ammonium sulphid group were then suspected, but while ammonium hydrate alone gave a heavy white precipitate, this precipitate, as also the black one with ammonium sulphid, proved inactive save when not thoroughly freed from acid (used for solution). The action of this ammonium sulphid precipitate on rabbits was watched for sixteen days, but without result. Nevertheless, the writer still suspected some of the rare earths.[163] Sestini[164] had found that if certain plants were nourished with a solution of a beryllium salt, in the ash of these plants could be shown the presence of beryllium. Two grams of beryllium chlorid were fed in aqueous solution to a rabbit weighing 1,800.2 grams. In four days this animal lost 241 grams and died. The stomach showed the same general pallor seen in chronic locoed rabbits, but no ulcers. The tests for beryllium by Sestini's method, however, failed to show beryllium in the active loco plants examined. Thorium chlorid, cerium chlorid, and lanthanum chlorid in 2-gram doses and zirconium chlorid in 3-gram doses produced no chronic symptoms in rabbits or, in fact, any disturbance. Titanium chlorid, 2.5 grams, evaporated in the air and then fed in an emulsion to a rabbit, also proved inactive, but this inactivity may have been due to its insolubility. Thallium nitrate c. p., in aqueous solution, in 2-gram doses, killed a rabbit weighing 2,154.6 grams in two hours and fifteen minutes. The stomach in this case, while pink, was not hemorrhagic. Zirconium chlorid has an astringent taste, and if fed repeatedly will cause the metallic astringent action. On boiling an acetic acid solution of the ash with sodium acetate a precipitate formed.[165] The presence of zirconium was thus suspected and Dr. E. C. Sullivan, of the United States Geological Survey, estimated it to be present in the ash of a sample of _Aragallus lamberti_ in about 0.01 per cent zirconium oxid, with also 0.1 per cent titanium dioxid.[166] Zirconium chlorid, 3 grams, was fed in aqueous solution to a rabbit weighing 850.5 grams. This rabbit lost 96 grams in seven days, and was then fed 3 grams more of the same solution and the following day 2 grams more. It died eight days later, weighing 656 grams. The stomach and intestines were contracted, but showed no ulcers. However, 4 grams killed a rabbit in two hours and thirty-two minutes. The filtrate, after treating an active solution of the ash with hydrogen peroxid, proved active, thus showing that zirconium was not entirely responsible for the poisonous action. Yttrium, while not found in the plant, was administered as yttrium chlorid to a rabbit weighing 1,530 grams in 2-gram doses in solution. This animal gained 113.4 grams in five days. Didymium chlorid c. p., in 3-gram doses, was fed to a rabbit weighing 1,020 grams. This rabbit lost 70 grams in four days. The administration of manganese acetate[167] in 2-gram doses was followed by a gain in weight of a rabbit of 42.5 grams, while a dose of 3 grams killed a rabbit weighing 1,077 grams in two hours and thirty minutes. Wohlwill[168] has emphasized the fact that the members of the iron group owe their comparative harmlessness to not being absorbed by the gastro-intestinal tract. No zinc was found in the plant.[169] It is well recognized that potassium salts given hypodermically are decidedly toxic and that ammonium salts given per os will kill, so that the writer considered the possibility of other members of the group being responsible for the injurious action. The fact that the alkaline distillate of the plant proved inactive eliminated the ammonium salts. Cæsium chlorid c. p., 2 grams, was fed in aqueous solution to a rabbit weighing 1,077.2 grams. In six days this animal lost 255 grams in weight, when it died.[170] A second rabbit, weighing 1,020.5 grams, was fed with 2 grams of the same solution and lost 368 grams in twenty-one days. The spectroscopic test, however, failed to show cæsium in the ashed plant. Rubidium chlorid c. p., in 2-gram doses, proved inactive. The platinum chlorid precipitate from the extract of the plant proved inactive. The fact that the filtrate after precipitation of the phosphates by tin and nitric acid and H_{2}S was active excluded the phosphoric acid radical, and the filtrate after treatment with BaCO_{3} and AgO being active excluded the H_{2}SO_{4} and HCl radicals as the toxic body. Fluorine was proved to be absent. A radio-active substance was suspected, but Dr. L. J. Briggs, Physicist of Bureau of Plant Industry, reported that the dried plant showed no special amount of radio-activity.[171] Power and Cambier, Sayre, and Kennedy had previously called attention to the abundance of calcium in the plant, and the writer's investigations confirm this. Pharmacologists are averse to believing calcium given per os poisonous. The writer has, however, fed 5 grams of the acetate of calcium in solution to a rabbit weighing 652 grams. This animal died in two hours, with marked irritation of the stomach, the result being due to the so-called "salt action." Much larger amounts were fed in divided doses, but without injury. Calcium phosphate and calcium sulphate in 2-gram doses proved harmless to a rabbit weighing about 1,400 grams. Three grams of magnesium acetate[172] were fed in solution for five successive days to a rabbit weighing 1,417 grams, but without apparent effect. Strontium acetate c. p., in 2-gram doses, likewise caused no disturbance.[173] No strontium in any amount recognizable by chemical tests was proved in the plant. So that by a process of exclusion the writer was forced to think of barium as the main cause of the trouble. The writer noted that if the ashed plant was extracted with H_{2}SO_{4} water and this extract freed from sulphuric acid with PbCO_{3} and H_{2}S the solution proved inactive to rabbits and also that after this extraction the acetic acid extract of the ash failed to kill. In other words, the sulphate of our body was insoluble in water. At times in passing H_{2}S into active solutions of the ashed plant freed from the acetic acid by evaporation the filtrate and likewise the precipitate were inactive. Noyes and Bray[174] have noted that if H_{2}S is passed into certain solutions in the presence of an oxydizing agent, such as ferric iron, H_{2}SO_{4} would be formed, which would throw any barium out of solution. In one blood-pressure record made with a dog (vagi nerves cut), a rise in blood pressure (a characteristic physiological action of barium) was seen to follow the intravenous injection of the aqueous extract of the plant, in spite of its normal acid reaction. Accidentally the writer found that Sprengel[175] had reported the presence of barium in _Astragalus exscapus_, a closely allied plant. Barium has also been found in the vegetable world by Scheele in 1788, and later by Eckard,[176] who found it in beech, while Forchhammer[177] proved it in birch, and Lutterkorth found it in the soil of the same area in which Eckard worked. Dworzak[178] noted the occurrence of traces of this element in wheat grown along the Nile, and Knop[179] found it in the soil. Doctor Balfour, of Khartum, Egypt, informed the writer that he knew of no cases in which this barium in wheat had produced poisoning. Hornberger[180] found barium both in the red beech grown in Germany and in the soil on which these trees grew. It has also been claimed that various marine plants may take up barium from the sea.[181] Hillebrand[182] has called attention to the fact that the igneous rocks of the Rocky Mountains showed a higher percentage of barium than rock from other portions of the United States, so that under these conditions one might expect the presence of barium in plants growing in this region. A sample of _Aragallus lamberti_ and one of _Astragalus mollissimus_ were sent to the Bureau of Chemistry for spectroscopic examination for various elements and they reported traces of barium in each.[183] With these arguments the writer felt sure of the presence of barium, and the matter was discussed with Dr. E. C. Sullivan, of the United States Geological Survey, and he kindly corroborated the conclusions reached as to the presence of barium, controlling its presence by means of the spectroscope, and estimated it roughly as 0.1 per cent BaO in the ash of a sample of _Aragallus lamberti_ (6.3 milligrams BaSO_{4} in 4 grams ash). This determination was made by Hillebrand's method. Kobert has anticipated this result, saying that "all plants are in the position occasionally to take up barium combinations from the soil," and "the plants which thus contain barium may act injuriously to men and animals."[184] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [161] Swain, R. E., and Harkins, W. D. Arsenic in Vegetation Exposed to Smelter Smoke. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p. 915. 1908.--Harkins, W. D., and Swain, R. E. The Chronic Arsenical Poisoning of Herbivorous Animals. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 30, p. 928, 1908. [162] A similar extract was sent to the Bureau of Chemistry, and that Bureau also reported an absence of the elements of the H_{2}S group. [163] Bachem, C. Pharmakologisches über einige Edelerden. Arch. Internat. de Pharmacodyn., vol. 17, p. 363. 1907. [164] Sestini, F. Esper. di Vegetaz. del Frumento con Sostituz. della Glucina alla Magnesia. Staz. Sper. Agrar. Ital., vol. 20, p. 256. 1891.--Di alcuni Elementi Chimici Rari a Trovarsi nei Vegetabili. Staz. Sper. Agrar. Ital., vol. 15, p. 290. 1888. NOTE.--The ammonium sulphid precipitate was very small if the phosphates were first removed with tin and nitric acid. [165] Böhm, C. R. Darstellung d. seltenen Erden, vol. 1, p. 40. 1905. [166] Wait, C. E. Occurrence of Titanium. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 18, p. 402. 1896. NOTE.--There seem to be no records of any study of the pharmacological action of titanium. [167] Compare Jaksch, R. v. Ueber Mangantoxikosen und Manganophobie. Münch. Med. Woch., p. 969. 1907. [168] Wohlwill, F. Ueber d. Wirkung d. Metalle d. Nickelgruppe. Arch. f. Exper. Path., vol. 56, p. 409. 1907. [169] Laband, L. Zur Verbreitung des Zinkes im Pflanzenreiche. Zeits. f. Untersuch. d. Nahrungs u. Genussmittel, vol. 4, p. 489. 1901. [170] Cæsium occurs in various plants and the possibility of poisoning by this element must be considered. It is hoped that the writer may be able to undertake a more thorough pharmacological study of this element. [171] Acqua, C. Sull'accumulo di Sostanze Radioattive nei Vegetali. Atti della Reale Accad. dei Lincei, 5 s, vol. 16, sem. 2, p. 357. 1907. [172] Compare Meltzer, S. J. Toxicity of Magnesium Nitrate When Given by Mouth. Science, vol. 26, p. 473. 1907. [173] Burgassi, G. Modificaz. del Ricambio per Azione dello Stronzio. Archiv. di Farmacol., vol. 6, p. 551. 1907. [174] Noyes, A. A., and Bray, W. C. System of Qualitative Analysis for the Common Elements. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc., vol. 29, pp. 168, 172, and 191. 1907. NOTE.--Barium sulphate is nontoxic on account of its insolubility. Orfila fed 16-24 grams to dogs without causing any disturbance. Bary, A. Beitr. z. Baryumwirkung. Dorpat, 1888, p. 25. [175] Sprengel, C. Von den Substanzen der Ackerbrume und des Untergrundes, Journ. f. Techn. u. OEkon. Chem., vol. 3, p. 313. 1828. [176] Eckard, G. E. Baryt, ein Bestandtheil der Asche des Buchenholzes. Annal. der Chem. u. Pharm., n. s., vol. 23, p. 294. 1856. [177] Forchhammer, J. G. Ueber den Einfluss des Kochsalzes auf die Bildung der Mineralien. Annal. d. Physik u. Chemie, vol. 5, p. 91. 1905.--Lutterkorth, H. Kohlensäurer Baryt, ein Bestandtheil des Sandsteines in der Gegend von Göttingen. Annal. d. Chem. u. Pharm., n. s., vol. 23, p. 296. 1856. [178] Dworzak, H. Baryt unter den Aschenbestandtheilen des. Ægyptischen Weizen. Landw. Versuchs.-Stat., vol. 17, p. 398. 1874. [179] Knop, W. Analysen von Nilabsatz. Landw. Versuchs.-Stat., vol. 17, p. 65. 1874.--Compare also Demoussy, E., Absorption par les Plantes de Quelques Sels Solubles, Thése, Paris, 1899.--Knop, W., Einige neue Resultate der Untersuchung über die Ernährung der Pflanze, Ber. ü. Verhandl. d. königl. sächs. Gesells. d. Wissens. zu Leipzig, Math. Phys. Cl., vol. 29, p. 113, 1877.--Suzuki, U., Can Strontium and Barium Replace Calcium in Phænogams? Bul. Coll. Agric. Tokio Imp. Univ., vol. 4, p. 69, 1900-1902. [180] Hornberger, R. Ueber d. Vorkommen d. Baryums in d. Pflanze und im Boden. Landw. Versuchs.-Stat., vol. 51, p. 473. 1899. [181] Roscoe, H. E., and Schorlemmer, C. Treatise on Chemistry, vol. 2, p. 455. 1897. [182] Hillebrand, W. F. Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks. Dept. Interior, U. S. Geol. Survey, Bul. 305, p. 18. 1907. [183] This report came from the Plant Analysis Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, a different one from that which later controlled the writer's tests quantitatively and qualitatively. In other words, the conclusions of the writer as to the presence of barium were controlled by three separate individuals. [184] Kobert, R. Kann ein in einem Pflanzenpulver gefundener abnorm höher Barytgehalt erklärt werden durch direkte Aufnahme von Baryumsalze durch die lebende Pflanze aus dem Boden? Chem. Zeit., vol. 10, p. 491. 1899. NOTE.--The writer has also found barium in entirely different botanical families from the loco-weed, and it is hoped a report can shortly be made of some of these. NOTE.--The first sample of ash analyzed by the Bureau of Chemistry had 0.21 per cent Fe_{2}O_{3}, 0.92 per cent Al_{2}O_{3}, 0.98 per cent CaO, 0.37 per cent MgO, 5.50 per cent SiO_{2}. The second lot was only examined for certain constituents, and gave K_{2}O, 2.25 per cent; CaO, 1.20 per cent; MgO, 0.41 per cent; P_{2}O_{5}, 0.52 per cent; and SO_{3}, 0.24 per cent. =TOTAL ASH DETERMINATIONS OF LOCO PLANTS.= The reports of the ash analyses of the loco plants show marked variations in the total amount of the ash. Thus, from _Aragallus lamberti_ Dyrenforth obtained 4.32 per cent and O'Brine 13.52 per cent of ash. The Bureau of Chemistry analyzed two different samples of this dried plant and reported in one case 11.15 per cent and in the second 11.64 per cent of ash. O'Brine[185] obtained 13.52 per cent of ash from the same species. The writer's analysis[186] gave in one sample of _Aragallus lamberti_, collected at Hugo, Colo., in 1907, 18.8 per cent of ash; a second lot (1907), 12.44 per cent; a third (1906), 11 per cent, and a fourth (May, 1905) gave 37.3 per cent of ash.[187] One lot from Woodland Park, Colo. (October, 1906), gave 6.4 per cent. One lot from Hugo, Colo. (October, 1907), yielded 9.6 per cent. In the case of _Astragalus mollissimus_, Wentz obtained 6.76 per cent, Sayre 12.01 per cent, Kennedy 20 per cent, O'Brine 12.15 per cent, while the sample analyzed by the Bureau of Chemistry gave 18.4 per cent of ash. One sample from Kit Carson County, Colo. (December, 1906), which proved inactive physiologically, gave an ash content of 6.9 per cent. A sample of _Astragalus missouriensis_ collected at Hugo, Colo., June, 1907, yielded an ash content of 21.8 per cent, and an _Astragalus missouriensis_ collected at Pierre, S. Dak., September, 1907, yielded 27 per cent. An _Astragalus nitidus_ from Custer, S. Dak. (July, 1907), gave 5.2 per cent ash, while an _Astragalus nitidus_ collected at Woodland Park, Colo., in October, 1906, yielded 7.8 per cent, and another specimen of _Astragalus nitidus_ also collected at Woodland Park, Colo., in October, 1907, gave 12.2 per cent. An _Astragalus drummondii_ from Custer, S. Dak. (July, 1907), gave 5.9 per cent. _Astragalus pectinatus_ (Hugo, June, 1907) yielded 6.1 per cent. A fresh (undried) specimen of _Astragalus mollissimus_ (unknown origin, November, 1907) yielded 3.8 per cent of ash. One sample of _Astragalus decumbens_ (Ephraim, Utah, August, 1907) gave 21.8 per cent of ash. These determinations must necessarily be only approximate, as the plants were collected by different persons who exercised different degrees of care in freeing them from adherent soil, and possibly in drying the plants, so that the main value of these figures is their aid in determining the amount of barium present. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [185] The detailed analysis of O'Brine can be found on page 32 of this report. [186] All ash and barium determinations were made from the dried plants save when otherwise specified. [187] Evidently these plants must have been imperfectly freed from soil. =BARIUM DETERMINATIONS IN THE ASH OF LOCO PLANTS.= Attention has been called to the fact that in ashing plants containing barium a part at least of this barium is converted into the insoluble sulphate and a part into the carbonate, so that the characteristic pharmacological action of the ash will depend not upon the total barium present, but upon the form in which it occurs--little action if much BaSO_{4}, and more complete if more BaCO_{3} results. A further difficulty in the recognition of barium in plants is due to the fact that certain inorganic salts interfere with the precipitation by H_{2}SO_{4}. A specimen of _Aragallus lamberti_ (Hugo, summer of 1907) with 12.44 per cent of ash was examined for its barium content by Hillebrand's method.[188] The method was as follows: Two grams of the ash were first fused with sodium carbonate and the fused mass washed with water containing sodium carbonate. The residue was washed into a beaker and treated with a few drops of sulphuric acid. The residue now remaining was filtered and after ignition was treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids. After evaporating off these acids, the residue was treated with sulphuric acid water, filtered, and then fused with sodium carbonate. After extracting with sodium carbonate water, the residue was dissolved in just enough hydrochloric acid and precipitated with sulphuric acid. The precipitate was dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid and reprecipitated by water and weighed as BaSO_{4}.[189] So far as the writer can ascertain, there have been no control experiments made for this method to determine the experimental error. Of the above ash, 1.998 grams gave 5.2 milligrams of BaSO_{4}, which would correspond to 75.75 milligrams of barium acetate crystals-- Ba(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}+H_{2}O--in 200 grams of the dried plant. The residue by the Hillebrand method after weighing was tested with the spectroscope and gave a bright spectrum for barium. The same ash was analyzed by the Bureau of Chemistry, using a shorter method, and they reported 2.7 milligrams of barium sulphate in 1.1217 grams of ash. A second sample collected earlier in the summer, with an ash content of 18.6 per cent, was shown to yield barium corresponding to 3.4 milligrams of BaSO_{4} in 2.5 grams of the ash.[190] One lot of _Aragallus lamberti_ collected at Hugo, Colo., in May, 1905, and which gave an ash content of 37.3 per cent, was found to yield 3 milligrams of BaSO_{4} from 1.998 grams of ash, or 173.88 milligrams of Ba(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}+H_{2}O in 200 grams of the dried plant, but this ash also contained 0.27 per cent of SO_{3}. The Bureau of Chemistry reported the barium to correspond to 2.9 milligrams of BaSO_{4} in 2.45 grams of the ash. The _Astragalus missouriensis_ (Hugo, June, 1907), with an ash content of 21.8 per cent, gave 3 milligrams of BaSO_{4} in 2.01 grams of ash, or 76.58 milligrams of Ba(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}+H_{2}O in 200 grams of the dried plant. The residue after weighing was tested spectroscopically and gave a bright barium spectrum. The _Astragalus drummondii_ from Custer, S. Dak. (1906), _Astragalus mollissimus_ from Kit Carson County, Colo. (December, 1906), and _Astragalus nitidus_ from Woodland Park, Colo. (October, 1907), were reported by the Bureau of Chemistry to contain no barium. The ash of the _Astragalus pectinatus_ (Hugo, June, 1907) was reported by the Bureau of Chemistry to show no barium on spectroscopic examination. Two grams of active loco plant ash yielded from 5 to 6 milligrams of BaSO_{4}, but it can be easily seen that in multiplying this amount to correspond to 200 grams of the dried plant errors would be likely to arise, so that the whole amount of barium would not necessarily be accounted for. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [188] Hillebrand, W. F. Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks. U. S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 305, p. 116. 1907. See also Folin, O., On the Reduction of Barium Sulphate in Ordinary Gravimetric Determinations, in Journ. Biol. Chem., vol. 3, p. 81. 1907. [189] All the determinations of barium which resulted either positively or negatively were made with the same bottle of sodium carbonate and H_{2}SO_{4}, so that impurities in the chemicals were thus eliminated. [190] Report from Bureau of Chemistry. =ANALYSIS OF SOILS.= One sample of the soil from near Hugo, Colo., from which the _Aragallus lamberti_ was collected, was examined by the Bureau of Soils, and that Bureau reported the absence of barium and zirconium, at least of any recognizable by the chemical methods used, so that it can not be said that the barium came from any soil accidentally mixed with the ash. Traces of titanium were, however, found. Evidently the plant must collect minimal quantities of these elements from the soil and store them. The water from a well of an adjacent area was examined by the Bureau of Chemistry and reported to contain 37.4 parts of calcium and 13.7 parts of magnesium in one million, and that the water contained no barium.[191] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [191] Barium has been found in well water in England. See Thorpe, T. E., Contribution to the History of the Old Sulphur Well, Harrogate, in Philos. Mag., 5 s., vol. 2, p. 50, 1876. =FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH BARIUM SALTS ON ANIMALS IN THE LABORATORY.= On these figures the writer took 0.2 gram of crystallized barium acetate c. p., using the acetate because acetic acid has been proved in certain loco plants by Power and Cambier, and after dissolving it in water fed it at 9.45 a.m. to a rabbit weighing 1,177 grams. The head soon fell forward so that the nose rested on the ground. At 10.58 a.m. the rabbit seemed unable to guide itself and would run into obstructions if forced to move. There was no diarrhea but it urinated several times. There was a peculiar tremor of the muscles noted. The animal would not startle by sudden noises and at 11.06 a.m. could be placed on its back with ease. The pupils appeared about normal. The whites of the eyes showed very prominently. At 11.35 a.m. the fore legs were paralyzed. The following morning the animal was dead, its weight being 1,120 grams. The heart was dilated; the stomach was not hemorrhagic, but rather pale. A second rabbit, which weighed 1,630 grams, was fed with a solution of 0.5 gram of the same salt at 9.42 a.m. At 10.35 a.m. the animal passed soft stools and showed a marked disinclination to move, with evidence of pain. The diarrhea[192] became more marked and the animal's hind quarters were soiled with feces. At 10.48 a.m. there was marked incoordination of the limbs and inability to stand. Finally, at 10.56 a. m., convulsions began and the animal died at 11.02 a.m. The autopsy was made about two hours later. The animal was then rigid. The kidneys seemed rather congested. The intestines were relaxed; mesenteric vessels dilated. The pyloric region of the stomach appeared hemorrhagic. A third rabbit, fed like the preceding with 0.5 gram of barium acetate, showed much the same result. In this case there was some retching, but the other symptoms were as above, the animal dying in one hour and five minutes. No hemorrhages were seen in the stomach walls. It was noted that after the administration of certain doses, 0.2 gram, there was no diarrhea. On September 23, 1907, a rabbit weighing 1,757 grams was fed at 10.42 a. m. with 0.1 gram of the same barium acetate. The temperature at the time of feeding was 102.9°F. At 12.05 a.m. the animal urinated. Temperature, 101.4°F. On September 24 the animal weighed the same. Temperature at 10.55 a.m., 102.3°F. The same amount of barium was fed. At 3.40 p.m. the temperature was 102.5°F. On September 25 the animal weighed 1,800 grams. Temperature, 102.2°F. at 10.39 a.m. The dose of barium was repeated. At 3.55 p.m. the temperature was 101.4°F. On September 26 at 9.38 a.m. the temperature was 101.1°F., and again the barium was given. At 3.57 p.m. the temperature was 101.5°F. On September 27 the rabbit weighed 1,772 grams. The temperature at 9.53 a. m. was 102.3°F. The barium was fed for the fifth time. At 10.27 a.m. there were general convulsions. The eyes teared. At 10.32 a.m. soft stools appeared and the animal urinated. Stools were passed at various periods. At 11.30 a.m. there were no signs of pain on pinching the ear. At 11.58 a.m. the animal retched. The animal was lying with the fore legs wide apart and could not support itself. At 12.05 p.m. the temperature was 98°F. and the rabbit died shortly after. The peritoneal cavity seemed normal. The small intestines were relaxed, while the mesenteric vessels were dilated. The kidneys seemed congested. The stomach walls were pink and in places covered with mucus. The heart was relaxed save the left ventricle, which seemed firm. On September 23, 1907, a second rabbit, weighing 1,360 grams, was fed with a similar solution and the feeding was repeated at the same time the first rabbit was fed. On September 27 the animal weighed 1,416 grams. On this day a peculiar movement of the hind legs on jumping appeared, apparently due to an inability to draw the legs completely up, and the fore legs were spread wide apart, as if too weak to support the animal. The temperature had also fallen. On September 28 the animal had apparently recovered. Weight, 1,516 grams on October 21. On September 23, 1907, a third rabbit, weighing 1,304 grams, was fed with 50 milligrams of barium acetate. This dose was repeated each time the other two rabbits were fed. On September 27 it weighed 1,304 grams. Marked muscular twitching appeared, with disinclination to move. Finally there were convulsions and paralysis of the limbs. No stools were seen. This animal lay quiet all night, apparently unable to move, and continued on its side until 3.15 p.m. on September 28, when it gradually recovered, weighing 1,346 grams on October 24. On October 24, 1907, a rabbit weighing 1,346.5 grams was fed with a solution of 25 milligrams of crystallized barium acetate. On the next day the weight was 1,318 grams, and the dose was repeated. On October 26 it weighed 1,275.7 grams, and the dose was repeated; on October 30 it weighed 1,332 grams, and on October 31 its weight was 1,375 grams. The animal died at night on November 6; weight, 1,134 grams. The post-mortem examination, made with Dr. Meade Bolton, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, was negative save for the presence of necrotic tissue in one enlarged thyroid. On October 24, 1907, a rabbit weighing 1,332 grams was fed with a solution of 25 milligrams of crystallized barium acetate. On the next day the animal weighed the same, and the dose was repeated. On October 26 it weighed 1,289 grams, and the same amount of barium was given. On October 28 the weight was 1,219 grams and two days later 1,289 grams. On October 31, 1907, a rabbit weighing 723 grams was fed with a solution of 25 milligrams of barium acetate. This rabbit was fed in all nine times during a period of ten days. At the end of this time it weighed 779 grams and died six days later, weighing 723 grams. The post-mortem was negative. A rabbit weighing 779 grams was also fed on October 31, 1907, with a similar amount of barium. This dose was repeated six times during an interval of eight days. At the end of that time the animal still retained its normal weight. On November 14, 1907, it weighed 709 grams, having lost 70 grams. Thus after daily doses of 0.1 gram of crystallized barium acetate no symptoms appeared until the fifth day, when death resulted. After the similar administration of 50 milligrams severe symptoms developed on the same day, but the animal recovered. After the administration of 25 milligrams on three successive days the animal died. In other cases of feeding 25 milligrams for several successive days, some lost weight and died; others merely lost in weight, but recovered. Bary fed a rabbit weighing 0.9 kilogram a solution of 30 milligrams of barium chlorid on one day, on the second day 90 milligrams, and on the third day 30 milligrams. The only symptom noted was diarrhea. The animal died on the fifth day. In other words, after feeding small doses of barium salts for several days acute symptoms suddenly set in, showing a cumulative action. This cumulative action has been noted on man.[193] Onsum[194] fed a medium-sized rabbit daily with small doses of barium carbonate, beginning with 20 milligrams. When the total amount reached 0.19 grams the rabbit died. The animal before death showed paralysis, respiratory disturbances, and fall in temperature. The sensibility of the cornea diminished, but the pupils responded to light. The stomach walls showed ecchymoses and the blood vessels of the brain, the spinal cord, and the abdominal vessels were dilated. Emboli in the pulmonary arteries were also noted. In a rabbit the application of 0.66 gram of barium chlorid to a wound was followed in twenty minutes by convulsions, paralysis, and finally coma and death.[195] Of barium nitrate 0.66 gram mixed with sugar and fed to a rabbit caused death in less than one hour, and 0.33 gram induced death in another rabbit in twenty-seven hours.[196] Six grains (0.4 gram) of barium iodid fed in solution to a rabbit caused death the following day. On this day there were tremors of the neck and shoulders with convulsive movements of the limbs. There was also grinding of the teeth. "The mucous membrane of the stomach was rose-red at the cardia, and softened." Membranes of the cord and brain also were congested.[197] For rabbits weighing 1,500 to 2,000 grams the lethal dose of barium chlorid on subcutaneous use is stated to be 0.05 to 0.06 grams.[198] A rabbit weighing 1,106 grams was fed with a solution containing 50 milligrams of crystallized barium acetate c. p. and 50 milligrams of zirconium chlorid (pure). In fifty-seven minutes the animal showed difficulty in moving the fore legs, developing marked paralysis of the same about five hours later, and died the following morning--that is, twenty-two hours after feeding. The heart was found dilated, kidneys congested, stomach walls pink and covered in places with mucus and partly digested blood, and cerebral dural vessels dilated, but no clots were seen; bladder full. Mixtures of 0.5 gram of calcium acetate and 50 milligrams of barium acetate failed to kill. Mixtures of titanium and barium were not tried, as no titanium salt soluble in water and of neutral reaction was accessible. Mittelstaedt called attention to the fact that pregnant rabbits were more easily affected by the barium administration than nonpregnant ones, and noted abortion in one case.[199] One gram of the barium carbonate killed a dog in eight hours. A second dog died in fifteen hours. Both of these animals vomited so that a portion of this must have been lost.[200] Barium carbonate was formerly employed as a rat poison.[201] Of barium chlorid 0.6 gram, fed in aqueous solution, caused death in a dog in forty-eight minutes if vomiting was prevented.[202] In Tidy's hands 2 grams of the barium nitrate caused death in a small terrier in three and three-fourth hours. This dog had slight convulsions, was almost unable to stand, and had vomiting and purging. The reflexes were diminished. A small dog recovered only completely in five days after being fed 0.66 gram, while a large dog after being fed 1.3 grams only recovered after two days. In cats 0.8 gram of barium carbonate when introduced into a wound caused on the third day languor, slow respiration, feeble pulse, twitching of hind legs, dilated pupils, and death.[203] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [192] Magnus, R. Wirkungsweise u. Angriffspunkt einiger Gifte am Katzendarm. Archiv. f. Gesam. Physiol., vol. 108, p. 44, 1905. NOTE.--Reports on the histological changes in acute barium poisoning can be found in Pilliet, A., and Malbec, A. Note sur les Lesions Histologiques du Rein Produits par les Sels de Baryte sur les Animaux. Comp. Rend. Hebd. Soc. de Biol., vol. 4, p. 957. 1892. Literature on the pharmacology of barium not otherwise referred to is as follows: Boehm, R. Ueber d. Wirkungen d. Barytsalze auf d. Thierkörper. Arch. f. Exp. Path., vol. 3, p. 217. 1875.--Sommer, F. Beitr. z. Kennt. d. Baryum-Vergiftung. Dissert., Würzburg, 1890.--Neumann, J. Ueber den Verbleib der in den thierischen Organismus eingeführten Bariumsalzen. Archiv. f. Gesam. Physiol., vol. 36, p. 576. 1885.--Hefftner, A. Ausscheidung körperfremder Substanzen im Harn, Ergeb. d. Physiol., pt. 1, p. 121. 1903.--Binet, P. Recherches Compar. sur l'Action Physiol. des Métaux, Alcalins et Alcalino-terreux. Rev. Méd. de la Suisse Romande, vol. 12, pp. 535, 607. 1892.--Cyon, M. Ueber d. toxisch. Wirkung. d. Baryt u. Oxalsäureverbindungen. Archiv. f. Anat., Physiol. u. Wissens. Med., 1866, p. 196.--Mickwitz, L. Vergleich. Untersuch. ü. d. Physiol. Wirkung d. Salze d. Alcalien u. Alcal. Erden. Dissert., Dorpat, 1874.--Heilborn, F. Ueber Veränderungen im Darme nach Vergift. mit Arsen, Chlorbarium und Phosphor. Dissert., Würzburg, 1891.--Reincke, J. J. Ein Fall mehrfacher Vergiftung durch kohlensäuren Baryt. Viertelj. f. gerichtl. Med., n. s., vol. 28, p. 248. 1878.--Orfila, Mémoire sur l'Empoisonnement par les Alcalis Fixes. Journ. de Chimie Méd., 2 s., vol. 8. p. 200. 1842.--Santi, L. Se nel Veneficio per Sali di Bario questo Metallo passa alla Urina? Gazz. Chem. Ital., vol. 33, pt. 2, p. 202. 1903.--Weber, F. R. Barium Chloride. Milwaukee Med. Journ., vol. 12, pp. 39, 60. 1904.--Rabuteau. De l'Innocuité des Sels de Strontium Comparée à l'Activité du Chlorure de Baryum. Gaz. Méd. de Paris, 3 s., vol. 24, p. 218. 1869.--The very early literature is considered in detail by Bary. [193] Bary, A. Beitr. z. Baryumwirkung. Dissert., Dorpat, 1888, p. 100. [194] Onsum, J. Ueber d. toxisch. Wirkung. der Baryt und Oxalsäureverbindungen. Arch. f. Path. Anat., vol. 28, p. 234. 1863. [195] Brodie, B. C. Further Experiments and Observations on the Action of Poisons on the Animal System. Philos. Trans., vol. 102, p. 218. 1812. [196] Tidy, C. M. On Poisoning by Nitrate of Baryta. Med. Press and Circ., vol. 6, p. 448. 1868. [197] Glover, R. M. On the Physiological and Medicinal Properties of Bromine and Its Compounds. Edinb. Med. & Surg. Journ., vol. 58, p. 341. 1842. [198] Kissner, G. Ueber Baryum Vergiftungen u. deren Einfluss auf d. Glykogengehalt der Leber. Scholten, 1896, p. 11. [199] Mittelstaedt, F. Ueber chronische Bariumvergiftung. Dissert., Greifswald, 1895, p. 19. [200] Pelletier, D. Observations sur la Strontiane. Annal. de Chimie, vol. 21, p. 119. 1797. [201] Christison, R. Treatise on Poisons. Edinburgh, 1845, p. 579.--Crampe. Bewährte Mittel gegen Feldmäuse. Deutsch. Landw. Presse, vol. 5, p. 530. 1878.--Felletar, E. Fälle von Intox. mit kohlensäur. Baryum. Pest. Med.-Chir. Presse, vol. 28, p. 1072. 1892. [202] Husemann, T. Ein Beitrag z. Kennt. d. Barytvergiftungen. Zeits. f. pract. Heilk., vol. 3, p. 235. 1866. In this article Husemann has collected many cases of poisoning by barium in animals. [203] Christison, R. Treatise on Poisons. Edinburgh, 1845, p. 579. =BARIUM POISONING IN MAN.= The high toxicity of barium was called attention to by early observers, but it was attributed by some to admixed arsenic. The reports of feeding experiments with barium on animals have varied markedly, but now care is being advised in the use of barium salts.[204] Barium was introduced into medicine in the treatment of scrofula, but has fallen into disuse, and only recently attention has been called to it on account of its action on the circulatory system. Filippi,[205] however, says, "The effects on the heart and on the pressure are already the first indication of poisoning." This metal has also been used in the treatment of chronic diseases of the spinal cord, as multiple sclerosis and paralysis agitans.[206] After the administration to a woman of 1/12 grain (0.005 gram) of barium chlorid three to five times a day for a few days, a total of 2-1/4 grains (0.135 gram), the patient developed rapid respiration, tenderness over the epigastrium, nausea, constipation, cramps in the limbs, loss of appetite, weakness, great emaciation, dysuria, some deafness with tinnitus, difficulty in speaking and thinking, with vertigo.[207] In this case the eyes were glassy, the vision indistinct, and the cheeks flushed. Kohl after the use of small doses of the same noted salivation, swelling of the gums, and falling out of the teeth, with a mercurial odor to the breath. Christison[208] states: "I have known violent vomiting, gripes, and diarrhea produced in like manner by a quantity not exceeding the usual medicinal doses." According to Kennedy few persons are able to bear 1/8 grain (0.0075 gram) of barium chlorid.[209] In Carpenter's case after three doses of 1.6 grains (0.070 gram) of barium chlorid the patient developed almost lethal symptoms.[210] Carpenter calls attention to the drowsiness which developed in this patient after the administration of barium, a fact which had already been noted by Christison.[211] A cartarrhal affection of various mucous membranes and a swelling of various glands have been noted, especially of the lymph and salivary glands, and in the male the testes have at times swollen.[212] The inflammation of the glands may pass on to suppuration. The skin becomes dry and shows a tendency to crack. Febrile attacks are reported after the repeated use of small doses of barium. Scheibler[213] has called attention to the possibility of producing _chronic_ barium poisoning in man from the use of barium in the manufacture of food products. Acute cases of poisoning in man from four or more grams of barium carbonate or chlorid or nitrate have been reported more or less frequently.[214] In the acute case of poisoning in man reported by Tiraboschi and Taito, no macroscopic changes were noted in the stomach mucosa.[215] Lopes[216] has reported one case of acute poisoning in man from less than 1 gram of barium chlorid. In this case paralysis of the limbs was a marked feature. Stern[217] cites Perondi and Lisfranc to the effect that "remarkably large doses of barium chlorid can be borne without injury by gradually increasing the doses (dissolved in much water)." Lisfranc[218] has suggested that the sensitiveness to poisoning by barium salts is greater in certain climates than in others. No data are as yet available as to the influence of altitude and partial starvation on the toxicity of barium salts. As is well known, almost all recorded cases of locoed animals have occurred at a high altitude. It must also be remembered that the addition of one salt to the solution of another may greatly increase the toxicity of the first one. Thus, the addition of a few milligrams of barium chlorid to a solution of a sulphocyanate renders the latter much more poisonous.[219] This may be due to the fact that the salts are more completely ionized. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [204] According to v. Jaksch, "Sie ist bei der grossen Toxicität der Substanz immer ernst zu stellen." Vergiftungen, 1897, p. 79. NOTE.--A thorough pharmacological study of some barium salt is much needed, and it is hoped that the writer will be able to complete this work. [205] Filippi, E. Modificaz. del Ricambio Organice per Azione del Cloruro di Bario. La Sperimentale, vol. 60, p. 610. 1906; Sull' Azione Cardiaca del Chloruro di Bario. Archivio di Farmacol. Speriment., vol. 5, p. 122. 1906. [206] Schulz, H. Vorles. ü. Wirkung. u. Anwendung d. unorganisch. Arzneistoffe. Leipzig, 1907, p. 234.--Hare, H. A. Use of Barium Chloride in Heart Disease. Med. News, vol. 54, p. 183. 1889. [207] Ferguson, J. C. Symptoms of Poisoning from Muriate of Barytes. Dublin Quart. Journ. Med. Sci., vol. 1, p. 271. 1846. [208] Christison, R., l. c., p. 580. [209] Kennedy, H. Dose of the Muriate of Barytes. Lancet, vol. 2, p. 28. 1873. [210] Carpenter, J. S. Barium Choride from a Clinical Standpoint. Med. News, vol. 59, p. 93. 1891. [211] Christison, R., l. c., 1845, p. 578. [212] Schulz, H. Vorles. ü. Wirkung. u. Anwendung d. unorganisch. Arzneistoffe. Leipzig, 1907, p. 233.--Schwilgué, C. J. A. Traité de Mat. Méd., 3 ed., vol. 1, p. 441. 1818. NOTE.--According to the files of the Office of Poisonous-Plant Investigations, E. D. Smith reported in the Orange Judd Farmer, 1897, that locoed animals showed a swelling of various glands. As yet the writer has been unable to verify this reference. [213] Scheibler, C. Ueber d. Verwendung giftiger Stoffe, besonders d. Barytverbindungen bei d. Zuckerfabrication. Chem. Zeit., vol. 11, p. 1463. 1887. [214] Schmidt's Jahrbücher, vol. 192, p. 131. 1881.--Walsh, J. Report of a Case of Poisoning by Chloride of Barium. Lancet, vol. 1, p. 211. 1859.--Walch. Seltener Fall einer tödlich. Vergiftung d. Baryta muriatica. Zeits. f. Staatsarznk., vol. 30, p. 1. 1835.--Carpenter, J. S. Barium Chloride from a Clinical Standpoint. Med. News, vol. 59, p. 93. 1891.--Eschricht. Dødeligt forløbende Forgiftning med salpetersurt Baryt. Ugeskrift for Laeger, vol. 4, p. 241. 1881.--Ogler and Socquet. Empoisonnement par le Chlorure de Baryum. Annal. d'Hyg. Publ., 3 s., vol. 25, p. 447. 1891.--Chevallier, A. Note sur un Cas d'Empoisonnement Déterminé par l'Acétate de Baryte. Annal. d'Hyg. Publ., 2 s., vol. 39, p. 395. 1873.--Courtin, Cas d'Empoisonnement par du Chlorure de Baryum. Rev. d'Hyg., vol. 4, p. 653. 1882.--Poisoning by a Baryta Compound. Pharm. Journ., 3 s., vol. 2, p. 1021. 1872.--Reichardt, E. Vergiftungsfall mit kohlensäurem Baryt. Arch. d. Pharm., 3 s., vol. 4, p. 426. 1874.--Lagarde, P. Acétate de Baryte livré sous le Nom de Sulfovinate de Soude. Union Méd., 3 s., vol. 14, p. 537. 1872.--Baum. Zwei Fälle von fahrlässiger Tödtung durch saltpetersäures Baryt. Zeits. f. Medizinalbeamte, vol. 9, p. 759. 1896.--Funaro, A. Sul Veneficio per Sali di Bario. L'Orosi, vol. 12, p. 397. 1894. [215] Tiraboschi, A., and Taito, F. Avvelenamento da Bario. Il Risveglio Medico d'Abruzzo e Molise, vol. 1, p. 171. 1906. NOTE.--A criticism of this case is to be found in Bellisari, G., Su Di un Presunto Avvelenamento da Bario. Il Risveglio Medico d'Abbruzzo e Molise, vol. 2, p. 15. 1907. [216] Lopes, A. Caso Curioso de Envenenamento Pelo Chloret de Bario. Medicina Contempt., Lisbon, vol. 4, p. 109. 1886. [217] Stern, E. Vergiftung mit Chlorbarium. Zeits. f. Medizinalbeamte, vol. 9, p. 383. 1896. NOTE.--The writer has always theoretically questioned the danger of poisoning by loco weeds in well-fed and well-watered animals. Compare Stalker, M., The "Loco" Plant and Its Effect on Animals. Bur. Animal Industry, 3d Ann. Report (1886), p. 271. 1887. [218] Lisfranc. Leçon sur l'Emploi du Muriate de Baryte contre les Tumeurs Blanches. Gaz. Méd. de Paris, 2 s., vol. 4, p. 215. 1836. [219] Pauli, W., and Fröhlich, A. Pharmakodynam. Studien. Sitz. Kaiserl. Acad. d. Wissens. z. Wien, vol. 115, III, pt. 6, p. 445. 1906. =PATHOLOGICAL LESIONS IN EXPERIMENTAL BARIUM POISONING.= The post-mortem examinations in cases of acute experimental barium poisoning, according to Schedel,[220] show punctiform or large hemorrhagic effusion in the fundus ventriculi[221] and in the large and small intestines, contraction of the bladder, and hemorrhage into the walls of the bladder and uterus. The heart is usually found relaxed or the left ventricle contracted in systole, while the right is relaxed. Only once were ecchymoses under the endocardium seen. The liver and kidneys showed nothing special. The urine was free from albumen and sugar. In a few cases the lungs showed some infiltration with blood. In chronic cases, according to our own investigations in rabbits, there are no characteristic macroscopic lesions, a result which agrees with Mittelstaedt's report.[222] Nothnagel and Rossbach[223] claim that in chronic poisoning by barium the peripheral nerves are altered. The same negative results have also been reported in chronic poisoning in higher animals. Reynolds[224] noted a layer like a blood clot under the cerebellum in a horse fed with barium chlorid. Fuchs[225] has called attention to the fact that the flesh of cattle poisoned with barium chlorid was harmless, perhaps owing to a conversion into an insoluble salt, a fact which may be considered in the use of locoed animals for food. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [220] Schedel, H. Beitr. z. Kennt. d. Wirkung des Chlorbariums. 1903, p. 13. [221] After subcutaneous injection of barium chlorid, Lewin, by means of the spectroscope, has found barium in the stomach walls. Lewin, L. Schicksal körperfremder chem. Stoffe im Menschen u. besonders ihre Ausscheidung. Deutsch. Med. Woch., vol. 32, p. 173. 1906. [222] Mittelstaedt, F. Ueber chronische Bariumvergiftung. Dissert., Greifswald, 1895, p. 29. [223] Nothnagel, H., and Rossbach, M. J. Handb. d. Arzneimittel, p. 81. 1904. [224] Reynolds, M. H. A Study of Certain Cathartics. Minn. Agric. Exper. Sta., 15th Ann. Rept. 1907. [225] Fuchs, C. J. Vergiftungsfälle durch salzsäuren Baryt beim Rindvieh. Thierärztl. Mittheil., vol. 5, p. 159. 1870. Fuchs suggests that further investigations on this point are desirable. The literature of this class of experiments is very scanty. See Fröhner and Knudsen, Einige Versuche über d. Geniessbarkeit d. Fleisches vergift. Thiere. Monats. f. Prakt. Thierheilk., vol. 1, p. 529. 1890. =TOXICITY OF VARIOUS AQUEOUS EXTRACTS OF LOCO PLANTS.= On October 21, 1907, a rabbit weighing 1,531 grams was fed with an extract of 95 grams of dried _Aragallus lamberti_ (Hugo, Colo., 1907), with an ash content of 12.44 per cent, with a barium content estimated as 2.6 milligrams of BaSO_{4} in 1 gram of ash. On the following day it weighed 1,517 grams, and the same dose was again administered. On October 23 the weight was 1,488 grams, and the dose was repeated. On the next day the weight was the same and the dose was repeated. On October 26 the weight was 1,446 grams, and again the same extract was given. On October 30 the animal weighed 1,502.5 grams; on October 31, 1,531 grams. The animal received a total extract of 475 grams of the dried plant without serious injury. This result was apparently contradictory to the earlier work. On October 21, 1907, a rabbit weighing 1,743 grams was fed with an extract of 47.5 grams of the same dried plant. On the next day its weight was 1,729 grams, and the same amount of the extract was fed. On October 23 the weight remained the same, and the dose was repeated. On October 24 the weight was 1,658 grams, and the same amount of extract was fed. On October 26 the animal weighed 1,630 grams, when it was again fed with the same amount of extract. On October 28 the animal weighed 1,573.5 grams, but two days later the weight had risen to 1,644 grams. An extract of 237.5 grams had been administered. Here again the results appeared contradictory. On October 21, 1907, a rabbit weighing 1,517 grams was fed with an extract of 77.5 grams. On the next day it weighed 1,545 grams, and the dose was repeated. On October 23 the animal weighed 1,531 grams, and the same amount of extract was given. On the following day it weighed 1,488 grams, and the dose was repeated. On October 26 it weighed 1,474 grams, and again the dose was repeated. On October 30 the weight had risen to 1,545 grams, and on October 31 it was 1,559 grams. This animal received in all an extract of 387.5 grams of the dried plant. An aqueous extract of 200 grams of the same in one dose also failed to produce the acute symptoms. These feeding experiments show little of the characteristic action seen in the earlier experiments made with aqueous extracts either of the dry plant or of the fresh plant preserved with chloroform. In other words, the aqueous extract of the dried plant was only slightly poisonous, yet the plant from which the extract was made contained barium. Of this same dried loco 200 grams were then extracted with water and digested with pepsin and finally with pancreatin in the thermostat (37.5°C.). The extract was concentrated and fed to a rabbit weighing 1,616 grams. After five hours and ten minutes the animal appeared weak in the fore legs and unable to support himself, and he died during the night. The intestines the following morning were found full of gas, the stomach red, the lungs seemed normal, and the heart was relaxed. A rabbit weighing 1,545 grams was fed on November 15, 1907, with a preparation made in a similar manner, save that the plant was not extracted with water before digestion. On the next day it weighed 1,517 grams and on November 19, 1,361 grams. The following day the weight was 1,318 grams; on November 21, 1,233 grams, and on the next day 1,162 grams. The animal died during the night, and the autopsy was made the following morning. The animal was greatly emaciated and the subcutaneous fat had almost all disappeared. The mesenteric vessels were dilated, but the intestines were not dilated. The peritoneal cavity was normal. The kidneys were perhaps a little injected, and measured 3 cm. in length. The lungs were normal. The left ventricle was contracted and the rest of the heart relaxed. The liver was normal and the spleen apparently normal. The stomach walls were dark, owing to decomposition. No ulcers were seen. The suprarenals were perhaps a little enlarged. The examination of the brain was negative, and no clots were found. A similar digestion from 200 grams of the same dried plant was then ashed and the ash treated with acetic acid and freed from acid by evaporation on the bath. The ash which was insoluble in water was ground up into a fine paste and the whole was fed to a rabbit weighing 992 grams. This animal died in forty minutes, showing the characteristic symptoms seen in acute cases already described. In the autopsy the lungs and other organs seemed perfectly normal macroscopically. The stomach walls, however, were reddened and ecchymotic, and the mesenteric vessels were dilated. On January 8, 1908, a similar digestion of the same batch was treated with a few drops of sulphuric acid to remove the barium, and the filtrate was then treated with lead carbonate to remove the sulphuric acid. After careful filtering, H_{2}S was passed into the solution and after concentration was fed in one dose on January 9, 1908, to a rabbit. The following morning the rabbit had gained in weight. On January 14 this animal weighed 30 grams more than its initial weight. The residue of this plant after such a digestion, examined by the Hillebrand method, showed no weighable amount of barium, so that it can be seen that barium in relatively large amount was found in the plant itself, but not after the digestion. It must therefore have been the aqueous digestion which produced the characteristic symptoms. The examination of this fluid for barium might, however, be misleading, as the large amount of proteids would unquestionably interfere with the determination of this amount of barium, unprotected by other salts and silica, so that this side of the investigation was not pursued. Control feedings with an emulsion of one-half gram each of pepsin and pancreatin proved inactive. Of the same _Aragallus lamberti_ 200 grams were similarly digested and the barium was removed with a few drops of H_{2}SO_{4}, the sulphuric acid by PbCO_{3} and a little lead acetate, and the lead by H_{2}S. Such an extract it was shown in the previous experiment would not kill. However, to this extract was added 100 milligrams of crystallized barium acetate in a solution and a precipitate formed. Nevertheless, the liquid and the precipitate were fed on February 1, 1908, to a rabbit weighing 1,304 grams. On February 3 the animal weighed 1,233 grams; on February 4, 1,176 grams; February 5, 1,120 grams; February 6, 1,006 grams; February 7, 1,219 grams; February 8, 1,219 grams; February 10, 1,304 grams. As a control for this animal, to make sure that the loss in weight was not due to the acetic acid set free by the treatment with H_{2}S, a similar aqueous extract of the same lot of _Aragallus lamberti_ was precipitated with very much more lead acetate than in the preceding cases and also with lead subacetate and then H_{2}S. After evaporating to dryness this was fed on February 8, 1908, to a rabbit weighing 1,035 grams. On February 11 it weighed 1,021 grams; on February 13, 1,091 grams, and on February 15, 1,120 grams, showing a gain in weight. Of the dried _Astragalus missouriensis_ (Hugo, Colo., June, 1907) 400 grams with an ash content of 21.8 per cent and which was known to contain barium (3 mg. BaSO_{4} in each 2 grams of the ash) were extracted with water and fed in four doses corresponding to 100 grams each in a period of four days. On November 18, 1907, the first day of feeding, this rabbit weighed 1,856.7 grams. Fifteen days later it weighed 1,984.3 grams. One hundred grams of this dried plant after extraction with water were found to leave about 51.1 grams[226] of the plant undissolved. This when ashed yielded 8.2 grams of ash. Two grams of this ash yielded 5 milligrams of BaSO_{4}. In other words, the aqueous extract of the plant was inactive and the barium was found practically unextracted in the residue of the plant. Evidently the barium in these dried plants had been converted into an insoluble form by drying or by some peculiarity of its metabolism, and was not extracted by water, but could be extracted by digesting the plants with the combined digestive ferments, pepsin and pancreatin. Of the same dried _Astragalus missouriensis_ 200 grams were extracted with water and the extract treated with lead carbonate to remove any possible free sulphates and after filtering this was treated with H_{2}S to remove the lead. As the preceding experiment showed that the aqueous extract of this dried plant was harmless without barium, the writer decided to add barium artificially, and 100 milligrams of barium phosphate,[227] crystallized, was added to the liquid and the whole fed to a rabbit weighing 2,423.9 grams. The following morning the rabbit was found dead. The autopsy was made by Dr. H. J. Washburn, of the Bureau of Animal Industry. He found that the suprarenals were enlarged and congested, and there were small areas of hepatization at the apex of each lung. There were also acute corrosion areas on the greater curvature of the stomach and over the upper portion of the duodenum. Of the _Astragalus missouriensis_ used in the preceding experiments, 200 grams were extracted thoroughly with water, and the extract corresponding to 100 grams, together with 80 milligrams of barium phosphate pure, was fed on March 12, 1908, to a rabbit weighing 1,261.5 grams. During this day the animal walked at times with an uncertain gait and the following morning it weighed 1,233 grams. It was then fed the rest of the solution, that is, the extract of the remaining 100 grams of the plant, but without any barium. The animal soon developed convulsions and died in a little over twenty-four hours after the original feeding. The autopsy, which was made by Dr. J. R. Mohler, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, showed that the mucous membrane of the stomach was markedly hemorrhagic and in areas gelatinous infiltration was very marked. In one portion of this hemorrhagic area there was distinct erosion. The large intestines were full of gas, the lungs were normal, the heart was relaxed, and the lungs collapsed. The blood vessels of the kidneys were markedly engorged. Of the dried _Astragalus nitidus_ (Woodland Park, Colo., October, 1907) which was reported by the Bureau of Chemistry as containing no barium, 200 grams were extracted with water and fed in 100-gram doses for two successive days. The animal increased steadily in weight and fifteen days after the first feeding had gained 99.2 grams. This amount of the plant was also extracted with water and the residue was then digested with pepsin and pancreatin in the thermostat, as in the previous case, and fed in two doses corresponding to 100 grams each. This animal increased in weight, gaining 60 grams in six days and 165 grams in addition after a further fifteen days. An _Astragalus mollissimus_ (Kit Carson County, Colo., December, 1906), which was also reported by the Bureau of Chemistry as containing no barium, was extracted with water, and a dose corresponding to an extract of 200 grams of the dried plant was fed in one dose without any serious result. The same amount of the dried plant was also similarly digested with pepsin and pancreatin and fed in two doses, but without the production of any symptoms, the rabbit gaining 60 grams in four days. Of the _Aragallus lamberti_ (Hugo, Colo., June, 1907), with an ash content of 12.44 per cent, 250 grams were ashed and the ash treated with acetic acid and, after evaporating off the acetic acid, was extracted with water and the ash digested with pepsin and pancreatin. The aqueous extract and the digestion products of the ash were then fed after concentration, but without any serious effects to the animal, indicating that in this plant the barium is in a form insoluble in water and in the ashing is further changed so that it can not now be made soluble by digestion--an opposite result to the experiment in which the barium was first rendered soluble by digestion and the digestion products ashed, suggesting a possibility that plants might be found in which the barium is not extracted by digestion, at present a hypothesis. Of dried _Astragalus decumbens_ (Ephraim, Utah, 1907), which was reported by the Bureau of Chemistry to contain no barium, 200 grams also failed to produce symptoms in rabbits by our test. A solution containing 50 milligrams of barium acetate (crystallized) was mixed with an aqueous extract of 200 grams of the dried _Aragallus lamberti_ which had proved inactive pharmacologically, but a precipitate formed (BaSO_{4}?) and the extract still remained inactive, suggesting that the question of toxicity depended not only upon the presence of barium, but also whether other agents, such as sulphates, etc., might not be present in sufficient amount to render the barium insoluble; that is, pharmacologically inactive. This _Aragallus lamberti_ yielded an ash content of 37.3 per cent, and the SO_{3} group was estimated at 0.27 per cent of the ash, while a corresponding lot which was obtained two years later from the same area yielded an ash content of 12.44 per cent and a SO_{3} content of 0.24 per cent of the ash. It may be urged that the full lethal dose of the barium was not always found in the plant, yet it must be remembered that the toxic action was the resultant of the action of the total constituents and that if the barium was removed the extract was practically harmless. In looking back over the work the most suitable preparation for producing the characteristic symptoms in rabbits seems to be the freshly ground-up plant mixed with water and preserved in chloroform, for while the dried plant might contain barium, yet the aqueous extract was often inactive, suggesting, perhaps, the presence of something in the fresh plant which aided the solution of the barium, thus accounting for the variations in toxicity of aqueous extracts made from plants dried under varying conditions. The nature of the compound in which barium exists in the plant is as yet unknown and has not been investigated. _It is important to remember that not only must barium be found in the plant to prove poisonous, but it must be in such a form that it can be extracted in the gastro-intestinal canal._ The amount of barium found in various species of loco plants will no doubt vary, and perhaps the pharmacological test on rabbits as the writer has used it may have to be modified for such plants, so that at present the wisest plan to test these plants is to determine their barium content and also make the physiological test, as has been proposed, and if the barium content runs low, say below 0.11 per cent of the ash, in plants yielding from 12 to 18 per cent of ash, then to increase the number of feedings on the rabbit. No doubt on ranges where a large number of loco plants are eaten, with little other food, plants with a very low barium content may be poisonous, but if large amounts of other food are fed the writer would expect few, if any, serious results. As the writer's work has been confined to the laboratory side of the loco-weed investigations no feeding experiments with barium salts have been made by him on large animals. Such experiments should, of course, be made under range conditions; that is, where the water and food supply is deficient. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [226] Some was lost, being attached to the cloth used in squeezing the extract. [227] This barium phosphate was determined by the Bureau of Chemistry to be BaHPO_{4} and to contain traces of iron, sodium, and potassium, but it was free from arsenic. =THEORETICAL ANTIDOTE FOR LOCO-WEED POISONING.= The fact that treatment of the loco-weed extract with a few drops of sulphuric acid, which will remove the barium, renders these extracts harmless, and even apparently nutritious, would suggest the theoretical antidotal treatment to be with sulphates, in the form, perhaps, of epsom salts, but perhaps alkaline bicarbonates may be present in the stomach, either due to lessened acidity of the stomach or from drinking alkaline waters, in which case the precipitation of the barium by sulphates would presumably be interfered with, and thus the treatment be rendered ineffectual.[228] It is interesting to note that most of the remedies proposed for the successful treatment of locoed animals contain sulphates.[229] In Storer's experiments on feeding rats with barium carbonate it was found that the barium carbonate would kill them, but if calcium carbonate was mixed with the barium the rats survived, suggesting an antidotal action. This apparent antagonism deserves further study and may lead to practical results.[230] A somewhat similar antagonism for at least a part of the action of barium has been claimed to exist between barium and potassium.[231] However, extracts of ashed plants, treated with acetic acid, which contained calcium and potassium, caused death in the experiments of the writer, but no work has yet been done by him as to the antidotal action of calcium carbonate on barium. Then, too, as Lüdeking[232] pointed out, large quantities of calcium chlorid may interfere with the precipitation of barium as a sulphate. It is well known that the presence of various salts influences the solubility of barium sulphate in water,[233] and the fact that barium has been found in solution in the urine in the presence of sulphates shows that the precipitation of barium as a sulphate in the body is not so simple as in test-tube experiments.[234] Again, in very dilute solutions, such as must necessarily occur at any one time in the stomach, the precipitate with sulphates only slowly forms and the barium may be absorbed before the insoluble compound can be formed.[235] Evidently an important point to be considered in the antidotal treatment of locoed animals with sulphates is the possibility of inducing a gastritis, with its attendant loss of weight. It therefore seems apparent that the proper treatment at present is preventive--that is, removal from the plants. Lewin[236] has suggested the possibility of acquiring some immunity to barium, but our experiments point against the production of any practical immunity. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [228] Mendel, L. B., and Sicher, D. F., l. c., p. 148. [229] Mayo, N. S. Some Observations upon Loco. Kans. State Agric. Coll. Bul. 35, p. 119. 1893. [230] Storer, F. H. Experiments on Feeding Mice with Painter's Putty and with Other Mixtures of Pigments and Oils. Bul. of Bussey Institute, vol. 2, p. 274. 1884. [231] Brunton, T. L., and Cash, J. T. Contribution to Our Knowledge of the Connection between Chemical Constitution, Physiological Action, and Antagonism. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. London, I, vol. 175, p. 229. 1884. [232] Lüdeking, C. Analyse d. Barytgruppe. Zeits. f. Anal. Chem., vol. 29, p. 556. 1890. [233] Fraps, G. S. Solubility of Barium Sulphate in Ferric Chloride, Aluminum Chloride, and Magnesium Chloride. Amer. Chem. Journ., vol. 27, p. 288. 1902. [234] Santi has paid special attention to the solubility of barium in the body. [235] Fresenius, C. G. Man. of Qualitat. Chem. Anal. Tr. by H. L. Wells, 1904, p. 148. [236] Lewin, L. Nebenwirkungen d. Arzneimittel, 2 ed., p. 439. 1893. =ACTION OF BARIUM ON DOMESTIC AND FARM ANIMALS.= Barium in the form of barium chlorid has been recently introduced into veterinary therapeutics by Dieckerhoff[237] in the treatment of constipation, but Winslow[238] says that "the doses required to produce catharsis in the horse are almost toxic," and he advises against the intravenous use of this remedy. Fröhner[239] has carefully summarized the literature on the use of barium chlorid in veterinary work, and reports that its use in the Zürich clinic has recently been so unsatisfactory that it is now seldom employed and that in the last ten years the preponderance of reports in the literature are unfavorable to the use of this agent in colic. After the administration per os, much of the barium must be carried off in the diarrheal stools. A number of deaths in horses have been attributed to the use of this agent. No doubt the presence of sulphates, etc., derived from the food would render the barium insoluble in the gastro-intestinal tract, and this would explain the lack of poisonous action in certain of the cases in which large doses of barium proved harmless. Husard and Biron administered daily doses of 8 grams of barium chlorid to one horse, and the same amount of barium carbonate to a second horse, for several days. A fortnight later the first horse unexpectedly died, and the second a few days later. The post-mortem examination was negative.[240] A third horse fed with barium carbonate also died suddenly. Recently barium occurring in brine has given rise to acute poisoning in stock.[241] In a case reported by Stietenroth[242] the horse died after the injection of 0.5 gram of barium chlorid into the jugular vein. A number of sudden deaths in horses after the intravenous injection of 0.7 gram and over of barium chlorid have been collected by Fröhner.[243] The lethal dose by mouth for acute poisoning with barium chlorid in horses lies between 8 to 12 grams, while cattle require much larger doses (40 grams)[244] to induce death. Dieckerhoff advises against the use of barium chlorid in the treatment of constipation in sheep. After a dose of 6 grams of barium chlorid a 2-year-old healthy ram appeared perfectly well, but the following day he was depressed, refused to eat, staggered, and became so weak that he was unable to stand. The muscles of the extremities were paralyzed and the animal died. "The post-mortem examination revealed oedema of the lungs, slight cloudiness of the heart muscles, numerous small hemorrhagic spots on the mucous membrane of the small intestine, and stagnation of the blood in the vessels of the small and large intestines. Similar symptoms and lesions were found in a lamb 4 months old which was given per os 6.0 grams of barium chlorid dissolved in 200 grams of distilled water."[245] Poisonings with barium carbonate have also been reported in pigs.[246] Domestic animals pastured in the neighborhood of barite deposits soon succumb,[247] and accidental cases of poisoning are reported in cows. Poisoning in dogs has also been reported after the subcutaneous use of this agent.[248] Linossier says that if the barium salts are used for any time the salts are deposited in various organs, largely in the kidneys, brain, and medulla, but especially in the bones.[249] * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [237] Dieckerhoff. Ueber d. Wirkung d. Chlorbaryum bei Pferden, Rindern und Schafen. Berliner Thierärztl. Woch., p. 265; see also pp. 313 and 337, 1895; Abstract In Vet. Mag., vol. 2, p. 360. 1895. [238] Winslow, K. Vet. Materia Medica and Therapeutics, p. 152. 1901. [239] Fröhner, E. Lehrb. d. Arzneimittellehre, p. 399. 1906. Fröhner gives a detailed account of these cases. Original note in Ehrhardt, J. Erfahrungen ü. ältere u. neue Arzneimittel. Schweizer Archiv. f. Thierheilk., vol. 41, p. 44. 1899. [240] Pelletier. Observations on Strontian. Journ. Nat. Philos., vol. 1, p. 529. 1797; original in Annales de Chimie, vol. 21, p. 127. 1797. [241] Howard, C. D. Occurrence of Barium in the Ohio Valley Brines and Its Relation to Stock Poisoning. W. Va. Univ. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bul. 103. 1906. [242] Stietenroth. Ueber Chlorbarium bei der Kolik der Pferde. Berliner Thierärztl. Woch., p. 16. 1899. [243] Fröhner, E. Lehrb. d. Toxikol., 2 ed., p. 116. 1901. [244] Fröhner, E., l. c., p. 116. See similar reports in Veterinarian, vol. 68, p. 572, 1895, and vol. 69, p. 228, 1896; Zeits. f. Veterinärk., vol. 8, pp. 99 and 211, 1896; Nagler, F., Berliner Thierärztl. Woch., p. 65. 1896. [245] Dieckerhoff, W. Vet. Mag., vol. 2, p. 362. 1895. [246] Kabitz, H. Ueber d. Wirkung einiger Baryumsalze beim Schwein. Deutsch. Thierärztl. Woch., vol. 13, p. 317. 1905. [247] Parkes. Chem. Essays, vol. 2, p. 213. Quoted by Christison, R., in Treatise on Poisons, Edinburgh, 4 ed., p. 581, 1845.--Fuchs, C. J. Vergiftungsfälle durch salzsäuren Baryt beim Rindvieh. Thierärztl. Mittheil., vol. 5, pp. 133, 154. 1870. [248] Falk. Zur Vergift. von Hunden mit Chlorbarium. Berliner Thierärztl. Woch., p. 40. 1897.--Schirmer, Chlorbariumvergift. beim Hunde. Berliner Thierärztl. Woch., vol. 23, p. 268. 1897. [249] Linossier, G. De la Localisation du Baryum dans l'Organisme à la Suite de l'Intoxication Chronique par un Sel de Baryum. Comp. Rend. Hebd. Soc. de Biol., 8 s., vol. 4, p. 123. 1887. NOTE.--Other cases of poisoning in animals may be found in Marder, Beitrag z. Giftwirkung des Baryum chloratum. Berliner Thierärtzl. Woch., vol. 37, p. 436. 1897; Absichtliche Vergift. mit Chlorbarium. Zeits. f. Veterinärk., vol. 9. p. 72. 1897. =APPLICATION OF THE RESULTS OF THESE INVESTIGATIONS TO THE RANGE.= It has been calculated that a medium estimate of food for cattle on green fodder is about 60 pounds (30 kilos) a day.[250] Calculating this entirely in terms of _Aragallus lamberti_ and allowing 10 per cent of moisture for these plants (Sayre) would make 27 kilos of dry loco eaten by each animal per diem. In the analysis of the writer of one _Aragallus lamberti_ from Hugo, Colo., it was found to yield 12.44 per cent of ash, and the barium content corresponded to 2.6 milligrams BaSO_{4} in each gram of the ash. This would correspond to 10.24 grams of barium acetate (Ba(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2} + H_{2}O) or 9.15 grams of barium chlorid (BaCl_{2} + 2H_{2}O) per diem. This amount daily administered would, theoretically, readily produce chronic poisoning owing to the accumulation in the system, as was shown in the case of rabbits. There is, however, some question as to whether this full theoretical amount of loco plants is eaten on the range, and the estimate has been made that one-sixth of this amount only would be actually taken. It must be remembered, as Stalker pointed out, that locoed animals develop an especial taste for these plants and after a time reject other food, so that while the number of loco plants at first taken may be small, yet later, perhaps, it is greater. A part of this barium, however, may not be taken up by the system, but may pass out undissolved. No actual experiments have yet been made with cattle by feeding small doses of the pure salt. No doubt more of the pure barium salts will be required to produce symptoms of poisoning in animals than would be necessary in the case of the form of barium found in the plant, as in the loco-weed the barium is probably better protected from precipitation than are the barium salts when dissolved in water alone. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [250] Lane, C. B. Soiling Crop Experiments. N. J. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bul. 158, p. 18. 1902.--Woll, F. W. One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows. Univ. Wis. Agric. Exper. Sta. Bul. 38, p. 12. 1894.--N. J. State Agric. Exper. Sta., 20th Ann. Rept. (1899), p. 193. 1900. CONCLUSIONS.[251] (1) Conditions analogous to those met with in locoed animals occur in other portions of the world, especially Australia. (2) The main symptoms described in stock on the range can be reproduced on rabbits by feeding extracts of certain loco plants. Those especially referred to here under the term "loco plants" are _Astragalus mollissimus_ and _Aragallus lamberti_. (3) The production of chronic symptoms in rabbits is a crucial test of the pharmacological activity of these plants. (4) The inorganic constituents, especially barium, are responsible for this action, at least in the plants collected at Hugo, Colo. Perhaps in other portions of the country other poisonous principles may be found. (5) A close analogy exists between the clinical symptoms and pathological findings in barium poisoning and those resulting from feeding extracts of certain loco plants. Small doses of barium salts may be administered to rabbits without apparent effect, but suddenly acute symptoms set in analogous to what is reported on the range. (6) The administration of sulphates, especially epsom salts, to form insoluble barium sulphate would be the chemical antidote which would logically be inferred from the laboratory work, but of necessity this would have to be frequently administered and its value after histological changes in the organs have occurred remains to be settled. But even the treatment of acute cases of barium poisoning in man is not always successful, even when sulphates combined with symptomatic treatment are employed. The conditions under which the sulphates fail to precipitate barium must be considered. At present it seems best to rely on preventive measures rather than on antidotal treatment. (7) Loco plants grown on certain soils are inactive pharmacologically and contain no barium. In drying certain loco plants the barium apparently is rendered insoluble so that it is not extracted by water, but can usually be extracted by digestion with the digestive ferments. (8) The barium to be harmful must be in such a form as to be dissolved out by digestion. (9) In deciding whether plants are poisonous it is desirable not merely to test the aqueous or alcoholic extract, but also the extracts obtained by digesting these plants with the ferments which occur in the gastro-intestinal tract. (10) It is important that the ash of plants, especially those grown on uncultivated soil, as on our unirrigated plains, be examined for various metals, using methods similar to those by which rocks are now analyzed in the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey. (11) It is desirable to study various obscure chronic conditions, such as lathyrism, with a view to determine the inorganic constituents of lathyrus and other families of plants. * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [251] Résumé of the results of the loco-weed investigations carried on by the Bureau of Plant Industry was issued as Bulletin 121, part 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, on January 28, 1908, in the form of papers by C. Dwight Marsh and Albert C. Crawford, respectively, under the titles "Results of Loco-Weed Investigations in the Field" and "Laboratory Work on Loco-Weed Investigations." INDEX. Page. Abortion, cows, caused by loco poisoning, 13 rabbits, caused by loco and barium poisoning, 41, 42, 62 Acid, acetic, found in loco-weed, 26 Acqua, C., reference to work, 52 Africa, South, goat disease, 17 Alfalfa, extract, experiments, 28 Alkali deposits, supposed to cause loco disease, 11 Alkaloidal reactions, loco plants, 20, 23, 27, 28 Amaranthus graecizans, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 American Pharmaceutical Association, proceedings, reference, 10 Ammonia obtained from loco plants, 26 Ammonium sulphid precipitate, effect on rabbits, 50 Anæmia, progressing, fundamental characteristic of loco disease, 16, 19 Analyses of loco plants, 21, 22, 23, 32 Anderson, F. W., references to work, 10, 12, 14, 18, 19 Animals, carnivorous and herbivorous, varying immunity to loco disease, 23 domestic, barium poisoning, effects, 72 experiments with barium salts in laboratory, 57-62 farm, barium poisoning, effects, 72 locoed, autopsies, 18-19, 24, 26, 30, 34, 36-43, 45 clinical symptoms, 12-16 pathological conditions as described on the range, 18-19 poisoned by barium, autopsies, 57-61, 64, 67, 73, 74 young, susceptibility to loco poisoning, 15 Antelopes, susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Antidote to loco poison, theoretical, 71-72 Aragallus lamberti, ash determination, 54 barium determination, 54, 56 extracts, uses in laboratory experiments, feeding animals, 20, 23-25, 37, 42, 44-49, 66-68, 70 properties, investigations, 20-21, 23-25, 32 spicatus, study and experiments, 33 spp., cause of loco disease, 10, 20-34 uses, medicinal and toxic properties, 35 Arsenic poisoning, references, 49 Ash determinations of loco plants, 54-55 extract from loco plants, experiments, 48-52 loco plants, barium determinations, 55-57 importance of analysis, 76 Astragalus bigelowii, extract, fatal to rabbit, 38 bisulcatus, extract fatal to rabbit, 38 decumbens, extracts, feeding experiments with rabbits, 70 Astragalus exscapus, barium reported by C. Sprengel, 53 hornii, poisonous properties, study, 19 lentiginosus, poisonous properties, study, 19 menziesii, stock poisoning, 20 missouriensis, ash content and barium determination, 56 extracts, feeding experiments with rabbits, 68-69 mollissimus, distillate, composition, 26 extracts, experiments in feeding animals, 22, 23-25, 27-33, 36-49, 70 investigations, experiments, and analyses, 21-34 physiological action, 22, 24-25 mortoni, a deadly sheep poison, 20 nitidus extracts, feeding experiments with rabbits, 38, 69 spp., cause of loco disease, 10, 19-34 total ash determinations, 54-55 uses, medicinal and toxic properties, 35 varieties containing no barium, 57 Australia, disease similar to loco poison, description, 16-18 Autopsies on animals after barium poisoning, 57-61, 67, 73, 74 loco poisoning, 18-19, 24, 26, 30, 34, 36-43, 45 Bachem, C., reference to work, 50 Bailey, F. M., reference to work, 17 Barium acetate, feeding experiments on animals in laboratory, 57-62 action on farm and domestic animals, 72-74 carbonate, feeding experiments on animals in laboratory, 61, 62 rats, 71 hypodermic injection, cats, fatal results, 62 chlorid, effects on human beings, 63-65 feeding experiments with animals in laboratory, 60-62 use in veterinary therapeutics, dangers, 72-73 content of rocks in Rocky Mountains, 54 determination in ash of loco plants, 54, 55-57 discovery in loco plants, feeding experiments, 5 feeding experiments with range cattle, desirability, 71 harmful when in soluble form, 76 in brine, poisoning stock, 73 well water in England, 57 insoluble after drying loco plants, extraction with digestive ferments, 76 nitrate, feeding experiments on animals in laboratory, results, 61, 62 phosphate, analysis by Bureau of Chemistry, 69 poisoning, experimental, pathological lesions, 65 horses, sheep, and pigs, 73, 74 man, symptoms, results, 62-65 presence in certain vegetable substances, 53 salts, feeding experiments on animals in laboratory, 57-62 toxicity of different solutions, 64 relation of altitude, climate, and varying combinations, 65 use in medicine, 62-65, 72-73 sulphate, nontoxic on account of insolubility, 53 Barrows, D. P., reference to work, 35 Bary, A., references to work, 53, 59, 60 Baum, reference to work, 64 Beech, barium present, 53 Beer, Mexico, use of "crazy weed", 20 Bellisari, G., reference to work, 64 Beryllium chlorid, effect on rabbits, 50 Binet, P., reference to work, 59 Birch, barium present, 53 Birdsall, W. R., experiments with Aragallus lamberti, 20 Blankinship, J. W., references to work, 11, 34 Blood, clots on brain, 18, 26, 37, 42, 65 Boehm, R., reference to work, 58 Böhm, C. R., reference to work, 50 Bray, W. C., reference to work, 53 Brewer, W. H., reference to work, 20 Brine, barium content, producing acute poisoning in stock, 73 Brodie, B. C., reference to work, 61 Brunton, T. L., reference to work, 72 Burgassi, G., reference to work, 52 Cæsium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 51 occurrence in plants, toxicity, 51 Calcium acetate, experiments on rabbits, 52 carbonate, antidotal to barium, 71 experiments on rabbits, 52 occurrence in loco plants, 25, 27 Cambier, J., experiments with loco plants, 26-28 Canada, disease caused by eating ragwort, 17 freedom from loco disease, 9 Cannabis sativa, supposed cause of locoed conditions in Mexico, 10 Caprioides aureum, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Carpenter, J. S., references to work, 63, 64 Cash, J. T., reference to work, 72 Cats, barium injection experiments, 62 loco-plant experiments, 22, 24, 30 _See also_ Kittens. Cattle, barium feeding experiments under range conditions, desirability, 71 daily ration of green fodder, toxic effects of loco plants, 74 loco poisoning, notes, 12, 19, 20, 22, 28 locoed, flesh harmless, 65 poisoned with barium chlorid, flesh harmless, 65 range, barium feeding experiments, desirability, 71 susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Cerium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 50 Chemical experiments with loco plants, 46-57 Chemicals in aqueous solution, effects on rabbits, 50-52 Chemistry, Bureau, ash and barium determinations, loco plants, 54, 56 Chesnut, V. K., references to work, 10, 11, 33 Chevallier, A., reference to work, 64 Christison, R., references to work, 62, 63 Coffee substitute, use of seeds of Astragalus boeticus, 35 Collier, Peter, study of loco plants, 21 Colorado, loco disease experiments, results, 5 loss of stock from loco disease, 1898, 9 Constipation, treatment of animals with barium, danger, 73 Cotyledon ventricosa, cause of nenta, a goat disease, 17 Courtin, reference to work, 64 Cows, abortion caused by loco poisoning, 13 autopsies after loco poisoning, 18 locoed, symptoms, 25 susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Crawford, Albert C., loco investigations, reference to published paper, 75 Crazy weed. _See_ Loco plants. Crotalaria sagittalis, cause of loco disease, chemical study, 10, 26-27 experiments with horses, 26-27 Curtice, C., reference to work, 31 Cyon, M., reference to work, 59 Cyprus, loco disease of cattle, sheep, and goats, 22 Darling pea, effects on horses and sheep in Australia, 16 feeding sheep, effects similar to loco poisoning, 16-17 Day, M. G., experiments with Astragalus mollissimus and Aragallus lamberti, 15, 23-26 Delphinium spp., supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Demoussy, E., reference to work, 53 Didymium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 51 Dieckerhoff, W., references to work, 72, 74 Digestion of loco plants, experiments, 66, 67, 68, 70 Diuretic, use of Astragalus glycophyllus, 35 Dogs, barium feeding experiments, results, 62 poisoning, subcutaneous injection, 74 loco-plant feeding experiments, 22, 23, 30, 53 Donkeys, susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Dworzak, H., reference to work, 53 Dyrenforth, reference to work, 54 Eastwood, A., references to work, 10, 12 Eckard, G. E., reference to work, 53 Ehrhardt, J., reference to work, 73 Emory, W. H., reference to work, 19 Eschricht, reference to work, 64 Experiments, laboratory, with barium salts, 57-62 loco plants, 36-56, 66-71 loco poisoning and barium feeding, results, 5 Extracts of loco plants, digestion with pepsin and pancreatin, experiments, 66-68 testing, importance, 76 use in laboratory experiments, varying toxicity, 36-49, 66-71 Falk, reference to work, 74 Faust, E. S., reference to work, 31 Faville, reference to work, 18 Felletar, E., reference to work, 62 Ferguson, J. C., reference to work, 63 Filippi, E., reference to work, 62 Fletcher, J., reference to work, 10 Fleurot, reference to work, 35 Folin, O., reference to work, 56 Food, use of loco plants, 35, 74 Forage, use of Astragalus nuttallianus and A. crassicarpus, 35 Forchhammer, J. G., reference to work, 53 Foster, F. B., reference to work, 26 Frankforter, G. B., reference to work, 35 Fraps, G. S., reference to work, 72 Fresenius, C. G., reference to work, 72 Fritillaria pudica, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Frogs, loco-plant experiments, 17, 22, 24 poisoning, 17, 24 Fröhlich, A., reference to work, 65 Fröhner, E., reference to work, 73 Fuchs, C. J., references to work, 65, 74 Funaro, A., reference to work, 64 Garbanzillo, Spanish name for Astragalus mollissimus, derivation, 11 Gibbons, H., reference to work, 21 Givens, A. J., references to work, 10, 35 Glands, swelling, in locoed animals, note, 63 result of use of barium on human beings, 63 Glover, R. M., reference to work, 61 Goat disease, South Africa, note, 17 Goats, loco poisoning, 22 susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Gordon, P. R., reference to work, 17 Grass staggers, Texas loco disease, symptoms, description, 11 Greshoff, M., reference to work, 35 Guinea pig, autopsy after loco poisoning, 43 pigs, loco-plant feeding experiments, 32, 43 Guthrie, F. B., reference to work, 17 Hairs on plants cause of loco disease, suggestion, 22, 28 Hallucinations caused by loco poison, 13 Hare, H. A., reference to work, 63 Harkins, W. D., reference to work, 49 Hayes, M. H., description of Texas grass staggers, 11 Hefftner, A., reference to work, 58 Heilborn, F., reference to work, 59 Hill, J. R., reference to work, 22 Hillebrand, method of determination of barium in ash of loco plants, 56 statement as to barium content of rocks in Rocky Mountains, 54 Hoffmann, F., reference to work, 26 Hogs, susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Holmes, E. M., reference to work, 35 Hornberger, R., reference to work, 53 Horses, autopsies after barium poisoning, 73 loco poisoning, 18, 26 barium poisoning, 73 disease caused by feeding on Darling pea (Swainsona galegifolia), 16 loco-plant experiments, 33 loco poisoning, notes, 16, 19, 20, 26 locoed, symptoms, 13 susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Hough, W., reference to work, 35 Howard, C. D., reference to work, 73 Hugo, Colo., soils, analysis for traces of barium, 57 Hunt, Reid, study of and experiments with loco plants, 33-34 Hurd, H. M., reference to work, 35 Husemann, T., reference to work, 62 Hydrocyanic acid, presence in loco plants, suggestion, 29 Indigo disease, similarity to loco disease, 16-17 Ingersoll, study of loco disease, 30 Injections, subcutaneous, experiments with barium salts, 62, 73, 74 loco extracts, 43 Insanity, treatment, use of Astragalus mollissimus, 35 "Insect Life," reference to work, 31 Intoxication caused by loco plants, 13, 16, 21, 22 Jaksch, J. v., references to work, 51, 62 Janvier, reference to work, 11 Kabitz, H., reference to work, 74 Kansas, loss of stock from loco disease in 1883, 9 Kellogg, A., reference to work, 19 Kelsey, F. D., reference to work, 10 Kennedy, H., reference to work, 63 Kennedy, J., experiments with loco-weed extracts, 23, 26 Kingsley, B. F., reference to work, 12 Kissner, G., reference to work, 61 Kittens, loco-plant experiments, and autopsies, 24-28 _See also_ Cats. Kleuch, J. P., reference to work, 19 Knop, W., reference to work, 53 Knowles, M. E., references to work, 13, 14 Kobert, R., references to work, 33, 54 Laband, L., reference to work, 51 Laboratory experiments with loco plants, 36-57 Lagarde, P., reference to work, 64 Lambs, experiments in feeding loco plants, symptoms and autopsies, 31, 45, 46 Lane, C. B., reference to work, 74 Lanthanum chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 50 Lathyrism, symptoms, resemblance to loco poisoning, 15 Leucocrinum montanum, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Lewin, L., references to work, 65, 72 Lewis, Doctor, experiments with loco plants on rabbits, 30 Linossier, G., reference to work, 74 Lisfranc, reference to work, 64 Lloyd, J. W., study of loco poison, 31, 32 Loco-acid, body supposed to be in loco plants, 30 disease, attributed to hairs on plants, 22, 28 worms, 31, 34 experiments, Colorado, results, 5 symptoms, descriptions, 11, 12-16, 17, 24, 26, 28, 29, 33, 36-44 eating habit, description, 14, 15 intoxication, 13, 16, 21, 22 investigations from a pharmacological standpoint, historical sketch, 19-34 plants, ash determinations, 54-55 ashed, aqueous extracts, effect, 48-52 barium determinations, 55-57 eaten with large amounts of other food presumably not dangerous, 71 effects on human beings, 15, 20, 22, 35 extracts, digestion with pepsin and pancreatin, experiments, 66-68 extracts, variations in toxicity, 66-71 use in laboratory experiments, varying toxicity, 36-52, 66-71 list, 10 poison, varying in carnivorous and herbivorous animals, 23 with season, variety, and origin, 25, 48 uses as food, forage, medicine, etc., 35 without barium not poisonous, 68-71 _See also_ Loco weeds. poison, attempts to isolate the active principle, 47 poisoning, laboratory study, results, 5-6 symptoms, 11, 12-16, 17, 24, 26, 28, 29, 33, 36-44 reproduction in rabbits, 29, 33, 36-44, 75 theoretical antidote, 71-72 Locoed animals, clinical symptoms, 12-16 pathological conditions as described on the range, 18-19 derivation of term, 9 Locoin, experiments by Ruedi, 30 Loco-weed disease, geographical distribution, 9 family, notes on use of various members, 35 _See also_ Loco plants. Lopes, A., reference to work, 64 Lotus americanus, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Lüdeking, C., reference to work, 72 Lutterkorth, H., reference to work, 53 McCullaugh, F. A., references to work, 12, 13, 15, 19 McEackran, Doctor, loco-plant experiments with horse, 33 Magnesium acetate, experiments on rabbits, 52 Magnus, R., reference to work, 58 Maiden, J. H., reference to work, 16 Maisch, J. M., references to work, 21, 35 Malbec, A., reference to work, 58 Malnutrition, cause of loco disease, suggestion, 29, 34 Malvastrum coccineum, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Man, barium poisoning, 62-65 loco poisoning, symptoms, 15 Manganese acetate, experiments on rabbits, 51 Manitoba, occurrence of loco poisoning, 10 Marine plants, barium taken up from sea, 53 Marsh, Dr. C. Dwight, investigation and collection of loco plants, and reference to published paper, 36, 75 Marshall, H. T., loco plant study, reference to work, 31, 34 Martin, C. J., description of effects of feeding the Darling pea to sheep, 16-17 Matthews, W., reference to work, 35 Mayo, N. S., loco-plant studies, references to work, 11, 13, 18, 32, 71 Meat from locoed cattle harmless, 65 Medicago sativa. _See_ Alfalfa. Medicine, use of loco plants, 35 Meltzer, S. J., reference to work, 52 Mexico, plants causing "locoed" condition, 10, 11 Mickwitz, L., reference to work, 59 Miller, C. H., reference to work, 13 Mittelstaedt, F., references to work, 62, 65 Moffat, P., study of loco plants, 20 Mules, susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Nagler, F., reference to work, 73 Nausea, effect of loco plants on man, 15, 20, 22 Nelson, S. B., reference to work, 33 Nenta, goat disease, South Africa, 17 Neumann, J., reference to work, 58 Neuritis, peripheral, in locoed animals in Australia, 17 New South Wales, Agricultural Gazette, references, 16, 17 Nightshade spp., supposed cause of locoed condition in Mexico, 10 Nockolds, C., references to work, 12, 14 Nothnagel, H., reference to work, 65 Noyes, A. A., reference to work, 53 Oatman, H. C., experiments with alfalfa extract, 28 O'Brine, loco-plant studies and analyses and references to work, 13, 18, 19, 27, 32, 33, 54 Onsum, J., reference to work, 61 Orange Judd Farmer, reference, 63 Orfila, reference to work, 59 Oserow, reference to work, 48 Ott, Dr. Isaac, experiments with extract of Astragalus mollissimus, results, 22 Oxytropis lamberti, analyses, 20 _See also_ Aragallus. Paralysis, result of barium poisoning in man, 64 Parasites, loco plants, suggested cause of loco disease, 31, 34 Parker, W. T., reference to work, 13 Parkes, reference to work, 74 Pathological conditions in barium poisoning, 65 locoed animals on the range, 18-19 Patterson, A. H., reference to work, 12 Pauli, W., reference to work, 65 Payne, J. E., reference to work, 34 Pelletier, D., references to work, 62, 73 Pigs, barium poisoning, 74 guinea. _See_ Guinea pigs. Pilgrim, C. W., reference to work, 11 Pilliet, A., reference to work, 58 Plants, marine, barium taken up from sea, 53 Plönius, W., reference to work, 41 Poison, loco, attempts to isolate the active principle, 47 properties of certain loco plants, 35 Poisoning, barium, experimental, pathological lesions, 65 horses, sheep, and pigs, 73, 74 man, 62-65 acute cases, symptoms, results, 64 possibility of production from use of food, 64 Poisoning, loco, theoretical antidote, 71-72 symptoms, 11, 12-16, 17, 24, 26, 29, 33, 36-44 reproduction in rabbits, 29, 33, 36-44, 75 Porcher, F. P., reference to work, 35 Post-mortems. _See_ Autopsies. Pott, E., reference to work, 35 Power, F. B., experiments with loco plants, 26-28 Pregnancy, animals in, experiments in feeding barium salts, 62 loco plants, 41, 42 Prescott, A. B., study of Aragallus lamberti, 20 Rabbits, autopsies after barium poisoning, 57-61, 67 loco poisoning, 30, 34, 36-43 barium salts, feeding experiments, 57-62 chemicals in aqueous solutions, feeding experiments, 50-52 loco plants, ash extracts, feeding experiments, 48-49, 66-71 feeding experiments, 22, 24, 29, 30, 33, 34 in laboratory, 36-44, 48-49, 66-71 reproduction of symptoms of loco poisoning, 29, 33, 36-44, 75 Rabies, treatment, use of Astragalus kentrophyta, 35 Rabuteau, reference to work, 59 Ragwort, poisonous effects, Canada, 17 Ram, barium poisoning, autopsy, 74 Ration, daily, green food for cattle, toxic effects of loco plants, 74 Rats, feeding experiments with barium carbonate, 71 Rattle-box. _See_ Crotalaria sagittalis. Rattleweed disease. _See_ Loco disease. Reichardt, E., reference to work, 64 Reincke, J. J., reference to work, 59 Resins from loco plants, experiments, 26 Reynolds, M. H., investigations with barium, 65 Rhamnus lanceolata, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Rocky Mountains, high percentage of barium in rocks, 54 Roscoe, H. E., reference to work, 53 Rosenthal, D. A., reference to work, 35 Rossbach, M. J., reference to work, 65 Rothrock, description of loco plants, effects on animals, 20, 21 Ruedi, Carl, experiments with loco plants and references to work, 14, 19, 29-30 Sages said to cause loco disease, 11 Salivation, result of loco poison, 12 use of barium on human beings, 63 Salt licks supposed to cause loco disease, 11 prevention of poisonous effects of Darling pea, 17 Santi, L., references to work, 59, 72 Sayre, L. E., investigations and experiments and references to work, 10, 11, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 48 Schedel, H., reference to work, 65 Scheibler, C., reference to work, 64 Schirmer, reference to work, 74 Schorlemmer, C., reference to work, 53 Schuchardt, B., description of symptoms of locoed animals, similar to lathyrism, 15 Schulz, H., reference to work, 63 Schwartzkopff, O., references to work, 12, 13 Schwilgué, C. J. A., reference to work, 63 "Science," references to papers on loco plants, 11, 31 Scrofula, treatment, use of barium, 62 Senecio jacoboea, poisonous effects, 17 Sestini, F., tests for beryllium, 50 Sheep, autopsies after barium poisoning, 74 loco poisoning, 18, 30, 33, 45 disease caused by feeding on Darling pea, 16-17 loco-plant feeding experiments, 30, 44-46 poisoning, notes, 20, 22, 30, 33, 34 locoed, symptoms, 14-15 susceptibility to loco disease, 12 Smith, J. G., reference to work, 35 Snow, F. H., reference to work, 31 Soils, analysis, Hugo, Colo., for traces of barium, 57 Sophora sericea, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Spine diseases, treatment, use of barium, 63 Sprengel, C., reference to work, 53 Staggers, grass, Texas loco disease, symptoms, description, 11 Stalker, M., description of symptoms of locoed animals and references to work, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 18, 21, 26, 64 Steele, C. D., reference to work, 31 Stern, E., reference to work, 64 Stietenroth, reference to work, 73 Stipa vaseyi, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 Stock, losses from loco diseases, 9, 34 poisoning by barium in brine, 73 Stockman, Doctor, experiments with extracts of Astragalus mollissimus, 22 Storer, F. H., reference to work, 72 Storke, B. F., references to work, 19, 25 Strontium acetate, experiments on rabbits, 52 Subcutaneous injections. _See_ Injections. Sullivan, Dr. E. C., determination of barium in Aragallus lamberti, 54 Sulphates antidotal to barium, suggestions, 71-72, 75 Suzuki, U., reference to work, 53 Swain, R. E., reference to work, 49 Swainsona galegifolia. _See_ Darling pea. spp., effects on sheep and horses, similar to loco poisoning, 16-17 Syphilis, treatment, use of Astragalus exscapus, 35 Taenia expansa. _See_ Tapeworm. Taito, F., reference to work, 64 Tallquist, T. W., reference to work, 31 Tapeworm, sheep, suggested cause of loco disease, 30 Texas grass staggers, loco disease, symptoms, description, 11 Thallium nitrate, experiments on rabbits, 50 Thorium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 50 Thorpe, T. E., reference to work, 57 Tidy, C. M., reference to work, 61 Tiraboscht, A., reference to work, 64 Titanium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 50 Tixier, L., reference to work, 41 Torrey, J., reference to work, 19 Toxicity, variations in extracts of loco plants, 66-71 Turner, F., reference to work, 17 Ulcers in stomach, 18, 24, 37, 41, 43, 49, 69 Vasey, George, investigations and references to work, 12, 13, 14, 19, 20, 21 Wait, C. E., reference to work, 51 Walsh, J., reference to work, 64 Watson, S., study of Aragallus lamberti, 20 Weber, F. R., reference to work, 59 Wheat, barium present, 53 Wheeler, G. M., references to work, 20, 21 Wilcox, E. V., references to work, 11, 33 Wilcox, T. E., reference to work, 13 Williams, T. A., reference to work, 10 Winslow, K., reference to work, 73 Wohlwill, F., reference to work, 51 Woll, F. W., reference to work, 74 Woolls, W., reference to work, 17 Worms, cause of loco disease, suggestion, 30, 31, 34 Yttrium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 51 Zirconium chlorid, experiments on rabbits, 50-51 Zygadenus elegans, supposed cause of loco disease, 10 * * * * * TRANSCRIBER NOTES: Obvious typographical errors and punctuation has been corrected without note. Alternate spellings and mis-spellings in the original have been retained. Page 26: "analagous" changed to "analogous" (some plant analogous to). Footnote 96: "Crotallaria" changed to "Crotalaria" (Poisonous Effects of Crotalaria). Page 52: "Rubidum" changed to "Rubidium" (Rubidium chlorid c. p.). Page 76: "is" changed to "it" (so that it is not). 
4221	----	SHEARING IN THE RIVERINA, NEW SOUTH WALES. by Rolf Boldrewood "Shearing commences to-morrow!" These apparently simple words were spoken by Hugh Gordon, the manager of Anabanco station, in the district of Riverina, in the colony of New South Wales, one Monday morning in the month of August. The utterance had its importance to every member of a rather extensive "CORPS DRAMATIQUE" awaiting the industrial drama about to be performed. A low sand-hill a few years since had looked out over a sea of grey plains, covered partly with grass, partly with salsiferous bushes and herbs. Two or three huts built of the trunks of the pine and roofed with the bark of the box-tree, and a skeleton-looking cattle-yard with its high "gallows" (a rude timber stage whereon to hang slaughtered cattle) alone broke the monotony of the plain-ocean. A comparatively small herd of cattle, 2000 or 3000, found more than sufficient pasturage during the short winter and spring, but were always compelled to migrate to mountain pastures when the swamps, which alone in those days formed the water-stores of the run, were dried up. But two or three, or at most half-a-dozen, stockmen were ever needed for the purpose of managing the herd, so inadequate in number and profitable occupation to this vast tract of grazing country. But, a little later, one of the great chiefs of the wool-producing interest--a shepherd-king, so to speak, of shrewdness, energy, and capital--had seen, approved and purchased the lease of this waste kingdom. Almost at once, as if by magic, the scene changed. Great gangs of navvies appeared, wending their way across the silent plain. Dams were made, wells were dug. Tons of fencing wire were dropped on the sand by the long line of teams which seemed never tired of arriving. Sheep by thousands, and tens of thousands, began to come, grazing and cropping up to the lonely sandhill--now swarming with blacksmiths, carpenters, engineers, fencers, shepherds, bullock-drivers--till the place looked like a fair on the borders of Tartary. Meanwhile everything was moving with calculated force and cost, under the "reign of law". The seeming expense was merely the economic truth of doing all the necessary work at once, rather than by instalments. One hundred men for one day rather than one man for one hundred days. Results soon began to demonstrate themselves. In twelve months the dams were full, the wells sending up their far-fetched priceless water, the wire fences erected, the shepherds gone, and 17,000 sheep cropping the herbage of Anabanco. Tuesday was the day fixed for the actual commencement of the momentous, almost solemn transaction--the pastoral Hegira, so to speak, as the time of most station events is calculated with reference to it, as happening before or after shearing. But before the first shot is fired which tells of the battle begun, what raids and skirmishes, what reconnoitring and vedette duty must take place! First arrives the cook-in-chief to the shearers, with two assistants to lay in a few provisions for the week's consumption of 70 able-bodied men. I must here explain that the cook of a large shearing-shed is a highly paid and tolerably irresponsible official. He is paid and provided by the shearers. Payment is generally arranged on the scale of half-a-crown a head weekly from each shearer. For this sum he must provide punctual and effective cooking, paying out of his own pocket as many "marmitons" as may be needful for that end, and to satisfy his tolerably exacting and fastidious employers. In the present case he confers with the storekeeper, Mr de Vere, a young gentleman of aristocratic connexions who is thus gaining an excellent practical knowledge of the working of a large station and to this end has the store-keeping department entrusted to him during shearing. He does not perhaps look quite fit for a croquet party as he stands now, with a flour-scoop in one hand and a pound of tobacco in the other. But he looks like a man at work, and also like a gentleman, as he is. "Jack the Cook" thus addresses him: "Now, Mr de Vere, I hope there's not going to be any humbugging about my rations and things! The men are all up in their quarters, and as hungry as free selectors. They've been a-payin' for their rations for ever so long, and of course now shearing's on, they're good for a little extra!" "All right, Jack," returns de Vere, good-temperedly, "all your lot was weighed out and sent away before breakfast. You must have missed the cart. Here's the list. I'll read it out to you: three bags flour, half a bullock, two bags sugar, a chest of tea, four dozen of pickles, four dozen of jam, two gallons of vinegar, five pounds pepper, a bag of salt, plates, knives, forks, ovens, frying-pans, saucepans, iron pots, and about a hundred other things. Now, mind you, return all the cooking things safe, or PAY FOR THEM--that's the order! You don't want anything more, do you? You've got enough for a regiment of cavalry, I should think." "Well, I don't know. There won't be much left in a week if the weather holds good," makes answer the chef, as one who thought nothing too stupendous to be accomplished by shearers, "but I knew I'd forgot something. As I'm here I'll take a few dozen boxes of sardines, and a case of pickled salmon. The boys likes 'em, and, murder alive! haven't we forgot the plums and currants? A hundredweight of each, Mr de Vere! They'll be crying out for plum-duff and currant buns for the afternoon; and bullying the life out of me, if I haven't a few trifles like. It's a hard life, surely, a shearers' cook. Well, good-bye, sir, you have 'em all down in the book." Lest the reader should imagine that the role of Mr Gordon at Anabanco was a reign of luxury and that waste which tendeth to penury, let him be aware that all shearers in Riverina are paid at a certain rate, usually that of ONE pound per hundred sheep shorn. They agree, on the other hand, to pay for all supplies consumed by them at certain prices fixed before the shearing agreement is signed. Hence, it is entirely their own affair whether their mess bills are extravagant or economical. They can have anything within the rather wide range of the station store. PATES DE FOIE GRAS, ortolans, roast ostrich, novels, top-boots, double-barrelled guns, IF THEY LIKE TO PAY FOR THEM--with one exception. No wine, no spirits! Neither are they permitted to bring these stimulants "on to the grounds" for their private use. Grog at shearing? Matches in a powder-mill! It's very sad and bad; but our Anglo-Saxon industrial or defensive champion cannot be trusted with the fire-water. Navvies, men-of-war's men, soldiers, AND shearers--fine fellows all. But though the younger men might only drink in moderation, the majority and the older men are utterly without self-control once in the front of temptation. And wars, 'wounds without cause,' hot heads, shaking hands, delay and bad shearing, would be the inevitable results of spirits A LA DISCRETION. So much is this a matter of certainty from experience that a clause is inserted, and cheerfully signed, in most shearing agreements, "that any man getting drunk or bringing spirits on to the station during shearing, LOSES THE WHOLE OF the money earned by him." The men know that the restriction is for their benefit, as well as for the interest of the master, and join in the prohibition heartily. Let us give a glance at the small army of working-men assembled at Anabanco--one out of hundreds of stations in the colony of New South Wales, ranging from 100,000 sheep downwards. There are seventy shearers; about fifty washers, including the men connected with the steam-engine, boilers, bricklayers and the like; ten or twelve boundary-riders, whose duty it is to ride round the large paddocks, seeing that the fences are all intact, and keeping a general look-out over the condition of the sheep; three or four overseers; half-a-dozen young gentlemen acquiring a practical knowledge of sheep-farming, or, as it is generally phrased, "colonial experience"--a comprehensive expression enough; a score or two of teamsters, with a couple of hundred horses or bullocks, waiting for the high-piled wool bales, which are loaded up and sent away almost as soon as shorn; wool-sorters, pickers-up, pressers, yardsmen, extra shepherds. It may easily be gathered from this outline what an 'army with banners' is arrayed at Anabanco. While statistically inclined, it may be added that the cash due for the shearing alone (less the mess bill) amounts to 1700 pounds; for the washing (roughly), 400 pounds, exclusive of provisions consumed, hutting, wood, water, cooking. Carriage of wool 1500 pounds. Other hands from 30 pounds to 40 pounds per week. All of which disbursements take place within from eight to twelve weeks after the shears are in the first sheep. Tuesday comes "big with fate." As the sun tinges the far skyline, the shearers are taking a slight refection of coffee and currant buns to enable them to withstand the exhausting interval between six and eight o'clock, when the serious breakfast occurs. Shearers always diet themselves on the principle that the more they eat the stronger they must be. Digestion, as preliminary to muscular development, is left to take its chance. They certainly do get through a tremendous amount of work. The whole frame is at its utmost tension, early and late. But the preservation of health is due to their natural strength of constitution rather than to their profuse and unscientific diet. Half-an-hour after sunrise Mr Gordon walks quietly into the vast building which contains the sheep and their shearers--called "the shed," par excellence. Everything is in perfect cleanliness and order--the floor swept and smooth, with its carefully planed boards of pale yellow aromatic pine. Small tramways, with baskets for the fleeces, run the wool up to the wool tables, superseding the more general plan of hand picking. At each side of the shed floor are certain small areas, four or five feet square, such space being found by experience to be sufficient for the postures and gymnastics practised during the shearing of a sheep. Opposite to each square is an aperture, communicating with a long narrow paled yard, outside of the shed. Through this each man pops his sheep when shorn, where he remains in company with the others shorn by the same hand, until counted out. This being done by the overseer or manager supplies a check upon hasty or unskilful work. The body of the woolshed, floored with battens placed half an inch apart, is filled with the woolly victims. This enclosure is subdivided into minor pens, of which each fronts the place of two shearers, who catch from it until the pen is empty. When this takes place, a man for the purpose refills it. As there are local advantages, an equitable distribution of places for shearing has to be made by lot. On every subdivision stands a shearer, as Mr Gordon walks, with an air of calm authority, down the long aisle. Seventy men, chiefly in their prime, the flower of the working-men of the colony, they are variously gathered. England, Ireland, and Scotland are represented in the proportion of one half of the number; the other half is composed of native-born Australians. Among these last--of pure Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Celtic descent--are to be seen some of the finest men, physically considered, the race is capable of producing. Taller than their British-born brethren, with softer voices and more regular features, they inherit the powerful frames and unequalled muscular development of the breed. Leading lives chiefly devoted to agricultural labour, they enjoy larger intervals of leisure than is permissible to the labouring classes of Europe. The climate is mild, and favourable to health. They have been accustomed from childhood to abundance of the best food; opportunities of intercolonial travel are frequent and common. Hence the Anglo-Australian labourer without, on the one hand, the sharpened eagerness which marks his Transatlantic cousin, has yet an air of independence and intelligence, combined with a natural grace of movement, unknown to the peasantry of Britain. An idea is prevalent that the Australians are, as a race, physically inferior to the British. It is asserted that they grow too fast, tend to height and slenderness, and do not possess adequate stamina and muscle. The idea is erroneous. The men reared in the cities on the seaboard, living sedentary lives in shops, banks, or counting-houses, are doubtless more or less pale and slight of form. So are they who live under such conditions all over the world. But those youngsters who have followed the plough on the upland farms, or lived a wilder life on the stations of the far interior, who have had their fill of wheaten bread and beefsteaks since they could walk, and snuffed up the free bush breezes from infancy, they are MEN.-- Stout of heart and ready of hand, As e'er drove prey from Cumberland; --a business, I may remark, at which many of them would have distinguished themselves. Take Abraham Lawson as he stands there in a natural and unstudied attitude, 6 feet 4 inches in his stockings, wide-chested, stalwart, with a face like that of a Greek statue. Take Billy May, fair-haired, mild, insouciant, almost languid, till you see him at work. Then, again, Jack Windsor, handsome, saucy, and wiry as a bull-terrier and like him with strong natural inclination for the combat; good for any man of his weight, or a trifle over, with the gloves or without. It is curious to note how the old English practice of settling disputes with nature's weapons has taken root in Australia. It would 'gladden the sullen souls' of the defunct gladiators to watch two lads, whose fathers had never trodden England's soil, pull off their jackets and go to work "hammer and tongs," with all the savage silence of the true island type. It is now about seven o'clock. Mr Gordon moves forward. As he does so, every man leans towards the open door of the pen in front of which he stands. The bell sounds! With the first stroke each one of the seventy men has sprung upon a sheep--has drawn it out--placed its head across his knee--and is working his shears as if the "last man out" was to be flogged, or tarred and feathered at the least. Four minutes--James Steadman, who learned last year, has shorn down one side of his sheep; Jack Holmes and Gundagai Bill are well down the other sides of theirs; when Billy May raises himself with a jerking sigh, and releases his sheep, perfectly clean-shorn from the nose to the heels, through the aperture of his separate enclosure. With the same effort apparently he calls out 'Wool!' and darts upon another sheep. Drawing this second victim across his knee, he buries his shear-points in the long wool of its neck. A moment after a lithe and eager boy has gathered up fleece number one, and tossed it into the train-basket, the shearer is halfway down the sheep's side, the wool hanging in one fleece like a great glossy mat, before you have done wondering whether he did really shear the first sheep, or whether he had not a ready-shorn one in his coat-sleeve--like a conjuror. By this time Jack Holmes and Gundagai Bill are 'out,' or finished; and the cry of "Wool!' Wool!" seems to run continuously up and down the long aisles of the shed, like a single note upon some rude instrument. Now and then the "refrain" is varied by "Tar!" being shouted instead, when a piece of skin is snipped off as well as the wool. Great healing properties are attributed to this extract in the shed. And if a shearer slice off a piece of flesh from his own person, as occasionally happens, he gravely anoints it with the universal remedy, and considers that the onus then lies with Providence, there being no more that man can do. Though little time is lost, the men are by no means up to the speed which they will attain in a few days, when in full practice and training. Their nerve, muscle, eye, endurance, will be all at, so to speak, concert-pitch, and sheep after sheep will be shorn with a precision and celerity even awful to the unprofessional observer. The unpastoral reader may be informed that speed and completeness of denudation are the grand desiderata in shearing; the employer thinks principally of the latter, the shearer principally of the former. To adjust equitably the proportion is one of those incomplete aspirations which torment humanity. Hence the contest--old as human society--between labour and capital. This is the first day. According to old-established custom, a kind of truce obtains. It is before the battle, the "salut," when no hasty word or too demonstrative action can be suffered by the canons of good taste. Red Bill, Flash Jack, Jem the Scooper, and other roaring blades, more famous for expedition than faithful manipulation, are shearing today with a painstaking precision, as of men to whom character is everything. Mr Gordon marches softly up and down, regarding the shearers with a paternal and gratified expression, occasionally hinting at slight improvements of style, or expressing unqualified approval as a sheep is turned out shaven rather than shorn. All goes on well. Nothing is heard but expressions of goodwill and enthusiasm for the general welfare. It is a triumph of the dignity of labour. One o'clock. Mr Gordon moved on to the bell and sounded it. At the first stroke several men on their way to the pens stopped abruptly and began to put on their coats. One fellow of an alert nature (Master Jack Windsor) had just finished his sheep and was sharpening his shears, when his eye caught Mr Gordon's form in proximity to the final bell. With a bound like a wild cat, he reached the pen and drew out his sheep a bare second before the first stroke, amidst the laughter and congratulations of his comrades. Another man had his hand on the pen-gate at the same instant, but by the Median law was compelled to return sheepless. He was cheered, but ironically. Those whose sheep were in an unfinished stage quietly completed them; the others moving off to their huts, where their board literally smoked with abundance. An hour passed. The meal was concluded; the smoke was over; and the more careful men were back in the shed sharpening their shears by two o'clock. Punctually at that hour the bell repeated its summons DE CAPO. The warm afternoon gradually lengthened its shadows; the shears clicked in tireless monotone; the pens filled and became empty. The wool-presses yawned for the mountain of fleeces which filled the bins in front of them, divided into various grades of excellence, and continuously disgorged them, neatly and cubically packed and branded. At six o'clock the bell brought the day's work to a close. The sheep of each man were counted in his presence, and noted down with scrupulous care, the record being written out in full and hung up for public inspection in the shed next day. This important ceremony over, master and men, manager, labourers and supernumeraries, betook themselves to their separate abodes, with such keen avoidance of delay that in five minutes not a soul was left in or near the great building lately so busy and populous, except the boys who were sweeping up the floor. The silence of ages seems to fall and settle upon it. Next morning at a rather earlier hour every man is at his post. Business is meant decidedly. Now commences the delicate and difficult part of the superintendence which keeps Mr Gordon at his post in the shed, nearly from daylight till dark, for from eight to ten weeks. During the first day he has formed a sort of gauge of each man's temper and workmanship. For now, and henceforth, the natural bias of each shearer will appear. Some try to shear too fast, and in their haste shear badly. Some are rough and savage with the sheep, which do occasionally kick and become unquiet at critical times; and it must be confessed are provoking enough. Some shear very fairly and handsomely to a superficial eye, but commit the unpardonable offence of "leaving wool on." Some are deceitful, shearing carefully when overlooked, but "racing" and otherwise misbehaving directly the eye of authority is diverted. These and many other tricks and defects require to be noted and abated, quietly but firmly, by the manager of the shed--firmly because evil would develop and spread ruinously if not checked; quietly because immense loss might be incurred by a strike. Shearing differs from other work in this wise: it is work against time, more especially in Riverina. If the wool be not off the backs of the sheep before November, all sorts of draw-backs and destructions supervene. The spear-shaped grass-seeds, specially formed as if in special collusion with the Evil One, hasten to bury themselves in the wool, and even in the flesh of the tender victims. Dust rises in red clouds from the unmoistened, betrampled meadows so lately verdurous and flower-spangled. From snowy white to an unlovely dark brown turn the carefully washed fleeces, causing anathema from overseers and depreciation from brokers. All these losses of temper, trouble, and money become inevitable if shearing be protracted, it may be, beyond a given week. Hence, as in harvest with a short allowance of fair weather, discipline must be tempered with diplomacy. Lose your temper, and be over particular: off go Billy May, Abraham Lawson, and half-a-dozen of your best men, making a weekly difference of perhaps two or three thousand sheep for the remainder of the shearing. Can you not replace them? Not so! Every shed in Riverina will be hard at work during this present month of September and for every hour of October. Till that time not a shearer will come to your gate, except, perhaps, one or two useless, characterless men. Are you to tolerate bad workmanship? Not that either. But try all other means with your men before you resort to harshness; and be quite certain that your sentence is just, and that you can afford the defection. So our friend Mr Gordon, wise from many tens of thousands of shorn sheep that have been counted out past his steady eye, criticises temperately, but watchfully. He reproves sufficiently, and no more, any glaring fault; makes his calculation as to who are really bad shearers, and can be discharged without loss to the commonwealth, or who can shear fairly and can be coached up to a decent average. One division, slow, and good only when slow, have to be watched lest they emulate "the talent," and so come to grief. Then "the talent" has to be mildly admonished from time to time lest they force the pace, set a bad example, and lure the other men on to "racing." This last leads to slovenly shearing, ill-usage of the sheep, and general dissatisfaction. Tact, temper, patience, and firmness are each and all necessary in that Captain of Industry who has the very delicate and important task of superintending a large woolshed. Hugh Gordon had shown all in such proportion as would have made a distinguished man anywhere, had fortune not adjusted for him this particular profession. Calm with the consciousness of strength, he was kind and considerate in manner as in nature, until provoked by glaring dishonesty or incivility. Then the lion part of his nature woke up, so that it commonly went ill with the aggressor. As this was matter of public report, he had little occasion to spoil the repose of his bearing. Day succeeds day, and for a fortnight the machinery goes on smoothly and successfully. The sheep arrive at an appointed day and hour by detachments and regiments at the washpen. They depart thence, like good boys on Saturday night, redolent of soap and water, and clean to a fault. They enter the shed white and flossy as newly combed poodles to emerge, on the way back to their pasturage, slim, delicate, agile, with a bright black A legibly branded with tar on their paper-white skins. The Anabanco world--stiffish but undaunted--is turning out of bed one morning. Ha! what sounds are these? And why does the room look so dark? Rain, as I'm alive. "Hurrah!" says Master Jack Bowles, one of the young gentlemen. He is learning (more or less) practical sheep-farming, preparatory to having (one of these days) an Anabanco of his own. "Well, this is a change, and I'm not sorry for one," quoth Mr. Jack, "I'm stiff all over. No one can stand such work long. Won't the shearers growl! No shearing to-day, and perhaps none tomorrow either." Truth to tell, Mr Bowles' sentiments are not confined to his ingenuous bosom. Some of the shearers grumble at being stopped "just as a man was earning a few shillings." Those who are in top pace and condition don't like it. But to many of the rank and file--working up to and a little beyond their strength--with whom swelled wrists and other protests of nature are becoming apparent, it is a relief, and they are glad of the respite. So at dinner-time all the sheep in the sheds, put in overnight in anticipation of such a contingency, are reported shorn. All hands are then idle for the rest of the day. The shearers dress and avail themselves of various resources. Some go to look at their horses, now in clover, or its equivalent, in the Riverina graminetum. Some play cards, others wash or mend their clothes. A large proportion of the Australians having armed themselves with paper, envelopes, and a shilling's worth of stamps from the store, bethink themselves of neglected or desirable correspondents. Many a letter for Mrs Leftalone, Wallaroo Creek, or Miss Jane Sweetapple, Honeysuckle Flat, as the case may be, will find its way into the post-bag tomorrow. A pair of youngsters are having a round or two with the gloves; while to complete the variety of recreations compatible with life at a woolshed, a selected troupe are busy in the comparative solitude of that building, at a rehearsal of a tragedy and a farce, with which they intend, the very next rainy day, to astonish the population of Anabanco. At the home-station a truce to labour's "alarms" is proclaimed except in the case and person of Mr de Vere. So far is he from participation in the general holiday that he finds the store thronged with shearers, washers, and "knock-about men," who being let loose, think it would be nice to go and buy something "pour passer le temps." He therefore grumbles slightly at having no rest like other people. "That's all very fine," says Mr Jack Bowles, who, seated on a case, is smoking a large meerschaum and mildly regarding all things, "but what have you got to do when we're all HARD AT WORK at the shed?" He speaks with an air of great importance and responsibility. "That's right, Mr Bowles," chimes in one of the shearers, "stand up for the shed. I never see a young gentleman work as hard as you do." "Bosh!" growls de Vere, "as if anybody couldn't gallop about from the shed to the washpen, and carry messages, and give half of them wrong! Why, Mr Gordon said the other day, he should have to take you off and put on a Chinaman--that he couldn't make more mistakes." "All envy and malice, and t'other thing, de Vere, because you think I'm rising in the profession," returns the good-natured Bowles, "Mr Gordon's going to send 20,000 sheep, after shearing, to the Lik Lak paddock, and he said I should go in charge." "Charge be hanged!" laughs de Vere, with two very bright-patterned Crimean shirts, one in each hand, which he offers to a tall young shearer for inspection. "There's a well there, and whenever either of the two men, of whom you'll have CHARGE, gets sick or runs away, you'll have to work the whim in his place, till another man's sent out, if it's a month." This appalling view of station promotion rather startles Mr Jack, who applies himself to his meerschaum, amid the ironical comments of the shearers. However, not easily daunted or "shut up," according to the more familiar station phrase, he rejoins, after a brief interval of contemplation, "that accidents will happen, you know, de Vere, my boy--apropos of which moral sentiment, I'll come and help you in your dry-goods business; and then, look here, if YOU get ill or run away, I'll have a profession to fall back upon." This is held to be a Roland of sufficient pungency for de Vere's Oliver. Everyone laughed. And then the two youngsters betook themselves to a humorous puffing of the miscellaneous contents of the store: tulip-beds of gorgeous Crimean shirts, boots, books, tobacco, canvas slippers, pocket-knives, Epsom salts, pipes, pickles, painkillers, pocket handkerchiefs, pills, sardines, saddles, shears and sauces: in fact everything which every kind of man might want, and which apparently every man did want, for large and various were the purchases, and great the flow of conversation. Finally, everything was severely and accurately debited to the purchasers, and the store was cleared and locked up. A large store is a necessity of a large station; not by any means because of the profit upon goods sold, but it obviously would be bad economy for old Bill, the shepherd, or Barney, the bullock-driver, to visit the next township, from ten to thirty miles distant, as the case may be, every time the former wanted a pound of tobacco, or the latter a pair of boots. They might possibly obtain these necessary articles as good in quality, as cheap in price. But there are wolves in that wood, oh, my weak brothers! In all towns dwells one of the 'sons of the Giant'--the Giant Grog--red-eyed, with steel muscles and iron claws; once in these, which have held many and better men to the death, neither Barney nor Bill emerges, save pale, fevered, nerveless, and impecunious. So arose the station store. Barney befits himself with boots without losing his feet; Bill fills his pocket with match-boxes and smokes the pipe of sobriety, virtuous perforce till his carnival, after shearing. The next day was wet, and threatened further broken weather. Matters were not too placid with the shearers. A day or two for rest is very well, but continuous wet weather means compulsory idleness, and gloom succeeds repose; for not only are all hands losing time and earning no money, but they are, to use the language of the stable "eating their heads off" the while. The rather profuse mess and general expenditure, which caused little reflection when they were earning at the rate of two or three hundred pounds a year, became unpleasantly suggestive, now that all is going out and nothing coming in. Hence loud and deep were the anathemas as the discontented men gazed sadly or wrathfully at the misty sky. A few days showery weather having, therefore, wellnigh driven our shearers to desperation, out comes the sun in all his glory. He is never far away or very faint in Riverina. All the pens are filled for the morrow; very soon after the earliest sunbeams the bell sounds its welcome summons, and the whole force tackles to the work with an ardour proportioned to the delay, every man working as if for the ransom of his whole family from slavery. How men work spurred on by the double excitement of acquiring social reputation and making money rapidly! Not an instant is lost; not a nerve, limb, or muscle doing less than the hardest task-master could flog out of a slave. Occasionally you see a shearer, after finishing his sheep, walk quickly out and not appear for a couple of hours, or perhaps not again during the day. Do not put him down as a sluggard; be assured that he has tasked nature dangerously hard, and has only given in just before she does. Look at that silent slight youngster, with a bandage round his swollen wrist. Every "blow" of the shears is agony to him, yet he disdains to give in, and has been working "in distress" for hours. The pain is great, as you can see by the flush which occasionally surges across his brown face, yet he goes on manfully to the last sheep, and endures to the very verge of fainting. There was now a change in the manner and tone of the shed, especially towards the end of the day. It was now the ding of the desperate fray, when the blood of the fierce animal man is up, when mortal blows are exchanged, and curses float upward with the smoke and dust. The ceaseless clicking of the shears--the stern earnestness of the men, toiling with a feverish and tireless energy--the constant succession of sheep shorn and let go, caught and commenced--the occasional savage oath or passionate gesture, as a sheep kicked and struggled with perverse delaying obstinacy--the cuts and stabs, with brief decided tones of Mr Gordon, in repression or command--all told the spectator that tragic action was introduced into the performance. Indeed, one of the minor excitements of shearing was then and there transacted. Mr Gordon had more than once warned a dark sullen-looking man that he did not approve of his style of shearing. He was temporarily absent, and on his return found the same man about to let go a sheep whose appearance, as a shorn wool-bearing quadruped, was painful and discreditable in the extreme. "Let your sheep go, my man," said Gordon, in a tone which somehow arrested the attention of nearly all the shearers, "but don't trouble yourself to catch another!" "Why not?" said the delinquent, sulkily. "You know very well why not!" replied Gordon, walking closely up to him, and looking straight at him with eyes that began to glitter, "you've had fair warning. You've not chosen to take it. Now you can go!" "I suppose you'll pay a man for the sheep he's shorn?" growled out the ruffian. "Not one shilling until after shearing. You can come then if you like," answered Gordon, with perfect distinctness. The cowed bully looked savagely at him; but the tall powerful frame and steady eye were not inviting for personal arbitration of the matter in hand. He put up his two pairs of shears, put on his coat, and walked out of the shed. The time was passed when Red Bill or Terrible Dick (ruffians whom a sparse labour-market rendered necessary evils) would have flung down his shears upon the floor and told the manager that if he didn't like that shearing he could shear his------sheep himself and be hanged to him; or, on refusal of instant payment, would have proposed to bury his shears in the intestines of his employer by way of adjusting the balance between Capital and Labour. Many wild tales are told of woolshed rows. I knew of one squatter stabbed mortally with that fatal and convenient weapon, a shear-blade. The man thus summarily dealt with could, like most of his companions, shear very well if he took pains. Keeping to a moderate number of sheep, his workmanship could be good. But he must needs try and keep up with Billy May or Abraham Lawson, who can shear from 100 to 130 sheep per day, and do them beautifully. So in "racing" he works hastily and badly, cuts the skin of his luckless sheep nearly as often as the wool, and leaves wool here and there on them, grievous and exasperating to behold. So sentence of expulsion goes forth fully against him. Having arrayed himself for the road he makes one more effort for a settlement and some money wherewith to pay for board and lodging on the road. Only to have a mad carouse at the nearest township, however; after which he will tell a plausible story of his leaving the shed on account of Mr Gordon's temper, and avail himself of the usual free hospitality of the bush to reach another shed. He addresses Mr Gordon with an attempt at conciliation and deference. "It seems very 'ard, sir, as a man can't get the trifle of money coming to him, which I've worked 'ard for." "It's very hard you won't try and shear decently," retorts Mr Gordon, by no means conciliated. "Leave the shed!" Ill-conditioned rascal as the shearer is, he has a mate or travelling-companion in whose breast exists some rough idea of fidelity. He now takes up the dialogue. "I suppose if Jim's shearing don't suit, mine won't either." "I did not speak to you," answered Mr Gordon, as calmly as if he had expected the speech, "but of course you can go." He said this with an air of studied unconcern, as if he would rather like a dozen more men to knock off work. The two men walk out, but the epidemic does not spread, and several take the lesson home and mend their ways accordingly. The weather now was splendid; not a cloud specked the bright blue sky. The shearers continue to work at the same express-train pace; fifty bales of wool roll every day from the wool-presses; as fast as they reach that number they are loaded upon the numerous drays and wagons which have been waiting for weeks. Tall brown men have been recklessly cutting up hides for the last fortnight, wherewith to lash the bales securely. It is considered safer practice to load wool as soon as may be; fifty bales represent about a thousand pounds sterling. In a building, however secure, should a fire break out, a few hundred bales are easily burned; but once on the dray, this much-dreaded "edax rerum" in a dry country has little chance. The driver, responsible to the extent of his freight, generally sleeps under his dray; hence both watchman and insulation are provided. The unrelaxing energy with which the work was pushed at this stage was exciting and contagious; at or before daylight every soul in the great establishment was up. The boundary-riders were always starting off for a twenty or thirty mile ride, and bringing tens of thousands of sheep to the wash-pen. At that huge lavatory there was splashing and soaking all day with an army of washers; not a moment is lost from daylight till dark, or used for any purpose save the all-engrossing work and needful food. At nine o'clock p.m. luxurious dreamless sleep, given only to those whose physical powers have been taxed to the utmost and who can bear without injury the daily tension. Everything and everybody were in splendid working order, nothing out of gear. Rapid and regular as a steam-engine the great host of toilers moved onward daily with a march which promised an unusually early completion. Mr Gordon was not in high spirits, for so cautious and far-seeing a captain rarely felt himself so independent of circumstances as to indulge in that reckless mood--but much satisfied with the prospect. Whew! The afternoon darkens, and the night is delivered over to water-spouts and hurricanes, as it appears. Next day was raw, gusty, with chill heavy showers; drains had to be cut, roofs to be seen to; shorn sheep were shivering, washers all playing pitch-and-toss, shearers sulky; everybody but the young gentlemen wearing a most injured expression of countenance. "Looks as if it would rain for a month," says Long Jack. "If we hadn't been delayed might have had the shearing over by this." Reminded that there are 50,000 sheep yet remaining to be shorn, and that by no possibility could they have been finished, he answers, "Suppose so, always the same, everything sure to go agin the poor man." The weather did not clear up. Winter seemed to have taken thought, and determined to show even this land of eternal summer that he had his rights. The shed would be filled, and before the sheep so kept dry were shorn, down would come the rain again. Not a full day's shearing for ten days. Then the clouds disappeared as if the curtain of a stage had been rolled up, and lo! the golden sun, fervid and impatient to obliterate the track of winter. The first day after the recommencement, matters went much as usual. Steady work and little talk, as if everyone was anxious to make up for the lost time. But on the second morning after breakfast, when the bell sounded, instead of the usual cheerful dash at the sheep, every man stood silent and motionless in his place. Someone uttered the words "roll up!". Then the seventy men converged, and slowly, but with one impulse, walked up to the end of the shed where stood Mr Gordon. The concerted action of any body of men bears with it an element of power which commands respect. The weapon of force is theirs; it is at their option to wield it with or without mercy. At one period of Australian colonisation a superintendent in Mr Gordon's position might have had good ground for uneasiness. Mr Jack Bowles saw in it an EMEUTE of a democratic and sanguinary nature, regretted deeply his absent revolver, but drew up to his leader prepared to die by his side. That calm centurion felt no such serious misgivings. He knew that there had been dire grumbling among the shearers in consequence of the weather. He knew that there were malcontents among them. He was prepared for some sort of demand on their part, and had concluded to make certain concessions of a moderate degree. So looking cheerfully at the men, he quietly awaited the deputation. As they neared him there was a little hesitation, and then three delegates came to the front. These were Old Ben, Abraham Lawson, and Billy May. Ben Thornton had been selected for his age and long experience of the rights and laws of the craft. He was a weather-beaten, wiry old Englishman, whose face and accent, darkened as the former was by the Australian summers of half a century, still retained the trace of his native Devonshire. It was his boast that he had shorn for forty years, and as regularly "knocked-down" (or spent in a single debauch) his shearing money. Lawson represented the small free-holders, being a steady, shrewd fellow, and one of the fastest shearers. Billy May stood for the fashion and "talent," being the "Ringer," or fastest shearer of the whole assembly, and as such truly admirable and distinguished. "Well now, men," quoth Mr Gordon, cheerily meeting matters half-way, "what's it all about?" The younger delegate looked at Old Ben, who, now that it "was demanded of him to speak the truth," or such dilution thereof as might seem most favourable to the interests of the shed, found a difficulty like many wiser men about his exordium. "Well, Muster Gordon," at length he broke forth, "look'ee here, sir. The weather's been awful bad, and clean agin shearing. We've not been earning our grub, and--" "So it has," answered the manager, "so it has. But can I help the weather? I'm as anxious as you are to have the shearing over quickly. We're both of one mind about that, eh?" "That's all right enough, sir," struck in Abraham Lawson, who felt that Ben was getting the worst of the argument, and was moreover far less fluent than usual, probably from being deprived of the aid of the customary expletives, "but we're come to say this, sir, that the season's turned out very wet indeed. We've had a deal of broken time, and the men feel it very hard to be paying for a lot of rations, and hardly earning anything. We're shearing the sheep very close and clean. You won't have 'em done no otherways. Not like some sheds where a man can 'run' a bit and make up for lost time. Now we've all come to think this, sir, that if we're to go on shearing the sheep well, and to stick to them, and get them done before the dust and grass-seed come in, that you ought to make us some allowance. We know we've agreed for so much a hundred, and all that. Still as the season's turned so out-and-out bad, we hope you'll consider it and make it up to us somehow." "Never knew a worse year," corroborated Billy May, who thought it indispensable to say something. "Haven't made enough, myself, to pay the cook." This was not strictly true, at any rate, as to Master Billy's own earnings; he being such a remarkably fast shearer (and good withal), that he had always a respectable sum credited to him for his days' work, even when many of the slower men came off short enough. However, enough had been said to make Mr Gordon fully comprehend the case. The men were dissatisfied. They had come in a roundabout way to the conclusion that some pecuniary concession, not mentioned in their bond, should come from the side of capital to that of labour. Whether wages, interest of capital, share of profits, reserve fund, they knew not nor cared. This was their stand. And being Englishmen they intended to abide by it. The manager had considered the situation before it actually arose. He now rapidly took in the remaining points of debate. The shearers had signed a specific agreement for a stipulated rate of payment, irrespective of the weather. By the letter of the law, they had no case. Whether they made little or much profit was not his affair. But he was a just and kindly man, as well as reasonably politic. They had shorn well, and the weather had been discouraging. He knew too that an abrupt denial might cause a passive mutiny, if not a strike. If they set themselves to thwart him, it was in their power to shear badly, to shear slowly, and to force him to discharge many of them. He might have them fined, perhaps imprisoned by the police-court. Meanwhile, how could shearing go on? Dust and grass-seeds would soon be upon them. He resolved on a compromise, and spoke out at once in a firm and decided tone as the men gathered up yet more closely around him. "Look here, all of you! You know very well that I'm not bound to find you in fine weather. Still I am aware that the season has been against you. You have shorn pretty well, so far, though I've had to make examples, and am quite ready to make more. What I am willing to do is this: to every man who works on till the finish and shears to my satisfaction, I will make a fair allowance in the ration account. That is, I will make no charge for the beef. Does that suit you?" There was a chorus of "All right sir, we're satisfied. Mr Gordon always does the fair thing." &c. And work was immediately resumed with alacrity. The clerk of the weather, too gracious even in these regions as far as the absence of rain is concerned, was steadily propitious. Cloudless skies and a gradually ascending thermometer alone were the signs that spring was changing into summer. The splendid herbage ripened and dried; patches of bare earth began to be discernible amid the late thick-swarded pastures, dust to rise and cloud-pillars of sand to float and eddy--the desert genii of the Arab. But the work went on at a high rate of speed, outpacing the fast-coming summer; and before any serious disasters arose, the last flock was "on the battens," and, amid ironical congratulations, the "cobbler," or last sheep was seized, and stripped of his rather dense and difficult fleece. In ten minutes the vast woolshed, lately echoing with the ceaseless click of the shears, the jests, the songs, the oaths of the rude congregation, was silent and deserted. The floors were swept, the pens closed, the sheep on their way to a distant paddock. Not a soul remains about the building but the pressers, who stay to work at the rapidly lessening piles of fleeces in the bins, or a meditative teamster who sits musing on a wool-bale, absorbed in a calculation as to when his load will be made up. It is sundown, a rather later time of closing than usual, but rendered necessary by the possibility of the "grand finale." The younger men troop over to the hut, larking like schoolboys. Abraham Lawson throws a poncho over his broad shoulders, lights his pipe, and strides along, towering above the rest, erect and stately as a guardsman. Considerably more so than you or I, reader, would have been, had we shorn 130 sheep, as he has done to-day. Billy May has shorn 142, and he puts his hand on the five-foot paling fence of the yard and vaults over it like a deer, preparatory to a swim in the creek. At dinner you will see them all with fresh Crimeans and Jerseys, clean, comfortable, and in grand spirits. Next morning is settling-day. The book-keeping departments at Anabanco being severely correct, all is in readiness. Each man's tally or number of sheep shorn has been entered daily to his credit. His private and personal investments at the store have been as duly debited. The shearers, as a corporation, have been charged with the multifarious items of their rather copious mess-bill. This sum total is divided by the number of the shearers, the extract being the amount for which each man is liable. This sum varies in its weekly proportion at different sheds. With an extravagant cook, or cooks, the weekly bill is often alarming. When the men and their functionary study economy it may be kept very reasonably low. The men have been sitting or standing about the office for half-an-hour when Mr Jack Bowles rushes out, and shouts "William May!" That young person, excessively clean, attired in a quiet tweed suit, with his hair cut very correctly short, advances with an air of calm intrepidity, and faces Mr Gordon. Gordon, now seated at a long table, wearing a judicial expression of countenance. "Well, May, here's your account":-- So many sheep, at 1 pound per 100... xxxx pounds Cook, so many weeks................. xxxx pounds Shearing store account.............. xxxx pounds Private store account............... xxxx pounds ---- Total............................... xxxx pounds ---- "Is the tally of your sheep right?" "Oh! I daresay it's all right, Mr Gordon, I made it so and so; about ten less." "Well, well! Ours is correct, no doubt. Now I want to make up a good subscription for the hospital this year. How much will you give? You've done pretty well, I think." "Put me down a pound, sir." "Very well, that's fair enough. If every one gives what they can afford, you men will always have a place to go to when you're hurt or laid up. So I put your name down, and you'll see it in the published list. Now about the shearing, May. I consider that you've done your work very well, and behaved very well all through. You're a fast shearer, but you shear closely, and don't knock your sheep about. I therefore do not charge you for any part of your meat bill, and I pay you at the rate of half-a-crown a hundred for all your sheep, over and above your agreement. Will that do?" "Very well, indeed, and I'm much obliged to you, Mr Gordon." "Well, good-bye May! Always call when you're passing, and if any work is going on you'll get your share. Here's your cheque. Send in Lawson!" Exit May, in high spirits, having cleared about three pounds per week, during the whole term of shearing, and having lived a far from unpleasant life, indeed akin to that of a fighting cock, from the commencement to the end of that period. Lawson's interview may be described as having very similar results. He, also, was a first-class shearer, though not so artistic as the gifted Billy. Jack Windsor's saucy blue eyes twinkled merrily as he returned to his companions, and incontinently leaped on the back of his wild-eyed colt. After these three worthies came a shearer named Jackson; he belonged to quite a different class; he could shear very well if he pleased, but had a rooted disbelief that honesty was the best policy, and a fixed determination to shear as many sheep as he could get the manager to pass. By dint of close watching, constant reprimand, and occasional "raddling" (marking badly-shorn sheep and refusing to count them) Mr Gordon had managed to tone him down to average respectability of execution. Still he was always uneasily aware that whenever his eye was not upon him, Jackson was doing what he ought not to do with might and main. Gordon had, indeed, kept him on from sheer necessity, but he intended none the less to mark his opinion of him. "Come in, Jackson! Your tally is so-and-so. Is that right?" Jackson.--"I suppose so." "Cook and store account, so much; shearing account so much." Jackson.--"And a good deal too." "That is your affair," said Mr Gordon, sternly enough. "Now look here! You're in my opinion a bad shearer and a bad man. You have given me a great deal of trouble, and I should have kicked you out of the shed weeks ago if I had not been short of men. I shall make a difference between you and men who have tried to do their best. I make you no allowance of any sort, I pay you by the strict agreement. There's your cheque. Go!" Jackson goes out with a very black countenance. He mutters with a surly oath that if "he'd known how he was going to be served he'd ha' 'blocked' 'em a little more." He is pretty well believed to have been served right, and he secures no sympathy whatever. Working-men of all classes are shrewd and fair judges generally. If an employer does his best to mete out justice he is always appreciated and supported by the majority. These few instances will serve as a description of the whole process of settling with the shearers. The horses have all been got in. Great catching and saddling-up has taken place all the morning. By the afternoon the whole party are dispersed to the four winds; some, like Abraham Lawson and his friends, to sheds "higher up," in a colder climate, where shearing necessarily commences later. From these they will pass to others, until the last sheep in the mountain runs are shorn. Then those who have not farms of their own betake themselves to reaping. Billy May and Jack Windsor are quite as ready to back themselves against time in the wheat-field as on the shearing-floor. Harvest over, they find their pockets inconveniently full, so they commence to visit their friends and repay themselves for their toils by a tolerably liberal allowance of rest and recreation. Old Ben and a few choice specimens of the olden time get no further than the nearest public house. Their cheques are handed to the landlord and a "stupendous and terrible spree" sets in. At the end of a week he informs them that they have received liquor to the amount of their cheques--something over a hundred pounds--save the mark! They meekly acquiesce, as is their custom. The landlord generously presents them with a glass of grog each, and they take the road for the next woolshed. The shearers being despatched, the sheep-washers, a smaller and less regarded force, file up. They number some forty men. Nothing more than fair bodily strength, willingness and obedience being required in their case, they are more easy to get and to replace than shearers. They are a varied and motley lot. That powerful and rather handsome man is a New Yorker, of Irish parentage. Next to him is a slight, neat, quiet individual. He was a lieutenant in a line regiment. The lad in the rear was a Sandhurst cadet. Then came two navvies and a New Zealander, five Chinamen, a Frenchman, two Germans, Tin Pot, Jerry, and Wallaby--three aboriginal blacks. There are no invidious distinctions as to caste, colour, or nationality. Every one is a man and a brother at sheep-washing. Wage, one pound per week; wood, water, tents and food "A LA DISCRETION." Their accounts are simple: so many weeks, so many pounds; store account, so much; hospital? well, five shillings; cheque, good-morning. The wool-pressers, the fleece-rollers, the fleece-pickers, the yardsmen, the washers' cooks, the hut cooks, the spare shepherds; all these and a few other supernumeraries inevitable at shearing-time, having been paid off, the snowstorm of cheques which has been fluttering all day comes to an end. Mr Gordon and the remaining "sous-officiers" go to rest that night with much of the mental strain removed which has been telling on every waking moment for the last two months. The long train of drays and wagons, with loads varying from twenty to forty-five bales, has been moving off in detachments since the commencement. In a day or two the last of them will have rolled heavily away. The 1400 bales, averaging three and a half hundredweight, are distributed, slow journeying, along the road, which they mark from afar, standing huge and columnar like guide tumuli, from Anabanco to the waters of the Murray. Between the two points there is neither a hill nor a stone. All is the vast monotonous sea of plain--at this season a prairie-meadow exuberant with vegetation; in the late summer, or in the occasional and dreaded phenomenon of a DRY WINTER, dusty, and herbless as a brickfield, for hundreds of miles. Silence falls on the plains and waters of Anabanco for the next six months. The woolshed, the washpen, and all the huts connected with them are lone and voiceless as caravanserais in a city of the plague. 
42559	----	Transcriber's Notes: Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. Small Caps replaced with ALL CAPS. * * * * * By Enos A. Mills YOUR NATIONAL PARKS. Illustrated. THE STORY OF SCOTCH. Illustrated. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN WONDERLAND. Illustrated. THE STORY OF A THOUSAND-YEAR PINE. Illustrated. IN BEAVER WORLD. Illustrated. THE SPELL OF THE ROCKIES. Illustrated. WILD LIFE ON THE ROCKIES. Illustrated. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON AND NEW YORK THE STORY OF SCOTCH [Illustration: SCOTCH AND HIS MASTER] THE STORY OF SCOTCH. BY ENOS A. MILLS _With Illustrations from Photographs by the Author_ BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY _The Riverside Press Cambridge_ COPYRIGHT, 1909, 1911 AND 1916, BY ENOS A. MILLS ALL RIGHTS RESERVED _Published September 1916_ TO MARY KING SHERMAN AND JOHN KING SHERMAN WHO KNEW AND APPRECIATED SCOTCH PREFACE Scotch and I were companions through eight years. Winter and summer we explored the rugged mountains of the Continental Divide. Often we were cold; more often we were hungry. Together we fought our way through blizzards and forest fires. Never did he complain and at all times he showed remarkable intelligence and absolute fidelity. The thousands who have watched him play football by my cabin on the slope of Long's Peak and the other thousands who have read of his unusual experiences will be interested, I am sure, in this complete story of his life. I gave an account of Scotch in my _Wild Life on the Rockies_, and in _The Spell of the Rockies_ I related one of our winter experiences. These chapters and an article on him which I wrote for _Country Life in America_ are, together with additional matter, embodied in this little book. ILLUSTRATIONS SCOTCH AND HIS MASTER _Frontispiece_ HIS FIRST KENNEL 4 PUPPY SCOTCH 8 CHIPMUNKS? 12 PLAYING FOOTBALL 26 READY FOR A WALK 32 THE MOUNTAINS IN WINTER Scotch on Guard at the Timber-Line Cabin 40 SCOTCH NEAR TIMBER-LINE 54 THE STORY OF SCOTCH I A famous collie and her five little puppies came into the possession of a Swedish farmer of my acquaintance. For an unimportant and forgotten kindness which I had shown his children, he decided that I should have one of these promising puppies. To his delight I chose the "wisest one," wee "Scotch," who afterwards gave pleasure to hundreds of people and who for eight years was a factor in my life. I carried little Scotch all day long in my overcoat pocket as I rode through the mountains on the way to my cabin. His cheerful little face, his good behavior, and the bright way in which he poked his head out of my pocket, licked my hand, and looked at the scenery, completely won my heart before I had ridden an hour. We camped for the night by a dim road near a deserted ranch-house in the mountains. Scotch was quiet during the long ride, but while I was lighting the camp-fire he climbed out of my overcoat and proceeded, puppy fashion, to explore the camp. After one bark at my pony he went over to make her acquaintance. He playfully smelled of each of her feet, gave a happy bark, and jumped up to touch her nose with his own. Cricket, the pony, intently watched his performance with lowered head and finally nosed him in a friendly manner. I shut him up in a small abandoned cabin for the night. He at once objected and set up a terrible barking and howling, gnawing fiercely at the crack beneath the door and trying to tear his way out. Fearing he would break his little puppy teeth, or possibly die from frantic and persistent efforts to be free, I concluded to release him from the cabin. My fears that he would run away if left free were groundless. He made his way to my saddle, which lay on the ground near by, crawled under it, turned round beneath it, thrust his little head from beneath the arch of the horn, and lay down with a look of contentment, and also with an air which said: "I'll take care of this saddle. I'd like to see any one touch it." And watch it he did. At midnight a cowboy came to my camp-fire. He had been thrown from his bronco and was making back to his outfit on foot. Tiny Scotch flew at him ferociously; never have I seen such faithful ferocity in a dog so small and young. I took him in my hands and assured him that the visitor was welcome, and in a moment little Scotch and the cowboy were side by side gazing at the fire. On our arrival at my cabin he at once took possession of an old tub in a corner of the porch. This he liked, and it remained his kennel for a long time. Here, protected from wind and rain, he was comfortable even in cold weather. [Illustration: HIS FIRST KENNEL] We were intimate from the start, and we lived most of the time apart from the world. I watched his development with satisfaction. He grew rapidly in size, strength, comprehension, and accomplishments. He was watchful and fearless through life. His first experience with the unfriendly side of life came from a burro. A prospector came by with one of these long-eared beasts. Confiding Scotch went out to play with the burro and was kicked. Thenceforward he looked upon all burros with distrust, and every one that came near the cabin promptly and precipitously retreated before him like a boy before an aggressive bumblebee. The summer that Scotch was growing up, I raised Johnny, a jolly young grizzly bear. At first the smaller, Johnny early became the larger. Both these youngsters were keenly alert, playful, and inclined to be friendly. Each, however, was a trifle suspicious of the other. Unfortunately, I was away during the period in which a complete understanding between them could have been established and, as a result, there never came about the intimate companionship that really should have existed between these two highly developed animals; but their relations, though ever peculiar, were never strained. At times both had the freedom of the yard at once, and naturally they sometimes met while going to and fro. On these occasions each passed the other by as though unconscious of his presence. Sometimes they lay at close range for an hour at a time, quietly, half-admiringly watching each other. A bone was used as a medium the few times they played together. Each in turn guarded this bone while the other tried to take it away. This brought out from both a lively lot of striking, feinting, boxing, dodging, and grabbing, which usually ended in clinching and wrestling. In these vigorous, though good-natured mix-ups, it was Johnny's idea to get in a few good bites on Scotch's shaggy tail; while on the end of Johnny's sensitive nose Scotch landed slap after slap. Scotch was an old-fashioned collie and had a face that was exceptionally expressive and pleasing. He was short-nosed, and his fine eyes were set wide apart. When grown he was a trifle larger than the average dog, and was surprisingly agile and powerful for his size. His coat was a shaggy, silky black, with feet, tip of tail, and breast of pure white. He was always well dressed and took good care of his coat and feet. Daily he immersed himself in the cold waters of the brook, when it was not frozen, and he frequently lay in the water, lapping it and enjoying himself. [Illustration: PUPPY SCOTCH] I never knew of his killing anything, though often in the woods he merrily chased the lively, playful chipmunks. Never, however, did he disturb bird or chipmunk in the yard around the cabin. Often two or three chipmunks romped over him as he lay, with half-shut eyes, near the door. Occasionally a bird hopped upon him, and frequently birds, chipmunks, and Scotch ate together from the same bowl. Scotch did but little barking. In the country most dogs bow-wow at strangers, and frequently make the night hideous with prolonged barking at far-off sounds or imaginary objects. In summer Scotch allowed the scores of daily callers to come and go without a bark, but he reserved the right to announce, with a bark or two, the approach of the semi-occasional stranger who invaded our winter isolation. Talking to animals appears to make them gentler and more responsive. Scotch never tired of listening to me, and I often talked to him as if he were a child. He came to understand many of the words used. If I said "hatchet," he hastened to bring it; if "fire," he at once endeavored to discover where it was. Cheerfully and intelligently he endeavored to help me, and early became efficient in driving cattle, horses, and burros. Instinctively he was a "heeler," and with swift heel nips quickly awakened and gave directions to lazy or unwilling "critters." II Many of Scotch's actions were beyond the scope of instinct. One day, when still young, he mastered a new situation by the use of his wits. While he was alone at the house, some frightened cattle smashed a fence about a quarter of a mile away and broke into the pasture. He was after them in an instant. From a mountain-side ledge above, I watched proceedings with a glass. The cattle were evidently excited by the smell of some animal and did not drive well. Scotch ignored the two pasture gates, which were closed, and endeavored to hurry the cattle out through the break through which they had entered. After energetic encouragement, all but one went flying out through the break. This one alternated between stupidly running back and forth along the fence and trying to gore Scotch. Twice the animal had run into a corner by one of the gates, and his starting for the corner the third time apparently gave Scotch an idea. He stopped heeling, raced for the gate, and, leaping up, bit at the handle of the sliding wooden bar that secured it. He repeated this biting and tearing at the handle until the bar slid and the gate swung open. After chasing the animal through, he lay down by the gate. [Illustration: CHIPMUNKS?] When I came into view he attracted my attention with sharp barks and showed great delight when I closed the gate. After this, he led me to the break in the fence and then lay down. Though I looked at him and asked, "What do you want done here?" he pretended not to hear. That was none of his business! He had much more individuality than most dogs. His reserve force and initiative usually enabled him to find a way and succeed with situations which could not be mastered in his old way. The gate-opening was one of the many incidents in which these traits brought triumph. One of his most remarkable achievements was the mastering of a number of cunning coyotes which were persistent in annoying him and willing to make an opportunity to kill him. In a sunny place close to the cabin, the coyotes one autumn frequently collected for a howling concert. This irritated Scotch, and he generally chased the howlers into the woods. Now and then he lay down on their yelping-grounds to prevent their prompt return. After a time these wily little wolves adopted tantalizing tactics, and one day, while Scotch was chasing the pack, a lame coyote made a détour and came behind him. In the shelter of a willow-clump the coyote broke out in a maddening Babel of yelps and howls. Scotch instantly turned back to suppress him. While he was thus busy, the entire pack doubled back into the open and taunted Scotch with attitude and howls. Twice did the pack repeat these annoying, defying tactics. This serious situation put Scotch on his mettle. One night he went down the mountain to a ranch-house fifteen miles away. For the first time he was gone all night. The next morning I was astonished to find another collie in Scotch's bed. Scotch was in a state of worried suspense until I welcomed the stranger; then he was most gleeful. This move on his part told plainly that he was planning something still more startling. Indeed he was, but never did I suspect what this move was to be. That day, at the first howl of the coyotes, I rushed out to see if the visiting collie would assist Scotch. There were the coyotes in groups of two and three, yelping, howling, and watching. Both dogs were missing, but presently they came into view, cautiously approaching the coyotes from behind a screen of bushes. Suddenly the visiting collie dashed out upon them. At the same instant Scotch leaped into a willow-clump and crouched down; it was by this clump that the lame coyote had each time come to howl behind Scotch. While the visiting collie was driving the pack, the lame coyote again came out to make his sneaking flank movement. As he rounded the willow-clump Scotch leaped upon him. Instantly the other dog raced back, and both dogs fell fiercely upon the coyote. Though lame, he was powerful, and finally shook the dogs off and escaped to the woods, but he was badly wounded and bleeding freely. The pack fled and came no more to howl near the cabin. At bedtime, when I went out to see the dogs, both were away. Their tracks in the road showed that Scotch had accompanied the neighboring collie at least part of the way home. On rare occasions Scotch was allowed to go with visitors into the woods or up the mountain-side. However, he was allowed to accompany only those who appreciated the companionship and the intelligence of a noble dog or who might need him to show the way home. One day a young woman from Michigan came along and wanted to climb Long's Peak alone and without a guide. I agreed to consent to her wish if she would take Scotch with her and would also first climb one of the lesser peaks on a stormy day, unaided. This climbing the young woman did, and by so doing convinced me that she had a keen sense of direction and an abundance of strength, for the day was a stormy one and the peak was completely befogged with clouds. After this there was nothing for me to do but to allow her to climb Long's Peak. Just as she was starting for Long's Peak that cool September morning, I called Scotch and said to him: "Scotch, go with this young woman up Long's Peak. Keep her on the trail, take good care of her, and stay with her until she returns!" Scotch gave a few barks of satisfaction and started with the young woman up the trail, carrying himself in a manner which indicated that he was both honored and pleased. I felt that the strength and alertness of the young woman, when combined with the faithfulness and watchfulness of Scotch, would make the ascent a success, for the dog knew the trail as well as any guide. The young woman climbed swiftly until she reached the rocky alpine moorlands above timber-line. Here she lingered long to enjoy the magnificent scenery and the brilliant flowers. It was late in the afternoon when she arrived at the summit of the Peak. After she had spent a little time there, resting and absorbing the beauty and grandeur of the scene, she started to return. She had not gone far when clouds and darkness came on, and on a slope of slide rock she turned aside from the trail. Scotch had minded his own affairs and enjoyed himself in his own way all day long. Most of the time he had followed her closely, apparently indifferent to what happened. But the instant the young woman left the trail and started off in the wrong direction, he sprang ahead and took the lead with an alert, aggressive air. The way in which he did this should have suggested to her that he knew what he was about, but she did not appreciate this fact. She thought he had become weary and wanted to run away from her, so she called him back. Again she started in the wrong direction. This time Scotch got in front of her and refused to move. She pushed him out of the way. Once more he started off in the right direction and this time she scolded him and reminded him that his master had told him to stay with her. Scotch dropped his ears, fell in behind her, and followed meekly in her steps. He had tried to carry out the first part of his master's orders; now he was resigned to the second part of them. After going a short distance, the young woman realized that she had lost her trail but it never occurred to her that she had only to let Scotch have his way and he would lead her safely home. However, she had the good sense to stop where she was. And there, among the crags, by the stained remnants of winter's snow, thirteen thousand feet above sea-level, she knew she must pass the night. The wind blew a gale and the alpine brooklet turned to ice, while, in the lee of a crag, shivering with cold and hugging Scotch tight, she lay down to wait for daylight. When darkness had come that evening and the young woman had not returned, I sent a rescue party of four guides up the Peak. They suffered much from cold as they vainly searched among the crags through the dark hours of the windy night. Just at sunrise one of the guides found her. She was almost exhausted, but was still hugging Scotch tightly and only her fingers were frost-bitten. The guide gave her wraps and food and drink, and started with her down the trail. And Scotch? Oh, as soon as the guide appeared he left her and started home for breakfast. Scotch saved this young woman's life by staying with her through the long, cold night. She appreciated the fact, and was quick to admit that if she had allowed the dog to have his own way about the trail she would have had no trouble. III One summer a family lived in a cabin at the farther side of the big yard. Scotch developed a marked fondness for the lady of the house and called on her daily. He was so purposeful about this that from the moment he rose to start there was no mistaking his plans. Along the pathway toward the cabin he went, evidently with something definite in his mind. He was going somewhere; there was no stopping, no hurrying, and no turning aside. If the door was open, in he went; if it was closed, he made a scraping stroke across it and with dignified pose waited for it to be opened. Inside he was the gentleman. Generally he made a quiet tour through all the rooms and then lay down before the fireplace. If any one talked to him, he watched the speaker and listened with pleased attention; if the speaker was animated, Scotch now and then gave a low bark of appreciation. Usually he stayed about half an hour and then went sedately out. Without looking back, he returned deliberately to his own quarters. What an unconscious dignity there was in his make-up! He would not "jump for the gentlemen," nor leap over a stick, nor "roll over." No one ever would have thought of asking him to speak, to say grace, or to sit up on his hind legs for something to eat. All these tricks were foreign to his nature and had no place in his philosophy! Though Scotch admitted very few to the circle of his intimate friends, he was admired, respected, and loved by thousands. One of these admirers writes of him: "Of this little rustic Inn, Scotch was no less the host than was his master. He welcomed the coming and sped the parting guest. He escorted the climbers to the beginning of the trail up Long's Peak. He received the returning trout fishermen. He kept the burros on the other side of the brook. He stood between the coyotes and the inhabitants of the chicken yard. He was always ready to play football for the entertainment of the guests after dinner. He was really the busiest person about the Inn from morning till night." Though apparently matter-of-fact and stolid, he was ever ready for a romp and was one of the most playful dogs. Except at odd times, I was the only playmate he ever had. It was a pleasure to watch him or to play with him, for he played with all his might. He took an intense delight in having me kick or toss a football for him. He raced at full speed in pursuing the ball, and upon overtaking it would try to pick it up, but it was too large for him. As soon as I picked it up, he became all alert to race after it or to leap up and intercept it. If the ball was tossed easily to him, he sprang to meet it and usually struck it with the point of his chin and sent it flying back to me; at short range we were sometimes able to send the ball back and forth between us several times without either one moving in his tracks. If the ball was tossed above him, he leaped up to strike it with head, chin, or teeth, trying to make it bound upward; if it went up, he raced to do it over again. Occasionally he was clever enough to repeat this many times without allowing the ball to fall to the earth. [Illustration: PLAYING FOOTBALL] His enjoyment in make-believe play was as eager and refreshing as that of a child. This kind of play we often enjoyed in the yard. I would pretend to be searching for him, while he, crouching near in plain view, pretended to be hidden. Oh, how he enjoyed this! Again and again I would approach him from a different direction, and, when within touching distance, call, "Where is Scotch?" while he, too happy for barks, hugged the earth closely and silently. Now and then he took a pose and pretended to be looking at something far away, while all the time his eager eye was upon me. From time to time, with utmost stealth, he took a new hiding-place. With every pretense of trying not to be seen, he sometimes moved from behind to immediately in front of me! Silently, though excitedly happy, he played this delightful childish game. It always ended to his liking; I grabbed him with a "Hello, there's Scotch!" and carried him off on my shoulder. One day a family arrived at a nearby cottage to spend the summer. During the first afternoon of their stay, the toddling baby strayed away. Every one turned out to search. With enlarging circles we covered the surrounding country and at last came upon the youngster in the woods about a quarter of a mile from the house. Scotch was with him and was lying down with head up, while the baby, asleep, was using him for a pillow, and had one chubby arm thrown across his neck. He saw us approach and lift the baby as if nothing unusual had happened. He never failed to notice my preparations to journey beyond the mountains. Never would he watch me start on this kind of a journey, but an hour or so before leaving-time he would go to the side of the house opposite where I started. Here he would refuse attention from any one and for a few days would go about sadly. A little in advance of my home-coming, he showed that he expected me. Probably he heard my name used by the people in the house. Anyway, for two or three days before my arrival, he each evening would go down the road and wait at the place where he had greeted me many times on my return. When I went horseback-riding he was almost passionately happy if allowed to go along. Whenever my pony was brought out, he at once stopped everything and lay down near the pony to await my coming. Would I go out on the trail with him, or go to the post office and leave him behind? By the time I appeared, these questions had him in a high state of excitement. Usually he turned his head away and yawned and yawned; he rose up and sat down, altogether showing a strange combination of bashfulness and impatience; though plainly trying to be quiet, he was restless until my answer came. Usually he was able to make out what this was without waiting for any word from me. A hatchet, for example, would tell him I was going to the woods. On the other hand, the mail-bag meant that I was going to the village. This meant that he could not go, whereupon he would go off slowly, lie down, and look the other way. If the answer was "yes," he raced this way and that, leaping up once or twice to touch the pony's nose with his own. During each ride he insisted on a race with the pony; if I chanced to forget this, he never failed to remind me before the ride was over. As a reminder, he would run alongside me and leap as high as possible, then race ahead as swiftly as he could. This he repeated until I accepted his challenge. Both dog and pony gleefully enjoyed this and each tried to pass the other. Once we were clattering over the last stretch toward home. Scotch, who was in the lead, saw our pet chicken crouched in the pony's track, where it was in danger of being crushed. Unmindful of his own danger from the pony's hoofs, he swerved, gently caught up the chicken, and lifted it out of danger. After fondling it for a moment, he raced after us at full speed. [Illustration: READY FOR A WALK] No matter what the weather, he usually slept outdoors. He understood, however, that he was welcome to come into my cabin day or night, and was a frequent caller. In the cabin he was dignified and never used it as a place of amusement. IV Scotch enjoyed being with me, and great times we had together. Many of our best days were in the wilds. Here he often suffered from hunger, cold, hardships, and sometimes from accident; yet never did he complain. Usually he endured the unpleasant things as a matter of course. Though very lonely when left by himself, he never allowed this feeling to cause a slighting of duty. On one occasion he was supremely tried but did his duty as he understood it and was faithful under circumstances of loneliness, danger, and possible death. At the close of one of our winter trips, Scotch and I started across the Continental Divide of the Rocky Mountains in face of weather conditions that indicated a snowstorm or a blizzard before we could gain the other side. We had eaten the last of our food twenty-four hours before, and could no longer wait for fair weather. So off we started to scale the snowy steeps of the cold, gray heights a thousand feet above. The mountains already were deeply snow-covered and it would have been a hard trip even without the discomforts and dangers of a storm. I was on snowshoes, and for a week we had been camping and tramping through the snowy forests and glacier meadows at the source of Grand River, two miles above the sea. The primeval Rocky Mountain forests are just as near to Nature's heart in winter as in summer. I had found so much to study and enjoy that the long distance from a food-supply, even when the last mouthful was eaten, had not aroused me to the seriousness of the situation. Scotch had not complained, and appeared to have the keenest collie interest in the tracks and trails, the scenes and silences away from the haunts of man. The snow lay seven feet deep, but by keeping in my snowshoe-tracks Scotch easily followed me about. Our last camp was in the depths of an alpine forest, at an altitude of ten thousand feet. Here, though zero weather prevailed, we were easily comfortable beside a fire under the protection of an overhanging cliff. After a walk through woods the sun came blazing in our faces past the snow-piled crags on Long's Peak, and threw slender blue shadows of the spiry spruces far out in a white glacier meadow to meet us. Reëntering the tall but open woods, we saw, down the long aisles and limb-arched avenues, a forest of tree-columns, entangled in sunlight and shadow, standing on a snowy marble floor. We were on the Pacific slope, and our plan was to cross the summit by the shortest way between timber-line there and timber-line on the Atlantic side. This meant ascending a thousand feet and descending an equal distance, traveling five miles amid bleak, rugged environment. After gaining a thousand feet of altitude through the friendly forest, we climbed out and up above the trees on a steep slope at timber-line. This place, the farthest up for trees, was a picturesque, desolate place. The dwarfed, gnarled, storm-shaped trees amid enormous snow-drifts told of endless, and at times deadly, struggles of the trees with the elements. Most of the trees were buried, but here and there a leaning or a storm-distorted one bent bravely above the snows. Along the treeless, gradual ascent we started, realizing that the last steep icy climb would be dangerous and defiant. Most of the snow had slid from the steeper places, and much of the remainder had blown away. Over the unsheltered whole the wind was howling. For a time the sun shone dimly through the wind-driven snow-dust that rolled from the top of the range, but it disappeared early behind wild, wind-swept clouds. At last we were safe on a ridge, and we started merrily off, hoping to cover speedily the three miles of comparatively level plateau. How the wind did blow! Up more than eleven thousand feet above the sea, with not a tree to steady or break, it had a royal sweep. The wind appeared to be putting forth its wildest efforts to blow us off the ridge. There being a broad way, I kept well from the edges. The wind came with a dash and a heavy rush, first from one quarter, then from another. I was watchful and faced each rush firmly braced. Generally this preparedness saved me; but several times the wind seemed to expand or explode beneath me, and, with an upward toss, I was flung among the icy rocks and crusted snows. Finally I took to dropping and lying flat whenever a violent gust came ripping among the crags. There was an arctic barrenness to this alpine ridge,--not a house within miles, no trail, and here no tree could live to soften the sternness of the landscape or to cheer the traveler. The way wound amid snowy piles, icy spaces, and wind-swept crags. [Illustration: THE MOUNTAINS IN WINTER Scotch on Guard at the Timber-Line Cabin] The wind slackened and snow began to fall just as we were leaving the smooth plateau for the broken part of the divide. The next mile of way was badly cut to pieces with deep gorges from both sides of the ridge. The inner ends of several of these broke through the center of the ridge and extended beyond the ends of the gorges from the opposite side. This made the course a series of sharp, short zigzags. We went forward in the flying snow. I could scarcely see, but felt that I could keep the way on the broken ridge between the numerous rents and cañons. On snowy, icy ledges the wind took reckless liberties. I wanted to stop but dared not, for the cold was intense enough to freeze one in a few minutes. Fearing that a snow-whirl might separate us, I fastened one end of my light, strong rope to Scotch's collar and the other end to my belt. This proved to be fortunate for both, for while we were crossing an icy, though moderate, slope, a gust of wind swept me off my feet and started us sliding. It was not steep, but was so slippery I could not stop, nor see where the slope ended, and I grabbed in vain at the few icy projections. Scotch also lost his footing and was sliding and rolling about, and the wind was hurrying us along, when I threw myself flat and dug at the ice with fingers and toes. In the midst of my unsuccessful efforts we were brought to a sudden stop by the rope between us catching over a small rock-point that was thrust up through the ice. Around this in every direction was smooth, sloping ice; this, with the high wind, made me wonder for a moment how we were to get safely off the slope. The belt axe proved the means, for with it I reached out as far as I could and chopped a hole in the ice, while with the other hand I clung to the rock-point. Then, returning the axe to my belt, I caught hold in the chopped place and pulled myself forward, repeating this until on safe footing. In oncoming darkness and whirling snow I had safely rounded the ends of two gorges and was hurrying forward over a comparatively level stretch, with the wind at my back boosting me along. Scotch was running by my side and evidently was trusting me to guard against all dangers. This I tried to do. Suddenly, however, there came a fierce dash of wind and whirl of snow that hid everything. Instantly I flung myself flat, trying to stop quickly. Just as I did this I caught the strange, weird sound made by high wind as it sweeps across a cañon, and at once realized that we were close to a storm-hidden gorge. I stopped against a rock, while Scotch slid into the chasm and was hauled back with the rope. The gorge had been encountered between two out-thrusting side gorges, and between these in the darkness I had a cold time feeling my way out. At last I came to a cairn of stones that I recognized. I had missed the way by only a few yards, but this miss had been nearly fatal. Not daring to hurry in the darkness in order to get warm, I was becoming colder every moment. I still had a stiff climb between me and the summit, with timber-line three rough miles beyond. To attempt to make it would probably result in freezing or tumbling into a gorge. At last I realized that I must stop and spend the night in a snow-drift. Quickly kicking and trampling a trench in a loose drift, I placed my elkskin sleeping-bag therein, thrust Scotch into the bag, and then squeezed into it myself. I was almost congealed with cold. My first thought after warming up was to wonder why I had not earlier remembered the bag. Two in a bag would guarantee warmth, and with warmth, a snow-drift on the crest of the continent would not be a bad place in which to lodge for the night. The sounds of wind and snow beating upon the bag grew fainter and fainter as we were drifted and piled over with the snow. At the same time our temperature rose, and before long it was necessary to open the flap of the bag slightly for ventilation. At last the sounds of the storm could barely be heard. Was the storm quieting down, or was its roar muffled and lost in the deepening cover of snow? was the unimportant question occupying my thoughts when I fell asleep. Scotch awakened me in trying to get out of the bag. It was morning. Out we crawled, and, standing with only my head above the drift, I found the air still and saw a snowy mountain world all serene in the morning sun. I hastily adjusted sleeping-bag and snowshoes, and we set off for the final climb to the summit. The final hundred feet or so rose steep, jagged, and ice-covered before me. There was nothing to lay hold of; every point of vantage was plated with smooth ice. There appeared only one way to surmount this icy barrier and that was to chop toe- and hand-holes from the bottom to the top of this icy wall, which in places was close to vertical. Such a climb would not be especially difficult or dangerous for me, but could Scotch do it? He could hardly know how to place his feet in the holes or on the steps properly; nor could he realize that a slip or a misstep would mean a slide and a roll to death. Leaving sleeping-bag and snowshoes with Scotch, I grasped my axe and chopped my way to the top and then went down and carried bag and snowshoes up. Returning for Scotch, I started him climbing just ahead of me, so that I could boost and encourage him. We had gained only a few feet when it became plain that sooner or later he would slip and bring disaster to both of us. We stopped and descended to the bottom for a new start. Though the wind was again blowing a gale, I determined to carry him. His weight was forty pounds, and he would make a top-heavy load and give the wind a good chance to upset my balance and tip me off the wall. But, as there appeared no other way, I threw him over my shoulder and started up. Many times Scotch and I had been in ticklish places together, and more than once I had pulled him up rocky cliffs on which he could not find footing. Several times I had carried him over gulches on fallen logs that were too slippery for him. He was so trusting and so trained that he relaxed and never moved while in my arms or on my shoulder. Arriving at the place least steep, I stopped to transfer Scotch from one shoulder to the other. The wind was at its worst; its direction frequently changed and it alternately calmed and then came on like an explosion. For several seconds it had been roaring down the slope; bracing myself to withstand its force from this direction, I was about to move Scotch, when it suddenly shifted to one side and came with the force of a breaker. It threw me off my balance and tumbled me heavily against the icy slope. Though my head struck solidly, Scotch came down beneath me and took most of the shock. Instantly we glanced off and began to slide swiftly. Fortunately I managed to get two fingers into one of the chopped holes and held fast. I clung to Scotch with one arm; we came to a stop, both saved. Scotch gave a yelp of pain when he fell beneath me, but he did not move. Had he made a jump or attempted to help himself, it is likely that both of us would have gone to the bottom of the slope. Gripping Scotch with one hand and clinging to the icy hold with the other, I shuffled about until I got my feet into two holes in the icy wall. Standing in these and leaning against the ice, with the wind butting and dashing, I attempted the ticklish task of lifting Scotch again to my shoulder--and succeeded. A minute later we paused to breathe on the summit's icy ridge, between two oceans and amid seas of snowy peaks. V One cold winter day we were returning from a four days' trip on the Continental Divide, when, a little above timber-line, I stopped to take some photographs. To do this it was necessary for me to take off my sheepskin mittens, which I placed in my coat pocket, but not securely, as it proved. From time to time, as I climbed to the summit of the Divide, I stopped to take photographs, but on the summit the cold pierced my silk gloves and I felt for my mittens, to find that one of them was lost. I stooped, put an arm around Scotch and told him that I had lost a mitten and that I wanted him to go down for it to save me the trouble. "It won't take you very long," I said, "but it will be a hard trip for me. Go and fetch it to me." Instead of starting off quickly and willingly as he had invariably done before in obedience to my commands, he stood still. His eager, alert ears drooped. He did not make a move. I repeated the command in my most kindly tones. At this, instead of starting down the mountain for the mitten, he slunk slowly away toward home. Apparently he did not want to climb down the steep, icy slope of a mile to timber-line, more than a thousand feet below. I thought he had misunderstood me, so I called him back, patted him, and then, pointing down the slope, said, "Go for the mitten, Scotch; I will wait for you here." He started, but went unwillingly. He had always served me so cheerfully that I could not understand his behavior, and it was not until later that I realized how cruelly he had misunderstood. The summit of the Continental Divide where I stood when I sent Scotch back, was a very rough and lonely region. On every hand were broken, snowy peaks and rugged cañons. My cabin, eighteen miles away, was the nearest house, and the region was utterly wild. I waited a reasonable time for Scotch to return, but he did not come back. Thinking he might have gone by without my seeing him, I walked some distance along the summit, first in one direction and then in the other, but, seeing neither him nor his tracks, I knew that he had not yet returned. As it was late in the afternoon and growing colder, I decided to go slowly on toward my cabin. I started along a route I felt sure he would follow and I reasoned that he would overtake me. Darkness came on and still no Scotch, but I kept on going forward. For the remainder of the way I told myself that he might have got by me in the darkness. When, at midnight, I arrived at the cabin, I expected to be greeted by him. He was not there. I felt that something was wrong and feared that he had met with an accident. I slept two hours and rose, but he was still missing. I decided to tie on my snowshoes and go to meet him. The thermometer showed fourteen degrees below zero. [Illustration: SCOTCH NEAR TIMBER-LINE] I started at three o'clock in the morning, feeling that I should meet him before going far. I kept on and on and when at noon I arrived at the place on the summit from which I had sent him back, Scotch was not there to cheer the wintry, silent scene. Slowly I made my way down the slope and at two in the afternoon, twenty-four hours after I had sent Scotch down the mountain, I paused on a crag and looked below. There, in a world of white, Scotch lay by the mitten in the snow. He had misunderstood me and had gone back to guard the mitten instead of to get it. He could hardly contain himself for joy when we met. He leaped into the air, barked, rolled over, licked my hand, whined, seized the mitten in his mouth, raced round and round me, and did everything that an alert, affectionate, faithful dog could to show that he appreciated my appreciation of his supremely faithful services. After waiting for him to eat a luncheon we started for home, where we arrived at one o'clock in the morning. Had I not gone back for Scotch, I suppose he would have died beside the mitten. Without food or companionship, in a region cold, cheerless, and oppressive, he was watching the mitten because he had understood that I had told him to watch it. In the annals of the dog I do not know of any more touching instance of loyalty. VI Through the seasons and through the years Scotch and I wandered in the wilds and enjoyed nature together. Though we were often wet, hungry, or cold, he never ceased to be cheerful. Through the scenes and the silences we went side by side; side by side in the lonely night we gazed into the camp-fire, and in feeling lived strangely through "yesterday's seven thousand years" together. He was only a puppy the first time that he went with me to enjoy the woods. During this trip we came upon an unextinguished camp-fire that was spreading and about to become a forest fire. Upon this fire I fell with utmost speed so as to extinguish it before it should enlarge beyond control. My wild stampings, beatings, and hurling of firebrands made a deep impression on puppy Scotch. For a time he stood still and watched me, and then he jumped in and tried to help. He bit and clawed at the flames, burned himself, and with deep growlings desperately shook smoking sticks. The day following this incident, as we strolled through the woods, he came upon another smouldering camp-fire and at once called my attention to it with lively barking. I patted him and tried to make him understand that I appreciated what he had done, and then extinguished the fire. Through the years, in our wood wanderings, he was alert for fire and prompt to warn me of a discovery. His nose and eye detected many fires that even my trained and watchful senses had missed. One autumn, while watching a forest fire, we became enveloped in smoke and narrowly escaped with our lives. The fire had started in the bottom and was burning upward in the end of a long, wide mountain valley, and giving off volumes of smoke. In trying to obtain a clearer view, and also to avoid the smoke, we descended into a ravine close behind the fire. Shortly after our arrival a strong wind drove the wings of the fire outward to right and left, then backward down both sides of the valley, filling the ravine with smoke. This movement of the fire would in a short time have encircled us with flames. I made a dash to avoid this peril, and in running along a rock ledge in the smoke, stumbled into a rocky place and one of my shoes stuck fast. This threw me heavily and badly sprained my left leg. Amid thick smoke, falling ashes, and approaching flames, this situation was a serious one. Scotch showed the deepest concern by staying close by me and finally by giving a number of strange barks such as I had never before heard. After freeing myself I was unable to walk, and in hopping and creeping along my camera became so annoying that I gave it to Scotch; but in the brush the straps became so often entangled that throwing it away proved a relief to us both. Meanwhile we were making slow progress through the unburned woods and the fire was roaring close. Seeing no hope of getting out of the way, we finally took refuge to the leeward side of a rocky crag where the flames could not reach us. But could we avoid being smothered? Already we were dangerously near that and the fire had yet to surge around us. To send Scotch for water offered a possible means of escape. Slapping my coat upon the rocks two or three times I commanded, "Water, Scotch, water!" He understood, and with an eager bark seized the coat and vanished in the smoke. He would be compelled to pass through a line of flame in order to reach the water in the ravine, but this he would do or die. After waiting a reasonable time I began to call, "Scotch! Scotch!" as loudly as my parched throat and gasping permitted. Presently he leaped upon me, fearfully burned but with the saturated coat in his teeth. Most of his shaggy coat was seared off, one eye was closed, and there was a cruel burn on his left side. Hurriedly I bound a coat-sleeve around his head to protect his eyes and nose, then squeezed enough water from the coat to wet my throat. Hugging Scotch closely, I spread the wet coat over us both and covered my face with a wet handkerchief. With stifling smoke and fiery heat the flames surged around, but at last swept over and left us both alive. Without the help from Scotch I must have perished. It was this useful fire-fighting habit that caused the death of my faithful Scotch. One morning the men started off to do some road work. Scotch saw them go and apparently wanted to go with them. I had just returned from a long absence and had to stay in the cabin and write letters. About half an hour after the men had gone, Scotch gave a scratching knock at the door. Plainly he wanted to follow the men and had come for my consent to go without me. I patted him and urged him to go. He left the cabin, never again to return. Scotch arrived at the road work just as the men had lighted and run away from a blast. He saw the smoking fuse and sprang to extinguish it, as the blast exploded. He was instantly killed. THE END The Riverside Press CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS U . S . A * * * * * Transcriber's Note page 31: the word "for" changed to "from": text "any word from me" 
23403	----	U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A. D. MELVIN, CHIEF OF BUREAU. * * * * * SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BY Drs. PEARSON, MICHENER, LAW, HARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIAUTARD, HOLCOMBE, HUIDEKOPER, MOHLER, EICHHORN, HALL, AND ADAMS. * * * * * REVISED EDITION, 1916. [Illustration] WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1916. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, _Washington, March 30, 1916._ * * * * * Transcriber's note: The italic markup for single italized letters are deleted for easier reading. Minor typos have been corrected and footnotes moved to the end of the sections. * * * * * This edition of the Special Report on Diseases of the Horse has been prepared in compliance with House Concurrent Resolution No. 13, passed February 3, 1916, as follows: _Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring)_, That there be printed and bound in cloth one hundred thousand copies of the Special Report on the Diseases of the Horse, the same to be first revised and brought to date, under the supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture; seventy thousand copies for the use of the House of Representatives and thirty thousand for use of the Senate. Since the original edition issued by the Department in 1890 several editions have been printed by order of Congress. The work was reprinted in 1896, and revised and reprinted in 1903, 1908, and 1911. In accordance with the foregoing resolution it again has been revised so as to embody the latest practical development of knowledge of the subject. D. F. HOUSTON, _Secretary._ CONTENTS. Page. The examination of a sick horse. By Leonard Pearson 7 Fundamental principles of disease. By Rush Shippen Huidekoper 27 Methods of administering medicines. By Ch. B. Michener 44 Diseases of the digestive organs. By Ch. B. Michener 49 Diseases of the respiratory organs. By W. H. Harbaugh 95 Diseases of the urinary organs. By James Law 134 Diseases of the generative organs. By James Law 164 Diseases of the nervous system. By M. R. Trumbower 210 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By M. R. Trumbower 247 Diseases of the eye. By James Law 274 Lameness. By A. Liautard 298 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot. By A. A. Holcombe 395 Diseases of the skin. By James Law 458 Wounds and their treatment. By Ch. B. Michener 484 Infectious diseases. By Rush Shippen Huidekoper 507 Shoeing. By John W. Adams 583 Index 607 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. PLATE I. Inflammation 32 II. Inflammation 32 III. Digestive apparatus 48 IV. Age of horses as indicated by teeth 58 V. Intestinal worms 92 VI. Bots 92 VII. Position of the left lung 112 VIII. Longitudinal section through kidney 136 IX. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 136 X. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 136 XI. Calculi and instrument for removal 152 XII. Normal presentation 192 XIII. Some factors in difficult labor 192 XIV. Instruments used in difficult labor 192 XV. Abnormal presentations 200 XVI. Abnormal presentations 200 XVII. Abnormal presentations 200 XVIII. Abnormal presentations 200 XIX. The nervous system 216 XX. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 248 XXI. Circulatory apparatus 248 XXII. Diagrammatic vertical section through horse's eye 277 XXIII. Skeleton of horse 304 XXIV. Superficial layer of muscles 304 XXV. Splint 312 XXVI. Ringbone 312 XXVII. Various types of spavin 312 XXVIII. Bone spavin 312 XXIX. Bone spavin 312 XXX. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 360 XXXI. The sling in use 360 XXXII. Anatomy of foot 400 XXXIII. Anatomy of foot 400 XXXIV. Anatomy and diseases of foot 400 XXXV. Sound and contracted feet 400 XXXVI. Quarter crack and remedies 432 XXXVII. Foundered feet 432 XXXVIII. The skin and its diseases 458 XXXIX. Mites that infest the horse 480 XL. Glanders 544 XLI. Glanders 544 XLII. Glanders 544 TEXT FIGURES. Page. FIG. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the "regular" form 590 2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position 591 3. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position 591 4. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position 592 5. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a stumpy fore foot 592 6. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a toe 595 7. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe 599 8. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe 599 9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 601 10. A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 601 11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and "three-quarter" shoe 602 12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with a plain "dropped crease" shoe 602 13. Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering 603 14. Ground surface of shoe shown in fig. 13 603 15. Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" in a "forger" 604 16. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger 604 17. A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 605 18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet 605 SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D. In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method or system. If a definite plan of examination is followed one may feel reasonably sure, when the examination is finished, that no important point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a wrong condition. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember that animals of different races or families deport themselves differently under the influence of the same disease or pathological process. The sensitive and highly organized thoroughbred resists cerebral depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a degree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a thoroughbred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred, heavy draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. The order of examination, as given hereafter, is one that has proved to be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the purpose of the readers of this work, and is recommended by several writers. HISTORY. It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and development of the disease; therefore the cause should be looked for. The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diagnosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of feed that the horse has had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind of care he has received should all be closely inquired into. It may be found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged feed, such as brewers' grains or moldy silage, and this may be sufficient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are characteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia (excess of nitrogen in the urine). If it is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous pneumonia. It is also important to know whether the particular horse under examination is the only one in the stable, or on the premises, that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are afflicted much in the same way, we have evidence of a common cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature. Another item of importance in connection with the history of the case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is important that the examiner be fully informed as to the medication that has been employed. ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION. Before beginning the special examination, attention should be paid to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. For example, in tetanus (lockjaw) the muscles of the face, neck, and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subsequently recognized as rather characteristic of the disease. A horse with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, and the face is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a little, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs back to its previous position. In inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngolaryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck and the angle between the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon the throat. In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the head and the stupid expression are rather characteristic. In pleurisy, peritonitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region. The horse may be down in the stall and unable to rise. This condition may result from paraplegia (paralysis), from azoturia, from forage poisoning, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at an unusual or inappropriate time or place. Sometimes disinclination to lie down is an indication of disease. When there is difficulty in breathing, the horse knows that he can manage himself better upon his feet than upon his breast or his side. It happens, therefore, that in nearly all serious diseases of the respiratory tract he stands persistently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing is easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. If there is stiffness and soreness of the muscles, as in rheumatism, inflammation of the muscles from overwork, or of the bones in osteoporosis, or of the feet in founder, or if the muscles are stiff and beyond control of the animal, as in tetanus, a standing position is maintained, because the horse seems to realize that when he lies down he will be unable to rise. Abnormal attitudes are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive organs (colic). A horse with colic may sit upon his haunches, like a dog, or may stand upon his hind feet and rest upon his knees in front, or he may endeavor to balance himself upon his back, with all four feet in the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from pain by lessening pressure or tension upon the sensitive structures. Under the general condition of the animal it is necessary to observe the condition or state of nutrition, the conformation, so far as it may indicate the constitution, and the temperament. By observing the condition of nutrition one may be able to determine to a certain extent the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to estimate the amount of strength that remains and that will be available for the repair of the diseased tissues. A good condition of nutrition is shown by the rotundity of the body, the pliability and softness of the skin, and the tone of the hair. If the subcutaneous fat has disappeared and the muscles are wasted, allowing the bony prominences to stand out; if the skin is tight and inelastic and the coat dry and harsh, we have evidence of a low state of nutrition. This may have resulted from a severe and long-continued disease or from lack of proper feed and care. When an animal is emaciated--that is, becomes thin--there is first a loss of fat and later the muscles shrink. By observing the amount of shrinkage in the muscles one has some indication as to the duration of the unfavorable conditions under which the animal has lived. By constitution we understand the innate ability of the animal to withstand disease or unfavorable conditions of life. The constitution depends largely upon the conformation. The type of construction that usually accompanies the best constitution is deep, broad chest, allowing plenty of room for the lungs and heart, indicating that these vital organs are well developed; capacious abdomen, allowing sufficient space for well-developed organs of digestion; the loins should be short--that is, the space should be short between the last rib and the point of the hip; the head and neck should be well molded, without superfluous or useless tissue; this gives a clear-cut throat. The ears, eyes, and face should have an expression of alertness and good breeding. The muscular development should be good; the shoulders, forearms, croup, and thighs must have the appearance of strength. The withers are sharp, which means that they are not loaded with useless, superfluous tissue; the legs are straight and their axes are parallel; the knees and hocks are low, which means that the forearms and thighs are long and the cannons relatively short. The cannons are broad from in front to behind and relatively thin from side to side. This means that the bony and tendinous structures of the legs are well developed and well placed. The hoofs are compact, tense, firm structures, and their soles are concave and frogs large. Such a horse is likely to have a good constitution and to be able to resist hard work, fatigue, and disease to a maximum degree. On the other hand, a poor constitution is indicated by a shallow, narrow chest, small bones, long loins, coarse neck and head, with thick throat, small, bony, and muscular development, short thighs and forearms, small joints, long, round cannons, and hoofs of open texture with flat soles. The temperament is indicated by the manner in which the horse responds to external stimuli. When the horse is spoken to, or when he sees or feels anything that stimulates or gives alarm, if he responds actively, quickly, and intelligently, he is said to be of lively, or nervous, temperament. On the other hand, if he responds in a slow, sluggish manner, he is said to have a sluggish, or lymphatic, temperament. The temperament is indicated by the gait, by the expression of the face, and by the carriage of the head and ears. The nature of the temperament should be taken into consideration in an endeavor to ascertain the severity of a given case of illness, because the general expression of an animal in disease as well as in health depends to a large extent on the temperament. THE SKIN AND THE VISIBLE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. The condition of the skin is a fair index to the condition of the animal. The effect of disease and emaciation upon the pliability of the skin have been referred to above. There is no part of the body that loses its elasticity and tone as a result of disease sooner than the skin. The practical herdsman or flockmaster can gain a great deal of information as to the condition, of an animal merely by grasping the coat and looking at and feeling the skin. Similarly, the condition of the animal is shown to a certain extent by the appearance of the mucous membranes. For example, when the horse is anemic as a result of disease or of inappropriate feed the mucous membranes become pale. This change in the mucous membranes can be seen most readily in the lining of the eyelids and in the lining of the nostril. For convenience of examination the eyelids can readily be everted. Paleness means weak circulation or poor blood. Increased redness occurs physiologically in painful conditions, excitement, and following severe exertion. Under such conditions the increase of circulation is transitory. In fevers there is an increased redness in the mucous membrane, and this continues so long as the fever lasts. In some diseases red spots or streaks form in the mucous membrane. This usually indicates an infectious disease of considerable severity, and occurs in blood poisoning, purpura hemorrhagica, hemorrhagic septicemia, and in urticaria. When the liver is deranged and does not operate, or when the red-blood corpuscles are broken down, as in serious cases of influenza, there is a yellowish discoloration of the mucous membrane. The mucous membranes become bluish or blue when the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxid. This condition exists in any serious disease of the respiratory tract, as pneumonia, and in heart failure. The temperature of the skin varies with the temperature of the body. If there is fever the temperature of the skin is likely to be increased. Sometimes, however, as a result of poor circulation and irregular distribution of the blood, the body may be warmer than normal, while the extremities (the legs and ears) may be cold. Where the general surface of the body becomes cold it is evident that the small blood vessels in the skin have contracted and are keeping the blood away, as during a chill, or that the heart is weak and is unable to pump the blood to the surface, and that the animal is on the verge of collapse. The skin is moist, to a certain degree, at all times in a healthy horse. This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, but it is enough to keep the skin pliable and to cause the hair to have a soft, healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the skin becomes dry. In this case the hair has a harsh feel that is quite different from the condition observed in health, and from the fact of its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as "a staring coat." When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indication that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; they sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physiological causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other part of the body. For example, there is the well-known "stocking," or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lymphangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insufficiency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen (hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemorrhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head. Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here described is known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the fracture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to penetrate the lung, or it may occur when, as a result of an ulcerating process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recognized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensitive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is stroked or pressed upon. Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of the ribs, occur when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little, round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed less generally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of dourine, or colt distemper. Hard lumps, from which radiate welt-like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. The first item in this portion of the examination consists in taking the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be determined at any point where a large artery occupies a situation close to the skin and above a hard tissue, such as a bone, cartilage, or tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse is at the jaw. The external maxillary artery runs from between the jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone, and up on the outside of the jawbone to the face. It is located immediately in front of the heavy muscles of the cheek. Its throb can be felt most distinctly just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The balls of the first and second or of the second and third fingers should be pressed lightly on the skin over this artery when its pulsations are to be studied. The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as follows: Stallion 28 to 32 beats per minute. Gelding 33 to 38 beats per minute. Mare 34 to 40 beats per minute. Foal 2 to 3 years old 40 to 50 beats per minute. Foal 6 to 12 months old 45 to 60 beats per minute. Foal 2 to 4 weeks old 70 to 90 beats per minute. The pulse is accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The pulse should be regular; that is, the separate beats should follow each other after intervals of equal length, and the beats should be of equal fullness, or volume. In disease, the pulse may become slower or more rapid than in health. Slowing of the pulse may be caused by old age, great exhaustion, or excessive cold. It may be due to depression of the central nervous system, as in dumminess, or be the result of the administration of drugs, such as digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse is almost always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and the weaker the heart the more rapid is the pulse. Under these conditions, the beats may rise to 80, 90, or even 120 per minute. When the pulse is above 100 per minute the outlook for recovery is not promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high temperature or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the diseases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid. The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying intervals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regular or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication of heart weakness. In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It extends almost to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed against the left chest wall at a place immediately above the point of the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers--two in the left and two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auricle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle), and from here it is sent with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls) through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each side and into the aorta are guarded by valves. If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the more distinctly this impact is felt. If the animal is excited, or if he has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard during each pulsation, and any deviation of the normal indicates some alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making this examination, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of the elbow, or, if the sounds are not heard distinctly, the left fore leg may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right ear placed against the lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this manner. The first sound of the heart occurs while the heart muscle is contracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, causing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its opening into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of disease these sounds may be altered in various ways. It is not profitable, in a work such as this, to describe the details of these alterations. Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the veterinary textbooks. TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examination, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The thermometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self-registering clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but larger, being from 5 to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal is measured in the rectum. The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under different conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old, and is higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise decidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal temperature varies from 99.5° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to 102.5° the horse is said to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches 104° the fever is moderate; if it reaches 106° it is high, and above this point it is regarded as very high. In some diseases, such as tetanus or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high as 108° or 110°. In the ordinary infectious diseases it does not often exceed 106°. A temperature of 107.5° and above is very dangerous and must be reduced promptly if the horse is to be saved. THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. In examining this system of organs and their functions it is customary to begin by noting the frequency of the respiratory movements. This point can be determined by observing the motions of the nostrils or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the moisture of the warm air as it comes from the lungs. The normal rate of respiration for a healthy horse at rest is from 8 to 16 per minute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and is increased by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of portions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; compression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles controlling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxid in the blood; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs. Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the lungs, as in pneumonia; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheumatism or pleurisy; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat, swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play. In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the flanks heave. The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It contains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an indication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs where there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs. In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head. The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be composed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge is sticky and puslike, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color and, on this account has been described as a prune-juice discharge. The discharge may contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the discharge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a fine froth, it comes from the lungs. In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remember that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that disease. Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lymphatic glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative disease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles. On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jawbone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders. If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insensitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic. The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagnosis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor, or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs merely from accumulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to determine the character of the cough, it can easily be excited by pressing upon the larynx with the thumb and finger. The larynx should be pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract. The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially painful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air, and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accompanied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist; it is dry when these characteristics are not present--that is, when the air in passing out passes over surface not loaded with secretion. In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and auscultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask contains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character. Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of examination one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupying the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest, the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema, or in pneumothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear applied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distinctly, especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft, rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active. The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air is excluded by the accumulation, of inflammatory product, as in pneumonia, and when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of the beginning of pneumonia. By applying the ear over the lower part of the windpipe in front of the breastbone a somewhat harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions near the lower part of the trachea and to a limited extent in the anterior portions of the lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial murmur is heard over other portions of the lungs, it may signify that the lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing bronchial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. Additional sounds are heard in the lungs in some diseased conditions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the air is forced through it or is caused to pass through tubes containing secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature and are known as mucous râles. Mucous râles are spoken of as being large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tube in which this sound is produced. Mucous râles occur in pneumonia after the solidified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. They occur in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there is an excess of secretion. Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or flute. This is due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it is heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis. A friction sound is heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing together of roughened surfaces, and the sound produced is similar to a dry rubbing sound that is caused by rubbing the hands together or by rubbing upon each other two dry, rough pieces of leather. THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A healthy animal has a good appetite. Loss of appetite does not point to a special diseased condition, but comes from a variety of causes. Some of these causes, indeed, may be looked upon as being physiological. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression, fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite is diminished or destroyed. Sometimes there is an appetite or desire to eat abnormal things, such as dirty bedding, roots of grass, soil, etc. This desire usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutrition. Thirst is diminished in a good many mild diseases unaccompanied by distinct fever. It is seen where there is great exhaustion or depression or profound brain disturbance. Thirst is increased after profuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crises of infectious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot. Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse to chew or swallow his feed. Where difficulty in this respect is experienced, the following named conditions should be borne in mind and carefully looked for: Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, fracture, abscess formation, or overgrowth; inflammatory conditions, or wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips; paralysis of the muscles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as "quidding." Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed and insalivated boluses of feed. A mouthful of hay, for example, after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quidding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of boluses of feed accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall. In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of fluid that the horse attempts to swallow. In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydrocephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of taking feed. A similar condition is seen in hyperemia of the brain. In eating the horse will sink his muzzle into the grain in the feed box and eat for a while without raising the head. Long pauses are made while the feed is in the mouth. Sometimes the horse will eat very rapidly for a little while and then slowly; the jaws may be brought together so forcibly that the teeth gnash. In eating hay the horse will stop at times with hay protruding from the mouth and stand stupidly, as though he has forgotten what he was about. In examining the mouth one should first look for swellings or for evidence of abnormal conditions upon the exterior; that is, the front and sides of the face, the jaws, and about the muzzle. By this means wounds, fractures, tumors, abscesses, and disease accompanied by eruptions about the muzzle may be detected. The interior of the mouth is examined by holding the head up and inserting the fingers through the interdental space in such a way as to cause the mouth to open. The mucous membrane should be clean and of a light-pink color, excepting on the back of the tongue, where the color is a yellowish gray. As abnormalities of this region, the chief are diffuse inflammation, characterized by redness and catarrhal discharge; local inflammation, as from eruptions, ulcers, or wounds; necrosis of the lower jawbone in front of the first back tooth; and swellings. Foreign bodies are sometimes found embedded in the mucous membrane lining of the mouth or lodged between the teeth. The examination of the pharynx and of the esophagus is made chiefly by pressing upon the skin covering these organs in the region of the throat and along the left side of the neck in the jugular gutter. Sometimes, when a more careful examination is necessary, an esophageal tube or probang is passed through the nose or mouth down the esophagus to the stomach. Vomiting is an act consisting in the expulsion of all or part of the contents of the stomach through the mouth or nose. This act is more difficult for the horse than for most of the other domestic animals, because the stomach of the horse is small and does not lie on the floor of the abdominal cavity, so that the abdominal walls in contracting do not bring pressure to bear upon it so directly and forcibly, as is the case in many other animals. Beside this, there is a loose fold of mucous membrane at the point where the esophagus enters the stomach, and this forms a sort of valve which does not interfere with the passage of food into the stomach, but does interfere with the exit of food through the esophageal opening. Still, vomiting is a symptom that is occasionally seen in the horse. It occurs when the stomach is very much distended with food or with gas. Distention stretches the mucous membrane and eradicates the valvular fold referred to, and also makes it possible for more pressure to be exerted upon the stomach through the contraction of the abdominal muscles. Since the distention to permit vomiting must be extreme, it not infrequently happens that it leads to rupture of the stomach walls. This has caused the impression in the minds of some that vomiting can not occur in the horse without rupture of the stomach, but this is incorrect, since many horses vomit and afterwards become entirely sound. After rupture of the stomach has occurred vomiting is impossible. In examination of the abdomen one should remember that its size depends largely upon the breed, sex, and conformation of the animal, and also upon the manner in which the animal has been fed and the use to which it has been put. A pendulous abdomen may be the result of an abdominal tumor or of an accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity; or, on the other hand, it may merely be an indication of pregnancy, or of the fact that the horse has been fed for a long time on bulky and innutritious food. Pendulous abdomen occurring in a work horse kept on a concentrated diet is an abnormal condition. The abdomen may increase suddenly in volume from accumulation of gas in tympanic colic. The abdomen becomes small and the horse is said to be "tucked up" from long-continued poor appetite, as in diseases of the digestive tract and in fever. This condition also occurs in tetanus from the contraction of the abdominal walls and in diarrhea from emptiness. In applying the ear to the flank, on either the right or left side, certain bubbling sounds may be heard that are known as peristaltic sounds, because they are produced by peristalsis, or wormlike contraction of the intestines. These sounds are a little louder on the right side than on the left on account of the fact that the large intestines lie in the right flank. Absence of peristaltic sounds is always an indication of disease, and suggests exhaustion or paralysis of the intestines. This may occur in certain kinds of colic and is an unfavorable symptom. Increased sounds are heard where the intestines are contracted more violently than in health, as in spasmodic colic, and also where there is an excess of fluid or gas in the intestinal canal. The feces show, to a certain extent, the thoroughness of digestion. They should show that the feed has been well ground, and should, in the horse, be free from offensive odor or coatings of mucus. A coating of mucus shows intestinal catarrh. Blood on the feces indicates severe inflammation. Very light color and bad odor may come from inactive liver. Parasites are sometimes in the dung. Rectal examination consists in examination of the organs of the pelvic cavity and posterior portion of the abdominal cavity by the hand inserted into the rectum. This examination should be attempted by a veterinarian only, and is useless except to one who has a good knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned. THE EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The great brain, or cerebrum, is the seat of intelligence, and it contains the centers that control motion in many parts of the body. The front portion of the brain is believed to be the region that is most important in governing the intelligence. The central and posterior portions of the cerebrum contain the centers for the voluntary motions of the face and of the front and hind legs. The growth of a tumor or an inflammatory change in the region of a center governing the motion of a certain part of the body has the effect of disturbing motion in that part by causing excessive contraction known as cramps, or inability of the muscles to contract, constituting the condition known as paralysis. The nerve paths from the cerebrum, and hence from these centers to the spinal cord and thence to the muscles, pass beneath the small brain, or the cerebellum, and through the medulla oblongata to the spinal cord. Interference with these paths has the effect of disturbing motion of the parts reached by them. If all of the paths on one side are interfered with, the result is paralysis of one side of the body. The small brain, or cerebellum, governs the regularity, or coordination, of movements. Disturbances of the cerebellum cause a tottering, uncertain gait. In the medulla oblongata, which lies between the spinal cord and the cerebellum, are the centers governing the circulation and breathing. The spinal cord carries sensory messages to the brain and motor impressions from the brain. The anterior portions of the cord contain the motor paths, and the posterior portions of the cord contain the sensory paths. Paralysis of a single member or a single group of muscles is known as monoplegia and results from injury to the motor center or to a nerve trunk leading to the part that is involved. Paralysis of one-half of the body is known as hemiplegia and results from destruction or severe disturbances of the cerebral hemisphere of the opposite side of the body or from interference with nerve paths between the cerebellum, or small brain, and the spinal cord. Paralysis of the posterior half of the body is known as paraplegia and results from derangement of the spinal cord. If the cord is pressed upon, cut, or injured, messages can not be transmitted beyond that point, and so the posterior part becomes paralyzed. This is seen when the back is fractured. Abnormal mental excitement may be due to congestion of the brain or to inflammation. The animal so afflicted becomes vicious, pays no attention to commands, cries, runs about in a circle, stamps with the feet, strikes, kicks, etc. This condition is usually followed by a dull, stupid state, in which the animal stands with his head down, dull and irresponsive to external stimuli. Cerebral depression also occurs in the severe febrile infectious diseases, in chronic hydrocephalus, in chronic diseases of the liver, in poisoning with a narcotic substance, and with chronic catarrh of the stomach and intestines. Fainting is a symptom that is not often seen in horses. When it occurs it is shown by unsteadiness of gait, tottering, and, finally, inability to stand. The cause usually lies in a defect of the small brain, or cerebellum. This defect may be merely in respect of the blood supply, to congestion, or to anemia, and in this case it is likely to pass away and may never return, or it may be due to some permanent cause, as a tumor or an abscess, or it may result from a hemorrhage, from a defect of the valves of the heart, or from poisoning. Loss of consciousness is known as coma. It is caused by hemorrhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a saturation of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may follow upon cerebral depression, which occurs as a secondary state of inflammation of the brain. Where the sensibility of a part is increased the condition is known as hyperesthesia, and where it is lost--that is, where there is no feeling or knowledge of pain--the condition is known as anesthesia. The former usually accompanies some chronic disease of the spinal cord or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk. Hyperesthesia is difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure. This is sometimes a symptom of beginning of inflammation of the brain. Anesthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and spinal paralysis, section of a nerve trunk leading to a part, in severe mental depression, and in narcotic poisoning. URINARY AND SEXUAL ORGANS. In considering the examination of the urinary and sexual organs we may consider, at the beginning, a false impression that prevails to an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressings upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the horse depresses his back it is at once said "his kidneys are weak." Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any healthy horse--any horse with normal sensation and with a normally flexible back--will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If the kidneys are inflamed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly and is not depressed under this pressure. To examine the kidneys by pressure the pressure should be brought to bear over these organs. The kidneys lie beneath the ends of the transverse processes of the vertebræ of the loins and beneath the hind-most ribs. If the kidneys are actually inflamed and especially sensitive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to shrink. The physical examination of the sexual and generative organs is made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the examination should be carried out by a veterinarian only. By this means it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary calculi in the ureters, bladder, or upper urethra, malformations, and acute inflammations accompanied by pain. The external genital organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of local disease or from disease higher in the tract. The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, during which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by constrained attitude, etc. This condition comes from inflammation of the bladder or urethra, urinary calculi (stones of the bladder or urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained from spasms of the muscle at the neck of the bladder, from calculi, inflammatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder. The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder is weakened or paralyzed. This condition is seen after the bladder is weakened from long-continued retention and where there is a partial paralysis of the hind quarters. Horses usually void urine five to seven times a day, and pass from 4 to 7 quarts. Disease may be shown by increase in the number of voidings or of the quantity. Frequent urination indicates an irritable or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the quantity is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys (interstitial nephritis) and in polyuria the quantity may be increased to 20 or 30 quarts daily. Diminution in the quantity of urine comes from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and nonsecreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow. The urine of the healthy horse is a pale or at times a slightly reddish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and is more intense when the quantity is diminished. Dark-brown urine is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A brownish-green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admixture of blood from a bleeding point at some part of the urinary tract, usually in the kidneys. The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It contains mucus, which causes it to be slightly thick and stringy, and a certain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloudy. A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine of the horse is normally alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in suspension are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine may be unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to determine their character a chemical or microscopic examination is necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary tract. The normal specific gravity of the urine of the horse is about 1.040. It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the quantity is excessive. Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but require special apparatus and skill. Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discussion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special training on the part of the examiner. Among such points may be mentioned the examination of the organs of special sense, the examination of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excretions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE. By RUSH SHIPPEN HUIDEKOPER, M. D., VET. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] ANIMAL TISSUES. The nonprofessional reader may regard the animal tissues, which are subject to inflammation, as excessively simple structures, as similar, simple, and fixed in their organization as the joists and boards which frame a house, the bricks and iron coils of pipe which build a furnace, or the stones and mortar which make the support of a great railroad bridge. Yet while the principles of structure are thus simple, for the general understanding by the student who begins their study the complete appreciation of the shades of variation, which differentiate one tissue from another, which define a sound tendon or a ligament from a fibrous band--the result of disease filling in an old lesion and tying one organ with another--is as complicated as the nicest jointing of Chinese woodwork, the building of a furnace for the most difficult chemical analysis, or the construction of a bridge which will stand for ages and resist any force or weight. All tissues are composed of certain fundamental and similar elements which are governed by the same rules of life, though at first glance they may appear to be widely different. These are (a) amorphous substances, (b) fibers, and (c) cells. (a) Amorphous substances may be in liquid form, as in the fluid of the blood, which holds a vast amount of salts and nutritive matter in solution; or they may be in a semiliquid condition, as the plasma which infiltrates the loose meshes of connective tissue and lubricates the surface of some membranes; or they may be in the form of a glue or cement, fastening one structure to another, as a tendon or muscle end to a bone; or, again, they hold similar elements firmly together, as in bone, where they form a stiff matrix which becomes impregnated with lime salts. Amorphous substances, again, form the protoplasm or nutritive element of cells or the elements of life. (b) Fibers are formed of elements of organic matter which have only a passive function. They can be assimilated to little strings, or cords, tangled one with another like a mass of waste yarn, woven regularly like a cloth, or bound together like a rope. They are of two kinds--white connective tissue fibers, only slightly extensible, pliable, and very strong, and yellow elastic fibers, elastic, curly, ramified, and very dense. These fibers once created require the constant presence of fluids around them in order to retain their functional condition, as a piece of harness leather demands continual oiling to keep its strength, but they undergo no change or alteration in their form until destroyed by death. (c) Cells, which may even be regarded as low forms of life, are masses of protoplasm or amorphous living matter, with a nucleus and frequently a nucleolus, which are capable of assimilating nutriment or food, propagating themselves either into others of the same form or into fixed cells of another outward appearance and different function but of the same constitution. It is simply in the mode of the grouping of these elements that we have the variation in tissues, as (1) loose connective tissue, (2) aponeurosis and tendons, (3) muscles, (4) cartilage, (5) bones, (6) epithelia and endothelia, (7) nerves. (1) Loose connective tissue forms the great framework, or scaffolding, of the body, and is found under the skin, between the muscles surrounding the bones and blood vessels, and entering into the structures of almost all the organs. In this the fibers are loosely meshed together like a sponge, leaving spaces in which the nutrient fluid and cells are irregularly distributed. This tissue we find in the skin, in the spaces between the organs of the body where fat accumulates, and as the framework of all glands. (2) Aponeurosis and tendons are structures which serve for the termination of muscles and for their contention, and for the attachment of bones together. In these the fibers are more frequent and dense, and are arranged with regularity, either crossing each other or lying parallel, and here the cells are found in minimum quantity. (3) In the muscles the cells lie end to end, forming long fibers which have the power of contraction, and the connective tissue is in small quantity, serving the passive purpose of a band around the contractile elements. (4) In cartilage a mass of firm amorphous substance, with no vascularity and little vitality, forms the bed for the chondroplasts, or cells of this tissue. (5) Bone differs from the above in having the amorphous matter impregnated with lime salts, which gives it its rigidity and firmness. (6) Epithelia and endothelia, or the membranes which cover the body and line all its cavities and glands, are made up of single or stratified and multiple layers of cells bound together by a glue of amorphous substance and resting on a layer composed of fibers. When the membrane serves for secreting or excreting purposes, as in the salivary glands or the kidneys, it is usually simple; when it serves the mechanical purpose of protecting a part, as over the tongue or skin, it is invariably multiple and stratified, the surface wearing away while new cells replace it from beneath. (7) In nerves, stellate cells are connected by their rays to each other, or to fibers which conduct the nerve impressions, or they act as receptacles, storehouses, and transmitters for them, as the switch-board of a telephone system serves to connect the various wires. All these tissues are supplied with blood in greater or less quantity. The vascularity depends upon the function which the tissue is called upon to perform. If this is great, as in the tongue, the lungs, or the sensitive part of the hoof, a large quantity of blood is required; if the labor is a passive one, as in cartilage, the membrane over the withers, or the tendons of the legs, the vessels only reach the periphery, and nutrition is furnished by imbibition of the fluids brought to their surface by the blood vessels. Blood is brought to the tissues by arterioles, or the small terminations of the arteries, and is carried off from them by the veinlets, or the commencement of the veins. Between these two systems are small, delicate networks of vessels called capillaries, which subdivide into a veritable lacework so as to reach the neighborhood of every element. In health the blood passes through these capillaries with a regular current, the red cells or corpuscles floating rapidly in the fluid in the center of the channel, while the white or ameboid cells are attracted to the walls of the vessels and move very slowly. The supply of blood is regulated by the condition of repose or activity of the tissue, and under normal conditions the outflow exactly compensates the supply. The caliber of the blood vessels, and consequently the quantity of blood which they carry, is governed by nerves of the sympathetic system in a healthy body with unerring regularity, but in a diseased organ the flow may cease or be greatly augmented. In health a tissue or organ receives its proper quantity of blood; the nutritive elements are extracted for the support of the tissue and for the product, which the function of the organ forms. The force required in the achievement of this is furnished by combustion of the hydrocarbons and oxygen brought by the arterial blood, then by the veins this same fluid passes off, less its oxygen, loaded with the waste products, which are the result of the worn-out and disintegrated tissues, and of those which have undergone combustion. The foregoing brief outline indicates the process of nutrition of the tissues. Hypernutrition, or excessive nutrition of a tissue, may be normal or morbid. If the latter, the tissue becomes congested or inflamed. CONGESTION. Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood in a part. Excessive accumulation of blood may be normal, as in blushing or in the red face which temporarily follows a violent muscular effort, or, as in the stomach or liver during digestion, or in the lungs after severe work, from which, in the latter case, it is shortly relieved by a little rapid breathing. The term congestion, however, usually indicates a morbid condition, with more or less lasting effects. Congestion is active or passive. The former is produced by an increased supply of blood to the part, the latter by an obstacle preventing the escape of blood from the tissue. In either case there is an increased supply of blood, and as a result increased combustion and augmented nutrition. ACTIVE CONGESTION. Active congestion is caused by-- (1) _Functional activity._--Any organ which is constantly or excessively used is habituated to hold an unusual quantity of blood; the vessels become dilated; if overstrained the walls become weakened, lose their elasticity, and any sudden additional quantity of blood engorges the tissues so that they can not contract, and congestion results. Example: The lungs of a race horse, after an unusual burst of speed or severe work, in damp weather. (2) _Irritants._--Heat and cold, chemical or mechanical. Any of these, by threatening the vitality of a tissue, induce immediately an augmented flow of blood to the part to furnish the means of repair--a hot iron, frostbites, acids, or a blow. (3) _Nerve influence._--This may produce congestion either by acting on the part reflexly or as the result of some central nerve disturbance affecting the branch which supplies a given organ. (4) _Plethora and sanguinary temperament._--Full-blooded animals are much more predisposed to congestive diseases than those of a lymphatic character or those in an anemic condition. The circulation in them is forced to all parts with much greater force and in large quantities. A well-bred, full-blooded horse is much more subject to congestive diseases than a common, coarse, or old, worn-out animal. (5) _Fevers._--In fever the heart works more actively and forces the current of blood more rapidly; the tissues are weakened, and it requires but a slight local cause at any part to congest the structures already overloaded with blood. Again, in certain fevers, we find alteration of the blood itself, rendering it less or more fluid, which interferes with its free passage through the vessels and induces a local predisposition to congestion. (6) _Warm climate and summer heat._--Warmth of the atmosphere relaxes the tissues; it demands of the animals less blood to keep up their own body temperature, and the extra quantity accumulates in the blood-vessel system. It causes sluggishness in the performance of the organic functions, and in this way it induces congestion, especially of the internal organs. So we find founders, congestive colics, and staggers more frequent in summer than in winter. (7) _Previous congestion._--Whether the previous congestion of any organ has been a continuous normal one--that is, a repeated functional activity--or has been a morbid temporary overloading, it always leaves the walls of the vessels weakened and more predisposed to recurrent attacks from accidental causes than are perfectly healthy tissues. Thus a horse which has had a congestion of the lungs from a severe drive is liable to have another attack from even a lesser cause. The alterations of congestion are distention of the blood vessels, accumulation of the cellular elements of the blood in them, and effusion of a portion of the liquid of the blood into the fibrous tissues which surround the vessels. When the changes produced by congestion are visible, as in the eye, the nostril, the mouth, the genital organs, and on the surface of the body in white or unpigmented animals, the part appears red from the increase of blood; it becomes swollen from the effusion of liquid into the spongelike connective tissues; it is at times more or less hot from the increased combustion; the part is frequently painful to the animal from pressure of the effusion on the nerves, and the function of the tissue is interfered with. The secretion or excretion of glands may be augmented or diminished. Muscles may be affected with spasms or may be unable to contract. The eyes and ears may be affected with imaginary sights and sounds. PASSIVE CONGESTION. Passive congestion is caused by interference with the return of the current of blood from a part. Old age and debility weaken the tissues and the force of the circulation, especially in the veins, and retard the movement of the blood. We then see horses of this class with stocked legs, swelling of the sheath of the penis or of the milk glands, and of the under surface of the belly. We find them also with effusions of the liquid parts of the blood into the lymph spaces of the posterior extremities and organs of the pelvic cavity. Tumors or other mechanical obstructions, by pressing on the veins, retard the flow of blood and cause it to back up in distal parts of the body causing passive congestion. The alterations of passive congestion, as in active congestion, consist of an increased quantity of blood in the vessels and an exudation of its fluid into the tissues surrounding them, but in passive congestion we have a dark, thick blood which has lost its oxygen, instead of the rich, combustible blood rich in oxygen which is found in active congestion. The termination of congestion is by resolution or inflammation. In the first case, the choked-up blood vessels find an outlet for the excessive quantity of blood and are relieved; the transuded serum or fluid of the blood is reabsorbed, and the part returns almost to its normal condition, with, however, a tendency to weakness predisposing to future trouble of the same kind. In the other case further alterations take place, and we have inflammation. INFLAMMATION. (Plates I and II.) Inflammation is a hypernutrition of a tissue. It is described by Dr. Agnew, the surgeon, as "a double-edged sword, cutting either way for good or for evil." The increased nutrition may be moderate and cause a growth of new tissue, a simple increase of quantity at first; or it may produce a new growth differing in quality; or it may be so great that, like luxuriant, overgrown weeds, the elements die from their very haste of growth, and we have immediate destruction of the part. According to the rapidity and intensity of the process of structural changes which takes place in an inflamed tissue, inflammation is described as acute or chronic, with a vast number of intermediate forms. When the phenomena are marked it is termed sthenic; when less distinct, as the result of a broken-down and feeble constitution in the animal, it is called asthenic. Certain inflammations are specific, as in strangles, the horsepox, glanders, etc., where a characteristic or specific cause or condition is added to the origin, character of phenomena, or alterations which result from an ordinary inflammation. An inflammation may be circumscribed or limited, as in the abscess on the neck caused by the pressure of a collar, in pneumonia, in glanders, in the small tumors of a splint or a jack; or it may be diffuse, as in severe fistulas of the withers, in an extensive lung fever, in the legs in a case of grease, or in the spavins which affect horses with poorly nourished bones. The causes of inflammation are practically the same as those of congestion, which is the initial step of all inflammation. The temperament of a horse predisposes the animal to inflammation of certain organs. A full-blooded animal, whose veins show on the surface of the body, and which has a strong, bounding heart pumping large quantities of blood into the vascular organs like the lungs, the intestines, and the laminæ of the feet, is more liable to have pneumonia, congestive colics, and founder, than lymphatic, cold-blooded animals which have pleurisies, inflammation of the bones, spavins, ringbones, inflammation of the glands of the less vascular skin of the extremities, greasy heels, thrush, etc. [Illustration: PLATE I. INFLAMMATION. 1--_Uninflamed wing of the bat._ 2--_Inflamed wing of the bat._] [Illustration: PLATE II. INFLAMMATION. 1--_Non-inflamed mesentery of the frog, 400 diameters, reduced 1/2: a, a, Venule with red and white corpuscles; b, b, Gelatinous nerve fibre; c, Capillary; d, d, Dark-bordered nerve fibre; e, e, Connective tissue with connective tissue corpuscles and leucocytes scattered sparsely through it._ 2--_Inflamed mesentery of the frog, 400 diameters, reduced 1/2: a, a, Venule filled with red and white corpuscles, the red in the centre and the white crowding along the walls; c, c, Capillary, distended with red and white corpuscles, number of the white much decreased; d, d, Connective tissue between venule and capillary filled with migrated leucocytes; e, e, Connective tissue with less infiltration; f, Dark-bordered nerve fibre; g, Number of nuclei, in sheaths increased._] Young horses have inflammation of the membranes lining the air passages and digestive tract, while older animals are more subject to troubles in the closed serous sacs and in the bones. The work to which a horse is put (saddle or harness, speed or draft) will influence the predisposition of an animal to inflammatory diseases. As in congestion, the functional activity of a part is an important factor in localizing this form of disease. Given a group of horses exposed to the same draft of cold air or other exciting cause of inflammation, the one which has just been eating will be attacked with an inflammation of the bowels; the one that has just been working so as to increase its respiration will have an inflammation of the throat, bronchi, or lungs; the one that has just been using its feet excessively will have a founder or inflammation of the laminæ of the feet. The direct cause of inflammation is usually an irritant of some form. This may be a pathogenic organism--a disease germ--or it may be mechanical or chemical, external or internal. Cuts, bruises, injuries of any kind, parasites, acids, blisters, heat, cold, secretions, such as an excess of tears over the cheek or urine on the legs, all cause inflammation by direct injury to the part. Strains or wrenches of joints, ligaments, and tendons cause trouble by laceration of the tissue. Inflammations of the internal organs are caused by irritants as above, and by sudden cooling of the surface of the animal, which drives the blood to that organ which at the moment is most actively supplied with blood. This is called repercussion. A horse which has been worked at speed and is breathing rapidly is liable to have pneumonia if suddenly chilled, while an animal which has just been fed is more liable to have a congestive colic if exposed to the same influence, the blood in this case being driven from the exterior to the intestines, while in the former it was driven to the lungs. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of inflammation are, as in congestion, change of color, due to an increased supply of blood; swelling, from the same cause, with the addition of an effusion into the surrounding tissues; heat, owing to the increased combustion in the part; pain, due to pressure on the nerves, and altered function. This latter may be augmented or diminished, or first one and then the other. In addition to the local symptoms, inflammation always produces more or less constitutional disturbance or fever. A splint or small spavin will cause so little fever that it is not appreciable, while a severe spavin, an inflamed joint, or a pneumonia may give rise to a marked fever. The alterations in an inflamed tissue are first those of congestion, distention of the blood vessels, and exudation of the fluid of the blood into the surrounding fibers, with, however, a more nearly complete stagnation of the blood; fibrin, or lymph, a plastic substance, is thrown out as well, and the cells, which we have seen to be living organisms in themselves, no longer carried in the current of the blood, migrate from the vessels and, finding proper nutriment, proliferate or multiply with greater or lesser rapidity. The cells which lie dormant in the meshes of the surrounding fibers are awakened into activity by the nutritious lymph which surrounds them, and they also multiply. Whether the cell in an inflamed part is the white ameboid cell of the blood or the fixed connective tissue embedded in the fibers, it multiplies in the same way. The nucleus in the center is divided into two, and then each again into two, ad infinitum. If the process is slow, each new cell may assimilate nourishment and become, like its ancestor, an aid in the formation of new tissues; if, however, the changing takes place rapidly, the brood of young cells have not time to grow or use up the surrounding nourishment, and, but half developed, they die, and we then have destruction of tissue, and pus or matter is formed, a material made up of the imperfect dead elements and the broken-down tissue. Between the two there is an intermediate form, where we have imperfectly formed tissues, as in "proud flesh," large, soft splints; fungous growths, greasy heels, and thrush. Whether the inflamed tissue is one like the skin, lungs, or intestines, very loose in their texture, or a tendon or bone, dense in structure, and comparatively poor in blood vessels, the principle of the process is the same. The effects, however, and the appearance may be widely different. After a cut on the face or an exudation into the lungs, the loose tissues and multiple vessels allow the proliferating cells to obtain rich nourishment; absorption can take place readily, and the part regains its normal condition entirely, while a bruise at the heel or at the withers finds a dense, inextensible tissue where the multiplying elements and exuded fluids choke up all communication, and the parts die (necrose) from want of blood and cause a serious quittor, or fistula. This effect of structure of a part on the same process shows the importance of a perfect knowledge in the study of a local trouble, and the indispensable part which such knowledge plays in judging of the gravity of an inflammatory disease, and in formulating a prognosis or opinion of the final termination of it. It is this which allows the veterinarian, through his knowledge of the intimate structure of a part and the relations of its elements, to judge of the severity of a disease, and to prescribe different modes of treatment in two animals for troubles which, to the less experienced observer, appear to be absolutely identical. _Termination of inflammation._--Like congestion, inflammation may terminate by resolution. In this case the exuded lymph undergoes chemical change, and the products are absorbed and carried off by the blood vessels and lymphatics, to be thrown out of the body by the kidneys, liver, the glands of the skin, and the other excretory organs. The cells, which have wandered into the neighboring tissues from the blood vessels, gradually disappear or become transformed into fixed cells. Those which are the result of the tissue cells, wakened into active life, follow the same course. The vessels themselves contract, and, having resumed their normal caliber, the part apparently reassumes its normal condition; but it is always weakened, and a new inflammation is more liable to reappear in a previously inflamed part than in a sound one. The alternate termination is necrosis, or mortification. If the necrosis, or death of a part, is gradual, by small stages, each cell losing its vitality after the other in more or less rapid succession, it takes the name of ulceration. If it occurs in a considerable part at once, it is called gangrene. If this death of the tissues occurs deep in the organism, and the destroyed elements and proliferated and dead cells are inclosed in a cavity, the result of the process is called an abscess. When it occurs on a surface, it is an ulcer, and an abscess by breaking on the exterior becomes then also an ulcer. Proliferating and dying cells, and the fluid which exudes from an ulcerating surface and the débris of broken-down tissue is known as pus, and the process by which this is formed is known as suppuration. A mass of dead tissue in a soft part is termed a slough, while the same in bone is called a sequestrum. Such changes are especially liable to occur when the part becomes infected with microorganisms that have the property of destroying tissue and thus causing the production of pus. These are known as pyogenic microorganisms. There are also bacilli that are capable of multiplying in tissues and so irritating them as to cause them to die (necrose) without forming pus. _Treatment of inflammation._--The study of the causes and pathological alterations of inflammation has shown the process to be one of hypernutrition, attended by excessive blood supply, so this study will indicate the primary factor to be employed in the treatment of it. Any agent which will reduce the blood supply and prevent the excessive nutrition of the elements of the part will serve as a remedy. The means employed may be used locally to the part, or they may be constitutional remedies, which act indirectly. _Local treatment._--Removal of the cause will frequently allow the part to heal at once. Among causes of inflammation may be mentioned a stone in the frog, causing a traumatic thrush; a badly fitting harness or saddle, causing ulcers of the skin; decomposing manure and urine in a stable, which, by their vapors, irritate the air tubes and lungs and cause a cough. Motion stimulates the action of the blood, and thus feeds an inflamed tissue. This is alike applicable to a diseased point irritated by movement to an inflamed pair of lungs surcharged with blood by the use demanded of them in a working animal, or to an inflamed eye exposed to light, or an inflamed stomach and intestines still further fatigued by feed. Rest, absolute quiet, a dark stable, and small quantities of easily digested feed will often cure serious inflammatory troubles without further treatment. The application of ice bags or cold water by bandages, douching with a hose, or irrigation with dripping water, contracts the blood vessels, acts as a sedative to the nerves, and lessens the vitality of a part; it consequently prevents the tissue change which inflammation produces. Either dry or moist heat acts as a derivative. It quickens the circulation and renders the chemical changes more active in the surrounding parts; it softens the tissues and attracts the current of blood from the inflamed organ; it also promotes the absorption of the effusion and hastens the elimination of the waste products in the part. Heat may be applied by hand rubbing or active friction and the application of warm coverings (bandages) or by cloths wrung out of warm water; or steaming with warm, moist vapor, medicated or not, will answer the same purpose. The latter is especially applicable to inflammatory troubles in the air passages. Local bleeding frequently affords immediate relief by carrying off the excessive blood and draining the effusion which has already occurred. It affords direct mechanical relief, and, by a stimulation of the part, promotes the chemical changes necessary for bringing the diseased tissues to a healthy condition. Local blood-letting can be done by scarifying, or making small punctures into the inflamed part, as in the eyelid of an inflamed eye, or into the sheath of the penis, or into the skin of the latter organ when congested, or the leg when acutely swelled. Counterirritants are used for deep inflammations. They act by bringing the blood to the surface and consequently lessening the blood pressure within. The derivation of the blood to the exterior diminishes the amount in the internal organs and is often very rapid in its action in relieving a congested lung or liver. The most common counterirritant is mustard flour. It is applied as a soft paste mixed with warm water to the under surface of the belly and to the sides, where the skin is comparatively soft and vascular. Colds in the throat or inflammations at any point demand the treatment applied in the same manner to the belly and sides and not to the throat or on the legs, as so often used. Blisters, iodin, and many other irritants are used in a similar way. _Constitutional treatment_ in inflammation is designed to reduce the current of blood, which is the fuel for the inflammation in the diseased part, to quiet the patient, and to combat the fever or general effects of the trouble in the system, and to favor the neutralization or elimination of the products of the inflammation. Reduction of blood is obtained in various ways. The diminution of the quantity of the blood lessens the amount of pressure on the vessels, and, as a sequel, the volume of it which is carried to the point of inflammation; it diminishes the body temperature or fever; it numbs the nervous system, which plays an important part as a conductor of irritation in diseases. Blood-letting is the most rapid means, and frequently acts like a charm in relieving a commencing inflammatory trouble. One must remember, however, that the strength of the body and repair depend on the blood; hence blood-letting should be practiced only in full-blooded, well-nourished animals and in the early stages of the disease. Cathartics act by drawing off a large quantity of fluid from the blood through the intestines, and have the advantage over the last remedy of removing only the watery and not the formed elements from the circulation. The blood cells remain, leaving the blood as rich as it was before. Again, the glands of the intestines are stimulated to excrete much waste matter and other deleterious material which may be acting as a poison in the blood. Diuretics operate through the kidneys in the same way. Diaphoretics aid depletion of the blood by pouring water in the form of sweat from the surface of the skin and stimulating the discharge of waste material out of its glands, which has the same effect on the blood pressure. Antipyretics are remedies to reduce the temperature. This may be accomplished by depressing the center in the brain that controls heat production. Some coal-tar products are very effective in this way, but they have the disadvantage of depressing the heart, which should always be kept as strong as possible. If they are used it must be with knowledge of this fact, and it is well to give heart tonics or stimulants with them. The temperature of the body may be lowered by cold packs or by showering with cold water. This is a most useful procedure in many diseases. Depressants are drugs which act on the heart. They slow or weaken the action of this organ and reduce the quantity and force of the current of the blood which is carried to the point of local disease; they lessen the vitality of the animal, and for this reason are now used much less than formerly. Anodynes quiet the nervous system. Pain in the horse, as in the man, is one of the important factors in the production of fever, and the dulling of the former often prevents, or at least reduces, the latter. Anodynes produce sleep, so as to rest the patient and allow recuperation for the succeeding struggle of the vitality of the animal against the exhausting drain of the disease. The diet of an animal suffering from acute inflammation is a factor of the greatest importance. An overloaded circulation can be starved to a reduced quantity and to a less rich quality of blood by reducing the quantity of feed given to the patient. Feeds of easy digestion do not tire the already fatigued organs of an animal with a torpid digestive system. Nourishment will be taken by a suffering brute in the form of slops and cooling drinks when it would be totally refused if offered in its ordinary form, as hard oats or dry hay, requiring the labor of grinding between the teeth and swallowing by the weakened muscles of the jaws and throat. Tonics and stimulants are remedies which are used to meet special indications, as in the case of a feeble heart, and which enter into the after treatment of inflammatory troubles as well as into the acute stages of them. They brace up weakened and torpid glands; they stimulate the secretion of the necessary fluids of the body, and hasten the excretion of the waste material produced by the inflammatory process; they regulate the action of a weakened heart; they promote healthy vitality of diseased parts, and aid the chemical changes needed for returning the altered tissues to their normal condition. FEVERS. Fever is a general condition of the animal body in which there is an elevation of the animal body temperature, which may be only a degree or two or may be 10° F. The elevation of the body temperature, which represents tissue change or combustion, is accompanied with an acceleration of the heart's action, a quickening of the respiration, and an aberration in the functional activity of the various organs of the body. These organs may be stimulated to the performance of excessive work, or they may be incapacitated from carrying out their allotted tasks, or, in the course of a fever, the two conditions may both exist, the one succeeding the other. Fever as a disease is usually preceded by chills as an essential symptom. Fevers are divided into essential fevers and symptomatic fevers. In symptomatic fever some local disease, usually of an inflammatory character, develops first, and the constitutional febrile phenomena are the result of the primary point of combustion irritating the whole body, either through the nervous system or directly by means of the waste material which is carried into the circulation and through the blood vessels, and is distributed to distal parts. Essential fevers are those in which there is from the outset a general disturbance of the whole economy. This may consist of an elementary alteration in the blood or a general change in the constitution of the tissues. Fevers of the latter class are usually due to some infecting agent and belong, therefore, to the class of infectious diseases. Essential fevers are subdivided into ephemeral fevers, which last but a short time and terminate by critical phenomena; intermittent fevers, in which there are alterations of exacerbations of the febrile symptoms and remissions, in which the body returns to its normal condition or sometimes to a depressed condition, in which the functions of life are but badly performed; and continued fevers, which include contagious diseases, such as glanders, influenza, etc., the septic diseases, such as pyemia, septicemia, etc., and the eruptive fevers, such as variola, etc. Whether the cause of the fever has been an injury to the tissues, such as a severe bruise, a broken bone, an inflamed lung, or excessive work, which has surcharged the blood with the waste products of the combustion of the tissues, which were destroyed to produce force, or the toxins of influenza in the blood, or the presence of irritating material, either in the form of living organisms or of their products, as in glanders or tuberculosis--the general train of symptoms are much the same, varying as the amount of the irritant differs in quantity, or when some special quality in them has a specific action on one or another tissue. There is in fever at first a relaxation of the small blood vessels, which may have been preceded by a contraction of the same if there was a chill, and as a consequence there is an acceleration of the current of the blood. There is, then, an elevation of the peripheral temperature, followed by a lowering of tension in the arteries and an acceleration in the movement of the heart. These conditions may be produced by a primary irritation of the nerve centers of the brain from the effects of heat, as is seen in thermic fever, or sunstroke, or by the entrance into the blood stream of disease-producing organisms or their chemical products, as in anthrax, rinderpest, influenza, etc. There are times when it is difficult to distinguish between the existence of fever as a disease and a temporary feverish condition which is the result of excessive work. Like the condition of congestion of the lungs, which is normal up to a certain degree in the lungs of a race horse after a severe race, and morbid when it produces more than temporary phenomena or when it causes distinct lesions, the temperature may rise from physiological causes as much as four degrees, so fever, or, as it is better termed, a feverish condition, may follow any work or other employment of energy in which excessive tissue change has taken place; but if the consequences are ephemeral, and no recognizable lesion is apparent, it is not considered morbid. This condition, however, may predispose to severe organic disturbance and local inflammations which will cause disease, as an animal in this condition is liable to take cold and develop lung fever or a severe enteritis, if chilled or otherwise exposed. Fever in all animals is characterized by the same general phenomena, but we find the intensity of the symptoms modified by the species of animals affected, by the races which subdivide the species, by the families which form groups of the races, and by certain conditions in individuals themselves. For example, a pricked foot in a Thoroughbred may cause intense fever, while the same injury in the foot of a Clydesdale may scarcely cause a visible general symptom. In the horse, fever produces the following symptoms: The normal body temperature, which varies from 99° to 100° F., is elevated from 1° to 9°. A temperature of 102° or 103° F. is moderate fever, 104° to 105° F. is high, and 106° F. and over is excessive. The temperature is accurately measured by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum. This elevation of temperature can readily be felt by the hand placed in the mouth of the animal, or in the rectum, and in the cleft between the hind legs. It is usually appreciable at any point over the surface of the body and in the expired air emitted from the nostrils. The ears and cannons are often as hot as the rest of the body, but are sometimes cold, which denotes a debility in the circulation and irregular distribution of the blood. The pulse, which in a healthy horse is felt beating about 42 to 48 times in the minute, is increased to 60, 70, 90, or even 100. The respirations are increased from 14 or 16 to 24, 30, 36, or even more. With the commencement of a fever the horse usually has diminished appetite, or it may have total loss of appetite if the fever is excessive. There is, however, a vast difference among horses in this regard. With the same degree of elevation of temperature one horse may lose its appetite entirely, while another, usually of the more common sort, will eat at hay throughout the course of the fever, and will even continue to eat oats or other grains. Thirst is usually increased, but the animal desires only a small quantity of water at a time, and in most cases of fever a bucket of water should be kept standing before the patient, which may be allowed to drink ad libitum. The skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. Sweating is almost unknown in the early stage of fevers, but frequently occurs later in their course, when an outbreak of warm sweat is often a most favorable symptom. The mucous membranes, which are most easily examined in the conjunctivæ of the eyes and inside of the mouth, change color if the fever is an acute one; without alteration of blood the mucous membranes become of a rosy or deep-red color at the outset; if the fever is attended with distinct alteration of the blood, as in influenza, and at the end of two or three days in severe cases of pneumonia or other extensive inflammatory troubles the mucous membranes are tinged with yellow, which may even become a deep ocher in color, the result of the decomposition of the blood corpuscles and the freeing of their coloring matter, which acts as a stain. At the outset of a fever the various glands are checked in their secretions, the salivary glands fail to secrete the saliva, and we find the surface of the tongue and inside of the cheeks dry and covered with a brownish, bad-smelling deposit. The excretion from the liver and intestinal glands is diminished and produces an inactivity of the digestive organs which causes a constipation. If this is not remedied at an early period, the undigested material acts as an irritant, and later we may have it followed by an inflammatory process, producing a severe diarrhea. The excretion from the kidneys is sometimes at first entirely suppressed. It is always considerably diminished, and what urine is passed is dark in color, undergoes ammoniacal change rapidly, and deposits quantities of salts. At a later period the diminished excretion may be replaced by an excessive excretion, which aids in carrying off waste products and usually indicates an amelioration of the fever. While the ears, cannons, and hoofs of a horse suffering from fever are usually found hot, they may frequently alternate from hot to cold, or be much cooler than they normally are. This latter condition usually indicates great weakness on the part of the circulatory system. It is of the greatest importance, as an aid in diagnosing the gravity of an attack of fever and as an indication in the selection of its mode of treatment, to recognize the exact cause of a febrile condition in the horse. In certain cases, in very nervous animals, in which fever is the result of nerve influence, a simple anodyne, or even only quiet with continued care and nursing, will sometimes be sufficient to diminish it. When fever is the result of local injury, the cure of the cause produces a cessation in the constitutional symptoms. When it is the result of a pneumonia or other severe parenchymatous inflammation, it usually lasts for a definite time, and subsides with the first improvement of the local trouble, but in these cases we constantly have exacerbations of fever due to secondary inflammatory processes, such as the formation of small abscesses, the development of secondary bronchitis, or the death of a limited quantity of tissue (gangrene). In specific cases, such as influenza, strangles, and septicemia, there is a definite poison in the blood-vessel system and carried to the heart and to the nervous system, which produces a peculiar irritation, usually lasting for a specific period, during which the temperature can be but slightly diminished by any remedy. In cases attended with complications, the diagnosis at times becomes still more difficult, as at the end of a case of influenza which becomes complicated with pneumonia. The high temperature of the simple inflammatory disease may be grafted on that of the specific trouble, and the determination of the cause of the fever, as between the two, is therefore frequently a difficult matter but an important one, as upon it depends the mode of treatment. Any animal suffering from fever, whatever the cause, is much more susceptible to attacks of local inflammation, which become complications of the original disease, than are animals in sound health. In fever we have the tissues and the walls of the blood vessels weakened, we have an increased current of more or less altered blood flowing through the vessels and stagnating in the capillaries, which need but an exciting cause to transform the passive congestion of fever into an active congestion and acute inflammation. These conditions become still more distinct when the fever is accompanied with a decided deterioration in the blood itself, as is seen in influenza, septicemia, and at the termination of severe pneumonias. Fever, with its symptoms of increased temperature, acceleration of the pulse, acceleration of respiration, dry skin, diminished secretions, etc., must be considered as an indication of organic disturbance. This organic disturbance may be the result of local inflammation or other irritants acting through the nerves on nerve centers, alterations of the blood, in which a poison is carried to the nerve centers, or direct irritants to the nerve centers themselves, as in cases of heat stroke, injury to the brain, etc. The treatment of fever depends upon its cause. One of the important factors in treatment is absolute quiet. This may be obtained by placing a sick horse in a box stall, away from other animals and extraneous noises and sheltered from excessive light and drafts of air. Anodynes, belladonna, hyoscyamus, and opium act as antipyretics simply by quieting the nervous system. As an irritant exists in the blood in most cases of fever, any remedy which will favor the excretion of foreign elements from it will diminish this cause. We therefore use diaphoretics to stimulate the sweat and excretions from the skin; diuretics to favor the elimination of matter by the kidneys; cholagogues and laxatives to increase the action of the liver and intestines, and to drain from these important organs all the waste material which is aiding to choke up and congest their rich plexuses of blood vessels. The heart becomes stimulated to increased action at the outset of a fever, but this does not indicate increased strength; on the contrary, it indicates the action of an irritant to the heart that will soon weaken it. It is, therefore, irrational further to depress the heart by the use of such drugs as aconite. It is better to strengthen it and to favor the elimination of the substance that is irritating it. The increased blood pressure throughout the body may be diminished by lessening the quantity of blood. This is obtained in some cases with advantage when the disease is but starting and the animal is plethoric by direct abstraction of blood, as in bleeding from the jugular or other veins; or by derivatives, such as mustard, turpentine, or blisters applied to the skin; or by setons, which draw to the surface the fluid of the blood, thereby lessening its volume without having the disadvantage of impoverishing the elements of the blood found in bleeding. In many cases antipyretics given by the mouth and cold applied to the skin are most useful. When the irritation which is the cause of fever is a specific one, either in the form of bacteria (living organisms), as in glanders, tuberculosis, influenza, septicemia, etc., or in the form of a foreign element, as in rheumatism, gout, hemaglobinuria, and other so-called diseases of nutrition, we employ remedies which have been found to have a direct specific action on them. Among the specific remedies for various diseases are counted quinin, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, antipyrene, mercury, iodin, the empyreumatic oils, tars, resins, aromatics, sulphur, and a host of other drugs, some of which are of known effect and others of which are theoretical in action. Certain remedies, like simple aromatic teas, vegetable acids, such as vinegar, lemon juice, etc., alkalines in the form of salts, sweet spirits of niter, etc., which are household remedies, are always useful, because they act on the excreting organs and ameliorate the effects of fever. Other remedies, which are to be used to influence the cause of fever, must be selected with judgment and from a thorough knowledge of the nature of the disease. METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] Medicine may enter the body through any of the following designated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air passages; third, by the skin; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermic methods); fifth, by the rectum; sixth, by the genito-urinary passages; and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections). BY THE MOUTH.--Medicines can be given by the mouth in the form of solids, as powders or pills; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries. _Powders._--Solids administered as powders should be as finely pulverized as possible, in order to obtain rapid solution and absorption. Their action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that are without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten with the feed or taken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on the feed. If mixed dry the horse will often leave the medicine in the bottom of his manger. Nonirritant powders may be given in capsules, as balls are given. _Pills, or "balls"_ when properly made, are cylindrical in shape, 2 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. They should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent their becoming too hard. Very old, hard balls are sometimes passed whole with the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so sticky as to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this purpose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue papers. Balls are preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or nauseating; when the dose is not too large; when the horse is difficult to drench; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in small dose and diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deliquescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtainable and are a convenient means of giving medicines in ball form. When balls are to be given we should observe the following directions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above mentioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given with the "balling gun" (obtainable at any veterinary instrument maker's) or by the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or gag may be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crushing the ball. Always loosen the horse before attempting to give a ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball without the mouth gag, as the horse always fights more or less against having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmly grasped with the left hand and gently pulled forward; the ball, slightly moistened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand as far back into the mouth as possible; as the tongue is loosened it is drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it. The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after balling. This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or its becoming lodged in the gullet. _Pastes or electuaries_ are medicines mixed with licorice-root powder, ground flaxseed, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or a "soft solid." They are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the mouth and throat. They are given by being spread upon the tongue, gums, or teeth with a wooden paddle or strong, long-handled spoon. _Liquids._--It is, very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons medicines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of liquids. Liquids may be given as drenches when the dose is large, or they may, when but a small quantity is administered, be injected into the mouth with a hard-rubber syringe or be poured upon the tongue from a small vial. When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use water or oil enough to dissolve or dilute it thoroughly; more than this Wakes the drench bulky and is unnecessary. Insoluble medicines, if not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water, the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and smooth about its neck; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be better, because it is not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread out in such manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. Another way of supporting the head is to place a loop in the end of a rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth or tusks of the upper jaw, the free end to be run through a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injury. The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be horizontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety. (If this is doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw-back the head as far as possible, and then try to swallow.) The person giving the drench should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth--on a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be introduced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally removing them. As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to swallow and oftener do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head is high, a few teaspoonfuls of clean water, but _drenches must never be given through the nose_. Large quantities of medicine given by pouring into the nose are liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine is irritating, it sets up an inflammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, and sometimes the lungs. BY THE AIR PASSAGES.--Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages by insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche. _Insufflation_ consists in blowing an impalpable powder directly into the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. _Inhalation._--Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhalation, as is also medicated steam or vapor. Of the gases used there may be mentioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occasionally, chlorin. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, where these gases are generated until the atmosphere is sufficiently impregnated with them. Volatile medicines--as the anesthetics (ether, chloroform, etc.)--are to be given by the attending surgeon only. Medicated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, iodin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the "medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have it hot enough to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or "distemper." _Injections_ are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treating local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitutional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose. _The nasal douche_ is employed by the veterinarian in treating some local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and professional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, since, as a rule, the horse objects very strongly to this mode of medication. BY THE SKIN.--Medicines are often administered to our hair-covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some medicines--as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin solutions, mercurial ointment, etc.--over the entire body, as poisoning and death follow in some instances from absorption through the skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to allay local pain or cure local disease. BY THE TISSUE BENEATH THE SKIN (HYPODERMATIC METHOD).--Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are powerful poisons. There are many precautions to be observed, and a knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precautions has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an abscess may be produced. BY THE RECTUM.--Medicines may be given by the rectum when they can not be given by the mouth, or when they are not retained in the stomach; when we want a local action on the last gut; when it is desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation. Medicines are in such cases given in the form of suppositories or as liquid injections (enemas.) Foods may also be given in this way. _Suppositories_ are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of these parts. They are not much used in treating horses. _Enemas_, when given for absorption, should be small in quantity, neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. These, like feeds given by the rectum, should be introduced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand or by copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or clysters, if to aid the action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend the bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt and water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, may be given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for some little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favors a passage. Stimulating enemas, as glycerin, should be administered after those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the purpose of still further increasing the natural motion of the intestines and aiding the purging medicine. Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a large syringe or a pump. A very good "irrigator" can be bought of any tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly at hand on every stock farm. It consists of a funnel about 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation to which a piece of rubber hose, such as small garden hose, 4 feet long may be attached. The hose, well oiled, is to be inserted gently into the rectum about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be poured in the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will force it into the bowels. This appliance is better than the more complicated and expensive ones. Ordinary cold water or even ice-cold water is highly recommended by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by the excessive heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. BY THE GENITO-URINARY PASSAGES.--This method of medication is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinary organs. It finds its chief application in the injection and cleansing of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the irrigator described above may be used. BY THE BLOOD.--Injections directly into veins are to be practiced by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are probably some other means of giving medicines--intratracheal injections, etc. [Illustration: PLATE III. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. 1. Mouth. 2. Pharynx. 3. Esophagus. 4. Diaphragm. 5. Spleen. 6. Stomach. 7. Duodenum. 8. Liver, upper extremity. 9. Large colon. 10. Cecum. 11. Small intestine. 12. Floating colon. 13. Rectum. 14. Anus. 15. Left kidney and its ureter. 16. Bladder. 17. Urethra.] DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.] It is not an easy task to write "a plain account of the common diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment," of the digestive organs of the horse. Being limited as to space, the endeavor has been made to give simply an outline--to state the most important facts--leaving many gaps, and continually checking the disposition to write anything like a full description as to cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of diseases. WATER. It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This practice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic matter, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximity to manure heaps and cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated with different poisons and contaminated in very many instances with specific media of contagion produces death. Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship voyages or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that he requires a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This varies somewhat upon the character of his feed; if upon green feed, less water will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain. The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the horse should receive it at least three times a day; when at work, more frequently. The rule should be to give it in small quantities and often. There is a popular fallacy that if a horse is warm he should not be allowed to drink, many asserting that the first swallow of water "founders" the animal or produces colic. This is erroneous. No matter how warm a horse may be, it is always entirely safe to allow him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into the stable, he should have at once a pound or two of hay and allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water is now offered him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but sparingly. The danger, then, is not in the "first swallow" of water, but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when warm if he is not restrained. Ice-cold water should never be given to horses. It may not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing water troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water, even though it is thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. In reference to the purity of water, Smith, in his "Veterinary Hygiene," classes spring water, deep-well water, and upland surface water as wholesome; stored rain water and surface water from cultivated land as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access and shallow-well water as dangerous. The water that is used so largely for drinking purposes for stock throughout some States can not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an impervious clay subsoil. It is the custom to scoop, or hollow out, a large basin in the pastures. During rains these basins become filled with water. The clay subsoil, being almost impervious, acts as a jug, and there is no escape for the water except by evaporation. Such water is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent rains were it not for the fact that much organic matter is carried into it by surface drainage during each succeeding storm. This organic matter soon undergoes decomposition, and, as the result, we find diseases of different kinds much more prevalent where this water is drunk than where the water supply is wholesome. Again, it must not be lost sight of that stagnant surface water is much more certainly contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the herd, thus endangering the remainder. The chief impurities of water may be classified as organic and inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and copper are also frequently found in water; they also will be referred to. About the only examination of water that can be made by the average stock raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness. Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell. Chemical and microscopic examination will frequently be necessary in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., and can, of course, be conducted by experts only. FEEDS AND FEEDING. In this place one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive discussion of the subject of feeds and feeding, and I must content myself with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of feed, preparation, digestibility, proper time of feeding, quality, and quantity. Improper feeding and watering will doubtless account for more than one-half the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence the reader can not fail to see how very important it is to have some proper ideas concerning these subjects. KINDS OF FEED. In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, corn fodder, roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed on nothing else. Stewart, in "The Stable Book," gives the following extract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of interest at this point: In some sterile countries they [horses] are forced to subsist on dried fish, and even on vegetable mold; in Arabia, on milk, flesh balls, eggs, broth. In India horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritious. Few, perhaps no, oats are grown; barley is rare, and not commonly given to horses. In Bengal a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon pea, called gram (_Cicer arietinum_), forms the ordinary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian corn or rice is seldom given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn tops, and sometimes molasses are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed to produce animation and to fine the coat. Broth made from sheep's head is sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob tree are given to horses. We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of the digestibility of feeds; and by this we mean the readiness with which they undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal economy. The age and health of the animal will, of course, modify the digestibility of feeds, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, preserving, and preparing. In the horse digestion takes place principally in the intestines, and here, as in all other animals and with all feeds, it is found that a certain part only of the provender is digested; another portion is undigested. This proportion of digested and undigested feed must claim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much feed, or bulky feed containing much indigestible waste, a large portion of it must pass out unused, entailing not only the loss of this unused feed, but also calling for an unnecessary expenditure of vital force on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in fact, too much feed may make an animal poor. In selecting feed for the horse we should remember the anatomical arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological functions performed by each one of them. Feeds must be wholesome, clean, and sweet, the hours of feeding regular, the mode of preparation found by practical experience to be the best must be adhered to, and cleanliness in preparation and administration must be observed. The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse varies with the different feeds. Hay and straw pass out of the stomach more rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats should be given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experience confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insuring proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted, as are the grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feeding, as it washes or sluices the feed from the stomach before it is fitted for intestinal digestion. The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commencement of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards the passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stomach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse must guide us in the selection of his feed. Rapid or severe labor can not be performed on a full stomach. For such labor feed must be given in small quantity and about two hours before going to work. Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with bulky, innutritious feed immediately before going to labor. The small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion that he should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the stomach and the quantity of water drunk tells us plainly that the horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders than any other, is _to feed too soon after a hard day's work_. This must never be done. If a horse is completely jaded, it will be found beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a long time. After a fast, feed less than the horse would eat, for if allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, and "colic" is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed three or four times a day. It will not do to feed him entirely upon concentrated feed. Bulky feed must be given to detain the grains in their passage through the intestinal tract; bulk also favors distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. For horses that do slow work the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feeding, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of feeding. Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous. When desirous of changing, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to oats, a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the _usual_ feed, this also must be done gradually. The quantity of feed given must always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If a horse is to do a small amount of work, or rest entirely from work for a few days, he should receive a proportionate quantity of feed. If this should be observed even on Saturday night and Sunday, there would be fewer cases of "Monday morning sickness," such as colics and lymphangitis. Feeds should also be of a more laxative nature when the horse is to stand for several days. MUSTY OR MOLDY FEEDS.--Above all things, avoid feeding musty or moldy feeds. They are very frequent causes of disease of different kinds. Lung trouble, such as bronchitis and "heaves," often follows their use. The digestive organs always suffer from moldy or musty feeds. Musty hay is generally considered to produce disorder of the kidneys, and all know of the danger from feeding pregnant animals upon ergotized grasses or grains. It has often been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cerebrospinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. HAY.--The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept too long, loses part of its nourishment, and, while it may not be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is difficult to digest, produces much salivation (slobbering), and occasional purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all it should be mixed with old hay. _Second crop, or aftermath._--This is not considered good hay for horses, but it is prized by some farmers as good for milch cows, the claim being made that it increases the flow of milk. The value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in the curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds fall; if left longer it becomes dry, woody, and lacks in nutrition. An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it should remain in the field as short a time as possible. If left too long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of course, upon the weather, thickness of the crop, and many other circumstances; but it is well known that in order to preserve the color and aroma of hay it should be turned or tedded frequently and cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the mow if harvested too green or when not sufficiently dried. Mow-burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the horse to fall off in condition. The average horse on grain should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become potbellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make so good horses as those accustomed to grain with, or in addition to, their hay. STRAW.--The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most used; of these, oat straw is most easily digested and contains the most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the pea being preferable, according to most writers. CHAFF.--Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a feed for horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the "soft concretions," which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive tract. Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and sometimes fatal diarrhea following the practice of allowing horses or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff. GRAINS.--Oats take precedence of all grains as a feed for horses, as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist in them in the best proportions. Oats are, besides, more easily digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. According to Stewart, the best oats are one year old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln-dried oats are to be refused, as a rule, for even though originally good this drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fermented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given either whole or crushed--whole in the majority of instances; crushed to old horses and those having defective teeth. Horses that bolt their feed are also best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer. In addition to the allowance of hay above mentioned, the average horse requires about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats are those cut about one week before they are fully ripe. Not only is the grain richer in nutritive materials at this time, but there is also less waste from "scattering" than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden paralysis, and death. WHEAT AND RYE.--These grains are not to be used for horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quantities, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis (founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one-fourth the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. BRAN.--The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given, for it disorders the stomach and intestines and may even produce serious results. MAIZE (CORN).--This grain is not suitable as an exclusive feed for young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Corn on the cob is commonly used for horses affected with "lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in pure, clean water for 10 or 12 hours. Corn is better given ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a meal, mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran. Great care should be taken in giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I know of no grain more liable to produce what is called acute indigestion than corn if these directions are not observed. LINSEED.--Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other feeds to keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of particular service during convalescence, when the bowels are sluggish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. POTATOES.--These are used as an article of feed for the horse in many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce indigestion. Their digestibility is increased by steaming or boiling. They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. BEETS.--These are not much used as feed for horses. CARROTS.--These make a most excellent feed, particularly during sickness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative properties, making the coat smooth and glossy. Some veterinary writers assert that chronic cough is cured by giving carrots for some time. The roots may be considered, then, as an adjunct to the regular regimen, and if fed in small quantities are highly beneficial. GRASSES.--Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nourishment contained, some being almost entirely without value and only eaten when nothing else is obtainable, while others are positively injurious, or even poisonous. None of the grasses are sufficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed are "soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. Grass is indispensable to growing stock, and there is little or no doubt that it acts as an alterative when given to horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such horses in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest, and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year. It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recovery. Wounds heal more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic disorders (chronic cough, for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. In my experience, grass does more good when the horse crops it himself. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture, to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many other similar reasons. When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. SILAGE.--Regarding silage as a feed for horses, Rommel in Farmers' Bulletin 578 writes as follows: Silage has not been generally fed to horses, partly on account of a certain amount of danger which attends its use for this purpose, but still more, perhaps, on account of prejudice. In many cases horses have been killed by eating moldy silage, and the careless person who fed it at once blamed the silage itself, rather than his own carelessness and the mold which really was the cause of the trouble. Horses are peculiarly susceptible to the effects of molds, and under certain conditions certain molds grow on silage which are deadly poisons to both horses and mules. Molds must have air to grow, and therefore silage which is packed air-tight and fed out rapidly will not become moldy. If the feeder watches the silage carefully as the weather warms up he can soon detect the presence of mold. When mold appears, feeding to horses or mules should stop immediately. It is also unsafe to feed horses frozen silage on account of the danger of colic. * * * To summarize, silage is safe to feed to horses and mules only when it is made from fairly mature corn, properly stored in the silo. When it is properly stored and is not allowed to mold, no feed exceeds it as a cheap winter ration. It is most valuable for horses and mules which are not at heavy work, such as brood mares and work horses during the slack season. With plenty of grain on the cornstalks, horses will keep in good condition on a ration of 20 pounds of silage and 10 pounds of hay for each 1,000 pounds of live weight. PREPARATION OF FEEDS. Feed is prepared for any of the following reasons: To render it more easily eaten; to make it more digestible; to economize in amount; to give it some new property; and to preserve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different feeds. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of feed, _i. e._, removes the laxative tendency of most of them. The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common with all other grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Not only will the horse eat the necessary quantity in a shorter time, but it will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains (whole or crushed) fed with them is insured. Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their feed, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay, straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though a certain quantity of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. Such feed is liable to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it is mixed; even the mixing trough, unless frequently scalded and cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the feed to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small quantity of salt should always be mixed with such feed. Bad hay should never be cut simply because it insures a greater consumption of it; bad feeds are dear at any price, and should never be fed. The advantage of boiling roots has been mentioned. Not only does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recommended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are weak. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. _Dentition._--This covers the period during which the young horse is cutting his teeth--from birth to the age of 5 years. With the horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second or permanent teeth than with the first or milk teeth. There is a tendency among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to the teeth of young horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative of this that is best told in his own words: I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth without having discovered any defect or disease, though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in consequence, filed, but without beneficial result. It was after this that I saw the horse, and I confess I was, at my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory interpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insufferable pain. I instantly took out my pocketknife and made crucial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite and, by degrees, his wonted condition. The mouths of young horses should be examined from time to time to see whether one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed with the forceps. _Irregularities of teeth._--There is a fashion of late years, especially in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly "floated," or "rasped," by "veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the character of the feed, the rubbing, or grinding, surface of the horse's teeth should be rough. Still, we must remember that the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and that, from the fact of the teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may excoriate the tongue or cheeks to a considerable extent. This condition may readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the fact that its fellow in the opposite jaw has been lost or does not close perfectly against it. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated, it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the necessary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite common to find the tooth corresponding to the decayed one on the opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to such an extent that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be shortened by the tooth forceps, chisel, tooth saw, or rasp. In all instances in which horses "quid" their feed, if they are slobbering, or evince pain in mastication, shown by holding the head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully examined. Horses whose teeth have unduly sharp edges are liable to drive badly; they pull to one side, do not bear on the bit, or bear on too hard and "big," toss the head, and start suddenly when a tender spot is touched. If, as is mostly the case, all the symptoms are referable to sharp corners or projections, these must be removed by the rasp. If decayed teeth ere found, or other serious difficulty detected, or if the cause of the annoying symptoms is not discovered, an expert should be called. [Illustration: PLATE IV. AGE OF HORSES AS INDICATED BY TEETH. Longitudinal section of left central lower incisor and cross sections of same tooth showing table surfaces as they appear at the ages of 3, 5, 7, 9, 15, 20 and 25 years. _C_, Cement; _D_, Dentine; _E_, Enamel; _I_, Infundibulum; _K_, Cup; _P_, Pulp Cavity; _S_, Star.] _Toothache._--This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed when there is decay of a tooth or inflammation about its root. Toothache is to be discovered in the horse by the pain expressed by him while feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses, affected with toothache, that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination, no foreign body is found, we must then carefully examine each tooth. If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth, we can, in most instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from without. By tapping the teeth in succession with a hard object, such as a small hammer, the one that is tender may be identified. The horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed or tapped upon. In most cases there is nothing to be done but extract the decayed tooth, and this, of course, is to be attempted by the veterinarian only. _Deformity._--There is a deformity, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with prehension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by friction. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can be done except to examine the teeth occasionally, and if those of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise the "bars" of the upper jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this deformity should never be left entirely at pasture. The method of determining the age of a horse by the teeth is illustrated in Plate IV. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. LAMPAS. Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less prominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. The hard palate is composed of spongy tissue that fills with blood when the horse is feeding, which causes the ridges to become prominent, and they then help to keep feed from dropping from the mouth. This swelling is entirely natural and occurs in every healthy horse. Where there is some irritation in the mouth, as in stomatitis or during teething, the prominence of the hard palate may persist, owing to the increased blood supply. In such cases the cause of the irritation should be nought for and removed. By way of direct treatment, slight scarification is the most that will be required. Burning the lampas is barbarous and injurious, and it should never be tolerated. It is a quite common opinion among owners of horses and stablemen that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once "he has the lampas." It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary; yet it is not the case. It may be put down, then, as an affliction of the stable-man's imagination rather than of the horse's mouth. STOMATITIS. Stomatitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, feeds, or other substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is also hot and painful to the touch; there is a copious discharge of saliva; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases vesicles or ulcers in the mouth are observed. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. A bucket of fresh, cold water should be kept constantly in the manger so that the horse may drink or rinse his mouth at will. In some instances, it may be advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be fed unless steamed or boiled. A form of contagious stomatitis, characterized by the formation within the mouth of small vesicles, or blisters, sometimes occurs. In this disease the horse should be isolated from other horses, and his stall, especially the feed box, and his bit should be disinfected. GLOSSITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE TONGUE). Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to stomatitis, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. Injuries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its covering membrane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would require surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be followed. SALIVATION (PTYALISM). Ptyalism, or salivation, consists in an abnormal and excessive secretion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth; inflammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines as lobelia, mercury, and many others. Some feeds, such as clover, and particularly second crop, produce it; foreign bodies, such as nails, wheat chaff, and corncobs becoming lodged in the mouth, also are causes. If the cause is removed no further attention is necessary, as a rule. Astringent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of a sponge. PHARYNGITIS. Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the pharynx or throat. It rarely exists unless accompanied with stomatitis or laryngitis, especially the latter. In those rare instances in which the inflammation is mostly confined to the pharynx are noticed febrile symptoms--difficulty of swallowing either liquids or solids; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow; there is no soreness on pressure over larynx (head of the windpipe). Increased flow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular, and cough only when attempting to swallow, are the symptoms best marked in pharyngitis. In some cases the throat becomes gangrenous and the disease ends in death. For treatment a wet sheet should be wrapped around the throat and covered with rubber sheeting and a warm blanket. This should be changed three times daily; or the region of the throat may be rubbed with mercurial ointment twice daily until the skin becomes irritated, but no longer; chlorate of potash may be given in 2-dram doses four times daily, mixed with flaxseed meal or licorice-root powder and honey, as an electuary. Soft feeds should be given, and fresh water should be constantly before the horse. PARALYSIS OF THE PHARYNX. Paralysis of the pharynx, or, as it is commonly called, "paralysis of the throat," is a rare but very serious disease. The symptoms are as follows: The horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but will be unable to do so; if water is offered him from a pail he will apparently drink with avidity, but the quantity of water in the pail will remain about the same; he will continue by the hour to try to drink; if he can get any fluid into the back part of the mouth it will come out at once through the nose. Feeds also return through the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or any abnormal condition. These cases go on from bad to worse; the horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes very much emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lusterless, and death occurs from inanition. Treatment is very unsatisfactory. A severe blister should be applied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Strychnia may be given in 1-grain doses two or three times a day. This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the mouth or for the so-called cerebrospinal meningitis. It is to be distinguished from the former, upon a careful examination of the mouth, by the absence of any offending body and by the flabby feel of the mouth, and from the latter by the animal appearing in perfect health in every particular except this inability to eat or drink. ABSCESSES. Abscesses sometimes form back of the pharynx and give rise to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper. Interference with breathing that is of recent origin and progression, without any observable swelling or soreness about the throat, will make one suspect the formation of an abscess in this location. But little can be done in the way of treatment, save to hurry the ripening of the abscess and its discharge by steaming with hops, hay, or similar substances and by poulticing the throat. The operation for opening an abscess in this region necessitates an intimate knowledge of the complex anatomy of the throat region. DISEASES OF THE ESOPHAGUS OR GULLET. It is rare to find diseases of this organ, except as a result of the introduction of foreign bodies too large to pass or to the administering of irritating medicines. In the administration of irritant or caustic medicines great care should be taken that they be thoroughly diluted. If this is not done, erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and this again is prone to be followed by constriction (narrowing) of the gullet. CHOKING. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It may occur when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples or roots, and we should be careful never to approach suddenly or put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left alone these animals very rarely attempt to swallow the object until it is sufficiently masticated. Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger to such horses as eat very greedily or bolt their feed. Wheat chaff is also a frequent cause of choke. This accident may result from the attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls that are too large or not of the proper shape. Whatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper part of the esophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, giving rise to the designations of pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find all that part of the gullet above it to be distended with feed. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary somewhat according to the position of the body causing choke. In pharyngeal choke the object is lodged in the upper portion of the esophagus. The horse will present symptoms of great distress, hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore feet. The abdomen rapidly distends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by manipulating the upper part of the throat from without and by the introduction of the hand into the back part of the mouth, finding the body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is situated at any point between the throatlatch and the shoulder) the protrusion caused by the object can be seen and the object can be felt. The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen occasionally to draw himself up, arch his neck, and make retching movements as though he wished to vomit. The abdomen may be tympanitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble, a conclusion may be reached by pouring water into the throat from a bottle. If the obstruction is complete, by standing on the left side of the horse and watching the course of the esophagus, you can see the gullet, just above the windpipe, become distended with each bottle of water. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken would show in these cases; solids should not, however, be given, as they serve to increase the trouble by rendering the removal of the body more difficult. In thoracic choke the symptoms are less severe. Feed or water may be ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken a few swallows. There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally retching movements. Sometimes a choking horse is heard to emit groans. The facial expression always denotes great anxiety and the eyes are bloodshot. The diagnosis is complete if, upon passing the probang (a flexible tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered. _Treatment._--If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet (pharyngeal) an effort must be made to remove the obstacle through the mouth. A mouthgag, or speculum, is to be introduced into the mouth to protect the hand and arm of the operator. Then, while an assistant, with his hands grasped tightly _behind_ the object, presses it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it outward. This mode of procedure must not be abandoned with the first failure, as by continued efforts we may get the obstacle farther toward the mouth. If we fail with the hand, forceps may be introduced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail, we must then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in removing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse, and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as whipstalks, shovel handles, etc. These are always dangerous, and more than one horse has been killed by such barbarous treatment. In cervical as well as in thoracic choke we must first of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring oil or mucilaginous drinks down the gullet. After this has been done endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most frequently produce choke in the horse), begin by gently squeezing the lower portion of the impacted mass and endeavor to work it loose a little at a time. This is greatly favored at times if we apply hot fomentations immediately about the obstruction. Persist in these efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and more dangerous modes of treatment. If unsuccessful, however, the probang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, a piece of inch hose 6 feet long or a piece of new three-quarter-inch manila rope well wrapped at the end with cotton twine and thoroughly greased with tallow should be used. The mouth is to be kept open by a gag of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The probang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into the upper part of the gullet and gently forced downward until the obstruction is reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. At first too much force should not be used, or the esophagus will be ruptured. Firm, gentle pressure should be kept up until the object is felt to move, after which it should be followed rapidly to the stomach. If this mode of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or a physician should be called, who can remove the object by cutting down upon it. This should scarcely be attempted by a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomy of the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve that are closely related to the esophagus in its cervical portion. Thoracic choke can be treated only by means of the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks and the careful use of the probang. STRICTURE OF THE ESOPHAGUS. This is due to corrosive medicines, previous choking (accompanied with lacerations, which, in healing, narrow the passage), or pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the majority of cases of stricture, dilatation of the gullet in front of the constricted portion soon occurs. This dilatation is the result of the frequent accumulation of solid feed above the constriction. Little can be done in either of these instances except to give sloppy or liquid feed. SACULAR DILATATION OF THE ESOPHAGUS. This follows choking, and is due to stretching or rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, allowing the internal, or mucous, coat to protrude through the lacerated muscular walls. Such a dilatation, or pouch, may gradually enlarge from the frequent imprisonment of feed. When liquids are taken, the solid materials are partially washed out of the pouch. The symptoms are as follows: The horse is able to swallow a few mouthfuls without apparent difficulty; then he will stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject a portion of the feed through his nose or mouth, or it will gradually work down to the stomach. As the dilatation thus empties itself the symptoms gradually subside, only to reappear when he has again taken solid feed. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconvenience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical interference may sometimes prove effectual; if in the thoracic portion, nothing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand to hand by "swapping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the sac become too firm to be dislodged as heretofore, and the animal succumbs. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. As a rule it is most difficult to distinguish between diseases of the stomach and of the intestines of the horse. The reason for this is that the stomach is relatively small. It lies away from the abdominal wall, and so pressure from without can not be brought to bear upon it to reveal sensitiveness or pain. Nor does enlargement, or distention, of the stomach produce visible alteration in the form of the abdomen of the horse. Moreover, it is a rule to which there are few exceptions, that an irritant or cause of disease of the stomach acts likewise upon the intestines, so that it is customary to find them similarly deranged. For these reasons it is logical to discuss together the diseases of the stomach and intestines and to point out such localizations in one organ or another as are of importance in recognizing and treating the diseases of the digestive organs of the horse. It should be understood that gastritis signifies an inflammation of the stomach and enteritis an inflammation of the intestines. The two terms may be used together to signify a disease of the stomach and intestines, as gastro-enteritis. COLIC. The disease of the horse that is most frequently met with is what is termed "colic," and many are the remedies that are reputed to be "sure cures" for this disease. Let us discover, then, what the word "colic" means. This term is applied loosely to almost all diseases of the organs of the abdomen that are accompanied with pain. If the horse evinces abdominal pain, he probably will be considered as suffering with colic, no matter whether the difficulty is a cramp of the bowel, an internal hernia, overloading of the stomach, or a painful disease of the bladder or liver. Since these conditions differ so much in their causation and their nature, it is manifestly absurd to treat them alike and to expect the same drugs or procedures to relieve them all. Therefore, it is important that, so far as possible, the various diseased states that are so roughly classed together as colic shall be separated and individualized in order that appropriate treatments may be prescribed. With this object in view, colics will be considered under the following headings: (1) Engorgement colic, (2) obstruction colic, (3) flatulent or tympanitic colic, (4) spasmodic colic. Worm colic is discussed under the heading "Gastrointestinal parasites," page 90. The general symptoms of abdominal pain, and therefore of colic, are restlessness, cessation of whatever the horse is about, lying down, looking around toward the flank, kicking with the hind feet upward and forward toward the belly, jerky switching of the tail, stretching as though to urinate, frequent change of position, and groaning. In the more intense forms the horse plunges about, throws himself, rolls, assumes unnatural positions, as sitting on the haunches, and grunts loudly. Usually the pain is not constant, and during the intermissions the horse may eat and appear normal. During the period of pain sweat is poured out freely. Sometimes the horse moves constantly in a circle. The respirations are accelerated, and usually there is no fever. ENGORGEMENT COLIC.--This form of colic consists in an overloading of the stomach with feed. The horse may have been overfed or the feed may have collected in the stomach through failure of this organ to digest it and pass it backward into the intestines. Even a normal quantity of feed that the horse is unaccustomed to may cause disease. Hence a sudden change of feed may produce engorgement colic. Continued full rations while the horse is resting for a day or two or working too soon after feeding may serve as a cause. New oats, corn, or hay, damaged feed, or that which is difficult of digestion, such as barley or beans, may incite engorgement colic. This disease may result from having fed the horse twice by error or from its having escaped and taken an unrestricted meal from the grain bin. Ground feeds that pack together, making a sort of dough, may cause engorgement colic if they are not mixed with cut hay. Greedy eaters are predisposed to this disease. _Symptoms._--The horse shows the general signs of abdominal pain, which may be long continued or of short duration. Retching or vomiting movements are made; these are shown by labored breathing, upturned upper lip, contraction of the flank, active motion at the throat, and drawing in of the nose toward the breast, causing high arching of the neck. The horse may assume a sitting position like a dog. At times the pain is very great and the horse makes the most violent movements, as though mad. At other times there is profound mental depression, the horse standing in a sleepy, or dazed, way, with the head down, the eyes closed, and leaning his head against the manger or wall. There is, during the struggles, profuse perspiration. Following retching, gas may escape from the mouth, and this may be followed by a sour froth and some stomach contents. The horse can not vomit except when the stomach is violently stretched, and, if the accumulation of feed or gas is great enough to stretch the stomach so that vomiting is possible, it may be great enough to rupture that organ. So it happens not infrequently that a horse dies from ruptured stomach after vomiting. After the stomach ruptures, however, vomiting is impossible. The death rate in this form of colic is high. _Treatment._--The bowels should be stimulated to contraction by the use of clysters of large quantities of water and of glycerin. Veterinarians use hypodermic injections of eserin or arecolin or intravenous injections of barium chlorid, but they must be employed with great caution. It is not profitable to give remedies by the stomach, for they can not be absorbed. But small doses of morphin (5 grains) or of the fluid extract of Indian hemp (2 drams) may be placed in the mouth and are absorbed in part, at least, without passing to the stomach. These drugs lessen pain and thus help to overcome the violent movements that are dangerous, because they may be the means of causing rupture of the diaphragm or stomach. If facilities are available, relief may be afforded by passing an esophageal tube through which some of the gaseous and liquid contents of the stomach may escape. _Rupture of the stomach._--This mostly occurs as a result of engorged or tympanitic stomach (engorgement colic) and from the horse violently throwing himself when so affected. It may result from disease of the coats of the stomach, gastritis, stones (calculi), tumors, or anything that closes the opening of the stomach into the intestines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the animal has eaten heartily of bulky feed. These or similar causes may lead this accident. The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant or always reliable. Always make inquiry as to what and how much the horse has been fed at the last meal. Vomiting may precede rupture of this organ, as stated above. This accident appears to be most liable to occur in heavy draft horses. A prominent symptom observed (though it may also occur in diaphragmatic hernia) is when the horse, if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones or sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some extent, and it will be maintained for several minutes; it is also quickly regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky symptoms, of course, are present, which vary much and present no diagnostic value. As the case progresses the horse will often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backward and downward until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in increased quantity. The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom we must consider the history of the case; the symptoms of colic that cease suddenly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse quick and small and thready, growing weak and more frequent, and at length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible; looking back at the flank and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hind quarters; with or without eructation and vomiting. There is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could we be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal at once. Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistake in diagnosis, we may give powdered opium in 1-dram doses every two or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as possible. OBSTRUCTION COLIC.--The stomach or bowels may be obstructed by accumulations of partly digested feed (fecal matter), by foreign bodies, by displacements, by paralysis, or by abnormal growths. _Impaction of the large intestines._--This is a very common bowel trouble and one which, if not promptly recognized and properly treated, results in death. It is caused by overfeeding, especially of bulky feed containing an excess of indigestible residue; old, dry, hard hay, or stalks when largely fed; deficiency of secretions of the intestinal tracts; lack of water; want of exercise, medicines, etc. Impaction of the large bowels is to be diagnosed by a slight abdominal pain, which may disappear for a day or two to reappear with more violence. The feces are passed somewhat more frequently, but in smaller quantities and drier; the abdomen is full, but not distended with gas; the horse at first is noticed to paw and soon begins to look back at his sides. Probably one of the most characteristic symptoms is the position assumed when down. He lies flat on his side, head and legs extended, occasionally raising his head to look toward his flank; he remains on his side for from five to fifteen minutes at a time. Evidently this position is the one giving the most freedom from pain. He rises at times, walks about the stall, paws, looks at his sides, backs up against the stall, which he presses with his tail, and soon lies down again, assuming his favored position. The intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear to the flank, are diminished, or there is no sound, indicating absence of motion of the bowels. The bowels may cease entirely to move. The pressure of the distended intestine upon the bladder may cause the horse to make frequent attempts to urinate. The pulse is but little changed at first, being full and sluggish; later, if this condition is not overcome, it becomes rapid and feeble. Horses may suffer from impaction of the bowels for a week, yet eventually recover, and cases extending two or even three weeks have ended favorably. As a rule, however, they seldom last more than four or five days, many, in fact, dying sooner than this. The treatment consists of efforts to produce movement of the bowels and to prevent inflammation of the same from arising. A large cathartic is to be given as early as possible. Either of the following is recommended: Powdered Barbados aloes 1 ounce, calomel 2 drams, and powdered nux vomica 1 dram; or linseed oil 1 pint and croton oil 15 drops; or from 1 pint to 1 quart of castor oil may be given. Some favor the administration of Epsom or Glauber's salt, 1 pound, with one-quarter pound of common salt, claiming that this causes the horse to drink largely of water, thus mechanically softening the impacted mass and favoring its expulsion. Whichever physic is selected, it is essential that a full dose be given. This is much better than small and repeated doses. It must be borne in mind that horses require about twenty-four hours in which to respond to a physic, and under no circumstances is it to be repeated sooner. If aloes has been given and has failed to operate at the proper time, oil or some different cathartic should then be administered. Allow the horse all the water he will drink. Calomel may be administered in half-dram doses, the powder being placed on the tongue, one dose every two hours until four doses are given. Enemas of glycerin, 2 to 4 ounces, are often beneficial. Rubbing or kneading of the abdominal walls and the application of stimulating liniments or strong mustard water also, at times, favor the expulsion of this mass. Walking exercise must occasionally be given. If this treatment is faithfully carried out from the start the majority of cases will terminate favorably. When relief is not obtained inflammation of the bowels may ensue and cause death. _Constipation, or costiveness._--This is often witnessed in the horse, and particularly in the foal. Many colts die every year from failure on the part of the attendant to note the condition of the bowels soon after birth. Whenever the foal fails to pass any feces, and in particular if it presents any signs of colicky pains--straining, etc.--immediate attention must be given it. As a rule, it will be necessary only to give a few injections of soapy water in the rectum and to introduce the finger through the anus to break down any hardened mass of dung found there. If this is not effective a purgative must be given. Oils are the best for these young animals, and preferably castor oil, giving from 2 to 4 ounces. The foal should always get the first of the mother's milk, which, for a few days, possesses decidedly laxative properties. If a mare, while suckling, is taking laudanum, morphin, atropia, or similar medicines, the foal during this time should be fed by hand and the mare milked upon the ground. Constipation in adult horses is often the result of long feeding on dry, innutritious feed, deficiency of intestinal secretions, scanty water supply, or lack of exercise. If the case is not complicated with colicky symptoms a change to light, sloppy diet, linseed gruel or tea, with plenty of exercise, is all that is required. If colic exists a cathartic is needed. In very many instances the constipated condition of the bowels is due to lack of intestinal secretions, and when so caused may be treated by giving fluid extract of belladonna in 2-dram doses three times a day and handful doses of Epsom salt daily in the feed. It is always best, when possible, to overcome this trouble by a change of diet rather than by the use of medicines. For the relief of constipation such succulent feeds as roots, grass, or green forage are recommended. Silage, however, should be fed sparingly, and not at all unless it is in the very best condition. Moldy silage may cause fatal disease. _Foreign bodies (calculi, stones) in the stomach._--There are probably but few symptoms exhibited by the horse that will lead one to suspect the presence of gastric calculi, and possibly none by which we can unmistakably assert their presence. They have been found most frequently in millers' horses fed sweepings from the mills. A depraved and capricious appetite is common in horses that have a stone forming in the stomachs. There is a disposition to eat the woodwork of the stable, earth, and, in fact, almost any substance within their reach. This symptom must not, however, be considered as pathognomonic, since it is observed when calculi are not present. Occasional colics may result from these "stomach stones," and when the latter lodge at the outlet of the stomach they may give rise to symptoms of engorged stomach, already described. There is, of course, no treatment that will prove effective. Remedies to move the bowels, to relieve pain, and to combat inflammation should be given. _Intestinal concretions (calculi or stones in the intestines)._--These concretions are usually found in the large bowels, though they are occasionally seen in the small intestines. They are of various sizes, weighing from 1 ounce to 25 pounds; they may be single or multiple, and differ in composition and appearance, some being soft (composed mostly of animal or vegetable matter), while others are porous, or honeycombed (consisting of animal and mineral matter), and others are entirely hard and stonelike. The hair balls, so common to the stomach and intestines of cattle, are very rare in horses. Intestinal calculi form around some foreign body, as a rule--a nail or piece of wood--whose shape they may assume to a certain extent. Layers are arranged concentrically around such nucleus until the sizes above spoken of are attained. These stones are also often found in millers' horses, as well also as in horses in limestone districts, where the water is hard. When the calculi attain a sufficient size and become lodged or blocked in some part of the intestines, they cause obstruction, inflammation of the bowels, colicky symptoms, and death. There are no certain signs or symptoms that reveal them. Recurring colics of the type of impaction colic, but more severe, may lead one to suspect the existence of this condition. Examination through the rectum may reveal the calculus. The symptoms will be those of obstruction of the bowels. Upon post-mortem examinations these stones will be discovered mostly in the large bowels; the intestines will be inflamed or gangrenous about the point of obstruction. Sometimes calculi have been expelled by the action of a physic, or they may be removed by the hand when found to occupy the rectum. As in concretions of the stomach, but little can be done in the way of treatment more than to overcome spasm (if any exists), and to give physics with the hope of dislodging the stone or stones and carrying them on and outward. _Intussusception, or invagination._--This is the slipping of a portion of the intestine into another portion immediately adjoining, like a partially turned glove finger. This may occur at any part of the bowels, but is most frequent in the small guts. The invaginated portion may be slight--2 or 3 inches only--or extensive, measuring as many feet. In intussusception, the inturned bowel is in the direction of the anus. There are adhesions of the intestines at this point, congestion, inflammation, or even gangrene. This accident is most liable to occur in horses that are suffering from spasm of the bowel, or in those in which a small portion of the gut is paralyzed. The natural wormlike or ringlike contraction of the gut favors the passage of the contracted or paralyzed portion into that immediately behind it. It may occur during the existence of almost any abdominal trouble, as diarrhea, inflammation of the bowels, or from injuries, exposure to cold, etc. A fall or leaping may give the initial maldirection. Foals are most likely to be thus afflicted. Unless the invaginated portion of the gut becomes strangulated, probably no symptoms except constipation will be appreciable. Strangulation of the bowel may take place suddenly, and the horse die within 24 hours, or it may occur after several days--a week even--and death then follow. There are no symptoms positively diagnostic. Colicky pains, more or less severe and continuous, are observed, and at first there may be diarrhea, followed by constipation. Severe straining occurs in some instances of intussusception, and when this occurs it should receive due credit. As death approaches, the horse sweats profusely, sighs, presents an anxious countenance, the legs and ears become cold, and there is often freedom from pain immediately before death. In some rare instances he recovers, even though the invaginated portion of the gut has become strangulated. In this case the imprisoned portion sloughs away so gradually that a union has taken place between the intestines at the point where one portion has slipped into that behind it. The piece sloughing off is found passed with the manure. Such cases are exceedingly rare. Nonirritating laxatives, such as castor oil, sweet oil, or calomel in small doses, should be given. Soft feed and mucilaginous and nourishing drinks should be given during these attacks. E. Mayhew Michener has operated successfully on a foal with intussusception by opening the abdomen and releasing the imprisoned gut. _Volvulus, gut tie, or twisting of the bowels._--These are the terms applied to the bowels when twisted or knotted. This accident is rather a common one, and frequently results from the violent manner in which a horse throws himself about when attacked by spasmodic colic. The symptoms are the same as those of intussusception and obstructions of the bowels; the same directions as to treatment are therefore to be observed. _Paralysis of the intestine._--This occurs in old, debilitated animals that have been fed on coarse, innutritious fodder. This produces a condition of dilatation so pronounced as to make it impossible for the intestine to advance its contents, and so obstruction results. The symptoms are as in other forms of obstruction colic. The history of the case is of much service in diagnosing the trouble. The treatment consists in the administration of laxatives. One may give 1 quart of raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of Glauber's salt dissolved in a quart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant mass of feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand. _Abnormal growths_, such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing contraction or stricture, may be causes of obstruction. The colic caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. Relief is afforded by the use of purgatives that render the feces soft and thin and thus enable them to pass the obstruction, but in time the contracted place is liable to close so far that passage is impossible and the horse will die. FLATULENT COLIC (TYMPANITIC COLIC, WIND COLIC, OR BLOAT).--Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be mentioned sudden changes of feed, too long fasting and feed then given while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of feed that is green or that has lain in the manger for some time and become sour, indigestible feed, irregular teeth, crib biting, and, in fact, anything that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed nor so severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws slightly, and may or may not lie down. The pains from the start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front of the haunches a drumlike sound results. If not soon relieved the above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition difficult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous membranes, loud tumultuous heart beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs, sighing respiration, staggering from side to side are noticed, and, finally, plunging forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance and resonance on percussion. _Treatment._--The treatment for wind colic differs very greatly from that of cramp colic. Absorbents are of some service, and charcoal may be given in any quantity. Relaxants and antispasmodics are also beneficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these qualities, but it also is an antiferment and a pain reliever. It is, then, particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should be given in the same-sized doses and in the manner directed for spasmodic colic. Diluted alcohol or whisky may be given, or aromatic spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at short intervals. A physic should always be given as early as possible in flatulent colic, the best being Barbados aloes in the dose already mentioned. Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed oil 8 ounces, may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the bowels and to favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot water do much to afford relief; they should be renewed every 5 or 10 minutes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of colic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and persistent treatment. It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some apparently mild attacks going on to speedy death, while others that at the onset appear to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. No efforts should be spared until the animal is known to be dead. In these severe cases puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent (distended) part by means of a small trocar and cannula or with a needle of a hypodermic syringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has often saved life, and such punctures, if made with a clean, sharp instrument that is not allowed to remain in the horse too long, are accompanied with little danger and do more to relieve the patient quickly than any other treatment. SPASMODIC OR CRAMP COLIC.--This is the name given to that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the small intestines. It is produced by indigestible feed; large drinks of cold water when the animal is warm; driving a heated horse through deep streams; cold rains; drafts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribution of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, nervous horses than in coarse, lymphatic ones. _Symptoms._--These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment. Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen to stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look back. He soon evinces more acute pain, shown by pawing, suddenly lying down, rolling, and getting up. During the period of pain the intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear over the flank, are louder than in health. There is then an interval of ease; he will resume feeding and appear to be entirely well. In a little while, however, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to pass off again for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even then there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of colic evince the most intense pain; they throw themselves, roll over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, and make frequent attempts to pass their urine. Only a small quantity of water is passed at a time; this is due to the bladder being so frequently emptied. These attempts to urinate are often regarded by horsemen as symptoms of trouble of the kidneys or bladder. In reality they are only one of the many ways in which the horse expresses the presence of pain. As a matter of fact, diseases of the bladder or kidneys of the horse are exceedingly rare. To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic: The history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, the increased intestinal sounds, the intervals of ease (which become of shorter duration as the case progresses), the violent pain, the normal temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent attempts to urinate, etc., should be kept in mind, and there is then but little danger of confounding this with other forms of colic. _Treatment._--Since the pain is due to spasm or cramp of the bowels, medicines that overcome spasms--antispasmodics--are the ones indicated. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be given in a dose of 1 ounce in a pint of water as a drench. As this drug is irritant to the throat and stomach, it has to be well diluted. A common and good remedy is sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each 2 ounces, in a half pint of linseed oil. Another drench may be composed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand give whisky, one-half pint in hot water. Jamaica ginger is useful. If relief is not obtained in one hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The body should be warmly clothed and perspiration induced. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of turpentine has been added should be placed around the belly and covered with dry blankets or the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments or mustard water. The difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with them. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not complete until a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint of linseed oil is given. Injections of warm, soapy water or salt and water into the rectum aid the cure. Rectal injections, clysters, or enemas as a rule should be lukewarm, and from 3 to 6 quarts are to be given at a time. They may be repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to be taken not to injure the rectum in giving such injections. A large syringe or a piece of rubber hose 4 or 5 feet long, with a funnel attached at one end, affords the best means by which to give them. The pipe of the syringe or the hose introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded, and smooth; it is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed through the anus in a slightly upward direction. Much force must be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock, it is the best, as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient is extremely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading him with a halter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels may result and complicate the trouble. INDIGESTION OR GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH. From the facts that they merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneously, there is ample reason for considering these conditions together. This condition may be acute--that is, of sudden onset--or it may be chronic. The changes of structure produced by this disease occur in the mucous membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemorrhage into it, is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy mucus. In some especially severe cases the membrane is destroyed in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions. The causes of indigestion are numerous, but nearly all are the result of errors in feeding. Some horses are naturally endowed with weak digestive organs, and such are predisposed to this condition. Anything that irritates the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Feeds that the animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured, unripe, or damaged feeds are all fruitful causes, and so are worms. In suckling foals this condition may come from some disease of the dam that renders her milk indigestible, or from overexertion or overheating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth, making mastication imperfect, and thus causing the horse to swallow his feed in a condition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. Working a horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or indigestion. Any condition that reduces the vitality, such as disease, overwork, poor feed, or lack of care, may directly bring on indigestion by weakening the digestive organs. _Symptoms._--Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; refusing all feed at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appetite is not only irregular, but is often depraved; there is a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, soiled bedding, or even his own feces; the bowels are irregular to-day, loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound; whole grain is often passed in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, undergoing but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of sour-smelling wind. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hidebound). If the stomach is very seriously involved, the horse may yawn by stretching the head forward and upward and by turning the upper lip outward. There may be more or less colicky pain. In the chronic cases there is mental depression; the horse is sluggish and dull. The abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a "tucked up" appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous. _Treatment._--One should commence with the feed--its quality, quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, besides, that it is given before feeding; then carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth; and, continuing the observations as best we may, endeavor to find the seat of the trouble. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down; if any are decayed they must be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting, the feed must then be given from a large manger where the grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly. Any irritation, such as worms, undigested feed, etc., that is operating as a cause is to be removed by appropriate treatment, as advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, the following may be used: Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above-named quantity in a half pint of water and given as a drench. As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salt, 2 pounds; common salt, 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of this a heaping tablespoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea exists, the treatment advised below may be used. DIARRHEA. Diarrhea is due to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or to irritation of the bowels from eating moldy or musty feed, drinking stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating substances, to being kept on low, marshy pastures, and to exposure during cold nights, or in low, damp stables. Some horses are predisposed to scour and are called "washy" by horsemen; they are those with long bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diarrhea may exist as a complication of other diseases, as pneumonia and influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver. The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc. _Treatment_ is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty feed or water it is sufficient to change these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines this is best gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the cessation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging continues it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sulphuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good results follow the use of powdered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. In all cases it should be remembered to look to the water and feed the horse is receiving. If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We should feed sparingly of good, easily digested feeds. With that peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can be done as a rule. They should be watered and fed as long as possible before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompanying diarrhea baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor it may be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in water, repeated twice a day. Be slow to resort to either the vegetable or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to change of feed and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards feed upon wheat-flour gruel or other light feeds. The body should be warmly clothed. SUPERPURGATION.--This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action of a physic. It is accompanied with much irritation or even inflammation of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Although in rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the following circumstances: Too large a dose of physic; giving physics to horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating diseases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of cold air; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is operating. There is always danger of superpurgation if a physic is given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. Small and often-repeated physics are also to be avoided, as they produce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to this disorder. When a physic is to be given one should rest the horse and give him sloppy feed until the medicine begins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or "set," as horsemen say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue, however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks--linseed tea and oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or five times a day. Laminitis ("founder") is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse on moist sawdust or some similar bedding. DYSENTERY. This disease, sometimes called "bloody flux," is an intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, and fluid discharges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery are coffee colored or bloody, liquid, and very offensive in odor, and passed with much straining. It is rare in the horse, but is sometimes quite prevalent among foals. _Causes._--Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses in particular for a long time on low, wet, marshy pastures, without other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dysentery); exposure during cold, wet weather; decomposed feeds; stagnant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the existence of some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. In suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant feeds or from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by exposure to cold and damp, to irritant feed, or to worms. _Symptoms._--The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and for the most part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous membrane and blood may be passed or the evacuations may be mucopurulent; there is much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal pain; the subject lies down a great deal; the pulse is quickened and the temperature elevated. Thirst is a prominent symptom. In the adult, death rarely follows under two to three weeks, but in foals the disease may end in death after a few days. _Treatment._--This is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, warm, yet well-ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small quantities; the feed, that which is light and easily digested. Medicinally, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to which has been added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or mineral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove fatal. In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy condition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or from a cow. GASTROENTERITIS. This condition consists in an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, or lining, membrane, as in gastrointestinal catarrh, the inflammatory process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of the wall of the organ. This disease may be caused by irritant feed, hot drinks, sudden chilling, moldy or decayed feeds, foul water, parasites, or by chemical poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting in death are preceded by enteritis. _Symptoms._--The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colicky pain; fever develops; the pulse and respiration become rapid; the mucous membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is, followed later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease is caused by moldy or damaged feed there may be great muscular weakness, with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the history of the administration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid development of threatening symptoms, the involvement of a series of animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symptoms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases of gastro-enteritis there is nervous depression. The poisons that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or chlorid of zinc, lye, or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock. _Treatment._--The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases feed should be given in small amounts and should be of the most soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh grass, or rice water. The skin should be well rubbed with alcohol and wisps of straw, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the legs, after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It is well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water and frequently changed; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of the belly. Internally, opium is of service to allay pain, check secretion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to 2 drams, given every three of four hours. If there is constipation, the opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in 2-dram doses. Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a drench. If putrid feed has been consumed, creolin may be administered in doses of 2 drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there is obstinate constipation and if a laxative must be employed, it should be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. _Antidotes for poisons._--For the various poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic: Oxyhydrate of iron solution, 1 pint to 1 quart; or calcined magnesia, one-half ounce in 1 pint of water. Corrosive sublimate (bichlorid of mercury): The whites of a dozen eggs, or 2 ounces of flowers of sulphur. Sugar of lead: Glauber's salt, 1 pound in 1 quart of warm water; to be followed with iodid of potash, 3 drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days. Sulphate of copper: Milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron. Sulphate or chlorid of zinc: Milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia. Lye or alkalies, as caustic potash or soda: Vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and linseed tea, with opium, 3 drams. Mineral acids: Chalk, or calcined magnesia, or baking soda; later give linseed tea and opium. HEMORRHOIDS, OR PILES. These are rare, comparatively, in horses. They are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors after defecation, which may remain visible at all times or be seen only when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly due to constipation, irritation, or injuries, or follow from the severe straining during dysentery. I have observed them to follow from severe labor pains in the mare. _Treatment._--Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with some anodyn wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the rectum may be of service for a few days. HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. There are several kinds or hernias that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symptoms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into reducible, irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition; and into inguinal, scrotal, ventral, umbilical, and diaphragmatic, according to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed, and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one in which the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or when from pressure upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circulation is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, inflammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. According to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be congenital or acquired. CONGENITAL SCROTAL HERNIA.--Not a few foals are noticed from birth to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great majority of cases, as the enlargement often disappears by the time the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be treated the same as in an adult horse. SCROTAL HERNIA is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the inguinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning when the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the abdominal cavity is prevented, and it becomes strangulated. While the gut is thus filling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal hernia, for often horses have this condition for years without suffering inconvenience. INGUINAL HERNIA is but an incomplete scrotal hernia, and, like the latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may become strangulated and cause death. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire horses, we may proceed to detail the symptoms of strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists, the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated; by pressure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickly contract again. The history of these cases will materially aid us, as the owner can often assure us of preceding attacks of "colic," more or less severe, that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccountable manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diagnostic, but, probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any other bowel diseases. In many cases the diagnosis can be made only by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring. _Treatment of inguinal hernia._--If the reader is sure of the existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and, with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pressure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If this fails, a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and to castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation." VENTRAL HERNIA.--In this form of hernia the protrusion is through some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may occur at any part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral hernia is most common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the weight of the fetus or to some degenerative changes taking place in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelling, at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable position. _Treatment of ventral hernia._--In many instances there is no occasion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treatment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. UMBILICAL HERNIA is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omentum ("caul") through the navel, forming a "tumor" at this point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the imperfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body. Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the congenital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these cases from the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is proportionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The contraction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines during neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Accidents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. _Treatment of umbilical hernia._--In the treatment of umbilical hernia it should be remembered that congenital hernias are often removed with age, but probably congenital _umbilical hernias_ less frequently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being held in place by a broad, tight bandage placed around the animal's body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then applied with a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. This sets up a deep-seated, adhesive inflammation, which, in very many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in the same manner as the preceding, but may cause serious injury if the syringe or solution is not sterile. Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefully returned into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen and securely tying it. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intestines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied, an adhesion is established between the skin and the umbilicus, which effectually closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking up the fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the adhesion is formed. DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA.--This consists of the passage of any of the abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into the cavity of the thorax. It is a rather rare accident, and one often impossible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied with great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches), are somewhat characteristic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of the bowels. Even could we diagnose with certainty this form of hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not enough, however; it must be kept there. PERITONITIS. Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It is, however, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension of the inflammatory action involving organs covered by the peritoneum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, following the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia, invagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. _Symptoms._--Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill; the horse is not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so, moves with a stiff or sore gait; he paws with the front feet and may strike at his belly with the hind ones; lies down very carefully; as the pain is increased while down, he maintains the standing position during most of the time; he walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pressure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities are fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 102° to 104° F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is quickened, beating from 70 to 90 beats a minute, and is hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation of the serous membrane, and if accompanied with colicky symptoms, and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death. _Treatment._--The treatment of peritonitis is somewhat like that of enteritis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitutes the main dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly, consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment, turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purgatives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this. ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. This is seen as a result of subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs. There will be found, on opening the cavity of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid; from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph. _Symptoms._--There is slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on both sides of the belly; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an advanced one, the horse is potbellied in the extreme, and dropsical swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Epsom or Glauber's salt, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumulation of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day saltpeter 1 ounce and iodid of potash 1 dram, and by the application of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, mineral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one consisting of powdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal parts; a heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious feeds and gentle exercise complete the treatment. DISEASES OF THE LIVER. In the United States the liver of the horse is but rarely the seat of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases, as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates lung diseases prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure, and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There are some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us examine the liver as carefully as possible. These are jaundice (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in appearance. HEPATITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. This disease may be general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of acute hepatitis are: Dullness; the horse is suffering from some internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated and clay-colored dung balls; scanty and high-colored urine; and general febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly found on the left side; looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection, may be found to be slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the right leg mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting fit, during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood vessels. _Causes._--Among the causes that lead to this disease we must mention first the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during hot weather. Horses that are well fed and receive but little exercise are the best subjects for diseases of this organ. We must add to these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, worms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, foreign bodies--as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered the liver--and, lastly, in some instances, the extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever. _Treatment._--This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflammation of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, and from 4 to 6 quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as Glauber's salt or the artificial Carlsbad salt, are indicated. These may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to be fed sparingly on soft feed, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse afterwards gets regular exercise and that his feed is not of a too highly nutritious character and not excessive. JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, OR THE YELLOWS. This is a condition caused by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was formerly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a symptom of disorder of the liver. "The yellows" is observed by looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and constipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous membranes follows. Jaundice may also exist during the presence of simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc. _Treatment._--When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, should be given. Glauber's salt in handful doses once or twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may be selected. We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open by avoiding hard, dry, bulky feeds. RUPTURE OF THE LIVER. This is known to occur at times in the horse, most frequently in old, fat horses and those that get but little exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. Upon post-mortem examination we discover that the liver has ruptured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver indicate that this organ may suffer _small_ rupture and yet the horse may recover from it. This can not be the result, however, if the rent or tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particularly liable to rupture. The immediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas. The symptoms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent of the laceration. If slight, there will be simply the symptoms of abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if extensive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing becomes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous membranes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, staggers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing, stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are symptoms by which we know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. _Treatment._--But little can be done in the way of treatment. Opium in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may be given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding, we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, every half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chlorid of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hemorrhage. BILIARY CALCULI, OR GALLSTONES. These are rarely found in the horse, but may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but should one find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, accompanied with symptoms of violent pain, and that during or following these attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any inconvenience. DISEASES OF THE PANCREAS AND SPLEEN. Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it is impossible to write anything concerning either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of practical value. GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES. [By Maurice C. Hall, Ph. D., D. V. M.] Horses are subject to infestation by a number of species of worms, these worms being especially numerous at certain points in the alimentary canal. The tapeworms of the horse are relatively unimportant and not very common. There are three species, the smallest about two inches long and the largest about eight inches long. These two occur in the small intestine; a form intermediate in size may also be found in the cecum and colon. These are flat, segmented worms with the head at the smaller end. Flukes occur in horses elsewhere, but have apparently never been reported in the United States. Roundworms, or nematodes, constitute the most important group of parasitic worms in the horse. The more important of these are as follows: ROUNDWORM (_Ascaris equorum_).--This is the common large, yellowish roundworm (Pl. V, fig. 5), about the size of a lead pencil or larger, which may be found in horses almost anywhere in the United States. It occurs in the intestine and probably occasions little damage as a rule, except when present in large numbers, in which case it will probably be found in the droppings. The symptoms occasioned by it are rather obscure and are such as might arise from a number of other causes, namely, colicky pains, depraved appetite, diarrhea or constipation, and general unthriftiness. In a general way, the presence of parasites may be suspected when an animal shows no fever but is unthrifty, debilitated, and shows disordered bowel movements in cases where there is no evident explanation in the way of feed, care, and surroundings. _Treatment_ for the removal of this worm consists in the use of anthelmintics such as tartar emetic, turpentine, and carbon bisulphid, but as these remedies are essentially poisons intended to kill the worm, and as their use by persons unused to determining conditions unfavorable for their use is dangerous and likely to result in the death of the animal or in permanent injury to the kidneys or other organs, it is advisable to call in a veterinarian in such cases. PINWORM (_Oxyuris equi_).--This is a rather large worm (Pl. V, fig. 1), somewhat smaller than the foregoing and readily distinguishable from it by the presence of a long, slender tail. It also occurs generally throughout the United States, and except when present in large numbers probably does very little damage. It inhabits the large intestine and hence is difficult to reach with medicines administered by the mouth. The use of a half ounce of gentian on the feed night and morning for a week has been recommended, but the use of rectal enemas will give more prompt and perhaps more certain results. These enemas may be made up with one or two tablespoonfuls of salt to the pint, or infusions of quassia chips, a half pound to the gallon of water, and injected into the rectum once or twice a day. STOMACH WORMS OF THE HORSE (_Habronema_ spp.).--These worms (Pl. V, fig. 4) occur in nodules in the mucous lining of the horse's stomach and are credited with doing more or less damage. Their presence is not likely to be diagnosed in the present state of our knowledge, but in case their presence is determined or suspected in connection with the summer sores noted later, tartar emetic is recommended. At least one of these worms has an intermediate stage in the ordinary housefly, the fly becoming infested while it is a larva developing in horse manure. Obviously, therefore, any measures looking toward the eradication of the fly or the proper disposal of manure will aid in the control and eradication of this worm. The United States Bureau of Entomology has shown that fly maggots travel downward through a manure pile as it comes time for the maggot to enter the ground and pupate, and an excellent maggot trap, consisting of an exposed manure platform raised on posts which are set in a concrete basin extending under the platform and filled with three or four inches of water, has been devised. As maggots work down they come to the platform and escape through the spaces between the boards, left open for the purpose, to the water in the concrete basin, where they are drowned. In this way the exposed manure pile serves to attract flies with a deceptive proffer of a breeding place. Apparently it is the young forms of these stomach worms which develop at times on the skin, causing a cutaneous habronemiasis known as summer sores. This is discussed under diseases of the skin. STRONGYLES (_Strongylus_ spp. and _Cylicostomum_ spp.).--These worms (Pl. V, figs. 2 and 3) live in the large intestines of the horse as adult worms and are often present in enormous numbers. Many of them are very small, and the largest are less than two inches long. The adult worms do considerable damage, but the immature or larval worms do even more. The larva of _Strongylus vulgaris_ enters the blood vessels of the intestinal wall and finally attaches in the great mesenteric artery, where it causes aneurisms; here it transforms to an adult without sexual organs, which passes to the walls of the cecum and encysts, giving rise to small cysts or abscesses; these cysts finally discharge to the interior of the cecum, setting the worms, now mature, at liberty in the lumen of the intestines. The larvæ of _Strongylus equinus_ are found principally in the liver, lungs, and pancreas. The larvæ of _Strongylus edentatus_ may be met with almost anywhere, especially under the serous membranes, the pleura and peritoneum. The embryos and larvæ of species of _Cylicostomum_ are found in the mucosa of the large intestine. Aneurisms impede the circulation of the blood, and may give rise to intermittent lameness. The aneurism may rupture, since it constitutes a weak place in the wall of the blood vessel, and the horse die of the resulting hemorrhage. Particles of blood clots in the aneurisms may break off and plug a blood vessel at the point where they lodge, thereby causing the death of the part from which the blood is shut off and occasioning a type of colic which often terminates fatally. The larvæ of _Cylicostomum_ form cysts in the walls of the large intestine, and when these open they give rise to small sores; when they are numerous they cause a thickening and hardening which impair the proper functioning of the intestine. Abscesses sometimes perforate, causing death. The adult worm attacks the intestinal wall, causing bleeding which results in anemia. The numerous small sores thus caused allow bacteria to get into the circulation, sometimes resulting in localized abscesses or in septic arthritis or joint disease. [Illustration: PLATE V. INTESTINAL WORMS. Oxyuris equi Strongylus equinus. Habronema microstoma Cylichnostomum Sp. Ascaris equorum] [Illustration: PLATE VI. BOTS 1. Bots in the stomach. 2. Bots in the duodenum.] The disease due to these worms is quite common. The worms enter the body as immature forms in the spring, when the animal is turned out on pasture. The first symptoms show in November or December, the disease being in a latent stage during the development of the worms. The first symptoms are diarrhea, loss of appetite, and emaciation. The animal becomes anemic. Secondary symptoms are edema and such complications as joint infection, colic due to embolism, and accidents from falls, hemorrhage from ruptured aneurisms, or perforation at the site of abscess. The animal may die, recover, or become a chronic sufferer, the internal injuries failing to make a satisfactory recovery even with the removal of the worms in chronic cases. _Treatment_ calls for the expulsion of the adult worms from the intestine, the development of the body resistance to repair the damage wrought by the developing worms, and the combating of complications. For the expulsion of the worms the use of carbon bisulphid in gelatin capsules, 2 to 5 grams, according to the size of the patient, for five days, followed by magnesium sulphate the sixth day, has been recommended. Owing to the difficulty and danger in the administration of carbon bisulphid in capsule, it is advisable to call in a veterinarian. Tonic treatment consists in the subcutaneous administration of artificial serum and caffein. The various complications of bacterial infection, colic, heart depression, etc., call for the attention of a veterinarian. Preventive measures consist in avoiding reinfection with worms so far as possible by using dry upland pasture in preference to low, wet land, and by rotating pastures or rotation of the stock on a given pasture. Horses may be alternated with cattle, sheep, or hogs to advantage, so far as parasites are concerned. Another feature, always of importance, is the provision of a pure, potable drinking water. BOTS (_Gastrophilus_ spp.).--Bots (Pl. VI) are quite common in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine of the horse anywhere in the United States, one kind being occasionally found in the rectum. They attach to that portion of the mucous lining of the stomach nearest the esophagus or sometimes around the pyloric opening to the intestine or even in the upper intestine, and undoubtedly interfere with the proper functioning of the stomach and the health of the animal to a certain extent. The symptoms are rather vague as a rule, but the general result is a condition of unthriftiness. A treatment which has been found effective consists in feeding lightly on the day preceding treatment, withholding food in the evening and giving an ounce of Barbados aloes or a pint of linseed oil. The next day give 3 drams of carbon bisulphid in a gelatin capsule at 6 o'clock, repeat the dose at 7 o'clock, and again at 8 o'clock, making a total of 9 drams altogether for an adult horse; half that amount will be sufficient for a yearling colt. As previously noted, there is some little difficulty and danger of accident in the administration of treatments of this character and it is advisable to call in a veterinarian. Unless destroyed by treatment, the bots in the stomach of the horse pass out in the manure in the spring and burrow down into the soil an inch or two. Here they undergo a certain amount of development and finally emerge as adult flies. These bot flies mate and during the summer the eggs are deposited by the female on the forelegs and shoulders or around the chin, mouth and nostrils of the horse, the location and appearance of the eggs varying somewhat with different species of bot flies. These eggs or the young maggots escaping from them are ingested by the horse in licking the portions irritated by the movement of the escaping maggots, and when swallowed develop to form bots in the stomach. Careful currying, especially around the forequarters, is an aid in keeping down bot infestation, but this is not commonly feasible with horses on pasture, the ones most liable to become infested. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. By W. S. HARBAUGH, V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enumerated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs; the lungs. The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the diseases under consideration. Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but perceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane. Near the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by two thin, scroll-like turbinated bones. The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and, in fact, the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently diseased that the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the nostrils. The organs of respiration are quite liable to become diseased, and, as many of the causes which lead to these attacks can be avoided, it is both important and profitable to know and study the causes. CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consequently at those periods care should be taken to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near the floor, while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can least be spared, is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of temperature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot, close, and foul one. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold one. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treatment. When a horse is hot--covered with sweat--it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draft; it is the best plan to walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the greater number of fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid prolonged or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed to it. Animals that have been working in cold rains should be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respiration are most frequent. It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the particular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this may often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly considers his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or by getting "run into," or by running against something. Occasionally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is the result of want of conservative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposition and place the stitches from a quarter to a half-inch apart, as circumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons' silk and needles for this operation; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part in 40 parts of water. If on account of the irritability the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him from opening the wound. Except when at work or eating, the head should be so tied about 10 days. TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. A small, globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency. _Treatment._--If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out, nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the outside through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accompanied with excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the inside of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in young horses and in horses not acclimated. _Symptoms._--The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temperature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accustomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called "blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous state, of a yellowish-white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetite is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. _Treatment._--This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become chronic it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for a time. A few days of rest, with pure air and good feed, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of pure air can not be overestimated, but drafts must be avoided. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas, holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about 15 or 20 minutes each time. Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of feed he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on short rations. If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum three or four times a day, but do not administer purgative medicines, except of a mild character. For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of powdered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take time, and do it right. If the weather is cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a comfortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter. If, after 10 days or 2 weeks, the discharge from the nostrils continues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more dangerous diseases. CHRONIC CATARRH (OR NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN THE SINUSES). This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is manifested by a persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish-white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper feed, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. It may occur as a sequel to influenza. Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of feed into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors filling up the cavity. _Symptoms._--Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This is not contagious, but may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent; that is, quantities may be discharged at times and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent discharge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the membrane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, the symptoms of glanders should be well studied in order that one may be competent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the feed from the mouth after partly chewing it. When the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth of the upper jaw are tapped on, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impression where it is pressed upon with the finger. _Treatment._--The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases in which the animal is in poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutritive feed and regular exercise. The feed, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge. The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medication are of the most value. For eight days give the following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce. Mix and make into 16 powders; one powder should be mixed with the feed twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air so as not to suffocate the horse. Chlorid of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of it under the hay in the manger so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed and the discharge cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused to inhale the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin by pouring 2 ounces of this drug into hot water and fumigating in the usual way. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the latter must be removed. Trephining is the best possible way to remove it in such cases, as the operation immediately opens the cavity, which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet in which sinuses contain either tumors or collections of pus the only relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be seldom attempted by the nonprofessional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection of pus in the sinuses and must be relieved by trephining. THICKENING OF THE NASAL MEMBRANE. This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodid of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this manner the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasionally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They vary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, or base, of the tumor is generally attached high in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the pharynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened membrane. The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to obtain one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils with surgeon's gauze. PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breathing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied with a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing were ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal's mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be removed in the same manner as though it were in the nose. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs independently of other affections and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing--causing a rupture of a small blood vessel--also induce it. The bleeding is almost invariably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, p. 127.) In most cases bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemorrhage continues, plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum, should be tried. A string should be tied around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely withdrawn after 4 or 5 hours. If both nostrils are bleeding, only one nostril at a time should be plugged. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persistent, a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water, or ergot, 1 ounce, should be given. INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through which the feed and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases--namely, influenza, strangles, etc.--and is probably always more or less complicated with inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with the diseases of the digestive tract. SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (somewhat depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is continuous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it; but in the horse this function is of little consequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of feed happens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx. Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes fatal disease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as "sore throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure. _Symptoms._--About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the membrane of the pharynx, over which the feed or water must pass, or from the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the feed or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and in some cases feed, is returned through the nose. This, however, does not occur in laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jawbones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx induces coughing. The head is more or less "poked out," and has the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy character; sometimes a harsh, rasping snore is emitted with every respiration, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally the animal seems threatened with suffocation. _Treatment._--In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continuously for hours--until relief is afforded. Have a bucketful of fresh boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box stall preferred), and should have pure air to breathe. The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should consist of soft feed--bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best of all, fresh grass, if in season. The manger, or trough, should neither be too high nor too low, but a temporary one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head. Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he may have than inflict pain by craning his head for feed or water. A supply of fresh water should be before him all the time; he will not drink too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if present) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or four times during the twenty-four hours. A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 each of solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken together, may be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to ear, and about 6 inches down over the windpipe, and in the space between the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or three days. If the animal is breathing with great difficulty, persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in every gallon of water he will drink; even if he can not swallow much of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some benefit to the pharynx as a gargle. An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice powder may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. If the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphin may be added to the electuary. When the breathing begins to be loud, relief is afforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth. In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of the expert, is simple and attended with little danger. The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examination, to be least covered with muscles, about 5 or 6 inches below the throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an assistant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold stroke is usually sufficient, but if it is necessary to make several other cuts to finish the operation, do not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe sufficiently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested when the windpipe is severed; the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is easily controlled by washing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood from getting into the windpipe and will allow it to drop directly on the ground. If you have the self-adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downward toward the lungs. The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffocation, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, now breathes tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat. The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with carbolic-acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with carbolic-acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by inserting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible. It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a waxed end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings over the neck. During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and signifies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack, if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise may be given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. The feed should be carefully selected and of good quality. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed. If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife into swollen glands; wait until you are certain the swelling contains pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant application of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodid of mercury, 1 dram; lard, 1 ounce; mix well. This may be applied once every day until the part is blistered. Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be consulted under their proper headings. After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which is liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional. If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have disappeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodid of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding, three times a day for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodid of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower jawbones. The application may be repeated every third day until the part is blistered. SPASM OF THE LARYNX. The symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes recover and be as well as ever. The treatment recommended is this: Three drams of bromid of potassium three times a day, dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered nux vomica (either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks. CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. Neither of these diseases affects the horse, but these names are sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes excessively inflamed and gangrenous. THICK WIND AND ROARING. Horses that are affected with chronic disease that causes a loud, unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack of the acute disease. Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced in order to hold him back. Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermittent, or permanent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs; only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not nearly so loud as during inspiration. In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving the cartilage and vocal cord outward, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When the air is expelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the expiratory act. The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The disease of the nerve is generally far from the larynx. Disease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous supply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed, medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interruption of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the condition may be benefited by a course of iodid of potassium, if caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is, of course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the affected muscles is treating only the result of the disease without considering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extirpating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the only relief, and, as this operation is critical and can be performed only by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that the name "roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases accompanied with a cough. The best way to test whether a horse is a "roarer" is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft ground; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding purposes. The taint is transmissible in many instances. _Grunting._--A common test used by veterinarians when examining "the wind" of a horse is to see if he is a "grunter." This is a sound emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or startled, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring. Grunters are not always roarers, but, as it is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, pleurodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of "grunter" being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. _High blowing._--This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be confounded with "roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An animal that emits this sound is called a "high blower." Some horses have naturally very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. _Whistling_ is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a horse called a "roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which passes away with the disease that causes it. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accompanied with so much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is accompanied with a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky, smothered, or muffled, while in others it is hard and clear. A whitish matter, which may be curdled, is discharged from the nose. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be heard within. _Treatment._--Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. It should have much the same general care and medical treatment prescribed for the acute form. Arsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to 7 grains) three times daily may be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must be mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never given alone. Arsenic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 ounce three times daily in the drinking water. An application of mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. The diet should be the most nourishing. Bulky feed should not be given. Linseed mashes, scalded oats, and, if in season, grass and green-blade fodder are the best diet. THE LUNGS. The lungs (see Pl. VII) are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the "lights," situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue, which can be torn only with difficulty. Each lung is divided into a certain number of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every one of these lobules. The little tube then divides into minute branches which open into the air cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the lungs. The air cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from one-seventieth to one two-hundredth of an inch; they have but one opening, the communication with the branches of the little bronchial tubes. Small blood vessels ramify in the walls of the air cells. The air cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the rest being complementary. It is here that the exchange of gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin; so, also, are the walls of the blood vessels. Through these walls escapes from the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts of the body; through these walls also the oxygen gas, which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere, is absorbed by the blood from the air in the air cells. CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate exercise. Very often what is recognized as congestion of the lungs is but a symptom of exhaustion or dilatation of the heart. The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting horses will give an idea of what is termed "putting a horse in condition" to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther each day; the amount of work is daily increased until he is said to be "in condition." An animal so prepared runs no risk of being affected with congestion of the lungs, if he is otherwise healthy. On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe exertion of going fast or far, no matter how healthy he may be in other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stagger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the flanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and the appearance of suffocation. The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden and severe strain put upon them; the heart became unable to perform its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which eventually became engorged with the stagnated blood, constituting congestion of the lungs. The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not exhibit alarming symptoms until returned to the stable; then he will be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and almost gasping; in most cases the body is covered with perspiration, which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body and the legs and ears cold; the breathing is both abdominal and thoracic; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating very frequently, one hundred or so to a minute. The heart may be felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal may tremble all over. If the ear is placed against the side of the chest a loud murmur will be heard and perhaps a fine, crackling sound. One can scarcely fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case indicates the nature of the ailment. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases. _Treatment._--If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the road, stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. If he is in the stable, make arrangements at once to insure an unlimited supply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. Let him stand still; he has all he can do, if he obtains sufficient pure air to sustain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle, remove it at once and rub the body with cloths or wisps of hay or straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in relieving the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated there. If you have three or four assistants, let them rub the body and legs well until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are warm, if possible. When the circulation is reestablished, put bandages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blanket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the blanket. Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated--brandy, whisky (or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and aromatic spirits of ammonia. A drench of 2 ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, diluted with a pint of water, every hour until relief is afforded, is among the best remedies. Or, give a quarter of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quantity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or 1 ounce of tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses have been given. If none of these remedies are at hand, 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given once, but not repeated. The animal may be bled from the jugular vein. Do not take more than 5 or 6 quarts from the vein, and do not repeat the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. [Illustration: PLATE VII. POSITION OF THE LEFT LUNG.] When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the animal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable stall, where he will not be subjected to drafts or sudden changes of temperature; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh, cold water always in the stall; and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, if in season, grass. When ready for use again the horse should at first receive only moderate exercise, which may be daily increased until he may safely be put to regular work. PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. The chief varieties of pneumonia are catarrhal--later discussed in connection with bronchitis, under the name of broncho-pneumonia--and the fibrinous or croupous variety. The latter form receives its names from the fact that the air spaces are choked with coagulated fibrin thrown out from the blood. This causes the diseased portions of the lungs to become as firm as liver, in which condition they are said to be hepatized. As air is excluded by the inflammatory product, the diseased lung will not float in water. The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and extends upward. The first stage of the disease consists of congestion, or engorgement, of the blood vessels, followed by leakage of serum containing fibrin from the blood vessels into the air passages. The fluids thus escaping into the air cells and in the minute branches of the little bronchial tubes become coagulated. The pleura covering the affected parts may be more or less inflamed. A continuance of the foregoing phenomena is marked by a further escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane of the cells, which becomes swollen. The exudate that fills the air cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration and softening when healing commences. The favorable termination of pneumonia is in resolution that is, a restoration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded material contained in the air cells and lung tissues being broken down and softened and absorbed or expectorated through the nostrils. The blood vessels return to their natural state, and the blood circulates in them as before. In the cases that do not terminate so happily the lung may become gangrenous (or mortified), an abscess may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety. Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in many instances it is from neglect. A common cold or sore throat may be followed by pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated. An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength; or he may be kept in a badly ventilated stable, where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out; or the stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to drafts of cold air. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated by any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if exposed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as feed accidentally getting into the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. Pneumonia and pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especially during the prevalence of the cold north or northeasterly winds. Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may cause pneumonia. _Symptoms._--Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by a chill, more or less prolonged, which in many cases is seen neither by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature will be found to have risen to 103° F. or higher. The pulse is frequent, beating from fifty or sixty to eighty or more a minute. There is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become moist, or if pleurisy sets in, the cough will be peculiar to the latter affection; that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with blood, while in other cases it has the appearance of muco-pus. The appetite is lost to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, particularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down, but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. If pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy, however, the horse may appear restless and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is rapid and difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the ribs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal; that is, the abdominal muscles are now made to do as much of the work as they can perform. If pleurisy is not present there is little pain. To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear dangerously ill, as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as in colic, but a careful observer will discover at a glance that the trouble is something more serious than a cold. By percussion it will be shown that some portions of the chest are less resonant than in health, indicating exclusion of air. If the air is wholly excluded the percussion is quite dull, like that elicited by percussion over the thigh. By auscultation important information may be gained. When the ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse, the respiratory murmur is heard more or less distinctly, according to the part of the chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia this murmur is louder and hoarser; also, there is a fine, crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an absence of sound over that particular part. After absorption begins one may again hear sounds that are of a more or less moist character and resemble bubbling or gurgling, which gradually change until the natural sound is heard announcing return to health. When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become intensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the flanks heave; the animal stares wildly about as if seeking aid to drive off the feeling of suffocation; the body is bathed with sweat; the horse staggers, but quickly recovers his balance; he may now, for the first time during the attack, lie down; he does so, however, in the hope of relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet; he pants; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side and backward and forward, but still tries to retain the standing position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as after an exhausting fight for breath he goes down; the limbs stretch out and become rigid. In fatal cases death usually occurs in from 10 to 20 days after the beginning of the attack. On the other hand, when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are obvious. The fever abates and the animal gradually improves in appetite; he takes more notice of things around him; his spirits improve; he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down and rests. In the majority of cases pneumonia, if properly treated, terminates in recovery. _Treatment._--The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be provided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall where he may be exposed to drafts of cold air and sudden changes of temperature. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal comfortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shutting off the ventilation. From the start the animal should have an unlimited supply of fresh, cold drinking water. Blanket the body. Rub the legs until they are warm and then put bandages on them from the hoofs up to the knees and hocks. If warmth can not be reestablished in the legs by hand rubbing alone, apply dry, ground mustard and rub well in. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, the legs well rubbed, and the bandages replaced. Much harm is often done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful blistering compounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot application to the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If the weather is not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable stable, the following method may be tried: Have a tub of hot water handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin; do not allow it to sag so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry blanket over the wet hot one and hold in place with three girths. The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is off being wetted and wrung the dry one should remain over the wet part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped the skin should be quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of alcohol rubbed over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the animal. If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tried on three or four consecutive days. Unless every facility and circumstance favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner, it should not be attempted. If the weather is very cold or any of the details are omitted, more harm than good may result. Mustard may be applied by making a paste with a pound of freshly ground mustard mixed with warm water. This is to be spread evenly over the sides back of the shoulder blades and down to the median line below the chest. Care should be taken to avoid rubbing the mustard upon the thin skin immediately back of the elbow. The mustard-covered area should be covered with a paper and this with a blanket passed up from below and fastened over the back. The blanket and paper should be removed in from one to two hours. When pneumonia follows another disease, the system is always more of less debilitated and requires the careful use of stimulants from the beginning. To weaken the animal still further by bleeding him is one of the most effectual methods of retarding recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. Another and oftentimes fatal mistake made by the nonprofessional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by anyone who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only less active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common opinion, often expressed by nonprofessionals, that aconite is a stimulant. Nothing could be more erroneous; in fact, it is just the reverse. It is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medicine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in breathing; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used. Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, overcome it by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran, and linseed mashes; also, grass, if in season. If the costiveness is not relieved by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water three or four times a day. A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, when in season, grass or corn fodder is preferable if the animal retains an appetite; but if no desire is evinced for feed of this particular description, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand until cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for feed. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is refused. Bread may be tried; also apples or carrots. If the animal can be persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days. Three or four gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs to each gallon. Some horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It should be borne in mind that all feed must be taken by the horse as he desires it; none should be forced down him. If he will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for feed. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, but feed should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger; the very fact of its constantly being before him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as feed. Nothing is well done that is overdone. There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinin in a capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to drench. The heart should be kept strong by administering digitalis in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strychnia 1 grain, made into a pill with licorice powder, three times daily. If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful: Rectified spirits, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky diluted with a pint of water may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. During the period of convalescence good nutritive feed should be allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substituted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this case, especially the iodid of potash; likewise, the same general instructions apply here. The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater the danger; hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of one lung. THE WINDPIPE. The windpipe, or trachea as it is technically called, is the flexible tube that extends from, the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi--the tubes going to the right and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite sensitiveness. The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be accidentally fractured, or the tube may be distorted or malformed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of tracheotomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a result, or sequel, of the operation. In passing over this section attention is merely called to these defects, as they require no particular attention in the way of treatment. It may be stated, however, that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one of the causes of noisy respiration described as "thick wind." GUTTURAL POUCHES. These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. Normally, they contain air. Their function is unknown. One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches communicate with the pharynx, and through this small opening matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment fails, an operation must be performed, which should not be attempted by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the part. BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When this inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia. Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The special causes are these: The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occasionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes on common cold or sore throat. _Symptoms._--The animal appears dull; the appetite is partially or wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "barking cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough; the mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a discharge from the nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes creamy or frothy, still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscultation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes a wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sounds caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mucous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a collapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is expectorated; that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swallowed, and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to the mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggravated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates that the inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catarrhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because in that disease the ribs are as nearly fixed as it is in the power of the animal to do so, and the breathing is accomplished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air possible, but if not tied may occasionally wander listlessly about the stall. The bowels most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge from the nose increases in quantity as the disease advances and inflammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows that one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough becomes less rasping, but of more frequent occurrence, until it gradually disappears with the return of health. Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a nonexpert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it may as well be said here that he will have difficulty in discriminating between bronchitis and pneumonia. _Treatment._--The matter of first importance is to insure pure air to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as comfortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the season of the year demands. Hand-rub the legs until they are warm, then wrap them in cotton and apply flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and then put the bandages on; also rub mustard paste well over the side of the chest, covering the space beginning immediately behind the shoulder blade and running back about eighteen inches, and from the median line beneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the backbone. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about three days after the first one is applied. Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling water containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of camphor, as advised for cold in the head. In serious cases the steam should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day administer an electuary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with licorice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giving the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore and prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constipated, give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal. If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses cooked feed, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may be tried in turn. Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of feed, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established recovery can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are required. When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treatment pursued. Give the following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces; mix well together and divide into sixteen powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flaxseed tea and administered as a drench. If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 dram of iodid of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and may run into an incurable case of thick wind. PLEURISY. The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its separate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin, glistening membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the internal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary observer appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the chest and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface of the pleura the continual dilatation and contraction and the consequent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious friction. Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in damp stables, etc. It may be caused also by wounds that penetrate the chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed; that is, confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved secondarily when the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent diseased lung. It is a common complication of pneumonia. Pleurisy will be described here as an independent affection, although it should be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing diseases. The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that ramify in this membrane and dryness of the surface. This is followed by the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the diseased pleura and the transudation of serum which collects in the chest. This serum may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw colored or red from an admixture of blood. The quantity of this accumulation may amount to several gallons. _Symptoms._--When the disease exists as an independent affection it is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn around. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands stiff; the ribs are fixed--that is, they move very little in the act of breathing--but the abdomen works more than natural; both the fore feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the attack the animal may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic; he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of restlessness disappear. Every movement of the chest causes pain; therefore the cough is peculiar; it is short and suppressed and comes as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to suppress it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature being elevated from 102° or 103° to 105° F. Symptoms that usually accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty, dark-colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps 70 or more a minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold. Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion occurs the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the chest is dull. By striking different parts one may come to a spot of greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between the ribs, each space in succession, beginning behind the elbow, until a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at any other part is reached. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when the surfaces are dry and rough, one may hear, immediately under the ear, a distinct sound very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper together. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is succeeded by the exudation of fluid this friction sound disappears. After the effusion into the cavity takes place sometimes there is heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more of less separates the lung from the chest walls. Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing to the exudation of the fluid, and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case may terminate favorably within a week or 10 days. If the quantity of the effusion is large its own volume retards the process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convalescence is delayed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent, the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the legs. The accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema. Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it may affect both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. _Treatment._--The instructions in regard to the general management of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the laxative feed, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. The hot applications applied to the chest, as directed in the treatment of pneumonia, are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, apply hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mustard may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the beginning the following drench may be given every six hours, if the horse takes it kindly: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint. If the patient becomes debilitated, the stimulants as prescribed for pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will partake of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best; but if he refuses the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different kinds of feed and allowed whichever kind he desires. In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the animal to lie down or paw, morphin may be given by the mouth in 5-grain doses, or the fluid extract of _Cannabis indica_ may be used in doses of 2 to 4 drams. If the case is not progressing favorable in ten or twelve days after the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak and evinces little or no desire for feed. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite the absorption of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild blister should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest. The following drench may be given three times a day, for seven or eight days, if it is necessary and appears to benefit: Tincture of the perchlorid of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water, an hour before feeding every night and morning for a week or two. _Hydrothorax_ is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use of medicines alone, when the operation of tapping the chest is performed to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and cannula. The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal artery is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not presumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although in the hands of the expert it is attended with little danger or difficulty. We have described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remembered that they merge into each other and may occur together at one time. While it is true that much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and types of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan adopted of advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is supposed to know very little. PLEUROPNEUMONIA. This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will be the guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. It should not be resorted to unless it is necessary to allay the pain. BRONCHO-PLEUROPNEUMONIA. This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuropneumonia. SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the patient have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type, when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large portion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ventilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The symptoms of suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidified area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offensive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils. MORTIFICATION. Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected. Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treatment, pneumonia and pleuropneumonia terminate in mortification, which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or drenching through the nostrils may cause this serious condition. HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemorrhage is from the lung it is accompanied with coughing; the blood is frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accompanied with coughing. The ear may be placed against the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connection with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours, 1 dram of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchlorid of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffocation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS. Pulmonary consumption or tuberculosis has been recognized in the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease. HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA. Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. Asthma is generally thought to be caused by spasm of the small circular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the forced breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves. Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of digestion or to an error in the choice of feed. Feeding on clover hay or damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritious feed, and keeping the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level are predisposed. In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken-winded for a long time the changes are well-marked. The lungs are paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the volume, as evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary emphysema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed "vesicular emphysema," which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form is called interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue between the air cells or the tissue between the small lobules. _Symptoms._--Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect heaves. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out the ailment at once. In recent cases, however, the affected animal does not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is difficult to describe, but the sound is short and something like a grunt. When air is inspired--that is, taken in--it appears to be done in the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is performed that the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and in consequence of their power of contracting on account of the degeneration of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs; therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellowslike movement at each expiration, a sort of jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratory movement may also be detected by allowing the that the expiratory current is not continuous, but is broken into two jets. When the animal is exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear is applied to the chest. As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. The animal may have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean feed in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be overloaded with indigestible feed. The abdomen may assume that form called "potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a very offensive odor. When first put to work dung is passed frequently; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the muscular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said to be predisposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse affected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterinarian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been "fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but will not cause the symptoms of heaves in a healthy horse. All broken-winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. _Treatment._--When the disease is established there is no cure for it. Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symptoms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reappear in their intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is allowed food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky feed which contains but little nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to feed of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or feed of any kind can not be overestimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient. This should be cut and dampened. The animal should invariably be watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. The animal should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful. Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best administered in the form of a solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solution or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former the dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily; of the latter one may give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be cautiously increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be given once or twice a month, or a handful of Glauber's salt may be given in the feed twice daily, so long as necessary. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medicinal treatment is of secondary consideration; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest importance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding purposes. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited. CHRONIC COUGH. A chronic cough may succeed the acute disease of the respiratory organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accompanies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind; it may succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treatment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible and the cough will cease. The treatment of the affections will be found under their appropriate heads, to which the reader is referred. PLEURODYNIA. This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not inclined to turn round; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts. WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST. A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the thoracic cavity outside the lung. This condition is known as pneumothorax and may result in collapse of the lung. The wound may be so made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn part in such manner as entirely to close the wound; thus a small quantity of air gains access with each inspiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there may not be even an opening in the walls of the chest. In such cases the air may be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result, but when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be removed by a trocar and cannula or by an aspirator. It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the thoracic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound; then it should be thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part in 40 parts of water. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an incised wound, it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plasters; if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be prevented from getting into the chest as soon and as effectually as possible. The after treatment of the wound should consist principally in keeping the parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their treatment, p. 484.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as advised under that head. THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. "Thumps" is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a palpitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart is sometimes called "thumps," it must not be confounded with the affection under consideration. In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man although in all cases the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse. There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demonstrated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the heart is usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce congestion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may occur in connection with these conditions. If not relieved, death usually results from congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breathing is interfered with by the inordinate action of this important muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment should be as prescribed for congestion of the lungs, and, in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of sulphuric ether in warm water or 3 drams of asafetida. RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which distend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great pressure against it. The symptoms are intensely difficult respiration and great depression. There is no treatment. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. BY JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ USES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. The urinary organs constitute the main channel through which are excreted the nitrogenous or albuminoid principles, whether derived directly from the feed or from the muscular and other nitrogenized tissues of the body. They constitute, besides, the channel through which are thrown out most of the poisons, whether taken in by the mouth or skin or developed in connection with faulty or natural digestion, blood-forming, nutrition, or tissue destruction; or, finally, poisons that are developed within the body, as the result of normal cell life or of the life of bacterial or other germs that have entered the body from without. Bacteria themselves largely escape from the body through the kidneys. To a large extent, therefore, these organs are the sanitary scavengers and purifiers of the system, and when their functions are impaired or arrested the retained poisons quickly show their presence in resulting disorders of the skin and connective tissue beneath it, of the nervous system, or other organs. Nor is this influence one-sided. Scarcely an important organ of the body can suffer derangement without entailing a corresponding disorder of the urinary system. Nothing can be more striking than the mutual balance maintained between the liquid secretions of the skin and kidneys during hot and cold weather. In summer, when so much liquid exhales through the skin as sweat, comparatively little urine is passed, whereas in winter, when the skin is inactive, the urine is correspondingly increased. This vicarious action of skin and kidneys is usually kept within the limits of health, but at times the draining off of the water by the skin leaves too little to keep the solids of the urine safely in solution, and these are liable to crystallize out and form stone and gravel. Similarly the passage, in the sweat, of some of the solids that normally leave the body, dissolved in the urine, serves to irritate the skin and produce troublesome eruptions. PROMINENT CAUSES OF URINARY DISORDERS. A disordered liver contributes to the production under different circumstances of an excess of biliary coloring matter which stains the urine; of an excess of hippuric acid and allied products which, being less soluble than urea (the normal product of tissue change), favor the formation of stone, of taurocholic acid, and other bodies that tend when in excess to destroy the blood globules and to cause irritation of the kidneys by the resulting hemoglobin excreted in the urine, and of glycogen too abundant to be burned up in the system, which induces saccharine urine (diabetes). Any disorder leading to impaired functional activity of the lungs is causative of an excess of hippuric acid and allied bodies, of oxalic acid, of sugar, etc., in the urine, which irritate the kidneys, even if they do not produce solid deposits in the urinary passages. Diseases of the nervous system, and notably of the base of the brain and of the spinal cord, induce various urinary disorders, prominent among which are diabetes, chylous urine, and albuminuria. Certain affections, with imperfect nutrition or destructive waste of the bony tissues, tend to charge the urine with phosphates of lime and magnesia and endanger the formation of stone and gravel. In all extensive inflammations and acute fevers the liquids of the urine are diminished, while the solids (waste products), which should form the urinary secretion, are increased, and the surcharged urine proves irritant to the urinary organs or the retained waste products poison the system at large. Diseases of the heart and lungs, by interfering with the free, onward flow of the blood from the right side of the heart, tend to throw that liquid back on the veins, and this backward pressure of venous blood strongly tends to disorders of the kidneys. Certain poisons taken with the feed and water, notably that found in magnesian limestone and those found in irritant, diuretic plants, are especially injurious to the kidneys, as are also various cryptogams, whether in musty hay or oats. The kidneys may be irritated by feeding green vegetables covered with hoar frost or by furnishing an excess of feed rich in phosphates (wheat bran, beans, peas, vetches, lentils, rape cake, cottonseed cake) or by a privation of water, which entails a concentrated condition and high density of the urine. Exposure in cold rain or snow storms, cold drafts of air, and damp beds are liable to further disorder an already overworked or irritable kidney. Finally, sprains of the back and loins may cause bleeding from the kidneys or inflammation. The right kidney, weighing 23-1/2 ounces, is shaped like a French bean, and extends from the loins forward to beneath the heads of the last two ribs. The left kidney (Pl. VIII) resembles a heart of cards, and extends from the loins forward beneath the head of the last rib only. Each consists of three distinct parts--(a) the external (cortical), or vascular part, in which the blood vessels form elaborate capillary networks within the dilated globular sacs which form the beginnings of the secreting (uriniferous) tubes and on the surface of the sinuous, secreting tubes leading from the sacs inward toward the second, or medullary, part of the organ; (b) the internal (medullary) part, made up in the main of blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves extending between the notch on the inner border of the kidney to and from the outer vascular portion, in which the secretion of urine is almost exclusively carried on; and (d) a large, saccular reservoir in the center of the kidney, into which all uriniferous tubes pour their secretions and from which the urine is carried away through a tube g (ureter), which passes out of the notch at the inner border of the kidney and which opens by a valve-closed orifice into the roof of the bladder just in front of its neck. The bladder is a dilatable reservoir for the retention of the urine until the discomfort of its presence causes its voluntary discharge. It is kept closed by circular, muscular fibers surrounding its neck or orifice, and is emptied by looped, muscular fibers extending in all directions forward from the neck around the blind anterior end of the sac. From the bladder the urine escapes through a dilatable tube (urethra) which extends from the neck of the bladder backward on the floor of the pelvis, and in the male through the penis to its free end, where it opens through a pink, conical papilla. In the mare the urethra is not more than an inch in length, and is surrounded by the circular, muscular fibers closing the neck of the bladder. Its opening may be found directly in the median line of the floor of the vulva, about 4-1/2 inches from its external opening. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE. These apply especially to acute inflammations and the irritation caused by stone. The animal moves stiffly on the hind limbs, straddles, and makes frequent attempts to pass urine, which may be in excess, deficient in amount, liable to sudden arrest in spite of the straining, passed in driblets, or entirely suppressed. Again, it may be modified in density or constituents. Difficulty in making a sharp turn, or in lying down and rising with or without groaning, dropping the back when mounted or when pinched on the loins is suggestive of kidney disease, and so to a less extent are swelled legs, dropsy, and diseases of the skin and nervous system. The oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the bladder beneath and detect any overdistention, swelling, tenderness, or stone. In ponies the kidneys even may be reached. EXAMINATION OF THE URINE. In some cases the changes in the urine are the sole sign of disease. In health the horse's urine is of a deep amber color and has a strong odor. On a feed of grain and hay it may show a uniform transparency, while on a green ration there in an abundant white deposit of carbonate of lime. Of its morbid changes the following are to be looked for: (1) _Color_: White from deposited salts of lime; brown or red from blood clots or coloring matter; yellow or orange from bile or blood pigment; pale from excess of water; or variously colored from vegetable ingredients (santonin makes it red; rhubarb or senna, brown; tar or carbolic acid, green). (2) _Density_: The horse's urine may be 1.030 or 1.050, but it may greatly exceed this in diabetes and may sink to 1.007 in diuresis. (3) _Chemical reaction_, as ascertained by blue litmus or red test papers. The horse on vegetable diet has alkaline urine turning red test papers blue, while in the sucking colt and the horse fed on flesh or on his own tissue (in starvation or abstinence during disease) it is acid, turning blue litmus red. (4) _Organic constituents_, as when glairy from albumen coagulable by strong nitric acid and boiling, when charged with microscopic casts of the uriniferous tubes, with the eggs or bodies of worms, with sugar, blood, or bile. (5) _In its salts_, which may crystallize out spontaneously, or on boiling, or on the addition of chemical reagents. [Illustration: PLATE VIII. LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH KIDNEY.] [Illustration: PLATE IX. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY.] [Illustration: PLATE X. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY.] Albuminous urine in the horse is usually glairy, so that it may be drawn out in threads, but its presence can always be tested as follows: If the liquid is opaque, it may be first passed through filter paper; if very dense and already precipitating its salts, it may be diluted with distilled water; add to the suspected liquid acetic acid drop by drop until it reddens the blue litmus paper; then boil gently in a test tube; if a precipitate is thrown down, set the tube aside to cool and then add strong nitric acid. If the precipitate is not dissolved, it is albumen; if dissolved it is probably urate or hippurate of ammonia. Albumen is normally present in advanced gestation; abnormally it is seen in diseases in which there occurs destruction of blood globules (anthrax, low fevers, watery states of the blood, dropsies), in diseases of the heart and liver which prevent the free escape of blood from the veins and throw back venous pressure on the kidneys, in inflammation of the lungs and pleuræ, and even tympany (bloating), doubtless from the same cause, and in all congestive or inflammatory diseases of the kidneys, acute or chronic. Casts of the uriniferous tubes can be seen only by placing the suspected urine under the microscope. They are usually very elastic and mobile, waving about in the liquid when the cover glass is touched, and showing a uniform, clear transparency (waxy) or entangled circular epithelial cells or opaque granules or flattened, red-blood globules or clear, refrangent oil globules. They may be even densely opaque from crystals of earthy salts. Pus cells may be found in the urine associated with albumen, and are recognized by clearing up, when treated with acetic acid, so that each cell shows two or three nuclei. DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, OR EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE). This consists in an excessive secretion of a clear, watery urine of a low specific gravity (1.007) with a correspondingly ardent thirst, a rapidly advancing emaciation, and great loss of strength and spirit. _Causes._--Its causes may be any agent--medicinal, alimentary, or poisonous--which unduly stimulates the kidneys; the reckless administration of diuretics, which form such a common constituent of quack horse powders; acrid diuretic plants in grass or hay; new oats still imperfectly cured; an excess of roots or other very watery feed; a full allowance of salt to animals that have become inordinately fond of it; but, above all, feeding on hay, grain, or bran which has not been properly dried and has become musty and permeated by fungi. Thus hay, straw, or oats obtained in wet seasons and heating in the rick or stack is especially injurious. Hence this malady, like coma somnolentum (sleepy staggers), is widespread in wet seasons, and especially in rainy districts. _Symptoms._--The horse drinks deep at every opportunity and passes urine on every occasion when stopped, the discharge being pale, watery, of a low density, and inodorous; in short, it contains a great excess of water and a deficiency of the solid excretions. So great is the quantity passed, however, that the small amount of solids in any given specimen amounts in 24 hours to far more than the normal--a fact in keeping with the rapid wasting of the tissues and extreme emaciation. The flanks become tucked up, the fat disappears, the bones and muscles stand out prominently, the skin becomes tense and hidebound, and the hair erect, scurfy, and deficient in luster. The eye becomes dull and sunken, the spirits are depressed, the animal is weak and sluggish, sweats on the slightest exertion, and can endure little. The subject may survive for months, or may die early of exhaustion. In the slighter cases, or when the cause ceases to operate, a somewhat tardy recovery may be made. _Treatment_ consists in stopping the ingestion of the faulty drugs, poisons, or feed, and supplying sound hay and grain free from all taint of heating or mustiness. A liberal supply of boiled flaxseed in the drinking water at once serves to eliminate the poison and to sheathe and protect the irritated kidneys. Tonics like sulphate or phosphate of iron (2 drams morning and evening) and powdered gentian or Peruvian bark (4 drams) help greatly by bracing the system and hastening repair. To these may be added agents calculated to destroy the fungus and eliminate its poisonous products. In that form which depends on musty food nothing acts better than large doses of iodid of potassium (2 drams), while in other cases creosote, carbolic acid (1 dram), or oil of turpentine (4 drams), properly diluted, may be resorted to. SACCHARINE DIABETES (DIABETES MELLITUS, GLYCOSURIA, OR INOSURIA). This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, yet, as the most prominent symptom is the sweet urine, it may be treated here. _Causes._--Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a principle allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective, as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the quantity of sugar produced is more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starchy feed, but this is due altogether to the super-abundant supply of the sugar-forming feed, lasts for a few hours only, and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, which happens to be also the nerve center (vasomotor) which presides over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the excessive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and, in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The complete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the organ having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami, pons, cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by interruption of the nervous control along the vasomotor tracts, as in destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by cutting the nervous branch connecting these two, in injury to the spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and phlorizin. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion of a pale urine of a high density (1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indigestion, and the presence, in the urine, of a sweet principle--grape sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly detected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to 4 ounces of the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70° to 80° F. for 12 hours, when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and carbon dioxid. The loss of density will give indication of the quantity of sugar transformed; thus a density of 1.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 would indicate about 15 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite, or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. Its presence may be indicated by its sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gallois's test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evaporate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue is left that is changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which disappears on cooling and reappears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. _Treatment_ is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, well-aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 1 ounce daily) and alkalies (carbonate of potassium, one-fourth ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping, or even leeching over the last ribs. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, peas, beans, vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. It may be given as skimmed milk or butter-milk, and in the last case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeia, one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by Tyson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grains thrice daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain, bromid of potassium, 4 drams, or ergot one-half ounce, may be resorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonics (especially nux vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the digestion and general health. HEMATURIA (BLOODY URINE). _Cause._--As seen in the horse, bloody urine is usually the direct result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its substance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diuretic plants present in the feed may also lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin. The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more liable to be uniformly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder or passages clots are more liable to be present. Again, in bleeding from the kidney, minute, cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the microscope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in the bladder or urethra. _Treatment._--The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treatment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in feed must be avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, linseed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chlorid of iron 3 drams, acetate of lead one-half dram, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still. HEMOGLOBINURIA (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-forming functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark-colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized feed (oats, beans, peas, vetches, cottonseed meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work, even though the feeding is high, and the attack is usually precipitated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exercise or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exercise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condition, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, were unable to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable than the docile gelding. Lignières has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which produced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental animals, including horses. _Symptoms._--In the milder forms this affection may appear as a lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sudden exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred paces or more: The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support himself. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elaborated constituents of the blood. It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to stand. _Prevention._--The prevention of this serious affection lies in restricting the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been condemned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to 1 pound Glauber's salt), and have graduated exercise, beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day. _Treatment._--The treatment of the mild cases may consist in a laxative, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the instant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromid of potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidneys. Iodid of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a rule, it is desirable to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the above-named dose of bromid of potassium, and this latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secretion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be resorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum, one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be repeated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of nux vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limbs is useful, and in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be helped up and even supported in a sling. ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. Inflammations of the kidneys have been differentiated widely, according as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, suppurative or not, with increased or shrunken kidney, etc. In a work like the present, however, utility will be consulted by classing all under acute or chronic inflammation. _Causes._--The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the existence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart disease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decomposition of the detained urine in such cases and the production of ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with consequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorption of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are carried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiffness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and tenderness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony processes 6 inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boiling and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male the alternate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. _Treatment_ demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, if the suffering and fever are high, 2 to 4 quarts of blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kidneys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Pain may be soothed by dram doses of bromid of potassium. Boiled flaxseed may be added to the drinking water, also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be persistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the direction of the hair and covered with paper and a blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber's salt. During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. _Causes._--Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, find in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blow, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system--as indigestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on a simple local injury. It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red congestion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease by itself. _Symptoms._--The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the quantity furnishing a fair criterion of the gravity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exertion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symptoms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. _Treatment_ of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs elsewhere. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron 2 drams, nux vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian root 4 drams, daily) or 60 drops of sulphuric acid or nitrohydrochloric acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any elevated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomentations may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mustard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infusion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms resembling some form of inflammation, and are not liable to be recognized during life. PARASITES. To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococcus, the larval, or bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog. _Dioctophyme renale_, the largest of roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence can be certified only by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either _Strongylus equinus_ or a related species, may be found in the renal artery or in the kidney itself. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This affection consists in spasmodic closure of the outlet from the bladder by tonic contraction of the circular muscular fibers. It may be accompanied with a painful contraction of the muscles on the body of the bladder; or, if the organ is already unduly distended, these will be affected with temporary paralysis. It is most frequent in the horse, but by no means unknown in the mare. _Causes._--The causes are usually hard and continuous driving without opportunity for passing urine, cold rainstorms, drafts of cold air when perspiring and fatigued, the administration of Spanish fly or the application of extensive blisters of the same, abuse of diuretics, the presence of acrid, diuretic plants in the fodder, and the presence of stone in the bladder. As most mares refuse to urinate while in harness, they should be unhitched at suitable times for urination. Spasms of the bowels are always attended by spasm of the bladder, hence the free passage of water is usually a symptom of relief. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are frequent stretching and straining to urinate, with no result or a slight dribbling only. These vain efforts are attended by pain and groaning. On resuming his natural position the animal is not freed from the pain, but moves uneasily, paws, shakes the tail, kicks at the abdomen with his hind feet, looks back to the flank, lies down and rises, arches the back, and attempts to urinate as before. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum the greatly distended bladder may be felt beneath, and the patient will often shrink when it is handled. It is important to notice that irritation of the urinary organs is often present in impaction of the colon with solid matters, because the impacted intestine under the straining of the patient is forced backward into the pelvis and presses upon and irritates the bladder. In such cases the horse stands with his fore limbs advanced and the hind ones stretched back beyond the natural posture and makes frequent efforts to urinate, with varying success. Unpracticed observers naturally conclude that the secondary urinary trouble is the main and only one, and the intestinal impaction and obstruction is too often neglected until it is irremediable. In cases in which the irritation has caused spasm of the neck of the bladder and overdistention of that organ, the mistake is still more easily made; hence it is important in all cases to examine for the impacted bowel, forming a bend or loop at the entrance of the pelvis and usually toward the left side. The impacted intestine feels soft and doughy and is easily indented with the knuckles, forming a marked contrast with the tense, elastic, resilient, overdistended bladder. It remains to be noted that similar symptoms may be determined by a stone or sebaceous mass, or stricture obstructing the urethra, or in the newborn by thickened mucus in that duct and by the pressure of hardened, impacted feces in the rectum. In obstruction, the hard, impacted body can usually be felt by tracing the urethra along the lower and posterior surface of the penis and forward to the median line of the floor of the pelvis to the neck of the bladder. That part of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is usually distended with urine and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctuating. _Treatment._--Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympathetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may succeed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them. In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder. Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter, 3-1/2 feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical-instrument maker. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to urinate, and in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail, and, it may be, of the hind limbs. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of the abdomen; this never empties the bladder, however, and the oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the raw, mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Suppression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course of that duct. _Treatment._--Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the determining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild current of electricity daily may succeed. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER (CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS). Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general. It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritating (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bacterium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too extensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains; the animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. More characteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, resulting in the discharge of a little clear, or red, or more commonly flocculent urine, always in jets, and accompanied with signs of pain, which persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groaning, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be found on examination through rectum or vagina. _Treatment_ implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons in feed or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evacuated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and opium to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram, tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the application of mustard, as in paralysis; or the mustard may be applied on the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and nux vomica one-half dram will serve to restore lost tone. IRRITABLE BLADDER. Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the bladder and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character and no more than the natural quantity is passed in the twenty-four hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a powerful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares during the period of heat. An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irritation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords on its lower surface, or it may be prevented from getting over the reins by having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those proving troublesome when "in heat" may have 4-dram doses of bromid of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna extract (1 dram), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam copaiba (1 dram). DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may be distinguished from a hard, resistant stone. In mares, in which the finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment is eminently unsatisfactory. DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT URACHUS. This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of the natural channel (urachus), through which the urine is discharged into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine is prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more frequent in males than in females, because of the great length and small caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. The first care is to ascertain whether the urethra is pervious by passing a human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly closed by a stout, waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tissues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little skin as possible. If a portion of the naval string remains, the tying of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to keep the flies off. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. This can occur only in the female. It consists in the turning of the organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its upper surface the orifices of the urethra maybe seen, one on each side, a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them drop by drop. This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression during a difficult parturition. The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva. (See Eversion of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity will favor retention. [Illustration: PLATE XI. CALCULI AND INSTRUMENT FOR REMOVAL.] INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET). This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders. It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see); by the passage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel; by the irritation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without; by blows on the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare served in the first few days after parturition or one suffering from leucorrhea; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by the extension of inflammation from an irritated, bilocular cavity filled with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturition, and later a whitish, mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the end of the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in this way will refuse to mount or, having mounted, will fail to complete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected, infection of the mare is liable to follow. _Treatment_ in the early stages consists in a dose of physic (aloes 6 drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra twice daily with borax 1 dram, tepid water 1 quart. When the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second stage a more astringent injection may be used (nitrate of silver 20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily) may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has appeared. Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from service, as should mares with leucorrhea. STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecreting stage of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful erections. It must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with catheters just large enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a day, and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them. The catheter should be kept perfectly clean and washed in a borax solution and well oiled before it is introduced. URINARY CALCULI (STONE, OR GRAVEL). These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been precipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart as a fine, powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones, of varying size. (See Pl. XI.) Their composition is therefore determined in different animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is important to observe the following analysis of the horse's urine in health: Water 918.5 Urea 13.4 Uric acid and urates .1 Hippuric acid 26.4 Lactic acid and lactates 1.2 Mucus and organic matter 22.0 Sulphates (alkaline) 1.2 Phosphates (lime and soda) .2 Chlorids (sodium) 1.0 Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 16.0 ----- 1000.0 The carbonate of lime, which is present in large quantity in the urine of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that sometimes fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates--the products of the wear of tissues--the carbonates being the result of oxidation of the vegetable acids in the feed. Carbonate of lime, therefore, is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in many cases is the most abundant constituent. Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning up of the carbonaceous matter of the feed in the system, one important factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed, Füstenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and rabbit that under the full play of the breathing (oxidizing) forces oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. In keeping with this is the observation of Lehmann, that in all cases in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively, as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous tissues. If these products are fully oxidized, however, they are thrown out in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids. When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxid of lead it is resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Woehler and Frerrichs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased the excretion of urea but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous feed alone but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of the body. An important element of its production is, however, the imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis, etc.). This is, above all, liable to prove the case if the subject is fed to excess on highly carbonaceous feeds (grass and green feed generally, potatoes, etc.). Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbonate of lime--from the excess of carbonaceous feed (organic acids) becoming oxidized into carbon dioxid, which unites with the magnesia derived from the feed. The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary calculi of the horse, the phosphates being present to excess in the urine in only two conditions--(a) when the ration is excessive and especially rich in phosphorus (wheat, bran, beans, peas, vetches, rape cake, oil cake, cottonseed cake); and (b) when, through the morbid, destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, a great quantity of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the formation of calculi, and this, above all, is liable if the urine is retained in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of magnesia to form a double salt--phosphate of ammonia and magnesia--which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of this salt is, however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much more frequent in that of man and sheep. These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form ingredients in the horse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are usually present it is only in minute quantities. The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestionably contributes to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and approaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in considering the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook the concentration of the urine that comes from dry feed and privation of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual quantity of solids is thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi are more common in stable horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly, in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of water by the skin. In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain districts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbonates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. Thus the horse is very subject to calculi on certain limestone soils, as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; of Poitou and Landes, in France; and Munich, in Bavaria. The saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, however, and not as in itself an efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albumen, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood, etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystalline bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habitually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess without the formation of stone or gravel; again, one with dilute urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, determined the precipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres, capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensifies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kidneys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the formation of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as determining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacteria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood. The fact that horses, especially on the magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from goiter, appear to suffer from calculi may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which produces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary salts in the form of calculi. CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. These have been named according to the place where they are found, renal (kidney), ureteric (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral (urethra), and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constituent, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi. The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations, while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand, have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain. _Renal calculi._--These may consist of minute, almost microscopic, deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the pelvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white aspect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, crystalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of carbonate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded, pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to one another, and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus, is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney. These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and without oxalate. Symptoms of renal calculi are violent, colicky, pains, appearing suddenly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is associated with stiffness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, especially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kidney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis are added. _Ureteric calculi._--These are so called because they are found in the passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply small, renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning. _Treatment of renal and ureteric calculi._--Treatment is unsatisfactory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. One or two ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of belladonna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not only by soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to carry off the smaller calculi. To accomplish this object further give cool water freely, and let the feed be only such as contains a large proportion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage of urine with gritty particles, by stiffness of the loins and hind limbs, and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long-continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the breaking down of a calculus, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the organic, spongelike framework of the calculus causes it to swell and thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-continued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids (muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and cohesion of the stone. It is only exceptionally, however, that any one of these methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys develops, treat as advised under that head. _Stone in the bladder (vesical calculus, or cystic calculus)._--These may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is rough and crystalline and has a yellowish-white or deep-brown color. These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. The phosphatic calculi are smooth, white and formed of thin, concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus outward. Besides the phosphate of lime they contain the carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder contains and may be even distended by a soft, pultaceous mass made up of minute, round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform consistency and without stratification. _Symptoms of stone in the bladder._--The symptoms of stone in the bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough, mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled with mucus or blood or containing minute, gritty particles. At times the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth, phosphatic variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incontinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder can be felt beneath, and within it the solid, oval body. It is most easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation is left. In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced through the short urethra. _Treatment of stone in the bladder._--The treatment of stone in the bladder consists in the removal of the offending body; in the mare this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage of the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually pushed with gentle, oscillating movement until they enter the bladder and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the same careful, oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water. The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult proceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before backward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical incision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood vessel. It is in making the obliquely lateral incision in the subsequent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such danger is to be apprehended. If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra, it may be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight stem bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may be seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular fragments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this way must be washed out, as advised below. When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a catheter by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is empty and the water come away, clear. A catheter with a double tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube and escaping through the other. The advantage is more apparent than real, however, as the retention of the water until the magma has been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacuation. To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding (dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, peas, wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily. Let the feed be laxative, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give daily in the drinking water a dram of either carbonate of potash or soda. Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the tone of the stomach and system at large. _Urethral calculus (stone in the urethra)._--This is less frequent in horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra in the horse and the absence of the <b>S</b>-shaped curve and vermiform appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to pass through the neck of the bladder, but are too large to pass through the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and immediately behind this. _Symptoms of urethral calculus._--The symptoms are violent straining to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus. In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point of obstruction is liable to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a distended tube, fluctuating on pressure. _Treatment of urethral calculus_ may be begun by an attempt to extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine-pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra; or, if necessary, a probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free (protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with forceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. _Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or bilocular cavity)._--These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the blind pouches (bilocular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy-like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water and smeared with sweet oil. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES, OR ORCHITIS. In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating feed, stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces of Glauber's salt daily in the feed, and the bathing of the affected organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them to a healthy condition. When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent, when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and when the proximity of other horses or mares excites the generative instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual inflammation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and penetrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland under rapid paces or heavy draft, compression of the blood vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same circumstances, and, finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiana, may also be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain specific diseases, like dourine, glanders, and tuberculosis, localized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. _Symptoms._--Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, straddling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, more or less fever, elevated body temperature, accelerated pulse and breathing, lack of appetite, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy, pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third day. If it lasts longer, it is liable to give rise to the formation of matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with gangrene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the scrotum, or sac, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sac and cavity of the abdomen and pyemia may follow. _Treatment_ consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of a purgative (1 to 1-1/2 pounds Glauber's salt), and the local application of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This bandage, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same surcingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to relieve vascular tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence of fluctuation the knife may be used to give free escape to the pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak carbolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to the resulting cavity. SARCOCELE. This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resulting from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural structure of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small, round cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, nonelastic, and comparatively insensible. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may be edematous (pitting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sac, the symptoms are masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the disease with hernia. The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and when the disease is specific (glanders, tuberculosis), even this may not succeed. HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, spermatic cord, or walls of the sac. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating in water. By pressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream and with a perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord or the scrotum is thickened and pits on pressure. _Treatment_ may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applications (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then, if the liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe which has been first passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the sacs. VARICOCELE. This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the testicle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in hydrocele, and, this failing, castration may be resorted to. ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases, however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the inguinal canal or abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double monster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second fetus have likewise been found in the testicle or scrotum. DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, cartilaginous, or cystic degeneration, for all which the appropriate treatment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glanders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of arresting the disease. Finally, they may become infested with cystic tapeworms or the agamic stage of a strongyle (_Strongylus edentatus_). WARTS ON THE PENIS. These are best removed by twisting them off, using the thumb and forefinger. They may also be cut off with scissors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. DEGENERATION OF PENIS (PAPILLOMA, OR EPITHELIOMA). The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the penis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving the urethra longer by half an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the penis on the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to limit the effusion and favor absorption. The penis should be suspended in a sling. PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases from too frequent and exhausting service. The penis hangs from the sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica are given twice a day. Finally, a weak current of electricity sent through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of the penis, continued for 10 or 15 minutes and repeated daily, may prove successful. SELF-ABUSE, OR MASTURBATION. Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual instinct to the discharge of semen by rubbing the penis against the belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as to prevent the extension of the penis or so prick the organ as to compel the animal to desist through pain. DOURINE. This disease is discussed in the chapter on "Infectious Diseases." CASTRATION. CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. This is usually done at 1 year old, but may be accomplished at a few weeks old at the expense of an imperfect development of the fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in the young. The delay till 2, 3, or 4 years old will secure a better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery round in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of accomplishing this limited space forbids us to enter here, so that only the method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will be noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of sebum being carefully removed from the bilocular cavity in the end of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from before backward, about three-fourths of an inch from and parallel to the median line between the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upward through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds, when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions, and the latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. The testicle will now hang limp, and there is no longer any tendency to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two important indications--(a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and (b) providing for the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of vaseline and pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, and the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard-twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, and the clamp may be left thus for 24 hours; then, by cutting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened and the stump liberated without any danger of bleeding. Should the stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter on the second day in hot weather or the third in cold, and from that time a good recovery may be expected. The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castration should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that have been kept in close, ill-ventilated, filthy buildings, where the system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS (RIDGLINGS). This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate anatomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional mind in a short description. It consists, however, in the discovery and removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural channel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that channel between the abdominal muscles and the strong fascia on the inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic with a solution of mercuric chlorid 1 part, water 2,000 parts (a carbolic-acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best torn through by the écraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor healing of the wound by adhesion. CONDITIONS FOLLOWING CASTRATION. _Pain after castration._--Some horses are pained and very restless for several hours after castration, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an adult) may be given. _Bleeding after castration._--Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, however, more than 15 minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold water against the part. Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and the artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation of clot and the closure of the artery. _Strangulated spermatic cord._--If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, preventing the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks stiffly, with a straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure of the skin wound and the protrusion, from its lips, of the end of the cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazelnut upward. If there is no material swell and little protrusion, the wound may be enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from any connection with the skin and pushed up inside. If the swelling is larger, the mass constitutes a tumor and must be removed. (See below.) _Swelling of the sheath, penis, and abdomen._--This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthful seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound, and imprisonment of matter. Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be obtained. Antiseptics, like the mercuric-chlorid lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of the swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at intervals of 3 or 4 inches to a depth of half an inch, and antiseptics freely applied to the surface. Fomentations with warm water may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not be allowed to close again at once. A free, creamlike discharge implies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. _Phymosis and paraphymosis._--In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indicated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful preliminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, and in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or simple linen bandage, so as to press the blood and accumulated fluid out, will enable the operator to return it. _Tumors on the spermatic cord._--These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in castration, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence of infection (_Staphylococcus botriomyces_). These tumors give rise to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and contract adhesions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner as the testicle, while if larger and firmly adherent to the skin and surrounding parts generally, they must be carefully dissected from the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord finally torn through with an écraseur. When the cord has become swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impossible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be attempted by passing white-hot, pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or omentum into the sac of the scrotum, and consists in the return of the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further protrusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the operation for hernia for geldings, see remarks on hernia. CASTRATION OF THE MARE. Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in the females of other domesticated quadrupeds and should never be resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recurrence of heat and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large proportion of the subjects perished. By operating through the vagina the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflammation in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed under the body, or it may be thrown and put under chloroform. The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the roof of the vagina just above the neck of the womb, then following with the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on that side is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted off. It might be torn off by an écraseur especially constructed for the purpose. The straining that follows the operation may be checked by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protrusion of the bowels may be obviated by applying the truss advised to prevent eversion of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal contents against the vaginal wound the mare should be tied short and high for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which I have found it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down. Another important point is to give bran mashes and other laxative diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload the rectum by copious injections of warm water in case impaction is imminent. STERILITY. Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stallion, then all the mares put to him remain barren; if the fault is in the mare, she alone fails to conceive, while other mares served by the same stallion get in foal. In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a) Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are retained within the abdomen; (b) inflammation of the testicles, resulting in induration; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stallions liberally fed on starchy feed and not sufficiently exercised; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles (_vasa deferentia_); (e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (f) inflammation or ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis; (g) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis); (h) warty growths on the end of the penis; (i) tumors of other kinds (largely pigmentary), affecting the testicles or penis; (j) nervous diseases which abolish the sexual appetite or that control the muscles which are essential to the act of coition; (k) azoturia with resulting weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the thigh (above the stifle); (l) ossification (_anchylosis_) of the joints of the back or loins, which render the animal unable to rear or mount; (m) spavins, ringbones, or other painful affections of the hind limbs, the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop short in the act. In the first three of these only (a, b, and c) is there real sterility in the sense of the nondevelopment or imperfect development of the male vivifying element (spermatozoa). In the other examples the secretion may be imperfect in kind and amount, but as copulation is prevented it can not reach and impregnate the ovum. In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to: (a) Imperfect development of the ovary and nonmaturation of ova; (b) cystic or other tumors of the ovary; (c) fatty degeneration of the ovary in very obese, pampered mares; (d) fatty degeneration of the excretory tubes of the ovaries (Fallopian tubes); (e) catarrh of the womb, with mucopurulent discharge; (f) irritable condition of the womb, with profuse secretion, straining, and ejection of the semen; (g) nervous irritability, leading to the same expulsion of the male element; (h) high condition (plethora), with profuse secretion and excitement; (i) low condition, with imperfect maturation of the ova and lack of sexual desire; (j) poor feeding, overwork, and chronic debilitating diseases, as leading to the condition just named; (k) closure of the neck of the womb, temporarily by spasm or permanently by inflammation and induration; (l) closure of the entrance to the vagina through imperforate hymen, a rare, though not unknown, condition in the mare; (m) acquired indisposition to breed, seen in old, hard-worked mares which are first put to the stallion when aged; (n) change of climate has repeatedly been followed by barrenness; (o) hybridity, which in male and female alike usually entails sterility. _Treatment._--The treatment of the majority of these conditions will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is only necessary here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be specially referred to in this place. Stallions with undescended testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes be remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodin ointment daily for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the system by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration is best met by an albuminoid diet (wheat bran, cottonseed meal, rape cake) and constant, well-regulated work. Saccharine, starchy, and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable ovary should be removed, to do away with the resulting excitability of the remainder of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent straining and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be corrected by a restricted diet and full but well-regulated work. Even fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice of the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The perspiration in such case, like the action of a purgative or the abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the blood vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and elsewhere, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss of semen. If these means are ineffectual, a full dose of camphor (2 drams) or of salicin may at times assist. Low condition and anemia demand just the opposite kind of treatment--rich, nourishing, albuminoid feed, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal grooming, and supporting treatment generally are here in order. Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is common and is easily remedied in the mare by dilatation with the fingers. The hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time, until the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the open cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, laceration, or other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the retention of the semen and consequently with impregnation. If the neck of the womb is rigid and unyielding from the induration which follows inflammation--a rare condition in the mare, though common in the cow--more force will be requisite, and it may even be needful to incise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more opposite directions prior to forcible dilatation. The incision may be made with a probe-pointed knife, and should be done by a professional man if possible. The subsequent dilatation may be best effected by the slow expansion of sponge or seaweed tents inserted into the narrow canal. In such cases it is best to let the wounds of the neck heal before putting to horse. An imperforate hymen may be freely incised in a crucial manner until the passage will admit the human hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this purpose, and after the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or only after the wounds have healed. PREGNANCY. INDICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure pregnancy, it is important that the result should be determined to save the mare from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication when actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when she is not. The cessation and nonrecurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing) are most significant, though not an infallible, sign of conception. If the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very exceptional cases a mare, though pregnant, will accept a second or third service after weeks or months, and some mares will refuse the horse persistently, though conception has not taken place, and this in spite of warm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feeding. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most liable to take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less significant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may be usually accepted as proof of conception. An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previously irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the excitement having been satisfied. An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, indeed, and of fatigue early and easily induced, when preceded by service, will usually imply conception. Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with slight falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are significant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive sign, even though it appears only at intervals during gestation. A steady increase in weight (1-1/2 pounds daily) about the fourth or fifth month is a useful indication of pregnancy. So is a swollen and red or bluish-red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane. From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal may be felt by the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the left stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink of cold water or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often stimulate the fetus to movements that may be seen by the eye, but an excess of iced water may prove injurious, even to the causing of abortion. Cold water dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the fetus and is equally provocative of abortion. Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the rectum is still more satisfactory, and, if cautiously conducted, no more dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand carried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a single rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of the womb). In the pregnant mare not only the body of the womb is enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on compression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, floating in a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this method the presence of the fetus may be determined as early as the third month. If the complete, natural outline of the virgin womb can not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an inclined plane, with her hind parts lowest, and two assistants, standing on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the abdomen by a sheet passed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle may detect the beating of the fetal heart (one hundred and twenty-five a minute) and a blowing sound (the uterine sough), much less rapid and corresponding to the number of the pulse of the dam. It is heard most satisfactorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the absence of active rumbling of the bowels of the dam. DURATION OF PREGNANCY. Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first pregnancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of male offspring. HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT MARE. The pregnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, particularly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is beneficial to both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate work the breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take exercise at will. The feed should be liberal, but not fattening--oats, bran, sound hay, and other feeds rich in the principles which form flesh and bone being especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly growing grasses and other green feed, partially ripe rye grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, peas, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is overripe, fibrous, innutritious hay, or that which has been injured and rendered musty by wet, or that which is infested with smut or ergot. Feed that tends to costiveness should be avoided. Water given often, and at a temperature considerable above freezing, will avoid the dangers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen feed is objectionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines that act violently on the womb, bowels, or kidneys are to be avoided as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected, if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets, seconded by exercise, and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other equally bland agent. The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow, so as to cramp her when lying down or to entail violent effort in getting up, and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers protrusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be avoided, for though most mares are not affected thereby, yet a certain number are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities and distortions are entailed on the offspring; hence, there is wisdom shown in banishing particolored or objectionably tinted animals, and those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too, the importance of preventing prolonged, acute suffering by the pregnant mare, as certain troubles of the eyes, feet, and joints in the foals have been clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on corresponding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to reproduce their individual defects which predispose to disease, but the dam is far more liable to perpetuate the evil in her progeny which was carried while she was individually enduring severe suffering caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ringbone, causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the inflammation and lameness have both passed, and an active ophthalmia is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all active diseases in the breeding mare should be soothed and abated as early as possible. EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION. It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fetus developed elsewhere than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which the sperm of the male, making its way through the womb and Fallopian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually increasing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. The arrest of the ovum may be in the substance of the ovary itself (ovarian pregnancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached to any part of the serous membrane and draw its nourishment directly from that (abdominal pregnancy). In all such cases there is an increase and enlargement of the capillary blood vessels at the point to which the embryo has attached itself so as to furnish the needful nutriment for the growing offspring. All appreciable symptoms are absent, unless from the death of the fetus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder and indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the natural time for parturition, they are the more significant. There may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, accelerated pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural, unimpregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Further exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb, in the interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid body of the fetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move, the evidence is even more perfect. The fetus may die and be carried for years, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the bones, or by pressure it may form a fistulous opening through the abdominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In the latter cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part to water 50 parts. This may be repeated daily. When there is no spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as the danger from the retention of the fetus is less than that from septic fermentation in the enormous fetal sac when that has been opened to the air. MOLES, OR ANIDIAN MONSTERS. These are evidently products of conception, in which the impregnated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a chaotic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriveled and wasted. They are usually accompanied with a well-developed fetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has undergone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the ordinary process of parturition, and usually at the same time with the normally developed offspring. CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE WALLS OF THE WOMB, OR VESICULAR MOLE. This condition appears to be attributable to hypertrophy (enlargement) of the villi on the inner surface of the womb, which become greatly increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts, or pouches, containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they appear to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind, which had produced active labor pains, quieted the disorder with anodynes and effected a recovery. When this can not be done, attempts may be made to remove the mass with the écraseur or otherwise, following it up with antiseptic injections, as advised under the last heading. DROPSY OF THE WOMB. This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb, but has been frequently observed as the result of infection after sexual congress, and has, therefore, been confounded with pregnancy. The symptoms are those of pregnancy, but without any movements of the fetus and without the detection of any solid body in the womb when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of four or eight months there are signs of parturition or of frequent straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear and watery, or muddy, thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into the womb can detect neither fetus nor fetal membrane. If the neck of the womb closes, the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even a third, if no means are taken to disinfect it or to correct the tendency. The best resort is to remove any diseased product that may be found attached to the walls of the womb and to inject it daily with a warm solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chlorid of zinc one-half dram, water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics (gentian 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily) should be given, and a nutritious, easily digested, and slightly laxative diet allowed. DROPSY OF THE AMNION. This differs from simple dropsy of the womb in that the fluid collects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection can occur only in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb occurs in the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant mare contains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red globules, and when this condition is still further aggravated by poor feeding and other unhygienic conditions there is developed the tendency to liquid transudation from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery condition of the blood increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of the amnion is a disease of the last four or five months of gestation. The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates under pressure, though the solid body of the fetus can still be felt to strike against the hand pressed into the swelling. If the hand is introduced into the vagina, the womb is found to be tense and round, with the projecting rounded neck effaced, while the hand in the rectum will detect the rounded, swollen mass of the womb so firm and tense that the body of the fetus can not be felt within it. The mare moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in supporting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appetite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, difficult breathing, and colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, laborious parturition may occur at the usual time. _Treatment_ consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by puncturing the fetal membrane with a cannula and trocar introduced through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trocar so as to leave the cannula in situ, or the membranes may be punctured with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may bring on abortion, or the womb may close and gestation continue to the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract further excessive effusion. DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN. The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perineum), and beneath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and pit on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or less perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In obstinate cases rubbing with the following liniment may be resorted to: Compound tincture of iodin, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram; water, 10 ounces. It does not last more than a day or two after parturition. CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves and blood vessels of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps of the hind limbs. The limb is raised without flexing the joints, the front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or, the spasms occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the ground several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to be firm and rigid. The cramp may be promptly relieved by active rubbing or by walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after parturition. CONSTIPATION. This may result from compression by gravid womb, and is best corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flaxseed. PARALYSIS. The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis of the hind limbs or of the nerve of sight. These are obstinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or under a course of nux vomica and (local) stimulating liniments. PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS (FOAL). Though far less frequently than in the case of the cow, parturition may not be completed at term, and the mare, to her serious and even fatal injury, may carry the foal in the womb for a number of months. Hamon records one case in which the mare died after carrying the fetus for 17 months, and Caillier a similar result after it had been carried 22 months. In these cases the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by Gohier the bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent matter. _Cause._--The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of parturition, such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly strong (inflammatory) adhesions between the womb and the fetal membranes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from fracture or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the neck of the womb. The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the death of the foal; hence the latter has been born alive at the four hundredth day. Even when the foal has perished putrefaction does not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the mare usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms subside. The mare usually refuses the male, yet there are exceptions to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefying changes in its contents have set in, the mare loses appetite and condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and she finally dies of exhaustion. The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the fetus and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscillating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see "Difficult parturition"), and delivery effected. After removal of the membranes wash out the womb first with tepid water and then with a solution of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left, these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily) will be highly beneficial in restoring health and vigor. ABORTION. Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live, it is premature parturition, and in the mare this may occur as early as the tenth month (three hundredth day). The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very profoundly disturbs the system; hence, very violent inflammations of important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reckless use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the feed, or a simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indigestion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence of stone in the kidneys, uterus, bladder, or urethra may induce so much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation, service by the stallion may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdomen, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she is soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are prolific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical operation, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdominal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscarriage, as may exposure to a cold rainstorm or a very cold night after a warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark, ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted or indigestible feed, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in opposite ways caused abortion, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of exercise strongly conduce to it. The exhaustion of the sire by too frequent service, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact appears only by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot of blood may be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals the rudiments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in gestation, there will be some general disturbance, loss of appetite, neighing, and straining, and the small body of the fetus is expelled, enveloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb. There is the swelling of the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail, moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the fetus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear with renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of the placenta, and leucorrhea. The most important object in an impending abortion is to recognize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut short and prevented. Any general, indefinable illness in a pregnant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards swelling, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus secretion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such indication, with colicky pains, straining, however little, and active movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive symptoms and should be duly counteracted. The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody condition of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and the examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightly filled with a bloody liquid. _Treatment_ should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. If abortions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the matter of feed, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, violent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful operations, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. When abortion is imminent, the mare should be placed alone in a roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some sedative. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three hours, and even daily if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or _Viburnum prunifolium_ (black haw), 1 ounce, may be given and repeated if necessary to prevent straining. When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in ordinary parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may be necessary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less necessary in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent contagious abortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of antiseptics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially in the matter of pure air and easily digestible feed. The mare should not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after all discharge from the vulva has ceased. INFECTIOUS ABORTION IN MARES. This disease is discussed in the chapter on "Infectious Diseases." PARTURITION. SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. As the period of parturition approaches, the swelling of the udder bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into the hind limbs. For about a week a serous fluid oozes from the teat and concretes as a yellow, waxlike mass around its orifice. About 24 hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish, milky liquid, which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with redness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins may even become depressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anxious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many mares this is not repeated, but they remain down; violent contractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains the water bags appear and burst, followed by the fore feet of the foal, with the nose between the knees, and by a few more throes the fetus is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The whole act may not occupy more than 5 or 10 minutes. This, together with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises, if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes later. NATURAL PRESENTATION. When there is a single foal, the common and desirable presentation is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward the anus, tail, and croup. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) In this way the natural curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony pelvis, and the foal passes with much greater ease than if placed with its back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned upward toward the anus and tail of the mare. (Plate XII, fig. 2.) In this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any presentation aside from these two may be said to be abnormal and will be considered under "Difficult parturition." PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. These may be brought on by, any violent exertion, use under the saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Excessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that irritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, paris green, all caustic salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally injurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action of the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor pains prematurely. Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous discharge, less filling of the udder, and fewer appearances of wax and probably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand introduced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but with its projecting papillæ, through which it is perforated, not yet flattened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are, indeed, those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of gestation as is compatible with the survival of the offspring. _Treatment._--The treatment consists in the separation of the mare, in a quiet, dark, secluded place, from all other animals, and the free use of antispasmodics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every two hours, or laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, will often suffice. When the more urgent symptoms have subsided these doses may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until the passages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition. _Viburnum prunifolium_ (black haw), in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any necessary assistance furnished. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the passages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a similar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from narrowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the passages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the fetus, or from the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. Prompt as is the normal parturition in the mare, however, difficult and delayed parturitions are surrounded by special dangers and require unusual precautions and skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, penetrating wounds of the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb the arm of the assistant and to endanger penetrating wounds of the genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal membranes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturition. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of parturient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has been turned back when it should have been presented. When assistance must be rendered, the operator should don a thick woolen undershirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against septic infection and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn together like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be turned with head downhill and hind parts raised as much as possible. The contents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented (head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before it is pushed back to search for the other missing parts. Even if a missing part is reached, no attempt should be made to bring it up during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the pains and allow the operator to secure and bring up the missing member. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal proportions) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the missing members may be replaced. If the waters have been discharged and the mucus dried up, the genital passages and body of the fetus should be lubricated with lard or oil before any attempt at extraction is made. When the missing member has been brought up into position and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a mare is inclined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the operator. DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROW PELVIS.--A disproportion between the fetus got by a large stallion and the pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy. FRACTURED HIP BONES.--More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrowing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XIII, fig. 2.) Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two conditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the backbone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the passage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge forward. In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to use her for work only. If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly introducing the oiled finger through the neck of the womb and following this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been introduced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily. TUMORS IN THE VAGINA AND PELVIS.--Tumors of various kinds may form in the vagina or elsewhere within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pigment tumors (melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most liable to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will protrude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. If a tumor is small it may only retard and not absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it, but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruction is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines. If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed by the écraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradually tightened until that is torn through. HERNIA OF THE WOMB.--The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin hanging toward the ground is described by all veterinary obstetricians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus can be felt through the walls of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may start from an umbilical hernia. When the period of parturition arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manipulation in effecting the return. Even after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed to produce delivery. TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB.--This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward (quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turning in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of continued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appearing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner surface. The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow may be equally effective in the mare. The dam is placed (with her head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed, it may be repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decomposition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detachment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb; and as the mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be concluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the former subject. When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily introduced, the instrument shown in Plate XIV, figure 7, may be used. Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instrument; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the twist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if necessary, by rolling the mare as described above. EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAL WALLS.--This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as 10 days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, if necessary, during parturition. CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER.--The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should be extracted with forceps. (See "Lithotomy.") The large papillary tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been invariably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed. FECAL IMPACTION OF THE RECTUM.--In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure upon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor pains. The rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the condition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or well-soaped hand. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB.--This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or two fingers; this, although the projection at the mouth of the womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening is left, with rigid margins. The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, rupturing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extraction, as advised under "Prolonged retention of the fetus." Another mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid rubber bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm water. FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB.--These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen and compress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they may extend from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can be reached only by incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embryotomy and extract the fetus piecemeal, and (2) to make an incision into the abdomen and extract by the Cæsarean operation, or simply to cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by the usual channel. FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OF VAGINA OR VULVA.--This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the remainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The presentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of successive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chlorid to 1,000 parts of water. FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB.--In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the womb and implicating the fetal membranes the resulting embryonic tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between the womb and fetal membranes; the blood vessels of the one communicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted with hope of success. EXCESSIVE SIZE OF FETUS.--It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a large stallion, yet this is not always the case; and when the small size is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the offspring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show them even prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the very young or in the dwarfed female there are two alternatives--to induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING.--In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around a member of the fetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the latter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily delivered. WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OF THE FOAL.--This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a great, projecting, rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes upward. (See Plate XIII, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress, as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same time with the fore arms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and pressing in the thin, bony walls. With a posterior presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punctured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presentation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward, and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it as above suggested. [Illustration: PLATE XII. NORMAL PRESENTATIONS.] [Illustration: PLATE XIII. SOME FACTORS IN DIFFICULT LABOR.] [Illustration: PLATE XIV. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR.] ASCITES, OR DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL.--The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as completely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail to effect a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of the foal, will detect the enormous distension of the abdomen and its soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest and diaphragm, or with a knife an incision may be made between the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presentation the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the flank or between the hind limbs. It should be added that moderate dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the advanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the pelvis and passed out where it can expand. GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS.--In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More commonly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted whole, and resort must be had to embryotomy. EMPHYSEMA, OR SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS.--This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have met with it only in the dead and decomposing foal after futile efforts had been made for several days to effect delivery. These cases are very difficult, as the foal is inflated to such extent that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The hair comes off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving a valuable mare that had carried a colt in this condition for four days. CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES.--The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of persistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are contracted so that the latter are strongly bent at the knee. In neither of these cases can the distorted part be extended and straightened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may sometimes be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to which it is turned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, the next resort is embryotomy. INCLOSED OVUM, OR TUMORS OF THE FETUS.--Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undeveloped ovum which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy. MONSTROSITIES.--Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturition, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redundancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided into-- (1) Monsters with absence of parts--absence of head, limb, or other organ. (2) Monsters with some part abnormally small--dwarfed head, limb, trunk, etc. (3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts--cleft head, trunk, limbs, etc. (4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions--absence of mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc. (5) Monsters through fusion of parts--one central eye, one nasal opening, etc. (6) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts--curved spine, face, limb, etc. (7) Monsters through excess of formation--enormous head, supernumerary digits, etc. (8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs--hermaphrodites. (9) Double monsters--double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, etc. _Causes._--The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. Some monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmetrical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sexual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from accidental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and having developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts the extra part or member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off. In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this factor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other by corresponding points, navel to navel, breast to breast, back to back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise breaking up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement, mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a similar way, acting probably through the same channels. The monstrous forms liable to interfere with parturition are such as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented double; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one fetus has become inclosed in or attached to another, etc. Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and obtaining such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the side of a twisted neck or body; one or more of the manipulations necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required. In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Cæsarean section, by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a monster. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE.--Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recognized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal, they would be turned in the same direction. Once recognized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a running noose round each foot of the foal that is furthest advanced or that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one fetus is fully engaged into the passage it will hold its place and its delivery will proceed in the natural way. ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS. (Pls. XV-XVIII.) Abnormal presentations may be tabulated as follows: { {Incompletely extended. { { Flexor tendons shortened. {Fore limbs {Crossed over the neck. { {Bent back at the knee. { {Bent back from the shoulder. Anterior presentations: { { {Bent downward on the neck. { {Head and neck turned back { { beneath the breast. {Head {Turned to one side. { {Turned upward and backward { { on the back. { {Hind limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. { {Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. { {Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. {Hind limbs {Bent on itself at the hock. Posterior presentations { {Bent at the hip. { {Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. { {Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. {With back and loins presented. Transverse presentation of body {With breast and belly presented. FORE LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED.--In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the fore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. Relief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running noose is passed around each fetlock and a repeller (see Plate XIV) planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the shortening is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XIII, fig. 4.) FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER BACK OF NECK.--With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XV, fig. 2.) The hand introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may bruise and lacerate the vagina. By seizing the limb above the fetlock it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when parturition will proceed normally. FORE LIMB BENT AT KNEE.--The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee of the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XV, fig. 1.) First place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb. FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM SHOULDERS.--In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate XV, fig 4.) By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, they may be drawn forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed back by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN FORE LIMBS.--This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can be felt far back between the fore limbs, or so that only the upper border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assistants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes the natural position and parturition is easy. When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters, and firmly contracted on its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts elevated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be attempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repulsion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can be straightened out on the neck. All means failing; it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs (embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head. If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected with the posterior presentation. HEAD TURNED ON SHOULDERS.--In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along the fore arms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. (Plate XVIII, fig. 1.) To bring the head forward it may be desirable to lay the mare on the side opposite to that to which the head is turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller forward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into the passage, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the aid of a curved carrier (Plate XIV), and traction may be made upon this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be resorted to, as advised under the last heading. HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON BACK.--This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate XVIII, fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. HIND FEET ENGAGED IN PELVIS.--In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis (Plate XVII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introducing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope carrier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see "Embryotomy"); then nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the remaining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation. ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE.--The diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the narrow diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impossible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a movement of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes natural. BACK OF FOAL TURNED TO FLOOR OF PELVIS.--In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturition, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her back. In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore limbs, after which extraction will usually be easy. [Illustration: PLATE XV. ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS.] [Illustration: PLATE XVI. ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS.] [Illustration: PLATE XVII. ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS.] [Illustration: PLATE XVIII. ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS.] HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK.--In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by reason of their bulk. (Plate XV, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up into the passages. To this the great length of the shank and pastern in the foal is a serious obstacle, and in all cases the foot should be protected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the brim of the pelvis; otherwise the womb may be torn. When the pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation, some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphin and by turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open: First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM HIP.--This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last described. (Plate XVII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accomplished, nooses are placed on the limb further and further down until the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort. HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR DOWNWARD.--These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and are to be managed in the same way. PRESENTATION OF THE BACK.--This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into the womb. (Plate XVI, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be extended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above or below. In any such position the object should be to push the body of the fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the use of a propeller. PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN.--This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate XVI, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet with nooses and then push the fore feet forward into the womb. As soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it proves difficult to push the fore limbs back, a noose may be passed around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed back. EMBRYOTOMY. Embryotomy consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adoption have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or both, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest operations in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by the skilled anatomist. AMPUTATION OF THE HEAD.--This is easy when both fore limbs are turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more difficult when the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebra (neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indicate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle, the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connections. In the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck must be removed with the head. When the head has been detached, a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have been brought up into position. AMPUTATION OF THE HIND LIMB.--This may be required when there are extra hind limbs or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that for removal of a fore limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge. Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments of the joint (pubofemoral and round), and extract the limb by strong dragging. AMPUTATION OF THE FORE LIMBS.--This may usually be begun on the fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XIII, fig. 4.) Another form has the blade inserted in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly entirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side, and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breastbone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, or by a blunt, iron spud, pushed up inside the hide, which is meanwhile held tense to render the spud effective. In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. In case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint and disarticulating it, then dissecting the muscles back from the upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting structures were cut with the knife. Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut; then with cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them; then remove the intestines; finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward beneath it. Reuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along with them the hind limbs. The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means of traction and delivery is effected. In case of a monstrosity with extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage and utilize them for traction. _Removal of the abdominal viscera._--In case the belly is unduly large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful to lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. _Removal of the thoracic viscera._--To diminish the bulk of the chest it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free ends overlapping each other. _Dissection of the trunk._--In case it becomes necessary to remove other portions of the trunk, we should follow the general rule of preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to protect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such part is passing. FLOODING, OR BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with eversion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or laceration. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb, the condition may be suspected only by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness, swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand introduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident. _Treatment_ consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giving a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the womb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the walls generally. EVERSION OF THE WOMB. If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after-pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs. The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruction to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india-rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a strong protective covering for the now delicate, friable organ, through which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still remain inverted within another portion. Should any such partial inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual mechanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva. The simplest is made with two 1-inch ropes, each about 18 feet long, each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate XIV, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound around each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends, belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the collar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxative or binding diet. In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2 ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform. RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB. This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through the opening and their fatal injury by the mare's feet or otherwise, and peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, but unless in eversion of the womb this is practically impossible. In the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately sewed up before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half ounce, or carbolic acid, 3 drams to a quart of tepid water). If inflammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium (one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily. RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA. These are attended with dangers similar to those belonging to rupture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red, pyriform mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice with the vulva. Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not attained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. BLOOD CLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. (See "Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls," p. 190.) LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOWING PARTURITION. This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it frequently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM. These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposition of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is likely to occur. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring coat, small, rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, loss of appetite, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge from the vulva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and later it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially characteristic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish mucopurulent discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning. _Treatment._--In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caoutchouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is fitted. Warm water should be passed until it comes away clear. To insure that all the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed, the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solution 1 dram permanganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, 2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid, twice daily. Fomentation of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, twice or thrice a day, or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indicates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinin may be resorted to. LEUCORRHEA. This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a continued, subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific, gonorrheal discharge. _Treatment_ may consist in the internal use of tonics (sulphate of iron, 3 drams, daily) and the washing out of the womb, as described under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection (carbolic acid, 2 teaspoonfuls; tannic acid, 1/2 dram; water, 1 quart). This may be given two or three times a day. DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER. This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both of the glands becomes enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish, serous fluid, which at times becomes fetid; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in abscess, induration, or gangrene, and, in some cases, may lay the foundation for a tumor of the gland. _Treatment._--The treatment is simple so long as there is only congestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil, or, better, camphorated oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the camphorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Barbados aloes) will be of service in reducing fever, and one-half ounce saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat. In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully injected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer. (Plate XIV, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctuates must be opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodin ointment 1 part, vaseline 6 parts. TUMORS OF THE UDDER. As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seriously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swellings do not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodin, the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often implicated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred. SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are subject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irritation, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome. The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and sulphate of zinc 5 grains. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. (Pl. XIX.) The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a communication between the centers and the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebrospinal system; second, the sympathetic or ganglionic system. Each is possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. In the first, the center is made up of two portions--one large and expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elongated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this system consists of the cerebrospinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmetrical pairs and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia, connected by nerve cords, which extends on each side of the spine from the head to the rump. The nerves of this system are distributed to the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the junctions. Two substances, distinguishable by their color, namely, the white or medullary and the gray or cortical substance, enter into the formation of nervous matter. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct forms--nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus and serve to place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath--the neurilemma. Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves do not retract. Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve. Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them; they retain their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory, or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that portion of the cerebrospinal axis within the cranium, which may be divided into four parts--the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum--and it is covered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, having between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebrospinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adherent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large in the horse: it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part joining the cord. The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cerebrum. The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter in the center. The cerebellum has the function of co-ordinating movements; that is, of so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbances of the equilibrium but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence. The cerebrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular, flattened base, and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and willing possible. After they are destroyed the organism comes to be like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebrospinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two lateral, symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of nerve trunks--cauda equinæ. A transverse section of the cord reveals that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter internally. The spinal cord does not fill the whole spinal canal. The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the membranes of the cord, and the cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each by two roots, a superior or sensory, and an inferior or motor. The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special names, according to their functions or the parts to which they are distributed, viz: 1. Olfactory. 2. Optic. 3. Oculo-motor. 4. Pathetic. 5. Trifacial. 6. Abducens. 7. Facial. 8. Auditory. 9. Glossopharyngeal. 10. Pneumogastric. 11. Spinal accessory. 12. Hypoglossal. Inflammation of the Brain and its Membranes (Encephalitis, Meningitis, Cerebritis). Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the cranium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflammation, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate inflammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflammation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses--the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain--without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflammation invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly called encephalitis; when the membranes alone are affected it is called meningitis, or the brain substance alone cerebritis. Since all the conditions merge into one another and can scarcely be recognized separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered together. _Causes._--Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, too much nitrogenous feed, direct injuries to the brain, such as concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes as sequelæ to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc. _Symptoms._--The diseases here grouped together are accompanied with a variety of symptoms, almost none of which, however, are associated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate mental excitement, and are followed by symptoms indicating depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condition will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma may supervene. When the membranes are greatly implicated, convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but if the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will be quick and hard; in the latter, soft and depressed, with often a dilatation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The symptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, and the disease approach a fatal termination within 12 hours. In subacute attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improvement may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paralysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by a decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paralysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal becomes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, striking with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, propping himself against the manger or wall, until he falls from inability of muscular control, or from unconsciousness. Occasionally, in his delirium, he may go through a series of automatic movements, such as trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around persistently in a circle. Early and persistent constipation of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; retention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poisoning, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal usually appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws his head up or shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encephalitis may effect an animal for ten days or two weeks without much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If improvement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order to that in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exudation into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. Softening and abscess of the brain are terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The character of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the structure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. _Lesions._--On making post-mortem examinations of horses which have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we find an excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period of the disease, it will be found that, in addition to the redness and engorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the membranes of the brain. The quantity of fluid varies in different cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present, and are found attached to the surfaces of the pia mater. In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membranous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found embedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The meningitis may be suppurative. In this case a puslike exudate is found between the membranes covering the brain. In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, surrounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and sometimes we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older or chronic cases the walls of the abscesses are generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor. _Treatment._--In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflammatory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels, the less effusion and smaller number of inflammatory products we have to contend with later. The leading object, then, to be accomplished in the treatment of the first stage of encephalitis, meningitis, or cerebritis, and before a dangerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels and thereby lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only partially successful, and the second stage, with its inflammatory products and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the initial stage of the disease, if there is unnatural excitability or stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this purpose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding the following medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given at one dose: Barbados aloes, 7 drams; calomel, 2 drams; powdered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible. When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of bromid of potash may be dissolved in the drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the action of the purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in 20-drop doses, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. [Illustration: PLATE XIX. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.] If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injection of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed always when there is no excessive perspiration. If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis), we must place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodid of potassium in 2-dram doses should be given three times a day and 1 dram of calomel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened membranes. Tonics, in the form of iodid of iron in 1-dram doses, to which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment) may be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may be given twice a day and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, benefit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predisposed to subsequent attacks. A long time should be allowed to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccessible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diagnosis is largely presumptive. CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS. Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or passive--active when there is an undue accumulation of blood or diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. _Causes._--Active cerebral congestion may be from hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course, and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. Extremely fat animals with short, thick necks are peculiarly subject to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the contrary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplexy. _Symptoms._--Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its manifestation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly and shake its head or stand quietly braced, then stagger, make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, the animal gains relief in a short time, but may remain weak and giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or the disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may be of slow development, manifested by drowsiness, dimness or imperfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensibility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications. _Pathology._--In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded with blood, the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post-mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal throughout the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged congestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and in that case we find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of the brain redder than natural. In cases in which several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found permanently dilated. _Treatment._--The animal should be taken out of harness at once, with prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the circulation. If it is caused by venous obstruction by too tight a collar, the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To revive the animal if it becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber's salt. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodid of potassium will be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. In confirmed cases, treatment is not advisable, as there is considerable danger to the owner should an attack occur in a crowded street. _Prevention._--Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade; regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become excessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION. The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclusively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere. Exhaustion produced by long-continued heat is often the essential factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track undergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat exhaustion. Draft horses which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, and rest in shady places and are exposed for many hours to the direct rays of the sun suffer very frequently from sunstroke. _Symptoms._--Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground unconscious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of the body, and the animal often dies without having recovered consciousness. The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109° F. In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some time prior to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally perspiration is checked, and then the horse becomes weak in its gait, the breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness and death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. _Pathology._--Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often accompanied with effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital functions. In many instances the death may be due to the complete stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also changes in the composition of the blood. _Treatment._--The animal should be placed in shaded surroundings. Under no circumstances is blood-letting permissible in sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water may be used as an enema and should also be showered upon the body of the horse from the hose or otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down to 103° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits of camphor often yields good results. The administration of the stimulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become stronger and slower. In either case, when reaction has occurred, preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during convalescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 3 drams; red cinchona bark, 2 drams; mix and give in feed morning and evening. _Prevention._--In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may be sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ventilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease it should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they want while they are at work during hot weather. An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting causes. APOPLEXY OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. _Causes._--Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the predisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degeneration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel; the exciting cause is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. _Symptoms._--Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensation and motion, profound coma, and stertorous, difficult breathing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon becomes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited, sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extravasated blood; hence these conditions are very variable. In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of temperature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the brain, or sunstroke. _Pathology._--In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually followed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cerebrum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing local paralysis without marked general disturbance the animal may recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may follow, or softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. _Treatment._--Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all stimulating feed. Administer, in the drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the iodid of potassium twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more liable to be harmful than of benefit, and blood-letting in an apoplectic fit is extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to subsequent attacks. For this reason treatment is very unsatisfactory. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. _Causes._--In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arachnoid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. _Symptoms._--Impairment of all the special senses and localized paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. _Treatment._--Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. This is generally caused by falling over backward and striking the poll, or perhaps falling forward on the nose, by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often cause concussion of the brain. _Symptoms._--Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding immediately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal may rally quickly or not for hours; death may occur on the spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold, muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent impairment of some organs remains. _Pathology._--Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. _Treatment._--The first object in treatment will be to establish reaction or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the animal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the possible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleeding, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in inspiration. _Prevention._--Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first few times, should not have their heads checked high, for it frequently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain concussion when they strike the ground. ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. This is a physiological condition in sleep. It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia, ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by a blood clot. _Symptoms._--Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or epileptic fits occur. _Pathology._--The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain substance softened. _Treatment._--Removal of the remote cause when possible. General tonics, nutritious feed, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous excitement. HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN. This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of external and internal hydrocephalus. External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It consists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside the brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied with an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the forehead. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The disease is incurable and usually fatal. Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long-continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are predisposed to this condition. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and from their nature this disease is sometimes known as "dumminess" or "immobility." A horse so afflicted is called a "dummy." Among the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor memory, etc. The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with a wisp of hay protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain. At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so afflicted is said to have "staggers." The outlook for recovery is not good. Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutritious feed easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of small regular doses of Glauber's salt. TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infrequently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more common tumors are the following: Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not very uncommon. Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying loose within the cranium. Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and are slow of development. They are found in one or both of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt. Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal structures of the brain. Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the structure of the cerebellum. Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible. SPASMS, OR CRAMPS. Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonic spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. _Spasm of the glottis._--This is manifested by a strangling respiration; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration; extreme anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. _Spasm of the intestines._--(See "Cramp colic," p. 74.) _Spasm of the neck of the bladder._--This may be due to spinal irritation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by frequent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. _Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps._--Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among horsemen as "thumps." This condition may be distinguished from violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each other. (See "Palpitation of the heart," p. 259.) _Spasm of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb._--This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors--generally in cold weather--or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex are unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change position. This cramp may be of short duration--a few minutes--or it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended backward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. _Treatment of spasms._--An anodyne liniment, composed of chloroform 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles will usually cause relaxation. This may be used when single external muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sulphuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypodermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nervous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of the leg, compulsory movement usually causes relaxation very quickly; therefore the animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden, nervous excitement caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or laudanum given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will certainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it does very quickly. _Convulsions._--Although there is no disease of the nervous system which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irritation of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self-limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory movements, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood, the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitability that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS'S DANCE. Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be from pressure upon a nerve, cerebral or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. Stringhalt is by some termed "chorea." This is manifested by a sudden jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to increase with age. In some the catching up of the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the hip or thigh is seen occasionally, and is termed "shivering" by horsemen. Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. _Treatment._--In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affection, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodid of iron, 1 dram; pulverized nux vomica, 1 dram; pulverized scutellaria (skull-cap), 1 ounce. Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the form of Fowler's solution is often beneficial. If the cause is connected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful. EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS. The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice a year or they may be of frequent recurrence. _Symptoms._--No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue become lacerated between the teeth; the animal foams at the mouth and falls in a spasm. The urine flows involuntarily, and the breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on its feet in a few minutes after the return of consciousness. _Treatment._--Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. After the recovery 1 dram of oxid of zinc may be given in the feed twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic prescribed for chorea. PARALYSIS, OR PALSY. Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation of the motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and the incomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and sensibility are affected; the latter those in which only one or the other is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is designated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis. Causes are much varied. Most of the acute affections of the brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the various forms of palsy. GENERAL PARALYSIS.--This can not take place without producing immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. HEMIPLEGIA (PARALYSIS OF ONE SIDE OR HALF OF THE BODY).--Hemiplegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poisons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflammatory character, it is seldom complete; it may affect only one limb and one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the primary affection. In most cases, however, hemiplegia arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain, or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the paralysis. _Symptoms._--In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the animal fall, powerless to move one side of the body; one side of the lips will be relaxed; the tongue may hang out on one side of the mouth; the tail curved around sideways; an inability to swallow feed or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be entirely lost or only partial; the limbs may be cold and sometimes unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal may recover from the disability. In the more severe, in which there is complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare. PARAPLEGIA (TRANSVERSE PARALYSIS OF THE HIND EXTREMITIES).--Paralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflammation affecting the spinal cord. (See "Spinal meningitis," p. 232, and "Myelitis," p. 233.) It may also be due to a reflex irritation from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion caused by blood poisons, etc. _Symptoms._--When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent. Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail. The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages may cease entirety. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill-conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruising, which have a tendency quickly to weaken the animal and necessitate his destruction. LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA, OR INCOORDINATION OF MOVEMENT.--This is characterized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs. The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement and he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. When this is confined to the hind parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on the base of the brain. LOCAL PARALYSIS.--This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very frequently overlooked in diagnosis. FACIAL PARALYSIS.--This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblongata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. _Symptoms._--A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, inability to grasp the feed, often a slow and weak movement in chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. LARYNGISMUS PARALYTICUS, OR ROARING.--This condition is characterized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertrophied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar condition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, when the recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by plastic exudation. PARALYSIS OF THE RECTUM AND TAIL.--This is generally the result of a blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum and muscles belonging thereto. This fracture would not be suspected were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. INTESTINAL PARALYSIS.--Characterized by persistent constipation; frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sudden checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER.--This usually affects the neck of the bladder, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, etc. PARALYSIS OF THE OPTIC NERVE (AMAUROSIS).--A paralysis of eyesight may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the pupil is dilated to its full extent; the eye looks clear, but does not respond to light. Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from injury to the vasomotor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. TREATMENT FOR PARALYSIS.--In all paralytic affections there may be anesthesia, or impairment of sensibility, in addition to the loss of motion, or there may be hyperesthesia, or increased sensibility, in connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. If hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to secure the animal in such way that he can not suffer serious injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treatment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases in which the cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong, irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemiplegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In, some cases hot-water cloths will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodid of potassium in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be used with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler's solution of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky feed, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should be observed in all cases. SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING THE SPINAL CORD. This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebræ, rheumatism, etc. _Symptoms._--A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convulsive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or paraplegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. _Pathology._--In spinal meningitis we find essentially the same condition as in cerebral meningitis; there is an effusion of serum between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. _Treatment._--Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to be followed later by strong blisters. The fever should be controlled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vascular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease generally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better, some form of paralysis is liable to remain for a long time, and the treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exudative products and a strengthening of the system and stimulation of the nervous functions. To induce absorption, iodid of potassium in 2-dram doses, dissolved in the drinking water, may be given twice a day. To strengthen the system, iodid of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day may be given in the feed. Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of the vertebræ, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. MYELITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal meningitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening abscess or degeneration. _Symptoms._--The attack may begin with a chill or convulsion; the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. _Pathology._--The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others; when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain confined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are degenerated. _Treatment._--Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL CONGESTION. This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, hyperemia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is almost invariably affected also. _Cause._--Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. _Symptoms._--The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and closely resemble the first symptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lowering the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause interference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. _Treatment._--Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture of aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become ameliorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANEMIA. This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vasomotor influence, a result of peripheral irritation of some nerve. Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and increased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal congestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal recovers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. SPINAL COMPRESSION. When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and contraction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an increased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed section, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. _Treatment._--When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflammatory disease, iodid of potassium and general tonics are indicated. When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity, and large clots be formed. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally owing to the compression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia, accompanied with severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second or third day fever is liable to appear, and increased or diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indicates that the spinal cord is compressed. _Treatment._--In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. SPINAL CONCUSSION. This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal hemorrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be treated as heretofore directed. SPINAL TUMORS. Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarcomata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the meninges and the vertebræ, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; aneurisms of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. _Symptoms._--Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow development of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. _Treatment._--General tonics and 1-dram doses of nux vomica may be given; iodid of iron or iodid of potassium in 1-dram doses, three times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. NEURITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or by strangulation in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery. The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infiltration of serum mixed with pus. _Symptoms._--Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. _Treatment._--Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of morphia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below the ligature. NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE. Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval, running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. _Symptoms._--Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more especially after resting a while, and when pressure is made upon the tumor it causes extreme suffering. _Treatment._--Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. INJURIES TO NERVES. These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessarily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treatment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBROSPINAL MENINGITIS. This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United States. Its appearance in America is by no means of recent occurrence, for the malady was reported by Large in 1847, by Michener in 1850, and by Liautard in 1869 as appearing in both sporadic and enzootic form in several of the Eastern States. Since then the disease has occurred periodically in many States in all sections of the country, and has been the subject of numerous investigations and publications by a number of the leading men of the veterinary profession. It is prevalent with more or less severity every year in certain parts of the United States, and during the year 1912 the Bureau of Animal Industry received urgent requests for help from Colorado, Georgia, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Virginia, and West Virginia. While in 1912 the brunt of the disease seemed to fall on Kansas and Nebraska, other States were also seriously afflicted. In previous years, for instance in 1882, as well as in 1897, the horses of southeastern Texas were reported to have died by the thousand, and in the following year the horses of Iowa were said to have "died like rats." However, Kansas seems to have had more than her share of this trouble, as a severe outbreak that extended over almost the entire State occurred in 1891, while in 1902 and again in 1906 the disease recurred with equal severity in various portions of the State. This condition consists in a poisoning and depression of the nervous system from eating or drinking feed or water containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown to be owing to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc., or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contaminated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract the disease when the growth of grass is so profuse that it mats together and the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. In England a similar disease has been called "grass staggers," due to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Pennsylvania it was formerly known by the name of "putrid sore throat" and "choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects which is very prevalent in Virgina, especially along the eastern border, is commonly known by the name of "blind staggers," and in many of the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm-eaten, corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this disease. _Symptoms and lesions._--The symptoms which typify sporadic or epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horses, namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symptoms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inability to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of the muscles and slight cramps may be observed. As a rule, the temperature is not elevated--indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of automatic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the unconscious animal may bruise his head very seriously in his struggles; but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in from 4 to 24 hours from the time the first symptoms become manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the disease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catching. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first becomes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastication, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is no evidence of pain; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be somewhat constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two or three days and then gradual improvement may take place, or the power to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may appear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from 6 to 10 days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death follows, painless and without a struggle. In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious movements. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and recovers. In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether absent and the main symptoms may be difficulty in mastication and swallowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases in which coma remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave in the reverse order to that in which they developed, but local paralysis may remain for some time, rarely persistent. On post-mortem the number of lesions observable to the naked eye is in marked contrast to the severity of the symptoms noted. The pharynx and larynx are inflamed in many cases, and sometimes coated with a yellowish-white glutinous deposit, extending at times over the tongue and occasionally a little way down the trachea. The lungs are normal, except from complications following drenching or recumbence for a long period. The heart is usually normal in appearance, except an occasional cluster of hemorrhagic points on the outer surface, while the blood is dark and firmly coagulated. The lining of the stomach indicates a subacute gastritis, while occasionally an erosion is noted. An edema is observed in the submucosa of such cases. The first few inches of the small intestines likewise may show slight inflammation in certain cases, while in others it is quite severe; otherwise the digestive tract appears normal, excluding the presence of varying numbers of bots, _Strongylus vulgatus_, and a few other nematodes. The liver is congested and swollen in some cases, while it appears normal in others. The spleen is, as a rule, normal, and at times the kidneys are slightly congested. The bladder is often distended with dark-colored urine, and occasionally a marked cystitis has been observed. The adipose tissue throughout the carcass may show a pronounced icteric appearance in certain cases. On removing the bones of the skull the brain appears to be normal macroscopically in a few instances, but in most cases the veins and capillaries of the meninges of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and occasionally the medulla is distinctly dilated and engorged, and in a few cases there are pronounced lesions of a leptomeningitis. An excessive quantity of cerebrospinal fluid is present in most of the cases. On the floor of the lateral ventricles of several brains there was noted a slight softening caused by hemorrhages into the brain substance. There is always an abundance of fluid in the subarachnoid spaces, ventricles, and at the base of the brain, usually of the color of diabetic urine, and containing a limited number of flocculi, but in a few cases it was slightly blood tinged. The spinal cord was not found involved in the few cases examined. _Treatment._--One attack of the disease does not confer immunity. Horses have been observed which have recovered from two attacks, and still others that recovered from the first but died as a result of the second attack. Inasmuch as a natural immunity does not appear after an attack of cerebrospinal meningitis, it might be anticipated that serum of recovered cases would possess neither curative nor prophylactic qualities. Nevertheless, experiments have been made along these lines with serum from recovered cases, but without any positive results. Similar investigations have been conducted by others in Europe with precisely the same results. With the tendency of the disease to produce pathological lesions in the central nervous system, it seems scarcely imaginable that a medicinal remedy will be found to heal these foci, and even when recovery takes place considerable disturbance in the functions, as blindness, partial paralysis, dumbness, etc., is liable to remain. Indeed, when the disease once becomes established in an animal, drugs seem to lose their physiological action. Therefore, with all the previously mentioned facts before us, it is evident that the first principle in the treatment of this disease is prevention, which consists in the exercise of proper care in feeding only clean, well-cured forage and grain and pure water. These measures when faithfully carried out check the development of additional cases of the disease upon the affected premises. While medicinal treatment has proved unsatisfactory in most cases, nevertheless the first indication is to clean out the digestive tract thoroughly, and to accomplish this prompt measures must be used early in the disease. Active and concentrated remedies should be given, preferably subcutaneously or intravenously, owing to the great difficulty in swallowing, even in the early stage. Arecolin in one-half grain doses, subcutaneously, has given as much satisfaction as any other drug. After purging the animal the treatment is mostly symptomatic. Intestinal disinfectants, particularly calomel, salol, and salicylic acid, have been recommended, and mild, antiseptic mouth washes are advisable. Antipyretics are of doubtful value, as better results are obtained, if the temperature is high, by copious cold-water injections. An ice pack applied to the head is beneficial in case of marked psychic disturbance. One-ounce doses of chloral hydrate per rectum should be given if the patient is violent or if muscular spasms are severe. If the temperature becomes subnormal, the animal should be warmly blanketed, and if much weakness is shown this should be combated with stimulants, such as strychnin, camphor, alcohol, atropin, or aromatic spirits of ammonia. Early in the disease urotropin (hexamethylenamin) in doses of 25 grains, dissolved in water and given by the mouth every two hours, appeared to have been responsible for the recovery of some cases of the malady. During convalescence tonic treatment is indicated. _Hygienic measures needful._--Whenever this disease appears in a stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed feed and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of water and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are replaced. A complete change of feed is of the very greatest importance on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and grass. TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs and of all muscles supplied by the cerebrospinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense contractions of convulsive violence. _Causes._--This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in the soil, in manure, and in dust. This germ forms spores at the end of the organism and grows only in the absence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point where it is introduced, but its poison is absorbed and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote from the oxygen of the air. Hence, nail pricks, etc., are especially dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a long time after the wound is healed--three or four months. Horses with a nervous, excitable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more sluggish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. _Symptoms._--The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excitability and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become constipated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggravated until all the muscles are rigid--in a state of tonic spasm--with a continuous tremor running through them; a cold perspiration breaks out on the body; the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils dilated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked; the nervous excitability and rigidity of the muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turning; the haw is turned over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may gradually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely confined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases we have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs perfectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. Tetanus may possibly be confounded with spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. _Prevention._--When a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypodermic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be afforded. This antitoxin should be administered only by a competent veterinarian. _Treatment._--The animal should be placed in a box stall without bedding, as far as possible from other horses. If in a country district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of other animals will not reach it; if the place is moderately dark, it is all the better; in fly time it should be covered with a light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Tetanus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given in very large quantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless. Subcutaneous injections of carbolic acid in glycerin and water (carbolic acid 30 grains, glycerin and water each 1 ounce) appear to be useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice daily. A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes 6 to 8 drams, with which may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be given at once. This is best given in a ball form; if, however, the animal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the animal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes by the rectal injection of the fluid extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swallow liquids, oatmeal gruel and milk should be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach it without special effort; even if drinking is impossible, the laving of the mouth is refreshing. Excellent success frequently may be obtained by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater part of the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the animal almost entire freedom from pain; but it should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of any lasting benefit. Recently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been recommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison. When it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when the animal becomes excited from any cause. RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the result of a bite from a rabid animal--generally a dog or cat. The development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months--very rarely in two weeks. (See also p. 559.) _Symptoms._--The first manifestation of the development of this disease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any near object. Very often the horse will bite his own limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will continually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the bowels become constipated and the animal makes frequent attempts at urination, which is painful, and the urine very dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally, the hind limbs become paralyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions supervene, followed by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. _Treatment._--As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. _Prevention._--When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid animal, immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING. This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to the habitual drinking of water which has been standing in leaden conductors or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from the works, lead in the form of oxid, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on the grass and herbage which the horses ate. _Symptoms._--Lead poisoning produces derangement of the functions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs principally. In whatever system of organs the lead is mostly deposited there we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets out of breath very quickly when compelled to run. Roaring, also, is very frequently a symptom of lead poisoning. When it affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When the deposit is principally in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symptoms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiarly offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. _Treatment._--The administration of 2-dram doses of iodid of potassium three times a day is indicated. This will form iodid of lead in the system, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses and strychnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the supply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works, great care must be given to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc. UREMIA. Uremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albuminuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidneys become impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer eliminated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system and give rise to uremic poisoning. Uremic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of the limbs or abdomen; a peculiar, fetid breath is often noticed; then drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Suddenly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The temperature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the disease becomes complicated with acute, inflammatory disease of the brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. Treatment must be directed to a removal of the cause. ELECTRIC SHOCK. Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becoming a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is possible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasping, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The temperature is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominating symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory depression. _Treatment._--Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may also be useful in arousing the circulation; for this purpose whisky or ammonia water may be used. DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. (Pls. XX and XXI.) The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action. It is cone-shaped, with the base upward; the apex points downward, backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds. In horses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels and held in position below by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is composed of a dense fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space, known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum--a thin translucent liquid--is present constantly. The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side; each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two compartments which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac cavities--the superior, or upper, ones called the auricles; the inferior, or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the outside by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are generally filled with fat. The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and are connected with the great veins--the venæ cavæ and pulmonary veins--through which they receive blood from all parts of the body. The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aperture, the auriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood from the auricles into the ventricles, but preventing a reverse course. The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated by a partition, and are connected with the great arteries--the pulmonary artery and the aorta--by which they send blood to all parts of the body. At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary artery is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo-ventricular valve in the left side is composed of two flaps, hence it is called the bicuspid valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps and is called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles; and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under-surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed--a condition which is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semilunar-shaped valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles contract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its aperture. The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of the valves. The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior venæ cavæ. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, therefore, is double, the pulmonary, or lesser, being performed by the right side, and the systemic, or greater, by the left side. As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse--the dilatation of the arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause occurs; this takes place in regular rhythmical order during health. [Illustration: PLATE XX. INTERIOR OF CHEST SHOWING POSITION OF HEART AND DIAPHRAGM.] [Illustration: PLATE XXI. Heart. Right half, red. Left half, blue. Auricles, at upper end. Ventricles, at lower end. Arteries, red. Veins, blue. 1. Left carotid artery. 2. Left jugular vein. 3. Portal system. 4. Vessels of the liver. 5. Arteries of the stomach. (Cæliac axis). 6. Vessels of the large intestine. 7. Vessels of the small intestine. 8. Artery of left kidney. CIRCULATORY APPARATUS.] The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumogastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves); it is the inhibitory nerve of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When the nerve is cut, the heartbeats increase rapidly, and, in fact, the organ works without control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the holdback, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins, and the aorta, or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to circulate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the venæ cavæ, or systemic veins, the pulmonary artery, contain dark blood, which must be transmitted through the lungs for renovation. The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree. Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of uniform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the speed of the blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the venous trunks. In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis, occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of pressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and breadth. During life they are also contractile, being provided with muscular tissue. When cut across they present, although empty, an open orifice; the veins, on the other hand, collapse. In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, when the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually described as being formed of three coats, named, from the relative positions, external, middle, and internal. This applies to their structure so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous, or tunica intima, is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers--an inner, consisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstriated muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and becoming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia, is composed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely around the vessel. In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary network, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat. The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. The majority of veins are provided with valves; these are folds of the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which supply both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels known as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter is about one three-thousandth of an inch. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so thick that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among horses; the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza, etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment, care, etc. Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive at an appreciation of the true nature and causes so that we may be able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or encouragement for medical treatment. Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is witnessed most frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work, are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Nervous or timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than those of a sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent or sudden change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart. Symptoms which may frequently denote disease of the heart are difficult breathing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to stand work, although the general appearance would indicate strength and ability, etc. MYOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. The heart muscle sometimes becomes inflamed as a complication or result of the existence of general or febrile and of infectious diseases. Severe influenza or infectious pneumonia is not infrequently followed by myocarditis. By extension of inflammation of the endocardium or pericardium the muscle of the heart may become involved. Overexertion or especially hard work continued for a long time may cause this muscle to become inflamed. _Symptoms._--Inflammation of the heart muscle is shown by inability to contract forcibly. This results in a rapid but weak, soft pulse and irregular heart sounds. The pulse may be quite irregular as a result of the irregular, tumultuous action of the heart. There is great general weakness, shortness of breath, and rapid respiratory movements. In some cases, where the muscle is very much softened and weakened, or, perhaps when an abscess forms in the wall of the heart, the course of the disease is very rapid and terminates suddenly from paralysis or rupture of the heart. _Alterations._--The heart muscle has a brownish or yellowish, boiled appearance, and is so brittle that it tears easily. There may be a spotted appearance of the muscle from the intense changes in structure in small areas. These small areas may be due to suppuration, in which case they have the characteristics of small abscesses. This last condition is seen in pyemia (blood poisoning). If the disease is of long duration, the fibrous tissue in the wall of the heart may increase to such an extent as to produce an unnatural hardness of the wall. _Treatment._--In this disease the nutrition and strength of the heart should be kept up as much as possible with good food, good care, and heart tonics and stimulants. The horse should be tempted to eat such foods as he will take; he should be kept in an airy box stall; his legs should be well rubbed as often as necessary to keep them warm and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. Internally the horse may have strychnia, in 2-grain doses twice daily, whisky in 4-ounce doses every two to four hours, digitalis in the form of the tincture in doses of 1 dram every three to six hours. Artificial Carlsbad salts in heaping tablespoonful doses in the feed may be given three times daily for a couple of weeks. Rest is of the greatest importance and should be allowed for a few weeks after recovery seems to be complete. ENDOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEART. Endocarditis frequently occurs as a complication of rheumatism, some of the specific or zymotic fevers, specific poisoning, etc. This is a more frequent disease among horses than is generally known, and often gives rise to symptoms which at first are obscure and unnoticed. In influenza we may find the heart becoming involved in the disease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the heart in the blood stream. In view of the fact that many affections in even remote portions of the body may be traced directly to a primary endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special attention to this disease. Endocarditis may be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute inflammation we find a thickening and a roughened appearance of the endocardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This condition may be followed by a coagulation of fibrin upon the inflamed surface, which adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy-like granular elevations. This may lead to a formation of fibrinous clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease the second or third day. Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form, may not become appreciable for several days after its commencement. It is characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to suspect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which it generally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the valves are much involved. When coagula or vegetations form upon the inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when formation of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these materials may be carried from the cavity of the heart by the blood current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to suddenly plug vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In the great majority of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis, whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms disappear in a week or 10 days, often leaving, however, such changes in the interior lining or valvular structures as to cause impairment in the circulation for a much longer period of time. These changes usually consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But while the effects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible than normal, they usually remain, obstructing the free passage of the blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary changes, which take place slowly at first, but ultimately seriously impair the animal's usefulness. What was but a slight obstruction to the circulation during the first few weeks after the subsidence of the cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much increased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of the heart, constituting hypertrophy of the walls of the ventricles, more particularly of the left, with corresponding fullness of the left auricle and pulmonary veins, thereby producing fullness of the capillaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air cells, difficult or asthmatic breathing--greatly increased in attempts to work--until in a few months many of these cases become entirely disabled for work. Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of the body result from the irregular and deficient circulation. Derangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestion of the kidneys, may also appear. Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion is left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes the beginning of valvular disease. _Symptoms._--Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sudden and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less tumultuously. In the early stages soft-blowing sounds may be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is compelled to trot; very often difficulty in breathing, or shortness of breath, on the slightest exertion develops early in the attack. When the valves are involved in the inflammatory process the visible mucous membranes become either very pale or very dark colored, and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated. When the valves of the right side are affected we may find a regurgitant pulsation in the jugular vein. Occasionally it happens that the heart contracts more frequently than the pulse beats--that is, there may be twice as many contractions of the heart in a minute as there are pulse waves in the arteries. The pulse is always very fast. In some cases we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest wall will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is not disposed to eat or drink much; the surface of the body and legs are cold--rarely excessively hot--and frequently the body of the animal is in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is partial suppression of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue with very little modification for three or four days, sometimes seven days, without any marked changes. If large fibrinous clots form in the heart the change will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless they become loosened and are carried away in the circulation; then apoplexy may result from the plugging of arteries too small to give further transmission. If the animal manifests symptoms of improvement, the changes usually are slow and steady until he feels apparently as well as ever, eats well, and moves freely in his stall or yard. When he is taken out, however, the seeming strength often proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait, the breathing becomes quickened with a double flank movement as in heaves, and all the former symptoms reappear in a modified degree. An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufficiency, cardiac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of the circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where plain symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals affected with influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in which the blood may convey septic matter. Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from pleuritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the chest wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence of the friction sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on percussion. _Treatment._--The objects to be attained by treatment will be to remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease; to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart without weakening it; and, last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase of temperature, with some degree of scantiness of the urine, it may be safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action existing in the cardiac structures, and as long as any evidence of inflammatory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a tendency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent treatment and complete rest. The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary secretion. After the desired impression upon the heart is obtained the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may demand. Tincture of strophanthus, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails. Bleeding, blistering, and stimulating applications to the chest should be avoided. They serve to irritate the animal and can do no possible good. Chlorate of potassium in 2-dram doses may be given in the drinking water every four hours for the first five or six days, and then be superseded by the nitrate of potassium in half-ounce doses for the following week or until the urinary secretion becomes abnormally profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism, 2-dram doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of potassium. To guard against chronic induration of the valves, the iodid of potassium, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the disease and may be repeated two or three times a day for several weeks. When chronic effects remain after the acute stage has passed this drug becomes indispensable. When dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circulation or functional impairment of the kidneys. When there is much weakness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the iodid of iron, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in 5-grain doses twice a day, will give excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated with difficult breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfortable clothing, become necessary, and freedom from work should be allowed for a long time after all symptoms have disappeared. PERICARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. _Causes._--Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Generally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheumatism, pleuritis, etc. _Symptoms._--Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a brief stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful cough, rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a rapid and hard pulse. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is regular in beat; later, when there is much exudation present in the pericardial sac, the heartbeat becomes muffled, and may be of a double or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, corresponding to the frequency of the heartbeat. This is known as a friction sound. Between the second and fourth days this sound may disappear, due to a distension of the pericardium by an exudate or serous effusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the pericardium, percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over the region of the heart, the heartbeats become less perceptible than in health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may become audible. If the effusion becomes absorbed, the friction sound usually recurs for a short time; this friction may often be felt by applying the hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days or recovery may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases the effusion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon the lungs and interference with the circulation become so great that death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, the characteristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis are the friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and, in cases of pericardial effusion, the increased area of dullness over the cardiac region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism, some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination will reveal sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. When pericarditis develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the distinction may not be very clearly definable, neither will many recover. When it results from a wound or broken rib, it almost invariably proves fatal. _Pathology._--Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very serious affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accumulation of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound. In 24 to 48 hours this engorgement is followed by an exudation of sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardial sac, and may ultimately form a union of the opposing surfaces. Generally this adhesion will only be found to occupy a portion of the surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is absorbed, the distinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain perceptible in a varied degree for a long time. When the serous effusion is very great, the pressure exerted upon the heart weakens its action, and may produce death soon; when it is not so great, it may cause dropsies of other portions of the body. When the adhesions of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, they generally lead to increased growth, or hypertrophy, of the heart, with or without dilatation of its cavities; when they are but slight, they may not cause any inconvenience. _Treatment._--In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digitalis may be given in 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse and temperature become reduced. Whisky or carbonate of ammonia may be given regularly as stimulants. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if the legs are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets, to promote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 10 grains of morphin may be given by the mouth once or twice a day; nitrate of potassium, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours; after the third day, iodid of potassium, in 2-dram doses, may be substituted. Cold packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease may give marked relief, or, late in the disease, smart blisters may be applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes chronic, iodid of iron and gentian to support the strength will be indicated, but the iodid of potassium, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping by an expert veterinarian may save the animal. VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocardial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject--the bicuspid or mitral and the aortic or semilunar. The derangement may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of the valves may become covered by the organization of the exudation, thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions may occur or the tendinous cords may be lengthened or shortened, thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of blood. In protected cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be transformed into fibro-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of salts of lime beneath the serous membrance, which may terminate in ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become covered by fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and shrinking of the valves. _Symptoms._--Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; constant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difficulty of breathing when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a fast trot; attacks of vertigo; congestion of the brain; dropsical swelling of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may sometimes be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the chest. Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease. _Treatment._--When the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these symptoms abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endocarditis, the iodid of potassium and general tonics, sometimes stimulants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular structure of the heart. ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IN THE HEART. Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony formations have been observed in some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac walls. Fibrinous coagula and polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a jellylike consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from which they can easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. They probably result from an excess of coagulability of fibrin, which is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. Polypous concretions are firmer than in the preceding, more opaque, of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appearance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed. They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a proper coaptation of the valves, which may produce most serious valvular disease. _Symptoms._--These are frequently uncertain; they may, however, be suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embarrassed with irregular and confused pulsations, great difficulty of breathing, and the usual signs dependent upon the imperfect arterialization of the blood. _Treatment._--Stimulants, whisky, or carbonate of ammonia may be of service. PALPITATION OF THE HEART. This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. It may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. It may occur as a result of indigestion, fright, increased nervousness, sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See "Thumps," p. 225.) _Symptoms._--The heart may act with such violence that each beat may jar the whole body of the animal; very commonly it may be heard at a short distance away from the animal. It can usually be traced very readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to avoid or overcome in the future and thereby obviate subsequent attacks. Rest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digitalis or opium will generally give prompt relief. When it is due to organic impairment of the heart it must be regarded as a symptom, not as a matter of primary specific treatment. SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING. Actual fainting rarely occurs among horses. It may, however, be induced by a rapid and great loss of blood, pain of great intensity, a mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc. _Symptoms._--Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though there may be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated pupil, staggering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rapidly sinking pulse, and dropping to the ground. The pulse is feeble or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscious. This state is uncertain in duration--generally it lasts only a few minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more distinct, and consciousness and muscular strength return. In cases attended with much hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, the fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient occurrence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by the absence of stertorous breathing and lividity of the visible mucous membranes. _Treatment._--Dash cold water on the head; administer a stimulant--4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. Prevent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may immediately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated. HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its muscular substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In valvular disease or valvular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently results as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power. The difficulties with which it is most frequently connected are dilatation and ossification of the valves. It may also occur in connection with atrophied kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an increased determination of blood to the organ or from a latent form of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve one or more. While the wall of a ventricle is thickened, its cavity may retain its normal size (simple hypertrophy) or be dilated (eccentric hypertrophy), or it may be contracted (concentric hypertrophy). Hypertrophy of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle alone increases its length; of the right ventricle alone increases its breadth toward the right side. Hypertrophy with dilatation may affect the chambers of the heart conjointly or separately. This form is by far the most frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. When the entire heart is affected, it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may become three or four times greater than the average heart. _Symptoms._--In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a powerful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of the capillary vessels, which frequently give rise to local inflammation, active hemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the jaw, we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to the hypertrophy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the impulse is not only powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the whole region of the heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are greatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area of dullness, while the impulse is usually much stronger than normal. Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dullness, but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a moderate degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years and be capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon concomitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and becomes useless and incurable. _Treatment._--If the cause can be discovered and is removable, it should be done. The iodid of potassium, in cases of valvular thickening, may be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of time; it may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or more. The tincture of digitalis may be given, in cases where the pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls three times daily. This remedy should not be continued if the pulse becomes irregular. General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoidance of bulky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. DILATATION OF THE HEART. This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart, and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilatation may be mentioned--simple dilatation, where there is normal thickness of the walls, and passive, or attenuated, dilatation, where the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition of substance. _Causes._--Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most frequent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxation of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart walls, serous infiltration from pericarditis, myocarditis, fatty degeneration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all lead to dilatation. _Symptoms._--The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged, a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale or very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slightest excitement. _Treatment._--General tonics, rich feed, and rest. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be limited to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When generally involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and pervading the whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in extreme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies of oil globules. Fatty degeneration is often associated with other morbid conditions of the heart, such as obesity, dilatation, rupture, aneurism, etc. It may be connected with fatty diseases of other organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. When it exists alone its presence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases, excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with arsenic and phosphorus. _Symptoms._--The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other diseases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden death from rupture of the ventricular walls. _Treatment._--Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and timothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drinking water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram doses, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants as they may be indicated. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular walls, etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pressure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture very quickly, though an animal may live for some time when the rent is not very large. WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting disease, overwork, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. Treatment should be directed to support and increase the strength of the animal by tonics, rest, and nutritious feed. Carbonate of ammonia may be given to stimulate the heart's action and to prevent the formation of heart clot. CONGESTION OF THE HEART Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocarditis or as a result of excessive muscular exertion. Symptoms are great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible mucous membranes, great anxiety, frequently accompanied by a general tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually results in death very quickly. CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS. This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after birth, and is due to nonclosure of the foramen ovale, which allows a mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and a general feebleness. Foals thus affected generally live only a few hours after birth. DISEASES OF ARTERIES, OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS. Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a primary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a contusion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery; severe muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the heart, by increasing arterial tension, may result in the production of a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflammation in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, whatever the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the development of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be acute, subacute, or chronic; when the inner coat alone is affected it is known as endarteritis. _Symptoms._--Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along the inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by the inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs, suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we find coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind limbs. _Pathology._--In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, loss of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls; a roughness and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may affect only the outer coat (periarteritis), both the outer and middle coat, or the inner coat alone (endarteritis); and by weakening the respective coats leads to rupture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony, calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result in the condition known as arterio-capillary fibrosis. Chronic endarteritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma. Arteritis may be limited to single trunks or it may affect, more or less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consisting chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down of the degenerated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcerlike openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi are apt to form upon the roughened surface of the inner coat or upon the surface of the erosions. Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon which thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma of the inner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of new tissue in the wall of the affected artery it may encroach upon the capacity of the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. _Treatment._--Carbonate of potassium in 1-dram doses, to be given in 4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours; scalded bran sufficient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest; externally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. ATHEROMA. Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any part of the body; in some instances almost every vessel is diseased, in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its natural strength, and, in consequence of its inability to sustain its accustomed internal pressure, undergoes in many cases dilatation at the seat of disease, constituting aneurism. In an atheromatous vessel, calcareous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and subject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility is destroyed, the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in the vessels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No symptoms are manifested by which we can recognize this condition during life. CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY. This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel it may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however, collateral circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of the aorta has produced death. ANEURISM. Aneurism is usually described as true or false. True aneurism is a dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery by a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. _Symptoms._--If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb it appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it. The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, synchronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor were enlarging under the hand. Aneurisms seated internally may occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the first, little is known during life, for all the symptoms which they produce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The tumor may encroach upon the windpipe and produce difficulty in breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the vena cava or the thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymph. In fact, whatever parts the aneurism may reach or subject to its pressure, may have their functions suspended or disturbed. When the tumor in the chest is large, we generally find much irregularity in the action of the heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There may be a very troublesome cough without any evidence of lung affection. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at the lower part of the neck where it joins the chest. When the aneurism occurs in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable; when it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will reveal it. There is one form of aneurism which is not infrequently overlooked, affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarily induced by a worm--_Strongylus vulgaris_. This worm produces an arteritis, with atheroma, degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, associated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, which appears periodically in a very violent and often persistent type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the anterior mesenteric artery may be suspected. (See p. 92.) _Pathology._--Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it assumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneurism is atheromatous, or calcified; the middle coat may be atrophied. The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dilatation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the wall. Aneurism may become very large; as it increases in size it presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or with layers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is produced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with adjoining organs or by rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find large thrombi within the aneurismal dilatation of the artery, which sometimes plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of this thrombus, or clot, may be washed away and produce embolism of a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colicky symptoms. _Treatment._--The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate the tumor above and below. RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is the primary cause of rupture in the majority of instances. The rupture may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it involves a large vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large cavities permitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be produced by mechanical violence or accident. _Symptoms._--In fatal rupture, associated with profuse bleeding, the animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched, the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait, syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited the symptoms may not become noticeable; if it is near the surface of the body a round or diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the rupture is associated with an external wound, the bleeding artery should be ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be applied by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an artery we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. _Treatment._--When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, large doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contraction of the blood vessels. Tannin and iron are also useful. The animal should be allowed to have as much water as he desires. Afterwards stimulants and nourishing feed are indicated. THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete closure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the obstruction. The coagulum, which is usually fibrinous, is known as a thrombus. The term "embolism" designates an obstruction caused by any body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation; they may result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease or by the retardation of the circulation. These formations may occur during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal system. When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is carried along by the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the capillaries, if not before; when in the veins, it may not be stopped until it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system the capillaries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The formation of thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruction, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becoming detached from their end and by being carried along by the circulation of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagulum becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting suppurative phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those affections characterized by great exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia, purpura hemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever, hemorrhages, etc. These concretions may form suddenly and produce instantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or they may arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and attached to the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and fragments of them (emboli) may be carried away. The small, wartlike excrescences occurring sometimes in endocarditis may occasionally form a foundation on which a thrombi may develop. _Symptoms._--When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side, the return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is impeded, and if death occurs, it is owing to syncope rather than to strangulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration of the lungs and pulmonary apoplexy. When the clot is situated in the left cavities of the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes place either suddenly or at the end of a few hours from coma. _Pathology._--When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may become a question whether it was formed during life or after death. The loose, dark coagula so often found after death are polypi. If the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the muscles of the papillæ and tendinous cords, the deposition has occurred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally the fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to contain a puslike substance. If this softening has extended considerably, an outer shell, or cyst, only may remain. The sources of danger exist not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gangrenous elements with the blood. _Treatment._--The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest, stimulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the fibrinous clots. Alkalis are specially useful for this purpose. Carbonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, and should be continued for a long time in small doses several times a day. In cases of great debility associated with a low grade of fever, stimulants and tonics, and nitro-muriatic acid as an antiseptic, may be beneficial. DISEASES OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS. Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phlebitis the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited portion of a vein; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance; it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart. _Causes._--Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries, an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due to embolism of infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood-letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous phlebitis. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary according to the extent and severity of the inflammation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thickened, and indurated to such a degree as to resemble an artery. A diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the affected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected with acute fever and general functional disturbance. _Pathology._--The disease is only serious when large veins are affected. The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots of blood and lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflammatory process continues, these are converted into pus, which ruptures the vessel and produces a deep abscess; or it may be carried away in the circulation and produce metastatic abscess in the lungs or other remote organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel restored to health. Phlebitis in the course of the veins of the limbs frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for farcy ulcerations. A very common result of phlebitis is an obliteration of the affected portion of the vein, but as collateral circulation is readily established this is seldom of any material inconvenience. _Treatment._--Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a smart blister along the course of the inflamed vessel; early opening of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. When the fever runs high, half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassium may be given in the drinking water, which may be changed in two or three days for 1-dram doses of the iodid of potassium. If the animal becomes debilitated, carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 drams, may be given every six hours. VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX, OR DILATATION OF VEINS. This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruction from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock joint, and may be due to the pressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be observed in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation of the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins, or piles, are occasionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. Varicose veins may ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding tissues, or they may rupture from internal blood pressure and the blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft. _Treatment._--Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele should wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may often be reduced by astringent washes--tea made from white-oak bark or a saturated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. When varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce inconvenience, they may be ligated above and below and thus obliterated. Sometimes absorption may be induced by constant bandages. AIR IN VEINS, OR AIR EMBOLISM. It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely dangerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with the circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger from air embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unless great quantities were forced into a large vein by artificial means. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating diseases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet undiscovered infectious principle. Its gravity does not depend so much upon the amount of blood extravasated as it does upon the disturbance or diminished action of the vasomotor centers. _Symptoms._--This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very markedly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suffocation. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of the nostrils and mouth show more or less dark-red or purple spots. There may be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostrils; the tongue may be swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty-eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the swollen parts, and finally large gangrenous sloughs may form. The temperature is never very high, the pulse is frequent and compressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough is usually present. The urine is scanty and high colored, and when the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the disease, the lungs may become edematous, extravasation may occur in the intestinal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the chest or abdomen; occasionally the brain becomes affected. A few cases run a mild course and recovery may commence in three or four days; generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. In severe cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings the case to a fatal issue. _Pathology._--On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connective tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently we may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving the skin. The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Extensive extravasations of blood may be found embedded between the coats of the intestines, or excessive effusion into the substance of the lungs. _Treatment._--Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from the start. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, fluid extract of red cinchona bark, 2 drams, and tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half a pint of water; thin gruel or milk should be given every four or six hours. But especial care should be exercised to avoid injury by drenching. If the horse has difficulty in getting the head up and swallowing, smaller doses must be given with a small hard-rubber syringe. Sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses may be dissolved in water and given every six hours. Chlorate of potassium, in 2-ounce doses, may be given every eight or twelve hours. Colloidal silver may be administered intravenously in doses of from 5 to 12 grains. Washings with lead and alum water are useful and may be repeated several times each day. If the swellings are very great, they may be incised freely and the resulting wounds should be washed at least twice daily with a warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid or other good antiseptic. Tracheotomy may be necessary. Complications, when they arise, must be treated with proper circumspection. DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. The lymphatic, or absorbent, system is connected with the blood-vascular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic glands, through which the fluids pass to reach the right lymphatic vein and thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous system near the heart. Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the fluid part of the blood transudes to nourish the tissues outside the capillaries; at the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the blood. The fluid, after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the lymph, and acts like a stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of the surplus of this lymph passes into the lymph vessels, which in their commencement can hardly be treated as independent structures, since their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they pass, being nothing more than spaces in the connective tissue until they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph glands. These lymph glands are structures so placed that the lymph flowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a sort of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands are subject to inflammatory diseases in the vicinity of diseased structures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph stream lodges in the glands and produces irritation. LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. Acute inflammation of the lymph glands usually occurs in connection with some inflammatory process in the region from which its lymph is gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may become affected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased or ulcerated teeth, the lymph glands between the branches of the lower jaw almost invariably become affected, which may lead to suppuration or induration. Similar results obtain in other portions of the body; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected; in pharyngitis the postpharyngeal glands lying above the trachea become affected, etc. _Symptoms._--The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflammation is of a milder type, resolution may take place and the swelling recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the gland restored without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in farcy, phlebitis, or septic poisoning. _Treatment._--Fomentation with hot water and the application of camphorated soap liniment or camphorated oil may produce a revulsive action and prevent suppuration. If there is any indication of abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste with hot water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment rubbed in over the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt a free opening must be made for the escape of the contained pus. The wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chlorid of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, three times a day. LYMPHANGITIS. Specific inflammation of the lymphatic structures usually affects the hind legs; very seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature and great general disturbance. _Causes._--Horses of lymphatic or sluggish temperament are predisposed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in such cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood. Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the animal may induce an attack. _Symptoms._--It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lameness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling gradually surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the animal perspires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick, and the temperature may reach 106° F. The bowels early become very constipated and urine scanty. The symptoms usually are on the increase for about two days, then they remain stationary for the same length of time; the fever then abates; the swelling recedes and becomes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally the inguinal lymphatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb becomes denuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of elephantiasis. _Treatment._--The parts should be bathed freely and frequently with water as hot as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar and water, equal parts, to which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassium for each gallon. This should be applied frequently, after the hot water, for the first day. Afterwards the leg may be dried with a woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Internally administer artificial Carlsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three times daily. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment, if instituted early in the attack, very frequently brings about a remarkable change within 24 hours. DISEASES OF THE EYE. BY JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University_. We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse, and hence all diseases and injuries which seriously interfere with vision are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should they prove permanent they invariably depreciate the selling price to a considerable extent. A blind horse is always dangerous in the saddle or in single harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with partially impaired vision, he sees things imperfectly, in a distorted form or in a wrong place, and when he shies or avoids objects which are commonplace or familiar. When we add to this that certain diseases of the eyes, like recurring inflammation (moon blindness), are habitually transmitted from parent to offspring, we can realize still more fully the importance of these maladies. Again, as a mere matter of beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent eye is something which must always add a high value to our equine friends and servants. STRUCTURE OF THE EYE. (Pl. XXII.) THE EYEBALL. A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with our prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essential to the clear understanding of what is to follow. The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous membrane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more delicate, friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood vessels and pigment cells (the choroid), which in its turn is lined by the extremely delicate and sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the retina). The anterior fifth of the globe of the eye bulges forward from what would have been the direct line of the sclerotic, and thus forms a segment of a much smaller sphere than is inclosed by the sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health a perfect translucency, from which it has derived the name of transparent cornea. This transparent coat is composed, in the main, of fibers with lymph interspaces, and it is to the condition of these and their condensation and compression that the translucency is largely due. This may be shown by compressing with the fingers the eye of an ox which has just been killed, when the clear transparent cornea will suddenly become clouded over with a whitish-blue opacity, and this will remain until the compression is interrupted. The interior of the eye contains three transparent media for the refraction of the rays of light on their way from the cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the anterior one (aqueous humor) is liquid, the posterior (vitreous humor) is semisolid, and the intermediate one (crystalline lens) is solid. The space occupied by the aqueous humor corresponds nearly to the portion of the eye covered by the transparent cornea. It is, however, divided into two chambers, anterior and posterior, by the iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the center (the pupil), and which may be looked on as in some sense a projection inward of the vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin at the point where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous with the cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its abundance of blood vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer border of the curtain at its attachment to the sclerotic and choroid, and the other encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The action of the two sets is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers dilating the pupil and exposing the interior of the eye to view, while the circular fibers contract this opening and shut out the rays of light. The form of the pupil in the horse is ovoid, with its longest diameter from side to side, and its upper border is fringed by several minute, black bodies (corpora nigra) projecting forward and serving to some extent the purpose of eyebrows in arresting and absorbing the excess of rays of light which fall upon the eye from above. These pigmentary projections in front of the upper border of the pupil are often mistaken for the products of disease or injury in place of the normal and beneficent protectors of the nerve of sight which they are. Like all other parts, they may become the seat of disease, but so long as they and the iris retain their clear, dark, aspect, without any tints of brown or yellow, they may be held to be healthy. The vitreous or semisolid refracting medium occupies the posterior part of the eye--the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and retina--and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of an egg, and a power of refraction of the light rays correspondingly greater than the aqueous humor. The third or solid refracting medium is a biconvex lens, with its convexity greatest on its posterior surface, which is lodged in a depression in the vitreous humor, while its anterior surface corresponds to the opening of the pupil. It is inclosed in a membranous covering (capsule) and is maintained in position by a membrane (suspensory ligament) which extends from the margin of the lens outward to the sclerotic at the point of junction of the choroid and iris. This ligament is, in its turn, furnished with radiating, muscular fibers, which change the form or position of the lens so as to adapt it to see with equal clearness objects at a distance or close by. Another point which strikes the observer of the horse's eye is that in the darkness a bright, bluish tinge is reflected from the widely dilated pupil. This is owing to a comparative absence of pigment in the choroid coat inside the upper part of the eyeball, and enables the animal to see and advance with security in darkness where the human eye would be of little use. The lower part of the cavity of the horse's eye, into which the dazzling rays fall from the sky, is furnished with an intensely black lining, by which the rays penetrating the inner nervous layer are instantly absorbed. MUSCLES OF THE EYE. These consist of four straight muscles, two oblique, and one retractor. The straight muscles pass from the depth of the orbit forward on the inner, outer, upper, and lower sides of the eyeball, and are fixed to the anterior portion of the fibrous (sclerotic) coat, so that in contracting singly they respectively turn the eye inward, outward, upward, and downward. When all act together they draw the eyeball deeply into its socket. The retractor muscle also consists of four muscular slips, repeating the straight muscles on a smaller scale, but as they are only attached on the back part of the eyeball they are less adapted to roll the eye than to draw it down into its socket. The two oblique muscles rotate the eye on its own axis, the upper one turning its outer surface upward and inward, and the lower one turning it downward and inward. THE HAW (THE WINKING CARTILAGE, OR CARTILAGO NICTITANS). This is a structure which, like the retractor muscle, is not found in the eye of man, but it serves in the lower animals to assist in removing foreign bodies from the front of the eyeball. It consists, in the horse, of a cartilage of irregular form, thickened inferiorly and posteriorly where it is intimately connected with the muscles of the eyeball and the fatty material around them, and expanded and flattened anteriorly where its upper surface is concave, and, as it were, molded on the lower and inner surface of the eyeball. Externally it is covered by the mucous membrane which lines the eyelids and extends over the front of the eye. In the ordinary restful state of the eye the edge of this cartilage should just appear as a thin fold of membrane at the inner angle of the eye, but when the eyeball is drawn deeply into the orbit the cartilage is pushed forward, outward, and upward over it until the entire globe may be hidden from sight. This protrusion of the cartilage so as to cover the eye may be induced in the healthy eye by pressing the finger and thumb on the upper and lower lids, so as to cause retraction of the eyeball into the socket. When foreign bodies, such as sand, dust, and chaff, or other irritants, have fallen on the eyeball or eyelids it is similarly projected to push them off, their expulsion being further favored by a profuse flow of tears. [Illustration: PLATE XXII. DIAGRAMMATIC VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH HORSE'S EYE.] This is seen, to a lesser extent, in all painful inflammations of the eye, and to a very marked degree in lockjaw, when the spasm of the muscles of the eyeball draws the latter deeply into the orbit and projects forward the masses of fat and the cartilage. The brutal practice of cutting off this apparatus whenever it is projected necessitates this explanation, which it is hoped may save to many a faithful servant a most valuable appendage. That the cartilage and membrane may become the seat of disease is undeniable, but so long as its edge is thin and even and its surface smooth and regular the mere fact of its projection over a portion or the whole of the eyeball is no evidence of disease in its substance, nor any warrant for its removal. It is usually but the evidence of the presence of some pain in another part of the eye, which the suffering animal endeavors to assuage by the use of this beneficent provision. For the diseases of the cartilage itself, see "Encephaloid cancer." LACRIMAL APPARATUS. This consists, first, of a gland for the secretion of the tears, and, second, of a series of canals for the conveyance of the superfluous tears into the cavity of the nose. The gland is situated above the outer part of the eyeball, and the tears which have flowed over the eye and reached the inner angle are there directed by a small, conical papilla (lacrimal caruncle) into two minute orifices, and thence by two ducts (lacrimal) to a small pouch (lacrimal sac) from which a canal leads through the bones of the face into the nose. This opens in the lower part of the nose on the floor of the passage and a little outside the line of union of the skin which lines the false nostril with the mucous membrane of the nose. In the ass and mule this opening is situated on the roof instead of the floor of the nose, but still close to the external opening. EXAMINATION OF THE EYE. To avoid unnecessary repetition the following general directions are given for the examination of the eye: The eye, and to a certain extent the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, may be exposed to view by gently parting the eyelids with the thumb and forefinger pressed on the middle of the respective lids. The pressure, it is true, causes the protrusion of the haw over a portion of the lower and inner part of the eye, but by gentleness and careful graduation of the pressure this may be kept within bounds, and oftentimes even the interior of the eye can be seen. As a rule it is best to use the right hand for the left eye, and the left hand for the right, the finger in each case being pressed on the upper lid while the thumb depresses the lower one. In cases in which it is desirable to examine the inner side of the eyelid further than is possible by the above means, the upper lid may be drawn down by the eyelashes with the one hand and then everted over the tip of the forefinger of the other hand, or over a probe laid flat against the middle of the lid. When the interior of the eye must be examined it is useless to make the attempt in the open sunshine or under a clear sky. The worst cases, it is true, can be seen under such circumstances, but for the slighter forms the horse should be taken indoors, where all light from above will be shut off, and should be placed so that the light may fall on the eye from the front and side. Then the observer, placing himself in front of the animal, will receive the reflected rays from the cornea, the front of the lens and the back, and can much more easily detect any cloudiness, opacity, or lack of transparency. The examination can be made much more satisfactory by placing the horse in a dark chamber and illuminating the eye by a lamp placed forward and outward from the eye which is to be examined. Any cloudiness is thus easily detected, and any doubt may be resolved by moving the lamp so that the image of the flame may be passed in succession over the whole surface of the transparent cornea and of the crystalline lens. Three images of the flame will be seen, the larger one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the eye; a smaller one upright, reflected from the anterior surface of the lens; and a second small one inverted from the back surface of the lens. So long as these images are reflected from healthy surfaces they will be clear and perfect in outline, but as soon as one strikes on an area of opacity it will become diffused, cloudy, and indefinite. Thus, if the large, upright image becomes hazy and imperfect over a particular spot of the cornea, that will be found to be the seat of disease and opacity. Should the large image remain clear, but the small upright one become diffuse and indefinite over a given point, it indicates opacity on the front of the capsule of the lens. If both upright images remain clear while the inverted one becomes indistinct at a given point, then the opacity is in the substance of the lens itself or in the posterior part of its capsule. If in a given case the pupil remains so closely contracted that the deeper parts of the eye can not be seen, the eyelids may be rubbed with extract of belladonna, and in a short time the pupil will be found widely dilated. DISEASES OF THE EYELIDS. CONGENITAL DISORDERS. Some faulty conditions of the eyelids are congenital, as division of an eyelid in two, after the manner of harelip, abnormally small opening between the lids, often connected with imperfect development of the eye, and closure of the lids by adhesion. The first is to be remedied by paring the edges of the division and then bringing them together, as in torn lids. The last two, if remediable at all, require separation by the knife, and subsequent treatment with a cooling astringent eyewash. NERVOUS DISORDERS. SPASM OF EYELIDS may be owing to constitutional susceptibility, or to the presence of local irritants (insects, chemical irritants, sand, etc.) in the eye, to wounds or inflammation of the mucous membrane, or to disease of the brain. When due to local irritation it may be temporarily overcome by instilling a few drops of a 4 per cent solution of cocaine into the eye, when the true cause may be ascertained and removed. The nervous or constitutional disease must be treated according to its nature. DROOPING EYELIDS, OR PTOSIS.--This is usually present in the upper lid, or is at least little noticed in the lower. It is sometimes but a symptom of paralysis of one-half of the face, in which case the ear, lips, and nostrils on the same side will be found soft, drooping, and inactive, and even the half of the tongue may partake of the palsy. If the same condition exists on both sides, there is difficult, snuffling breathing, from the air drawing in the flaps of the nostrils in inspiration, and all feed is taken in by the teeth, as the lips are useless. In both there is a free discharge of saliva from the mouth during mastication. This paralysis is a frequent result of injury, by a poke, to the seventh nerve, as it passes over the back of the lower jaw. In some cases the paralysis is confined to the lid, the injury having been sustained by the muscles which raise it, or by the supraorbital nerve, which emerges from the bone just above the eye. Such injury to the nerve may have resulted from fracture of the orbital process of the frontal bone above the eyeball. The condition may, however, be due to spasm of the sphincter muscle, which closes the lids, or to inflammation of the upper lid, usually a result of blows on the orbit. In the latter case it may run a slow course with chronic thickening of the lid. The paralysis due to the poke may be often remedied, first, by the removal of any remaining inflammation by a wet sponge worn beneath the ear and kept in place by a bandage; secondly, when all inflammation has passed, by a blister on the same region, or by rubbing it daily with a mixture of olive oil and strong aqua ammonia in equal proportions. Improvement is usually slow, and it may be months before complete recovery ensues. In paralysis from blows above the eyes the same treatment may be applied to that part. Thickening of the lid may be treated by painting with tincture of iodin, and that failing, by cutting out an elliptical strip of the skin from the middle of the upper lid and stitching the edges together. INFLAMMATION OF THE EYELIDS. The eyelids suffer more or less in all severe inflammations of the eye, whether external or internal, but inasmuch as the disease sometimes starts in the lids and at other times is exclusively confined to them, it deserves independent mention. Among the causes may be named: Exposure to drafts of cold air, or to cold rain or snow storms; the bites or stings of mosquitoes, flies, or other insects; snake bites, pricks with thorns, blows of whip or club; accidental bruises against the stall or ground, especially during the violent struggles of colic, enteritis, phrenitis (staggers), and when thrown for operations. It is also a result of infecting inoculations, as of erysipelas, anthrax, boil, etc., and is noted by Leblanc as especially prevalent among horses kept on low, marshy pastures. Finally, the introduction of sand, dust, chaff, beards of barley and seeds of the finest grasses, and the contact with irritant, chemical powders, liquids, and gases (ammonia from manure or factory, chlorin, strong sulphur fumes, smoke, and other products of combustion, etc.) may start the inflammation. The eyelids often undergo extreme inflammatory and dropsical swelling in urticaria (nettlerash, surfeit) and in the general inflammatory dropsy known as purpura hemorrhagica. The affection will, therefore, readily divide itself into (1) inflammations due to constitutional causes; (2) those due to direct injury, mechanical or chemical; and (3) such as are due to inoculation with infecting material. (1) Inflammations due to constitutional causes are distinguished by the absence of any local wound, and the history of a low, damp pasture, exposure, indigestion from unwholesome feed, or the presence elsewhere on the limbs or body of the general, doughy swellings of purpura hemorrhagica. The lids are swollen and thickened; it may be slightly or it may be so extremely that the eyeball can not be seen. If the lid can be everted to show its mucous membrane, that is seen to be of a deep-red color, especially along the branching lines of the blood vessels. The part is hot and painful, and a profuse flow of tears and mucus escapes on the side of the face, causing irritation and loss of the hair. If improvement follows, this discharge becomes more tenacious, and tends to cause adhesion to the edges of the upper and lower lids and to mat together the eyelashes in bundles. This gradually decreases to the natural amount, and the redness and congested appearance of the eye disappears, but swelling, thickening, and stiffness of the lids may continue for a time. There may be more or less fever according to the violence of the inflammation, but so long as there is no serious disease of the interior of the eye or of other vital organ, it is usually moderate. The local treatment consists in astringent, soothing lotions (sugar of lead 30 grains, laudanum 2 teaspoonfuls, rain water--boiled and cooled--1 pint), applied with a soft cloth kept wet with the lotion, and hung over the eye by tying it to the headstall of the bridle on the two sides. If the mucous membrane lining of the lids is the seat of little red granular elevations, a drop of solution of 2 grains of nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water should be applied with the soft end of a clean feather to the inside of the lid twice a day. The patient should be removed from all such conditions (pasture, faulty feed, exposure, etc.) as may have caused or aggravated the disease, and from dust and irritant fumes and gases. He should be fed from a manger high enough to favor the return of blood from the head, and should be kept from work, especially in a tight collar which would prevent the descent of blood by the jugular veins. The diet should be laxative and nonstimulating (grass, bran mashes, carrots, turnips, beets, potatoes, or steamed hay), and any costiveness should be corrected by a mild dose of raw linseed oil (1 to 1-1/2 pints). In cold weather warm blanketing may be needful, and even loose flannel bandages to the limbs, but heat should never be sought at the expense of pure air. (2) In inflammations due to local irritants of a noninfective kind a careful examination will usually reveal their presence, and the first step must be their removal with a pair of blunt forceps or the point of a lead pencil. Subsequent treatment will be in the main the local treatment advised above. (3) In case of infective inflammation there will often be found a prick or tear by which the septic matter has entered, and in such case the inflammation will for a time be concentrated at that point. A round or conical swelling around an insect bite is especially characteristic. A snake bite is marked by the double prick made by the two teeth and by the violent and rapidly spreading inflammation. Erysipelas is attended with much swelling, extending beyond the lids and causing the mucous membrane to protrude beyond the edge of the eyelid (chemosis). This is characterized by a bright, uniform, rosy red, disappearing on pressure, or later by a dark, livid hue, but with less branching redness than in noninfecting inflammation and less of the dark, dusky, brownish or yellowish tint of anthrax. Little vesicles may appear on the skin, and pus may be found without any distinct limiting membrane, as in abscess. It is early attended with high fever and marked general weakness and inappetence. Anthrax of the lids is marked by a firm swelling, surmounted by a blister, with bloody serous contents, which tends to burst and dry up into a slough, while the surrounding parts become involved in the same way. Or it may show as a diffuse, dropsical swelling, with less of the hard, central sloughing nodule, but, like that, tending to spread quickly. In both cases alike the mucous membrane and the skin, if white, assumes a dusky-brown or yellowish-brown hue, which is largely characteristic. This may pass into a black color by reason of extravasation of blood. Great constitutional disturbance appears early, with much prostration and weakness and generalized anthrax symptoms. _Treatment._--The treatment will vary according to the severity. Insect bites may be touched with a solution of equal parts of glycerin and aqua ammonia, or a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid in water. Snake bites may be bathed with aqua ammonia, and the same agent given in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls in a quart of water, or alcohol may be given in pint or quart doses, according to the size of the animal. In erysipelas the skin may be painted with tincture of chlorid of iron, or with a solution of 20 grains of iodin in an ounce of carbolic acid, and one-half an ounce of tincture of chlorid of iron may be given thrice daily in a bottle of water. In anthrax the swelling should be painted with tincture of iodin, or of the mixture of iodin and carbolic acid, and if very threatening it may have the tincture of iodin injected into the swelling with a hypodermic syringe, or the hard mass may be freely incised to its depth with a sharp lancet and the lotion applied to the exposed tissues. Internally, iodid of potassium may be given in doses of 2 drams thrice a day, or tincture of the chlorid of iron every four hours. STY, OR FURUNCLE (BOIL) OF THE EYELID. This is an inflammation of limited extent, advancing to the formation of matter and the sloughing out of a small mass of the natural tissue of the eyelid. It forms a firm, rounded swelling, usually near the margin of the lid, which suppurates and bursts in four or five days. Its course may be hastened by a poultice of camomile flowers, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, the whole applied in a very thin muslin bag. If the swelling is slow to open after having become yellowish white, it may be opened by a lancet, the incision being made at right angles to the margin of the lid. ENTROPION AND ECTROPION, OR INVERSION AND EVERSION OF THE EYELID. These are respectively caused by wounds, sloughs, ulcers, or other causes of loss of substance of the mucous membrane on the inside of the lid and of the skin on the outside; also of tumors, skin diseases, or paralysis which leads to displacement of the margin of the eyelid. As a rule, they require a surgical operation, with removal of an elliptical portion of the mucous membrane or skin, as the case may be, but which requires the skilled and delicate hand of the surgeon. TRICHIASIS. This consists in the turning in of the eyelashes so as to irritate the front of the eye. If a single eyelash, it may be snipped off with scissors close to the margin of the eyelid or pulled out by the root with a pair of flat-bladed forceps. If the divergent lashes are more numerous, the treatment may be as for entropion, by excising an elliptical portion of skin opposite the offending lashes and stitching the edges together, so as to draw outward the margin of the lid at that point. WARTS AND OTHER TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. The eyelids form a favorite site for tumors, and above all, warts, which consist in a simple diseased overgrowth (hypertrophy) of the surface layers of the skin. If small, they may be snipped off with scissors or tied around the neck with a stout, waxed thread and left to drop off, the destruction being completed, if necessary, by the daily application of a piece of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), until any unhealthy material has been removed. If more widely spread, the wart may still be clipped off with curved scissors or knife, and the caustic thoroughly applied day by day. A bleeding wart, or erectile tumor, is more liable to bleed, and is best removed by constricting its neck with the waxed cord or rubber band, or if too broad it may be transfixed through its base by a needle armed with a double thread, which is then to be cut in two and tied around the two portions of the neck of the tumor. If still broader, the armed needle may be carried through the base of the tumor at regular intervals, so that the whole may be tied in moderately sized sections. In gray and in white horses black, pigmentary tumors (melanotic) are common on the black portions of skin, such as the eyelids, and are to be removed by scissors or knife, according to their size. In the horse they do not usually tend to recur when thoroughly removed, but at times they prove cancerous (as is the rule in man), and then they tend to reappear in the same site or in internal organs with, it may be, fatal effect. Encysted, honeylike (melicerous), sebaceous, and fibrous tumors of the lids all require removal with the knife. TORN EYELIDS OR WOUNDS OF EYELIDS. The eyelids are torn by attacks with horns of cattle, or with the teeth, or by getting caught on nails in stall, rack, or manger, on the point of stumps, fences, or fence rails, on the barbs of wire fences, and on other pointed bodies. The edges should be brought together as promptly as possible, so as to effect union without the formation of matter, puckering of the skin, and unsightly distortions. Great care is necessary to bring the two edges together evenly without twisting or puckering. The simplest mode of holding them together is by a series of sharp pins passed through the lips of the wound at intervals of not more than a third of an inch, and held together by a thread twisted around each pin in the form of the figure 8, and carried obliquely from pin to pin in two directions, so as to prevent gaping of the wound in the intervals. The points of the pins may then be cut off with scissors, and the wound may be wet twice a day with a weak solution of carbolic acid. TUMOR OF THE HAW, OR CARIES OF THE CARTILAGE. Though cruelly excised for alleged "hooks," when itself perfectly healthy, in the various diseases which lead to retraction of the eye into its socket, the haw may, like other bodily structures, be itself the seat of actual disease. The pigmentary, black tumors of white horses and soft (encephaloid) cancer may attack this part primarily or extend to it from the eyeball or eyelids; hairs have been found growing from its surface, and the mucous membrane covering it becomes inflamed in common with that covering the front of the eye. These inflammations are but a phase of the inflammation of the external structures of the eye, and demand no particular notice nor special treatment. The tumors lead to such irregular enlargement and distortion of the haw that the condition is not to be confounded with the simple projection of the healthy structure over the eye when the lids are pushed apart with the finger and thumb, and the same remark applies to the ulceration, or caries, of the cartilage. In the latter case, besides the swelling and distortion of the haw, there is this peculiarity, that in the midst of the red inflamed mass there appears a white line or mass formed by the exposed edge of the ulcerating cartilage. The animal having been thrown and properly fixed, an assistant holds the eyelids apart while the operator seizes the haw with forceps or hook and carefully dissects it out with blunt-pointed scissors. The eye is then covered with a cloth, kept wet with an eyewash, as for external ophthalmia. OBSTRUCTION OF THE LACRIMAL APPARATUS, OR WATERING EYE. The escape of tears on the side of the cheek is a symptom of external inflammation of the eye, but it may also occur from any disease of the lacrimal apparatus which interferes with the normal progress of the tears to the nose; hence, in all cases when this symptom is not attended with special redness or swelling of the eyelids, it is well to examine the lacrimal apparatus. In some instances the orifice of the lacrimal duct on the floor of the nasal chamber and close to its anterior outlet will be found blocked by a portion of dry mucopurulent matter, on the removal of which tears may begin to escape. This implies an inflammation of the canal, which may be helped by occasional sponging out of the nose with warm water, and the application of the same on the face. Another remedy is to feed warm mashes of wheat bran from a nosebag, so that the relaxing effects of the water vapor may be secured. The two lacrimal openings, situated at the inner angle of the eye, may fail to admit the tears by reason of their deviation outward in connection with the eversion of the lower lid or by reason of their constriction in inflammation of the mucous membrane. The lacrimal sac, into which the lacrimal ducts open, may fail to discharge its contents by reason of constriction or closure of the duct leading to the nose, and it then forms a rounded swelling beneath the inner angle of the eye. The duct leading from the sac to the nose may be compressed or obliterated by fractures of the bones of the face, and in disease of these bones (osteosarcoma, so-called osteoporosis, diseased teeth, glanders of the nasal sinuses, abscess of the same cavities). The narrowed or obstructed ducts may be made pervious by a fine, silver probe passed down to the lacrimal sac, and any existing inflammation of the passages may be counteracted by the use of steaming mashes of wheat bran, by fomentations or wet cloths over the face, and even by the use of astringent eyewashes and the injection of similar liquids into the lacrimal canal from its nasal opening. The ordinary eyewash may be used for this purpose, or it may be injected after dilution to half its strength. The fractures and diseases of the bones and teeth must be treated according to their special demands when, if the canal is still left pervious, it may be again rendered useful. EXTERNAL OPHTHALMIA, OR CONJUNCTIVITIS. In inflammation of the outer parts of the eyeball the exposed vascular and sensitive mucous membrane (conjunctiva) which covers the ball, the eyelids, the haw, and the lacrimal apparatus, is usually the most deeply involved, yet adjacent parts are more or less implicated, and when disease is concentrated on these contiguous parts it constitutes a phase of external opththalmia which demands a special notice. These have accordingly been already treated of. _Causes._--The causes of external opththalmia are mainly those that act locally--blows with whips, clubs, and twigs, the presence of foreign bodies, like hayseed, chaff, dust, lime, sand, snuff, pollen of plants, flies attracted by the brilliancy of the eye, wounds of the bridle, the migration of the scabies (mange) insect into the eye, smoke, ammonia arising from the excretions, irritant emanations from drying marshes, etc. Road dust containing infecting microbes is a common factor. A very dry air is alleged to act injuriously by drying the eye as well as by favoring the production of irritant dust; the undue exposure to bright sunshine through a window in front of the stall, or to the reflection from snow or water, also is undoubtedly injurious. The unprotected exposure of the eyes to sunshine through the use of a very short overdraw check is to be condemned, and the keeping of the horse in a very dark stall, from which it is habitually led into the glare of full sunlight, intensified by reflection from snow or white limestone, must be set down among the locally acting causes. Exposure to cold and wet, to wet and snow storms, to cold drafts and wet lairs must also be accepted as causes of conjunctivitis, the general disorder which they produce affecting the eye, if that happens to be the weakest and most susceptible organ of the body, or if it has been subjected to any special local injury, like dust, irritant gases, or excess of light. Again, external opththalmia is a constant concomitant of inflammation of the contiguous and continuous mucous membranes, as those of the nose and throat--hence the red, watery eyes that attend on nasal catarrh, sore throat, influenza, strangles, nasal glanders, and the like. In such cases, however, the affection of the eye is subsidiary and is manifestly overshadowed by the primary and predominating disease. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are watering of the eye, swollen lids, redness of the mucous membrane exposed by the separation of the lids--it may be a mere pink blush with more or less branching redness, or it may be a deep, dark red, as from effusion of blood--and a bluish opacity of the cornea, which is normally clear and translucent. Except when resulting from wounds and actual extravasation of blood, however, the redness is seen to be superficial, and if the opacity is confined to the edges, and does not involve the entire cornea, the aqueous humor behind is seen to be still clear and limpid. The fever is always less severe than in internal ophthalmia, and runs high only in the worst cases. The eyelids may be kept closed, the eyeball retracted, and the haw protruded over one-third or one-half of the ball, but this is due to the pain only and not to any excessive sensibility to light, as shown by the comparatively widely dilated pupil. In internal ophthalmia, on the contrary, the narrow, contracted pupil is the measure of the pain caused by the falling of light on the inflamed and sensitive optic nerve (retina) and choroid. If the affection has resulted from a wound of the cornea, not only is that the point of greatest opacity, forming a white speck or fleecy cloud, but too often blood vessels begin to extend from the adjacent vascular covering of the eye (sclerotic) to the white spot, and that portion of the cornea is rendered permanently opaque. Again, if the wound has been severe, though still short of cutting into the anterior layers of the cornea, the injury may lead to ulceration that may penetrate more or less deeply and leave a breach in the tissue which, if filled up at all, is repaired by opaque fibrous tissue in place of the transparent cellular structure. Pus may form, and the cornea assumes a yellowish tinge and bursts, giving rise to a deep sore which is liable to extend as an ulcer, and may be in its turn followed by bulging of the cornea at that point (staphyloma). This inflammation of the conjunctiva may be simply catarrhal, with profuse mucopurulent discharge; it may be granular, the surface being covered with minute reddish elevations, or it may become the seat of a false membrane (diphtheria). _Treatment._--In treating external ophthalmia the first object is the removal of the cause. Remove any dust, chaff, thorn, or other foreign body from the conjunctiva, purify the stable from all sources of ammoniacal or other irritant gas; keep the horse from dusty roads, and, above all, from the proximity of a leading wagon and its attendant cloud of dust; remove from pasture and feed from a rack which is neither so high as to drop seeds, etc., into the eyes nor so low as to favor the accumulation of blood in the head; avoid equally excess of light from a sunny window in front of the stall and excess of darkness from the absence of windows; preserve from cold drafts and rains and wet bedding, and apply curative measures for inflammation of the adjacent mucous membranes or skin. If the irritant has been of a caustic nature, remove any remnant of it by persistent bathing with tepid water and a soft sponge, or with water mixed with white of egg, or a glass filled with the liquid may be inverted over the eye so that its contents may dilute and remove the irritant. If the suffering is very severe, a lotion with a few grains of extract of belladonna or of morphia in an ounce of water may be applied, or, if it is available, a few drops of 4 per cent solution of cocaine may be instilled into the eye. In strong, vigorous patients benefit will usually be obtained from a laxative, such as 2 tablespoonfuls of Glauber's salt daily, and if the fever runs high from a daily dose of half an ounce of saltpeter. As local applications, astringent solutions are usually the best, as 30 grains of borax or of sulphate of zinc in a quart of water, to be applied constantly on a cloth, as advised under "Inflammation of the eyelids." In the absence of anything better, cold water may serve every purpose. Above all, adhesive and oily agents (molasses, sugar, fats) are to be avoided, as only adding to the irritation. By way of suggesting agents that may be used with good effect, salt and sulphate of soda may be named, in solutions double the strength of sulphate of zinc, or 7 grains of nitrate of silver may be added to a quart of distilled water, and will be found especially applicable in granular conjunctivitis, diphtheria, or commencing ulceration. A cantharides blister (1 part of Spanish fly to 4 parts lard) may be rubbed on the side of the face 3 inches below the eye, and washed off next morning with soapsuds and oiled daily till the scabs are dropped. WHITE SPECKS AND CLOUDINESS OF THE CORNEA. As a result of external ophthalmia, opaque specks, clouds, or haziness are too often left on the cornea and require for their removal that they be daily touched with a soft feather dipped in a solution of 3 grains nitrate of silver in 1 ounce distilled water. This should be applied until all inflammation has subsided, and until its contact is comparatively painless. It is rarely successful with an old, thick scar following an ulcer, nor with an opacity having red blood vessels running across it. ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. These may be treated with nitrate of silver lotion of twice the strength used for opacities. Powdered gentian, one-half ounce, and sulphate of iron, one-fourth ounce, daily, may improve the general health and increase the reparatory power. INTERNAL OPHTHALMIA (IRITIS, CHOROIDITIS, AND RETINITIS). Although inflammations of the iris, choroid, and retina--the inner, vascular, and nervous coats of the eye--occur to a certain extent independently of each other, yet one usually supervenes upon the other, and, as the symptoms are thus made to coincide, it will be best for our present purposes to treat the three as one disease. _Causes._--The causes of internal ophthalmia are largely those of the external form only, acting with greater intensity or on a more susceptible eye. Severe blows, bruises, punctures, etc., of the eye, the penetration of foreign bodies into the eye (thorns, splinters of iron, etc.), sudden transition from a dark stall to bright sunshine, to the glare of snow or water, constant glare from a sunny window, abuse of the overdraw checkrein, vivid lightning flashes, drafts of cold, damp air; above all, when the animal is perspiring, exposure in cold rain or snowstorms, swimming cold rivers; also certain general diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, influenza, and disorders of the digestive organs, may become complicated by this affection. From the close relation between the brain and eye--alike in the blood vessels and nerves--disorders of the first lead to affection of the second, and the same remark applies to the persistent irritation to which the jaws are subjected in the course of dentition. So potent is the last agency that we dread a recurrence of ophthalmia so long as dentition is incomplete, and hope for immunity if the animal completes its dentition without any permanent structural change in the eye. _Symptoms._--The symptoms will vary according to the cause. If the attack is due to direct physical injury, the inflammation of the eyelids and superficial structures may be quite as marked as that of the interior of the eye. If, on the other hand, from general causes, or as a complication of some distant disease, the affection may be largely confined to the deeper structures, and the swelling, redness, and tenderness of the superficial structures will be less marked. When the external coats thus comparatively escape, the extreme anterior edge of the white or sclerotic coat, where it overlaps the border of the transparent cornea, is in a measure free from congestion, and, in the absence of the obscuring dark pigment, forms a whitish ring around the cornea. This is partly due to the fact that a series of arteries (ciliary) passing to the inflamed iris penetrate the sclerotic coat a short distance behind its anterior border, and there is therefore a marked difference in color between the general sclerotic occupied between these congested vessels and the anterior rim from which they are absent. Unfortunately, the pigment is often so abundant in the anterior part of the sclerotic as to hide this symptom. In internal ophthalmia the opacity of the cornea may be confined to a zone around the outer margin of the cornea, and even this may be a bluish haze rather than a deep, fleecy white. In consequence it becomes impossible to see the interior of the chamber for the aqueous humor and the condition of the iris and pupil. The aqueous humor is usually turbid, and has numerous yellowish-white flakes floating on its substance or deposited in the lower part of the chamber, so as to cut off the view of the lower portion of the iris. The still visible portion of the iris has lost its natural, clear, dark luster, which is replaced by a brownish or yellowish sere-leaf color. This is more marked in proportion as the iris is inflamed, and less so as the inflammation is confined to the choroid. The quantity of flocculent deposit in the chamber of the aqueous humor is also in direct ratio to the inflammation of the iris. Perhaps the most marked feature of internal ophthalmia is the extreme and painful sensitiveness to light. On this account the lids are usually closed, but when opened the pupil is seen to be narrowly closed, even if the animal has been kept in a darkened stall. Exceptions to this are seen when inflammatory effusion has overfilled the globe of the eye, and by pressure on the retina has paralyzed it, or when the exudation into the substance of the retina itself has similarly led to its paralysis. Then the pupil may be dilated, and frequently its margin loses its regular, ovoid outline and becomes uneven by reason of the adhesions which it has contracted with the capsule of the lens, through its inflammatory exudations. In the case of excessive effusion into the globe of the eye that is found to have become tense and hard so that it can not be indented with the tip of the finger, paralysis of the retina is liable to result. With such paralysis of the retina, vision is heavily clouded or entirely lost; hence, in spite of the open pupil, the finger may be approached to the eye without the animal's becoming conscious of it until it touches the surface, and if the nose on the affected side is gently struck and a feint made to repeat the blow the patient makes no effort to evade it. Sometimes the edges of the contracted pupil become adherent to each other by an intervening plastic exudation, and the opening becomes virtually abolished. In severe inflammations pus may form in the choroid or iris, and escaping into the cavity of the aqueous humor show as a yellowish-white stratum below. In nearly all cases there is resulting exudation into the lens or its capsule, constituting a cloudiness or opacity (cataract), which in severe and old-standing cases appears as a white, fleecy mass behind a widely dilated pupil. In the slighter cases cataract is to be recognized by examination of the eye in a dark chamber, with an oblique side light, as described in the introduction to this article. Cataracts that appear as a simple haze or indefinite, fleecy cloud are usually on the capsule (capsular), while those that show a radiating arrangement are in the lens (lenticular), the radiating fibers of which the exudate follows. Black cataracts are formed by the adhesion of the pigment on the back of the iris to the front of the lens, and by the subsequent tearing loose of the iris, leaving a portion of its pigment adherent to the capsule of the lens. If the pupil is so contracted that it is impossible to see the lens, it may be dilated by applying to the front of the eye with a feather some drops of a solution of 4 grains of atropia in an ounce of water. _Treatment._--The treatment of internal ophthalmia should embrace, first, the removal of all existing causes or sources of aggravation of the disease, which need not be repeated here. Special care to protect the patient against strong light, cold, wet weather, and active exertion must, however, be insisted on. A dark stall and a cloth hung over the eye are important, while cleanliness, warmth, dryness, and rest are equally demanded. If the patient is strong and vigorous, a dose of 4 drams of Barbados aloes may be given, and if there is any reason to suspect a rheumatic origin one-half a dram powdered colchicum and one-half ounce salicylate of soda may be given daily. Locally the astringent lotions advised for external ophthalmia may be resorted to, especially when the superficial inflammation is well marked. More important, however, is to instill into the eye, a few drops at a time, a solution of 4 grains of atropia in 1 ounce of distilled water. This may be effected with the aid of a soft feather, and may be repeated at intervals of 10 minutes until the pupil is widely dilated. As the horse is to be kept in a dark stall, the consequent admission of light will be harmless, and the dilation of the pupil prevents adhesion between the iris and lens, relieves the constant tension of the eye in the effort to adapt the pupil to the light, and solicits the contraction of the blood vessels of the eye and the lessening of congestion, exudation, and intraocular pressure. Should atropia not agree with the case, it may be replaced by morphia (same strength) or cocaine in 4 per cent solution. Another local measure is a blister, which can usually be applied to advantage on the side of the nose or beneath the ear. Spanish flies may be used as for external ophthalmia. In very severe cases the parts beneath the eye may be shaved and three or four leeches applied. Setons are sometimes beneficial, and even puncture of the eyeball, but these should be reserved for professional hands. The diet throughout should be easily digestible and moderate in quantity--bran mash, middlings, grass, steamed hay, etc. Even after the active inflammation has subsided the atropia lotion should be continued for several weeks to keep the eye in a state of rest in its still weak and irritable condition, and during this period the patient should be kept in semidarkness, or taken out only with a dark shade over the eye. For the same reason heavy drafts and, rapid paces, which would cause congestion of the head, should be carefully avoided. RECURRENT OPHTHALMIA (PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON-BLINDNESS). This is an inflammatory affection of the interior of the eye, intimately related to certain soils, climates, and systems, showing a strong tendency to recur again and again, and usually ending in blindness from cataract or other serious injury. _Causes._--Its causes may be fundamentally attributed to soil. On damp clays and marshy grounds, on the frequently overflowed river bottoms and deltas, on the coasts of seas and lakes alternately submerged and exposed, this disease prevails extensively, and in many instances in France (Reynal), Belgium, Alsace (Zundel, Miltenberger), Germany, and England it has very largely decreased under land drainage and improved methods of culture. Other influences, more or less associated with such soil, are potent causative factors. Thus damp air and a cloudy, wet climate, so constantly associated with wet lands, are universally charged with causing the disease. These act on the animal body to produce a lymphatic constitution with an excess of connective tissue, bones, and muscles of coarse, open texture, thick skins, and gummy legs covered with a profusion of long hair. Hence the heavy horses of Belgium and southwestern France have suffered severely from the affection, while high, dry lands adjacent, like Catalonia, in Spain, and Dauphiny, Provence, and Languedoc; in France, have in the main escaped. The rank, aqueous fodders grown on such soils are other causes, but these again are calculated to undermine the character of the nervous and sanguineous temperament and to superinduce the lymphatic. Other feeds act by leading to constipation and other disorders of the digestive organs, thus impairing the general health. Hence in any animal predisposed to this disease, heating, starchy feeds, such as maize, wheat, and buckwheat, are to be carefully avoided. It has been widely charged that beans, peas, vetches, and other Leguminosæ are dangerous, but a fuller inquiry contradicts the statement. If these feeds are well grown, they invigorate and fortify the system, while, like any other fodder, if grown rank; aqueous, and deficient in assimilable principles, they tend to lower the health and open the way for the disease. The period of dentition and training is a fertile exciting cause, for though the malady may appear at any time from birth to old age, yet the great majority of victims are from 2 to 6 years old, and if a horse escapes the affection till after 6 there is a reasonable hope that he will continue to resist it. The irritation about the head during the eruption of the teeth, and while fretting in the unwonted bridle and collar, the stimulating grain diet and the close air of the stable all combine to rouse the latent tendency to disease in the eye, while direct injuries by bridle, whip, or hay seeds are not without their influence. In the same way local irritants, like dust, severe rain and snow storms, smoke, and acrid vapors are contributing causes. It is evident, however, that no one of these is sufficient of itself to produce the disease, and it has been alleged that the true cause is a microbe, or the irritant products of a microbe, which is harbored in the marshy soil. The prevalence of the disease on the same damp soils which produce ague in man and anthrax in cattle has been quoted in support of this doctrine, as also the fact that, other things being equal, the malady is always more prevalent in basins surrounded by hills where the air is still and such products are concentrated, and that a forest or simple belt of trees will, as in ague, at times limit the area of its prevalence. Another argument for the same view is found in the fact that on certain farms irrigated by town sewage this malady has become extremely prevalent, the sewage being assumed to form a suitable nidus for the growth of the germ. But on these sewage farms a fresh crop may be cut every fortnight, and the product is precisely that aqueous material which contributes to a lymphatic structure and a low tone of health. The presence of a definite germ in the system has not yet been proved, and in the present state of our knowledge we are only warranted in charging the disease to the deleterious emanations from the marshy soil in which bacterial ferments are constantly producing them. Heredity is one of the most potent causes. The lymphatic constitution is of course transmitted and with it the proclivity to recurring ophthalmia. This is notorious in the case of both parents, male and female. The tendency appears to be stronger, however, if either parent has already suffered. Thus a mare may have borne a number of sound foals, and then fallen a victim to the malady, and all foals subsequently borne have likewise suffered. So it is in the case of the stallion. Reynal even quotes the appearance of the disease in alternate generations, the stallion offspring of blind parents remaining sound through life and yet producing foals which furnish numerous victims of recurrent ophthalmia. On the contrary, the offspring of diseased parents removed to high, dry regions and furnished with wholesome, nourishing rations will nearly all escape. Hence the dealers take colts that are still sound or have had but one attack from the affected low Pyrenees (France) to the unaffected Catalonia (Spain), with confidence that they will escape, and from the Jura Valley to Dauphiny with the same result. Yet the hereditary taint is so strong and pernicious that intelligent horsemen everywhere refuse to breed from either horse or mare that has once suffered from recurrent ophthalmia, and the French Government studs not only reject all unsound stallions, but refuse service to any mare which has suffered with her eyes. It is this avoidance of the hereditary predisposition more than anything else that has reduced the formerly wide prevalence of this disease in the European countries generally. A consideration for the future of our horses would demand the disuse of all sires that are unlicensed, and the refusal of a license to any sire which has suffered from this or any other communicable constitutional disease. Other contributing causes deserve passing mention. Unwholesome feed and a faulty method of feeding undoubtedly predisposes to the disease, and in the same district the carefully fed will escape in far larger proportion than the badly fed; it is so also with every other condition which undermines the general health. The presence of worms in the intestines, overwork, and debilitating diseases and causes of every kind weaken the vitality and lay the system more open to attack. Thierry long ago showed that the improvement of close, low, dark, damp stables, where the disease had previously prevailed, practically banished the affection. Whatever contributes to strength and vigor is protective; whatever contributes to weakness and poor health is provocative of the disease in the predisposed subject. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack. In some cases there is marked fever, and in some slighter cases it may be almost altogether wanting, but there is always a lack of vigor and energy, bespeaking general disorder. The local symptoms are in the main those of internal ophthalmia, in many cases with an increased hardness of the eyeball from effusion into its cavity. The contracted pupil does not expand much in darkness, nor even under the action of belladonna. Opacity advances from the margin, over a part or whole of the cornea, but so long as it is transparent there may be seen the turbid, aqueous humor with or without flocculi, the dingy iris robbed of its clear, black aspect, the slightly clouded lens, and a greenish-yellow reflection from the depth of the eye. From the fifth to the seventh day the flocculi precipitate in the lower part of the chamber, exposing more clearly the iris and lens, and absorption commences, so that the eye may be cleared up in ten or fifteen days. The characteristic of the disease is, however, its recurrence again and again in the same eye until blindness results. The attacks may follow one another after intervals of a month, more or less, but they show no relation to any particular phase of the moon, as might be inferred from the familiar name, but are determined rather by the weather, the health, the feed, or by some periodicity of the system. From five to seven attacks usually result in blindness, and then the second eye is liable to be attacked until it also is ruined. In the intervals between the attacks some remaining symptoms betray the condition, and they become more marked after each successive access of disease. Even after the first attack there is a bluish ring around the margin of the transparent cornea. The eye seems smaller than the other, at first because it is retracted in its socket, and often after several attacks because of actual shrinkage (atrophy). The upper eyelid, in place of presenting a uniform, continuous arch, has, about one-third from its inner angle, an abrupt bend, caused by the contraction of the levator muscle. The front of the iris has exchanged some of its dark, clear brilliancy for a lusterless yellow, and the depth of the eye presents more or less of the greenish-yellow shade. The pupil remains a little contracted, except in advanced and aggravated cases, when, with opaque lens, it is widely dilated. If, as is common, one eye only has suffered, the contrast in these respects with the sound eye is all the more characteristic. Another feature is the erect, attentive carriage of the ear, to compensate to some extent for the waning vision. The attacks vary greatly in severity in different cases, but the recurrence is characteristic, and all alike lead to cataract and intraocular effusion, with pressure on the retina and abolition of sight. _Prevention._--The prevention of this disease is the great object to be aimed at, and this demands the most careful breeding, feeding, housing, and general management, as indicated under "Causes." Much can also be done by migration to a high, dry location, but for this and malarious affections the improvement of the land by drainage and good cultivation should be the final aim. _Treatment_ is not satisfactory, but is largely the same as for common internal ophthalmia. Some cases, like rheumatism, are benefited by 1-scruple doses of powdered colchicum and 2-dram doses of salicylate of soda twice a day. In other cases, with marked hardness of the globe of the eye from intraocular effusion, aseptic puncture of the eye, or even the excision of a portion of the iris, has helped. During recovery a course of tonics (2 drams oxid of iron, 10 grains nux vomica, and 1 ounce sulphate of soda daily) is desirable to invigorate the system and help to ward off another attack. The vulgar resort to knocking out the wolf teeth and cutting out the haw can only be condemned. The temporary recovery would take place in one or two weeks, though no such thing had been done, and the breaking of a small tooth, leaving its fang in the jaw, only increases the irritation. CATARACT. The common result of internal ophthalmia, as of the recurrent type, may be recognized as described under the first of these diseases. Its offensive appearance may be obviated by extraction or depression of the lens, but as the rays of light would no longer be properly refracted, perfect vision would not be restored, and the animal would be liable to prove an inveterate shyer. If perfect blindness continued by reason of pressure on the nerve of sight, no shying would result. PALSY OF THE NERVE OF SIGHT, OR AMAUROSIS. _Causes._--The causes of this affection are tumors or other disease of the brain implicating the roots of the optic nerve, injury to the nerve between the brain and eye, and inflammation of the optic nerve within the eye (retina), or undue pressure on the same from dropsical or inflammatory effusion. It may also occur from overloaded stomach, from a profuse bleeding, and even from the pressure of the gravid womb in gestation. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are wide dilatation of the pupils, so as to expose fully the interior of the globe, the expansion remaining the same in light and darkness. Ordinary eyes when brought to the light have the pupils suddenly contract and then dilate and contract alternately until they adapt themselves to the light. The horse does not swerve when a feint to strike is made unless the hand causes a current of air. The ears are held erect, turn quickly toward any noise, and the horse steps high to avoid stumbling over objects which it can not see. _Treatment_ is only useful when the disease is symptomatic of some removable cause, like congested brain, overloaded stomach, or gravid womb. When recovery does not follow the termination of these conditions, apply a blister behind the ear and give one-half dram doses of nux vomica daily. TUMORS OF THE EYEBALL. A variety of tumors attack the eyeball--dermoid, papillary, fatty, cystic, and melanotic--but perhaps the most frequent in the horse is encephaloid cancer. This may grow in or on the globe, the haw, the eyelid, or the bones of the orbit, and can be remedied, if at all, only by early and thorough excision. It may be distinguished from the less dangerous tumors by its softness, friability, and great vascularity, bleeding on the slightest touch, as well as by its anatomical structure. STAPHYLOMA. This consists in a bulging forward of the cornea at a given point by the sacculate yielding and distention of its coats, and it may be either transparent or opaque and vascular. In the last form the iris has become adherent to the back of the cornea, and the whole structure is filled with blood vessels. In the first form the bulging cornea is attenuated; in the last it may be thickened. The best treatment is by excision of a portion of the rise so as to relieve the intraocular pressure. PARASITES IN THE EYE. Acari in the eye have been incidentally alluded to under inflammation of the lids. _Filaria palpebralis_ is a white worm, one-half to 1 inch long, which inhabits the lacrimal duct and the underside of the eyelids and haw in the horse, producing a verminous conjunctivitis. The first step in treatment in such cases is to remove the worm with forceps, then treat as for external inflammation. _Setaria equina_ is a delicate, white, silvery-looking worm, which I have repeatedly found 2 inches in length (a length as great as 5 inches has been reported). It invades the aqueous humor, where its constant active movements make it an object of great interest, and it is frequently exhibited as a "snake in the eye."[1] When present in the eye it causes inflammation and has to be removed through an incision made with the lancet in the upper border of the cornea close to the sclerotic, the point of the instrument being directed slightly forward to avoid injury to the iris. Then cold water or astringent antiseptic lotions should be applied. _Filaria conjunctivæ_, resembling _Setaria equina_ very much in size and general appearance, is another roundworm which has been found in the eye of the horse. The echinococcus, the cystic or larval stage of the echinococcus tapeworm of the dog, has been found in the eye of the horse, and a cysticercus is also reported. FOOTNOTES: [1] This worm is normally a parasite of the peritoneal cavity, and is probably transmitted from one horse to another by some biting insect which becomes infected by embryos in the blood.--M. C. HALL. LAMENESS: ITS CAUSES AND TREATMENT. BY A. LIAUTARD, M. D., V. M., _Formerly principal of the American Veterinary College, New York._ [Revised by John R. Mohler, A. M., V. M. D.] It is as living, organized, locomotive machines that the horse, camel, ox, and their burden-bearing companions are of practical value to man. Hence the consideration of their usefulness and consequent value to their human masters ultimately and naturally resolves itself into an inquiry concerning the condition of that special portion of their organism which controls their function of locomotion. This is especially true in regard to the members of the equine family, the most numerous and valuable of all the beasts of burden, and it naturally follows that with the horse for a subject of discussion the special topic and leading theme of inquiry, by an easy lapse, will become an inquest into the condition and efficiency of his power for usefulness as a carrier or traveler. There is a great deal of abstract interest in the study of that endowment of the animal economy which enables its possessor to change his place at will and convey himself whithersoever his needs or his moods may incline him; how much greater, however, the interest that attaches to the subject when it becomes a practical and economic question and includes within its purview the various related topics which belong to the domains of physiology, pathology, therapeutics, and the entire round of scientific investigation into which it is finally merged as a subject for medical and surgical consideration--in a word, of actual disease and its treatment. It is not surprising that the intricate and complicated apparatus of locomotion, with its symmetry and harmony of movement and the perfection and beauty of its details and adjuncts, by students of creative design and attentive observers or nature and her marvelous contrivances and adaptations, should be admiringly denominated a living machine. Of all the animal tribe the horse, in a state of domesticity, is the largest sharer with his master in his liability to the accidents and dangers which are among the incidents of civilized life. From his exposure to the missiles of war on the battlefield to his chance of picking up a nail from the city pavement there is no hour when he is not in danger of incurring injuries which for their repair may demand the best skill of the veterinary practitioner. This is true not alone of casualties which belong to the class of external and traumatic cases, but includes as well those of a kind perhaps more numerous, which may result in lesions of internal parts, frequently the most serious and obscure of all in their nature and effects. The horse is too important a factor in the practical details of human life and fills too large a place in the business and pleasure of the world to justify any indifference to his needs and physical comfort or neglect in respect to the preservation of his peculiar powers for usefulness. In entering somewhat largely, therefore, upon a review of the subject, and treating in detail of the causes, the symptoms, the progress, the treatment, the results, and the consequences of lameness in the horse, we are performing a duty which needs no word of apology or justification. The subject explains and justifies itself, and is its own vindication and illustration, if any are needed. The function of locomotion is performed by the action of two principal systems of organs, known in anatomical and physiological terminology as passive and active, the muscles performing the active and the bones the passive portion of the movement. The necessary connection between the cooperating parts of the organism is effected by means of a vital contact by which the muscle is attached to the bone at certain determinate points on the surface of the latter. These points of attachment appear sometimes as an eminence, sometimes as a depression, sometimes a border or an angle, or again as a mere roughness, but each perfectly fulfilling its purpose, while the necessary motion is provided for by the formation of the ends of the long bones into the requisite articulations, joints, or hinges. Every motion is the product of the contraction of one or more of the muscles, which, as it acts upon the bony levers, gives rise to a movement of extension or flexion, abduction or adduction, rotation or circumduction. The movement of abduction is that which passes from and that of adduction that which passes toward the median line, or the center of the body. The movements of flexion and extension are too well understood to need defining. It is the combination and rapid alterations of these movements which produce the different postures and various gaits of the animal, and it is their interruption and derangement, from whatever causes, which constitute the pathological condition known as lameness. A concise examination of the general anatomy of these organs, however, must precede the consideration of the pathological questions pertaining to the subject. A statement, such as we have just given, containing only the briefest hint of matters which, though not necessarily in their ultimate scientific minutiæ, must be clearly comprehended in order to acquire a symmetrical and satisfactory view of the theme as a practical collation of facts to be remembered, analyzed, applied, and utilized. It was the great Bacon who wrote: "The human body may be compared, from its complex and delicate organization, to a musical instrument of the most perfect construction, but exceedingly liable to derangement." In its degree the remark is equally applicable to the equine body, and if we would keep it in tune and profit by its harmonious action we must at least acquaint ourselves with the relations of its parts and the mode of their cooperation. ANATOMY. The bones, then, are the hard organs which in their connection and totality constitute the skeleton of an animal (see Plate XXIII). They are of various forms, three of which--the long, the flat, and the small--are recognized in the extremities. These are more or less regular in their form, but present upon their surfaces a variety of aspects, exhibiting in turn, according to the requirement of each case, a roughened or smooth surface, variously marked with grooves, crests, eminences, and depressions, for the necessary muscular attachments, and, as before mentioned, are connected by articulations and joints, of which some are immovable and others movable. The substance of the bone is composed of a mass of combined earthy and animal matter surrounded by a fine, fibrous enveloping membrane (the periosteum) which is intimately adherent to the external surface of the bone, and is, in fact, the secreting membrane of the bony structure. The bony tissue proper is of two consistencies, the external portion being hard and "compact," and called by the latter term, while the internal, known as the "spongy" or "areolar tissue," corresponds to the descriptive terms. Those of the bones that possess this latter consistency contain also, in their spongy portion, the medullary substance known as marrow, which is deposited in large quantities in the interior of the long bones, and especially where a central cavity exists, called, for that reason, the medullary cavity. The nourishment of the bones is effected by means of what is known as the nutrient foramen, an opening established for the passage of the blood vessels which convey the nourishment necessary to the interior of the organ. Concerning the nourishment of the skeleton, there are other minutiæ, such as the venous arrangement and the classification of their arterial vessels into several orders, which, though of interest as an abstract study, are not of sufficient practical value to refer to here. The active organs of locomotion, the muscles (see Plate XXIII), speaking generally, form the fleshy covering of the external part of the skeleton and surround the bones of the extremities. They vary greatly in shape and size, being flat, triangular, long, short, or broad, and are variously and capriciously named, some from their shape, some from their situation, others from their use; and thus we have abductors and adductors--the pyramidal, orbicular, the digastricus, the vastus, and so on. Those which are under the control of the will, known as the voluntary muscles, appear in the form of fleshy structures, red in color, and with fibers of various degrees of fineness, and are composed of fasciculi, or bundles of fibers, united by connective or cellular tissue, each fasciculus being composed of smaller ones but united in a similar manner to compose the larger formations, each of which is enveloped by a structure of similar nature known as the sarcolemma. Many of the muscles are united to the bones by the direct contact of their fleshy fibers, but in other instances the body of the muscle is more or less gradually transformed into a cordy or membranous structure known as the tendon or sinew, and the attachment is made by the very short fibrous threads through the medium of a long tendinous band, which, passing from a single one to several others of the bones, effects its object at a point far distant from its original attachment. In thus carrying its action from one bone to another, or from one region of a limb to another, these tendons must necessarily have smooth surfaces over which to glide, either upon the bones themselves or formed at their articulations, and this need is supplied by the secretion of the synovial fluid, a yellowish, unctuous substance, furnished by a peculiar tendinous synovial sac designed for the purpose. Illustrations in point of the agency of the synovial fluid in assisting the sliding movements of the tendons may be found under their various forms at the shoulder joint, at the upper part of the bone of the arm, at the posterior part of the knee joint, and also at the fetlocks, on their posterior part. As the tendons, whether singly or in company with others, pass over these natural pulleys they are retained in place by strong, fibrous bands or sheaths, which are by no means exempt from danger of injury, as will be readily inferred from a consideration of their important special use as supports and reenforcements of the tendons themselves, with which they must necessarily share the stress of whatever force or strain is brought to bear upon both or either. We have referred to that special formation of the external surface of a bone by which it is adapted to form a joint or articulation, either movable or fixed, and a concise examination of the formation and structure of the movable articulations will here be in place. These are formed generally by the extremities of the long bones, or may exist on the surfaces of the short ones. The points or regions where the contact occurs are denominated the articular surface, which assumes from this circumstance a considerable variety of aspect and form, being in one case comparatively flat and another elevated; or as forming a protruding head or knob, with a distinct convexity; and again presenting a corresponding depression or cavity, accurately adapted to complete, by their coaptation, the ball-and-socket joint. The articulation of the arm and shoulder is an example of the first kind, while that of the hip with the thigh bone is a perfect exhibition of the latter. The structure whose office it is to retain the articulating surfaces in place is the ligament. This is usually a white, fibrous, inelastic tissue; sometimes, however, it is elastic in character and yellowish. In some instances it is funicular shaped or corded, serving to bind more firmly together the bones to which its extremities are attached; in others it consists of a broad membrane, wholly or partially surrounding the broad articulations, and calculated rather for the protection of the cavity from intrusion by the air than for other security. This latter form, known as capsular, is usually found in connection with joints which possess a free and extended movement. The capsular and funicular ligaments are sometimes associated, the capsular appearing as a membranous sac wholly or partially inclosing the joint, the funicular, here known as an interarticular ligament, occupying the interior, and thus securing the union of the several bones more firmly and effectively than would be possible for the capsular ligament unassisted. The universal need which pertains to all mechanical contrivances of motion has not been forgotten while providing for the perfect working of the interesting piece of living machinery which performs the function of locomotion, as we are contemplating it, and nature has consequently provided for obviating the evils of attrition and friction and insuring the easy play and smooth movement of its parts by the establishment of the secretion of the synovia, the vital lubricant of which we have before spoken, as a yellow, oily, or rather glairy secretion, which performs the indispensable office of facilitating the play of the tendons over the joints and certain given points of the bones. This fluid is deposited in a containing sac, the lining (serous) membrane of which forms the secreting organ. This membrane is of an excessively sensitive nature, and while it lines the inner face of the ligaments, both capsular and fascicular, it is attached only upon the edges of the bones, without extending upon their length, or between the layers of cartilage which lie between the bones and their articular surfaces. Our object in thus partially and concisely reviewing the structure and condition of the essential organs of locomotion has been rather to outline a sketch which may serve as a reference chart of the general features of the subject than to offer a minute description of the parts referred to. Other points of interest will receive proper attention as we proceed with the illustration of our subject and examine the matters which it most concerns us to bring under consideration. The foundation of facts which we have thus far prepared will be found sufficiently broad, we trust, to include whatever may be necessary to insure a ready comprehension of the essential matters which are to follow as our review is carried forward to completion. What we have said touching these elementary truths will probably be sufficient to facilitate a clear understanding of the requirements essential to the perfection and regularity which characterize the normal performance of the various movements that result in the accomplishment of the action of locomotion. So long as the bones, the muscles and their tendons, the joints with their cartilages, their ligaments, and their synovial structure, the nerves and the controlling influences which they exercise over all, with the blood vessels which distribute to every part, however minute, the vitalizing fluid which sustains the whole fabric in being and activity--so long as these various constituents and adjuncts of animal life preserve their normal exemption from disease, traumatism, and pathological change, the function of locomotion will continue to be performed with perfection and efficiency. On the other hand, let any element of disease become implanted in one or several of the parts destined for combined action, any change or irregularity of form, dimensions, location, or action occur in any portion of the apparatus--any obstruction or misdirection of vital power take place, any interference with the order of the phenomena of normal nature, any loss of harmony and lack of balance be betrayed--and we have in the result the condition of lameness. DEFINITION OF LAMENESS. _Physiology._--Comprehensively and universally considered, then, the term lameness signifies any irregularity or derangement of the function of locomotion, irrespective of the cause which produced it or the degree of its manifestation. However slightly or severely it may be exhibited, it is all the same. The nicest observation may be demanded for its detection, and it may need the most thoroughly trained powers of discernment to identify and locate it, as in cases in which the animal is said to be fainting, tender, or to go sore. On the contrary, the patient may be so far affected as to refuse utterly to use an injured leg, and under compulsory motion keep it raised from the ground, and prefer to travel on three legs rather than to bear any portion of his weight upon the afflicted member. In these two extremes, and in all the intermediate degrees, the patient is simply lame--pathognomonic minutiæ being considered and settled in a place of their own. This last condition of disabled function--lameness on three legs--and many of the lower degrees of simple lameness are very easy of detection, but the first, or mere tenderness or soreness, may be very difficult to identify, and at times very serious results have followed from the obscurity which has enveloped the early stages of the malady. For it may easily occur that in the absence of the treatment which an early correct diagnosis would have indicated, an insidious ailment may so take advantage of the lapse of time as to root itself too deeply into the economy to be subverted, and become transformed into a disabling chronic case, or possibly one that is incurable and fatal. Hence the impolicy of depreciating early symptoms because they are not accompanied with distinct and pronounced characteristics, and from a lack of threatening appearances inferring the absence of danger. The possibilities of an ambush can never be safely ignored. An extra caution costs nothing, even if wasted. The fulfillment of the first duty of a practitioner, when introduced to a case, is not always an easy task, though it is too frequently expected that the diagnosis, or "what is the matter" verdict, will be reached by the quickest and surest kind of an "instantaneous process" and a sure prognosis, or "how will it end," guessed at instanter. Usually the discovery that the animal is becoming lame is comparatively an easy matter to a careful observer. Such a person will readily note the changes of movements which will have taken place in the animal he has been accustomed to drive or ride, unless they are indeed slight and limited to the last degree. But what is not always easy is the detection, after discovering the fact of an existing irregularity, of the locality of its point of origin, and whether its seat be in the near or off leg, or in the fore or the hind part of the body. These are questions too often wrongly answered, notwithstanding the fact that with a little careful scrutiny the point may be easily settled. The error, which is too often committed, of pronouncing the leg upon which the animal travels soundly as the seat of the lameness, is the result of a misinterpretation of the physiology of locomotion in the crippled animal. Much depends upon the gait with which the animal moves while under examination. The act of walking is unfavorable for accurate observation, though, if the animal walks on three legs, the decision is easy to reach. The action of galloping will often, by the rapidity of the muscular movements and their quick succession, interfere with a nice study of their rhythm, and it is only under some peculiar circumstances that the examination can be safely conducted while the animal is moving with that gait. It is while the animal is trotting that the investigation is made with the best chances of an intelligent decision, and it is while moving with that gait, therefore, that the points should be looked for which must form the elements of the diagnosis. [Illustration: PLATE XXIII. SKELETON OF HORSE.] [Illustration: PLATE XXIV. SUPERFICIAL LAYER OF MUSCLES.] Our first consideration should be the physiology of normal or healthy locomotion, that thence we may the more easily reach our conclusions touching lameness, or that which is abnormal, and by this process we ought to succeed in obtaining a clew to the solution of the first problem, to wit, in which leg is the seat of the lameness? A word of definition is here necessary, in order to render that which follows more easily intelligible. In veterinary nomenclature each two of the legs, as referred to in pairs, is denominated a biped. Of the four points occupied by the feet of the animal while standing at rest, forming a square, the two fore legs are known as the anterior biped; the two hinder, the posterior; the two on one side, the lateral: and one of either the front or hind biped with the opposite leg of the hind or front biped will form the diagonal biped. Considering, as it is proper to do, that in a condition of health each separate biped and each individual leg is required to perform an equal and uniform function and to carry an even or equal portion of the weight of the body, it will be readily appreciated that the result of this distribution will be a regular, evenly balanced, and smooth displacement of the body thus supported by the four legs, and that therefore, according to the rapidity of the motion in different gaits, each single leg will be required at certain successive moments to bear the weight which had rested upon its congener while it was itself in the air, in the act of moving; or, again, two different legs of a biped may be called upon to bear the weight of the two legs of the opposite biped while also in the air in the act of moving. To simplify the matter by an illustration, the weight of an animal may be placed at 1,000 pounds, of which each leg, in a normal and healthy condition, supports while at rest 250 pounds. When one of the fore legs is in action, or in the air, and carrying no weight, its 250 pounds share of the weight will be thrown upon its congener, or partner, to sustain. If the two legs of a biped are both in action and raised from the ground, their congeners, still resting in inaction, will carry the total weight of the other two, or 500 pounds. And as the succession of movements continues, and the change from one leg to another or from one biped to another, as may be required by the gait, proceeds, there will result a smooth, even, and equal balancing of active movements, shifting the weight from one leg or one biped to another, with symmetrical precision, and we shall be presented with an interesting example of the play of vital machanics in a healthy organization. Much may be learned from the accurate study of the action of a single leg. Normally, its movements will be without variation or failure. When at rest it will easily sustain the weight assigned to it without showing hesitancy or betraying pain, and when it is raised from the ground in order to transfer the weight to its mate it will perform the act in such manner that when it is again placed upon the ground to rest it will be with a firm tread, indicative of its ability to receive again the burden to be thrown back upon it. In planting it upon the ground or raising it again for the forward movement while in action, and again replanting it upon the earth, each movement will be the same for each leg and for each biped, whether the act is that of walking or trotting, or even of galloping. In short, the regular play of every part of the apparatus will testify to the existence of that condition of orderly soundness and efficient activity eloquently suggestive of the condition of vital integrity which is simply but comprehensively expressed by the terms health and soundness. But let some change, though slight and obscure, occur among the elements of the case; some invisible agency of evil intrude among the harmonizing processes going forward; any disorder occur in the relations of cooperating parts; anything appear to neutralize the efficiency of vitalizing forces; any disability of a limb to accept and to throw back upon its mate the portion of the weight which belongs to it to sustain--present itself, whether as the effect of accident or otherwise; in short, let anything develop which tends to defeat the purpose of nature in organizing the locomotive apparatus and we are confronted at once by that which may be looked upon as a cause of lameness. Not the least of the facts which it is important to remember is that it is not sufficient to look for the manifestation of an existing discordance in the action of the affected limb alone, but that it is shared by the sound one and must be searched for in that as well as the halting member, if the hazard of an error is to be avoided. The mode of action of the leg which is the seat of the lameness will vary greatly from that which it exhibited when in a healthy condition, and the sound leg will also offer important modifications in the same three particulars before alluded to, to wit, that of resting on the ground, that of its elevation and forward motion, and that of striking the ground again when the full action of stepping is accomplished. Inability in the lame leg to sustain weight will imply excessive exertion by the sound one, and lack of facility or disposition to rest the lame member on the ground will necessitate a longer continuance of that action on the sound side. Changes in the act of elevating the leg, or of carrying it forward, or in both, will present entirely opposite conditions between the two. The lame member will be elevated rapidly, moved carefully forward, and returned to the ground with caution and hesitancy, and the contact with the earth will be effected as lightly as possible, while the sound limb will rest longer on the ground, move boldly and rapidly forward, and strike the ground promptly and forcibly. All this is due to the fact that the sound member carries more than its normal, healthy share of the weight of the body, a share which may be in excess from 1 to 250 pounds, and thus bring its burden to a figure varying from 251 to 500 pounds, all depending upon the degree of the existing lameness, whether it is simply a slight tenderness or soreness, or whether the trouble has reached a stage which compels the patient to the awkwardness of traveling on three legs. That all this is not mere theory, but rests on a foundation of fact may be established by observing the manifestations attending a single alteration in the balancing of the body. In health the support and equilibrium of that mass of the body which is borne by the fore legs is equalized and passes by regular alternations from the right to the left side and vice versa. But if the left leg, becoming disabled, relieves itself by leaning, as it were, on the right, the latter becomes, consequently, practically heavier and the mass of the body will incline or settle upon that side. Lameness of the left side, therefore, means dropping or settling on the right and vice versa. We emphasize this statement and insist upon it, the more from the frequency of the instances of error which have come under our notice, in which persons have insisted upon their view that the leg which is the seat of the lameness is that upon which he drops and which the animal is usually supposed to favor. HOW TO DETECT THE SEAT OF LAMENESS. Properly appreciating the remarks which have preceded, and fully comprehending the modus operandi and the true pathology of lameness, but little remains to be done in order to reach an answer to the question as to which side of the animal is the seat of the lameness, except to examine the patient while in action. We have already stated our reasons for preferring the movement of trotting for this purpose. In conducting such an examination the animal should be unblanketed, and held by a plain halter in the hands of a man who knows how to manage his paces, and the trial should always be made over a firm, hard road whenever it is available. He is to be examined from various positions--from before, from behind, and from each side. Watching him as he approaches, as he passes by, and as he recedes, the observer should carefully study that important action which we have spoken of as the dropping of the body upon one extremity or the other, and this can readily be detected by attending closely to the motions of the head and of the hip. The head drops on the same side on which the mass of the body will fall, dropping toward the right when the lameness is in the left fore leg, and the hip dropping in posterior lameness, also on the sound leg, the reversal of the conditions, of course, producing reversed effects. In other words, when the animal in trotting exhibits signs of irregularity of action, or lameness, and this irregularity is accompanied with dropping or nodding the head, or depressing the hip on the right side of the body, at the time the feet of the right side strike the ground, the horse is lame on the left side. If the dropping and nodding are on the near side the lameness is on the off side. In a majority of cases, however, the answer to the first question relating to the lameness of a horse is, after all, not a very difficult task. There are two other problems in the case more difficult of solution and which often require the exercise of a closer scrutiny, and draw upon all the resources of the experienced practitioner to settle satisfactorily. That a horse is lame in a given leg may be easily determined, but when it becomes necessary to pronounce upon the query as to what part, what region, what structure is affected, the easy part of the task is over, and the more difficult and important, because more obscure, portion of the investigation has commenced--except, of course, in cases of which the features are too distinctly evident to the senses to admit of error. It is true that by carefully noting the manner in which a lame leg is performing its functions, and closely scrutinizing the motions of the whole extremity, and especially of the various joints which enter into its structure; by minutely examining every part of the limb; by observing the outlines; by testing the change, if any, in temperature and the state of the sensibility--all these investigations may guide the surgeon to a correct localization of the seat of trouble, but he must carefully refrain from the adoption of a hasty conclusion, and, above all, assure himself that he has not failed to make the foot, of all the organs of the horse the most liable to injury and lesion, the subject of the most thorough and minute examination of all the parts which compose the suffering extremity. The greater liability of the foot than of any other part of the extremities to injury from casualties, natural to its situation and use, should always suggest the beginning of an inquiry, especially in an obscure case of lameness at that point. Indeed the lameness may have an apparent location elsewhere when that is the true seat of the trouble, and the surgeon who, while examining his lame patient, discovers a ringbone, and convincing himself that he has encountered the cause of the disordered action suspends his investigation without subjecting the foot to a close scrutiny, at a later day when regrets will avail nothing, may deeply regret his neglect and inadvertence. As in human pathological experience, however, there are instances when inscrutable diseases will deliver their fatal messages, while leaving no mark and making no sign by which they might be identified and classified, so it will happen that in the humbler animals the onset and progress of mysterious and unrecognizable ailments will at times baffle the most skilled veterinarian, and leave our burden-bearing servants to succumb to the inevitable, and suffer and perish in unrelieved distress. DISEASES OF BONES. PERIOSTITIS, OSTITIS, AND EXOSTOSIS. From the closeness and intimacy of the connection existing between the two principal elements of the bony structure while in health, it frequently becomes exceedingly difficult, when a state of disease has supervened, to discriminate accurately as to the part primarily affected and to determine positively whether the periosteum or the body of the bone is originally implicated. Yet a knowledge of the fact is often of the first importance, in order to obtain a favorable result from the treatment to be instituted. It is, however, quite evident that in a majority of instances the bony growths which so frequently appear on the surface of their structure, to which the general term of exostosis is applied, have had their origin in an inflammation of the periosteum, or enveloping membrane, and known as periostitis. However this may be, we have as a frequent result, sometimes on the body of the bone, sometimes at the extremities, and sometimes involving the articulation itself, certain bony growths, or exostoses, known otherwise by the term of splint, ringbone, and spavin, all of which, in an important sense, may be finally referred to the periosteum as their nutrient source and support, at least after their formation, if not for their incipient existence. _Cause._--It is certain that inflammation of the periosteum is frequently referable to wounds and bruises caused by external agencies, and it is also true that it may possibly result from the spreading inflammation of surrounding diseased tissues, but in any case the result is uniformly seen in the deposit of a bony growth, more or less diffuse, sometimes of irregular outline, and at others projecting distinctly from the surface from which it springs, as so commonly presented in the ringbone and the spavin. _Symptoms._--This condition of periostitis is often difficult to determine. The signs of inflammation are so obscure, the swelling of the parts so insignificant, any increase of heat so imperceptible, and the soreness so slight, that even the most acute observer may fail to find the point of its existence, and it is often long after the discovery of the disease itself that its location is positively revealed by the visible presence of the exostosis. Yet the first question had been resolved, in discovering the fact of the lameness, while the second and third remained unanswered, and the identification of the affected limb and the point of origin of the trouble remained unknown until their palpable revelation to the senses. _Treatment._--When, by careful scrutiny, the ailment has been located, a resort to treatment must be had at once, in order to prevent, if possible, any further deposit of the calcareous structure and increase of the exostotic growth. With this view the application of water, either warm or cold, rendered astringent by the addition of alum or sugar of lead, will be beneficial. The tendency to the formation of the bony growth, and the increase of its development after its actual formation, may often be checked by the application of a severe blister of Spanish fly. The failure of these means and the establishment of the diseased process in the form of chronic periostitis cause various changes in the bone covered by the disordered membrane, and the result may be softening, degeneration, or necrosis, but more usually it is followed by the formation of the bony growths referred to, on the cannon bone, the coronet, the hock, etc. SPLINTS. We first turn our attention to the splint, as certain bony enlargements that are developed on the cannon bone, between the knee or the hock and the fetlock joint, are called. (See Plate XXV.) They are found on the inside of the leg, from the knee, near which they are frequently found, downward to about the lower third of the principal cannon bone. They are of various dimensions, and are readily perceptible both to the eye and to the touch. They vary considerably in size, ranging from that of a large nut downward to very small proportions. In searching for them they may be readily detected by the hand if they have attained sufficient development in their usual situation, but must be distinguished from a small, bony enlargement that may be felt at the lower third of the cannon bone, which is neither a splint nor a pathological formation of any kind, but merely the buttonlike enlargement at the lower extremity of the small metacarpal or splint bone. We have said that splints are to be found on the inside of the leg. This is true as a general statement, but it is not invariably so, for they occasionally appear on the outside. It is also true that they appear most commonly on the fore legs, but this is not exclusively the case, because they may at times be found on both the inside and outside of the hind leg. Usually a splint forms only a true exostosis, or a single bony growth, with a somewhat diffuse base, but neither is this invariably the case. In some instances they assume more important dimensions, and pass from the inside to the outside of the bone, on its posterior face, between that and the suspensory ligament. This form is termed the pegged splint, and constitutes a serious and permanent deformity, in consequence of its interference with the play of the fibrous cord which passes behind it, becoming thus a source of continual irritation and consequently of permanent lameness. _Symptoms._--A splint may thus frequently become a cause of lameness though not necessarily in every instance, but it is a lameness possessing features peculiar to itself. It is not always continuous, but at times assumes an intermittent character, and is more marked when the animal is warm than when cool. If the lameness is near the knee joint, it is very liable to become aggravated when the animal is put to work, and the gait acquires then a peculiar character, arising from the manner in which the limb is carried outward from the knees downward, which is done by a kind of abduction of the lower part of the leg. Other symptoms, however, than the lameness and the presence of the splint, which is its cause, may be looked for in the same connection as those which have been mentioned as pertaining to certain evidences of periostitis, in the increase of the temperature of the part, with swelling and probably pain on pressure. This last symptom is of no little importance, since its presence or absence has in many cases formed the determining point in deciding a question of difficult diagnosis. _Cause._--A splint being one of the results of periostitis, and the latter one of the effects of external hurts, it naturally follows that the parts which are most exposed to blows and collisions will be those on which the splint will most commonly be found, and it may not be improper, therefore, to refer to hurts from without as among the common causes of the lesion. But other causes may also be productive of the evil, and among these may be mentioned the over-straining of an immature organism by the imposition of excessive labor upon a young animal at a too early period of his life. The bones which enter into the formation of the cannon are three in number, one large and two smaller, which, during the youth of the animal, are more or less articulated, with a limited amount of mobility, but which become in maturity firmly joined by a rigid union and ossification of their interarticular surface. If the immature animal is compelled, then, to perform exacting tasks beyond his strength, the inevitable result will follow in the muscular straining, and perhaps tearing asunder of the fibers which unite the bones at their points of juncture, and it is difficult to understand how inflammation or periostitis can fail to develop as the natural consequence of such local irritation. If the result were deliberately and intelligently designed, it could hardly be more effectually accomplished. The splint is an object of the commonest occurrence--so common, indeed, that in large cities a horse which can not exhibit one or more specimens upon some portion of his extremities is one of the rarest of spectacles. Though it is in some instances a cause of lameness, and its discovery and cure are sometimes beyond the ability of the shrewdest and most experienced veterinarians, yet as a source of vital danger to the general equine organization, or even of functional disturbance, or of practical inconvenience, aside from the rare exceptional cases which exist as mere samples of possibility, it can not be considered to belong to the category of serious lesions. The worst stigma that attaches to it is that in general estimation it is ranked among eyesores and continues indefinitely to be that and nothing different. The inflammation in which they originated, acute at first, either subsides or assumes the chronic form, and the bony growth becomes a permanence--more or less established, it is true, but doing no positive harm and not hindering the animal from continuing his daily routine of labor. All this, however, requires a proviso against the occurrence of a subsequent acute attack, when, as with other exostoses, a fresh access of acute symptoms may be followed by a new pathological activity, which shall again develop, as a natural result, a reappearance of the lameness. _Treatment._--It is, of course, the consideration of the comparative harmlessness of splints that suggests and justifies the policy of noninterference, except as they become a positive cause of lameness. And a more positive argument for such noninterference consists in the fact that any active and irritating treatment may so excite the parts as to bring about a renewed pathological activity, which may result in a reduplication of the phenomena, with a second edition, if not a second and enlarged volume, of the whole story. For our part, our faith is firm in the impolicy of interference, and this faith is founded on an experience of many years, during which our practice has been that of abstention. Of course, there will be exceptional conditions which will at times indicate a different course. These will become evident when the occasions present themselves, and extraordinary forms and effects of inflammation and growth in the tumors offer special indications. But our conviction remains unshaken that surgical treatment of the operative kind is usually useless, if not dangerous. We have little faith in the method of extirpation except under very special conditions, among which that of diminutive size has been named; this seems in itself to constitute a sufficient negative argument. Even in such a case a resort to the knife or the gouge could scarcely find a justification, since no operative procedure is ever without a degree of hazard, to say nothing of the considerations which are always forcibly negative in any question of the infliction of pain and the unnecessary use of the knife. [Illustration: PLATE XXV. SPLINT.] [Illustration: PLATE XXVI. SOUND FOOT. RINGBONE.] [Illustration: PLATE XXVII. VARIOUS TYPES OF SPAVIN.] [Illustration: PLATE XXVIII. BONE SPAVIN. HOCKS, WITH SKIN REMOVED.] [Illustration: PLATE XXIX. BONE SPAVIN.] If an acute periostitis of the cannon bone has been readily discovered, the treatment we have already suggested for that ailment is at once indicated, and the astringent lotions may be relied upon to bring about beneficial results. Sometimes, however, preference may be given to a lotion possessing a somewhat different quality, the alterative consisting of tincture of iodin applied to the inflamed spot several times daily. If the lameness persists under this mild course of treatment, it must, of course, be attacked by other methods, and we must resort to the cantharides ointment or Spanish-fly blister, as we have before recommended. Besides this, and producing an analogous effect, the compounds of biniodid of mercury are favored by some. It is prepared in the form of an ointment, consisting of 1 dram of the biniodid to 1 ounce of either lard or vaseline. It forms an excellent blistering and alterative application, and is of special advantage in newly formed or recently discovered exostosis. It remains a pertinent query, however, and one which seems to be easily answered, whether a tumor so diminutive in size that it can be detected only by diligent search, and which is neither a disfigurement nor an obstruction to the motion of the limb, need receive any recognition whatever. Other modes of treatment for splints are recommended and practiced which belong strictly to the domain of operative veterinary surgery; among these are to be reckoned actual cauterization, or the application of the fire iron and the operation of periosteotomy. These are frequently indicated in the treatment of splints which have resisted milder means. The mode of the development of their growth; their intimacy, greater or less, with both the large and the small cannon bones; the possibility of their extending to the back of these bones under the suspensory ligament; the dangerous complications which may follow the rough handling of the parts, with also a possibility, and, indeed, a probability, of their return after removal--these are the considerations which have influenced our judgment in discarding from our practice and our approval the method of removal by the saw or the chisel, as recommended by certain European veterinarians. RINGBONES. Ringbone is the designation of the exostosis which is found on the coronet and in the digital and phalangeal regions. (See Plate XXVI.) The name is appropriate, because the growth extends quite around the coronet, which it encircles in the manner of a ring, or perhaps because it often forms upon the back of that bone a regular osseous arch, through which the back tendons obtain a passage. The places where these growths are usually developed have caused their subdivision and classification into three varieties, with the designations of high, middle, and low, though much can be said as to the importance of the distinction. It is true that the ringbone or phalangeal exostosis may be found at various points on the foot, in one case forming a large bunch on the upper part and quite close to the fetlock joint; in another around the upper border of the hoof, or perhaps on the extreme front or on the very back of the coronet. The shape in which they commonly appear is favorable to their easy discovery, their form when near the fetlock usually varying too much from the natural outlines of the part when compared with those of the opposite side to admit of error in the matter. (See also page 439.) A ringbone, when on the front of the foot, even when not very largely developed, assumes the form of a diffused convex swelling. If situated on the lower part, it will form a thick ring, encircling that portion of the foot immediately above the hoof; when found on the posterior part, a small, sharp osseous growth somewhat projecting, sometimes on the inside and sometimes on the outside of the coronet, may comprise the entire manifestation. _Cause._--As with splints, ringbones may result from severe labor in early life, before the process of ossification has been fully perfected; or they may be referred to bruises, blows, sprains, or other violence; injuries of tendons, ligaments, or joints also may be among the accountable causes. It is certain that they may commonly be traced to diseases and traumatic lesions of the foot, and their appearance may be reasonably expected among the sequelæ of an abscess of the coronet; or the cause may be a severe contusion resulting from calking, or a deep-punctured wound from picking up a nail or stepping upon any hard object of sufficiently irregular form to penetrate the sole. Moreover, a ringbone may originate in heredity. This is a fact of no little importance in its relation to questions connected with the extensive interests of the stock breeder and purchaser. That the hereditary transmission of constitutional idiosyncrasies is an active cause with regard to diseases in general, it would be absurd to assert, but we do say that a predisposition to contract ringbone through faulty conformation, such as long, thin pasterns with narrow joints and steep fetlocks, may be inherited in many cases, and in a smaller proportion of cases this predisposition may act as a secondary cause in the formation of ringbone. The importance of this point when considered in reference to the policy which should be observed in the selection of breeding stock is obvious, and, as the whole matter is within the control of the owners and breeders, it will be their own fault if the unchecked transmission of ringbones from one equine generation to another is allowed to continue. It is our belief that among the diseases which are known for their tendency to perpetuate and repeat themselves by individual succession, those of the bony structures stand first, and the inference from such fact which would exclude every animal of doubtful soundness in its osseous apparatus from the stud list and the brood farm is too plain for argument. _Symptoms._--Periostitis of the phalanges is an ailment requiring careful exploration and minute inspection for its discovery, and is very liable to result in a ringbone of which lameness is the result. The mode of its manifestation varies according to the state of development of the diseased growth as affected by the circumstances of its location and dimensions. It is commonly of the kind which, in consequence of its intermittent character, is termed lameness when cool, having the peculiarity of exhibiting itself when the animal starts from the stable and of diminishing, if not entirely disappearing after some distance of travel, to return to its original degree, if not indeed a severer one, when he has again cooled off in his stable. The size of the ringbone does not indicate the degree to which it cripples the patient, but the position may, especially when it interferes with the free movement of the tendons which pass behind and in front of the foot. While a large ringbone will often interfere but little with the motion of the limb, a smaller growth, if situated under the tendon, may become the cause of considerable and continued pain. A ringbone is doubtless a worse evil than a splint. Its growth, its location, its tendency to increased development, its exposure to the influence of causes of renewed danger, all tend to impart an unfavorable cast to the prognosis of a case and to emphasize the importance and the value of an early discovery of its presence and possible growth. Even when the discovery has been made, it is often the case that the truth has come to light too late for effectual treatment. Months may have elapsed after the first manifestation of the lameness before a discovery has been made of the lesion from which it has originated, and there is no recall for the lapsed time. And by the uncompromising seriousness of the discouraging prognosis must the energy and severity of the treatment and the promptness of its administration be measured. The periostitis has been overlooked; any chance that might have existed for preventing its advance to the chronic stage has been lost; the osseous formation is established; the ringbone is a fixed fact, and the indications are urgent and pressing. _Treatment._--The preventive treatment consists in keeping colts well nourished and in trimming the hoof and shoeing to balance the foot properly and thus prevent an abnormal strain on the ligaments. Even after the ringbone has developed, a cure may sometimes be occasioned by proper shoeing directed toward straightening the axis of the foot as viewed from the side by making the wall of the hoof from the coronet to the toe continuous with the line formed by the front of the pastern. So long as inflammation of the periosteum and ligaments remains, a sharp blister of biniodid of mercury and cantharides may do good if the animal is allowed to rest for four or five weeks. If this fails, some success may be accomplished by point firing in two or three lines over the ringbone. It is necessary to touch the hot iron well into the bone, as superficial firing does little good. When all these measures have failed to remove the lameness, or when the animal is not worth a long and uncertain treatment, a competent veterinarian should be engaged to perform double neurectomy, high or low, of the plantar nerves, or neurectomy of the median nerve as indicated by the seat of the lesion. SIDEBONES. On each side of the bone of the hoof--the coffinbone--there are normally two supplementary organs which are called the cartilages of the foot. They are soft, and though in a degree elastic, yet somewhat resisting, and are implanted on the lateral wings of the coffinbone. Evidently their office is to assist in the elastic expansion and contraction of the posterior part of the hoof, and their healthy and normal action doubtless contributes in an important degree to the perfect performance of the functions of that part of the leg. These organs are, however, liable to undergo a process of disease which results in an entire change in their properties, if not in their shape, by which they acquire a character of hardness resulting from the deposit of earthy substance in the intimate structure of the cartilage, and it is this change, when its consummation has been effected, that brings to our cognizance the diseased growth which has received the designation of sidebones. They are situated on one or both sides of the leg, bulging above the superior border of the hoof in the form of two hard bodies composed of ossified cartilage, irregularly square in shape and unyielding under the pressure of the fingers. _Cause._--Sidebones may be the result of a low inflammatory condition or of an acute attack as well, or may be caused by sprains, bruises, or blows; or they may have their rise in certain diseases affecting the foot proper, such as corns, quarter cracks, or quittor. The deposit of calcareous matter in the cartilage is not always uniform, the base of that organ near its line of union with the coffinbone being in some cases its limit, while at other times it is diffused throughout its substance, the size and prominence of the growth varying much in consequence. _Symptoms._--It would naturally be inferred that the degree of interference with the proper functions of the hoof which must result from such a pathological change would be proportioned to the size of the tumor, and that as the dimensions increase the resulting lameness would be the greater in degree. This, however, is not the fact. A small tumor while in a condition of acute inflammation during the formative stage may cripple a patient more severely than a much larger one in a later stage of the disease. In any case the lameness is never wanting, and with its intermittent character may usually be detected when the animal is cooled off after labor or exercise. The class of animals in which this feature of the disease is most frequently seen is that of the heavy draft horse and others similarly employed. There is a wide margin of difference in respect to the degrees of severity which may characterize different cases of sidebone. While one may be so slight as to cause no inconvenience, another may develop elements of danger which may involve the necessity of severe surgical interference. _Treatment._--The curative treatment should be similar to the prophylactic, and such means should be used as would tend to prevent the deposit of bony matters by checking the acute inflammation which causes it. The means recommended are the free use of the cold bath; frequent soaking of the feet, and at a later period treatment with iodin, either by painting the surface with the tincture several times daily or by applying an ointment made by mixing 1 dram of the crystals with 2 ounces of vaseline, rubbed in once a day for several days. If this proves to be ineffective, a Spanish-fly blister to which a few grains of biniodid of mercury have been added will effect in a majority of cases the desired result and remove the lameness. If finally this treatment is ineffectual the case must be relegated to the surgeon for the operation of neurectomy, or the free and deep application of the firing iron. SPAVIN. (Pls. XXVII-XXIX.) This affection, popularly termed bone spavin, is an exostosis of the hock joint. The general impression is that in a spavined hock the bony growth should be seated on the anterior and internal part of the joint, and this is partially correct, as such a growth will constitute a spavin in the most nearly correct sense of the term. But an enlargement may appear on the upper part of the hock also, or possibly a little below the inner side of the lower extremity of the shank bone, forming what is known as a high spavin; or, again, the growth may form just on the outside of the hock and become an outside or external spavin. And, finally, the entire under surface may become the seat of the osseous deposit, and involve the articular face of all the bones of the hock, which again is a bone spavin. There would seem, then, to be but little difficulty in comprehending the nature of a bone spavin, and there would be none but for the fact that there are similar affections which may confuse one if the diagnosis is not very carefully made. But the hock may be "spavined," while to all outward observation it still retains its perfect form. With no enlargement perceptible to sight or touch the animal may yet be disabled by an occult spavin, an anchylosis in fact, which has resulted from a union of several of the bones of the joint, and it is only those who are able to realize the importance of its action to the perfect fulfillment of the function of locomotion by the hind leg who can comprehend the gravity of the only prognosis which can be justified by the facts of the case--a prognosis which is essentially a sentence of serious import in respect to the future usefulness and value of the animal. For no disease, if we except those acute inflammatory attacks upon vital organs to which the patient succumbs at once, is more destructive to the usefulness and value of a horse than a confirmed spavin. Serious in its inception, serious in its progress, it is an ailment which, when once established, becomes a fixed condition which there is no known means of dislodging. _Cause._--The periostitis, of which it is nearly always a termination, is usually the effect of a traumatic cause operating upon the complicated structure of the hock, such as a sprain which has torn a ligamentous insertion and lacerated some of its fibers, or a violent effort in jumping, galloping, or trotting, to which the victim has been compelled by the torture of whip and spur while in use as a gambling implement by a sporting owner, under the pretext of "improving his breed"; the extra exertion of starting an inordinately heavy load, or an effort to recover his balance from a misstep, slipping upon an icy surface, or sliding with worn shoes upon a bad pavement, and other kindred causes. We can repeat here what we have before said concerning bones, in respect to heredity as a cause. From our own experience we know of equine families in which this condition has been transmitted from generation to generation, and animals otherwise of excellent conformation have been rendered valueless by the misfortune of a congenital spavin. _Symptoms._--The evil is one of the most serious character for other reasons, among which may be specified the slowness of its development and the insidiousness of its growth. Certain indefinite phenomena and alarming changes and incidents furnish usually the only portents of approaching trouble. Among these signs may be mentioned a peculiar posture assumed by the patient while at rest, and becoming at length so habitual that it can not fail to suggest the action of some hidden disorder. The posture is due to the action of the adductor muscles, the lower part of the leg being carried inward, and the heel of the shoe resting on the toe of the opposite foot. Then an unwillingness may be noticed in the animal to move from one side of the stall to the other. When driven he will travel, but stiffly, with a sort of sidelong gait between the shafts, and after finishing his task and resting again in his stall will pose with the toe pointing forward, the heel raised, and the hock flexed. Considerable heat and inflammation soon appear. The slight lameness which appears when backing out of the stall ceases to be noticeable after a short distance of travel. A minute examination of the hock may then reveal the existence of a bony enlargement which may be detected just at the junction of the hock and the cannon bone, on the inside and a little in front, and tangible both to sight and touch. This enlargement, or bone spavin, grows rapidly and persistently and soon acquires dimensions which renders it impossible to doubt any longer its existence or its nature. Once established, its development continues under conditions of progress similar to those to which we have before alluded in speaking of other like affections. The argument advanced by some that because these bony deposits are frequently found on both hocks they are not spavins is fallacious. If they are discovered on both hocks, it proves merely that they are not confined to a single joint. The characteristic lameness of bone spavin, as it affects the motion of the hock joint, presents two aspects. In one class of cases it is most pronounced when the horse is cool, in the other when he is at work. The first is characterized by the fact that when the animal travels the toe first touches the ground, and the heel descends more slowly, the motion of flexion at the hock taking place stiffly, and accompanied with a dropping of the hip on the opposite side. In the other case the peculiarity is that the lameness increases as the horse travels; that when he stops he seeks to favor the lame leg, and when he resumes his work soon after he steps much on his toe, as in the first variety. As with sidebones, though for a somewhat different reason, the dimensions of the spavin and the degree of the lameness do not seem to bear any determinate relation, the most pronounced symptoms at times accompanying a very diminutive growth. The distinction between the two varieties of cool and warm, however, may easily be determined by remembering the fact that in most cases the first, or cool, is due to a simple exostosis, while the second is generally connected with disease of the articulation, such as ulceration of the articular surface--a condition which, as we proceed further, will receive our attention when we reach the subject of stringhalt. An excellent test for spavin lameness, which may be readily applied, consists in lifting the affected leg from the ground for one or two minutes and holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints. An assistant, with the halter strap in his hand, quickly starts the animal off in a trot, when, if the hock joint is affected, the lameness will be so greatly intensified as to lead readily to a diagnosis. _Prognosis._--Having thus fully considered the history of bone spavin, we are prepared to give due weight to the reasons that exist for the adverse prognosis which we must usually feel compelled to pronounce when encountering it in practice, as well as to realize the importance of early discovery. It is but seldom, however, that the necessary advantage of this early knowledge can be obtained, and when the true nature of the trouble has become apparent it is usually too late to resort to the remedial measures which, if duly forewarned, a skillful practitioner might have employed. We are fully persuaded that but for the loss of the time wasted in the treatment of purely imaginary ailments very many cases of bone spavin might be arrested in their incipiency and their victims preserved for years of comfort for themselves and valuable labor to their owners. _Treatment._--To consider a hypothetical case: An early discovery of lameness has been made; that is, the existence of an acute inflammation--of periostitis--has been detected. The increased temperature of the parts has been observed, with the stiffened gait and the characteristic pose of the limb, and the question is proposed for solution, What is to be done? Even with only these comparatively doubtful symptoms--doubtful with the nonexpert--we should direct our treatment to the hock in preference to any other joint, since of all the joints of the hind leg it is this which is most liable to be attacked, a natural result from its peculiarities of structure and function. And in answer to the query, What is the first treatment indicated? We should answer _rest_--emphatically, and as an essential condition, _rest_. Whether only threatened, suspected, or positively diseased, the animal must be wholly released from labor, and it must be no partial or temporary quiet of a few days. In all stages and conditions of the disease, whether the spavin is nothing more than a simple exostosis, or whether accompanied with the complication of arthritis, there must be a total suspension of effort until the danger is over. Less than a month's quiet ought not to be thought of--the longer the better. Good results may also be expected from local applications. The various lotions which cool the parts, the astringents which lower the tension of the blood vessels, the tepid fomentations which accelerate the circulation in the engorged capillaries, the liniments of various composition, the stimulants, the opiate anodynes, the sedative preparations of aconite, the alterative frictions of iodin--all these are recommended and prescribed by one or another. We prefer counterirritants, for the reason, among many others, that by the promptness of their action they tend to prevent the formation of the bony deposits. The lameness will often yield to the blistering action of cantharides, in the form of ointment or liniment, and to the alterative preparations of iodin or mercury. If the owner of a "spavined" horse really succeeds in removing the lameness, he has accomplished all that he is justified in hoping for; beyond this let him be well persuaded that a "cure" is impossible. For this reason, moreover, he will do well to be on his guard against the patented "cures" which the traveling horse doctor may urge upon him, and withhold his faith from the circular of the agent who will deluge him with references and certificates. It is possible that nostrums may in some exceptional instances prove serviceable, but the greater number of them are capable of producing only injurious effects. The removal of the bony tumor can not be accomplished by any such means, and if a trial of these unknown compounds should be followed by complications no worse than the establishment of one or more ugly, hairless cicatrices, it will be well for both the horse and his owner. Rest and counterirritation, with the proper medicaments, constitute, then, the prominent points in the treatment designed for the relief of bone spavin. Yet there are cases in which all the agencies and methods referred to seem to lack effectiveness and fail to produce satisfactory results. Either the rest has been prematurely interrupted or the blisters have failed to modify the serous infiltration, or the case in hand has some undiscernible characteristics which seem to have rendered the disease neutral to the agencies used against it. An indication of more energetic means is then presented, and free cauterization with the firing iron becomes necessary. At this point a word of explanation in reference to this operation of firing may be appropriate for the satisfaction of any among our readers who may entertain an exaggerated idea of its severity and possible cruelty. The operation is one of simplicity, but is nevertheless one which, in order to secure its benefits, must be reserved for times and occasions of which only the best knowledge and highest discretion should be allowed to judge. It is not the mere application of a hot iron to a given part of the body which constitutes the operation of firing. It is the methodical and scientific introduction of heat into the structure with a view to a given effect upon a diseased organ or tissue by an expert surgeon. The first is one of the degrees of mere burning. The other is scientific cauterization, and is a surgical manipulation which should be committed exclusively to the practiced hand of the veterinary surgeon. Either firing alone or stimulation with blisters is of great efficacy for the relief of lameness from bone spavin. Failure to produce relief after a few applications and after allowing a sufficient interval of rest should be followed by a second or, if needed, a third firing. In case of further failure there is a reserve of certain special operations which have been tried and recommended, among which those of cunean tenotomy, periosteotomy, the division of nervous branches, etc., may be mentioned. These, however, belong to the peculiar domain of the veterinary practitioner, and need not now engage our attention. FRACTURES. In technical language a fracture is a "solution of continuity in the structure or substance of a bone." It ranks among the most serious of the lesions to which the horse--or any animal--can be subject. It is a subject of special interest to veterinarians and horse owners in view of the fact that it occurs in such a variety of forms and subjects the patient to much loss of time, resulting in the suspension of his earning capacity. Though of less serious consequence in the horse than in man, it is always a matter of grave import. It is always slow and tedious in healing and is frequently of doubtful and unsatisfactory result. This solution of continuity may take place in two principal ways. In the most numerous instances it includes the total thickness of the bone and is a complete fracture. In other cases it involves only a portion of the thickness of the bone, and for that reason is described as incomplete. If the bone is divided into two separate portions and the soft parts have received no injury, the fracture is a simple one, or it becomes compound if the soft parts have suffered laceration, and comminuted if the bones have been crushed or ground into fragments, many or few. The direction of the break also determines its further classification. Broken at a right angle, it is transverse; at a different angle it becomes oblique, and it may be longitudinal or lengthwise. In a complete fracture, especially of the oblique kind, there is a condition of great importance in respect to its effect upon the ultimate result of the treatment in the fact that from various causes, such as muscular contractions or excessive motion, the bony fragments do not maintain their mutual coaptation, but become separated at the ends, which makes it necessary to add another descriptive term--with displacement. These words again suggest the negative and introduce the term without displacement, when the facts justify that description. Furthermore, a fracture may be intra-articular or extra-articular, as it extends into a joint or otherwise, and, once more, intra-periosteal when the periosteum remains intact. Finally, there is no absolute limit to the use of descriptive terminology in the case. The condition of displacement is largely influential in determining the question of treatment and as affecting the final result of a case of fracture. This, however, is dependent upon its location or whether its seat is in one or more of the axes of the bone, in its length, its breadth, its thickness, or its circumference. An incomplete fracture may also be either simple or comminuted. In the latter case the fragments are held together by the periosteum when it is intact; in that case the fracture belongs to the intra-periosteal class. At times, also, there is only a simple fissure or split in the bone, making a condition of much difficulty of diagnosis. _Causes._--Two varieties of originating cause may be recognized in cases of fracture. They are the predisposing and the occasional. As to the first, different species of animals differ in the degree of their liability. That of the dog is greater than that of the horse, and in horses the various questions of age, the mode of labor, the season of the year, the portion of the body most exposed, and the existence of ailments, local and general, are all to be taken into account. Among horses, those employed in heavy draft work or that are driven over bad roads are more exposed than light-draft or saddle horses, and animals of different ages are not equally liable. Dogs and young horses, with those which have become sufficiently aged for their bones to have acquired an enhanced degree of frangibility, are more liable than those which have not exceeded the time of their prime. The season of the year is undoubtedly, though in an incidental way, an important factor in the problem of the etiology of these accidents, for though they may be observed at all times, it is during the months when the slippery condition of the icy roads renders it difficult for both men and beasts to keep their feet that they occur most frequently. The long bones, those especially which belong to the extremities, are most frequently the seat of fractures, from the circumstance of their superficial position, their exposure to contact and collision, and the violent muscular efforts involved both in their constant, rapid movement and their labor in the shafts or at the pole of heavy and heavily laden carriages. The relation between sundry idiosyncrasies and diathesis and a liability to fractures is too constant and well-established a pathological fact to need more than a passing reference. The history of rachitis, of melanosis, and of osteoporosis, as related to an abnormal frangibility of the bones, is a part of our common medical knowledge. There are few persons who have not known of cases among their friends of frequent and almost spontaneous fractures, or at least of such as seem to be produced by the slightest and most inadequate violence, and there is no tangible reason for doubting an analogous condition in dividuals of the equine race. Among local predisposing causes mention must not be omitted of such bony diseases as caries, tuberculosis, and others of the same class. Exciting, occasional, or "efficient" causes of fracture are in most instances external traumatisms, as violent contacts, collisions, falls, etc., or sudden muscular contractions. These external accidents are various in their character, and are usually associated with quick muscular exertion. A violent, ineffectual effort to move too heavy a load; a semispasmodic bracing of the frame to avoid a fall or resist a pressure; a quick jump to escape a blow; stopping too suddenly after speeding; struggling to liberate a foot from a rail, perhaps to be thrown in the effort--all these are familiar and easy examples of accidents happening hourly by which our equine servants become sufferers. We may add to these the fracture of the bones of the vertebræ, occurring when casting a patient for the purpose of undergoing a surgical operation, quite as much as the result of muscular contraction as of a preexisting diseased condition of the bones. A fracture occurring under these circumstances may be called with propriety indirect, while one which has resulted from a blow or a fall differently caused is of the direct kind. _Symptoms._--We now return to the first items in our classification of the varieties of fractures for the purpose of bringing them in turn under an orderly review, and our first examination will include those which belong to the first category, or the complete kind. Irregularity in the performance of the functions of the apparatus to which the fractured bone belongs is a necessary consequence of the existing lesion, and this is lameness. If the broken bone belongs to one of the extremities, the impossibility of the performance of its natural function in sustaining the weight of the body and contributing to the act of locomotion is usually complete, though the degree of disability will vary according to the kind of fracture and the bone which is injured. For example, a fracture of the cannon bone without displacement, or of one of the phalanges, which are surrounded and sustained by a complex fibrous structure, is, in a certain degree, not incompatible with some amount of resting on the foot. On the contrary, if the shank bone, or that of the forearm is the implicated member, it would be very difficult for the leg to exercise any agency whatever in the support of the body, and in a fracture of the lower jaw it would be obviously unreasonable to expect it to contribute materially to the mastication of feed. It seldom happens that a fracture is not accompanied with a degree of deformity, greater or less, of the region or the leg affected. This is due to the exudation of the blood into the meshes of the surrounding tissues and to the displacement which occurs between the fragments of the bones, with subsequently the swelling which follows the inflammation of the surrounding tissues. The character of the deformity will mainly depend upon the manner in which the displacement occurs. In a normal state of things the legs perform their movements with the joints as their only centers or bases of action, with no participation of intermediate points, while with a fracture the flexibility and motion which will be observed at unnatural points are among the most strongly characteristic signs of the lesion. No one need be told that, when the shaft of a limb is seen to bend midway between the joints, with the lower portion swinging freely, the leg is broken. There are still some conditions, however, in which the excessive mobility is not easy to detect. Such are the cases in which the fracture exists in a short bone, near a movable joint, or in a bone of a region where several short and small bones are united in a group, or even in a long bone the situation of which is such that the muscular covering prevents the visible manifestation of the symptom. If the situation of a fracture precludes its discovery by means of this abnormal flexibility, other modes of detection remain. There is one method which is absolute and positive and which can be applied in by far the most, though not in all cases. This is crepitation, or the peculiar effect which is produced by the friction of the fractured surfaces one against another. Though discerned by the organs of hearing it can scarcely be called a sound, for the grating of the parts as the rubbing takes place is more felt than heard; however, there is no mistaking its import in cases favorable for the application of the test. The conditions in which it is not available are those of incomplete fracture, in which the mobility of the part is lacking, and those in which the whole array of phenomena are usually obscure. To obtain the benefit of this pathognomonic sign requires deliberate, careful, and gentle manipulation. Sometimes the slightest of movements will be sufficient for its development, after much rougher handling has failed to discover it. Perhaps the failure in the latter case is due to a sort of defensive spasmodic rigidity caused by the pain resulting from the rude interference. More or less reactive fever is a usual accompaniment of a fracture. Ecchymosis in the parts is but a natural occurrence, and is more easily discovered in animals possessing a light-colored and delicate skin than in those of any other character. There are difficulties in the way of the diagnosis of an incomplete fracture, even sometimes when there is a degree of impairment in the function of locomotion, with evidences of pain and swelling at the seat of lesion. There should then be a careful examination for evidences of a blow or other violence sufficient to account for the fracture, though very often a suspicion of its existence can be converted into a certainty only by a minute history of the patient if it can be obtained up to the moment of the occurrence of the injury. A diagnosis ought not to be hastily pronounced, and where good ground for suspicion exists it ought not to be rejected upon any evidence less than the best. We too often read of serious and fatal complications following careless conclusions in similar cases, among which we may refer to one instance of a complete fracture manifesting itself in an animal during the act of rising in his stall after a decision had been pronounced that he had no fracture at all. Fractures are of course liable to complications, especially those which are of a traumatic character, such as extensive lacerations, tearing of tissues, punctures, contusions, etc. Unless these are in communication with the fracture itself the indication is to treat them simply as independent lesions upon other parts of the body. A traumatic emphysema at times causes trouble, and abscesses, more or less deep and diffused, may follow. In some cases small, bony fragments from a comminuted fracture, becoming loose and acting as foreign bodies, give rise to troublesome fistulous tracts. A frequent complication is hemorrhage, which often becomes of serious consequence. A fracture in close proximity to a joint may be accompanied with dangerous inflammations of important organs, and induce an attack of pneumonia, pleurisy, arthritis, etc., especially if near the chest; it may also cause luxations, or dislocations. Gangrene, as a consequence of contusions or of hemorrhage or of an impediment to the circulation, caused by unskillfully applied apparatus, must not be overlooked among the occasional incidents; nor must lockjaw, which is not an uncommon occurrence. Even founder, or laminitis, has been met with as the result of forced and long-continued immobility of the feet in the standing posture, as one of the involvements of unavoidably protracted treatment. When a simple fracture has been properly treated and the broken ends of the bone have been securely held in coaptation, one of two things will occur. Either--and this is the more common event--there will be a union of the two ends by a solid cicatrix, the callus, or the ends will continue separated or become only partially united by an intermediate fibrous structure. In the first instance the fracture is consolidated or united; in the second there is a false articulation, or pseudarthrosis. The time required for a firm union or true consolidation of a fracture varies with the character of the bone affected, the age and constitution of the patient, and the general conditions of the case. The union will be perfected earlier in a young than in an adult animal, and sooner in the latter than in the aged, and a general healthy condition is, of course, in every respect, an advantage. The mode of cicatrization, or method of repair in lesions of the bones, has been a subject of much study among investigators in pathology, and has elicited various expressions of opinion from those high in authority. The weight of evidence and preponderance of opinion are about settled in favor of the theory that the law of reparation is the same for both the hard and the soft tissues. In one case a simple exudation of material, with the proper organization of newly formed tissue, will bring about a union by the first intention, and in another the work will be accompanied with suppuration, or union by the second intention, a process so familiar in the repair of the soft structures by granulation. Considering the process in its simplest form, in a case in which it advances without interruption or complication to a favorable result, it may probably be correctly described in this wise: On the occurrence of the injury an effusion of blood takes place between the ends of the bone. The coagulation of the fluid soon follows, and this, after a few days, undergoes absorption. There is then an excess of inflammation in the surrounding structure, which soon spreads to the bony tissue, when a true ostitis is established, and the compact tissue of the bone becomes the seat of a new vascular organization, and of a certain exudation of plastic lymph, appearing between the periosteum and the external surface of the bone, as well as on the inner side of the medullary cavity. After a few days the ends of the bone thus surrounded by this exudate become involved in it, and the lymph, becoming vascular, is soon transformed into cartilaginous, and in due time into bony, tissue. Thus the time required for the consolidation of the fractured segments is divisible into two distinct periods. In the first they are surrounded by an external bony ring, and the medullary cavity is closed by a bony plug or stopper, constituting the period of the provisional callus. This is followed by the period of permanent callus, during which the process of converting the cartilaginous into the osseous form is going forward. The restorative process is sooner completed in the carnivorous than in the herbivorous tribes. In the former the temporary callus may attain sufficient fineness of consistency for the careful use of the limb within four weeks, but with the latter a period of from six weeks to two months is not too long to allow before removing the supporting apparatus from the limb. This, in general terms, represents the fact when the resources of nature have not been thwarted by untoward accidents, such as a want of vigor in the constitution of the patient or a lack of skill on the part of the practitioner, and especially when, from any cause, the bony fragments have not been kept in a state of perfect immobility and the constant friction has prevented the osseous union of the two portions. Failures and misfortunes are always more than possible, and instead of a solid and practicable bony union the sequel of the accident is sometimes a false joint, composed of mere flexible cartilage, a poor pseudarthrosis. The explanation of this appears to be that, first, the sharp edges of the ends of the bone disappear by becoming rounded at their extremities by friction and polishing against each other. Then follows an exudation of a plastic nature which becomes transformed into a cartilaginous layer of a rough, articular aspect. In this bony nuclei soon appear, and the lymph secreted between the segments thus transformed, instead of becoming truly ossified, is changed into a sort of fibrocartilaginous pouch, or capsular sac, in which a somewhat albuminous secretion, or pseudo-synovia, permits the movement to take place. Most commonly, however, in our animals, the union of the bony fragments is obtained wholly through the medium of a layer of fibrous tissue, and it is because the union has been accomplished by a ligamentous formation only that motion becomes practicable. _Prognosis._--The prognosis in a case of fracture in an animal is one of the gravest vital import to the patient, and therefore of serious pecuniary concern to his owner. The period has not long elapsed when to have received such a hurt was quite equivalent to undergoing a sentence of death for the suffering animal, and perhaps to-day a similar verdict is pronounced in many cases in which the exercise of a little mechanical ingenuity, with a due amount of careful nursing, might secure a contrary result and insure the return of the patient to his former condition of soundness and usefulness. _Treatment._--Considered per se, a fracture in an animal is in fact no less amenable to treatment than the same description of injury in any other living being. But the question of the propriety and expediency of treatment is dependent upon certain specific points of collateral consideration. (1) The nature of the lesion is a point of paramount importance. A simple fracture occurring in a bone where the ends can be firmly secured in coaptation presents the most favorable condition for successful treatment. If it is that of a long bone, it will be the less serious if situated at or near the middle of its length than if it were in close proximity to a joint, from the fact that perfect immobility can rarely, in the latter case, be secured without incurring the risk of subsequent rigidity of the joint. A simple is always less serious than a compound fracture. A comminuted is always more dangerous than a simple, and a transverse break is easier to treat than one which is oblique. The most serious are those which are situated on parts of the body in which it is difficult to obtain perfect immobility, and especially those which are accompanied with severe contusions and lacerations in the soft parts; the protrusion of fragments through the skin; the division of blood vessels by the broken ends of the bone; the existence of an articulation near the point to which inflammation is liable to extend; the luxation of a fragment of the bone; laceration of the periosteum; the presence of a large number of bony particles, the result of the crushing of the bone--all these are circumstances which discourage a favorable prognosis, and weigh against the hope of saving the patient for future usefulness. Fractures which may be accounted curable are those which are not conspicuously visible, as those of the ribs, where displacements are either very limited or do not occur, the parts being kept in situ by the nature of their position, the shape of the bones, the articulations they form with the vertebra, the sternum, or their cartilages of prolongation; those of transverse processes of the lumbar vertebra; those of the bones of the face; those of the ilium; and that of the coffinbones. To continue the category, the following are evidently curable when their position and the character of the patient contribute to aid the treatment: Those of the cranium, in the absence of cerebral lesions; those of the jaws; of the ribs, with displacement; of the hip; and those of the bones of the leg in movable regions, but where their vertical position admits of perfect coaptation. On the contrary, a compound, complicated, or comminuted, fracture, in whatever region it may be situated, may be counted incurable. In treating fractures time is an important element and "delays are dangerous." Those of recent occurrence unite more easily and more regularly than older ones. (2) As a general rule, fractures are less serious in animals of the smaller species than in those of more bulky dimensions. This influence of species will be readily appreciated when we realize that the difficulties involved in the treatment of the latter class have hardly any existence in connection with the former. The difference in weight and size, and consequent facility in handling and making the necessary applications of dressings and other appliances for the purpose of securing the indispensable immobility of the parts, and usually a less degree of uneasiness in the deportment of the patients are considerations in this connection of great weight. (3) In respect to the utilization of the animal, the most obvious point in estimating the gravity of the case in a fracture accident is the certainty of the total loss of the services of the patient during treatment--certainly for a considerable period of time; perhaps permanently. For example, the fracture of the jaw of a steer just fattening for the shambles will involve a heavier loss than a similar accident to a horse. Usually the fracture of the bones of the extremities in a horse is a very serious casualty, the more so proportionately as the higher region of the limb is affected. In working animals it is exceedingly difficult to treat a fracture in such manner as to restore a limb to its original perfection of movement. A fracture of a single bone of an extremity in a breeding stallion or mare will not necessarily impair the value of the animal as a breeder. Other specifications under this head, though pertinent and more or less interesting, may be omitted. (4) Age and temper are important factors of cure. A young, growing, robust patient whose vis vitæ is active is amenable to treatment which one with a waning constitution and past mature energies would be unable to endure, and a docile, quiet disposition will act cooperatively with remedial measures which would be neutralized by the fractious opposition of a peevish and intractable sufferer. The fulfillment of three indications is indispensable in all fractures. The first is the reduction, or the replacement, of the parts as nearly as possible in their normal position. The second is their retention in that position for a period sufficient for the formation of the provisional callus, and the third, which, in fact, is but an incident of the second, the careful avoidance of any accidents or causes of miscarriage which might disturb the curative process. In reference to the first consideration, it must be remembered that the accident may befall the patient at a distance from his home, and his removal becomes the first duty to be attended to. Of course, this must be done as carefully as possible. If he can be treated on the spot, so much the better, though this is seldom practicable, and the method of removal becomes the question calling for settlement. But two ways present themselves--he must either walk or be carried. If the first, it is needless to say that every caution must be observed in order to obviate additional pain and to avoid any aggravation of the injury. Led slowly, and with partial support, if practicable, the journey will not always involve untoward results. If he is carried, it must be by means of a wagon, a truck, or an ambulance; the last being designed and adapted to the purpose, would, of course, be the most suitable vehicle. As a precaution which should never be overlooked, a temporary dressing should first be applied. This may be so done as for the time to answer all the purposes of the permanent adjustment and bandaging. Without thus securing the patient, a fracture of an inferior degree may be transformed to one of the severest kind, and, indeed, a curable changed to an incurable injury. We recall a case in which a fast-trotting horse, after running away in a fright caused by the whistle of a locomotive, was found on the road limping with excessive lameness in the off fore leg, and walked with comparative ease some 2 miles to a stable before being seen by a surgeon. His immediate removal in an ambulance was advised, but before that vehicle could be procured the horse lay down, and upon being made to get upon his feet was found with a well-marked comminuted fracture of the os suffraginis, with considerable displacement. The patient, however, after long treatment, made a comparatively good recovery and though with a large, bony deposit, a ringbone, was able to trot in the forties. The two obvious indications in cases of fracture are reduction, or replacement, and retention. In an incomplete fracture, where there is no displacement, the necessity of reduction does not exist. With the bone kept in place by an intact periosteum, and the fragments secured by the uninjured fibrous and ligamentous structure which surrounds them, there is no dislocation to correct. Reduction is also at times rendered impossible by the seat of the fracture itself, by its dimensions, alone, or by the resistance arising from muscular contraction. That is illustrated even in small animals, as in dogs, by the exceeding difficulty encountered in bringing together the ends of a broken femur or humerus, the muscular contractions being even in these animals sufficiently forcible to renew the displacement. It is generally, therefore, only fractures of the long bones, and then at points not in close proximity to the trunk, that may be considered to be amenable to reduction. It is true that some of the more superficial bones, as those of the head, of the pelvis, and of the thoracic walls, may in some cases require special manipulations and appliances for their retention in their normal positions; hence the treatment of these and of a fractured leg can not be the same. The methods of accomplishing reduction vary with the features of each case, the manipulations being necessarily modified to meet different circumstances. If the displacement is in the thickness of the bone, as in transverse fracture, the manipulation of reduction consists in applying constant pressure upon one of the fragments, while the other is kept steady in its place, the object of the pressure being the reestablishment of the exact coincidence of the two bony surfaces. If the displacement has taken place at an angle it will be sufficient in order to effect the reduction to press upon the summit, or apex, of the angle until its disappearance indicates that the parts have been brought into coaptation. This method is often practiced in the treatment of a fractured rib. In a longitudinal fracture, or when the fragments are pressed together by the contraction of the muscles to which they give insertion until they so overlap as to correspond by certain points of their circumference, the reduction is to be accomplished by effecting the movements of extension, counter extension, and coaptation. Extension is accomplished by making traction upon the lower portion of the limb. Counter extension consists in firmly holding or confining the upper or body portion in such manner, that it shall not be affected by the traction applied to the lower part. In other words, the operator, grasping the limb below the fracture, draws it down or away from the trunk, while he seeks not to draw away, but simply to hold the upper portion still until the broken ends of bone are brought to their natural relative positions, when the coaptation, which is thus effected, has only to be made permanent by the proper dressings to perfect the reduction. In treating fractures in small animals the strength of the hand is usually sufficient for the required manipulations. In the fracture of the forearm of a dog, for example, while the upper segment is firmly held by one hand the lower may be grasped by the other and the bone itself made to serve the purpose of a lever to bring about the desired coaptation. In such case that is sufficient to overcome the muscular contraction and correct the overlapping or other malposition of the bones. If, however, the resistance can not be overcome in this way, the upper segment may be committed to an assistant for the management of the counter extension, leaving to the operator the free use of both hands for the further manipulation of the case. If the reduction of fractures in small animals is an easy task, however, it is far from being so when the patient is a large animal whose muscular force is largely greater than that of several men combined. In such case resort must be had not only to superior numbers for the necessary force, but in many cases to mechanical aids. A reference to the manner of proceeding in a case of fracture with displacement of the forearm of a horse will illustrate the matter. The patient is first to be carefully cast, on the uninjured side, with ropes or a broad, leather strap about 18 feet long passed under and around his body and under the axilla of the fractured limb and secured at a point opposite to the animal and toward his back. This will form the mechanical means of counter extension. Another rope will then be placed around the inferior part of the leg below the point of fracture, with which to produce extension, and this will sometimes be furnished with a block and pulleys, in order to augment the power when necessary; there is, in fact, always an advantage in their use, on the side of steadiness and uniformity, as well as of increased power. It is secured around the fetlock or the coronet or, what is better, above the knee and nearer the point of fracture, and is committed to assistants. The traction on this should be firm, uniform, and slow, without relaxing or jerking, while the operator carefully watches the process. If the bone is superficially situated he is able, by the eye, to judge of any changes that may occur in the form or length of the parts under traction, and discovering, at the moment of its happening, the restoration of symmetry in the disturbed region he gently but firmly manipulates the place until all appearance of severed continuity has vanished. Sometimes the fact and the instant of restoration are indicated by a peculiar sound or "click" as the ends of the bones slip into contact, to await the next step of the restorative procedure. The process is the same when the bones are covered with thick muscular masses except that it is attended with greater difficulties from the fact that the finger must be substituted for the eye and taxis must take the place of sight. It frequently happens that perfect coaptation is prevented by the interposition, between the bony surfaces, of such substances as a small fragment of detached bone or a clot of blood; sometimes the extreme obliquity of the fracture, by permitting the bones to slip out of place, is the opposing cause. These are difficulties which can not always be overcome, even in small-sized animals, and still it is only when they are mastered that a correct consolidation can be looked for. Without it the continuity between the fragments will be by a deformed callus, the union will leave a shortened, crooked, or angular limb, and the animal will be disabled. If timely assistance can be obtained, and the reduction accomplished immediately after the occurrence of the accident, that is the best time for it, but if it can not be attended to until inflammation has become established and the parts have become swollen and painful, time must be allowed for the subsidence of these symptoms before attempting the operation. A spasmodic, muscular contraction which sometimes interposes a difficulty may be easily overcome by subjecting the patient to general anesthesia, and need not, therefore, cause any loss of time. A tendency to this may also be overcome by the use of sedatives and antiphlogistic remedies. The reduction of the fracture having been accomplished, the problem which follows is that of retention. The parts which have been restored to their natural position must be kept there, without disturbance or agitation, until the perfect formation of a callus, and it is here that ample latitude exists for the exercise of ingenuity and skill by the surgeon in the contrivance of the necessary apparatus. One of the most important of the conditions which are available by the surgeon in treating human patients is denied to the veterinarian in the management of those which belong to the animal tribes. This is position. The intelligence of the human patient cooperates with the instructions of the surgeon, in the case of the animal sufferer there is a continual antagonism between the parties, and the forced extension and fatiguing position which must for a considerable period be maintained as a condition of restoration require special and effective appliances to insure successful results. To obtain complete immobility is scarcely possible, and the surgeon must be content to reach a point as near as possible to that which is unattainable. For this reason, as will subsequently be seen, the use of slings and the restraint of patients in very narrow stalls is much to be preferred to the practice sometimes recommended of allowing entire freedom of motion by turning them loose in box stalls. Temporary and movable apparatus are not usually of difficult use in veterinary practice, but the restlessness of the patients and their unwillingness to submit quietly to the changing of the dressings render it obligatory to have recourse to permanent and immovable bandages, which should be retained without disturbance until the process of consolidation is complete. The materials composing the retaining apparatus consist of oakum, bandages, and splints, with an agglutinating compound which forms a species of cement by which the different constituents are blended into a consistent mass to be spread upon the surface covering the locality of the fracture. Its components are black pitch, rosin, and Venice turpentine, blended by heat. The dressing may be applied directly to the skin, or a covering of thin linen may be interposed. A putty made with powdered chalk and the white of egg is recommended for small animals, though a mixture of sugar of lead and burnt alum with the albumen is preferred by others. Another formula is spirits of camphor, Goulard's extract, and albumen. Another recommendation is to saturate the oakum and bandages with an adhesive solution formed with gum arabic, dextrin, flour paste, or starch. This is advised particularly for small animals, as is also the silicate of soda. Dextrin mixed while warm with burnt alum and alcohol cools and solidifies into a stony consistency, and is preferable to plaster of Paris, which is less friable and has less solidity, besides being heavier and requiring constant additions as it becomes older. Starch and plaster of Paris form another good compound. In applying the dressing the leg is usually padded with a cushion of oakum thick and soft enough to equalize the irregularities of the surface and to form a bedding for the protection of the skin from chafing. Over this the splints are placed. The material for these is, variously, pasteboard, thin wood, bark, laths, gutta-percha, strips of thin metal, as tin or perhaps sheet iron. They should be of sufficient length not only to cover the region of the fracture but to extend sufficiently above and below to render the immobility more nearly complete than in the surrounding joints. The splints, again, are covered with cloth bandages--linen preferably--soaked in a glutinous mixture. These bandages are to be carefully applied, with a perfect condition of lightness. They are usually made to embrace the entire length of the leg in order to avoid the possibility of interference with the circulation of the extremity as well as for the prevention of chafing. They should be rolled from the lower part of the leg upward and carefully secured against loosening. In some instances suspensory bandages are recommended, but except for small animals our experience does not justify a concurrence in the recommendation. These permanent dressings always need careful watching with reference to their immediate effect upon the region they cover, especially during the first days succeeding that of their application. Any manifestation of pain, or any appearance of swelling above or below, or any odor suggestive of suppuration should excite suspicion, and a thorough investigation should follow without delay. The removal of the dressing should be performed with great care, and especially so if time enough has elapsed since its application to allow of a probability of a commencement of the healing process or the existence of any points of consolidation. With the original dressing properly applied in its entirety in the first instance, the entire extremity will have lost all chance of mobility, and the repairing process may be permitted to proceed without interference. There will be no necessity and there need be no haste for removal or change except under such special conditions as have just been mentioned, or when there is reason to judge that solidification has become perfect, or for the comfort of the animal, or for its readaptation in consequence of the atrophy of the limb from want of use. Owners of animals are often tempted to remove a splint or bandage prematurely at the risk of producing a second fracture in consequence of the failure of the callus properly to consolidate. The method of applying the splints which we have described refers to the simple variety only. In a compound case the same rules must be observed, with the modification of leaving openings through the thickness of the dressing, opposite the wound, in order to permit the escape of pus and to secure access to the points requiring the application of treatment. FRACTURE OF CRANIAL BONES. Fractures of the cranial bones in large animals are comparatively rare, though the records are not destitute of cases. When they occur, it is as the result of external violence, the sufferers being usually run-aways which have come in collision with a wall or a tree or other obstruction, or it may occur in those which in pulling upon the halter have broken it with a jerk and been thrown backward, as may occur in rearing too violently. Under these conditions we have witnessed fractures of the parietal, of the frontal, and of the sphenoid bones. These fractures may be of both the complete and the incomplete kinds, which indeed is usually the case with those of the flat bones, and they are liable to be complicated with lacerations of the skin, in consequence of which they are easily brought under observation. When the fact is otherwise and the skin is intact, however, the diagnosis becomes difficult. _Symptoms._--The incomplete variety may be unaccompanied with any special symptoms, but in the complete kind one of the bony plates may be so far detached as to press upon the cerebral substance with sufficient force to produce serious nervous complications. When the injury occurs at the base of the cranium hemorrhage may be looked for, with paralytic symptoms, and when these are present the usual termination is death. It may happen, however, that the symptoms of an apparently very severe concussion may disappear, resulting in an early and complete recovery, and the surgeon will therefore do well to avoid undue haste in venturing upon a prognosis. In fractures of the orbital or the zygomatic bones the danger is less pressing than with injuries otherwise located about the head. _Treatment._--The treatment of cranial fractures is simple, though involving the best skill of an experienced surgeon. When incomplete hardly any interference is needed; even plain bandaging may usually be dispensed with. In the complete variety the danger to be combated is compression of the brain, and attention to this indication must not be delayed. The means to be employed are the trephining of the skull over the seat of the fracture and the elevation of the depressed bone or the removal of the portion which is causing the trouble. Fragments of bone in comminuted cases, bony exfoliations, collections of fluid, or even protruding portions of the brain substance must be carefully cleansed away and a simple bandage so applied as to facilitate the application of subsequent dressings. FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE. In respect to their origin--usually traumatic--these injuries rank with the preceding, and are commonly of the incomplete variety. They may easily be overlooked, and may even sometimes escape recognition until the reparative process has been well established and the wound is discovered owing to the prominence caused by the presence of the provisional callus which marks its cure. When the fracture is complete it will be marked by local deformity, mobility of the fragments, and crepitation. Nasal hemorrhage, roaring, frequent sneezing, loosening or loss of teeth, difficulty of mastication, and inflammation of the cavities of the sinuses are varying complications of these accidents. The object of the treatment should be the restoration of the depressed bones as nearly as possible to their normal position and their retention in place by protecting splints, which should cover the entire facial region. Special precautions should be observed to prevent the patient from disturbing the dressing by rubbing his head against surrounding objects, such as the stall, manger, rack, etc. Clots of blood in the nasal passages must be washed out, collections of pus removed from the sinuses, and, if the teeth are loosened and liable to fall out, they should be removed. If roaring is threatened, tracheotomy is indicated. FRACTURES OF THE PREMAXILLARY BONE. These are mentioned by continental authors and are usually encountered in connection with fractures of the nasal bone, and may take place either in the width or the length of the bone. The deformity of the upper lip, which is drawn sidewise in this lesion, renders it easy of diagnosis. The abnormal mobility and the crepitation, with the pain manifested by the patient when undergoing examination, are concurrent symptoms. Looseness of the teeth, abundant salivation, and entire inability to grasp the feed complete the symptomatology of these accidents. In the treatment splints of gutta-percha or leather are sometimes used, but they are of difficult application. Our own judgment and practice are in favor of the union of the bones by means of metallic sutures. FRACTURES OF THE LOWER JAW. A fracture here is not an injury of infrequent occurrence. It involves the body of the bone, at its symphysis, or back of it, and includes one or both of its branches, either more or less forward, or at the posterior part near the temporomaxillary articulation, at the coronoid process. Falls, blows, or other external violence, or powerful muscular contractions during the use of the speculum, may be mentioned among the causes of this lesion. The fracture of the neck, or that portion formed by the juncture of the two opposite sides, and of the branches in front of the cheeks, causes the lower jaw, the true dental arch, to drop, without the ability to raise it again to the upper, and the result is a peculiar and characteristic physiognomy. The prehension and mastication of feed become impossible; there is an abundant escape of fetid and sometimes bloody saliva, especially if the gums have been wounded; there is excessive mobility of the lower end of the jawbone; and there is crepitation, and frequently paralysis of the under lip. Although an animal suffering with a complete and often compound and comminuted fracture of the submaxilla presents at times a serious aspect, the prognosis of the case is comparatively favorable, and recovery is usually only a question of time. The severity of the lesion corresponds in degree to that of the violence to which it is due, also to the resulting complications and the situation of the wound. It is simple when at the symphysis, but becomes more serious when it affects one of the branches, and most aggravated when both are involved. Fracture of the coronoid process becomes important principally as an evidence of the existence of a morbid diathesis, such as osteoporosis, or the like. The particular seat of the injury, with its special features, will, of course, determine the treatment. For a simple fracture, without displacement, provided there is no laceration of the periosteum, an ordinary supporting bandage will usually be sufficient, but when there is displacement the reduction of the fracture must first be accomplished, and for this special splints are necessary. In a fracture of the symphysis or of the branches the adjustment of the fragments by securing them with metallic sutures is the first step necessary, to be followed by the application of supports, consisting of splints of leather or sheets of metal, the entire front of the head being then covered with bandages prepared with adhesive mixtures. During the entire course of treatment a special method of feeding becomes necessary. The inability of the patient to appreciate the situation, of course, necessitates a resort to an artificial mode of introducing the necessary feed into his stomach; this is accomplished by forcing between the commissures of the lips, in a liquid form, by means of a syringe, the milk or nutritive gruels selected for his sustenance until the consolidation is sufficiently advanced to permit the ingestion of feed of a more solid consistency. The callus will usually be sufficiently hardened in two or three weeks to allow of a change of diet to mashes of cut hay and scalded grain, until the removal of the dressing restores the animal to its old habit of mastication. FRACTURES OF VERTEBR�. These are not very common, but when they do occur the bones most frequently injured are those of the back and loins. _Causes._--The ordinary causes of fracture are responsible here as elsewhere, such as heavy blows on the spinal column, severe falls while conveying heavy loads, and especially violent efforts in resisting the process of casting. Although occurring more or less frequently under the latter circumstances, the accident is not always attributable to carelessness or error in the management. It may, of course, sometimes result from such a cause as a badly prepared bed, or the accidental presence of a hard body concealed in the straw, or to a heavy fall when the movements of the patient have not been sufficiently controlled by an effective apparatus and its skillful adaptation, but it is quite as liable to be caused by the violent resistance and the consequent powerful muscular contraction by the frightened patient. The simple fact of the overarching of the vertebral column, with excessive pressure against it from the intestinal mass, owing to the spasmodic action of the abdominal muscles, may account for it, and so also may the struggles of the animal to escape from the restraint of the hobbles while frantic under the pain of an operation without anesthesia. In these cases the fracture usually occurs in the body or the annular part, or both, of the posterior dorsal or the anterior lumbar vertebra. When the transverse processes of the last-named bones are injured, it is probably in consequence of the heavy concussion incident to striking the ground when cast. The diagnosis of a fracture of the body of a vertebra is not always easy, especially when quite recent, and more especially when there is no accompanying displacement. _Symptoms._--There are certain peculiar signs accompanying the occurrence of the accident while an operation is in progress which should at once excite the suspicion of the surgeon. In the midst of a violent struggle the patient becomes suddenly quiet; the movement of a sharp instrument, which at first excited his resistance, fails to give rise to any further evidence of sensation; perhaps a general trembling, lasting for a few minutes, will follow, succeeded by a cold, profuse perspiration, particularly between the hind legs, and frequently there will be micturition and defecation. Careful examination of the vertebral column may then detect a slight depression or irregularity in the direction of the spine, and there may be a diminution or loss of sensation in the posterior part of the trunk, while the anterior portion continues to be as sensitive as before. In making an attempt to get upon his feet, however, upon the removal of the hobbles, only the fore part of the body will respond to the effort, a degree of paraplegia being present, and while the head, neck, and fore part of the body will be raised, the hind quarters and hind legs will remain inert. The animal may perhaps succeed in rising and probably may be removed to his stall, but the displacement of the bone will follow, converting the fracture into one of the complete kind, either through the exertion of walking or by a renewed attempt to rise after another fall before reaching his stall. By this time the paralysis is complete, and the extension of the meningitis, which has become established, is a consummation soon reached. To say that the prognosis of fracture of the body of the vertebra is always serious is to speak very mildly. It would be better, perhaps, to say that _occasionally_ a case _may_ recover. Fractures of the transverse processes are less serious. _Treatment._--Instead of stating the indication in this class of cases as if assuming them to be amenable to treatment, the question naturally would be: Can any treatment be recommended in a fracture of the body of a vertebra? The only indication in such a case, in our opinion, is to reach the true diagnosis in the shortest possible time and to act accordingly. If there is displacement, and the existence of serious lesions may be inferred from the nervous symptoms, the destruction of the suffering animal appears to suggest itself as the one conclusion in which considerations of policy, humanity, and science at once unite. If, however, it is fairly evident that no displacement exists; that pressure upon the spinal cord is not yet present; that the animal with a little assistance is able to rise upon his feet and to walk a short distance--it may be well to experiment upon the case to the extent of placing the patient in the most favorable circumstances for recovery and allow nature to operate without further interference. This may be accomplished by obtaining immobility of the whole body as much as possible, and especially of the suspected region, by placing the patient in slings, in a stall sufficiently narrow to preclude lateral motion, and covering the loins with a thick coat of agglutinative mixture. Developments should be watched and awaited. FRACTURE OF THE RIBS. The different regions of the chest are not equally exposed to the violence that causes fractures of the ribs, and they are therefore either more common or more easily discovered during life at some points than at others. The more exposed regions are the middle and the posterior, while the front is largely covered and defended by the shoulder. A single rib may be the seat of fracture, or a number may be involved, and there may be injuries on both sides of the chest at the same time. It may take place lengthwise, in any part of the bone, though the middle, being the most exposed, is the most frequently hurt. Incomplete fractures are usually lengthwise, involving a portion only of the thickness of one or other of the surfaces. The complete kind may be either transverse or oblique, and are most commonly denticulated. The fracture may be comminuted, and a single bone may show one of the complete and one of the incomplete kind at different points. The extent of surface presented by the thoracic region, with its complete exposure at all points, explains the liability of the ribs to suffer from all the forms of external violence. _Symptoms._--In many instances fractures, especially the incomplete variety, of these bones continue undiscovered, without displacement, though the evidences of local pain, a certain amount of swelling, and a degree of disturbance of the respiration, if noticed during the examination of a patient, may suggest a suspicion of their existence. Abnormal mobility and crepitation are difficult of detection, even when present, and they are not always present. When there is displacement the deformity which it occasions will betray the fact, and when such an injury exists the surgeon, in view of possible and probable complications of thoracic trouble, of course will become vigilant and prepare himself for an encounter with a case of traumatic pleuritis or pneumonia. Fatal injuries of the heart are recorded. Subcutaneous emphysema is a common accompaniment of broken ribs, and I recall the death, from this cause, of a patient of my own which had suffered a fracture of two ribs in the region of the withers, under the cartilages of the shoulder, and of which the diagnosis was made only after the fatal ending of the case. These hurts are not often of a very serious character, though the union is never so solid and complete as in other fractures, the callus being usually imperfect and of a fibrous character, with an amphiarthrosis formation. Still, complications occur which may impart gravity to the prognosis. _Treatment._--Fractures with but a slight or no displacement need no reduction. All that is necessary is a simple application of a blistering nature as a preventive of inflammation or for its subjugation when present, and in order to excite an exudation which will tend to aid in the support and immobilization of the parts. At times, however, a better effect is obtained by the application of a bandage placed firmly around the chest, although, while this limits the motion of the ribs, it is liable to render the respiration more labored. If there is displacement, with much accompanying pain and evident irritation of the lungs, the fracture must be reduced without delay. The means of effecting this vary according to whether the displacement is outward or inward. In the first case the bone may be straightened by pressure from without, while in the second the end of it must be raised by a lever, for the introduction of which a small incision through the skin and intercostal spaces will be necessary. When coaptation has been effected it must be retained by the external application of an adhesive mixture, with splints and bandages around the chest. FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE PELVIS. These fractures will be considered under their separate denominations, as those of the sacrum and the os innominatum, or hip, which includes the subdivisions of the ilium, the pubes, and the ischium. _The sacrum._--Fractures of this bone are rarely met with among solipeds. Among cattle, however, it is of common occurrence, being attributed not only to the usual varieties of violence, as blows and other external hurts, but to the act of coition and violent efforts in parturition. It is generally of the transverse kind and may be recognized by the deformity which it occasions. This is due to the dropping of the bone, with a change in its direction and a lower attachment of the tail, which also becomes more or less paralyzed. The natural and spontaneous relief which usually interposes in these cases has doubtless been observed by the extensive cattle breeders of the West, and their practice and example fully establish the inutility of interference. Still, cases may occur in which reduction may be indicated, and it then becomes a matter of no difficulty. It is effected by the introduction of a round, smooth piece of wood into the rectum as far as the fragment of bone and using it as a lever, resting upon another as a fulcrum placed under it outside. The bone, having been thus returned, may be kept in place by the ordinary external means in use. _The os innominatum._--Fracture of the ilium may be observed either at the angle of the hip or at the neck of the bone; those of the pubes may take place at the symphysis, or in the body of the bone; those of the ischium on the floor of the bone, or at its posterior external angle. Or, again, the fracture may involve all three of these constituent parts of the hip bone by having its situation in the articular cavity--the acetabulum by which it joins the femur or thigh bone. _Symptoms._--Some of these fractures are easily recognized, while others are difficult to identify. The ordinary deformity which characterizes a fracture of the external angle of the ilium, its dropping and the diminution of that side of the hip in width, unite in indicating the existence of the condition expressed by the term "hipped." An incomplete fracture, however, or one that is complete without displacement, or even one with displacement, often demands the closest scrutiny for its discovery. The lameness may be well marked, and an animal may show it but little while walking, though upon being urged into a trot will manifest it more and more, until presently it will cease to use the crippled limb altogether, and travel entirely on three legs. The acute character of the lameness will vary in degree as the seat of the lesion approximates the acetabulum. In walking, the motion at the hip is very limited, and the leg is dragged; while at rest it is relieved from bearing its share in sustaining the body. An intelligent opinion and correct conclusion will depend largely upon a knowledge of the history of the case, and while in some instances that will be but a report of the common etiology of fractures, such as blows, hurts, and other external violence, the simple fact of a fall may furnish in a single word a satisfactory solution of the whole matter. With the exception of the deformity of the ilium in a fracture of its external angle, and unless there has been a serious laceration of tissues and infiltration of blood, or excessive displacement, there are no very definite external symptoms in a case of a fracture of the hip bone. There is one, however, which, in a majority of cases, will not fail--it is crepitation. This evidence is attainable by both external and internal examination--by manipulation of the gluteal surface and by rectal taxis. Very often a lateral motion, or balancing of the hinder parts by pressing the body from one side to the other, will be sufficient to render the crepitation more distinct--a slight sensation of grating, which may be perceived even through the thick coating of muscle which covers the bone--and the sensation may not only be felt, but to the expert may even become audible. This external manifestation is, however, not always sufficient in itself, and should invariably be associated with the rectal taxis for corroboration. It is true that this may fail to add to the evidence of fracture, but till then the simple testimony afforded by the detection of crepitation from the surface, though a strong confirmatory point, is scarcely sufficiently absolute to establish more than a reasonable probability or strong suspicion in the case. In addition to the fact that the rectal examination brings the exploring hand of the surgeon into near proximity to the desired point of search, and to an accurate knowledge of the situation of parts, both pro and con as respects his own views, there is another advantage attendant upon it which is well entitled to appreciation. This is the facility with which he can avail himself of the help of an assistant, who can aid him by manipulating the implicated limb and placing it in various positions, so far as the patient will permit, while the surgeon himself is making explorations and studying the effect from within. By this method he can hardly fail to ascertain the character of the fracture and the condition of the bony ends. By the rectal taxis, as if with eyes in the finger ends, he will "see" what is the extent of the fracture of the ilium or of the neck of that bone; to what part of the central portion of the bone (the acetabulum) it reaches; whether this is free from disease or not, and in what location on the floor of the pelvis the lesion is situated. By this method we have frequently been able to detect a fracture at the symphysis, which, from its history and symptoms and an external examination, could only have been guessed at. Yet, with all its advantages, the rectal examination is not always necessary, as, for example, when the fracture is at the posterior and external angle of the ischium, when by friction of the bony ends the surgeon may discern the crepitation without it. Every variety of complication, including muscular lacerations with the formation of deep abscesses and injuries to the organs of the pelvic cavity, the bladder, the rectum, and the uterus, may be associated with fractures of the hip bone. _Prognosis._--The prognosis of these lesions will necessarily vary considerably. A fracture of the most superficial part of the bone of the ilium or of the ischium, especially if there is little displacement, will unite rapidly, leaving a comparatively sound animal often quite free from subsequent lameness. If there is much displacement, however, only a ligamentous union will take place, with much deformity and more or less irregularity in the gait. Other fractures may be followed by complete disability of the patient, as, for example, when the cotyloid cavity is involved, or when the reparatory process has left bony deposits in the pelvic cavity at the seat of the union, which may, in the case of the female, interfere with the steps of parturition, or induce some local paralysis by pressure upon the nerves which govern the muscles of the hind legs. This is a condition not infrequently observed when the callus has been formed on the floor of the pelvis near the obturator foramen, pressing upon the course or involving the obturator nerve. _Treatment._--In our estimation, the treatment of all fractures of the hip bone should be of the simplest kind. Rendered comparatively immovable by the thickness of the muscles by which the region is enveloped, one essential indication suggests itself, and that is to place the animal in a position which, so far as possible, will be fixed and permanent. For the accomplishment of this purpose the best measure, as we consider it, is to place the horse in a stall of just sufficient width to admit him, and to apply a set of slings, snugly, but comfortably. (See Plate XXXI.) This will fulfill the essential conditions of recovery--rest and immobility. Blistering applications would be injurious, though the adhesive mixture might prove in some degree beneficial. The minimum period allowable for solid union in a fractured hip is, in our judgment, two months, and we have known cases in which that was too short a time. As we have said before, there may be cases in which the treatment for fracture at the floor of the pelvis has been followed by symptoms of partial paralysis, the animal, when lying down, being unable to regain his feet, but moving freely when placed in an upright position. This condition is owing to the interference of the callus with the functions of the obturator nerve, which it presses upon or surrounds. By my experience in similar cases I feel warranted in cautioning owners of horses in this condition to exercise due patience, and to avoid a premature sentence of condemnation against their invalid servants; they are not all irrecoverably paralytic. With alternations of moderate exercise, rest in the slings, and the effect of time while the natural process of absorption is taking effect upon the callus, with other elements of change that may be so operating, the horse in due time may become able once more to earn his subsistence and serve his master. FRACTURE OF THE SCAPULA. This bone is seldom fractured, its comparative exemption being due to its free mobility and the protection it receives from the superimposed soft tissues. Only direct and powerful causes are sufficient to effect the injury, and when it occurs the large rather than the smaller animals are the subjects. _Cause._--The causes are heavy blows or kicks and violent collisions with unyielding objects. Those which are occasioned by falls are generally at the neck of the bone, and of the transverse and comminuted varieties. _Symptoms._--The diagnosis is not always easy. The symptoms are inability to rest the leg on the ground and to carry weights, and they are present in various degrees from slight to severe. The leg rests upon the toe, seems shortened, and locomotion is performed by jumps. Moving the leg while examining it and raising the foot for inspection seem to produce much pain and cause the animal to rear. Crepitation is readily felt with the hand upon the shoulder when the leg is moved. If the fracture occurs in the upper part of the bone, overlapping of the fragments and displacement will be considerable. The fracture of this bone is usually classed among the more serious accidents, though cases may occur which are followed by recovery without very serious ultimate results, especially when the seat of the injury is at some of the upper angles of the bone or about the acromion crest. But if the neck and the joint are the parts involved, complications which are likely to disable the animal for life are liable to be present. _Treatment._--If there is no displacement, a simple adhesive dressing to strengthen and immobilize the parts will be sufficient. A coat of black pitch dissolved with wax and Venice turpentine, and kept in place over the region with oakum or linen bands, will be all the treatment required, especially if the animal is kept quiet in the slings. Displacement can not be remedied, and reduction is next to impossible. Sometimes an iron plate is applied over the parts and retained by bandages, as in the dressing of Bourgelat (Plate XXX); this may be advantageously replaced by a pad of thick leather. In smaller animals the parts are retained by figure-8 bandages, embracing both the normal and the diseased shoulders, crossing each other in the axilla and covered with a coating of adhesive mixture. FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS. These are more common in small than in large animals, and are always the result of external traumatism, such as falls, kicks, and collisions. They are generally very oblique, are often comminuted, and though more usually involving the shaft of the bone will in some cases extend to the upper end and into the articular head. _Symptoms._--There is ordinarily considerable displacement in consequence of the overlapping of the broken ends of the bone, and this of course causes more or less shortening of the limb. There will also be swelling, with difficulty of locomotion, and crepitation will be easy of detection. This fracture is always a serious damage to the patient, leaving him with a permanently shortened limb and an incurable, lifelong lameness. _Treatment._--If treatment is determined on, it will consist in the reduction of the fracture by means of extension and counter extension, to accomplish which the animal must be thrown. If successful in the reduction, then follows the application and adjustment of the apparatus of retention, which must be of the most perfect and efficient kind. Finally, this, however skillfully contrived and carefully adapted, will often fail to effect any good purpose whatever. FRACTURES OF THE FOREARM. A fracture in this region may also involve the radius or the ulna, the latter being broken at times in its upper portion above the radio-ulnar arch at the olecranon. If the fracture occurs at any part of the forearm from the radio-ulnar arch down to the knee, it may involve either the radius alone or the radius and the cubitus, which are there intimately united. _Cause._--Besides having the same etiology with most of the fractures, those of the forearm are, nevertheless, more commonly due to kicks from other animals, especially when crowded together in large numbers in insufficient space. It is a matter of observation that under these circumstances fractures of the incomplete kind are those which occur on the inside of the leg, the bone being in that region almost entirely subcutaneous, while those of the complete class are either oblique or transverse. The least common are the longitudinal, in the long axis of the bone. _Symptoms._--This variety of fracture is easily recognized by the appearance of the leg and the different changes it undergoes. There is inability to use the limb; impossibility of locomotion; mobility below the injury; the ready detection of crepitation--in a word, the assemblage of all the signs and symptoms which have been already considered as associated with the history of broken bones. The fracture of the ulna alone, principally above the radio-ulnar arch, may be ascertained by the aggravated lameness, the excessive soreness on pressure, and perhaps a certain increase of motion, with a very slight crepitation if tested in the usual way. Displacement is not likely to take place except when it is well up toward the olecranon or its tuberosity, the upper segment of the bone being in that case likely to be drawn upward. For a simple fracture of this region there is a fair chance of recovery, but in a case of the compound and comminuted class there is less ground for a favorable prognosis, especially if the elbow joint has suffered injury. A fracture of the ulna alone is not of serious importance, except when the same conditions prevail. A fracture of the olecranon is less amenable to treatment, and promises little better than a ligamentous union. _Treatment._--Considering all the various conditions involving the nature and extent of these lesions, the position and direction of the bones of the forearm are such as to render the chances for recovery from fracture as among the best. The reduction, by extension and counterextension; the maintenance of the coaptation of the segments; the adaptation of the dressing by splints, oakum, and agglutinative mixtures; in fact, all the details of treatment may be here fulfilled with a degree of facility and precision not attainable in any other part of the organism. An important, if not an essential, point, however, must be emphasized in regard to the splints. Whether they are of metal, wood, or other material, they should reach from the elbow joint to the ground, and should be placed on the posterior face and on both sides of the leg. This is then to be so confined in a properly constructed box as to preclude all possibility of motion, while yet it must sustain a certain portion of the weight of the body. The iron splint (represented in Plate XXX) recommended by Bourgelat is designed for fractures of the forearm, of the knee, and of the cannon bone, and will prove to be an appliance of great value. For small animals the preference is for an external covering of gutta-percha, embracing the entire leg. A sheet of this substance of suitable thickness, according to the size of the animal, softened in lukewarm water, is, when sufficiently pliable, molded on the outside of the leg, and when suddenly hardened by the application of cold water forms a complete casing sufficiently rigid to resist all motion. Patients treated in this manner have been able to use the limb freely, without pain, immediately after the application of the dressing. The removal of the splint is easily effected by cutting it away, either wholly or in sections, after softening it by immersing the leg in a warm bath. FRACTURE OF THE KNEE. This accident, happily, is of rare occurrence, but when it takes place is of a severe character, and always accompanied with synovitis, with disease of the joint. _Cause._--It may be caused by falling upon a hard surface, and is usually compound and comminuted. Healing seldom occurs, and when it does there is usually a stiffness of the joint from arthritis. _Symptoms._--As a result of this fracture there is inability to bear weight on the foot. The leg is flexed as in complete radial paralysis, or fracture of the ulna. There is abnormal mobility of the bones of the knee, but crepitation is usually absent. _Prognosis._--Healing is hard to effect, as one part of the knee is drawn upward by the two flexor muscles which separate it from the lower part. The callus which forms is largely fibrous, and if the animal is put to work too quickly this callus is liable to rupture. In favorable cases healing takes place in two or three months. Many horses during the treatment develop founder, with consequent drop sole in the sound leg, as a result of pressure due to continuous standing. _Treatment._--Place the animal in the slings, bring the pieces of bone together if possible, and try to keep them in place by a tight plaster-of-Paris dressing about the leg, extending down to the fetlock. Place the animal in a roomy box stall well provided with bedding so that he can lie down, to prevent founder. FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR. The protection which this bone receives from the large mass of muscles in which it is enveloped does not suffice to invest it with immunity in regard to fractures. _Cause._--It contributes its share to the list of accidents of this description, sometimes in consequence of external violence and sometimes as the result of muscular contraction; sometimes it takes place at the upper extremity of the bone; sometimes at the lower; sometimes at the head, when the condyles become implicated; but it is principally found in the body or diaphysis. The fracture may be of any of the ordinary forms, simple or compound, complete or incomplete, transverse or oblique, etc. A case of the comminuted variety is recorded in which 85 fragments of bone were counted and removed. The thickness of the muscular covering sometimes renders the diagnosis difficult by interfering with the manipulation, but the crepitation test is readily available, even when the swelling is considerable, and which is liable to be the case as the result of the interstitial hemorrhage which naturally follows the laceration of the blood vessels of the region involved. _Symptoms._--If the fracture is at the neck of the bone the muscles of that region (the gluteal) are firmly contracted, and the leg seems to be shortened in consequence. Locomotion is impossible. There is intense pain and violent sweating at first. Crepitation may in some cases be discerned by rectal examination, with one hand resting over the coxo-femoral (hip) articulation. Fractures of the tuberosities of the upper end of the bone, the great trochanter, may be identified by the deformity, the swelling, the impossibility of rotation, and the dragging of the leg in walking. Fracture of the body is always accompanied with displacement, and as a consequence a shortening of the leg, which is carried forward. The lameness is excessive, the foot being moved, both when raising it from the ground and when setting it down, very timidly and cautiously. The manipulations for the discovery of crepitation always cause much pain. Lesions of the lower end of the bone are more difficult to diagnosticate with certainty, though the manifestation of pain while making heavy pressure upon the condyles will be so marked that only crepitation will be needed to turn a suspicion into a certainty. _Treatment._--The question as to treatment in fractures of this description resolves itself into the query whether any treatment can be suggested that will avail anything practically as a curative measure; whether, upon the hypothesis of reduction as an accomplished fact, any permanent or efficient device as a means of retention is within the scope of human ingenuity. If the reduction were successfully performed, would it be possible to keep the parts in place by any known means at our disposal? At the best the most favorable result that could be anticipated would be a reunion of the fragments with a considerable shortening of the bone and a helpless, limping, crippled animal to remind us that for human achievement there is a "thus far and no farther." In small animals, such as dogs and cats, however, attempts at treatment are justifiable, and we are convinced that in many cases of difficulty in the application of splints and bandages a patient may be placed in a condition of undisturbed quiet and left to the processes of nature for "treatment" as safely and with as good an assurance of a favorable result as if he had been subjected to the most heroic secundum artem doctoring known to science. As a case in point, mention may be made of the case of a pregnant bitch which suffered a fracture of the upper end of the femur by being run over by a light wagon. Her "treatment" consisted in being tied up in a large box and let alone. In due time she was delivered of a family of puppies, and in three weeks she was running in the streets, limping very slightly, and nothing the worse for her accident. FRACTURE OF THE PATELLA. This, fortunately, is a rare accident, and can result only from direct violence, as a kick or other blow. The lameness which follows it is accompanied with enormous tumefaction of the joint, pain, inability to bear weight upon the foot, and finally disease of the articulation. Crepitation is absent, because the hip muscles draw away the upper part of the bone. The prognosis is unavoidably adverse, destruction being the only termination of this incurable and very painful injury. Most of the reported cases of cures are based upon a wrong diagnosis. FRACTURES OF THE TIBIA. Of all fractures these are probably more frequently encountered than any others among the class of accidents we are considering. As with injuries of the forearm of a like character, they may be complete or incomplete; the former when the bone is broken in the middle or at the extremities, and transverse, oblique, or longitudinal. The incomplete kind are more common in this bone than in any other. _Symptoms._--Complete fractures are easy to recognize, either with or without displacement. The animal is very lame, and the leg is either dragged or held clear from the ground by flexion at the stifle, while the lower part hangs down. Carrying weight or moving backward is impossible. There is excessive mobility below the fracture, and well-marked crepitation. If there is much displacement, as in an oblique fracture, there will be considerable shortening of the leg. While incomplete fractures can not be recognized in the tibia with any greater degree of certainty than in any other bone, there are some facts associated with them by which a diagnosis may be justified. The hypothetical history of a case may serve as an illustration: An animal has received an injury by a blow or a kick on the inside of the bone, perhaps without showing any mark. Becoming very lame immediately afterwards, he is allowed a few days' rest. If taken out again, he seems to have recovered his soundness, but within a day or two he betrays a little soreness, and this increasing he becomes very lame again, to be furloughed once more, with the result of a temporary improvement, and again a return to labor and again a relapse of the lameness; and this alternation seems to be the rule. The leg being now carefully examined, a local periostitis is readily discovered at the point of the injury, the part being warm, swollen, and painful. What further proof is necessary? Is it not evident that a fracture has occurred, first superficial--a mere split in the bony structure, which, fortunately, has been discovered before some extra exertion or a casual misstep had developed it into one of the complete kind, possibly with complications? What other inference can such a series of symptoms thus repeated establish? The prognosis of fracture of the tibia, as a rule, must be unfavorable. _Treatment._--The difficulty of obtaining a union without shortening, and consequently without lameness, is proof of the futility of ordinary attempts at treatment, but though this may be true in respect to fractures of the complete kind, it is not necessarily so with the incomplete variety, and with this class the simple treatment of the slings is all that is necessary to obtain consolidation. A few weeks of this confinement will be sufficient. With dogs and other small animals there are cases which may be successfully treated. If the necessary dressings can be successfully applied and retained, a cure will follow. FRACTURES OF THE HOCK. Injuries of the astragalus which had a fatal termination have been recorded. Fractures of the os calcis have also been observed, but never with a favorable prognosis, and attempts to induce recovery, as might have been expected, have proved futile. FRACTURES OF THE CANNON BONES. Whether these occur in the fore or hind legs, they appear either in the body or near their extremities. If in the body as a rule the three metacarpal or metatarsal bones are affected, and the fracture is generally transverse and oblique. On account of the absence of soft tissue and tightness of the skin, the broken bones pierce the skin and render the fracture a complicated one. The diagnosis is easy when all the bones are completely broken, but the incomplete fracture can be only suspected. _Symptoms._--There is no displacement, but excessive mobility, crepitation, inability to sustain weight, and the leg is kept off the ground by the flexion of the upper joint. No region of the body affords better facilities for the application of treatment, and the prognosis on this account is usually favorable. We recall a case, however, which proved fatal, though under exceptional circumstances. The patient was a valuable stallion of highly nervous organization, with a compound fracture of one of the cannon bones, and his unconquerable resistance to treatment, excited by the intense pain of the wound, precluded all chance of recovery, and ultimately caused his death. _Treatment._--The general form of treatment for these lesions will not differ from that which has been already indicated for other fractures. Reduction, sometimes necessitating the casting of the patient; coaptation, comparatively easy by reason of the subcutaneous situation of the bone; retention, by means of splints and bandages--applied on both sides of the region, and reaching to the ground as in fractures of the forearm--these are always indicated. We have obtained excellent results by the use of a mold of thick gutta-percha, composed of two sections and made to surround the entire lower part of the leg as in an inflexible case. FRACTURE OF THE FIRST PHALANX. The hind extremity is more liable than the fore to this injury. It is usually the result of a violent effort, or of a sudden misstep or twisting of the leg, and may be transverse, or, as has usually been the case in our experience, longitudinal, extending from the upper articular surface down to the center of the bone, and generally oblique and often comminuted. The symptoms are the swelling and tenderness of the region, possibly crepitation; a certain abnormal mobility; an excessive degree of lameness, and in some instances a dropping back of the fetlock, with perhaps a straightened or upright condition of the pastern. The difficulty of reduction and coaptation in this accident, and the probability of bony deposits, as of ringbones, resulting in lameness, are circumstances which tend to discourage a favorable prognosis. The treatment is that which has been recommended for all fractures, so far as it can be applied. The iron splint which has been mentioned gives excellent results in many instances, but if the fracture is incomplete and without displacement, a form of treatment less energetic and severe should be attempted. One case is within our knowledge in which the owner lost his horse by his refusal to subject the animal to treatment, the post-mortem revealing only a simple fracture with very slight displacement. FRACTURES OF THE SECOND PHALANX (CORONET). Though these are generally of the comminuted kind, there are often conditions associated with them which justify the surgeon in attempting their treatment. Though crepitation is not always easy to detect, the excessive lameness, the soreness on pressure, the inability to carry weight, the difficulty experienced in raising the foot, all these suggest, as the solution of the question of diagnosis, the fracture of the coronet, with the accompanying realization of the fact that there is yet, by reason of the situation of the member, immobilized as it is by its structure and its surroundings, room left for a not unfavorable prognosis. Only a slight manipulation will be needed in the treatment of this lesion. To render the immobility of the region more fixed, to support the bones in their position by bandaging, and to establish forced immobility of the entire body with the slings is usually all that is required. Ringbone, being a common sequela of the reparative process, must receive due attention subsequently. One of the severest complications liable to be encountered is an immobile joint (anchylosis). Neurectomy of the median nerve may relieve lameness after a fracture of the phalanges. FRACTURES OF THE THIRD PHALANX (OS PEDIS). These lesions may result from a penetrating street nail, or follow plantar or median neurectomy. In the latter instance it is caused by the animal setting the foot down carelessly and too violently, and partly due to degeneration of bone tissue which follows nerving. Though these fractures are not of very rare occurrence, their recognition is not easy, and there is more of speculation than of certainty pertaining to their diagnosis. The animal is very lame and spares the injured foot as much as possible, sometimes resting it upon the toe alone and sometimes holding it from the ground. The foot is very tender, and the exploring pinchers of the examining surgeon cause much pain. During the first 24 hours there is no increased pulsation in the digital and plantar arteries, but on the second day it is apparent. There is nothing to encourage a favorable prognosis, and a not unusual termination is an anchylosis with either the navicular bone or the coronet. No method of treatment needs to be suggested here, the hoof performing the office of retention unaided. Local treatment by baths and fomentations will do the rest. It may be months before there is any mitigation of the lameness. An ultimate recovery depends to a great extent upon whether the other foot can support the weight during the healing process without causing a drop sole in the supporting foot. FRACTURE OF THE SESAMOID BONES. This lesion has been considered by veterinarians, erroneously, we think, as one of rare occurrence. We believe it to be more frequent than has been supposed. Many observations and careful dissections have convinced us that fractures of these little bones have been often mistaken for specific lesions of the numerous ligaments that are implanted upon their superior and inferior parts, and which have been described as a "giving way" or "breaking down" of these ligaments. In my post-mortem examinations I have always noted the fact that when the attachments of the ligaments were torn from their bony connections minute fragments of bony structure were also separated, though we have failed to detect any diseased process of the fibrous tissue composing the ligamentous substance. _Cause._--From whatever cause this lesion may arise, it can hardly be considered as of a traumatic nature, no external violence having any apparent agency in producing it, and it is our belief that it is due to a peculiar degeneration or softening of the bones themselves, a theory which acquires plausibility from the consideration of the spongy consistency of the sesamoids. The disease is a peculiar one, and the suddenness with which different feet are successively attacked, at short intervals and without any obvious cause, seems to prove the existence of some latent, morbid cause which has been unsuspectedly incubating. It is not peculiar to any particular class of horses, nor to any special season of the year, having fallen under our observation in each of the four seasons. _Symptoms._--The general fact is reported in the history of most cases that it makes its appearance without premonition in animals which, after enjoying a considerable period of rest, are first exercised or put to work, though in point of fact it may manifest itself while the horse is still idle in his stable. A hypothetical case, in illustration, will explain our theory: An animal which has been at rest in his stable is taken out to work, and it will be presently noticed that there is something unusual in his movement. His gait is changed, and he travels with short, mincing steps, without any of his accustomed ease and freedom. This may continue until his return to the stable, and then, after being placed in his stall, he will be noticed shifting his weight from side to side and from one leg to another, continuing the movement until rupture of the bony structure takes place. But it may happen that the lameness in one or more of the extremities, anterior or posterior, suddenly increases, and it becomes evident that the rupture has taken place in consequence of a misstep or a stumble while the horse is at work. Then, upon coming to a standstill, he will be found with one or more of his toes turned up; he is unable to place the affected foot flat on the ground. The fetlock has dropped and the leg rests upon this part, the skin of which may have remained intact or may have been more or less extensively lacerated. It seldom happens that more than one toe at a time will turn up, yet still the lesion in one will be followed by its occurrence in another. Commonly two feet, either the anterior or posterior, are affected, and we recall one case in which the two fore and one of the hind legs were included at the same time. The accident, however, is quite as liable to happen while the horse is at rest in his stall, and he may be found in the morning standing on his fetlocks. One of the earliest of the cases occurring in my own experience had been under care for several weeks for suspected disease of the fetlocks, the nature of which had not been made out, when, apparently improved by the treatment which he had undergone, the patient was taken out of the stable to be walked a short distance into the country, but had little more than started when he was called to a halt by the fracture of the sesamoids of both fore legs. While there are no positive premonitory symptoms of these fractures known, we believe that there are signs and symptoms which come but little short of being so, and the appearance of which will always justify a strong suspicion of the truth of the case. These have been indicated when referring to the soreness in standing, the short, mincing gait, and the tenderness betrayed when pressure is made over the sesamoids on the sides of the fetlock, with others less tangible and definable. _Prognosis._--These injuries can never be accounted less than serious, and in our judgment will never be other than fatal. If our theory of their pathology is the correct one, and the cause of the lesions is truly the softening of the sesamoidal bony structure and independent of any changes in the ligamentous fibers, the possibility of a solid osseous union can hardly be considered admissible. _Treatment._--In respect to the treatment to be recommended and instituted it can be employed only with any rational hope of benefit during the incubation, and with the anticipatory purpose of prevention. It must be suggested by a suspicion of the verities of the case, and applied before any rupture has taken place. To prevent this and to antagonize the causes which might precipitate the final catastrophe--the elevation of the toes--resort must be had to the slings and to the application of firm bandages or splints, perhaps of plaster of Paris, with a high shoe, as about the only indications which science and nature are able to offer. When the fracture is an occurred event, and the toes, one or more, are turned up, any further resort to treatment will be futile. DISEASES OF JOINTS. Three classes of injury will be considered under this head. These are, affections of the synovial sacs, those of the joint structures, or of the bones and their articular surfaces, and those forms of solution of continuity known as dislocations or luxations. DISEASES OF THE SYNOVIAL SACS. Two forms of affection here present themselves, one being the result of an abnormal secretion which induces a dropsical condition of the sac without any acute, inflammatory action, while the other is characterized by excessive inflammatory symptoms, with their modifications, constituting synovitis. SYNOVIAL DROPSIES. We have already considered in a general way the presence of these peculiar oil bags in the joints, and in some regions of the legs where the passage of the tendons takes place, and have noticed the similarity of structure and function of both the articular and the tendinous bursæ, as well as the etiology of their injuries and their pathological history, and we will now treat of the affections of both. WINDGALLS. This name is given to the dilated bursæ found at the posterior part of the fetlock joint. They have their origin in a dropsical condition of the bursæ of the joint itself, also of the tendon which slides behind it, and are therefore further known by the designations of articular and tendinous windgalls, or puffs. (See also p. 401.) They appear in the form of soft and somewhat symmetrical tumors, of varying dimensions, and generally well defined in their circumference. They are more or less tense, according to the quantity of secretion they contain, apparently becoming softer as the foot is raised and the fetlock flexed. Usually they are painless and only cause lameness under certain conditions, as when they begin to develop themselves under the stimulus of inflammatory action, or when large enough to interfere with the functions of the tendons, or again when they have undergone certain pathological changes, such as calcification, which is among their tendencies. _Cause._--Windgalls may be attributed to external causes, such as severe labor or strains resulting from heavy pulling, fast driving, or jumping, or they may be among the sequelæ of internal disorders, such as strangles or the resultants of a pleuritic or pneumonic attack. Unnecessary anxiety is sometimes experienced respecting these growths, with much questioning touching the expediency of their removal, all of which might be spared, for, while they constitute a blemish, their unsightliness will not hinder the usefulness of the animal, and in any case they rarely fail to show themselves easily amenable to treatment. _Treatment._--When in their acute stage, and when the dropsical condition is not excessive, the inflammation may be checked during the day by continuous, cold-water irrigation by means of a hose or soaking tub and at night by applying a moderately tight-roller bandage. Later absorption may be promoted by a Priessnitz bandage,[2] pressure by roller bandages, sweating, the use of liniments, or if necessary by a sharp blister of biniodid of mercury. This treatment should subdue the inflammation, abate the soreness, absorb the excess of secretion, strengthen the walls of the sac, and finally cause the windgalls to disappear, provided the animal is not too quickly returned to labor and exposed to the same factors that occasioned them at first. If the inflammation has become chronic, however, and the enlargement has been of considerable duration, the negative course will be the wiser one. If any benefit results from treatment it will be of only a transient kind, the dilatation returning when the patient is again subjected to labor, and it will be a fortunate circumstance if inflammation has not supervened. Notwithstanding the generally benignant nature of the swelling there are exceptional cases, usually when it is probably undergoing certain pathological changes, which may result in lameness and disable the animal, in which case surgical treatment will be indicated, especially if repeated blisters have failed to improve the symptoms. Line firing is then a preeminent suggestion, and many a useful life has received a new lease as the result of this operation timely performed. Another method of firing, which consists in emptying the sac by means of punctures through and through, made with a red-hot needle or wire, and the subsequent injection of certain irritating and alterative compounds into the cavity, designed to effect its closure by exciting adhesive inflammation, such as tincture of iodin, may be commended. But they are all too active and energetic in their effects and require too much special attention and intelligent management to be trusted to any hands other than those of an expert veterinarian. BLOOD SPAVIN, BOG SPAVIN, AND THOROUGHPIN. The blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the saphena vein. It occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin is found, and has thus been frequently confused with the latter. The complicated arrangement of the hock joint, and the powerful tendons which pass on the posterior part, are lubricated with the product of secretion from one tendinous synovial and several articular synovial sacs. A large articular sac contributes to the lubrication of the shank bone (the tibia) and one of the bones of the hock (the astragalus). The tendinous sac lies back of the articulation itself and extends upward and downward in the groove of that joint through which the flexor tendons slide. The dilatation of this articular synovial sac is what is denominated bog spavin, the term thoroughpin being applied to the dilatation of the tendinous capsule. The bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined, fluctuating tumor situated in front and a little inward of the hock. On pressure it disappears at this point to reappear on the outside and just behind the hock. If pressed to the front from the outside it will then appear on the inside of the hock. On its outer surface it presents a vein which is quite prominent, running from below upward, and it is to the preternatural dilatation of this blood vessel that the term blood spavin is applied. The thoroughpin is found at the back and on the top of the hock in that part known as the "hollows," immediately behind the shank bone. It is round and smooth, but not so regularly formed as the bog spavin, and is most apparent when viewed from behind. The swelling is usually on both sides and a little in front of the so-called hamstring, but may be more noticeable on the inside or on the outside. In their general characteristics bog spavins and thoroughpins are similar to windgalls, and one description of the origin, symptoms, pathological changes, and treatment will serve for all equally, except that it is possible for a bog spavin to cause lameness, and thus to involve a verdict of unsoundness in the patient, a circumstance which will, of course, justify its classification by itself as a severer form of a single type of disease. We have already referred to the subject of treatment and the means employed--rest, of course--with liniments, blisters, etc., and what we esteem as the most active and beneficial of any, early, deep, and well-performed cauterization. There are, besides, commendatory reports of a form of treatment by the application of pressure pads and peculiar bandages upon the hocks, and it is asserted that the removal of the tumors has been effected by their use. Our experience with this apparatus, however, has not been accompanied with such favorable results as would justify our indorsement of the flattering representations which have sometimes appeared in its behalf. OPEN JOINTS, BROKEN KNEES, SYNOVITIS, AND ARTHRITIS. The close relationship which exists among these several affections, their apparently possible connection as successive developments of a similar, if not an essentially identical, origin, together with the advantage gained by avoiding frequent repetitions in the details of symptoms, treatment, etc., are our reasons for treating under a single head the ailments we have grouped together in the present section. _Cause._--The great, comprehensive, common cause of, sometimes permanent, sometimes only transient, disability of the horse is external traumatism. Blows, bruises, hurts by nearly every known form of violence, falls, kicks, lacerations, punctures--we may add compulsory speed in racing and cruel overloading of draft animals--cover the entire ground of causation of the diseases and injuries of the joints now receiving our consideration. In one case, a working horse making a misstep stumbles, and falling on his knees receives a hurt, variously severe, from a mere abrasion of the skin to a laceration, a division of the tegument, a slough, mortification, and the escape of the synovial fluid, with or without exposure of the bones and their articular cartilages. In another case, an animal, from one cause or another, perhaps an impatient temper, has formed the habit of striking or pawing his manger with his fore feet until inflammation of the knee joint is induced, first as a little swelling, diffused, painless; then as a periostitis of the bones of the knee; later as bony deposits, then lameness, and finally the implication of the joint, with all the various sequelæ of chronic inflammation of the knee joint. In another case, a horse has received a blow with a fork from a careless hostler on or near a joint, or has been kicked by a stable companion, with the result of a punctured wound, at first mild-looking, painless, apparently without inflammation, and not yet causing lameness, but which, in a few hours, or it may be only after a few days, becomes excessively painful, grows worse, the entire joint swells, presently discharges, and at last a case of suppurative synovitis is presented, with perhaps disease of the joint proper, and arthritis as a climax. The symptoms of articular injuries vary not only in the degrees of the hurt but in the nature of the lesion. Or the condition of broken knees, resulting as we have said, may have for its starting point a mere abrasion of the skin--a scratch, apparently, which disappears without a scar. The injury may, however, have been more severe, the blow heavier, the fall aggravated by occurring upon an irregular surface, or sharp or rough object, with tearing or cutting of the skin, and this laceration may remain. A more serious case than the first is now brought to our notice. Another time, immediately following the accident, or possibly as a sequel of the traumatism, the tendinous sacs may be opened, with the escape of the synovia, or, worse, the tendons which pass in front of the knee are torn, the inflammation spreads, the joint and leg are swollen, the animal is becoming very lame; synovitis has set in. With this the danger becomes very great, for soon suppuration will be established, then the external coat of the articulation proper becomes ulcerated, if it is not already in that state, and we find ourselves in the presence of an open joint with suppurative synovitis--that is, with the worst among the conditions of diseased processes, because of the liability of the suppuration to become infiltrated into every part of the joint, macerating the ligaments and irritating the cartilages, soon to be succeeded by their ulceration, with the destruction of the articular surface--or the lesion of ulcerative arthritis, one of the gravest among all the disorders known to the animal economy. Ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis may be developed otherwise than in connection with open joints; the simplest and apparently most harmless punctures may prove to be sufficient cause. For example, a horse may be kicked, perhaps, on the inside of the hock; there is a mark and a few drops of blood to indicate the spot; he is put to work apparently free from pain or lameness and performs his task with his usual ease and facility. On the following morning, however, the hock is found to be a little swollen and there is some stiffness. A little later on he betrays a degree of uneasiness in the leg, and shrinks from resting his weight upon it, moving it up and down for relief. The swelling has increased and is increasing; the pain is severe; and finally, at the spot where the kick inpinged, there is an oozing of an oily liquid mixed with whitish drops of suppuration. The mischief is done; a simple, harmless, punctured wound has expanded into a case of ulcerative arthritis and suppurative synovitis. _Prognosis._--From ever so brief and succinct description of this traumatism of the articulations, the serious and important character of these lesions, irrespective of which particular joint is affected, will be readily understood. Yet there will be modifications in the prognosis in different cases, in accordance with the peculiarities of structure in the joint specially involved, as, for example, it is obvious that a better result may be expected from treatment when but a single joint, with only its plain articular surfaces, is the place of injury, than in one which is composed of several bones, united in a complex formation, as in the knee or hock. As severe a lesion as suppurative synovitis always is, and as frequently fatal as it proves to be, still cases arise in which, the inflammation assuming a modified character and at length subsiding, the lesion terminates favorably and leaves the animal with a comparatively sound and useful joint. There are cases, however, which terminate in no more favorable a result than the union of the bones and occlusion of the joint, to form an anchylosis, which is scarcely a condition to justify a high degree of satisfaction, as it insures a permanent lameness with very little capacity for usefulness. Appreciating now the dangers associated with all wounds of articulations, however simple and apparently slight, and how serious and troublesome are the complications which are liable to arise during their progress and treatment, we are prepared to understand and realize the necessity and the value of early and prompt attention upon their discovery and diagnosis. _Treatment._--For simple bruises, like those which appear in the form of broken knees or of carpitis, simple remedies, such as warm fomentations or cold-water applications and compresses of astringent mixtures, suggest themselves at once. Injuries of a more complicated character, as lacerations of the skin or tearing of soft structures, will also be benefited by simple dressings with antiseptic mixtures, as those of the carbolic-acid order. The escape of synovia should suggest the prompt use of collodion dressings to check the flow and prevent the further escape of the fluid. But if the discharge is abundant and heavily suppurative, little can be done more than to put in practice the "expectant" method with warm fomentations, repeatedly applied, and soothing, mucilaginous poultices. Improvement, if any is possible, will be but slow to manifest itself. The most difficult of all things to do, in view of varying interests and opinions--that is, in a practical sense--is to abstain from "doing" entirely, and yet in the cases we are considering we are firmly convinced that noninterference is the best and wisest policy. In cases which are carried to a successful result the discharge will diminish by degrees, the extreme pain will gradually subside, the convalescent will begin timidly to rest his foot upon the ground, and presently to bear weight upon it, and perhaps, after a long and tedious process of recuperation, he may be returned to his former and normal condition of usefulness. When the discharge has wholly ceased and the wounds are entirely healed, a blister covering the whole of the joint for the purpose of stimulating the absorption of the exudation will be of great service. If, on the contrary, there is no amelioration of symptoms and the progress of the disease resists every attempt to check it; if the discharge continues to flow not only without abatement but in an increased volume, and not alone by a single opening but by a number of fistulous tracts which have successively formed; if it seems evident that this drainage is rapidly and painfully sapping the suffering animal's vitality, and a deficient _vis vitæ_ fails to cooperate with the means of cure--all rational hope of recovery may be finally abandoned. Any further waiting for chances, or time lost in experimenting, will be mere cruelty and there need be no hesitation concerning the next step. The poor beast is under sentence of death, and every consideration of interest and of humanity demands an anticipation of nature's evident intent in the quick and easy execution of the sentence. [Illustration: PLATE XXX. DISLOCATION OF SHOULDER AND ELBOW Bourgelat's apparatus] [Illustration: PLATE XXXI. THE SLING IN USE] One of the essentials of treatment, and probably an indispensable condition when recovery is in any wise attainable, is the suspension of the patient in slings. He should be continued in them so long as he can be made to submit quietly to their restraint. DISLOCATIONS. Dislocations and luxations are interchangeable terms, meaning the separation and displacement of the articulating surfaces of the bones entering into the formation of a joint. This injury is rarely encountered in our large animals on account of the combination of strength and solidity in the formation of their joints. It is met with but seldom in cattle and less so in horses, while dogs and smaller animals are more often the sufferers. _Cause._--The accident of a luxation is less often encountered in the animal races than in man. This is not because the former are less subject to occasional violence involving powerful muscular contractions, or are less often exposed to casualties similar to those which result in luxations in the human skeleton, but because it requires the cooperation of conditions--anatomical, physiological, and perhaps mechanical--present in the human race and lacking in the others, which, however, can not in every case be clearly defined. Perhaps the greater relative length of the bony levers in the human formation may constitute a cause of the difference. Among the predisposing causes in animals may be enumerated caries of articular surfaces, articular abscesses, excessive dropsical conditions, degenerative softening of the ligaments, and any excessive laxity of the soft structures. _Symptoms and diagnosis._--Three signs of dislocation must usually be taken into consideration. They are: (1) An alteration in the shape of the joint and in the normal relationship of the articulating surfaces; (2) an alteration in the length of the limb, either shortening or lengthening; (3) an alteration in the movableness of the joint, usually an unnatural immobility. Only the first, however, can be relied upon as essential. Luxations are not always complete; they may be partial; that is, the articulating surfaces may be displaced but not separated. In such cases several symptoms may not be present. And not only may the third sign be absent, but the mobility of the first be greatly increased when the character of the injury has been such as to produce extensive lacerations of the articular ligaments. In addition to the above signs, a luxation is usually characterized by pain, swelling, hemorrhage beneath the skin from damaged or ruptured blood vessels, and even paralysis, when important nerves are pressed on by the displaced bones. Sometimes a bone is fractured in the immediate vicinity of a joint. The knowledge of this fact requires us to be able to diagnose between a dislocation and such a fracture. In this we generally have three points to assist us: (1) The immobility of a dislocated joint as against the apparently remarkable freedom of movement in fracture; (2) in a dislocation there is no true crepitus--that peculiar grating sensation heard as well as felt on rubbing together the rough ends of fractured bones; however, it must be remembered that in a dislocation two or three days old the inflammatory changes around the joint may give rise to a crackling sensation similar to that in fracture; (3) as a rule, in luxations, if the ligamentous and muscular tissues about the joint are not badly torn, the displacement, when reduced, does not recur. _Prognosis._--The prognosis of a luxation is comparatively less serious than that of a fracture, though at time the indications of treatment may prove to be so difficult to apply that complications of a very severe character may arise. _Treatment._--The treatment of luxations must, of course, be similar to that of fractures. Reduction, naturally, will be the first indication in both cases, and the retention of the replaced parts must follow. The reduction involves the same steps of extension and counter extension, performed in the same manner, with the patient subdued by anesthetics. The difference between the reduction of a dislocation and that of a fracture consists in the fact that in the former the object is simply to restore the bones to their true, normal position, with each articular surface in exact contact with its companion surface, the apparatus necessary afterwards to keep them in situ being similar to that which is employed in fracture cases, and which will usually require to be retained for a period of from 40 to 50 days, if not longer, before the ruptured retaining ligaments are sufficiently firm to be trusted to perform their office unassisted. A variety of manipulations are to be used by the surgeon, consisting in pushing, pulling, pressing, rotating, and, indeed, whatever movement may be necessary, until the bones are forced into such relative positions that the muscular contraction, operating in just the right directions, pulls the opposite matched ends together in true coaptation--a head into a cavity, an articular eminence into a trochlea, as the case may be. The "setting" is accompanied with a peculiar, snapping sound, audible and significant, as well as a visible return of the surface to its normal symmetry. _Special dislocations._--While all the articulations of the body are liable to this form of injury, there are three in the large animals which may claim a special consideration, viz: THE SHOULDER JOINT. We mention this displacement without intending to imply the practicability of any ordinary attempt at treatment, which is usually unsuccessful, the animal whose mishap it has been to become a victim to it being disabled for life. The superior head of the arm bone as it is received into the lower cavity of the shoulder blade is so situated as to be liable to be forced out of place in four directions. It may escape from its socket, according to the manner in which the violence affects it--outward, inward, backward, or forward--and the deformity which results and the effects which follow will correspondingly differ. We have said that treatment is generally unsuccessful. It may be added that the difficulties which interpose in the way of reduction are nearly insurmountable, and that the application of means for the retention of the parts after reduction would be next to impossible. The prognosis, from any point of view, is sufficiently grave for the luckless animal with a dislocated shoulder. THE HIP JOINT. This joint partakes very much of the characteristics of the humero-scapular articulation, but is more strongly built. The head of the thigh bone is more separated, or prominent and rounder in form, and the cup-like cavity, or socket, into which it fits is much deeper, forming together a deep, true ball-and-socket joint, which is, moreover, reenforced by two strong cords of funicular ligaments, which unite them. It will be easily comprehended, from this hint of the anatomy of the region, that a luxation of the hip joint must be an accident of comparatively rare occurrence; yet cases are recorded in which the head of the bone has been affirmed to slip out of its cavity and assume various positions--inward, outward, forward, or backward. The indications of treatment are those of all cases of dislocation. When the reduction is accomplished the surgeon will be apprised of the fact by the peculiar, snapping sound usually heard on such occasions. PSEUDO-LUXATIONS OF THE PATELLA. This is not a true dislocation. The stifle bone is so peculiarly articulated with the thigh bone that the means of union are of sufficient strength to resist the causes which usually give rise to luxations, yet there is sometimes discovered a peculiar, pathological state in the hind legs of animals, the effect of which is closely to simulate the manifestation of many of the general symptoms of dislocations. This condition originates in muscular cramps, the action of which is seen in a certain change in the coaptation of the articular surfaces of the stifle and thigh bone, resulting in the exhibition of a sudden and alarming series of symptoms which have suggested the phrase of "stifle out" as a descriptive term. _Symptoms._--The animal so affected stands quietly and firmly in his stall, or perhaps with one of his hind legs extended backward, and resists every attempt to move him backward. If urged to move forward he will either refuse or comply with a jump, with the toe of the disabled leg dragging on the ground and brought forward by a second effort. There is no flexion at the hock and no motion at the stifle, while the circular motion of the hip is quite free. The leg appears to be much longer than the other, owing to the straightened position of the thigh bone, which forms almost a straight line with the tibia from the hip joint down. The stifle joint is motionless, and the motions of all the joints below it are more or less interfered with. External examination of the muscles of the hip and thigh reveals a certain degree of rigidity, with perhaps some soreness, and the stifle bone may be seen projecting more or less on the outside and upper part of the joint. This state of things may continue for some time and until treatment is applied, or it may spontaneously and suddenly terminate, leaving everything in its normal condition, but perhaps to return again. _Cause._--Pseudo-dislocation of the patella is liable to occur under many of the conditions which cause actual dislocation, and yet it may often occur in animals which have not been exposed to the ordinary causes, but which have remained at rest in their stables. Sometimes these cases are assignable to falls in a slippery stall, or perhaps slipping when endeavoring to rise; sometimes to weakness in convalescing patients; sometimes to lack of tonicity of structure and general debility; sometimes to relaxation of tissues from want of exercise or use. A straight leg, sloping croup, and the young are predisposed to this dislocation. _Treatment._--The reduction of these displacements of the patella is not usually attended with difficulty. A sudden jerk or spasmodic action will often be all that is required to spring the patella into place, when the flexion of the leg at the hock ends the trouble for the time. But this is not always sufficient, and a true reduction may still be indicated. To effect this the leg must be drawn well forward by a rope attached to the lower end, and the patella, grasped with the hand, forcibly pushed forward and inward and made to slip over the outside border of the trochlea of the femur. The bone suddenly slips into position, the excessive rigor of the leg ceases with a spasmodic jerk, and the animal may walk or trot away without suspicion of lameness. Though this may end the trouble for the time, and the restoration seem to be perfect and permanent, a repetition of the entire transaction may subsequently take place, and perhaps from the loss of some proportion of tensile power which would naturally follow the original attack in the muscles involved the lesion might become a habitual weakness. Warm fomentations and douches with cold water will often promote permanent recovery, and liberty in a box stall or in the field will in many cases insure constant relief. The use of a high-heeled shoe is recommended by European veterinarians. The use of stimulating liniments, with frictions, charges, or even severe blisters, may be resorted to in order to prevent the repetition of the difficulty by strengthening and toning up the parts. DISEASES OF MUSCLES AND TENDONS. SPRAINS. This term expresses a more or less complete laceration or yielding of the fibers of the muscles, tendons, or the sheaths surrounding and supporting them. The usual cause of a sprain is external violence, such as a fall or a powerful exertion of strength, with following symptoms of soreness, heat, swelling, and a suspension of function. Their termination varies from simple resolution to suppuration, and commonly fibrinous exudation difficult to remove. None of the muscles or tendons of the body are exempt from liability to this lesion, though naturally from their uses and the exposure of their situation the extremities are more liable than other regions to become their seat. The nature of the prognosis will be determined by a consideration of the seat of the injury and the complications likely to arise. _Treatment._--The treatment will resolve itself into the routine of local applications, including warm fomentations, stimulating liniments, counterirritation by blistering, and in some cases even firing. Rest, in the stable or in a box stall, will be of advantage by promoting the absorption of whatever fibrinous exudation may have formed, or absorption may be stimulated by the careful persevering application of iodin in the form of ointments of various degrees of strength. There are many conditions in which not only the muscular and tendinous structures proper are affected by a strain, but, by contiguity of parts, the periosteum of neighboring bones may become involved, with a complication of periostitis and its sequelæ. LAMENESS OF THE SHOULDER. The frequency of the occurrence of lameness in the shoulder from sprains entitles it to precedence of mention in the present category, for, though so well covered with its muscular envelope, it is often the seat of injuries which, from the complex structure of the region, become difficult to diagnosticate with satisfactory precision and facility. The flat bone which forms the skeleton of that region is articulated in a comparatively loose manner with the bone of the arm, but the joint is, notwithstanding, rather solid, and is powerfully strengthened by tendons passing outside, inside, and in front of it. Still, shoulder lameness or sprain may exist, originating in lacerations of the muscles, the tendons or the ligaments of the joint, or perhaps in diseases of the bones themselves. "Slip of the shoulder" is a phrase frequently applied to such lesions. The identification of the particular structures involved in these lesions is of much importance, in view of its bearing upon the question of prognosis. For example, while a simple superficial injury of the spinatus muscles, or the muscles by which the leg is attached to the trunk, may not be of serious import and may readily yield to treatment, or even recover spontaneously and without interference, the condition is quite changed in a case of tearing of the flexor brachii, or of its tendons as they pass in front of the articulation, or, what is still more serious, if there is inflammation or ulceration in the groove over which this tendon slides, or upon the articular surfaces or their surroundings, or periostitis at any point adjacent. _Causes._--The frequency of attacks of shoulder lameness is not difficult to account for. The superficial and unprotected position of the part and the numerous movements of which it is capable, and which, in fact, it performs, render it both subjectively and objectively preeminently liable to accident or injury. It would be difficult and would not materially avail to enumerate all the forms of violence by which the shoulder may be crippled. A fall, accompanied with powerful concussion; a violent muscular contraction in starting a heavily loaded vehicle from a standstill; a misstep following a quick muscular effort; a jump accompanied with miscalculated results in alighting; a slip on a smooth, icy road; balling the feet with snow; colliding with another horse or other object--indeed, the list may be indefinitely extended, but without profit or utility. _Symptoms._--Some of the symptoms of shoulder lameness are peculiar to themselves, and yet the trouble is frequently mistaken for other affections--navicular disease more often than any other. The fact that in both affections there are instances when the external symptoms are but imperfectly defined, and that one of them especially is very similar in both, is sufficient to mislead careless or inexperienced observers and to occasion the error which is sometimes committed of applying to one disease the name of the other, erring both ways in the interchange. The true designation of pathological lesions is very far at times from being of certain and easy accomplishment, and, owing to the massive structure of the parts we are considering, this is especially true in the present connection. Still there are many cases in which there is really no reasonable excuse for an error in diagnosis by an average practitioner. Shoulder lameness will, of course, manifest itself by signs and appearances more or less distinct and pronounced, according to the nature of the degrees and the extent of the originating cause. We summarize some of these signs and appearances: The lameness is not intermittent, but continued, the disturbance of motion gaging the severity of the lesion and its extent. It is more marked when the bones are diseased than when the muscles alone are affected. When in motion the two upper bony levers--the shoulder blade and the bone of the upper arm--are reduced to nearly complete immobility and the walking is performed by the complete displacement of the entire mass, which is dragged forward without either flexion of extension. The action of the joint below, as a natural consequence, is limited in its flexion. In many instances there is a certain degree of swelling at the point of injury--at the joint, or, more commonly, in front of it, or on the surface of the spinatus muscle. Again, instead of swelling there will be muscular atrophy, though, while this condition of loss of muscular power may interfere with perfect locomotion, it is not in itself usually a cause of shoulder lameness. "Sweenied" shoulders are more often due to disease below the fetlock than to affections above the elbow. During rest the animal often carries his leg forward, somewhat analogous to the "pointing" position of navicular disease, though in some cases the painful member drops at the elbow in a semiflexed position. The backing is sometimes typical, the animal when performing it, instead of flexing his shoulder, dragging the whole leg without motion in the upper segment of the extremity. The peculiar manner in which the leg is brought forward in the air for another step in the act of walking or trotting is in some instances characteristic of injuries of the shoulder. The lameness also manifests itself in bringing the leg forward with a circumflex swinging motion and a shortening in the extension of the step. The foot is carried close to the ground and stumbling is frequent, especially on an uneven road. With the utmost scrutiny and care the vagueness and uncertainty of the symptoms will contribute to perplex and discredit the diagnosis and embarrass the surgeon, and sometimes the expedient is tried of aggravating the symptoms by way of intensifying their significance, and thus rendering them more intelligible. This has been sought by requiring the patient to travel on hard or very soft ground and compelling him to turn on the sound leg as a pivot, with other motions calculated to betray the locality of the pain. _Treatment._--It is our conviction that lameness of the shoulder will in many cases disappear with no other prescription than that of rest. Provided the lesions occasioning it are not too severe, time is all that is required. But the negation of letting alone is seldom accepted as a means of doing good, in the place of the active and the positive forms of treatment. This is in accordance with a trait of human nature which is universal, and is unlimited in its applications; hence something must be done. In mild cases of shoulder lameness, then, the indications are water, either in the cold douche or by showering, or by warm fomentations. Warm, wet blankets are of great service; in addition, or as alternative, anodyne liniments, camphor, belladonna, either in the form of tincture or the oils, are of benefit, and at a later period stimulating friction with suitable mixtures, sweating liniments, blistering compounds, subcutaneous injections over the region of the muscle of 1-1/2 grains of veratrin (the variety insoluble in water) mixed in 2 drams of water, etc., will find their place, and finally, when necessity demands it, the firing iron and the seton. The duration of the treatment must be determined by its effects and the evidence that may be offered of the results following the action of the reparative process. But the great essential condition of cure, and the one without which the possibility of relapse will always remain as a menace, is, as we have often reiterated in analogous cases, _rest_, imperatively rest, irrespective of any other prescriptions with which it may be associated. SPRAIN OF THE ELBOW MUSCLES. _Causes._--This injury, which fortunately is not very common, is mostly encountered in cities among heavy draft horses or rapidly driven animals which are obliged to travel, often smooth shod, upon slippery, icy, or greasy pavements, where they are easily liable to lose their foothold. The region of the strain is the posterior part of the shoulder, and the affected muscles are those which occupy the space between the posterior border of the scapula and the posterior face of the arm. It is the muscles of the olecranon which give way. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are easily recognized, especially when the animal is in action. While at rest the attitude may be normal, or by close scrutiny a peculiarity may perhaps be detected. The leg may seem to drop; the elbow may appear to be lower than its fellow, with the knee and lower part of the leg flexed and the foot resting on the toe, with the heel raised. Such an attitude, however, may be occasionally assumed by an animal without having any special significance, but when it becomes more pronounced in motion the fact acquires a symptomatic value, and this is the case in the present instance. A rapid gait becomes quite impossible, and the walk, as in some few other diseases, becomes sufficiently characteristic to warrant a diagnosis even when observed from a distance. An entire dropping of the anterior part of the trunk becomes manifest, and no weight is carried on the disabled side in consequence of the loss of action in the suspensory muscles. There are often heat, pain, and swelling in the muscular mass at the elbow, though at times a hollow, or depression, may be observed near the posterior border of the scapula, which is probably the seat of injury. These hurts are of various degrees of importance, varying from mere minor casualties of quick recovery to lesions which are of sufficient severity to render an animal useless and valueless for life. _Treatment._--The prime elements of treatment, which should be strictly observed, are rest and quiet. Prescriptions of all kinds, of course, have their advocates. Among them are ether, chloroform, camphor, alcoholic frictions, warm fomentations, blisters, setons, etc. Unless the conclusions of experience are to be ignored, my own judgment is decisive in favor of rest, judiciously applied, however, and my view of what constitutes a judicious application of rest has been more than once presented in these pages. There are degrees of this rest. One contemplates simple immobility in a narrow stall. Another means the enforced mobility of the slings and a narrow stall as well. Another a box stall, with ample latitude as to posture and space, and option to stand or lie down. As wide as this range may appear to be, radical recovery has occurred under all of these modified forms of _letting our patients alone._ HIP LAMENESS. The etiology of injuries and diseases of the hip is one and the same with that of the shoulder. The same causes operate and the same results follow. The only essential change, with an important exception, which would be necessary in passing from one region to the other in a description of its anatomy, its physiology, and its pathology would be a substitution of anatomical names in reference to certain bones, articulations, muscles, ligaments, and membranes concerned in the injuries and diseases described. It would be only a useless repetition to cover again the ground over which we have so recently passed in recital of the manner in which certain forms of external violence (falls, blows, kicks, etc.) result in other certain forms of lesion (luxation, fracture, periostitis, ostitis, etc.), and to recapitulate the items of treatment and the names of the medicaments proper to use. The same rules of diagnosis and the same indications and prognosis are applicable equally to every portion of the organism, with only such modifications in applying dressings and apparatus as may be required by differences of conformation and other minor circumstances, which must suggest themselves to the judgment of every experienced observer when the occasion arrives for its exercise. An exception is to be made, while considering the subject in connection with the region now under advisement, in respect to the formidable affection known as morbus coxarius, or hip-joint disease; and leaving the detail of other lesions to take their place under other heads, that relating to the shoulder, for instance, we turn to the hip joint and its ailments as the chief subject of our present consideration. _Symptoms._--In investigating for morbus coxarius, let the observer first examine the lame animal by scanning critically the outlines of the joint and the region adjacent for any difference of size or disturbance of symmetry in the parts, any prominence or rotundity, and on both sides. The lame side will probably be warmer, more developed, and fuller, both to the touch and to the eye. Let him then grasp the lower part of the leg (as he would in examining a case of shoulder lameness) and endeavor to produce excessive passive motion. This will probably cause pain when the leg is made to assume a given position. Let him push the thigh forcibly against the hip bone, and the contact will again probably cause a manifestation of pain. If the horse is trotted, the limited action of the hip joint proper and the excessive dropping and rising of the hip of the opposite side will be easily recognized. Usually the animal does not extend the foot so far as customarily and picks it up much sooner. The abductive or circumflex motion observed in shoulder lameness is also present in hip lameness, but under special conditions, and the test of the difficulty, either by traveling on soft ground or in turning the horse in a circle, may here also contribute to the diagnosis, as in testing for lameness in the anterior extremity. _Prognosis._--The prognosis of hip lameness is at times quite serious, not only on account of the long duration of treatment required to effect good results, and because of the character which may be assumed by the disease, but of the permanence of the disability resulting from it. Exostosis and ulcerative arthritis are sequelæ which often resist every form of treatment. _Treatment._--As before intimated, this is little more than a repetition of the remarks upon the lameness of the shoulder, with slight modifications occasioned by the muscular structure of the hip, and we are limited to the same recommendations of treatment. The advantages of rest must be reaffirmed, with local applications, of which, however, it may be said that they are more distinctly indicated and likely to be more effective in their results than in shoulder lameness, and may be more freely employed, whether in the form of liniments, blisters (singly or repeated), firing, or setoning. SPRAINS OF SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS AND OF FLEXOR TENDONS OR THEIR SHEATHS. The fibrous structure situated behind the cannon bones, both in the fore and hind legs, is often the seat of lacerations or sprains resulting from violent efforts or sudden jerks. _Cause._--The injury may be considered serious or trifling, according to the circumstances of each case as judged by its own history. Among the predisposing causes are a long, thin fetlock and a narrow knee or hock as viewed from the side, with the flexor muscles tied in just below the joint. The longer and more oblique the pastern the greater is the strain on the flexor tendons and suspensory ligaments; hence a low quarter, a toe calk, and no heel calks, or a thin calk placed at the tip under the toe, and leaving the quarters long abnormally stretches the back tendons and causes a great strain upon them just before the weight is shifted from the foot in locomotion. In runners and hunters the disease is liable to be periodic. In driving horses it is most common in well-bred animals of nervous temperament. Draft horses suffer most frequently in the hind legs. _Symptoms._--The injury is readily recognized by the changed aspect of the region and the accompanying local symptoms. The parts which in health are well defined, with the outlines of the tendons and ligaments well marked, become the seat of a swelling, more or less developed, from a small spot on the middle of the back of the tendon to a tumefaction reaching from the knee down to and even involving the fetlock itself. It is always characterized by heat, and it is variously sensitive, ranging from a mere tenderness to a degree of soreness which shrinks from the lightest touch. The degree of the lameness varies, and it has a corresponding range with the soreness, sometimes showing only a slight halting and at others the extreme of lameness on three legs, with intermediate degrees. The lameness is always worse when the weight is thrown on the foot and is most marked toward the end of the phase of contact with the ground. Either passive irritation of the leg or turning the animal in a circle causes pain as in diseases of the joints. Sometimes the horse likes to get the heels on a stone or some elevation so as to relieve the weight from the flexor tendons. Finally, in cases of long standing, a shortening of the tendons occurs, resulting in the abnormal flexion of the foot known by horsemen as "broken down," or a more upright position of the foot may follow, producing perhaps knuckling or the so-called clubfoot. _Prognosis._--It may be safely assumed on general principles that a leg which has received such injuries seldom returns to a perfect condition of efficiency and soundness, and that as a fact a certain absolute amount of thickening and deformity will remain permanent, even when the lameness has entirely disappeared. _Treatment._--The injured member should receive the earliest attention possible, not only when the inflammatory condition is present, but when it is subsiding and there is only the thickening of the ligaments, the tendons, or the sheath. The most important remedy is rest, and the shoes should always be removed. During the first three days cold in the form of immersion or continuous irrigation is indicated. Then warm moisture and continuous pressure are advised. The latter is best applied by placing two padded splints about the thickness of the thumb along the two sides of the tendon and binding them in place with even pressure by bandage. Frequent bathing with warm soap suds is also beneficial. The absorption of the exudate may be promoted and the work of restoration effected by frictions with alcohol, tincture of soap, spirits of camphor, mild liniments, strong, sweating liniments, and blisters. An excellent ointment to apply with massage consists of equal parts of blue ointment and green soap, with double the quantity of vaseline. The action of blisters in these cases depends chiefly upon the massage used in applying them and upon the continuous pressure of the swollen skin on the inflamed tendons. In old cases more beneficial results will follow line firing. In these cases shoeing is very important. Leave the quarters long, shorten the toe, give the shoe rolling motion, and either put short heel calks on the branches or thicken the branches. Although this line of treatment is efficacious in many cases, there are others in which the thickening of the tendons refuses to yield and the changed tissues remain firmly organized, leaving them in the form of a thick mass resting upon the back part of the cannon bone. KNUCKLING OF FETLOCK. As a consequence of the last-mentioned lesion of the tendons, a new condition presents itself in the articular disposition, constituting the deformity known as the knuckling fetlock. (See also p. 400.) By this is meant a deformity of the fetlock joint by which the natural angle is changed from that which pertains to the healthy articulation. The first pastern, or suffraginis, loses its oblique direction and assumes another, which varies from the upright to the oblique, from before backward, and from above downward; in other words, forming an angle with its apex in front. _Causes._--This condition, as we have seen, may be the result of chronic disease producing structural changes in the tendons, and it may also occur as the result of other affections or some peculiarity independent of this and situated below the fetlock, such as ringbones, sidebones, or traumatic disease of the foot proper. Animals are sometimes predisposed to knuckling, such, for example, as are naturally straight in their pasterns, or animals which are compelled to labor when too young. The hind legs are more predisposed than the fore to this deformity, in consequence of the greater amount of labor they are required to perform as the propelling levers of the body. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of knuckling are easily recognized. The changes in the direction of the bones vary more or less with the degree of the lesion, sometimes assuming such a direction that it almost becomes a true dislocation of the pastern. The effect of knuckling upon the gait also varies according to the degree of the deformity. As the different degrees of the shortening of the leg affect the motion of the fetlock, the lameness may be very slight or quite extreme. Another consequence of this shortening is such a change in the position of the foot that the heels cease to come in contact with the ground and assume a greater elevation, and the final result of this is soon witnessed in the development of a clubfoot. _Treatment._--To whatever cause the knuckling may be ascribed, it is always a severe infirmity, and there is but little room for hoping to overcome it unless it be during the very first stages of the trouble, and the hope dwindles to still smaller dimensions when it is secondary to other diseases below the fetlock. If it is caused by overworking the animal, the first indication, of course, will be rest. Line firing has proved very efficacious in these cases. The animal must be turned loose and left unemployed. Careful attention should be given to the condition of his feet and to the manner of shoeing, while time is allowed for the tendons to become restored to their normal state and the irritation caused by excessive stretching has subsided. A shoe with a thick heel will contribute to this. If no improvement can be obtained, however, and the tendons though retracted have yet been relieved of much of their thickening, the case is not a desperate one, and may yet be benefited by the operation of tenotomy, single or double--an operative expedient which must be committed to the experienced surgeon for its performance. SPRUNG KNEES. Though not positively the result of diseases of the tendons acting upon the knees, we venture to consider this deformity in connection with that which we have just described. It consists in such an alteration in the direction and articulation of the bones which form the various carpal joints that instead of forming a vertical line from the lower end of the forearm to the cannon bone they are so united that the knee is more or less bent forward, presenting a condition caused by the retraction of two of the principal muscles by which the cannon bone is flexed. _Cause._--This flexion of the knee may be a congenital deformity and have continued from the foaling of the animal; or, like clubfoot, it may be the result of heavy labor which the animal has been compelled to perform when too young. It may also be due to other diseases existing in parts below the knee joint. _Symptoms._--This change of direction largely influences the movement of the animal by detracting from its firmness and practically weakening the entire frame, even to the extent of rendering him insecure on his feet and liable to fall. This condition of weakness is sometimes so pronounced that he is exposed to fall even when standing at rest and unmolested, the knees being unable even to bear their portion of the mere weight of the frame. This results in another trouble--that of being unable to keep permanently upright. He is liable to fall on his knees, and by this act becomes presently a sufferer from the lesion known by the term of "broken knees." _Treatment._--Whatever may be the originating cause of this imperfection, it detracts very largely from the usefulness and value of a horse, disqualifying him for ordinary labor and wholly unfitting him for service under the saddle without jeopardizing the safety of his rider. If, however, the trouble is known from the start, and is not the result of congenital deformity or weakness of the knee joint, or secondary to other diseases, rest, with fortifying frictions, may sometimes aid in strengthening the joints; and the application of blisters on the posterior part of the knee, from a short distance above to a point a little below the joint, may be followed by some satisfactory results; but with this trouble, as with knuckling fetlocks, the danger of relapse must be kept in mind as a contingency always liable to occur. CURB. This lesion is the bulging backward of the posterior part of the hock, where in the normal state there should be a straight line, extending from the upper end of the point of the hock down to the fetlock. _Cause._--The cause may be a sprain of the tendon which passes on the posterior part of the hock, or of one of its sheaths, or of the strong ligament situated on the posterior border of the os calcis. Hocks of a certain conformation seems to possess a greater liability to curb than others. They are overbent, coarse, and thick in appearance, or may be too narrow from front to back across the lower portion. This condition may therefore result as a sequence to congenital malformation, as in the case of horses that are "saber-legged." It often occurs, also, as the result of violent efforts, of heavy pulling, of high jumping, or of slipping; in a word, it may result from any of the causes heretofore considered as instrumental in producing lacerations of muscular, tendinous, or ligamentous structure. _Symptoms._--A hock affected with curb will present at the outset a swelling more or less diffuse on its posterior portion, with varying degrees of heat and soreness, and these will be accompanied with lameness of a permanent character. At a later period, however, the swelling will become better defined, the deformity more characteristic, the prominent, curved line readily detected, and the thickness of the infiltrated tissue easily determined by the fingers. At this time, also, there may be a condition of lameness, varying in degree, while at others, again, the irregularity of action at the hock will be so slight as to escape detection, the animal betraying no appearance of its existence. A curb constitutes, by a strict construction of the term, an "unsoundness," since the hock thus affected is less able to endure severe labor, and is more liable to give way with the slightest effort. Yet the prognosis of a curb can not be considered to be serious, as it generally yields to treatment, or at least the lameness it may occasion is generally easily relieved, though the loss of contour caused by the bulging will always constitute a blemish. _Treatment._--On the first appearance of a curb, when it exhibits the signs of an acute inflammation, the first indication is to subdue it by the use of cold applications, as intermittent or constant irrigation or an ice poultice; when these have exhausted their effect and the swelling has assumed better defined boundaries, and the infiltration of the tendons or of the ligaments is all that remains of a morbid state, then every effort must be directed to the object of effecting its absorption and reducing its dimensions by pressure and other methods. The medicaments most to be trusted are blisters of cantharides and frictions with ointments of iodin, or, preferably, biniodid of mercury. Mercurial agents alone, by their therapeutic properties or by means of the artificial bandages which they furnish by their incrustations when their vesicatory effects are exhausted, will give good results in some instances by a single application, and often by repeated applications. The use of the firing iron must, however, be frequently resorted to, either to remove the lameness or to stimulate the absorption. We believe that its early application ought to be resorted to in preference to waiting until the exudation is firmly organized. Firing in dull points or in lines will prove as beneficial in curb as in any other disease of a similar nature. LACERATED TENDONS. This form of injury, whether of a simple or of a compound character, may become a lesion of a very serious nature, and will usually require long and careful treatment, which may yet prove unavailing in consequence either of the intrinsically fatal character of the wound itself or the complications which have rendered it incurable. _Cause._--Like all similar injuries, they are the result of traumatic violence, such as contact with objects either blunt or sharp; a curb-stone in the city; in the country, a tree stump or a fence, especially one of wire. It may easily occur to a runaway horse when he is "whipped" with fragments of harness or "flogged" by fragments of splintered shafts "thrashing" his legs, or by the contact of his legs with the wagon he has overturned and shattered with his heels while disengaging himself from the wreck. _Symptoms._--It is not always necessary that the skin be involved in this form of injury. On the contrary, the tegument is frequently left entirely intact, especially when the injury follows infectious diseases or occurs during light exercise after long periods of rest in the stable. Again, the skin may be cut through and the tendons nearly severed. A point a little above the fetlock is usually the seat of the injury. But irrespective of this, and whether the skin is or is not implicated, the symptoms resemble very much those of a fracture. There is excessive mobility, at least more than in a normal state, with more or less inability to carry weight. There may be swelling of the parts, and on passing the hands carefully along the tendon to the point of division the stumps of the divided structure will be felt more or less separated, perhaps wholly divided. The position of the animal while at rest and standing is peculiar and characteristic. While the heels are well placed on the ground, the toe is correspondingly elevated, with a tendency to turn up--a form of breaking down which was described when speaking of the fracture of the sesamoids. Carrying weight is done only with considerable difficulty, but with comparatively little pain, and the animal will unconsciously continue to move the leg as if in great suffering, notwithstanding the fact that his general condition may be very good and his appetite unimpaired. The effect upon the general organism of compound lacerated wounds of tendinous structures, or those which are associated with injuries of the skin, are different. The wound becomes in a short time the seat of a high degree of inflammation, with abundant suppuration filling it from the bottom; the tendon, whether as the result of the bruise or of the laceration, or of maceration in the accumulated pus, undergoes a process of softening, and necrosis and sloughing ensue. This complicates the case and probably some form of tendinous synovitis follows, running into suppurative arthritis, to end, if close to a joint, with a fatal result. _Prognosis._--The prognosis of lacerated tendons should be very conservative. Under the most favorable circumstances a period of from six weeks to two months will be necessary for the treatment, before the formation of the cicatricial callus and the establishment of a firm union between the tendinous stumps. _Treatment._--As with fractures, and even in a greater degree, the necessity is imperative, in the treatment of lacerated tendons, to obtain as perfect a state of immobility as can be obtained compatibly with the disposition of the patient; the natural opposition of the animal, sometimes ill-tempered and fractious at best, under the necessary restraint causing at times much embarrassment to the practitioner in applying the necessary treatment. Without the necessary immobility there can be no close connection of the ends of the tendons. To fulfill this necessary condition the posterior part of the foot and the fetlock must be supported and the traction performed by them relieved, an object which can be obtained by the use of the high-heeled and bar shoe, or possibly better accomplished with a shoe of the same kind extending about 2 or 2-1/2 inches back of the heels. The perfect immobility of the legs is obtained in the same way as in the treatment of fracture, with splints, bandages, iron apparatus, plaster of adhesive mixtures, and similar means. So long as the dressings remain in place undisturbed and no chafing or other evidence of pain is present, the dressings may be continued without changing, the patient being kept in the slings for a period sufficient to insure the perfect union of the tendons. For a compound lesion when there is laceration of the skin some special care is necessary. The wound must be carefully watched and the dressings removed at intervals of a few days or as often as may be needful, all of which additional manipulation and extra nursing, however indispensable, still adds to the gravity of the case and renders the prognosis more and more serious. When the tendons have sloughed in threads of various dimensions, or if in the absence of this process of mortification healthy granulations should form and fill up the wound, still very careful attention will be required, the granulating ends of the tendons having a tendency to bulge between the edges of the skin and to assume large dimensions, forming bulky excrescences or growths of a warty or cauliflower appearance, the removal of which becomes a troublesome matter. The union of the tendons will at times leave a thickening of varying degree near the point of cicatrization, the absorption of which becomes an object of difficult and doubtful accomplishment, but which may be promoted by moderate blistering and the use of alterative and absorbent mixtures or perhaps the fire iron. A shoe with heels somewhat higher than usual will prove a comfort to the animal and aid in moderating and relieving the tension of the tendons. RUPTURE OF THE FLEXOR METATARSI. This is a muscle of the anterior part of the shank. It is situated in front of the tibia, and is of peculiar formation, being composed of a muscular portion with a very powerful tendon, which are at first distinct and separate, to be intimately united lower down, and terminating at the lower end by a division into four tendinous bands. It is a powerful muscle of the hinder shank bone, and also acts as a strong means of support for the stifle joint; that is, of the articulation of the thigh and shank bone, in front and outside of which it passes. Its situation and its use cause it to be liable to severe stretching and straining, and a rupture of some of its fibers is sometimes the consequence. _Cause._--This injury may be the result of a violent effort of the animal in leaping over a high obstacle; in missing his foothold and suddenly slipping backward while powerfully grasping the ground with the feet in striving to start a heavily loaded vehicle; in making a violent effort to prevent a probable fall; or in attempting to lift the feet from miry ground. _Symptoms._--The accident is immediately followed by disability which will vary according to the true seat of the injury and the period of its duration. This rupture will not prevent the horse from standing perfectly and firmly on his feet when kept at rest, and while no muscular efforts are required from him there is no appearance of any lesion or unsoundness. An attempt to move him backward, however, will cause him to throw all his weight upon his hind-quarters, and he will refuse to raise his foot from the ground. If compelled to do so, or required to move forward, the hock being no longer capable of flexion, the muscle which effects that movement being the injured one, the opposite muscles, the extensors, acting freely, the entire lower part of the leg, from the hock down, will be suddenly, with a jerk, extended on the tibia or shank bone, and simultaneously with this the tendo Achillis, the cord of the hock, the tendons of the extensors of the hock will be put in a wrinkled and relaxed condition. The leg is behind the animal and the toe rests on the ground. Examination of the fore part of the shank from the stifle down to the hock may reveal soreness, and possibly some swelling and heat at the seat of the lesion. _Treatment._--Our experience with injuries of this form convinces us that, generally speaking, they are amenable to treatment. Provided a sufficient time has been allowed for union to take place, very few instances in which radical recovery has not been effected have come to our knowledge. The more flexed the leg can be kept, the quicker will it heal. In these cases, as in those of simple laceration of tendons, already considered, the indications resemble those which apply in the treatment of fractures, as near as coaptation of the lacerated ends is possible, with immobility, being the necessary conditions to secure. The first is a matter of very difficult accomplishment, by bandaging alone, and some have recommended instead the application of charges or blisters in order to compel the animal to keep more quiet. To secure the necessary immobility the animal should be placed in slings snugly applied, and kept in a narrow stall. He should also be tied short, and restrained from any backward movement by ropes or boards, and should, moreover, be kept in as quiet a temper as possible by the exclusion of all causes of irritation or excitement. Weeks must then elapse, not less, but frequently more than six, often eight, before he can be considered out of danger and able to return to his labor, which should for a time be light and easy, and gradually, if ever, increased to the measure of a thoroughly sound and strong animal. If he is used too soon the newly formed tissue between the ends of the muscle will be liable to stretch and leave the flexor muscle too long and permanently displaced. SUNDRY ADDITIONAL AFFECTIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. Among these there are three which will principally occupy our attention, and, which may be considered as forming a single group. In some parts of the legs may be found certain peculiar little structures of a saclike formation, containing an oily substance designed for the lubrication of the parts upon which they are placed for the purpose of facilitating the movements of the tendons which pass over them. These little sacs or muco-synovial capsules, under peculiar conditions of traumatism, are liable to become subject to a diseased process, which consists principally in a hypersecretion of their contents and an increase in dimensions, and they may undergo peculiar pathological changes of such character as to disable an animal, and in many instances to cause serious blemishes which can but depreciate its value. These growths, which are known as hygromata, may result from external violence, as blows or bruises, and may appear in the form of small, soft tumors, painless and not inflammatory in character, but, by a repetition of the cause or renewal of violence, liable to acquire increased severity. Severe inflammation, with suppuration, may follow, which, filling up the cavity, the walls will become thickened and hard, resulting in the formation of a tumor. The elbow, the knee, and the hock are the parts of the body where these lesions are ordinarily found, and on account of their peculiar shape and the position they occupy they have received the denomination "capped." They will be considered in their peculiar aspect. CAPPED ELBOW. Capped elbow, or "shoe boil," is a term applied to an enlargement often found at the point of the elbow. _Cause._--This lesion is due to injury or pressure of the part while it is resting on the ground. The horse, unlike the cow, does not rest directly on the under surface of the sternum, or breastbone, on account of its sharp, ridge-like formation. He rests more on the side of the breastbone and chest, and consequently the leg which is flexed under the body is subject to considerable pressure. If the leg is flexed under the body so that the hoof or shoe is directly in contact with the elbow, which may occur in horses having an extremely long cannon bone or excessive length in the shoes, the greater part of the weight of the chest is concentrated at this point and the pressure may cause a bruise or an inflammation. _Symptoms._--Under these conditions the point of the elbow may become swollen and tender and exhibit heat and pain. This swelling may not only cover the point of the elbow, but sometimes reaches the axilla and assumes such proportions that there is great difficulty in using the leg, the animal showing signs of lameness even to the extent of the circumflex step, as in shoulder lameness. This edematous condition, however, does not remain stationary. It may by degrees subside or perhaps disappear. In the first instance it will become more distinctly defined, with better marked boundaries, until it is reduced to a soft, round, fluctuating tumor, with or without heat or pain. There is then either a bloody or serous tumor or a purulent collection, and following the puncture of its walls with the knife there will be an escape of blood, serum, or pus, as the case may be, in variable quantities. In either case, but principally in that of the cystic form, the tumor will be found to be subdivided by septa, or bands running in various directions. Various changes will follow the opening of the tumor and the escape of its contents. In a majority of cases the process of cicatrization will take place, and the cavity fill up by granulation, the discharge, at first abundant, gradually diminishing and the wound closing, usually without leaving any mark. At times, however, and especially if the disease has several times repeated its course, there may remain a pendulous sac, partly obliterated, which a sufficient amount of excitement or irritation may soon restore to its previous dimensions and condition. In other cases an entirely different process takes place. The walls of the cavity, cyst, or abscess become ulcerated and thickened, the granulations of the sac become fibrous in their structure and fill up the cavity, and it assumes the character of a hard tumor on the back of the elbow, sometimes partly and sometimes entirely covered by the skin. It is fibrous in its nature, painless to the touch, well defined in its contour, and may vary in size from that of a small apple to that of a child's head. This last form of capped elbow is the most serious of any, resisting all known forms of mild treatment, and removable by the knife only. The other forms, even that with the inflammatory aspect and its large edematous swelling which interferes with the work of the animal, may justify a much milder prognosis, and, aside from their liability to recur, may be ranked with the comparatively harmless affections. _Treatment._--So long as the danger of recurrence is the principal bad feature of capped elbow the most important consideration is that of devising a means for its prevention. To prevent the animal from lying down is evidently the simplest method of keeping the heels and the elbow apart; but the impracticability of this prescription is apparent, since most animals are obliged to lie down when they sleep, though it is true that a few take their sleep on their feet. The question of shoeing here enters into the discussion. The shortening of the inside branch of the shoe, which is the one with which the pressure is made, may be of advantage, and especially if the truncated end of the shoe is smooth and filed over to remove all possibility of pressure and contusion upon the skin. The protection of the skin of the elbow by interposing soft tissues between that and the shoe, or by bandaging the heel with bags or covering it with boots, is considered by many the best of the preventive methods, and the advantage to be obtained by resorting to it can not be overlooked when the number of horses which develop shoe boil whenever the use of the boot is intermitted is considered. In order to prevent the animal from assuming the sternal decubitus, many give preference to the plan of fastening a piece of wood across the stall at some distance from the front wall or manger. It is a simple expedient, primitive, perhaps, but nevertheless practical, and followed by good results. The therapeutic treatment is also important. The edematous swelling, when recognized by its external appearance and the existing inflammation, should be treated without delay. Warm fomentations, repeated several times daily, are then indicated, the degree of warmth being as high as can be borne comfortably. They are easily applied and often yield decided relief in a few hours. In some cases, however, astringents, in the form of poultices or pastes, are used in preference; these are made to cover the entire swelling and allowed to remain, drying after a short time, it is true, and perhaps falling off, but are easily renewed and reapplied. An excellent astringent for these cases is a putty made of powdered chalk and vinegar (acetate of lime), and the whole swelling is then covered with a thick coating of soft clay made into a mass with water. These simple remedies are often all that is required. Under their use the swelling passes off by degrees and after a short interval the animal is fit for work again, but not uncommonly instead a swelling develops, puffy, not painful, and perhaps giving a sensation of crepitation when pressure is applied with the finger. It is soft, evidently contains a liquid, and when freely opened with a good-sized incision discharges a certain quantity of blood, partly liquid and partly coagulated, and perhaps a little hemorrhage will follow. The cavity should then be well washed out and a plug of oakum introduced, leaving a small portion protruding through the cut to prevent it from closing prematurely. It may be taken off the next day, and a daily cleansing will then be all that is necessary. In another case the tumor becomes very soft in its whole extent, with evident fluctuation and a well-defined form. The discharge of the fluid is then indicated, and a free incision will be followed by the escape of a quantity of thin yellowish liquid from a single sac. The wound should be kept clean and dressed frequently, in order to insure prompt healing. But if the cavity is found to be subdivided in its interior by numerous bands and the cyst proves to be multilocular the partitions should be torn out with the fingers and the cavity then treated in the same manner as the unilocular sac. In still another case the swelling may be warm and painful with indistinct fluctuation, or fluctuation only at a certain point. This indicates an abscess, and necessitates an incision to drain the pus, followed by the careful cleansing and dressing of the wound. But cases occur in which all the treatment that has been described fails to effect a full recovery, and instead a fibrous tumor begins to develop. A change of treatment is, of course, then in order. The inflammation being chronic will necessitate stimulating treatment of the part in order to increase the process of absorption. We must again draw upon the resources of experience in the form of blisters, the fomentations, the iodin, and the mercurial ointments, as heretofore mentioned. Good results may always be insured from their judicious and timely administration. In applying the powerful mineral inunctions much patience and wisdom are required. It should be done by carefully and perseveringly rubbing in small quantities daily; it should be done softly and gently, not with force, nor with the expectation of producing an astonishing effect by heavy dosing and main strength in a few hours; it should be after the manner of a siege rather than that of a charge. The object is to induce the drugs to permeate the affected part until the entire mass is penetrated. Of course cases will be encountered which resist all forms of medical treatment. The tumor remains as a fixed fact; it continues to grow; it is large and pendulous at the elbow; its weight is estimated in pounds; it is not an eyesore merely, but an uncomfortable, burdensome mass, excoriating all the surrounding parts and being itself excoriated in turn; mild treatment has failed and is no longer to be relied on. Resort must now be made to surgical methods, and here again we must choose between the ligature, the cautery, and the knife. Each has its advocates among practitioners. In a case like the present, one of the difficulties arises in connection with the application and retention of bandages and other dressings after the amputation has been performed. It is a somewhat difficult problem, owing to the conformation and proportions of the body of the patient, and involves the exercise of considerable practical ingenuity to adjust and retain the appliances necessary to insure a good final result. In the long description of the treatment of the varieties of capped elbow I have thus far omitted any mention of one method which is practiced and commended by not a few. I refer to the use of setons, introduced through the tumor. My own experience and the observation of many failures from this method led me to abandon it. CAPPED KNEE. The passage of the tendons of the extensor muscle of the cannon, as it glides in front of the knee joint, is assisted by one of the little bursæ before mentioned, and when this becomes the seat of dropsical collection a hygroma is formed and the knee is "capped." Though in its history somewhat analogous to the capped elbow, there are points of difference between them. Their development may prove a source of great annoyance from the fact of the blemish which they constitute. _Cause._--The capped knee presents itself under various conditions. It is sometimes the result of a bruise or contusion, often repeated, inflicted upon himself by a horse addicted to the habit of pawing while in the stable and striking the front of the stall with his knees. Another class of patients is formed of those weak-kneed animals which are subject to falling and bruising the front of the joint against the ground, the results not being always of the same character. _Symptoms._--The lesion may be a simple bruise, or it may be a severe contusion with swelling, edema, heat, and pain. The joint becomes so stiff and rigid that it interferes with locomotion and yet under careful simple treatment the trouble may disappear. Again, instead of altogether passing off, the edema may diminish in extent, becoming more defined in form and may remain as a swelling on the front part of the knee. Resulting from the crushing of small blood vessels, this is necessarily full of blood. The swelling is somewhat soft, diffuse, not painful, more or less fluctuating, and after a few days becomes crepitant under the pressure of the hand. Instead of being filled with blood the swelling may be full of serum, as often occurs when violence, though perhaps slight, has been frequently repeated. In that case the swelling is generally well defined, soft, and painless, with more or less fluctuation, and it may even become pendulous. In other cases the swelling may be of an acute, inflammatory nature, with heat and pain, accompanied with stiffness of the joint. This leads to the formation of an abscess. Whatever the nature of these swellings may be, either full of blood, serum, or pus, some blemish usually remains after treatment. _Prognosis._--Though simple bruises of the knee without extensive lesions are usually of trifling account, a different prognosis must be pronounced when the lesion assumes more important dimensions, and though a capped knee may be comparatively of little importance we have seen cases in which not only extensive blemishes were left to disfigure the patient, but the animals had become worthless in consequence of the extension of the diseased process to the various elements composing the joint, and giving rise to the most complicated cases of carpitis. _Treatment._--Usually the first symptom of trouble is the edematous swelling on the front of the "knee." The prevention of the inflammation and consequently of the abscess, is the prime object in view, and it may be realized by the use of warm-water fomentations or compresses applied over the swelling, which may be used either in a simple form or combined with astringents, such as Goulard's extract, alum, or sulphate of zinc. The application of warm poultices of oil meal or ground flaxseed, enveloping the whole joint and kept in place by bandages, is often followed by absorption of the swelling, or, if the abscess is in process of formation, by the active excretion of pus. If an abscess forms in spite of these precautions it may be treated surgically in several ways. In one it should be done by a careful incision, which will allow the escape of the blood or the serum, or of the pus which is inclosed in the sac; in another it may be by means of a seton, in order that the discharge may be maintained and allowed to escape; for another we may adopt the more cautious manner of emptying the cavity by means of punctures with small trocars or aspirators. The danger attending this last method arises from the possible sloughing of large portions of the skin, while that attending the first is the hazard of the possibility of the extension of the inflammation to the capsular ligament of the knee, with the possibility of an open joint in prospect. As we have remarked, the cavity after being emptied may rapidly close and leave in a short time but slight traces of its previous existence. But in many, if not in most cases, there will remain, after the cicatrization is complete, a thickening or organized exudation at one time round and well defined, at another spreading by a diffused infiltration, to which it will be necessary to give immediate attention, from the fact of its tendency to form into an organized and permanent body. To stimulate inflammation in this diseased structure, blisters are recommended, but chiefly for the purpose of promoting the process of absorption. If this treatment fails, the use of iodin and mercurial preparations is recommended. Plain mercurial or plain iodin ointment, or both in combination as iodid of mercury, are commonly used, and may be applied either moderately and by gentle degrees, as we have suggested, or more freely and vigorously with a view to more immediate effects, which, however, will also be more superficial. The use of the firing iron applied deeply with fine points is then to be strongly recommended, to be followed by blisters and various liniments. This course may generally be relied on as quite sure to be followed by satisfactory results. While the treatment is in progress it will, of course, be necessary to secure the animal in such manner that a recurrence of the injury will be impossible from similar causes to those which were previously responsible. CAPPED HOCK. A bad habit of rubbing or striking the partitions of their stalls with their hocks prevails among some horses, with the result of an injury which shows itself on the upper points of those bones, the summit of the os calcis. From its analogy to the condition of capped elbow the designation of capped hock has been applied to this condition. _Symptoms._--A capped hock is therefore but the development of a bruise at the point of the hock, which if many times repeated may excite an inflammatory process, with all its usual external symptoms of swelling, heat, soreness, and the rest of the now-familiar phenomena. The swelling is at first diffused, extending more or less on the exterior part of the hock, and in a few instances running up along the tendons and muscles of the back of the shank. Soon, however, unless the irritating causes are continued and repeated, the edema diminishes, and, becoming more defined in its external outlines, leaves the hock capped with a hygroma. The hygroma, at the very beginning of the trouble, contains a bloody serosity which soon becomes strictly serum, and this, through the influence of an acute inflammatory action, is liable to undergo a change which converts it into the usual purulent product of suppuration. The external appearance ought to be sufficient to determine the diagnosis, but there are a few signs which may contribute toward a nicer identification of the lesion. The capped hock, whether under the appearance of an acute, edematous swelling, or as a bloody serous collection, or as a simple serous cyst, does not give rise to any remarkable local manifestation other than such as have already passed under our survey in considering similar cases, nor will it be liable to interfere with the functions which belong to the member in question, unless it assumes very large dimensions and on each side of the tendons, as well as on the summit of the bone. But if the inflammation is quite high, if suppuration is developing, if there is a true abscess, or--and this is a common complication--especially when the kicking or rubbing of the animal is frequently recurring, then, besides the local trouble of the cyst or of the abscess, the bones become diseased and the periosteum inflamed; perhaps the superior ends of the bone and its fibro-cartilage become affected, and a simple lesion or bruise, whatever it may have been, becomes complicated with periostitis and ostitis, and is naturally accompanied with lameness, developed in a greater or less degree, which in some cases may be permanent and in others increased by work. These complications, however, are not common or frequent. _Treatment._--Capped hocks are in many cases amenable to treatment, and yet they often become the opprobrium of the practioner by remaining, as they frequently do, an eyesore on the top of the hock; they do not interfere, it is true, with the work of the horse, but fixing upon him the stigma of what, in human estimation, is a most unreliable and objectionable reputation, to wit, that of being an habitual "kicker," and, worse than all, one that kicks when fed. The maxim that "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure" fits the present case very neatly. A horse whose hocks have a somewhat puffy look and whose skin on the front of the hock is loose and flabby, justly subjects himself to a suspicion of addictedness to this bad habit, but a little watching will soon establish the truth. If, then, the verdict is one of conviction, precautions should be immediately adopted against a continuance of the evil. The padding of the sides of the stall with straw mats or mattresses and covering the posts with similar material, in such manner as to expose no hard surface with which to come in contact, will reduce the evil to its minimum. The animal may jar his frame when he kicks, but even then there will be less force in the concussion than if it impinged upon the solid plank, and cuts and abrasions can not be inflicted by a properly made cushion. Hobbles are also rightly recommended with a view to the required restraint of motion, so applied as to secure the leg with which the kicking is performed, or even both hind legs, in such manner as not to interfere with the movement of lying down and rising again and yet preventing that of kicking backward. Boots similar in pattern to those which are used for the prevention of shoe boil are also prescribed. These are placed above the hock and retained by straps tightly fastened. We apprehend, however, that the difficulty of retaining them in the proper place without the danger of chafing from the tightness of the straps may form an objection to their use. Notwithstanding all precautions, hocks will be capped in the future as in the past, and the study of their treatment will always be in order. The mode of dealing with them will, of course, be greatly influenced by the condition of the parts. When the inflammation is excessive and the swelling large, hot, and painful to the touch, the application of warm water will be very painful. The leg should be well fomented several times a day, for from 15 to 20 minutes each time, a strong decoction of marsh-mallow leaves being added to the water, and after each application swathed with flannel bandages soaked in the same warm mixture. A few days of this treatment will usually effect a resolution of the inflammation; if not complete, at least sufficiently so to disclose the correct outlines of the hygroma and exhibit its peculiar and specific symptoms. The expediency of its removal and the method of accomplishing it are then to be considered, with the question of opening it to give exit to its contents. If the fluid is of a purulent character, the indication is in favor of its immediate discharge. No time should be lost, and it should be by means of a small opening made with a narrow bistoury. If, however, the fluid is a serosity, we prefer to remove it by punctures with a very small trocar. Our reason for special caution in these cases is our fear of the possibility of the existence of diseased conditions of a severe character in the pseudo joint. For the same reason we prefer the treatment of those growths by external applications. In the first stages of the disease a severe and stiff blister, such as the cantharidate of collodium, entirely covering the cyst, perhaps not yet completely formed, when the inflammation has subsided, will be of great benefit by its stimulating effect, the absorption it may excite, and the pressure which, when dry, it will maintain upon the tumor. If, however, the thickening of the growth fails to diminish, it should be treated with some of the iodin preparations in the form of ointments, pure or in combination with potassium, mercury, etc., of various strengths and in various proportions. My opinion of setons is not favorable, but the actual cautery, by deep and fine firing, in points--needle cauterization--I believe to be the best mode of treatment, and especially when applied early. A very satisfactory way to treat these cases is to burst the swelling by pressure from without. A strap or strong linen bandage is placed about the hock, pressing on the bursa, while the affected leg is on the ground, the other hind foot being lifted up. When the bandage is in place the leg should be released, and the horse will violently flex the bandaged limb and produce pressure on the bursa, with consequent bursting and discharging of its contents. Whatever treatment may be adopted for capped hock, patience must be one of the ingredients. In these parts absorption is slow, the skin is very thick, and its return to a soft, pliable, natural condition, if effected at all, will take place only after weeks added to other weeks of medical treatment and patient waiting. INTERFERING, AND SPEEDY CUTS. These designations belong to certain special injuries of the extremities, produced by similar causes, giving rise to kindred pathological lesions with allied phenomena, requiring about the same treatment and often followed by the same results, to wit, a blemish which may not only subject the animal to a suspicion of unsoundness, but in some special circumstances may interfere with his ability to labor. It is known as "interfering" when the location of the trouble is the inside of the fetlock of either the fore or hind leg. It is called "speedy cut" when it occurs on the inside of the fore leg, a little below the knee, at the point of contact of that joint with the cannon. It is always the result of a blow, self-inflicted, of varying severity, and giving rise to various lesions. (See also p. 399.) _Symptoms._--At times the injury is too slight to be seriously noticed, the hair being scarcely cut and the skin unmarked. At other times the skin will be cut through, partly or wholly, and it may for the time cause sufficient pain to check the motion of the animal and induce him to suspend his labor through his inability to use the wounded limb, traveling meanwhile for a short space on three legs only. Sometimes a single blow will suffice, or again there will be a repetition of lighter strokes. In the latter case the parts will become much swollen, hot, and so painful to the touch that the motion of the knee or the fetlock will be sufficiently disturbed to cause lameness of a degree of severity corresponding to that of the lesion. Following the subsidence of this diffused and edematous swelling is sometimes the formation of a tumor, either at the knee or the fetlock. This may be soft at first or become so by degrees, with fluctuation, its contents being at first extravasated blood, and later a serosity; or, if there has been a sufficient degree of inflammation, it may become suppurative. The result of the fault of interfering may thus be exhibited, whether at the knee or at the fetlock, as characterized by all the pathological conditions which have appeared as accompaniments of capped knee or capped hock. If, in consequence of the force of the blow or blows, the inflammation has been usually severe, a mortification of the skin may become one of the consequences, a slough taking-place, succeeded by a cutaneous ulcer on the inside of the fetlock or when the greater number of the original wounds are inflicted. If the interfering has been often repeated it may be followed by another condition, which has been considered in our remarks upon other affections. It is a plastic exudation or thickening of the parts, which are commonly said to have become "callous," and the effect of it is to destroy the regularity of the outlines of the joint to an extent which constitutes a serious blemish, which will be permanent, and according to the degree of the aberration from the natural and symmetrical lines will inevitably depreciate the commercial value of the animal. An animal in interfering may thus exhibit a range of symptoms which from the simplest form of a mere "touching," may successively assume the serious characters of an ugly cicatrix, a hard, plastic swelling, or perhaps, as witnessed at the knee, of periostitis with its sequelæ. If a single and constantly recurring cause--a blow--is the starting point in interfering, we may now consider the subject of the predisposition which brings such serious results upon the suffering animal, and the conditions which lead to and accompany it. These are numerous, but the first in frequency and importance is peculiarity of conformation in the animals addicted to it. The first class will include horses, whose chests are narrow and whose legs do not stand straight and upright, but are crooked and pigeon-toed in and out. The second class includes those whose legs are weak, either from youth or hard labor, or from severe attacks of sickness. Another class is made up of those having abnormally developed feet, or which have been badly shod with unnecessarily wide or heavy shoes. Another class consists of those that are affected with swollen fetlocks or chronic, edematous swelling of the leg. Another is formed of animals with a peculiar action, as those whose knee action is very high, and it is these that furnish most of the cases of speedy cut. _Prognosis._--The prognosis of interfering is never a very serious one. However violent the blow may be it is rarely that subsequent complications of a troublesome nature occur. The principal evil attending it is a liability to be followed by a thickened or callous deposit which is not only an eyesore and a blemish, but constitutes a new and increased predisposition. The remark that "an animal which has interfered once is always liable to interfere," is often confirmed and sanctioned by a recurrence of the trouble. _Treatment._--Another point in which there is a resemblance between this lesion and others which we have considered is in its responsiveness to the same treatment with them. Indeed, the prescription of warm fomentations, soothing applications, and astringent and resolvent mixtures, in a majority of cases, is the first that occurs all through the list. If the swelling assumes the character of a serous collection, pressure, cold water, and bandages will contribute to its removal. If suppuration seems to be established and the swelling assumes the character of a developing abscess, hot poultices of flaxseed or of boiled vegetables and the embrocations of sedative ointments, those of basilicon, or vaseline, impregnated with preparations of opium or belladonna--all these recommend themselves by their general adaptation and the beneficial results which have followed their administration, not less in one case than in another. When an abscess has formed and is fluctuating, it should be carefully but fully opened to evacuate the pus. If it is a serous cyst, some care is necessary in emptying it, and the possibility of the extension of the inflammation to the joint must be taken into consideration. When the cavities have been emptied and have closed by filling up with granulations, or if, not being opened, the contents have been reabsorbed, and there remains in either case a plastic exudation and a tendency to the callous organization that may yet exist, blisters under their various forms, including those of cantharides, of mercury, and of iodin, are then indicated, principally in the early stages, as it is then that their effects will prove most satisfactory. The use of the actual cautery, with fine points, penetrating deeply throughout the enlargement, has in our hands, when used in the very early stages of its formation, nearly always brought on a radical recovery with complete absorption of the thickening. STRINGHALT. This is an involuntary movement of one or both hind legs, in which the foot is suddenly and spasmodically lifted from the ground much higher than it is normally carried, with excessive flexion of one bone upon the other. This peculiarity is usually prominent, although it may disappear with work, only to reappear after a short rest. Sometimes it is most apparent at a trot, sometimes at a walk, and other times only when turned around; or it may not be affected by the gait of the horse. It does not seem to be influenced by the horse's age, young and old being alike affected. Its first manifestations are sometimes very slight. It has been noticed as occurring in an animal when backing out of his stable and ceasing immediately after. In some animals it is best seen when the animal is turning around on the affected leg, and it is not noticed when he moves straight forward. That this peculiar action interferes with facility of locomotion and detracts from a horse's claim to soundness can not for a moment be denied. _Cause._--Veterinarians and pathologists are yet in doubt in respect to the cause of this affection, as well as to its essential nature. Whether it results from disease of the hock, of an ulcerative character; whether it springs from a malformation; whether it is a shortening of the ligaments, a chronic inflammation of the sciatic nerve, or a disease of the spinal cord; whether it is purely a muscular or purely a nervous lesion, or a compound of both--it still continues, if an etiologist is bound to possess universal knowledge within the scope of his special studies, to be his reproach and his puzzle. _Treatment._--When there is a known or suspected cause the treatment should be directed toward this factor. If due to local inflammation of the hock or foot, only this local lesion should be treated. If it remains after the local lesion has healed, or if we have no assignable cause, the best results have followed the sectioning of the lateral extensor of the foot. A competent veterinarian alone should undertake this operation. THROMBOSIS. There are certain forms of lameness which are very peculiar in their manifestation, and which to the nonprofessional mind must appear to belong to the domain of mystery or theory instead of occupying a well-established position among the subjects of equine pathology. Yet they are no less susceptible of actual demonstration and of positive comprehension than many facts which, plain and familiar to the general understanding now, were once ranked among things occult and unsearchable. A thrombus, considered as a cause of lameness, may find a place among these understood mysteries. _Cause._--Under certain peculiar conditions of inflammation of the blood vessels, and also in aneurisms, clots of blood are sometimes formed in the arteries and find their way in the general circulation. At first, while very small, or sufficiently so to pass from one vessel to another, they move from a small vessel to a larger, and from that to one still larger, constantly increasing in size until at some given point, from their inability to enter smaller vessels, their movement is finally arrested. The artery is thus effectually dammed, and the clot in a short time cuts off completely the supply of blood from the parts beyond. This is thrombosis, and it often gives rise to sudden and excessive lameness of a very painful character. _Symptoms._--Thrombi may form in any of the arteries, and doubtless have been the cause of many cases of lameness which could never be accounted for. If they exist in small arteries their diagnosis will probably fail to be made out with certainty, but when situated in the larger trunks a strong suspicion of their presence may be excited. In some cases they may even be recognized with positive accuracy, as when the vessels which supply the posterior extremities are affected by the blocking up of the posterior aorta or its ramifications. The existence of thrombosis of the arteries of the hind leg may always be suspected when the following history is known: The general health of the animal is good, but symptoms of lameness in one of the legs have been developed, becoming more marked as he is worked, and especially when driven at a fast gait. But the disturbance is not permanent, and the lameness disappears almost immediately after a rest. There is an increase of the difficulty, however, and, though the animal may walk normally, he will, when made to trot, very soon begin to slacken his pace and to show signs of the trouble, and if urged to increase his speed will become lamer and lamer; an abundant perspiration will break out; he will refuse to go, and if forced he shows weakness behind, seems ready to fall, and perhaps does fall. While on his feet the leg is kept in constant motion, up and down, and is kept from the ground as if the contact were too painful to bear. If undisturbed this series of symptoms will gradually subside, sometimes very soon, and occasionally after a few hours he will return to an apparently perfect condition. A return to labor will lead to a renewal of the same incidents. A history like this suggests a strong suspicion of a thrombus in an artery of the hind leg, and this suspicion will be confirmed by the external symptoms exhibited by the animal. The total absence of any other disease which might account for the lameness, and a manifest diminution of heat over a part or the whole of the extremity, when compared with the opposite side or with any other portion of the body; a sensation of cold attendant on the pain, but gradually subsiding as the pain subsides, and the circulation, quickened by the rest, has been reestablished throughout the extremity; all these are confirmatory circumstances. Still, it is thus far only a suspicion, and absolute certainty is yet wanting. To establish the truth of the case the rectal exploration must be resorted to. The hands then, well prepared and carefully introduced into the rectum, must explore for the truth, first feeling for the large blood vessels which, divided at the aorta, separate to supply the right and left legs. These must be compared in respect to the pulsation and other particulars. The artery which is healthy will, of course, exhibit all the proper conditions of that state. On the other hand, if the vessel appears to the feel hard, more or less cordy, and pulseless, or giving a sensation of fluttering, as of a small volume of blood with a trickling motion passing through a confined space, the difference between the sides will make the case plain. The first will be the full flow of the circulation through an unobstructed channel, the other a forced passage of the fluid between the thrombus and the coats of the artery. In such case the prognosis is necessarily a grave one and the disease is more liable to grow Worse than better. _Treatment._--No form of treatment can be advised; the suffering or a helpless and useless animal can only be terminated by that which ends all. Cases occur, however, where this condition of the blood vessels exists in a much less degree, and the diseased condition is not sufficiently pronounced for final condemnation. There may even be a possibility of the absorption of the clot, or that an increase of the collateral circulation may be sufficient to supply the parts with blood. In such cases spontaneous recovery may follow moderate exercise in the pasture, field, or stable, or continuous light work may be given, but too much hope should not be placed in such treatment. SPRAINS OF THE LOINS. This is an affection which suggests to the mind the idea of muscular injury, and is difficult to distinguish from many similar cases. If the animal shrinks from the slightest pressure or pinching of the spine in the region of the loins, he is by many pronounced to be "lame in the loins," or "sprained in the loins," or "weak in the kidneys." This is a grave error, as in fact this simple and gentle yielding to such a pressure is not a pathological sign, but is normal and significant of health. Yet there are several conditions to which the definition of "sprains of the loins" may apply which are not strictly normal. _Cause._--The muscles of the back and those of the loins proper, as the psoas, may have been injured, or again there may be trouble of a rheumatic nature, perhaps suggestive of lumbago. Diseases of the bones of the vertebral column, or even those of the organs of circulation, may give rise to an exhibition of similar symptoms. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are characteristic of a loss of rigidity or firmness of the vertebral column, both when the animal is at rest and in action. In the former condition, or when at rest, there is an arched condition of the back and a constrained posture in standing, with the hind legs separated. In the latter there is a lateral, balancing movement at the loins, principally noticeable while the animal is in the act of trotting--a peculiar motion, sometimes referred to as a "crick in the back," or what the French call a "tour de bateau." If, while in action, the animal is suddenly made to halt, the act is accompanied with much pain, the back suddenly arching or bending laterally, and perhaps the hind legs thrown under the body, as if unable to perform their functions in stopping, and sometimes it is only accomplished at the cost of a sudden and severe fall. This manifestation is also exhibited when the animal is called upon to back, when a repetition of the same symptoms will also occur. If a slight pressure on the back or the loins is followed by a moderate yielding of the animal, it is, as before remarked, a good sign of health. With a sprain of the loins pressure of any kind is painful, and will cause the animal to bend or to crouch under it more or less, according to the weight of the pressure. Heavy loads, and even heavy harnessing, will develop this tenderness. In lying down he seems to suffer much discomfort, and often accompanies the act with groaning, and when compelled to rise does so only with great difficulty and seldom succeeds without repeated efforts. Sprains of muscles proper, when recent, will always be accompanied with this series of symptoms, and the fact of their exhibition, with an excessive sensibility of the parts, and possibly with a degree of swelling, will always justify a diagnosis of acute muscular lesion, and especially so if accompanied with a history of violent efforts, powerful muscular strains, falls, heavy loading, etc., connected with the case. If the symptoms have been of slow development and gradual increase, it becomes a more difficult task to determine whether the diagnosis points to pathological changes in the structure of the muscles or of the bones, the nervous centers, or the blood vessels of the region. And yet it is important to decide as to which particular structure is affected in reference to the question of prognosis, as the degree of gravity of the lesion will depend largely upon whether the disabled condition of the animal is due to an acute or a chronic disease. _Treatment._--The prescription which will necessarily first of all suggest itself for sprains of the loins is rest. An animal so affected should be immediately placed in slings, and none of his efforts to release himself should be allowed to succeed. Hot compresses, cold-water douches, sweating applications, stimulating frictions, strengthening charges, blistering ointments of cantharides and the actual cautery, all have their advocates, but in no case can the immobility obtained by the slings be dispensed with. In many cases in which the weakness of the hind quarters was caused by disease of the nervous centers electricity has also yielded good results. FOOTNOTES: [2] This bandage consists of a cloth drenched in warm water or a dripping bandage laid around the diseased part, then covered by several layers of woolen blanket or cloth, which is in turn covered by parchment paper, rubber cloth, or other impervious material. Heat, moisture, and pressure are obtained by such a bandage if water is poured upon it several times daily. DISEASES OF THE FETLOCK, ANKLE, AND FOOT. By A. A. HOLCOMBE, D. V. S., _Veterinary Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry._ ANATOMICAL REVIEW OF THE FOOT. In a description of the foot of the horse it is customary to include only the hoof and its contents, yet, from a zoological standpoint, the foot includes all the leg from the knee and the hock down. The foot of the horse is undoubtedly the most important part of the animal, so far as veterinary surgery is concerned, for the reason that it is subject to so many injuries and diseases which in part or in whole render the patient unfit for the labor demanded of him. The old aphorism "no foot no horse" is as true to-day as when first expressed; in fact, domestication, coupled with the multiplied uses to which the animal is put, and the constant reproduction of hereditary defects and tendencies, has largely transformed the ancient "companion of the wind" into a very common piece of machinery which is often out of repair, and at best is but shortlived in its usefulness. Since the value of the horse depends largely or even entirely upon his ability to labor, it is essential that his organs of locomotion be kept sound. To accomplish this end it is necessary not only to know how to cure all diseases to which these organs are liable but, better still, how to prevent them. An important prerequisite to the detection and cure of disease is a knowledge of the construction and function of the parts which may be involved in the diseased process. Hence, first of all, the anatomical structures must be understood. (See also p. 583.) The bones of the fetlock and foot constitute the skeleton on which the other structures are built and comprise the lower end of the cannon bone (the metacarpus in the fore leg, the metatarsus in the hind leg), the two sesamoids, the large pastern or os suffraginis, the small pastern or coronet, the small sesamoid or navicular bone, and the coffin bone or os pedis. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 3.) The cannon bone extends from the knee or hock to the fetlock, is cylindrical in shape, and stands nearly or quite perpendicular. The sesamoids occur in pairs, are small, shaped like a three-faced pyramid, and are set behind the fetlock joint, at the upper end of the large pastern, with the base of the pyramid down. The large pastern is a very compact bone, set in an oblique direction downward and forward, and extends from the cannon bone to the coronet. The coronet is a short, cube-shaped bone, set between the large pastern and coffin bone, in the same oblique direction. The navicular bone is short, flattened above and below, and is attached to the coffin bone behind. The coffin bone forms the end of the foot and is shaped like the horny box in which it is inclosed. All these bones are covered on the surfaces which go to make up the joints with a cartilage of incrustation, while the portions between are covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum. The joints of the legs are of especial importance, since any interference with their function very largely impairs the value of the animal for most purposes. As the joints of the foot and ankle are at the point of greatest concussion they are the ones most subject to injury and disease. There are three of these joints--the fetlock, pastern, and coffin. They are made by the union of two or more bones, held together by ligaments of fibrous tissue, and are lubricated by a thick, viscid fluid, called synovia, which is secreted by a special membrane inclosing the joints. The fetlock joint is made by the union of the lower end of the cannon and the upper end of the large pastern bones, supplemented by the two sesamoids, so placed behind the upper end of the pastern that the joint is capable of a very extensive motion. These bones are held together by ligaments, only one of which--the suspensory--demands special mention. The suspensory ligament of the fetlock starts from the knee, extends down behind the cannon, lying behind the two splint bones, until near the fetlock, where it divides and sends a branch on each side of the joint, downward and forward, to become attached on the sides of the extensor tendon at the lower end of the pastern bone. As it crosses the sesamoids, on the posterior borders of the fetlock, it throws out fibers which hold it fast to these bones. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 2.) The pastern joint is made by the union of the two pastern bones. The coffin joint is made by the union of the small pastern, coffin, and small sesamoid, or navicular bones, the latter being set behind and beneath the joint surface of the coffin bone in such way as to receive largely the weight of the small pastern. Three tendons serve to move the bones of the foot one on another. Two of these flex, or bend, the joints, while the other extends, or straightens, the column of bones. (Plate XXXIII, fig. 5.) The flexor pedis perforans, or deep flexor of the foot, passes down behind the cannon bone, lying against the suspensory ligament in front, crosses the fetlock joint in the groove made by the union of the two sesamoids, and is attached to the bottom on the coffin bone, after covering the navicular, by a wide expansion of its fibers. It is the function of this tendon to flex the coffin bone and, with it, the horny box. The flexor pedis perforatus, or superficial flexor of the foot, follows the course of the preceding tendon and is attached to the middle of the ankle. The function of this tendon is to flex the foot at the fetlock. The extensor pedis runs down in front of the leg, is attached on the most prominent point of the coffin bone, and has for function the straightening of the bones of the ankle and foot. The bones, ligaments, and tendons are covered by a loose connective tissue, which gives a symmetry to the parts by filling up and rounding off, and all are protected by the skin and hoof. The skin of the fetlock and ankle is generally characterized by its thickness and the length of its hairs, especially around the hind parts of the fetlock joint in certain breeds of horses. The most important part of this envelope is that known as the coronary band. The coronary band is that portion of the skin which secretes the horn of which the wall of the hoof is made. This horn much resembles the nail which grows on the fingers and toes of man. It is composed of cylindrical tubes, which are held together by a tenacious, opaque matter. The horn extends from the coronary band to the lower border of the hoof. (Plate XXXII, fig. 1.) The hoof is a box of horn, consisting of a wall, sole, and frog, and contains, besides the coffin, navicular, and part of the small pastern bones, the sensitive laminæ, plantar cushion, and the lateral cartilages. (Plate XXXIII, fig. 4.) The sole of the foot incloses the box on the ground surface, is shaped like the circumference of the foot, except that a V-shaped opening is left behind for the reception of the frog, and is concave on the lower surface. The sole is produced by the velvety tissue, a thin membrane covering the plantar cushion and other soft tissues beneath the coffin bone. The horn of the sole differs from the horn of the wall in that its tubes are not straight and from the fact that it scales off in pieces over the whole surface. The frog is a triangular-shaped body, divided into two equal parts by a deep fissure, extending from its apex in front to the base. It fills the triangular space in the sole, to which it is intimately attached by its borders. The horn of the frog is produced in the same manner as the sole; but it differs from both the wall and sole in that the horn is soft, moist, and elastic to a remarkable degree. It is the function of the frog to destroy shock and to prevent slipping. The sensitive laminæ are thin plates of soft tissue covering the entire anterior surface of the coffin bone. They are present in great numbers, and by fitting into corresponding grooves on the inner surface of the horn of the wall the union of the soft and horny tissues is made complete. (Plate XXXII, fig. 1.) The plantar cushion is a thick pad of fibrous tissue placed behind and under the navicular and coffin bones and resting on the sole and frog, for the purpose of receiving the downward pressure of the column of bones and to destroy shock. (Plate XXXII, fig. 4.) The lateral cartilages are attached, one on each side, to the wings of the coffin bone by their inferior borders. They are thin plates of fibro-cartilage, and their function is to assist the frog and adjacent structures to regain their proper position after having been displaced by the weight of the body while the foot rested on the ground. (Plate XXXII, fig. 2.) FAULTS OF CONFORMATION. A large percentage of horses have feet which are not perfect in conformation, and as a consequence they are especially predisposed to certain injuries and diseases. _Flatfoot_ is that condition in which the sole has little or no convexity. It is a peculiarity common to some breeds, especially heavy, lymphatic animals raised on low, marshy soils. It is confined to the fore feet, which are generally broad, low-heeled, and with a wall less upright than is seen in the perfect foot. In flatfoot there can be little or no elasticity in the sole, for the reason that it has no arch, and the weight of the animal is received on he entire plantar surface, as it rests upon the ground instead of on the wall. For these reasons such feet are particularly liable to bruises of the sole, corns, pumiced sole, and excessive suppuration when the process is once established. Horses with flatfoot should be shod with a shoe having a wide web, pressing on the wall only, while the heels and frog are never to be pared. Flatfoot generally has weak walls, and as a consequence the nails of the shoe are readily loosened and the shoe cast. _Clubfoot_ is a term applied to such feet as have the walls set nearly perpendicular. When this condition is present the heels are high, the fetlock joint is thrown forward, or knuckles, and the weight of the animal is received on the toes. Many mules are clubfooted, especially behind, where it seems to cause little or no inconvenience. Severe cases of clubfoot may be cured by cutting the tendons, but as a rule special shoeing is the only measure of relief that can be adopted. The toe should not be pared, but the heels are to be lowered as much as possible and a shoe put on with a long, projecting toe piece, slightly turned up, while the heels of the shoe are to be made thin. _Crookedfoot_ is that condition in which one side of the wall is higher than the other. If the inside wall is the higher, the ankle is thrown outward, so that the fetlock joints are abnormally wide apart and the toes close together. Animals with this deformity are "pigeon-toed," and are prone to interfere, the inside toe striking the opposite fetlock. If but one foot is affected, the liability to interfere is still greater, for the reason that the fetlock of the perfect leg is nearer the center plane. When the outside heel is the higher the ankle is thrown in and the toe turns out. Horses with such feet interfere with the heel. If but one foot is so affected, the liability to interfere is less than when both feet are affected, for the reason that the ankle of the perfect leg is not so near to the center plane. Such animals are especially liable to stumbling and to lameness from injury to the ligaments of the fetlock joints. This deformity is to be overcome by such shoeing as will equalize the disparity in length of walls, and by proper boots to protect the fetlocks from interfering. INTERFERING. An animal is said to interfere when one foot strikes the opposite leg, as it passes by, during locomotion. The inner surface of the fetlock joint is the part most subject to this injury, although, under certain conditions, it may happen to any part of the ankle. It is seen more often in the hind than in the fore legs. Interfering causes a bruise of the skin and deeper tissues, generally accompanied with an abrasion of the surface. It may cause lameness, dangerous tripping, and thickening of the injured parts. (See also p. 387.) _Causes._--Faulty conformation is the most prolific cause of interfering. When the bones of the leg are so united that the toe of the foot turns in (pigeon-toed), or when the fetlock joints are close together and the toe turns out, when the leg is so deformed that the whole foot and ankle turn either in or out, interfering is almost sure to follow. It may happen, also, when the feet grow too long, from defective shoeing, rough or slippery roads, from the exhaustion of labor or sickness, swelling of the leg, high knee action, fast work, and because the chest or hips are too narrow. _Symptoms._--Generally, the evidences of interfering are easily detected, for the parts are tender, swollen, and the skin broken. But very often, especially in trotters, the flat surface of the hoof strikes the fetlock without evident injury, and attention is directed to these parts only by the occasional tripping and unsteady gait. In such cases proof of the cause may be had by walking and trotting the animal, after first painting the inside toe and quarter of the suspected foot with a thin coating of chalk, charcoal, mud, or paint. _Treatment._--When the trouble is due to deformity or faulty conformation it may not be possible to overcome the defect. In such cases, and as well in those due to exhaustion or fatigue, the fetlock or ankle boot must be used. In many instances interfering may be prevented by proper shoeing. The outside heel and quarter of the foot on the injured leg should be lowered sufficiently to change the relative position of the fetlock joint by bringing it farther away from the center plane of the body, thereby permitting the other foot to pass by without striking. A very slight change is often sufficient to effect this result. At the same time the offending foot should be so shod that the shoe may set well under the hoof at the point responsible for the injury. The shoe should be reset every three or four weeks. When the cause has been removed, cold-water bandages to the injured parts will soon remove the soreness and swelling, especially in recent cases. If, however, the fetlock has become calloused from long-continued bruising, a Spanish-fly blister over the parts, repeated in two or three weeks if necessary, will aid in reducing the leg to its natural condition. KNUCKLING, OR COCKED ANKLES. Knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock joint, in which the relative position of the pastern bone to the cannon and coronet bones is changed, the pastern becoming more nearly perpendicular, with the lower end of the cannon bone resting behind the center line of the large pastern, while the lower end of this bone rests behind the center line of the coronet. While knuckling is not always an unsoundness, it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern. _Causes._--Young foals are quite subject to this condition, but in the great majority of cases it is only temporary. It is largely due to the fact that before birth the legs were flexed, and time is required after birth for the ligaments, tendons, and muscles to adapt themselves to the function of sustaining the weight of the body. As they grow old, horses with erect pasterns are very prone to knuckle, especially in the hind legs. All kinds of heavy work, particularly in hilly districts, and fast work on hard race tracks or roads are exciting causes of knuckling. It is also commonly seen as an accompaniment of that faulty conformation called clubfoot, in which the toe of the wall is perpendicular and short, and the heels high--a condition most often seen in the mule, especially in the hind feet. [Illustration: PLATE XXXII. ANATOMY OF FOOT.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXIII. ANATOMY OF FOOT.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXIV. ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE FOOT.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXV. SOUND AND CONTRACTED FEET.] Lastly, knuckling is produced by disease of the suspensory ligament or of the flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the fetlock joints. (See p. 372.) _Treatment._--In young foals no treatment is necessary, unless there is some deformity present, since the legs straighten up without interference in the course of a few weeks. When knuckling has commenced, the indications are to relieve the tendons and ligaments by proper shoeing. The foot is to be prepared for the shoe by shortening the toe as much as possible, leaving the heels high; or if the foot is prepared in the usual way the shoe should be thin in front, with thick heels or high calks. For the hind feet a long-heeled shoe with calks seems to do best. Of course, when possible, the causes of knuckling are to be removed; since this can not always be done, however, the time may come when the patient can no longer perform any service, particularly in those cases in which both fore legs are affected, and it becomes necessary either to destroy the animal or obtain relief by surgical interference. In such cases the tendons between the fetlock and knee may be divided for the purpose of obtaining temporary relief. Firing and blistering the parts responsible for the knuckling may, in some instances, effect a cure; but a consideration of these measures belongs properly to the treatment of the disease in which knuckling appears simply as a sequel. WINDGALL. Joints and tendons are furnished with sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When these sacs are overdistended by reason of an excessive secretion of synovia, they are called windgalls. They form a soft, puffy tumor about the size of a hickory nut, and are most often found in the fore leg, at the upper part of the fetlock joint, between the tendon and the shin bone. When they develop in the hind leg it is not unusual to see them reach the size of a walnut. Occasionally they appear in front of the fetlock on the border of the tendon. The majority of horses are not subject to them after colt-hood has passed. (See also p. 355.) _Causes._--Windgalls are often seen in young, overgrown horses, in which the body seems to have outgrown the ability of the joints to sustain the weight. In cart and other horses used to hard work, in trotters with excessive knee action, in hurdle racers and hunters, and in most cow ponies there is a predisposition to windgalls. Street-car horses and others used to start heavy loads on slippery streets are the ones most liable to develop windgalls in the hind legs. _Symptoms._--The tumor is more or less firm and tense when the foot is on the ground, but is soft and compressible when the foot is off the ground. In old horses windgalls generally develop slowly and cause no inconvenience. If they are caused by excessive tension of the joint the tumor develops rapidly, is tense, hot, and painful, and the animal is exceedingly lame. The patient stands with the joint flexed, and walks with short steps, the toe only being placed on the ground. When the tumor is large and situated upon the inside of the leg it may be injured by interfering, causing stumbling and inflammation of the sac. Rest generally causes the tumor to diminish in size, only to fill up again after renewed labor. In old cases the tumors are hardened, and may become converted into bone by a deposit of the lime salts. _Treatment._--The large, puffy joints of suckling colts, as a rule, require no treatment, for as the animal grows older the parts clean up and after a time the swelling entirely disappears. When the trouble is from an injury, complete rest is to be obtained by the use of slings and a high-heeled shoe. Cold-water douches should be used once or twice a day, followed by cold-water bandages, until the fever has subsided and the soreness is largely removed, when a blister is to be applied. In old windgalls, which cause more or less stiffness, some relief may be had by the use of cold-compress bandages, elastic boots, or the red iodid of mercury blisters. Opening the sacs, as recommended by some authors, is of doubtful utility, and should be adopted only by the surgeon capable of treating the wound he has made. Enforced rest until complete recovery is effected should always be insisted upon, since a too early return to work is sure to be followed by relapse. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. Sprain of the fetlock joint is most common in the fore legs, and, as a rule, affects but one at a time. Horses doing fast work, as trotters, runners, steeplechasers, hunters, cow ponies, and those that interfere, are particularly liable to this injury. _Causes._--Horses knuckling at the fetlock, and all those with diseases which impair the powers of locomotion, such as navicular disease, contracted heels, sidebones, chronic laminitis, etc., are predisposed to sprains of the fetlock. It generally happens from a misstep, stumbling, or slipping, which results in the joint being extended or flexed to excess. The same result may happen where the foot is caught in a rut, a hole in a bridge, or in a car track, and the animal falls or struggles violently. Direct blows and punctured wounds may also set up inflammation of the joint. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of sprain of the fetlock vary with the severity of the injury. If slight, there may be no lameness, but simply a little soreness, especially when the foot strikes on uneven ground and the joint is twisted a little. In more severe cases the joint swells, is hot and puffy, and the lameness may be so intense as to compel the animal to hobble on three legs. While at rest the leg is flexed at the joint affected, and the toe rests on the ground. _Treatment._--If the injury is slight, cold-water bandages and a few days' rest are sufficient to effect recovery. When there is an intense lameness, swelling, etc., the leg should be placed under a constant stream of cold water, as described in the treatment for quittor. When the inflammation has subsided, a blister to the joint should be applied. In some cases, especially in old horses long accustomed to fast work, the ligaments of the joints are ruptured, in whole or in part, and the lameness may last a long time. In these cases the joint should be kept completely at rest; this condition is best obtained by the application of plaster of Paris bandages, as in cases of fracture. As a rule, patients take kindly to this bandage, and, while wearing it, may be given the freedom of a roomy box or yard. If they are disposed to tear it off, or if sufficient rest can not otherwise be obtained, the patient must be kept in slings. In the majority of instances the plaster bandage should remain on from two to four weeks. If the lameness returns when the bandage is removed, a new one should be put on. The swellings which always remains after the other evidences of the disease have disappeared, may be largely dissipated and the joint strengthened by the rise of the firing iron and blisters. A joint once injured by a severe sprain never entirely regains its original strength, and is ever after particularly liable to a repetition of the injury. RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. Sprain with or without rupture of the suspensory ligament may happen in either the fore or hind legs, and is occasionally seen in horses of all classes and at all ages. Old animals, however, and especially hunters, runners, and trotters, are the most subject to this injury, and with them the seat of the trouble is nearly always in one or both the fore legs. Horses used for heavy draft are more liable to have the ligament of the hind legs affected. When the strain upon the suspensory ligament becomes too great, one or both of the branches may be torn from the sesamoid bones, one or both of the branches may be torn completely across, or the ligament may rupture above the point of division. _Symptoms._--The most common injury to the suspensory ligament is sprain of the internal branch in one of the fore legs. The trouble is indicated by lameness, heat, swelling, and tenderness of the affected branch, beginning just above the sesamoid bone and extending obliquely downward and forward to the front of the ankle. If the whole ligament is involved, the swelling comes on gradually, and is found above the fetlock and in front of the flexor tendons. The patient stands or walks upon the toe as much as possible, keeping the fetlock joint flexed so as to relieve the ligament of tension. When both branches are torn from their attachments to the sesamoids, or both are torn across, the lameness comes on suddenly and is most intense; the fetlock descends, the toe turns up, and, as the animal attempts to walk, the leg has the appearance of being broken off at the fetlock. These symptoms, followed by heat, pain, and swelling of the parts at the point of injury, will enable anyone to make a diagnosis. _Treatment._--Sprain of the suspensory ligament, no matter how mild it may be, should always be treated by enforced rest of at least a month, and the application of cold douches and cold-water bandages, firmly applied until the fever has subsided, when a cantharides blister should be put on and repeated in two or three weeks if necessary. When rupture has taken place the patient should be put into slings and a constant stream of cold water allowed to trickle over the seat of injury until the fever is reduced. In the course of a week or ten days a plaster of Paris splint, such as is used in fractures, is to be applied and left on for a month or six weeks. When this is taken off, blisters may be used to remove the remaining soreness; but it is useless to expect a removal of all the thickening, for, in the process of repair, new tissue has been formed which will always remain. In old cases of sprain the firing iron may often be used with good results. As a rule, severe injuries to the suspensory ligament incapacitate the subject for anything but slow, light work. OVERREACH. When the shoe of the hind foot strikes and injures the heel or quarter of the forefoot the horse is said to overreach. It rarely happens except when the animal is going fast; hence is most common in trotting and running horses. In trotters the accident generally happens when the animal breaks from a trot to a run. The outside heels and quarters are most liable to the injury. _Symptoms._--The coronet at the heel or quarter is bruised or cut, the injury in some instances involving the horn as well. When the hind foot strikes well back on the heel of the fore foot--an accident known among horsemen as "grabbing"--the shoe may be torn from the forefoot or the animal may fall to its knees. Horses accustomed to overreaching are often "bad breakers," for the reason that the pain of the injury so excites them that they can not readily be brought back to the trotting gait. _Treatment._--If the injury is but a slight bruise, cold-water bandages applied for a few days will remove all the soreness. If the parts are deeply cut, more or less suppuration will follow, and, as a rule, it is well to poultice the parts for a day or two, after which cold baths may be used, or the wounds dressed with tincture of aloes, oakum, and a roller bandage. When an animal is known to be subject to overreaching, he should never be driven fast without quarter boots, which are specially made for the protection of the heels and quarters. If there is a disposition to "grab" the forward shoes, the trouble may be remedied by having the heels of these shoes made as short as possible, while the toe of the hind foot should project well over the shoe. When circumstances permit of their use, the fore feet may be shod with the "tips" instead of the common shoe, as described in treatment for contracted heels. CALK WOUNDS. Horses wearing shoes with sharp calks are liable to wounds of the coronary region, either from trampling on themselves or on each other. These injuries are most common in heavy draft horses, especially on rough roads and slippery streets. The fore feet are more liable than the hind ones, and the seat of injury is commonly on the quarters. In the hind feet the wound often results from the animal resting with the heel of one foot set directly over the front of the other. In these cases the injury is generally close to the horn, and often involves the coronary band, the sensitive laminæ, the extensor tendon, and even the coffin bone. _Treatment._--Preventive measures include the use of boots to protect the coronet of the hind foot and of a blunt calk on the outside heel of the fore shoe, since this is generally the offending instrument when the fore feet are injured. If the wound is not deep and the soreness slight, cold-water bandages and a light protective dressing, such as carbolized cosmoline, will be all that is needed. When the injury is deep, followed by inflammation and suppuration of the coronary band, lateral cartilages, sensitive laminæ, etc., active measures must be resorted to. Cold, astringent baths, made by adding 2 ounces of sulphate of iron to 1 gallon of water, should be used, followed by poultices, if it is necessary to hasten the cleansing of the wound by stimulating the sloughing process. If the wound is deep between the horn and the skin, especially over the anterior tendon, the horn should be cut away so that the injured tissues may be exposed. The subsequent treatment in these cases should follow the directions given in the article on toe cracks. FROSTBITES. Excepting the ears, the feet and legs are about the only parts of the horse liable to become frostbitten. The cases most commonly seen are found in cities, especially among car horses, where salt is used for the purpose of melting the snow on curves and switches. This mixture of snow and salt is splashed over the feet and legs, rapidly lowering the temperature of the parts to the freezing point. In mountainous districts, where the snowfall is heavy and the cold often intense, frostbites are not uncommon, even among animals running at large. _Symptoms._--When the frosting is slight the skin becomes pale and bloodless, followed soon after by intense redness, heat, pain, and swelling. In these cases the hair may fall out and the epidermis peel off, but the inflammation soon subsides, the swelling disappears, and only an increased sensitiveness to cold remains. In more severe cases irregular patches of skin are destroyed and after a few days slough away, leaving slow-healing ulcers behind. If produced by low temperatures and deep snow, the coronary band is the part most often affected. In many instances there is no destruction of the skin, but simply a temporary suspension of the horn-producing function of the coronary band. The fore feet are more often affected than the hind ones, and the heels and quarters are less often involved than the front part of the foot. The coronary band becomes hot, swollen, and painful, and after two or three days the horn separates from the band and slight suppuration follows. For a few days the animal is lame, but as the suppuration disappears the lameness subsides. New horn, often of an inferior quality, is produced by the coronary band, and in time the cleft is grown off and complete recovery is effected. The frog is occasionally frostbitten and may slough off, exposing the soft tissues beneath and causing severe lameness for a time. _Treatment._--Simple frostbites are best treated by cold fomentations followed by applications of a 5 per cent solution of carbolized oil. When portions of the skin are destroyed, their early separation should be hastened by warm fomentations and poultices. Ulcers are to be treated by the application of stimulating dressings, such as carbolized oil, a 1 per cent solution of nitrate of silver or of chlorid of zinc, with pads of oakum and flannel bandages. In many of these cases recovery is exceedingly slow. The new tissue by which the destroyed skin is replaced always shrinks in healing, and, as a consequence, unsightly scars are unavoidable. When the coronary band is involved it is generally advisable to blister the coronet over the seat of injury as soon as the suppuration ceases, for the purpose of stimulating the growth of new horn. Where a crevasse is formed between the old and the new horn no serious trouble is liable to be met with until the cleft is nearly grown out, when the soft tissues may be exposed by a breaking off of the partly detached horn. But even if this accident happens final recovery is effected by poulticing the foot until a sufficient growth of horn protects the parts from injury. QUITTOR. Quittor is a term applied to various affections of the foot wherein the tissues which are involved undergo a process of degeneration that results in the formation of a slough followed by the elimination of the diseased structures by means of a more or less extensive suppuration. For convenience of consideration quittors may be divided into four classes, as suggested by Girard: (1) Cutaneous quittor, which is known also as simple quittor, skin quittor, and carbuncle of the coronet; (2) tendinous quittor; (3) subhorny quittor; and (4) cartilaginous quittor. CUTANEOUS QUITTOR. Simple quittor consists in a local inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue on some part of the coronet, followed by a slough and the formation of an ulcer which heals by suppuration. It is an extremely painful disease, owing to the dense character of the tissues involved; for in all dense structures the swelling which accompanies inflammation always produces intense pressure. This pressure not only adds to the patient's suffering but may at the same time endanger the life of the affected parts by strangulating the blood vessels. It is held by some writers that simple quittor is most often met with in the hind feet, but in my experience more than two-thirds of the cases have developed in the fore feet. While any part of the coronet may become the seat of attack, the heels and quarters are undoubtedly most liable. _Causes._--Bruises and other wounds of the coronet are often the cause of cutaneous quittor, yet there can be no question that in the great majority of cases the disease develops without any known cause. For some reason not yet satisfactorily explained most cases happen in the fall of the year. One explanation of this fact has been attempted in the statement that the disease is due to the injurious action of cold and mud. This claim, however, seems to lose force when it is remembered that in many parts of this country the most mud, accompanied with freezing and thawing weather, is seen in the early springtime without a corresponding increase of quittor. Furthermore, the serious outbreaks of this disease in the mountainous regions of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana are seen in the fall and winter seasons, when the weather is the driest. It may be claimed, and perhaps with justice, that during these seasons, when the water is low, animals are compelled to wade through more mud to drink from lakes and pools than is necessary at other seasons of the year, when these lakes and pools are full. Add to these conditions the further fact that much of this mud is impregnated with alkaline salts which, like the mineral substances always found in the mud of cities, are more or less irritating, and it seems fair to conclude that under certain circumstances mud may become an important factor in the production of quittor.[3] While this disease attacks any and all classes of horses, it is the large, common breeds, with thick skins, heavy coats, and coarse legs that are most often affected. Horses well groomed and cared for in stables seem to be less liable to the disease than those running at large or than those which are kept and worked under adverse circumstances. _Symptoms._--Lameness, lasting from one to three or four days, nearly always precedes the development of the strictly local evidences of quittor. The next sign is the appearance of a small, tense, hot, and painful tumor in the skin of the coronary region. If the skin of the affected foot is white, the inflamed portion will present a dark-red or even a purplish appearance near the center. Within a few hours the ankle, or even the whole leg as high as the knee or hock, becomes much swollen. The lameness is now so great that the patient refuses to use the foot at all, but carries it if compelled to move. As a consequence, the opposite leg is required to do the work of both, and if the animal persists in standing a greater part of the time it, too, becomes swollen. In many of these cases the suffering is so intense during the first few days as to cause general fever, dullness, loss of appetite, and increased thirst. Generally the tumor shows signs of suppuration within 48 to 72 hours after its first appearance; the summit softens, a fluctuating fluid is felt beneath the skin, which soon ulcerates completely through, causing the discharge of a thick, yellow, bloody pus, containing shreds of dead tissue which have sloughed away. The sore is now converted into an open ulcer, generally deep, nearly or quite circular in outline, and with hardened base and edges. In exceptional cases large patches of skin, varying from 1 to 2-1/2 inches in diameter, slough away at once, leaving an ugly superficial ulcer. These sores, especially when deep, suppurate freely, and if there are no complications they tend to heal rapidly as soon as the degenerated tissue has softened and is entirely removed. When suppuration is fully established, the lameness and general symptoms subside. When but a single tumor and abscess form, the disease progresses rapidly, and recovery, under proper treatment, may be effected in from two to three weeks; but when two or more tumors are developed at once, or if the formation of one tumor is rapidly succeeded by another for an indefinite time, the sufferings of the patient are greatly increased, the case is more difficult to treat, and recovery is more slow and less certain. This form of quittor is often complicated with the tendinous and subhorny quittors by an extension of the sloughing process. _Treatment._--The first step in the treatment of an outbreak of quittor should be the removal of all exciting causes. Crowding animals into small corrals and stables, where injuries to the coronet are likely to happen from trampling, especially among unbroken range horses, must be avoided as much as possible. Watering places accessible without having to wade through mud should be provided. In towns, where the mud or dust is largely impregnated with mineral products, it is not possible to adopt complete preventive measures. Much can be done, however, by careful cleansing of the feet and legs as soon as the animal returns from work. Warm water should be used to remove the mud and dirt, after which the parts are to be thoroughly dried with soft cloths. The means which are to be adopted for the cure of cutaneous quittor vary with the stage of the disease at the time the case is presented for treatment. If the case is seen early--that is, before any of the signs of suppuration have developed--the affected foot is to be placed under a constant stream of cold water, with the object of arresting a further extension of the inflammatory process. To accomplish this, put the patient in slings in a narrow stall having a slat or open floor. Bandage the foot and leg to the knee or hock, as the case may be, with flannel bandages loosely applied. Set a tub or barrel filled with cold water above the patient, and by the use of a small rubber hose of sufficient length make a siphon which will carry the water from the bottom of the tub to the leg at the top of the bandage. The stream of water should be quite small, and is to be continued until the inflammation has entirety subsided or until the presence of pus can be detected in the tumor. When suppuration has commenced, the process should be aided by the use of warm baths and poultices of lineseed meal or boiled turnips. If the tumor is of rapid growth, accompanied with intense pain, relief is obtained and sloughing largely limited by a free incision of the parts. The incision should be vertical and deep into the tumor, care being taken not to divide the coronary band entirely. If the tumor is large, more than one incision may be necessary. The foot should now be placed in a warm bath for half an hour or longer and then poulticed. The hemorrhage produced by the cutting and encouraged by the warm bath is generally very copious and soon gives relief to the overtension of the parts. In other cases it will be found that suppuration is well under way, so that the center of the tumor is soft when the patient is first presented for treatment. It is always good surgery to relieve the tumor of pus whenever its presence can be detected; hence, in these cases a free incision must be made into the softened parts, the pus evacuated, and the foot poulticed. By surgical interference the tumor is now converted into an open sore or ulcer, which, after it has been well cleaned by warm baths and poultices applied for two or three days, needs to be protected by proper dressings. The best of all protective dressings is made of small balls, or pledgets, of oakum, carefully packed into the wound and held in place by a roller bandage 4 yards long, from 3 to 4 inches wide, made of common bedticking and skillfully applied. The remedies which may be used to stimulate the healing process are many, and, as a rule, they are applied in the form of solutions or tinctures. In my own practice I prefer a solution of bichlorid of mercury 1 part, water 500 parts, with a few drops of muriatic acid or a few grains of muriate of ammonia added to dissolve the mercury. The balls of oakum are wet with this solution before they are applied to the wound. Among the other remedies which may be used, and perhaps with equally as good results, will be noted the sulphate of copper, iron, and zinc, 5 grains of either to the ounce of water; chlorid of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce; carbolic acid, 20 drops dissolved in an equal quantity of glycerin and added to 1 ounce of water; and nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water. If the wound is slow to heal, it will be found of advantage to change the remedies every few days. If the wound is pale in color, the granulations transparent and glistening, the tincture of aloes, tincture of gentian, or the spirits of camphor may do best. When the sore is red in color and healing rapidly, an ointment made of 1 part of carbolic acid to 40 parts of cosmoline or vaseline is all that is needed. If the granulations continue to grow until a tumor is formed which projects beyond the surrounding skin, it should be cut off with a sharp, clean knife, and the foot poulticed for twenty-four hours, after which the wound is to be well cauterized daily with lunar caustic and the bandages applied with great firmness. The question as to how often the dressings should be renewed must be determined by the condition of the wound, etc. If the sore is suppurating freely, it will be necessary to renew the dressing every 24 or 48 hours; if the discharge is small in quantity and the patient comfortable, the dressing may be left on for several days; in fact, the less often the wound is disturbed, the better, so long as the healing process is healthy. When the sore commences to "skin over," the edges should be lightly touched with lunar caustic at each dressing. The patient may now be given a little exercise daily, but the bandages must be kept on until the wound is entirely healed. TENDINOUS QUITTOR. This form of quittor differs from the cutaneous in that it not only affects the skin and subcutaneous tissues, but involves also the tendons of the leg, the ligaments of the joints, and, in many cases, the bones of the foot as well. Fortunately, this form of quittor is less common than the preceding, yet any case beginning as simple cutaneous quittor may at any time during its course become complicated by the death of some part of the tendons, by gangrene of the ligaments, sloughing of the coronary band, caries of the bones, or inflammation and suppuration of the synovial sacs and joints, thereby converting a simple quittor into one which will, in all probability, either destroy the patient's life or maim him for all time. _Causes._--Tendinous quittor is caused by the same injuries and influences that produce the simple form. Zundel believes it to be a not infrequent accompaniment of distemper. In my own experience I have seen nothing to verify this belief, but I am convinced that young animals are more liable to have tendinous quittor than older ones, and that they are much more likely to make a good recovery. _Symptoms._--When a case of simple quittor is transformed into the tendinous variety the change is announced by a sudden increase in the severity of all the symptoms. On the other hand, if the attack primarily is one of tendinous quittor, the earliest symptom seen is a well-marked lameness. In those cases due to causes other than injuries this lameness is at first very slight, and the animal limps no more in trotting than in walking; later on, generally during the next 48 hours, the lameness increases to such extent that the patient often refuses to use the leg at all. An examination made during the first two days rarely discloses any cause for this lameness; it may not be possible even to say with certainty that the foot is the seat of the trouble. On the third or fourth day, sometimes as late as the fifth, a doughy-feeling tumor will be found forming on the heel or quarter. This tumor grows rapidly, feels hot to the touch, and is extremely painful. As the tumor develops, all the other symptoms increase in intensity; the pulse is rapid and hard; the breathing quick; the temperature elevated 3° or 4°; the appetite is gone; thirst increased; and the lameness so great that the foot is carried if locomotion is attempted. At this stage of the disease the patient generally seeks relief by lying upon the broad side, with outstretched legs; the coat is bedewed with a clammy sweat, and every respiration is accompanied with a moan. The leg soon swells to the fetlock; later this swelling gradually extends to the knee or hock, and in some cases reaches the body. As a rule, several days elapse before the disease develops a well-defined abscess, for, owing to the dense structure of the bones, ligaments, and tendons, the suppurative process is a slow one, and the pus is prevented from readily collecting in a mass. I made a post-mortem examination on a typical case of this disease, in which the animal had died on the fourth day after being found on the range slightly lame. The suffering had been intense, yet the only external evidences of the disease consisted in the shedding of the hoof from the right fore foot and a limited swelling of the leg to the knee. The sloughing of the hoof took place two or three hours before death, and was accompanied with but little suppuration and no hemorrhage. The skin from the knee to the foot was thickened from watery infiltration (edema), and on the inside quarter three holes, each about one-half inch in diameter, were found. All had ragged edges, while but one had gone deep enough to perforate the coronary band. The loose connective tissue beneath the skin was distended, with a gelatinous infiltration over the whole course of the flexor tendons and to the fetlock joint over the tendon in front. The soft tissues covering the coffin bone were loosened in patches by collections of pus which had formed beneath the sensitive laminæ. The coffin and pastern joints were inflamed, as were also the coffin, navicular, and coronet bones, while the outside toe of the coffin bone had become softened from suppuration until it readily crumbled between the fingers. The coronary band was largely destroyed and completely separated from the other tissues of the foot. The inner lateral cartilage was gangrenous, as was also a small spot on the extensor tendon near its point of attachment on the coffin bone. Several small collections of pus were found deep in the connective tissue of the coronary region; along the course of the sesamoid ligaments; in the sheath of the flexor tendons; under the tendon just below the fetlock joint in front; and in the coffin joint. But all cases of tendinous quittor are by no means so complicated as this one was. In rare instances the swelling is slight, and after a few days the lameness and other symptoms subside, without any discharge of pus from an external opening. In most cases, however, from one to half a dozen or more soft points arise on the skin of the coronet, open, and discharge slowly a thick, yellow, fetid, and bloody matter. In other cases the suppurative process is largely confined to the sensitive laminæ and plantar cushion, when the suffering is intense until the pus finds an avenue of escape by separating the hoof from the coronary band, at or near the heels, without causing a loss of the whole horny box. When the flexor tendon is involved deep in the foot, the discharge of pus usually takes place from an opening in the follow of the heel; if the sesamoid ligament or the sheath of the flexors are affected, the opening is nearer the fetlock joint, although in most of these cases the suppuration spreads along the course of the tendons until the navicular joint is involved, and extensive sloughing of the deeper parts follows. _Treatment._--The treatment of tendinous quittor is to be directed toward the saving of the foot. First of all an effort must be made to prevent suppuration; if the patient is seen at the beginning, cold irrigation, recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor, is to be resorted to. Later, when the tumor is forming on the coronet, the knife must be used, and a free and deep incision made into the swelling. Whenever openings appear, from which pus escapes, they should be carefully probed; in all instances these fistulous tracts lead down to dead tissue which nature is trying to remove by the process of sloughing. If a counter opening can be made, which will enable a more ready escape of the pus, it should be done at once; for instance, if the probe shows that the discharge originates from the bottom of the foot, the sole must be pared through over the seat of trouble. Whenever suppuration has commenced the process is to be stimulated by the use of warm baths and poultices. The pus which accumulates in the deeper parts, especially along the tendons, around the joints, and in the hoof, is to be removed by pressure and injections made with a small syringe, repeated two or three times a day. As soon as the discharge assumes a healthy character and diminishes in quantity, stimulating solutions are to be injected into the open wounds. When the tendons, ligaments, and other deeper parts are affected, a strong solution of carbolic acid--1 to 4--should be used at first; or strong solutions of tincture of iodin, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, bichlorid of mercury, etc., may be used in place of the carbolic; after this the remedies and dressings directed for use in simple quittor are to be used. In those cases in which the fistulous tracts refuse to heal it is often necessary to burn them out with a saturated solution of caustic soda, equal parts of muriatic acid and water, or, better still, with a long, thin iron, heated white hot. But no matter what treatment is adopted, a large percentage of the cases of tendinous quittor fail to make good recoveries. If the entire hoof sloughs away, the growth of a new, but soft and imperfect hoof may be obtained by carefully protecting the exposed tissues with proper bandages. When the joints are opened by deep sloughing, recovery may eventually take place, but the joint remains immovable ever after. If caries of a small part of the coffin bone takes place, it may be removed by an operation; but if much of the bone is affected, or if the navicular and coronet bones are involved in the carious process, the only hope for a cure is in the amputation of the foot. This operation is advisable only when the animal is valuable for breeding purposes. In all other cases in which there is no hope for recovery the patient's suffering should be relieved by death. In tendinous quittor much thickening of the coronary region, and sometimes of the ankle and fetlock, remains after suppuration has ceased and the fistulous tracts have healed. To stimulate the reabsorption of this new and unnecessary tissue, the parts should be fired with the hot iron, or, in its absence, repeated blistering with the biniodid of mercury ointment may largely accomplish the same results. SUBHORNY QUITTOR. This is the most common form of the disease. It is generally seen in but one foot at a time, and more often in the fore than in the hind feet. It nearly always attacks the inside quarter, but may affect the outside, the band in front, or the heel, where it is of but little consequence. It consists in the inflammation of a small part of the coronary band and adjacent skin, followed by sloughing and suppuration, which in most cases extends to the neighboring sensitive laminæ. _Causes._--Injuries to the coronet, such as bruises, overreaching, and calk wounds, are considered as the common causes of this disease. Still, cases occur in which there appears to be no existing cause, just as in the other forms of quittor, and it seems fair to conclude that subhorny quittor may also be produced by internal causes. _Symptoms._--At the outset the lameness is always severe, and the patient often refuses to use the affected foot. Swelling of the coronet close to the top of the hoof causes the quarter to protrude beyond the wall. This tumor is extremely sensitive, and the whole foot is hot and painful. After a few days a small spot in the skin, over the most elevated part of the tumor, softens and opens or the hoof separates from the coronary band at the quarter or well back toward the heel. From this opening, wherever it may be, a thin, watery, often dark, offensive discharge escapes, at times mixed with blood and always containing a considerable percentage of pus. Probing will now disclose a fistulous tract leading to the bottom of the diseased tissues. If the opening is small, there is a tendency upon the part of the suppurative process to spread downward; the pus gradually separates the hoof from the sensitive laminæ until the sole is reached, and even a portion of this may be undermined. As a rule, the slough in this form of quittor is not deep, and if the case receives early and proper treatment complications are generally avoided; but if the case is neglected, and, occasionally, even in spite of the best treatment, the disease spreads until the tendon in front, the lateral cartilage, or the coffin bone and joint as well are involved. In all cases of subhorny quittor much relief is experienced when the slough comes away, and rapid recovery is made. If, however, after the lapse of a few days, the lameness remains and the wound continues to discharge a thin, unhealthy matter, the probabilities are that the disease is spreading, and pus collecting in the deeper parts of the foot. In Zundel's opinion, if the use of the probe now detects a pus cavity below the opening, a cartilaginous quittor is in the course of development. _Treatment._--Hot baths and poultices are to be used until the presence of pus can be determined, when the tumor is to be opened with a knife or sharp-pointed iron heated white hot. The hot baths and poultices are now continued for a few days or until the entire slough has come away and the discharge is diminished, when dressings recommended in the treatment for cutaneous quittor are to be used until recovery is completed. In cases in which the discharge comes from a cleft between the upper border of the hoof and the coronary band, always pare away the loosened horn, so that the soft tissues beneath are fully exposed, care being taken not to injure the healthy parts. This operation permits of a thorough inspection of the diseased parts, the easy removal of all gangrenous tissue, and a better application of the necessary remedies and dressings. The only objection to the operation is that the patient is prevented from being early returned to work. When the probe shows that pus has collected under the coffin bone the sole must be pared through, and, if caries of the bone is present, the dead parts cut away. After either of these operations the wound is to be dressed with the oakum balls, saturated in the bichlorid of mercury solution, as previously directed, and the bandages tightly applied. Generally the discharge for the first two or three days is so great that the dressings need to be changed every 24 hours; but when the discharge diminishes, the dressing may be left on from one to two weeks. Before the patient is returned to work, a bar shoe should be applied, since the removed quarter or heel can only be made perfect again by a new growth from the coronary band. Tendinous or cartilaginous complications are to be treated as directed under those headings. CARTILAGINOUS QUITTOR. This form of quittor may commence as a primary inflammation of the lateral cartilage, but in the great majority of cases it appears as a sequel to cutaneous or subhorny quittor. It may affect either the fore or hind feet, but is most commonly seen in the former. As a rule, it attacks but one foot at a time, and but one of the cartilages, generally the inner one. It is always a serious affection for the reason that, in many cases, it can only be cured by a surgical operation, requiring a thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the parts involved, and much surgical skill. _Causes._--Direct injuries to the coronet, such as trampling, pricks, burns, and the blow of some heavy falling object which may puncture, bruise, or crush the cartilage, are the common direct causes of cartilaginous quittor. Besides being a sequel to the other forms of quittor, it sometimes develops as a complication in suppurative corn, canker, grease, laminitis, and punctured wounds of the foot. Animals used for heavy draft, and those with flat feet and low heels, are more liable to the disease than others, for the reason that they are more exposed to injury. Rough roads also predispose to the disease by increasing liability to injury. _Symptoms._--When the disease commences as a primary inflammation of the cartilage, lameness develops with the formation of a swelling on the side of the coronet over the quarter. The severity of this lameness depends largely upon the part of the cartilage which is diseased, for if the disease is situated in that part of the cartilage nearest the heel, where the surrounding tissues are soft and spongy, the lameness may be very slight, especially if the patient is required to go no faster than a walk; but when the middle and anterior parts of the cartilage are diseased, the pain and consequent lameness are much greater, for the tissues are less elastic and the coffin joint is more liable to become affected. Except in the cases to be noted hereafter, one or more fistulous openings finally appear in the tumor on the coronet. These openings are surrounded by a small mass of granulations which are elevated above the adjacent skin and bleed readily if handled. A probe shows these fistulous tracts to be more or less sinuous, but always leading to one point--the gangrenous cartilage. When cartilaginous quittor happens as a complication of suppurative corn, or from punctured wounds of the foot, the fistulous tract may open alone at the point of injury on the sole. The discharge in this form of quittor is generally thin, watery, and contains pus enough to give it a pale-yellow color; it is offensive to the sense of smell, due to the detachment of small flakes of cartilage which have become gangrenous and are seen in the discharge as small, greenish-colored particles. In old cases it is not unusual to find some of the fistulous openings heal at the surface; this is followed by the gradual collection of pus in the deeper parts, forming an abscess, which in a short time opens at a new point. The wall of the hoof, over the affected quarter and heel, in very old cases becomes rough and wrinkled like the horn of a ram, and generally it is thicker than the corresponding quarter, owing to the stimulating effect which the disease has upon the coronary band. Complications may arise by an extension of the disease to the lateral ligament of the coffin joint, to the joint itself, to the plantar cushion, and by caries of the coffin bone. _Treatment._--Before recovery can take place all the dead cartilage must be removed. In rare instances this is effected by nature without assistance. Usually, however, the disease does not tend to recovery, and active curative measures must be adopted. The best and simplest treatment, in a majority of cases, is the injection of strong caustic solutions, which destroy the diseased cartilage and cause its discharge, along with the other products of suppuration. In favorable cases these injections will secure a healing of the wound in from two to three weeks. While the saturated solution of sulphate of copper, or a solution of 10 parts of bichlorid of mercury to 100 parts of water, has given the best results in my hands, equally as favorable success has been secured by others from the use of caustic soda, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, tincture of iodin, etc. No matter which one of these remedies may be selected, however, it must be used at least twice a day for a time. The solution is injected into the various openings with force enough to drive it to the bottom of the wound, after which the foot is to be dressed with a pad of oakum, held in place by a roller bandage tightly applied. While it is not always necessary, it is often of advantage to relieve the pressure on the parts by rasping away the hoof over the seat of the cartilage; the coronary band and laminæ should not be injured in the operation. If the caustic injections prove successful, the discharge will become healthy and gradually diminish, so that by the end of the second week the fistulous tracts are closing up and the injections are made with much difficulty. If, on the other hand, there is but little or no improvement after this treatment has been used for three weeks, it may reasonably be concluded that the operation for the removal of the lateral cartilage must be resorted to for the cure of the trouble. As this operation can be safely undertaken only by an expert surgeon, it will not be described in this connection. THRUSH. Thrush is characterized by an excessive secretion of unhealthy matter from the cleft of the frog. While all classes of horses are liable to this affection, it is more often seen in the common draft horse than in any other breed, owing to the conditions of servitude and not to the fault of the breed. Country horses are much less subject to the disease, except in wet, marshy districts, than are the horses used in cities and towns. _Causes._--The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of the stable in which the animal is kept. Mares are more liable to contract the disease in the hind feet when filth is the cause, while the gelding and stallion are more liable to develop it in the fore feet. Hard work on rough and stony roads may also induce the disease, as may a change from dryness to excessive moisture. The latter cause is often seen to operate in old track horses, whose feet are constantly soaked in the bathtub for the purpose of relieving soreness. Muddy streets and roads, especially where mineral substances are plentiful, excite this abnormal condition of the frog. Contracted heels, scratches, and navicular disease predispose to thrush, while by some a constitutional tendency is believed to exist among certain animals which otherwise present a perfect frog. _Symptoms._--At first there is simply an increased moisture in the cleft of the frog, accompanied with an offensive smell. After a time a considerable discharge takes place--thin, watery, and highly offensive, changing gradually to a thicker puriform matter, which rapidly destroys the horn of the frog. Only in old and severe cases is the patient lame and the foot feverish--cases in which the whole frog is involved in the diseased process. _Treatment._--Thrushes are to be treated by cleanliness, the removal of all exciting causes, and a return of the frog to its normal condition. As a rule, the diseased and ragged portions of horn are to be pared away and the foot poulticed for a day or two with boiled turnips, to which may be added a few drops of carbolic acid or a handful of powdered charcoal to destroy the offensive smell. The cleft of the frog and the grooves on its edges are then to be cleaned and well filled with dry calomel and the foot dressed with oakum and a roller bandage. If the discharge is profuse, the dressing should be changed daily; otherwise it may be left on two or three days. Where a constitutional taint is supposed to exist, with swelling of the legs, grease, etc., a purgative, followed by dram doses of sulphate of iron, repeated daily, may be prescribed. In cases where the growth of horn seems too slow a Spanish-fly blister applied to the heels is often followed by good results. Feet in which the disease is readily induced may be protected in the stable with a leather boot. If the thrush is but a sequel to other disease, a permanent cure may not be possible. CANKER. Canker of the foot is due to the rapid reproduction of a vegetable parasite. It not only destroys the sole and frog, but, by setting up a chronic inflammation in the deeper tissues, prevents the growth of a healthy horn by which the injury may be repaired. Heavy cart horses are more often affected than those of any other class. _Causes._--The essential element in the production of canker is the parasite; consequently the disease may be called contagious. As in all other diseases due to specific causes, however, the seeds of the disorder must find a suitable soil in which to grow before they are reproduced. It may be said, then, that the conditions which favor the preparation of the tissues for a reception of the seeds of this disease are simply predisposing causes. The condition most favorable to the development of canker is dampness--in fact, dampness seems indispensable to the existence and growth of the parasite; the disease is rarely, if ever, seen in high, dry districts, and is much more common in rainy than in dry seasons. Filthy stables and muddy roads have been classed among the causes of canker; but it is very doubtful whether these conditions can do more than favor a preparation of the foot for the reception of the disease germ. All injuries to the feet, by exposing the soft tissues, may render the animal susceptible to infection; but neither the injury nor the irritation and inflammation of the tissues which follow are sufficient to induce the disease. For some unknown reason horses with lymphatic temperaments--thick skins, flat feet, fleshy frogs, heavy hair, and particularly with white feet and legs--are especially liable to canker. _Symptoms._--Usually, canker is confined to one foot; but it may attack two, three, or all of the feet at once; or, as is more commonly seen, the disease attacks first one then another, until all may have been successively affected. When the disease follows an injury which has exposed the soft tissues of the foot, the wound shows no tendency to heal, but instead there is secreted from the inflamed parts a profuse, thin, fetid, watery discharge, which gradually undermines and destroys the surrounding horn, until a large part of the sole and frog is diseased. The living tissues are swollen, dark colored, and covered at certain points with particles of new, soft, yellowish, thready horn, which are constantly undergoing maceration in the abundant liquid secretion by which they are immersed. As this secretion escapes to the surrounding parts, it dries and forms small, cheesy masses composed of partly dried horny matter, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell. When the disease originates independently of an injury, the first evidences of the trouble are the offensive odor of the foot, the liquid secretion from the cleft and sides of the frog, and the rotting away of the horn of the frog and sole. In the earlier stages there is no interference with locomotion, but later the foot becomes sensitive, particularly if the animal is used on rough roads, and, finally, when the sole and frog are largely destroyed the lameness is severe. _Treatment._--Since canker does not destroy the power of the tissues to produce horn, but rather excites them to an excessive production of an imperfect horn, the indications for treatment are to restore the parts to a normal condition, when healthy horn may again be secreted. In my experience, limited though it has been, the old practice of stripping off the entire sole and deep cauterization, with either the hot iron or strong acids, is not attended with uniformly good results. I am of the opinion that recovery can generally be effected as surely and as speedily with measures which are less heroic and much less painful. True, the treatment of canker is likely to exhaust the patience, and sometimes the resources, of the attendant; but after all success depends more on the persistent application of simple remedies and great cleanliness than on the special virtues of any particular drug. First, then, clean the foot with warm baths and apply a poultice containing powdered charcoal or carbolic acid. A handful of the charcoal or a tablespoonful of the acid mixed with the poultice serves to destroy much of the offensive odor. The diseased portions of horn are to be carefully removed with sharp instruments, until only healthy horn borders the affected parts. The edges of the sound horn are to be pared thin, so that the swollen soft tissues may not overlap their borders. With sharp scissors cut off all the prominent points on the soft tissues, shorten the walls of the foot, and nail on a broad, plain shoe. The foot is now ready for the dressings, and any of the many stimulating and drying remedies may be used; but it will be necessary to change frequently from one to another, until finally all may be tried. The list from which a selection may be made comprises wood tar, gas tar, petroleum, creosote, phenic acid; sulphates of iron, copper, and zinc; chlorid of zinc, bichlorid of mercury, calomel, caustic soda, nitrate of silver, chlorid of lime; carbolic, nitric, and sulphuric acids. In practice I prefer to give the newly shod foot a bath for an hour or two in a solution of the sulphate of iron made by adding 2 ounces of the powdered sulphate to a gallon of cold water. When the foot is removed from the bath it is dressed with oakum balls dipped in a mixture made of Barbados tar 1 part, oil of turpentine 8 parts, to which is slowly added 2 parts of sulphuric acid, and the mixture well stirred and cooled. The diseased parts being well covered with the balls, a pad of oakum sufficiently thick to cause considerable pressure is placed over them, and all are held in place by pieces of heavy tin fitted to slip under the shoe. The whole foot is now incased in a boot or folded gunny sack and the patient turned into a loose, dry box. The dressings are to be changed daily or even twice a day at first. When they are removed, all pieces of new horny matter which are now firmly adherent must be rubbed off with the finger or a tent of oakum. As the secretion diminishes, dry powders, such as calomel, sulphates of iron, copper, etc., may prove of most advantage. The sulphates should not be used pure, but are to be mixed with powdered animal charcoal in the proportion of one of the former to eight or ten of the latter. When the soft tissues are all horned over, the dressings should be continued for a time, weak solutions being used to prevent a recurrence of the disease. If the patient is run down in condition, bitter tonics, such as gentian, may be given in 2-dram doses twice a day and a liberal diet of grain allowed. CORNS. A corn is an injury to the living horn of the foot, involving the soft tissues beneath, whereby the capillary blood vessels are ruptured and a small quantity of blood escapes which, by permeating the horn in the immediate neighborhood, stains it a dark color. If the injury is continuously repeated, the horn becomes altered in character and the soft tissues may suppurate or a horny tumor develop. Corns always appear in the sole in the angle between the bar and the outside wall of the hoof. In many cases the laminæ of the bar, of the wall, or of both, are involved at the same time. Three kinds of corns are commonly recognized--the dry, the moist, and the suppurative--a division based solely on the character of the conditions which follow the primary injury. The fore feet are almost exclusively the subjects of the disease, for two reasons: First, because they support a greater part of the body; secondly, because the heel of the fore foot during progression is first placed upon the ground, whereby it receives much more concussion than the heel of the hind foot, in which the toe first strikes the ground. _Causes._--It may be said that all feet are exposed to corns, and that even the best feet may suffer from them when conditions necessary to the production of the peculiar injury are present. The heavier breeds of horses generally used for heavy work on rough roads and streets seem to be most liable to this trouble. Mules rarely have corns. Among the causes and conditions which predispose to corns may be named high heels, which change the natural relative position of the bones of the foot and thereby increase the concussion to which these parts are subject; contracted heels, which in part destroy the elasticity of the foot, increase the pressure upon the soft tissues of the heel, and render lacerations more easy; long feet, which by removing the frog and heels too far from the ground deprive them of necessary moisture; this, in turn, reduces the elastic properties of the horn and diminishes the transverse diameter of the heels; weak feet, or those in which the horn of the wall is too thin to resist the tendency to spread, whereby the soft tissues are easily lacerated. Wide feet with low heels are always accompanied with a flat sole whose posterior wings either rest upon the ground or the shoe, and as a consequence are easily bruised; at the same time the arch of the sole is so broad and flat that it can not support the weight of the body, and in the displacement which happens when the foot is rested upon the ground the soft tissues are liable to become bruised or torn. It is universally conceded that shoeing, either as a direct or predisposing cause, is most prolific in producing corns. One of the most serious as well as the most common of the errors in shoeing is to be found in the preparation of the foot. Instead of seeking to maintain the integrity of the arch, the first thing done is to weaken it by freely paring away the sole; nor does the mutilation end here, for the frog, which is nature's main support to the branches of the sole and the heels, is also largely cut away. This not only permits of an excessive downward movement of the contents of the horny box, but it at the same time removes the one great means by which concussion of the foot is destroyed. As adjuncts to the foregoing errors must be added the faults of construction in the shoe and in the way it is adjusted to the foot. An excess of concavity in the shoe, extending it too far back on the heels, high calks, thin heels which permit the shoe to spring, short heels with a calk set under the foot, and a shoe too light for the animal wearing it or for the work required of him, are all to be avoided as causes of corns. A shoe so set so as to press upon the sole or one that has been on so long that the hoof has overgrown it until the heels rest upon the sole and bars becomes a direct cause of corns. Indirectly the shoe becomes the cause of corns when small stones, hard, dry earth, or other objects collect between the sole and shoe. Lastly, a rapid gait and excessive knee action, especially on hard roads, predispose to this disease of the feet. _Symptoms._--Ordinarily a corn induces sufficient pain to cause lameness. It may be intense, as seen in suppurative corn, or it may be but a slight soreness, such as that which accompanies dry corn. It is by no means unusual in chronic corns to see old horses apparently so accustomed to the slight pain which they suffer as not to limp at all. But they are generally very restless. They paw their bedding behind them at night and often refuse to lie down for a long rest. The lameness of this disease, however, can hardly be said to be characteristic, for the reason that it varies so greatly in intensity; but the position of the leg while the patient is at rest is generally the same in all cases. The foot is so advanced that it is relieved of all weight, and the fetlock is flexed until all pressure by the contents of the hoof is removed from the heels. In suppurative corn the lameness subsides or entirely disappears as soon as the abscess opens. When the injured tissues are much inflamed, as may happen in severe and recent cases, the heel of the affected side, or even the whole foot, is hot and tender to pressure. In dry corn and in most chronic cases all evidences of local fever are often wanting. It is in these cases that the patient goes well when newly shod, for the smith cuts away the sole over the seat of injury until all pressure by the shoe is removed and lowers the heels so that concussion is reduced to a minimum. If a corn is suspected, the foot should be examined for increased sensibility of the inside heel. Tapping the heel of the shoe with a hammer and grasping the wall and bar between the jaws of pincers with moderate pressure will cause more or less flinching if the disease is present. For further evidence the shoe is removed and the heel cut away with the drawing knife. As the horn is pared out, not only the sole in the angle is found discolored, but in many instances the insensible laminæ of the bar and wall adjacent are also stained with the escaped blood. In moist and suppurative corns this discoloration is less marked than in dry corn and even may be entirely wanting. In these cases the horn is soft, often white, and stringy or mealy, as seen in pumiced sole resulting from founder. When the whole thickness of the sole is discolored and the horn dry and brittle it is generally evidence that the corn is an old one and that the exciting cause has existed continuously. A moist corn differs from the dry one in that the injury is more severe. The parts affected are more or less inflamed, and the horn of the sole in the angle is undermined by a citron-colored fluid, which often permeates the injured sole and laminæ, causing the horn to become somewhat spongy. A suppurative corn differs from others in that the inflammation ends in suppuration. The pus collects at the point of injury and finally escapes by working its way between the sensitive and insensible laminæ to the top of the hoof, where an opening is made between the wall and coronary band at or near the heels. This is the most serious form of corns, for the reason that it may induce gangrene of the plantar cushion, cartilaginous quittor, or caries of the coffin bone. _Treatment._--Since a diversity of opinion exists as to what measures must be adopted for the radical cure of corns, the author will advise the use of those which have proved most efficient in his hands. As in all other troubles, the cause must be discovered, if possible, and removed. In the great majority of cases the shoeing is at fault. While sudden changes in the method of shoeing are not advisable, it may be said that all errors, either in the preparation of the foot, in the construction of the shoe, or in its application may very properly be corrected at any time. Circumstances may at times make it imperative that shoes be worn which are not free from objections; as, for instance, the shoe with a high calk; but in such cases it is considered that the injuries liable to result from the use of calks are less serious than those which are sure to happen for the want of them. For a sound foot perfectly formed, a flat shoe, with heels less thick than the toe, and which rests evenly on the wall proper, is the best. In flat feet it is often necessary to concave the shoe as much as possible on the upper surface, so that the sole may not be pressed upon. If the heels are very low the heels of the shoe may be made thicker. If the foot is very broad and the wall light toward the heels, a bar shoe resting upon the frog will aid to prevent excessive tension upon the soft tissues when the foot receives the weight of the body. A piece of leather placed between the foot and shoe serves largely to destroy concussion, and its use is absolutely necessary on some animals to enable them to work. Last among the preventive measures may be mentioned those which serve to maintain the suppleness of the hoof. The dead horn upon the surface of the sole not only retains moisture for a long time, but protects the living horn beneath from the effects of evaporation; for this reason the sole should be pared as little as possible. Stuffing the feet with flaxseed meal, wet clay, or other like substances, or damp dirt floors or damp bedding of tanbark, greasy hoof ointments, etc., are all means which may be used to keep the feet from becoming too dry and hard. As to the curative measures which are to be adopted much will depend upon the extent of the injury. If the case is one of chronic dry corn, with but slight lameness, the foot should be poulticed for a day or two and the discolored horn pared out, care being taken not to injure the soft tissues. The heel on the affected side is to be lowered until all pressure is removed and, if the patient's labor is required, the foot must be shod with a bar shoe or with one having stiff heels. Care must be taken to reset the shoe before the foot has grown too long, else the shoe will no longer rest on the wall, but on the sole and bar. I believe in cutting moist corns out. If there is inflammation, cold baths and poultices should be used; when the horn is well softened and the fever allayed, pare out the diseased horn, lightly cauterize the soft tissues beneath, and poultice the foot for two or three days. When the granulations look red, dress the wound with oakum balls saturated in a weak solution of tincture of aloes or spirits of camphor and apply a roller bandage. Change the dressing every two or three days until a firm, healthy layer of new horn covers the wound, when the shoe may be put on, as in dry corn, and the patient returned to work. In suppurative corns the loosened horn must be removed, so that the pus may freely escape. If the pus has worked a passage to the coronary band and escapes from an opening between the band and hoof, an opening must be made on the sole, and cold baths made astringent with a little sulphate of iron or copper are to be used for a day or two. When the discharge becomes healthy, the fistulous tracts may be injected daily with a weak solution of bichlorid of mercury, nitrate of silver, etc., and the foot dressed as after operation for moist corns. When complications arise, the treatment must be varied to meet the indications; if gangrene of the lateral cartilage takes place it must be treated as directed under the head of cartilaginous quittor; if the velvety tissue is gangrenous, it must be cut away; if the coffin bone is necrosed, it must be scraped, and the resulting wounds treated on general principles. After any of the operations for corns have been performed, in which the soft tissues have been laid bare, it is best to protect the foot by a sole of soft leather set beneath the shoe when the animal is returned to work. Only in rare instances are the complications of corns so serious as to destroy the life or usefulness of the patient. It is the wide, flat foot with low heels and thin wall which is most liable to resist all efforts toward effecting a complete cure. BRUISE OF THE FROG. When the frog is severely bruised the injury is followed by suppuration beneath the horn, and at times by partial gangrene of the plantar cushion. _Causes._--A bruise of the frog generally happens from stepping on a rough stone or other hard object. It is more liable to take place when trotting, running, or jumping than when at a slower pace. A stone wedged in the shoe and pressing on the frog or between the sides of the frog and the shoe, if it remains for a time, produces the same results. A cut through the horny frog with some sharp instrument or a punctured wound by a blunt-pointed instrument may also cause suppuration and gangrene of the plantar cushion. Broad, flat feet with low heels and a fleshy frog are most liable to these injuries. _Symptoms._--Lameness, severe in proportion to the extent of the bruise and the consequent suppuration, is always an early symptom. When the animal moves, the toe only is placed to the ground or the foot is carried and the patient hobbles along on three legs. When he is at rest, the foot is set forward with the toe on the ground and the leg flexed at the fetlock joint. As soon as the pus finds its way to the surface the lameness improves. If the frog is examined early the injured spot may usually be found; later, if no opening exists, the pus may be discovered working its way toward the heels. The horn is loosened from the deeper tissues, and, if pared through, a thin, yellow, watery and offensive pus escapes. In other cases a ragged opening is found in the frog, leading down to a mass of dead, sloughing tissues, which are pale green in color if gangrene of the plantar cushion has set in. In rare cases the coffin bone may be involved in the injury and a small portion of it may become carious. _Treatment._--If the injury is seen at once, the foot should be placed in a bath of cold water to prevent suppuration. If suppuration has already set in, the horn of the frog, and of the bars and branches of the sole, if necessary, is to be pared thin so that all possible pressure may be removed, and the foot poulticed. When the pus has loosened the horn, all the detached portions are to be cut away. If the pus is discharging from an opening near the hair, the whole frog, or one-half of it, will generally be found separated from the plantar cushion, and is to be removed with the knife. After a few days the gangrenous portion of the cushion will slough off from the effects of the poultice; under rare circumstances only should the dead parts be removed by surgical interference. When the slough is all detached, the remaining wound is to be treated with simple stimulating dressings, such as tincture of aloes or turpentine, oakum balls, and bandages as directed in punctured wounds. When the lameness has subsided, and a thin layer of new horn has covered the exposed parts, the foot may be shod. Cover the frog with a thick pad of oakum, held in place by pieces of tin fitted to slide under the shoe, and return to slow work. Where caries of the coffin bone, etc., follow the injury the treatment recommended for these complications in punctured wounds of the foot must be resorted to. PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF THE FOOT. Of all the injuries to which the foot of the horse is liable, none are more common than punctured wounds, and none are more serious than these may be when involving the more important organs within the hoof. A nail is the most common instrument by which the injury is inflicted, yet wounds may happen from glass, wire, knives, sharp pieces of rock, etc. A wound of the foot is more serious when made by a blunt-pointed instrument than when the point is sharp, and the nearer the injury is to the center of the foot the more liable are disastrous results to follow. Wounds in the heel and in the posterior parts of the frog are attended with but little danger, unless they are so deep as to injure the lateral cartilages, when quittor may follow. Punctured wounds of the anterior parts of the sole are more dangerous, for the reason that the coffin bone may be injured, and the suppuration, even when the wound is not deep, tends to spread and always gives rise to intense suffering. The most serious of the punctured wounds are those which happen to the center of the foot, and which, in proportion to their depth, involve the plantar cushion, the plantar aponeurosis, the sesamoid sheath, the navicular bone, or the coffin joint. Punctured wounds are more liable to be deep in flat or convex feet than in well-made feet, and as a rule, recovery is neither so rapid nor so certain. These wounds are less serious in animals used for heavy draft than in those required to do faster work; for the former may be useful, even if complete recovery is not effected. Lastly, punctured wounds of the fore feet are more serious than of the hind feet, for the reason that in the former the instrument is liable to enter the foot in a nearly perpendicular line, and, consequently, is more liable to injure the deeper structures of the foot; in the hind foot, the injury is generally near the heels and the wound oblique and less deep. _Symptoms._--A nail or other sharp instrument may penetrate the frog and remain for several days without causing lameness; in fact, in many cases of punctured wound of the frog the first evidence of the injury is the finding of the nail or the appearance of an opening where the skin and frog unite, from which more or less pus escapes. Even when the sole is perforated, if the injury is not too deep, no lameness develops until suppuration is established. In all cases of foot lameness, especially if the cause is obscure, the foot should be examined for evidence of injury. The lameness from punctured wounds, accompanied with suppuration, is generally severe, the patient often refusing to use the affected member at all. The pain being lancinating in character, he stands with the injured foot at rest or constantly moves it back and forth. In other cases the patient lies down most of the time with the feet outstretched; the breathing is rapid, the pulse fast, the temperature elevated, and the body covered with patches of sweat. When the plantar aponeurosis is injured, the pus escapes with difficulty and the wound shows no signs of healing; the whole foot is hot and very painful. If the puncture involves the sesamoid sheath, the synovial fluid escapes. At first this fluid is pure, like joint water, but later becomes mixed with the products of suppuration and loses its clear, amber color. Suppuration generally extends up the course of the flexor tendon, an abscess forms in the hollow of the heel, and finally opens somewhere below the fetlock joint. The whole coronet is more or less swollen, the discharge is profuse and often mixed with blood, yet the suffering is greatly relieved from the moment the abscess opens. If the puncture reaches the navicular bone the lameness is intense from the beginning; but the only certain way to determine the existence of this complication is by the use of the probe; and unless there is a free escape of synovia it must be used with the greatest of care, else the coffin joint may be opened. If the coffin joint has been penetrated, either by the offending instrument or by the process of suppuration, acute inflammation of the joint follows, accompanied with high fever, loss of appetite, etc. The ankle and coronet are now greatly swollen, and dropsy of the leg to the knee or hock, or even to the body, often follows. If the process of suppuration continues, small abscesses appear at intervals on different parts of the coronet, the patient rapidly loses flesh, and may die from intense suffering and blood poisoning. In other cases the suppuration soon disappears, and recovery is effected by the joint becoming stiff (anchylosis). When the wound is forward, near the toe, and deep enough to injure the coffin bone, caries always results. The presence of the dead pieces of bone can be determined by the use of the probe; the bone feels rough and gritty. Furthermore, there is no disposition upon the part of the wound to heal. Besides the complications above mentioned, others equally as serious may be met with. The tendons may soften and rupture, the hoof may slough off, quittors develop, or sidebones and ringbones grow. Finally, laminatis of the opposite foot may happen if the patient persists in standing, or lockjaw may cause early death. _Treatment._--In all cases the horn around the seat of injury should be thinned down, a free opening made for the escape of the products of suppuration, and the foot placed in a poultice. If the injury is not serious, recovery takes place in a few days. When the wound is deeper it is better to put the foot into a cold bath or under a stream of cold water, as advised in the treatment for quittor. If the bone is injured, cold baths, containing about 2 ounces each of sulphate of copper and sulphate of iron, may be used until the dead bone is well softened, when it should be removed by an operation. The animal must be cast for this operation. The sole is pared away until the diseased bone is exposed, when all the dead particles are to be removed with a drawing knife, and the wound dressed with 3 per cent compound cresol solution or a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, oakum balls, and a roller bandage. Wounds of the bone which are made by a blunt-pointed instrument, like the square-pointed cut nail, in which a portion of the surface is driven into the deeper parts of the bone, always progress slowly, and should be operated upon as soon as the conditions are favorable. Even wounds of the navicular bone, accompanied with caries, may be operated on and the life of the patient saved; but the most skillful surgery is required and only the experienced operator should undertake their treatment. If there is an escape of pure synovial fluid from a wound of the sole, without injury to the bone, a small pencil of corrosive sublimate should be introduced to the bottom of the wound and the foot dressed as directed above. The other complications are to be treated as directed under their proper headings. After healing of the wounds has been effected, lameness, with more or less swelling of the coronary region, may remain. In such cases the coronet should be blistered or even fired with the actual cautery, and the patient turned to pasture. If the lameness still persists, and is not due to a stiff joint, unnerving may be resorted to in many cases with very good results. If the joint is anchylosed, no treatment can relieve it, and the patient must either be put to very slow work or kept for breeding purposes only. "_Prick in shoeing_" is an injury which should be considered under the head of punctured wounds of the foot. The nails by which the shoe is fastened to the hoof may produce an injury followed by inflammation and suppuration in two days, by penetrating the soft tissues directly or by being driven so deep that the inner layers of the horn of the wall are pressed against the soft tissues with such force as to crush them. In either case, unless the injury is at the toe, the animal generally goes lame soon after shoeing, when the first evidence of the trouble may be the discharge of pus at the coronet. If lameness follows close upon the setting of the shoes, without other appreciable cause, each nail should be lightly struck with a hammer, when the one at fault will be detected by the flinching of the animal. Treatment consists in drawing the nail, and if the soft tissues have been penetrated or suppuration has commenced, the horn must be pared away until the diseased parts are exposed. The foot is now to be poulticed for a day or two, or until the lameness and suppuration have ceased. If the discharge of pus from the coronet is the first evidence of the disease, the offending nail must be found and removed, the horn pared out, and a weak solution of carbolic acid or compound cresol injected at the coronet until the fistulous tract has healed. CONTRACTED HEELS, OR HOOFBOUND. Contracted heels, or hoofbound, is a common disease among horses kept on hard floor in dry stables, and in such as are subject to much saddle work. It consists in an atrophy, or shrinking, of the tissues of the foot, whereby the lateral diameter of the heels is diminished. It affects the fore feet principally; but it is seen occasionally in the hind feet, where it is of less importance, for the reason that the hind foot first strikes the ground with the toe, and consequently less expansion of the heels is necessary than in the fore feet, where the weight is first received on the heels. Any interference with the expansibility of this part of the foot interferes with locomotion and ultimately gives rise to lameness. Usually but one foot is affected at a time, but when both are diseased the change is greater in one than in the other. Occasionally but one heel, and that the inner one, is contracted; in these cases there is less liable to be lameness and permanent impairment of the animal's usefulness. According to the opinion of some of the French veterinarians, hoofbound should be divided into two classes--total contraction, in which the whole foot is shrunken in size, and contraction of the heels, when the trouble extends only from the quarters backward. (Pl. XXXV, figs. 4 and 7.) _Causes._--Animals raised in wet or marshy districts, when taken to towns and kept on dry floors, are liable to have contracted heels, not alone because the horn becomes dry, but because fever of the feet and wasting away of the soft tissues result from the change. Another common cause of contracted heels is to be found in faulty shoeing, such as rasping the wall, cutting away the frog, heels, and bars; high calks and the use of nails too near the heels. Contracted heels may happen as one of the results of other diseases of the foot; for instance, it often accompanies thrush, sidebones, ringbones, canker, navicular disease, corns, sprains of the flexor tendons, of the sesamoid and suspensory ligaments, and from excessive knuckling of the fetlock joint. _Symptoms._--In contraction of the heels the foot has lost its circular shape, and the walls from the quarters backward approach to a straight line. The ground surface of the foot is now smaller than the coronary circumference; the frog is pinched between the inclosing heels, is much shrunken, and at times is affected with thrush. The sole is more concave than natural, the heels are higher, and the bars are long and nearly perpendicular. The whole hoof is dry and so hard that it can scarcely be cut; the parts toward the heels are scaly and often ridged like the horns of a ram, while fissures, more or less deep, may be seen at the quarters and heels following the direction of the horn fibers. (Plate XXXVI, fig. 10.) When the disease is well advanced lameness is present, while in the earlier stages there is only an uneasiness evinced by frequent shifting of the affected foot. Stumbling is common, especially on hard or rough roads. In most cases the animal comes out of the stable stiff and inclined to walk on the toe, but after exercise he may go free again. He wears his shoes off at the toe in a short time, no matter whether he works or remains in the stable. If the shoe is removed and the foot pared in old cases, a dry, mealy horn will be found where the sole and wall unite, extending upward in a narrow line toward the quarters. _Treatment._--First of all, the preventive measures must be considered. The feet are to be kept moist and the horn from drying out by the use of damp sawdust or other bedding; by occasional poultices of boiled turnips, linseed meal, etc., and greasy hoof ointments to the sole and walls of the feet. The wall of the foot should be spared from the abuse of the rasp; the frog, heels, and bars are not to be mutilated with the knife, nor should calks be used on the shoe except when absolutely necessary. The shoes should be reset at least once a month to prevent the feet from becoming too long, and daily exercise must be insisted on. As to curative measures, a diversity of opinion exists. A number of kinds of special shoes have been invented, having for an object the spreading of the heels, and perhaps any of these, if properly used, would eventually effect the desired result. But a serious objection to most of these shoes is that they are expensive and often difficult to make and apply. The method of treatment which I have adopted is not only attended with good results, but is inexpensive, if the loss of the patient's services for a time is not considered a part of the question. It consists, first, in the use of poultices or baths of cold water until the horn is thoroughly softened. The foot is now prepared for the shoe in the usual way, except that the heels are lowered a little and the frog remains untouched. A shoe, called a "tip," is made by cutting off both branches at the center of the foot and drawing the ends down to an edge. The tapering of the branches should begin at the toe, and the shoe should be of the usual width, with both the upper and lower surfaces flat. This tip is to be fastened on with six or eight small nails, all set well forward, two being in the toe. With a common foot rasp begin at the heels, close to the coronet, and cut away the horn of the wall until only a thin layer covers the soft tissues beneath. Cut forward until the new surface meets the old 2-1/2 or 3 inches from the heel. The same sloping shape is to be observed in cutting downward toward the bottom of the foot, at which point the wall is to retain its normal thickness. The foot is now blistered all round the coronet with Spanish-fly ointment; when this is well set, the patient is to be turned to pasture in a damp field or meadow. The blister should be repeated in three or four weeks, and, as a rule, the patient can be returned to work in two or three months. The object of the tip is to throw the weight on the frog and heels, which are readily spread after the horn has been cut away on the sides of the wall. The internal structures of the foot at the heels, being relieved of excessive pressure, regain their normal condition if the disease is not of too long standing. The blister tends to relieve any inflammation which may be present, and stimulates a rapid growth of healthy horn, which, in most cases, ultimately forms a wide and normal heel. In old, chronic cases, with a shrunken frog and increased concavity of the sole, accompanied with excessive wasting of all the internal tissues of the foot, satisfactory results can not be expected and are rarely obtained. Still, much relief, if not an entire cure, may be effected by these measures. When thrush is present as a complication, its cure must be sought by measures directed under that heading. If sidebones, ringbones, navicular disease, contracted tendons, or other diseases have been the cause of contracted heels, treatment will be useless until the cause is removed. SAND CRACKS. A sand crank is a fissure in the horn of the wall of the foot. These fissures are quite narrow, and, as a general rule, they follow the direction of the horny fibers. They may occur on any part of the wall, but ordinarily are only seen directly in front, when they are called toe cracks; or on the lateral parts of the walls, when they are known as quarter cracks. (Plate XXXVI.) Toe cracks are most common in the hind feet, while quarter cracks nearly always affect the fore feet. The inside quarter is more liable to the injury than the outside, for the reason that this quarter is not only the thinner, but during locomotion receives a greater part of the weight of the body. A sand crack may be superficial, involving only the outer parts of the wall, or it may be deep, involving the whole thickness of the wall and the soft tissues beneath. The toe crack is most likely to be complete--that is, extending from the coronary band to the sole--while the quarter crack is nearly always incomplete, at least when of comparatively recent origin. Sand cracks are most serious when they involve the coronary band in the injury. They may be complicated at any time by hemorrhage, inflammation of the laminæ, suppuration, gangrene of the lateral cartilage and of the extensor tendon, caries of the coffin bone, or the growth of a horny tumor known as a keraphyllocele. _Causes._--Relative dryness of the horn is the principal predisposing cause of sand cracks. Excessive dryness is perhaps not a more prolific cause of cracks in the horn than alternate changes from damp to dry. It is even claimed that these injuries are more common in animals working on wet roads than those working on roads that are rough and dry; at least these injuries are not common in mountainous countries. Animals used to running at pasture when transferred to stables with hard, dry floors are more liable to quarter cracks than those accustomed to stables. Small feet, with thick, hard hoofs, and feet which are excessively large, are more susceptible to sand cracks than those of better proportion. A predisposition to quarter cracks exists in contracted feet, and in those where the toe turns out or the inside quarter turns under. Heavy shoes, large nails, and nails set too far back toward the heels, together with such diseases as canker, quittor, grease, and suppurative corns, must be included as occasional predisposing causes of sand cracks. [Illustration: PLATE XXXVI. QUARTER-CRACK AND REMEDIES.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVII. FOUNDERED FEET.] Fast work on hard roads, jumping, and blows on the coronet, together with calk wounds of the feet, are accidental causes of quarter cracks in particular. Toe cracks are more likely to be caused by heavy pulling on slippery roads and pavements or on steep hills. _Symptoms._--The fissure in the horn is ofttimes the only evidence of the disease; even this may be accidentally or purposely hidden from casual view by mud, ointments, tar, wax, putty, gutta-percha, or by the long hairs of the coronet. Sand cracks sometimes commence on the internal face of the wall, involving its whole thickness excepting a thin layer on the outer surface. In these cases the existence of the injury may be suspected from a slight depression, which begins near the coronary band and follows the direction of the horny fibers; but the trouble can only be positively diagnosed by paring away the outside layers of horn until the fissure is exposed. In toe cracks the walls of the fissure are in close apposition when the foot receives the weight of the body, but when the foot is raised from the ground the fissure opens. In quarter crack the opposition is true; the fissure closes when the weight is removed from the foot. As a rule, sand cracks begin at the coronary band, and as they become older they not only extend downward, but they also grow deeper. In old cases, particularly in toe cracks, the horn on the borders of the fissure loses its vitality and scales off, sometimes through the greater part of its thickness, leaving behind a rough and irregular channel extending from the coronet to the end of the toe. In many cases of quarter crack, and in some cases of toe crack as well, if the edges remain close together, with but little motion, the fissure is dry; but in other cases a thin, offensive discharge issues from the crack and the ulcerated soft tissues, or a funguslike growth protrudes from the narrow opening. When the cracks are deep and the motion of their edges considerable, so that the soft tissues are bruised and pinched with every movement, a constant inflammation of the parts is maintained and the lameness is severe. Ordinarily the lameness of sand crack is slight when the patient walks, but it is greatly aggravated when he is made to trot, and the harder the road the worse he limps. Furthermore, the lameness is greater going downhill than up, for the reason that these conditions are favorable to an increased motion in the edges of the fissure. Lastly, more or less hemorrhage accompanies the inception of a sand crack when the whole thickness of the wall is involved. Subsequent hemorrhages may also take place from fast work, jumping, or a misstep. _Treatment._--So far as preventive measures are concerned, but little can be done. The suppleness of the horn is to be maintained by the use of ointments, damp floor, bedding, etc. The shoe is to be proportioned to the weight and work of the animal; the nails holding it in place are to be of proper size and not driven too near the heels; sufficient calks and toe pieces must be added to the shoes of horses working on slippery roads; also, the evils of jumping, fast driving, etc., are to be avoided. When a fissure has made its appearance, means are to be adopted which will prevent it from growing longer or deeper; this can only be done by arresting all motion in the edges. The best and simplest artificial appliance for holding the borders of a toe crack together is the Vachette clasp. These clasps and the instruments necessary for their application can be had of any prominent maker of veterinary instruments. (Pl. XXXVI.) These instruments comprise a cautery iron, with which two notches are burned in the wall, one on each side of the crack, and forceps with which the clasps are closed into place in the bottom of the notches and the edges of the fissure brought close together. The clasps, being made of stiff steel wire, are strong enough to prevent all motion in the borders of the crack. Before these clasps are applied the fissure should be thoroughly cleansed and dried, and if the injury is of recent origin the crack may be filled with a putty made of 2 parts of gutta-percha and 1 part of gum ammoniac. The number of clasps to be used is to be determined by the length of the crack, the amount of motion to be arrested, etc. Generally the clasps are from one-half to three-quarters of an inch apart. The clasps answer equally as well in quarter crack if the wall is sufficiently thick and not too dry and brittle to withstand the strain. In the absence of these instruments and clasps a hole may be drilled through the horn across the fissure and the crack closed with a thin nail made of tough iron, neatly clinched at both ends. A plate of steel or brass is sometimes fitted to the parts and fastened on with short screws; while this appliance may prevent much gaping of the fissure, it does not entirely arrest motion of the edges, for the reason that the plate and screw can not be rendered immobile. If, for any reason, the measures above fail or can not be used, recourse must be had to an operation. The horn is softened by the use of warm baths and poultices, the patient cast, and the walls of the fissure entirely removed with the knife. The horn removed is in the shape of the letter V, with the base at the coronet. Care must be taken not to injure the coronary band and the laminæ. The wound is to be treated with mild stimulant dressings, such as compound cresol solution, a weak solution of carbolic acid, tincture of aloes, etc., oakum balls, and a roller bandage. After a few days the wound will be covered with a new, white horn, and only the oakum and bandages will be needed. As the new quarter grows out, the lameness disappears, and the patient may be shod with a bar shoe and returned to work. In all cases of sand crack the growth of horn should be stimulated by cauterizing the coronary band or by the use of blisters. In simple quarter crack recovery will often take place if the coronet is blistered, the foot shod with a "tip," and the patient turned to pasture. The shoe in toe crack should have a clip on each side of the fissure and should be thicker at the toe than at the heels. The foot should be lowered at the heels by paring, and spared at the toe, except directly under the fissure, where it is to be pared away until it sets free from the shoe. When any of the complications referred to above arise, special measures must be resorted to. For the proper treatment of gangrene of the lateral cartilage and extensor tendon and caries of the coffin bone reference may be had to the articles on quittors. If the horny tumor, known as keraphyllocele, should develop, it is to be removed by the use of the knife. Since this tumor develops on the inside of the horny box and may involve other important organs of the foot in disease, its removal should only be undertaken by a skillful surgeon. NAVICULAR DISEASE. Navicular disease is an inflammation of the sesamoid sheath, induced by repeated bruising or laceration, and complicated in many cases by inflammation and caries of the navicular bone. In some instances the disease undoubtedly begins in the bone, and the sesamoid sheath becomes involved subsequently by an extension of the inflammatory process. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 5.) The Thoroughbred horse is more commonly affected than any other, yet no class or breed of horses is entirely exempt. The mule, however, seems rarely, if ever, to suffer from it. For reasons which will appear when considering the causes of the disease, the hind feet are not liable to be affected. Usually but one fore foot suffers from the disease, but if both should be attacked the trouble has become chronic in the first before the second shows signs of the disease. _Causes._--To comprehend fully how navicular disease may be caused by conditions and usages common to nearly all animals, it is necessary to recall the peculiar anatomy of the parts involved in the process and the functions which they perform in locomotion. It must be remembered that the fore legs largely support the weight of the body when the animal is at rest, and that the faster he moves the greater is the shock which the fore feet must receive as the body is thrown forward by the propelling force of the hind legs. This shock could not be withstood by the tissues of the fore feet and legs were it not that it is largely dissipated by the elastic muscles which bind the shoulder to the body, the ease with which the arm closes on the shoulder blade, and the spring of the fetlock joint. Even these means, however, are not sufficient within themselves to protect the foot from injury; so nature has further supplemented them by placing the coffin joint on the hind part of the coffin bone instead of directly on top of it, whereby a large part of the shock of locomotion is dispersed before it can reach the vertical column represented by the cannon, knee, and arm bones. A still further provision is made by placing a soft, elastic pad--the frog and plantar cushion--at the heels to receive the sesamoid expansion of the flexor tendon as it is forced downward by the pressure of the coronet bone against the navicular. Extraordinary as these means may appear for the destruction of shock, and ample as they are when the animal is at a slow pace or unweighted by rider or load, they fail to relieve the parts completely from concussion and excessive pressure whenever the opposite conditions are present. The result, then, is that the coronet bone forces the navicular hard against the flexor tendon, which, in turn, presses firmly against the navicular as the force of the contracting muscles lifts the tendon into place. It is self-evident, then, that the more rapid the pace and the greater the load, the greater must these contending forces be, and the greater the liability to injury. For the same reason horses with excessive knee action are more liable to suffer from this disease than others, concussion of the foot and intense pressure on the tendon being common among such horses. Besides the above-mentioned exciting causes must be considered those which predispose to the disease. Most prominent among these is heredity. It may be claimed, however, that an inherited predisposition to navicular disease consists not so much in a special susceptibility of the tissues which are involved in the process as in a vice of conformation which, as is well known, is liable to be transmitted from parent to offspring. The faults of conformation most likely to be followed by the development of navicular disease are an insufficient plantar cushion, a small frog, high heels, excessive knee action, and contracted heels. Finally, the environments of domestication and use, such as dry stables, heavy pulling, bad shoeing, punctured wounds, etc., all have their influence in developing this disease. _Symptoms._--In the early stages of navicular disease the symptoms are generally very obscure. When the disease begins in inflammation of the navicular bone, the animal while at rest points the affected foot a time before any lameness is seen. While at work he apparently travels as well as ever, but when placed in the stable one foot is set out in front of the other, resting on the toe, with fetlock and knee flexed. After a time, if the case is closely watched, the animal takes a few lame steps while at work, but the lameness disappears as suddenly as it came, and the driver doubts whether the animal was really lame at all. Later the patient has a lame spell which may last during a greater part of the day, but the next morning it is gone; he leaves the stable all right, but goes lame again during the day. In times he has a severe attack of lameness, which may last for a week or more, when a remission takes place and it may be weeks or months before another attack supervenes. Finally, he becomes constantly lame, and the more he is used the greater the lameness. In the lameness from navicular disease the affected leg always takes a short step, and the toe of the foot first strikes the ground; so the shoe is most worn at this point. If the patient is made to move backward, the foot is set down with exceeding great care, and the weight rests upon the affected leg but a moment. When exercised he often stumbles, and if the road is rough he may fall on his knees. If he is lame in both feet the gait is stilty, the shoulders seem stiff, and, if made to work, he sweats profusely from intense pain. Early in the development of the disease a careful examination will reveal some increased heat in the heels and frog, particularly after work; as the disease progresses this becomes more marked, until the whole foot is hot to the touch. At the same time there is an increased sensibility of the foot, for the patient flinches from the percussion of a hammer lightly applied to the frog and heels or from the pressure of the smith's pincers. The frog is generally shrunken, often of a pale-red color, and at times is affected with thrush. If the heels are pared away so that all the weight is received on the frog, or if the same result is attained by the application of a bar shoe, the animal is excessively lame. The muscles of the leg and shoulder shrink away and often tremble as the animal stands at rest. After months of lameness the foot is found to be shrunken in its diameter and apparently lengthened; the horn is dry and brittle and has lost its natural gloss, while circular ridges, developed most toward the heels, cover the upper part of the hoof. When both feet are affected the animal points first one foot then the other, and stands with the hind feet well forward beneath the body, so as to relieve the fore feet as much as possible from bearing weight. In old cases the wasting of the muscles and the knuckling at the fetlock become so great that the leg can not be straightened and locomotion can scarcely be performed. The disease generally makes a steady progress without inclining to recovery--the remission of symptoms in the earlier stages should not be interpreted as evidence that the process has terminated. The complications usually seen are ringbones, sidebones, thrush, contracted heels, quartercracks, and fractures of the navicular, coronet, and pastern bones. _Treatment._--But few cases of navicular disease recover. In the early stages the wall of the heels should be rasped away, as directed in the treatment for contracted heels, until the horn is quite thin; the coronet should be well blistered with Spanish-fly ointment, and the patient turned to grass in a damp field or meadow. After three or four weeks the blister should be repeated. This treatment is to be continued for two or three months. Plane shoes are to be put on when the patient is returned to work. In chronic cases the animal should be put to slow, easy work. To relieve the pain, neurotomy may be performed--an operation in which the sense of feeling is destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve at the fetlock. This operation in nowise cures the disease, and, since it may be attended with serious results, can be advised only in certain favorable cases, to be determined by the veterinarian. SIDEBONES. A sidebone consists in a transformation of the lateral cartilages found on the wings of the coffin bone into bony matter by the deposition of lime salts. The disease is a common one, especially in heavy horses used for draft, in cavalry horses, cow ponies, and other saddle horses, and in runners and trotters. Sidebones are peculiar to the fore feet, yet they occasionally develop in the hind feet, where they are of little importance since they cause no lameness. In many instances sidebones are of slow growth and, being unaccompanied with acute inflammation, they cause no lameness until such time as, by reason of their size, they interfere with the action of the joint. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 4.) _Causes._--Sidebones often grow in heavy horses without any apparent injury, and their development has been attributed to the over-expansion of the cartilages caused by the great weight of the animal. Blows and other injuries to the cartilages may set up an inflammatory process which ends in the formation of these bony growths. High-heeled shoes, high calks, and long feet are always classed among the conditions which may excite the growth of sidebones. They are often seen in connection with contracted heels, ringbones, navicular disease, punctured wounds of the foot, quarter cracks, and occasionally as a sequel to founder. _Symptoms._--In the earlier stages of the disease, if inflammation is present, the only evidence of the trouble to be detected is a little fever over the seat of the affected cartilage and a slight lameness. In the lameness of sidebones the toe of the foot first strikes the ground and the step is shorter than natural. The subject comes out of the stable stiff and sore, but the gait is more free after exercise. Since the deposit of bony matter often begins in that part of the cartilage where it is attached to the coffin bone, the diseased process may exist for some time before the bony growth can be seen or felt. Later, however, the cartilage can be felt to have lost its elastic character, and by standing in front of the animal a prominence of the coronary region at the quarters can be seen. Occasionally these bones become so large as to bulge the hoof outward, and by pressing on the joint they so interfere with locomotion that the animal becomes entirely useless. _Treatment._--So soon as the disease can be diagnosed active treatment should be adopted. Cold-water bandages are to be used for a few days to relieve the fever and soreness. The improvement consequent on the use of these simple measures often leads to the belief that the disease has recovered; but with a return to work the lameness, fever, etc., reappears. For this reason the use of blisters, or, better still, the firing iron, should follow on the discontinuance of the cold bandages. But in many instances no treatment will arrest the growth of these bony tumors, and as a palliative measure neurotomy must be resorted to. Generally this operation will so relieve the pain of locomotion that the patient may be used for slow work; but in animals used for fast driving or for saddle purposes, the operation is practically useless. Some years ago at Fort Leavenworth I unnerved a number of cavalry horses that were suffering from sidebones, and the records show that in less than seven months all were more lame than ever. Since a predisposition to develop sidebones may be inherited, animals suffering from this disease should not be used for breeding purposes unless the trouble is known to have originated from an accident. RINGBONE. A ringbone is the growth of a bony tumor on the ankle. This tumor is, in fact, not the disease, but simply the result of an inflammatory action set up in the periosteum and bone tissue proper of the pastern bones. (Plate XXXIV, fig. 1.) (See also p. 313.) _Causes._--Injuries, such as blows, sprains, overwork in young, undeveloped animals, fast work on hard roads, jumping, etc., are among the principal exciting causes of ringbone. Horses most disposed to this disease are those with short, upright pasterns, for the reason that the shock of locomotion is but imperfectly dissipated in the fore legs of these animals. Improper shoeing, such as the use of high calks, a too great shortening of the toe and correspondingly high heels, predispose to this disease by increasing the concussion to the feet. _Symptoms._--The first symptom of an actively developed ringbone is the appearance of a lameness more or less acute. If the bony tumor forms on the side or upper parts of the large pastern, its growth is generally unattended with acute inflammatory action, and consequently produces no lameness or evident fever. These are called "false" ringbones. But when the tumors form on the whole circumference of the ankle, or simply in front under the extensor tendon, or behind under the flexor tendons, or if they involve the joints between the two pastern bones, or between the small pastern and the coffin bone, the lameness is always severe. These constitute the true ringbone. Besides lameness, the ankle of the affected limb presents more or less heat, and in many instances a rather firm, though limited, swelling of the deeper tissues over the seat of the inflammatory process. The lameness of ringbone is characteristic in that the heel is first placed on the ground when the disease is in a fore leg, and the ankle is kept as rigid as possible. In the hind leg, however, the toe strikes the ground first, when the ringbone is high on the ankle, just as in health, but the ankle is maintained in a rigid position. If the bony growth is under the front tendon of the hind leg, or if it involves the coffin joint, the heel is brought to the ground first. In the early stages of the disease it is not always easy to diagnose ringbone, but when the deposits have reached some size they can be felt and seen as well. The importance of a ringbone depends on its seat and often on its size. If it interferes with the joints or with the tendons it may cause an incurable lameness, even though small. If it is on the sides of the large pastern, the lameness generally disappears as soon as the tumor has reached its growth and the inflammation subsides. Even when the pastern joint is involved, if complete anchylosis results, the patient may recover from the lameness with simply an imperfect action of the foot remaining, due to the stiff joint. _Treatment._--Before the bony growth has commenced the inflammatory process may be cut short by the use of cold baths and wet bandages, followed by one or more blisters. If the bony deposits have begun, the firing iron should always be used. Even when the tumors are large and the pastern joint involved, firing often hastens the process of anchylosis and should always be tried. When the lower joint is involved, or if the tumor interferes with the action of the tendons, recovery is not to be expected. In many of these latter cases, however, the animal may be made serviceable by proper shoeing. If the patient walks with the toe on the ground, the foot should be shod with a high-heeled shoe and a short toe. On the other hand, if he walks on the heel, a thick-toed and thin-heeled shoe must be worn. Since ringbone is considered to be one of the hereditary diseases, no animal suffering from this trouble should ever be used for breeding purposes. LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER. Laminitis is a simple inflammation of the sensitive laminæ of the feet, characterized by the general phenomena attending inflammation of the skin and mucous membranes, producing no constitutional disturbances except those dependent upon the local disease, and having a strong tendency, in severe cases, to destructive disorganization of the tissues affected. _Causes._--The causes of laminitis are as wide and variable as in any of the local inflammations, and may be divided into two classes--the predisposing and the exciting. _Predisposing causes._--From personal observation I do not know that any particular construction of foot or any special breed of horses is predisposed to this disease, neither can I find anything to warrant the assumption that it is in any way hereditary; so that while we may easily cultivate a predisposition to the disease, it does not originate without an exciting cause. Like most other tissues, a predisposition to inflammation may be induced in the sensitive laminæ by any cause which lessens their power of withstanding the work imposed on them. It exists to an extent in those animals unaccustomed to work, particularly if they are plethoric, and in all that have been previous subjects of the disease, for the same rule holds good here that we find in so many diseases--i. e., that one attack impairs the functional activity of the affected tissues and renders them more easy of a subsequent inflammation. Unusual excitement by determining an excessive blood supply, bad shoeing, careless paring of the feet by removing the sole support, and high calkings without corresponding toe pieces must be included under this head. _Exciting causes._--The exciting causes of laminitis are many and varied. The most common are concussion, overexertion, exhaustion, rapid changes of temperature, ingestion of certain feeds, purgatives, and the oft-mentioned metastasis. (1) Concussion produces this disease by local overstimulation. The excessive excitement is followed by an almost complete exhaustion of the functional activity of the laminated tissues, the exhaustion by congestion, and eventually by inflammation. But congestion here, as in all other tissues, is not necessarily followed by inflammation; for, although the principal symptoms belonging to true laminitis are present, the congestion may be relieved before the processes of inflammation are fully established. This is the condition in the many so-called cases of laminitis which recover in from 24 to 48 hours. They should be called congestion of the laminæ. Laminitis from concussion is common in trotting horses that are raced when not in condition, especially if they carry the obnoxious toe weights, and in green horses put to work on city pavements to which they are unaccustomed. Concussion from long drives on dirt roads is at times productive of the same results, notably when the weather is extremely warm, or at least when the relative change of temperature is great. But the exhaustion of these circumstances must prove an exciting cause as well as the long-continued concussion. This combination of causes must also determine the disease at times in hunters, for the weight of the rider increases the demands made upon the function of these tissues, and their powers are the sooner exhausted. (2) Overexertion, as heavy pulling or rapid work, even when there is no immoderate concussion, occasionally results in this disease. Here also exhaustion is a conjunctive cause, for overexertion can not be long continued without exhaustion. (3) Exhaustion is nearly as prolific a source of laminitis as is concussion, for when the physical strength is impaired, even though temporarily, some part of the economy is rendered more vulnerable to disease than others. To this cause we must ascribe those cases which follow a hard day's work, in which at no time has there been overexertion or immoderate concussion. The tendency to laminitis in horses on sea voyages results from the continual constrained position the animal maintains on account of the rocking motion of the vessel. If one foot has been blistered, or if one limb is incapacitated from any cause, the opposite member, doing double duty, soon becomes exhausted, and congestion, followed by inflammation, results. When one foot only becomes laminitic, it is customary to find the corresponding member participating at a later date; not always because of sympathy, but because one foot had to do the work of two. (4) Rapid changes of temperature act as an exciting cause of laminitis by impairing the normal blood supply. This change of temperature may be induced by drinking large quantities of cold water while in an overheated condition. Here the internal heat is rapidly reduced, the neighboring tissues and blood vessels constrained, and the blood supply to these organs greatly diminished, while the quantity sent to the surface is correspondingly increased. True, in many cases there has not been sufficient labor performed to impair the powers of the laminæ, and laminitis is more readily induced than congestion or inflammation of the skin or other surface organs, because the laminæ can not relieve themselves of threatened congestion by the general safety valve of perspiration. A cold wind or relatively cold air allowed to play upon the body when heated and wet with sweat has virtually the same result, for it arrests evaporation and rapidly cools the external surface, thereby determining an excess of blood to such organs and tissues as are protected from this outside influence. In many instances this happens to be some of the internal organs, as the lungs, if the previous work has been rapid and their functional activity impaired; but in numerous other instances the determination is toward the feet, and that it is so depends upon two very palpable facts: First, that these tissues have been greatly excited and are already receiving as much blood as they can accommodate consistently with health; second, even though these tissues are classed with those of the surface, their protection from atmospheric influences by means of the thick box of horn incasing them renders them in this respect equivalent to internal organs. A more limited local action of cold may excite this disease, by driving through water or washing the feet and legs while the animal is warm or just in from work. Here a very marked reaction takes place in the surface tissues of the limbs, and passive congestion of the foot results from an interference with the return flow of blood which is being sent to these organs in excess. These are more liable to be simple cases of congestion, soon to recover, yet they may become true cases of laminitis. (5) Why it is that certain kinds of grain will cause laminitis does not seem to be clearly understood. Certainly they possess no specific action upon the laminæ, for all animals are not alike affected; neither do they always produce these results in the same animal. Some of these feeds cause a strong tendency to indigestion, and the consequent irritation of the alimentary canal may be so great as to warrant the belief that the laminæ are affected through sympathy. In other instances there is no apparent interference with digestion nor evidence of any irritation of the mucous membranes, yet the disease is in some manner dependent upon the feed for its inception. Barley, wheat, and sometimes corn are the grains most liable to cause this disease. With some horses there appears to be a particular susceptibility to this influence of corn, and the use of this grain is followed by inflammation of the feet, lasting from a few days to two weeks. In these animals, to all appearances healthy, the corn neither induces colic, indigestion, nor purging, and apparently no irritation whatever of the alimentary canal. (6) Fortunately purgative medicines rarely cause inflammation of the laminæ. That it is, then, the result of sympathetic action is no doubt more than hypothetical, for when there is no derangement of the alimentary canal a dose of cathartic medicine will at times bring on severe laminitis. (7) Almost all the older authorities were agreed that metastatic laminitis is a reality. In my opinion metastatic laminitis is nothing more nor less than concurrent laminitis, and presents little in any way peculiar outside the imperfectly understood exciting cause. The practitioner who allows the acute symptoms of the laminitis to mislead him, simply because their severity has overshadowed those of the primary disease, may lose his case through unguarded subsequent treatment. This form of laminitis is by no means commonly met with. It may be found in conjunction with pneumonia, according to Youatt with inflammation of the bowels and eyes, and according to Law and Williams sometimes with bronchitis. _Symptoms._--Laminitis is characterized by a congregation of symptoms so well marked as scarcely to be misinterpreted by the most casual observer. They are nearly constant in their manifestations, modified by the number of feet affected, the cause which has induced the disease, the previous condition of the patient, and the various other influences which to some extent operate in all diseases. They may be divided into general symptoms, which are concomitants of all cases of the disease, subject to variations in degree only, and special symptoms, or those which serve to determine the feet affected and the complications which may arise. _General symptoms._--Usually, the first symptom is the interference with locomotion. Occasionally the other symptoms are presented first. As the lameness develops the pulse becomes accelerated, full, hard, and strikes the finger strongly; the temperature soon rises several degrees above the normal, reaching sometimes 106° F.; it generally ranges between 102.5° and 105° F. The respirations are rapid and panting in character, the nostrils widely dilated, and the mucous membranes highly injected. The facial expression is anxious and indicative of the most acute suffering, while the body is more or less bedewed with sweat. At first there may be a tendency to diarrhea, or it may appear later as the result of the medicines used. The urine is high colored, scant in quantity, and of increased specific gravity, owing to the water being eliminated by the skin instead of the kidneys. The appetite is impaired, sometimes entirely lost, but thirst is greatly increased. The affected feet are hot and dry, and as much as possible are relieved from bearing weight. Rapping them with a hammer, or compelling the animal to stand upon one affected member, causes intense pain. The artery at the fetlock throbs beneath the finger. _Special symptoms._--Liability to affection varies in the different feet according to the exciting cause. Any one or more of the feet may become the subject of this disease, although it appears more often in the fore feet than in the hind ones. This is due to the difference of the function, i. e., that the fore feet are the bases of the columns of support, receiving nearly all the body weight during progression and consequently most of the concussion, while the hind feet become simply the fulcra of the levers of progression, and are almost exempt from concussion. _One foot._--Injuries and excessive functional performance are the causes of the disease in only one foot. The general symptoms, as a rule, are not severe, there being often no loss of appetite and no unusual thirst, while the pulse, temperature, and respiration remain about normal. The weight of the body is early thrown upon the opposite foot, and the affected one is extended, repeatedly raised from the floor, and then carefully replaced. When made to move forward the lame foot is either carried in the air while progression is accomplished by hopping with the healthy one, or else the heel of the first is placed upon the ground and receives little weight while the sound limb is quickly advanced. Progression in a straight line is more easy than turning toward the lame side. _Both fore feet._--When both fore feet are affected the symptoms are well marked. The lameness is excessive and the animal almost immovable. When standing the head hangs low down, or rests upon the manger as a means of support and to relieve the feet; the fore feet are well extended so that the weight is thrown upon the heels, where the tissues are least sensitive, least inflamed, and most capable of relief by free effusion. The hind feet are brought forward beneath the body to receive as much weight as possible, thereby relieving the diseased ones. If progression is attempted, which rarely happens voluntarily during the first three or four days, it is accomplished with very great pain and lameness at the starting, which usually subsides to an extent after a few minutes' exercise. During this exercise, if the animal happens to step upon a small stone or other hard substance, he stumbles painfully and is excessively lame in the offended member for a number of steps, owing to the acute pain which pressure upon the sole causes in the tissues beneath. The manner of the progression is pathognomonic of the complaint. Sometimes the affected feet are simultaneously raised from the ground (the hind ones sustaining the weight), then advanced a short distance and carefully replaced; at almost the same moment the hind ones are quickly shuffled forward near to the center of gravitation. In other instances one foot at a time is advanced and placed with the heel upon the ground in the same careful manner, all causes of concussion being carefully avoided. In attempting to back the animal he is found to be almost stationary, simply swaying the body backward on the haunches and elevating the toes of the diseased feet as they rest upon their heels. In attempting to turn either to the right or left he allows his head to be drawn to the one side to its full extent before moving, then makes his hind feet the axis around which the forward ones describe a shuffling circle. In most of cases of laminitis in the fore feet the animal persists in standing until he is nearly recovered. In other cases he as persistently lies, standing only when necessity seems to compel it, and then for as short a time as possible. If the recumbent position is once assumed, the relief experienced tempts the patient to seek it again; so we often find him down a greater part of the time. But this is not true of all cases; sometimes he will make the experiment, then cautiously guard against a repetition. Even in cases of enforced recumbency, he ofttimes takes advantage of the first opportunity and gets upon his feet, doggedly remaining there until again laid upon his side. How to explain this diversity of action I do not know; theoretically the recumbent position is the only appropriate one, except when complications exist, and the one which should give the most comfort, yet it is rejected by very many patients and, no doubt, for some good reason. It has been suggested as an explanation that when the animal gets upon his feet after lying for a time the suffering is so greatly augmented that the memory of this experience deters him from an attempted repetition. If this were true, the horse with the first attack must necessarily make the experiment before knowing the after effects of lying down, yet many remain standing without even an attempt at gaining this experimental knowledge. The most-favored position of the animal when down is on the broadside, with the feet and legs extended. While in this position the general symptoms greatly subside; the respirations and pulse become almost normal; the temperature falls and the perspiration dries. It is with difficulty that he is made to rise. When he attempts it he gets up rapidly and "all of a heap," as it were, shifting quickly from one to the other foot until they become accustomed to the weight thrown upon them. Occasionally a patient will get up like a cow, rising upon the hind feet first. Although enforced exercise relieves the soreness to some extent, it is but temporary, for after a few minutes' rest it returns with all its former severity. _Both hind feet._--When only both hind feet are affected, they are, while standing, maintained in the same position as when only the fore ones are the subjects of the disease, but with an entirely different object in view. Instead of being there to receive weight, they are so advanced that the heels only may receive what little weight is necessarily imposed on them; the fore feet at the same time are placed well back beneath the body, where they become the main supports; the animal standing, as Williams describes it, "all of a heap." Progression is even more difficult now than when the disease is confined to the anterior extremities. The fore feet are dubiously advanced a short distance and the hind ones brought forward with a sort of kangaroo hop that results in an apparent loss of equilibrium which the animal is a few moments in regaining. The general symptoms, or, in other words, the degree of suffering, seem more severe than when the disease affects the fore feet alone. The standing position is not often maintained, the patient seeking relief in recumbency. This fact is easily understood when we consider how cramped and unnatural is the position he assumes while standing and, if it were maintained for any considerable length of time, would, no doubt, excite the disease in the fore feet, as explained by D'Arboval. _All four feet._--Laminitis of all four feet is but uncommonly met with. The author has seen but three such cases. In all these the position assumed was nearly normal. All the feet were slightly advanced, and first one, then another, momentarily raised from the ground and carefully replaced, this action being kept up almost continually during the time the animal remained standing. The suffering is most acute, the appetite lost, and, although the patient lies most of the time, the temperature remains too high. The pulse and respirations are greatly accelerated, the body covered with sweat, and bed sores are unpleasant accompaniments. _Course._--The course which laminitis takes varies greatly in different cases, being influenced more or less by the exciting cause, the animal's previous condition, the acuteness of the attack, and the subsequent treatment. The first symptoms rarely exhibit themselves while the animal is at his work, although we occasionally see the gait impaired by stumbling, the body covered with a profuse sweat, and the respirations become blowing in character as premonitions of the oncoming disease; but, as a rule, nothing amiss with the animal is noted until he has stood for some time after coming in from work, when, in attempting to move him, he is found very stiff. Like all congestions, the early symptoms usually develop rapidly; yet this is not always the case, for often there appears to be no well-defined period of congestion, the disease seemingly commencing at a point and gradually spreading until a large territory is involved in the morbid process. _Simple congestion._--Those cases of simple congestion of the laminæ, which we erroneously call laminitis, are rapidly developed, the symptoms are but moderately severe, and but one to three days are required for recovery. There are no structural changes and but a moderate exudate. This is rapidly reabsorbed, leaving the parts in the same condition as they were previous to the attack. If the congestion has been excessive, a rupture of some of the capillaries will be found, a condition more liable to exist if the animal is made to continue work after a development of symptoms has begun. True, the majority of these last-described cases prove to be the laminitis in fact, yet the congestion may pass away and the extravasated blood be absorbed without inflammation sufficient to warrant calling it laminitis. The seat of greatest congestion will always be found in the neighborhood of the toe, because of the increased vascularity of that part, and, although at times it is limited to the podophyllous tissue alone, any or all parts of the keratogenous membrane may be affected by the congestion and followed finally by inflammation. _Acute._--In the acute form of laminitis the symptoms may all develop rapidly, or it may commence by the appearance of a little soreness of the feet which in 24 or 48 hours develops into a well-marked case. This peculiarity of development is due to one of two causes. Either the congestion is general, but takes place slowly, or it begins in one or more points and gradually spreads throughout the laminæ. These acute cases generally run their course in from one to two weeks. Usually a culmination of the symptoms is reached, if the patient is properly treated, in from three to five days; then evidences of recovery are discernible in favorable cases. The lameness improves, the other symptoms gradually subside, and eventually health is regained. It is in these cases that a strong tendency to disorganization of a destructive character exists; hence it is we see so many recover imperfectly, with marked structural changes permanently remaining. _Subacute._--Subacute laminitis is most often seen as a termination of the acute form, although it may exist independent of or precede an acute attack. It is characterized by the mildness of its symptoms, slow course, and moderate tissue changes. It may be present a long time before any pathological lesions result other than those found in the acute form, and when these changes do take place they should be viewed rather as complications. _Chronic._--Chronic laminitis is a term used by many to designate any of the sequelæ of the acute and subacute forms of this disease. Pure, chronic inflammation of the laminæ is not very commonly met with, but is most frequent in horses that have long done fast track work. They have "fever in the feet" at all times and are continually sore, both conditions being aggravated by work. Like chronic inflammation of other parts, there is a strong tendency to the development of new connective tissue which, by its pressure upon the blood vessels, interferes with nutrition. Wasting of the coffin bone and inflammation of its covering with caries is not unusual. The continued fever and impaired function of secretion result in the production of a horn deficient in elasticity, somewhat spongy in character, and inclined to crumble. In some cases of "soreness" in horses used to hard or fast work there is evident weakness of the coats of the vessels, brought on by repeated functional exhaustion. Here slight work brings on congestion, which results in serous effusion and temporary symptoms similar to those of chronic laminitis. _Complications._--Complications concurrent with or supervening upon laminitis are frequent and varied, and are often dependent upon causes not fully understood. _Excessive purgation_ is one of the simplest of these, and not usually attended with dangerous consequences. It rarely occurs unless induced by a purgative, and the excessive action of the medicine is probably to be explained upon the theory that the mucous membrane sympathizes with the diseased laminæ, is irritable, and readily becomes overexcited. The discharges are thin and watery, sometimes offensively odorous, and occasionally persist in spite of treatment. It may prove disastrous to the welfare of the patient by the rapid exhaustion which it causes, preventing resolution of the laminitis, and may even cause death. _Septicemia and pyemia._--Septicemia and pyemia are unusual complications and are seen only in the most severe cases in which bed sores are present or suppuration of the laminæ results. They die, as a rule, within three days after showing signs of the complication. _Pneumonia._--the so-called metastatic--needs no special consideration, for in its lesions and symptoms it does not differ from ordinary pneumonia, although it may be overlooked entirely by the practitioner. Examinations of the chest should be made every day, so as to detect the disease at its onset and render proper aid. _Sidebones._--A rapid development of sidebones is one of the complications, or, perhaps better, a sequel of laminitis not often met with in practice. Here the inflammatory process extends to the lateral cartilages, with a strong tendency to calcification. The deposition of the lime salts is sometimes most rapid, so that the "bones" are developed in a few weeks; in other instances they are deposited slowly and their growth is not noted until long after the subsidence of the laminitis, so that the exciting cause is not suspected. This change in the cartilages may commence as early as the first of the laminitis; and although the trouble in the laminæ is removed in the course of a fortnight the symptoms do not entirely subside, the animal retains the shuffling gait, the sidebones continue to grow, and the patient usually remains quite lame. This alteration of the cartilages generally prevents the patient from recovering his natural gait, and the practitioner receives unjust censure for a condition of affairs he could neither foresee nor prevent. The laminitic process occasionally extends to the covering of the coronet bone, or at least concurrent with and subsequent to laminitis the development of "low ringbone" is seen, and it is apparently dependent upon the disease of the laminæ for its exciting cause. The impairment of function and consequent symptoms are much less marked here than in sidebones. The coronet remains hot and sensitive and somewhat thickened after the laminitis subsides, and a little lameness is present. This lameness persists, and the deposits of new bone may readily be detected. _Suppuration_ of the sensitive membrane is a somewhat common complication, and even when present in its most limited form is always a serious matter; but when it becomes extensive, and especially when the suppurative process extends to the periosteum, the results are liable to be fatal. When suppuration occurs the exudation does not appear to be excessive. It is rich in leucocytes and seems to have caused detachment of the sensitive tissues from the horn prior to the formation of pus in some instances; in others the tissues are still attached to the horn, and the suppuration takes place in the deeper tissues. Limited suppuration may take place in any part of the sensitive tissues of the foot during laminitis, and may ultimately be reabsorbed instead of being discharged upon the surface, but generally the process begins in the neighborhood of the toe and spreads backward and upward toward the coronet, finally separating the horn from the coronary band at the quarters. At the same time it spreads over the sole and eventually the entire hoof is loosened and sloughs away, leaving the tissues beneath entirely unprotected. In other instances--and these are generally the cases not considered unusually severe--the suppuration begins at the coronary band. It extends but a short distance into the tissues, yet destroys the patient by separating the hoof from the coronary band, upon which it depends for support and growth. This form of the suppurative process usually begins in front. It is this part of the coronary band that is always most actively affected with inflammation, and consequently it is here that impairments first occur. Suppuration of the sensitive sole is more common than of the sensitive laminæ and coronary band. It is present in the majority of cases in which there is a dropping of the coffin bone, and in other instances when the effusion at this point is so great as to arrest the production of horn and uncover the sensitive tissues. Except when the result of injury it begins at the toe and spreads backward, and, if not relieved by opening the sole, escapes at the heel. Suppuration of the sole is much less serious than in other parts of the foot. If the acute constitutional symptoms developed from sloughing of the foot do not result in death, a new hoof of very imperfect horn may be developed after a time; but unless the animal is to be kept for breeding purposes alone the foot will ever be useless for work and death should relieve the suffering. When only the sole sloughs, recovery takes place with proper treatment. _Peditis._--This is the term that Williams applies to that serious complication of laminitis in which not only the laminæ, but the periosteum membrane covering the bone and coffin bone also are subjects of the inflammatory process. Neither is this all; in some of these cases of peditis acute inflammation of the coffin joint is present, and occasionally suppuration of the joint. A mild form of periostitis, in which the exudation is in the outer layer of the periosteum only, is a more common condition than is recognized generally by practitioners. Intimate contiguity of structures is the predisposing cause, for the disease either spreads from the original seat or the complication occurs as one of the primary results of the exciting cause. In the severer cases in which the exudate separates the periosteum from the bone, suppuration, gangrene, and superficial caries are common results. If infiltration of the bone tissues is rapid the blood supply is cut off by pressure upon the vessels and death of the coffin bone follows. Grave constitutional symptoms mark these changes, which soon prove fatal. In the mild cases of periostitis it is by no means easy positively to determine its presence, for there are no special symptoms by which it may be distinguished from pure laminitis. In a majority of acute cases, though, which show no signs of improvement by the fifth to seventh day, it is safe to suspect periostitis, particularly if the coronets are very hot, the pulse full and hard, and the lameness acute. In the fortunately rare cases in which the bone is affected with inflammation and suppuration the agony of the patient is intense; he occupies the recumbent position almost continually, never standing for more than a few minutes at a time; suffers from the most careful handling of the affected feet; maintains a rapid pulse and respiration, high temperature, loss of appetite, and great thirst. It is in these cases that the patient continually grows worse, and the appearance of suppuration at the top of the hoof in about two weeks after the inception of the disease proves the inefficiency of any treatment which may have been used and the hopelessness of the case. These patients die usually between the tenth and twentieth days either from exhaustion or pyemic infection. _Gangrene_ occurs in the periosteum as the result of excessive detachment from the bone and compression due to excessive exudation. Other parts of the sensitive tissues are subject occasionally to the same fate, and at times large areas will be found dead. _Pumiced sole_ is that condition in which the horny sole in the neighborhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the sensitive tissues more or less exposed. It is not a complication of laminitis only, for it is seen under other conditions. Williams has described the horny tissue of pumiced sole as "weak, cheesy, or spongy, like macerated horn, or even grumous (thick, clotted)." Crumbling horn, when critically examined, shows almost an entire absence of the cohesive matter which unites the healthy fibers, while the fibers themselves are irregular and granular in appearance. Pumiced sole depends upon an impairment of the horn-secreting powers of the sensitive sole or upon a separation of the horny from the soft tissues which maintain its vitality. Punctured wounds of the foot, accompanied with any considerable destruction of the soft tissues, present the same peculiarities of horn in the immediate neighborhood of the injury. Bruises of the sole are followed by this change when the exudation has been excessive and has separated the horn from the living tissues. True, in these cases we rarely see the soft tissues laid bare, for the reason that new horn is constantly secreted and replaces that undergoing disintegration. Laminitis presents three conditions under which pumiced sole may appear: First, when free exudation separates the horn from the other tissues, or when the process of inflammation arrests the production of horn by impairing or destroying the horn-secreting membrane; second, when depression of the coffin bone causes pressure upon and arrests the formation of horn; and, third, when the elevation of the sole compresses the soft tissues against the pedal bone and induces the same condition. Pumiced sole, from simple exudation and separation of tissues, is of little importance for the reason given above in connection with bruises; but when suppuration occurs in restricted portions of the foot in conjunction with laminitis, it always lays bare the tissues beneath and temporarily impairs the animal's value. Recovery takes place after a few weeks by the tissues "horning over," as in injuries attended by the same process. Depression of the coffin bone is not sufficient within itself to cause pumiced sole; for, if the relative change in the bone takes place slowly, or if the horn is thin, the sole becomes convex from gradual pressure and the soft tissues adapt themselves to the change without having their function materially impaired. But when the dropping is sudden and the soft tissues are destroyed, the horn rapidly crumbles away and the toe of the bone comes through. In many of these cases the soft tissues remain uncovered for months. When they are eventually covered it is with a thin, slightly adherent horn that stands but little or no wear. The sole being now convex, the diseased tissues bear unusual weight by coming in contact with the ground, and hence it is that these animals are generally incurable cripples. In most cases in which the sole is raised to meet the pedal bone and pumiced sole occurs it is due not to pressure of the bone from within (for the tissues are capable of adapting themselves to the gradual change) but to impaired vitality of the sensitive tissues from the inflammation and to the constant concussion and pressure applied from without during progression. To this is to be added the paring away of the horn when applying the shoe, thereby keeping the sole at this point too thin. _Turning up of the toe._--In many cases of laminitis which have become chronic it is found that the toe of the foot turns up; that the heels are longer than natural; while the hoof near the coronary band is circled with ridges like the horn of a ram. Even in cases in which recovery has taken place, and in other diseases than laminitis, these ridges may be found in the wall of the foot. In such cases, however, the ridges are equally distant from one another all around the foot, while in turning up of the toe the ridges are wide apart at the heels and close together in front, as seen in the figure. (Plate XXXVII, fig. 4.) These ridges are produced by periods of interference with the growth of horn alternating with periods during which a normal or nearly normal growth takes place. When the toe turns up it is because the coronary band in front produces horn very slowly, while at the heels it grows much faster, causing marked deformity. Animals so affected always place the abnormally long heel first upon the ground, not alone because the heel is too long, nor as in acute or subacute laminitis to relieve the pain, but for the reason that the toe is too short and lifted away from its natural position. To bring the toe to the ground the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. The pain and impairment of function in these cases always result in marked atrophy of the muscles of the forearm and shoulder, and to some extent of the pectorals, while the position of the fore legs advances the shoulder joints so far forward as to cause a sunken appearance of the breast, which the laity recognize as "chest founder." The lesions of turning up of the toe are permanent, and are the most interesting pathologically of all the complications of laminitis. _Treatment._--The treatment of laminitis is probably more varied than of any other disease, and yet a large number of cases recover for even the poorest practitioner. _Prevention._--To guard against and prevent disease, or to render an unpreventable attack less serious than it otherwise would be, is the highest practice of the healing art. In a disease so prone to result from the simplest causes, especially when the soundest judgment may not be able to determine the extent of the disease-resisting powers of the tissues which are liable to be affected, or of what shall in every instance constitute an overexcitement, it is not strange that horse owners find themselves in trouble from unintentional transgression. If the disease were dependent upon specific causes, or if the stability of the tissues were of a fixed or more nearly determinate quality, some measures might be instituted that would prove generally preventive; but the predisposing causes are common conditions and often can not be remedied. That which is gentle work in one instance may incite disease in another. That which is feed to-day may to-morrow prove disastrous to health. Finally, necessary medical interference, no matter how judicious, may cause a more serious complaint than that which was being treated. Notwithstanding these difficulties there are some general rules to be observed that will in part serve to prevent the development of an unusual number of cases. First of all the predisposing causes must be removed when possible; when impossible, unusual care must be taken not to bring an exciting cause into operation. Under no circumstances should fat animals have hard work. If the weather is warm or the variation of temperature great, all horses should have but slow, gentle labor until they become inured to it, the tissues hardened, and their excitability reduced to a minimum. Green horses should have moderate work, particularly when taken from the farm and dirt roads to city pavements; for under these circumstances increased concussion, changed hygienic conditions, and artificial living readily become active causes of the disease. Army horses just out of winter quarters, track horses with insufficient preparation, and farmers' horses put to work in the spring are among the most susceptible classes, and must be protected by work that is easy and gradual. If long marches or drives are imperative, the incumbrances must be as light as possible and the journey interspersed with frequent rests, for this allows the laminæ to regain their impaired functional activity and to withstand much more work without danger. Furthermore, it permits early detection of an attack, and prevents working after the disease begins, which renders subsequent medication more effective by cutting the process short at the stage of congestion. All animals when resting immediately after work should be protected from cold air or drafts. If placed in a stable that is warm and without draft, no covering is necessary; under opposite conditions blankets should be used until the excitement and exhaustion of labor have entirely passed away. It is still better that all animals coming in warm from work be "cooled out" by slow walking until the perspiration has dried and the circulation and respiration are again normal. Animals stopped on the road even for a few moments should always be protected from rapid change of temperature by appropriate clothing. If it can be avoided, horses that are working should never be driven or ridden through water. If unavoidable, they should be cooled off before passing through, and then kept moving until completely dried. The same care is to be practiced with washing the legs in cold water when just in from work, for occasionally it proves to be the cause of a most acute attack of this disease. Unusual changes in the manner of applying the shoes should not be hastily made. If a plane shoe has been worn, high heels or toes must not be substituted at once; but the change, if necessary, should gradually be made, so that the different tissues may adapt themselves to the altered conditions. If radical changes are imperative, as is sometimes the case, the work must be so reduced in quantity and quality that it can not excite the disease. Laminitis from the effects of purgatives can scarcely be guarded against. I can not determine from the cases in which I have seen this result that there are any conditions present that would warn us of danger. The trouble does not seem to depend upon the size of the purgative, the length of time before purgation begins, or the activity and severity with which the remedy acts. Medicines known to have unusually irritating effects on the alimentary canal should be used only when necessity demands it, and then in moderate doses. Experience alone will determine what animals are liable to suffer from this disease through the use of feeds. When an attack can be ascribed to any particular feed it should be withheld, unless in small quantities. Horses that have never been fed upon Indian corn should receive but a little of it at a time, mixed with bran, oats, or other feed, until it has been determined that no danger exists. Corn is less safe in warm than in cold weather, and for this reason it should always be fed with caution during spring and summer months. When an animal is excessively lame in one foot the shoe of the opposite member should be removed, and cold water frequently applied to the well foot. At the same time, if the subject remains standing, the slings should be used. Horses should under no circumstances be overworked; to guard against this, previous work, nature of roads, state of weather, and various other influences must be carefully considered. Watering while warm is a pernicious habit, and, unless the animal is accustomed to it, is liable to result in some disorder, ofttimes in laminitis. _Curative measures._--In cases of simple congestion of the laminæ the body should be warmly clothed and warm drinks administered. The feet should be placed in a warm bath to increase the return flow of blood. In course of an hour the feet may be changed to cold water and kept there until recovery is completed. If the constitutional symptoms demand it, diuretics should be given. Half-ounce doses of saltpeter three times a day in the water answer the purpose. In cases of active congestion the warm footbaths should be omitted and cold ones used from the commencement. Subacute laminitis demands the same treatment, with laxatives if there is constipation, and the addition of low-heeled shoes. The diuretics may need to be continued for some time and their frequency increased. Regarding acute laminitis, what has been called the "American treatment" is simple and efficient. It consists solely in the administration of large doses of nitrate of potash and the continued application to the feet and ankles of cold water. Three to four ounces of saltpeter in a pint of water, repeated every six hours, is a proper dose. The laminitis frequently subsides within a week. These large doses may be continued for a week without danger. Under no circumstances have I seen the kidneys irritated to excess or other unfavorable effects produced. The feet should be kept in a tub of water at a temperature of 45° to 50° F., unless the animal is lying down, when swabs are to be used and wet every half hour with the cold water. The water keeps the horn soft and moist and acts directly upon the inflamed tissues by reducing the temperature. Cold maintains the vitality and disease-resisting qualities of the soft tissues, tones up the coats of the blood vessels, diminishes the supply of blood, and limits the exudation. Furthermore, it has an anesthetic effect upon the diseased tissues and relieves the pain. Aconite may be given in conjunction with the niter when the heart is greatly excited and beats strongly. Ten-drop doses, repeated every 2 hours for 24 hours, are sufficient. The use of cathartics is dangerous, for they may excite superpurgation. Usually the niter will relieve the constipation; yet if it should prove obstinate, laxatives may be carefully given. Bleeding, both general and local, should be guarded against. The shoes must be early removed and the soles left unpared. Paring of the soles presents two objections: First, while it may temporarily relieve the pain by relieving pressure, it favors greater exudation, which may more than counterbalance the good effects. Secondly, it makes the feet tender and subject to bruises when the animal again goes to work. The shoes should be replaced when convalescence sets in and the animal is ready to take exercise. Exercise should never be enforced until the inflammation has subsided; for although it temporarily relieves the pain and soreness it maintains the irritation, increases the exudation, and postpones recovery. If at the end of the fifth or sixth day prominent symptoms of recovery are not apparent, apply a stiff blister of cantharides around the coronet and omit the niter for about 48 hours. When the blister is well set, the feet may again receive wet swabs. If one blister does not remove the soreness it may be repeated, or the actual cautery applied. The same treatment should be adopted where sidebones form or inflammation of the coronet bone follows. When the sole breaks through, exposing the soft tissues, the feet must be carefully shod with thin heels and thick toes if there is a tendency to walk on the heels, and the sole must be well protected with appropriate dressings and pressure over the exposed parts. When there is turning up of the toe, blistering of the coronet, _in front only_, sometimes stimulates the growth of horn, but as a rule judicious shoeing is the only treatment that will enable the animal to do light, slow work. When suppuration of the laminæ is profuse, it is better to destroy your patient at once and relieve his suffering: but if the suppuration is limited to a small extent of tissue, especially of the sole, treatment, as in acute cases, may induce recovery and should always be tried. If from bed sores or other causes septicemia or pyemia is feared, the bisulphite of soda, in half-ounce doses, may be given in conjunction with tonics and such other treatment as is indicated in these diseases. As to enforced recumbency I doubt the propriety of insisting on it in the majority of cases, for I think the patient usually assumes whatever position gives most comfort. No doubt recumbency diminishes the amount of blood sent to the feet, and may greatly relieve the pain, so that forcing the patient to lie down may be tried, yet should not be renewed if he thereafter persists in standing. When the animal persistently stands, or constant lying indicates it (to prevent extensive sores), the patient should be placed in slings. When all four feet are affected it may be impossible to use slings, for the reason that the patient refuses to support any of his weight and simply hangs in them. Lastly, convalescent cases must not be returned to work too early, else permanent recovery may never be effected. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University._ As we find them described in systematic works, the diseases of the skin are very numerous and complex, which may be largely accounted for by the fact that the cutaneous covering is exposed to view at all points, so that shades of difference in inflammatory and other diseased processes are easily seen and distinguished from one another. In the horse the hairy covering serves to some extent to mask the symptoms, and hence the nonprofessional man is tempted to apply the term "mange" to all alike, and it is only a step further to apply the same treatment to all these widely different disorders. Yet even in the hairy quadruped the distinction can be made in a way which can not be done in disorders of that counterpart and prolongation of the skin--the mucous membrane, which lines the air passages, the digestive organs, the urinary and generative apparatus. Diseased processes, therefore, which in these organs it might be difficult or impossible to distinguish from one another, can usually be separated and recognized when appearing in the skin. Nor is this differentiation unimportant. The cutaneous covering presents such an extensive surface for the secretion of cuticular scales, hairs, horn, sebaceous matter, sweat, and other excretory matters, that any extensive disorder in its functions may lead to serious internal disease and death. Again, the intimate nervous sympathy of different points of the skin with particular internal organs renders certain skin disorders causative of internal disease and certain internal diseases causative of affections of the skin. The mere painting of the skin with an impermeable coating of glue is speedily fatal; a cold draft striking on the chest causes inflammation of the lungs or pleura; a skin eruption speedily follows certain disorders of the stomach, the liver, the kidneys, or even the lungs; simple burns of the skin cause inflammations of internal organs, and inflammation of such organs cause in their turn eruptions on the skin. The relations--nervous, secretory, and absorptive--between the skin and internal organs are most extensive and varied, and therefore a visible disorder in the skin may point at once and specifically to a particular fault in diet, to an injudicious use of cold water when the system is heated, to a fault in drainage, ventilation, or lighting of the stables, to indigestion, to liver disease, to urinary disorder, etc. [Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII. THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES.] STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. The skin consists primarily of two parts: (1) The superficial nonvascular (without blood vessels) layer, the cuticle, or epidermis; and (2) the deep vascular (with blood vessels) layer, the corium, dermis, or true skin. (See Pl. XXXVIII, fig. 1.) The cuticle is made up of cells placed side by side and more or less modified in shape by their mutual compression and by surface evaporation and drying. The superficial stratum consists of the cells dried in the form of scales, which fall off continually and form dandruff. The deep stratum (the mucous layer) is formed of somewhat rounded cells with large central nuclei, and in colored skin containing numerous pigment granules. These cells have prolongations, or branches, by which they communicate with one another and with the superficial layer of cells in the true skin beneath. Through these prolongations they receive nutrient liquids for their growth and increase, and pass on liquids absorbed by the skin into the vessels of the true skin beneath. The living matter in the cells exercises an equally selective power on what they shall take up for their own nourishment and on what they shall admit into the circulation from without. Thus, certain agents, like iodin and belladonna, are readily admitted, whereas others, like arsenic, are excluded by the sound, unbroken epidermis. Between the deep and superficial layers of the epidermis there is a thin, translucent layer (septum lucidum) consisting of a double stratum of cells, and forming a medium of transition from the deep spheroidal to the superficial scaly cuticle. The true skin, or dermis, has a framework of interlacing bundles of white and yellow fibers, large and coarse in the deeper layers, and fine in the superficial, where they approach the cuticle. Between the fibrous bundles are left interspaces which, like the bundles, become finer as they approach the surface, and inclose cells, vessels, nerves, glands, gland ducts, hairs, and in the deeper layers fat. The superficial layer of the dermis is formed into a series of minute, conical elevations, or papillæ, projecting into the deep portion of the cuticle, from which they are separated by a very fine transparent membrane. This papillary layer is very richly supplied with capillary blood vessels and nerves, and is at once the seat of acute sensation and the point from which the nutrient liquid is supplied to the cells of the cuticle above. It is also at this point that the active changes of inflammation are especially concentrated; it is the immediately superposed cell layers (mucous) that become morbidly increased in the earlier stages of inflammation; it is on the surface of the papillary layer that the liquid is thrown out which raises the cuticle in the form of a blister, and it is at this point mainly that pus forms in the ordinary pustule. The fibrous bundles of the true skin contain plain, muscular fibers, which are not controlled by the will, but contract under the influence of cold and under certain nervous influences, as in some skin diseases and in the chill of a fever, and lead to contraction, tightening, or corrugation of the skin, contributing to produce the "hidebound" of the horseman. Other minute, muscular filaments are extended from the surface of the dermis to the hair follicle on the side to which the hair is inclined, and under the same stimulating influences produce that erection of the hair which is familiarly known as "staring coat." Besides these, the horse's skin is furnished with an expansion of red, voluntary muscle, firmly attached to the fibrous bundles, and by which the animal can not only dislodge insects and other irritants, but even shake off the harness. This fleshy envelope covers the sides of the trunk and the lower portions of the neck and head, the parts unprotected by the mane and tail, and serves to throw the skin of these parts into puckers, or ridges, in certain irritating skin diseases. The hairs are cuticular products growing from an enlarged papilla lodged in the depth of a follicle or sac, hollowed out in the skin and extending to its deepest layers. The hair follicle is lined by cells of epidermis, which at the bottom are reflected on the papilla and become the root of the hair. The hair itself is formed of the same kind of cells firmly adherent to one another by a tough, intercellular substance, and overlapping each other, like slates on a roof, in a direction toward the free end. The sebaceous glands are branching tubes ending in follicles or sacs and opening into the hair follicles, lined by a very vascular fibrous network representing the dermis, and an internal layer of cells representing the mucous layer of the cuticle. The oily secretion gives gloss to the hair and prevents its becoming dry and brittle, and keeps the skin soft and supple, protecting it at once against undue exhalation of water and undue absorption when immersed in that medium. Besides those connected with the hair follicles there are numerous, isolated, sebaceous glands, opening directly on the surface of the skin, producing a somewhat thicker and more odorous secretion. They are found in large numbers in the folds of the skin, where chafing would be liable if the surface were dry, as on the sheath, scrotum, mammary glands, and inner side of the thigh, around the anus and vulva, in the hollow of the heel, beneath the fine horn of the frog, on the inner side of the elbow, on the lips, nostrils, and eyelids. When closed by dried secretion or otherwise these glands may become distended so as to form various-sized swellings on the skin, and when inflamed they may throw out offensive, liquid discharges, as in "grease," or produce red, tender fungous growths ("grapes.") The sweat glands of the horse, like those of man, are composed of simple tubes, which extend down through the cuticle and dermis in a spiral manner, and are coiled into balls in the deeper layer of the true skin. In addition to their importance in throwing offensive waste products out of the system, these glands tend to cool the skin and the entire economy of the animal through the evaporation of their watery secretion. Their activity is therefore a matter of no small moment, as besides regulating the animal heat and excreting impurities, they influence largely the internal organs through the intimate sympathy maintained between them and the skin. Diseases of the skin may be conveniently divided, according to their most marked features, into-- (1) Those in which congestion and inflammation are the most marked features, varying according to the grade or form into (a) congestion with simple redness, dryness, and heat, but no eruption (erythema); (b) inflammation with red-pointed elevations, but no blisters (papules); (c) inflammation with fine, conical elevations, each surmounted by a minute blister (vesicle); (d) inflammation with a similar eruption but with larger blisters, like half a pea and upwards (bullæ); (e) inflammation with a similar eruption, but with a small sac of white, creamy pus on the summit of each elevation (pustules); (f) the formation of pustules implicating the superficial layer of the true skin, a small portion of which dies and is thrown off as a slough, or "core" (boils); (g) the formation of round, nodular, transient swellings in the true skin (tubercles); and (h) the excessive production of scales, or dandruff (scaly or squamous affections). (2) Diseases in which there are only deranged sensations of itching, heat, tenderness, etc. (neurosis). (3) Diseased growths, such as warts, callosities, horny growths, cancer, etc. (4) Diseases from parasites, animal and vegetable. (5) Diseases connected with a specific poison, such as horsepox, erysipelas, anthrax, farcy, or cutaneous glanders, etc. (6) Physical injuries, like wounds, burns, scalds, etc. CONGESTION (RED EFFLORESCENCE, OR ERYTHEMA). This is a congested or slightly inflamed condition of the skin, unattended with any eruption. The part is slightly swollen, hot, tender, or itchy, and dry, and if the skin is white there is redness. The redness is effaced by pressure, but reappears instantly when it is removed. Except in transient cases the hairs are liable to be shed. It may be looked on as the first stage of inflammation, and therefore when it becomes aggravated it may merge in part or in whole into a papular, vesicular, or pustular eruption. Erythema may arise from a variety of causes, and is often named in accordance with its most prominent cause. Thus the chilling, or partial freezing, of a part will give rise to a severe reaction and congestion. When snowy or icy streets have been salted this may extend to severe inflammation, with vesicles, pustules, or even sloughs of circumscribed portions of the skin of the pastern (chilblain, frost-bite). Heat and burning have a similar effect, and this often comes from exposure to the direct rays of the sun. The skin that does not perspire is the most subject, and hence the white face or white limb of a horse becoming dried by the intensity of the sun's rays often suffers to the exclusion of the rest of the body (white face and foot disease). The febrile state of the general system is also a potent cause; hence the white-skinned horse is rendered the more liable if kept on a heating ration of buckwheat, or even of wheat or maize. Contact of the skin with oil of turpentine or other essential oils, with irritant liquids, vegetable or mineral, with rancid fats, with the acrid secretions of certain animals, like the irritating toad, with pus, sweat, tears, urine, or liquid feces, will produce congestion or even inflammation. Chafing is a common cause, and is especially liable to affect the fat horse between the thighs, by the side of the sheath or scrotum, on the inner side of the elbow, or where the harness chafes on the poll, shoulder, back, breastbone, and under the tail. The accumulation of sweat and dust between the folds of the skin and on the surface of the harness, and the specially acrid character of the sweat in certain horses, contribute to chafing or "intertrigo." The heels often become congested owing to the irritation caused by the short, bristly hairs in clipped heels. Again, congestion may occur from friction by halter, harness, or other foreign body under the pastern, or inside the thigh or arm, or by reason of blows from another foot (cutting, interfering, overreach). Finally, erythema is especially liable to occur in spring, when the coat is being shed, and the hair follicles and general surface are exposed and irritable in connection with the dropping of the hairs. If due only to a local irritant, congestion will usually disappear when the cause has been removed, but when the feeding or system is at fault these conditions must be first corrected. While the coat is being shed the susceptibility will continue, and the aim should be to prevent the disease from developing and advancing so as to weaken the skin, render the susceptibility permanent, and lay the foundation of persistent or frequently recurring skin disease. Therefore at such times the diet should be nonstimulating, any excess of grain, and above all of buckwheat, Indian corn, or wheat, being avoided. A large grain ration should not be given at once on return from hard work, when the general system and stomach are unable to cope with it; the animal should not be given more than a swallow or two of cold water when perspiring and fatigued, nor should he be allowed a full supply of water just after his grain ration; he should not be overheated or exhausted by work, nor should dried sweat and dust be allowed to accumulate on the skin or on the harness pressing on it. The exposure of the affected heels to damp, mud, and snow, and, above all, to melting snow, should be guarded against; light, smooth, well-fitting harness must be obtained, and where the saddle or collar irritates an incision should be made in them above and below the part that chafes, and, the padding between having been removed, the lining should be beaten so as to make a hollow. A zinc shield in the upper angle of the collar will often prevent chafing in front of the withers. _Treatment._--Wash the chafed skin and apply salt water (one-half ounce to the quart), extract of witch-hazel, a weak solution of oak bark, or camphorated spirit. If the surface is raw use bland powders, such as oxid of zinc, lycopodium, starch, or smear the surface with vaseline, or with 1 ounce of vaseline intimately mixed with one-half dram each of opium and sugar of lead. In cases of chafing rest must be strictly enjoined. If there is constitutional disorder or acrid sweat, 1 ounce cream of tartar or a teaspoon of bicarbonate of soda may be given twice daily. CONGESTION, WITH SMALL PIMPLES, OR PAPULES. In this affection there is the general blush, heat, etc., of erythema, together with a crop of elevations from the size of a poppy seed to a coffee bean, visible when the hair is reversed or to be felt with the finger where the hair is scanty. In white skins they vary from the palest to the darkest red. All do not retain the papular type, but some go on to form blisters (eczema, bullæ) or pustules, or dry up into scales, or break out into open sores, or extend into larger swellings (tubercles). The majority, however, remaining as pimples, characterize the disease. When very itchy the rubbing breaks them open, and the resulting sores and scales hide the true nature of the eruption. The general and local causes may be the same as for erythema, and in the same subject one portion of the skin may have simple congestion and another adjacent papules. As the inflammatory action is more pronounced, so the irritation and itching are usually greater, the animal rubbing and biting himself severely. This itching is especially severe in the forms which attack the roots of the mane and tail, and there the disease is often so persistent and troublesome that the horse is rendered virtually useless. The bites of insects often produce a papular eruption, but in many such cases the swelling extends wider into a buttonlike elevation, one-half to an inch in diameter. The same remarks apply to the effects of the poison ivy and poison sumac. _Treatment._--In papular eruption first remove the cause, then apply the same general remedies as for simple congestion. In the more inveterate cases use a lotion of one-half ounce sulphid of potassium in 2 quarts of water, to which a little Castile soap has been added, or use a wash with one-half ounce oil of tar, 2 ounces Castile soap, and 20 ounces water. INFLAMMATION WITH BLISTERS, OR ECZEMA. In this the skin is congested, thickened, warm (white skins are reddened), and shows a thick crop of little blisters formed by effusions of a straw-colored fluid between the true skin and the cuticle. The blisters may be of any size from a millet seed to a pea, and often crack open and allow the escape of the fluid, which concretes as a slightly yellowish scab or crust around the roots of the hairs. This exudation and the incrustation are especially common where the hairs are long, thick, and numerous, as in the region of the pastern of heavy draft horses. The term eczema is now applied very generally to eruptions of all kinds that depend on internal disorders or constitutional conditions and that tend to recurrences and inveteracy. Eczema may appear on any part of the body, but in horses it is especially common on the heels and the lower parts of the limbs, and less frequently on the neck, shoulder, and abdomen. The limbs appear to be especially liable because of their dependent position, all blood having to return from them against the action of gravity and congestions and swellings being common, because of the abundance of blood vessels in this part of the skin and because of the frequent contact with the irritant dung and urine and their ammoniacal emanations. The legs further suffer from contact with wet and mud when at work, from snow and ice, from drafts of cold air on the wet limbs, from washing with caustic soaps, or from the relaxing effects of a too deep and abundant litter. Among other causes may be named indigestion and the presence of irritant matters in the blood and sweat, the result of patent medicated feeds and condition powders (aromatics, stimulants), green food, new hay, new oats, buckwheat, wheat, maize, diseased potatoes, smut, or ergot in grains, decomposing green feed, brewers' grains, or kitchen garbage. The excitement in the skin, caused by shedding the coat, lack of grooming, hot weather, hot, boiled, or steamed feed conduces to the eruption. Lastly, any sudden change of feed may induce it. The blisters may in part go on to suppuration so that vesicles and pustules often appear on the same patch, and, when raw from rubbing, the true nature of the eruption may be completely masked. In well-fed horses, kept in close stables with little work, eczema of the limbs may last for months and years. It is a very troublesome affection in draft stallions. _Treatment._--This disease is so often the result of indigestion that a laxative of 1 pound Glauber's salt in 3 or 4 quarts water or 1-1/2 pints olive oil is often demanded to clear away irritants from the alimentary canal. Following this, in recent and acute cases, give 2 drams of acetate or bicarbonate of potash twice a day in the drinking water. If the bowels still become costive, give daily 1 ounce sulphate of soda and 20 grains of powdered nux vomica. In debilitated horses combine the nux vomica with one-half ounce powdered gentian root. As a wash for the skin use 1 dram bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram carbolic acid in a quart of water, after having cleansed the surface with tepid water. Employ the same precautions as regards feeding, stabling, and care of harness as in simple congestion of the skin. In the more inveterate forms of eczema more active treatment is required. Soak the scabs in fresh sweet oil, and in a few hours remove these with tepid water and Castile soap; then apply an ointment of sulphur or iodid of sulphur day by day. If this seems to be losing its effect after a week, change for mercurial ointment or a solution of sulphid of potassium, or of hyposulphite of soda, 3 drams to the quart of water. In these cases the animal may take a course of sulphur (1 ounce daily), bisulphite of soda (one-half ounce daily), or of arsenic (5 grains daily) mixed with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda. INFLAMMATION WITH PUSTULES. In this affection the individual elevations on the inflamed skin show in the center a small sac of white, creamy pus, in place of the clear liquid of a blister. They vary in size from a millet seed to a hazelnut. The pustules of glanders (farcy buds) are to be distinguished by the watery contents and the cordlike swelling, extending from the pustules along the line of the veins, and those of boils by the inflammation and sloughing out of a core of the true skin. The hair on the pustule stands erect, and is often shed with the scab which results. When itching is severe the parts become excoriated by rubbing, and, as in the other forms of skin disease, the character of the eruption may become indistinct. Old horses suffer mainly at the root of the mane and tail and about the heels, and suckling foals around the mouth, on the face, inside the thighs, and under the tail. Pustules, like eczema, are especially liable to result from unwholesome feed and indigestion, from a sudden change of feed--above all, from dry to green. In foals it may result from overheating of the mare and allowing the first milk after she returns, or by milk rendered unwholesome by faulty feeding of the dam. If a foal is brought up by hand the souring and other decompositions in the milk derange the digestion and cause such eruption. Vetches and other plants affected with honeydew and buckwheat have been the cause of these eruptions on white portions of the skin. Disorders of the kidneys or liver are common causes of this affection. _Treatment._--Apply soothing ointments, such as benzonated oxid of zinc, or vaseline with 1 dram oxid of zinc in each ounce. Or a wash of 1 dram sugar of lead or 2 drams hyposulphite of soda in a quart of water may be freely applied. If the skin is already abraded and scabby, smear thickly with vaseline for some hours, then wash with soapsuds and apply the above dressings. When the excoriations are indolent they may be painted with a solution of lunar caustic 2 grains to 1 ounce of distilled water. Internally counteract costiveness and remove intestinal irritants by the same means as in eczema, and follow this with one-half ounce doses daily of hyposulphite of soda, and one-half ounce doses of gentian. Inveterate cases may often be benefited by a course of sulphur, bisulphite of soda, or arsenic. In all, the greatest care must be taken with regard to feed, feeding, watering, cleanliness, and work. In wet and cold seasons predisposed animals should, so far as possible, be protected from wet, mud, snow, and melted snow--above all, from that which has been melted by salt. BOILS, OR FURUNCLES. These may appear on any part of the skin, but are especially common on the lower parts of the limbs, and on the shoulders and back where the skin is irritated by accumulated secretion and chafing with the harness. In other cases the cause is constitutional, or attended with unwholesome diet and overwork with loss of general health and condition. They also follow on weakening diseases, notably strangles, in which irritants are retained in the system from overproduction of poisons and effete matter during fever, and imperfect elimination. There is also the presence of a pyogenic bacterium, by which the disease may be maintained and propagated. While boils are pus producing, they differ from simple pustule in affecting the deepest layers of the true skin, and even the superficial layers of the connective tissues beneath, and in the death and sloughing out of the central part of the inflamed mass (core). The depth of the hard, indurated, painful swelling, and the formation of this central mass or core, which is bathed in pus and slowly separated from surrounding parts, serve to distinguish the boil alike from the pustule, from the farcy bud, and from a superficial abscess. _Treatment._--To treat very painful boils a free incision with a lancet in two directions, followed by a dressing with one-half an ounce carbolic acid in a pint of water, bound on with cotton wool or lint, may cut them short. The more common course is to apply a warm poultice of linseed meal or wheat bran, and renew daily until the center of the boil softens, when it should be lanced and the core pressed out. If the boil is smeared with a blistering ointment of Spanish flies and a poultice put over it, the formation of matter and separation of the core is often hastened. A mixture of sugar and soap laid on the boil is equally good. Cleanliness of the skin and the avoidance of all causes of irritation are important items, and a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda once or twice a day will sometimes assist in warding off a new crop. NETTLERASH (SURFEIT, OR URTICARIA). This is an eruption in the form of cutaneous nodules, in size from a hazelnut to a hickory nut, transient, with little disposition to the formation of either blister or pustule, and usually connected with shedding of the coat, sudden changes of weather, and unwholesomeness or sudden change in the feed. It is most frequent in the spring and in young and vigorous animals (good feeders). The swelling embraces the entire thickness of the skin and terminates by an abrupt margin in place of shading off into surrounding parts. When the individual swellings run together there are formed extensive patches of thickened integument. These may appear on any part of the body, and may be general; the eyelids may be closed, the lips rendered immovable, or the nostrils so thickened that breathing becomes difficult and snuffling. It may be attended with constipation or diarrhea or by colicky pains. The eruption is sudden, the whole skin being sometimes covered in a few hours, and it may disappear with equal rapidity or persist for six or eight days. _Treatment._--This consists in clearing out the bowels by 5 drams Barbados aloes, or 1 pound Glauber's salt, and follow the operation of these by daily doses of one-half ounce powdered gentian and 1 ounce Glauber's salt. A weak solution of alum may be applied to the swellings. PITYRIASIS, OR SCALY SKIN DISEASE. This affection is characterized by an excessive production and detachment of dry scales from the surface of the skin (dandruff). It is usually dependent on some fault in digestion and an imperfect secretion from the sebaceous glands and is most common in old horses with spare habit of body. Williams attributes it to feed rich in saccharine matter (carrots, turnips) and to the excretion of oxalic acid by the skin. He has found it in horses irregularly worked and well fed and advises the administration of pitch for a length of time and the avoidance of saccharine feed. Otherwise the horse may take a laxative followed by dram doses of carbonate of potash, and the affected parts may be bathed with soft, tepid water and smeared with an ointment made with vaseline and sulphur. In obstinate cases sulphur may be given daily in the feed. PRURITUS, OR NERVOUS IRRITATION OF THE SKIN. This is seen in horses fed to excess on grain and hay, kept in close stables, and worked irregularly. Though most common in summer, it is often severe in hot, close stables in winter. Pimples, vesicles, and abrasions may result, but as the itching is quite as severe on other parts of the skin, these may be the result of scratching merely. It is especially common and inveterate about the roots of the mane and tail. _Treatment_ consists in a purgative (Glauber's salt, 1 pound), restricted, laxative diet, and a wash of water slightly soured with oil of vitriol and rendered sweet by carbolic acid. If obstinate, give daily 1 ounce of sulphur and 20 grains nux vomica. If the acid lotion fails, 2 drams carbonate of potash and 2 grains of cyanid of potassium in a quart of water will sometimes benefit. If from pinworms in the rectum, the itching of the tail may be remedied by an occasional injection of a quart of water in which chips of quassia wood have been steeped for 12 hours. HERPES. This name has been applied to a disease in which there is an eruption of minute vesicles in circular groups or clusters, with little tendency to burst, but rather to dry up into fine scabs. If the vesicles break, they exude a slight, gummy discharge which concretes into a small, hard scab. It is apparently noncontagious and not appreciably connected with any disorder of internal organs. It sometimes accompanies or follows specific fevers, and is, on the whole, most frequent at the seasons of changing the coat--spring and autumn. It is seen on the lips and pastern, but may appear on any part of the body. The duration of the eruption is two weeks or even more, the tendency being to spontaneous recovery. The affected part is very irritable, causing a sensitiveness and a disposition to rub out of proportion to the extent of the eruption. _Treatment._--It may be treated by oxid of zinc ointment, and to relieve the irritation a solution of opium or belladonna in water, or of sugar of lead or oil of peppermint. A course of bitters (one-half an ounce of Peruvian bark daily for a week) may be serviceable in bracing the system and producing an indisposition to the eruption. BLEEDING SKIN ERUPTIONS, OR DERMATORRHAGIA PARASITICA. In China, Hungary, Spain, and other countries horses frequently suffer from the presence of a threadworm (_Filaria hæmorrhagica_ Railliet, _F. multipapillosa_ Condamine and Drouilly) in the subcutaneous connective tissue, causing effusions of blood under the scurf skin and incrustations of dried blood on the surface. The eruptions, which appear mainly on the sides of the trunk, but may cover any part of the body, are rounded elevations about the size of a small pea, containing blood which bursts through the scurf skin and concretes like a reddish scab around the erect, rigid hairs. These swellings appear in groups, which remain out for several days, gradually diminishing in size; new groups appear after an interval of three or four weeks, the manifestation being confined to three or four months of spring and disappearing in winter. A horse will suffer for several years in succession and then permanently recover. A fatal issue is not unknown. To find the worm the hair is shaved from the part where the elevations are felt, and as soon as a bleeding point is shown the superficial layer is laid open with the knife, when the parasite will be seen drawing itself back into the parts beneath. The worm is about 2 inches long and like a stout thread, thicker toward the head than toward the tail, and with numerous little conical elevations (papillæ) around the head. The young worms are numerous in the body of the adult female worm. The worm has become common in given localities, and probably enters the system with feed or water. _Treatment_ is not satisfactory, but the affected surface should be kept clean by sponging, and the pressure of harness on any affected part must be avoided. Thus rest may become essential. The part may be frequently washed with a strong solution of potassium sulphid. SUMMER SORES FROM FILARIA IRRITANS. The summer sores of horses (dermatitis granulosa, boils) have been traced to the presence in the skin of another parasite, 3 millimeters in length and extremely attenuated (_Filaria irritans_ Railliet). The sores may be seen as small as a millet seed, but more frequently the size of a pea, and may become an inch in diameter. They may appear on any point, but are especially obnoxious where the harness presses or on the lower parts of the limbs. They cause intense and insupportable itching, and the victim rubs and bites the part until extensive raw surfaces are produced. Aside from such friction the sore is covered by a brownish-red, soft, pulpy material with cracks or furrows filled with serous pus. In the midst of the softened mass are small, firm, rounded granulations, fibrinous, and even caseated, and when the soft, pultaceous material has been scraped off, the surface bears a resemblance to the fine, yellow points of miliary tuberculosis in the lung. The worm or its débris is found in the center of such masses. These sores are very obstinate, resisting treatment for months in summer, and even after apparent recovery during the cold season they may appear anew the following summer. In bad cases the rubbing and biting may cause exposure of synovial sacs and tendons, and cause irremediable injury. Even in winter, however, when the diseased process seems arrested, there remain the hard, firm, resistant patches of the skin with points in which the diseased product has become softened like cheese. The apparent subsidence of the disease in winter is attributed to the coldness and comparative bloodlessness of the skin, whereas in summer, with high temperature, active circulation, and rapid cell growth, inflammation is increased, itching follows, and from the animal rubbing the part the irritation is persistently increased. The hotter the climate the more troublesome the disease.[4] _Treatment_ consists, first, in placing the animal in a cool place and showering the surface with cold water. The parasite may be destroyed by rubbing the surface of the wound with iodoform and covering it with a layer of collodion, and repeating the applications very 24 hours for 15 days, or until the sores heal up. Ether or chloroform, poured on cotton wool and applied to the sore for two minutes before painting it with collodion, may be used in place of iodoform.[5] CRACKED HEELS (SCRATCHES, OR CHAPS ON KNEE AND HOCK). This usually sets in with swelling, heat, and tenderness of the hollow of the heel, with erections of the hairs and redness (in white skins), with stiffness and lameness, which may be extreme in irritable horses. Soon slight cracks appear transversely, and may gain in depth and width, and may even suppurate. More frequently they become covered at the edges or throughout by firm incrustations resulting from the drying of the liquids thrown out, and the skin becomes increasingly thick and rigid. A similar condition occurs behind the knee and in front of the hock (malanders and salanders), and may extend from these points to the hoof, virtually incasing that side of the limb in a permanent incrusting sheath. _Causes._--Besides a heavy lymphatic constitution, which predisposes to this affection, the causes are overfeeding on grain, unwholesome fodder, close, hot, dirty stables, constant contact with dung and urine and their emanations, working in deep, irritant mud; above all, in limestone districts, irritation by dry limestones or sandy dust in dry weather on dirt roads; also cold drafts, snow, and freezing mud, washing the legs with caustic soap, wrapping the wet legs in thick woolen bandages which soak the skin and render it sensitive when exposed next day, clipping the heels, weak heart and circulation, natural or supervening on overwork, imperfect nourishment, impure air, lack of sunshine, chronic exhausting, or debilitating diseases, or functional or structural diseases of the heart, liver, or kidneys. These last induce dropsical swelling of the limbs (stocking), weaken the parts, and induce cracking. Finally the cicatrix of a preexisting crack, weak, rigid, and unyielding, is liable to reopen under any severe exertion; hence rapid paces and heavy draft are active causes. _Treatment._--In treatment the first step is to ascertain and remove the cause whenever possible. If there is much local heat and inflammation, a laxative (5 drams aloes or 1 pound Glauber's salt) may be given, and for the pampered animal the grain should be reduced or replaced altogether by bran mashes, flaxseed, and other laxative, nonstimulating feed. In the debilitated, on the other hand, nutritious food and bitter tonics may be given, and even a course of arsenic (5 grains arsenic with 1 dram bicarbonate of soda daily). When the legs swell, exercise on dry roads, hand rubbing, and evenly applied bandages are good, and mild astringents, like extract of witch-hazel, may be applied and the part subsequently rubbed dry and bandaged. If there is much heat but unbroken skin, a lotion of 2 drams sugar of lead to 1 quart of water may be applied on a thin bandage, covered in cold weather with a dry one. The same may be used after the cracks appear, or a solution of sulphurous acid 1 part, glycerin 1 part, and water 1 part, applied on cotton and well covered by a bandage. In case these should prove unsuitable to the particular case, the part may be smeared with vaseline 1 ounce, sugar of lead 1 dram, and carbolic acid 10 drops. INFLAMMATION OF THE HEELS WITH SEBACEOUS SECRETION (GREASE, OR CANKER). This is a specific affection of the heels of horses usually associated with the growth of a parasitic fungus, an offensive discharge from the numerous sebaceous glands, and, in bad cases, the formation of red, raw excrescences (grapes) from the surface. It is to be distinguished (1) from simple inflammation in which the special fetid discharge and the tendency to the formation of "grapes" are absent; (2) from horsepox, in which the abundant exudate forms a firm, yellow incrustation around the roots of the hair, and is embedded at intervals in the pits formed by the individual pocks, and in which there is no vascular excrescence; (3) from foot scabies (mange), in which the presence of an acarus is distinctive; (4) from lymphangitis, in which the swelling appears suddenly, extending around the entire limb as high as the hock, and on the inner side of the thigh along the line of the vein to the groin, and in which there is active fever, and (5) from erysipelas, in which there is active fever (wanting in grease), the implication of the deeper layers of the skin and of the parts beneath giving a boggy feeling to the parts, the absence of the fetid, greasy discharge, and finally a tendency to form pus loosely in the tissues without any limiting membrane, as in abscess. Another distinctive feature of grease is its tendency to implicate the skin which secretes the bulbs or heels of the horny frog and in the cleft of the frog, constituting the disease known as canker. _Causes._--The predisposing causes of grease are essentially the same as those of simple inflammation of the heel, so that the reader may consult the preceding section. Though a specific fungus and bacteria of different kinds are present, they tend mainly to aggravation of the disease, and are not proved to be essential factors in causation. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary according to whether the disease comes on suddenly or more tardily. In the first case there is a sudden swelling of the skin in the heel, with heat, tenderness, itching, and stiffness, which is lessened during exercise. In the slower forms there is seen only a slight swelling after rest, and with little heat or inflammation for a week or more. Even at this early stage, a slight, serous oozing may be detected. As the swelling increases, extending up toward the hock or knees, the hairs stand erect, and are bedewed by moisture no longer clear and odorless, but grayish, milky, and fetid. The fetor of the discharge draws attention to the part whenever one enters the stable, and the swollen pastern and wet, matted hairs on the heel draw attention to the seat of the malady. If actively treated, the disease may not advance further, but if neglected the tense, tender skin cracks open, leaving open sores from which vascular bleeding growths grow up, constituting the "grapes." The hair is shed, and the heel may appear but as one mass of rounded, red, angry excrescences which bleed on handling and are covered with the now repulsively fetid, decomposing discharge. During this time there is little or no fever, the animal feeds well, and but for its local trouble it might continue at work. When the malady extends to the frog, there is a fetid discharge from its cleft or from the depressions at its sides, and this gradually extends to its whole surface and upon the adjacent parts of the sole. The horn meanwhile becomes soft, whitish, and fleshy in aspect, its constituent tubes being greatly enlarged and losing their natural cohesion; it grows rapidly above the level of the surrounding horn, and when pared is found to be penetrated to an unusual depth by the secreting papillæ, and that at intervals these have bulged out into a vascular fungous mass comparable to the "grapes." _Treatment._--In treatment hygienic measures occupy a front rank, but are in themselves insufficient to establish a cure. All local and general conditions which favor the production and persistence of the disease must be guarded against. Above all, cleanliness and purity of the stable and air must be obtained; also nourishing diet, regular exercise, and the avoidance of local irritants--septic, muddy, chilling, etc. At the outset benzoated oxid of zinc ointment may be used with advantage. A still better dressing is made with 1 ounce vaseline, 2 drams oxid of zinc, and 20 drops iodized phenol. If the surface is much swollen and tender, a flaxseed poultice may be applied, over the surface of which has been poured some of the following lotion: Sugar of lead, one-half ounce; carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. All the astringents of the pharmacopoeia have been employed with more or less advantage, and some particular one seems to suit particular cases or patients. To destroy the grapes, they may be rubbed daily with strong caustics (copperas, bluestone, lunar caustic), or each may be tied round its neck with a stout, waxed thread, or, finally and more speedily, they may be cut off by a black-smith's shovel heated to redness and applied with its sharp edge toward the neck of the excrescence, over a cold shovel held between it and the skin to protect the skin from the heat. The cold shovel must be kept cool by frequent dipping in water. After the removal of the grapes the astringent dressing must be persistently applied to the surface. When the frog is affected, it must be pared to the quick and dressed with dry caustic powders (quicklime, copperas, bluestone) or carbolic acid and subjected to pressure, the dressing being renewed every day at least. ERYSIPELAS. This is a specific contagious disease, characterized by spreading, dropsical inflammation of the skin and subcutaneous tissues, attended with general fever. It differs from most specific diseases in the absence of a definite period of incubation, a regular course and duration, and a conferring of immunity on the subject after recovery. On the contrary, one attack of erysipelas predisposes to another, partly, doubtless, by the loss of tone and vitality in the affected tissues, but also, perhaps, because of the survival of the infecting germ. _Cause._--It is no longer to be doubted that the microbes found in the inflammatory product are the true cause of erysipelas, as by their means the disease can be successfully transferred from man to animals and from one animal to another. This transition may be direct or through the medium of infected buildings or other articles. Yet from the varying severity of erysipelas in different outbreaks and localities it has been surmised that various different microbes are operative in this disease, and a perfect knowledge of them might perhaps enable us to divide erysipelas into two or more distinct affections. At present we must recognize it as a specific inflammation due to a bacterial poison and closely allied to septicemia. Erysipelas was formerly known as surgical when it spread from a wound (through which the germ had gained access) and medical, or idiopathic, when it started independently of any recognizable lesion. Depending as it does, however, upon a germ distinct from the body, the disease must be looked upon as such, no matter by what channel the germ found an entrance. Erysipelas which follows a wound is usually much more violent than the other form, the difference being doubtless partly due to the lowered vitality of the wounded tissues and to the oxidation and septic changes which are invited on the raw, exposed surface. As apparently idiopathic cases may be due to infection through bites of insects, the small amount of poison inserted may serve to moderate the violence. This affection may attack a wound on any part of the horse's body, while, apart from wounds, it is most frequent about the head and the hind limbs. It is to be distinguished from ordinary inflammations by its gradual extension from the point first attacked, by the abundant liquid exudation into the affected part, by the tension of the skin over the affected part, by its soft, boggy feeling, allowing it to be deeply indented by the finger, by the abrupt line of limitation between the diseased and the healthy skin, the former descending suddenly to the healthy level instead of shading off slowly toward it, by the tendency of the inflammation to extend deeply into the subjacent tissues and into the muscles and other structures, by the great tendency to death and sloughing of portions of skin and of the structures beneath, by the formation of pus at various different points throughout the diseased parts without any surrounding sac to protect the surrounding structures from its destructive action, and without the usual disposition of pus to advance harmlessly toward the surface and escape; and, finally, by a low, prostrating type of fever, with elevated temperature of the body, coated tongue, excited breathing, and loss of appetite. The pus when escaping through a lancet wound is grayish, brownish, or reddish, with a heavy or fetid odor, and inter-mixed with shreds of broken-down tissues. The most destructive form, however, is that in which pus is deficient and gangrene and sloughing more speedy and extensive. _Treatment_ resolves itself mainly into the elimination from the system of the poisonous products of the bacteria by laxatives and diuretics, the sustaining of the failing vitality by tonics and stimulants, above all those of the nature of antiferments, and the local application of astringent and antiseptic agents. Internal treatment may consist in 4 drams tincture of muriate of iron and one-half dram muriate of ammonia or chlorate of potash, given in a pint of water every two hours. To this may be added, liberally, whisky or brandy when the prostration is very marked. Locally a strong solution of iron, alum, or of sulphate of iron and laudanum may be used; or the affected part may be painted with tincture of muriate of iron or with iodized phenol. In mild cases a lotion of 4 drams sugar of lead and 2 ounces laudanum in a quart of water may be applied. It is desirable to avoid the formation of wounds and the consequent septic action, yet when pus has formed and is felt by fluctuation under the finger to be approaching the surface it should be freely opened with a clean, sharp lancet, and the wound thereafter disinfected daily with carbolic acid 1 part to water 10 parts, with a saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda, or with powders of iodoform or salol. HORSEPOX, ANTHRAX, AND CUTANEOUS GLANDERS (FARCY). These subjects are discussed under the head of contagious diseases. CALLOSITIES. These are simple thickening and induration of the cuticle by reason of continued pressure, notably in lying down on a hard surface. Being devoid of hair, they cause blemishes; hence, smooth floors and good bedding should be provided as preventives. HORNY SLOUGHS (SITFASTS), OR SLOUGHING CALLOSITIES. These are circumscribed sloughs of limited portions of the skin, the result of pressure by badly fitting harness or by irritating masses of dirt, sweat, and hairs under the harness. They are most common under the saddle, but may be found under collar or breeching as well. The sitfast is a piece of dead tissue which would be thrown off but that it has formed firm connections with the fibrous skin beneath, or even deeper with the fibrous layers (fascia) of the muscles, or with the bones, and is thus bound in its place as a persistent source of irritation. The hornlike slough may thus involve the superficial part of the skin only, or the whole thickness of the skin, and even of some of the structures beneath. The first object is to remove the dead irritant by dissecting it off with a sharp knife, after which the sore may be treated with simple wet cloths or a weak carbolic-acid lotion, like a common wound. If the outline of the dead mass is too indefinite, a linseed-meal poultice will make its outline more evident to the operator. If the fascia or bone has become gangrenous, the dead portion must be removed with the hornlike skin. During and after treatment the horse must be kept at rest or the harness must be so adjusted that no pressure can come near the affected parts. (See also page 496.) WARTS. These are essentially a morbid overgrowth of the superficial papillary layer of the skin and of the investing cuticular layer. They are mostly seen in young horses, about the lips, eyelids, cheeks, ears, beneath the belly, and on the sheath, but may develop anywhere. The smaller ones may be clipped off with scissors and the raw surface cauterized with bluestone. The larger may be sliced off with a sharp knife, or if with a narrow neck they may be twisted off and then cauterized. If very vascular they may be strangled by a wax thread or cord tied around their necks, at least three turns being made around and the ends being fixed by passing them beneath the last preceding turn of the cord, so that they can be tightened day by day as they slacken by shrinkage of the tissues. If the neck is too broad it may be transfixed several times with a double-threaded needle and then be tied in sections. Very broad warts that can not be treated in this way may be burned down with a soldering bolt at a red heat to beneath the surface of the skin, and any subsequent tendency to overgrowth kept down by bluestone. BLACK PIGMENT TUMORS, OR MELANOSIS. These are common in gray and in white horses on the naturally black parts of the skin at the roots of the tail, around the anus, vulva, udder, sheath, eyelids, and lips. They are readily recognized by their inky-black color, which extends throughout the whole mass. They may appear as simple, pealike masses, or as multiple tumors aggregating many pounds, especially around the tail. In the horse these are usually simple tumors, and may be removed with the knife. In exceptional cases they prove cancerous, as they usually are in man. EPITHELIAL CANCER, OR EPITHELIOMA. This sometimes occurs on the lips at the angle of the mouth and elsewhere in the horse. It begins as a small, wartlike tumor, which grows slowly at first, but finally bursts open, ulcerates, and extends laterally and deeply in the skin and other tissues, destroying them as it advances (rodent ulcer). It is made up of a fibrous framework and numerous round, ovoid, or cylindrical cavities, lined with masses of epithelial cells, which may be squeezed out as a fetid, caseous material. Early and thorough removal with the knife is the most successful treatment. VEGETABLE PARASITES OF THE SKIN. (Pl. XXXVIII, figs. 2, 3, 4.) PARASITE: _Trichophyton tonsurans._ MALADY: _Tinea tonsurans, or circinate ringworm._--This is especially common in young horses coming into training and work, in low-conditioned colts in winter and spring after confinement indoors, during molting, in lymphatic rather than nervous subjects, and at the same time in several animals that have herded together. The disease is common to man, and among the domestic animals to horse, ox, goat, dog, cat, and in rare instances to sheep and swine. Hence it is common to find animals of different species and their attendants suffering at once, the diseases having been propagated from one to the other. _Symptoms._--In the horse the symptoms are the formation of a circular, scurfy patch where the fungus has established itself, the hairs of the affected spot being erect, bristly, twisted, broken, or split up and dropping off. Later the spot first affected has become entirely bald, and a circular row of hairs around this are erect, bristly, broken, and split. These in turn are shed and a new row outside passes through the same process, so that the extension is made in more or less circular outline. The central bald spot, covered with a grayish scurf and surrounded by a circle of broken and split hairs, is characteristic. If the scurf and diseased hairs are treated with caustic-potash solution and put under the microscope, the natural cells of the cuticle and hair will be seen to have become transparent, while the groups of spherical cells and branching filaments of the fungus stand out prominently in the substance of both, dark and unchanged. The eruption usually appears on the back, loins, croup, chest, and head. It tends to spontaneous recovery in a month or two, leaving for a time a dappled coat from the spots of short, light-colored hair of the new growth. The most effective way of reaching the parasite in the hair follicles is to extract the hairs individually, but in the horse the mere shaving of the affected part is usually enough. It may then be painted with tincture of iodin twice a day for two weeks. Germs about the stable may be covered up or destroyed by a whitewash of freshly burned quicklime, the harness, brushes, etc., may be washed with caustic soda, and then smeared with a solution of corrosive sublimate one-half dram and water 1 pint. The clothing may be boiled and dried. PARASITE: _Achorion schönleini._ MALADY: _Favus, or honeycomb ringworm._--Mégnin and Goyau, who describe this in the horse, say that it loses its characteristic honeycomb or cup-shaped appearance, and forms only a series of closely aggregated, dry, yellowish crusts the size of hemp seed on the trunk, shoulders, flanks, or thighs. They are accompanied by severe itching, especially at night. The cryptogam, formed of spherical cells with a few filaments only, grows in the hair follicles and on the cuticle, and thus a crust often forms around the root of a hair. Like the other cryptogams, their color, as seen under the microscope, is unaffected by acetic acid, alcohol, ether, or oil of turpentine, while the cells are turned bluish by iodin. For treatment, remove the hair and apply tincture of iodin or corrosive sublimate lotion, as advised under the last paragraph. PARASITE: _Microsporon furfur._ MALADY: _Parasitic pityriasis._--This attacks the horse's head where the harness presses, and leads to dropping of the hair, leaving bald patches covered with a branlike scurf, without any eruption, heat, tenderness, swelling, or rigidity of the skin. A lotion of carbolic acid 1 dram and water 2-1/2 ounces is usually applied to effect a cure. ANIMAL PARASITES OF THE SKIN.[6] ACARIASIS, OR MANGE. This affection is due to the irritation of the skin caused by the presence of nearly microscopic acari, or mites. The disease varies, however, according to the species of acarus which infests the skin, so that we must treat of several different kinds of acariasis. PARASITE: _Sarcoptes scabiei equi._ MALADY: _Sarcoptic acariasis._--This is the special _Sarcoptes_ of the horse, but under favorable conditions it can be transmitted to ass and mule, and even to man, and may live indefinitely on the human skin. The mite (Pl. XXXIX, fig. 1) is nearly microscopical, but may be detected with a magnifying lens among moving scurf taken from the infected skin. Like all _Sarcoptes_, it burrows little galleries in and beneath the scurf skin, where it hides and lays its eggs and where its young are hatched. It is therefore often difficult to find the parasite on the surface, unless the skin has been heated by a temporary exposure to the sun or in a warm room. The mite may be detected more readily by placing scrapings on black cardboard and warming, or better by macerating scabs or scrapings in a solution of caustic soda or potash and then examining them microscopically. Like other acari, this is wonderfully prolific, a new generation of fifteen individuals being possible every fifteen days, so that in three months the offspring of a single pair may produce generations aggregating 1,500,000 young. The _Sarcoptes_ have less vitality than the nonburrowing acari, as they die in an hour when kept apart from the skin in dry air at a heat of 145° F. They live 12 to 14 days apart from the skin in the damp air of a stable. On a piece of damp hide they lived till the twenty-fourth day, when they began to die, and all were dead on the twenty-eighth. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are an incessant, intolerable, and increasing itching of some part of the skin (head, mane, tail, back, etc.), the horse inclining himself toward the hand that scratches him, and moving his lips as if himself scratching. The hairs may be broken and rubbed off, but the part is never entirely bald, as in ringworm, and there may be papules or any kind of eruption or open sores from the energy of the scratching. Scabs of any thickness may form, but the special features are the intense itching and the presence of the acarus. _Treatment_ consists in the removal of the scabs by soapsuds, and, if necessary, a brush and the thorough application of tobacco 1-1/2 ounces and water 2 pints, prepared by boiling. This may be applied more than once, and should always be repeated after 15 days, to destroy the new brood that may have been hatched in the interval. All harness and stable utensils should be similarly treated; blankets and rubbers may be boiled, and the stalls should be covered with a whitewash of quicklime, containing one-fourth pound of chlorid of lime to the gallon. When there are too many animals to treat by means of hand dressings, the lime-and-sulphur dip or the tobacco dip may be used and are very effective, though the cresol dips are fairly effective. These dips may be purchased and made up in the dilution called for on the container. The affected animals may be dipped when the number warrants it and facilities are available; otherwise the dips may be applied with a swab or a spray pump. Directions for constructing a dipping vat may be obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture on application. Any treatment used should be repeated in the course of 10 to 14 days. If the stables are not disinfected, animals should be removed after treatment and put in clean stables or on clean pasture for at least a month to allow the mites in the infested stables to die. Otherwise the disease may recur. PARASITE: _Psoroptes equi_ (_Dermatocoptes equi_, _Dermatodectes equi_). MALADY: _Psoroptic acariasis._--Psoroptic mange is less common than sarcoptic mange in horses, and as the parasite (Pl. XXXIX, fig. 3) only bites the surface and lives among the crusts under the shelter of the hair, it is very easily discovered. It reproduces itself with equal rapidity and causes similar symptoms to those produced by the _Sarcoptes_. The same treatment will suffice and is more promptly effectual. The purifying of the stable must be more thorough, as the _Psoroptes_ will survive twenty to thirty days in the moist atmosphere of a stable, and may even revive after six or eight weeks when subjected to moist warmth. Infested pastures will therefore prove dangerous to horses for that length of time, and, with rubbing posts, etc, should not be used. PARASITE: _Chorioptes equi_ (_Symbiotes equi_, _Dermatophagus equi_, _Chorioptes spathiferus_). MALADY: _Foot mange._--The acarus (Pl. XXXIX, fig. 2) attacks the heels and lower parts of the legs, especially the hind ones, and may be present for years without extending upon the body. Like the _Psoroptes_; it lives on the surface, on the hairs, and among the scabs. It gives rise to great itching, stamping, rubbing of the one leg with the other, and the formation of papules, wounds, ulcerous sores, and scabs. The intense itching will always suggest this parasite, and the discovery of the acarus will identify the disease. The treatment is the same as for the _Sarcoptes_, but may be confined to the legs and the parts with which they come in contact. PARASITE: _Dermanyssus gallinæ, or chicken acari._ MALADY: _Poultry acariasis._--This is a large-sized acarus, though usually miscalled "hen louse," and the disease "poultry lousiness." The mite (Pl. XXXIX, fig. 4) lives in droppings and in crevices of chicken houses, but temporarily passes on to the skin of man and of the horse and other quadrupeds, when occasion serves. It causes much irritation, with the eruption of papules or vesicles and the formation of sores and scabs. The examination of the skin is usually fruitless, as the attacks are mostly made at night and the effects only may be seen during the day. The proximity of hen manure swarming with the acari explains the trouble, and the removal of this and a white-washing with quicklime, with or without chlorid of lime, will prevent future attacks. The skin may still require bland ointments or lotions, as for congestion. PARASITE: _Larva of a Trombidium, Leptus americanus, or harvest bug, misnamed jigger (chigoe)._ MALADY: _Autumn mange._--This parasite is a brick-red acarus, visible to the naked eye on a dark ground, and living on green vegetation in many localities. It attacks man, and the horse, ox, dog, etc., burrowing under the skin and giving rise to small papules and intolerable irritation. This continues for two or three days only from a single invasion, but will last until cold weather sets in if there is a fresh invasion daily. Horses at pasture suffer mainly on the lower part of the face. If kept indoors the disease will disappear, or if left at pasture a weak tar water or solution of tobacco may be applied to the face. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIX. MITES THAT INFEST THE HORSE.] TICKS. The wood ticks are familiar to inhabitants of uncultivated lands, and prove troublesome parasites to man and beast alike. The tick lives on bushes, and attaches itself to the mammal only to secure a feast of blood, for when gorged it drops off to sleep off its debauch on the soil. The tick produces great irritation by boring into the skin with its armed proboscis. If pulled out, the head and thorax are often left in the skin. They may be covered with oil to shut out the air from their breathing pores, or by touching them with a hot penknife they will be impelled to let go their hold. GRUBS IN SKIN. PARASITE: _Hypoderma lineata_. MALADY: _Larvæ_ (_grubs_) _under the skin_.--The larvæ of a fly (probably _Hypoderma lineata_, whose larvæ in the skin of cattle are commonly known as "warbles") are occasionally found in little sacs beneath the skin of horses. The mature larva escapes in early summer and develops into a fly. In districts where they exist the grubs should be pressed out of the skin in the course of the winter and destroyed. LARV� (GRUBS) ON THE SKIN, OR FLYBLOW. The following flies, among others, deposit their eggs on open sores or on wet, filthy parts of the skin, where their larvæ or grubs give rise to serious trouble: _Lucilia cæsar_ (bluebottle), _Cochliomyia macellaria_ (screwworm fly), _Musca vomitoria_ (meat fly), and _Sarcophaga carnaria_ (flesh fly). To prevent their attacks, wet, filthy hair should be removed and wounds kept clean and rendered antiseptic by a lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 50 parts, or by a mixture of 1 ounce oil of tar in 20 ounces sweet oil, or by some other antiseptic. If the grubs are already present they should be picked off and one of these dressings freely applied. FLIES. A number of flies attack horses and suck their blood, producing great annoyance and in some instances death. These insects not only suck the blood, but also often instill an acid poison into the skin, and in exceptional cases transfer infectious germs from animal to animal by inoculation. Various devices are resorted to to prevent the attacks, as to sponge the skin with a decoction of walnut or elder leaves, of tobacco, to dust with Persian insect powder, to keep a light blanket or fly net on the horse, to close doors and windows with fine screens and destroy by pyrethrum any flies that have gained admission, to remove all manure heaps that would prove breeding places for flies, to keep the stalls clean, deodorize by gypsum, and to spread in them trays of dry chlorid of lime. For the poisoned bites apply ammonia, or a solution of 1 part of carbolic acid in 20 parts of sweet oil or glycerin, or one-fourth ounce bicarbonate of soda and 1 dram of carbolic acid in a quart of water may be used. A large number of fly repellents have been recommended, but most of them must be applied daily in order to maintain the protective effect. Among the things used are carbolic solutions, pine tar, oil of tar, fish oil, laurel oil, oil of citronella, oil of sassafras, oil of camphor, and cod-liver oil. These things must be used judiciously or they will result in poisoning or removal of the hair from the animal in some instances. Ten per cent oil of tar in Beaumont oil or in cottonseed oil was found to be safe and efficacious by Graybill. The use of the fly-maggot trap noted under stomach worms of the horse, and of the various forms of the Hodge flytrap, is recommended. FLEAS. The flea of man and those of poultry, when numerous, will bite the horse and give rise to rounded swellings on the skin. To dispose of them it is needful to clear the surroundings of the grublike larvæ as well as to treat the victim. The soil may be sprinkled with quicklime, carbolic acid, coal tar, or petroleum; the stalls may be deluged with boiling water and afterwards painted with oil of turpentine and littered with fresh pine sawdust, and all blankets should be boiled. The skin may be sponged with a solution of 1 part carbolic acid in 50 parts of water. Other animals should be kept free from fleas or kept away from the vicinity of the stable. The chigoe (_Pulex penetrans_) of the Gulf coast is still more injurious, because it burrows under the surface and deposits its eggs to be hatched out slowly with much irritation. The tumor formed by it should be laid-open and the parasite extracted. If it bursts so that its eggs escape into the wound, they may be destroyed by introducing chloroform into the wound. LICE, OR PEDICULI. Two kinds of lice attack the horse, one of which is furnished with narrow head and a proboscis for perforating the skin and sucking the blood, and the other--the broad-headed kind--with strong mandibles, by which it bites the skin only. The poor condition, itching, and loss of hair should lead to suspicion, and a close examination will detect the lice. They may be destroyed by rubbing the victim with sulphur ointment, or with sulphuret of potassium 4 ounces, water 1 gallon, or with tar water, or the skin may be sponged with benzine. The application should be repeated a week later to destroy all lice hatched from the nits in the interval. Buildings, clothes, etc., should be treated as for fleas. STINGS OF BEES, WASPS, AND HORNETS. These are much more irritating than the bites of flies, partly because the barbed sting is left in the wound and partly because of the quantity and quality of the venom. When a swarm attacks an animal the result may prove fatal. _Treatment_ consists in the application of wet clay, or of a lotion of soda or ammonia, or of carbolic acid, or permanganate of potash, 2 grains to the ounce; or of sugar of lead 2 drams, laudanum 1 ounce, and water 1 pint. The embedded stings should be extracted with fine forceps or even with the finger nails. TARANTULA AND SCORPION. The bite of the first and the sting of the second are poisonous, and may be treated like other insect venom, by carbolated glycerin, or a strong solution of ammonia, or permanganate of potash. SNAKE BITES. These are marked by the double incision caused by the two fangs, by the excessive doughy (dark red) swelling around the wounds, and in bad cases by the general symptoms of giddiness, weakness, and prostration. They are best treated by enormous doses of alcohol, whisky, or brandy, or by aqua ammonia very largely diluted in water, the object being to sustain life until the poison shall have spent its power. As local treatment, if the wound is in a limb, the latter may have a handkerchief or cord tied around it above the injury and drawn tight by a stick twisted into it. In this way absorption may be checked until the poison can be destroyed by the application, of a hot iron or a piece of nitrate of silver or other caustic. A poultice of tobacco leaves is a favorite remedy, and may be used to soothe the sore after cauterization. A treatment which has been highly recommended consists in prompt and vigorous scarification at the site of puncture and rubbing crystals of potassium permanganate into the wound. BURNS AND SCALDS. These subjects are discussed in the following chapter. WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. Wounds of the skin are fully discussed in the next chapter. FOOTNOTES: [3] An outbreak of quittor near Cheyenne, Wyo., which came under the author's observation, was caused by the mud through which the horses had to wade to reach the watering troughs. These troughs were furnished with water by windmills, and the mudholes were caused by the waste water. More than 50 cases developed inside of two months, or during September and October. In these 50 cases all forms of the disease and all possible complications were presented. During the rainy season at Leadville, Colo., outbreaks of quittor are common, and the disease is so virulent that it has long been known as the "Leadville foot rot." The soil being rich in mineral matters is no doubt the cause of the outbreaks. In the city of Montreal quittor is said to be very common in the early springtime, when the streets are muddy from the melting snow and ice. [4] Descazeaux has shown that the worms found in these summer sores are probably larval forms of the stomach worms of the horse, _Habronema megastoma_, _H. microstoma_, and _H. muscæ_. Ransom has shown that the larval stage of _H. muscæ_ develops in the common housefly, the fly becoming infested as a maggot in horse manure. Infestation with the adult worms in the stomach of the horse (Pl. V, fig. 4) may take place through the ingestion of such infested flies, or by the escape of the larva from the proboscis of the fly as it feeds on the moist lips of the horse. In view of this it may be surmised that summer sores may arise as the result of flies so infested feeding on the moisture on the skin of the horse. In some forms of summer sores along the abdomen there are found immature stages of _Habronema_ which apparently have just escaped from the egg and which are younger than some of the stages found in the fly. In this case it is surmised that these embryos from the manure enter the soiled skin of the horse, as it lies down on dirty bedding and manure, and develop in the skin as they would ordinarily in the fly. Descazeaux calls these summer sores cutaneous habronemiasis. Preventive measures consist in the removal of the adult worms from the stomach of the horse by the use of anthelmintics, the destruction of the embryos in the manure, fly-control measures, and the use of clean bedding.--M. C. HALL. [5] Descazeaux recommends the application and injection of 2 to 3 per cent trypanblue, though he states that the only truly efficacious treatment is the early and complete ablation of the invaded tissue.--M. C. H. [6] Revised by M. C. Hall. WOUNDS AND THEIR TREATMENT. By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D., A. M.] DESCRIPTION OF WOUNDS. A wound is an injury to any part of the body involving a solution of continuity or disruption of the affected parts and is caused by violence, with or without laceration of the skin. In accordance with this definition we have the following varieties of wounds: Incised, punctured, contused, lacerated, gunshot, and poisoned. They may further be classified as superficial, deep, or penetrating, and also as unclean, if hair, dirt, or splinters of wood are present; as infected when contaminated with germs, and as aseptic if the wound does not contain germs. An incised wound is a simple cut made with a sharp body, like a knife, producing merely a division of the tissues. The duller the body the more force is required, the more tissues destroyed, and a greater time will be required for healing. In a cut wound the edges are even and definite, while those of a lacerated wound are irregular and torn. Three conditions are present as a result of an incised wound: (1) Pain, (2) hemorrhage, (3) gaping of the wound. The first pain is due to the crushing and tearing of the nerve fibers. In using a sharp knife and by cutting quickly, the animal suffers less pain and healing occurs more rapidly. The secondary pain is usually due to the action of the air and inflammatory processes. When air is kept from the wound pain ceases soon after the lesion is produced. Hemorrhage is absent only in wounds of nonvascular tissues, as the cornea of the eye, the cartilage of joints, and other similar structures. Bleeding may be from the arteries, veins, or capillaries. In the last form of bleeding the blood oozes from the part in drops. Hemorrhage from the veins is dark red and issues in a steady stream without spurting. In arterial bleeding the blood is bright red and spurts with each heart beat. This latter variety of hemorrhage is the most dangerous, and should be stopped at once before attempting any further treatment. Bleeding from small veins and capillaries ceases in a short time spontaneously, while larger vessels, especially arteries, require some form of treatment to cause complete stoppage of the hemorrhage. HEMOSTASIA. By this term is meant the checking of the flow of blood. It may be accomplished by several methods, such as compress bandages, torsion, hot iron, and ligatures. The heat from a hot iron will cause the immediate clotting of the blood in the vessels, and this clot is further supported by the production of a scab, or crust, over the portion seared. The iron should be at a red heat. If at a white heat, the tissue is charred, which makes it brittle and the bleeding is liable to be renewed. If the iron is at a black heat, the tissue will stick to the iron and will pull away from the surface of the wound. Cold water and ice bags quickly stop capillary bleeding, while hot water is preferable in more excessive hemorrhages. Some drugs, called styptics, possess the power of contracting the walls of blood vessels and also of clotting the blood. A solution of the chlorid of iron placed on a wound alone or by means of cotton drenched in the liquid produces a rapid and hard clot. Tannic acid, alum, acetic acid, alcohol, and oil of turpentine are all more or less active in this respect. To check bleeding from large vessels compression may be adopted. When it is rapid and dangerous and from an artery, the fingers may be used for pressing between the wound and the heart (digital compression), but if from a vein, the pressure should be exerted on the other side of the wound. Tourniquet may also be used by passing a strap around the part and tightening after placing a pad over the hemorrhage. The rubber ligature has now replaced the tourniquet and is bound tightly around the limb to arrest the bleeding. Tampons, such as cotton, tow, or oakum, may be packed tightly in the wound and then sewed up. After remaining there for twenty-four or forty-eight hours they are removed. Bleeding may sometimes be easily checked by passing a pin under the vessel and by taking a horsehair and forming a figure 8 by running it above and below the pin, thus causing pressure on the vessel. Torsion is the twisting of the blood vessel until the walls come together and form a barrier to the flow of blood. It may be accomplished by the fingers, forceps, or by running a pin through the vessel, turning it several times, and then running the point into the tissue to keep it in a fixed position. Ligation is the third method for stopping a hemorrhage. The blood vessel should be seized with the artery forceps, a clean thread of silk passed around it, and tied about one-half inch from its end. The silk should be sterilized by placing it in an antiseptic solution so as not to impede the healing process or cause blood poisoning or lockjaw, which often follows the ligation of a vein with unsterilized material. Sometimes it will be impossible to reach the bleeding vessel, so it is necessary to pass the ligature around a mass of tissue which includes the blood vessel. Ligation is the most useful method of arresting hemorrhage, since it disturbs healing least and gives the greatest security against secondary hemorrhage. SUTURES. After the bleeding has been controlled and all foreign bodies removed from the wound, the gaping of the wound is noticeable. It is caused by the contraction of the muscles and elastic fibers, and its degree depends on the extent, direction, and nature of the cut. This gaping will hinder the healing process so that it must be overcome by bringing the edges together by some sort of sutures or pins or by a bandage applied from below upward. As suture material, ordinary cotton thread is good, if well sterilized, as are also horsehair, catgut, silk, and various kinds of wire. If the suture is made too tight the subsequent swelling may cause the stitch to tear out. In order to make a firm suture the depth of the stitch should be the same as the distance the stitch is from the edge of the wound. The deeper the suture the more tissue is embraced and the fewer the number of stitches required. In tying a suture the square or reef knot should be used. Closure of wounds by means of adhesive plaster, collodion, and metal clamps is not practiced to any great extent in veterinary practice. PROCESS OF HEALING. In those cases where perfect stoppage of bleeding, perfect coaptation of the edges of the wound, and perfect cleanliness are obtained, healing occurs within three days, without the formation of granulations, pus, or proud flesh, by what is termed first intention. If wounds do not heal in this manner they will gap somewhat and become warm and painful. Healing then occurs by granulation or suppuration, which is termed healing by second intention. The sides of the wound become covered with granulation tissue which may fill the wound and sometimes overlap the lips, forming a fungoid growth called proud flesh. Under favorable conditions the edges of the wound appear to grow together by the end of the first week, and the whole surface gradually becomes dry, and finally covered with pigmented skin, when the wound is healed. The cause of pus formation in wounds is usually the presence of germs. For this reason the utmost care should be adopted to keep clean wounds aseptic, or free from germs, and to make unclean wounds antiseptic by using antiseptic fluids to kill the microbes present in the wound. The less the injurious action of this fluid on the wound and the greater its power to kill germs, the more valuable it becomes. All antiseptics are not equally destructive, and some germs are more susceptible to one antiseptic than to another. The most important are (1) bichlorid of mercury, which is to be preferred on horses. It becomes weakened in its action if placed in a wooden pail or on an oily or greasy surface. It is used in the strength of 1 part of bichlorid to 1,000 to 5,000 parts of water, according to the delicacy of the tissue to which it is applied. (2) Carbolic acid in from 2 to 5 per cent solution is used on infected wounds and for cleaning instruments, dressings, and sponges. It unites well with oil and is preferred to the bichlorid on a greasy surface. A 5 per cent solution in oil is often used under the name of carbolized oil. (3) Aluminum acetate is an efficient and cheap antiseptic, and is composed of 1 part alum and 5 parts acetate of lead, mixed in 20 parts of water. (4) Boric acid is good, in a 2 to 4 per cent solution, to cleanse wounds and wash eyes. Compound cresol may be used in a 1 to 3 per cent solution in water. Iodoform is one of the most used of the antiseptics, and it also acts as an anodyne, stimulates granulation, and checks wound secretion. A very efficacious and inexpensive powder is made by taking 5 parts of iodoform and 95 parts of sugar, making what is called iodoform sugar. Tannic acid is a useful drug in the treatment of wounds, as it arrests hemorrhage, checks secretion, and favors the formation of a scab. A mixture of 1 part tannic acid and 3 parts iodoform is good in suppurating wounds. Iodol, white sugar, ground and roasted coffee, and powdered charcoal are all used as protectives and absorbents on suppurating surfaces. More depends on the care and the method of application of the drug than on the drug itself. On aseptic wounds use only those antiseptics that do not irritate the tissue. If care is used in the application of the antiseptic, corrosive sublimate or carbolic acid is to be recommended. In order to keep air from the wound and to absorb all wound secretions rapidly, a dressing should be applied. If the wound is aseptic, the dressing should be likewise, such as cotton gauze, sterile cotton, oakum, or tow. This dressing should be applied with uniform pressure at all times and secured by a bandage. Allow it to remain for a week or ten days if the wound is aseptic or if the dressing does not become loose or misplaced or become drenched with secretions from the wound, or if pain, fever, or loss of appetite does not develop. The dressing should then be removed, the wound treated antiseptically, and a sterilized dressing applied. HEALING UNDER A SCAB. This often occurs in small superficial wounds that have been kept aseptic. In order that a scab may form, the wound must not gap, secrete freely, or become infected with germs. The formation of scab is favored by astringents and styptics, such as tannic acid, iodoform, and 5 per cent solution of zinc chlorid. In case of fistulous withers, open joints, or other large, hollow wounds that can not be dressed, antisepsis may be obtained by warm-water irrigation with or without an antiseptic fluid. It should continue day and night, and never be interrupted for more than eight hours, for germs will then have gained headway and will be difficult to remove. Four or five days of irrigation will be sufficient, for granulations will then have formed and pus will remain on the outside if it forms. For permanent irrigation the stream should be very small, or drop by drop, but should play over the entire surface of the wound. It is always better to heal an infected wound under a scab, or treat it as an open wound, than it is to suture it, thus favoring the growth of the inclosed germs and retarding ultimate healing. In the latter case pus may develop in the wound, form pockets by sinking into the tissues, and cause various complications. The pockets should be well drained, either through incisions at the bottom or by drainage tubes or setons. They should then be frequently syringed out or continuously irrigated. In case proud flesh appears it should be kept down either by pressure or by caustics, as powdered bluestone, silver nitrate, chlorid of antimony, or by astringents, such as burnt alum. If they prove resistant to this treatment they may be removed by scissors, the knife, or by searing with the hot iron. The following rules for the treatment of wounds should be followed: (1) See that the wound is clean, removing all foreign bodies. (2) For this purpose use a clean finger rather than a probe. (3) All hemorrhage should be arrested before closing the wound. (4) Antiseptics should only be used if you suspect the wound to be infected. (5) When pus is present treat without closing the wound. (6) This may be accomplished by drainage tubes, absorbent dressings, setons, or continuous irrigations. (7) Protect the wound against infection while healing. LACERATED AND CONTUSED WOUNDS. Lacerated and contused wounds may be described together although there is, of course, this difference, that in contused wounds there is no break or laceration of the skin. Lacerated wounds, however, are, as a rule, also contused--the surrounding tissues are bruised to a greater or lesser extent. While at first sight such wounds may not appear to be as serious as incised wounds, they are commonly very much more so. Lacerations and contusions, when extensive, are always to be regarded as dangerous. Many horses die from septic infection or mortification as a result of these injuries. We find in severe contusions an infiltration of blood into the surrounding tissues: disorganization and mortification follow, and involve often the deeper seated structures. Abscesses, single or multiple, may also result and call for special treatment. In wounds that are lacerated the amount of hemorrhage is mostly inconsiderable; even very large blood vessels may be torn apart without inducing a fatal result. The edges of the wound are ragged and uneven. These wounds are produced by barbed wire or some blunt object, as when a horse runs against fences, board piles, the corners of buildings, or when he is struck by the pole or shafts of another team, falling on rough, irregular stones, etc. Contused wounds are caused by blunt instruments moving with sufficient velocity to bruise and crush the tissues, as kicks, running against objects, or falling on large, hard masses. _Treatment._--In lacerated wounds great care must at first be exercised in examining or probing to the very bottom of the rent or tear, to see whether any foreign body is present. Very often splinters of wood or bits of stone or dirt are thus lodged, and unless removed prevent the wound from healing; or if it should heal, the wound soon opens again, discharging a thin, gluey matter that is characteristic of the presence of some object in the part. After a thorough exploration these wounds are to be carefully and patiently fomented with warm water, to which has been added carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 part to 100 of water. Rarely, if ever, are stitches to be inserted in lacerated wounds. The surrounding tissues and skin are so weakened in vitality and structure by the contusions that stitches will not hold; they only irritate the parts. It is better to endeavor to obtain coaptation by means of bandages, plasters, or collodion. One essential in the treatment of lacerated wounds is to provide a free exit for the pus. If the orifice of the wound is too high, or if pus is found to be burrowing in the tissues beneath the opening, we must then make a counter opening as low as possible. This will admit of the wound being thoroughly washed out, at first with warm water, and afterwards injected with some mild astringent and antiseptic wash, as chlorid of zinc, 1 dram to a pint of water. A dependent opening must be maintained until the wound ceases to discharge. Repeated hot fomentations over the region of lacerated wounds afford much relief and should be persisted in. BRUISES. Bruises are nothing but contused wounds where the skin has not been ruptured. There is often considerable solution of continuity of the parts under the skin, subcutaneous hemorrhage, etc., which may result in local death (mortification) and slough of the bruised parts. If the bruise or contusion is not so severe, many cases are quickly cured by constant fomentation with hot water for from two to four hours. The water should be allowed about this time to become cool gradually and then cold. Cold fomentation must then be kept up for another hour or two. The parts should be thoroughly and quickly dried and bathed freely with camphor 1 ounce, sweet oil 8 ounces, or with equal parts of lead water and laudanum. A dry, light bandage should then be applied, the horse allowed to rest, and if necessary the treatment may be repeated each day for two or three days. If, however, the wound is so severe that sloughing must ensue, we should encourage it by poultices made of linseed meal, wheat bran, turnips, onions, bread and milk, or hops. Charcoal is to be sprinkled over the surface of the poultice when the wound is bad smelling. After the slough has fallen off the wound is to be dressed with warm washes of carbolic acid, chlorid of zinc, permanganate of potash, or other antiseptic. If granulating (filling up) too fast, use burnt alum or air-slaked lime. Besides this local treatment, we find that the constitutional symptoms of fever and inflammation call for measures to prevent or control them. This is best done by placing the injured animal on soft or green feed. A physic of Barbados aloes, 1 ounce, should be given as soon as possible after the accident. Sedatives, such as tincture of aconite root, 15 drops, three times a day, or ounce doses of saltpeter every four hours, may also be administered. When the symptoms of fever are abated, and if the discharges from the wound are abundant, the strength of the patient must be supported by good feed and tonics. One of the best tonics is as follows: Powdered sulphate of iron, powdered gentian, and powdered ginger, of each 4 ounces. Mix thoroughly and give a heaping tablespoonful twice a day, on the feed or as a drench. PUNCTURED WOUNDS. Punctured wounds are produced by the penetration of a sharp or blunt-pointed substance, such as a thorn, fork, nail, etc., and the orifice of these wounds is always small in proportion to their depth. In veterinary practice punctured wounds are much more common than the others. They involve the feet most frequently, next the legs, and often the head and face from nails protruding through the stalls and trough. They are not only the most frequent, but they are also the most serious, owing to the difficulty of obtaining thorough disinfection. Another circumstance rendering them so is the lack of attention that they at first receive. The external wound is so small that but little or no importance is attached to it, yet in a short time swelling, pain, and acute inflammation, often of a serious character, are manifested. Considering the most common of the punctured wounds, we must give precedence to those of the feet. Horses worked in cities, about iron works, around building places, etc., are most likely to receive "nails in the feet." The animal treads upon nails, pieces of iron or screws, forcing them into the soles of the feet. If the nail, or whatever it is that has punctured the foot, is fast in some large or heavy body, and is withdrawn as the horse lifts his foot, lameness may last for only a few steps; but unless properly attended to at once he will be found in a day or two to be very lame in the injured member. If the foreign body remains in the foot, he gradually grows worse from the time of puncture until the cause is discovered and removed. If, when shoeing, a nail is driven into the "quick" (sensitive laminæ) and allowed to remain, the horse gradually evinces more pain from day to day; but if the nail has at once been removed by the smith, lameness does not, as a rule, show itself for some days; or, if the nail is simply driven "too close," not actually pricking the horse, he may not show any lameness for a week or even much longer. At this point it is due to the blacksmith to say that, considering how thin the walls of some feet are, the uneasiness of many horses while shoeing, the ease with which a nail is diverted from its course by striking an old piece of nail left in the wall, or from the nail itself splitting, the wonder is not that so many horses are pricked or nails driven "too close," but rather that many more are not so injured. It is not, by any means, always carelessness or ignorance on the part of the smith that is to account for this accident. Bad and careless shoers we do meet with, but let us be honest and say that the rarity of these accidents points rather to the general care and attention given by these much-abused mechanics. From the construction of the horse's foot (being incased in an impermeable, horny box), and from the elasticity of the horn closing the orifice, punctured wounds of the feet are almost always productive of lameness. Inflammation results, and as there is no relief afforded by swelling and no escape for the product of inflammation, this matter must and does burrow between the sole or wall and the sensitive parts within it until it generally opens "between hair and hoof." We can thus see why pain is so much more severe, why tetanus (lockjaw) more frequently follows wounds of the feet, and why, from the extensive, or at times complete, separation and "casting" of the hoof, these wounds must always be regarded with grave apprehension. _Symptoms and treatment._--A practice which, if never deviated from--that of picking up each foot, cleaning the sole, and thoroughly examining the foot each and every time the horse comes into the stable--will enable us to reduce to the minimum the serious consequences of punctured wounds of the feet. If the wound has resulted from pricking, lameness follows soon after shoeing; if from the nails being driven too close, it usually appears from four to five days or a week afterwards. We should always inquire as to the time of shoeing, examine the shoe carefully, and see whether it has been partially pulled and the horse has stepped back upon some of the nails or the clip. The pain from these wounds is lancinating; the horse is seen to raise and lower the limb or hold it from the ground altogether; often he points the foot, flexes the leg, and knuckles at the fetlock. Swelling of the fetlock and back tendons is also frequently seen and is liable to mislead us. The foot must be carefully examined, and this can not be properly done without removing the shoe. The nails should be drawn separately and carefully examined. If there is no escape of pus from the nail holes, or if the nails themselves are not moist, we must continue our examination of the foot by carefully pinching or tapping it at all parts. With a little practice we can detect the spot where pain is the greatest or discover the delicate line or scar left at the point of entrance of the foreign body. The entire sole is then to be thinned, after which we are carefully to cut down upon the point where pain is greatest upon pressure, and, finally, through the sole at this spot. When the matter has escaped, the sole, so far as it was undermined by pus, is to be removed. The foot must now be poulticed for one or two days and afterwards dressed with a compress of oakum saturated with carbolic-acid solution or other antiseptic dressing. If we discover a nail or other object in the foot, the principal direction, after having removed the offending body, is to cut away the sole, in a funnel shape, down to the sensitive parts beneath. This is imperative, and if a good free opening has been made and is maintained for a few days, and hot fomentations and antiseptic dressings applied, the cure is mostly easy, simple, quick, and permanent. The horse should be shod with a leather sole under the shoe, first of all applying tar and oakum to prevent any dirt from entering the wound. In some instances nails may puncture the flexor tendons, the coffin bone, or enter the coffin joint. Such injuries are always serious, their recovery slow and tedious, and the treatment so varied and difficult that the services of a veterinarian will be necessary. PUNCTURED WOUNDS OF JOINTS, OR OPEN JOINTS. These wounds are more or less frequent. They are always serious, and often result in anchylosis (stiffening) of the joint or the death of the animal. The joints mostly punctured are the hock, fetlock, or knee, though other joints may, of course, suffer this injury. As the symptoms and treatment are much the same for all, only the accident as it occurs in the hock joint will be described. Probably the most common mode of injury is from the stab of a fork, but it may result from the kick of another horse that is newly shod, or in many other ways. At first the horse evinces but slight pain or lameness. The owner discovers a small wound scarcely larger than a pea, and pays but little attention to it. In a few days, however, the pain and lameness become excessive; the horse can no longer bear any weight upon the injured leg; the joint is very much swollen and painful upon pressure; there are well-marked symptoms of constitutional disturbance--quick pulse, hurried breathing, high temperature, 103° to 106° F., the appetite is lost, thirst is present, the horse reeks with sweat, and his anxious countenance shows the pain he suffers. He may lie down, though mostly he persists in standing, and the opposite limb becomes greatly swollen from bearing the entire weight and strain for so long a time. The wound, which at first appeared so insignificant, is now constantly discharging a thin, whitish or yellowish fluid--joint oil or water, which becomes coagulated about the mouth of the wound and adheres to the part in clots like jelly, or resembling somewhat the white of an egg. Not infrequently the joint opens at different places, discharging at first a thin, bloody fluid that soon assumes the character above described. _Treatment_ of these wounds is most difficult and unsatisfactory. We can do much to prevent this array of symptoms if the case is seen early--within the first 24 or 48 hours after the injury; but when inflammation of the joint is once fairly established the case becomes one of grave tendencies. Whenever a punctured wound of a joint is noticed, even though apparently of but small moment, we should apply without the least delay a strong cantharides blister over the entire joint, being even careful to fill the orifice of the wound with the blistering ointment. This treatment is almost always effectual. It operates to perform a cure in two ways--first, the swelling of the skin and tissues underneath it completely closes the wound and prevents the ingress of air; second, by the superficial inflammation established it acts to check and abate all deep-seated inflammation. In the great majority of instances, if pursued soon after the accident, this treatment performs a cure in about one week; but should the changes described as occurring later in the joint have already taken place, we must then treat by cooling lotions and the application to the wound of chlorid of zinc, 10 grains to the ounce of water, or a paste made of flour and alum. A bandage is to hold these applications in place, which is only to be removed when swelling of the leg or increasing febrile symptoms demand it. In the treatment of open joints our chief aim must be to close the orifice as soon as possible. For this reason repeated probing or even injections are contraindicated. The only probing of an open joint that is to be sanctioned is on our first visit, when we should carefully examine the wound for foreign bodies or dirt, and after removing them the probe must not again be used. The medicines used to coagulate the synovial discharge are best simply applied to the surface of the wound, on pledgets of tow, and held in place by bandages. Internal treatment is also indicated in those cases of open joints in which the suffering is great. At first we should administer a light physic and follow this up with sedatives and anodynes, as directed for contused wounds. Later, however, we should give quinin or salicylic acid in 1-dram doses two or three times a day. WOUNDS OF THE TENDON SHEATHS. Wounds of tendon sheaths are similar to open joints in that there is an escape of synovial fluid, "sinew water." Where the tendons are simply punctured by a thorn, nail, or fork, we must, after a thorough exploration of the wound for any remaining foreign substance, treat with the flour-and-alum paste, bandages, etc., as for open joint. Should the skin and tendons be divided the case is even more serious and is often incurable. There is always a large bed of granulations (proud flesh) at the seat of injury, and a thickening more or less pronounced remains. When the back tendons of the leg are severed we should apply at once a high-heel shoe (which is to be gradually lowered as healing advances) and bandage firmly with a compress moistened with a 10-grain chlorid of zinc solution. When proud flesh appears it is best kept under control by repeated applications of a red-hot iron. Mares that are valuable as brood animals and stock horses should always be treated for this injury, as, even though blemished, their value is not seriously impaired. If the subject is old and comparatively valueless, the length of time required and the expense of treatment will cause us to hesitate in attempting a cure. GUNSHOT WOUNDS. These wounds vary in size and character, depending on the size and quality of the projectile and also the tissue injured. They are so seldom met with in our animals that an extended reference to them seems unnecessary. If a wound has been made by a bullet a careful examination should be made to ascertain whether the ball has passed through or out of the body. If it has not we must then probe for it, and if it can be located it is to be cut out when practicable to do so. Oftentimes a ball may be so lodged that it can not be removed, and it then may become encysted and remain for years without giving rise to any inconvenience. It is often difficult to locate a bullet, as it is very readily deflected by resistances met with after entering the body. The entering wound is the size of the projectile, the edges are inverted and often scorched. The wound produced in case of the bullet's exit is larger than the projectile, the edges are turned out and ragged. A bullet heated by the friction of the barrel or air often softens and becomes flattened on striking a bone or other tissue. Modern bullets that have an outer steel layer may pass through bone without splintering it. Lead bullets may split, producing two exit wounds. Spent bullets may only produce a bruise. Should bones be struck by a ball they are sometimes shattered and splintered to such an extent as to warrant us in having the animal destroyed. A gunshot wound, when irreparable injury has not been done, is to be treated the same as punctured wounds, i. e., stop the hemorrhage, remove the foreign body if possible, and apply hot fomentations or poultices to the wound until suppuration is fairly established. Anti-septic and disinfectant injections may then be used. Should pus accumulate in the tissues, openings must be made at the most depending parts for its escape. Wounds from shotguns fired close to the animals are serious. They are virtually lacerated and contused wounds. Remove all the shot possible from the wound and treat as directed for contusions. When small shot strike the horse from a distance they stick in the skin or only go through it. The shot grains must be picked out, but as a rule this "peppering" of the skin amounts to but little. POISONED WOUNDS. These injuries are the result of bites of snakes, rabid dogs, stings of bees, wasps, etc. A single sting is not dangerous, but an animal is often stung by a swarm of insects, when the chief danger occurs from the swelling produced. If stung about the head, the nostrils may be closed as a result of the swelling, causing labored breathing and possibly asphyxiation. Intoxication may be produced by the absorption of this poison and is manifested by staggering gait, spreading of the legs, paralysis of the muscles, difficult respiration, and a rise of temperature. Death may follow in five to ten hours. _Treatment._--Douse animal with cold water and apply any alkaline liquid, such as soapsuds, bicarbonate of soda, or weak solution of ammonia. Internally give alcohol, ether, or camphor to strengthen the heart. In case of bites by rattlesnakes, moccasin, or other poisonous snakes, a painful swelling occurs about the bitten part, which is followed by labored breathing, weakness, retching, fever, and death from collapse. The animal usually recovers if it can be kept alive over the third day. In treating the animal, a tight ligature should be passed about the part above the wound to keep the poison from entering the general circulation. Wash out the wound thoroughly with antiseptics and then apply a caustic, such as silver nitrate, or burn with a hot instrument. A subcutaneous injection of one-fourth dram of 1 per cent solution of chromic acid above the wound is also beneficial. Cold water may be applied to the wound to combat the inflammation. Bites of rabid dogs produce an infected wound, and the virus of rabies introduced in this manner should be removed or destroyed in the wound. Therefore produce considerable bleeding by incising the wound, wash out thoroughly with 10 per cent solution of zinc chlorid, and then apply caustics or the actual cautery. HARNESS GALLS (SITFASTS). Wounds or abrasions of the skin are frequently caused by ill-fitting harness or saddles. When a horse has been resting from steady work for some time, particularly after being idle in a stable on a scanty allowance of grain, as in winter, he is soft and tender and sweats easily when put to work again. In this condition he is liable to sweat and chafe under the harness, especially if it is hard and poorly fitted. This chafing is likely to cause abrasions of the skin, and thus pave the way for an abscess or for a chronic blemish, unless attended to very promptly. Besides causing the animal considerable pain, chafing, if long continued, leads to the formation of a callosity. This may be superficial, involving only the skin, or it may be deep-seated, involving the subcutaneous fibrous tissue and sometimes the muscle and even the bone. This causes a dry slough to form, which is both inconvenient and unsightly. Sloughs of this kind are commonly called "sitfasts" and, while they occur in other places, are most frequently found under the saddle. (See also p. 475.) _Treatment._--Abrasions are best prevented by bringing the animal gradually into working shape after it has had a prolonged rest, in order that the muscles may be hard and the skin tough. The harness should be well fitted, neither too large nor too small, and it should be cleaned and oiled to remove all dirt and to make it soft and pliable. Saddles should be properly fitted so as to prevent direct pressure on the spine, and the saddle blankets should be clean and dry. Parts of the horse where chafing is likely to occur, as on the back under the saddle, should be cleaned and brushed free of dirt. The remedies for simple harness galls are numerous. Among them may be mentioned alcohol, 1 pint, in which are well shaken the whites of two eggs; a solution of nitrate of silver, 10 grains to the ounce of water; sugar of lead or sulphate of zinc, 20 grains to an ounce of water; carbolic acid, 1 part in 15 parts of glycerin, and so on almost without end. Any simple astringent wash or powder will effect a cure, provided the sores are not irritated by friction. If a sitfast has developed, the dead hornlike slough must be carefully dissected out and the wound treated carefully with antiseptics. During treatment it is always best to allow the animal to rest, but if this is inconvenient care should be taken to prevent injury to the abraded or wounded surface by padding the harness so that chafing can not occur. BURNS AND SCALDS. These wounds of domestic animals are fortunately of rare occurrence; however, when they do occur, if at all extensive, they prove to be quite troublesome and in many cases are fatal. According to the severity of the burn we distinguish three degrees: First degree, where there is a simple reddening of the skin; second degree, where there is a formation of vesicles, or blisters; third degree, where there is a complete destruction of vitality of the tissues, such as would occur in charring from direct contact with flames or from escaping steam. Besides the burns caused by flames and steam, there are other causative agents, such as chemicals (caustic alkalis and acids), lightning stroke, and occasionally the broken trolley wires of electric railways. When a large surface of the skin is burned or scalded, the animal (if it does not die at once from shock) will soon show signs of fever--shivering, coldness of the extremities, weakness, restlessness, quick and feeble pulse, and labored breathing. No matter which agent is a factor in the production of burns, the lesions are practically of the same nature. The extent and site of the burn should lead one in the determination and course of treatment. Burns of the shoulder and those about the region of the elbow or other parts where there is much movement of the tissues are grave, and, if at all extensive, treatment should not be attempted, but the immediate destruction of the animal is advised. A burn of the third degree, where there is a destruction of the vitality of large areas of tissue, even on parts not subject to much motion, is extremely tedious to treat; in fact, it is questionable whether the treatment and keep of the animal will ever be compensated for, even though recovery does take place; this, in any event, will require at least six or eight weeks. Burns caused by lightning stroke and trolley wires are liable to occur in irregular lines, and, unless death occurs at once, they generally are not serious. _Treatment._--Treatment should be prompt and effective. If the burns are extensive, the constitutional symptoms should be combated with whisky and milk and eggs, or ammonia carbonate, strychnin, caffein, or other stimulant to prevent shock. In the local treatment, to alleviate the pain, the application of cold water in some form and the hypodermic injection of morphine are to be recommended. In burns of the first degree, where there is only a superficial inflammation, lead carbonate (white lead) ointment is very good. Carron oil (limewater and linseed oil, equal parts) is a standard remedy, but a modification of it known as Stahl's liniment is perhaps better. This is composed of linseed oil and limewater each 200 parts, bicarbonate of soda 100 parts, and thymol 1 part. The scorched surface should be covered with this liniment and then with a layer of borated gauze or absorbent cotton, to protect from the air. The application should be frequently renewed. Carbolated vaseline may be used in place of the above. In case the burn is more extensive, the following solution may be used: Picric acid 2 parts, alcohol 40 parts, water 400 parts. The lesion should be thoroughly cleansed with this solution used on absorbent cotton. The vesicles, if any appear, should be opened with a clean needle, allowing the skin to remain. Strips of gauze or absorbent cotton saturated with the solution should now be applied and renewed only occasionally. In burns of the second and third degrees more satisfactory results may be obtained with nonpoisonous, dry dressing powder, such as is used in ordinary open wounds, as tannic acid 8 parts and iodoform 1 part, or a salve made of this powder and a sufficient quantity of vaseline. When sloughing of the tissues takes place the wounds should be cleansed with a warm 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, all loose fragments of tissue removed, and either a dry, antiseptic dressing powder or carbolated vaseline ointment applied to exclude the air. Granulation tissue (proud flesh) should be controlled by the application of silver nitrate in the form of a caustic pencil. Burns due to mineral acids may be first treated by flushing the parts with a copious quantity of cold water or by the application of whiting or chalk. Either use a large quantity of water at the start or use the chalk first, then wash with water. If the irritant has been a caustic alkali, such as potash, lye, ammonia, or soda, then vinegar should be the first application. Stahl's liniment is probably the best general application for all burns for the first week; then this should be followed by the ordinary antiseptic wound dressings. GANGRENE. Gangrene, or mortification, denotes the death of the affected part, and is mostly found attacking soft tissue near the surface of the body. Gangrenous areas may occur as a result of shutting off their blood supply. Constitutional diseases, such as ergotism, anthrax, and septicemia, predispose to gangrene. As external causes we have acids and alkalies, freezing and burning, contusions and continuous pressure that interrupt the circulation. There are two forms of gangrene--dry and moist. Dry gangrene is most often seen in horses from continuous lying down (decubitus) or from uneven pressure of some portion of the harness. _Symptoms._--There is a lack of sensation due to the death of nerves. In dry gangrene the skin is leathery and harsh, while in moist gangrene the tissues are soft, wrinkled, and friable; the hair is disturbed, and the skin is usually moist and soapy and sometimes covered with blebs. The tissue surrounding the moist gangrenous patch is usually inflamed, swollen, and hot, but this is less noticeable in the case of dry gangrene. Moist gangrene often spreads and involves deeper tissue, sheaths of tendons and joints producing septic synovitis or septic arthritis leading to pyemia and death. Dry gangrene is seldom dangerous, but the rapidity of its spread will indicate its virulence. _Treatment._--The preventive treatment consists in avoiding all the influences that tend to disturb the nutrition of the tissues, such as excessive cold or heat or continuous pressure. Gangrene following decubitus may be prevented by using soft bedding and frequently turning the animal from one side to the other. In dry gangrene moist heat in the form of poultices or anointing the tissue with oils and fats will be found beneficial in hastening the dead tissue to slough off. When the outer skin begins to suppurate, it should be removed with a pair of pincers, and the patch treated as an open wound. In moist gangrene the tissue should be thoroughly disinfected with a 3 per cent solution of compound cresol, or particularly an alcoholic tincture of camphor. Continuous irritation with antiseptic fluids prevents the accumulation and absorption of poisonous liquids. Incisions into the dead tissue may be made, and when sloughing commences the tissue should be removed with forceps and the resulting wound treated as in dry gangrene. ULCERATION. An ulcer is a circumscribed area of necrosis occurring on the skin or mucous membrane and covered with granulation tissue. It is a process of destruction, and when this process is going on faster than regeneration can take place, we have a gnawing, or eating, ulcer. When such an ulcer increases rapidly in size it is termed a phagedenic ulcer. A fungoid ulcer is one in which the bottom of the ulcer projects beyond the edge of the skin. These ulcers secrete milky or bloody-white liquid called ichor. When the ulcer is of an ashen or leaden color, with the bottom and sides formed of dense, hard connective tissue, which gives but little discharge and is not sensitive, it is termed callous, torpid, or indolent ulcer. _Causes._--As in the case of gangrene, disturbances of circulation are among the most frequent causes. A wound to a tissue with slight recuperative power may be followed by ulceration, as in tumors. Certain germs may produce ulcers, as the glanders bacilli, which cause the ulcerations on the nasal septum in glanders. _Treatment._--This consists in removing the exciting cause at once. The secretions of the ulcer should be washed off with antiseptic solutions and the formation of granulation tissues stimulated by antiseptic salves, such as carbolated vaseline, lead ointment, or by dressings of camphor. Air should be kept from the ulcer by occlusive dressings. Where the ulcers are inflamed, warm lead water or lead water and laudanum will be found efficacious. Callous ulcers are best removed by a curette, knife, or hot iron and then treated like a common wound. Mechanical irritation should be avoided. ABSCESSES. These consist of accumulations of pus within circumscribed walls, at different parts of the body, and may be classed as acute and cold or chronic abscesses. When an abscess occurs about a hair follicle it is called a boil or furuncle; when several hair follicles are involved, resulting in the formation of more than one exit for the inflammatory products, it is called a carbuncle. ACUTE ABSCESSES. Acute abscesses follow as the result of local inflammation in glands, muscular tissue, or even bones. They are very common in the two former. The abscesses most commonly met with in the horse (and the ones which will be here described) are those of the salivary glands, occurring during the existence of "strangles," or "colt distemper." The glands behind or under the jaw are seen to increase slowly in size, becoming firm, hard, hot, and painful. At first the swelling is uniformly hard and resisting over its entire surface, but in a little while becomes soft (fluctuating) at some portion, mostly in the center. From this time on the abscess is said to be "pointing," or "coming to a head," which is shown by a small elevated or projecting prominence, which at first is dry, but soon becomes moist with transuded serum. The hairs over this part loosen and fall off, and in a short time the abscess opens, the contents escape, and the cavity gradually fills up--heals by granulations. Abscesses in muscular tissue are usually the result of bruises or injuries. In all cases in which abscesses are forming we should hurry the ripening process by frequent hot fomentations and poultices. When they are very tardy in their development a blister over their surface is advisable. It is a common rule with surgeons to open an abscess as soon as pus can be plainly felt, but this practice can scarcely be recommended indiscriminately to owners of stock, since this little operation frequently requires an exact knowledge of anatomy. It will usually be found the better plan to encourage the full ripening of an abscess and allow it to open of itself. This is imperative if the abscess is in the region of joints, etc. When open, we must not squeeze the walls of the abscess to any extent. They may be very gently pressed with the fingers at first to remove the clots--inspissated pus--but after this the orifice is simply to be kept open by the introduction of a clean probe, should it be disposed to heal too soon. If the opening is at too high a level another should be made into the lowest portion of the abscess so as to permit the most complete drainage. Hot fomentations or poultices are sometimes required for a day or two after an abscess has opened, and are particularly indicated when the base of the abscess is hard and indurated. The cavity should be thoroughly washed with stimulating antiseptic solutions, such as 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, 3 per cent solution of compound cresol, 1 to 1,000 bichlorid of mercury, or 1 per cent permanganate of potash solution. If the abscesses are foul and bad smelling, their cavities should first be syringed with 1 part of hydrogen peroxid to 2 parts of water and then followed by the injection of any of the above-mentioned antiseptics. COLD ABSCESSES. Cold abscess is the term applied to those large, indolent swellings that are the result of a low or chronic form of inflammation, in the center of which there is a small collection of pus. They are often seen near the point of the shoulder, forming the so-called breast boil. The swelling is diffuse and of enormous extent, but slightly hotter than surrounding parts, and not very painful upon pressure. A pronounced stiffness, rather than pain, is evinced upon moving the animal. Such abscesses have the appearance of a hard tumor, surrounded by a softer edematous swelling, involving the tissues to the extent of a foot or more in all directions from the tumor. This diffused swelling gradually subsides and leaves the large, hardened mass somewhat well defined. One of the characteristics of cold abscesses is their tendency to remain in the same condition for a great length of time. There is neither heat nor soreness; no increase nor lessening in the size of the tumor; it remains in statu quo. If, however, the animal should be put to work for a short time the irritation of the collar causes the surrounding tissues to assume again an edematous condition, which after a few days' rest disappears, leaving the tumor as before or but slightly larger. Upon careful manipulation we may discover what appears to be a fluid deep seated in the center of the mass. The quantity of matter so contained is very small--often not more than a tablespoonful--and for this reason it can not, in all cases, be detected. Cold abscesses are mostly, if not always, caused by the long-continued irritation of a loose and badly fitting collar. There is a slow inflammatory action going on, which results in the formation of a small quantity of matter inclosed in very thick and but partially organized walls that are not so well defined as is the circumference of fibrous tumors, which they most resemble. _Treatment._--The means recommended to bring the acute abscess "to a head" are but rarely effectual with this variety; or, if successful, too much time has been occupied in the cure. We must look for other and more rapid methods of treatment. These consist, first of all, in carefully exploring the tumor for the presence of pus. The incisions must be made over the softest part and carried deep into the tumor--to its very bottom, if necessary--and the matter allowed to escape. After this, and whether we have found matter or not, we must induce an active inflammation of the tumor, in order to promote solution of the thick walls of the abscess. This may be done by inserting well into the incision a piece of oakum or cotton saturated with turpentine, carbolic acid, tincture of iodin, etc., or we may pack the incision with powdered sulphate of zinc and keep the orifice plugged for 24 hours. These agents set up a destructive inflammation of the walls. Suppuration follows, and this should now be encouraged by hot fomentations and poultices. The orifice must be kept open, and should it be disposed to heal we must again introduce some of the agents above described. A favored treatment with many, and it is probably the best, is to plunge a red-hot iron to the bottom of the incision and thoroughly sear all parts of the walls of the abscess. This is to be repeated after the first slough has taken place if the walls remain thickened and indurated. It is useless to waste time with fomentations, poultices, or blisters in the treatment of cold abscesses, since though apparently removed by such methods, they almost invariably return when the horse is put to work. Extirpation by the knife is not practicable, as the walls of the tumor are not sufficiently defined. If treated as above directed, and properly fitted with a good collar after healing, there will not remain any track or trace of the large, unsightly mass. FISTULAS. _Definition._--The word fistula is applied to any ulcerous lesion upon the external surface of the body which is connected by ducts, or passages, with some internal cavity. Because of this particular formation the term fistulous tract is often used synonymously with the word fistula. Fistulas may exist in any part of the body, but the name has come to be commonly accepted as applicable only to such lesions when found upon the withers. Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll, and in no sense differs from fistulous withers except in location. The description of fistula will apply, then, in the main, to poll evil equally well. Quittor presents the characteristic tubular passages of a fistula and may, therefore, be considered and treated as fistula of the foot. Fistulous passages may also be developed upon the sides of the face, through which saliva is discharged instead of flowing into the mouth, and are called salivary fistulas. A dental fistula may arise from the necrosis of the root of a tooth. Again, a fistula is sometimes noted at the umbilicus associated with hernia, and recto-vaginal fistulas have been developed in mares, following difficult parturition. Fistulas may arise from wounds of glandular organs or their ducts, and thus we have the so-called mammary or lacrimal fistulas. Fistulous tracts are lined with a false, or adventitious, membrane and show no disposition to heal. They constantly afford means of exit to the pus or ichorous material discharged by the unhealthy parts below. They are particularly liable to develop at the withers or poll because of the exposed positions which these parts occupy, and, having once become located there, they usually assert a tendency to further extension, because the vertical and laminated formation of the muscles and tendons of these parts allows the forces of gravitation to assist the pus in gaining the deeper-lying structures and also favors its retention among them. _Causes._--Fistulas follow as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long-continued irritation by the harness. Among the more common causes of fistula of the poll (poll evil) are chafing by the halter or heavy bridle; blows from the butt end of the whip; the horse striking his head against the hayrack, beams of the ceiling, low doors, etc. Fistulous withers are seen mostly in those horses that have thick necks as well as those that are very high in the withers; or, among saddle horses, those that are very low in the withers, the saddle here riding forward and bruising the parts. In either of these locations ulcers of the skin, or simple abscesses, if not properly and punctually treated, may become fistulas. They are often caused by bad-fitting collars or saddles, by direct injuries from blows, and from the horse rolling upon rough or sharp stones. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep down between the muscles, and escapes only when the sinus becomes surcharged or when, during motion of the parts, the matter is forced to the surface. _Symptoms._--These, of course, will vary according to the progress made by the fistula. Following an injury we may often notice soreness or stiffness of the front legs, and upon careful examination of the withers we see small tortuous lines running from the point of irritation downward and backward over the region of the shoulder. These are superficial lymphatics, and are swollen and painful to the touch. In a day or two a swelling is noticed on one or both sides of the dorsal vertebræ, which is hot, painful, and rapidly enlarging. The stiffness of the limbs may disappear at this time, and the heat and soreness of the parts may become less noticeable, but the swelling remains and continues to enlarge. A fistulous ulcer of the poll may be first indicated by the opposition which the animal offers to the application of stable brush or bridle. At this time the parts are so sore and sensitive that there is some danger that unless handled with the greatest care the patient will acquire disagreeable stable habits. The disease in its early stages may be recognized as a soft, fluctuating tumor surrounded by inflammatory swelling, with the presence of enlarged lymphatic vessels and stiffness of the neck. Later the inflammation of the surrounding tissues may disappear, leaving a prominent tumor. The swelling, whether situated upon the head or the withers, may open and form a running ulcer, or its contents may dry up and leave a tumor which gradually develops the common characteristics of a fibrous tumor. When the enlargement has opened we should carefully examine its cavity, as upon its condition will wholly depend our treatment. _Treatment._--In the earliest stage, when there is soreness, enlarged lymphatics, but no well-marked swelling, the trouble may frequently be aborted. To do this requires both general and local treatment. A physic should be given, and the horse receive 1 ounce of powdered saltpeter three times a day in his water or feed. If the fever runs high, 20-drop doses of tincture of aconite root every two hours may be administered. The local application of cold water to the inflamed spot for an hour at a time three or four times a day has often proved very beneficial, and has afforded great relief. Cooling lotions, muriate of ammonia, or saltpeter and water; sedative washes, such as tincture of opium and aconite, chloroform liniment, or camphorated oil, are also to be frequently applied. Should this treatment fail to check the progress of the trouble, the formation of pus should be hastened as rapidly as possible. Hot fomentations and poultices are to be constantly used, and as soon as the presence of pus can be detected, the abscess wall is to be opened at its lowest point. In this procedure lies our hope of a speedy cure. As with any simple abscess, if drainage can be so provided that the pus will run off as fast as formed without remaining within the interstices of the tissues, the healing will be rapid and satisfactory. Attention is again called to the directions given above as to the necessity of probing the cavity when opened. If upon a careful examination with the probe we find that there are no pockets, no sinuses, but a simple, regular abscess wall, the indication for treatment is to make an opening from below so that all the matter must escape. Rarely is anything more needed than to keep the orifice open and to bathe or inject the parts with some simple antiseptic wash that is not irritant or caustic. A low opening and cleanliness constitute the essential and rational treatment. If the abscess has already opened, giving vent to a quantity of purulent matter, and the pipes and tubes leading from the opening are found to be extensive and surrounded with thick fungoid membranes, there is considerable danger that the internal ligaments or even some of the bones have become affected, in which case the condition has assumed a serious aspect. Or, on the other hand, if the abscess has existed for some time without a rupture, its contents will frequently be found to consist of dried purulent matter, firm and dense, and the walls surrounding the mass will be found greatly thickened. In such a case we must generally have recourse to the application of caustics which will cause a sloughing of all of the unhealthy tissue, and will also stimulate a rapid increase of healthy organized material to replace that destroyed in the course of the development and treatment of the disease. Threads or cords soaked in gum-arabic solution and rolled in powdered corrosive sublimate may be introduced into the canal and allowed to remain. The skin on all parts of the shoulder and leg beneath the fistula should be carefully greased with lard or oil, as this will prevent the discharge that comes from the opening after the caustic is introduced from irritating or blistering the skin over which it flows. In obstinate cases a piece of caustic potash (fused) 1 to 2 inches in length may be introduced into the opening and should be covered with oakum or cotton. The horse should then be secured so that he can not reach the part with his teeth. After the caustic plug has been in place for 24 hours, it may be removed and hot fomentations applied. As soon as the discharge has become again established the abscess should be opened from its lowest extremity, and the passage thus formed may be kept open by the introduction of a seton. If the pipes become established in the deep tissues beneath the shoulder blade or among the spines of the vertebral column, it will often be found impossible to provide proper drainage for the abscess from below, and treatment must consist of caustic solutions carefully injected into all parts of the suppurating sinuses. A very effective remedy for this purpose consists of 1 ounce of chlorid of zinc in half a pint of water, injected three times during a week, after which a weak solution of the same may be occasionally injected. Injections of Villate's solution or alcoholic solution of corrosive sublimate, strong carbolic acid, or possibly oil of turpentine will also prove beneficial. Pressure should be applied from below, and endeavors made to heal the various pipes from the bottom. Should the swelling become general, without forming a well-defined tumor, the placing of 20 to 30 grains of arsenious acid, wrapped in a single layer of tissue paper, in a shallow incision beneath the skin, will often produce a sloughing of the affected parts in a week or 10 days, after which the formation of healthy tissue follows. The surrounding parts of the skin should be protected from any damage from escaping caustics by the application of lard or oil, as previously suggested. Although the successful treatment of fistulas requires time and patience, the majority of cases are curable. The sinuses must be opened at their lowest extremity and kept open. Caustic applications must be thoroughly used once or twice, after which mild astringent antiseptic washes should be persistently used until a cure is reached. It sometimes happens that the erosions have burrowed so deeply or in such a direction that the opening of a drainage passage becomes impracticable. In other cases the bones may be attacked in some inaccessible location, or the joints may be affected, and in these cases it is often best to destroy the horse at once. The reappearance of the fistula after it has apparently healed is not uncommon. The secondary attack in these cases is seldom serious. The lesion should be carefully cleaned and afterwards injected with a solution of zinc sulphate, 20 grains to the ounce of water, every second or third day until a cure is effected. In fistula of the foot we see the same tendency toward the burrowing of pus downward to lower structures, or in some cases upward toward the coronet. Prior to the development of a quittor there is always swelling at the coronet, accompanied with heat and pain. Every effort should now be made to prevent the formation of an abscess at the point of injury. Wounds caused by nails, gravel, or any other foreign body which may have lodged in the sole of the foot should be opened at once from below, so as to allow free exit to all purulent discharges. Should the injury have occurred directly to the coronet the application of cold fomentations may prove efficient in preventing the formation of an abscess. When a quittor becomes fully established it should be treated precisely as a fistula situated in any other part of the body; that is, the sinuses should all be opened from their lowest extremities, so as to afford constant drainage. All fragments of diseased tissue should be trimmed away, antiseptic solutions injected, and, after covering the wound with a pad of oakum saturated with some good antiseptic wash, the whole foot may be carefully covered with clean bandages, which will afford valuable assistance to the healing process by excluding all dirt from the affected part. Another form of treatment for this class of infections consists in the use of bacterial vaccines. Such treatment appears to be well adapted for the purpose, and according to current veterinary literature has met with success. These vaccines are composed of several strains of the organisms usually found in these pustular infections of the horse. Two kinds of vaccines are used: First, autogenic vaccines, which consist of heated (killed) cultures of the organism or organisms which are causing the trouble and which have been isolated from the lesions; second, stock vaccines, consisting of dead organisms of certain species generally found in these lesions and which are used in diseased conditions caused by one or the other of these germs. The vaccine is administered subcutaneously by means of a syringe, but the quantity of the vaccine to be injected and the number of doses to be used should be left to the judgment of a competent veterinarian. INFECTIOUS DISEASES. By RUSH SHIPPEN HUIDEKOPER, M. D., Vet. [Revised by A. Eichhorn, D. V. S.] GENERAL DISCUSSION. An infectious disease may be defined as any malady caused by the introduction into the body of minute organisms of the vegetable or animal kingdom which have the power to multiply indefinitely and set free certain peculiar poisons which are chiefly responsible for morbid changes. Nearly all diseases of animals for which a definite cause may be attributed are caused by bacteria; such are tuberculosis, anthrax, blackleg, lockjaw, and others. There are some diseases, as, for instance, Texas fever and rabies, which are caused by a minute animal parasite known as protozoa, while others again, like lumpy jaw and aspergillosis, are caused by fungi. Besides there are infectious diseases in which the causative agents have never been successfully isolated, as they are so small that they can not be detected by the aid of the most powerful microscope, and accordingly they are termed as ultravisible viruses. Hog cholera, foot-and-mouth disease, smallpox, and others belong to this group. Bacteria may be defined as very minute unicellular organisms of plantlike character. They multiply either by simple division or by spore formation, the latter usually taking place when the conditions pertaining to the growth of the bacteria become unfavorable. The spores are much more resistant to destruction than the bacteria which produce them. Another group of parasites producing disease is known as protozoa. These are more complex than bacteria, and their artificial cultivation is also much more difficult than is the case with the bacterial parasites. Of the representatives of this group, causing disease in animals, are the trypanosomes, which are the causative factors of dourine and surra, and the piroplasma, which induce Texas fever in cattle and malaria or biliary fever of horses. There are also disease-producing fungi which are responsible for certain affections in horses; among these the most important are mycotic lymphangitis, or sporotrichosis, and streptotrichosis. The introduction of the infection may take place in various ways. The most frequent method is by ingestion. Further, the entrance of the germs may occur by inhalation, skin abrasions, wounds of any kind, through the genital organs, and at times also through the milk ducts of the teats. As a general rule infectious diseases have a period of incubation which comprises the time elapsing between the exposure to the infection and the actual appearance of the disease. This period varies in the different diseases. The treatment of infectious diseases is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. When the symptoms have once appeared a disease is liable to run its course in spite of treatment, and if it is one from which animals usually recover, all that can be done is to put them into the most favorable surroundings. Many infectious diseases lead sooner or later to death; treatment is useless so far as the sick animals are concerned, and it may be worse than useless for those not yet affected. All animals suffering with infectious diseases are more or less directly a menace to all others. They represent for the time being manufactories of disease germs, and they are giving them off more or less abundantly during the period of disease. They may infect others directly or they may scatter the virus about and the surroundings may become the future source of infection. Therefore, in the control of infectious diseases prevention is the most important procedure. The isolation or segregation of healthy animals from infected ones should be primarily considered, and if at any time an animal manifests the symptoms of an infectious disease it is essential to protect the others from such a source of danger. In some of the infectious diseases it may become advisable to kill the infected animals in order to avoid the spread of the disease. This is especially important in diseases which are slow in their course, such as tuberculosis. At times when diseases appear in a country where they have not been prevalent it becomes advisable and necessary to protect the healthy herds by the slaughter of all the infected animals. Pursuance of this policy has resulted in control of the foot-and-mouth disease, and has proved to be a very satisfactory method of eradication. DISINFECTION. Disinfection is a very important phase in the control of infectious disease. This consists in the use of certain substances which possess the power to destroy bacteria or their spores, or both. The cheapest and most available for animal diseases are ordinary freshly slaked lime, or unslaked lime in powder form, chlorid of lime, crude carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formalin, formaldehyde, gas, cresol, etc. In the disinfection of stables and premises it is essential to execute the work in a most thorough manner. This may be satisfactorily accomplished by carrying out the following directions: 1. Sweep ceilings, side walls, stall partitions, floors, and other surfaces until free from cobwebs and dust. 2. Scrape away all accumulation of filth, and if woodwork has become decayed, porous, or absorbent, it should be removed, burned, and replaced with new material. 3. If floor is of earth, remove 4 inches from the surface, and in places stained with urine a sufficient depth should be replaced to expose fresh earth. All earth removed should be replaced with earth from an uncontaminated source; it would be better still to lay a new floor of concrete, which is very durable and easily cleaned. 4. All refuse and material from stable and barnyard should be removed to a place not accessible to cattle or hogs. The manure should be spread on fields and turned under, while the wood should be burned. 5. The entire interior of the stable, especially the feeding troughs and drains, should be saturated with a disinfectant, as liquor cresolis compositus (U. S. P.), or carbolic acid, 6 ounces to every gallon of water, to which 4 ounces of chlorid of lime should be added. The best method of applying the disinfectant and the lime wash is by means of a strong spray pump, such as those used by orchardists. This method is efficient in disinfection against most of the contagious and infectious diseases of animals, and should be applied immediately following any outbreak, and, as a matter of precaution, it may be used once or twice yearly. 6. It is important that arrangements be made to admit a plentiful supply of sunlight and fresh air by providing an ample number of windows, thereby eliminating dampness, bad odor, and other insanitary conditions. Good drainage is also very necessary. If the use of liquor cresolis compositus, carbolic acid, or other coal-tar products is inadmissible because of the readiness with which their odor is imparted to milk and other dairy products, bichlorid of mercury may be used in proportion of 1 to 800, or 1 pound of bichlorid to 100 gallons of water. All portions of the stable soiled with manure, however, should first be thoroughly scraped and cleaned, as the albumin contained in manure would otherwise greatly diminish the disinfecting power of the bichlorid. Disinfection with this material should be supervised by a veterinarian or other person trained in the handling of poisonous drugs and chemicals, as the bichlorid is a powerful, corrosive poison. The mangers and the feed boxes, after drying, following spraying with this material, should be washed out with hot water, as cattle are especially susceptible to mercurial poisoning. The bichlorid solution should be applied by means of a spray pump, as recommended for the liquor cresolis compositus. VACCINATION. In recent years vaccination for the prevention of certain infectious diseases has been successfully developed, and without a doubt the future has a great deal in store for this phase of prevention. At the present time vaccination has been found effective against blackleg, hog cholera, anthrax, lockjaw, strangles, rabies, hemorrhagic septicemia, white scours, etc. It is always essential, of course, that the products used for the vaccination be pure and potent; also they should be employed only with the advice of competent authorities and with proper care. The biological products prepared for the cure and prevention of infections are prepared by manufacturers who, in order to conduct an interstate business, are required to obtain a license from the United States Department of Agriculture for the manufacture of such preparations. Since July 1, 1913, the Department of Agriculture, by an act of Congress of March 4, 1913, has had control of the manufacture of biological products for the treatment of domestic animals. The numerous complaints which were received from time to time relative to the impotency of some of the preparations, and also the fact that in some instances the use of the products were directly responsible in causing outbreaks of disease, made the necessity for such control obvious. This supervision is no doubt of far-reaching importance, as it assures the users that the preparations are reliable. INFLUENZA. _Synonyms._--Pinkeye, typhoid fever, epizooty, epihippic fever, hepatic fever, bilious fever, etc.; flèvre typhoide, grippe (French); Pferdestaupe (German); gastro-enteritis of Vatel and d'Arboval; febris erysipelatodes, Zundel; typhus of Delafond. _Definition._--The term influenza is applied to a febrile, contagious, infectious disease of horses, which is characterized by a blood infection, with inflammation of the mucous membranes, which frequently involves the lungs. Inflammatory complications also occur in the form of swellings of the subcutis, tendons, and tendinous sheaths and laminæ of the feet. The causative agent has not been satisfactorily established. One attack usually protects the animal from future ones of the same disease, but not always. An apparently complete recovery is sometimes followed by serious sequelæ of the nervous and blood-vessel systems. Under certain conditions of the atmosphere or from unknown causes, the disease is very liable to assume an epizootic form, with tendency to complications of especial organs, as, at one period, the lungs, at another the intestines, etc. The first description of influenza is given by Laurentius Rusius in 1301, when it spread over a considerable portion of Italy, causing great loss among the war horses of Rome and the surrounding district. Later, in 1648, an epizootic of this disease visited Germany and spread to other parts of Europe. In 1711, under the name of "epidemica equorum," it followed the tracks of the great armies all over Europe, causing immense losses among the horses, while rinderpest was scourging the cattle of the same regions. The two diseases were confounded with each other, and were, by the scientists of the day, supposed to be allied to the typhus, which was a plague to the human race at the same time. We find the first advent of this disease to the British Islands in an epizootic among the horses of London and the southern counties of England in 1732, which is described by Gibson. In 1758 Robert Whytt recounts the devastation of the horses of the north of Scotland from the same trouble. Throughout the eighteenth century a number of epizootics occurred in Hanover and other portions of Germany and in France, which were renewed early in the present century, with complications of the intestinal tract, which obtained for it its name of gastro-enteritis. In 1766 it first attacked the horses in North America, but is not described as again occurring in a severe form until 1870-1872, when it spread over the entire country, from Canada south to Ohio, and then eastward to the Atlantic and westward to California. It is now a permanent disease in our large cities, selecting for the continuance of its virulence young or especially susceptible horses which pass through the large and ill-ventilated and uncleaned stables of dealers, and assumes from time to time an enzootic form, when from some reason its virulence increases. It assumes this form also when, from reasons of rural economy and commerce, large numbers of young and more susceptible animals are exposed to its contagion. _Etiology._--The experiments of Dieckerhoff many years ago proved that the disease may be transmitted to healthy animals by intravenous injection of warm blood from affected horses. Further investigations revealed the fact that blood from affected horses, even when passed through porcelain filters, may transmit the disease, thereby proving that the causative agent belongs to the so-called filterable viruses. This has been further substantiated by Gaffky, who showed in his recent experiments that the disease may be transmitted with defibrinated as well as with filtered blood, in which cases the typical form of influenza developed in inoculated animals in from five to six days. These findings were also substantiated by Basset. Further observations have also proved that apparently recovered animals may harbor the infection for a long time and still be capable of transmitting the disease. Such virus carriers are no doubt responsible for numerous outbreaks of this disease when, in a locality free from the disease, it certainly appears after the introduction of an apparently healthy animal. As one attack is usually self-protective, numbers of old horses, having had an earlier attack, are not capable of contracting it again; but, aside from this, young horses, especially those about four or five years of age, are much more predisposed to be attacked, while the older ones, even if they have not had the disease, are less liable to it. Again, the former age is that in which the horse is brought from the farm, where it has been free from the risk of exposure, and is sold to pass through the stables of the country taverns, the dirty, infected railway cars, and the foul stockyards and damp stables of dealers in our large cities. Overfed, fat, young horses which have just come through the sales stables are much more susceptible to contagion than the same horses are after a few months of steady work. Pilger, in 1805, was the first to recognize infection as the direct cause of the disease. Roll and others studied the contagiousness of influenza, and, finding it so much more virulent and permanent in old stables than elsewhere, classed it as a "stall miasm." The contagion will remain in the straw bedding and droppings of the animal and in the feed in an infected stable for a considerable time and if these are removed to other localities it may be carried in them. It may be carried in the clothing of those who have been in attendance on horses suffering from the disease. The drinking water in troughs and even running water may hold the virus and be a means of its communication to other animals, even at a distance. The studies of Dieckerhoff, in 1881, in regard to the contagion of influenza were especially interesting. He found that during a local enzootic, produced by the introduction of infected horses into an extensive stable otherwise perfectly healthy, the infection took place in what at first seemed to be a most irregular manner, but which was shown later to be dependent on the ventilation and currents of air through the various buildings. His experiments showed that the virus of influenza is excessively diffusible, and that it will spread rapidly to the roof of a building and pass by the apertures of ventilation to others in the neighborhood. The writer has seen cases that have appeared to spread through a brick wall and attack animals on the opposite side before others even in the same stable were affected. Brick walls, old woodwork, and the dirt which is too frequently left about the feed boxes of a horse stall will hold the contagion for several days, if not weeks, and communicate it to susceptible animals when placed in the same locality. On two successive mornings a 4-year-old colt belonging to the writer stood for about 10 minutes at the open door, fully 40 feet from the stalls, of a stable in which two cases of influenza had broken out the day before: in six days the colt developed the disease. On the morning when the trouble in the colt was recognized it stood in an infirmary with a dozen horses that were being treated for various diseases, but was immediately isolated; within one week two-thirds of the other horses had contracted the disease. _Symptoms._--After the exposure of a susceptible horse to infection a period of incubation of from four to seven days elapses, during which the animal seems in perfect health, before any symptom is visible. When the symptoms of influenza develop they may be intense, or so moderate as to occasion but little alarm, but the latter condition frequently exposes the animal to use and to the danger of the exciting causes of complications which would not have happened had it been left quietly in its stall in place of being worked or driven out to show to prospective purchasers. The disease may run a simple course as a specific fever, with alterations only of the blood, or at any period it may become complicated by local inflammatory troubles, the gravity of which is augmented by developing in an animal with an impoverished blood, an already irritated, rapid circulation, and defective nutritive and reparative functions. The first symptoms are those of a rapidly developing fever, which becomes intense within a very short period. The animal becomes dejected and inattentive to surrounding objects; stands with its head down, and not back on the halter as in serious lung diseases. In the flanks, the muscles of the croup and of the shoulders, or of the entire body it has chills lasting from 15 to 30 minutes, and frequently a grinding of the teeth which warns one that a severe attack may be expected. The hairs become dry and rough and stand on end. The body temperature increases to 104°, 104.5°, and 105° F., or even in severe cases to 107° F., within the first twelve or eighteen hours. The horse becomes stupid, stands immobile with its head hanging, the ears listless, and it pays but little attention to the surrounding attendants or the crack of a whip. The stupor becomes rapidly more marked, the eyes become puffy and swollen with excessive lacrimation, so that the tears run from the internal canthus of the eye over the cheeks and may blister the skin in their course. The respiration becomes accelerated to 25 or 30 in a minute, and the pulse is quickened to 70, 80, or even 100, moderate in volume and in force. There is great depression of muscular force; the animal stands limp, as if excessively fatigued. There is diminution, or in some cases total loss, of sensibility of the skin, so that it may be pricked or handled without attracting the attention of the animal. On movement, the horse staggers and shows a want of coordination of all the muscles of its limbs. The senses of hearing, sight, and taste are diminished, if not entirely destroyed. The visible mucous membranes (as the conjunctiva), from which it received the name pinkeye, and the mouth, and the natural openings become of a deep saffron, ocher, or violet-red color. This latter is especially noticeable on the rim of the gums and is a condition not found in any other disease, so that it is an almost diagnostic symptom. In some outbreaks there is much more swelling of the lids and weeping from the eyes than in others. If the animal is bled at this period the blood is found more coagulable than normal, but at a later period it becomes of a dark color and less coagulable. There is great diminution or total loss of appetite, with an excessive thirst, but in many cases cold-blooded horses may retain a certain amount of appetite, eating slowly at hay, oats, or other feed. There is some irritation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, as shown by discharge of mucus from the nose, and by cough. Pregnant mares are liable to abort. We have, following the fever, a tumefaction, or edema, of the subcutaneous tissues at the fetlocks, of the under surface of the belly, and of the sheath of the penis, which may be excessive. The infiltration is noninflammatory in character and produces an insensibility of the skin like the excessive stocking which we see in debilitated animals after exposure to cold. In ordinary cases the temperature has reached its maximum of 105° or 106° F. in from 24 to 48 hours from the origin of the fever. It remains stationary for a period of from 3 to 4 days without so much variation between morning and evening temperature as we have in pneumonia or other serious diseases of the lungs. At the termination of the specific course of the disease, which is generally from 6 to 10 days, the fever abates, the swelling of the legs and under surface of belly diminishes, the appetite returns, the strength is rapidly regained, the mucous membranes lose their yellowish color, which they attain so rapidly at the commencement of the disease, and the animal convalesces promptly to its ordinary good condition and health, and rapidly regains the large amount of weight which it lost in the early part of the disease, a loss which frequently reaches 30, 50, or even 75 pounds each 24 hours. For the first three days of the high temperature there is a great tendency to constipation, which should be avoided if possible by the use of the means recommended below, for, if it has been marked, it may be followed by a troublesome diarrhea. _Terminations._--The terminations of simple influenza may be death by extreme fever, with failure of the heart's action; from excessive coma, due generally to a rapid congestion of the brain; to the poisonous effects of the débris of the disintegrated blood corpuscles and the toxin of the disease; to an asphyxia, following congestion of the lungs; or the disease terminates by subsidence of the fever, return of the appetite and nutritive functions of the organs, and rapid convalescence; or, in an unfortunately large number of cases, the course of the disease is complicated by local inflammatory troubles, whose gravity is greater in influenza than it is when they occur as sporadic diseases. _Complications._--The complications are congestions, followed by inflammatory phenomena in the various organs of the body, but they are most commonly located in the intestines, lungs, brain, or vascular laminæ of the feet. Atmospheric influence or other surrounding influences of unknown quality seem to be an important factor in the determination of the local lesions. At certain seasons of the year, and in certain epizootics, we find 40 and 50 per cent or even a greater percentage of the cases rendered more serious by complication of the intestines; at other seasons of the year, or in other epizootics, we find the same percentage of cases complicated by inflammation of the lungs, while at the same time a small percentage of them are complicated by troubles of the other organs; inflammatory changes of the brain, of the laminæ, more rarely commence in epizootic form, but are to be found in a certain small percentage of cases in all epizootics. Exciting causes are important factors in complicating individual cases of influenza, or in localizing special lesions, during either enzootics or epizootics. These exciting or determining causes act much as they would in sporadic inflammatory diseases, but in this case we find the animal much more susceptible and predisposed to be acted upon than ordinary healthy animals. With a temperature already elevated, with the heart's action driving the blood in increased quantity into the distended blood vessels, which become dilated and lose their contractility, with a congestion of all the vascular organs already established, it takes but little additional irritation to carry the congestion one step further and produce inflammation. _Complication of the intestines._--When any cause acts as an irritant to the intestinal tract during the course of this specific fever it may produce inflammation of the organs belonging to it. This cause may be constipation, which can find relief only in a congestion which offers to increase the function of the glands and relieve the inertia caused by a temporary cessation of activity; or irritant medicines, especially any increased use of antimony, turpentine, or the more active remedies; the taking of indigestible feed, or of feed in too great quantities, or that has been altered in any way by fungus or other injurious alterations; the swallowing of too cold water; or any other irritant may cause congestion. This complication is ushered in by colics. The animal paws with the fore feet and evinces a great sensibility of the belly; it looks with the head from side to side, and may lie down and get up, not with violence, but with care for itself, perfectly protecting the surface of the belly from any violence. At first we find a decided constipation; the droppings if passed are small and hard, coated with a viscous varnish or even with false membranes. In from 36 to 40 hours the constipation is followed by diarrhea. The alimentary discharge becomes mixed with a sero-mucous exudation, which is followed by a certain amount of suppurative matter. The animal becomes rapidly exhausted and unstable, staggers on movement, losing the little appetite which may have remained, and has exacerbations of fever. The pulse becomes softer and weaker, the respiration becomes gradually more rapid, the temperature is about 1° to 1.5° F. higher. If a fatal result is not produced by the extensive diarrhea the discharge is arrested in from 5 to 10 days and a rapid recovery takes place. _Complication of the lungs._--If at any time during the course of the fever the animal is exposed to cold or drafts of air, or in any other way to the causes of repercussion, the lungs may become affected. In the majority of cases, however, after three, four, or five days of the fever, congestion of the lungs commences without any exposure or apparent exciting cause. Unless this congestion of the lungs is soon relieved it is followed by an inflammation constituting pneumonia. This pneumonia, while it is in its essence the same, differs from an ordinary pneumonia at the commencement by an insidious course. The animal commences to breathe heavily, which is distinctly visible in the heaving of the flanks, the dilatation of the nostrils, and frequently in the swaying movement of the unsteady body. The respirations increase in number, what little appetite remained is lost, the temperature increases from 1° to 2°, the pulse becomes more rapid, and at times, for a short period, more tense and full, but the previous poisoning of the specific disease has so weakened the tissues that it never becomes the characteristic full, tense pulse of a simple pneumonia. On percussion of the chest dullness is found over the inflamed areas; on auscultation at the base of the neck over the trachea a tubular murmur is heard. The crepitant râles and tubular murmurs of pneumonia are heard on the sides of the chest if the pneumonia is peripheral, but in pneumonia complicating influenza the inflamed portions are frequently disseminated in islands of variable size and are sometimes deep-seated, in which case the characteristic auscultory symptoms are sometimes wanting. From this time on the symptoms of the animal are those of an ordinary grave pneumonia, rendered more severe by occurring in a debilitated animal. The cough is at first hacky and aborted; later, more full and moist. There is discharge from the nostrils, which may be mucopurulent, purulent, or hemorrhagic. As in simple pneumonia, in the outset this discharge may be "rusty," owing to capillary hemorrhages. We find that the blood is thoroughly mixed with the matter, staining it evenly, instead of being mixed with it in the form of clots. At the commencement of the complication the animal may be subject to chills, which may again occur in the course of the disease, in which case, if severe, an unfavorable termination by gangrene may be looked for. If gangrene occurs it is shown by preliminary chills, a rapid elevation of temperature, a tumultuous heart, a flaky discharge from the nostrils, and a fetid breath; the symptoms are identical with those which occur in gangrene complicating other diseases. _Complication of the brain._--At any time during the course of the disease congestion of the brain may occur; at an early period if the fever has been intense from the outset, but in ordinary cases more frequently after three or four days. The animal, which has been stupid and immobile, becomes suddenly restless, walks forward in the stall until it fastens its head in the corner. If in a box stall and it becomes displaced from its position, it follows the wall with the nose and eyes, rubbing it along until it reaches the corner and again fastens itself. It may become more violent and rear and plunge. If disturbed by the entrance of the attendant or any loud noise or bright light, it will stamp with its fore feet and strike with its hind feet, but is not definite in fixing the object which it is resisting, which is a diagnostic point between meningitis and rabies and which renders the animal with the former disease less dangerous to handle. If fastened by a rope to a stake or post, the animal will wander in a circle at the end of the rope. It wanders almost invariably in one direction. The pupils may be dilated or contracted, or we may find one condition in one eye and the opposite in the other. The period of excitement is followed by one of profound coma, in which the animal is immobile, the head hanging and placed against the corner of the stall, the body limp, and the motion, if demanded of the animal, unsteady. Little or no attention is paid to the surrounding noises, the crack of a whip, or even a blow on the surface of the body. The respiration becomes slower, the pulsations are diminished, the coma lasts for variable time, to be followed by excesses of violence, after which the two alternate, but if severe the period of coma becomes longer and longer until the animal dies of spasms of the lungs or of heart failure. It may die from injuries which occur in the ungovernable attacks of violence. _Complication of the feet._--The feet are the organs which are next in frequency predisposed to congestion. This congestion takes place in the laminæ (podophyllous structures) of the feet. The stupefied animal is roused from its condition by excessive pain in the feet and assumes the position of a foundered horse; that is, if the fore feet alone are affected, they are carried forward until they rest on the heels; and if the hind feet are affected, all the feet are carried forward, resting on their heels, the hind ones as near the center of gravity as possible. In some cases the stupor of the animal is so great that the pain is not felt, and little or no change of the position of the animal is noticeable. The foot is found hot to the touch, and after a given time the depressed convex sole of typical founder is recognized. _Pleurisy._--This is a rare complication, but when it does occur it is ushered in by the usual symptoms of depression, rapid pulse, small respiration, elevation of the temperature, subcutaneous edema of the legs and under surface of the belly, and we find a line of dullness on either side of the chest and an abscess of respiratory murmur at the lower part. If it is severe, there may be an effusion filling one-fourth to one-third of the thoracic cavity in from 36 to 48 hours. _Pericarditis_ is an occasional complication of influenza. It is ushered in by chills, elevation of the temperature; the pulse becomes rapid, thready, and imperceptible. The heart murmurs become indistinct or can not be heard. A venous pulse is seen on the line of the jugular veins along the neck. Respiration becomes more difficult and rapid. If the animal is moved the symptoms become more marked or it may drop suddenly dead from heart failure. _Peritonitis_, or inflammation of the membranes lining the belly and covering the organs contained in it, sometimes takes place. The general symptoms are similar to those of a commencing pericarditis. The local symptoms are those of pain, especially to pressure on side of the flanks and belly, distention of the latter, and sometimes the formation of flatus, or gas, and constipation. Other occasional complications are nephritis, hepatitis, inflammation of the flexor tendons and rupture of them, and abscesses. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of influenza is based upon continued fever, with great depression and symptoms of stupor and coma; the rapidly developing, dark-saffron, ocher, yellowish discoloration of the mucous membranes, swelling of the legs and soft tissues of the genitals. When these symptoms have become manifested the diagnosis of a local complication is based upon the same symptoms that are produced in the local diseases from other causes, but in influenza the local symptoms are frequently masked or even entirely hidden by the intense stupor of the animal, which renders it insensible to pain. The evidence of colic and congestion, which is followed by diarrhea, indicates enteritis. The rapid breathing or difficulty of respiration points to a complication of the lungs, but, as we have seen in the study of the symptoms, the local evidences of lung lesions are frequently hidden. Again, we have seen that inflammation of the feet, or founder, complicating influenza is frequently not shown on account of the insensibility to pain on the part of the animal, which indicates the importance of running the hand daily over the hoofs to detect any sudden elevation of temperature on their surface. The diagnosis of brain trouble is based upon the excessive violence which occurs in the course of the disease, for during the intervening period or coma there is no means of determining that it is due to this complication. Severe cases of influenza may simulate anthrax in the horse. In both we have stupor, the intense coloration of the mucous membranes of the eyes, and a certain amount of swelling of the legs and under surface of the belly. The diagnosis here can be made only by microscopic examination of the blood. In strangles, equine variola, and scalma we have an intensely red, rosy coloration of the mucous membranes, full, tense pulse, and although in these diseases we may have depression, we do not have the stupor and coma except in severe cases which have lasted for several days. In influenza we have no evidence of the formation of pus on the mucous membranes as in the other diseases, except sometimes in the conjunctivæ. In severe pneumonia (lung fever) we may find profound coma, dark-yellowish coloration of the mucous membranes, and swelling of the under surface of the belly and legs; but in pneumonia we have the history of the difficulty of breathing and an acute fever of a sthenic type from the outset, and the other symptoms do not occur for several days, while in influenza we have the history of characteristic symptoms for several days before the rapid breathing and difficulty of respiration indicate the appearance of the complication. Without the history it is frequently difficult to diagnose a case of influenza of several days' standing, complicated by pneumonia, from a case of severe pneumonia of five or six days' standing, but from a prognostic point of view it is immaterial, as the treatment of both are identical. The fact that other horses in the same stable or neighborhood have influenza may aid in the diagnosis. _Prognosis._--Influenza is a serious disease chiefly on account of its numerous complications. Uncomplicated influenza is a comparatively simple malady, and is fatal in but 1 to 5 per cent of all cases. In some outbreaks, however, complications of one kind or another preponderate; in such instances the rate of mortality is much increased. _Alterations._--The chief alteration of influenza occurs in the digestive tract, and consists in hyperemia, infiltration, and swelling of the mucous membrane, and especially of the Peyer's patches near the ileocecal valve. The tissues throughout the body are found stained, and of a more or less yellowish hue. There is always found a congested condition of all the organs, muscles, and interstitial tissues of the body. The coverings of the brain and spinal cord partake in the congested and discolored condition of the rest of the tissues. Other alterations are dependent entirely upon the complications. If the lungs have been affected, we find effusions identical in their intimate nature with those of simple pneumonia, but they differ somewhat in their general appearance in not being so circumscribed in their area of invasion. The alterations of meningitis and laminitis are identical with those of sporadic cases of founder and inflammation of the brain. _Treatment._--While the appetite remains the patient should have a moderate quantity of sound hay, good oats, and bran; or even a little fresh clover, if obtainable, can be given in small quantities. It is not so important that a special diet shall be observed as that the horse shall eat a moderate quantity of nourishing feed, and he may be tempted with any feed of good quality that he relishes. He should be placed in a well-ventilated box stall away from other horses. Grass, roots, apples, and milk may be offered and, if relished, allowed freely. To reduce the temperature the safest simple plan is to inject large quantities of cold water into the rectum. Antipyrene may be used with alcohol or strychnia. Derivatives in the form of essential oils and mustard poultices, baths of alcohol, turpentine, and hot water, after which the animal must be immediately dried and blanketed, serve to waken the animal from the stupor and relieve the congestion of the internal organs. This treatment is especially indicated when complication by congestion of the lungs, intestines, or of the brain is threatened. Quinin and salicylic acid in 1-dram doses will lower the temperature, but too continuous use of the former in some cases increases the depression. Iodid of potash reduces the excessive nutrition of the congested organs and thereby reduces the temperature; again, this drug in moderate quantities is a stimulant to the digestive tract and acts as a diuretic, causing the elimination of waste matter by the kidneys. Small doses of Glauber's salt and bicarbonate of soda, used from the outset, stimulate the digestive tract and prevent constipation and its evil results. In cases of severe depression and weakness of the heart digitalis can be used with advantage. At the end of the fever, and when convalescence is established, alcohol in one-half pint doses and good ale in 1-pint doses may be given as stimulants. To these may be added 1-dram doses of turpentine. In complications of the intestines camphor and asafetida are most frequently used to relieve the pain causing the colics; diarrhea is also relieved by the use of bicarbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, and drinks made from boiled rice or starch, to which may be added small doses of laudanum. In complication of the lungs iodid of potash and digitalis are most frequently indicated, in addition to the remedies used for the disease itself. Founder occurring as a complication of influenza is difficult to treat. It is, unfortunately, frequently not recognized until inflammatory changes have gone on for several days. If recognized at once, local bleeding and the use of hot or cold water, as the condition of the animal may permit, are most useful, but in the majority of cases the stupefied animal is unable to be moved satisfactorily or to have one foot lifted for local treatment; the only treatment consists in local bleeding above the coronary bands and the application of poultices. During convalescence small doses of alkalines may be kept up for a short time, but the greatest care must be used, while furnishing the animal with plenty of nutritious, easily digestible feed, not to over-load the intestinal tract, causing constipation and consequent diarrhea. Special care must be taken for several weeks not to expose the animal to cold. _Prevention._--In order to prevent the introduction of the disease it is advisable to isolate newly purchased animals for at least a week. Further, the stabling of healthy horses in sales and feed stables should also be guarded against. At the beginning of an outbreak the disease may be checked by immediate isolation of the affected horses, by taking the temperatures of the healthy animals, and by the segregation of those showing a marked elevation. Bacterial vaccines are now being prepared for the prevention of this disease and also for its cure, but to date the results are not convincing as to the beneficial action of these products. Since the cause of the disease has not yet been satisfactorily determined it is difficult to conceive how immunity could be produced with the aid of the germs which enter into the preparation of these products. The reports would indicate, however, that vaccines exert a favorable influence upon the course of the disease, probably preventing severe complications which under ordinary conditions are the principal factors in determining the severity of the outbreak. CONTAGIOUS PNEUMONIA. _Synonyms._--Edematous pneumonia; stable pneumonia; equine pleuropneumonia; influenza pectoralis equorum; pleuropneumonia; influenzal pneumonia; Brustseuche (German). Contagious pleuropneumonia is an acute contagious disease of horses manifesting itself either as a croupous pneumonia or a pleuropneumonia with complications in the form of serous infiltrations of the subcutaneous tissues and tendons. _Etiology._--Investigators of this disease incriminated various kinds of microorganisms as the cause of this affection. Transmission experiments were usually negative with these organisms. This was also the case in attempts to transmit the disease by feeding with affected parts of the lungs, intestinal contents, and nasal discharge; likewise by intravenous or subcutaneous injections of blood and of emulsions made from nasal discharge, urine, the lung, and other organs. The most recent experimental results of Gaffky and Lüber proved that at least at the beginning of the disease the bronchial secretion contains the infection. Upon killing horses affected with the typical forms of the disease on the third or fourth day of the affection the air passages are usually found to be filled with a yellowish, tenacious, germ-free secretion with which they succeeded in infecting healthy colts. The virus has not been isolated. The possibility of its being a protozoan is suggested by the above-named investigators through their observations of round or rod-shaped bodies in the round cells of the secretions. Two organisms were formerly especially considered to play an important part in the cause of the disease, the _Streptococcus pyogenes equi_, which has been isolated from most cases of the disease, and the _Bacillus equisepticus_, which by some investigators was considered to be the cause of contagious pleuropneumonia. Although there is no doubt as to the presence of these microorganisms in most of the cases, their association with the cause of this disease, however, is now doubted, especially since attempts to transmit the disease with pure cultures of these germs failed to reproduce the typical form of the disease. They, however, are of great significance in connection with the pathological changes occurring in connection with the infection and probably are the determining factor in the course of the disease. They exert their action after the animal has already been attacked by the true virus, and then produce the inflammatory changes attributed to these secondary invaders. This disease is the adynamic pneumonia of the older veterinarians, who did not recognize any essential difference in its nature from an ordinary inflammation of the lungs, except in the profound sedation of the force of the animal affected with it, which is a prominent symptom from the outset of the disease. Again, this same prostration of the vital force of the animal, combined with the staggering movement and want of coordination of the muscles, caused it for a long time to be confounded with influenza, with which at certain periods it certainly has a strong analogy of symptoms, but from which, as from sporadic pneumonia, it can be separated very readily if the case can be followed throughout its whole course. Infectious pneumonia is a specific inflammation of the lungs, accompanied with interstitial edema and inflammation of the tissues of these organs and a constitutional disturbance and fever. It causes a profound sedation of the nervous system, which may be so great as to cause death. It is sometimes attended with pleurisy, inflammation of the heart or septic complications, which also prove fatal. Old, cold, damp, foul, unclean, and badly drained and ventilated stables allow rapid dissemination of the disease to other horses in the same stable and act as rich reservoirs for preserving the contagion, which may be retained for over a year. The virus is but moderately volatile, and in a stable seems rather to follow the lines of the walls and irregular courses than the direct currents of air and the tracts of ventilation. Prof. Dieckerhoff found that the contagion of influenza was readily diffusible throughout an entire stable and through any opening to other buildings, but he also found that the contagion of infectious pneumonia is not transmissible at any great distance, nor is it very diffusible in the atmosphere. A brick wall 8 feet in height served, in one instance, to prevent the infection of other animals placed on the opposite side from a horse ill with the disease, while others placed on the same side and separated from the focus of contagion only by open bars in the stall were infected and developed the disease in its typical form. _Symptoms._--The symptoms differ slightly from those of a frank, fibrinous pneumonia, but not so much by the introduction of new symptoms as by the want of or absence of the distinct evidences of local lesions which are found in the latter disease. All the pneumonias throughout the whole course of the trouble are less marked and less clearly defined. The symptoms may develop slowly or rapidly. If slowly, there is fever and the animal gives a rare cough which resembles that of a heavy horse affected with a slight chronic bronchitis; it becomes somewhat dejected and dull, at times somnolent, and has a diminished appetite. This condition lasts for several days, or the disease may begin with high fever, and the symptoms described below are severe and develop in rapid sequence. The respiration increases to 24, 30, or 36 to the minute, and a small, running, soft pulse attains a rhythm of 50, 70, or even more beats in the sixty seconds. The heart, however, contrary to the debilitated condition of the pulse, is found beating violently and tumultuously, as it does in anthrax and septic intoxication. The mucous membranes of the eyes and mouth and of the genital organs are found somewhat edematous, and they rapidly assume a dirty, saffron color, at times approaching an ocher, but distinguishable from the similar coloration in influenza by the want of the luster belonging to the latter and by the muddy, dull tint, which is characteristic throughout the disease. Suddenly, without the preliminary râles which precede grave lesions of the lungs in other diseases, the blowing murmur of pneumonia is heard over a variable area of the chest, usually, however, much more distinctly over the trachea at the base of the neck and directly behind the shoulder on each side of the chest. In some cases the evidence of lung lesion can be detected only over the trachea. The lesions of the lungs may be scattered throughout both lungs, involving numerous small areas, or they may be confined to and more or less fully occupy one or two lobes. Occasionally there is a general involvement of both lungs. The body temperature has now reached 104° or 105° F., or in extreme cases even a degree higher. The debility of the animal is great without the stupefaction or evidence of cerebral trouble, which is constant with such grave constitutional phenomena in influenza or severe pneumonia. The animal is subject to occasional chills, and staggers in its gait. The yellow coloration of the visible mucous membrane is rendered pale by infiltration of the liquid of the blood into the tissues; the pulse may become so soft as to be almost imperceptible, the heart movement and sounds being at the same time exaggerated. The animal loses flesh rapidly, and dropsies of the extremities, of the under surface of the belly, or of the internal organs may show themselves. _Terminations._--These symptoms may gradually subside after five to eight days, with an improved appetite the inanition may cease and the animal commence to nourish its impoverished blood and tissues; the pulse becomes stronger and the heart more regular and less tumultuous; the mucous membranes assume a brighter and more distinct color; the difficulty of respiration is removed, and the animal may make a recovery. When death occurs it is usually directly due to heart failure; in some cases it is caused by asphyxia, owing to the great amount of exudation into the lung tissue, rendering its further function impossible. _Complications._--The pulmonary complications of infectious pneumonia are secondary inflammatory or necrotic changes in the lungs themselves. Suppuration at times takes place in the bronchi and may extend to the lung tissue. In this case mucous râles develop which are most distinctly heard over the trachea and on the sides of the chest directly behind the shoulders. With the development of the mucous râles, to be heard on auscultation, we have a more purulent discharge from the nostrils, similar to that of a chronic or subacute bronchitis. If the inflammation has been of some standing, cavernous râles may be heard, indicating the destruction of a considerable portion of lung tissue and the formation of a cavity. The effects of this more acute inflammatory process are not appreciable in the general condition of the animal, except to weaken it still further and add to its debilitated and emaciated cachexia. Gangrene sometimes occurs. A sudden rise of the body temperature of 1° or 2°, with a more enfeebled pulse and a still more tumultous heart, develop simultaneously with the appearance of a discharge from the nostrils. This discharge is gray in color, serous or watery in consistency, mixed with the detritus of broken-down lung tissue, and sometimes contains clots of blood, or in more serious cases may be marked by a quantity of fluid blood from a hemorrhage, which proves fatal. The discharge is fetid to the smell. The animal emaciates rapidly. On examination of the lungs mucous râles are heard in the larger bronchi, cavities may be found at any part of these organs, and points of lobular pneumonia may be detected. A very serious complication is an inflammation of the heart muscle. This is shown by a very weak and rapid pulse, great prostration, some filling of the lungs. This complication nearly always terminates in death. Other complications which may be mentioned are inflammation of the kidneys, blood poisoning, congestion of the brain, and inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons of the legs. _Diagnosis._--As fever is the first symptom of infectious pneumonia, it is useful during an outbreak of this disease to make daily temperature measurements of the exposed horses, so that the first indication of disease may be discovered and the horse removed from contact with those that are sound. _Prognosis._--The mortality in this disease may be as high as 25 per cent, but it is usually not more than 10 per cent. If there is a special tendency to complications of some sort, the mortality is increased. _Alterations._--At the time of death from infectious pneumonia we frequently find septic changes and the evidences of putrefaction. The solidification of the lung tissue is found irregular in shape and high around the root of the lungs and the large bronchi, and is generally covered by sound lung tissue. The anterior lobes of the lungs are usually entirely affected. The diseased portion appears of a gray-yellowish color, somewhat watery, and tears readily. Matter is found in the air tubes which form gutters through the jellylike mass of the diseased lung. Abscesses from the size of a nut to larger masses may be found throughout the lungs. The blood is dark in color, fluid, or only clotted into soft, jellylike masses. Masses of gangrenous or dead-black tissue may be present. _Treatment._--Bleeding is not to be used, because it would only still further weaken an already enfeebled animal; antimony or the alterants would increase the depression of a too-depraved constitution. There is in this disease no acute congestion of a particular organ to draw off by depletive measures, nor any violent blood current to be retarded, for fear of hypernutrition of any special part. Revulsives do good, as they excite the nervous system and awaken the torpor of the weakened blood vessels, which aid in the reestablishment of the functions. As in other diseases, mustard poultices may be applied over the belly and sides of the chest, but caution must be used in the employment of blisters, as ugly ulcers may result from their action on a tissue of weakened vitality. Setons are dangerous from the great tendency in this disease to septic complications. Repeated friction of the legs by hand-rubbing and warmth by bandaging and by rubbing the surface of the body with turpentine and alcohol, which is immediately to be dried by rough towels, will excite the circulation and stimulate the emunctories of the skin. Stimulants are given internally from the outset of the disease. Turpentine in 1-dram doses regulates the heart and excites the kidneys to carry off waste matter, but if repeated too frequently may disturb the already delicate digestive system. Alcohol rectifies the latter danger, and is a useful stimulant to the heart and digestive system, if given with care in small doses. It is an antiputrid, and is especially indicated when septic complications and gangrene are present. The aromatics and bitter tonics are useful; gentian and tea in warm decoction form a useful menstruum for other remedies. Digitalis is a useful remedy. Strychnin and quinin may be given throughout almost the whole course of the disease. The various preparations of iron are astringents and excitants to the digestive system. Carbolic acid is an antiputrid which is of marked benefit in edematous pneumonia; it should be given in small doses diluted in alcohol. Salicylic acid may be given in 1 or 2 dram doses every few hours. It is much used for troubles of the serous membranes, lowers the temperature, and is of value in this disease in preventing the exudation into the tissue of the lungs. The alkalines, as the sulphate and bicarbonate of soda, the nitrate of potash, and very small doses of the iodid of potash, should be employed to regulate the digestive tract, the kidneys, and the other excreting glands, and to stimulate absorption of the waste matter. The biological products enumerated under the treatment of the catarrhal form of influenza are also recommended for this disease. The bacterial vaccines in particular are being employed to a great extent, but the results are not uniformly satisfactory, especially with regard to prevention. They might, however, exert a beneficial influence against an attack of the secondary invaders and complications. A serum is also being prepared especially for the treatment of this disease, and since this is obtained from animals which have been highly immunized against the various organisms found in association with influenza it no doubt is beneficial, especially when the life of the animal is threatened. Such serum, however, should be used in sufficiently large doses, as repeated experience has proved that small doses have no beneficial action on the disease. More recently salvarsan is being highly recommended for the treatment of the pneumonic form of influenza, and by many investigators it is considered as a specific for this affection. A single injection of this preparation is supposed to result in a rapid clearing of the lungs and the recovery of the animal is hastened. The cost of this product, however, at the present time, is exorbitant, and it should be considered only in the treatment of very valuable animals. The same procedure as given for influenza should be carried out in the prevention of this affection. The diet demands the strictest attention from the outset. In many of the fevers the feed has to be diminished in quantity and regulated in the quality of its heat-producing components during the acute part of the disease, so as to lessen the material for combustion in the inflamed organs. In edematous pneumonia, on the contrary, all the feed that can possibly be digested and assimilated must be given. Choice must be made of the richest material which can be handled by the weakened stomach and intestines without fatiguing them. Good, sound hay should be chopped short and dampened or partly boiled; in the latter case the hay tea can be reserved to use as a drink. Oats may be preferred dry or in other cases are taken better scalded; in most cases, however, it is better to give slops of oatmeal, to which may be added a little bran, barley flour, or boiled milk and wheat flour. Pure cow's milk, not too rich in fatty matter, may be given alone or with beaten eggs; frequently the horse has to be coaxed with the milk diluted with several parts of water at first, but will soon learn to drink the pure milk. Apples and carrots cut up raw or boiled are useful, and fresh clover in small quantities will frequently stimulate the appetite. In other words, various feeds and combinations should be given to the horse. Throughout the course of the disease and during convalescence the greatest attention must be taken to cleaning the coat thoroughly so as to keep the glands of the skin in working order, and light, warm covering must be used to protect the animal from cold or drafts of air. STRANGLES. _Synonyms._--Distemper; colt-ill; catarrhal fever; one form of shipping fever; febris pyogenica. _Definition._--Strangles is an infectious disease of the horse, mule, and ass, seen most frequently in young animals, and usually leaving them immune from future trouble of the same kind. It appears as a fever lasting for a few days, and is usually associated with an abscess formation of lymph glands, especially those under the jaw, which have a tendency to break on the outside. It usually leaves the animal after convalescence perfectly healthy and as good as it was before, but sometimes leaves it a roarer or is followed by the development of deep-seated abscesses which may prove fatal. _Causes._--The cause of strangles is infection by direct contact with an animal suffering from the disease, or indirectly through contact with the discharges from an infected animal, or by means of the atmosphere in which an infected animal has been. There are many predisposing causes which render some animals much more subject to contract the disease than others. Early age, which has given it the popular name of colt-ill, offers many more subjects than the later periods of life do, for the animal can contract the disease but once, and the large majority of adult and old animals have derived an immunity from previous attacks. At 3, 4, or 5 years of age the colt, which has been at home, safe on a meadow or in a cozy barnyard, far from all intercourse with other animals or sources of contagion, is first put to work and driven to the market town or county fairs to be exposed to an atmosphere or to stables contaminated by other horses suffering from disease and serving as infecting agents. If it fails to contract it there, it is sold and shipped in foul, undisinfected railway cars to dealers' stables, equally unclean, where it meets many opportunities of infection. If it escapes so far, it reaches the time for heavier work and daily contact on the streets of towns or large cities, with numerous other horses and mules, some of which are sure to be the bearers of the germs of this or some other infectious disease, and at last it succumbs. The period of the eruption of the last permanent teeth, or the end of the period of development from the colt to an adult horse, at which time the animals usually have a tendency to fatten and be excessively full-blooded, also seems to be a predisposing period for the contraction of this as well as of the other infectious diseases. Thoroughbred colts are very susceptible, and frequently contract strangles at a somewhat earlier age than those of more humble origin. Mules and asses are much less susceptible and are but rarely affected. Other animals are not subject to this disease, but there is a certain analogy between it and distemper in dogs. After exposure to infection there is a period of incubation of the disease, lasting from two to four days, during which the animal enjoys its ordinary health. _Symptoms._--The horse at first is a little sluggish if used, or when placed in its stable is somewhat dejected, paying but moderate attention to the various disturbing surroundings. Its appetite is somewhat diminished in many cases, while in some cases the animal eats well throughout. Thirst is increased, but not a great deal of water is taken at one time. If a bucket of water is placed in the manger the patient will dip its nose into it and swallow a few mouthfuls, allowing some of it to drip back and then stop, to return to it in a short time. The coat becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. At times the horse will have chills of one or the other leg, the fore quarters, or hind quarters, or in severe cases of the whole body, with trembling of the muscles and dryness of the skin. If the eyes and mouth are examined the membranes are found reddened to a bright rosy color. The pulse is quickened and the breathing may be slightly accelerated. At the end of two days a cough is heard and a discharge begins to come from the nostrils. This discharge is at first watery; it then becomes thicker, somewhat bluish in color, and sticky, and finally it assumes the yellowish color of matter and increases greatly in quantity. At the outset the colt may sneeze occasionally and a cough is heard. The cough is at first repeated and harsh, but soon becomes softer and moist as the discharge increases. Again, the cough varies according to the source of the discharge, for in light cases this may be only a catarrh of the nasal canals, or it may be from the throat, the windpipe, or the air tubes of the lungs, or even from the lungs themselves. According to the organ affected the symptoms and character of cough are similar to those of a laryngitis, bronchitis, or lung fever caused by ordinary cold. Shortly after the discharge is seen a swelling takes place under the jaw, or in the intermaxillary space. This is at first puffy, somewhat hot and tender, and finally becomes distinctly so, and an abscess is felt, or having broken itself the discharge is seen dripping from a small opening. When the discharge from the nostrils has fully developed the fever usually disappears and the animal regains its appetite, unless the swelling is sufficient to interfere with the function of the throat, causing pain on any attempt to swallow. At the end of four or six days the discharge lessens, the soreness around the throat diminishes, the horse regains its appetite, and in two weeks has regained its usual condition. Old and strong horses may have the disease in so light a form that the fever is not noticeable; they may continue to eat and perform their ordinary work as usual and no symptom may be seen beyond a slight discharge from the nose and a rare cough, which is not sufficient to worry any but the most particular owner. But, on the other hand, the disease may assume a malignant form or become complicated so as to become a most serious disease, and even prove fatal in many cases. Inflammation of the larynx and bronchi, if excessive, produce violent, harsh coughing, which may almost asphyxiate the animal. The large amount of discharge may be mixed with air by the difficult breathing, and the nostrils, the front of the animal, manger, and surrounding objects become covered with a white foam. The inflammation may be in the lung itself (lobular pneumonia) and cause the animal to breathe heavily, heave at the flanks, and show great distress. In this condition marked symptoms of fever are seen, the appetite is lost, the coat is dry, the horse stands back in its stall at the end of the halter strap with its neck extended and its legs propped apart to favor breathing. This condition may end by resolution, leaving the horse for some time with a severe cough, or the animal may die from choking up of the lungs (asphyxia). The swelling under the jaw may be excessive, and if the abscess is not opened it burrows toward the throat or to the side and causes inflammation of the parotid glands and breaks in annoying fistulas at the sides of the throat and even up as high as the ears. Roaring may occur either during a moderately severe attack from inflammation of the throat (larynx), or at a later period as the result of continued lung trouble. Abscesses may develop in other parts of the body, in the poll, in the withers, or in the spaces of loose tissue under the arms, in the fold of the thigh, and, in entire horses, in the testicles. During the course of the disease, or later, when the animal seems to be on the road to perfect recovery, abscesses may form in the internal organs and produce symptoms characteristic of disease of those parts. Roaring, plunging, wandering in a circle, or standing with the head wedged in a corner of the stall indicate the collection of matter in the brain. Sudden and severe lung symptoms, without previous discharge, point to an abscess between the lungs, in the mediastinum; colic, which is often continuous for days, is the result of the formation of an abscess in some part of the abdominal cavity, usually in the mesentery. _Pathology._--The lesions of strangles are found on the surface of the mucous membranes, essentially of the respiratory system, and in the loose connective tissue fibers of the internal organs and glands, and consist of acute inflammatory changes, tending to the formation of matter. The blood is unaltered, though it is rich in fibrin, and if the animal has died of asphyxia it is found dark colored and uncoagulated when the body is first opened. If the animal has died while suffering from high fever the ordinary alterations throughout the body, which are produced by any fever not attended by alteration of blood, are found. _Prevention._--Healthy horses should be separated from the infected animals, and the stables in which the disease has occurred should be thoroughly disinfected. Since the disease frequently occurs annually on infected premises, systematic disinfection should be practiced after an outbreak. The stables, as well as all utensils which might have come in contact with the infection, should be thoroughly disinfected. By such practices recurrences of the disease may be prevented. _Treatment._--Ordinary light cases require but little treatment beyond diet, warm washes, moistened hay, warm coverings, and protection from exposure to cold. The latter is urgently called for, as lung complications, severe bronchitis, and laryngitis are often the results of neglect of this precaution. If the fever is excessive, the horse may receive small quantities of Glauber's salt (handful three times a day) as a laxative, bicarbonate of soda or niter in one-dram doses every few hours, and small doses of antimony, iodid of potash, aconite, or quinin. Steaming the head with the vapor of warm water poured over a bucket of bran and hay, in which belladonna leaves or tar have been placed, will allay the inflammation of the mucous membranes and greatly ease the cough. The swelling of the glands should be promptly treated by flaxseed poultices and bathing with warm water, and as soon as there is any evidence of the formation of matter it should be opened. Prompt action in this will often save serious complications. Blisters and irritating liniments should _not_ be applied to the throat. When lung complications show themselves the horse should have mustard applied to the belly and to the sides of the chest. When convalescence begins great care must be taken not to expose the animal to cold, which may bring on relapses, and while exercise is of great advantage it must not be turned into work until the animal has entirely regained its strength. Bacterial vaccines are now being extensively used for the prevention and treatment of this disease. They are prepared from the specific germ of the disease and frequently exert a very beneficial influence. A serum is also being prepared from horses, which is injected with gradually increasing doses of this germ. This serum possesses considerable curative value and may prove especially valuable in cases in which the animals have failed to respond to other forms of treatment, or when valuable animals are affected with the disease. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. _Synonyms._--Anasarca; petechial fever; morbus maculosus. _Definition._--This disease is a septic bacterial intoxication, acute and infectious in character, and is manifested by edematous swellings of the subcutaneous connective tissue, and hemorrhages on the mucous membrane and in the internal organs. A previous attack of influenza is a common predisposing cause of this disease, which appears most frequently a few weeks after convalescence is established. It occurs more frequently in those animals which have made a rapid convalescence and are apparently perfectly well than it does in those which have made a slower recovery. Anasarca commences by symptoms which are excessively variable. The local lesions may be confined to a small portion of the animal's body and the constitutional phenomena be nil. The appearance and gravity of the local lesions may be so unlike, from difference of location, that they seem to belong to a separate disease, and complications may completely mask the original trouble. In the simplest form the first symptom noticed is a swelling, or several swellings, occurring on the surface of the body--on the forearm, the leg, the under surface of the belly, or the side of the head. The tumefaction is at first the size of a hen's egg; not hot, little sensitive, and distinctly circumscribed by a marked line from the surrounding healthy tissue. These tumors gradually extend until they coalesce, and in a few hours we have swelling of the legs, legs and belly, or the head, to an enormous size; they have always the characteristic constricted border, which looks as if it had been tied with a cord. In the nostrils are found small reddish spots, or petechiæ, which gradually assume a brownish and frequently a black color. Examination of the mouth will frequently reveal similar lesions on the surface of the tongue, along the lingual gutter, and on the frænum. If the external swelling has been on the head, the petechiæ of the mucous membranes are liable to be more numerous and to coalesce into patches of larger size than when the dropsy is confined to the legs. The animal may be rendered stiff by the swelling of the legs, or be annoyed by an awkward swollen head, which at times may be so enormous as to resemble that of a hippopotamus rather than that of a horse. During this period the temperature remains normal; the pulse, if altered at all, is only a little weaker; the respiration is only hurried if the swelling of the head infringes on the caliber of the nostrils. The appetite remains normal. The animal is attentive to all that is going on, and, except for the swelling, apparently in perfect health. In from two to four days, in severe cases, the tissues can no longer resist the pressure of the exuded fluid. Over the surface of the skin which covers the dropsy we find a slight serous sweating, which loosens the epidermis and dries so as to simulate the eruption of some cutaneous disease. If this is excessive we may see irritated spots which are suppurating. In the nasal fossæ the hemorrhagic spots have acted as irritants, and, inviting an increased amount of blood to the Schneiderian membrane, produce a coryza or even a catarrh. We may now find some enlargement and peripheral edema of the lymphatic glands, which are fed from the affected part. The thermometer indicates a slight rise in the body temperature, while the pulse and respiration are somewhat accelerated. The appetite usually remains good. In the course of a few days the temperature may have reached 102°, 103°, or 104° F. Fever is established, not an essential or specific fever in any way, but a simple secondary fever produced by the dead material from the surface or superficial suppuration, and by the oxidization and absorption of the colloid mass contained in the tissues. The skin may suppurate or slough more or less over the areas of greatest tension or where it is irritated by blows or pressure. The great swelling about the head may by closure of the nostrils interfere seriously with breathing. Internal edema may occur in the throat, lungs, or intestines. Septicemia, or blood poisoning, may result from anasarca. _Terminations._--The simple form of the disease most frequently terminates favorably on the eighth or tenth day by resolution or absorption of the effusion, with usually a profuse diuresis, and with or without diarrhea. The appetite remains good or is at times capricious. Death may occur from mechanical asphyxia, produced by closure of the nostrils or closure of the glottis. Metastasis to the lungs is almost invariably fatal, causing death by asphyxia, Metastasis to the intestines may cause death from pain, enteritis, or hemorrhage. Excessive suppuration, lymphangitis, and gangrene are causes of a fatal termination by exhaustion. Mortal exhaustion is again produced by inability to swallow in cases of excessive swelling of the head. Peritonitis may arise secondary to the enteric edema, or by perforation of the stomach or intestines by a gangrenous spot. Septicemia terminates fatally with its usual train of symptoms. _Alterations._--The essential alterations of anasarca are exceedingly simple; the capillaries are dilated, the lymphatic spaces between the fibers of the connective tissue are filled with serum, and the coagulable portion of the blood presents a yellowish or citrine mass, jellylike in consistency, which has stretched out the tissue like the meshes of a sponge. Where the effusion has occurred between the muscles, as in the head, these are found dissected and separated from each other like those of a hog's head by the masses of fat. The surface of the skin is desquamated and frequently denuded of the hair. Frequently there are traces of suppuration and of ulceration. The mucous membrane of the nose is found studded with small, hemorrhagic spots, sometimes red, more frequently brown or black, often coalesced with each other in irregular-sized patches and surrounded by a reddish zone, the product of irritation. If edema of the intestines has occurred, the membrane is found four or five times its normal thickness, reddish in color, with hemorrhages on the free surface. Edema of the lungs leaves these organs distended. The secondary alterations vary according to the complications. There are frequently the lesions of asphyxia; externally we find ulcers, abscesses, and gangrenous spots and the deep ulcers resulting from the latter. The lymphatic cords and glands are found with all the lesions of lymphangitis. Again are found the traces of excessive emaciation, or the lesions of septicemia. Except from the complications the blood is not altered in anasarca. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of anasarca must principally be made from farcy or glanders. In anasarca the swelling is nonsensitive, while sensitive in the acute swelling of farcy. The nodes of farcy are distinct and hard and never circumscribed, as in the other disease. The eruption of glanders on the mucous membranes is nodular, hard, and pelletlike. The redness disappears on pressure. In case of excessive swelling of the head in anasarca, there may occur an extensive sero-fibrinous exudation from the mucous membranes of the nose, poured out as a semifluid mass or as a cast of the nasal fossæ, never having the appearance or typical oily character which it has in glanders. The inflammation of the lymphatic cords and glands in anasarca does not produce the indurated character which is found in farcy. _Prognosis._--While anasarca is not an excessively fatal disease, the prognosis must always be guarded. The majority of cases run a simple course and terminate favorably at the end of 8 or 10 days, or possibly, after one to two relapses, requiring several weeks for complete recovery. Effusion into the head renders the prognosis much more grave from the possible danger of mechanical asphyxia. Threatened mechanical asphyxia is especially dangerous on account of the risk of blood poisoning after an operation of tracheotomy. Edema of the viscera is a most serious complication. The prognosis is based on the complications, their extent, and their individual gravity, existing, as they do here, in an already debilitated subject. _Treatment._--The treatment of anasarca may be as variable as are the lesions. The indications are at once shown by the alterations and mechanism of the disease, which we have just studied. Hygiene comes into play as the most important factor. Oats, oat-and-hay tea, milk, eggs--anything which the stomach or rectum can be coaxed to take care of--must be employed to give the nutriment, which is the only thing that will permanently strengthen the tissues; they must be strengthened in order to keep the capillaries at their proper caliber. Laxatives, diaphoretics, and diuretics must be used to stimulate the emunctories so that they may carry off the large amount of the products of decomposition which result from the stagnated effusions of anasarca. Of these the sulphate of soda in small, repeated doses, the nitrate of potash and bicarbonate of soda in small quantity, or the chlorate of potash in single large doses will be found useful. Williams cites the chlorate of potash as an antiputrid. Stimulants and astringents are directly indicated. Spirits of turpentine serves the double purpose of a cardiac stimulant and a powerful, warm diuretic, for the kidneys in this disease will stand a wonderful amount of work. Camphor can be used with advantage. Coffee and tea are two of the diffusible stimulants which are too much neglected in veterinary medicine; both are valuable adjuncts in treatment of anasarca, as they are during convalescence at the end of any grave disease which has tended to render the patient anemic. Dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are, perhaps, the best examples of a combination of stimulant, astringent, and tonic which can be employed. The simple astringents of mineral origin, sulphates of iron, copper, etc., are useful as digestive tonics; I doubt whether they have any constitutional effect. The vegetable astringents, tannic acid, etc., have not proved efficacious in my hands. Iodid of potash in small doses serves the triple purpose of digestive tonic, denutritive for inflammation, and diuretic. Among the newer forms of treatment are diluted Lugol's solution injected into the trachea, anti-streptococcus serum and colloidal silver solution injected into the circulation. No one but a qualified veterinarian would be competent to apply these remedies. _Externally._--Sponging the swollen parts, especially the head, when the swelling occurs there, is most useful. The bath should be at an extreme of temperature--either ice cold to constrict the tissues or hot water to act as an emollient and to favor circulation. Vinegar may be added as an astringent. When we have excessively denuded surfaces, suppuration, or open wounds, disinfectants should be added to the wash. In cases of excessive swelling, especially of the head, mechanical relief may be required. Even in country practice, punctures of the part should be made with the hot iron, as no other disease so predisposes to septic contamination. When mechanical asphyxia is threatened tracheotomy may be demanded. With the first evidence of dyspnea, not due to closing of the nostrils or glottis, or with the first pawing which gives rise to a suspicion of colic, a mustard plaster should be applied over the whole belly and chest. The sinapism will draw the current of the circulation to the exterior, the metastasis to the lungs or intestines is prevented, and the enfeebled nervous system is stimulated to renewed vigor by the peripheral irritation. The organs are encouraged by it to renewed functional activity; the local inflammation produced by it favors absorption of the exudation. The objection to the use of blisters is their more severe action and the danger of mortification. Septicemia, when occurring as a complication, requires the ordinary treatment for the putrid diseases, with little hope of a good result. After recovery the animal regains its ordinary health, and there is no predisposition to a return of the disease. HORSEPOX, OR EQUINE VARIOLA. _Synonyms._--Variola equina; pustular grease; phlyctenold herpes. _Definition._--Horsepox is a specific, infectious fever of the horse, attended by an eruption of pustules, or pocks, over any part of the skin or on the mucous membranes lining the various cavities in the body, but chiefly, and often exclusively, upon the pasterns and fetlocks. The eruption may commence upon the lips, or about the nostrils or eyes. This disease was described by the early Roman agricultural writers and by the veterinarians of the eighteenth century. It received its first important notice from the great Jenner, who confounded it with grease in horses, since animals with this disease are very liable to have the eruption of variola appear on the fetlocks. He saw these cases transmit the disease to cattle in the byres and to the stablemen and milkmaids who attended them, and furnish the latter with immunity from smallpox, which led to the discovery of vaccination. Horsepox is also frequently mistaken for the exanthemata attending some forms of venereal disease in horses. Variola in the horse, while it is identical in principle, general course, complications, and lesions with variola in other animals, is a disease of the horse itself, and is not transmissible in the form of variola to any other animal; nor is the variola of any other animal transmissible to the horse. Cattle and men, if inoculated from a case of horsepox, develop vaccinia, but vaccinia from the latter animals is not so readily reinoculated into the horse with success. If it does develop, it produces the original disease. _Causes._--The direct cause of horsepox is infection. A large number of predisposing causes favor the development of the disease, as in the case of strangles, and this trouble, like almost all contagious diseases, renders the animal which has had one attack immune. The chief predisposing cause is youthfulness. Old horses which have not been affected are less liable to become infected when exposed than younger ones. The exposure incident to shipment, through public stables, cars, etc., acts as a predisposing cause, as in the other infectious diseases. The period of final dentition is a time which renders it peculiarly susceptible. Dupaul states that the infection is transmissible through the atmosphere for several hundred yards. The more common means of contagion is by direct contact or by means of fomites. Feed boxes and bridles previously used by horses affected with variola are probably the most frequent carriers of the virus, and we find the lesions in the majority of cases developed in the neighborhood of the lips and nostrils. Coition is a frequent cause. A stallion suffering from this disease may be the cause of a considerable epizootic, as he transmits it to a number of brood mares and they in turn return to the farms where they are surrounded by young animals to which they convey the contagion. The saddle and croup straps are frequent agents of infection. The presence of a wound greatly favors the inoculation of the disease, which is also sometimes carried by surgical instruments or sponges. Trasbot recites a case in which a set of hobbles, which had been used on an animal suffering from variola, were used on a horse for a quittor operation and transmitted the disease, which developed on the edges of the wound. _Symptoms._--There is a period of incubation, after an animal has been exposed, of from five to eight days, during which there is no appreciable alteration in the health. This period is shorter in summer than in winter. At the end of this time small nodes develop at the point of inoculation and the animal becomes feverish. The horse is dull and dejected, loses its appetite, and has a rough, dry coat with the hairs on end. There is moderate thirst. The respirations are somewhat quickened and the pulse becomes rapid and full. The body temperature is elevated, frequently reaching 104° or 105° F. within 36 or 48 hours from the appearance of the first symptoms. The visible mucous membranes, especially the conjunctivæ, are of a bright rosy red. In the lymphatic, cold-blooded, and more common horses these symptoms of fever are less marked; even with a comparatively high temperature the animal may retain its appetite and work comparatively well, but these cases, if worked and overheated, are liable to develop serious complications. At the end of from three and a half to four days the eruption breaks out, the fever abates, and the general symptoms improve. The eruption in severe cases may be generalized; it may be confined to the softer skin of the nose and lips, the genital organs, and the inside of the thighs, or it may be localized in the neighborhood of a wound or in the irritated skin of a pair of greasy heels. It consists of a varying number of little nodes which, on a mucous membrane, as in the nostrils or vagina, or on soft, unpigmented skin, appear red and feel at first like shot under the epidermis. These nodes soften and show a yellowish spot in the center when they become pustules. The epidermis is dissolved and the matter escapes as a viscid fluid at first citrine and later cloudy and purulent, which dries rapidly, forming scabs; if these fall off or are removed they leave a little shallow, concave ulcer which heals in the course of five or six days. In the softer skin if pigmented the cicatrices are white and frequently remain so for about a year, when the pigment returns. The lips or genital organs of a colored horse, if covered with a number of small white spots about the size of a pea, will usually indicate that the animal has been affected with the horsepox. At times the pustules may become confluent and produce large, superficial, serpentine ulcers on the membrane of the nostrils, around the lips or eyelids, or on the borders of wounds and in greasy heels; in this case the part becomes swollen, hot, painful, and is covered with a profuse discharge of matter. In this form there is frequently a secondary fever lasting for a day or two. In severe cases there may be a suppurative adenitis, or inflammation of the lymphatic glands which are fed from the affected part. If the eruption is around the nostrils and lips, the glands between the jaws (submaxillary) form abscesses as in a case of strangles; if the eruption is in a pair of greasy heels abscesses may form in the fold of the groin (inguinal). There may be so much tumefaction of the nostrils as to produce difficulty in breathing. _Complications._--A case of horsepox may be attended with various complications of varying degrees of importance. Adenitis, or suppuration of the glands, has just been mentioned. Confluent eruptions irritate the part and induce the animal to rub the inflamed part against the manger or scratch it in other ways and thus produce troublesome ulcers, which may leave ugly scars. Irritation of the mucous membrane of the nose causes severe coryza with purulent discharge. The eruption may occur in the throat or in the air tubes to the lungs, developing an acute laryngitis or bronchitis. If the animal is exposed to cold, or worked so as to engorge the lungs with blood at the termination of the specific fever, just when the eruption is about to localize, it may be determined to the lungs. In this case we have a short, dry cough, labored breathing, the development of a secondary fever of some gravity, and all the external symptoms of a pneumonia. This pneumonia differs, however, from an ordinary pneumonia in the symptoms furnished by the examination of the lungs themselves. In place of a large mass of the lung tissue being affected the inflammation is disseminated in smaller spots over the entire lung. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of horsepox is to be based on the presence of a continuous fever, with rosy mucous membranes, for several days and the appearance of the characteristic eruption. If the eruption is in the nasal cavities, marked by a considerable discharge and attended with submaxillary abscesses, it may be confounded with strangles. If the throat is affected, it may be confounded with an angina (laryngitis or pharyngitis), but in the latter the local trouble precedes or is concomitant with the fever, while in the former the fever precedes the local trouble by several days. Variola may be confounded with bronchitis or pneumonia if complicated with these troubles and the eruption is absent from the exterior, but it is of little moment, as the treatment for both is much the same. When the eruption is in the neighborhood of the genital organs the disease has been mistaken for dourine. In variola the eruption is a temporary one; the nodes and pustules are followed by shallow ulcers and rapid cicatrization unless continued in the vagina or on the penis by the rubbing of the walls and filth which accumulates; there are apt to be pustules at other parts of the body. In the venereal disease the local trouble commences as a papule and breaks into an ulcer without having formed a pustule. The ulcer has not the convex rosy appearance of that of the less serious discharge; the symptoms last for a longer period, by which time others aid in differentiating the two. In glanders the tubercle is hard and, after breaking into an ulcer, the indurated bottom remains, grayish or dirty white in color, ragged, and exuding a viscous, oily discharge. There is no disposition to suppuration of the neighboring glands. In variola the rosy shallow ulcer and healthy pus, with the acutely tumefied glands, should not be mistaken, at least after a day. I have seen in mules acute glanders which required a day's delay to differentiate from strangles; at that time the farcy buds appeared. _Prognosis._--The average case of horsepox runs a course of dejection, loss of appetite, and more or less fever for about four days, followed by a rapid convalescence, and leaves the animal as well and as sound as before. If the eruption has been excessive or confluent, the ulcerations may act as irritants and render the animal unfit for use for several weeks. Laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia in this disease are not of greater gravity than they are when occurring from other causes. The spots denuded of pigment left by the pustules on the lips and genitals may temporarily depreciate the value of the animal to a slight degree. _Treatment._--As this is a disease unattended by alterations of the blood itself, although a specific fever, and is of a sthenic type, active remedies are admissible and indicated. The horse should be placed on a low diet (little or no oats)--bran mashes, a moderate quantity of good, sound hay, a few carrots or apples, which will act as laxatives; also slop feed. Barley flour is more cooling for mashes than bran or oatmeal. Water may be given as the animal desires it, but it should not be cold; if a half bucketful of water is kept in the manger, the horse will take but a few swallows at a time. One-dram doses of nitrate of potash or 1-ounce doses of sweet spirits of niter are useful in the drinking water. If the fever is high, the antipyretics are indicated: Sulphate of quinin in 1-dram doses; iodid of potash in 1-dram doses; infusion of pine tops, of juniper leaves, of the aromatic herbs, or of English breakfast tea are useful in the later stages. If complications of the air passages or lungs are threatened, a large mustard poultice should be applied to the belly and sides of the chest. Oxid of zinc ointment should be used on confluent eruptions, and if the ulceration is excessive it may have to be touched with caustic. Great care must be taken to keep the animal protected from cold drafts of air or other exposure. Blankets or sheets should be used on the body and bandages on the legs. After convalescence is established, nutritious feed of easy digestion and walking exercise are all that is needed, except perhaps a little Glauber's salt to prevent constipation. _Prophylactic treatment._--When horsepox breaks out among a large number of horses, especially on a farm where there are a number of colts, it may be assumed that the greater majority will contract the disease, and it is more economical that they should have it and be through with it at once. If the weather is moderate, all the animals which have not been affected can be inoculated, which will produce the disease in a mild form, with the eruption at a point of election, and render the danger of complication a minimum one. For inoculation the discharge from the pustules of a mild case should be selected and inoculated by scarification on the belly or the under surface of the neck. ANTHRAX. _Synonyms:_ Carbuncle, splenic fever, splenic apoplexy, etc.; charbon, sang de rate (French); Miltzbrand (German). _Definition._--Anthrax is a severe and usually fatal contagious disease, characterized by chills, great depression and stupor of the animal, and a profound alteration of the blood. It is caused by the entrance into the animal's body of a bacterium, known as the _Bacillus anthracis_, or its spores. Practically all animals are susceptible to anthrax. The herbivora are especially susceptible, in the following order: The sheep, the ox, and the horse. The guinea pig, the hog, the rabbit, mice, and other animals die quickly from its effects. Man, the dog, and other omnivora and carnivora may be attacked by it in a constitutional form as fatal as in the herbivora, but fortunately in many cases develop from it only local trouble, followed by recovery. Anthrax has been a scourge of the animals of the civilized world since the first written history we have of any of their diseases. In 1709-1712 extensive outbreaks of anthrax occurred in Germany, Hungary, and Poland. In the first half of the nineteenth century it had become an extensively spread disease in Russia, Holland, and England, and for the last century has been gradually spreading in the Americas, more so in South America than here. In 1864, in the five governments of Petersburg, Novgorod, Olonetz, Twer, and Jaroslaw, in Russia, more than 10,000 horses and nearly 1,000 persons perished from the disease. _Causes._--The causes of anthrax were for a long time attributed entirely to climatic influence, soil, and atmospheric temperature, and they are still recognized as predisposing factors in the development of the disease, for it is usually found, especially when outbreaks in a great number of animals occur, in low, damp, marshy countries during the warm seasons. It is more frequent in districts where marshy lands dry out during the heat of summer and are then covered with light rains. Decaying vegetable matter seems most favorable for nourishing and preserving the virus. The direct cause of anthrax is always infection of a previously sound animal, either directly from a diseased animal or through various media which contain excretions or the débris from the body of one previously infected. The specific virus of anthrax was first discovered by Davaine in 1851. He recognized microscopic bodies in the form of little rods in the blood of animals suffering from anthrax. It was not, however, till a quarter of a century later that Pasteur defined the exact nature of the bacillus, the mode of its propagation, and its exact relationship to anthrax as the sole cause of the disease. In the animal body the bacilli have a tendency to accumulate in the spleen, liver, and elsewhere, so that these organs are much more virulent than the muscles or less vascular tissues. When eliminated from the animal in the excretions, or when exposed to outside influences by the death of the animal and the disintegration of the tissues, the body of the rod is destroyed and the spores only remain. These spores, which may be called the seeds of the bacilli, retain their vitality for a long period; they resist ordinary putrefaction; they are unchanged by moisture; and they are not affected by moderate heat. If scattered with the débris of a dead animal on the surface of the ground, they may remain around the roots of the grass in a pasture or may be washed to the nearest low-lying ground or marsh. If buried in the body of an animal dead from anthrax, they may be washed deep into the ground, and in later years (in one proved case 17 years) be brought to the surface and infect other animals. They are frequently brought to the surface of the earth, having been swallowed by earthworms, in the bodies of which they have been found. This accounts for the outbreaks at the time of the first rains after a dry season. During the latter the earthworm goes deep in the ground in search of moisture; it finds the spore which has been washed there in past years, swallows it, and afterwards brings it to the surface. The virus is carried with the wool from infected sheep and remains in it through the process of manufacture into cloth. The spores remain in the hides of animals which have died of anthrax and retain their vitality throughout months of soaking in the tanners' pits, the working of the harness maker or the cobbler, and after the oiling of the completed leather. The dried spores in the dust from any of these products may be carried by the atmosphere. Infection of an animal takes place through inoculation or contact of the bacillus or its spores with an abraded surface or mucous membrane, on a sound animal. In an infected district horses may eat with impunity the rich pasturage of spring and early summer, but when grass gets low they crop it close to the ground, pull up the roots around which the virus may be lodged, and under these conditions the animals are more apt to have abrasions of the lips or tongue by contact with dried stubble and the dirt on the roots; this favors the introduction of the germs into the system. The virus may be introduced with feed and enter the blood-vessel system from the stomach and intestines. If in the dust, dried hay, or on the parched pasture of late summer, the virus may be inhaled and be absorbed from the lining of the lungs. If in harness leather, it needs but an abrasion of the skin, as the harness rubs it, to transfer the spore from the leather to the circulation of the animal. The writer saw a case of anthrax occur in a groom from the use of a new horse brush. The strap which passes over the back of the hand inoculated an abrasion on the knuckle of the first finger, and in 12 hours a "pustule" had formed and the arm had become infected. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of anthrax usually develop with extreme rapidity. The horse is dejected and falls into a state of profound stupor, attended with great muscular weakness. The feeble, indolent animal, if forced to move, drags its legs. There are severe chills, agitation of the muscles, symptoms of vertigo, and at times colicky pains. The mucous membranes turn a deep ocher or bluish-red color. The body temperature is rapidly elevated to 104° or 105° F. The breathing is increased to 30 or 40 respirations in the minute and the pulse is greatly accelerated, but while the arteries are soft and almost imperceptible, the heart beats can be felt and heard, violent and tumultuous. In some cases, when inoculation is through the skin, large subcutaneous swellings appear; these may involve a leg, a shoulder, one side of the body, or the neck or head. The swelling is at first hot and painful, but afterwards it becomes necrotic and sensation is lost. The symptoms last but two, three, or four days at most, when the case usually terminates fatally. An examination of the blood shows a dark fluid which will not clot, and which remains black after exposure to the air. After death the bodies putrefy rapidly and bloat up; the tissues are filled with gases, and a bloody foam exudes from the mouth, nostrils, and anus, and frequently the mucous membranes of the rectum protrude from the latter. The hairs detach from the skin. Congestion of all the organs and tissues is found, with interstitial hemorrhages. The muscles are friable and are covered with ecchymotic spots. This is especially marked in the heart. The black, uncoagulated, and incoagulable blood shows an iridescent scum on its surface, which is due to the fat of the animal dissolved by the ammonia produced by the decomposed tissues. The serum oozes out of every tissue and contains broken-down blood, which, when examined microscopically, is found to have the red globules crenated and the leucocytes granular. A high power of the microscope also reveals the bacteria in the shape of little rodlike bodies of homogeneous texture with their brilliant spores. The lymphatic ganglia are increased four, five, six, or ten times their natural size, enlarged by the engorgement of blood. The spleen shows nodulated black spots containing a muddy blood, which is found teeming with the virus. This organ is much enlarged and is quite friable. The mucous membranes of the intestines are congested and reddish brown; the surface of the intestines is in many places denuded of its lining membrane, showing fissures and hemorrhagic spots. The liver has a cooked appearance; the kidneys are congested and friable; the urine is red; the pleura, lungs, and the meninges are congested, and the bronchi of the lungs contain a bloody foam. _Treatment._--Treatment of anthrax in animals by medicinal means has not proved satisfactory. In cases of local anthrax an incision of the swelling followed by the application of disinfectants sometimes causes good results. In such cases, however, the danger of disseminating the infection from the wounds tends to make this procedure inadvisable unless great care is taken. Good results are obtained from the use of serum in the treatment of the disease. For this purpose 30 to 100 cubic centimeters should be administered subcutaneously or intravenously. If no improvement is noticed within 24 hours the injection should be repeated. In a number of instances afforded to test the curative value of the serum in cases of anthrax in man and animals splendid results were obtained. The prophylactic treatment formerly consisted in the avoidance of certain fields and marshes which were recognized as contaminated during the months of August and September and had been occupied the years in which the outbreaks usually occurred. It underwent, however, a revolution after the discovery by Pasteur of the possibility of a prophylactic inoculation or vaccination which granted immunity from future attacks of the disease similar to that granted by the recovery of an animal from an ordinary attack of the disease. This treatment consists in the use of a vaccine which is made by the artificial cultivation of the virus of anthrax in broth and in the treatment of it by means of continued exposure to a high temperature for a certain time, which weakens the virus to such extent that it is capable of producing only a very mild and not dangerous attack of anthrax in the animal in which it is inoculated, and thus protects it from inoculation of a stronger virus. The production of this virus, which is carried on in some countries at the expense of the governments and is furnished at a small cost to the farmers in regions where the disease prevails, in this country is made in private laboratories only. At the present time very good results are being obtained with vaccination consisting of an injection of highly potent anthrax serum on one side of the animal and a vaccine on the other side. This method of treatment requires only a single handling of the animals and further possesses advantages over the Pasteur treatment in that it immediately makes animals immune. In the numerous applications of this form of treatment very good results have been obtained and the immunity produced thereby visually lasts at least one year. The vaccinated animals should be kept for a period of ten days to two weeks from exposure, since during that period they are at times even more susceptible to the disease, and therefore care should be taken not to reduce their vitality. _Prevention._--In attempts to control the disease it is essential, aside from protective vaccination, to prevent the reinfection of localities. For this purpose it is essential, if possible, to drain thoroughly and keep under cultivation the infected areas before animals are permitted to pasture on them. The complete destruction of all anthrax carcasses is also very important. This is best accomplished by burning, but as this method of disposal is impracticable in many localities, deep burial may be found to be better. Covering the carcasses within their graves with quicklime adds another valuable precaution against further dissemination of the infection. No animal dying from anthrax should ever be skinned or cut open, as the blood from these sources is one of the most dangerous means of spreading the infection, being charged, while in the animal, with great numbers of bacilli, which quickly turn into spores as soon as spread about upon the face of the ground. All discharges from the body openings should also be burned or buried deeply, as they are frequently of a virulent character. GLANDERS AND FARCY. (Pls. XL-XLII.) _Definition._--Let it be understood at the outset that glanders and farcy are one and the same disease, differing only in that the first term is applied to the disease when the local lesions predominate in the internal organs, especially in the nostrils, lungs, and air tubes, and that the second term is applied to it when the principal manifestation is an outbreak of the lesions on the exterior or skin of the animal. The term glanders applies to the disease in both forms, while the term farcy is limited to the visible appearance of external trouble only; but in the latter case internal lesions always exist, although they may not be evident. Glanders is a contagious constitutional disease of the genus _Equus_ (the horse, ass, and mule), readily communicable to man, the dog, the cat, the rabbit, and the guinea pig. It is transmitted with difficulty to sheep and goats, and cattle seem to be entirely immune. It runs a variable course and usually produces the death of the animal affected with it. It is characterized by the formation of neoplasms, or nodules, of connective tissue, which degenerate into ulcers, from which exude a peculiar discharge. It is accompanied with a variable degree of fever, according to the rapidity of its course. It is subject to various complications of the lymphatic glands, of the lungs, of the testicles, of the internal organs, and of the subcutaneous connective tissue. [Illustration: PLATE XL. GLANDERS. Nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions.] [Illustration: PLATE XLI. GLANDERS. Middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers.] [Illustration: PLATE XLII. GLANDERS. Posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing cicatrices.] _History._--Glanders is one of the oldest diseases of which we have definite knowledge in the history of medicine. Absyrtus, the Greek veterinarian in the army of Constantine the Great, described it with considerable accuracy and recognized the contagiousness of its character. Another Greek veterinarian, Vegetius Renatus, who lived in the time of Theodosius (381 A. D.), described, under the name of "malleus humidus," a disease of the horse characterized by a nasal discharge and accompanied by superficial ulcers. He recognized the contagious properties of the discharge of the external ulcers, and recommended that all animals sick with the disease be separated at once with the greatest care from the others and should be pastured in separate fields, for fear the other animals should become affected. In 1682 Sollysel, the stable master of Louis XIV, published an account of glanders and farcy, which he considered closely related to each other, although he did not recognize them as identical. He admitted the existence of a virus which communicated the disease from an infected animal to a sound one. He called special attention to the feed troughs and water buckets as being the media of contagion. He divided glanders into two forms--one malignant and contagious and the other benign--and he stated that there was always danger of infection. Garsault in 1746 said that "as this disease is communicated very easily and can infect in a very short time a prodigious number of horses by means of the discharges which may be licked up, animals infected with glanders should be destroyed." Bourgelat, the founder of veterinary schools, in his "Elements of Hippiatry," published in 1755, establishes glanders as a virulent disease. Extensive outbreaks of glanders are described as prevailing in the great armies of continental Europe and England from time to time during the periods of all the wars of the last few centuries. Glanders was imported into America at the close of the eighteenth century, and before the end of the first half of the last century had spread to a considerable degree among the horses of the Middle and immediately adjoining Southern States. This disease was unknown in Mexico until carried there during the Mexican War by the badly diseased horses of the United States Army. During the first half of the last century a large body of veterinarians and medical men protested against the contagious character of the disease, and by their opinion prevailed to such an extent against the common opinion that several of the Governments of Europe undertook a series of experiments to determine the right between the contesting parties. At the veterinary school at Alfort and at the farm of Lamirault in France several hundred horses which had passed examination as sound had placed among them glandered horses under various conditions. The results of these experiments proved conclusively the contagious character of the disease. In 1881 Bouchard, of the faculty of medicine in Paris, assisted by Capitan and Charrin, undertook a series of experiments with matter taken from the farcy ulcer of a human being. They afterwards continued their experiments with matter taken from horses, and in 1883 succeeded in showing that glanders is caused by a bacterium which is capable of propagation and reproduction of others of its own kind if placed in the proper media. In 1882 the specific germ of glanders was first discovered and described by Loeffler and Schuetz in Germany. When we come to study the etiology of glanders, the difference of susceptibility on the part of different species of animals, or even on the part of individuals of the same species, and when we come to find proof of the slow incubation and latent character of the disease as it exists in certain individuals, we understand how in a section of country containing a number of glandered animals others can seem to contract and develop the disease without having apparently been exposed to contagion. _Causes._--The contagious nature of glanders, in no matter what form it appears, being to-day definitely demonstrated, we can recognize but one cause for all cases, and that is contagion by means of the specific virus of the disease. The causative organism is known as the _Bacillus mallei_. In studying the writings of the older authors on glanders, and the works of those authors who contested the contagious nature of the disease, we find a large number of predisposing causes assigned as factors in the development of the malady. While a virus from a case of glanders if inoculated into an animal of the genus _Equus_ will inevitably produce the disease, we find a vast difference in the contagious activity of different cases of glanders. We find a great variation in the manner and rapidity of the development of the disease in different individuals and that the contagion is much more liable to be carried to sound animals under certain circumstances than it is under others. Only certain species of animals are susceptible of contracting the disease, and while some of these contract it as a general constitutional malady, in others it develops as only a local sore. In acute glanders the contagion is found in its most virulent form, as is shown by the inevitable infection of susceptible animals inoculated with the disease, while the discharge from chronic semilatent glanders and farcy may at times be inoculated with a negative result; again, in acute glanders, as we have a free discharge, a much greater quantity of virus-containing matter is scattered in the neighborhood of an infected horse to serve as a contagion to others than is found in the small amount of discharge of the chronic cases. The chances of contagion are much greater when sound horses, asses, or mules are placed in the immediate neighborhood of glandered horses, drink from the same bucket, stand in the next stall, or work in the same wagon, or are fed from feed boxes or mangers which have been impregnated by the saliva and soiled by the discharge of sick animals. Transmission occurs by direct contact of the discharges of a glandered animal with the tissues of a sound one, either on the exterior, when swallowed mixed with feed into the digestive tract, or when dried and inhaled as dust. The stable attendants serve as one of the most common carriers of the virus. Dried or fresh discharges are collected from the infected animals in cleaning, harnessing, feeding, and by means of the hands, clothing, the teeth of the currycomb, the sponge, the bridle, and the halter, and are thus carried to other animals. An animal affected with chronic glanders in a latent form is moved from one part of the stable to another, or works hitched with one horse and then with another, and may be an active agent in the spreading of the disease without the cause being recognized. Glanders is found frequently in the most insidious forms, and we recognize that it can exist without being apparent; that is, it may affect a horse for a long period without showing any symptoms that will allow even the most experienced veterinarian to make a diagnosis. An old gray mare belonging to a tavern keeper was reserved for family use with good care and light work for a period of eight years, during which time other horses in the tavern stable were from time to time affected with glanders without an apparent cause. The mare, whose only trouble was an apparent attack of heaves, was sold to a huckster who placed her at hard work. Want of feed and overwork and exposure rapidly developed a case of acute glanders, from which the animal died, and at the autopsy were found the lesions of an acute pneumonia of glanders grafted on chronic lesions, consisting of old nodules which had undoubtedly existed for years. In a case that once came under the care of the writer, a coach horse was examined for soundness and passed as sound by a prominent veterinarian, who a few months afterwards treated the horse for a skin eruption from which it recovered. Twelve months afterwards it came into the hands of the writer, hidebound, with a slight cough and a slight eruption of the skin, which was attributed to clipping and the rubbing of the harness, but which had nothing suspicious in its character. The horse was placed on tonics and put to regular light driving. In six weeks it developed a bronchitis without having been specially exposed, and in two days this trouble was followed by a lobular pneumonia and the breaking of an abscess in the right lung. Farcy buds developed on the surface of the body and the animal died. The autopsy showed the existence of a number of old glanderous nodules in the lungs which must have existed previous to purchase, more than a year before. Public watering troughs and the feed boxes of boarding stables and the tavern stables of market towns are among the most common recipients for the virus of glanders, which is most dangerous in its fresh state, but cases have been known to be caused by feeding animals in the box or stall in which glandered animals had stood several months before. While the discharge from a case of chronic glanders is much less liable to contain many active bacilli than that from a case of acute glanders, the former, if it infects an animal, will produce the same disease as the latter. It may assume from the outset an acute or chronic form, according to the susceptibility of the animal infected, and this does not depend upon the character of the disease from which the virus was derived. The animals of the genus _Equus_--the horse, the ass, and the mule--are those which are the most susceptible to contract glanders, but in these we find a much greater receptivity in the ass and mule than we do in the horse. In the ass and mule in almost all cases the period of incubation is short and the disease develops in an acute form. We find that the kind of horse infected has an influence on the character of the disease; in full-blooded, fat horses of a sanguinary temperament, the disease usually develops in an acute form, while in the lymphatic, cold-blooded, more common race of horses the disease usually assumes a chronic form. If the disease develops first in the chronic form in a horse in fair condition, starvation and overwork are liable to bring on an acute attack, but when the disease is inoculated into a debilitated and impoverished animal it is apt to start in the latent form. Inoculation on the lips or the exterior of the animal is frequently followed by an acute attack, while infection by ingestion of the virus and inoculation by means of the digestive tract is often followed by the trouble in the chronic latent form. In the dog the inoculation of glanders may develop a constitutional disease with all the symptoms which are found in the horse, but more frequently the virus pullulates only at the point of inoculation, remaining for some time as a local sore, which may then heal, leaving a perfectly sound animal; but while the local sore is continuing to ulcerate, and specific virus exists in it, it may be the carrier of contagion to other animals. In man we find a greater receptivity to glanders than in the dog, and in many unfortunate cases the virus spreads from the point of inoculation to the entire system and destroys the wretched mortal by extensive ulcers of the face and hemorrhage or by destruction of the lung tissue; in other cases, however, glanders may develop, as in the dog, in local form only, not infecting the constitution and terminating in recovery, while the specific ulcer by proper treatment is turned into a simple one. In the feline species glanders is more destructive than in the dog. The point of inoculation ulcerates rapidly and the entire system becomes infected. While a student the writer saw a lion in the service of Prof. Trasbot, at Alfort, which had contracted the disease by eating glandered meat and died with the lung riddled with nodules. A litter of kittens lapped the blood from the lungs of a glandered horse on which an autopsy was being made, and in four days almost their entire faces, including the nasal bones, were eaten away by rapid ulceration. Nodules were found in the lungs. A pack of wolves in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden died in 10 days after being fed with the meat of a glandered horse. The rabbit, guinea pig, and mice are especially susceptible to the inoculation of glanders, and these animals are convenient witnesses and proofs of the existence of suspected cases of the glanders in other animals by the results of successful inoculations. The primary lesion in any form is a local point in which occurs a rapid proliferation of the cell elements which make up the animal tissue with formation of new connective tissue, with a crowding together of the elements until their own pressure on one another cuts off the circulation and nutrition, and death takes place in them in the form of ulceration or gangrene. Following this primary lesion we have an extension of infection by means of the spread of the bacilli into those tissues immediately surrounding the first infected spot, which are most suitable for the development of simple inflammatory phenomena or the specific virus. The primary symptoms are the result of specific reaction at the point of inoculation, but at a later time the virus is carried by means of the blood vessels and lymphatic vessels to other parts of the body and becomes lodged at different places and develops in them; again, when the disease has existed in the latent form in the lungs of the animal and the virus is wakened into action from any cause, we have it carried to various parts of the body and developing in the most susceptible regions or organs. The points of development are most frequently determined by the activity of the circulation and the effects of exterior irritants. For example, if a horse which has been so slightly affected with the virus of glanders that no symptoms are visible is exposed to cold, rain, or sleet, or by the rubbing of the harness on the body and the irritation of mud on the legs, the disease is liable to develop on the exterior in the form of farcy, while a full-blooded horse which is employed at speed and has its lungs and respiratory tract gorged with blood from the extreme use of these organs will develop glanders as the local manifestation of the disease in the respiratory tract. The previous reference to the existence of glanders under the two forms more commonly differentiated as glanders and as farcy, and our reference to the various conditions in which it may exist as acute, chronic, and latent, show that the disease may assume several different phases. Without for a moment losing sight of the fact that all these varied conditions are identical in their origin and in their essence, for convenience of study we may divide glanders into three classes--chronic farcy, chronic glanders, and acute glanders with or without farcy. CHRONIC FARCY. _Symptoms._--In farcy the symptoms commence by formation of little nodes on the under surface of the skin, which rapidly infringe on the tissues of the skin itself. These nodes, which are known as farcy "buds" and farcy "buttons," are from the size of a bullet to the size of a walnut. They are hot, sensitive to the touch, at first elastic and afterwards become soft; the tissue is destroyed, and infringing on the substance of the skin the disease produces an ulcer, which is known as a chancre. This ulcer is irregular in shape, with ragged edges which overhang the sore; it has a gray, dirty bottom and the discharge is sometimes thin and sometimes purulent; in either case it is mixed with a viscous, sticky, yellowish material like the white of an egg in consistency and like olive oil in appearance. The discharge is almost diagnostic; it resembles somewhat the discharge which we have in greasy heels and in certain attacks of lymphangitis, but to the expert the specific discharge is characteristic. The discharge accumulates on the hair surrounding the ulcer and over its surface and dries, forming scabs which become thicker by successive deposits on the under surface until they fall off, to be replaced by others of the same kind; and the excess of discharge may drop on the hairs below and form similar brownish yellow crusts. The farcy ulcers may retain their specific form for a considerable time--days or even weeks--but eventually the discharge becomes purulent in character and assumes the appearance of healthy matter. The surface of the gangrenous bottom of the ulcer is replaced by rosy granulations, the ragged edges are beveled off, and the chancre is turned into a simple ulcer which rapidly heals. The farcy buttons occur most frequently on the sides of the lips, the sides of the neck, the lower part of the shoulders, the inside of the thighs, or the outside of the legs, but may occur on any part of the body. We have next an irritation of the lymphatic vessels in the neighborhood of the chancres. Those become swollen and then indurated and appear like great ridges underneath the skin; they are hot to the touch and sensitive. The cords may remain for a considerable time and then gradually disappear, or they may ulcerate like a farcy bud itself, forming elongated, irregular, serpentine ulcers with a characteristic, dirty, gray bottom and ragged edges, and pour out a viscous, oily discharge like the chancres themselves. The essential symptoms of farcy are, as above described, the button, the chancre, the cord, and the discharge. We have in addition to these symptoms a certain number of accessory symptoms, which, while not diagnostic in themselves, are of great service in aiding the diagnosis in cases where the eruption takes place in small quantities, and when the ulcers are not characteristic. Epistaxis, or bleeding from the nose without previous work or other apparent cause, is one of the frequent concomitant symptoms in glanders, and such hemorrhage from the nostrils should always be regarded with suspicion. The animal with farcy frequently develops a cough, resembling much that which we find in heaves--a short, dry, aborted, hacking cough, with little or no discharge from the nostrils. With this we find an irregular movement of the flanks, and on auscultation of the lungs we find sibilant or at times a few mucous râles. Another common symptom is a sudden swelling of one of the hind legs; it is found suddenly swollen in the region of the cannon, the enlargement extending below to the pastern and above as high as the stifle. This swelling is hot and painful to the touch, and renders the animal stiff and lame. On pressure with the finger the swelling can be indented, but the pits so formed soon fill again on removal of the pressure. In severe cases we may have ulceration of the skin, and serum pours out from the surface, resembling the oozing which we have after a blister or in a case of grease. This swelling is not to be confounded with the stocking in lymphatic horses or the edema which we have in chronic heart or in kidney trouble, as in the last the swelling is cool, not painful, and the pitting on pressure remains for some time after the latter is withdrawn. It is not to be confounded with greasy heels. In these the disease commences in the neighborhood of the pastern and gradually extends up the leg, rarely passing beyond the neighborhood of the hock. The swollen leg in glanders almost invariably swells for the entire length in a single night or within a very short period. When greasy heels are complicated by lymphangitis we have a condition very much resembling that of farcy. The swelled leg in farcy is frequently followed by an outbreak of farcy buttons and ulcers over its surface. In the entire horse the testicles are frequently swollen and hot and sensitive to the touch, but they have no tendency to suppuration. The acute inflammation is rapidly followed by the specific induration, which corresponds to the local lesions in other parts of the body. Chronic farcy in the ass and mule is an excessively rare condition, but sometimes occurs. CHRONIC GLANDERS. _Symptoms._--In chronic glanders we find the same train of inflammatory phenomena, varying in appearance from those of chronic farcy only by the difference of the tissues in which they are situated. In chronic glanders there is first the nodule, from the size of a shot to that of a small pea, which forms in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. This may be just inside the wings of the nostrils or on the septum which divides the one nasal cavity from the other, and may be easily detected, or it may be higher in the nasal cavities on the turbinated bones, or it may form in the larnyx itself or on the surface of the trachea or deep in the lungs. The nodules, which are first red and hard and consist of new connective tissue, soon soften and become yellow; the yellow spots break and we have a small ulcer the size of the preceding nodule, which has a gray, dirty bottom and ragged edges and is known as a chancre. This ulcer pours from its surface a viscous, oily discharge similar to that which we have seen in the farcy ulcer. The irritation of the discharge may ulcerate the lining mucous membrane of the nose, causing serpentine gutters with bottoms resembling those of the chancres themselves. If the nodules have formed in large numbers, we may have them causing an acute inflammation of the Schneiderian membrane, with a catarrhal discharge which may mark the specific discharge, or that which comes from the ulcers and resembles the discharge of strangles or simple inflammatory diseases. The eruption of the ulcers and discharge soon cause an irritation of the neighboring lymphatics; and in the intermaxillary space, deep inside of the jaws, we find an enlargement of the glands, which for the first few days may seem soft and edematous, but which rapidly becomes confined to the glands, these being from the size of an almond to that of a small bunch of berries, exceedingly hard and nodulated. This enlargement of the glands is found high on the inside of the jaws, firmly adherent to the base of the tongue. It is not to be confounded with the puffy, edematous swelling, which is not separated from the skin and subcutaneous connective tissues found in strangles, in laryngitis, and in other simple inflammatory troubles. These glands bear a great resemblance to the indurated glands which we find in connection with the collection of pus in the sinuses; but in the latter disease the glands have not the extreme nodulated feel which they have in glanders. With the glands we find indurated cords, feeling like balls of tangled wire or twine, fastening the glands together. The essential symptoms of glanders are the nodule, the chancre, the glands, and the discharge. With the development of the nodules in the respiratory tract, according to their number and the amount of eruption which they cause, we may find a cough which resembles that of a coryza, a laryngitis, a bronchitis, or a broncho-pneumonia, according to the location of the lesions. In chronic glanders we find the same accessory symptoms that occur in chronic farcy, the hemorrhage of the nose, the swelling of the legs, the chronic cough, and, in the entire horse, the swelling of the testicles. On healing, the chancres on the mucous membranes leave small, whitish, star-shaped scars, hard and indurated to the touch, and which remain for almost an indefinite time. The chancres heal and the other local symptoms disappear, with the exception of the enlargement of the glands, and we find these so diminished in size that they are scarcely perceptible on examination. During the subacute attacks, with a minimum quantity of local troubles, in chronic glanders and in chronic farcy the animal rarely shows any degree of fever, but does have a generally depraved appearance; it loses flesh and becomes hidebound; the skin becomes dry and the hairs stand on end. There is a cachexia, however, which resembles greatly that of any chronic, organic trouble, but is not diagnostic, although it has in it certain appearances and conditions which often render the animal suspicious to the eye of the expert veterinarian, while, without the presence of local lesions he would be unable to state on what he has based his opinion. ACUTE GLANDERS. _Symptoms._--In the acute form of glanders we find the symptoms which we have just studied in chronic farcy and in chronic glanders in a more acute and aggravated form. There is a rapid outbreak of nodules in the respiratory tract which rapidly degenerate into chancres and pour out a considerable discharge from the nostrils. There is a cough of more or less severity according to the amount and site of the local eruption. Over the surface of the body swellings occur which are rapidly followed by farcy buttons, which break into ulcers; we find the indurated cords and enlargement of the lymphatics. Bleeding from the nose, sudden swelling of one of the hind legs, and the swelling of the testicles are liable to precede an acute eruption of glanders. As the symptoms become more marked the animal has difficulty of respiration, the flanks heave, the respiration becomes rapid, the pulse becomes quickened, and the temperature becomes elevated to 103°, 104°, or 105° F. With the other symptoms of an acute fever the general appearance and station of the animal is that of one suffering from an acute pneumonia, but upon examination, while we may find sibilant and mucous râles over the side of the chest, and may possibly hear tubular murmurs at the base of the neck over the trachea, we fail to find the tubular murmur or the large area of dullness on percussion over the sides of the chest which belongs to simple pneumonia. _Diagnosis._--When there is doubt as to the diagnosis, the mallein test, the inoculation test, or the complement-fixation test may be employed. The mallein test is made by injecting mallein (a sterilized extract from a culture of glanders bacilli) beneath the skin. If the horse has glanders there results a febrile reaction and a swelling at the point of injection. If the horse does not have glanders the mallein has no effect or, at most, it produces a slight swelling only at the point of injection. The inoculation test consists in the inoculation of a susceptible animal (usually a guinea pig) with some of the suspected discharge from the nose or a farcy ulcer. If the material is properly used, and if it contains bacilli of glanders, the experimental animal will develop the disease. The eye test is now universally accepted as a very satisfactory means of diagnosing glanders. This consists in dropping into an eye of a suspected animal a specially prepared solution of mallein, as a result of which in an infected animal the inflammation develops in the eye, resulting in a discharge which varies in intensity from a mucopurulent character to a thick, sticky pus. The eyelids may also swell and many times become glued together. The reaction usually appears in from 8 to 20 hours after the introduction of the mallein. Neither of these tests should be put into use except by a competent veterinarian. The complement-fixation test is a highly specialized laboratory test and can be carried out only by one versed in laboratory technique. (See Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 136.) The post-mortem examination of the lungs shows that the pneumonia of glanders is a lobular, V-shaped pneumonia scattered throughout the lungs and caused by the specific inflammatory process taking place at the divergence of the smaller air tubes of the lungs. In some cases of acute glanders the formation of nodules may so irritate the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and cause such a profuse discharge of mucopurulent or purulent matter that the specific character of the original discharge is entirely masked. In this case, too, for a few days the submaxillary space may so swell as to resemble the edematous, inflamed glands of strangles, equine variola, or laryngitis. This condition is especially liable to be marked in an acute outbreak of glanders in a drove of mules. Cases of chronic farcy and glanders, if not destroyed, may live in a depraved condition until the animal dies from general emaciation and anemia, but in the majority of cases, from some sudden exposure to cold, it develops an acute pneumonia or other simple inflammatory trouble which starts the latent disease and the animal has acute glanders. In the ass, mule, and plethoric horses acute glanders usually terminates by lobular pneumonia. In other cases the general symptoms may subside. The symptoms of pneumonia gradually disappear, the temperature lowers, the pulse becomes slower, the ulcers heal, leaving small, indurated cicatrices, and the animal may return to apparent health, or may at least be able to do a small amount of work with but a few symptoms of the disease remaining in a chronic form. During the attack of acute glanders the inflammation of the nasal cavities frequently spreads into the sinuses or air cells, which are found in the forehead and in front of the eyes on either side of the face, and causes abscesses of these cavities, which may remain as the only visible symptom of the disease. An animal which has recovered from a case of acute glanders, like the animals which are affected by chronic glanders and chronic farcy, is liable to be affected with emphysema of the lungs (heaves), and to have a chronic cough. In this condition it may continue for a long period, serving as a dangerous source of contagion, the more so because the slight quantity of discharge does not serve as a warning to the owner or driver as profuse discharge does in the more acute cases. At the post-mortem examination of an animal which has been destroyed or has died of glanders we find evidences of the various lesions which we have studied in the symptoms. In addition to this, we find nodules similar to those which we have seen on the exterior throughout the various organs of the body. Nodules may be found in the liver, in the spleen, and in the kidneys. We may find inflammation of the periosteum of the bones, and we have excessive alterations in the marrow in the interior of the bones themselves. Both these conditions during the life of the animal may have been the cause of the lamenesses which were difficult to diagnose. In one case which came under the observation of the writer, a lame horse was destroyed and found to have a large abscess of the bone of the arm, with old nodules of the lungs. When an animal has died immediately after an attack of a primary, acute case of glanders, we find small V-shaped spots of acute pneumonia in the lungs. If the animal has made an apparent recovery from acute glanders, and in cases of chronic farcy and chronic glanders, no matter how few the external and visible symptoms may have been, there is a deposit of nodules--small, hard, indurated nodes--of new connective tissue to be found in the lungs. When these have existed for some time we may find a deposit of lime salts in them. These indurated nodules retain the virus and their power to give out contagion for almost an indefinite time, and predispose to the causes which we have studied as the common factors in developing a chronic case into an acute case; that is, an inflammatory process wakens their vitality and produces a reinfection of the entire animal. The blood of an animal suffering from chronic glanders and farcy is not virulent and is unaltered, but during the attack of acute glanders, while the animal has fever, the blood becomes virulent and remains so for a few days. _Treatment._--Almost the entire list of drugs in the pharmacopoeia has been tested in the treatment of glanders. Good hygienic surroundings, good feed, with alteratives and tonics, frequently ameliorate the symptoms, and often do so to such an extent that the animal would pass the examination of any expert as a perfectly sound animal. While in this case the number of nodules of the lungs, which are invariably there, may be so few as not to cause sufficient disturbance in the respiration as to attract the attention of the examiner, yet they exist, and will remain there almost indefinitely, with the constant possibility of a return of acute symptoms. It is probable that some horses may recover from glanders if the infection is slight, but it will not do to depend upon this except under the most stringent veterinary supervision. With good care, good feed, good surroundings and little work, an animal affected with glanders may live for months or even years in a state of apparently perfect health, but with the first deprivation of feed, with a few days of severe hard work, with exposure to cold or with the attack of a simple fever or inflammatory trouble from other causes, the latent seeds of the disease break out and develop the trouble again in an acute form. In several celebrated cases horses which have been affected with glanders have been known to work for years and die from other causes without ever having had the return of symptoms; but allowing that these cases may occur, they are so few and far between, and the danger of infection of glanders to other horses and to the stable attendants is so great, that no animal which has once been affected with the disease should be allowed to live unless repeated mallein tests have shown him to have become free from taint of glanders. In all civilized countries, with the exception of some of the States in the United States, the laws are most stringent regarding the prompt declaration on the part of the owner and attending veterinarian at the first suspicion of a case of glanders, and they allow indemnity for the animal. When this is done, in all cases the animal is destroyed and the articles with which it has been in contact are thoroughly disinfected. When the attendants have attempted to hide the presence of the disease in a community, punishment is meted out to the owner, attending veterinarian, or other responsible parties. Several States have passed excellent laws in regard to glanders, but these laws are not always carried out with the rigidity with which they should be. SPOROTRICHOSIS (MYCOTIC LYMPHANGITIS). By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry_. This disease has previously been known in this country as epizootic lymphangitis, or pseudo-farcy. It is a chronic, contagious disease, particularly of equines, caused by a specific organism, the _Sporotrichum schenckii_, and characterized by a suppurative inflammation of the subcutaneous lymph vessels and the neighboring lymph glands. Owing to the fact that this affection does not spread as an epizootic and that its causal factor is a fungus, the name sporotrichosis has been suggested. The disease in man was first described by Schenck and by Beurmann and Gougerot. Carougeau observed its occurrence among horses and mules in Madagascar, while in the United States it was first observed by Pearson in Pennsylvania in 1907, although it is probable that it had existed for many years in various parts of this country. Page and Frothingham were first to recognize its mycotic nature in the United States. More recently Meyer has also made valuable contributions with regard to the existence of this affection. Its presence has been definitely established in Ohio, Iowa, California, and North Dakota, and there is a probability of its existence in Indiana and several Western States. _Bacteriology._--The sporotrichum is 2 microns thick, cylindrical and segmented, having more or less branching threads, which bear spores at the end. In the pus they occur as slightly ovoid bodies 3 to 5 microns long, which are somewhat pointed toward the poles, have a sharp double contour, and only on artificial cultivation at a temperature of over 18° do they develop into the characteristic spore-carrying threads. The period of incubation varies greatly, extending from three days to four months, or even longer. In artificial inoculations with pus through wounds in the skin, inflammation and swelling of the lymph vessels may be noticed in ten to sixty days; these vessels show in their course a development of hard nodules, from which abscesses form. The natural infection without doubt is caused through superficial wounds, such as galls, barbed-wire cuts, or through various stable utensils, harness, bandages, insects, etc. Solipeds are mostly susceptible, but cattle may also be infected. _Symptoms._--The inflammation of the lymph vessels is usually first observed on the extremities, especially on one or both hind legs; it may also appear on the forelegs, shoulder, or neck, and more rarely on the rump, udder, and scrotum. The lesions, as a rule, develop in the tissue adjacent to the place of inoculation. In the early stages of the disease the lymph vessels appear very hard and thickened, and along their course hard nodules develop, ranging in size from a pea to a hen's egg. Later these nodules soften, burst spontaneously, and discharge a thick, yellowish pus. The surface of the resulting ulcers or abscess cavities soon fills up with exuberant granulations which protrude beyond the surface of the skin, giving it a fungoid appearance. The affected extremities are considerably enlarged, similar to cases of simple lymphangitis. In rare cases the mucous membrane of the nostrils may also become affected, showing yellowish flat elevations and ulcerations, and these may extend by metastasis to internal organs. In cases in which the mucous membrane is affected, the submaxillary lymph gland may also become enlarged and suppurate. The constitutional symptoms accompanying this disease are not very marked and may be altogether absent. There is usually only a very slight fever, which seldom runs over 102° F. The appetite is not impaired except in the advanced cases. _Lesions._--The anatomical changes are most marked in the skin and the subcutaneous tissues. They may become 2 to 3 inches thick and indurated as the result of fibrous-tissue formation, owing to the inflammation present. On the baconlike cut surface suppurative areas and granulating sores may be noticed of various sizes, also enlarged lymph vessels filled with clotted lymph mixed with pus. The neighboring lymph glands are usually enlarged and frequently contain suppurating foci. Rarely the internal organs may show metastatic abscesses. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis is based on the characteristic appearance of the ulcerations, which show exuberant granulation of a bright red color, inverted edges, and a thick, creamy, glutinous discharge. These manifestations differentiate the disease from glanders, in which the ulcers are craterlike, do contain exuberant granulations, and the discharge is of a viscous, oily character. The submaxillary and other nodes as well as the corded lymphatics in glanders are more firmly attached to the adjacent tissues, and are therefore less movable. In some chronic cases of sporotrichosis, however, the lesions may closely resemble those of farcy, and in these cases the microscopical examination of the pus will disclose the nature of the affection. In the pus the causative organism can be easily seen in the unstained specimen, and is recognized by its size, shape, and highly refractory double outline. Furthermore, the injection of mallein in cases of sporotrichosis will be attended with negative results. _Treatment._--At the onset of the disease treatment consists in entire extirpation of the nodules, in case the lesions are localized. In cases in which the nodules have formed abscesses, their opening is recommended, followed by the application of the actual cautery or a 1 to 250 solution of bichlorid of mercury. It must be borne in mind that the organism is quite resistant to antiseptics, and the best results will be obtained from the application of a solution of a strong antiseptic following the opening of the lesions. Internally, potassium iodid is recommended in 2-dram doses, dissolved in drinking water, twice a day. In the most favorable cases recovery results in from five to seven weeks; as a rule, however, it requires several months. In order to prevent the spreading of the disease the affected animals should be isolated, the products of the disease should be destroyed, and the stable should be disinfected with very strong liquid disinfectants in consideration of the resistance of the causative organism. RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. Rabies is a contagious disease, which is usually transmitted by a bite and by the introduction of a virus contained in the saliva of an affected animal. It may, however, be transmitted in other ways. It is characterized by symptoms of aberration of the nervous system and invariably terminates fatally. It is accompanied with lesions, inflammation, and degeneration in the central nervous system. It is a disease that is most common in the dog, but is transmitted to the horse, either from dogs or from any other animal affected with it. (See also remarks on page 244.) As a disease of the horse it is invariably the result of the bite of a rabid animal, usually a dog. Perhaps no disease in medicine has been the object of more controversy than rabies. Certain medical men of prominence have even doubted its existence, and many others have claimed for it a spontaneous origin. The experience of ages, however, has shown that contagion can be proved in the great majority of cases, and, by analogy with other contagious diseases, we may only believe that the development of one case requires the preexistence of a case from which the virus has been transmitted. Pasteur has further added to our knowledge of the disease by showing that a virus capable of cultivation exists in the nervous system, especially in the lower part of the brain (medulla oblongata) and in the anterior part of the spinal column. He has further shown that that portion of the nervous system which contains the virus, the exact nature of which has not yet been demonstrated, will retain it for a very long time if kept at a very low temperature or if left surrounded by carbolic acid; but if the nerve matter, which is virulent at first, is exposed to the air and is kept from putrefaction by substances which will absorb the surrounding moisture, it will gradually lose its virulence and become inoffensive in about fifteen days. He has also further shown that the action of a weak virus on an animal will prevent the development of a stronger virus, and from this he has formulated his method of prophylactic treatment. This treatment consists in the successive inoculation of portions of the nerve matter containing the virus from a rabid animal which has been exposed to the atmosphere for thirteen days, ten days, seven days, and four days, until the virulent matter which will produce rabies in any unprotected animal can be inoculated with impunity. A curious result of the experiments of Pasteur is that an animal which has first been inoculated with a virus of full strength can be protected by subsequent inoculations of attenuated virus repeated in doses of increasing strength. Innumerable attempts have been made to discover the causative agent, and investigators have announced the finding of many of the lower forms of animal and vegetable life as the pathogenic factor. Among the recently described causes, certain protozoanlike bodies found in the ganglionic cells in 1903 by Negri, and termed Negri bodies, are of a very suggestive nature. Negri claims that these bodies are not only specific for rabies, but that they are protozoa and the cause of the disease. His work has been corroborated by investigators in all parts of the scientific world. An examination of the vitality of these bodies will show a striking resemblance to the vitality of an emulsion of the virulent tissue. Thus, they have been found to be quite resistant to external agencies, such as putrefaction, drying, etc., and are about the last portion of the nerve cell to survive the advance of decomposition. They are also found in more than 96 per cent of the cases of rabies examined, but have not been proved to exist in other diseases. Valenti states, as his strongest evidence of the protozoan nature of the bodies, that the virus of rabies is neutralized in test tubes by quinin, while no other alkaloid has this property. As a result of the work performed in the New York City Board of Health laboratory, Park claims that Negri bodies are found in animals before the beginning of visible symptoms, and evidence is given that they may be found early enough to account for the infectiousness of the central nervous system. These bodies are now almost universally considered as diagnostic of rabies, and in the pathological laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry their detection in the nerve cells of the brain suffices for a diagnosis of rabies without animal inoculations. In case these granular bodies are not found in a suspected animal, the plexiform ganglion is next examined, and should negative results still be obtained, the inoculation of rabbits is then made as a last resort. It is indeed rare that positive results are obtained from the latter method after the first two methods have been negative, but it has occurred occasionally in cases in which the animal had been killed in the early stages of the disease. _Symptoms._--From the moment of inoculation by the bite of a rabid dog or other rabid animal or by other means, a variable time elapses before the development of any symptoms. This time may be eight days or it may be several months; it is usually about four weeks. The first symptom is an irritation of the original wound. This wound, which may have healed completely, commences to itch until the horse rubs or bites it into a new sore. The horse then becomes irritable and vicious, and it is especially susceptible to moving objects, excessive light, noises, the entrance of an attendant, or any other disturbance will cause the patient to be on the defensive. It apparently sees imaginary objects; the slightest noise is exaggerated into threatening violence; the approach of an attendant or another animal, especially a dog, is interpreted as an assault and the horse will strike and bite. The violence on the part of the rabid horse is not for a moment to be confounded with the fury of the same animal suffering from meningitis or any other trouble of the brain. But in rabies there is a volition, a premeditated method, in the attacks which the animal will make, which is not found in the other diseases. Between the attacks of fury the animal may become calm for a variable period. The writer attended a case in which, after a violent attack of an hour, the horse was sufficiently calm to be walked 10 miles and only developed violence again an hour after being placed in the new stable. In the period of fury the horse will bite at the reopened original wound; it will rear and attempt to break its halter and fastenings; it will bite at the woodwork and surrounding objects in the stable. If the animal lives long enough it shows paralytic symptoms and falls to the ground, unable to use two or more of its extremities, but in the majority of cases in its excesses of violence it does physical injury to itself. It breaks its jaws in biting at the manger or fractures other bones in throwing itself on the ground and dies of hemorrhage or internal injuries. At times throughout the course of the disease there is an excessive sensibility of the skin which, if irritated by the touch, will bring on attacks of violence. Throughout the course of the disease the animal may have appetite and desire water, but on attempting to swallow has a spasm of the throat which renders the act impossible. This latter condition, which is common in all rabid animals, has given the disease the name of hydrophobia (fear of water). In a case under the care of the writer a horse, four weeks after being bitten on the forearm by a rabid dog, developed local irritation in the healed wound and tore it with its teeth into a large ulcer. This was healed by local treatment in 10 days, and the horse was kept under surveillance for more than a month. On the advice of another practitioner the horse was taken home and put to work; within 3 days it developed violent symptoms and had to be destroyed. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of rabies in the horse is to be made from the various brain troubles to which the animal is subject; first by the history of a previous bite of a rabid animal or inoculation by other means; second, by the evident volition and consciousness on the part of the animal in its attacks, offensive and defensive, on persons, animals, or other disturbing surroundings. The irritation and reopening of the original wound or point of inoculation is a valuable factor in diagnosis. Diagnosis after death may be made by microscopic examination for Negri bodies or by the inoculation of rabbits, as already mentioned. Recovery from rabies may be considered as a question of the correctness of the original diagnosis. Rabies is always fatal. _Treatment._--No remedial treatment has ever been successful. All the anodynes and anesthetics, opium, belladonna, bromid of potash, ether, chloroform, etc., have been used without avail. The prophylactic treatment of successive inoculations is being used on human beings, and has experimentally proved efficacious in dogs, but would be impracticable in the horse unless the conditions were quite exceptional. DOURINE. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry_. Dourine (also known as maladie du coït, equine syphilis, covering disease, breeding paralysis) is a specific infectious disease affecting under normal conditions only the horse and ass, transmitted from animal to animal by the act of copulation, and due to an animal parasite, the _Trypanosoma equiperdum_. _History._--It is described as having existed as early as 1796 in the Eastern Hemisphere, and was more or less prevalent in several of the European countries, including France, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, during the first half of the nineteenth century. Its presence was recognized for the first time in the United States in 1886, when an outbreak occurred in Illinois. Since then the existence of the disease has been observed at irregular intervals in numerous other States, including Nebraska, Iowa, Montana, Wyoming, New Mexico, North Dakota, and South Dakota. _Symptoms._--There are many variations in the symptoms of dourine, and this is particularly true of the disease as it occurs in this country. Two distinct stages may be noted which vary somewhat from those described in textbooks, but probably no more than could be expected when differences of climatic conditions and methods of handling are taken into consideration. The first stage chiefly concerns the sexual organs and therefore differs somewhat in the male and female. In the second stage the symptoms indicating an affection of the nervous system are more prominent and are not dependent upon the sex of the animal. Following a variable period of incubation of from 8 days to 2 months, there is seen in the stallion an irritation and swelling about the penis and sheath. In a few days small vesicles or blisters may appear on the penis, which later break, discharging a yellowish, serous fluid and having irregular, raw ulcers. The ulcers show a tendency to heal rapidly, leaving scars which are permanent. There may be more or less continuous dripping from the urethra of a yellowish, serouslike fluid. Stallions may show great excitement when brought in the vicinity of mares, but service is often impossible because of the fact that a complete erection of the penis does not occur. In the mare the first symptoms may be so slight as to be overlooked. The disease, being the result of copulation, usually begins with inflammation of the vulva and vagina. There may be a mucopurulent discharge, which may be slight or profuse in quantity, agglutinating the hairs of the tail. The mare may appear uneasy and urinate frequently. Vesicles may appear on the external vulva and mucous membrane of the vulva and vagina which later rupture and form ulcers. On the dark skin of the external vulva the scars resulting from healing of the ulcers are white, more or less circular in outline, from one-eighth to half an inch in diameter, and pitlike. This depigmentation of the skin about the external genitals is permanent. Urticarial eruptions or plaques which break out over various parts of the body are a frequent symptom seen in animals of either sex. These are sharply defined and edematous swellings of the skin about the size of a half dollar or may be even larger. The usual locations of these plaques are the croup, belly, and neck. The intensity of the symptoms mentioned which are significant of the early stage of the disease may vary to a wide extent and in many instances be so mild as to escape the attention of any but the most careful observer. They commonly disappear after a brief period. The apparent recovery, however, is not permanent, for such animals after a period of variable length manifest constitutional or nervous symptoms. These may not appear for several months or even years. They consist of a general nervous disorder with staggering, swaying gait, especially in the hind limbs. The animal generally becomes emaciated, the abdomen assuming a tucked-up appearance. The first indication of paralysis will be noted in traveling, when the animal fails to pick up one of the hind feet as freely as the other, or both may become affected at the same time, at which time knuckling is a common symptom. Labored breathing is occasionally noted. When the paralysis of the hind limbs starts to appear the disease usually progresses rapidly. The horse goes down, is unable to rise, and dies in a short time from nervous exhaustion. The appetite usually remains good up to the last. Although a case of dourine may now and then recover, as a rule the disease is present in the latent stage. Bad weather, exposure, insufficient feed, and complicating diseases like influenza, distemper, or in fact any condition which tends to lower the vitality of the animal, may hasten the termination of the disease. _Diagnosis._--The complement-fixation test furnishes by far the most reliable means of diagnosis and is especially valuable in a chronic affection of this character, when the symptoms manifested are variable and frequently so obscure as to escape observation. This is a laboratory test requiring special facilities and the services of a trained bacteriologist. _Treatment._--Little benefit can be obtained from medicinal treatment, nor is such treatment desirable in this country, where the disease has existed only in restricted areas, and where sanitary considerations demand its prompt eradication. INFECTIOUS ABORTION IN MARES. Infectious abortion (also known as contagious abortion, epizootic abortion, enzootic abortion, slinking of colts) is a disease of mares which from a specific cause results in the premature expulsion of the fetus and its membranes from the uterus. It is characterized by an inflammatory condition of the female reproductive organs. The contagious nature of the disease had not been recognized until recently, the disease being principally attributed to various conditions, such as traumatic influences, various infectious diseases, spoiled feed, drugs, and other factors. Ostertag was the first to study premature births in mares, attributing as the cause of the same a streptococcus, which he was supposed to have been able to use successfully in artificially producing abortion, either by inoculations or feeding. His findings could not be substantiated by other investigators. The earliest appearance of the disease in this country was in 1886, at which time it caused considerable damage to the horse-breeding industry in the Mississippi Valley. Smith and Kilbourne investigated an outbreak in Pennsylvania in 1893, at which time they incriminated another germ belonging to the paratyphus B group as the causative factor of the disease. These findings have been subsequently substantiated by many investigators abroad, as well as in this country, notably so by De Jong, Dassonville, and Rivière, and by Good and Meyer. More recently very valuable information was contributed to our knowledge on this disease by Schofield, of Canada, especially with regard to the biological tests for diagnosis. Good suggested "_Bacillus abortivus equinus_" as the name for the specific organism. The causative agent of this disease is not identical with the germ causing abortion in cattle. It exerts its action, however, in a similar manner, and appears to have, under certain conditions, a predilection for the genital organs of the mare, where it induces certain morbid changes whereby a premature expulsion of the fetus is the result. The germ is usually present in the fetal membranes and also in the aborted fetus. Mares may harbor the infection without disclosing any apparent ill effects. It appears to exert its influence mainly upon the female genital organs, where it may induce an inflammatory condition of the uterus. The infected animals may carry the fetus through the normal period of pregnancy, giving birth to either a normal or a weak colt, or again abortion may take place at any time during pregnancy, mostly, however, from the sixth to the ninth month. _Symptoms._--The symptoms suggestive of abortion are frequently entirely absent. At times the abortion may be ushered in by symptoms of colicky pains, restlessness, and periodical straining; these, however, are by no means constant, especially if the abortion takes place in the early months of pregnancy. The genital organs are usually swollen, showing a mucous discharge. Immediately before abortion the symptoms are more aggravated. Following abortion the discharge is more characteristic, being of a dark-brown color, sometimes even bloody, and contains streaky or flaky pus. The fetal membranes in all cases are not expelled with the aborted fetus, but there is a tendency toward retention of these membranes, which frequently has serious consequences upon the health of the animal. At times it becomes necessary to resort to manual removal of the afterbirth, and the inflammation of the uterus and a chronic discharge usually follow such conditions. The expelled fetuses, as a rule, die soon after the abortion, and if the expulsion has taken place at a time close to its full term the fetuses are usually poorly developed and subject to various kinds of digestive and septic disorders. The fetuses do not disclose any particular abnormal appearance on external examination; in many cases, however, the post-mortem examination reveals inflammatory changes of various organs. The method of infection has not yet been satisfactorily established; nevertheless it is essential that we consider as the principal mode of infection the ways which have been proved for the contagious abortion in cattle. These are especially by ingestion; that is, by taking up the germs with the feed, water, or other means, which have become contaminated with the germs. The infection through the genital organs is probably not so frequent, but in this regard the stallion no doubt plays an important rôle in the spreading of the disease. Schofield considers this method of infection as the principal source of spreading the disease. It must be considered that in infected stables the germs may be present throughout the premises, and by keeping animals which have aborted in such stables a contamination of feed and utensils may continually take place, since the aborted mares usually discharge a considerable quantity of material which is often heavily charged with the germs. The germ is taken up by the body with the feed or water, passing from the intestines into the blood, and from there is carried to the genital organs, where it finds suitable conditions for its development. Milk from an infected mare may also contain the germ, and colts may become infected by sucking the milk of infected mothers. In such instances the infection may remain dormant until the colt develops and becomes pregnant, when the organism, finding a condition suitable for its development, produces the disease. On the other hand, stallions used in covering infected mares may be carriers of the germs, and when used for the breeding of healthy animals may in this manner readily transmit the disease to them. _Diagnosis._--Contagious abortion may be diagnosed by the changes which occur in the fetal membranes, and also in the expelled feces. In order, however, to substantiate a diagnosis with certainty, demonstration of the germ by microscopical examination is necessary. The occurrence of frequent abortions among the mares in a stable is also an additional evidence of the contagious character of the malady. It must be considered that at times infected mares may carry the fetus to full maturity, in which case the diagnosis is possible only by blood examinations in a laboratory. Infected animals usually abort only once; however, in a certain proportion of cases they may abort even two, three, or four times in succession. Animals which establish a tolerance for the infection, and carry the fetus to full maturity, may nevertheless remain a source of danger for spreading the disease. The tests used in laboratories for the diagnosis are the agglutination and complement-fixation tests, by which the disease may be diagnosed from a sample of blood from a suspected animal. Such tests, however, have to be confined to the laboratories, which are equipped for such work. _Treatment and prevention._--Medicinal treatment is usually of no avail, and all efforts should be directed toward the prevention of the disease. Various medicinal agents have been recommended and are being exploited for the treatment, but to the present time no satisfactory evidence has been established as to their merits. Bacterial vaccines prepared from the specific organism have been given limited trials, but to date they can not be considered as entirely satisfactory, since it will require considerable experience with them before their usefulness can be definitely established. The prevention should consist largely in sanitary measures directed toward the disinfection of premises and animals. (For a method for disinfection of premises see article under that heading.) The following procedure is advised for the disinfection of animals: To prevent a stallion from carrying the infection from a diseased mare to a healthy one the sheath and the penis should be disinfected with a solution of 1/2 per cent of compound cresol solution, lysol, or trikresol, or a 1 per cent carbolic acid or 1 to 1,000 potassium permanganate solution in warm water. For this purpose it is advisable to use a soft-rubber tube with a large funnel attached to one end, or an ordinary syringe and tube would serve the purpose. The tube should be inserted into the sheath, and the foreskin held with the hand to prevent the immediate escape of the fluid. In addition to this the hair of the belly and inner side of the thighs should be sponged with an antiseptic. This disinfection should invariably precede and follow every service. With regard to the mares, a period of three months should elapse between abortion and a subsequent breeding, and especially if there is any evidence of a discharge the breeding of the animal should not be undertaken. The mare showing signs of abortion should be immediately isolated and the fetus and membranes should be burned. The fetus should never be dragged across a barnyard or stable, but should be removed by other means by which the contamination of the premises may be prevented. The stall in which the animal aborted should be thoroughly disinfected and the genital organs of the mare washed daily with a disinfectant. The antiseptic washing recommended for the treatment of the stallions prior to and after breeding should be also used for the irrigation of the uterus of mares which have aborted. This treatment should be continued daily until all evidence of discharge has ceased. The isolation of the animal should be carried out for at least one month after the evidence of a discharge has ceased. By carefully and persistently carrying out the sanitary measures it may be possible to control and finally eradicate the disease. NAVEL ILL OF COLTS. Navel ill of colts is also known as joint ill, omphalophlebitis, septic arthritis of sucklings, and pyosepticemia of the newly born. The unfavorable outlook after the appearance of the disease, together with the fact that the disease when present requires the attention of a veterinarian, demands that the breeder concern himself with its prevention. The disease is caused by a microorganism and several bacteria have been suspected of being responsible. Every one of the suspected organisms is found abundantly in manure and objects contaminated with manure. The infective material gains entrance into the colt through the open umbilical cord as a result of its coming into contact with litter, floors, or discharges from its dam contaminated by one of the organisms which cause the trouble. There are cases on record in which the infection has taken place before birth, and while some investigators assert that this method is the principal mode of infection still, in a large number of cases, the prophylactic measures adopted to guard against the infection through the navel cord have given good results. Since infection before birth can not be controlled satisfactorily, we are justified, for all practical purposes, in preventing navel ill by guarding against the infection through the cord at birth or soon afterwards. Cleanliness of stables where pregnant mares are kept must be insisted upon. This is especially necessary where outbreaks of navel ill have been known to exist. Mares in the last stages of gestation should be placed in a box stall which has previously been cleaned and disinfected. The bedding should be frequently renewed and the external genitals and neighboring tissues should be kept clean and disinfected with a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or 1 per cent liquor cresolis compositus, or any other reliable disinfecting agent. Operations for opening abscesses and removal of afterbirths from cows should not be executed in the immediate vicinity of mares in an advanced stage of pregnancy. The foal when dropped should be placed on clean bedding. In any event the cord of the foal should be washed in a disinfectant solution and tied at about 1-1/2 inches from the navel with a band or string which has previously been soaked in a disinfectant solution. With a sharp pair of scissors the navel cord is then severed about one-half inch below the band and again disinfected. The ligature should not be tightened, however, until pulsation of the vessels in the cord has ceased. The stump of the cord is then painted with strong carbolic-acid solution, tincture of iodin, or a mixture of equal parts of tincture of iodin and glycerin. The stump should be washed daily with a disinfectant and either painted with iodin mixture or carbolic acid or dusted with some reliable antiseptic healing powder. After five days the parchmentlike dried stump may be cut off and the navel wound washed with a disinfectant solution and dusted with powder until healed. The cases of navel ill resulting from infection before birth can not well be guarded against. By keeping mares, advanced in pregnancy, in good physical condition, the fetus will be expelled immediately upon the opening of the uterine cavity. Once the infection of the navel cord has set in, the cord should not be ligated but should be washed in a disinfectant solution and a veterinarian called for the subsequent treatment. INFECTIOUS ANEMIA OR SWAMP FEVER. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry_. Infectious anemia of horses, known also by a number of other names, as swamp fever, American surra, malarial fever, typhoid fever of horses, the unknown disease, no-name disease, plains paralysis, and pernicious anemia, has recently been the subject of much investigation. The cause of the disease has now been definitely determined as an invisible virus, which is capable of passing through the pores of the finest porcelain filters, like the infection of foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, hog cholera, and similar diseases. The disease is most prevalent in low-lying and badly drained sections of the country, although it has been found on marshy pastures during wet seasons in altitudes as high as 7,500 feet. Therefore proper drainage of infected pastures is indicated as a preventive. It is also more prevalent during wet years than in dry seasons. It usually makes its appearance in June and increases in frequency until October, although the chronic cases may be seen in the winter, having been contracted during the warm season. _Cause._--It has been conclusively proved that infectious anemia is produced by an invisible filterable organism which is transmissible to horses, mules, and asses by subcutaneous inoculation of blood serum. The virus which is present in the blood may be transmitted to a number of equines in a series of inoculations by injecting either the whole blood, the defibrinated blood, or the blood serum which has been passed through a fine Pasteur filter, thus eliminating all the visible forms of organismal life, including bacteria, trypanosoma, piroplasma, etc. This virus has also been found to be active in the carcass of an affected animal 24 hours after death. Following the injection of the infectious principle there is a period of incubation which may extend from ten days to one and one-half months, at the end of which time the onset of the disease is manifested by a rise of temperature. If uncomplicated, the infection runs a chronic course, terminating in death in from two months to one and one-half years, or even longer. The probability of the virus being spread by an intermediate host, such as flies, mosquitoes, internal parasites, etc., is now receiving careful investigation. From experiments already conducted it appears that this disease, formerly supposed to be confined to Manitoba and Minnesota, is more or less prevalent in Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, Virginia, Texas, and New York. It also occurs in Europe, having been reported in Germany under the name of infectious anemia and in France as infectious typho-anemia. _Symptoms._--The disease is characterized by a progressive pernicious anemia, remittent fever, polyuria, and gradual emaciation in spite of a voracious appetite. It begins to manifest itself by a dull, listless appearance and by general weakness, the animal tiring very easily. This stage is followed closely by a staggering, swaying, uncertain gait, the hind legs being mostly affected. There is also noted a weakness and tenderness in the region of the loins, and at the same time the pulse, though weak, stringy, and intermittent, increases in rapidity and may run as high as 70. The temperature may rise to 103° F. or higher, remaining high for several days, and then dropping to rise again irregularly. Toward the end of the disease the temperature occasionally remains persistently high. The horse may improve for a time, but usually this improvement is followed by a more severe attack than the first. Venous regurgitation is sometimes noticed in the jugular before death. The quantity of urine passed is enormous in some cases. Death finally occurs from exhaustion or syncope. The blood shows a slight decrease in the number of white blood cells, while there is a gradual but marked diminution of red corpuscles, the count running as low as 2,000,000 per cubic millimeter, the normal count being 7,000,000. If the blood is drawn from such an animal, the resulting red clot will be about one-fifth of the amount drawn. Occasionally a slow dripping of blood-tinged serum from the nostrils is observed as a result of this very thin blood oozing from the mucous membranes. Petechiæ, or small hemorrhagic points, are sometimes noticed on the nictitating membrane and conjunctiva, while paleness of the visible mucous membranes of the nose and mouth is usually in evidence, although they may have a yellow or mahogany tinge. Often a fluctuating, pendulous swelling may appear on the lower lip, point of elbow, sheath, legs, under the belly, or on some other pendent portion, especially late in the disease, which is indicative of poor circulation, thinning of the blood, and consequent loss of capillary action. _Lesions._--After death the carcass is found to be very much emaciated and anemic, the visible mucosa being very pale. This marked absence of adipose tissue makes the skinning of the animal a difficult task. Subcutaneous and intermuscular edema and hemorrhages are frequently observed, although in many cases it is remarkable to see how few macroscopic lesions may be present. The predominating and most constant lesion is probably the petechiæ, so often observed in the muscle or on the serous membranes of the heart. The heart is generally enlarged and may be the only organ to show evidence of disease. In other cases the lungs may be studded with petechiæ, with a serous exudate present in the thoracic cavity. In addition to the petechiæ already noted, the pericardial sac generally contains an increased quantity of fluid. The abdominal cavity may show peritonitis and a hemorrhagic condition of the intestines, which probably result from overfeeding in consequence of the ravenous appetite. The liver, although usually normal, sometimes presents a few areas of degeneration. The spleen is at times found to be enlarged and covered with petechiæ. The kidneys may appear normal or anemic and flaccid, but microscopically they usually show a chronic parenchymatous degeneration. The lymph glands may be enlarged and hemorrhagic. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of the disease is not difficult, especially in advanced stages. The insidious onset, remittent fever, progressive emaciation and anemia, unimpaired or ravenous appetite, staggering gait and polyuria are a train of symptoms which make the disease sufficiently characteristic to differentiate it from other diseases affecting horses in this country. The peculiar relapsing type of fever, the great reduction in the number of red blood cells, and the absence of eosinophila are sufficient to differentiate it from the anemias produced by internal parasites, while it may be readily distinguished from surra by the nonsusceptibility of cattle and by the great ease with which the trypanosoma may be found in the latter affection. _Prognosis._--The prognosis of the disease is very unfavorable. Veterinarians in different sections of the country where it is prevalent report a mortality of 75 per cent or even higher. Recovery takes place only when treatment is begun early or when the animal has a long convalescent period. _Treatment._--The treatment of the disease has so far been far from satisfactory. The iodid, permanganate, and carbonate of potash have been used. Arsenic, axytol, quinin, and silver preparations have been suggested, but all have been uniformly without success. Intestinal antiseptics have been resorted to, and the results are encouraging but not altogether satisfactory. Symptomatic treatment seems to be the most dependable. For instance, Davison, of this bureau, was able to reduce greatly the mortality from this affection by giving an antipyretic of 40 grains of quinin, 2 drams of acetanilid, and 30 grains of powdered nux vomica four times daily. In the late stages, with weak heart action, alcohol should be substituted for acetanilid. Cold-water sponge baths may be given, and in addition frequent copious injections of cold water per rectum, which has a beneficial effect in reducing the temperature and in stimulating peristalsis of the bowels, which, as a result of the disease, show a tendency to become torpid during the fever. Purgatives, on account of their debilitating effect, should not be given unless absolutely necessary, but laxatives and easily digested feeds should be given instead. Not infrequently a dirty yellowish tinge of the visible mucous membranes has been observed, in which cases 20 grains of calomel in from 2 to 4 drams of aloes in a ball, or 2-dram doses of fluid extract of podophyllin, may be given. Following the subsidence of the fever, a tonic should be administered, composed of the following drugs in combination: Arsenious acid grams 2 Powdered nux vomica do 28 Powdered cinchona bark do 85 Powdered gentian root do 110 These should be well mixed and one-half teaspoonful given to the affected animal at each feed. As in the case of all other infectious diseases, the healthy should be separated from the sick horses and thorough disinfection of the infected stables, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be carried out in order to prevent the recurrence of the disease. As a disinfectant the compound solution of cresol, carbolic acid, or chlorid of lime may be used, by mixing 6 ounces of any one of these chemicals with 1 gallon of water. One of the approved coal-tar sheep dips may also be used to advantage in a 5 per cent solution (6 ounces of dip to 1 gallon of water). The disinfectant solution should be applied liberally to all parts of the stable, and sufficient lime may be added to the solution to make the disinfected area conspicious. Investigations are now in progress with a view of producing a vaccine or serum that will protect horses that have been exposed to the disease. SURRA. By CH. WARDELL STILES, PH. D. _Professor of Zoology, United States Public Health Service._ Surra is not known to occur in the United States, but it is more or less common in the Philippine Islands and India. It is caused by a microscopic, flagellate animal parasite, known as _Trypanosoma evansi_, 20 to 34 µ long by 1 to 2 µ broad, which lives in the blood and destroys the red blood corpuscles. In general the disease is very similar to and belongs in the same general class with tsetse-fly disease, or nagana, of Africa and mal de caderas, of South America. Surra is a wet-weather disease, occurring chiefly during or immediately after heavy rainfalls, floods, or inundations. Surra attacks especially horses, asses, and mules, but it may occur in carabao, camels, elephants, cats, and dogs, and has been transmitted to cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and monkeys. No birds, reptiles, amphibia (frogs, etc.), or fish are known to suffer from it. It attacks both male and female animals, young and old. Australian breeds of horses and white and gray mules are said to be more susceptible than animals of other breeds and color. Surra in equines and camels is said to be an invariably fatal disease, but cattle occasionally recover from it. There is no history of a definite onset of the disease, and the condition is progressive, usually with a number of relapses. The period of incubation may vary somewhat; in experimental cases it is from 2 to 75 (usually 6 to 8) days, according to conditions. The duration varies with the species of animal attacked, their age, and general condition. The average duration in the horse is reported at less than two months, though some cases may terminate fatally in less than one to two weeks. _Method of infection._--All evidence now available seems to indicate that surra is strictly a wound disease, namely, that the parasite may enter the body only through a wound of some kind. Apparently by far the most common method is through wounds produced by biting flies whose mouth parts are moist with the infected blood of some animal bitten by the same flies immediately before biting the healthy animal. Crows may also transmit the infection by pecking at sores on a diseased animal, soiling their beaks with blood, and transferring this infected blood to a healthy animal. Likewise, if a scratch is made on a horse and then infected blood is rubbed on the scratch, the horse will become diseased. If, in experiment, infected blood is fed to a healthy animal, the latter may contract surra in case it has an abraded or wounded spot in the mouth; but if no part of the lining of the alimentary canal is wounded, infection does not take place. Thus dogs and cats may contract the disease by wounding the lining of the mouth (as with splinters of bone) while feeding on the carcasses of surra subjects. All available evidence indicates that under normal conditions of pregnancy the disease is not transmitted from mother to fetus. There is a popular view that surra may be contracted by drinking stagnant water and by eating grass and other vegetation grown upon land subject to inundation, but there is no good experimental evidence to support this view: Probably the correct interpretation of the facts cited in support of this theory is that biting flies are numerous around stagnant water and in inundated pastures; hence, that a great number of possible transmitters of the disease are present in these places. _Symptoms._[7]--The invasion of this disease when contracted naturally is usually marked by symptoms of a trivial character; the skin feels hot, and there may be more or less fever; there is also slight loss of appetite, and the animal appears dull and stumbles during action; early a symptom sometimes appears which may be the first intimation of the animal's indisposition, and which, as a guide to diagnosis, is of great importance; it is the presence of a general or localized urticarial eruption. If the blood is examined microscopically, it may be found to present a normal appearance; but in the majority of cases a few small, rapidly moving organisms will be observed, giving to the blood, as it passes among the corpuscles, a peculiar, vibrating movement, which if once observed will not easily be forgotten. If the parasite has not been discovered in the blood for several days, the symptoms mentioned above may be the only ones noticed, and, as a rule, when treated with febrifuges, the horse quickly improves in health and the appetite returns. This condition does not last for more than a few days, when the animal is again observed to present a dull and dejected appearance, and on examination well-marked symptoms are found; the skin is hot, the temperature more or less elevated--101.7° to 104° F.; the pulse full and frequent--56 to 64 beats a minute; the visible mucous membranes may appear clean, but the conjunctival membranes, especially those covering the membrana nictitans, are usually the seat of dark-red patches of ecchymosis, varying in size in different animals. There is more or less thirst and slight loss of appetite; the animal eats its grain and green grass, but leaves all or a portion of the hay with which it has been supplied. At the same time there are slight catarrhal symptoms present, including lacrimation and a little mucous discharge from the nostrils. Occasionally at this period of the disease the submaxillary glands may be found enlarged and perhaps somewhat tender on manipulation. One symptom is markedly absent, namely, the presence of rigors or the objective sign of chilliness. In addition, it will be noted that there is some swelling and edema of the legs, generally between the fetlock and the hock, which pits but is not painful on pressure, and in case of horses there may be also some swelling of the sheath at this stage of the disease. When the fever and concomitant symptoms have declared themselves for a short period, one thing becomes especially noticeable in every animal attacked, namely, the rapidity with which it loses flesh. If the blood has been examined microscopically during the second period of fever, at first a few parasites will have been observed in it, which day by day increase in number and reach a maximum, where they remain for a varying period, or at once suddenly or gradually disappear during the period of apyrexia. After the fever and the accompanying symptoms have for the second time been present for a few days--the period varying from one to six--the animal is found to have lost the dull, dejected appearance and to look bright. The temperature has fallen and, in some cases, has attained normal or even subnormal limits. The visible mucous membranes are clean, and the conjunctival petechiæ begin to fade; the pulse, however, will be found to be weak and thready in character, but the appetite excellent, and, in fact, if it were not for the loss of flesh and slight edema of the legs, there would be little to show that the animal was sick. Unfortunately, however, this condition does not continue for any great length of time, for again the temperature is elevated; in the course of a few hours the thermometer registers a still higher degree, the animal is dull and dejected, and by the following day the visible mucous membranes present a yellow tinge; large ecchymoses, dark in color, appear on the conjunctival membranes, the action of the heart is irritable, the pulse full and quick, or at times intermittent, and regurgitation may be observed in the jugulars, the breathing is quickened, and the individual respirations are shallow. On watching an animal in this condition it may be noticed that it takes seven or eight very short inspirations, followed by a much more prolonged and sonorous one; at the same time the breathing is more abdominal than thoracic in character. On examination of the legs it will be found that the swelling and edema have increased considerably, and that on the under surface of the abdomen, where previously it was confined to the sheath, it has now commenced to spread forward along the subcutaneous tissue between the skin and the muscles. During the whole of this time the appetite will have varied little, and the evacuations will be only slightly, if at all, altered in character. In the blood a repetition of the previous events takes place, the parasites make their appearance and increase to a maximum and again suddenly or gradually disappear, according to the length of the fever period. These periods, alternating with and without fever, may go on for a considerable time. The progress of the disease is variable and greatly depends upon the condition of the animal attacked, the weak one succumbing very rapidly, but each return of the fever brings with it, as a rule, an increase in the severity of the symptoms. There is increased yellowness of the membranes, fresh crops of petechiæ on the conjunctiva, a collection of gelatinous material at the inner angle, which at times becomes red in color from an admixture of blood, and which on microscopic examination is found to contain a varying number of the surra parasites; increased swelling and edema of the extremities and abdomen, which now extends between the fore limbs and up the chest. During this time the wasting has been steadily progressive, especially of the muscles of the back and those surrounding the hip joint and the glutei. Toward the termination of the disease it will be noticed that an animal is disinclined to move, and when made to do so there is manifest loss of power over the hind quarters, somewhat simulating a slight partial paralysis, and the hind quarters of the animal reel from side to side. In connection with this it may be noted that frequently there is paralysis of the sphincter ani and a dilated condition of the anus. These symptoms taken together point to some interference with the normal functions of the spinal cord in the lower dorsal and lumbar regions, and are probably owing to pressure caused by an exudation within the spinal membranes. In many cases shortly before death the heart's action becomes exceedingly violent, shaking the whole frame at each beat, so that the sound can be heard at some distance from the animal. In some of these cases the animal may suddenly drop dead; in others the emaciation and weakness become so pronounced that it falls to the ground, and, after a short struggle, succumbs to the disease. In other cases, again, the animal falls to the ground and appears to be suffering from acute pain, struggles violently, sweat covers the body, and respiration is very hurried. The struggles soon exhaust the patient's strength, and for a time it lies quiet; soon, however, the struggles commence again, continuing until death occurs. In some cases the appetite is voracious. The symptoms of the disease as observed in experimentally inoculated animals are as follows: Twenty-four hours after the subcutaneous injection of a small quantity of surra blood, in the great majority of cases, a small circumscribed and somewhat raised swelling is noticed at the seat of the inoculation. After forty-eight hours the tumor has increased in size and is accompanied with some edema; it presents a certain amount of tension of the parts involved, and is generally tender on manipulation. These conditions continue to increase, until by the fourth day the tumor may measure 3 or 4 inches in; one direction by 2 or 3 in the other, and raised to the extent of an inch or an inch and a half above the surrounding tissues, or in some cases the tumor presents an almost circular form throughout. It will be also found that, if the tumor is firmly grasped, it is not fixed, but can be lifted up from the subcutaneous tissue. According to the nature and quantity of the inoculated blood, these symptoms rapidly present themselves, and either attain a maximum or are retarded until, varying from the fourth to the thirteenth day, the tumor at the seat of inoculation will be found to have lost a certain amount of its tension and tenderness. From this date the swelling and edema gradually begin to grow less, until finally, after a period of 10 to 14 days, the only sign left of the former swelling is a slight thickening of the skin over the point of the injection; but at the moment when the tension and tenderness of the parts at the seat of inoculation become suddenly decreased a symptom of the utmost clinical importance takes place, namely, at that moment the parasite of surra enters the blood of the general circulation. The temperature on the day of inoculation, and, in fact, for several days afterwards, may remain normal in character, there being only a few degrees difference between the morning and evening observations. In other cases there may be a slight rise from the first evening, and a gradual progressive rise until the swelling at the seat of inoculation shows signs of reduction in size, when the temperature generally takes a decided rise again, and may attain 104° or 105.8° F. This elevation will last a varying period of from two to six days, and on the day following its onset the ordinary symptoms of fever will be noticed, and in addition there will be petechiæ on the conjunctival membranes, lacrimation, a slight mucous discharge from the nose, and in severe cases some edema of the lower portion of the legs, and perhaps of the sheath in horses. At the termination of the period of fever the temperature will be found to have fallen to normal or nearly so; the animal will present a brighter aspect, and there is every appearance of its return to health; in a few days, however, the animal again appears dull and half asleep; the temperature is elevated, a relapse takes place, and a repetition of all the symptoms in the primary paroxysm, including the reappearance of the parasite, is observed. _Diagnosis._--A diagnosis may also be established by the complement-fixation or agglutination tests with the sera from suspected animals. This, however, can be carried out only in laboratories and requires special facilities for its execution. _Treatment._--No satisfactory treatment is known. Intravenous injections of Fowler's solution of arsenic give temporary relief, but relapses occur. In view of the great economic importance of this disease, it would not be advisable to attempt to treat any sporadic cases should they occur in this country. On the contrary, the animals should be slaughtered immediately and their carcasses promptly burned. OSTEOPOROSIS OR BIGHEAD. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Assistant Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry_. Osteoporosis is a general disease of the bones which develops slowly and progressively and is characterized by the absorption of the calcareous or compact bony substance and the formation of enlarged, softened, and porous bone. It is particularly manifest in the bones of the head, causing enlargement and bulging of the face and jaws, thereby giving rise to the terms "bighead" and "swelled head," which are applied to it. The disease affects horses, mules, and asses of all ages, classes, and breeds, and of both sexes, and is found under all soil, dietetic, and climatic conditions. It may occur in sporadic form, but in certain regions, such as South Africa, Australia, Madagascar, India, Hawaii, and in this country it seems to be enzootic, several cases usually appearing in the same stable or on the same farm, and numerous animals being affected in the same district. In the United States the disease has been found in all the States bordering the Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay, in some of the New England States, and in many of the Southern States, especially in low regions along the coast. In Europe the disease appears to be quite rare, and is usually described as a form of osteomalacia, a disease which is not uncommon among cattle of that continent. The opinion that bighead is only a form of osteomalacia, however, can not be accepted, nor can the infrequency of the former among European horses and the frequency of the latter among other live stock be conceded on the argument which has been presented, namely, that the better care which horses receive prevents them from becoming affected. In the Southwest, where osteomalacia, or creeps, has not infrequently been observed among range cattle by the writer, no case of osteoporosis of the horses using the same range has been noted, although the latter animals are given no more attention than the cattle. The appropriate treatment of osteomalacia in cattle is so effective that if osteoporosis were a similar manifestation of disease a similar line of treatment should prove equally efficacious. However, this is not the fact. On the other hand, the occurrence of osteomalacia on old, worn-out soil, or on land deficient in lime salts, or from eating feed lacking in these bone-forming substances, or drinking water with a lime deficiency, is in perfect accord with our knowledge of the disease. But osteoporosis may occur on rich, fertile soil, in the most hygienic stables, and in animals receiving the best of care and of bone-forming feeds with a proper amount of mineral salts in the drinking water. _Cause._--The cause of this disease still remains obscure, although various theories have been advanced, some entirely erroneous, others more or less plausible; but none of them has been established. Thus the idea that feeding fodder and cereals poor in mineral salts and grazing in pastures where the soil is poor in lime and phosphates will cause the disease has been entirely disproved in many instances. Others have considered that the disease starts as a muscular rheumatism which is followed by an inflammatory condition of the bones, terminating in osteoporosis. The idea that the disease is contagious has been advanced by many writers, although no causative agent has been isolated. Numerous experiments have been made by inoculating the blood of an affected horse into normal horses without results. A piece of bone taken by Pearson from the diseased lower jaw of a colt was transplanted into a cavity made for it in the jaw of a normal horse, but without reproducing the disease. Pétrone believes that the _Micrococcus nitrificans_ causes osteomalacia in man as a result of its producing nitrous acid, which dissolves the calcareous tissues, and when injected into dogs in pure culture a similar disease is produced. It is probable that if this work is confirmed a somewhat similar causative factor will be discovered for osteoporosis. Elliott considers the latter disease to be of microbic origin, the result of climatic conditions, and divides the island of Hawaii into two districts, in one of which the rainfall is 150 inches annually, where bighead is very prevalent, and the second of which is dry and rarely visited by rain, where the disease is unknown. Removal of animals from the wet to the dry district is followed by immediate improvement and frequently by recovery. In the wet district horses in both good and bad stables take the disease, but in the dry districts no unfavorable or unhygienic surroundings produce the affection. As both native and imported horses are equally susceptible, there is no indication of an acquired immunity to be observed. Theiler has recently stated that his experiments in transfusing blood from diseased to normal horses were negative, and has suggested that the causative agent may be transmitted by an intermediate host only, as in the case of Texas fever. He draws attention to this method of spreading East African coast fever, although blood inoculations, as in osteoporosis, are always without result. We know that coast fever is infectious, and that it can not be transmitted by blood inoculations, but is conveyed with remarkable ease by ticks from diseased cattle. That the cause has not been observed may be accounted for by its being invisible even to the high magnification of the microscope. On some farms and in some stables bighead is quite prevalent, a number of cases following one after another. On one farm of Thoroughbreds in Pennsylvania all the yearling colts and some of the aged horses were affected during one year, and on a similar farm in Virginia a large proportion of the horses for several years were diseased, although the cows and sheep of this farm remained unaffected. _Symptoms._--The commencement of the disease is usually unobserved by the owner, and these symptoms which do develop are generally not well marked or are misleading unless other cases have been noted in the vicinity. Until the bones become enlarged the symptoms remain so vague as not to be diagnosed readily. The disease may be present itself under a variety of symptoms. If the bones of the hock become affected, the animal will first show a hock lameness. If the long bones are involved, symptoms of rheumatism will be the first observed, while if the dorsal or lumbar vertebræ are affected indications of a strain of the lumbar region are in evidence. Probably the first symptom to be noticed is a loss of vitality combined with an irregular appetite or other digestive disturbance and with a tendency to stumble while in action. These earlier symptoms, however, may pass unobserved, and the appearance of an intermittent or migratory lameness without any visible cause may be the first sign to attract attention. This shifting and indefinite lameness, involving first one leg and then the other, is very suggestive, and is even more important when it is associated with a tendency to lie down frequently in the stall and the absence of a desire to get up, or the presence of evident pain and difficulty in arising. About this time, or probably before, swelling of the bones of the face and jaw, which is almost constantly present in this disease, will be observed. The bones of the lower jaw are the most frequently involved, and this condition is readily detected with the fingers by the bulging ridge of the bone outside and along the lower edge of the molar teeth. A thickening of the lower jawbone may likewise be identified by feeling on both sides of each branch at the same time and comparing it with the thinness of this bone in a normal horse. As a result mastication becomes difficult or impossible and the teeth become loose and painful. The imperfect chewing which follows causes balls of feed to form which drop out of the mouth into the manger. Similar enlargements of the bones of the upper jaw may be seen, causing a widening of the face and a bulging of the bones about midway between the eyes and the nostrils. In some cases the nasal bones also become swollen and deformed, which, together with the bulging of the bones under the eyes, gives a good illustration of the reason for the application of the term bighead. Other bones of the body will undergo similar changes, but these alterations are not so readily noted except by the symptoms they occasion. The alterations of the bones of the spinal column and the limbs, while difficult of observation, are nevertheless indicated by the reluctance of the animal to get up and the desire to remain lying for long periods of time. The animal easily tires, moves less rapidly, and if urged to go faster may sustain a fracture or have a ligament torn from its bony attachments, especially in the lower bones of the leg. An affected horse weighing 1,000 pounds was seen by the writer to fracture the large pastern bone from rearing during halter exercise. The animal becomes poor in flesh, the coat is rough and lusterless, and the skin tight and harsh, producing a condition termed "hidebound," with considerable "tucking up" of the abdomen. The horse shows a short, stilted, choppy gait, which later becomes stiffer and more restricted, while on standing a position simulating that in founder is assumed, with a noticeable drop to the croup. The animal at this stage usually lies down and remains recumbent for several days at a time. Bed sores frequently arise and fractures are not uncommon in consequence of attempts to arise, which complications, in addition to emaciation, result in death. The disease may exist in this manner for variable periods extending from two or three months to two years. The termination of the disease is uncertain at best, but is likely to be favorable if treatment and a change of feed, water, and location is adopted in the early stages of the malady. _Lesions._--As has been stated, the bones are the principal tissues involved. The nutrition of the bone is disturbed, as is indicated by the diminished density or rarefaction of the bony substances, the increase in the size or widening of the Haversian canal and the medullary cavity, and the enlargement of the network of spaces in the spongy tissue, the absorptive changes following the course of the Haversian system. In this process of absorption there are formed within the substance of the bone areas of erosion, indentations, or hollow spaces of irregular shape. These spaces increase in size and become confluent, causing an appearance resembling some varieties of coral. The affected bone may be readily incised with a knife, the cut surface appearing finely porous. This porous area is soft, pliable, and yields easily to the pressure of the finger. It has been shown by chemical analysis that the bone of an osteoporotic horse, when compared with that of a normal horse, shows a reduction in the amount of fat, phosphoric acid, lime, and soda, but a slight increase in organic matter and silicic acid. The bones lose their yellowish-white appearance, becoming gray and brittle. The affected bones may be those of any region or portion of the body. Besides the change already noted in the bones of the face, the ends of the long bones, such as the ribs, are involved, and may be sectioned, though not so readily as the facial bones. The bones of the vertebræ are also frequently involved, necessitating great care in casting a horse, as the writer has seen several cases of broken backs in casting such animals for other operations. The marrow and cancellated tissue of the long bones may contain hemorrhages and soft gelatinous material or coagulated fibrin. The internal organs are usually normal, but a catarrhal condition of the gastrointestinal tract may be noted as the result of the improper mastication, resulting from the enlargement of the jaws and soreness of the teeth. _Treatment._--The affected animal should be immediately placed under new conditions, both as to feed and surroundings. If the horse has been stable fed, it is advisable to turn it out on grass for two or three months, preferably in a higher altitude. If the disease has been contracted while running on pasture, place the animal in the stable or corral. In the early stages of the disease beneficial results have followed the supplemental use of lime given in the drinking water. One peck of lime slaked in a cask of water and additional water added from time to time is satisfactory and can be provided at slight expense. This treatment may be supplemented by giving a tablespoonful of powdered bone meal in each feed, with free access to a large piece of rock salt, or the bone meal may be given with four tablespoonfuls of molasses mixed with the feed. Feeds containing mineral salts, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, and cottonseed meal, may prove beneficial in replenishing the bony substance that is being absorbed. Cottonseed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose, but it should be fed carefully. The animal should not be allowed to work at all during the active stage of the disease, nor should it be used for breeding purposes. FOOTNOTES: [7] This summary of symptoms is based upon work by Lingard. HORSESHOEING. By JOHN W. ADAMS, A. B., V. M., _Professor of Surgery and Lecturer on Shoeing, Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania._ Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to diseases of the feet and in irregularities of gait, which may render a horse unserviceable, that it has been thought appropriate to conclude this book with a brief chapter on the principles involved in shoeing healthy hoofs. In unfolding this subject in the limited space at my disposal, I can only hope to give the intelligent horse owner a sufficient number of facts, based on experience and upon the anatomy and physiology of the foot and leg, to enable him to avoid the more serious consequences of improper shoeing. Let us first examine this vital mechanism, the foot, and learn something of its structure and of the natural movements of its component parts, that we may be prepared to recognize deviations from the normal and to apply the proper corrective. GROSS ANATOMY OF THE FOOT. (Pls. XXXII-XXXIV.) The bones of the foot are four in number, three of which--the long pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone, placed end to end--form a continuous straight column passing downward and forward from the fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone, the navicular, or "shuttle," bone, lies crosswise in the foot between the wings of the coffin bone and forms a part of the joint surface of the latter. The short pastern projects about 1-/2 inches above the hoof and extends about an equal distance to it. (See also page 395.) The pastern and the coffin bone are held together by strong fibrous cords passing between each two bones and placed at the sides so as not to interfere with the forward and backward movement of the bones. The joints are therefore hinge joints, though imperfect, because, while the chief movements are those of extension and flexion in a single plane, some slight rotation and lateral movements are possible. The bones are still further bound together and supported by three long fibrous cords, or tendons. One, the extensor tendon of the toe, passes down the front of the pasterns and attaches to the coffin bone just below the edge of the hair; when pulled upon by its muscle this tendon draws the toe forward and enables the horse to place the hoof flat upon the ground. The other two tendons are placed behind the pasterns and are called flexors, because they flex, or bend, the pasterns and coffin bone backward. One of the tendons is attached to the upper end of the short pastern, while the other passes down between the heels, glides over the under surface of the navicular bone, and attaches itself to the under surface of the coffin bone. These two tendons not only flex, or fold up, the foot as the latter leaves the ground during motion, but at rest assist the suspensory ligament in supporting the fetlock joint. The foot-axis is an imaginary line passing from the fetlock joint through the long axes of the two pasterns and coffin bone. This imaginary line, which shows the direction of the pasterns and coffin bone, should always be straight--that is, never broken, either forward or backward when viewed from the side, or inward or outward when observed from in front. Viewed from one side, the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should be parallel to the line of the toe. Viewed from in front, the long axis of the long pastern, when prolonged to the ground, should cut the hoof exactly at the middle of the toe. Raising the heel or shortening the toe not only tilts the coffin bone forward and makes the hoof stand steeper at the toe, but slackens the tendon that attaches to the under surface of the coffin bone (perforans tendon), and therefore allows the fetlock joint to sink downward and backward and the long pastern to assume a more nearly horizontal position. The foot-axis, viewed from one side, is now broken forward; that is, the long pastern is less steep than the toe, and the heels are either too long or the toe is too short. On the other hand, raising the toe or lowering the heels of a foot with a straight foot-axis not only tilts the coffin bone backward and renders the toe more nearly horizontal, but tenses the perforans tendon, which then forces the fetlock joint forward, causing the long pastern to stand steeper. The foot-axis, seen from one side, is now broken backward--an indication that the toe is relatively too long or that the heels are relatively too low. The elastic tissues of the foot are preeminently the lateral cartilages and the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two irregularly four-sided plates of gristle, one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the coffin bone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch or more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by the fingers. When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily to moderate finger pressure, but from various causes may undergo ossification, in which condition they are hard and unyielding. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic, fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral cartilages, forming the fleshy heels and the fleshy frog, and serving as a buffer to disperse shock when the foot is set to the ground. It extends forward underneath the navicular bone and perforans tendon, and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below. Instantaneous photographs show that at speed the horse sets the heels to the ground before other parts of the foot--conclusive proof that the function of this tough, elastic structure is to dissipate and render harmless violent impact of the foot with the ground. The horn-producing membrane, or "quick," as it is commonly termed, is merely a downward prolongation of the "derm," or true skin, and may be conveniently called the pododerm (foot skin). The pododerm closely invests the coffin bone, lateral cartilages, and plantar cushion, much as a sock covers the human foot, and is itself covered by the horny capsule, or hoof. It differs from the external skin, or hair skin, in having no sweat or oil glands, but, like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. And, just as the derm of the hair skin produces upon its outer surface layer upon layer of horny cells (epiderm), which protect the sensitive and vascular derm, so, likewise, in the foot the pododerm produces over its entire surface soft cells, which, pushed away by more recent cells forming beneath, lose moisture by evaporation and are rapidly transformed into the corneous material which we call the hoof. It is proper to regard the hoof as a greatly thickened epiderm having many of the qualities possessed by such epidermal structures as hair, feathers, nails, claws, etc. The functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and to unite it firmly to the foot. There are five parts of the pododerm, easily distinguishable when the hoof has been removed, namely: (1) The perioplic band, a narrow ridge from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch wide, running along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other. This band produces the perioplic horn, the thin varnishlike layer of glistening horn, which forms the surface of the wall or "crust," and whose purpose seems to be to retard evaporation of moisture from the wall. (2) The coronary band, a prominent fleshy cornice encircling the foot just below and parallel to the perioplic band. At the heels it is reflected forward along the sides of the fleshy frog, to become lost near the apex of this latter structure. The coronet produces the middle layer of the wall, and the reflexed portions produce the "bars," which are, therefore, to be regarded merely as a turning forward of the wall. (3) The fleshy leaves, 500 to 600 in number, parallel to one another, running downward and forward from the lower edge of the coronary band to the margin of the fleshy sole. They produce the soft, light-colored horny leaves which form the deepest layer of the wall, and serve as a strong bond of union between the middle layer of the wall and the fleshy leaves with which they dovetail. (4) The fleshy sole, which covers the entire under surface of the foot, excepting the fleshy frog and bars. The horny sole is produced by the fleshy sole. (5) The fleshy frog, which covers the under surface of the plantar cushion and produces the horny frog. The horny box or hoof consists of wall and bars, sole and frog. The wall is all that part of the hoof which is visible when the foot is on the ground (see fig. 8). As already stated, it consists of three layers--the periople, the middle layer, and the leafy layer. The bars (see fig. 1c) are forward prolongations of the wall, and are gradually lost near the point of the frog. The angle between the wall and a bar is called the "buttress." Each bar lies against the horny frog on one side and incloses a wing of the sole on the other, so that the least expansion or contraction of the horny frog separates or approximates the bars, and through them the lateral cartilages and the walls of the quarters. The lower border of the wall is called the "bearing edge," and is the surface against which the shoe bears. By dividing the entire lower circumference of the wall into five equal parts, a toe, two side walls, and two quarters will be exhibited. The "heels," strictly speaking, are the two rounded soft prominences of the plantar cushion, lying one above each quarter. The outer wall is usually more slanting than the inner, and _the more slanting half of a hoof is always the thicker_. In front hoofs the wall is thickest at the toe and gradually thins out toward the quarters, where in some horses it may not exceed one-fourth of an inch. In hind hoofs there is much less difference in thickness between the toe, side walls, and quarters. The horny sole, from which the flakes of old horn have been removed, is concave and about as thick as the wall at the toe. It is rough, uneven and often covered by flakes of dead horn in process of being loosened and cast off. Behind the sole presents an opening into which are received the bars and horny frog. This opening divides the sole into a body and two wings. The periphery of the sole unites with the lower border of the wall and bars through the medium of the white line, which is the cross section of the leafy horn layer of the wall and of short plugs of horn which grow down from the lower ends of the fleshy leaves. This white line is of much importance to the shoer, since its distance from the outer border of the hoof is the thickness of the wall, and in the white line all nails should be driven. The frog, secreted by the pododerm covering the plantar cushion or fatty frog, and presenting almost the same form as the latter, lies as a soft and very elastic wedge between the bars and between the edges of the sole just in front of the bars. A broad and shallow depression in its center divides it into two branches, which diverge as they pass backward into the horny bulbs of the heel. In front of the middle cleft the two branches unite to form the body of the frog, which ends in the point of the frog. The bar of a bar shoe should rest on the branches of the frog. In unshod hoofs the bearing edge of the wall, the sole, frog, and bars are all on a level; that is, the under surface of the hoof is perfectly flat, and each of these structures assists in bearing the body weight. With respect to solidity, the different parts of the hoof vary widely. The middle layer of the wall is harder and more tenacious than the sole, for the latter crumbles away or passes off in larger or smaller flakes on its under surface, while no such spontaneous shortening of the wall occurs. The white line and the frog are soft-horn structures, and differ from hard horn in that their horn cells do not under natural conditions become hard and hornlike. They are very elastic, absorb moisture rapidly, and as readily dry out and become hard, brittle, and easily fissured. Horn of good quality is fine grained and tough, while bad horn is coarse grained and either mellow and friable or hard and brittle. All horn is a poor conductor of heat, and the harder (drier) the horn the more slowly does it transmit extremes of temperature. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS OF THE HOOF. A hoof while supporting the body weight has a different form, and the structures inclosed within the hoof have a different position than when not bearing weight. Since the amount of weight borne by a foot is continually changing, and the relations of internal pressure are continuously varying, a foot is, from a physiological viewpoint, never at rest. The most marked changes of form of the hoof occur when the foot bears the greatest weight, namely, at the time of the greatest descent of the fetlock. Briefly, these changes of form are: (1) An expansion or widening of the whole back half of the foot from the coronet to the lower edge of the quarters. This expansion varies between one-fiftieth and one-twelfth of an inch. (2) A narrowing of the front half of the foot, measured at the coronet. (3) A sinking of the heels and a flattening of the wings of the sole. These changes are more marked in the half of the foot that bears the greater weight. The changes of form occur in the following order. When the foot is set to the ground the body weight is transmitted through the bones and sensitive and horny leaves to the wall. The coffin bone and navicular bone sink a little and rotate backward. At the same time the short pastern sinks backward and downward between the lateral cartilages and presses the perforans tendon upon the plantar cushion. This cushion being compressed from above and being unable to expand downward by reason of the resistance of the ground acting against the horny frog, acts like any other elastic mass and expands toward the sides, pushing before it the yielding lateral cartilages and the wall of the quarters. This expansion of the heels is assisted and increased by the simultaneous flattening and lateral expansion of the resilient horny frog, which crowds the bars apart. Of course, when the lateral cartilages are ossified, not only is no expansion of the quarters possible, but frog pressure often leads to painful compression of the plantar cushion and to increase of lameness. Frog pressure is therefore contraindicated in lameness due to sidebones (ossified cartilages). Under the descent of the coffin bone the horny sole sinks a little; that is, the arch of the sole around the point of the frog and the wings of the sole become somewhat flattened. All these changes of form are most marked in sound unshod hoofs, because in them ground pressure on the frog and sole is pronounced; they are more marked in fore hoofs than in hind hoofs. The movement of the different structures within the foot and the changes of form that occur at every step are indispensable to the health of the hoof, so that these elastic tissues must be kept active by regular exercise, with protection against drying out of the hoof. Long-continued rest in the stable, drying out of the hoof, and shoeing decrease or alter the physiological movements of the hoof and sometimes lead to foot diseases. Since these movements are complete and spontaneous only in unshod feet, shoeing must be regarded as an evil, albeit a necessary one, and indispensable if we wish to keep horses continuously serviceable on hard, artificial roads. However, if in shoeing we bear in mind the structure and functions of the hoof and apply a shoe whose branches have a wide and level bearing surface, so as to interfere as little as may be with the expansion and contraction of the quarters, in so far as this is not hindered by the nails, we need not be apprehensive of trouble, provided the horse has reasonable work and his hoofs proper care. GROWTH OF THE HOOF. All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount of blood supplied to the pododerm, or "quick." Abundant and regular exercise, good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, going barefoot, plenty of good feed, and at proper intervals removing the overgrowth of hoof and regulating the bearing surface, by increasing the volume and improving the quality of the blood flowing into the pododerm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality; while lack of exercise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth. The average rate of growth is about one-third of an inch a month. Hind hoofs grow faster than fore hoofs and unshod ones faster than shod ones. The time required for the horn to grow from the coronet to the ground, though influenced to a slight degree by the precited conditions, varies in proportion to the distance of the coronet from the ground. At the toe, depending on its height, the horn grows down in 11 to 13 months, at the side wall in 6 to 8 months, and at the heels in 3 to 5 months. We can thus estimate with tolerable accuracy the time required for the disappearance of such defects in the hoof as cracks, clefts, etc. Irregular growth is not infrequent. The almost invariable cause of this is an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof--that is, an unbalanced foot. Colts running in soft pasture or confined for long periods in the stable are frequently allowed to grow hoofs of excessive length. The long toe becomes "dished"--that is, concave from the coronet to the ground--the long quarters curl forward and inward and often completely cover the frog and lead to contraction of the heels, or the whole hoof bends outward or inward, and a crooked foot, or, even worse, a crooked leg, is the result if the long hoof be allowed to exert its powerful and abnormally directed leverage for but a few months upon young plastic bones and tender and lax articular ligaments. All colts are not foaled with straight legs, but failure to regulate the length and bearing of the hoof may make a straight leg crooked and a crooked leg worse, just as intelligent care during the growing period can greatly improve a congenitally crooked limb. If breeders were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbalanced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from their proper direction, and, therefore, to cause them to be moved improperly, with loss of speed and often with injury to the limbs, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, bow-legged, "splay-footed," "pigeon-toed," cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses. If in shortening the hoof one side wall is, from ignorance, left too long or cut down too low with relation to the other, the foot will be unbalanced, and in traveling the long section will touch the ground first and will continue to do so till it has been reduced to its proper level (length) by the increased wear which will take place at this point. While this occurs rapidly in unshod hoofs, the shoe prevents wear of the hoof, though it is itself more rapidly worn away beneath the high (long) side than elsewhere, so that by the time the shoe is worn out the tread of the shoe may be flat. If this mistake be repeated from month to month, the part of the wall left too high will grow more rapidly than the low side whose pododerm is relatively anemic as a result of the greater weight falling into this half of the hoof, and the ultimate result will be a "wry," or crooked foot. THE CARE OF UNSHOD HOOFS. The colt should have abundant exercise on dry ground. The hoofs will then wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to time to regulate any uneven wear with the rasp and to round off the sharp edge about the toe in order to prevent breaking away of the wall. Colts in the stable can not wear down their hoofs, so that every four to six weeks they should be rasped down and the lower edge of the wall well rounded to prevent chipping. The soles and clefts of the frog should be picked out every few days and the entire hoof washed clean. Plenty of clean straw litter should be provided. Hoofs that are becoming "awry" should have the wall shortened in such a manner as to straighten the foot-axis. This will ultimately produce a good hoof and will improve the position of the limb. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the regular form: a, a, wall; a-a, the toe; a-b, the side walls; b-d, the quarters; c, c, the bars; d, d, the buttress; e, lateral cleft of the frog; f, body of the sole; g, g', g", leafy layer (white line) of the toe and bars; h, body of the frog; i, i, branches of the frog; k, k, horny bulbs of the heels; l, middle cleft of the frog.] CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY HOOF. A healthy hoof (figs. 1 and 8) is equally warm at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands or moderate compression with pincers. The coronet is soft and elastic at all points and does not project beyond the surface of the wall. The wall (fig. 8) is straight from coronet to ground, so that a straightedge laid against the wall from coronet to ground parallel to the direction of the horn tubes will touch at every point. The wall should be covered with the outer varnishlike layer (periople) and should show no cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows "ring formation," but the rings should not be strongly marked and should always run parallel to the coronary band. Strongly marked ring-formation over the entire wall is an evidence of a weak hoof, but when limited to a part of the wall is evidence of previous local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full, rounded, and of equal height. The sole (fig. 1) should be well hollowed out, the white line solid, the frog well developed, the middle cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight from the buttress toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses themselves so far apart as not to press against the branches of the frog. A hoof can not be considered healthy if it presents reddish discolored horn, cracks in the wall, white line, bars, or frog, thrush of the frog, contraction or displacement of the heels. The lateral cartilages should yield readily to finger pressure. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position.] VARIOUS FORMS OF HOOFS. As among a thousand human faces no two are alike, so among an equal number of horses no two have hoofs exactly alike. A little study of different forms soon shows us, however, that the form of every hoof is dependent in great measure on the direction of the two pastern bones as viewed from in front or behind, or from one side; and that all hoofs fall into three classes when we view them from in front and three classes when we observe them in profile. Inasmuch as the form of every foot determines the peculiarities of the shoe that is best adapted to it, no one who is ignorant of, or who disregards the natural form of, a hoof can hope to understand physiological shoeing. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe-wide standing position.] FORMS OF FEET VIEWED FROM IN FRONT AND IN PROFILE. Whether a horse's feet be observed from in front or from behind, their form corresponds to, or at least resembles, either that of the regular position (fig. 2), the base-wide or too-wide position (fig. 3), or the base-narrow position (fig. 4). By the direction of the imaginary line passing through the long axes of the two pasterns (figs. 2, 4, 5) we determine whether or not the hoof and pasterns stand in proper mutual relation. In the regular standing position (fig. 2) the foot-axis runs straight downward and forward; in the base-wide position (fig. 3) it runs obliquely downward and outward, and in the base-narrow position (fig. 4) it runs obliquely downward and inward. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position.] Viewing the foot in profile, we distinguish the regular position (fig. 5b) and designate all forward deviations as acute-angled (long toe and low heel, fig. 5a), and all deviations backward from the regular (steep toe and high heel, fig. 5c) as steep-toed, or stumpy. When the body weight is evenly distributed over all four limbs, the foot-axis should be straight; the long pastern, short pastern, and wall at the toe should have the same slant. [Illustration: FIG. 5.--a, Side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b, side view of a regular fore foot, showing the most desirable degree of obliquity (34°); c, side view of a stumpy, or "upright," fore foot; obliquity above 50°. In a, b, c, note particularly the relation between the length of the slope and the overhanging of the heels. Note also the toe roll of the shoes.] _A front hoof of the regular standing position._--The outer wall is a little more slanting and somewhat thicker than the inner. The lower border of the outer quarter describes the arc of a smaller circle--that is, is more sharply bent than the inner quarter. The weight falls near the center of the foot and is evenly distributed over the whole bottom of the hoof. The toe forms an angle with the ground of 45° to 50° and is parallel to the direction of the long pastern. The toe points straight ahead, and when the horse is moving forward in a straight line the hoofs are picked up and carried forward in a line parallel to the middle line of the body, and are set down flat. Coming straight toward the observer the hoofs seem to rise and fall perpendicularly. _A hoof of the base-wide position_ is always awry. The outer wall is more slanting, longer, and thicker than the inner, the outer quarter more curved than the inner, and the outer half of the sole wider than the inner. The weight falls largely into the inner half of the hoof. In motion the hoof is moved in a circle. From its position on the ground it breaks over the inner toe, is carried forward and inward close to the supporting leg, thence forward and outward to the ground, which the hoof meets first with the outer toe. Horses that are toe-wide ("splay-footed"--toes turned outward) show all these peculiarities of hoof-form and hoof-flight to a still more marked degree and are therefore more prone to "interfere" when in motion. _A hoof of the base-narrow position_ is awry, but not to so marked a degree as the base-wide hoof. The inner wall is usually a little more slanting than the outer, the inner half of the sole wider than the outer, and the inner quarter more curved than the outer. The outer quarter is often flattened and drawn in at the bottom. The weight falls largely into the outer half of the hoof. In motion the hoof breaks over the outer toe, is carried forward and outward at some distance from the supporting leg, thence forward and inward to the ground, which it generally meets with the outer toe. The foot thus moves in a circle, whose convexity is outward, a manner of flight called "paddling." A base-narrow horse, whose toes point straight ahead, frequently "interferes," while a toe-narrow (pigeon-toed) animal seldom does. _A regular hoof_ (fig. 5b), viewed from one side, has a straight foot-axis inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45° to 50°. The weight falls near the center of the foot and there is moderate expansion of the quarters. _An acute-angled hoof_ (fig. 5a) has a straight foot-axis inclined at an angle less than 45° to the horizon. The weight falls more largely in the back half of the hoof and there is greater length of hoof in contact with the ground and greater expansion of the heels than in the regular hoof. _Upright or stumpy hoof._--In the upright or stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the foot-axis is straight and more than 55° steep. The hoof is relatively short from toe to heel, the weight falls farther forward, and there is less expansion of the heels than in the regular hoof. _Wide and narrow hoofs._--Finally, there are wide hoofs and narrow hoofs, dependent solely upon race and breeding. The wide hoof is almost circular on the ground surface, the sole but little concave, the frog large, and the quality of the horn coarse. The narrow hoof has a strongly "cupped" sole, a small frog, nearly perpendicular side walls, and fine-grained, tough horn. _Hind hoofs_ are influenced in shape by different directions of their pasterns much as front feet are. A hind hoof is not round at the toe as a front hoof is, but is more pointed. Its greatest width is two-thirds of the way back from toe to heel, the sole is more concave, the heels relatively wider, and the toe about 10° steeper than in front hoofs. EXAMINATION PRELIMINARY TO SHOEING. The object of the examination is to ascertain the direction and position of the limbs, the shape, character, and quality of the hoofs, the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, the number, distribution, and direction of the nails, the manner in which the hoof leaves the ground, its line of flight, the manner in which it is set to the ground, and all other peculiarities, that at the next and subsequent shoeings proper allowances may be made and observed faults corrected. The animal must, therefore, be observed both at rest and in motion. At rest, the observer should stand in front and note the slant of the long pasterns. Do they drop perpendicularly, or slant downward and outward (base-wide foot), or downward and inward (base-narrow foot)? Whatever be the direction to the long pastern, an imaginary line passing through its long axis, when prolonged to the ground, should apparently pass through the middle of the toe. But if such line cuts through the inner toe the foot-axis is not straight, as it should be, but is broken inward at the coronet, an indication that either the outer wall of the hoof is too long (high) or that the inner wall is too short (low). On the contrary, if the center line of the long pastern falls through the outer toe the foot-axis is broken outward at the coronet, an indication that either the inner wall is too long or the outer wall too short. The observer should now place himself at one side, two or three paces distant, in order to view the limb and hoof in profile. Note the size of the hoof in relation to the height and weight of the animal, and the obliquity of the hoof. Is the foot-axis straight--that is, does the long pastern have the same slant as the toe, or does the toe of the hoof stand steeper than the long pastern (fig. 6c)? In which case the foot-axis is broken forward at the coronet, an indication, usually, that the quarters are either too high or that the toe is too short. If the long pastern stands steeper than the toe (fig. 6a) the foot-axis is broken backward, in which case the toe is too long or the quarters are too low (short). In figures 6a and 6c the dotted lines passing from toe to quarters indicate the amount of horn which must be removed in order to straighten the foot-axis, as shown in figure 6b. Note also the length of the shoe. Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should note the outline of the foot, the conformation of the sole, form and quality of the frog, form of the shoe, wear of the shoe, and the number and distribution of the nails. Does the shoe fully cover the entire lower border of the wall? or is it too narrow, or fitted so full on the inside that it has given rise to interfering? or has the shoe been nailed on crooked? or has it become loose and shifted? is it too short, or so wide at the ends of the branches as not to support the buttresses of the hoof? Does the shoe correspond with the form of the hoof? Are the nails distributed so as to interfere as little as possible with the expansion of the quarters? are there too many? are they too large? driven too "fine" or too high? These are questions which the observer should put to himself. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--a, Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too long a toe. The amount of horn to be removed from the toe in order to straighten the foot-axis is denoted by a dotted line; b, side view of a properly balanced foot, with a straight foot-axis of desirable slant; c, side view of stumpy foot with foot-axis broken forward, as a result of overgrowth of the quarters. The amount of horn to be removed in order to straighten the foot-axis is shown by a dotted line.] Note carefully the wear of the old shoe. It is the unimpeachable evidence of the manner in which the hoof has been set to the ground since the shoe was nailed to it, and gives valuable "pointers" in leveling the hoof. Wear is the effect of friction between the shoe and the ground at the moment of contact. Since the properly leveled hoof is set flat to the ground, the "grounding wear" of a shoe should be uniform at every point, though the toe will always show wear due to scouring at the moment of "breaking over." Everything which tends to lengthen the stride tends also to make the "grounding wear" more pronounced in the heels of the shoe, while all causes which shorten the stride--as stiffening of the limbs through age, overwork, or disease--bring the grounding wear nearer the toe. An exception should be noted, however, in founder, in which the grounding wear is most pronounced at the heels. If one branch of the shoe is found to be worn much thinner than the other, the thinner branch has either been set too near the middle line of the foot (fitted too close), where it has been bearing greater weight while rubbing against the ground, or, what is much more often the case, the section of wall above the thinner branch has been too long (too high), or the opposite section of wall has been too short (too low). "One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an unnatural course of the wall are often found together." How much an old shoe can tell us, if we take time and pains to decipher its scars! The horse should next be observed at a walk and at a trot or pace, from in front, from behind, and from the side, and the "breaking over," the carriage of the feet, and the manner of setting them to the ground carefully noted and remembered. A horse does not always move just as his standing position would seem to imply. Often there is so great a difference in the form and slant of two fore hoofs or two hind hoofs that we are in doubt as to their normal shape, when a few steps at a trot will usually solve the problem instantly by showing us the line of flight of the hoofs and referring them to the regular, base-wide, or base-narrow form. No man is competent either to shoe a horse or to direct the work till he has made the precited observations. PREPARATION OF THE HOOF FOR THE SHOE. After raising the clinches of the nails with a rather dull clinch cutter ("buffer") and drawing the nails one at a time, the old shoe is critically examined and laid aside. Remaining stubs of nails are then drawn or punched out and the hoof freed of dirt and partially detached horn. The farrier has now to "dress" the overgrown hoof to receive the new shoe; in other words, he has to form a base of support so inclined to the direction of the pasterns that in motion this surface shall be set flat upon the ground. He must not rob the hoof nor leave too much horn; either mistake may lead to injury. If he has made a careful preliminary examination he knows what part of the wall requires removal and what part must be left, for he already knows the direction of the foot axis and the wear of the old shoe and has made up his mind just where and how much horn must be removed to leave the hoof of proper length and the foot axis straight. A greatly overgrown hoof may be quickly shortened with sharp nippers and the sole freed of semidetached flakes of horn. The concave sole of a thick-walled, strong hoof may be pared out around the point of the frog, but not so much as to remove all evidences of exfoliation. The wall should be leveled with the rasp till its full thickness, the white line, and an eighth of an inch of the margin of the sole are in one horizontal plane, called the "bearing surface of the hoof." The bars, if long, may be shortened, but _never pared on the side_. The branches of the sole in the angle between the bars and the wall of the quarters should be left a little lower than the wall, so as not to be pressed upon by the inner web of the shoe. "Corns," or bruises of the pododerm, are usually a result of leaving a thick mass of dry, unyielding horn at this point. The frog should not be touched further than to remove tags or layers that are so loose as to form no protection. A soft frog will shorten itself spontaneously by the exfoliation of superficial layers of horn, while if the frog is dry, hard, and too prominent it is better to soften it by applying moisture in some form, and to allow it to wear away naturally than to pare it down. It is of advantage to have the frog project below the level of the wall an amount equal to the thickness of a plain shoe, though we rarely see frogs of such size except in draft horses. The sharp lower border of the wall should be rounded with the rasp to prevent its being bent outward and broken away. Finally, the foot is set to the ground and again observed from all sides to make sure, that the lines bounding the hoof correspond with the direction of the long pastern. THE SHOE. The shoe is an artificial base of support, by no means ideal, because it interferes to a greater or less degree with the physiology of the foot, but indispensable except for horses at slow work on soft ground. Since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving the health of the feet and legs, it is necessary to consider the various forms of shoes best adapted to the different forms of hoofs. Certain properties are common to all shoes and may be considered first. They are form, width, thickness, length, surfaces, borders, "fullering," nail holes, and clips. _Form._--Every shoe should have the form of the hoof for which it is intended, provided the hoof retains its proper shape; but for every hoof that has undergone change of form we must endeavor to give the shoe that form which the hoof originally possessed. Front shoes and hind shoes, rights and lefts, should be distinctly different and easily distinguishable. _Width._--All shoes should be wider at the toe than at the ends of the branches. The average width should be about double the thickness of the wall at the toe. _Thickness._--The thickness should be sufficient to make the shoe last about four weeks and should be uniform except in special cases. _Length._--This will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof viewed in profile. The acute-angled hoof (fig. 5a) has long overhanging heels, and a considerable proportion of the weight borne by the leg falls in the posterior half of the hoof. For such a hoof the branches of the shoe should extend back of the buttresses to a distance nearly double the thickness of the shoe. For a hoof of the regular form (figs. 5b and 8) the branches should project an amount equal to the thickness of the shoe. In a stumpy hoof (fig. 5c) the shoe need not project more than one-eighth of an inch. In all cases the shoe should cover the entire "bearing surface" of the wall. _Surfaces._--The surface that is turned toward the hoof is known as the "upper," or "hoof surface," of the shoe. That part of the hoof surface which is in actual contact with the horn is called the "bearing surface" of the shoe. The "bearing surface" should be perfectly horizontal from side to side, and wide enough to support the full thickness of the wall, the white line, and about an eighth of an inch of the margin of the sole. The bearing surface should also be perfectly flat, except that it may be turned up at the toe ("rolling-motion" shoe, fig. 5 a, b, c.) The surface between the bearing surface and the inner edge of the shoe is often beaten down or concaved to prevent pressure too far inward upon the sole. This "concaving," or "seating," should be deeper or shallower as the horny sole is less or more concave. As a rule, strongly "cupped" soles require no concaving (hind hoofs, narrow fore hoofs). _Borders._--The entire outer border should be beveled under the foot. Such a shoe is not so readily loosened, nor is it so apt to lead to interfering. _Fullering._--This is a groove in the ground surface of the shoe. It should pass through two-thirds of the thickness of the shoe, be clean, and of uniform width. It is of advantage in that it makes the shoe lighter in proportion to its width and, by making the ground surface somewhat rough, tends to prevent slipping. _Nail holes._--The shoe must be so "punched" that the nail holes will fall directly on the white line. They should be confined to the fore half of front shoes, but may occupy the anterior two-thirds of hind shoes. For a medium-weight shoe three nail holes in each branch are sufficient, but for heavier shoes, especially those provided with long calks, eight holes are about right, though three on the inside and four on the outside may do. _Clips._--These are half-circular ears drawn up from the outer edge of the shoe either at the toe or opposite the side wall. The height of a clip should equal the thickness of the shoe, though they should be even higher on hind shoes and when a leather sole is interposed between the shoe and hoof. Clips secure the shoe against shifting. A side clip should always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe that first meets the ground in locomotion. SPECIAL FEATURES AND FITTING THE SHOES. _A shoe for a regular hoof_ (figs. 7 and 8) fits when its outer border follows the wall closely in the region of the nail holes and from the last nail to the end of the branch gradually projects beyond the surface of the wall to an eighth of an inch and extends back of the buttresses an amount equal to the thickness of the shoe. The shoe must be straight, firm, air-tight, its nail holes directly over the white line, and its branches far enough from the branches of the frog to permit the passage of a foot pick. Branches of the shoe must be of equal length. In fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we follow the form of the hoof, but in base-wide and base-narrow hoofs, which are of irregular form, we must pay attention not only to the form of the hoof but also to the direction of the pasterns and the consequent distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where the least weight falls (opposite side of the hoof) the surface of support should be narrowed. In this way the improper distribution of weight within the hoof is evenly distributed over the surface of support. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Left fore hoof of regular form, shod with a plain "fullered" shoe. Note the distribution of the nails, length of the fuller (crease), and the closeness of the ends of the shoe to the branches of the frog.] _A shoe for a base-wide hoof_ should be fitted full on the inner side of the foot and fitted close on the outer side, because the inner side bears the most weight. The nails in the outer branch are placed well back, but in the inner branch are crowded forward toward the toe. [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Side view of hoof and shoe shown in fig. 7. Note the straight toe, weak ring formation running parallel to the coronet, clinches low down and on a level, length of the shoe, and the under-bevel at the toe and heel.] _A shoe for a base-narrow hoof_ should be just the reverse of the preceding. The outer branch should be somewhat longer than the inner. _A shoe for an acute-angled hoof_ should be long in the branches, because most of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot. The support in front should be diminished either by turning the shoe up at the toe or by beveling it under the toe (fig. 5a). _A shoe for a stumpy hoof_ should be short in the branches, and for pronounced cases should increase the support of the toe, where the most of the weight falls, by being beveled downward and forward. In many cases, especially in draft horses, where the hoofs stand very close together, the coronet of the outer quarter is found to stand out beyond the lower border of the quarter. In such cases the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail back must be fitted so full that an imaginary perpendicular dropped from the coronet will just meet the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the other hand, must be fitted as "close" as possible. The principal thought should be to set the new shoe farther toward the more strongly worn side. Such a practice will render unnecessary the widespread and popular fad of giving the outer quarter and heel calk of hind shoes an extreme outward bend. Care should be taken, however, that in fitting the shoe "full" at the quarter the bearing surface of the hoof at the quarter be not left unsupported or incompletely covered, to be pinched and squeezed inward against the frog. This will be obviated by making the outer branch of the shoe sufficiently wide and punching it so coarse that the nails will fall upon the white line. _Hot fitting._--Few farriers have either the time or the skill necessary to adjust a cold shoe to the hoof so that it will fit, as we say, "air-tight." Though the opponents of hot fitting draw a lurid picture of the direful consequences of applying a hot shoe to the hoof, it is only the abuse of the practice that is to be condemned. If a heavy shoe at a yellow heat be held tightly pressed against a hoof which has been pared too thin, till it embeds itself, serious damage may be done. But a shoe at a dark heat may be pressed against a properly dressed hoof long enough to scorch, and thus indicate to the farrier the portions of horn that should be lowered without appreciable injury to the hoof and to the ultimate benefit of the animal. _Nailing._--The horse owner should insist on the nails being driven low. They should pierce the wall not above an inch and five-eighths above the shoe. A nail penetrating the white line and emerging low on the wall destroys the least possible amount of horn, has a wide and strong clinch, rather than a narrow one, which would be formed near the point of the nail, and, furthermore, has the strongest possible hold on the wall, because its clinch is pulling more nearly at a right angle to the grain (horn tubes) of the wall than if driven high. Finally, do not allow the rasp to touch the wall above the clinches. THE BAR SHOE. The bar shoe (fig. 9) has a variety of uses. It enables us to give the frog pressure, to restore it to its original state of activity and development when, by reason of disuse, it has become atrophied. It gives the hoof an increased surface of support and enables us to relieve one or both quarters of undue pressure that may have induced inflammation and soreness. The bar of the shoe should equal the average width of the remainder of the shoe and should press but lightly on the branches of the frog. The addition of a leather sole with tar and oakum sole-packing allows us to distribute the weight of the body over the entire ground surface of the hoof. [Illustration: FIG. 9.--An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe. Note the width and position of the bar and the fact that the nails are placed well toward the toe, so as not to interfere with the expansion of the quarters.] [Illustration: FIG. 10.--A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster. The top and outer-heel calks cut at right angles, and the inner-heel calk is slender and blunt. The back surface of the toe calk should be perpendicular.] THE RUBBER PAD. Various forms of rubber pads, rubber shoes, rope shoes, fiber shoes, and other contrivances to diminish shock and prevent slipping on the hard and slippery pavements of our large cities are in use in different parts of the world. In Germany the rope shoe (a malleable-iron shoe with a groove in its ground surface in which lies a piece of tarred rope) is extensively used with most gratifying results. It is cheap, durable, easily applied, and effective. In the large cities of England and the United States rubber pads are extensively used. They are rather expensive, but are quite efficient in preventing slipping on polished and gummy pavements, though not so effective on ice. Figure 11 is an illustration of one of the best of many rubber pads. The rubber is stitched and cemented to a leather sole and is secured by the nails of a three-quarter shoe. Such a pad will usually last as long as two shoes. They may be used continuously, not only without injury to the hoof, but to its great benefit. The belief, unsupported by evidence, that rubber pads "draw the feet" keeps many from using them. A human foot encased in a rubber boot may eventually be blistered by the sweat poured upon the surface of the skin and held there by the impervious rubber till decomposition takes place with the formation of irritating fatty acids; but there is no basis for an analogy in the hoof of a horse. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and "three-quarter" shoe. (Ground surface.)] [Illustration: FIG. 12.--A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide (toe-wide) standing position, shod with a plain "dropped-crease" shoe to prevent the toe cutting (interfering). The dotted line at the inner toe indicates the edge of the wall which was rasped away in order to narrow the hoof along the striking section. Note the inward bevel of the shoe at this point, the dropped crease, the distribution of the nails, the long "full" inner branch, and the short "close" outer branch.] OTHER SPECIAL FORMS. Some drawings, designed to illustrate shoeing in connection with "interfering" and "forging," and other special conditions, are shown in figures 13 to 18. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Hoof surface of a right hind shoe to prevent interfering. The inner branch has no nail holes and is fitted and beveled under the hoof. Note the number and position of the nail holes, the clip on the outer side wall, and the narrowness and bend of the inner branch.] [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ground surface of shoe shown in the previous figure. The inner, nailless branch has the thickness of the outer branch plus its calk, so that the inner and outer quarters of the hoof are equidistant from the ground.] [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" (quicken the action) in a "forger." Note the short shoe, heel calks inclined forward, and the rolled toe.] [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger, shod to slow the action and to prevent injury to the fore heels by the toe of the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the short toe by means of a toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When such a hoof has grown more toe, the toe calk can be dispensed with and the shoe set farther forward.] [Illustration: FIG. 17.--A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet. The nails are placed too far back, and the shoe has no characteristic form but the weight is properly placed.] [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet. The profile of the shoe shows a "roll" at the toe and "swelled" heels. The weight is well placed, but "rolling" the toe and raising the heels lower action. The shoe would be much more effective if of uniform thickness and with no roll at the toe.] INDEX. Abdomen-- dropsy, in foal, or ascites, description and treatment, 193 dropsy, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment, 86 limbs, and perineum, dropsy affecting, description and treatment, 180 sheath, and penis, swelling, cause and treatment, 171 Abnormal presentations at birth, 197-202 Abortion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 182 Abscess-- and inflammation of lymphatic glands, descriptions, symptoms, treatment, 272 in lung and suppuration, symptoms, 127 Abscesses-- acute, description and treatment, 500 cold, description and treatment, 501 description, 500 in throat, treatment, 62 _Acari_, parasites of eye, 296 Acariasis, or mange, note, 478 _Achorion schönleini_, vegetable parasite of skin, description, 478 Adams, John W., chapter on "Horseshoeing", 583-605 Air embolism, or air in veins, note, 270 Albuminoid poisoning, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, azotemia, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 141 Aloes, use against bots in horses, 93 Amaurosis, or palsy of nerve of sight, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 231, 295 Amnion, dropsy, description and treatment, 180 Anasarca, or purpura hemorrhagica, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 531, 533 Anatomy and physiology of brain and nervous system, 210 Anemia-- of brain, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 223 spinal, symptoms and treatment, 234 Aneurism-- description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 265 one form caused by _Strongylus vulgaris_, 265 Anidian monsters, or moles, description, 179 Animal parasites, description of kinds, 478 Ankle-- and fetlock, skin, note, 397 fetlock, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe, 395-457 Ankles, cocked, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment, 400 Anthrax-- definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 540-544 prevention by destruction of bacteria, 544 vaccination as preventive, 544 Apoplexy, or cerebral hemorrhage, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 220 Arteries-- description, 249 diseases, or arteritis, and endarteritis, description, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 263 Artery-- constriction, description, 265 rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment, 266 Arthritis, open joints, broken knees, and synovitis, cause and treatment, 357 _Ascaris equorum_, intestinal worm, note, 90 Ascites, or dropsy of abdomen, description, symptoms, and treatment, 86, 193 Asthma, heaves, or broken wind, definition, symptoms, and treatment, 128 Atheroma of veins and arteries, description, 264 Autogenic vaccines, description, 506 Autumn mange, description and treatment, 480 Azotemia, hemoglobinuria, azoturia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptom, prevention, and treatment, 141 Azoturia, hemoglobinuria, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 141 _Bacillus equisepticus_, cause of pneumonia, 522 Bacteria, kinds responsible for pneumonia in horses, 522 Bacteria vaccines, kinds and uses, 506, 531 Balls, or pills, description and manner of administering, 44 Bar shoe, uses, 601 Bees, wasps, and hornets, stings, treatment, 485 Beets as feed, 56 Bichlorid, use in disinfection, 509 Bighead (osteoporosis)-- chapter by John R. Mohler, 578-582 symptoms, lesions, and treatment, 580 Biliary calculi, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment, 90 Bilocular cavity, or calculus in sheath, or preputial calculus, description and treatment, 163 Birth, abnormal presentations at, 197-202 Black pigment tumors, or melanosis, description and treatment, 476 Bladder-- calculus, or stone, and tumor affecting, 190 diseases growths, symptoms and treatment, 151 eversion, description and treatment, 152 inflammation, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment, 149 irritable, cause and treatment, 150 neck, spasms affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 146, 225 paralysis, description and cause, 230 paralysis, symptoms and treatment, 148 stone, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 159 worm of kidney, 146 Bleeding-- after castration, treatment, 170 from lungs, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment, 127 from nose, causes and treatment, 103 or flooding from womb, treatment, 205 skin eruptions, or _Dermatorrhagia parasitica_, description and treatment, 469 Blisters, inflammation, or eczema, description and treatment, 464 Bloat colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 Blood-- circulation of heart, description, 248 clots in walls of vagina, 207 medicine administered into veins, 48 medium of disease transmission, 511 of penis, extravasation, cause and treatment, 167 spavin, bog spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment, 356 Blood vessels-- and heart, diseases, remarks, 250 heart, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 247-273 physiology and anatomy, 247 Bloody urine, or hematuria, cause and treatment, 141 Blowing, high, description, 110 Bluebottle (_Lucilia cæsar_), note 481 Bog spavin, blood spavin, and thoroughpin, description and treatment, 356 Boil of eyelid, description and treatment, 282 Boils-- or _Dermatitis granulosa_, 469 or furuncles, description and treatment, 466 Bone-- hip, fracture, or on innominatum, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 341 premaxillary, fractures, description and treatment, 336 spavin. _See_ Spavin Bones-- cannon, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment, 350, 395 cranial, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 335 diseases, description, 309 dislocations and luxations, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 361 of face, fractures, description, and treatment, 366 of fetlock and foot, description, 395 of hip, fractures, causes, 188 one system of locomotion, 299, 301 sesamoid, fractures, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 352 Botfly, habits and treatment, 93 Bots, injury to horses, symptoms, and treatment, 93-94 Bowels, twisting, volvulus, or gut-tie, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 72 Brain-- and membranes, inflammation, description, 212, 213 and nervous system, anatomy, and physiology, 210 anemia, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 223 compression, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 221 concussion, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 222 congestion, or megrims, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 217 description, 211 dropsy, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 223 Bran, value as feed, 55 Broken knee, open joints, synovitis, and arthritis, cause, prognosis, and treatment, 357 Broken wind, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment, 128 Bronchitis-- and broncho-pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 120 chronic, description and treatment, 110 Broncho-pleuropneumonia, description, 126 Broncho-pneumonia and bronchitis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 120 Bruise of frog, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 425 Burns and scalds, treatment, 483, 496 Calculi-- biliary, or gallstones, symptoms and treatment, 90 or stones, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment, 71 or stones, in stomach, symptoms and treatment, 70 renal, description, symptoms, and treatment, 158 ureteric, description and treatment, 158-159 urinary, classification, 157 urinary, stone, or gravel, 154,156 Calculus-- in sheath, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description, and treatment, 163 or stone, and tumor in bladder, 190 urethral, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms, and treatment, 162 vesical, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 159 Calk wounds, description and treatment, 405 Callosities-- description, 475 sloughing, horny sloughs, or sitfasts, description and treatment, 475, 496 Cancer, epithelial, or epithelioma, description and treatment, 477 Canker-- of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 418 or grease (inflammation of heels with sebaceous secretion), description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 472 Cannon bone-- description, 395 fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment, 350 Capped elbow, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 379 Capped hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 385 Capped knee, description, cause, treatment, etc., 383 Carbolic acid, use in disinfection, 509 Carbon disulphid, use against worms in horse, 93, 94 Cardiac enlargement, or hypertrophy of heart, description, symptoms, and treatment, 260 Caries of cartilage, or tumor of haw, description and treatment, 284 Carrots, value as feed, 56 Cartilaginous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 415 Cartilago nictitans, or winking cartilage (the haw), description, 276 Castration-- bleeding after operation, treatment, 170 by covered operation, method, 172 of cryptorchids, or ridglings, method, 169 of mare, method, 172 of stallions, method, 168 pain after operation, treatment, 170 successful method, 169 Cataract, remarks, 295 Catarrh-- chronic, nasal gleet or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 99 gastrointestinal, or indigestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 76 nasal, or cold in head, symptoms, and treatment, 98 Cerebral hemorrhage, or apoplexy, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 220 Cerebritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 212 Cerebrospinal meningitis, so called, or forage poisoning, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 237 Cervical choke, description, 63, 64 Chaff for feeding, 54 Chaps on knee and hock, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and treatment, 470 Chest walls, wounds penetrating, description and treatment, 131 Chicken acari, or _Dermanyssus gallinæ_, animal parasite of skin, 480 Chigoe, or jigger-- larvæ of _Trombidium_, _Leptus americanus_, animal parasite of skin, 480 _Pulex penetrans_, bite, treatment, 482 Choke-- cervical, description, 63, 64 pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic, symptoms and treatment, 63 Chorea, or St. Vitus dance, description and treatment 227 _Chorioptes_-- _bovis_ (_Symbiotes equi_, _Dermatophagus equi_), animal parasite of skin, 480 _spathiferus_, animal parasite of skin, 480 Choroiditis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 288 Chronic bronchitis, description and treatment, 110 Circinate ringworm, or _Tinea tonsurans_, description, symptoms, treatment, 477 Circulation organs, methods of examination, 13 Clubfoot, description, 398 Clysters, or enemas, description and manner of administering, 48 Cocked ankles, or knuckling, description, causes, and treatment, 400 Coffin joint, description, 396 Coffinbone, description, 396 Cold in head, or nasal catarrh, symptoms and treatment, 98 Colic-- bloat, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 cramp, or spasmodic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 74 flatulent, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 obstruction, caused by impaction of large intestine, symptoms, and treatment, 68 specific forms, 66 wind, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 worms, description, symptoms, and treatment, 90-94 tympanitic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 Colt. _See_ Foal. Compression of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment 222 Concussion-- of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 222 spinal, causes and treatment, 235 Conformation-- of foot, faults, 398 of horse, 10 Congenital scrotal hernia, description and treatment, 82 Congestion-- active, causes, 30 and inflammation of skin, description of kinds, 461 and inflammation of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 164 description, 30 of brain, or megrims, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 217 of heart, description and symptoms, 263 of lungs, description and treatment, 111 of skin, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment, 461 of skin, with small pimples, or pauples, description and treatment, 463 of spine, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 233 passive, causes, 31 Conjunctives, or external ophthalmia, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 285 Constipation, or costiveness, cause and treatment, 70, 181 Constitution of horse, 10 Consumption, or tuberculosis, note, 128 Contagious pneumonia, discussion, 521-527 Convulsions, description and treatment, 226 Cord-- spermatic, strangulated, cause and treatment, 170 spermatic, tumors, causes and treatment, 171 spinal, description, 212 Corn, or maize, how to feed, 55 Cornea-- ulcers, treatment, 288 white specks and cloudiness, cause and treatment, 288 Corns, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 421 Coronary band, description, 397 Coronet-- description, 396 fractures, symptoms and treatment, 351 Costiveness, or constipation, cause and treatment, 70, 181 Cough, chronic, description, 131 Cracked heels, or scratches, causes and treatment, 470 Cramp-- of hind limb, or spasm of thigh, description and treatment, 226 or spasmodic, or colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 74 Cramps-- of hind limbs, cause and treatment, 181 or spasms, causes and treatment, 226 Cranial bones, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 335 Cranium, tumor within, description of kinds, 224 Cresol, use in disinfection, 579 Crookedfoot, description, 399 Croup and diphtheria, mistakes in diagnosis, 108 Cryptorchids, or ridglings, castration, method, 169 Curb of hock, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 374 Currying, value as preventive of bots, 94 Cutaneous quittor, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 407 Cuticle, description, 459 Cyanosis of newborn foals, description, 263 _Cylicostomum_ spp., parasite, danger and remedies, 92-93 Cystic calculus, or stone in bladder, description, symptoms, and treatment, 159 Cystic disease of wall of womb, or vesticular mole, description and treatment, 179 _Cysticercus_, parasite of eye, 297 Cystitis, inflammation of bladder, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment, 149 _Dermanyssus gallinæ_, or chicken acari, animal parasite of skin, 480 _Dermatitis granulosa_, or boils, 469 _Dermatocoptes equi_, animal parasite of skin, 480 _Dermatodectes equi_, animal parasite of skin, 480 _Dermatophagus equi_, animal parasite of skin, 480 _Dermatorrhagia parasitica_, or bleeding skin eruptions, description and treatment, 469 Dermis, or true skin, description, 459 Descazeaux, study of summer sores, note, 470 Diabetes-- insipidous, diuresis, polyuria, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 138 mellitus, saccharine diabetes, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 139 Diaphragm-- rupture, cause and symptoms, 133 spasm, or thumps, description and treatment, 132, 225 Diaphragmatic hernia, description, 85 Diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 77 Dieckerhoff, experiments in disease transmission, note, 511 Digestive organs, diseases, chapter by Ch. B. Michener, 49-94 Digestive tract, examination, 20 Dilatation-- of heart, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 261 of veins, varicose, or varix, causes and treatment, 269 _Dioctophyme renale_, roundworm of kidney, 146 Diphtheria and cramp, mistakes in diagnosis, 108 Dips, use against mange in horses, 479 Diseases, fundamental principles of, chapter by Rush Shippen Huidekoper, 27-43 Disinfection, directions and materials, 508-509 Dislocations and luxations of bones, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 361 Distemper, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 527-531 Diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, or excessive secretion of urine, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 138 Douche, nasal, in administering medicines, 47 Dourine, or maladie du coït-- article by John R. Mohler, 562-564 description and treatment, 562 symptoms and treatment, 562-564 Drench, methods, 45 Dropsies, synovial, remarks, 355 Dropsy-- general, of fetus, description and treatment, 193 of abdomen in foal, or ascites, description and treatment, 193 of abdomen, or ascites, description, symptoms, and treatment, 86 of amnion, description and treatment, 180 of brain, or hydrocephalus, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 223 of limbs, perineum, and abdomen, description and treatment, 180 of scrotum, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment, 166 of womb, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 179 Dysentery, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 79 _Echinococcus_-- parasite of eye, 296 parasite of kidney, 146 Ectropion and entropion, or eversion and inversion of eyelid, causes and treatment, 283 Eczema, or inflammation with blisters, description and treatment, 464 Edematous pneumonia, definition, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 521-527 Elbow-- capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 379 muscles, sprains, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 368 Electric shock, causes, description, and treatment, 246 Electuries, or pastes, description, and manner of administering, 45 Embolism-- air, or air in veins, note, 270 and thrombus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 267 Embryotomy of parts at abnormal births, 202 Emphysema, or swelling of fetus with gas, description and treatment, 194 Encephalitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 212 Endarteritis, and arteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 263 Endocarditis, or inflammation of lining membrane of heart, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 252 Enemas, or clysters, description, and manner of administering, 48 Engorgement colic, description, symptoms, and treatment, 66 Enteritis, definition, 66 Entropion and ectropion, or inversion and eversion of eyelid, causes and treatment, 283 Epilepsy, or falling fits, symptoms and treatment, 227 Epithelial cancer, or epithelioma, description and treatment, 477 Epithelioma-- degeneration of penis, or papilloma, 167 or epithelial cancer, description and treatment, 477 Equine variola, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 535-540 Eruptions, bleeding skin, or _Dermatorrhagia parasitica_, description and treatment, 469 Erysipelas, description, cause, and treatment, 474 Erythema, congestion of skin, or red efflorescence, description and treatment, 461 Esophagus-- dilatation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 65 or gullet, treatment for foreign bodies, 62 stricture, description and treatment, 65 Eversion-- and inversion of eyelid, or ectropion and entropion, causes and treatment, 283 of bladder, description and treatment, 152 or womb after difficult parturition, treatment, 205 Exostosis, cause, description, and treatment, 309 Extravasation of blood of penis, causes and treatment, 167 Eye-- diseases, chapter by James Law, 274-297 examination, 277 haw, or winking cartilage, description, 276 lachrymal apparatus, 277 muscles, description, 276 palsy of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 295 parasites, affecting, description of different kinds, 296 watering, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedies, 285 Eyeball-- description, 274 tumors affecting, 296 Eyelid-- diseases, description of different kinds, 279 inflammation, causes and treatment, 280 inversion and eversion, or entropion and ectropion, causes and treatment, 283 sty, or furuncle (boil), affecting, description and treatment, 282 torn, or wounds affecting, description and treatment, 284 warts and tumors affecting, description and treatment, 283 Face bones, fractures, description and treatment, 336 Facial paralysis, cause and symptoms, 230 Fainting, or syncope, symptoms and treatment, 259 Farcy-- and glanders, definition, causes, etc., 544-557 chronic, symptoms, 550 Fatty degeneration of heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 261 Favus, or honeycomb ringworm, description and treatment, 478 Feces, impaction of rectum, 191 Feed-- kinds to give, 51 musty and moldy, effect on digestive organs, 53 preparation, 57 Feeding, corn, 55 Feet, interfering, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 399 Femur, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 Fetlock-- and ankle skin, note, 397 and foot bones, description, 395 ankle, and foot, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe, 395-457 joint, description, 396 knuckling, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 372 sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 402 Fetus adherent to walls of womb, description, cause, and treatment, 192 excessive size, 192 general dropsy, description and treatment, 193 or foal, prolonged retention, cause and treatment, 181 swelling with gas, or emphysema, description and treatment, 194 tumors, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment, 194 Fever, description, causes, and treatment, 38-43 Fibrous bands constricting and crossing neck of womb, description and treatment, 191 Fibrous constriction of vagina or vulva, cause and treatment, 191 _Filaria_-- _conjunctivæ_, parasite of eye, 297 _equina_, parasite of eye, 297 _hæmorrhagica_, threadworm causing skin disease, 469 _irritans_, parasite causing summer sores, description and treatment, 469 _multipapillosa_, threadworm causing bleeding skin eruptions, 469 _palpebralis_, parasite of eye, 296 Fistulas, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 502-506 Fits, falling, or epilepsy, symptoms and treatment, 227 Flatfoot, description, 398 Flatulent colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 Flea, or pulex, prevention and treatment of bite, 482 Flesh fly (_Sarcophaga carnaria_), note, 481 Flexor-- metatarsis, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 377 pedis perforans, description, 397 pedis perforatus, description, 397 tendons or their sheath, and suspensory ligaments, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 371 Flies, method of attacking horses; prevention and treatment for bite, 481 Flooding, or bleeding from womb, treatment, 205 Flukes, occurrence in horses, note, 90 Flyblow, or grubs in skin, description and treatment, 481 Foal-- contractions of muscles, description and treatment, 194 monstrosities, description of kinds, causes, and treatment, 194 natural presentation, 185 prolonged retention, cause and treatment, 181 water in head, or hydrocephalus, description and treatment, 192 Foals, newborn, cyanosis affecting, description, 263 Foot-- anatomical review, 395, 583 and fetlock bones, description, 395 canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 418 conformation, faults, 398 fetlock, and ankle, diseases, chapter by A. A. Holcombe, 395-457 mange, description and treatment, 480 punctured wounds, description, symptoms, and treatment, 426 sand-cracks, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 432 sole description, 397 _See also_ Hoof. Forage poisoning, or cerebrospinal meningitis, symptoms and treatment, 237 Forearm, fracture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 345 Founder, or laminitis-- acute, subacute, and chronic, description, 447-449 complications, 449 curative measures, 455 description and causes, 441 following parturition, cause, 207 sequel of superpurgation, 79 symptoms, 444 treatment and prevention, 453 Fractures-- causes and symptoms, 322 description of different kinds, 322 of different bones, description, 335 prognosis and treatment, 328 Frog-- bruises, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 425 description, 397 Frostbites, description, symptoms, and treatment, 405 Furuncle-- or boil, description and treatment, 466 or sty (boil), of eyelid, description and treatment, 282 Gaffky, investigation of pneumonia infection, note, 522 Galls, harness, or sitiasts, description and treatment, 475, 496 Gallstones, or biliary calculi, symptoms, and treatment, 90 Gangrene-- or mortification, causes, 127 or mortification, description, symptoms, and treatment, 498 Gas, swelling of fetus, or emphysema, description and treatment, 194 Gastritis, definition, 66 Gastro-enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 80 Gastrointestinal catarrh, or indigestion, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 76 Gastrointestinal parasites, description and treatment, discussion by Maurice C. Hall, 90-94 _Gastrophilus_, spp., injury to horses, symptoms and treatment, 93-94 Generative organs, diseases affecting, chapter by James Law, 164-209 Genito-urinary passages, method of medication, 48 Gentian, use against pinworms in horses, 91 Gestation, extra-uterine, description, symptoms, and treatment, 178 Glanders-- acute, symptoms, 553 and farcy, definition, causes, etc., 544-557 chronic, symptoms, 552 treatment, 556 Glands-- lymphatic, description, symptoms, and treatment, 271 sebaceous, description, 460 sweat, description, 461 Gleet-- inflammation of urethra, or urethritis, symptoms and treatment, 153 nasal, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 99-101 Glossitis, description and treatment, 60-61 Glottis, spasm, description, 225 Glycosuria, saccharine diabetes mellitus, or inosuria, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 139 Grains for feeding, 54 Grasses, important feed, 56 Gravel, urinary calculi, or stone, description, and causes, 154, 156 Grease or canker, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 472 Grubs-- or flyblow, description and treatment, 481 under the skin, description and treatment, 481 Grunting, testing, 109 Gullet, or esophagus, treatment for foreign bodies, 62 Gunshot wounds, description and treatment, 494 Gut-tie, volvulus, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 72 Guttural pouches, description and treatment, 119 _Habronema_, spp., cause of summer sores, etc., note, 470 Hairs on skin, description, 460 Harbaugh, W. H., chapter on "Diseases of respiratory organs", 95-133 Harness galls, or sitiasts, description and treatment, 475, 496 Harvest bug, larvæ of _Trombidium_, _Leptus americanus_, jigger (chigoe), animal parasite of skin, 480 Haw-- or winking cartilage of the eye, description, 276 tumor, or caries of cartilage of the eye, description and treatment, 284 Hay, kinds for feeding, 53 Heart-- adventitious growths, description, symptoms, and treatment, 258 anatomy and physiology, 247 and blood vessels, diseases, remarks, 250 blood vessels, and lymphatics, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 247-273 circulation of blood, description, 248 congestion, description, and symptoms, 263 dilatation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 261 fatty degeneration, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 261 hypertrophy, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and treatment, 260 inflammation of lining membrane, or endocarditis, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 inflammation of muscular structure, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, and treatment, 251 inflammation of sac inclosing, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 255 inflammatory diseases, description and treatment, 251 palpitation, description, symptoms, and treatment, 259 rupture, description and cause, 262 valvular disease, description, symptoms, and treatment, 257 weakness, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 262 Heat exhaustion, sunstroke, or heat stroke, symptoms, pathology, treatment, and prevention, 219 Heaves, broken wind, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment, 128 Heels-- contracted, or hoofbound, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 429 cracked, scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, description, causes, and treatment, 470 inflammation, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 472 Hematuria, or bloody urine, cause and treatment, 141 Hemiplegia, or paralysis of on side, or half the body, description and symptoms, 228 Hemoglobinuria, azoturia, azotemia, poisoning by albuminoids, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 141 Hemoptysis, or bleeding from lungs, causes, description, and treatment, 127 Hemorrhage-- process of healing and method of treatment, 486 spinal, symptoms and treatment, 225 Hemorrhoids, or piles, description and treatment, 81 Hemostasia, description and treatment, 485 Hepatitis, or inflammation of liver, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 87 Hernia-- congenital scrotal, description and treatment, 82 diaphragmatic, description, 85 inguinal, description, symptoms, and treatment, 83 of womb, description and treatment, 189 or rupture, description of different kinds, 82 scrotal, cause, 82 umbilical, description and treatment, 84 ventral, description and treatment, 83 Herpes, description and treatment 468 High blowing, description, 110 Hip-- bone, or os innominatum, description, symptoms, and treatment, 341 bones, fractured, causes, 158 joint, luxation, description and treatment 363 lameness, description, symptoms, and treatment, 369 Hock-- and knee, chaps or scratches, description, causes, and treatment, 470 capped, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 385 curb, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 374 fractures, note, 350 Holcombe, A. A., chapter on "Diseases of ankle, fetlock, and foot", 395-457 Honeycomb ringworm, or favus, description and treatment, 478 Hoof-- bound, or contracted heels, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 429 description, 397 growth, 588 healthy, characteristics, 590 physiological movements, 587 preparation for the shoe, 596 _See also_ Foot. Hoofs-- unshod, care, 590 various forms, 591 Hornets, bees, and wasps, treatment for stings, 483 Horny sloughs (sitfasts), or sloughing callosities, description and treatment, 475, 496 Horse, sick-- attitude and general condition indicative of disease, 8 conformation and constitution, 10 danger from silage as feed, 56-57 examination, chapter by Leonard Pearson, 7-26 history of diseases necessary in examination, 8 parasites, intestinal, and injuries from them, 90-94 Horsepox, or equine variola, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 535-540 Horses-- anatomy, description, 300 danger from silage as feed, 56-57 Horseshoes. _See_ Shoe. Huidekoper, Rush Shippen, chapter on "Infectious diseases", 507-582 Humerus, fractures, symptoms and treatment, 345 Hydrocele, or dropsy of scrotum, symptoms and treatment, 166 Hydrocephalus-- or dropsy of brain, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 223 or water in head, of foal, description and treatment, 192 Hydrophobia. _See_ Rabies. Hydrothorax, treatment, 126 Hypertrophy of heart, or cardiac enlargement, description, symptoms, and treatment, 260 _Hypoderma-lineata_, note, 481 Icterus, jaundice, or yellows, description and treatment, 88 Impaction-- of large intestine, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment, 68 of rectum with feces, 191 Indigestion, or gastrointestinal catarrh, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 76 Infectious anemia-- chapter by John R. Mohler, 569-572 cause and localities infected, 569 diagnosis and treatment, 571 symptoms and lesions, 570 Infectious diseases-- chapter by Rush Shippen Huidekoper, 507-582 general discussion, 507-508 Inflammation-- acute, of kidneys, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 143 and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treatment, 272 and congestion of skin, description of kinds, 461 and congestion of teats and udder, symptoms and treatment, 208 and congestion of testicles, or orchitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 164 chronic, of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 145 description, symptoms, termination, and treatment, 32-38 local, and abscess of lymphatic glands, description, symptoms, and treatment, 272 of bladder, cystitis, or urocystitis, symptoms and treatment, 149 of brain and its membranes, description, 193, 212, 213 of eyelids, causes and treatment, 280 of heels, with sebaceous secretion, grease, or canker, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 472 of lining membrane of heart, or endocarditis, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 of liver, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 87 of membranes, a complication of influenza, 518 of membranes of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 232 of muscular structure of heart, or myocarditis, symptoms, alterations, and treatment, 251 of nerve, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 236 of pharynx, description, 103 of sac inclosing heart, or pericarditis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 255 of substance of spinal cord, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 233 of urethra, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment, 153 of womb and peritoneum, symptoms and treatment, 207 with blisters, or eczema, description and treatment, 464 with pustules, description and treatment, 465 Inflammatory diseases of the heart, description and treatment, 251 Influenza, definition, symptoms, termination, complications, and treatment, 510-521 Inguinal, hernia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 83 Inhalation, manner of administering medicines, 47 Injections, methods of administering medicines, 47 Inosuria, saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, or glycosuria, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 139 Insufflation, description, 46 Interfering-- and speedy cuts, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 387 of feet, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 399 Intestinal-- paralysis, cause, 230 worm, or Ascaris equorum, note, 90 Intestines-- and stomach, diseases, remarks, 65 calculi, or stones, description, symptoms, and treatment, 71 large, impaction, cause of obstruction colic, symptoms and treatment, 68 paralysis, description and treatment, 72 spasms, 225 Intussusception, or invagination, description, symptoms, and treatment, 71 Invagination, or intussusception, description, symptoms, and treatment. 71 Iritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 288 Irritation, nervous, of skin, or pruritus, description and treatment, 468 Jaundice, icterus, or yellows, description and treatment, 88 Jaw, lower, fracture, description, causes, and treatment, 337 Jigger, or chigoe, Leptus americanus, animal parasite of skin, 480 Joint-- hip, luxation, description and treatment, 361 shoulder, displacement, description and treatment, 363 Joints diseases, note, 354 open, cause, prognosis, and treatment, 357 Kidneys-- acute inflammation, or acute nephritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 143 chronic inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 145 bladder worm and roundworm affecting, 146 tumors, note, 146 Knee-- broken, cause, prognosis, and treatment, 357 capped, description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 383 fracture, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 347 or hock, chaps, scratches, or cracked heels, description, causes, and treatment, 470 Knees, sprung, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 373 Knuckling-- of fetlock, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 372 or cocked ankles, description, causes, and treatment, 400 Labor pains, premature, cause, and treatment, 186 Lachrymal apparatus of eye-- description, 277 obstruction, or watering eye, description and remedy, 285 Lameness-- definition, physiology and description, 303 how to detect the seat, 307 how to discover, 304 its causes and treatment, chapter by A. A. Liautard, 298-394 of hip, description, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 369 of shoulder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 365 Laminæ, sensitive, description, 398 Laminitis. _See_ Founder. Lampas, description and treatment, 60 Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring, description and treatment, 108, 230 Laryngitis, or sore throat, description, symptoms and treatment, 103 Larynx, spasms, description and treatment, 107 Law, James-- chapter on "Diseases of the eye", 274-297 chapter on "Diseases of the generative organs", 164-209 chapter on "Diseases of the skin", 458, 483 chapter on "Diseases of the urinary organs", 134-163 Lead poisoning, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 245 Leptus americanus, or harvest bug, animal parasite of skin, 480 Leucorrhea, description and treatment, 208 Liautard, A., chapter on "Lameness: Its causes and treatment", 298 394 Lice, or pediculi, description and treatment for bite, 482 Ligament-- suspensory, description, 396 suspensory, rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment, 403 Ligaments-- description and functions, 302 suspensory, sprains, causes, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 371 Limbs-- hind, cramp, cause and treatment, 181 perineum, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment, 180 Lime-and-sulphur dip, use against mange in horse, 479 Linseed, ground, value as laxative, 55 Liver-- diseases, remarks, 87 inflammation, or hepatitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 87 rupture, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 88 Lockjaw, or tetanus, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 241 Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement, description, 230 Loins, sprains, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 392 Lüber, investigation of pneumonia infection, 522 _Lucilia cæsar_, or bluebottle, and _L. hominivorax_, or screwworm fly, note, 481 Lung-- abscess, and suppuration, symptoms, 127 fever, or pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 113 Lungs-- bleeding, or hemoptysis, causes, description, and treatment, 127 congestion, description and treatment, 111 description, 111 Luxations and dislocations of bones, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 361 Lymphangitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 272 Lymphatic-- glands, local inflammation, and abscess affecting, description, symptoms, and treatment, 272 system, diseases, description, 271 Lymphatics, heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 247-273 Madness, rabies, or hydrophobia, cause, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 244, 559 Maize, or corn, how to feed 55 _Maladie de coït_, or dourine, description and treatment, 562 Mange-- autumn, and mange of foot, description and treatment, 480 horse, treatment, 479 or acariasis, note, 478 Mare-- castration, method, 172 pregnant, hygiene, 177 sterility, causes and treatment, 172 Masturbation, or self-abuse, remedy, 168 Meat fly, or _Musca vomitoria_, note, 481 Medicines, methods of administering, chapter by Ch. B. Michener, 44-48 Megrims, or congestion of brain, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 217 Melanosis, or black pigment tumor, description and treatment, 476 Membrane-- lining, of heart, inflammation, or endocarditis, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 252 of nose, thickening, symptoms and treatment, 101 Membranes-- inflammation, a complication of influenza, 518 mucous, visible, and skin may indicate disease, 11 of brain, inflammation, description, 212, 213 of spinal cord, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 232 Meningitis-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 212 spinal, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 232 Metatarsi, flexor, rupture, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 377 Michener, Ch. B.-- chapter on "Diseases of the digestive organs", 49-94 chapter on "Methods of administering medicines", 44-48 chapter on "Wounds and their treatment," 484-506 _Microsporon furfur_, vegetable parasite of skin 478 Mohler, John R.-- chapter on "Dourine", 562-564 chapter on "Infectious anemia", 569-572 chapter on "Mycotic lymphangitis", 557-559 chapter on "Osteoporosis, or bighead", 578-582 Mold, silage, danger to horses, 56-57 Mole, vesicular, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment, 179 Moles, or anidian monsters, description, 179 Monstrosities in foal, description of kinds, causes, and treatment, 194 Moonblindness, or periodic ophthalmia, causes, symptoms, treatment, 291 Mortification, or gangrene. _See_ Gangrene. Mouth, diseases, remarks, 60 Mucous membranes, visible, and skin may indicate disease, 11 Mules, danger from silage as feed, 56-57 _Musca vomitoria_, or meat fly, note, 481 Muscles-- and tendons, diseases, 365 contraction in foal, description and treatment, 194 of elbow, sprain, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 368 of eye, description, 276 one system of locomotion, 299, 300 Mycotic lymphangitis-- and glanders, differentiation, 557 chapter by John R. Mohler, 557-559 diagnosis and treatment, 558 symptoms and lesions, 558 Myelitis, or inflammation of substance of spinal cord, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 233 Myocarditis, or inflammation of muscular structure of heart, symptoms, alterations, and treatment, 251 Nasal-- catarrh, or cold in head, symptoms and treatment, 98 douche, used in administering medicines, 47 gleet, chronic catarrh, or collection in sinuses, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 99 polypus, description and treatment, 102 Navel-- discharge of urine, or persistent urachus, description and treatment, 151 string, constriction of a member, description, 192 Navicular-- bone, description, 396 disease, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 435 Neck of womb, twisting, description and treatment, 189 Nephritis, acute, or acute inflammation of kidneys, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 143 Nerve-- inflammation, or neuritis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 236 tumor, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 236 Nerves-- injuries, description and treatment, 237 spinal, designations, 212 Nervous system-- and brain, anatomy and physiology, 210 diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 210-246 examination, 23 Nettlerash, surfeit, or urticaria, description and treatment, 467 Neuritis, or inflammation of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 236 Neuroma, or tumor of a nerve, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 236 Nose-- bleeding, causes and treatment, 103 membrane, thickening, symptoms and treatment, 101 Nostrils, tumors and wounds, treatment, 97 Obstruction colic, cause, 68 Open joints. _See_ Joints. Ophthalmia-- external, or conjunctivitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 285 internal, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 288 periodic, or moonblindness, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 291 Optic nerve, paralysis, or amaurosis, cause, 231 Orchitis, or congestion and inflammation of testicles, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 164 Os innominatum, or hip-bone fracture, description, symptoms, and treatment, 341 Os pedis, or third phalanx, fractures, cause and treatment, 352 Osteoporosis, or bighead, chapter by John R. Mohler, 578-582 Ostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 309 Overreach, description, symptoms, and treatment, 404 Ovum, inclosed, or tumors of fetus, description and treatment, 194 Oxyurus equorum, parasite, symptoms and treatment for, 91 Palpitation of heart, description, symptoms, and treatment, 259 Palsy-- of nerve of sight, or amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 295 of paralysis, description and causes, 228 Pancreas and spleen, diseases, remarks, 90 Papilloma, epithelioma, or degeneration of penis, 167 Papules, or congestion of skin with small pimples, description and treatment, 463 Paralysis-- facial, symptoms and cause, 230 general, cause, 228 of bladder, description and cause, 140, 230 of hind legs, cause and treatment, 181 of intestines, cause, 72, 230 of one side or half the body or hemiplegia, description and symptoms, 228 of optic nerve, or amaurosis, cause, 231 of penis, cause and treatment, 167 of pharynx, description and treatment, 61 of rectum and tail, cause, 230 or palsy, description and causes, 228 transverse, of hind extremities, or paraplegia, description and symptoms, 229 treatment, 231 Paraphymosis and phymosis, description and treatment, 171 Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of hind extremities, cause and treatment, 229 Parasites-- animal, of skin, description of kinds, 478 causing worm colic, 91, 92, 93 gastrointestinal, 90-94 in eye, description of kinds, 296 specific kinds affecting urinary organs, 146 vegetable, of skin, description of kinds, symptoms, and treatment, 477 Parasitic pityriasis, description and treatment, 478 Parturition-- different presentations, 197 difficult, from narrow pelvis, cause and treatment, 186, 188 symptoms, 185 Pastern joint, description, 396 Pastes, or electuaries, description and manner of administering, 45 Pasture, relation to worms in horses, 93 Patella-- fracture, description, 349 pseudoluxations, descriptions, symptoms, cause, and treatment, 363 Pearson, Leonard, chapter on "Examination of a sick horse", 7-26 Pediculi, or lice, description and treatment for bite, 482 Pelvis-- and vagina, tumors affecting, description and treatment, 188 bones, fracture, different kinds, 341 narrow, cause of difficult parturition, cause and treatment, 188 Penis-- degeneration, papilloma, or epithelioma, 167 extravasation of blood and paralysis, cause and treatment, 167 sheath, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment, 171 warts, treatment, 167 Pericarditis-- a complication of influenza, 518 or inflammation of sac inclosing the heart, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 255 Perineum, limbs, and abdomen, dropsy, description and treatment, 180 Periostitis, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 309 Peritoneum and womb, inflammation, symptoms and treatment, 207 Peritonitis-- a complication of influenza, 518 description, symptoms, and treatment, 85 Phalanx, first, second, and third, fracture, cause, symptoms and treatment, 351, 352 Pharyngeal polypus, description and treatment, 102 Pharyngitis, description and treatment, 61 Pharynx-- inflammation, description, 103 paralysis, description and treatment, 61 Phlebitis, or diseases of veins, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 268 Phymosis and paraphymosis, description and treatment, 171 Physiology and anatomy of brain and nervous system, 210 Piles, or hemorrhoids, description and treatment, 81 Pills, or balls, description and manner of administering, 44 Pimples, small, or congestion of skin, description and treatment, 463 Pinworm, description and treatment, 91 Pityriasis, or scaly skin disease, description and treatment, 467 Plantar cushion, description, 398 Pleurisy-- a complication of influenza, 518 description, symptoms, and treatment, 122 Pleurodynia, symptoms and treatment, 131 Pleuropneumonia, description and treatment, 126 Plumbism, or lead poisoning, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 245 Pneumonia-- contagious, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 521-527 infection, transmission, 521-522 or lung fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 113 Poisoning-- albuminoid, or azotemia, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 141 forage, or cerebrospinal meningitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 237 lead, or plumbism, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 245 Poll evil, description, causes, symptoms, treatment, 502-506 Polypus-- description and treatment, 102 pharyngeal, description and treatment, 102 Polyuria, diuresis, diabetes insipidus, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 138 Pouches, guttural, description and treatment, 119 Poultry, acariasis, description and treatment, 480 Powders, manner of administering, 44 Pregnancy-- duration, 177 mare, hygiene, 177 medication, 175 Premaxillary bone, fracture, description and treatment, 336 Preputial calculus, calculus in sheath, description and treatment, 163 Presentations at birth, abnormal, 197-200 Pruritis, or nervous irritation of skin, description and treatment, 468 Pseudoluxations of patella, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment, 363 _Psoroptes equi_, animal parasite of skin, 480 Psoroptic acariasis, description and treatment, 480 Ptyalism, or salivation, description and treatment, 61 Pulex-- or flea, prevention and treatment for bite, 482 _penetrans_, or chigoe, bite, treatment, 482 Pulse, how to count, 13 Purpura hemorrhagica-- description, symptoms, and treatment, 270 or anasarca, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 531 Pustules, inflammation, description and treatment, 465 Quittor, description of different kinds, 407 Rabies-- description, symptoms, and treatment, 244-245, 559-562 fatality of, 562 Ransom, study of flies and worms, 470 Rectum-- and tail, paralysis, cause, 230 impaction with feces, 191 methods of administering medicines, 47 Red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment, 461 Renal calculi, description, symptoms, and treatment, 158 Respiratory organs-- description, 95 diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 95-133 methods of examination, 16 Retinitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 288 Ribs, fractures, description, symptoms, and treatment, 339 Ridglings, or cryptorchids, castration method, 169 Ringbone, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 313, 439 Ringworm-- circinate, or _Tinea tonsurans_, description, symptoms, and treatment, 477 honeycomb, or favus, description and treatment, 478 Roaring and thick wind, description and treatment, 108, 230 Roundworm of kidney, 146 Roundworms, horse, dangers and treatment, 90-91 Rubber pads in shoes, uses, 601 Rupture-- of an artery, description, symptoms, and treatment, 266 of diaphragm, causes and symptoms, 133 of flexor metatarsi, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 377 of heart, description and cause, 262 of liver, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 89 of stomach, result of engorgement, colic, symptoms, and treatment, 66, 67 of suspensory ligament, description, symptoms, and treatment, 403 of vagina, description and treatment, 207 or hernia, description of different kinds, 82 or laceration of womb, causes and treatment, 206 Saccharine diabetes, diabetes mellitus, glycosuria, or inosuria, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 130 Sacrum, fractures, description and treatment, 341 St. Vitus dance, or chorea, description and treatment, 227 Salivation, or plyalism, description and treatment, 61 Sand-cracks of foot, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 432 Sarcocele, description and treatment, 165 _Sarcophaga carnaria_, or flesh fly, note, 481 _Sarcoptes_, _scabiei equi_, animal parasite of skin, 478 Sarcoptic acariasis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 478 Scalds and burns, treatment, 483, 496 Scaly skin disease, or pityriasis, description and treatment, 467 Scapula, fracture, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 344 Scorpion and tarantula, treatment for sting or bite, 483 Scratches, or chaps on knee and hock, or cracked heels, causes and treatment, 467 Screw-worm fly, or _Lucilia hominivorax_, note, 481 Scrotal or congenital hernia, cause, description, and treatment, 82 Scrotum, dropsy, or hydrocele, symptoms and treatment, 166 Sebaceous glands, description, 460 Self-abuse, or masturbation, remedy, 168 Serum, use against strangles and anthrax, 531, 544 Sesamoid bones, fracture, cause, symptoms, treatment, etc., 352 Sesamoid sheath, inflammation, or navicular disease, description, symptoms, and treatment, 435 Sesamoids, description, 395 Sexual and urinary organs, examination, 24 Sheath-- calculus, or bilocular cavity, or preputial calculus, description and treatment, 163 of flexor tendons, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 371 penis, and abdomen, swelling, cause and treatment, 171 Shock, electric, description and treatment, 246 Shoe-- bar, uses, 601 detailed description, 597 hot fitting, 600 Shoeing-- chapter by John W. Adams, 583-605 preliminary examination, 594 preparation of the hoof, 596 rubber pads, 601 Shoes, special peculiarities of chief classes, 598 Shoulder-- joint, displacement, description and treatment, 363 lameness, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 365 Sick horse. _See_ Horse, sick. Sidebones, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 316, 438 Silage, use and danger as horse feed, 56-57 Sinuses, collection in, chronic catarrh, or nasal gleet, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 99 Sitfasts-- horny sloughs, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment, 475 or harness galls, description and treatment, 496 Skin-- and visible mucous membranes, may indicate disease, 11 animal parasites affecting, description of kinds, 478 bleeding eruptions, description and treatment, 469 congestion, red efflorescence, or erythema, description and treatment, 461 disease, scaly, or pityriasis, description and treatment, 467 diseases, chapter by James Law, 458-483 grubs under, description and treatment, 481 hairs, description, 460 inflammation and congestion, description of kinds, 461 nervous irritation, or pruritis, description and treatment, 468 of fetlock and ankle, note, 397 parasites, 477-483 structure, divisions, 459 true, or dermis, description 459 vegetable parasites, description of kinds, symptoms and treatment, 477 wounds, description of different kinds and treatment, 463-470 Sloughs, horny, sitfasts, or sloughing callosities, description and treatment, 475, 496 Snake bites, treatment, 483 Sole of foot, description, 397 Sore throat, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 103 Sores, summer, caused by _Filaria irritans_, treatment, 469, 470 Spasm-- of diaphragm, or thumps, description and treatment, 132, 225 of glottis or intestines, description and treatment, 225 of larynx, description and treatment, 107 of neck of bladder, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 146, 225 of neck of womb, description and treatment, 191 of thigh, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment, 226 Spasmodic or cramp colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 74 Spasms, or cramps, causes and treatment, 226 Spavin-- blood, bog spavin, and thorough pin, description and treatment, 356 description, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 317 Speedy cuts and interfering, description, symptoms, treatment, etc. 387 Spermatic cord-- strangulated, cause and treatment, 170 tumors, causes and treatment, 171 Spinal-- anemia, symptoms and treatment, 234 compression and concussion, cause, description, and treatment, 234 concussion, causes, and treatment, 235 congestion, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 233 cord, description, 212 cord, inflammation of membranes, causes, symptoms, treatment, etc., 232 cord, inflammation of substance, or myelitis, causes, symptoms, treatment, 233 hemorrhage, symptom and treatment, 235 meningitis, causes, symptoms, pathology, and treatment, 232 nerves, designation, 212 tumors, symptoms and treatment, 236 Spleen and pancreas, diseases, remarks, 90 Splint, description, symptoms, cause, and treatment, 310 Sprain-- of elbow muscles, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 368 of fetlock, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 402 Sprains-- description and treatment, 365-374, 392-394 of loins, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 392 of suspensory ligaments and of flexor tendons or their sheath, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 371-372 Sprung knees, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 373 Staphyloma, or bulging cornea, description and treatment, 296 Stallion-- castration, methods, 168 sterility, cause and treatment, 172 Sterility in mare and stallion, cause and treatment, 172 Stiles, Ch. Wardell, chapter on "Surra", 572-577 Stock vaccines, administration, 506 Stomach-- and intestines, diseases, remarks, 65 calculi, or stones, symptoms and treatment, 70 rupture, result of engorgement colic, symptoms and treatment 68 worms, description, etc., 91-92 Stomatitis, description and treatment, 60 Stone-- in bladder, vesical calculus, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 160 in urethra, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 162 or calculus, and tumor in bladder, 190 urinary calculi, or gravel, description, 154, 157 Stones-- or calculi, in intestines, description, symptoms, and treatment, 71 or calculi, in stomach, symptoms and treatment, 70 Strangles, definition, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 527-531 Strangulated spermatic cord, cause and treatment, 170 _Streptococcus pyogenes equi_, cause of pneumonia, 522 Stricture-- of esophagus, description and treatment, 65 of urethra, description and treatment, 153 Stringhalt, description, cause and treatment, 227, 390 Strongyles, injuries to horses, symptoms and treatment, 92-93 _Strongylus_-- _equinum_, parasite of kidney, 146 spp. injuries by and treatment, 92-93 _vulgaris_, worm causing one form of aneurism, 265 Sty, furuncle, or boil of eyelid, description and treatment, 282 Suffraginis, description, 395 Summer sores, caused by _Filaria irritans_, description and treatment, 469, 470 Sunstroke, heat stroke, or heat exhaustion, symptoms, treatment, etc., 219 Superpurgation, description and treatment, 78 Suppositories, description and uses, 48 Suppuration and abscess in lung, symptoms, 127 Surfeit, nettlerash, or urticaria, description and treatment, 467 Surra-- chapter by Ch. Wardell Stiles, 572-577 climatic conditions, animals affected, and lethality, 572 diagnosis and treatment, 577 method of infection, symptoms, 573 Suspensory ligament-- and flexor tendons, or their sheaths, sprains, cause, symptoms, treatment, 371-372 description, 395 rupture, description, symptoms, and treatment, 403 Sutures, description and uses, 486 Swamp fever. _See_ Infectious anemia. Sweat glands, description, 461 _Symbiotes equi_, _Dermatophagus equi_, or _Chorioptes spathiferus_, animal parasite of skin, 480 Syncope, or fainting, symptoms and treatment, 259 Synovial-- dropsies, remarks, 355 sacs, diseases, description, 355 Synovitis, cause, prognosis, and treatment, 357 Tail and rectum, paralysis, cause, 230 Tapeworms, horse, kind and injuries, 90 Tarantula and scorpion, treatment for bite and sting, 483 Teats, sore, scabs, cracks, warts, cause, and treatment, 209 Teeth-- diseases period of dentition, 58 irregularities, remedies, 58 Temperament of horse, 10 Temperature, method of determining, 15 Tendon sheaths, wounds, description and treatment, 494 Tendons-- and muscles, diseases, 365 flexor, or their sheath, sprains, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 371 functions, 301 lacerated, cause, symptoms, prognosis, and treatment, 376 of foot, function, 396 Testicles-- abnormal number, causes of degeneration, 166 or orchitis, congestion and inflammation, causes, symptoms, treatment, 166 Tetanus, or lockjaw, causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 241 Thick wind and roaring, description and treatment, 108 Thigh, spasm, or cramp of hind limb, description and treatment, 226 Thoracic choke, description and treatment, 63, 64 Thoroughpin, blood spavin, and bog spavin, description and treatment, 356 Threadworms, cause of bleeding skin eruptions, 469 Throat-- abscesses affecting, treatment, 62 sore, or laryngitis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 103 Thrombosis, description, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 391 Thrombus and embolism, description, symptoms, and treatment, 267 Thrush, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 417 Thumps, or spasm of diaphragm, description and treatment, 132, 225 Tibia, fractures, symptoms and treatment, 349 Ticks, description and treatment, 481 Timothy, best hay for feeding, 53 _Tinea tonsurans_, or circinate ringworm, description and treatment, 477 Tissues, description, 27 Tobacco dip, use against mange in horses, 479 Toothache, how to determine and treat, 59 Trichiasis, or turned eyelashes, description and treatment, 283 _Trichophyton tonsurans_, vegetable parasite of skin, 477 Trumbower, M. R.-- chapter on "Diseases of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics", 247-273 chapter on "Diseases of nervous system", 210-246 _Trypanosoma equiperdum_, cause of dourine, note, 562 Tuberculosis, or consumption, note, 128 Tumor-- and calculus, or stone in bladder, 190 of haw, or caries of cartilage, description and treatment, 284 of nerve, or neuroma, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 236 on spermatic cord, causes and treatment, 171 Tumors-- and warts of eyelids, description and treatment, 283 black pigment, or melanosis, description and treatment, 476 in nostrils, treatment, 97 in vagina and pelvis, description and treatment, 188 of eyeball, remarks, 296 of fetus, or inclosed ovum, description and treatment, 194 of kidneys, note, 146 of spine, symptoms and treatment, 236 of udder, cause and treatment, 209 of abnormal growths, cause of colic, 73 within cranium, description of kinds, 224 Twins, remarks, 196 Tympanitic colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 Udder-- congestion and inflammation, symptoms and treatment, 208 tumors, cause and treatment, 209 Ulceration, description, causes, and treatment, 499 Ulcers on cornea, treatment, 288 Umbilical hernia, description and treatment, 84 Urachus, persistent, or discharge of urine by navel, description and treatment, 151 Uremia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 245 Urethra-- inflammation, urethritis, or gleet, symptoms and treatment, 153 stone, or urethral calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 162 stricture, description and treatment, 153 Urethral calculi, description and treatment, 159 Urethral calculus, or stone in urethra, description, symptoms, and treatment, 162 Urethritis, inflammation of urethra, or gleet, symptoms, and treatment, 153 Urinary-- and sexual organs, examination, 24 calculi, classification, 157 calculi, stone, or gravel, description and causes, 154, 157 disorders, causes, 134 organs, diseases, chapter by James Law, 134-163 organs, parasites affecting, 146 organs, symptoms of disease, 136 organs, uses, 134 Urine-- analysis, 154 bloody, or hematuria, cause and treatment, 141 discharge by navel, or persistent urachus, description and treatment, 151 excessive secretion, diuresis, polyuria, diabetes insipidus, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 138 how to examine, 136 of healthy horse, description, 25 Urocystitis, inflammation of bladder, or cystitis, symptoms and treatment, 149 Urticaria, nettlerash, or surfeit, description and treatment, 467 Vaccination-- use against diseases and manufacture of material, 510 use against strangles and anthrax, 531, 544 Vaccines, kinds and use, 506, 531 Vagina-- and pelvis, tumors affecting, description and treatment, 188 rupture, description and treatment, 207 Vaginal walls, effusion of blood, 190 Valvular disease of heart, symptoms and treatment, 257 Varicocele, description and treatment, 166 Varicose veins, varix, or dilatation of veins, causes and treatment, 269 Variola, equine, or horsepox, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 535-540 Veins-- description, 250 dilatation, varicose veins, or varix, causes and treatment, 269 diseases, or phlebitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 268 Ventral hernia, description and treatment, 83 Vertebra, fractures, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 338 Vesical calculus, stone in bladder, or cystic calculus, description, symptoms, and treatment, 159 Vesicular mole, or cystic disease of walls of womb, description and treatment, 179 Volvulus, gut-tie, or twisting of bowels, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 72 Vulva, or vagina, fibrous constriction, cause and treatment, 191 Warts-- and tumors of eyelids, description and treatment, 283 description and treatment, 476 on penis, treatment, 167 Wasps, bees, and hornets, stings, treatment, 483 Water-- impure, cause of disease, time to give, 49 in head, or hydrocephalus of foal, description and treatment, 192 Watering eye, or obstruction of lachrymal apparatus, description and remedy, 285 Whistling, description, 110 Wind-- broken, heaves, or asthma, definition, symptoms, and treatment, 128 colic, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 73 Windgalls, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 355, 401 Windpipe, description, 119 Winking cartilage, or cartilago nictitans, description, 276 Womb-- and peritoneum, inflammation, symptoms, and treatment, 206 bleeding, or flooding, treatment, 205 dropsy, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 179 eversion, description and method of treatment, 205 hernia, description and treatment, 189 laceration, or rupture, causes and treatment, 206 neck, twisting, description and treatment, 189 Worm colic, notes 93 Worms-- bladder, affecting kidneys, 146 injuries by, and treatment, 90-94 strongyle, danger and treatment, 92-93 treatment with dips, 479 Wounds-- and their treatment, chapter by Ch. B. Michener, 484-506 gunshot, description and treatment, 494 healing under a scab, treatment, 487 in nostrils, cause and treatment, 97 lacerated and contused, description and treatment, 488 penetrating walls of chest, description and treatment, 131 poisoned, description and treatment, 495 punctured, description, symptoms, and treatment, 426, 490 Yellows, jaundice, or icterus, description and treatment, 88 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON. D.C. AT $1.00 PER COPY 
39205	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES: | | | | [OE] and [oe] represent the oe ligature. Text printed in italics | | and boldface in the original are represented here between under- | | scores (as in _italics_) and equal signs (as in =boldface=), res- | | pectively. Text printed in small capitals in the original have been| | transcribed as ALL CAPITALS. | | | | More Transcriber's Notes will be found at the end of this text. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ SHEEP, SWINE, AND POULTRY; EMBRACING THE HISTORY AND VARIETIES OF EACH; THE BEST MODES OF BREEDING; THEIR FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT; TOGETHER WITH THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE RESPECTIVELY SUBJECT, AND THE APPROPRIATE REMEDIES FOR EACH. BY ROBERT JENNINGS, V. S., PROFESSOR OF PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY IN THE VETERINARY COLLEGE OF PHILADELPHIA; LATE PROFESSOR OF VETERINARY MEDICINE IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF OHIO; SECRETARY OF THE AMERICAN VETERINARY ASSOCIATION OF PHILADELPHIA; AUTHOR OF "THE HORSE AND HIS DISEASES," "CATTLE AND THEIR DISEASES," ETC., ETC. [Illustration] With Numerous Illustrations. PHILADELPHIA: JOHN E. POTTER AND COMPANY. 617 SANSOM STREET Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by JOHN E. POTTER, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE. Encouraged by the favorable reception of his former works, the author presents in the following pages what is intended by him as a popular compendium relative to Sheep, Swine, and Poultry. It would not have been a difficult matter to collect material bearing upon each distinct class sufficient for an entire volume of the present size. Indeed, the main trouble experienced has been the selecting of such facts and suggestions only as seemed to him of paramount practical importance. He has not deemed it advisable to cumber his work with items of information which could be of service to particular sections and localities only; but has rather endeavored to present, in a concise, yet comprehensible shape, whatever is essential to be understood concerning the animals in question. The amateur stock-raiser and the wealthy farmer will, of course, call to their aid all the works, no matter how expensive or voluminous, which are to be found bearing upon the subject in which they are for the time interested. The present volume can scarcely be expected to fill the niche which such might desire to see occupied. The author's experience as a veterinary surgeon among the great body of our farmers convinces him that what is needed by them in the premises is a treatise, of convenient size, containing the essential features of the treatment and management of each, couched in language free from technicality or rarely scientific expressions, and fortified by the results of actual experience upon the farm. Such a place the author trusts this work may occupy. He hopes that, while it shall not be entirely destitute of interest for any, it will prove acceptable, in a peculiar degree, to that numerous and thrifty class of citizens to which allusion has already been made. The importance of such a work cannot be overrated. Take the subject of sheep for example: the steadily growing demand for woollen goods of every description is producing a great and lucrative development of the wool trade. Even light fabrics of wool are now extensively preferred throughout the country to those of cotton. Our imports of wool from England during the past six years have increased at an almost incredible rate, while our productions of the article during the past few years greatly exceed that of the same period in any portion of our history. Relative to swine, moreover, it may be said that they form so considerable an item of our commerce that a thorough information as to the best mode of raising and caring for them is highly desirable; while our domestic poultry contribute so much, directly and indirectly, to the comfort and partial subsistence of hundreds of thousands, that sensible views touching that division will be of service in almost every household. To those who are familiar with the author's previous works upon the Horse and Cattle, it is needless to say any thing as to the method adopted by him in discussing the subject of Diseases. To others he would say, that only such diseases are described as are likely to be actually encountered, and such curatives recommended as his own personal experience, or that of others upon whose judgment he relies, has satisfied him are rational and valuable. The following works, among others, have been consulted: Randall's Sheep Husbandry; Youatt on Sheep; Goodale's Breeding of Domestic Animals; Allen's Domestic Animals; Stephens's Book of the Farm; Youatt on the Hog; Richardson on the Hog; Dixon and Kerr's Ornamental and Domestic Poultry; Bennett's Poultry Book; and Browne's American Poultry Yard. To those professional brethren who have so courteously furnished him with valuable information, growing out of their own observation and practice, he acknowledges himself especially indebted; and were he certain that they would not take offence, he would be pleased to mention them here by name. Should the work prove of service to our intelligent American farmers and stock-breeders as a body, the author's end will have been attained. CONTENTS. SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. PAGE HISTORY AND VARIETIES 15 AMERICAN SHEEP 21 Native Sheep 22 The Spanish Merino 25 The Saxon Merino 36 The New Leicester 41 The South-Down 47 The Cotswold 52 The Cheviot 54 The Lincoln 56 NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP 57 Formation of the Teeth 59 Structure of the Skin 63 Anatomy of the Wool 64 Long Wool 76 Middle Wool 78 Short Wool 80 CROSSING AND BREEDING 81 BREEDING 81 Points of the Merino 93 Breeding Merinos 97 General Principles of Breeding 106 Use of Rams 112 Lambing 117 Management of Lambs 121 Castration and Docking 127 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 FEEDING 129 Shade 133 Fences 133 Hoppling 133 Dangerous Rams 134 Prairie Feeding 135 Fall Feeding 137 Winter Feeding 137 Feeding with other Stock 142 Division of Flocks 142 Regularity in Feeding 143 Effect of Food 144 Yards 146 Feeding-Racks 147 Troughs 150 Barns and Sheds 151 Sheds 155 Hay-Holder 156 Tagging 157 Washing 160 Cutting the Hoofs 165 Shearing 166 Cold Storms 171 Sun-Scald 171 Ticks 171 Marking or Branding 172 Maggots 173 Shortening the Horns 174 Selection and Division 174 The Crook 176 Driving and Slaughtering 177 Driving 177 Points of Fat Sheep 181 Slaughtering 184 Cutting Up 186 Relative qualities 187 Contributions to Manufactures 191 DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 195 ADMINISTERING MEDICINE 197 BLEEDING 197 FEELING THE PULSE 199 Apoplexy 200 Braxy 201 Bronchitis 201 Catarrh 202 Malignant Epizoötic Catarrh 203 Colic 205 Costiveness 206 Diarrh[oe]a 206 Disease of the Biflex Canal 207 Dysentery 208 Flies 209 Fouls 209 Fractures 210 Garget 211 Goitre 211 Grub in the Head 212 Hoof-Ail 214 Hoove 225 Hydatid on the Brain 226 Obstruction of the Gullet 228 Ophthalmia 229 Palsy 229 Pelt-Rot 230 Pneumonia 230 Poison 233 Rot 233 Scab 236 Small-Pox 239 Sore Face 242 Sore Mouth 243 Ticks 243 ILLUSTRATIONS. A LEICESTER RAM 15 ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP 19 A MERINO RAM 25 A SPANISH SHEEP-DOG 28 OUT AT PASTURE 35 A COUNTRY SCENE 41 A SOUTH-DOWN RAM 47 THE COTSWOLD 52 A CHEVIOT EWE 54 SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES 57 THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP 64 THE HAPPY TRIO 81 THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG OR COLLEY 100 EWE AND LAMBS 117 FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT 129 A COVERED SALTING-BOX 130 A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK 147 A HOLE-RACK 148 THE HOPPER-RACK 150 AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH 151 SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS 152 A SHED OF RAILS 155 WASHING APPARATUS 162 TOE-NIPPERS 166 FLEECE 167 SHEPHERD'S CROOK 176 THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK 179 DROVER'S OR BUTCHER'S DOG 185 QUIET ENJOYMENT 195 AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP 203 A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP FODDER 228 THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP 236 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. CONTENTS. HISTORY AND BREEDS 245 (7) AMERICAN SWINE 254 (16) The Byefield 256 (18) The Bedford 256 (18) The Leicester 257 (19) The Yorkshire 257 (19) The Chinese 258 (20) The Suffolk 260 (22) The Berkshire 261 (23) NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG 263 (25) Formation of the Teeth 265 (27) BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 267 (29) BREEDING 267 (29) Points of a Good Hog 274 (36) Treatment during Pregnancy 276 (38) Abortion 277 (39) Parturition 279 (41) Treatment while Suckling 282 (44) Treatment of Young Pigs 283 (45) Castration 284 (46) Spaying 286 (48) Weaning 287 (49) Ringing 289 (51) Feeding and Fattening 290 (52) Piggeries 295 (57) Slaughtering 298 (60) Pickling and Curing 300 (62) Value of the Carcass 304 (66) DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 307 (69) Catching the Pig 308 (70) Bleeding 309 (71) Drenching 310 (72) Catarrh 310 (72) Cholera 311 (73) Crackings 314 (76) Diarrh[oe]a 314 (76) Fever 315 (77) Foul Skin 317 (79) Inflammation of the Lungs 317 (79) Jaundice 318 (80) Leprosy 319 (81) Lethargy 319 (81) Mange 320 (82) Measles 322 (84) Murrain 323 (85) Quinsy 323 (85) Staggers 323 (85) Swelling of the Spleen 323 (85) Surfeit 325 (87) Tumors 325 (87) ILLUSTRATIONS. THE WILD BOAR 245 (7) THE WILD BOAR AT BAY 252 (14) THE CHINESE HOG 259 (21) THE SUFFOLK 260 (22) A BERKSHIRE BOAR 261 (23) SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES 263 (25) THE OLD COUNTRY WELL 267 (29) WILD HOGS 279 (41) THE OLD ENGLISH HOG 299 (61) A WICKED-LOOKING SPECIMEN 307 (69) HUNTING THE WILD BOAR 315 (77) POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. CONTENTS. HISTORY AND VARIETIES 327 (7) THE DOMESTIC FOWL 327 (7) The Bantam 330 (10) The African Bantam 331 (11) The Bolton Gray 333 (13) The Blue Dun 334 (14) The Chittagong 335 (15) The Cochin China 336 (16) The Cuckoo 339 (19) The Dominique 340 (20) The Dorking 340 (20) The Fawn-colored Dorking 343 (23) The Black Dorking 343 (23) The Dunghill Fowl 344 (24) The Frizzled Fowl 344 (24) The Game Fowl 345 (25) The Mexican Hen-Cock 347 (27) The Wild Indian Game 348 (28) The Spanish Game 348 (28) The Guelderland 349 (29) The Spangled Hamburgh 350 (30) The Golden Spangled 350 (30) The Silver Spangled 351 (31) The Java 352 (32) The Jersey-Blue 352 (32) The Lark-Crested Fowl 352 (32) The Malay 354 (34) The Pheasant-Malay 356 (36) The Plymouth Rock 357 (37) The Poland 358 (38) The Black Polish 360 (40) The Golden Polands 361 (41) The Silver Polands 363 (43) The Black-topped White 364 (44) The Shanghae 364 (44) The White Shanghae 367 (47) The Silver Pheasant 368 (48) The Spanish 369 (49) NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 372 (52) The Guinea Fowl 378 (58) The Pea Fowl 381 (61) The Turkey 386 (66) The Wild Turkey 386 (66) The Domestic Turkey 391 (71) The Duck 394 (74) The Wild Duck 396 (76) The Domestic Duck 398 (78) The Goose 402 (82) The Wild Goose 402 (82) The Domestic Goose 404 (84) The Bernacle Goose 407 (87) The Bremen Goose 409 (89) The Brent Goose 410 (90) The China Goose 411 (91) The White China 413 (93) The Egyptian Goose 414 (94) The Java Goose 415 (95) The Toulouse Goose 415 (95) The White-fronted Goose 416 (96) The Anatomy of the Egg 417 (97) BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT 421 (101) BREEDING 421 (101) High Breeding 422 (102) Selection of Stock 429 (109) Feeding 432 (112) Bran 435 (115) Millet 436 (116) Rice 436 (116) Potatoes 436 (116) Green Food 437 (117) Earth-Worms 437 (117) Animal Food 438 (118) Insects 439 (119) Laying 439 (119) Preservation of Eggs 443 (123) Choice of Eggs for Setting 446 (126) Incubation 449 (129) Incubation of Turkeys 453 (133) Incubation of Geese 454 (134) Rearing of the Young 455 (135) Rearing of Guinea Fowls 458 (138) Rearing of Turkeys 459 (139) Rearing of Ducklings 461 (141) Rearing of Goslings 463 (143) Caponizing 464 (144) Fattening and Slaughtering 468 (148) Slaughtering and Dressing 472 (152) Poultry-Houses 474 (154) DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES 478 (158) Asthma 479 (159) Costiveness 480 (160) Diarrh[oe]a 481 (161) Fever 482 (162) Indigestion 482 (162) Lice 483 (163) Loss of Feathers 485 (165) Pip 485 (165) Roup 488 (168) Wounds and Sores 490 (170) ILLUSTRATIONS. VARIETIES OF FOWL 327 (7) THE BANTAM 331 (11) BANTAM 332 (12) BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL 333 (13) COCHIN CHINAS 337 (17) WHITE DORKINGS 341 (21) GRAY GAME FOWLS 346 (26) GUELDERLANDS 349 (29) HAMBURGH FOWLS 350 (30) MALAYS 354 (34) POLAND FOWLS 359 (39) SHANGHAES 365 (45) WHITE SHANGHAES 367 (47) SPANISH FOWLS 369 (49) THE GUINEA FOWL 379 (59) THE PEA FOWL 382 (62) THE WILD TURKEY 386 (66) THE DOMESTIC TURKEY 392 (72) THE EIDER DUCK 395 (75) WILD DUCK 397 (77) ROUEN DUCK 399 (79) WILD OR CANADA GOOSE 403 (83) A BREMEN GOOSE 409 (89) CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE 411 (91) BARNYARD SCENE 421 (101) FIGHTING COCKS 429 (109) ON THE WATCH 440 (120) MARQUEE OR TENT-SHAPED COOPS 456 (136) DUCK-POND AND HOUSES 461 (141) A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING 468 (148) RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE 475 (155) A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE OR GOTHIC STYLE 476 (156) AMONG THE STRAW 478 (158) PRAIRIE HENS 483 (163) SWANS 488 (168) [Illustration: A LEICESTER RAM.] HISTORY AND VARIETIES With a single exception--that of the dog--there is no member of the beast family which presents so great a diversity of size, color, form, covering, and general appearance, as characterizes the sheep; and none occupy a wider range of climate, or subsist on a greater variety of food. This animal is found in every latitude between the Equator and the Arctic circle, ranging over barren mountains and through fertile valleys, feeding upon almost every species of edible forage--the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals, and roots--browsing on aromatic and bitter herbs alike, cropping the leaves and barks from stunted forest shrubs and the pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of Norway and Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh during the long, rigorous winter, and, if reduced to necessity, even devours his own wool. In size, he is diminutive or massive; he has many horns, or but two large or small spiral horns, or is polled or hornless. His tail may be broad, or long, or a mere button, discoverable only by the touch. His covering is long and coarse, or short and hairy, or soft and furry, or fine and spiral. His color varies from white or black to every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue, and gray. This wide diversity results from long domestication under almost every conceivable variety of condition. Among the antediluvians, sheep were used for sacrificial offerings, and their fleeces, in all probability, furnished them with clothing. Since the deluge their flesh has been a favorite food among many nations. Many of the rude, wandering tribes of the East employ them as beasts of burden. The uncivilized--and, to some extent, the refined--inhabitants of Europe use their milk, not only as a beverage, but for making into cheese, butter, and curds--an appropriation of it which is also noticed by Job, Isaiah, and other Old Testament writers, as well as most of the Greek and Roman authors. The ewe's milk scarcely differs in appearance from that of the cow, though it is generally thicker, and yields a pale, yellowish butter, which is always soft and soon becomes rancid. In dairy regions the animal is likewise frequently employed at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump water, churn milk, or perform other light domestic work. The calling of the shepherd has, from time immemorial, been conspicuous, and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel was a keeper of sheep; as were Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs. Job possessed fourteen thousand sheep. Rachel, the favored mother of the Jewish race, "came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian "came and drew water for their father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," busied himself in tending "the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law." David, too, that sweet singer of Israel and its destined monarch--the Jewish hero, poet, and divine--was a keeper of sheep. To shepherds, "abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night," came the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. The Hebrew term for sheep signifies, in its etymology, fruitfulness, abundance, plenty--indicative of the blessings which they were destined to confer upon the human family. In the Holy Scriptures, this animal is the chosen symbol of purity and the gentler virtues, the victim of propitiatory sacrifices, and the type of redemption to fallen man. Among profane writers, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, introduce them in their pastoral themes; while their heroes and demi-gods--Hercules and Ulysses, Eneas and Numa--carefully perpetuate them in their domains. In modern times, they have engaged the attention of the most enlightened nations, whose prosperity has been intimately linked with them, wherever wool and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples. Spain and Portugal, during the two centuries in which they figured as the most enterprising European countries, excelled in the production and manufacture of wool. Flanders, for a time, took precedence of England in the perfection of the arts and the enjoyments of life; and the latter country then sent what little wool she raised to the former to be manufactured. This being soon found highly impolitic, large bounties were offered by England for the importation of artists and machinery; and by a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which looked to the utmost protection and increase of wool and woollens, she gradually carried their production beyond any thing the world had ever seen. Of the original breed of this invaluable animal, nothing certain is known; four varieties having been deemed by naturalists entitled to that distinction. These are, 1. The _Musimon_, inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia, and other islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts of Spain and Greece, and some other regions bordering upon that inland sea. These have been frequently domesticated and mixed with the long-cultivated breeds. 2. The _Argali_ ranges over the steppes, or inland plains of Central Asia, northward and eastward to the ocean. They are larger and hardier than the Musimon and not so easily tamed. 3. The _Rocky Mountain Sheep_--frequently called the _Bighorn_ by our western hunters--is found on the prairies west of the Mississippi, and throughout the wild, mountainous regions extending through California and Oregon to the Pacific. They are larger than the Argali--which in other respects they resemble--and are probably descended from them, since they could easily cross upon the ice at Behring's Straits, from the north-eastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught young they are readily tamed; but it is not known that they have ever been bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country was overrun by the white ram, they probably inhabited the region bordering on the Mississippi. Father Hennepin--a French Jesuit, who wrote some two hundred years ago--often speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through the territory which is now embraced by Illinois, Wisconsin, and a portion of Minnesota. The wild, clambering propensities of these animals--occupying, as they do, the giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller--and their outer coating of hair--supplied underneath, however, with a thick coating of soft wool--give them much the appearance of goats. In summer they are generally found single; but when they descend from their isolated, rocky heights in winter, they are gregarious, marching in flocks under the guidance of leaders. [Illustration: ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP.] 4. The _Bearded Sheep of Africa_ inhabit the mountains of Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a soft, reddish hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck, and large, locks of hair at the ankle. Many varieties of the domesticated sheep--that is, all the subjugated species--apparently differ less from their wild namesakes than from each other. The _fat-rumped_ and the _broad-tailed sheep_ are much more extensively diffused than any other, and occupy nearly all the south-eastern part of Europe, Western and Central Asia, and Northern Africa. They are supposed, from various passages in the Pentateuch in which "the fat and the rump" are spoken of in connection with offerings, to be the varieties which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descendants, the Jewish race. They certainly give indisputable evidence of remote and continued subjugation. Their long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly artificial posterior developments, are characteristic of no wild or recently domesticated race. This breed consists of numerous sub-varieties, differing in all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, etc., with quite as many and marked shades of distinction as the modern European varieties. In Madagascar, they are covered with hair; in the south of Africa, with coarse wool; in the Levant, and along the Mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine; and from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the exquisite Cashmere shawls of commerce are manufactured. Both rams and ewes are sometimes bred with horns, and sometimes without, and they exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of scarcely thirty pounds, while others have weighed two hundred pounds dressed. The tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and style of breeding; some are less than one-eighth, while others exceed one-third of the entire dressed weight. The fat of the rump or tail is esteemed a great delicacy; in hot climates resembling oil, and in colder, suet. It is doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to Great Britain; but they are mentioned as existing there at very early periods. AMERICAN SHEEP. In North America, there are none, strictly speaking, except the Rocky Mountain breed, already mentioned. The broad-tailed sheep of Asia and Africa were brought into the United States about seventy years ago, under the name of the Tunisian Mountain sheep, and bred with the native flocks. Some of them were subsequently distributed among the farmers of Pennsylvania, and their mixed descendants were highly prized as prolific, and good nurses, coming early to maturity, attaining large weight, of a superior quality of carcass, and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The principal objection made to them was the difficulty of propagation, which always required the assistance of the shepherd. The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or black; but all, excepting the black, grew white as they approached maturity, retaining some spots of the original color on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes having the entire head tawny or black. The few which descended from the original importations have become blended with American flocks, and have long ceased to be distinguishable from them. The common sheep of Holland were early imported by the Dutch emigrants, who originally colonized New York; but they, in like manner, have long since ceased to exist as a distinct variety. Improved European breeds have been so largely introduced during the present century, that the United States at present possesses every known breed which could be of particular benefit to its husbandry. By the census of 1860, there were nearly twenty-three and a half millions of sheep in this country, yielding upwards of sixty and a half million pounds of wool. An almost infinite variety of crosses have taken place between the Spanish, English, and "native" families; carried, indeed, to such an extent that there are, comparatively speaking, few flocks in the United States that preserve entire the distinctive characteristics of any one breed, or that can lay claim to unmixed purity of blood. The principal breeds in the United States are the so-called "Natives;" the Spanish and Saxon Merinos, introduced from the countries whose names they bear: the New Leicester, or Bakewell; the South-Down; the Cotswold; the Cheviot; and the Lincoln--all from England. NATIVE SHEEP. This name is popularly applied to the common coarse-woolled sheep of the country, which existed here previously to the importation of the improved breeds. These were of foreign and mostly of English origin, and could probably claim a common descent from no one stock. The early settlers, emigrating from different sections of the British Empire, and a portion of them from other parts of Europe, brought with them, in all probability, each the favorite breed of his own immediate neighborhood, and the admixture of these formed the mongrel family now under consideration. Amid the perils of war and the incursions of beasts of prey, they were carefully preserved. As early as 1676, New England was spoken of as "abounding with sheep." These common sheep yielded a wool suitable only for the coarsest fabrics, averaging, in the hands of good farmers, from three to three and a half pounds of wool to the fleece. They were slow in arriving at maturity, compared with the improved English breeds, and yielded, when fully grown, from ten to fourteen pounds of a middling quality of mutton to the quarter. They were usually long-legged, light in the fore-quarter, and narrow on the breast and back; although some rare instances might be found of flocks with the short legs, and some approximation to the general form of the improved breeds. They were excellent breeders, often rearing, almost entirely destitute of care, and without shelter, one hundred per cent. of lambs; and in small flocks, a still larger proportion. These, too, were usually dropped in March, or the earlier part of April. Restless in their disposition, their impatience of restraint almost equalled that of the untamed Argali, from which they were descended; and in many sections of the country it was common to see from twenty to fifty of them roving, with little regard to enclosures, over the possessions of their owner and his neighbors, leaving a large portion of their wool adhering to bushes and thorns, and the remainder placed nearly beyond the possibility of carding, by the tory-weed and burdock, so common on new lands. To this general character of the native flocks, there was but one exception--a considerably numerous and probably accidental variety, known as the _Otter breed_, or _Creepers_. These were excessively duck-legged, with well-formed bodies, full chests, broad backs, yielding a close, heavy fleece, of medium quality of wool. They were deserved favorites where indifferent stone or wood fences existed, since their power of locomotion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their mutton equalled, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly superior to, their longer-legged contemporaries. The race is now quite extinct. An excellent variety, called the Arlington sheep, was produced by General Washington, from a cross of a Persian ram upon the Bakewell, which bore wool fourteen inches in length, soft, silky, and admirably suited to combing. These, likewise, have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of the country. The old common stock of sheep, as a distinct family, have nearly or quite disappeared, owing to universal crossing, to a greater or less extent, with the foreign breeds of later introduction. The first and second cross with the Merino resulted in a decided improvement, and produced a variety exceedingly valuable for the farmer who rears wool solely for domestic purposes. The fleeces are of uneven fineness, being hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc.; but the general quality is much improved, the quantity is considerably augmented, the carcass is more compact and nearer the ground, and they have lost their unquiet and roving propensities. The cross with the Saxon, for reasons hereafter to be given, has not generally been so successful. With the Leicester and Downs, the improvement, so far as form size, and a propensity to take on fat are concerned, is manifest. THE SPANISH MERINO. [Illustration: A MERINO RAM.] The Spanish sheep, in different countries, has, either directly or indirectly, effected a complete revolution in the character of the fleece. The race is unquestionably one of the most ancient extant. The early writers on agriculture and the veterinary art describe various breeds of sheep as existing in Spain, of different colors--black, red, and tawny. The black sheep yielded a fine fleece, the finest of that color which was then known; but the red fleece of Bætica--a considerable part of the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, comprising the modern Spanish provinces of Gaen, Cordova, Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, which was early colonized by the enterprising Greeks--was, according to Pliny, of still superior quality, and "had no fellow." These sheep were probably imported from Italy, and of the Tarentine breed, which had gradually spread from the coast of Syria, and of the Black Sea, and had then reached the western extremity of Europe. Many of them mingled with and improved the native breeds of Spain, while others continued to exist as a distinct race, and, meeting with a climate and an herbage suited to them, retained their original character and value, and were the progenitors of the Merinos of the present day. Columella, a colonist from Italy, and uncle of the writer of an excellent work on agriculture, introduced more of the Tarentine sheep into Bætica, where he resided in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, in the year 41, and otherwise improved on the native breed; for, struck with the beauty of some African rams which had been brought to Rome to be exhibited at the public games, he purchased them, and conveyed them to his farm in Spain, whence, probably, originated the better varieties of the long-woolled breeds of that country. Before his time, however, Spain possessed a valuable breed; since Strabo, who flourished under Tiberius, speaking of the beautiful woollen cloths that were worn by the Romans, says that the wool was brought from Truditania, in Spain. The limited region of Italy--overrun, as it repeatedly was, by hordes of barbarians during and after the times of the latest emperors--soon lost her pampered flocks; while the extended regions of Spain--intersected in every direction by almost impassable mountains--could maintain their more hardy race, in defiance of revolution or change. To what extent the improvements which have been noticed were carried is unknown; but as Spain was at that time highly civilized, and as agriculture was the favorite pursuit of the greater part of the colonists that spread over the vast territory, which then acknowledged the Roman power, it is highly probable that Columella's experiments laid the foundation for a general improvement in the Spanish sheep--an improvement, moreover, which was not lost, nor even materially impaired, during the darker ages that succeeded. The Merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent surpassed by no others. They have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet; in the uniformity and excessive fineness of the fibre, as in the Saxons; and in their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but there has never yet been deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass, wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if unclipped; while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. Conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding among themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently established; and this property is transmitted to a great extent, even among the crosses, thus marking the Merino as an ancient and peculiar race. The remains of the ancient varieties of color, also, as noticed by Pliny, Solinus, and Columella, may still be discovered in the modern Merino. The plain and indeed the only reason that can be assigned for the union of black and gray faces with white bodies, in the same breed, is the frequent intermixture of black and white sheep, until the white prevails in the fleece, and the black is confined to the face and legs. It is still apt to break out occasionally in the individual, unless it is fixed and concentrated in the face and legs, by repeated crosses and a careful selection; and, on the contrary, in the Merino South-Down the black may be reduced by a few crosses to small spots about the legs, while the Merino hue overspreads the countenance. This hue--variously described as a velvet, a buff, a fawn, or a satin-colored countenance, but in which a red tinge not infrequently predominates, still indicates the original colors of the indigenous breeds of Spain; and the black wool, for which Spain was formerly so much distinguished, is still inclined to break out occasionally in the legs and ears of the Merino. In some flocks half the ear is invariably brown, and a coarse black hair is often discernible in the finest pile. [Illustration: A SPANISH SHEEP DOG.] The conquest, in the eighth century, by the Moors of those fine provinces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served rather to encourage the production of fine wool. The conquerors were not only enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts, and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods, which they exported to different countries. The luxury of the Moorish sovereigns has been the theme of many writers; and in the thirteenth century, when the woollen manufacture flourished in but few places, there were found in Seville no less than sixteen thousand looms. A century later, Barcelona, Perpignan, and Tortosa were celebrated for the fineness of their cloths, which became staple articles of trade throughout the greater part of Europe, as well as on the coast of Africa. After the expulsion of the Moors, in the fifteenth century, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the woollen manufacture languished, and was, in a great degree, lost to Spain, owing to the rigorous banishment of nearly one million industrious Moors, most of whom were weavers. As a consequence, the sixteen thousand looms of Seville dwindled down to sixty. The Spanish government perceived its fatal mistake too late, and subsequent efforts to gain its lost vantage-ground in respect to this manufacture proved fruitless. During all that time, however, the Spanish sheep appear to have withstood the baneful influence of almost total neglect; and although the Merino flocks and Merino wool have improved under the more careful management of other countries, the world is originally indebted to Spain for the most valuable material in the manufacture of cloth. The perpetuation of the Merino sheep in all its purity, amid the convulsions which changed the entire political framework of Spain and destroyed every other national improvement, strikingly illustrates the primary determining power of blood or breeding, as well as the agency of soil and climate--possibly too much underrated in modern times. These Spanish sheep are divided into two classes: the _stationary_, or those that remain during the whole of the year on a certain farm, or in a certain district, there being a sufficient provision for them in winter and in summer; and the _migratory_, or those which wander some hundreds of miles twice in the year, in quest of pasturage. The principal breed of stationary sheep consists of true Merinos; but the breeds most sought for, and with which so many countries have been enriched, are the Merinos of the migratory description, which pass the summer in the mountains of the north, and the winter on the plains toward the south of Spain. The first impression made by the Merino sheep on one unacquainted with its value would be unfavorable. The wool lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other breeds, and being abundant in yolk--or a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool and causes it to mat closely together--is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the bone; the breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat flat; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The horns of the male are comparatively large, curved, and with more or less of a spiral form; the head is large, but the forehead rather low. A few of the females are horned; but, generally speaking, they are without horns. Both male and female have a peculiar coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shearing-time; the other part of the face has a pleasing and characteristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singular looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appearance of throatiness, or hollowness in the neck. The pile or hair, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, owing to the thickness into which it grows on the pelf, and the abundance of the yolk, retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls upon it; but, upon examination, the fibre exceeds, in fineness and in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other sheep in the world produces. The average weight of the fleece in Spain is eight pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. The staple differs in length in different provinces. When fatted, these sheep will weigh from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter. The excellence of the Merinos consist in the unexampled fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight of it yielded by each individual sheep; the closeness of that wool, and the luxuriance of the yolk, which enable them to support extremes of cold and wet quite as well as any other breed; the readiness with which they adapt themselves to every change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their fineness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, and in the frozen regions of the north; an appetite which renders them apparently satisfied with the coarsest food; a quietness and patience into whatever pasture they are turned; and a gentleness and tractableness not excelled in any other breed. Their defects--partly attributable to the breed, but more to the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally subjected--are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form; a tendency to abortion, or barrenness; a difficulty of yeaning, or giving birth to their young; a paucity of milk; and a too frequent neglect of their lambs. They are likewise said, notwithstanding the fineness of their wool, and the beautiful red color of the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more subject to cutaneous affections than most other breeds. Man, however, is far more responsible for this than Nature. Every thing was sacrificed in Spain to fineness and quantity of wool. These were supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, or, at least, with freedom from exposure to cold; and, therefore, twice in the year, a journey of four hundred miles was undertaken, at the rate of eighty or a hundred miles per week--the spring journey commencing when the lambs were scarcely four months old. It is difficult to say in what way the wool of the migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these periodical journeys. Although among them is found the finest and most valuable wool in Spain, yet the stationary sheep, in certain provinces--Segovia, Leon, and Estremadura--are more valuable than the migratory flocks of others. Moreover, the fleece of some of the German Merinos--which do not travel at all, and are housed all the winter--greatly exceeds that obtained from the best migratory breed--the Leonese--in fineness and felting property; and the wool of the migratory sheep has been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by that from sheep which never travel. With respect to the carcass, these harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the year, tend to destroy all possibility of fattening, or any tendency toward it, and the form and the constitution of the flock are deteriorated, and the lives of many sacrificed. The first importation of Merinos into the United States took place in 1801; a banker of Paris, Mr. Delessert, having shipped four, of which but one arrived in safety at his farm near Kingston, in New York; the others perished on the passage. The same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of Massachusetts, imported a pair from France. In 1802, Chancellor Livingston, then American Minister at the court of Versailles, sent two choice pairs from the Rambouillet flock--which was started, in 1786, by placing four hundred ewes and rams, selected from the choicest Spanish flocks, on the royal farm of that name, in France--to Claremont, his country-seat, on the Hudson river. In the latter part of the same year, Colonel Humphreys, American Minister to Spain, shipped two hundred, on his departure from that country. The largest importations, however, were made through Hon. William Jarvis, of Vermont, then American Consul at Lisbon, Portugal, in 1809, 1810, and 1811, who succeeded in obtaining the choicest sheep of that country. Various subsequent importations took place, which need not be particularized. The cessation of all commercial intercourse with England, in 1808 and 1809, growing out of difficulties with that country, directed attention, in an especial manner, toward manufacturing and wool-growing. The Merino, consequently, rose into importance, and so great was the interest aroused, that from a thousand to fourteen hundred dollars a head was paid for them. Some of the later importations, unfortunately, arrived in the worst condition, bringing with them those scourges of the sheep family, the scab and the foot-rot; which evils, together with increased supply, soon brought them down to less than a twentieth part of their former price. When, however, it was established, by actual experiment, that their wool did not deteriorate in this country, as had been feared by many, and that they became readily acclimated, they again rose into favor. The prostration of the manufacturing interests of the country, which ensued soon afterwards, rendered the Merino of comparatively little value, and ruined many who had purchased them at their previous high prices. Since that period, the valuation of the sheep which bear the particular wool has, as a matter of course, kept pace with the fluctuations in the price of the wool. The term Merino, it must be remembered, is but the general appellation of a breed, comprising several varieties, presenting essential points of difference in size, form, quality and quantity of wool. These families have generally been merged, by interbreeding, in the United States and other countries which have received the race from Spain. Purity of _Merino_ blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its ancestors, form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. Families have, indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting wider points of difference than did those of Spain. This is owing, in some cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breeding; but more often, probably, to concealed or forgotten infusions of other blood. The question, which has been at times raised, whether there are any Merinos in the United States, descendants of the early importations, of unquestionable purity of blood, has been conclusively settled in the affirmative. The minor distinctions among the various families into which, as has already been intimated, the American Merino has diverged, are numerous, but may all, perhaps, be classed under three general heads. The _first_ is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, free from hair in properly bred flocks; somewhat inclined to throatiness, but not so much so as the Rambouillets; bred to exhibit external concrete gum in some flocks, but not commonly so; their wool rather long on back and belly, and exceedingly dense; wool whiter within than the Rambouillets; skin the same rich rose-color. Sheep of this class are larger and stronger than those originally imported, carry much heavier fleeces, and in well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece is of a decidedly better quality. The _second_ class embraces smaller animals than the preceding; less hardy; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered with a black, pitchy gum on its extremities; fleece about one-fourth lighter than in the former class. The _third_ class, bred at the South, mostly, includes animals still smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter fleeces. The fleece is destitute of external gum. The sheep and wool have a close resemblance to the Saxon; and, if not actually mixed with that blood, they have been formed into a similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. [Illustration: OUT AT PASTURE.] The mutton of the Merino, notwithstanding the prejudices existing on the subject, is short-grained, and of good flavor, when killed at a proper age, and weighs from ten to fourteen pounds to the quarter. It is remarkable for its longevity, retaining its teeth, and continuing to breed two or three years longer than the common sheep, and at least half a dozen years longer than the improved English breeds. It should, however, be remarked, in this connection, that it is correspondingly slow in arriving at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth before three years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age. The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine-woolled sheep, and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed to be hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high-bred South-Down. The ewe, as has been intimated, is not so good a nurse, and will not usually do full justice to more than one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent. is about the ordinary number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred per cent., in carefully managed or small flocks. Allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between the Merino and the native sheep. On the introduction of the Saxon family of the Merinos, they were universally engrafted on the parent stock, and the cross was continued until the Spanish blood was nearly bred out. When the admixture took place with judiciously selected Saxons, the results were not unfavorable for certain purposes. These instances of judicious crossing were, unfortunately, rare. Fineness of wool was made the only tests of excellence, no matter how scanty its quantity, or how diminutive or miserable the carcass. The consequence was, as might be supposed, the ruin of most of the Merino flocks. THE SAXON MERINO. The indigenous breed of sheep in Saxony resembled that of the neighboring states, and consisted of two distinct Varieties--one bearing a wool of some value, and the other yielding a fleece applicable only to the coarsest manufactures. At the close of the seven years war, Augustus Frederic, the Elector of Saxony, imported one hundred rams and two hundred ewes from the most improved Spanish flocks, and placed a part of them on one of his own farms, in the neighborhood of Dresden, which he kept unmixed, as he desired to ascertain how far the pure Spanish breed could be naturalized in that country The other part of the flock was distributed on other farms, and devoted to the improvement of the Saxon sheep. It was soon sufficiently apparent that the Merinos did not degenerate in Saxony. Many parcels of their wool were not inferior to the choicest Leonese fleeces. The best breed of the native Saxons was also materially improved: The majority of the shepherds were, however, obstinately prejudiced against the innovation; but the elector, resolutely bent upon accomplishing his object, imported an additional number, and compelled the crown-tenants, then occupying lands under him, to purchase a certain number of the sheep. Compulsion was not long necessary; the true interest of the shepherds was discovered; pure Merinos rapidly increased in Saxony, and became perfectly naturalized. Indeed, after a considerable lapse of years, the fleece of the Saxon sheep began, not only to equal the Spanish, but to exceed it in fineness and manufacturing value. To this result the government very materially contributed, by the establishment of an agricultural school, and other minor schools for shepherds, and by distributing various publications, which plainly and intelligibly showed the value and proper management of the Merino. The breeders were selected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the fleece. Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout the year, and they were housed on every slight emergency. By this course of breeding and treatment the size and weight of the fleece were reduced, and that hardiness and vigor of constitution, which had universally characterized the migratory Spanish breed, were partially impaired. In numerous instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the character of the flocks. The first importation of Saxons into this country was made in 1823, by Samuel Heustan, a merchant of Boston, Massachusetts, and consisted of four good rams, of which two went to Boston, and the others to Philadelphia. The following year, seventy-seven--about two-thirds of which number only were pure-blooded--were brought to Boston, sold at public auction at Brooklyn, N.Y., as "pure-blooded electoral Saxons," and thus scattered over the country. Another lot, composed of grade sheep and pure-bloods, was disposed of, not long afterwards, by public sale, at Brighton, near Boston, and brought increased prices, some of them realizing from four hundred to five hundred and fifty dollars. These prices gave rise to speculation, and many animals, of a decidedly inferior grade, were imported, which were thrown upon the market for the most they could command. The sales in many instances not half covering the cost of importation, the speculation was soon abandoned. In 1827, Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, N.Y., a native of Germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shepherd, who had accompanied some of the early importations, imported one hundred and fifteen choice animals for his own breeding, and, in the following year, eighty more. These formed the flock from which Mr. Grove bred, to the time of his decease, in 1844. The average weight of fleece from his entire flock, nearly all of which were ewes and lambs, was ten pounds and fourteen ounces, thoroughly washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed one and a half pounds, by actual weight, per day, except to the ewes, which received an additional quantity just before and after lambing. This treatment was attended with no disease or loss by death, and with an increase of lambs, equalling one for every ewe. The Saxon Merino differs materially in frame from the Spanish; there is more roundness of carcass and fineness of bone, together with a general form and appearance indicative of a disposition to fatten. Two distinct breeds are noticed. One variety has stouter legs, stouter bodies, head and neck comparatively short and broad, and body round; the wool grows most on the face and legs; the grease in the wool is almost pitchy. The other breed, called Escurial, has longer legs, with a long, spare neck and head; very little wool on the latter; and a finer, shorter, and softer character in its fleece, but less in quantity. From what has just been stated it will be seen that there are few Saxon flocks in the United States that have not been reduced to the quality of grade sheep, by the promiscuous admixture of the pure and the impure which were imported together; all of them being sold to our breeders as pure stock. Besides, there are very few flocks which have not been again crossed with the Native or the Merino sheep of our country, or with both. Those who early purchased the Merino crossed them with the Native; and when the Saxons arrived those mongrels were bred to Saxon rams. This is the history of three-quarters, probably, of the Saxon flocks of the United States. As these sheep have now so long been bred toward the Saxon that their wool equals that of the pure-bloods, it may well be questioned whether they are any worse for the admixture; when crossed only with the Merino, it is, undoubtedly, to their advantage. The American Saxon, with these early crosses in its pedigree, is, by general admission, a hardier and more easily kept animal than the pure Escurial or Electoral Saxon. Climate, feed, and other causes have, doubtless, conspired, as in the case of the Merino, to add to their size and vigor; but, after every necessary allowance has been made, they generally owe these qualities to those early crosses. The fleeces of the American Saxons weigh, on the average, from two or two and a quarter to three pounds. They are, comparatively speaking, a tender sheep, requiring regular supplies of good food, good shelter in winter, and protection in cool weather from storms of all kinds; but they are evidently hardier than the parent German stock. In docility and patience under confinement, in late maturity and longevity, they resemble the Merinos, from which they are descended; though they do not mature so early as the Merino, nor do they ordinarily live so long. They are poorer nurses; their lambs are smaller, fatter, and far more likely to perish, unless sheltered and carefully watched; they do not fatten so well, and, being considerably lighter, they consume an amount of food considerably less. Taken together, the American Saxons bear a much finer wool than the American Merinos; though this is not always the case, and many breeders of Saxons cross with the Merino, for the purpose of increasing the weight of their fleeces without deteriorating its quality. Our Saxon wool, as a whole, falls considerably below that of Germany; though individual specimens from Saxons in Connecticut and Ohio compare well with the highest German grades. This inferiority is not attributable to climate or other natural causes, or to a want of skill on the part of our breeders; but to the fact that but a very few of our manufacturers have ever felt willing to make that discrimination in prices which would render it profitable to breed those small and delicate animals which produce this exquisite quality of wool. THE NEW LEICESTER. The unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, coarse-woolled breed of sheep, inhabiting the midland counties of England. It was a slow feeder, its flesh coarse-grained, and with little flavor. The breeders of that period regarded only size and weight of fleece. [Illustration: A COUNTRY SCENE.] About the middle of the last century, Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, first applied himself to the improvement of the sheep in that country. Before his improvements, aptitude to fatten and symmetry of shape--that is, such shape as should increase as much as possible the most valuable parts of the animal, and diminish the offal in the same proportion--were entirely disregarded. Perceiving that smaller animals increased in weight more rapidly than the very large ones, that they consumed less food, that the same quantity of herbage, applied to feeding a large number of small sheep, would produce more meat than when applied to feeding the smaller number of large sheep, which alone it would support, and that sheep carrying a heavy fleece of wool possessed less propensity to fatten than those which carried one of a more moderate weight, he selected from the different flocks in his neighborhood, without regard to size, the sheep which appeared to him to have the greatest propensity to fatten, and whose shape possessed the peculiarities which, in his judgment, would produce the largest proportion of valuable meat, and the smallest quantity of bone and offal. He was also of opinion that the first object to be attended to in breeding sheep is the value of the carcass, and that the fleece ought always to be a secondary consideration; and this for the obvious reason that, while the addition of two or three pounds of wool to the weight of a sheep's fleece is a difference of great amount, yet if this increase is obtained at the expense of the animal's propensity to fatten, the farmer may lose by it ten or twelve pounds of mutton. The sort of sheep, therefore, which he selected were those possessed of the most perfect symmetry, with the greatest aptitude to fatten, and rather smaller in size than the sheep generally bred at that time. Having formed his stock from sheep so selected, he carefully attended to the peculiarities of the individuals from which he bred, and, so far as can be ascertained--for all of Mr. Bakewell's measures were kept secret, even from his most intimate friends, and he died without throwing, voluntarily, the least light on the subject--did not object to breeding from near relations, when, by so doing, he brought together animals likely to produce a progeny possessing the characteristics which he wished to obtain. Having thus established his flock, he adopted the practice--which has since been constantly followed by the most eminent breeders of sheep--of letting rams for the season, instead of selling them to those who wished for their use. By this means the ram-breeder is enabled to keep a much larger number of rams in his possession; and, consequently, his power of selecting those most suitable to his flock, or which may be required to correct any faults in shape or quality which may occur in it, is greatly increased. By cautiously using a ram for one season, or by observing the produce of a ram let to some other breeder, he can ascertain the probable qualities of the lambs which such ram will get, and thus avoid the danger of making mistakes which would deteriorate the value of his stock. The farmers, likewise, who hire the rams, have an opportunity of varying the rams from which they breed much more than they otherwise could do; and they are also enabled to select from sheep of the best quality, and from those best calculated to effect the greatest improvement in their flocks. The idea, when first introduced by him, was so novel that he had great difficulty in inducing the farmers to act upon it; and his first ram was let for sixteen shillings. So eminent, however, was his success, that, in 1787, he let three rams, for a single season, for twelve hundred and fifty pounds (about six thousand two hundred dollars), and was offered ten hundred and fifty pounds (about five thousand two hundred dollars) for twenty ewes. Soon afterwards he received the enormous price of eight hundred guineas (or four thousand dollars) for two-thirds of the services of a ram for a single season, reserving the other third for himself. The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls considerably below the coarser varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, etc. Where there is a sufficiency of feed, the New Leicester is unrivalled for its fattening propensities; but it will not bear hard stocking, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food. It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its appropriate situation--on the luxuriant herbage of the highly cultivated lands of England--it possesses unequalled earliness of maturity; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good quality, but is usually coarse, and comparatively deficient in flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so generally feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second year, are turned off in the succeeding February or March, and weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is long, averaging, after the first shearing, about six inches; and the fleece of the American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of coarse quality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account of its length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, in a greater or less extent, to all English breeds. As a combing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the manufacture of the finest worsteds, and the like textures. The high-bred Leicesters of Mr. Bakewell's stock became shy breeders and poor nurses; but crosses subsequently adopted have, to some extent, obviated these defects. The lambs are not, however, generally regarded as very hardy, and they require considerable attention at the time of yeaning, particularly if the weather is even moderately cold or stormy. The grown sheep, too, are much affected by sudden changes in the weather; an abrupt change to cold being pretty certain to be registered on their noses by unmistakable indications of catarrh or "snuffles." In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the laboring classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand; and the consequent return which a sheep possessing such fine feeding qualities is enabled to make renders it a general favorite with the breeder. Instances are recorded of the most extraordinary prices having been paid for these animals. They have spread into all parts of the British dominions, and been imported into the other countries of Europe and into the United States. They were first introduced into our own country, some forty years since, by Christopher Dunn, of Albany, N.Y. Subsequent importations have been made by Mr. Powel, of Philadelphia, and various other gentlemen. The breed, however, has never proved a favorite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold winters--but, more especially, our dry, scorching summers, when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, tender feed in which the Leicester delights--together with the general deprivation of green feed in the winter, rob it of its early maturity, and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. Its mutton is too fat, and the fat and lean are too little intermixed to suit American taste. Its wool is not very salable, owing to the dearth of worsted manufactures in our country. Its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding all these disadvantages, on rich lowland farms, in the vicinity of considerable markets, it will always in all probability make a profitable return. The head of the New Leicester should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forward; the eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long, and directed backward; the neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible deviation, one continued horizontal line from the rump to the poll; the breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either the neck or the back--particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind the situation of these bones; the arm fleshy throughout its whole extent, and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small, standing wide apart; no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively void of wool; the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as, in some cases--and especially when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent width of the chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed well home; no irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; the quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full; the legs of a moderate length; and the pelt also moderately thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but considerably finer. THE SOUTH-DOWN. [Illustration: A SOUTH-DOWN RAM.] A long range of chalky hills, diverging from the chalky stratum which intersects England from Norfolk to Dorchester, is termed the South-Downs. They enter the county of Sussex on the west side, and are continued almost in a direct line, as far as East Bourne, where they reach the sea. They may be regarded as occupying a space of more than sixty miles in length, and about five or six in breadth, consisting of a succession of open downs, with few enclosures, and distinguished by their situation and name from a more northern tract of similar elevation and soil, passing through Surrey and Kent, and terminating in the cliffs of Dover, and of the Forelands. On these downs a certain breed of sheep has been produced for many centuries, in greater perfection than elsewhere; and hence have sprung those successive colonies which have found their way abroad and materially benefited the breed of short-woolled sheep wherever they have gone. It is only, however, within a comparatively recent period that they have been brought to their present perfection. As recently as 1776 they were small in size, and of a form not superior to the common woolled sheep of the United States; they were far from possessing a good shape, being long and thin in the neck, high on the shoulders, low behind, high on the loins, down on the rump, the tail set on very low, perpendicular from the hip-bones, sharp on the back; the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow in the fore-quarters, but good in the leg, although having big bones. Since that period a course of judicious breeding, pursued by Mr. John Ellman, of Glynde, in Sussex, has mainly contributed to raise this variety to its present value; and that, too, without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood. This pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is spoken of in the present connection; inasmuch as the original stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same characteristics which they exhibited seventy-five years ago, are yet to be found in England; and the intermediate space between these two classes is occupied by a variety of grades, rising or falling in value, as they approximate to or recede from the improved blood. The South-Down sheep are polled, but it is probable that the original breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find among the male South-Down lambs some with small horns. The dusky, or at times, black hue of the head and legs fully establishes the original color of the sheep, and, perhaps of all sheep; while the later period at which it was seriously attempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only confirms this view. Many of the lambs have been dropped entirely black. It is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool--which in point of length belongs to the middle class, and differs essentially from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in some of the finest fleeces maybe of the same apparent fineness with half or one-quarter blood Merino--is deficient in felting properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no longer used in England, unless largely mixed with foreign wool, even for the lowest class of cloths. As it has deteriorated, however, it has increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an extent that improved machinery enables it to be used as a combing-wool, for the manufacture of worsteds. Where this has taken place it is quite as profitable as when it was finer and shorter. In the United States, where the demand for combing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, the same result would not probably follow. Indeed, it may well be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the absence of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the wool its increased length in England. The average weight of fleece in the hill-fed sheep is three pounds; on rich lowlands, a little more. The South-Down, however, is cultivated more particularly for its mutton, which for quality takes precedence of all other--from sheep of good size--in the English markets. Its early maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it peculiarly valuable for this purpose. It is turned off at the age of two years, and its weight at that age is, in England, from eighty to one hundred pounds. High-fed wethers have reached from thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter. Notwithstanding its weight, it has a patience of occasional short keep, and an endurance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicesters and Lincolns, as a mutton sheep, in hilly districts and those producing short and scanty herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though, in common with the other English varieties, much subject to catarrh, and no sheep better withstands our American winters. The ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses. The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an industrious feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. Like the Leicester, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. It crosses better with short and middle-woolled breeds than the Leicester. A sheep possessing such qualities, must, of necessity, be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of markets. The Emperor of Russia paid Mr. Ellman three hundred guineas (fifteen hundred dollars) for two rams; and, in 1800, a ram belonging to the Duke of Bedford was let for one season at eighty guineas (four hundred dollars), two others at forty guineas (two hundred dollars) each, and four more at twenty-eight guineas (one hundred and forty dollars) each. The first importation into the United States was made by Col. J. H. Powell, of Philadelphia. A subsequent importation, in 1834, cost sixty dollars a head. The desirable characteristics of the South-Down may be thus summed up: The head small and hornless; the face speckled or gray, and neither too long nor too short; the lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; the under-jaw or chap fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide and well-covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly; the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing; the neck of a medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the shoulders, where it should be broad and high and straight in its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide, deep, and projecting forward between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a disposition to thrive; corresponding with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; the ribs coming out horizontally from the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib projecting more than others; the back flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin broad and flat; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, and nearly on a level with the spine. The hips should be wide; the space between them and the last rib on each side as narrow as possible, and the ribs generally presenting a circular form like a barrel; the belly as straight as the back; the legs neither too long nor too short; the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot, not bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both before and behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and they twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly full; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and of a speckled or dark color; the belly well defended with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and to the hock; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free from spiny projecting fibres. THE COTSWOLD. [Illustration: THE COTSWOLD.] The Cotswolds, until improved by modern crosses, were a very large, coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed variety, light in the fore-quarter, and shearing a long, heavy, coarse fleece of wool. They were formerly bred only on the hills, and fatted in the valleys, of the Severn and the Thames; but with the enclosures of the Cotswold hills, and the improvement of their cultivation, they have been reared and fatted in the same district. They were hardy, prolific breeders, and capital nurses; deficient in early maturity, and not possessing feeding properties equalling those of the South-Down or New Leicester. They have been extensively crossed with the Leicester sheep--producing thus the modern or improved Cotswold--by which their size and fleece have been somewhat diminished, but their carcasses have been materially improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers are sometimes fattened at fourteen months old, when they weigh from fifteen to twenty-four pounds to a quarter; and at two years old, increase to twenty or thirty pounds. The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather coarse, six to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight pounds per fleece. The superior hardihood of the improved Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes, and their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of late years, more attention to their selection and general treatment, under which management still farther improvement has been made. They have also been used in crossing other breeds, and have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. Indeed, the improved Cotswold, under the name of new, or improved Oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the successful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-woolled sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows in England. The quality of their mutton is considered superior to that of the Leicester; the tallow being less abundant, with a larger development of muscle or flesh. The degree to which the cross between the Cotswold and Leicester may be carried, must depend upon the nature of the old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. In exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood should decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made of the Leicester. Another circumstance that should guide the farmer is the object which he has principally in view. If he expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look to the primitive Cotswolds; if he expects to gain more as a grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely. Sheep of this breed, now of established reputation, have been imported into the United States by Messrs. Corning and Gotham, of Albany, and bred by the latter. THE CHEVIOT. [Illustration: A CHEVIOT EWE.] On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot hills, in the extreme north of England, this breed first attracted notice for their great hardiness in resisting cold, and for feeding on coarse, heathery herbage. A cross with the Leicester, pretty generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. The Cheviot readily amalgamates with the Leicester--the rams employed in the system of breeding, which has been extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this descent, being of the pure Leicester breed--and the progeny is superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency to fatten, to the native Cheviot. The benefit, however, may be said to end with the first cross; and the progeny of this mixed descent is greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form and fattening properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. The improved Cheviot has greatly extended itself throughout the mountains of Scotland, and in many instances supplanted the black-faced breed; but the change, though often advantageous, has in some cases been otherwise--the latter being somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on heathy pasturage. They are a hardy race, however, well suited for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. The purest specimens are to be found on the Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, provided the pasture resembles those hills, in containing a good proportion of rich herbage. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, making more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making it more quickly. They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively eyes, and are without horns; the ears are large, and somewhat singular, and there is much space between the ears and eyes; the carcass is long; the back straight; the shoulders rather light; the ribs circular; and the quarters good. The legs are small in the bone, and covered with wool, as well as the body, with the exception of the face. The wether is fit for the butcher at three years old, and averages from twelve to eighteen pounds a quarter; the mutton being of a good quality, though inferior to the South-Down, and of less flavor than the black-faced. The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet and docile, and easily managed. The wool is about the quality of Leicester, coarse and long, suitable only for the manufacture of low coatings and flushings. It closely covers the body, assisting much in preserving it from the effects of wet and cold. The fleece averages about three and a half pounds. Formerly, the wool was extensively employed in making cloths; but having given place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been confined to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether a secondary consideration. The Cheviots have become an American sheep by their repeated importations into this country. The wool on several choice sheep, imported by Mr. Carmichael, of New York, was from five to seven inches long, coarse, but well suited to combing. THE LINCOLN. The old breed of Lincolnshire sheep was hornless, had white faces, and long, thin, and weak carcasses; the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty pounds a quarter; the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty pounds; legs thick, rough and white; pelts thick; wool long--from ten to eighteen inches--and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained carcass of mutton. A judicious system of breeding, which avoided Bakewell's errors, has wrought a decided improvement in this breed. The improved Lincolns possess a rather more desirable robustness, approaching, in some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters; but they are more hardy, and less liable to disease. They attain as large a size, and yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value. This breed, indeed, scarcely differs more from the Cotswold than do flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred for several generations, from each other. They are prolific, and when well-fed, the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for which they provide liberally from their udders till the time for weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from four to eight pounds per head. Having alluded to the principal points of interest connected with the various breeds of sheep in the United States, our next business is with THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SHEEP. [Illustration: SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 1. The intermaxillary bone. 2. The nasal bones. 3. The upper jaw. 4. The union of the nasal and upper jaw-bones. 5. The union of the molar and lachrymal bones. 6. The orbits of the eye. 7. The frontal bone. 8. The lower jaw. 9. The incisor teeth, or nippers. 10. The molars or grinders. 11. The ligament of the neck supporting the head. 12. The seven vertebræ, or the bones of the neck. 13. The thirteen vertebræ, or bones of the back. 14. The six vertebræ of the loins. 15. The sacral bone. 16. The bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from twelve to twenty-one. 17. The haunch and pelvis. 18. The eight true ribs, with their cartilages. 19. The five false ribs, or those that are not attached to the breast-bone. 20. The breast-bone. 21. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 22. The humerus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the shoulder. 23. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 24. The ulna or elbow. 25. The knee with its different bones. 26. The metacarpal or shank-bones--the larger bones of the leg. 27. A rudiment of the smaller metacarpal. 28. One of the sessamoid bones. 29. The first two bones of the foot--the pasterns. 30. The proper bones of the foot. 31. The thigh-bone. 32. The stifle-joint and its bone--the patella. 33. The tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. 34. The point of the hock. 35. The other bones of the hock. 36. The metatarsal bones, or bone of the hind-leg. 37. Rudiment of the small metatarsal. 38. A sessamoid bone. 39. The first two bones of the foot--the pasterns. 40. The proper bones of the foot.] DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. ORDER. _Ruminantia_--chewing the cud. FAMILY. _Capridæ_--the goat kind. GENUS. _Oris_--the sheep family. Of this _Genus_ there are three varieties: ORIS, AMMON, or ARGALI. _Oris Musmon._ _Oris Aries_, or Domestic Sheep. Of the latter--with which alone this treatise is concerned--there are about forty well known varieties. Between the _oris_, or sheep, and the _capra_, or goat, another _genus_ of the same family, the distinctions are well marked, although considerable resemblance exists between them. The horns of the sheep have a spiral direction, while those of the goat have a direction upward and backward; the sheep, except in a single wild variety, has no beard, while the goat is bearded; the goat, in his highest state of improvement, when he is made to produce wool of a fineness unequalled by the sheep--as in the Cashmere breed--is mainly, and always, externally covered with hair, while the hair on the sheep may, by domestication, be reduced to a few coarse hairs, or got rid of altogether; and, finally, the pelt or skin of the goat has thickness very far exceeding that of the sheep. The age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from the time that they are dropped, but from the first shearing; although the first year may thus include fifteen or sixteen months, and sometimes more. When doubt exists relative to the age, recourse is had to the teeth, since there is more uncertainty about the horn in this animal than in cattle; ewes that have been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on the horn, a year older than others that have been longer kept from the ram. FORMATION OF THE TEETH. Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the bars or ridges of the palate thicken as they approach the forepart of the mouth; there also the dense, fibrous, elastic matter, of which they are constituted, becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed, which covers the converse extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, or cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. The herbage is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, and thus partly bitten and partly torn asunder. Of this, the rolling motion of the head is sufficient proof. The teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the ox. There are eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the forepart of the lower jaw, and six molars in each jaw above and below, and on either side. The incisors are more admirably formed for grazing than in the ox. The sheep lives closer, and is destined to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where that animal would be unable to crop a single blade. This close life not only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them to spread, but by cutting off the short suckers and sproutings--a wise provision of nature--causes the plants to throw out fresh, and more numerous, and stronger ones, and thus is instrumental in improving and increasing the value of the crop. Nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually make a thick, permanent pasture than its being occasionally and closely eaten down by sheep. In order to enable the sheep to bite this close, the upper lip is deeply divided, and free from hair about the centre of it. The part of the tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered with enamel, to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but the enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly a quarter of an inch, and presenting a convex surface outward, and a concave within, forms a little scoop or gorge of wonderful execution. The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without incisor teeth or it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed to each other, and before the animal is a month old he has the whole of the eight. They continue to grow with his growth until he is about fourteen or sixteen months old. Then, with the same previous process of diminution as in cattle, or carried to a still greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and attain their full growth when the sheep is two years old. In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be very considerable difference in the teeth of those that have not been sheared, or those that have been once sheared; in some measure to be accounted for by a difference in the time of lambing, and likewise by the general health and vigor of the animal. There will also be a material difference in different animals, attributable to the good or bad keep which they have had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well kept, will generally take the start of others that have been half starved, and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There are also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth, not to be accounted for by either of these circumstances; in fact, not to be explained by any known circumstance relating to the breed or the keep of the sheep. The want of improvement in sheep, which is occasionally observed, and which cannot be accounted for by any deficiency or change of food, may sometimes be justly attributed to the tenderness of the mouth when the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums. Between two and three years old the next two incisors are shed; and when the sheep is actually three years old, the four central teeth are fully grown; at four years old, he has six teeth fully grown; and at five years old--one year before the horse or the ox can be said to be full-mouthed--all the teeth are perfectly developed. The sheep is a much shorter-lived animal than the horse, and does not often attain the usual age of the ox. Their natural age is about ten years, to which age they will breed and thrive well; though there are recorded instances of their breeding at the age of fifteen, and of living twenty years. The careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with regard to the four-year-old mouth. He will see the teeth perfectly developed, no diminutive ones at the sides, and the mouth apparently full; and then, without giving himself the trouble of counting the teeth, he will conclude that the animal is five years old. A process of displacement, as well as of diminution, has taken place here; the remaining outside milk-teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before them and perfectly conceal them, unless the mouth is completely opened. After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully grown, there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. In most cases, the teeth remain sound for one or two years, and then, at uncertain intervals--either on account of the hard work in which they have been employed, or from the natural effect of age--they begin to loosen and fall out; or, by reason of their natural slenderness, they are broken off. When favorite ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose condition, at six or seven years old, their mouths should be carefully examined. If any of the teeth are loose, they should be extracted, and a chance given to the animal to show how far, by browsing early and late, she may be able to make up for the diminished number of her incisors. It frequently happens that ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the incisors gone, will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock; but they must be well taken care of in the winter, and, indeed, nursed to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer's purpose to adopt as a general rule, in order to prevent them from declining to such a degree as would make it very difficult afterward to fatten them for the butcher. It may certainly be taken as a general rule, that when sheep become broken-mouthed they begin to decline. Causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which he has no control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth. One thing, however, is certain--that close feeding, causing additional exercise, does wear them down; and that the sheep of farmers who stock unusually and unseasonably hard, lose their teeth much sooner than others do. THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. The skin of the sheep, in common with that of most animals, is composed of three textures. Externally is the cuticle, or scarf-skin, which is thin, tough, devoid of feeling, and pierced by innumerable minute holes, through which pass the fibres of the wool and the insensible perspiration. It seems to be of a scaly texture; although is not so evident as in many other animals, on account of a peculiar substance--the yolk--which is placed on it, to protect and nourish the roots of the wool. It is, however, sufficiently evident in the scab and other cutaneous eruptions to which this animal is liable. Below this cuticle is the _rete mucosum_, a soft structure; its fibres having scarcely more consistence than mucilage, and being with great difficulty separated from the skin beneath. This appears to be placed as a defence to the terminations of the blood-vessels and nerves of the skin, which latter are, in a manner, enveloped and covered by it. The color of the skin, and probably that of the hair or wool also, is determined by the _rete mucosum_; or, at least, the hair and wool are of the same color as this substance. Beneath the _rete mucosum_ is the _cutis_, or true skin, composed of numberless minute fibres crossing each other in every direction; highly elastic, in order to fit closely to the parts beneath, and to yield to the various motions of the body; and dense and firm in its structure, that it may resist external injury. Blood-vessels and nerves innumerable pierce it, and appear on its surface in the form of _papillæ_, or minute eminences; while, through thousands of little orifices, the exhalent absorbents pour out the superfluous or redundant fluid. The true skin is composed, principally or almost entirely, of gelatine; so that, although it may be dissolved by long-continued boiling, it is insoluble in water at the common temperature. This organization seems to have been given to it, not only for the sake of its preservation while on the living animal, but that it may afterwards become useful to man. The substance of the hide readily combining with the tanning principle, is converted into leather. THE ANATOMY OF THE WOOL. [Illustration: THE WALLACHIAN SHEEP.] On the skin of most animals is placed a covering of feathers, fur, hair, or wool. These are all essentially the same in composition, being composed of an animal substance resembling coagulated albumen, together with sulphur, silica, carbonate and phosphate of lime, and oxides of iron and manganese. Wool is not confined to the sheep. The under-hair of some goats is not only finer than the fleece of any sheep, but it occasionally has the crisped appearance of wool; being, in fact, wool of different qualities in different breeds--in some, rivalling or excelling that of the sheep, but in others very coarse. A portion of wool is also found on many other animals; as the deer, elk, the oxen of Tartary and Hudson's Bay, the gnu, the camel, many of the fur-clad animals, the sable, the polecat, and several species of the dog. Judging from the mixture of wool and hair in the coat of most animals, and the relative situation of these materials, it is not improbable that such was the character of the fleece of the primitive sheep. It has, indeed, been asserted that the primitive sheep was entirely covered with hair; but this is, doubtless, incorrect. There exists, at the present day, varieties of the sheep occupying extensive districts, that are clothed outwardly with hair of different degrees of fineness and sleekness; and underneath the external coat is a softer, shorter, and closer one, that answers to the description of fur--according to most travellers--but which really possesses all the characteristics of wool. It is, therefore, highly improbable that the sheep--which has now become, by cultivation, the wool-bearing animal in a pre-eminent degree--should, in any country, at any time, have ever been entirely destitute of wool. Sheep of almost every variety have at times been in the gardens of the London (Eng.) Zoölogical Society; but there has not been one on which a portion of crisped wool, although exceedingly small, has not been discovered beneath the hair. In all the regions over which the patriarchs wandered, and extending northward through the greater part of Europe and Asia, the sheep is externally covered with hair; but underneath is a fine, short, downy wool, from which the hair is easily separated. This is the case with the sheep at the Cape of Good Hope, and also in South America. The change from hair to wool, though much influenced by temperature, has been chiefly effected by cultivation. Wherever hairy sheep are now found the management of the animal is in a most disgraceful state; and among the cultivated sheep the remains of this ancient hairy covering only exists, to any great extent, among those that are comparatively neglected or abandoned. The filament of the wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pore of the skin, when it has to penetrate through another and singular substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called _the yolk_. This is found in greatest quantity about the breast and shoulders--the very parts that produce the best, and healthiest, and most abundant wool--and in proportion as it extends, in any considerable degree, over other parts, the wool is then improved. It differs in quantity in different breeds. It is very abundant on the Merinos; it is sufficiently plentiful on most of the southern breeds, either to assist in the production of the wool, or to defend the sheep from the inclemency of the weather; but in the northern districts, where the cold is more intense and the yolk of wool is deficient, a substitute for it is sometimes sought by smearing the sheep with a mixture of tar, oil, or butter. Where there is a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is dry, harsh, and weak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy; where the natural quantity of it is found, the wool is soft, oily, plentiful and strong. This yolk is not the inspissated or thickened perspiration of the animal; it is not composed of matter which has been accidentally picked up, and which has lodged in the wool; but it is a peculiar secretion from the glands of the skin, destined to be one of the agents in the nourishment of the wool, and at the same time, by its adhesiveness, to mat the wool together, and form a secure defence from the wet and cold. Chemical experiments have established its composition, as follows: first, of a soapy matter with a basis of potash, which forms the greater part of it; second, a small quantity of carbonate of potash; third, a perceptible quantity of acetate of potash; fourth, lime, in a peculiar and unknown state of combination; fifth, an atom of muriate of potash; sixth, an animal oil, to which its peculiar odor is attributable. All these materials are believed to be essential to the yolk, and not found in it by mere accident, since the yolk of a great number of samples--Spanish, French, English, and American--has been subjected to repeated analyses, with the same result. The yolk being a true soap, soluble in water, it is not difficult to account for the comparative ease with which sheep that have the natural proportion of it are washed in a running stream. There is, however, a small quantity of fatty matter in the fleece, which is not in combination with the alkali, and which, remaining attached to the wool, keeps it a little glutinous, notwithstanding the most careful washing. The fibre of the wool having penetrated the skin and escaped from the yolk, is of a circular form, generally larger toward the extremity, and also toward the root, and in some instances very considerably so. The filaments of white wool, when cleansed from grease, are semi-transparent; their surface in some places is beautifully polished, in others curiously incrusted, and they reflect the rays of light in a very pleasing manner. When viewed by the aid of a powerful achromatic microscope, the central part of the fibre has a singularly glittering appearance. Minute filaments, placed very regularly, are sometimes seen branching from the main trunk, like boughs from the principal stem. This exterior polish varies much in different wools, and in wools from the same breed of sheep at different times. When the animal is in good condition, and the fleece healthy, the appearance of the fibre is really brilliant; but when the state of the constitution is bad, the fibre has a dull appearance, and either a wan, pale light, or sometimes scarcely any, is reflected. As a general rule, the filament is most transparent in the best and most useful wools, whether long or short. It increases with the improvement of the breed, and the fineness and healthiness of the fleece; yet it must be admitted that some wools have different degrees of the transparency and opacity, which do not appear to affect their value and utility. It is, however, the difference of transparency in the same fleece, or in the same filament, that is chiefly to be noticed as improving the value of the wool. As to the size of the fibre, the terms "fine" and "coarse," as commonly used, are but vague and general descriptions of wool. All fine fleeces have some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine. The most accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool in the order in which they are esteemed and preferred by the manufacturer--as the following: first, fineness with close ground, that is, thick-matted ground; second, pureness; third, straight-haired, when broken by drawing; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression in the hand; fifth, staple not too long; sixth, color; seventh, what coarse exists to be very coarse; eighth, tenacity; and ninth, not much pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in scouring. The bad or disagreeable properties are--thin, grounded, tossy, curly-haired, and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is very fine; a tender staple, as elasticity, many dead white hairs, very yolky. Those who buy wool for combing and other light goods that do not need milling, wish to find length of staple, fineness of hair, whiteness, tenacity, pureness, elasticity, and not too many pitch-marks. The property first attracting attention, and being of greater importance than any other, is _the fineness_ of the pile--the quantity of fine wool which a fleece yields, and the degree of that fineness. Of the absolute fineness, little can be said, varying, as it does, in different parts of the same fleece to a very considerable degree, and the diameter of the same fibre often being exceedingly different at the extremity and the centre. The micrometer has sometimes indicated that the diameter of the former is five times as much as that of the latter; and, consequently, that a given length of yield taken from the extremity would weigh twenty-five times as much as the same length taken from the centre and cleansed from all yolk and grease. That fibre may be considered as coarse whose diameter is more than the five-hundredth part of an inch; in some of the most valuable samples of Saxony wool it has not exceeded the nine-hundredth part; yet in some animals, whose wool has not been used for manufacturing purposes, it is less than one twelve-hundredth part. The extremities of the wool, and frequently those portions which are near to the root, are larger than the intermediate parts. The extremity of the fibre has, generally, the greatest bulk of all. It is the product of summer, soon after shearing-time, when the secretion of the matter of the wool is increased, and when the pores of the skin are relaxed and open, and permit a larger fibre to protrude. The portion near the root is the growth of spring, when the weather is getting warm; and the intermediate part is the offspring of winter, when under the influence of the cold the pores of the skin contract, and permit only a finer hair to escape. If, however, the animal is well fed, the diminution of the bulk of the fibre will not be followed by weakness or decay, but, in proportion as the pile becomes fine, the value of the fleece will be increased; whereas, if cold and starvation should go hand-in-hand, the woolly fibre will not only diminish in bulk, but in health, strength, and worth. The variations in the diameter of the wool in different parts of the fibre will also curiously correspond with the degree of heat at the time the respective portions were produced. The fibre of the wool and the record of the meteorologist will singularly agree, if the variations in temperature are sufficiently distinct from each other for any appreciable part of the fibre to form. It follows from this, that--the natural tendency to produce wool of a certain fibre being the same--sheep in a hot climate will yield a comparatively coarse wool, and those in a cold climate will carry a finer, but at the same time a closer and a warmer fleece. In proportion to the coarseness of a fleece will generally be its openness, and its inability to resist either cold or wet; while the coat of softer, smaller, more pliable wool will admit of no interstices between its fibres, and will bid defiance to frost and storms. The natural instinct of the sheep would seem to teach the wool-grower the advantage of attending to the influence of temperature upon the animal. He is evidently impatient of heat. In the open districts, and where no shelter is near, he climbs to the highest parts of his walk, that, if the rays of the sun must still fall on him, he may nevertheless be cooled by the breeze; but, if shelter is near, of whatever kind, every shaded spot is crowded with sheep. The wool of the Merinos after shearing-time is hard and coarse to such a degree as to render it very difficult to suppose that the same animal could bear wool so opposite in quality, compared with that which had been clipped from it in the course of the same season. As the cold weather advances, the fleeces recover their soft quality. Pasture has a far greater influence on the fineness of the fleece. The staple of the wool, like every other part of the sheep, must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nutriment; and, on the other hand, the secretion which forms the wool must decrease like every other, when sufficient nourishment is not afforded. When little cold has been experienced in the winter, and vegetation has scarcely been checked, the sheep yields an abundant crop of wool, but the fleece is perceptibly coarser as well as heavier. When the frost has been severe, and the ground long covered with snow, if the flock has been fairly supplied with nutriment, although the fleece may have lost a little in weight, it will have acquired a superior degree of fineness, and a proportional increase of value. Should, however, the sheep have been neglected and starved during this continued cold weather, the fleece as well as the carcass is thinner, and although it may have preserved its smallness of filament, it has lost in weight, and strength, and usefulness. Connected with fineness is _trueness of staple_--as equal in growth as possible over the animals--a freedom from those shaggy portions, here and there, which are occasionally observed on poor and neglected sheep. These portions are always coarse and comparatively worthless, and they indicate an irregular and unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, which will also probably weaken or render the fibre diseased in other parts. Included in trueness of fibre is another circumstance to which allusion has already been made--a freedom from coarse hairs which project above the general level of the wool in various parts, or, if they are not externally seen, mingle with the wool and debase its qualities. _Soundness_ is closely associated with trueness. It means, generally speaking, strength of the fibre, and also a freedom from those breaches or withered portions of which something has previously been said. The eye will readily detect the breaches; but the hair generally may not possess a degree of strength proportioned to its bulk. This is ascertained by drawing a few hairs out of the staple, and grasping each of them singly by both ends, and pulling them until they break. The wool often becomes injured by felting while it is on the sheep's back. This is principally seen in the heavy breeds, especially those that are neglected and half-starved, and generally begins in the winter season, when the coat has been completely saturated with water, and it increases until shearing-time, unless the cob separates from the wool beneath, and drops off. Wool is generally injured by keeping. It will probably increase a little in weight for a few months, especially if kept in a damp place; but after that it will somewhat rapidly become lighter, until a very considerable loss will often be sustained. This, however, is not the moral of the case; for, except very great care is taken, the moth will get into the bundles and injure and destroy the staple; and that which remains untouched by them will become considerably harsh and less pliable. If to this the loss of the interest of money is added, it will be seen that he seldom acts wisely who hoards his wool, when he can obtain what approaches to a fair remunerating price for it. _Softness_ of the wool is evidently connected with the presence and quality of the yolk. This substance is undoubtedly designed not only to nourish the hair, but to give it richness and pliability. The growth of the yolk ought to be promoted, and agriculturists ought to pay more attention to the quantity and quality of yolk possessed by the animals selected for the purpose of breeding. Bad management impairs the pliability of the wool, by arresting the secretion of the yolk. The softness of the wool is also much influenced by the chemical elements of the soil. A chalky soil notoriously deteriorates it; minute particles of the chalk being necessarily brought into contact with the fleece and mixing with it, have a corrosive effect on the fibre, and harden it and render it less pliable. The particles of chalk come in contact with the yolk--there being a chemical affinity between the alkali and the oily matter of the yolk--immediately unite, and a true soap is formed. The first storm washes a portion of it; and the wool, deprived of its natural pabulum and unguent, loses some of its vital properties--its pliability among the rest. The slight degree of harshness which has been attributed to the English South-Down has been explained in this way. _The felting property_ of wool is a tendency of the fibres to entangle themselves together, and to form a mass more or less difficult to unravel. By moisture and pressure, the fibres of the wool may become matted or felted together into a species of cloth. The manufacture of felt was the first mode in which wool was applied to clothing, and felt has long been in universal use for hats. The fulling of flannels and broadcloths is effected by the felting principle. By the joint influence of the moisture and the pressure, certain of the fibres are brought into more intimate contact with each other; they adhere--not only the fibres, but; in a manner, the threads--and the cloth is taken from the mill shortened in all its dimensions; it has become a kind of felt, for the threads have disappeared, and it can be cut in every direction with very little or no unravelling; it is altogether a thicker, warmer, softer fibre. This felting property is one of the most valuable qualities possessed by wool, and on this property are the finer kinds of wool especially valued by the manufacturer for the finest broadcloths. This naturally suggests a consideration of the various forms in the structure on which it depends. The most evident distinction between the qualities of hair and wool is the comparative straightness of the former, and _the crisped or spirally-curling form_ which the latter assumes. If a little lock of wool is held up to the light, every fibre of it is twisted into numerous minute corkscrew-like ringlets. This is especially seen in the fleece of the short-woolled sheeps; but, although less striking, it is obvious even in wool of the largest staple. The spirally-curving form of wool used, erroneously, to be considered as the chief distinction between the covering of the goat and the sheep; but the under-coat of some of the former is finer than that of any sheep, and it is now acknowledged frequently to have the crisped and curled appearance of wool. In some breeds of cattle, particularly in one variety of the Devons, the hair assumes a curled and wavy appearance, and a few of the minute spiral ringlets have been occasionally seen. It is the same with many of the Highlands; but there is no determination to take on the true crisped character, and throughout its whole extent, and it is still nothing but hair. On some foreign breeds, however, as the yak of Tartary, and the ox of Hudson's Bay, some fine and valuable wool is produced. There is an intimate connection between the fineness of the wool and the number of the curves, at least in sheep yielding wool of nearly the same length; so that, whether the wool of different sheep is examined, or that from different parts of the same sheep, it is enough for the observer to take advice of the number of curves in a given space, in order to ascertain with sufficient accuracy the fineness of the fibre. To this curled form of the wool not enough attention is, as a general thing, paid by the breeder. It is, however, that on which its most valuable uses depend. It is that which is essential to it in the manufactory of cloths. The object of the carder is to break the wool in pieces at the curves--the principle of the thread is the adhesion of the particles together by their curves; and the fineness of the thread, and consequent fineness of the cloth, will depend on the minuteness of these curves, or the number of them found in a given length of fibre. It will readily be seen that this curling form has much to do with the felting property of wool; it materially contributes to that disposition in the fibres which enables them to attach and intwine themselves together; it multiplies the opportunities for this interlacing, and it increases the difficulty of unravelling the felt. The felting property of wool is the most important, as well as the distinguishing one; but it varies essentially in different breeds, and the usefulness and the consequent value of the fleece, for clothing purposes, at least, depend on the degree to which it is pursued. _The serrated_--notched, like the teeth of a saw--_edge_ of wool, which has been discovered by means of the microscope, is also, as well as the spiral curl, deemed an important quality in the felting property. Repeated microscopic observations have removed all doubts as to the general outline of the woolly fibre. It consists of a central stem or stalk, probably hollow, or, at least, porous, possessing a semi-transparency, not found in the fibre of hair. From this central stalk there springs, at different distances, on different breeds of sheep, a circlet of leaf-shaped projections. LONG WOOL. The most valuable of the long-woolled fleeces are of British origin. A considerable quantity is produced in France and Belgium; but the manufacturers in those countries acknowledge the superiority of the British wool. Long wool is distinguished, as its name would import, by the length of its staple, the average of which is about eight inches. It was much improved, of late years, both in England and in other countries. Its staple has, without detriment to its manufacturing qualities, become shorter; but it has also become finer, truer, and sounder. The long-woolled sheep has been improved more than any other breed; and the principal error which Bakewell committed having been repaired since his death, the long wool has progressively risen in value, at least for curling purposes. Some of the breeds have staples of double the length that has been mentioned as the average one. Pasture and breeding are the powerful agents here. Probably because the Leicester blood prevails in, or, at least, mingles with, every other long-woolled breed, a great similarity in the appearance and quality of this fleece has become apparent, of late years, in every district of England. The short-woolled fleeces are, to a very considerable degree, unlike in fineness, elasticity, and felting property; the sheep themselves are still more unlike; but the long-wools have, in a great degree, lost their distinctive points--the Lincoln, for example, has not all of his former gaunt carcass, and coarse, entangled wool--the Cotswold has become a variety of the Leicester--in fact, all the long-woolled sheep, both in appearance and fleece, have almost become of one variety; and rarely, except from culpable neglect in the breeder, has the fleece been injuriously weakened, or too much shortened, for the most valuable purposes to which it is devoted. In addition to its length, this wool is characterized by its strength, its transparency, its comparative stoutness, and the slight degree in which it possesses the felting property. Since the extension of the process of combing to wools of a shorter staple, the application of this wool to manufacturing purposes has undergone considerable change. In some respects, the range of its use has been limited; but its demand has, on the whole, increased, and its value is more highly appreciated. Indeed, there are certain important branches of the woollen manufacture, such as worsted stuffs, bombazines, muslin-delaines, etc., in which it can never be superseded; and its rapid extension in the United States, within the past few years, clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. This long wool is classed under two divisions, distinguished both by length and the fineness of the fibre. The first--_the long-combing wool_--is used for the manufacture of hard yarn, and the worsted goods for which that thread is adapted, and requires the staple to be long, firm, and little disposed to felt. _The short-combing wool_ has, as its name implies, a shorter staple, and is finer and more felty; the felt is also closer and softer, and is chiefly used for hosiery goods. MIDDLE WOOL. This article is of more recent origin than the former, but has rapidly increased in quantity and value. It can never supersede, but will only stand next in estimation to, the native English long fleece. It is yielded by the half-bred sheep--a race that becomes more numerous every year--being a cross of the Leicester ram with the South-Down, or some other short-woolled ewe; retaining the fattening property and the early maturity of the Leicester, or of both; and the wool deriving length and straightness of fibre from the one, and fineness and feltiness from the other. The average length of staple is about five inches. There is no description of the finer stuff-goods in which this wool is not most extensively and advantageously employed; and the nails, or portions which are broken off by the comb, and left in, whether belonging to this description of wool or to the long wool, are used in the manufacture of several species of cloth of no inferior quality or value. Under the breed of middle wools must be classed those which, when there were but two divisions, were known by the name of short wools; and if English productions were alone treated of, would still retain the same distinctive appellation. To this class belong the South-Down and Cheviot; together with the fleece of several other breeds, not so numerous, nor occupying so great an extent of country. From the change, however, which insensibly took place in them all--the lengthening, and the increased thickness of the fibre, and, more especially, from the gradual introduction of other wools possessing delicacy of fibre, pliability, and felting qualities beyond what these could claim, and at the same time, being cheaper in the market--they lost ground in the manufacture of the finer cloths, and have for some time ceased to be used in the production of them. On the other hand, the changes which have taken place in the construction of machinery have multiplied the purposes to which they may be devoted, and very considerably enhanced their value. These wools, of late, rank among the combing wools; they are prepared as much by the comb as by the card, and in some places more. On this account they meet with a readier sale, at fair, remunerating prices, considering the increased weight of each individual fleece, and the increased weight and earlier maturity of the carcass. The South-Downs yield about seven-tenths of the pure short wools grown in the British kingdoms; but the half-bred sheep has, as has been remarked, encroached on the pure short-woolled one. The average staple of middle-woolled sheep is three and a half inches. These wools are employed in the manufacture of flannels, army and navy cloths, coatings, heavy cloths for calico printers and paper manufacturers, woollen cords, coarse woollens, and blankets; besides being partially used in cassinettes, baizes, bockings, carpets, druggets, etc. SHORT WOOL. From this division every wool of English production is excluded. These wools, yielded by the Merinos, are employed, unmixed, in the manufacture of the finer cloths, and, combined with a small proportion of wool from the English breeds, in others of an inferior value. The average length of staple is about two and a half inches. These wools even may be submitted to the action of the comb. There may be fibres only one inch in length; but if there are others from two and a half to three inches, so that the average of the staple shall be two inches, a thread sufficiently tenacious may, from the improved state of machinery, be spun, and many delicate and beautiful fabrics readily woven, which were unknown not many years ago. [Illustration] CROSSING AND BREEDING No one breed of sheep combines the highest perfection in all those points which give value to this race of animals. One is remarkable for the weight, or early maturity, or excellent quality of its carcass, while it is deficient in quality or quantity of wool; and another, which is valuable for wool, is comparatively deficient in carcass. Some varieties will flourish only under certain conditions of food and climate; while others are much less affected by those conditions, and will subsist under the greatest variations of temperature, and on the most opposite qualities of verdure. In selecting a breed for any given locality, reference should be had, _first_, to the feed and climate, or the surrounding natural circumstances; and, _second_, to the market facilities and demand. Choice should then be made of that breed which, with the advantages possessed, and under all the circumstances, will yield the greatest net value of the marketable product. Rich lowland herbage, in a climate which allows it to remain green during a large portion of the year, is favorable to the production of large carcasses. If convenient to a market where mutton finds a prompt sale and good prices, then all the conditions are realized which calls for a mutton-producing, as contradistinguished from a wool-yielding, sheep. Under such circumstances, the choice should undoubtedly be made from the improved English varieties--the South-Down, the New Leicester, and the improved Cotswolds or New Oxfordshire sheep. In deciding between these, minor and more specific circumstances must be taken into account. If large numbers are to be kept, the Downs will herd--remain thriving and healthy when kept together in large numbers--much better than the two larger breeds; if the feed, though generally plentiful, is liable to be somewhat short during the droughts of summer, and there is not a certain supply of the most nutritious winter feed, the Downs will better endure occasional short keep; if the market demands a choice and high-flavored mutton, the Downs possess a decided superiority. If, on the other hand, but few are to be kept in the same enclosure, the large breeds will be as healthy as the Downs; if the pastures are somewhat wet or marshy, the former will better subsist on the rank herbage which usually grows in such situations; if they do not afford so fine a quality of mutton, they--particularly the Leicester--possess an earlier maturity, and give more meat for the amount of food consumed, as well as yield more tallow. The next point of comparison between the long and the middle woolled families, is the value of their wool. Though not the first or principal object aimed at in the cultivation of any of these breeds, it is, in this country, an important item of incident in determining their relative profitableness. The American Leicester yields about six pounds of long, coarse, combing wool; the Cotswold, somewhat more; but this perhaps counterbalanced by these considerations; the Downs grow three to four pounds of a low quality of carding wool. None of these wools are very salable, at remunerating prices, in the American markets. Both, however, will appreciate in proportion to the increase of manufactures of worsted, flannels, baizes, and the like. The difference in the weight of the fleeces between the breeds is, of itself, a less important consideration than it would at first appear, for reasons which will be given when the connection between the amount of wool produced and the food consumed by the sheep is noticed. The Cheviots are unquestionably inferior to the breeds above named, except in a capacity to endure a vigorous winter and to subsist on healthy herbage. Used in the natural and artificial circumstances which surround sheep-husbandry in many parts of England--where the fattest and finest quality of mutton is consumed, as almost the only animal food of the laboring classes--the heavy, early-maturing New Leicester, and the still heavier New Oxfordshire sheep seem exactly adapted to the wants of producers and consumers, and are of unrivalled value. To depasture poorer soils, sustain a folding system, and furnish the mutton which supplies the tables of the wealthy, the South-Down meets an equal requirement. Sufficient attention is by no means paid in many portions of the country to the profit which could be made to result from the cultivation of the sheep. One of the most serious defects in the prevalent husbandry of New England, for example, is the neglect of sheep. Ten times the present number might be easily fed, and they would give in meat, wool, and progeny, more direct profit than any other domestic animal, while the food which they consume would do more towards fertilizing the farms than an equal amount consumed by any other animal. It is notorious that the pastures of that section of the country have seriously deteriorated in fertility and become overrun with worthless weeds and bushes to the exclusion of nutritious grasses. With sheep--as well as with all other animals--much or prolonged exercise in pursuit of food, or otherwise, is unfavorable to taking on fat. Some seem to forget, in their earnest advocacy of the merits of the different breeds, that the general physical laws which control the development of all the animal tissues as well as functions, are uniform. Better organs will, doubtless, make a better appropriation of animal food; and they may be taught, so to speak, to appropriate it in particular directions: in one breed, more especially to the production of fat; in another, of muck, or lean meat; in yet another, of wool. But, these things being equal, large animals will always require more food than small ones. Animals which are to be carried to a high state of fatness must have plentiful and nutritious food, and they must exercise but little, in order to prevent the unnecessary combustion in the lungs of that carbon which forms nearly four-fifths of their fat. No art of breeding can counteract these established laws of Nature. In instituting a comparison between breeds of sheep for _wool-growing_ purposes, it is undeniable that the question is not, what variety will shear the heaviest or even the most valuable fleece, irrespective of the cost of production. Cost of feed and care, and every other expense, must be deducted, in order to fairly test the profits of an animal. If a large sheep consume twice as much food as a small one, and give but once and a-half as much wool, it is obviously more profitable--other things being equal--to keep two of the smaller sheep. The next question, then, is,--_from what breed_--with the same expense in other particulars--_will the verdure of an acre of land produce the greatest value of wool_? And, first, as to the comparative amount of food consumed by the several breeds. There are no satisfactory experiments which show that _breed_, in itself considered, has any particular influence on the quantity of food consumed. It is found, with all varieties, that the consumption is in proportion to the live weight of the grown animal. Of course, this rule is not invariable in its individual application; but its general soundness has been satisfactorily established. Grown sheep take up between two and a half and three and a third per cent. of their weight, in what is equivalent to dry hay, to keep themselves in store condition. The consumption of food, then, being proportioned to the weight, it follows that, if one acre is capable of sustaining three Merinos, weighing one hundred pounds each, it will sustain two Leicesters, weighing one hundred and fifty each, and two and two-fifth South-Downs, weighing one hundred and twenty-five each. Merinos of this weight often shear five pounds per fleece, taking flocks through. The herbage of an acre, then, would give fifteen pounds of Merino wool, twelve of Leicester, and but nine and three-fifths of South-Down--estimating the latter as high as four pounds to the fleece. Even the finest and lightest-fleeced sheep known as Merinos average about four pounds to the fleece; so that the feed of an acre would produce as much of the highest quality of wool sold under the name of Merino as it would of New Leicester, and more than it would of South-Down, while the former would be worth from fifty to one hundred per cent. more per pound than either of the latter. Nor does this indicate all the actual difference, as in the foregoing estimate the live weight of the English breeds is placed low, and that of the Merinos high. The live weight of the five-pound fine-fleeced Merino does not exceed ninety pounds; it ranges, in fact, from eighty to ninety; so that three hundred pounds of live weight--it being understood that all of these live weights refer to ewes in fair ordinary, or what is called store, condition--would give a still greater product of wool to the acre. It is perfectly safe, therefore, to say that the herbage of an acre will uniformly give nearly double the value of Merino that it will of any of the English long or middle wools. What are the other relative expenses of these breeds? The full-blooded Leicester is in no respect a hardier sheep than the Merino, though some of its crosses are much hardier than the pure-bred sheep: indeed, it is less hardy, under the most favorable circumstances. It is more subject to colds; its constitution more readily gives way under disease; the lambs are more liable to perish from exposure to cold, when newly dropped. Under unfavorable circumstances--herded in large flocks, famished for feed, or subjected to long journeys--its capacity to endure, and its ability to rally from sad drawbacks, do not compare, with those of the Merino. The high-bred South-Down, though considerably less hardy than the unimproved parent stock, is still fairly entitled to the appellation of a hardy animal; it is, in fact, about on a pace with the Merino, though it will not bear as hard stocking, without a rapid diminution in size and quality. If the peculiar merits of the animal are to be considered in determining the expenses, as they surely should be, the superior fecundity of the South-Down is a point in its favor, as well for a wool-producing as a mutton sheep. The ewe not only frequently produces twin lambs--as do both the Merino and Leicester--but, unlike the latter, she possesses nursing properties to do justice to them. This advantage, however, is fully counterbalanced by the superior longevity of the Merino. All the English mutton breeds begin to rapidly deteriorate in amount of wool, capacity to fatten, and general vigor, at about five years old; and their early maturity is no offset to this, in an animal kept for wool-growing purposes. This early decay requires earlier and more rapid slaughter than is always economically convenient, or even possible. It is well, on properly stocked farms, to slaughter or turn off the Merino wether at four or five years old, to make room for the breeding stock; but he will not particularly deteriorate, and he will richly pay the way with his fleece for several years longer. Breeding ewes are rarely turned off before eight, and are frequently kept until ten years old, at which period they exhibit no greater marks of age than do the Downs and Leicester at five or six. Instances are known of Merino ewes breeding uniformly until fifteen years old. The improved Cotswold is said to be hardier than the Leicester; but this variety, from their great size, and the consequent amount of food consumed by them, together with the other necessary incidents connected with the breeding of such large animals, is incapacitated from being generally introduced as a wool-growing sheep. All the coarse races have one advantage over the Merino: they are less subject to the visitation of the hoof-ail, and when untreated, this disease spreads with less violence and malignity among them. This has been explained by the fact that their hoofs do not grow long and turn under from the sides, as do those of the Merino, and thus retain dirt and filth in constant contact with the foot. Taking into account all the circumstances connected with the peculiar management of each race, together with all the incidents, exigencies, and risks of the husbandry of each, it may be confidently asserted that the expenses, other than those of feed, are not smaller per head, or even in the number required to stock an acre, in either of the English breeds above referred to, than in the Merino. Indeed, it may well be doubted whether any of those English breeds, except the South-Down, is on an equality, even, with the Merino, in these respects. For wool-growing purposes, the Merino, then, possesses a marked and decided superiority over the best breeds and families of coarse-woolled sheep. As a mutton sheep, it is inferior to some of those breeds; although not so much as is popularly supposed. Many persons, who have never tasted Merino mutton, and who have, consequently, an unfavorable impression of it, would, if required to consume the fat and lean together, find it more palatable than the luscious and over-fat New Leicester. The mutton of the cross between the Merino and the Native would certainly be preferred to the Leicester, by anybody but an English laborer, accustomed to the latter, since it is short-grained, tender, and of good flavor. The same is true of the crosses with the English varieties, which will hereafter be treated of more particularly. Grade Merino wethers, half-bloods, for example, are favorites with the drover and butcher, being of good size, extraordinarily heavy for their apparent bulk, by reason of the shortness of their wool, compared with the coarse breeds, making good mutton, tallowing well, and their pelts, from the greater weight of wool on them, commanding an extra price. In speaking of the Merino in this connection, no reference is made to the Saxons, though they are, as is well known, pure-blooded descendants of the former. Assuming it, then, as settled, that it is to the Merino race that the wool-grower must look for the most profitable sheep, a few considerations are subjoined as to the adaptability of the widely diverse sub-varieties of the race to the wants and circumstances of different portions of the country. Upon the first introduction of the Saxons, they were sought with avidity by the holders of the fine-woolled flocks of the country, consisting at that time of pure or grade Merinos. Under the decisive encouragement offered both to the wool-grower and the manufacturer by the tariff of 1828, a great impetus was given to the production of the finest wools, and the Saxon everywhere superseded, or bred out by crossing, the Spanish Merinos. In New York and New England, the latter almost entirely disappeared. In the fine-wool mania which ensued, weight of fleece, constitution, and every thing else, were sacrificed to the quality of the wool. Then came the tariff of 1832, which, as well as that of 1828, gave too much protection to both wool-grower and manufacturer, into whose pursuits agricultural and mercantile speculators madly rushed. Skill without capital, capital without skill, and in some cases, probably, thirst for gain without either, laid hold of these favored avocations. The natural and inevitable result followed. In the financial crisis of 1837, manufacturing, and all other monetary enterprises which had not been conducted with skill and providence, and which were not based on an adequate and vast capital, were involved in a common destruction; and even the most solid and best conducted institutions of the country were shaken by the fury of the explosion. Wool suddenly fell almost fifty per cent. The grower began to be discouraged. The breeder of the delicate Saxons--and they comprised the flocks of nearly all the large wool-growers in the country, at that time--could not obtain for his wool its actual first cost per pound. When the Saxon growers found that the tariff of 1842 brought them no relief, they began to give up their costly and carefully nursed flocks. The example once set, it became contagious; and then was a period when it seemed as if all the Saxon sheep of the country would be sacrificed to this reaction. Many abandoned wool-growing altogether, at a heavy sacrifice of their fixtures for rearing sheep; others crossed with coarse-woolled breeds; and, rushing from one extreme to the other, some even crossed with the English mutton breeds; or some, with more judgment, went back to the parent Merino stock, but usually selected the heaviest and coarsest-woolled Merinos, and thus materially deteriorated the character of their wool. This period became distinguished by a mania for heavy fleeces. The English crosses were, however, speedily abandoned. The Merino regained his supremacy, lost for nearly a quarter of a century, and again became the popular favorite. It was generally adopted by those who were commencing flocks in the new Western States, and gives its type to the sheep of those regions. The supply of fine wool, then, proportionably decreased, and that of medium and coarse increased. Wools, for convenience, may be classified as follows: _superfine_, the choicest quality grown in the United States, and never grown here excepting in comparatively small quantities; _fine_, good ordinary Saxon; _good medium_, the highest quality of wool usually known in the market as Merino; _medium_, ordinary Merino; _ordinary_, grade Merino and selected South-Down fleeces; and, _coarse_, the English long-wools, etc. This subdivision is, perhaps, minute enough for all practical purposes here. It soon became apparent that, to sustain our manufacturing interest--that engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths--the diminution of fine wools should not only be at once arrested, but that the growth of them should be immediately and largely increased. An increased attention was accordingly bestowed upon this branch of industry, and sections of the country which had previously held aloof from wool-growing, embarked in that calling with commendable enterprise. The climate north of forty-one degrees, or, beyond all dispute, north of forty-two degrees, is too severe for any variety of sheep commonly known, which bear either superfine or fine wools. In fact, the only such variety in any thing like general use is the Saxon; and this, as has been remarked, is a delicate sheep, entirely incapable of safely withstanding our northern winters, without good shelter, good and regularly-administered food, and careful and skilful management in all other particulars. When the season is a little more than usually back-hand, so that grass does not start prior to the lambing season, it is difficult to raise the lambs of the mature ewes; the young ewes will, in many instances, disown their lambs, or, if they own them, not have a drop of milk for them; and if, under such circumstances, as often happens, a northeast or a northwest storm comes driving down, bearing snow or sleet in its wings, or there is a sudden depression of the temperature from any cause, no care will save multitudes of lambs from perishing. If the time of having the lambs dropped is deferred, for the purpose of escaping these evils, they will not attain size and strength sufficient to enable them to pass safely through their first winter. North of the latitude last named, it is necessary, as a general rule, that they be dropped in the first half of May, to give them this requisite size and strength; and occasional cold storms come, nearly every season, up to that period, and, not unfrequently, up to the first of June. These considerations have had their weight even with the few large sheep-holders in that section, whose farms and buildings have been arranged with exclusive reference to the rearing of these sheep; many of whom have adopted a Merino cross. With the ordinary farmers--the small sheep-owners, who, in the aggregate, grow by far the largest portion of the northern wools--the Saxon sheep is, for these reasons, in marked disrepute. They have not the necessary fixtures for their winter protection, and are unwilling to bestow the necessary amount of care on them. Besides, mutton and wool being about an equal consideration with this class, they want larger and earlier maturing breeds. Above all, they want a strong, hardy sheep, which demands no more care than their cattle. The strong, compact, medium-woolled Merino, or, more generally, its crosses with coarse varieties, producing the wool classed as ordinary, is the common favorite. In the Northwest, this is especially the case, where the climate is still worse for delicate sheep. At the South, on the contrary--where these disadvantages do not exist to so great an extent, certainly--wool varying from good medium upward are more profitable staples for cultivation than the lower classes; and in that section a high degree of fineness in fleece has been sought in breeding the Merino--the four-pound fine-fleeced Merino having received marked attention. This is a far more profitable animal than the Saxon, other things being equal--which is not the case, since the former is every way a hardier animal and a better nurse; and, although about twenty pounds heavier, and therefore consuming more feed, this additional expense is more than counterbalanced by the additional care and risk attending the husbandry of the Saxon. POINTS OF THE MERINO. For breeding purposes, the shape and general appearance of the Merino should be as follows:--The head should be well carried up, and in the ewe hornless. It would be better, on many accounts, to have the ram also hornless, but, as horns are usually characteristic of the Merino ram, many prefer to see them. The face should be rather short, broad between the eyes, the nose pointed, and, in the ewe, fine and free from wrinkles. The eye should be bright, moderately prominent, and gentle in its expression. The neck should be straight--not curving downward--short, round, and stout--particularly so at its junction with the shoulder, forward of the upper point of which it should not sink below the level of the back. The points of the shoulder should not rise to any perceptible extent above the level of the back. The back, to the hips, should be straight; the crops--that portion of the body immediately back of the shoulder-blades--full; the ribs well arched; the body large and capacious; the flank well let down; the hind-quarters full and round--the flesh meeting well down between the thighs, or in the "twists." The bosom should be broad and full; the legs short, well apart, and perpendicular--that is, not drawn under the body toward each other when the sheep is standing. Viewed as a whole, the Merino should present the appearance of a low, stout, plump, and--though differing essentially from the English mutton-sheep model--a highly symmetrical sheep. The skin is an important point. It should be loose, singularly mellow, and of a rich, delicate pink color. A colorless skin, or one of a tawny, approaching to a butternut, hue, indicates bad breeding. On the subject of wrinkles, there is a difference of opinion. As they are rather characteristic of the Merino--like the black color in a Berkshire hog, or the absence of all color in Durham cattle--these wrinkles have been more regarded, by novices, than those points which give actual value to the animal; and shrewd breeders have not been slow to act upon this hint. Many have contended that more wool can be obtained from a wrinkled skin; and this view of the case has led both the Spanish and French breeders to cultivate them largely--the latter, to a monstrosity. An exceedingly wrinkled neck, however, adds but little to the weight of the fleece--not enough, in fact, to compensate for the deformity, and the great impediment thus placed in the way of the shearer. A smoothly drawn skin, and the absence of all dead lap, would not, on the other hand, perhaps be desirable. The wool should densely cover the whole body, where it can possibly grow--from a point between and a little below the eyes, and well up on the cheeks, to the knees and hocks. Short wool may show, particularly in young animals, on the legs, even below the knees and hocks; but long wool covering the legs, and on the nose, below the eyes, is unsightly, without value; while on the face it frequently impedes the sight of the animal, causing it to be in a state of perpetual alarm, and disqualifying it to escape real danger. Neither is this useless wool the slightest indication of a heavy fleece--contrary to what seems to be thought by some. It is very often seen in Saxons shearing scarcely two pounds of wool, and on the very lightest fleeced Merinos. The amount of gum which the wool should exhibit is another mooted point. Merino wool should be yolky, or oily, prior to washing--though not to the extreme extent, occasionally witnessed, of giving it the appearance of being saturated with grease. The extreme tips may exhibit a sufficient trace of gum to give the fleece a darkish cast, particularly in the ram; but a black, pitchy gum, resembling half-hardened tar, extending an eighth or a quarter of an inch into the fleece, and which cannot be removed by ordinary washing, is decidedly objectionable. There is a white or yellowish concrete gum, not removable by common washing, which appears in the interior of some fleeces, and is equally objectionable. The weight of fleece remaining the same, medium length of staple, with compactness, is preferable to long, open wool, since it constitutes a better safeguard from inclemencies of weather, and better protects the animal from the bad effects of cold and drenching rains in spring and fall. The wool should be, as nearly as possible, of even length and thickness over the entire body. Shortness on the flank, and shortness or thickness on the belly, are serious defects. Evenness of fleece is a point of the first importance. Many sheep exhibit good wool on the shoulder and side, while it is far coarser and even hairy on the thighs, dew-lap, etc. Rams of this stamp should not be bred from by any one aiming to establish a superior fine-woolled flock; and all such ewes should gradually be excluded from those selected for breeding. The style of the wool is a point of as much importance as mere fineness. Some very fine wool is stiff, and the fibres almost straight, like hair. It has a dry, cottony look; and is a poor, unsalable article, however fine the fibre. Softness of wool--a delicate, silky, highly elastic feel between the fingers or on the lips, is the first thing to be regarded. This is usually an index, or inseparable attendant, of the other good qualities; so much so, indeed, that an experienced judge can decide, with little difficulty, between the quality of two fleeces, in the dark. Wool should be finely serrated, or crimped from one extremity to the other: that is, it should present a regular series of minute curves; and, generally, the greater the number of these curves in a given length, the higher the quality of the wool in all other particulars. The wool should open on the back of the sheep in connected masses, instead of breaking up into little round spiral ringlets of the size of a pipe-stem, which indicate thinness of fleece; and when the wool is pressed open each way with the hands, it should be close enough to conceal all but a delicate rose-colored line of skin. The interior of the wool should be a pure, glittering white, with a lustre and liveliness of appearance not surpassed in the best silk. The points in the form of the Merino which the breeder is called upon particularly to avoid are, a long, thin head, narrow between the eyes; a thin, long neck, arching downward before the shoulders; narrow loins; flat ribs; steep, narrow hind-quarters; long legs; thighs scarcely meeting at all; and legs drawn far under the body at the least approach of cold. All these points were, separately or conjointly, illustrated in many of the Saxon flocks which have been swept from the country. Sufficient attention has already been paid to the points to be avoided in the fleece. BREEDING MERINOS. The first great starting-point, among pure-blood animals, is, that "like will beget like." If the sire and ewe are perfect in any given points, the offspring will generally be; if either is defective, the offspring--subject to a law which will possibly be noticed--will be half-way between the two; if both are defective in the same points, the progeny will be more so than either of its parents--it will inherit the amount of defect in both parents added together. There are exceedingly few perfect animals. Breeding, therefore, is a system of counterbalancing--breeding out--in the offspring, the defects of one parent, by the marked excellence of the other parent, in the same points. The highest blood confers on the parent possessing it the greatest power of stamping its own characteristics on its progeny; but, blood being the same, the male sheep possesses this power in a greater degree than the female. We may, therefore, in the beginning, breed from ewes possessing any defects short of cardinal ones, without impropriety, provided we possess the proper ram for that purpose; but, where a high standard of quality is aimed at, all ewes possessing even considerable defects should gradually be thrown out from breeding. Every year should add to the vigor of the selection. But, from the beginning--and at the beginning, more than at any other time--the greatest care should be evinced in the selection of the ram. If he has a defect, that defect is to be inherited by the whole future flock; if it is a material one--as, for example, a hollow back, bad cross, or thin fleece, or a highly uneven fleece--the flock will be one of low quality and little value. If, on the other hand, he is perfect, the defects in the female will be lessened, and gradually bred out. It being, however, difficult to find perfect rams, those should be taken which have the fewest and lightest defects, and none of these material, like those just enumerated. These defects are to be met and counterbalanced by the decided excellence--sometimes, indeed, running into a fault--of the ewe, in the same points. If the ram, then, is a little too long-legged, the shortest-legged ewes should be selected for him; if gummy, the dryest-woolled; if his fleece is a trifle below the proper standard of fineness--but he has been retained, as often happens, for weight of fleece and general excellence--he is to be put to the finest and lightest-fleeced ewes, and so on. With a selection of rams, this system of counterbalancing would require but little skill, if each parent possessed only a single fault. If the ewe be a trifle too thin-fleeced, and good in all other particulars, it would require no nice judgment to decide that she should be bred to an uncommonly thick-fleeced ram. But most animals possess, to a greater or less degree, several defects. To select so that every one of these in the dam shall meet its opposite in the male, and the contrary, requires not only plentiful materials from which to select, but the keenest discrimination. After the breeder has successfully established his flock, and given them an excellent character, he soon encounters a serious evil. He must "breed in-and-in," as it is called--that is, interbreed between animals more or less nearly related in blood--or he must seek rams from other flocks, at the risk of losing or changing the distinctive character of his flock, hitherto so carefully sought, and built up with so much painstaking. The opponents of in-and-in breeding contend that it renders diseases and all other defects hereditary, and that it tends to decrease of size, debility, and a general breaking up of the constitution. Its defenders, on the other hand, insist that, if the parents are perfectly healthy, this mode does not, of itself, tend to any diminution of healthfulness in the offspring; and they likewise claim--which must be conceded--that it enables the skilful breeder much more rapidly to bring his flock to a particular standard or model, and to keep it there much more easily--unless it be true that, in course of time, they will dwindle and grow feeble. [Illustration: THE SCOTCH SHEEP-DOG, OR COLLEY.] So far as the effect on the constitution is concerned, both positions may be, to a certain extent, true. But it is, perhaps, difficult always to decide with certainty when an animal is not only free from disease, but from all tendency or predisposition towards it. A brother or sister may be apparently healthy--may be actually so--but may still possess a peculiarity of individual conformation which, under certain circumstances, will manifest itself. If these circumstances do not chance to occur, they may live until old age, apparently possessing a robust constitution. If tried together, their offspring--by a rule already laid down--will possess this individual tendency in a double degree. If the ram be interbred with sisters, half-sisters, daughters, granddaughters, etc., for several generations, the predisposition toward a particular disease--in the first place slight, now strong, and constantly growing stronger--will pervade, and become radically incorporated into, the constitution of the whole flock. The first time the requisite exciting causes are brought to bear, the disease breaks out, and, under such circumstances, with peculiar severity and malignancy. If it be of a fatal character, the flock is rapidly swept away; if not, it becomes chronic, or periodical at frequently recurring intervals. The same remarks apply, in part, to those defects of the outward form which do not at first, from their slightness, attract the notice of the ordinary breeder. They are rapidly increased until, almost before thought of by the owner, they destroy the value of the sheep. That such are the common effects of in-and-in breeding, with such skill as it is commonly conducted, all know who have given attention to the subject; and for these reasons the system is regarded with decided disapprobation and repugnance by nine out of ten of the best practical farmers. The sheep-breeder can, however, avoid the effects of in-and-in breeding, and at the same time preserve the character of his flock, by seeking rams of the same breed, possessing, as nearly as possible, _the characteristics which he wishes to preserve in his own flock_. If this rule is neglected--if he draws indiscriminately from all the different varieties or families of a breed--some large, and some small--some long-woolled, and some short-woolled--some medium, and some superfine in quality--some tall, and some squatty--some crusted over with black gum, and some entirely free from it--breeding will become a mere matter of hap-hazard, and no certain or uniform results can be expected. So many varieties cannot be fused into one for a number of generations--as is evidenced by the want of uniformity in the Rambouillet flock, which was commenced by a promiscuous admixture of all the Spanish families; and it not merely happens, as between certain classes of Saxons, that particular families can never be successfully amalgamated. If, however, the breeder has reached no satisfactory standard--if his sheep are deficient in the requisites which he desires--he is still to adhere to the breed--_provided the desired requisites are characteristic of the breed he possesses_--and select better animals to improve his own inferior ones. If he has, for instance, an inferior flock of South-Downs, and wishes to obtain the qualities of the best Down dams, he should seek for the best rams of that breed. But if he wishes to obtain qualities _not characteristic of the breed he possesses_, he must cross with a breed which does possess them. If the possessor of South-Downs wishes to convert them into a fine-woolled sheep similar to the Merino, he should cross his flock steadily with Merino rams--constantly increasing the amount of Merino, and diminishing the amount of South-Down blood. To effect the same result, he would take the same course with the common sheep of the country, or with any other coarse race. There are those, who, forgetting that some of the finest varieties now in existence, of several kinds of domestic animals, are the result of crosses--bitterly inveigh against the practice of crossing, under any and all circumstances. It is, it must be admitted, an unqualified absurdity, as frequently conducted--as, for example, an attempt to unite the fleece of a Merino and the carcass of a Leicester, by crosses between those breeds; but, under the limitations already laid down, and with the objects specified as legitimate ones, this objection to crossing savors of the most profound prejudice, or the most unblushing quackery. It is neither convenient, nor within the means of every man wishing to start a flock of sheep, to commence exclusively with full-bloods. With a few to breed rams from, and to begin a full-blood stock, the breeder will find it his best policy to purchase the best common sheep of his country, and gradually grade them up with Merino rams. In selecting the ewes, good shape, fair size, and a robust constitution, are the main points--the little difference in the quality of the common sheep's wool being of no consequence. For their wool, they are to look to the Merino; but good form and constitution they can and ought to possess, so as not to entail deep-rooted and entirely unnecessary evils on their progeny. Satisfactory results have followed crossing a Down ram--small, compact, exceedingly beautiful, fine and even fleeced--with large-sized Merino ewes. The half-blood ewes were then bred to a Merino ram, and also their female progeny, and so on. The South-Downs, from a disposition to take on fat, manifested themselves, to a perceptible extent, in every generation, and the wool of many of the sheep in the third generation--seven-eighths blood Merino, and one-eighth blood Down--was very even, and equal to medium, and some of them to good medium Merino. Their fleeces were lighter than the full-blood Merinos, but increased in weight with each succeeding cross back toward the latter. The mutton of the first, and even of the second cross was of a beautiful flavor, and retained, to the last, some of the superiority of South-Down mutton. Results are also noted of breeding Leicester ewes--taking one cross of the blood, as in the preceding case--toward the Merino. The mongrels, to the second generation--beyond which they were not bred--were about midway between the parent stock in size--with wool shorter, but far more fine and compact than the Leicester--their fleeces about the same weight, five pounds--and, altogether, they were a showy and profitable sheep, and well calculated to please the mass of farmers. Their fleeces, however, lacked evenness, their thighs remaining disproportionately coarser and heavy. A difference of opinion exists in relation to the number of crosses necessary before it is proper to breed from a mongrel ram. Some high authorities assert that it does not admit of the slightest doubt that a Merino, in the fourth generation, from even the worst-woolled ones, is in every respect equal to the stock of the sire--that no difference need to be made in the choice of a ram, whether he is a full-blood, or a fifteen-sixteenths--and that, however coarse the fleece of the parent ewe may have been, the progeny in the fourth generation will not show it. Others, however--while admitting that the only value of blood or pedigree, in breeding, is to insure the hereditary transmission of the properties of the parent to the offspring, and that, as soon as a mongrel reaches the point where he stamps his characteristics on the progeny, with the same certainty that a full-blood does, he is equally valuable, provided he is, individually, as perfect an animal--contend that this cannot be depended upon, with any certainty, in rams of the fourth Merino cross. They assert that the offspring of such crosses invariably lack the style and perfection of thorough-bred flocks. The sixth, seventh, or eighth cross might be generally, and the last, perhaps, almost invariably, as good as pure-blood rams; yet pure blood is a fixed standard, and were every breeder to think himself at liberty to depart from it in his rams, each one more or less, according to his judgment or caprice, the whole blood of the country would become adulterated. No man, assuredly, can be authorized to sell a ram of any cross, whether the tenth, or even the twentieth, as a full-blood. It is of the utmost importance for those _commencing_ flocks, either of full-bloods, or by crossing, to select the choicest rams. A grown ram may, by methods which will hereafter be described, be made to serve from one hundred to one hundred and fifty ewes in a season. A good Merino ram will, moderately speaking, add more than a pound of wool to the fleece of the dam, or every lamb got by it, from a common-woolled ewe--that is, if the ewe at three years old sheared three pounds of wool, the lamb at the same age will shear four. This would give one hundred or one hundred and fifty pounds of wool for the use of a ram for a single season; and every lamb subsequently got by him adds a pound to this amount. Many a ram gets, during his life, eight hundred or one thousand lambs. Nor is the extra amount of wool all. He gets from eight hundred to one thousand half-blooded sheep, worth double their dams, and ready to be made the basis of another and higher stride in improvement. A good ram, then, is as important and, it may be, quite as valuable an animal as a good farm-horse stallion. When the number of a ram's progeny are taken into consideration, and when it is seen over what an immense extent, even in his own direct offspring, his good or bad qualities are to be perpetuated, the folly of that economy which would select an inferior animal is sufficiently obvious. It will be found the best economy in starting a flock, where the proper flocks from which to draw rams are not convenient, to purchase several of the same breed, of course, but _of different strains of blood_. Thus ram No. 2 can be put on the offspring of No. 1, and the reverse; No. 3 can be put on the offspring of both, and both upon the offspring of No. 3. The changes which can be rung on three distinct strains of blood, without in-and-in breeding close enough to be attended with any considerable danger, are innumerable. The brother and sister, it will be born in mind, are of the same blood; the father and daughter, half; the father and granddaughter, one-fourth; the father and great-granddaughter, one-eighth; and so on. Breeding between animals possessing one-eighth of the same blood, would not be considered very close breeding; and it is not unusual, in rugged, well-formed families, to breed between those possessing one-fourth of the same blood. If, however, these rams of different strains are brought promiscuously, without reference to similarity of characteristics, there may, and probably will, be difference between them; and it might require time and skill to give a flock descended from them a proper uniformity of character. Those who breed rams for sale should be prepared to furnish different strains of blood, with the necessary individual and family uniformity. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. Some few suggestions upon the general principles to be observed in breeding may not be superfluous here, referring the reader, who is disposed to investigate this subject in detail, to its full discussion in the author's treatise upon "Cattle and their Diseases." As illustrative of the importance of _breeding only from the best_, taking care to avoid structural defects, and especially to secure freedom from _hereditary diseases_, since both defects and diseases appear to be more easily transmissible than desirable qualities, it may be remarked that scrofula is not uncommon among sheep, and presents itself in various forms. Sometimes it is connected with consumption; sometimes it affects the viscera of the abdomen, and particularly the mesenteric glands, in a manner similar to consumption in the lungs. The scrofulous taint has been known to be so strong as to affect the f[oe]tus, and lambs have occasionally been dropped with it; but much oftener they show it at an early age, and any affected in this way are liable to fall an easy prey to any ordinary or prevalent disease, which develops in such with unusual severity. Sheep are also liable to several diseases of the brain, and of the respiratory and digestive organs. Epilepsy, or "fits," and rheumatism sometimes occur. The breeder's aim should be to grasp and _render permanent_, and increase so far as practicable, _every variation for the better_, and to reject for breeding purposes such as show a downward tendency. A remarkable instance of the success which has often attended the well-directed efforts of intelligent breeders, is furnished in the new Mauchamp-Merino sheep, which originated in a single animal--a product of the law of variation--and which, by skilful breeding and selection, has become an established breed of a peculiar type, and possessing valuable properties. Samples of the wool of these sheep were shown at the great exhibition in London, in 1851, as well as at the subsequent great agricultural exhibition at Paris, and attracted much attention. This breed was originated by Mons. J. L. Graux. In 1828, a Merino ewe produced a peculiar ram lamb, having a different shape from the ordinary Merino, and possessing wool singularly long, straight, and silky. Two years afterward, Mr. Graux obtained by this ram one ram and one ewe, having the silky character of wool. Among the produce of the ensuing year were four rams and one ewe with similar fleeces; and in 1833, there were rams enough of the new sort to serve the whole flock of ewes. In each subsequent year, the lambs were of two kinds; one possessing the curled, elastic wool of the old Merinos, only a little longer and finer, and the other like the new breed. At last, the skilful breeder obtained a flock containing the fine, silky fleece with a smaller breed, broader flanks, and more capacious chest; and several flocks being crossed with the Mauchamp variety, the Mauchamp-Merino breed is the result. The pure Mauchamp wool is remarkable for its qualities as a combing-wool, owing to the strength, as well as the length and fineness of the fibre. It is found of great value by the manufacturers of Cashmere shawls, and similar goods, being second only to the true Cashmere fleece, in the fine, flexible delicacy of the fibre; and when in combination with Cashmere wool, imparting strength and consistency. The quantity of this wool has since become as great as that from ordinary Merinos, or greater, while its quality commands twenty-five per cent. higher price in the French market. Breeders, certainly, cannot watch too closely any accidental peculiarity of conformation or characteristic in their flocks. _The apparent influence of the male_ first having fruitful intercourse with a female, _upon her subsequent offspring by other males_, has been noticed by various writers. The following well-authenticated instances are in point: A small flock of ewes, belonging to Dr. W. Wells, in the island of Granada, was served by a ram procured for the purpose. The ewes were all white and woolly; the ram was quite different, being of a chocolate color, and hairy like a goat. The progeny were, of course, crosses, but bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. The next season, Dr. Wells obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes; but the progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram, in color and covering. The same thing occurred on neighboring estates, under like circumstances. Six very superior pure-bred black-faced horned ewes, belonging to Mr. H. Shaw, of Leochel, Cushnie, were served by a white-faced hornless Leicester ram. The lambs were crosses. The next year they were served by a ram of exactly the same breed as the ewes themselves, and their lambs were, without an exception, hornless and brownish in the face, instead of being black and horned. The third year they were again served by a superior ram of their own breed; and again the lambs were mongrels, but showed less of the Leicester characteristics than before; and Mr. Shaw at last parted from these fine ewes without obtaining a single pure-bred lamb. To account for this result--seemingly regarded by most physiologists as inexplicable--Mr. James McGillivray, V. S., of Huntley, has offered an explanation, which has received the sanction of a number of competent writers. His theory is, that when a pure animal of any breed has been pregnant by an animal of a different breed, such pregnant animal _is a cross ever after_, the purity of her blood being lost, in consequence of her connection with the foreign animal, and herself becoming a cross forever, incapable of producing a pure calf of any breed. To cross, _merely for the sake of crossing_, to do so without that care and vigilance which are highly essential, is a practice which cannot be too much condemned, being, in fact, a national evil, if pushed to such an extent as to do away with a useful breed of animals, and establish a generation of mongrels in their place--a result which has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals. The principal use of crossing is to raise animals for the butcher. The male, being generally an animal of a superior breed, and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size, and muscular development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to him; while their internal nature, derived from the dam, well adapts them to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed. With sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil, as regards the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable; and the weight of mutton is thereby materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, more systematic attention than most farmers usually like to bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a native ram, for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed, and a foreign ram, to raise the improved cross-bred animals for felting, either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South-Down rams to improve the quality of the mutton. One inconvenience attending this plan is the necessity of fattening the maiden ewes as well as the wethers. They may, however, be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spaying (fully explained in "Cattle and their Diseases") might be adopted, so as to increase the felting disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill, where the object is to improve the breed of animals. It should never be practised carelessly or capriciously, but it may be advantageously pursued, with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher. For the latter purpose, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance that the _pelvis_ of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no injury may arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason. In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which is sought to be improved. Thus, the South-Downs have vastly improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester, the huge Lincolns and the Cotswolds. USE OF RAMS. Merino rams are frequently used from the first to the tenth year, and even longer. The lambs of very old rams are commonly supposed not to be as those of middle-aged ones; though where rams have not been overtasked, and have been properly fed, little if any difference is discoverable in their progeny by reason of their sire's age. A ram lamb should not be used, as it retards his growth, injures his form, and, in many instances, permanently impairs his vigor and courage. A yearling may run with thirty ewes, a two-year-old with from forty to fifty, and a three-year-old with from fifty to sixty; while some very powerful, mature rams will serve seventy or eighty. Fifty, however, is enough, where they _run with_ the ewes. It is well settled that an impoverished and overtasked animal does not transmit his individual properties so decidedly to his offspring as does one in full vigor. Rams, of course, are not to be selected for ewes by mere chance, but according as their qualities may improve those of the ewes. It may not be superfluous, though seemingly a repetition, to state that a good ewe flock should exhibit these characteristics: _strong bone_, supporting a roomy frame, affording space for a large development of flesh; _abundance of wool of a good quality_, keeping the ewes warm in inclement weather, and insuring profit to the breeder; _a disposition to fatten early_, enabling the breeder readily to get rid of his sheep selected for the butcher; and _a prolific tendency_, increasing the flock rapidly, and being also a source of profit. Every one of these properties is advantageous in itself; but when all are combined in the same individuals of a flock, that flock is in a high state of perfection. In selecting rams, it should be observed whether or not they possess one or more of those qualities in which the ewes may be deficient, in which case their union with the ewes will produce in the progeny a higher degree of perfection than is to be found in the ewes themselves, and such a result will improve the state of the future ewe-flock; but, on the contrary, if the ewes are superior in all points to the rams, then, of course, the use of such will only serve to deteriorate the future ewe-flock. Several rams running in the same flock excite each other to an unnatural and unnecessary activity, besides injuring each other by constant blows. It is, in every point of view, bad husbandry, where it can be avoided, and, as customarily managed, is destructive to every thing like careful and judicious breeding. The nice adaptation which the male should possess to the female is out of the question where half a dozen or more rams are running promiscuously with two or three hundred ewes. Before the rams are let out, the breeding ewes should all be brought together in one yard; the form of each noted, together with the length, thickness, quality and style of her wool--ascertained by opening the wool on the shoulder, thigh, and belly. When every point is thus determined, that ram should be selected which, on the whole, is best calculated to perpetuate the excellencies of each, both of fleece and carcass, and to best counterbalance defects in the mutual offspring. Every ewe, when turned in with the ram, should be given a distinct mark, which will continue visible until the next shearing. For this purpose, nothing is better than Venetian red and hog's lard, well incorporated, and marked on with a cob. The ewes for each ram require a differently shaped mark, and the mark should also be made on the ram, as noted in the sheep-book. Thus it can be determined at a glance by what ram the ewe was tapped, any time before the next shearing. The ewes selected for each ram are placed in different enclosures, and the chosen ram placed with them. Rams require but little preparation on being put among ewes. If their skin is red in the flanks when the sheep are turned up, they are ready for the ewes, for the natural desire is then upon them. Most of the ewes will be served during the second week the ram is among them, and in the third, all. It is better, however, not to withdraw the rams until the expiration of four weeks, when the flocks can be doubled, or otherwise re-arranged for winter, as may be necessary. The trouble thus taken is, in reality, slight--nothing, indeed, when the beneficial results are considered. With two assistants, several hundred ewes may be properly classified and divided in a single day. Where choice rams are scarce, so that it is desirable to make the services of one go a great way, or where it is impossible to have separate enclosures--as on farms where there are a great number of breeding ewes, or where the shepherd system is adopted, to the exclusion of fences--resort may be had to another method. A hut should be built, containing as many apartments as the ram is desired to be used, with an alley between them, each apartment to be furnished with a feeding-box and trough in one corner, and gates or bars opening from each into the alley, and at each end of the alley. Adjoining these apartments, a yard should be inclosed, of size just sufficient to hold the flock of breeding ewes. A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hundred ewes, are then aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red and hog's lard, and let loose among the ewes. _Aproning_ is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore to the hind legs, loosely but strongly around the body. To prevent its slipping forward or back, straps are carried round the breast and back of the breech. It should be made _perfectly secure_, or all the labor of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days; and it will be necessary to change the "teasers"--as these aproned rams are called--about once a week, as they do not long retain their courage under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day the ewes are brought into the yard in front of the hut. Those marked on their rumps by the teasers are taken into the alley. Each is admitted _once_ to the ram for which she is marked, and then goes out _at the opposite end of the alley_ from which they entered, into a field separate from that containing the flock from which she was taken. A powerful and vigorous ram, from three to seven years old, and properly fed, can thus be made to serve from one hundred and fifty to even two hundred ewes, with no greater injury than from running loose with fifty or sixty. The labor here required is likewise more apparent than real, when the operation is conducted in a systematic manner. Rams will do better, accomplish more, and last two or three years longer, if daily fed with grain, when on service, and it is better to continue it. In all cases, they should, after serving, be put on good pasture, as they will have lost a good deal of condition, being indisposed to settle during the tapping season. A ram should receive the equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of oats daily, when worked hard. They are much more conveniently fed when kept in huts. If suffered to run at large, they should be so thoroughly tamed that they will eat from a measure held by the shepherd. Careful breeders thus train their stock-rams, from the time they are lambs. It is very convenient, also, to have them halter-broke, so that they can be led about without dragging or lifting them. An iron ring attached to one of the horns, near the point, to which a cord can be fastened for leading, confining, etc., is very useful and convenient. If rams are wild, it is a matter of considerable difficulty to feed them separately, and it can only be effected by yarding the flock and catching them out. Some breeders, in addition to extra feeding, take the rams out of the flocks each night, shutting them up in a barn or stable by themselves. To this practice there is no objection, and it greatly saves their strength. Rams should not be suffered to run with the ewes over a month, at least in the Northern States. It is much better that a ewe go dry than that she have a lamb later than the first of June. Besides, after the rutting season is over, the rams grow cross, frequently striking the pregnant ewes dangerous blows with their heavy horns, at the racks and troughs. It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation and the first period of gestation take place in cold weather, the f[oe]tus will be fitted for the climate which rules during the early stages of its existence. If this be so--and it is certainly in accordance with the laws of Nature--fine-woolled sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence by deferring the connection of the male till the commencement of cold weather; and, in the Northern States, this is done about the first of December, thus bringing the yeaning time in the last of April, or the first of May, when the early grass affords a large supply and good quality of food. LAMBING. [Illustration: EWE AND LAMBS.] The ewe goes with young about five months, varying from one hundred and forty-five to one hundred and sixty-two days. Pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times. Until two or three weeks preceding lambing, it is only necessary that they, like other store-sheep, be kept in good, plump, ordinary condition; nor are any separate arrangements necessary for them after that period, in a climate where they obtain sufficient succulent food to provide for a proper secretion of milk. In backward seasons in the North, where the grass does not start prior to the lambing-time, careful farmers feed their ewes on chopped roots, or roots mixed with oat and pea-meal, which is excellent economy. Caution is, however, necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is often the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet; and both the last by restored health and generous food. Sudden frights, as from dogs or strange objects; long or severe journeys, great exertions, unwholesome food, blows in the region of the f[oe]tus, and some other causes, produce abortion. Lambs are usually dropped, in the North, from the first to the fifteenth of May; in the South, they can safely come earlier. It is not expedient to have them dropped when the weather is cold or boisterous, as they require too much care; but the sooner the better, after the weather has become mild, and the herbage has started sufficiently to give the ewes that green food which is required to produce a plentiful secretion of milk. It is customary, in the North, to have fields of clover, or the earliest grasses, reserved for the early spring-feed of the breeding-ewes; and, if these can be contiguous to their stables, it is a great convenience--for the ewes should be confined in the latter, on cold and stormy nights, during the lambing season. If the weather be warm and pleasant, and the nights moderately warm, it is better to have the lambing take place in the pasture; since sheep are then more disposed to own their lambs, and take kindly to them, than in the confusion of a small inclosure. In the latter, sheep, unless particularly docile, crowd from one side to another when any one enters, running over young lambs, pressing them severely, etc.; ewes become separated from their lambs, and then run violently round from one to another, jostling and knocking them about; young and timid ewes, when so separated, will frequently neglect their lambs for an hour or more before they will again approach them, while, if the weather is severely cold, the lamb, if it has never sucked, is in danger of perishing. Lambs, too, when first dropped in a _dirty_ inclosure, tumble about, in their first efforts to rise, and the membrane which adheres to them becomes smeared with dirt and dung; and the ewe's refusing to lick them dry much increases the hazard of freezing. In cold storms, however, and in sudden and severe weather, all this must be encountered; and, therefore, every shepherd should teach his sheep docility. It requires but a very moderately cold night to destroy the new-born Saxon lamb, which--the pure blood--is dropped nearly as naked as a child. During a severely cold period, of several days continuance, it is almost impossible to rear them, even in the best shelter. The Merino, South-Down, and some other breeds, will endure a greater degree of cold with impunity. Where inclosures are used for yeaning, they should be kept clean by frequent litterings of straw--not enough, however, to be thrown on at any one time, to embarrass the lamb about rising. The predisposing symptoms of lambing are, enlargement and reddening of the parts under the tail, and drooping of the flanks. The more immediate are, when the ewe stretches herself frequently; separating herself from her companions; exhibiting restlessness by not remaining in one place for any length of time; lying down and rising up again, as if dissatisfied with the place; pawing the ground with a forefoot; bleating, as if in quest of a lamb; and appearing fond of the lambs of other ewes. In a very few hours, or even shorter time after the exhibition of these symptoms, the immediate symptom of lambing is the expulsion of the bag of water from the _vagina_. When this is observed, the ewe should be narrowly watched, for the pains of labor may be expected to come on immediately. When these are felt by her, the ewe presses or forces with earnestness, changing one place or position for another, as if desirous of relief. The ewe does not often require mechanical assistance in parturition. Her labors will sometimes be prolonged for three or four hours, and her loud moanings will evince the extent of her pain. Sometimes she will go about several hours, and even resume her grazing, with the fore-feet and nose of the lamb protruding at the mouth of the _vagina_. If let alone, however, Nature will generally relieve her. In case of a false parturition of the f[oe]tus--which is comparatively rare--the shepherd may apply his thumb and finger, after oiling, to push back the lamb, and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet appear. Where feebleness in expelling the f[oe]tus exists, only the slightest aid should be rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam. The objection to interfering--except as a last resort--is, that the ewe is frightened when caught, and her efforts to expel the lamb cease. When aided, in any case, the gentlest force should be applied, and only in conjunction with the efforts of the ewe. The clearing, or _placenta_, generally drops from the ewe in the course of a very short time--in many cases, within a few minutes--after lambing. It should be carried away, and not allowed to lie upon the lambing-pound. Common kale, or curly-greens, is excellent food for ewes that have lambed, as its nutritive matter, being mucilaginous, is wholly soluble in water, and beneficial in encouraging the necessary discharges of the ewe at the time of lambing. In these respects, it is a better food than Swedish turnips--upon which sheep are sometimes fed--which become rather too fibrous and astringent, in spring, for the secretion of milk. In the absence of kale or cabbage, a little oil-cake will aid the discharges and purify the body. New grass also operates medicinally upon the system. MANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. While the lamb is tumbling about and attempting to rise--the ewe, meanwhile, licking it dry--it is well to be in no haste to interfere. A lamb that gets at the teat without help, and procures even a small quantity of milk, knows how to help itself afterward, and rarely perishes. If helped, it sometimes continues to expect it, and will do little for itself for two or three days. The same is true where lambs are fed from a spoon or bottle. But if the lamb ceases to make efforts to rise--especially if the ewe has left off licking it while it is wet and chilly--it is time to render assistance. It is not advisable to throw the ewe down--as is frequently practised--in order to suckle the lamb; because instinct teaches the latter to point its nose _upward_ in search of the teats. It is, therefore, doubly difficult to teach it to suck from the bag of the prostrate ewe; and when it is taught to do this, by being so suckled several times, it is awkward about finding the teat in the natural position, when it begins to stand and help itself. Carefully disengaging the ewe from her companions, with his crook--which useful article will be hereafter described--the assistant should place one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks of the ewe, and then, pressing her against his knees, he should hold her firmly and still, so that she will not be constantly crowding away from the shepherd, who should set the lamb on its feet, inducing it to stand, if possible; if not, supporting it _on its feet_ by placing one hand under its body; put its mouth to the teat, and encourage it to suck by tickling it about the roots of the tail, flanks, etc., with a finger. The lamb, mistaking this last for the caresses of its dam, will redouble its efforts to suck. Sometimes it will manifest great dullness, and even apparent obstinacy, in refusing for a long time to attempt to assist itself, crowding backward, etc.; but the kind and gentle shepherd, who will not sink himself to the level of brute, by resenting the stupidity of a brute, will generally carry the point by perseverance. Sometimes milking a little into the lamb's mouth, holding the latter close to the teat, will induce it to take hold. If the ewe has no milk, the lamb should be fed, until the natural supply commences, with small quantities of the milk of a _new-milch_ cow. This should be mixed, say half and half, with water, with enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of the first milk, gently warmed to the natural heat--not scalded and suffered to cool--and then fed through a bottle with a sponge in the opening of it, which the lamb should _suck_, if it can be induced so to do. If the milk is poured in its mouth from a spoon or bottle, it is frequently difficult, as before stated, to induce it to suck. Moreover, unless milk is poured into the mouth slowly and with care--no faster than the lamb can swallow--a speedy wheezing, the infallible precursor of death, will show that a portion of the fluid has been forced into the lungs. Lambs have been frequently killed in this way. If a lamb becomes chilled, it should be wrapped in a woollen blanket, placed in a warm room, and given a little milk as soon as it will swallow. A trifle of pepper is sometimes placed in the milk, and with good effect, for the purpose of rousing the cold and torpid stomach into action. In New England, under such circumstances, the lamb is sometimes "baked," as it is called--that is, put in a blanket in a moderately-heated oven, until warmth and animation are restored; others immerse it in tepid water, and subsequently rub it dry, which is said to be an excellent method where the lamb is nearly frozen. A good blanket however, a warm room, and sometimes, perhaps, a little gentle friction will generally suffice. If a strong ewe, with a good bag of milk, chance to lose her lamb, she should be required to bring up one of some other ewe's twins, or the lamb of some feeble or young ewe, having an inadequate supply of milk. Her own lamb should be skinned as soon as possible after death, and the skin sewed over the lamb which she is to foster. She will sometimes be a little suspicious for a day or two; and if so, she should be kept in a small pen with the lamb, and occasionally looked to. After she has taken well to it, the false skin may be removed in three or four days. If no lamb is placed on a ewe which lost her lamb, and which has a full bag of milk, the milk should be drawn from the bag once or twice, or garget may ensue; even if this is not the result, permanent indurations, or other results of inflammatory action, will take place, injuring the subsequent nursing properties of the animal. When milked, it is well to wash the bag for some time in cold water, since it checks the subsequent secretions of milk, as well as allays inflammation. Sometimes a young ewe, though exhibiting sufficient fondness for her lamb, will not stand for it to suck; and in this case, if the lamb is not very strong and persevering, and particularly if the weather is cold, it soon grows weak, and perishes. The conduct of the dam, in such instances, is occasioned by inflammatory action about the bag or teats, and perhaps somewhat by the novelty of her position. In this case, the sheep should be caught and held until the lamb has exhausted her bag, and there will not often be any trouble afterward; though it may be well enough to keep them in a pen together until the fact is determined. Such pens--necessary in a variety of cases other than those mentioned--need not exceed eight or ten feet square, and should be built of light materials, and fastened together at the corners, so that they can be readily moved by one man, or, at the most, two, from place to place, where they are wanted. Their position should be daily shifted, when sheep are in them, for cleanliness and fresh feed. Light pine poles laid up like a fence, and each nailed and pegged to the lower ones at the corners, or laid on, are quite serviceable. Two or three sides of a few of them should be wattled with twigs, and the tops partly covered, in order to shield feeble lambs from cold rains, piercing winds, and the like. Young lambs are subject to what is commonly known as "pinning"--that is, their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious that the orifice of the anus is closed, and subsequent evacuations prevented. The adhering matter, in such cases, should be entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry clay, to prevent subsequent adhesion. Lambs will frequently perish from this cause, if not looked to for the first few days. The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. Some careful shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs, allowing them to suck two or three times a day. By this method they suffer no fatigue, and thrive much faster. It is, however, troublesome as well as injurious, since the exercise is essential to the health and constitution of the lamb intended for rearing. It is admissible only when they are wanted for an early market; and with those who rear them for this purpose it is a common practice. Where there are orphans or supernumeraries in the flock, the deserted lambs must be brought up by hand. Such animals, called pet lambs, are supported on cow's milk, which they receive warm from the cows each time they are milked, and as much as they can drink. In the intervals of meals, in bad weather, they are kept under cover; in good weather they are put into a grass enclosure during the day, and sheltered at night until the nights become warm. They are fed by hand out of a small vessel, which should contain as much milk as it is known each can drink. They are first taught to drink out of the vessel with the fingers, like a calf, and as soon as they can hold a finger steady in the mouth, a small tin tube, about three inches in length, and of the thickness of a goose-quill, should be covered with several folds of linen, sewed tightly on, to use as a substitute for a teat, by means of which they will drink their allowance of milk with great ease and quickness. A goose-quill would answer the same purpose, were it not easily squeezed together by the mouth. When the same person feeds the lambs--and this should be the dairy-maid--they soon become attached to her, and desire to follow her everywhere; but to prevent their bleating, and to make them contented, an apron or a piece of cloth, hung on a stake or bush in the inclosure, will keep them together. It is much better for the lambs and for their dams that they be _weaned_ from three and a half to four months old. When taken away, they should be put for several days in a field distant from the ewes, that they may not hear each other's bleatings, as the lambs, when in hearing of their dams, continue restless much longer, and make constant and, frequently, successful efforts to crawl through the fences which separate them. One or two tame old ewes are turned into the field with them, to teach them to come at the call, find salt when thrown to them, and eat out of troughs when winter approaches. When weaned, the lambs should be put on the freshest and tenderest grass--rich, sweet food, but not too luxuriant. The grass and clover, sown the preceding spring, on grain-fields seeded down, is often reserved for them. The dams, on the contrary, should be put for a fortnight on short, dry feed, to stop the flow of milk. They should be looked to after a day or two, and if the bags of any are found much distended, the milk should be drawn away, and the bags washed for a little time in cold water. On short feed, they rarely give much trouble in this respect. When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best fare, to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding and wintering. The fall is a critical period in which to lose flesh, either for sheep or lambs; and if any are found deficient, they should at once be provided with extra feed and attention. If cold weather overtake them, poor or in ill health, they will scarcely outlive it; or if by chance they survive, their emaciated carcass, impaired constitution, and scant fleece will ill repay the food and attention they will have cost. CASTRATION AND DOCKING. Some breeders advocate castration in a day or two after birth, while others will not allow the operation to be performed until the lamb is a month old. The weight of authority, however, is in favor of any time between two and six weeks after birth, when the creature has attained some strength, and the parts have not become too rigid. In such circumstances, the best English breeders recommend from ten to fifteen days old as the proper time. A lamb of a day old cannot be confirmed in all the functions of its body, and, indeed, in many instances, the testicles can then scarcely be found. At a month old, on the other hand, the lamb may be so fat, and the weather so warm, that the operation may be attended with febrile action. Dry, pleasant weather should be selected for this: a cool day, if possible; if warm, it should be done early in the morning. Castration is a simple and safe process. Let a man hold a lamb with its back pressed firmly against his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front in his hands. Cut off the bottom of the pouch, free the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and then draw it steadily out, or clip the cord with a knife if it does not snap off at a proper distance from the testicle. Some shepherds draw both testicles at once with their teeth. It is usual to drop a little salt into the pouch. Where the weather is very warm, some touch the end of the pouch with an ointment, consisting of tar, lard, and turpentine. As a general thing, however, the animal will do as well without any application. The object of _docking_ is to keep the sheep behind clean from filth and vermin; since the tail, if left on, is apt to collect filth, and, if the animal purges, becomes an intolerable nuisance. The tail, however, should not be docked too short, since it is a protection against cold in winter. This operation is by many deferred till a late period, from apprehension of too much loss of blood; but, if the weather be favorable and the lamb in good condition, it may be performed at the same time as castration with the least trouble and without injury. The tail should be laid upon a plank, the animal being held in the same position as before. With one hand the skin is drawn toward the body, while another person, with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a blow, between the bone-joints, leaving it from one and a half to two inches long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound, which is soon healed. Should bleeding continue--as, however, rarely happens--so long as to sicken the lamb, a small cord should be tied firmly round the end of the tail; but this must not be allowed to remain on above twenty-four hours, as the points of the tail would slough off. Ewe lambs should be docked closer than rams. To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing, it is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the proportion of four pounds of the former to one quart of the latter. The lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they are perfectly well. [Illustration] FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT FEEDING. As soon as the warm weather approaches and the grass appears, sheep become restive and impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be repressed till the ground has become thoroughly dry, and the grass has acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for the change of food by the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. The tendency to excessive purging which is induced by the first spring-feed, may be checked by housing them at night and feeding them for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay. They must be provided with pure water and salt; for, though they may do tolerably well without either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by this slight attention. As to _water_, it may be said that it is not indispensable in the summer pastures, since the dews and the succulence of the feed answer as a substitute; but a wide experience having demonstrated that free access to it is advantageous, particularly to those having lambs, it should be considered a matter of importance on a sheep-farm so to arrange the pastures, if possible, as to bring water into each of them. [Illustration: A COVERED SALTING BOX.] SALT is indispensable to the health, especially in the summer. It is common to give it once a week, while they are at grass. It is still better to give them free access to it, at all times, by keeping it in a covered box, open on one side, as in the engraving annexed. A large hollow log, with holes cut along the side for the insertion of the heads of the animals, answers very well. A sheep having free access to salt at all times will never eat too much of it; and it will take its supply at such times and in such quantities as Nature demands, instead of eating of it voraciously at stated periods, as intermediate abstinence will stimulate it to do. When salt is fed but once a week, it is better to have a stated day, so that it will not be forgotten; and it is well to lay the salt on flat stones--though if laid in little handfuls on the grass, very little of it will be lost. TAR. This is supposed by many to form a very healthful condiment for sheep, and they smear the nose with it, which is licked and swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh, or that of the weather, causes it to trickle down over the nostrils and lips. Others, suffering the flock to get unusually salt-hungry, place tar upon flat stones, or in troughs, and then scatter salt upon it so that both may be consumed together. Applied to the nose, in the nature of a cataplasm, it may be advantageous in catarrhs; and in the same place, at the proper periods, its odor may, perhaps, repel the fly, the eggs of which produce the "gout in the head," as it is termed. However valuable it may be as a medicine, and even as a debergent in the case specified, there is but slight ground for confidence in it merely as a condiment. _Dry_, _sweet pastures_, and such as abound in aromatic and bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal, with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of plants. They eat many which are rejected by the horse and the ox, which are even essential to their own wants. In this respect they are valuable assistants to the husbandman, as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdock, thistles, marsh-mallows, milk-weed, and various other offending plants; and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the range of his selections. In pastures, however, where the dry stalks of the burdock, or the hound's-tongue, or tory-weed have remained standing over the winter, the burs are caught in the now long wool, and, if they are numerous, the wool is rendered entirely unmarketable and almost valueless. Even the dry prickles of the common and Canada thistles, where they are very numerous, get into the neck-wool of sheep, as they thrust their heads under and among them to crop the first scarce feed of the northern spring; and, independently of injuring the wool, they make it difficult to wash and otherwise handle the sheep. Indeed, it is a matter of the soundest policy to keep sheep on the cleanest pastures, those free from these and similar plants; and in a region where they are pastured the year round, they should be kept from contact with them for some months prior to shearing. Many prepare _artificial pastures_ for their flocks, which may be done with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without injury to the crop; and, in the following spring, the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may be sown broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard is also a valuable crop for this purpose. To give sheep sufficient variety, it is better _to divide their range_ into several smaller ones, and change them as often, at least, as once a week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. By removing them from this for a few days, rain will cleanse or the sun dry it, so as to make it again suitable for them. More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same pasture. SHADE. No one who has observed with what eagerness sheep seek shade in hot weather, and how they pant and apparently suffer when a hot sun is pouring down upon their nearly naked bodies, will doubt that, both as a matter of humanity and utility, they should be provided, during the hot summer-months, with a better shelter than that afforded by a common rail-fence. Forest trees are the most natural and the best shades, and it is as contrary to utility as it is to good taste to strip them entirely from the sheep-walks. A strip of stone-wall or close board fence on the south and west sides of the pasture, forms a tolerable substitute for trees. But in the absence of all these and of buildings of any kind, a shade can be cheaply constructed of poles and brush, in the same manner as the sheds of the same materials for winter shelter, which will be hereafter described. FENCES. Poor _fences_ will teach ewes and wethers, as well as rams, to jump; and for a jumping flock there is no remedy but immoderately high fences, or extirpation. One jumper will soon teach the trick to a whole flock; and if one by chance is brought in, it should be immediately hoppled or killed. The last is by far the surest and safest remedy. HOPPLING is done by sewing the ends of a leather strap, broad at the extremities, so that it will not cut into the flesh, to a fore and hind leg, just above the pastern joints, leaving the legs at about the natural distance apart. _Clogging_ is fastening a billet of wood to the fore leg by a leather strap. _Yoking_ is fastening two rams two or three feet apart, by bows around their necks, inserted in a light piece of timber, some two or three inches in size. _Poking_ is done by inserting a bow in a short bit of light timber, into which bit--worn on the under side of the neck--a rod is inserted, which projects a couple of feet in front of the sheep. These and similar devices, to prevent rams from scaling fences, may be employed as a last resort by those improvident farmers who prefer, by such troublesome, injurious, and, at best, insecure means, to guard against that viciousness which they might so much more easily have prevented from being acquired. DANGEROUS RAMS. From being teased and annoyed by boys, or petted and played with when young, and sometimes without any other stimulant than a naturally vicious temper, rams occasionally become very troublesome by their propensity to attack men or cattle. Some will allow no man to enter the field where they are without making an immediate onset upon him; while others will knock down the ox or horse which presumes to dispute a lock of hay with them. A ram which is known to have acquired this propensity should at once be _hooded_, and, if not valuable, at the proper season converted into a wether. But the courage thus manifested is usually the concomitant of great strength and vigor of constitution, and of a powerfully developed frame. If good in other particulars, it is a pity to lose the services of so valuable an animal. In such cases, they may be hooded, by covering their faces with leather in such a manner that they can only see a little backward and forward. They must then, however, be kept apart from the flock of rams, or they will soon be killed or injured by blows, which they cannot see to escape. It sometimes happens that a usually quiet-tempered ram will suddenly exhibit some pugnacity when one is salting or feeding the flock. If such a person turns to run, he is immediately knocked down, and the ram learns, from that single lesson, the secret of his mastery, and the propensity to exercise it. As the ram gives his blow from the summit of the parietal and the posterior portion of the frontal bones on _the top_ of his head, and not from the forehead, he is obliged to crouch his head so low when he makes his onset that he does not see forward well enough to swerve suddenly from his right line, and a few quick motions to the right and left enable one to escape him. Run in upon him, as he dashes by, with pitch-fork, club, or boot-heel, and punish him severely by blows about the head, if the club is used, giving him no time to rally until he is thoroughly cowed. This may be deemed harsh treatment, and likely to increase the viciousness of the animal. Repeated instances have, however, proved the contrary; and if the animal once is forced to acknowledge that he is overcome, he never forgets the lesson. PRAIRIE FEEDING. Sheep, when destined for the prairies, ought to commence their journey as early after the shearing as possible, since they are then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and retain as much dust as when driven later; feed is also generally better, and the roads are dry and hard. Young and healthy sheep should be selected, with early lambs; or, if the latter are too young, and the distance great, they should be left, and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought to accompany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out; or they may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With good care, a hardy flock may be driven at the rate of twelve or fourteen miles a day. Constant watchfulness is requisite, in order to keep them healthy and in good plight. One-half the expense of driving may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-dogs. When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to any diseases which they may have contracted, that these may be promptly removed. A variety of suitable food and good shelter must be provided for the autumn, winter, and spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given to them. This would be necessary if they were indigenous to the country; but it is much more so when they have just undergone a campaign to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed. Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care, artificial food, and proper attention; and losses have often occurred, by reason of a false system of economy attempted by many, from disease and mortality in the flocks, amply sufficient to have made a generous provision for the comfort and security of twice the number lost. More especially do they require proper food and attention after the first severe frosts set in, which wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the bog--the frostbitten, dead grass--they are inevitably subject to constipation, which a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, etc., is alone sufficient to remove. Roots, grain, good hay, straw, corn-stalks, and pea or bean-vines are essential to the preservation of their health and thrift during the winter, everywhere north of thirty-nine degrees. In summer, the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine condition, till they shall have acquired a denser population of animals, when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows with the best varieties of artificial grasses. The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep introduced into the United States; and of such are the flocks made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners. Shepherd dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in these unfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a defence against the small prairie wolves, which prowl around the sheep, but have been rapidly thinned off by the settlers, and also as assistants to the shepherds in driving and herding their flocks on the open ground. FALL FEEDING. In the North, the grass often gets very short by the tenth or fifteenth of November, and it has lost most of its nutritiousness from repeated freezing and thawing. At this time, although no snow may have fallen, it is best to give the sheep a light, daily foddering of bright hay, and a few oats in the bundle. Given thus for the ten or twelve days which precede the covering of the ground by snow, fodder pays for itself as well as at any other time during the year. It is well to feed oats in the bundle, or threshed oats, about a gill to the head, in the feeding-troughs, carried to the field for that purpose. WINTER FEEDING. The time for taking sheep from the pastures must depend on the state of the weather and food. Severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, and they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. Long exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, will rapidly reduce the condition of these animals. The only safe rule is to transfer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to thrive abroad. There is no better food for sheep than well-ripened, sound Timothy hay; though the clovers and nearly all the cultivated grasses may be advantageously fed. Hundreds and thousands of northern flocks receive, during the entire winter, nothing but ordinary hay, consisting mainly of Timothy, some red and white clover, and frequently a sprinkling of gum, or spear grass. Bean and pea straw are valuable, especially the former, which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; and it is well adapted to the production of wool. Where hay is the principal feed, it may be well, where it is convenient, to give corn-stalks every fifth or sixth feed, or even once a day; or the daily feed, not of hay, might alternate between stalks, pea-straw, straws of the cereal grains, etc. It is mainly a question of convenience with the farmer, provided a proper supply of palatable nutriment within a proper compass is given. It would not, however, be entirely safe to confine any kind of sheep to the straw of the cereal grains, unless it were some of those little hardy varieties of animals which would be of no use in this country. The expediency of feeding _grain_ to store-sheep in winter depends much on circumstances. If in a climate where they can obtain a proper supply of grass or other green esculents, it would, of course, be unnecessary; nor is it a matter of necessity where the ground is frozen or covered with snow for weeks or months, provided the sheep be plentifully supplied with good dry fodder. Near markets where the coarser grains find a quick sale at fair prices, it is not usual, in the North, to feed grain. Remote from markets it is generally fed by the holders of large flocks. Oats are commonly preferred, and they are fed at the rate of a gill a head per day. Some feed half the same amount of yellow corn. Fewer sheep, particularly lambs and yearlings, get thin and perish where they receive a daily feed of grain; they consume less hay, and their fleeces are increased in weight. On the whole, therefore, it is considered good economy. Where no grain is fed, three daily feeds of hay are given. The smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two pounds of hay; but larger sheep will consume from three and a half to four or even five pounds per day. Sheep, in common with all other animals, when exposed to cold, will consume much more than if well protected, or during a warmer season. It is a common and very good practice to feed greenish cut oats in the bundle, at noon, and give but two feeds of hay, one at morning and one at night. Some feed greenish cut peas in the same way. In warm, thawing weather, when sheep get to the ground and refuse dry hay, a little grain assists materially in keeping up their strength and condition. When the feed is shortest in winter, in the South, there are many localities where sheep can get enough grass to take off their appetite for dry hay, but not quite enough to keep them in prime order. A moderate daily feed of oats or pease, placed in the depository racks, would keep them strong and in good plight for the lambing season, and increase their weight of wool. Few Northern farmers feed _Indian corn_ to store-sheep, as it is considered too hot and stimulating, and sheep are thought to become more liable to become "cloyed" on it than on oats, pease, etc. Yellow corn is not generally judged a very safe feed for lambs and yearlings. Store-sheep should be kept in good, fair, plump condition. Lambs and yearlings may be as fat as they will become on proper feeding. It is stated that sheep will eat _cotton-seed_, and thrive on it. It must be remembered that sheep are not to be allowed to get thin during the winter, with the idea that their condition can at any time be readily raised by better feed, as with the horse or ox. It is always difficult, and, unless properly managed, expensive and hazardous, to attempt to raise the condition of a poor flock in the winter, especially if they have reached that point where they manifest weakness. If the feeding of a liberal allowance of grain be suddenly commenced, fatal diarrh[oe]a will often supervene. All extra feeding, therefore, must be begun very gradually; and it does not appear, in any case, to produce proportionable results. _Roots_, such as ruta-bagas, Irish potatoes, and the like, make a good substitute for grain, or as extra feed for grown sheep. The ruta-baga is preferable to the potato in its equivalents of nutriment. No root, however, is as good for lambs and yearlings as an equivalent of grain. Sheep may be taught to eat nearly all the cultivated roots. This is done by withholding salt from them, and then feeding the chopped roots a few times, rubbed with just sufficient salt to induce them to eat the root to obtain it; but not enough to satisfy their appetite for salt before they have acquired a taste for the roots. It is customary with some farmers to cut down, from time to time in the winter, and draw into the sheep-yards, young trees of the _hemlock_, whose foliage is greedily eaten by the sheep, after being confined for some time to dry feed. This browse is commonly used, like tar, for some supposed medicinal virtues. It is pronounced "healthy" for sheep. Much the same remarks might be made about this as have been already made concerning tar. No tonics and stimulants are needed for a healthy animal. If the foliage of the hemlock were constantly accessible to them, there would be no possible objection to their eating it, since their instincts, in that case, would teach them whether, and in what quantities, to devour it; but when entirely confined to dry feed for a protracted period, sheep will consume injurious and even poisonous succulents, and of the most wholesome ones, hurtful quantities. As a mere _laxative_, an occasional feed of hemlock may be beneficial; though, in this point of view, a day's run at grass, in a thaw, or a feed of roots, would produce the same result. In a climate where grass is procurable most of the time, browse for medicinal purposes is entirely unnecessary. Sheep undoubtedly require _salt_ in winter. Some salt their hay when it is stored in the barn or stack. This is objectionable, since the appetite of the sheep is much the safest guide in the premises. It may be left accessible to them in the salt-box, as in summer; or an occasional feed of grined hay or straw may be given them in warm, thawing weather, when their appetite is poor. This last is an excellent plan, and serves a double purpose. With a wisp of straw, sprinkle a thin layer of straw with brine, then another layer of straw, and another sprinkling, and so on. Let this lie until the next day, for the brine to be absorbed by the straw, and then feed it to all the grazing animals on the farm which need salting. _Water_ is indispensable, unless sheep have access to succulent food, or clean snow. Constant access to a brook or spring is best; but, in default of this, they should be watered at least _once a day_ in some other way. FEEDING WITH OTHER STOCK. Sheep should not run, or be fed, _in yards_, with any other stock. Cattle hook them, often mortally; and colts tease and frequently injure them. It is often said that "colts will pick up what sheep leave." But well-managed sheep rarely leave any thing; and, if they chance so to do, it is better to rake it up and throw it into the colts' yard, than to feed them together. If sheep are not required to eat their food pretty clean, they will soon learn to waste large quantities. If, however, they are over-fed with either hay or grain, it is not proper to compel them, by starvation, to come back and eat it. This they will not do, unless sorely pinched. Clean out the troughs, or rake up the hay, and the next time feed less. DIVISION OF FLOCKS. If flocks are shut up in small inclosures during winter, according to the northern custom, it is necessary to divide them into flocks of about one hundred each, consisting of sheep of about the same size and strength; otherwise, the stronger rob the weaker, and the latter rapidly decline. This is not so important where the sheep roam at large; but, even in that case, some division and classification are best. It is best, indeed, even in summer. The poorer and feebler can by this means receive better pasture, or a little more grain and better shelter in winter. By those who grow wool to any extent, breeding ewes, lambs, and wethers, are invariably kept in separate flocks in winter; and it is best to keep yearling sheep by themselves with a few of the smallest two-year-olds, and any old crones which are kept for their excellence as breeders, but which cannot maintain themselves in the flock of breeding ewes. Old and feeble or wounded sheep, late-born lambs, etc., should be placed by themselves, even if the number be small, as they require better feed, warmer shelter, and more attention. Unless the sheep are of a peculiarly valuable variety, however, it is better to sell them off in the fall at any price, or to give them to some poor neighbor who has time to nurse them, and who may thus commence a flock. REGULARITY IN FEEDING. If any one principle in sheep husbandry deserves careful attention more than others, it is, that _the utmost regularity must be preserved in feeding_. First, there should be regularity as to _the times_ of feeding. However abundantly provided for, when a flock are foddered sometimes at one hour and sometimes at another--sometimes three times a day, and sometimes twice--some days grain, and some days none--they cannot be made to thrive. They will do far better on inferior keep, if fed with strict regularity. In a climate where they require hay three times a day, the best times for feeding are about sunrise in the morning, at noon, and an hour before dark at night. Unlike cattle and horses, sheep do not feed well in the dark; and, therefore, they should have time to consume their food before night sets in. Noon is the common time for feeding grain or roots, and is the best time, if but two fodderings of hay are given. If the sheep receive hay three times, it is not a matter of much consequence with which feeding grain is given, only that the practice be uniform. Secondly, it is highly essential that there should be regularity in _the amount_ fed. The consumption of hay will, it is true, depend much upon the weather; the keener the cold, the more the sheep will eat. In the South, much depends upon the amount of grass obtained. In many places, a light, daily foddering supplies; in others, a light foddering placed in the depository racks once in two days, answers the purpose. In the steady cold weather of the North, the shepherd readily learns to determine about how much hay will be consumed before the next foddering time. And this amount should, as near as may be, be regularly fed. In feeding grain or roots, there is no difficulty in preserving entire regularity; and it is vastly more important than in feeding hay. Of the latter, a sheep will not over-eat and surfeit itself; of the former, it will. Even if it be not fed grain to the point of surfeiting, it will expect a like amount, however over-plenteous, at the next feeding; failing to receive which, it will pine for it, and manifest uneasiness. The effect of such irregularity on the stomach and system of any animal is bad; and the sheep suffers more from it than any other animal. It is much better that the flock receive no grain at all, than that they receive it without regard to regularity in the amount. The shepherd should _measure_ out the grain to the sheep in all instances, instead of _guessing_ it out, and measure it to each separate flock. EFFECT OF FOOD. Well-fed sheep, as has been previously remarked, produce more wool than poorly fed ones. No doctrine is more clearly recognized in agricultural chemistry than that animal tissues derive their chemical components from the same components existing in their food. Various analyses show that the chemical composition of wool, hair, hoofs, nails, horns, feathers, lean meat, blood, cellular tissue, nerves, etc., are nearly identical. The organic part of wool, according to standard authorities, consists of carbon, 50.65; hydrogen, 7.03; nitrogen, 17.71; oxygen and sulphur, 24.61. The inorganic constituents are small. When burned, it leaves but a trifling per cent. of ash. The large quantity of nitrogen contained in wool shows that its production is increased by highly azotized food; and from various experiments made, a striking correspondence has been found to exist between the amount of wool and the amount of nitrogen in food. _Pease_ rank first in increasing the wool, and very high in the average comparative increase which they produce in all the tissues. The increase of fat and muscle, as of wool, depends upon the nature of the food. It is not very common, in the North, for wool-growers to fatten their wethers for market by extra winter feeding. Some give them a little more generous keep the winter before they are to be turned off, and then salt them when they have obtained their maximum fatness the succeeding fall. Stall-feeding is lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty animal. The perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition which characterizes the thrifty one, indicate, too plainly to be misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their owner. The selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fattening will inevitably be attended with loss. Such ought to be got rid of, when first brought from the pasture, for the wool they will bring. When winter fattening is attempted, sheep require warm, dry shelters, and should receive, in addition to all the hay they will eat, meal twice a day in troughs--or meal once and chopped roots once. The equivalent of from half a pint to a pint of yellow corn meal per head each day is about as much as ordinary stocks of Merino wethers will profitably consume; though in selected flocks, consisting of large animals, this amount is frequently exceeded. YARDS. Experience has amply demonstrated that--in the climate of the Northern and Eastern States, where no grass grows from four to four and a half months in the winter, and where, therefore, all that can be obtained from the ground is the repeatedly frozen, unnutritious herbage left in the fall--it is better to keep sheep confined in yards, excepting where the ground is covered with snow. If suffered to roam over the fields at other times, they get enough grass to take away their appetite for dry hay, but not enough to sustain them; they fall away, and toward spring they become weak, and a large proportion of them frequently perish. Flocks of some size are here, of course, alluded to, and on properly stocked farms. A few sheep would do better with a boundless range. Some let out their sheep occasionally for a single day, during a thaw; others keep them entirely from the ground until let out to grass in the spring. The former course is preferable where the sheep ordinarily get nothing but dry fodder. It affords a healthy laxative, and a single day's grazing will not take off their appetite from more than one succeeding dry feed. It is necessary, in the North, to keep sheep in the yards until the feed has got a good start in the spring, or they will get off from their feed--particularly the breeding ewes--and get weak at the most critical time for them in the year. Yards should be firm-bottomed, dry, and, in the northern climate, kept well littered with straw. The yarding system is not practised to any great extent in the South; nor should it be, where sheep can get their living from the fields. FEEDING-RACKS. When the ground is frozen, and especially when covered with snow, the sheep eats hay well on the ground; but when the land is soft, muddy, or foul with manure, they will scarcely touch hay placed on it--or, if they do, will tread much of it into the mud, in their restlessness while feeding. It should then be fed in racks, which are more economical, even in the first-named case; since, when the hay is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are almost wholly lost. [Illustration: A CONVENIENT BOX-RACK.] To make an economical _box-rack_--the one in most general use in the North--take six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of pine or hemlock, twelve or fifteen feet long, and twelve or fourteen inches wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends, two and a half feet long. Boards twelve inches wide, raised above the lower ones by a space of from nine to twelve inches, are nailed on the sides and ends, which completes the rack. The edges of the opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing or tearing out the wool. The largest dimensions given are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for the Saxon; and still smaller are proper for the lambs. These should be set on dry ground, or under the sheds; and they can be easily removed wherever necessary. Unless over-fed, sheep waste very little hay in them. Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the form of the common horse-rack. This kind should always be accompanied by a broad trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay which falls in feeding. These racks may be attached to the side of a building, or used double. A small lamb requires fifteen inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, comfortable feeding; and this amount of room, at least, should be provided around the racks for every sheep. [Illustration: A HOLE-RACK.] With what is termed a _hole-rack_, sheep do not crowd and take advantage of each other so much as with log-racks; but they are too heavy and unnecessarily expensive for a common out-door rack. This rack is box-shaped, with the front formed of a board nailed on horizontally, or, more commonly, by nailing the boards perpendicularly, the bottoms on the sill of a barn, and the tops to horizontal pieces of timber. The holes should be at least eight inches wide, nine inches high, and eighteen inches from centre to centre. In the South, racks are not so necessary for that constant use to which they are put in colder sections, as they are for depositories of dry food, for the occasional visitation of the sheep. In soft, warm weather, when the ground is unfrozen, and any kind of green herbage is to be obtained, sheep will scarcely touch dry fodder; though the little they will then eat will be highly serviceable to them. But in a sudden freeze, or on the occurrence of cold storms, they will resort to the racks, and fill themselves with dry food. They anticipate the coming storm by instinct, and eat an extra quantity of food to sustain the animal heat during the succeeding depression of temperature. They should always have racks of dry fodder for resort in such emergencies. These racks should have covers or roofs to protect their contents from rain, as otherwise the feed would often be spoiled before but a small portion of it would be consumed. Hay or straw, saturated with water, or soaked and dried, is only eaten by the sheep as a matter of absolute necessity. The common box-rack would answer the purpose very well by placing on the top a triangular cover or roof, formed of a couple of boards, one hung at the upper edge with iron or leather hinges, so that it could be lifted up like a lid; making the ends tight; drawing in the lower edges of the sides, so that it should not be more than a foot wide on the bottom; inserting a flow; and then mounting it on, and making it fast to, two cross-sills, four or five inches square, to keep the floor off from the ground, and long enough to prevent it from being easily overturned. The lower side-board should be narrow, on account of the increased height given its upper edge by the sills. A rack of the same construction, with the sides like those described for the hole-rack, would be still better, though somewhat more expensive; or the sides might consist of rundles, the top being nailed down in either case, and the fodder inserted by little doors in the ends. [Illustration: THE HOPPER-RACK.] What is termed the _hopper-rack_, serving both for a rack and a feeding-trough, is a favorite with many sheep-owners. The accompanying cut represents a section of such a rack. A piece of durable wood, about four and a half feet long, six or eight inches deep, and four inches thick, having two notches, _a a_, cut into it, and two troughs, made of inch boards, _b b b b_, placed in these notches, and nailed fast, constitute the formation. If the rack is to be fourteen feet long, three sills are required. The ends of the rack are made by nailing against the side of the sill-boards that reach up as high as it is desired to have the rack; and nails driven through these end-boards into the ends of the side-boards, _f f_, secure them. The sides may be further strengthened by pieces of board on the outside of them, fitted into the trough. A roof may be put over all, if desired, by means of which the fodder is kept entirely from the weather, and no seeds or chaff can get into the wool. TROUGHS. Threshed grain, chopped roots, etc., when fed to sheep, should be placed in troughs. With either of the racks which have been described, except the last, a separate trough would be required. The most economical are made of two boards of any convenient length, ten to twelve inches wide. Nail the lower side of one upon the edge of the other, fastening both into a two or three-inch plank, fifteen inches long, and a foot wide, notched in its upper edge in the form required. In snowy sections they are turned over after feeding, and when falls of snow are anticipated one end is laid on the yard-fence. [Illustration: AN ECONOMICAL SHEEP-TROUGH.] Various contrivances have been brought to notice for keeping grain where sheep can feed on it at will, a description of which is omitted, since it is not thought best, by the most successful stock-raisers, in feeding or fattening any quadrupeds, to allow them grain at will, stated feeds being preferred by them; and the same is true of fodder. If this system is departed from in using depository racks, as recommended, it is because it is rendered necessary by the circumstances of the case. A Merino store-sheep, allowed as much grain as it chose to consume, would be likely to inflict injury on itself; and grain so fed would, generally speaking, be productive of more damage than benefit. BARNS AND SHEDS. Shelters, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable sheep-raising; and in every latitude north of the Gulf of Mexico, they would probably be found advantageous. An animal eats much less when thus protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, and his manure is richer and more abundant. The feeding may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under cover in severe storms: for, even in the vigorous climate of the North, none but the breeders of Saxons make a regular practice of feeding under cover. [Illustration: SHEEP-BARN WITH SHEDS.] Humanity and economy alike dictate that, in the North, sheep should be provided with shelters under which to lie nights, and to which they can resort at will. It is not an uncommon circumstance in New York and New England for snow to fall to the depth of from twenty to thirty inches within twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and then to be succeeded by a strong and intensely cold west or northwest wind of several days continuance, which lifts the snow, blocking up the roads, and piling huge drifts to the leeward of fences, barns, etc. A flock without shelter will huddle closely together, turning their backs to the storm, constantly stepping, and thus treading down the snow as it rises about them. Strong, close-coated sheep do not seem to suffer as much from the cold, for a period, as would be expected. It is, however, almost impossible to feed them enough, or half enough, under such circumstances, without an immense waste of hay--entirely impossible, indeed, without racks. The hay is whirled away in an instant by the wind; and, even if racks are used, the sheep, leaving their huddle, where they were kept warm and even moist by the melting snow in their wool, soon get chilled, and are disposed to return to their huddle. Imperfectly filled with food, the supply of animal heat is lowered, and, at the end of the second or third day, the feeble ones sink down hopelessly, the yearlings, and those somewhat old, receive a shock from which nothing but the most careful nursing will enable them to rally, and even the strongest suffer an injurious loss in condition. Few persons, therefore, who own as many as forty or fifty sheep, attempt to get along without some kind of shelters, which are variously constructed, to suit their tastes or circumstances. A sheep-barn, built upon a side-hill, will afford two floors: one underneath, surrounded by three sides of wall, should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to guard against storms; and another may be provided above, if the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry off the urine; and sufficient storage for the fodder can be furnished by scaffolds overhead. They may also be constructed with twelve or fifteen-feet posts on level ground, allowing the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored above. In all cases, however, _thorough ventilation should be provided_; for of the two evils, of exposure to cold or of too great privation of air, the former is to be preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement without injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed, closely boarded on three sides, with a light roof, is sufficient protection; especially if the open side is shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-inclosed yard. If the floors above are used for storage, they should be made tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece. The sheds attached to the barn are not usually framed or silled, but are supported by some posts of durable timber set in the ground. The roofs are formed of boards battened with slats. The barn has generally no partitions within, and is entirely filled with hay. There are many situations in which open sheds are very liable to have snow drifted under them by certain winds, and they are subject in all severe gales to have the snow carried over them to fall down in large drifts in front, which gradually encroach on the sheltered space, and are very inconvenient, particularly when they thaw. For these reasons, many prefer sheep-houses covered on all sides, with the exception of a wide doorway for ingress and egress, and one or two windows for the necessary ventilation. They are convenient for yarding sheep, and the various processes for which this is required; as for shearing, marking, sorting, etc., and especially so for lambing-places, or the confinement of newly-shorn sheep in cold storms. They should have so much space that, in addition to the outside racks, others can be placed temporarily through the middle when required. The facts must not be overlooked--as bearing upon the question of shelter, even in the warmer regions of the country--that cold rains, or rains of any temperature, when immediately succeeded by cold or freezing weather, or cold, piercing winds, are more hurtful to sheep than even snow-storms; and that, consequently, sheep must be adequately guarded against them. [Illustration: A SHED OF RAILS.] SHEDS. The simplest and cheapest kind of shed is formed by poles or rails, the upper end resting on a strong horizontal pole supported by crotched posts set in the ground. It may be rendered rain-proof by pea-vines, straw, or pine boughs. In a region where timber is very cheap, planks or boards, of a sufficient thickness not to spring downward, and thus open the roof, battened with slats, may take the place of the poles and boughs; and they would make a tighter and more durable roof. If the lower ends of the boards or poles are raised a couple of feet from the ground, by placing a log under them, the shed will shelter more sheep. These movable sheds may be connected with hay-barns--"hay-barracks"--or they may surround an inclosed space with a stack in the middle. In the latter case, the yard should be square, on account of the divergence in the lower ends of the boards or poles, which a round form would render necessary. Sheds of this description are frequently made between two stacks. The end of the horizontal supporting-pole is placed on the stack-pens when the stacks are built, and the middle is propped by crotched posts. The supporting-pole may rest, in the same way, on the upper girts of two hay-barracks; or two such sheds, at angles with each other, might form wings to this structure. On all large sheep-farms, convenience requires that there be one barn of considerable size, to contain the shearing-floor, and the necessary conveniences about it for yarding the sheep, etc. This should also, for the sake of economy, be a hay-barn, where hay is used. It may be constructed in the corner of four fields, so that four hundred sheep can be fed from it, without racking flocks of improper size. At this barn it would be expedient to make the best shelters, and to bring together all the breeding-ewes on the farm, if their number does not exceed four hundred. The shepherd would thus be saved much travel at all times, and particularly at the lambing-time, and each flock would be under his almost constant supervision. The size of this barn is a question to be determined entirely by the climate. For large flocks of sheep, the storage of some hay or other fodder for winter is an indispensable precautionary measure, at least in any part of the United States; and, other things being equal, the farther north, or the more elevated the land, the greater would be the amount necessary to be stored. HAY-HOLDER. Where hay or other fodder is thrown out of the upper door of a barn into the sheep-yard--as it always must necessarily be in any mere hay-barn--or where it is thrown from a barrack or stack, the sheep immediately rush on it, trampling it and soiling it, and the succeeding forkfuls fall on their backs, filling their wool with dust, seed, and chaff. This is obviated by hay-holders--yards ten feet square--either portable, by being made of posts and boards, or simply a pen of rails, placed under the doors of the barns, and by the sides of each stack or barrack. The hay is pitched into this holder in fair weather, enough for a day's foddering at a time, and is taken from it by the fork and placed in the racks. The poles or rails for stack-pens or hay-holders should be so small as to entirely prevent the sheep from inserting their heads in them after hay. A sheep will often insert his head where the opening is wide enough for that purpose, shove it along, or get crowded, to where the opening is not wide enough to withdraw the head, and it will hang there until observed and extricated by the shepherd. If, as often happens, it is thus caught when its foreparts are elevated by climbing up the side of the pen, it will continue to lose its footing in its struggles, and will soon choke to death. TAGGING. Tagging, or clatting, is the removal from the sheep of such wool as is liable to get fouled when the animal is turned on to the fresh pastures. If sheep are kept on dry feed through the winter, they will usually purge, more or less, when let out to green feed in the spring. The wool around and below the anus becomes saturated with dung, which forms into hard pellets, if the purging ceases. Whether this take place or not, the adhering dung cannot be removed from the wool in the ordinary process of washing; and it forms a great impediment in shearing, dulling and straining the shears to cut through it, when in a dry state, and it is often impracticable so to do. Besides, it is difficult to force the shears between it and the skin, without frequently and severely wounding the latter. Occasionally, too, flies deposit their eggs under this mass of filth prior to shearing; and the ensuing swarm of maggots, unless speedily discovered and removed, will lead the sheep to a miserable death. Before the animals are let out to grass, each one should have the wool sheared from the roots of the tail down the inside of the thighs; it should likewise be sheared from off the entire bag of the ewe, that the newly-dropped lamb may more readily find the teat, and from the scrotum, and so much space round the point of the sheath of the ram as is usually kept wet. If the latter place is neglected, soreness and ulceration sometimes ensue from the constant maceration of the urine. An assistant should catch the sheep and hold them while they are tagged. The latter process requires a good shearer, as the wool must be cut off closely and smoothly, or the object is but half accomplished, and the sheep will have an unsightly and ridiculous appearance when the remainder of their fleeces is taken off; while, on the other hand, it is not only improper to cut the skin of a sheep at any time, but it is peculiarly so to cut that or the bag of a ewe when near lambing. The wool saved by tagging will far more than pay the expenses of the operation. It answers well for stockings and other domestic purposes, or it will sell for nearly half the price of fleece-wool. Care should be exercised at all times in handling sheep, especially ewes heavy with lamb. It is highly injurious and unsafe to chase them about and handle them roughly; for, even if abortion, the worst consequence of such treatment, is avoided, they become timid and shy of being touched, rendering it difficult to catch them or render them assistance at the lambing period, and even a matter of difficulty to enter the cotes, in which it is sometimes necessary to confine them at that time, without having them driving about pell-mell, running over their lambs, etc. If a sheep is suddenly caught by the wool on her running, or is lifted by the wool, the skin is to a certain extent loosened from the body at the points where it is thus seized; and, if killed a day or two afterward, blood will be found settled about those parts. When sheep are to be handled, they should be inclosed in a yard just large enough to hold them without their being crowded, so that they shall have no chance to run and dash about. The catcher should stop them by seizing them by the hind-leg just above the hock, or by clapping one hand before the neck and the other behind the buttocks. Then, not waiting for the sheep to make a violent struggle, he should throw its right arm over and about immediately back of the shoulders, place his hand on the brisket, and lift the animal on his hip. If the sheep is very heavy, he can throw both arms around it, clasp his fingers under the brisket, and lift it up against the front part of his body. He should then set it carefully on its rump upon the tagging-table, which should be eighteen or twenty inches high, support its back with his legs, and hold it gently and conveniently until the tagger has performed his duty. Two men should not be allowed to lift the same sheep together, as it will be pretty sure to receive some strain between them. A good shearer and assistant will tag two hundred sheep per day. When sheep receive green feed all the year round--as they do in many parts of the South--and no purging ensues from eating the newly-starting grasses in the spring, tagging is unnecessary. WASHING. Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, on account of its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal affections, to which this animal is particularly subject; but it cannot well be dispensed with, as the wool is always rendered more salable; and if the operation is carefully done, it need not be attended with injury. Mr. Randall, the extensive sheep-breeder of Texas, states that he does not wash his sheep at all, for what he deems good reasons. About the middle of April, or at the time when one-half of the ewes have young lambs at their sides, and the balance about to drop, would be the only time in that region when he could wash them. At this period he would not race or worry his ewes at all, on any account; as they should be troubled as little as possible, and no advantage to the fleece from washing could compensate for the injury to the animal. In his high mountain-region, lambing-time could not prudently come before the latter part of March or April--the very period when washing and shearing must be commenced--since in February, and even up to the fifteenth or twentieth of March, there is much bad weather, and a single cold, rainy or sleety norther would carry off one-half of the lambs dropped during its continuance. In most of that portion of the United States lying north of forty degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of May till the first of June, according to the season and climate. When the streams are hard, which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it is better to attend to it immediately after an abundant rain, which proportionately lessens the lime derived from the springs. The climate of the Southern States would admit of an earlier time. The rule should be to wait until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and until cold rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be expected. The practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their sheep to the watering-ground early in the morning, on a warm day, leaving the lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure, from which they are taken, and, if not too heavy, carried into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom. They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after which they are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as possible before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and throws them down. By the best flock-masters, sheep are usually washed in vats. A small stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in an aqueduct, formed by nailing boards together, and carried till a sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple of feet or more into the vat. The body of water, to do the work fast and well, should be some twenty-four inches wide, and five or six deep; and the swifter the current the better. The vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the vat, from the gate of which a platform extends to and incloses the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer from standing in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and out. The yard is built opposite the corners of two fields--to take advantage of the angle of one of them to drive the sheep more readily into the yard, which should be large enough to contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two hundred; and the bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, unless well sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid becoming muddy. If the same establishment is used by a number of flock-masters, gravelling will always be necessary. [Illustration: WASHING APPARATUS.] As soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the lambs are all immediately caught out from among them, and set over the fence into the yard to the left, to prevent their being trampled down, as often happens, by the old sheep, or straying off, if let loose. As many sheep are then driven out of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the right, as it will conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat, to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain and weight, and two men, catching the sheep as directed under the head of "tagging," commence placing them in the water for the preparatory process of "wetting." As soon as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an instant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose. Where there are conveniences for so doing, this process may be more readily performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to compel the sheep to swim; but _swimming_ the compact-fleeced, fine-woolled sheep for any length of time--as is practised with the long-wools in England--will not properly cleanse the wool for steaming. The vat should, of course, be in an inclosed field, to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus be passed over, and again driven round through the field into the middle yard, where they should stand for about an hour before washing commences. There is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, which acts upon the dirt independent of the favorable effect which would result from thus soaking it with water alone for some time. If washed soon after a good shower, previous wetting might be dispensed with; and it is not, perhaps, absolutely necessary in any case. If the water is warm enough to allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they may be got clean by washing without any previous wetting; though the snowy whiteness of fleece, which has such an influence on the purchaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained in the latter way. But little time is saved by dispensing with "wetting," as it takes proportionably longer to wash, and it is not so well for the sheep to be kept so long in the water at once. When the washing commences, two and sometimes four sheep are plunged in the vat. When four are put in, two soak while two are washed. This should not, however, be done, unless the water is very warm, and the washers are uncommonly quick and expert; and it is, upon the whole, rather an objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much from the effects of a chill as the sheep; and, if they have been previously wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. When the sheep are in the water, the two washers commence kneading the wool with their hands about the dirtier parts--the breech, belly, etc.--and they continue to turn the sheep so that the descending current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the water running entirely clear, each washer seizes his own animal by the foreparts, plunges it deep in the vats, and, taking advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently down on its breech upon the platform. He then--if the sheep is old and weak, and it is well in all cases--presses out some of the water from the wool, and after submitting the sheep to a process presently to be mentioned, lets it go. There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not covered with sod, being gravelled. Sheep should be kept on clean pastures, from washing to shearing--not where they can come in contact with the ground, burnt logs, and the like--and they should not be driven over dusty roads. The washers should be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are from any thing but the water running over the sides of the vat, they can labor several hours without inconvenience. Two hundred sheep will employ two experienced men not over half a day, and this rate is at times much exceeded. It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and honesty, but even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, and of a snowy whiteness, in which condition it will always sell for more than enough extra to offset the increased labor and the diminution in weight. The average loss in American Saxon wool in scouring, after being washed on the back, is estimated at thirty-six per cent.; and in American Merino forty-two and a half per cent. CUTTING THE HOOFS. As the hoofs of fine-woolled sheep grow rapidly, turning up in front and under at the sides, they must be clipped as often as once a year, or they become unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the animal, and the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it from being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the foot in the natural movement of the sheep about the pastures, as would take place were the hoof in its proper place. This greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and renders the curing of it more difficult; and it is thought by many to be the exciting cause of the disease. It is customary to clip the hoofs at tagging, or at or soon after the time of shearing. Some employ a chisel and mallet to shorten the hoofs; but the animal must afterward be turned upon its back, to pare off the crust which projects and turns under. If the weather be dry, or the sheep have stood for some time on dry straw, as at shearing, the hoofs are as tough as horn, and are cut with great difficulty; and this is increased by the grit and dirt adhering to the sole, which immediately takes the edge off from the knife. These periods are ill-chosen, and the method slow and bungling. It is particularly improper to submit heavily-pregnant ewes to all this unnecessary handling at the time of tagging. When the sheep is washed and lifted out of the vat, and placed on its rump upon the platform, the gate-keeper should advance with a pair of toe-nippers, and the washer present each foot separately, pressing the toes together so that they can be severed at a single clip. The nippers--which can be made by any blacksmith who can temper an axe or a chisel--must be made strong, with handles a little more than a foot long, the rivet being of half-inch iron, and confined with a nut, so that they may be taken apart for sharpening. The cutting-edge should descend upon a strip of copper inserted in the iron, to prevent it from being dulled. With this powerful instrument, the largest hoofs are severed by a moderate compression of the hand. Two well-sharpened knives, which should be kept in a stand or box within reach, are then grasped by the washer and assistant, and with two dexterous strokes to each foot, the side-crust, being free from dirt, and soaked almost as soft as a cucumber, is reduced to the level of the sole. Two expert men will go through these processes in a very short space of time. The closer the paring and clipping the better, if blood be not drawn. An occasional sheep may require clipping again in the fall. [Illustration: TOE-NIPPERS.] SHEARING. The time which should elapse between washing and shearing depends altogether on circumstances. From four to six days of bright, warm weather is sufficient; if cold, or rainy, or cloudy, more time must intervene. Sometimes the wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing for a fortnight after washing. The rule to be observed is, that the water should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling, and a lively, glittering look. If it is sheared when dry, like cotton, and before the oil has exuded, it is very difficult to thrust the shears through, the umer is checked, and the wool will not keep so well for long periods. If it is left until it gets too oily, either the manufacturer is cheated, or, what more frequently happens, the owner loses on the price. [Illustration: FLEECE.] Shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing-floors of the barns--sometimes upon low platforms, some eighteen or twenty inches high, but more commonly on the floor itself. The place where the sheep remain should be well littered down with straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the sheep clean while shearing. No chaff or other substance which will stick in the wool should be used for this purpose. The shearing should not commence until the dew, if any, has dried off from the sheep. All loose straws sticking to the wool should be picked off, and whatever dung may adhere to any of the feet brushed off. The floor or tables used should be planed or worn perfectly smooth, so that they will not hold dirt, or catch the wool. They should all be thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to the process. If there are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging, or other causes, they should first be caught out, to prevent them from contaminating others. The manner of shearing varies with almost every district; and it is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skilfully shearing a sheep. Practice is requisite. The following directions are as plain, perhaps, as can be made: The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture with his right knee on a cushion, and the back of the animal resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half-way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along the blades, which gives him better command of the points. He may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, proceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the edges of the flanks; then back to the brisket, and thence upward, shearing the wool from the breast, front, and both sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, and also the poll, or forepart, and top of the head. Then "the jacket is opened" of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, is changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side, one knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently pressing the fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any struggling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and thence onward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The sheep is then turned on the other side--in doing which great care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn--and the shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. He must then take the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass out, and neatly trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock anywhere as a lodging-place for ticks. It is absolutely necessary for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the useless stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece-wool. In the use of the shears, the blades should be laid as flat to the skin as possible, the points not lowered too much, nor should more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and frequently not so much, depending on the part, and the compactness of the wool. The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and even. It may, indeed, be cut too close, so that the sheep can scarcely avoid sun-scald; but this is very unusual. If the wool is left in ridges, and uneven, it betrays a want of workmanship very distasteful to the really good farmer. Great care should be taken not to cut the wool twice in two, as inexperienced shearers are apt to do, since it is a great damage to the wool. This results from cutting too far from the points of the shears, and suffering them to get too elevated. In such cases, every time the shears are pushed forward, the wool before, cut off by the points, say a quarter or three-eighths of an inch from the hide, is again severed. To keep the fleece entire, which is of great importance to its good appearance when done up, and, therefore, to its salableness, it is very essential that the sheep be held easily for itself, so that it will not struggle violently. No man can hold it still by main strength, and shear it well. The posture of the shearer should be such that the sheep is actually confined to its position, so that it is unable to start up suddenly and tear its fleece; but it should not be confined there by severe pressure or force, or it will be continually kicking and struggling. Clumsy, careless men, therefore, always complain of getting the most troublesome sheep. The neck, for example, may be confined to the floor by placing it between the toe and knee of the leg on which the shearer kneels; but the lazy or brutal shearer who suffers his leg to rest directly on the neck, soon provokes that struggle which the animal is obliged to make to free itself from severe pain, and even, perhaps, to draw its breath. Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five Merinos per day; but a new beginner should not attempt to exceed from one-third to one-half of that number. It is the last process in the world which should be hurried, as the shearer will, in that case, soon leave more than enough wool on his sheep to pay for his day's wages. Wool ought not to be sheared, and must not be done up with any water in it. If wounds are made, as sometimes happens with unskilful operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied. Shearing lambs is, in the Northern climate, at least, an unprofitable practice; since the lamb, at a year old, will give the same amount of wool, and it is thus stripped of its natural protection from cold when it is young and tender, for the mere pittance of the interest on a pound, or a pound and a half of wool for six months, not more than two or three cents, and this all consumed by the expense of shearing. Much the same may be said of the custom, which obtains in some places, of shearing from sheep twice a year. There may be a reason for it, where they receive so little care that a portion are expected to disappear every half year, and the wool to be torn from the backs of the remainder by bushes, thorns, etc., if left for a long period; but when sheep are inclosed, and treated as domestic animals, although there may be less barbarity in shearing them in the fall also, than in the case of the tender lambs, there is no ground for it on the score of utility; since any gain accruing from it cannot pay the additional expense which it occasions. COLD STORMS occurring soon after shearing sometimes destroy sheep, in the northern portions of the country, especially the delicate Saxons; forty or fifty of which have, at times, perished out of a single flock, from one night's exposure. Sheep, in such cases, should be housed; or, where this is impracticable, driven into dense forests. SUN-SCALD. When they are sheared close in very hot weather, have no shade in their pastures, and especially where they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, over burning and dusty roads, their backs are sometimes so scorched by the sun that their wool comes off. If let alone, the matter is not a serious one; but the application of refuse lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the starting of the wool. TICKS. These vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy and enfeeble the sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely out of the flock. After shearing, the heat and cold, the rubbing and biting of the sheep, soon drive off the tick, and it takes refuge in the wool of the lamb. Let a fortnight elapse after shearing, to allow all to make this change of residence. Then boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to kill ticks beyond a peradventure, which may be ascertained by experiment. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco, or an equivalent in stems, and the like, may be made to answer for a hundred lambs. This decoction is poured into a deep, narrow box, kept for the purpose, which has an inclined shelf on one side, covered with a wooden grate. One man holds the lamb by its hind legs, while another clasps the fore legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the liquid from entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the water squeezed out of its wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on the other side. The grate conducts the fluid back into the box. If the lambs are regularly dipped every year, ticks will never trouble a flock. MARKING OR BRANDING. The sheep should be marked soon after shearing, or mistakes may occur. Every sheep-owner should be provided with a marking instrument, which will stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a small circle, an oval, a triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, and with uniformity, on the sheep. It is customary to have the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron, with an iron handle terminating in wood; but one made by cutting a type, or raised letter, or character, on the end of a stick of light wood, such as pine or basswood, is found to be better. If the pigment used be thin, and the marker be thrust into it a little too deeply, as often happens, the surplus will not run off from the wood, as it does from a thin sheet of iron, to daub the sides of the sheep, and spoil the appearance of the mark; and, if the pigment be applied hot, the former will not get heated, like the latter, and increase the danger of burning the hide. Various pigments are used for marking. Many boil tar until it assumes a glazed, hard consistency when cold, and give it a brilliant, black color by stirring in a little lampblack during the boiling. This is applied when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright, conspicuous mark all the year round. The manufacturer, however, prefers the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter is cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. It should be boiled in an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from taking fire, on a small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is to be used. When cool enough, forty or fifty sheep can be marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from time to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. Paint, made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, is also used. The rump is a better place to mark than the side, since it is there about as conspicuous under any circumstances, and more so when the sheep are huddled in a pen, or running away from one. Besides, should any wool be injured by the mark, that on the rump is less valuable than that on the side. Ewes are commonly distinguished from wethers by marking them on different sides of the rump. Many mark each sheep as it is discharged from the barn by the shearer; but it consumes much less time to do it at a single job, after the shearing is completed; and it is necessary to take the latter course if a hot pigment is used. MAGGOTS. Rams with horns growing closely to their heads are very liable to have maggots generated under them, particularly if the skin on the surrounding parts becomes broken by fighting; and these, unless removed, soon destroy the animal. Boiled tar, or the marking substance first described, is both remedy and preventive. If it is put under the horns at the time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this cause. Sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clotted dung adheres about the anus, maggots are generated under it, and the sheep perishes miserably. As a preventive, the dung should be removed; as a remedy, the dung and maggots should be removed--the latter by touching them with a little turpentine--and sulphur and grease afterward applied to the excoriated surface. Maggot-flies sometimes deposit their eggs on the backs of the long, open-woolled English sheep, and the maggots, during the few days before they assume the _pupa_ state, so tease and irritate the animal, that fever and death ensue. Tar and turpentine, or butter and sulphur, smeared over the parts, are admirable preventives. The Merino and Saxon are exempt from these attacks. SHORTENING THE HORNS. A convolution of the horn of a ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side, to prevent ultimately fatal effects. The point of the horn of both ram and ewe both frequently turn in so that they will grow into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, unless shortened. The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a horn; if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking-time affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation. SELECTION AND DIVISION. The necessity of annually weeding the flock, by excluding all its members falling below a certain standard of quality, and the points which should be regarded in fixing that standard, have already been brought to notice in connection with the principles of breeding. The time of shearing is by far the most favorable period for the flock-master to make his selection. He should be present on the shearing-floor, and inspect the fleece of every sheep as it is gradually taken off; since, if there are faults about it, he will then discover it better than at any other time. A glance will likewise reveal to him every defect in form, previously concealed, wholly, or in part, by the wool, as soon as the newly-shorn sheep is permitted to stand up on its feet. A remarkably choice ewe is frequently retained until she dies of old age; a rather poor nurse or breeder is excluded for the slightest fault, and so on. Whatever animals are to be excluded, may be marked on the shoulder with Venetian red and hog's lard, conveniently applied with a brush or cob. Such of the wethers as have attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it, should be provided with the best feed, and fitted for the butcher. If they have been properly pushed on grass, they will be in good flesh by the time they are taken from it; and, if not intended for stall-feeding, the sooner they are then disposed of the better. Those _divisions_, also, in large flocks, which utility demands, are generally made at or soon after shearing. Not more than two hundred sheep should be allowed to run together in the pastures; although the number might, perhaps, be safely increased to three hundred, if the range is extensive. Wethers and dry ewes to be turned off should be kept separate from the nursing-ewes; and if the flock is large enough to require a third division, it is customary to put the yearling and two-year-old ewes and wethers, and the old, feeble sheep together. It is better, in all cases, to separate the rams from all the other sheep at the time of shearing, and to inclose them in a field which is particularly well-fenced. If they are put even with wethers, they are more quarrelsome; and when cool nights arrive, will worry themselves and waste their flesh in constant efforts to ride the wethers. The Merino ram, although a quiet animal compared with the common-woolled one, will be tempted to jump, by poor fences, or fences half the time down; and if he is once taught this trick, he becomes very troublesome as the rutting period approaches, unless hoppling, yoking, clogging, or poking is resorted to, either of which causes him to waste his strength, besides being the occasion of frequent accidents. THE CROOK. This convenient implement for catching sheep is of the form represented in the cut accompanying, of three-eighths inch round iron, drawn smaller toward the point, which is made safe by a knot. The other end is furnished with a socket, which receives a handle six or eight feet long. [Illustration: SHEPHERD'S CROOK.] In using it, the hind leg is hooked in from behind the sheep, and it fills up the narrow part beyond that point, while passing along it until it reaches the loop, when the animal is caught by the hook, and when secured, its foot easily slips through the loop. Some caution is required in its use; for, should the animal give a sudden start forward to get away, the moment it feels the crook, the leg will be drawn forcibly through the narrow part, and strike the bone with such violence against the bend of the loop as to cause the animal considerable pain, and even occasion lameness for some days. On first embracing the leg, the crook should be drawn quickly toward the shepherd, so as to bring the bend of the loop against the leg as high up as the hock, before the sheep has time even to break off; and being secure, its struggles will cease the moment the hand seizes the leg. No shepherd should be without this implement, as it saves much yarding and running, and leads to a prompt examination of every improper or suspicious appearance, and a seasonable application of remedy or preventive, which would often be deferred if the whole flock had to be driven to a distant yard to effect the catching of a single sheep. Dexterity in its use is speedily acquired by any one; and if a flock are properly tame, any one of its number can be readily caught by it at salting-time, or, generally, at other times, by a person with whom the flock are familiar. It is, however, at the lambing-time, when sheep and lambs require to be so repeatedly caught, that the crook is more particularly serviceable. For this purpose, at that time alone, it will pay for itself ten times over in a single season, in saving time, to say nothing of the advantage of the sheep. DRIVING AND SLAUGHTERING. DRIVING. Mutton can be grown cheaper than any other kind of meat. It is fast becoming better appreciated; and, strange as it may seem, good mutton brings a higher price in our best markets than the same quality does in England. Its substitution in a large measure for pork would contribute materially to the health of the community. Winter fattening of sheep may often be made very profitable and deserves greater attention, especially where manure is an object; and the instances are few, indeed, where it is not. In England, it is considered good policy to fatten sheep, if the increase of weight will pay for the oil-cake or grain consumed; the manure being deemed a fair equivalent for the other food--that is, as much straw and turnips as they will eat. Lean sheep there usually command as high a price per pound in the fall as fatted ones in the spring; while, in this country, the latter usually bear a much higher price, which gives the feeder a great advantage. The difference may be best illustrated by a simple calculation. Suppose a wether of a good mutton breed, weighing eighty pounds in the fall, to cost six cents per pound, amounting to four dollars and eighty cents, and to require twenty pounds of hay per week, or its equivalent in other food, and to gain a pound and a half each week; the gain in weight in four months would be about twenty-five pounds, which, at six cents per pound, would be one dollar and fifty cents, or less than ten dollars per ton for the hay consumed; but if the same sheep could be bought in the fall for three cents per pound, and sold in the spring for six cents, the gain would amount to three dollars and ninety cents, or upwards of twenty dollars per ton for the hay--the manure being the same in either case. For fattening, it is well to purchase animals as large and thrifty, and in as good condition as can be had at fair prices; and to feed liberally, so as to secure the most rapid increase that can be had without waste of food. The fattening of sheep by the aid of oil-cake, or grain purchased for the purpose, may often be made a cheaper mode of obtaining manure than by the purchase of artificial fertilizers, as guano, super-phosphate of lime, and the like; and it is altogether preferable. It is practised extensively and advantageously abroad, and deserves at least a fair trial among us. [Illustration: THE SHEPHERD AND HIS FLOCK.] Sheep which are to be driven to market should not begin their journey either when too full or too hungry; in the former state, they are apt to purge while on the road, and in the latter, they will lose strength at once. The sheep selected for market should be those in the best condition at the time; and to ascertain this, it is necessary to examine the whole lot, and separate the fattest from the rest, which is best done at about mid-day, before the sheep feed again in the afternoon. The selected ones are placed in a field by themselves, where they remain until the time for starting. If there be rough pasture to give them, they should be allowed to use it, in order to rid themselves of some of the food which might be productive of inconvenience on the journey. If there is no such pasture, a few cut turnips will answer. All their hoofs should be carefully examined, and every unnecessary appendage removed, though the firm portion of the horn should not be touched. Every clotted piece of wool should also be removed with the shears, and the animals properly marked. Being thus prepared, they should have feed early in the morning, and be started, in the cold season, about mid-day. Let them walk quietly away; and as the road is new to them, they will go too fast at first, to prevent which, the drover should go before them, and let his dog bring up the rear. In a short time they will assume the proper speed--about one mile an hour. Should the road they travel be a green one, they will proceed nibbling their way onward at the grass along both sides; but if it is a narrow turnpike, the drover will require all his attention in meeting and being passed by various vehicles, to avoid injury to his charge. In this part of their business, drovers generally make too much ado; and the consequence is, that the sheep are driven more from side to side of the road than is requisite. Upon meeting a carriage, it would be much better for the sheep, were the drover to go forward, instead of sending his dog, and point off with his stick the leading sheep to the nearest side of the road; and the rest will follow, as a matter of course, while the dog walks behind the flock and brings up the stragglers. Open gates to fields are sources of great annoyance to drovers, the stock invariably making an endeavor to go through them. On observing an open gate ahead, the drover should send his dog behind him over the fence, to be ready to meet the sheep at the gate. When the sheep incline to rest, they should be allowed to lie down. When the animals are lodged for the night, a few turnips or a little hay should be furnished to them, if the road-sides are bare. If these are placed near the gate of the field which they occupy, they will be ready to take the road again in the morning. As a precaution against worrying dogs, the drover should go frequently through the flock with a light, retire to rest late, and rise up early in the morning. These precautions are necessary; since, when sheep have once been disturbed by dogs, they will not settle again upon the road. The first day's journey should be a short one, not exceeding four or five miles. The whole journey should be so marked out as that, allowance being made for unforeseen delays, the animals may have one day's rest near the market. POINTS OF FAT SHEEP. The formation of fat, in a sheep destined to be fattened, commences in the inside, the web of fat which envelopes the intestines being first formed, and a little deposited around the kidneys. After that, fat is seen on the outside; and first upon the end of the rump at the tail-head, continuing to move on along the back, on both sides of the spine, or back-bone, to the bend of the ribs to the neck. Then it is deposited between the muscles, parallel with the cellular tissue. Meanwhile, it is covering the lower round of the ribs descending to the flanks, until the two sides meet under the belly, whence it proceeds to the brisket, or breast, in front, and the sham or cod behind, filling up the inside of the arm-pits and thighs. While all these depositions are proceeding on the outside, the progress in the inside is not checked, but rather increased, by the fattening disposition encouraged by the acquired condition; and, hence, simultaneously, the kidneys become entirely covered, and the space between the intestines and the lumbar region, or loin, gradually filled up by the web and kidney fat. By this time the cellular spaces around each fibre of muscle are receiving their share; and when fat is deposited there in quantity, it gives to the meat the term _marbled_. These inter-fibrous spaces are the last to receive a deposition of fat; but after this has begun, every other part at the same time receives its due share, the back and kidneys securing the most, so much so that the former literally becomes _nicked_, as it is termed--that is, the fat is felt through the skin to be divided into two portions, from the tail-head along the back to the top of the shoulder; and the tail becoming thick and stiff, the top of the neck broad, the lower part of each side of the neck toward the breasts full, and the hollows between the breast-bone and the inside of the fore legs, and between the cod and the inside of the hind thighs, filled up. When all this has been accomplished, the sheep is said to be _fat_, or _ripe_. When the body of a fat sheep is entirely overlaid with fat, it is in the most valuable state as mutton. Few sheep, however, lay on fat entirely over their body; one laying the largest proportion on the rump, another on the back; one on the parts adjoining the fore-quarter, another on those of the hind-quarter; and one more on the inside, and another more on the outside. Taking so many parts, and combining any two or more of them together, a considerable variety of condition will be found in any lot of fat sheep, while any one is as ripe in its way as any other. With these data for guides, the state of a sheep in its progress toward ripeness may be readily detected by handling. A fat sheep, however, is easily known by the eye, from the fullness exhibited by all the external parts of the particular animal. It may exhibit want in some parts when compared with others; but those parts, it may easily be seen, would never become so ripe as the others; and this arises from some constitutional defect in the animal itself; since, if this were so, there is no reason why all the parts should not be alike ripe. The state of a sheep that is obviously not ripe cannot altogether be ascertained by the eye. It must be handled, or subjected to the scrutiny of the hand. Even in so palpable an act as handling, discretion is requisite. A full-looking sheep needs hardly to be handled on the rump; for he would not seem so full, unless fat had first been deposited there. A thin-looking sheep, on the other hand, should be handled on the rump; and if there be no fat there, it is useless to handle the rest of the body, for certainly there will not be so much as to deserve the name of fat. Between these two extremes of condition, every variety exists; and on that account examination by the hand is the rule, and by the eye alone the exception. The hand is, however, much assisted by the eye, whose acuteness detects deficiencies and redundancies at once. In handling sheep, the points of the fingers are chiefly employed; and the accurate knowledge conveyed by them, through practice, of the exact state of the condition, is truly surprising, and establishes a conviction in the mind that some intimate relation exists between the external and internal state of an animal. Hence originates this practical maxim in judging stock of all kinds--that no animal will appear ripe to the eye, unless as much fat had previously been acquired in the inside as constitutional habit will allow. The application of this rule is easy. When the rump is found nicked, on handling, fat is to be found on the back; when the back is found nicked, fat is to be expected on the top of the shoulder and over the ribs; and when the top of the shoulder proves to be nicked, fat may be anticipated on the under side of the belly, To ascertain its existence below, the animal must be _turned up_, as it is termed; that is, the sheep is set upon his rump, with his back down, and his hind feet pointing upward and outward. In this position, it can be seen whether the breast and thighs are filled up. Still, all these alone would not disclose the state of the inside of the sheep, which should, moreover, be looked for in the thickness of the flank; in the fullness of the breast, that is, the space in front from shoulder to shoulder toward the neck; in the stiffness and thickness of the root of the tail; and in the breadth of the back of the neck. All these latter parts, especially with the fullness of the inside of the thighs, indicate a fullness of fat in the inside; that is, largeness of the mass of fat on the kidneys, thickness of net, and thickness of layers between the abdominal muscles. Hence, the whole object of feeding sheep on turnips and the like seems to be to lay fat upon all the bundles of fleshy fibres, called muscles, that are capable of acquiring that substance; for, as to bone and muscle, these increase in weight and extent independently of fat, and fat only increases in their magnitude. SLAUGHTERING. Sheep are easily slaughtered, and the operation is unattended with cruelty. They require some preparation before being deprived of life, which consists in food being withheld from them for not less than twenty-four hours, according to the season. The reason for fasting sheep before slaughtering is to give time for the paunch and intestines to empty themselves entirely of food, as it is found that, when an animal is killed with a full stomach, the meat is more liable to putrefy, and it not so well flavored; and, as ruminating animals always retain a large quantity of food in their intestines, it is reasonable that they should fast somewhat longer to get rid of it, than animals with single stomachs. Sheep are placed on their side--sometimes upon a stool, called a killing-stool--to be slaughtered, and, requiring no fastening with cords, are deprived of life by the use of a straight knife through the neck, between its bone and the windpipe, severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein of both sides, from which the blood flows freely out, and the animal soon dies. [Illustration: DROVER'S OR BUTCHER'S DOG.] The skin, as far as it is covered with wool, is taken off, leaving that on the legs and head, which are covered with hair, the legs being disjointed by the knee. The entrails are removed by an incision along the belly, after the carcass has been hung up by the tendons of the boughs. The net is carefully separated from the viscera, and rolled up by itself; but the kidney fat is not then extracted. The intestines are placed on the inner side of the skin until divided into the _pluck_, containing the heart, lungs, and liver; the bag, containing the stomach; and the _puddings_, consisting of the viscera, or guts. The latter are usually thrown away; though the Scotch, however, clean them and work them up into their favorite _haggis_. The skin is hung over a rope or pole under cover, with the skin-side uppermost, to dry in an airy place. The carcass should hang twenty-four hours in a clean, cool, airy, dry apartment before it is cut down. It should be cool and dry; for, if warm, the meat will not become firm; and, if damp, a clamminess will cover it, and it will never feel dry, and present a fresh, clean appearance. The carcass is divided in two, by being sawed right down the back-bone. The kidney-fat is then taken out, being only attached to the peritoneum by the cellular membrane, and the kidney is extracted from the _suet_, the name given to sheep-tallow in an independent state. CUTTING UP. Of the two modes of cutting up a carcass of mutton, the English and the Scotch--of the former, the practice in London being taken as the standard, and of the latter, that of Edinburgh, since more care is exercised in this respect in these two cities--the English is, perhaps, preferable; although the Scotch accomplish the task in a cleanly and workmanlike manner. The _jigot_ is the most handsome and valuable part of the carcass, bringing the highest price, and is either a roasting or a boiling piece. A jigot of Leicester, Cheviot, or South-Down mutton makes a beautiful boiled leg of mutton, which is prized the more the fatter it is--this part of the carcass being never overloaded with fat. The _loin_ is almost always roasted, the flap of the flank being skewered up, and it is a juicy piece. Many consider this piece of Leicester mutton, roasted, as too rich; and when warm this is, probably, the case; but a cold roast loin is an excellent summer dish. The _back-rib_ is divided into two, and used for very different purposes. The forepart--the neck--is boiled, and makes sweet barley-broth; and the meat, when boiled, or rather the whole simmered for a considerable time beside the fire, eats tenderly. The back-ribs make an excellent roast; indeed, there is not a sweeter or more varied one in the whole carcass, having both ribs and shoulder. The shoulder-blade eats best cold, and the ribs, warm. The ribs make excellent chops, the Leicester and South-Down affording the best. The _breast_ is mostly a roasting-piece, consisting of rib and shoulder, and is particularly good when cold. When the piece is large, as of the South-Down or Cheviot, the gristly parts of the ribs may be divided from the true ribs, and helped separately. This piece also boils well; or, when corned for eight days, and served with onion sauce, with mashed turnips in it, there are few more savory dishes at a farmer's table. The _shoulder_ is separated before being dressed, and makes an excellent roast for family use, being eaten warm or cold, or carved and dressed as the breast mentioned above. The shoulder is best from a large carcass of South-Down, Cheviot, or Leicester. The _neck-piece_ is partly laid bare by the removal of the shoulder, the forepart being fitted for boiling and making into broth, and the best part for roasting or broiling into chops. On this account, it is a good family piece, and generally preferred to any part of the hind-quarter. Heavy sheep, such as the Leicester, South-Down, and Cheviot, supply the most thrifty neck-piece. RELATIVE QUALITIES. The different sorts of mutton in common use differ as well in quality as in quantity. The flesh of the _Leicester_ is large, though not coarse-grained, of a lively red color, and the cellular tissue between the fibres contains a considerable quantity of fat. When cooked, it is tender and juicy, yielding a red gravy, and having a sweet, rich taste; but the fat is rather too much and too rich for some people's tastes, and can be put aside. It must be allowed that the lean of fat meat is far better than lean meat that has never been fat. _Cheviot_ mutton is smaller in the grain, not so bright of color, with less fat, less juice, not so tender and sweet; but the flavor is higher, and the fat not so luscious. The mutton of _South-Downs_ is of medium fineness in grain, color pleasant red, fat well intermixed with the meat, juicy, and tenderer than Cheviot. The mutton of rams of any breed is always hard, of disagreeable flavor, and, in autumn, not eatable; that of old ewes is dry, hard, and tasteless; of young ones, well enough flavored, but still rather dry; while wether-mutton is the meat in perfection, according to its kind. The want of relish, perhaps the distaste, for mutton has served as an obstacle to the extension of sheep husbandry in the United States. The common mistake in the management of mutton among us is, that it is eaten, as a general thing, at exactly the wrong time after it is killed. It should be eaten immediately after being killed, and, if possible, before the meat has time to get cold; or, if not, then it should be kept a week or more--in the ice-house, if the weather require--until the time is just at hand when the fibre passes the state of toughness which it takes on at first, and reaches that incipient or preliminary point in its process toward putrefaction when the fibres begin to give way, and the meat becomes tender. An opinion likewise generally prevails that mutton does not attain perfection in juiciness and flavor much under five years. If this be so, that breed of sheep must be very unprofitable which takes five years to attain its full state; and there is no breed of sheep in this country which requires five years to bring it to perfection. This being the case, it must be folly to restrain sheep from coming to perfection until they have reached that age. Lovers of five-year-old mutton do not pretend that this course bestows profit on the farmer, but only insist on its being best at that age. Were this the fact, one of two absurd conditions must exist in this department of agriculture: namely, the keeping a breed of sheep that cannot, or that should not be allowed to, attain to perfection before it is five years old; either of which conditions makes it obvious that mutton cannot be in its _best_ state at five years. The truth is, the idea of mutton of this age being especially excellent, is founded on a prejudice, arising, probably, from this circumstance: before winter food was discovered, which could maintain the condition of stock which had been acquired in summer, sheep lost much of their summer condition in winter, and, of course, an oscillation of condition occurred, year after year, until they attained the age of five years; when their teeth beginning to fail, would cause them to lose their condition the more rapidly. Hence, it was expedient to slaughter them at not exceeding five years of age; and, no doubt, mutton would be high-flavored at that age, that had been exclusively fed on natural pasture and natural hay. Such treatment of sheep cannot, however, be justified on the principles of modern practice; because both reason and taste concur in mutton being at its best whenever sheep attain their perfect state of growth and condition, not their largest and heaviest; and as one breed attains its perfect state at an earlier age than another, its mutton attains its best before another breed attains what is its best state, although its sheep may be older; but taste alone prefers one kind of mutton to another, even when both are in their best state, from some peculiar property. The cry for five-year-old mutton is thus based on very untenable grounds; the truth being that well-fed and fatted mutton is never better than when it gets its full growth in its second year; and the farmer cannot afford to keep it longer, unless the wool would pay for the keep, since we have not the epicures and men of wealth who would pay the butcher the extra price, which he must have, to enable him to pay a remunerating price to the grazier for keeping his sheep two or three years over. All writers on diet agree in describing mutton as the most valuable of the articles of human food. Pork may be more stimulating, beef perhaps more nutritious, when the digestive powers are strong; but, while there is in mutton sufficient nutriment, there is also that degree of consistency and readiness of assimilation which renders it most congenial to the human stomach, most easy of digestion, and most promotive of human health. Of it, almost alone, can it be said that it is our food in sickness, as well as in health; its broth is the first thing, generally, that an invalid is permitted to taste, the first thing that he relishes, and is a natural preparation for his return to his natural aliment. In the same circumstances, it appears that fresh mutton, broiled or boiled, requires three hours for digestion; fresh mutton, roasted, three and one-fourth hours; and mutton-suet, boiled, four and one-half hours. Good _ham_ may be made of any part of a carcass of mutton, though the leg is preferable; and for this purpose it is cut in the English fashion. It should be rubbed all over with good salt, and a little saltpetre, for ten minutes, and then laid in a dish and covered with a cloth for eight or ten days. After that, it should be slightly rubbed again, for about five minutes, and then hung up in a dry place, say the roof of the kitchen, until used. Wether mutton is used for hams, because it is fat, and it may be cured any time from November to May; but ram-mutton makes the largest and highest-flavored ham, provided it be cured in spring, because it is out of season in autumn. There is an infallible rule for ascertaining the _age_ of mutton by certain marks on the carcass. Observe the color of the breast-bone, when a sheep is dressed--that is, where the breast-bone is separated--which, in a lamb, or before it is one year old, will be quite red; from one to two years old, the upper and lower bone will be changing to white, and a small circle of white will appear round the edges of the other bones, and the middle part of the breast-bone will yet continue red; at three years old, a very small streak of red will be seen in the middle of the four middle bones, and the others will be white; and at four years, all the breast-bone will be of a white or gristly color. CONTRIBUTIONS TO MANUFACTURES. The products of sheep are not merely useful to man; they provide his luxuries as well. The skin of sheep is made into _leather_, and, when so manufactured with the fleece on, makes comfortable mats for the doors of rooms, and rugs for carriages. For this purpose, the best skins are selected, and such as are covered with the longest and most beautiful fleece. _Tanned sheep-skin_ is used in coarse book-binding. _White sheep-skin_, which is not tanned, but so manufactured by a peculiar process, is used as aprons by many classes of workmen, and, in agriculture, as gloves in the harvest; and, when cut into strips, as twine for sewing together the leather coverings and stuffings of horse-collars. _Morocco leather_ is made of sheep-skins, as well as of goat-skins, and the bright red color is given to it by cochineal. _Russia leather_ is also made of sheep-skins, the peculiar odor of which repels insects from its vicinity, and resists the mould arising from damp, the odor being imparted to it in currying, by the empyreumatic oil of the bark of the birch-tree. Besides soft leather, sheep-skins are made into a fine, flexible, thin substance, known by the name of _parchment_; and, though the skins of all animals might be converted into writing materials, only those of the sheep and the she-goat are used for parchment. The finer quality of the substance, called _vellum_, is made of the skins of kids and dead-born lambs; and for its manufacture the town of Strasburgh has long been celebrated. Mutton-suet is used in the manufacture of common _candles_, with a proportion of ox-tallow. Minced suet, subjected to the action of high-pressure steam in a digester, at two hundred and fifty or two hundred and sixty degrees of Fahrenheit, becomes so hard as to be sonorous when struck, whiter, and capable, when made into candles, of giving very superior light. _Stearic candles_, the invention of the celebrated Guy Lussac, are manufactured solely from mutton-suet. Besides the fat, the intestines of sheep are manufactured into various articles of luxury and utility, which pass under the absurd name of _catgut_. All the intestines of sheep are composed of four layers, as in the horse and cattle. The outer, or _peritoneal_ one, is formed of that membrane, by which every portion of the belly and its contents is invested, and confined in its natural and proper situation. It is highly smooth and polished, and secretes a watery fluid which contributes to preserve that smoothness, and to prevent all friction and concussion during the different motions of the animal. The second is the _muscular_ coat, by means of which the contents of the intestines are gradually propelled from the stomach to the rectum, thence to be expelled when all the useful nutriment is extracted. The muscles, as in all the other intestines, are disposed in two layers, the fibres of the outer coat taking a longitudinal direction, and the inner layer being circular--an arrangement different from that of the muscles of the [oe]sophagus, and in both beautifully adapted to the respective functions of the tube. The _submucous_ coat comes next. It is composed of numerous glands, surrounded by cellular tissue, and by which the inner coat is lubricated, so that there may be no obstruction to the passage of the food. The _mucous_ coat is the soft villous one lining the intestinal cavity. In its healthy state, it is always covered with mucus; and when the glands beneath are stimulated, as under the action of physic, the quantity of mucus is increased; it becomes of a more watery character; the contents of the intestines are softened and dissolved by it; and by means of the increased action of the muscular coat, which, as well as the mucous one, feels the stimulus of the physic, the fæces are hurried on more rapidly and discharged. In the manufacture of some sorts of _cords_ from the intestines of sheep, the outer peritoneal coat is taken off and manufactured into a thread to sew intestines, and make the cords of rackets and battledores. Future washings cleanse the guts, which are then twisted into different-sized cords for various purposes; some of the best known of which are whip-cords, hatter's cords for bow-strings, clock-maker's cords, bands for spinning-wheels, now almost obsolete, and fiddle and harp-strings. Of the last class, the cords manufactured in Italy are superior in goodness and strength; and the reason assigned is, that the sheep of that country are both smaller and leaner than the breeds most in vogue in England and in this country. The difficulty in manufacturing from other breeds of sheep lies, it seems, in making the treble strings from the fine peritoneal coat, their chief fault being weakness; by reason of which the smaller ones are hardly able to bear the stretch required for the higher notes in concert-pitch, maintaining, at the same time, in their form and construction, that tenuity or smallness of diameter which is required in order to produce a brilliant and clear tone. [Illustration] DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the United States, insure perfect health to an originally sound and well-selected flock, unless they are peculiarly exposed to disease. No country is better suited to sheep than most of the Northern and some of the Southern portions of our own. In Europe, and especially in England, where the system of management is, necessarily, in the highest degree artificial, consisting, frequently, in an early and continued forcing of the system, folding on wet, ploughed ground, and the excessive use of that watery food, the Swedish turnip, there are numerous and fatal diseases, a long list of which invariably cumbers the pages of foreign writers on this animal. The diseases incident to our flocks, on the contrary, may generally be considered as casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising from the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely asserted that, with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied and nutritious grasses; a clear, running stream; sufficient shade and protection against severe storms; a constant supply of salt, tar, and sulphur in summer; good hay, and sometimes roots, with ample shelters in winter--young sheep, originally sound and healthy, will seldom or never become diseased on American soil. The comparatively few diseases, which it may be necessary here to mention, are arranged in alphabetical order--as in the author's "Cattle and their Diseases"--for convenience of reference, and treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of general application, to be administered often by the unskilful and ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor complicated; and, if expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased by their application. A sheep, which has been reared or purchased at the ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die without material loss to its owner. The wool and felt will, in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcass of other animals will be worthless, except for manure. The loss of sheep, from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value in horses or cattle. Humanity, however, alike with interest, dictates the use of such simple remedies, for the removal of suffering and disease, as may be within reach. ADMINISTERING MEDICINE. The stomach into which medicines are to be administered is the fourth, or digesting stomach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen, or paunch, are but slightly acted upon, except by doses of very improper magnitude. Medicine, to reach the fourth stomach, should be given in a state as nearly approaching fluidity as may be. Even then it may be given in such a manner as to defeat the object in view. If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given hastily and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the gullet with considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, and enter the rumen; if they are drunk more slowly, or administered gently, they will trickle down the throat, glide over these pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true stomach. BLEEDING. Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly practised, rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do any good where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye-vein, the point of a knife is usually inserted near the lower extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed down, and then a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. Bleeding from the angular or cheek-vein is recommended, in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein, which is placed below. The shepherd takes the sheep between his legs; his left hand more advanced than his right, which he places under the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in that place, for the purpose of making it swell; he touches the right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him, and also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle; he then makes the incision from below upward, half a finger's breadth below the middle of the tubercle. When the vein is no longer pressed upon, the bleeding will commonly cease; if not, a pin may be passed through the lips of the orifice, and a lock of wool tied round them. For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is generally to be preferred. The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an assistant, and the body confined between his knees, with its rump against a wall. Some of the wool is then cut away from the middle of the neck over the jugular vein, and a ligature, brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is tied around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as before described. The good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on the _rapidity_ with which the blood is abstracted, as the _amount_ taken. This is especially true in acute diseases. _Either bleed rapidly or do not bleed at all._ The orifice in the vein, therefore, should be of some length, and made lengthwise with the vein. A lancet is by far the best implement; and even a short-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling gleam. Bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when it is indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the _commencement_ of the malady. The amount of blood drawn should never be determined by admeasurement, but by constitutional effect--the lowering of the pulse, and indications of weakness. In urgent cases--apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for example--it would be proper to bleed until the sheep staggers or falls. The quantity of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one-eighteenth part of his weight; and that of the ox at least one-twentieth; while that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is one-twenty-second. For this reason, more caution should be exercised in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resorting to it; otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally prostrated. Many a sheep has been destroyed by bleeding freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which did require it at the commencement, but of which the inflammatory stage had passed. FEELING THE PULSE. The number of pulsations can be determined by feeling the heart beat on the left side. The femoral artery passes in an oblique direction across the inside of the thigh, and about the middle of the thigh its pulsations and the character of the pulse can be most readily noted. The pulsations per minute, in a healthy adult sheep, are sixty-five in number; though they have been stated at seventy, and even seventy-five. APOPLEXY. Soon after the sheep are turned to grass in the spring, one of the best-conditioned sheep in the flock is sometimes suddenly found dead. The symptoms which precede the catastrophe are occasionally noted. The sheep leaps frantically into the air two or three times, dashes itself on the ground, and suddenly rises, and dies in a few minutes. Where animals in somewhat poor condition are rather forced forward for the purpose of raising their condition, it sometimes happens that they become suddenly blind and motionless; they will not follow their companions; when approached, they run about, knocking their heads against fences, etc.; the head is drawn round toward one side; they fall, grind their teeth, and their mouths are covered with a frothy mucus. Such cases are, unquestionably, referable to a determination of blood to the brain. _Treatment._ If the eyes are prominent and fixed, the membranes of the mouth and nose highly florid, the nostrils highly dilated, and the respiration labored and stertorous, the veins of the head turgid, the pulse strong and rather slow, and these symptoms attended by a partial or entire loss of sight and hearing, it is one of those decided cases of apoplexy which require immediate and energetic treatment. Recourse should at once be had to the jugular vein, and the animal bled until an obvious constitutional effect is produced--the pulse lowered, and the rigidity of the muscles relaxed. An aperient should at once follow bleeding; and if the animal is strong and plathoric, a sheep of the size of the Merino would require at least two ounces of Epsom salts, and one of the large mutton sheep, more. If this should fail to open the bowels, half an ounce of the salts should be given, say twice a day. BRAXY. This is manifested by uneasiness; loathing of food; frequent drinking; carrying the head down; drawing the back up; swollen belly; feverish symptoms; and avoidance of the flock. It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be induced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when hot, and especially by constipation, brought on by feeding on frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage. Many sheep die on the prairies from this disease, induced by exposure and miserable forage. Entire prevention is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, dry food. _Treatment._ Remedies, to be successful, must be promptly applied. Bleed freely; and to effect this, immersion in a tub of hot water may be necessary, in consequence of the stagnant state of the blood. Then give two ounces of Epsom salts, dissolved in warm water, with a handful of common salt. If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a pipeful of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer half; and if this is not effectual, follow with the remainder. Then bed the animal in dry straw, and cover with blankets; assisting the purgatives with warm gruels, followed by laxative provender till well. BRONCHITIS. Where sheep are subject to pneumonia, they are liable to bronchitis as well, which is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the bronchial tubes, or the air-passages of the lungs. The _symptoms_ are those of an ordinary cold, but attended with more fever, and a tenderness of the throat and belly when pressed upon. _Treatment._ Administer salt in doses of from one and a half to two ounces, with six or eight ounces of lime-water, given in some other part of the day. CATARRH. This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane, which lines the nasal passages, and it sometimes extends to the larynx and pharynx. In the first instance--where the lining of the nasal passages is alone and not very violently affected--it is merely accompanied by an increased discharge of mucus, and is rarely attended with much danger. In this form, it is usually termed _snuffles_; and high-bred English mutton-sheep, in this country, are apt to manifest more or less of it, after every sudden change of weather. When the inflammation extends to the mucous lining of the larynx and the pharynx, some degree of fever usually supervenes, accompanied by cough, and some loss of appetite. At this point, bleeding and purging are serviceable. Catarrh rarely attacks the American fine-woolled sheep with sufficient violence in summer to require the application of remedies. Depletion, in catarrh, in our severe winter months, however, rapidly produces that fatal prostration, from which it is almost impossible to bring the sheep back, without bestowing an amount of time and care upon it, costing far more than the worth of an ordinary animal. The best course is to _prevent_ the disease by judicious precaution. With that amount of attention which every prudent farmer should bestow on his sheep, the American Merino is but little subject to it. Good, comfortable, and well-ventilated shelters, constantly accessible to the sheep in winter, with a sufficiency of food regularly administered, are usually a sufficient safeguard. MALIGNANT EPIZOÖTIC CATARRH. [Illustration: AN ENGLISH RACK FOR FEEDING SHEEP.] Essentially differing, in type and virulence, from the preceding, is an epidemic, or, more properly speaking, an epizoötic malady, which, as often as once in every eight or ten years, sweeps over extended sections of the Northern States, destroying more sheep than all other diseases combined. It commonly makes its appearance in winters characterized by rapid and violent changes of temperature, which are spoken of by the farmers as "bad winters" for sheep. The disease is sometimes termed the "distemper," and also, but erroneously, "grub in the head." The winter of 1846-7 proved peculiarly destructive to sheep in New York, and some of the adjoining States; some owners losing one-half, others three-quarters, and a few seven-eighths, of their flocks. One person lost five hundred out of eight hundred; another, nine hundred out of a thousand. These severe losses, however, mainly fell on the holders of the delicate Saxons, and perhaps, generally, on those possessing not the best accommodations, or the greatest degree of energy and skill. _Symptoms._ The primary and main disease, in such instances, is a species of catarrh; differing, however, from ordinary catarrh in its diagnosis, and in the extent of the lesions accompanying both the primary and the symptomatic diseases. The animals affected do not, necessarily, at first show any signs of violent colds, as coughing, sneezing, or labored respiration; the only indications of catarrh noticed, oftentimes, being a nasal discharge. Animals having this discharge appear dull and drooping; their eyes run a little, and are partially closed; the caruncle and lids look pale; their movements are languid, and there is an indisposition to eat; the pulse is nearly natural, though at times somewhat too languid. In a few days these symptoms are evidently aggravated; there is rapid emaciation, accompanied with debility; the countenance is exceedingly dull and drooping; the eye is kept more than half closed; the caruncle, lids, etc., are almost bloodless; a gummy, yellow secretion about the eye; thick, glutinous mucus adhering in and about the nostrils; appetite feeble; pulse languid; and muscular energy greatly prostrated. They rapidly grow weaker, stumble, and fall as they walk, and soon become unable to rise; the appetite grows feebler; the mucus at the nose is, in some instances, tinged with dark, grumous blood; the respiration becomes oppressed; and the animals die within a day or two after they become unable to rise. Upon a _post-mortem_ examination, the mucous membrane lining the whole nasal cavity is found highly congested and thickened throughout its entire extent, accompanied with the most intense inflammation; slight ulcers are found on the membranous lining, at the junction of the cellular ethmoid bones with the cribriform plate, in the ethmoidal cells; and the inflammation extends to the mucous membrane of the pharynx, and some inches, from two to four, of the upper portion of the [oe]sophagus. No sheep, affected with this disease, recovers after emaciation and debility have proceeded to any great extent. In the generality of instances, the time, from the first observed symptoms until death, varies from ten to fifteen days; although death, in some cases, results more speedily. _Treatment._ Nothing has been found so serviceable as mercury, which, from its action on the entire secretory system, powerfully tends to relieve the congested membranes of the head. Dissolve one grain of bi-chloride of mercury--corrosive sublimate--in two ounces of water; and give one-half ounce of the water, or one-eighth of a grain of corrosive sublimate, daily, in two doses. To stimulate and open the bowels, give, also, rhubarb in a decoction, the equivalent of ten or fifteen grains at a dose, accompanied with the ordinary carminative and stomachic adjuvants, ginger and gentian in infusion. COLIC. Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the winter, lying down and rising every moment or two, and constantly stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that their bellies almost touch the ground. They appear to be in much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die, unless relieved. This disease, popularly known as the "stretches," is erroneously attributed to an involution of the part of the intestine within another; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent colic, induced by costiveness. _Treatment._ Half an ounce of Epsom salts, a drachm of Jamaica ginger, and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The salts alone, however, will effect the cure; as will, also, an equivalent dose of linseed oil, or even hog's lard. COSTIVENESS. This difficulty is removed by giving two table-spoonfuls of castor oil every twelve hours, till the trouble ceases; or give one ounce of Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injection of warm weak suds and molasses. DIARRH[OE]A. Common diarrh[oe]a--purging, or scours--manifests itself simply by the copiousness and fluidity of the alvine evacuations. It is generally owing to improper food, as bad hay, or noxious weeds; to a sudden change, as from dry food to fresh grass; to an excess, as from overloading the stomach; and sometimes to cold and wet. It is important to clearly distinguish this disease from dysentery. In diarrh[oe]a, there is no apparent general fever; the appetite remains good; the stools are thin and watery, but unaccompanied with slime, or mucus, and blood; odor of the fæces is far less offensive than in dysentery; and the general condition of the animal is but little changed. When it is light, and not of long continuance, no remedy is called for, since it is a healthful provision of Nature for the more rapid expulsion of some offending matter in the system, which, if retained, might lead to disease. _Treatment._ Confinement to dry food for a day or two, and a gradual return to it, often suffices, in the case of grown sheep. With lambs, especially if attacked in the fall, the disease is more serious. If the purging is severe, and especially if any mucus is observed with the fæces, the feculent matter should be removed from the bowels by a gentle cathartic; half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half an ounce of Epsom salts to a lamb. This should be followed by an astringent; and, in nine cases out of ten, the latter will serve in the first instance. Give one quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk in half a pint of tepid milk, once a day for two or three days; at the end of which, and frequently after the first dose, the purging will have ordinarily abated, or entirely ceased. "Sheep's cordial" is also a safe and excellent remedy--in severe cases, better than simple chalk and milk. Take of prepared chalk, one ounce; powdered catechu, half an ounce; powdered Jamaica ginger, two drachms; and powdered opium, half a drachm; mix with half a pint of peppermint water; give two or three table-spoonfuls morning and night to a grown sheep, and half that quantity to a lamb. DISEASE OF THE BIFLEX CANAL. From the introduction of foreign bodies into the biflex canal, or from other causes, it occasionally becomes the seat of inflammation. This canal is a small orifice, opening externally on the point of each pastern, immediately above the cleft between the toes. It bifurcates within, a tube passing down on each side of the inner face of the pastern, winding round and ending in a _cul de sac_. Inflammation of this canal causes an enlargement and redness of the pastern, particularly about the external orifice of the canal. The toes are thrown wide apart by the tumor. It rarely attacks more than one foot, and should not be allowed to proceed to the point of ulceration which it will do, if neglected. There is none of that soreness and disorganization between the back part of the toes, and none of that peculiar fetor which distinguishes the hoof-ail, with which disease it is sometimes confounded. _Treatment._ Scarify the coronet, making one or two deeper incisions in the principal swelling around the mouth of the canal; and cover the foot with tar. DYSENTERY. This is occasioned by an inflammation of the mucous or inner coat of the larger intestines, causing a preternatural increase in their secretions, and a morbid alteration in their character. It is frequently consequent on that form of diarrh[oe]a, which is caused by an inflammation of the mucous coat of the smaller intestines. The inflammation extends throughout the whole alimentary canal, increases in virulence, and becomes dysentery, a disease frequently dangerous and obstinate in its character, but, fortunately, not common among sheep, generally, in the United States. Its diagnosis differs from that of diarrh[oe]a, in several readily observed particulars. There is evident fever; the appetite is capricious, commonly very feeble; the stools are as thin as in diarrh[oe]a, or even thinner, but much more adhesive, in consequence of the presence of large quantities of mucus. As the erosion of the intestines advances, the fæces are tinged with blood; their odor is intolerably offensive; and the animal rapidly wastes away, the course of the disease extending from a few days to several weeks. _Treatment._ Moderate bleeding should be resorted to, in the first or inflammatory shape, or whenever decided febrile symptoms are found to be present. Two doses of physic having been administered, astringents are serviceable. The "sheep's cordial," already described, is as good as any; and to this, tonics may soon begin to be added; an additional quantity of ginger may enter into the composition of the cordial, and gentian powder will be an useful auxiliary. With this, as an excellent stimulus to cause the sphincter of the anus to contract, and also the mouths of the innumerable secretory and exhalent vessels opening on the inner surface of the intestines, a half grain of strychnine may be combined. Smaller doses should be given for three or four days. FLIES. The proper treatment, upon the appearance of flies or maggots, has already been detailed under the head of "FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT," to which the reader is referred. FOULS. Sheep are much less subject to this disease than cattle are; but encounter it, if kept in wet, filthy yards, or on moist, poachy ground. It is an irritation of the integument in the cleft of the foot, slightly resembling incipient hoof-ail, and producing lameness. It occasions, however, no serious structural disorganization, disappears without treatment, is not contagious, and appears in the wet weather of spring and fall, instead of in the dry, hot period of summer, when the hoof-ail rages most. A little solution of blue vitriol, or a little spirits of turpentine--either followed by a coating of warm tar--promptly cures it. For foul noses, dip a small swab in tar, then roll it in salt; put some on the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. FRACTURES. If there be no wound of the soft parts, the bone simply being broken, the treatment is extremely easy. Apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when swelling supervenes. When the swelling is considerable, and fever present, the best course is to open a vein of the head or neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones are kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four weeks, the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a young than in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured to any extent, or the ends of the bone protrude, recovery is very uncertain; and it will become a question whether it would not be better to convert the animal at once into mutton. GARGET. This is an inflammation of the udder, sometimes known as "caked bag," with or without general inflammation. Where it is simply an inflammation of the udder, it is usually caused by too great an accumulation of milk in the latter prior to lambing, or in consequence of the death of the lamb. _Treatment._ Drawing the milk partly from the bag, so that the hungry lamb will butt and work at it an unusual time in pursuit of its food, and bathing it a few times in _cold_ water, usually suffices. If the lamb is dead, the milk should be drawn a few times, at increasing intervals, washing the udder for some time in cold water at each milking. In cases of obdurate induration, the udder should be anointed with iodine ointment. If there is general fever in the system, an ounce of Epsom salts may be given. If suppuration forms, the part affected should be opened with the lancet. GOITRE. The "swelled neck" in lambs is, like the goitre, or bronchocele, an enlargement of the thyroid glands, and is strikingly analogous to that disease, if not identical with it. It is congenital. The glands at birth are from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a hen's _egg_, though more elongated and flattened than an egg in their form. The lamb is exceedingly feeble, and often perishes almost without an effort to suck. Many even make no effort to rise, and die as soon as they are dropped. It is rare, indeed, that one lives. A considerable number of lambs annually perish from this disease, which does not appear to be an epizoötic, though it is more prevalent in some seasons than in others. It does not seem to depend upon the water, or any other natural circumstances of a region, as goitre is generally supposed to, since it may not prevail in the same flock, or on the same farm, once in ten years; nor can it be readily traced to any particular kind of food. When it does appear, however, its attacks are rarely isolated; from which circumstance some have inferred that it is induced by some local or elimentary cause. Losses from this disease have ranged from ten per cent. to twenty, thirty, and even fifty per cent. of the whole number of lambs. Possibly, high condition in the ewes may be one of the inducing causes. _Treatment._ None is known which will reach the case. Should one having the disease chance to live, it would scarcely be worth while to attempt reducing the entanglement of the glands. Perhaps keeping the breeding-ewes uniformly in fair, plump, but not _high_ condition, would be as effectual a preventive as any. GRUB IN THE HEAD. What is popularly known as the "grub" is the larva of the _[oe]strus oris_, or gad-fly of the sheep. It is composed of five rings; is tiger-colored on the back and belly, sprinkled with spots and patches of brown; its wings are striped. The sheep gad-fly is led by instinct to deposit its eggs within the nostrils of the sheep. Its attempts to do this--most common in July, August, and September--are always indicated by the sheep, which collect in close clumps, with their heads inward, and their noses thrust close to the ground, and into it, if any loose dirt or sand is within reach. If the fly succeeds in depositing its egg, the latter is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the part, and the young grubs, or larvæ, crawl up the nose, finding their devious way to the sinuses, where, by means of their tentaculæ, or feelers, they attach themselves to the mucous membrane lining those cavities. During the ascent of the larvæ, the sheep stamps, tosses its head violently, and often dashes away from its companions wildly over the field. The larvæ remain on the sinuses, feeding on the mucus secreted by the membrane, and apparently creating no further annoyance, until ready to assume their _pupa_ form in the succeeding spring. Having remained in the sinuses during the fall and winter, they abandon them as the warm weather approaches in the latter part of spring. They crawl down the nose, creating even greater irritation and excitement than when they originally ascended, drop on the ground, and rapidly burrow into it. In a few hours, the skin of the larvæ has contracted, become of a dark-brown color, and it has assumed the form of chrysalis. This fly never eats; the male, after impregnating two or three females, dies; and the latter, having deposited their _ova_ in the nostrils of the sheep, also soon perish. The larvæ in the heads of sheep may, and probably do, add to the irritation of those inflammatory diseases, such as catarrh, which attack the membranous lining of the nasal cavities; and they are a powerful source of momentary irritation in the first instance, when ascending to, and descending from, their lodging-place in the head. But in the interval between these events, extending over a period of several months, not a movement of the sheep indicates the least annoyance at their presence. They are, moreover, found in the heads of nearly all sheep, the healthy as well as the diseased, at the proper season. _Treatment._ Though the presence of the grub constitutes no disease, some think it well to diminish their number by all convenient means. One simple way of effecting this is, by turning up with a plough a furrow of earth in the sheep-pasture, into which the sheep will thrust their noses on the approach of the _[oe]strus_, and thus many of them escape its attacks. Some farmers smear the noses of their sheep occasionally With tar, the odor of which is believed to repel the fly. Another plan, deemed efficacious in dislodging the larvæ from the sinuses, is as follows: Take half a pound of good Scotch snuff, and two quarts of boiling water; stir, and let it stand till cold. Inject about a table-spoonful of this liquid and sediment up each nostril, with a syringe; repeat this three or four times, at intervals, from the middle of October till January. The efficacy of the snuff will be increased by adding half an ounce of asaf[oe]tida, pounded in a little water. The effects on the sheep are immediate prostration and apparent death; but they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco affords a substitute for snuff; and some recommend blowing tobacco smoke through the tail of a pipe into each nostril. HOOF-AIL. The first symptom of this troublesome malady, known, likewise, as foot-ail, which is ordinarily noticed, is a lameness of one or both of the fore-feet. On daily examining, however, the feet of a flock which have the disease among them, it will readily be seen that the lesions manifest themselves for several days before they are followed with lameness. The horny covering of the sheep's foot extends up, gradually thinning out, some way between the toes and divisions of the hoof, and above these horny walls the cleft is lined with skin. When the points of the toes are spread apart, this skin is shown in front, covered with short, soft hair. The back part of the toes, or the heels, can be separated only to a little distance, and the skin in the cleft above them is naked. In a healthy foot, the skin throughout the whole cleft is as firm, dry, and uneroded as on any other part of the animal. The first symptom of hoof-ail is a slight erosion, accompanied with inflammation and heat of the naked skin in the _back parts_ of the clefts, immediately above the heels. The skin assumes a macerated appearance, and is kept moist by the presence of a sanious discharge from the ulcerated surface. As the inflammation extends, the friction of the parts causes pain, and the sheep limps. At this stage, the foot, _externally_, in a great majority of cases, exhibits not the least trace of disease, with the exception of a slight redness, and sometimes the appearance of a small sore at the upper edge of the cleft, when viewed from behind. The ulceration of the surface rapidly extends. The thin upper edges of the inner walls of the hoof are disorganized, and an ulceration is established between the hoof and the fleshy sole. A purulent fetid matter is discharged from the cavity. The extent of the separation increases daily, and the ulcers also form sinuses deep into the fleshy sole. The bottom of the hoof disappears, eaten away by the acrid matter, and the outer walls, entirely separated from the flesh, hang only by their attachments at the coronet. The whole fleshy sole is now entirely disorganized, and the entire foot is a mass of black, putrid ulceration; or, as more commonly happens, the fly has struck it, and a dense mass of writhing maggots cover the surface, and burrow in every cavity. The fore-feet are generally first attacked; and, most usually but one of them. The animal at first manifests but little constitutional disturbance, and eats as usual. By the time that any considerable disorganization of the structures has taken place in the first foot, and sometimes sooner, the other forefoot is attacked. That becoming as lame as the first, the miserable animal seeks its food on its knees; and, if forced to rise, its strange, hobbling gait betrays the intense agony occasioned by bringing its feet in contact with the ground. There is a bare spot under the brisket, of the size of a man's hand, which looks red and inflamed. There is a degree of general fever, and the appetite is dull. The animal rapidly loses condition. The appearance of the maggot soon closes the scene. Where the rotten foot is brought in contact with the side, in lying down, the filthy, ulcerous matter adheres to, and saturates the short wool--it being but a month and a half, or two months, after shearing--and maggots are either carried there by the foot, or they are soon generated there. A black crust is speedily formed round the spot, which is the decomposition of the surrounding structures; and innumerable maggots are at work below, burrowing into the integuments and muscles, and eating up the wretched animal alive. The black, festering mass rapidly spreads, and the poor sufferer perishes, apparently in tortures the most excruciating. Sometimes but one forefoot is attacked, and subsequently one or both hind ones. There is no uniformity in this particular; and it is a singular fact that, when two or even three of the feet are dreadfully diseased, the fourth may be entirely sound. So, also, one foot may be cured, while every other one is laboring under the malady. The highly offensive odor of the ulcerated feet is so peculiar that it is strictly characteristic of the disease, and would reveal its character, to one familiar with it, in the darkest night. Hoof-ail is probably propagated in this country exclusively by inoculation--the contact of the matter of a diseased foot with the integuments lining the bifurcation of a healthy foot. That it is propagated in some of the ways classed under the ordinary designation of _contagion_, is certain. That it may be propagated by inoculation, has been established by experiment. The matter of diseased feet has been placed on the skin lining the cleft of a healthy foot under a variety of circumstances--sometimes when that skin is in its ordinary and natural state, sometimes after a very slight scorification, sometimes when macerated by moisture; and under each of these circumstances the disease has been communicated. The same inference may be drawn, also, from the manner in which the disease attacks flocks. The whole, or any considerable number, though sometimes rapidly, are never _simultaneously_ attacked, as would be expected, among animals so gregarious, if the disease could be transmitted by simple contact, inhaling the breath, or other effluvium. The matter of diseased feet is left on grass, straw, and other substances, and thus is brought in contact with the inner surfaces of healthy feet. Sheep, therefore, contract the disease from being driven over the pastures, yarded on the straw, etc., where diseased sheep have been, perhaps even days, before. The matter would probably continue to inoculate, until dried up by the air and heat, or washed away by the rains. The stiff, upright stems of closely mown grass, as on meadows, are almost as well calculated to receive the matter of diseased feet, and deposit it in the clefts of healthy ones, as any means which could be artificially devised. It is not entirely safe to drive healthy sheep over roads, and especially into washing-yards, or sheep houses, where diseased sheep have been, until rain has fallen, or sufficient time has elapsed for the matter to dry up. On the moist bottom of a washing-yard, and particularly in houses or sheds, kept from sun and wind and rain, this matter might be preserved for some time in a condition to inoculate. When the disease has been well kept under during the first season of its attack, but not entirely eradicated, it will almost or entirely disappear as cold weather approaches, and it does not manifest itself until the warm weather of the succeeding summer. It then assumes a mitigated form; the sheep are not rapidly and simultaneously attacked; there seems to be less inflammatory action constitutionally, and in the diseased parts; the course of the disease is less malignant and more tardy, and it more readily yields to treatment. If well kept under the second summer, it is still milder the third. A sheep will occasionally be seen to limp; but its condition will scarcely be affected, and dangerous symptoms will rarely supervene. One or two applications made during the summer, in a manner presently to be described, will suffice to keep the disease under. At this point, a little vigor in the treatment will rapidly extinguish the disease. _Treatment._ The preparation of the foot, where any separate individual treatment is resolved upon, is always necessary, at least in bad cases. Sheep should be yarded for the operation immediately after a rain, if practicable, as the hoofs can then be readily cut. In a dry time, and after a night which left no dew upon the grass, their hoofs are almost as tough as horn. They must be driven through no mud, or soft dung, on their way to the yard, which would double the labor of cleaning their feet. The yard should be small, so that they can be easily caught, and it must be kept well littered down, to prevent their filling their feet with their own excrement. If the straw is wetted, their hoofs will not, of course, dry and harden as rapidly as in dry straw. If the yard could be built over a shallow, gravelly-bottomed brook, it would be an admirable arrangement; for this purpose, a portion of any little brook might be prepared, by planking the bottom, and widening it, if desirable. By such means the hoofs would be kept so soft that the greatest and most unpleasant part of the labor, as ordinarily performed, would be in a great measure saved, and they would be kept free from that dung which, by any other arrangement, will, more or less, get into their clefts. The principal operator seats himself on a chair, having within his reach a couple of good knives, a whetstone, the powerful toe-nippers already described, a bucket of water with a couple of linen rags in it, together with such medicines as may be deemed necessary. The assistant catches a sheep and lays it partly on its back and rump, between the legs of the foreman, the head coming up about to his middle. The assistant then kneels on some straw, or seats himself on a low stool at the hinder extremity of the sheep. If the hoofs are long, and especially if they are dry and tough, the assistant presents each foot to the operator who shortens the hoof with the toe-nippers. If there is any filth between the toes, each man takes his rag from the bucket of water, and draws it between the toes, and rinses it, until the filth is removed. Each then takes a knife, and the process of paring away the horn commences, _upon the effectual performance of which_ all else depends. A glance at the foot will show whether it is the seat of the diseased action. The least experience cannot fail in properly settling this question. An experienced finger, even, placed upon the back of the pastern close above the heel, will at once detect the local inflammation, in the dark, _by its heat_. If the disease is in the first stage--that is, if there are merely erosion and ulceration of the cuticle and flesh in the cleft _above_ the walls of the hoof--no paring is necessary. But if ulceration has established itself between the hoof and the fleshy sole, _the ulcerated parts_, however extensive, _must be entirely stripped of their horny covering_, no matter what amount of time and care it may require. It is better not to wound the sole so as to cause it to bleed freely, as the running blood will wash off the subsequent application; but no fear of wounding the sole must prevent a full compliance with the rule laid down above. At the worst, the blood will stop flowing after a little while, during which time no application needs to be made to the foot. If the foot is in the third stage--a mass of rottenness, and filled with maggots--pour, in the first place, a little spirits of turpentine--a bottle of which, with a quill through the cork, should be always ready--on the maggots, and most of them will immediately decamp, and the others can be removed with a probe or small stick. Then _remove every particle of loose horn_, though it should take the entire hoof, as it generally will in such cases. The foot should next be cleansed with a solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one pound of chloride to one gallon of water. If this is not at hand, plunging the foot repeatedly in hot water, just short of scalding hot, will answer every purpose. The great object is _to clean the foot thoroughly_. If there is any considerable "proud flesh," it should be removed with a pair of scissors, or by the actual cautery--hot iron. The following are some of the most popular remedies: Take two ounces of blue vitriol and two ounces of verdigris, to a junk-bottle of wine; or spirits of turpentine, tar, and verdigris in equal parts; or three quarts of alcohol, one pint of spirits of turpentine, one pint of strong vinegar, one pound of blue vitriol, one pound of copperas, one and a half pounds of verdigris, one pound of alum, and one pound of saltpetre, pounded fine; mix in a close bottle, shake every day, and let it stand six or eight days before using; also mix two pounds of honey and two quarts of tar, which must be applied after the preceding compound. Or apply diluted aquafortis--nitric acid--with a feather to the ulcerated surface; or diluted oil of vitriol--sulphuric acid--in the same way; or the same of muriatic acid; or dip the foot in tar nearly at the boiling point. In the first and second stages of the disease, before the ulcers have formed sinuses into the sole, and wholly or partly destroyed its structure, the best application is a saturated solution of blue vitriol--sulphate of copper. In the third stage, when the foot is a festering mass of corruption, after it has been cleansed as already directed, it requires some strong caustic to remove the unhealthy granulations--the dead muscular structures--and to restore healthy action. Lunar caustic, which is preferable to any other application, is too expensive; chloride of antimony is excellent, but frequently unattainable in the country drug-stores; and muriatic acid, or even nitric or sulphuric acids, may be used instead. The diseased surface is touched with the caustic, applied with a swab, formed by fastening a little tow on the end of a stick, until the objects above pointed out are attained. The foot is then treated with the solution of blue vitriol, and subsequently coated over with tar which has been boiled, and is properly cooled, for the purpose of protecting the raw wound from dirt, flies, etc. Sheep in this stage of the disease should certainly be separated from the main flock, and looked to as often as once in three days. With this degree of attention, their cure will be rapid, and the obliterated structures of the foot will be restored with astonishing rapidity. The common method of using the solution of blue vitriol is to pour it from a bottle with a quill in the cork, into the foot, when the animal lies on its back between the operators, as already described. In this way a few cents' worth of vitriol will answer for a large number of sheep. The method is, however, imperfect; since, without extraordinary care, there will almost always be some slight ulcerations not uncovered by the knife, which the solution will not reach, the passages to them being devious, and perhaps nearly or quite closed. The disease will thus be only temporarily suppressed, not cured. A flock of sheep which were in the second season of the disease, had been but little looked to during the summer, and as cold weather set in, many of them became considerably lame, and some of them quite so. Their feet were thoroughly pared; and into a large washing-tub, in which two sheep could conveniently stand, a saturated solution of blue vitriol and water, _as hot as could be endured by the hand even for a moment_, was poured. The liquid was about four inches deep on the bottom of the tub, and was kept at that depth by frequent additions of hot solution. As soon as a sheep's feet were pared, it was placed in the tub, and held there by the neck. A second one was then prepared, and placed beside it; when the third was ready, the first was taken out; and so on. Two sheep were thus constantly in the tub, each remaining some five minutes. The cure was perfect; there was not a lame sheep in the flock during the winter or the next summer. The hot liquid penetrated to every cavity of the foot; and doubtless had a far more decisive effect, even on the uncovered ulcers, than would have been produced by merely wetting them. The expense attending the operation was about _four cents_ per sheep. Three such applications, at intervals of a week, would effectually cure the disease, since every new case would thus be arrested and cured before it would have time to inoculate others. It would, undoubtedly, accomplish this at any time of year, and even during the first and most malignant prevalence of the contagion, _provided the paring was sufficiently thorough_. The second and third parings would be a mere trifle; and the liquid left at the first and second applications could again be used. Thus sheep could be cured at about twelve cents per head, which is much cheaper, in the long run, than any ordinary temporizing method, where the cost of a few pounds of blue vitriol is counted, but not the time consumed; and the disease is thus kept lingering in the flock for years. Some Northern farmers drive their sheep over dusty roads as a remedy for this disease; and in cases of ordinary virulence, especially where the disease is chronic, it seems to dry up the ulcers, and keep the malady under. Sheep are also sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry surface, and driving them over a barn-floor daily, which is well covered with quick-lime. It may sometimes, and under peculiar circumstances, be cured by dryness, and repeated washing with soap-suds. Many farmers select rainy weather as the time for doctoring their sheep. Their feet are then soft, and it is therefore on all accounts good economy, when the feet are to be pared, and each separately treated, _provided_ they can be kept in sheep-houses, or under shelters of any kind, until the rain is over, and the grass again dry. If immediately let out in wet grass of any length, the vitriol or other application is measurably washed away. This is avoided by many, by dipping the feet in more tar--an admirable plan under such circumstances. A flock of sheep which have been cured of the hoof-ail, is considered more valuable than one which has never had it. They are far less liable to contract the disease from any casual exposure; and its ravages are far less violent and general among them. This ailment should not be confounded with a temporary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low situations, which is removed with the cause; or, if it continues, white paint or tar may be applied, after a thorough washing. HOOVE. This is not common, to any dangerous degree, among sheep; but, if turned upon clover when their stomachs are empty, it will sometimes ensue. Hoove is a distension of the paunch by gas extricated from the fermentation of its vegetable contents, and evolved more rapidly, or in larger quantities, than can be neutralized by the natural alkaline secretions of the stomach. When the distention is great, the blood is prevented from circulating in the vessels of the rumen, and is determined to the head. The diaphragm is mechanically obstructed from making its ordinary contractions, and respiration, therefore, becomes difficult and imperfect. Death, in such cases, soon supervenes. _Treatment._ In ordinary cases, gentle but prolonged driving will effect a cure. When the animal appears swelled almost to bursting, and is disinclined to move, it is better to open the paunch at once. At the most protruberant point of the swelling, on the left side, a little below the hip bone, plunge a trochar or knife, sharp at the point and dull on the edge, into the stomach. The gas will rapidly escape, carrying with it some of the liquid and solid contents of the stomach. If no measures are taken to prevent it, the peristaltic motion, as well as the collapse of the stomach, will soon cause the orifices through the abdomen and paunch not to coincide, and thus portions of the contents of the former will escape into the cavity of the latter. However perfect the cure of hoove, these substances in the belly will ultimately produce fatal irritation. To prevent this, a canula, or little tube, should be inserted through both orifices as soon as the puncture is made. Where the case is not imminent, alkalies have sometimes been successfully administered, which combine with the carbonic acid gas, and thus at once reduce its volume. A flexible probang, or in default of it, a rattan, or grape-vine, with a knot on the end, may be gently forced down the gullet, and the gas thus permitted to escape. HYDATID ON THE BRAIN. The symptoms of this disease, known as turnsick, sturdy, staggers, water in the head, etc., are a dull, moping appearance, the sheep separating from the flock, a wandering and blue appearance of the eye, and sometimes partial or total blindness; the sheep appears unsteady in its walk, will sometimes stop suddenly and fall down, at others gallop across the field, and, after the disease has existed for some time, will almost constantly move round in a circle--there seems, indeed, to be an aberration of the intellect of the animal. These symptoms, though rarely all present in the same subject, are yet sufficiently marked to prevent any mistake as to the nature of the disease. On examining the brain of sheep thus affected, what appears to be a watery bladder, called a hydatid, is found, which may be either small or of the size of a hen's egg. This hydatid, one of the class of entozoöns, has been termed by naturalists the _hydatis polycephalus cerebralis_, or many-headed hydatid of the brain; these heads being irregularly distributed on the surface of the bladder, and on the front part of each head there is a mouth surrounded by minute sharp hooks within a ring of sucking disks. These disks serve as the means of attachment, by forming a vacuum, and bring the mouth in contact with the surface, and thus, by the aid of the hooks, the parasite is nourished. The coats of the hydatid are disposed in several layers, one of which appears to possess a muscular power. These facts are developed by the microscope, which also discloses numerous little bodies adhering to the internal membrane. The fluid in the bladder is usually clear but occasionally turbid, and then it has been found to contain a number of minute worms. _Treatment._ This is deemed an almost incurable disorder. Where the hydatid is not imbedded in the brain, its constant pressure, singularly enough, causes a portion of the cranium to be absorbed, and finally the part immediately over the hydatid becomes thin and soft enough to yield under the pressure of the finger. When such a spot is discovered, the English veterinarians usually dissect back the muscular integuments, remove a portion of the bone, carefully divide the investing membranes of the brain, and then, if possible, remove the hydatid whole; or, failing to do this, remove its fluid contents. The membranes and integuments are then restored to their position, and an adhesive plaster placed over the whole. The French veterinarians usually simply puncture the cranium and the cyst with a trochar, and laying the sheep on its back, allow the fluid to run out through the orifice thus made. A common awl would answer every purpose for such a puncture; and the puncture is the preferable method for the unskilled practitioner. An instance is, indeed, recorded of a cure having been effected, where the animal had been given up, by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head, when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed the others to the pasture. When, however, the hazard and cruelty attending the operation, under the most favorable circumstances, are considered, as well as the conceded liability of a return of the malady--the growth of new hydatids--it is evident that in this country, it would not be worth while, except in the case of uncommonly valuable sheep, to adopt any other remedy than depriving the miserable animal of life. OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET. [Illustration: A BARRACK FOR STORING SHEEP-FODDER.] After pouring a little oil in the throat, the obstructing substance which occasions the "choking," can frequently be removed up or down by external manipulation. If not, it may usually be forced down with the flexible probang, described in "Cattle and their Diseases," or a flexible rod, the head of which is guarded by a knot, or a little bag of flax-seed. The latter having been dipped in hot water for a minute or two, is partly converted into mucilage, which constantly exudes through the cloth, and protects the [oe]sophagus, or gullet, from laceration. But little force must be used, and the whole operation conducted with the utmost care and gentleness; or the [oe]sophagus will be so far lacerated as to produce death, although the obstruction is removed. OPHTHALMIA. Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the eyes, is not uncommon in this country; but it is little noticed, as, in most cases, it disappears in a few days, or, at worst, is only followed by cataract, which, being usually confined to one eye, does not appreciably effect the value of the animal, and therefore has no influence on its market price. _Treatment._ Some recommend blowing pulverized red chalk in the inflamed eye; others squirt into it tobacco juice. As a matter of humanity, blood may be drawn from under the eye, and the eye bathed in tepid water, and occasionally with a weak solution of the sulphate of zinc combined with tincture of opium. These latter applications diminish the pain, and hasten the cure. PALSY. Paralysis, or palsy, is a diminution or entire loss of the powers of motion in some parts of the body. In the winter, poor lambs, or poor pregnant ewes, or poor feeble ewes immediately after yeaning in the spring, occasionally lose the power of walking or standing rather too suddenly to have it referable to increasing debility. The animal seems to have lost all strength in its loins, and the hind-quarters are powerless; it makes ineffectual attempts to rise, and cannot stand if placed upon its feet. _Treatment._ Warmth, gentle stimulants, and good nursing may raise the patient; but, in the vast majority of cases, it is more economical and equally humane, to deprive it of life at once. PELT-ROT. This is often mistaken for the scab, but it is, in fact, a different and less dangerous disease. The wool falls off, and leaves the sheep nearly naked; but it is attended with no soreness, though a reddish crust will cover the skin, from the wool which has dropped. It generally arises from hard keeping and much exposure to cold and wet; and, in fact, the animal often dies in severe weather from the cold it suffers on account of the loss of its coat. The _remedy_ is full feeding, a warm stall, and anointing the hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter. Some, however, do nothing for it, scarcely considering it a disease. Such say that if the condition of a poor sheep is raised as suddenly as practicable, by generous keep in the winter, the wool is very apt to drop off; and, if yet cold, the sheep will require warm shelter. PNEUMONIA. Pneumonia--or inflammation of the lungs--is not a common disease in the Northern States; but undoubted cases of it sometimes occur, after sheep have been exposed to sudden cold, particularly when recently shorn. The adhesions occasionally witnessed between the lungs and pleura of slaughtered sheep, betray the former existence of this disease in the animal--though, in many instances, it was so slight as to be mistaken, at the time, for a hard cold. _Symptoms._ The animal is dull, ceases to ruminate, neglects its food, drinks frequently and largely, and its breathing is rapid and laborious; the eye is clouded; the nose discharges a tenacious, fetid matter; the teeth are ground frequently, so that the sound is audible at some distance; the pulse is at first hard and rapid, sometimes intermits, but before death it becomes weak. During the height of the fever, the flanks heave violently; there is a hard, painful cough during the first stages, which becomes weaker, and seems to be accompanied with more pain as death approaches. After death, the lungs are found more or less hepatized--that is, permanently condensed and engorged with blood, so that their structure resembles that of the _hepar_, or liver--and they have so far lost their integrity that they are torn asunder by the slightest force. It may here be remarked that when sheep die from any cause, _with their blood in them_, the lungs have a dark, hepatized appearance. Whether they are actually hepatized or not, can readily be decided by compressing the windpipe, so that air cannot escape through it, and then between such compression and the body of the lungs, in a closely fitting orifice, inserting a goose-quill, or other tube, and continuing to blow until the lungs are inflated as far as they can be. As they inflate, they will become of a lighter color, and plainly manifest their cellular structure. If any portions of them cannot be inflated, and retain their dark, liver-like consistence, and color, they exhibit hepatization--the result of high inflammatory action--and a state utterly incompatible, in the living animal, with the discharge of the natural functions of the viscus. _Treatment._ In the first, or inflammatory stages, bleeding and aperients are clearly called for. Some recommend early and copious bleeding, repeated, if necessary, in a few hours; this followed by aperient medicines, such as two ounces of Epsom salts, which may be repeated in smaller doses, if the bowels are not sufficiently relaxed. The following sedative may also be given with gruel, twice a day: nitrate of potash, one drachm; powdered digitalis, one scruple; and tartarized antimony, one scruple. While depletion may be of inestimable value during the continuance--the short continuance--of the febrile state, yet excitation like this will soon be followed by corresponding exhaustion, when the bleeding and purging would be murderous expedients; and gentian, ginger, and the spirits of nitrous ether will afford the only hope of cure. POISON. Sheep will often, in the winter or spring, eat greedily of the low laurel. The animal appears afterward to be dull and stupid, swells a little, and is constantly gulping up a feverish fluid, which it swallows again; a part of it will trickle out of its mouth, and discolor its lips. The plant probably brings on a fermentation in the stomach, and nature endeavors to throw off the poisonous herb by retching or vomiting. _Treatment._ In the early stages, if the greenish fluid be allowed to escape from the stomach, the animal generally recovers. To effect this, gag the sheep, which may be done in this manner: Take a stick of the size of the wrist, six inches long--place it in the animal's mouth--tie a string to one end of it, pass it over the head and down to the other end, and there make it fast. The fluid will then run from the mouth as fast as thrown up from the stomach. In addition to this, give roasted onions and sweetened milk freely. A better plan, however, is to force a gill of melted lard down the throat; or, boil for an hour the twigs of the white ash, and give one-half to one gill of the strong liquor immediately; to be repeated, if not successful. Drenchers of milk and castor-oil are also recommended. ROT. This disease, which sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep, in England, in a single year, is comparatively unknown in this country. It prevails somewhat in the Western States, from allowing sheep to pasture on land that is overflowed with water. Even a crop of green oats, early in the fall, before a frost comes; has been known to rot young sheep. _Symptoms._ The first are by no means strongly marked; there is no loss of condition, but rather the contrary, to all appearance. A paleness and want of liveliness of the membranes, generally, may be considered as the first symptoms, to which may be added a yellowness of the caruncle at the corner of the eye. When in warm, sultry, or rainy weather, sheep that are grazing on low and moist lands, feed rapidly, and some of them die suddenly, there is ground for fearing that they have contracted the rot. This suspicion will be farther increased if, a few days afterward, the sheep begin to shrink and grow flaccid about the loins. By pressure about the hips at this time, a crackling is perceptible now or soon afterward, the countenance looks pale, and upon parting the fleece, the skin is found to have changed its vermilion tint for a pale red, and the wool is easily separated from the felt; and as the disorder advances, the skin becomes dappled with yellow or black spots. To these symptoms succeed increased dullness, loss of condition, and greater paleness of the mucous membranes, the eye-lids becoming almost white, and afterward yellow. This yellowness extends to other parts of the body, and a watery fluid appears under the skin, the latter becoming loose and flabby, and the wool coming off readily. The symptoms of dropsy often extend over the body, and sometimes the sheep becomes _chockered_, as it is termed; a large swelling forms under the jaw, which, from the appearance of the fluid which it contains, is sometimes called the _watery poke_. The duration of the disease is uncertain; the animal occasionally dies shortly after becoming affected, but more frequently it extends to from three to six months, the sheep gradually losing flesh and pining away, particularly if, as is frequently the case, an obstinate purging supervenes. _Post-mortem._ The whole cellular tissue is found to be infiltrated, and a yellow serous fluid everywhere follows the knife. The muscles are soft and flabby, having the appearance of being macerated. The kidneys are pale, flaccid, and infiltrated. The mesenteric glands are enlarged, and engorged with yellow serous fluid. The belly is frequently filled with water, or purulent matter; the peritoneum is everywhere thickened, and the bowels adhere together by means of an unnatural growth. The heart is enlarged and softened, and the lungs are filled with tubercles. The principal alterations of structure are in the liver, which is pale, livid, and broken down with the slightest pressure; and on being boiled, it will almost dissolve away. When the liver is not pale, it is often curiously spotted; in some cases it is speckled, like the back of a toad; some parts of it, however, are hard and schirrous; others are ulcerated, and the biliary ducts are filled with flukes. The malady is, unquestionably, inflammation of the liver. This fluke is from three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter in length, and from one-third to one-half an inch in its greatest breadth. These fluke-worms undoubtedly aggravate the disease, and perpetuate a state of irritability and disorganization, which must necessarily undermine the strength of any animal. _Treatment._ This must, to a considerable extent, be very unsatisfactory. After the use of dry food and dry bedding, one of the best _preventives_ is the abundant use of pure salt. In violent attacks, take eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood, according to the circumstances of the case; to this, let a dose of physic succeed--two or three ounces of Epsom salts; and to these means add a change of diet, good hay in the field, and hay, straw, or chaff in the yard. After the operation of the physic--an additional dose having been administered, oftentimes, in order to quicken the action of the first--two or three grains of calomel may be given daily, mixed with half the quantity of opium, in order to secure its beneficial, and ward off its injurious effects on the ruminant. To this should be added common salt, which acts as a purgative and a tonic. A mild tonic, as well as an aperient, is plainly indicated soon after the commencement of rot. The doses should be from two to three drachms, repeated morning and night. When the inflammatory stage is clearly passed, stronger tonics may be added to the salt, and there are none superior to the gentian and ginger roots; from one to two drachms of each, finely pounded, may be added to each dose of the salt. The sheep having a little recovered from the disease, should still continue on the best and driest pasture on the farm, and should always have salt within their reach. The rot is not infectious. SCAB. This is a cutaneous disease, analogous to the mange in horses and the itch in man, and is caused and propagated by a minute insect, the _acarus_. [Illustration: THE BROAD-TAILED SHEEP.] If one or more female _acari_ are placed on the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root of it, and bury themselves in the skin, the place at which they penetrate being scarcely visible, or only distinguishable by a minute red point. On the tenth or twelfth day, a little swelling may be detected with the finger, and the skin changes its color, and has a greenish blue tint. The pustule is now rapidly formed, and about the sixteenth day breaks, when the mothers again appear, with their little ones attached to their feet, and covered by a portion of the shell of the egg from which they have just escaped. These little ones immediately set to work, penetrate the neighboring skin, bury themselves beneath it, find their proper nourishment, and grow and propagate, until the poor creature has myriads of them preying upon him. It is not wonderful that, under such circumstances, he should speedily sink. The male _acari_, when placed on the sound skin of a sheep, will likewise burrow their way and disappear for a while, the pustule rising in due time; but the itching and the scab soon disappear without the employment of any remedy. The female brings forth from eight to fifteen young at a time. In the United States, this disease is comparatively little known, and never originates spontaneously. The fact, that short-woolled sheep--like the Merino--are much less subject to its attacks, is probably one reason for this slight comparative prevalence. The disease spreads from individual to individual, and from flock to flock, not only by means of direct contact, but by the _acari_ left on posts, stones, and other substances against which diseased sheep have rubbed themselves. Healthy sheep are, therefore, liable to contract the malady, if turned on pastures previously occupied by scabby sheep, although some considerable time may have elapsed since the departure of the latter. The sheep laboring under the scab is exceedingly restless. It rubs itself with violence against trees, stones, fences, etc.; scratches itself with its feet, bites its sores, and tears off its wool with its teeth; as the pustules are broken, their matter escapes, and forms scabs, causing red, inflamed sores, which constantly extend, increasing the misery of the tortured animal; if unrelieved, he pines away, and soon perishes. The _post-mortem_ appearances are very uncertain and inconclusive. There is generally chronic inflammation of the intestines, with the presence of a great number of worms. The liver is occasionally schirrous, and the spleen enlarged; and there are frequently serous effusions in the belly, and sometimes in the chest. There has been evident sympathy between the digestive and the cutaneous systems. _Treatment._ First, separate the sheep; then cut off the wool as far as the skin feels hard to the finger; the scab is then washed with soap-suds, and rubbed hard With a shoe-brush, so that it may be cleansed and broken. For this use take a decoction of tobacco, to which add one-third, by measure, of the lye of wood-ashes, as much hog's lard as will be dissolved by the lye, a small quantity of tar from a tar-bucket, which contains grease, and about one-eighth of the whole, by measure, of spirits of turpentine. This liquor is rubbed upon the part infected, and spread to a little distance around it, in three washings, with an interval of three days each. This will invariably effect a cure, when the disorder is only partial. Or, the following: Dip the sheep in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. The sheep should be previously washed in soap and water. The infusion must not be permitted to enter the mouth or nostrils. Or, take common mercurial ointment; for bad cases, rub it down with three times its weight of lard--for ordinary cases, five times its weight. Rub a little of this ointment into the head of the sheep. Part the wool so as to expose the skin in a line from the head to the tail, and then apply a little of the ointment with the finger the whole way. Make a similar furrow and application on each side, four inches from the first; and so on, over the whole body. The quantity of ointment after composition with the lard, should not exceed two ounces; and, generally, less will suffice. A lamb requires but one-third as much as a grown sheep. This will generally cure; but, if the animal should continue to rub itself, a lighter application of the same should be made in ten days. Or, take two pounds of lard or palm oil; half a pound of oil of tar; and one pound of sulphur; gradually mix the last two, then rub down the compound with the first. Apply as before. Or, take of corrosive sublimate, one half a pound; white hellabore, powdered, three-fourths of a pound; whale or other oil, six gallons; rosin, two pounds; and tallow, two pounds. The first two to be mixed with a little of the oil, and the rest being melted together, the whole to be gradually mixed. This is a powerful preparation, and must not be applied too freely. An erysipelatous scab, or erysipelas, attended with considerable itching, sometimes troubles sheep. This is a febrile disease, and is treated with a cooling purgative, bleeding, and oil or lard applied to the sores. SMALL-POX. The author acknowledges himself indebted for what follows under this head to R. McClure, V. S., of Philadelphia, author of a Prize Essay on Diseases of Sheep, read before the U. S. Agricultural Society, in 1860, for which a medal and diploma were awarded. Although the small-pox in domestic animals has, fortunately, been as yet confined to the European Continent--where it has been chiefly limited to England--no good reason can ever be assigned why it should not at some future time make its appearance among us, especially when we remember how long a period elapsed, during which we escaped the cattle plague, although the Continent had long been suffering from it. The small-pox in sheep--_variola overia_--is, at times, epizoötic in the flocks of France and Italy, but was unknown in England until 1847, when it was communicated to a flock at Datchett and another at Pinnier by some Merinos from Spain. It soon found its way into Hampshire and Norfolk, but was shortly afterward supposed to be eradicated. In 1862, however, it suddenly reappeared in a severe form among the flocks of Wiltshire; for which reappearance neither any traceable infection nor contagion could be assigned. With the present light upon the subject, it would seem to be an instance of the origination _anew_ of a malignant type of varioloid disease. Such an origin is, in fact, assigned to this disease in Africa, it being well established that certain devitalizing atmospheric influences produce skin diseases, and facilitate the appearance of pustular eruptions. The disease once rooted soon becomes epizoötic, and causes a greater mortality than any other malady affecting this animal. Out of a flock numbering 1720, 920 were attacked in a natural way, of which 50 per cent. died. Of 800 inoculated cases, but 36 per cent. died. Numerous experiments have proved beyond all doubt that this disease in sheep is both infectious and contagious; its period of incubation varies from seven to fourteen days. The mortality is never less than 25 per cent., and not unfrequently whole flocks have been swept away, death taking place in the early stages of the eruption, or in the stages of suppuration and ulceration. The _symptoms_ may be mapped out as follows: The animal is seized with a shivering fit, succeeded by a dull stupidity, which remains until death or recovery results; on the second or third day, pimples are seen on the thighs and arm-pits, accompanied with extreme redness of the eyes, complete loss of appetite, etc., etc. It is needless to enumerate other symptoms which exist in common with those of other disorders. _Prevention._ At present, but two modes are resorted to, for the purpose of preventing the spread of the disease, which promise any degree of certainty of success. The first is by _inoculation_, which was recommended by Professor Simonds, of London. This distinguished pathologist appears to have overlooked the fact that he was thereby only enlarging the sphere of mischief, by imparting the disease to animals that, in all probability, would otherwise have escaped it. By inoculation, moreover, a form of the disease is given, not of a modified character, but with all the virulence of the original affection which is to be arrested, and equally as potent for further destruction of others. By such teaching, inoculation and vaccination would be made one and the same thing, notwithstanding their dissimilarity. Even vaccination will not protect the animal, as has been already shown by the experiments of Hurbrel D'Arboval. The second and best plan of prevention is _isolation and destruction_, as recommended by Professor Gamgee, of the Edinburgh Veterinary College. This proved a great protection to the sheep-farmers of Wiltshire, in 1862. In all epizoötic diseases, individual cases occur, which, when pointed out and recognized as soon as the fever sets in and the early eruptions appear, should be slaughtered at once and buried, and the rest of the flock isolated. By this means the disease has been confined to but two or three in a large flock. _Treatment._ In treating this disease, resort has of late been had to a plant, known as _Sarracenia purpura_--Indian cup, or pitcher plant--used for this purpose by the Micmacs, a tribe of Indians in British North America. This plant is indigenous, perennial, and is found from the coast of Labrador to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, growing in great abundance on wet, marshy ground. The use of this plant is becoming quite general, and good results have almost uniformly attended it. Take from one to two ounces of the dried root, and slice in thin pieces; place in an earthen pot; add a quart of cold water, and allow the liquid to simmer gently over a steady fire for two or three hours, so as to lose one-fourth of the quantity. Give of this decoction three wine-glassfuls at once, and the same quantity from four to six hours afterwards, when a cure will generally be affected. Weaker and smaller doses are certain preventives of the disease. The public are indebted to Dr. Morris, physician to the Halifax (Nova Scotia) Dispensary, for the manner of preparing this eminently useful article. SORE FACE. Sheep feeding on pastures infested with John's wort, frequently exhibit an irritation of skin about the nose and face, which causes the hair to drop off from the parts. The irritation sometimes extends over the entire body. If this plant is eaten in too large quantities, it produces violent inflammation of the bowels, and is frequently fatal to lambs, and sometimes to adults. _Treatment._ Rub a little sulphur and lard on the irritated surface. If there are symptoms of inflammation of the bowels, this should be put into the mouth of the sheep with a flattened stick. Abundance of salt is deemed a _preventive_. SORE MOUTH. The lips of sheep sometimes become suddenly sore in the winter, and swell to the thickness of a man's hand. The malady occasionally attacks whole flocks, and becomes quite fatal. It is usually attributed to noxious weeds cut with the hay. _Treatment._ Daub the lips and mouth plentifully with tar. TICKS. The treatment necessary as a preventive against these insects, and a remedy for them, has already been indicated under the head of "FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT," to which the reader is referred. SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. [Illustration] HISTORY AND BREEDS. The hog is a cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every climate; though its natural haunts--like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals--are in warm countries. They are most abundant in China, the East Indies, and the immense range of islands extending throughout the whole Southern and Pacific oceans; but they are also numerous throughout Europe, from its Southern coast to the Russian dominions within the Arctic. As far back as the records of history extend, this animal appears to have been known, and his flesh made use of as food. Nearly fifteen hundred years before Christ, Moses gave those laws to the Israelites which have given rise to so much discussion; and it is evident that, had not pork been the prevailing food of that nation at the time, such stringent commandments and prohibitions would not have been necessary. The various allusions to this kind of meat, which repeatedly occur in the writings of the old Greek authors, show the esteem in which it was held among that nation; and it appears that the Romans made the art of breeding, rearing, and fattening pigs a study. In fact, the hog was very highly prized among the early nations of Europe; and some of the ancients even paid it divine honors. The Jews, the Egyptians, and the Mohammedans alone appear to have abstained from the flesh of swine. The former were expressly denied its use by the laws of Moses. "And the swine, though he divide the hoof, and be cloven-footed, yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean unto you." Lev. xi. 7. Upon this prohibition, Mohammed, probably, founded his own. For the Mosaic prohibition, various reasons have been assigned: the alleged extreme filthiness of the animal; it being afflicted with a leprosy; the great indigestibility of its flesh in hot climates; the intent to make the Jews "a peculiar people;" a preventive of gluttony; and an admonition of abstinence from sensual and disgusting habits. At what period the animal was reclaimed from his wild State, and by what nation, cannot be stated. From the earliest times, in England, the hog has been regarded as a very important animal, and vast herds were tended by swineherds, who watched over their safety in the woods, and collected them under shelter at night. Its flesh was the staple article of consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the rich and free portion of the community consisted in these animals. Hence bequests of swine, with land for their support, were often made; rights and privileges connected with their feeding, and the extent of woodland to be occupied by a given number, were granted according to established rules. Long after the end of the Saxon dynasty, the practice of feeding swine upon the mast and acorns of the forest was continued till the forests were cut down, and the land laid open for the plough. Nature designed the hog to fulfil many important functions in a forest country. By his burrowing after roots and the like, he turns up and destroys the larvæ of innumerable insects, which would otherwise injure the trees as well as their fruit. He destroys the slug-snail and adder, and thus not only rids the forests of these injurious and unpleasant inhabitants, but also makes them subservient to his own nourishment, and therefore to the benefit of mankind. The fruits which he eats are such as would otherwise rot on the ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment to vermin; and his diggings for earth-nuts and the like, loosens the soil, and benefits the roots of the trees. Hogs in forest land may, therefore, be regarded as eminently beneficial; and it is only the abuse which is to be feared. The hog is popularly regarded as a stupid, brutal, rapacious, and filthy animal, grovelling and disgusting in all his habits, intractable and obstinate in temper. The most offensive epithets among men are borrowed from him, or his peculiarities. In their native state, however, swine seem by no means destitute of natural affections; they are gregarious, assemble together in defence of each other, herd together for warmth, and appear to have feelings in common; no mother is more tender to her young than the sow, or more resolute in their defence. Neglected as this animal has ever been by authors, recorded instances are not wanting of their sagacity, tractability, and susceptibility of affection. Among the European peasantry, where the hog is, so to speak, one of the family, he may often be seen following his master from place to place, and grunting his recognition of his protectors. The hog, in point of actual fact, is also a much more cleanly animal than he has the credit of being. He is fond of a good, cleanly bed; and when this is not provided for him, it is oftentimes interesting to note the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for himself. It is, however, so much the vogue to believe that he may be kept in any state of neglect, that the terms "pig," and "pig-sty" are usually regarded as synonymous with all that is dirty and disgusting. His rolling in the mud is cited as a proof of his filthy habits. This practice, which he shares in common with all the pachydermatous animals, is undoubtedly the teaching of instinct, and for the purpose of cooling himself and keeping off flies. Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently to secure the warmest berth. They are likewise peculiarly sensitive of approaching changes in the weather, and may often be observed suddenly leaving the places in which they had been quietly feeding, and running off to their styes at full speed, making loud outcries. When storms are overhanging, they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if inviting their companions to do the same; and if there is a shed or shelter near at hand, they will carry it there and deposit it, as if for the purpose of preparing a bed. In their domesticated state, they are, undeniably, very greedy animals; eating is the business of their lives; nor do they appear to be very delicate as to the kind or quality of food which is placed before them. Although naturally herbivorous animals, they have been known to devour carrion with all the voracity of beasts of prey, to eat and mangle infants, and even gorge their appetites with their own young. It is not, however, unreasonable to believe that the last revolting act--rarely if ever happening in a state of nature--arises more from the pain and irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often filth, in which the animal is kept, and the disturbances to which it is subjected, than from any actual ferocity; for it is well known that a sow is always unusually irritable at this period, snapping at all animals that approach her. If she is gently treated, properly supplied with sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there is little danger of this practice ever happening. All the offences which swine commit are attributed to a disposition innately bad; whereas they too often arise from bad management, or total neglect. They are legitimate objects for the sport of idle boys, hunted with curs, pelted with stones, often neglected and obliged to find a meal for themselves, or wander about half-starved. Made thus the Ishmaelites of our domestic animals, is it a matter of wonder that they should, under such circumstances, incline to display Ishmaelitish traits? In any well-regulated farm-yard, the swine are as tractable and as little disposed to wander or trespass as any of the animals that it contains. The WILD BOAR is generally admitted to be the parent of the stock from which all our domesticated breeds and varieties have sprung. This animal is generally of a dusky brown or iron-gray color, inclining to black, and diversified with black spots or streaks. The body is covered with coarse hairs, intermixed with a downy wool; these hairs become bristles as they approach the neck and shoulders, and are in those places so long as to form a mane, which the animal erects when irritated. The head is short, the forehead broad and flat, the ears short, rounded at the tips, and inclined toward the neck, the jaw armed with sharp, crooked tusks, which curve slightly upward, and are capable of inflicting fearful wounds, the eye full, neck thick and muscular, the shoulders high, the loins broad, the tail stiff, and finished off with a tuft of bristles at the tip, the haunch well turned, and the leg strong. A full-grown wild boar in India averages from thirty to forty inches in height at the shoulder; the African wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty inches high. The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes fiercer as he grows older. When existing in a state of nature, he is generally found in moist, shady, and well-wooded situations, not far remote from streams or water. In India, they are found in the thick jungles, in plantations of sugar-cane or rice, or in the thick patches of high, long grass. In England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, their resorts have been in the woods and forests. This animal is naturally herbivorous, and appears to feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots. He will, however, eat the worms and larvæ which he finds in the ground, also snakes and other such reptiles, and the eggs of birds. They seldom quit their coverts during the day, but prowl about in search of food during twilight and the night. Their acute sense of smell enables them to detect the presence of roots or fruits deeply imbedded in the soil, and they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground in search of them, particularly as they do not, like the common hog, root up a little spot here and there, but plough long, continuous, furrows. The wild boar, properly so called, is neither a solitary nor a gregarious animal. For the first two or three years, the whole herd follows the sow, and all unite in defence against any enemies, calling upon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming in regular line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear. When arrived at maturity, the animals wander alone, as if in perfect consciousness of their strength, and appear as if they neither sought nor avoided any living creature. They are reputed to live about thirty years; as they grow old, the hair becomes gray, and the tusks begin to show symptoms of decay. Old boars rarely associate with a herd, but seem to keep apart from the rest, and from each other. The female produces but one litter in the year, much smaller in number than those of the domestic pig; she carries her young sixteen or twenty weeks, and generally is only seen with the male during the rutting season. She suckles her young for several months, and continues to protect them for some time afterward; if attacked at that time, she will defend herself and them with exceeding courage and fierceness. Many sows will often be found herding together, each followed by her litter of young; and in such parties they are exceedingly formidable to man and beast. Neither they nor the boar, however, seem desirous of attacking any thing; and only when roused by aggression, or disturbed in their retreat, do they turn upon their enemies and manifest the mighty strength with which Nature has endowed them. When attacked by dogs, the wild boar at first sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to time and menacing them with his tusks; but gradually his anger rises, and at length he stands at bay, fights furiously for his life, and tears and rends his persecutors. He has even been observed to single out the most tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him. Hunting this animal has been a favorite sport, in almost all countries in which it has been found, from the earliest ages. [Illustration: THE WILD BOAR AT BAY.] Wild boars lingered in the forests of England and Scotland for several centuries after the Norman conquest, and many tracts of land in those countries derived their name from this circumstance; while instances of valor in their destruction are recorded in the heraldic devices of many of their noble families. The precise period at which the animal became exterminated there cannot be precisely ascertained. They had, however, evidently been long extinct in the time of Charles I., since he endeavored to re-introduce them, and was at considerable expense to procure a wild boar and his mate from Germany. They still exist in Upper Austria, on the Syrian Alps, in many parts of Hungary, and in the forests of Poland, Spain, Russia, and Sweden; and the inhabitants of those countries hunt them with hounds, or attack them with fire-arms, or with the proper boar-spear. All the varieties of the domestic hog will breed with the wild boar; the period of gestation is the same in the wild and the tame sow; their anatomical structure is identical; their general form bears the same characters; and their habits, so far as they are not changed by domestication, remain the same. Where individuals of the pure wild race have been caught young and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic pig, their fierceness has disappeared, they have become more social and less nocturnal in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to eat. In the course of one or two generations, even the form undergoes certain modifications; the body becomes larger and heavier; the legs shorter, and less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the boar, being no longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear; the shape of the head and neck alters; and in character as well as in form, the animal adapts itself to its situation. Nor does it appear that a return to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance; for, in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and bred in the wilderness and woods, not a single instance is on record in which they have resumed the habits and form of the wild boar. They, indeed, become fierce, wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; but they are, notwithstanding, merely degenerated swine, and they still associate together in herds, and do not walk solitary and alone, like their grim ancestors. AMERICAN SWINE. In the United States, swine have been an object of attention since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market has been found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the full extent of the demand. Swine are not, however, indigenous to this country, but were doubtless originally brought hither by the early English settlers; and the breed thus introduced may still be distinguished by the traces they retain of their parent stock. France, also, as well as Spain, and, during the existence of the slave-trade, Africa, have also combined to furnish varieties of this animal, so much esteemed throughout the whole of the country, as furnishing a valuable article of food. For nearly twenty years following the commencement of the general European wars, soon after the organization of our national government, pork was a comparatively large article of commerce; but exports for a time diminished, and it was not until within a more recent period that this staple has been brought up to its former standard as an article of exportation to that country. The recent use which has been made of its carcass in converting it into lard oil, has tended to still further increase its consumption. By the census of 1860, there were upward of thirty-two and a half millions of these animals in the United States. They are reared in every part of the Union, and, when properly managed, always at a fair profit. At the extreme North, in the neighborhood of large markets, and on such of the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice, they should not be raised beyond the number required for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced. Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard; since, with little additional food besides what is thus afforded, they can be put in good condition for the butcher. On the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, however, where Indian corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the largest profit. The Scioto, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and some adjoining States, have for many years taken the lead in the production of Swine; and it is probable that the climate and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them to hold their position as the leading pork-producers of the North American Continent. The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous; and, like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few of the worst, to be found among the species. Great attention has been paid, for many years, to their improvement in the Eastern States; and nowhere are there better specimens than in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West and South; and among most of the intelligent farmers, who make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn-grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. This does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individuals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. THE BYEFIELD. This breed was formerly in high repute in the Eastern States, and did much good among the species generally. They are white, with fine curly hair, well made and compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three hundred and fifty pounds net. THE BEDFORD. The Bedford or Woburn is a breed originating with the Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the Chinese hog on some of the best English swine. A pair was sent by the duke to this country, as a present to General Washington; but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, in Maryland, in which State, and in Pennsylvania, they were productive of much good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through different States. Several other importations of this breed have been made at various times, and especially by the enterprising masters of the Liverpool packets, in the neighborhood of New York. They are a large, spotted animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fattening. This is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, both in England and in this country, as a breed. THE LEICESTER. The old Leicestershire breed, in England, was a perfect type of the original hogs of the midland counties; large, ungainly, slab-sided animals, of a light color, and spotted with brown or black. The only good parts about them were their heads and ears, which showed greater traces of breeding than any other portions. These have been materially improved by various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all its peculiarities and defects. They may now be characterized as a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some varieties differ essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses with small compact breeds are generally thrifty, desirable animals. THE YORKSHIRE. The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and one of the most unprofitable for a farmer, being greedy feeders, difficult to fatten, and unsound in constitution. They were of a dirty white or yellow color, spotted with black, had long legs, flat sides, narrow backs, weak loins, and large bones. Their hair was short and wirey, and intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and neck, and their ears long. When full grown and fat, they seldom weighed more than from three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds. These have been crossed with pigs of the improved Leicester breed; and where the crossings have been judiciously managed, and not carried too far, a fine race of deep-sided, short-legged, thin-haired animals has been obtained, fattening kindly, and rising to a weight of from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, when killed between one and two years old; and when kept over two years, reaching even from five hundred to seven hundred pounds. They have also been crossed with the Chinese, Neapolitan, and Berkshire breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned animals thereby obtained. The original breed, in its purity, size, and defectiveness, is now hardly to be met with, having shared the fate of the other large old breeds, and given place to smaller and more symmetrical animals. The _Yorkshire white_ is among the large breeds deserving commendation among us. To the same class belong also the large _Miami white_, and the _Kenilworth_; each frequently attaining, when dressed, a weight of from six hundred to eight hundred pounds. THE CHINESE. This hog is to be found in the south-eastern countries of Asia, as Siam, Cochin China, the Burman Empire, Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatra, and in Batavia, and other Eastern islands; and is, without doubt, the parent stock of the best European and American swine. There are two distinct varieties, the _white_ and the _black_; both fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no great weight. They are small in limb, round in body, short in the head, wide in the cheek, and high in the chime; covered with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly thin skin; and not peculiarly symmetrical, since, when fat, the head is so buried in the neck that little more than the tip of the snout is visible. The pure Chinese is too delicate and susceptible to cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this country; it is difficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses; but one or two judicious crosses have, in a manner, naturalized it. This breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quantity of food; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does not make good bacon, and is often too fat and oily to be generally esteemed as pork. They are chiefly kept by those who rear sucking-pigs for the market, as they make excellent roasters at three weeks or a month old. Five, and even seven, varieties of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubtless the results of different crosses with our native kinds; among these are black, white, black and white, spotted, blue and white, and sandy. [Illustration: THE CHINESE HOG.] Many valuable crosses have been made with these animals; for the prevalent fault of the old English breeds having been coarseness of flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude to fatten, an admixture of the Chinese breed has materially corrected these defects. Most of our smaller breeds are more or less indebted to the Asiatic swine for their present compactness of form, the readiness with which they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their early maturity; but these advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the litters. The best cross is between the Berkshire and Chinese. THE SUFFOLK. The old Suffolks are white in color, long-legged, long-bodied, with narrow backs, broad foreheads, short hams, and an abundance of bristles. They are by no means profitable animals. A cross between the Suffolk and Lincoln has produced a hardy animal, which fattens kindly, and attains the weight of from four hundred to five hundred and fifty, and even seven hundred pounds. Another cross, much approved by farmers, is that of the Suffolk and Berkshire. [Illustration: THE SUFFOLK PIG.] There are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved Suffolk--that is, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. The greater part of the pigs on the late Prince Albert's farm, near Windsor, were of this breed. They are well-formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs, small heads, and fat cheeks. Many, at a year or fifteen months old, weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds; at which age they make fine bacon hogs. The sucking-pigs are also very delicate and delicious. Those arising from Berkshire and Suffolk are not so well shaped as the latter, being coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about the hips. They are mostly white, with thin, fine hair; some few are spotted, and are easily kept in fine condition; they have a decided aptitude to fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs. THE BERKSHIRE. [Illustration: A BERKSHIRE BOAR.] The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished by their color, which is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly with dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles. The hair is long, thin, somewhat curly, and looks rough; the ears are fringed with long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a ragged or feathery appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well formed; the legs short, the sides broad, the head well set on, the snout short, the jowl thick, the ears erect, skin exceedingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and well flavored, and the bacon very superior. This breed has generally been considered one of the best in England, on account of its smallness of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, and the females being good breeders. Hogs of the pure original breed have been known to weigh from eight hundred to nine hundred and fifty pounds. Numerous crosses have been made from this breed; the principal foreign ones are those with the Chinese and Neapolitan swine, made with the view of decreasing the size of the animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, and rendering it more delicate; and the animals thus attained are superior to almost any others in their aptitude to fatten; but are very susceptible to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. A cross with the Suffolk and Norfolk also is much improved, which produces a hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the butcher; although, under most circumstances, the pure Berkshire is the best. No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States, within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, and they have produced a marked improvement in many of our former races. They weigh variously, from two hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at sixteen months, according to their food and style of breeding; and some full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred pounds. They particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or bristles; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided improvement in this department of domestic animals, that our brush-makers are obliged to import most of what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early maturity. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG. [Illustration: SKELETON OF THE HOG AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 1. The lower jaw. 2. The teeth. 3. The nasal bones. 4. The upper jaw. 5. The frontal bone. 6. The orbit or socket of the eye. 7. The occipital bone. 8. The first vertebræ of the neck. 9. The vertebræ of the neck. 10. The vertebræ of the back. 11. The vertebræ of the loins. 12. The bones of the tail. 13, 14. The true and false ribs. 15. The shoulder-blade. 16. The round shoulder-bone 17. The breast-bone. 18. The elbow. 19. The bone of the fore-arm. 20. The navicular bone. 21. The first and second bones of the foot. 22. The bones of the hoof. 23. The haunch bones. 24. The thigh bone. 25. The stifle bone. 26. The upper bone of the leg. 27. The hock bones. 28. The navicular bone. 29. The first digits of the foot. 30. The second digits of the foot.] DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back-bone. CLASS. _Mammalia_--such as give suck. ORDER. _Pachydermata_--thick-skinned. FAMILY. _Suidæ_--the swine kind. GENUS. _Sus_--the hog. Of this genus there are five varieties. _Sus Scropa_, or Domestic Hog. _Sus Papuensis_, or Bene. _Sus Guineensis_, or Guinea Hog. _Sus Africanus_, or Masked Boar. _Sus Babirussa_, or Babirussa. A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with that of any other will prove that strength is the object in view--strength toward the inferior part of the bone. In point of fact, the snout of the hog is his spade, with which, in his natural state, he digs and ruts in the ground for roots, earth-nuts, worms, etc. To render this implement more nearly perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone, being connected with it by strong ligaments, cartilages, and muscles, and termed the snout-bone, or spade-bone, or ploughshare. By it and its cartilaginous attachment, the snout is rendered strong as well as flexible, and far more efficient than it otherwise could be; and the hog often continues to give both farmers and gardeners very unpleasant proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-sown fields, and grubbing up the soil in all directions in quest of living and dead food. As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food of the hog, his face terminates in this strong, muscular snout, insensible at the extremity, and perfectly adapted for turning up the soil. There is a large plexus or fold of nerves proceeding down each side of the nose; and in these, doubtless, resides that peculiar power which enables the hog to select his food, though buried some inches below the surface of the ground. The olfactory nerve is likewise large, and occupies a middle rank between that of the herbivorous and carnivorous animals; it is comparatively larger than that of the ox; indeed, few animals--with the exception of the dog, none--are gifted with a more acute sense of smell than the hog. To it epicures are indebted for the truffles which form such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual finders. A pig is turned into a field, allowed to pursue his own course, and watched. He stops, and begins to grub up the earth; the man hurries up, drives him away, and secures the truffle, which is invariably growing under that spot; and the poor pig goes off to sniff out another, and another, only now and then being permitted, by way of encouragement, to reap the fruits of his research. FORMATION OF THE TEETH. The hog has fourteen _molar_ teeth in each jaw, six _incisors_, and two _canines_; these latter are curved upward, and commonly denominated _tushes_. The molar teeth are all slightly different in structure, and increase in size from first to last; they bear no slight resemblance to those of the human being. The incisors are so fantastic in form that they cannot well be described, and their destined functions are by no means clear. Those in the lower jaw are long, round, and nearly straight; of those in the upper jaw, four closely resemble the corresponding teeth in the horse; while the two corner incisors bear something of the shape of those of the dog. These latter are placed so near the tushes as often to obstruct their growth, and it is sometimes necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the animal and enable him to feed. The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw; by the time he is three or four months old, he is provided with his incisive milk-teeth and the tushes; the supernumerary molars protrude between the fifth and seventh month, as does the first back molar; the second back molar is cut at about the age of ten months; and the third, generally, not until the animal is three years old. The upper corner teeth are shed at about the age of six or eight months; and the lower ones at about seven, nine, or ten months old, and replaced by the permanent ones. The milk tushes are also shed and replaced between six and ten months old. The age of twenty months, and from that to two years, is denoted by the shedding and replacement of the middle incisors, or _pincers_, in both jaws, and the formation of a black circle at the base of each of the tushes. At about two years and a half or three years of age, the adult middle teeth in both jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded at the ends. After three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the tushes; at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin to raise the lip; at five, they protrude through the lips; and at six years, the tushes of the lower jaw begin to show themselves out of the mouth, and assume a spiral form. These acquire a prodigious length in old animals, and particularly in uncastrated boars; and as they increase in size, they become curved backward and outward, and at length are so crooked as to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree that it is necessary to cut off those projecting teeth, which is done with the file, or with nippers. [Illustration] BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT BREEDING In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, much more attention and consideration are requisite than is generally imagined. It is as easy, with a very little judgment and management, to procure a good as an inferior breed; and the former is much more remunerative, in proportion to the outlay, than the latter can possibly ever be. The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such an animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view, whether that is the consumption of certain things which could not otherwise be so well disposed of, the converting into hams, bacon, and pork, or the raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market. Almost all farmers keep one or more pigs to devour the offal and refuse, which would otherwise be wasted. This is, however, a matter totally distinct from breeding swine. In the former case, the animal or animals are purchased young for a small price, each person buying as many as he considers he shall have food enough for, and then sold to the butcher, or killed, when in proper condition; and thus a certain degree of profit is realized. In the latter, many contingencies must be taken into account: the available means of feeding them; whether or not the food may be more profitably disposed of; the facilities afforded by railroads, the vicinity of towns, or large markets, etc., for disposing of them. In the breeding of swine, as much as that of any other livestock, it is important to pay great attention, not only to the breed, but also to the choice of individuals. The sow should produce a great number of young ones, and she must be well fed to enable her to support them. Some sows bring forth ten, twelve, or even fifteen pigs at a birth; but eight or nine is the usual number; and sows which produce fewer than this must be rejected. It is, however, probable that fecundity depends also on the boar; he should, therefore, be chosen from a race which multiplies quickly. If a bacon and a late market be objects, the large and heavy varieties should be selected, care being taken that the breed has the character of possessing those qualities most likely to insure a heavy return--growth, and facility of taking fat. Good one-year bacon-hogs being in great demand, they may be known by their long bodies, low bellies, and short legs. With these qualities are usually coupled long, pendulous ears, which attract purchasers. If, however, hogs are to be sold at all seasons to the butchers, the animals must attain their full growth and be ready for killing before they are a year old. This quality is particularly prominent in the Chinese breed; but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are often met with better adapted for this purpose than for producing large quantities of bacon and lard. The Berkshire crossed with Chinese is an excellent porker. The sow should be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape, sound and free from blemishes and defects. In every case--whether the object be pork or bacon--the _points_ to be looked for in the _sow_ are a small, lively head; a broad and deep chest; round ribs; capacious barrel; a haunch falling almost to the hough; deep and broad loin; ample hips; and considerable length of body, in proportion to its height. One qualification should ever be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the first point to which the attention should be directed--that is, smallness of bone. She should have at least twelve teats; for it is observed that each pig selects a teat for himself and keeps to it, so that a pig not having one belonging to him would be starved. A good sow should produce a great number of pigs, all of equal vigor. She must be very careful of them, and not crush them by her weight; above all, she must not be addicted to eating the after-birth, and, what may often follow, her own young. If a sow is tainted with those bad habits, or if she has difficult labors, or brings forth dead pigs, she must be spayed forthwith. It is, therefore, well to bring up several young sows at once, so as to keep those only which are free from defects. Breeding sows and boars should never be raised from defective animals. Sows that have very low bellies, almost touching the ground, seldom produce large or fine litters. A good-sized sow is generally considered more likely to prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more easily and safely than a small, delicate animal. The ancients considered the distinguishing marks of a good _boar_ to be a small head, short legs, a long body, large thighs and neck, and this latter part thickly covered with strong, erect bristles. The most experienced modern breeders prefer an animal with a long, cylindrical body; small bones; well-developed muscles; a wide chest, which denotes strength of constitution; a broad, straight back; short head and fine snout; brilliant eyes; a short, thick neck; broad, well-developed shoulders; a loose, mellow skin; fine, bright, long hair, and few bristles; and small legs and hips. Some give the preference to long, flapping ears; but experience seems to demonstrate that those animals are best which have short, erect, fine ears. The boar should always be vigorous and masculine in appearance. Few domesticated animals suffer so much from in-and-in breeding as swine. Where this system is pursued, the number of young ones is decreased at every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren. This practice also undoubtedly contributes to their liability to hereditary diseases, such as scrofula, epilepsy, and rheumatism; and when those possessing any such diseases are coupled, the ruin of the flock is easily and speedily effected, since they are propagated by either parent, and always most certainly and in most aggravated form, when occurring in both. As soon as the slightest degeneracy is observed, the breed should be crossed from time to time, keeping sight, however, while so doing, of the end in view. The Chinese will generally be found the best which can be used for this purpose; since a single cross, and even two, with one of these animals, will seldom do harm, but often effect considerable improvements. The best formed of the progeny resulting from this cross must be selected as breeders, and with them the old original stock crossed back again. Selection, with judicious and cautious admixture, is the true secret of forming and improving the breed. Repeated and indiscriminate crosses are as injurious as an obstinate adherence to one particular breed, and as much to be avoided. The following rules for the selection of the best stock of hogs will apply to all breeds: _Fertility._ In a breeding sow, this quality is essential, and it is one which is inherited. Besides this, she should be a careful mother. A young, untried sow will generally display in her tendencies those which have predominated in the race from which she has descended. Both boar and sow should be sound, healthy, and in fair, but not over fat, condition. _Form._ Where a farmer has an excellent breed, but with certain defects, or too long in the limb, or too heavy in the bone, the sire to be chosen, whether of a pure or of a cross breed, should exhibit the opposite qualities, even to an extreme; and be, moreover, one of a strain noted for early and rapid fattening. If in perfect health, young stock selected for breeding will be lively, animated, hold up the head, and move freely and nimbly. _Bristles._ These should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin smooth and glossy; coarse, wirey, rough bristles usually accompany heavy bones, large, spreading hoofs, and flapping ears, and thus become one of the indications of a thick-skinned and low breed. _Color._ Different breeds of high excellence have their own colors; white, black, parti-colored, black and white, sandy, mottled with large marks of black, are the most prevalent. A black skin, with short, scanty bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the prevalence of the Neapolitan strain, or the black Chinese, or, perhaps, an admixture of both. Many prefer white; and in sucking-pigs, destined for the table, and for porkers, this color has its advantages, and the skin looks more attractive; it is, however, generally thought that the skin of black hogs is thinner than that of white, and less subject to eruptive diseases. The influence of a first impregnation upon subsequent progeny by other males is at times curiously illustrated. This has been noticed in respect of the sow. A sow of the black and white breed, in one instance, became pregnant by a boar of the wild breed of a deep chestnut color. The pigs produced were duly mixed, the color of the boar being very predominant in some. The sow being afterwards put to a boar of the same breed as herself, some of the produce were still stained or marked with the chestnut color which prevailed in the first litter; and the same occurred after a third impregnation, the boar being then of the same kind as herself. What adds to the force of this case is, that in the course of many years' observation, the breed in question was never known to produce progeny having the slightest tinge of chestnut color. A sow is capable of conceiving at the age of six or seven months; but it is always better not to let her commence breeding too early, as it tends to weaken her. From ten to twelve months--and the latter is preferable--is about the best age. The boar should be, at least, a twelvemonth old--some even recommend eighteen months, at least--before he is employed for the purpose of propagating his species. If, however, the sow has attained her second year, and the boar his third, a vigorous and numerous offspring is more likely to result. The boar and sow retain their ability to breed for almost five years; that is, until the former is upward of eight years old, and the latter seven. It is not advisable, however, to use a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow after her fourth, unless she has proved a peculiarly valuable breeder--in which case she might produce two or three more litters. A boar left on the pasture, at liberty with the sows, might suffice for thirty or forty of them; but as he is commonly shut up, and allowed access at stated times only, so that the young ones may be born at nearly the same time, it is usual to allow him to serve from six to ten--on no account should he serve more. The best plan is, to shut up the boar and sow in a sty together; for, when turned in among several females, he is apt to ride them so often that he exhausts himself without effect. The breeding boar should be fed well and kept in high condition, but not fat. Full grown boars being often savage and difficult to tame, and prone to attack men and animals, should be deprived of their tusks. Whenever it is practicable, it should always be so arranged that the animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of summer, or quite the beginning of autumn. In the former case, the young pigs will have the run of the early pastures, which will be a benefit to them, and a saving to their owners; and there will also be more whey, milk, and other dairy produce which can be spared for them by the time they are ready to be weaned. In the second case, there will be sufficient time for the young to have grown and acquired strength before the cold weather comes on, which is always very injurious to sucking-pigs. POINTS OF A GOOD HOG. It may be not amiss to group together what is deemed desirable under this head. No one should be led away by mere name in his selection of a hog. It may be called a Berkshire, or a Suffolk, or any other breed most in estimation, and yet, in reality, may possess none of this valuable blood. The only sure way to avoid imposition is, to make _name_ always secondary to _points_. If a hog is found possessing such points of form as are calculated to insure early maturity and faculty of taking on flesh, one needs to care but little by what name he is called; since no mere name can bestow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities already indicated. The true Berkshire--that possessing a dash of the Chinese and Neapolitan varieties--comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired standard than any other. The chief points which characterize such a hog are the following:--In the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such an elongation of body as will insure a sufficient lateral expansion. The loin and breast should be broad. The breadth of the former denotes good room for the play of the lungs, and, as a consequence, a free and healthy circulation, essential to the thriving or fattening of any animal. The bone should be small, and the joints fine--nothing is more indicative of high breeding than this; and the legs should be no longer than, when fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly from trailing upon the ground. The leg is the least profitable portion of the hog, and no more of it is required than is absolutely necessary for the support of the rest. The feet should be firm and sound; the toes should lie well together, and press straightly upon the ground; the claws, also, should be even, upright and healthy. The form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no consequence, it being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good hog may have an ugly head; but the head of all animals is one of the very principal points in which pure or impure breeding will be most obviously indicated. A high-bred animal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at maturity, to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, and, altogether, to turn out more profitably than one of questionable or impure stock. Such being the case, the head of the hog is a point by no means to be overlooked. The description of head most likely to promise--or, rather to be the accompaniment of--high breeding, is one not carrying heavy bones, not too flat on the forehead, or possessing a snout too elongated; the snout should be short, and the forehead rather convex, curving upward; and the ear, while pendulous, should incline somewhat forward, and at the same time be light and thin. The carriage of the pig should also be noticed. If this be dull, heavy, and dejected, one may reasonably suspect ill health, if not some concealed disorder actually existing, or just about to break forth; and there cannot be a more unfavorable symptom than a hung-down, slouching head. Of course, a fat hog for slaughter and a sow heavy with young, have not much sprightliness of deportment. Color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. Those colors are preferable which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. If the hair is scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection with the Neapolitan; if too bare of hair, a too intimate alliance with that variety may be apprehended, and a consequent want of hardihood, which--however unimportant, if pork be the object--renders such animals a hazardous speculation for store purposes, on account of their extreme susceptibility of cold, and consequent liability to disease. If white, and not too small, they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the Chinese. If light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the favorite Berkshire is detected; and so on, with reference to every possible variety of hue. TREATMENT DURING PREGNANCY. Sows with pigs should be well and judiciously fed; that is to say, they should have a sufficiency of wholesome, nutritious food to maintain their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by no means be allowed to get fat; as when they are in high condition, the dangers of parturition are enhanced, the animal is more awkward and liable to smother and crush her young, and, moreover, never has as much or as good milk as a leaner sow. She should also have a separate sty; for swine are prone to lie so close together that, if she is even among others, her young would be in great danger; and this sty should be perfectly clean and comfortably littered, but not so thickly as to admit of the young being able to bury themselves in the straw. As the time of her farrowing approaches, she should be well supplied with food, especially if she be a young sow, and this her first litter, and also carefully watched, in order to prevent her devouring the after-birth, and thus engendering a morbid appetite which will next induce her to fall upon her own young. A sow that has once done this can never afterward be depended upon. Hunger, thirst, or irritation of any kind, will often induce this unnatural conduct, which is another reason why a sow about to farrow should have a sty to herself, and be carefully attended to, and have all her wants supplied. ABORTION. This is by no means of so common occurrence in the case of the sow as in many other of the domesticated animals. Various causes tend to produce it: insufficiency of food, eating too much succulent vegetable food, or unwholesome, unsubstantial diet; blows and falls; and the animal's habit of rubbing itself against hard bodies, for the purpose of allaying the irritation produced by the vermin or cutaneous eruptions to which it is subject. Reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in the sow; at least to the extent it does in other animals. The symptoms indicative of approaching abortion are similar to those of parturition, but more intense. There are, generally, restlessness, irritation, and shivering; and the cries of the animal evince the presence of severe labor-pains. Sometimes the rectum, vagina, or uterus, becomes relaxed, and one or the other protrudes, and often becomes inverted at the moment of the expulsion of the f[oe]tus, preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost. Nothing can be done, at the last hour, to prevent abortion; but, from the first, every predisposing cause should be removed. The treatment will depend upon circumstances. Where the animal is young, vigorous, and in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial--not a copious blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different times; purgatives may also be administered. If, when abortion has taken place, the whole of the litter was not born, emollient injections may be resorted to with considerable benefit; otherwise, the after treatment should be made the same as in parturition, and the animal should be kept warm, quiet, and clean, and allowed a certain degree of liberty. Whenever one sow has aborted, the causes likely to have produced this accident should be sought, and an endeavor made, by removing them, to secure the rest of the inmates of the piggery from a similar mishap. In cases of abortion, the f[oe]tus is seldom born alive, and often has been dead for some days; where this is the case--which may be readily detected by a peculiarly unpleasant putrid exhalation, and the discharge of a fetid liquid from the vagina--the parts should be washed with a diluted solution of chloride of lime, in the proportion of one part of chloride to three parts of water, and a portion of this lotion gently injected into the uterus, if the animal will submit to it. Mild doses of Epsom salts, tincture of gentian, and Jamaica ginger, will also act beneficially in such cases, and, with attention to diet, soon restores the animal. PARTURITION. The period of gestation varies according to age, constitution, food, and the peculiarities of the individual breed. The most usual period during which the sow carries her young is, according to some, three months, three weeks, and three days, or one hundred and eight days; according to others, four lunar months, or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and thirteen days. It may safely be said to range from one hundred and nine to one hundred and forty-three days. [Illustration: WILD HOGS.] The sow produces from eight to thirteen young at a litter, and sometimes even more. Young and weakly sows not only produce fewer pigs, but farrow earlier than those of maturer age and sounder condition; and besides, as might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor, oftentimes, indeed, puny and feeble. Extraordinary fecundity is not however, desirable, for nourishment cannot be afforded to more than twelve, the sow's number of teats. The supernumerary pigs must therefore suffer; if but one, it is, of course, the smallest and weakest; a too numerous litter are all, indeed, generally undersized and weakly, and seldom or never prove profitable; a litter not exceeding ten will usually be found to turn out most advantageously. On account of the discrepancy between the number farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in order that the number to be suckled by each may be equalized. The sow seldom recognizes the presence of a strange little one, if it has been introduced among the others during her absence, and has lain for half an hour or so among her own offspring in their sty. The approach of the period of farrowing is marked by the immense size of the belly, by a depression of the back, and by the distention of the teats. The animal manifests symptoms of acute suffering, and wanders restlessly about, collecting straw, and carrying it to her sty, grunting piteously meanwhile. As soon as this is observed, she should be persuaded into a separate sty, and carefully watched. On no account should several sows be permitted to farrow in the same place at the same time, as they will inevitably irritate each other, or devour their own or one another's young. The young ones should be taken away as soon as they are born, and deposited in a warm spot; for the sow being a clumsy animal, is not unlikely in her struggles to overlie them; nor should they be returned to her, until all is over, and the after-birth has been removed, which should always be done the moment it passes from her; for young sows, especially, will invariably devour it, if permitted, and then, as the young are wet with a similar fluid, and smell the same they will eat them also, one after another. Some advise washing the backs of young pigs with a decoction of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous substance, as a remedy for this; but the simplest and easiest one is to remove the little ones until all is over, and the mother begins to recover herself and seek about for them, when they should be put near her. Some also recommend strapping up the sow's mouth for the first three or four days, only releasing it to admit of her taking her meals. Some sows are apt to lie upon and crush their young. This may best be avoided by not keeping her too fat or heavy, and by not leaving too many young upon her. The straw forming the bed should likewise be short, and not in too great quantity, lest the pigs get huddled up under it, and the sow unconsciously overlie them in that condition. It does not always happen that the parturition is effected with ease. Cases of false presentation, of enlarged f[oe]tus, and of debility in the mother, often render it difficult and dangerous. The womb will occasionally become protruded and inverted, in consequence of the forcing pains of difficult parturition, and even the bladder has been known to come away. These parts must be returned as soon as may be; and if the womb has come in contact with the dung or litter, and acquired any dirt, it must first be washed in lukewarm water, and then returned, and confined in its place by means of a suture passed through the lips of the orifice. The easiest and perhaps the best way, however, is not to return the protruded parts at all, but merely tie a ligature round them and leave them to slough off, which they will do in the course of a few days, without effusion of blood, or farther injury to the animal. No sow that has once suffered from protrusion of the womb should be allowed to breed again. TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING. Much depends upon this; as many a fine sow and promising litter have been ruined for want of proper and judicious care at this period. Immediately after farrowing, many sows incline to be feverish; where this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given them for the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal porridge, whey, and the like. Others, again, are very much debilitated, and require strengthening; for them, strong soup, bread steeped in wine, or in a mixture of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small quantities, will often prove highly beneficial. The rations must gradually be increased and given more frequently; and they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and succulent substances. All kinds of roots--carrots, turnips, potatoes, and beet-roots--well steamed or boiled, but never raw, may be given; bran, barley, and oatmeal, bran-flour, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim, and butter-milk, are all well adapted for this period; and, should the animal appear to require it, grain well bruised and macerated may be added. Whenever it is possible, the sow should be turned out for an hour each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh air, exercise, and herbage, will do her immense good. The young pigs must be shut up for the first ten days or fortnight, after which they will be able to follow her, and take their share of the benefit. The food should be given regularly at certain hours; small and often-repeated meals are far preferable to large ones, since indigestion, or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach vitiates the milk, and produces diarrh[oe]a and other similar affections in the young. The mother should always be well fed, but not over-fed; the better and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and nutritious will her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, and the less will she be reduced by suckling them. When a sow is weakly, and has not a sufficiency of milk, the young pigs must be taught to feed as early as possible. A kind of gruel, made of skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, is a good thing for this purpose, or potatoes, boiled and then mashed in milk or whey, with or without the addition of a little bran or oatmeal. Toward the period when the pigs are to be weaned, the sow must be less plentifully fed, otherwise the secretion of milk will be as great as ever; it will, besides, accumulate, and there will be hardness, and perhaps inflammation of the teats. If necessary, a dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying off the milk; but, in general, a little judicious management in the feeding and weaning will be all that is required. TREATMENT OF YOUNG PIGS. For the first ten days, or a fortnight, the mother will generally be able to support her litter without assistance, unless, as has been already observed, she is weakly, or her young are too numerous; in either of which cases they must be fed from the first. When the young pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to them. In another week, this may be thickened with some species of farina; and afterward, as they gain strength and increase in size, boiled roots and vegetables may be added. As soon as they begin to eat, an open frame or railing should be placed in the sty under which the little pigs can run, and on the other side of this should be the small troughs containing their food; for it never answers to let them eat out of the same trough with their mother, because the food set before her is generally too strong and stimulating for them, even if they should secure any of it, which is, to say the least, extremely doubtful. Those intended to be killed for sucking-pigs should not be above four weeks old; most kill them for this purpose on the twenty-first or twenty-second day. The others, excepting those kept for breeding, should be castrated at the same time. CASTRATION AND SPAYING. Pigs are chiefly castrated with a view to fattening them; and, doubtless, this operation has the desired effect--for at the same time that it increases the quiescent qualities of the animal, it diminishes also his courage, spirits, and nobler attributes, and even affects his form. The tusks of a castrated boar never grow like those of the natural animal, but always have a dwarfed, stunted appearance. The operation, if possible, should be performed in the spring or autumn, as the temperature is the more uniform, and care should be taken that the animal is in perfect health. Those which are fat and plethoric should be prepared by bleeding, cooling diet and quiet. Pigs are castrated at all ages, from a fortnight to three, six and eight weeks, and even four months old. There are various modes of performing this operation. If the pig is not more than six weeks old, an incision is made at the bottom of the scrotum, the testicle pushed out, and the cord cut, without any precautionary means whatever. When the animal is older, there is reason to fear that hemorrhage, to a greater or less extent, will supervene; consequently, it will be advisable to pass a ligature round the cord a little above the spot where the division is to take place. By another mode--to be practised only on very young animals--a portion of the base of the scrotum is cut off, the testicles forced out, and the cord sawn through with a somewhat serrated but blunt instrument. If there is any hemorrhage, it is arrested by putting ashes in the wound. The animal is then dismissed and nothing further done with him. On animals two and three years old, the operation is some times performed in the following manner: An assistant holds the pig, pressing the back of the animal against his chest and belly, keeping the head elevated, and grasping all the four legs together; or, which is the preferable way, one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while another kneels down and secures the four legs. The operator then grasps the scrotum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across its base, opening both divisions of the bag at the same time. The testicles are then pressed out with his finger and thumb, and removed with a blunt knife, which lacerates the part without bruising it and rendering it painful. Laceration only is requisite in order to prevent the subsequent hemorrhage which would occur, if the cord were simply severed by a sharp instrument. The wound is then closed by pushing the edges gently together with the fingers, and it speedily heals. Some break the spermatic cord without tearing it; they twist it, and then pull it gently and finally until it gives way. In other cases, a waxed cord is passed as tightly as possible round the scrotum, above the epididymus, which completely stops the circulation, and in a few days the scrotum and testicles will drop off. This operation should never be performed on pigs of more than six weeks of age, and the spermatic should always, first of all, be measured. It, moreover requires great nicety and skill; otherwise, accidents will occur, and considerable pain and inflammation be caused. Too thick a cord, a knot not tied sufficiently tight, or a portion of the testicle included in the ligature, will prevent its success. The most fatal consequence of castration is tetanus, or lockjaw, induced by the shock communicated to the nervous system by the torture of the operation. SPAYING. This operation consists in removing the ovaries, and sometimes a portion of the uterus, more or less considerable, of the female. The animal is laid upon its left side, and firmly held by one or two assistants; an incision is then made into the flank, the forefinger of the right hand introduced into it, and gently moved about until it encounters and hooks hold of the right ovary, which it draws through the opening; a ligature is then passed round this one, and the left ovary felt for in like manner. The operator then severs these two ovaries, either by cutting or tearing, and returns the womb and its appurtenances to their proper position. This being done, he closes the wound with two or three stitches, sometimes rubs a little oil over it, and releases the animal. All goes on well, for the healing power of the pig is very great. The after-treatment is very simple. The animals should be well littered with clean straw, in styes weather-tight and thoroughly ventilated; their diet should be cared for; some milk or whey, with barley-meal is an excellent article; it is well to confine them for a few days, as they should be prevented from getting into cold water or mud until the wound is perfectly healed, and also from creeping through fences. The best age for spaying a sow is about six weeks; indeed, as a general rule, the younger the animal is when either operation is performed the quicker it recovers. Some persons, however, have two or three litters from their sows before they operate upon them; where this is the case, the result is more to be feared, as the parts have become more susceptible, and are, consequently, more liable to take on inflammation. WEANING. Some farmers wean the pigs a few hours after birth, and turn the sow at once to the boar. The best mode, however, is to turn the boar into the hog-yard about a week after parturition, at which time the sow should be removed a few hours daily from her young. It does not injure either the sow or her pigs if she takes the boar while suckling; but some sows will not do so until the drying of their milk. The age at which pigs may be weaned to the greatest advantage is when they are about eight or ten weeks old; many, however, wean them as early as six weeks, but they seldom turn out as well. They should not be taken from the sow at once, but gradually weaned. At first they should be removed from her for a certain number of hours each day, and accustomed to be impelled by hunger to eat from the trough; then they may be turned out for an hour without her, and afterwards shut up while she also is turned out by herself. Subsequently, they must only be allowed to suck a certain number of times in twenty-four hours; perhaps six times at first, then four, then three, and, at last, only once; and meanwhile they must be proportionably better and more plentifully fed, and the mother's diet in a like manner diminished. Some advise that the whole litter should be weaned at once; this is not best, unless one or two of the pigs are much weaker and smaller than the others; in such case, if the sow remain in tolerable condition, they might be suffered to suck for a week longer; but this should be the exception, and not a general rule. Pigs are more easily weaned than almost any other animals, because they learn to feed sooner; but attention must, nevertheless, be paid to them, if they are to grow up strong, healthy animals. Their styes must be warm, dry, clean, well-ventilated, and weather-tight. They should have the run of a grass meadow or enclosure for an hour or two every fine day, in spring and summer, or be turned into the farm-yard among the cattle in the winter, as fresh air and exercise tend to prevent them from becoming rickety or crooked in the legs. The most nutritious and succulent food that circumstances will permit should be furnished them. Newly-weaned pigs require five or six meals in the twenty-four hours. In about ten days, one may be omitted; in another week, a second; and then they should do with three _regular_ meals each day. A little sulphur mingled with the food, or a small quantity of Epsom or Glauber salts dissolved in the water, will frequently prove beneficial. A plentiful supply of clear, cold water should always be within their reach; the food left in the trough after the animals have finished eating should be removed, and the trough thoroughly rinsed out before any more is put into it. Strict attention should also be paid to cleanliness. The boars and sows should be kept apart from the period of weaning. The question, which is more profitable, to breed swine, or to buy young pigs and fatten them, can best be determined by those interested; since they know best what resources they can command, and what chance of profits each of these separate branches offers. RINGING. This operation is performed to counteract the propensity which swine have of digging and furrowing up the earth. The ring is passed through what appears to be a prolongation of the septum, between the supplemental, or snout-bone, and the nasal. The animal is thus unable to obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout with any effect, without causing the ring to press so painfully upon the part that he is forced to desist. The ring, however, is apt to break, or it wears out in process of time, and has to be replaced. The snout should be perforated at weaning-time, after the animal has recovered from castration or spaying; and it will be necessary to renew the operation as it becomes of large growth. It is too generally neglected at first; but no pigs, young or old, should be suffered to run at large without this precaution. The sow's ring should be ascertained to be of sufficient strength previously to her taking the boar, on account of the risk of abortion, if the operation is renewed while she is with pig. Care must be taken by the operator not to go too close to the bone, and that the ring turn easily. A far better mode of proceeding is, when the pig is young, to cut through the cartilaginous and ligamentous prolongations, by which the supplementary bone is united to the proper nasals. The divided edges of the cartilage will never re-unite, and the snout always remains powerless. FEEDING AND FATTENING. Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as in a domesticated state; and it is evident that, however omnivorous it may occasionally appear, its palate is by no means insensible to the difference in eatables, since, whenever it finds variety, it will select the best with as much cleverness as other quadrupeds. Indeed, the hog is more nice in the selection of his vegetable diet than any of the other domesticated herbivorous animals. To a certain extent he is omnivorous, and may be reared on the refuse of slaughter-houses; but such food is not wholesome, nor is it natural; for, though he is omnivorous, he is not essentially carnivorous. The refuse of the dairy-farm is more congenial to his health, to say nothing of the quality of its flesh. Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months old; and for bacon, at from a year to two years. Eighteen months is generally considered the proper age for a good bacon hog. The feeding will always, in a great measure, depend upon the circumstances of the owner--upon the kind of food which he has at his disposal, and can best spare--and the purpose for which the animal is intended. It will also, in some degree, be regulated by the season; it being possible to feed pigs very differently in the summer from what they are fed in the winter. The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and distilleries, may be given to swine with advantage, and seem to induce a tendency to lay on flesh. They should not, however, be given in too large quantities, nor unmixed with other and more substantial food; since, although they give flesh rapidly when fed on it, the meat is not firm, and never makes good bacon. Hogs eat acorns and beech-mast greedily, and so far thrive on this food that it is an easy matter to fatten them afterwards. Apples and pumpkins are likewise valuable for this purpose. There is nothing so nutritious, so eminently and in every way adapted for the purpose of fattening, as are the various kinds of grain--nothing that tends more to create firmness as well as delicacy in the flesh. Indian corn is equal, if not superior, to any kind of grain for fattening purposes, and can be given in its natural state, as pigs are so fond of it that they will eat up every kernel. The pork and bacon of animals that have been thus fed are peculiarly firm and solid. Animal food tends to make swine savage and feverish, and often lays the foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines. Weekly washing with soap and a brush adds wonderfully to the thriving condition of a hog. In the rich corn regions of our States, upon that grain beginning to ripen, as it does in August, the fields are fenced off into suitable lots, and large herds are successively turned into them, to consume the grain at their leisure. They waste nothing except the stalks, which in that land of plenty are considered of little value, and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops; and whatever grain is left by them, leaner droves which follow will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may be fed on the ground in the same way. There is an improvement in the character of the grain from a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest of the money and the cost of storage. If fattened early in the season, hogs will consume less food to make an equal amount of flesh than in colder weather; they will require less attention; and, generally, early pork will command the highest price in market. It is most economical to provide swine with a fine clover pasture, to run in during the spring and summer; and they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal, and let it sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third, and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to hogs, is saved by grinding and cooking, or souring. Care must, however, be taken that the souring be not carried so far as to injure the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and water, with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former fermentation as adhere to the sides or bottom of the vessel, and exposure to a temperature between sixty-eight and seventy-seven degrees Fahrenheit, will produce immediate fermentation. In this process there are five stages: the _saccharine_, by which the starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural condition, are converted into sugar; the _vinous_, which changes the sugar into alcohol; the _mucilaginous_, sometimes taking the place of the vinous, and occurring where the sugar solution, or fermenting principle, is weak, producing a slimy, glutinous product; the _acetic_, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alcoholic stage; and the _putrefactive_, which destroys all the nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The precise points in fermentation, when the food becomes most profitable for feeding, has not as yet been satisfactorily determined; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain. The roots for fattening ought to be washed, and steamed or boiled; and when not intended to be fermented, the meal may be scalded with the roots. A small quantity of salt should be added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine; then parsnips; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian; sugar-beets; mangel-wurtzels; ruta-bagas; and then white turnips, in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of turnips are diffused through so large a bulk that it is doubtful if they can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage; and they will barely sustain life when fed to them uncooked. There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine, without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and consequent loss of the food. It is better, indeed, to have it always before them. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep in motion; and it should be the object of the farmer to put his food in the most available condition for its immediate conversion into fat and muscle. The following injunctions should be rigidly observed, if one would secure the greatest results: 1. Avoid _foul feeding_. 2. Do not omit adding _salt_ in moderate quantities to the mess given. 3. Feed at _regular intervals_. 4. _Cleanse_ the troughs previous to feeding. 5. Do not _over-feed_; give only as much as will be consumed at the meal. 6. _Vary_ the food. Variety will create, or, at all events, increase appetite, and it is most conducive to health. Let the variations be governed by the condition of the _dung_ cast, which should be of a medium consistence, and of a grayish-brown color; if _hard_, increase the quantity of bran and succulent roots; if too _liquid_, diminish, or dispense with bran, and make the mess firmer; add a portion of corn. 7. Feed the stock _separately_, in classes, according to their relative conditions. Keep sows with young by themselves; store-hogs by themselves; and bacon-hogs and porkers by themselves. It is not advisable to keep the store-hogs too high in flesh, since high feeding is calculated to retard development of form and bulk. It is better to feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon _loosely_ and not too abundantly, until they have attained their full stature; they can then be brought into the highest possible condition in a surprisingly short space of time. 8. Keep the swine _clean_, dry, and warm. Cleanliness, dryness, and warmth are _essential_, and as imperative as feeding; for an inferior description of food will, by their aid, succeed far better than the highest feeding will without them. PIGGERIES. Few items conduce more to the thriving and well-being of swine than airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and above all, cleanliness. They were formerly too often housed in damp, dirty, close, and imperfectly-built sheds, which was a fruitful source of disease and of unthrifty animals. Any place was once thought good enough to keep a pig in. In large establishments, where numerous pigs are kept, there should be divisions appropriated to all the different kinds; the boars, the breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should all be kept separate; and in the divisions assigned to the second and last of these classes, it is best to have a distinct apartment for each animal, all opening into a yard or inclosure of limited extent. As pigs require warmth, these buildings should face the south, and be kept weather-tight and well drained. Good ventilation is also important; for it is idle to expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health, unless they have a sufficiency of pure air. The blood requires this to give it vitality and free it from impurities, as much as the stomach requires wholesome and strengthening food; and when it does not have it, it becomes vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions. Bad smells and exhalations, moreover, injure the flavor of the meat. Damp and cold floors should be guarded against, as they tend to induce cramp and diarrh[oe]a; and the roof should be so contrived as to carry off the wet from the pigs. The walls of a well-constructed sty should be of solid masonry; the roof sloping, and furnished with spouts to carry off the rain; the floors either slightly inclined toward a gutter made to carry off the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or joists, and perforated so that all urine and moisture shall drain off. Bricks and tiles, sometimes used for flooring, are objectionable, because, however well covered with straw, they still strike cold. Wood is far superior in this respect, as well as because it admits of those clefts or perforations being made, which serve not only to drain off all moisture, but also to admit fresh air. The manure proceeding from the pig-sty has often been much undervalued, and for this reason, that the litter is supposed to form the principal portion of it; whereas it constitutes the least valuable part, and, indeed, it can scarcely be regarded as manure at all--at least by itself--where the requisite attention is paid to the cleanliness of the animals and of their dwellings. The urine and the dung are valuable, being, from the very nature of the food of the animals, exceedingly rich and oleaginous, and materially beneficial to cold soils and grass-lands. The manure from the sty should always be collected as carefully as that from the stable or cow-house, and husbanded in the same way. The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inward or outward, so as to give the animals free ingress and egress. For this purpose, it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal can push it up to effect its entry or exit; for, if it were hung in the ordinary way, it would derange the litter every time it opened inward, and be very liable to hitch. If it is not intended that the pigs shall leave their sty, there should be an upper and lower door; the former of which should always be left open when the weather is warm and dry, while the latter will serve to confine the animal. There should likewise be windows or slides, which can be opened or closed at will, to give admission to the fresh air, or exclude rain or cold. Wherever it can be managed, the troughs--which should be of stone or cast metal, since wooden ones will soon be gnawed to pieces--should be so situated that they can be filled and cleaned from the outside, without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all; and for this purpose it is well to have a flap, or door, with swinging hinges, made to hang horizontally on the trough, so that it can be moved to and fro, and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of the manger. When the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung inward and fastened, and so remains until feeding-time, when the trough is cleansed and refilled without any trouble, and then the flap drawn back, and the animals admitted to their food. Some cover the trough with a lid having as many holes in it as there are pigs to eat from it, which gives each pig an opportunity of selecting his own hole, and eating away without interfering with or incommoding his neighbor. A hog ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating, and evacuations; of which the last may occupy the lowest, and the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and as little carried into the first two as possible. The piggery should always be built as near as possible to that portion of the establishment from which the chief part of the provision is to come, since much labor will thus be saved. Washings, and combings, and brushings, as has been previously suggested, are valuable adjuncts in the treatment of swine; the energies of the skin are thus roused, the pores opened, the healthful functions aided, and that inertness, so likely to be engendered by the lazy life of a fattening pig, counteracted. A supply of fresh water is essential to the well-being of swine, and should be freely furnished. If a stream can be brought through the piggery, it answers better than any thing else. Swine are dirty feeders and dirty drinkers, usually plunging their fore-feet into the trough or pail, and thus polluting with mud or dirt whatever may be given to them. One of the advantages, therefore, to be derived from the stream of running water is, its being kept constantly clean and wholesome by its running. If this advantage cannot be procured, it is desirable to present water in vessels of a size to receive but one head at a time, and of such height as to render it impossible, or difficult, for the drinker to get his feet into it. The water should be renewed twice daily. If swine are closely confined in pens, they should have as much charcoal twice a week as they will eat, for the purpose of correcting any tendency to disorders of the stomach. Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal. SLAUGHTERING. A pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for from twelve to sixteen hours previous to slaughtering; a little water must, however, be within his reach. He should, in the first place, be stunned by a blow on the head. Some advise that the knife should be thrust into the neck so as to sever the artery leading from the heart; while others prefer that the animal should be stuck through the brisket in the direction of the heart--care being exercised not to touch the first rib. The blood should then be allowed to drain from the carcass into vessels placed for the purpose; and the more completely it does so, the better will be the meat. A large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, which is now filled with boiling water. The carcass of the hog is plunged into this, and the hair is then removed with the edge of a knife. The hair is more easily removed if the hog is scalded before he stiffens, or becomes quite cold. It is not, however, necessary, but simply brutal and barbarous, to scald him while there is yet some life in him. Bacon-hogs may be singed, by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw on fire, and then scraping it all over. When this is done, care must be observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. The entrails should then be removed, and the interior of the body well washed with lukewarm water, so as to remove all blood and impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a clean cloth; the carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for eighteen or twenty hours, to become set and firm. [Illustration: THE OLD ENGLISH HOG.] For cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon a strong table. The head should then be cut off close by the ears, and the hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to disfigure the hams, and leave room sufficient for hanging them up; after which the carcass is divided into equal halves, up the middle of the back bone, with a cleaving-knife, and, if necessary, a hand-mallet. Then cut the ham from the side by the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on dividing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, clearing off any top fat which may appear. Next cut off the sharp edge along the back bone with a knife and mallet, and slice off the first rib next the shoulder, where there is a bloody vein, which must be taken out, since, if it is left in, that part is apt to spoil. The corners should be squared off when the ham is cut. The ordinary practice is to cut out the spine, or back bone. Some take out the chine and upper parts of the ribs in the first place; indeed, almost every locality has its peculiar mode of proceeding. PICKLING AND CURING. The usual method of curing is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine to the barrel when filled. But it may be dry-salted, by rubbing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand. The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt, and occasionally turned till cured; or it may at once be packed in dry casks, which are rolled at times to bring the salt into contact with every part. Hams and shoulders may be cured in the same manner either dry or in pickle, but with differently arranged materials. The following is a good pickle for two hundred pounds: Take fourteen pounds of Turk's Island salt; one-half pound of saltpetre; two quarts of molasses, or four pounds of brown sugar; with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to the scalding-point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be perfectly cool, but not frozen, and closely packed; if not sufficient to cover it, add pure water for this purpose. Some extensive packers of choice hams add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmegs, or mace and cloves. The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then should be hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoked from ten to twenty days, according to the quantity of smoke. The fire should not be near enough to heat the hams. In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made in the cellar, and the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. This is, undoubtedly, the best mode of smoking. The hams should at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will suffer. Green sugar-maple chips are best for smoke; next to them are hickory, sweet birch, corn-cobs, white ash, or beech. The smoke-house is the best place in which to keep hams until they are wanted. If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies. A canvas cover for each, saturated with lime, which may be put on with a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against flies. When not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A common method is to pack in dry oats, baked saw-dust, etc. The following is the method in most general use in several of the Western States. The chine is taken out, as also the spare-ribs from the shoulders, and the mouse-pieces and short-ribs, or griskins, from the middlings. No acute angles should be left to shoulders or hams. In salting up, all the meat, except the heads, joints, and chines, and smaller pieces, is put into powdering-tubs--water-tight half-hogsheads--or into large troughs, ten feet long and three or four feet wide at the top, made of the poplar tree. The latter are much more convenient for packing the meat in, and are easily caulked, if they should crack so as to leak. The salting-tray--or box in which the meat is to be salted, piece by piece, and from which each piece, as it is salted, is to be transferred to the powdering-tub, or trough--must be placed just so near the trough that the man standing between can transfer the pieces from one to the other easily, and without wasting the salt as they are lifted from the salting-box into the trough. The salter stands on the off-side of the salting-box. The hams should be salted first, the shoulders next, and the middlings last, which may be piled up two feet above the top of the trough or tub. The joints will thus in a short time be immersed in brine. Measure into the salting-tray four measures of salt--a peck measure will be found most convenient--and one measure of clean, dry, sifted ashes; mix, and incorporate them well. The salter takes a ham into the tray, rubs the skin, and the raw end with his composition, turns it over, and packs the composition of salt and ashes on the fleshy side till it is at least three-quarters of an inch deep all over it; and on the interior lower part of the ham, which is covered with the skin, as much as will lie on it. The man standing ready to transfer the pieces, deposits it carefully, without disturbing the composition, with the skin-side down, in the bottom of the trough. Each succeeding ham is then deposited, side by side, so as to leave the least possible space unoccupied. When the bottom is wholly covered, see that every visible part of this layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes. Then begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or fleshy side three-quarters of an inch thick with the composition. When the trough is filled, even full, in this way, with the joints, salt the middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on the joints so that the liquified salt may pass from them into the trough. Heads, joints, back bones, etc., receive salt only, and should not be put in the trough with the large pieces. Much slighter salting will preserve them, if they are salted upon loose boards, so that the bloody brine from them can pass off. The joints and middlings are to remain in and above the trough without being re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way, till they are to be hung up to be smoked. If the hogs do not weigh more than one hundred and fifty pounds, the joints need not remain longer than five weeks in the pickle; if they weigh two hundred, or upward, six or seven weeks are not too long. It is better that they should stay in too long, rather than too short a time. In three weeks, the joints, etc., may be hung up. Taking out of pickle, and preparing for hanging up to smoke, are thus performed: Scrape off the undissolved salt; if the directions have been followed, there will be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not immersed in the brine; this salt and the brine are all saved; the brine is boiled down, and the dry composition given to stock, especially to hogs. Wash every piece in lukewarm water, and with a rough towel clean off the salt and ashes. Next, put the strings in to hang up. Set the pieces up edgewise, that they may drain and dry. Every piece is then to be dipped into the meat-paint, as it is termed, composed of warm--not hot--water and very fine ashes, stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick paint, and hang up to smoke. By being thus dipped, they receive a coating which protects them from the fly, prevents dripping, and tends to lessen all external injurious influences. Hang up the pieces while yet moist with the paint, and smoke them well. VALUE OF THE CARCASS. No part of the hog is valueless, excepting, perhaps, the bristles of the fine-bred races. The very intestines are cleansed, and knotted into chittarlings, very much relished by some; the blood, mixed with fat and rice, is made into black puddings; and the tender muscle under the lumbar vertebræ is worked up into sausages, sweet, high-flavored, and delicious; the skin, roasted, is a rare and toothsome morsel; and a roast sucking-pig is a general delight; salt pork and bacon are in incessant demand, and form important articles of commerce. One great value arises from the peculiarity of its fat, which, in contradistinction to that of the ox or of the sheep, is termed _lard_, and differs from either in the proportion of its constituent principles, which are essentially oleine and stearine. It is rendered, or fried out, in the same manner as mutton-suet. It melts completely at ninety-nine degrees Fahrenheit, and then has the appearance of a transparent and nearly colorless fixed oil. Eighty degrees is the melting-point. It consists of sixty-two parts oleine, and thirty-eight of stearine, out of one hundred. When subjected to pressure between folds of blotting-paper, the oleine is absorbed, while the stearine remains. For domestic purposes, lard is much used: it is much better than butter for frying fish; and is much used in pastry, on the score of economy. The stearine contains the stearic and margaric acids, which, when separated, are solid, and used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles. The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in American commerce is known as _lard-oil_, which is very pure, and extensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes for which olive or spermaceti oils are valued. It has given to pork a new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is greatly increased. A large amount of pork has thus been withdrawn from the market, and the depression, which must otherwise have occurred, has been thereby prevented. Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bottoms, the upper one perforated with holes. The pork is laid on the latter, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high temperature, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the fat is extracted, and falls upon the lower bottom. The remaining mass is bones and scraps. The last is fed to pigs, poultry, or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal, valuable for various purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard of a fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering fat then carefully scraped off; thus avoiding the oily, viscid matter of the skin. The _bristles_ of the coarse breeds are long, strong, firm, and elastic. These are formed into brushes for painters and artists, as well as for numerous domestic uses. The _skin_, when tanned, is of a peculiar texture, and very tough. It is used for making pocket-books, and for some ornamental purposes; but chiefly for the seats of riding-saddles. The numerous little variegations on it, which constitute its beauty, are the orifices whence the bristles have been removed. [Illustration] DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES By reason of being generally considered a subordinate species of stock, swine do not, in many cases, share in the benefits which an improved system of agriculture and the present advanced state of veterinary science, have conferred upon other domesticated animals. Since they are by no means the most tractable of patients, it is any thing but an easy matter to compel them to swallow any thing to which their appetite does not incite them; and, hence, prevention will be found better than cure. _Cleanliness_ is the great point to be insisted upon in the management of these animals. If this, and warmth, be only attended to, ailments among them are comparatively rare. As, however, disappointment may occasionally occur, even under the best system of management, a brief view of the principal complaints with which they are liable to be attacked is presented, together with the best mode of treatment to be adopted in such cases. CATCHING THE PIG. Swine are very difficult animals to obtain any mastery over, or to operate on, or examine. Seldom tame, or easily handled, they are at such periods most unmanageable--kicking, screaming, and even biting fiercely. The following method of getting hold of them has been recommended: Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in the cord; tie a piece of bread to the cord, and present it to the animal; and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is fast. Another method is, to catch one foot in a running noose suspended from some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground; or, to envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack. All coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, be avoided; for the pig is naturally so averse to being handled that in his struggles he will often do himself far more mischief than the disease which is to be investigated or remedied would effect. BLEEDING. The common mode of drawing blood from the pig is by cutting off portions of the ears or tail; this should only be resorted to when local and instant blood-letting is requisite. The jugular veins of swine lie too deep, and are too much imbedded in fat to admit of their being raised by any ligature about the neck; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to puncture them, as it would only be striking at random. Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface of the ear, and especially toward its outer edge, may be opened without much difficulty; if the ear is turned back on the poll, one or more of them may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit of its being punctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear, near to the conch. When the necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the finger may be raised, and it will cease to flow. The palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the mouth, are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each side of the palate, about half way between the centre of the roof of the mouth and the teeth. The flow of blood may be readily stopped by means of a pledget of tow and a string, as in bleeding the horse. The brachial vein of the fore-leg--commonly called the plate-vein--running along the inner side under the skin affords a good opportunity. The best place for puncturing it is about an inch above the knee, and scarcely half an inch backward from the radius, or the bone of the fore-arm. No danger need to be apprehended from cutting two or three times, if sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. This vein will become easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly around the leg, just below the shoulder. This operation should always be performed with the lancet, if possible. In cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at hand, a small penknife may be used; but the fleam is a dangerous and objectionable instrument. DRENCHING. Whenever it is possible, the medicine to be administered should be mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated or coaxed into taking it; since many instances are on record, in which the pig has ruptured some vessel in his struggles, and died on the spot, or so injured himself as to bring on inflammation and subsequent death. Where this cannot be done, the following is the best method: Let a man get the head of the animal firmly between his knees--without, however, pinching it--while another secures the hinder parts. Then let the first take hold of the head from below, raise it a little, and incline it slightly toward the right, at the same time separating the lips on the left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid may be gradually poured--no more being introduced into the mouth at a time than can be swallowed at once. Should the animal snort or choke, the head must be released for a few moments, or he will be in danger of being strangled. CATARRH. This ailment--an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nose, etc.--is, if taken in time, easily cured by opening medicines, followed up by warm bran-wash--a warm, dry sty--and abstinence from rich grains, or stimulating, farinaceous diet. The cause, in most cases, is exposure to drafts of air, which should be guarded against. CHOLERA. For what is presented concerning this disease, the author is indebted to his friend, G. W. Bowler, V. S., of Cincinnati, Ohio, whose familiarity with the various diseases of our domestic animals and the best modes of treating them, entitles his opinions to great weight. The term "cholera" is employed to designate a disease which has been very fatal among swine in different parts of the United States; and for the reason, that its symptoms, as well as the indications accompanying its termination, are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the disease of that name which visits man. Epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed fearful ravages among the swine of, particularly, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. Indeed, many farmers who, until recently, have been accustomed to raise large numbers of these animals, are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest again in such stock, on account of the severe losses--in some instances to the extent of the entire drove upon particular places. Various remedies have, of course, been prescribed; but the most have failed in nearly every case where the disease has secured a firm foothold. Preventives are, therefore, the most that can at present be expected; and in this direction something may be done. Although some peculiar change in the atmosphere is, probably, an impelling cause of cholera, its ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other predisposing associate causes. Granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting among filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that reason, in surrounding him with all the nastiness possible; for even a hog, when penned up in a filthy place, in company with a large number of other hogs--particularly when that place is improperly ventilated--is not as healthy as when the animals are kept together in smaller numbers in a clean and well ventilated barn or pen. Look, for a moment, at a drove of hogs coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready for the knife. They have been driven several miles, and are scarcely able to crawl along, many of them having to be carried on drays, while others have died on the road. At last they are driven into a pen, perhaps, several inches deep with the manure and filth deposited there by hundreds of predecessors; every hole in the ground has become a puddle; and in such a place some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled together, exhausted from the drive which they have had. They lie down in the mud; and in a short time one can see the steam beginning to rise from their bodies in volumes, increasing their already prostrate condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious gas thus thrown off from the system; the blood becomes impregnated with poison; the various functions of the body are thereby impaired; and disease will inevitably be developed in one form or another. Should the disease, known as the hog cholera, prevail in the neighborhood, the chances are very greatly in favor of their being attacked by it, and consequently perishing. The _symptoms_ of cholera are as follows: The animal appears to be instantaneously deprived of energy; loss of appetite; lying down by himself; occasionally moving about slowly, as though experiencing some slight uneasiness internally; the eyes have a very dull and sunken appearance, which increases with the disease; the evacuations are almost continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor, and containing a large quantity of bile; the extremities are cold, and soreness is evinced when the abdomen is pressed; the pulse is quickened, and sometimes hardly perceptible, while the buccal membrane--that belonging to the cheek--presents a slight purple hue; the tongue has a furred appearance. The evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which may be in twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease may run on for several days. In a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of a dark purple color, and upon examination, the stomach is found to contain but a little fluid; the intestines are almost entirely empty, retaining a slight quantity of the dark colored matter before mentioned; the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, which sometimes appears only in patches, while the other parts are filled with dark venous blood--indicating a breaking up of the capillary vessels in such places. _Treatment._ As a preventive, the following will be found valuable: Flour of sulphur, six pounds; animal charcoal, one pound; sulphate of iron, six ounces; cinchona pulverized, one pound. Mix well together in a large mortar; afterwards give a table-spoonful to each animal, mixed with a few potato-peelings and corn meal, three times a day. Continue this for one week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry place, and not allowing too many together. CRACKINGS. These will sometimes appear on the skin of a hog, especially about the root of the ears and of the tail, and at the flanks. They are not at all to be confounded with mange, as they never result from any thing but exposure to extremes of temperature, while the animal is unable to avail himself of such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have induced him to adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in the heat of summer, if he does not have access to water, in which to lave his parched limbs and half-scorched carcass. Anoint the cracked parts twice or three times a day with tar and lard, well melted up together. DIARRH[OE]A. Before attempting to stop the discharge in this disease--which, if permitted to continue unchecked, will rapidly prostrate the animal, and probably terminate fatally--ascertain the quality of food which the animal has recently had. In a majority of instances, this will be found to be the cause. If taken in its incipient stage, a mere change to a more binding diet, as corn, flour, etc., will suffice for a cure. If acidity is present--produced, probably, by the hog's having fed upon coarse, rank grasses in swampy places--give some chalk in the food, or powdered egg-shells, with about half a drachm of powdered rhubarb; the dose, of course, should vary with the size of the animal. In the acorn season, they alone will be found sufficiently curative, where facilities for obtaining them exist. Dry lodging is indispensable; and diligence is requisite to keep it dry and clean. FEVER. The _symptoms_ of this disease are, redness of the eyes, dryness and heat of the nostrils, the lips, and the skin generally; appetite gone, or very defective; and, generally, a very violent thirst. [Illustration: HUNTING THE WILD BOAR.] Bleed as soon as possible; after which house the animal well, taking care, at the same time, to have the sty well and thoroughly ventilated. The bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient quantity of food to be made the vehicle for administering external remedies. The best is bread, steeped in broth. The hog, however, sinks so rapidly when his appetite is near gone, that no depletive medicines are, in general, necessary or proper; the fever will ordinarily yield to the bleeding, and the only object needs to be the support of his strength, small portions of nourishing food, administered frequently. Do not let the animal eat as much as his inclination might prompt; when he appears to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer it again until after a lapse of three or four hours. If the bowels are confined, castor and linseed oil, in equal quantities, should be added to the bread and broth, in the proportion of two to six ounces. A species of fever frequently occurs as an _epizoötic_, oftentimes attacking the male pigs, and generally the most vigorous and best looking, without any distinction of age, and with a force and rapidity absolutely astonishing. At other times, its progress is much slower; the symptoms are less intense and alarming; and the veterinary surgeon, employed at the outset, may meet with some success. The _causes_ are, in the majority of instances, the bad styes in which the pigs are lodged, and the noisome food which they often contain. In addition to these is the constant lying on the dung-heap, whence is exhaled a vast quantity of deleterious gas; also, the remaining far too long on the muddy or parched ground, or too protracted exposure to the rigor of the season. When an animal is attacked with this disease, he should be separated from the others, placed in a warm situation, some stimulating ointment applied to the chest, and a decoction of sorrel administered. Frictions of vinegar should also be applied to the dorsal and lumbar region. The drinks should be emolient, slightly imbued with nitre and vinegar, and with aromatic fumigation about the belly. If the fever then appears to be losing ground, which may be ascertained by the regularity of the pulse, by the absence of the plaintive cries before heard, by a less laborious respiration, by the absence of convulsions, and by the non-appearance of blotches on the skin, there is a fair chance of recovery. Then administer, every second hour, as before directed, and give a proper allowance of white water, with ground barley and rye. When the symptoms redouble in intensity, it is best to destroy the animal; for it is rare that, after a certain period, much chance of recovery exists. Bleeding is seldom of much avail, but produces, occasionally, considerable loss of vital power, and augments the putrid diathesis. FOUL SKIN. A simple irritability or foulness of skin will usually yield to cleanliness, and a washing with a solution of chloride of lime; but, if it is neglected for any length of time, it assumes a malignant character--scabs and blotches, or red and fiery eruptions appear--and the disease rapidly passes into mange, which will be hereafter noticed. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. This disease, popularly known as heavings, is scarcely to be regarded as curable. Were it observed in its first stage, when indicated by loss of appetite and a short, hard cough, it might, possibly, be got under by copious bleeding, and friction with stimulating ointment on the region of the lungs; minute and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be given in butter--all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided--and the animal kept dry and warm. If once the heavings set in, it may be calculated with confidence that the formation of tubercles in the substance of the lungs has begun; and when these are formed, they are very rarely absorbed. The _causes_ of the disease are damp lodging, foul air, want of ventilation, and unwholesome food. When tubercular formation becomes established, the disease may be communicated through the medium of the atmosphere, the infectious influence depending upon the noxious particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal. The following may be tried, though the knife is probably the best resort, if for no other reason, at least to provide against the danger of infection: Shave the hair away from the chest, and beneath each fore-leg; wet the part with spirits of turpentine, and set fire to it, having previously had the animal well secured, with his head well raised, and a flannel cloth at hand with which to extinguish the flame after it has, burned a sufficient time to produce slight blisters; if carried too far, a sore is formed, productive of no good effects, and causing unnecessary suffering. Calomel may also be used, with a view to promote the absorption of the tubercles; but the success is questionable. JAUNDICE. The _symptoms_ of this disease are, yellowness of the white of the eye; a similar hue extending to the lips; and sometimes, but not invariably, swelling of the under part of the jaw. _Treatment._ Bleed freely; diminish the quantity of food; and give an active aperient every second day. Aloes are, perhaps, the best, combined with colocynth; the dose will vary with the size of the animal. LEPROSY. This complaint commonly commences with the formation of a small tumor in the eye, followed by a general prostration of spirits; the head is held down; the whole frame inclines toward the ground; universal languor succeeds; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls away in flesh; blisters soon make their appearance beneath the tongue, then upon the throat, the jaws, the head, and the entire body. The _Causes_ of this disease are want of cleanliness, absence of fresh air, want of due attention to ventilation, and foul feeding. The obvious _treatment_, therefore, is, first, bleed; clean out the sty daily; wash the affected animal thoroughly with soap and water, to which soda or potash has been added; supply him with a clean bed; keep him dry and comfortable; let him have gentle exercise, and plenty of fresh air; limit the quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness; give bran with wash, in which add, for an average-sized hog--say one of one hundred and sixty pounds weight--a table-spoonful of the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre as will cover a dime, daily. A few grains of powdered antimony may also be given with effect. LETHARGY. _Symptoms_: torpor; desire to sleep; hanging of the head; and, frequently, redness of the eyes. The origin of this disease is, apparently, the same as that of indigestion, or surfeit, except that, in this instance, it acts upon a hog having a natural tendency to a redundancy of blood. _Treatment._ Bleed copiously; then administer an emetic. A decoction of camomile flowers will be safest; though a sufficient dose of tartar emetic will be far more certain. After this, reduce for a few days the amount of the animal's food, and administer a small portion of nitre and sulphur in each morning's meal. MANGE. This cutaneous affection owes its existence to the presence of a minute insect, called _acarus scabiei_, or mange-fly, which burrows beneath the cuticle, and occasions much irritation and annoyance in its progress through the skin. Its _symptoms_ are sufficiently well known, consisting of scabs, blotches, and sometimes multitudes of minute pustules on different parts of the body. If neglected, these symptoms become aggravated; the disease spreads rapidly over the entire surface of the skin, and if allowed to proceed on its course unchecked, will before long produce deep-seated ulcers and malignant sores, until the whole carcass of the affected animal becomes a mass of corruption. The _cause_ is to be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding. Hogs, however well and properly kept, will occasionally become affected with this disease from contagion. Few diseases are more easily propagated by contact than mange. The introduction of a single affected pig into an establishment may, in one night, cause the seizure of scores of others. No foul-skinned pigs, therefore, should be introduced into the piggery; indeed, it would be an excellent precaution to wash every animal newly purchased with a strong solution of chloride of lime. _Treatment._ If the mange is but of moderate violence, and not of very long standing, the best mode is to wash the animal, from snout to tail, leaving no portion of the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. Place him in a dry and clean sty, which is so situated as to command a constant supply of fresh air, without, at the same time, an exposure to cold or draught; furnish a bed of clean, fresh straw. Reduce his food, both in quality and quantity; let boiled or steamed roots, with butter-milk, or dairy-wash take the place of any food of a heating or inflammatory character. Keep him without food for five or six hours, and then give to a hog of average size two ounces of Epsom salts in a warm bran mash--to be increased or diminished, of course, as the animal's size may require. This should be previously mixed with a pint of warm water, and added to about half a gallon of warm bran mash, and it will act as a gentle purgative. Give in every meal afterward one table-spoonful of flour of sulphur, and as much nitre as will cover a dime, for from three days to a week, according to the state of the disease. When the scabs begin to heal, the pustules to retreat, and the fiery sores to fade, a cure may be anticipated. When the above treatment has been practised for fourteen days, without effecting a cure, prepare the following: train oil, one pint; oil of tar, two drachms; spirits of turpentine, two drachms; naphtha, one drachm; with as much flour of sulphur as will form the foregoing into a thick paste. Rub the animal previously washed with this mixture; let no portion of the hide escape. Keep the hog dry and warm after this application, and allow it to remain on his skin for three days. On the fourth day wash him again with soft soap, adding a small quantity of soda to the water. Dry him well afterward, and let him remain as he is, having again changed his bedding, for a day or so; continue the sulphur and nitre as before. Almost all cases of mange, however obstinate, will, sooner or later, yield to this treatment. After he is convalescent, whitewash the sty, and fumigate it by placing a little chloride of lime in a cup, or other vessel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. In the absence of vitriol, boiling water will answer nearly as well. MEASLES. This is one of the most common diseases to which hogs are liable. The _symptoms_ are, redness of the eyes, foulness of the skin, and depression of spirits; decline, or total departure of the appetite; small pustules about the throat, and red and purple eruptions on the skin. The last are more plainly visible after death, when they impart a peculiar appearance to the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, and distention of the fibre, giving an appearance similar to that which might be produced by puncturing the flesh. _Treatment._ Allow the animal to fast, in the first instance, for twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, containing a drachm of carbonate of soda, and an ounce of bole armenian; wash the animal, cleanse the sty, and change the bedding; give at every feeding, or thrice a day, thirty grains of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. This malady is attributable to dirt, combined with the giving of steamed food or wash to hogs at too high a temperature. It is troublesome to eradicate, but usually yields to treatment, and is rarely fatal. MURRAIN. This resembles leprosy in its _symptoms_, with the addition of staggering, shortness of breath, and discharge of viscid matter from the eyes and mouth. The _treatment_ should consist of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, purging, and limitation of food. Cloves of garlic are recommended; and as in all febrile diseases there exists a greater or less disposition to putrefaction, it is probable that garlic, from its antiseptic properties, may be useful. QUINSY. This is an inflammatory affection of the glands of the throat. _Treatment._ Shave away the hair, and rub with tartar-emetic ointment. Fomenting with very warm water is also useful. When external suppuration takes place, it is to be regarded as a favorable symptom. In this case, wait until the swellings are thoroughly ripe; then with a sharp knife make an incision through the entire length, press out the matter, wash with warm water, and afterward dress the wound with any resinous ointment, or yellow soap with coarse brown sugar. STAGGERS. This disease is caused by an excessive determination of blood to the head. _Treatment._ Bleed freely and purge. SWELLING OF THE SPLEEN. The _symptom_ most positively indicative of this disease is the circumstance of the affected animal leaning toward one side, cringing, as it were, from internal pain, and bending toward the ground. The _cause_ of the obstruction on which the disease depends, is over-feeding--permitting the animal to indulge its appetite to the utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the capacity of its stomach admits. A very short perseverance in this mode of management--or, rather, mismanagement--will produce this, as well as other maladies, deriving their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions and the obstruction of the excretory ducts. _Treatment._ Clean out the alimentary canal by means of a powerful aperient. Allow the animal to fast for four or five hours, when he will take a little sweet wash or broth, in which may be mingled a dose of Epsom salts proportioned to his size. This will generally effect the desired end--a copious evacuation--and the action of the medicine on the watery secretions will also relieve the existing diseased condition of the spleen. If the affection has continued for any length, the animal should be bled. A decoction of the leaves and tops of wormwood and liverwort, produced by boiling them in soft water for six hours, may be given in doses of from half a pint to a pint and a half, according to the size, age, etc., of the animal. Scammony and rhubarb, mixed in a bran wash, or with Indian meal, may be given with advantage on the following day; or, equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth pill, formed into a bolus with butter. The animal having been kept fasting the previous night, will probably swallow it; if not, let his fast continue a couple of hours longer. Lower his diet, and keep him on reduced fare, with exercise, and, if it can be managed, grazing, until the malady has passed away. If he is then to be fattened, it should be done gradually; be cautious of at once restoring him to full diet. SURFEIT. This is another name for indigestion. The _symptoms_ are, panting; loss of appetite; swelling of the region about the stomach, etc.; and frequently throwing up the contents of the stomach. _Treatment._ In general, this affection will pass away, provided only it is allowed to cure itself, and all food carefully kept from the animal for a few hours; a small quantity of sweet grains, with a little bran mash, may then be given, but not nearly as much as the animal would wish to take. For a few days, the food should be limited in quantity, and of a washy, liquid nature. The ordinary food may then be resumed, only observing to feed regularly, and remove the fragments remaining after each meal. TUMORS. These are hard swellings, which make their appearance on different parts of the body. They are not formidable, and require only to be suffered to progress until they soften; then make a free incision, and press out the matter. Sulphur and nitre should be given in the food, as the appearance of these swellings, whatever be their cause, indicates the necessity of alterative medicines. POULTRY AND THEIR DISEASES. [Illustration] HISTORY AND VARIETIES THE DOMESTIC FOWL. The cock tribe is used as a generic term, to include the whole family of domestic fowls; the name of the male, in this instance, furnishing an appellation sufficiently comprehensive and well recognized. The domestic cock appears to have been known to man from a very early period. Of his real origin there is little definitely known; and even the time and manner of his introduction into Greece, or Southern Europe, are enveloped in obscurity. In the palmiest days of Greece and Rome, however, he occupied a conspicuous place in those public shows which amused the masses of the people. He was dedicated to the service of the pagan deities, and was connected with the worship of Apollo, Mercury, Mars, and particularly Esculapius. The flesh of this bird was highly esteemed as a delicacy, and occupied a prominent place at the Roman banquets. Great pains were taken in the rearing and fattening of poultry for this purpose. The practice of cock-fighting, barbarous as it is, originated in classic times, and among the most polished and civilized people of antiquity. To its introduction into Britain by the Cæsars we owe our acquaintance with the domestic fowl. It is impossible to state positively to what species of the wild cock, known at present, we are to look for the primitive type, so remote is the date of the original domestication of the fowl. Many writers have endeavored to show that all the varieties of the domestic fowl, of which we now have knowledge, are derived from a single primitive stock. It has, also, been confidently asserted that the domestic cock owes his origin to the jungle fowl of India. The most probable supposition, however, is, that the varieties known to us may be referred to a few of the more remarkable fowls, as the progenitors of the several species. The great fowl of St. Jago and Sumatra may, perhaps, safely be recognized as the type of some of the larger varieties, such as the Spanish and the Padua fowls, and those resembling them; while to the Bankiva cock, probably, the smaller varieties belong, such as Bantams, the Turkish fowl, and the like. The reasons assigned for supposing these kinds to be the true originals of our domestic poultry, are, _first_, the close resemblance subsisting between their females and our domestic hens; _second_, the size of our domestic cock being intermediate between the two, and alternating in degree, sometimes inclining toward the one, and sometimes toward the other; _third_, from the nature of their feathers and their general aspect--the form and distribution of their tails being the same as our domestic fowls; and, _fourth_, in these two birds alone are the females provided with a crest and small wattles, characteristics not to be met with in any other wild species. The wild cock, or the St. Jago fowl, is frequently so tall as to be able to peck crumbs without difficulty from an ordinary dinner-table. The weight is usually from ten to thirteen or fourteen pounds. The comb of both cock and hen is large, crown-shaped, often double, and sometimes, but not invariably, with a tufted crest of feathers, which occurs with the greatest frequency, and grows to the largest size, in the hen. The voice is strong and very harsh; and the young do not arrive to full plumage until more than half grown. The Bankiva fowl is a native of Java, and is characterized by a red indented comb, red wattles, and ashy-gray legs and feet. The comb of the cock is scolloped, and the tail elevated a little above the rump, the feathers being disposed in the form of tiles or slates; the neck-feathers are of a gold color, long, dependent, and rounded at the tips; the head and neck are of a fawn color; the wing coverts a dusky brown and black; the tail and belly, black. The color of the hen is a dusky ash-gray and yellow; her comb and wattles much smaller than those of the cock, and--with the exception of the long hackles--she has no feathers on her neck. These fowl are exceedingly wild, and inhabit the skirts of woods, forests, and other savage and unfrequented places. These Bankivas resemble our Bantams very much; and, like them, are also occasionally to be seen feathered to the feet and toes. Independent of all considerations of profitableness, domestic fowls are gifted with two qualifications, which--whether in man, beast, or bird--are sure to be popular: a courageous temper and an affectionate disposition. When we add to these beauty of appearance and hardiness of constitution, it is no wonder that they are held in such universal esteem. The courage of the cock is emblematic, his gallantry admirable, and his sense of discipline and subordination most exemplary. The hen is deservedly the acknowledged pattern of maternal love. When her passion of philoprogenitiveness is disappointed by the failure or subtraction of her own brood, she will either continue incubating till her natural powers fail, or will violently kidnap the young of other fowls, and insist upon adopting them. It would be idle to attempt an enumeration here of the numerous breeds and varieties of the domestic fowl. Those only, therefore, will be described which are generally accepted as the best varieties; and these arranged, not in the order of their merits necessarily, but alphabetically, for convenience of reference. THE BANTAM. The original of the Bantam is, as has been already remarked, the Bankiva fowl. The small white, and also the colored Bantams, whose legs are heavily feathered, are sufficiently well-known to render a particular description unnecessary. Bantam-fanciers generally prefer those which have clean, bright legs, without any vestige of feathers. A thorough-bred cock, in their judgment, should have a rose comb; a well-feathered tail, but without the sickle feathers; full hackles; a proud, lively carriage; and ought not to exceed a pound in weight. The nankeen-colored, and the black are the general favorites. [Illustration: THE BANTAM.] These little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and traits of disposition. Amongst others, the cocks are so fond of sucking the eggs laid by the hen that they will often drive her from the nest in order to obtain them; they have even been known to attack her, tear open the ovarium, and devour its shell-less contents. To prevent this, first a hard-boiled, and then a marble egg may be given them to fight with, taking care, at the same time, to prevent their access either to the hen or to any real eggs. Another strange propensity is a passion for sucking each other's blood, which is chiefly exhibited when they are moulting, when they have been known to peck each other naked, by pulling out the new feathers as they appear, and squeezing with their beaks the blood from the bulbs at the base. These fowls being subject to a great heat of the skin, its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened; in which cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position more nearly at right angles with the body than at ordinary times, and the skin and superficial muscles are thus subjected to an unusual degree of painful irritation. The disagreeable habit is, therefore, simply a provision of Nature for their relief, which may be successfully accomplished by washing with warm water, and the subsequent application of pomatum to the skin. [Illustration: BANTAM.] Bantams, in general, are greedy devourers of some of the most destructive of our insects; the grub of the cock-chafer and the crane-fly being especial favorites with them. Their chickens can hardly be raised so well, as by allowing them free access to minute insect dainties; hence, the suitableness of a worn-out hotbed for them during the first month or six weeks. They are thus positively serviceable creatures to the farmer, as far as their limited range extends; and still more so to the gardener and the nurseryman, as they will save various garden crops from injuries to which they would otherwise be exposed. The fowl commonly known as the Bantam is a small, elegantly-formed, and handsomely tinted variety, evidently but remotely allied to the game breed, and furnished with feathers to the toes. THE AFRICAN BANTAM. The cock of this variety is red upon the neck, back, and hackles; tail, black and erect, studded with glossy green feathers upon the sides; breast, black ground spotted with yellow, like the Golden Pheasant; comb, single; cheeks, white or silvery; the pullet is entirely black, except the inside of the wing-tips, which is perfectly white. In size, they compare with the common pigeon, being very small; their wings are about two inches longer than their bodies; and their legs dark and destitute of feathers. They are very quiet, and of decided benefit in gardens, in destroying bugs. These symmetrically-formed birds are highly prized, both by the fancier and the practical man, and the pure-bloods are very rare. They weigh from eight to twelve ounces each for the hens; and the cocks, from sixteen to twenty ounces. THE BOLTON GRAY. [Illustration: BOLTON GRAYS OR CREOLE FOWL.] These fowls--called, also, Dutch Every-day Layers, Pencilled Dutch Fowl, Chittaprats, and, in Pennsylvania, Creole Fowl--were originally imported from Holland to Bolton, a town in Lancashire, England, whence they were named. They are small sized, short in the leg, and plump in the make; color of the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the whole cappel of the neck; the body white, thickly spotted with black, sometimes running into a grizzle, with one or more black bars at the extremity of the tail. A good cock of this breed may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; and a hen from three to three and a half pounds. The superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so much in rapid as in continued laying. She may not produce as many eggs in a month as some other kinds, but she will, it is claimed, lay more months in the year than probably any other variety. They are said to be very hardy; but their eggs, in the judgment of some, are rather watery and innutritious. THE BLUE DUN. The variety known under this name originated in Dorsetshire, England. They are under the average size, rather slenderly made, of a soft and pleasing bluish-dun color, the neck being darker, with high, single combs, deeply serrated. The cock is of the same color as the hen, but has, in addition, some handsome dark stripes in the long feathers of the tail, and sometimes a few golden, or even scarlet marks, on the wings. They are exceedingly impudent, familiar, and pugnacious. The hens are good layers, wanting to sit after laying a moderate number of eggs, and proving attentive and careful rearers of their own chickens, but rather savage to those of other hens. The eggs are small and short, tapering slightly at one end, and perfectly white. The chickens, on first coming from the egg, sometimes bear a resemblance to the gray and yellow catkin of the willow, being of a soft bluish gray, mixed with a little yellow here and there. Some class these birds among the game fowls, not recognizing them as a distinct race, upon the ground that, as there are Blue Dun families belonging to several breeds--the Spanish, the Polish, the Game, and the Hamburghs, for example--it is more correct to refer each Blue Dun to its own proper ancestry. THE CHITTAGONG. The Chittagong is a very superior bird, showy in plumage, exceedingly hardy, and of various colors. In some, the gray predominates, interspersed with lightish yellow and white feathers upon the pullets. The legs are of a reddish flesh-color; the meat is delicately white, the comb large and single, wattles very full, wings good size. The legs are more or less feathered; the model is graceful, carriage proud and easy, and action prompt and determined. This breed is the largest in the world; the pullets usually weighing from eight to nine pounds when they begin to lay, and the cocks from nine to ten pounds at the same age. They do not lay as many eggs in a year as smaller hens; but they lay as many pounds of eggs as the best breeds. This breed has been, by some, confounded with the great Malay; but the points of difference are very noticeable. There is less offal; the flesh is finer, although the size is greatly increased; their fecundity is greater; and the offspring arrive earlier at maturity than in the common Malay variety. There is also a _red_ variety of the Chittagong, which is rather smaller than the gray. These have legs sometimes yellow and sometimes blue; the latter color, perhaps, from some mixture with the dark variety; the wings and tail are short. Sometimes there is a rose-colored comb, and a top-knot, through crossing. This variety may weigh sixteen or eighteen pounds a pair, as ordinarily bred. The eggs are large and rich, but not very abundant, and they do not hatch remarkably well. There is, besides, a _dark-red_ variety; the hens yellow or brown, with single serrated comb, and no top-knot; legs heavily feathered, the feathers black and the legs yellow. The cock is black on the breast and thighs. The Chittagongs are generally quite leggy, standing some twenty-six inches high; and the hens twenty-two inches. A first cross with the Shanghae makes a very large and valuable bird for the table, but not for breeding purposes. THE COCHIN CHINA. The Cochin China fowl are said to have been presented to Queen Victoria from the East Indies. In order to promote their propagation, her majesty made presents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed likely to appreciate them. They differ very little in their qualities, habits, and general appearance from the Shanghaes, to which they are undoubtedly nearly related. The egg is nearly the same size, shape, and color; both have an equal development of comb and wattles--the Cochins slightly differing from the Shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller and deeper in the breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and being usually smooth-legged, while the Shanghaes, generally, are more or less heavily feathered. The plumage is much the same in both cases; and the crow in both is equally sonorous and prolonged, differing considerably from that of the Great Malay. [Illustration: COCHIN CHINAS.] The cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented comb, very much resembling that of the Black Spanish, and, when in high condition, of quite as brilliant a scarlet; like him, also, he has sometimes a very large white ear-hole on each cheek, which, if not an indispensable or even a required qualification, is, however, to be preferred, for beauty at least. The wattles are large, wide, and pendent. The legs are of a pale flesh-color; some specimens have them yellow, which is objectionable. The feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright chestnut-brown, large and well-defined, giving a scaly or imbricated appearance to those parts. The hackle of the neck is of a light yellowish brown; the lower feathers being tipped with dark brown, so as to give a spotted appearance to the neck. The tail-feathers are black, and darkly iridescent; back, scarlet-orange; back-hackle, yellow-orange. It is, in short, altogether a flame-colored bird. Both sexes are lower in the leg than either the Black Spanish or the Malay. The hen approaches in her build more nearly to the Dorking than to any other breed, except that the tail is very small and proportionately depressed; it is smaller and more horizontal than in any other fowl. Her comb is of moderate size, almost small; she has, also, a small, white ear-hole. Her coloring is flat, being composed of various shades of very light brown, with light yellow on the neck. Her appearance is quiet, and only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, cleanliness, and compactness. The eggs average about two ounces each. They are smooth, of an oval shape, equally rounded at each end, and of a rich buff color, nearly resembling those of the Silver Pheasant. The newly-hatched chickens appear very large in proportion to the size of the egg. They have light, flesh-colored bills, feet, and legs, and are thickly covered with down, of the hue commonly called "carroty." They are not less thrifty than any other chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than either the Black Spanish or the Malay. It is, however, most desirable to hatch these--as well as other large-growing varieties--as early in the spring as possible; even so soon as the end of February. A peculiarity in the cockerels is, that they do not show even the rudiments of their tail-feathers till they are nearly full-grown. They increase so rapidly in other directions, that there is no material to spare for the production of these decorative appendages. The merits of this breed are such that it may safely be recommended to people residing in the country. For the inhabitants of towns it is less desirable, as the light tone of its plumage would show every mark of dirt and defilement; and the readiness with which they sit would be an inconvenience, rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual layers are most in requisition. Expense apart, they are equal or superior to any other fowl for the table; their flesh is delicate, white, tender, and well flavored. THE CUCKOO. The fowl so termed in Norfolk, England, is, very probably, an old and distinct variety; although they are generally regarded as mere Barn-door fowls--that is, the merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing. The name probably originated from its barred, plumage, which resembles that on the breast of the Cuckoo. The prevailing color is a slaty blue, undulated, and softly shaded with white all over the body, forming bands of various widths. The comb is very small; irides, bright orange; feet and legs, light flesh-color. The hens are of a good size; the cocks are large, approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. The chickens, at two or three months old, exhibits the barred plumage even more perfectly than the full-grown birds. The eggs average about two ounces each, are white, and of porcelain smoothness. The newly-hatched chickens are gray, much resembling those of the Silver Polands, except in the color of the feet and legs. This breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good sitters, good mothers and good feeders; and is well worth promotion in the poultry-yard. THE DOMINIQUE. This seems to be a tolerably distinct and permanent variety, about the size of the common Dunghill Fowl. Their combs are generally double--or rose, as it is sometimes called--and the wattles small. Their plumage presents, all over, a sort of greenish appearance, from a peculiar arrangement of blue and white feathers, which is the chief characteristic of the variety; although, in some specimens, the plumage is inevitably gray in both cock and hen. They are very hardy, healthy, excellent layers, and capital incubators. No fowl have better stood the tests of mixing without deteriorating than the pure Dominique. Their name is taken from the island of Dominica, from which they are reported to have been imported. Take all in all, they are one of the very best breeds of fowl which we have; and although they do not come in to laying so young as the Spanish, they are far better sitters and nursers. THE DORKING. This has been termed the Capon Fowl of England. It forms the chief supply for the London market, and is distinguished by a white or flesh-colored smooth leg, armed with five, instead of four toes, on each foot. Its flesh is extremely delicate, especially after caponization; and it has the advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly, and growing to a very respectable size when properly managed. [Illustration: WHITE DORKINGS.] For those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls of the most desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and varigated plumage, and, not expecting perfection, are willing to overlook one or two other points, the Speckled Dorkings--so called from the town of Surrey, England, which brought them into modern repute--should be selected. The hens, in addition to their gay colors, have a large, vertically flat comb, which, when they are in high health, adds very much to their brilliant appearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The cocks are magnificent. The most gorgeous hues are lavished upon them, which their great size and peculiarly square-built form display to the greatest advantage. Their legs are short; their breast broad; there is but a small proportion of offal; and the good, profitable flesh is abundant. The cocks may be brought to considerable weight, and the flavor and appearance of their meat are inferior to none. The eggs are produced in reasonable abundance; and, though not equal in size to those of Spanish hens, may fairly be called large. They are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient intervals manifest the desire of sitting. In this respect, they are steady and good mothers when the little ones appear. They are better adapted than any other fowl, except the Malay, to hatch superabundant turkeys' eggs; as their size and bulk enable them to afford warmth and shelter to the young for a long period. For the same reason, spare goose eggs may be entrusted to them. With all these merits, however, they are not found to be a profitable breed, if kept thorough-bred and unmixed. Their powers seem to fail at an early age. They are also apt to pine away and die just at the point of reaching maturity. They appear at a certain epoch to be seized with consumption--in the Speckled Dorkings, the lungs seeming to be the seat of the disease. The White Dorkings are, however, hardy and active birds, and are not subject to consumption or any other disease. As mothers, an objection to the Dorkings is, that they are too heavy and clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and more delicate bird than themselves. Pheasants, partridges, bantams, and Guinea fowl are trampled under foot and crushed, if in the least weakly. The hen, in her affectionate industry in scratching for grub, kicks her smallest nurslings right and left, and leaves them sprawling on their backs; and before they are a month old, half of them will be muddled to death with this rough kindness. In spite of these drawbacks, the Dorkings are still in high favor; but a cross is found to be more profitable than the true breed. A glossy, energetic game-cock, with Dorking hens, produces chickens in size and beauty little inferior to their maternal parentage, and much more robust. The supernumerary toe on each foot almost always disappears with the first cross; but it is a point which can very well be spared without much disadvantage. In other respects, the appearance of the newly-hatched chickens is scarcely altered. The eggs of the Dorkings are large, pure white, very much rounded, and nearly equal in size at each end. The chickens are brownish-yellow, with a broad brown stripe down the middle of the back, and a narrower one on each side; feet and legs yellow. THE FAWN-COLORED DORKING. The fowl bearing this name is a cross between the white Dorking and the fawn-colored Turkish fowl. They are, of lofty carriage, handsome, and healthy. The males of this breed weigh from eight to nine pounds, and the females from six to seven; and they come to maturity early for so large a fowl. Their tails are shorter and their eggs darker than those of other Dorkings; their flesh is fine and their eggs rich. It is one of the best varieties of fowl known, as the size is readily increased without diminishing the fineness of the flesh. THE BLACK DORKING. The bodies of this variety are of a large size, with the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet-black color. The neck-feathers of some of the cocks are tinged with a bright gold color, and those of some of the hens bear a silvery complexion. Their combs are usually double, and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or single, with wattles small; and they are usually very red about the head. Their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the race, and they feather rather slowly. Their legs are short and black, with five toes on each foot, the bottom of which is sometimes yellow. The two back toes are very distinct, starting from the foot separately; and there is frequently a part of an extra toe between the two. This breed commence laying when very young, and are very thrifty layers during winter. Their eggs are of a large size, and hatch well; they are perfectly hardy, as their color indicates, and for the product are considered among the most valuable of the Dorking breed. THE DUNGHILL FOWL. This is sometimes called the Barn-door fowl, and is characterized by a thin, serrated, upright comb, and wattles hanging from each side of the lower mandible; the tail rises in an arch, above the level of the rump; the feathers of the rump are long and line-like; and the color is finely variegated. The female's comb and wattles are smaller than those of the cock; she is less in size, and her colors are more dull and sombre. In the best specimens of this variety, the legs should be white and smooth, like those of the Dorking, and their bodies round and plump. Being mongrels, they breed all colors, and are usually from five to seven or eight pounds per pair. THE FRIZZLED FOWL. This fowl is erroneously supposed to be a native of Japan, and, by an equally common error, is frequently called the "Friesland," under the apprehension that it is derived from that place. Its name, however, originates from its peculiar appearance. It is difficult to say whether this is an aboriginal variety, or merely a peculiar instance of the morphology of feathers; the circumstance that there are also frizzled Bantams, would seem to make in favor of the latter position. The feathers are ruffled or frizzled, and the reversion makes them peculiarly susceptible of cold and wet, since their plumage is of little use as clothing. They have thus the demerit of being tender as well as ugly. In good specimens, every feather looks as if it had been curled the wrong way with a pair of hot curling-irons. The plumage is variegated in its colors; and there are two varieties, called the Black and White Frizzled. The stock, which is rather curious than valuable, is retained in this country more by importation than by rearing. Some writers say that this variety is a native of Asia, and that it exists in a domestic state throughout Java, Sumatra, and all the Philippine islands, where it succeeds well. It is, according to such, uncertain in what country it is still found wild. THE GAME FOWL. It is probable that these fowl, like other choice varieties, are natives of India. It is certain that in that country an original race of some fowl exists, at the present day, bearing in full perfection all the peculiar characteristics of the species. In India, as is well known, the natives are infected with a passion for cock-fighting. These fowls are carefully bred for this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become articles of great value. In Sumatra, the inhabitants are so much addicted to the cruel sports to which these fowls are devoted, that instances are recorded of men staking not only their property upon the issue of a fight, but even their wives and children. The Chinese are likewise passionately fond of this pastime; as, indeed, are all the inhabitants of the Indian countries professing the Mussulman creed. The Romans introduced the practice into Britain, in which country the earliest recorded cock-fight dates back to about the year 1100. In Mexico and the South American countries it is still a national amusement. [Illustration: GRAY GAME FOWLS.] The game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and beautifully colored of our domestic breeds of poultry; and in its form, aspect, and that extraordinary courage which characterizes its natural disposition, exhibits all that either the naturalist or the sportsman would at once recognize as the purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the most indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy. It is somewhat inferior in size to other breeds, and in its shape approximates more closely to the elegance and lightness of form usually characteristic of a pure and uncontaminated race. Amongst poultry, he is what the Arabian is amongst horses, the high-bred Short-horn amongst cattle, and the fleet greyhound amongst the canine race. The flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. The hens are excellent layers, and although the eggs are under the average size, they are not to be surpassed in excellence of flavor. Such being the character of this variety of fowl, it would doubtless be much more extensively cultivated than it is, were it not for the difficulty attending the rearing of the young; their pugnacity being such, that a brood is scarcely feathered before at least one-half are killed or blinded by fighting. With proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be apprehended may be avoided. It is exceedingly desirable to perpetuate the race, for uses the most important and valuable. As a cross with other breeds, they are invaluable in improving the flavor of the flesh, which is an invariable consequence. The plumage of all fowl related to them is increased in brilliancy; and they are, moreover, very prolific, and the eggs are always enriched. THE MEXICAN HEN-COCK. This unique breed is a favorite variety with the Mexicans, who term them Hen-cocks from the fact that the male birds have short, broad tails, and, in color and plumage, the appearance of the hens of the same variety, differing only in the comb, which is very large and erect in the cock, and small in the hen. They are generally pheasant-colored, with occasional changes in plumage from a light yellow to a dark gray; and, in some instances, there is a tendency to black tail-feathers and breast, as well as an inclination to gray and light yellow, and with a slight approximation to red hackles in some rare instances. This variety has a strong frame, and very large and muscular thighs. The cocks are distinguished by large, upright combs, strong bills, and very large, lustrous eyes. The legs vary from a dirty to a dark-green color. The hen does not materially differ in appearance from the cock. They are as good layers and sitters as any other game breed, and are good nurses. THE WILD INDIAN GAME. This variety was originally imported into this country from Calcutta. The hen has a long neck, like a wild goose; neither comb nor wattles; of a dark, glossy green color; very short fan tail; lofty in carriage, trim built, and wild in general appearance; legs very large and long, spotted with blue; ordinary weight from four and a half to six pounds. As a layer, she is equal to other fowls of the game variety. The cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine pounds and upward; the plumage is of a reddish cast, interspersed with spots of glossy green; comb very small; no wattles; and bill unlike every other fowl, except the hen. THE SPANISH GAME. This variety is called the English fowl by some writers. It is more slender in the body, the neck, the bill, and the legs, than the other varieties, and the colors, particularly of the cock, are very bright and showy. The flesh is white, tender, and delicate, and on this account marketable; the eggs are small, and extremely delicate. The plumage is very beautiful--a clear, dark red, very bright, extending from the back to the extremities, while the breast is beautifully black. The upper convex side of the wing is equally red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. The beak and legs are black; the eyes resemble jet beads, very full and brilliant; and the whole contour of the head gives a most ferocious expression. THE GUELDERLAND. The Guelderland fowl were originally imported into this country from the north of Holland, where they are supposed to have originated. They are very symmetrical in form, and graceful in their motions. They have one noticeable peculiarity, which consists in the absence of a comb in either sex. This is replaced by an indentation on the top of the head; and from the extreme end of this, at the back, a small spike of feathers rises. This adds greatly to the beauty of the fowl. The presence of the male is especially dignified, and the female is little inferior in carriage. [Illustration: GUELDERLANDS.] The plumage is of a beautiful black, tinged with blue, of very rich appearance, and bearing a brilliant gloss. The legs are black, and, in some few instances, slightly feathered. Crosses with the Shanghae have heavily feathered legs. The wattles are of good size in the cock, while those of the hen are slightly less. The flesh is fine, of white color, and of excellent flavor. The eggs are large and delicate--the shell being thicker than in those of most other fowls--and are much prized for their good qualities. The hens are great layers, seldom inclining to sit. Their weight is from five pounds for the pullets, to seven pounds for the cocks. The Guelderlands, in short, possess all the characteristics of a perfect breed; and in breeding them, this is demonstrated by the uniform aspect which is observable in their descendants. They are light and active birds, and are not surpassed, in point of beauty and utility, by any breed known in this country. The only objection, indeed, which has been raised against them is the tenderness of the chickens. With a degree of care, however, equal to their value, this difficulty can be surmounted, and the breed must be highly appreciated by all who have a taste for beauty, and who desire fine flesh and luscious eggs. THE SPANGLED HAMBURGH. The Spangled Hamburgh fowl are divided into two varieties, the distinctive characteristics being slight, and almost dependent upon color; these varieties are termed the Golden and Silver Spangled. [Illustration: HAMBURGH FOWLS.] _The Golden Spangled_ is one of no ordinary beauty; it is well and very neatly made, has a good body, and no very great offal. On the crest, immediately above the beak, are two small, fleshy horns, resembling, to some extent, an abortive comb. Above this crest, and occupying the place of a comb, is a very large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers composing it darkening toward their extremities. Under the insertion of the lower mandible--or that portion of the neck corresponding to the chin in man--is a full, dark-colored tuft, somewhat resembling a beard. The wattles are very small; the comb, as in other high-crested fowls, is very diminutive; and the skin and flesh white. The hackles on the neck are of a brilliant orange, or golden yellow; and the general ground-color of the body is of the same hue, but somewhat darker. The thighs are of a dark-brown or blackish shade, and the legs and feet are of a bluish gray. In the _Silver Spangled_ variety, the only perceptible difference is, that the ground color is a silvery white. The extremity and a portion of the extreme margin of each feather are black, presenting, when in a state of rest, the appearance of regular semicircular marks, or spangles--and hence the name, "Spangled Hamburgh;" the varieties being termed _gold_ or _silver_, according to the prevailing color being bright yellow, or silvery white. The eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens easily reared. In mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they are inferior to the Dorking or the Spanish. They weigh from four and a half to five and a half pounds for the male, and three and a half for the female. The former stands some twenty inches in height, and the latter about eighteen inches. THE JAVA. The Great Java fowl is seldom seen in this country in its purity. They are of a black or dark auburn color, with very large, thick legs, single comb and wattles. They are good layers, and their eggs are very large and well-flavored; their gait is slow and majestic. They are, in fact, amongst the most valuable fowls in the country, and are frequently described as Spanish fowls, than which nothing is more erroneous. They are as distinctly an original breed as the pure-blooded Great Malay, and possess about the same qualities as to excellence, but fall rather short of them in beauty. Some, however, consider the pure Java superior to all other large fowls, so far as beauty is concerned. Their plumage is decidedly rich. THE JERSEY-BLUE. The color of this variety is light-blue, sometimes approaching to dun; the tail and wings rather shorter than those of the common fowl; its legs are of various colors, generally black, sometimes lightly feathered. Of superior specimens, the cocks weigh from seven to nine pounds, and the hens from six to eight. They are evidently mongrels; and though once much esteemed, they have been quite neglected, so far as breeding from them is concerned, since the introduction of the purer breeds, as the Shanghaes and the Cochin-Chinas. THE LARK-CRESTED FOWL. This breed is sometimes confounded with the Polish fowl; but the shape of the crest, as well as the proportions of the bird, is different. This variety, of whatever color it may be, is of a peculiar taper-form, inclining forward, with a moderately depressed, backward-directed crest, and deficient in the neatness of the legs and feet so conspicuous in the Polands; the latter are of more upright carriage and of a more squarely-built frame. Perhaps a good distinction between the two varieties is, that the Lark-crested have an occipital crest, and the Poland more of a frontal one. They are of various colors: pure snow white, brown with yellow hackles, and black. The white is, perhaps, more brilliant than is seen in any other domesticated gallinaceous bird, being much more dazzling than that of the White Guinea Fowl, or the White Pea Fowl. This white variety is in great esteem, having a remarkably neat and lively appearance when rambling about a homestead. They look very clean and attractive when dressed for market; an old bird, cleverly trussed, will be, apparently, as delicate and transparent in skin and flesh as an ordinary chicken. Their feathers are also more salable than those from darker colored fowls. They are but little, if, indeed, any, more tender than other kinds raised near the barn-door; they are in every way preferable to the White Dorkings. In the cocks, a single, upright comb sometimes almost entirely takes the place of the crest; the hens, too, vary in this respect, some having not more than half a dozen feathers in their head-dress. If they were not of average merit, as to their laying and sitting qualifications, they would not retain the favor they do with the thrifty house-wives by whom they are chiefly cultivated. THE MALAY. [Illustration: MALAYS.] This majestic bird is found on the peninsula from which it derives its name, and, in the opinion of many, forms a connecting link between the wild and domesticated races of fowls. Something very like them is, indeed, still to be found in the East. This native Indian bird--the _Gigantic Cock_, the _Kulm Cock_ of Europeans--often stands considerably more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground. The comb extends backward in a line with the eyes; it is thick, a little elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the appearance of having been cut off. The wattles of the under mandibles are comparatively small, and the throat is bare. Pale, golden-reddish hackles ornament the head, neck, and upper part of the back, and some of these spring before the bare part of the throat. The middle of the back and smaller wing-coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited; pale reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump and base of the tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of a glossy green, of which color are the wing-coverts; the secondaries and quills are pale reddish-yellow on their outer webs. All the under parts are deep glossy blackish-green, with high reflections; the deep chestnut of the base of the feathers appears occasionally, and gives a mottled and interrupted appearance to those parts. The weight of the Malay, in general, exceeds that of the Cochin-China; the male weighing, when full-grown, from eleven to twelve, and even thirteen pounds, and the female from eight to ten pounds; height, from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. They present no striking uniformity of plumage, being of all shades, from black to white; the more common color of the female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a faint tinge of dunnish-blue, especially in the tail. The cock is frequently of a yellowish-red color, with black intermingled in the breast, thighs, and tail. He has a small, but thick comb, generally inclined to one side; he should be snake-headed, and free from the slightest trace of top-knot; the wattles should be extremely small, even in an old bird; the legs are not feathered, as in the case of the Shanghaes, but, like them and the Cochin-Chinas, his tail is small, compared with his size. In the female, there is scarcely any show of comb or wattles. Their legs are long and stout; their flesh is very well flavored, when they have been properly fattened; and their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are equal to three of those of our ordinary fowls. The Malay cock, in his perfection, is a remarkably courageous and strong bird. His beak is very thick, and he is a formidable antagonist when offended. His crow is loud, harsh, and prolonged, as in the case of the Cochin-China, but broken off abruptly at the termination; this is quite characteristic of the bird. The chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and are thickly covered with light brown down; but, by the time they are one-third grown, the increase of their bodies has so far outstripped that of their feathers, that they are half naked about the back and shoulders, and extremely susceptible of cold and wet. The great secret of rearing them is, to have them hatched very early indeed, so that they may have safely passed through this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry, sunny part of May and June, and reached nearly their full stature before the midsummer rains descend. Malay hens are much used by some for hatching the eggs of turkeys--a task for which they are well adapted in every respect but one, which is, that they will follow their natural instinct in turning off their chickens at the usual time, instead of retaining charge of them as long as the mother turkey would have done. Goslings would suffer less from such untimely desertion. THE PHEASANT MALAY. This variety is highly valued by many, not on account of its intrinsic merits, which are considerable, but because it is believed to be a cross between the pheasant and the common fowl. This is, however, an erroneous opinion. Hybrids between the pheasant and the fowl are, for the most part, absolutely sterile; when they do breed, it is not with each other, but with the stock of one of their progenitors; and the offspring of these either fail or assimilate to one or the other original type. No half-bred family is perpetuated, no new breed created, by human or volucrine agency. The Pheasant Malays are large, well-flavored, good sitters, good layers, good mothers, and, in many points, an ornamental and desirable stock. Some object to them as being a trifle too long in their make; but they have a healthy look of not being over-bred, which is a recommendation to those who rear for profit as well as pleasure. The eggs vary in size; some are very large in summer, smooth, but not polished, sometimes tinged with light buff, balloon-shaped, and without the zone of irregularity. The chickens, when first hatched, are all very much alike; yellow, with a black mark all down the back. The cock has a black tail, with black on the neck and wings. THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. This name has been given to a very good breed of fowls, produced by crossing a China cock with a hen, a cross between the Fawn-colored Dorking, the Great Malay, and the Wild Indian. At a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two to thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds; and the pullets from six and a half to seven pounds each. The latter commence laying when five months old, and prove themselves very superior layers. Their eggs are of a medium size, rich, and reddish-yellow in color. Their plumage is rich and variegated; the cocks usually red or speckled, and the pullets darkish brown. They have very fine flesh, and are fit for the table at an early age. The legs are very large, and usually blue or green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five toes upon each foot. Some have their legs feathered, but this is not usual. They have large and single combs and wattles, large cheeks, rather short tails, and small wings in proportion to their bodies. They are domestic, and not so destructive to gardens as smaller fowls. There is the same uniformity in size and general appearance, at the same age of the chickens, as in those of the pure bloods of primary races. THE POLAND. The Poland, or Polish fowl, is quite unknown in the country which would seem to have suggested the name, which originated from some fancied resemblance between its tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of the feathered caps worn by the Polish soldiers. The breed of crested fowls is much esteemed by the curious, and is bred with great care. Those desirous of propagating any singular varieties, separate and confine the individuals, and do not suffer them to mingle with such as have the colors different. The varieties are more esteemed in proportion to the variety of the colors, or the contrast of the tuft with the rest of the plumage. Although the differences of plumage are thus preserved pretty constant, they seem to owe their origin to the same breed, and cannot be reproduced pure without careful superintendence. The cocks are much esteemed in Egypt, in consequence of the excellence of their flesh, and are so common that they are sold at a remarkably cheap rate. They are equally abundant at the Cape of Good Hope, where their legs are feathered. [Illustration: POLAND FOWLS.] The Polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, and in a clean and grassy place. They are certainly not so fit for the farm-yard, as they become blinded and miserable with dirt. Care should be exercised to procure them genuine, since there is no breed of fowls more disfigured by mongrelism than this. They will, without any cross-breeding, occasionally produce white stock that are very pretty, and equally good for laying. If, however, an attempt is made to establish a separate breed of them, they become puny and weak. It is, therefore, better for those who wish for them to depend upon chance; every brood almost of the black produces one white chicken, as strong and lively as the rest. These fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being white, tender, and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for being reared in any numbers, or for general purposes, since they are so capricious in their growth, frequently remaining stationary in this respect for a whole month, getting no larger; and this, too, when they are about a quarter or half grown--the time of their life when they are most liable to disease. As aviary birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. Their plumage often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate beauty; the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to their health; and their plumage improves in attractiveness with almost every month. The great merit, however, of all the Polish fowls is, that for three or four years they continue to grow and gain in size, hardiness, and beauty--the male birds especially. This fact certainly points out a very wide deviation in constitution from those fowls which attain their full stature and perfect plumage in twelve or fifteen months. The similarity of coloring in the two sexes--almost a specific distinction of Polish and perhaps Spanish fowls--also separates them from those breeds, like the Game, in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar. Their edible qualities are as superior, compared with other fowls, as their outward apparel surpasses in elegance. They have also the reputation of being everlasting layers, which further fits them for keeping in small enclosures; but, in this respect, individual exceptions are often encountered--as in the case of the Hamburghs--however truly the habit may be ascribed to the race. There are four known varieties of the Polish fowl, one of which appears to be lost to this country. THE BLACK POLISH. This variety is of a uniform black--both cock and hen--glossed with metallic green. The head is ornamented with a handsome crest of white feathers, springing from a fleshy protuberance, and fronted more or less deeply with black. The comb is merely two or three spikes, and the wattles are rather small. Both male and female are the same in color, except that the former has frequently narrow stripes of white in the waving feathers of the tail, a sign, it is said, of true breeding. The hens, also, have two or three feathers on each side of the tail, tinged in the tip with white. They do not lay quite so early in the spring as some varieties, especially after a hard winter; but they are exceedingly good layers, continuing a long time without wanting to sit, and laying rather large, very white, sub-ovate eggs. They will, however, sit at length, and prove of very diverse dispositions; some being excellent sitters and nurses, others heedless and spiteful. The chickens, when first hatched, are dull black, with white breasts, and white down on the front of the head. They do not always grow and get out of harm's way so quickly as some other sorts, but are not particularly tender. In rearing a brood of these fowls, some of the hens may be observed with crests round and symmetrical as a ball, and others in which the feathers turn all ways, and fall loosely over the eyes; and in the cocks, also, some have the crest falling gracefully over the back of the head, and others have the feathers turning about and standing on end. These should be rejected, the chief beauty of the kind depending upon such little particulars. One hen of this variety laid just a hundred eggs, many of them on consecutive days, before wanting to incubate; and after rearing a brood successfully, she laid twenty-five eggs before moulting in autumn. THE GOLDEN POLANDS. These are sometimes called Gold Spangled, as their plumage approaches to that of the Gold Spangled Hamburghs; but many of the finest specimens have the feathers merely fringed with a darker color, and the cocks, more frequently than the hens, exhibit a spotted or spangled appearance. Many of them are disfigured by a muff or beard; as to which the question has been raised whether it is an original appendage to these birds or not. A distinct race, of which the muff is one permanent characteristic, is not at present known. This appendage, whenever introduced into the poultry-yard, is not easily got rid of; which has caused some to suspect either that the original Polish were beardless, or that there were two ancient races. The Golden Polands, when well-bred, are exceedingly handsome; the cock has golden hackles, and gold and brown feathers on the back; breast and wings richly spotted with ochre and dark brown; tail darker; large golden and brown crest, falling back over the neck; but little comb and wattles. The hen is richly laced with dark-brown or black on an ochre ground; dark-spotted crest; legs light-blue, very cleanly made, and displaying a small web between the toes, almost as proportionately large as that in some of the waders. They are good layers, and produce fair-sized eggs. Many of them make excellent mothers, although they cannot be induced to sit early in the season. The chickens are rather clumsy-looking little creatures, of a dingy-brown, with some dashes of ochre about the head, breast and wings. They are sometimes inclined to disease in the first week of their existence; but, if they pass this successfully, they become tolerably hardy, though liable to come to a pause when about half-grown. It may be noted as a peculiarity in the temper of this breed, that, if one is caught, or attacked by any animal, the rest, whether cocks or hens, will instantly make a furious attack upon the aggressor, and endeavor to effect the rescue of their companion. THE SILVER POLANDS. These are similar to the preceding in shape and markings, except that white, black, and gray are exchanged for ochre or yellow, and various shades of brown. They are even more delicate in their constitution, more liable to remain stationary at a certain point of their adolescence, and, still more than the other varieties, require and will repay extra care and accommodation. Their top-knots are, perhaps, not so large, as a general thing; but they retain the same neat bluish legs and slightly-webbed feet. The hens are much more ornamental than the cocks; though the latter are sure to attract notice. They may, unquestionably, be ranked among the choicest of fowls, whether their beauty or their rarity is considered. They lay, in tolerable abundance, eggs of moderate size, French-white, much pointed at one end; and when they sit, acquit themselves respectably. The newly-hatched chickens are very pretty; gray, with black eyes, light lead-colored legs, and a swelling of down on the crown of the head, indicative of the future top-knot, which is exactly the color of a powdered wig, and, indeed, gives the chicken the appearance of wearing one. There is no difficulty in rearing them for the first six weeks or two months; the critical time being the interval between that age and their reaching the fifth or sixth month. They acquire their peculiar distinctive features at a very early age, and are then the most elegant little miniature fowls which can possibly be imagined. The distinction of sex is not very manifest till they are nearly full-grown; the first observable indication being in the tail. That of the pullet is carried uprightly, as it ought to be; but in the cockerel, it remains depressed, awaiting the growth of the sickle-feathers. The top-knot of the cockerel inclines to hang more backward than that of the pullets. It is remarkable that the Golden Polish cock produces as true Silver chickens, and those stronger, with the Silver Polish hen, as the Silver Polish cock would bring. The Silver Polands have all the habits of their golden companions, the main difference being the silvery ground instead of the golden. This variety will sometimes make its appearance even if merely its Golden kind is bred, precisely as the Black Polish now and then produce some pure White chickens that make very elegant birds. THE BLACK-TOPPED WHITE. This variety does not at present exist among us; and some have even questioned whether it ever did. Buffon mentions them as if extant in France in his time. An attempt has been made to obtain them from the preceding, by acting on the imagination of the parents. The experiment failed, though similar schemes are said to have succeeded with animals; it proved, however, that it will not do to breed from the White Polish as a separate breed. Being Albinos, the chickens come very weakly, and few survive. This breed is now recoverable, probably, only by importation from Asia. THE SHANGHAE. For all the purposes of a really good fowl--for beauty of model, good size, and laying qualities--the thorough-bred Shanghae is among the best, and generally the most profitable of domestic birds. The cock, when full-grown, stands about twenty-eight inches high, if he is a good specimen; the female, about twenty-two or twenty-three inches. A large comb or heavy wattles are rarely seen on the hen at any age; but the comb of the male is high, deeply indented, and his wattles double and large. The comb and wattles are not, however, to be regarded as the chief characteristics of this variety, nor even its reddish-yellow feathered leg; but the abundant, soft, and downy covering of the thighs, hips, and region of the vent, together with the remarkably short tail, and large mound of feathers piled over the upper part of its root, giving rise to a considerable elevation on that part of the rump. It should be remarked, also, that the wings are quite short and small in proportion to the size of the fowl, and carried very high up the body, thus exposing the whole of the thighs, and a considerable portion of the side. [Illustration: SHANGHAES.] These characteristics are not found, in the same degree, in any other fowl. The peculiar arrangement of feathers gives the Shanghae in appearance, what it has in reality--a greater depth of quarter, in proportion to the brisket, than any other fowl. As to the legs, they are not very peculiar. The color is usually reddish-white, or flesh-color, or reddish-yellow, mostly covered down the outside, even to the end of the toes, with feathers. This last, however, is not always the case. The plumage of the thorough-bred is remarkably soft and silky, or rather downy; and is, in the opinion of many, equally as good for domestic purposes as that of the goose. The feathers are certainly quite as fine and soft, if not as abundant. In laying qualities, the pure Shanghae equals, if it does not excel, any other fowl. The Black Poland, or the Bolton Gray, may, perhaps, lay a few more eggs in the course of a year, in consequence of not so frequently inclining to sit; but their eggs are not so rich and nutritious. A pullet of this breed laid one hundred and twenty eggs in one hundred and twenty-five days, then stopped six days, then laid sixteen eggs more, stopped four days, and again continued her laying. The eggs are generally of a pale yellow, or nankeen color, not remarkably large, compared with the size of the fowl, and generally blunt at the ends. The comb is commonly single, though, in some specimens, there is a slight tendency to rose. The flesh of this fowl is tender, juicy, and unexceptionable in every respect. Taking into consideration the goodly size of the Shanghae--weighing, as the males do, at maturity, from ten to twelve pounds, and the females from seven and a half to eight and a half, and the males and females of six months, eight and six pounds respectively--the economical uses to which its soft, downy feathers may be applied, its productiveness, hardiness, and its quiet and docile temper, this variety must occupy, and deservedly so, a high rank among our domestic fowls; and the more it is known, the better will it be appreciated. THE WHITE SHANGHAE. This variety is entirely white, with the legs usually feathered, and differ in no material respect from the red, yellow, and Dominique, except in color. The legs are yellowish, or reddish-yellow, and sometimes of flesh-color. Many prefer them to all others. The eggs are of a nankeen, or dull yellow color, and blunt at both ends. [Illustration: WHITE SHANGHAES.] It is claimed by the friends of this variety that they are larger and more quiet than other varieties, that their flesh is much superior, their eggs larger, and the hens more profitable. Being more quiet in their habits, and less inclined to ramble, the hens are invaluable as incubators and nurses; and the mildness of their disposition makes them excellent foster-mothers, as they never injure the chickens belonging to other hens. These fowls will rank among the largest coming from China, and are very thrifty in our climate. A cock of this variety attained a weight of eight pounds, at about the age of eight months, and the pullets of the same brood were proportionably large. They are broad on the back and breast, with a body well rounded up; the plumage white, with a downy softness--in the latter respect much like the feathering of the Bremen goose; the tail-feathers short and full; the head small, surmounted by a small, single, serrated comb; wattles long and wide, overlaying the cheek-piece, which is also large, and extends back on the neck; and the legs of a yellow hue, approaching a flesh-color, and feathered to the ends of the toes. THE SILVER PHEASANT. This variety of fowls is remarkable for great brilliancy of plumage and diversity of colors. On a white ground, which is usually termed silvery, there is an abundance of black spots. The feathers on the upper part of the head are much longer than the rest, and unite together in a tuft. They have a small, double comb, and their wattles are also comparatively small. A remarkable peculiarity of the cock is, that there is a spot of a blue color on the cheeks, and a range of feathers under the throat, which has the appearance of a collar. The hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of the cock, and at a little distance seems to be covered with scales. On the head is a top-knot of very large size, which droops over it on every side. The Silver Pheasants are beautiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as ornamental appendages to the poultry-yard. THE SPANISH. [Illustration: SPANISH FOWLS.] This name is said to be a misnomer, as the breed in question was originally brought by the Spaniards from the West Indies; and, although subsequently propagated in Spain, it has for some time been very difficult to procure good specimens from that country. From Spain, they were taken in considerable numbers into Holland, where they have been carefully bred, for many years; and it is from that quarter that our best fowls of this variety come. The Spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many merits; of spirited and animated appearance; of considerable size; excellent for the table, both in whiteness of flesh and skin, and also in flavor; and laying exceedingly large eggs in considerable numbers. Among birds of its own breed it is not deficient in courage; though it yields, without showing much fight, to those which have a dash of game blood in their veins. It is a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional advantage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage. The thorough-bred birds should be entirely black, as far as feathers are concerned; and when in high condition, display a greenish, metallic lustre. The combs of both cock and hen are exceedingly large, of a vivid and most brilliant scarlet; that of the hen droops over upon one side. Their most singular feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the cheek--in some specimens extending over a great part of the face--of a fleshy substance, similar to the wattle; it is small in the female, but large and very conspicuous in the male. This marked contrast of black, bright red, and white, makes the breed of the Spanish cock as handsome as that of any variety which we have; in the genuine breed, the whole form is equally good. Spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce very large, quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very thick at both ends, and yet tapering off a little at each. They are, by no means, good mothers of families, even when they do sit--which they will not often condescend to do--proving very careless, and frequently trampling half their brood under foot. The inconveniences of this habit are, however, easily obviated by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly hen. This variety of fowl has frequently been known to lose nearly all the feathers in its body, besides the usual quantity on the neck, wings, and tail; and, if they moult late, and the weather is severe, they feel it much. This must often happen in the case of an "everlasting layer;" for if the system of a bird is exhausted by the unremitting production of eggs, it cannot contain within itself the material for supplying the growth of feathers. They have not, even yet, become acclimated in this country, since continued frost at any time is productive of much injury to their combs; frequently causing mortification in the end, which at times terminates in death. A warm poultry-house, high feeding, and care that they do not remain too long exposed to severe weather, are the best means of preventing this disfigurement. Some birds are occasionally produced, handsomely streaked with red on the hackle and back. This is no proof of bad breeding, if other points are right. The chickens are large, as would be expected from such eggs, entirely shining black, except a pinafore of white on the breast--in which respect they are precisely like the Black Polish chickens--and a slight sprinkling under the chin, with sometimes also a little white round the back and eyes; their legs and feet are black. Many of them do not get perfectly feathered till they are three-fourths grown; and, therefore, to have this variety come to perfection in a country where the summers are much shorter than in their native climate, they must be hatched early in spring, so that they may be well covered with plumage before the cold rains of autumn. There is, however, a great lack of uniformity in the time when they get their plumage; the pullets are always earlier and better feathered than the cockerels--the latter being generally half naked for a considerable time after being hatched, though some feather tolerably well at an early age. The _Black_ is not the only valuable race of Spanish fowl; there is, also, the _Gray_, or _Speckled_, of a slaty gray color, with white legs. Their growth is so rapid, and their size, eventually, so large, that they are remarkably slow in obtaining their feathers. Although well covered with down when first hatched, they look almost naked when half-grown, and should, therefore, be hatched as early in spring as possible. The cross between the Pheasant-Malay and the Spanish produces a particularly handsome fowl. As early pullets, for laying purposes in the autumn and winter after they are hatched, no fowls can surpass the Spanish. They are believed, also, to be more precocious in their constitution; and consequently to lay at an earlier age than the pullets of other breeds. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF DOMESTIC FOWLS. Fowls are classed by modern naturalists as follows: DIVISION. _Vertebrata_--possessing a back bone. CLASS. _Aves_--birds. ORDER. _Rasores_--scrapers. FAMILY. _Phasianidæ_--Pheasants. GENUS. _Gallus_--the cock. Birds, as well as quadrupeds, may be divided into two great classes, according to their food: the Carnivorous and the Graminivorous. Fowls belong, strictly speaking, to the latter. In the structure of the _digestive organs_, birds exhibit a great uniformity. The [oe]sophagus, which is often very muscular, is dilated into a large sac--called the _crop_--at its entrance into the breast; this is abundantly supplied with glands, and serves as a species of first stomach, in which the food receives a certain amount of preparation before being submitted to the action of the proper digestive organs. A little below the crop, the narrow [oe]sophagus is again slightly dilated, forming what is called the _ventriculus succenturiatus_, the walls of which are very thick, and contain a great number of glands, which secrete the gastric juice. Below this, the intestinal canal is enlarged into a third stomach, the _gizzard_, in which the process of digestion is carried still farther. In the graminivorous birds, the walls of this cavity are very thick and muscular, and clothed internally with a strong, horny _epithelium_, serving for the trituration of the food. The intestine is rather short, but usually exhibits several convolutions; the large intestine is always furnished with two _corea_. It opens by a semicircular orifice into the _cloaca_, which also receives the orifices of the urinary and generative organs. The liver is of large size, and usually furnished with a gall-bladder. The pancreas is lodged in a kind of loop, formed by the small intestine immediately after quitting the gizzard. There are also large salivary glands in the neighborhood of the mouth, which pour their secretion into that cavity. The _organs of circulation and respiration_ in birds are adapted to their peculiar mode of life; but are not separated from the abdominal cavity by a diaphragm, as in the mammalia. The heart consists of four cavities distinctly separated--two auricles and two ventricles--so that the venous and arterial blood can never mix in that organ; and the whole of the blood returned from the different parts of the body passes through the lungs before being again driven into the systemic arteries. The blood is received from the veins of the body in the right auricle, from which it passes through a tabular opening into the right ventricle, and is thence driven into the lungs. From these organs it returns through the pulmonary veins into the left auricle, and passes thence into the ventricles of the same side, by the contraction of which it is driven into the aorta. This soon divides into two branches, which, by their subdivision, give rise to the arteries of the body. _The jaws_, or mandibles, are sheathed in a horny case, usually of a conical form, on the sides of which are the nostrils. In most birds, the sides of this sheath or bill are smooth and sharp; but in some they are denticulated along the margins. The two anterior members of the body are extended into wings. The beak is used instead of hands; and such is the flexibility of the vertebral column, that the bird is able to touch with its beak every part of its body. This curious and important result is obtained chiefly by the lengthened vertebræ of the neck, which, in the swan, consists of twenty-three bones, and in the domestic cock, thirteen. The vertebræ of the back are seven to eleven; the ribs never exceed ten on each side. The clothing of the skin consists of _feathers_, which in their nature and development resemble hair, but are of a more complicated structure. A perfect feather consists of the _shaft_, a central stem, which is tubular at the base, where it is inserted into the skin, and the _barbs_, or fibres, which form the _webs_ on each side of the shaft. The two principal modifications of feathers are _quills_ and _plumes_; the former confined to the wings and tail, the latter constituting the general clothing of the body. Besides the common feathers, the skin of many birds is covered with a thick coating of down, which consists of a multitude of small feathers of peculiar construction; each of these down feathers is composed of a very small, soft tube imbedded in the skin, from the interior of which there rises a small tuft of soft filaments, without any central shaft. These filaments are very slender, and bear on each side a series of still more delicate filaments, which may be regarded as analogous to the barbules of the ordinary feathers. This downy coat fulfils the same office as the soft, woolly fur of many quadrupeds; the ordinary feathers being analogous to the long, smooth hair by which the fur of these animals is concealed. The skin also bears many hair-like appendages, which are usually scattered sparingly over its surface; they rise from a bulb which is imbedded in the skin, and usually indicate their relation to the ordinary feathers by the presence of a few minute barbs toward the apex. Once or twice in the course of a year the whole plumage of the bird is renewed, the casting of the old feathers being called _moulting_. The base of the quills is covered by a series of large feathers, called the _wing coverts_; and the feathers of the tail are furnished with numerous muscles, by which they can be spread out and folded up like a fan. In the aquatic birds--like the goose, the duck, and the swan--the feathers are constantly lubricated by an oily secretion, which completely excludes the water. In their reproduction, birds are strictly oviparous. The _eggs_ are always enclosed in a hard shell, consisting of calcareous matter, and birds almost invariably devote their whole attention, during the breeding season, to the hatching of their eggs and the development of their offspring; sitting constantly upon the eggs to communicate to them the degree of warmth necessary for the evolution of the embryo, and attending to the wants of their newly-hatched young, until the latter are in a condition to shift for themselves. In the structure and development of the egg there is a great uniformity; but there is a remarkable difference in the condition of the young bird at the moment of hatching. In the class under consideration, the young are able to run about from the moment of their breaking the egg-shell; and the only care of the parents is devoted to protecting their offspring from danger, and leading them into those places where they are likely to meet with food. The _longevity_ of birds is various, and, unlike the case of men and quadrupeds, seems to bear little proportion to the age at which they acquire maturity. A few months, or even a few weeks, suffice to bring them to their perfection of stature, instincts, and powers. Domestic fowls live to the age of twenty years; geese, fifty; while swans exceed a century. The order _Rasores_ includes the numerous species of _gallinaceous birds_, and the term is applied to them from their habit of scratching in the ground in search of food. They are generally marked by a small head, stout legs, plumage fine, the males usually adorned with magnificent colors, and the tails often developed in a manner to render the appearance extremely elegant. The wings are usually short and weak, and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolonged. The _corla_ of this order are larger than in any other birds. The species are found in almost all parts of the world, from the tropics to the frozen regions of the north; but the finest and most typical kinds are inhabitants of the temperate and warmer parts of Asia. They feed principally on seeds, fruit, and herbage, but also, to a considerable extent, on insects, worms, and other small animals. Their general habitation is on the ground, where they run with great celerity, but many of them roost on trees. They are mostly polygamous in their habits, the males being usually surrounded by a considerable troop of females; and to these, with a few exceptions, the whole business of incubation is generally left. The nest is always placed on the ground in some sheltered situation, and very little art is exhibited in its construction; indeed, an elaborate nest is the less necessary, as the young are able to run about and feed almost as soon as they have left the egg; and at night or on the approach of danger, they collect beneath the wings of their mother. Most of these species are esteemed for the table, and many of them are among the most celebrated of game birds. The _pheasant family_, of this order, includes the most beautiful of the rasorial birds; indeed, some of them may, perhaps, be justly regarded as pre-eminent in this respect over all the rest of their class. In these, the bill is of moderate size and compressed, with the upper mandible arched to the tip, where it overhangs the lower one; the _tarsi_ are of moderate length and thickness, usually armed with one or two spurs; the toes are moderate, and the hinder one short and elevated; the wings are rather short and rounded, and the tail more or less elongated and broad, but frequently wedge-shaped and pointed. The head is rarely feathered all over; the naked skin is sometimes confined to a space about the eye, but generally occupies a greater portion of the surface, occasionally covering the whole head, and even a part of the neck, and frequently forming combs and wattles of very remarkable forms. In some species, the crown is furnished with a crest of feathers. The birds of this family are, for the most part, indigenous to the Asiatic continent and islands, from which, however, several species have been introduced into other parts of the globe. The Guinea Fowl of Africa, and the Turkeys of America, are almost the only instances of wild Phasianidous birds out of Asia. Some species, such as the Domestic Fowl, the Peacock, the Turkey, and the Guinea Fowl, have been reduced to a state of complete domestication, and are distributed pretty generally over the world. THE GUINEA FOWL. This bird belongs to the same division, class, order, and family as the Domestic Fowl; but is assigned by naturalists to the genus Numida, or Numidian. It is indigenous to the tropical parts of Africa, and in a wild state, Guinea Fowls live in flocks, in woods, preferring marshy places, and feed on insects, worms, and seeds; they roost on trees; the nest is made on the ground, and usually contains as many as twenty eggs. They have been propagated in the Island of Jamaica to such an extent as to have become wild, and are shot like other game. They do much damage to the crops, and are therefore destroyed by various means; one of which is, to get them tipsy by strewing corn steeped in rum, and mixed with the intoxicating juice of the cassava, upon the ground; the birds devour this, and are soon found in a helpless state of inebriety. The Guinea Fowl, to a certain degree, unites the characteristics of the pheasant and the turkey; having the delicate shape of the one, and the bare head of the other. There are several varieties: the White, the Spotted, the Madagascar, and the Crested. The latter is not so large as the common species; the head and neck are bare, of a dull blue, shaded with red, and, instead of the casque, it has an ample crest of hair-like, disunited feathers, of a bluish black, reaching as far forward as the nostrils, but, in general, turned backward. The whole plumage, except the quills, is of a bluish black, covered with small grayish spots, sometimes four, sometimes six on each feather. [Illustration: THE GUINEA FOWL.] This fowl is not a great favorite among many keepers of poultry, being so unfortunate as to have gained a much worse reputation than it really deserves, from having been occasionally guilty of a few trifling faults. It is, however, useful, ornamental, and interesting during its life; and, when dead, a desirable addition to the table, at a time when all other poultry is scarce. The best way to commence keeping Guineas is to procure a sitting of eggs which can be depended upon for freshness, and if possible, from a place where but a single pair is kept. A Bantam hen is the best mother; she is lighter, and less likely to injure them by treading on them than a full-sized fowl. She will cover nine eggs, and incubation will last a month. The young are excessively pretty. When first hatched, they are so strong and active as to appear not to require the attention which is really necessary to rear them. Almost as soon as they are dry from the moisture of the egg, they will peck each other's toes, as if supposing them to be worms, scramble with each other for a crumb of bread, and domineer over any little Bantam or chicken that may chance to have been hatched at the same time with themselves. No one, ignorant of the fact, would guess, from their appearance, to what species of bird they belonged; their orange-red bills and legs, and the dark, zebra-like stripes with which they are regularly marked from head to tail, bear no traces of the speckled plumage of their parents. Of all known birds, the Guinea fowl is, perhaps, the most prolific of eggs. Week after week, and month after month, there are very few intermissions, if any, of the daily deposit. Even the process of moulting is sometimes insufficient to draw off the nutriment which it takes to make feathers instead of eggs; and the poor thing will sometimes go about half-naked in the chilly autumn months, unable to refrain from its diurnal visit to the nest, and consequently unable to furnish itself with a new outer garment. The body of the Guinea hen may be regarded, in fact, as a most admirable machine for producing eggs out of insects, grain, and vegetables, garbage, or whatever material an omnivorous creature can appropriate. Its normal plumage is singularly beautiful, being spangled over with an infinity of white spots on a black ground, shaded with gray and brown. The spots vary from the size of a pea to extreme minuteness. The black and white occasionally change places, causing the bird to appear covered with a net of lace. The white variety is not uncommon, and is said to be equally hardy and profitable with the usual kind; but the peculiar beauty of the original plumage is, certainly, all exchanged for a dress of not the purest white. It is doubtful how long either this or the former variety would remain permanent; though, probably, but for a few generations. Pied birds blotched with patches of white, are frequent, but are not comparable, in point of beauty, with those of the original wild color. THE PEA FOWL. This bird is assigned to the genus _paro_, or peacock--the division, class, or sex, and family, being the same as the preceding. The male of this species is noted for its long, lustrous tail, which it occasionally spreads, glittering with hundreds of jewel-like eye-spots, producing an unrivalled effect of grace and beauty. The form of the bird is also exceedingly elegant, and the general plumage of the body exhibits rich metallic tints; that of the neck, particularly, being of a fine deep blue, tinged with golden green. The female, however, is of a much more sober hue, her whole plumage being usually of a brownish color. The voice of the peacock is by no means suitable to the beauty of its external appearance, consisting of a harsh, disagreeable cry, not unlike the word _paon_, which is the French name of the bird. [Illustration: THE PEA FOWL.] Although naturalized as a domestic bird in Europe and America, the pea fowl is a native of India, where it is still found abundantly in a wild state; and the wild specimens are said to be more brilliant than those bred in captivity. The date of its introduction into England is not known; but the first peacocks appear to have been brought into Europe by Alexander the Great, although these birds were among the articles imported into Judea by the fleets of Solomon. They reached Rome toward the end of the republic, and their costliness soon caused them to be regarded as one of the greatest luxuries of the table, though the moderns find them dry and leathery. This, perhaps, as much as the desire of ostentation, may have induced the extravagance of Vitellius and Heliogabulus, who introduced dishes composed only of the brains and tongues of peacocks at their feasts. In Europe, during the middle ages, the peacock was still a favorite article in the bill of fare of grand entertainments, at which it was served with the greatest pomp and magnificence. And during the period of chivalry, it was usual for knights to make vows of enterprise on these occasions, "before the peacock and the ladies." At present, however, the bird is kept entirely on account of the beauty of its appearance. In a state of nature, pea fowl frequent jungles and wooded localities, feeding upon grain, fruits, and insects. They are polygamous, and the females make their nests upon the ground among bushes; the nest is composed of grass, and the number of eggs laid is said to be five or six. They roost in high trees, and, even in captivity, their inclination to get into an elevated position frequently manifests itself; and they may often be seen perched upon high walls, or upon the ridges of buildings. The latter characteristic is, indirectly, one reason why many are disinclined to keep pea fowl in a domestic state. Their decided determination so to roost prevents such a control being exercised over them as would restrain them from mischief, until an eye could be kept on their movements; and, consequently, they commit many depredations upon gardens, stealing off to their work of plunder at the first dawn, or at the most unexpected moments. Their cunning indeed is such that, if frequently driven away from the garden at any particular hour of the day or evening, they will never be found there, after a certain time, at that special hour, but will invariably make their inroads at day-break. Many have tried, as a last resort, to eject them with every mark of scorn and insult, such as harsh words, the cracking of whips, and the throwing of harmless brooms; but they remain incorrigible marauders, indifferent to this disrespectful usage, and careless of severe rebuke. A mansion, therefore, where the fruit and vegetable garden is at a distance, is almost the only place where they can be kept without daily vexation. The injury they do to flowers is comparatively trifling; though, like the Guinea-fowl, they are great eaters of buds, cutting them out cleanly from the _axillae_ of leaves. They must likewise have a dusting-hole, which is large and unsightly; but this can be provided for them in some nook out of the way; and by feeding and encouragement, they will soon be taught to dispose themselves into a pleasing spectacle, at whatever point of view may be deemed desirable. No one with a very limited range should attempt to keep them at all, unless confined in an aviary. Where they can be kept at large, they should be collected in considerable numbers, that their dazzling effects may be as impressive as possible. A wanton destructiveness toward the young of other poultry is also charged upon them. Relative to this, however, statements differ; some contending that such instances of cruelty constitute the exceptions, and not the rule. The hen does not lay till her third summer; but she then seems to have an instinctive fear of her mate, manifested by the secrecy with which she selects the place for her nest; nor, if the eggs are disturbed, will she go there again. She lays from four or five to seven. If these are taken, she will frequently lay a second time during the summer; and the plan is recommended to those who are anxious to increase their stock. She sits from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days. A common hen will hatch and rear the young; but the same objection lies against her performing that office, except in very fine, long summers, for the pea fowl as for turkeys--that the young require to be brooded longer than the hen is conveniently able to do. A turkey will prove a much better foster-mother in every respect. The peahen should, of course, be permitted to take charge of one set of eggs. Even without such assistance, she will be tolerably successful. The same wise provision of Nature noticed in the case of the Guinea fowl is evinced in a still greater degree in the little pea chickens. Their native jungle--tall, dense, sometimes impervious, swarming with reptile, quadruped, and even insect, enemies--would be a most dangerous habitation for a little tender thing that could merely run and squall. Accordingly, they escape from the egg with their quill-feathers very highly developed. In three days, they will fly up, and perch upon any thing three feet high; in a fortnight, they will roost on trees, or the tops of sheds; and in a month or six weeks, they will reach the ridge of a barn, if there are any intermediate low stables or other buildings to help them to mount from one to the other. There are two varieties of the common pea fowl: the _pied_ and the _white_. The first has irregular patches of white about it, like the pied Guinea fowl, and the remainder of the plumage resembling the original sorts; the white have the ocellated spots on the tail faintly visible in certain lights. These last are tender, and much prized by those who prefer variety to real beauty. They are occasionally produced by birds of the common kind, in cases where no intercourse with other white birds can have taken place. In one instance, in the same brood, whose parents were both of the usual colors, there were two of the common sort, and one white cock, and one white hen. THE TURKEY. THE WILD TURKEY. The turkey belongs to the genus _meleagris_, and, though now known as a domestic fowl in most civilized countries, was confined to America until after the discovery of that country by Columbus. It was probably introduced into Europe by the Spaniards about the year 1530. It was found in the forests of North America, when the country was first settled, from the Isthmus of Darien to Canada, being then abundant even in New England; at present, a few are found in the mountains of Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey; in the Western and the Southwestern States they are still numerous, though constantly diminishing before the extending and increasing settlements. [Illustration: THE WILD TURKEY.] The wild male bird measures about three feet and a half, or nearly four feet, in length, and almost six in expanse of the wings, and weighs from fifteen to forty pounds. The skin of the head is of a bluish color, as is also the upper part of the neck, and is marked with numerous reddish, warty elevations, with a few black hairs scattered here and there. On the under part of the neck, the skin hangs down loosely, and forms a sort of wattle; and from the point where the bill commences, and the forehead terminates, arises a fleshy protuberance, with a small tuft of hair at the extremity, which becomes greatly elongated when the bird is excited; and at the lower part of the neck is a tuft of black hair, eight or nine inches in length. The feathers are, at the base, of a bright dusky tinge, succeeded by a brilliant metallic band, which changes, according to the point whence the light falls upon it, to bronze, copper, violet, or purple; and the tip is formed by a narrow, black, velvety band. This last marking is absent from the neck and breast. The color of the tail is brown, mottled with black, and crossed with numerous lines of the latter color; near the tip is a broad, black band, then a short mottled portion, and then a broad band of dingy yellow. The wings are white, banded closely with black, and shaded with brownish yellow, which deepens in tint toward the back. The head is very small, in proportion to the size of the body; the legs and feet are strongly made, and furnished with blunt spurs, about an inch long, and of a dusky reddish color; the bill is reddish, and brown-colored at the tip. The female is less in size; her legs are destitute of spurs; her neck and head are less naked, being furnished with short, dirty, gray feathers; the feathers on the back of the neck have brownish tips, producing on that part a brown, longitudinal band. She also, frequently, but not invariably, wants the tuft of feathers on the breast. Her prevailing color is a dusky gray, each feather having a metallic band, less brilliant than that of the cock, then a blackish band, and a grayish fringe. Her whole color is, as usual among birds, duller than that of the cock; the wing-feathers display the white, and have no bands; the tail is similarly colored to that of the cock. When young, the sexes are so much alike that it is not easy to discern the difference between them; and the cock acquires his beauty only by degrees, his plumage not arriving at perfection until the fourth or fifth year. The habits of these birds in their native wilds are exceedingly curious. The males, called _Gobblers_, associate in parties of from ten to a hundred, and seek their food apart from the females, which either go about singly with their young, at that time about two-thirds grown, or form troops with other females and their families, sometimes to the number of seventy or eighty. These all avoid the old males, who attack and destroy the young, whenever they can, by reiterated blows upon the skull. But all parties travel in the same direction, and on foot, unless the dog or the hunter or a river on their line of march compels them to take wing. When about to cross a river, they select the highest eminences, that their flight may be more sure, and in such positions they sometimes stay for a day or more, as if in consultation. The males upon such occasions gobble obstreperously, strutting with extraordinary importance, as if to animate their companions; and the females and the young assume much of the same pompous manner, and spread their tails as they move silently around. Having mounted, at length, to the tops of the highest trees, the assembled multitude, at the signal note of their leader, wing their way to the opposite shore. The old and fat birds, contrary to what might be expected, cross without difficulty, even when the river is a mile in width; but the wings of the young and the meagre, and, of course, those of the weak, frequently fail them before they have completed their passage, when they drop in, and are forced to swim for their lives, which they do cleverly enough, spreading their tails for a support, closing their wings, stretching out their necks, and striking out quickly and strongly with their feet. All, however, do not succeed in such attempts, and the weaker often perish. The wild turkeys feed on maize, all sorts of berries, fruits, grasses, and beetles; tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards, are occasionally found in their crops. The pecan nut is a favorite food, and so is the acorn, on which last they fatten rapidly. About the beginning of October, while the mast still hangs on the trees, they gather together in flocks, directing their course to the rich bottom-lands, and are then seen in great numbers on the Ohio and Mississippi. This is the _turkey-month_ of the Indians. When they have arrived at the land of abundance, they disperse in small, promiscuous flocks of both sexes and every age, devouring all the mast as they advance. Thus they pass the autumn and winter, becoming comparatively familiar after their journeys, when they venture near plantations and farm-houses. They have even been known, on such occasions, to enter stables and corn-cribs in quest of food. Numbers are killed in the winter, and preserved in a frozen state for distant markets. The beginning of March is the pairing season, for a short time previous to which the females separate from their mates, and shun them, though the latter pertinaciously follow them, gobbling loudly. The sexes roost apart, but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in the most rapid succession; not as when spreading the tail and strutting near the hen, but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any unusual or frequently-repeated noise. Where the turkeys are numerous, the woods, from one end to the other, sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with this remarkable voice of their wooing, uttered responsively from their roosting-places. This is continued for about an hour; and, on the rising of the sun, they silently descend from their perches, and the males begin to strut for the purpose of winning the admiration of their mates. If the call of a female be given from the ground, the males in the vicinity fly toward the individual, and, whether they perceive her or not, erect and spread their tails, throw the head backward, and distend the comb and wattles, shout pompously, and rustle their wings and body-feathers, at the same moment ejecting a puff of air from the lungs. While thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as much rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. During this ceremonious approach, the males often encounter each other, and desperate battles ensue, when the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of the vanquished. The usual fruits of such victories are reaped by the conqueror, who is followed by one or more females, that roost near him, if not upon the same tree, until they begin to lay, when their habits are altered, with the view of saving their eggs, which the male breaks, if he can get at them. These are usually from nine to fifteen in number, sometimes twenty, whitish and spotted with brown, like those of the domestic bird. The nest consists of a few dried leaves placed on the ground, sometimes on a dry ridge, sometimes on the fallen top of a dead leafy tree, under a thicket of sumach or briers, or by the side of a log. Whenever the female leaves the nest, she covers it with leaves, so as to screen it from observation. She is a very close sitter, and when she has chosen a spot will seldom leave it, on account of its being discovered by a human intruder. Should she find one of her eggs, however, sucked by a snake, or other enemy, she abandons the nest forever. When the eggs are near hatching, she will not forsake her nest while life remains. The females are particularly attentive to their young, which are very sensitive to the effects of damp; and consequently wild turkeys are always scarce after a rainy season. The flesh of the wild turkey is much superior to that of the domestic bird; yet the flesh of such of the latter as have been suffered to roam at large in the woods and in the plains is, in no respect, improved by this partially wild mode of life. THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. The origin of the popular name, turkey, appears to be the confusion at first unaccountably subsisting relative to the identity of the bird with the Guinea fowl, which was still scarce at the time of the introduction of the turkey. Some, however, say that the name arose from the proud and _Turkish_ strut of the cock. There is a question whether the domestic turkey is actually a second and distinct species, or merely a variety of the wild bird, owing its diversity of aspect to circumstances dependent on locality, and consequent change of habit, combined with difference of climate and other important causes, which are known in the case of other animals to produce such remarkable effects. [Illustration: THE DOMESTIC TURKEY.] The _varieties_ of the domesticated turkey are not very distinct; and as to their relative value, it is, perhaps, difficult to give any decisive opinion. Some suppose that the _white_ turkey is the most robust, and most easily fattened. Experience has, however, shown to the contrary. The pure white are very elegant creatures; and though very tender to rear, are not so much so as the white pea fowl. Most birds, wild as well as tame, occasionally produce perfectly white individuals, of more delicate constitution than their parents. The selection and pairing of such have probably been the means of establishing and keeping up this breed. With all care, they will now and then produce speckled birds and so show a tendency to return to the normal plumage. It is remarkable that in specimens which are, in other respects, snow-white, the tuft on the breast remains coal-black, appearing, in the hens, like a tail of ermine, and so showing us a great ornament. The head and caruncles on the neck of the male are, when excited, of the same blue and scarlet hues. The bird is truly beautiful, with its snowy and trembling flakes of plumage thus relieved with small portions of black, blue, and scarlet. They have one merit--they dress most temptingly white for market; but they are unsuited for mirey, smokey, or clayey situations, and show and thrive best where they have a range of clean, short pasture, on a light or chalky subsoil. The _bronze_ and _copper-colored_ varieties are generally undersized, and are among the most difficult of all to rear; but their flesh is, certainly, very delicate, and, perhaps, more so than that of other kinds--a circumstance, however, that may partly result from their far greater delicacy of constitution, and the consequent extra trouble devoted to their management. The _brown_ and _ashy-gray_ are not particularly remarkable; but the _black_ are decidedly superior, in every respect, not only as regards greater hardiness, and a consequent greater facility of rearing, but as acquiring flesh more readily, and that, too, of the very best and primest quality. Those of this color appear also to be far less removed than the others from the original wild stock. Fortunately, the black seems to be the favorite color of Nature; and black turkeys are produced far more abundantly than those of any other hue. The turkey is a most profitable bird, since it can almost wholly provide for itself about the roads; snails, slugs, and worms are among the number of its dainties, and the nearest stream serves to slake its thirst. To the farmer, however, it is often a perfect nuisance, from its love of grain; and should, therefore, be kept in the yard until all corn is too strong in the root to present any temptation. Notwithstanding the separation which, with the exception of certain seasons, subsists between the cock and hen turkey in a wild state, they have been taught to feed and live amiably together in a state of domesticity. The former, however, retains sufficient of his hereditary propensities to give an occasional sly blow to a froward chicken, but that very seldom of a serious or malicious character. One reason why the turkeys seen in poultry-yards do not vie in splendor of plumage with their untamed brethren is, that they are not allowed to live long enough. For the same cause, the thorough development of their temper and disposition is seldom witnessed. It does not attain its full growth till its fifth or sixth year, yet it is killed at latest in the second, to the evident deterioration of the stock. If some of the best breeds were retained to their really adult state, and well fed meanwhile, they would quite recompense their keeper by their beauty in full plumage, their glancing hues of gilded green and purple, their lovely shades of bronze, brown, and black, and the pearly lustre that radiates from their polished feathers. THE DUCK. This bird is of the order of _natatores_, or swimmers; family, _anatidæ_, of the duck kind; genus, _anas_, or duck. The most striking character of the swimming bird is derived from the structure of the _feet_, which are always palmate--that is, furnished with webs between the toes. There are always three toes directed forward, and these are usually united by a membrane to their extremities; but, in some cases, the membrane is deeply cleft, and the toes are occasionally quite free, and furnished with a distinct web on each side. The fourth toe is generally but little developed, and often entirely wanting; when present, it is usually directed backward, and the membrane is sometimes continued to it along the side of the feet. These webbed feet are the principal agents by which the birds propel themselves through the water, upon the surface of which most of them pass a great portion of their time. The feet are generally placed very far back, a position which is exceedingly favorable to their action in swimming, but which renders their progression on the land somewhat awkward. [Illustration: THE EIDER DUCK.] The _body_ is generally stout and heavy, and covered with a very thick, close, downy plumage, which the bird keeps constantly anointed with the greasy secretions of the caudal gland, so that it is completely water-proof. The _wings_ exhibit a great variety in their development; in some species being merely rudimentary, destitute of quills, and covered with a scaly skin--in others, being of vast size and power, and the birds passing a great part of their lives in the air. The form of the _bill_ is also very remarkable; in some, broad and flat; in others, deep and compressed; and in others, long and slender. Most of these birds live in societies, which are often exceedingly numerous, inhabiting high northern and southern latitudes. The distinguishing characteristic of the family of the _anatidæ_ is the _bill_, which is usually of a flattened form, covered with a soft skin, and furnished at the edges with a series of _lamellæ_, which serve to sift or strain the mud in which they generally seek their food. The feet are furnished with four toes, three of which are directed forward, and united by a web; the fourth is directed backward, usually of small size, and quite free. They are admirable swimmers, and live and move on the water with the utmost security, ease, and grace. Such is their adaptation to this element that the young, immediately after being hatched, will run to it, and fearlessly launch themselves upon its bosom, rowing themselves along with their webbed feet, without a single lesson, and yet as dexterously as the most experienced boatman. They are generally inhabitants of the fresh waters, and for the most part, prefer ponds and shallow lakes, in which they can investigate the bottom with their peculiar bills, without actually diving beneath the surface; yet at some seasons they are found along the borders of the sea. Their food generally consists of worms, mollusca, and aquatic insects, which they separate from the mud by the agency of the lamellæ at the margin of the bill; but most of them also feed upon seeds, fruits, and other vegetable substances. THE WILD DUCK. This bird, known also by the name of _mallard_, is the original of all the domestic varieties. It is twenty-four inches long, and marked with green, chestnut and white. Wild ducks are gregarious in their habits, and generally migrate in large flocks. The males are larger than the females, and the latter are also usually of a more uniform and sober tint. It is an inhabitant of all the countries of Europe, especially toward the north, and is also abundant in North America, where it is migratory, passing to the North in Spring, and returning to the South in autumn. It frequents the lakes of the interior, as well as the sea-coasts. It is plentiful in Great Britain at all seasons, merely quitting the more exposed situations at the approach of winter, and taking shelter in the valleys; or, in case of a severe winter, visiting the estuaries. [Illustration: WILD DUCK.] They moult twice in the year, in June and November; in June, the males acquire the female plumage to a certain extent, but regain their proper dress at the second moult, and retain it during the breeding season. In a wild state, the mallard always pairs, and, during the period of incubation, the male, although taking no part in the process, always keeps in the neighborhood of the female; and it is singular that half-bred birds between the wild and tame varieties always exhibit the same habits, although the ordinary domestic drakes are polygamous, always endeavoring to get as many wives as they can. The nest is usually placed upon the ground among reeds and ledges near the water; sometimes in holes or hollow trees, but rarely among the branches. The eggs vary from about eight to fourteen in number, and the young are active from the moment of their exclusion, and soon take to the water, where they are as much at home as the old birds. As the flesh of wild ducks is greatly valued, immense numbers are shot, or taken in other ways. In England, large numbers are captured by decoys, consisting of a piece of water situated in the midst of a quiet plantation, from which six semicircular canals are cut, which are roofed over with hoops, and covered in with netting. Into this vast trap the ducks are enticed by young ducks trained for the purpose. THE DOMESTIC DUCK. The duck should always find a place in the poultry-yard, provided that it can have access to water, even a small supply of which will suffice. They have been kept with success, and the ordinary duck fattened to the weight of eight pounds, with no further supply of water than that afforded by a large pool sunk in the ground. In a garden, ducks will do good service, voraciously consuming slops, frogs, and insects--nothing, indeed, coming amiss to them; not being scratchers, they do not, like other poultry, commit such a degree of mischief, in return, as to partially counterbalance their usefulness. A drake and two or three ducks cost little to maintain; and the only trouble they will give is, that if there is much extent of water or shrubbery about their home, they will lay and sit abroad, unless they are brought up every night, which should be done. They will otherwise drop their eggs carelessly here and there, or incubate in places where their eggs will be sucked by crows, and half their progeny destroyed by rats. [Illustration: ROUEN DUCK.] The duck is very prolific, and its egg is very much relished by some, having a rich piquancy of flavor, which gives it a decided superiority over the egg of the domestic fowl; and these qualities render it much in request with the pastry-cook and confectioner--three duck's eggs being equal in culinary value to six hen's eggs. The duck does not lay during the day, but generally in the night; exceptions, regulated by circumstances, will, of course, occasionally occur. While laying, it requires, as has been intimated, more attention than does the hen, until it is accustomed to resort to a regular nest for depositing its eggs; when, however, this is once effected, little care is needed beyond what has been indicated. The duck is a bad hatcher, being too fond of the water, and, consequently, too apt to allow her eggs to get cold; she will also, no matter what kind of weather it may be, bring the ducklings to the water the moment they break the shell--a practice always injurious, and frequently fatal; hence the very common practice of setting duck's eggs under hens. There are several _varieties_ of tame ducks; but their merits are more diverse in an ornamental than in a profitable point of view. Of _white_ ducks, the best is the _Aylesbury_, with its unspotted, snowy plumage, and yellow legs and feet. It is large and excellent for the table, but not larger or better than several others. They are assiduous mothers and nurses, especially after the experience of two or three seasons. A much smaller race of white ducks is imported from Holland, useful only to the proprietors of extensive or secluded waters, as enticers of passing wild birds to alight and join their society. This variety has a yellow-orange bill; that of the Aylesbury should be flesh-colored. There is, also, the _white hook-billed_ duck, with a bill monstrously curved downward--a Roman-nosed duck, in fact--with Jewish features, of a most grotesque and ludicrous appearance; the bill has some resemblance in its curvature to that of the Flamingo. White ducks, of course, make but a sorry figure in towns or dirty suburbs, or in any place where the means of washing themselves are scanty. There are one or two pretty varieties, not very common; one of a _slate-gray_, or bluish dun, another of a _sandy-yellow_; there are also some with top-knots as compact and spherical as those of any Polish fowl, which rival the hook-billed in oddity. What are termed the _white_ Poland and the _black_ Poland are crested; they breed early, and are excellent layers; the former are deemed the most desirable though the black are the larger. Of _mottled_ and _pied_ sorts, there exists a great variety; black and white, bronze and white, lightly speckled, and many other mixtures. To this class belongs the _Rouen_--or Rhone, or Rohan, since each designation has been used--duck, which has been needlessly overpraised by interested dealers. This variety is highly esteemed by epicures; it is a prolific bird, and lays large eggs; its size is the criterion of its value. There is also a pied variety of the _Poland_ ducks, a hybrid between the white and the black, the Beaver. Another variety, known as the _Labrador_, the Buenos Ayres, or the black East Indian duck, is somewhat rare and highly esteemed by dealers. They are very beautiful birds. The feet, legs, and entire plumage should be black; a few white feathers will occasionally appear. The bill also is black, with a slight under-tinge of green. Not only the neck and back, but the larger feathers of the tail and wings are gilt with metallic green; the female also exhibits slight traces of the same decoration. On a sunshiny spring day, the effect of these glittering black ducks sporting in the blue water is very pleasing. A peculiarity of this variety is, that they occasionally--that is, at the commencement of the season--lay black eggs; the color of those subsequently laid gradually fades to that of the common kinds. This singular appearance is not caused by any internal strain penetrating the whole thickness of the shell, but by an oily pigment, which may be scraped off with the nail. They lay, perhaps, a little later than other ducks, but are not more difficult to rear. Their voice, likewise, is said to differ slightly from that of other varieties; but they are far superior in having a high, wild-duck flavor and, if well kept, are in deserved repute as being excellent food when killed immediately from the pond, without any fattening. Still another breed, known as the _Muscovy_ duck, is a distinct species from the common duck; and the hybrid race will not, therefore, breed again between themselves, although they are capable of doing so with either of the species from the commixture of which they spring. This duck does not derive its name from having been brought from the country indicated, but from the flavor of its flesh, and should more properly be termed the _musk_ duck, of which this name is but a corruption. It is easily distinguished by a red membrane surrounding the eyes, and covering the cheeks. Not being in esteem, on account of their peculiar odor, and the unpleasant flavor of their flesh, they are not worth breeding, unless to cross with the common varieties; in which case, the musk drake must be put to the common duck. This will produce a very large cross, while the opposite course will beget a very inferior one. THE GOOSE. THE WILD GOOSE. The goose belongs to the same family as the duck, but is classed with the genus _anser_. The _gray-leg_ goose--a common wild goose of England--is by some regarded as the original of the domestic bird. It is thirty-five inches long; upper parts ash-brown and ash-gray; under parts white. This variety is migratory, proceeding to the Northern parts of Europe and Asia in summer, and to the South in winter. The _Canada_, or Cravat goose, the wild goose of this country, is a fine species, forty inches long, often seen in spring and autumn in large, triangular flocks, high in air, and led by an old, experienced gander, who frequently utters a loud _honk_, equivalent, doubtless, to "All's well!" This sound often comes upon the ear at night, when the flock are invisible; and it is frequently heard even in the daytime, seeming to come from the sky, the birds being beyond the reach of vision. Immense numbers of these noble birds are killed in Canada, as well as along our coasts, where they assemble in the autumn in large flocks, and remain till driven to more Southern climates by the season. [Illustration: WILD OR CANADA GOOSE.] The Canada goose is capable of domestication, and, in spite of its original migratory habits--which it appears, in almost every instance, to forget in England--shows much more disposition for a truly domestic life than the swan; and it may be maintained in perfect health with very limited opportunities for bathing. They eat worms and soft insects, as well as grass and aquatic plants; with us, they do not breed until they are at least two years old, and so far approach the swan; like which bird, also, the male appears to be fit for reproduction at an earlier period than the female. Many writers speak highly of the half-bred Canada. They are, certainly, very large, and may merit approbation on the table; but with whatever other species the cross is made, they are hideously disgusting. THE DOMESTIC GOOSE. The goose is not mentioned in the Bible, but it was known to the ancient Egyptians, and is represented in numerous instances on their monuments, showing that it was anciently used for food, as in our own times. It was held sacred by the Romans, because it was said to have alarmed, by its cackling at night, the sentinels of the capitol, at the invasion of the Gauls, and thus to have saved the city. This was attributed by one of the Roman writers to its fine sense of smell, which enables them to perceive at a great distance the odor of the human race. The liver of this bird seems to have been a favorite morsel with epicures in all ages; and invention appears to have been active in exercising the means of increasing the volume of that organ. It is generally esteemed a foolish bird; yet it displays courage in defending its young, and instances of attachment and gratitude have shown that it is not deficient in sentiment. The value and usefulness of geese are scarcely calculable. The only damage which they do lies in the quantity of food which they consume; the only care they require is to be saved from starvation. All the fears and anxieties requisite to educate the turkey and prepare it for making a proper appearance at the table are with them unnecessary; grass by day, a dry bed at night, and a tolerably attentive mother, are all that is required. Roast goose, fatted to the point of repletion, is almost the only luxury that is not deemed an extravagance in an economical farm-house; for there are the feathers, to swell the stock of beds; there is the dripping, to enrich the dumpling or pudding; there are the giblets, for market or a pie; and there is the wholesome, solid, savory flesh for all parties interested. They are accused by some of rendering the spots where they feed offensive to other stock; but the explanation is simple. A horse bites closer than an ox; a sheep goes nearer to the ground than a horse; but, after the sharpest shearing by sheep, the goose will polish up the tuft, and grow fat upon the remnants of others. Consequently, where geese are kept in great numbers on a small area, little will be left to maintain any other grass-eating creature. If, however, the pastures are not short, it will not be found that other grazing animals object to feeding either together with, or immediately after, a flock of geese. The goose has the merit of being the earliest of poultry. In three months, or, about four, from leaving the egg, the birds ought to be fit for the feather-bed, the spit, and the fire. It is not only very early in its laying, but also very late. It often anticipates the spring in November, and, afterward, when spring really comes in March, it cannot resist its general influence. The autumnal eggs afford useful employment to turkeys and hens that choose to sit at unseasonable times; and the period of incubation is less tedious than that required for the eggs of some other birds. The flight of the domestic goose is quite powerful enough, especially in young birds, to allow them to escape in that way, where they are so inclined. In the autumn, whole broods may be seen by early risers taking their morning flight, and circling in the air for matutinal exercise, just like pigeons, when first let out of their locker. The bird lives to a very great age, sometimes seventy years or more. As to the origin of our domestic species, opinions differ. By some, as already remarked, the gray-leg is regarded as the parent stock; others consider it a mongrel, like the dunghill fowl, made up of several varieties, to each of which it occasionally shows more or less affinity; and yet others contend that it is not to be referred to any existing species. The latter assert that there is really but one variety of the domestic goose, individuals of which are found from entirely white plumage, through different degrees of patchedness with gray, to entirely gray coloring, except on the abdomen. The domestic gander is polygamous, but he is not an indiscriminate libertine; he will rarely couple with females of any other species. Hybrid common geese are almost always produced by the union of a wild gander with a domestic goose, and not by the opposite. The ganders are generally, though not invariably, white, and are sometimes called Embden geese, from a town of Hanover. High feeding, care, and moderate warmth will induce a prolific habit, which becomes, in some measure, hereditary. The season of the year at which the young are hatched--and they may be reared at any season--influences their future size and development. After allowing for these causes of diversity, it is claimed that the domestic goose constitutes only one species or permanent variety. THE BERNACLE GOOSE. This bird is sometimes called the Barnacle goose; its name originates from the fact that it was formerly supposed to be bred from the shells so termed, which cling to wood in the sea. It is about twenty-five inches long, and is found wild in Europe, abundantly in the Baltic; and, occasionally, as it is said, in Hudson's Bay, on this continent. This bird is one of those species in which the impulse of reproduction has at length overcome the sullenness of captivity, and instances of their breeding when in confinement have increased in frequency to such an extent that hopes are entertained of the continuance of that increase. The young so reared should be pinioned at the wrist as a precaution. They would probably stay at home contentedly, if unpinioned, until the approach of inclement weather, when they would be tempted to leave their usual haunts in search of marshes, unfrozen springs, mud-banks left by the tide, and the open sea; or they might be induced to join a flock of wild birds, instead of returning to their former quarters. Broods of five, six, and seven have been reared; but they are generally valued as embellishments to ponds merely, their small size rendering them suitable even for a very limited pleasure-ground, and the variety being perhaps the prettiest geese that are thus employed. The lively combination of black, white, gray, and lavender, gives them the appearance of being in agreeable half-mourning. The female differs little from the male, being distinguished by voice and deportment more than by plumage. Their short bill, the moderate-sized webs of their feet, and their rounded proportions, indicate an affinity with the curious Cereopsis goose, which is found in considerable numbers on the seashore of Sucky Bay and Goose Island, at the south-eastern point of Australia. The number of eggs laid is six or seven, and the time of incubation is about a month; it being difficult to name the exact period, from the uncertainty respecting the precise hour when the process commences. They are steady sitters. The young are lively and active little creatures, running hither and thither, and tugging at the blades of grass. Their ground color is of a dirty white; their legs, feet, eyes, and short stump of a bill, are black; they have a gray spot on the crown of the head, gray patches on the back and wings, and a yellowish tinge about the forepart of the head. The old birds are very gentle in their disposition and habits, and are less noisy than most geese. The service they may render as weed-eaters is important, though their size alone precludes any comparison of them, in this respect, with the swan. Their favorite feeding-grounds are extensive flats, partially inundated by the higher tides; and their breeding may perhaps best be promoted by their being furnished with a little sea-weed during winter and early spring; a few shrimps, or small mussels, would probably not be unacceptable. A single pair is more likely to breed than if they are congregated in larger numbers. THE BREMEN GOOSE. [Illustration: A BREMEN GOOSE.] The Bremen geese--so called from the place whence they were originally imported, though some term them Embden geese--have been bred in this country, pure, and to a feather, since 1821; no single instance having occurred in which the slightest deterioration of character could be observed. The produce has invariably been of the purest white; the bill, legs, and feet being of a beautiful yellow. The flesh of this goose does not partake of that dry character which belongs to other and more common kinds, but is as tender and juicy as the flesh of a wild fowl; it shrinks less in cooking than that of any other fowl. Some pronounce its flesh equal if not superior to that of the canvas-back duck. They likewise sit and hatch with more certainty than common barn-yard geese; will weigh nearly, and in some instances quite, twice the weight--the full-blood weighing twenty pounds and upward; they have double the quantity of feathers; and never fly. THE BRENT GOOSE. This is a small species, twenty-one inches long, common in a wild state, in both Europe and America. On our coast, it is a favorite game-bird, and known by the name of _Brant_. It is easily tamed, and is said to have produced young in captivity, though no details have been furnished. This and the Sandwich Island goose are the smallest of their tribe yet introduced to our aquatic aviaries. Their almost uniform color of leaden black, and their compactness of form, make them a striking feature in the scene, though they cannot be compared in beauty with many other waterfowl. There is so little difference in the sexes that it is not easy to distinguish them. Their chief merit rests in their fondness for water-weeds, in which respect they appear to be second only to the swan. They are quiet, gentle and harmless in captivity. Some praise their flesh, while others pronounce it fishy, strong, and oily; they may, however, be converted into tolerable meat by being skinned and baked in a pie. THE CHINA GOOSE. [Illustration: CHINA OR HONG KONG GOOSE.] This bird figures under a variety of _aliases_: Knob goose, Hong Kong goose, Asiatic goose, Swan goose, Chinese Swan Guinea goose, Polish goose, Muscovy goose, and, probably, others. There is something in the aspect of this creature--in the dark-brown stripe down its neck, its small, bright eye, its harsh voice, its ceremonious strut, and its affectation of seldom being in a hurry--which seems to say that it came from China. If so, it has no doubt been domesticated for many hundred years, perhaps as long as the pea fowl or the common fowl. They may be made to lay a large number of eggs by an increased supply of nourishing food. If liberally furnished with oats, boiled rice, etc., the China goose will, in the spring, lay from twenty to thirty eggs before she begins to sit, and again in the autumn, after her moult, from ten to fifteen more. Another peculiarity is their deficient power of flight, compared with other geese, owing to the larger proportionate size of their bodies. Indeed, of all geese, this is the worst flyer; there is no occasion to pinion them; the common domestic goose flies much more strongly. The prevailing color of their plumage is brown, comparable to the color of wheat. The different shades are very harmoniously blended, and are well relieved by the black tuberculated bill, and the pure white of the abdomen. Their movements on the water are graceful and swan-like. Slight variations occur in the color of the feet and legs, some having them of a dull orange, others black; a delicate fringe of minute white feathers is occasionally seen at the base of the bill. These peculiarities are hereditarily transmitted. The male is almost as much disproportionately larger than the female as the Musk drake is in comparison with his mate. He is much inclined to libertine wanderings, without, however, neglecting proper attention at home. If there is any other gander on the premises, a disagreement is sure to result. Both male and female are, perhaps, the noisiest of all geese; at night, the least footfall or motion in their neighborhood is sufficient to call forth their clangor and resonant trumpetings. The eggs are somewhat less than those of the domestic kind, of a short oval, with a smooth, thick shell, white, but slightly tinged with yellow at the smaller end. The goslings, when first hatched, are usually very strong. They are of a dirty green, like the color produced by mixing India-ink and yellow ochre, with darker patches here and there. The legs and feet are lead-color, but afterward change to a dull red. With good pasturage, they require no farther attention than that bestowed by their parents. After a time, a little grain will strengthen and forward them. If well fed, they come to maturity very rapidly; in between three and four months from the time of leaving the shell, they will be full-grown and ready for food. They do not bear being shut up to fatten so well as common geese, and, therefore, those destined for the table are the better for profuse hand-feeding. Their flesh is well-flavored, short, and tender; their eggs, excellent for cooking purposes. They are said to be a short-lived species; the ganders, at least, not lasting more than ten or a dozen years. Hybrids between them and the common goose are prolific with the latter; the second and third cross is much prized by some farmers, particularly for their ganders; and in many flocks the blood of the China goose may be traced oftentimes by the more erect gait of the birds, accompanied by a faint stripe down the back of the neck. With the White-grented goose they also breed freely. _The White-China._ These are larger than the preceding, and apparently more terrestrial in their habits; the knob on the head is not only of greater proportion, but of a different shape. It is of a spotless, pure white--though a very few gray feathers occasionally appear--more swan-like than the brown, with a bright orange-colored bill, and a large knot of the same color at its base. It is particularly beautiful, either in or out of the water, its neck being long, slender, and gracefully arched when swimming. It breeds three or four times in the season; the egg is quite small for the size of the bird, being not more than half the size of that of the common goose. In many instances, efforts to obtain young from their eggs have been unsuccessful; but if the female is supplied with the eggs of the common goose, she invariably hatches and rears the goslings. They sit remarkably well, never showing themselves out of the nest by day; but, possibly, they may leave the nest too long in the cold of the night. Some think that a quiet lake is more to their taste than a rapid running stream, and more conducive to the fecundity of their eggs. It is also believed by many that, under favorable circumstances, they would be very prolific. THE EGYPTIAN GOOSE. This species is bred to a certain extent in this country. It is a most stately and rich bird, reminding one of the solemn antiquity of the Nile, with its gorgeous mantle of golden hues and its long history. It is dark red round the eyes; red ring round the neck; white bill; neck and breast light fawn-gray; a maroon star on the breast; belly red and gray; half of the wing-feathers rich black, the other part of them pure white; black bar running across the centre, back light-red, growing dark-red toward the tail; the tail a deep black. They are very prolific, bringing off three broods a year, from eight to twelve each time; their weight is about eight pounds each. THE JAVA GOOSE. The gander of this species is white, with head and half the neck light-fawn; red tubercle at the root of the bill; larger than the common goose, and longer in the body; walks erect, standing as high as the China goose, the female appearing to carry two pouches, or egg-bags, under the belly. It is very prolific; and the meat is of fine flavor. THE TOULOUSE GOOSE. This bird is said to have been originally imported from the Mediterranean; and is known also by the names Mediterranean goose, and Pyrenean goose. It is chiefly remarkable for its vast size, in which respect it surpasses all others. Its prevailing color is a slaty blue, marked with brown bars, and occasionally relieved with black; the head, neck, as far as the beginning of the breast, and the back of the neck, as far as the shoulders, of a dark-brown; the breast slaty-blue; the belly is white, in common with the under surface of the tail; the bill is orange-red, and the feet flesh-color. In habit, the Toulouse goose resembles his congeners, but seems to possess a milder and more tractable disposition, which greatly conduces to the chance of his early fattening, and that, too, at a little cost. The curl of the plumage on the neck comes closer to the head than that on common geese, and the abdominal pouch, which, in other varieties, is an accompaniment of age, exists from the shell. The flesh is said to be tender and well-flavored. Some pronounce this bird the unmixed and immediate descendant of the Gray-leg; while others assert that it is only the common domestic, enlarged by early hatching, very liberal feeding during youth, fine climate, and, perhaps, by age, and style them grenadier individuals of the domestic goose--nothing more. THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE. In its wild state, the White-fronted or Laughing goose is twenty-seven inches long, and found in great numbers in Europe and in the North American Fur countries, but rare along our coasts. When domesticated, it belongs to the class of birds which are restrained from resuming their original wild habits more by the influence of local and personal attachment than from any love which they seem to have for the comforts of domestication; which may be trusted with their entire liberty, or nearly so, but require an eye to be kept on them from time to time, lest they stray away and assume an independent condition. The white-fronted goose well deserves the patronage of those who have even a small piece of grass. The first impression of every one, upon seeing this species in confinement, would be that it could not be trusted with liberty; and the sight of it exercising its wings at its first escape would make its owner despair of recovering it. This is not, however, the case. By no great amount of care and attention, they will manifest such a degree of confidence and attachment as to remove all hesitation as to the future; and they may be regarded as patterns of all that is valuable in anserine nature--gentle, affectionate, cheerful, hardy, useful, and self-dependent. The gander is an attentive parent, but not a faithful spouse. The eggs are smaller than those of the common goose, pure white, and of a very long oval; the shell is also thinner than in, most others; the flesh is excellent. * * * * * Having completed the enumeration and description of the varieties of poultry, it will, perhaps, be appropriate to give some account, before proceeding to the next general division of the subject, of the structure, or anatomy, so to speak, of THE EGG. In a laying hen may be found, upon opening the body, what is called the _ovarium_--a cluster of rudimental eggs, of different sizes, from very minute points up to shapes of easily-distinguished forms. These rudimental eggs have as yet no shell or white, these being exhibited in a different stage of development; but consist wholly of _yolk_, on the surface of which the germ of the future chicken lies. The yolk and the germ are enveloped by a very thin membrane. When the rudimental egg, still attached to the ovarium, becomes longer and larger, and arrives at a certain size, either its own weight, or some other efficient cause, detaches it from the cluster, and makes it fall into a sort of funnel, leading to a pipe, which is termed the _oviduct_. Here the yolk of the rudimental egg, hitherto imperfectly formed, puts on its mature appearance of a thick yellow fluid; while the rudimental chick or embryo, lying on the surface opposite to that by which it had been attached to the ovarium, is white, and somewhat like paste. The white, or _albumen_, of the egg now becomes diffused around the yolk, being secreted from the blood vessels of the egg-pipe, or oviduct, in the form of a thin, glassy fluid; and it is prevented from mixing with the yolk and the embryo chicken by the thin membrane which surrounded them before they were detached from the egg-cluster, while it is strengthened by a second and stronger membrane, formed around the first, immediately after falling into the oviduct. This second membrane, enveloping the yolk of the germ of the chicken, is thickest at the two ends, having what may be termed bulgings, termed _chalazes_ by anatomists; these bulgings of the second membrane pass quite through the white at the ends, and being thus, as it were, embedded in the white, they keep the inclosed yolk and germ somewhat in a fixed position, preventing them from rolling about within the egg when it is moved. The white of the egg being thus formed, a third membrane, or, rather, a double membrane, much stronger than either of the first two, is formed around it, becoming attached to the chalazes of the second membrane, and tending still more to keep all the parts in their relative positions. During the progress of these several formations, the egg gradually advances about half way along the oviduct. It is still, however, destitute of the shell, which begins to be formed by a process similar to the formation of the shell of a snail, as soon as the outer layer of the third membrane has been completed. When the shell is fully formed, the egg continues to advance along the oviduct, till the hen goes to her nest and lays it. From ill health, or accidents, eggs are sometimes excluded from the oviducts before the shell has begun to be formed, and in this state they are popularly called _wind-eggs_. Reckoning, then, from the shell inward, there are _six_ different envelopes, of which one only could be detected before the descent of the egg into the oviduct: the shell; the external layer of the membrane lining the shell; the internal layer of same lining; the white, composed of a thinner liquid on the outside, and a thicker and more yellowish liquid on the inside; the bulgings, or chalaziferous membrane; and the proper membrane. One important part of the egg is the _air-bag_, placed at the larger end, between the shell and its lining membrane. This is about the size of the eye of a small bird in new-laid eggs, but is increased as much as ten times in the process of hatching. The air bag is of such great importance to the development of the chicken--probably by supplying it with a limited atmosphere of oxygen--that, if the blunt end of an egg be pierced with the point of the smallest needle, the egg cannot be hatched. Instead of one rudimental egg falling from the ovarium, two may be detected, and will, of course, be inclosed in the same shell, when the egg will be double-yolked. The eggs of a goose have, in some instances, contained even three yolks. If the double-yolked eggs be hatched, they will rarely produce two separate chickens, but, more commonly, monstrosities--chickens with two heads, and the like. The _shell_ of an egg, chemically speaking, consists chiefly of carbonate of lime, similar to chalk, with a small quantity of phosphate of lime, and animal mucus. When burnt, the animal matter and the carbonic acid gas of the carbonate of lime are separated; the first being reduced to ashes, or animal charcoal, while the second is dissipated, leaving the decarbonized lime mixed with a little phosphate of lime. The _white_ of the egg is without taste or smell, of a viscid, glairy consistence, readily dissolving in water, coagulable by acids, by spirits of wine, and by a temperature of one hundred and sixty-five degrees, Fahrenheit. If it has once been coagulated, it is no longer soluble in either cold or hot water, and acquires a slight insipid taste. It is composed of eighty parts of water, fifteen and a half parts of albumen, and four and a half parts of mucus; besides giving traces of soda, benzoic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The latter, on an egg being eaten on a silver spoon, stains the spoon of a blackish purple, by combining with the silver, and forming sulphuret of silver. The white of the egg is a very feeble conductor of heat, retarding its escape; and preventing its entrance to the yolk; a providential contrivance, not merely to prevent speedy fermentation and corruption, but to arrest the fatal chills, which might occur in hatching, when the mother hen leaves her eggs, from time to time, in search of food. Eels and other fish which can live long out of water, secrete a similar viscid substance on the surface of their bodies, furnished to them, doubtless, for a similar purpose. The _yolk_ has an insipid, bland, oily taste; and, when agitated with water, forms a milky emulsion. If it is long boiled it becomes a granular, friable solid, yielding upon expression, a yellow, insipid, fixed oil. It consists, chemically, of water, oil, albumen, and gelatine. In proportion to the quantity of albumen, the egg boils hard. The weight of the eggs of the domestic fowl varies materially; in some breeds, averaging thirty-three ounces per dozen, in others, but fourteen and a half ounces. A fair average weight for a dozen is twenty-two and a half ounces. Yellow, mahogany, and salmon-colored eggs are generally richer than white ones, containing, as they do, a larger quantity of yolk. These are generally preferred for culinary purposes; while the latter, containing an excess of albumen, are preferred for boiling, etc., for the table. [Illustration] BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT BREEDING. Good fowls are very profitable in the keeping of intelligent breeders. It is stated, by those most competent to express the opinion, that four acres of land, devoted to the rearing of the best varieties of poultry, will, at ordinary prices, be quite as productive as a farm of one hundred and fifty acres cultivated in the usual way. The eggs of the common and cheaper kinds which might be used for incubators and nurses, would pay--or could be made to pay, if properly preserved, and sold at the right time--all expenses of feed, etc.; while good capons of the larger breeds will bring, in any of our larger markets, from three to five dollars per pair, and early spring chickens from twenty to twenty-five cents per pound. To make poultry profitable, then, it is only necessary that the better kinds be bred from, that suitable places be provided for them, that they be properly fed, and carefully and intelligently managed. These requirements are too rarely complied with, in every respect, to enable a correct opinion to be formed as to what may be made out of poultry under the most favorable circumstances. A few general principles, well-understood and faithfully applied, will prove of great value. By "in-and-in breeding" is meant commerce between individuals of the same brood, or brother and sister, so to speak; by "close breeding," commerce between the parent and his offspring, in whatever degree. _Crossing the breed._ To insure successful and beneficial crossing of distinct breeds, in order to produce a new and valuable variety, the breeder must have an accurate knowledge of the laws of procreation, and the varied influences of parents upon their offspring. All the breeds in this country are crosses, produced either by accident or design. Crossing does not necessarily produce a breed; but it always produces a variety, and that variety becomes a breed only where there is a sufficiency of stamina to make a distinctive race, and continue a progeny with the uniform or leading characteristics of its progenitors. _High breeding._ When uniformity of plumage can be effected in mixed breeds or varieties without a resort to in-and-in, or close breeding, and without sacrificing the health and vigor of the race, it is desirable; and, in many instances, it can be accomplished in a satisfactory manner. What are called highly-bred fowls are, however, too often the deteriorated offspring of progenitors far below the original stock. Genuine high breeding consists in the selection of parent stock of the same race, perfect in all the general characteristics, and _of remote consanguinity_. This should be resorted to periodically, in order to secure the best results. If a race is _pure_--that is, if the species or variety is absolutely distinct and unsophisticated--the progeny resembles the progenitors in almost every respect. The mixture of races, where the consanguinity is remote, is productive of decided benefits. To illustrate, in the case of fowls: when the blood is _unmixed_--as with the Guelderlands, and some others--the offspring, _in all respects_, resemble their parents; in plumage, general habits, form, outline, etc. In this case, they look almost identically the same. But when the blood is _mixed_--as with the Cochin Chinas, and many others--the plumage will vary widely, or slightly, according to circumstances, though many or most of the general characteristics may remain the same. The close breeding, to which many resort for the purpose of procuring uniformity, generally results in an absolute deterioration of the race in important respects. In some cases, close breeding--and, occasionally, in-and-in--seems to be in accordance with the laws of Nature; as with the wild turkey, which, in its natural state, resorts to these modes of breeding; and yet the race does not change in appearance or degenerate. The reason is that the breed is pure. In comparing any number of these birds, not the least dissimilarity is discoverable; they all look alike, as they always have, and always will. They are changed, or deteriorated, only by crossing or confinement. Most breeds of the hen kind degenerate rapidly from close, or in-and-in breeding, because they are not perfect of their kind; that is, the breed is not pure, but of mixed blood; and in such objectionable breeding, the race degenerates just in proportion as the breed is imperfect, or impure. The perfect Guelderland will admit of these modes of breeding, for a great length of time, without deterioration; but the impure or mixed will rapidly degenerate. This is also true of all breeds, wherein the characteristic marks are uniform and confirmed, showing perfection in the race. As a general rule, however, close and in-and-in breeding should be carefully avoided where the race is not absolutely perfect, if it is desired to improve the breed; and as all the breeds of this kind of fowls are of mixed blood, the danger of such breeding is greater or less, in exact proportion as the distinctive characteristics are variant or fixed; and the danger still increases if the breed is composed of strains of blood greatly dissimilar, or of races widely differing in the conformation or general habits. _Preserving the distinctive breeds._ As to the time when the different breeds of hens should be separated in the spring, in order to preserve the breed pure, the most ample experience indicates that if the eggs be preserved and set after a separation of _two days_, the breed will be perfect, the offspring having all the characteristics or distinctive marks. When a valuable breed is produced, either by accident or design, it should be preserved, and the subsequent breeding should continue from that stock; otherwise, there is no certainty of the purity of the blood of the new breed, for it does not follow that a different parentage, though of the same name or original breed precisely, will produce the same new breed, or any thing resembling it. The Dorking fowl, for instance, was originally produced by crossing the Great Malay with the English Game, as an accident; but it by no means follows that Dorkings are the uniform, or even the common result of such a cross, for hundreds of similar experiments have proved unsuccessful. The breeding, therefore, to be pure-blooded, must continue from the stock originally produced by accident; and as such breeding produces the leading characteristics of the race with great uniformity, the genuineness of the breed cannot be doubted. In order to produce a good cross, the parentage should be healthy, and from healthy races, not materially dissimilar in their general habits. The _size of the leg_ should always be looked to, in order to judge accurately as to purity of blood. If the leg is large for the breed--that is, if larger than the generality of the same breed--the purity of the blood, the fineness of the flesh, and most of the other valuable qualities, can be relied on; but, if the legs are smaller than most others of the same breed, the fowl is spurious, and of deteriorated blood. The fifth toe and feathered legs of some breeds were originally the result of accident; but by long and careful breeding, they have become incorporated into the nature of certain races of general, though not universal or essential, requisites. When a fowl exhibits any special marks indicative of all the races or breeds from which the cross originated, it is a sure evidence of extraordinary purity of blood, and of the superior excellence of the race. The best fowls of the race should always be selected for crossing or general breeding; otherwise the breeds will degenerate. The _quality_--that is, the fineness, juiciness, and richness of flavor--of the flesh of domestic fowls is of much more importance than their size. All coarse-meated fowls should, therefore, be rejected, no matter how large they may be. There is no difficulty in discriminating between coarse and fine fowls at any time. In the case of chickens, if the down is straight and stands out, and the body and limbs are loosely joined, the meat is coarse; but if the down is glossy, and lies close to the body, and the body and limbs are compactly formed, the meat is fine; and when grown, if the fowl is light in weight, in proportion to its size, the flesh is coarse; but if heavy, the flesh is fine. There is also a _fitness_ in the quality of the flesh; for, if the meat is fine, the bones are fine, and the feathers are fine; and the converse holds true. If the flesh is fine, it is juicy and richly flavored; if coarse, it is dry, fibrous, and insipid. The _color of the legs_, too, is quite material in judging of the quality of fowls. All other things being equal, dark-legged fowls have the finest flesh, and are most hardy. Turkeys, which have the finest flesh of any fowl of their size, have black legs; the game-cock, likewise, which is universally acknowledged to be the finest-fleshed of any of the domestic fowls, except the Wild Indian fowl of Calcutta, has dark legs. It does not, however, of necessity follow that all dark-legged fowls are fine, or that all yellow or white-legged ones are coarse, since much depends upon the breed; but it is true that the darkest leg which pertains to the breed indicates the finest fowl. The _color of the feathers_, also, has more or less to do with the quality of the fowl. Some breeds have a much more brilliant plumage than others; but when brilliancy of plumage is here spoken of, it is to be understood in comparison with others of the same breed. If, therefore, a fowl is selected of rich and glossy plumage, when compared with others of the same breed, the legs will be dark of the kind, and the quality of the bird will excel. The _best_ breeding is to cross or mix the races; this process improves the breeds, in all respects. When the object in view is to perpetuate distinct varieties of uncontaminated blood, the first requisite is to procure fowls known to be of pure blood, and possessing all the necessary characteristics of their kind. Labor is lost, unless the fowl selected is a perfect specimen of the variety; for whatever imperfection exists is likely to be perpetuated in the progeny. Regard should be had to plumage, size, and form, in making a selection either of a cock or a pullet; and those are preferable which are hatched earliest in the year. The _age_ of the fowls is a matter of considerable importance; and, though it is true that a pullet will lay the greatest number of eggs in her first year, yet it is believed that the chickens which are hatched from the second year's eggs are more vigorous and hardy. Old hens are generally preferred to pullets as sitters, on account of their more sedate and matronly character. A young cock, though more active in his earliest days, and likely to bestow his attention on the hens with less reserve, is not, however, best for use in keeping up a breed. The eggs impregnated by him after his first season are likely to produce the strongest chickens. It is an error to suppose--as is often represented--that his procreative power is decayed or vitiated after three or four years. On the contrary, a healthy, vigorous cock, if not allowed to walk with too many hens, may be valuable and useful in the poultry-yard for a longer time. An error is often committed by assigning too many hens to one cock; and the result is a weakly and otherwise deteriorated progeny. Not more than _five_ hens should be allowed to associate with a single cock, when the quality of the breed is a matter of interest. _Three_, indeed, would be the better number for restriction; but five is the farthest limit which can be safely assigned. Most persons, in obtaining a single vigorous cock and hen of a desirable variety, find their anticipations more than realized in the production of a fine progeny. The plumage is brilliant, and the chickens are of increased size, and remarkably strong and healthy. This desirable state of things continues so long as the cock is restricted to a small number of hens; but as soon as his harem is enlarged, different effects are manifested, and a deterioration in the stock is clearly observable--attributable, not to close-breeding, but to the increased disproportion of the females to the male, and the consequent overtasking of his powers. In breeding-time, great cleanliness should be preserved in the lodgings of the fowls, and the quantity and quality of food should be attended to. They should not be suffered to feed to repletion, and such kinds of food as are most nutritious should be carefully provided. Variety of food is essential; and a proper proportion of animal and green food should be given with their usual fare. Suitable arrangements should, of course, be made to prevent any intermixture of breeds. A constant vigilance in this respect is the price of success; and when all proper precautions are taken, the breeder may be perfectly secure that his anticipations will be realized. SELECTION OF STOCK. The habits of the domestic fowl, in a wild state, are too little known to ascertain whether the cocks always associate with the hens, or only occasionally. Though hens will lay some eggs without pairing, as this is not natural, the number will, for the most part, be less, and the laying uncertain; it is, therefore, indispensable to attend to the laws of Nature in this respect. The number of hens to be allowed to one cock should vary with the object in view. The limit for valuable breeding purposes has already been indicated. If profit is sought for, in the production of eggs alone, one cock--if a stout, young, and lively bird--may have as many as twenty-four hens. [Illustration: FIGHTING COCKS.] _The choice of a cock_ is a very important thing. He is considered to have every requisite quality when he is of a good middling size; carries his head high; has a quick, animated look; a strong and shrill voice; a fine red comb, shining as if varnished; wattles of a large size, and of the same color as the comb; the breast broad; the wings strong; the plumage black or of an obscure red; the thighs very muscular; the legs thick, and furnished with strong spurs; and the claws rather bent and sharply pointed. He ought, also, to be free in his motions, to crow frequently, and to scratch the ground often in search of worms, not so much for himself as to treat his hens. He ought, withal, to be brisk, spirited, ardent, and ready in caressing the hens; quick in defending them, attentive in soliciting them to eat, in keeping them together, and in assembling them at night. In breeding _game cocks_, the qualities required are every mark of perfect health, such as a ruddy complexion; the feathers close, short, and not feeling cold or dry; the flesh firm and compact; and a full breast, betokening good lungs; a tapering and thinness behind. He should be full in the girth, well coupled, lofty and aspiring, with a good thigh, the beam of his leg very strong, the eye large and vivid, and the beak strong, crooked, and thick at the base. A cock is in his prime at two years old; though cocks are sometimes so precocious as to show every mark of full vigor at four months, while others of the same brood do not appear in that state for several months afterward. When marks of declining vigor are perceived, the cock must be displaced, to make way for a successor, which should be chosen from among the finest and bravest of the supernumerary young cocks, that ought to be reared for this special purpose. The change of cocks is of much importance, and is frequently very troublesome to manage; for peace does not long subsist between them when they hold a divided dominion in the poultry-yard, since they are all actuated by a restless, jealous, hasty, fiery, ardent disposition; and hence their quarrels become no less frequent than sanguinary. A battle soon succeeds to provocation or affront. The two opponents face each other, their feathers bristling up, their necks stretched out, their heads low, and their beaks ready for the onslaught. They observe each other in silence, with fixed and sparkling eyes. On the least motion of either, they stand stiffly up, and rush furiously forward, dashing at each other with beak and spur in repeated sallies, till the more powerful or the more adroit has grievously torn the comb and wattles of his adversary, has thrown him down by the heavy stroke of his wings, or has stabbed him with his spurs. In _the choice of a hen_ for sitting, a large bird should be selected, with large, wide-spreading wings. Though large, she must not, however, be heavy nor leggy. No one of judgment would sit a Malay; as, in such case, not only would many eggs remain uncovered, but many, also, would be trampled upon and broken. Elderly hens will be more willing to sit than young and giddy pullets. After the common hen, which, on account of her fecundity, is deservedly esteemed, the tufted hens may be justly ranked; particularly from being more delicate eating, because she fattens more readily, on account of laying less. The large breed, though less prolific, is preferable in rearing chickens for the market, or for making capons. With regard to these three kinds, the general opinion of breeders is, that the first is more prolific in the number of eggs, while the others produce larger chickens, which bring good prices. The Spanish fowl are not generally good sitters, but are excellent layers; the Dorkings reverse the order, being better sitters than layers. These qualities will be found to extend pretty generally to hens partaking of the prevailing colors of these two varieties; the black being usually the best layers, and but careless or indifferent sitters, while gray or checkered hens are the best that can be produced. FEEDING. Experiments have demonstrated that what may be called the gastric juice in fowls has not sufficient power to dissolve their food, without the aid of the grinding action of the gizzard. Before the food is prepared for digestion, therefore, the grains must be subjected to a triturating process; and such as are not sufficiently bruised in this manner, before passing into the gizzard, are there reduced to the proper state, by its natural action. The action of the gizzard is, in this respect, mechanical; this organ serving as a mill to grind the food to pieces, and then, by means of its powerful muscles, pressing it gradually into the intestines, in the form of pulp. The power of this organ is said to be sufficient to pulverize hollow globules of glass in a very short time, and solid masses of the same substance in a few weeks. The rapidity of this process seems to be proportionate, generally, to the size of the bird. A chicken, for example, breaks up such substances as are received into its stomach less readily than the capon; while a goose performs the same operation sooner than either. Needles, and even lancets, given to turkeys, have been broken in pieces and voided, without any apparent injury to the stomach. The reason, undoubtedly, is, that the larger species of birds have thicker and more powerful organs of digestion. It has long been the general opinion that, from some deficiency in the digestive apparatus, fowls are obliged to resort to the use of stones and gravel, in order to enable them to dispose of the food which they consume. Some have supposed that the use of these stones is to sheath the gizzard, in order to fit it to break into smaller fragments the hard, angular substances which might be swallowed; they have also been considered to have a medicinal effect; others have imagined that they acted as absorbents for undue quantities of acids in the stomach, or as stimulants to digestion; while it has even been gravely asserted that they contribute directly to nutrition. Repeated experiments, however, have established that pebbles are not at all necessary to the trituration of the hardest kinds of substances which can be introduced into their stomachs; and, of course, the usual food of fowls can be bruised without their aid. They do, however, serve a useful auxiliary purpose. When put in motion by the muscles, they are capable of producing some effects upon the contents of the stomach; thus assisting to grind down the grain, and separating its parts, the digestive fluid, or gastric juice, comes more readily in contact with it. VARIETIES OF FOOD. Fowls about a poultry-yard can usually pick up a portion of their subsistence, and, under favorable circumstances, the largest portion. When so situated, the keeping of poultry pays decidedly the best. The support even of poultry not designed for fattening should not, however, be made to depend entirely upon such precarious resources. Fowls should be fed with punctuality, faithfulness, and discretion. They are fond of all sorts of grain--such as Indian corn, wheat, oats, rye, buckwheat, barley, millet, etc.; but their particular preferences are not so likely to guide in the selection of their food, as the consideration of what is most economical, and easiest to be procured on the part of their owner. They will readily eat most kinds of vegetables in their green state, both cooked and raw. They likewise manifest an inclination for animal food--such as blood, fish, and flesh--whether raw or otherwise; and seem by no means averse to feeding on their own species. Insects, worms, and snails they will take with avidity. It is usual to give to domestic fowls a quantity of grain once, at least, daily; but, commonly, in less quantity than they would consume, if unrestricted. They feed with great voracity; but their apparent greediness is not the criterion by which the possibility of satisfying them is to be judged. Moderate quantities of food will suffice; and the amount consumed will usually be proportioned to the size of the individuals. Whatever is cheapest, at any given time, may be given, without regard to any other considerations. Different circumstances and different seasons may occasion a variation in their appetite; but a gill of grain is, generally speaking, about the usual daily portion. Some very voracious fowls, of the largest size, will need the allowance of a third of a pint each day. _Wheat_ is the most nutritive of cereal grains--with, perhaps, the exception of rice--as an article of human food. It is, therefore, natural to suppose that it is the best for fowls; and the avidity with which they eat it would induce the conclusion that they would eat more of this than of any other grain. Yet it appears that when fowls have as much wheat as they can consume, they will eat about a fourth part less than of oats, barley, or buckwheat; the largest quantity of wheat eaten by a fowl in one day being, according to several experiments, about three-sixteenths of a pint. The difference in bulk is, however, compensated by the difference in weight, these three-sixteenths of wheat weighing more than one-fourth of a pint of oats. The difference in weight is not, in every instance, the reason why a fowl is satisfied with a larger or smaller measure of one sort than another. _Rye_ weighs less than wheat; but still a fowl will be satisfied with half the quantity of this grain. _Indian corn_ ranks intermediately between wheat and rye; five-fourths of a pint of Indian corn with fowls being found, by experiment, equal to six-fourths of wheat, and three-fourths of rye. In estimating the quantity of grain daily consumed by the common fowl, it is wise to use data a little above than below the average. It may, therefore, safely be said that a fowl of the common size, having free access to as much as can be eaten through the day, will consume, day by day, of oats, buckwheat, or barley, one-fourth of a pint; of wheat, three-sixteenths; of Indian corn, five thirty-seconds; and of rye, three thirty-seconds. It has been conclusively settled, by experiments instituted to that end, that there is the best economy in feeding poultry with _boiled_ grain rather than with dry, in every case where Indian corn, barley, and wheat can be procured. The expense of fuel, and the additional trouble incident to the process of cooking, are inconsiderable in comparison with the advantages derived. Where oats, buckwheat, or rye are used, boiling is useless, when profit is concerned. BRAN. It is an erroneous notion that money can be saved by feeding bran to fowls; since, then, so little of the farina of the grain remains in it, that the nourishment derived from its use is hardly worth mentioning. When boiled, as it always must be, its bulk is but slightly increased. Two measures of dry bran, mixed with water, are equal to but three-fifths of a measure of dry barley. MILLET. This is recommended as excellent food for young chickens. Fowls always prefer it raw; though, as its bulk is increased one-half by boiling, it is doubtless more economical to feed it cooked. RICE. Fowls are especially fond of this food, although they soon lose their relish for it when allowed to have it at their discretion. It should always be boiled; but its expense puts it out of the question as a daily diet. When used continuously, it should always be mixed with some substance containing less nutritive matter, in order that the appetite may not be cloyed by it. POTATOES. These are very nutritious, and are usually acceptable to fowls, when properly prepared. When raw, or in a cold state, they appear to dislike them; they should, therefore, be boiled and given when moderately hot; when very hot, it is said that fowls will injure themselves by eating them, and burning their mouths. They should also be broken into pieces of convenient size; otherwise, they will be avoided. Occasionally raw pieces of potato will be devoured; but fowls cannot be said to be fond of the root in this state. The same remark applies to most other roots, especially to _carrots_ and _parsnips_; these should always be prepared, in order to be wholesome and palatable. Fowls should never be confined to a root diet, in any case; but such food should be mingled or alternated with a sufficient quantity of grain. GREEN FOOD. Indulgence in this kind of diet is absolutely necessary to the health of fowls, and is also advantageous in an economical point of view. The more delicate kinds of green vegetables are eaten with the utmost avidity; all succulent weeds, grass, and the leaves of trees and shrubs will also be consumed. If hens have green plots to graze in during the day, the expense of their keeping will be reduced one-half. All the refuse of the kitchen, of a vegetable nature, should be freely thrown into the poultry-yard. Green food, however, will not answer for an exclusive diet. Experiment has shown that fowls fed with this food alone for a few days together exhibit severe symptoms of relaxation of the bowels; and, after the lapse of eight or nine days, their combs become pale and livid, which is the same indication of disease in them that paleness of the lips is in the human species. EARTH-WORMS. These are regarded as delicacies by the inhabitants of the poultry-yard; and the individual who is fortunate enough to capture one is often forced to undergo a severe ordeal in order to retain his captive. Earth-worms are more plentiful in moist land, such as pastures, etc., than in that which is cultivated; in gardens, also, they exist in vast numbers. When it is desirable to take worms in quantities, it is only necessary to thrust a stake or three-pronged fork into the ground, to the depth of about a foot, and to move it suddenly backward and forward, in order to shake the soil all around; the worms are instinctively terrified by any motion in the ground, and, when disturbed, hasten to the surface. It is advisable to store worms, on account of the trouble and difficulty of making frequent collections. They may be placed in casks, filled one-third full with earth, in quantities at least equal in bulk to the earth. The earth should be sprinkled occasionally, to prevent it from becoming too dry. Care should, however, be exercised that the earth does not become too moist; since, in such an event, the worms will perish. In rainy weather, the casks should be protected with a covering. ANIMAL FOOD. Fowls readily eat both fish and flesh meat, and have no reluctance to feeding even on their own kind, picking much more faithfully than quadrupeds. Blood of any kind is esteemed by them a delicacy; and fish, even when salted, is devoured with a relish. They seem to be indifferent whether animal food is given to them in a cooked or raw state; though, if any preference can be detected, it is for the latter. They are sometimes so greedy that they will attack each other in order to taste the blood which flows from the wounds so inflicted; and it is quite common for them, in the moulting season, to gratify themselves by picking at the sprouting feathers on their own bodies and those of their companions. They appear to be partial to suet and fat; but they should not be allowed to devour these substances in large quantities, on account of their tendency to render them inconveniently fat. It is highly advantageous to fowls to allow them a reasonable quantity of animal food for their diet, which should be fed to them in small pieces, both for safety and convenience. Bones and meat may be boiled; and the liquor, when mixed with bran or meal, is healthy, and not expensive. INSECTS. Fowls have a decided liking to flies, beetles, grasshoppers, and crickets; and grubs, caterpillars, and maggots are held by them in equal esteem. It is difficult, however, to supply the poultry-yard with this species of food in sufficient quantity; but enough may be provided, probably, to serve as luxuries. Some recommend that pailfuls of blood should be thrown on dunghills, where fowls are allowed to run, for the purpose of enticing flies to deposit their eggs; which, when hatched, produce swarms of maggots for the fowls. With the same view, any sort of garbage or offal may be thrown out, if the dunghill is so situated--as it always should be--that its exhalations will not prove an annoyance. LAYING. The ordinary productiveness of a single individual of the family of domestic fowls is astonishing. While few hens are capable of hatching more than fifteen eggs, and are incapable usually of sitting more than twice in the year, frequent instances have occurred of hens laying three hundred eggs annually, while two hundred is the average number. Some hens are accustomed to lay at longer intervals than others. The habit of one variety is to lay once in three days only; others will lay every other day; and some produce an egg daily. The productiveness of hens depends, undoubtedly, upon circumstances, to a great degree. Climate has a great influence in this respect; and their lodging and food, as well as the care bestowed upon them, have more or less effect in promoting or obstructing their fecundity. [Illustration: ON THE WATCH.] There seems to be, naturally, two periods of the year in which fowls lay--early in the spring, and in the summer; and this fact would seem to indicate that, if they were left to themselves, like wild birds, they would bring forth two broods in a year. The laying continues, with few interruptions, till the close of summer, when the natural process of moulting causes them to cease. This annual process commences about August, and continues through the three following months. The constitutional effect attending the beginning, continuance, and consequences of this period--a very critical one in the case of all feathered animals--prevents them from laying, until its very close, when the entire coat of new feathers replaces the old, the washing of the nutritive juices, yielded by the blood for the express purpose of promoting this growth, is a great drain upon the system; and the constitutional forces, which would otherwise assist in forming the egg, are rendered inoperative. The approach of cold weather, also, at the close of the moulting period, contributes to the same result. As the season of moulting is every year later, the older the hen is, the later in the spring she will begin to lay. As pullets, on the contrary, do not moult the first year, they commence laying sooner than the elder hens; and it is possible, by judicious and careful management, so to arrange, in a collection of poultry tolerably numerous, as to have eggs throughout the year. It is a singular fact that pullets hatched very late in autumn, and therefore of stunted growth, will lay nearly as early as those hatched in spring. The checking of their growth seems to have a tendency to produce eggs; of course, very tiny ones at first. When a hen is near to the time of laying, her comb and wattles change from their previous dull hue to a bright red, while the eye becomes more bright, the gait more spirited, and she occasionally cackles for three or four days. These signs rarely prove false; and when the time comes that she desires to lay, she appears very restless, going backward and forward, visiting every nook and corner, cackling meanwhile, as if displeased because she cannot suit herself with a convenient nest. Not having looked out for one previously, she rarely succeeds in pleasing herself till the moment comes when she can no longer tarry, when she is compelled to choose one of the boxes or baskets provided for this purpose in the poultry-house, where she settles herself in silence and lays. In some instances, a hen will make choice of a particular nest in which to lay, and when she finds, upon desiring to lay, that this is pre-occupied by another hen, she will wait till it is vacated; but, in other cases, hens will go into any nest which they find, preferring, for the most part, those having the greatest number of eggs. The process of laying is, most probably, rather painful, though the hen does not indicate this by her cries; but the instant she has done she leaves the nest, and utters her joy by peculiarly loud notes, which are re-echoed by the cock, as well as by some of the other hens. Some hens, however, leave the nest in silence, after laying. It seems ever to have been an object of great importance, in an economical point of view, to secure the laying of hens during those parts of the year when, if left to themselves, they are indisposed to deposit their eggs. For this purpose many methods have been devised, the most of which embrace an increase of rich and stimulating food. Some recommend shutting hens up in a warm place during winter, and giving them boiled potatoes, turnips, carrots, and parsnips. Others assign as the reason for their not laying in winter, in some climates, that the earth is covered with snow, so that they can find no ground, or other calcareous matter, to form the shells; and advise, therefore, that bones of meat or poultry should be pounded and given to them, either mixed with their food, or by itself, which they will greedily eat. Upon the whole, it would seem that the most feasible means of obtaining fresh eggs during the winter is to have young hens--pullets hatched only the previous spring being the best--to use extreme liberality in feeding, and to cautiously abstain from over-stocking the poultry-yard. As serviceable _food_ to increase laying, scraps of animal food, given two or three times a week, answer admirably; the best mode of doing so is throwing down a bullock's liver, leaving it with them, and permitting them to pick it at will; this is better raw than boiled. Lights, or guts, or any other animal refuse, will be found to answer the same purpose; but these substances require, or, at all events, are better for, boiling. Cayenne pepper--in fact all descriptions of pepper, but especially cayenne pepper in pods--is a favorite food with fowls; and, being a powerful stimulant, it promotes laying. An abundant supply of lime, in some form, should not be omitted; either chopped bones, old mortar, or a lump of chalky marl. The shell of every egg used in the house should be roughly crushed and thrown down to the hens, which will greedily eat them. A green, living turf will be of service, both for its grass and the insects it may contain. A dusting-place, wherein to get rid of vermin, is indispensable. A daily hot meal of potatoes, boiled as carefully as for the family table, then chopped, and sprinkled or mixed with bran, will be comfortable and stimulating. After every meal of the household, the bones and other scraps should be collected and thrown out. As to _the number of eggs_, the varieties which possess the greatest fecundity are the Shanghaes, Guelderlands, Dorkings, Polish, and Spanish. The Poland and Spanish lay the largest eggs; the Dorkings, eggs of good size; while the Game and the smaller kinds produce only small eggs. Those eggs which have the brightest yolks are the finest flavored; and this is usually the case with the smaller kinds. The large eggs of the larger varieties often have yolks of a pale color, and are inferior in flavor. PRESERVATION OF EGGS. Eggs, after being laid, lose daily, by transpiration, a portion of the matter which they contain, notwithstanding the compact texture of their shell, and of the close tissue of the flexible membranes lining the shell, and enveloping the white. When an egg is fresh, it is full, without any vacancy; and this is a matter of common observation, whether it be broken raw, or when it is either soft or hard-boiled. In all stale eggs, on the contrary, there is uniformly more or less vacancy, proportioned to the loss they have sustained by transpiration; hence, in order to judge of the freshness of an egg, it is usual to hold it up to the light, when the transparency of the shell makes it appear whether or not there is any vacancy in the upper portion, as well as whether the yolk and white are mingled and muddy, by the rotting and bursting of their enveloping membranes. The transpiration of eggs, besides, is proportional to the temperature in which they are placed, cold retarding and heat promoting the process; hence, by keeping fresh-lain eggs in a cool cellar, or, better still, in an ice-house, they will transpire less, and be preserved for a longer period sound, than if they are kept in a warm place, or exposed to the sun's light, which has also a good effect in promoting the exhalation of moisture. As, therefore, fermentation and putridity can only take place by communication with the air at a moderate temperature, such connection must be excluded by closing the pores of the shell. It is an indispensable condition of the material used for this purpose, that it shall be incapable of being dissolved by the moisture transpired from the interior. Spirits of wine varnish, made with lac, answers the requirement; this is not very expensive, but is rather an uncommon article in country places, where eggs are most abundantly produced. A better material is a mixture of mutton and beef suet, which should be melted together over a slow fire, and strained through a linen cloth into an earthen pan. The chief advantage in the use of this is, that the eggs rubbed over with it will boil as quickly as if nothing had been done to them, the fat melting off as soon as they touch the water. The transpiration is as effectually stopped by the thinnest layer of fat as by a thick coating, provided that no sensible vestige be left on the surface of the shell. All sorts of fat, grease, or oil are well adapted to this purpose; by means of butter, hog's lard, olive oil, and similar substances, eggs maybe preserved for nine months as fresh as the day upon which they were laid. Another method is, to dip each egg into melted pork-lard, rubbing it into the shell with the finger, and pack them in old fig-drums, or butter firkins, setting every egg upright, with the small end downward. Or, the eggs may be packed in the same way in an upright earthen pan; then cut some rough sheep's tallow, procured the same day that the animal is killed, into small pieces, and melt it down; strain it from the scraps, and pour it while warm, not hot, over the eggs in the jar till they are completely covered. When all is cold and firm, set the vessel in a cool, dry place till the contents are wanted. Eggs will also keep well when preserved in salt, by arranging them in a barrel, first a layer of salt, then a layer of eggs, alternately. This can, however, also act mechanically, like bran or saw-dust, so long as the salt continues dry; for, in that case, the chlorine, which is the antiseptic principle of the salt, is not evolved. When the salt, however, becomes damp, its preservative principle will be brought into action, and may penetrate through the pores of the shell. Immersing eggs in vitriol, or sulphuric acid, is likewise a very effectual means of preserving them; the sulphuric acid acts chemically upon the carbonate of lime in the shell, by setting free the carbonic acid gas, while it unites with the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris. Another method is, to mix together a bushel of quick-lime, two pounds of salt, and eight ounces of cream of tartar, adding a sufficient quantity of water, so that eggs may be plunged into the paint. When a paste is made of this consistence, the eggs are put into it, and may be kept fresh, it is said, for two years. Another method of preserving eggs a long while fresh, depends upon a very different principle. Eggs that have not been rendered reproductive by the cock have been found to continue very uncorrupted. In order, therefore, to have eggs keep fresh from spring to the middle or even to the end of Winter, it is only necessary to deprive the hens of all communication with the cocks, for at least a month before the eggs are put away. It ought not to be overlooked, in this connection, that eggs not only spoil by the transpiration of their moisture and the putrid fermentation of their contents, in consequence of air penetrating through the pores of the shell, but also by being moved about and jostled, when carried to a distance by sea or land. Any kind of rough motion, indeed, ruptures the membranes which keep the white, the yolk, and the germ of the chicken in their appropriate places; and, upon these being mixed, putrefaction is promoted. CHOICE OF EGGS FOR SETTING. Eggs for hatching should be as fresh as possible; if laid the very same day, so much the better. This is not always possible when a particular stock is required; but, if a numerous and healthy brood is all that is wanted, the most recent eggs should be selected. Eggs may be kept for this purpose in either of the ways first mentioned; or they may be placed on their points in a box, in a cool, dry place; the temperature about sixty or sixty-five, Fahrenheit; the bottom of the box should be covered with a layer of wheat bran, then a layer of eggs put in, and covered with bran; and so on, alternating. In this mode, evaporation is prevented, and the eggs are almost as certain to hatch out, at the end of six weeks, or even two months, as when they were laid. It is difficult to fix the exact term during which the vitality of an egg remains unextinguished; as it, unquestionably, varies from the very first, according to the vigor of the parents of the inclosed germ, and fades away gradually till the final moment of non-existence. The chickens in stale eggs have not sufficient strength to extricate themselves from the shell; if assisted, the yolk is found to be partially absorbed into the abdomen, or not at all; they are too faint to stand; the muscles of the neck are unable to lift their heads, much less to peck; and although they may sometimes be saved by extreme care, their usual fate is to be trampled to death by the mother, if they do not expire almost as soon as they begin to draw their breath. Thick-shelled eggs, like those of geese, Guinea fowls, etc., will retain life longer than thin-shelled ones, as those of hens and ducks. When choice eggs are expected to be laid, it is more prudent to have the hen which is to sit upon them wait for them, than to keep other eggs waiting for her. A good sitter may be amused for two or three weeks with a few addle-eggs, and so be ready to take charge of those of value immediately upon their arrival. As to the choice of eggs for hatching, such should be taken, of course, as are believed to have been rendered productive. Those of medium size--the average size that the hen lays--are most apt to fulfil this requirement. A very fair judgment may be formed of eggs from their specific gravity; such as do not sink to the bottom in a bowl of tepid water should be rejected. The old-time notion, that small, round eggs produce females, and long, pointed ones males--originally applied, by the ancients, to eating rather than hatching purposes--may be considered exploded. The hen that lays one round egg, continues to lay all her eggs round; and the hen that lays one oblong, lays all oblong. According to this theory, then, one hen would be the perpetual mother of cocks, and another the perpetual producer of pullets; which is absurd, as daily experience proves. The same fate has been meted out to that other venerable test of sex, the position of the air-bag at the blunt end of the shell. "If the vacancy is a little on one side, it will produce a hen; if it is exactly in the centre, a cock." Upon this assumption, the cock should be a very rare bird; since there are very few eggs indeed in which the air bottle is exactly concentric with the axis of the egg. In many breeds, on the contrary, the cockerels bear a proportion of at least one-third, and sometimes two-thirds, especially in those hatched during winter, or in unfavorable seasons; the immediate cause, doubtless, being that the eggs producing a more robust sex possess a stronger vitality. Nor are these two alleged tests--the shape of the egg, and the position of the air-tube--consistent with each other; for, if the round egg produces a pullet, and an egg with the air-bag a little on one side does the same, then all round eggs should have the air bag in that position, or one test contradicts the other; and the same argument applies to the long or oval egg. The examination of a few eggs by the light of a candle will satisfy any one that the position of the air-bag differs as much in a long egg as it does in a round. There are, indeed, no known means of determining beforehand the sex of fowl; except, perhaps, that cocks may be more likely to issue from large eggs, and hens from small ones. As, however, the egg of each hen may be recognized, the means are accessible of propagating from those parents whose race it is judged most desirable to continue. INCUBATION. The hen manifests the desire of incubation in a manner different from that of any other known bird. Nature having been sufficiently tasked in one direction, she becomes feverish, and loses flesh; her comb is livid; her eyes are dull; she bristles her feathers to intimidate an imaginary enemy; and, as if her chickens were already around her, utters the maternal "cluck." When the determination to sit becomes fixed--it is not necessary to immediately gratify the first faint inclinations--the nest which she has selected should be well cleaned, and filled with fresh straw. The number of eggs to be allowed will depend upon the season, and upon the size of egg and hen. The wisest plan is not to be too greedy; the number of chickens hatched is often in inverse proportion to the number of eggs set--five have only been obtained from sixteen. An odd number is, however, to be preferred, as being better adapted to covering in the nest. Hens will, in general, well cover from eleven to thirteen eggs laid by themselves. A bantam may be trusted with about half a dozen eggs of a large breed, such as the Spanish. A hen of the largest size as a Dorking, will successfully hatch, at the most, five goose-eggs. When hens are determined to sit at seasons of the year at which there is little chance of bringing up chickens, the eggs of ducks or geese may be furnished her; the young may be reared, with a little painstaking, at any time of the year. The autumnal laying of the China and of the common goose is very valuable for this purpose. Turkey-hens frequently have this fit of unseasonable incubation. Where, however, it is inconvenient to gratify the desire, one or two doses of jalap will often entirely remove it; and fowls often lay in three weeks afterward. Some place the would-be sitter in an aviary, for four or five days at most, and feed her but sparingly; from the commencement of her confinement, she will gradually leave off clucking, and when this has ceased, she may be again set free, without manifesting the least desire to take to the nest again, and in a short time the hen will commence laying with renewed vigor. The barbarous measures sometimes resorted to should be frowned upon by every person with humane feelings. Three weeks is the period of incubation; though chickens are sometimes excluded on the eighteenth day. When the hen does not sit close for the first day or two, or in early spring, it will occasionally be some hours longer; when the hen is assiduous, and the weather hot, the time will be a trifle shorter. Chickens have been known to come out as late as the twenty-seventh day. It may not be uninteresting to note the changes which the egg passes through in hatching. In _twelve hours_, traces of the head and body of the chicken may be discerned; at the end of the _second day_, it assumes the form of a horse-shoe, but no red blood as yet is seen; at the _fiftieth hour_, two vesicles of blood, the rudiments of the heart, may be distinguished, one resembling a noose folded down on itself, and pulsating distinctly; at the end of _seventy hours_, the wings may be seen, and, in the head, the brain and the bill, in the form of bubbles; toward the end of the _fourth day_, the heart is more completely formed; and on the _fifth day_, the liver is discernible; at the end of _one hundred and thirty hours_, the first voluntary motions may be observed; in _seven hours_ more, the lungs and stomach appear; and, _in four hours_ after this, the intestines, the loins, and the upper jaw. At the end of the one _hundred and forty-fourth hour_, two drops of blood are observable in the heart, which is also further developed; and, on the _seventh day_, the brain exhibits some consistence. At the _one hundred and ninetieth hour_, the bill opens, and the muscular flesh appears on the breast; in _four hours_ more, the breast bone is seen; and, in _six hours_ afterward, the ribs may be observed forming from the back. At the expiration of _two hundred and thirty-six hours_, the bill assumes a green color, and, if the chicken be taken out of the egg, it will visibly move. At _two hundred and sixty-four hours_, the eyes appear; at _two hundred and eighty-eight hours_, the ribs are perfect; and _at three hundred and thirty-one hours_, the spleen approaches near to the stomach, and the lungs to the chest; at the end of _three hundred and fifty-five hours_, the bill frequently opens and shuts. At the end of the _eighteenth day_, the first cry of the chicken is heard; and it gradually acquires more strength, till it is enabled to release itself from confinement. After the hen has set a week, the fertility of the eggs may be satisfactorily ascertained by taking a thin board with a small orifice in it, placing a candle at the back, and holding up each egg to the points of light. The barren eggs may then be removed, and used, hard-boiled, for young chickens. Some reserve this for the eleventh or twelfth day. About the _twenty-first day_, the chicken is excluded from the _egg_; for the purpose of breaking the shell of which it is furnished with a horny-pointed scale, greatly harder than the bill itself, at the upper tip of the bill--a scale which falls off, or becomes absorbed, after the chicken is two or three days old. The chicken is rolled up in the egg in the form of a ball, with its forepart toward the highest end, and its beak uppermost, the hard scale nearly touching the shell. The first few strokes of the chicken's beak produce a small crack, rather nearer the larger than the smaller end of the egg, and the egg is said to be _chipped_. From the first crack, the chicken turns gradually round, from left to right, chipping the shell as it turns, in a circular manner, never obliquely. All do not succeed in producing the result in the same time; some being able to complete the work within an hour, and others taking two or three hours, while half a day is most usually employed, and some require twenty-four hours or more, but rarely two days. Some have greater obstacles to overcome than others, all shells not being alike in thickness and hardness. When chickens do not effect their escape easily, some little assistance is needed; but the difficulty is to know when to give it, as a rash attempt to help them, by breaking the shell, particularly in a downward direction toward the smaller end, is often followed by a loss of blood, which can ill be spared. It is better not to interfere, until it is apparent that a part of the brood have been hatched for some time, say twelve hours, and that the rest cannot succeed in making their appearance. It will then generally be found that the whole fluid contents of the egg, yolk and all, are taken up into the body of the chicken, and that weakness alone has prevented its forcing itself out. The causes of such weakness are various; sometimes, insufficient warmth, from the hen having set on too many eggs; sometimes the original feebleness of the vital spark; but, most frequently, the staleness of the eggs employed for incubation. The chances of rearing such chickens are small; but, if they survive the first twenty-four hours, they may be considered as safe. The only thing to be done is to take them from the hen till she is settled at night, keeping them in the meanwhile as snug and warm as possible. If a gentle hand can persuade a crust of bread down their throats, it will do no harm; but all rough and clumsy manipulation will utterly defeat the end in view. Animal heat will be their greatest restorative. At night, they should be quietly slipped under their mother; the next morning will disclose the sequel. The period of incubation in the _Guinea fowl_ is twenty-eight days, or one month; in the _pea fowl_, from twenty-seven to twenty-nine days; in _turkeys_, a month; in _ducks_, thirty or thirty-one days; and in _geese_, from twenty-seven to thirty days. INCUBATION OF TURKEYS. When the turkey hen has once selected a spot for her nest, she will continue to lay there till the time for incubation; so that the egg may be brought home from day to day, there being no need of a nest-egg, as with the domestic fowl. She will lay from fifteen to twenty eggs, more or less. If there are any dead leaves or dry grass at hand, she will cover her eggs with these; but if not, she will take no trouble to collect them from a distance. Her determination to sit will be known by her constantly remaining on the nest, though it is empty; and, as it is seldom in a position sufficiently secure against the weather or pilferers, a nest should be prepared for her, by placing some straw, with her eggs, on the floor of a convenient out-building. She should then be brought home, and gently and kindly placed upon it. With the smallest varieties, thirteen eggs will suffice; a large hen might cover more. At the end of a week, it is usual to add some fowls' eggs; the activity of the chickens excites some emulation in the larger brethren, and the eggs take up but little room in the nest. Some believe it necessary to turn the eggs once a day; but the hen herself does that many times daily. If the eggs are marked, and their position noticed when she leaves the nest, they will never be found in the same order. In about four weeks, the young will be hatched. INCUBATION OF GEESE. Geese breed in general only once a year; but, if well kept, they sometimes hatch twice a season. During the sitting, in sections where the most attention is paid to breeding them, each bird has a space allotted to it, in rows of wicker-pens, placed one above another, and the person in charge of them drives the whole flock to water three times a day, and, bringing them back to their habitations, places each bird in its own nest. The most successful breeders of _Bremen geese_ adopt the following method: The birds are, in the first place, carefully and properly fed; the eggs are removed every day in the gentlest manner from the nest, and placed in a basket of cotton kept in a moderate temperature, and free from damp. When all the geese begin to sit steadily, each is furnished with a nest composed of chopped straw; and care is taken that it is sufficiently capacious. Not more than one of the geese is allowed to leave the eggs at a time. As soon as one leaves, she makes a cackling noise, which is the signal for the attendant to shut up the boxes in which the others are sitting. These are made somewhat like a dog-kennel, with a roof pitched both ways; and are thirty inches long, by twenty-four wide, and twenty-four high; the door is in the end, and is covered by a sliding panel, which moves upward, when egress or ingress is sought, and may be shut down at pleasure. The goose, upon returning, finds only her own box open. When she re-enters her box, the whole of the doors are again opened, and the same rule observed throughout the period of hatching. In this way, each goose is kept to its own nest. REARING OF THE YOUNG. For about twenty-four hours after birth, the chickens can not only do well enough without any extraneous nourishment, but will be far more likely to thrive subsequently, if let alone, than if crammed or incited to eat prematurely. More chickens are destroyed by over-feeding than are lost by the want of it. It is, however, well to turn them in among other chickens that already feed themselves; they will, in such cases, generally follow the example of the rest, and pick away at whatever is around. [Illustration: MARQUEE OR TENT-SHADED COOPS.] A roomy, boarded coop, in a dry, sunny spot, is the best position for them during the first month; after which it may be left open during the day, for the hen to retire to when she pleases. In quiet grassy places, it is scarcely necessary to coop the hen at all. As to food, they may have every thing which is not absolutely poisonous; though if wet food is given, the chicken is thus obliged to take water, whether it requires it or not, in order to get a sufficient supply of solid food, and diseased bowels will be likely to follow; whereas, if the food is dry, they can supply themselves with food and water according to their pleasure. If Indian meal is well boiled, and fed not too moist, it will answer a very good purpose, particularly after they are eight or ten days old. Pure water must be placed near them in such a manner as to enable them to drink without getting into the water, which, by wetting their feathers, benumbs and injures them. Meat and insect diet are almost necessary; but, whatever the food, the meals must be given at short intervals; as much as they can swallow, and as often as they can eat. With all their industry, they are only half-clad till flesh and bone stop growing for a while, and allow down and feathers to overtake them. Chickens should not be let out of their coops too early in the morning, or whilst the dew is on the ground; still less should they be suffered to range over the wet grass, which is a common cause of disease and death. They should also be guarded against sudden unfavorable changes of the weather, more particularly if attended with rain. Nearly all the diseases of gallinaceous fowls arise from cold moisture. The period at which they are left to shift for themselves depends upon the disposition of the hen. Some will continue their attentions to their chickens till they are nearly full-grown, while others will cast them off much earlier. In the latter case, an eye should be kept upon them for a few days; for chickens in this half-grown state are much more liable to disease than when they were apparently tender little weaklings, crowded under their mother's wings. They should be kept in a dry, warm, place; dryness is especially necessary. If the chickens feather rapidly when very young--as is the case with the Golden Pheasant, Black Poland, Guelderland, and some others--they are always weakly, however healthy in other respects, from the fact that their food goes to sustain their feathers rather than their bodies; and they frequently languish and die, from this circumstance alone. If, on the other hand, they feather slowly, as do the Cochin Chinas, Shanghaes, and others, the food in early life goes to nourish and sustain their bodies until they become more vigorous, and old enough to sustain the shock of feathering without detriment. Pure tan-colored Dorkings are more easily raised than others of the race, because they feather more slowly. Chickens which feather rapidly must be kept perfectly dry and warm, or they will die; while naked chickens, as they are termed, or those which feather at a more advanced age, and very slowly, seldom suffer from the cold, from the fact that their down is very warm, and their blood is hotter, and circulates more rapidly; since their food principally goes to blood, and flesh, and bones, and not to feathers. REARING OF GUINEA FOWLS. For the young of these, ants' eggs, so called, hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, small worms, maggots, bread-crumbs, chopped meat, or suet--whatever, in short, is most nutritious, is the most appropriate food. This need not be offered to them in large quantities, as it would only be devoured by the mother Bantam as soon as she saw that they had for the time satisfied their appetites, or it would be stolen by other birds; but it should frequently be administered to them in small supplies. Feeding them three, four, or five times a day, is not often enough; every half hour during daylight they should be tempted to fill their craws, which are soon emptied again by an extraordinary power and quickness of digestion. The newly-hatched Guinea fowl is a tiny creature, and its growth is, consequently, very rapid, requiring incessant supplies. A check once received can never be recovered. They do not, in such cases, mope and pine for a day or two; like young turkeys under similar circumstances, and then die; but, in half an hour after being in apparent health, they fall on their backs, give a convulsive kick or two, and fall victims, in fact, to starvation. The demands of Nature for the growth of bone, muscle, and particularly of feathers, are so great, that no subsequent abundant supply of food can compensate for a fast of a couple of hours. The feathers still go on growing in geometrical progression, and drawing the sources of vitality still faster than they can be supplied, till the bird faints and expires from inanition. A dry, sunny corner in the garden will be the best place to coop them with their bantam hen. As they increase in strength, they will do no harm, but much good, by devouring worms, grubs, caterpillars, maggots, and all sorts of insects. By the time their bodies are little longer than those of sparrows, they will be able to fly with some degree of strength; other additions to their complete stature are successively and less immediately developed, the spurs, comb, and ornamental plumage not appearing till a subsequent period. When they are about the size of thrushes, or a little larger, unless the summer be very fine, the bantam may be allowed to range loose in the orchard and shrubbery, and no longer permitted to enter the garden. The young must, however, still receive a bountiful and frequent supply of food; they are not to be considered safe till the horn on their head is fairly grown. Oatmeal is a great treat; cooked potatoes, boiled rice, or any thing, in short, that is eatable, may be thrown to them; they will pick the bones left after dinner with evident satisfaction. The tamer they can be made, the less troublesome will they be when grown; the more kindly they are treated, the fatter will they be for food, and the better price will they bring in market. For rearing the young of the _pea fowl_, the same directions will be found useful, and should be carried out in practice. REARING OF TURKEYS. Much quackery has been recommended in the treatment of young turkeys. Nothing, however, should be given to them, nothing done for them; they should remain in the nest, under the shelter of their mother's wings, for at least eight or ten hours; if hatched in the afternoon, till the following morning. The hen should then be placed on the grass, in the sun, under a roomy coop. If the weather is fine, she may be stationed at any point desired, by a long piece of flannel-list tied round one leg, and fastened to a stump or stone. At first, a few crumbs of bread should be offered; for some hours, the little ones will be in no hurry to eat; but, when they do commence, they should be supplied constantly and abundantly with chopped egg, shreds of meat and fat, curd, boiled rice mixed with cress, lettuce, and the green of onions; melted mutton-suet poured over barley-meal, and cut up when cold, as also bullock's liver boiled and minced, are excellent things. Young turkeys do not like to have their food minced much smaller than they can swallow it, preferring to make a meal at three or four mouthfuls, rather than to trouble themselves with the incessant pecking and scratching in which chickens so much delight. Pepper will be found particularly useful in feeding them; as, indeed, all stimulating vegetables, such as horse-radish, and the like. Young turkeys are sometimes attacked by _fasciolæ_, or worms in the trachea; but not so often as chickens. Cramp is the most fatal to them, particularly in bad weather. A few pieces of board laid under and about the coop are useful; sometimes rubbing the leg with spirit will bring back the circulation. The time when the hen may be allowed full liberty with her brood depends most upon the season, the situation, etc. Some think that if the young are thriving, the sooner the old ones are out with them the better, after the first ten days or so. A safer rule may be fixed at the season, called "shooting the red," when young turkeys approach the size of a partridge, or before the granular, fleshy excrescences on the head and neck begin to appear; soon after, the whole plumage, particularly the tail-feathers, shoot into rapid growth, and liberal nourishment is imperatively required. If let loose at this time, they will obtain much foraging, and still be thankful for all that is given to them. Caraway-seeds, as a tonic, are beneficial, if added to plenty of barley, boiled potatoes, chopped vegetables, and refuse meat. At this time the turkeys, naturally enough, begin to be troublesome and voracious; they have to grow from the size of a lark to twelve or fourteen pounds, in eight or nine months. One great merit in old birds is, that in situations where nuts, acorns, and mast are to be had, they will lead off their brood to these, and all of them will abstain, comparatively, from ravaging other crops. [Illustration: DUCK-POND AND HOUSES.] REARING OF DUCKLINGS. The best mode of rearing the young of ducks depends very much upon the situation in which they are hatched. It is customary to dip their feet in water as soon as they are hatched, and then to clip the down on their tails close with a pair of scissors, to prevent their becoming drabbled and water-logged; and before their introduction to the pond, which should not be until a day or two after hatching, it is thought advisable by many to let them have a private swim or two in a small pan of water, that they may try their strength and practice their webbed feet before venturing upon a larger space. For the first month, the confinement of the mother under a coop is better than too much liberty. Their first food may be boiled eggs, nettles, and a little barley; all kinds of sapped food, cornmeal and water mixed thin, worms, etc., suit them; they will also greedily eat cabbages or other greens, mixed with boiled bran; and this mess, with the addition of pepper, forms a valuable dietetic. In a few days, they require no care, being perfectly able to shift for themselves; but at any age they are the most helpless of the inhabitants of the poultry-yard, having no weapons with which to defend themselves from vermin, or animals of prey, and their awkward, waddling gait precluding their seeking safety in flight. The old duck is not so brave in defence of her brood as the hen; but she will, nevertheless, display at times much spirit. The young seldom die of any disease, and with proper precaution there will be no trouble in raising almost as many ducklings as are hatched. They come early to maturity, being nearly full-grown and in fine eating order at three months old; far excelling, in this respect, all other poultry, except geese. None are more successful in rearing ducklings than those who keep them, for the first period of their existence, in pens two or three yards square, and cram them night and morning with long, dried pellets of flour and water, or egg and flour, until they are judged old enough to be turned out with their mother to forage for themselves. They are cheerful, harmless, good-natured, cleanly creatures, carefully washing themselves, and arranging their dress, before commencing their meals; and the healthy heartiness of their appetite is amusing, rather than disgusting. REARING OF GOSLINGS. For the first three or four days, goslings must be kept warm and dry, and fed on barley-meal, or oatmeal, mixed with milk, if easily procurable; if not, with water. They will begin to grow in about a week. For a week or two, they should not be turned out until late in the morning, and should always be taken in early in the evening. Their great enemy is the cramp, which can be kept off by making them sleep on dry straw. A little boiled rice, daily, assists their growth; with corn, of course, as soon as they can eat it. When goslings are first allowed to go at large with their mother, every plant of hemlock which grows within their range should be pulled up, as they are very apt to eat it, and it generally proves fatal. Nightshade is equally pernicious to them; and they have been known to be poisoned by eating sprigs of yew-tree. The young of _Bremen geese_, when first hatched, are of a very delicate and tender constitution. It is best to let them remain in the breeding-box in which they are hatched for twenty-four hours after they leave the shell. This should, however, be regulated by the weather; since, if it is fair and warm, they may be let out an hour or two in the middle of the day, when they will wet their little bills and nibble at the grass. They ought not to be out in the rain at any time during the first month; and both geese and goslings should be shut up in the boxes at night, during the same period, as a protection against rats and vermin. A very shallow pool, dug in the yard, with a bucket or two of water thrown into it, to suit the temporary purpose of bathing, is sufficient during that period. If well fed on grain from the time they are hatched, twenty-five pounds weight can be secured, at seven or eight months old. By feeding them till four days old, and then literally turning them out to grass, an average weight of from seventeen to eighteen pounds each has been attained, at that age after the feathers are cleanly picked off. CAPONIZING. Capons have ever been esteemed among the greatest delicacies of the table; and are made by the extirpation of the reproductive organs in male fowls. If a cock, when young, is emasculated, a remarkable change takes place in him. His natural fierceness is calmed; he becomes placid and peaceful; his pugnacity has deserted him; he no longer seeks the company of the hens; he loses his previous strong, shrill voice; he grows to a far larger size than he would otherwise have done, having nothing to interfere with the main business of his life--to eat, drink, sleep, and get fat as speedily as possible; his flesh is peculiarly white, firm and succulent; and even the fat is perfectly destitute of rankness. The capon may, also, by a little management be converted into an admirable nurse. Some assert that caponized cocks are never afterward subject to the natural process of moulting; but this is denied by others. The art has been practised from the earliest antiquity, in Greece, India, and China, for the purpose of improving the flesh of birds for the table, in tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. It is extensively performed in the great poultry-breeding districts of England; but in this country it is by no means so generally practised as would naturally be expected. The instruments most approved by skilful operators consist of two five or seven-pound weights for confining the fowl; a scalpel, for cutting open the thin skin enveloping the testicles; a silver retractor, for stretching open the wound sufficiently wide for operating within; a pair of spring forceps--with a sharp, cutting edge, resembling that of a chisel, having a level half an inch in its greatest width--for making the incision, and securing the thin membrane; a spoon-shaped instrument, with a sharp hook at one end, for pushing and removing the testicles, adjusting the loop, and assisting in tearing open the tender covering; and a double silver canula, for containing the two ends of horse-hair, or fibre, constituting the loop. The expense of these instruments is in the neighborhood of six dollars. A cheap penknife may be used instead of the scalpel; and the other instruments may be obtained of a cheaper construction--the whole not costing more than half the above-named amount. The cockerel intended for capons should be of the largest breeds, as the Dorking, Cochin China, or the Great Malay. They may be operated upon at any time after they are a month old; the age of from two to three months is considered preferable. If possible, it should be done before July; as capons made later never prove so fine. The fowl should be confined to a table or board, by laying him with the left side downward, the wings drawn behind the rump, the legs extended backward, with the upper one farthest drawn out, and the head and neck left perfectly free. The feathers are next to be plucked from the right side, near the hip-joint, on a line with, and between the joint of the shoulder. The space uncovered may be from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, according to the size of the bird. After drawing off the skin from the part, backward--so that, when left to itself after the operation is completed, it will cover the wound in the flesh--make an incision with the bevel-edged knife, at the end of the forceps, between the last two ribs, commencing about an inch from the back-bone, and extending it obliquely downward, from an inch to an inch and a half, cutting just deep enough to separate the ribs, taking due care not to wound the intestines. Next, adjust and apply the retractor by means of the small thumb-screw, and stretch the wound sufficiently wide apart to afford room for an examination of the organs to be removed. Then, with the scalpel, or a sharp penknife, carefully cut open the skin, or membrane, covering the intestines, which, if not sufficiently drawn up, in consequence of the previous confinement, may be pushed forward toward the breast-bone, by means of the bowl of the spoon-shaped instrument, or--what would answer equally well--with the handle of a tea-spoon. As the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found connected with the back and sides by a thin membrane, or skin, passing over them. This covering must then be seized with the forceps, and torn open with the sharp-pointed hook at the small end of the spoon-shaped instrument; after which the bowl of the spoon must be introduced, with the left hand, under the lower or left testicle, which is, generally, a little nearer to the rump than the right one. Then take the double canula, adjust the hair-loop, and, with the right hand, pass the loop over the small hooked end of the spoon, running it down under the bowl of the spoon containing the testicle, so as to bring the loop to act upon the parts which connect the testicle to the back. By drawing the ends of the hair-loop backward and forward, and at the same time pushing the lower end of the tube, or canula, toward the rump of the fowl, the cord or fastening of the testicle is severed. A similar process is then to be repeated with the uppermost or right testicle; after which, any remains of the testicles, together with the blood at or around the bottom of the wound, must be scooped out with the bowl of the spoon. The left testicle is first cut out, in order to prevent the blood which may issue from covering the one remaining, and so rendering it more difficult to be seen. The operation, if skilfully done, occupies but a few moments; when the skin of the fowl should be drawn over the wound with the retractor, and the wound covered with the feathers that were plucked off at the commencement. In some fowls, the fore part of the thigh covers the two hindmost ribs; in which case, care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh well back, to prevent it from being cut; since, otherwise, the operation might lame the fowl, or even cause its death. For loops, nothing answers better than the fibre of a cocoa-nut husk, which is rough, and readily separates the testicles by sawing. The next best substance is the hair of a horse's mane or tail. After the operation, the bird may be placed in a warm house, where there are no perches; since if such appliances are present, the newly-made capon will very probably injure himself in his attempts to perch. For about a week, the food should be soft, meal porridge, and that in small quantities, alternated with bread steeped in milk; he may be given as much pure water as he will drink, it being best to use it in a tepid state, or at least with the chill taken off. At the end of a week, or ten days, at most, the fowl, if previously of a sound, vigorous constitution, will be all right, and may be turned out with the others. The usual method, in France, of making _poulardes_, or hen-capons, as they are sometimes improperly designated, is to extirpate the egg-cluster, or _ovarium_, in the same manner as the testicles are extracted from the cockerel; but it is quite sufficient merely to cut across the oviduct, or egg-tube, with a sharp knife. Otherwise, they may be treated in the same manner as the capons. Capons are fattened in precisely the same manner as other fowls. FATTENING AND SLAUGHTERING. [Illustration: A BAD STYLE OF SLAUGHTERING.] Fat is not a necessary part of any animal body, being the form which superabundant nourishment assumes, which would, if needed, be converted into muscles and other solids. It is contained in certain membranous receptacles provided for it, distributed over the body, and it is turned to use whenever the supply of nourishment is defective, which should be provided by the stomach, and other great organs. In such emergencies it is taken up, in the animal economy, by the absorbents; if the latter, from any cause, act feebly, the health suffers. When, however, nourishment is taken into the system in greater quantities than is necessary for ordinary purposes, the absorbent vessels take it up; and the fat thus made is generally healthy, provided there is a good digestion. A common method of fattening fowl is to give them the run of a farm-yard, where they thrive upon the offal of the stable and other refuse, with perhaps some small regular daily feeds; but at threshing-time, they become fat, and are styled _barn-door fowls_, probably the most delicate and high-flavored of all, both from their full allowance of the finest grain, and the constant health in which they are kept, by living in the natural state, and having the full enjoyment of air and exercise; or, they are confined in coops during a certain number of weeks, those fowls which are soonest ready being taken as wanted. Fowls may also be fattened to the highest pitch, and yet preserved in a healthy state--their flesh being equal in quality to that of the barn-door fowl--when confined in feeding-houses. These should be at once warm and airy, with earth floors, well-raised, and sufficiently capacious to accommodate well the number desired. The floor may be slightly littered down, the litter being often changed; and the greatest cleanliness should be observed. Sandy gravel should be placed in several different layers, and often changed. A sufficient number of troughs, for both water and food, should be placed around, that the fowls may feed with as little interruption as possible from each other; and perches in the same proportion should be furnished for those which are inclined to avail themselves of them; though the number will be few, after they have begun to fatten. This arrangement, however, assists in keeping them quiet and contented until that period. Insects and animal food forming a part of the natural diet of poultry, they are medicinal to them in a weakly state, and the want of such food may sometimes impede their thriving. The least nutritious articles of food, so far as it can be done conveniently, should be fed out first; afterward, those that are more nutritive. Fattening fowls should be kept quiet, and suffered to take no more exercise than is necessary for their health; since more exercise than this calls for an expenditure of food which does not avail any thing in the process of fattening. They should be fed regularly with suitable food, and that properly prepared; and as much should be given them as they are able to convert into flesh and fat, without waste. The larger the quantity of food which a fattening animal can be made to consume daily, with a good appetite, or which it can digest thoroughly, the greater will be the amount of flesh and fat gained, in proportion to the whole quantity of food consumed. Substances in which the nutriment is much concentrated should be fed with care. There is danger, especially when the bird is first put to feed, that more may be eaten at once than the digestive organs can manage. Meal of Indian corn is highly nutritive; and, when properly fed, causes fowls to fatten faster than almost any other food. They will not, however, bear to be kept exclusively on this article for a great length of time. Meal made from the heaviest varieties of corn, especially that made from the hard, flinty kinds grown in the Northern and Eastern States, is quite too strong for fowls to be full-fed upon. Attention should also be paid to the bulk of the food given; since sufficient bulk is necessary to effect a proper distending of the stomach, as a necessary condition of healthy digestion. One simple mode of fattening, which is adopted by many, is the following: Shut the fowls up where they can get no gravel; keep corn by them all the time, and also give them dough enough once a day; for drink, give them skimmed milk; with this feed, they will fatten in ten days; if kept longer, they should have some gravel, or they will fall away. Oats ground into meal, and mixed with a little molasses and water, barley-meal with sweet milk, and boiled oats, mixed with meat, are all excellent for fattening poultry--reference being had to time, expense, and quality of flesh. In _fattening ducks_, it must be remembered that their flesh will be found to partake, to a great extent, of the flavor of the food on which they have been fattened; and as they are naturally quite indiscriminate feeders, care should be taken, for at least a week or so before killing, to confine them to select food. Boiled potatoes are very good feeding, and are still better if a little grain is mixed with them; Indian meal is both economical and nutritive, but should be used sparingly at first. Some recommend butcher's offal; but, although ducks may be fattened on such food to an unusual weight, and thus be profitable for the market, their flesh will be rendered rank and gross, and not at all fit for the table. To _fatten geese_, it is necessary to give them a little corn daily, with the addition of some raw Swedish turnips, carrots, mangel-wurtzel leaves, lucerne, tares, cabbage leaves, and lettuces. Barley-meal and water is recommended by some; but full-grown geese that have never been habituated to the mixture when young, will occasionally refuse to eat it. Cooked potatoes, in small quantities, do no harm; and, apart from the consideration of expense, steeped wheat would produce a first-rate delicacy. Those who can only afford to bring up one or two, should confine them in a crib or some such place, about the beginning of July, and feed them as directed, giving them a daily supply of clean water for drink. If from a dozen to twenty are kept, a large pen of from fifteen to twenty feet square should be made, well covered with straw on the bottom, and a covered house in a corner for protection against the sun and rain, when required; since exposure to either of these is not good. It will be observed that, about noon, if geese are at liberty, they will seek some shady spot, to avoid the influence of the sun; and when confined in small places, they have not sufficient space for flapping their wings, and drying themselves after being wet, nor have they room for moving about so as to keep themselves warm. There should be three troughs in the crib: one for dry oats; another for vegetables, which ought always to be cut down; and a third for clean water, of which they must always have a plentiful supply. The riper the cabbages and lettuces are with which they are supplied the better. SLAUGHTERING AND DRESSING. Both ducks and geese should be led out to the pond a few hours before being slaughtered, where they will neatly purify and arrange their feathers. The common mode of slaughtering the latter--bleeding them from the internal parts of the throat--is needlessly slow and cruel. Fowls for cooking, that are to be sent to a distance, or to be kept any time before being served, should be plucked, drawn, and dressed immediately after being killed. The feathers strip off much more easily and cleanly while the bird is yet warm. When large numbers are to be slaughtered and prepared in a short time, the process is expedited by scalding the bird in boiling water, when the feathers drop off almost at once. Fowls thus treated are, however, generally thought inferior in flavor, and are more likely to acquire a taint in close, warm weather, than such as are plucked and dressed dry. In dressing, all bruises or rupturing of the skin should be avoided. A coarse, half-worn cloth, that is pervious to the air, like a wire sieve, and perfectly dry and clean, forms the best wrapper. The color of yellow-skinned turkeys--equally well-flavored, by the way--is improved for appearance at market by wrapping them for twelve or twenty-four hours in cloths soaked in cold salt and water, frequently changed. For the same purpose, the loose fat is first laid in warm salt and water, and afterward in milk and water for two or three hours. Some dust with flour, inside and out, any fowls that are to be carried far or to hang many days before being cooked. The oldest and toughest fowls, which are often pronounced unfit for eating, thrown away, and wasted, may be made into a savory and nutritious dish by jointing, after the bird is plucked and drawn, as for a pie; it should not be skinned. Stew it five hours in a close saucepan, with salt, mace, onions, or any other flavoring ingredients desired. When tender, turn it out into a deep dish, so that the meat may be entirely covered with the liquor. Let it stand thus in its own jelly for a day or two; it may then be served in the shape of a curry, a hash, or a pie, and will be found to furnish an agreeable repast. Old geese, killed in the autumn, after they have recovered from moulting, and before they have begun to think about the breeding time, make excellent meat, if cut into small portions, stewed slowly five or six hours with savory condiments, and made into pie the next day. By roasting and broiling, the large quantity of nutriment contained in the bones and cartilages is lost, and what might easily be made tender has to be swallowed tough. Young geese, as well as the old, are, also, often salted and boiled. POULTRY-HOUSES. The three grand requisites in a poultry house are _cleanliness_, _dryness_, and _warmth_. A simple arrangement for this purpose is a shed built against the gable of the house, opposite to the part warmed by the kitchen fire, in which are placed cross-bars for roosting, with boxes for laying in, or quantities of fresh straw. This should always have an opening, to allow the poultry-house to be cleansed out, at least once a week. Fowls will never thrive long amidst uncleanliness; and even with the utmost care a place where they have been long kept becomes tainted, as it is called; the surface of the ground becomes saturated with their _exuriæ_, and is therefore no longer conducive to health. To avoid this effect, some persons in the country frequently change the sites of their poultry-houses, to obtain fresh ground; while others, who cannot thus change, purify the houses by fumigations of blazing pitch, by washing with hot lime water, and by strewing large quantities of pure sand both within and without. Washing the floor every week is a necessity; for which purpose it is advantageous to have the house paved either with stones, bricks, or tiles. A good flooring, however, and cheaper than either of these, may be formed by using a composition of lime and smithy ashes, together with the riddlings of common kitchen ashes; these, having been all finely broken, must be mixed together with water, put on the floor with a mason's trowel, and nicely smoothed on the surface. If this is put on a floor which is in a tolerably dry situation, and allowed to harden before being used, it will become nearly as solid and compact as stone, and is almost as durable. [Illustration: RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE.] The inside of the laying-boxes should be frequently washed with hot lime water, to free them from vermin, which greatly torment the sitting hens. For the same purpose, poultry should always have a heap of dry sand, or fine ashes, laid under some covered place or thick tree near their yard, in which they may dust themselves; this being their means of ridding themselves of the vermin with which they are annoyed. In every establishment for poultry-rearing, there ought to be some separate crib or cribs, into which to remove fowl when laboring under disease; for, not only are many of the diseases to which poultry are liable highly contagious, but the sick birds are also regarded with dislike by such as are in health; and the latter will, generally, attack and maltreat them, aggravating, at least, their sufferings, if not actually depriving them of life. The moment, therefore, that a bird is perceived to droop, or appears pining, it should be removed to one of these infirmaries. [Illustration: A FANCY COOP IN CHINESE OR GOTHIC STYLE.] Separate pens are also necessary, to avoid quarrelling among some of the highly-blooded birds, more particularly the game fowl. They are also necessary when different varieties are kept, in order to avoid improper or undesirable commixture from accidental crossing. These lodgings may be most readily constructed in rows, parallel to each other; the partitions may be formed of lattice-work, being thus rather ornamental, and the cost of erection but trifling. Each of these lodgings should be divided into two compartments, one somewhat larger than the other; one to be close and warm, for the sleeping-room; and the other, a large one, airy and open, that the birds may enjoy themselves in the daytime. Both must be kept particularly dry and clean, and be well protected from the weather. A _hen-ladder_ is an indispensable piece of furniture, though frequently absent. This is a sort of ascending scale of perches, one a little higher than the other; not exactly above its predecessor, but somewhat in advance. By neglecting the use of this very simple contrivance, many valuable fowls may be lost or severely injured, by attempting to fly down from their roost--an attempt from succeeding in which the birds are incapacitated, in consequence of the bulk of their body preponderating over the power of their wings. Some people allow their fowl to roost abroad all night, in all weathers, in trees, or upon fences near the poultry-house. This is a slovenly mode of keeping even the humblest live stock; it offers a temptation to thieves, and the health of the fowls cannot be improved by their being soaked all night long in drenching rain, or having their feet frozen to the branches or rails. There is no difficulty in accustoming any sort of poultry, except the pea fowl, to regular housing at night. It is better that turkeys should not roost in the same house with the domestic fowl, as they are apt to be cross to sitting and laying hens. No poultry-house is what it ought to be, it may be suggested, in conclusion, unless it is in such a state as to afford a lady, without offending her sense of decent propriety, a respectable shelter on a showery day. [Illustration] DISEASES AND THEIR REMEDIES. In our climate, the disorders to which poultry are liable are, comparatively, few in number, and they usually yield to judicious treatment. The little attention that has too generally been bestowed upon this subject may be accounted for from the circumstance that, in an economical point of view, the value of an individual fowl is relatively insignificant; and while the ailments of other domesticated animals generally claim a prompt and efficient care, the unhappy inhabitants of the poultry-yard are too often relieved of their sufferings in the most summary manner. There are reasons, however, which will justify a more careful regard in this matter, besides the humanity of adding to the comfort of these useful creatures; and the attempt to cure, in cases of disease, will often be rewarded by their flesh being rendered more palatable, and their eggs more wholesome. Most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the result of errors in diet or management, and should have been prevented, or may be removed by a change, and the adoption of a suitable regimen. When an individual is attacked, it should be forthwith removed, to prevent the contamination of the rest of the flock. Nature, who proves a guardian to fowls in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as a most efficient physician to the sick; and the aim of all medical treatment should be to follow the indications which Nature holds out, and assist in the effort which she constantly makes for the restoration of health. The more common diseases which afflict poultry will be so described that they need not be misapprehended, and such remedies suggested as experience has proved to be salutary; and, taken alphabetically, the first on the list is ASTHMA. This common disease seems to differ sufficiently in its characteristics to warrant a distinction into two species. In one it appears to be caused by an obstruction of the air-cells, by an accumulation of phlegm, which interferes with the exercise of their functions. The fowl labors for breath, in consequence of not being able to take in the usual quantity of air at an inspiration. The capacity of the lungs is thereby diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes thickened, and its minute branches are more or less affected. These effects may, perhaps, be attributed to the fact that, as our poultry are originally natives of tropical climates, they require a more equal temperature than is afforded, except by artificial means, however well they may appear acclimated. Another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue excitement. It is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to catch them, by seizing them suddenly, or by their fighting with each other. In these cases, a blood-vessel is often ruptured, and sometimes one or more of the air-cells. The symptoms are, short breathing; opening of the beak often, and for quite a time; heaving and panting of the chest; and, in case of a rupture of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing on the beak. _Treatment._ Confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. For the disease in its incipient state, the fowl should be kept warm, and treated with repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, mixed with butter, with the addition of a small quantity of Cayenne pepper. COSTIVENESS. The existence of this disorder will become apparent by observing the unsuccessful attempts of the fowl to relieve itself. It frequently results from continued feeding on dry diet, without access to green vegetables. Indeed, without the use of these, or some substitute--such as mashed potatoes--costiveness is certain to ensue. The want of a sufficient supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on account of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders them unable to void their urine, except in connection with the _fæces_ of solid food, and through the same channel. _Treatment._ Soaked bread, with warm skimmed-milk, is a mild remedial agent, and will usually suffice. Boiled carrots or cabbage are more efficient. A meal of earth-worms is sometimes advisable; and hot potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, are said to be excellent. Castor-oil and burned butter will remove the most obstinate cases; though a clyster of oil, in addition, may sometimes be required, in order to effect a cure. DIARRH[OE]A. There are times when fowls dung more loosely than at others, especially when they have been fed on green or soft food; but this, may occur without the presence of disease. Should this state, however, deteriorate into a confirmed and continued laxity, immediate attention is required to guard against fatal effects. The causes of diarrh[oe]a are dampness, undue acidity in the bowels, or the presence of irritating matter there. The _symptoms_ are lassitude and emaciation; and, in very severe cases, the voiding of calcareous matter, white, streaked with yellow. This resembles the yolk of a stale egg, and clings to the feathers near the vent. It becomes acrid, from the presence of ammonia, and causes inflammation, which speedily extends throughout the intestines. _Treatment._ This, of course, depends upon the cause. If the disease is brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the food must be changed, and water sparingly given; if it arises from undue acidity, chalk mixed with meal is advantageous, but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. Alum-water, of moderate strength, is also beneficial. In cases of _bloody flux_, boiled rice and milk, given warm, with a little magnesia, or chalk, may be successfully used. FEVER. The most decided species of fever to which fowls are subject occurs at the period of hatching, when the animal heat is often so increased as to be perceptible to the touch. A state of fever may also be observed when they are about to lay. This is, generally, of small consequence, when the birds are otherwise healthy; but it is of moment, if any other disorder is present, since, in such case, the original malady will be aggravated. Fighting also frequently occasions fever, which sometimes proves fatal. The _symptoms_ are an increased circulation of the blood; excessive heat; and restlessness. _Treatment._ Light food and change of air; and, if necessary, aperient medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burned butter. INDIGESTION. Cases of indigestion among fowls are common, and deserve attention according to the causes from which they proceed. A change of food will often produce _crop-sickness_, as it is called, when the fowl takes but little food, and suddenly loses flesh. Such disease is of little consequence, and shortly disappears. When it requires attention at all, all the symptoms will be removed by giving their diet in a warm state. Sometimes, however, a fit of indigestion threatens severe consequences, especially if long continued. Every effort should be made to ascertain the cause, and the remedy must be governed by the circumstances of the case. The _symptoms_ are heaviness, moping, keeping away from the nest, and want of appetite. [Illustration: PRAIRIE HENS.] _Treatment._ Lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the fowl to exercise in an open walk. Give some powdered cayenne and gentian, mixed with the usual food. Iron-rust, mixed with soft food, or diffused in water, is an excellent tonic, and is indicated when there is atrophy, or diminution of the flesh. It may be combined with oats or grain. Milk-warm ale has also a good effect, when added to the diet of diseased fowls. LICE. The whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly liable to be infested with lice; and there have been instances when fowls have been so covered in this loathsome manner that the natural color of the feathers has been undistinguishable. The presence of vermin is not only annoying to poultry, but materially interferes with their growth, and prevents their fattening. They are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the success and pleasure of the poultry fanciers; and nothing but unremitting vigilance will exterminate them, and keep them exterminated. _Treatment._ To attain this, whitewash frequently all the parts adjacent to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and run them slowly through a fire made of wood shavings, dry weeds, or other light waste combustibles. Flour of sulphur, placed in a vessel, and set on fire in a close poultry-house, will penetrate every crevice, and effectually exterminate the vermin. When a hen comes off with her brood, the old nest should be cleaned out, and a new one placed; and dry tobacco-leaves, rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed with the hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry. Flour of sulphur may also be mixed with Indian-meal and water, and fed in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to two dozen fowls, in two parcels, two days apart. Almost any kind of grease, or unctuous matter, is also certain death to the vermin of domestic poultry. In the case of very young chickens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, When they should be put into a coop with their mother, the coop darkened for an hour or two, and every thing made quiet, that they may secure a good rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by greasing them. They should be handled with great care, and greased thoroughly; the hen, also. After resting, they may be permitted to come out and bask in the sun; and in a few days they will look sprightly enough. To guard against vermin, however, it should not be forgotten that _cleanliness_ is of vital importance; and there must always be plenty of slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of access to the fowls, in which they can roll and dust themselves. LOSS OF FEATHERS. This disease, common to confined fowls, should not be confounded with the natural process of moulting. In this diseased state, no new feathers come to replace the old, but the fowl is left bald and naked; a sort of roughness also appears on the skin; there is a falling off in appetite, as well as moping and inactivity. _Treatment._ As this affection is, in all probability, constitutional rather than local, external remedies may not always prove sufficient. Stimulants, however, applied externally, will serve to assist the operation of whatever medicine may be given. Sulphur may be thus applied, mixed with lard. Sulphur and cayenne, in the proportion of one quarter each, mixed with fresh butter, is good to be given internally, and will act as a powerful alterative. The diet should be changed; and cleanliness and fresh air are indispensable. In _diseased moulting_, where the feathers stare and fall off, till the naked skin appears, sugar should be added to the water which the fowls drink, and corn and hemp-seed be given. They should be kept warm, and occasionally be treated to doses of cayenne pepper. PIP. This disorder, known also as the _gapes_, is the most common ailment of poultry and all domestic birds. It is especially the disease of young fowls, and is most prevalent in the hottest months, being not only troublesome but frequently fatal. As to its _cause_ and nature, there has been some diversity of opinion. Some consider it a catarrhal inflammation, which produces a thickening of the membrane lining the nostrils and mouth, and particularly the tongue; others assert that it is caused by want of water, or by bad water; while others describe it as commencing in the form of a vesicle on the tip of the tongue, which occasions a thickened state of the skin, by the absorption of its contents. The better opinion, however, is, that the disease is occasioned by the presence of worms, or _fasciolæ_, in the windpipe. On the dissection of chickens dying with this disorder, the windpipe will be found to contain numerous small, red worms, about the size of a cambric needle, which, at the first glance, might be mistaken for blood-vessels. It is supposed by some that these worms continue to grow, until, by their enlargement, the windpipe is so filled up that the chicken is suffocated. The common _symptoms_ of this malady are the thickened state of the membrane of the tongue, particularly toward the tip; the breathing is impeded, and the beak is frequently held open, as if the creature were gasping for breath; the beak becomes yellow at its base; and the feathers on the head appear ruffled and disordered; the tongue is very dry; the appetite is not always impaired; but yet the fowl cannot eat, probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves, and sits in a corner, pining in solitude. _Treatment._ Most recommend the immediate removal of the thickened membrane, which can be effected by anointing the part with butter or fresh cream. If necessary, the scab may be pricked with a needle. It will also be found beneficial to use a pill, composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will outweigh a grain of wheat; to be mixed with fresh butter, and given every morning; the fowl to be kept warm. If the disease is in an advanced state, shown by the chicken's holding up its head and gaping for want of breath, the fowl should be thrown on its back, and while the neck is held straight, the bill should be opened, and a quill inserted into the windpipe, with a little turpentine. This being round, will loosen and destroy a number of small, red worms, some of which will be drawn up by the feather, and others will be coughed up by the chicken. The operation should be repeated the following day, if the gaping continues. If it ceases, the cure is effected. It is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented by mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the food of fowls; from five to ten drops, to a pint of meal, to be made into a dough. Another specific recommended is to keep iron standing in vinegar, and put a little of the liquid in the food every few days. Some assert that it is promoted by simply scanting fowls in their food; and this upon the ground that chickens which are not confined with the hen, but both suffered to run at large and collect their own food, are not troubled with this disease. There can be little doubt that it is caused by inattention to cleanliness in the habits and lodgings of fowls; and some, therefore, think that if the chicken-houses and coops are kept clean, and frequently washed with thin whitewash, having plenty of salt and brine mixed with it, that it would be eradicated. ROUP. This disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture; but it is often ascribed to improper feeding and want of cleanliness and exercise. It affects fowls of all ages, and is either acute or chronic; sometimes commencing suddenly, on exposure; at others gradually, as the consequence of neglected colds, or damp weather or lodging. Chronic roup has been known to extend through two years. [Illustration: SWANS.] The most prominent _symptoms_ are difficult and noisy breathing and gaping, terminating in a rattling in the throat; the head swells, and is feverish; the eyes are swollen, and the eye-lidsappear livid; the sight decays, and sometimes total blindness ensues; there are discharges from the nostrils and mouth, at first thin and limpid, afterward thick, purulent, and fetid. In this stage, which resembles the glanders in horses, the disease becomes infectious. As _secondary_ symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite fails, except for drink; the crop feels hard; the feathers are staring, ruffled, and without the gloss that appears in health; the fowl mopes by itself and seems to suffer much pain. _Treatment._ The fowls should be kept warm, and have plenty of water and scalded bran, or other light food. When chronic, change of food and air is advisable. The ordinary remedies--such as salt dissolved in water--are inefficacious. A solution of sulphate of zinc, as an eye-water, is a valuable cleansing application. Rue-pills, and a decoction of rue, as a tonic, have been administered with apparent benefit. The following is recommended: of powdered gentian and Jamaica ginger, each one part; Epsom salts, one and a half parts; and flour of sulphur, one part; to be made up with butter, and given every morning. The following method of treatment is practised by some of the most successful poulterers in the country. As soon as discovered, if in warm weather, remove the infected fowls to some well-ventilated apartment, or yard; if in winter, to some warm place; then give a dessert-spoonful of castor-oil; wash their heads with warm Castile-soap suds, and let them remain till next morning fasting. Scald for them Indian-meal, adding two and a half ounces of Epsom salts for ten hens, or in proportion for a less or larger number; give it warm, and repeat the dose in a day or two, if they do not recover. Perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and all putrid affections is as follows: Take of finely pulverized, fresh-burnt charcoal, and of new yeast, each three parts; of pulverized sulphur, two parts; of flour, one part; of water, a sufficient quantity; mix well, and make into two doses, of the size of a hazel-nut, and give one three times a day. _Cleanliness_ is no less necessary than warmth; and it will sometimes be desirable to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and water, or suds, as convenient. WOUNDS AND SORES. Fowls are exposed to wounds from many sources. In their frequent encounters with each other, they often result; the poultry-house is besieged by enemies at night, and, in spite of all precaution, rats, weasels, and other animals will assault the occupants of the roost, or nest, to their damage. These wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into painful and dangerous ulcers. When such injuries occur, _cleanliness_ is the first step toward a cure. The wound should be cleared from all foreign matter, washed with tepid milk and water, and excluded as far as possible from the air. The fowl should be removed from its companions, which, in such cases, seldom or never show any sympathy, but, on the contrary, are always ready to assault the invalid, and aggravate the injury. Should the wound not readily heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. The ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when the ulcer exhibits a fungous character, or _proud flesh_ is present. Ulcers may also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead; if they are indolent, they may be touched with blue-stone. When severe _fractures_ occur to the limbs of fowls, the best course, undoubtedly, to pursue--unless they are very valuable--is to kill them at once, as an act of humanity. When, however, it is deemed worth while to preserve them, splints may be used, when practicable. 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POTTER & CO., Publishers, 617 Sansom Street, Philadelphia.= +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's notes: | | | | Several minor typographical and punctuation errors have been fixed.| | Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in | | the original book. | | | | More important changes made: | | 'inter-fibrous' changed to 'inter-fibrous spaces' (page 182); | | illegible text in original taken as reading 'the other side of' | | (page 284) and 'omnivorous' (page 290); | | part of sentence missing in original, completed as 'meet with | | some success' (page 316); | | 'muscles' changed to 'mussels' (page 408); | | 'white-grented' changed to 'white-fronted' (page 413). | | | | The parts on swine and poultry have two page numbers in the | | original work: one for that particular part, one for the complete | | three-part book. The latter has been used in the Table of Contents,| | with the former being given between brackets. | | | | The chapter headers in the original book consist of illustrations | | with the chapter title included in the illustration. For the sake | | of clarity, these chapter titles have been separated from the | | illustrations and are used as text-only chapter titles. | | | | The original book does not contain separator pages between the | | three parts: the illustrations make it clear where one animal ends | | and the next begins. In this text headers have been included to | | mark these transitions. | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ 
40318	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by plus signs is in bold face (+bold+). THE BOOK OF CHEESE * * * * * The Rural Text-Book Series EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY _Carleton_: THE SMALL GRAINS. _B. M. Duggar_: THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT PRODUCTION. _J. F. Duggar_: SOUTHERN FIELD CROPS. _Gay_: BREEDS OF LIVE-STOCK. _Gay_: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF JUDGING LIVE-STOCK. _Goff_: PRINCIPLES OF PLANT CULTURE. _Guthrie_: BOOK OF BUTTER. _Harper_: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS. _Harris and Stewart_: PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY. _Hitchcock_: TEXT-BOOK OF GRASSES. _Jeffery_: TEXT-BOOK OF LAND DRAINAGE. _Jordan_: FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Revised. _Livingston_: FIELD CROP PRODUCTION. _Lyon_: SOILS AND FERTILIZERS. _Lyon, Fippin and Buckman_: SOILS, THEIR PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT. _Mann_: BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE. _Montgomery_: THE CORN CROPS. _Morgan_: FIELD CROPS FOR THE COTTON-BELT. _Mumford_. THE BREEDING OF ANIMALS. _Piper_: FORAGE PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. _Sampson_: EFFECTIVE FARMING. _Thom_ and _Fisk_: THE BOOK OF CHEESE. _Warren_: THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. _Warren_: FARM MANAGEMENT. _Wheeler_: MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. _White_: PRINCIPLES OF FLORICULTURE. _Widtsoe_: PRINCIPLES OF IRRIGATION PRACTICE. * * * * * [Illustration: FIG. 1.--A cheese laboratory in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University.] THE BOOK OF CHEESE by CHARLES THOM Investigator in Cheese, Formerly at Connecticut Agricultural College and WALTER W. FISK Assistant Professor of Dairy Industry (Cheese-Making), New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University New York The Macmillan Company 1918 All rights reserved Copyright, 1918, By the Macmillan Company. Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1918. Norwood Press J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE Certain products we associate with the manufactures of the household, so familiar and of such long standing that we do not think of them as requiring investigation or any special support of science. The older ones of us look back on cheese as an ancient home product; yet the old-fashioned hard strong kind has given place to many named varieties, some of them bearing little resemblance to the product of the kitchen and the buttery. We have analyzed the processes; discovered microorganisms that hinder or help; perfected devices and machines; devised tests of many kinds; studied the chemistry; developed markets for standardized commodities. Here is one of the old established farm industries that within a generation has passed from the housewife and the home-made hand press to highly perfected factory processes employing skilled service and handling milk by the many tons from whole communities of cows. This is an example of the great changes in agricultural practice. Cheese-making is now a piece of applied science; many students in the colleges are studying the subject; no one would think of undertaking it in the old way: for these reasons this book is written. This book is intended as a guide in the interpretation of the processes of making and handling a series of important varieties of cheese. The kinds here considered are those made commercially in America, or so widely met in the trade that some knowledge of them is necessary. The relation of cheese to milk and to its production and composition has been presented in so far as required for this purpose. The principles and practices underlying all cheese-making have been brought together into a chapter on curd-making. A chapter on classification then brings together into synoptical form our knowledge of groups of varieties. These groups are then discussed separately. The problems of factory building, factory organization, buying and testing milk, and the proper marketing of cheese, are briefly discussed. Such a discussion should be useful to the student, to the beginner in cheese-making, as a reference book on many varieties in the hands of makers who specialize in single varieties, and to the housekeeper or teacher of domestic science. The material has been brought together from the experience of the writers, supplemented by free use of the literature in several languages. Standard references to this literature are added in the text. No introduction to the subject of cheese should fail to mention the work of J. H. Monrad, who has recently passed away. Mr. Monrad never collected his material into a single publication, but his contributions to cheese-making information, scattered widely in trade literature over a period of thirty years, form an encyclopedia of the subject. Bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and United States Department of Agriculture have been quoted extensively, with citation of the sources of the material. Personal assistance from Professor W. A. Stocking and other members of the Dairy Department of Cornell University, and C. F. Doane of the United States Department of Agriculture, is gladly acknowledged. Students cannot learn out of books to make cheese. They may, however, be aided in understanding the problems from such study. To make cheese successfully they must have intimate personal touch with some person who knows cheese. Sympathetic relations with such a teacher day by day in the cheese-room are essential to success in making cheese which, at its best, is one of the most attractive of food-products. THE AUTHORS. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGES GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE 1-4 Nature of cheese, 1; Cheese-making as an art, 2; Cheese-making as a science, 3; Problems in cheese-making, 4; History, 5. CHAPTER II THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE 5-28 Factors affecting the quality, 6; Chemical composition, 7; Factors causing variation in composition, 8; Milk constituents, 9; Water, 10; Fat, 11; Casein, 12; Milk-sugar, 13; Albumin, 14; Ash, 15; Enzymes, 16; The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow, 17; Absorption of odors, 18; Effect of condition of the cow, 19; Bacteria in the milk, 20; Groups of bacteria in milk, 21; Acid fermentation of milk, 22; Bacterium lactis-acidi group, 23; Colon-aërogenes group, 24; Acid peptonizing group, 25; Bacillus bulgaricus group, 26; Acid cocci or weak acid-producers, 27; Peptonizing organisms, 28; Inert types, 29; Alkali-producing bacteria, 30; Butyric fermenting types, 31; Molds and yeasts, 32; Bacterial contamination of milk, 33; Germicidal effect of milk, 34; Sources and control of bacteria in milk, 35; The cow, 36; Stable air, 37; The milker, 38; Utensils, 39; The factory, 40; The control of bacteria, 41; Fermentation test, 42; The sediment test, 43. CHAPTER III COAGULATING MATERIALS 29-40 Ferments, 44; Nature of rennet, 45; Preparation of rennet extract, 46; Pepsin, 47; Chemistry of curdling, 48; Use of acid, 49; Robertson's theory, 50; Rennet curd, 51; Hammarsten's theory, 52; Duclaux theory, 53; Bang's theory, 54; Bosworth's theory, 55. CHAPTER IV LACTIC STARTERS 41-54 Acidifying organisms, 56; Starter, 57; Natural starter, 58; Commercial starter or pure cultures, 59; Manufacturer's directions, 60; Selecting milk, 61; Pasteurization, 62; Containers, 63; Adding cultures, 64; Cleanliness, 65; "Mother" starter or startoline, 66; Examining starter, 67; Second day's propagation, 68; Preparations of larger amount of starter, 69; Amount of mother starter to use, 70; Qualities, 71; How to carry the mother starter, 72; Starter score-cards, 73; Use of starter, 74; The amount of starter to use, 75; Starter lot-card, 76. CHAPTER V CURD-MAKING 55-80 The composition of the milk, 77; Cheese color, 78; The acidity factor, 79; Acidity of milk when received, 80; The acid test, 81; Rennet tests, 82; Marschall rennet test, 83; Comparison of acid and rennet test, 84; Control of acid, 85; Acidity and rennet action, 86; Acidity and expulsion of the whey, 87; Acidity in relation to cheese flavor, 88; Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese, 89; Acidity in relation to cheese color, 90; Control of moisture, 91; Relation of moisture to manufacture and quality, 92; Relation of moisture to acidity, 93; Setting temperature, 94; Strength of coagulating materials, 95; Amount of coagulating materials to use, 96; Method of adding rennet, 97; The curdling period, 98; Cutting or breaking the curd, 99; Curd knives, 100; Heating or "cooking," 101; Draining, 102; Application to cheese, 103. CHAPTER VI CLASSIFICATION 81-88 Basis of classification, 104; Processed cheeses, 105; Whey cheeses, 106; Soft and hard cheeses, 107; Relation of moisture to classes, 108; Relation of heat to classes, 109. CHAPTER VII CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR 89-110 Skim series, 110; Cottage cheese, 111; Household practice, 112; Factory practice, 113; Buttermilk cheese, 114; Neufchâtel group, 115; Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses, 116; The factory, 117; Cans, 118; Draining racks, 119; Cloths, 120; Molding machinery, 121; Milk for Neufchâtel, 122; Starter, 123; Renneting or setting, 124; Draining, 125; Cooling Neufchâtel, 126; Pressing, 127; Working and salting Neufchâtel, 128; Storage, 129; Molding, 130; Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel, 131; Baker's cheese, 132; Domestic Neufchâtel, 133; Partially skim Neufchâtel, 134; Cream cheese, 135; Neufchâtel specialties, 136; Gervais, 137; European forms occasionally imported, 138. CHAPTER VIII SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD 111-133 Hand cheese and its allies, 139; Pennsylvania pot cheese, 140; Appetitost (Appetite cheese), 141; Ripened Neufchâtel, French process, 142; The Camembert group, 143; Camembert cheese, 144; Description of Camembert, 145; Conditions of making and ripening, 146; Outline of making process, 147; Acidity, 148; Ripening the cheese, 149; Composition, 150; Factory, 151; Economic factors, 152; French Brie, 153; Coulommiers, 154. CHAPTER IX SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA 134-148 The Isigny group, 155; Raffiné, 156; Liederkranz cheese, 157; Limburger cheese, 158; The milk, 159; Making the cheese, 160; Draining and salting, 161; Ripening, 162; Marketing and qualities of Limburger, 163; Yield and composition of Limburger, 164; Münster cheese, 165. CHAPTER X SEMI-HARD CHEESES 149-171 The green mold group, 166; Roquefort cheese, 167; Cow's milk or Façons Roquefort, 168; Outline of making Roquefort, 169; Ripening of Roquefort, 170; Gorgonzola, 171; Stilton cheese, 172; Gex, 173; Bacterially-ripened series, 174; Brick cheese, 175; Making of brick cheese, 176; Ripening brick cheese, 177; Qualities of brick cheese, 178; Composition and yield, 179; Port du Salut cheese, 180. CHAPTER XI THE HARD CHEESES 172-183 The Danish group, 181; The Dutch group, 182; Edam cheese, 183; Method of manufacture, 184; Salting and curing Edam, 185; Equipment for making Edam cheese, 186; Qualities and yield of Edam cheese, 187; Gouda cheese, 188; Method of manufacture, 189; Equipment for Gouda cheese, 190; Composition and yield, 191. CHAPTER XII CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING 184-221 The lot-card, 192; The milk, 193; Ripening the milk, 194; Setting or coagulating, 195; Cutting, 196; Heating or "cooking" the curd, 197; Removing the whey, 198; Hot-iron test, 199; Firmness of the curd, 200; Gathering the curd together, 201; Matting or cheddaring, 202; Milling the curd, 203; Salting, 204; Hooping the curd, 205; Pressing the curd, 206; Dressing the cheese, 207; Handling over-ripe and gassy milk, 208; Qualities of Cheddar cheese, 209. CHAPTER XIII COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE 222-246 Composition of milk, whey and cheese, 210; Relations of fat to casein in normal milk, 211; Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese, 212; Fat loss in cheese-making, 213; Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese, 214; Factors affecting the moisture-content of Cheddar, 215; Variations of the Cheddar process, 216; Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk, 217; Club cheese, 218; The stirred-curd or granular process, 219; California Jack cheese, 220; The washed-curd process, 221; English dairy cheese, 222; Pineapple cheese, 223; Leyden, 224; Cheddar cheese with pimientos, 225; Sage cheese, 226; Skimmed-milk cheese, 227; Full skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 228; Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 229; Yield and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 230. CHAPTER XIV CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING 247-275 Fat, 231; Milk-sugar, 232; The salts, 233; Gases, 234; Casein or proteins, 235; Causes of ripening changes, 236; Action of the rennet extract, 237; The action of the bacteria, 238; Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening, 239; The length of time, 240; The temperature of the curing-room, 241; Moisture-content of the cheese, 242; The size of the cheese, 243; The amount of salt used, 244; The amount of rennet extract, 245; The influence of acid, 246; Care of the cheese in the curing-room, 247; Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening, 248; Paraffining, 249; Shipping, 250. _Defects in Cheddar cheese_: Defects in flavor, 251; Feedy flavors, 252; Acid flavors, 253; Sweet or fruity flavors, 254; Defects in body and texture, 255; Loose or open texture, 256; Dry body, 257; Gassy textured cheese, 258; Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture, 259; Defects in color, 260; Defects in finish, 261. _Cheddar cheese judging_: Securing the sample, 262; How to determine quality, 263; Causes of variations in score, 264; The score-card, 265. CHAPTER XV THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS 276-292 _Swiss cheese_: The Swiss factory, 266; The milk, 267; Rennet extract, 268; Starter, 269; The making process, 270; Curing Swiss, 271; Block Swiss, 272; Shipment, 273; Qualities of Swiss cheese, 274; Composition and yield, 275; _The Italian group_: Parmesan, 276; Regianito, 277. CHAPTER XVI MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS 293-296 Caciocavallo, 278; Sap sago, 279; Albumin cheese, 280; Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese, 281; Whey butter, 282. CHAPTER XVII CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION 297-310 Locating the site, 283; The building, 284; Heating plant, 285; Curing-rooms, 286; Light, 287; Ventilation, 288; Boiler-room, 289; whey tanks, 290; Store-room, 291; The floors, 292; Arrangement of machinery and rooms, 293; Arrangements for cleanliness, 294; Equipment and supplies list, 295; Factory organization, 296. CHAPTER XVIII HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA 311-326 The factory system, 297; Introduction of factory system in Canada, 298; Introduction of cheddaring, 299; Introduction of Swiss and Limburger, 300; Number and distribution of cheese factories, 301; Total production of cheese in the United States, 302; Rank of the leading cheese-producing states, 303; Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States, 304; Average yearly price of cheese, 305; Canadian cheese statistics, 306; Introduction of cheese-making into new regions, 307. CHAPTER XIX TESTING 327-342 The fat test, 308; Sampling the milk, 309; Adding the acid, 310; Centrifuging, 311; Reading the test, 312; testing whey for fat, 313; testing cheese for fat, 314; Reading the test, 315; The Hart casein test, 316; Solids in the milk, 317; the lactometer, 318; Calculating the solids not fat in the milk, 319; Testing cheese for moisture, 320. CHAPTER XX MARKETING 343-361 Buying milk, 321; Cheese yield basis of buying milk, 322; Fat basis for payment of milk, 323; Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk, 324; Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk, 325; Comparison of methods, 326; Laws governing the production and sale of milk, 327; Marketing of cheese, 328; Mercantile exchanges, 329; Marketing perishable varieties, 330; Distribution of price, 331; Standards, 332; Laws relating to cheese marketing, 333. CHAPTER XXI CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD 362-381 Food value of cheese, 334; Digestibility of cheese, 335; Cheese flavor, 336; Relation to health, 337; Cheese poisoning, 338; Proper place in the diet, 339; Care of cheese, 340; Food value and price, 341; Methods and recipes for using cheese, 342. THE BOOK OF CHEESE CHAPTER I _GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE_ Cheese is a solid or semi-solid protein food product manufactured from milk. Its solidity depends on the curdling or coagulation of part or all of the protein and the expulsion of the watery part or whey. The coagulum or curd so formed incloses part of the milk-serum (technically whey) or watery portion of the milk, part of the salts, part or all of the fat, and an aliquot part of the milk-sugar. The loss in manufacture includes a small fraction of the protein and fat, the larger proportion of the water, salts and milk-sugar. +1. Nature of cheese.+--Milk of itself is an exceedingly perishable product. Cheese preserves the most important nutrient parts of the milk in condition for consumption over a much longer period. The duration of this period and the ripening and other changes taking place depend very closely on the composition of the freshly made cheese. There is an intimate relation between the water, fat, protein and salt-content of the newly made cheese and the ripening processes which produce the particular flavors of the product when it is ready for the consumer. This relation is essentially biological. A cheese containing 60 to 75 per cent of water, as in "cottage cheese" (the sour-milk cheese so widely made in the homes), must be eaten or lost in a very few days. Spoilage is very rapid. In contrast to this, the Italian Parmesan, with 30 to 32 per cent of water, requires two to three years for proper ripening. The cheeses made from soured skim-milk probably represent the most ancient forms of cheese-making. Their origin is lost in antiquity. The makers of Roquefort cheese cite passages from Pliny which they think refer to an early form of that product. It is certain that cheese in some form has been familiar to man throughout historic times. The technical literature of cheese-making is, however, essentially recent. The older literature may be cited to follow the historical changes in details of practice. +2. Cheese-making as an art+ has been developed to high stages of perfection in widely separate localities. The best known varieties of cheese bear the geographical names of the places of their origin. The practices of making and handling such cheeses have been developed in intimate relation to climate, local conditions and the habits of the people. So close has been this adjustment in some cases, that the removal of expert makers of such cheeses to new regions has resulted in total failure to transplant the industry. +3. Cheese-making as a science+ has been a comparatively recent development. It has been partly a natural outgrowth of the desire of emigrant peoples to carry with them the arts of their ancestral home, partly the desire to manufacture at home the good things met in foreign travel. Its development has been largely coincident with the development of the agricultural school and the science of dairy biology. Even now we have but a limited knowledge of a few of the 500 or more varieties of cheese named in the literature. It is desirable to bring together the knowledge of underlying principles as far as they are known. No technical description of a cheese-handling process can replace experience. Descriptions of appearances and textures of curd in terms definite enough to be understood by beginners have been found to be impossible. It is possible, however, to lay down principles and essentials of practice which are common to the industry and form the foundation for intelligent work. Cheese-making will be a science only as we depart from the mere repetition of a routine or rule-of-thumb practice and understand the underlying principles. +4. Problems in cheese-making.+--Any understanding of these problems calls for a working knowledge of the very complex series of factors involved. These include the chemical composition of the milk, the nature of rennet and character of its action under the conditions met in cheese-making, the nature of the micro-organisms in milk, and the methods of controlling them, their relation to acidity and to the ripening of the cheese. To these scientific demands must be added acquaintance with the technique of the whole milk industry, from its production and handling on the farm through the multiplicity of details of factory installation and organization, to those intangible factors concerned with the texture, body, odor and taste of the varied products made from it. Some of these factors can be adequately described; others have thus far been handed on from worker to worker but have baffled every effort at standardization or definition. +5. History.+--The recorded history of the common varieties of cheese is only fragmentary. Practices at one time merely local in origin followed the lines of emigration. Records of processes of manufacture were not kept. The continuance of a particular practice depended on the skill and memory of the emigrant, who called his cheese after the place of origin. Other names of the same kind were applied by the makers for selling purposes. The widely known names were thus almost all originally geographical. Some of them, such as Gorgonzola, are used for cheeses not now made at the places whose names they bear. Naturally, this method of development has produced national groups of cheeses which have many common characteristics but differ in detail. The English cheeses form a typical group of this kind. Emigration to America carried English practices across the Atlantic. The story of cheese-making in America has been so closely linked with the development of the American Cheddar process that the historical aspects of the industry in this country are considered under that head in Chapter VIII. CHAPTER II _THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE_ The opaque whitish liquid, secreted by the mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young, is known as milk. The milk of the cow is the kind commonly used for cheese-making in America. +6. Factors affecting the quality.+--The process of cheese-making begins with drawing the milk from the udder. The care and treatment the milk receives, while being drawn, and its subsequent handling, have a decided influence on its qualities. The process of cheese-making is varied according to the qualities of the milk. There are five factors that influence the quality of the milk for cheese-making: (1) its chemical composition; (2) the flavor of feed eaten by the cow; (3) the absorption of flavors and odors from the atmosphere; (4) the health of the cow; (5) the bacteria present. The first factor is dependent on the breed and individuality of the cow. The other four factors are almost entirely within the control of man. Of these factors, number five is of the most importance, and is the one most frequently neglected. +7. Chemical composition.+--The high, low and average composition of milk is approximately as follows: TABLE I COMPOSITION OF MILK --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- | WATER | FAT | CASEIN | SUGAR | ALBUMIN | ASH | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- High | 88.90 | 5.50 | 3.00 | 5.00 | .72 | .73 Low | 85.05 | 3.00 | 2.10 | 4.60 | .70 | .70 Average | 87.47 | 3.80 | 2.50 | 4.80 | .71 | .72 --------+-------+------+--------+-------+---------+----- +8. Factors causing variation in composition.+--The composition of cow's milk varies according to several factors. The composition of the milk of different breeds differs to such a degree that whole series of factories are found with lower or higher figures than these averages on account of dominant presence of particular kinds of cattle. The following table shows the usual effect of breed on fat and total solids of milk: TABLE II THE USUAL EFFECT OF BREED OF COWS ON FAT AND TOTAL SOLIDS OF MILK ------------------+------------------------ | AVERAGES BREED OF COWS +----------+------------- | Fat | Total Solids | Per Cent | Per Cent ------------------+----------+------------- Jersey | 5.62 | 14.74 Guernsey | 5.34 | 14.70 Shorthorn | 4.17 | 13.41 Ayrshire | 3.61 | 12.72 Holstein-Friesian | 3.30 | 11.89 ------------------+----------+------------- The figures[1] in Tables I and II are compiled and averaged from a large number of analyses made at different agricultural experiment stations. This variation not only affects the fat, but all constituents of the milk. While there is a difference in the composition of the milk from cows of different breeds, there is almost as wide variation in the composition of the milk from single cows[2] of the same breed. With the same cow the stage of lactation causes a wide variation in the composition of the milk.[3] As the period of lactation advances, the milk increases in percentage of fat and other solids. +9. Milk constituents.+--From the standpoint of the cheese-maker, the significant constituents of milk are water, fat, casein, milk-sugar, albumin, ash and enzymes. These will be discussed separately. +10. Water.+--The retention of the solids and the elimination of the water are among the chief considerations in cheese-making. Water forms 84 to 89 per cent of milk. Cheese-making calls for the reduction of this percentage to that typical of the particular variety of cheese desired with the least possible loss of milk solids. This final percentage varies from 30 to 70 per cent with the variety of cheese. The water has two uses in the cheese: (1) It imparts smoothness and mellowness to the body of the cheese; (2) it furnishes suitable conditions for the action of the ripening agents. To some extent the water may supplement or even replace fat in its effect on the texture of the cheese. If the cheese is properly made, the water present is in such combination as to give no suggestion of a wet or "leaky" product. +11. Fat.+--Fat is present in the milk in the form of suspended small transparent globules (as an emulsion). These globules vary in size with the breed and individuality of the cow and in color from a very light yellow to a deep yellow shade as sought in butter. Milk with small fat globules is preferred for cheese-making, because these are not so easily lost in the process. Milk-fat is made up of several different compounds called glycerids,[4] which are formed by the union of an organic acid with glycerine as a base. Fat is important in cheese-making for two reasons: (1) Its influence on the yield of cheese; (2) its effect on the quality of the cheese. Many of the details of cheese-making processes have been developed to prevent the loss of fat in manufacture. The yield of cheese is almost directly in proportion to the amount of fat in the milk; nevertheless, because the solids not fat do not increase exactly in proportion to the fat, the cheese yield is not exactly in proportion to the fat. The fat, however, is a good index of the cheese-producing power of the milk. +12. Casein.+--Cheese-making is possible because of the peculiar properties of casein. This is the fundamental substance of cheese-making because it has the capacity to coagulate or curdle under the action of acid and rennet enzymes. Casein is an extremely complex organic compound.[5] Authorities disagree regarding its exact composition, but it contains varying amounts of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, and it usually is combined with some form of lime or calcium phosphate. It belongs to the general class of nitrogen-containing compounds called proteins. It is present in milk in the form of extremely minute gelatinous particles in suspension. Casein is insoluble in water and dilute acids. The acids, when added, cause a heavy, white, more or less flocculent precipitate. Rennet (Chapter III) causes the casein to coagulate (curdle), forming a jelly-like mass called curd, which is the basis of manufacture in most types of cheese. In the formation of this coagulum (curd), the fat is imprisoned and held. The casein compounds in the curd hold the moisture and give firmness and solidity of body to the cheese. Casein contains the protein materials in which important ripening changes take place. These changes render the casein more soluble, and are thought to be the source of certain characteristic cheese flavors. +13. Milk-sugar.+--Milk-sugar (lactose) is present in solution in the watery part of the milk. It forms on the average about 5 per cent of cow's milk. Since it is in solution, cheese retains the aliquot part of the total represented by the water-content of the cheese, plus any part of the sugar which has entered into combination with the milk solids during the souring process. The larger part of the lactose passes off with the whey. Lactose[6] is attacked by the lactic-acid bacteria and by them is changed to lactic acid. Cheeses in which this souring process goes on quickly, soon contain a large enough percentage of acid to check the rotting of the cheese by decay organisms. Without this souring, most varieties of cheese will begin to spoil quickly. For each variety there is a proper balance between the souring, which interrupts the growth of many kinds of putrefactive bacteria, and the development of the forms which are essential to proper ripening. +14. Albumin.+--This is a form of protein which is in solution in the milk. Albumin forms about 0.7 per cent of cow's milk. It is not coagulated by rennet. Most rennet cheeses, therefore, retain only that portion of the total albumin held in solution in the water retained, as in the case of milk-sugar. Albumin is coagulated by heat, forming a film or membrane upon the surface. There are certain kinds of cheese, such as Ricotte, made by the recovery of albumin by heating. +15. Ash.+--The ash or mineral constituents make up about 0.7 per cent of cow's milk. This total includes very small amounts of a great many substances. The exact form of some of the substances is still unknown. Of these salts, the calcium or lime and phosphorus salts are most important in cheese-making. They are partially or completely precipitated by pasteurization. After such precipitation rennet fails to act[7] or acts very slowly; hence pasteurized milk cannot be used for making rennet cheese unless the lost salts are replaced, or the condition of the casein is changed by the addition of some substance, before curdling is attempted. +16. Enzymes.+--Milk also contains enzymes. These are chemical ferments secreted by the udder. They have the power to produce changes in organic compounds without themselves undergoing any change. Minute amounts of several enzymes are found in milk as follows: Diastase, galactase, lipase, catalase, peroxidase and reductase. Just what part they play in cheese-making is not definitely known. +17. The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow.+--Undesirable flavors in the milk are due many times to the use of feed with very pronounced flavors. The most common of these feeds are onions, garlic, turnips, cabbage, decayed ensilage, various weeds and the like. These undesirable flavors reach the milk because the substances are volatile and are able to pass through the tissues of the animal. While feed containing these flavors is being digested, these volatile substances are not only present in the milk, but in all the tissues of the animal. By the time the process of digestion is completed, the volatile flavors have largely passed away. Therefore, if the times of milking and feeding are properly regulated, a dairy-man may feed considerable quantities of strong-flavored products, such as turnip, cabbage and others, without any appreciable effect on the flavor of the milk. To accomplish this successfully, the cows should be fed immediately before or immediately after milking, preferably after milking. This allows time for the digestive process to take place and for the volatile substances to disappear. If, however, milking is performed three or four hours after feeding, these volatile substances are present in the milk and flavor it.[8] In the case of those plants which grow wild in the pasture, and to which the cows have continued access, it is more difficult to prevent bad flavor in the milk. The cows may be allowed to graze for a short time only, and that immediately after milking, without affecting the flavor of the milk. This will make it necessary to supplement the pasture with dry feed, or to have another pasture where these undesirable plants do not grow. Undesirable flavors are usually noticeable in the milk when the cows are turned out to pasture for the first time in the spring; and when they are pastured on rank fall feed, such as second growth clover. +18. Absorption of odors.+--Milk, especially when warm, possesses a remarkable ability to absorb and retain odors from the surrounding atmosphere.[9] For this reason, the milk should be handled only in places free from such odor. Some of the common sources of these undesirable odors are bad-smelling stables, strong-smelling feeds in the stable, dirty cows, aërating milk near hog-pens, barn-yards and swill barrels. The only way to prevent these undesirable flavors and odors is not to expose the milk to them. The safest policy is to remove the source of the odor. +19. Effect of condition of the cow.+--Any factor which affects the cow is reflected in the composition and physiological character of the milk. (1) Colostrum. Milk secreted just before or just after parturition is different in physical properties and chemical composition from that secreted at any other time during the lactation period. This milk is known as colostrum. It is considered unfit for human food, either as milk or in products manufactured from the milk. Most states[10] consider colostrum adulterated milk, and prohibit the sale of the product for fifteen days preceding and for five days after parturition. (2) Disease. When disease is detected in the cow, the milk should at once be discarded as human food. Some diseases are common both to the cow and to man, such as tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease. If such diseases are present in the cow, the milk may act as a carrier to man. Digestive disorders of any sort in the cow are frequently accompanied by undesirable flavors in the milk. These are not thought to be due to the feed, but to the abnormal condition of the cow. When the normal condition is restored, these undesirable flavors disappear. +20. Bacteria in the milk.+--Bacteria are microscopic unicellular plants, without chlorophyll. Besides bacteria, there are other forms of the lower orders of plants found in milk, such as yeasts and molds. While the bacteria are normally the more important, frequently yeasts and molds produce significant changes in milk and other dairy products. Bacteria are very widely distributed throughout nature. They are so small that they may easily float in the air or on particles of dust. Many groups of bacteria are so resistant to adverse conditions of growth that they may be present in a dormant or spore stage, and, therefore, not be easily recognized; when suitable environments for growth are again produced, development begins at once. They are found in all surface water, in the earth and upon all organic matter. There are a great many different groups of bacteria; some are beneficial, and some are harmful. As they are so small, it is difficult to differentiate between the beneficial and harmful kinds, except by the results produced, or by a careful study in an especially equipped laboratory. The bacteria multiply very rapidly. This is brought about by fission; that is, the cell-walls are drawn in at one place around the cell, and when the walls unite at the center, the cell is divided. There are then two bacteria. In some cases, division takes place in twenty to thirty minutes. Like other plants, they are very sensitive to food supply, to temperature and to moisture, as conditions of growth. Inasmuch as the bacteria are plant cells, they must absorb their food from materials in solution. They may live on solid substances, but the food elements must be rendered soluble before they can be used. Most bacteria prefer a neutral or slightly acid medium for growth, rather than an alkaline reaction. Ordinary milk makes a very favorable medium for the growth of bacteria, because it is an adequate and easily available food supply. In milk, certain groups of bacteria are commonly present, but many others which happen to get into it live and multiply rapidly. A favorable temperature is very necessary for such organisms to multiply. There is a range of temperature, more or less wide, at which each group of bacteria grows and multiplies with the greatest rapidity. This range varies with the different groups, but most of them find temperatures between 75° F. and 95° F. the most favorable for growth. Excessive heat kills the bacteria. Low temperatures stop growth, but kill few if any bacteria. Temperatures of 50° F. and lower retard the growth of most forms of bacteria found commonly in milk. Many forms will slowly develop, however, below 50° and some growth will occur down to the freezing point. Milk held at 50° F. or lower will remain in good condition long enough to be handled without injury to quality until received in the cheese factory. In the place of seeds, some groups of bacteria form spores. The spores are exceedingly resistant to unfavorable conditions of growth, such as heat, cold, drying, food supply and even chemical agents. This property makes it difficult to destroy such bacteria. +21. Groups of bacteria in milk.+--Milk when first drawn usually shows an amphoteric reaction; that is, it will give the acid and alkaline reactions with litmus paper. Under normal conditions, milk soon begins to undergo changes, due to the bacteria. Changes produced in this way are called "fermentations"; the agents causing them, "ferments." Normally the acid fermentation takes place first, and later other fermentations or changes begin, which, after a time, so decompose the milk that it will not be suitable for cheese-making or human consumption. The following grouping of the organisms in milk is based on their effects on the milk itself[11]: I. Acid-producing types. II. Peptonizing types. III. Inert types. IV. Alkali-producing types. V. Butyric fermenting types. Each type of bacteria produces more or less specific changes in the milk. As a general rule, the predominance of one of these types is an aid in the interpretation of the quality of the product at the time of analysis, such as the age, the temperature at which it has been held, the conditions under which it was produced and, in some cases, the general source of the contamination. The reaction due to certain bacteria is utilized in the manufacture and handling of dairy products; other groups have deleterious effects. (See Fig. 2.) [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Effect of different fermentations of milk: _U_, Curd pitted with gas holes; _G_ and _O_, gassy curds which float; _K_, smooth, solid desirable curd.] +22. Acid fermentation of milk.+--By far the most common and important fermentation taking place in milk is due to the action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria on the milk-sugar or lactose. The bacteria that bring about this fermentation may be divided into several groups on the basis of their morphology, proteolytic activity, gas production, temperature adaptation and production of substances other than lactic acid. The larger number of organisms producing lactic acid in milk also produce other organic acids in greater or less abundance. Inasmuch as lactic acid is the principal substance produced, they are called lactic acid organisms. This group contains different kinds of organisms which may be subdivided into small groups as follows: (a) _Bacterium lactis-acidi_ group. (b) _Bacterium colon-aërogenes_ group. (c) Acid peptonizing group. (d) _Bacillus bulgaricus_ group. (e) Acid cocci or weak acid-producing group. +23. Bacterium lactis-acidi group.+--There are many strains or varieties in this group which are closely related in their activities. They are universally present in milk and are commonly the greatest causal agent in its souring. They are widely distributed in nature. At a temperature of 65° F. to 95° F., these bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly; at 70° F. (approximately 20° C.) these forms usually outgrow all others. The total amount of acid produced in milk by these organisms varies from 0.6 of one per cent to 1 per cent acid calculated as pure lactic acid. These forms coagulate milk to a smooth curd of uniform consistency. In addition to the lactic acid, there are produced traces of acetic, succinic, formic and proprionic acids, traces of certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters. Substances other than lactic acid are not produced by organisms of this group to such an extent as to impart undesirable flavors to the milk. The action of this group on the milk proteins is very slight. They produce no visible sign of peptonization. The _B. lactis-acidi_ group of organisms are essential to the production of the initial acidity necessary in most types of cheese. The practical culture and utilization of them for this purpose under factory conditions are discussed in Chapter IV, entitled "Lactic Starters." +24. Colon-aërogenes group.+--This group takes its name from a typical species, _Bacterium coli communis_, which is a normal inhabitant of the intestines of man and animals, and from _Bacterium coli aerogenes_, which is similar in many respects to _B. coli communis_. The initial presence of these bacteria in milk is indicative of fecal contamination or unclean conditions of production. These organisms, however, grow and develop in milk very rapidly at high temperatures of handling. The total acidity produced by these forms is less than that by the _Bacterium lactis-acidi_ group. Of the acid produced, less than 30 per cent is lactic acid; the other acids are formic, acetic, proprionic and succinic. The large percentage of these acids, with comparatively large amounts of certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters, invariably impart undesirable flavors and odors to the milk. Members of this group uniformly ferment the lactose with the production of the gases, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The milk is coagulated into a lumpy curd, containing gas pockets. +25. Acid peptonizing group.+--These are often associated with colon organisms. The group includes those bacteria which coagulate milk with an acid curd and subsequently partly digest it. They grow and multiply rapidly at a temperature between 65° and 98° F. They impart undesirable flavors and odors to the milk, which appear to be due to the formation of acids other than lactic acid, and to action on the milk proteins. +26. Bacillus bulgaricus group.+--These organisms grow best at a temperature of 105° to 115° F. They will develop at lower temperatures, but not so rapidly. They survive heating to 135° F. without loss of vigor, as occurs in Swiss cheese-making. They produce from 1 to 4 per cent of acid in milk, which is practically all lactic acid. They do not produce gas. They impart no undesirable flavors to the milk. +27. Acid cocci or weak acid-producers.+--This group of organisms is not very well defined. It consists mostly of coccus forms, commonly found in the air and in the udder. Their presence in the milk may indicate direct udder contamination. These are regarded as of little importance, unless in very large number, and they have been only partially studied. They produce little or no lactic acid, and small amounts of acetic, proprionic, butyric and caproic acids. These forms rarely create enough acid to coagulate milk. +28. Peptonizing organisms.+--This group includes all bacteria which have a peptonizing effect on the milk. It includes the acid peptonizing organisms, although they are of primary importance in the acid type of bacteria, because the acid-producing power is greater than the peptonizing power. Some of the specific organisms in this class are _Bacillus subtilis_, _Bacterium prodigiosus_ and _Bacterium liquefaciens_. These are commonly found in soil water and in fecal material. The presence of these organisms denotes contamination from such sources. +29. Inert types.+--As the name indicates, these are organisms not known to have an appreciable effect on milk. The ordinary tests fail to connect them with important processes; hence they appear to feed upon, but not to affect the milk in any serious way. Milk ordinarily contains more or less of these organisms, but no particular significance is attached to their presence. +30. Alkali-producing bacteria.+--This group of organisms has only recently been studied in relation to its action on milk. Investigators still disagree as to the usual percentage in the normal milk flora. Their presence in milk has been considered to be relatively unimportant. +31. Butyric fermenting types.+--Organisms causing butyric fermentation may be present in the milk, but seldom become active, because they are commonly anaërobic and so will not develop in milk kept under ordinary conditions, and the rapid growth of the lactic acid-forming bacteria prevents their growth. These organisms act on the milk-fat, decomposing it. Butyric acid fermentations are more common in old butter and cheese. In these, the fermentation causes a rancid flavor. +32. Molds and yeasts.+--The cattle feed and the air of the barn always contain considerable numbers of yeasts and mold spores. Yeasts have been found by Hastings[12] to cause an objectionable fermentation in Wisconsin cheese. No further study of this group as factors in cheese-handling has been reported. Mold spores, especially those of the blue or green molds (Penicillum sp.) and the black molds (Mucors), are always abundant in milk. These spores are carried into all cheeses made from unpasteurized milk, in numbers sufficient to cover the cheeses with mold if they are permitted to grow. Pasteurization[13] kills most of them. The border-line series commonly referred to as the streptothrix-actinomyces group are also very abundant in all forage and are carried in large numbers into all milk and its products. +33. Bacterial contamination of milk.+--When drawn from the cow, milk is seldom if ever sterile. Organisms usually work their way from the tip of the teat into the udder and multiply there. The fore milk usually contains more organisms than does that drawn later. Most of the bacterial contamination of the milk is due to the handling after it is drawn from the cow. +34. Germicidal effect of milk.+--Authorities agree that when a bacterial examination of the milk is made, hour by hour, beginning as soon as it is drawn from the cow, there is no increase in the number of organisms for a period of several hours at first, but an actual reduction not infrequently takes place. This is called the "germicidal"[14] property of milk. The lower the temperature of the milk, the longer and less pronounced is the germicidal action; the higher the temperature, the shorter and more pronounced is this action. This is explained as either: (1) a period of selection within which types of bacteria entering by accident and unadapted for growth die off; or (2) an actual weak antiseptic power in the milk-serum itself; or (3) the forming of clusters by the bacteria and so reducing the count. In working on a small scale or on an experimental basis, this property at times introduces a factor of difficulty or error which is not to be lost sight of in the selection of the milk for such purposes. +35. Sources and control of bacteria in milk.+--Most of the bacterial infection of milk is due to lack of care in handling. Some of the common sources[15] of contamination are: the air in the stable; the cow's body; the milker; the utensils; the method of handling the milk after it is drawn from the cow; unclean cheese factory conditions. Since bacteria cause various kinds of fermentation, not only in the milk but in the products manufactured from it, the question of their control is of prime importance. There are two ways in which the bacterial growth in milk used for cheese-making may be controlled: (1) prevention of infection; (2) the retardation of their development when present. The former is accomplished by strict cleanliness, the latter by adequate cooling. +36. The cow.+--The body of the cow may be a source of bacterial contamination. Bacteria adhere to the hair of the animal, and to the scales of the skin, and during the process of milking these are very liable to fall into the milk. To prevent this, the cow should be curried to remove all loose material and hair. Just before milking, the udder and flank should be wiped with a damp cloth; this removes some of the material, and causes the remainder to adhere to the cow. +37. Stable air.+--If the air of the stable is not clean, it will be a source of contamination. Particles of dust floating in the air carry more or less bacteria, and these fall into the milk during the process of milking. To keep the stable air free from dust at milking time, all operations which stir up dust, such as feeding, brushing the cows, cleaning the floor, should be practiced after milking or long enough before so that the dust will have settled. It is a good plan to close the doors and to sprinkle the floor just before milking. +38. The milker+ himself may be a source of contamination. He should be clean and wear clean clothing. The hands should not be wet with milk during milking. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Types of small-top milk pails.] +39. Utensils.+--The utensils are an important source of bacterial contamination. The bacteria lodge in the seams and corners unless these are well-flushed with solder. From these seams they are not easily removed. When fresh warm milk is placed into such utensils, the bacteria begin to grow and multiply. All utensils with which milk comes in contact should first be rinsed with cold water and then thoroughly washed and finally scalded with boiling water, and drained or blown absolutely dry. They should then be placed in an atmosphere free from dust until wanted for use again. If an aërator is used, this should be operated in pure air, free from odors and dust. One of the greatest sources of bacterial contamination of cheese milk is the use of the milk-cans to return whey to the farms for pig feed. Frequently, sour whey is left in the cans until ready to feed. These cans are then not properly washed and scalded. The practice of pasteurizing the whey at the cheese factory is a great help in preventing this source of infection and the spreading of disease. The use of a small-top milk pail[16] is to be especially recommended in preventing bacterial contamination. Because of the small opening, bacteria cannot easily fall into the milk in as large numbers as when the whole top of the pail is open. (See Fig. 3.) If a milking machine[17] is used, great care must be exercised to see that all parts that come in contact with the milk are cleaned after each milking, and then put in a clean place until ready to use again. +40. The factory.+--Another source of contamination is the cheese factory itself. The cheese-maker should keep his factory in the cleanest condition possible, not only because of the effect on the milk itself, but as a stimulus for the producers to follow his example. All doors and windows in the factory should be screened to keep out flies. +41. The control of bacteria.+--If, in spite of preventive measures, bacteria get into the milk, their growth can be retarded by controlling the temperature. If the temperature of the milk, as soon as drawn, can be reduced below that at which the bacteria grow and multiply rapidly, it will retard their development. In general, all milk should be cooled to 50° F. or below. In cooling the milk, it should not be exposed to dust or odors. One of the best methods of cooling is to set the can containing the milk into a tub of cold running water, and then stir. If running water is not available, cold well-water[18] may be used, but the water should be changed several times. If the milk is not stirred during the cooling process, it will not cool so rapidly, because the layer of milk next the can will become cold and act as an insulator to the remainder in the center of the can. One way to destroy many of the bacteria in milk is by pasteurization. This consists in heating the milk to such a degree that the bacteria are killed, and then quickly cooling it. After pasteurization, the milk is so changed that some kinds of cheese cannot be made successfully. +42. Fermentation test.+--When a cheese-maker is having trouble with gas in his cheese, or bad flavors, he can generally locate the source of difficulty. This can be done by making a small amount of cheese from each patron's milk, called a fermentation test.[19] Pint or quart fruit jars or milk bottles make suitable containers. They should be thoroughly washed and scalded, to be sure they are clean and sterile, and then covered to prevent contamination. As the milk is delivered to the factory, a sample is taken of each patron's milk. The best way to secure the sample is to dip the sterile jar in the can of milk as delivered and fill two-thirds full of milk. The jars are then set in water at 110° F. to bring the temperature of the milk to 98° F. The jar should be kept covered. A sink or wash-tub makes a convenient place in which to keep the jars. When the temperature of the milk is 98° F., ten drops of rennet extract or pepsin is added to each jar. A uniform temperature of 98° F. should be maintained in the jars. This will necessitate the addition of warm water occasionally to the water surrounding the jars. When the milk is coagulated, the curd is broken up with a sterile knife. Precaution should be taken to sterilize the knife after using it in one jar before putting it into another. The best way to do this is to hold the knife for a minute in a pail of boiling water, after taking it out of each jar. The same precaution should be observed with the thermometer. Unless care is taken, contamination is liable to be carried from one jar to the other. After cutting, the whey is poured off. The temperature should be kept at 98° F. so that the organisms will have a suitable temperature for growth. The whey should be poured from the jars occasionally, usually about every half hour. As the fermentation takes place, different odors will be noticed in different jars. In ten to twelve hours the jar should be finally examined for odors and the curd taken out and cut to examine it for gas pockets. By this means, bad flavors and gas in the cheese can be traced to their sources. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--A gang sediment tester, one tester removed.] [Illustration: FIG. 5.--A single sediment tester.] +43. The sediment test.+--The presence of solid material or dirt in the milk is always accompanied by bacterial contamination. By means of the sediment test, the amount of solid material can be determined. The test consists of filtering the milk through a layer of cotton; the foreign material is left on the cotton filter. Various devices for filtering the milk have been manufactured. (Figs. 4 and 5.) In order to be able to compare the filters from the different dairy-men's milk, the same amount of each patron's milk is filtered, usually about a pint. These tests are usually made once or twice a month at the factory and the filters placed on a card where the dairy-men can see them. Much improvement in the quality of the milk has been accomplished by the use of the sediment test. The purpose of this test may be and often is defeated by the use of efficient strainers. Milk produced in an unclean way may be rendered nearly free from sediment if carefully strained. It must be remembered that the strainer takes out only the undissolved substances and that bacteria and soluble materials which constitute a very large part of the filth pass through with the milk. CHAPTER III _COAGULATING MATERIALS_ At the present time, two substances are used to coagulate milk for cheese-making,--rennet extract and commercial pepsin.[20] Many substances will coagulate milk, such as acids and other chemicals. Enzymes in certain plants will also coagulate it. The curing or ripening of the cheese seems to depend on the physical and chemical properties of the curd, on the activity of certain organisms and on enzymes produced by them or in the milk. Rennet extract and pepsin are the only known substances which will produce curd of such character as will permit the desired ripening changes to take place. Until recently, rennet extract was principally used to coagulate the milk, but because of the scarcity, pepsin is now being substituted. +44. Ferments.+--Many of the common changes taking place in milk are due to fermentations. The souring of milk is one of the most familiar cases of fermentation. The important change taking place is the formation of lactic acid from the milk-sugar. The change is brought about by certain living organisms, namely, the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Another familiar case of fermentation is the coagulation of milk by rennet extract or pepsin. In this case, the change is produced by a chemical substance, not a living organism. Fermentation may be defined as a chemical change of an organic compound through the action of living organisms or of chemical agents. There are two general classes of ferments: (1) living organisms, or organized ferments; (2) chemical, or unorganized ferments. Organized ferments are living microorganisms, capable, as a result of their growth, of causing the changes. Unorganized ferments are chemical substances or ferments without life, capable of causing marked changes in many complex organic compounds, while the enzymes themselves undergo little or no change. These unorganized ferments are such as rennin, pepsin, trypsin, ptyalin. The rennet and pepsin must, therefore, be very thoroughly mixed into the milk to insure complete and uniform results, because they act by contact, and theoretically, if they could be recovered, might be used over and over again. Practically, the amount used is so small a percentage that recovery would be impractical even if possible. +45. Nature of rennet.+--Two enzymes or ferments are found in rennet extract, rennin and pepsin. They are prepared from the secreting areas of living membranes of the stomachs of mammalian young. For rennet-making, these stomachs are most valuable if taken before the young have received any other feed than milk. Rennin at this stage appears to predominate over pepsin which is already secreted to some extent. With the inclusion of other feed, the secretion of pepsin comes to predominate. Rennin has never been separated entirely from pepsin. Both of these enzymes are secreted by digestive glands in the same area, perhaps even by the same glands. They are so closely related that many workers have regarded them as identical. In practical work the effectiveness of rennet preparations has been greatest when stomachs which have digested feed other than milk are excluded. The differences, therefore, however difficult to define, appear to be important in the commercial preparation of rennet. It was the practice until a few years ago for each cheese-maker to prepare his own rennet extract. Each patron was supposed to supply so many rennets. Now commercial rennet extract and pepsin are on the market; however, some Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own rennet extract. For sheep's and goat's milk cheese, some makers hold that rennet made from kid or lamb stomachs is best for handling the milk of the respective species. The objection to the cheese-maker preparing his own rennet extract is that it varies in strength from batch to batch and is liable to spoil quickly. Taints and bad odors and flavors develop in it and so taint the cheese. +46. Preparation of rennet extract.+--This extract may be manufactured commercially from digestive stomachs of calves, pigs or sheep. An animal is given a full meal just before slaughtering; this stimulates a large flow of the digestive juices, containing the desired enzymes. The stomach is taken from the animal, cleaned, commonly inflated and dried. It may be held in the dry condition until needed for use. Such stomachs are usually spoken of as "rennets" in the trade. Such old rennets may be seen to-day hanging from the rafters of some of the older cheese factories. When wanted for use, rennets are placed in oak barrels and covered with water. Before placing them in the barrel, they are cut open so that the water may have easy access. Salt is usually added to the water at the rate of 3 to 5 per cent. They are stirred and pounded in this solution from five to seven days. At the end of this time, they are wrung through a clothes-wringer to remove the liquid. The rennets are put back into a fresh solution of salt and water, the object being to obtain all the digestive juices possible. They are usually soaked from four to six weeks. At the end of this time, most of the digestive juices will have been removed. The liquid portion is passed through a filter made of straw, charcoal and sand. When clean, an excess of salt is added to preserve it. Such extracts cannot be sterilized by heat because the necessary temperature would destroy the enzyme. Effective disinfectants cannot be used in food products. The extract, therefore, should be kept cool to retard bacterial growth. The extract is kept in wooden barrels, stone jugs or yellow glass bottles to protect it from light, which is able to destroy its activity. Rennet extract should be clear, with a clean salty taste and a distinct rennet flavor. There should be no cloudy appearance and no muddy sediment in properly preserved rennet. Rennet extract is on the market in the form of a liquid and a powder, the former being much more common. The commercial forms of rennet have the advantage in the skill used in their preparation and standardization. The combined product from large numbers of stomachs may not be as effective a preparation as the most skillfully produced sample from the very choicest single stomach, but it gives a uniformity of result which improves the average product greatly. +47. Pepsin.+--Pepsin is on the market in several commercial forms, as a liquid, scale pepsin and in a granular form known as spongy pepsin. Some commercial concerns put out a preparation which is a mixture of rennet extract and commercial pepsin. +48. Chemistry of curdling.+--The chemistry of casein[21] and of curd formation under the influence of acid and rennet extract and pepsin has been the subject of many years' research. While many points remain unsettled, the general considerations together with a large mass of accepted facts may be presented and some of the unsolved problems pointed out as left for future researches. Casein is a white amorphous powder, practically insoluble in water. It is an acid and as such readily dissolves in solutions of the hydroxides or the carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths by forming soluble salts. Pure casein salt solutions and fresh milk do not coagulate on boiling, but in the presence of free acid coagulation may take place below the boiling temperature. The coagulum formed in the case of milk includes fat and calcium phosphate. The slight pellicle which coats over milk when it is warmed is of the same composition. +49. Use of acid.+--A commonly accepted explanation of the precipitation of casein by acids is that the casein is held in solution by chemical union with a base (lime in the case of milk); that added acid removes the base, allowing the insoluble casein to precipitate; and that excess of acid unites with casein, forming a compound which is more or less readily soluble. +50. Robertson's theory.+--According to Robertson's conception, in a soluble solution of a protein or its salt, the molecules of the protein unite with each other to a certain extent, in this way forming polymers. The reaction is reversible, and the point of equilibrium between the compound and its polymeric modification varies under the influence of whatever condition affects the concentration of the protein ions. Addition of water, or of acid, alkali or salt, or the application of heat has such an effect, and consequently alters the relative number of heavier molecule-complexes. Robertson's experiments give evidence that one of the effects of increase of temperature on a solution of casein is a shifting of the equilibrium in the direction of the higher complexes. He explains coagulation as being a result of these molecular aggregates becoming so large as to assume the properties of matter in mass and to become practically an unstable suspension and then a precipitate. The acid curd then is casein or some combination of casein with the precipitant acid. +51. Rennet curd.+--Rennet extract and pepsin coagulation differs from coagulation by acids, and cannot be looked on as a simple removal of the base from a caseinate. The presence of soluble calcium salts (or other alkaline earth salts) seems to be essential, and the precipitate formed is not casein or a casein salt, but a salt of a slightly different nucleoalbumin called "paracasein." Many writers, following Halliburton, call this modification produced by rennin the "casein" and that from which it is derived, "caseinogen." Foster and a few others have used the term "tyrein" for the rennet clot. A number of investigations have been made on the conditions essential or favorable to formation of the coagulum, especially with regard to the effects of the degree of acidity and of conditions affecting the amount of calcium present, either as free soluble salt or bound to the casein. Soluble salts of calcium, barium and strontium favor or hasten coagulation, while salts of ammonium, sodium and potassium retard or prevent coagulation. The bulk of the coagulum from milk is a calcium paracaseinate, but it carries down with it calcium phosphate and fat, both of which bodies have been helped to remain in their state of suspension in milk by the presence of the casein salt. Lindet (1912) has concluded that about one-half of the phosphorus contained in the rennet curd is in the form of phosphate of lime (probably tricalcic), the other half being organically combined phosphoric acid. +52. Hammarsten's theory.+--According to Hammarsten (1877, 1896), whose view has been commonly held, the distinctive effect of the ferment is not precipitation but the transformation of casein into paracasein. This is evidenced by the fact that if rennet be allowed to act on solutions free from lime salts no precipitate occurs; but there is an invisible alteration of the casein, for now, even if the ferment be destroyed by boiling the solution, addition of lime salts will cause immediate coagulation. (See also Spiro, 1906.) Hence the process of rennet coagulation is a two-phase process; the first phase is the transformation of casein by rennin, the second is the visible coagulation caused by lime salts. Furthermore, if the purest casein and the purest rennin were used, Hammarsten always found after coagulation that the filtrate contained very small amounts of a protein. This protein he designated as the "whey protein." In accordance with these observations, Hammarsten (1911) explains the rennin action "as a cleavage process, in which the chief mass of the casein, sometimes more than 90 per cent, is split off as paracasein, a body closely related to casein, and in the presence of sufficient amounts of lime salts the paracasein-lime precipitates out while the proteose-like substance (whey-protein) remains in solution." By continued action of rennin on paracasein, a further transformation has been found in several cases (Petry, 1906; Van Herwerden, 1907; Van Dam, 1909), but perhaps due to a contamination of the rennin with pepsin, or to the identity of these two enzymes. The action which forms paracasein and whey-protein takes place in a short time (Hammarsten, 1896; Schmidt-Nielson, 1906). The composition and solubilities of paracasein have received considerable attention. (See Loevenhart, 1904; Kikkoji, 1909; Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912.) It is more readily digested by pepsin-hydrochloric acid than is casein (Hosl, 1910). +53. Duclaux theory.+--Duclaux (1884) and Loevenhart (1904) and others do not accept Hammarsten's theory; but to most workers it seems probable, at least, that the action of the rennin is to cause a cleavage of casein with formation of paracasein. However, the chemical and physical differences observed between casein and paracasein appear to be so slight that Loevenhart and some others think that they are only physical, perhaps differences in the size of the colloid or solution aggregates. Loevenhart conceives of a large part of the work of the rennet (or of the acid, in acid and heat coagulation) as being a freeing of the calcium to make it available for precipitation. Some think that the aggregates of paracasein are larger than those of casein, but there is more evidence of their being smaller, which idea corresponds with the findings of Bosworth, though he looks on the change as a true cleavage. +54. Bang's theory.+--Another description of the precipitation is given by Bang (1911), who studied the progress of the coagulation process by means of interruptions at definite intervals. His observations confirm the idea that rennin causes the formation of paracasein, and that the calcium salt serves only for the precipitation of the paracasein; the rennin has to do also with the mobilizing of lime salts. According to Bang, before coagulation occurs, paracaseins with constantly greater affinity for calcium phosphate are produced. These take up increasing amounts of calcium phosphate, until finally the combination formed can no longer remain in solution. +55. Bosworth's theory.+--By a very recent work of L. L. Van Slyke and A. W. Bosworth (Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912, 1913; and Bosworth and Van Slyke, 1913), in which ash-free casein and paracasein were compared as to their elementary composition, and as to the salts they form with bases, and the properties of these salts, it is indicated that the two compounds are alike in percentage composition and in combining equivalent, the paracasein molecule being one-half of the casein molecule. Moreover, Bosworth (1913) has shown that, if the rennin cleavage be carried out under conditions which avoid autohydrolysis, no other protein is formed; also that, if the calcium caseinate present be one containing four equivalents of calcium, the paracaseinate does not precipitate, save in the presence of a soluble calcium salt, while, if the calcium caseinate be one of two equivalents of base, rennin does cause immediate coagulation. Bosworth concludes that the rennin action is a cleavage (probably hydrolytic) of a molecule of caseinate into two molecules of paracaseinate, the coagulation being a secondary effect due to a change in solubilities, dicalcium paracaseinate being soluble in pure water but not in water containing more than a trace of calcium salt, and the monocalcium caseinate being insoluble in water. The alkali paracaseinates, as well as caseinates, are soluble. This explanation seems to promise to harmonize the observations with regard to acidity and the effects of the presence of soluble salts. This theory represents, therefore, many years of continuous work at the New York Experiment Station centered primarily on American Cheddar cheese. Disputed points remain for further study but these workers have contributed much toward a clear description of the chemical constitution of casein as affected by rennet action and bacterial activity. The investigations of these authors and of Hart with regard to the changes which the paracasein, the calcium and the phosphorus undergo during the ripening of cheese (Van Slyke and Hart, 1902, 1905; Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1907, 1913; Bosworth, 1907) contributed to this interpretation. BANG, IVAR, Ueber die chemische Vorgang bei der Milchgerinnung durch Lab, Skand. Arch. Physiol. 25, pages 105-144; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortsch. d. Thierchem. 41, pages 221-222, 1911. BOSWORTH, A. W., The action of rennin on casein, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913. BOSWORTH, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, 1907. BOSWORTH, A. W., and L. L. VAN SLYKE, Preparation and composition of basic calcium caseinate and paracaseinate, Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 207-210, 1913. DUCLAUX, ÉMILE, Action de la présure sur le lait, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 98, pages 526-528, 1884. HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, Zur Kenntnis des Caseins und der Wirkung des Labfermentes, Nova. Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis in Memoriam Quattuor Saec. ab Univ., Upsaliensi Peractorum, 1877. HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, Ueber das Verhalten des Paracaseins zu dem Labenzyme, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 22, pages 103-126, 1896. HAMMARSTEN, OLOF, A text book of physiological chemistry, from the author's 7th German edition, 1911. HOSL, J., Unterschiede in der tryptischen und peptischen Spaltung des Caseins, Paracaseins und des Paracaseinkalkes aus Kuh- und Ziegenmilch, Inaug. Diss. Bern., 31 pp., 1910. KIKKOJI, T., Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Caseins und Paracaseins, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages 130-146, 1909. LINDET, L., Solubilité des albuminoides du lait dans les éléments du sérum; rétrogradation de leur solubilité sous l'influence du chlorure, Bul. Soc. Chim. (ser. 4) 13, pages 929-935. LINDET, L., Sur les éléments mineraux contenus dans la caseine du lait, Rep. Eighth Internat. Congr. of Applied Chem. 19, 199-207, 1912. LOEVENHART, A. S., Ueber die Gerinnung der Milch, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 41, pages 177-205, 1904. PETRY, EUGEN, Ueber die Einwirkung des Labferments auf Kasein, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8, pages 339-364, 1906. ROBERTSON, T. BRAILSFORD, On the influence of temperature upon the solubility of casein in alkaline solutions, Jour. Biol. Chem. 5, pages 147-154, 1908. SCHMIDT-NIELSON, SIGVAL, Zur Kenntnis des Kaseins und der Labgerinnung, Upsala läkaref. Förh. (N. F.) No. 11, Suppl. Hammarsten Festschrift No. XV, 1-26; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortschr. d. Thierchem. No. 36, pages 255-256, 1906. SPIRO, K., Beeinflussung und Natur des Labungsvorganges, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8, pages 365-369, 1906. VAN DAM, W., Ueber die Wirkung des Labs Auf. Paracaseinkalks, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages 147-163, 1909. VAN HERWERDEN, M., Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Labwirkung auf Casein, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 52, pages 184-206, 1907. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, I. Some of the first chemical changes in Cheddar cheese. II. The acidity of the water extract of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 4, 1907. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Composition and properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 26, 1912. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Method of preparing ash-free casein and paracasein, Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 203-206, 1913. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Preparation and composition of unsaturated or acid caseinates and paracaseinates, _Ibid._ Vol. 14, pages 211-225, 1913. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Valency of molecules and molecular weights of casein and paracasein, _Ibid._ Vol. 14, pages 227-230, 1913. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and A. W. BOSWORTH, Composition and properties of the brine-soluble compounds in cheese, Jour. Biol. Chem. 14, pages 231-236, 1913. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, A study of some of the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; their relations to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, Casein and paracasein in some of their relations to bases and acids, American Chem. Jour. 33, pages 461-996, 1905. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and E. B. HART, Some of the relations of casein and paracasein to bases and acids, and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905. CHAPTER IV _LACTIC STARTERS_ Acidity in cheese-making arises almost exclusively from the lactic acid produced from the fermentation of milk-sugar (lactose) by bacteria. Hydrochloric acid is used in the Wisconsin[22] process of making pasteurized milk cheese and sometimes for making skimmed-milk curd for baking purposes. It is regularly used in precipitating casein not for food but for manufacturing purposes. +56. Acidifying organisms.+--Many species of bacteria have been shown to possess the power to produce lactic acid by fermenting lactose. In practice, however, the cheese-maker seeks to control this fermentation by the actual introduction of the desired organisms and by the production of conditions which will insure this dominance through natural selection. For this purpose the initial souring for most types of cheeses is produced by some variety of the species originally described by Esten[23] and commonly referred to as _Bacterium lactis-acidi_, but variously named as _B. acidi-lactici_, _Streptococcus lacticus_, _B. guntheri_ by different authors. Organisms of this series dominate all other species in milk which is incubated at 70° F. They produce a smooth solid mass without a sign of gas holes and without the separation of whey from the curd, and develop in milk a maximum acidity of about 0.90 of one per cent when titrated as lactic acid. (For titration see Chapter V.) This species is usually present in small numbers in fresh milk. There are many varieties or strains of the species with differing rates of activity and measurable differences in acid produced but with approximately the same qualitative characters. Most commercial starters for cheese- and butter-making belong to this group of species, although special mixtures with other organisms are prepared for special purposes. In addition to this group, most varieties of cheese contain some members of the colon-aërogenes group. When the milk is in proper condition, the activity of this group should be held in check by the early and rapid development of acid. Free development of members of this group usually shows itself in the presence of gas holes in the curd. +57. Starter.+--The practice of using pure cultures in cheese-making has brought about the development of factory methods of producing day by day cultures of the organisms desired, in quantities sufficient to inoculate the total quantity of milk used in manufacture. For this purpose milk is mostly used and the product is known as "starter." For cheese-making purposes, a starter is a substance used in the manufacture of dairy products having a predominance of lactic acid-forming microorganisms in an active state. There are two general classes of starter: (1) Natural starter; (2) commercial starter. +58. Natural starter.+--Milk, or other similar substance, which has become sour or in which large numbers of lactic acid-forming organisms are present, is called a natural starter when used in the manufacture of dairy products. To secure clean-flavored milk, the cheese-maker usually selects the milk of some producer who usually brings good milk and allows it to sour naturally for use the next day. There is often a variation from day to day in the milk delivered by the same producer, so that the cheese-maker is not certain of a uniform quality in his fundamental material. While the lactic acid-forming organisms are developing, other organisms may also be present in numbers sufficient to produce bad flavors. If a starter has any objectionable flavor, it should not be used. Natural starters very commonly develop objectionable flavors which at first are very difficult to recognize. When natural starters with objectionable but not easily recognizable odors are used, the effect may be seen on the cheese. Milk, sour whey and buttermilk are materials commonly used as natural starter. A common difficulty in skimmed-milk cheese is caused by the use of buttermilk as a starter. +59. Commercial starter or pure cultures.+--The alternative practice consists in the introduction of pure cultures of known strains of lactic bacteria into special milk to make the starter. Since these cultures must be prepared by a bacteriologist, commercial laboratories have developed a large business in their production. Many such commercial brands are manufactured under trade-marked names. Some of these cultures represent races of lactic bacteria cultivated and cared for efficiently, hence uniformly valuable over long periods of time. Others carelessly produced are worthless, or even a peril to the user. These organisms are usually shipped in small quantities in bottles of liquid or powder, or in capsules of uniform size. The contents may be either the culture medium upon which the organisms grew or inert substance designed merely to hold the bacteria in inactive form. In either solid or liquid form, the producer of the culture should guarantee its activity up to a plainly stated date. It is the problem[24] of the cheese-maker or butter-maker to increase this small amount of lactic acid-forming organisms to such numbers and in such active condition that it may be used in the factory; while being built up, these organisms must be kept pure. The usual practice is to allow them to develop in some material, usually whole milk or skimmed-milk; dissolved milk powder may be used in the place of milk. +60. Manufacturer's directions.+--The manufacturer usually sends directions with his starter preparation, telling how it should be used to secure the best result. These directions apply to average conditions and must be varied to suit the individual instances so that a good starter will be the result. The directions usually state the amount of milk necessary for the first inoculation. It is usually a small amount, one or two quarts. After the specific amount has been selected, this milk should be pasteurized. +61. Selecting milk.+--The milk for use in starter-making should be selected with very much care. Only clean-flavored sweet milk, free from undesirable micro-organisms, should be used in the preparation of starter. The milk is ordinarily chosen from a producer whose milk is usually in good condition. The quality of the milk can be determined by the use of the fermentation test. (See Chapter II.) It is better to choose only the morning's milk for the making of starter, because the bacteria have not had so much opportunity to develop. In no case should the mixed milk be used in the preparation of starter, as this eliminates all opportunity for selection. The flavor of the starter will be the same as that of the milk from which it is made. +62. Pasteurization+ is the process of heating to a high temperature for a given length of time and quickly cooling. It kills most of the micro-organisms in the milk. In other words, it makes a clean seed-bed for the pure culture. The temperatures of pasteurization recommended for starter-making differ with the authority. A temperature of 180° F. for thirty minutes or longer seems to be very satisfactory, since under these conditions nearly all the micro-organisms in the milk are killed. +63. Containers.+--Various kinds of containers may be used for starter-making. One-quart glass fruit jars or milk bottles make very satisfactory containers, because the condition of the starter may be seen at any time. They are also easily cleaned. They have the disadvantage, however, of being easily broken, if the temperature is suddenly changed, or if severely jarred. Tin containers may also be used. Such containers are not easily broken, but they are harder to clean and must be opened to examine the contents; hence the liability of contamination is very much greater. This small amount of milk may be pasteurized by placing the container in water heated to the desired temperature. A very satisfactory arrangement is to cut of a barrel, and place a steam pipe in it. The barrel can then be filled partly full of water and heated by steam. The bottles of milk to be pasteurized are hung in the water in the barrel. Two or three more bottles should be prepared than it is expected will be used as some of the bottles are liable to be broken while cooling or heating. The bottles should be filled about two-thirds full. This leaves room enough to add the mother starter and later to break up the starter to examine it. It is desirable not to have the milk or starter touch the cover since contaminations are more likely. It is a good plan when pasteurizing to have one bottle as a check. This may be filled with water and left open and the thermometer placed in it. A uniform temperature may be obtained by shaking the bottles. +64. Adding cultures.+--After being pasteurized, the milk should be cooled to a temperature of 80° F. This is a suitable temperature for the development of the lactic acid-forming organisms. The commercial or pure culture should now be added to the milk at the rate specified in the directions. Care should be exercised in opening bottles not to put the covers in an unclean place. A sterile dipper is a good place to put them. After the culture has been added to the milk, it should be mixed thoroughly by shaking the bottle. This should be repeated every fifteen or twenty minutes for four or five times. This is done to make certain that the culture is thoroughly mixed with the milk. The milk should be placed in a room or incubator as near 80° F. as possible, in order to have a uniform temperature for the growth of the organisms. The bacteria in the pure culture are more or less dormant so that a somewhat higher temperature than the ordinary is necessary to stimulate their activity. This milk should be coagulated in eighteen to twenty-four hours, depending largely on the uniformity of the temperature during incubation. +65. Cleanliness.+--To produce a good starter, great care should be exercised that all utensils coming in contact with the milk are sterile. After the milk is in the container in which the starter is made, it should be kept covered as continuously as possible. Thermometers should not be put into it to ascertain the temperature. When examining the starter, do not dip into it, but pour out, as this prevents contamination. The cover, when removed from the container, should be put in a sterile place in such way that the dirt will not stick to it and later get into the starter. +66. "Mother" starter or startoline.+--The thickened sour milk obtained by inoculating the sweet pasteurized milk with pure culture of lactic acid-forming bacteria is known as "mother starter" or "startoline." +67. Examining starter.+--This starter should be examined carefully as to physical properties, odor and taste. The coagulation should be smooth, free from whey and gassy pockets or bubbles. Sometimes the first few inoculations from a new culture will show signs of gas, but, usually, this will quickly disappear, and not injure the starter. It should have a clean sour cream odor and clean, mild, acid flavor. After breaking up it should be thick and creamy, entirely free from lumps. This starter may have an objectionable flavor, due to the media in which the organisms were growing when shipped. In such cases it is necessary to carry the starter one or two propagations to overcome the flavor, to enliven the micro-organisms and to secure the quantity desired. +68. Second day's propagation.+--For the second day, the milk for the starter is selected as on the first day. It is pasteurized, and this time cooled to 70° F. The milk is cooled a trifle colder the second day than the first, because the organisms have become more active and hence do not require as high a temperature to grow. Instead of inoculating with powder, as was done the first day, the mother starter prepared the first day is used. This requires only a very small amount, perhaps a tablespoonful to a quart bottle. It should be thoroughly mixed with the milk. This starter may have the flavor of the media used in the laboratory culture, therefore may need to be carried one or two days more to eliminate it. After the flavor has become normal, the mother starter is ready for commercial use. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--An improved starter-can.] +69. Preparation of larger amount of starter.+--The first thing to determine is the quantity of starter required. As much milk should be carefully chosen as the amount of starter desired. This milk should then be pasteurized. An improved starter-can (Fig. 6) may be used in the pasteurization of the milk and the making of starter, or a milk-can (Fig. 7) placed in a tub of water in which there is a steam pipe. The former requires mechanical power to operate the agitator, but the latter can be used where mechanical power is not available. In the latter the milk and starter are stirred by hand. This is the kind of apparatus more often found in cheese factories. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--A simple device for the preparation of starter.] If possible, this milk should be pasteurized to 180° F. for thirty minutes; this kills most of the bacteria and spores. The milk should be cooled to 60°-65° F., the temperature of incubation. This temperature may be varied with conditions, so that the starter will be ready for use at the desired time. The higher the temperature, the less time is required to ripen the starter. +70. Amount of mother starter to use.+--The mother starter prepared the day before is now used to inoculate the starter milk. The amount to use will depend on: 1. Temperature of milk when mother starter is added; 2. Average temperature at which the milk will be kept during the ripening period; 3. Time allowed for starter to ripen before it is to be used; 4. Vigor and acidity of the mother starter added. There is a very wide range as to the amount of mother starter required, from 0.5 of one per cent to 10 per cent being used under different conditions. Some operators prefer to add the mother starter while the milk is at a temperature of about 90° F., before it has been cooled to the incubating temperature. This reduces the amount of mother starter necessary. If an even incubating temperature can be maintained, it will require less mother starter than if the temperature goes down. If the ripening period is short, it will require a larger amount of mother starter, than if the ripening period is longer. If the starter has a low acidity or weak body indicating that organisms are of low vitality, it will require more mother starter. +71. Qualities.+--The starter, when ready to use, may or may not be coagulated; a good idea of the quality of the starter may be gained by the condition of the coagulation. The coagulation should be jelly- or custard-like, close and smooth, entirely free from gas pockets and should not be wheyed off. When broken up, the starter should be of a smooth creamy texture and entirely free from lumpiness or wateriness. It should have a slightly pronounced acid aroma. The starter should be free from taints and all undesirable flavors; the flavor should be a clean, mild acid taste. +72. How to carry the mother starter.+--Some mother starter must be carried from day to day to inoculate the large starter. This may be carried or made in several ways: 1. Independently: By this method a mother starter is made and carried entirely separately from the large starter. It requires more time and work, but is by far the best method. With a good mother starter, there is not so much danger of the larger starter becoming poor in quality. 2. Mother starter may be made by dipping pasteurized milk from that prepared for the large starter with sterile jars and then inoculating these jars separately. By this method, if the milk selected for the large starter is poor, the mother starter for the next day will be the same. It is very difficult by this method to carry a uniform, high quality mother starter. There is danger that the container used for the mother starter may not be sterile, and there is also danger of contamination in transferring the milk. 3. Another practice is to hold over some of the large starter used to-day for mother starter. This is by far the easiest method. By this practice, there is no certainty of the quality of the starter, because there is little or no control of the mother starter. If the large starter is for some reason not good, there is no separate reserve of mother starter on which to rely. +73. Starter score-cards.+--The use of a score-card tends to analyze the observations in such a way as to emphasize all the characteristics desired in the starter. Such an analysis seeks to minimize the personal factor and produce a standardization of the quality. The score-card finally reduces the qualities of the starter to a numerical basis for ease of comparison. Many score-cards have been proposed but the one preferred by the authors is that used by the Dairy Department of the New York State College of Agriculture, which is as follows: CORNELL SCORE-CARD Flavor 50 Clean, desirable acid. Aroma 20 Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable aroma. Acidity 20 0.6 per cent-0.8 per cent. Body 10 Before breaking up: jelly-like, close, absence of gas holes. No free whey. After breaking up: smooth, creamy, free from granules or flakes. The qualities mentioned in this score-card can be quickly and easily determined by examining and tasting the starter and by making an acid test of a sample. The acid test is conducted as with milk (see Chapter II) except the starter must be rinsed out of the pipette with pure water. Some starter score-cards call for a bacterial examination and counting of the starter organisms. This takes a considerable period of time and is not entirely necessary. The physical properties and acid test are closely correlated with the presence of the desired organisms. +74. Use of starter.+--If all milk could be clean and sweet and the only fermentation from it were the clean acid type, a starter would be useless. Such milk is hard to obtain; therefore, a starter is used to overcome the bad fermentation. This improves the flavor, body and texture of the cheese. The common contaminations which the starter will tend to correct are: 1. Gas-producing bacteria. 2. Yeasts. 3. Bad flavors or taints. The length of time a starter may be carried depends on the accuracy and carefulness of the maker. This calls for scrupulous attention to the temperature, the selection of milk and keeping out contaminations. The maker must remember that a starter is not merely milk, but milk full of a multitude of tiny plants, very sensitive to food, temperature, clean surroundings and the quantity of their own acid. NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY +STARTER LOT-CARD+ +Department of Dairy Industry.+ ================================================================== Day and Date_____________________ +MILK:+ Kind________________ % fat_____% solids not fat_____ Flavor__________________________________ Amount of milk____________ Hours old______________ +PASTEURIZATION:+ Method______________________________________________ Milk when received: Temperature_____ ° Acidity_____ % Heating: Turning on heat__________ APM. Desired temp. reached__________ APM. Turning off heat__________ APM. Length of time at desired temp.__________ Beginning to cool__________ Cooled__________ APM; to__________ ° Acidity: After pasteurization__________ When inoculated________________ +INOCULATION:+ Time__________ Temperature__________ Amount__________ lbs. __________% +INCUBATION:+ Temperature__________ Time__________ +MOTHER STARTER USED:+ Source_____________________________________ % used_______________ Times propagated___________________________ Acidity______________ Amount used________________________________ Appearance___________ Flavor_______________________________ Comments__________________________________________________________ +STARTER:+ Time of examining__________ Temperature________________ +SCORE-CARD:+ Flavor__________50| Clean, desirable acid. | Aroma___________20| Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable aroma. | Acidity_________20| 0.6%-0.75%. | Body____________10| Before breaking up: jelly-like, close, | absence of gas holes. No free whey. ____| ___After breaking up: smooth, creamy, free from | granules or flakes. Total_________ 100| ----------------------------------- The above is a tentative score-card. +COMMENTS:+____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ +Work and observation by+______________________________________ +75. The amount of starter to use+ depends on the amount of acid desired in the milk for any particular kind of cheese. The great abuse of starter is the practice of using too much. It is better and safer to add starter a little at a time and several times than to add too much at once. When starter is added to milk for cheese-making, it should be strained to remove any lumps; otherwise an uneven color is likely to result. +76. Starter lot-card.+--For certain dairy operations, a permanent record is desired. This is especially true in the making of starter and certain varieties of cheese. A lot-card not only serves as a record but also points out the succeeding steps of the operation. This latter is especially useful for beginners and students. Page 53 shows a desirable lot-card to be used when making starter. Each operation has been referred to the page in the text where it is discussed. This makes this particular lot-card an index to the whole process of starter-making as here treated. CHAPTER V _CURD-MAKING_ Aside from the purely sour-milk cheeses, the coagulum or curd resulting from rennet action is the basis of cheese-making. The finished cheese, whatever its final condition, is primarily dependent on a particular chemical composition and fairly definite physical characters in the freshly made curd mass. These characters are determined by a series of factors under control of the cheese-maker. Assuming the milk to be normal in character, success depends on the use of a proper combination of these factors. The possible variations in each factor together with their number makes an almost infinite series of such combinations possible. The essential steps in the process are, therefore, presented as underlying all cheese-making. The special adaptations of each factor are considered in the discussion of the varieties group by group. These factors follow: _A._ The coagulation group: 1. Fat-content of the milk. 2. The acidity of the milk. 3. The temperature of renneting. 4. The effective quantity of rennet. 5. Curdling period or the time allowed for rennet action. _B._ The handling group: 6. Cutting or breaking the curd. 7. Heating (cooking) or not heating. 8. Draining (including pressing, grinding and putting into hoops or forms). +77. The composition of the milk.+--The fat percentage in the milk in the cheese-vat should be known to the cheese-maker and be strictly under his control. The fat tester and the separator make this clearly possible. He can go further. Milk from particular herds whose quality is a matter of record from the routine test of each patron's milk may be selected and brought together for the manufacturer of cheese of special quality. Control of casein or lactose, on the contrary, is not nearly so practicable. The purchase of milk on the fat test has become so well established in most dairy territories, as to insure the presence and constant use of the tester. A fat test of the mixed product in the cheese-vat in connection with established tables thus insures an accurate knowledge of the materials which go into each day's cheese. For some varieties of cheese, whole milk should always be used. For other varieties, the addition or removal of fat is regularly recognized as part of the making process. The presence of added fat or the removal of fat affects the texture of the product and the details of the process of making. +78. Cheese color.+--An alkaline solution of annatto is usually used as a cheese color. This colors both casein and fat in contrast to butter color which is an oil solution of the dye and mixes only with the fat. Cheese color is added to the milk in making some varieties of cheese, and not for others. When lactic starter is used, the color should be added after the starter and just before the addition of the rennet. The amount is determined by the color desired in the cheese. The usual amount varies from one to four ounces to each thousand pounds of milk. Before adding, the color should be diluted in either milk or water, preferably water. It should then be mixed thoroughly with the milk. +79. The acidity factor.+--Milk as drawn shows a measurable acidity when titrated to phenolphthalein with normal sodium hydroxide. This figure varies with the composition of milk. Casein itself gives a weakly acid reaction with this indicator. Calculated as lactic acid, this initial acidity varies within fairly wide limits, records being found from 0.12 to 0.21 of one per cent or even more widely apart. Commonly, however, such titration shows 0.14 to 0.17 per cent. Some forms of cheese (Limburger, Swiss, Brie) are made from absolutely fresh milk. Acidity from bacterial activity is important as a factor in the making of most types of cheese and probably in the ripening of all types. Increasing the acidity of the milk hastens rennet action and within limits produces increased firmness of the curd. If carried too high, acidity causes a grainy or sandy curd. Normally fresh milk is sufficiently acid in reaction when tested to phenolphthalein to permit rennet to act, but the rate of action increases rapidly with the development of acid. Increase of acidity may be accomplished: (_a_) by the addition of acid as has been done by Sammis[25] and Bruhn in pasteurized milk for Cheddar cheese; or (_b_) by the development of acid through the activity of lactic organisms, which is the usual way. For renneting, the acidity necessary for particular cheeses runs from that of absolutely fresh milk still warm (as in French Brie, Limburger, Swiss, Gorgonzola) through series calling for increase of acidity, hundredth by hundredth per cent calculated as lactic acid. This ranges from 0.17 to 0.20 per cent as is variously used in American factory Cheddar to about 0.25 to 0.28 per cent as obtained by adding acid in Sammis' method. This method is discussed under the heading "Cheddar Cheese from Pasteurized Milk" (p. 229) since it requires special apparatus and has not thus far been used with other types of cheese. For the development of acidity by the action of bacteria, lactic starter is almost universally used. This may be added in very small quantities and the acidity secured by closely watching its development or by adding starter in amount sufficient to obtain the required acidity at once. In either case, the cheese-maker needs to know the rate of action of the culture to insure the proper control of the process. The amount of acid already present when the rennet is added affects not only the texture of the curd as first found, but within limits indicates also the rate at which further acidity may be expected to develop. A series of experiments in making Roquefort were tabulated to show the rate of acidification from various initial points. In the graphs (Fig. 8) the curves for acid development are parallel after the determination reaches 0.30 per cent. These experiments were made at a temperature 80° to 84° F. Milk at the lowest acidities tried developed titratable acid very slowly. A period of several hours was required to produce sufficient acid to affect the curd texture. When the acid reached 0.25 per cent by titration, the further rise was rapid and all the lines became almost straight and parallel after the titration reached 0.30 per cent. If this rapid souring occurred after the completion of the cheese-making process, the texture of the experimental cheese was not measurably affected. In those cases, however, in which 0.30 per cent was reached before the cheese reached its final form in the hoop, the texture of the ripened cheese was entirely different from that desired for this variety under experiment. These curves apply directly to but one cheese process in which a particular combination of acidity, rennet and time is used to obtain a very delicately balanced result. In other varieties it is equally important to obtain exactly the adjustment of these factors which will bring the desired result. [Illustration: FIG. 8.--The acidification of Roquefort cheese.] +80. Acidity of milk when received.+--If proper care has been taken, milk should be delivered to the factory fresh, clean and without the development of acid. If the milk has not been handled properly, the early stages of souring or some other unfavorable fermentation will have developed. Such milk may develop too much acid, or gas, or any one of several objectionable flavors during the making and ripening of the cheese. Some cheese-makers become very expert in detecting the first traces of objectionable qualities, but most makers are dependent on standardized tests to determine whether milk shall be accepted or rejected, and when accepted to determine the rate at which it may be expected to respond during the cheese-making process. Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid present in milk. There are two tests commonly used in cheese-factories. One is known as the "acid test" and the other the "rennet test." +81. The acid test+[26] is made by titrating a known amount of milk (Fig. 9) against an alkali solution of known strength, using phenolphthalein as an indicator. The object of the indicator is to tell the condition of the milk, whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. The indicator does not change in an acid solution but turns pink when the solution is or becomes alkaline. To make the test, a known quantity of the material to be tested is placed in a white cup, and to this several drops of indicator are added. As an indicator, a 1 per cent solution of phenolphthalein in 95 per cent alcohol is commonly used. As an alkali solution, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in the standardized strength usually either tenth (N/10) normal or twentieth (N/20) normal. This solution should be obtained in some one of the standardized forms commercially prepared. The alkali is added, drop by drop, from a graduated burette until a faint pink color appears. This shows that the acid in the milk has been neutralized by the alkali. The amount of alkali that has been used can be determined from the burette. Knowing the amount of milk and alkali solution used, it is easy to calculate the amount of acid in the substance tested. The results are usually expressed either as percentages of lactic acid or preferably as cubic centimeters of normal alkali required to neutralize 100 or 1000 c.c. of milk. This kind of test is on the market under different names, such as Mann's, Publow's, Farrington's and Marschall's. [Illustration: _FIG. 9._--An acid tester.] +82. Rennet tests.+--Several rennet tests have been devised, but the one most widely used is the Marschall (Fig. 10). This consists of a 1 c.c. pipette to measure the rennet extract, a small bottle in which to dilute the extract, a special cup to hold the milk and a spatula to mix the milk with the rennet extract. This cup has on the inside from top to bottom a scale graduated from 0 at the top to 10 at the bottom. There is a hole in the bottom to allow the milk to run out. [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Marschall rennet test.] +83. Marschall rennet test.+--To make a Marschall rennet test, 1 c.c. of rennet extract is measured, with the 1 c.c. pipette, and placed in the bottle. Care should be exercised to rinse out the pipette. The bottle is then filled to the mark with cold water. After the milk has been heated to the setting temperature, 84°-86° F., the cup is filled with milk and set on the edge of the vat so that the milk running out through the hole in the bottom of the cup will flow into the vat. Just as the surface of the milk reaches the 0 mark on the cup, the diluted rennet extract is added and thoroughly mixed with the milk, using the small spatula to stir it. The rennet and milk should be mixed until it has run down at least one-half space on the scale in the cup. As the rennet begins to coagulate the milk, it runs slower from the hole in the bottom of the cup, until it finally stops. When it stops, the point on the scale indicated by the surface of the coagulated milk is noted. The test is recorded by the number of spaces the surface of the milk lowers from the time the rennet is added until it is coagulated. This test depends on three factors: the strength of the rennet extract, the temperature of the milk, the acidity of the milk. The more acid, the quicker the milk will coagulate. To measure any one of these factors, the other two must be constant. The variable factor is the acidity of the milk. This test will not indicate the percentage of acid in the milk, but is simply a comparative test to be used from day to day; for example, if the rennet test to-day shows three spaces, and the operator makes that milk into cheese and the process seems to be normal, it shows that for good results in this factory, milk should be ripened to show three spaces every day. If the next day the milk showed four spaces, it should be allowed to ripen more until it shows three spaces. If it shows only two spaces, this indicates that the milk has too much acid development or is over-ripe. A cheese-maker will have to determine at what point to set his milk, because the test will vary from one factory to another. +84. Comparison of acid and rennet test.+--Each of these tests has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the acid test is that it can be made as well of warm as cold milk. This is of great importance in determining whether the milk delivered by any patron is too ripe to be received. The acidity of other materials, such as whey and starter, can be determined as well as that of milk. The disadvantages are that it is difficult to get the alkali solution of the proper strength and the solution is liable to deteriorate on standing. It requires a careful exact operator to make the test. The advantages of the rennet test are that it is easy to make, and it requires no materials that are hard to replace. The disadvantage is that the milk must be warmed to the same temperature before a comparative test can be made. The size of the outlet in cups varies. It does not indicate the percentage of acid present in the milk. It is simply a comparative test. To obtain the best result, both tests should be used in conjunction. +85. Control of acid.+--The control of acidity in curd and cheese is dependent on the control of the moisture or water-content. The control of both factors is very important in relation to the quality[27] of the cheese. Often acidity is spoken of when moisture is really intended, and vice versa. The close relation between the moisture and acidity is due to the presence of the milk-sugar in solution in the milk-serum which becomes the whey of cheese-making. Water or moisture in cheese consists of the remnant of this whey which is not expelled in the making process. During manufacture and the ripening process, the milk-sugar is changed to lactic acid. A cheese may be sweet when first made and after a time become sour because it contains too much moisture in the form of whey. Excess of whey carries excess of milk-sugar from which fermentation produces intense acidity. Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid developed at the different stages of manufacture. These tests are described on page 61. By the use of such tests, the development of acid during the manufacturing process can be very accurately determined. There is no quick, accurate test to determine the amount of moisture in the curd. The cheese-maker has to rely on his own judgment, guided largely by the appearance, feeling and condition of the curd. After the rennet extract has been added, all control of the acid development is lost. The cheese-maker can determine rather accurately how fast the acid will develop during the ripening of the milk. This shows the importance of the proper ripening. The amount of acid developed during the different stages of the manufacturing process can be approximately followed with the various acid tests. The manufacturing process should then be varied to obtain the proper relation between the moisture and the acid present. The only time that the acidity may be controlled is when the milk is being ripened. If too much acid is developed before the rennet is added, there is apt to be too much acid at each stage of the manufacturing process. This is liable to hurry the cheese-making process and to cause a loss, both in quality and quantity of cheese, and may cause a high acid or sour cheese. If sufficient acid is not developed at the time the rennet is added or if the milk is not sufficiently ripened, the acid is liable not to develop fast enough so that there will not be sufficient at each step in the cheese-making process. Such a cheese is called "sweet." There are several conditions which will cause an over-development of acid. Such a cheese is called "acidy" or "sour." These factors are within the control of the cheese-maker, hence should be avoided. A sour cheese shows lack of skill and care on the part of the cheese-maker. _Conditions causing an acidy or sour cheese:_ Receiving sour or high acid milk at the cheese-factory. Use of too much starter. Ripening the milk too much before the rennet is added. Removing the whey before the curd is properly firmed, hence leaving it with too much moisture. Development of too much acid in the whey before the whey is removed. Improper relationship between the moisture and acidity at the time of removing the whey. _Conditions causing deficient acid:_ Adding the rennet before sufficient acid has developed. Not using sufficient starter. Not developing sufficient acid in the whey. +86. Acidity and rennet action.+--The rennet extract acts only in an acid medium. The greater the acid development, within certain limits, the faster the action of the rennet. If enough acid has developed to cause a coagulation of the casein, the rennet will not coagulate the milk. This is one reason why Cheddar cheese cannot be made from sour milk. +87. Acidity and expulsion of the whey.+--The contraction of the curd and expulsion of the whey are so closely related that they may be treated under the same heading. The more acid, the faster the whey separates from the curd, other conditions being uniform. The relation of acidity and firmness of the curd to temperature of the curd is another important factor in the successful manufacture of cheese. The higher the acidity, the faster the temperature of the curd can be raised without any harmful effects. If the temperature is raised too fast in relation to the acidity, the film surrounding each piece of curd will become toughened so that the moisture will not be able to escape. When this condition exists, the curd will feel firm but when the pieces are broken open the inside is found to be very soft. This results in a large loss later or may cause a sour cheese. It usually causes an uneven texture and color in the cheese. +88. Acidity in relation to cheese flavor.+--Just what part the acid plays in the development of cheese flavor is not known. If a certain amount of acid is not present, the characteristic cheese flavor does not develop. If too much acid is developed, it gives the cheese a sour flavor which is unpleasant. If sufficient acid is not developed, the other undesirable factors seem to be more active, causing very disagreeable flavor and may cause the cheese to putrefy. A cheese with a low acid usually develops a very mild flavor, and if carried to extremes, as in the case of some washed curd cheese, the true cheese flavor never develops. +89. Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese.+--If a cheese is to have a close, smooth, mellow, silky body and texture, a certain amount of acid development is necessary. If too much acid is developed, the body and texture will be dry, harsh, sandy, mealy, corky. If the acid is not sufficient the cheese may be soft or weak bodied, and is usually characterized by "Swiss curd holes," which are spaces of various sizes usually more or less round and very shiny on the inside. +90. Acidity in relation to cheese color.+--An over-development of acidity affects the color of a cheese. If this development of acidity is uniform throughout the cheese, it causes the color to become pale or bleached. If this development is uneven, due to the uneven distribution of moisture, the color will be bleached in spots, causing a mottled effect. +91. Control of moisture.+[28]--The cheese-maker must use skill and judgment in regulating the amount of moisture in relation to the firmness of the curd and the acid. Since there are no quick accurate tests to determine the amount of moisture, this is left entirely to the judgment of the operator. Certain methods of handling the curd reduce the moisture-content, while others increase it. The cheese-maker must decide how to handle the curd. If the curd becomes too dry, methods should be employed to increase the moisture, and vice versa. _Causes of excessive moisture:_ Cutting the curd coarse. Cutting the curd after it has become too hard. Setting the milk at a high temperature. Use of excessive amount of rennet extract. Low acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey. Not stirring the curd with the hands as the last of the whey is removed. High piling of the curd during the cheddaring process. Piling the curd too quickly after removing the whey. Use of a small amount of salt. Holding the curd at too low a temperature after the whey is removed. Soaking the curd in water previous to salting. Allowing the curd to remain in the whey too long so that it reabsorbs the whey. Heating the curd too rapidly. _Causes of insufficient moisture:_ Cutting the curd too fine or breaking up the pieces with the rake into too small pieces. Cutting the curd too soft. Stirring the curd too much by hand as the last of the whey is being removed. Developing high acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey. Insufficient piling of the curd during the cheddaring process. Using a large amount of salt. High temperature and low humidity in the curing room. +92. Relation of moisture to manufacture and quality.+--(1) _Flavor:_ If the cheese contains too much moisture, it is likely to develop a sour or acidy flavor. A cheese with a normally high moisture-content usually ripens or develops a cheese flavor much faster than one with a lower moisture-content, other conditions being uniform. A cheese with a high moisture-content is much more liable, during the curing process, to develop undesirable flavors than is one with a lower moisture-content. (2) _Body and texture:_ A cheese containing too much moisture is very soft and is difficult to hold in shape. Such a product breaks down very rapidly and is usually pasty and sticky in texture. If too little moisture is present, the cheese is very dry and hard, and cures or ripens very slowly because of the lack of moisture together with milk-sugar from which acid may be formed. Dry cheeses are usually harsh, tough and rubbery in texture. Such cheeses also have poor rinds. (3) _Color:_ If the ideal conditions exist, the moisture will be evenly distributed throughout the cheese. The spots containing more moisture will be lighter in color. If a cheese contains so much moisture that it becomes "acidy," the effect is the same as when too much acid is developed, that is, the color becomes pale from the action of the acid. (4) _Finish:_ A cheese containing too much moisture is usually soft. A good rind does not form. Such a cheese loses its shape very easily, especially in a warm curing room. (5) _Quality:_ A cheese with a high moisture-content is usually marketable for only a very short period. Such a product usually develops flavor very quickly in comparison to a dry cheese. It must be sold very soon because if held too long, the flavor becomes so strong as to be undesirable, and objectionable flavors are liable to develop. In some cases, such cheeses rot. +93. Relation of moisture to acidity.+--From the preceding discussion, it is evident that the relation between the moisture and acidity is very close, in fact so intimate that in some cases it is difficult to distinguish one from the other when the quality of the cheese is considered. The proper relation of the moisture and the acidity determines the quality of the resulting cheese. If too much acid is developed during the manufacturing process, the product will be sour. If too much moisture is retained in the form of whey, the cheese will be sour. The less acid in the curd, the more moisture in the form of whey may be retained in the curd without causing a sour cheese. The proper relationship between the moisture and the acidity must be maintained or a sour cheese will result. The relation of the moisture to the acidity also has an influence on the curing. If the cheese has a low development of acidity and a low moisture-content, it will cure very slowly. The increasing of either the acidity or moisture usually increases the rate of cheese ripening, other factors being the same. The relation of the acidity and the moisture is so important that it cannot be neglected without injuring both the quality and quantity of cheese. This knowledge can be obtained only by experience. +94. Setting temperature.+--The temperature of renneting makes very much difference in the texture of the product. The enzyme rennin is sensitive to very slight changes in temperature. Below 70° F., its rate of action is very slow. Beginning with approximately 20 per cent of its maximum effectiveness at 70° F. (the curdling point for Neufchâtel), it has risen to 65 per cent at 84° F., to 70 per cent at 86° F., as used in Cheddar, to about 80 to 85 per cent at 90-94° F., as used in Limburger. At 105° F. it reaches its maximum effective working rate to fall from that efficiency to about 50 per cent at 120° F. Curdling at low temperature lengthens the time required for the same amount of rennet to curdle a given quantity of the same milk. The texture of curd produced at temperatures between 70° F. and 84° F. is soft, jelly-like, friable rather than rubbery. At 86° F. it begins to show toughening or rubbery characters which become very marked at 90° F. to 94° F. as used in Limburger. With the increased vigor of action as it passes its maximum rate of action at 105° F., the texture tends to become loose, floccose to granular. Aside from the Neufchâtel group, the working range of temperatures for the renneting period runs from about 84° F. to about 94° F., a range of barely 10° F., or the use of 65 per cent to 80 or possibly 85 per cent of the maximum efficiency of the rennet. Within this range of temperature, the curd has the physical characters demanded for making most varieties of cheese. +95. Strength of coagulating materials.+--Rennet and pepsin preparations vary in strength and in keeping quality. With a particular stock, changes go on to such a degree that the last samples from a barrel of rennet are much weaker than the earlier ones. Each sample, barrel, keg or bottle should be tested before used. In continuous work the results of each day's work furnish the guide for the next day's use of a particular lot of rennet. +96. Amount of coagulating materials to use.+--For most varieties of cheese, sufficient rennet extract or pepsin is added to the milk to give a firm curd in twenty-five to forty minutes. Of the ordinary commercial rennet extract, this requires from two and one-half to four ounces to one thousand pounds of milk. This gives a maximum of one part rennet for each four to six thousand parts of milk. The great strength of the rennet extract is thus clearly shown. +97. Method of adding rennet.+--Before rennet is added to the milk, it is diluted in about forty times its volume of cold water, which chills the enzyme and retards its action until it can be thoroughly mixed with the milk. If the material is added without such dilution, the concentrated extract produces instant coagulation in the drops with which it comes in contact, forming solid masses from which the enzyme escapes only slowly to diffuse throughout the mass. Uniform coagulation thus becomes impossible. After the rennet extract has been diluted with cold water, it should be distributed the entire length of the vat in an even stream from a pail. It should then be mixed with the milk by stirring from top to bottom for about three to four minutes. For this purpose, either a long-handled dipper or a wooden rake may be used. A dipperful should be drawn from the gate and stirred into the vat, otherwise the milk in the gate will fail to coagulate properly because the rennet diffuses too slowly to reach and affect all the milk at that point. The milk should be stirred on the top, preferably with the bottom of a dipper, until signs of coagulation begin to appear. This stirring keeps the cream from rising. There are various ways or signs to indicate when the coagulation has gone to the stage at which the mix is about to become thick: (1) The milk becomes lazy or thicker as the finger is passed through it; (2) bubbles caused by moving the finger remain on the milk longer, usually until one can count ten when ready to thicken. If the milk is stirred too long or after it begins to thicken, the result is a granular sort of curd, and there will be an abnormally large loss of fat in the manufacturing process. The addition of the rennet and subsequent stirring require the exercise of great care and constant attention to details. The cheese-maker can do nothing else for those few minutes. When through stirring, it is a good plan in cold weather to cover the vat with a cloth as this will keep the surface of the curd warm. In summer the same cover will keep out the flies. _Causes of a delayed coagulation:_ (1) Weak rennet extract or too small an amount. (2) Low temperatures due to inaccurate thermometers. (3) Pasteurized milk. (4) Presence of abnormal bacterial ferments. (5) Presence of preservatives. (6) Heavily watered milk. (7) Use of badly rusted[29] cans. (8) Milk containing small amounts of casein or calcium salts. _Causes of uneven coagulation:_ (1) Uneven temperature of the mix in the vat, due to lack of agitation. (2) Uneven distribution of the rennet extract. (3) Adding rennet to vat too soon after heating, while the sides and bottom are still hot, causes curd to stick to sides and bottom of the vat making cutting difficult. (4) Sloshing after the milk begins to thicken breaks the curd and causes it to whey off. +98. The curdling period.+--The time allowed for rennet action also affects the texture of the curd. The enzymes of rennet (rennin and pepsin) do not cease acting with the thickening of the milk. In many cheeses, the handling process begins as soon as the curd has become solid enough to split cleanly before a finger thrust into it. If let stand further, the same curd mass will continue to harden with the progressive separation of whey; this shows first as drops ("sweating") on its surface, which then increase in number and size until they run together and form a sheet of whey. The limit of such action is difficult to measure. The solidifying process ceases in a period of hours. The further action of the enzymes is digestive in character and goes on slowly. It requires a period of weeks or even months to accomplish measurable results at the working temperatures in use in the trade. Other ripening agents with more rapid action intervene to shape the final result. It follows that the rennet factor in the ripening changes found at the end of the period is almost negligible for most varieties of cheese, although it appears to be measurable in some varieties. +99. Cutting or breaking[30] the curd.+--As soon as curd is formed, separation of whey begins upon the surface and perhaps around the sides of the vessel. This is accompanied by shrinkage and hardening of the mass. If the curd remains unbroken, the separation is extremely slow. In cheese-making practice, such curd masses may be dipped at once into hoops as in Camembert, dumped in mass into cloths for drainage as in Neufchâtel or, as in the larger number of cheeses, cut or broken in some characteristic manner. After the curd mass is firm, the rate at which subsequent changes take place depends largely on the size of the particles into which the curd is cut. The smaller the particles, the quicker the water is expelled. Consequently the development of the acidity and other changes take place more slowly. For this reason the curd should be cut into pieces of uniform size. If the work is not properly performed, the pieces of curd of various sizes will be at different stages of development. The fine particles will be firm and elastic while the larger particles are still soft and full of whey and may be developing too much acid. The knives should be inserted into the curd obliquely so that they will cut their way into the curd and not break it. The horizontal knife is used lengthwise of the vat and cuts the curd into layers of uniform thickness. The perpendicular knife then is used lengthwise and crosswise of the vat. It first cuts the curd into strips and then into cubes. The knives may have wire blades or steel blades, some operators preferring one and some the other. Whichever is used, the blades should be close enough together to give the fineness of curd desired. After the knife passes through, the cut faces quickly become covered with a smooth coating, continuous over all exposed areas. This surface has the appearance of a smooth elastic coating or film. This can be seen by carefully breaking a piece in the hand. It is this film which holds the fat within the pieces of curd. If the film is broken, some of the fat globules are lost because the rennet extract acts only on the casein and that in turn holds the fat. All the fat globules which come in contact with the knives as they pass through the curd will be left between the pieces of curd and will pass off in the whey. If care is exercised in cutting, the loss of fat will be confined to what may be called a mechanical loss. This is similar to the loss of the sawdust when sawing a board. This loss in American Cheddar is about 0.3 per cent and cannot be avoided. If it is greater than this, it is due to negligence on the part of the cheese-maker or the poor condition of the milk. The cutting of the curd into small pieces may be considered a necessary evil. If the moisture could be expelled from the whole mass without disturbing it, this fat loss could be prevented. The cutting, breaking or turning should be done with the greatest care, that the loss may be as small as possible. +100. Curd knives.+--For cutting curd, special knives have been devised (Fig. 11). They consist of series of parallel blades fixed in a frame to make cuts equidistant. The blades run vertically in one, horizontally in another. They are spaced according to the demands of the variety of cheese to be made. Wires stretched in a frame take the place of blades in some makes of curd knife. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Blade and wire curd knives: horizontal, perpendicular, horizontal, perpendicular.] +101. Heating or "cooking."+--Curdling by rennet has already been shown to be markedly hastened by moderate heating. After the coagulum or curd is formed, the making process may be completed without the application of further heat, as in Neufchâtel, Camembert and related forms (Fig. 12) and in some practices with Limburger. In other forms and especially in the hard cheeses in which cutting of curd is a prominent part of the process, the curd after being cut is reheated or "cooked." The cooking process hastens the removal of the whey, thus shortening the time required to reduce the water-content of the mass to the percentage most favorable for the type of cheese desired. The process also produces marked changes in the physical character of the curd mass. With the rise in temperature the casein becomes elastic first, then approaches a melting condition and assumes a tough, almost rubbery consistency. The final texture is the result of the combination of the amount of rennet added, the temperature, the acidity reached during the process, and the final water-content of the mass. [Illustration: FIG. 12.--The heat relation. See pages 77 and 87.] +102. Draining+ (including grinding, putting into hoops or forms and pressing).--The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as soon as the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by the retention of the heat applied before renneting and by the secondary heating or cooking used in making certain groups of cheeses. In many varieties special apparatus is provided in the form of draining boards, draining racks or bags to hasten the removal of the whey as fast as it separates. The draining process continues until the cheese has reached its final form and weight. The intervening process of matting in the Cheddar group involves a combination of a souring process with the removal of whey, during which the cubes of curd become fused into semi-solid masses. If such masses are formed, they must be ground up before the cheese can be given its final form in the hoop. The draining process, therefore, may take any one of many forms varying from the direct transfer of freshly formed curd into hoops in which the entire draining process is completed, to an elaborate series of operations which end in pressing curd drained to approximately its final condition before it is placed in the hoop. +103. Application to cheese.+--From the discussion of these factors, it is evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with the differences in manipulation. If one considers essential constituent substances separately, the water-content of the finished product is found to vary from 30 per cent in Parmesan to 75 per cent in cottage cheese. The fat-content runs from a trace in some varieties to 60 per cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of the casein, which gives character to the product, varies from the tough or glue-like consistency of freshly made Swiss to the buttery condition of a cream or Neufchâtel cheese. Inside such limits the tastes of different peoples have led to the manufacture of many kinds of cheese. Each of these varieties represents some particular combination of curd-making factors and ripening conditions which produces a cheese suited to the taste of the maker and consumer of that country or community. CHAPTER VI _CLASSIFICATION_ The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500 names for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily into great groups or families in which there are variations in unessential detail without modifying the characteristic texture and flavor of the product. Many varietal names are attached to the product of single factories or factory groups. Such varieties frequently differ only slightly in size or shape, or in stage of drainage or of ripening, from widely known varieties or other similar local forms. The descriptions recorded for such varieties commonly emphasize minor differences in manipulation without showing differences in essential factors. Vessels of particular size are prescribed to be made of wood, earthenware, or of a special metal. These details specify the exact size and shape of hoops, the use of particular styles of cutting or breaking instruments and of certain stirring tools, the material and construction of mats and draining racks. The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The variable factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity, temperature of setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling and the method of draining the curd. The differences in practice lie, with few exceptions, in the amount or intensity of particular factors, not differences in kind or quality of treatment. Such contrasts are quantitative, not qualitative. A great number of combinations is possible by small variations of these factors. Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in character, but comparison of large numbers of forms shows that almost every gradation from group to group can actually be found. Within groups frequently the same physical results in texture and flavor can be obtained by combinations or adjustments of factors for the purpose of offsetting or counteracting the effects of one change in practice by the manipulation of other factors. In ripening, an equally large range of practices makes possible the development of very different qualities in mature cheeses from the same lot. Only a few of the large number of described varieties have obtained even national importance; fewer still are known outside the country of origin. In spite of the success of special products when properly advertised, the largest place in the market is clearly accorded to the standard forms which are widely known. +104. Basis of classification.+--A series of these widely known forms has been chosen as typical of groups in a system of classification adapted from the French of Pouriau. No completely satisfactory scheme of classifying all of these varieties has been devised. The grouping proposed here is based on the principles of curd-making already discussed together with consideration of the ripening processes to be discussed with each group. The factors that actually influence the quality of the final product are separated as completely as possible from non-essential operative details. The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on the single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese may be conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated families which are intermediate in texture between such soft forms as Neufchâtel or Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or Parmesan. Although these terms are not made the main basis of the proposed grouping, their application to sections is indicated. Classification based on the essential facts of manufacture is, however, really helpful. ANALYTICAL TABULATION OF GROUPS Section I. Cheeses with sour milk flavor only (Eaten fresh). (Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) PAGE 1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its allies in America, many related varieties in Europe 90 2. Curdled by souring and rennet--the Neufchâtel group 95 a. Skim--Skim-milk Neufchâtel 105 b. Part skim to whole milk--American or Domestic Neufchâtel 106 c. With fat added--the cream cheeses of the Neufchâtel group (both American and European)--such as Cream, Gervais, Malakoffs, etc. 108 Section II. Cheeses ripened. Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water). 1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened. Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese, Harz, etc. 112 2. Curdling by souring and rennet, ripened Ripened (French) Neufchâtel 114 3. Curdled primarily by rennet. a. Ripened by mold--Camembert, Brie and their allies 117 b. Ripened by bacteria. * Made from soft or friable curd--d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134 ** Made from firm or tough curds--Limburger and allies 139 Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained (38 to 45% water) a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds. * Made from friable curd--Roquefort 150 ** Made from firm or tough curd--Gorgonzola, Stilton and such French forms as Gex, Septmoncel 158 b. Curd cooked and ripened by bacteria,--brick, Munster, Port du Salut (Oka) 164 Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30 to 40% water). a. Ripened without gas holes. 1. Dutch--Edam, Gouda 173 2. Danish. 3. The Cheddar group. * English--Cheddar and numerous related forms known principally in Great Britain 184 ** American--the factory Cheddar of United States and Canada 184 b. Ripened with the development of gas holes. * Holes large--Swiss-Emmenthal, Gruyère, American Swiss 276 ** Holes small--Parmesan and related varieties 288 Such a classification brings together series of products in which there is essential similarity in the final output, however great the differences in manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and specialties. Some of these groups are important enough to demand special mention. +105. Processed cheeses.+--Cheese of any group may be run through mixing and molding machines and repackaged in very different form from that characteristic of the variety. In such treatment, the texture and appearance may be so changed as to give the effect of a new product. Substances (such as pimiento) are added to change the flavor. Or the product may be canned and sterilized with equally great change of flavor and texture. One thus finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento from Cream, Neufchâtel or Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other combinations are made. The possible variations are numerous. +106. Whey cheeses.+--Several products bearing cheese names are made from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the albumin and casein separately or in a single product, and the recovery of the milk-sugar either alone or with the albumin. Whey cheeses have been especially developed by the Scandinavian people, although some of them have their origin in the south of Europe. Certain of these varieties are produced on a limited scale in America. There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to place in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap Sago. +107. Soft and hard cheeses.+--Another commonly used classification makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses. In such a classification the semi-hard group presented here is included with the soft cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft in texture. This is correlated with high water-content, high fat-content or both together. +108. Relation of moisture to classes.+--In this classification the water-content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first place. To carry the analysis somewhat further by showing the correlation between water-content and certain factors, a tabulation of well-known varieties of typical groups is presented (Table III). In this table the series of typical dairy products are first arranged according to water-content of the final product. Approximate limits of percentages of milk-fat are also given, because milk-fat frequently affects texture to a degree almost equal to water. Column 4 gives the period within which the more quickly perishable cheeses are usable, and the length of the ripening for the more solid forms. The correlation between water-content, texture and the time of keeping is clearly shown for most varieties. TABLE III CORRELATION WATER- AND FAT-CONTENT WITH RIPENING ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- | PER | PER | | VARITY OF | CENT | CENT | PERIOD | RIPENING | WATER | FAT | REQUIRED | AGENT ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- Cheese: Soft, | | | | Cottage | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria Skim Neufchâtel | 70 | trace | a few days | Bacteria Neufchâtel | 50-60 | 12-28 | a few days | Bacteria Camembert | 50 | 22-30 | 3-5 weeks | Molds Cream cheese | 40-50 | 35-45 | a few days | Primarily | | | | bacteria | | | | Semi-hard: | | | | Limburger | 40-45 | 24-30 | 3-6 months | Bacteria Roquefort | 38-40 | 31-34 | 3-6 months | Mold Brick | 37-42 | 31-35 | 3-6 months | Bacteria | | | | Hard: | | | | Cheddar | 30-39 | 32-36 | 6-12 months | Bacteria Swiss | 31-34 | 28-31 | 9-18 months | Bacteria | | | | and yeasts Parmesan | 30-33 | | 2-3 years | Bacteria ------------------+--------+--------+-------------+-------------- The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds find favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per cent of water. If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow quickly with resultant changes in appearance, texture, odor and taste. Refrigeration is necessary to transport such cheeses to the consumer, if properly ripened. Trade in these forms may continue throughout the year in cool climates and in places where adequate refrigeration is available. Practically, however, outside the large cities this trade in America is at present limited to the cold months; inside the large cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue to be handled through the year. In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into two series: (1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft cheeses. Those eaten fresh have a making process which commonly involves the development of a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no ripening is contemplated after the product leaves the maker's hands. In the ripened series, after the making process is completed, the essential flavors and textures are developed by the activity of micro-organisms during ripening periods varying in length but fairly well-defined for each variety. In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in water-content, ripen more slowly and may be kept through much longer periods. They retain their form through a wider range of climatic conditions. They develop flavor slowly and correspondingly deteriorate much more slowly. Such cheeses are in marketable condition over longer periods. In their manufacture the cooking of the curd takes a prominent place. +109. Relation of heat to classes.+--The close relation between the heat applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking series of graphs (Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by hour in the heat relation during the making process of a series of widely known forms, each of which is chosen as typical. In some of these forms, heat is applied but once to bring the milk to the renneting temperature typical for the variety. Subsequent manipulations are accompanied by a steady fall in temperature. In other forms, the curd when solid is specially heated or "cooked" to bring about the changes characteristic of the variety. These contrasts are clearly brought out by the graphs which represent practices well recognized for the varieties. The detailed process for these groups is considered in succeeding chapters. CHAPTER VII CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used than any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at present, they are farm cheeses.[31] No estimate of volume of such production in the household has ever been made. The utilization of surplus milk in this way is of ancient origin. With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped. The rise in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation of the food value of milk products have made the recovery of all surplus milk in some form very necessary. The manufacture of cottage, Neufchâtel and cream cheese is one of the best forms of such recovery which may be adapted to utilize any grade from skimmed-milk to cream. Large quantities of skimmed-milk have frequently been lost from the total of human food by the manufacture of casein for industrial uses, and by use as stock feed. +110. Skim series.+--The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in common a very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally lactic acid. The group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the cheeses made from milk curdled by souring; (2) those for which the milk is curdled by souring and rennet. In the latter group both agencies are necessary to the resulting product. The time required to curdle by souring alone is longer than when rennet is used; this period is usually longer than necessary for the cream to rise by gravity; hence the cream is either skimmed off or removed with the separator beforehand. The curd, therefore, is essentially a skimmed-milk curd. Casein curdled in this way tends to become granular or "rough," to feel "sandy" when rubbed between the fingers. Heating is commonly necessary to lower the water-content of the mass even to 75 per cent. Such curd tends to become hard or rubbery when heat is applied. In this group, the best known form is variously called "cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese, schmierkäse. +111. Cottage cheese+ is made from skimmed-milk, soured by lactic bacteria until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20° C. (70° F.), because at this temperature the purely lactic type of organism has been found to outgrow competing forms which may be present. Starter containing the desired culture, if properly used, saves much time in the curdling period. Such curdling requires at least twelve to twenty-four hours, frequently much longer unless abundant starter is introduced. +112. Household practice.+--The details of cottage cheese making in the home differ widely in separate sections and even in different families in the same part of the country. The essentials of the practice, common to all, include: (1) curdling the whole milk by natural souring; (2) removing the sour cream which is usually used for butter-making; (3) scalding the curdled skimmed-milk either by slowly heating it in the original vessel surrounded by hot water or by actually pouring an approximately equal volume of boiling water into the curdled mass; (4) bagging and draining the mass until it reaches the desired texture; (5) the kneading of the mass with the addition of salt and cream. The resulting product varies greatly in quality. Unfavorable fermentations frequently affect the flavor.[32] The "scalding" varies from a temperature of 90° F. almost to boiling with a resultant texture varying from almost the smooth buttery consistency of Neufchâtel to hard coarse granular lumps. The best practice, using clean well-cared-for milk and draining at low temperature, produces a very attractive cheese. Such cheese is heated to 90° to 100° F. on the maker's judgment, drained carefully, kneaded well by hand or by machine with the addition of cream to give it an attractive texture and flavor. +113. Factory practice.+--When cottage cheese is made in the factory,[33] separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then soured by a lactic starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use of a starter, which may be added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of the skimmed-milk used, depending on the amount of starter that can be made. Generally, the more starter added, the more rapid will be the coagulation and the better will be the flavor of the cheese. As soon as the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to be broken up and separated from the whey. This separation is hastened by the application of heat. Usually the temperature of the curd is raised slightly before it is broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there will be a smaller loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be cut with coarse Cheddar cheese knives or broken with a rake. The temperature of the curd should be raised very slowly, at least thirty minutes being taken to reach the desired final temperature. No set rule can be given as to the exact temperature to which the curd should be heated. The temperature should be raised until a point is reached at which the curd, when pressed between the thumb and the fingers, will stick together and not go back to the milky state. This temperature is usually from 94° to 100° F., but the cheese-maker must use his own judgment in this respect. If the curd is heated too much, it will be hard and dry; on the other hand, if it is not heated sufficiently, the whey will not separate from the curd and the latter will be very soft and mushy. When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed in the whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done either by letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the upper end, or by dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing the whey to drain, which it does very rapidly. No treatment can prevent the "roughness" of an acid curd (this is a fine gritty feeling when rubbed between the fingers), but the coarse hard grainy texture and lumps characteristic of the highly heated curd do not develop. Experimental workers have agreed that to have the proper texture, such curd should contain when finished about 70 to 75 per cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid flavor. Such a cheese will carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without an objectionably salty taste. This cheese is commonly sold by measure, sometimes in molds or cartons. The manufacture of all forms of cottage cheese has been largely superseded by the making of skimmed-milk Neufchâtel or Baker's cheese. The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to fourteen to nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from pasteurized milk. The yield varies with the moisture-content of the cheese, being greater for cheese with a high content. Too much moisture or whey should not be left in the curd, however, as this will render it too soft to be handled. Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a quickly perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at first, the high percentage of water favors the growth of molds which tolerate acidity, especially _Oidium (Oospora) lactis_ and the Mucors or black molds. These molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the bacteria of decay to develop and to produce objectionable taste and odors. Spoilage in these products is accelerated by the kneading process which distributes air throughout the mass and with it all forms of microbial contamination. +114. Buttermilk cheese.+--A cheese closely resembling cottage may be made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream which was churned before it became sour, the process is the same as that already described for the making of cottage cheese from skimmed-milk. If the buttermilk came from sour cream the process of manufacture is much more difficult. The casein of sour cream has already been coagulated with acid and broken during churning into very minute rather hard particles. These fine particles are difficult to recover. They are so fine that they pass through the draining cloth or at other times clog it and prevent drainage. They do not stick together at ordinary temperatures. They cannot be collected by the use of acid because they have already been coagulated with acid. After casein has been coagulated with acid, rennet extract will not recoagulate the particles. The buttermilk may be mixed with sweet skimmed-milk; then as the latter coagulates, it locks in the casein of the buttermilk so that it can be collected. If buttermilk from soured cream is used alone, the casein may be collected[34] by neutralizing and heating to 130 to 150° F., and holding until the casein gathers together. The whey can then be drawn off. Often there is further difficulty in getting the casein to collect, since the pieces remain so small that they go through the strainer. Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often not palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with skimmed-milk, it makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage. +115. Neufchâtel group.+[35]--The Neufchâtel process originated in northern France where a number of varieties are included under this as a group name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse, Petit Carré. The name designates a general process of curd-making which is applied to skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the resultant cheeses are ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchâtel cheeses of France gained such wide recognition for quality that the process of making has become widely known. In America the manipulations of the French process were early dropped. The essentials were made the basis of a successful factory practice which has been widely adopted. The American factory practice is discussed here and the French process briefly considered under the heading Ripened Neufchâtel. (See Chapter VIII.) +116. Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses+ are soft, have clean sour milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all but the coldest weather, they require refrigeration to reduce deterioration and loss. They range in fat-content from traces only to 50 per cent and more; in water from 40 to 75 per cent, according to the milk used. In texture Neufchâtel is smooth, free from gas, free from lumps or roughness when rubbed between the fingers. This flavor and texture is obtained by a combination of slow rennet curdling with developing acidity. No further ripening is permitted. +117. The factory.+--Neufchâtel factories require the standard dairy equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating, pasteurizing and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce several products, the same general dairy equipment may serve for all. In addition to such equipment, Neufchâtel requires a curdling apparatus which can be held at 70-75° F. This may be a room properly controlled, or a tank where temperature control is obtained by water and steam. For draining, a room kept at 60° F. gives nearly the ideal temperature, which must be supplemented by relative humidity high enough to prevent the exposed surface of curd from drying during periods of twelve to twenty-four hours. This requires almost a saturated atmosphere. A room with special molding machinery is required and tables for wrapping, labeling and boxing the product are necessary. Box-making machinery is usually an economic necessity for work on a large scale. Adequate refrigeration is requisite both to chill the curd before molding and to preserve it after packaging. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Neufchâtel draining racks.] +118. Cans.+--For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in diameter and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty to forty pounds of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore, on the number of units installed, not on changes in the units themselves. [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Detail of a Neufchâtel draining rack.] +119. Draining racks.+--A draining rack is required for each can of curd. These racks also are standardized units whose number limits the capacity of the factory. The design of these racks (Figs. 13, 14) and their arrangement in the draining room are taken from Bulletin 78 of the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station: "The racks are rectangular, thirteen inches wide, thirty-six inches long and ten inches deep. The corner posts extend one and one-half inches beyond the strips at top and bottom with the tops rounded as a rule as seen in the photograph. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence are removable for washing purposes. The materials required are four corner posts one and one-half by one and one-half inches; nine strips one by three-eighths by thirty-six inches; six strips one by three-eighths by thirteen inches, two strips one by three-eighths by twelve and a quarter inches, notched to receive the bottom slats; all made from pine." +120. Cloths.+--For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and one and one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is satisfactory for the purpose; "even-count, round-thread, unmercerized voile" is suggested by Dahlberg.[36] [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Neufchâtel and cream cheese molds.] +121. Molding machinery.+--For work on a large scale, special power machines[37] are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and worm delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size and shape of delivery tube. This curd stream is cut by an automatic device into the proper lengths to form the standard cheese. In this way a uniform size of cheeses is obtained. Experimental work with hand apparatus showed that a worm six inches in diameter is required to deliver curd in a smooth column one and one-half inches square. If the pressure is not sufficient, the column will frill at the edges. Such irregular surfaces cannot be wrapped smoothly enough to delay spoilage. On a small scale, a fair grade of product can be molded through a tin tube (see Fig. 15) one and three-quarters inches in diameter and ten inches long in which the curd is compressed by a close fitting plunger operated by hand. +122. Milk for Neufchâtel+ should be clean, free from gas and taint. Such milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when received and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid by titration. Milk testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a higher quality of product than lower grade milk, although every grade from skimmed-milk to cream is used in producing some form of Neufchâtel. This milk should be pasteurized unless shown to be free from tuberculosis by proper test of the cattle. Evidence[38] that the organism of tuberculosis will withstand the regular handling process for cheeses of this group and retain its ability to cause disease in experimental animals makes the introduction of pasteurization necessary in this whole group of cheeses. Any effective pasteurization may be used, but temperatures of 140-145° F. for thirty minutes have been effective with less changes in the milk than higher temperatures for shorter periods. The milk should be cooled to curdling temperature and the starter and rennet added and stirred into the milk in bulk. The milk may then be quickly distributed into the curdling cans with a hose or from the gate valve of the mixing vat. +123. Starter.+--To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a small amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use depends on the quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for each thirty-pound can is recommended by Matheson and Cammack[39] and by Dahlberg. (See page 98.) For whole-milk Neufchâtel, 2 c.c. to a thirty-pound can of milk commonly gives good results. On this basis 2 ounces of starter would be sufficient if properly stirred into about 1000 pounds of milk. Too slow development of acid is preferable to over-rapid souring. +124. Renneting or setting.+--The milk should be cooled after pasteurizing to between 70° and 75° F. Rennet is added at the rate of 1/3 c.c. to a thirty-pound can (roughly 1/3 ounce to 1000 pounds). This will thicken the milk sufficiently in the first few hours to reduce the separation of the cream. For completion of the curdling and souring process, twelve to eighteen hours are required. Usually the cans stand overnight at uniform temperature. When ready to drain, the curd should be firm, smooth and mildly acid. Whey separating from it should not titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as lactic acid. +125. Draining.+--A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the contents of one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little breaking as possible. In this way a large surface is exposed. The room must be kept wet to prevent the surface of the curd drying to form crusts which stop draining. A temperature of 60° F. is favorable to the maintenance of proper texture and humidity without the development of objectionable organisms, especially _Oidium lactis_, which tends to cover every exposed surface in such rooms. Draining may be hastened by turning the curd or changing the position of the cloth. In factory practice, the large draining surface reduces the necessity of handling the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About twelve hours are required upon the draining racks. On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of draining rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the corners of the cloth may be brought together, tied and the mass hung up. The curd must be turned by pulling up the corners of the cloth to prevent drying at the edges and stoppage of draining from the center of the mass. Such treatment produces much more rapid drainage than the factory practice and involves proportionately more labor and larger fat losses. +126. Cooling Neufchâtel.+--When whey ceases to separate readily, the corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally or tied, and the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When thoroughly chilled the bags of curd are put into presses, where light but increasing pressure forces more whey out of the mass. Tests at this time should show about 0.60 per cent acid in the whey. With low-fat curd every step of the process may be hastened, but with high-fat care must be exercised to prevent loss of fat during pressing especially. Any pressing device permitting continuous pressure with ease of manipulation may be used. +127. Pressing.+--The ideals of the maker must determine the extent of pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If immediate consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory, but if the cheese is to be held some days the extra whey carrying more milk-sugar favors increased acid development. This produces very sour cheese with much more danger of other fermentations which cause objectionable flavor. Too much water favors more active bacterial growth as well as produces cheese too soft for the necessary handling in the market. In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press should be released and the bags turned from time to time to insure even drainage. Several hours of pressing are usually required. The danger of insufficient pressing is due to the difference of texture between the worked and unworked curd. Before working, curd carrying 10 per cent excess moisture resembles the finished product sufficiently to deceive any but the experienced maker. But if this curd is transferred to the worker and to the molding machine, it is found to become soft, pasty and sticky, to lack "body," hence to make very unsatisfactory packages and to spoil very quickly. The masses of curd should come out of the press as dry and hard flat cakes. [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Working Neufchâtel.] +128. Working and salting Neufchâtel.+--The cakes of curd go from the press to the working table. Here they are broken by hand or by a butter-worker or kneading machine (Fig. 16). Salt at the rate of one and one-half pounds to 100 pounds of curd is added. If the curd is not sufficiently pressed, the masses become mushy or pasty during the working process. The working is continued until the whole mass is uniformly smooth and buttery. +129. Storage.+--The draining and working processes permit the contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also worked thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly. Distributing houses find the Neufchâtel trade uncertain in volume from day to day, hence many of them store the cheese in bulk and package only fast enough to fill orders. This minimizes the loss due to spoilage. Such curd may be packed into tubs and kept for considerable time in cold storage. If molded for the retail trade, it is more quickly perishable. When packed solidly in mass, curd is largely protected from spoilage by the exclusion of air and perhaps the quick exhaustion of free oxygen through the respiration of the micro-organisms present and by its acidity. This must be supplemented by low temperature to reduce the loss to a minimum. Even when spoilage begins, it is easily confined to the slight growth of _Oidium lactis_ or green mold and bacteria on exposed areas. These can be removed with minimum loss and damage to the mass. On the other hand, such curd molded into the commercial package of 3 to 6 ounces and wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for protection, still presents enormously increased surface for the growth of aerobic forms--especially _Oidium lactis_, green mold (Roquefort mold is the usual green species) and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may be kept some days; in commercial packages lowering of quality (flavor) begins almost at once. +130. Molding.+--When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is provided, curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the machine. If permitted to become warm, the mass becomes sticky; when cold it is more readily handled. The machine is fitted with the special delivery tube for the variety to be handled, cylindrical for Neufchâtel in its various forms, rectangular in section for cream. Enough workers should be provided to wrap and label the cheese without leaving it exposed to contamination or heat. Parchment paper and tin-foil cut the proper size for each variety and bearing printed labels are readily obtainable. Each cheese should be wrapped with paper and tin-foil and put directly into a flat box which holds a standard number (usually 12 or 24) of the special product. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Molding Neufchâtel.] In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is required. Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the plunger. It is removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size of the variety. All forms when molded go directly into the boxes and then back to the refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the process differ according to the form made. +131. Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel.+--Separator skimmed-milk is frequently made into curd by the Neufchâtel process. The absence of fat eliminates the largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage of the making process, therefore, may be shortened. The demand that the curd shall be smooth and buttery in texture rather than rough or gritty requires the exercise of care in curdling of milk. The draining and pressing of the curd may be accomplished much more rapidly than in the fatty cheeses. The final product should differ from cottage cheese in smoother texture, milder acidity and, as a rule, cleaner flavor. In composition, the absence of fat must be largely compensated by leaving more water in the cheese. Such a product reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of water and perhaps 1.25 per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent of the mass. These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high water-content. The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the interior of the cheese and upon its surface is rapid. Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage cheese, Neufchâtel style, and as Neufchâtel made from skimmed-milk; skimmed-milk Neufchâtel would be a strictly proper labeling. +132. Baker's cheese.+--There is considerable market for skimmed-milk curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk Neufchâtel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery is near by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet condition and sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the distance is such as to require considerable time for transportation, the same care is frequently given as for Neufchâtel curd packed in bulk for storage and transportation. Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type of product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a large scale. Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the details of flavor and texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two men are able to make a ton of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans each day. The resulting product, although very deficient in flavor and texture, goes into manufactured specialties which conceal its deficiencies if considered as cheese. +133. Domestic Neufchâtel.+--The name Neufchâtel, unless limited clearly by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh whole milk. Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of well-equipped factories scattered widely through the dairy states of the North and Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade names for its product. The same product is frequently relabeled by the distributor who uses his own trade name instead of that of the maker. The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1¾ inches in diameter and 2½ inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2½ by 1½ by 1½ inches. The cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment paper closely surrounded by tin-foil. These packages vary from 2½ to 4 ounces. In some cases screw-topped glass jars are substituted for the tin-foil package. They are objectionable, first, because of cost and, second, because they are so commonly associated with less perishable products as to mislead either dealer or consumer into holding the product for too long a time. The paper or tin-foil package can be kept only at refrigerator temperature, hence automatically keeps its possessor reminded of the perishable nature of its contents. Neufchâtel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4 per cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;[40] many grades contain more water than this at the expense of flavor and keeping quality: Water 50-55 per cent Fat 23-28 per cent Casein 18-21 per cent Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk. +134. Partially skim Neufchâtel.+--Brands of Neufchâtel made from milk that would test every gradation from whole milk to separator skimmed-milk may be found. The quality of the product varies with the skill of the maker from brands no better than cottage cheese to products scarcely distinguishable from the best whole-milk Neufchâtel. Many factories that produce more than one quality of Neufchâtel use labels of different color, different design or both to separate them; for example, blue labels usually stand for whole milk, red labels represent lower grades. Sometimes the difference in material is indicated by a clear cut grade mark. Frequently color, a design of label or both are the only definite marks upon the cheese. The consumer unfamiliar with the trade practice commonly has no means of knowing the quality of the product offered. Such cheeses vary in water-content from 55 to 70 per cent; in fat from 10 to 25 per cent; in casein from 18 to 25 per cent. +135. Cream cheese.+--The Neufchâtel process is also used to make cream cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been called double cream. This is produced by separating about half of a given volume of milk and running the cream into the other half. Usually cream cheese is made in the same factory as various grades of Neufchâtel. No material is lost. In some instances, cream cheese is prepared by working thick cream into the Neufchâtel type of curd from practically skimmed-milk. In working with high percentages of fat in curd, care must be taken to avoid loss of fat in draining and pressing. The curd is carefully chilled before pressing to reduce this loss. This may be done under refrigeration or upon cracked ice. Otherwise the manipulations of the process are unchanged. The cheeses are commonly molded in the Neufchâtel machine into square cakes weighing about 4 ounces and measuring approximately 3 by 2¼ by 7/8 inches. These are wrapped in paper and tin-foil and handled exactly as Neufchâtel. Cream cheese of high quality made from reënforced milk testing 7 to 9 per cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:[41] Water 38-43 per cent Fat 43-48 per cent Protein 13-16 per cent Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream. Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but usually associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture, and in more rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60 per cent of fat but their increased cost of manufacture and sale restricts them to the rôle of specialties with closely limited distribution. Trade names such as Philadelphia Cream, Cow Brand, Eagle Brand, Square Cream, Blue Label and many other factory brands are on the market. +136. Neufchâtel specialties.+--Neufchâtel or cream cheese curd is frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento (pickled Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses, such as Roquefort. These bear appropriate trade names and form a very attractive addition to our varieties of cheese. Among the names found are Pimiento, Olive, Nut, and Pim-olive or Olimento. +137. Gervais+ is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold widely in France and even in other continental countries. It occasionally comes to America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are flat cakes containing approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per cent fat. It clearly differs only in detail from the square cream cheeses made in America. The name Gervais is the property of a particular company. Since the cheese differs in no essential feature from other cream cheeses, this name should not be applied to a domestic cream brand. +138. European forms occasionally imported.+--Among the cheeses related to Neufchâtel as they reach the market are the "White" cheeses of southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality according to their source and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's milk or some combination of these. This texture and flavor link them with unripened Neufchâtel. The time required for importation puts a minimum possible period of ten to fifteen days between production and consumption with a probable period of at least one month for most samples. As they come to America, these forms usually show fermentive changes beyond those tolerated in the domestic product. This may take either of several forms: (1) intensification of acid flavor with the intensification of the characteristic flavors of the particular brand; (2) the development of old or rancid flavors; (3) the development of Oidium and partial softening of the mass through its agency; (4) the growth of Roquefort mold and development of the flavor associated with that organism. This last form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse which showed about 40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent water. CHAPTER VIII _SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD_ The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties which, in addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special ripening processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in texture and mostly have high flavors. The varieties in each group have in common some essential principles of manufacture together with a ripening process dominated by a characteristic group of organisms. In certain groups, the ripening is dominated by a yellowish or orange viscid surface slime containing _Oidium lactis_ and bacteria; in another series, the characteristic organism is a mold of the genus Penicillium (_P. Camemberti_). Referring to the analysis of groups (page 83), the ripened soft cheeses are found to fall into three well-marked groups, one of which may perhaps be subdivided as indicated. The series curdled by souring alone begins with approximately cottage cheese curd and develops high flavors by ripening, as in "hand" cheese. Ripened Neufchâtel curdled by souring and rennet together finds its basis in Neufchâtel curd also but modifies the final product until the familiar flavor and texture of the unripened form are no longer recognizable. Among the forms curdled by rennet alone the Camembert series contains one form, Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe, but represents in general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms. The series of soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly designated the Limburger group. +139. Hand cheese and its allies.+--Among skim cheeses, there is a series of forms largely German in origin in which curd not far removed from cottage cheese is the basis of the product. Harz cheese is one of the best-known of these forms as studied by Eckles and Rahn.[42] One of these forms, hand cheese,[43] is manufactured on a commercial basis in farm dairies among families of German descent principally in Pennsylvania, and on a factory basis in a few places in New York, northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the small scale, curd is made by natural souring or by use of starter, heated to expel water, cooled and molded by hand into cakes two to three inches in diameter and one-half to three-quarters inch in thickness. The freshly formed cakes are placed upon a shelf to dry. There they are turned daily until fairly firm, then packed in rolls into wooden boxes and ripened in a cool damp room. In this ripening there is a prompt development of a heavy viscous slime, which consists of Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming loose cottony mycelium are brushed off if they appear. The proper consistency of this slimy covering depends on a close adjustment of water-content in the cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening room. If conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry they are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the slimy covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered with loose shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should proceed slowly and occupy a period of six to eight weeks. +140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.+--A form of "pot" cheese is made in certain counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use. Production of this cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted. The steps in manufacture are about as follows:[44] (1) The home-made type of cottage cheese curd is prepared, put into a crock or pot and covered carefully; (2) kept in a warm place (in kitchen usually); (3) stirred from time to time, until it has ripened to a semi-liquid condition. This occurs very rapidly under the attack of _Oidium lactis_ accompanied by bacteria. Within a period of three to seven days, according to the temperature and to the water-content of the mass, the granules of curd become covered with a wrinkled gelatinous almost viscid mass of mold mycelium beneath which is a layer of semi-liquid curd with a strong characteristic odor and taste. This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches about half the total mass in four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4) The vessel is then placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire with constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5) Butter or cream, and salt or other flavor is finally added, stirred in and the liquid cheese poured into molds or jelly glasses to cool. If properly made and cooked, the resultant cheese has a soft buttery consistency with an agreeable flavor, which frequently resembles that of Camembert cheese. +141. Appetitost (Appetite cheese).+--A Danish buttermilk cheese is made under this name. Sour buttermilk is heated, by some to boiling temperature but others (Monrad[45]) prefer 120° F., stirred thoroughly and allowed to settle. The whey is removed as far as possible. The semi-liquid mass is covered and set in a warm place. Fermentation becomes active. This tends to make the curd more viscous or sticky. It is then kneaded and allowed to ferment again. This process is repeated until the mass is yellowish and soft but tough or viscous. When thoroughly fermented, the mass is again heated to 120° F., and 6 per cent salt is added together with spice; both are worked in and the cheese is formed into fancy shapes for sale. +142. Ripened Neufchâtel, French process.+--Neufchâtel as a ripened cheese is made rather widely in France but it is produced on an especially large scale in Seine-Inferieure.[46] Some factories use whole milk, or milk with added cream, others skimmed-milk.[47] The whole-milk brands of Neufchâtel are those which have the widest reputation. For making this cheese, the working room is held as closely as possible at 15-16° C. (58-60° F.). The milk is strained into earthen vessels holding twenty liters. Rennet is added to the freshly drawn milk at about 30° C. (86° F.) in amount sufficient to produce coagulation in about twenty-four hours. Draining racks of various forms are covered with cloth. The vessels of curd are dumped upon the racks. The whey separates slowly and drains off through the cloth. About twelve hours are allowed for this process. The corners of the cloth are then brought together and folded in or tied and the mass pressed to complete the drainage. The finished curd is worked or kneaded to produce a smooth and uniform texture. This process of curd-making is essentially the same as the American factory process of making Neufchâtel. The ripening process has been entirely dropped in America. The curd is finally molded in metal forms 5 cm. (2 inches) in diameter and about 6.7 cm. (about 3 inches) high, open at both ends. These molds are filled, the freshly formed cheeses are pressed out with a plunger or piston and their surfaces smoothed with a wooden knife. After molding is completed, the cheeses are salted by sprinkling the entire surface with fine dry salt as the cheese is held in the hand. In this way each cheese receives and absorbs 3 to 4 per cent salt. After salting, the cheeses are arranged upon boards and allowed to drain twenty-four hours. They are then removed to the first or drying room. The frames of the drying room (secherie) are covered with straw and the cheeses are placed carefully upon the straw to avoid contact with each other. They are turned each day to present a fresh surface to the straw during a period of two to three weeks in the drying room (secherie). Mold begins to show as white cottony mycelium after five to six days, and slowly turns to "blue" (bluish green). When the cheeses are well covered with this moldy rind, they are removed to the ripening cellar. In the ripening cellar also the cheeses stand upon straw. They are turned over every three or four days at first, then allowed to stand for a longer period. When ripe, a Neufchâtel cheese so made weighs about 125 grams. One liter of milk makes 225 grams of such cheese. The ripening of Neufchâtel has never been fully studied, but a series of these cheeses were obtained by one of the authors; cultures were made and examined.[48] The salt-content in the first place was found to be so high that _Oidium lactis_ was eliminated as an active factor in the ripening. The mold proved to be on some cheeses _Penicillium Camemberti_, the typical mold of Camembert as it is made in Normandy, on others _P. Camemberti_ var. _Rogeri_, the pure white form as used under the patents of M. Georges Roger in the region of Seine-et-Marne to the eastward of Paris and called by him and by Mazé _P. candidum_. The physical condition of the ripened curd and the flavors encountered were those associated with these two species by many hundreds of experiments during the Camembert investigation in Connecticut.[49] These facts justify the conclusion that ripened Neufchâtel is first soured by lactic organisms, then so salted as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the characteristic activities of _Oidium lactis_, while the proteolytic action and the physical changes are closely similar to those of Camembert which is ripened primarily by the same molds. +143. The Camembert group.+--The soft cheeses ripened by molds are French in origin. Their manufacture has spread into Germany, Italy and America. Of the series, the most widely known is Camembert, which will be described as typical for the group. Brie, Coulommiers, Robbiola and Ripened Neufchâtel belong to this series. +144. Camembert cheese.+--The origin of Camembert is given by French authorities as 1791 in the Commune of Camembert near Vimoutiers in Orne, France. From a very restricted production at first, Camembert-making has spread through the region from Caen in the west to Havre, Rouen and a considerable area east of Paris. In America Camembert began to be made in one factory about 1900. Several other factories followed by 1906. The difficulties and losses encountered led to the abandonment of these undertakings, until at the outbreak of the European war in 1914 but one factory was making Camembert and that only on an experimental scale. Meanwhile the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs Experiment Station had taken up and solved, on an experimental basis, most of the problems arising in these commercial failures. A shortage of product at the outbreak of the war brought about the re-establishment of a series of factories. The product as put on the market indicates that a permanent establishment of Camembert-making is entirely practicable. Camembert cheese is made from cow's milk either whole or very slightly skimmed; the removal of about 0.5 per cent of fat has been found to be desirable if not actually necessary. +145. Description of Camembert.+[50]--These cheeses are made in sizes 2½ to 4½ inches in diameter and 1¼ to 1½ inches in thickness. They are ripened by the agency of molds and bacteria which form a felt-like rind over their whole surface, 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch in thickness. This rind may be dry and gray or grayish-green, consisting of a felt-like surface of mold on the outside, below which a harder portion consists of mold embedded in partially dried cheese, or the moldy part may be more or less completely overgrown or displaced by yellowish or reddish slime composed mainly of bacteria. Good cheeses may have either appearance. Inside the rind, the cheese is softened progressively from the rind toward the center from all sides, so that a fully ripe cheese has no hard sour curd in the center, but is completely softened. No mold should be visible inside the rind, but the moldy rind itself is necessary because the ripening is caused by the enzymes secreted by the organisms of the rind into the cheese. As the curd ripens, the changed portion assumes a slightly deeper color than the unripe curd as a result of chemical changes. Well-ripened cheeses vary from nearly a fluid texture to the consistency of moderately soft butter. The ripening of Camembert is finished in wooden boxes which protect the cheeses from breaking after they become soft and during the market period. +146. Conditions of making and ripening.+--These processes depend on a very close adjustment between the composition of the freshly made cheese and the temperature and humidity of the rooms in which the cheeses are made and ripened. Very slight failures in control bring loss in ultimate results. The room for making Camembert should be maintained between 60° and 70° F. and should be wet enough to reduce drying to a minimum. The essentials of apparatus are comparatively inexpensive. Work on a factory basis calls, however, for the installation of special tables and other apparatus to utilize space and labor to advantage. Rooms are protected from change of weather by double sash in the windows. Flies must be excluded by close-meshed screens for all doors and windows with movable sash. The equipment installed in such a room is shown in Fig. 18. Curdling cans are ranged on a shelf a few inches above the floor along one side of the room below an open tin trough with side branches. This open trough brings the milk from the mixing vat to the curdling cans. (The open tin trough offers no lodgment for dirt.) The cans hold about 200 pounds of milk, are about 12 inches in diameter at bottom, and 20 to 24 inches at top. They are heavily tinned. Iron trucks as high as the shelf and with tops the same diameter as the bottoms of the cans form a convenient method of bringing cans of curd to the very edge of the draining tables. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Camembert cheese-making room in an American factory.] [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Draining mat for Camembert cheese.] The wooden draining tables are placed about 32 inches above the floor; they are usually made of 2-inch lumber, have raised edges and slope slightly toward the wall. Whey and wash water are thus carried to a draining trough along the wall. For cheese-making, each is covered with a strip of matting consisting of wooden strips held together by thread (Fig. 19). The strip of matting should be exactly the width and length of the table. The hoops used are heavy tin, with edges turned and soldered, about 5 inches high, 4-5/8 inches in diameter with three rows of holes about 1/12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row. These hoops are placed as thickly as possible upon the mats. +147. Outline of making process.+--The making process[51] is summarized as follows (Thom, 1909): _Starter._--From 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of active starter is added to milk kept overnight below 60°F. _Acidity at renneting._--Milk titrated to phenolphthalein should test 0.20 to 0.23 per cent calculated as lactic acid. _Temperance of renneting._--84°-86° F. is used for Camembert. _Rennet._--From 3 to 5 oz. of standard rennet extract to 1000 lb. milk (10-15 c.c. per 100 lb. milk) produces a curd of proper texture. _Curdling time._--To reach the proper condition for handling, 1¼ to 1½ hours or longer is required. This is indicated by the onset of "sweating" or the separation of large drops of whey on the surface of the solid curd. _Dipping._--A long-handled dipper is used to transfer curd from cans to hoops. This can be lowered into the hoop. This transfer is to be done with the least possible breaking. One dipperful is transferred at a time to each of a series of hoops. By the time the series is covered, some drainage has occurred and a second dipperful is added to the contents of the hoop. In this way the hoop is filled within a period of two to four hours. _Draining._--Hoops when properly filled have taken in approximately 2 quarts of milk each. No pressure is used. Cheeses drain by gravity. They stand unturned until the following morning when they should be firm enough to permit turning without removing the hoops. The cheeses when firm enough to handle (usually on the third morning) are salted by dusting the entire surface with coarse salt and permitting all that adheres to remain. The cheeses should then be removed to a room at about 58°F. to prevent too rapid leakage of water and salt from their surfaces. Ripe cheeses of good quality show a total salt-content varying from 2.25 to 3 per cent with an average of about 2.5 per cent. When so handled there is slight, if any, loss of water and salt in the salting period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. At the end of the salting period such cheeses should carry 55 to 57 per cent water or slightly more. +148. Acidity.+--The essential biological factor in the making period of Camembert is proper souring. The milk should be free from gassy organisms. The lactic starter required should introduce the typical lactic organism (_Streptococcus lacticus_) in numbers sufficient to suppress all other forms during the next twenty-four hours. The amount of acid starter introduced, however, plus the acid resulting from growth during the curdling period, should not produce a grainy acid curd. The temperatures of handling are such as to favor this group of organisms if properly introduced and permit the development of nearly 1 per cent of acid (estimated as lactic) by the second morning. Cheeses with such acid are fairly free from further danger from bacterial activity. Members of the high-acid group (_B. Bulgaricus_ and allies) may be found in these cheeses but do not appear to develop in numbers sufficient to affect the cheese to any marked degree. [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Halloir, the first ripening room for Camembert in an American factory.] CAMEMBERT CHEESE RECORD Date_______________ Set__________ No._____ Amt. milk___________ No. cheese_____ Milk per cheese________ Producer of milk_______________ Apparent cleanliness of milk_______________ +Acidity:+ Before adding starter____________________ After adding starter____________________ After acidity period____________________ Whey at dipping_______________ +Starter:+ Kind_______________ Age_____ Amt_____ +Color:+ Amount_______________ +Curdling:+ Temperature used__________ Amount of rennet__________ Time at which rennet is added__________ Time at which milk is curdled__________ Time of curdling__________ Quality of curd____________________ +Dipping:+ Cut or uncut_______________ Amt. of cutting_______________ +Draining:+ Temperature of room during__________ Condition of cheese after____________________ +Salting:+ Time of_____ Total amt. of salt used_____ Kind of salt_____ Amt. of salt per cheese_____ +Mold inoculation:+ Form of culture used_______________ Method of inoculation______________ Time of inoculation__________ +Remarks on making:+ +Curing:+ Transfer of curing rooms_________________________ Condition of cheese______________________________ Rooms____________________________________________ Dates____________________________________________ +Mold growth:+ Date of first appearance____________________ Purity and vigor____________________________ Date of changing color______________________ +Surface of slimy growth:+ Extent of___________________________________ General character of________________________ +Surface contamination:+ Mold________________________________________ Oidium______________________________________ Yeast_______________________________________ Bacterial___________________________________ +Wrapping:+ Date_______________ Material____________________ Condition of cheese_________________________ +Ripening:+ Rapidity of_________________________________ Texture_____________________________________ +Flavor:+ Ripened curd________________________________ Unripened curd______________________________ +Special treatment and reasons for same:+ Record of treatment by days____________________ Room__________ Date__________ Observations.____________________ 1 D_____ 16 D_____ 2 D_____ 17 D_____ 3 D_____ 18 D_____ 4 D_____ 19 D_____ 5 D_____ 20 D_____ 6 D_____ 21 D_____ 7 D_____ 22 D_____ 8 D_____ 23 D_____ 9 D_____ 24 D_____ 10 D_____ 25 D_____ 11 D_____ 26 D_____ 12 D_____ 27 D_____ 13 D_____ 28 D_____ 14 D_____ 29 D_____ 15 D_____ 30 D_____ 31 D_____ +149. Ripening the cheese.+--The cheese is now ready for the ripening rooms (Fig. 20). For this process temperatures between 52° and 58°F. are desirable; lower temperatures only delay the process; higher temperatures favor undesirable fermentations. The cheeses rest upon coarse matting (Fr. clayons) consisting of round wooden rods about the size of a pencil separated 1-1¼ inches and held in position by wire strands. Assuming cheeses of optimum composition as indicated above, the relative humidity of the ripening rooms should be 86 to 88 per cent. Higher humidities produce too rapid development of slimy coatings; too low humidity is indicated by drying, shrinkage and the growth of green molds on the surface. A slight and very slow evaporation is demanded; by this the water-content of the cheeses is reduced 3 to 6 per cent in two weeks. During the first two weeks of ripening, the cheeses commonly show some growth of yeast and _Oidium lactis_ first, followed by cottony white areas of Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_). This mold must be introduced by inoculation in new factories but once firmly established in the factory will propagate itself if conditions are kept favorable. Climatic conditions in most dairy sections of America have been sufficiently unfavorable to make more or less continuous use of pure cultures desirable. At the end of two weeks, Camembert cheeses should show a well-established rind, consisting of a well-matted felt work of mold hyphæ through the outer 2 mm. (1/12 inch) of the whole surface of the cheese. More or less of the pale gray-green fruit of the characteristic _Penicillium Camemberti_ can usually be seen. Beginning at about twelve to fourteen days,[52] a softening of the curd is first directly detectable under the rind. This is preceded by the disappearance of the acidity of the curd, which progresses inward. The softening of the curd follows closely the lowering of the acidity. Thus a litmus test taken along the cut face of a Camembert cheese at any stage of softening will always show a sharp acid reaction in the solid sour portion which changes to alkaline just before the softening due to proteolytic action becomes noticeable. These two changes appear to be due to enzymes secreted by the mycelium of the _Penicillium Camemberti_ and _Oidium lactis_ which constitute the most active factors in the ripening. Some accessory bacterial action is indicated but of minor importance in the changes found. To avoid loss from breaking, after the softening of the curd has fairly begun, the cheeses must be removed from the coarse matting to smooth boards where they are watched and turned repeatedly, or as in the more common practice, wrapped at once in parchment paper and boxed. The ripening may be completed in either way. The conditions necessary are such as to favor the extension of slimy areas of bacteria over part or all of the rind to the exclusion of further development of gray-green fruiting areas of mold. Complete softening may occur in three weeks in cheeses in which evaporation has gone on too slowly. Such cheeses are found to contain 51 to 55 per cent of water when ripe and decay very quickly. If handled properly, the water-content should fall from about 57 per cent at the beginning of ripening to 48 per cent at its completion which should require a minimum period of about four weeks. It is more desirable that a cheese four weeks old show a thin core of sour curd in the center than that it be entirely liquid at that age. [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Very soft Camembert cheese.] +150. Composition.+--Properly ripe Camembert shows about the following range of composition: Water 47 to 49 per cent; fat 25 to 28 per cent; protein 18 to 21 per cent; salt 2.2 per cent to 2.8 per cent. Variations outside these limits are usually associated with less desirable qualities. The approximate limits and characters outlined for Camembert still leave a considerable latitude for variations in practice which characterize the output of particular factories in a producing group. At one extreme are brands of Camembert cheese which are very soft (Fig. 21), some of them actually liquid when ripe, and which have very strong odor and taste; one such brand has held first place in the trade of certain American cities for years. Another popular brand when fully ripe is well covered with yellow-orange viscid slime[53] but is fairly firm in texture with high flavor; still others show dry moldy surfaces and mild flavors. The product of certain factories is always characterized by the presence and characteristic ammoniacal odor of _Penicillium brevicaule_. Each of these forms seems to appeal to some classes of consumers, so that in handling imported Camembert the trade comes to assign the product to specific groups of purchasers according to the conditions observed at its arrival from Europe. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Camembert cheese factory at Lisieux, France. The square windows are seen in the second-floor rooms.] +151. Factory.+--The type of factory to be used in making and ripening Camembert must be adjusted to the climate. This product originated in the Normandy section of France which is but a few feet above sea level, is swept by winds from the Gulf Stream, and has a narrow range of temperature, with highly humid conditions. In that region, every effort must be made to secure ventilation to carry off the necessary amount of evaporation water. In contrast, most of the dairy sections of America have land instead of sea breezes, much higher altitudes, much greater extremes of temperature and a lower range of relative humidities. The conditions of an upstairs room full of windows in Normandy (Fig. 22) are most readily reproduced in rooms partly or completely below ground in this country. The industry calls for the production and maintenance of a specific set of working conditions. These are furnished by nature in northern France, probably also in certain Pacific coast areas, but must be artificially obtained where the climate is unfavorable. +152. Economic factors.+--Camembert cheeses show a yield of about 13 pounds to 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat. At roughly one-half pound each, the number of cheeses will be approximately twenty-six. Assuming no losses and a wholesale price of 15 cents each, the wholesale value of 100 pounds of milk would be $3.90. The labor cost of production is high, the package represents (box, wrapping and label) at least 1½ cents a cheese. The time between the purchase and the consumption of the cheese will average about one month. Few cheeses actually remain this length of time in the possession of the maker. This short investment period, therefore, is a distinct advantage of Camembert. Among disadvantages, however, the extremely perishable character of the fully ripe cheese makes provision of an adequate and constant market essential. Losses due to failures in manufacturing or ripening conditions are also frequent. Excessive heat in summer and very cold periods in winter are both unfavorable. The Camembert-maker cannot, therefore, use the cheapest milk of the summer months at all and the losses entailed by failure of control in winter fall on the most costly milk of the year. Camembert requires, therefore, careful selection of the location for manufacture and ripening, effective control of conditions throughout the period and adequate marketing facilities. Camembert at its best is one of the finest of all cheeses; when bad, it becomes quickly inedible and is a total loss. +153. French Brie.+[54]--Brie cheese has its center of production in Seine-et-Marne, east of Paris in northern France. The apparatus, arrangement of the factories and details of manipulation differ from those described for Camembert, but the final product is in flavor and texture closely related to Camembert. Brie cheeses are the same thickness as Camembert, 1 to 1¼ inches; in diameter, however, there are three or more sizes varying from 8 to 16 inches, or even greater. The largest cheeses weigh 5 to 6 pounds. As in Camembert, practices of making and ripening vary to such a degree as to produce various qualities of product. These run from whole milk through all shades of skimming. Perhaps the best established practice puts the cheese-making room next to the stalls of the cows. The milk is drawn, strained directly into the curdling cans and renneted while still warm,--86-92° F. (30-33° C.). No lactic starter is added and no ripening period is given to the milk. The other manipulations differ only in detail from Camembert. Ripening of Brie follows the same course with the same organic agents, namely, Camembert mold (_Penicillium Camemberti_) and _Oidium lactis_ with the accompaniment of a mixture of slimy organisms upon the surface of the cheese. The process admits of many minor modifications each capable of affecting the product in a characteristic way. The judgment and skill of the maker is given a wide opportunity to establish and work toward a particular ideal of appearance and texture and flavor. Brands with characteristic qualities, therefore, command their own market. Brie as known in France must not be confused with the American "d'Isigny," or with the particular sizes of that type which have been called Brie on account of diameter only. Very little Brie as known in France has been made in America and only a limited amount has been imported for very restricted trade. +154. Coulommiers.+--Another member of the Camembert group is called, from its place of origin, Coulommiers. This form is made at the same thickness as Camembert and about 5¼ inches in diameter. It appears as either a ripened or unripe cheese. As a ripened cheese, Coulommiers is not essentially different from Camembert except that some brands are made without salting. As a cheese eaten unripe, it has certain advantages over the other cheeses with the flavor of sour milk only. The cottage and (American) Neufchâtel group of cheeses comprises the best known forms with the acid flavor. These cheeses are very perishable in nature. On the other hand, Coulommiers as eaten fresh can be held and used over a much longer time without loss. Coulommiers[55] in this sense is simply a fresh Camembert. Such a cheese, when ready for the salting process, is a firm sour mass, close textured, almost impervious to air and but slowly permeable to liquids. Spoilage in such a cheese begins only on the outside, and not throughout the mass as in cottage cheese or Neufchâtel. Successive portions of such a cheese can be removed daily over a considerable period with no loss of substance aside from slight scraping at times and little or no change in flavor. This product has very tangible merit for manufacture and use on the farm in many sections of America. CHAPTER IX _SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA_ A bacterially-ripened series of cheeses parallels the mold-ripened group as typified by Camembert. Although the varieties overlap, these may be roughly grouped as: (1) those made from friable or soft curd; (2) those made from firm or rubbery curd. In the first group, the curd is set at 86° F., or below; in the second, the rennet is added at 90° F. or above. In the first, the lower temperature and long curdling time with ripened milk gives a soft friable curd which may be toughened somewhat by cutting and stirring in the whey. This section is typified by d'Isigny, American Brie, Liederkranz. In the second, curdling of unripened milk at temperatures of 90° F. or above insures a smooth elastic curd which fuses more or less completely into the firm rubbery mass typified by freshly made Limburger. +155. The Isigny group.+--A series of names, d'Isigny, Brie, Brie d'Isigny, combined with trade names, are used for a domestic cheese, made in a small number of factories distributed over New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and California. The cheeses sold under the separate varietal names differ only in diameter; their thickness is fairly uniform; the process of manufacture and ripening with resultant textures and flavors furnishes no fundamental varietal characters, although the products of the several factories show noticeable differences in market quality. D'Isigny, while the name of a French town famous for butter production, is not used to designate a cheese in France. It may, therefore, be accepted as a French name arbitrarily applied to a domestic product. Brie as used in France is a markedly different cheese (p. 131), and the name should be dropped from this form as made in America. As used for a member of this series made in America, it merely means cheese 7 to 15 inches in diameter. The cheese partakes of the characters of French Livarot, and of Pont l'Eveque without exactly reproducing either form. The milk varies from separator skim to whole milk, with resultant differences in quality. Freedom from gas is essential to the best results. The milk is curdled at 85° to 86° F. with sufficient rennet to produce a very firm curd within a period of one and one-half hours. Curd is then cut in two directions, allowed to stand a few minutes or gently agitated to produce a very slight toughness or "worked" condition, then scooped into hoops 4½ to 5 inches in height and varying in diameter from 2½ to 15 inches according to the size selected for manufacture. To aid in the escape of whey, three rows of holes 1/12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row are made in each hoop. The hoops are arranged upon draining tables with more or less corrugated surface, which for best drainage should be covered with matting. The cheeses are allowed to drain without pressure. They are commonly turned the second morning, although they are sometimes solid enough to turn within the first day. When fully drained, the cheeses are salted by rubbing coarse salt on the surface, after which they stand an extra day. They are then arranged upon shelves in a ripening room held between 50° and 60° F. with humidity so high that evaporation is kept at a minimum. In this room, a surface slime develops quickly. This consists of bacteria of several forms, yeasts, _Oidium lactis_ and accidental species of other molds. During this ripening, the cheeses are turned, rubbed with the hands, washed with salt water and scraped if infected with molds which produce colored colonies. In the course of ripening, the slimy surface layer acquires a yellowish orange color with the strong odor and taste characteristic of the series. Brands of d'Isigny are made from every grade between separator skim and whole milk. They reach the market in condition all the way from "Kosher" forms[56] which are eaten entirely unripe, to brands which approximate the qualities of Limburger and others which approach Port du Salut. The biology and chemistry of the ripening of this type of cheese have not been completely followed. An initial souring process always takes place quickly. _Oidium lactis_ is always present in some degree on the surface, but the organisms in the yellowish to orange slime on the surface of the cheese appear to produce the characteristic odor and taste. These appear to be due to the development of volatile fatty acids, such as valerianic and caproic, which diffuse throughout the cheese, even penetrating the unripened sour portions. The same odor and taste in varying intensity are present in Limburger, Brick, and a long series of German varieties not handled in America. High-flavored cheeses such as these, form an acceptable part of the meal in cases in which the intensity of other flavors is such as to mask entirely the milder flavors of Camembert or cream cheese. In composition, a characteristic whole-milk brand of this group showed the following analysis:[57] water, 45.5 per cent; fat, 25.28 per cent; protein, 18.22 per cent. +156. Raffiné.+[58]--This cheese is made in the French settlement of the Isle of Orleans in the St. Lawrence River. The practice seems to have been brought from France and represents an intermediate product between Camembert and perhaps Livarot, a cheese on the borderline between Camembert and Isigny as made in America. The outline of the making process as given follows: Milk freshly drawn is curdled without cooling, at approximately 90° F. The rennet is prepared on the farm. About one-half hour is required for curdling. The curd is cut into 2-inch cubes. Whey is removed as fast as it separates. About two hours are required for draining. The curd then goes into the hoops. The metal hoops, which are closed at one end, are 6 inches high, 4½ inches in diameter, with holes about 1/16 inch at intervals of about ½ inch, and stand upon three legs about 1 inch in height. When filled, the cheeses are left on a draining table. Some salt is put on top while draining. When the volume is reduced to one-half, the cheese is turned. The draining room is kept at about 70° F. After they are firm enough to handle, drainage is completed on racks covered with rush matting. These are arranged on special racks. The cheeses are turned twice a day, and washed in slightly salted water every two days. After each washing, they are drained for two hours on cloth, and placed on clean matting. This treatment continues about fifteen days. After fifteen days on the matting, the cheeses are ready for ripening. They are first covered with cold brine and let stand twenty-four hours. The cheeses are packed in rolls or tiers in boxes, covered with cloth and ripened at 45° F. They must be kept moist; if signs of drying appear, moisture must be added. If the cheeses develop yellow slime, they are washed with clear water and rinsed in water with salt added. After a ripening period of three weeks, the cheeses should begin to be soft when pressed with the finger. The growth of molds must be prevented by washing the boxes, cloths, and washing and scraping the cheeses if necessary. When the cheeses are ready for the market, they are scraped clean and white, wrapped separately in cheese-cloth or parchment paper and packed into the boxes. Ripe cheeses are about 5 inches in diameter, 1 inch thick and weigh a little over 5 ounces. The outline of the Raffiné process follows: coagulation by rennet 30 minutes cutting and draining curd 2 hours draining in hoops 10 hours stand on mats 15 days ripening in boxes 21 days Total period 36 days The treatment described closely resembles the handling of Livarot cheese in the department of Calvados, France. +157. Liederkranz cheese.+--Among the specialties in the bacterial group is Liederkranz, made from curd with the soft friable texture of a Camembert, molded in rectangular blocks of about 4 ounces in weight and ripened very completely. Although this name is the private brand of a single factory, it has become widely known with the effect of creating a type name in the American market. Analysis of this brand of cheese gives about 55 per cent water, 25 per cent fat, 17 per cent protein, which indicates a whole milk cheese. +158. Limburger cheese+[59] derives its name from the town of Limburg in Belgium. The manufacture of this cheese is now widely practiced in Europe and in certain parts of the United States, especially in New York and Wisconsin. Practically no cheese of this name is at present imported, and the practices described are limited to those in American factories. +159. The milk.+--Limburger cheese is probably best known on account of its pronounced odor. Because of this characteristic pungent smell, it is often thought that the cheese is made in dirty or unsanitary places. On the contrary, Limburger cheese is usually made in small factories which are clean and sanitary. Because of the constant attention required, a cheese-maker can handle only about 2000-2500 pounds of milk a day, and then some help is necessary to care for the cheeses in the curing room.[60] The discussion of the milk given in Chapter II applies to that to be made into Limburger cheese; however, Limburger requires sweeter milk than do some of the other types. To be sure of obtaining very sweet milk, it is the usual practice for the milk to be delivered without cooling morning and evening at the cheese factory. The cheese is made twice a day. Because the milk must be delivered twice daily, it is obtained from only a few producers near the factory. A factory usually does not have more than eight to twelve patrons. Because of the small number of patrons, it is comparatively easy to obtain a supply of fresh clean milk. [Illustration: FIG. 23.--A common type of Limburger cheese factory.] The factories are variously built. A common type takes advantage of sloping ground so that the floor at one end may be on the ground level and run backward into a hillside until the other end is a cellar with small windows at the ceiling opening at the ground level (Fig. 23). The family of the cheese-maker often lives in the same building above the factory. +160. Making the cheese.+--Limburger cheese is made from the whole milk. When the milk is received at the factory, it is placed in the cheese vat. As the milk is delivered both morning and evening without cooling, it reaches the factory at a temperature of 90 to 96° F. In some cases the night's and morning's milk is mixed and then warmed to about 94° F. This practice is not recommended but is frequently adopted, when the supply of milk becomes too small to work in two lots. As soon as all of the milk has been delivered, the cheese-making process begins. No starter is used. The milk is not ripened because no acid development during the making process is desired. The milk is set or curdled at the temperature at which it is received at the factory, usually from 90 to 96° F. Sufficient rennet extract is used to give a firm coagulation in twenty to thirty minutes. This usually requires 2½ to 3 ounces of rennet extract for each 1000 pounds of milk: This is diluted in about forty times its own volume of cold water and added to the milk. (For method of adding rennet extract to milk, see Chapter V.) When the coagulum has become firm so that it will split clean over the finger, the curd is ready to cut. Coarse Cheddar cheese knives are used. Sometimes only the perpendicular knife is employed, and the curd is broken up while being stirred with the hands and rake. This usually causes a large fat loss. After cutting, the curd is stirred first by hand and later with an ordinary wooden hay rake. Usually the curd is not "cooked" or heated after setting, though occasionally it is brought up as high as 96° F. to 98° F. If the curd does not firm up, the temperature may be raised to 98° to 100° F. to aid in expelling the moisture. When ready to dip, the curd should still be in large soft shiny pieces. It requires from one hour to an hour and thirty minutes from the time the rennet extract is added until the curd is ready to dip. When, in the judgment of the cheese-maker, the curd has become sufficiently firmed in the whey, the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd. The curd is then dipped into the Limburger molds. These molds are 5 inches square by 8 inches deep without top or bottom. Usually there are five or six of these molds built together into a section. These molds are placed on a draining table beside the vat and the curd is ladled into them with a large tin ladle. The draining table has strips on both sides and one end and slants toward the other end so that the whey will drain from the curd and yet not go on the floor except at the one end. This makes it easy to save and catch the whey for stock feed. +161. Draining and salting Limburger.+--In some factories, a clean piece of burlap is put on the draining table and the molds and curd placed on the burlap. This aids in the rapid draining of the whey from the curd and prevents the loss of curd particles. The curd should be turned frequently in the mold to obtain uniform draining. The molds are transferred to the salting room as soon as well drained, usually in about twelve hours, but sometimes they are left until the following morning. Here they are placed on another draining table, which has strips about 5 inches high on the sides and one end. The cheeses are placed along this board, each cheese being separated by a piece of board 4 inches high and 5 inches wide. When the row is filled, a long strip the length of the table is placed against the row. Another row is laid down against this strip in the same manner as the first, and so on until several rows are on the table. The last long strip is held firmly in place by sticks wedged between it and the opposite side of the table. These strips and pieces form a mold for each cheese while draining. Usually the cheeses are turned several times in this period to obtain a uniform expulsion of whey. In about twenty-four hours the cheeses are ready to be salted. This is done by applying the salt to the outside of the cheese. The edges are rolled in a box of salt and the salt then rubbed on the two broad surfaces. Any excess salt is brushed from the cheese with the hand. The cheeses are then laid on a draining table in single layers. The second day, they are salted again in the same way and piled two deep; they are salted again the third day and piled three or four layers deep. The salting room or cellar should have a temperature of 60° F. and be fairly damp. The amount of salt used is very important. The tendency is to use too much salt. This retards the ripening process and in extreme cases gives the cheese a salty taste. If not enough salt is used, the cheese will deteriorate very rapidly on account of the development of undesirable types of fermentation. The cheeses when salted are then placed in the curing room, which is a cellar, usually beyond the salting room. This cellar should have a temperature of 58° to 64° F. and a relative humidity of 95 per cent of saturation. In winter it is necessary to have a fire to keep the rooms warm, otherwise the cheese would cure very slowly or not at all. In some factories the curing and salting cellars are a single room. +162. Ripening Limburger.+--When first placed in the curing cellar, the cheeses are put on edge close together, and as they cure are gradually separated. While in the curing cellar, the cheese must be rubbed frequently by hand and washed, usually with salt water. The object of the rubbing is to keep the surface of the cheese moist and prevent the growth of molds. The drier the cheese and the more mold, the oftener the cheeses must be rubbed. The drying or the evaporation from the cheese can be retarded by sprinkling the floor of the cellar with water. When first placed in the curing cellar, they are usually rubbed daily; after a few days they are rubbed every other day and finally as often as the cheese-maker can find time to work at them. The more the cheeses are rubbed, the better the rind. In the curing of Limburger cheese, protein compounds are attacked by the micro-organisms. Certain highly-flavored fatty acids are commonly produced.[61] This change works most rapidly near the outside and more slowly toward the center of the cheese. The stage of ripening can be determined by examining the cheese. When first made, a cheese is harsh and hard and the outside is more or less white: as the curing changes take place, the cheese becomes soft and pasty or buttery. The outside color changes from a whitish to a yellowish and finally even a reddish brown. It requires considerable time for the ripening agents to work from the outside to the center of the cheese. As ripening progresses, Limburger cheeses tend to become soft enough to break in handling. If such cheeses are wrapped in manila paper after three to four weeks of ripening and packed in boxes, losses from handling are eliminated. One loose board is left on each box and the boxes remain in the ripening cellar until the cheese-maker decides by removal and examination of cheeses from time to time that they are ready for shipment. When fully ripe, the cheese spoils very quickly. Unless handled very carefully, the outer part may actually rot before the interior is fully ripe. The cheeses are shipped from the factory when they are eight to ten weeks old. They are then placed in cold storage, which checks the action of the ripening agents and so lengthens the commercial life of the cheese. +163. Marketing and qualities of Limburger.+--As shipped from the factory, each cheese is wrapped in heavy manila paper and frequently also in tin-foil. The cheeses are packed in boxes which hold forty-eight. Each cheese weighs about two pounds. Limburger cheese should be regular in shape. The rind should not be cracked or broken nor the sides bulged, nor should it be lopsided. It should have the pronounced characteristic flavor, without other objectionable flavors due to undesirable fermentations. The body should be uniform throughout. It is common to find cheeses that have not a uniform body, due to lack of curing; a small part of the interior at the center will be hard and not cured, while the remainder of the cheese will be soft and buttery. The color should be uniform. When not entirely cured, the uncured part at the center is usually of a lighter color. The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt. The most common defect is in the flavor. If the milk is not free from bad odors and flavors, these are apt to be more pronounced in the cheese than in the milk. (For care of milk see Chapter II.) Gas-forming fermentations are very bad in this variety of cheese as they cannot be controlled and give the cheese a bad flavor and a "gassy body." When a cheese is gassy, the sides are most liable to be bulged and the body is full of gas holes or pockets. Another defect is a sour cheese. This is caused by the development of too much acid in the milk or during the manufacturing process. A sour cheese usually cures slowly and has a pronounced sour taste. The body is hard and bitter. If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will cure rapidly and the body will be very soft and pasty. In extreme cases it will be so soft that it will run when the rind is broken. On the other hand if the cheese does not contain sufficient moisture, it will cure very slowly and the body will be hard and dry and sometimes crumbly. There is no standard score-card for judging Limburger cheese. The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association[62] uses the following score-card for Limburger: Flavor 40 Texture 40 Color 10 Salt 5 Style 5 --- Total 100 +164. Yield and composition of Limburger.+--The yield of cheese depends on: (1) the amount of fat and other solids in the milk from which it is made; (2) the amount of moisture incorporated into cheese; (3) the loss of solids during the manufacturing process. The yield varies from 12 to 14 pounds of cheese from 100 pounds of milk. The more fat and other solids in the milk, the more cheese can be made from 100 pounds of the milk. The more moisture incorporated into the cheese, the larger the yield. The quality of the cheese and the amount of solids determine the amount of moisture that can be incorporated into the cheese. The greater the losses during the manufacturing process, the less is the yield. The composition of Limburger cheese is affected by the same factors as the yield. The average cheese probably carries from 40 to 42 per cent of moisture. Limburger cheeses will vary in composition from this analysis about as follows: water 38 to 44 percent, protein 21 to 25 percent, fat 25 to 30 percent. The differences in practice in factory groups are considerable. Certain markets call for more solid brands, others for the very soft forms. +165. Münster cheese+ originated in Germany near the city whose name it bears. There is a limited demand for this variety in America; therefore it is not extensively made. It is usually manufactured from whole milk in a Limburger or Brick cheese factory. The process of manufacture is between that of these two varieties in temperatures used, firmness of curd and amount of moisture in the curd and cheese. The process is probably more like that of Limburger. The curd is firmed more in the whey than for Limburger, and more acid is developed. The cheeses are pressed or drained in round forms 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches high. The hoops are lined with cloth to prevent the loss of curd particles while draining. When the cheeses are sufficiently drained, until they are firm enough to hold their shape, the cloths are removed. The cheese is salted by rubbing dry salt on the surface or soaking the cheese in brine. The product is handled in the curing room very much the same as Limburger or Brick cheese. When sufficiently ripe, each cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and placed in a separate wooden box. This cheese, when cured, has a characteristic flavor which is between that of Limburger and Brick. The body is more or less open. The essential factor in the manufacture of Münster cheese is clean milk. Bad fermentations, such as produce gas and bad flavors, seriously interfere with the manufacture and sale of the product. The cheese is usually made in the late fall and winter, when it is difficult to manufacture Limburger. CHAPTER X SEMI-HARD CHEESES Between the quickly perishable soft cheeses and the typical hard group, are two series of varieties, one ripened by green mold and best known by Roquefort, the other ripened by bacteria and typified by Brick cheese. These cheeses are fairly firm, hold their shape well, ripen over a period varying from a few weeks to several months and their marketable period is comparatively long. In texture they are intermediate between the conditions known as "soft" and "hard." In water-content, they range at their best from 37 to 45 percent. Outside these limits, the cheeses are often marketable but they lose in quality[63] and trueness to type. +166. The green mold group.+--There are three well-known semi-hard cheeses ripened by green or blue-green mold.[64] The mold is an incidental factor in certain other forms but none of these forms has won larger than local or purely national recognition. French Roquefort, on the contrary, is probably the most widely known of all cheeses. Stilton, to a small degree at least, has followed the English to the many lands they inhabit. Gorgonzola, although made in Italy alone, has a large market in other parts of Europe and in America. In the manipulations of manufacture, these forms are not closely related but they resemble each other in that each becomes streaked or marbled by the growth of green mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) through open spaces within the cheese. The "blue-veined" or marbled cheeses have a characteristic taste which is developed in its most typical form in Roquefort. +167. Roquefort cheese.+--This is a rennet cheese made from sheep's milk (with occasional and minor admixture of goat's and cow's milk) in the section of southern France centering about Roquefort in Aveyron. The practices are standardized and controlled by a few companies, thus reaching exceptional uniformity. Roquefort is uncolored, open, made from firm but brittle or crumbly, not tough or waxy curd. Each cheese is about 7¼ inches (20 cm.) in diameter and 3¼ inches (9 cm.) in thickness without a definite rind, and when ripe enough for market is scraped carefully, closely covered with tin-foil and kept in refrigerators. The cut cheese shows extensive open spaces which are lined with green mold. This cheese, in addition to a strong cheesy odor and taste, has a peppery or burning quality which according to Currie[65] is due to the formation of volatile fatty acids such as caproic, caprylic and capric from the butter-fat of the sheep's milk used. A series for Roquefort cheeses selected for excellent quality was found by Dox[66] to show the following composition: TABLE IV COMPOSITION OF ROQUEFORT CHEESE ========================================================= | WATER | FAT | PROTEIN | ASH | SALT | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT --------------+--------+-------+---------+------+-------- Average | 38.69 | 32.31 | 21.39 | 6.14 | 4.14 Minimum | 37.49 | 31.50 | 19.14 | 5.18 | 3.64 Maximum | 40.10 | 33.53 | 23.06 | 6.81 | 4.88 ========================================================= The composition of the sheep's milk of the Roquefort producing region is reported by Marre:[67] TABLE V COMPOSITION OF SHEEP'S MILK ============================================================= | WATER | CASEIN | FAT | LACTOSE | ASH | PER | PER | PER | PER | PER | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT | CENT -------------+-------+--------+----------+---------+--------- Range | 76-83 | 5-8 | 5.5-10.5 | 4 to 5 | 0.8-1.2 Average | 79.5 | 6.5 | 8.0 | 4.5 | 1.0 ============================================================= The cheeses when properly made in the local factories are transported to Roquefort for ripening in the famous caves which have made possible the development of a great industry. The Roquefort caves were originally natural openings leading back into the face of a cliff until they reached a deep, narrow fault or crack in the rock leading to the plains above. The cooler air from the plains came down this crack over moist and dripping rocks and issued through these clefts in a cold moisture-laden current which kept the caves about 50 to 55° F. and moist enough to ripen the cheeses without shrinkage. As the business outgrew the natural caves, great cellars, some of them five or six floors deep, were excavated and tunnels were dug back to the crack so that the strong ventilating current reaches every part of the cellars and keeps both temperature and relative humidity favorable to the ripening of the cheeses. +168. Cow's milk or Façons Roquefort.+--The supply of Roquefort is automatically limited by the supply of sheep's milk. The sheep gives milk only about five months in the year and at best a scant average of about a pint a day to a sheep. Sheep's milk for cheese-making is not produced, therefore, outside of very limited regions. Some cow's and goat's milk unavoidably finds its way regularly into the industry itself. Attempts were naturally made to substitute cow's milk. Outside the controlled area, factories were established for this purpose. The quality of the product did not equal that of the Roquefort factories, and French courts decreed that the name Roquefort should not be used for such products. Although some local success was obtained, not much progress was made against the intrenched Roquefort industry. Similar attempts to make such a product in Germany[68] were tried on an extensive scale but failed. More recently, under the inspiration of Conn, the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs Experiment Station have studied the possibilities of such an industry. Although the work is not completed, the preliminary reports[69] have indicated the fundamental principles which must underlie such development. +169. Outline of making Roquefort.+--Some of the results of these experiments are summarized in the following paragraphs: _Milk._--Clean-flavored fresh milk testing 4-4.2 per cent fat and up to 2.8 per cent casein gives the best results. The milk with a high percentage of cheese-making solids forms a firmer curd, hence works up better in the process than milk of lower quality. _Acidity._--The milk is ripened by lactic starter up to an acidity of 0.23 per cent titrated as lactic acid at the time rennet is added. This gives a firm curd, which drains to the desired water-content but is low enough to prevent the toughening effect of too high acid. A very slight increase in initial acid--1 to 2 hundredths per cent--combined with the rate at which acidity is developing introduces such physical changes in texture as to make the final texture of Roquefort impossible. _Temperature._--Rennet is added at or below 84° F. Every degree of heat adds definitely to the efficiency of rennet. Below 82° F., curdling becomes slower and the coagulum softer and more difficult to drain. The sheep's milk curd is made from 76° to 84° F. but sheep's milk has about twice the cheese solids found in cow's milk. It was found necessary to raise the temperature as high as texture would permit. However, at 86° F. the physical character of the curd tends to become tough or waxy in handling. At 84° F. the curd remains brittle and crumbly. It was, therefore, necessary to keep the curdling temperature down to 84° F. _Renneting or setting._--Rennet at a rate of 3 to 4 ounces of standard liquid rennet to 1000 pounds (10 to 12 c.c. to 100 pounds) was found to give the best curd under experimental conditions. _Curdling time._--One and one-half to two hours gave most satisfactory results in forming curd. This should be very firm and stand until it begins to "sweat," until beads of whey have begun to collect upon its surface. _Cutting._--The cow's milk curd gave best results when cut in two directions with the half-inch curd knife. The resulting columns, a half inch square in cross-section, may be handled without excessive losses. _Draining._--The cut curd is dipped to a draining rack covered with cloth with as little breaking as possible. During the draining process, a certain amount of turning is necessary to facilitate the separation and escape of the whey. If handled too much, losses of fat are increased and the curd becomes tough or waxy instead of remaining brittle or crumbly. When properly handled, not over 0.35 per cent of fat is lost. Under favorable conditions, four-ninths to two-thirds of the original weight of curd will separate and run off as whey in twenty to thirty minutes. The curd meanwhile is exposed to the air of the room and cools toward room temperature. If cooling goes too far, further drainage is interfered with. Hence the curd is put into the hoop and the drainage completed while the cheese is reaching its final form. _Hoop._--Hoops for cow's milk Roquefort must be 7½ inches in diameter and about 5¾ inches high to hold curd enough to produce a cheese the size of the standard Roquefort when completely drained. Sheep's milk with its higher percentage of solids does not require such high hoops. The curd as it goes into the hoop should be a soft, pulpy mass with no suggestion of toughness. _Inoculation with mold._--The mold for Roquefort cheese (_Penicillium Roqueforti_[70]) is readily grown in pure culture in ordinary loaves of bread. For this purpose loaves hot from the oven are quickly drenched with or immersed in hot paraffine to form an impervious crust to retain moisture as well as to keep out contaminations. It is then allowed to cool. The interior of each loaf is inoculated by drawing a suspension of _P. Roqueforti_ spores in water into a sterile pipette (10 c.c.) which is then thrust through the paraffined crust to the center of the loaf of bread and allowed to empty there. The hole is sealed up with paraffine. These loaves are incubated for about a month at room temperature. When cut, every open space should be found lined with the green spores of the mold. When dry enough, the mass may be powdered, and put into an ordinary pepper box. When the curd is ready to go into the hoop, this mold powder is sprinkled upon it from the pepper box. _Handling._--Freshly made cheeses are turned within the first hour to insure the proper smoothness of both sides. Further draining is best accomplished in a room at about 64° F. with a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per cent. If the surface of the cheese becomes too dry, a rind is formed. No real rind is permitted on Roquefort. If the temperature is too high, slime forms quickly and unfavorable fermentation may occur. Slime (bacteria and _Oidium lactis_ usually) must be scraped when it becomes too heavy. _Salting._[71]--Experimental cheeses were found to give the best results when at the end of about three days' drainage they contained about 50 per cent water. Such cheeses were salted by sprinkling the entire surface lightly, replaced upon the drain boards for one day, salted again and piled in two's. After another day they received the third salting and were piled in three's for two days longer. A total of about 10 per cent by weight of salt was used to secure an absorption of 4 per cent. At the same time the water-content dropped to 40 to 43 per cent. After salting is completed, the cheeses are brushed and punched with holes to permit oxygen to enter.[72] They are then ready for ripening. +170. Ripening of Roquefort.+--The ripening of experimental Roquefort has required four to six months at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per cent. This relative humidity is just below the equilibrium relative humidity of the cheese, hence permits a shrinkage of 2 to 4 per cent in the water-content of the cheese. This makes it possible to control the amount of surface slime developed. If the relative humidity goes too high, the surface slime of bacteria and yeasts becomes very heavy, soft and almost liquid, and follows the openings into the cheese with resultant damage to appearance and flavor. Even under the conditions at Roquefort, this slime must be removed by rubbing or scraping several times to avoid injury to the cheeses, together with the production of bad odor and taste. If the humidity becomes too low, the surface becomes dry, hard and cracks open, the friable crumbly texture is injured, and there is considerable loss in weight. Salt forms about 4 per cent of the cheese. This is in solution in the water present, which is about 40 per cent, and makes a brine of about 10 per cent strength. This strength of brine does not prevent the growth of the Roquefort mold (_Penicillium Roqueforti_) but does hinder the development of _Oidium lactis_ in the open spaces within the cheese. Accurate adjustment of temperature and relative humidity in the ripening rooms to salt and water-content in the cheese is essential to proper ripening. These conditions are furnished by the unique natural conditions of the caves of Roquefort. The production of such cheeses elsewhere depends either on the discovery of another locality with closely similar conditions or on the artificial production and control of the necessary temperature and relative humidity. This has been done on an experimental basis by the use of cold storage apparatus combined with proper humidifiers. The differences between working with sheep's and with cow's milk lie in the making process rather than in the ripening. Sheep's milk freshly drawn shows a higher acidity than cow's milk, probably on account of the acid reaction of its greater casein content. With nearly double the total solids of cow's milk, the yield to one hundred pounds is much greater, consequently the drainage of the curd is much more easily handled. Once made and salted, the cheeses require very nearly the same conditions of ripening. The resultant products are alike in appearance and texture. In flavor, cow's milk Roquefort differs in character from sheep's milk cheese to such a degree as to be recognized by taste. The difference was found by Currie[73] to be due to an actual difference in the combination of fatty acids present. Although these differences in character are recognizable by the expert in testing the cheese, as well as by chemical analysis, cow's milk Roquefort would satisfy that large proportion of consumers who use such cheese only in connection with other fairly high flavored foods. The demands for technical skill and factory equipment are not naturally greater than for many other lines of cheese-making. The gradual development of a cow's milk Roquefort may be anticipated. [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Gorgonzola ripening establishment in valley near Lecco.] +171. Gorgonzola+[74] is a rennet cheese made from fresh whole cow's milk, in northern Italy. It takes its name from the village of Gorgonzola, a few miles from Milan, but the manufacture of the cheese has spread over a wide area. The cheeses are made on farms and in factories from which they are transported for ripening to cool valleys of the Alps, principally near Lecco (Fig. 24). Boeggild introduced the making of a cheese after the Gorgonzola process into Denmark about 1885. This industry has been successful on a small scale since that time. Gorgonzola cheeses are about 30 cm. (12 inches) in diameter and 18 cm. (7 inches) thick and weigh 15 to 20 pounds. As exported they are usually heavily coated[75] with a mixture usually barite, tallow and lard colored with annatto or other cheese color. This coating prevents shrinkage or mold on the surface of the cheese in transit. When cut these cheeses vary greatly. All show marbling with mold (Roquefort mold). During their ripening they become very slimy at the surface. To open up air spaces for mold growth, this slime is scraped off and holes are punched into the cheeses. These holes are readily seen in the final product. Some show crumbly texture, well distributed mold, as in Roquefort, with flavor approaching that cheese; in others the texture is waxy rather than crumbly, a condition correlated regularly with different character in the flavor. Frequently in whole areas or in small pockets, slime consisting of bacteria and Oidium has followed the openings into the cheese and affects its odor and taste. Experimental Gorgonzola cheeses comparable with the Italian product were made with cow's milk ripened as for Roquefort or higher, to 0.25-0.30 per cent (titrated as lactic acid), curdled at 86° F. (30° C.), cut into cubes and slightly stirred, then dipped to a draining board for about one-half hour, and put into the hoop. The cheeses drained quickly to about 50 percent water and developed a surface rind as in the harder cheeses. Cut surfaces showed a fairly open cheese in which mold grew readily. These cheeses were salted to taste, not to a specified percentage. They ripened with the same irregular results and the characteristic range of flavors found in Gorgonzola. To avoid the rotting of the cheese by surface growths, they were exposed to low humidities for a time and cracks opened at the surfaces, as seen in the ripening rooms at Lecco (Fig. 24). The texture was more or less waxy or tough, which was correlated with the slightly higher heat at renneting together with the stirring or "working" of the curd. Comparative analyses of a series of imported cheeses confirm the interpretation that the salt-content of Roquefort, 4 per cent approximately, prevents the invasion of the interior of the cheese by Oidium. No complete study of the ripening of Gorgonzola has been made. As far as followed, it consists in an initial souring process followed by ripening by molds and slime organisms. At its best, Gorgonzola is nearly equal to Roquefort but the percentage of such quality is low. In spite of its irregular quality, England has used larger amounts of Gorgonzola than of Roquefort. Considerable quantities have been imported for the Italian trade in the United States. [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Gorgonzola cheese curing-room.] +172. Stilton cheese+ bears the name of an English village[76] in which it was first sold. It is made from cow's milk and is typically a whole milk cheese, although part skim cheeses are regularly made and sold as lower grades. In the Stilton-making counties, the milk from Shorthorn cattle testing about 3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat is preferred to richer or poorer grades. Such milk is curdled with rennet at about 86° F. in about one hour; the curd is cut, dipped to a draining table covered with cloth and drained slowly over a period of several hours, commonly overnight. During this period considerable acidity is developed. The curd is then milled or broken by hand, salted, packed into hoops 15 to 16 inches high and 7 inches in diameter. These hoops are made from heavy tin (Fig. 26) with four rows of holes about 3/10 inch in diameter. The freshly filled hoops are allowed to stand and drain without pressure in a room at about 70° F. (Fig. 26). Such cheeses are turned every day for several days. When solid enough to stand the hoops are removed, the cheeses are scraped or rubbed with a knife until the surface is smooth, and commonly wrapped with a cloth bandage to maintain the shape, if the cheese is still too soft to stand firmly. In the factories, several rooms are used with varying temperature and relative humidities, which makes it possible to place each cheese under the condition best suited to its texture and condition of ripeness. In general, the dairy sections of England are much more humid than those of America and there are less violent changes in temperature. Stilton cheese-making has grown up to take advantage of this climatic factor in handling the product. Transplantation of such an industry necessitates a mastery not only of the manipulations but a grasp of the fundamental principles underlying the process and a readjustment of practices to preserve those principles. [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Stilton cheeses in hoops, draining.] Stilton is, then, a soured curd cheese in whose ripening a very prominent part is played by the green mold (usually some strain of _P. Roqueforti_) which grows throughout the cavities of its mass[77]. At its best, it has attractive texture and flavor. Much of it fails to reach high quality on account of the invasion of bacteria, _Oidium lactis_, and very frequently myriads of cheese mites. The following analysis was furnished as typical for ripe cheese by Miles Benson,[78] late professor of dairying at Reading, England: Water 31 per cent, fat 36 per cent, casein 29 per cent, mineral constituents including salt about 4 per cent. Approximately the same figures are given by Primrose McConnell (Agricultural Note Book). The low percentage of salt is another factor of uncertainty in the control of this Stilton product, as in Gorgonzola, since these cheeses are commonly high in water-content at first and are thus subject to invasion by Oidium. Stilton has been made on a small scale in Canada[79] and occasionally attempted in the United States. No serious effort to develop an industry of commercial importance has been made in America. Comparative study of the cheeses ripened by green mold tends to the conviction that the adaptation of the Roquefort practice to the use of cow's milk offers a more satisfactory basis for experiment than efforts to establish a Stilton or a Gorgonzola industry. +173. Gex.+--A cheese under this name made in southern France resembles, in its general character as a ripened cheese, the English Stilton and Italian Gorgonzola. Although it has no commercial importance, reference is made to this cheese to show that mold-ripened cheeses have been developed entirely independently in different countries to bring about the same general character of product. +174. Bacterially ripened series.+--The semi-hard cheeses ripened by bacteria stand half-way between true Limburger and the hard forms. In fact, brands of Limburger are readily found which approach the texture and ripening of Brick cheese. In the same way, Brick cheeses are often found which have the appearance, texture and much of the flavor of the Cheddars with only a trace of the taste of Limburger. Port du Salut, Oka, Münster, in France Livarot, in the Balkan regions Kascoval, belong in this series. +175. Brick cheese.+--The name of this cheese is probably due to the finished product being about the size and shape of a brick. It is similar to the German cheese Bäckstein and may have been developed from it. It is typically a sweet-curd cheese, made from milk freshly drawn, without permitting the development of appreciable quantities of acidity until after the curd has been put into the hoop. In the making process, it is intermediate between Limburger and the cheeses of the Cheddar group. Some cheese-makers use an ordinary cheese vat, others a copper kettle in manufacturing. It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese factory both morning and evening, without cooling. Cheese is made twice a day. In some cases the milk is delivered only once a day, and extra precautions must then be taken to care for the milk properly. The discussion of the care of milk in Chapter II applies to that for Brick cheese. For the best quality of cheese, the milk in the vat should show about 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity and never above 0.18 of 1 per cent.[80] +176. Making of Brick cheese.+[81]--The milk is received at the cheese factory at a temperature of about 92° to 96° F. For the best results, the acidity should be determined (by the acid test) to decide on the amount of starter to use. Few Brick cheese-makers use an acid test or a starter but these precautions would improve the product of many factories. For method of using the acid test, see Chapter V. Chapter IV discusses the preparation and use of starter. Usually 0.25 to 0.50 of 1 per cent of starter is the amount required. A small amount of starter is used to aid the development of lactic acid and for the beneficial effect it has on the flavor. A very small development of acid is desired after adding the starter; therefore the change in acidity should be very carefully watched with the acid test. The vat is usually set when the acid test shows 0.16 of 1 per cent acidity. The more acid in the milk, the less starter should be employed. Sufficient rennet extract should be used to give a coagulation suitable for cutting in thirty to thirty-five minutes. For method of adding the rennet extract, see Chapter V. When the coagulum is firm enough for the curd to break clean over the finger, it is ready to cut. The curd is cut with coarse knives into 3/8- or ½-inch cubes. After cutting, the curd is let stand three to five minutes, then stirred with the hands for a few minutes until the whey begins to separate and then stirred with the rake. Some makers do not stir by hand but use the rake directly after cutting. When this is done, great care must be exercised to stir the curd without breaking up the pieces, because this causes a loss of fat. After cutting the curd is stirred for twenty to thirty minutes before the steam is turned on. The curd is heated very slowly at first and more rapidly during the last stages of cooking. The curd is cooked to a temperature of 110° to 115° F. The lower the temperature that can be used to produce firm curd, the better the texture of the cheese. After cutting and during the cooking, the curd must be constantly stirred so that lumps will not form. When the curd forms lumps, the moisture is not evenly expelled. This results in uneven texture and curing. Sometimes some salt is added to the curd in the vat to restrain souring. The curd is stirred after cooking until it is sufficiently firm. It remains usually in the whey for a total period of one and one-fourth to one and one-half hours from the time of cutting. It is then dipped into forms 10 inches long by 5 inches wide by 8 inches deep. The forms are without top or bottom and are placed on a draining table. This table is so constructed that the whey can be saved for stock feed. When ready to "dip," the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd in the vat, then the curd is dipped into the forms or hoops. Care must be taken to get the same amount of curd into each form to produce the cheeses of uniform size. Each cheese is turned several times to insure even draining and even reduction of the temperature. While draining, a follower is placed in each hoop and a weight placed on each cheese. Usually a brick is used for this weight. A cheese is allowed to drain or press for ten to fifteen hours. It is then placed on the salting table and rubbed with coarse salt. While on the salting table, a cheese is placed on its broad side. Some cheese-makers prefer to salt their cheeses by soaking them in a salt brine. This brine should be strong enough to float an egg. Salting requires three days. The cheeses are then brushed free from excess salt and taken to the cellar to cure or ripen. +177. Ripening Brick cheese.+--For this process, the cellars are kept at about 90 percent relative humidity and a temperature of 60° to 65° F. Some prefer a temperature for curing as high as 68° F. During the curing, the surfaces of the cheese are kept moist and mold growths kept down by rubbing or brushing the cheese with pure water or salt and water. In the curing cellars the cheeses are placed on shelves; at first they are set close together and as they cure, they are separated. During curing, the color changes from a whitish to a reddish brown. The cheese cures from the outside toward the center. When first made, the product is harsh and hard in texture but during the ripening process it becomes mellow and smooth. The cheeses remain on the curing shelves for four to six weeks, after which they are wrapped in heavy waxed paper and boxed. A cheese ready for market usually weighs about five pounds. A Brick cheese box is 5 inches deep by 20 inches wide by 3 feet long, and holds 110 to 115 pounds of cheese. +178. Qualities of Brick cheese.+--The cheeses should be neat and attractive and the rind not cracked or broken. The sides should be square and not bulged. The cheese should have a clean, characteristic Brick cheese flavor. The body and texture should be mellow and smooth and when rubbed between the thumb and forefinger, should break down like cold butter. The color should be uniform. The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt and moisture. One of the worst faults with Brick cheese is bad flavor. This is many times due to the cheese-maker not using clean flavored starter. It may also be due to bad flavored milk. A Brick cheese-maker has no means of controlling gassy fermentations. These show themselves in the bad flavor of the cheese and in the porous body. They also cause the cheese to bulge. If detected, gassy milk should be rejected. If too much acid is developed, a sour cheese is the result. This will not cure normally and usually has a sour flavor. The body will be brittle and mealy. If too much salt is used, the cheese may have a salty taste and it will cure very slowly. If not enough salt is used, the cheese may cure too rapidly and undesirable flavors and fermentations develop. The cheese must have the proper moisture-content; if too much moisture is present, the cheese cures too fast and is soft and pasty in body; if not enough moisture, then the reverse is true. Tabulation of cheeses of special quality, as submitted in scoring contests, show an average water-content of 37 to 38 per cent, with occasional cheeses verging toward Limburger in texture and flavor with 40 to 42 per cent water, and others indistinguishable from Cheddar, with water-content as low as 34 per cent. The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association uses the following score-card for the judging of Brick cheese on a scale of 100: Flavor 40 Texture 40 Color 10 Salt 5 Style 5 --- 100 +179. Composition and yield.+--The composition of Brick cheese varies within wide limits. The average cheese probably contains from 37 to 39 per cent of water, although many cheeses are above and below this average; Doane and Lawson[82] give the fat as 28.86 per cent, proteins 23.8 per cent and total ash 4.20 per cent. The composition and yield are both affected by: (1) the moisture-content of the cheese; (2) composition of the milk from which made; and (3) losses during the manufacturing process. The average yield of Brick cheese is 11 to 13 pounds to 100 pounds of milk. +180. Port du Salut cheese.+--The Trappist monks originated this type of cheese in their monasteries in France. Under the name of their community Oka, it has been made and sold widely by the Trappist Fathers of Quebec. In recent years, factories independent of the order have made such cheese both in America and in Europe. The following outline of the making process indicates the close relationship between Port du Salut and Brick cheeses. Whole milk or milk not over one-fifth skimmed is ripened to medium acidity, then heated to 90° to 95° F. according to season and acidity. Rennet enough is added (see Chapter V) to curdle in thirty to forty minutes, although some makers shorten the time to twenty minutes. When formed, the curd is cut into small cubes and excess of whey is dipped away. The constantly stirred mass is then heated or cooked to 100° to 105° F. within a period of ten to twelve minutes or according to some makers twenty to thirty minutes. It is allowed to stand a few minutes to settle. Most of the whey is then drawn and the mass is stirred vigorously to prevent fusion of the curd granules. The curd is ready for the hoop when the particles are about the size of grains of wheat and do not stick together when squeezed with the hand. The individual grains of curd should crumble easily between the fingers. The hot curd is transferred directly to the hoops without cooling. For this purpose, a hoop is set upon the table covered with a cloth and the curd dipped into the cloth. The edges of the cloth are then folded over. In this condition the cheese is transferred to the press where gradually increasing pressure begins with 3 to 4 pounds and reaches about 70 pounds. To insure proper shape, cheeses are turned and put into fresh cloths at the end of the first hour and turned subsequently several times during the pressing period of about twelve hours.[83] Port du Salut cheeses are salted by rubbing fine salt on the surface by hand at the rate of 1.2 to 2 per cent of the weight of the cheese. After about two days in the salting process, they are put into the ripening cellars. The cellars are wet, since they reach 90 to 95 per cent relative humidity at a temperature of about 55° F. After two days in the cellar, the cheeses are plunged into a tank of saturated brine to which a trace of cheese color has been added. As they come out of these tanks, they are yellowish and greasy or slimy. They are returned to the shelves where they are rubbed every day with a cloth or by hands wet in brine. After about one week they are again plunged in the brine. Treatment with brine tends to insure a firm rind. The cheeses are rubbed more or less regularly with brine through the whole ripening period. After six weeks, such cheese may be eaten. The cut surface of Port du Salut is creamy in color, may or may not show small holes. In texture it is soft enough to spread readily under pressure without losing its shape in handling. In flavor the cheese is a mild form belonging to the Limburger group. Port du Salut cheeses as imported from France usually are firm round cakes about 1½ inches thick, weighing about 3 pounds. CHAPTER XI _THE HARD CHEESES_ The hard cheeses form a great series of groups, whose most prominent physical character is their firm or hard texture. This is correlated with comparatively low water-content, which is usually between 30 and 40 per cent. Although certain varieties occasionally test above 40 per cent water, this deviation is accompanied by quick ripening and rapid spoilage. These varieties of cheese are staple products with long marketable periods; therefore they may be handled in large lots, shipped, carted and stored freely without the losses such treatment would entail in soft cheese. The retailer frequently buys hard cheese by the ton, not by the cheese or by the box. In making, these varieties are characterized as cooked and pressed cheeses. Although both the heating of a curd and the pressing of a newly made cheese occur among semi-hard forms, these practices appear in their most typical forms in the hard cheeses. The hard cheeses show two types of texture. A cut cheese may appear smooth, free from holes or with a few angular cracks or seams, or it may show round holes or "eyes." In the smooth textured forms every effort is made to prevent gassy fermentations, usually by controlling the fermentation of the curd in the making process. When "eyes" are present, the end sought has been a development of a particular form of gassy fermentation which gives this appearance and brings about the characteristic ripening texture and flavor. The hard cheeses have been developed in groups of national varieties. The best known of these groups are those which may be represented by English Cheddar, American Factory Cheddar, Danish, the Edam of Holland, Swiss and Parmesan with many related varieties in Italy and neighboring countries of southern Europe. +181. The Danish group.+--The Danish cheeses are related in appearance and flavor to the English group represented by Cheddar. The demand for butter in Europe has been so great that the Danish cheese-makers have developed skim and part skim varieties largely to the exclusion of the whole milk form. Skillful handling of their process has resulted in a product which has had a very large and appreciative market in England and Germany. +182. The Dutch group.+--Edam and Gouda are the two forms of cheese made in Holland and most widely known among other peoples. Both reach America in considerable quantities; both are shipped in large amounts to tropical countries. Although attempts have been made to manufacture them in America, no commercial production of these cheeses has been successful. Although whole milk grades of these cheeses are known, they are to a large measure part skim in manufacture. The presence of one or both of these forms in every large market in America makes the general facts of their production of general interest. Parts of a report on experimental work in the making of Edam and Gouda are, therefore, given here. +183. Edam cheese+[84] is a sweet-curd type, made from partially skimmed-milk. It comes to the market in the form of round red balls, each weighing from 3½ to 4 pounds when cured. It is largely manufactured in northern Holland and derives its name from a town famous as a market for this kind of cheese.[85] Milk from which one-fourth to one-third of the fat has been removed is used. Too great pains cannot be taken in regard to the condition of the milk. It should be fresh, free from every trace of taint; in brief, it should be in as perfect condition as possible. +184. Method of manufacture.+--The following paragraphs give the steps in the manufacture of Edam cheese: _Treatment of milk before adding rennet._--The temperature of the milk should be brought up to a point not below 85° F. nor much above 88° F. When the desired temperature has become constant, the coloring matter should be added. Cheese color is used at the rate of 1½ to 2 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. The coloring matter should, of course, be added to the milk and thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added. _Addition of rennet to milk._--The rennet should not be added until the milk has reached the desired temperature (85° to 88° F.) and this temperature has become constant. When the temperature reaches the desired point and remains there stationary, the rennet extract is added. Rennet extract may be used, 4½ to 5½ ounces being taken for 1000 pounds of milk, or enough to coagulate the milk in the desired time, at the actual temperature used. The milk should be completely coagulated, ready for cutting, in about twelve to eighteen minutes from the time the rennet is added. The same precaution observed in making Cheddar cheese should be followed in making Edam cheese with reference to care in adding the rennet, such as careful, accurate measurement, dilution with pure water before addition to milk. _Cutting the curd for Edam._--When the curd breaks clean across the finger, it should be cut; it is cut a very little softer than in the Cheddar process as ordinarily practiced. As stated, this stage of hardness in the curd which fits it for cutting should come in twelve to eighteen minutes after the rennet is added. First, a vertical knife is used and the curd is cut lengthwise, after which it is allowed to stand until the slices of curd begin to show the separation of whey. Then the vertical knife is used in cutting crosswise, after which the horizontal knife is at once used. Any curd adhering to the bottom and sides of the vat is carefully removed by the hand, after which the curd-knife is again passed through the mass of curd lengthwise and crosswise, continuing the cutting until the curd has been cut as uniformly as possible into very small pieces. _Treatment of Edam curd after cutting._--When the cutting is completed, one commences at once to heat the curd up to the temperature of 93° to 96° F. The heating is done as quickly as possible. While the heating is in progress, the curd is kept constantly agitated to prevent settling and consequent overheating. As soon as the curd shows signs of hardening, which the experience of the worker will enable him to determine, the whey is drawn off until the upper surface of the curd appears, when one should commence to fill the press molds. [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Edam cheese mold.] _Filling molds, pressing and dressing Edam._--The molds, which are described later in detail, are well soaked in warm water previous to use, in order to prevent too sudden chilling of curd and consequent checking of separation of whey. As soon as whey is drawn off, as indicated above, one begins to fill the pressing molds (Fig. 27). The filling should be done as rapidly as possible to prevent too great cooling of curd. When the curd has been put into the molds, its temperature should not be below 88° F. Unless care is taken to keep the curd covered, the portion that is last put into the molds may become too much cooled. In making Edam cheese on a small scale, it is a good plan to squeeze the moisture out with the hands as much as possible and then break it up again before putting in the molds, when the curd should be pressed into the mold firmly by the hands. The molds should be filled as nearly alike as possible. The cheese should weigh from 5 to 5¼ pounds each when ready for the press. When the filling of molds is completed, they are put under continual pressure of 20 to 25 pounds for about twenty-five or thirty minutes. While the cheese is being pressed, some sweet whey is heated to a temperature of 125° or 130° F., and this whey should not be allowed to go below 120° F. at any time while it is being used. When the cheeses are taken from their molds, each is put into the warm whey for two minutes, then removed and dressed. For dressing Edam cheese, the ordinary cheese bandage cloth is used. This is cut into strips, which should be long enough to reach entirely around the cheese and overlap an inch or so, and which should be wide enough to cover all but a small portion of the ends of the cheese when put in place. Before putting on the bandage, all rough projections should be carefully pared from the cheese. In putting on, the cheese is held in one hand and the bandage is wrapped carefully around the cheese, so that the whole is covered, except a small portion on the upper and lower surface of the cheese. These bare spots are covered by small pieces of bandage cloth of a size sufficient to fill the bare surface. The bandage is kept wet with the warm sweet whey, thus facilitating the process of dressing. After each cheese is dressed, it should be replaced in the dressing mold, care being taken that the bandage remains in place and leaves no portion of the surface of the cheese uncovered and in direct contact with the mold. The cheese is then put under continual pressure of 60 to 120 pounds and kept for six to twelve hours. +185. Salting and curing Edam.+--There are two methods which may be employed in salting,--dry and wet. In dry-salting, when the cheese is finally taken from the press, it is removed from the press mold, its bandage is removed completely, and the cheese placed in another mold, quite similar, known as the salting mold. Each cheese is placed in a salting mold with a coating of fine salt completely surrounding it. The cheese is salted in this way once each day for five or six days. Each day the cheese should be turned when it is replaced in the mold, so that it will not be rounded on one end more than the other. In the method of wet-salting, the cheese is placed in a tank of salt brine, made by dissolving common salt in water in the proportion of about 1 pound of salt to 2½ quarts of water. Each cheese is turned once a day and should be left in the brine seven or eight days. When the cheese is taken from the salting mold or salt bath, it is placed in warm water and given a vigorous, thorough brushing in order to remove all slimy or greasy substances that may have accumulated on the outer surface. When the surface is well cleansed, the cheese is carefully wiped dry with a linen towel and placed upon a shelf in the curing-room. In being put on the shelves, the cheeses should be placed in contact so as to support one another, until they have flattened out at both ends so much that they can stand upright alone. Then they are moved far enough apart to allow a little air space between them. Another method of securing the flattened ends is to support each cheese on opposite sides by wedge-shaped pieces of wood. After being placed on the shelves in the curing-room, they are turned once a day and rubbed with the bare hand during the first month, twice a week during the second month and once a week after that. When any slimy substance appears on the surface of the cheese, it should be washed off at once with warm water or sweet whey. The special conditions of the curing-room will be noticed in detail below. When the cheeses are about two months old, they can be prepared for market in the following manner: They are first made smooth on the surface by being turned in a lathe or in some other manner, after which the surface is colored. For coloring, some carmine is dissolved in alcohol or ammonia to secure the proper shade, and in this color-bath the cheeses are placed for about one minute, when they are removed and allowed to drain, and as soon as they are dry the outside of each cheese is rubbed with boiled linseed oil, in order to prevent checking. They are then wrapped in tin-foil, which is done very much like the bandaging. Care must be taken to put on the tin-foil so that it presents a smooth, neat appearance. The cheeses are finally packed in boxes, containing twelve cheeses in each box, arranged in two layers of six each with a separate partition for each cheese. +186. Equipment for making Edam cheese.+--Careful attention must be given to the moisture and temperature of the curing-room. This room should be well ventilated, quite moist and its temperature kept between 50° and 65° F. These are conditions not easy to secure in any ordinary room. Some form of cellar is best adapted for these conditions. The amount of moisture can be determined by an instrument known as a hygrometer. In a curing-room suited for Edam cheese, the moisture should be between 85 and 95 per cent, or a little short of saturation. When the temperature is between 50° and 65° F., the moisture is between 85 and 95 per cent if the wet-bulb thermometer is from 1 to 2° F. (or ½ to 1° C.) below the dry-bulb thermometer. Cheese will check or crack and be spoiled for market, if the degree of moisture is not kept high enough. Aside from the molds, press and salting vat, the same apparatus that is used in making Cheddar can be used for Edam cheese. The pressing mold is turned preferably from white wood or, in any case, from wood that will not taint. Each mold consists of two parts; the lower constitutes the main part of the mold, the upper portion is simply a cover. The lower portion or body of the mold has several holes in the bottom, from which the whey flows when the cheese is pressed. Care must be taken to prevent these holes being stopped up by curd. This part of the mold is about six inches deep and six inches in diameter across the top. The salting mold has no cover and the bottom is provided with only one hole for the out-flow of whey; in other respects it is much like the pressing mold. +187. Qualities and yield of Edam cheese.+--The flavor of a perfect Edam cheese is difficult to describe. It is mild, clean, and pleasantly saline. In imperfect Edams, the flavor is more or less sour and offensive. In body, a perfect Edam cheese is solid, rather dry and mealy or crumbly. In texture, it should be close and free from pores. In the experiments here reported the amount of fat in 100 pounds of the partially skimmed-milk varied from 2.45 to 3.20 pounds and averaged 2.77 pounds. Of this amount, from 0.30 to 0.51 pound of fat was lost in the whey, with an average of 0.39 pound. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk varied from 9.60 to 11.82 pounds and averaged 10.56 pounds. +188. Gouda cheese.+[86]--This Dutch variety is a sweet-curd cheese made from whole milk. In shape, the Gouda cheese is somewhat like a Cheddar with the sharp edges rounded off and sloping toward the outer circumference at the middle from the end faces. They usually weigh 10 or 12 pounds, though they vary in weight from 8 to 16 pounds. They are largely manufactured in southern Holland, and derive their name from the town in which they were first made. Fresh sweet milk that has been produced and cared for in the best possible manner should be used. +189. Method of manufacture.+--The processes of manufacturing Gouda cheese are as follows: _Treatment of milk before adding rennet._--The temperature of the milk should be brought up to a point not below 88° F. nor much above 90° F. When the desired temperature has been reached and has become constant, the coloring matter is added. One ounce of cheese color for about 1200 pounds of milk may be used. The coloring matter should be thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added. _Addition of rennet to milk._--The rennet should not be added until the milk has reached the desired temperature (88 to 90° F.) and this temperature has become constant. The milk should be completely coagulated, ready for cutting, in fifteen or twenty minutes. The same precautions should be used in adding rennet as those previously mentioned in connection with the manufacture of Edam cheese. _Cutting the curd._--The curd should be cut when it is of about the hardness generally observed for cutting in the Cheddar process. The cutting is done as in the Cheddar process except that the curd is cut a little finer in the Gouda cheese. Curd should be about the size of peas or wheat kernels when ready for press and as uniform in size as possible. _Treatment of curd after cutting._--After the cutting is completed, heating and stirring is begun at once. The heating and constant stirring is continued until the curd reaches a temperature of 104° F., which should require from thirty to forty minutes. When the curd becomes rubber-like in feeling, the whey should be run off. The whey should be entirely sweet when it is removed. _Pressing and dressing Gouda._--After the whey is off, the curd is put in molds at once without salting (Fig. 28). Pains should be taken in this process to keep the temperature of the curd as near 100° F. as possible. Each cheese is placed under continuous pressure amounting to ten or twenty times its own weight and kept for about half an hour. The first bandage is put on in very much the same manner as in Edam cheese making. The cheese is then put in press again for about one hour. The first bandage is then taken off and a second one like the first put on with great care, taking pains to make the bandage smooth, capping the ends as before. The cheese is then put in press again and left twelve hours or more. [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Gouda cheese mold.] _Salting and curing._--When Gouda cheese is taken from the press, the bandage is removed and it is placed for twenty-four hours in a curing-room like that used for Edam cheese, as previously described. Each cheese is then rubbed all over with dry salt until the salt begins to dissolve, and this same treatment is continued twice a day for ten days. At the end of that time, each cheese is carefully and thoroughly washed in warm water and dried with a clean linen towel. The cheeses are then placed on the shelves of the curing-room, turned once a day and rubbed. The temperature and moisture are controlled as described in the curing process of Edam cheese. If the outer surfaces of the cheese become slimy at any time, they are carefully washed in warm water and dried with clean towels. Under these conditions, cheese ripens in two or three months. +190. Equipment for Gouda cheese.+--The molds, press and curing-room are the only equipment needed in the making of Gouda cheese that differ from that employed in making Cheddar cheese. The mold used for Gouda cheese consists of two portions, which are shown separately in Fig. 28. These molds are made of heavy pressed tin. The inside diameter at the middle is about 10 inches, that of the ends about 6½ inches. The height of the mold is about 5½ inches, and this represents the thickness of the cheese, but by pushing the upper down into the lower portion, the thickness can be decreased as desired. +191. Composition and yield of Gouda.+--In work with milk averaging 4.2 per cent of fat there were lost in the whey from 0.29 to 0.43 per cent with an average of 0.35 per cent of fat. The loss of fat appears to be not much greater than the average loss met with in cheese factories in making Cheddar cheese. From 100 pounds of milk, there were made from 11.60 to 13.35 pounds of green cheese, with an average of 12.50 pounds. The percentage of water in the experimental cheese varied from 41.25 to 45.43 per cent and averaged 43.50 per cent. CHAPTER XII _CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING_ Cheddar is the best known cheese throughout the United States and the one most commonly made in factories. The Cheddar process was brought to America by English immigrants. Similar to Cheddar cheese are Pineapple, English Dairy, Sage cheese, skimmed-milk and California Jack cheese made in this country, and Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Wensleydale and Cheshire made in England. The Cheddar cheese process as employed in the factories to-day has been modified and improved since it was first introduced into this country by the early immigrants. The following description[87] includes only the practices as found in the factories to-day if whole milk is used. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is discussed later. +192. The lot-card.+--The Cheddar process involves several hours of manipulation and includes many details which should be closely and accurately observed and recorded. The necessity of carrying observations of several different factors at the same time makes a scheme of recording data essential to convenient work. For this purpose, a lot-card for Cheddar cheese is introduced here and the pages given to particular factors are indicated in the space intended for the recording of observations. The manufacture of Cheddar cheese is a complicated process, because several factors must be given attention at the same time. A careful record of the observations of each step in the successive handling of each lot of milk puts the operator in possession of a permanent record of his experience. This record has several uses. It may help to convince patrons of the importance of eliminating faults in the milk; it furnishes the cheese-maker a cumulative record of his experiences in handling milk with special qualities, such as high or low fat-content, over-acidity or taints. Since Cheddar ripening covers a period of weeks and months, no operator can remember particular lots of milk sufficiently well to be able to use his experience on the interpretation of the qualities found in the ripened product. [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Delivering milk to the cheese factory.] +193. The milk.+--It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese factory each morning (Fig. 29). The night's milk is cooled and kept clean and cold until delivered at the factory. It is advisable not to mix the cold night's milk and the warm morning's milk, but to deliver them in separate cans to the cheese factory at the same time. The milk is weighed, sample for fat test taken and then run into the vat (Fig. 30). The receiving or taking in of the milk is one of the most important parts of the cheese factory work. It is practically as important as the actual manufacturing of the cheese. +21 CHEESE.+ This card must remain with lot ........... from the milk room until the finished product is ready to leave the building, then it should be handed to instructor. +MAKING+ Day and Date ................................ Vat ............... +Milk | | Used+ | | +Milk+ ........................|............| Appearance of Milk ................ ........................|............| Odor .............................. ........................|............| Taste ............................. Total pounds |............| Weather conditions ................ ------------------------+------------+------------------------------------ ...........% fat ...........lbs. fat | +Starter+ | Kind used.......................... ....% solids not fat ....lbs. s.n.f. | Flavor............................. | Acidity............................ ....% casein ....lbs. casein. | Amount used.......... % used....... -------------------------------------+------------------------------------ +Time of Minutes+ | +% Acid+ | +Temperature+ adding starter }...... | _In Milk_ | of milk when received } | | when starter added... adding rennet }...... | when received............| when rennet added.... } | before adding starter....| when whey removed.... coagulation }...... | after adding starter.....| at pressing.......... } | when rennet added........+---------------------- cutting }...... | | +Rennet Test+ } | | when milk received... turn'g on steam }...... | _In Whey_ | after adding starter. } | after curd is cut....... | when rennet added.... turn'g off steam}...... | at dipping.............. +---------------------- } | at packing.............. | +Hot Iron Test+ dipping }...... | at milling | at dipping........... } | at milling | at packing........... packing }...... | at salting | at salting........... } +--------------------------+---------------------- milling }...... | +Condition of Curd+ } | salting }...... | when cut........................................ } | when packed..................................... hooping }...... | when milled..................................... } | when salted..................................... pressing }...... | when pressed.................................... } +------------------------------------------------- dressing }...... | Amount per | +Color+ | +Rennet+ | +Salt+ | 1000 lbs. milk |.........|..........|........ Total time from }....| | | | setting to pressing} | Total Amount |.........|..........|........ ------------------------+-------+-----------+---------+----------+-------- % fat in lbs. fat estimated | If comments are added on .......whey ....... so lost. | reverse side, put cross here............ % of total milk | Work and ....fat lost in whey | Observations by......................... Assisted by............................................................... -------------------------------------------------------------------------- +YIELD+ Day and Date......................... Time....................... Serial Weight of cheese when removed from press to curing room,......lbs. No.... lbs. milk for Kind of cheese made lbs. cheese per ..........one lb. cheese. ................... ......100 lbs. milk lbs. cheese for one No. of cheese made. lbs. cheese for one ..........lb. fat in milk. ................... ....lb. total solid If comments are added on reverse side put cross here........... Work and observations by.................................................. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Arranged by W. W. Hall. [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Receiving, sampling, weighing and running the milk into the cheese vat.] Any milk high in acid or with a bad flavor should be avoided. It is often bad policy to reject the milk, for a neighboring factory will accept it and the factory not only loses the milk but also the patron. Factories should have an agreement to prevent this. The acidity can be determined by the acid test, but the detection of flavors must be made by the cheese-maker himself with the aid of smell and taste. Many of the bad flavors in the cheese can be traced to the poor quality of the milk. One of the worst qualities in milk and cheese is the presence of gas-producing organisms.[88] Any milk which shows gassy fermentation should be rejected, for it is difficult to make cheese from this and at best there will be a large loss during the manufacturing process. The cheese may have a bad flavor and develop "pin-holes" and in extreme cases may puff up like a ball. The person receiving the milk should talk to the farmers or dairy-men about the proper care of the utensils and milk. He must see that the cans are kept clean. One very bad practice is to deliver milk and take home whey in the same cans. The cans, as they are brought back from the cheese factory full of whey, are often left in the barn or near a hog-pen until the whey is fed. Unless such cans are emptied immediately on returning to the farm and then rinsed out with cold water, thoroughly washed and scalded, bad flavors may develop in the cheese. It is thought that this causes "fruity" or sweet flavor, which resembles that of fruits such as raspberries, strawberries or pineapples. +194. Ripening the milk.+--A slight development of acidity is required: (_a_) to obtain the formation of a firm curd; and (_b_) to establish immediate dominance of a desirable type of lactic organism which will produce the large amount of acid required later in the cheddaring process. The development of this acidification before the addition of rennet is known as the ripening of the milk. The extent of ripening advised by different schools of makers has varied from an acidity of 0.20 of 1 per cent or even slightly higher percentage titrated as lactic acid, to about 0.17 of 1 per cent as now preferred by some of the most successful groups of workers. The ripeness of the milk can also be determined by the use of the rennet test. The milk may be ripened by allowing the lactic organisms already present in the milk to develop naturally. This requires considerable time and while the lactic acid-forming bacteria are developing, other and undesirable fermentations may be taking place, so that the good results which should follow the uninterrupted development of the lactic acid-forming organisms are lost. Starter is commonly used to produce the desired ripening of the milk. (For the preparation of starter see Chapter IV.) [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Steel cheese vat.] Some makers put the starter into the empty vat (Fig. 31) and add the milk as it is received; others add it to the total volume of cold milk and then begin to heat it. Whenever the starter is used, it should be strained to remove lumps. These lumps might cause a mottled color in the cheese. The best practice calls for an acidity or a rennet test of the mixed milk after it has been brought to the setting temperature in the vat. With milk tested at this stage and the volume of milk in the vat known, the cheese-maker is able to calculate closely the amount of starter needed. When the quantity of starter to use is in doubt, the amount added should be under rather than over the estimate, since the need of more can be determined by making frequent rennet and acid tests in a very few minutes without damage to the cheese. If too much starter has been used, acid or sour cheese is usually obtained, with loss in market quality. An over-development of acidity at any stage of the manufacturing process affects the flavor, body and texture, color and finish of the cheese. The product is known as a sour cheese, and can usually be identified by its sour taste and smell. A sour cheese while curing will seldom develop a normal Cheddar flavor and the texture will be hard and harsh and very brittle. The body will not be smooth but harsh and grainy. The over-development of acid will show by fading or bleaching the color. A sour cheese usually leaks whey for a few days after being placed on the curing-room shelves. Ripening the milk is one of the most important parts of cheese-making. Proper ripening places the acid fermentations under the control of the cheese-maker so that he may know what results will follow his labors. The operator can control the acidity while ripening the milk, but after the rennet is added all control of the acidity is lost. From that time, the moisture must be regulated in proportion to the acidity. Before setting, the milk should be ripened to such a point as to leave at least two and one-half hours from the time that the rennet extract is added until the acid development has reached the stage at which it is necessary to remove the whey. By the acid test the milk may vary from 0.16 to 0.18 of 1 per cent, but no definite statement can be given for the rennet test. This can be determined only by comparison from day to day. For operation of rennet test see Chapter V. During this period of two and one-half hours, the curd is formed, then cut, and the temperature is raised from 84° or 86° F. (the temperature at which the rennet extract is added) to about 98° to 100° F. The curd must be kept agitated so that the particles will not mat together; this is necessary to obtain sufficient contraction of the particles of curd with the proper reduction of water-content. If the milk becomes too ripe (too sour) before the rennet is added, there will not be sufficient time for these steps to take place naturally. In such cases special means are required to firm the curd. These result in a loss of both quality and quantity of cheese. On the other hand, if the milk is not ripened, but the rennet extract added, regardless of the acid development, one of the important natural forces for expelling the moisture is lost. The time required for the particles of curd to contract is much prolonged, the expulsion of whey is usually inadequate and the curd remains in a soft or wet condition. Using too much starter is almost equally bad, for although it hastens the making process, it produces a sour or acid cheese. +195. Setting or coagulating.+--The milk for Cheddar cheese-making is heated to 86° to 88° F. or occasionally a slightly lower temperature. This temperature is found by experiment to give the texture of curd most favorable for the desired results. Although some cheese-makers work as low as 84° F., the texture of such curd is too soft and coagulates too slowly. The very slight change of 2° F. produces curd which coagulates more quickly and is tougher and firmer. If the cheeses are to be colored, the color should be added after all the starter. It should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the milk to insure an even color in the cheese. If the color is added before the starter, there are likely to be white specks in the cheese, on account of the coagulated casein in the starter. The amount of color to use depends on the tint desired in the cheese. It varies from 1/3 to ½ ounce to 1000 pounds of milk for a light straw color to 1½ to 2 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk for a deep red color. Enough rennet should be used to produce a curd firm enough to cut in twenty-five to thirty-five minutes. The necessary amount will vary with the strength of the rennet extract itself, with the acidity, the temperature, the nature of the lot of milk, and with the individual aims of the maker in which he adjusts the other factors to his preferences as to rapidity of rennet action. With the usual commercial extract, the needed amount ranges from 2.5 to 4 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. As for all varieties of cheese, the rennet extract should be diluted in cold water at about one part rennet to forty parts water and thoroughly stirred into the milk. (See Chapter V.) +196. Cutting.+--The object of cutting is to obtain an even expulsion of the moisture from the curd. The curd is cut as soon as it becomes firm enough. To determine this, various tests may be used. Some operators test it by pressing it away from the side of the vat, considering it ready to cut when it separates cleanly from the metal. The test most commonly used is to insert the index finger obliquely into the curd, then to start to split the curd with the thumb and finally to raise the finger gently; if ready to cut, the curd will split cleanly over the finger and clear whey will separate to fill the opened crack. Another arbitrary but more or less satisfactory rule is that the time from adding the rennet until cutting should be two and one-half times that from the addition of rennet until the first sign of coagulation is observed. The condition of the curd itself is the best guide to show when it is ready to cut. The condition of the curd is constantly changing, so that in a large vat, if the cutting is not begun until the curd is in the best condition, by the time the last of the curd is cut it will be too hard or firm. It is better to begin while the curd is a trifle too soft so that the cutting will be taking place while the curd is at the proper stage. At best the last of the curd may become too hard. If too hard, it will break ahead of the knife instead of cut. Breaking causes more fat loss than cutting because there is more surface exposed and hence more fat globules. The softer the curd when cut, the quicker and easier the moisture can be expelled. If the curd is cut when soft, care must be exercised not to stir it too hard immediately after cutting. Soft curd breaks very easily. When the curd is cut soft and then stirred vigorously, there is a larger loss of fat than when the curd becomes hard before it is cut. Two knives are used to cut the curd. (See Fig. 11.) These knives may have either wire or blades for cutting. The space between the wires or blades varies from 5/16 to ½ inch. Knives used should have blades or wires close enough together to cut the pieces as small as desired, without a second cutting. When the curd has to be cut a second time it usually results in pieces of uneven sizes, because the pieces already cut cannot be evenly split in two. One set of knives has horizontal and the other perpendicular blades or wires. The curd is cut the long way of the vat with the horizontal knife and lengthwise and crosswise with the perpendicular knife so that the result is small cubes or oblongs of curd. Some cheese-makers prefer to use one knife first and some the other, but the result should be a curd cut into pieces of uniform size. The smaller the particles of curd or cubes are cut, the quicker the curd will firm up or cook. If not cut uniformly, the changes taking place later in the curd particles will not be uniform,--the small pieces will be hard and dry while the large ones will be soft and mushy. [Illustration: FIG. 32.--The proper way to put the knife into the curd.] Care should be taken to let the knife cut its way into the curd (Fig. 32). If the knife is pushed into the curd, it will break it and cause a large loss of fat. The same is true when taking the knives out of the curd. The loss of fat due to cutting is very similar to the loss of sawdust when sawing a board. It may be considered a necessary evil. The loss due to cutting is about 0.3 of 1 per cent of fat in the whey and the loss of casein about 0.1 of 1 per cent in the whey. [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Acme curd rake.] [Illustration: FIG. 34.--McPherson curd agitator.] +197. Heating or "cooking" the curd.+--After the curd is cut, the pieces (cubes) rapidly settle to the bottom of the vat and tend to mat together. To prevent this, the curd must be kept stirred. When stirring first begins, the curd is soft and very readily broken. Some cheese-makers prefer to stir by hand for the first few minutes after cutting, while the curd is soft. The importance of careful handling can hardly be over-emphasized. No matter how well the curd has been cut, if the stirring is performed in a careless manner in the early stages, it will be broken into uneven sized pieces and a considerable loss of fat will result. A wooden hay rake or a McPherson curd agitator (Figs. 33, 34) may be used to stir the curd. Mechanical curd agitators are used in some cheese factories. There are several makes. (See Fig. 35.) These agitators save much hand labor, although some stirring by hand must be done in connection with them. The mechanical agitators do not stir the curd in the corners of the vat; this must be done with the hand rake. It is the usual practice to stir the curd immediately after cutting for five to ten minutes before the mechanical agitators are used. This is necessary to give the curd a slight chance to firm as the mechanical agitators tend to break it up. After cutting, a thin film forms on each piece of curd. This film holds the curd particles, especially the fat. Breaking the films on the cubes causes loss of fat. If lumps form at the early stage, by matting of the curd particles, violent stirring is required to separate them. When such lumps are broken up, new cleavage lines are formed with loss of fat, because the original films surrounding the soft curd fuse so firmly that the curd cubes do not separate but actually break. New surfaces are thus formed with consequent fat loss. Rapid shrinkage with expulsion of whey takes place during the first few minutes of gentle agitation. Before any heat is applied to the vat, sufficient whey should have separated or formed to float each piece of curd separately. This will require ten to fifteen minutes from the time of cutting. [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Two types of mechanical curd agitators.] Thus far the first of three distinct factors which expel the moisture from the curd has been considered: (1) the action of the rennet; (2) the development of the lactic acid; and (3) the application of heat. These forces must have time to act naturally. If heat is applied too soon after the curd is cut or if the temperature is raised too rapidly, it causes a thick film to form on the pieces of curd which interferes with the escape of the whey. The outside of the curd becomes firm but the inside remains very soft. A curd which is cooked on the outside only feels firm when stirred by hand in the whey, but when a handful is squeezed the soft centers are noticed. To firm such curd masses requires violent stirring, which will break the thick tough film. This allows the moisture to escape and also increases the fat loss. The rapidity of heating should depend on the condition of the curd and the amount of acid developed. The heat should keep pace with these. When ready to raise the temperature, the least amount of steam possible should be allowed to pass through the valve. This should raise the temperature very gradually. If heat is applied too quickly at first, it will cause the curd to lump. A safe rule is to raise the temperature one degree in the first five minutes after the steam has been turned on. The heating should progress slowly until the whole mass of curd in the vat has reached a temperature of 90° to 92° F. The usual temperature to which the curd is heated or cooked is 98° F. to 100° F. The lower the temperature that can be used and properly firm the curd, the better will be the body of the cheese. If the curd is heated too high, it will become hard, which causes a dry hard "corky" cheese. After this temperature has been reached, there is not such a tendency for the curd particles to stick together nor are they so easily broken in stirring. It should require, under normal conditions, not less than thirty to forty-five minutes, from the time the steam is turned on, to raise temperature of the curd from the setting temperature to that necessary to "firm" the curd. If a shorter time is allowed to raise the temperature, the curd will not have opportunity to contract naturally. The temperature required to expel the moisture properly varies with the percentage of fat in the milk. If rich in fat (4.5 to 5.5 per cent) milk requires a temperature of 98° to 104° F. to firm the curd, while the same result can be accomplished with milk testing 3.0 to 3.5 per cent fat at a temperature of 94° to 96° F. A higher temperature is needed in winter than in summer because the milk is usually richer in fat. In a water-jacketed vat, allowance must always be made for the rise in temperature due to the water surrounding it. The water may be removed if there is danger of the temperature going too high. However, it is better to gauge the heat so that the water may be left, as this helps to hold the curd at an even temperature, especially in cold weather. In a steam-heated vat there is not so much danger of the temperature running up. The stirring must be kept up after the steam has been turned off until the curd has reached such a stage of contraction that it will not readily pack or mat in the bottom of the vat. After the curd reaches this stage it may be allowed to settle to the bottom and stirred only occasionally until it is time to remove the whey. If the cheese room is not warm and there is danger of the curd cooling, a cover should be placed on the vat. The curd should not be allowed to settle for more than fifteen minutes without stirring to keep each piece separate. This is necessary to obtain uniform contraction of all curd masses. +198. Removing the whey.+--To permit the normal changes in the curd to take place naturally, two and one-half hours from the time the rennet extract is added is ordinarily required before the whey is drawn. The time of removing the whey is determined by two factors: one, the acid development, and the other, the firmness of the curd. For the best results, it is better to have the firmness of the curd a trifle ahead of the acid development. When the proper acid development has been reached, the whey must be removed, regardless of the firmness of the curd. If the curd has not become firm enough by natural forces, when the acid development has reached the proper stage to remove the whey, it must be firmed by other means. If it is not firm enough, either by natural or artificial means, when the whey is removed, a sour cheese is the result. The acid development should not be allowed to go beyond 0.16 to 0.19 of 1 per cent acidity in the whey by the acid test or 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch of acid on the hot-iron test, before the whey is removed. +199. Hot-iron test.+[89]--This test is employed to determine the amount of acid in the curd. A piece of iron, such as an iron pipe two feet long, is heated in the fire to proper temperature. If the iron is too hot it will burn the curd, and if not hot enough the curd will not stick to the iron. When hot, it is taken from the fire and wiped clean with a cloth. A handful of curd is taken from the vat and squeezed dry, either in the hand or in a cloth. This curd is carefully pressed against the hot iron and drawn away. If the iron is at the right temperature and the curd has sufficient acid development, the curd will stick to the iron and when pulled away will form fine threads. The length of these threads determines the amount of acid in the curd. The acid is usually spoken of in terms of the length of threads, as 1/8 inch of acid, ½ inch of acid and the like. The curd must have a slight development of acid before it will stick to the iron. This test takes advantage of the peculiar properties[90] of curd which are produced by the action of the acid on the casein. +200. Firmness of the curd.+--The cheese-maker must be able to judge the firmness of the curd by physical examination. The particles of curd should have shrunken to about one-half their original size and should be of uniform consistency throughout; they should not have any soft centers. The curd should be firm and springy. When a double handful is pressed and suddenly released, the curd particles should spring apart. The curd should have a "shotty" feeling when in the whey. If the curd has attained the proper firmness, and the acid has not reached the correct stage to remove the whey, it may be left in the whey until sufficient acid development has been attained. This is liable to cause the curd to become too firm and to result in a hard dry cheese. If there is no evidence of the presence of undesirable organisms, such as bad odors, or gas holes in the curd, it is better to remove the whey and develop the acid when the curd is in the "pack." The pack refers to the first piling of the curd. [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Whey siphon with strainer.] The whey may be removed either by means of a faucet or gate in the vat or by a siphon (Fig. 36). With either form of removal a whey-strainer (Fig. 37) should be used to prevent loss of curd particles. It requires considerable time for the whey to escape from a large vat. After the curd has been heated to the proper temperature, it is well to remove a portion of the whey. In doing this the surface of the whey should not be drawn down quite to the top of the curd. When ready, the remaining whey can be quickly removed. [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Whey strainer with spout to fit into the gate in the vat.] If it is decided that the curd is not firm enough, when the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd and the acid has developed sufficiently, the curd should be firmed up in the whey by stirring it vigorously by hand before the remainder of the whey is removed. This is commonly called "hand stirring." This difficulty results either from the use of too much starter or from holding the milk until too much acid development has taken place before adding the rennet. Hand stirring accomplishes what natural forces would accomplish if given sufficient time. If the curd does not firm naturally in the whey, there is a large loss of fat and other solids, because the pieces of curd will have to be broken up to allow the water to escape from the soft centers of these masses. This loss can usually be reduced by firming the curd in the whey or adding water rather than by stirring without either water or whey. If the curd is not properly firmed, it carries extra whey into the cheese. With the increase in whey, the amount of milk-sugar carried into the cheese increases. This extra milk-sugar attacked by bacteria produces an excess of lactic acid, which results in "sour" cheeses. This explains why the curd is placed beyond the danger of over-development of acid by removing so large a portion of the whey. If the curd is properly firmed in the whey and the whey is removed before too much acid has developed, it is impossible to make a sour cheese. +201. Gathering the curd together.+--Before the last of the whey has been removed, the curd should be pushed back from the faucet into the upper two-thirds of the vat and spread in an even layer. This layer should be six to eight inches thick. The curd can be pushed back with the rake or a board which will fit crosswise in the vat, in which are many holes. As soon as the whey has been removed so that there is not enough to wash the curd into the lower part of the vat, the vat should be tilted and a ditch eight to ten inches wide cut in the curd through the center. The curd from the ditch should be removed to either side and spread evenly. As soon as all the whey has been removed, the pieces of curd scattered about in the vat should be gathered up and placed with the remainder. In some factories, instead of matting the curd in the vat, a curd sink is used. This is a wooden receptacle about the size of the vat but not so deep, with a slatted false bottom. It is fitted with castors so that it can be easily moved about. A cloth is placed in the sink and the curd and whey are dipped upon the cloth. The whey escapes very rapidly through the cloth. The curd sink is an advantage in those cases in which it is desirable to remove the whey from the curd quickly, such as high acid curds which have to be hand stirred to firm the curd. The disadvantage lies in the work required to keep the sink and the large cloth clean. +202. Matting or cheddaring+ is the distinctive feature of the Cheddar process. It is the piling and matting of the curd. Whether the curd is matted in the vat or in the curd sink, the process is practically the same. The object of cheddaring is three-fold: (1) to control the incorporation of moisture; (2) to control undesirable ferments, if present in the curd; (3) to develop the texture desired in the cheeses. [Illustration: FIG. 38.--A cheese knife.] After the curd in the vat has become matted so that the particles stick together, the masses on either side of the central channel are cut crosswise into strips with a cheese knife (Fig. 38). The width of the strip depends on the water-content of the curd at this stage. The more water, the smaller should be the pieces of curd. This allows the whey to drain away much more rapidly. As soon as the strips of curd are cut, they should be turned over or stood on edge. A drain should be left along the middle line of the vat and on each side. This permits the whey to run away freely. If, on the other hand, the outlet is dammed up, the curd may become "whey-soaked." This produces a soft mushy cheese which sometimes is "acidy" or sour. After the curd is turned each time, all crumbs of curd broken off should be brushed underneath the masses of curd so that they will mat with it. They should never be placed on top of the curd because they will not unite but will become dry and hard. If the crumbs are not kept brushed up, they become dry and will cause an open textured granular cheese and possibly lumps in the cheese. After the pieces of curd have been turned several times, and the whey has fairly completely drained away, they may be piled first two deep, then three deep and so on, the depth of the piling being gauged by the softness or amount of water in the curd and the temperature. The higher the curd is piled, the more water it will retain (assimilate), so that the amount of moisture in the curd is regulated by the size of the pieces into which it is cut and the rapidity and depth to which it is piled. The curd should not be left too long from the time it is turned until it is turned again. This period is usually about ten to fifteen minutes. The moister the curd, the more often it should be turned. In turning, care should be taken to keep the ends at the same temperature as the remainder. This can be done by piling them inside, thereby keeping them warm. There is a tendency for the ends of the pieces of curd to remain granular and so cause an open-textured cheese. During the cheddaring process, the temperature should be reduced uniformly and gradually. If there is danger of the curd becoming too cold, the vat should be covered and a pail of hot water may be placed inside, if it is deemed necessary. The temperature of the curd should not be allowed to go below 85° to 90° F. If kept too warm, the curd will become soft and plastic, and if too cold, it will not mat together. While the curd is being turned and piled, its physical properties are changing. The acid develops. When the cheddaring process is completed, the curd should be elastic, smooth and fibrous. The curd should have the close meaty texture desired in the cheese. If this step in the process is neglected, defects may appear later in the body, texture and flavor of the cheese. Attempts to pile the curd too fast result in a soft, mushy, open-textured product. Such cheese has mechanical holes, in which moisture collects, and so is likely to cause rot while curing. If gas is detected either before or during the cheddaring process, the curd should be piled until the gas holes are no longer round but flat. If the gas holes are not flattened or obliterated during this process, the cheeses will be very liable to puff on the shelves in the curing-room. The curd should be handled until the gas holes flatten out evenly, although this may require considerable time. At best, gassy curd will never produce the highest grade of cheese. Cheddaring or piling the curd is not thoroughly understood by most cheese-makers. Because the moisture contains the milk-sugar, there is danger of having so much moisture present in the cheese that it will become sour from the action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria on the milk-sugar. A cheese may be sweet when made and later become sour because it contains too much moisture or milk-sugar. This is known as "shelf souring." For the proper cheddaring of a curd, it is necessary that it be properly firmed in the whey. If the moisture is not evenly incorporated, the cheese will have a mottled color. The pieces that have the more moisture will be lighter colored. If the proper amount of moisture is not incorporated, the cheese will be dry and hard, and if too much, soft and pasty. +203. Milling the curd.+--The large pieces formed by the cheddaring process must be cut into small ones before the curd can be easily put into the hoop. This is called "milling." Properly milled curd can be salted evenly, cools more quickly and uniformly and can be distributed evenly in the hoops. The proper time to "mill" the curd is determined by its physical condition. Some curds will cheddar much more rapidly than others, hence no definite length of time can be given. Curd, when ready to mill, should have a fibrous texture somewhat like the white meat of a chicken breast. The pieces of curd should split very easily. When cut, the curd should show a close, solid, smooth interior. The amount of lactic acid developed may vary within rather wide limits. The hot iron may show strings ½ to 1 inch long. The acidity (by titration of the freshly separating whey) may be 0.45 to 0.65 of 1 per cent. If the curd has been properly made, that is, firmed up in the whey with the proper acidity so far, acid development during the cheddaring process will take care of itself. The physical condition remains the principal means of determining the time when the curd should be milled. [Illustration: FIG. 39.--Gosselin curd-mill.] [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Barnard curd-mill.] [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Junker curd-mill.] [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Harris curd-mill.] There are many kinds and styles of curd-mills on the market. Gosselin, Barnard, Pohl, Junker, Victor, Harris are well-known kinds (Figs. 39-42). Some are hand, others power mills. Some of these tear the curd into pieces of unequal size, others cut it into uniform pieces. A mill that will do the work with the least possible pressure on the curd and which will cut it into small uniform-sized pieces is most desirable. The ideal mill should release the least fat and leave the curd in the best condition to receive the salt. It is impossible to run curd through any mill without exposing some fat on the freshly cut surfaces, and if the curd is put under pressure, more fat will be pressed out and lost. Cutting in the mill, like cutting the curd after coagulation by rennet, may be called a necessary evil. There is an unavoidable mechanical loss which may be greater or less according to the mill used. If the curd has been properly handled so that the water in it has become thoroughly assimilated (properly incorporated), this loss will be reduced to the minimum. If the curd contains free moisture and many of the particles have soft interiors, a stream of white whey will run down the vat as the curd masses are cut. Some samples of such white whey will test as high as 15 per cent fat. This not only causes a loss in yield but in quality of cheese, according to the amount of fat lost. White whey is an indication of loss of fat. If the proper amount of moisture is present and is so thoroughly incorporated in the curd that it can be separated only by evaporation, the ideal condition has been reached. While milling, the cut curd should be stirred as fast as milled to prevent matting again and to allow odors to escape. This stirring is usually performed with a curd fork (Fig. 43). At the same time the temperature will be lowered. The milled curd should be spread evenly over the upper three-quarters of the bottom of the vat. The flavor of the curd that has been made from tainted milk can be very much improved by stirring at this time so that air can enter. [Illustration: FIG. 43.--A curd fork.] A gassy curd, which has been held until the holes have become flattened, should be stirred very frequently during this stage to allow the gas to escape, thereby improving the flavor. +204. Salting.+--Salt is added to Cheddar curd for several purposes: (1) for its taste; (2) to aid in the removal of the whey and to harden and shrink the curd; (3) to influence the fermentation by slowing down acidification, checking the growth of unfavorable organisms and delaying ripening. The salt should be pure. It should be coarse-grained, because the large grains dissolve more slowly and permit its absorption to a much larger extent than the fine-grained salt. Salt that dissolves slowly is, therefore, to be sought for this purpose. The following factors must be considered in determining the amount of salt to be used: (1) the amount of curd from the milk; (2) the percentage of water in the curd; (3) the acidity of the curd; (4) the particular market form of cheese desired. The custom of determining the quantity of salt by the weight of milk is an inaccurate practice. The amount of salt should be based on the amount of curd. If the amount of fat in the milk is known, a fairly accurate estimate of the amount of curd can be made. It would be more accurate to weigh the curd before salting, but this is not practicable or necessary to insure a good quality of cheese. The amount of salt varies from 1½ to 2½ pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. The salt should not be added directly after milling because, at that time, it would cause a large loss of fat. After milling there should be time before salting for the freshly cut surfaces to dry or "heal over." When first milled the curd has a dry harsh feeling; when ready to salt it will feel soft and mellow and some moisture can usually be squeezed out easily. Fifteen to twenty minutes from the time of milling are required before the curd is ready for the salt. When ready, the curd should be spread evenly over the bottom of the vat. The salt should be carefully weighed, and then applied, evenly, over the surface of the curd, in two or three applications. The curd should be thoroughly stirred after each application of salt. While the salt is being dissolved and absorbed, the curd should be stirred occasionally to prevent lumps from forming. [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Wilson press hoop. _A_, complete hoop; _B_, bottom cover with wide flange; _C_, top cover with narrow flange; _D_, closed body; _E_, bandager.] [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Fraser press hoop. _A_, complete hoop; _B_, bandager; _C_, follower; _D_, fibrous press ring.] +205. Hooping the curd.+--When the salt has become dissolved and the curd as soft and mellow as before the salt was added, it is ready to be put into the hoop. Various sized hoops may be used, depending on the desired size of the cheese. Two types are the Wilson and the Fraser (Figs. 44, 45). With either type, a dampened press cloth should be cut just to fit the bottom of the hoop. A starched circle may or may not be used; if used, it should be placed on top of the press cloth. The bandage now commonly employed is the seamless one which comes in the form of a tube of various sizes for different sized hoops. The lengths of bandage cut for each hoop or cheese depend on the height of the cheese plus about one and one-half inches' lap on each end. The bandage, after being cut the desired length, is placed on the part of the hoop made to hold it, so that it is suspended about the side of the hoop and laps about one and one-half inches on the bottom. The bandage should be free from ravelings and placed squarely in the hoop. The hoop is now ready to fill with curd. Enough hoops should be prepared to hold all the day's curd as fast as it is ready. In order to have all the cheeses as nearly as possible of the same size, it is advisable to weigh the curd into the hoops. The curd may be measured into the hoops, but this is not so accurate. The curd may be dipped with a flat-sided curd pail or a curd scoop into the hoops (Fig. 46). [Illustration: FIG. 46.--Curd scoop and pail.] +206. Pressing the curd.+--The natural changes sought in the curd require a period of at least five hours between the time of setting (addition of the rennet) and the pressing of the curd. Less time than this involves loss in yield and quality of the cheese. In other words, the time requirement for these changes cannot be ignored. The object of pressing is not primarily to remove whey but to produce the physical conditions essential to ripening the cheese in a mass and put it in convenient form for handling. The whey should have been removed during the cooking and cheddaring. When ready for the press, the temperature of the curd should be about 80° to 85° F.; it should be brought down to this point during the milling, salting and hooping processes. If the curd is put to press too warm or too cold, the following results may be expected: Too high temperature during pressing produces several faults, as: (1) Favors the development of undesirable ferments. (2) Causes excessive loss of fat. (3) Gives the curd pieces a greasy surface so that they will not readily pass into a compact cheese. If a cheese is greasy, the bandages will not stick. (4) Favors the formation of mechanical holes in the cheese. (5) Causes "seamy" color in the cheese by the collection of fat between pieces of curd. Too low temperature has its difficulties, such as: (1) The pieces of curd will not fuse together. (2) The rind does not form properly. (3) It appears to cause mottled cheese. [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Continuous pressure gang cheese-press.] [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Filling the hoops and pressing the curd.] The commonly used gang press may or may not have an arrangement to cause continuous pressure to be applied to the cheese (Figs. 47, 48). When fresh cheeses are first placed in the press, the pressure should be applied very gradually. The curd, after being cut through the mill, will have many exposed fat globules. A heavy pressure at first will force out the whey set free by the extracting power of the salt. The whey will carry away the exposed fat globules, and therefore reduce the yield. As soon as white whey starts from the hoops, the increased application of the pressure should be stopped until the whey regains the appearance of clear brine. More pressure can then be gradually applied until full pressure is reached. The cheeses should remain under heavy pressure for one-half to one hour, when they should be removed from the press and dressed. +207. Dressing the cheese.+--When ready to dress the cheese, the press is opened and the hoops turned down. The hoops are opened so that the bandages can be lapped over the top of the cheeses about 1½ inches. Before turning a bandage down, it should be carefully pulled up to remove any wrinkles from the sides of the cheese, but not hard enough to pull it free from the bottom. After it is pulled up, the bandage should be lapped over the top about 1½ inches, and if not even should be trimmed with a sharp knife. It should then be sopped down with warm water. Plenty of warm water to wet the bandage and cloths helps to form a good rind. If starched circles are used, one should be placed on the top of the cheese and sopped down with warm water. If not, the press cloth should be wrung out of warm water and put on smoothly, so there will be no wrinkles. The hoop is then put together and placed back in the press under heavy pressure for twelve to eighteen hours. The pressure should be sufficient to cause the curd particles to unite so that the surface of the cheese will be smooth. The next day the cheeses are taken from the hoops and placed in the curing-room. If they do not come out of the hoop easily, they may be loosened by cutting between the sides of the cheese and the hoop with a knife. A special thin-bladed knife for this purpose is called a speed knife (Fig. 49). Care should be taken not to cut the bandage when trying to loosen the cheese. If starched circles are used, the press cloths are removed from the cheese, when they are put in the curing-room. If neither starched circles nor press cloth are left on the cheese in the curing-room, the rind will crack on account of drying out on the exposed surface. This allows mold and insects to enter the cheese. The flavor, body and texture and color of the cheese are all dependent on the skill of the cheese-maker and the quality of the milk from which it is made. The finish is dependent entirely on the skill and carefulness of the maker. An operator should see that the cheese press is straight so that there will be no crocked cheese and that the bandage and press cloths are properly put on, because the finish or appearance of the cheese is an index of his ability. [Illustration: FIG. 49.--Speed knife.] +208. Handling over-ripe and gassy milk.+--Because it is sometimes necessary to make over-ripe[91] or gassy milk[92] into cheese, special directions or precautions are necessary. The best way is to reject this milk. When it is necessary to make it into cheese, the losses are much more than with normal milk. It is a question of making as good a cheese as possible, and the subject of losses is ignored. (1) _Over-ripe milk._--The fact that the milk is over-ripe shows that there is already too much acid present. Every effort must be made to get the curd as firm as possible in the whey with the acid development as low as possible or before the acid has had time to develop any more than can be helped. Although the milk is over-ripe, it is a good plan to add about ¼ of 1 per cent of starter just before the rennet. This starter will not begin to work until the curd is being cheddared and it will help the flavor, especially if any bad fermentation should be present. The rennet is added at 80° F., as this lower temperature tends to check the acid development. More rennet is used, commonly from 4 to 4½ ounces to 1000 pounds of milk. This gives a quicker coagulation. The curd is cut soft, as this tends to expel the moisture more quickly. The heat is turned on sooner after cutting. The time to turn it on and the length of time to heat are determined by the amount of acid. A curd should not be heated in less than fifteen minutes. If the curd has enough acid and has not begun to firm up much, the whey should be drawn down to the surface of the curd, water the temperature of the whey and curd put into the vat, and the curd firmed up in this water. The water washes the acid out of the curd and because of the lack of milk-sugar checks the acid development. If the milk is not so ripe and the curd nearly firm enough, the whey may be drawn off and the curd firmed up by hard stirring in the vat or sink. The curd should not be pushed back enough to be very deep or thick when ready to cheddar. The curd should be cut into very small pieces to cheddar. The smaller the pieces, the faster the whey drains away. Sometimes it is necessary to cut the curd into pieces six inches square. The pieces should not be piled but should be turned often and stood on edge to let the whey drain away and sometimes pressed with the hands to force the whey out. It is often all one man can do to keep the curd turned. [Illustration: FIG. 50.--At the left is a regular shaped, close, solid textured cheese; at the right one puffed up with gas.] The curd is not cheddared very long but is milled early so that the whey can escape. If it is thought that the cheese will be sour, the curd should be washed in cold water to remove the acid and milk-sugar. A little more salt is sometimes used. A product made from over-ripe milk, no matter how skillful the cheese-maker, will show traces of a sour cheese. (2) _Gassy milk._--If a cheese-maker knows that there is "gassy" fermentation, he should add more starter and develop more acid when ripening the milk to try to overcome this. There are different kinds of gassy fermentation. Some produce acid and some do not. Some will not show until the cheeses have been on the curing-room shelves several days. Others will cause the curd to float in the whey. Usually the gas shows as pin-holes while the curd is being cheddared. [Illustration: FIG. 51.--This shows the same cheeses as in Fig. 50, cut open to show the solid and gassy texture.] The gas causes tiny round holes in the cheese, resulting in the cheese swelling or puffing out of shape and sometimes breaking open (Figs. 50, 51). The only time to overcome the gas is during the cheddaring process. The curd is piled and repiled until the holes flatten out. This shows that the gas-producing organisms have weakened and will not cause any more holes. Because the curd has to be piled so many times and so long, the pieces become very thin. The curd is ready to mill when most of the holes have flattened. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired for some time before salting to allow the bad odor to escape. Because of the high acid development, it often happens that the cheese will not be gassy but will be sour. At best a cheese made from milk having gassy fermentation will have a bad flavor. The quality of the cheese can be no better than that of the milk from which it is made, plus the skill of the cheese-maker. +209. Qualities of Cheddar cheese.+--The cheese should be neat, clean and attractive. If unclean, and the bandage not put on the cheese properly, it shows that the manufacturer is not particular to keep the curing-room shelves tidy nor careful and painstaking in dressing. The cheese should not be lopsided or bulged. When cut, it should have a uniformly colored interior. The principal color defects are too high, or too light color, mottled or seamy. The texture should be solid and close. A common defect is mechanical holes or openings and another is gas pockets. The body can be tested by rubbing the cheese between the thumb and fingers. It should be smooth and waxy and free from lumps. It should rub down like cold butter. The common defects are graininess and lumpiness. Graininess may be caused by too much acid or too much moisture in the cheese. Lumpiness is due to uneven curing. If too much moisture is present, the body will be soft and mushy; if not enough moisture, the body will be hard and dry. The cheese should have a pleasant, clean, mild aroma and the characteristic flavor which is usually somewhat similar to that of nuts and so is spoken of as a nutty flavor. CHAPTER XIII _COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE_ So many factors affect the composition and yield of Cheddar cheese that no positive or exact statement can be made unless other facts are definitely known. The following factors affect both the composition and yield: 1. The chemical composition of the milk. 2. Amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese. 3. The amount of solids lost in cheese-making. 4. The skill of the cheese-maker. 5. The bacterial-content of the milk. +210. Composition of milk, whey and cheese.+--The following Tables[93] VI, VII, VIII, which are the average of forty-eight factories for the season of 1893, show the minimum, maximum and average composition: TABLE VI AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MILK | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE --------------------|---------|---------|--------- Water | 86.28 | 88.30 | 87.28 Total solids | 11.70 | 13.72 | 12.72 Fat | 3.30 | 4.40 | 3.77 Casein | 2.20 | 2.85 | 2.48 Albumin | 0.52 | 0.81 | 0.69 Sugar and ash, etc. | 5.63 | 5.89 | 5.78 TABLE VII AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE WHEY | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE --------------------|---------|---------|--------- Water | 92.75 | 93.28 | 93.00 Total solids | 6.72 | 7.25 | 7.00 Fat | 0.24 | 0.51 | 0.38 Casein, albumin | 0.66 | 0.99 | 0.86 Sugar, ash, etc. | 5.63 | 5.86 | 5.76 TABLE VIII AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE GREEN CHEESE | Minimum | MAXIMUM | AVERAGE --------------------|---------|---------|--------- Water | 33.16 | 43.89 | 37.33 Total solids | 66.84 | 56.11 | 62.67 Fat | 30.00 | 35.89 | 33.41 Casein | 20.80 | 25.48 | 23.39 Sugar, ash, etc. | 4.86 | 7.02 | 5.89 Table VI shows the minimum, maximum and average composition of the milk and Table VIII the composition of the cheese made from that milk. The average composition of the cheese in Table VIII shows that it contains 37.33 per cent of water. The tendency to-day seems to be for a softer cheese so that the average would probably be higher. Table VIII also shows the wide variation in the composition of the cheese. The moisture and total solids both vary about 10 per cent. In order to judge the variation in composition, one must know the composition of the milk and the moisture-content of the cheese and then only a very inaccurate estimate of the composition of the cheese can be formed. +211. Relation of fat to casein in normal milk.+--In order to understand the relation of the composition of the milk to yield of cheese, one must be familiar with the relation of the fat to the casein in normal milk. The following table[94] shows the relation of fat to casein in normal milk: TABLE IX SUMMARY SHOWING THE RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN IN NORMAL MILK ==================================================================== | | | | | AVERAGE | | | AVERAGE | AVERAGE | POUNDS OF | PER CENT | NUMBER | PER CENT | PER CENT | CASEIN FOR GROUP | OF FAT IN | OF | OF FAT IN | OF CASEIN | EACH POUND | MILK | SAMPLES | EACH IN | EACH | OF FAT IN | | | GROUP | GROUP | MILK --------+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+------------ I | 3.0-3.5 | 22 | 3.35 | 2.20 | 0.66 II | 3.5-4.0 | 112 | 3.72 | 2.46 | 0.66 III | 4.0-4.5 | 78 | 4.15 | 2.70 | 0.65 IV | 4.5-5.0 | 16 | 4.74 | 3.05 | 0.64 V | 5.0-5.25 | 7 | 5.13 | 3.12 | 0.61 ==================================================================== Table IX shows that the pounds of casein for each pound of fat are not constant but that the casein does not increase in proportion to the fat above 4.0 per cent of fat in the milk. +212. Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese.+--The following table shows the influence which fat in the milk has on the yield of cheese:[94] TABLE X SUMMARY SHOWING RELATION OF FAT IN MILK TO YIELD OF CHEESE ============================================================== | AVERAGE PER | POUNDS OF GREEN CHEESE | POUNDS OF GROUP | CENT OF FAT | MADE FROM 100 LB. OF | GREEN CHEESE | IN MILK | MILK | MADE FOR 1 LB. | | | OF FAT IN MILK ------+-------------+------------------------+---------------- I | 3.35 | 9.14 | 2.73 II | 3.72 | 10.04 | 2.73 III | 4.15 | 11.34 | 2.70 IV | 4.74 | 12.85 | 2.71 V | 5.13 | 13.62 | 2.66 ============================================================== Table X shows that as the fat in the milk increases, the pounds of cheese made from 100 pounds of that milk increases; but the amount of cheese made for each pound of fat in the milk does not increase. This is due to the fact pointed out in Table IX, namely, that as the fat increases in the milk the casein does not increase in the rich milk in proportion to the fat. From Tables IX and X this conclusion may be drawn: that as the percentage of fat increases in the milk the more cheese can be made from 100 pounds of that milk, but after the increase in fat gets above 4 per cent the amount of cheese that can be made for each pound of fat in the milk is decreased because the casein does not increase in proportion to the fat. No exact statement of yield can be made without first stating the moisture-content of the cheese. The losses also must be considered. Van Slyke[95] in the following Table XI shows the effect of the fat-content of normal milk on the yield of cheese. The moisture-content of all the cheeses is reduced to a uniform basis of 37 per cent. (See cut showing yield of cheese, Fig. 52.) [Illustration: FIG. 52.--The figures represent the relative yield of cheese containing different percentages of fat, but all have a uniform content of 37 per cent water.] TABLE XI TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE FAT-CONTENT OF NORMAL MILK ON THE YIELD OF CHEESE ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- PER CENT OF FAT | PER CENT OF | AMOUNT OF | AMOUNT OF CHEESE IN THE MILK | CASEIN IN | CHEESE MADE | MADE FOR EACH | THE MILK | FROM 100 LB. | POUND OF FAT | | OF MILK | IN THE MILK ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- 3.00 | 2.10 | 8.30 | 2.77 3.25 | 2.20 | 8.88 | 2.73 3.50 | 2.30 | 9.45 | 2.70 3.75 | 2.40 | 10.03 | 2.67 4.00 | 2.50 | 10.60 | 2.65 4.25 | 2.60 | 11.17 | 2.63 4.50 | 2.70 | 11.74 | 2.61 4.75 | 2.80 | 12.31 | 2.59 5.00 | 2.90 | 12.90 | 2.58 ----------------+-------------+--------------+------------------- +213. Fat loss in cheese-making.+--The amount of solids lost in the whey also affects the yield. The following table gives the amount of fat lost in whey with normal milk containing different percentages of fat: TABLE XII SUMMARY SHOWING AMOUNT OF FAT IN MILK LOST IN CHEESE-MAKING ================================================================= GROUP | POUNDS OF FAT IN | POUNDS OF FAT LOST | PER CENT OF FAT | 100 LB OF MILK | IN WHEY FOR 100 | IN MILK LOST | | LB. OF MILK | IN WHEY ------+------------------+--------------------+------------------ I | 3 to 3.5 | 0.32 | 9.55 II | 3.5 to 4 | 0.33 | 8.33 III | 4 to 4.5 | 0.32 | 7.70 IV | 4.5 to 5 | 0.28 | 5.90 V | 5 to 5.25 | 0.31 | 6.00 ================================================================= Table XII shows that the percentage of fat in the whey is approximately the same for milk high or low in fat. But the milk low in fat loses a higher percentage of the total milk-fat in each 100 pounds of whey. +214. Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese.+--The bacterial-content[96] of the milk influences the yield by affecting both the moisture-content and the losses. If the milk is sour or has bad fermentation, the losses will be increased because the curd cannot be carefully handled, and the moisture cannot be incorporated to the extent that it can in clean milk, without injury to the quality. The proper-cooling of the milk in one instance increased the yield 0.3 pound of cheese for each 100 pounds of milk. The more moisture that can be incorporated into the cheese up to the legal limit, the greater the yield. +215. Factors affecting the moisture-content of Cheddar.+--The amount of moisture that can be incorporated in a curd depends on several factors.[97] The following increase the moisture-content control of the cheese: 1. Cutting the curd coarse. 2. High setting temperature. 3. Low acid in the curd at time of removing whey. 4. Not stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is removed. 5. Slow pressure. 6. High piling of the curd in the cheddaring process. 7. Small amount of salt. 8. Holding the curd at low temperature after the whey is removed. 9. Large amount of rennet. 10. Cutting the curd hard. The following factors decrease the moisture-content of the cheese: 1. Fine cutting. 2. Low setting temperature. 3. High acid in the curd at time of removing the whey. 4. Stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is removed. 5. Fast pressure. 6. Low piling of the curd in the cheddaring process. 7. Large amount of salt. 8. Holding the curd at high temperature after the whey is removed. 9. Small amount of rennet. 10. Cutting the curd soft. From this discussion, it is evident that the yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk increases with higher percentages of fat and casein in the milk, with reduced losses of solids during manufacture, with the absence of undesirable fermentations, and with the incorporation of large amounts of water. +216. Variations of the Cheddar process.+--The Cheddar process, as already described, is widely employed in cheese factories. Many varieties are found, however, and varietal names are used for such products. A whole series of these forms are either locally or widely made in England and taught in the English dairy schools. Some of these varieties resemble the factory Cheddar product fairly closely; others are clearly different products. A typical series of the variations as developed in America will be considered. In the commercial trade Cheddar cheese is usually designated by some name which indicates its size. The size of the cheese is determined by that of the hoops. The hoops vary both in diameter and height. The table on the following page shows the usual sizes of the hoops and the weight and name applied to the cheese. +217. Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk.+--Sammis and Bruhn[98] have described a variation of the Cheddar process to overcome the difficulties of making cheese from pasteurized milk. Such milk curdles in very unsatisfactory manner unless some chemical is added to compensate for the salts lost and to offset the other changes resulting from heat. For this purpose, they found the use of hydrochloric acid satisfactory. TABLE XIII SIZE OF CHEESE HOOPS, WEIGHT, AND TERM APPLIED TO CHEESE ======================================================================== DIAMETER OF | HEIGHT OF | WEIGHT OF | TERM APPLIED TO HOOP | CHEESE | CHEESE | CHEESE | | POUNDS | ---------------+-------------------+------------+----------------------- 6-7 in. | 7-8 in. | 9-11 | Young America Tapers 5-7 in. | 10-14 in. | 10-16 | Long Horn 12-14 in. | 3½-4½ in. | 18-24 | Daisy or Picnic 14-15½ in. | 4-6 in. | 30-40 | Twin (two in same box) 14-16 in. | 4-7 in. | 35-40 | Flat 13½-15 in. | 10-12 in. | 40-50 | Cheddar 14-16 in. | 12-15 in. | 75-90 | Export ======================================================================== "The acidulation of milk with hydrochloric acid after pasteurization is accomplished without difficulty or danger of curdling by running a small stream of the acid, of normal concentration, into the cooled milk as it flows from the continuous pasteurizer into the cheese vat. One pound of normal-strength acid is sufficient to raise 100 pounds of milk from 0.16 percent to 0.25 percent acidity (calculated as per cent of lactic acid). The amount of acid needed each day to bring the milk up to 0.25 per cent acidity is read from a table or calculated from the weight of the milk and its acidity, determined by the use of Manns's acid test (titration with tenth-normal sodium hydrate and phenolphthalein). The preparation of standard-strength acid in carboy lots for this work and the acidulation of milk present no great difficulty to any one who is able to handle Manns's acid test correctly. "After the milk is pasteurized and acidulated three-fourths per cent of first-class starter is added and the vat is heated to 85°. It is set with rennet, using 2 ounces of rennet per thousand pounds of milk, so that the milk begins to curdle in 7 minutes and is cut with three-eighth inch knives in 25 minutes. All portions of the work after adding rennet are carried out in an unvarying routine manner, according to a fixed-time schedule every day. As soon as the rennet has been added the cheese maker is able to calculate the exact time of day when each of the succeeding operations should be performed, and the work of making the cheese is thus simplified and systematized. It is possible that the routine process here described may be varied somewhat with advantage at different factories." This cheese usually lacks characteristic Cheddar flavor or contains it in very mild form. It therefore satisfies only those who seek very mild flavored products. Efforts are now being made to find a flavor producing substance or organism which will bring the flavor of this product more nearly to that of typical Cheddar. +218. Club cheese+ is known by a variety of trade names. It is made from Cheddar cheese, so that it is especially liked by persons who care for strong Cheddar flavor. It has a soft texture so that it spreads easily, and is therefore much used for sandwiches. Well-ripened or old Cheddar cheese is ground in a food chopper. The older the Cheddar, the stronger will be the flavor of the club cheese. Cheese of good flavor should be used. In order to do away with all lumps in the texture, it is sometimes necessary to run the mixed cheese through the food chopper a second time. While all lumps must be worked out, care should be taken not to work the cheese so much that it will become salvy and sticky. Usually a little pepper is added, to give the cheese a biting taste. Some manufacturers add a great variety of substances, but these are not necessary and destroy the flavor of the cheese. Club cheese may be wrapped in tin-foil or put up in air-tight glass jars. The latter practice, while more expensive, has the advantage of making the cheese keep longer; but for local trade tin-foil is just as satisfactory as glass. In filling the glass, care must be taken not to leave any air spaces between the cheese and the glass, as this is likely to permit the cheese to mold. A glass jar can be filled and air spaces prevented by first smearing a very thin layer of cheese over the glass. +219. The stirred-curd or granular process.+--The original practice as brought from England and followed in the farm dairies before the development of the factory system is now known variously as the "stirred-curd" or "granular curd" process. With the introduction of the cheese factory, as known to-day, this system was replaced by the Cheddar cheese. The old farm process is still used on some farms and in a few factories. As the name indicates, the curd for such cheeses is kept stirred so that it remains in granular condition instead of being allowed to mat as in the Cheddar process. The early steps of the two processes are identical. They diverge at the point at which in the factory Cheddar process the whey is drawn and the curd is allowed to mat. In some factories the curd and part of the whey are dipped into a curd sink. This allows the whey to escape more easily and quickly. In the stirred-curd process, the pieces of curd are kept separated by stirring and not allowed to mat. The whey is drawn off and the stirring continued by hand. After stirring fifteen to twenty minutes, the curd becomes so dry as not to mat easily. As soon as the curd has reached this stage, the salt is evenly and thoroughly mixed with it. More salt is added than in the Cheddar process because the curd is more moist than Cheddar curd at the time of salting. The whey freely separating carries away much of the salt. The quantity of salt to use depends on the amount of whey draining from the curd. After salting, the curd is allowed to cool, with occasional stirring to prevent the formation of lumps. The advantage of the stirred-curd practice lies in the shorter time required for making cheese and in the greater yield due to increased water-content. It has several disadvantages, among them being: (1) lack of control of undesirable fermentation; if gas organisms are present, the cheeses more frequently huff than with the Cheddar system; (2) there is more fat lost while stirring the curd, hence quality and yield suffer; (3) the water is not so thoroughly incorporated, which more frequently results in mottled cheeses; (4) the body is commonly soft and "weak," shows mechanical holes, and cures too rapidly. These faults are closely correlated with the presence of higher percentages of water than in cheeses made by the Cheddar process. In other words, the stirred-curd process usually produces a cheese with higher water-content, hence more subject to the development of unfavorable fermentation than the Cheddar cheeses. +220. California Jack cheese+[99] is very similar to the stirred-curd or granular process. This cheese was originally made in Monterey County on the coast of California, about twenty-five years ago, in small quantities, but after it was found to sell well other counties started to manufacture it. As Monterey was the first county to make this product, it was named "Monterey" cheese. In order to distinguish the cheese made in other counties from this, it was suggested that it be given a name and, consequently, it was called "Jack" cheese. This has been accepted as its true name. The cheese is made mostly by Portuguese and Italian-Swiss, although some of the best of the variety is now manufactured near Modesto, California. This cheese is adapted for manufacture on small dairy farms, where there is inexpensive and scanty equipment. The smaller sizes of cheese are made and ripened quickly. It has become widely used in California. The cheese is made every morning, from evening's and morning's milk. The former is put into the cheese vat at night, and morning's milk is added as milking is going on. When the milk is all in the vat, it is immediately warmed to 86° to 88° F. and rennet extract is added (when milk has 0.2 to 0.21 of 1 per cent acidity) at the rate of 6 to 8 ounces to 1000 pounds of milk. No coloring matter is used. It is ready for the curd-knife in thirty to thirty-five minutes, its readiness being determined the same as in making Cheddar cheese. The curd is first cut lengthwise of the vat with the horizontal curd-knife and allowed to stand until the whey rises over and partly covers the curd, when it is cut again with the vertical curd-knife crosswise of the vat. It is then hand-stirred, gently at first, and the stirring is finished with the rake. Either a steam-heating or self-heating vat is used (the steam-heating vat is preferred) and temperature increased about one degree in five minutes. The curd is heated to 98° F. in winter, and to 105° F. to 110° F. in summer. After temperature is up, it is stirred occasionally with a rake until the whey is drawn at 0.14 to 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity. The curd is hand-stirred as soon as the whey is nearly drained off, and raked to each side of the vat to drain more thoroughly, when it is quickly stirred again to keep it from lumping or matting. Salt is now added at the rate of 1½ pounds to 100 pounds of curd, and stirred in thoroughly several times. During the salting process, cold water is allowed to run under the vat, the hot water having been run off previously. Curd is put into cloths at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. No cheese hoops are used. Two sets of press cloths are necessary; one set is ready to use while the other is still on the cheese in the press. These press cloths are about one yard square. The press cloths are all laid out evenly one on top of the other, as many as there are cheeses. They are then taken together and spread out over the top of a large, open tin milk-pail, and pushed down in the center to the bottom of the pail, with the edges hanging over the top. A common one-gallon lard pail is used to measure the curd into the press cloths. A lard pail full will make a cheese weighing six and one-half pounds, which is the popular size. After a pailful has been put into the press cloth, the four corners are caught up with the left hand, while with the right hand the curd is formed round and the press cloth straightened and the other corners in turn taken up. The press cloth is now taken up tight over the curd with the left hand, while the cheese is given a rolling motion on the table with the right hand, pressing at the same time to expel some of the whey. This twists the press cloth tight over the curd, where it is tied with a stout string. After fixing them all (as many as there are cheeses) in this way, they are ready for the press. The cheeses are pressed between two wooden planks, 12 inches wide, 1½ inches thick, by whatever length is required for the number of cheeses to be pressed. One plank is nailed on supports at a convenient height from the floor on a little slant for the whey to drain off better. The cheeses in the press cloths are placed at the proper distance apart so they do not touch. Then the other plank is put squarely over the top of the cheese and levers about four feet long at an interval of five feet are placed over this plank, from a cleat in the wall, on the other end of which is placed a heavy weight of about 100 pounds, which acts as an automatic pressure. The cheeses are left in the press until the next morning, when they are taken out and put on the shelves in the curing-room. The cheeses have no bandage or covering, and do not seem to crock, and they form a very good rind. The cheese is a sweet variety, weighs six and one-half pounds cured and cures in about three weeks ready to ship, and sells at 16 to 25 cents a pound wholesale. Most of the work seems to lie in forming and rolling the curd in press cloths before pressing. Trouble is experienced by the makers, especially in warm climates in summer, in not having the milk at a uniform acidity when rennet is added. Great improvements could be made in this cheese by using an acidimeter, paraffining and curing the cheese in an even temperature, not much over 60° F. Old and hard Jack cheese is also employed for grating and cooking, while the fresh is used for the table. +221. The washed-curd process+ has been developed in recent years largely in the state of New York. In this method, a regular Cheddar curd is made up to the time of milling. This curd is washed or soaked in cold water during or directly after milling. The theoretical object of this washing is to carry away bad flavors and to reduce over-development of acidity by washing away all traces of whey. However, cheese-makers soon found that it increased the yield and this led some to carry it to extremes. After the curd has been milled, it is covered with cold water. The temperature of this water ranges from 50° F. to 70° F. The curd is stirred in this water for various lengths of time according to the judgment of the cheese-maker. This time varies from five minutes to one hour. Sometimes the vat is partly filled with water and the curd milled directly into the water. This process has certain advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are: if too much acid has developed in the curd, this washing will reduce it so that the cheese will not be sour. Sometimes when bad flavors are present in the curd, washing will tend to overcome or remove them. Its disadvantages are: the larger yield due to excessive soaking tempts the makers to soak curd beyond the time needed to relieve the initially sour condition. Curd soaked in this way produces cheeses containing percentages of water so high as to lower their quality. This increases the yield sometimes as much as 3 to 5 per cent. Such a cheese is very soft in texture and does not cure like a Cheddar cheese which has not been washed. Part of the lactic acid, milk-sugar[100] and the inorganic salts are removed by this washing. A washed-curd cheese will sometimes rot, due to the activity of the putrefactive bacteria, and to the lack of the restraining effect of the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Some washed-curd cheeses are so soft that they will not retain their normal shape. A washed-curd cheese is never sour because the milk-sugar and lactic acid have been removed by washing. +222. English dairy cheese.+--In some localities cheeses are still made on the farms. These are mostly produced after the stirred-curd process, hence are soft-bodied and open-textured. They usually weigh ten to twelve pounds and are three to four inches thick and twelve inches in diameter. +223. Pineapple cheese.+--This variety derives its name from the fact that the cheeses are made in about the size and shape of a pineapple. The curd is made after the Cheddar process from either whole milk or partly skimmed milk. It is pressed in molds shaped like a pineapple. The cheeses are then hung in nets to give the checked appearance on the surface. They are rubbed with linseed oil to prevent the surface cracking, and finally are shellacked. +224. Leyden.+--Among specialties, a cheese called Leyden originating in Holland is made in Michigan and New York. This is a part skim cheese heavily spiced with caraway seed. The ripe cheese is colored red as it goes to market. +225. Cheddar cheese with pimientos.+--Recently some Cheddar cheeses have been made with pimientos added. This gives a mixture of characteristic Cheddar and pimiento flavors, which seems to be desired by some persons. An ordinary Cheddar curd is made and the pimientos added just before salting. The pimientos are ground rather coarsely and then added to the curd together with the liquid which was with the pimientos in the can. The pimiento should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the curd to insure a uniform distribution and mottled color in the cheese. The salt is then applied. The remainder of the process is the same as for ordinary Cheddar cheese. +226. Sage cheese+ is a product flavored from the leaves of the ordinary garden sage. It is made by two methods: one, in which the sage leaves are used, and the other, in which a part of the curd is colored to imitate that given by the sage leaves, and sage oil or tea is used to give the flavor. In the leaf method, a regular Cheddar cheese curd is made up to the time of salting. Just before the salt is added, sage leaves are mixed with the curd. The leaves should be dried and freed from stems and other coarse particles and the leaves themselves broken up rather finely. The leaves are then added at the rate of 3 ounces for every 1000 pounds of milk. Care must be exercised to see that the leaves are evenly mixed through the curd or an evenly mottled cheese will not result. The salt is then added. This sequence seems to increase the absorption of the flavor by the curd. If these cheeses are consumed as soon as well cured, no fault can be found. On the other hand, if they are held for any length of time, yellow areas form about each piece of sage leaf; the leaves decay rapidly and spoil the cheese. This method gives a very true flavored sage cheese, the only objection being that it cannot be held in storage for any length of time without a marked deterioration. In the other method of making sage cheese, either a vat with a movable partition or a large and a small vat must be used. In many cases the receiving can is used as the small vat. After the milk is properly ripened and ready to set, one-sixth to one-seventh of the milk is put into the small vat. To this small vat, green coloring matter is added. Juice from the leaves of corn, clover, or spinach was formerly used as coloring. Consequently the manufacture of sage cheese by this method was limited to the seasons of the year when these leaves could be obtained. Now, however, the dairy supply houses have a harmless green color paste which is much cheaper and can be secured at any season of the year. The amount of color paste to use will vary from 30 to 35 c.c. for every 1000 pounds of total milk. This should be added to the small vat of milk. It gives a green milk and later a green curd. Both vats are worked along together, until the time for removing the whey. Then the partition in the vat is removed or the small vat is mixed with the large one. The green curd should then be evenly mixed with the white one or an even green mottled cheese will not result. The curds should not be mixed until they are well firmed or the white curd will take on a greenish cast and spoil the appearance of the cheese. After the whey is removed, the curd is allowed to mat as in ordinary Cheddar but care must be exercised to pile the curd so that it cannot spread or "draw" out. If it does draw out, the small green spots will be stretched out and large blotches or patches of green will be the result. The cheese-maker must watch the curd closely or he may not secure the much desired small green mottles. When the curd is well matted, it is milled as in Cheddar. Just before the salt is added, the sage extract is applied to the curd. The sage extract can be obtained from dairy supply houses, or a sage tea can be made by steeping the sage leaves. In many cases the commercial extract gives the cheese a strong disagreeable flavor, but not a true sage flavor. The sage tea gives a flavor more like that of the leaves themselves. Too much of the extract or the leaves will give a very rank flavor. The sage extract can best be put on the curd by means of a sprayer or atomizer with which it can be evenly sprayed over the entire surface. The extract should be applied two or three times and the curd well stirred after each application. The amount of the extract to use depends altogether on its strength; an ounce of the extract or three ounces of sage tea to 1000 pounds of milk is about the correct amount. After the extract has been added, the salt is used at the same rate as with a normal Cheddar curd and the sage curd is carried along the same as a Cheddar. This extract method gives a sage cheese mottled with small green spots which somewhat resemble the green of sage leaves. A cheese made in this way can be held for a long time, as nothing has been added which can decay. The only objection to this method is that the sage extract may not give a true sage flavor. Therefore, the maker must try to obtain the best extract possible or make his own from the sage leaves. +227. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+[101]--The process of making skimmed-milk cheese after the Cheddar process is varied with the amount of fat left in the milk. Before attempting to make skimmed-milk Cheddar, one should become familiar with the process for whole-milk Cheddar. Skimmed-milk cheeses are usually highly colored. When part skimmed-milk cheese is manufactured, there is often difficulty in getting the milk in the vat to test the desired percentage of fat. Some cheese-makers skim all the milk and then put in the desired amount of cream. This practice seems wasteful, not only because of the cost of separation, but because the fat will not mix easily with the milk but will tend to float on the surface. If the fat floats, there will be a large loss. After a very few trials an operator can tell about how much of the whole milk must be skimmed in order to have the mixed skimmed-milk and whole milk test the desired percentage of fat. The necessary percentage of fat in the mixed milk to produce cheese of a certain grade can be determined by testing the cheese by the Babcock test. (See Chapter XIX.) +228. Full skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--In the summer there is not much demand for full skimmed-milk cheese, but it is made in large quantity in winter. The method of manufacture is as follows: Skimmed-milk as it comes from the separator is at a temperature of about 88° to 90° F.; it is ripened and set at this temperature. It is ripened rather highly on the acid test, from 0.18 to 0.20 of 1 per cent, and to correspond on the rennet test which will not be many spaces. In about twenty-five to thirty minutes it is coagulated ready for cutting. The curd of skimmed-milk cheese is cut a little softer than is that of whole-milk cheese. Milk is usually set at 88° to 90° F. The curd is not ordinarily cooked above this temperature. If the milk was 84° to 86° F. when set, then the curd should be raised to 88° to 90° F. The curd firms in the whey very rapidly. When firm enough, it should have a slight development of acid. On the acid test it should show 0.17 to 0.19 per cent, and on the hot iron 1/8 to ¼ of an inch. The milk should be ripe enough or starter enough should have been used, so that the acid will continue to develop in the "pack" very rapidly. During the cheddaring process the curd is piled more rapidly and in higher piles than is customary with whole-milk cheese. This is necessary to incorporate or assimilate a large percentage of water or whey in the cheese. Therefore the process of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is much shorter. More acid is developed with the skimmed-milk than with the whole-milk cheese because it seems necessary to develop proper texture. If the acid is not developed sufficiently, the cheese will be very rubbery and cure very slowly, in which case bad fermentation and flavor may and often do develop. The curd is turned, piled or cheddared in the vat until it begins to become meaty and fibrous. If there is danger of too much acid, the curd may be rinsed off with water. It is then milled and salted at the rate of 1 or 1¼ pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. The remainder of the process is the same as that for making whole-milk cheese. +229. Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--No definite directions can be given for the manufacture of part skimmed-milk cheese, because the process varies with the amount of fat left in the milk. As the fat is decreased, the process becomes more like that for making full skimmed-milk cheese; as the fat is increased, the process becomes more like that for whole-milk cheese. However, the process of making half skimmed-milk cheese is about midway between the two. The milk is ripened more than it would be for whole-milk cheese, usually until it tests from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per cent acid. The curd is coagulated and cut the same as for the other skimmed-milk cheeses. It is cooked to a temperature just sufficient to firm the curd, usually from 94° to 96° F. The lower the temperature at which the curd can be cooked and yet become firm, the better is the texture of the cheese. When the curd has firmed enough, or when sufficient acid development, from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per cent, has taken place, the whey is removed. The curd is then turned, piled or cheddared. A skimmed-milk curd may be piled much more rapidly than a whole-milk curd without danger of injuring it. When the curd becomes meaty or fibrous, it is milled. It should be salted at the rate of 1¼ to 2 pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. The remainder of the process is the same as that for making whole-milk cheese. The cheese-maker should observe the following points when making skimmed-milk cheese: (1) Have clean-flavored sweet milk; (2) use clean-flavored commercial starter; (3) ripen the milk sufficiently, but not too much; (4) firm the curd at as low a temperature as possible; (5) have the curd properly firmed when the whey is drawn; (6) cheddar the curd faster than the curd from whole milk; (7) make the cheeses all the same size; (8) keep the cheese neat and clean in the curing-room. +230. Yield and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.+--The results of skimming different percentages of whole milk containing varying percentages of fat are given in the following table. As the percentage of fat in the milk decreases, the yield of cheese also decreases, according to the table. As the percentage of fat decreases in the milk, the percentage of moisture in the cheese increases, showing that moisture is substituted for fat. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk is also given in this table. This yield varies with the amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese, the amount of solids not fat in the milk, and the solids lost in the whey. TABLE XIV TABLE SHOWING THE COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF SKIMMED-MILK CHEDDAR CHEESE ============================================================================ | |PERCENTAGE|NUMBER | COMPOSITION OF THE CHEESE PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE|OF FAT IN |OF POUNDS +----------+----------+---------- OF FAT |OF THE |THE MILK |OF CHEESE |PERCENTAGE| | IN THE |MILK |IN THE |FROM 100 |OF TOTAL |PERCENTAGE|PERCENTAGE MILK |SKIMMED |VAT AFTER |POUNDS |OF TOTAL |OF FAT |OF WATER | |SKIMMING |OF MILK |SOLIDS | | ----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---------- 4.7 | 50 | 2.4 | 9.92 | 54.75 | 22.00 | 45.25 4.7 | 60 | 2.0 | 9.74 | 52.46 | 17.50 | 47.54 4.7 | 70 | 1.5 | 9.26 | 49.87 | 13.50 | 50.13 4.7 | 80 | 1.0 | 8.42 | 48.26 | 10.00 | 51.74 4.0 | 50 | 2.0 | 9.70 | 53.29 | 21.00 | 46.71 4.0 | 60 | 1.6 | 9.50 | 50.89 | 17.00 | 49.11 4.0 | 70 | 1.2 | 9.30 | 48.06 | 13.50 | 51.94 4.0 | 80 | 0.9 | 9.20 | 45.24 | 10.50 | 54.76 3.5 | 50 | 1.8 | 8.54 | 54.20 | 19.50 | 45.80 3.5 | 60 | 1.5 | 8.10 | 51.10 | 16.50 | 48.90 3.5 | 70 | 1.1 | 7.44 | 52.62 | 13.00 | 47.38 3.5 | 80 | O.9 | 7.00 | 49.64 | 9.54 | 50.36 3.4 | 50 | 1.9 | 8.24[102]| 54.50 | 20.00 | 45.50 3.4 | 60 | 1.5 | 7.82 | 52.05 | 16.50 | 47.95 3.4 | 70 | {1.4 | {7.80 | {49.04 | {14.00 | {50.96 | | {1.2 | {7.28 | {50.76 | {14.00 | {49.24 3.4 | 80 | 0.9 | 7.24 | 47.41 | 10.50 | 52.59 ============================================================================ In some creameries and cheese factories, the milk is skimmed and the cream made into butter and the skimmed-milk into cheese by the Cheddar process. In making cheese without the milk-fat, it is difficult to standardize a method that will produce the flavor and body of the whole-milk Cheddar cheese. A skimmed-milk cheese lacks the softness and mellowness of texture of the whole-milk product. It is very likely to be tough, dry or leathery. It is attempted to remedy this defect by incorporating more moisture into the skimmed-milk cheese. The added moisture tends to replace the fat in giving a soft mellow body. It requires skill on the part of the cheese-maker to incorporate moisture to take the place of the fat in giving the cheese mellowness and smoothness of body. The grades of skimmed-milk cheese vary between rather wide limits--from those made entirely of skimmed-milk to those made of milk from which only a small amount of fat has been removed and which are almost like whole-milk cheese. Because of the gradations of skimmed-milk cheese, it is difficult to make anything but general statements and to base comparisons with whole-milk cheese. CHAPTER XIV _CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING_ Freshly made Cheddar cheese is hard, tough and elastic and lacks characteristic cheese flavor. In this condition it is called "green," unripe or not cured. Before the cheese is ready to be eaten, it passes through a complex series of changes which are collectively known as ripening. In the ripening process the texture becomes soft and mellow and the characteristic cheese flavors develop. Cheese ripening must be considered from two view-points, first, the changes taking place inside the cheese and secondly the outside conditions necessary for ripening. Some of the chemical changes during ripening are known, while others are not understood. The different agents causing ripening, and the constituents of the milk, will be discussed. +231. Fat.+--Numerous investigations have been made to ascertain what chemical changes the fat undergoes in the ripening process. Suzuki,[103] in studying the fat, found no enzyme capable of producing lactic acid or volatile fatty acids. However, these acids were found in increasing amounts during the ripening process and after the lactose had disappeared. Acetic and propionic acids reached a maximum at three months and then decreased, while butyric and caproic acids continually increased during the experimental period covered. Formic acid was detected in the whole-milk cheese only at the five and one-half month stage. In the judgment of the experimenter the principal source of acetic and propionic acids was probably lactates. Traces of these acids may have had their origin in protein decomposition or further fermentation of glycerine. The principal sources indicated for butyric and caproic acids were fats and proteins. The distillate from the experimental cheese was designated "flavor solution" and contained alcohols and esters, giving a close resemblance to the cheese aroma. The "flavor solution" from the mild whole-milk cheese contained esters made up largely of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, while from the more pungent skimmed-milk cheese the esters were largely compounds of ethyl alcohol and caproic and butyric acids. The alcohol may have come from the lactose fermentation. It appears to be an important factor in flavor production. The agencies operative in the production of volatile acids and syntheses of esters are as yet undefined. +232. Milk-sugar.+--The milk-sugar (lactose) is changed into lactic acid by the lactic acid-forming organisms, within the first few days after the cheese is made. This acid is combined with the other constituents as fast as it is formed. After a few days, the milk-sugar will have entirely disappeared from the cheese.[104] The relation between the milk-sugar and lactic acid is very close. It is necessary that milk-sugar be present in order later to have the lactic acid develop. +233. The salts.+--Just what changes the salts[105] undergo or how they combine with the other compounds is not definitely known. It is supposed that the calcium salts first combine with the phosphates and later, as the lactic acid is formed, they combine with the lactic acid, forming a calcium lactate. +234. Gases.+--In the process of cheese ripening, gases are formed, the commonest being carbon dioxide.[106] Exactly how this gas is formed is not known. It may be due to the formation of lactic acid from the milk-sugar or to the living organisms in the cheese. +235. Casein or proteins.+--Complex ripening changes in the cheese take place in the casein compounds or proteins. Because of the complex chemical nature of the proteins and the various agents acting on them, it is difficult to follow these changes. This has led to different opinions regarding the ripening process. The various compounds thought to be formed from the casein or proteins are as follows:[107] _Paracasein_ (formed by the action of the rennet on the casein). Insoluble in brine and warm 5 per cent salt brine. _Protein._ Soluble in warm 5 per cent salt brine. _Protein._ Insoluble in warm salt brine or water. _Paranuclein._ A protein soluble in water and precipitable by dilute hydrochloric acid. _Caseoses and proteoses._ Protein derivations soluble in water and not coagulated by heat. _Peptones._ Protein derivations simpler than the proteoses, soluble in water and not coagulated by heat. _Amido acids._ Protein derivations soluble in water, least complex except ammonia. _Ammonia._ The simplest protein derivations. From the discussion of the constituents in the milk and cheese, it is evident that practically all the principal ripening changes are concerned with those taking place in the proteins. +236. Causes of ripening changes.+--Authorities disagree as to the exact agents which cause the ripening changes. Some think they are due to the action of the enzymes in the rennet and those secreted in the milk. Others hold that these changes are due entirely to bacterial action. A combination of the two seems probable. The action of the rennet extract renders the casein insoluble and in the ripening process the proteins become soluble, the degree depending on the length of time the cheese is ripened. The amount of water-soluble proteins and protein derivatives is used as a measure of the extent of cheese ripening, considered from a chemical standpoint. +237. Action of the rennet extract.+--Some authorities hold that rennet extract contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin, while others think it is a single peptic ferment. These enzymes produce effects[108] closely related to, if not identical with, those of pepsin in the following particulars: neither the rennet enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any, proteolytic change except in the presence of acid; the quantitative results of proteolysis furnished by the rennet enzyme and pepsin agree closely, when working on the same material under comparable conditions; the classes of soluble nitrogen compounds formed by the two enzymes are the same, both quantitatively and qualitatively; neither enzyme forms any considerable amount of amido compounds and neither produces any ammonia; the soluble nitrogen compounds formed by both enzymes are confined to the group of compounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. Rennet exerts a digestive effect on the casein[109] which is intensified by the development of acid in the curd. The soluble nitrogenous products formed in Cheddar cheese by the rennet enzymes are the albumoses and the higher peptones. Experiments show that no flavor develops until the amido acids and ammonia are formed. When the rennet enzymes were the only digesting ferments in the cheese, there was no trace of cheese flavor. This is probably due to the fact that the rennet enzyme changed the casein into caseoses and peptones but did not form amido acids and ammonia. Some authorities[110] think that the enzyme galactase carries the ripening of the protein from this stage. The question arises whether these intermediate compounds must be found before other agents can form the amido acids and ammonia. TABLE XV[111] SHOWING THE EFFECT OF DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF RENEET EXTRACTS ON THE RATE OF FORMATION OF SOLUBLE NITROGEN COMPOUNDS IN CHEESE RIPENING ========================================================= | PER CENT OF WATER SOLUBLE NITROGEN QUANTITY OF | COMPOUNDS IN THE CHEESE RENNET ADDED PER +--------------------------------------- 1000 LB. OF MILK | Initial | 32 days | 80 days | 270 days -----------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- 2 oz. | 0.14 | 0.47 | 0.68 | 1.30 4 oz. | 0.16 | 0.75 | 1.13 | 1.74 8 oz. | 0.16 | 0.90 | 1.50 | 1.97 16 oz. | 0.14 | 1.26 | 1.70 | 2.04 ========================================================= The above table shows that the more rennet extract used the faster the cheese cures, measured by the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds formed in the cheese. +238. The action of the bacteria.+--Authorities[112] disagree as to the groups of bacteria found in Cheddar cheese. This may be due to lack of proper classification. Some of the groups are: _Bacterium lactis acidi_, _B. coli communis_, _B. lactis aerogenes_, _B. casei_, Streptococci, _B.[113] Bulgaricum_ and Micrococci. Authorities agree that the _B. lactis acidi_ group is the most prominent. This group makes up 90 per cent or more of the total bacteria flora of the cheese in the early stages of ripening. In the course of a few weeks, however, this group is largely replaced by the _B. casei_ group[114]. TABLE XVI SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BACTERIA TO A GRAM IN CHEDDAR CHEESE AS DETERMINED BY LACTOSE-AGAR PLATE CULTURES ==================================================================== TIME OF | CHEESE NUMBER PLATING +-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- | 580 | 581 | 582 | 583 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- Milk | 8,000,000 | 500,000 | 700,000 | 500,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- Curd at | | | | salting | 160,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 912,000,000 | 839,000,000 time | | | | ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 12 hours | 332,000,000 | 1,048,000,000 | 623,000,000 | 965,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 1 day | 586,000,000 | 736,000,000 | 709,000,000 | 569,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 2 days | 235,000,000 | 405,000,000 | 848,000,000 | 580,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 4 days | 145,000,000 | 684,000,000 | 522,000,000 | 1,025,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 6 days | 165,000,000 | 184,000,000 | 853,000,000 | 184,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 14 days | 51,000,000 | 211,000,000 | 369,000,000 | 401,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 21 days | 284,000,000 | 290,000,000 | 348,000,000 | 319,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 28 days | 285,000,000 | 453,000,000 | 314,000,000 | 144,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 35 days | 104,000,000 | 261,000,000 | 326,000,000 | 504,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 49 days | 132,000,000 | 228,000,000 | 436,000,000 | 661,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 70 days | 128,000,000 | 291,000,000 | 193,000,000 | 168,000,000 ---------+-------------+---------------+-------------+-------------- 98 days | 114,000,000 | 212,000,000 | 45,000,000 | 55,000,000 ==================================================================== From Wis. Bul. 150. The large number of bacteria in the cheese is very striking. The number as given in the accompanying table is not that actually in the cheese, as it is very difficult to obtain the sample in suitable condition for plating.[115] The principal action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria in the cheese ripening is the changing of the milk-sugar or lactose into lactic acid and the formation of small amounts of other substances, such as acetic, succinic and formic acids, alcohol, aldehydes and esters and some gases, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. While the amount of these substances other than lactic acid is small, it is thought that the effect of these on the cheese may be important. Heinemann shows[116] that lactic acid exists in two optical modifications, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids. In cheese they are usually found in the inactive or racemic form, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids being present in equal amounts. What importance the question of optical activity of the lactic acid may assume is not definitely known. Just as some groups of bacteria have a specific effect on the lactose, producing only one modification of lactic acid, so bacteria attacking lactic acid may exercise a selective action and use only one or the other optically active modification. In other words, the early flora of cheese-ripening bacteria may determine the later flora by the production of a form of lactic acid attacked by one group of bacteria and not by another, and the effect on the flavor will differ accordingly. The amount of lactic acid in the cheese increases for a time, then decreases. The errors in determining lactic acid are considerable. It seems that the tendency is toward an increase of lactic acid in the cheese long after the lactose has disappeared. Two explanations are offered: one, that in the lactic acid fermentation an intermediate compound or compounds are formed which exist for some time, the conversion into lactic acid being complete at about three months; the other is that lactic acid is formed as a product of paracasein proteolysis. The lactic acid formed in cheese ripening does not exist in a free state but reacts with the calcium salts in the cheese and forms calcium lactates. It is thought that there is sufficient of these salts to neutralize all the acid formed, and therefore the acid does not enter into combination with the paracasein salts. It has been found that lactates are the principal source of acetic and propionic acids. These are supposed to have some effect on the flavor of the cheese. The effect of lactic acid as a determinant of bacterial and enzymic changes is very important. Early in the ripening process, lactic acid suppresses the growth of undesirable micro-organisms. It also furnishes the acid medium necessary for the best action of both the coagulating and peptic enzymes. The importance of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese ripening has been summed up by Hastings[117] as follows: "The functions of this group of bacteria in Cheddar cheese are through their by-product lactic acid as follows: (_a_) To favor the curdling of milk by rennet. (_b_) The bacteria of the milk are held in great part in the curd. Through the acid they influence the shrinkage of the curd and expulsion of the whey, (_c_) The acid so changes the nature of the curd as to cause 'matting,' or 'cheddaring' of the curd, (_d_) The acid activates the pepsin of the rennet extract, (_e_) The acid prevents the growth of putrefactive bacteria in the cheese. (_f_) It has been shown that _Bacterium lactis acidi_ is able to form acid in the absence of the living cell. (_g_) The development of _Bacterium lactis acidi_ is followed by the growth of another group of acid-forming bacteria, the _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ group. They reach numbers comparable with those of the first group, reaching their maximum number within the first month of ripening. Since they develop after the fermentation of the milk-sugar, they must have some other source of carbon and of energy than milk-sugar." It is also probable that other groups constantly present contribute to the changes. From the preceding discussion it is evident that each of the ripening agents has its important part to play in the ripening process and a normal ripening of the cheese is a composite result of these various agencies. +239. Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening.+--The rate at which these agents cause ripening of the cheese depends on several factors.[118] Most of these factors are within the control of man. They are as follows: the length of time; temperature of the curing-room; moisture-content of the cheese; size of the cheese; the quantity of salt used; the amount of rennet; the influence of acid. +240. The length of time.+--The water-soluble nitrogen compounds increase as the cheese ages, other conditions being uniform. The rate of increase is not uniform; it is much more rapid in the early than in the succeeding stages of ripening. +241. The temperature of the curing-room.+--Very few cheese factories have made any provision for regulating the temperature of the curing-room. Without such provision the temperature follows closely that of the outside air. In some cases the curing-room is located over the boiler-room and hence becomes very hot. In the cheese warehouses, provision has been made to control the temperature very closely. Experiments show that the soluble nitrogen compounds increase, on the average, closely in proportion to an increase of temperature, when the other conditions are uniform. The temperature of the curing-room has a material effect on the quality of the cheese. Cheese made from the same day's milk, and part cured at 40° F., part at 50° F., part at 60° F. show considerable differences, the greatest seeming to be in the flavor and texture. Those kept at the low temperature cure more slowly and develop a milder flavor, those at the higher temperature cure faster and develop undesirable flavors. At the higher temperature the undesirable organisms seem to be more active. Some very skillful makers and judges of cheese have always contended that if Cheddar is properly made, firmed to the body and texture of a high-class cheese, ripening at 55 to 60° F. gives a higher quality. Such a cheese must be low in moisture, perhaps 3 to 5 per cent lower than one cured successfully by the cold process. The following tables[119] XVII, XVIII show the effect of different temperatures of curing cheese on the total score and on the points of the flavor, body and texture: TABLE XVII TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING TO TOTAL SCORE ========================================== TEMPERATURE OF CURING | TOTAL SCORE ----------------------+------------------- 40° | 95.7 50° | 94.2 60° | 91.7 ========================================== TABLE XVIII TABLE SHOWING THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF CURING TO SCORE OF BODY AND TEXTURE, AND FLAVOR ================================================= TEMPERATURE OF CURING | 40° F. | 50° F. | 60° F. ----------------------+--------+--------+-------- Body and texture | 23.4 | 32.0 | 22.2 Flavor | 47.4 | 46.4 | 44.8 ================================================= Of the three temperatures of curing, the lowest gave a higher total score and a higher score for flavor, body and texture. The curing temperature should not go low enough to freeze the cheese, as this lowers the quality. The cheese will cure very slowly and have a mealy texture. +242. Moisture-content of the cheese.+--Other conditions being equal, there is a larger amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese containing more moisture than in that containing less moisture. Therefore, a high moisture-content of the cheese causes it to cure faster. The presence of moisture also serves to dilute the fermentation products which otherwise would accumulate and thus check the action of the ripening agents. +243. The size of the cheese.+--Cheeses of large size usually cure faster than smaller ones, under the same conditions. This is due to the fact that the large cheeses lose their moisture less rapidly by evaporation and therefore after the early period of ripening have a higher water-content. +244. The amount of salt.+--The relation of salt to the rate of ripening is more or less directly associated with the moisture-content of the cheese, since an increase in the amount of salt decreases the moisture. Thus, cheese containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds more slowly than that containing less salt. The salt also has a direct effect in retarding one or more of the ripening agents. +245. The amount of rennet extract.+--The use of increased amounts of rennet extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results in the production of increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds in a given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones. +246. The influence of acid.+--It is necessary that acid be present but the exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes of the ripening process is not fully known. If too much acid is present, it imparts a sour taste to the cheese. It also causes the texture of the cheese to be mealy or sandy instead of smooth and waxy. Conditions that may increase the rate of ripening: 1. Increase of temperature. 2. Larger amounts of rennet. 3. More moisture in the cheese. 4. Less salt. 5. Large size of the cheese. 6. Moderate amount of acid. Conditions that may retard ripening: 1. Decrease of temperature. 2. Smaller amounts of rennet. 3. Less moisture in the cheese. 4. More salt. 5. Small size of the cheese. 6. No acid or an excess of acid. +247. Care of the cheese in the curing-room.+--The cheeses need daily attention while in the curing-room (Fig. 53). They should be turned every day to prevent sticking and molding to the shelf and to secure an even evaporation of moisture. If not turned, the moisture will not evaporate evenly from all surfaces and will result in an uneven distribution in the cheese, which causes uneven curing, and usually gives the product an uneven color. The surface of the cheese should be watched to see that the cloths stick. If they do not, the surface will crack, due to the evaporation of the moisture. If the cloths are loosened, they should be removed and the surface of the cheese greased with butter. The grease will tend to prevent the rind from cracking. If the surface of the cheese is not smooth, due to wrinkles in the bandage, or if it cracks, due to the lack of cloths, it furnishes the opportunity for insects to lay their eggs and the larvæ to develop within the cheese. Molds also lodge and grow in such cracks. [Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cheddar cheese curing-room.] The cheese should be kept clean while in the curing-room. This means that the hands of the person handling the cheese must be clean. The shelves should be washed with good cleaning solution and scalded with hot water whenever they become greasy or moldy. Some means should be provided for regulating the temperature and humidity of the curing-room. In most factories this is accomplished by opening the doors and windows at night to admit the cool air and closing them in the morning to keep out the hot air. Care should be taken to keep the doors and windows closely secured. The windows should have shades to keep out the sun. If the room becomes too dry, the floor may be dampened with cold water. The length of time in the curing-room depends on how often shipment is made to some central warehouse or to the market. This usually varies from two to six weeks. When the surface of the cheese becomes dry and the rind is well formed, the cheese may be paraffined. It usually requires four to six days after cheeses are taken from the hoop before they are ready for this process. The object of paraffining is to prevent the escape of moisture and to keep the cheese from molding. +248. Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening.+--The losses due to evaporation while the cheeses are curing are a considerable item. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature and humidity of the curing-room, the size of the cheese, the moisture-content and protection to the surface. Table XIX[120] shows the effect of size of cheese and temperature of the curing-room, on losses while curing. This table shows that the evaporation of moisture is more as the size of the cheese decreases and the temperature is increased. This is probably due to the fact that the smaller cheese has more surface to a pound than a large cheese. The evaporation increases with temperature, probably because of lowered relative humidity. The humidity can be tested with an hygrometer. TABLE XIX SHOWING THE VARIATION OF LOSSES IN WEIGHT OF CHEDDAR CHEESE WHILE CURING, DUE TO SIZE OF CHEESE AND TEMPERATURE OF CURING-ROOM ============================================================= | WEIGHT LOST PER 100 POUNDS OF CHEESE IN 20 WEIGHT OF CHEESE | WEEKS AT IN POUNDS +---------------+--------------+------------ | 40° F. | 50° F. | 60° F. -----------------+---------------+--------------+------------ 70 | 2.5 | 2.4 | 4.2 45 | 2.7 | 3.7 | 5.1 35 | 3.9 | 5.9 | 8.5 12½ | 4.6 | 8.1 | 12.0 ============================================================= The higher the moisture-content of the cheese, usually the more rapid is the evaporation. This is due to several causes: there is more moisture to evaporate; the moisture is not so well incorporated; a moist cheese does not form so good a rind. 249. +Paraffining+[121] consists of dipping the cheese in melted paraffin at a temperature of about 220° F. for six seconds. Fig. 54 shows an apparatus for paraffining. This leaves a very thin coat of paraffin on the cheese; at a lower temperature, a thicker coat would be left. The thicker coating is more liable to crack and peel off. If the cheese is not perfectly dry before it is treated, the paraffin will blister and crack off. Before a cheese is paraffined, the press cloth is removed and also the starched circles, if loose. After a cheese has been paraffined, if the coating is not broken, the loss due to evaporation is greatly reduced. The amount of paraffin to coat a 35-pound cheese will depend on the temperature of the paraffin and the length of time the cheese is immersed. Usually at 220° F. it requires about 0.15 of a pound for each 35-pound cheese. After the cheeses have been paraffined, they may be left on the curing-room shelves or boxed ready to ship. [Illustration: FIG. 54.--A paraffiner for cheese.] +250. Shipping.+--When ready to ship, each cheese should be carefully and accurately weighed and boxed. Usually these cheeses are boxed after being paraffined. If press cloths are left on the cheese in the curing-room, they should be removed just before weighing. These cloths should not be left in a pile in the factory after being removed as they have been known to heat and sometimes cause fires. They should be washed clean and dried ready for use again. If starched circles are used, they should be left on the cheese. A scale board should be placed on each end of the cheese to prevent its sticking to the box and also to keep the box from wearing the surface of the cheese. The box should be a trifle larger in diameter than the cheese so that the latter can be easily placed in it. The sides of the box should be the same height as the cheese. The weight of each cheese should be neatly and accurately marked on each box. Care should be exercised to keep the boxes clean. DEFECTS IN CHEDDAR CHEESE A great number of defects may occur in Cheddar cheese. Certain of these are due to known causes and proper remedies are definable, while neither cause nor remedy has been found for other defects. Some of the common defects and their causes and remedies are discussed under different headings of the score-card as: defects in flavor, their causes and remedies; defects in body and texture, their causes and remedies; defects in color, their causes and remedies; defects in finish and their causes and remedies. +251. Defects in flavor.+--Any flavor differing from the characteristic Cheddar cheese is a defect. Certain of these defective flavors can be recognized and causes and remedies given for them, while others may be distinguished as such but no cause or remedy can be given. +252. Feedy flavors.+--Flavors may be characteristic of certain feeding stuffs. Feeding strong-flavored foods, such as turnips, cabbage, decayed silage, certain weeds and sometimes rank green feed, give their peculiar flavors to both milk and cheese. Freshly drawn milk usually absorbs these odors from the air in barns filled with such foods. Certain of these materials may be fed just after milking in moderate amounts without affecting the milk drawn at the next milking. Others should not be used. Milk should not be exposed to strong volatile odors. Some of the objectionable odors may be removed by airing the curd for a longer time after milling before the salt is applied. +253. Acid flavors.+--A cheese with an acid flavor has a pronounced sour smell and taste. This is caused by the over-development of acid which may be due to any of the following causes: (_a_) receiving milk at the factory which is sour or has too high development of acid; (_b_) using too much starter; (_c_) ripening the milk too much before adding rennet; (_d_) not firming the curd sufficiently in the whey before removing the latter; (_e_) developing too much acid in the whey before it is removed; (_f_) retaining too much moisture in the curd. The trouble can be reduced or eliminated by one or more of the following precautions: (_a_) receiving only clean, sweet milk at the cheese factory; (_b_) maintaining the proper relation between the moisture and acidity; (_c_) adding the rennet at the proper acidity; (_d_) using less starter; (_e_) adding the rennet extract so that there will be sufficient time to firm the curd before the acid has developed to such a stage that it will be necessary to draw the whey; (_f_) producing the proper final water-content in the newly made cheese. +254. Sweet or fruity flavors.+--These are the sweet flavors characteristic of strawberry, raspberry and the like. Such flavors are very objectionable and usually increase with the age of the cheese. They appear to be caused by: (_a_) carrying both milk and whey in the same cans without properly cleaning them; (_b_) exposing milk near hog-pens where whey is fed; (_c_) dirty whey tanks at the cheese factory; (_d_) micro-organisms which get into the milk through any unclean conditions. These troubles can be controlled: (_a_) if milk and whey must be carried in the same cans, the cans should be emptied immediately on arrival at the farm and thoroughly washed and scalded; (_b_) the whey vat at the factory should be kept clean and sweet; (_c_) the starter must have the proper clean flavor. Other defects may be classed as "off flavors," "dirty flavors," "bitter flavors" and the like. These are undoubtedly due to unsanitary conditions whereby undesirable organisms get into the milk, even though the particular organism is often not determined. The flavors may be improved by the use of a clean-flavored commercial starter and by airing the curd after milling before salting. The best remedy is to remove the source of the difficulty. +255. Defects in body and texture.+--The body and texture should be close. A sample rubbed between the thumb and fingers should be smooth and waxy. Any condition which causes a body and texture other than this is to be avoided. +256. Loose or open texture.+--A cheese with this defect is full of irregularly shaped holes and usually soft or weak-bodied. This is serious if the cheese is to be held for some time. Moisture and fat are likely to collect in these holes and cause the cheese to deteriorate, thereby shortening its commercial life. Several causes may bring about this condition: (_a_) insufficient cheddaring; (_b_) pressing at too high a temperature; (_c_) inadequate pressing; (_d_) development of too little acid. The corresponding remedies are: (_a_) cheddar the curd until the holes are closed and the curd is solid; (_b_) cool the curd to 80° F. before putting to press; (_c_) press the curd longer, possibly twenty-four to twenty-six hours; (_d_) develop a little higher acid in the whey before removing the curd. +257. Dry body.+--A cheese with this defect is usually firm, hard and dry, sometimes rubbery or corky. This may result from lack of moisture, fat or both, and may be due to the following causes: (_a_) making the cheese from partly skimmed-milk; (_b_) heating the curd in the whey for too long a time; (_c_) heating the curd too high; (_d_) stirring the curd too much in the whey or as the last of the whey is removed; (_e_) using too much salt; (_f_) developing of too much acid in the whey; (_g_) curing the cheese in too hot or too dry a curing-room; (_h_) not piling the curd high or fast enough in the cheddaring process. The cause should be located and the corresponding remedy found, as follows: (_a_) make cheese only from whole milk; (_b_) draw the whey sooner; (_c_) firm the curd at as low temperature as possible in the whey; (_d_) stir the curd in the whey only enough to keep the curd particles separated but do not hand-stir it; (_e_) use less salt; (_f_) develop less acid in the whey; (_g_) cure the cheese in a cool moist curing-room; (_h_) pile the curd sooner and higher during the cheddaring process. The number of causes which may singly or in combination produce dry cheese demands experience and technical skill that calls for the development of a high degree of judgment. +258. Gassy textured cheese.+--Gassy cheese has large numbers of very small round or slightly flattened holes. When round these are called "pin-holes," and when slightly flattened "fish eye" openings. These are due to the formation of gas by the micro-organisms in the cheese. When a cheese is gassy, it usually puffs up from gas pressure as in the rising of bread. If enough gas is formed, it will cause the cheese to break or crack open. Instead of being flat on the ends, such a cheese becomes so nearly spherical as to roll from the shelf at times. The gas-producing organisms enter because of unclean conditions somewhere in the handling of the milk and the making of the cheese. Some of the common sources of gas organisms are: (_a_) unclean milkers; (_b_) dirty cows; (_c_) aërating the milk in impure air, especially air from hog-pens where the whey is fed; (_d_) allowing the cows to wade in stagnant water or in mud or in filthy barnyards and then not thoroughly cleaning the cows before milking; (_e_) exposing the milk to the dust from hay and feed; (_f_) dirty whey tanks; (_g_) drawing milk and whey in the same cans without afterward thoroughly washing them; (_h_) unclean utensils in the factory; (_i_) using gassy starter; (_j_) ripening cheese at high temperatures. Some of these causes are within the control of the cheese-maker after the making process is begun. Many of them are avoided only by eternal vigilance. Among the recommendations for meeting gassy curd are the following: use only milk produced under clean sanitary conditions; use a clean commercial starter. If gas is suspected in the milk, a larger percentage of commercial starter should be used. More acid must be developed before the whey is removed. If the gas shows while cheddaring, the curd should be piled and repiled until the holes flatten out before milling. The curd should be kept warm during the piling or cheddaring process. This may be accomplished by covering the vat and setting a pail or two of hot water in it. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired for a considerable length of time before salting. This will aërate the curd and allow it to cool. The cheese should then be placed in a cool curing-room. (See handling of gassy milk.) +259. Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture.+--A cheese with acidy body may be either hard and dry or soft and moist. It has a mealy or sandy feeling when rubbed between the fingers. The causes and remedies are the same as for cheeses with acid flavors. When rubbed between the fingers, it is pasty and sticks to the fingers. It is caused by the cheese containing too much water. (See control of moisture.) +260. Defects in color.+--Any color which is not uniform is a defect. The proper color depends on the market requirement. Some markets prefer a white and others a yellow cheese; however, if the color is uniform, it is not defective. _Mottled color_ is a spotted or variegated marking of the cheese. Several causes may give the same general effect: (_a_) uneven distribution of moisture, the curd having extra moisture being lighter in color; (_b_) neglecting to strain the starter; (_c_) adding the starter after the cheese color has been added; (_d_) mixing the curd from different vats. Remedies for this mottled color are: (_a_) to maintain a uniform assimilation of moisture (see discussion of moisture); (_b_) to strain the starter to break up the lumps before adding to the milk; (_c_) to add all of the starter before adding the cheese color; (_d_) not to mix curds from different vats. _Seamy color._--In "seamy" colored cheese, the outline of each piece of curd may be seen. There is usually a line where the surfaces of the curd come together. It may be caused by the pieces of curd becoming greasy or so cold that they will not cement. This may be remedied by having the curd at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. when put to press. If it is greasy, this may be removed by washing the curd in cold water. _Acid color._--This is a bleached or faded color and is caused by the development of too much acid. (See acid flavor for causes and remedies, page 266.) +261. Defects in finish.+--Defects of this class differ from those previously mentioned in being entirely within the control of the cheese-maker. All are due to carelessness or lack of skill in manipulation. Anything which detracts from the neat, clean, workmanlike appearance of the cheese is a defect that may interfere with the sale of an article intrinsically good. Some of the common defects are: (_a_) unclean surfaces or dirty cheese; (_b_) cracked rinds; (_c_) moldy surfaces; (_d_) uneven sizes; (_e_) cracked cheese; (_f_) wrinkled bandages; (_g_) uneven edges. CHEDDAR CHEESE JUDGING Judging of cheese is the comparison of the qualities of one product with those of another. To make this easier it is customary to reduce the qualities of the cheese to a numerical basis. This is accomplished by the use of a score-card, which recognizes certain qualities and gives to each a numerical value. Each of these score-cards gives a perfect cheese a numerical score of 100. Two score-cards are used to judge cheese, one for export and the other for home-trade product. The latter is more commonly used. EXPORT SCORE-CARD HOME-TRADE SCORE-CARD Flavor 45 Flavor 50 Body and texture 30 Body and texture 25 Color 15 Color 15 Finish 10 Finish 10 --- --- Total 100 Total 100 The same qualities are recognized in each score-card, but different numerical values are given them. +262. Securing the sample.+--The sample of cheese to be examined is best obtained by means of a cheese-trier (Fig. 55). This is a piece of steel about five or six inches long fitted with a suitable handle. It is semicircular in shape, about ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter. The edges and end are sharpened to aid in cutting. This is inserted into the cheese and turned around and then drawn out. It removes a long cylinder of cheese, commonly called a "plug." This plug should be drawn from the top rather than from the side of the cheese, because when the bandage is cut it often splits, due to the pressure against it and so exposes the cheese. [Illustration: FIG. 55.--A cheese-trier.] +263. How to determine quality.+--As soon as the plug has been removed, it should be passed quickly under the nose to detect any volatile odors which are liable to leave the cheese quickly. Next, the compactness of the plug should be noticed and the color carefully examined. Then the outer end of the plug should be broken off and placed back in the cheese in the hole made by the trier. It should be about an inch long and pushed in so that the surface of the cheese is smooth. This prevents mold and insects entering the cheese. Usually the cheese will mold after a short time where the plug has been removed. The remainder of the plug should be saved for determining the flavor and the body and texture. The flavor can be determined by the first odor obtained from the cheese on the trier and by mixing or crushing a piece of the plug between the thumb and fore-finger and then noting the odor. Mixing and thoroughly warming causes the odor to be much more pronounced. The cheese should seldom be tasted to determine the flavor, for when many are to be judged, they all taste alike after the first five or six. This is probably due to the cheese adhering to the teeth, tongue and other parts of the mouth, making it difficult to cleanse the mouth sufficiently. The body and texture can be determined by the appearance and the feeling of the cheese when rubbed between the thumb and fingers. The body and texture are distinct, yet they are more or less interchanged. The body refers to the cheese as a whole and the texture to the arrangement of the parts of the whole. The openness of texture or the holes can be noted when the plug is first removed. The firmness of body and smoothness of texture can be determined when the cheese is rubbed between the thumb and fingers. The color can be judged when the plug is first removed. The finish or appearance may be noted either before or after the other qualities by carefully examining the cheese. Cheddar cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance; when cut it should show a close, solid, uniformly colored interior. It should have a clear, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should possess a mellow, silky, meaty texture and when rubbed between the thumb and fore-finger should be smooth and free from hard particles. CHEESE SCORE-CARD _Sample_................ _Date_...................... =============================================================== SCORE REMARKS ---------+-----+----------+------------------------------------ Flavor | 50 | ........ | | | | Body and | | | Texture | 25 | ........ | | | | Color | 15 | ........ | | | | Finish | 10 | ........ | ---------+-----+----------+ Total | 100 | ........ | ---------+-----+----------+ Recommendations................................................ ............................................................... ............................................................... ............................................................... ............................................................... ............................................................... ............................................................... ............................................................... Name of Judge............................. --------------------------------------------------------------- SUGGESTIVE TERMS FLAVOR _Desirable_ Clean Pleasant Aroma Nutty Flavor _Undesirable_ +Due to Farm Conditions+ Weedy Feedy Cowy Old Milk Bitter +Due to Factory Conditions+ Too much acid Too little acid +Due to either Farm or Factory Conditions+ Yeasty Fruity Fishy Rancid Sour Bitter Sweet Tainted BODY AND TEXTURE _Desirable_ Smooth Waxy Silky Close _Undesirable_ Pasty Corky Acidy Greasy Loose Sweet Curdy Gassy Watery Mealy Lumpy Yeasty Too dry COLOR _Desirable_ Uniform _Undesirable_ Streaked White specks Seamy Mottled Wavy Rust spots Acid cut Too high Too light FINISH _Desirable_ Clean surfaces Neat bandage Attractive _Undesirable_ Wrinkled bandage Unclean surfaces Cracked rinds Undesirable size Greasy No end caps Uneven edges +264. Causes of variations in score.+--It is very seldom, if ever, that a cheese is given a perfect score, for it usually has one or more defects which may be hardly noticeable or very pronounced. The seriousness of the defect is determined by the individual tastes of the judges and the market requirements. It is customary for the judge to pick out several samples and score them in order to fix the standard and if there are several judges this serves to unify their standard. Ordinarily judges will vary because of their individual tastes, unless they begin with a uniform standard. Certain markets require cheese with given qualities which on other markets would be considered defects. For example, the Boston market requires a very soft, pasty cheese which other markets would consider undesirable. The cheese is constantly undergoing changes due to the ripening agents so that it may not always be scored the same. For example, a cheese may have little or no flavor and after several weeks a very considerable flavor may have developed. This is probably due to the action of the ripening agents, and therefore the second time it would be scored differently. +265. The score-card.+--When judging several samples of cheese, the type of score-card on the opposite page is used for each one. This gives the date of judging and the sample number, the judge's name and reasons for cutting the score and recommendations to avoid these troubles. CHAPTER XV _THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS_ Certain varieties of hard cheese of foreign origin are now made to some extent in this country. If not manufactured in sufficient quantities to supply the demand, the remainder is imported. These hard cheeses are now considered. SWISS CHEESE Swiss cheese, variously known as Gruyère, Emmenthal, Schweitzer and Swiss, had its origin in the Alpine cantons of Switzerland. From this region its manufacture has been carried by Swiss dairy-men and emigrant farmers into widely separate lands. The Swiss colonies settled in the United States in the Mohawk Valley and in Cattaraugus County, New York; in Wayne, Stark, Summit, Columbiana and Tuscarawas counties of Ohio, and in Green and Dodge counties in Wisconsin. Of all these, the Wisconsin colonies have become the most extensive. Similar colonies have developed the making of this type of cheese in Sweden and Finland. +266. The Swiss factory.+--Swiss cheese cannot be made in a vat like other types for reasons that will be explained later. In place of the vat is used a kettle, generally of copper, and it may or may not be jacketed for steam or for hot water (Fig. 56). These kettles vary in capacity from 600 to 3000 pounds of milk. The cheese-maker takes the best care possible of his kettle, for an unclean utensil is one of the easiest sources of contamination of the milk. When the kettle is not jacketed, and it is only in recent years that this has been done, it is suspended in a fireplace by means of a crane arrangement. [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Swiss-cheese kettle.] This fireplace uses wood, and is built of brick or stone, so that the kettle rests on the edge and is provided with a door which swings upon another crane, and can be closed while the fire is going. When the kettle is swung on a crane, it is possible to swing it under the weigh-stand for filling. This requires a lid to swing down over the fire, and keep the room free from smoke. The chimney generally has a rather high stack to secure a good draft. This kettle is fastened to the crane by a large iron band passing around the neck, to which a bail or handle is attached. The kettle may be raised or lowered by means of a simple screw on this beam. The crane consists of a heavy beam working in sockets in the floor and a beam or cross brace, which has another and shorter beam braced to it, to take the weight of the kettle. The weigh-stand, and its efficient location, is a matter of extreme importance. It is elevated a little above the remainder of the floor to allow gravity to do the work. The next most important equipment is the press and draining table. The table is made of wood or stone, and has a slight slope to allow the whey to drain off. The press is generally a jack screw which, braced against a beam, will exert an enormous pressure on the table below. Swiss cheeses are made in two styles, the "round" or drum and the "block" or rectangular forms, each of which has its advantages. For the round style, which is most commonly made, the forms for hooping are of metal or of elm wood, and consist of strips of a given width, generally six inches, but of an undetermined length. These strips are then made into a circle and held by a cord, which is easily lengthened or shortened, thus varying the diameter of the hoop. Besides these hoops, cheese boards or followers are needed. These are heavy circular boards, of a size to fit that of the cheese generally made, and are banded with iron around the edge and cross-braced on the bottom for rigidity. The small tools of the factory consist of knives to cut the curd, and of a "Swiss harp" or other similar tool to stir the curd. Many clean bandages are also needed, and a kettle brake. +267. The milk.+--Swiss cheese requires clean sweet milk. Dirt, high acid and infections with undesirable bacteria involve difficulties of manufacture and frequent losses of cheese. One common practice rejects milk if it shows acidity above 0.15 per cent. To secure milk in this condition, factories are small and located so close to the producing farms as to secure 1000 to 3000 pounds of milk delivered warm from the cow twice a day. The cheese is made twice daily from this fresh milk. If, however, milk is properly cared for, it is possible to mix night's and morning's milk without bad results. In fact, in working experimentally with high grade milk and taking precautions against loss of fat, it has been necessary to skim (separate) part of the milk, thus reducing the ratio of fat to casein. Analysis of good Swiss cheeses shows that the desired texture is more uniformly obtained with milk in which the fat is less than the normal ratio. This assumes that the manufacturing loss is kept down so that the fat removed offsets the extra loss from curd-breaking. +268. Rennet extract.+--Most Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own rennet extract from the stomach. This results in a product which is not uniform in strength and so requires good judgment to secure the desired coagulation in the allotted time. Some cheese-makers roll fifteen to twenty well salted calves' stomachs together and dry them. From this they cut off a definite amount each day to be soaked for twenty-four hours in two to five quarts of whey at 86° F. Four quarts of this solution added to 2000 pounds of milk at 90° F. should produce a curd ready for cutting in twenty to thirty minutes. +269. Starter.+--Makers do not agree as to the use of "starters" for Swiss cheese. Those opposed to such use say that a starter will give the cheese a decided Cheddar flavor, while those in favor of it state that it will control undesirable fermentations, and that, with the use of a starter, it is possible to make Swiss cheese throughout the year, and have uniform success. Doane,[122] working with _Bacillus Bulgaricus_ as a starter, found that these starters did not always overcome the undesirable fermentations. If a cheese-maker is having difficulty to develop the holes or "eyes," this may be overcome by making a starter[123] as follows from good cheese and whey or milk: Select a cheese which has the desirable "eyes" or holes and a good flavor. Grind up some of this and add about ¼ of a pound to one gallon of milk or whey. Hold this for twenty-four hours at a warm temperature (85° to 90° F.). Strain it into the vat of milk just before the rennet is added. +270. The making process.+--The milk is delivered twice a day without cooling. It usually reaches the factory at a temperature of 92° to 96° F. It is strained into the kettle, and starter and rennet added at the same temperature as received. (For method of adding rennet, see Chapter V.) Enough rennet should be used to give a coagulation ready for cutting in twenty to thirty minutes. The firmness of the curd is tested by inserting the index finger in an oblique position, then raising it slightly and with the thumb of the same hand starting the curd to break or crack. When the curd is coagulated ready for cutting, it will give a clear break over the finger. It is important to keep the temperature uniform while coagulation is in process, and this is best accomplished by the use of a little pan arrangement which fits into the top of the kettle. When this is full of water at 100° F., the temperature of the air above the milk will be about 90° F. When the curd is ready for cutting, a scoop may be used and the top layer carefully turned under to equalize the temperature more closely. _Cutting the curd._--In some cheese factories, knives resembling Cheddar cheese knives are employed to cut the curd. In other factories, a "Swiss harp" is used to break the curd. The curd is usually cut or broken into pieces about the size of kernels of corn. The practice of "breaking" curd instead of cutting it with sharp curd-knives produces excessive loss at times. Experimental study has shown that the loss of fat may be kept as low as 0.3 per cent if modern curd-knives are substituted for the breaking tool formerly used. Study of Swiss cheeses of all grades supports the opinion that the removal of a small part of fat from usual grades of factory milk produces a better quality of product than the use of rich whole milk. This may be accomplished through the escape of fat in the whey on account of breaking the curd and stirring it vigorously, or by skimming a part of the milk which is then curdled, cut and stirred under such conditions as to minimize the loss of fat. _Cooking the curd._--After cutting, the curd is stirred in the whey for about twenty minutes before the steam is turned on and is then heated to 128° to 135° F. While this heating is in progress, constant stirring must be given to avoid matting. This excessive stirring breaks the curd up into pieces about the size of wheat kernels, and accounts for the large fat loss, which is one of the main sources of loss in making Swiss cheese. This stirring is accomplished by a rotary motion, and the use of a brake, which is a piece of wood closely fitting the side of the kettle. This creates an eddy in the current at that point and gives a more uniform distribution of temperature. The process of cooking takes from thirty to forty minutes, and at the end of that time the degree of toughness may be determined by making a roll of curd in the hand, and noticing the break when it is given a quick flip. A short sharp break indicates the desired toughness. _Draining and hooping._--In this process, the cheese-makers' skill is displayed. With the hoop prepared, and the curd at the correct stage of toughness, the operator takes a press cloth, wets it in whey, slips it over a flexible iron ring which can be made to fit the shape of the kettle, gives the contents of the kettle a few swift revolutions, then suddenly reverses the motion, with the result that the contents form into a cone, and the ring and bandage are dexterously slipped under this cone, and drawn up to the surface of the whey with a rope or chain and pulley. This part of the process is the most important, as a cheese must have a smooth firm rind, else it will quickly crack. With too large a batch of milk, the curd can be cut into two pieces and hooped separately. With the mass of curd at the top of the whey, the piece of perforated iron plate just the size of the hoop is slipped under the mass, and attached to the pulley by four chains. Then the top of the mass is carefully leveled off, because while still in the whey, it cannot mat badly and so tend to develop a rind crack. Now the mass is raised clear of the whey, and run along a short track to the drain table, where it is put in the press. _Pressing._--The mass of curd is dropped into the hoop, the edges of the cloth carefully folded under, and the cloth laid on top, then the pressure is applied, gradually at first, but increasing until the final pressure is about fifteen to twenty pounds to a pound of cheese. During the first few hours the cloths must be changed frequently, and the cheese carefully turned over each time, to secure a more uniform rind. After a time the changes are less frequent, and at the end of twenty-four hours the cheese is taken to the salting-room. _Salting_ may be done by either the brine or dry method. To prepare a brine bath, add salt to a tank of water until it will float an egg, and add a pailful or more of salt every few days thereafter to keep up the strength. The cheese is then placed in this bath and left for three to five days, depending on the saltiness desired. As the cheese floats with a little of the rind above the surface, it should be turned a few times to insure uniformity of salting. With dry salting, the salt is rubbed on the cheese by hand or with a stiff brush, and any excess carefully wiped off, leaving only a slight sprinkle on the surface to work into the cheese. +271. Curing Swiss.+--From the salting-room, the cheese goes to the first one of two curing-rooms, where the unique process of the development of the characteristic eyes takes place. During the curing period of either round or block Swiss, constant attention must be paid to the cheese. They must be turned every day at first, and then every second or third day toward the end of the curing period. Also, great care must be taken that no mold starts growing, as it will soon work into the cheese, and spoil its flavor. The best way of preventing mold is by washing the cheese, in either clean or slightly salted water, as often as possible. A stiff brush is mostly used for this. The development of the "eyes" or holes is the difficult part of the whole process. It is not known exactly what causes the development, but it is attributed to micro-organisms or enzymes. The gas in these eyes has been examined and found to be carbon dioxide and free nitrogen. Sometimes hydrogen is found. This comes from the original fermentation of the milk-sugar and remains to contaminate the normal eye. The nitrogen[124] is included from the original air. Propionic acid is formed at the same time as the eyes, and they are said to be the result of a propionic ferment of lactic acid. The interior of the cheese is anaërobic, due to low permeability and high oxygen-absorbing quality. This propionic bacterium cannot, however, account for all the carbon dioxide produced. After the eyes have started, their further development depends on temperature and humidity of the air, and on the moisture of the cheese, as regulated by the amount of salt used. The first room has a temperature of 70° F. to start the eyes, which is later lowered in the second curing-room to about 60° to check the development. When any local fermentive action starts, it may be checked by rubbing salt on the affected part. The humidity of the room is very important, because a cheese will quickly dry out in a dry room, due to evaporation from the surface. To prevent this, it is well to spray the floor with water, or to have a steam jet in the room. If the curd has been cooked too long the cheese may be too dry. Such cheeses may be piled two or more deep in the curing-room. It is held by some cheese-makers that this process causes them to absorb more moisture. Probably this is due to the checking of evaporation. The development of the "eyes" may be watched by trying the following test: Place the middle finger on the cheese and let the first finger slip from it, striking the cheese smartly; a dull sound indicates solidity, while a ring indicates a hole, and an expert maker can tell the size of the holes by the sound. This requires long practice for the operator to become proficient. After a cheese has remained in the first room for about two weeks and the holes are well started, it is removed to the second curing-room, which is held at a cooler temperature and slightly drier atmosphere. The cheeses are held in this room from three to ten months, depending on market conditions, and capacity of the curing-rooms. In Switzerland, it is customary to hold cheese to secure a well ripened product, while in America most of the cheeses are shipped comparatively green, hence do not bring so high a price. +272. Block Swiss.+--In making block Swiss, the same procedure is followed through the cooking stage. Then the curd is pressed in a square form or in one large piece, each form six inches square on the ends and twenty inches long, and later cut into sections. These are then pressed, salted and cured in the same way as round forms. In this type of cheese there is a much smaller cross-section; therefore the development of holes is much more easily controlled on account of the ease with which the salt can work into the cheese and control undesirable ferments. As it is easy to control, this variety is made in the fall and winter when the ferments are especially hard to keep in check. However, this cheese has the disadvantage of cutting eye-development short by the rapid entrance of salt. The curing consists of the developing of the flavor and eyes and the changing in body and texture. Just what causes these changes is not known. +273. Shipment.+--When ready for shipment, the drum cheeses of the same general diameter are sorted out and packed four to six in a cask. Care must be taken to put boards between them to prevent sticking. These are called scale-boards, and are made of thin sections of wood fiber. The cheeses are crowded into the cask to make a snug fit, and the head carefully fastened. +274. Qualities of Swiss cheese.+--The peculiar Swiss cheese flavor may be characterized as a hazel-nut taste. It is a trifle sweet and very tempting. The "eyes" or holes should be about the size of a cherry with a dull shine to the inner lining. The "eyes" usually contain a small amount of a briny tasting liquid. These eyes should be uniformly distributed. The color should be uniform. The cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance, and the rind should not be cracked or broken. There are several common defects in Swiss cheese. If the milk is not clean-flavored, the cheese will have the same flavor as the milk. The greatest difficulty is to produce the eyes or holes. A cheese which does not have these is called "blind." A product which has many small pin-holes due to gassy fermentations is called a "niszler"; this means a cheese with a thousand eyes. If gas forms in the cheese and causes cracks, it is called "glaesler." If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will be soft and pasty. Such a cheese does not readily form eyes. +275. Composition and yield.+--A large number of analyses of Swiss cheese have been made but there is wide variation. This is due to the fact that the composition and yield are both dependent on the following factors: composition of the milk, losses during manufacture, amount of moisture in the cheese. The losses in Swiss cheese are much larger than with some of the other hard cheeses, such as Cheddar. This is because more fat is lost in the whey, due to breaking instead of cutting the curd and the subsequent hard stirring. The possibility of reducing these excessive losses has already been indicated. Swiss cheeses of high grade show about the following range of composition: Water 30-34 per cent Fat 30-34 per cent Protein 26-30 per cent Ash 3-5 per cent Salt (NaCl) 1-1.4 per cent The water-content of this type of cheese is low and the protein-content is proportionately high. Both conditions lead to firm textures, long ripening and long keeping periods. The following score-card is used to judge both block and drum Swiss cheese: Flavor 35 Appearance on trier holes 30 Texture 20 Salt 10 Style 5 ---- 100 The yield of Swiss cheese varies from 8 to 11 pounds to 100 pounds of milk. The more solids in the milk, the more moisture incorporated in the cheese; the smaller the loss of solids in the manufacturing process, the larger will be the yield from a given amount of milk. THE ITALIAN GROUP[125] A group of varieties, best known in America by Parmesan, are made in Italy with related forms in Greece and European Turkey. These forms are very hard, usually uncolored, with small eyes or holes. They are made in large cheeses which ripen very slowly. Cow's milk is regularly used for Parmesan and Grana in northern Italy; other varieties contain goat or sheep milk or various mixtures. Aside from Parmesan, few of the other forms are known outside the place of origin except as they are exported in a small way to satisfy the demand of emigrants from these regions. +276. Parmesan.+--One type of Italian cheese, however, the Parmesan, has become very widely known. In general the consuming trade does not discriminate between Parmesan, Grana and closely related forms. Parmesan is made in large cheeses which require one to three years for proper ripening; in texture it is very hard with small eyes or holes formed by very slow fermentation. Such cheeses are ripened in large storehouses in which hundreds and even thousands are brought together and cared for by experts. The surfaces of these cheeses are kept clean and free from insects by rubbing with linseed oil. So hard are these forms that the cheese-trier is not used in testing, but the texture of the surface is tested by pricking with an awl-like tool and the stage of eye-formation and associated ripening is determined by the sound given out when the cheeses are tapped with a hammer. When ripe, the cheeses of this group are used in cooking principally. The broken cheese is grated and added to macaroni, spaghetti and other cooked cheese dishes. Parmesan is usually made from partly skimmed-milk; the ratio of fat to protein in analysis runs from 1:2 to 3:4 in contrast to the normal relation of about 4:3 in whole-milk cheese. In water-content much variation is found, but ripe Parmesan is usually about 30 per cent water. Other members of the group are made with different amounts of skimming, some of them from whole milk. The group in general represents the requirements of cheese for the trade of warmer regions (see Mayo and Elling): (1) a low fat-content so incorporated that the cheese does not become greasy or oily in hot weather; (2) a water-content low enough to prevent rapid spoilage during the necessary exposure of handling under warm conditions. The equipment for Parmesan manufacture has more resemblance to that of the Swiss factory than the English and American cheeses. The milk is curdled in deep copper kettles (Fig. 57), below which there is commonly a provision for direct heating by fire which is sometimes carried on a truck, and therefore can be withdrawn when heating is sufficient. The steam-jacketed kettle has replaced this earlier form to a large measure. [Illustration: FIG. 57.--Parmesan cheese kettles.] The general character of the manufacturing process is indicated in the following abstract of one of the methods. Many variations are to be found. The milk for Parmesan is allowed to stand overnight. Some acidity is, therefore, developed in contrast to the absolutely fresh condition of the milk used in Swiss and the acidification developed during the making of Cheddar (Fascetti). It is then skimmed, heated to 72° to 75° F. Rennet is added in amount sufficient to produce firm curd in one hour or slightly less. When the curd is firm, a wood fire is made under the kettle and the curd is broken with a special implement into small particles. After breaking, four grains of powdered sulfur to twenty-two gallons of milk are added. The curd is stirred with a rake. By the time the temperature rises to 77° F., the curd should be in very small pieces. Stirring and heating continue until the temperature reaches 131° F. At this temperature, it stands fifteen minutes, after which it is removed from the fire (or the fire is drawn). Nine-tenths of the whey is then drawn. The cheese-maker then collects the curd into a compact lump under which he slips a cheese cloth. With the aid of an assistant he removes the mass to a perforated vessel for draining. After this the curd goes into large wooden hoops, lined with cloth, which stand upon a slanting draining table until evening. No pressure is used. Before night they are taken to the cellar. The cloths are removed next day. After standing four days, they are salted by covering the upper surface with coarse salt. This is repeated with daily turning for twenty days, then salted on alternate days for another period of twenty days. At the end of the forty days' salting, the cheese is removed from the hoop, scraped, sprinkled with whey and the rind rubbed smooth. A dressing of linseed oil either with or without bone black is applied. [Illustration: FIG. 58.--A typical cheese-market in France.] The cheeses are kept in special ripening rooms, and rubbed frequently with linseed oil to keep the surfaces free from molds and vermin. Careful grading as to quality of product and consequent response to ripening conditions produce cheeses of many degrees of excellence. Those in which a ripening of three to four years is possible are most highly esteemed. +277. Regianito.+--A cheese of the Italian group is now made in Argentina and imported to the United States under the name Regianito. CHAPTER XVI _MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS_ As already discussed in Chapter VI, there are a large number of varieties of cheese. Very many are entirely unknown in America. A considerable number of forms are occasionally imported and may be found by visiting the markets and delicatessen stores in the foreign districts of our large cities. Certain forms not widely known are made in America in a few factories or are imported in sufficient quantity to call for brief discussion. Some of these are brought together here. The importance of the by-products of cheese-making has not been sufficiently recognized, for manufacture on a large scale is only beginning to be appreciated in America. Certain cheese names, such as Mysost, are applied to whey products. In addition, milk-sugar is extensively made and whey-butter has been carefully studied and found to be practicable under some conditions. +278. Caciocavallo+ originated in Italy, but is now made in certain factories of New York and Ohio. Some factories in Lombardy[126] use whole milk, others use half-skimmed milk. The latter practice is probably the more common. In making this cheese, the milk is coagulated with rennet, cut and firmed in the whey, allowed to settle and the whey drawn. The curd is then piled on the draining table and allowed to mat or fuse into fairly solid masses. After several hours of draining and matting, the curd is cut into strips and placed in a vat of hot water. In the hot water, the blocks of solid curd melt into taffy-like masses which are worked and molded by hand into more or less standard shapes. Indian club or ten-pin forms are most commonly produced. When the proper shape has been gained, each mass is thrown into cold water which solidifies it in that form. Cheese masses heat and cool slowly; several hours of cooling are required to insure a firm cheese. The newly made cheeses are salted in a brine bath, then hung by a string to ripen. Sometimes these cheeses are eaten fresh, again they are ripened several months. They vary in size from one to six pounds. Cornalba gives the composition of Italian Caciocavallo made from whole milk as water 32 to 34 per cent, fat 34 to 36 per cent, protein 28.5 to 29.5 per cent, salt 1.7 to 1.8 per cent; when made from half skimmed-milk, water 28 per cent, fat 27 to 28 per cent, protein 35 to 40 per cent, salt 2.2 per cent. Other analyses vary widely from these figures on account of the differing fat-content of the milk. No standardized practice has been established in America. _Provolono_ resembles Caciocavallo in method of manufacture and composition, the main difference being in the shape of the cheese. It is more or less round and is held by a coarse net made of small rope. The cheeses are treated while curing the same as Caciocavallo. +279. Sap sago.+--This hard green cheese imported from Switzerland is made in cakes, tapering from perhaps two inches in diameter to a rounded top with a height of about two inches. These are made from skimmed-milk curd, partially ripened then mixed with powdered leaves of _Melilotus coeruleus_, a clover-like plant. The mixture is then pressed into the market form and dried until very hard. It is handled without special care since the water-content is so low that fermentations are exceedingly slow. This low-priced cheese may be used in cooking. +280. Albumin cheese.+[127]--In the rennet cheeses, the albumin, which constitutes about 0.7 per cent of the milk, passes off in the whey. This albumin is not curdled by rennet. It is, however, coagulated by heating. The presence of acid hastens such coagulation but does not cause it when used alone. When the whey is heated to about 200° F., the albumin rises and may be skimmed off. In this form it is recovered and used. It may be shaped is hoops under pressure, as Ricotte, an Italian form. This cheese is pressed firmly and dried. Such albumin is frequently prepared as a poultry feed. +281. Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese.+--The whey contains nearly 5 per cent of milk-sugar which can be recovered by boiling. The Norwegian process which produces Mysost consists in raising the whey to the boiling point, skimming off the albumin as it rises, then concentrating the remainder of the whey. As it reaches sufficient concentration, the albumin is thoroughly stirred back into the mass and the mass finally cooled into forms. Mysost is a brown, hard brittle mass consisting principally of caramelized milk-sugar. Analysis shows such percentage composition as follows: water 10 to 20 per cent, protein 10 to 15 per cent, milk-sugar 30 to 55 per cent. Mysost is found in the larger markets of the United States. _Primost_ is an albumin cheese somewhat similar to Ricotte and Mysost. It is made by precipitating the albumin by acid and heat. The main difference is in the firmness of the cheese. This is regulated by drying. +282. Whey butter.+[128]--The loss of a percentage of fat, rarely less than 0.3 per cent and in some cheeses very much greater, has led to the making of whey butter. For this purpose a separator is introduced and all whey is separated daily. The fat recovered in the form of cream is then ripened and churned. Whey butter is not rated as equal to butter made from whole milk but a fair market can usually be found for the product. The recovery of 0.25 per cent fat means two and one-half pounds of fat to 1000 pounds of whey. This will make about three pounds of butter. Whether whey butter shall be made depends on the volume of business, the extra equipment required, the extra help necessary and the market for the product. As a rule, whey butter is economically recoverable only in large factories. It is not considered advisable to attempt to make it unless one has the whey from 10,000 pounds of milk. In some instances, the combination of small cheese factories with one churning plant has proved to be economical. The objection to the making of whey butter is, that it stimulates carelessness on the part of the cheese-maker because he thinks that the fat will be recovered by skimming. He does not realize that the other milk solids are being reduced in the same proportion as the fat, to the great loss in yield of cheese. CHAPTER XVII _CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION_ The principal factor in determining the location of a cheese factory is the available supply of milk. This is usually ascertained by making a canvass, and finding out the number of cows whose milk would be brought to the factory. The quantity of milk or the number of cows necessary to insure sufficient milk for the successful operation of the factory, depends on the variety of cheese to be made. When making types of cheese for which very sweet milk is necessary, the milk must be delivered twice a day. This demand limits the area from which the factory can secure its supply. The length of time the cheeses are held in the curing-room and the work necessary to care for them also limits the area which the factory can serve, because a very large amount of milk cannot be handled when the cheese must be given considerable attention in the curing-rooms. Swiss, Limburger and Brick cheese factories usually do not require a large supply of milk; therefore the factories may be built close together. The size of the Cheddar cheese factories varies but it is generally considered unprofitable to make Cheddar cheese unless there are 5000 pounds of milk available daily. Conditions have changed so that at present different kinds of cheese are made from the surplus milk in market milk plants. In such cases a uniform supply is not absolutely necessary. The climate must also be suitable for the industry. +283. Locating the site.+--In a farming community, several factory sites are usually available. It is best to consider carefully the desirable features of each before trying to make a definite choice. Many of the present cheese factories were located in hollows because it was easy to secure a supply of water, but no thought or attention was given to the disposal of the sewage. The following points should be considered in choosing a site: (1) _Drainage._--A factory should be so located that it has good drainage. Ground that slopes away from the factory makes the disposal of sewage easy. Sewage should not be allowed to run out on the ground and left to decay, thus forming a breeding place for flies, but should run into a cesspool or septic tank.[129] Even in a porous soil, a cesspool frequently clogs and gives trouble. The septic tank seems to be the best method to dispose of the sewage unless the factory is so located that connection can be made with a city sewage system. (2) _Water._--An abundant supply of pure water is essential to a factory. This may come either from deep wells or springs. The value of a never-failing water supply cannot be overestimated. (3) _Exposure._--The factory should be so located that the receiving room is away from the prevailing winds. This prevents dust being blown into the factory. The curing-room should be on the side not exposed to the sun as this will keep it cool. Fig. 59 shows a clean cheese factory of the ordinary type. When it is desirable to cure the cheese in a cellar, it is better to locate the factory on the side of a hill. Then the receiving and manufacturing room may be on the ground level and the curing-room, a cellar, back of the manufacturing room and yet all on the same level. This saves carrying the cheese up and down stairs. (4) _Accessibility to market_ should not be overlooked. Often the quality of the cheese is injured by long hauls. An important item in marketing both milk and cheese is the use of the automobile. By its use the products are not so long in transit, and losses from exposure in delivery are reduced. Both milk and cheese, when exposed to the heat of the sun for any length of time, become warm. This gives undesirable organisms chance to develop. [Illustration: FIG. 59.--A cheese factory of neat appearance.] +284. The building.+--Details of construction or estimates of cost will be omitted in the present discussion. A local contractor can do this satisfactorily and also the cost of materials is constantly changing. Only general considerations as they apply to the manufacture of the product will be taken up. The building may be constructed of wood, stone, various bricks or concrete. The kind of material will depend on the relative cost of materials in the local market and on the amount of money available for building. +285. Heating plant.+--Many of the older factories have no heating plants and some are so poorly constructed that they cannot be warmed. Means of heating should be provided, either by steam or a stove. The loss due to freezing is an item which is entirely avoided in factories properly heated. +286. Curing-rooms.+--The size of the curing-rooms will depend on the amount of cheese to be handled and its location on the variety of cheese to be manufactured. In every case, some provision should be made to control humidity and temperature. If the room becomes hot and dry, evaporation from the cheese will be much more rapid. In a hot curing-room, undesirable types of ferments are more likely to develop and to injure the quality of the cheese. +287. Light.+--The importance of light should be emphasized. It acts as a stimulant to keep things clean. It also makes the factory more cheerful. There should be numerous windows to give plenty of light. A skylight may often serve both as a source of light and ventilation. +288. Ventilation.+--Plenty of ventilation should be provided. This may be accomplished by means of the windows or skylight. However, it is a good precaution to have at least one ventilator to carry off the steam and control the circulation of air. All openings should be carefully screened to keep out flies. +289. Boiler-room.+--The boiler-room should be easily accessible from the manufacturing rooms. A gauge located in the latter should tell the steam pressure. Windows or doors should be so located that the flues of the boiler can be cleaned. The coal supply should be handy. Great care should be exercised to keep the boiler-room clean for otherwise the dirt will be tracked all over the factory. +290. Whey tanks+ should be kept clean. Daily washing is absolutely necessary to prevent offensive odors. Pasteurization of whey has been found requisite to prevent the spread of disease if raw milk is used.[130] This is required by law in some states. It is sometimes accomplished by heat with steam coils; in other cases by running live steam directly into the whey. Whey tanks may be made of wood or steel. The acid of the whey seems to eat and decompose concrete. +291. Store-room.+--There should be a separate room or a place in the attic where the supplies can be kept. This saves much waste and keeps the factory cleaner and more tidy. +292. The floors.+--The floor is the most important part of the building. It should be of non-absorbent material, which can be easily cleaned, and it should not leak. Concrete makes the best floor of any material used at present. It should slope very gently to the drain. The corners between the floor and side walls should be rounding to make cleaning easy. The drain should be provided with bell traps to prevent the entrance of sewer gas into the factory. If the traps and floor about them are slightly depressed, it will help to make the floor drain more quickly. A catch-basin should be provided just outside the factory for all solid material which might clog the sewer pipe. This should be cleaned three or four times a year. [Illustration: FIG. 60.--A well arranged Cheddar cheese factory, including the equipment for the manufacture of whey butter.] +293. Arrangement of machinery and rooms.+--The rooms and machinery should be arranged so that the work will follow the natural sequence of the process with as little inconvenience as possible. Some of the points to be observed in this connection are: vats should be near the weigh-can; boiler-room near the work room; cheese presses near the vats; cheese presses near the curing-rooms and the like. Fig. 60 shows a well arranged Cheddar cheese factory. The necessary machinery and rooms for the manufacture of whey butter are included. In this plan, the attic contains the store-room and the whey tanks. The whey is forced from the vats into the tanks with a steam jet and then runs by gravity to the separator. Slides are provided in the walls of the ice storage to regulate the flow of air into the curing-room and butter refrigerator. In order to have a smaller boiler, a gasolene engine is used to run the separator, churn and curd-mill. The plan can be modified to use the upstairs for a curing-room so that the size of the factory may be reduced. The whey butter could be shifted to a small room where the curing-room now is and the boiler-room added as a "lean-to" at one side of the building. This would materially reduce the size of the main building. Another plan (Fig. 61) shows the arrangement of a Cheddar cheese factory without the whey butter apparatus. The location of the drain between the vats might be criticized. In Fig. 62 is shown the arrangement of a combined butter and cheese factory. Fig. 63 shows the possible arrangement of a Limburger factory. The size of this factory could be reduced by having the salting tables closer together. In a Cheddar cheese factory, the curing-room may be over the manufacturing room. This makes considerable work in carrying the cheese up and down. A small elevator may be used for this purpose. The same principle holds in cheese factories in which other varieties of cheese are made; the floors should be on one level so far as possible. There is danger of the overhead curing-room becoming too hot and causing the cheese to leak fat. Shelves or tables should be provided on which to put and keep the utensils. The utensils should never be placed on the floor. [Illustration: FIG. 61.--Plan of Cheddar cheese factory without whey butter equipment. 1, Boiler; 2, sink; 3, hot water barrel for scalding utensils; 4, cheese vats; 5, 6, cheese presses; 7, weigh-can; 8, desk; 9, Babcock tester; 10, shelf; 11, paraffine tank; 12, cheese shelves.] [Illustration: FIG. 62.--Combined Cheddar cheese and butter factory. 1, Boiler; 2, engine; 3, water pump; 4, work bench; 5, wash sink; 6, press; 7, elevator; 8, cheese vats; 9, separator; 10, milk heater; 11, milk receiving vat; 12, press; 13, shelf; 14, Babcock tester; 15, weigh-can; 16, churn; 17, starter; 18, cream ripener and pasteurizer; 19, refrigerator; 20, milk sheet and sample jar; 21, milk pump.] +294. Arrangements for cleanliness.+--A sink for washing the utensils should be provided and boiling water to scald them after washing. After being scalded, tin utensils dry quickly without rusting. The boiling water may be obtained by placing a steam pipe in a barrel of water and turning on the steam. The utensils can then be washed clean, dipped in this barrel of boiling water and put in their place. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on keeping the factory itself, the utensils and the surroundings clean. This will prevent the development of mold. Cases are known in which the cheese factory was allowed to become very dirty, so that a red mold developed. This eventually got into the cheese and caused red spots.[131] They are called rust spots. All doors and windows should be screened to keep out flies. [Illustration: FIG. 63.--A Limburger cheese factory.] +295. Equipment and supplies list.+--The following utensils will be needed in a Cheddar cheese factory to handle 10,000 pounds of milk daily: 1 5-H. P. boiler; 1 60-gallon weigh-can; 1 conductor head and trough; 1 platform scale; 1 Babcock tester, glassware and sample bottles; 2 700-gallon cheese vats; 2 gang cheese presses; 1 curd-mill; 2 curd-knives; 30 cheese hoops; 1 whey strainer; 1 curd scoop; 1 long-handled dipper; 1 strainer dipper; 1 siphon; 1 cheese knife; 1 glass graduate; 1 cheese-trier; 1 speed knife; 1 paraffine tank; 1 Marschall rennet test; 1 lactometer; 1 milk can hoist; 1 acid test; 1 sink; 1 40-quart milk can; 3 pails; 3 shot-gun cans for starter; 3 thermometers; brushes and brooms; 1 Wisconsin curd test or fruit jars for same; 1 set counter scales; 2 curd rakes. If whey butter is made, the equipment should include: Tanks to hold the whey; separator; cream ripening vat; churn; butter-worker; butter refrigerator; large boiler and steam engine or gasolene engine. The following supplies will be needed for the making of the cheese: Bandages; boxes; scale boards; starched circles; rennet extract or pepsin; cheese color; press cloths; paraffine; formaldehyde; alkali; indicator; sulfuric acid. [Illustration: FIG. 64.--A sanitary dipper with a solid handle.] When choosing the utensils, the ease of cleaning and sanitary construction should not be overlooked. One of the most unsanitary utensils in a factory is a dipper with a hollow handle. Fig 64 shows a dipper with a solid handle which any tinsmith can make. The seams of all utensils should be flushed full of solder, to make cleaning easy. When ready to clean or wash any utensils which have come in contact with milk or its products, the steps are as follows: rinse in cold water, wash in warm water in which some washing-soda has been dissolved, rinse clean, scald in boiling water. Never use a cloth to wash utensils; a brush is more sanitary. +296. Factory organization.+--There are two general classes of organizations[132] to operate cheese factories, one the proprietary and the other the coöperative. Unless the kind of organization is what the dairy-men desire, dissatisfaction is sure to result. (1) _Proprietary organization._--Under this form of organization, one person owns and operates the factory. The dairy-men are paid a stated price for milk, or the milk is made into cheese for a stated price a pound. The proprietor receives all profits and assumes all losses. So far as the dairy-man is concerned, the stock company is a proprietary organization. The gains and losses are shared by each member according to the amount of money invested. (2) _Coöperative organization._--In a true coöperative cheese factory each patron is an owner, as the name indicates. The object of this organization is to reduce the cost of manufacture rather than pay large dividends, so that the dairy-man with a large herd and small capital invested in the factory obtains more returns than the one who owns considerable capital and has a small herd. Many cheese factories are coöperative in name only and proprietary in operation. The state of Wisconsin has a law which tends to stop this defect and defines what organizations may use the term or name, coöperative. The constitution of a coöperative organization should state: 1, Name; 2, object; 3, officers and duties of officers; 4, manager or other person to run business; 5, capital stock; 6, meetings; 7, voting power; 8, amendments. Some of the most important statements which should appear in the constitution are mentioned in the following sentences. A statement should show what persons are eligible to membership in the organization. It is a careless plan simply to say that the duties of the officers are those usually defined in such an organization. This may lead to confusion and neglect, or both. Direct statements should be made explaining the exact duties of each officer. The limits of the authority of the manager or person who runs the business should be explicitly stated. The manager then knows just what his duties are and what matters or parts of the business must be considered by other officers or committees. The amount of capital stock and the number and value of each share should be exactly stated. The constitution should state when and where the regular meetings must be held and by whom and when special meetings may be called. This gives every member ample notice of the regular meetings. Some method or means should be provided to notify each member of the special meetings. The voting power should be definitely stated, whether it is limited to shares of capital stock or by members or by number of cows owned by each member. It is necessary to indicate just how amendments to the constitution may be made. Each member should know before the final vote just what changes are being proposed. Types of constitutions may be found in the following references: ELLIOTT, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories; organization, building and equipment, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. 53, 1904. FARRINGTON, E. H., and G. H. BENKENDORF, Organization and construction of creameries and cheese factories, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 244, 1915. VAN SLYKE, L. L., and C. A. PUBLOW, The science and practice of cheese making, pages 447-453, 1909. Iowa Exp. Sta. Bul. 139, 1913. Creamery organization and construction. CHAPTER XVIII _HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA_ Just when the first cheese was made is not known. By the time the first immigrants came to America, cheese-making was rather generally known in Europe, so that the early settlers brought with them and practiced established methods. The countries of Europe developed different kinds of cheese and have since become noted for such particular varieties, for example: France, Camembert and Roquefort; Switzerland, Swiss cheese; England, Stilton and Cheddar; Germany, Limburger; Holland, Edam and Gouda; Italy, Parmesan and its allies, also Gorgonzola cheese. The manufacture of these various cheeses has been attempted in this country. Because of the difference in climatic conditions and in some cases the use of milk of sheep or goats, it was and still is difficult to manufacture some of the European cheeses in America. Since the climatic conditions of this country and certain parts of England are somewhat similar, the manufacture of the cheeses of England predominated, and there was also more information on their manufacture. These are probably the reasons why the United States and Canada have become famous for Cheddar cheese. The first cheeses of the Cheddar group were made on the farms. The work was usually performed by women, and the process was very simple. The methods were crude, and the cheeses were made in a more or less haphazard way. The milk of the evening was placed in a cheese tub in the dairy room and cooled to a temperature that would prevent souring. In most cases the cream that had raised to the surface of the night's milk was removed in the morning. This was considered an act of economy, for it was thought that in the process of manufacture it would all pass off in the whey and be lost. The morning's milk was then mixed with that of the evening and warmed to the setting temperature by placing a portion in a tin pail and suspending it in a kettle of hot water. When hot, it was emptied into the tub of cold milk. By transferring back and forth, the setting temperature was finally reached. Few of these settlers owned thermometers. Consequently, cheese-makers were obliged to depend on the sense of feeling to determine temperature. One of the serious difficulties of the early manufacture was the production of rennet of a uniform strength. After the addition of the rennet and as soon as the coagulated milk became firm enough, it was broken into as small pieces as could be conveniently made, a wooden knife being used for the purpose. After standing ten minutes it was stirred by hand, breaking the pieces finer, and the temperature was gradually brought to 98° F., aiming as near blood heat as could be judged by the sense of feeling. It was kept at this temperature until the moisture was out of the curd and it would squeak between the teeth. The whey was drawn off and the curd stirred until dry, salted and put to press. All the curd of one day was made into a cheese. This resulted in small uneven-sized cheese. Since such cheeses were made from the milk of single dairies with all the surroundings clean, the flavor was usually good but the texture was open and soft. The method of caring for the cheese and marketing was entirely different from that practiced at the present time. All the cheeses made during the entire season were held until fall and marketed at one time. They were packed in casks four to six in a package, one on top of the other. The earliest date when single boxed cheeses were on the market was 1841. Between 1820 and 1840, a small export trade in cheese was started. As this demand for cheese increased, particularly in England, it became necessary to change the methods employed in manufacture. The farm dairy cheese was rather an open-textured sweet curd product. If not, it was due more to accident than to any intention of the cheese-maker to improve the quality. One of the early complaints from England was that the cheeses were too small and uneven in size. The practice of making on the farm continued until about 1851, when the factory system was started, although home manufactures continued after that time. Following are the reasons for the change from the farm to factory system: (1) England demanded larger cheese; (2) the farm product was not uniform; (3) the quality of the farm cheese did not suit the English trade; (4) factories saved much labor on the farms; and (5) could secure higher prices. +297. The factory system.+--Where and by whom the first Cheddar cheese factory in America was started is not definitely known. Jesse Williams of Oneida County, New York, is supposed by many to have been the first to build and operate under the factory system, in 1851. Cheese factories were opened in Ohio and Wisconsin about 1860. In the period 1860 to 1870, a large number of cheese factories were built in the various states, especially New York, Ohio and Wisconsin. +298. Introduction of factory system in Canada.+--In 1863, Harvey Farrington of Herkimer, New York, was so impressed with the opportunity of developing the cheese factory system in Canada that he sold out his business in New York and established the first Canadian cheese factory in the town of Norwich, Ontario. It was accepted at once by Canadian farmers, and factory cheese-making increased rapidly. In 1866, a small quantity of cheese was exported and from that time the export trade of Canada has been large and growing. Ontario and Quebec are now the leading provinces in the production of cheese. +299. Introduction of cheddaring.+--The factories at first used the same process as the farms, namely the stirred-curd process. In 1867, Robert McAdam introduced the English Cheddar system in a factory near Herkimer, New York. This is the Cheddar system as known to-day. It produces the closer bodied cheese demanded by the export trade. This introduction made Herkimer County famous for its cheese. +300. Introduction of Swiss and Limburger.+--In 1870, factories for Limburger, Swiss and Brick cheese were started and have gradually increased. In New York such plants are located around Boonville in Oneida County, and Theresa, in Jefferson County. In Wisconsin, Swiss cheese-making was begun by a colony of Swiss who came to New Glarus, Green County. It is now made in Green, Lafayette, Iowa, Grant, Dane and Rock counties. Limburger and Brick are manufactured in Dodge, Fond du Lac, Winnebago, Marathon, La Crosse, Buffalo, Trempealeau, Clark, Washington, Dunn, Barron and Lincoln counties. In the southeastern part of Ohio Swiss cheese is produced. Ohio and Wisconsin have manufactured more of these cheeses, especially Swiss, than any other states. This is probably due to the fact that the conditions are more nearly like those of Switzerland. When the cities in New York began to grow, an increased demand for market milk was felt. The result was that the dairy-men could not supply both the cities and the cheese factories with milk. A large part of the cheese was being exported and most of it had always been partly skimmed. The amount of skimming, therefore, was largely increased. Then other animal fats were substituted for the milk-fat. This product was known as "filled" cheese. The delay in controlling the practice of making skimmed-milk and filled cheese ruined the export trade. In Canada laws prohibited the making of filled cheese and as a consequence Canadian Cheddar cheese is still very popular in England. However, with the control of skimmed-milk cheese-making and the elimination of filled cheese, the volume continued to grow and to find outlet in local consumption. New York probably exported more cheese than any other state. Wisconsin shipped cheese into other regions, especially the southern states in which no cheeses were made. Some Wisconsin cheeses were shipped to the New York market from time to time, but in October, 1913, the first quotations[133] were made in New York City for Wisconsin products. +301. Number and distribution of cheese factories.+--The following list and maps (Figs. 65, 66) compiled in 1914 by the United States Department of Agriculture Dairy Division, show the number of cheese factories in the different states and their location: [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Map showing the distribution of cheese factories in the principal cheese-producing states.] Arizona 3 California 93 Colorado 8 Connecticut 2 Delaware 1 Illinois 50 Indiana 13 Iowa 25 Kansas 1 Maine 5 Michigan 196 Minnesota 74 Missouri 4 Montana 1 Nebraska 1 New Hampshire 2 New York 995 North Dakota 3 Ohio 111 Oklahoma 1 Oregon 42 Pennsylvania 106 South Dakota 1 Utah 8 Vermont 35 Virginia 3 Washington 15 West Virginia 1 Wisconsin 1720 ---- 3520 +302. Total production of cheese in the United States.+--The following figures (Table XX) compiled by the United States Census show the total production of cheese and the amount made on farms and in factories in the United States by ten-year periods: TABLE XX SHOWING THE TOTAL PRODUCTION OF CHEESE AND PART MADE ON FARMS AND IN FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS 1849 Total 105,535,893 pounds 1859 Total 103,663,927 pounds 1869 Total 162,927,382 pounds 1879 Total 243,157,850 pounds 1889 On farms 18,726,818 pounds In factories 238,035,065 pounds Total 256,761,883 pounds 1899 On farms 16,372,330 pounds In factories 281,972,324 pounds Total 298,344,654 pounds 1909 On farms 9,405,864 pounds In factories 311,126,317 pounds Total 320,532,181 pounds Comparing the figures of 1899 with those of 1909, it is seen that the total production of cheese in the United States increased 22,187,539 pounds, or an increase of 7.4 per cent in 1909 over 1899. During the same years the amount made on the farms decreased 6,966,454 pounds, or a decrease of 42.6 per cent, while the amount made in factories increased 29,153,933 pounds or 10.3 per cent. +303. Rank of the leading cheese-producing states.+--The rank of the leading cheese states according to the number of factories in 1914 was: Wisconsin 1720, New York 995, Michigan 196, Ohio 111, Pennsylvania 106. [Illustration: FIG. 66.--Showing the cheese factories in the Pacific coast states.] The table on the opposite page (Table XXI) shows the amount of cheese produced by the five states with the largest number of factories. This table indicates that New York led in the production of cheese until some time between 1899 and 1909. This is probably because, New York having so many cities, the demand for market milk is so large that it is sold as such instead of being manufactured into cheese. There is about the same number of milch cows in New York and Wisconsin. However, Wisconsin is credited with more cheese in 1909 than New York ever produced and this output probably will increase, as there are considerable areas of undeveloped agricultural land in Wisconsin. It is also interesting to note that Ohio is falling off in cheese production. This may be due to the increased demand for market milk. On the other hand, production has increased in Pennsylvania. TABLE XXI SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CHEESE MADE IN FIVE LEADING STATES BY TEN-YEAR PERIODS ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ STATE |YEAR 1859 |YEAR 1869 |YEAR 1879 |YEAR 1889 | ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Amount in | Amount in |Amount in |Amount in | | pounds | pounds | pounds | pounds | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Wisconsin | 1,104,300| 3,288,581| 19,535,324| 54,614,861| | | | | | New York |48,548,289|100,776,012|129,163,714|124,086,524| | | | | | Michigan | 1,641,897| 2,321,801| 3,953,585| 5,370,460| | | | | | Ohio |21,618,893| 24,153,876| 32,531,683| 22,254,054| | | | | | Penn | 2,508,556| 2,792,676| 8,966,737| 5,457,897| ----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ STATE |YEAR 1899 |YEAR 1909 |YEAR 1914 | ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ |Amount in |Amount in |Amount in | | pounds | pounds |pounds from| | | |factories | | | |only | | | | | Wisconsin | 79,384,298|148,906,910|205,920,915| | | | | New York |130,010,584|105,584,947| 97,614,024| | | | | Michigan | 10,753,758| 13,673,336| 13,267,145| | | | | Ohio | 19,363,528| 12,473,834| 8,717,996| | | | | Penn | 11,124,610| 12,676,713| 14,808,573| ----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +304. Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States.+--The accompanying table shows the exports and imports of cheese from 1851 to 1916 and their values, in so far as the figures are available. [Illustration: FIG. 67.--Showing relationship of total production, exports and imports of cheese.] One noteworthy item in Table XXII is that the exports have gradually decreased and imports increased. This is probably because immigrants have demanded the cheeses of their native country which were not made in America. The exports for the years 1915 and 1916 are interesting as they show the effect of the war on the cheese industry, the imports being gradually decreased and the exports greatly increased. TABLE XXII SHOWING THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF CHEESE BY THE UNITED STATES FROM 1851-1916 ------+----------------------+-------------------------- YEAR | IMPORTS | EXPORTS ------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------ | Amount | | Amount | | in | Value in | in | Value in | pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars | | | | 1851 | 603,398 | ---- | 10,361,189 | ---- 1852 | 514,337 | ---- | 6,650,420 | ---- 1853 | 874,949 | ---- | 3,763,932 | ---- 1854 | 969,417 | ---- | 7,003,974 | ---- 1855 | 1,526,942 | ---- | 4,846,568 | ---- 1856 | 1,384,272 | ---- | 8,737,029 | ---- 1857 | 1,400,252 | ---- | 6,453,072 | ---- 1858 | 1,589,066 | ---- | 8,098,527 | ---- 1859 | 1,409,420 | ---- | 7,103,323 | ---- 1860 | 1,401,161 | ---- | 15,515,799 | ---- 1861 | 1,090,835 | ---- | 32,361,428 | ---- 1862 | 594,822 | ---- | 34,052,678 | ---- 1863 | 545,966 | ---- | 42,045,054 | ---- 1864 | 836,127 | ---- | 47,751,329 | ---- 1865 | 985,362 | ---- | 53,154,318 | ---- 1866 | ---- | ---- | 36,411,985 | ---- 1867 | 1,738,657 | ---- | 52,352,127 | ---- 1868 | 2,997,994 | ---- | 51,097,203 | ---- 1869 | ---- | ---- | 39,960,367 | ---- 1870 | ---- | ---- | 57,296,327 | ---- 1871 | ---- | ---- | 63,698,867 | ---- 1872 | ---- | ---- | 66,204,025 | ---- 1873 | ---- | ---- | 80,366,540 | ---- 1874 | ---- | ---- | 90,611,077 | ---- 1875 | ---- | ---- | 101,010,853 | ---- 1876 | ---- | ---- | 97,676,264 | ---- 1877 | ---- | ---- | 107,364,666 | ---- 1878 | ---- | ---- | 123,783,736 | ---- 1879 | ---- | ---- | 141,654,474 | ---- 1880 | ---- | ---- | 127,553,907 | ---- 1881 | ---- | ---- | 147,995,614 | ---- 1882 | ---- | ---- | 127,989,782 | ---- 1883 | ---- | ---- | 99,220,467 | ---- 1884 | 6,243,014 | ---- | 112,869,575 | ---- 1885 | 6,247,560 | ---- | 111,992,990 | ---- 1886 | 6,309,124 | ---- | 91,877,235 | 1887 | 6,592,192 | ---- | 81,255,994 | 1888 | 8,750,185 | ---- | 88,008,458 | 1889 | 8,207,026 | ---- | 84,999,828 | 1890 | 9,263,573 | ---- | 95,376,053 | 1891 | 8,863,640 | ---- | 82,133,876 | 1892 | 8,305,288 | ---- | 82,100,221 | 1893 |10,195,924 | ---- | 81,350,923 | 1894 | 8,742,851 | ---- | 73,852,134 | 1895 |10,276,293 | ---- | 60,448,421 | 1896 |10,728,397 | ---- | 36,777,291 | 1897 |12,319,122 | ---- | 50,944,617 | 1898 |10,012,188 | ---- | 53,167,280 | 1899 |11,826,175 | ---- | 38,198,753 | 1900 |13,455,990 | ---- | 48,419,353 | 1901 |15,329,099 | ---- | 39,813,517 | 1902 |17,067,714 |$2,551,366| 27,203,184 |$2,745,597 1903 |20,671,384 | 3,183,224| 18,987,178 | 2,250,229 1904 |22,707,103 | 3,284,811| 23,335,172 | 2,452,239 1905 |23,095,705 | 3,379,600| 10,134,424 | 1,084,044 1906 |27,286,866 | 4,303,830| 16,562,451 | 1,940,620 1907 |33,848,766 | 5,704,012| 17,285,230 | 2,012,626 1908 |32,530,830 | 5,586,706| 8,439,031 | 1,092,053 1909 |35,548,143 | 5,866,154| 6,822,842 | 857,091 1910 |40,817,524 | 7,053,570| 2,846,709 | 441,017 1911 |45,568,797 | 7,920,244| 10,366,605 | 1,288,279 1912 |46,542,007 | 8,807,249| 6,337,559 | 898,035 1913 |49,387,944 | 9,185,184| 2,599,058 | 441,186 1914 |63,784,313 |11,010,693| 2,427,577 | 414,124 1915 |50,138,520 | 9,370,048| 55,362,917 | 8,463,174 1916 |30,087,999 | 7,058,420| 44,394,301 | 7,430,089 ------+-----------+----------+-------------+------------ The graph (Fig. 67) represents the total production and the exports and imports of cheese into the United States. +305. Average yearly price of cheese.+--The following table shows the average yearly price of Cheddar cheese in the United States: TABLE XXIII SHOWING THE AVERAGE YEARLY PRICE OF CHEESE, 1892-1916 YEAR CENTS 1892 9.4 1893 9.4 1894 9.7 1895 9.1 1896 8.4 1897 9.1 1898 8.6 1899 8.6 1900 10.2 1901 9.9 1902 10.1 1903 11.9 1904 10.5 1905 10.7 1906 11.7 1907 11.6 1908 12.9 1909 12.6 1910 15.5 1911 12.4 1912 14.2 1913 17.0 1914 17.1 1915 15.3 1916 16.7 The graph (Fig. 68) shows that the average yearly price has increased from 9.4 cents a pound to 16.7 cents. [Illustration: FIG. 68.--Average yearly price of cheese.] +306. Canadian cheese statistics.+--The following statistics show the development of the industry in Canada. The figures in Table XXIV show the number of cheese factories, the amount of milk received and the total production in Canada. Table XXIV indicates that the number of cheese factories has decreased but that the production has increased. Because of the scarcity of figures, conclusions would not be accurate. The figures in Table XXV of the exports and imports show that the exports gradually decreased and the imports increased. If the production has increased, as shown in Table XXIV, more cheese must be consumed by the Canadians. The effect of the war is probably seen in the year 1916, when the imports are decreased and the exports increased. TABLE XXIV SHOWING THE NUMBER OF CHEESE FACTORIES, AMOUNT OF MILK RECEIVED AND THE FACTORY PRODUCTION OF CHEESE -------+------------+---------------+--------------- | NUMBER OF | POUNDS OF | FACTORY YEAR | CHEESE | MILK | PRODUCTION | FACTORIES | DELIVERED | OF CHEESE -------+------------+---------------+--------------- 1900 | ---- | ---- | 220,833,269 | | | 1907 | ---- | ---- | 204,788,583 | | | 1910 | 2291 | ---- | 199,904,205 | | | 1915 | 1871 | 1,501,946,221 | 183,887,837 | | | 1916 | 1813 | 1,503,997,215 | 192,968,597 -------+------------+---------------+--------------- TABLE XXV SHOWING THE AMOUNT AND VALUE OF CANADIAN EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF CHEESE ------+--------------------------+---------------------- Year | Exports | Imports ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- | Amount in | Value in | Amount in | Value in | pounds | dollars | pounds | dollars ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- 1880 | 40,368,000 | $3,893,000 | | | | | | 1890 | 94,260,000 | 9,372,212 | | | | | | 1900 | 185,984,000 | 19,856,324 | | | | | | 1910 | 180,859,000 | 21,607,692 | 683,778 | ---- | | | | 1911 | 181,895,000 | 20,739,507 | 866,653 | ---- | | | | 1912 | 163,450,000 | 20,888,818 | 919,189 | ---- | | | | 1913 | 155,216,000 | 20,697,000 | 1,495,758 | ---- | | | | 1914 | 144,478,000 | 18,866,000 | 1,512,108 | ---- | | | | 1915 | 137,601,000 | 19,213,000 | 1,162,456 | ---- | | | | 1916 | 168,961,000 | ---- | 971,821 | ---- ------+-------------+------------+-----------+---------- If the total population of the United States is figured at 100 million and the difference between the exports and imports found and added to the total production, it shows that the average person must consume about three and one-half pounds of cheese in a year. In the past few years there has been considerable demand for more of the foreign cheeses, such as Camembert and Roquefort. +307. Introduction of cheese-making into new regions.+--The manufacture of Cheddar cheese is being encouraged in new regions, in the Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and in the western states. There has also sprung up a considerable demand for the lactic acid group of cheeses, especially Neufchâtel and Cottage, so that while the cheese industry may decline in certain sections, the total production will probably increase. In the proper locations or sections, the cheese industry has a very bright future. The development of the skimmed-milk cheeses will undoubtedly be given considerable attention in the next few years. REFERENCES N. Y. Dept. Agr. Bul. 54, The Dairy Industry in New York State. N. Y. Produce Rev. and American Creamery. Vol. 34, No. 3, page 108. Vol. 37, No. 16, page 684. Vol. 37, No. 16, page 666. Vol. 37, No. 9, page 411. Vol. 33, No. 11, page 482. Vol. 36, No. 23, page 1078. Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897, pages 113-149. U. S. Census. U. S. Dept. Agr. Year Books. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Statistical abstract of the U. S. Canadian Dept. Agr. 1915, Report of the dairy and cold storage commissioner. Dominion of Canada, Census and Statistics office, Rept. 1915. CHAPTER XIX _TESTING_ In connection with marketing, a certain amount of testing of the products should be practiced, to determine exactly the results and grades of products. This includes the testing of the whole milk, whey and cheese for fat, the milk for casein, and the cheese for moisture. In factories in which the milk is bought on the fat basis, it is necessary to test each patron's milk for fat. If there is a cheese-moisture law in the state, it is necessary to test for moisture. The whey should be tested to learn the loss of fat in the manufacturing process and to ascertain whether the losses have been reduced to the minimum. +308. The fat test.+--The test commonly used to determine the fat in milk is known as the Babcock. The principle of this test is as follows: Fat exists in the form of very small globules. Because the fat globules are lighter than the other milk constituents, under the influence of the force of gravity most of them rise to the surface. There, mixed with the other milk substances, these globules form a layer of cream. Babcock found that by adding to the milk sulfuric acid of proper strength and temperature, the casein, the milk-sugar and the albumin are decomposed and the sticky quality of the milk is destroyed. The acid does not decompose the fat but leaves it free to come to the surface of the mixture. Under centrifugal force, this fat is quickly brought to the surface. By using a known quantity of milk and having a scale graduated in percentage of the amount of milk, the percentage of fat can be determined. Fig. 69 shows the necessary equipment. [Illustration: FIG. 69.--Apparatus necessary to test milk and whey for fat and total solids.] There are three kinds of bottles employed in making the test, one with a very large neck which is used when testing materials high in fat-content such as cream, butter and cheese. This is generally called a cream-test bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 50 per cent. When testing materials with a small amount of fat such as whey, skim-milk and buttermilk, a test bottle with two necks is used, one with a small bore for the fat and the other neck with a larger bore to add the milk, acid, water. It is graduated from 0 to 0.5 of 1 per cent. There is a third bottle between the other two to test whole milk. This is known as a whole-milk bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 8 per cent. All of the glassware should comply with the laws. +309. Sampling the milk.+--One of the most important parts of testing is to obtain a fair sample of the milk. The milk to be tested may be in a vat or in a farmer's can or a composite sample jar. If the milk is bought on the fat basis, that of each patron is not tested daily, but a small quantity, about half an ounce, is taken each day and placed in a jar; this is known as a composite sample. It is the usual practice to number the patrons and have a sample bottle for each patron with his number on it. Some substance must be added to preserve the milk and to keep it from souring or coagulating. It is difficult to secure a fair sample of sour milk. A wide-mouthed jar is preferred for keeping milk samples. This must be kept closed to prevent evaporation. Each day when milk is added to the composite sample, the bottles should be shaken to prevent the cream drying. Composite samples are tested at least twice a month. The milk may be mixed to obtain a fair sample, by stirring in the vat or by pouring from one bottle to another. Vigorous shaking should be avoided as this is likely to cause churning. One should see that all the cream is removed from the sides of the sample bottle and that it is evenly distributed through the milk. The sample of milk is now measured out with the pipette. This is graduated to deliver 18 grams of milk, and holds 17.6 c.c. Hold the pipette between the thumb and second finger of the right hand with the tip below the surface of the milk, draw the milk by suction with the lips until it is filled well above the graduation. Quickly place the forefinger over the opening and at right angles to the pipette. By gently and carefully raising the forefinger, allow the milk to run down until the surface is exactly level with the graduation. To obtain an accurate reading, the pipette should be on a level with the eye. Then with the left hand, hold the milk test bottle in a slanting position and place the tip of the pipette into it about one-third of an inch and at a slight angle. Now let the milk slowly flow down the side of the neck of the bottle, making certain that none is blown out by the escaping air. When all has run out of the pipette, blow out the drop which remains in the tip. Then measure out another sample in the same way, as the test should be made in duplicate. +310. Adding the acid.+--The sulfuric acid should have a specific gravity between 1.82 and 1.83. It should be kept in glass-stoppered bottles or carboys to prevent the absorption of moisture from the air, which will reduce its strength. Acid that is too strong might burn the fat. The acid is a strong poison and will burn if it comes in contact with the flesh or the clothing. In such case, it should be removed by washing with plenty of water. An alkaline substance such as ammonia or bicarbonate of soda should be applied to remove any acid not washed away. The acid measure holds 17.5 c.c. and it should be filled to the graduation. Then this acid should be added to the test bottle. The bottle should be held at an angle and slowly rotated so that the acid will rinse down any milk remaining in the neck of the bottle. Immediately mix the acid and milk by whirling the body of the bottle in a circle five or six inches in diameter. The mixture should not be allowed to go into the neck of the bottle while mixing. Continue shaking for about a minute after all the curd has disappeared. One should avoid pointing the neck of the bottle toward any person in the mixing operation. The acid unites with all the milk substances except the fat and generates much heat. +311. Centrifuging.+--There are two machines in common use for centrifuging, one that runs by mechanical power and the other smaller and runs by hand. If the machine and atmosphere are very cold, the apparatus can be warmed by placing hot water in it. This is not necessary in a steam machine. In a factory where there are a number of samples to test, a power machine is usually employed. In this machine there are pockets or cups in which to set the test bottles. The machine or disk must be balanced by placing bottles in opposite pockets. These pockets are hinged so that when standing still the bottle is in an upright position and when the centrifuge is running, it is in a horizontal position. The machine should then be covered and started running. It should be run at the speed indicated. After five minutes, stop the machine and fill the bottles with boiling water up to the neck. This can be done without taking the bottles out of the machine. A pipette or slender-spouted vessel may be used to add the water. Whirl the bottles two minutes, then add more boiling water to bring the fat column into the graduated part of the neck of the bottle. Then whirl one minute. The test should be read at once or the bottles kept at a temperature of 130° to 140° F. until ready to read. +312. Reading the test.+--To read the test, subtract the reading at the bottom of the fat column from that at the highest point. The curved meniscus which always forms at the top of the fat column should be included in the reading. Duplicate samples should not vary more than O.2 of 1 per cent. Standard Babcock test bottles and pipettes should always be used. In some states the agricultural experiment stations examine all glassware and mark it to make certain that it conforms to the requirements of the state law. In New York, glassware found to be correct is branded "S. B.," which means State Brand. In some states a person must have a license to test milk or cream, when it is paid for on the fat test. Such a person must pass an examination to show that he understands the test before a license, will be granted. The license may be revoked if the work is not honestly performed. +313. Testing whey for fat.+--Because of the small amount of fat in whey, it is difficult to obtain a representative sample. The best way, if the entire amount cannot be placed in a vat and stirred, is to catch a little of the whey at intervals as it is being drawn from the vat. The sample to be tested is measured with the pipette the same as the milk and placed in the skimmed-milk test bottle. The same acid is used to test whey as to test milk but because there are not so many solids to destroy, not so much is used. If as much acid is used with whey as with milk, it will burn the fat and so interfere with the reading of the test. Just enough acid is added to destroy the milk substances except the fat, or enough to turn the contents of the test bottle dark brown. This usually requires filling the acid measure one-quarter of an inch under the graduation. The remainder of the test is the same as for whole milk. +314. Testing cheese for fat.+--The sample of cheese to test for fat is obtained by removing the sample with a cheese-trier. This sample is called a "plug." Different plugs from the same cheese will test various percentages of fat so that it is difficult to secure a representative sample. The usual practice is to take three plugs, one near the center, another near the outside and the third between the first two. The plugs should be put into glass-stoppered bottles to prevent the evaporation of moisture. These plugs are then chopped up very fine. It is of course impossible to measure the cheese as with milk and whey, but it is weighed (Fig. 70). If the cheese is soft it can be stirred with a spatula until well mixed. A soft cheese usually sticks to the neck of the test bottle. After being weighed, it can be dissolved in a little sodium hydroxide and poured into the bottle. Different amounts may be used, commonly 4½ or 6 grams, but 6 grams is to be preferred. This is placed in the Babcock cream bottle since there will usually be more fat than can be read in a milk bottle. After the material has been placed in the test bottle, about two-thirds of an acid-measure of warm water is added to assist in dissolving the cheese. [Illustration: FIG. 70.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for fat.] The acid is added the same as with the milk. If all the cheese particles are not destroyed, and therefore do not disappear, a little more acid will complete the solution. Centrifuging is performed as with the milk. +315. Reading the test.+--In a cream-test bottle the neck is so much wider that there is a much larger meniscus. In order to obtain an accurate result, the meniscus should be removed. This is done by carefully adding a substance called glymol, which is a mineral oil colored red. Usually about one-quarter of an inch of glymol is added to the fat column. This should not mix with the fat. The bottles should be placed in a hot water bath 135° to 140° F. for four minutes before reading. The temperature at reading should be 135° to 140° F. The reading is then taken from the bottom of the fat column to the line between this and the glymol. The bottle is graduated for 18 grams of material, but as only a part of 18 grams of cheese was used for the test, the reading should be multiplied by the part of 18 grams used. For example, suppose 6 grams of cheese were used and the test read 12 per cent fat. Since 6 is one third of 18, the actual percentage of fat is 3 times 12, or 36 per cent. +316. The Hart[134] casein test+ was devised to determine the percentage of casein in milk. A special test bottle and centrifuge are necessary. The method of making the test is as follows: Place 2 c.c. of chloroform in the casein test tube, add 20 c.c. of a 0.25 of 1 per cent solution of acetic acid at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. This solution of acetic acid is made by diluting 10 c.c. of glacial acetic acid with 100 c.c. of water, then dilute 25 c.c. of this solution to 1000 c.c. with water; 5 c.c. of milk at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. is then run into the bottle. The bottle is then covered with the thumb and inverted and the mixture shaken vigorously for exactly twenty seconds. It is then centrifuged within twenty minutes at a speed of 2000 revolutions a minute. The bottle should stand ten minutes before reading the percentage of casein. There are other tests for casein but they are very complicated. +317. Solids in the milk.+--Because not only the fat but all the solids are utilized in cheese-making, it is important to know the amount of the solids in the milk. This is ascertained by determining the specific gravity of the milk and knowing the fat-content; the solids not fat can then be calculated. +318. The lactometer.+--The specific gravity of liquids is measured by an instrument called a hydrometer. Its use is based on the fact that when a solid body floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of liquid equal in weight to its own. Hydrometers are in many cases so made that the specific gravity can be read at the point where the scale is even with the upper surface of the liquid. A hydrometer that is especially adapted to milk is called a lactometer. There are two lactometers in common use, the Quevenne and the Board of Health. [Illustration: FIG. 71.--A Quevenne lactometer.] _The Quevenne lactometer._--This is a long slender hollow piece of glass weighted at the bottom to make it float in the milk in an upright position (Fig. 71). The upper end is slender and contains the scale. This scale is graduated from 15 at the top to 40 at the bottom. Each reading on the scale corresponds to the point marked specific gravity on a hydrometer, except that the figures are not complete. For example, 15 on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.015; a reading of 30 on the Quevenne scale means a specific gravity of 1.030, and so on. The Quevenne lactometer is graduated to give correct results at a temperature of 60° F. The milk should be at this temperature. If the temperature is below or above this, a correction must be made to the reading. The temperature should not be more than 10 degrees above or below 60° F. The correction for each degree in variation of temperature can be made by adding 0.1 or subtracting 0.1 from the lactometer reading, as the case may be. If the temperature is above 60° F., the correction is added to the lactometer and if it is below 60° F., the correction is subtracted from the lactometer reading. The reading should be taken when the lactometer is floating free in the milk. The scale is read exactly at the surface of the milk. The better lactometers have a thermometer with the scale just above or opposite the lactometer scale. [Illustration: FIG. 72.--A Board of Health lactometer.] _The Board of Health lactometer._--This is very similar to the Quevenne lactometer except that the scale is graduated from 0 to 120 (Fig. 72). The point on the scale of the lactometer that floats at the surface in water is represented by 0, and 100 represents the specific gravity of 1.029. On the Board of Health lactometer, the 100 degrees or divisions from 0 to 100 equal 29 divisions on the Quevenne. Therefore, one division on the Board of Health equals 0.29 of a division on the Quevenne. To convert Board of Health reading to Quevenne, multiply by 0.29 and to convert Quevenne to Board of Health, divide by 0.29. The correction for temperatures above or below 60° F. is made the same as with the Quevenne, except 0.3 is added or subtracted from the reading instead of 0.1 as with the Quevenne. +319. Calculating the solids not fat in the milk.+--When the lactometer reading and fat-content of the milk are known, there are several formulas for calculating the solids not fat. In the following formulas, L equals Quevenne lactometer reading at 60° F., and F equals the percentage of fat in the milk: L + 0.7 F --------- = S.N.F 3.8 L + F ----- = S.N.F. 4 L - + 0.2 F + 0.14 = S.N.F. 4 +320. Testing cheese for moisture.+[135]--There are two methods of testing cheese for moisture. The following is a simple test devised by H. C. Troy: The ordinary butter moisture test, in which a metal cup is heated over a flame, cannot be used for determining the percentage of water in cheese because the high temperature developed in operating that test drives from he cheese other substances with the water. Also, particles are lost by spattering when the cheese is heated with any degree of rapidity in the shallow butter-moisture cups. To overcome these difficulties, the new method here described has been developed for the purpose of determining the percentage of moisture in cheese. The apparatus consists of: 1 double-walled copper drying cup 1 centigrade thermometer registering to 200° 1 alcohol lamp 1 tripod 1 special flask 1 scales sensitive to 0.01 gram 1 set of weights, 0.01 to 100 grams The body of the copper drying cup may be made in two parts. One of the parts is a jacket that forms the outer wall of the apparatus. It has a flat bottom 4½ inches in diameter, and the perpendicular wall is 4½ inches in height. The inner part of the cup must have a flat bottom 2¾ inches in diameter and a side wall 3¾ inches high. A flange attached to the upper rim of the inner part extends out at right angles to the cup wall and forms a cover for the space between the walls when the two parts are put together. The flange is bent down around its outer edge to make it fit snugly over the upper rim of the outer jacket. It thus holds the inner cup securely in place, leaving a space about ¾ inch wide for oil between the walls and bottoms, and permits the apparatus to be taken apart readily. A circular opening about ½ inch in diameter is made through the flange to permit the insertion of a thermometer for taking the temperature of the oil or the melted fat which is used in the space between the walls. Lard or tallow serves best for use in this space; a readily inflammable oil should not be employed. The thermometer may be permanently held in place by passing it snugly through a hole bored in a cork, the cork being then fitted into the hole through the flange. A flat metal cover is placed on the cup when making a test. This cover has a hole through the center just large enough to permit the neck of the drying flask to extend up through it. The cover assists in keeping the body of the flask at a constant temperature by preventing the entrance of cold air currents. The thermometer should register changes in temperature between zero and 200° C. The alcohol lamp should yield a flame about ¼ inch in diameter and ¾ inch high. The tripod should be about 6 inches high and of proper diameter at the top to support the oil bath. An ordinary flat-bottom glass Erlenmeyer flask, of such a diameter as to fit neatly into the oil-bath cup, may be used to hold the cheese during the drying operation; but a special glass flask serves better. It is made with a flat bottom 2½ inches in diameter, which will fit into the cup of the drying apparatus. The side walls of this flask should be perpendicular for about 1 inch, when they should begin to slope in toward the base of the neck, which should be located about 2 inches above the bottom. The neck of the flask should be 1 inch in diameter, with perpendicular walls, and its length should give the flask a total height of 4¾ inches. When the apparatus (Fig. 73) is put together for the first time, the melted fat or oil may be placed in the outer jacket and the inner cup may then be fitted into position, or the parts may be put together first and the oil then poured into the space between the cup walls through the opening where the thermometer is to be placed. The oil should fill the space to within an inch of the top. The cork through which the thermometer has been passed is then fitted into the opening. The thermometer bulb should be placed in the oil about half an inch above the bottom of the outer jacket. The apparatus is then placed on the tripod over the alcohol lamp. A flame ½ inch in diameter and ¾ inch high will give sufficient heat to hold the bath at the proper temperature. The temperature may be regulated by raising or lowering the lamp or by changing the size of the flame by adjusting the wick. Hundreds of tests may be run without taking the apparatus apart or changing the oil. The copper drying cup can be made by any tinsmith. The other parts may be ordered through any dairy or chemical supply company. [Illustration: FIG. 73.--Apparatus necessary to test cheese for moisture.] In operating the test, the alcohol lamp is first lighted, so that the oil bath may be warming while the test sample is under preparation. A representative sample of the cheese, which may be taken with a cheese-trier and held in a glass-stoppered sample jar, is then cut into particles about the size of kernels of wheat without removing it from the jar. This may be accomplished with an ordinary table knife that has had the end squared and sharpened. The clean dry flask is then accurately balanced on the scales and a 5-gram weight is placed in the opposite scale pan. Particles of cheese from the prepared sample are put into the flask until the scales comes to an exact balance. Great care should be taken to avoid loss of moisture from the cheese in the preparation of the sample. With the thermometer in the oil bath registering between 140° and 145° C. (or between 284° and 293° F.), the flask is placed in the cup of the oil bath and the flat disk-shaped cover is adjusted over the apparatus. The flask should remain in the bath for fifty minutes, the temperature being kept between 140° and 145° C. all the time. The flask is then removed, covered and allowed to cool to room temperature in a dry place. It is then weighed, and the quotient obtained by dividing the loss in weight by the original weight, multiplied by 100, gives the percentage of water in the cheese. The following shows the method of computation: Problem: Five grams of cheese was heated until the water contained in it was evaporated. The remaining substance weighed 3.15 grams. What percentage of water did the cheese contain? Answer: 5.00 - 3.15 = 1.85 1.85 ÷ 5 = 0.37 0.37 × 100 = 37 (percentage of water in cheese) A butter-moisture scales with an extra 5-gram weight may be used for weighing out the 5 grams of cheese. If the scales indicates the amount of moisture in 10 grams of butter by percentage graduations on its beam or by percentage weights, then it will be necessary to multiply by 2 the percentage indicated by such scales or percentage weights when only 5 grams of cheese is used. The moisture may be determined by weighing out a small sample of cheese and drying it in an oven and calling the loss moisture. Many such ovens have been devised. New York and Wisconsin have laws limiting the amount of water which may be incorporated in Cheddar cheese. New York places the limit at 39 per cent and Wisconsin at 40 per cent. If the moisture-content is above this, the cheese must be branded adulterated. CHAPTER XX _MARKETING_ Marketing is related to cheese in two ways: First, the purchase of the raw material, the milk; and secondly the sale of the finished product, the cheese. +321. Buying milk.+--The method of paying for the milk differs in the various cheese sections and factories. At some factories a stated price is paid for the milk or the fat. This is usually in terms of 100 pounds of milk or for each pound of fat. This is the practice with concerns possessing large capital. Other factories make the milk into cheese and after each sale, the expenses necessary for operating the factory are deducted and the remainder of the money divided among the patrons. This money is divided either on the basis of the number of pounds of milk or of fat delivered. The question arises as to which is the better method to buy milk for cheese-making, or the fairest way to divide the money received from a sale of cheese. +322. Cheese yield basis of buying milk.+--Let us suppose that at a cheese factory there were five patrons: (A) delivered 100 pounds of milk testing 3 per cent fat; (B) 100 pounds of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat; (C) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat; (D) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat; and (E) 100 pounds of milk testing 5.0 per cent fat. Table XXVI shows the actual number of pounds of cheese containing 37 per cent moisture which 100 pounds of milk containing different percentages of fat will produce. The cheese sold net for 20 cents a pound. TABLE XXVI SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON THE ACTUAL YIELD OF CHEESE ===================================================================== PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | YIELD OF CHEESE | PRICE A | AMOUNT | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | CONTAINING | POUND | DUE EACH | DELIVERED | MILK | 37% MOISTURE | | PATRON -------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+--------- A | 100 | 3.0 | 8.30 | $.20 | $1.66 B | 100 | 3.5 | 9.45 | .20 | 1.89 C | 100 | 4.0 | 10.60 | .20 | 2.12 D | 100 | 4.5 | 11.74 | .20 | 2.348 E | 100 | 5.0 | 12.90 | .20 | 2.58 -------+-----------+-----------+-----------------+---------+--------- Total | 500 | 20 | 52.99 | .20 | 10.598 ===================================================================== This table shows the amount of money each patron should receive if the money were divided on the basis of the actual yield of cheese. +323. Fat basis for payment of milk.+--Let us suppose that the same five patrons delivered the same quantity of milk testing the same percentages of fat and that the cheese sold for the same price. A total of 20 pounds of fat was delivered and the cheese sold for $10.598; by dividing this amount by the pounds of fat delivered, the price or value of one pound of fat is found to be $.5299. Multiplying the pounds of fat each patron delivered by the price a pound would give the amount of money due each patron. TABLE XXVII SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BASED ON FAT-CONTENT OF MILK =================================================================== | POUNDS | PER CENT | POUNDS OF | VALUE OF | PATRON | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | FAT | POUND OF | AMOUNT DUE | DELIVERED | MILK | DELIVERED | FAT | EACH PATRON -------+-----------+-----------+-----------+----------+------------ A | 100 | 3.0 | 3.0 | $.5299 | $1.58 B | 100 | 3.5 | 3.5 | .5299 | 1.85 C | 100 | 4.0 | 4.0 | .5299 | 2.12 D | 100 | 4.5 | 4.5 | .5299 | 2.38 E | 100 | 5.0 | 5.0 | .5299 | 2.65 =================================================================== +324. Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk.+--By this system, each patron would receive an equal price for 100 pounds of milk. If the same supposition is taken as before, there would be 500 pounds of milk delivered and the cheese sold for $10.59; each 100 pounds of milk would be worth $2.12. As each patron delivered an equal weight of milk, each would receive an equal amount of money, or $2.12. +325. Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk.+--Some workers have thought that by adding two to the fat test, the division of money would be more nearly the true cheese-producing value of the milk. The amount due each patron is figured as in the fat basis, except that two is added to the fat test and this is used as the basis of division. If the same suppositions were used as before, each patron would receive the amount shown in Table XXVIII. +326. Comparison of methods.+--The best way to judge the different methods of paying for milk is to compare them with the true value based on the actual cheese yield as shown in Table XXIX. TABLE XXVIII SHOWING PAYMENTS FOR MILK BY FAT-PLUS-TWO METHODS =========================================================================== PATRON | POUNDS | PER CENT | FAT PLUS | POUNDS | VALUE OF | AMOUNT | OF MILK | OF FAT IN | TWO | OF FAT | POUND OF | DUE EACH | DELIVERED | MILK | | DELIVERED | FAT | PATRON -------+-----------+-----------+----------+-----------+----------+--------- A | 100 | 3.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | $.353 | $1.76 B | 100 | 3.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | .353 | 1.94 C | 100 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | .353 | 2.12 D | 100 | 4.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | .353 | 2.29 E | 100 | 5.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | .353 | 2.47 =========================================================================== TABLE XXIX SHOWING THE COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF PAYING FOR MILK AT CHEESE FACTORIES ================================================================ | | ERROR IN PAYMENT PER 100 POUNDS OF MILK BY PATRON | PERCENTAGE +----------------+-----------+-------------- | OF FAT IN | POOLING SYSTEM | FAT BASIS | FAT-PLUS-TWO | MILK | | | METHOD -------+------------+----------------+-----------+-------------- A | 3.0 | +$0.46 | -$0.08 | +$0.10 B | 3.5 | +0.23 | -0.04 | +0.05 C | 4.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 D | 4.5 | -0.23 | +0.04 | -0.05 E | 5.0 | -0.46 | +0.08 | -0.10 ================================================================ A careful study of the above table shows that the pooling system is in favor of the dairy-man with the poor milk, and that the fat basis favors the dairy-man with the rich milk. This is due, of course, to the fact that the casein does not increase in the milk quite in proportion to the fat. With the pooling system or fat basis of payment, no account is taken of the casein; but the fat-plus-two system is an attempt to recognize the casein, but considers the percentage of casein in all milk to be the same. This method is in favor of the dairy-man with milk low in fat, but not to the extent of the pooling system. The latter system considers the cheese-producing power of all milk to be the same. It favors the dairy-man with low-testing milk. The fat basis for payment recognizes only the fat and is an advantage to the dairy-man with the high-testing milk but not to the extent that the pooling system is in favor of the low-testing milk. The fat-plus-two method recognizes 2 per cent of casein in the milk. This favors the dairy-men with low-testing milk. Other methods[136] of paying for milk have been devised. Because the actual yield of cheese from the milk of different herds cannot be easily determined at the cheese factory, this method of payment cannot be employed. In localities in which all the dairy-men have the same breed of cattle and there is not a wide variation in the fat percentage, the fat basis is usually found to be the most satisfactory way to pay for the milk. +327. Laws governing the production and sale of milk.+--Many states have laws regulating the sanitary conditions under which the milk may be produced. These laws relate principally to the condition of the stables, the health of the cow, the food given the cow, and the care of the milk. The following law[137] of Wisconsin is a good example: "Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all prosecutions under the preceding section, or any other section of these statutes, or laws amendatory thereof or supplementary thereto, relating to the sale of adulterated milk or adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk shall mean: milk containing less than three per centum of milk fat, or milk containing less than eight and one-half per centum of milk solids not fat, or milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four days after parturition, or milk from which any part of the cream has been removed, or milk which has been diluted with water or any other fluid, or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or milk in any stage of putrefaction, or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals. The term adulterated cream shall mean cream containing less than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken from milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four days after parturition, or cream from milk to which has been added or introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or cream from milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or cream from milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or cream from milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or cream contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals, or cream to which has been added or into which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or cream in any stage of putrefaction, provided, that nothing in this act shall be construed to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or cream to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added solely for the purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the same be distinctly labeled in such manner as to advise the purchaser of its true character; and providing that nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting the sale of milk commonly known as 'skimmed milk,' when the same is sold as and for 'skimmed milk.' Milk drawn from cows within eight days before or four days after parturition, or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unclean condition, or milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream from any such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction are hereby declared to be unclean and unsanitary milk or unclean and unsanitary cream, as the case may be." Most states have laws which determine the legal standard of milk. Any one selling milk which does not meet this standard is liable to be fined. The laws of most states prohibit the taking of anything from the milk or the adding of anything to it. This prohibits the skimming and watering. Skimmed-milk must be sold as such. +328. Marketing of cheese.+--There are many different methods[138] of selling cheese. Each is adapted to certain conditions and each has its advantages and disadvantages. In cheese sections, the customary method of selling is on the board of trade, which is the meeting of the cheese-buyers and factory salesmen. They meet at a given place at a certain day and hour each week. Every board has its officers. There are different ways in which a board of trade may be operated. In some cases there is a large blackboard divided into columns. In the first column, the salesman writes the name of the factory and the number and kind of cheese offered for sale. At the top of the other columns are the names of the different cheese-buyers. The president usually opens the sale at a stated time and asks that all cheese be placed on the blackboard. When this is done he states that they are ready to receive bids on the cheese. The buyers then write the price a pound they wish to pay opposite each lot of cheese and in the column headed by their names. After all the bids have been received and placed on the board, the presiding officer states that a certain length of time, usually fifteen minutes, will be given the salesman to withdraw his cheese if he does not think a high enough price has been offered; this is indicated by the salesman stepping to the blackboard and erasing the factory name and number of boxes. At the close of the stated time, the presiding officer declares the cheese offered on the board sold to the highest bidder. The purchaser then gives the salesman directions for shipping. Sometimes a board of trade has a committee of one member elected by the factory salesmen and one elected by the cheese-buyers. These two members elect a third and these three constitute the price committee. This committee meets each week and determines what the price shall be. This is known as the ruling. The factory salesmen and cheese-buyers then try to make private sales. By this method no one, except the persons concerned, knows exactly what price is paid for the cheese. Usually, a price above the ruling is paid. At Quebec, Canada, there is a cheese-selling organization with government assistance. On paying a certain fee, any cheese factory may join. All the factories belonging to the organization ship their cheese to a central cold storage where the cheeses are examined and graded by a government inspector. A cheese from each vat is tried. These cheeses are separated into white and colored lots, then graded according to quality. When the total number of cheeses in each lot is known, the lots are sold at auction. The purchaser must accept the cheese as graded. The better grades of cheese bring about the same price as on the market, but the advantage lies in the selling of the lower grades. Ordinarily, the purchaser takes advantage of the salesman when the cheeses are undergrade. The success of this plan depends on the accuracy of the person grading the cheese. This method seems to be growing in popularity, because the cheese-buyer can purchase large amounts of cheese at one time and be sure of the quality. A small fee, about one-twelfth of a cent a pound, is charged for handling the cheese. Similar organizations are in operation in Wisconsin. The boards of trade and selling organizations deal almost entirely in Cheddar cheese. +329. Mercantile exchanges.+--In the larger cities are exchanges where cheese is bought and sold by jobbers. This cheese is mostly Cheddar. The prices paid these jobbers tend to fix the daily price of cheese. These prices are published daily, for example, in New York Price Current. Some factories ship their cheese directly to these jobbers. The following are the cheese rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange adopted May 4, 1915: CHEESE RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE Rule 1. At the first regular meeting of the Executive Committee in each year, the President shall appoint, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese Committee to consist of seven members of the Exchange, who are known as members of the cheese trade, to hold office until their successors are appointed. It shall be the duty of the Cheese Committee to formulate such rules and regulations as may be necessary for the government of transactions between members of the Exchange, and to revise the same as circumstances may require. Such rules and revisions shall be subject to the approval of the Executive Committee. Rule 2. All transactions in cheese between members of the Exchange shall be governed by the following rules, but nothing therein shall be construed as interfering, in any way, with the rights of members to make such special contracts or conditions as they may desire. Rule 3. If a sale is made from dock, or platform, or to arrive, the buyer shall assume the same relations toward the transportation line by which the cheese arrives, as the seller previously held as regards its removal from the place of delivery within the time granted by such lines for that purpose. Transactions between members of this Exchange shall be governed as follows: Any member negotiating for any lot of cheese belonging to another member, the price having been agreed upon, shall examine such lot of cheese within twenty-four (24) hours after such negotiation takes place. Failure to examine within said time releases the seller from any obligations to make delivery thereafter, if he so wishes. Rule 4. In the absence of special agreement, all cheese purchased "in store" shall be understood as being ready and designed for immediate delivery, but the buyer shall have twenty-four hours in which to have the cheese inspected, and weight tested, and shall not be liable for the storage and insurance, if removed within two days. Rule 5. When cheese are sold to arrive, or from depot or dock, the cheese must be accepted or rejected within six business hours after notice of actual arrival to buyer. Business hours shall be understood to be from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M. If buyer rejects the same, he shall state the reasons for rejection. Should the rejection be considered unfair, the seller shall at once notify the buyer that he declines to accept such rejection; and he may call for a Committee, which shall be composed of three members of the cheese trade; the seller choosing one, the buyer one, and the third selected from the cheese trade by these two, or, they failing to agree, the third shall be appointed by the Chairman of the Committee on Cheese. The Examining Committee shall at once inspect the lot of cheese in dispute, sampling not less than five (5) per cent of each mark or factory, and they shall immediately give their decision in writing to both parties. Either party failing to abide by the decision of the Committee may be summoned by the other party before the Complaint Committee under Section 24 of the By-laws. The fees for each examination shall be six ($6) dollars, to be paid by the party adjudged to be in fault. Rule 6. The weight of all cheese shall be tested by a regularly appointed official weigher, and his certificates shall accompany the document conveying the title of the property. Said official weigher to be appointed by the Committee on Cheese, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee. Rule 7. The weigher's fee shall be twenty-five (25) cents per factory except where the owner requires more than ten (10) boxes be tested in which case the fee shall be fifty (50) cents, which shall be paid by the seller. Rule 8. Unless otherwise agreed upon in testing the weight of cheese, not less than five (5) boxes or more than ten (10) per cent of the whole lot shall be a test, and said test shall be considered good for three (3) business days, including day test is made. Rule 9. In testing weights, all over and short weights shall be taken into the average on each particular factory. Single Daisies shall be tested on half pounds, Double Daisies and all other sizes on even pounds. Rule 10. Where a lot of cheese is found to test irregular in weights, either the buyer or seller may require the entire lot to be reweighed. The charge for same shall be three (3) cents per box. Rule 11. Boxes of cheese which may be found largely at variance from original weights shall not enter into the average, but their weight shall be separately ascertained and certified to by the weigher. Rule 12. Where sales are made, and the buyer finds damaged or sour cheese in excess of fifteen (15) per cent it shall be optional with him to refuse or receive the remainder of the lot purchased. But, in the event of his accepting the remainder of the lot, the sour or damaged cheese shall revert to the seller. Rule 13. The Committee on Cheese shall appoint subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese Inspector and also a Deputy Inspector, whose duties shall be, when called upon by members of the Exchange, to inspect the quality and condition of such lots of cheese as may be required and to render a certificate of such inspection. Where the cheese in the lots are reasonably uniform in quality, the examination of 10 per cent of the lot shall be considered sufficient, but this shall not prevent the Inspector examining a larger percentage of the lot, when he deems it necessary. The fee for inspection shall be fifty (50) cents for lots consisting of fifty (50) boxes or less. Lots exceeding fifty (50) boxes shall be one cent per box, which shall be collected from the member ordering the inspection. Rule 14. The Cheese Inspector's certificate shall be made to read as follows: NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE _Cheese Inspector's Certificate_ Inspection No.__________ This is to certify that I have this day inspected for M___________ the following cheese, now located at_____________________ Factory and identification marks_________________________ Quantity in lot__________________________________________boxes Quantity inspected_______________________________________boxes and find as follows: Flavor_______________________________________________________________ Body and Texture_____________________________________________________ Color________________________________________________________________ Condition____________________________________________________________ Boxes________________________________________________________________ Grade________________________________________________________________ Inspection charges________________ _____________________________________Inspector_ The certificate to have a blank margin of three inches at the bottom, for the purpose of inserting specifications of Institutions, also for cheese sold under the Call, so that the Inspector may certify that cheese inspected fill the requirements as specified and the Inspector shall brand one impression on both boxes and cheese. NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE OFFICIAL INSPECTION Number_______________ Date___________________________ ____________________________Inspector_ Rule 16. The Weigher's Certificate shall be made to read as follows: This is to certify that the following is the actual test of ______ boxes, out of shipment of ______ boxes Factory Mark___________________________________________ Marked Weights_________________________________________ Actual Weights_________________________________________ Loss___________________________________________________ Average loss_______________lbs. on________________boxes New York_____________________________19______ ______________________ _Weigher_ and the Cheese Rules numbered 6 to 11 inclusive be printed on the back thereof. Rule 17. Members offering cheese for sale under the Call shall describe each lot, as to number of boxes, color, texture (open or close made), body, flavor, size, and how boxed, section where made, whether whole milks or skims and the average weight of each lot. Cheese sold under the Call to be accepted, or rejected, as a good delivery, or otherwise, based on the description given at the sale. Rule 18. When cheese are sold under the Call, unless otherwise stated, they shall be ready for immediate shipment. Rule 19. All cheese offered under the Call, with Inspector's Certificate attached, shall be accompanied by such Certificate and be accepted by the buyer unconditionally, provided the cheese are branded according to Rule 13. Rule 20. When cheese are offered under the Call, without Inspector's Certificate, should the buyer not consider the cheese a good delivery, according to description by seller, he may notify the seller, and if the seller is unwilling to make another delivery, the buyer may call upon the Inspector to decide whether or not the delivery shall stand. If the Inspector decides it is a good delivery, the buyer shall accept the cheese. If the Inspector decides it is not a good delivery, then the seller shall have twenty-four (24) hours in which to make a good delivery. But if the seller, after twenty-four (24) hours, fails to make a good delivery, then the buyer shall notify the Superintendent of the Exchange, who shall collect a penalty of three per cent of the amount of the transaction, the Exchange retaining twenty-five per cent of this sum, and seventy-five per cent shall be paid to the buyer. Rule 21. Spot sales under the Call shall be for spot cash unless otherwise agreed. Rule 22. All failures in meeting contracts shall be reported to the Superintendent of the Exchange, and announced at next regular session of the Exchange. +330. Marketing perishable varieties.+--Soft cheeses, such as Cream, Neufchâtel, Cottage, are usually sold to jobbers or directly to retail stores. They have a very short commercial life, hence cannot be held long before delivery to the consumer. From the jobber, cheese usually goes to the wholesale grocer and then to the retail dealer and finally the consumer. Most jobbers have cold storages so that they can hold cheese without injury to quality. (See Fig. 74.) The kind of cheese marketed in any locality depends on the tastes of the residents. For example, the South usually desires a highly colored product, thinking this color indicates more fat; in the Cheddar group New England demands a soft pasty quick-curing cheese, thinking that softness is a sign of more fat and richness; England wants a rather dry, well-cured, highly flavored cheese. Canadian Cheddar cheese has been standardized as far as possible to appeal to the English market. A long ripening period keeps capital tied up through the further time required for delivery. This has led to the sale of much of the cheese almost or entirely unripe. So much of the product has reached the consumer without characteristic varietal flavor that large numbers have acquired the habit of purchasing and even preferring cheese only partly ripe. [Illustration: FIG. 74.--A cheese cold storage room.] The time during which cheese should be held at the factory depends on the variety. Some are shipped as soon as made, including those cheeses with sour-milk flavor only. Others have to be cured in the factory from six to eight weeks. Cheeses in paper or tin-foil should be neatly wrapped and carefully put in the boxes. The box of cheese should be neat, clean and attractive. Cheeses not wrapped should have a firm rind to hold them in shape. The boxes should be clean and the weight of cheese neatly and plainly marked. In the case of Cheddar cheese, it may be paraffined at the factory, but if not, this is usually done at the cold storage of the jobber. The cheeses usually have some time to cure or ripen while being handled by the various dealers. +331. Distribution of price.+--The final selling price of cheese is a composite of all the changes that have gone before; or conversely, the farmer, the maker, the carrier and the distributors (wholesale, jobbing and retail dealers) must all be paid from the final price of the product. A study of this problem in Wisconsin has been made by Hibbard, and Hobson.[139] The general facts as determined for Wisconsin have fairly wide application to the manufacture and sale of cheese. Economic success in handling cheese is dependent on proper provision for the sale of the product. Where the output is small, a personal market can be created and maintained. This eliminates all profits intervening between the maker and the retailer. If the business reaches a volume beyond the possibilities of direct sale to the retailer, some selling organization is necessary. Where the number of producers is great and the selling machinery is well organized, the cheese factory becomes a producer of a commodity which is turned over to existing selling agencies. This condition is well established for Cheddar, Swiss, Brick and Limburger cheese. The soft cheeses other than Limburger have thus far been handled principally by large companies, each of which has developed an expensive selling organization. A study of the map (Fig. 65) shows how the cheese industry is localized in particular sections of certain states. Individual factories have maintained themselves in widely separated places. This localization is due to the geographical conditions which make certain regions specially adapted to dairying, modified by the proximity to markets for milk as milk. There are many regions, however, well adapted to cheese production in which there is no development of the industry at present. New developments are now taking place in the mountain areas of the South, notably North Carolina and adjacent states, and in several centers of the western mountain states. Many other areas should develop the making of cheese in some form. The actual costs of making and selling cheese were found by the Wisconsin investigators to vary approximately as follows: (1) cost of making, 1.2 to 1.75 cents; (2) storage, 1/8 cent a pound a month, or 3/8 to ½ cent for the season; (3) transportation to distant points, $.20 to $2.50 for 100 pounds according to distance; (4) the local dealer, about 1 cent a pound; (5) the wholesale dealer, 2 cents; (6) the jobber or broker who occasionally intervenes, about 1/8 to ¼ cent; and the retailer, 5.5 to 9 cents. The entire cost of selling at the time this investigation was made represented about one-half of the retail price of the cheese. The producer of milk received the other half of that price. +332. Standards.+--Legal standards in the United States are thus far largely based on the specifications of American Cheddar. In so far as they are applied to other products, they operate merely to prevent or reduce the use of skimmed-milk. The analyses and limits proposed in the discussion of varieties or groups in this book represent the range of composition actually known to be associated with cheeses of typical quality. Efforts are now being made to establish definitions and standards of composition which will limit the use of cheese names to products conforming to the requirements for such varieties. Practically the only federal requirement thus far enforced in the United States is that 50 per cent of the water-free substance of the cheese must be milk-fat. Various states have local requirements but most of them include the federal rule as to fat. New York and Wisconsin now restrict the amount of water in Cheddar cheese to 40 per cent. Most states have laws regulating the manufacture and sale of skimmed-milk cheese. +333. Laws relating to cheese marketing.+--A cheese of foreign origin if made in this country must be branded to show that it is not imported. For example, Camembert made in America is labeled Domestic Camembert. Some manufacturers call it Camembert type of cheese. The same applies to other varieties of foreign cheese. If a variety is made under a trade-marked name, this prevents any other manufacturer from using that name. For example, a concern may make "Philadelphia" cream cheese; other concerns may make cream cheese, but they must call it by some other name. The committee on definitions and standards for the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists has now undertaken to define the proper use of type names. This is intended to determine the proper limits of composition of cheeses in each variety and such essentials of physical identification as will insure the proper use of these names. Certain states have laws which relate to the branding of the cheese to denote quality. If the cheese is made from whole milk, a brand may be applied to show this fact. This is usually called the state brand. If made from skimmed-milk, the cheese must be branded to show this. The following[140] illustrate the laws relating to the state brand and skimmed-milk cheese: Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. "Every manufacturer of whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label upon such cheese indicating 'whole-milk cheese' and the date of the month and year when made; and no person shall use such a brand or label upon any cheese made from milk from which any of the cream has been taken. The Commissioner of Agriculture shall procure and issue to the cheese manufacturers of the state, on proper application therefor, and under such regulations as to the custody and use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand or labels bearing a suitable device or motto, and the words 'New York state whole-milk cheese.' Every such brand or label shall be used upon the outside of the cheese and shall bear a different number for each separate factory. The commissioner shall keep a book, in which shall be registered the name, location and number of each manufactory using the brands or labels, and the name or names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use the same. No such brand or labels shall be used upon any other than whole-milk cheese or packages containing the same. (As amended by chapter 207 of the Laws of 1910.) Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited; branding of skim-milk cheese regulated. No person shall offer, sell or expose for sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is falsely branded or labeled. No person shall sell, offer or expose for sale cheese commonly known as Cheddar cheese made from skimmed or partially skimmed milk unless the same is branded to show that it is skim-milk cheese. All such cheese so sold, offered or exposed for sale shall be branded with the words 'skim-milk cheese,' or if such cheese contains thirteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may be branded 'medium skim-milk cheese,' or if it contains eighteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may be branded 'special skim-milk cheese.' Such branding shall be upon the sides of both the cheese and the container. The branding herein provided shall be in block letters at least one-half an inch square. (As amended by chapter 456 of the Laws of 1913.)" Filled cheeses are those from which the milk-fat has been removed and other animal fats substituted. The laws of some states prohibit the manufacture of this product. The federal law relating to filled cheese permits its manufacture under license, taxes and government inspection. The various states have laws regulating the length of time that the cheese may be held in cold storage. Another important law in some states requires the cheese-maker to have a license. He must pass an examination to show that the principles and practices of cheese-making are understood. CHAPTER XXI _CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD_ Although cheese in some form is familiar to every household, it has been widely regarded in America as an accessory, almost a condimental substance rather than as a staple food worthy of comparison with meat or eggs. Statistics of the annual production, importation and exportation of cheese indicate that the total consumption in the United States is about 300,000,000 pounds--perhaps three pounds per capita. The household manufacture and consumption of cottage cheese would add a small amount to these figures. Cheese is used as a staple source of food values among many peoples of Europe. Such use of cheese increases rather than decreases with the density of the population. France with a small fraction of the land area and one-half the population of the United States produces and consumes about the same amount of cheese. In America, cheese-making has been developed with the advance of settlement into unoccupied territories only to be dropped as increasing population produced greater demands for milk in other forms. If cheese had been accepted as a regular part of the food supply in such communities, some form of cheese-making would have survived the economic changes. +334. Food value of cheese.+--A consideration of the nutritive components of cheese shows it to be a rich source of fat, protein or both, according to the variety under examination. It is low in carbohydrates, and aside from salt (sodium chloride) compares favorably with other substances in mineral constituents. The following discussion with an amplified table is taken from Langworthy and Hunt:[141] "In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet may be adequately discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison with other foods is desirable, and there is an abundance of data available on this subject, since the composition of cheese and other foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in experiment station laboratories and in many other places where nutrition problems are studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of different sorts is included in an earlier publication of this department.[142] "Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods are summarized in the following table. "It will be seen from the table (Table XXX) that cheese has nearly twice as much protein, weight for weight, as beef of average composition as purchased and that its fuel value is more than twice as great. It contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight of porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat. "As shown by the figures in the following table, cheese contains 3.8 per cent ash. Of this a considerable part may be salt added in cheese-making. Like the milk from which it is made, cheese ash is characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium, phosphorus and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of the department[145] being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent iron." TABLE XXX AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE AND SOME OTHER COMMON FOODS AS PURCHASED, AND ALSO ON THE BASIS OF EDIBLE PORTION ==================================================================== | | | | | | | | | | | | FOOD MATERIALS | REFUSE | WATER | PROTEIN | FAT | CARBO | | | | | | HYDRATES | | | | | | | ----------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+----------+ | % | % | % | % | % | Cheese, American | | | | | | Cheddar[144] | -- | 34.2 | 25.2 | 33.7 | 2.4 | | | | | | | Beef of average | | | | | | composition | | | | | | as purchased | 18.6 | 50.5 | 15.2 | 15.5 | -- | Edible portion | -- | 62.2 | 18.8 | 18.8 | -- | | | | | | | Porterhouse steak | | | | | | as purchased | 12.7 | 52.4 | 19.1 | 17.9 | -- | Edible portion | -- | 60.0 | 21.9 | 20.4 | -- | | | | | | | Loin steak, broiled, | | | | | | edible portion | -- | 54.8 | 23.5 | 20.4 | -- | | | | | | | Dried beef | -- | 53.7 | 26.4 | 6.9 | -- | | | | | | | Eggs as purchased | 11.2 | 65.5 | 13.1 | 9.3 | -- | Edible portion | -- | 73.7 | 13.4 | 10.5 | -- | | | | | | | Milk | -- | 87.0 | 3.3 | 4.0 | 5.0 | | | | | | | Bread | -- | 35.3 | 9.2 | 1.3 | 53.1 | | | | | | | Potatoes as purchased | 20.0 | 62.6 | 1.8 | .1 | 14.7 | Edible portion | -- | 78.3 | 2.2 | .1 | 18.4 | | | | | | | Apples as purchased | 25.0 | 63.6 | .3 | .3 | 10.8 | Edible portion | -- | 84.6 | .4 | .5 | 14.2 | ==================================================================== ===================================================== | | | FUEL | | FUEL | VALUE FOOD MATERIALS | ASH | VALUE | COMPARED | | PER | TO | | POUND | CHEESE[143] ----------------------+------+----------+------------ | % | Calories | Cheese, American | | | Cheddar[144] | 3.8 | 1,950 | 1.00 | | | Beef of average | | | composition | | | as purchased | .7 | 935 | 0.48 Edible portion | .9 | 1,145 | 0.58 | | | Porterhouse steak | | | as purchased | .8 | 1,110 | 0.57 Edible portion | 1.0 | 1,270 | 0.65 | | | Loin steak, broiled, | | | edible portion | 1.2 | 1,300 | 0.66 | | | Dried beef | 8.9 | 790 | 0.45 | | | Eggs as purchased | .9 | 635 | 0.32 Edible portion | 1.0 | 720 | 0.37 | | | Milk | .7 | 310 | 0.16 | | | Bread | 1.1 | 1,215 | 0.62 | | | Potatoes as purchased | .8 | 295 | 0.15 Edible portion | 1.0 | 385 | 0.20 | | | Apples as purchased | .3 | 190 | 0.10 Edible portion | .3 | 290 | 0.15 ===================================================== It is clear from the calculations shown in the last column, that Cheddar cheese takes first rank among the foods compared as to fuel value. The estimate of food values in terms of calories may not completely express the value of that food to a particular individual. It is generally conceded that one great function of food is the production of energy and this function is probably more closely determined by the number of calories produced than in any other known way. Such calculation has become an essential factor in the preparation of dietaries. The calculation here given necessarily applies only to Cheddar cheese. By easy use of the last column, the caloric value of this cheese can be compared with that of any competing food and the relative economy determined, whatever the price asked. Another recent calculation with reference[146] to the same cheese follows: "One pound of American Cheddar cheese contains as much protein as-- 1.57 pounds of sirloin steak. 1.35 pounds of round steak. 1.89 pounds of fowl. 1.79 pounds of smoked ham. 1.81 pounds of fresh ham. "In order to judge the value of foods fairly not only the protein but the energy also must be compared. To supply energy cheese is one of the best of food products. On the basis of energy supplied, 1 pound of cheese equals-- 1.98 pounds of sirloin steak. 2.61 pounds of round steak. 2.52 pounds of fowl. 1.17 pounds of smoked ham. 1.29 pounds of fresh ham." All these discussions have applied to whole-milk Cheddar cheese. With minor reductions, much the same figures will hold for Swiss, Limburger, Brick, Munster, Edam. On the other hand, very little has been published until recently on the skimmed-milk cheeses. The food value lost in skimmed-milk has at times been enormous. Many households purchase milk by the bottle, use the top-milk as cream and lose a part of the remainder. Similarly creameries have wasted tons of skimmed-milk. The recovery of the protein of this milk for human food is both good economy and an important addition to the dietary. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently published the following: "Cottage cheese is richer in protein than most meats and is very much cheaper. Every pound contains more than three ounces of protein, the source of nitrogen for body building. It is a valuable source of energy also, though not so high as foods with more fat. It follows that its value in this respect can be greatly increased by serving it with cream, as is so commonly done." It is an open question whether the decline of cheese-making in America is not due to our failure to develop the use of skim and part-skim cheeses. The whole-milk cheeses are very rich in fat. Use of such cheese in quantity in connection with ordinary foods quickly leads to the ingestion of too much fat. The skimmed-milk cheeses are primarily protein food and as such substitutes for lean meat. "The following table shows that cottage cheese is much cheaper than most meats in furnishing protein for the diet. "For supplying protein, one pound of cottage cheese equals: 1.27 pounds sirloin steak. 1.09 pounds round steak. 1.37 pounds chuck rib beef. 1.52 pounds fowl. 1.46 pounds fresh ham. 1.44 pounds smoked ham. 1.58 pounds loin pork chop. 1.31 pounds hind leg of lamb. 1.37 pounds breast of veal. "In addition to protein, energy for performing body work must be furnished by food. As a source of energy also, cottage cheese is cheaper than most meats at present prices. The following table shows the comparison when energy is considered. "On the basis of energy supplied, one pound of cottage cheese equals: 8-1/3 ounces sirloin steak. 11¼ ounces round steak. 11¼ ounces chuck rib beef. 10¾ ounces fowl. 5½ ounces fresh ham. 5 ounces smoked ham. 6 ounces loin pork chop. 7-1/3 ounces hind leg of lamb. 12¾ ounces breast of veal." +335. Digestibility of cheese.+--Although it has been a staple food with many races for uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that cheese is suitable for use chiefly in small quantities as an accessory to the diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to produce physiological disturbances. The question of digestibility was made the subject of a special investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture.[147] Calorimeter experiments[148] were made to test the digestibility of several varieties of cheese and some of these varieties at various stages of ripening. All forms of cheese were found to be digested as completely as most of the usual forms of food. Approximately 90 per cent of the nitrogenous portion (casein) was retained in the body. Unripe cheese in these experiments was apparently digested as completely as the ripened forms. These experiments make clear the possibility of making cheese a more prominent article in the regular dietary than is usual in America. They especially point to the desirability of the use of the skim and partially skim cheeses, which as cheap sources of protein when properly combined with other foods, may be made to replace meats as a less costly source of proteins. Cheese is then to be classed with meat and eggs, not with condiments. An ounce of Cheddar[149] cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, to a glass of milk, or to two ounces of meat. It is properly to be combined with bread, potatoes and other starchy foods, lacking in the fat in which the cheese is rich. These experiments included Roquefort, fresh-made and ripe Cheddar, Swiss, Camembert and Cottage cheese. +336. Cheese flavor.+--"Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and their compounds which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed during ripening from the cleavage of the casein, to salt added to the curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies elaborated by molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of the fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are also the ammonia-like bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert a trace of ammonia flavor may often be plainly detected. "The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other changes are brought about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally present in cheese or by micro-organisms and are to be regarded as fermentative and not as putrefactive changes. "The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of individual preference, but from the chemist's standpoint there is no reason for the statement often made that such cheeses have undergone putrefactive decomposition." +337. Relation to health.+--In connection with the use of cheese as a food, its relation to the health of the consumer must be considered. The presence of the bacillus of tuberculosis in milk has led to careful study of its possible presence in cheese. When American Cheddar cheese was specially inoculated for this purpose, the living organism was recovered from it after about five months by Schroeder of the United States Department of Agriculture. This danger is much greater from cheeses, such as Cream and Neufchâtel, which are eaten when comparatively freshly made. The disease has been produced in guinea pigs from such cheese often enough to emphasize the desirability of developing methods of making every variety possible from thoroughly pasteurized milk. This would remove the danger of tuberculosis and with it eliminate the possibility of transmitting other diseases. +338. Cheese poisoning+[150] cases occasionally occur. These take two main forms: (1) an enteritis (caused by _Bacillus enteritidis_) or some other member of that series which while painful and accompanied by purging is rarely fatal; (2) acute toxæmias which, although rare, usually result in death. From the latter type a variety of _Bacillus botulinus_, an organism usually associated with meat poisoning, was isolated by the New York State Department of Health. The occurrence of such cases is frequent enough to emphasize the desirability of using every precaution to reduce the number of bacteria that are allowed to enter milk when drawn and to prevent the development of those which actually gain access to it. When possible, pasteurization should be introduced. +339. Proper place in the diet.+--It has already been noted that cheese is used "in general in two ways--in small quantities chiefly for its flavor and in large quantities for its nutritive value as well as for its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the first purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for their flavor, many of which are high priced, contribute little to the food value of the diet, because of the small quantity used at a time. They have an important part to play, however, in making the diet attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not as necessities, but as lying within what has been called 'the region of choice.' Having first satisfied herself that her family is receiving sufficient nourishment, she then, according to her means and ideas of an attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are to be considered luxuries. "Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in large quantities and which are comparatively low priced are important not only from the point of view of flavor, but also from the point of view of their nutritive value." Among such cheeses are American Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, Limburger and the lower priced forms of Neufchâtel. It is clear that in buying cheese, the housekeeper should know definitely the dietary purpose of the purchase, and then choose the variety of cheese best suited. To a very large degree the personal tastes of the family determine the kinds of cheese which will be tolerated when served uncooked. In some families, the strong flavors of Roquefort or Limburger are not acceptable. However, there is a range of choice in which much judgment can be used. Cheese to be served with mild-flavored foods should as a rule be also mild-flavored. For most sandwiches, for example, Cheddar or Swiss is usually very acceptable; Brick or partly ripe Limburger still hard enough to slice cuts into thin rectangular slices and is very attractive to many consumers because it has somewhat more flavor without being too strong. With proper handling it is good policy to buy the cheapest of these forms for this purpose. The selection of dessert cheeses offers the widest range. If served with mild-flavored crackers, very many persons prefer Cream, Neufchâtel or mild Cheddar; a little stronger taste calls for club cheese, or Camembert. If tobacco smoke is present, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Limburger and related types will satisfy many consumers better than mild cheeses. The intensity of flavor to be sought in the cheese should thus be adjusted to the food served with it. A person with an aversion to strong-smelling or strong-tasting cheese has been frequently known to approve over-ripe Camembert, or Limburger when served without label but spread upon a ginger cracker. For cooking purposes, some recipes prescribe cheese of special quality. In large markets, old Cheddar ripened carefully for two or three years is commonly purchasable for Welsh rabbit. (Ask for "rabbit" cheese.) An expert housekeeper familiar also with cheese ripening has demonstrated that almost any cheese, whether ripened to its best, part ripe or over-ripe, can be used in many cooking formulas without injuring the acceptability of the product to most consumers. In canning Camembert, it has been shown[151] that over-ripe cheese so strong as to be objectionable, when sterilized loses the objectionable flavor of the raw product. No cheese should be wasted; any not used when served the first time should be served at a closely following meal or used in cooking. No matter what the variety, it will add to the food value and palatability of some one of the common dishes served within forty-eight hours. +340. Care of cheese.+[152]--"One of the best ways of keeping cheese which has been cut is to wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To dampen the cloth, sprinkle it and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch. Paraffin paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered dish, the air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it molds more readily. "In some markets it is possible to buy small whole cheeses. These may be satisfactorily kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a cover, and removing the cheese as needed with a knife, a strong spoon, or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the hardware stores knobs which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle. The cheese with the cover on should be kept wrapped in a cloth." +341. Food value and price.+--There is little relation between the price and food value of standard varieties of cheese. The higher-priced varieties claim and hold their place because they possess particular flavors. These may or may not accompany high comparative food values. Even among low-priced varieties discrimination into grades is largely based on flavor. Of the low-priced cheeses, those made from skimmed-milk commonly command the lowest prices. As noted above, a choice may be based either on purpose or on price. If the purpose is fixed, the price should not change the selection. If, however, a particular quality of cheese is purchasable at a low price, some satisfactory form of utilizing it is clearly available to the housekeeper. Some standard recipes are given in the following paragraphs. +342. Methods and recipes for using cheese.+--(1) As a meat substitute. Meat is wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential to a well-balanced meal and there are many housekeepers who for one reason or another are interested in lessening the amount of meat or to substitute other foods. The problem with the average family is undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable dishes for the sake of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some other reason than the general replacement of meat dishes by other things. Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein and fat and should also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is rich in the same kinds of nutrients that meat supplies, is a staple food with which every one is familiar and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for meat, especial pains should be taken to serve dishes which are relished by the members of the family. A number of recipes[153] for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They are preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are called for in the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes. In the first list of recipes, cheese means Cheddar. Cheese Sauce No. 1 1 cupful of milk. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. 1 ounce of cheese (¼ cupful of grated cheese). Salt and pepper. Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving add the cheese, stirring until it is melted. This sauce is suitable to use in preparing creamed eggs, or to pour over toast, making a dish corresponding to ordinary milk toast, except for the presence of cheese. It may be seasoned with a little curry powder and poured over hard-boiled eggs. Cheese Sauce No. 2 Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that the cheese is increased from 1 to 2 ounces. This sauce is suitable for using with macaroni or rice, or for baking with crackers soaked in milk. Cheese Sauce No. 3 Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that two cupfuls of grated cheese or 8 ounces are used. This may be used upon toast as a substitute for Welsh rabbit. Cheese Sauce No. 4 Same as cheese sauce No. 2, save that 2 tablespoonfuls of melted butter are mixed with the flour before the latter is put into the milk. This sauce is therefore very rich in fat and has only a mild flavor of cheese. Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the following give products which, eaten in usual quantities, will provide much the same kind and amount of nutritive material as the ordinary servings of meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a resemblance in appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be a point in their favor with many families. (2) For general cooking purposes: Cheese Fondue No. 1 1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. 6 ounces of cheese (1½ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1-1/3 cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small pieces). 4 eggs. 1 cupful of hot water. ½ teaspoonful of salt. Mix the water, bread crumbs, salt and cheese; add the yolks thoroughly beaten; into this mixture cut and fold the whites of eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve at once. The food value of this dish, made with the above quantities, is almost exactly the same as that of a pound of beef of average composition and a pound of potatoes combined. It contains about 80 grams of proteids and has a fuel value of about 1300 calories. Cheese Fondue No. 2 1-1/3 cupfuls of hot milk. 1-1/3 cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. 1 tablespoonful of butter. 4 eggs. 1/3 of a pound of cheese (1-1/3 cupfuls of grated cheese or 1 cupful of cheese cut into small pieces). ½ teaspoonful of salt. Prepare as in previous recipe. The protein value of this dish is equal to that of 1-1/8 pounds of potato and beef, the fuel value, however, being much in excess of these. In making either of these fondues, rice or other cereals may be substituted for bread crumbs. One-fourth cupful of rice measured before cooking, or one cupful of cooked rice or other cereals, should be used. Corn and Cheese Soufflé 1 tablespoonful of butter. 1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper. ¼ cupful of flour. 2 cupfuls of milk. 1 cupful of chopped corn. 1 cupful of grated cheese, 3 eggs. ½ teaspoonful of salt. Melt the butter and cook the pepper thoroughly in it. Make a sauce out of the flour, milk and cheese; add the corn, cheese, yolks and seasoning; cut and fold in the whites beaten stiffly; turn into a buttered baking dish and bake in a moderate oven 30 minutes. Made with skimmed-milk and without butter, this dish has a food value slightly in excess of a pound of beef and a pound of potatoes. Cheese Soufflé 2 tablespoonfuls of butter. 3 tablespoonfuls of flour. ½ cupful of milk (scalded). ½ teaspoonful of salt A speck of cayenne. ¼ cupful of grated cheese. 3 eggs. Melt the butter; add the flour and, when well mixed, add gradually the scalded milk. Then add salt, cayenne and cheese. Remove from the fire and add the yolks of the eggs, beaten until lemon colored. Cool the mixture and fold into it the whites of the eggs, beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 20 minutes in a slow oven. Serve at once. The proteid of this recipe is equal to that of half a pound of beef; the fuel value is equal to that of three-fourths of a pound. Welsh Rabbit 1 tablespoonful of butter. 1 teaspoonful of corn-starch. ½ cupful of milk. ½ pound of cheese, cut into small pieces. ¼ teaspoonful each of salt and mustard. A speck of cayenne pepper. Cook the corn-starch in the butter; then add the milk gradually and cook two minutes; add the cheese and stir until it is melted. Season and serve on crackers or bread toasted on one side, the rabbit being poured over the untoasted side. Food value is that of about three-fourths of a pound of beef. Macaroni and Cheese No. 1 1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces. 2 quarts of boiling salted water. 1 cupful of milk. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. ¼ to ½ pound of cheese. ½ teaspoonful of salt. Speck of cayenne pepper. Cook the macaroni in the boiling salted water, drain in a strainer, and pour cold water over it to prevent the pieces from adhering to each other. Make a sauce out of the flour, milk, and cheese. Put the sauce and macaroni in alternate layers in a buttered baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat in oven until crumbs are brown. Macaroni and Cheese No. 2 A good way to prepare macaroni and cheese is to make a rich cheese sauce and heat the macaroni in it. The mixture is usually covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the oven. The advantage of this way of preparing the dish, however, is that it is unnecessary to have a hot oven, as the sauce and macaroni may be reheated on the top of the stove. Baked Rice and Cheese No. 1 1 cupful of uncooked rice and 4 cupfuls of milk; or, 3 cupfuls of cooked rice and 1 cupful of milk. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. ½ pound of cheese. ½ teaspoonful of salt. If uncooked rice is used, it should be cooked in 3 cupfuls of milk. Make a sauce with one cupful of milk, add the flour, cheese and salt. Into a buttered baking dish put alternate layers of the cooked rice and the sauce. Cover with buttered crumbs and bake until the crumbs are brown. The proteids in this dish, made with rice cooked in milk, are equal to those of nearly 1¾ pounds of average beef. If skimmed-milk is used, the fuel value is equal to nearly 3½ pounds of beef. Whole milk raises the fuel value still higher. Fried Bread with Cheese No. 1 6 slices of bread. 1 cupful of milk. 2 ounces of cheese, or ½ cupful of grated cheese. ½ teaspoonful of salt. ½ teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate. Butter or other fat for frying. Scald the milk with the potassium bicarbonate; add the grated cheese, and stir until it dissolves. Dip the bread in this mixture and fry it in the butter. The potassium bicarbonate helps to keep the cheese in solution. It is desirable, however, to keep the milk hot while the bread is being dipped. Plain Cheese Salad Cut Edam or ordinary American cheese into thin pieces, scatter them over lettuce leaves and serve with French dressing. Olive and Pimiento Sandwich or Salad Cheese Mash any of the soft cream cheeses and add chopped olives and pimientos in equal parts. This mixture requires much salt to make it palatable to most palates, the amount depending chiefly on the quantity of pimiento used. The mixture may be spread between thin slices of bread or it may be made into a roll or molded, cut into slices and served on lettuce leaves with French dressing. Cheese and Tomato Salad Stuff cold tomatoes with cream cheese and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing. Cheese and Pimiento Salad Stuff canned pimientos with cream cheese, cut into slices and serve one or two slices to each person on lettuce leaves with French dressing. (3) Ways to use cottage cheese. Cottage cheese alone is an appetizing and nutritious dish. It may also be served with sweet or sour cream, and some persons add a little sugar, or chives, chopped onion or caraway seed. The following recipes[154] illustrate a number of ways in which cottage cheese may be served: Cottage Cheese with Preserves and Jellies Pour over cottage cheese any fruit preserves, such as strawberries, figs or cherries. Serve with bread or crackers. If preferred, cottage cheese balls may be served separately and eaten with the preserves. A very attractive dish may be made by dropping a bit of jelly into a nest of the cottage cheese. Cottage Cheese Salad Mix thoroughly one pound of cheese, one and one-half tablespoonfuls of cream, one tablespoonful of chopped parsley and salt to taste. First, fill a rectangular tin mold with cold water to chill and wet the surface; line the bottom with waxed paper, then pack in three layers of the cheese, putting two or three parallel strips of pimiento, fresh or canned, between the layers. Cover with waxed paper and set in a cool place until ready to serve; then run a knife around the sides and invert the mold. Cut in slices and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing and wafers or thin bread-and-butter sandwiches. Minced olives may be used instead of the parsley, and chopped nuts also may be added. Cottage Cheese Rolls (To be used like meat rolls.) A large variety of rolls, suitable for serving as the main dish at dinner, may be made by combining legumes (beans of various kinds, cowpeas, lentils or peas) with cottage cheese, and adding bread crumbs to make the mixture thick enough to form into a roll. Beans are usually mashed, but peas or small Lima beans may be combined whole with bread crumbs and cottage cheese, and enough of the liquor in which the vegetables have been cooked should be added to get the right consistency; or, instead of beans or peas, chopped spinach, beet tops or head lettuce may be added. Boston Roast 1 pound can of kidney beans, or equivalent quantity of cooked beans. ½ pound of cottage cheese. Bread crumbs. Salt. Mash the beans or put them through a meat grinder. Add the cheese and bread crumbs enough to make the mixture sufficiently stiff to be formed into a roll. Bake in a moderate oven, basting occasionally with butter or other fat, and water. Serve with tomato sauce. This dish may be flavored with chopped onions cooked until tender in butter or other fat and a very little water. Pimiento and Cottage Cheese Roast 2 cupfuls of cooked Lima beans. ¼ pound of cottage cheese. Salt. 3 canned pimientos chopped. Bread crumbs. Put the first three ingredients through a meat chopper. Mix thoroughly and add bread crumbs until it is stiff enough to form into a roll. Brown in the oven, basting occasionally with butter or other fat, and water. Cottage Cheese and Nut Roast 1 cupful of cottage cheese. 1 cupful of chopped English walnuts. 1 cupful of bread crumbs. Salt and pepper. 2 tablespoonfuls of chopped onion. 1 tablespoonful of butter. Juice of half a lemon. Cook the onion in the butter or other fat and a little water until tender. Mix the other ingredients and moisten with the water in which the onion has been cooked. Pour into a shallow baking dish and brown in the oven. Cheese Sauce (For use with eggs, milk toast or other dishes.) One cupful of milk, 1 tablespoonful of cottage cheese, 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, salt and pepper to taste. Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving add the cheese, stirring until it is melted. This sauce may be used in preparing creamed eggs or for ordinary milk toast. The quantity of cheese in the recipe may be increased, making a sauce suitable for using with macaroni or rice. FOOTNOTES: [1] Ont. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 237-241. Maine Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, part II, pages 52-57. Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1886, pages 119-130. Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 97-100. Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 61-74. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 299-392. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1893, pages 39-162. Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 115-119. Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1907, pages 152-156. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 139-142. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1894, pages 31-86, 118-121. N. J. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 136-137. Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw. The influence of breed and individuality on the composition and properties of milk, Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 156, 1913. Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, Variations in the composition and properties of milk from the individual cow, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 157, 1913. [2] Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, Analyses of milk from different cows, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 1890. [3] Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, The influence of the stage of lactation on the composition and properties of milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 155, 1913. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 138-140. [4] N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 143-162, 316-318. Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 238-247. Van Slyke, L. L., Conditions affecting the proportions of fat and protein in cow's milk, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 30 (1908), no. 7, pages 1166-1186. [5] Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of some casein and paracasein compounds and their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 26, 1912. Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, A review of the literature of phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism, Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 32-36, 42-45. Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of casein and salts in milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39. [6] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-166. [7] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912. [8] Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, Quality of cheese as affected by food, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, 1904. [9] King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, Milk odor as affected by silage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 59, 1897. [10] N. Y. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 30. Mich. Agricultural Law, 1915, section 77. Wis. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 4601. [11] Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, pages 13-68. Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 33-98. Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1904, pages 27-88. Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Sources of bacteria in milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 51, 1908. Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, Methods of classifying the lactic acid bacteria, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 154, 1912. Bergey, D. H., The colon-aerogenes group of bacteria, Jour. Med. Research, Boston, Vol. XIX, pages 175-200, 1908. Conn, H. W., Classification of dairy bacteria, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1906. Rogers, L. A., Bacteria in milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 490, 1912. [12] Hastings, E. G., Distribution of lactose-fermenting yeasts in dairy products, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 23, pages 107-115. [13] Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, Effect of pasteurization upon mold spores, Jour. Agr. Research 6 (1916), no. 4, pages 153-156. [14] Hunziker, O. F., Germicidal action of milk, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Bul. 197. Stocking, W. A., Germicidal action of milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 37, 1905. U. S. Treasury Dept., Hygienic Laboratory, Bul. 41, Milk and its relation to the public health, 1908, also revised as Bul. 56, 1909. [15] U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 602, Dairy Division, Production of clean milk, 1914. Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, Some factors affecting the bacteriological content of milk, Edinburgh and East of Scotland Coll. of Agr. Rept. XXVIII, 1913. Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, Germ content of milk, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 199, 1917. Harding, H. A., _et al._, The effect of certain dairy operations upon the germ content of milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 365, 1913. Fraser, W. J., Sources of bacteria in milk, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 91, 1903. Frandsen, J. H., Care of milk and cream on the farm, Neb. Exp. Sta. Bul. 133, 1912. Conn, H. W., The care and handling of milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 26, 1903. Stocking, W. A., Jr., Quality of milk as affected by certain dairy operations, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 42, 1906. [16] Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson and G. A. Smith, Tests of covered milk pails, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 326, 1910. Stocking, W. A., Tests of covered milk pails, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 48, 1907. [17] Wing, L. W., Milking machines; their sterilization and their efficiency in producing clean milk, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Circ. 18, 1913. [18] Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Barr, The cooling of milk for cheese making, Ottawa Dept. of Agr. Bul. 22, 1910. [19] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 14-150, Fermentation test for gas-producing bacteria in milk. This is commonly called the Wisconsin curd test. [20] Stevenson, C., Pepsin in cheesemaking, Jour. Agr. (New Zeal.) 14 (1917), pages 32-34. Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, Experiments in the preparation of homemade rennet, Jour. Bd. Agr. (London) 23 (1916), no. 6, pages 549-555. Besana, C., Lack of coagulating ferment in cheesemaking, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 49 (1916), pages 10-12. Van Dam, W., Rennet economy and substitutes, Verslag. Ver. Exploit. Proefzuivelboerderij. Hoorn, 1914, pages 45-46. [21] The paragraphs on the chemistry of casein and on rennet action have been selected from a complete discussion of the subject by E. B. Forbes and M. H. Keith in Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5 entitled, "A review of the literature of phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism." The original references cited in this discussion are given at the end of the chapter in the order of their citation in the text. See also, Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, I, The action of dilute acids upon casein when no soluble compounds are formed; II, The hydrolyses of the sodium salts of casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 3, pages 75-162, 1906. Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, Factors controlling the moisture content of cheese curds, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 122, pages 1-61, 1910. [22] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of Cheddar cheese from pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912. [23] Esten, W. M., Bacteria in the dairy, Conn. (Storrs) Rept. 1896, pages 44-52. [24] Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, Preparation and use of butter starter, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1907. Hastings, E. G., Preparation and use of starter, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 181, 1909. Larsen, C., and W. White, Preparation and use of starter, S. D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 123, 1910. Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, Propagation of starter for butter-making and cheese-making, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Circ. 13, 1912. [25] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-95, 1913. [26] Publow, C. A., An apparatus for measuring acidity in cheesemaking and buttermaking, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. 7, pages 17-20, 1909. Hastings, E. G., and A. C. Evans, A comparison of the acid test and the rennet test for determining the condition of milk for the Cheddar type of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 210, pages 1-6, 1913. [27] Doane, C. F., The influence of lactic acid on the quality of cheese of the Cheddar type, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 123, pages 1-20, 1910. [28] Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield and moisture content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, 1913. [29] Olson, G. A., Rusty cans and their effect upon milk for cheese-making, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 162, pages 1-12, 1908. [30] The term "broken" is included here because the use of some curd-breaking tool has always formed a step in certain commercially successful processes. In every case in which careful experimental work has been done the curd knife has been successfully substituted for the breaking tool and has reduced the losses of fat and casein and in addition aided in obtaining more uniform cheese. [31] Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, Farm cheese-making, Univ. Neb. Ext. Serv. Bul. 47, pages 1-16, 1917. Michels, J., Improved methods for making cottage and Neufchâtel cheese, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bul. 210, pages 29-38. Fisk, W. W., Methods of making some of the soft cheeses, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. 30, pages 41-62, 1915. [32] Tolstrup, R. M., Cheese that farmers should make, Iowa Agr. 15 (1914), 2, pages 89-90. [33] Van Slyke, L. L., and Hart, E. B., Chemical changes in the souring of milk and their relations to cottage cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, pages 1-36, 1904. [34] Sammis, J. L., Three creamery methods for making buttermilk cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 239, 1914. [35] Matheson, K. J., C. Thom and J. N. Currie, Cheeses of the Neufchâtel group, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, pages 313-329, 1914. [36] Dahlberg, A. O., The manufacture of cottage cheese in creameries and milk plants, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 576, pages 1-16, 1917. [37] Since the number of factories has continued small, the manufacture of this type of machine has remained a monopoly in which each machine is made to order by the Van Eyck Machine Co. of Holland, Mich. [38] Presented by Dr. E. C. Schroeder of the U. S. Dept. Agr. to the International Association of Dairy and Milk Inspectors, at Washington, Oct. 17, 1917, published Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc'n 52, N. S. 5, no. 6, pages 674-685, 1918. [39] Matheson, K. J., and F. R. Cammack, How to make cottage cheese on the farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 850, pages 1-15, 1917. [40] Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328. [41] Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328. [42] Eckles, C. H., and O. Rahn, Die Reifung des Harzkäses, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 abt. 14 (1905), pages 676-680. [43] Monrad, J. H., Hand cheese, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 (1908), 16, page 644. [44] The authors are under obligations to Mrs. E. E. Kiernan for her description of this process (in the _Somerset County Leader_, Jan. 10, 1908) and her letters concerning it. The statement of the process given here combines the published statement with the results of our own experiments. [45] Monrad, J. H., Appetitost, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 (1908), 16, page 644. [46] Pouriau, A. F., La Laiterie, sixième ed. par Marcel Monteran, page 453, Paris, 1908. [47] Among the varietal names for Neufchâtel cheese from whole milk or with added cream are Petits Bondons, Malakoffs, Carrés affinés. Among low fat or skim forms, Petit Suisse, Gournay. [48] Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies relating to the Roquefort and Camembert types of cheese, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, page 392. [49] Full discussion of this product is found in U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115. Camembert cheese problems in the U. S. also published as Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 58 with the same title. Also a supplementary paper in Bul. 79 of Storrs Exp. Sta. [50] Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 145 (1909), page 339. [51] Lot record cards for the making and ripening of Camembert are given on pages 124 and 125. [52] Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 23-39, 1907. Dox, A. W., Proteolytic changes in the ripening of Camembert cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 109, pages 1-24, 1908. [53] Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Bact. Stud. of Camembert cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 83 (1915), pages 103-111. [54] See page 134 for domestic or American use of the name Brie. [55] McNaughton, J., Coulommier cheese, Dept. Agr. Ottawa, Canada, Dairy and Cold Storage Ser. Bul. 25, 1910. [56] Kosher forms are prepared in compliance with the Mosaic law as demanded by the Jewish trade. [57] Unpublished analysis of the Storrs Exp. Sta. [58] Chapais, J. C., Monographie, Le Fromage Raffiné de L'Isle d'Orléans. Quebec, 1911. Published by Ministry of Agriculture, pages 1-31. [59] The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Louis Getman in preparing this description. [60] Zumkehr, P., Limburger cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Association, 15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 62. [61] Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. Research 2 (1914), no. 1, pages 1-14. [62] Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 12th Annual Meeting and Report, 1906, page xxviii. [63] Currie, J. N., The relation of composition to quality in cheese, American Food Jour. 11 (1916), no. 9, page 458. See also Dox on the True Composition of Roquefort Cheese, Ztsch. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. 22 (1911), pages 239-242. [64] Thom, C., and Matheson, K. J., Biology of Roquefort cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-347, 1914. [65] Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. Research, 2 (1914), 1, pages 1-14, Washington. [66] Dox, A. W., Die Zusammensetzung des echten Roquefort-Käses, in Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. Bd. 22, Heft. 4, pages 239-242, 1911. [67] Marre, E., Le Roquefort, Rodez, 1906. This is the authoritative monograph on Roquefort cheese problems. [68] Reported on the word of Prof. Fleischmann. [69] Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies relating to the Roquefort and Camembert types of cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-394, 1914. [70] Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 82, 1905. [71] Thom, C., The salt factor in the mold ripened cheeses, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 387-394, 1914. [72] Thom, C., and Currie, J. N., The dominance of Roquefort mold in cheese, Jour. Biol. Chem. 15 (1913), no. 2, pages 247-258. [73] Currie, J. N., The composition of Roquefort cheese fat, Jour. Agr. Research, 2 (1914), 6, pages 429-434. [74] Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22, pages 79-109, 1905. [75] Frestadius, A., Nord. Mejeri Tid. 17 (1912), 14, page 159, Abs. N. Y. Produce Rev. 34 (1912), 2, page 54, and Cutting, W. B., The use of baritine in cheese rinds, Mo. Commerce and Trade Repts. 1908, 337, page 144, also in Practical Dairyman, 2 (1908), 7, page 76. [76] Stilton Cheese--J. P. Sheldon--from abs. by New York Produce Rev. 28 (June 16, 1909), no. 8, pages 362-363. Stilton is said to have originated with Mrs. Paulet, Wymondham, Co. of Leicester, and to have been sold by her brother--Host of the "Bill" at Stilton from which village it derived its name. [77] Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, The microflora of Stilton cheese, Jour. Agr. Sci. 5 (1913), part 2, pages 222-229. See also Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22 (1905), pages 79-109. [78] Benson, Miles, in personal letter from analyses of cheeses selected for the purpose. [79] Dean, H. H., The Creamery Journal, Nov. 1904. [80] N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 32, no. 14, page 536. [81] N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 30, no. 5, page 188; Vol. 30, no. 14, page 534; Vol. 31, no. 5, page 182. Marty, G., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 66. Wuethrich, F., The manufacture of Brick cheese, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 14th Annual Meeting, 1906, page 50. Schenk, C., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 13th Annual Meeting, 1905, page 38. [82] Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, descriptions and analysis, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. of An. Ind. Bul. 146, 1911. [83] Ligeon, X., Herstellung des Port Salut Käses, Milchztg. 38 (1909), no. 39, pages 459-460. [84] These paragraphs were taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, Experiments in the manufacture of cheese; Part I. The manufacture of Edam cheese, 1893. See also, Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of cheese, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, 1894. [85] Boekhout, F. W. J., and J. J. O. de Vries, Cracking of Edam, Verslag. Landbouwk. Onderzoek. Rykslandboupoefstat. (Netherlands), 20 (1917), pages 71-78, fig. 1. Boekhout, F. W. F., and J. J. O. de Vries, Sur le défaut "Knijpers" dans le fromage d'Edam, Rev. Gen. Lait, 9 (1913), no. 18, pages 420-427. [86] Paragraphs taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, Experiments in the manufacture of cheese; Part II. The manufacture of Gouda cheese, 1893. See also, Hayward, H., Method of making Gouda cheese, Pa. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 79-81, and Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of cheese, Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, 1894, and Monrad, J. H., in N. Y. Produce Rev. 25 (1907), no. 8, page 336, where a home process of making this cheese is given. [87] The authors acknowledge here the helpful suggestions and criticisms of G. C. Dutton, New York State Cheese Instructor. [88] Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas-producing bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 139-146. Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 183, 1900. [89] S. M. Babcock, Hot iron test of cheese curd, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 133-134. [90] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids, their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. [91] Decker, J. W., Cheesemaking from sour milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, pages 42-44. [92] Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas producing bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 139-146. Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 183, 1900. Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, Causes of tainted cheese curds, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Bul. 158, 1899. [93] Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the manufacture of cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 68, 1894. [94] Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the manufacture of cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 62, 1893. [95] Van Slyke, L. L., Methods of paying for milk at cheese factories, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 308, 1908. [96] Farm Bur. Exchange, St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., Vol. 1, no. 9, 1915. Cooling milk before delivery at the cheese factory. [97] Sammis, J. L., et al., Factors controlling the moisture content of cheese curds, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 7, 1910. Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1909, pages 111-124, Cheese making experiments. Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1910, pages 111-128, Cheese making experiments. Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield and the moisture content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, pages 515-537, 1913. [98] Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of the Cheddar type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-95, 1913. [99] New York Prod. Review, Vol. 34, no. 2, page 66. [100] Babcock, S. M., _et al._, Cheese ripening as influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-167. E. G. Hastings, _et al._, Studies on the factors concerned in the ripening of Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 25. [101] Fisk, W. W., Skim-milk Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Ex. Bul. 18, 1917. [102] Curd was spilled but practically all recovered. [103] Suzuki, S. K., _et al._, Production of fatty acids and esters in Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 11. [104] Babcock, S. M., _et al._, Cheese ripening as influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-167. [105] Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, Fermentation of citric acid in milk, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 14, 1910. Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of casein and salts in milk, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39, 1914. Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by casein and paracasein with acids; their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902. Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the relations of casein and paracasein to bases and acids and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905. Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, Cheese ripening investigations, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 33, 1914. [106] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, The relation of carbon dioxide to proteolysis in the ripening of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 231, 1903. [107] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the compounds present in American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 219, 1902. [108] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Action of rennin or casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913. Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening investigations; rennet enzyme as a factor in cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 233, 1903. [109] Bosworth, A. W., Studies relating to the chemistry of milk and casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 37, 1914. [110] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, Distribution of galactase in milk from different sources, pages 87-97. Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 195-197, 201-205, 222-223, Action of proteolytic ferments on milk. [111] Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1900, pages 102-122. [112] Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, The bacterial flora of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 8. [113] Bacterium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus are preferred by different authors as generic placing of the Bulgarian sour milk species. [114] Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans and E. B. Hart, The bacteriology of Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 150, pages 1-52, 1912. [115] Harding, H. A., The rôle of the lactic acid bacteria in the manufacture and in the early stages of ripening of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 237, 1903. [116] Heinemann, P. G., The kinds of lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria, Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 2, pages 603-608. [117] Hastings, E. G., _et al._, The bacteriology of Cheddar cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 150, 1912. [118] Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Conditions affecting chemical changes in cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 236, 1903. [119] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening at low temperatures, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903. [120] Van Slyke, L. L., _et al._, Cheese ripening at low temperatures, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903. [121] Doane, C. F., Methods and results of paraffining cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 181, pages 1-16, 1911. [122] Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, The use of Bacillus Bulgaricus in starters for making Swiss or Emmenthal cheese, Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 148, 1915. [123] N. Y. Produce Rev. and Am. Creamery, Vol. 37, no. 25, page 1112, Starter for Swiss cheese. [124] Clark, W. M., On the formation of "eyes" in Emmenthal cheese, Jour. Dairy Sci. 1 (1917), no. 2, pages 91-113. Among important studies of Swiss cheese ripening are the following: Freudenreich, E. v., and Orla Jensen, Ueber die in Emmentalerkäse stattfindende Proprionsäuregärung, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 17, page 529. Jensen, Orla, Biologische Studien über den Käsereifungs-prozess unter spezieller Berucksichtigung der flüchtigen Fettsäuren, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 13 (1904), page 161. Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, The bacteriology of cheese of the Emmenthal type, Centralb. f. Bakt. 2 Abt. 40 (1914), no. 1/8, pages 5-21. [125] Gorini, C., Studi sulla fabricatione razionale del fromaggi Grana, Boll. uff. del Ministero Agr. Ind. e Comm. Anno X, serie C, Fasc. 10, pages 1-7, Roma, 1911. Gorini, C., On the distribution of bacteria in Grana cheese, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 12 (1904), pages 78-81. Fascetti, G., The technological chemistry of the manufacture of Grana cheese in Reggio, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 47 (1914), no. 8, pages 541-568. [126] Cornalba, G., Caciocavallo in Lombardy, L'Industria del Latte 3, page 105, Abs. in Jahresb. f. Tierchemie 36 (1906), page 250. [127] Babcock, S. M., Albumin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 12 (1895), page 134. [128] Doane, C. F., Whey butter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 161, pages 1-7, 1910. Sammis, J. L., Making whey butter at Cheddar cheese factories, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1915. Ellenberrger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, Skimming whey at Vermont cheese factories, Vt. Dept. Agr. Bul. 26, 1916. [129] Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, The disposal of creamery sewage, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, 1915. [130] Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, Why and how pasteurize dairy by-products, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 412, 1915. [131] Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, Control of rust spots in cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 225, 1902. [132] Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. 53, 1904. Farrington, E. H., and E. H. Benkendorf, Origination and construction of cheese factories and creameries, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 244, 1915. [133] From N. Y. price current. [134] Hart, E. B., A simple test for casein in milk and its relation to the dairy industry, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 156, pages 1-22, 1907. [135] Sammis, J. L., The moisture test in the cheese factory, Wis. Exp. Sta. Circ. 81, 1917. Troy, H. C., A cheese moisture test, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 17, 1917. [136] Sammis, J. L., Correct payment for cheese factory milk by the Babcock test, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276, 1917. [137] Dairy Laws of Wisconsin, 1916, section 4607a. [138] Sammis, J. L., The improved system of selling cheese, Hoard's Dairyman 52 (1916), 15, pages 5, 11-12. Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, Markets and prices of Wisconsin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, pages 1-56, 1915. [139] Hibbard, B. H., and Asher Hobson, Markets and prices of Wisconsin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, 1915. [140] N. Y. Agricultural Laws, Sect. 3, paragraphs 48 and 49. [141] Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, Cheese and its economical uses in the diet, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, 1912. [142] See also, Reich, R., Cheese as a food and its judgment from standpoint of the food chemist, Arch. f. Hyg. 80 (1913), no. 1/6, pages 169-195. [143] This calculation was added by the authors. [144] Varietal name added by authors. [145] Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 146. [146] U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind., Dairy Div. A. I. 21, 1917. [147] Doane, C. F., _et al._, The digestibility of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 166, pages 1-21, 1911. [148] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ [149] U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, page 38. [150] Levin, W., Cheese poisoning--a toxicogenic bacillus isolated from cheese, Jour. Lab. Clin. Med. 2 (1917), page 761. [151] Thom, C., Camembert cheese problems in the United States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115. [152] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ [153] Langworthy and Hunt, _loc. cit._ [154] U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. A. I. 18. INDEX Acetic acid in cheese, 247. Acid cocci, 19. Acid fermentation, 17. Acid organisms, 41. Acid peptonizing organisms, 41. Acidity, in cheese and curd, 57, 58, 59. and color, 67. and rennet action, 66. and ripening, 255. and separation of whey, 66. and texture, 67. control of, 64. in milk, 60. testing, 60, 61. Acidy cheese, 66. Acme curd rake, 196. Albumin, 10. Albumin cheese, 295. Alcohols in cheese, 248. Alkaline bacteria, 20. Appetitost, 114. Ash of milk, 11. Ayers, S. H. (Thom and), 21. Babcock, S. M., 201, 237, 248, 295. Babcock test, 327-332. Bacillus botulinus, 370. bulgaricus = Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 279. enteritidis, 370. subtilis, 20. Bäckstein cheese, 164. Bacteria, 14. alkali-producing, 20. control of, 25. from the air, 23. from the cow, 23. from the milker, 24. from the utensils, 24. groups of, in milk, 15. in Cheddar ripening, 252-254. inert type, 20. influence on yield of Cheddar, 227. peptonizing, 20. sources in milk, 22. Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 19. aerogenes, 18. casei, 253. coli-communis, 18, 252. guntheri, 41. lactis acidi, 18, 41, 252, 254. lactis aerogenes, 252. liquefaciens, 20. prodigiosus, 20. Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, 12. Baker's cheese, 105. Bang, Ivar, 39. Bang's theory of casein, 37. Barite, baryta, 159. Barnard curd mill, 208. Benson, Miles, 163. Bergey, D. H., 16. Besana, C., 29. Block Swiss, 285. Blue label, 109. Blue-veined cheeses, 150. Board of Health lactometer, 336. Boards of Trade (Cheese), 349, 350. Boekhout, J. W. J., and J. J. Ott de Vries, 174. Bondon cheese, 94. Bosworth, Alfred W., 37-38, 40, 126, 251. Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, 249. Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, 40. Bosworth's theory of casein, 37. Branding cheese, 360. Breeds of cows, milk from, 6. Brick cheese, 86, 136, 164 to 169, 358. making, 165. qualities, 167. ripening, 167. score-card, 169. yield, 169. Brie, American, 134-136. French, 117, 131, 132. Brindse, Brinse cheese, 110. Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, 44. Buttermilk cheese, 93. Butyric acid in Cheddar cheese, 248. Butyric organisms, 21. Buying milk, 343. Caciocavallo cheese, 293. California Jack cheese, 233. Calorimeter values, 364. Camembert cheese, 86, 111, 117 to 131, 137. acidity in, 122. bacteria in, 127. composition, 128. described, 117. domestic, 360. factory, 129. group, 117. lot-card, 124, 125. making, 118-122. ripening, 123. Caproic acid in cheese, 136. Carrés affinés, 114. Casein, defined chemically, 33. acted on by acid, 33. in cheese ripening, 249. in milk and cheese, 9. Robertson's theory, 34. test (Hart), 334. Caseinogen, 35. Catalase, 11. Chapais, J. C., 137. Cheddar cheese, 79, 86, 173, 184 to 275, 358, 368. acidity test for, 190. acidy, 266, 270. American, 230. body in, 271, 273. boxes for, 264. calorimeter studies of, 368. cheddaring curd for, 204-207. color in, 270. composition of, 223. cooking curd for, 195-200. corky, 199. cutting curd for, 193. defects in, 265. drawing whey, 200. dressing, 216. dry body in, 267. English, 173. feedy flavors in, 265. finish in, 271. firming curd for, 201-204. flavor of, 221. food value of, 362-365. fruity flavors in, 266. gas in curd for, 219. gas in milk for, 217, 219, 269. gassy, 268. hooping curd for, 212. hot-iron test for, 201, 208. judging, 271. losses in, 262, 263. lot-card for, 184, 187. matting, 204. milk for, 186. milling, 207. moisture content of, 228, 258. mottled, 221, 270. packing curd for, 202. paraffining, 263. pin-holes in, 189. pressing, 213. quality in, 221, 272-273. ripening milk for, 189 to 192. ripening of, 247 to 263. salting curd for, 211. score-card for, 271, 273, 275. seamy color in, 214, 221. setting, 192. shipping, 264. starter for, 190, 191. sweet flavor in, 266. texture of, 267. variations of process, 229. yield, 224, 225. Cheese, and health, 369. and meals, 367. and price of, 373. boxes, 357. canned, 372. care in home, 372. choice of, 370-371. classification of, 81-85. color, 56. composition-table, 86, 364. definition of, 1. digestibility of, 368. fondue, 375. food value of, 362-367. fuel value of, 365. history of, 4. in dietaries, 370-374. in the household, 361-381, knife, 205. names, 81. poisoning, 370. price, 323, 357. problems, 3. processed, 84. ripening (_see varietal descriptions_). roast, 380. salad, 378, 379. sandwich, 371, 378. sauce, 374, 381. soufflé, 376. total consumption of, 362. trier, 272. varieties, 3. with sour-milk flavor, 89. yield basis for buying milk, 343. Cheese-making, an art, 2. a science, 3. Chemistry of rennet action, 33-40. Cheshire, 184. Clabber cheese, 90. Clark, W. M., 284. Classification of cheese, 81 to 85. Club cheese, 85, 231. Cold-storage, 356, 361. Colon-aërogenes group, 18. Color, 56. Colostrum, 18. Commercial starter, 43. Composition of Brick, 169. Camembert, 128. Cheddar, 223. Cottage, 92. Cream, 108. Limburger, 147. Neufchâtel, 105, 107. Roquefort, 151. Swiss, 287. Conn, H. W., 16, 23, 152. Connecticut (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 16. Constituents of milk, 7. Cooking curd, 77. for Cheddar, 195. for Swiss, 281. Coöperative organizations, 309. Cornalba, G., 293. Cottage cheese, 2, 86, 368, 379-381. discussed, 90-93. Coulommiers cheese, 111, 117, 131, 132. Cow-brand cheese, 109. Cream cheese, 108. Curd, 9. breaking, 75. chemistry of, 33 to 40. cooking of, 77. cutting, 75. draining, 79. fork, 210. knives, 77 (Fig. 11), 194, 195. Curdling period, 74. Curd-making, 55. factors in, 55. Curd mills, 207 to 209. Curd pail, 213. Curd rakes, 196. Curd scoop, 213. Curd sink, 204. Curd test, 26. Currie, James N., 149, 150, 155, 156. Cutting, W. B., 159. Cutting curd, 75-77. for Brick, 165. for Cheddar, 193-195. for Edam, 175. for Isigny, 135. for Limburger, 141. for Roquefort, 154. for Swiss, 280-281. Dahlberg, Arnold O., 98. Daisies (cheese), 230. Danish cheese, 173. Davis, B. J. (and L. A. Rogers), 16. Dean, H. H., 163. Decker, John W., 217. Derbyshire, 184. Diastase, 11. Digestibility of cheese, 367. Diseased cows, effect on milk, 13. Doane, C. F., 64, 263, 296. Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, 279. Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, 169, 365. Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, 301. Dox, Arthur W., 126, 150. Draining, 79. Camembert, 121-122. Cheddar, 195-206. Cottage, 91. Limburger, 142. Neufchâtel, 97. Roquefort, 154. Swiss, 280-282. Draining cloths, for Jack cheese, 235. for Neufchâtel, 97. for Swiss, 282. Draining rack for Neufchâtel, 97. Dressing Cheddar, 216. Dry body, 267. Duclaux, E., 39, 33-40. Duclaux's theory of casein, 36. Dutch cheeses, 173. Dutton, G. C., 184. Eagle brand, 109. Eckles, C. H., and Otto Rahn, 112. Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, 7. Edam cheese, 173, 174 to 180, 366. Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, 284. Ellenberger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, 296. Elliott, W. J., 310. Emmenthal or Emmenthaler, 276 English dairy cheese, 238. Enzymes, in cheese-ripening, 250. in milk, 11. Equipment list for Cheddar factory, 307. Esten, W. M., 41. Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, 16, 129. Esters in Cheddar cheese, 248, 254. Export Cheddar, 230. Exportation of cheese, 321. Factory, 297-309. arrangement, 302-306. boiler-room in, 301. building, 299. cleanliness in, 307. coöperative, 308. curing-rooms, 300. drainage, 298. equipment list, 307. heating, 300. location of, 298, 299. organization, 308-309. proprietary, 308. supplies, list for, 307. system, 313, 320. ventilation of, 300. water in, 298. Farm cheese, 133. Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, 310. Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, 298. Farrington, Harvey, 314. Farrington's test, 62. Fascetti, G., 288. Fat-basis for buying milk, 344. Fat and casein ratio, 224, 226. Fat and cheese yield, 225, 226. Fat and water content, 86. Fat in cheese-ripening, 86. Fat in milk, 8. Fat loss, 226-227. plus two method, 345. Fat test, 327-334. Feeds, 11. Fermentation, 15. Fermentation test, 26. Ferments, 15, 29. Filled cheese, 315, 361. Fisk, Walter W., 68, 89, 228. "Flats," 230. Flavor of cheese, 368, 371. Flavor of feeds, 11. Fleischmann, W., 152. Food value of cheese, 362-367. Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, 9, 33 to 40. Formic acid in Cheddar, 248. Frandsen, J. H., 23, 89. Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, 89. Fraser, W. J., 23. Fraser hoop, 212. Frestadius, A., 159. Freudenreich, E. von, and Orla Jensen, 284. Full skim Cheddar, 242. Galactase, 11. Gang press, 214. Gases in cheese-ripening, 249. Gassy curd, 146, 220. Gassy milk, 219. Geographical distribution of cheese factories, 315. Germicidal effect of milk, 22. Gervais cheese, 109. Getman, Louis, 139. Gex cheese, 164. Glaesler (Swiss), 286. Glymol, 334. Goat cheese, 109. Gorgonzola cheese, 158 to 161. Gorini, Constantine, 288. Gosselin curd mill, 208. Gouda cheese, 173, 180 to 183. Gournay cheese, 114. Grana cheese, 288. Granular curd cheese, 232. "Green" cheese, 247. Gruyère, 276. Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, 44. Haecker, T. L., 180. Half-skim Cheddar, 243. Hall, W. W., 187. Halliburton, 35. Hammarsten, Olof, 39, 33-40. Hammarsten's theory of rennet action, 35. Hand cheese, 112. Hard cheese, 172. Harding, H. A., 23, 254. Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, 252. Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson, and G. A. Smith, 25. Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, 306. Harris curd mill, 209. Hart, E. B., 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 253, 255, 256, 334. Hart casein test, 334. Harz cheese, 112. Hastings, E. G., 21, 44, 237. Hastings, E. G., and Alice C. Evans, 60. Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans, and E. B. Hart, 253, 255. Hayward, H., 180. Heat in cheese-making, 77-78, 87, 91, 195, 281. Heinemann, P. G., 254. Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, 349, 358-359. History of cheese-making, 4, 311. Hoops, for Camembert, 121. for Cheddar, 212. for Roquefort, 154. for Swiss, 278. Hosl, J., 39. Hot-iron test, 201. Household, cheese in, 362-381. Hunziker, O. F., 22. Hydrogen in Cheddar, 254. Importation of cheese, 321. Inert bacteria, 20. Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull., 310. d'Isigny cheese, 132, 134-137. Italian cheeses, 288-291. Jack cheese, 184, 233-236. Jensen, Orla, 284. Junker curd mill, 209. Kascoval cheese, 164. Kiernan, Mrs. E. E., 113. Kikkoji, 36, 39. King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, 12. Kosher cheese, 136. Lactic starter, 41-54. Lactometer, 335. Board of Health type, 336. Quevenne type, 335. Lactose (_see_ Milk-sugar), 10. Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, 363, 372. Larsen, C., and W. White, 44. Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, 22. Laws about cheese, 359-361. Laws about milk, 347. Leicestershire, 184. Levin, W., 370. Leyden cheese, 238. License for cheese-maker, 361. Liederkrauz cheese, 134, 138. Ligeon, X., 170. Limburger, 86, 136, 139 to 147, 358, 371. factory, 139-140. making process, 140-143. qualities, 145. ripening, 143-145. wrapping, 145. yield of, 147. Lindet, L., 38, 39. Lipase, 11. Livarot cheese, 135. Loevenhart, A. S., 36, 39. Long-horn (Cheddar) cheese, 230. Lot-card, for Camembert, 124-125. for Cheddar, 184, 187. for starter, 53. Macaroni and cheese, 377. Maine Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. Malakoff cheese, 94, 114. Manns, A. G., 7. Manns test, 231. Manufacturer's brand, 360-361. Marketing, 343-361. laws concerning, 360. Marre, E., 151. Marschall test, 62. Marshall, C. E., 189, 217. Marty, G., 165. Matheson, K. J., F. R. Cammack, 100. Matheson, K. J., C. Thom, and J. N. Currie, 94. Matting, 204. Mayo, N. F., and C. G. Elling, 289. Mazé, P., 116. McAdam, Robert, 314. McNaughton, Janet, 132. McPherson curd agitator, 196. Mercantile exchanges, 351. Michels, John, 89. Michigan Agr. Law, 13. Milk, acid fermentation of, 17. acidity in, 60. albumin, 10. ash, 11. bacteria in, 21. bacterial contamination of, 21. buying, 343. casein in, 9, 224. clean, 22. colostrum in, 13. composition of, 5, 6, 56, 222. constituents, 7. defined, 5. enzymes in, 11. fat in, 8, 224. flavors in, 11. from diseased cows, 13. germicidal property, 22. lactose in, 10. moisture in, 8. odors in, 12. paying for, 343. quality in, 5. sugar (lactose), 10. variation in composition, 6. Milking machines, 25. Milk-sugar, 10. Moisture and acidity, 70. Moisture control, 68, 69. Moisture limits in cheese, 358. Moisture test (Troy's), 337-342. Molding machines for Neufchâtel, 98. Molding Neufchâtel, 104. Molds, in Cheddar, 271. in milk, 21. Monrad, J. H., 112, 114, 180. Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, 217. Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, 7. Mottled Cheddar, 221, 270. Mucors, 93. Münster, 147, 148, 366. Mysost, 293, 295. Natural starter, 43. Neufchâtel, 80, 85, 86, 89, 371. American, 95. domestic, 95, 106. factory, 95. group discussed, 94 to 109. packages, 98. ripened form, 114-116, 117. yield, 107. New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 8, 174. New York Mercantile Exchange, 351-356. New York Price Current, 315, 351. New York Produce Review, 165, 233, 280. New York State Department of Agriculture, 13. Niszler (Swiss) cheese, 286. Nut cheese, 109. Odors absorbed by milk, 12. Oidium (Oospora) lactis, 113, 116, 131, 136, 163. Oka cheese, 169. Olimento cheese, 109. Olive cheese, 109. Olson, G. A., 74. Ontario Agricultural College Bulletins, 7, 228. Over-ripe milk, 218. Pails, 24, 25. Paracasein, 35, 250. Paraffining Cheddar, 263. Parmesan cheese, 2, 80, 86, 173, 288-291. Pasteurization, 11, 26, 45, 229, 396. Pasteurized Cheddar, 229. Pasty body, 270. Paying for milk, 343-346. Penicillium brevicaule, 129. camemberti, 116, 126, 127, 131. camemberti var. rogeri, 116. candidum, 116. roqueforti, 155, 156, 159, 163. Pennsylvania pot cheese, 113. Pepsin, 30, 33. Peptonizing bacteria, 20. Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, 163. Perishable varieties, 356. Peroxidase, 11. Petit Carré, 94, 114. Petite Suisse, 94, 114. Petits Bondons, 114. Petry, E., 36, 39. Philadelphia cream, 109, 360. Picnic cheese, 230. Pimiento cheese, 85, 101. Pimientos in Cheddar, 238. Pim-olive cheese, 109. Pineapple cheese, 184, 238. Pohl curd mill, 208. Poisoning by cheese, 370. Pont l'Eveque cheese, 135. Pooling method, 345. Port du Salut cheese, 136, 169 to 171. Pot cheese, 113. Pouriau, A. F., 82, 114. Press cloths, 212. Presses, 214, 215. Prices, distribution of, 357-359. yearly average of, 323. Primost, 295. Processed cheese, 84. Propionic acid in cheese, 247, 248. Provolono, 294. Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, 23. Ptyalin, 30. Publow, C. A., 60. Publow's test, 62. Pure culture starter, 43. Quality, in Cheddar, 272-273. in Edam, 180. in Limburger, 145. in milk, 6. in Swiss, 286. Quevenne lactometer, 335. Rabbit cheese, 372. Raffiné cheese, 137, 138. Recipes for cooking cheese, 375-381. Reductase, 11. Regianito cheese, 292. Reich, R., 363. Rennet, 9, 30, 312. action, 33 to 40. action, chemistry of, 33 action delayed by, 73. adding, 72. amount to use, 72. extract, 31, 279. for Camembert, 121. for Cheddar, 192. for Limburger, 141. for Neufchâtel, 100. for Roquefort, 153. for Swiss, 279. in ripening Cheddar, 250. strength of, 72. temperature of using, 71. test, 62. Rennin, 30. Rice and cheese, 377. Ricotte, 11, 295. Robbiola, 117. Robertson, T. Brailsford, 38. Robertson's theory of casein, 34. Roger, Georges, 116. Rogers, L. A., 16. Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, 16. Roquefort cheese, 2, 86, 150, 158, 368, 369, 371. acidity for, 153. caves for, 151. composition of, 151. curdling for, 153. cutting curd for, 154. draining, 154. from cow's milk, 152. milk for, 153. mold for, 154. ripening of, 156-157. salting, 155. setting, 153. temperature, 153. Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Baur, 26. Russell, H. L., 189, 217. Rusty spots, 74, 306. Sage cheese, 239-241. Salt in Cheddar ripening, 259. Salting, Camembert, 122. Cheddar, 211. Limburger, 142. Neufchâtel, 102. Roquefort, 155. Swiss, 283. Sammis, J. L., 95, 228, 296, 337, 347, 349. Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, 11, 41, 57, 229. Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, 33. Sammis' method, 229. Sap sago, 294. Schenk, C., 165. Schmidt-Nielson, S., 36, 39. Schmierkäse, 90. Schroeder, E. C., 99. Schweitzer cheese, 276. Score-card, for Brick, 169. for Cheddar, 271. for Limburger, 146. for starter, 51. for Swiss, 287. Sediment test, 27, 28. Semi-hard cheeses, 149-171. Setting, 71. Shaw, R. H. (and C. H. Eckles), 7. Sheep's milk, 151, 152. Sheep's milk cheese, 150. Sheldon, J. P., 161. Shot-gun cans, 97. Size factor in ripening, 263. Skim cheese, 89, 361, 366. bacteria, 134-147. Cheddar, 241-246. Neufchâtel, 105, 107. ripened by molds, 111. Soft cheeses, 82-83, 86. Solids not fat, 335-337. Speed knife, 217. Spiro, K., 36, 39. Square cream, 109. Standards, 359. Starter, 42. amount to use, 52. care of milk for, 47. commercial, 43. containers for, 45. for Brick, 165. for Camembert, 121. for Cheddar, 189. for Neufchâtel, 99. for Roquefort, 153. for Swiss, 279. handling, 42-50. lot-card for, 53. "mother," 47 natural, 42. pasteurization of, 45. propagation of, 46-48. qualities of, 50. score-card for, 51. Startoline, 47. State brands, 360. Stevenson, C., 29. Stilton cheese, 161-163. Stirred curd cheese, 232. Stocking, W. A., Jr., 22, 23, 25. Storage of cheese, 103. Streptococcus lacticus, 41. Streptothrix-actinomyces group, 21. Succinic acid, 254. Suzuki, S. K., 247. Sweet curd cheese, 236. Swiss cheese, 80, 86, 173, 276-288, 358, 366, 368, 371. block, 278. breaking, 281. composition, 287. curing, 283. cutting, 280. drum, 278. eyes in, 283-285. factories, 276-278. making process, 280-283. pressing, 282. quality in, 286. rennet for, 279. salting, 283. score-card for, 287. starter for, 279. testing, Chapter XIX, 327. Swiss harp, 278. Tests, acid, 60, 61. Babcock, 327-334. casein, 334. curd, 26. fat, 327. fermentation, 26. Hart, 334. hot-iron, 201. lactometer, 335-337. moisture in cheese, 337-342. rennet, 62. sediment, 27, 28. solids not fat, 335-337. Troy's moisture, 337-342. Thom, C., 117, 154, 155, 158, 372. Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, 21. Thom, C., and J. N. Currie, 156. Thom, C., J. N. Currie, and K. J. Matheson, 116, 152. Thom, C., and K. J. Matheson, 149. Tinfoil wrapping, 145. Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, 29. Tolstrup, R. M., 91. Trappist, 169. Trier, 272. Troy, H. C., 337. Trypsin, 30. Twins, 230. Tyrein, 35. U. S. Census Report, quoted, 317, 318 to 322. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks, quoted, 326. U. S. Treasury Dept. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin, 22. Utensils, 24. Valerianic acid in cheese, 136. Van Dam, W., 29, 36, 39. Van Eyck Machine Co., 98. Van Herwerden, M., 36, 39. Van Slyke, L. L., 8, 223, 224, 225, 251, 257, 262. Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, 9, 36, 39, 40, 249. Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, 33. Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 256. Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, 310. Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, 249. Vat, 190. Vermont Exp. Sta. Rept., 7. Victor curd mill, 208. Ward, A. R., 217. Washed curd process, 236. Water in milk, 8. Welsh rabbit, 377. Wensleydale, 184. Whey, 222. Whey butter, 295. Whey cheese, 85, 295. Whey siphon, 202. Whey strainer, 202, 203. Whey tank, 301, 303. White cheese, 109. Williams, Jesse, 313. Wilson hoop, 212. Wing, Lois W., 25. Wisconsin Agr. Law, 13, 347. Wisconsin curd test, 26. Wisconsin pasteurized Cheddar, 229. Wisconsin Sta. Bul., quoted, 7, 8, 10, 26, 251, 253. Working of curd, 102, 135. Wuethrich, F., 165. Yeasts, 21. Yield of, Brick, 169. Camembert, 130. Cheddar, 226. Limburger, 146. Neufchâtel (whole milk), 107. Swiss, 287. Young America, 230. Zumkehr, P. 139. * * * * * The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY Butter BY E. S. GUTHRIE Professor in the Dairy Department, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University A practical discussion of the general characteristics of butter, and of all of the problems connected with its manufacture and marketing, together with a brief history of the product. Among the topics considered are the history of butter; composition and food value of butter; cleansing and care of dairy utensils; care of milk and cream; cream separation; grading milk and cream and neutralizing acidity; pasteurization; cream ripening; churning, washing, salting and packing butter; flavors of butter; storage of butter; marketing; whey butter, renovated and ladled butter; margarine, and testing. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York A Manual of Milk Products BY W. A. STOCKING, JR. Professor of Dairy Bacteriology in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University _$2.00_ This is the most recent addition to the Rural Manual Series under the editorship of L. H. Bailey. The work is intended to serve as a reference book covering the entire subject of milk and its products. There are chapters on The Chemical Composition of Milk, The Factors Which Influence Its Composition, Physical Properties, The Various Tests Used in the Study of Milk, The Production and Handling of Milk, Butter Making, The Cream Supply, Butter Making on the Farm, Cheese Making, and the Bacteriology of Dairy Products. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York The Modern Milk Problem BY J. SCOTT MACNUTT Lecturer on Public Health Service in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology _With 16 plates and 22 illustrations. Cloth, 12mo, $2.00_ Notwithstanding the fact that the milk problem is constantly growing more acute in many parts of the United States, no book has thus far appeared treating, in a brief space, its main aspects and stressing the practical and economic as well as the sanitary factors involved. The present volume is designed to fill this obvious need by providing a convenient survey of a perplexing subject--not merely for health officials and milk inspectors, but also for dairy-men and city milk dealers, agricultural authorities, legislators charged with the framing of milk laws, inquiring consumers and members of organizations engaged in efforts to secure better milk supplies, physicians, and all others who are interested in the understanding and solution of the milk problem. The entire work is essentially practical and valuable as a constant reference. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Cooperation: The Hope of the Consumer BY EMERSON P. HARRIS President of the Montclair Coöperative Society. With an Introduction by JOHN GRAHAM BROOKS. _Cloth, 12mo_ The author's purpose has been to discuss coöperative purchasing, to show why it is desirable, to indicate the evils which it reforms, to present the operation of a coöperative store and to consider the difficulties which must be overcome. The titles of the four parts into which this work is divided are as follows: The Failure of Our Middlemanism, Reasons and the Remedy, Practical Coöperation, Background and Outlook. The Marketing of Farm Products BY L. D. H. WELD _$1.60_ This book aims to set forth the fundamental principles of market distribution as applied to the marketing of agricultural products. It begins by pointing out the place that marketing occupies in the general field of economics, and by applying accepted economic principles to the marketing process. It then explains the general organization and methods of marketing, beginning with marketing at country points, and passes on to a description of the methods and functions of the various classes of wholesale dealers. After describing the factors affecting the cost of marketing, illustrated by data concerning the marketing of certain specific products, a number of special problems are treated, such as price quotations, future trading, inspection and grading, public markets, coöperative marketing, etc. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York +----------------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's note: | | | | The original text contains a large number of words which occur | | in hyphenated and spaced forms with comparable frequency. Such | | inconsistencies have been retained in this version. | +----------------------------------------------------------------+ 
40684	----	THE AMERICAN HORSEWOMAN BY MRS. ELIZABETH KARR "Gold that buys health can never be ill spent, Nor hours laid out in harmless merriment." J. WEBSTER [Illustration] BOSTON HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY New York: 11 East Seventeenth Street The Riverside Press, Cambridge 1884 Copyright, 1884, BY ELIZABETH KARR. _All rights reserved._ _The Riverside Press, Cambridge_: Electrotyped and Printed by H. O. Houghton & Co. PREFACE. In presenting this volume to the women of America, the author would remark that, at least as far as she is aware, it is the first one, exclusively devoted to the instruction of lady riders, that has ever been written by one of their own countrywomen. In its preparation, no pretension is made to the style of a practiced author, the writer freely acknowledging it to be her first venture in the (to her) hitherto unexplored regions of authorship; she has simply undertaken,--being guided and aided by her own experience in horseback riding,--to write, in plain and comprehensive language, and in as concise a manner as is compatible with a clear understanding of her subject, all that she deems it essential for a horsewoman to know. This she has endeavored to do without any affectation or effort to acquire reputation as an author, and wholly for the purpose of benefiting those of her own sex who wish to learn not only to ride, but to ride well. She has also been induced to prepare the work by the urgent solicitations of many lady friends, who, desirous of having thorough information on horseback riding, were unable to find in any single work those instructions which they needed. Many valuable works relating to the subject could be had, but none especially for ladies. True, in many of these works prepared for equestrians a few pages of remarks or advice to horsewomen could be found, but so scant and limited were they that but little useful and practical information could be gleaned from them. The writers of these works never even dreamed of treating many very important points highly essential to the horsewoman; and, indeed, it could hardly be expected that they would, as it is almost impossible for any horseman to know, much less to comprehend, these points. The position of a man in the saddle is natural and easy, while that of a woman is artificial, one-sided, and less readily acquired; that which he can accomplish with facility is for her impossible or extremely difficult, as her position lessens her command over the horse, and obliges her to depend almost entirely upon her skill and address for the means of controlling him. If a gentleman will place himself upon the side-saddle and for a short time ride the several gaits of his horse, he will have many points presented which he had not anticipated, and which may puzzle him; that which appeared simple and easy when in his natural position will become difficult of performance when he assumes the rôle of a horsewoman. A trial of this kind will demonstrate to him that the rules applicable to the one will not invariably be adapted to the other. The reader need not be surprised, therefore, if in the perusal of this volume she discovers in certain instances instructions laid down which differ from those met with in the popular works upon this subject by male authors. Another inducement to prepare this volume existed in the fact that the ladies throughout the country, and especially in our large cities and towns, are apparently awakening to an appreciation of the importance of out-door amusement and exercise in securing and prolonging health, strength, beauty, and symmetry of form, and that horseback riding is rapidly becoming the favorite form of such exercise. Instructions relating to riding have become, therefore, imperative, in order to supply a need long felt by those horsewomen who, when in the saddle, are desirous of acquitting themselves with credit, but who have heretofore been unable to gain that information which would enable them to ride with ease and grace, and to manage their steeds with dexterity and confidence. The author--who has had several years' experience in horseback riding with the old-fashioned, two-pommeled saddle, and, in later years, with the English saddle, besides having had the benefit of the best continental teaching--believes she will be accused of neither vanity nor egotism when she states that within the pages of this work instructions will be found amply sufficient to enable any lady who attends to them to ride with artistic correctness. Great care has been taken to enter upon and elucidate all those minute but important details which are so essential, but which, because they are so simple, are usually passed over without notice or explanation. Especial attention has also been given to the errors of inexperienced and uneducated riders, as well as to the mistakes into which beginners are apt to fall from incorrect modes of teaching, or from no instruction at all; these errors have been carefully pointed out, and the methods for correcting them explained. A constant effort has been made to have these practical hints and valuable explanations as lucid as possible, that they may readily be comprehended and put into practical use by the reader. From the fact that considerable gossip, including some truth, as to illiteracy, rudeness, offensive familiarity, and scandal of various kinds has in past years been associated with some of the riding-schools established in our cities, many ladies entertain a decided antipathy to all riding-schools; to these ladies, as well as to those who are living in places where no riding-schools exist, the author feels confident that this work will prove of great practical utility. Yet she must remark that, in her opinion, it is neither just nor right to ostracize indiscriminately all such schools, simply because some of them have proven blameworthy; whenever a riding-school of good standing is established and is conducted by a well-known, competent, and gentlemanly teacher, with one or more skilled lady assistants, she would advise the ladies of the neighborhood to avail themselves of such opportunity to become sooner thorough and efficient horsewomen by pursuing the instructions given in this work under such qualified teachers. ELIZABETH KARR. NORTH BEND, OHIO. A BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Utility, health, and enjoyment, in horseback riding.--Affection of the horse for a kind mistress.--Incorrect views entertained by ladies relative to horses and horseback riding.--Tight lacing incompatible with correct riding.--Advantages of good riding-schools.--Instinct not a sufficient guide.--Compatibility of refinement and horseback riding.--Importance of out-of-door exercise. 1 CHAPTER I. THE HORSE. Origin and countries of the horse.--Earliest Scriptural mention of the horse.--Caligula's horse.--Horseback riding in the Middle Ages.--The Arab horse and his descendants.--Selection of a horse, and points to be observed.--Suitable gaits for the several conformations of riders.--The fast or running walk.--Various kinds of trotting.--The jog trot undesirable.--Temperament of the horse to be taken into consideration.--Thorough-bred horses.--Low-bred horses.--Traits of thorough and low bred horses.--Purchasing a horse; when to pay for the purchase.--Kindness to the horse instead of brutality.--Advantages of kind treatment of the horse.--Horses properly trained from early colt-life, the best.--Certain requirements in training a horse for a lady.--Ladies should visit their horses in the stable.--Ladies of refinement, occupying the highest positions in the civilized and fashionable world, personally attend to their horses.--Nature of the horse.--Unreliable grooms; their vicious course with horses intrusted to their care.--Care required in riding livery-stable horses. 13 CHAPTER II. THE RIDING HABIT. Riding habit should not be gaudy.--Instructions concerning the material for riding habit, and how this should be made.--The waist.--The basque or jacket.--Length of riding habit.--White material not to be worn on horseback.--Riding shirt.--Riding drawers.--Riding boots.--Riding corset.--Riding coiffure or head-dress.--Riding hat.--Minutiæ to be attended to in the riding costume.--How to hold the riding skirt while standing.--Riding whip. 52 CHAPTER III. THE SADDLE AND BRIDLE. Saddle of ancient times, and the manner of riding.--Planchette.--Catherine de Medici deviser of the two-pommeled saddle.--M. Pellier, Sr., inventor of the third pommel.--English saddle.--Advantages of the third pommel.--Saddle should, invariably, be made and fitted to the horse.--Seat of saddle.--Kinds of saddles for different ladies.--Proper application of the third pommel.--Saddle recommended and used by the author.--Points to be attended to in procuring a saddle.--Girths.--New mode of tightening girths.--Stirrups and stirrup-leathers.--Safety stirrups.--How to attach the stirrup-leather.--The bridle and reins.--Martingales.--Snaffle-bits.--Curb-bits.--Curb-chain.--Tricks of horses with bits, and their remedy.--Adjustment of the bit and head-stall.--Care of the bit.--How to correctly place the saddle on the horse.--Remarks concerning girthing the horse.--Great advantages derived from knowing how to saddle and bridle one's horse. 67 CHAPTER IV. MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. Timidity in presence of a horse should be overcome.--First attempts at mounting.--Mounting from a horse-block.--Mounting from the ground.--Mounting with assistance from a gentleman; how this is effected.--What the gentleman must do.--A restive horse while mounting; how to be managed.--Attractiveness of correct mounting.--To dismount with assistance from a gentleman; what the gentleman must do.--Attentions to the skirt both while mounting and dismounting.--Dismounting without aid; upon the ground; upon a very low horse-block.--Concluding remarks. 99 CHAPTER V. THE SEAT ON HORSEBACK. The absolute necessity for a correct seat.--Natural riders rarely acquire a correct seat.--The dead-weight seat.--The wabbling seat.--Essential to good and graceful riding that the body be held square and erect.--The correct seat.--Proper attitude for the body, shoulders, waist, arms, hands, knees, and legs, when on horseback.--Uses and advantages of the third pommel.--Lessons in position should always be taken by the novice in horseback riding.--Faulty positions of ladies called "excellent equestriennes," pointed out at an imaginary park.--Remarks concerning the improper use of stirrups and pommels.--Pupils and teachers frequently in erroneous positions toward each other.--Obstinacy of some pupils, and wrong ideas of others.--Ladies should not be in too much haste to become riders before they understand all the elementary and necessary requirements; but should advance carefully, attentively, and thoroughly.--Suggestions to teachers of ladies in equitation. 114 CHAPTER VI. HOLDING THE REINS, AND MANAGING THE HORSE. A thorough knowledge of the management of the horse highly necessary for a lady.--Position in the saddle has an important influence.--Horses generally more gentle with women than with men.--Position should be acquired first, and afterwards the reins be used.--How to hold the hands and snaffle-reins, in first lessons.--To turn the horse to the right, to the left, to back him, to stop him, with a snaffle-rein in each hand.--Manner of holding the snaffle-reins in the bridle-hand; to turn the horse to either side; to back, and to stop him.--To change the snaffle-reins from the left to the right hand; to reinstate them in the bridle-hand.--To separate the snaffle-reins; to shorten or lengthen them.--To hold the curb and bridoon, or double bridle-reins; to shorten or lengthen them; to shorten the curb and lengthen the snaffle-reins; to shorten the snaffle and lengthen the curb-reins.--To tighten a rein that has become loose.--To change the double bridle from the left to the right hand; to return it to the left hand.--Management of reins when making quick turns.--European manner of holding the double bridle-reins, a pair in each hand.--The equestrienne should practice and perfect herself in these various manoeuvrings with the reins.--The proper rein-hold creates a correspondence between the rider's hand and the horse's mouth, and gives support to the animal.--Give and take movements--The dead-pull.--In collecting the horse the curb must be used.--The secret of good riding.--The management of the reins with restive horses.--Liberty of the reins sometimes necessary.--Movements of horse and rider should correspond.--Horse united or collected.--Horse disunited.--To animate the horse.--To soothe the horse.--What to do in certain improper movements of the horse.--Concluding remarks. 145 CHAPTER VII. THE WALK. The movements of the horse in walking.--A good walk is a certain basis for perfection in other gaits.--A lady's horse should be especially trained to walk well.--Every change in the walk, as turning, backing, and stopping, should be well learned, before attempting to ride in a faster gait.--The walk is a gait more especially desirable for some ladies.--The advance, the turn, the stop, the reining back, in the walk.--Remarks on the reining back. 181 CHAPTER VIII. THE TROT, THE AMBLE, THE PACE, THE RACK. The movements of the horse in trotting.--The trot a safe gait for a lady.--The jog trot.--The racing trot.--The true trot.--The French trot.--The English trot; is desirable for ladies to learn.--Objections to the French trot.--How to manage the horse and ride the English trot.--Which is the leading foot of the horse in the trot.--To stop a horse in the English trot.--Trotting in a circle.--Circling to the right, to the left.--The amble.--The pace.--The rack. 197 CHAPTER IX. THE CANTER. Leading with the right foot, with the left foot.--The rapid gallop.--The canter.--The true canter.--To commence the canter; position of the rider, and management of the horse.--To canter with the right leg leading.--To canter with the left leg leading.--To determine with which leg the horse is leading in the canter.--To change from the trot to the canter.--To turn in the canter, to the right, to the left.--Management of the horse while making a turn in the canter.--To stop in the canter.--Remarks concerning position in the canter. 221 CHAPTER X. THE HAND GALLOP, THE FLYING GALLOP. The hand gallop, a favorite gait with ladies.--Position and management of the reins, in the hand gallop.--Cautions to ladies when riding the hand gallop.--To manage a disobedient horse during the hand gallop.--Turning when riding the hand gallop.--Position of rider while turning in the hand gallop.--The flying gallop an exercise for country roads.--Cautions to ladies previous to riding the flying gallop.--Holding the reins, position of the rider, and management of the horse, in the flying gallop.--To stop in the flying gallop.--Concluding remarks. 238 CHAPTER XI. THE LEAP, THE STANDING LEAP, THE FLYING LEAP. Advantages of learning to leap.--Requisites necessary in leaping.--The standing leap.--Position of the rider, rein-hold, and management of the horse, in the standing leap.--Points to be carefully observed in the leap.--How to make the horse leap.--Management of the reins and of the rider's position during the leap.--Counsels which should be well learned by the rider before attempting the leap, and especially as to the management of the horse.--How to train a horse to leap.--A lady should never attempt the leap, except with a horse well trained in it.--Horses do not all leap alike.--The flying leap.--Important points to know relative to the flying leap. 249 CHAPTER XII. DEFENSES OF THE HORSE, CRITICAL SITUATIONS. A lady's horse should be gentle, well-trained, and possess no vice.--Shying, and its treatment.--Shying sometimes due to defective vision, and at other times to discontent.--Balking, and its treatment.--Backing, and its treatment.--Gayety.--Kicking, and its remedy. An attention to the position and motions of the horse's ears will determine what he is about to do.--Plunging; bucking; what to do in these cases.--Rearing, and the course to be pursued.--Running away, and the course to be pursued.--Unsteadiness of the horse while being mounted, and how to correct it.--Stumbling, and its treatment.--What to do when the horse falls.--Remarks concerning the use of the whip and spur.--Be generous to the horse when he yields to his rider. 271 ADDENDA. Thirty-four points necessary to be learned, and to be well understood by equestriennes.--Conclusion. 301 GLOSSARY 313 INDEX 319 ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 1. HEAD OF ARABIAN STEED 24 2. HEAD OF LOW-BRED HORSE 24 3. WIDTH OF LOWER JAW IN THE THOROUGH-BRED 26 4. WIDTH OF THE LOWER JAW IN THE LOW-BRED 26 5. OBLIQUE SHOULDER 27 6. STRAIGHT OR UPRIGHT SHOULDER 28 7. ENGLISH SADDLE 69 8. STOKES' MODE OF GIRTHING THE SADDLE 77 9. VICTORIA STIRRUP 79 10. SPRING-BAR FOR STIRRUP-LEATHER 79 11. LENNAN'S SAFETY STIRRUP 80 12. LATCHFORD'S SAFETY STIRRUP 81 13. CHIFNEY BIT 84 14. THE COMBINATION BIT 85 15. DWYER'S CURB-BIT 86 16. THE BIT ADJUSTED 90 17. LADY READY TO MOUNT HER HORSE 104 18. LADY READY TO DISMOUNT 110 19. CORRECT SEAT FOR A LADY (_Back view_) 119 20. CORRECT SEAT FOR A LADY (_Side view_) 124 21. CROOKED POSITION IN SADDLE (_Miss X._) 129 22. CROOKED POSITION IN SADDLE (_Mrs. Y._) 133 23. INCORRECT POSITION OF LEGS AND FEET (_Side view_) 136 24. INCORRECT POSITION WHEN LEGS AND FEET ARE WRONGLY PLACED (_Back view_) 137 25. SNAFFLE-REINS; ONE IN EACH HAND 149 26. SNAFFLE-REINS; BOTH IN THE LEFT HAND 153 27. DOUBLE BRIDLE; ALL REINS IN THE BRIDLE-HAND 162 28. DOUBLE BRIDLE; A SNAFFLE AND A CURB REIN IN EACH HAND 166 29. THE WALK 185 30. THE TROT 205 31. ENTERING UPON THE CANTER WITH THE RIGHT LEG LEADING 225 32. THE FLYING GALLOP 243 33. THE STANDING LEAP--RISING 251 34. THE STANDING LEAP--DESCENDING 259 35. THE HORSE 299 INTRODUCTION. "How melts my beating heart as I behold Each lovely nymph, our island's boast and pride, Push on the generous steed, that sweeps along O'er rough, o'er smooth, nor heeds the steepy hill, Nor falters in the extended vale below!" _The Chase._ Among ladies of wealth and culture in England, the equestrienne art forms a portion of their education as much as the knowledge of their own language, of French, or of music, and great care is taken that their acquirements in this art shall be as thorough as those in any other branch of their tuition. The mother bestows much of her own personal supervision on her daughter's instruction, closely watching for every little fault, and promptly correcting it when any becomes manifest. As a result universally acknowledged, a young English lady, when riding a well-trained and spirited horse, is a sight at once elegant and attractive. She exhibits a degree of confidence, a firmness of seat, and an ease and grace that can be acquired only by the most careful and correct instruction. The fair rider guides her steed, without abruptness, from walk to canter, from canter to trot, every movement in perfect harmony; horse and rider being, as it were, of one thought. "Each look, each motion, awakes a new-born grace." Unfortunately, at the present day, from want of careful study of the subject, the majority of American lady riders, notwithstanding the elegance of their forms and their natural grace, by no means equal their English sisters in the art of riding. In most instances, a faulty position in the saddle, an unsteadiness of seat, and a lack of sympathy between horse and rider, occasion in the mind of the spectator a sense of uneasiness lest the horse, in making playful movements, or, perhaps, becoming slightly fractious, may unseat his rider,--a feeling which quite destroys the charm and fascination she might otherwise exercise. If my countrywomen would but make a master stroke, and add correct horseback riding to the long list of accomplishments which they now possess, they would become irresistible, and while delighting others, would likewise promote their own physical well-being. There is no cosmetic nor physician's skill which can preserve the bloom and freshness of youth as riding can, and my fair readers, if they wish to prolong those charms for which they are world renowned, charms whose only fault is their too fleeting existence, must take exercise, and be more in the fresh air and sunshine. How much better to keep old age at bay by these innocent means, than to resort to measures which give to the eye of the world a counterfeit youth that will not deceive for a moment. Even an elderly lady may without offense or harsh criticism recall some of the past joys of younger years by an occasional ride for health or recreation, and, while gracefully accepting her half century, or more, of life, she can still retain some of the freshness and spirit of bygone years. Not only is health preserved and life prolonged by exercise on horseback, but, in addition, sickness is banished, or meliorated, and melancholy, that dark demon which occasionally haunts even the most joyous life, is overcome and driven back to the dark shades from whence it came. Should the reader have the good fortune to possess an intelligent horse, she can, when assailed by sorrows real or fancied, turn to this true, willing friend, whose affectionate neigh of greeting as she approaches, and whose pretty little graceful arts, will tend to dispel her gloom, and, once in the saddle, speeding along through the freshening air, fancied griefs are soon forgotten, while strength and nerve are gained to face those troubles of a more serious nature, whose existence cannot be ignored. To the mistress who thoroughly understands the art of managing him, the horse gives his entire affection and obedience, becomes her most willing slave, submits to all her whims, and is proud and happy under her rule. In disposition the horse is much like a child. Both are governed by kindness combined with firmness; both meet indifference with indifference, but return tenfold in love and obedience any care or affection that is bestowed upon them. The horse also resembles the child in the keenness with which he detects hypocrisy; no pretense of love or interest will impose on either. To the lady rider who has neither real fondness for her horse nor knowledge of governing him, there is left but one resource by means of which the animal can be controlled, and this is the passion of fear. With a determined will, she may, by whipping, force him to obey, but this means is not always reliable, especially with a high-spirited animal, nor is it a method which any true woman would care to employ. If, in addition to indifference to the horse, there be added nervousness and timidity, which she finds herself unable to overcome by practice and association, the lady might as well relinquish all attempt to become a rider. Should any of my readers think that these views of the relations between horse and rider are too sentimental, that all which is needed in a horse is easy movement, obedience to the reins, and readiness to go forward when urged, and that love and respect are quite unnecessary, she will find, should she ever meet with any really alarming object on the road, that a little of this despised affection and confidence is very desirable, for, in the moment of danger, the voice which has never spoken in caressing accents, nor sought to win confidence will be unheeded; fear will prevail over careful training, and the rider will be very fortunate if she escapes without an accident. The writer is sustained in the idea that the affection of the horse is essential to the safety of the rider, not only by her own experience, but also by that of some of the most eminent teachers of riding, and trainers of horses. Maud S. is an example of what a firm yet kind rule will effect in bringing forth the capabilities of a horse. She has never had a harsh word spoken to her, and has never been punished with the whip, but has, on the contrary, been trained with the most patient and loving care; and the result has been a speed so marvelous as to have positively astonished the world, for although naturally high tempered, she will strain every nerve to please her kind, loving master, when urged forward by his voice alone. Some ladies acquire a dislike for horseback riding, either because they experience discomfort or uneasiness when in the saddle, or because the movements of their horses cause them considerable fatigue. There may be various reasons for this: the saddle may be too large, or too small, or improperly made; or the rider's position in the saddle may be incorrect, and as a consequence, the animal cannot be brought to his best paces. Discomfort may occasionally be caused by an improperly made riding-habit. The rider whose waist is confined by tight lacing cannot adapt herself to the motions of her horse, and the graceful pliancy so essential to good riding will, therefore, be lost. The lady who wears tight corsets can never become a thorough rider, nor will the exercise of riding give her either pleasure or health. She may manage to look well when riding at a gait no faster than a walk, but, beyond this, her motions will appear rigid and uncomfortable. A quick pace will induce rapid circulation, and the blood, checked at the waist, will, like a stream which has met with an obstacle in its course, turn into other channels, rushing either to the heart, causing faintness, or to the head, producing headache and vertigo. There have even been instances of a serious nature, where expectoration of blood has been occasioned by horseback riding, when the rider was tightly laced. The naturally slender, symmetrical figure, when in the saddle, is the perfection of beauty, but she whom nature has endowed with more ample proportions will never attain this perfection by pinching her waist in. Let the full figure be left to nature, its owner sitting well in the saddle, on a horse adapted to her style, and she will make a very imposing appearance, and prove a formidable rival to her more slender companion. There is a mistaken idea prevalent among certain persons, that horseback riding induces obesity. It is true that, to a certain extent, riding favors healthy muscular development, but the same may be said of all kinds of exercise, and this effect, far from being objectionable, is highly desirable, as it contributes to symmetry of form, as well as to health and strength, conditions that in a large proportion of our American women are unfortunately lacking. Those who ride on horseback will find that while gaining in strength and proper physical tissue, they will, at the same time, as a rule, be gradually losing all excess of flesh; it is impossible for an active rider to become fat or flabby; but the indolent woman who is prejudiced against exercise of any kind will soon find the much dreaded calamity, corpulency, overtaking her, and beauty of form more or less rapidly disappearing beneath a mountain of flesh. There are many persons who entertain the mistaken idea that instinct is a sufficient guide in learning to ride; that it is quite unnecessary to take any lessons or to make a study of the art of correct riding; and that youth, a good figure, and practice are all that is required to make a finished rider. This is a most erroneous opinion, which has been productive of much harm to lady riders. The above qualifications are undoubtedly great assistants, but without correct instruction they will never produce an accomplished and graceful rider. The instinctive horsewoman usually rides boldly and with perfect satisfaction to herself, but to the eye of the connoisseur she presents many glaring defects. Very bold, but, at the same time, very bad riding is often seen among those who consider themselves very fine horsewomen. In order to gain the reputation of a finished rider, it is not essential that one should perform all the antics of a circus rider, nor that she should ride a Mazeppian horse. The finished rider may be known by the correctness of her attitude in the saddle, by her complete control of her horse, and by the tranquillity of her motions when in city or park; in such places she makes no attempt to ride at a very rapid trot, or flying gallop-gaits which should be reserved for country roads, where more speed is allowable. There is still another false idea prevalent among a certain class of people, which is that a love for horses, and for horseback riding necessarily makes one coarse, and detracts from the refinement of a woman's nature. It must be acknowledged that the coarseness of a vulgar spirit can be nowhere more conspicuously displayed than in the saddle, and yet in no place is the delicacy and decorum of woman more observable. A person on horseback is placed in a position where every motion is subject to critical observation and comment. The quiet, simple costume, the easy movements, the absence of ostentatious display, will always proclaim the refined, well-bred rider. Rudeness in the saddle is as much out of place as in the parlor or salon, and greatly more annoying to spectators, besides being disrespectful and dangerous to other riders. Abrupt movements, awkward and rapid paces, frequently cause neighboring horses to become restless, and even to run away. Because a lady loves her horse, and enjoys riding him, it is by no means necessary that she should become a Lady Gay Spanker, indulge in stable talk, make familiars of grooms and stable boys, or follow the hounds in the hunting field. There are in this work no especial instructions given for the hunting field, as the author does not consider it a suitable place for a lady rider. She believes that no lady should risk life and limb in leaping high and dangerous obstacles, but that all such daring feats should be left to the other sex or to circus actresses. Nor would any woman who really cared for her horse wish to run the risk of reducing him to the deplorable condition of many horses that follow the hounds. In England, where hunting is the favorite pastime among gentlemen, the number of maimed and crippled horses that one meets is disheartening. Every lady, however, who desires to become a finished rider, should learn to leap, as this will not only aid her in securing a good seat in the saddle, but may also prove of value in times of danger. Before concluding I would again urge upon my readers the importance of out-of-door exercise, which can hardly be taken in a more agreeable form than that of horseback riding,--a great panacea, giving rest and refreshment to the overworked brain of the student, counteracting many of the pernicious effects of the luxurious lives of the wealthy, and acting upon the workers of the world as a tonic, and as a stimulus to greater exertion. THE AMERICAN HORSEWOMAN. CHAPTER I. THE HORSE. "Look, when a painter would surpass the life, In limning out a well-proportioned steed, His art with Nature's workmanship at strife, As if the dead the living should exceed; So did this horse excel a common one, In shape, in courage, color, pace, and bone." * * * * * --"what a horse should have he did not lack, Save a proud rider on so proud a back." _Venus and Adonis._ It is supposed that the original home of the horse was central Asia, and that all the wild horses that range over the steppes of Tartary, the pampas of South America, and the prairies of North America, are descendants of this Asiatic stock.[1] There is, in the history of the world, no accurate statement of the time when the horse was first subjugated by man, but so far back as his career can be traced in the dim and shadowy past, he seems to have been man's servant and companion. We find him, on the mysterious ruins of ancient Egypt, represented with his badge of servitude, the bridle; he figures in myth and fable as the companion of man and gods; he is a prominent figure in the pictured battle scenes of the ancient world; and has always been a favorite theme with poet, historian, and philosopher in all ages. Footnote 1: A very interesting work, by C. A. Piétrement, has recently been issued in France, entitled _Les chevaux dans les temps prehistorique et historique_. The author shows that wild horses were hunted and eaten by man in the rough stone age. He also determines in what European and Asiatic regions the eight extant horse families were domesticated, and traces their various wanderings over the earth, deducing many interesting facts from the history of their migrations. The first written record, known to us, of the subjection of the horse to man is found in the Bible, where in Genesis (xlvii. 17) it is stated that Joseph gave the Egyptians bread in exchange for their horses, and in 1. 9, we read that when Joseph went to bury his father Jacob, there went with him the servants of the house of Pharaoh, the elders of the land of Egypt, together with "chariots and horsemen" in numbers. Jeremiah compares the speed of the horse with the swiftness of the eagle; and Job's description of the war charger has never been surpassed. Ancient Rome paid homage to the horse by a yearly festival, when every one abstained from labor, and the day was made one of feasting and frolic. The horse, decked with garlands, and with gay and costly trappings, was led in triumph through the streets, followed by a multitude who loudly proclaimed in verse and song his many good services to man. This adulation of the horse sometimes went beyond the bounds of reason, as in the case of Caligula, who carried his love for his horse, Incitatus, to an insane degree. He had a marble palace erected for a stable, furnished it with mangers of ivory and gold, and had sentinels guard it at night that the repose of his favorite might not be disturbed. Another elegant palace was fitted up in the most splendid and costly style, and here the animal's visitors were entertained. Caligula required all who called upon himself to visit Incitatus also, and to treat the animal with the same respect and reverence as that observed towards a royal host. This horse was frequently introduced at Caligula's banquets, where he was presented with gilded oats, and with wine from a golden cup. Historians state that Caligula would even have made his steed consul of Rome, had not the tyrant been opportunely assassinated, and the world freed from an insane fiend. In the legends of the Middle Ages the knight-errant and his gallant steed were inseparable, and together performed doughty deeds of valor and chivalry. In our present more prosaic age, the horse has been trained to such a degree of perfection in speed and motion as was never dreamed of by the ancients or by the knights of the crusades; and there has been given to the world an animal that is a marvel of courage, swiftness, and endurance, while, at the same time, so docile, that the delicate hand of woman can completely control him. The Arabian is the patrician among horses; he is the most intelligent, the most beautifully formed, and, when kindly treated, the gentlest of his race. He is especially noted for his keenness of perception, his retentive memory, his powers of endurance, and, when harshly or cruelly treated, for his fierce resentment and ferociousness, which nothing but death can conquer. In his Arabian home he is guarded as a treasure, is made one of the family and treated with the most loving care. This close companionship creates an affection and confidence between the horse and his master which is almost unbounded; while the kindness with which the animal is treated seems to brighten his intelligence as well as to render him gentle. When these horses were first introduced into Europe they seemed, after a short stay in civilization, to have completely changed their nature, and, instead of gentleness and docility, exhibited an almost tiger-like ferocity. This change was at first attributed to difference of climate and high feeding, but, after several grooms had been injured or killed by their charges, it began to be suspected that there was something wrong in the treatment. The experiment of introducing native grooms was therefore tried, and the results proved most satisfactory, the animals once more becoming gentle and docile.[2] Since then the nature of the Arabian has become better understood, and, both in this country and in Europe, he shows, at the present day, a decided improvement upon the original native of the desert. He is larger and swifter, yet still retains all the spirit as well as docility of his ancestors. In America his descendants are called "thorough-breds," and Americans may well be proud of this race of horses, which is rapidly becoming world renowned. Footnote 2: "The Bedouin (and every other race of Orientals that I am acquainted with seems to possess somewhat the same quality) exhibits a patience towards his horse as remarkable as is the impatience and roughness of the Englishman.... In his (the Oriental's) mental organization some screw is tight which in the English mind is loose; he is sane on a point where the Englishman is slightly cracked, and he rides on serene and contented where the latter would go into a paroxysm of swearing and spurring. I have seen an Arab horse, broken loose at a moment when our camp was thronged with horses brought for sale, turn the whole concern topsy-turvy, and reduce it to one tumult of pawing and snorting and belligerent screeching; and I never yet saw the captor when he finally got hold of the halter show the least trace of anger, or do otherwise than lead the animal back to his picket with perfect calmness. Contrast this with the 'job' in the mouth and the kick in the ribs and the curse that the English groom would bestow under similar circumstances, and you have, in a great measure, the secret of the good temper of the Arab horse in Arab hands."--_Blackwood's Magazine_, 1859. Before purchasing a saddle-horse, several points should be considered. First, =the style of the rider's figure=; for a horse which would be suitable for a large, stout person would not be at all desirable for one having a small, slender figure. A large, majestic looking woman would present a very absurd spectacle when mounted upon a slightly built, slender horse; his narrow back in contrast with that of his rider would cause hers to appear even larger and wider than usual, and thus give her a heavy and ridiculous appearance, while the little horse would look overburdened and miserable, and his step, being too short for his rider, would cause her to experience an unpleasant sensation of embarrassment and restraint. On the other hand, a short, light, slender rider, seated upon a tall broad-backed animal, would appear equally out of place; the step of the horse being, in her case, too long, would make her seat unsteady and insecure, so that instead of a sense of enjoyment, exhilaration, and benefit from the ride, she would experience only fatigue and dissatisfaction. If the rider be tall and rather plump, the horse should be fifteen hands and three inches in height, and have a somewhat broad back. A lady below the medium height, and of slender proportions, will look equally well when riding a pony fourteen hands high, or a horse fifteen hands. An animal fifteen hands, or fifteen hands and two inches in height, will generally be found suitable for all ladies who are not excessively large and tall, or very short and slender. In all cases, however, the back of the horse should be long enough to appear well under the side-saddle, for a horse with a short back never presents a fine aspect when carrying a woman. In such cases, the side-saddle extends from his withers nearly, if not quite, to his hips, and as the riding skirt covers his left side, little is seen of the horse except his head and tail. Horses with very short backs are usually good weight-carriers, but their gaits are apt to be rough and uneasy. Another point to be considered in the selection of a horse is, what gait or gaits are best suited to the rider, and here again the lady should take her figure into consideration. The walk, trot, canter, and gallop are the only gaits recognized by English horsewomen, but in America the walk, rack, pace, and canter are the favorite gaits. If the lady's figure be slender and elegant, any of the above named gaits will suit her, but should she be large or stout, a brisk walk or easy canter should be selected. The rapid gallop and all fast gaits should be left to light and active riders. The fast or running walk is a very desirable gait for any one, but is especially so for middle-aged or stout people, who cannot endure much jolting; it is also excellent for delicate women, for poor riders, or for those who have long journeys to make which they wish to accomplish speedily and without undue fatigue to themselves or their horses. A good sound horse who has been trained to this walk can readily travel thirty or forty miles a day, or even more. This gait is adapted equally well to the street, the park, and the country road; but it must be acknowledged that horses possessing it rarely have any other that is desirable, and, indeed, any other would be apt to impair the ease and harmony of the animal's movements in this walk. The French or cavalry trot (see page 203) should never be ridden on the road by a woman, as the movements of the horse in this gait are so very rough that the most accomplished rider cannot keep a firm, steady seat. The body is jolted in a peculiar and very unpleasant manner, occasioning a sense of fatigue that is readily appreciated, though difficult to describe. The country jog-trot is another very fatiguing gait, although farmers, who ride it a good deal, state that "after one gets used to it, it is not at all tiresome." But a lady's seat in the saddle is so different from that of a gentleman's that she can never ride this gait without excessive fatigue. A rough racker or pacer will prove almost as wearisome as the jog-trotter. Indeed, if she wishes to gain any pleasure or benefit from riding, a lady should never mount a horse that is at all stiff or uneven in his movements, no matter what may be his gait. The easiest of all gaits to ride, although the most difficult to learn, is the English trot. This is especially adapted to short persons, who can ride it to perfection. A tall woman will be apt to lean too far forward when rising in it, and her specialties, therefore, should be the canter and the gallop, in which she can appear to the greatest advantage. The rack, and the pace of a horse that has easy movements are not at all difficult to learn to ride, and are, consequently, the favorite gaits of poor riders. In selecting a horse his =temperament= must also be considered. A high-spirited, nervous animal, full of vitality, highly satisfactory as he might prove to some, would be only a source of misery to others of less courageous dispositions. First lessons in riding should be taken upon a horse of cold temperament and kindly disposition who will resent neither mistakes nor awkwardness. Having learned to ride and to manage a horse properly, no steed can then be too mettlesome for the healthy and active lady pupil, provided he has no vices and possesses the good manners that should always belong to every lady's horse. It is a great mistake to believe, as many do, that a weak, slightly built horse is yet capable of carrying a woman. On the contrary, a lady's horse should be the soundest and best that can be procured, and should be able to carry with perfect ease a weight much greater than hers. A slight, weak animal, if ridden much by a woman, will be certain to "get out of condition," will become unsound in the limbs of one side, usually the left, and will soon wear out. Before buying a horse, the lady who is to ride him should be weighed, and should then have some one who is considerably heavier than herself ride the animal, that she may be sure that her own weight will not be too great for him. If he carries the heavier weight with ease, he can, of course, carry her. In selecting a horse great care should be taken to ascertain whether there is the least trace of =unsoundness in his feet and legs=, and especially that variety of unsoundness which occasions stumbling. The best of horses, when going over rough places or when very tired may stumble, and so will indolent horses that are too lazy when traveling to lift their feet up fully; but when this fault is due to disease, or becomes a habit with a lazy animal, he should never be used under the side-saddle. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Head of Arabian Steed.] [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Head of Low-Bred Horse.] If the reader will glance at Figs. 1 and 2, she will observe the difference between the head of the low-bred horse and that of the best bred of the race. Fig. 1 represents the head of an Arabian horse; the brain is wide between the eyes, the brow high and prominent, and the expression of the face high-bred and intelligent. Fig. 2 shows the head of a low-bred horse, whose stupid aspect and small brain are very manifest. The one horse will be quick to comprehend what is required of him, and will appreciate any efforts made to brighten his intelligence, while the other will be slow to understand, almost indifferent to the kindness of his master, and apt, when too much indulged, to return treachery for good treatment. The whip, when applied to the latter as a means of punishment, will probably cow him, but, if used for the same purpose on the former, will rouse in him all the hot temper derived from his ancestors, and in the contest which ensues between his master and himself, he will conquer, or terminate the strife his own death, or that of his master. Another noticeable feature in the Arab horse, and one usually considered significant of an active and wide-awake temperament, is the width and expansiveness of the nostrils. These, upon the least excitement, will quiver and expand, and in a rapid gallop will stand out freely, giving a singularly spirited look to the animal's face. The shape and size of the ears are also indications of high or low birth. In the high-bred horse they are generally small, thin, and delicate on their outer margins, with the tips inclined somewhat towards one another. By means of these organs the animal expresses his different emotions of anger, fear, dislike, or gayety. They may be termed his language, and their various movements can readily be understood when one takes a little trouble to study their indications. The ears of a low-bred horse are large, thick, and covered with coarse hair; they sometimes lop or droop horizontally, protruding from the sides of the head and giving a very sheepish look to the face; they rarely move, and express very little emotion of any kind. The eye of the desert steed is very beautiful, possessing all the brilliancy and gentleness so much admired in that of the gazelle. Its expression in repose is one of mildness and amiability, but, under the influence of excitement, it dilates widely and sparkles. A horse which has small eyes set close together, no matter what excellences he may possess in other respects, is sure to have some taint of inferior blood. Some of the coarser breeds have the large eye of the Arabian, but it will usually be found that they have some thorough-bred among their ancestors. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Width of lower jaw in the thorough-bred.] Width between the sides or branches of the lower jaw is another distinctive feature of the horse of pure descent. (Fig. 3.) A wide furrow or channel between the points mentioned is necessary for speed, in order to allow room for free respiration when the animal is in rapid motion. The coarser breeds have very small, narrow channels (Fig. 4), and very rapid motion soon distresses them. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Width of lower jaw in the low-bred.] The mouth of the well-bred horse is large, allowing ample room for the bit, and giving him a determined and energetic, but at the same time pleasant, amiable expression. The mouth of the low-bred horse is small and covered with coarse hair, and gives the animal a sulky, dejected appearance. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Oblique shoulder. The angle at the joint being about 45°.] The light, elegant head of the Arabian is well set on his neck; a slight convexity at the upper part of the throat gives freedom to the functions of this organ, as well as elasticity to the movements of the head and neck; and the _encolure_, or crest of the neck, is arched with a graceful curve. But it is especially in the shape of the shoulders that this horse excels all others, and this is the secret of those easy movements which make him so desirable for the saddle. These shoulders are deep, and placed obliquely at an angle of about 45°; they act like the springs of a well-made carriage, diminishing the shock or jar of his movements. They are always accompanied by a deep chest, high withers, and fore-legs set well forward, qualities which make the horse much safer for riding. (Fig. 5.) [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Straight or upright shoulder. The angle at the joint being more than 45°.] The animal with straight shoulders, no matter how well shaped in other respects, can never make a good saddle-horse, and should be at once rejected. These shoulders are usually accompanied by low withers, and fore-legs placed too far under the body, which arrangement causes the rider an unpleasant jar every time a fore-foot touches the ground. Moreover, the gait of the horse is constrained and not always safe, and if he be used much under the saddle his fore-feet will soon become unsound. This straight, upright shoulder is characteristic of the coarser breeds of horses, and is frequently associated with a short, thick neck. Such horses are not only unfit for the saddle, but, when any speed is desired, are unsuitable even for a pleasure carriage. (Fig. 6.) The haunch of the low-bred horse is generally large, but not so well formed as that of the thorough-bred. This portion of the Arabian courser is wide, indicating strength, and force to propel himself forward, while his tail, standing out gayly when he is in motion, projects in a line with his back-bone. His forearm is large, long, and muscular,[3] his knees broad and firm, his hocks of considerable size, while his cannon-bone, situated between the knee and the fetlock, is short, although presenting a broad appearance when viewed laterally. Footnote 3: "There is, however, a medium in this, and the advantage of length in the arm will depend on the use to which the horse is applied. The lady's horse, the cavalry horse, every horse in which prancing action is esteemed a beauty, and in which utility is, to a certain degree, sacrificed to appearance, must not be too long in the arm. If he is long there, he will be proportionally short in the leg; and although this is an undoubted excellence, whether speed or continuance is regarded, the short leg will not give the grand and imposing action which fashion may require. In addition to this, a horse with short legs may not have quite so easy an action as another whose length is in the shank rather than in the arms."--_W. Youatt._ On each front leg, at the back of the knee, there is a bony projection, giving attachments to the flexor muscles, and affording protection to certain tendons. The Orientals set a great value upon the presence of this bone, believing that it favors muscular action, and the larger this prominence is the more highly do they prize the animal that possesses it. The pasterns of the high-bred horse are of medium length, and very elastic, while the foot is circular and of moderate size. In the preceding description, the author has endeavored to make plain to the reader the most important points to be observed in both the high-bred and the low-bred horse, and has given the most pronounced characteristics of each. Between these extremes, however, there are many varieties of horses, possessing more or less of the Arabian characteristics mingled with those of other races. Some of the best American horses are numbered among these mixed races, and, by many, are considered an improvement upon the Arabian, as they are excellent for light carriages and buggies. The more they resemble the Oriental steed, the better they are for the saddle. The lady who, in this country, cannot find a horse to suit her, will, indeed, be difficult to please. It will be best for her to tell some gentleman what sort of horse she wishes, and let him select for her; but, at the same time, it can do no harm, and may prove a great advantage to her to know all the requisite points of a good saddle-horse. It will not take long to learn them, and the knowledge gained will prevent her from being imposed upon by the ignorant or unscrupulous. Gentlemen, even those who consider themselves good judges of horse-flesh, are sometimes guilty of very serious blunders in selecting a horse for a lady's use; and should the lady be obliged to negotiate directly with a horse-dealer, she must bear in mind constantly the fact that, although there are reliable and honorable dealers to be found, there are many who would not scruple to cheat even a woman. A careful perusal of the present work, together with the advice of an _upright_ and _trustworthy_ veterinary surgeon, or a skilled riding-master, will aid her in protecting herself from the impositions of unprincipled horse-jockeys and self-styled "veterinary doctors." In any case, whatever be the other characteristics of the animal selected, be sure that he has the oblique shoulder, as well as depth of shoulder, and hind-legs well bent. Without these characteristics he will be unfit for a lady's use, as his movements will be rough and unsafe, and the saddle will be apt to turn. If it be desired to purchase a horse for a moderate price, certain points which might be insisted on in a high-priced animal will have to be dispensed with; for instance, his color may not be satisfactory; he may not have a pretty head, or a well-set tail, etc., but these deficiencies may be overlooked if he be sound, have good action, and no vices. He may be handsome, well-actioned, and thoroughly trained, but have a slight defect in his wind, noticeable only when he is urged into a rapid trot, or a gallop. If wanted for street and park service only, and if the purchaser does not care for fast riding, a horse of this sort will suit her very well. Sometimes a horse of good breed, as well as of good form, has never had the advantages of a thorough training, or he may be worn out by excessive work. Should he be comparatively young, rest and proper training may still make a good horse of him, but great care should be taken to assure one's self that no permanent disease or injury exists. The Orientals have a proverb, that it is well to bear in mind when buying an animal of the kind just described:--"Ruin, son of ruin, is he who buys to cure." Always examine with great care a horse's mouth. A hard-mouthed animal is a very unpleasant one for a lady to ride, and is apt to degenerate into a runaway. Scars at the angles of the mouth are good indications of a "bolter," or runaway, or at least of cruel treatment, and harsh usage is by no means a good instructor. While a very short-backed horse does not appear to great advantage under a side-saddle, he may, nevertheless, have many good qualities that will compensate for this defect, and it may be overlooked provided the price asked for him be reasonable; but horses of this kind frequently command a high price when their action is exceptionally good. Corns on the feet generally depreciate the value of a horse, although they may sometimes be cured by removing the shoes, and giving him a free run of six or eight months in a pasture of soft ground; if he be then properly shod, and used on country roads only, he may become permanently serviceable. There is, however, considerable risk in buying a horse that has corns, and the purchaser should remember the Oriental proverb just referred to, and not forget the veterinary surgeon. Before paying for a horse, the lady should insist upon having him on trial for at least a month, that she may have an opportunity of discovering his vices or defects, if any such exist. She must be careful not to condemn him too hastily, and should, when trying him, make due allowance for his change of quarters and also for the novelty of carrying a new rider, as some horses are very nervous until they become well acquainted with their riders. Should the horse's movements prove rough, should he be found hard-mouthed, or should any indications of unsoundness or viciousness be detected, he should be immediately returned to his owner. It must be remembered, however, that very few horses are perfect, and that minor defects may, in most instances, be overlooked if the essentials are secured. Before rejecting the horse, the lady should also be very sure that the faults to which she objects are not due to her own mismanagement of him. But if she decides that she is not at fault, no amount of persuasion should induce her to purchase. In justice to the owner of the horse, he ought to be reasonably paid for the time and services of his rejected animal; but if it be decided to keep the horse, then only the purchase-money originally agreed upon should be paid. The surest and best way of securing a good saddle-horse is to purchase, from one of the celebrated breeding farms, a well-shaped four-year-old colt of good breed, and have him taught the gaits and style of movement required. Great care should be taken in the selection of his teacher, for if the colt's temper be spoiled by injudicious treatment, he will be completely ruined for a lady's use. A riding-school teacher will generally understand all the requirements necessary for a lady's saddle-horse, and may be safely intrusted with the animal's education. If no riding-school master of established reputation as a trainer can be had, it may be possible to secure the services of some one near the lady's home, as she can then superintend the colt's education herself and be sure that he is treated neither rashly nor cruelly. The ideas concerning the education of the horse have completely changed within the last twenty-five years. The whip as a means of punishment is entirely dispensed with in the best training schools of the present day, and, instead of rough and brutal measures, kindness, firmness, and patience are now the only means employed to train and govern him. The theory of this modern system of training may be found in the following explanation of a celebrated English trainer, who subdued his horses by exhibiting towards them a wonderful degree of patience:--"If I enter into a contest with the horse, he will fling and prance, and there will be no knowing which will be master; whereas if I remain quiet and determined, I have the best of it." The following is an example of the patience with which this man carried out his theory:-- Being once mounted on a very obstinate colt that refused to move in the direction desired, he declined all suggestions of severe measures, and after one or two gentle but fruitless attempts to make the animal move, he desisted, and having called for his pipe, sat there quietly for a couple of hours enjoying a good smoke, and chatting gayly with passing friends. Then after another quiet but unsuccessful attempt to induce the colt to move, he sent for some dinner which he ate while still on the animal's back. As night approached and the air became cool, he sent for his overcoat and more tobacco, and proceeded to make a night of it. About this time the colt became uneasy, but not until midnight did he show any disposition to move in the required direction. Now was the time for the master to assert himself. "Whoa!" he cried, "you have stayed here so long to please yourself, now you will stay a little longer to please me." He then kept the colt standing in the same place an hour longer, and when he finally allowed him to move, it was in a direction opposite to that which the colt seemed disposed to take. He walked the animal slowly for five miles, then allowed him to trot back to his stable, and finally--as if he had been a disobedient child--sent him supperless to bed, giving him the rest of the night in which to meditate upon the effects of his obstinacy. To some this may seem a great deal of useless trouble to take with a colt that might have been compelled to move more promptly by means of whip or spur; but that day's experience completely subdued the colt's stubborn spirit, and all idea of rebellion to human authority was banished from his mind forever. Had a contrary course been pursued, it would probably have made the creature headstrong, balky, and unreliable; he would have yielded to the whip and spur at one time only to battle the more fiercely against them at the first favorable opportunity, and his master would never have known at what minute he might have to enter into a contest with him. That a horse trained by violent means can never be trusted is a fact which is every day becoming better recognized and appreciated. "A great many accidents might be avoided," says a well-known authority upon the education of the horse, "could the populace be instructed to think a horse was endowed with senses, was gifted with feelings, and was able in some degree to appreciate motives."... "The strongest man cannot physically contend against the weakest horse. Man's power reposes in better attributes than any which reside in thews and muscles. Reason alone should dictate and control his conduct. Thus guided, mortals have subdued the elements. For power, when mental, is without limit: by savage violence nothing is attained and man is often humbled." The lady who has the good fortune to live in the country where she can have so many opportunities for studying the disposition and character of her animals, and can, if she chooses, watch and superintend the education of her horse from the time he is a colt, has undoubtedly a better chance of securing a fine saddle-horse than she who lives in the city and is obliged to depend almost entirely upon others for the training of her horse. Indeed, very little formal training will be necessary for a horse that has been brought up under the eye of a kind and judicious mistress, for he will soon learn to understand and obey the wishes of one whom he loves and trusts, and if she be an accomplished rider she can do the greater part of the training herself. The best and most trustworthy horse the author ever had was one that was trained almost from his birth. Fay's advent was a welcome event to the children of the family, by whom he was immediately claimed and used as a play-fellow. By the older members of the family he was always regarded as part of the household,--an honored servant, to be well cared for,--and he was petted and fondled by all, from paterfamilias down to Bridget in the kitchen. He was taught, among other tricks, to bow politely when anything nice was given him, and many were the journeys he made around to the kitchen window, where he would make his obeisance in such an irresistible manner that Bridget would be completely captivated; and the dainty bits were passed through the window in such quantities and were swallowed with such avidity that the lady of the house had to interfere and restrict the donations to two cakes daily. Fay had been taught to shake hands with his admirers, and this trick was called his "word of honor;" he had his likes and dislikes, and would positively refuse to honor some people with a hand-shake. If these slighted individuals insisted upon riding him, he made them so uncomfortable by the roughness of his gaits that they never cared to repeat the experiment. But the favored ones, whom he had received into his good graces and to whom he had given his "word of honor," he would carry safely anywhere, at his lightest and easiest gait. Fay never went back on his word, which is more than can be said of some human beings. The great difficulty in training a horse for a lady's use is to get him well placed on his haunches. In Fay's case this was accomplished by teaching him to place his fore-feet upon a stout inverted tub, about two feet high. When he offered his "hand" for a shake, some one pushed forward the tub, upon which his "foot" dropped and was allowed to remain a short time, when the other foot was treated in the same manner. After half a dozen lessons of this sort, he learned to put up his feet without assistance; first one, and then the other, and, finally, both at once. These performances were always rewarded by a piece of apple or cake, together with expressions of pleasure from the by-standers. Fay had a weakness for flattery, and no actor called before the curtain ever expressed more pleasure at an _encore_ than did Fay when applauded for his efforts to please. That the tub trick would prove equally effectual with other horses in teaching them to place themselves well on their haunches cannot be positively stated. It might prove more troublesome to teach most horses this trick than to have them placed upon their haunches in the usual way by means of a strong curb, or by lessons with the lunge line. It proved entirely successful in Fay's case, and a horse lighter in hand or easier in gait was never ridden by a woman. Fay's training began when he was only a few weeks old: a light halter and a loose calico surcingle were placed on him for a short time each day, during which time he was carefully watched lest he should do himself some injury. When he was about eight months old, a small bit, made of a smooth stick of licorice, was put into his mouth, and to this bit light leather reins were fastened by pieces of elastic rubber: this rubber relieved his mouth from a constant dead pull, and tended to preserve its delicate sensibility. Thus harnessed he was led around the lawn, followed by a crowd of youthful admirers and playmates, who formed a sort of triumphal procession, with which the colt was as well pleased as the spectators. Every attempt on his part to indulge in horse-play, such as biting, kicking, etc., was always quickly checked, and no one was allowed to tease or strike him. Nothing heavier than a dumb jockey was put on his back until he was four years old, when his education began in sober earnest. After a few lessons with the lunge line, given by a regular trainer, a saddle was put on his back, and for the first time in his life he carried a human being. When learning his different riding gaits on the road, he was always accompanied by a well-trained saddle-horse, aided by whose example as well as by the efforts of his rider he was soon trained in three different styles of movement, namely, a good walk, trot, and hand gallop. Fear seemed unknown to this horse, for he had always been allowed as a colt to follow his dam on the road, and had thus become so accustomed to all such alarming objects as steam engines, hay carts, etc., that they had ceased to occasion him the least uneasiness. This high spirited and courageous animal had perfect confidence in the world and looked upon all mankind as friendly. His constant companionship with human beings had sharpened his perceptive faculties, and made him quick to understand whatever was required of him. The kindness shown him was never allowed to degenerate into weakness or over-indulgence, and whenever anything was required of him it was insisted upon until complete obedience was obtained. In this way he was taught to understand that man was his master and superior. Although it is not absolutely essential that a lady's horse should learn the tricks of bowing, hand-shaking, etc., yet the lady who will take the pains to teach her horse some of them will find that she not only gets a great deal of pleasure from the lessons, but that they enable her to gain more complete control over him, for the horse, like some other animals, gives affection and entire obedience to the person who makes an effort to increase his intelligence. Lessons with the lunge line should always be short, as they are very fatiguing to a young colt, and when given too often or for too great a length of time they make him giddy from rush of blood to the head; not a few instances, indeed, have occurred where a persistence in such lessons has occasioned complete blindness. A lady's horse should be taught to disregard the flapping of the riding-skirt, and it is also well for him to become accustomed to having articles of various kinds, such as pieces of cloth, paper, etc., fluttering about him, as he will not then be likely to take fright should any part of the rider's costume become disarranged and blow about him. He should also be so trained that he will not mind having the saddle moved from side to side on his back. The best of riders may have her saddle turn, and if the horse be thus trained he will neither kick nor run away should such an accident occur. It is also very important that the horse should be taught to stop, and stand as firm as a rock at the word of command given in a low, firm tone. This habit is not only important in mounting and dismounting,--feats which it is difficult, if not impossible, for the lady to perform unless the horse be perfectly still,--but the rider will also find this prompt obedience of great assistance in checking her horse when he becomes frightened and tries to break away; for he will stop instinctively when he hears the familiar order given in the voice to which he is accustomed. A lady should not fail to visit her horse's stable from time to time, in order to assure herself that he is well treated and properly cared for by the groom. Viciousness and restlessness on the road can often be traced to annoyances and ill-treatment in the stable. Grooms and stable boys sometimes like to see the horse kick out and attempt to bite, and will while away their idle hours in harassing him, tickling his ears with straws, or touching him up with the whip in order to make him prance and strike out. The result of these annoyances will be that, if the lady during her ride accidentally touches her horse with the whip, he will begin prancing and kicking; or, if it is summer time, the gnats and flies swarming about his ears will make him unmanageable. In the latter case, ear-tips will only make the matter worse, especially if they have dangling tassels. When such signs of nervousness are noticeable, especially in a horse that has been hitherto gentle, they may usually be attributed to the treatment of the groom or his assistants. Most grooms delight in currying their charges with combs having teeth like small spikes and in laying on the polishing brush with a hand as heavy as the blows of misfortune. Some animals, it is true, like this kind of rubbing, but there are many, who have thin, delicate skins, to whom such treatment is almost unmitigated torture. Should the lady hear any contest going on between the horse and groom during the former's morning toilette, she should order a blunt curry-comb to be used; or even dispense with a comb altogether, and let the brush only be applied with a light hand. Grooms sometimes take pleasure in throwing cold water over their horses. In very warm weather, and when the animal is not overheated, this treatment may prove refreshing to him, but, as a general rule it is objectionable, as it is apt to occasion a sudden chill which may result in serious consequences. The stable man may grumble at the lady's interference and supervision, but she must not allow this to prevent her from attending carefully to the welfare of the animal whose faithful services contribute so largely to her pleasure. When she buys a horse she introduces a new member into her household, who should be as well looked after and cared for as any other faithful servant or friend. Indeed, the horse is the more entitled to consideration in that he is entirely helpless, and his lot for good or evil lies wholly in her power. If the mistress is careless or neglects her duty, the servants in whose charge the horse is placed will be very apt to follow her example, and the poor animal will suffer accordingly. Perhaps the lady, however, may object to entering the stable, and agree with the groom in thinking it "no place for a woman." Or she may fear that in carrying out the ideas suggested above she will expose herself to the ridicule of thoughtless acquaintances who can never do anything until it has received the sanction of fashion. For the benefit of this fastidious individual and her timid friends we will quote the example of the Empress of Austria, who, although occupying an exalted position at a court where etiquette is carried to the extremes of formality, yet does not hesitate to visit the stable of her favorite steeds and personally to supervise their welfare; and woe to the perverse groom who in the least particular disobeys her commands. Many other examples might be given of high-born ladies, such as Queen Victoria, the Princess of Wales, the Princess of Prussia, and others, who do not seem to consider it at all unfeminine or coarse for a woman to give some personal care and supervision to her horses. But to enter into more details would prove tiresome, and the example given is enough to silence the scruples of the followers of fashion. Like all herbivorous creatures that love to roam in herds, the horse is naturally of a restless temperament. Activity is the delight of his existence, and when left to nature and a free life he is seldom quiet. Man takes this creature of buoyant nature from the freedom of its natural life, and confines the active body in a prison house where its movements are even more circumscribed than are those of the wild beasts in the menagerie; they can at least turn around and walk from side to side in their cages, but the horse in his narrow stall is able only to move his head from side to side, to paw a little with his fore-feet, and to move backwards and forwards a short distance, varying with the length of his halter; when he lies down to sleep he is compelled to keep in one position, and runs the risk of meeting with some serious accident. In some stables where the grooms delight in general stagnation, the horses under their charge are not allowed to indulge in even the smallest liberty. The slightest movement is punished by the lash of these silence-loving tyrants, in whose opinion the horse has enough occupation and excitement in gazing at the blank boards directly in front of his head. If these boards should happen to be whitewashed, as is often the case in the country, constant gazing at them will be almost sure to give rise to shying, or even to occasion blindness. If the reader will, for several minutes, gaze steadily at a white wall, she will he able to get some idea of the poor horse's sensations. Is it then to be wondered at, that an animal of an excitable nature like the horse should, when released from the oppressive quiescence of his prison-house, act as if bereft of reason, and perform strange antics and caperings in his insane delight at once more breathing the fresh air, and seeing the outside world. But, while the horse is thus expressing his pleasure and recovering the use of limbs by vigorous kicks, or is expending his superfluous energy by bounding out of the road at every strange object he encounters, the saddle will be neither a safe nor pleasant place for the lady rider. To avoid such danger, and to compensate, in some degree, the liberty-loving animal for depriving him of his natural life and placing him in bondage, he should be given, instead of the usual narrow stall, a box stall, measuring about sixteen or eighteen feet square. In this box the horse should be left entirely free, without even a halter, as this appendage has sometimes been the cause of fearful accidents, by becoming entangled with the horse's feet. The groom may grumble again at this innovation, because a box stall means more work for him, but if he really cares for the horses under his charge he will soon become reconciled to the small amount of extra work required by the use of a box stall. Every one who knows anything about a horse in the stable is well aware of the injury done to this animal's feet and limbs by compelling him to stand always confined to one spot in a narrow stall. A box will prevent the occurrence of these injuries, besides giving the horse a little freedom and enabling him to get more rest and benefit from his sleep. Some horses are fond of looking through a window or over a half door. The glimpse they thus get of the outside life seems to amuse and interest them, and it can do no harm to gratify this desire. Others, however, seem to be worried and excited by such outlooks; they become restless and even make attempts to leap over the half door or through the window. In such cases there should, of course, be no out-of-door scenery visible from the box. The groom should exercise the horse daily, in a gentle and regular manner; an hour or two of walking, varied occasionally by a short trot, will generally be found sufficient. Being self-taught in the art of riding, grooms nearly always have a very heavy bridle hand, and, if allowed to use the curb bit, will soon destroy that sensitiveness of the horse's mouth which adds so much to the pleasure of riding him. The man who exercises the horse should not be permitted to wear spurs; a lady's horse should be guided wholly by the whip and reins,--as will be explained hereafter,--and in no case whatever should the spur be used. If the lady wishes to keep her horse in good health and temper she must insist upon his being exercised regularly, and must assure herself that the groom executes her orders faithfully; for some men, while professing to obey, have been known to stop at the nearest public house, and, after spending an hour or two in drinking beer and gossiping with acquaintances, to ride back complacently to the stable, leaving the horse to suffer from want of exercise. Other grooms have gone to the opposite extreme, and have ridden so hard and fast that the horse on his return was completely tired out, so that when there was occasion to use him the same day it was an effort for him to maintain his usual light gait. Grooms who are always doctoring a horse, giving him nostrums that do no good but often much harm, are also to be avoided. In short, the owner of a horse must be prepared for tricks of all kinds on the part of these stable servants; although, in justice to them, it must be said that there are many who endeavor to perform all their duties faithfully, and can be relied on to treat with kindness any animals committed to their care. Should the lady rider be obliged to get her horse from a livery stable, she should not rely entirely upon what his owner says of his gaits or gentleness, but should have him tried carefully by some friend or servant, before herself attempting to mount him. She should also be very careful to see, or have her escort see, that the saddle is properly placed upon the back of the horse and firmly girthed, so that there may be no danger of its turning. CHAPTER II. THE RIDING HABIT. "Her dress, her shape, her matchless grace, Were all observed, as well as heavenly face." DRYDEN. A riding habit should be distinguished by its perfect simplicity. All attempts at display, such as feathers, ribbons, glaring gilt buttons, and sparkling jet, should be carefully avoided, and the dress should be noticeable only for the fineness of its material and the elegance of its fit. One of the first requirements in a riding dress is that it should fit smoothly and easily. The sleeves should be rather loose, especially near the arm-holes, so that the arms may move freely; but should fit closely enough at the wrist to allow long gauntlet gloves to pass readily over them. It is essential that ample room should be allowed across the chest, as the shoulders are thrown somewhat back in riding, and the chest is, consequently, expanded. The neck of the dress should fit very easily, especially at the back part. Care must be taken not to make the waist too long, for, owing to a lady's position in the saddle, the movements of her horse will soon make a long waist wrinkle and look inelegant. To secure ease, together with a perfect fit without crease or fold, will be somewhat difficult, but not impossible. Some tailors, particularly in New York, Philadelphia, London, and Paris, make a specialty of ladies' riding costumes, and can generally be relied on to supply comfortable and elegant habits. The favorite and most appropriate style of =riding jacket= is the "postilion basque;" this should be cut short over the hips, and is then especially becoming to a plump person, as it diminishes the apparent width of the back below the waist. The front should have two small darts, and should extend about three inches below the waist; it should then slope gradually up to the hips,--where it must be shortest,--and then downward so as to form a short, square coat-flap at the back, below the waist. This flap must be made without gathers or plaits, and lined with silk, between which and the cloth some stiffening material should be inserted. The middle seam of the coat-flap should be left open as far as the waist, where about one inch of it must be lapped over from left to right; the short side-form on each side must be lapped a little toward the central unclosed seam. The arm-holes should be cut rather high on the shoulders, so that the back may look less broad. If the lady lacks plumpness and roundness, her jacket must be made double-breasted, or else have padding placed across the bust, for a hollow chest mars all the beauty of the figure in the saddle, and causes the rider to look round-shouldered. The edge of the basque should be trimmed with cord-braid, and the front fastened with crocheted bullet buttons; similar buttons should be used to fasten the sleeves closely at the wrist, and two more should be placed on the back of the basque just at its waist line. Great care must be taken to have the jacket well lined and its seams strongly sewed. The coat-flaps on the back of the basque, below the waist-line, should be held down by heavy metallic buttons, sewed underneath each flap at its lower part, and covered with the same material as that of the dress. Without these weights this part of the dress will be apt to be blown out of position by every passing breeze, and will bob up and down with every motion of the rider's body, presenting a most ridiculous appearance. For winter riding an extra jacket may be worn over the riding basque. It should be made of some heavy, warm material, and fit half tightly. If trimmed with good fur, this jacket makes a very handsome addition to the riding habit. Poets have expatiated upon the grace and beauty of the long, flowing riding skirt, with its ample folds, but experience has taught that this long skirt, though, perhaps, very poetical, is practically not only inconvenient but positively dangerous. In the canter or gallop the horse is very apt to entangle his hind-foot in it and be thrown, when the rider may consider herself fortunate if she escapes with no worse accident than a torn skirt. Another objection to this poetical skirt is, that it gathers up the mud and dust of the road, and soon presents a most untidy appearance; while if the day be fresh and breezy its ample folds will stream out like a victorious banner; if made of some light material the breeze will swell it out like an inflated balloon; and if of heavy cloth its length will envelop the rider's feet, and make her look as if tied in a bag. To avoid all these dangers and inconveniences the =riding skirt= should be cut rather short and narrow, and be made of some heavy material. Two yards and a quarter will be quite wide enough for the bottom of the skirt, while the length need be only about twelve inches more than the rider's ordinary dress. The skirt should be so gored as to form no gathers or plaits at the waist. Tailor-made skirts are so neatly gored as to remain perfectly smooth when the rider is seated in the saddle. As the pommels take up a good deal of room, the front part of the skirt, which passes over them, should be made a little longer than the back, so that, when the rider is seated in the saddle, her dress may hang evenly. If made the same length all around it will, when the lady is mounted, be entirely too short in front, and, besides presenting an uneven, trail-like appearance, will be apt to work back, or to blow up and expose the right foot of the wearer. The bottom of the skirt should have a hem about three inches wide, but should never be faced with leather, as this will give a stiff, bungling effect, and if the rider should be thrown, and catch the hem of her skirt on either pommel or stirrup, the strength of the leather lining would prevent the cloth from tearing and thus releasing her. Shot, pieces of lead, or other hard substances are also objectionable, because by striking against the horse's side they often cause him to become restless or even to run away. To keep the skirt down in its proper position a loop of stout elastic, or tape, should be fastened underneath, near the bottom, and through this loop the foot should be passed before being put into the stirrup. The point where the loop should be fastened must be determined by the position of the lady's foot when she is correctly seated in the saddle. Some riders use a second elastic for the right foot, to prevent the skirt from slipping back, but this is not absolutely necessary. The basque and skirt should be made separate, although it is a very good plan to have strong hooks and eyes to fasten them together at the sides and back, as this will prevent the skirt from turning, or slipping down below the waist, should the binding be a little too loose. The placket-hole should be on the left side and should be buttoned over, to prevent it from gaping open; it must be only just large enough to allow the skirt to slip readily over the shoulders. The best material for a riding habit is broadcloth, or any strong, soft fabric that will adapt itself readily to the figure. The color is, of course, a matter of taste. Black is always stylish, and is particularly becoming to a stout person. Dark blue, hunter's green, and dark brown are also becoming colors, especially for slender, youthful figures. In the country, a linen jacket may be worn in warm weather, and will be found a very agreeable substitute for the cloth basque, but the skirt should never be made of so thin a material, as it will be too light to hang well and too slippery to sit upon. To secure ease and freedom in the saddle, a garment closely resembling a pair of =pantaloons= will have to be worn under the riding skirt, and be fastened down securely by means of strong leather or rubber straps, which pass under the foot and are buttoned to the bottom of the pantaloons. These pantaloons should be made of some soft cloth the color of the dress, or else of chamois skin, faced up to the knee with cloth like that of the skirt. Most people prefer the chamois skin for winter use, as it is very warm and so soft that it prevents much of the chafing usually occasioned by the rubbing of the right leg on the pommel. No under =petticoats= are necessary where the pantaloons are used, but if the rider wear one, it should be of some dark color that will not attract attention if the riding skirt be blown back. Black silk will be an excellent material for such a skirt in summer, something warmer being used in winter. This skirt should have no folds or gathers in it, but if the rider be very thin a little padding around the hips and over the back will give her the desired effect of plumpness. An important article of every-day wear will have to be discarded and a =riding-habit shirt= used in its place. This shirt must be made short, that the rider may not have to sit upon its folds and wrinkles, which she would find very uncomfortable. The collar should be high and standing, _à la militaire_, and made of the finest, whitest linen; it should be sewed to the shirt for greater security, and should just be seen above the high collar band of the basque. The =drawers= must also be made very much like those of a gentleman, and the lower parts be tucked under the hose. The garters should be rather loose, or elastic. Buttoned boots, or those with elastic sides, should not be worn when riding. For summer use, the shoe laced at the side, and having a low, broad heel, is liked by many. The ladies' Wellington boot, reaching nearly to the knee, is also a favorite with some, and, when made without any seam in front, prevents the stirrup-iron from chafing the instep. To be comfortable, it should have a broad sole and be made a little longer than the foot. This boot, however, gives the wearer rather an Amazonian appearance, and has also the great disadvantage of being very difficult to get off, the lady usually being obliged to appropriate the gentleman's bootjack for the purpose. The =best boot= for riding purposes, found to be the most comfortable, and one easy to get on and off, is made of some light leather, or kid, for summer use, and of heavier leather for winter; it extends half way to the knee, laces up in front, has broad, low heels and wide soles, and is made a little longer than the wearer's foot, so that it may be perfectly easy, as a tight boot in riding is even more distressing than in walking. The =corset= is indispensable to the elegant fit required in a riding habit, but should never be laced tight. It should be short on the sides and in the front and back. If long in front it will be almost impossible for the rider to pass her knee over the second pommel when she attempts to mount her horse, and will cause her, when riding, to incline her body too far back; when long at the sides it will be even more inconvenient, for, if at all tight, it will make the rider, when in the saddle, feel as if her hips were compressed in a vise; when too long behind, it will interfere with that curving or hollowing in of the back that is so necessary to an erect position; it will also tend to throw the body too far forward. If the rider have any tendency to stoutness all these discomforts will be exaggerated. The C. P. or the Parisian _la Sirene_ is undoubtedly the best corset for riding purposes, for it is short, light, and flexible, and not prejudicial to the ease and elegance of good riding, as is the case with the stiff, long-bodied corset. The =hair= should be so arranged that it cannot possibly come down during the ride. To effect this, it must be made into one long braid, which must be coiled upon the back of the head, and fastened firmly, but not too tightly, by means of a few long hairpins. The coil may be put on the top of the head, but this arrangement will be found very inconvenient, especially where the hair is thick, for it will make the hat sit very awkwardly on the head. The hair should never be worn in ringlets, as these will be blown about by the wind, or by the movements of the rider, and will soon become so tangled as to look like anything but the "smooth flowing ringlets" of the poet. Nor should the hair be allowed to stream down the back in long peasant-braids, a style mistakenly adopted by some young misses, but which gives the rider a wild and untidy appearance. When the horse is in motion these braids will stream out on the breeze, and an observer at a short distance will be puzzled to know what it is that seems to be in such an extraordinary state of agitation. It is also a mistake to draw the hair back tightly from the forehead, as this gives a constrained look to the features; it should, on the contrary, be arranged in rather a loose, unstudied manner, which will tend to soften the expression of the face. It is the extreme of bad taste to bang or frizz the hair across the forehead, or to wear the hat somewhat on the back of the head. These things are sometimes done by very young girls, but give to the prettiest and most modest face an air of boldness and vulgarity. The =riding hat= at present fashionable, and most suitable for city or park, is made of black silk plush with a Stanley curved brim, and bell-crown, and is trimmed with a narrow band around the crown, directly above the brim. Another favorite is a jockey-cap, made of the same cloth as that of the habit. Either of these may be obtained at the hat stores. For riding in the country, where one does not care to be so dressy, the English Derby, or some other fashionable style of young gentleman's felt hat, may be used; with a short plume or bird's wing fastened at the side, a hat of this description has a very charming and coquettish air. There is another style of silk hat manufactured expressly for ladies, which may also be obtained at any hatter's; it has a lower crown than a gentleman's silk hat, and looks very pretty with a short black net-veil fastened around the crown, as this relieves the stiff look it otherwise presents. This style of hat is very appropriate for a middle-aged person. Care must be taken to have the hat neither too loose nor too tight; if too tight, it will be apt to occasion a headache, and if too loose will be easily displaced. Long veils, long plumes, hats with very broad brims, or very high crowns, as well as those which are worn perched on the top of the head, should be especially avoided. The hat must always be made secure on the head by means of stout elastic sewn on strongly, and so adjusted that it can pass below the braid or coil of hair at the back of the head. An ordinary back-comb firmly fastened on the top of the head will prevent the hat from gradually slipping backwards. These apparently trifling details must be attended to, or some prankish breeze will suddenly carry off the rider's hat, and she will be subjected to the mortification of having it handed back to her, with an ill-concealed smile, by some obliging pedestrian. Many little particulars which seem insignificant when in the dressing-room will become causes of much discomfort and suffering when in the saddle. The pleasure of many a ride has been marred by a displaced pin, a lost button, too tight a garter, a glove that cramped the hand, or a ring that occasioned swelling and pain in the finger. These details, unimportant as they may seem, must be carefully attended to before starting for a ride. Pins should be used sparingly. If a watch is worn, it should be well secured in its pocket, and the chain carefully fastened to a button of the jacket. The =riding gauntlets= should be made of thick, soft, undressed kid, or chamois skin, be long wristed, and somewhat loose across the hands, so that the reins may be firmly grasped. With the exception of the watch, the chain of which should be as unostentatious as possible, it will not be in good taste to wear jewelry. A cravat or small bow of ribbon will be in much better taste than a breast-pin for fastening the collar, and may be of any color that suits the fancy or complexion of the wearer. The costume may be much brightened by a small _boutonnière_ of natural flowers; these placed at the throat or waist in an apparently careless manner give an air of daintiness and refinement to the whole costume. There is one accomplishment often neglected, or overlooked, even by the most skillful lady riders, and that is, expertness in =holding the riding skirt= easily and gracefully when not in the saddle. In this attainment the Parisian horsewoman far excels all others; her manner of gathering up the folds of her riding skirt, while waiting for her horse, forms a picture of such unaffected elegance, that it would be well for other riders to study and imitate it. She does not grab her skirt with one hand, twist it round to one side, allow it to trail upon the ground, nor does she collect the folds in one unwieldy bunch and throw it brusquely over her arm. Instead of any of these ungraceful acts, she quietly extends her arms down to their full length at her sides, inclines her body slightly forward, and gathers up the front of her skirt, raising her hands just far enough to allow the long part in front and at the sides to escape the ground; then by bringing her hands slightly forward, one being held a little higher than the other, the back part of the skirt is raised. While accomplishing these movements her whip will be held carelessly in her right hand, at a very short distance below the handle, the point being directed downwards, and somewhat obliquely backwards. The whole of this graceful manoeuvring will be effected readily and artlessly, in an apparently unstudied manner. In reality, however, all the Parisian's ease and grace are the results of careful training, but so perfect is the instruction that art is made to appear like nature. In selecting a =riding whip= care should be taken to secure one that is straight and stiff; if it be curved, it may accidentally touch the horse and make him restless; if flexible it will be of no use in managing him. The handle of the whip may be very plain, or the lady may indulge her taste for the ornamental by having it very elaborate and rich, but she should be careful never to sacrifice strength to appearances. Any projecting points that might catch on the dress and tear it must be dispensed with. That the whip may not be lost if the hand should unwittingly lose its hold upon it, a loop of silk cord should be fastened firmly to the handle, and the hand passed through this loop. When riding, the whip should always be held in the right hand with a grasp sufficient to retain it, but not as if in a vise; the point should be directed downward, or toward the hind-leg of the horse, care being taken not to touch him with it except when necessary. CHAPTER III. THE SADDLE AND BRIDLE. "Form by mild bits his mouth, nor harshly wound, Till summer rolls her fourth-revolving round. Then wheel in graceful orbs his paced career, Let step by step in cadence strike the ear, The flexile limbs in curves alternate prance, And seem to labor as they slow advance: Then give, uncheck'd, to fly with loosen'd rein, Challenge the winds, and wing th' unprinted plain." VIRGIL, _Sotheby's Translation_. In ye ancient times, the damsel who wished to enjoy horseback riding did not, like her successor of to-day, trust to her own ability to ride and manage her horse, but, seated upon a pad or cushion, called a "pillion," which was fastened behind a man's saddle, rode without a stirrup and without troubling herself with the reins, preserving her balance by holding to the belt of a trusty page, or masculine admirer, whose duty it was to attend to the management of the horse. We learn that as late as A. D. 1700, George III. made his entry into London with his wife, Charlotte, thus seated behind him. Gradually, however, as women became more confident, they rode alone upon a sort of side-saddle, on which by means of the reins and by bracing her feet against a board, called a "planchette," which was fastened to the front of the saddle, the rider managed to keep her seat. Such was the English horsewoman of the seventeenth century, in the time of Charles II.,--"the height of fashion and the cream of style." To the much quoted "vanity of the fair sex" do we owe the invention of the side-saddle of our grandmothers. About the middle of the sixteenth century Catherine de Medici, wife of Henry II. of France, having a very symmetrical figure which she wished to display to advantage, invented the second pommel of the saddle, and thus, while gratifying her own vanity, was unconsciously the means of greatly benefiting her sex by enabling them to ride with more ease and freedom. To this saddle there was added, about 1830, a third pommel, the invention of which is due to the late M. Pellier, Sr., an eminent riding teacher in Paris, France. This three-pommeled saddle is now called the =English saddle=, and is the one generally used by the best lady riders of the present day. This so-called "English saddle" was promptly appreciated, and wherever introduced soon supplanted the old-fashioned one with only two pommels. (Fig. 7.) [Illustration: Fig. 7.--English Saddle. 1, second pommel; 2, third pommel; 3, shield; 4, saddle-flap; 5, cantle; 6, stirrup-leather; 7, stirrup; 8, girths; 9, platform.] A lady who has once ridden one of these three-pommeled saddles will never care to use any other kind. It renders horseback riding almost perfectly safe, for, if the rider has learned to use it properly, it will be nearly impossible for a horse to throw her. It gives her a much firmer seat even than that of a gentleman in his saddle, and at the same time, if rightly used, does not interfere with that easy grace so essential to good riding. In many of our large cities where this saddle is employed twenty lady riders may now be seen in the park or on the road where formerly there was one; and this is wholly due to the sense of security it gives, especially to a timid rider, a feeling never attainable in the two-pommeled saddle, where the seat is maintained chiefly by the balance, or by using the reins as a means of support. By sitting erect, taking a firm hold upon the second pommel with the right knee, and pressing the left knee up against the third pommel, a perfectly secure seat is obtained, from which the rider cannot be shaken, provided the saddle is well girthed and the horse does not fall, while her hands are left free to manage the reins, a very important point where the horse is spirited or restless. To insure the greatest safety and comfort for both horse and rider, it is very important that the saddle should be accurately constructed. If possible, it should be made especially for the horse that is to carry it, so that it may suit his particular shape. If it does not fit him well, it will be likely to turn, or may gall his back severely, and make him for a long time unfit for service. It may even, in time, give rise to fistulous withers, will certainly make the horse restless and uneasy on the road, and the pain he suffers will interfere with the ease and harmony of his gaits. Many a horse has been rendered unfit for a lady's use solely because the saddle did not fit well. The under surface of the arch of the saddle-tree, in front, should never come in contact with the animal's withers, nor should the points of the saddle-tree be so tightly fitted as to interfere with the movements of his shoulders. On the other hand, they should not be so far apart as to allow the central furrowed line of the under surface of the saddle (the chamber) to rest upon the animal's back. The saddle should be so fitted and padded that this central chamber will lie directly over the spinal column of the horse without touching it, while the padded surfaces, just below the chamber, should rest closely on the sides of the back, and be supported at as many points as is possible without making the animal uncomfortable. When a horse has very high withers, a breast-plate, similar to that employed in military service, may be used, to prevent the saddle from slipping backwards. This contrivance consists of a piece of leather passing round the neck like a collar, to the lowest part of which is fastened a strap that passes between the fore-legs of the horse and is attached to the saddle girth. Two other straps, one on each side, connect the upper part of the collar piece with the upper part of the saddle. The under strap should never be very loose, for should the saddle slip back and this strap not be tight enough to hold down the collar piece, the latter will be pulled up by the upper straps so as to press against the windpipe of the horse and choke him. Should the horse have low withers and a round, barrel-like body, false pannels or padded pieces may be used; but an animal of this shape is not suitable for a lady, for it will be almost impossible to keep the saddle from turning, no matter how carefully it may be girthed. A sufficiently spacious seat or platform to the saddle is much more comfortable for both horse and rider than a narrow one. It gives the rider a firmer seat, and does not bring so much strain upon the girths. This platform should also be made as nearly level as possible, and be covered with quilted buckskin. Leather, now so often used for this purpose, becomes after a time so slippery that it is difficult to retain one's seat, and the pommels when covered with it are apt to chafe the limbs severely. To secure a thoroughly comfortable saddle it is necessary that not only the horse, but also the rider, should be measured for it; for a saddle suitable for a slender person could hardly be used with any comfort by a stout one, and it is almost as bad to have a saddle too large as too small. Care must be taken to have sufficient length from the front of the second pommel to the cantle. In the ready-made saddles this distance is usually too short, and the rider is obliged to sit upon the back edge of the seat, thereby injuring both herself and her horse. It is much better to err in the other direction and have the seat too long rather than too short. The third pommel should be so placed that it will just span the knee when the stirrup-leather is of the right length. It should be rather short, slightly curved, and blunt. If it be too long and have too much of a curve, it will, in the English trot, interfere with the free action of the rider's left leg, and if the horse should fall, it would be almost impossible for her to disengage her leg and free herself in time to escape injury. The third pommel must be so placed as not to interfere with the position of the right leg when this is placed around the second pommel with the right heel drawn backwards. To get the proper proportions for her saddle, the lady must, when seated, take her measure from the under side of the knee joint to the lower extremity of her back, and also--to secure the proper width for the seat--from thigh to thigh. If these two measurements are given to the saddle-maker he will, if he understands his business, be able to construct the saddle properly. The saddle recommended by the author, one which she has used for several years, and still continues to use, is represented in Fig. 7. The third pommel of this saddle is of medium size, and instead of being close to the second one is placed a short distance below it, thus enabling the rider to use a longer stirrup than she otherwise could; for if the two pommels be very close together, the rider will be obliged to use a very short stirrup in order to make this third pommel of any use. The disadvantage of a short stirrup is that, in a long ride, it is apt to occasion cramp in the left leg. It also interferes with an easy and steady position in the saddle. But with a stirrup of the right length, and the arrangement of the pommels such as we have described, a steadiness is given to the left leg that can never be obtained with the old-fashioned two-pommeled saddle. The third pommel must be screwed securely into the saddle-tree, and once fixed in its proper place, should not again be moved, as if frequently turned it will soon get loose, and the rider will not be able to rely upon its assistance to retain her balance. It should be screwed into place inversely, that is, instead of being turned to the right it must be turned to the left, so that the pressure of the knee may make it firmer and more secure, instead of loosening it, as would be the case if it were screwed to the right. This pommel should be well padded, so that the knee may not be bruised by it. The second pommel should also be well padded, and should always be curved slightly so as to suit the form of the right leg. It must not be so high as to render it difficult, in mounting and dismounting, to pass the right knee over it. The off-pommel, since the English saddle has come into vogue, has almost disappeared, being reduced to a mere vestige of its former size. This is a great improvement to the rider's appearance, as she now no longer has that confined, cribbed-up look which the high pommeled saddle of twenty years ago gave her. The distance between the off-pommel and the second one should be adapted to the size of the rider's leg, being wide enough to allow the leg to rest easily between the two; but no wider than this, as too much space will be apt to lead her to sit sideways upon the saddle. A saddle should be well padded, but not so much so as to lift the rider too high above the horse's back. The shield in front should not press upon the neck of the horse, but should barely touch it. The saddle flaps must be well strapped down, for if they stand out stiffly, the correct position of the stirrup leg will be interfered with. A side-saddle should never be too light in weight, for this will make the back of the horse sore, especially if he be ridden by a heavy woman. The tacks or nails in the under part of the saddle should be firmly driven in, as they may otherwise become loose and either injure the horse, or make him nervous and uneasy. To avoid trouble of this kind, some people advocate the use of false pannels, which are fastened to the saddle-tree by rods or loops, and can be removed and replaced at will. It is said that by using them, the same saddle can be made to fit different horses. The author has no personal knowledge of this invention, but it has been strongly recommended to her by several excellent horsemen. A felt or flannel saddle cloth, of the same color as the rider's habit, should always be placed under the saddle, as it helps to protect the horse's back, as well as to prevent the saddle from getting soiled. Every finished side-saddle has three girths. Two of these are made of felt cloth, or strong webbing, and are designed to fasten it firmly upon the horse's back. The third one, made of leather, is intended to keep the flaps down. There should always be, on each side, three straps fastened to the saddle-tree under the leather flaps; upon two of these the girths are to be buckled, while the third is an extra one, to be used as a substitute in case of any accident to either of the others. Between the outside leather flaps and the horse's body there should be an under flap of flannel or cloth, which should be well padded on the side next the horse, because, when tightly girthed, the girth-buckles press directly upon the outside of this flap, and if its padding be thin, or worn, the animal will suffer great pain. This is a cause of restlessness which is seldom noticed, and many a horse has been thought to be bad tempered when he was only wild with pain from the pressure of the girth-buckles against his side. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Stokes' mode of girthing the saddle.] The credit of introducing a new method of tightening girths belongs, so far as we know, to Mr. Stokes, formerly a riding-teacher in Cincinnati. This method enables one to girth the horse tightly, without using so much muscular effort as is usually required, so that by its means, a lady can, if she wish, saddle her own horse. (Fig. 8.) The following is a description of Mr. Stokes' manner of girthing: At the end of each of the leather girth straps, which hang down between the flaps on the off-side of the saddle, is fastened a strong iron buckle without any tongue, but with a thin steel roller or revolving cylinder on its lower edge. On the near side of the saddle the girths are strapped in the usual manner, but, on the _outer_ end of each cloth girth there is, in addition to an ordinary buckle, with a roller on the upper side of it, a long strap, which is fastened to the under side of the girth, the buckle being on the upper side. This strap, when the saddle is girthed, is passed up through the tongueless buckle, moving easily over the steel roller, and is then brought down to the buckle with tongue on the end of the girth, and there fastened in the usual manner. The slipper stirrup, when first introduced, was a great favorite, for in addition to furnishing an excellent support, it was believed that it would release the foot instantly should the rider be thrown. This latter merit, however, it was found that it did not possess, as many severe accidents occurred where this stirrup was used, especially with the two-pommeled saddle. Instead of releasing the rider in these cases, as it was supposed it would, the stirrup tilted up and held her foot so firmly grasped that she was dragged some distance before she could be released. This stirrup, therefore, gradually fell into disfavor, and is now no longer used by the best riders. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Victoria stirrup.] There are, at the present time, three kinds of stirrups which are favorites among finished riders. The first is called the "Victoria" because it is the one used by the Queen of England. (Fig. 9.) In this stirrup the platform on which the foot rests is broad and comfortable, and is slightly roughened to prevent the foot from slipping. A spring-bar attachment (Fig. 10) is placed at the top of the stirrup-leather under the saddle-flap, and at the end of this bar there is a spring, so that, if the rider be thrown, the stirrup-leather becomes instantly detached from the saddle. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Spring-bar for stirrup leather.] The second variety of stirrup, known as "Lennan's safety stirrup," has all the merit of the preceding one. If kept well oiled and free from mud, it will release the foot at once, when an accident occurs. It may, if desired, be accompanied by the spring-bar attachment, and thus rendered doubly secure. (Fig. 11.) Some people, however, dislike the spring-bar attachment, and prefer to rely entirely upon the spring of the stirrup to release the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Lennan's safety stirrup.] The third stirrup, called "Latchford's safety stirrup," consists of a stirrup within a stirrup, and is so arranged that, when a rider is thrown, the inner stirrup springs open and releases the foot. (Fig. 12.) Either of these stirrups can be procured in London, England, or from the best saddle-makers in this country. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Latchford's safety stirrup.] A =stirrup-iron= should never be made of cast metal, but invariably of the best wrought steel: it should be adapted to the size of the rider's foot, and should, if possible, have an instep pad at the top, while the bottom platform, upon which the foot rests, should be broad, and roughened on its upper surface. The =stirrup-leather= should be of the very best material, and should have neither fissures nor cracks in any part of it. It is very important to examine this leather frequently, and see that it is neither wearing thin, nor breaking at its upper part at the bar, nor at the lower part where it is fastened to the stirrup. A novel arrangement of the stirrup-leather, by means of the so-called "balance-strap," has of late years been used by some riders. The stirrup is, in this case, fastened to the balance-strap, which consists of a single strap passing up through the ring-bar, and then brought down to within two or three inches of the lower edge of the saddle-flap; here it is passed through a slit in the flap, then carried under the horse to the other side and buckled to another strap, which is fastened, for this purpose, just below the off-pommel. By this arrangement the saddle-flaps on both sides are held down, and the rider, without dismounting, can change the length of her stirrup by merely tightening or loosening this strap. Although highly recommended by some riders, this balance strap has one objectionable feature, which is that, as the measurement of the horse's girth is not constant during a long ride, it will be necessary to tighten the strap frequently in order to keep the stirrup of the proper length. The old way of fastening is much better, for too much complication in the saddle and bridle is apt to annoy and confuse the rider, especially if a novice. The =golden rule= in riding on horseback is to have everything accurate, simple, safe, and made of the very best material that can be procured. The =bridle= should be neatly and plainly made, with no large rosettes at the sides, nor highly colored bands across the forehead. The reins and the head-piece should never be made of rounded straps, but always of flat ones, and should be of the best and strongest leather, especially the reins. These should be carefully examined from time to time, in order to be sure that there are no imperfections in them. Any roughness or hardness is an indication of defectiveness, and may be detected by dexterously passing the fingers to and fro over the flat surfaces, which should be smooth, soft, and flexible. There can hardly be too much care taken about this matter, for the snapping of a rein always alarms a horse; and, feeling himself free from all control, he will be almost certain to run away, while the rider, if she has no other reins, will be powerless to protect herself, or to check him in his purpose. =Martingales= are rarely used by riders, as they are troublesome, and can very well be dispensed with, unless the horse has the disagreeable trick of raising his head suddenly, from time to time, when a martingale will become necessary in order to correct this fault. The French martingale is the best. This consists of a single strap, fastened either to the under part of a nose-band at its centre under the jaw, or by branches to each side of the snaffle-bit at the corners of the horse's mouth and then carried between the fore-legs and fastened to the girth. When the horse raises his head too high this strap pulls upon the nose-band, compresses his nostrils, interferes with his breathing, and causes him to lower his head promptly. The horse should not be too much confined by the martingale, for the object is simply to prevent him from lifting his head too high, and all other ordinary movements should be left free. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Chifney bit.] Among the many =bits= which have been used, that known as the "Pelham" has been highly praised, although, at the present time, it is almost, if not entirely, out of use. It might, however, from the severity of its curb prove of service in controlling a hard-mouthed horse, although such a one should never be ridden by a lady. The Chifney bit is another very severe one, and is very useful in managing a horse that pulls hard. But if the animal have a tender mouth, this bit should be used with great caution, and not at all by an inexperienced rider. (Fig. 13.) The bit known as the "snaffle," when made plain and not twisted, is the mildest of all bits, and some horses will move readily only when this is used, the curb instantly rousing their temper. Others, again, do best with a combination of the curb and the snaffle, and although the former may seldom require to be used, its mere presence in the mouth of the horse will prove a sufficient check to prevent him from running away. Most horses, however, especially those ridden by ladies, require a light use of the curb to bring them to their best gait. [Illustration: Fig. 14.--The Combination Bit. _a_, _a_, rings fastened on each side to small bar, at right angles to and directed backward of the cheek; _b_, _b_, rings for the curb-reins.] The bit used and recommended by many, but not by the author, is a curb so arranged as to form a combination bit in one piece. It consists of a curb (Fig. 14), to each side of which, at the angles of the horse's mouth, a ring is attached, and to each of these rings is fastened a rein. This gives a second pair of reins and converts the curb into a kind of snaffle. In this way it answers the purpose of both curb and snaffle without crowding the horse's mouth with two separate bits. If two bits should be used--the curb and bridoon--instead of the above combination bit, the bridoon should be placed in the horse's mouth in such a way as not to interfere with the action of the curb; it must, therefore, be neither too thick nor too long, and so fitted into the angles of the mouth as to neither wrinkle nor draw back the lips. The bit should always be made of the best steel, be well rounded, and perfectly smooth. Above all it should be accurately fitted to the horse's mouth: if it be too narrow it will compress his lips against the bars of his mouth, and the pain thereby occasioned will render him very restive. The mouth-piece should be just long enough to have the cheeks of the bit fit closely to the outer surface of the lips without compressing them, and must not be so long as to become displaced obliquely when a rein is pulled. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Dwyer's Curb-Bit. 1, 1, upper bars or cheeks; 2, 2, lower bars; 3, the port; 4, 4, the canons; 5, curb-chain; 6, curb-hook; 7, lip strap and ring; 8, 8, rein rings; 9, 9, head stall rings.] According to Major Dwyer, who is a high authority on the subject of bits,--and whose little work should be carefully studied by all bit-makers,--it seems to be the general rule to have the lower bar or cheek of the curb-bit twice as long as the upper one; but, as there is no standard measure for the upper one the other is frequently made too long. Major Dwyer states that the mouth-piece, for any horse of ordinary size, should be one and three fourths inches for the upper bar, and three and a half inches for the lower one. This makes five and one fourth inches for the entire length of the two bars, from the point at which the curb-hook acts above to that where the lower ring acts below. (Fig. 15.) For ordinary ponies the upper bar may be one and a half inches, and the lower one three, making a total length of four and a half inches. Every lady rider should know that the longer the lower bar, the thinner the mouth-piece, and the higher the "port," the more severe and painful will be the action of the bit upon the horse's mouth. For a horse of ordinary size, the width of the port should be one and one third inches; for a pony, one inch. The height will vary according to the degree of severity required. The curb-chain, for a horse that has a chin-groove of medium size, should be about four fifths of an inch wide, as a chain that is rather broad and flat is less painful for the horse than a thin, sharp one. If the chin-groove be very narrow, a curb-chain of less width will have to be used, and should be covered with cloth; or, instead of a chain, a narrow strap of leather may be used, which should be kept soft and pliable. The proper length for the curb-chain, not including the curb-hooks, is about one fourth more than the width of the animal's mouth. The hooks should be exactly alike, and about an inch and a quarter long. Some horses are very expert in the trick of catching the cheek of the bit between their teeth. To remedy this vice a lip-strap may be used; but it will be found much better to have each cheek or bar bent into the form of the letter S, remembering, however, that the measurement of the length, referred to above, must in the case of curved bars be made in a straight line. Sometimes the upper bar of the curb-bit will, on account of the peculiar form of the horse's head, press against and gall his cheeks. When this is noticed, most people change the bit, and get one with a longer mouth-piece; but where the mouth-piece is of the same length as the width of the mouth, the proper remedy for this difficulty will be to have the upper bar bent out enough to free the cheeks from its pressure. The curb-bit once made and properly adjusted to the head-stall, the next step will be to =fit it accurately= to the horse's mouth. Every rider should thoroughly understand not only how to do this, but also how to place the saddle correctly upon the horse. Upon these points nearly all grooms require instruction, and very few gentlemen, even, know how to arrange a side-saddle so as to have it comfortable for both horse and rider. Moreover, should the lady be riding alone, as frequently happens in the country, and meet with any accident to saddle or bridle, or need to have either adjusted, she would, without knowledge on these subjects, be completely helpless, whereas with it she could promptly remedy the difficulty. [Illustration: Fig. 16.--The Bit adjusted. 1, 1, snaffle-rein; 2, 2, curb-rein.] In order to adjust the bit permanently to the head-stall, so that afterwards the horse can always be properly bridled, one must proceed as follows: having first fitted the head-stall to the horse's head by means of the upper buckles, the bit must then be adjusted, by means of the lower ones, in such a manner that the canons of the mouth-piece will rest on the bars of the horse's mouth, exactly opposite the chin-groove. (Fig. 16.) Should the tusks of the horse be irregularly placed, the mouth-piece must be adjusted a little higher than the projecting tusks, so as to just avoid touching them. The curb-chain may now be hooked into the ring of the upper bar on the off-side, leaving one link loose, after which the other hook must be fastened to the ring of the bar on the near-side, leaving two links loose. Care should be taken to have the curb-chain rest with its flat surface against the chin-groove in such a way that it will have no tendency to rise up when the reins are pulled upon. The curb-chain should never be tight; there must always be room enough between it and the chin to insert the first and second fingers of the right hand flatwise; and, while the fingers are thus placed, if the reins are drawn up, it will be easy to ascertain whether the chain pinches. If, when the reins are tightened, the bit stands stiff and immovable, it will show that the chain is too short and needs to be lengthened a link or two. If the horse gently yields his head to the tightening of the reins, without suddenly drawing back, or thrusting out his nose as the tension is increased, it will prove that the bit is correctly placed. But if the lower bars of the bit can be drawn back quite a distance before the horse will yield to the pull of the reins, then the chain is too long, and should be shortened. "Lightness, accuracy, easy motion, a total absence of stiffness, constraint, or painful action, are the characteristics of good bitting; and if these be attained, ready obedience to the rider's hand will be the result."--_F. Dwyer._ When the bit has once been correctly adjusted to the head-stall and to the horse's mouth, there will be little difficulty in bridling him upon any subsequent occasion. Thus: standing at the left of the horse's head, the head-stall, held by its upper part in the right hand, should be lifted up in front of the horse's head, while the left hand, holding the bit by its mouth-piece, should put this between the animal's lips, press it against his teeth, and into his mouth, which he will generally open a little in order to admit it. As soon as this has been accomplished, the upper part of the head-stall must be promptly raised so as to bring its upper strap or band across the forehead, while at the same time the horse's ears are passed between the forehead band and the strap which forms the upper part of the head-stall. During these manoeuvres, the curb-chain must be passed under the chin, so as to rest against the chin-groove, and care be taken to keep the fingers of the left hand out of the horse's mouth while the mouth-piece is being put in. The bit and head-stall having been properly arranged, the whole should be secured by buckling the throat-strap loosely on the left side. If this strap be buckled tightly, the horse will be unable to bend his neck properly. The mouth-piece of the bit should be washed, dried, and then rubbed with fresh olive or cotton-seed oil, each time after use, to preserve it from rust. Neither a rusted bit nor a very cold one should ever be put into a horse's mouth. In frosty winter weather the bit should always be warmed. Many a valuable horse has had his mouth seriously injured by having an icy cold mouth-piece put into it, to say nothing of the pain and suffering it must invariably occasion. In order to produce a neat and pleasing appearance, there should be no unsightly ends or straps left dangling from the loops of the head-stall. They should be so snugly fitted into their places that they cannot work out of their loops. The forehead band should never be too tight for the horse's comfort, and the small rosettes that lie over his temples should be well oiled underneath and kept soft. A side-saddle may be made accurately according to all recognized rules, and yet lose nearly all its good effects by being improperly put on; the rider will be made uncomfortable, the horse's back will be injured, and the saddle will eventually have its padding so compressed in the wrong direction that it will be impossible to put it on in the right way. Every lady rider should know as well how to have her saddle properly adjusted as how to sit her horse or manage the reins. On a well-formed horse, with rather high withers and sloping shoulders, the centre of the saddle should be placed over the middle of the back, and be so arranged that the front part of the saddle-tree shall be a very short distance back of the horse's shoulder-blade, for if allowed to rest upon the shoulder-blade it will interfere very much with the action of the shoulder muscles. It is a common fault of grooms to place the saddle a little sideways, and too far forward on the withers. The well-taught rider can, however, easily decide whether the saddle is in the right position: standing on the off-side of the horse, she must pass her right hand under the arch of the saddle-tree, which should be directly over the withers, and see whether it sits perfectly even, bearing no more to one side than to the other; then stepping behind the horse, but at a safe distance from his heels, she can see whether the long central furrow of the under surface of the saddle-seat from front to rear (chamber) is in a direct line with the animal's backbone, and forms an open space over it. If these conditions are fulfilled, the saddle is properly adjusted. If the horse have rather straight shoulders, together with a plump, round body, the saddle will require to be placed rather farther forward, but with the chamber still in a line with the backbone. On some horses of this shape, the saddle, to be held securely, will need to be set so far forward that the girths will have to pass close to the fore-legs. A horse of this description is not suitable for the side-saddle, but as ladies in the country and in the far West are sometimes obliged to ride such, it is very important for their safety to know how these ill-formed animals should be saddled, because should the saddle be put too far back on such horses, it will be sure to turn. It not infrequently happens that after the saddle has been placed in the correct position, it becomes slightly displaced while being fastened. To avoid this, it should always be girthed on the off-side, and great care be taken, when fastening the girths, especially the first one, that the saddle be not jerked over to the left; and that in pulling upon the short strap on the off-side, to which the girth is to be buckled, the saddle be not forced to the right. When girthing the saddle, the lady may place her left hand on the middle of the seat and hold it steady while she arranges the first girth, and with her right hand draws it as tightly as she can, without using violent exertion, or making any sudden jerk; she will then be able, with both hands, to tighten the girth as much as is necessary, doing this with an even, regular pull, so that the saddle will not be moved out of place. Before fastening the other girths, she should step behind the horse and assure herself that the chamber is in a line with the horse's backbone, as before described. If it is not, she must loosen the girth, and, after straightening the saddle, proceed as before. The girth to be first fastened is the one nearest the horse's fore-legs; the second girth is the one back of the first, and should be placed evenly over the first one and fastened equally tight; the third is the leather girth which is intended to keep down the saddle-flaps; this must be placed evenly over the other two, but it is not essential to have it drawn so tight as they, but just enough so to hold the flaps. Most horses have a trick, when they are being girthed, of expanding their sides and abdomen, for the purpose of securing a loose girthing; and girths that seem almost too tight when they are first buckled are often found to be too loose after the rider has mounted. Too tight a girth is injurious to the horse, but too loose a one may cause the saddle to turn. A round, plump horse with low withers will need tighter girthing than a better shaped one. The lady rider should study the shape of her horse, and use her own judgment as to how tight the girths should be drawn, making due allowance for the trick alluded to above. If there is any second person present while the saddle is being arranged, matters may be facilitated if this person will hold the saddle firmly by the off-pommel while the girthing is being done. The author has been thus particular in describing the bit and saddle with their proper arrangement, as well as the girthing of the horse, because so few lady riders bestow any attention upon these very important matters; and yet, if one desires to ride safely and well, a knowledge of them is positively necessary. Grooms cannot always be depended upon, and, indeed, seldom know much about the side-saddle; there is an adage which is applicable to many of them: "Too much must not be expected from the head of him who labors only with his hands." In the instructions given by gentlemen writers, useful as they may be in many respects, there is usually a good deal of practical information omitted which a lady rider ought to know, but the necessity of which it is perhaps impossible for a gentleman fully to appreciate or understand; this knowledge the lady will have to gain either from her own experience or from one of her own sex who has studied the subject carefully. In preparing for horseback riding, nothing should be omitted that can give greater security to the rider, or protect her more completely from accident of any sort. Every article should be of the very best material, so that a breakage or casualty of any kind may be only a remote possibility. The knowledge that everything is right, and firmly and properly placed, creates a confidence which adds greatly to the pleasure of the ride. CHAPTER IV. MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING. "'Stand, Bayard, stand!'--the steed obeyed, With arching neck and bending head, And glancing eye and quivering ear, As if he loved _her voice_ to hear." _Lady of the Lake._ A novice in riding always experiences in a greater or less degree a sense of trepidation and embarrassment when, for the first time, a horse duly caparisoned for a lady rider is put before her, and she is expected to seat herself in the saddle. If she be a timid person, the apparent difficulty of this feat occasions a dismay which the good-natured champing of the bit and impatient head shakings of the horse do not tend to diminish. If, however, she be accustomed to horses as pets, and understand their ways, she will be much less apprehensive about mounting than the lady who has only observed them at a distance and is entirely ignorant of their nature. The author has known ladies, after their horses had been brought to the door, to send them back to the stable because courage failed them when it became necessary to trust themselves on the back of an animal of which they knew nothing. To overcome this timidity the lady must become better acquainted with her horse, and, to do so, should visit him occasionally in his stable, feed him with choice morsels, and lead him about the yard from time to time. By these means a mutual friendship and confidence will be created, and the lady will gradually gain enough courage to place herself in the saddle. The first attempt at mounting should be made from a =high horse-block= with some one to hold the head of the horse and keep him still. Turning her right side somewhat toward the horse's left, and slightly raising the skirt of her riding habit, the lady should spring from her left foot towards the saddle, at the same time raising her right leg so that it will pass directly over the second and third pommels. This accomplished, the left foot may be placed in the stirrup. Another method of mounting from a rather high horse-block, when the pommels are high, is for the lady to face the horse's left side, and, seizing the off-pommel with the right hand and the second one with the left, to spring towards the saddle from her left foot, and seat herself sidewise. She can then turn her body so as to face the horse's head, place her right leg over the second pommel,--adjusting her skirt at the same time,--and slip her left foot into the stirrup and her left knee under the third pommel. Should the =horse-block be low= and the lady short, she will be obliged to mount somewhat after a man's fashion, thus: Placing her left foot in the stirrup, and grasping the second pommel with her left hand, she should spring from her right foot, and, as she rises, grasp the off-pommel with her right hand; by means of this spring, aided by the pommels and stirrup, she can seat herself sideways in the saddle, turning her body for this purpose just before gaining the seat. In the absence of a horse-block, from which to mount, the assistance of a chair or stool should never be resorted to unless there is some one to hold it firm and steady. When the rider is obliged to =mount= without assistance and =from the ground=, if the balance-strap, before referred to, be used with her stirrup, she can let this strap down far enough to enable her to put her foot in the stirrup easily, and to use it as a sort of stepping-stone by means of which, and a spring from her right foot, she can reach the saddle sideways. In doing this she must grasp the second pommel firmly with her left hand, in which she also should hold her whip and the reins; on rising she must aid herself by grasping with the right hand the off-pommel as soon as she can reach it. When she is seated, the stirrup can be adjusted from the off-side by means of the balance-strap. If, however, she uses the old-fashioned stirrup-leather, and there is no assistance of any kind at hand, neither horse-block, chair, nor stool, not even a fence or steep bank from which to mount,--a situation in which a rider might possibly be placed,--then reaching the saddle becomes a very puzzling affair, unless the lady be so active that she can spring from the ground to her saddle. To try the plan of lengthening the stirrup-leather will be dangerous, because, in order to readjust it after mounting, she will have to sit on the back part of the saddle, bend over the horse's left side, and pull up the stirrup-leather in order to shorten and buckle it; while in this position, if the horse should start, she would probably be thrown instantly. Her safest course would be to lead the horse until a place is found where she can mount. If she should have to use a fence for this purpose let her be sure that the posts are firmly fixed in the ground, and that the boards are neither loose nor easily broken. When mounting, the whip and reins should be held in the left hand, the former with the point down, so that it may not hit the horse, and the latter grasped just tightly enough to feel the horse's mouth without pulling on it. In order to arrange the folds of the riding skirt after mounting, the reins and whip must be transferred to the right hand; then, resting this hand upon the off-pommel, the rider should raise herself free from the saddle by straightening her left knee and standing on the stirrup, also aiding herself by means of the right hand on the pommel. While thus standing she can quickly arrange the skirt with her left hand. None of the methods of mounting just described--with the exception of the first one--are at all graceful, and they should never be used except in case of absolute necessity. The most graceful way for a lady to reach the saddle, and the one that is taught in the best riding schools, is by the =assistance of a gentleman=. The rider's education will not be complete until she has learned this method of mounting, which, when accomplished easily and gracefully, is delightful to witness. It should be learned after the preliminary lessons at the horse-block have been taken. In using this simple manner of reaching the saddle, the rider will have three distinct points of support, namely, the shoulder of the gentleman who assists her, the united palms of his hands, and her own hold upon the pommel. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Lady ready to mount her horse.] The stirrup having been placed across the shield of the saddle in front of the pommels, the lady, holding the reins and the whip with its point down in her right hand,--which must rest upon the second pommel,--should stand with her right side toward the horse's left, about four or five inches from it, her left shoulder being slightly turned back. Then, taking a firm hold upon the second pommel with her right hand, she should with the left lift her riding skirt enough to enable her to place her left foot fairly and squarely into the gentleman's palms, which should be clasped firmly together. This done, she should drop the skirt, place her left hand upon his right shoulder, bend her knee, or give the word "ready," as a signal, and at once spring from her right foot up and a little towards the horse. The gentleman, at the same moment, must raise his hands, and move them toward the horse. The lady must, when rising, press or bear lightly upon his shoulder, and also keep a firm hold upon the second pommel, which she must not relinquish until she is seated. If correctly performed, this manoeuvre will place the rider in the saddle sideways. The gentleman should then remove the stirrup from the front of the saddle, while the lady transfers the reins to her left hand, passes her right knee over the second pommel and her left under the third. She will then be ready to have her foot placed in the stirrup. (Fig. 17.) It will, however, be found very difficult to mount in this manner, gracefully, unless the gentleman who assists thoroughly understands his duties; should he be awkward about helping her, the lady will find it much better to depend upon the horse-block. If, for instance, he should raise his hands too high, or with too much energy, when she makes her spring, he may push her too far over, or even--if she should loosen her grasp of the second pommel,--cause her to fall from the off-side of the horse. This is a dangerous accident, and almost certain to occasion severe injuries. On the other hand, if he does not use energy enough, or neglects to carry his hands toward the body of the horse as the lady rises, she may not reach the saddle at all, and will he apt to fall to the ground on the left side of the horse, especially if she relinquishes her hold on the second pommel. The gentleman must also be careful not to let his foot rest on the lady's skirt, as this will pull her back, and perhaps tear the dress, as she makes her spring. In assisting a lady to mount, the =gentleman= should first arrange the snaffle-reins evenly and of the proper length, and place them in her right hand, leaving the curb-reins to lie loosely on the neck of the horse. Then, after putting the stirrup out of the way, as described above, he should take a position facing her, with his left shoulder toward the left shoulder of the horse. Clasping his hands together with the palms turned up, he should stoop sufficiently to enable her to put her left foot upon them, and, in raising them as she springs, he must gradually assume the erect posture. When the lady is seated, he should return the stirrup to its proper position and place her foot in it, after first, with his left hand, adjusting her skirt so that it will fall evenly; he should then place the curb-reins in her left hand, with the others. No gentleman is a finished equestrian, nor a desirable companion for a lady on horseback, who does not know how to assist her dexterously and gracefully to mount and dismount. A lady who is not very nimble in her movements, or who is very heavy, should be extremely careful in mounting not to accept assistance from a gentleman who is not strong enough to support her weight easily and firmly. It will be much better for her to use a horse-block or something of the kind. But if she does accept the aid of a gentleman, the following changes in the methods described above have been recommended: instead of facing her, he should stand close to her side, with his face turned in the same direction as hers: she should then place her left foot in his united hands, and in order to do so must pass her left leg between his right arm and his body. He will thus be enabled to support and lift her with greater ease, and, as she rises, her left leg will readily escape from under his right arm, and she will be able to seat herself sideways in the saddle, as by the former method. During this manoeuvre she must sustain herself by the second pommel, as in the preceding instance. If a horse is restless and uneasy when being mounted, he should be held by a third person, who must stand in front of his head and take a firm hold of the curb-bit on each side, but without touching the reins, which should always be held and managed by the rider only. It is _always_ a better plan, when mounting, to have the horse held, although a well-trained horse will stand quietly without such control. Mounting is a part of the rider's education which should be carefully studied and practiced, for when properly and gracefully accomplished it is the very poetry of motion, and will enable her to display more pliancy and lightness than she can even in the ball-room. There is another branch of the rider's education which also requires careful study, as it is rarely accomplished satisfactorily, and is apt to occasion as much embarrassment and dismay to a beginner as mounting. This is =dismounting=. To alight from a horse easily and well, without disarranging the dress, and without being awkwardly precipitated into the arms of the gentleman who assists, is by no means an easy task, and very few lady riders accomplish it with skill and address. When assisting his companion from the saddle, the gentleman should stand about a foot from her with his face toward the horse, while she, after taking her foot from the stirrup and disengaging her right leg from the pommel, must turn her body so as to face him. After putting the stirrup over the shield of the saddle, as in mounting, he should then extend his hands so as to support her by the elbows, while she rests a hand upon each of his shoulders. Then, by giving a gentle spring, she will glide lightly to the ground, he meanwhile supporting her with his hands, and, as she descends, bending his body, and moving his right side slightly backward. She can also assist him to lessen the shock as she touches the ground by bending her knees a little, as if courtesying. Another way of assisting the lady, especially if she be rather stout and not very active, is for the gentleman to clasp her waist with both hands, instead of holding her by the elbows. He should, in this case, stand as far from her as he can while still supporting her, and, as she descends, should make a step backward with his right foot, and turn a little away from the horse, which should be held by a third person, in the manner described before, in mounting. [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Lady ready to dismount.] Another, and more graceful way of dismounting is the following: The gentleman, standing about a foot from his companion and directly facing her, takes in his left hand her bridle,--as near as he can to the horse's mouth, that he may hold him as firmly and securely as possible,--the lady now drops the reins on the horse's neck, disengages her foot from the stirrup, and her leg from the second pommel, and then seats herself sideways in the saddle, so as to face her assistant, who now places the stirrup on the front of the saddle with his right hand; he then offers his right shoulder to the lady for her support. She, after gathering up in her left hand a few folds of her riding skirt, in order to have her feet free when she alights, places upon his shoulder the hand which holds the skirt, and with the other, in which she holds her whip point downward, grasps the second pommel and springs lightly from the saddle, the gentleman bending over a little as she descends. On reaching the ground, she should, as before described, bend her knees slightly to lessen the shock of the descent. (Fig. 18.) In all these modes of dismounting, the lady, before attempting to alight, should be sure that her skirt is quite free from the pommels, especially from the second one, and that it is so adjusted that it will not be trodden upon when she reaches the ground, but will fall evenly about her, without being in any way disarranged. It happens not infrequently that a lady is obliged to dismount without =any one to assist her=, and in this case she should ride up to a horse-block so as to bring the left side of her horse close to it, let the curb reins fall upon his neck, retaining, however, the whip and snaffle-reins in her left hand, and then, removing her foot from the stirrup and her right leg from the pommel, she should seat herself a little sideways upon the saddle. Now, with a slight turn of her shoulders to the right, she should place her left hand--still holding the whip and reins--upon the second pommel, and her right hand upon the off one, and thus alight sideways with her face toward the horse's head. In effecting this manoeuvre, she must be careful to retain her hold upon the snaffle-reins and also upon the second pommel until she is safe upon the horse-block; she must also remember the caution given before, in regard to having her skirts free from the pommels. To =dismount upon the ground=, or upon a very low horse-block, =without= assistance, is a difficult feat to execute gracefully, but some young ladies in the country, who are active and light, accomplish it so easily and quickly that they do not appear awkward. The manner in which this is to be done is nearly the same as that just explained, the only difference being, that the gliding down must be effected quickly and lightly, and the rider, as she passes down, must release her hold upon the off-pommel, but retain that upon the second, also taking care to have the reins quite loose. This mode of alighting is, however, entirely out of place except in the country, where assistance cannot always be had readily, or in cases where the lady is obliged to dismount very quickly. If the lady rider, after carefully studying these different methods of mounting and dismounting with assistance, will select the one she thinks suits her best, and then practice it a few times with her gentleman escort, she will soon find herself able to perform with ease these apparently difficult feats, and will have no need of resorting to a horse-block, nor to some secluded spot, where she can mount or dismount unobserved. A lady once told the author that the pleasure of her daily ride was at one time almost spoiled by the knowledge that she must mount and dismount in front of a hotel, the piazza of which was always crowded with observers, for, not having been properly taught to execute these manoeuvres, she was rather awkward at them. She, however, placed herself under correct tuition, and soon overcame the difficulty. She can now execute these movements with such grace and elegance as to fascinate gentlemen, and excite the envy of rival belles who are still obliged to seek the aid of a horse-block. CHAPTER V. THE SEAT ON HORSEBACK. "Bounded the fiery steed in air, The rider sat erect and fair, Then like a bolt from steel cross-bow Forth launched, along the plain they go." _Lady of the Lake._ A correct seat is very seldom attained by the self-taught lady rider, for her attitude on the horse is so artificial that she cannot, like the gentleman rider, whose seat is more easy and natural, fall directly into the proper position. Competent instruction alone can enable her to gain the safe and easy posture which will give the least possible fatigue to herself and to her horse. It is true that a natural rider, or she who professes to ride instinctively, may to-day accidentally assume the proper position in the saddle, but, as she has no rule by which to guide herself, and is entirely unacquainted with the "whys and wherefores" of a correct seat, she will to-morrow assume the incorrect position, so natural to a self-taught rider, and the pleasant ride of to-day will be followed by a rough and unpleasant one to-morrow. On the one occasion, the poor horse will receive much praise for his easy motion, and on the next be highly censured for the roughness of his gait, for the lady will not suspect that the real difficulty lies in her own ignorance of a correct attitude, and in her bad management of the poor beast. Upon the position of the upper part of the body depends not only grace and pliancy, and that harmony between horse and rider which is so highly desirable and, indeed, necessary, but also the ability to manage the reins properly; for, if the rider be not well balanced, her hands will be unsteady, and seldom in the right position for controlling the animal. But the proper position of the body above the saddle depends upon the correct arrangement of the lower limbs; if they are not in the right position, the rider will lean too far forward, or too far back, or too much to one side or the other. She will also lose all firmness of seat, and, consequently, all safety in riding. This faulty position of the lower limbs has been, and still is, the occasion of much incorrect riding, but is a point which is seldom regarded by the gentleman teacher. He, indeed, cannot possibly know how the legs are arranged, when they are covered by the riding skirt, and probably seldom gives the subject any thought; yet he wonders, after carefully watching and correcting the position of the body, why his pupil does not retain the erect position as directed. A lady teacher of experience is, therefore, much to be preferred to a gentleman, unless the lady pupil is willing to wear, while taking her lessons, trousers similar to those worn during calisthenic exercises. It sometimes happens that a lady, even after being carefully instructed how to sit in the saddle, and when she seems to understand what is necessary, will yet present a very erect but stiff appearance, as if she were made of cast-iron, or some other unyielding material. This may be due to nervousness, fear, tight-lacing, or affectation. Practice in riding, loose corsets, and less affectation, will soon remedy this stiffness. Another faulty position is one which may be termed "the dead weight seat," which is only possible when riding on an English saddle. It consists in sitting or bearing chiefly upon the left side of the saddle, the right leg firmly grasping the second pommel, and the left leg squeezed tightly between the stirrup and the third pommel, as if held in a vise. In this position the rider will be fastened to her horse as closely as if she were a package of merchandise strapped upon the back of a pack-horse. She will appear indolent and inanimate, besides riding heavily, and thus distressing and discouraging her horse; for a well-trained horse will always prefer to keep in unison with the movements of his rider, but will find it impossible to do so, when she adopts this constrained, unyielding seat. The rider will also be made miserable, for the constant effort to keep steady by a continuous pressure of the left knee against the third pommel will not only prove wearisome, but will be apt to bruise her knee, as well as strain the muscles of the upper part of the leg, and the next day she will feel very stiff and lame. In addition to which it will be impossible for her to rise in the English trot, or to move her body to the right in the gallop or canter when the horse leads with his left leg. Moreover, should the lady who thus hangs upon the pommel be rather heavy, her horse's back will be sure to receive more or less injury, no matter how well the saddle may be made and padded. Although the second pommel should be firmly grasped by the right knee, and the left knee be strongly pressed up against the third one, when the horse is unruly or trying to unseat his rider, these supports should not be habitually employed, but kept for critical situations, and even then the body must be kept erect, yet flexible. A rider who depends entirely upon the pommels to enable her to keep her seat is a bad rider, who will soon acquire all kinds of awkward and ridiculous positions, and expose herself to much severe criticism. The opposite of the "dead-weight seat" is what may be termed the "wabbling seat." This is seen where the old-fashioned saddle is used; the rider, instead of sitting firm and erect, bounds up and down like a rubber ball tossed by an unseen hand. This can be remedied by the substitution of the English saddle, whose third pommel, when used judiciously and aided by a proper balance of the body, will give the required firmness of seat, which should be neither too rigid nor too yielding. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Correct Seat for a Lady. Back View.] =The correct seat=, universally adopted by finished riders, is the following: The lady should seat herself exactly on the centre of the saddle, with her body erect, and her backbone in a direct line with that of the horse, at a right angle with it. A spectator can readily tell whether the rider is in the centre of the saddle by observing whether the space between the buttons on the hind flaps of her riding-jacket corresponds with the backbone of the horse, and also with the chamber of the saddle. (Fig. 19.) Or the lady can herself decide the question by placing her fingers between these two buttons, and then carrying the former in a straight line directly down to the chamber of the saddle; if these coincide, and if she has placed herself far enough back on the saddle to be able to grasp the second pommel comfortably with her right knee, while the left one is just spanned by the third pommel, then she is in a position to ride with ease to herself and horse, for she now sits upon that part of the animal which is the centre of motion in his forward movement, and in this position can keep in unison with the cadence of his various gaits. Again, her weight being exactly upon the centre of motion, she can with difficulty be unseated or shaken off by the most violent efforts of the horse, for, whether he springs suddenly forward, or sideways, or whirls around, the rider is in a position at once to anticipate his movement, to keep a firm seat, and quickly to gain her balance. When the horse advances straight forward, the rider--sitting with head erect and her body so placed that its entire front is directed toward the horse's head, or, in other words, that _a straight line drawn from one hip to the other would form a right angle with one drawn along the centre of the horse's head and neck_--must throw her shoulders somewhat back, so as to expand her chest, taking care, however, to keep the shoulders in line, and not to elevate one more than the other. There should also be, at the back of the waist, a slight inward bend which will throw the front of the waist a little forward. The arms, from the shoulders to the elbows, must hang perpendicularly, and the elbows be held loosely but steadily and in an easy manner, near the rider's sides, and not be allowed to flap up and down with every movement. The hands must be held low and about three or four inches from the body. The bearing of the head, the backward throw of the shoulders, and the curve at the waist, are exactly like those assumed by a finished waltzer, and if the reader is herself a dancer, or will notice the carriage of a good dancer gliding around the ball-room, she can readily understand the attitude required for a correct seat in the saddle. The right knee should grasp the second pommel firmly, but not hang upon it in order to help the rider keep her seat and balance. The right leg, from the hip to the knee, must be kept as steady as possible, because from a woman's position in the saddle, the movements of her horse tend to throw her toward his left side, and she must guard against this by bearing slightly toward his right. From the knee to the foot, the right leg must be in contact with the fore-flap of the saddle, the heel being inclined backward a little. The left knee should be placed just below the third pommel, so that this will span it lightly, close enough to assist in preserving a firm seat, yet not so close as to interfere with the action of the leg in the English trot. From the knee to the foot this left leg must be held in a straight line perpendicular to the ground, and the knee be lightly pressed against the side-flap of the saddle. The ball of the foot must be placed evenly in the stirrup, the heel being a little lower than the toes, which should be pointed toward the shoulder of the horse. (Fig. 20.) [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Correct seat for a lady. Side view. 1, third pommel; 2, second pommel.] If the rider will seat herself in the saddle in the manner just described, she will find that she has a very firm seat, from which she cannot easily be displaced; but in order to appear graceful she must be flexible, and adapt herself readily to the motions of her horse. The shoulders, for example, although thrown back, must not be rigid, and the body, while erect, must be supple; the head be upright and free, and, in the leap, or when circling in the gallop, the body must be pliant, yielding and bending with the movements of the horse, but always resuming afterward the easy erect position. But it must be borne in mind that the above directions in regard to carriage apply to the times when the horse is moving, and need not be observed in full rigor at other times. When, for instance, the horse is standing, the rider may assume a more easy posture, collecting herself and steed simultaneously when she wishes him to move. The novice in riding should never be allowed to touch rein or whip until she has acquired a good seat, and a correct balance. During her first lessons, some one should ride by her side and lead her horse, while she, folding her hands in front of her waist, should give all her attention to gaining a correct seat; or, she may practice circling to the right by means of the lunge line, which will prove excellent training, and will teach her to bear toward the off or right side, for it has already been stated that the motion in the side-saddle has a tendency to impel the rider toward the left, and this tendency must always be guarded against by bearing the body a little to the right. Circling to the right, when riding in the track of the riding-school, is also a useful exercise for this purpose, but as riding-schools are not always to be had conveniently, the lunge line will be found very useful, many riders, indeed, considering it even better than riding in the ring, as it keeps the horse well up to his gait. During a few of the first lessons, that the rider may not fall from the saddle, the stirrup-leather may be somewhat shortened, but as soon as an idea of the proper balance has been acquired and the reins and whip are placed in her hands, the stirrup must be lengthened, as this secures a firmer and more easy seat. This leather will be of the correct length when, by a little pressure on it with her foot, and a simultaneous straightening of her knee, the rider can spring upward about four or five inches from the saddle; but it must never be so long as to render the third pommel nearly, if not quite, useless. It is better to have the first lessons in riding rather short, so that the pupil may become gradually accustomed to the exercise. As soon as she begins to feel at all fatigued, she should at once dismount, and not try to ride again until the tired feeling is wholly gone. These intervals of fatigue will gradually become less and less frequent, until at last the rider will find herself so strong and vigorous that riding will no longer require any fatiguing effort. In the case of an active, healthy woman, accustomed to exercise of various kinds, these short preliminary lessons may not be necessary; her muscles will be already so well developed that she will not be easily fatigued by exercise of any kind. But for a lady who has always been physically inactive, these short lessons at first are absolutely necessary. The general system of such a person has become enfeebled, her muscles are weak and flabby, and any sudden or long continued exercise would tend to produce very injurious results, so that riding, unless begun very gradually, would probably do her more harm than good. But after reading all the directions just given about riding, the reader may ask what need there is of so much study and circumspection to enable a woman to mount a horse and ride him, when hundreds of ladies ride every day, and enjoy doing so, without knowing anything about the make of the saddle, or the position they ought to take when seated in it. Although it seems almost a pity to disturb the serenity and self-complacency of ignorance, we shall be obliged, in justice to those who really wish to understand the principles of good horsewomanship, to point out some of the mistakes of those who think that riding is an accomplishment which can be acquired without instruction and study. It is not too sweeping an assertion to state that, of one hundred ladies who attempt a display of what they consider their _excellent_ horsewomanship in our streets and parks, ninety-five are very imperfect riders; and the five who do ride well have only learned to do so by means of careful study and competent instruction. They have fully appreciated the fact that nature never ushered them into the world finished riders, any more than accomplished grammarians or Latin scholars, and that although one may possess a natural aptitude for an accomplishment, application, study, and practice are positively necessary to enable her to attain any degree of perfection in it. Yet the idea unfortunately prevails very largely in this country that women require very little instruction to become good riders, and the results of this belief are apparent in the ninety-five faulty riders already referred to. Let us now watch some of the fair Americans whom the first balmy day of spring has tempted out for a horseback ride, and notice the faulty positions in which they have contrived to seat themselves in their saddles. With regard to their beauty, elegance of form, and style of dress, nothing more could be desired; but, alas! the same cannot be said of their manner of riding. [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Crooked Position in Saddle. Miss X.] Take Miss X. and Mrs. Y., for examples. These ladies have the reputation of being fine and fearless horsewomen, and certainly do ride with that dash and confidence which long practice in the saddle is sure to give, but we regret to say that we can bestow no further praise upon them. Miss X. has taken a position that is almost universal with American horsewomen, and is exactly the one which a rider nearly always assumes when seated sideways on a horse without a saddle. Instead of sitting squarely, with the entire front of her body facing in the direction toward which the horse is going, she sits crosswise. It will be seen by looking at Fig. 21, that the central vertical line of her back, instead of being directly in the centre of the saddle, is placed toward the right corner of it, and that her shoulders are out of line, the left one being thrown back, and the right one advanced forward. This position makes it impossible for her to keep in unison with her horse when he is moving straight forward at an easy pace. When he changes his gait to a canter the rider will, for a short distance, appear to be more in harmony with him, because he is now turning himself slightly to the left and leading with his right fore-leg, a position which is more in unison with that of his rider. But, after a short time, the horse gets tired of this canter, turns to the right, and leads with his left fore-leg. This change entirely destroys the apparent harmony which had before existed between the two. The lady, knowing nothing about the position of a horse when galloping or cantering, is ignorant of the fact that he always turns a little to the right or left according to the leg with which he leads, and that she ought to place her body in a corresponding position. She has but one position in the saddle,--the crooked one already described,--and this she maintains immovably through all the changes of her horse's gaits. [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Crooked Position in Saddle. Mrs. Y.] Let us now turn to Mrs. Y., who is even a more faulty rider than her companion. She has likewise taken a crosswise position in the saddle; but having given a peculiar twist to her body so that, by turning her right shoulder backward, she can look to the right, she seems to imagine that by these means she has placed herself squarely upon the saddle. (Fig. 22.) As she is riding a racking horse and seated on a two-pommeled saddle, she holds the reins firmly in her left hand and by a steady pull on them she balances herself and keeps her horse up to his gait. But this steady pull will soon ruin the tenderness and sensitiveness of any horse's mouth, and this is the reason why racking horses generally have very hard mouths, many of them requiring to be well held up or supported in their rack by the reins. As this pulling upon the reins also gives considerable support to the rider, many ladies prefer a racking horse. Now notice Mrs. Y., who is attempting to turn her hard-mouthed racker. Instead of doing this by an almost imperceptible movement of the hand, her left hand and arm can be distinctly seen to move, and to fairly pull the animal around. Her right hand--probably acting in sympathy with the left, so tightly clasped over the reins--holds the whip as if it were in a vise intended to crush it. In odd contrast with the rigidly held hands is the body with its utter lack of firmness. It can be seen at a glance why the lady will only ride an easy racker, for it is well known that on a good racker or pacer the body of a rider in a faulty position is not jolted so much as in other gaits. For this reason also the rack and pace are the favorite gaits of most American horsewomen. Nearly every lady who rides has an ambition to be considered a finished horsewoman, but this she can never be until she is able to ride properly the trot and gallop, can keep herself in unison with her horse, whether he leads with the left or right fore-leg, and has hands that will "give and take" with the horse's movements and bring him up to his best gait. From this point of view, Miss X. and Mrs. Y., then, are by no means the "splendid riders" that their friends suppose them, but having all the confidence of ignorance they ride fast and boldly and with a certain _abandon_ that is pleasing; but by those who understand what good riding is, they must always be regarded as very faulty riders. [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Incorrect position of legs and feet. Side view.] Another common fault, against which we have already warned the reader, is that of riding with too short a stirrup-leather, thus pressing the left knee up against the third pommel, carrying the left heel backward and slightly upward, and dropping the toes of the left foot more or less down toward the ground, while those of the right are raised and pointed toward the horse's head. (Fig. 23.) Although the lower limbs are concealed by the skirt, it can easily be told whether they are in the position just described, from the effect produced upon the upper part of the body, which then leans too far forward and too much to the right (Fig. 24); while the rider, in her efforts to balance herself, inclines her shoulders to the left. This is a very awkward as well as a very dangerous attitude, because, by thrusting her leg backwards, the action of spurring is imitated, and, if the horse is very high-spirited, this may cause him to become restive, or even to run away. Should the leg, moreover, as is very apt to be the case, be firmly and steadily pressed against the animal's side, he may suddenly pirouette or turn around to the right, especially if he has been accustomed to carrying gentlemen as well as ladies. This short stirrup-leather and improper use of the third pommel should be carefully avoided. [Illustration: Fig. 24.--Incorrect Position when Legs and Feet are wrongly placed.] The use of too long a stirrup-leather is apt to be the mistake of those who ride upon the old-fashioned saddle, but is a fault which has become much less common since the English saddle has been more generally used. The objection to too long a stirrup-leather is that, when the foot is pressed upon it, the leg at the same time is straightened, and extends down so far as to cause the rider to sit too much to the left of the saddle. As the pressure and weight are thus thrown wholly upon the left side, the saddle is very likely to turn, and if this faulty position be persisted in, it will be certain to injure the horse's back and may give rise to fistulous withers. Besides looking very awkward and inelegant, when stooping forward in the saddle and rounding the back without the slightest curve inwardly, the rider will also run great risk, if her horse stumbles or makes any sudden movement, of being unseated, or at least thrown violently against the front of the saddle, as it is almost impossible for her, under such circumstances, to adapt herself to the change in his motion quickly enough to preserve her equilibrium. In all violent movements of the horse, except rearing, the body must be inclined backward, so as to keep the balance. When he is moving briskly in his ordinary gaits, the body must be kept erect; and when he is turning a corner rapidly, it should be inclined backward somewhat, and toward the inner bend of the horse's body; or, in other words, toward the centre of the circle, of which the turn forms a segment. Here come two ladies who have evidently received very limited instructions in the art of riding. Notice how the head of one is thrust forward, while the other, though holding her head erect allows it to be jerked about with every motion of her horse. It shakes slowly when the animal is walking, but as he quickens his pace to a canter, it rocks with his motion, and, during his fast pace, the poor head moves so rapidly as to make one fear that the neck may become dislocated, while the arms dance about simultaneously with the movements of the head in a way that reminds one of the toy dancing-jacks, pulled by an unseen hand for the amusement of children. The head should, in riding, be kept firm and erect, without stiffness, the chin being drawn in slightly, and not protruding high in the air, because the latter gives one a supercilious look. The head and shoulders should adapt themselves, in their direction, to the movements of the head and fore-legs of the horse, and the arms should be held as steady as possible. But here come several ladies who have taken lessons at the riding-school and may, therefore, reasonably be expected to be finished riders; but such, alas! is not the case. They have been trying "to walk before they could creep," or, in other words, their lessons in riding have been conducted too hastily. They have begun to try a canter or a rapid gallop before they knew how to sit correctly upon their horses, or even to manage them properly in a walk. This desire to make too rapid progress is more frequently the fault of the pupil than of the riding teacher. Most teachers have an ambition to make finished riders of their pupils, and take much pride in doing so, especially as such a result adds greatly to the prestige of their school. This ambition is often defeated, however, by the impatience of the pupils, who are not satisfied to learn slowly and well, but overrule the teacher's objections and undertake to gallop before they have acquired even the first principles of horsewomanship. Moreover, many of these ladies never take any road lessons, so highly important to all who would become thoroughly accomplished in this art; nor do they remain long enough under instruction in the school, but seem to think that a few short lessons are enough to make them finished riders. They often refuse to learn the English trot, although this is a very important accomplishment for the beginner, as it enables her to gain a correct idea of the balance. Or, if they do attempt to learn it, they insist upon circling only to the right, as this is easier than going the other way. Again, many pupils will insist upon riding the same favorite horse, instead of leaving the selection to the judgment of the teacher, who is well aware that it is much better for the lady's progress that she should ride a variety of horses with different gaits. He is often driven to his wit's end when two or three ladies who patronize his school, and whom it is an honor to have as pupils, express a desire to ride the same horse on the same occasion. Should he favor one more than the others, the latter will become highly offended, and the poor man in his perplexity is often obliged to resort to some subterfuge to pacify them. It is not difficult, then, to understand why some ladies, although they have taken lessons at a riding-school, are, nevertheless, not finished riders, their faults being due, not to the instruction but to their own lack of judgment or inattention. It is true that occasionally the teacher, although he may be an excellent instructor for gentlemen, is not so good a one for ladies, or he may become careless, believing that if he gives them well-trained horses to ride very little else is required of him. Or, again, he may think, as many foreigners do, that very few American ladies know how a woman should ride, and are satisfied with being half taught. It cannot be too strongly impressed upon riding teachers that in every riding-school where ladies are to be taught there should be at least one lady assistant. A gentleman can give all the necessary instructions about the management of the horse and the handling of the reins better than most ladies; but, in giving the idea of a correct seat and the proper disposal of the limbs, the presence of a lady assistant becomes necessary; in these matters she can instruct her own sex much better than a man can. CHAPTER VI. TO HOLD THE REINS, AND MANAGE THE HORSE. "What a wild thought of triumph, that this girlish hand Such a steed in the might of his strength may command! What a glorious creature! Ah! glance at him now, As I check him awhile on this green hillock's brow; How he tosses his mane, with a shrill, joyous neigh, And paws the firm earth in his proud, stately play!" GRACE GREENWOOD. The position of the rider in the saddle has a decided influence upon the horse's mouth, rendering his movements regular or irregular, according to the correctness and firmness of the seat; for, if the rider be unsteady or vacillating in the saddle, this will exert an influence upon the hand, rendering it correspondingly unstable, and will thereby cause the horse's movements to be variable. And should she endeavor to remedy this unsteadiness of hand and seat by supporting herself upon the reins, the horse will defend himself against such rigid traction by making counter-traction upon the reins, thrusting his head forward, throwing himself heavily upon his fore-legs, thus forcing the hands of the rider, and compelling her to support the weight of his neck and shoulders. On the contrary, if she be firm in her seat, and not in the least dependent upon the reins, her hand will be light, and the animal will yield a ready obedience and advance in his best pace. The preceding remarks explain why a horse will go lightly with one rider and heavily with another. A lady should have a thorough knowledge of the management of her horse, and of the means by which she may command him in every degree of speed, and under all circumstances; without this knowledge she can never become a safe and accomplished horsewoman. A gentleman may guide and control his horse, and obtain obedience from a restive one, by a firm, strong hand, and by his courage and determined will; but as a rule, a lady cannot depend upon these methods; she will have to rely entirely upon the thorough training of her horse, a properly arranged bit, her firm, yet delicate touch, and her skill in handling the reins. The well-trained hand of a woman is always energetic enough to obtain the mastery of her horse, without having to resort to feats of strength and acrobatic movements; and a _lady_ should never seek to gain prestige by riding restless or vicious horses, in order that she may display her skill in conquering them; though every rider should be thoroughly taught how to control her steed in cases of emergency. When one sees how little skill most lady riders exhibit in managing the reins, it seems almost miraculous that so few accidents occur to them, and is indeed a positive proof of the excellent temper of their horses. From some mysterious cause, most horses will bear more awkwardness and absurdity in the handling of the reins by a woman than by a man, and will good-naturedly submit to the indifferent riding of the gentle being in the side-saddle, while the same character of riding and treatment from a man would arouse every feeling of defense and rebellion. The probable cause of this difference of action on the part of the horse is, that a lady rider, with all her ignorance of seat and rein, will talk kindly to and pet her steed, and will rarely lose her temper, no matter in what eccentricities he may indulge, and her gentleness causes the animal to remain gentle. On the contrary, when a man throws his weight upon the reins, jerking and pulling upon them, his horse, seeking to defend himself against such rough measures, arouses the temper of his rider, and this anger is soon communicated to the animal, which then becomes obstinate and rebellious; moreover, a man will often whip and spur for some trivial offense in instances where a woman would simply speak to her horse, or take no notice. Hence, the ignorant horsewoman often rides in safety under circumstances in which the ignorant horseman, who has resorted to violent measures, meets with an accident. Although a horse may submit to an awkward rider and carry her with safety, still she will have no power to make him move in his best and most regular manner, and there will exist no intelligence or harmony between the two. Yet this same horse, when mounted by a lady who understands the =management of the reins=, will be all animation and happiness. There will soon be established a tacit understanding between the two, and the graceful curvetings and prancings of the steed will manifest his pride and joy in carrying and obeying a gentle woman, who manages the reins with spirit and resolution, and yet does not, with the cruelty of ignorance or indifference, convert them into instruments of torture. The =reins= should not be employed until a firm, steady position upon the saddle has been acquired, and then, for first lessons, the snaffle only should be used, =a rein in each hand=. It will be better to have the reins marked at equal distances from the bit, either by sewing colored thread across each, or otherwise; this will be useful because, with the novice, the reins will imperceptibly slip through her hands, or one rein will become longer than the other, and the markings will enable her to notice these displacements, and promptly to remedy them. By holding the snaffle-reins separately, in first lessons, the pupil will be aided in assuming a square position upon the saddle, and will likewise be prevented from throwing back her right shoulder, out of line with the left, a common fault with beginners, especially when the reins are held only in the left hand. This rein-hold is very simple; the right rein of the snaffle must be held in the right hand, and the left rein in the left. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Snaffle-reins; one in each hand.] The hands being closed, but not too tightly, must be held with their backs toward the horse's head, and each rein, as it ascends from the bit, must be passed between the third and fourth fingers of its appropriate hand, carried across the inner surface of the third, second, and first fingers, and then be drawn over the outside (or side next to the thumb) of the first finger, against which it must be held by firm pressure of the thumb. The thumbs must be held opposite each other and uppermost, the finger-nails toward the body, and the back of the wrists must be rounded a little outwardly, so as to make a slight bend of the closed hand toward the body. The little fingers must be held down and nearly in a horizontal line with the tips of the elbows; and the hands be kept as low as possible, without resting upon the knees, and be about four inches distant from the body, and from four to six inches apart. (Fig. 25.) This arrangement of hands and reins may be termed the "original position" when a snaffle-rein is held in each hand, of which all the others are variations. In this position,--the reins being held just short enough to feel the horse's mouth,--if the hands be now slightly relaxed by turning the nails and thumbs toward the body, the latter being, at the same time, inclined a little forward, the horse will be enabled to advance freely, and, as soon as he =moves onward=, the original position of the hands must be gently resumed. It is proper to remark here, that when using the snaffle-reins only, the curb-bit should always be in the horse's mouth, its reins being tied and allowed to rest upon his neck, although the pupil must not be allowed to meddle with it. The presence of the curb in the horse's mouth, although not used, has a restraining influence, especially with an animal accustomed to it. =To turn the horse to the right=, the right rein must be shortened so as to be felt at the right side of his mouth; to effect this, the little finger of the right hand must, by a turn of the wrist, be moved in toward the body and sufficiently toward the left, with the nails up and the knuckles down, while, in order to aid the horse, the rider will simultaneously turn her face and shoulders slightly to the right. The animal having made the turn, the hand must gently return to the original position, and the body again face to the front. =To turn the horse to the left=, the left rein must be shortened, by a turn of the left wrist, carrying the little finger of the left hand toward the body and to the right, nails upward, etc., while the pupil will slightly turn her face and shoulders to the left. The turn having been effected, the original position must be resumed, the pupil, in all these cases, taking great care that the markings on her reins are even and in the correct position. =To stop the horse=, both reins must be shortened evenly; this must be accomplished by a turn of both wrists that will bring the little fingers toward the body with the finger-nails uppermost, the body of the pupil being, at the same time, slightly inclined backward. Now, by bending the wrists to a still greater degree, and bringing the hands in closer to the body, which must be inclined a little forward, and nearly in contact with each other, thus throwing more strength upon the reins, the horse will be compelled =to back=. To make him =move on again=, the hands and body must resume the original position, and the hands must be relaxed, etc., as stated above. When the pupil becomes more advanced, and can command her horse, in all his gaits, with the reins separate, one in each hand, she will then be prepared for lessons in handling =both reins with the left hand= only, still employing the snaffle, as her touch may not be delicate enough for the curb. [Illustration: Fig. 26.--Snaffle-reins; both in the left hand.] For this purpose, the reins being held for the time being in the right hand, the left, having its back toward the horse's head, will seize them as follows: its little finger must be passed directly between the two reins, the left rein being on the outer side of this finger and the right one on its right side, between it and the third finger. This done, the reins must be drawn up nearly even to the marks upon them,[4] so as just to feel the animal's mouth, noticing that these marks are nearly on a line with each other, while that portion of the reins lying within the hand must be carried across its palm to the index finger, to a point between its first and second joints, against which point, being placed evenly with one overlying the other, they are to be firmly held by pressure of the thumb; the right hand may now quit its hold upon the reins. (Fig. 26.) Footnote 4: It is stated in this paragraph that the _marks on the reins_ should be "nearly even," or "nearly on a line with each other," because, in its passage under the little finger, across the hand, and on the outside of the right rein, the left one will be shortened so that its marking will be about half an inch nearer the bit than that of the right one; consequently, in order to make the pressure upon the horse's mouth even, the right rein will have to be shortened to the extent named. The reins having been properly placed in the left hand according to the directions just given, this hand, being closed, but not too tightly, must be held at a distance of about three inches from the front part of the waist, with the wrist slightly rounded, the nails toward the body, the back of the hand toward the horse's head, and the little finger down and a little nearer the body than the others. The under surface of the bridle arm and hand, from the tip of the elbow to the first joint of the little finger, should be held nearly in a horizontal line. The elbow must be held somewhat close to the side but not in contact with it, and should be kept steady. Care must be taken, when the reins are held in the left hand, that the right shoulder be not thrown back, nor the left one elevated, faulty positions common to beginners when not otherwise instructed. The right arm should be allowed to hang easily and steadily at the side, the whip being lightly held in it, with its point downward. When the snaffle-reins are held in the left hand as described, we may term this the "original position," of which all the others are variations. In order that the horse may =move onward=, the left hand, holding the reins as just described, should be relaxed by turning the thumb downward and toward the body until the back of the hand is up and the finger-nails down; at the same time, the pupil should slightly incline her body forward, being careful not to round the shoulders,--aiding the movement by the voice, or, if necessary, by a gentle tap of the whip. The horse having started onward, the original position must be gently resumed. In order to =turn the horse to the right=, the left wrist must be turned so as to bring the nails down and the knuckles up,--the thumb being toward the body,--at the same time carrying the little finger slightly to the left, and drawing the reins a little upward. This movement will effect the necessary shortening of the right rein, without allowing any looseness of the left one. The turn having been accomplished, the hand must resume the original position. It must not be forgotten, that while making this turn the face and shoulders must be turned somewhat to the right, or in the direction in which the horse is moving. =To turn to the left=, the bridle-hand being in the original position, its wrist must be turned so as to carry the finger-nails up, and the knuckles down, simultaneously moving the little finger toward the right and pressing it against the left rein, both reins being drawn slightly upward. This manoeuvre shortens the left rein, without relaxing the right. In this turn the movements of the horse should be aided by the rider's face and shoulders being turned a little to the left. The turn having been made, the original position must be resumed. The horse =may be stopped= by simply turning the wrist so as to carry the finger-nails up, the knuckles down, and the little finger toward the body, which must be slightly inclined backward. Now, by bracing the muscles of the hand, bending the wrist and carrying the hand farther in toward the waist, at the same time advancing the body, the animal will be made =to back=; though, in backing a horse, it will be better to employ both hands. After having stopped, or backed the horse, to make him =move onward=, a course should be pursued, with both reins in the bridle-hand, similar to that described for the same purpose when a rein is held in each hand. =To change the snaffle-reins from the left to the right hand=, as is sometimes necessary in order to adjust the skirt, to relieve the left hand, etc., the following course must be pursued, whether the horse be in rapid or slow motion: While the left hand must retain its position and gentle pressure of the reins upon the horse's mouth, the right must be carried to and over the left hand, its forefinger be passed between the two reins, so that the left rein will be on the left side of this finger, and the right on its right side, between the first and second fingers; both reins must now be carried to the right, across the palm, to the little finger; the hand must then be firmly closed, and the thumb be pressed against the left rein, holding it in contact with the index finger,--the left hand now gives up the reins. In this change, while the right hand is being carried over to the left, this latter must be held stationary, as any movement of it to meet the right hand may cause the animal to turn or swerve from his course, and will at the same time interfere with his gait. =To return the reins to the left hand=, the following course must be pursued: While the right hand must remain steady and sustain the gait of the horse, the left must be carried to and over it, insert its little finger between the two reins, so that the left one will be on the left or outer side of this finger, and the right one on its right side, between it and the third finger; then the reins must be drawn through the left hand, and be arranged and held in this hand in the same manner as explained when describing the original position of both snaffle-reins in the bridle-hand. These various changes must be made quickly and expertly, without altering the degree of pressure or pull upon the horse's mouth. The novice will find it greatly to her advantage to learn the management of the reins before mounting the horse, and can do so by fastening the bit-end of the reins to some stationary object, and then practicing the different changes, until she can perform all these manoeuvres without looking at her hands or the reins. When both the reins are held in the left hand, the rider has not so much command over her horse as when they are held one in each hand. For this reason, unless her steed be exceptionally well-trained and obedient, it will be better, when in a crowded thoroughfare, where quick turns have to be made, to hold a rein in each hand, and this will become absolutely necessary if the animal be hard mouthed or unruly. When the horse is in motion and the reins are held in the left hand, their =separation= may be quickly effected by carrying the right hand to and over the left, the latter retaining its steadiness all the time, and then passing the first three fingers of the right hand between the two reins, so that they may readily close upon the right rein; the thumb will then keep this rein firm by pressing it against the first joint of the index finger. The position of the hands and reins will then, after a movement of the left little finger to place the rein between it and the third, be the same as described for the original position where a snaffle-rein is held in each hand. Should the reins become too long when held separately, they can readily =be shortened= by returning the right rein to the bridle-hand, placing it directly over the left rein between the third and little finger, and then, by means of the right hand, drawing the loose rein or reins through the bridle-hand to the proper length, after which the right rein may again be taken in the right hand, as already described. When the reins are held in one hand, they can be =shortened or lengthened= by simply seizing them at their free, disengaged ends with the right hand, and while this holds them and sustains the horse, the left hand must be slipped along the reins, up or down, as may be required, but without changing their arrangement. Another way of holding the reins in the bridle-hand is to pass the right rein to the right of, and underneath, the index finger, and then carry it across the palm, so as to escape beyond the little finger; while the left rein must be passed to the left of the little finger (or between it and the third finger), and then be carried across the palm to escape beyond the index finger. The author cannot recommend this manner of holding the reins to ladies who desire to become accomplished and graceful riders, because the movements of the hands and arms, when turning, or managing the horse, are much more conspicuous; and there is not that delicate correspondence with the animal's mouth that can be obtained by the other methods described. After the pupil has become expert in riding with the snaffle, she will be ready for the =double bridle=, or the =curb-bit and bridoon=. The double bridle must be =held in the left hand= in the following manner: The _bridoon_ or _snaffle-reins_ are first to be taken up, evenly, by the right hand and then the second finger of the left hand be passed between these reins (the left rein being between the second and third fingers, and the right rein between the first and second), the back of the hand being directed somewhat upward, with the knuckles toward the horse's head; the reins should then be pulled up by the right hand just enough to feel the horse's mouth, and carried across the palm to the index finger, where they should be held in position by firm pressure with the thumb. [Illustration: Fig. 27.--Double bridle: all reins in the bridle-hand. 1, upper reins, snaffle; 2, lower reins, curb.] The _curb-reins_ are now to be taken evenly by the right hand, and then the little finger of the left hand be passed between the two reins, the left rein being upon the left or outer side of the little finger, and the right rein between the little and third fingers; both curb-reins should next be drawn upward by the right hand until they are nearly the length of the snaffle, and carried across the palm, one rein overlying the other, to the index finger, between its first and second joints, and between the snaffle-reins and the thumb, at which point all the reins must be firmly held by pressure of the thumb against them; the right hand will now remove its hold. (Fig. 27.) The above manoeuvring of the reins will give the "original position" for the double bridle in the left hand. All these reins should be of nearly equal length, the snaffle being slightly the shortest, so that, while riding with the latter, the curb may be ready for instant use; this may be brought into play by simply turning the wrist so as to carry the little finger up and toward the waist. And the full power of the curb may be brought into action by turning the wrist so as to carry the knuckles down and the nails up, at the same time drawing the little finger toward the waist. =To shorten or lengthen both the curb and snaffle reins evenly= without abandoning the horse to himself for a moment, or without ceasing to keep up his action, the following method may be pursued: The loose, disengaged ends of all the reins that extend beyond the index finger of the left hand must be taken between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, care being taken during this manoeuvre to keep up the support to the horse with this hand; the grasp of the left hand upon the reins must now be sufficiently relaxed to allow this hand to slide along the reins downward to shorten them, or upward to lengthen them; this must be effected without deranging their adjustment; when the proper range has been obtained, remove the right hand. =To shorten the curb and lengthen the snaffle-reins=: The loose, disengaged ends of all the reins must be held in the same manner as stated in the preceding paragraph, between the thumb and index finger of the right hand, not omitting to keep up a support to the horse; the grasp of the left hand must now be slightly relaxed, and this hand be slid up along all the reins, which movement will lengthen them in the left hand. The grasp of the right hand upon the snaffle-reins must now be relaxed, and the left hand be slid down along the curb-reins, carrying the snaffle-reins with it, until the proper range or distance has been attained, when the right hand may be removed. While these changes are being made, the right hand must sustain the horse by the curb-reins until the left has obtained a firm hold upon all. =To shorten the snaffle and lengthen the curb reins=, a course similar to the one just preceding must be pursued, except that in this case the right hand must retain the snaffle-reins, and support the horse by them, while the left hand, in sliding down, will carry those of the curb. In all these changes of the various reins, it must be remembered that after each change has been effected the reins must be held in place by firm pressure of the thumb, as already described. When =either of the reins= held in the left hand =becomes loose=, it may be tightened, by carrying the right hand to and over the left one, seizing the loose rein by its disengaged end that hangs loosely from the left index finger, and drawing it up as far as is necessary. While this is being done, the left hand must not be removed from its position, and should continue to keep up a steady pressure upon the horse's mouth. In requiring the horse =to stop=, =to back=, =to turn=, or =to advance=, the management of the double bridle-reins will be exactly the same as stated in the directions given when holding the snaffle-reins in the left hand. When both =the curb and the snaffle reins= are held in the bridle-hand, they may be =changed to the right hand=, when this is desired, as follows: The right hand must be carried to the left; the second finger of the right hand must be placed between the snaffle-reins (already separated by the second finger of the left hand); and the little finger of the right hand between the curb-reins (already separated by the little finger of the left hand); this done, the thumb and fingers of the right hand must be closed upon the reins, which must, at the same time, be released by the left hand. =To restore these reins to the left hand=, the pupil must proceed as follows: Carrying the left hand to the right, the second finger of the left hand must be placed between the snaffle-reins, and the little finger of this hand between the curb-reins; this having been done, the thumb and fingers must be closed upon all the reins, while the right hand releases its hold. These several changes can be made whether the horse be moving slowly or rapidly, care being taken to effect them so quietly that the horse will not be abandoned to himself from want of support, nor interrupted in the rhythm of his gait. If when riding with the double bridle in the bridle-hand, very quick turns have to be made, or when the horse will not yield readily to the movements of the bridle-hand, it will become necessary to =separate the reins= by taking that of the right snaffle in the right hand; this can be quickly effected by carrying the right hand to and over the left, and seizing the right snaffle-rein with the first three fingers of the right hand; this rein will pass between the third and little fingers and across the palm, so that the loose, disengaged end will escape from between the thumb and forefinger. [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Double bridle; a snaffle and a curb rein in each hand. 1, 1, snaffle-reins; 2, 2, curb-reins.] In America, most lady riders prefer to guide the horse with the bridle-hand only; in doing this, although they may appear more careless and graceful, they certainly lose much command over the animal. The method at present employed by the best European horsewomen, who _seldom ride with the reins in the left hand alone_, is as follows: The little finger of the right hand is to be passed between the right curb and snaffle reins in such a way that the curb-rein will be on the outer side of this finger, and the snaffle between it and the third finger; both reins must then be carried across the palm, and be firmly held by the thumb against the forefinger. The little finger of the left hand is also to be passed between the left snaffle and curb reins, in a similar manner to that just described, and the reins must be held firm by the thumb and forefinger of this hand. (Fig. 28.) This arrangement may be termed the "original position" for a curb and snaffle rein in each hand. When the reins are thus separated, the action upon the horse's mouth will be much more powerful than when they are all placed in the bridle-hand. They should be held nearly even, the snaffle being somewhat shorter than the curb, so that the hold or pressure upon the animal's mouth may be made by the former; but should it be required on any occasion to employ the curb, this can be brought into instant use by a slight turn of the wrists, that will carry the little fingers up and toward the rider's waist. To _stop_, to _back_, to _turn_, or to _advance_, the reins must be managed in the same way as when one snaffle-rein alone is held in each hand. In all these various ways of holding the double bridle, the snaffle-reins should, as they pass upward from the bit, always be placed above those of the curb; indeed, it would be rather awkward to hold them otherwise. As already stated, when the object for which any change of hands and reins has been made is effected, the hands should always resume the original position, as explained for the snaffle-reins when one is held in each hand,--thus, hands four inches from the body, four inches apart, etc. The arms and elbows must be kept as steady as possible, all movements of the reins being made with the wrists and fingers, unless the horse be hard mouthed or badly trained, when the arms will have to be employed and more force will be required. But a horse of this kind should never be ridden by a woman; and the directions herein given will be found amply sufficient to control a well-trained, properly-bitted animal. The preceding directions relative to holding and managing the reins may appear very tedious and exceedingly complicated. But if the pupil, commencing with the snaffle-reins, one in each hand, will carefully study and practice each method in succession, she will soon find that all these apparently difficult manoeuvres are very simple when put into practice, and can be readily learned in half a dozen lessons. When she has once fully mastered them, she will be astonished to find how little management, when it is of the right kind and based upon correct principles, will be required to make her steed move in an easy and pleasant manner. After the rein-hold has been acquired, and the pupil properly seated in the saddle, she will, if the reins are held steady, observe with each step of the horse as he advances in the canter or gallop, a slight tug or pull upon the reins. This pull will also be simultaneously felt by the horse's mouth, between which and the rider's hand or hands there will be what may be termed a =correspondence=. This correspondence gives a _support_ to the horse, provided the rider, while maintaining an equal degree of tension upon the reins, will "=give and take=," or, in other words, will allow the movements of the bridle-hand to concur with those of this tug or pull. A _dead pull_ may be made by bracing the muscles of the hand, tightly closing the fingers upon the reins, and holding the hand immovable; but this should never be done, except to convey some imperative command to the horse, or when he attempts to gain the ascendency. This kind of pull will interfere with the natural movements of the horse's head, making him move in a confined, irregular manner, and will oblige him to _force the rider's hand_ or _hands_; that is, in order to relieve himself from this restraint, he will give a sudden downward jerk of his head, which may take the reins from her hands, unless she be upon her guard; or else he will move heavily upon his fore-legs, and make his rider support the weight of his head and neck. Should the curb be used instead of the snaffle, the result may be still worse; because when the curb-reins are pulled upon, the port or arched part of the bit will come in contact with the roof of the animal's mouth, and will press upon it to a degree corresponding to the power used upon the reins, while the curb-chain will be forced against the lower jaw, and if this continual pressure or dead pull be kept up the animal will experience considerable pain. To relieve himself, he will suddenly throw his head either up or down and may even rear. In the latter case, if his rider does not instantly relax her hand, he will be apt to fall backward, which is one of the most serious accidents that can happen when riding. If this rigid pull upon the curb be continued, the horse will be certain, ultimately, to become hard mouthed, if not vicious. This is a reason why so many riders, though having the double bridle-reins, use only the snaffle, and allow the curb-reins to hang quite loosely, being afraid to employ them, as experience has taught them that this rigid hold upon the reins will be instantly resented by the horse. Hence the curb-reins appear to be attached to the head-gear of their horses more as an article of ornament than of utility. In order that a lady's horse may move lightly and well upon his haunches, the curb will have to be employed occasionally to _collect_ and _restrain_ him; and when it is managed properly, he will advance in better style than when the snaffle alone is used. The snaffle will answer a better purpose when employed to guide the horse in turning completely around, or in movements to the right or to the left; while the curb will answer during a straightforward motion to keep the animal well up to his action and to bring out his best gait, as well as to collect and restrain him. An easy "give and take" feeling can be effected by slightly loosening or opening the fingers of the bridle-hand or hands as the horse springs forward; as the hand feels the pull upon the reins, it must yield to this sensation, and will thus allow the animal liberty in his spring or advance movements. Then, as the action of the horse lessens or recedes, the reins will be felt to slacken, when the fingers should be closed, which will tighten the reins, support the animal, and keep him under control. This "give and take" movement should occur alternately and simultaneously with the cadence of each step of the steed, and should be effected without any backward or forward movements of the arm or arms, which must be held steady,--except in a rapid gallop, in which case both the hand and arm will, to a certain extent, have to move to and fro. In the "give and take" movement the reins should not be allowed to slip in the slightest degree, nor to be jerked from the rider's hand by any sudden motion of the horse's head; on the contrary, they should always be held firm between the thumb and the first and second joints of the index finger, the _other fingers alone_ performing the alternate action of loosening and tightening the reins. The reader will be better enabled to understand this explanation if she will take a piece of elastic, pass it around her right hand, which will correspond to the horse's mouth, and then hold the two ends in her left hand, exactly in the manner explained for holding the double bridle-reins in one hand. Now, by making tension on the elastic (or reins) with the left hand, so that the right (or supposed horse's mouth) can just feel this pressure, a _correspondence_ will be formed between these two hands (or bridle-hand and supposed horse's mouth) through which the slightest movement of the left hand, or of its second, third, or fourth fingers, will be immediately felt by the right hand; then, while holding the elastic (or reins) firmly, by pressure, between the thumb and index finger, by alternately opening and closing the fingers of the left hand, she will observe that when her fingers are closed there will be quite a tension upon the elastic and consequently upon the right hand, and when they are slightly opened this will become flaccid. The relaxation and contraction of the hand constitutes the "give and take" movement, which causes the horse to move easily, pleasantly, and with perfect freedom, while at the same time he is kept in entire obedience to his rider. Indeed, this movement is _the grand secret of good riding and correct management of the horse, and there can be no good riding without it_. With this movement there should always be a certain support or pull upon the horse's mouth,--firmer or lighter according to the sensitiveness of his mouth, as some animals are harder mouthed than others, and consequently require a firmer support;--this tension or pressure should be rather light in the walk and canter, firmer in the trot, and very light in the hand gallop. In the rapid gallop, the horse requires considerable support. In all cases of _restiveness_, except in rearing, raising the bridle-hands will give more command over the horse, as it will cause him to keep up his head, and thus while lessening the power of the animal will at the same time add to that of the rider. On the contrary, should the horse lower his head, and the bridle-hands be held low, the power of the animal will be augmented and he can bid defiance to his rider, unless she can raise his head. She will have to do this in a gentle but firm manner, soliciting, as it were, the desired elevation of his head by raising her hands and quickly relaxing and contracting the fingers, but being careful to keep the reins in place between the thumb and index finger of each hand; she will thus gradually oblige him to raise his neck with his chin drawn in, so that control over his mouth may be regained. Should he resist this method, the reins must be momentarily slackened, and then a decided jerk or pull be given them in an upward direction; this will cause a sharp twinge in his mouth, and make him raise his head. In these manoeuvres the curb-bit should be used, and as the animal raises his head the rider should gently relax the reins, and also be on her guard lest he rear. In some instances a decided "sawing" of his mouth with the snaffle--that is, sharply pulling upon one rein and then upon the other, and in rather quick succession--will cause him to raise his head and neck. When a horse is obedient, all changes in the degree of pressure upon his mouth should be made gradually, because, if a sudden transition be made from a firm hand to a relaxed one, he will be abruptly deprived of the support upon which he has been depending and may be thrown forward on his shoulders. Again, to pass precipitately from a slack rein to a tight one will give a violent shock to his mouth, cause him to displace his head, and destroy the harmony of his movements. As a means of punishment, some riders jerk suddenly, repeatedly, and violently upon the reins; this "jagging on the reins" is a great mistake, and will be likely to result in more harm to the rider than to the horse, as the latter may suddenly rear, or else have a bad temper aroused that will be difficult to overcome. When riding on the road there will be times when the horse will require more liberty of the reins, as, for instance, when his head or neck becomes uncomfortable from being kept too long in one position, when he has an attack of cough, when he wants to dislodge a troublesome fly, etc. In giving this liberty when occasion requires, the reins must not be allowed to slip through the hands, but the arms should be gradually advanced, without, however, inclining the body forward. The movements of the body must correspond with those of the horse and of the rider's hands; thus, when the animal is moving regularly and straight forward, the hands, or bridle-hand, being held firm and steady immediately in front of the waist, the body must then be seated squarely, with its front part to the front, so that the rider can look directly between the ears of her steed. When the animal turns completely around to the right or to the left, the shoulders and head of the rider must also turn a little toward the direction taken by the horse, while the hand must be slightly carried in an opposite direction. When turning a corner, the entire body from the hips upward must incline toward the centre of the circle of which the turn forms an arc, or, in other words, the body must incline toward the direction taken by the horse, and the degree of this inclination must be proportioned to the bend of the horse's body, and to the rapidity of his pace while turning. When the horse advances, and the hands are relaxed, the body must momentarily lean slightly forward without rounding the shoulders; this will aid the horse in commencing his forward movement. In stopping him, the rider's body must be inclined slightly backward as the hands rein him in. All these movements should be made gradually, and never abruptly. When a horse stumbles, or plunges from viciousness or high spirits, the rider's body must be inclined backward, as this will enable her to maintain her balance more effectually as well as to throw more weight upon the reins. On the contrary, when he rears the bridle-hand must be instantly advanced or relaxed, the body at the same time being inclined well forward, which will throw the rider's weight upon the animal's shoulders and fore-legs, and cause him to lower his fore-feet to the ground. A horse is said to be =united= or =collected= when he moves easily in a regular, stylish manner, well on his haunches, with head and neck in proper position, his rider exercising perfect control over him by gentle pressure upon his mouth, and keeping up the regular movements of the animal by a quiet and dexterous "give and take" action of her hands. He is =disunited= when he moves in an irregular manner, or heavily upon his fore-legs, occasioning the rider to support the weight of his neck and shoulders; also, when the reins are too slack and exercise no pressure upon his mouth, in which case, having no aid or support from his rider's hand, he will move carelessly, or exactly as he pleases. In _collecting a horse_, the aid of the whip and the left leg will frequently be required, as the rider's hand alone may not be sufficient. In such a case, the left leg must be lightly pressed against his left side and the whip at the same time be pressed against his right side; these in conjunction with the action of the bridle-hand,[5] as heretofore explained, will collect him and bring him up to his bridle with his haunches well under him,--the proper position for starting. As soon as he moves there should be only a light pressure on his mouth. In order to perform the above feat effectively, the whip must not be too limber and must always be held with its lash downward. This simultaneous pressure of the whip and left leg has the same effect in collecting the horse as that of the horseman's right and left legs. Should the horse flag in his movements or move heavily upon his fore-legs, a repetition of this pressure of the leg and whip, in conjunction with the proper movements of the bridle-hand, will bring him well on his haunches and lighten his action. Footnote 5: The bridle-hand being in the _original position_ for the double bridle, the curb should be brought into action by a turn of the wrist, which will carry the little finger in toward the waist; and this, in conjunction with the leg and whip, will collect the horse. The horse is always animated by mild taps of the whip, light pressure of the hand upon the curb, a clacking of the tongue, or an urging tone of his mistress's voice. He is soothed and rendered confident by mild and encouraging tones of voice, by the rider's sitting easily, by a gentle hold upon the reins, and by caressing pats upon his neck and shoulders. In the directions given in this chapter, necessarily involving more or less repetition, the author has endeavored to be as clear, comprehensible, and simple as possible. And the rider will find it of much greater advantage to have these instructions printed, than to be required to learn them orally, as she can read and re-read them at pleasure and have them thoroughly committed to memory before mounting her horse. And, although it has required many pages to present these instructions to the reader, she will find that their application will prove very simple, and will also be agreeably surprised to observe the great control she will have over the feelings and movements of her steed through their agency. Horses are generally very sagacious, and appear to recognize promptly any timidity, awkwardness, or ignorance on the part of their riders, and, according to their temper or disposition, will take advantage of such recognition, either by advancing carelessly or by manifesting trickiness or viciousness. The best trained horse always requires to be kept under command, but by kind treatment and correct management. The horse, when ridden by a finished horsewoman, knows that although allowed to move with a light rein he is under the control of a masterly hand that will aid him in his efforts to please, but will instantly bring him into submission if he does not yield entire obedience. CHAPTER VII. THE WALK. "And do you not love at evening's hour, By the light of the sinking sun, To wend your way o'er the widening moor, Where the silvery mists their mystery pour, While the stars come one by one? Over the heath by the mountain's side, Pensive and sweet is the evening's ride." E. PAXTON HOOD. In walking, the horse moves nearly simultaneously the two legs that are diagonally opposite to each other, first one pair, and then the other. Thus, the right fore and the left hind leg make one step nearly at the same time, and when these have touched the ground, the left fore and the right hind leg are raised and advanced in a similar manner, and so on in succession. In this manner as one pair of legs moves onward the other pair sustains the weight of the animal; and of the two legs that act together the fore one is raised from as well as placed upon the ground slightly previous to the hind one. This is the reason why a horse which walks well and in a regular manner will nearly or quite cover the foot-marks of his fore-feet with those of his hind ones. If the hind-foot should fall short of covering the track of the fore one, the animal will not be a good walker; if, on the contrary, it should pass somewhat beyond the mark of the fore-foot, it will indicate him to be a fast walker, although he may overreach. In both the walk and the trot, when the horse is moving regularly, a quick ear can detect four distinct beats or tappings of the feet; when these beats mark equal time and sound exactly alike for each footstep, it may be inferred that the horse is a good walker as well as a good trotter, and that all his legs are sound. But if one beat be lighter than the others, it may be assumed that there is some disease in the foot or leg that produces this beat. Horse-dealers will often endeavor to disguise this defect by adopting means to disable the animal temporarily in his healthy leg, as the treads will then be made more nearly alike, though the slight shade of difference thus effected can be readily detected by a quick, experienced ear. These hoof-beats are best heard when made on a hard road. A horse that is a good walker will move with a quick step, his hind-legs well under him, his foot-taps marking regular time, and his feet measuring exact distances, while he will lift his feet just high enough to escape obstructions on the road, thrusting each foot well forward, and placing it lightly, though firmly and squarely, upon the ground. He will advance in a straight line, vacillating neither to the right nor left, and should be able to accomplish at least from four to four and a half miles per hour. The walk of a lady's horse is almost always neglected, and as a good walk is a sure foundation for perfection in all other gaits, a lady should positively insist that her steed be thoroughly trained in this particular; especially if she be large and majestic looking, because the walk will then become her specialty. A stout woman does not ride to the best advantage at a rapid gait, but upon a horse that has the walk in perfection she presents an imposing, queen-like appearance. If her steed, however, be allowed to saunter along in a careless, listless manner, all the charm will be destroyed, and the _tout ensemble_ will present by no means a pleasing picture. The beginner in riding should learn to sit and manage her horse in a walk, and should never attempt to ride a faster gait until she can collect her steed, make him advance, turn him to the right and to the left, and rein him back; this last movement is a very important one, with which few teachers strive to make their pupils thoroughly acquainted. Reining back will not only bring the horse under better command, but, with a lady's horse, a short reining back from time to time will improve his style of motion in his various gaits; besides which, the rider may on some occasion be placed in a situation in which, for her own safety, she will be compelled to move her horse backward. [Illustration: Fig. 29.--The Walk.] =To begin the walk=: The pupil, having placed herself in the saddle, must not allow her horse to move until she is quite prepared, her skirt adjusted, and the whip and reins properly arranged in her hands. Then, drawing gently upon the curb and snaffle reins, a little more upon the former than upon the latter, and at the same time gently pressing against the animal's side with her left leg, and against his right side with the whip, as heretofore explained, she will thus _collect her horse_, and start him upon the walk. As soon as he has begun to move forward, the pressure of the leg and whip must cease, and the hand or hands must be held steady on the snaffle, the curb no longer being required, unless the animal flags in his movements. The hold upon the snaffle must be only tense enough to enable the rider to feel the beat of the horse's action as he places each foot upon the ground, and to give him a slight support and keep up an even action. Should this support be too heavy, his step will be shortened, and he will be unable to move freely; should it be insufficient, he will carry his head low, will not raise his feet high enough to escape stumbling, will knock his toes against every inequality of the ground, and both he and his rider will present an indolent and listless aspect. Her attitude should be easy and erect, but she should yield herself slightly to the movements of the horse although without showing any lack of steadiness. (Fig. 29.) Should the horse be too much animated by the reins and whip at the commencement of the walk, he may enter upon a jog trot, or an amble, in which case he must be checked by gradually reining him in until he has settled into a walk. Should he, on the contrary, not be sufficiently animated, he will not exert himself and will move in an irregular and indolent manner; in this case, he must be made to raise his head by a slight pull upon the curb-reins, as already explained, and be again collected and animated by the aid of the leg and whip. A short, abrupt =turn in the walk= should never be made, if it can possibly be avoided; it is only in case of emergency that it should be attempted, and even then it is more or less dangerous, because, as the horse moves his legs diagonally in the walk, he may, when abruptly turned, place one leg in the way of the other, be thrown off his balance, and fall. When turning a horse completely around, it should always be done in a deliberate manner. This rule should never be forgotten, especially by a novice. During her first lessons in the walk, the pupil, in attempting to turn her horse to the right, to the left, or completely around, must move him very slowly, pressing her whip and left leg against his sides, and keeping him well-balanced by proper support upon _both_ snaffle-reins. In making a =turn to the right=, with a snaffle-rein in each hand, the left hand must not abandon the horse, but retain a steady pressure upon his mouth, while the tension upon the right rein must be increased by moving the right hand and its little finger up and toward the body, at the same time holding this hand a little lower than the left one. The tension upon the right rein should be nearly double that made upon the left, and should be kept up until the turn has been completed. In the turn to the right, the left leg should make a little stronger pressure than that made by the whip, to prevent the animal from throwing his croup too far to the left; and in making the turn to the left, the whip should press more strongly than the leg, in order to prevent the croup from being carried too far to the right. In attempting =to turn= completely around =to the left=, the same manoeuvring, though in an opposite direction, will be required; the above directions for the two hands being simply reversed. Should the horse fail to turn in a regular manner, or refuse to obey the reins readily, he must be collected, and brought up to the bridle in the manner already described. This will cause him to raise his head and place himself in a position to move in the required manner, and when this is done the rider must slacken the tension upon the curb, and turn him with the snaffle-rein. In making these turns, care must be taken to have ample space, and it must not be forgotten, that while increasing the tension upon the rein required to direct the turn, the other should not be slackened or abandoned, but should continue to give support to the horse, though in a less degree; and also that this tension upon the reins is much more important when making a partial or complete turn, than when the animal is moving forward in a straight line. For, if the reins be slackened, and the horse left to himself, he will turn in an awkward manner, may get one leg in the way of the other, and perhaps stumble or fall, especially if the ground be slippery, or rough and uneven. It is a habit with many lady riders, as well as with multitudes of horsemen, to make the turn by carrying the bridle-hand in the direction of the turn, thus pressing the outward rein, or the one opposite to the direction of the turn, against the horse's neck,--the inward rein being completely slackened. This is a very dangerous fault and one that instantly betrays ignorance of correct horsemanship, because the animal is thus left without any support at a time when it is most needed. If a rider has any regard for her own safety, she will remember this very important rule, namely, _to support the horse on both reins when making a turn_. When all the reins are held in the bridle-hand and a turn is to be made to the left, the fault is sometimes committed of carrying the right hand over to assist the left by pulling upon the left rein; this is frequently done by ladies who have not been properly instructed, and gives them an awkward appearance. When riding with the double bridle in the bridle-hand, if the movements of the horse be controlled by this hand and wrist, as explained in the preceding chapter, the turn to the right or to the left can be effected without abandoning the horse by relaxing one of the reins, and also without the assistance of the other hand. These manoeuvres, accomplished easily and gracefully, indicate the well-instructed and correct bridle-hand, the well-trained horse, and the accomplished horsewoman, who will appear to manage her steed more by mental influence than by any perceptible movements of her hands. =To stop in the walk=, in a correct and regular manner, is a sure criterion of a good horsewoman, one that has her steed under complete control, for this stop renders him more obedient, and tends to collect him and to bring his haunches into a pliant condition. To accomplish this stop properly, the rider must brace her arms firmly against her sides,--being careful not to let her elbows protrude backward,--throw her shoulders back, hold both reins evenly and firmly, and tighten the tension upon them by turning the hand and little fingers up and carrying them toward the waist, at the same time not omitting to press gently against the horse's sides with the leg and whip. All this should be accomplished by one simultaneous movement, and the degree of tension made on the reins should be in proportion to the sensitiveness of the horse's mouth. If the left leg and whip be not employed in making the stop, the horse when brought to a stand may throw his weight upon his shoulders and fore-legs,--which he should never be allowed to do, as it will destroy the pleasing effect of the stop, and cause him to become disunited. The animal should be so nicely balanced upon his haunches when he stops, that, with a little more liberty of rein, he can readily move forward in a united and collected manner. The reins must not be abruptly jerked, but be drawn upon, as stated before, in a gradual and equal manner. After the stop is completed, the reins may be so far relaxed as to enable the horse to again advance, should it be required. The stop should always be made when the animal is advancing straight forward, and never, if it can possibly be avoided, when making a turn or going around a corner. If, when attempting to stop the horse, he should _toss up his head_, the bridle-hand must be kept low and firm, and the right hand be pressed against his neck until his head is lowered, when the rein-hold may be relaxed. In such a case, the rider must be on her guard, as a horse which stops in this manner may rear, when she must immediately yield the reins. The stop, especially in rapid gaits and when effected suddenly, is very trying to the horse; it should therefore be made only when necessary, and never to display the rider's superior command and excellent horsewomanship; many horses, particularly those having weak loins, have been caused much suffering and have had their dispositions completely ruined by a too frequent and injudicious practice of the stop. In reining back or =backing in the walk=, the horse bends his haunches and places one of his hind-legs under his body, upon which to rest and balance himself; this enables him to collect force to impel his croup backward. To favor this movement, the horse must be collected, brought to stand square and even on his fore-legs, and then be reined backward by a firm, steady, and equal pull upon both the right and left snaffle-reins.[6] The hands should be held low and directly in front of the body, with the knuckles down, and the little fingers turned up and carried toward the body. During this whole movement care must be taken not to elevate the hands. The body of the rider must bend somewhat forward, with the waist drawn in, but without any rounding of the shoulders, while the leg and the whip must make gentle pressure against the horse's sides, so as to "bring him up to the bridle," and prevent his deviating from the line in which it is desired to back him. The backing must never be made by one continuous pull; but as soon as the movement is commenced, the hands and body of the rider must yield so that the horse may regain his balance, after which he may again be urged backward. These actions should occur alternately, so that with every step backward the rider will yield her hands, and immediately draw them back again, continuing these movements until the horse has backed as far as desired. If, instead of this course, a steady pull be made, the horse may lose his balance and fall, or may be compelled to rear. Footnote 6: If the horse be tender in the mouth the snaffle-reins had better be used in backing; if not, the curb. When reining the horse back the body must never be inclined backward, as is necessary when stopping the horse; on the contrary, it must always be inclined somewhat forward, as this will enable the hands to manage the reins more effectively, will give the horse more freedom to recede, and, should he rear, will place the rider in the proper balance. Should the rider unfortunately incline her body backward, and the horse rear, she would probably be unseated, and should she pull upon the reins in order to sustain herself and keep her seat, the animal would be drawn backward, and probably fall upon her. In backing, the pull upon the reins must never be made suddenly, but always gradually, the hand rather soliciting than compelling. When the reins are suddenly pulled upon, the horse is very apt to get his hind-legs too far forward under him, in which case it is impossible for him to move backward. In reining the horse directly backward, should his croup move out of line to the right, the pressure of the whip must be increased, or gentle taps be given with it upon his right side back of the saddle-flap, the hand at the same time increasing the tension upon the right rein. The taps of the whip must be very light, lest the animal turn too much to the left. Should the croup swerve to the left, the rider must press her left leg against her horse's side, or give light taps with her left heel upon his side, turning the point of the toe out, moving the leg a little back, and slightly separating the knee from the side of the saddle, in order to give these taps; at the same time she must increase the tension upon the left rein until the horse is brought into line. When it is desired to rein back, but with an inclination to the right, a slight extra bearing or pull must be made upon the left rein, without relaxing the steady tension upon the right one. A pressure with the whip upon the right side of the horse must at the same time be kept up, in order that he may not carry his croup too far to the right. In reining back with an inclination to the left, the pull upon the right rein must be slightly increased, still keeping a steady feeling upon the left one; then, by a constant pressure with the left leg upon the horse's side, he will be prevented from carrying his croup too far to the left. Reining back teaches the horse to move lightly, and improves the style of his different gaits, but its effect is very severe upon him, hence its practice should not be too frequent, and always of short duration. CHAPTER VIII. THE TROT, THE AMBLE, THE PACE, THE RACK. "We ride and ride. High on the hills The fir-trees stretch into the sky; The birches, which the deep calm stills, Quiver again as we speed by." OWEN INNSLY. In the trot, the horse moves his legs in the same diagonal manner as in the walk, the only difference being that in the trot they are moved more rapidly. When trotting regularly and evenly, the right fore-foot and the left hind-foot strike the ground nearly simultaneously, and then the left fore-foot and the right hind-foot do the same; and so on alternately, two legs being diagonally upon the ground at about the same moment, while two legs are raised in the air. The strokes of the hoofs upon the ground are called "beats," and are loud and quick, harmonizing with the animal's rapidity of motion and length of step. The trot is the safest gait for a rider if the horse be free from any defect in his limbs, as he will be less apt to stumble; it is also less tiresome for the animal, because while two legs are diagonally off the ground, the other two support the weight of his body, and thus one pair alternately and quickly relieves the other. There are three varieties of trot, namely, the jog trot, the flying or racing trot, and the true or even trot. In the _jog trot_ each foot is placed nearly in the same track it occupied before it was raised, though somewhat in advance of it, and it remains upon the ground a longer time than when raised in the air, thus rendering the gait almost as slow as the walk. If the horse be young and spirited, he will prefer this gait to that of the walk, and, if permitted, will naturally adopt it. This should be guarded against, and under no circumstances should he be allowed to break into a jog trot; because, however accomplished the rider may be, she will find it a very unpleasant and excessively fatiguing gait, and one which will make her look very awkward. This variety of trot, however, occasions less injury to the horse's feet and legs than any other gait, and, on this account, it is preferred by most farmers. In the _racing_ or _flying trot_, the horse is allowed to step out without the least constraint, the legs being extended as far as possible, and moving straight forward, while the animal spiritedly enters into the occasion and gives out his full power. In this trot all the legs are moved very rapidly, and the hind ones with more force than the fore-legs, in order that the horse's body may, with each bound, be propelled as far forward as possible. Between the two successive bounds all four legs are momentarily off the ground. Very springy fetlocks tend to diminish speed in the flying trot, and hence, not having such elastic fetlocks, a good trotting racer is rough in his action and an undesirable saddle-horse. In the _true_ or _even trot_, the action of the horse is regular, all his limbs moving in an even manner, his feet measuring exact distances, his hoof-beats being in equal time of _one, two, three, four_, and his feet, when moving rapidly, touching the ground only for an instant. There are two ways in which this trot may be ridden: one is to sit closely to the saddle, moving as little as possible, and making no effort to avoid the roughness of the gait. This is the method practiced by the cavalry of this country, as well as by the armies in Europe, and is called the "cavalry" or "French trot." The other method is to relieve the joltings by rising in the saddle in time with the horse's step. This is called the "English trot," and is the favorite gait of the European and the American civilian horsemen. It is only during the last few years that this trot has been gradually coming into favor with American horsewomen, although the ladies of England, and of nearly all continental Europe, have for a long time ridden this gait as well as the canter and hand gallop, having found that by alternating the latter gaits with the trot they could ride greater distances upon hard roads, and with much less fatigue to themselves and their steeds. The English trot does not wear out the horse so quickly as the gallop and canter; indeed, it has been generally found that the horse's trot improves as he grows older, many horses having become better trotters at their tenth or twelfth year than at an earlier age. The trot in which the hoof-beats are in time of only _one, two_, is very difficult to ride. In America, many persons condemn the English trot for lady riders, which is hardly to be wondered at when one observes the various awkward and grotesque attitudes that are assumed, even by many gentlemen, when attempting to rise in the saddle. As for the ladies who have undertaken this innovation, their appearance on horseback, from want of proper training or from lack of attention to given rules, has, with but few exceptions, been simply ridiculous. Even with correct teaching and proper application, some ladies, although they acquire the English trot, and do not make caricatures of themselves while employing it, yet do not appear to such advantage as when in the canter or hand gallop. This is also the case with European ladies, who differ very much in their power to make this gait appear graceful. A small, slightly built person, having a short measurement from the hip to the knee, can, when correctly taught, ride this trot with much ease and grace. A tall woman will have to lean too far forward with each rising movement of her steed, as her length of limb will not permit a short rise; she will therefore appear to much less advantage in this gait; while a stout built person will look rather heavy in the rise from the saddle. However, whether a lady is likely to present an elegant appearance or not when riding the English trot, she must, if she desires to become an accomplished horsewoman, learn to ride this particular gait, as it will enable her to gain a correct seat, to keep a better and more perfect balance, and to become more thorough in the other gaits. From a hygienic point of view, it will prove beneficial, and will preserve both rider and horse from excessive fatigue when traveling long distances. Under certain circumstances, it will also enable a lady to ride a man's horse, which will be very apt to have this trot in perfection, and but little knowledge of, or training in, any other gaits. In the country a regular and sure trotting horse may often be readily obtained, while it will be much more difficult to procure one with a light, easy canter or gallop. This trot, when well cadenced and in perfect time, is very captivating, as the rider escapes all jolting, and feels more as if she were flying through the air than riding upon a horse. There is, however, one objection to the English trot to which attention should be directed; namely, if the lady ride on a two-pommeled saddle, and the horse happens to shy, or to turn around suddenly, while she is in the act of rising, she is very likely to be unseated or thrown from her horse. With the three-pommeled saddle, however, this accident will be much less liable to occur, but the lady should always be on her guard when riding this trot, especially if her steed be nervous; and to avoid an accident of the kind just named, she should keep her left knee directly under the third pommel, but without pressing up against it enough to interfere with the rising motion, or just so close, that in pressing upon the stirrup and straightening her knee she can rise about four inches from the saddle; the distance between the upper surface of the knee and the under surface of the pommel will then be about one and a half, or two inches. If, in the rise, she does not find herself embarrassed by the third pommel, she may know that the stirrup-leather is of the correct length for this trot. The more rapid and regular the trot, the easier and shorter will be the rise, and the less noticeable the movements of the rider, because, when trotting fast, the rise will be effected with but very little effort on her part, and will be almost entirely due to the rapid action of the horse. To rise when trotting slowly, will be neither easy nor pleasant for the rider, and in this gait she will not appear to much advantage. In the =French= or =cavalry trot=, the body should be inclined a little backward, being kept as firm as possible but without stiffness, while at the same time the rider should sit as closely to the saddle as she can, with the left knee directly under the third pommel, not using force to press up against it, but simply holding it there to sustain the limb and to assist in keeping it as firm and steady as possible during the roughness of this gait--while the reins should be held a little firmer than for the walk. This trot should never be ridden by ladies after their first lessons in riding, unless the horse moves so easily in it that his rider is not jolted in the least. To trot so softly that no shock will be experienced by the rider as the horse's feet touch the ground will require a thorough-bred of rare formation. Before the invention of the three-pommeled saddle the French trot was always employed in the best riding-schools, a beginner being required to practice it for a long time, in order to acquire the proper firmness in the saddle; but since the invention of the third pommel the cavalry trot has been almost entirely dispensed with, as this pommel at once gives a firmness of seat that could be obtained on an old-fashioned two-pommeled saddle only after taking many fatiguing lessons in the French trot. It was this fatigue that caused so many persons to condemn horseback riding for ladies, and it also proved a cause of discouragement to the pupils in the riding-school, frequently giving rise to a decided dislike for horseback exercise. But since the employment of the third pommel, it is only necessary for the pupil to take two or three lessons in the French trot, just enough to enable her to understand the movement, after which she may proceed to rise in the English style. However, a knowledge of the cavalry trot will be found useful, as a horse, when reined in from a gallop or canter, will often trot a short distance before stopping; and if the rider understands this trot, she will be able to sit close to the saddle, and not appear awkward by jolting helplessly about. [Illustration: Fig. 30.--The Trot.] Of all the styles of riding, there is none so difficult to describe or to learn as the =English trot=. We will make an effort, however, to render it comprehensible to the reader. Considerable study and practice will be required to learn it perfectly, but when once learned it will indicate the thoroughly accomplished horsewoman. (Fig. 30.) To commence the English trot, the rider must collect her horse, as for the walk, and then, as he advances, keep a firm, even tension upon the _snaffle-reins_, because, in this trot, the animal will rely wholly upon his rider to support him and hold him to the pace, without the "give and take" movements of the hands required in the other gaits. It is not meant by this that a dead pull is to be made, but that the support must be firm and steady, with a proper correspondence between the bridle-hand and the horse's mouth. The elbows must be held steady and lightly near the rider's sides, but not close against them. As the horse extends his trot, an unpleasant roughness or jolting will be experienced, which will give an upward impetus to the rider's body; the moment she is conscious of this impetus, she must allow herself to be raised from her horse in regular time with his step or hoof-beats. In this trot, the horse will always have a leading foot, either the right or left, and the foot he leads with is the one to which the rider must rise,--rising when the leading foot is lifted, and touching the saddle when this foot touches the ground. Most riders do this instinctively, as it were, rising and falling with the leading foot. In _this rise_ the action of the horse alone will give the impetus; no effort must be made by the lady, _except_ to press slightly, or rather to sustain herself gently upon the stirrup, and keep her knee and instep yielding and flexible with the rise. Care must be taken not to allow the leg to swing forward and backward. The rise should be made as straight upward as possible, the upper part of the body inclining forward no more than is necessary to effect the rise with ease. The back must be kept well curved, and the shoulders square to the front of the horse, without lifting them up, or rounding them in rising. The =leading foot of the horse= is that fore-foot or leg with which he commences his advance in the gait; it will always be carried somewhat beyond its fellow, while, at the same time, that side of the animal's body which corresponds with the leading foot will be a little more advanced toward this foot, though almost imperceptibly so. Every rider should be taught to know with which foot her horse leads. When a horse trots evenly and quickly, and with rather a short step, the rise in the saddle will be barely perceptible; but when he trots slowly and with a long step, the rise will have to be higher, in order that the rider may keep time with the slowness and length of his step. In this gait a tall woman will be very apt to prefer a long step to a short one. In making the rise, the rider must never assist herself by pulling upon the reins, which should be held firm and low to give support _to the horse alone_, not allowing them to slip in the least from between the thumb and forefinger that should hold them steady. _The descent_ of the body to the saddle must be effected as gently as possible. The right knee should be pressed against the second pommel, and the left foot lean lightly upon the stirrup, the left foot and instep being kept yielding and flexible with the descent, and the body and right leg bearing[7] a little to the right. The descent should be made just in time to catch the next impetus of the horse's movement, so that the saddle will be hardly touched before the rider's body will again be thrown upward to make the rise. Footnote 7: By "bearing to the right" is not meant an inclination of the body to this side, but a resistance sufficient to keep the body from inclining toward the left. As hereafter stated, trotting in a circle to the _right_ will be found an excellent exercise to teach one this bearing. It presents a very comical and inelegant appearance for a rider, whether man or woman, when attempting the rising trot, to elevate and protrude the shoulders, curve the back out so as to round it, lean forward toward the horse's ears, with elbows sticking out from the rider's sides and flopping like the wings of a restless bird, while the body is bobbing up and down like a dancing-jack, out of all time with the movements of the animal. One reason why some persons are so awkward in the rise is that they sit too far back upon the saddle. This obliges them to sustain themselves upon the stirrup obliquely, thus causing them to lean too far forward in order to accomplish the rise more easily. Another cause of awkwardness in the rising trot is an improperly constructed saddle. The seat or platform should be as nearly level as a properly made saddle will permit. When the front part or arch is much higher than the seat, it will be difficult to use the second pommel as a point of support for the right knee, which support is highly essential during the descent, in this trot. It is a common thing to see riders exaggerate the rise by pressing hard upon the stirrup and supporting themselves by the reins, thus rising higher than necessary, and coming down with a heavy thump upon the saddle; to which equestrian gymnastics they give the name of "English trot." When rising and descending in the English trot, the left leg, from knee to instep, must be held perpendicular and steady; the foot, from toe to heel, must rest horizontally in the stirrup, and in a line with the horse's side. The foot should not be allowed to turn out, nor the leg to swing backward and forward: if the foot be pointed out, this will tend to carry the body and leg too much toward the left, on the rise; and, if the leg be allowed to swing, it will cause the rider to lose the rhythm of the trot. Again, the stirrup must not be too strongly pressed upon, as this will throw all the rider's weight upon the left side, and may cause the saddle to turn. On making the rise, great care must be taken not to advance the left shoulder, nor to turn the body to the left; many riders do these things with the idea that they will enable them to rise with more ease. But this is an error, for such movements will not only occasion fatigue, but will also render the rein-hold unsteady, and the action of the foot and knee uncertain. The body and shoulders must always be square to the front when the horse is trotting straight forward, the body remaining as erect as the action of the horse will allow. =To stop= a well-trained horse =in this gait=, it will simply be necessary for the rider to cease rising, sit down to the saddle, and gradually loosen the reins. Many horses, however, are trained to make the stop in the usual way, by having the reins tightened. The advance and the turns are to be conducted in the same manner as that described for the walk. In the English trot, the horse must be kept well up to his gait; should he appear to move heavily or disunitedly the reins must be gradually shortened, and the animal be collected. Should he step short, in a constrained manner, the reins must be gradually lengthened, to give him more freedom. If he break into a gallop when it is desired that he should trot, he must be gradually reined in to a walk, and then be started again upon a trot, and this course must be repeated until he obeys, stopping him every time he attempts to gallop, and then starting the trot anew. If he trot too rapidly, he must be checked, by bracing the bridle-hand and increasing the pull upon the reins. If the trot be too slow, the hand must relax the reins a little, and the horse be animated by the voice, and by gentle taps with the whip. To regulate the trot, to keep it smooth and harmonious, to rein in the horse gently without rendering him unsteady, and then gradually to yield the hand so that he may move forward again in a regular manner, are very difficult points for beginners to accomplish while still keeping up the proper support upon the bit, and will require study and considerable practice. A horse should never be urged into a more rapid trot than he can execute in an even, regular manner; if compelled to exceed this, he will break into a rough gallop, or into such an irregular trot as will render it impossible for the rider to time the rise. An accomplished horsewoman, when trotting her horse, will make no observable effort, and there will be perfect harmony between her steed and herself. When the English trot is ridden in this manner, the person who can condemn it must, indeed, be extremely fastidious. However, it must be acknowledged that it will require the lithe, charming figure of a young lady to exhibit its best points, and to execute it in its most pleasing and graceful style. The very tall, the inactive, or the stout lady may ride this gait with ease to herself and horse, and when properly taught will not render herself awkward or ridiculous, but she can never ride it with the willowy grace of the slender woman of medium size. =Trotting in a circle= may be practiced in a riding-school, or upon a level, open space or ground, having a circular track about seventy-five or eighty feet in diameter. It is very excellent practice, especially in teaching the rider to rise in unison with the horse's trot, whether he leads with the right or left leg. For first lessons, the pupil must commence by circling to the right, as this is the easiest to learn, and will teach her to bear toward the right side of the horse. It is very essential that in first lessons she should do this; because in the English trot she will have to guard carefully against inclining to the left in the rise and descent, a fault common to all beginners who are not better instructed. In circling, the horse will always incline toward the centre of the circle, with which inclination the rider's body must correspond, by leaning in the same direction; if this precaution should be neglected and the horse be trotting rapidly, the rider will lose her balance, and fall off on the side opposite to that of the inclination. The distance she should lean to the right or to the left must be in proportion to the size of the circle that is being passed over, and also to the inward bearing of the horse's body. Should the circle be small and the gait rapid, the inclination of the rider's body will have to be considerable to enable her to maintain her seat and keep in unison with the horse. If the circle be large, say eighty feet in diameter, the inclination will be slight. In order to _circle to the right_, when holding a curb and a snaffle rein in each hand, the pupil must collect her horse by the aid of curb, leg, and whip, as already explained, and start him forward on the snaffle, holding the right rein a little lower than the left, and drawing it enough to enable her to see plainly the corner of his right eye; the reins must be held steadily, no sudden jerks being given to them, as these will cause the horse to move irregularly and swerve about. Should his croup be turned too much to the right, the pressure of the whip will bring it to the left; if it be turned too much to the left, the pressure of the left leg will bring it to the right. In _circling to the left_, the horse will incline his body to the left, toward the centre of the circle. It is not very easy to learn to circle to the left, but when once learned, it will be found no more difficult than circling to the right, provided the animal has been properly trained and made supple, so as to lead with either leg. Horses that have been trained to lead with the right leg only will, when required to change and lead with the left, move in a confined, inflexible, and irregular manner, so that it will be impossible to time the rise from the saddle. In riding in the circle to the left, the directions for circling to the right must be reversed, the rider leaning to the _left_, pulling the _left_ rein a little tighter, etc. Great care must be taken, however, not to lean too much toward the left in making the rise. The degree of inclination should not in this case be so great as the corresponding inclination when circling to the right, for if it is the rider will throw her weight too much upon the stirrup side, and may cause the saddle to turn. In practicing riding in a circle, it will be found very advantageous to vary the size of the circle, first riding in a large one, then gradually contracting it, and again enlarging it; or the rider, while practicing upon a large circle, may make a cross-cut toward the centre of this circle, so as to enter upon another one of smaller diameter, and, after riding for a short time in the smaller circle, she may again pass out to resume her ride upon the larger one. These changes from large to narrow circles form excellent practice for pupils, but should always, if possible, be performed under competent instruction. The first lessons in trotting in a circle should always be of short duration, and the pupil required to ride slowly, the speed being gradually increased as she gains knowledge and confidence. The moment she experiences fatigue she should dismount, and rest, before resuming the lesson. =In the amble= the horse's movements very strongly resemble those of the camel, two legs on one side moving together alternately with the two legs of the other side. Thus one side of the animal supports the weight of his body, while the other side moves forward, and so on in alternation. This is an artificial gait, and one to which the horse must usually be trained; though some horses whose ancestors have been forced to travel in this gait, have themselves been known to amble without any training. In the feudal ages it was the favorite pace for a lady's palfrey, but at the present day it is no longer countenanced by good taste. =The pace=, however, which is so well liked by many ladies in this country, is a kind of amble, although the steps taken are longer. A good pacer can frequently travel faster than most horses can in the trot. When the steed moves easily and willingly, the pace is very pleasant for short rides, but for long journeys, unless the animal can change his gait to a hand gallop or a canter, it will become very unpleasant and tiresome. Many pacers are almost as rough in their movements as the ordinary trotter; and although they do not jolt the rider up and down upon the saddle, yet they jerk her body in such a manner as successively and alternately to throw one side forward and the other slightly back with each and every step, rendering a ride for any distance very fatiguing. =The rack=, at one time so much liked, has become almost obsolete. This is a peculiar gait, not easily described, in which the horse appears to trot with one pair of legs and amble with the other, the gait being so mixed up between an amble and a defective trot as to render it almost a nondescript. When racking, the horse will appear constrained and uncomfortable, and will strongly bear upon the rider's hand; some animals so much so, as completely to weary the bridle-hand and arm in a ride of only an hour or two. This constant bearing of the horse's head upon the reins soon renders him hard mouthed, and, consequently, not easily and promptly managed. The rack soon wears out a horse, besides spoiling him for other gaits, and so injures his feet and legs that a racker will rarely be suitable for the saddle after his eighth year. It is an acquired step, much disliked by the horse, which has always to be forced into it by being urged forward against the restraint of a curb-bit; and he will, whenever an opportunity presents, break into a rough trot or canter, so that the rider has to be constantly on the watch, and compel him to keep in the rack against his will. And although the motion does not jolt much, the aspect of the horse and rider is not as easy and graceful as in the canter and hand gallop, there being an appearance of unwillingness and restraint that is by no means pleasing. The directions for the French trot will answer for both the pace and the rack, except that in the latter the traction upon the reins must be greater. CHAPTER IX. THE CANTER. "When troubled in spirit, when weary of life, When I faint 'neath its burdens, and shrink from its strife, When its fruits, turned to ashes, are mocking my taste, And its fairest scene seems but a desolate waste, Then come ye not near me, my sad heart to cheer With friendship's soft accents or sympathy's tear. No pity I ask, and no counsel I need, But bring me, oh, bring me my gallant young steed, With his high arched neck, and his nostril spread wide, His eye full of fire, and his step full of pride! As I spring to his back, as I seize the strong rein, The strength to my spirit returneth again! The bonds are all broken that fettered my mind, And my cares borne away on the wings of the wind; My pride lifts its head, for a season bowed down, And the queen in my nature now puts on her crown!" GRACE GREENWOOD. In the gallop, the horse always has a leading foot or leg. In _leading with the right fore-foot_, he will raise the left one from the ground, and then the right will immediately follow, but will be advanced somewhat beyond the left one; and this is the reason why, in this case, the right side is called the "leading side." In the descent of the fore-feet, the left one will touch the ground first, making the first beat, and will be immediately followed by the leading or right fore-foot which will make the second beat. The hind-legs are moved in a similar way, the left hind-foot making the third beat, and the right one the fourth. These beats vary in accordance with the adjustment of the horse's weight, but when he gallops true and regular, as in the canter, the hoof-beats distinctly mark _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_. In the rapid gallop the hoof-beats sound in the time of _one-two_, or _one-two-three_. In _leading with the left foot_, the left side of the horse will be advanced slightly and the left leg be carried somewhat beyond the right, the action being just the reverse of that above described when leading with the right leg. In this case the left side is termed the "leading side." The hoof-beats of horses in the trot and gallop have been admirably rendered by Bellini, in the opera of "Somnambula," just previous to the entrance of Rudolfo upon the stage. There are three kinds of gallop, namely, the _rapid_ or _racing_, the _hand gallop_, and the _canter_. =The canter= is a slow form of galloping, which the horse performs by throwing his weight chiefly upon his hind-legs, the fore ones being used more as supports than as propellers. Horses will be found to vary in their modes of cantering, so much so as to render it almost impossible to describe them accurately. Small horses and ponies have a way of cantering with a loose rein, and without throwing much weight upon their haunches, moving their feet rapidly, and giving pattering hoof-beats. Most ponies on the Western prairies canter in this manner, and it is said to be a very easy gait for a horseman though very unpleasant, from its joltings, for a lady. Another canter is what might be termed the "canter of a livery-stable horse." This appears to be partly a run and partly a canter, a peculiarity which is due to the fact that one or more of the animal's feet are unsound, and he adopts this singular movement for the purpose of obtaining relief. The little street gamins in London recognize the sound of this canter at once, and will yell out, in time with the horse's hoof-beats, "three pence, two pence," in sarcastic derision of the lady's hired horse and the unhappy condition of his feet. In the true canter, which alone is suitable for a lady, the carriage of the horse is grand and elegant. In this gait, the animal has his hind-legs well under his body, all his limbs move regularly, his neck has a graceful curve, and responds to the slightest touch of the rider's hand upon the reins. A horse that moves in this manner is one for display; his grand action will emphasize the grace of a finished rider, and the appearance of the _tout ensemble_ will be the extreme of elegance and well-bred ease. Horses intended for ladies' use are generally trained to lead in the canter with the right or off fore-foot. Most lady riders, whose lessons in riding have been limited, sit crosswise upon their saddles. This position, without their being aware of it, places them more in unison with the horse's movements, and thereby renders the canter with this lead the easiest gait for them. But if a horse be constantly required to canter with this lead he will soon become unsound in his left hind-leg, because in leading with the right fore-foot he throws the greater part of his weight upon his left hind-leg, and thus makes it perform double duty. For this reason the majority of ladies' horses, when the canter is their principal gait, will be found to suffer from strained muscles, tendons, and articulations. A finished rider will from time to time relieve her horse by changing the lead to the left leg, or else she will change the canter to a trot. Should her horse decidedly refuse to lead with the foot required, whether right or left, it may be inferred that he is unsound in that leg or foot; in which case he should be favored, and permitted to make his own lead, while the canter should frequently be changed to a walk. [Illustration: Fig. 31.--Entering upon the Canter with the Right Leg leading.] To =commence the canter=, the horse must be brought to a walk, or to a stand, then be placed on his haunches, and collected by means of the curb, left leg, and whip; and then the bridle-hand must be raised, while the second, third, and fourth fingers are moved to and fro, so as to give gentle pulls upon the curb-reins, thus soliciting the animal to raise his fore-feet. In performing these manoeuvres, the rider must be careful to direct the leg with which she desires her horse to lead. This may be done as follows: If she desires to have the =right leg lead=, the tension upon the left curb-rein must, _just before_ the animal rises to take his first step, be increased enough to make him incline his head so far to the left that the rider can see his left nostril, while, simultaneously, her left leg must press against his side. By these means, the horse will be prompted to place himself obliquely, with his head rather to the left, and his croup to the right. The rider, if seated exactly in the centre of her saddle, must take a position corresponding to that of the horse, by throwing her right hip and shoulder somewhat forward, her face looking toward the animal's head, while her body is held erect with the shoulders gracefully inclined backward, and the hollow of the back well curved inward. Any stiffness or rigidity of the body must be guarded against in these movements and positions. The rider must hold herself in a pliant manner, and yield to the motions of the horse. The left leg must be held steady, the knee being placed directly underneath the third pommel, and care must be taken not to press upon the stirrup, as this will tend to raise the body from the saddle, and convey its weight almost wholly to the left side. The hands must be held somewhat elevated and steady, and, as the horse advances, the tension on the reins must be even, so that the fingers can feel every cadence of his step, and give and take with his movements. Unlike the trot, in which the horse must be supported by the snaffle, the canter will require the curb to sustain and keep up his action. After the animal has started in the canter with the right leg leading, should he incline too much to the left, the tension upon the right rein must be increased, so as to turn his head more to the right and bring him to the proper inclination for the lead of the right leg. This correction must be effected gradually and lightly, so as not to disturb the gait, or cause him to change his leading leg. This canter with the right leg leading is very easy to learn, and will not require much practice to master. However, should the horse fail to obey these indications of the left rein and leg, and start off in a false and disunited manner, as explained under "the turn in the canter," another course should be pursued, namely: the tension upon the right or off curb-rein must be increased so as to bring the animal's nose to the right, as if he were going to turn to the right on a curve, while at the same time the left leg must be pressed against his side in order to have him carry his croup slightly to the right. Now he must be made to lift his fore-feet by increased tension on both curb reins, and then be urged forward. As he advances, the hands should be extended a little to give him more freedom in the spring forward, and he will then naturally lead with the right side advanced. When once started in this gait, the rider must equalize the tension upon the reins, having placed herself in the saddle, in the manner explained for the canter. To have him lead with the left leg, a similar but reversed course must be pursued, using pressure with the whip, instead of the leg, to make him place his croup to the left. To canter with the =left leg leading= will be found more difficult to acquire, and will demand more study and practice. The horse, having been collected, must then be inclined obliquely to the right. To accomplish this, the rider must increase the tension of the right curb-rein, and press her whip against the animal's right side, which will urge his head to the right and his croup to the left. In order that the position of the rider's body may correspond with that of the horse, her left hip and shoulder must be slightly advanced, in precedence of her right hip and shoulder. It will be observed that the manoeuvring in this lead is similar to that in which the right leg leads, except that the _direction_ of the positions, of the management of the reins, and of the horse's bearing during the canter is simply reversed; in either lead, however, the tension or bearing upon the reins, as the horse advances in the canter, must be equal. It may be proper to state here that, as the amount of tension needed upon the reins when cantering varies considerably with different horses, some needing only the lightest touch, the rider will, consequently, have to ascertain for herself how much will be suitable for her horse. Some horses, after having fairly started in the canter, will bend their necks so as to carry their chin closer to the throat, while others again will extend the neck so as to carry the chin forward. In the first instance, the reins will have to be shortened in order to give the animal the proper support in the gait, as well as to keep up the correspondence between his mouth and the bridle-hand; in the latter they will require to be lengthened, to give him more freedom in his movement. Should the reins be held too short, or the rider's hand be heavy and unyielding, the horse will be confined in his canter; should the reins be held too long, he will canter carelessly, and will either move heavily upon his fore-legs, or break into an irregular trot. A rider may by attending to the following directions readily determine whether her horse be leading with the leg she desires, and also whether he be advancing in a true and united manner: If he be moving regularly and easily, with a light play upon the reins in harmony with the give and take movements of the hand, his head being slightly inclined in a direction opposite to that of the leading leg, and his action being smooth and pleasant to the rider, he will, as a rule, be cantering correctly. But if he be moving roughly and unevenly, giving the rider a sensation of jolting, if his head is inclined toward the same side as that of the leading leg, and he does not yield prompt obedience to the reins, then he is not cantering properly, and should be immediately stopped, again collected, and started anew. If necessary this course should be repeated until he advances regularly and unitedly. Some horses, after having fairly entered upon the canter, will change the leading leg, and will even keep changing from one to the other, at short intervals. This is a bad habit, and one that will never be attempted by a well-trained animal, unless his rider does not understand how to support him correctly and to keep him leading with the required leg. A horse should never be allowed to change his leading leg except at the will of his rider; and should he do so, he should be chidden and stopped instantly, and then started anew. If the rider when trotting rapidly wishes to change to a canter, she must first moderate the trot to a walk, because the horse will otherwise be apt to break from the trot into a rapid gallop. Should he insist upon trotting, when it is desired that he should canter, he must be stopped, collected with the curb-bit, as heretofore described in the directions for commencing the canter, and started anew. This course must be repeated every time he disobeys, and be continued until he is made to canter. It may be remarked here that, in the canter, whenever the horse moves irregularly, advances heavily upon his fore-legs, thus endeavoring to force his rider's hand, or when he fails to yield ready obedience, he should always be stopped, collected, and started anew,--repeating this course, if necessary, several times in succession. Should the animal, however, persist in his disobedience, pull upon the reins, and get his head down, his rider must, as he moves on, gently yield the bridle-reins, and each time he pulls upon them she must gradually, but firmly, increase the tension upon them, by drawing them in toward her waist. This counter-traction must be continued until the horse yields to the bridle and canters properly. When he pulls upon the reins his rider in advancing her hands to yield the reins should be careful to keep her body erect, and not allow it to be pulled forward. =The turn in the canter.= In turning to _the right_, if the horse is leading with the inward leg, or the one toward the centre of the circle of which the distance to be turned forms an arc, in the present instance the right fore-leg which is followed by the right hind-leg, he is said to be true and united, and will be able to make the turn safely. Should the turn be made toward _the left_, the horse leading with his inward or left fore-leg, followed by the left hind-leg, he will likewise be true and united. On the contrary, the animal will be disunited when, in cantering to the right, he leads with the right fore-leg followed by the left hind-leg, or when he leads with the left fore-leg followed by the right hind-leg. In either case, from want of equilibrium in action and motion, a very slight obstruction may make him fall. In turning toward the left, in a canter, the horse will be disunited if he leads with the left fore-leg followed by the right hind-leg, or if he leads with the right fore-leg followed by the left hind-leg, as in the preceding instance, he will be liable to fall. A horse is said to go false when, in turning to the right, in the canter, he leads with both left legs, or advances his left side beyond his right; also, when in cantering to the left he leads with both right legs or advances his right side beyond his left; in either of these false movements he will be very liable to fall. When it is desired to =turn to the right=, in the canter, the horse must be kept well up to the bridle, so as to place his haunches forward and well under him, thus keeping him light on his fore-legs, and preventing his bearing too heavily upon his shoulders; and, while the inward rein is being tightened in order to make the turn, the outward one must continue to support the horse, being just loose enough to allow him to incline his head and neck toward the inner side of the turn. Pressure from the left leg of the rider will keep the animal from inclining his haunches too much to the left, during the turn. Should the steed be turned merely by means of the inward rein, without being kept well up to the bridle, and without either leg or whip being used upon his outer side, he will turn heavily upon his forehand, and will be obliged to change to the outward leg in order to support himself. This will cause him, after the turn has been accomplished, to advance in a disunited way in the canter. When it is desired to =turn to the left=, the instructions in the preceding paragraph may be pursued, the directions, however, being reversed and pressure with the whip being employed instead of that with the leg. Sudden, sharp turns, are always dangerous, however sure-footed the horse may be, and especial care should be taken not to turn quickly to the right when the left fore-leg leads, nor to the left when the right fore-leg leads, as in either case the animal will almost certainly be thrown off his balance. In turning a "sharp corner," especially when the rider cannot see what she is liable to encounter, it will be better for her to make the turn at a walk, and keep her own side of the road, the right. =The stop in the canter.= In bringing the horse to a stand, in the canter, he should be well placed on his haunches by gradually increasing the pull upon the curb-reins just as his fore-feet are descending toward the ground; the hind-feet being then well under the horse will complete the stop. The rider must guard against leaning forward, as this will not only prevent the horse from executing the stop in proper form, but should he suddenly come to a stand, it will throw her still farther forward, and the reins will become relaxed. Now, while she is thus leaning forward, should the animal suddenly raise his head, the two heads will be very likely to come into unpleasant contact; or should the horse stumble, his liability to fall will be increased, because the rider will not be in a proper position to support him, and will increase the weight upon his shoulders, by being so far forward. Many ladies not only lean forward while effecting the stop, but also draw the bridle-hand to the left, and carry the bridle-arm back so that the elbow projects behind and beyond the body, while at the same time they elevate the shoulder on this side. This is an extremely awkward manner of bringing a horse to a stand. The stop should be made in the same manner as that described in the walk, that is, by gradually drawing the bridle-hand toward the waist, etc. Nearly all horses, unless exceptionally well trained, will trot a short distance before coming to a stand in the canter or gallop, and it is here that a knowledge of the French or cavalry trot will prove essential, because the rider will then comprehend the motion, and will sit closely to the saddle until the horse stops. In all cases, the horse should be brought to a stand in a regular, collected manner, so that with a little more liberty of rein he can promptly reënter upon the canter, should this be desired. CHAPTER X. THE HAND GALLOP.--THE FLYING GALLOP. "Now we're off like the winds to the plains whence they came; And the rapture of motion is thrilling my frame! On, on speeds my courser, scarce printing the sod, Scarce crushing a daisy to mark where he trod! On, on like a deer, when the hound's early bay Awakes the wild echoes, away, and away! Still faster, still farther, he leaps at my cheer, Till the rush of the startled air whirs in my ear! Now 'long a clear rivulet lieth his track,-- See his glancing hoofs tossing the white pebbles back! Now a glen dark as midnight--what matter?--we'll down Though shadows are round us, and rocks o'er us frown; The thick branches shake as we're hurrying through, And deck us with spangles of silvery dew!" GRACE GREENWOOD. The hand gallop is an intermediate gait between the canter and the flying gallop. Its motion, though rather rapid, is smooth, easy, and very agreeable for both rider and steed. Nearly all horses, especially spirited ones, prefer this movement to any other; the bronchos on the plains of the far West will keep up this long, easy lope or hand gallop for miles, without changing their gait, or requiring their riders to draw rein, and without any apparent fatigue. This pace is likewise a favorite one with riding parties, as the motion is so smooth that conversation can be kept up without difficulty. If the animal's movements are light, supple, and elegant, the lady rider presents a very graceful appearance when riding this gait, as the reactions in it are very mild; it is the gait _par excellence_, for a country ride. On a breezy summer morning, there is nothing more exhilarating than a ride at a hand gallop, on a willing, spirited horse; it brightens the spirits, braces the nerves, refreshes the brain, and enables one to realize that "life is worth living." "I tell thee, O stranger, that unto me The plunge of a fiery steed Is a noble thought,--to the brave and free It is music, and breath, and majesty,-- 'Tis the life of a noble deed; And the heart and the mind are in spirit allied In the charm of a morning's glorious ride." Let all gloomy, dyspeptic invalids try the cheering effects of a hand gallop, that they may catch a glimpse of the sunlight that is always behind even the darkest cloud of despondency. When the horse is advancing in a collected canter, if the rider will animate him a little more by gentle taps with the whip, and then as he springs forward give him more liberty of the curb-rein, he will enter upon a =hand gallop=. In this gait he will lead either with the left or the right foot, but the oblique position of his body will be very slight. The management of the reins, the turns to the right or to the left, the stop, and the position of the rider's body, must, in this gait be the same as in the canter, except that the body need not be quite so erect, and the touch upon the reins must be very light, barely appreciable. If riding a spirited horse, the lady must be upon her guard, lest he increase his speed and enter into a flying or racing gallop. Any horse is liable to do this when he has not been properly exercised, especially if he is with other horses, when a spirit of rivalry is aroused, and he sometimes becomes almost unmanageable from excitement. Many livery-stable horses, although quiet enough in the city, will, when ridden upon country roads, especially in the spring, require all the skill of their riders to keep them under control. The change from the stone and brick of the city or town to the odor of the fresh grass and the sight of green fields has an exhilarating effect upon them, and makes them almost delirious with gladness, so that they act like anything but sensible, quiet, well-worked horses. When her horse manifests any such disposition, the rider must retain her presence of mind, and not permit any nervousness or excitement on her part to increase that of her horse. She must keep him well under the control of the curb-bit, and not allow him to increase his speed; when he endeavors to do so, she must sit erect, and every time his fore-feet touch the ground she must tighten the curb-reins, by drawing them gradually but firmly toward her waist. She will thus check the animal's desire to increase his speed, by compelling him to rest upon her hand at short intervals until he can be brought under command and again made obedient. Care must be taken not to make this strong pull upon the animal's mouth constant, as this will be more apt to increase than to lessen his speed, and will also prevent her from turning him readily should she encounter any object upon the road. Should the horse, however, continue to disobey the commands of his rider, and persist in his efforts to increase his speed, she must then lean well back, and "saw his mouth" with the snaffle-reins, that is, she must pull first one of these reins and then the other in rapid succession; this may cause him to swerve out of a straight course, but if he has a snaffle-bit separate from the curb this sawing will generally have the desired effect, and stop him. If the horse should get his head down and manifest a disposition to change the full gallop into a runaway, the rider must, as she values her own safety, keep her body well inclined backward, for some horses, when excited, will, while their riders are endeavoring to check or control them, kick up as they gallop along, and the rider, unless she is prepared for such movements, will be in danger of being thrown. In such a case every effort must be made to raise the horse's head. To do this, the rider must slacken the curb-reins for a moment, and then suddenly give them a strong, decided jerk upward; this will cause a severe shock to the horse's mouth, and make him raise his head and stop suddenly, a movement that may throw her toward or upon the front of the saddle with considerable force, unless she guard herself against such an accident by leaning well back. Should the horse, when galloping at full speed, turn a corner in spite of the efforts of his rider, she must keep a steady pull upon the outer curb-rein, and lean well back and in toward the centre of the curve which the horse is describing in his turn. All this must be done quickly, or she will lose her balance and fall off upon the outer side. During all these violent efforts of the horse the rider must keep a firm, steady seat, pressing her left knee up strongly against the third pommel, and at the same time holding the second clasped firmly by the bend of her right knee. If she recollects to do all this, there will be little cause for alarm, as it will then be very difficult for her horse to unseat her. The combined balance and grip of limbs will give her a firmer seat than it is possible for a man to acquire in his saddle. [Illustration: Fig. 32.--The Flying Gallop.] =In the flying or racing gallop= the horse manifests the utmost capabilities of his speed, his body at every push of his hind-legs being raised from the ground so quickly that he will appear as if almost flying through the air; hence the name "flying gallop." In this gait it is unimportant with which leg the horse leads, provided the advance of the hind-leg on the same side as that of the leading one be made correspondingly. It is advisable that every lady rider should learn to sit the flying gallop, as she will then be better able to maintain her seat, and to manage her horse should she ever have the misfortune to be run away with. (Fig. 32.) Many ladies, when riding in the country, enjoy a short exhilarating flying gallop; and for their benefit a few instructions are here given that will enable them to indulge their _penchant_ for rapid riding, without danger to themselves, or injury to their horses. Before the lady attempts rapid riding, however, she must be thoroughly trained in all the other gaits of the animal, must possess strong, healthy nerves, and must have sufficient muscular power in her arms to hold and manage her horse, and to stop him whenever occasion requires; she must also have fitted to his mouth a curb-bit which possesses sufficient power to control him and to bring him to a stand, when this is desired. Above all, her horse must be sure-footed, and free from any and every defect that might occasion stumbling. Every point having been carefully attended to, and the lady being ready for the ride, she must sit firmly upon the centre of the saddle, grasping the second and third pommels, as described above. She must be careful not to press strongly upon the stirrup, as this will tend to raise her body from the saddle. From the hips down the body and limbs must be held as immovable as possible. The body, below the waist, must by its own weight, aided by the clasp of the right and left legs upon their respective pommels, secure a firm seat upon the saddle. From the waist up the body must be pliable, the shoulders being well back, and the back curved in, so that the rider may keep her balance, and control the horse's action. The reins must be held separately, in the manner described for holding the double bridle-reins in both hands. The animal must be ridden and supported by the snaffle-reins, the curb being held ready to check him instantly should he endeavor to obtain the mastery. The hands must be held low, and about six or eight inches apart, and the rider's body must lean back somewhat. Leaning forward is a favorite trick of the horse-jockey when riding a race, as it is supposed to assist the horse, and also enable the rider to raise himself on the stirrups; but as lady riders are not horse-jockeys, and are not supposed to ride for a wager, but simply for the enjoyment of an exhilarating exercise, it will not be at all necessary for them to assume this stooping posture. Many of the best horsemen, when riding at full gallop in the hunting field, or on the road, prefer to incline the body somewhat backward, this having been found the safest as well as most graceful position for the rider. As the horse moves rapidly forward, the rider, while keeping a firm hand upon the snaffle-reins so as to give full support to the horse, must be sure with every stride of the animal to "give and take," and this motion, instead of being limited to the hands and wrists, as in all other gaits, must in this one embrace the whole of the fore-arms, which, using the elbows as a hinge, should move as far as is necessary. To =stop the horse= in a flying gallop, the curb-reins must be drawn upward and toward the waist gradually, for should they be pulled upon suddenly it would be apt to stop him so abruptly that he would either become overbalanced, or cross his legs, and fall. In this gait, the rider should never attempt to turn her horse except upon a very large circle, because, even when in the proper position, unless she possesses great muscular power, she will be almost certain to be thrown off on the outward side by the forcible and vigorous impetus imparted. CHAPTER XI. THE LEAP.--THE STANDING LEAP.--THE FLYING LEAP. "Soft thy skin as silken skein, Soft as woman's hair thy mane, Tender are thine eyes and true; All thy hoofs like ivory shine, Polished bright; oh, life of mine, Leap, and rescue Kurroglou!" Kyrat, then, the strong and fleet, Drew together his four white feet, Paused a moment on the verge, Measured with his eye the space, And into the air's embrace Leaped as leaps the ocean serge. LONGFELLOW, _The Leap of Roushan Beg_. A lady rider who has the nerve and confidence to ride a hand gallop, or a flying gallop, will be ready to learn to leap. Indeed, instruction in this accomplishment should always be given, as it is of great assistance in many emergencies. The most gentle horse may become frightened, shy suddenly to one side, or plunge violently for some reason or other, and these abrupt movements strongly resemble those of leaping; if, therefore, the rider understands the leap, she will know better how to maintain her equilibrium. Or she may meet some obstruction on the road, as the trunk of a tree felled by a storm; when, instead of being compelled to return home without finishing her ride, she can leap over the obstacle. Again, should she at any time be in great haste to reach her destination she may, by leaping some low gap in a fence, or some small stream, be able to take one or more short cuts, and thus greatly lessen the distance she would have had to ride on the road. Leaping is by no means difficult to learn. With an English saddle, the third pommel will prevent the rider from being shaken off by the violence of the motion, and will thus make leaping entirely safe for a lady provided the horse be well-trained and sure-footed. Before venturing upon a leap, three requisites are necessary: first, the horse must be a good and fearless leaper; second, the rider must have confidence in herself and steed, because any nervousness on her part will be apt to cause the animal to leap awkwardly; and third, she must always be sure of the condition of the ground on the opposite side of the object over which the leap is to be made--it must neither slope abruptly down, nor present any thorny bushes, nor be so soft and soggy that the horse will be apt to sink into it. No risk must be taken in the leap, except in cases of emergency, when, of course, the rider may have neither time nor opportunity to select her ground, and be obliged to leap her steed over the nearest available point. The author once avoided what might have proved a serious accident to both herself and horse, by promptly leaping him over a hedge of thorn bushes, upon the other side of which was a river: this was done in order to avoid colliding in a narrow road with a frightened, runaway team, which was quite beyond the control of its driver. [Illustration: Fig. 33.--The Standing Leap--Rising.] The =standing leap= will prove more difficult to learn than the flying leap, but, nevertheless, it should be the first one practiced, and when once acquired, the other will be mere play. A bar twelve feet long, raised two feet from the ground, will be sufficient for practice in this exercise; if a lady can manage a leap of this height with expertness and grace, she will be fully able to bound over a still higher obstacle, should she desire to do so, and her horse be equal to the occasion. Before attempting the leap, she must be sure that she is perfectly secure upon the saddle, with her left knee directly under the third pommel so as to press it firmly against the latter as the horse rises to the leap; her left leg, from the knee to the stirrup, must hang perpendicularly[8] along the side of the horse, the inner surface or side of the knee lightly pressing against the saddle-flap; her foot must be well placed in the stirrup; her seat directly in the centre of the saddle; her body erect and square to the front; her shoulders well back; and the small of her back curved in. The right leg must firmly grasp the second pommel as the horse rises, and the right heel be held somewhat back, and close to the fore-flap of the saddle. The hands must be held low, and about six inches apart, with a snaffle-rein in each, and the curb-reins must be so placed that the rider will not unconsciously draw upon them, but must not hang so loosely as to become caught accidentally upon any projecting article with which they may come in contact. If all these points be carefully attended to, just previous to walking the horse up to the bar, the rider will be in correct position and ready for the leap, which she will accomplish very quickly, with perfect security, and with a much firmer seat than that obtained by the most finished horseman. Footnote 8: If the leap be a very high one, the left foot may be thrust a little more forward to enable the rider to lean back as far as is necessary. The principal movement for which the rider should be prepared in leaping is that of being thrown forward on the saddle, both when the horse makes the spring and when his fore-feet touch the ground. In order to avoid this accident, the rider, keeping a firm seat and grasp upon the pommels, must incline her shoulders somewhat backward, both when the horse springs from the ground and also during the descent, the amount of inclination varying with the height of the leap. The erect position should be resumed when the hind-legs have again touched the ground. In a very high leap, the rider's body should be bent so far back during the descent as to look almost as if in contact with the back of the horse. When the points named above have been attended to, the horse must be collected, with his hind-legs well under him, and then be briskly walked up to the bar or obstacle to be leaped and placed directly before it, but not so close that he cannot clear it without striking his knees against it as he rises,--sufficient room must always be allowed him for his spring. Now, after receiving a light touch or pull upon the reins to tell him that his rider is ready, he will raise himself upon his hind-legs for the leap. As he rises, the rider's body, if properly seated, as heretofore explained, will naturally assume a sufficient inclination forward without any effort on her part. While in this position she must not carry her shoulders forward, but must keep them well back, with the waist well curved in as when sitting erect. It should never be forgotten that in the rise during the leap, just previous to the spring, no efforts whatever must be made by the rider to support the horse, or to lift him, but instead, she should simply hold the reins so lightly that his mouth can just be felt, which is called "giving a free rein." If the reins be allowed to hang too loosely they may catch upon some object not noticed by the rider, and not only be wrenched from her hands, but also give the horse's mouth a severe jerk, or perhaps throw him upon the ground. Too loose a rein would, moreover, be apt to make it impossible for her to give timely support to the animal as his fore-feet touched the ground. The leap, it must be borne in mind, is effected very quickly. (Fig. 33.) As the horse springs from his hind-legs to make the leap, the rider must advance her arms, with her hands held as low as possible so as to give him a sufficiently free rein to enable him to extend himself; this position of the arms will also prevent the reins from being forcibly wrested from her hands by the horse's movements. At the moment of the spring and the advance of the arms, the rider's body must be inclined backward, the erect position of the waist and shoulders being, however, maintained. As the animal's fore-feet touch the ground, the hands must be gently drawn in toward the waist in order to support him, as such support will be expected by the horse, and must be continued even after his hind-legs rest upon the ground, so that the animal will not become disunited, but will move onward in a collected manner. (Fig. 34.) [Illustration: Fig. 34.--The Standing Leap--Descending.] Many riding-teachers instruct their pupils to incline the body well forward as the horse rises, while others require their pupils to lean well back. The advocates of the former method say that this forward inclination conforms to the position of the horse at the time, and so places the weight of the body as to assist the horse in his spring. They who adopt the other method maintain that if the body be inclined forward in the rise, it will be almost, if not quite, impossible for the rider, from the rapidity with which the horse extends himself, to make the backward inclination in time to enable her to regain her balance quickly. A happy medium will prove the best. If the rider be seated correctly at the time the horse rises, her body _will naturally incline a little forward_, and there will be but little weight upon the horse's hind-quarters, while, as he springs and extends himself in his leap, she can promptly adapt herself to his movements and incline her body backward. By leaning back as the horse rises on his hind-legs, the weight of his rider will be thrown upon his hind-quarters, and she will present an awkward appearance; while at the same time she will be very apt to shorten the reins, and thus confine the horse so much that his leap will become clumsy and dangerous. On commencing the leap the rider, as heretofore stated, must never attempt to raise the horse by the reins; a light, gentle touch or pull given to them with the fingers, as when starting upon a hand gallop, is all that will be necessary. The horse must be left free to take the leap in his own way, using his own instinct or judgment in order that he may clear his fore feet from the bar or object over which he has to pass. During the rise, the rider must carefully guard against raising her hands, and also against jerking or holding back the reins, as either of these movements will discourage the horse, and, should he be tender mouthed, he will refuse to leap at all, his own instinct warning him that it is dangerous to attempt it under such conditions. A rather hard mouthed, courageous animal, that has had experience with awkward riders, will, as he extends himself in the leap, force his rider's hands by a sudden jerk of his head, so as either to pull the reins out of her hands, or, should she manage to retain her hold upon them, to pull her forward upon the saddle. Many ladies, in their fear of becoming displaced during the leap, will unconsciously press their left leg and foot strongly against the side of the horse, thus causing him to swerve or to refuse to leap. Gentlemen teachers are apt to be unaware of this pressure, as the leg is hidden underneath the riding skirt, and not unfrequently they have been puzzled to comprehend why a well-trained, docile horse should leap very well with some of their lady pupils, and awkwardly, or not at all, with others. A common error, in attempting to leap, is to sit too far back upon the saddle, a position that not only prevents the rider from supporting herself properly by the pommels, but is also likely to occasion her a severe jar as the horse's feet touch the ground. When in the correct position, the body is placed as far forward upon the saddle as the pommels will permit, the waist and shoulders only being inclined backward, as already described. Pressing heavily upon the stirrup is another fault. This not only destroys the usefulness of the third pommel, but, as has already been remarked, such pressure will tend to lift the body from the saddle. The foot should merely be kept light and steady in the stirrup. It will be better for a beginner to leap with a snaffle-rein in each hand. After having thoroughly learned how to make the leap properly, she may then prefer to hold all the reins in the left hand. In this case, she must be very careful not to throw up the unoccupied right hand and arm as the horse passes over the obstacle; for, besides being a very ungraceful movement, it may lead the horse to suppose that he is about to be struck with the whip, and so cause him to make the leap precipitately, and upon reaching the ground to gallop wildly off. The rider must hold her head firm, not only for the sake of appearances, but also to escape biting her tongue and receiving a violent jerk of the neck, when the horse's feet touch the ground. If a horse, just before leaping, be too much confined or collected by an unnecessary degree of tension upon the reins, especially if he be not thoroughly trained, he will rise from all four legs almost simultaneously, and also alight upon them all together. In horse-jockey's _parlance_ this is termed a "buck-leap." It is an awkward manner of leaping, and gives a severe shock to the animal beside fearfully jolting his rider. Again, a horse not well trained in the leap, or somewhat indolent, may, if not animated and properly collected just before rising, fail to leap over the obstacle, or in passing over it may strike it with his hind-feet, for he will attempt the leap in a loose, straggling manner. An animal that is well trained, and accustomed to leaping, will take care of himself, and will require very little assistance from his rider; a light hand upon the reins just before he rises, a free rein as he extends himself, and support when he touches the ground being all that is necessary. Should the lady be expert in riding, and desire to teach her steed to leap, she can readily do so by pursuing the following course: Let a bar about twelve feet in length, and two feet from the ground, be so arranged that the horse cannot pass around it. If possible, he should be allowed to see a well-trained horse leap over this bar a number of times; then taking advantage of a time when her horse is hungry, his mistress should give him a few oats and, passing over the bar, she should rattle the oats and call to him, when he will bound over to obtain them. This course should be followed at each meal, and she should reward him by feeding, caressing, and praising him every time he leaps the bar,--the object being to accustom him to leap it without being whipped or treated harshly. By thus being allowed to take the leap of his own accord and without assistance, he will gain confidence, and will not be apt to refuse when his rider is placed upon his back. In the course of this training, the appearance of the bar should be changed in various ways, as, for example, by placing different bright colored articles upon it, such as pieces of carpet, rugs, shawls, etc. If he be accustomed to leap only over an object that invariably presents the same appearance, he may refuse to leap one of a different aspect. Having thus trained the horse until he has become quite familiar with the movements of the leap, and does not refuse to pass over the bar, whatever appearance it may present, he will then be ready for his rider. For the first few trials the lady should take care to have the bar consist of some material that can readily be broken, in order to prevent any accident should the horse, in passing over with her weight upon his back, strike it with either his fore or hind feet. Once mounted, she should teach him to clear the bar in a deliberate manner, not allowing him to rush at it and jump from all four feet at once. She will have to collect him, cause him to place his hind-legs under him so that, as he rises, his weight will be thrown upon his haunches, and, as he leaps over, she must be exceedingly careful not to restrain him in the least, as any thoughtless act or awkwardness on her part may give him a great distaste for an exercise which, otherwise, he would have no reluctance in performing. With regard to teaching a young horse to leap, the author is much gratified to know that her views are sustained by several eminent equestrians, and among them Mr. E. Mayhew of England, who states that a horse should never be allowed to leap until he has attained at least his fifth year, and who in his excellent work, entitled "The Illustrated Horse Management," etc., remarks: "To place a rider upon an animal's back and then to expect a bar to be cleared is very like loading a young lady with a sack of flour, as preparatory to a dancing lesson being received. This folly is, however, universally practiced; so is that of teaching the paces, when the quadruped's attention is probably engrossed by the burden which the spine has to sustain. "Leaping is best taught by turning the horse into a small paddock having a low hedge or hurdle-fence across its centre. A rider should, in sight of the animal, take an old horse over several times. The groom who brings the corn at the meal hour then goes to that side where the animal is not and calls, shaking up the provender all the time his voice sounds. The boundary will soon be cleared. When half the quantity is eaten, the man should proceed to the opposite compartment and call again. If this is done every time the young horse is fed, the fence may be gradually heightened; after six months of such tuition, a light rider may be safely placed upon the back. "Instruction, thus imparted, neither strains the structures nor tries the temper. The habit is acquired without those risks which necessarily attend a novel performance, while a burden oppresses the strength, and whip or spur distracts the attention. The body is not disabled by the imposition of a heavy load before its powers are taxed to the uttermost. The quadruped has all its capabilities unfettered, and, in such a state, leaping speedily becomes as easy of performance as any other motion." Horses leap in different ways; the best leapers being those which just glide over the object without touching it,--they appear to measure the height required for the leap, and, whether the object be high or low, they skim close to it. Such animals can be trusted, and may be allowed to leap without urging or hurrying them, for they require very little assistance from their riders, and do better when left to themselves. Other horses exaggerate the leap and rise higher than is required; they make a very fine appearance when leaping, but are apt to light too close to the opposite side of the bar or obstacle, because they expend all their energies on height instead of width. The worst leapers are those which, instead of clearing the bar at a single bound, make two bounds, as it were, in passing over it: the fore-part of the horse having passed over, the body will seem to be resting for an appreciable time upon the fore-legs. The =flying leap= can be taken, without stopping, from any gait that is more rapid than a walk, though commonly taken from the gallop. It is a very easy leap, being little more than an extended gallop. The rider takes the same firm, central position upon the saddle as has been described for the standing leap. In the flying leap the body must be inclined well back from the start, care being taken not to make any forward inclination whatever. When the horse has fairly landed, after the leap, the body must again become erect. The degree of the backward inclination must be in accordance with the height and width of the leap. During the whole period of the leap the hands must be kept low and the reins be freely given to the animal, which must be supported as he lands on the opposite side. As the horse runs toward the object to be leaped over, the rider must, when about twelve or fifteen yards from it, gradually relax the reins, by advancing her bridle hand or hands; and, if her horse be a willing and good leaper, he may be allowed to select his own pace, and use his own judgment as to the proper distance from which to make the spring. If the horse be unused to leaping, or be unwilling, the rider must be upon her guard lest he attempt to defend himself and avoid the leap, either by suddenly swerving to one side or by stopping before the object to be leaped and then backing, or rearing. These actions are generally the result of the horse's want of confidence in his own powers, and severity will only make matters worse. In a dilemma of this kind, the rider will have to convert the flying into the standing leap, as follows:-- She must turn her horse and walk him a short distance away from the object, then, turning him again toward it, she must encourage him to advance slowly that he may take a good look at it; at the same time she must have a light and ready hand on the reins, just firm enough to keep his head steady and maintain control over his neck, so as to prevent him from swerving to the right or to the left. She should then kindly and firmly encourage him to make the bound; and by patience and perseverance in this course he will generally be induced to do so. After he has obeyed, she must not make him repeat the movement several times in succession, as if she were triumphing over him, because he might regard such a process as a sort of challenge, and renew the contest; instead of such measures, he should be allowed to pass on quietly, no further attention being given to the matter. By this change from the flying to the standing leap the horse can be better prevented from shying, and on the next occasion will be apt to make the flying leap over the object without swerving. The whip or spur should never be employed to make an obstinate or timid horse leap, as he will ever after associate such objects as those over which he has been thus urged or forced to leap with fear of punishment, and his rider will never be sure of him when approaching one of them, for he will either shy, or else bound over it in such a flurried manner as will prove dangerous both to himself and his rider. An indolent horse, that requires to be roused by whip or spur, is not a suitable one for a lady to ride at a leap. Some horses will refuse to leap when traveling alone, but will do so spiritedly and excellently when in company with others of their kind. CHAPTER XII. DEFENSES OF THE HORSE.--CRITICAL SITUATIONS. "High pampered steeds, ere tamed, the lash disdain, And proudly foam, impatient of the rein." VIRGIL, _Sotheby's Translation_. "The startling steed was seized with sudden fright." DRYDEN. A lady's horse is generally selected for his gentleness, soundness, good training, and freedom from vice, and the rider's management of him is usually so kind and considerate that he is seldom roused to rebellion; hence, she is rarely called upon to enter into a contention with him. The docility of a lady's steed is almost proverbial, and when purchasing a horse the highest recommendation as to his gentleness and safeness is the assurance that he has "been used to carry a woman." Horse-dealers are well acquainted with this fact, and attach a high value to it, as a sure criterion of the animal's kindly nature. No lady rider, however expert she may be, will, if she be wise and have a regard for her own safety, ride or endeavor to conquer a really vicious horse; yet there may be times when even the hitherto most docile animal will suddenly display that which in Yorkshire dialect is called "mistech;" that is, there may be unexpectedly developed a restive trait, for which there seems to be no reason. Even a really good-natured horse may, owing to high feed and little work, shy, plunge, and kick, in his exuberance of spirits, and should his rider not know how to control these sudden and unexpected manifestations, he may gain the ascendency, and she be thrown from the saddle. That which, on the part of the horse, is intended for good-humored play, may thus, from want of control, degenerate into positive viciousness. A skillful rider will manage and endure the prancings, pawings, and impatience of her steed,--which are frequently only his method of expressing satisfaction and happiness in carrying his kind mistress,--and will continue riding and controlling him until he becomes calm and quiet, and ceases to display his impulsive sensitiveness. Again, a lady may have occasion to ride a strange horse, of whose disposition she knows very little. It is, therefore, very important that every horsewoman should be prepared to meet and to overcome any eccentric demonstrations on the part of the animal she may be riding. Some horses are constitutionally nervous and timid, always fearful and upon the lookout, constantly scrutinizing every object around them, and keeping their riders incessantly on the watch. These horses, though disagreeable to ride, are seldom dangerous, as they will readily obey the reins and yield to the hand that has many times proved its reliability and correctness. SHYING.--The position in which a horse places his ears is a sure indication of his immediate intentions. When he raises his head and points his ears strongly forward, it is because he sees some object at the side of the road, or approaching, which renders him uneasy or even fearful. In such a case, his rider must be prepared for a sudden leap to one side, a whirl around, or a quick darting from the road. She must not allow herself to become nervous and jerk or suddenly tighten the reins, for then the animal will think that she is likewise afraid, and that he is justified in his own fright. On the contrary, she must maintain her presence of mind, quietly and calmly take a snaffle-rein in each hand, draw them just tight enough to feel the horse's mouth, keep his head high and straight forward, and, as he approaches the object that has alarmed him, gently turn his head away from it, so that in passing he can see as little of it as possible; at the same time she should press her leg or whip against the horse on the side toward which he is likely to shy,--also speaking to him in a firm and assuring tone of voice, that he may be led to understand there is nothing to fear. In following these directions the rider must be mindful of her balance, because, notwithstanding all her efforts, the horse may leap out of the road; she should sit erect, keep a firm hold on both pommels with the legs, check him as soon as possible, and then bring him again upon the road. Should he swerve and attempt to rush past the object, his rider must not try to pull his head toward it, but, holding the reins with steady hands, must keep him headed straight forward, and, after he has passed, gradually rein him in. Should he make a half turn from the object, he must be turned completely around, so as to face it, and then be urged forward by the aid of the left leg and whip, while he is at the same time spoken to in a quiet, encouraging tone. If the horse have confidence in his rider, and his fright be not a pretense, he will thus be induced to go by, and on future occasions will pass by the same object with indifference. Severity, such as scolding and whipping, will only render him more fearful, and since he will always regard the object of his fright as being the cause of his punishment, he will, consequently, the next time of meeting with it become still more unmanageable. But, having passed it at first without experiencing any pain, he will gain confidence in the judgment of his rider, imagine he has made a mistake in being alarmed, and be satisfied that, after all, there was no occasion for dread. A horse should never be caressed, patted, or coaxed, either just before or just after he has passed any object he dislikes, because he may misinterpret these acts, and imagine that he has done just right in shying, and will, therefore, be very apt to repeat the act in order again to receive the praise of his rider. It will always be better, in such cases, to ride on as usual, and act as if the matter were of no consequence. On the other hand, a horse should never be whipped after he has passed an object that terrifies him. Some riders are afraid to whip the horse while he is in the act of shying, but will lay on the lash after he has passed the cause of his dread; this will not only be "a tardy vengeance that crowns a cowardly act," but will cause the animal to conclude that he has done wrong in passing by, and on the next occasion for alarm he will either delay as long as possible in dread of the remembered whipping, or else will plunge quickly by the object, and, perhaps, add to the vice of shying that of running away. The course pursued by some persons of making a horse pass and repass a number of times in succession an object which has caused him to shy is an erroneous one, as it gives him a chance for again resisting, and makes the rider appear vainglorious and pretentious. Whether a horse shies from real fright, or from mere pretense or affectation, the severe use of whip or spur to force him by the object he is shying at will always do more harm than good. Mildness and forbearance, combined with firmness, will invariably do much more to tranquillize him and to render him obedient than severity and harsh measures. Horsemen who, from actual experience, are well able to advise say, "Let the horse alone, neither letting him perceive that we are aware we are advancing toward anything that he dislikes, nor doing more with him when in the act of shying than is necessary for due restraint and a steady hand upon the reins." When a horse shies from pretense of fright, it is either from exuberance of spirits, because he has not been sufficiently exercised, or else because he has detected timidity in his rider, and shies from pure love of mischief and the desire to amuse himself by augmenting her fears. Although not intending any real harm, he may manage, to his own astonishment, to unseat her, and, by thus discovering what he can do, may become a vicious rogue, and make every strange object an excuse for a dangerous shy. The only remedy for this affectation and mischievousness will be a courageous and determined rider on his back, who will give him more work than he likes; he will then, of his own accord, soon tire of his tricks. When a horse that has had plenty of work and a good rider to manage him nevertheless continues to shy, it will generally be found that his vision is defective. If he is a young horse, with very prominent eyes, the probability is that he is near-sighted; if an old horse, that his vision--having undergone a change similar to that of a human being who is advanced in years--is imperfect for near objects, which appear confused and blurred; in other words, that he is troubled with long-sightedness, or presbyopia. In these cases the horse becomes fearful and suspicious, and his quick imagination transforms that which he cannot distinctly see into something terrifying. Ocular science has not advanced so far as to have determined a remedy for these visual difficulties except by the use of glasses; and to place spectacles upon a horse to improve his sight would be inconvenient as well as decidedly unique. Animals thus afflicted are unsuited for either saddle or harness, as they are more dangerous than if they are totally blind, and the only safe course to pursue when one is compelled to use them will be the very undesirable one of completely blindfolding them. Many a horse has been severely punished and condemned for viciousness, when his fault arose from defective vision. Sometimes a horse becomes discontented and uneasy from being always ridden over the same road; this dull routine is irksome to him, especially if he be spirited, and he ventures upon some act of disobedience in order to create variety and excitement. He may commence by sideling toward other horses or objects on his left, or by suddenly turning around to the right. In the first case, the rider must instantly take a snaffle-rein in each hand, and instead of attempting to turn him from the object, she must rein his head directly toward it, and then back him from it. By these means, his body will form a concavity on the side toward the object, thus preventing injury to the rider or horse, and she will be able to retreat in safety. In the second instance, the horse instinctively knows that he is opposing his strongest side to the weakest one of his rider, and it is useless to contend with him by pulling upon the left snaffle-rein, as he will be watching for this very movement and be prepared to resist it. He should be foiled by having the right rein tightened so as to turn him completely around and place him in the same position he was in before he began to turn. He will perceive to his astonishment that he has gained nothing by his abrupt movement; and as soon as he has reached the position stated, he should be urged forward by the aid of both leg and whip. This method is usually successful unless the steed be very obstinate; he may then refuse to advance at all, and may make another turn to the right, in which case his rider should repeat the course just named, and oblige him to turn completely around three or four times in succession, and then while his head is in the right direction, a stroke of the whip behind the girths should instantly be given in order to compel him to go forward before he has time to defend himself and make another turn. Should he again refuse, and succeed in making still another turn, the tactics of his rider must be changed; taking care not to use her whip, she must turn him around as before, and then rein him backward in the direction she desires him to go; she must keep doing this until he concludes to move onward. Should this course have to be continued for some time, it will be advisable occasionally to head him in the desired direction, in order to ascertain whether he will go forward; if he will not, he must again be turned and backed. A horse can readily be induced to move backward, when he has determined not to go forward. During this contest with the horse, the rider must be careful to retain her balance, to keep her left knee directly under the third pommel, and to incline her body quickly to the right as her animal turns. She should likewise be watchful of surrounding objects, in order to protect herself and her horse from any dangerous position in which he may be disposed to place himself. In case she is not a very expert horsewoman, or has little confidence in her ability to manage the horse, it will be better to have him led a short distance, and then, if possible, she should change the road to one he has not been accustomed to travel; this will divert him, and cause him to forget his contumacy. BALKING.--When a horse stops on the road and refuses to move in any direction, it may be owing to disease (immobility), or to obstinacy. In either case, it will be better for the rider to make no effort to induce him to move, but she should quietly and patiently remain in the saddle until he evinces a disposition to advance, when he should be made to stand a little longer. If his defense be due to obstinacy, this course will be a punishment; but should it be due to disease, the detention will be no disadvantage nor punishment to him, but rather an advantage, as it will enable him to gain composure. It is rarely, however, that a horse proves balky, unless as the result of some disease of the brain or of the heart, rheumatic pain, etc. BACKING.--Should a horse commence backing, when on the road, he must have his head quickly turned toward the direction in which he is backing. Thus, if he be backing toward a dangerous declivity, he will be able to see that what he is doing threatens danger to himself, and will be checked. Then he must be backed some little distance away from the danger, and in the direction toward which he is desired to go. If, however, the horse continues to back toward the dangerous place, notwithstanding the rider's efforts to turn him, the safest course will be to dismount instantly. Backing is sometimes, if not very frequently, due to confused vision, rush of blood to the head, pain in the head, etc. GAYETY.--When a horse moves one ear back and forth, or keeps agitating first one and then the other, at the same time moving his head and neck up and down, and, perhaps, also champing upon his bit, he is feeling gay, and his rider must be on her guard, as he may unexpectedly jump. While keeping a steady hand upon the reins, she must urge him to move forward at a regular and somewhat rapid gait, for this will be what he wants in order to work off his superfluous spirits. KICKING.--A horse, when defending himself against anything whatever, will always lay his ears flat upon the back of his head; this is his attitude and signal for a battle, and he is then ready to kick, bite, plunge, or rear. When the ears are only momentarily placed back, it may be from playfulness, but when maintained in this position, he is angry and vicious, and may make a desperate effort to throw his rider. In the company of other horses he will attempt to bite or kick at them. As soon as he is observed to gaze fixedly upon any animals in his vicinity, while at the same time he puts his ears back, and turns his croup toward his companions, he is then about to kick, and his rider must frustrate his intention, as soon as she feels his croup move, by quickly raising his head and turning it in the direction in which the kick was to be made. Should he attempt to bite, he must be driven to a proper distance from the object of his anger, and his attention be diverted by keeping him moving on. A horse will kick when feeling gay, when he is annoyed, when he suffers pain from any cause, when feeling playful or malevolent toward other animals, and, sometimes, when he wishes to dislodge his rider. Whenever her horse manifests an inclination to kick, the rider must endeavor to keep his head up, because he will then be unable to accomplish much in the way of raising his hind-legs; but once allowed to get his head down, he will have everything his own way, and will be able to kick as high as he pleases. Every time the horse attempts to lower his head, he must be punished by a pull upon the curb-bit strong enough to make him keep his head up. His mouth must also be sawed upon with the curb, should he succeed in getting his head down. The rider must remember to lean well back, and have her left knee well braced against the third pommel, as in this position it will be almost impossible for him to unseat her by his kicking. If the kick be made during a stand-still, a sharp, vigorous stroke of the whip upon the animal's shoulder will be apt to check him; but if the kick be made while he is on the gallop, a stroke of the whip will be apt to make him run away. Should kicking be an old vice of the horse, he must be ridden with a severe curb-bit, that he may be prevented from getting his head down. PLUNGING, BUCKING.--Plunging is a succession of bounds, in which the four legs of the horse are almost simultaneously raised from the ground, the animal advancing with each bound. It is frequently an effort made by the horse to rid himself of something that pains him, as the sting of an insect, the pinching of the saddle or the girth, etc. All that can be done in any case of plunging will be to endeavor to keep up the animal's head, brace one's self firmly in the saddle, and sit the plunges out; they will rarely amount to more than three or four. When a horse that is not vicious commences to plunge, it may be due to fear or pain; he should, therefore, be spoken to kindly, and be soothed. As soon as he is brought under control, the rider should endeavor to ascertain the cause of his movements, and, if possible, remove it. _Bucking_ is a desperate effort to throw the rider; the horse will gather his legs under him in as close a group as possible, curve his back upward like an angry Tabby when she espies Towser, lower his head, endeavor to burst the saddle-girths by forcibly expanding his abdomen, and then without making any advance or retreat bound up and down upon all four legs, which are held as rigid as iron rods. Sometimes he will produce a see-saw movement by repeatedly and rapidly throwing himself from his hind to his fore legs. These motions will be kept up as long as he can hold his breath, which generally becomes exhausted after five or six bounds; he will then renew his breath and may repeat the bounds. When a horse "bucks," the rider must keep her seat the best way she can. Her body should be held as straight as possible, although the natural tendency will be to lean forward and to round the shoulders; she should also take a firm knee-grasp upon both the second and third pommels, keep a steady hold upon the reins, and be especially on her guard against allowing her body to be pulled forward as the horse jerks his head down. Fortunately, very few thorough-bred horses buck violently, their movement being more of a plunge. The horses of the Russian steppes, and the bronchos and ponies of our far Western country, are apt to have the vicious, genuine buck in perfection. REARING.--With the young horse, rearing is the last frantic effort to unseat his rider; an old rogue will sometimes resort to it, having found his rider timid and much alarmed at the movement. A lady should never ride a horse that has once reared dangerously, unless the action was occasioned by the injudicious use of too severe a curb-bit. A horse that has once reared without provocation will be very apt to do so again. The danger of this vice is, that the horse may fall backward and upon his rider. This accident will be especially liable to occur when, in rearing suddenly and very high, he bends his fore-legs under his body. While he is in this position, should the rider feel him sinking down upon his hind-quarters, she must instantly leap from the saddle, at the same time giving, if possible, a vigorous push to the horse with both hands, as near his shoulder as she can readily reach without endangering herself. This is done that he may be made to fall to the right, and the impetus of the push will also convey her to a safe distance, should he fall to the left. When a horse, after rearing, paws in the air with his fore-feet, he is then employing them for the same purpose that a tight-rope dancer uses his balancing pole, namely, to keep his equilibrium. In this case, there will not be much danger of his falling backward, unless his rider should pull him over by holding too tight a rein, or by using the reins to aid her in keeping her balance. The first act of the horse, when he intends to rear, will be to free himself from the influence of the bit, and he will attempt to accomplish this by bending his neck in so as to slacken the tension on the reins; at the same time he will come to a stand by a peculiar cringing movement, which will make his rider feel as if the animal had collapsed, or were falling to pieces. This "nowhere" feeling will hardly be realized before the horse will stiffen his hind-legs and neck, and rise with his fore-feet in the air, bidding defiance to all control. Under these circumstances, as the horse rears his rider must quickly yield the reins and incline her body well forward, firmly supporting herself by the second and third pommels; as she values her life, she must not strike her steed nor pull upon the reins, but must patiently wait until his fore-feet come to the ground, when the time for action will have arrived. Although she may be taken by surprise when the horse first rears, she can anticipate his second attempt, which will generally be not far off, by taking a snaffle-rein in each hand, holding her hands low, and the instant she perceives that he is going to rise, loosening the left rein and tightening the right, so as to bend his head to the right. He cannot now complete the rear, because her action will compel him to move a hind-leg, and he will then be unable to rest his weight upon both hind-legs, which he must do in order to rear. As a punishment, he should then be turned around a few times, from right to left; this turning will also be very apt to prevent him from again rearing. Sometimes a severe stroke with the whip upon the horse's hind-quarters as his fore-feet are descending to the ground will prevent the second rear; as he plunges forward from the whip, the rider must be careful to prevent her body from being thrown forward by the plunge. RUNNING AWAY.--The most dangerous runaway horse is the one that starts off from excessive fear, as terror will make a horse act as if he were blind, and he may then rush over a precipice, or violently collide with some object in his way. Terrified horses have been known almost to dash out their brains by violent collision with a stone wall, and even to impale themselves upon an iron fence. The least dangerous runaway steed is the practiced one, which runs because he has vicious propensities; for as he knows what he is about, he generally takes good care of himself, and thus, in a measure, protects his rider, of whose mishaps, however, he is entirely regardless. Some horses, when urged to do something that is beyond their ability, or when goaded by pain from any cause, will run, imagining that by so doing they can escape the evil. With these, the "bolt" or runaway is more the last furious effort of despair than real viciousness. A heavy-handed rider may cause a horse to run away, the horse, taking advantage of the constant pull upon the reins, is liable to make the hand of his rider a point of support, and then dash wildly onward. When, from restlessness, a horse endeavors to break away, the curb-reins should be taken, one in each hand, and every time he attempts to run, a sharp pull should be made upon his mouth by means of these reins; he will thus be checked and prevented from starting upon a run. Should he once get fairly started, it will be very difficult to stop him promptly. In such a case, care should be taken not to make a "dead pull" upon the reins, but instead, a succession of pulls at short intervals, and these efforts should be continued until he comes to a stand; should the horse manifest any disposition to stop, the rider should, as he slackens his speed, make a continued pull on the reins as if reining him in from the walk, and this will gradually check him. When a horse runs away from fear or pain, nothing will stop him except the voice of the rider in whom he has confidence, and for whom he entertains affection. In his terror, he will rely entirely upon her for aid and support, and if she fail him, the most severe bit will not stop him. An old offender may sometimes be controlled by a severe bit, or may be cured of his propensity for running by being placed in the hands of a good horseman who will allow him to run away, and when the animal wishes to stop, will then, by means of whip and spur, make him run still farther, and allow him to stop only when the rider pleases. The management of a horse when he attempts to "bolt" has been described in the chapter on the Hand Gallop. A horse that has once fairly run away and met with some catastrophe, or that has thrown his rider, will never be a safe one to ride subsequently. UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED.--It is very annoying, as well as dangerous, to have a horse moving about unsteadily while the rider is attempting to mount; this restlessness is sometimes occasioned by his impatience and eagerness to start, and may then be remedied by having him held by the bit, with his right side placed against a wall, fence, or other firm barrier, where he can be kept until the lady has mounted. The horse must not be allowed to start immediately after the rider has become seated, but must be restrained until he is perfectly quiet, and must be chidden every time he commences to prance. A few lessons of this kind will teach him to stand still while being mounted. When the horse from viciousness, or from dislike to carrying a rider, attempts to evade being mounted, he had better be disposed of; for should the lady succeed in mounting she will receive but little benefit from the ride, as the bad temper and unwillingness of her steed will not only make it unpleasant, but even dangerous for her. Sometimes the restiveness of the horse may be the fault of the person holding him, who, perhaps, either takes too heavy a hold of the snaffle-rein, thus pressing the sides of the snaffle-bit against the animal's mouth, and pinching him, or pulls upon the curb-reins, which should not be touched. Either of these mistakes will cause the horse to move backward. Not unfrequently a horse will violently plunge and kick from the pain of some injury in his side or back, which, though not painful when the rider is seated, becomes so when she bears upon the stirrup. Such a horse is unsound and not suitable for a side-saddle. STUMBLING.--When a horse, not naturally indolent, and having his ears well placed, allows the latter to project out and to fall loosely on each side of his head, he is then fatigued, and must be kept well supported by the bridle, for he may stumble, or even fall. Whenever a horse is felt to trip or stumble, the rider's body must instantly be inclined backward, her hands be lifted, and her horse be steadied and supported by sufficient tension on the reins. Should the tired horse be walking down a hill, he must always be well balanced by pressure of both leg and whip; this will keep him light upon his fore-legs, and he will not be so apt to fall. A horse should never be whipped for stumbling, as it is not likely that he would do so of his own accord, and it would be cruel to punish the poor animal for what he could not help. It may be the fault of the blacksmith in not shoeing him properly. Should an indolent horse fail to raise his feet sufficiently to escape tripping, the proper course to pursue will be to keep him collected and make him move at rather a rapid gait, because, when he is animated, he will lift his feet more briskly and to better advantage. A straight-shouldered horse, when carrying a woman, will be apt to stumble, to bear upon the reins, and to move heavily on his fore-feet, and will therefore require an expert horsewoman to keep him moving in good form. When the rider hears a metallic clinking sound at each step of her horse, it will be an indication that the shoes of his hind-feet are striking against those of his fore-feet; this is very dangerous, as in the trot, or gallop, he may "overreach" and strike one of his fore-legs with one of his hind-shoes in such a manner as to injure himself severely, or he may catch the toe of a hind-shoe in the heel of a fore-shoe so that they will become locked together, when the fore-shoe will have to give way and come off, or a terrific fall will ensue. Some horses overreach on account of their natural conformation, others only when fatigued; again, some will be free from this defect when fat, but will manifest it when they become lean from overwork, deficiency of food, or other cause. Young horses will occasionally move in this manner before they are taught their paces, but as soon as they are thoroughly trained this dangerous annoyance ceases. When a horse falls to the ground, or merely falls on his knees, if the rider be not thrown off by the violence of the shock it will be better for her to keep to the saddle, as the horse will rise very quickly, and if she attempts to jump off he may step upon her as he is in the act of rising, or her habit may catch upon the pommel and add to the peril of the situation by causing her to be dragged along should the horse move on, or become frightened and run away. She must not attempt to assist the horse by pulling upon the bridle, but must allow him to get upon his feet in his own way. Should she be thrown off as he falls, she must free her skirt from the saddle as promptly as possible and quickly get away from him in order to escape being stepped upon as he rises. The fall of a horse upon his right side is much less dangerous than upon his left, because in the latter case the rider's left leg may be caught beneath him, perhaps injured, and she would then be unable to extricate herself without assistance. WHIP AND SPUR.--A lady's whip is employed as a substitute for the right leg of the horseman in collecting and guiding the horse. For this reason, it must always be firm, strong, and well-made. It is also used both to give light taps to the horse in order to increase his speed, and likewise, when necessary, to chastise him moderately and thus make him more obedient. If it can possibly be avoided, a lady should never whip her horse; but when it is required, one quick, sharp stroke, given at the right time, and with judgment, will subdue him and bring him to his senses. Deliberately to give stroke after stroke, or to flog him, will always do more harm than good, for it will make him wild, vicious, and unmanageable, and the lady will gain nothing by it except the reputation of being a _virago_. When a horse has committed a fault requiring the whip, he knows that the first stroke given is for this fault, and submits; but he does not understand why the succeeding blows are given, and resents them accordingly. An expert rider will rarely whip her horse, and will never become angry at even the most obstinate resistance on his part, but will, instead, manage him intelligently, and subdue him in a subtle way that he cannot comprehend. She will turn his disobedient acts against himself in a manner that is mysterious to him, and which will make them appear to him to be the will of his rider. The horse will find himself foiled at every turn, in a way against which he can present no permanent defense, and there will be nothing left for him but submission. When a horse fails in his attempts to gain the ascendency, and yields to her skill and authority, she should be generous and forgiving, and treat the vanquished one with kindness and consideration, letting him know that there is no resentment harbored against him. He will quickly appreciate this forbearance, and it will have a lasting effect. But while accepting the olive branch, she should not give him his usual pats and caresses for some little while afterward, as these acts might be misinterpreted by him as a weakening on the part of his rider, or lead him to imagine that he has been doing right instead of wrong. A lady's horse should never be trained with the spur. The horse that requires a spur is unsuited for the side-saddle; even the dullest animal will soon learn that he is spurred only on one side, and will shrink from the attack by a shy or a jump to the right, knowing there is no spur on this side. An indifferent rider may place herself in danger by unconsciously spurring her horse, thus goading him to madness, and to such a frenzy of despair that the only alternative left for him will be to unseat his fair rider in order to escape the pain thus unconsciously inflicted upon him. The novice in riding must not be dismayed nor discouraged by all the instructions in regard to defending one's self against restive and vicious horses, as she may ride for years, or even for a life-time, and never be in any serious danger. But a time might possibly come, when she would suddenly and unexpectedly be called upon to exert herself in order to exact obedience from her steed, or to extricate herself from a perilous situation, and then a knowledge of what should be done will be of great use to her. Being armed at all points, and understanding the means required for any emergency, she will not depend for safety altogether upon the caprice or the gentleness of her horse, but chiefly upon her own knowledge and skill; this will give her a confidence and sense of security that will greatly add to the pleasure of her ride. [Illustration] EXPLANATION. 1. The lips. 2. Tip of the nose. Figs. 1 and 2 form the muzzle. 3. Chanfrin, or face; the parts that correspond to the bones of the nose, and that extend from the brow to the nostrils. 4. The brow, or forehead. 5. The eye-pits; cavities more or less deeply situated above the eyes. 6. Forelock; hairs between the ears that fall upon the forehead. 7. The ears. 8. The lower jaw and channel, or space comprised between the two lower jaws. Cheek. Jowl. 9. The jaws: nether jaws. 10. The nostril. 11. The throat. 12. Region of parotid glands, at the posterior and internal part of each of the lower-jaw bones. 13. The crest. 13´. The mane. 14. Windpipe and groove of the jugular veins. 15. The chest, thorax. 16. The withers, or the sharp, projecting part at the inferior extremity of the crest and of the mane. It is formed by the projection of the first dorsal vertebra. 17. The back, or part upon which the saddle is placed. 18. The ribs. 19. The passage for the girths. 20. The loins. 21. The croup; the most elevated part of the posterior extremity of the body. 22. The tail. 24. The flank. 25. The abdomen. 27. The saphena vein. 28. The shoulder and arm. 28´. The point of the shoulder. 29. The elbow. 30. The fore-arm. 32. The knee. 33. The cannon bone, shank. 34. The large pastern joint. 35. The small pastern joint. 36. The coronet. 37. The front foot and hoof. 38. The fetlock and ergot. The fetlock consists of hairs, and the ergot of a horny-like substance constantly found at the back and lower part of the large pastern joints. 39. The haunch. 40. The thigh, gaskin, or femur. 41. The stifle joint. 42. The buttock. 43. The tibia, or leg proper (lower thigh); a small bone lies behind it, the _fibula_. 44. The hock (curb place). 44´. The point of the hock. 46. The cannon bone. 47. The large pastern joint. 48. The fetlock and ergot. 49. The small pastern joint. 50. The coronet. 51. Hind-foot and hoof. ADDENDA. GOOD RULES TO BE REMEMBERED. (1.) When in company with a gentleman, an accomplished horsewoman will prefer to have him ride at the right side of her horse, because, being thoroughly able to control her steed, she will require little or no assistance from the cavalier. On the contrary, if she be an inexperienced rider, it will be better for the gentleman to ride at the left side, because, in this position, his right hand will be free to render any assistance she may require, and he will also be placed between her and any approaching object. (2.) A finished horseman, when riding at the left side of a lady's horse, will not allow his spurs to catch in her dress, nor will he permit his steed to press so closely against this left side as to injure or interfere with the action of her left foot and leg. (3.) In the park, or in any public place, a gentleman should always approach a lady on the off-side of her horse. (4.) When in company with two ladies, a gentleman should ride on the off-side of them, and never between the two, unless they request it. (5.) When obliged to pass or meet a lady who is riding without an escort, always do so at a moderate gait; this is an act of politeness and consideration which may prevent her steed from becoming fractious. (6.) When passing by a horseman who is leading another horse, never ride by him on the side of the led animal, for if you do the latter will be apt to kick or plunge, and become unruly. This precaution is essential for the safety of the horsewoman, as well as for the better management of the led horse by the horseman. In a crowded place it will be better to wait until there is sufficient room to pass without hindrance. (7.) Give assistance to a companion, or other lady rider, when it is indispensable for her safety, but do not give advice unless directly requested. And if, when you are riding a fractious horse, assistance be politely offered, do not decline it. (8.) In city, town, or village, always ride at a moderate gait. (9.) Be extremely careful never to ask for a friend's horse to ride, but always wait until the animal is freely offered, and when accepted, do not follow the advice contained in the horseman's proverb,--"With spurs of one's own and the horse of a friend, one can go where he pleases." (10.) Before setting out for a ride, in company with other lady riders, the equestrienne, after having mounted, should move a short distance away from the others, and then keep her horse perfectly quiet and steady; by this course the neighboring horses will not be apt to become uneasy and restive while her companions are mounting. (11.) Always, when with others, begin the ride at a moderate gait. A number of horses, fresh from the stable, when assembled together, are apt, if started on a gallop, to become too highly excited; and it will always be better to have them start slowly. (12.) Should a lady be a better horsewoman than her companions, and be riding a horse superior to theirs, she should restrain him, and not allow him to be constantly in advance of the others. It will be more courteous for her to follow the lead of her companions, and to consult with them as to the kind and rapidity of gait most agreeable to them. The preceding rules of politeness and propriety will be readily understood and appreciated. A lady under no circumstances will forget her tact and consideration for others. (13.) In riding up hill the body should be inclined forward, and the bridle-hand be advanced, in order to give the horse space to extend his head and neck, as it is natural for him to do under such circumstances. In case the ascent be very steep, the rider may support herself by holding, with her right hand, to her horse's mane, but never to the off-pommel, because her weight may cause the saddle to slip backward. (14.) In riding down hill the body must be inclined more or less backward, in proportion to the steepness of the hill, and as the horse lowers his head upon the commencement of the descent, the rider must advance her bridle-hand just enough barely to feel his mouth. Timid and awkward riders, on descending a hill, are apt to confine the horse's head too much, thus keeping it too high, and preventing him from freely stepping out, as well as from placing his feet firmly upon the ground. By doing this, they are likely to bring about the very catastrophe they are trying to avoid, namely, a stumble and a fall. Never ride at a rapid gait when going down hill. (15.) It is always customary to keep to the left when passing by others on horseback or in vehicles, who are going in the same direction as the rider; and in passing those who are approaching, to keep to the right. But, in the latter instance, should anything be present that might cause the horse to shy, and a declivity, ditch, or other source of danger be on the right, while none exists on the left, it will then be safer for the rider to take the left side. (16.) When crossing a stream, or when allowing one's horse to drink from it, a watchful eye should be kept upon him, especially in warm weather, lest he attempt to take an impromptu bath. If he begins to paw the water, or bend his knees, the rider must raise his head, give him a sharp stroke with the whip, and hurry him on. (17.) After severe exercise, or when the horse is very warm, he should neither be fed nor be allowed to drink until a sufficient time has passed to enable him to become composed, rested, and cool. Many a valuable steed has been lost because his mistress did not know this simple, but highly important rule. Again, a horse should never be ridden at a fast gait just after he has eaten a meal, or taken a good drink; he should be allowed at least an hour in which to have his meal digested. (18.) A horse should never be allowed to drink from a public trough, if it can possibly be avoided; and when he is permitted to do so, the trough should first be emptied and then filled anew. Horses often contract serious diseases from these public drinking-places. (19.) When riding over a rough road, the horse's mouth should only be lightly felt, and he should be allowed to have his own way in selecting the safest places upon which to step. (20.) When it is observed that the horse is moving uneasily, at the same time violently twitching his tail, or giving a kick outward or under him, the rider may be certain that something is hurting him, and should immediately dismount, loosen the saddle-girths, and carefully inspect the girths, the saddle, and parts touched by them to ascertain whether a nail be loosened from the saddle, the skin be pinched or abraded, the hair be pulled upon by the girths, or whether some hard object has become placed beneath the saddle, etc.; she should also carefully examine the head-stall and bit, to see that all is right about the horse's head; after having removed or diminished the irritating cause, she should carefully readjust both saddle and girths. (21.) If, when riding rapidly, it be observed that the horse is breathing with difficulty and with a strange noise, or that his head and ears are drooping, the rider should immediately stop him, as he has been driven too hard, and is on the point of falling. (22.) A lady's horse should never be placed in harness, because in order to pull a load he will be obliged to throw his weight forward, thus spoiling the lightness of his saddle gaits. (23.) When turning a corner the horse should not be drawn around by the reins; these should merely indicate the desired direction for the turn, and should never be drawn upon more than will bring that eye of the animal which is toward the direction of the turn into view of the rider. (24.) Should a horse which is usually spirited move languidly, and, during warm, or moderately cold weather, have his hair stand out and appear rough, particularly about the head and neck, or should he frequently cough, it would be better to relinquish the ride, have him returned to the stable, and a warm bran-mash given to him as quickly as possible. It may be that he has contracted only a cold that can be checked by prompt measures. But should he continue to grow worse, a veterinary surgeon should be speedily summoned. Be very firm and decided in not permitting the groom to administer his favorite patent medicines, because such nostrums are as liable to occasion injury to animals as similar preparations are to human beings. (25.) A few observations with regard to shoeing a horse may not be amiss. It may happen when riding on a country road, that one of the horse's shoes will come off, and the rider be obliged to resort to the nearest rural blacksmith to have it replaced. In such case she will find that some knowledge on her part of the manner in which a shoe should be fitted to a horse's foot will prove very useful. The blacksmith should not be permitted to cut the frog (the soft and elastic substance in the middle of the foot) of the foot, but should leave it entirely alone, and pare around the margin of the hoof just enough to adjust the shoe evenly and firmly. Country blacksmiths, as well as many in cities, are very fond of paring and rasping the horse's hoof, as they think they can make a neater fit of the shoe by such a course. An eminent writer on the subject of shoeing states that, except in case of disease, undue paring and rasping are never indulged in by persons who understand how to fit a shoe to the horse's feet properly; he also observes: "This is paring and rasping the horse's foot till it be small enough to fit the shoe, rather than kindle a fire and forge a new set which shall just suit the feet of the animal. It may to some readers seem like a jest, to write seriously about the horse's shoes being too tight; but it is, indeed, no joke to the quadruped which has to move in such articles. The walk is strange, as though the poor creature were trying to progress, but could obtain no bearing for its tread. The legs are all abroad, and the hoofs no sooner touch the ground than they are snatched up again. The head is carried high, and the countenance denotes suffering. It is months before the horse is restored to its normal condition." (26.) There is not the least necessity for stables being the foul smelling places they so frequently are, for if the hostler and his assistants perform their duties properly all offensive odors will be banished. A foul atmosphere in a stable, besides being repulsive to visitors, is, not unfrequently, the cause of blindness and other diseases of the horse, who will also carry the odor in his hair and communicate it to the clothing of his rider as well as to her saddle. For these reasons, a lady should always positively insist that the stable as well as the horse should be kept perfectly clean and free from obnoxious exhalations. Attention to cleanliness, and a free use of disinfectants will bring about this highly desirable result. (27.) After a ride, the saddle should always be aired, and placed where the sun's rays can fall upon its under surface. After exercise that causes the horse to perspire freely, the saddle should not be removed until he has become cool; this will prevent him from having a sore back, from which he often suffers when this precaution is neglected. (28.) When a lady stops in her ride to visit a friend, she should always attend to her horse herself--be sure that he is properly hitched; that in warm weather he is fastened in a shady place, and that in cold weather he is protected, as far as possible, from the cold, as well as from wind, rain, or snow. It will sometimes happen, especially in the country, that, instead of being hitched, the horse will be allowed to remain free, but within some inclosure, that he may nibble the grass; in this instance, the saddle should always be removed, as otherwise he may roll upon it. A city horse, when ridden into the country, should not be allowed to eat grass, from a mistaken idea that it will be a good treat for him, for, as he is not accustomed to it, it will be very apt to injure him. (29.) After a good seat and attitude in the saddle have been obtained, more freedom is allowable; should the rider have occasion to speak or to look aside, she should never move her shoulders, but only her head, and this momentarily, because it is required that a good lookout in front be kept up, to discover and avoid obstacles. (30.) Delicate persons who desire to derive benefit from horseback riding in the country should select suitable hours in which to pursue this exercise. The intense heat of a summer noon should be avoided, as well as the evening dew, the imperceptible dampness of which will penetrate the clothing and, perhaps, implant the germ of some serious malady. Riding upon a country road in the noon heat of a summer day, where there is little or no shade, will tan and roughen the finest complexion, will overheat the blood, and will occasion fatigue instead of pleasure. An hour or two after sunrise or before sunset will be found the more pleasant and healthful periods of the day for this exercise. Riding in the country, when enjoyed at proper hours, is a sure brightener of the complexion, aerates and purifies the blood, and imparts wonderful tone to the nervous and muscular systems. Yet, in their great fondness for this exercise, ladies frequently carry it to excess, making their rides far too long. (31.) What to do with the whip, when making a call, has puzzled many a lady rider. Shall it be left outside, where it may be lost, or shall it be taken into the parlor, where its belligerent appearance will be entirely out of place? This much mooted question can soon be settled by the gentleman who assists the lady to dismount; he will usually understand what is required, and take charge of it himself. Or, in the absence of a cavalier, the whip may be handed to the groom who attends to the horse, or to the porter who waits upon the door. But should no groom or porter be present, it may be placed in some convenient and secure spot, as would be done with a valuable umbrella. (32.) Before mounting her horse, a lady should always pat his head and speak kindly to him, and, after the ride, should express her satisfaction in the same manner. The horse will fully appreciate these manifestations. Many persons consider a horse a mere living, working machine, yet it has been satisfactorily ascertained, by those who have investigated the matter, that this machine has feeling, affection, and a remarkable memory; that it appreciates favors, has a high sense of gratitude, and never forgets an injury. (33.) The secret of secure and graceful riding is a correctly balanced seat in the saddle, one perfectly independent of reins or stirrup, and without exaggerations of any kind, whether the carelessness or indifference of the instinctive rider, or the affected, pedantic stiffness of the antiquated _haut école_. While maintaining a free, easy, yet elegant attitude, the rider should present to the spectator such an appearance of security and perfect equilibrium that it will seem as if no conflicting movements of the horse could throw her from the saddle. Carelessness and indifference cause the rider to look indolent and slovenly, while an affected, exaggerated stiffness and preciseness give her a ridiculous appearance, and destroy the pleasing effect of an otherwise correct seat. (34.) Go quickly in the walk, quickly and regularly in the trot, and gently in the gallop. And bear well in mind the following supplication of the horse:-- "In going up hill, trot me not; In going down hill, gallop me not; On level ground, spare me not; In the stable, forget me not." All women are capable of enjoying the healthful exercise of horseback riding excepting those who may be suffering from disease. Every lady who has the means, whether young or advanced in years, should learn riding, for its sociability, healthfulness, and pleasure, without regard to her bodily conformation. It is folly to deprive one's self of this high enjoyment and captivating exercise, simply because one is no longer young, has only an ordinary figure, or because some persons appear to better advantage in the saddle, and ride with more ease and grace. According to such reasoning, one might as well cease to exist. If a lady cannot attain perfection, she can strive to come as near to it as possible, and if she secures a correct seat in the saddle, and a suitable horse, she will present a decidedly better appearance than one who, although having the slender, elegant figure so well adapted to the saddle, yet rides in a crooked, awkward attitude, or on a rough moving horse. To become a complete horsewoman it is not necessary to begin the exercise in childhood. The first lessons may be taken in the twelfth year, though many of our best horsewomen did not begin to practice until they were eighteen years old, and some not until after they were married. Riding-teachers state that persons past their first youth who have never ridden learn much more readily, and become better riders than those who, though younger, have been riding without instruction, and in an incorrect manner, and, consequently, have contracted habits very difficult to eradicate. Before closing this part of the work, there is one subject to which the author would earnestly invite attention. When a lady possesses a horse which has been long in her service, and been treated with the kindest and most loving care, and she finds that this faithful servant is becoming old and stiff, or that, from some accident, he has become almost useless to her, she should not part with him by selling him, for the ones to buy him will be those who have no sympathy for a horse and do not know how to treat him properly, but purchase him for hard and severe labor; their poverty compelling them to this course, as they cannot afford to buy any but old and maimed horses of very little value. To a well-treated and trained animal, the change from caresses to harsh treatment, from the pleasant task of carrying the light form of his mistress to the hardest of drudgery, must be acutely felt. The horse which has been kindly and intelligently managed is one of the most sensitive of living creatures, and has been known to refuse all feed and die from starvation, when placed under the charge of a cruel and ignorant master. When the lady finds her favorite steed permanently useless, and cannot afford him an asylum in which to pass the remainder of his days in rest and freedom from labor, she should have some merciful hand end the life that it would be cruel to prolong in the hands of a hard master, simply for the few dollars that might be obtained for him. To thus destroy the animal may appear heartless, but, in reality, is an act of mercy; as it is much better for him to die a quick, painless death, than to be sold to a life of toil, pain, and cruelty, in which, perhaps, he may pass mouths, if not years, of a living death. * * * * * In terminating the present volume, the writer ventures to express the hope that her appeal to American women to seek health, beauty, and enjoyment in the saddle will not be passed by with indifference, and that the lady rider, after a careful perusal and due consideration of the instructions herein laid down for her benefit, may be awakened to a spirit of enthusiasm, and an endeavor "to well do that which is worth doing at all." To gain a knowledge of horsewomanship is by no means a mysterious matter confined to only a favored few, but is, on the contrary, within the reach of all. The requirements necessary to manage the horse are soon learned, but, as is the case with every other accomplishment, it is practice that makes perfect. Practice alone, however, without study or instruction, will never produce a finished rider; and study without practice will rarely accomplish anything. But when study and practice are judiciously combined, they will enable one to reach the goal of success, which every earnest rider will strive to attain. In the endeavor to render the instructions and explanations in this work as clear and comprehensible as possible, many repetitions have unavoidably occurred; but as the book was more especially designed to instruct beginners, as well as those self-taught riders who have not had the advantage of a teacher, it was thought advisable not to leave any point in doubt, but as far as possible to render each subject independent of the others, and strongly to impress many essential points upon the mind of the reader. To a majority of my countrywomen, with their natural tact and grace, it was only deemed necessary to point out their errors in riding; attention once called to them would, it was believed, undoubtedly lead to their prompt correction, and these riders would then cease to be victims of ignorance, constantly upon the verge of danger from incorrect methods of riding, and soon be able to excel in that most desirable and fascinating of all womanly accomplishments, secure and graceful horseback riding. This has been the principal object of the author, who would not only have women ride well and elegantly, but with the confidence and enjoyment that true knowledge always imparts. Having spent so many happy hours in the saddle herself, she wishes others to experience a similar happiness, and if a perusal of these unpretending pages will create a zeal among her countrywomen for this delightful and invigorating exercise, and enable them to enjoy it in its highest sense, it will prove a source of much gratification to her, and she will rest satisfied that her efforts have not been in vain. GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN HORSEMANSHIP. _Aids_: The various methods employed by a rider to command the horse, and urge him to move forward, backward, etc., and in such gaits as may be desired. The superior aids are the hands acting through the medium of the reins; the inferior aids are the leg and whip. See _Effects_. _Appui_, Fr. _Support_: The "give and take" movements, by which the horse is supported in his gait, called "appui of the hand." The sensation of the pressure of the bit upon the bars of the horse's mouth, experienced by the rider's hand. _Appui of the Collar_: The slope or talus presented in front at the union of the crest of the neck with the shoulders. _Attacks_: Methods for urging or inducing the horse to enter upon any gait or motion required. See _Aids_. _Bars_: The upper part of the gums (in a horse) that bears no teeth, and which is located on each side of the lower jaw. This part lies between the grinders (back double teeth) and the tusks; or, in mares and in horses deprived of tusks, between the grinders and the incisors (front cutting teeth). It is against this part, the bars, that the curb-bit rests. See _Cheek of the Bit_. _Bear to the right_: To keep the right leg, from hip to knee, as stationary as possible, by downward pressure upon the right side of the saddle seat, and between the first and second pommels, at the same time keeping a firm knee-grasp upon the second pommel without hanging upon it; by this means, the rider guards against inclining to the left, a movement very apt to be produced by her position in the saddle and the motion of her horse. The body of the rider must be maintained in an erect position all the time she is bearing to the right. See _Incline to the Right_. _Boot_: A term sometimes applied to that part of the saddle-girths or flaps back of the rider's leg, and at which the horse may attempt to kick; also applied to the inferior portion of the rider's leg. _Bridle-hand_: The left hand. When both hands hold the reins they are called the _bridle-hands_. _Bridoon_: The snaffle-bit and rein, when used in connection with the curb-bit, but acting independently of it. The two bits together in the horse's mouth are called "the bit and bridoon," or "the curb and bridoon." _Bringing up to the bridle_, also _Kept well up to the bridle_: To place the horse's head up and in position, so that when proper tension or pressure is made upon his mouth he will readily obey the reins. Some horses require stronger pressure than others, as stated under _Correspondence_. _Cannon bone_, also _Shank_: The long bone situated between the knee and the fetlock joint on the front part of each fore-leg of the horse. _Canon_: That part of a bit, on each side, that rests upon the bars of a horse's mouth when the bit is correctly placed. _Cantle_: The somewhat elevated ridge at the back part of the saddle-seat. _Cheek of the Bit_, also _Bars of the Bit_: The external straight or curved rods (levers) forming the sides of a curb-bit, and which, when the bit is in the horse's mouth, are applied along the outer sides of his mouth, the reins being attached to their lower extremities. That part of these rods situated below the bit in the month is called "the lower bar," or "cheek," and that portion above the bit, "the upper bar," or "cheek." _Chin-groove_: The transverse furrow in which the curb-chain rests, on the under surface of a horse's lower jaw, at the back part of the lower lip. Also called "curb-groove." _Collected canter_: A canter in good form. _Correspondence_: The degree of rein-tension made by the hand of the rider upon her horse's mouth, which, when properly established, creates a correspondence between her hand and the animal's mouth, so that the slightest movement of the one is immediately felt by the other; in all cases this correspondence must first be had before any utility can be obtained from the "give and take" movements. Some horses require a greater degree of tension for this purpose than others, according to their training and the range of sensibility of their mouths. _Croup_: The hind-quarters of the horse, from and including the loins to the commencement of the tail. This term is also applied by some to the upper part of the animal's back, where the haunches and body come in contact. _Curb-bit_, also _Lever-bit_: A bit with a straight or curved lever or rod attached on each side, designed for the purpose of restraining the horse. _Curb-chain_: A chain attached to the upper bar or cheek of the curb-bit, and passed along the chin-groove, from one side of the bit to the other. _Curb-hook_: A hook attached to the curb-chain, and designed to fasten it to the upper bar of the curb-bit; there are two of these hooks, one on each side of the bit. _Decompounded_: Taken to pieces; each act, movement, or part of a whole or group, by or of itself. _Defend_: A horse is said to defend himself when he refuses to obey, or attempts to bite, kick, etc.; he resists, contends. _Defenses_: The resistances made by a horse when required to do anything, or when he is ignorant of the acts or movements demanded of him; he becomes alarmed, injured, or malicious, and employs his defenses. _Double bridle_: The reins of the curb-bit and bridoon, when both bits are placed together in the horse's mouth. _Dumb-jockey_: A couple of stout sticks or poles, crossed in the form of the letter x, and fastened upon the saddle; the reins are attached to the upper ends of these, and a hat may be placed upon one of them. Used in training colts. _Effects_: Movements made by the hands, often aided by the leg or whip, which serve to urge the horse forward, backward, to the right, or left; indications. _Equestrian_: A gentleman rider on horseback. _Equestrienne_: A lady rider on horseback. _Equine_: From _equus_, Lat. A horse; pertaining to a horse. _Equitation_: Horseback riding. _False pannels_: Pannels are stuffed pads or flaps, attached to and beneath certain parts of the saddle, in order to prevent these from injuring the horse; when these stuffed pads can be fastened to, or removed from the saddle at pleasure, they are termed "false pannels." _Fetlock_: The tuft of hair that grows upon the back part of the fetlock joints of many horses' legs, and which hides the ergot or stub of soft horn that lies behind and below the pastern joint. _Fetlock joint_: The joint between the cannon and the upper pastern bone of each foot. _Force the hands_: The hands are said to be forced when the horse throws his head downward, pulling upon the reins so as to cause the rider to support the weight of the animal's head; sometimes this is effected so suddenly as to jerk the reins out of her hands. _Forehand_: All that part of the horse in front of the rider. _Get out of condition_: A horse is said to be in "good condition" when he is well, fresh, and sound; the reverse of this is termed "out of condition." _Girths_: Stout straps or bands passed from one side of the saddle and underneath the horse's abdomen to the other side, where they are buckled tight and fast; they are designed to keep the saddle securely upon the horse's back. _Give and take_: The traction and relaxation of the reins made by the fingers, and which must correspond with the movements of the horse's head; this action keeps up a correspondence with the horse's mouth, and at the same time supports him in his gait. _Hand_: The height of a horse is usually measured by hands, four inches being equal to one hand. A rider is said to "have hands" when she knows how to use her hands correctly in controlling the horse by means of the reins. _Haunches_: When a horse is made to throw his weight chiefly upon his hind-quarters, he is said to be "well placed on his haunches," and will then move more lightly upon his fore-legs. The haunch-bones are three in number, the superior one of which is firmly united to the spinal column (backbone) near its posterior extremity; the lower one on each side forms a joint with the thigh bone, passing downward in a more or less oblique direction. The obliquity of these bones enables the horse to place the muscles of the part in a position to act with greater advantage and power, and the degree of this obliquity serves to distinguish the thorough from the low bred, it being greater in the former. Wide haunches and broad loins are indications of strength and speed. _Hippic_: Of, belonging to, or relating to the horse. _Hock_, also _Tarsus_: The part or joint between the cannon or shank bone and the lower thigh or gaskin of the hind-leg: it consists of six bones; the part at this joint that projects backward and somewhat inward is called the "point of the hock." The hock is an important part of a horse, as any unhealthy or diseased condition of it will prevent him from resting on his haunches, and will thereby interfere with his free action in the canter and gallop. _Immobility_: A disease in which the horse becomes unable to move, probably referable to the nervous system. _Incline to the right_, or _to the left_: This differs from "bearing to the right," which see. It means, to incline the body, from the hips upward, to the right (or to the left), either when turning or riding in a circle. _In confidence_: A horse is confident, or in confidence, when he completely surrenders his own will, and implicitly trusts to his rider without dreaming of resistance. _Inward rein_: In turning or circling, the "inward rein," as well as the "inward leg," is the one on the same side as that toward which the horse turns, or the one toward the centre of the circle of which the turn forms an arc. _Legs well bent_: See "_Well-bent hind-legs_." _Lip-strap_, or _Curb-strap_: Two small straps stitched to the curb-bit, designed to prevent a horse from taking the cheek of this bit into his mouth; an unnecessary appendage when the cheek is curved. _Lunge-line_: A long strap or cord attached to the nose-band of the cavesson or head-stall of a horse in training, by means of which the trainer exercises and instructs him while he is moving around in circles. _Near-side_: The left side. _Near-pommel_: The second pommel, on the left side of the side-saddle; the second pommel of the old-fashioned saddle was called the "near-pommel," and the name still attaches to it. The "third pommel" is variously called the "leaping head" and the "hunting-horn," and is located on the left side of the saddle and below the second pommel. _Off-side_: The right side. _Off-pommel_: The pommel on the right side of the saddle. _Outward rein_: In turning or circling, the "outward rein," as well as the "outward leg," is the one opposite to the direction toward which the horse turns. _Overreaching_, also _Forging_, _Clinking_: Is when a horse in moving forward strikes the heel or back part of a fore-foot with the toe or front part of the shoe of the hind-foot. When the stride of the hind-legs is carried so far forward as to strike the coronet or upper part of the hoof, it is then termed a "tread." _Pirouette_: A movement in which a horse turns around without changing his place, the hind-leg of the side toward which he moves forming the pivot upon which he supports himself. _Port of the bit_: The arched part in the centre of the curb-bit. _Resistances_: See _Defenses_. _Retroacting_: A horse retroacts when, in his volts, he steps aside, bearing his croup to the centre,--also when he backs toward an obstacle and fixedly remains there, against the will of his rider; and also when he suddenly throws himself upon his hocks at the moment his rider checks or stops him. _Ring-bar of the saddle_: A bar attached beneath the saddle-flap on the left side and at its upper part, over which the stirrup-leather rolls. _Saddle-tree_: The skeleton or solid frame of a saddle, upon which the pommels, leather, padding, etc., are properly disposed. _Snaffle-bit_: Is the mildest bit used in driving a horse: there are two kinds, the plain snaffle and the twisted, and the latter form may be made to act very severely. _Surcingle_: A wide band of cloth or leather, of sufficient length to pass around the body of a horse, and employed either to keep a blanket upon him, or to keep down the flaps of the saddle or the shabrack. _Thrown forward upon his shoulders_: A horse is said to be thrown in this manner when, in moving, he throws his weight chiefly upon his shoulders and fore-legs instead of upon his hind-quarters; he is then also said to "go heavy on his fore-legs." _Turn upon the shoulders_: A horse is said to "turn upon his shoulders" when he throws his weight upon his fore-legs during the act of turning; it is a disunited movement. _Tusks_, also _Tushes_: These are the canine teeth, two in each jaw, which grow between the grinders (back double teeth) and the incisors (front cutting teeth), being closer to the latter than to the former. They are frequently missing. Their uses are not well known. _Volt_: The movement of a horse while going sidewise in a circle, his croup being toward the centre. There are several varieties of volt. An _inverted_ or _reversed volt_ is when the head of the horse is kept toward the centre of the circle. _Well-bent hind-legs_: A horse with straight hind-legs does not possess good and easy movements; but if these limbs be well bent, he can be well placed on his haunches, and be easily collected, so that his action will be true and pleasant. See _Haunches_. _Yield the hands_: Is to give the horse more rein by advancing the hands without allowing the reins to slip. To _give a free rein_ is to allow the animal all the length of rein he requires without any traction or opposition. INDEX. Addenda, 301. Adjusting the bit, 89. the saddle, 71, 93. Affection of the horse, 4, 16. Amble, the, 197, 217. Appui, 313. Arab horse, 16, 23. Backing, 152, 193, 281. Balance strap, 81. Balking, 281. Basque, the riding, 53. Bit, 84. adjusting the, 89. Chifney, 84. combination, 85. curb, 85. curb, Dwyer's, 86. curb and bridoon, 85. curb and bridoon, to hold reins of, 160. Pelham, 84. snaffle, 84. snaffle, to hold reins of the, 152. Biting, 283. Bolting, 240, 289. Boots, riding, 59. Box-stalls for horses, 49. Bridle, 82. double, 166. ladies', 82. Bucking, 284. Caligula and his horse, 15. Canter, 221. disunited, 234. false on the turn in, 234. from trot to, 232. stop in, 236. to commence the, 227. true, 223, 234. turn in, 233, 234. united, 234. with left leg leading, 230. with right leg leading, 227. Capriciousness of horses, 4. Cares for the horse, 4, 44, 47. Cavalry trot, 21, 199, 203. Changes of pressure on horse's mouth should be gradual, 174, 195. Changing the reins, 156. quickly, 158, 165. Character of the horse, 4. Circling to the left, in trot, 216. Circling to the right, in trot, 215. Coiffure, riding, 60. Collect the horse, to, 170, 177. Collected horse, 177. Combination bit, 85. Confidence of horse, 5, 16, 317. Corns on horse's feet, 32. Correct position of limbs, 124. Correct seat for a lady, 118. Correspondence, 168, 314. Corsets injurious for riding, 6. Corsets, riding, 60. Country jog-trot, 21, 198. Critical situations, 271. Crossing water on horseback, 304. Curb-bit, 85. Dwyer's, 86. and bridoon, 85, 160. and bridoon, reins of, in one hand, 160. when best to use, 170, 174; note, 178. Curb-chain, 87. Curry-combing the horse, 45. Dangers in the hand gallop, 240. Dangers of turns in flying gallop, 242, 248. Dead pull upon the reins, 169. Defenses of the horse, 271. Differences between high and low bred horses, 23. Dismounting, 99, 108. gentleman's aid in, 109. without assistance, 111. Distinguished equestriennes, 46. Disunited canter, 234. horse, 177. Double bridle, management of, 166. Drawers, riding, 59. Ears, the language of horses', 25, 273. Education of the horse, 35. English trot, 21, 200, 207. Equestriennes, distinguished, 46. Erroneous ideas about riding, 7. Exercise of the horse, remarks upon, 50. Fabric for riding-dress, 57. Falling down of the horse, 286, 294. False on the turn, in canter, 234. Faulty position of limbs, 136. Fay's training, 38. First lessons in riding, 22, 125, 149, 217. Flying gallop, 238. carriage of body in, 246. holding of reins in, 240. management of horse in, 239. stop in the, 248. turns in, dangers of, 242, 248. Flying leap, 249, 267. Flying trot, 198. Foot-hoop in skirt, 56. Foot, the leading, 209. Forcing the hands 169, 316. Formation of low-bred horse, 24. Formation of thoroughbred horse, 24. French trot, 21, 199, 203. Gaits for a lady's horse, 20. Gallop, the, 238. Gallop, flying, dangers of turns in, 242. flying, to stop in, 248. flying, turns in, 242, 248. hand, 238. Gauntlets, riding, 64. Gayety of the horse, 282. Gentleman's aid in dismounting, 109. Gentleman's aid in mounting, 103. Girthing the saddle, 77, 93. Girths, 76, 95. Give and take movements, 169, 171, 316. Glossary, 313. Good riding, tight corsets incompatible with, 6. Grooms, 44, 50, 97, 305. Habit, the riding, 52. Hair, in riding, 61. Hand gallop, 238. dangers in, 240. Hard mouth of horses, 50. Hat, the riding, 62. Head-dress, 61. Health from horseback riding, 3. Height of horse for a lady, 19. Holding the reins, 145. in flying gallop, 247. Holding the riding skirt, 65. Holding the whip, 66. Horse, affection of, 4, 16. cares of the lady for, 4, 44, 47. character of, 4. collected, 177. confidence of, 5, 16, 317. defenses of, 271. dismounting the, 99, 108. disunited, 177. education of, 35. exercise of the, 50. falling down of, 286, 294. for a city lady, 30, 31. for a country lady, 37. gaits of, for a lady's, 20. height of, for a lady, 19. livery stable, for a lady, 51. managing the, 145. managing, with different reins, 145. mounting the, 99. origin of the, 13. purchase of, 18, 30. temperaments of the, 22. the, 13. the Arab, 16, 23. the kind of, to select, 18. the low-bred, 23. the thoroughbred, 23. to collect the, 170, 177. to stop the, 152, 156, 164, 191, 212, 236, 248. training the, 34. treatment of the, 35. united, 177. unsteadiness of, while being mounted, 290. whipping the, 295. Horseback, positions on, 129, 133, 137. riding, healthy, 3. the seat on, 114. wrong positions on, 115, 128. Horses, box stalls for, 49. corns on feet of, 32. hard mouth of, 50. humane training of, 35. ladies', attentions to, 4, 44, 47. moderate priced, 31. mouth, changes of pressure on, should be gradual, 174, 195. stalls for, 47, 49. Horse's head, raising the, 174. Humane training of horses, 35. Hunting, 10. Introduction, 1. Jacket, the riding, 53. Jog-trot, the country, 21, 198. Kicking, 282. Ladies riding in park, observations on, 128. Lady, cares of, for her horse, 4, 38, 44. correct seat for a, 118. horse for a, 18, 30, 34. livery-stable horse for a, 51. Lady's attention to her horse, 4, 38, 44. bridle, 82. horse, what gaits for a, 20. pantaloons, 58. saddle, 69, 93. visiting her stable, 44. whip, 66. Language of horse's ears, 25, 273. Latchford's safety stirrup, 80. Leading foot, which is the, 209. Leap, the, 249. the flying, 249, 267. the standing, 249, 253. Length and width of saddle, 72, 73. Lennan's safety stirrup, 80. Lessons with lunge-line, 42, 125. Liberty of reins, when to give, 175. Limbs, correct position of, 124. faulty position of, 136. Livery-stable horse for a lady, 51. Long stirrup-leather, 74, 139. Low-bred horse, formation of, 24. Lunge-line lessons, 42, 125. Management of the horse in flying gallop, 239. Managing the horse with reins, 145. Martingales, 83. Moderate-priced horses, 31. Mounting, 99. from a high horse-block, 100. from a low horse-block, 101. from the ground, 101. gentleman's aid in, 103. unsteadiness of horse while, 290. Movements of the rider's body, 6. Natural riders, 8, 114, 128. Near pommel to saddle, 317. Observations on ladies riding in park, 128. Off-pommel to saddle, 75, 317. Origin of the horse, 13. Original position of snaffle-reins, one in each hand, 150. Original position of snaffle-reins, both in one hand, 154. position of snaffle and curb reins, all in one hand, 161. position of snaffle and curb reins, one of each in each hand, 166. Over-reaching, 293, 317. Pace, the, 21, 197, 218. Pantaloons, a lady's, 58. Petticoat, the riding, 58. Placing the saddle, 71, 93. Plunging, 176, 284. Pommels to saddle, 69. use of, 70, 73, 100, 116. Position of limbs should be taught by a lady, 144. Positions on horseback, 129, 133, 137. original, of reins, 150, 154, 161, 166. Pressure on horse's mouth, changes of, to be gradual, 174, 195. Pupil and teacher, 142. Purchase of horse, 18, 30. Racing trot, 198. Rack, the, 21, 218. Raising the horse's head, 174. Rearing, 286. Rein, to loosen or tighten one, when double bridle is in left hand, 162. Reining back in the walk, 184, 193. Reins, changing the, 156. curb and bridoon in one hand, 160. dead pull upon, 169. double, one in each hand, 166. double, to change from left to right hand, 164. double, to change from right to left hand, 164. double, to separate, and hold one of each in a hand, 165. holding the, 145. snaffle, both in one hand, 152. snaffle, both in one hand, original position of, 154. snaffle, both in one hand, to separate, 158. snaffle, both in one hand, to stop the horse, 156. snaffle, both in one hand, to turn to the left, 155. snaffle, both in one hand, to turn to the right, 155. snaffle, one in each hand, 149. snaffle, one in each hand, original position of, 150. snaffle, one in each hand, to stop the horse, 152. snaffle, one in each hand, to turn to the left, 151. snaffle, one in each hand, to turn to the right, 151. to change quickly, 158, 165. to change snaffle from left to right hand, 156. to change snaffle from right to left hand, 157. to hold, in flying gallop, 247. to return snaffle, to the left hand, 157. to shorten the curb and lengthen the snaffle, 162. to shorten the snaffle and lengthen the curb, 163. to shorten or lengthen the curb and snaffle, 162. to shorten or lengthen the snaffle, 159. when to give more liberty of, 175. Remarks, on exercise of horse, 50. on grooms, 44, 50, 97, 305. on the stable, 44, 47. on training the horse, 34, 35, 43. Restiveness, 173. Rider's body, movements of, 6. figure, style of, 18. natural, 8. Riding basque, 53. boots, 59 coiffure, 61. corsets, 60. dress, fabric for, 57. Riding, does not produce coarseness in rider, 9. drawers, 59. erroneous ideas concerning, 7. first lessons in, 22, 125, 149, 217. gauntlets, 64. habit, 52. habit, shirt, 59. habit, skirt of, 55. habit skirt, how to hold, 65. habit, waist of, 53. hair in, 61. hat, 62. jacket, 53. pantaloons, 58. petticoat, 58. whip, 66, 308. Rising in the saddle in English trot, 207. Running away, 288. Running walk, 20. Saddle-flaps, 76. Saddle, girthing the, 77, 93. lady's, 68, 93. length of, 72, 73. off-pommel to, 75. placing the, 71, 93. seat to the, 72. second pommel to, 68, 75. third pommel to, 68, 73, 74. to adjust the, 71, 93. to rise in the, in English trot, 207. weight of the, 76. width of the, 73. Safety stirrups, 79. Seat, correct one for a lady, 118. on horseback, 114. to saddle, 72. Separation of the reins, 165. Shirt, the riding-habit, 59. Short stirrup-leather, 74. Shying, 273. Skirt, foot-loop in, 56. holding the, 65. of the riding habit, 55. Snaffle-bit, 84, 148. when best to use, 148, 170. Spring-bar attachment to stirrup-leather, 80. Spur and whip, 294. Stable, ladies visiting the, 44. Stalls for horses, 47, 49. Standing leap, 249, 253. Stirrup, 74, 79. irons, 81. leather, 74, 81. leather, spring-bar attachment to, 80. leather, too long, 74, 139. leather, too short, 74, 136. Stokes' mode of girthing the saddle, 77. Stop in the canter, 236. the English trot, 212. the flying gallop, 248. the walk, 191. Stumbling, 176, 292. Style of the rider's figure, 18. Support, 168, 173, 313. Teacher and pupil, 142. Temperaments of the horse, 22. The Arab horse, 16, 23. The canter, 222. The gallop, 238. The horse, 13. The kind of horse to purchase, 18, 30. The leap, 249. The low-bred horse, 23. The saddle and bridle, 67. The seat on horseback, 114. The thoroughbred, 23. The trot, 197. The walk, 181. Third pommel, 68-74, 121, 202. Thorough and low bred, differences, 23. Tight corsets prevent good riding, 6. To change reins quickly, 158, 165. To collect the horse, 170, 177. To hold the riding-skirt, 65. To manage the horse with the various reins, 145. To rise in the saddle in the English trot, 207. Too long stirrup-leather, 74, 139. Too short stirrup-leather, 74, 136. To turn the horse to the left, 151. To turn the horse to the right, 151. Training horses, humane, 35. remarks on, 34, 35, 42. to stop at the voice, 43. Treatment of horse, 34, 35, 42. Trot, circling to the left, 216. circling to the right, 215. country-jog, 21, 198 English or rising, 21, 200, 207. French or cavalry, 21, 199, 203. the flying, 198. the true, 199. to canter from the, 232. Trotting in a circle, 214. True trot, 199. Turns in the canter, 233, 234. dangers of, in the flying gallop, 242, 248. in the hand gallop, 240. in the walk, 187. United canter, 234. Unsoundness of horses' feet and legs, 23. Unsteadiness of horse while being mounted, 290. Use of pommels, 70, 73, 100, 116, 202. Victoria stirrup, 79. Waist of riding habit, 53. Walk, reining back in, 184, 193. running, 20. stopping in the, 191. the, 181. the advance in the, 184. turning in the, 187. Weight of the saddle, 76. What gaits to train a lady's horse in, 20. When best to use the curb, 170, 174, note 178. best to use the snaffle, 148, 170. When to give more liberty of reins, 175. Which is the leading foot, 209. Whip, the lady's, 66. the lady's, how to hold, 66. Whipping the horse, 295. Whip and spur, 294. Why some women do not enjoy riding, 6. Width of saddle, 73. Wrong positions on horseback, 115, 128. * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Punctuation in the text has been standardised, and obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Bold text is surrounded by =equal signs=. Variations in hyphenation, and obsolete or variant spelling have all been preserved. In Table of Illustrations the entry "Chifney Bit" was originally spelled "Chiffney"; this has been changed to match the spelling in Fig. 13. 
40055	----	THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CAGE BIRDS: THEIR MANAGEMENT, HABITS, FOOD, DISEASES, TREATMENT, BREEDING, AND THE METHODS OF CATCHING THEM. BY J. M. BECHSTEIN, M.D., &c. &c., OF WALTERSHAUSEN, IN SAXONY. [Illustration] A NEW EDITION. LONDON: GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW. [Illustration: GOLDEN ORIOLE.] AUTHOR'S PREFACE. The Natural History of CAGE BIRDS, which I now lay before the public, is a work I have long been solicited to write. There are many people who like to keep birds, who neither know their habits nor the proper treatment or food requisite for them. Even those who are not altogether ignorant of these, often have but very limited, superficial, and, what is worse, sometimes erroneous ideas on the subject. It is for such readers I have given the following Introduction; for professed naturalists will find nothing there but what they have already learnt, either from my own works or from those of other authors on natural history. If long experience and minute observation on the subject of his work is calculated to gain an author credit, I flatter myself that this will not be denied me, since from my earliest youth I have delighted in being surrounded with birds, and am so accustomed to them that I cannot write at my desk with pleasure, or even with attention, unless animated by the warbling of the pleasing little creatures which enliven my room. My passion is carried so far, that I always have about thirty birds around me, and this has naturally led me to consider the best and easiest mode of procuring them, as well as of feeding and preserving them in health. Few amateurs, therefore, are better fitted than myself to write on this subject; and I hope I have done it to the satisfaction of the public. I ought also to notice in this place the plan of my work, as my book may fall into the hands both of those who might feel a wish to learn more particulars, and of those who may think much less would have sufficed. I have described all the indigenous European birds with which I am acquainted that are capable of being tamed, and are pleasing in the house. As to foreign ones, I have only spoken of those I have occasionally seen in Germany, and which can be procured without much difficulty. I have followed the same plan in their natural history which I have pursued in my other works on birds. DESCRIPTION.--Under this head I have entered into particular details, in order that the amateur may the better satisfy himself in discriminating the species and the sex of the bird before him. This knowledge is exceedingly necessary, as the bird-dealers are not very scrupulous in deceiving their customers, either by selling one species for another, or a female for a male. These descriptions may likewise have the advantage of inspiring a taste for ornithology in the bosom of a mere amateur, who may, by repeated observations, afterwards enrich this branch of natural history with his own remarks. HABITATION.--On forming a wish to possess any particular bird, it is natural to try to discover what situations it frequents in order to find it, and when it has been found and secured, a desire to know the best place to keep it in follows as a matter of course. FOOD.--In keeping tame birds it is most important to know what food is best adapted to each species; that is to say, what approaches nearest to its natural aliment. I have therefore divided the directions on this point into two parts; showing in the first the natural food of the bird in its wild state, and in the second what is best for it in confinement. BREEDING.--Many birds succeed best when reared from the nest, which makes it necessary to speak of their manner of being hatched, and the like. DISEASES.--Birds being very tender creatures, on passing from a state of liberty to slavery, in which they lose the means of exercise and proper food, are soon afflicted with many diseases occasioned by this change alone, without reckoning others that naturally follow in their train. Under this head I endeavour to point out these, and their proper treatment; but I confess that this is the most imperfect part of my work, and I wish some clever experienced medical man would take the trouble to render it more correct. CHASE.--On going into the country a wish often arises to procure a bird, and therefore under this head I have described the method of catching such species as may be desired. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Under this head I have stated the properties which render a bird worthy of our notice, and of being tamed and kept in the house. The volume ends with an alphabetical index, which will enable a person instantly to find the birds whose history he requires. May my work be as useful as it is my wish to make it, and my intentions will be accomplished. SECOND EDITION. The call for a second edition is no inconsiderable proof to me that I accomplished my purpose in the first. None of my works have had a more flattering reception, from all classes of readers; but particularly from some of the most distinguished, who have given me repeated proofs of their satisfaction. I have also had the pleasure of assisting many amateurs with my experience, who have honoured me with questions. This pleasure is now increased by being able to render these instructions general, and to perfect this new edition by later observations, some communicated by others, which I judged it right to introduce. If any reader is surprised at not finding in this work many foreign birds seen in France, Holland, or in some of the maritime towns of Germany, it is because I have never had an opportunity of observing them myself: in a word, it is very pleasing to me to feel that my work has increased the number of the lovers of natural history; and I hope to see them still increasing. It is, indeed, my earnest wish that it may contribute more and more to the love of that class of attractive creatures with which the Creator has adorned the earth, and which sing His praises so melodiously and unceasingly! THIRD EDITION. A new edition of my Natural History of Cage Birds having been called for, I have made many additions and improvements in the work, as will appear on comparison. Some have alleged that I have been too diffuse in my descriptions, and others find fault that I have introduced birds difficult to tame, such as the gold-crested wren and the common wren. In the latter case, at least, the most ample details are excusable, as the birds require more care; yet I know several amateurs who always have one or two wrens flying about a room, or in a cage, and to let loose so delicate a little bird as the gold-crested wren always gives great pleasure. Besides, the minutest detail can never, in such cases, do any harm. I have likewise added some foreign birds, several of which have been but recently introduced in this country by bird dealers. DREISSACKER, _November, 1812_. NOTICE BY THE TRANSLATOR. The work of Dr. BECHSTEIN upon CAGE BIRDS has been so highly esteemed on the Continent that it has passed through several editions, both in the original and in translations. Besides rendering as faithfully as care could effect, the interesting details of the author, numerous notes have been added, as well as several species introduced, which have recently been kept with success in this country by the Hon. and Rev. Mr. Herbert, Mr. Sweet, Mr. Blyth, and others. The mode of management also peculiar to these, and so different in some points from that recommended by Dr. Bechstein, has been given in detail. It is to be hoped that this translation may have similar success, and produce similar effects in increasing the taste for Natural History, which the original has had on the Continent. It is proper to add, that the drawings of cages, which illustrate this edition, were selected by permission of Mr. Cato, Holborn Bridge, from the numerous elegant specimens which his stock contains. LONDON, _November 1837_. [Illustration] NATURAL HISTORY OF CAGE BIRDS. INTRODUCTION. By cage birds, I mean those kept by amateurs, for amusement, in their apartments, generally selected for sweetness of song or beauty of plumage; but the naturalist has other reasons for surrounding himself with these pleasing creatures: they enliven him, and he delights in studying their habits and characters. To attain these objects it is necessary, in the first place, to be able to distinguish readily between the males and females, since the former are generally superior in their powers of song, and therefore preferable. I have, for this reason, made a point, in the following sketch of the history of house birds, of showing the colours and other marks which characterise the two sexes; and, as all birds cannot be tamed, whilst many others offer no inducement to make the attempt, it follows that those about to be spoken of must necessarily be but a small proportion of all the known species of birds. SONGS OF TAME BIRDS. What is most prized and admired in house birds is undoubtedly their song. This may be natural or artificial, the former being as varied as the species of the birds, for I know of no two indigenous species quite similar in their song; I ought, perhaps, to except the three species of shrike I have given, which, from their surprising memory, can imitate the songs of other birds so as to be mistaken for them: but a naturalist would soon perceive a slight mixture of the song natural to the imitator, and thus easily distinguish between the shrike that copied, and the titlark or red-breast copied from[1]. It is so much the more important to be well versed in the different birds' songs, as to this knowledge alone we are indebted for several curious observations on these pretty creatures. An artificial song is one borrowed from a bird that the young ones have heard singing in the room, a person's whistling, a flageolet, or a bird-organ. Nearly all birds, when young, will learn some strains of airs whistled or played to them regularly every day; but it is only those whose memory is capable of retaining these that will abandon their natural song, and adopt fluently, and repeat without hesitation, the air that has been taught them. Thus, a young goldfinch learns, it is true, some part of the melody played to a bullfinch, but it will never be able to render it as perfectly as this bird; a difference not caused by the greater or less suppleness of the organ, but rather by the superiority of memory in the one species over that of the other. We distinguish in birds a chirping and warbling, or song, properly so called; besides this, several species, with a large, fleshy, undivided tongue, are able to repeat articulate sounds, and they are then said to _talk_, such as parrots and jays. It is remarkable, that birds which do not sing all the year, such as the red-breast, siskin, and goldfinch, seem obliged, after moulting, to learn to warble, as though they had forgotten; but I have seen enough to convince me that these attempts are merely to render the larynx pliant, and are a kind of chirping, the notes of which have but little relation to the proper song; for a slight attention will discover that the larynx becomes gradually capable of giving the common warble. This method of recovering the song does not then show deficiency of memory, but rigidity occasioned by the disuse of the larynx. The chaffinch will exercise itself in this way some weeks before it attains its former proficiency, and the nightingale practises as long the strains of his beautiful song, before he gives it full, clear, and in all its extent[2]. The strength and compass of a bird's voice depend on the size and proportionate force of the larynx. In the female it is weak and small, and this accounts for her want of song. None of our woodland songsters produces more striking, vigorous, and prolonged sounds than the nightingale; and none is known with so ample and strong a larynx: but as we are able to improve the organisation of the body by exercise and habit, so may we strengthen and extend the larynx of several birds of the same species, so as to amplify the song in consequence, by more nutritive food, proper care, sounds that excite emulation, and the like; chaffinches, bullfinches, canaries, and other birds reared in the house, furnish daily examples of this. I should not omit mentioning here an observation of Mr. Daines Barington[3], which tends to prove the possibility of improving the song of wild birds, by rearing linnets, sparrows, and others, near some good warbler, such as a nightingale or canary, and then setting them at liberty; but, though there is some truth in this assertion, yet it is subject to certain restrictions. I only know of two ways of carrying this idea into execution; one by suspending the cages of the best warblers in the orchard where the birds which they are to teach breed; the other, to enclose these warblers in a large aviary of iron wire, in the open air. There let them teach their young ones, which may be set at liberty as soon as they are able to fly: but birds taken very young from the nest, and reared, formed, and educated in the house, would not have instinct to find their food when set at liberty, and must perish of hunger, or at least die in the winter. The same remarks are applicable to a work published by M. Gambory at Copenhagen, in the year 1800. I think, indeed, it is better to be contented with possessing in our houses artificial songs than to take so much trouble to alter and spoil the very delightful music of nature[4]. HABITATIONS OF TAME BIRDS. The space assigned to tame birds varies according to their nature and destination. All are less at ease in a cage than when at liberty in a room, where young pine branches, cut in winter or early in spring, should be placed for their accommodation[5]. Several, however, never sing unless confined within narrow limits, being obliged, as it would appear, to solace themselves, for the want of liberty, with their song; consequently, birds only prized for the beauty of their plumage or their pleasing actions, are best placed in a room. Rather large birds, such as thrushes, should have a room appropriated to them, or be kept in a large aviary, as they give a very unpleasant smell to the place which they occupy, unless carefully cleaned; but their young ones may be allowed the range of any apartment, placing in a corner a cage or branch to rest and sleep on, where they may run and hop freely, seeking a roosting-place for themselves in the evening, on the fir branches placed for that purpose; or in a cage with several divisions, into which they soon learn to retire. Some birds, such as the dunnock and the blue-breast, sing best in this state of liberty. It is necessary to avoid placing them with shrikes or tits, as these often, in the midst of plenty of food, will kill smaller birds, for the sake of eating the brain or intestines. Those that are confined that we may better enjoy the beauty of their song, should have a cage proportioned to their natural vivacity: a lark, for example, requires a larger cage than a chaffinch. The habits of the birds must also be considered, whether they rest on the ground or perch on sticks. Thus, the nightingale must have perches, while the sky-lark never makes use of these. [Illustration: ORNAMENTAL WATER CAGE.] In the account of each bird I shall point out what shaped cage I have found most suitable. In every case cleanliness is absolutely necessary, in order to keep birds a long time, as well as healthy and active. In general it is better not to disturb the birds very often; but if not every day, yet every week at furthest, it is necessary to clean even the perches of those that roost, and strew sand where they keep at the bottom. Negligence in this entails many inconveniences,--unpleasant smells from sick birds, gouty feet to some birds, loss of the use of their limbs or all their claws; such sad experience may at length cure the negligent amateur. "We love birds," they say; "No," I reply, "you love yourselves, not them, if you neglect to keep them clean." In washing the feet of birds they must first be soaked in warm water, or the dirt will be so pasted on the skin that in removing it the bird will be wounded, and the irritation thus excited may soon occasion dangerous ulcers. House birds are generally subject to sore feet, and great attention is therefore necessary to examine them often if they are not attacked; a hair wound round them will sometimes become drawn so tight that in time the part will shrivel up and drop off. Another proof of the necessity of care in cleaning is, that few birds preserve their claws after having been kept some years in the house. It must be confessed, however, that among birds of the same species there is a very marked difference in this respect, some being always extremely clean, whilst others are for ever dirty, and seldom clean themselves. There are also some species in which cleanliness seems an innate quality; among these are yellow hammers, reed buntings, and linnets; the latter especially have always appeared to me patterns of neatness, and though I have had many, I do not recollect being obliged to clean the feet of any, whilst larks and fauvettes have them always dirty, and let them fester with ulcers rather than take the trouble to clean them[6]. Many amateurs amuse themselves with taming their birds so completely that they can let them fly out of a window and recall them at pleasure. A friend of mine, who tamed not only birds, but also adders, otters, weasels, foxes, and the like, knew how to render them so familiar that at the least sign they would follow him anywhere. This method was as easy as it was sure, and I can judge of it from having been an eye-witness to the effect; it is as follows: When he wishes to accustom a bird to fly out and return, or go out of doors perched on his hand or shoulder, he begins by opening the cage and teazing the bird with a feather. The bird soon pecks at it, then at the finger, and at last ventures outside the cage to fly on the finger presented to it. My friend then caresses it, and gives it something nice to eat, so that it soon becomes accustomed to feed on the hand. When this is attained, he begins to teach it to come at a certain call, and as soon as it will allow itself to be taken, he carries it on his hand or shoulder from room to room, the doors and windows being at first well closed; he also lets it fly about a little, making it return when called. At last, when the bird comes at his call, without hesitation or fear of men or animals, he tries it with precaution out of doors. It thus by degrees becomes so accustomed to him that he can take it into the garden, even in the midst of a large company, without any fear of its flying away. Great precaution is necessary in spring, and during the pairing season, when taking out old birds that have been thus trained; for, upon hearing the call of their own species, they soon fly off to resume their wild state. Young linnets, bullfinches, and canaries, are the species with which this method succeeds best. [Illustration: Feeding-box for small birds.] FOOD OF TAME BIRDS. It is very necessary to procure for house birds food which is like, or at least which nearly resembles, what they would procure for themselves in their wild state. This is rather difficult, and sometimes almost impossible, for where can we find in our climate the seeds on which the Indian birds feed in their own country? Our only resource then is to endeavour, with judgment, to accustom these birds to that food which necessity obliges us to give them. There are some birds, such as chaffinches, bullfinches, thrushes, and the Bohemian chatterer, which are so manageable in this respect, that as soon as they are brought into the house they eat without hesitation anything that is given to them; but others, which are more delicate, will absolutely eat nothing, either through disgust of their new food, or despair at the loss of their liberty; with these great precaution is necessary. Dr. Meyer, of Offenbach, writes to me on this subject as follows: "The following is the best method of accustoming newly-taken birds to their change of food, a thing which is often very difficult to accomplish with some species. After having put the bird in the cage it must be left quiet for some hours, without disturbing it at all; it must then be taken and plunged into fresh water, and immediately replaced in the cage. At first it will appear faint and exhausted, but it will soon recover, arrange its feathers, become quite lively, and will be sure to eat whatever is given to it. It is a well known fact that bathing gives an appetite to birds, for the same reason that it does to men." If, as an exception, one of these delicate birds, among which are most of the songsters, eats with eagerness as soon as it is brought into the house, it is a sign of death, for it seems like an indifference which is not natural, and which is always the consequence of disease. Those birds which retire into a corner, moping for some hours, are the most likely to live; it is only requisite to leave them alone, and by degrees they recover from their sullenness. In order to give some general rules for the best food for house birds, I have divided them into four classes:-- The first comprehends those birds which live only on seeds, such as canaries, goldfinches, and siskins. The second are those which feed on both seeds and insects, such as quails, larks, chaffinches, and bullfinches; some of these also eat berries and the buds of trees. The third are those which seek only berries and insects, such as nightingales, red-breasts, thrushes, and fauvettes. The fourth are those which eat insects only, such as wagtails, wheatears, stonechats, and blue-breasts. The species in this last class are the most difficult to preserve; but most of them, having nothing particular in their song, offer no compensation for the trouble and care which they require; but the following is the best method for success. After having collected the flies, which in spring may often be seen in great numbers on the windows of old buildings, they must be dried, and preserved in a jar. When live insects can no longer be found, these flies must be mixed with the paste, hereafter described, which may be regarded as a general or universal food, and given to the most delicate birds, such as nightingales, provided ants' eggs or meal worms are now and then mixed with it. RECIPE FOR THE GENERAL FOOD.--In proportion to the number of birds, white bread enough must be baked to last for three months. When it is well baked, and stale, it must be put again into the oven, and left there until cold. It is then fit to be pounded in a mortar, and will keep several months without becoming bad. Every day a teaspoonful for each bird is taken of this meal, on which is poured three times as much cold, or lukewarm, but not boiling, milk. If the meal be good, a firm paste will be formed, which must be chopped very small on a board. This paste, which is very nourishing, may be kept a long time without becoming sour or sticky; on the contrary, it is always dry and brittle. As soon as a delicate bird is brought in, some flies or chopped worms should be mixed with the paste, which will attract it to eat. It will soon be accustomed to this food, which will keep it in life and health. Experience teaches me that a mixture of crushed canary, hemp, and rape-seed, is the favourite food of canaries; goldfinches and siskins prefer poppy-seed, and sometimes a little crushed hemp-seed; linnets and bullfinches like the rape-seed alone. It is better to _soak_ it for the young chaffinches, bullfinches, and others; in order to do this, as much rape-seed as is wanted should be put into a jar, covered with water, and placed in a moderate heat, in winter near the fire, in summer in the sun. If this is done in the morning, after feeding the birds, the soaked seed will do for the next morning. All of them ought to have green food besides, as chickweed, cabbage leaves, lettuce, endive, and water-cresses. Sand should be put in the bottom of the cages, for it seems necessary for digestion[7]. Amongst those of the second class, the quails like cheese and the crumbs of bread; the lark barley-meal, with cabbage, chopped cress, poppy-seed mixed with bread crumbs, and in winter, oats; the chaffinches, rape-seed, and sometimes in summer a little crushed hemp-seed. Too much hemp-seed, however, is hurtful to birds, and should only be given as a delicacy now and then, for when they eat too much of it they become asthmatic, blind, and generally die of consumption. Yellowhammers like the same food as the larks, without the vegetables; the tits like hemp-seed, pine-seed, bacon, meat, suet, bread, walnuts, almonds, and filberts. The birds of the first class are easily preserved in the house, at least if not taken during the pairing season, for then the loss of their liberty affects them so much that they become sullen, and die of hunger. Although the notice of a universal remedy is generally rather suspected, I cannot refrain from here recommending one or two sorts of paste which I have always used, and which agreed so well with all my birds, excepting those which I keep in cages on account of their beautiful songs, that it may justly be termed general or universal food: it is not only very simple and cheap, but also prevents great loss of time to those who possess a great many birds. THE UNIVERSAL PASTE.--To make the first paste, take a white loaf which is well baked and stale, put it into fresh water, and leave it there until quite soaked through, then squeeze out the water and pour boiled milk over the loaf[8], adding about two thirds of barley-meal with the bran well sifted out, or, what is still better, wheat-meal; but, as this is dearer, it may be done without. For the second paste, grate a carrot very nicely (this root may be kept a whole year if buried in sand), then soak a small white loaf in fresh water, press the water out, and put it and the grated carrot into an earthen pan, add two handfuls of barley or wheat meal, and mix the whole well together with a pestle. These pastes should be made fresh every morning, as they soon become sour, particularly the first, and consequently hurtful. For this purpose I have a feeding-trough, round which there is room enough for half my birds. It is better to have it made of earthenware, stone, or delft ware, rather than wood, as being more easily cleaned, and not so likely to cause the food to become sour. The first paste agrees so well with all my birds, which are not more than thirty or forty, at liberty in the room, that they are always healthy, and preserve their feathers, so that they have no appearance of being prisoners. Those which live only on seeds, or only on insects, eat this food with equal avidity; and chaffinches, linnets, goldfinches, siskins, canaries, fauvettes, red-breasts, all species of larks, quails, yellowhammers, buntings, blue-breasts, and redstarts may be seen eating out of the same dish. Sometimes, as a delicacy, they may be given a little hemp, poppy, and rape-seed, crumbs of bread, and ants' eggs. One of these is necessary for the birds of the third and fourth class. Every morning fresh water must be given to the birds, both for drinking and bathing. When a great many are left at liberty, one dish will do for them all, about eight inches long and two in depth and width, divided into several partitions, by which means they are prevented from plunging entirely into the water, and in consequence making the place always dirty and damp[9]. A vessel of the same size and shape will do for holding the universal paste, but then it must have no partitions. Quails and larks require sand, which does for them instead of water for bathing. Some birds swallow directly whatever is thrown to them: great care must be taken to avoid giving them anything with pepper on it, or bad meat. This must be a general rule. I shall also remark, that food sufficient for one day only must be given to birds kept in cages, for they are accustomed to scatter it about, picking out the best, and leaving only the worst for the next morning; this makes them pine, and puts, them out of humour. MR. SWEET'S FOOD FOR SOFT-BILLED BIRDS (SYLVIAD�).--The birds of this sort, though the finest songsters and most interesting of all the feathered tribe, have been less known or noticed than others, probably owing to the greater number only visiting us in summer, when the trees are so densely clothed with foliage that birds are not easily seen, and when heard sing are generally considered by those who hear them to be either blackbirds or thrushes, or some of the more common singing birds. When they are seen the greater number of them receive the general appellation of white-throat, without distinction, though this is rather singular, since they are all very distinct when examined, and their songs are all very different. If you speak to a bird-fancier or bird-catcher about any of them, you might as well talk of a bird in the wilds of America, for they know nothing of them. Many of them are therefore difficult to be procured in the neighbourhood of London, though most of them are plentiful there. With care, the whole of them may be preserved in good health through the year, and many of them will sing through the greater part of the winter if properly managed. They require to be kept warm; the room in which they are should never be allowed to be below temperate, or they will suffer from it, particularly the tender sorts; at first the cold will make them lose their sight, after which they seldom recover. The redstart and nightingale are most subject to this; it sometimes also happens to the fauvette, and also to the whinchat. When in a wild state, the birds of this sort feed principally on insects or fruit, and berries of various kinds. None of them are seed birds, so that they must be managed accordingly. The general food which I give them is hemp-seed, bruised up in boiling water, as small as it can be made; I then put to this about the same quantity, or rather more of bread, on which is also poured boiling water, and then the whole is bruised up together into a moist paste, particular care being required that there be very little or no salt in the bread; for should there be rather much it will kill the whole of the birds. The food should also be mixed up fresh every morning, as it soon spoils and turns sour, in which case the birds will not touch it, and sometimes it will make them go off their food altogether. When given to the birds, some fresh, raw, lean meat ought to be cut up small enough for them to swallow, and mixed with it I generally put about the same quantity of meat as paste, and sometimes they will peck out the meat and leave the paste; at other times they will eat the paste and leave the meat; but in general they eat it all up together, particularly where several different species are kept together in the same large cage, a plan which I consider by far the best, as they amuse each other, and keep one another warm in cold weather. Besides the above food, an egg should be boiled very hard, the yolk taken out and crumbled or cut in small pieces for them; the white they will not eat. One egg I consider enough for twenty birds for one day, with their other food, it being only intended as a change of diet, which they will not continue well in health without. The sorts, which feed on insects when wild, should have some of these preserved for them through the winter, except where they can be procured at all seasons. At a baker's shop, for instance, there are always plenty of meal-worms, crickets, and cockroaches, of which most of these birds are very fond: when those are not to be procured, a good substitute is the large white grubs that produce the cockchafers, which in some years are very plentiful, and may be kept in pots of turfy earth through the winter, as may also the maggots of the bluebottle fly, if procured late in the autumn; and they may be generally had as late as December. A quantity of these, kept in a pot of turfy earth in a cellar, or any other cool place, where they may not turn into flies too soon, is, I think, one of the best sorts of insects, and easiest kept and procured, for such birds through the winter. They will not touch them until they are well cleaned in the mould, but are then very fond of them, and a few every day keeps them in excellent health, and provokes them to sing. HON. AND REV. W. HERBERT'S FOOD FOR SOFT-BILLED BIRDS.--Milk, which Mr. Sweet recommends, I have found very fatal to many of the soft-billed birds, and I never give it; but the blackcaps do not seem to suffer from it. They are very fond of a boiled carrot mashed and moistened, or beet-root boiled and mashed. A boiled carrot will keep fresh many days, in a basin of cold water, and is an excellent substitute for fruit in feeding them. Boiled cabbage, cauliflower, green peas are good for them; all sorts of puddings; a very little roast meat minced, I give them every day, and a little yolk of egg when it suits, but it is not necessary. The standard food is hemp-seed ground in a coffee-mill, and bread crumbs scalded and mashed up together, and fresh every day. They are very fond of ripe pears and elderberries (but elderberries stain the cage very much), currants, cherries, honeysuckle, and privet-berries. Professor Rennie says, "I have more than once given the blackcap and other birds a little milk by way of medicine when they appeared drooping or sickly, and with manifest advantage[10]." BREEDING OF TAME BIRDS. House birds, being most of them reared like canaries, can only be made pair with great difficulty. When this object is accomplished, all of them require a large quiet place, a whole room if it can be had, in which branches of pine should be put,--a place, in fact, as much as possible resembling their natural abodes. But should you succeed in this respect, as you can never procure the materials which form the general base of their nests, it is better to give them artificial ones, made of the bark of the osier, straw, or even turnings of wood, in which it is only to put the soft stuff for lining, such as wool, the ravelings of silk, linen, or cotton, and the birds will take possession of it. It is of consequence that the food for paired birds, and for the different ages of their young ones, should be chosen with judgment. I shall mention what must be done in this respect, in the articles relating to the different species of birds which I am going to describe in this work. I must not omit two interesting observations which were communicated to me by a lady of my acquaintance. It sometimes happens, during a dry season, that the young birds are not hatched on the proper day, or are in danger of not being hatched at all; if, in this case they are plunged for one minute in water about their own warmth, and then replaced under the bird, the effect will be as quick as it is successful[11]. For the same reason, sometimes the young birds remain without their feathers beyond the proper time; a tepid bath removes with such success the dryness of their quills, that in twenty-four hours after replacing them damp in their nest they are in general covered with feathers. I shall end this paragraph with showing at what time it is best to remove young wild birds from their nest when intended to be reared. It is when the quills of the tail feathers are come out, and the other feathers are begun to grow, the eyes not being quite open. If removed earlier, their stomach will be too weak to support their new food; if taken later, it will be very difficult to make them open their beaks to receive a food which is unknown to them. There are some species, however, that are so easily reared, that any time will answer. DISORDERS OF TAME BIRDS. All tame animals are much more subject to disease than wild ones; and birds so much the more, as they are often shut up in very small cages, where they can take no exercise. It is often supposed that birds, in their natural free state, have no diseases; but people who will take the trouble to observe, will soon perceive the falsehood of this assertion. I have often found hedge-sparrows full of pimples, particularly in the naked parts, the feet, and round the beak. Their diseases are often increased by the delicacies of all kinds which are given them, such as biscuits and sugar, which injure the stomach, and cause a slow decay. The principal diseases and their cures, according to my experience, are as follows; not, however, that different birds do not require, according to their food, different treatment. I shall mention, under each bird, what must be done to cure those diseases which are peculiar to it, when general remedies fail. THE PIP. This is a catarrh, or cold, by which the nostrils are stopped up, and the membrane covering the tongue is hardened by inflammation. In large birds it is common to remove this skin, taking it off from the base to the tip: by this means this part can again perspire, the saliva necessary for digestion can flow, and the taste and appetite returns. A mixture of fresh butter, pepper, and garlic, generally cures this catarrh. It is a good thing, also, for the birds to drink the pectoral infusion of speedwell; and the nostrils may be opened by passing up a small feather. The ruffling of the head, the beak often open and yellow at its base, and the tongue dry, are the most decisive indications of this disease. THE RHEUM. The symptoms of this disease are frequent sneezing and shaking of the head. Some drops of pectoral elixir in the infusion of speedwell, which the sick birds must be made to take, appears to me to be the most efficacious remedy. I have given fowls even twenty drops of the elixir in a glass of the infusion. When it is merely hoarseness, Dr. Handel, of Mayence, gave to his birds for several days, as their only drink, a very diluted decoction of dry figs, sweetened with a little sugar, and afterwards purged them for two days following, with the juice of carrots. ASTHMA. This is a very common disease among house birds. Those attacked with it have their breath short, often open their beaks as if to gasp for more air, and, when agitated or frightened, keep them open for a long time. The cause of this disease may doubtless be found in the mode of life which these birds lead. Their food is generally too dry and heating, being principally hemp-seed, which is very injurious, but liked by all; and is the more hurtful, as it inclines them to eat too much. If to this be added the unchanged air of the rooms, particularly those which have stoves instead of chimneys, and the great heat which is kept up during winter, it is plain that there is much to injure the delicate lungs of these birds. A moist and refreshing regimen and some aperients, more or less often, according to the violence of the disease, appears the most appropriate remedy. A favourite linnet and goldfinch, when attacked with very bad asthma, were relieved and preserved for several years by the following method. The first thing was to leave off hemp-seed entirely, confining them solely to rape-seed; but giving them at the same time abundance of bread, soaked in pure water, and then pressed; lettuce, endive, or water-cresses, according to the seasons, twice a week, giving them boiled bread and milk, about the size of a nutmeg. This is made by throwing a piece of the crumb of white bread, about the size of a nut, into a teacupful of milk, boiling it, and stirring it all the time with a wooden spoon till it is of the consistency of pap. It must be quite cold before it is given to the birds, and must always be made fresh, for if sour it will prove injurious. This paste, which they are very fond of, purges them sufficiently, and sensibly relieves them. In very violent attacks, nothing but this paste ought to be given for two or three days following, and this will soon give the desired relief. When the disease is slight, or only begun, it is sufficient to give the bread and milk once in three or four days. When employed under similar circumstances, this treatment has cured several very valuable birds. It may not be useless here to renew the advice of always giving the birds an opportunity of bathing every day, by putting in their way a saucer, or any other small shallow bath, filled with water, which should never be too cold, and in winter always milk-warm. One thing which is very injurious to the lungs of birds, and which too often occurs, is the fright occasioned by tormenting them, or by seizing them too suddenly; for the poor little things often rupture a blood-vessel in the breast while beating themselves about: a drop of blood in the beak is the sign, and a speedy death is the general consequence. If this do not happen, the breathing is not the less difficult and painful; and recovery is rare, at least without the greatest care and attention. Birds which eat insects and worms, occasionally, by accident, swallow some extraneous substance, which, sticking in their throat, stops their respiration, and stifles them. The only remedy is to extract the foreign body, which requires much skill and dexterity. When asthma is brought on by eating seeds which are too old, spoiled, or rancid, Dr. Handel recommends some drops of oxymel to be swallowed for eight days following. But the best way is to change the seed, and be sure there is none but good seed in the trough. ATROPHY, OR WASTING. This is caused by giving unnatural food to the bird, which destroys the digestive power of its stomach. In this case it disgorges, ruffles its feathers, and does not arrange them, and becomes thin very fast. The best thing is to make it swallow a common spider, which purges it, and put a rusty nail into its water, which strengthens the intestines, giving it at the same time its proper and natural food. Green food, such as lettuce, endive, chickweed, and particularly water-cresses, is the safest remedy. A very great appetite is a sign of this disease. A siskin, that was dying of atrophy, had nothing but water-cresses for three days following, and on the fourth he sung. CONSUMPTION, OR DECLINE. This disorder may be known by the extreme thinness of the breast, the swelling of the lower part of the belly, the total loss of appetite, and similar symptoms. As a cure, Dr. Handel recommends the juice of the white turnip to be given to drink instead of water. COSTIVENESS. This disease may be discovered from the frequent unsuccessful endeavours of the bird to relieve itself. Aperients will be of use. If a spider does not produce the desired effect, anoint the vent of the bird with the head of a pin steeped in linseed oil; this sort of clyster generally succeeds; but if the disease attacks a bird which eats meal-worms, one of these, bruised in sweet oil and saffron, is the most certain remedy, and the bird will swallow it without the least hesitation. Boiled bread and milk is generally of great use. DIARRHOEA. This is a disease to which birds that have been caught recently are very subject, before they are accustomed to their new food. Most of these die of it: they continually void a white calcareous matter, which sticks to the feathers round the vent, and being very acrid causes inflammation in that part and in the intestines. Sometimes chalybeate water and the oil clyster produce good effects; but it is better, if possible, to procure for the bird its most natural food. Some people pull out the feathers from the tail and vent, and then rub these parts with fresh butter, but this is a very painful and cruel operation. They also mix the yolk of an egg boiled very hard with their food, but I have never found this succeed very well. If there be any hope of curing this disease it is by attacking it at the beginning, before inflammation is violent; boiled bread and milk, a great deal of lettuce, or any other similar green refreshing food, in general completely cures them. In a case of chronic diarrhoea, which almost reduces the birds to skeletons, Dr. Handel prescribes chalybeate water mixed with a little milk for their drink, which, he says, is an easy and certain cure. THE BLOODY FLUX. This is a disease with which some parrots are attacked. The best remedy is to make the birds drink a great deal of boiled milk, or even very fat broth; for their intestines, which are very much irritated, require something soothing to protect them from the acrid discharges, which, at the same time, must be corrected by healing food. Birds in this state generally do nothing but drink, therefore plenty of boiled milk should be given them, as it nourishes them, as well as acts medicinally, but should it appear to turn sour in the stomach it must, at least for some time, be discontinued. OBSTRUCTION IN THE RUMP GLAND. This gland, which is on the rump, and contains the oil necessary for anointing the feathers, sometimes becomes hard and inflamed, and an abscess forms there. In this case the bird often pierces it itself, or it may be softened by applying fresh butter without any salt; but it is better to use an ointment made of white lead, litharge, wax, and olive oil, which may be had at any good chemist's. The general method is to pierce or cut the hardened gland, in order to let out the matter, but if this operation removes the obstruction it also destroys the gland, and the bird will die in the next moulting, for want of oil to soften the feathers[12]. The gland is known to be obstructed when the feathers which surround it are ruffled, the bird never ceasing to peck them, and instead of being yellow it becomes brown. This disease is very rare among wild birds, for, being exposed to damp, and bathing often, they make more use of the liquor in the gland, consequently it does not accumulate sufficiently to become corrupted, sour, or cancerous. This confirms the necessity of giving them the means of bathing as often as instinct would induce them, as nothing can be more favourable to their health. Dr. Handel, after piercing the gland, recommends a little magnesia to be mixed with the bird's drink. EPILEPSY. This is a disease with which house birds are very often attacked. What I have found to be most useful in this case is to plunge the sick birds every now and then into very cold water, letting them fall suddenly into it, and cutting their claws, or at least one or two, short enough for the blood to run. From bleeding giving so much relief one would think that this disease is a kind of apoplexy, occasioned by want of exercise and too much food. Bullfinches and thrushes are more subject to it than any other birds, and bleeding always cures them. I have seen this done with great success in the following manner, but much delicacy and skill are required, as there would be great danger of laming the bird:--a very small hole is made on the surface of the claw, with a lancet or very sharp penknife; it is then plunged in lukewarm water, and if the operation be well done the blood runs like a thread of red silk; when removed from the water the bleeding stops: no bandage or dressing is required. TYMPANY. In this disorder the skin on one part of the body, or even the whole body, rises and swells to so great a degree that it is stretched like a drum. It is generally sufficient to pierce it with a pin, so as to let the air escape, and the bird will be cured. I had some larks attacked with this disease, which began again to sing a quarter of an hour after the operation. DISEASE IN THE FEET. House birds are often subject to bad feet. From the second year they become pale, and lose their freshness. They must be frequently cleaned, taking care to remove the skin; the thick loose scales ought also to be taken off, but with all possible precaution. The gout occasions the feet to swell, they are also so scaly and painful that the poor little bird cannot support itself without resting on the points of its wings. Dr. Handel prescribes a warm fomentation with a decoction of soapwort. If a foot should be bruised or broken, he advises that the diseased bird should be shut up in a very small cage, the bottom of which is very smooth and even, without any perches, or anything which would tempt them to hop, and put in a very quiet and solitary place, out of the way of anything which might produce agitation. In this manner the bird will cure itself in a little time, without any bandage or plaster of any kind. I am persuaded that the principal cause of bad feet is want of bathing. The scales, contracting from dryness, occasion great pain; in order to remove them with ease, and without danger, the feet must be softened in lukewarm water. I have seen the following method used with a bullfinch:--its cage was made with a moveable tin bottom, which being half or three quarters of an inch deep, could hold water, which was put in tepid, to bathe the bird; the perches were then removed, so that the bird was obliged to remain in the water, where it was left for half an hour, sometimes throwing it hemp-seed to amuse it. After repeating the bath once or twice the bird became very fond of it; and it was remarked that its feet became, if we may say so, quite young again. The scales being sufficiently softened, the middle of each was cut lengthways without reaching the flesh, this made the sides easily fall off. It is better to remove only two scales a-day, that the bird may not be wearied. By continuing the bath three times a week the feet become healthy and supple, and the bird is easy. SORE EYES. The juice of red-beet for drink, and also as a liniment, greatly relieves this disorder. Dr. Handel recommends washing the eyes, when disposed to blindness, with an infusion of the root of white hellebore. TUMOURS AND ULCERS. As to the tumours and ulcers which come on the heads of the birds, Dr. Handel touches them with a middling-sized red hot knitting-needle. This makes the watery humour run out, the wound afterwards dries and heals. To soften the pain a little liquid black soap is used. If, from the softness of the tumour, matter seems to have formed, it should be rubbed with fresh butter until it is come to a head; it may then be emptied, and opened by a few drops of essence of myrrh. During all this time the bird must have nothing but beet juice to drink. Ulcers in the palate and throat may be cured by making the bird drink the milk of almonds for several days, at the same time lightly touching the ulcers several times a-day with a feather dipped in a mixture of honey and borax. MOULTING. Though natural, is generally accompanied with disease, during which the birds ought to be taken great care of. Their food should be changed, but without giving any heating delicacies, which are very injurious. It has been observed that birds always moult at the time when their food is most abundant; the forest birds may then be seen approaching fields and cultivated places, where, having plenty of insects and seeds, they cannot suffer from want; indeed, the loss of their feathers prevents their taking long flights, and the reproduction of them occasions a loss of flesh which must be repaired. An abundance of food is therefore necessary, and, following this rule, during moulting some additional food must be given to house birds, appropriate to the different species--millet or canary seed, a little hemp-seed, white bread soaked in water, and lettuce, or endive, to those which feed on seeds; with a few more meal worms and ants' eggs to those that eat insects: all should have bread soaked in boiled milk, warmth, and baths. Nothing has succeeded better than this regimen: all the birds which I have seen treated in this manner have passed their moulting season in good health. GIDDINESS. This, without being properly a disease, is rather common, and is occasioned by the trick which the birds of the first class have, of turning their head and neck so far round that they fall head over heels. They may be easily cured of this trick by throwing a covering over the top of the cage, which prevents their seeing anything above them, for it is with looking up that this _giddiness_ comes on. PAIRING FEVER. A disease which may be called the _pairing fever_ must not be forgotten here. House birds are usually attacked with it in May, a time when the inclination to pair is greatest. They cease to sing, become sorrowful and thin, ruffle their feathers, and die. This fever generally first seizes those which are confined in cages: it appears to arise from their way of life, which is too uniform and wearying. I cured several by merely placing them in the window, where they are soon so much refreshed that they forget their grief, their desire for liberty or for pairing, and resume their liveliness and song. I have observed that a single female in the room is sufficient to cause this disease to all the males of the same family, though of different species. Removing the female will cure them directly. The males and females at this season must be separated, so that they cannot see or hear one another. This perhaps is the reason that a male, when put in the window, is soon cured. AGE OF TAME BIRDS. The length of a bird's life very much depends on the care which is taken of it. There are some parrots which have lived more than a century; and nightingales, chaffinches, and goldfinches have been known to live more than twenty-four years in a cage. The age of house birds is so much the more interesting, as it is only by observing it that we can know with any degree of certainty the length of birds' lives in general. Thus house birds are of importance to the naturalist, as giving him information which he could not otherwise acquire. It is worthy of remark, that the quick growth of birds does not prevent their living much longer than quadrupeds. The length of life with these is estimated to be six or seven times longer than the time which they take to grow: while birds live fifteen, twenty, and even thirty times longer. This length of life is sometimes attributed to the substance of which the bones are composed being much more loose and light, and consequently remaining porous longer than those of quadrupeds. Some swans have lived three hundred years. BIRD CATCHING. We are furnished with house birds by the bird catchers and bird sellers; the latter procure foreign birds, and teach them, the former the indigenous ones. A good bird catcher ought to know not only the different modes of taking birds, but also all the calls for attracting the different species and sexes: the call notes vary very much among house birds, according to their passions and wants; thus the common chaffinch, when calling its companions, often repeats _iack_, _iack_; when expressing joy, _fink_, _fink_, which it also does when angry, though louder and more quickly; whilst its cry of sorrow is _treef_, _treef_. The science of bird catching consists in studying these different languages well, and it will ensure success. As each species of bird requires a different mode, I shall mention the various methods in the course of the work, and shall here only speak of bird catching in general. The first thing to know is the proper time to take birds. For birds of passage, impelled by cold and want of food to change their climate, nets should be spread in spring and autumn; erratic birds, which change their place merely in search of food, may be taken, some in winter, some in spring, and others in autumn; those birds which never quit their native place may be taken at any season, but more easily in winter, when they assemble in small flocks. Autumn is the time for taking birds in nets; some, attracted by a call-bird, or by food, come of their own accord into the trap; others, as the different species of larks, must be driven to the net; but spring is the best season for employing the decoy, or call-birds, concealed in cages, and also for catching the northern birds on their return from the southern countries to their own. It is the best time for observing the different sexes of these birds, for the males always arrive some days, or even a whole week, sooner than the females; hence it happens that at first the bird catchers take only the former, while the latter are caught afterwards. March and April are the best months for this sport, which should always be made in the morning from the break of day till nine o'clock, as afterwards the birds are too much engaged seeking their food to listen to the call of the decoy birds. As most of the house birds of the first class, are caught in the net, I shall describe the simple manner in which it is done in Thuringia. Some rather strong branches of oak and beech are chosen with their leaves on; about the space of a foot is cleared of leaves, a foot and a half from the top of the branches, and in this space notches are made for fixing lime twigs: the bush, when thus prepared, must be placed on an eminence in the most frequented part of the birds' path, for birds of passage have fixed roads which they always follow, and in which numbers may be seen, whilst about four hundred paces distant not one can be met with. These tracks generally follow the mountains which border on valleys. It is on these mountains then that the decoy bush must be placed; it must then be garnished with lime twigs, placed in an inclined position, and beneath on the ground must be put the decoy birds, covering their cages with branches of fir or any other tree, so that the birds cannot see one another, as that would prevent the birds of passage from stopping, and the others from calling. Decoy birds taken wild are preferred to those reared from the nest, for these never know the call note well, or at least do not repeat it often enough. One of the best modes of catching is by what is called the _water-trap_; all kinds of birds may be caught by it, and there is always a choice. This sport is very agreeable in the hot summer days, for you have only to sit quietly under the thick shade of the foliage by the side of a running stream. A net of three, four, or six feet long, and three or four wide, according to the size of the place, must be spread over a trench made on purpose to receive the water. Some sticks of about an inch thick must be put into the trench level with the water, to which hoops are fixed to prevent the net from getting wet by falling into the water; the rest of this little canal must be covered with branches. If the place be well chosen it will be surrounded during the day with numbers of different birds. This sport may be carried on from the 24th of July till October, from the rising to the setting of the sun. When the _water-trap_ can be set near a forest, in a grove of pines and firs, near quickset hedges and gardens, or in the middle of a meadow, wood or field-birds may be caught at the same time. For the sake of convenience, small cages are made which can be folded up and put into the pocket. They only serve, however, for the tamest kinds of birds, such as goldfinches, siskins, and linnets; those which are very wild and violent, as chaffinches and larks, should be put into a small bag made of linen, the bottom of which must be lined with felt. When brought to the house the violent species must be immediately put into a dark place, and their cages covered with branches or anything else, that they may not injure themselves, or spoil their plumage. A little attention to the birds' actions in such cases will point out what is best to be done, for amongst birds of the same species there is nothing regular in this respect. [Illustration] [Illustration: BROWN OWL.] BIRDS OF PREY. Birds of prey are so called from feeding only on animals: they have a hooked beak, strong feet, and very sharp claws. Some birds of this group are used in falconry, so called because several species of falcon are employed in the sport: others, as the owls, are used to attract small birds to the barn-floor trap, and rooks to the decoy-hut. There seems little probability that bird-fanciers should wish to keep such birds as these in the house. Two species, however, appear to merit distinction, the kestril and the little owl. THE KESTRIL. Falco Tinnunculus, LINN�US; La Cresserelle, BUFFON; Der Thurmfalke, BECHSTEIN. Its size is that of a turtle-dove, its length fourteen inches, including the tail, which measures six, and two-thirds of which is covered by the folded wings. The wax, the irides, and feet are yellow. In general this is a handsome bird; but the male, as in all birds of prey, differs from the female, not less in the body being a third smaller than in the colours of his plumage. The top of the head is of a fine light grey, the back and the lesser wing coverts are of a red brick colour spotted with black; the belly is reddish, and streaked with black; the feathers of the tail dark brown spotted with white, ending in a broad black border. [Illustration] The back and wings of the female are of a rust red crossed with many black lines; the head is of a light reddish brown streaked with black; the tail of the same colour, and terminated, like that of the male, with a broad black border; the extremity, however, of each is pale[13]. HABITATION.--In its wild state the kestril falcon may be found throughout Europe, preferring mountainous places, where there are walls of rocks or ruined castles. It is a bird of passage, which departs in October with the larks, and may then be seen hovering over them, or pouncing at mice; it returns in the following March. In the house, if taken when old, it must be kept in a wire cage; but if caught and trained when young it may be left quite at liberty, provided its wings are kept clipped; in that case it will neither quit the house nor lodging assigned it, especially when become familiar with the dogs and cats. FOOD.--In its wild state it preys on small birds and mice, pursues sparrows to the house-top, and even attacks birds in their cages; it is nevertheless contented with cockchafers, beetles, and grasshoppers. In confinement it is fed on birds, mice, and a little raw meat; when given only the fresh offal of pigeons, or the lights and livers of sheep, it becomes so tame, that even if taken when old it never appears to regret the loss of its freedom. BREEDING.--The kestril falcon builds its nest in the fissures of rooks, high towers, old castles, or some aged tree. It lays from four to six eggs of a reddish yellow colour, spotted with red and brown. The young ones, which are at first covered with a simple white down, may be easily reared on fresh mutton. MODE OF TAKING.--Lime twigs placed over the nest will easily secure the old ones when they come to feed their young; or a bird of prey's basket, with a lark or mouse put in it as a lure, may be placed where these birds are most frequently seen. This machine is raised on four stakes, and somewhat resembles a common safe, having a lower shelf as large as a moderate sized table, with four upright posts, to which are fastened the partitions of net or wire; on the top and sides are fixed two iron rods; on these, by means of rings, there runs a net which covers the whole. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its fine plumage, its sonorous notes _kle_, _kle_, which it sometimes repeats in continued succession, and its amusing actions, must make it a favourite with most amateurs; it cannot, indeed, like other species of falcon, be trained to the chase; but if taken when very young, and fed with the food before mentioned, it may be taught to fly to some distance and then return, even in the midst of the largest cities. THE LITTLE OWL. Strix passerina, LINN�US; La Chevèche, ou Petite Chouette, BUFFON; Die Zwergeule, BECHSTEIN. The feathers of this bird make it appear larger than it really is. Its length is from eight to nine inches, of which the tail measures at least three; the folded wings almost reach the extremity; the beak is ten lines in length, brown at the base, and yellow at the point; the iris is yellow in summer, and meadow green in winter; the claws blackish; the upper part of the body is light brown, with round white spots, which are largest on the back and shoulders; the lower part is white, spotted with dark brown and a little orange; the quill feathers dark brown, with white spots; the tail lighter, with red spots, which may almost be taken for transverse bands. The colours are less brilliant in the female. HABITATION.--In its wild state this small species of owl frequents old buildings, towers, and church walls, where its nest is also found[14]. In the house it must always be kept in a cage, which may be hung in the window, for if permitted to mix with the other birds it would kill them. FOOD.--When wild its general food is mice and large insects; I have also found in the indigested remains which this, like other birds of prey, discharges from its stomach, a considerable quantity of the fruit of the red cornel tree (_Cornus sanguinea_, Linnæus). This proves that it also feeds on berries. In the cage it may be kept for some time in good health, without having its excrements tainted, if fed on dried mutton: the skin, fat, and bones must be removed, and the meat left to soak in water for two days before it is eaten. Three quarters of an ounce a day of this meat dried will be sufficient, particularly if now and then some mice or birds be given it, which it swallows, feathers and all; it can devour as many as five mice at a meal. It begins to wake up at about two in the afternoon, and then becomes very lively, and soon wants its food. BREEDING.--The female lays two white eggs, which the male takes his turn to sit upon; the young ones may be very easily reared on fresh meat, particularly on pigeons. Before the first moulting the head is of a soft reddish grey clouded with white. The large round spots on the back become gradually more marked, and the reddish white of the under part by degrees acquires long streaks of brown on the breast and sides. DISEASES.--If great care be not taken sometimes to give it mice or birds, the fur and feathers of which cleanse the stomach, it will soon die of decline. MODE OF TAKING.--When the place of its retreat during the day is discovered, it cannot fail to be taken if a net in the form of a bag or sack be placed over the mouth of the hole, for the bird will by this means entrap itself when endeavouring to come out for the evening. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--This bird, which is very cleanly, always deposits its dung in one particular spot. Its singular motions are amusing, but its harsh cry, and restlessness, particularly during the season of copulation, are rather disagreeable. It is much used on the continent as a decoy, to entrap small birds. PIES. The birds of this group have the beak a little flat, more or less hooked, generally in the form of a knife, and of a middling size. The feet are in general strong and short; the lower part, being much divided, may be used for walking or climbing. Their food consists of insects, worms, the flesh and remains of animals, seeds and fruit. In a few species the note is pleasing; several may be taught to speak; and some are admired for their handsome plumage. THE GREAT BUTCHER BIRD. [Illustration] Lanius Excubitor, LINN�US; Der gemeine Würger, BECHSTEIN; La Pie-Grièche grise, BUFFON. It is a little larger than the Redwing (_Turdus Iliacus_, Linn.) Its length is nine inches, of which the tail measures three and three-quarters; the wings, when folded, cover one-third of the tail. The beak is eight lines in length; the iris is very dark brown; the shanks iron grey. All the upper part of the body is of a fine ash colour, shading off to white above the eyes, on the forehead, the shoulders, and the rump. The tail is wedge-shaped, white at the point, and black in the middle. HABITATION.--When wild, this species generally frequents groves, thickets, and the borders of forests; it is also found among brambles, and on lonely trees, always perched on the top. It never quits the abode it has once chosen, either in winter or summer. When caught it must be kept in a large wire cage. Its liveliness and desire for prey prevent its being permitted to mix with the other birds. FOOD.--In its wild state, it feeds in summer on grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and other insects, even lizards, and small adders, and when those fail, on mice and small birds; these, with mice, moles, and the like, form its winter food. When pursuing its prey, the shrike makes a particular movement, in order to seize it on the side; but it does not always succeed, as it cannot use its claws like birds of prey, and often only carries off a beakful of feathers. In the cage, if the bird be taken when old, some mice, birds, or living insects, may be thrown to it, taking care to leave it quite alone, for as long as any one is present it will touch nothing; but as soon as it has once begun to feed freely it will eat fresh meat, and even become accustomed to the universal paste, described in the Introduction. This shrike eats very much for its size, at the least one ounce of meat at a meal. It likes to have a forked branch, or crossed sticks in its cage, across the angles of which it throws the mouse, or any other prey which has been given it, and then darting on it behind from the opposite side of the cage, devours every morsel, let it be ever so large. It bathes freely. MODE OF TAKING.--Although it flies very swiftly when pursuing its prey, it may easily be taken if a nest of young birds, crying from hunger, be suspended to some lime twigs. In autumn and winter, it will sometimes dart on birds in cages which are outside the window. It may then be easily caught, if the cage be put into a sort of box, having the lid so placed that the bird by the least touch would cause it to fall upon itself. These means must be employed by those who wish to possess birds which they can let go and come at will. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its cry somewhat resembles the _guir, guir_ of the lark; like the nutcracker, it can imitate the different notes, but not the songs, of other birds. Nothing is more agreeable than its own warbling, which much resembles the whistling of the grey parrot; its throat at the time being expanded like that of the green frog. It is a great pity that it only sings during the pairing season, which is from March to May, and even then often spoils the beautiful melody of its song, with some harsh, discordant notes. The female also sings. As some of its tones resemble the human voice, it might probably be taught to speak. THE LITTLE SHRIKE. Lanius minor, LINN�US; Der graue Würger, BECHSTEIN. It is about the size of the sky-lark, being eight inches in length, of which the tail measures three and a half, the folded wings cover one-third. The beak is black, and seven inches in length; the iris brown; the legs of a lead-colour; the forehead black; a broad streak of the same colour passing from the beak across the eyes and over the cheeks; the tail is wedge-shaped; the exterior feathers are white, with a black spot. The female only differs from the male in being a little smaller, the streak on the cheeks is shorter and narrower, and there is generally only one white feather in the tail. HABITATION.--Wild, it is a bird of passage, departing the first of September, and returning the beginning of the following May[15]. It generally frequents woods, orchards, and the hedges of fields. Always perched on the tops of trees, it rarely descends into the lower bushes. It feeds on insects. In the house, it must have a large wire cage like the larks, but with three perches. It is not safe to let it mix with the other birds, as it would soon kill them. FOOD.--In its wild state it feeds on beetles, cockchafers, crickets, breeze-flies, and other insects; when these fail, in consequence of a long continuance of rain, it sometimes seizes young birds. In the house, if an old bird and lately taken, as soon as it is put in the cage, some living insects, or a small bird just killed, must be thrown into it. After some time, it will be satisfied with raw or dressed meat; but it is not always an easy task to get it to eat this food, for it will sometimes take eight successive days, during which meal worms and other insects are added; but as soon as it is accustomed to meat, it becomes so tame that it will feed from the hand, and if the cage door be opened it will even perch on the wrist to eat. Notwithstanding all my care, I have only been able to preserve those two years, which have been taken wild, they have all died of decline[16]; those, on the contrary, which have been reared from the nest, do not require so much attention, being contented with any kind of common food. BREEDING.--This bird generally builds in a tree on the edge of a wood, or in a garden, the nest being rather large and irregular. The young are fed on beetles and grasshoppers. In order to rear them, they must be taken from the nest when the tail begins to grow, and fed at first on ants' eggs, and afterwards on white bread soaked in milk. MODE OF TAKING.--When the particular brambles and branches have been observed, on which this bird watches for its prey, it is not difficult to catch it; for notwithstanding its great quickness, it is not the less imprudent, for it allows itself to be caught in the bird-lime in the most stupid manner. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--This species has no particular song: the female has none at all; but the male imitates, with wonderful facility, the songs of other birds, not only the detached parts, but the whole notes, so correctly that it would not be difficult to mistake it. Thus it imitates exactly, and in order, all the variations of the song of the nightingale, though more feebly, and like an echo, its notes not being so full and clear: it imitates equally well the song of the lark, and similar birds. This wonderful power of imitation cannot fail to please amateurs, and make them wish to possess this interesting bird. I have observed that it likes best to repeat the call of the quail. One of this species which I had among my collection, always stopped its song, however lively, when it heard that of the quail, for the purpose of imitating it; the latter, before it was accustomed to this, became very jealous, and as soon as it heard it, ran about in every direction, furiously endeavouring to fight its fancied rival. THE WOODCHAT. Lanius erythrocephalus. Lan. Collurio, rufus, et pomeranus, LINN�US; La Pie Grièche rousse, BUFFON; Der rothköpfige Würger, BECHSTEIN. This is smaller and more delicate than the former species, being only seven inches long, of which the tail measures three and a half; the folding wings cover one third; the beak is eight lines in length, and black; the iris greyish yellow; the shanks bluish black; the forehead black, from the base of which a band of the same colour extends over the eyes. The tail feathers are also black, but the outer ones only so to the middle, the rest being white. The female only differs from the male in its colour being less brilliant. HABITATION.--When wild it is a bird of passage, arriving at the end of April, and departing about the middle of September[17]. It inhabits mountains, forests, and wooded plains, but prefers enclosed pastures where horses are kept day and night. In confinement it requires the same treatment as the preceding. FOOD.--In its wild state it prefers beetles, the dung of cows and horses, maybugs, grasshoppers, breeze-flies, and other insects; it often also darts upon lizards and young quails. In a state of confinement it is fed like the preceding; but being more delicate it is better to rear it from the nest, feeding it on raw meat. If an old bird be taken, it is impossible to preserve it unless it be constantly fed on live insects. BREEDING.--The woodchat commonly builds its nest on the thick and bushy branches of large trees, and makes it of small sticks, moss, hogs' bristles, wool and fur. The female breeds twice, laying each time six reddish-white eggs, marked particularly at the large end with distinct red spots, mixed with pale ones of a bluish grey. The young ones are hatched in fifteen days; their colour, before the first moulting, is on the upper part, dirty white, spotted with grey; the under part is also dirty white, clouded with pale grey; the wing coverts are bordered with rust colour; the quill feathers and tail are black. MODE OF TAKING.--A cruel method, but the surest, is to place bird-lime on its nest, this being the most wary species of shrike; but as it bathes freely it may be taken about the middle of the day at its washing place, if near hedges. It is often found drowned in large ponds. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Although this species appears endowed with as good a memory as the preceding, its notes are less agreeable, not being so soft, and it introduces some stanzas of its own shrill and harsh warbling into the songs that it imitates, which are those of the nightingale, linnet, redstart, and goldfinch. But this bird is most admired for its beautiful plumage. THE FLUSHER. [Illustration] Lanius spinitorquus, BECHSTEIN; Lanius Collurio, LINN�US; L'Ecorcheur, BUFFON; Der rothrückige Würger, BECHSTEIN. This pretty species seems to form a connecting link between the pies and the singing birds, so much does it resemble the latter in its different qualities. Its length is a little more than six inches, of which the tail measures three and a quarter. The wings, when folded, cover one third. The beak is black, and the iris of the eyes light brown; the legs, bluish black. In the male, the head, the nape of the neck, the tail coverts, and the thighs, are grey. This colour is lighter on the forehead and above the eyes. A black band extends from the nostrils to the ears. The beak and wing coverts are of a fine red brown; the rump and under part of the body white, slightly tinged with pink on the breast, sides, and belly; the centre tail feathers are entirely black, the others white at the tip. The colours in the female differ considerably from those of the male. All the upper part of the body is dirty reddish brown, slightly shading into grey on the upper part of the neck and rump; there is a scarcely visible shade of white on the back and shoulders; the forehead and above the eyes is yellowish, the cheeks brown, the throat and belly dirty white; the under parts of the neck, breast, and sides, are yellowish white, crossed with waving brown lines; the quill feathers are dark brown, the outer ones edged with white, the others to the four centre ones have only a white spot; the tail dark brown, with some shades of orange. HABITATION.--When wild it is one of the latest birds of passage, as it does not arrive till May. It is sometimes found in woody valleys where cattle graze, more commonly in hedges, and fields with bushes in them, or in inclosed pastures where horses and cows are kept. It is one of the first migratory birds to depart, which it does in August, in families, even before the young ones have moulted. In the house, it must be treated like the former, and kept in a wire cage, for it would soon kill its companions, as I experienced some years ago. The bird I refer to had been three days without eating, although I had given him a great variety of dead birds and insects. On the fourth day I set him at liberty in the room, supposing him too weak to hurt the other birds, and thinking that he would become better accustomed to his new food if I left him at liberty. Hardly was he set free than he seized and killed a dunnock before I had time to save it; I let him eat it, and then put him back into the cage. From this time, as if his fury were satisfied, he ate all that was given him. FOOD.--In its wild state, it eats large quantities of beetles, maybugs, crickets, and grasshoppers, but it prefers breeze-flies, and other insects which teaze the cattle. It impales as many of these insects as it can catch for its meal on the thorns of bushes. If, during a long continuance of rain, these insects disappear, it then feeds on field-mice, lizards, and young birds, which it also fixes on the thorns. When confined, its food is the same as the preceding species. Some insects, mixed with the nightingales' paste, make it more palatable for it. A little raw or dressed meat may also be given it from time to time. BREEDING.--When the season is favourable this species breeds twice, and generally chooses a large hawthorn bush in which to build its nest, roots and coarse stubble forming the base of it, then a layer of moss interwoven with wool, and the finest fibres of roots lining the interior. The female lays from five to six greenish white eggs, spotted all over, especially at the large end, and speckled with red and grey; the male takes his turn with the female to sit during fourteen days. Before moulting, the young ones resemble the female in colour. The back and breast are greenish grey, streaked with several waving brown lines; the belly is dirty white. They can be easily reared by feeding them at first with ants' eggs, then with dressed meat, and afterwards with white bread soaked in milk: this last food it always likes if early accustomed to it. MODE OF TAKING.--As soon as this bird arrives in May, the bushes on which it most frequently perches must be observed; these are very few, and on them the lime twigs must be placed; it is often entrapped within a quarter of an hour. Success is more certain if a beetle, maybug, or breeze-fly, be fastened near the lime twigs with horse hair, by two feet, so that it can move its wings. As soon as the bird is stuck in the bird-lime it is necessary when taking it to avoid its beak, as it pecks very hard. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--This bird does not rank low among the singers; its song is not only very pleasing but continual. While singing, it is generally perched on a lonely bush, or on the lower branches of a tree, but always near its nest. Its warbling is composed of the songs of the swallow, goldfinch, fauvette, nightingale, red-breast, and lark, with which, indeed, it mixes here and there some of its own harsh notes. It almost exclusively imitates the birds in its immediate neighbourhood; it very rarely repeats the song or call of those which merely fly past it; when it does, it seems only in mockery. There are, however, some songs which it cannot imitate: for instance, that of the chaffinch and yellowhammer, its throat not seeming to be sufficiently flexible for these. In the house, its song is composed of the warbling of those birds whose cages are hung near it. It is very lively, and its plumage is handsome. If a room is to be cleared of flies, one of these birds set at liberty in it will soon effect it; it catches them flying with great skill and agility. When a thorny branch is given it, it impales all its flies, making at the same time the drollest and most singular movements. This species easily and quickly learns to whistle airs, but it forgets them with the same facility, in order to learn new ones. THE RAVEN. [Illustration] Corvus Corax, LINN�US; Le Corbeau, BUFFON; Der Kolkrabe, BECHSTEIN. This and the three following species ought not to be reckoned among house birds; but as they are easily taught to speak, and are often reared for that purpose, I must not neglect to mention them here. The raven is well known. Its length is two feet, of which the tail measures eight inches and three quarters. The colour, which is black, in particular lights reflects a violet tint on the upper, and green on the lower part of the body, of the wings and tail. The throat is of a paler black. Of all the birds of this genus, distinguished by having the beak in the form of a knife, and the base furnished with strong bristles which extend forward, the raven, on account of the size of its tongue, is the best fitted to articulate words; hence, in Thuringia, people are often saluted, on entering an inn, with some abusive language from one of these ravens, confined near the door, in a large cage like a tower. When it has been reared from the nest (which must be done in order to teach it to speak) it may be left at liberty; it will come when called by name to receive its food. Everything which shines must be put out of its way, particularly gold and silver, as it does not fail to carry it off, like the other birds of its kind. One, which was brought before Augustus, had been taught to repeat, _Ave Cæsar, victor, imperator_, in order to salute him on his return from victory. Some people are accustomed to cut what is called the nerve of the tongue, supposing that it would make them better able to articulate sounds; but it seems most probable that this cruel practice is of little use, and, like many others, only a vulgar prejudice, for I have heard ravens speak perfectly well without having the tongue touched. This bird was very much prized at a time when divination made a part of religion. Its most minute actions, all the motions of its flight, and the different sounds of its voice, were carefully studied; in the latter, people pretending to discover even sixty-four different modulations, besides many shades still more delicate and difficult to determine. This must certainly have required an excessively fine ear, as its croaking is particularly simple. Every alteration, let it be ever so slight, had its particular signification. Impostors were not wanting, who pretended to understand, or dupes who easily believed, these idle fancies. Some have carried their folly to such a pitch as to persuade themselves that by eating the heart and entrails of the raven they would acquire its gift of prophecy. HABITATION.--This species only inhabits the wooded parts of a country; it there builds its nest on the highest trees. Its eggs, from three to five in number, are of a dirty green, streaked with olive brown. If the young ones be taken in order to instruct them, they must be removed on the twelfth day after bursting the shell, when they have only half their feathers. They are fed on meat, snails, worms, and bread soaked in milk; after a little time they will eat bread, meat, and any refuse from the table. In its wild state the raven eats leverets, birds' eggs, mice, young goslings, chickens, and snails, and even pears, cherries, and other fruit; this shows us that it is rather hurtful as well as useful. THE CARRION CROW. Corvus corone, LINN�US; La Corneille, BUFFON; Die Schwarze Krähe, BECHSTEIN. It only differs from the preceding in its size, and in the tail being rounded instead of wedge-shaped. Its whole length is eighteen inches. Its plumage is black, with some tints of violet on the upper part of the body. PECULIAR QUALITIES.--The carrion crow is one of the commonest birds; in the groves, which it likes best, it congregates in such numbers that twenty nests have been built on the same tree[18]; the eggs are spotted with grey or olive brown on a green ground. The young may be taken from the nest in the month of March, or even earlier if the winter be mild they are treated and fed like the former species. The carrion crow is even more easily tamed, for I have seen old ones, which have been taught to go and come, and others in their wild state, which have regularly fed in the yard going in the spring to breed in the woods, and returning at the beginning of the winter to pass that season in a domestic state. Insects, worms, mice, fruit, and grain form its principal food in its wild state. MODE OF TAKING.--The easiest and most usual method is with paper cones, at the bottom of which is put a bit of meat, and bird-lime on the inner edges. It may also be caught with lime twigs placed in the yard, or before the house, on horse dung and among scattered grain. THE HOODED CROW. Corvus Cornix, LINN�US; La Corneille Mantelée, BUFFON; Die Nebelkrähe, BECHSTEIN. This species, a little larger than the preceding, is grey, with the head, throat, wings, and tail black. In the winter it is found over almost all Europe, but during summer it inhabits more northern parts, where it builds in groves and orchards near open fields: its eggs are bright green streaked and spotted with brown. If taken young it is tamed and taught to speak more easily than the carrion crow. THE JACK-DAW. [Illustration] Corvus Monedula, LINN�US; Le Chocas, BUFFON; Die Dohle, BECHSTEIN. This bird is naturally half tame, and if reared from the nest it will voluntarily remain in the yard with the poultry. It makes its nest in old buildings, houses, castles, towers, and churches: its eggs are green, spotted with dark brown and black. It is not so much to teach it to speak that people like to rear young jack-daws, but to see it go and return at call. Even old ones that are taken in autumn may be accustomed to this, cutting the wings at first, and again in the spring, so that as they grow again the bird learns by degrees to come to a certain call. During winter it will always come into the yard. The size of the jack-daw is that of the pigeon, thirteen or fourteen inches in length. The back of the head is light grey, the rest of the body black. When in winter it eats wild garlic, in the fields it smells very strongly of it, and does not lose the scent till it has been a week in the house. THE JAY. Corvus glandarius, LINN�US; Le Geai, BUFFON; Der Holzeher, BECHSTEIN. I have often, during my youth, seen this beautiful species of bird among the peasants of Thuringia confined in cages, and taught to speak. It is about the size of the preceding bird. Its black beak is in shape like that of the carrion crow. The feet are brown, with a slight shade of flesh colour. All the smaller feathers are soft and silky. A purple grey is the most predominant colour; the throat is whitish, the eyes are reddish blue, the rump white; the large coverts have the outer side of the feathers ornamented with small but very brilliant bands, alternately bluish white, light blue, and bluish black, which softly blend one into the other, like the colours in the rainbow, and are a great ornament to the bird. The only difference in the female is that the upper part of the neck is grey, whereas in the male it is much redder, and that colour also extends to the back. HABITATION.--When wild, the jay frequents woods; above all, those in which there are firs mixed with other trees. In the house it must be kept in a large cage in the form of a tower, or in any other shape; it is too dirty a bird to be let range at liberty. FOOD.--In its wild state it prefers worms, insects, and berries, when acorns and beech-mast fail: it makes great havoc among cherries. In the cage, it soon becomes accustomed to bread soaked in milk, but it will eat almost any thing, bread, soft cheese, baked meat, and all that comes from table; acorns and beech-mast however are its favourite food. It must be kept very clean, otherwise its soiled and dirty plumage would make it look to great disadvantage. It is better to feed it entirely on corn; it becomes by this means less dirty, and its excrements are not so soft or foetid. It may be preserved for several years on this food. It must always have fresh water given it, as much for drinking as for bathing. BREEDING.--The jay builds in beech-trees, oaks, and firs. Its eggs are grey spotted with brown. The young which are to be taught to speak must be taken from the nest after the fourteenth or fifteenth day, and fed on soft cheese, bread, and meat: it is easily taught and domesticated. Those which are caught when old cannot be tamed; they are always frightened when any one approaches them, hiding and fasting for several hours afterwards rather then reappear. MODE OF TAKING.--Should anyone wish to catch these birds, he must seek in autumn for a lonely tree, about five or six paces from the other trees of the wood, which the birds frequent most; on it lime twigs must be placed. In order to effect this, most of the branches are cut off in such a manner as to form a kind of spiral staircase, commencing about ten or twelve feet from the ground, and extending to within six of the top. After having shortened and reduced the branches to five or six spans in length, the lime-twigs are fixed to them; under the tree must be placed a hut, made of green branches, large enough to contain as many persons as wish to conceal themselves; on the top of this hut is placed a live owl, or one made of clay; even the skin of a hare arranged so that it may be moved, will suffice. Nothing is now wanting to attract the jays but a bird-call, which is made of a little stick with a notch cut in it and a little piece of the bark of the cherry-tree inserted, another bit serving for a cover. On this instrument the voice of the owl, the great enemy of the jays, may easily be imitated; and as soon as they hear it they come from all sides, while their cries must be repeated by the people in the hut, which makes them assemble in still greater numbers. They are soon entangled in the bird-lime, and fall pell mell into the hut, their weight easily dragging them through the slight covering. Many other birds also collect on hearing the deceitful call, and, wishing to assist their brethren, are themselves entrapped. Thus, in a few hours many jays and a great number of other birds may be caught, such as magpies, thrushes, woodpeckers, red-breasts, and tits. Twilight is the best time for this sport. In the month of July jays may also be taken in the _water-trap_, where young ones, with their tails only half grown, are most frequently caught; these may yet be taught and tamed. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Although it is easy to teach the jay to speak, it will in general only repeat single words; but it imitates passably well little airs on the trumpet and other short tunes. Its beautiful colours are a great attraction. It may also be taught to go and come, if in the country: but in the city it is not so easily taught this as crows and ravens. THE NUT-CRACKER. Corvus Caryocatactes, LINN�US; Le Casse-noix, BUFFON; Der Tannenbeher, BECHSTEIN. Its length is twelve inches, of which the tail measures four and three quarters; the wings, when folded, reach the middle. The beak and feet are black; the iris is reddish brown. Though speckled like the starling, its general colour is blackish brown, lighter above, and darker underneath the body. The tail feathers are black, but white at the tip. The general colour of the female is a redder brown than that of the male. HABITATION.--In its wild state it inhabits, during summer, the depth of woods, near which there are meadows and springs, and it does not quit this retreat till autumn, when it frequents those places where it can find acorns, beech-mast, and nuts. During hard winters it may sometimes be seen on the high road, seeking its food amongst the horse-dung. In the house it is kept like a jay. FOOD.--In its wild state, having a very strong beak, it can open the cones of the pine and fir, peel the acorns and beech-mast, and break the nut-shells. It also eats different sorts of berries, but prefers animal food and insects, in short, any thing it can get. In confinement it must be fed like the jay; but it is more easily tamed, and accustomed to use different words. It is so fond of animal food, that if a live jay were thrown into its cage it would kill it and eat it in a quarter of an hour; it will even eat whole squirrels which have been shot, and which other small birds of prey fly from with disgust. BREEDING.--Its nest, placed in a hollow tree, generally contains five or six eggs, with transverse brown streaks scattered on a dark olive grey ground. The young are reared on meat. MODE OF TAKING.--It may be taken in autumn by a noose, hanging service berries to it; success is more sure if some nuts be put near. It may also be taken in the _water-trap_. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its actions are as amusing as those of a shrike; it imitates the voice of many animals, and chatters as much as the jay. To judge from the form of its tongue, it seems possible to teach it to speak, if attempted when young. THE MAGPIE. [Illustration] Corvus Pica, LINN�US; La Pie, BUFFON; Die Elster, BECHSTEIN. As the magpie generally frequents places near the abode of man, it is well known. It is eighteen inches in length, of which the tail alone measures ten. It may be called a handsome bird, although its plumage is only black and white, for these colours are perfect in their kind, and the tail, near the end, shines with a purple tint, gradually shading into steel blue. HABITATION.--The magpie builds its nest on trees which are near towns and villages; its eggs are pale green, speckled with grey and brown. In autumn the young ones assemble together in small parties. FOOD.--When wild, the magpie lives on worms, insects, fruits, or roots, and sometimes eats eggs and young birds in their nest. In the house, it likes bread, meat, and anything that comes from table; in short, when once tamed it does not fail to enter by the window at meal times to take its share. If it obtain too much, it hides what it does not eat for another time. This propensity is seen in young ones as soon as they can feed alone. PECULIAR QUALITIES.--Although in its wild state the magpie is so suspicious that it is difficult to catch it, it is, however, more easily tamed than any other bird; it will let itself be touched and taken in the hand, which even the most docile of other birds will seldom suffer. When reared from the nest it learns to speak even better than the raven, and becomes as domestic as the pigeon. It gets so fond of raw meat, bread, and other refuse of the table, that it does not wish any other food; this is the cause of its frequenting dwelling-houses: if it find any worms or insects it only eats them as dainties. The time of taking magpies in order to bring them to this point is fourteen or fifteen days after coming out of the shell: this is the principal thing to remember with respect to any bird which is to be taught to go and come. It must be given at first bread soaked in milk or water; by degrees a little chopped meat is added, afterwards it will eat anything from the kitchen, even apples and baked pears, and any refuse. As soon as the young birds begin to fly high enough to rise to a neighbouring tree they may be let do so when they have had a good meal, soon calling them back again to the place fixed for their habitation; this practice may be repeated till they have all their feathers, and can fly well, when some of their wing-feathers must be cut, till the winter, a season in which they may be pulled out. Whilst the feathers are growing again, they become so well accustomed to the house and their master that they may be let go for several hours together without any danger of their wandering or not returning. If they speak they will only be the more agreeable. Old magpies, which may easily be taken in winter with lime-twigs placed near some bits of meat, can be taught to remain in the yard by keeping the wings cut till the following autumn, when they may be let grow; from this time there is no fear of their not coming with the poultry, and in spring they will not fail to build near the house, and seek food for their young in the kitchen. I must repeat again that nothing shining must be left in the way of these birds, as they will carry it off immediately, and hide it with great care, let them have as much food as they like besides. I have lately received a letter from one of my friends, in which he expresses himself thus:--"I have reared a magpie which comes like a cat to rub itself against me until I caress it. It has learnt of itself to fly into the country and return. It follows me everywhere, even for more than a league, so that I have much trouble to rid myself of it, and when I do not wish its company in my walks and visits I am obliged to shut it up: though wild with any other person, it marks in my eyes the least change in my temper. It will sometimes fly to a great distance with other magpies, without however connecting itself with them." THE ROLLER. Coracias Garrula, LINN�US; Le Rollier d'Europe, BUFFON; Die Mandelkrähe, BECHSTEIN. This bird resembles the jay in size and form, and is twelve inches in length, of which the tail measures four and a half; the beak is blackish, before and behind the eyes is a blackish triangular spot, formed by the naked skin; the iris of the eye is grey; the whole of the head, the neck, the throat, the breast, the belly, the large wing-coverts, and all the under-coverts, are of a beautiful bluish green; the tail is of a dusky blue green near the base, becoming gradually lighter towards the end. The female and young ones of the first year have the head, neck, breast, and belly of a reddish grey tinged with bluish green; the back and the last quill-feathers are of a light greyish brown; the rump is green, tinged with indigo; the tail blackish with a tint of blue green; the rest like the male. HABITATION.--In its wild state the roller may be found in Europe and the northern parts of Africa; it only frequents a few spots in Germany, and prefers forests and sandy plains to high mountains: elsewhere it is only seen during the time of its passage[19]. In the house it may be let range at will after the wings are clipt. FOOD.--When wild, its principal food is insects and worms; it also eats small frogs, bulbous roots, acorns, and grains of corn. BREEDING.---The nest, placed in the hole of a tree, is made of small twigs, hay, feathers, and bristles. It lays from four to seven white eggs, on which the male takes his turn to sit during eighteen or twenty days. The young ones do not acquire their fine colours till the second year; previous to this period the head, neck, and breast are of a whitish grey. I had till lately thought that this bird was untamable; but Dr. Meyer of Offenbach has convinced me to the contrary, having himself reared them several times, and kept them in his room. This is his method: The young ones must be taken from the nest when only half grown, and fed on little bits of cow's heart, or any other meat which is lean and tender, till they can eat alone; small frogs, worms, and insects may then be added. The means which it takes to kill and swallow these insects are curious enough; it begins by seizing and crushing them with its beak, and then throws them into the air several times, in order to receive them in its throat, which is very capacious. When the piece is too large, or the insect still alive, it strikes it hard against the ground, and begins again to throw it in the air, till falling not across, but so as to thread the throat, it may be easily swallowed. After having been fed thus long enough, a little barley-meal may be mixed with the meat. I have even brought it to eat bread, vegetables, and softened oatmeal, but it always prefers cow's heart. I have never seen it drink. It knows the person who takes care of it, comes at his call to eat from his hands, without however letting itself be caught: but it never becomes quite tame, and often defends itself with its beak. It makes very few movements unless to seek its food, and generally remains quite still in the same place. If it ever hops about the room it is in an awkward and cramped manner, on account of its short feet; on the other hand, it flies very well; but it must not be left completely at liberty in the room, or quite shut up in the cage, because it is so easily startled, and in its fright gives itself such violent blows on the head as would soon kill it. The best way is to clip one wing, and then let it range the room. These birds quarrel with one another, particularly in the evening, for their places on the perch. I have kept them for some time in a large aviary with small and great birds, and once with my pigeons which I kept shut up; generally I have them in my room, where they mix with several other birds: but whether alone or with companions they appeared equally healthy and active. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--They have few other attractions besides their beautiful plumage, for their voice is only a harsh croaking "_crag, crag, craag_[20]." THE GOLDEN ORIOLE. Oriolus Galbula, LINN�US; Le Loriot, BUFFON; Der Pirol, BECHSTEIN. This species, the male of which is very beautiful, is about the size of a blackbird. Its length is nine inches, of which the tail measures three and a half, and the beak one. The head, neck, back, breast, sides, and lesser wing-coverts, are of a brilliant golden yellow; the wings and the tail are black, with yellow gradually increasing to the outer feathers. The female is not so brilliant, the golden yellow is only visible at the tip of the olive feathers in the tail, and in the lesser and under wing-coverts. All the upper part of the body is of the green colour of the siskin, the lower part greenish white with brown streaks, and the wings grey black. HABITATION.--When wild, it generally frequents lonely groves, or the skirts of forests, always keeping among the most bushy trees, so that it is rarely seen on a naked branch; it always frequents orchards during the time of cherries. It is a bird of passage, departing in families in August, and not returning till the following May[21]. In the house, if it cannot be let range at pleasure, it must be confined in a large wire cage. FOOD.--When wild, its food is insects and berries. In confinement, and if an old one be caught by means of the owl, like the jays, it must be kept at first in a quiet and retired place, offering it fresh cherries, then adding by degrees ants' eggs, and white bread soaked in milk, or the nightingale's food. But I confess there is great difficulty in keeping it alive, for with every attention and the greatest care, I do not know a single instance of one of this species having been preserved for more than three or four months. [Illustration: NEST OF THE GOLDEN ORIOLE.] BREEDING.--The scarcity of the golden oriole arises from its breeding but once a year. Its nest, hung with great art in the fork of a small bushy branch, is in shape like a purse, or a basket with two handles. The female lays four or five white eggs, marked with a few black streaks and spots. Before the first moulting, the young ones are like their mother, and mew like cats. If any one wishes to rear them they must be taken early from the nest; fed on ants' eggs, chopped meat and white bread soaked in milk, varying these things as their health requires, and as their excrements are too frequent or too soft. In short, they may be accustomed to the nightingale's food. I must here remark that a very attentive person alone can hope to succeed[22]. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--I have seen two golden orioles that were reared from the nest, one of which, independent of the natural song, whistled a minuet, and the other imitated a flourish of trumpets. Its full and flute-like tones appeared to me extremely pleasing. Unfortunately the fine colours of its plumage were tarnished, which almost always happens, above all if the bird be kept in a room filled with smoke, either from the stove or from tobacco. One of my neighbours saw two golden orioles at Berlin, both of which whistled different airs. Its note of call, which in the month of June so well distinguishes the golden oriole from other birds, may be well expressed by "ye, puhlo[23]." THE HOOPOE. [Illustration] Upupa Epops, LINN�US; La Huppe, BUFFON; Der gemeine Wiedehopf, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is twelve inches, of which the tail measures four, and the bill, which is black, two and a half. The iris is blackish brown. The feet are black and very short. There is a tuft on the head like a fan, formed of a double row of feathers, all of them tipped with black. HABITATION.--In its wild state, the hoopoe remains, during summer, in woods near meadows, and pasture land. In the month of August, after hay-harvest, it goes in flocks into the plains; it departs in September, and does not return till the end of the following April. It is more frequently seen on the ground than perching[24]. In the house, it is not kept in a cage, but let range at will; it is very chilly, at least it is so fond of warmth that it is constantly on the stove, and would rather let its beak be dried up than come away from it. FOOD.--When wild, it may be continually seen in fields, searching for its favourite insects among cow dung and the excrements of other animals. Some people put it into their granaries to clear them of weevils and spiders; this has succeeded very well, but to say that it also eats mice, is certainly an error. In the house, it may be easily reared on meat, and white bread soaked in milk, to which meal worms must be added from time to time. BREEDING.--The hoopoe lays from two to four eggs; its nest, placed in the hole of some tree, is a mixture of cow dung and small roots. The young are easily reared on the flesh of young pigeons; but they cannot pick it up well, because their tongue, about the size of half a bean, and heart-shaped, is too short to turn the food into the throat. They are obliged to throw their food in the air, holding the beak open to receive it. MODE OF TAKING.--In the month of August, when a field has been observed which the bird frequents most, a small well-limed rod of about eight inches in length must be placed on a mole-hill, having two or three meal worms fastened to it by means of a thread about three inches long. As soon as the hoopoe sees the worms it darts upon them, and thus makes the lime twig fall upon itself, which embarrasses it. But these birds, whether taken young or old, can very rarely be preserved. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Independently of its beauty, its droll actions are very amusing. For instance, it makes a continual motion with its head, tapping the floor with its beak, so that it seems as if it walks with a stick, at the same time shaking its crest, wings, and tail[25]. I have had several of them in my house, and have always been diverted by their singular grimaces. When any one looks at them steadily, they immediately begin their droll tricks. The following is an extract from a letter written by M. von Schauroth on the hoopoe, which I think it is well to insert here: "With great care and attention, I was able last summer to rear two young hoopoes, taken from a nest which was placed at the top of an oak tree. These little birds followed me everywhere, and when they heard me at a distance showed their joy by a particular chirping, jumped into the air, or as soon as I was seated climbed on my clothes, particularly when giving them their food from a pan of milk, the cream of which they swallowed greedily; they climbed higher and higher, till at last they perched on my shoulders, and sometimes on my head, caressing me very affectionately: notwithstanding this, I had only to speak a word to rid myself of their company, they would then immediately retire to the stove. Generally they would observe my eyes to discover what my temper might be, that they might act accordingly. I fed them like the nightingales, or with the universal paste, to which I sometimes added insects; they would never touch earth-worms, but were very fond of beetles and May-bugs, these they first killed, and then beat them with their beak into a kind of oblong ball; when this was done, they threw it into the air, that they might catch it and swallow it lengthways; if it fell across the throat they were obliged to begin again. Instead of bathing, they roll in the sand. I took them one day into a neighbouring field, that they might catch insects for themselves, and had then an opportunity of remarking their innate fear of birds of prey, and their instinct under it. As soon as they perceived a raven, or even a pigeon, they were on their bellies in the twinkling of an eye, their wings stretched out by the side of their head, so that the large quill feathers touched: they were thus surrounded by a sort of crown, formed by the feathers of the tail and wings, the head leaning on the back, with the beak pointing upwards; in this curious posture they might be taken for an old rag. As soon as the bird which frightened them was gone they jumped up immediately, uttering cries of joy. They were very fond of lying in the sun; they showed their content by repeating in a quivering tone, "_vec, vec, vec_;" when angry their notes are harsh, and the male, which is known by its colour being redder, cries "_hoop, hoop_." The female had the trick of dragging its food about the room, by this means it was covered with small feathers and other rubbish, which by degrees formed into an indigestible ball in its stomach, about the size of a nut, of which it died. The male lived through the winter; but not quitting the heated stove, its beak became so dry that the two parts separated, and remained more than an inch apart; thus it died miserably." "I once saw," says Buffon, "one of these birds which had been taken in a net, and being then old, or at least adult, must have had natural habits: its attachment to the person who took care of it was very strong, and even exclusive. It appeared to be happy only when alone with her; if strangers came unexpectedly it raised its crest with surprise and fear, and hid itself on the top of a bed which was in the room. Sometimes it was bold enough to come from its asylum, but it fled directly to its beloved mistress, and seemed to see no one but her. It had two very different tones; one soft, as if from within, and seemed the very seat of sentiment, which it addressed to its mistress; the other sharp, and more piercing, which expressed anger and fear. It was never kept in a cage by day or night, and was permitted to range the house at pleasure: however, though the windows were often open, it never showed the least desire to escape, its wish for liberty not being so strong as its attachment. "This pretty bird accidentally died of hunger. Its mistress had kept it for four months, feeding it only on bread and cheese." THE CUCKOO. [Illustration] Cuculus canorus, LINN�US; Le Coucou, BUFFON; Der gemeine Kukuk, BECHSTEIN. Although it is not larger than the turtle-dove, its length is fourteen inches, but seven of these are included in the tail, three quarters of which are covered by the folded wings. The beak, black above, and bluish beneath; the feet have two claws before and two behind. The head, the top of the neck, and the rest of the upper part of the body are of a dark ash colour, changing like the throat of the pigeon on the back and wing-coverts. In the female, which is smaller, the upper part of the body is of a dark brown, with dirty brown spots, which are scarcely visible. The under part of the neck is a mixture of ash grey and yellow, crossed with dark streaks. The belly is of a dirty white, with dark transverse lines. HABITATION.--When wild, it is a bird of passage, which arrives in April and departs in September, and even much sooner, according to an English observer. In the house, it may be let run about, or confined in a large wooden cage. FOOD.--When wild, it eats all sorts of insects, particularly caterpillars on trees. When confined, it is fed with meat, insects, and the universal paste made of wheat-meal. BREEDING AND PECULIARITIES.--Every one knows that the female cuckoo never sits upon her eggs, but intrusts that care to other birds, particularly those which feed on insects, laying one or two eggs in their nest. In order to tame a cuckoo, it must be taken from the nest: I never tried myself, but several of my friends have. As this is a curious bird, and most bird-fanciers like to have it in their room or aviary, I shall here insert some observations on this subject, by M. von Schauroth, who was before quoted. "The cuckoo possesses hardly any qualities which would render it fit to be a house bird: if old, it is too obstinate and voracious, generally it is furious, sullen, and melancholy. I have reared several; the last was taken from the nest of a yellowhammer: its eyes were not opened when I took it, yet it darted at me with fury. Before I had had it six days it would swallow in a passion everything that came near it. I fed it on bird's flesh, and was obliged to continue this food for a long time before it could feed itself. Its motions were so quick in jumping or moving that it would overthrow any cups of food which happened to be in its way. Its tail grew very slowly. It was never entirely tamed; it would dart at my hands and face, attacked every thing which came too near it, and even the other birds. It ate the poultry paste in great quantities, and discharged in proportion, which made it very dirty; I have even seen it, like the ostrich, eat its own excrements. Its short and climbing feet are so awkward that it cannot walk; it makes two or three jumps, but flies very well." "Though cunning and solitary," says Buffon, "the cuckoos may be given some sort of education. Several persons of my acquaintance have reared and tamed them. They feed them on minced meat, either dressed or raw, insects, eggs, soaked bread, and fruit. One of these tamed cuckoos knew its master, came at his call, followed him to the chase, perched on his gun, and if it found a cherry tree in its way it would fly to it, and not return till it had eaten plentifully; sometimes it would not return to its master for the whole day, but followed him at a distance, flying from tree to tree. In the house it might range at will, and passed the night on the roost. The excrement of this bird is white, and in great quantities; this is one of the disagreeables in rearing it. Great care must be taken to keep it from the cold from autumn till winter; this is the critical period for these birds, at least it was at this time that I lost all which I had tried to rear, besides many other birds of a different species." THE MINOR GRAKLE. Graccula religiosa, LINN�US; Mino ou Mainate, BUFFON; Der Mino oder Plauderer, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of a blackbird, ten inches and a half long, of which the tail measures three, and the beak one and a half. The feathers on the side of the head are short, like velvet, but on the top, descending towards the back of the head, they are the general length; on both sides of the head there is naked skin, which begins under the eyes, and extends to the back of the head, but without uniting; its breadth is uneven, near the eyes it is wide and yellow, but when the bird is pleased or is angry this colour varies. Black is the predominant colour of the body, with some tints of purple, violet, or green, according to the different light it is in; the feathers of the tail have a white streak. OBSERVATIONS.--The minor grakle is found in both the Indies, in Jamaica, as well as in the islands beyond the Ganges, as far as Java. Their food is vegetable: those which are brought to Europe willingly eat cherries and raisins; if these be shown them without being given directly they begin to cry and weep like a child. They become exceedingly tame and confiding; they whistle exceedingly well, and chatter better than any parrot. The Chinese ladies are very fond of them; they are sold very dear in Java. In the inland parts of Germany nothing is so rare as one of these birds. [Illustration] [Illustration: THE MACCAW.] LARGE BEAKED BIRDS. The general characteristics of this group are, a beak large, but varying in size, very hollow, light, raised above, and hooked before; in the species immediately following, the legs are short, strong, and the feet formed for climbing; they are furnished with a tongue, thick, fleshy, and rounded like the human tongue, which renders articulation easy to them. All these birds are foreign, and ought to be reared from the nest when intended for speaking. THE RED AND BLUE MACCAW. Psittacus Macao, LINN�US; L'Ara Rouge, BUFFON; Der rothe Aras, BECHSTEIN. The beauty of their plumage, and the facility with which they repeat words, are the two principal reasons for the introduction of parrots into parlours. Some imitate the songs of other birds and warble very sweetly. We have observed, that in order to speak distinctly the tongue must be thick, rounded, and the muscle loose enough to permit the requisite motion; hence it happens that parrots, above all those with a short tail, pronounce so very distinctly. The ravens, jack-daws, and jays come next to them; but the starlings and blackbirds surpass them in the formation of the larynx. The red and blue maccaw is one of the largest of the parrot tribe, being two feet eight inches in length. The hardest stones of the peach cannot resist the strength of its beak, the upper mandible of which is very much hooked. The claws are directed forward, and two backward. The naked cheeks are covered with a wrinkled whitish skin. The head, neck, breast, belly, thighs, top of the back, and the upper wing-coverts are of the finest vermilion. The lower part of the back and the rump are light blue. The scapulars and large wing-coverts are a mixture of blue, yellow, and green. The colours sometimes vary, especially in the wings and tail, but the species will not be the less easily known on that account. The female very much resembles the male. HABITATION.--When wild it inhabits South America, and may be found in Brazil and Guiana, in damp woods, and always in pairs. In the house it may be let range at will, giving it a roost with several rings placed across. Like its fellows, it may be kept in a very large strong wire cage, high and wide enough to let it move with ease, and preserve its handsome tail in all its beauty. FOOD.--In its native country the fruit of the palm tree is its principal food; our fruit it also likes, but white bread soaked in milk agrees with it better; biscuit does not hurt it; but meat, sweetmeats, and other niceties are very injurious; and though at first it does not appear to be injured, it becomes unhealthy, its feathers stand up separate, it pecks and tears them, above all those on the first joint of the pinion, and it even makes holes in different parts of its body. It drinks little--this is perhaps occasioned by its eating nothing dry. Many bird-fanciers say that the best food for parrots is simply the crumbs of white bread, well baked, without salt, soaked in water, and then slightly squeezed in the hand. But though this appears to agree with them pretty well, it is however certain that now and then something else ought to be added. I have observed, indeed, that parrots which are thus fed are very thin, have hardly strength to bear moulting, and sometimes even do not moult at all; in that case they become asthmatic, and die of consumption. It is clear that feeding them only on this food, which has very little if any moisture in it, is not sufficient to nourish them properly, at least during the moulting season, and while the feathers are growing again. I never saw a parrot in better health than one which belonged to a lady, who fed it on white bread soaked in boiled milk, having more milk than the bread would absorb, which the parrot drank with apparent pleasure; there was also put into the drawer of its cage some sea biscuit, or white bread soaked in boiling water; it was also given fruit when in season. It is necessary to be very careful that the milk is not sour. Some young maccaws are fed on hemp-seed, which must always be of the year before, as the new would be too warm and dangerous. Yet they must not be fed entirely on this food, but there must be added white bread soaked in milk or water, as has already been mentioned, some fruit and nuts, but never bitter almonds, as they will infallibly kill all young animals. In all cases the excrements of the bird will indicate the state of its health, and whether the food ought to be changed or not. Although maccaws rarely want to drink, as their food is very moist, yet they must not be left without water, which is generally placed in one of the divisions of their tin drawer. It is also a good thing to entice them to bathe, nothing is more favourable to their health, or better facilitates the painful operation of moulting, or keeps their feathers in better order. A little attention to these favourites, deprived of their liberty, their natural climate, and food, cannot be too much trouble to amiable persons who are fond of them, and to whom these pretty birds become greatly attached. BREEDING.--The red and blue maccaws build their nests in the holes of old decayed trees; they enlarge and make the hole even with their beak, and line it with feathers. The female, like that of the other American parrots, breeds twice in the year, laying two eggs each time, which are exactly like those of the partridge. In Europe the females also lay well, but the eggs are generally unfruitful; when they are not so it is very difficult to make the mother sit; there are, however, a few examples of the female maccaw being so well inclined to perform this office, that she will sit on pigeons' and hens' eggs, which are hatched in due time. The maccaws which we have in this country have generally been reared from the nest, particularly those which speak, for the old ones would be too savage and untractable, and would only stun one with their unbearable cries, the faithful interpreters of their different passions. DISEASES.--Amongst those to which maccaws are particularly subject, declines are the most frequent. Some cures for this are mentioned in the Introduction, which it would be well to employ. During the moulting season attention must be redoubled, not only to keep them in health but to preserve their beautiful plumage. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--As maccaws are very dear they are generally only found in the possession of rich bird-fanciers. In the centre of Germany one costs from fifty to a hundred rix dollars, and in the maritime cities thirty or forty. Their beautiful plumage forms their principal attraction. They also learn to repeat many words, to go and come, and also to obey the least signal from their master. I confess, however, that their awkward walk, their heavy movements, and their constant inclination to help themselves along with their beak, added to their great uncleanliness, does not appear very agreeable. They are sometimes very wicked, taking dislike to some people, and may do great injury to children if left alone with them. Owing to their dung being very liquid, abundant, and foetid, they must be cleaned regularly every day. [Illustration: AVIARY FOR DRAWING ROOM.] THE BLUE AND YELLOW MACCAW. Psittacus Ararauna, LINN�US; L'Ara Bleu; Der Blaue Aras, BECHSTEIN. This species, which is about the size of the former, appears to me much more beautiful, though the colours of its plumage are not so striking. Its beak is black, the feet dark grey; the cheeks flesh-coloured, streaked in the form of an S, with lines of short black feathers. The iris is light yellow; the throat ornamented with a black collar; the forehead, to the top of the head, the sides, and small wing-coverts are of a dark green; the rest of the upper part of the body is of a fine blue; all the colours are apt to vary. HABITATION.--Being, like the preceding one, a native of Surinam, Guiana, and Brazil, its way of living and qualities are much the same. It does not, however, learn to speak so easily, and cannot pronounce the word _maccaw_ so distinctly; but it imitates perfectly the bleating of sheep, the mewing of cats, and the barking of dogs. Its custom of only drinking in the evening seems extraordinary. THE ILLINOIS PARROT. Psittacus pertinax, LINN�US; La Perruche Illinoise; Der Illinesische Sittich, BECHSTEIN. This is a species which almost all bird-sellers have. Its length is nine inches and a half. The beak is light grey, the eyes surrounded with a naked greyish skin, the iris is deep orange. The feet are dark grey. The principal colour on the top of the body is green, that under is yellowish grey. The forehead, cheeks, and throat are of a brilliant orange; the top of the head is dark green; this colour is lighter and yellowish on the back of the head; the top of the neck is greenish grey; there are some orange spots on the belly. In the female, the forehead only is deep yellow, and there is no other mixture of yellow either on the head or belly. HABITATION.--This parrot is also a native of the hottest parts of South America, frequenting savannas, or any other open places, and building its nest even in the holes of the Termites (_Termes fatalis_, LINN�US.) These birds are so sociable that they may be seen in flocks of five or six hundred. In the house, they must always be kept in pairs, and generally in cages. They show the tenderness of their attachment to each other by their continual caresses; this is in fact so great, that if one die the other soon languishes from grief. FOOD.--When these birds go forth to steal chestnuts, acorns, peas, and similar fruits, which form their food, they always place a sentinel to warn them of the approach of an enemy: at the least alarm, they fly away, uttering loud cries. When confined, they are fed with nuts, and bread soaked in boiled milk. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Their handsome plumage, their affectionate and confiding ways, and the tenderness of attachment which these pretty birds have for each other, make them great favourites; but they learn scarcely any thing, and their continual cries are sometimes very annoying. THE LONG-TAILED GREEN PARRAKEET. Psittacus rufirostris, LINN�US; Le Sincialo, BUFFON; Der rothschnäblige Sittich, BECHSTEIN. The length of this species is twelve inches and a half, but the tail alone measures seven inches and a half. This bird is not larger than a blackbird; the folded wings only cover one quarter of the tail, the centre feathers of which are nearly five inches longer than the exterior ones. The upper mandible of the beak is of a blood red, with the point black; the under one is entirely black. The circle of the eyes, the naked membrane of the beak, and the feet, are flesh-coloured; the irides are orange. The rest of the body is yellowish green, with the wings bordered with light yellow. There are varieties of different shades of green, the tail feathers of which are blue at the extremity. This species inhabits the hottest part of South America. Its cry is noisy and frequent; it soon learns to speak, whistle, and imitate the sounds of most animals as well as birds. In the cage, where it cannot have much other exercise, it chatters and squalls so incessantly, that it is often very disagreeable. It must be treated like the preceding species, but does not appear so delicate. THE BLUE-HEADED PARROT. Psittacus cyanocephalus, LINN�US; La Perruche à tête bleu, BUFFON; Der Blauköpfige Sittich, BECHSTEIN. This beautiful species is not more scarce than the preceding, and is about the size of a turtle dove, although its length is eleven inches and a half, six of which being included in the tail, half of this is covered by the folded wings. The naked skin round the eyes is yellow; the upper part of the body is green, the under part yellowish. The forehead has some tints of red; the head is blue; the throat violet, with a grey tint. This parrot comes from India, and is only prized for its beauty, for it cannot learn to speak. It must be treated like the preceding species. THE YELLOW PARROT. Psittacus solstitialis, LINN�US; La Perruche jaune, BUFFON; Der gelbe Sittich, BECHSTEIN. The whole length of this bird is eleven inches and a half. The tail is wedge-shaped, and the folded wings cover one-third of it. The beak and feet are green. The throat, the naked membranes of the beak, and the circle of the eyes, are light grey; the iris is yellow. The general colour of the body is orange, with olive spots on the back and wing coverts. This parrot comes from Angola, and easily learns to speak. The food and treatment must be the same as the preceding. THE AMBOINA PARROT. Psittacus Amboinensis, LINN�US; Le Lory Perruche tricolor, BUFFON; Der Amboinische Sittich-Lory, BECHSTEIN. This species somewhat resembles the Ceram lory, a variety of _Le Lori Noir_ of Buffon (_Psittacus garrulus auroræ_, LINN�US); owing to this resemblance the French also call it _l'Aurore_. Its length is sixteen inches, of which the tail, which is round, measures half. The beak is nine lines in length; there is no naked membrane, and the nostrils are in front; the iris is of a golden hue. The head, the nape of the neck, and all the lower part of the body, are the colour of vermilion. A ring of sky blue, very indistinct, surrounds the neck; all the feathers on the top of the body are of a beautiful green, with a fine edge of blue, or some dark colour. In the female, the head is green; the throat, the under part of the neck, and the breast, are the same, but having a reddish tint. The small tail-coverts are dark green, edged with red; the tail itself is tinged with green. The beak is horn brown, with a reddish tint above and below. OBSERVATIONS.--A pair of this beautiful species were sold to his Highness the Duke of Meiningen as coming from Botany Bay, but they are really natives of Amboina. Timid and wild, this bird has a sharp whistle and a cry like "_gaick_," but cannot speak. The feathers are so loose that they generally come off in the hand when touched; but they grow again very quickly. It is kept and treated like the others. THE PURPLE PARROT. Psittacus Pennanti, LATHAM; La Purpure; Der Pennantsche Sittich, BECHSTEIN. In the male, which very much resembles the sparrow-hawk, the prevailing colour is a reddish purple, from which it derives its name among bird-sellers. The head and rump are dark crimson; the throat, as well as the small outer wing-coverts, and the centre pen-feathers, are of a most beautiful sky blue; all the under part of the body is bright crimson, shading to bluish on the thighs. The tail is of a deep blue. In the female, which the bird-sellers pass as a different species, under the name of the _Palm-tree Parrot_, the prevailing colour is greenish yellow; it resembles the male sparrow-hawk in make. The head, the sides of the neck, and half the breast, are of a bright crimson; the throat pearl blue, shading a little to sky blue on the edges; the top of the neck, the back, shoulders, and last quill-feathers, are of a velvet black. All the feathers are edged with greenish yellow, except the scapulars and the feathers of the neck, the edges of which are the colour of sulphur. The rump and part round the vent are of parrot green, the long lower coverts of the tail crimson, edged with greenish yellow; the knee bands have a shade of sky blue. The under part of the body is of a brilliant yellow, with some irregular red dashes and spots, which show its relation to the former bird. The base of the tail is green, like the neck of the water-duck; the rest of the wings and tail are like the male. OBSERVATIONS.--I have seen several of this superb species, which belonged to his Highness the Duke of Meiningen. It is a great pity that they are so wild, timid, and difficult to teach. Their note is a kind of chirping, which is rarely heard. Their feathers are as loose as the preceding species. They come from Botany Bay, and are very dear. Being more delicate, they require more attention than the other parroquets. THE WHISKERED PARROT. Psittacus bimaculatus, SPARRMANN; Perruche à Moustache; Der Zweyfleckige, Sittich, BECHSTEIN. The length of this very beautiful parrot is fourteen inches, of which the tail measures more than half; its size is that of the turtle-dove, but very slender. The beak is large, orange-coloured, or pale blood red; the head of a fine ash colour, tinted with green on the top, and having a narrow black band on the forehead; the part near the eyes is naked, and pale flesh-coloured; the forehead light yellow; an almost triangular spot extends from the base of the beak across the cheeks to the throat; all the top of the body is meadow green, spotted with black. The under part of the body is of a deep rose colour. There is a variety of this species with a black beak. In the female, or what is supposed to be so, the forehead, the throat, the sides of the head and neck are pale orange colour; an oval black streak descends from the corners of the beak towards the throat; the nape, the top of the neck, the shoulders, back, rump, and upper part of the tail, are meadow green. The breast and belly, to the extremity, are of a fine green. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird is very docile, amiable, and talkative. Its mildness is very pleasing, and it is extremely affectionate and caressing. Its cry is "_gaie, gaie, gaie_." It comes from the Islands of the Southern Ocean and Botany Bay. THE CARDINAL PARROT. Psittacus erythrocephalus, LINN�US; La Perruche cardinale; Der Cardinal Sittich, BECHSTEIN. The length of this species is twelve inches, of which the tail, which is very wedge-shaped, measures six and three quarters. The beak is peach blossom, and the naked membrane ash coloured, the iris orange, and the feet grey. All the head is violet, tinted with blue and red; a black band surrounds the neck; the throat is black, the upper part of the body dark green, the under part light green. In the female, the beak is yellow; the head of a dark blue ash-colour, without the ring round the neck; but the place of it is marked by a slight yellow tint. The young ones also have no ring, and the colour of the head is not marked; it varies from rose red to green. VARIETIES OF THE CARDINAL PARROT. 1. The Blossom-headed Parrakeet, LATHAM; Psittacus erythrocephalus, LINN�US; Perruche à tête rouge de Gingi, Buffon; Der Rothköpfige Sittich aus Gingi, BECHSTEIN. The head is red, having on the back a mixture of light blue. A narrow black line passes from the chin to the nape of the neck; another line, of light green, below the former, forms with it a ring round the neck. The rest of the plumage is green, but the under part of the body has a tint of light yellow. The tail is green above, having the inner border light yellow. 2. The Rose-headed Ring Parrakeet, LATHAM; Psittacus erythrocephalus Bengalensis, LINN�US; Petite Perruche à tête couleur de rose longs brins, BUFFON; Der Rothköpfige Sittich aus Bengalen, BECHSTEIN. The upper mandible is light yellow, the lower black, the membrane brownish. The top of the head and cheeks are rose coloured, the back of the head blue, the throat and ring like the preceding variety, as well as the red spot on the wing-coverts; the two centre feathers of the tail are blue, the others green, edged with blue. 3. The Borneo Parrakeet; Psittacus erythrocephalus Borneus, LINN�US; Perruche à tête rouge de pêcher de Borneo; Der Rothköpfige Sittich aus Borneo, BECHSTEIN. The upper mandible is red, the under black, the membrane ash-coloured, the iris the same; the whole head is peach-blossom, with a green tint on the forehead; there is a black line between the eyes, near the membrane of the beak; another extends from the lower mandible obliquely on each side of the neck, widening on the back. The upper part of the body to the tail is light green, shading to light yellow towards the middle of the wing-coverts; all the under part from the chin is peach blossom, tinged with chestnut colour; the feathers of the thighs, the tail-coverts, and the middle of the belly, are green; the feathers of the tail are the same, but the centre ones are rather brown, and all are spotted with white. OBSERVATIONS.--This parrakeet, so easily distinguished by its plumage, is lively, fearful, and its cry is frequent. It learns nothing of itself, and it is with great difficulty that it can be made to repeat a few words. I have seen it, with the preceding and following species, among the beautiful collection of birds belonging to his Highness the Duke of Meiningen. THE RED-HEADED GUINEA PARRAKEET. Psittacus Manillensis, BECHSTEIN; Perruche à collier couleur de rose, BUFFON; Der Manilische Sittich, BECHSTEIN. This beautiful species, whose colours are soft and the feathers thick and silky, is hardly larger than the thrush, though its length is from fourteen to fifteen inches, two-thirds of which are included in the tail. The naked membrane is flesh-coloured, the eyelids very red. The plumage is, in general, light green. From the black throat there extends a ring round the neck, which is black at first, and afterwards pale rose colour; the back of the neck in old birds has a blue tint. In the female the black of the throat is not so wide, there is no rose-coloured ring, and the under part of the body more nearly approaches yellow. OBSERVATIONS.--This species, which is very mild, tame, and beautiful, is a native of the Philippines, particularly Manilla; some say that it is also very common in Africa. It is very pleasing, certainly, but rarely learns to speak, and then only a few words. It must be treated like other delicate species. THE PAVOUAN PARROT. Psittacus Guianensis, LINN�US; La Perruche Pavouane, BUFFON; Der Guianische Sittich, BECHSTEIN. This species is only twelve inches in length, including the tail, which measures six and a quarter, and has the two centre feathers three inches longer than the others. The upper part of the body is dark green, the under lighter. The cheeks are not spotted with bright red till the third year. OBSERVATIONS.--It is a native of Guiana, Cayenne, and the Caribbee Islands. Bird-sellers in Germany are generally provided with them, as they are not delicate or difficult to carry about. They must be treated like the former species. "This," says Buffon, "is, of all parrots from the new continent, the most easily taught to speak; nevertheless it is only tractable in this particular, for even after a long captivity it still preserves a native wildness and ferocity, and is sometimes stubborn and ill-humoured. But as it has a lively eye, is neatly and well formed, it is admired for its shape." THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET. Psittacus pullarius, LINN�US; La Perruche à tête rouge, BUFFON; Der Rothköpfige Guineische Sittich, BECHSTEIN. Bird-sellers give the name of _Guinea-sparrow_ to this little parrakeet, which is not larger than the common crossbill. The beak is red, but pale at the tip, the membrane at the base ash colour, as well as the circle round the eyes. The feet are grey, the iris bluish; the front part of the head and throat are red; the edge of the wings and rump blue. The upper side of the tail feathers is red, the under has a black streak, the tip is green; the two centre feathers are entirely green, like the rest of the body. In the female, the colours are the same, though lighter, and the lower part of the wing is yellow. These birds may be found in any part of the torrid zone in the old world, from Guinea to India. As most of them died on the voyage, there were formerly very few of them in Europe, but as the means of preserving them is now better known, most bird-sellers have them. Though they cannot learn to speak, and their cry is rather disagreeable, yet one cannot help admiring them as much for their beauty as their great mildness. They are so much attached to each other that they must always be had in pairs, and if one dies the other rarely survives it. Some people think that a mirror hung in the cage, in which the survivor may imagine that it still sees its lost companion, will console it. The male remains affectionately near the female, feeds her, and gives her the most tender caresses; she, in her turn, shows the greatest uneasiness if she be separated from him for an instant. In the countries which this species inhabits, it makes great havoc among the corn. In Europe it is fed on canary seed, millet, and white bread soaked in boiled milk. THE CAROLINA PARROT. Psittacus Carolinensis, LINN�US[26]; La Perruche à tête jaune, BUFFON, pl. enl. 499; Der Carolinische Sittich, BECHSTEIN. This bird is about the size of a turtle-dove; its length is thirteen inches, of which the tail measures at least half. The beak is as white as ivory, the membrane and naked circle of the eyes, as well as the feet and claws, greyish white; the front of the head of a beautiful orange, the back, the nape of the neck, and the throat, light yellow; the rest of the neck, the back, breast, belly, and sides, are green; the tail is green, and very wedge-shaped. OBSERVATIONS.--A native of Guiana; this pretty parrot also breeds in Carolina, and sometimes even penetrates into Virginia in large flocks during the fruit season, making great ravages among the nuts, of which it only eats almonds, rejecting all others. It is frequently brought to Europe; and in Paris it is the species of parrot which costs the most. It is fed, says Buffon, on hemp seed; but it is better to add white bread soaked in water, or boiled milk which is not sour, wheat, Indian corn, and the like. Its cry is frequent; it is rather wicked, and does not speak; but it well makes up for this by its beauty, the elegance of its form, its graceful movements, and its strong and almost exclusive attachment to its mistress; it likes to hang by the beak, even while sleeping, and will let itself be carried thus every where without moving for a very long time. THE LITTLE BLUE AND GREEN PARRAKEET. Psittacus passerinus, LINN�US; La Perruche passerine été, ou Toui été, BUFFON; Der Sperlingsparkit, BECHSTEIN. Its size very little exceeds that of the sparrow. A beautiful light green is the predominant colour of its plumage; but the rump is blue, the large wing-coverts are the same; the small ones, again, are green. The beak, the membrane at the base, the circle of the eyes, and the feet, are often orange; it sometimes varies, however, to yellow, ash colour, and flesh colour. OBSERVATIONS.--This species is as social and affectionate as the preceding, but much more rare and dear. It is a native of Brazil, and cannot speak. It must be fed on canary seed, millet, and hemp. THE GREY-BREASTED PARROT. Psittacus murinus, LINN�US; La Perruche à poitrine grise, BUFFON; Der grünbrustige Sittich, BECHSTEIN. This pretty parrot, distinguished by its silvery grey colour, is about the size of a turtle-dove. Its ruffling the feathers of its head, particularly on the cheeks, added to the smallness and peculiar way in which it holds its bill, which is always buried in its breast, gives it somewhat the appearance of a small screech owl. Its length is ten inches, of which the wedge-shaped tail measures half. The beak is three-quarters of an inch in length, pearl grey, or whitish. The forehead, to about the middle of the top of the head, the cheeks, throat, breast, and half the belly are of a light silvery grey, with shades appearing like grey stripes; the upper part of the body and tail are of a brilliant siskin green. OBSERVATIONS.--This species is very mild, speaks but little, and even seems to be of a melancholy turn. Its call, which is "_keirshe_," is loud and sonorous. It is the same species which is mentioned in the Travels of Bougainville, by Pernetty. "We found it," says he, "at Montevideo, where our sailors bought several at two piastres a-piece. These birds were very tame and harmless; they soon learnt to speak, and became so fond of the men that they were never easy when away from them." The general opinion is, that they will not live more than a year and a half if kept in a cage; this prejudice is completely refuted by the bird from which this description is taken, and which may be seen in the collection of his Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen. THE RED AND BLUE HEADED PARRAKEET. Psittacus canicularis, LINN�US; La Perruche à front rouge, BUFFON; Der rothstirnige Sittich, Bechstein. This species, which is rather common among us, is ten inches in length, of which the tail measures half, of which the folded wings cover one third; the forehead is scarlet, the top of the head a fine sky blue, paler at the back; the upper part of the body meadow green, the under lighter. The forehead is orange, and the circle of the eye pale yellow may be peculiar to the female. OBSERVATIONS.--This parrot is handsome, but does not speak. Although a native of South America, is not very delicate or difficult to preserve. The food as usual. THE RED-CRESCENTED PARAKEET. Psittacus lunatus, BECHSTEIN; Der Mondfleckige, BECHSTEIN. This species, which I have not found described by any author, may be seen in the collection belonging to his Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen. Its length is eleven inches and a half, of which the tail measures six. The beak, one inch in length. The forehead is deep red, a crescent of the same colour extends towards the upper part of the neck, ornamenting the top of the breast; the upper part of the body is leek green, becoming a little darker on the head. The under part of the body is light green, slightly tinted with red on the breast; the under part of the pen and tail feathers is dirty yellow. OBSERVATIONS.--I do not know of what country this parrot is a native. It appears very lively, cries often and very loudly "_goeur, goeur_," speaks prettily and distinctly, and appears very healthy. The bird from which the description is taken is certainly a proof that this species will attain a great age, for it is very old. THE GREAT WHITE COCKATOO. Psittacus cristatus, LINN�US; Kakatoes à huppe blanche, BUFFON; Der gemeine Kakatu, BECHSTEIN. The size of this bird is that of a barn-door fowl, and its length seventeen inches. The beak is blackish, and the membrane at the base black; the iris is dark brown, the circle of the eye white. The whole of the plumage is white except the large quill-feathers and the exterior feathers of the tail, the inner beards of which are primrose-yellow to the centre. The tuft, which the bird raises and sinks at will, is five inches in length. OBSERVATIONS.--At present, this species is only found in the Moluccas. The general custom in Germany is to give it a spacious cage in the form of a bell, from the top of which is hung a large metal ring, in which it likes to perch. The food of the cockatoo is the same as that of the other large species of the same family; however, it appears to be very fond of vegetables, farinaceous grains, and pastry. For its qualities, I cannot do better than quote Buffon: "Cockatoos," says he, "which may be known by their tuft, are not easily taught to speak; there is one species which does not speak at all; but this is in some measure compensated for by the great facility with which they are tamed; in some parts of India they are even so far domesticated that they will build their nests on the roofs of the houses: this facility of education is owing to their intelligence, which is very superior to that of other parrots. They listen, understand, and obey; but it is in vain that they make the same efforts to repeat what is said to them: they seem to wish to make up for it by other expressions of feeling and by affectionate caresses. There is a mildness and grace in all their movements, which greatly adds to their beauty. In March, 1775, there were two, a male and female, at the fair of St. Germain, in Paris, which obeyed with great docility the orders given them, either to spread out their tuft, or salute people with a bend of the head, or to touch different objects with their beak and tongue, or to reply to questions from their master with a mark of assent which clearly expressed a silent _yes_: they also showed by repeated signs the number of persons in the room, the hour of day, the colour of clothes, &c.; they kissed one another by touching their beaks, and even caressed each other; this showed a wish to pair, and the master affirms that they often do so even in our climates. Though the cockatoos, like other parrots, use their bill in ascending and descending, yet they have not their heavy disagreeable step; on the contrary, they are very active, and hop about very nimbly." THE LESSER WHITE COCKATOO. Psittacus sulphureus, LINN�US; Kakatoes à huppe jaune, BUFFON; Der gelbhäubige Kakatu, BECHSTEIN. The length of this species is fourteen inches and a half. The beak, the naked membrane, and feet are blackish; the circle of the eye is rather white, and the iris inclining to red. The general colour of this species is also white, with a primrose-yellow tint on the wings and tail, as well as a spot of the same colour under the eyes. The tuft, which is pointed, and composed of soft thread-like feathers, is of lemon-colour. It comes from the same country as the preceding, to which it yields neither in elegance, intelligence, docility, nor mildness. It is fond of caresses, and returns them with pleasure: all its motions are equally full of grace, delicacy, and beauty. There are two varieties of this species, which only differ in size. THE GREAT RED-CRESTED COCKATOO. Psittacus Moluccensis, LINN�US; Kakatoes à huppe rouge, BUFFON; Der rothäubige Kakatu, BECHSTEIN. This species is a little larger than the common cockatoo, its size being almost equal to that of the red and blue maccaw. Its beak is bluish black, the membrane black, the circle of the eyes pearl grey, and the iris deep red. The feet are lead colour, the nails black. White, tinged with pale rose-red, is the prevailing colour; the tuft, which falls back on the head, is very large, most of the feathers being six inches in length; of which the under side is of a beautiful orange. In the side tail feathers, from the base to the centre of the interior beard, the colour is primrose-yellow; the under part of the pen-feathers has a tint of the same. OBSERVATIONS.--This beautiful bird has a noble air; and, though often tamed, it is rarely so caressing as the common cockatoo; its cry, like that of the other species, is its own name; it also cries "_tertingue_" very loud, and like a trumpet, and imitates the voice of several animals, particularly the cackling of fowls and the crowing of cocks. When it cries it flaps its wings. Though a native of the Moluccas, it is neither delicate nor difficult to rear. THE RED-VENTED COCKATOO. Psittacus Philippinarum, LINN�US; Le petit Kakatoes des Philippines, BUFFON; Der rothbäuchige Kakatu, BECHSTEIN. This species, the size of the grey parrot, is but thirteen inches in length. The beak is white, or of a pale flesh colour, and grey at the base; the circle of the eyes is yellowish-red; the feet are of a silver-grey; the general colour of the body is white; the head is ornamented with a tuft, in which there is nothing remarkable but its raising it in the form of a shell. OBSERVATIONS.--It is a native of the Philippines. Its beauty and great docility are its chief merits; for it cannot speak, and it also appears of a jealous nature, being angry when it sees the other parrots caressed, and making the unpleasant cry of "_aiai, miai!_" but never "_cockatoo_." THE BANKSIAN COCKATOO. Psittacus Banksii, LINN�US; Le Kakatoes Noir, BUFFON; Der Banksche Kakatu, BECHSTEIN. This certainly is the handsomest, rarest, and most precious of all the cockatoos. It is as large as the red and blue maccaw, its length being from twenty-two to thirty inches. The beak is thick, yellowish, and black at the point; the iris red, and the feet black. Black is the prevailing colour of its plumage; the tuft is rather long, but in a state of tranquillity lies flat on the head, as in the preceding cockatoo; each feather has a yellowish spot exactly on the tip; the wing-coverts are also terminated with a similar spot. VARIETIES.--Of this beautiful species there are several varieties. 1. Those with the beak lead-coloured; the tuft of a moderate size, black mixed with the yellow feathers; the throat yellow; the sides of the neck spotted with yellow and black; the tail as above; all the rest black, without any streaks on the under part of the body. 2. Those with the beak bluish grey, plumage olive, or black, with a yellowish tint on the sides of the head, but having no feather with a yellow tip. The belly of one colour, without streaks; tail as above. This may possibly be a young one. 3. Those with the beak raven-grey; the head, the neck, and the under part of the body of a dark dirty brown colour. The feathers on the top of the head and nape of the neck are bordered with olive: the upper part of the body, the wings and tail, of a brilliant black; the centre feathers of the latter are of one colour; the others scarlet in the middle, but without streaks. This is perhaps a female. OBSERVATIONS.--This noble and handsome bird is still rather rare in England, and still more so in Germany. It may be found in many parts of New Holland; its motions resemble those of the common cockatoo and the manner of treating it is the same. THE ASH-COLOURED PARROT. Psittacus erithacus, LINN�US; Le Perroquet cendré, ou le Jaco, BUFFON; Der Gemeiner aschgrauer Papagay, BECHSTEIN. This parrot and the following are the most common and docile that we possess. Its length is nine inches. The beak is black, the membrane at its base, and the circle of the eyes have a powdered appearance. The feet are ash-coloured, the iris yellowish. A fine pearl grey and slate-colour tinges the whole body; the feathers of the head, neck, and belly are edged with whitish grey; the tail, which is short, and of a vermilion colour, terminates and relieves this shining and watered plumage, which also has a powdered appearance. The male and female are alike, and learn with equal facility. Most of the birds of this species are brought from Guinea, but they also inhabit the interior parts of Africa, as well as Congo and the coasts of Angola. FOOD.--In its native country it lives on all kinds of fruit and grain; it will also become quite fat on the seed of the safflower, which to man is so violent a purgative. Here it eats any of our food; but white bread soaked in boiled milk, and fruits, are what it likes best. Meat, of which it is very fond, brings on diarrhoea, as in other parrots, and that kind of green sickness which makes it peck itself and tear out its feathers, &c. There are some instances, when treated with care, of their having lived for sixty years. BREEDING.--In its native country this species builds in high trees. This is the first of this group of birds which has bred in Europe. "M. de la Pigeonnière," says Buffon, "had a male and female parrot in the city of Marmanote, in Angenois, which used to breed regularly every spring for five or six years; the young ones of each brood were always reared by the parent birds. The female laid four eggs each time, three of which were fruitful, and the other not so. In order that they may breed at their ease, they must be placed in a room in which there is nothing but a barrel, open at one end, and partly filled with saw-dust; sticks must be placed inside and out of the barrel, that the male may ascend them whenever he likes, and remain near his companion. Before entering this room the precaution must be taken to put on boots, that the legs may be guarded from the attacks of the jealous parrot, which pecks at everything which approaches its female." The P. Labat also gives an account of two parrots which had "several broods in Paris." DISEASES.--This parrot becomes more subject to the different diseases in proportion as it is fed on choice food. Gout in the feet is the most general, and the specifics used for the bird are not more certain in their cure than those used for man. It is not difficult to prevent this evil by great cleanliness, and giving it no meat or other niceties. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--This parrot, like the following, learns not only to speak and whistle, but also to make all kinds of gestures; and it even performs some tricks which require skill. It is particularly distinguished by its pleasing and caressing behaviour to its master. As an example of the talents of this species, Buffon gives an account of one which, "being instructed on its voyage by an old sailor, had acquired his harsh, hoarse voice so perfectly that it was often mistaken for him. Though it was afterwards given to a young person, and no longer heard the voice, it never forgot the lessons of its old master; and it was exceedingly amusing to hear it pass from a soft pleasing voice to its old hoarse sea tone. This bird not only has a great facility in imitating the voice of man, but it also seems to have a wish to do so, and this wish is shown in its great attention, the efforts which it makes to repeat the sounds it hears, and its constant repetition of them, for it incessantly repeats any words which it has just learnt, and endeavours to make its voice heard above every other. One is often surprised to hear it say words and make sounds, which no one had taught it, and to which it was not even suspected to have listened. It seemed to practise its lesson every day till night, beginning again on the next morning. It is while young that it shows this great facility in learning; its memory is then better, and the bird is altogether more intelligent and docile. This memory is sometimes very astonishing, as in a parrot which, as Rodiginus tells, a cardinal bought for one hundred crowns of gold, because it could repeat correctly the Apostles' Creed; and M. de la Borde tells us of another which served as chaplain to the vessel, reciting the prayer to the sailors, and afterwards repeating the rosary." THE CERAM LORY. Psittacus garrulus, LINN�US; Le Lori Noir variété dite de Ceram, BUFFON; Der geschwätzige Lory, BECHSTEIN. It is of the size of a pigeon, its length being from ten to eleven inches. The colours vary very much; but the following are the most common. Beak orange-coloured, naked membrane at its base, and the circle of the eyes grey; the iris deep yellow, and feet brown. The predominating colour of the body is bright red; but the small wing-coverts are a mixture of green and yellow. It comes from the Moluccas, and is treated like the preceding, which it equals in docility. THE BLUE-CAPPED LORY. Psittacus domicella, LINN�US; Le Lory demoiselle, ou à collier, BUFFON; Der blauköpfige Lory, BECHSTEIN. This magnificent species is of the size of a pigeon, and ten inches and a half in length. The beak is orange, the membrane blackish, as well as the circle of the eyes. The top of the head is purple black, or rather black shading to purple, on the nape of the neck; a crescent of light yellow, more or less visible, ornaments the under part of the throat. The outer edge of the quill-feathers, and the small wing-coverts, are of a deep blue, shading to sky blue; the others of a meadow green. The tail is slightly wedge-shaped, and of a bluish purple, tinged with red brown. In the female, which is smaller, the crescent is either not visible or only faintly marked; the blue on the head is very slight; the border of the wing is a mixture of blue and green; this is all the blue which there is in the wings. VARIETY.--The lower part of the back and belly, the rump, and the thighs are white and rose colour; the upper and under tail-coverts red and white; the wing-coverts green, with a mixture of light yellow; the beak light yellow; the rest as usual. OBSERVATIONS.--This species has the same attractions as the other lories, and to judge from the specimen which I have seen among the collection of the Duke of Meiningen, it appeared to be the mildest, most endearing, and amiable; in short, the most docile and talkative of all the parrots. It cries _lory_, and chatters incessantly, but in a hollow voice, something like that of a man who speaks from his chest; it repeats everything whistled to it in a clear tone; it likes to be always caressed and paid attention to; its memory is very good. This delicate species, being preserved with difficulty during the voyage, is also very rare and dear; it is a native of the Moluccas and of New Guinea; it requires to be taken great care of, to be kept warm; and to have its food changed when necessary. THE BLACK-CAPPED LORY. Psittacus Lory, LINN�US; Lory des Philippines, BUFFON; Der schwarzkappige Lory, BECHSTEIN. This is about the size of the preceding. Its beak is orange; the membrane and circle of the eyes of a dark flesh colour; the iris orange. The feet are black; the top of the head the same, with a blue tint; the whole body is scarlet, except a blue spot between the back and neck, and another below the breast; both of these spots have a few red feathers; the wings are green above. OBSERVATIONS.--The black-capped lory is still more scarce in Europe than the preceding, therefore it is dearer, but appears to possess all its good qualities. THE WHITE-FRONTED PARROT. Psittacus leucocephalus, LINN�US; Perroquet Amazone à tête blanche; Der weissköpfige Amazonenpapagey, BECHSTEIN. This is one of the most talkative parrots usually kept. Its beak is whitish, the circle of the eyes white; the iris nut brown; the feet are dark brown. The top, or rather the back of the head, is light blue in the male, and green in the female. The general colour is green, but the edge of the feathers is brown, particularly in the front part of the body. The red edge of the wing is the distinguishing characteristic of the male in Buffon's family of amazons. This parrot is found in St. Domingo, Cuba, and even in Mexico. It is very mild and talkative, and imitates the cries of cats, dogs, and other animals to perfection. It must be kept very clean, and not let suffer from cold. THE BLUE-FACED PARROT. Psittacus autumnalis, LINN�US; Le Crick à tête bleue, BUFFON; Der Herbstkrickpapagey, BECHSTEIN. This is about the size of a pigeon. The beak is horn colour, with a long streak of orange on each side of the upper mandible; the whole circle of the head and the throat are blue; the top of the head and under part of the neck to the breast are red; the rest of the body is green, except the large quill-feathers, which are blue; some, however, are red, with a blue tip. _Varieties._--1. The head, instead of being red and blue, is red and white. 2. The forehead scarlet, the top of the head blue, an orange spot under the eyes, the upper border of the wings light yellow. 3. Forehead and throat red behind, and under the eyes blue, the top of the head greenish yellow, the lower border of the wings red, the end of the tail pale light yellow. 4. All the body blackish except the breast, the feathers of which are edged with dark brown and red. OBSERVATIONS.--These birds inhabit Guinea, learn very little, and continually cry "_guirr, guirr_." COMMON AMAZON PARROT. Psittacus æstivus, LINN�US; Der gemeine Amazonenpapagey, BECHSTEIN. This species is imported in so great numbers that it is found at every bird-seller's, and is one of the cheapest. Its varieties are numerous. The following are the general colours: beak blackish; feet ash-coloured; iris golden yellow; forehead bluish, as well as the space between the eyes; head and throat yellow, but the throat-feathers are edged with a blue green; the body a brilliant green, inclining to yellowish on the back and belly. This bird is common in the hottest parts of America, learns to speak, is very docile, sociable, and requires only common attention. THE YELLOW-HEADED AMAZON PARROT. Psittacus nobilis, LINN�US; Psittacus ochrocephalus, GMELIN; Amazone à tête jaune, BUFFON; Der gelbköpfige Amazonenpapagey, BECHSTEIN. The length of this species is fifteen inches, of which the tail measures five; the beak one inch, the sides of the upper mandible and base of the lower are red, the rest of the beak is raven grey; the iris golden yellow; the feet greyish flesh colour, and claws black. The top of the head is golden yellow, the forehead yellowish green; the colour of the body is green, dark above, and more yellow under; the tail is but slightly wedge-shaped; but Linnæus considered it sufficiently so to class it among the long wedge-shaped tails. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird is very mild, and sometimes chatters and utters a few dull sounds, but at other times it speaks but little. Its native country is South America: it is treated like the preceding. THE YELLOW-BREASTED TUCAN. Ramphastos Tucanus, LINN�US; Toucan à gorge jaune du Brésil, BUFFON; Der Tukan oder Pfeffervogel, BECHSTEIN. Tucans are distinguished by the great size of their beak, which is convex above, hooked towards the point, hollow, light, and toothed on the edges like a saw. The feet have two claws before and two behind. In summer these birds are brought from South America to England and Holland, whence they are taken to Germany, though not often. They eat fruit, berries, grapes, bread, meat, and in general any of our food. In order to swallow anything they throw it into the air, catching it in their throats. They are generally reared from the nest, which is placed in the hole of a tree, and only contains two young ones, which in a short time are domesticated, and become very attractive. Of the nine inches, which is the whole length of this tucan, the beak alone measures five, and is grey at the base and black at the point. The upper part of the body is of a green black; the cheeks, throat, and front of the neck are orange, with a crimson band across the breast. The stomach is of a fine red, the belly and sides blackish, as well as the pen-feathers and tail. The upper tail-coverts are of a sulphur colour, the under ones are crimson; the feet and claws lead colour. THE BRAZILIAN TUCAN. Rhamphastos piscivorus, LINN�US; Le Toucan à gorge blanche du Brésil, BUFFON; Der Brasilische Pfeffervogel, BECHSTEIN. This species is twenty inches in length, of which the beak measures six; the upper mandible is yellowish green, with the edges orange coloured and toothed; the under mandible is of a fine blue, and the points of both are red. The iris is light brown; the circle of the eyes greenish yellow; the top of the head, the neck, back, belly, wings, and tail are black; the throat, the breast, and sides yellowish white; the part about the stomach is ornamented with a beautiful red crescent. It is a native of Cayenne and Brazil. THE PREACHER TUCAN. Rhamphastos picatus, LINN�US; Le Toucan à ventre rouge; Der Prediger Pfeffervogel, BECHSTEIN. The whole length of the bird is twenty inches, of which the beak measures six; the point is red, and all the rest is yellowish-green. The prevailing colour is a brilliant black, with tints of green before, and grey ash colour on the back part of the body. The breast is of a fine orange; the belly, sides, thighs, lesser tail-coverts, and the tips of the feathers, are of a lively red. This Tucan inhabits Africa and Brazil; its long and incessant cry has given it the name of _Preacher_. It is as easy to tame as to feed, for it will eat any thing. [Illustration: THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER.] WOODPECKERS. The birds in this group in general have the beak rectangular, in a few instances very slightly hooked, never thick nor very long. THE GREEN WOODPECKER. Picus viridis, LINN�US; Le Pic vert, BUFFON; Der Grünspecht, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is twelve inches and a half, but four and a half of these are included in the tail, almost half of which is covered by the folded wings. The beak, an inch and a half in length, is triangular, very pointed, and of a dark grey; the iris is grey; the tongue is five inches long, and furnished, like that of the other woodpeckers, with a horny tip, and strong hairs on each side, so as to be useful in catching and piercing insects. The top of the head to the nape of the neck is of a brilliant crimson; a black streak, which in old birds is often tinged with red, descends on each side of the neck; the upper part of the body is of a beautiful olive green, the under part of a dusky greenish white: some transverse lines may be seen on the belly, which become more distinct on the sides. In the female the colours are paler, and there is less red on the head, which, when it is young, is only grey. HABITATION.--When wild, the green woodpecker, during summer, frequents woods and orchards which are near these, but when the air becomes cold, and the snow begins to fall, it approaches villages, and flies from one garden to another; it passes the night in the holes of trees; when it finds dead, decayed, or worm-eaten ones, it pierces them on all sides with its strong beak, in order to find the insects they conceal. It never attacks a healthy tree, therefore it is not right to kill it as being mischievous; it only taps the bark of trees to make the insects come out, and its strokes are then so quick that they resemble a humming. In the house its fierce and impetuous character makes it necessary to keep it in close confinement. FOOD.--In its wild state it constantly seeks the insects which live under the bark and in the wood of trees; it also eats ants, and in winter will even take bees from the hive. In the house it is fed on nuts, ants' eggs, and meat. BREEDING.--The female lays three or four perfectly white eggs in the hole of a tree; if the young are to be tamed they must be taken from the nest when only half fledged; it is impossible to tame adults or old ones; we cannot even make them eat. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The beauty of its plumage is all that can be said of it; for it is so fierce, quick, and stubborn, that it can only be kept by means of a chain. I know no instance in which every kind of attention has rendered it more docile and agreeable: it is always untractable. One or two of these chained birds, however, do not look bad as a variety. It is curious to see them crack the nuts. THE GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. Picus major, LINN�US; L'Epeiche, ou Pic varié, BUFFON; Der Grosser Buntspecht, BECHSTEIN. This bird is rather larger than a thrush, nine inches long of which the tail measures three and a half, and the beak one. The legs are three lines high, and of a bluish olive; the iris is bluish, with a white ring; the forehead yellowish brown; the top of the head and the back black; the nape of the neck crimson; the shoulders white, the wings and tail black, and streaked with yellowish white; the belly of a dirty reddish white, the part about the vent crimson. The female has no red on the nape of the neck. HABITATION AND FOOD.--This woodpecker continually ranges woods and orchards in search of its food, which consists of insects, beech-mast, acorns, nuts, and the seed of pines and firs. In order to crack the nuts, it fixes them in the clefts of the trees. The female builds its nest in the hole of a tree, and lays from four to six white eggs. Before moulting the head of the young ones is red. They must be taken early from the nest if they are to be tamed. They are fed and treated like the green woodpecker. THE MIDDLE SPOTTED WOODPECKER. Picus medius, LINN�US; Le Pic varié à tête rouge, BUFFON; Der Mittlerer Buntspecht, BECHSTEIN. This is only distinguished from the former by being rather smaller: the beak is more slender, and very pointed. The top of the head is crimson, and the region of the vent rose-coloured. It is, besides, less common, and the young which are reared are not so untractable, though never very docile[27]. They are generally kept in a cage, and fastened by a little chain. THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER. Picus minor, LINN�US; Le Petit Epeiche, BUFFON; Der Kleiner Buntspecht, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of a lark, five inches and a half in length, two of which are included in the tail, and the beak measures seven lines. The feet are of a greenish black; the rump is white; the top of the head crimson; the nape of the neck black; the back white, with transverse streaks of black; the under part of the body is of a reddish white grey, and the sides are streaked with black. The female had no red on the head. HABITATION AND FOOD.--This rare species inhabits forests of beech and oak, skilfully catching the insects under the bark and moss of these trees; it even flies to the ground to seek the same food among the grass. While rearing the young ones, they must be kept in a cage. THE WRYNECK. [Illustration] Yunx torquilla, LINN�US; Le Torcol, BUFFON; Der Gemeiner Wendehals, BECHSTEIN. Though it is six inches and a half in length, it is not larger than our lark, because its tail includes three inches and a quarter, and its beak nine lines. The iris is of a brownish yellow, the feet, two claws of which are before and two behind, are short, strong, and lead colour. The head is ash-coloured, speckled with small rust-coloured spots mixed with some white ones. The top of the head and half of the back are divided lengthwise by a broad black streak, edged with rust colour; the rest of the upper part of the body is of a fine grey, streaked and speckled with black, white, and rust colour. In the female the belly is paler than in the male. HABITATION.--When wild, it is a bird of passage, which departs during the first fortnight of September, and does not return till the end of April, frequenting groves and orchards. In August it goes into gardens and fields planted with cabbages and other vegetables. In the house it is better to let it run about at will than to keep it in a cage, where it would soil its feathers, particularly those on the belly and breast, while playing. FOOD.--In its wild state, the wryneck lives on insects, for catching which it has a very long cylindrical tongue, with a hard point, that can be insinuated into all the chinks and fissures of trees. Ants' eggs are a very favourite food, and it does not dislike the ants themselves. Towards autumn, when the latter fail, it is contented with elderberries till the time of its departure which never varies. In the house it must be first given ants' eggs; and then by degrees the universal paste, to which it soon becomes accustomed; but, as it is delicate, in order to preserve it for some time, the nightingales' food agrees better with it. It is very amusing to see it search all the cracks and crevices of the room for insects; and if a few ants' eggs were now and then put there, it would give it the greatest pleasure. BREEDING.--Its nest, which it places in the hole of a tree, is formed of moss, wool, hair, and straw. It lays eight eggs, which are white, and very smooth. The adults and old ones are difficult to preserve and tame; but the young ones may be easily reared on ants' eggs, and the universal paste, made of the crumb of white bread. MODE OF TAKING.--In general it is caught by putting lime twigs round the nest; but if the weather be stormy, as in spring, when it is busy searching the bushes for insects, it may even be taken by the hand. The one I now have was brought to me by a little boy who had taken it in this manner. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Independently of its beautiful plumage, it is very amusing to see it make those movements which have given it its name of wryneck. It lengthens its neck, and turns round its head, so that the beak points down the back. Its general position is quite straight; the feathers of the head and throat very smooth, and the tail spread like a fan, at the same time bowing low. If it be irritated, or even if its food be brought, it slowly leans forward, raising the feathers on its head, lengthening and turning its neck, rolling its eyes; it then bows, spreads its tail, and murmurs some harsh sounds in its throat; in short, it puts itself in the most singular attitudes, and makes the most ridiculous grimaces. At other times it seems to have a melancholy disposition. In spring the male often cries in a full tone, _gui, gui, gui, gui_, to call its female. M. de Schauroth informs me that two wrynecks which he reared became so tame, that they would hang about his clothes, and begin to warble as soon as they heard him, or saw him even at a distance. One day, being wearied and teazed with its incessant cries, he drove one out of the window; but having called it towards evening, it immediately replied to his voice, and permitted itself to be taken. One of these birds, which he let range about at will, having perched on a neighbouring tree, he had only to hold out and show it the box containing its food, and it returned immediately. THE TOURAKO. Cuculus Persa, LINN�US; Le Tourako, BUFFON; Der Turako, BECHSTEIN. This Bird, which is about the size of a magpie, has been placed among the cuckoos by Linnæus, and those who have copied him, only because its cry is _couc, couc_; for in no other respect does it belong to this genus. Its beak is short and thick, and resembles that of the pigeon in shape; the upper is bent over the lower, and of a reddish brown; the nostrils are covered with feathers; the iris is nut-brown; the eyelids are edged with small red warts; the opening of the throat is wide, extending to the back of the ears; the nails of an ash grey; the head, throat, neck, top of the back, with the upper wing-coverts, the breast, upper part of the belly and sides, are covered with soft silky feathers, of a beautiful deep green; the feathers on the top of the head gradually lengthen into a large triangular tuft, which the bird raises at will, and the tip of which is red. The green in the tuft is sometimes mixed with white. OBSERVATIONS.--The Tourako, which I have seen, belonging to his Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, is one of the most elegant, mildest, and tamest of all foreign birds which I know. Its cry is _couc, couc, couc_, at first repeated slowly and distinctly, afterwards more quickly, and then in a rapid and continued succession. Notwithstanding the form of its feet it does not climb or hop, but runs as quickly as any partridge across the room, and often, pressing its wings against its body, makes several long leaps of ten feet. FOOD.--The tongue is not perceptible on opening its beak, and it swallows every thing whole which is given it. It is fed on fruit and bread cut in small pieces; it has been remarked that it has a crop. Buffon says, that one of these birds, which came from the Cape, ate rice; but that which I have seen would not touch it; on the contrary, it ate with avidity the stones of grapes, as well as bits of apple and orange; so that it may be concluded that fruit is its natural food. It is brought from Guinea, but may be found in other parts of Africa. THE COMMON KINGFISHER. Alcedo Ispida, LINN�US; L'Alcyon, ou Martin Pêcheur, BUFFON; Der Eisvogel, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is seven inches, of which the short tail only measures one and a quarter, the legs are very short, being only four lines in height, and the outer claw is united to the centre one, as far as the first joint. The beak, an inch and a half in length, is strong, straight and pointed. The iris is dark brown; the top of the head and the wing-coverts are of a deep green; the one with transverse and the other with oval spots of a beautiful sky blue. The back and shoulders shine with the most beautiful blue. In the female the colours are darker, and the sky blue there is in them only meadow green. HABITATION.--When wild this is a solitary bird, which remains the whole year on the edges of ponds, streams, and rivers. During the winter it may be seen watching for its prey at the holes in the ice, placed on a stone or stick, or perched on the branch of a tree. In the house it does not walk or hop, but flies or remains perched. It is very necessary to put some turf or branches in a corner, or it must be kept in a cage with a perch; it constantly remains in the same place. FOOD.--In its wild state its food is small fish, leeches, and, indeed, all aquatic worms and insects. In the house it must be given as much as possible the same, accustoming it by degrees to eat meat. It is very rarely that those taken when old can be preserved. I have seen one, however, which ate even dead fish. The meat and small fish for its food must be put into a bowl of fresh water, large enough, or so firmly fixed, that it may not be easily overturned. When taking its food it does not hop to the bottom of the cage, but stretches itself downwards till it can reach the water with its beak, at least if it be not a young one reared in the house.--It will not eat while being looked at. MR. PAXTON'S METHOD OF MANAGEMENT.--"Having become possessed," says Mr. Paxton, "of some young kingfishers last summer, we were very anxious to rear them; this we have accomplished, and, to the best of our information, it is the first time kingfishers were ever reared by hand. To accomplish this object we had a wire cage constructed about ten feet long, and four broad; the back part of the cage was made to imitate, as nearly as possible, the banks of a river;--through this cage a small stream of water was conducted, in which the birds received their food, &c. When the young birds were first taken from the nest, minnows and bullheads were their principal food; they have since been fed on almost every species of fresh-water fish, although they evince a marked preference for trout. "Immediately on a quantity of small fish being put into the stream of water, they commence killing them, regardless of who may be near; and so surely do they strike, that, although we have repeatedly observed them, we never yet saw them miss their prey. As soon as they have caught a fish they kill it, by knocking its head against anything that may be near them. The quantity of fish consumed by each bird is almost incredible--we should think on the average not less than six ounces a day each; they could not exist twenty-four hours without food, so they quickly digest it. There can be no doubt that the sole reason of the kingfisher migrating to the sea-side on the approach of severe weather, arises from the voracity of its appetite. "They are quite tame and domesticated, frequently sitting on the head or shoulder of the person who is in the habit of cleaning out their little dwelling. They are also very cleanly. We have observed them dive into the water as many as forty times incessantly, for the purpose of washing--this is generally done in the evening. "Although they appear satisfied with their confinement, they are far from being friendly with each other; they fight with their wings, something after the manner of the swan; this is rather surprising, as they are very dexterous with their bills when seizing their prey. "We have tried to rear others in a common cage, feeding them partly on flesh, but never succeeded." BREEDING.--A hole at the edge of the water is the place in which it builds its nest, which is formed on the outside of small roots, and lined with feathers. Its eggs in general are eight in number, and quite white. In the young ones, before the feathers grow, the stubs are so long and straight that they might be taken for so many little bristles. As soon as the young can see clearly, and before the feathers begin to sprout, is the time to take them from the nest; they must be fed first on ants' eggs, meal worms, and other worms and afterwards accustomed by degrees to meat; they will be preserved in good health for a much longer time, if care be taken always to give them their food in fresh water, rather than let them pick it up from the ground. MODE OF TAKING.--When the place which one of these birds frequents most, and which is generally near an eddy in the water, is well known, a stake must be fixed to which the snare, called a springe, can be fastened; by this means the bird may be easily taken. Lime-twigs may also be put on a bush or stake near the water's edge, provided it does not hang so much over the water as to risk the bird's falling into it when fixed by the lime. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its great attractions are its beauty, for it is not well proportioned, and all its motions are sudden. THE NUTHATCH. [Illustration] Sitta Europæa, LINN�US; La Sittele, ou le Torchepot, BUFFON; Der Nusshacker, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is six inches and a half, of which one and a half is included in the tail, and three-quarters in the beak, which is strong, straight, a little flat at the tip; the eyes are greyish brown; the feet yellowish grey, the claws very strong. The forehead is blue only in the male; the rest of the upper part of the body is of a blue grey; the cheeks and throat are white; a black streak passing across the eyes extends from the base of the beak to the neck; the belly and breast are of a dingy orange colour. HABITATION.--When wild it generally frequents woods. In the winter it approaches villages, and will even fly into barns and stables. In the house it must be kept in a cage made entirely of wire, as wood cannot resist the strength of its beak[28]. FOOD.--In its wild state it lives on insects, which it seeks for in the trees, being able to cling to and run about the branches in any way: it also eats nuts and beech mast, which it skilfully fixes in the chinks of the trees, that it may crack them more easily. In the house, it may be fed on hemp seed, oats, barley meal, or even bread. The way in which it crushes the hemp seed and oats is very curious; it takes as many as it can in its beak, and ranges them in order in the cracks of the floor, always taking care to put the large end lowest, that it may break them more easily; it then begins to despatch them one after another with the greatest skill and agility. The lady who has been occasionally mentioned in the introduction, amused herself in the winter, and particularly when the snow was on the ground, with throwing, several times a day, different kinds of seeds on the terrace below the window, in order to feed the birds in the neighbourhood. These soon became accustomed to this distribution, and arrived in crowds when they heard the clapping of hands, which was the signal used to call them. She put some hemp seed and cracked nuts even on the window-sill, and on a board, particularly for her favourites, the blue tits. Two nuthatches came one day to have their share in this repast, and were so well pleased that they became quite familiar, and did not even go away in the following spring, to get their natural food and to build their nest in the wood. They settled themselves in the hollow of an old tree near the house; as soon as the two young ones, which they reared here, were able to fly, they brought them to the hospitable window where they were to be nourished, and soon after disappeared entirely. It was very amusing to see these two new visiters hang or climb on the wall or blinds, whilst their benefactress put their food on the board. These pretty creatures, as well as the tits, knew her so well, that when she drove away the sparrows which came to steal what was not intended for them, they did not fly away also, but seemed to know that what was done was only to protect and defend them. These nuthatches remained near the house for the whole summer, rarely wandering, till one fatal day, at the beginning of the sporting season, in autumn, they no sooner heard the report of a gun than they disappeared, and were never again seen. It is possible that fear alone had driven them so far that they could not find their way home again; they did not know that there they would have been in greater safety. If these birds are left at liberty in the room, they are accustomed, like the tits, to hide the greater part of what is given to them, to keep it for another meal; but their trick of piercing holes in the wood makes them inconvenient, and therefore it is better to keep them in a cage. BREEDING.--The nuthatch builds its nest in the holes of old trees, and lays six or seven eggs spotted with red. MODE OF TAKING.--As it has the same taste for hemp seed and oats as the tits, it may often be caught in the same snare; it may also be taken in the area or barn floor trap. Its call is "_gru, dek, dek_." ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its plumage, liveliness, agility, and great cunning in catching and hiding its food, are its most agreeable qualities. [Illustration: NUTHATCH CLAW.] [Illustration: GOLDFINCH.] PASSERINE BIRDS. The birds of this group have the beak conical and pointed, in general rather strong, with both the mandibles moveable, and fit for peeling and cleaning grain. Their feet are slender, and their claws divided. Some of them do not confine themselves to grain, but also eat insects. Those which feed solely on seeds disgorge them into the crop of their young, the others simply put the food into their beaks. The greater part of them build their nests very skilfully. The females brood alone, or are very rarely assisted by the males in hatching. This group and the following are peculiarly the real _cage birds_; those pretty and attractive little creatures which enliven our rooms with their songs. Those which feed only on seeds may be tamed at any age. THE CROSSBILL. [Illustration] Loxia curvirostra, LINN�US; Le Beccroisé, BUFFON; Der Kreuzschnabel, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is nearly seven inches, of which the tail measures two and a quarter. The beak, which is one inch in length, and very thick, has its two mandibles curving in opposite directions, and crossing each other at the points, whence the name. It is no fixed rule for the upper mandible to cross to the right or left, but its direction appears to be acquired when young. The shanks, which are eight lines high, and the beak, are brown; the iris is nut-coloured. The change of colour, which some assert this bird is subject to three times a year, simply occurs as follows:-- The young male, which is at first of a greyish brown, with a little yellow, becomes after moulting entirely red, darker on the upper part of the body than on the lower, the quill and tail feathers excepted, which are blackish. This generally happens in April or May. At the second moulting this red colour becomes a greenish yellow, which is permanent; so that when red they may be known to be the young male birds, and when yellow the old ones. The females are in general grey, with a little green on the head, breast, and rump, or irregularly speckled with those two colours. From observations which have been made with great care and exactness, and which any one can repeat who wishes, it appears proved that an old male bird never changes its colour. In order to be exact as to these facts, it is necessary to observe the bird from the time of its leaving the nest; for, if one were to judge from those taken in a snare, one would certainly be disposed to think that not one bird resembled another: but all this variety depends on the different stages in moulting, which so very much affects the colours of the plumage. Thus, in old male birds the forehead, cheeks, and eyebrows are spotted with grey, greenish yellow, and white. Wherever green and yellow are prevalent, the dark grey shows through, and has the appearance of spots on those parts, particularly on the back, for the tips alone are green and yellow. The result of all this is, that when grey or speckled crossbills are spoken of, they are the young ones; when red, they have passed their first moulting; when crimson, they are near their second; and when spotted, red and yellow, they are two years old, and in full feather. To judge with exactness, these birds ought to be seen at the time of laying, but neither this nor the moulting has any fixed season; and this circumstance sufficiently explains the great variety and difference of colour which are found among this species. These details also show that the crossbill is subject to nearly the same changes of colour as the linnet, and that the red colour which it bears for the first year is what peculiarly distinguishes it from other birds. One thing, which is rather remarkable, is, that the young ones reared in the house never take the red colour, but remain grey for the second year, or change directly into greenish yellow. There are two kinds of crossbills, the greater and lesser; but the difference is not so great as some pretend, and nature is not more invariable in the size of birds than it is in that of men[29]. HABITATION.--When wild, the crossbill not only inhabits Europe, but also all the north of Asia and America, everywhere frequenting forests of pines and firs, where these trees, which are loaded with cones, furnish abundance of food. In the house it may be let range at will, but a branch of fir, or any other tree, must be put near it, on which it can perch or sleep. If it be kept in a cage it must be made of wire; for, being so much disposed to peck and nibble, a wicker cage would soon be reduced to chips. FOOD.--In its wild state the pine seed is its favourite food; the shape of its beak is peculiarly adapted for procuring these seeds, by separating the scales of the cones; it also gathers from the ground those which have fallen, and it does not neglect those of the fir, and even of the alder. When these fail it is contented with the buds of the same trees. In the house, if it be let run about at liberty, the second universal paste will be sufficient; but if kept in a cage it must be fed on hemp, pine, and rape seed, and even elderberries. BREEDING.--The time of breeding is very remarkable, being generally in the depth of winter, from December to April. The nest, which is placed at the top of a pine or fir tree, is first formed of very fine small twigs, there is then a layer of coarse moss, but the interior is lined with the finest and softest moss; it is not glued with resin, as some have said. The young crossbills being in Thuringia the object of many ridiculous superstitions, the wood-cutters are always careful of the nests. The number of the eggs varies from three to five, they are of a greyish white, spotted, speckled, and streaked at the large end with red brown. The heating nature of their food enables the young and old birds to bear the severity of the season. The old birds feed their young with the food disgorged from their own stomach, as do all the grosbeaks. This species may be reared in the house on white bread soaked in milk, and mixed with a few poppy-seeds. DISEASES.--The accumulated vapour from a room with a stove has such an effect on the constitution of these birds, that they are almost always ill[30]. Weak eyes, swelled and ulcerated feet, are very common occurrences; hence the mountaineers of Thuringia have taken it into their heads that these poor birds can take upon themselves their diseases and pains: and it is this foolish idea that induces them always to keep one of these birds near them. Their superstitious extravagance carries them so far, that they are persuaded a bird whose upper mandible bends to the right, has the power of assuming to itself the colds and rheumatism from men; but when this mandible turns to the left, the bird renders the same service to the women. These simple and credulous people imagine that nothing is more efficacious against epilepsy, than every day to drink the water which the bird has left, because they see that these unfortunate victims are often attacked with this disease. MODE OF TAKING.--With the decoy birds nothing is easier than to take the crossbills in the autumn and spring: one large rod, covered with strong bird-lime, is all that is necessary. It must be put in a glade in the wood which these birds frequent, with the decoy bird by the side; this, by its continual cry, will soon attract them. In Thuringia the people put nooses and spring traps on the top of some of the highest pines, and there hang the cage of the decoy bird; as soon as one crossbill has settled, the others follow; so that as many birds are taken as there are traps set, particularly if the stick of the spring traps be placed so that the bird must perch on it. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The crossbill is rather a silly bird; in the cage its motions are like those of the parrot; when lively it swings its body like the siskin, and sings a few sharp strains, which are more or less monotonous, according to the different powers of the songsters--for some of the males far surpass the others in this short melody. It is easily tamed, can be carried about anywhere on the finger, and will go and return again without wandering. THE BULLFINCH. [Illustration] Loxia pyrrhula, LINN�US; Le Bouvreuil, BUFFON; Der Gimpel, BECHSTEIN. This is one of the indigenous tame birds which is a favourite with the rich and noble. Its body is thick and short. Its whole length is six inches and three quarters, of which the tail measures two and three quarters; the beak is only six lines in length, short, thick, and black; the iris is chestnut-coloured; the shanks eight lines high, and black; the top of the head, the circle of the beak, the chin, and beginning of the throat, are of a beautiful velvet black; the upper part of the neck, the back, and shoulders, deep grey; the rump white; the under part of the neck, the wide breast, and to the centre of the belly, are of a fine vermilion, less bright, however, in the young than old; the blackish pen-feathers become darker towards the body; the secondaries have the outer edge of an iron blue, which in the hinder ones is reddish. The tail is rather forked, and of a brilliant black, tinged with iron blue. The female is easily distinguished from the male, for what is red on him is reddish grey on her, while her back is of a brownish grey, and her feet are not so black; she is also smaller. This species has some singular varieties; the principal are:-- 1. The _White Bullfinch_, which is of an ashy white, or wholly white, with dark spots on the back. 2. The _Black Bullfinch_. These are most generally females, which become black, either with age, when they are only fed on hemp seed, or with having been kept when young in a totally dark place. Some resume at their moulting their natural colours; others remain black; but this black is not the same in all; some are of a brilliant raven black, others dull, and not so dark on the belly; in some the head only is of a raven black, the rest of the body being duller; in others the black is mixed with red spots on the belly, or the latter is entirely red. I have seen one in which the head and breast, as well as the upper and under parts of the body, were of a raven black, every other part of a dull black, with the wings and tail white; it was a very handsome bird, rather larger than a red-breast. 3. The _Speckled Bullfinch_. It is thus called, for, besides its natural colours, it is spotted with black and white, or white and ash colour. 4. The _Mongrel Bullfinch_. It is the offspring of a female reared in the house from the nest, and of a male canary. Its shape and colour partake of those of the parent birds; its note is very agreeable, and softer than that of the canary; but it is very scarce. This union rarely succeeds; but when tried, a very ardent and spirited canary should be chosen[31]. 5. The other varieties are: the _Large Bullfinch_, about the size of a thrush, and the _Middling_, or _Common_. As to dwarf birds, which are not as large as a chaffinch, it is a bird-catcher's story, for this difference in size is observed in all kinds of birds. I can affirm it with the more certainty, having had opportunities every year of seeing hundreds of these birds, both wild and tame. I have even in the same nest found some as small as red-breasts, and others as large as a crossbill. HABITATION.--When wild, bullfinches are found over Europe and Russia. They are particularly common in the mountainous forests of Germany. The male and female never separate during the whole year. In winter they wander about everywhere in search of buds. In the house those which are caught in a snare are often let run about. These birds not being very unruly or very active, a middling-sized cage will do, in which those which have learned songs are kept; but they must be kept in separate rooms, as they will mutually spoil their songs if left together. FOOD.--When wild the bullfinch does not often suffer from the failure of its food; for it eats pine and fir seeds, the fruit of the ash and maple, corn, all kinds of berries, the buds of the oak, beech, and pear trees, and even linseed, millet, rape, and nettle seed. In the house those which run about may be fed on the universal paste, and, for a change, rape seed may be added; those which are taught must be fed only on poppy seed, with a little hemp seed, and now and then a little biscuit without spice. It has been remarked that those which are fed entirely on rape seed soaked in water live much longer, and are more healthy. The hemp seed is too heating, sooner or later blinds them, and always brings on a decline. A little green food, such as lettuce, endive, chickweed, water-cresses, a little apple, particularly the kernels, the berries of the service tree, and the like, is agreeable and salutary to them. BREEDING.--These tenderly affectionate birds can hardly live when separated from one another. They incessantly repeat their call with a languishing note, and continually caress. They can sometimes be made to breed in the house, like the canary, but their eggs are rarely fruitful. In the wild state they breed twice every year, each time laying from three to six eggs, of a bluish white, spotted with violet and brown at the large end. Their nest, which they build in the most retired part of a wood, or in a solitary quickset hedge, is constructed with little skill, of twigs which are covered with moss. The young ones are hatched in fifteen days. Those which are to be taught must be taken from the nest when the feathers of the tail begin to grow; and must be fed only on rape seed soaked in water and mixed with white bread; eggs would kill them or make them blind. Their plumage is then of a dark ash-colour, with the wings and tail blackish brown; the males may be known at first by their reddish breast; so that when these only are wished to be reared they may be chosen in the nest, for the females are not so beautiful, nor so easily taught. Although they do not warble before they can feed themselves, one need not wait for this to begin their instruction[32], for it will succeed better, if one may say so, when infused with their food; since experience proves that they learn those airs more quickly, and remember them better, which they have been taught just after eating. It has been observed several times, that these birds, like the parrots, are never more attentive than during digestion. Nine months of regular and continued instruction are necessary before the bird acquires what amateurs call firmness, for if one ceases before this time, they spoil the air, by suppressing or displacing the different parts, and they often forget it entirely at their first moulting. In general it is a good thing to separate them from the other birds, even after they are perfect; because, owing to their great quickness in learning, they would spoil the air entirely by introducing wrong passages; they must be helped to continue the song when they stop, and the lesson must always be repeated whilst they are moulting, otherwise they will become mere chatterers, which would be doubly vexatious after having had much trouble in teaching them. DISEASES.--Those bullfinches which are caught in a snare or net are rarely ill, and may be preserved for eight years or more; but those reared from the nest are subject to many diseases, caused by their not having their natural food, or by those injurious delicacies which are always lavished on favourite birds; they rarely live more than six years. The surest means of preserving them healthy for a long time, is to give them neither sweets nor tit-bits of any kind, scrupulously to confine their food to rape seed, adding now and then a very little hemp seed to please them, and a good deal of the green food before mentioned. The bottom of their cages should be covered with river sand, as the bird there finds some stones which aid the functions of the stomach. Their most frequent diseases are moulting, costiveness, diarrhoea, epilepsy, grief, and melancholy, in which case they are quite silent, and remain immoveable, unless the cause can be discovered. They must not be given any delicacy, and must be fed entirely on soaked rape seed. A clove in their water, proper food, and particularly a good deal of refreshing green food, enables them to pass the moulting time in good health. MODE OF TAKING.--There are few birds so easily attracted by the decoy bird as bullfinches. They may also be taken by any of the usual means. In winter numbers may be caught by a noose, by hanging to it such berries as the bird likes; in spring and autumn they may be caught in the area or barn floor trap; and provided they see berries there, the decoy bird is not wanted; it is sufficient if one imitates their soft cry of "_tui, tui_," in the hut. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Although the song of the male and female bullfinch, in their wild state, is very harsh and disagreeable, yet if well taught while young, as they are in Hesse and Fulda, where there are schools of these little musicians, for all Germany, Holland, and England, they learn to whistle all kinds of airs and melodies with so soft and flute-like a tone, that they are great favourites with amateurs, and particularly with the ladies. There are some of these little birds which can whistle distinctly three different airs, without spoiling or confusing them in the least. Added to this attraction the bullfinch becomes exceedingly tame, sings whenever it is told to do so, and is susceptible of a most tender and lasting attachment, which it shows by its endearing actions; it balances its body, moves its tail from right to left, and spreads it like a fan. It will even repeat words, with an accent and tone which indicates sensibility, if one could believe that it understood them; but its memory must not be overloaded. A single air, with a prelude or a short flourish to begin with, is as much as the bird can learn and remember, and this it will execute to the greatest perfection. These little prodigies would be more interesting and agreeable, if their Hessian instructors possessed a little musical taste, but these are generally tradespeople, employed about the house with their different occupations and trades; and hymns, airs, and minuets of a hundred years old, public house songs, or some learnt of their apprentices, in general compose the whole of their music. The bullfinch can also imitate the songs of other birds; but in general it is not permitted to do so, that it may only learn to repeat the airs which are taught it. Different degrees of capacity are shown here, as well as in other animals. One young bullfinch learns with ease and quickness, another with difficulty and slowly; the former will repeat, without hesitation, several parts of a song; the latter will be hardly able to whistle one, after nine months' uninterrupted teaching. But it has been remarked that those birds which learn with most difficulty remember the songs, which have once been well learnt, better and longer, and rarely forget them, even when moulting. Mr. Thiem[33], bird-seller, at Waltershausen, near Gotha, sends annually to Berlin and London one or two hundred bullfinches, instructed in this manner, at from one to several pounds sterling a-piece, according as they are more or less accomplished, whilst a wild one would cost only two or three pence. These, however, are also kept in the room and prized, both on account of their beauty and the great ease with which they are tamed; they soon learn to fly on the hand, to receive their food, or will even take it from the mouth, and become at last as familiar as if they had been reared from the nest. The following are the means which are employed to tame them:--As soon as a bullfinch is caught and brought into the room, it must be put into a cage with food sufficient for the first day only; for the loss of its liberty does not prevent its eating as soon as it is disengaged from the lime twigs or noose. The next day a band must be put round the body and wings, like that which bird-catchers put round a decoy bird, which they let run about out of doors; by means of this band the bullfinch may be fastened by a piece of packthread, a foot in length, to some place from which it cannot fall; this will prevent its beating itself to death with its wings; a little bell may be fastened to a box, which when filled with food must be given to the bird, at the same time ringing the bell; it must be then left that it may eat; this must be repeated several times in the day; the same must be done when it is given anything to drink. The poor little captive will not at first either eat or drink in any one's presence; it is therefore necessary to retire for the two first days after having given it the box, and only approach it by degrees, till it is accustomed to eat in the presence of its master, which it will soon be, for generally on the third day, as soon as it hears the bell and sees the box, it hops forward, and eats without the least shyness. Then the distance must be increased by degrees to make it come farther and farther, when, as soon as it has eaten, it may be taken on the hand and carried here and there, though it may seem a little frightened, but not being able to escape it will soon become used to this treatment, and will even begin to come to eat on the hand by continuing to do this for the third and fourth days; it will fly of itself at the sound of the bell to the hand which holds the box; after this the fastening may be loosened, and if one only move from the bird gradually, it will fearlessly approach and perch on the hand. Should it escape, however, it must be again confined and left without food for some hours. By this means a wild bullfinch will in eight days become accustomed to fly immediately to the hand, or wherever it hears the bell; in order to finish its education, it is well to increase the difficulty of getting at its food, by putting it in a small bag with a very little opening; it must also only have rape seed in the cage, keeping the hemp seed, which it likes best, for the hand or little bag. It may be taught to drink out of one's mouth by keeping it without water for five or six hours. It may even be accustomed to go and return, provided the house is not too near a wood. The surest means of preventing too long an absence is to put a female bullfinch in a cage in the window, or to leave her in the room with her wing clipped; its affection will soon bring it back to her, and it will certainly never abandon her altogether. Tame bullfinches have been known (says Buffon) to escape from the aviary, and live at liberty in the woods for a whole year, and then to recollect the voice of the person who had reared them, return to her, never more to leave her. Others have been known, which when forced to leave their first master, have died of grief. These birds remember very well, and often too well, any one who has injured them. One of them having been thrown down, with its cage, by some of the lowest order of people, did not seem at first much disturbed by it, but afterwards it would fall into convulsions as soon as it saw any shabbily dressed person, and it died in one of these fits eight months after the first accident. A bullfinch, belonging to a lady often mentioned before, being subject to very frightful dreams, which made it fall from its perch, and beat itself in the cage, no sooner heard the affectionate voice of its mistress than, notwithstanding the darkness of the night, it became immediately tranquil, and re-ascended its perch to sleep again. It was very fond of chickweed, and as soon as it perceived one bringing it to him, however much care was taken to prevent its finding it easily, it would show its joy by its actions and cries. THE GREEN BIRD. Loxia chloris, LINN�US; Le Verdier, BUFFON; Der Grünling, BECHSTEIN. This bird is rather larger than the chaffinch, being six inches in length, of which the tail measures two and a half; the beak five lines in length. The iris is dark brown; the shanks are eight inches in height, and of a bluish flesh colour. The prevailing colour of the plumage is yellowish green, lighter on the lower part of the body, still more so on the rump and breast, and shading to white on the belly. The female, which is smaller, is still more distinguished by the greenish brown of the upper part, and the ash-colour rather than yellowish green of the lower part of the body; she has besides some yellow spots on the breast, and the whole belly is rather white than yellow. Sportsmen and bird-catchers mention three kinds of green birds, namely, the large, which is everywhere of a beautiful yellow; the middle sized, the under part of the body of which is light yellow; and the little, which they say is rather greenish than yellow; but all this variety depends upon the different ages of the bird, as well as its strength, and more or less beautiful tints of its plumage. What much more deserves to be remarked is the mule, which is the offspring of a green bird, and a female canary; it has a strong body; its colours are green and grey, mixed with yellow, when the female canary is yellow; but it is always a bad singer. HABITATION.--When wild, the green bird may be found over all Europe, though not often far north. It may be seen during summer, in hedges, and on the borders of woods, and always where there are several trees near together; during winter it wanders into different provinces, in large and numerous flocks; but in March it begins to return from these journeys. In the house it may either be let range free, or be shut up in an aviary with other birds, where it is always very peaceable as long as it has sufficient food; but when that fails, it perches itself on the general food-drawer, and keeps it determinedly, pecking it with its beak so cleverly that no other bird can approach: should one venture, it is soon obliged to go away or lose its feathers; otherwise this bird is as quiet and tame in the house as it is wild and active when at liberty. FOOD.--In its wild state it seems to like all kinds of seed, even that of the milk thistle, which all other birds dislike. In the house, when it ranges at will, the second universal paste so well agrees with it that it becomes quite fat; however, as a variety, rape and hemp seed may be thrown to it; if in a cage it must only be fed in summer with rape seed, except a little hemp seed, which may be given after moulting, to make it sing. Lettuce, chickweed and other green food, always agree with it, and even the berries of the juniper tree. BREEDING.--Its nest, which is almost always placed in a hedge, on a large branch near the trunk of a tree, or on the top of an old willow-tree, is firmly built with wool, moss, and lichen, and lined with very fine roots and bristles. The female lays, twice a year, four or five pointed eggs, of a silver hue, spotted with light violet or brown. The young are at first of a greenish grey; some yellow tints, however, may already be seen in the male. When reared from the nest, it learns, though with difficulty, to imitate the different songs of house-birds; and, as it almost always happens with slow memories, having once learnt a thing it never forgets it. It also sings through the whole year; it should therefore be taught by a bird whose song is agreeable, for instance, a chaffinch, and then one would have the pleasure of hearing it without interruption through all the seasons. DISEASES.--The constitution of the green bird being very strong and healthy, it is rarely subject to disease. It may be kept in good health for twelve years. MODE OF TAKING.--If the decoy bird be a good one, the green bird may be easily caught in the area or barn-floor trap, even in December. In the spring it may be taken with bird-lime on the lure-bush, when a linnet will do for the songstress. In order to make it eat soon, a little crushed hemp seed should be thrown in the bottom of its cage. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Without being handsome its song is not disagreeable; it may also be taught to repeat words; but its greatest merit is the wonderful ease with which it is tamed, equalling, and even surpassing the bullfinch in this particular. It may not only be accustomed to go and return again, but also to build in a room near an orchard, or in a summer-house in the garden. The following are the means which must be taken to make it do this:--- After having taken the young from the nest they must be put in a cage, and placed at the foot of the tree in which this nest is built, in a place dug for the purpose, and on the cage a tit as a decoy. When left there, the old birds come to feed their young, and are caught in the snare. As soon as they are taken, they must all be brought into the house, where the old and young must be put together in any aviary, or large cage, till the latter can fly; the window may then be opened for them to go out, but hunger will soon bring them back. As soon as they have exercised their wings, the old birds should be placed on the table in the window to call them back. In time, they become so familiar that they will accompany one in a walk, and there is no fear of their flying away. If they are not taken thus, it is necessary to wait for winter and snow to let them go out, and if they profit by the permission, to call them back by some of their species placed in a cage in the window. If you wish to be quite sure of success, you have only to put a board in the window, on which two females with their wings cut, can run about, go out, and return. The green bird likes to build near canaries, and as these are good nurses, they are given the eggs of the green bird, which, like the goldfinches and siskins, learns to draw up its water and food. THE PINE GROSBEAK. Loxia Enuclator, LINN�US; Le Durbec, BUFFON; Der Fichtenkernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This is one of the largest species of grosbeak that we have, equalling the Bohemian chatterer in size. Its length is eight inches and a half, of which the tail measures three; the beak is short and thick, measuring only six lines; its colour is brown, the iris dark brown; the feet are from twelve to thirteen lines high, and blackish; the head, neck, breast and rump are of a light vermilion, with bluish tints; the feathers on the back and the lesser wing coverts are black, with reddish edges. The female is generally of a greyish green, with some scattered reddish and yellowish tints, principally on the top of the head. It is not yet well known if this bird has the same changes of colour as the crossbill, since more yellow ones have been found than red. Experience shows that the same things take place in the house as out of doors. They acquire the yellow red, not only after the first moulting, but even before it. This change begins first round the beak, descends afterwards to the back and breast, and at last gradually extends over the whole body, so that what was red before becomes yellow; this yellow is darker than citron; all the red and yellow feathers are ash-colour at the base. The young are brownish, with a slight shade of yellow. During the first year the colour of the males is light red; it is only after this that they become darker vermilion or crimson; these birds are caught in autumn and winter, either in the noose or net, with elder or service berries as a lure. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird is found in all the northern regions of Europe, Asia, and America, and in Europe rarely passes the fifty-third degree of latitude. It frequents the pine and fir forests, the seeds of which form its food; in winter it quits these places in search of berries; this is what ranks it among the erratic birds. They are so stupid, that in the north they are easily caught with a circle of brass wire fixed to the end of a long pole, to which are fastened some horse-hair rings, which are simply passed over the head of the bird. They are often caught and kept in cages, as they are liked, both on account of the ease with which they are tamed, and of their song, which is very agreeable; they will even sometimes sing in the night, and always preserve their song through the whole year, while the wild only sing in the spring. HAWFINCH. Loxia coccothraustes, LINN�US; Le Grosbec, BUFFON; Der gemeine Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. One must be a very great bird fancier to wish to have this bird in the house. Its length is seven inches, of which the tail measures two inches and a third. The beak, which is very thick in proportion to the rest of the body, is like a large blunt cone, dark blue in summer, and flesh-coloured, with the tip black, in winter; the slim feet are nine lines in height, and of a pale crimson; the yellowish brown of the forehead unites with the light chestnut on the top of the head and cheeks; the circle of the head is black, and forms, under the chin, a large square spot; the nape of the neck and upper part of the back are of a fine ash-grey, the lower part is of a dark brown, with some shades of grey on the rump. [Illustration: BREEDING CAGE.] In the females, the cheeks, head, and upper tail coverts are of a greyish chestnut colour; the throat, wings, and tail rather brown than black, the spot on the wings greyish, the under part of the body reddish grey, shading to white on the belly. HABITATION.--When wild, it may be found in all the temperate parts of Europe and Russia. It is very common among the mountainous countries of Germany, where the beech prevails in the forests. It is rather an erratic bird than a bird of passage, and its excursions are ended in March. Sonnini says, however, that he has seen it during winter, in Egypt, with the blackbirds and thrushes, and its excursions are ended in March. In the house it is generally kept in a large wire cage, where it is soon tamed. It may also be let run about, provided it has not too many companions, and that it has food in abundance, for it is a very quarrelsome bird. FOOD.--In its wild state it eats many different things; the fruit of the beech, elm, ash, and maple; the berries of the juniper, service-tree, and white-thorn; cherries and plums, the stones of which it breaks with the greatest ease, to eat the kernel; hemp seed, cabbage, radish, and lettuce seed also form a part of its food. In the house, if confined in the cage, it is contented with rape and hemp-seed; and if it run about, with the second universal paste. BREEDING.--Its nest is well built; the eggs, from three to five in number, are greenish grey, spotted with brown, and streaked with blackish blue. The young, when reared from the nest, will become so tame as to eat from the hand, and will courageously defend itself with its beak against the dogs and cats; it may also be accustomed to go and come. MODE OF TAKING.--The haste with which these birds come on hearing the call, makes it very easy to catch them in the net, by throwing berries or hemp seed on the trap. In autumn and winter they may be taken by the noose, with service-berries; in spring they may be caught by placing lime twigs on the nest. The loss of their liberty does not prevent their eating immediately rape or hemp seed. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--I confess that it has very few; its song is less agreeable than any of the others', it is a kind of low whistling, mixed with some harsh tones; but its great tameness may please; it is necessary, however, to guard one's self from its beak. THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK, OR VIRGINIAN NIGHTINGALE. Loxia cardinalis, LINN�US; Cardinal huppé, ou Rossignol de Virginie, BUFFON; Der Cardinal Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is eight inches, of which the tail measures three. Its beak is strong and light red, like its feet; the iris is dark brown; the head is ornamented with a tuft, which, when raised, is pointed; the throat and the part round the beak are black; the rest of the body is of a beautiful bright red; the pen and tail-feathers are less brilliant, and brown on the anterior part. The female is in general of a reddish brown. OBSERVATIONS.--The beautiful song of this grosbeak is so like that of the nightingale, that this name has been given it; but its voice is so strong that it pierces the ears. It sings through the whole year, except during the time of moulting. In its wild state, its principal food is the seed of the Indian corn and buck-wheat; it collects a considerable quantity of this food, which it skilfully covers with leaves and twigs, only leaving a very small hole, as the entrance to this magazine. In the cage it is fed with millet, rape seed, hemp seed, and the like, which agree with it very well. Some persons have endeavoured to make it breed in large aviaries in the middle of gardens, but I do not know that it has ever succeeded. In Germany it is very dear, being as much as six or eight pounds sterling for a pair. THE JAVA SPARROW, OR RICE BIRD. Loxia orycivora, LINN�US; Le Padda, ou Oiseau de Riz, BUFFON; Der Reiskernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is about the size of a bullfinch, and five inches in length, of which the tail measures two. The beak is thick, and of a fine rose colour; the feet are paler; the eyelids naked, and edged with rose colour; the head, throat, and streak which surrounds the cheeks, are black; the cheeks are white; the rump, tail, and greater pen-feathers are black, but all the rest of the upper part of the body, the wing-coverts, hinder pen-feathers, and breast, are of a dark grey; the belly purple grey; the lower tail-coverts white. "The whole plumage," says Buffon, "is so well arranged, that no one feather passes another, and they all appear downy, or rather covered with that kind of bloom which you see on plums; this gives them a very beautiful tint." In the female the colours are rather lighter on the back and belly: the young are not only paler, but also irregularly spotted with dark brown on the cheeks and lower part of the belly. OBSERVATIONS.--There are few vessels coming from Java and the Cape of Good Hope that do not bring numbers of these birds, which have as bad a character in those countries, and particularly in China, their native place, as the sparrows have amongst us, on account of the ravages they make in the rice fields. They have nothing attractive but their beauty, for their song is short and monotonous. They cost four or five pounds sterling a pair in Germany. THE WAXBILL. Loxia Astrild, LINN�US; Le Sénégali rayé, BUFFON; Der Gemeine Senegalist, BECHSTEIN. This bird is hardly larger than a golden-crested wren, its length being four inches and a half, of which the tail measures two inches; the beak is rather rough at the base, and of a dark red; the band which crosses the eyes, the centre of the breast and belly, are red; the upper part of the body is brown, and the lower reddish grey, the whole streaked with transverse blackish lines, which become finer as they approach the head; the quill-feathers are brown, as well as the tail, which is wedge-shaped, and streaked with darker transverse lines; the feet are brown. These birds change colour like the amandava finch; thus some are found with the tail entirely brown, others which have the rump crimson, and the rest of the body brown above and white below, and some have the belly yellow, and the back spotted with white; there are some, indeed, which have the neck and throat bluish, the under part of the body white, mixed with iron colour, and the upper part blue. OBSERVATIONS.--They inhabit the Canary Islands, Senegal, Angola, the Cape of Good Hope, and may even be found as far as India, whence they are brought to Europe. Their beautiful shape, their amiable disposition, and the affection which they show to every one indiscriminately, render them such favourites, that a dozen may be often seen in one cage. Their song is scarcely any thing. They are fed on millet, which also forms their food in their native country, to the damage of the fields which are sown with it. They approach villages like our sparrows; they are caught in traps made of the shell of a gourd, and cut like a bowl, on which some millet is scattered. THE AMANDAVA. Fringilla amandava, LINN�US; Le Bengali Piqueté, BUFFON; Der Getiegerte Bengalist, BECHSTEIN. This beautiful little bird, which is brought to Europe in great numbers from Bengal, Java, Malacca, and other tropical countries of Asia, is only four inches long, of which the tail measures one and a third. Most ornithologists class it with the sparrows, but it seems to me that it belongs rather to the grosbeaks. Its beak is short and thick, being only four lines in length, and the diameter at the base measuring three. Its colour is deep bright red; the iris is also red; the feet are six lines in height, and of a pale flesh-colour; in the male the head and under part of the body are of a fiery red, the upper part of a dark grey, but the feathers have a broad red edge, so that this colour seems to prevail; thus the edge of the feathers on the rump make it appear of a brilliant orange, though, like the belly, it is properly black; the feathers of the back, tail, sides of the breast and belly, the wing-coverts, hinder quill-feathers, and both tail-coverts, are terminated at the tip with shining white spots, which are largest on the hinder quill-feathers, and larger wing-coverts, the colour of which is otherwise black. The female is one third smaller than the male; part of the upper mandible is black; the head and upper part of the body, including the wing-coverts, are of a dark ash-colour; the feathers on the rump have only an orange edge, with a light tip; the cheeks are of a light grey; the under part of the body is pale sulphur, the pen-feathers blackish; the greater and lesser wing-coverts are finely speckled with white; the tips of the tail-feathers are greyish white. The male varies in its colours for several years before it permanently acquires those above described: it may be seen with the back grey, slightly tinted with red, the belly black, speckled with yellow; others with the back reddish grey, spotted with bright red, and the belly of a sulphur yellow, with black rings, and more or less speckled, &c. OBSERVATIONS.--These birds are as sociable as the waxbills; if there should be twenty or thirty in the same cage, they perch close against one another on the same perch; and, what is more singular, they never sing together, but one after another, the rest keeping quite silent to listen to the songster. Their song resembles that of the hay bird, and continues through the winter. The females do not sing; those are wrong who think the contrary. They are very active, often bowing and spreading their tail like a fan. In their native country their food consists of different seeds, particularly millet; this is also given it in the cage, as well as canary seed. They eat and drink a great deal. They will live from six to ten years. THE PARADISE GROSBEAK. Loxia erythrocephala, LINN�US; Le Cardinal d'Angola, BUFFON; Der Paridiese-Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This species is about six inches long; the beak and feet are flesh-coloured, the head and chin red; the upper part of the neck, the back, rump, and wing-coverts, bluish grey; the upper tail-coverts are edged with grey; the under part of the body white, with dark brown spots on the sides; the wing-coverts white at the tip, which forms two transverse streaks on the wings; the pen and tail-feathers are of a dark grey, with lighter tips. The female does not differ from the male. OBSERVATIONS.--The male sings through the whole year, but its voice is so weak that the least noise overpowers it. In England this species has been made to breed in an aviary. Its food is millet and rape seed, and sometimes a little hemp seed. THE REDBILL. Loxia sanguinirostris, LINN�US; Le Becsanguin, BUFFON; Der Rothschäbliger Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This pretty little bird is three inches and a half long, of which the tail measures one inch, and the beak four lines. The feet are nine lines in height, the middle claw measures five lines and the side ones four. The beak is strong, rather naked at the forehead, and of a dark blood red; the feet are of a very red colour, the claws black; the eyelids red, and irides orange; the circle of the beak, including the forehead, eyes, and chin, is black; the top of the head rust-colour, more or less approaching to red, scattered with blackish spots, formed by the black of the feathers; the under part of the body of a brownish red, clouded with white, and lighter on the sides and the lower part of the belly, the whole spotted with black in the young birds, but with no spots in the old ones. The female is altogether lighter, and has no black on the head, but two dark grey streaks above and under the eyes; the under part of the body is only reddish grey. OBSERVATIONS.--This species is found on the coasts of Africa, in Bengal, and other parts of Asia. It is a very agreeable bird, and though its voice is weak its song is only the more melodious. A male and female put together in a cage seem to be taken up with their mutual affection, always feeding and caressing each other. They are fed on crushed canary and hemp seed, which preserves them in good health for several years. The room in which they are kept must be heated during winter. THE DOMINICAN. Loxia Dominicana, LINN�US; Le Paroare, BUFFON; Der Dominicaner Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is about the size of a lark. The upper part of the beak is brown, and the lower light flesh-colour; the feet are grey; the front of the head, the throat, and part of the neck red; the back of the head is blackish, with a slight mixture of white. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird comes from Brazil, and possesses nothing attractive but its beauty. Its song is merely an occasional call. In Germany it costs three pounds sterling. THE GRENADIER. Loxia orix, LINN�US; Le Cardinal du Cap de Bonne Espérance, BUFFON; Der Grenadier Kernbeisser, oder Feuervogel, BECHSTEIN. This bird is about the size of a sparrow. The beak is black; iris chestnut; feet dark flesh-colour; forehead, sides of the head, chin, lower part of the breast and belly blackish; the throat, top of the head and breast, rump, vent, and tail are of a fiery red, or brilliant carmine, and soft, like velvet. VARIETIES.--1. A black spot on the chin; thighs red. 2. Tail dark brown, with a greyish white border. In the female the beak is raven black, the upper part of the body dark brown, with light grey edges to the feathers; the head dark grey, with a whitish streak which passes above the eyes; the under part of the body light grey. From this it seems to be very like the house sparrow; its plumage is, however, altogether lighter. The male takes these colours, in the house, at the second moulting, but the streaks are darker, the feathers of the upper part of the body being blackish, with broad borders of reddish grey; the streak above the eyes is of a pale sulphur. When wild, the males, immediately after pairing, which is in January, lose their red feathers, and become like the females, but have them again in July, about the time of the second breeding season. They are pretty whilst moulting, when the head and body are speckled, the tail and neck still remaining red. OBSERVATIONS.--These birds, which are very numerous in all the colonies at the Cape of Good Hope, do as much mischief there to the flowers and ears of corn, as the sparrows do in Europe. When retiring by thousands in the evening, from the fields to the reeds, they make such a noise with their chirping as may be heard to a great distance. Their call is like the sparrows' "_dib, dib_," and their song as weak as that of the siskin; the nest is skilfully constructed with small twigs interwoven with cotton, and has but one opening, with two compartments, one above the other, the upper for the male and the lower for the female; the eggs are green. These birds, when kept in a cage, are fed on canary seed. The male and female never like to be separated; there is no instance, however, of their breeding in these climates. THE CAPE FINCH. Loxia Capensis, LINN�US; Le Pinson noir et jaune, BUFFON; Der Capsche Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. I have one of these birds, which is about the size of a bullfinch: its length is six inches and a quarter, of which the tail, which is rather wedge-shaped, measures two and a half. The beak is whitish above, very much compressed on the sides, and very pointed; the iris dark brown; feet dark flesh-colour. The head, neck, top of the back, all the under part of the body, and the tail are of a fine velvet black. The female, which is light brown, has a black spot in the centre of each feather; the sides of the head and greater wing-coverts are grey white, streaked with black; the lesser coverts and the rump of a light yellow; the tail-feathers edged with grey; the beak pale or raven grey. The plumage of the male after pairing is like that of the female. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird, which comes from the Cape of Good Hope lives very well in the house; it is kept in a cage, alone or with the female, and fed with hemp and canary seed. In its native country it frequents the edges of streams and rivers, feeds on seeds, but is not so mischievous as the preceding. The eggs are grey, spotted with black. It is said to be nice to eat. THE CAFFRARIAN FINCH. Loxia Caffra, LINN�US; Le Caffre, BUFFON; Der Mohren Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is very little larger than the bullfinch, but its long and raised tail is about twice the length of its body: it is only ornamented with it during the pairing season. The beak is brown grey; the feet grey; the prevailing colour of the plumage is velvet black; the shoulders are red; the coverts white; the pen-feathers brown grey, with a white border. The female is always grey, and has only a little red on the shoulders. The male acquires its beautiful black plumage at the beginning of November, and loses it in January, to assume the colours of the female. OBSERVATIONS.--This species, which is found in the interior of the country north of the Cape, lives and builds in marshes: it is rarely brought to Europe. The long tail of the male requires a large cage in order to preserve its beauty. In its wild state this length of tail is very inconvenient during the high winds; and during the rainy season it may be caught by the hand. It is fed with canary seed. THE BLUE FINCH. Loxia coerulea, LINN�US; Le Bouvreuil bleu d'Amérique, BUFFON; Der dunkelblaue Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of the common grosbeak, about six inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two. The beak, which measures six lines, is strong, and of a dark brown; the feet black; a black streak surrounds the chin, and extends to the eyes: the whole plumage is blue, except the greater wing coverts, the pen-feathers, and the central tail feathers, which are dark brown. The female is entirely brown, with a slight mixture of blue. OBSERVATIONS.--I have had an opportunity of observing this bird among the collection belonging to his Royal Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, where it is fed on canary seed. It calls little, and its song is weak, but its plumage is beautiful. It is found in several parts of America, in Brazil, Cayenne, and even in Carolina. YELLOW-BELLIED GROSBEAK. Loxia flaviventris, LINN�US; Le Grosbec jaune du Cap de Bonne Espérance, BRISSON; Der gelbafterige Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. I am not sure that this bird, which I have also seen amongst those of his Royal Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, is the true _Loxia flaviventris_ of Linnæus. It is of the size of the common chaffinch, and five inches long. The beak, which is moderately strong, very much resembles that of the chaffinch, and is of a horn brown. The feet are a dull brown. The head and neck are of a dull pale blue; the upper part of the body olive, the whole of the under part is a fine bright orange. The Yellow Grosbeak of the Cape of Good Hope is thus described:--the head, upper part of the neck, and back are olive, with stripes of brown; the rump olive. The under part of the body deep yellow; on each side of the head is a yellow band which passes above the eyes; the wings and tail feathers are brown, edged with olive. The female only differs in the colours being less vivid. VARIETY.--The top of the head, the upper part of the body, and the breast are olive; the back of the neck, even to the throat, is ash-coloured; the belly yellow, but between the legs white. The wings are black, bordered with orange; the tail feathers dark green, but they are bordered with yellow, and are black up the middle. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird has been sold as the female of the preceding, and placed in the same cage. It lived very sociably; but I should suspect it rather of being the female of that under notice. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. THE GOWRY BIRD. Loxia punctularia, LINN�US; Le Grosbec tacheté de Java, BUFFON; Der getüpfelte Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of a linnet, about four inches and a quarter in length. The beak and feet black; the whole of the upper part of the body, and the lower, as far as the breast, chestnut brown; the cheeks marked with a reddish purple tinge; the belly and sides white, but all the feathers bordered with black in the form of a heart. The female has no red tinge on the cheeks, the beak and feet are deep brown; the sides white, tinged with deep brown: the back reddish brown. OBSERVATIONS.--This species, which I have seen in the collection of His Royal Highness the Duke of Saxe Meiningen, comes from Java; it is kept in a cage and fed on canary seed. Its call is "_deguay_," its feeble song somewhat resembles the siskin's. THE BANDED FINCH. Loxia fasciata, LINN�US; La Collerette BUFFON; Der gebänderte Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of the preceding, about four inches and a half in length. The beak is bluish grey. The feet short and flesh-coloured; the upper part of the body dark reddish ash grey, each feather having two black transverse bands, only one of which is visible; the cheeks and lower mandible are surrounded by a band of dark reddish purple. The female has not this collar, and its plumage is paler; the under part of its body is red brown, each feather edged with a deeper shade. VARIETIES.--The one I have actually before me, and which I received from Mr. Thiem, bird-dealer at Waltershausen, is a fine male, whose plumage is as follows:-- The head is dull orange, with black stripes very near together; the upper part of the neck, the back and rump, are the same shade of orange, but each feather is intersected by a semicircular black line, and terminated by a spot of red brown; the scapular wing coverts and last pen-feathers are dark grey, with transverse angular black bands, and bordered at the tips with red brown. 2. This variety is thus described in Latham's Synopsis of Birds. The top of the head, upper part of the neck, and lesser wing coverts, light brown, with semicircular black lines; the cheeks plain brown, but edged at the lower part with bright crimson, below which is a black line; the breast and belly light brown, occasionally marked with semicircular lines; the pen-feathers and tail are brown. OBSERVATIONS.--Bird-fanciers give to these the name of Indian sparrows, though they come from Africa; their cry is similar to that of the common sparrow, and their song not very different. They are fed on canary seeds. THE BROWN-CHEEKED FINCH. Loxia canora, LINN�US; Der braunwangige Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of the siskin, and four inches in length. The beak short, strong, and horn brown. The feet flesh-colour. The cheeks brown, adorned with a yellow border from the throat to the back of the ear. The female has no yellow border to the cheeks. OBSERVATIONS.--This pretty species comes from Mexico; its song is soft and clear; its actions are as lively as they are amusing. It is kept in a cage, and fed on canary seed and millet. THE MALACCA FINCH. Loxia Malacca, LINN�US; Le Jacobin, BUFFON; Der Malackische Kernbeisser, BECHSTEIN. This bird is the size of the greenfinch, and four inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures one and a half. The beak thick, five lines in length, and bluish grey; the feet the same colour. The head, neck, a stripe, which extends up the belly to the vent, and the thighs, are black; the back, wings and tail, pale chestnut. The following is mentioned as a _variety_. The Chinese Grosbeak (_Brisson's Ornithology_, III., _page_ 235, _No._ 7), with the head, throat, and front of the neck black, the upper part of the body red brown or chestnut, the wings and tail similar to the one above. I have seen this bird in a room several times, and have always regarded it as a male, on account of its song, and because, after moulting, its plumage returned unaltered, not becoming either white on the breast or black at the vent. Edwards, who has represented it in his 355th plate, has added a female, which he kept in the same cage, and which was improved by its companion. The upper part of its body was grey brown, the sides of the head and under part of the body pinkish, or rather blush colour, the wing and tail feathers blackish, the feet flesh-colour. The blackness of the wings and tail makes me suspect that this female belongs to another species; its attachment and familiarity prove nothing. We know, in fact, that nearly all granivorous birds hold communion together, and mutually caress each other with the bill. OBSERVATIONS.--The Malacca Finch comes from the East Indies: it is very gentle, confiding, and lively. Its voice is strong; its cry, "_tziapp_," pronounced in a loud clear tone. Though its song is somewhat nasal and rather noisy, it is not disagreeable. Its food, when in confinement, is hemp and canary seed, which I have known preserve it for a long time in good health. THE SNOW BUNTING. [Illustration] Emberiza nivalis, LINN�US; L'Ortolan de neige, BUFFON; Der Schneeamer, BECHSTEIN. Naturalists say that the plumage of this bird differs considerably in summer and winter; though, from analogy with others of its species, I am authorized in suspecting that this change arises rather from age. I shall leave the question undecided; and since we can never see this bird when it has retired in summer within the arctic circle, its native home, I shall content myself with describing its winter colours, such as we may see them in a room. It is the size of a lark, six inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two and two-thirds. The beak is five or six lines in length, with every characteristic of the bunting species, conical in form, rather bent at the sides, and having a bony tubercle like a grain of barley at the palate; its colour in the singing season is quite black, at other times the point alone is black, the rest yellow. The back and rump are black, the feathers of the back being edged with white, whilst those of the rump and scapulars are edged with yellowish brown, darker in spring than summer. The female is rather smaller, the head and upper part of the neck white, with a mixture of cinnamon-brown, and transverse spots of the same colour form a kind of broken band across the white breast. The young ones which are taken in winter are known by their dark brown beak; the lower part of the back is of the same colour, but their feathers are edged with a light grey. The male has the head most speckled with yellow brown, the cheeks of the female are of the same tint, and it has spots of this on the breast. OBSERVATIONS.--When the winter is severe, these birds are seen from December to May in many parts of Germany, where they even approach the villages. I am persuaded that, if attention were paid to them, they might be seen in every direction, during March, on their passage to the North; whilst snow is on the ground they are found in company with larks, on the high roads and in the fields; they may then be taken with horse dung, placed in net, or covered with bird-lime, or by clearing a spot of ground of snow and strewing it with oats. I have had a pair six years in my room without a cage, and they are satisfied with the food common for other birds: if kept in a cage, they must be fed on hemp seed, oats, millet, rape, and poppy seeds. They appear much delighted whilst bathing; during the night they seem very uneasy, hopping and running about continually. Their strong and piercing cry resembles a loud whistle; their song would be rather agreeable were it not interrupted in a peculiar manner; it is a warbling mingled with some high noisy notes, descending slowly from shrill to deep, and a little strong and broken whistling. Heat is so contrary to their nature, that they cannot be preserved unless carefully guarded from it. THE MOUNTAIN BUNTING. Emberiza montana, LINN�US; L'Ortolan de Montagne, BUFFON; Der Bergammer, BECHSTEIN. This bird is smaller than the snow bunting, has a short, strong yellow beak, with a black point; the head is nearly flat, the frontal band light chestnut; the upper part of the neck and back grey, with black streaks, most numerous on the back, causing a resemblance to the female yellowhammer; feet black. The breast of the female is of a deeper colour than the male's. OBSERVATIONS.--This species, inhabiting the cold regions of Europe, is never found in great numbers. In Thuringia, and some other provinces of Germany, they are seen generally every year, in March, the time of passage, settling in pairs along the high roads, searching for a few undigested grains in the dung of animals. Their song is shrill, tolerably pleasing, and interrupted like the yellowhammer's. They may be easily kept in the house, either caged or not, feeding them on oats, bread, hemp, and other seeds. These birds also appear uneasy during the night, especially in the pairing season, uttering their call amidst the darkness. Some are occasionally met with of a dull orange on the upper part of the body, streaked with yellow on the head, and deep orange on the back. These are young birds. This species is caught in the same manner as the snow bunting. THE YELLOWHAMMER. Emberiza citrinella, LINN�US; Le Bruant, BUFFON; Der Goldammer, BECHSTEIN. However well known this bird may be, it is still necessary that it should be described minutely, as the young males and old females are often confounded with one another. It is six inches and a half in length, of which the forked tail measures three. The beak, five lines long, is dark brown in summer, and ash grey in winter; the feet are of a light brown. The head of the old males is of a fine yellow, generally having some streaks of dark olive scattered over the top and on the cheeks; it is only in very old birds that the head and neck are of a golden yellow, without any mixture; the upper part of the neck is olive; the back black, mingled with reddish grey; the feathers have black up the middle, and the edges reddish grey; the rump is of a deep red; the throat, with the under part of the neck and the belly, are yellow, more or less golden; the breast, especially its sides, as well as the small coverts of the tail, is streaked with yellow and red. [Illustration: YELLOWHAMMER.] The female is rather smaller than the male; the yellow of the head, neck, and throat, is scarcely seen through the spots scattered over it, which are brown on the head and cheeks, and olive-coloured on the neck; the breast is only speckled with rust red, and the wing coverts with reddish white, so that at a distance it appears rather brown than yellow. Young male birds, in spring, scarcely differ from old females, except that a spot of yellow may even then be seen on the top of the head, as well as a streak of the same colour above the eyes and on the throat; in fact, the breast and rump are rather of a deep reddish brown than rust red, and also without spots. HABITATION.--In its wild state the yellowhammer is found in all parts of Europe, and the north of Asia. It remains in summer about the skirts of forests and small woods. It overruns the fields in autumn, and in the winter approaches our buildings, particularly barns and stables. When confined it is generally allowed to run about the room, but where it is rare, and therefore most valued, it is kept in a cage. FOOD.--When wild these birds live on insects, particularly caterpillars, on which, like all the other species of this genus, they feed their young. In autumn and winter, they have recourse to all kinds of grain; but they prefer oats, which, with barley, wheat, and millet, they know how to get at very cleverly, notwithstanding the bony tubercle at their palate. They also feed upon rape, and other small seeds, when they can get them. In the house, to preserve them in health, their food should be properly varied, giving them in turn oats, the crumb of white bread, meat, bruised hemp seed, poppy and rape seed. When running about, the second universal paste agrees very well with them. It is no doubt to assist their digestion, that they often swallow fresh black earth, as I have always seen those do that I have kept; this must not be forgotten to be given them, nor water for them to bathe in, which they enjoy very much. BREEDING.--This species breeds twice in the year, the first time in the end of March, or the beginning of April. The nest, which is placed in a hedge, bush, tuft of grass, or even in moss on the ground, is formed on the outside of straws, interwoven and lined within with the hair of horses and other animals. It contains from three to five eggs, of a dirty white, with zig-zag lines and spots of brown. When reared from the nest the young ones may be taught to imitate the song of the chaffinch, and a few notes of other birds. DISEASES.--The disease most common to this bird is decline. The time of moulting is very dangerous to them, as they suffer much, and sometimes die; to render this period less dangerous, they should have fresh ants' eggs as soon as it commences, a remedy most useful to this species, to chaffinches, and to sparrows. MODE OF TAKING.--The yellowhammer is easily taken in winter, near our dwellings, either in a net, with a stalk of oats as a bait, or under a basket or sieve, which may be thrown down, by drawing away the small stick that supports it, by means of a string. They will also enter the area or barn-floor trap, if a perching bird is fastened there, by a string attached to the leather band round its body; in spring they may be caught like other birds, by means of a bird-call. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The first of these is certainly the beauty of the bird, but the fine yellow which sets it off fades gradually when kept in the house, where it will live five or six years; the second is its song, which, without being very distinguished, is rather pleasing; its call, though not strong, is heard to some distance; but this bird, so gay, so spruce, so active when free, becomes dull, idle, and awkward in a cage. THE CORN BUNTING. [Illustration] Emberiza miliaria, LINN�US; Le Proyer, BUFFON; Der Gerstenammer, BECHSTEIN. This species, found throughout Europe and the north of Asia, has not so good a title to be admitted into the house as the preceding, not being distinguished either for its song or the beauty of its colours. With a plumage very similar to that of the sky-lark, it surpasses it in size, being seven inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures three. The beak, measuring six lines, is strong, yellowish on the under part in summer; the rest of the year the whole of it is grey brown; the feet the same, which stand six lines in height. The general tint of the plumage is pale, reddish grey on the upper part of the body, and yellowish white on the under, speckled like the lark's, with blackish brown spots. In the female the colours are rather lighter. HABITATION.--In its wild state this bird is common in most parts of Europe; in the more northerly parts it does not remain during the winter, and only appears at certain seasons; in March they are met with amongst the larks in the fields, meadows, and on the high roads, often perched on the tops of willows, or on a stake in a hedge, on a milestone, or a clod of earth. In a room it may occupy a lark's cage, but is more commonly let run about at liberty. FOOD.--Both at liberty and in confinement its food is similar to that of the yellowhammer; it is however a more delicate bird. BREEDING.--Its nest, placed under a bush, does not rest on the ground but on the turf; it is constructed of the stalks of grass, and lined with horse-hair. The eggs are grey, speckled with chestnut and streaked with black. MODE OF TAKING.--In autumn these birds may be taken in an area with a decoy bird; in winter, before the barn door, with bird-lime or a clapper; in the spring with a bird-call. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Their song, shorter and less soft than that of the yellowhammer, has only four or five notes; from their dwelling on the _r_ in the last, they have been given the name of _stocking weavers_. THE ORTOLAN. Emberiza hortulena, LINN�US; L'Ortolan, BUFFON; Der Gartenammer, BECHSTEIN. It is necessary to give a very exact description of this species, as not only bird-catchers, but even some naturalists, give the name of Ortolan to several very different species. Under this name the former sell all rare birds of this kind. The true ortolan has a wider breast and stronger beak than the yellowhammer; it is six inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two and a half; the beak, six inches long, is thick at the base, with a bony tubercle at the palate, and is of a yellowish flesh-colour; the iris dark brown. The legs, which stand ten lines in height, are flesh-coloured; the head and neck is greyish olive; the throat and a streak on the neck from the angle of the beak, deep yellow. The female is rather smaller, of a changeable shining ash-colour on its head and neck, streaked with fine black lines. Its breast, and the upper and under part of its body, are lighter than in the male. The throat of the young male birds, before the first moulting, is of a light yellow, with a mixture of grey; the breast and belly are of a reddish yellow, speckled with grey, which make them rather resemble young yellowhammers. A bird fancier will distinguish the two sexes even in the nest. There are white, yellow, speckled, and in the house sometimes even black varieties. HABITATION.--In its wild state the ortolan is principally found in the southern and temperate parts of Europe, and is not scarce in some of the provinces of Germany; but if attention were paid to them there, they might be seen in every direction on their passage; for though they may not remain during the summer in a district, yet they make some stay, never passing over a great space of country at a time. Their route is so exact and regular, that when one has been seen in a particular spot, especially if in spring, it is sure to be found there the following year at the same time. They fly rather in families than flocks: the time of their arrival in Germany is towards the end of April, or beginning of May; they are then met with in orchards, amongst brambles or in groves, where they build, particularly if millet is cultivated in the neighbourhood. During harvest they frequent the fields in families, and leave after the oats are gathered in[34]. In the house, if much valued, they are given a cage; but in countries where they are common they are let run about free. FOOD.--In their wild state they live on insects and grain. In the house they are fed, if in a cage, on millet, hemp seed, and prepared oats; if at liberty in a room the universal paste suits them very well. These birds, being rather delicate, cannot often be preserved beyond three or four years. DISEASES.--The most common disease of these birds is atrophy, to cure or prevent which it is necessary to know how properly to mix and vary animal with vegetable food; but this calls for a greater degree of attention and care than most persons are willing to give. MANNER OF TAKING.--In spring these birds are easily attracted to a decoy bush, by a female of their own species, or a yellowhammer. In August a turfy place should be chosen near brambles, to form a small area, as a decoy, like that made for chaffinches. It must be surrounded with a low hedge, with some oat-ears fastened to it. About the area should be placed one or several birds of call, especially a perching bird, that is to say, a bird of the same species, with a band of soft leather round it, and confined by a small string, fastened to a peg-stick in the ground, which prevents its going beyond the prescribed limits. Here it should be given plenty of food and water, in order that the birds to be caught may be the more easily attracted within the area, from seeing one of their own species in a place of abundance. This kind of decoy bird is often more necessary than any other. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The fine form and colours of the ortolan would be sufficient to render it desirable, but still more so its flute-like warbling, so clear and full, which has some resemblance to that of the yellowhammer, only that the last notes are much deeper. Ever since ortolans have been known to epicures as a delicacy, they have been fattened with great care. The common way is to keep them in a room only lighted by lanterns, so that they cannot distinguish day from night: they are then plentifully fed on oats, millet, and the crumb of white bread, made up with good spice. In a short time they become so fat that they would be suffocated if not killed at once. An ortolan thus fed is a perfect ball of most delicious fat, weighing about three ounces. THE CIRL-BUNTING, LATH. Emberiza Cirlus, LINN�US; Le Zizi, ou Bruant de Haie, BUFFON; Der Zaunammer, BECHSTEIN. Linnæus has described only the female, and by mistake I have called the male _Emberizal Eæathorax_, and have given a drawing of it and the female, in the second volume of my German translation of the English work of Latham, Synopsis of Birds, printed at Nuremberg, 1794. DESCRIPTION.--This bird, scarce in many provinces of Germany and in Britain, but well known in Thuringia, is about the size of the yellowhammer, being five inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two and a half. Its small and flattish beak is of a brownish blue on the upper part, and light brown on the under; the feet, eight lines in height, are flesh-coloured; the upper part of the head and neck olive green with small black strokes, a golden yellow streak extends from the angle of the upper mandible to the middle of the neck, passing under the eyes; another begins from the angle of the under mandible, and descending in a straight line, is crossed by a third, which is black, then curving round behind the yellow streak under the eyes, reunites with the black one on the throat; the back and smaller wing-coverts are cinnamon brown, mixed with black and yellow green; the rump is olive, with black streaks; the breast is a fine olive green, light chestnut on the sides; the rest of the under part of the body is of a golden yellow. The female is known by its plumage being much paler: the head and upper part of the neck are olive, much streaked with black; the back is pale brown, the rump more streaked with black, the tail rather greyish black than black; two pale yellow lines pass one above the other below the eyes, and cross a black line which unites to the black border of the cheeks; the throat is brownish, with a lighter spot below; the breast is olive, with the sides brownish, the rest of the under part of the body is pale yellow. The young ones, before their first moulting, have the upper part of the body light brown, speckled with black, the under pale yellow streaked with black; the older they grow the more of an olive tint the breast acquires. HABITATION.--In their wild state these birds dwell chiefly in the southern and temperate parts of Europe, where they frequent orchards, groves, and the skirts of forests.[35] They are birds of passage, which leave in November and return in April; they are then met with very commonly among the chaffinches. In the house they must be treated in the same manner as the ortolan. FOOD.--In their wild state they feed on the cabbage caterpillar in summer, and when corn is ripe, on wheat, barley, millet, oats, and other grain. BREEDING.--They place their nest in a hedge or bush on the road side, and build it of small straws and line it with horse-hair. The eggs are greyish, speckled with chestnut. In the end of July, whole families are met with in the fields, particularly those planted with cabbages, and that have willows in the neighbourhood. DISEASES AND MODE OF TAKING.--These are similar to what is said under ortolan. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The male surpasses the ortolan in beauty, but does not equal it in its song, as in this it more resembles the yellowhammer. These birds, however, are very easily tamed, and may be preserved five or six years. THE FOOLISH BUNTING. Emberiza Cia, LINN�US; Le Bruant Fou, BUFFON; Der Zipammer, BECHSTEIN. This bird is rather smaller than the yellowhammer, being only six inches long, of which the tail measures two and a half; the beak, five lines in length, is very sharp, blackish above, and greyish below; the iris is dusky; the legs, nine lines in height, are of a brownish flesh-colour. The head is grey, spotted with red, with small black streaks on the top, and an indistinct black line on the sides; the back is reddish brown, speckled with black, the rump light red brown; the throat pale ash-colour. The female differs very little from the male: the head is grey with a reddish tint and black spots; she has also all the streaks that the male has, but less marked; the ash-coloured throat is streaked with black and has a reddish tint; in short, the whole of the under part of the body is lighter. HABITATION.--When wild, this species, which loves solitude, and prefers mountainous districts, inhabits the south of France, Italy, and the south of Austria. In some winters they quit these countries and proceed even to the middle of Germany, where they are found in March and April in elevated situations. In the house they are either kept in a cage or left to range a room, and the latter seems to agree with them best, particularly if they have a grated and quiet place to rest in and pass the night. FOOD.--When wild, these birds, like others of the genus, feed on insects and grain. In the house they may be fed on the same food as the ortolan, on which they may be preserved in health above six years, as I have proved by a pair which I kept myself for that time. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds come without difficulty at the call of the yellowhammer, and enter into every kind of snare so heedlessly, that they have thence been given the name of _foolish bunting_. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--They are very fine and lively birds, whose voice is heard the whole year; in winter their note of call, and from spring to autumn, their cheerful song, shorter indeed, but clearer than that of the yellowhammer. They live very amicably in a room with other species of their genus, especially the yellowhammer; and where one goes the other follows, and if one chooses any particular food, the other prefers the same. THE BLACK BONNET, OR REED BUNTING. [Illustration] Emberiza Schoeniclus, LINN�US; L'Ortolan de Roscaux, BUFFON; Rohrammer, BECHSTEIN. This bird is nearly the size of the mountain sparrow, its length being five inches three-quarters, of which the tail measures two and a half; the beak, four lines in length, is black on the upper part, and whitish on the under; the iris is dark brown; the legs, nine lines high, are dark flesh-coloured. The head is black, with reddish spots; a reddish white line extends from the base of the lower mandible quite round the head; the back is black, spotted with white and red, the rump alternately grey and reddish yellow; the throat is black spotted. The feathers on the head of the male never return to as good a black after moulting, when in the house, as in its wild state, but remain always browner, and clouded with reddish white. The head of the female is of a rusty brown, spotted with black; her brown cheeks are encircled with a reddish white streak, which, passing above the eyes, unites with another which commences at the base of the beak; a dark streak passes down the sides of the throat, which, with the under part of the body, is reddish white, much streaked on the breast with light brown; the colour of the back is lighter, but less clear than that of the male. HABITATION.--In their wild state this species is found throughout Europe and the north of Asia, flying in small flocks, and returning in March in great flights. The females follow the males, and do not remain behind, as some pretend. During winter some of these birds are met with here and there amongst the yellowhammers; they frequent moist places, the banks of ponds and rivers; they run nimbly up the stalks of aquatic plants, but rarely ascend trees. In the house it is the custom here to let them range a room; but they may be kept in a cage. FOOD.--When wild they feed on the seeds of rushes, bullrushes, reeds, and grasses, as well as on the numerous insects that frequent the water-side. In the house they seem to relish the first universal paste and poppy seeds, on which food they will live five or six years; but afterwards they droop and die of atrophy or scurf, as I have remarked several times. BREEDING.--These birds make their nests among the reeds and brambles on the water-side. They lay five or six eggs of a dusky light grey, with dark grey spots and dusky lines rather indistinctly mingled. MODE OF TAKING.--In autumn they enter the area or decoy with the chaffinch; in spring, when there is snow, they approach the barns and dunghills, and there, as well as in open places in the fields and on the hedges, they are very easily taken with a net or bird-lime. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Their song is alternately weak and strong. Three or four simple tones, mingled from time to time with a sharp _r_, distinguish it from every other; it is heard all the summer, even during the night. Of all the buntings, this is the most easily tamed; it is also a great amateur of music, approaching the instrument without fear, as I have observed several times, not of one only, but of many of these birds, testifying its joy by extending its wings and tail like a fan, and shaking them so that, by this exercise the feathers have been much injured. The female sings also, but its tones are weaker than those of the male. THE SPARROW BUNTING. Emberiza passerina, LINN�US; L'Ortolan Passerin; Der Sperlingsammer, BECHSTEIN. This species must have been confounded with the preceding, or it would have been better known, as it is not rare either in autumn or spring. It is smaller and more slender than the former, being only five inches long, of which the tail measures two and a quarter; the beak is black above and light brown below; the iris is of a dark chestnut; the feet are nine lines in height and of a dusky flesh-colour; but the plumage in general is similar to that of the female of the preceding species. The male has the top of the head red, with a grey longitudinal streak in the middle, and many black spots arising from the deeper shade of the feathers which appears in every direction; a dusky reddish white line passes from the nostrils above, and also a little under the eyes, and widening behind on the temples, a chestnut brown colour breaks through a deep black, which reaches the sides of the neck and becomes a spot there. The colours of the female are in general lighter, and the black does not appear on the top of the head; a reddish white streak passes above the eyes, another descends from the base of the beak down the sides of the neck, a third, but of a dusky black, extends from each side of the chin to beyond the middle of the neck. When kept in the house the black disappears from the head of the male, and the upper part of the neck becomes greyish white, spotted longitudinally with dusky black. OBSERVATIONS.--Thick woods and bushes in a mountainous country are the favourite haunts of the sparrow bunting. It is a bird of passage, which quits us in October or November and returns in April. It is not rare in Thuringia, particularly at the time of passage; formerly it was only known in Russia. Its food, when wild, is insects and all kinds of grain. In the house, it is fed on the same food as the reed bunting, which it very much resembles in its song and habits: it is taken in the same manner. THE WHIDAH BUNTING. Emberiza paradisea, LINN�US; La Veuve à collier d'or, BUFFON; Der Paradiesammer, BECHSTEIN. This beautiful and rare species is the size of a linnet. Reckoning from the beak to the end of the side tail-feathers, it is five inches and a half in length. The beak is lead-coloured; the iris chestnut; the feet are flesh-coloured; the head, chin, front of the neck, back, wings, and tail are black; the back of the neck pale orange; the breast, thighs, and upper part of the belly are white, the lower part is black; the two intermediate tail-feathers measure four inches, are very broad, and terminate in a long filament; the two that follow, above three inches long, are very broad in the middle, narrower and pointed at the end, from their shaft springs also a filament more than an inch long; the other side feathers are only two inches and a half in length; the two in the middle amongst the longest a little diverging, and arched like a cock's, are glossy, and more brilliant than the others. The female is entirely brown, almost black, and does not acquire its proper plumage until the third year; whilst young it very much resembles the winter plumage of the male. This bird moults twice in the year. At the first, which takes place in November, the male loses its long tail for six months, its head is streaked with black and white, the rest of its plumage is a mixture of black and red; at the second, which takes place late in the spring, it resumes its summer dress, such as it has been described above, but the tail-feathers do not attain their full length till July and drop in November. OBSERVATIONS.--This beautiful species comes from Angola, and other parts of Africa, and is particularly common in the kingdom of Whidah, or Juida, in Guinea, and hence it takes its name. Though it was formerly brought in great numbers into Germany, it still costs there thirty or forty rix dollars. These birds are very lively, and constantly in motion, always waving their long tail up and down, often arranging their feathers and amusing themselves with bathing. Their feeble song, though somewhat melancholy, is however very agreeable. They may be preserved from eight to twelve years if fed on canary seed, millet, barley meal, and the like, not forgetting to add from time to time lettuce, endive, or other green food. They must be given a large cage, to prevent their spoiling their fine tail. THE DOMINICAN BUNTING. Emberiza serena, LINN�US; La Veuve Dominicaine, BUFFON; Der Dominikanerammer, BECHSTEIN. This species, six inches and three quarters in length, is smaller, more rare, and nearly twice as dear as the preceding. It comes from Africa likewise. The beak is red; the feet grey; the upper part of the head is black, but the top is reddish white, which extends over the whole of the under part of the body, the chin, and temples, and even the under part of the tail; sometimes this tint fades into pure white: the upper part of the neck and the back are black, but the feathers are edged with dusky white; the inner wing coverts being white, give the wings the appearance of being so when folded, but they are black, the quill-feathers alone are edged with white; the tail is also black; the two middle feathers terminate in a point, and are two inches longer than the others, which gradually diminish in length the farther they are from the middle, the three first only have the points white, but the two outer ones have the beard white and the edge pale orange. The female is entirely brown, and the tail-feathers are of equal length. This species also moults twice in the year: the male loses its tail for six months, and the white of its plumage becomes less pure. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird requires the same treatment as the former, and sings in the same very agreeable manner. THE SHAFT-TAILED BUNTING. Emberiza regia, LINN�US; La Veuve à quatre brins, BUFFON; Der Königsammer, BECHSTEIN. This is also more rare than the Whidah bunting. Its length to the end of the short feathers of the tail is nearly four inches and a half. The beak and feet are red; the upper part of the body black; the sides of the head, the eyes, neck, and under part of the body are orange. The female is brown, and has no long feathers in the tail. The winter plumage of the male is grey, like the linnet, but rather brighter. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird comes from Africa, and is not less admired than the preceding. THE INDIGO BIRD. [Illustration] Emberiza cyanea, LINN�US; Fringilla cyanea, WILSON; La Veuve bleue, or le Ministre, BUFFON; Der Indigo Ammer, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is five inches. The beak dark lead-coloured; the feet brown; the whole plumage is of the most beautiful blue, deeper and still more brilliant at the top of the head; the great quill-feathers are brown edged with blue; the tail brown, with a pale tint. The female very much resembles the linnet in its colour, as the male does during moulting, for it is only blue when in full feather; but the male may be distinguished easily at all times by the sides of the wings being of a lighter grey than in the female. OBSERVATIONS.--This species is most commonly found in Carolina, but is not rare about New York, where it arrives the beginning of April. It frequents the orchards when they are in bloom, and appears to prefer mountainous parts. Its agreeable song, which very much resembles that of the linnet, and the beauty of its plumage, render it a favourite with bird-fanciers. Its food is canary seed, millet, poppy seed, and bruised hemp seed. THE PAINTED BUNTING. Emberiza Ciris, LINN�US; Le Pape, BUFFON; Der gemahlte Ammer, BECHSTEIN. This bird owes its name to its plumage. It is five inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two. The beak is greyish brown, the iris nut brown; the feet brown; the head and neck are violet, the circle round the eyes is red; the upper part of the back and the scapulars are yellowish green, the lower part, the rump, and all the under part of the body are of a fine red; the lesser wing-coverts violet brown with a red tinge, the greater of a dull green; the pen-feathers brown, some bordered with grey, others with red; the tail-feathers are also brown, but the two middle ones are of a changeable red, and the outer border of the others is of the same colour. The upper part of the body of the female is of a dull green, the under part yellow green; her pen-feathers are brown edged with green, as are also the tail-feathers. As the plumage of this bird does not come to perfection before the third year, there must naturally be several varieties. During the first year the male and female are of the same colour; the head of the male does not become a violet blue till the second year, and the rest of its plumage is then a blue green, as are also the edges of the quill and tail-feathers, which are elsewhere brown. The female at this time is of a fine changeable blue. If to these differences arising from age are added the two moultings which take place every year, we shall not be surprised rarely to meet with two birds alike. There is besides another variety, having the under part of the body yellowish, except a red spot on the breast; and again another, which in the time of moulting is entirely white. OBSERVATIONS.--These birds are found from the frontiers of Canada to Guiana and Brazil; none, however, are seen in Carolina less than one hundred and thirty miles from the sea. They only show themselves in summer, and build principally on orange or similar trees. English and Dutch sailors take home many of these birds, and it has been said that in England they have succeeded in making them breed in aviaries in gardens, spacious enough to contain orange trees, on which they have constructed their nests. When in a cage they are fed on millet, canary-seed, endive, and poppy-seed, on which they may be preserved from eight to ten years. Their song is soft and agreeable. THE CHAFFINCH. [Illustration] Fringilla Coelebs, LINN�US; Le Pinson commun, BUFFON; Der Buch-Fink, BECHSTEIN. This delightful songster of spring, famed for the sprightliness of its warbling,--this favourite of most of our bird-fanciers, is so generally known that I should be tempted to suppress its description if the uniformity of this work and the wish to render it complete, did not impel me to give it. This will also offer some particulars worthy the attention of the naturalist. The passion for this bird is carried to such an extent in Thuringia, and those which sing well are sought for with so much activity that scarcely a single chaffinch that warbles tolerably can be found throughout the province. As soon as one arrives from a neighbouring country whose notes appear good, all the bird-catchers are after it, and do not give up the pursuit till they have taken it. This is the reason why the chaffinches in this province are so indifferent songsters: the young ones have only bad masters in the old ones, and they in their turn cannot prove better. This bird is six inches and one-third in length, of which the tail measures two and three quarters. The beak is conical, pointed, and white in winter; but as soon as spring, the season of pairing and song, arrives, and till the time of moulting, it is of a deep blue, and one may know by this whether it has sung or not. The iris is chestnut brown; the legs, nine lines high, are dusky; the claws are very sharp, and grow so fast in a cage that it is necessary to cut them every six weeks, if you do not wish to see the poor bird some day caught by them, and perish miserably unless rescued. The forehead is black, the top of the head and nape of the neck are greyish blue, in very old males deep blue, and then thick downy hairs are perceived. After moulting, at the beginning of winter, the colours become lighter, the front of the head is only deep brown; the top and the nape of the neck a changeable greyish and olive brown; the red brown of the breast is brighter; this is also the plumage of the young ones in the second year, particularly if of the last brood; they are called grey-heads, by bird-catchers, who can easily distinguish, in the spring, the young from the old males, and very much prefer them, because, if properly caught, they may be taught to improve their song when confined in the house; while the others never learn, or change very little, at least rarely, the song they have acquired in their wild state. The female is very different, being smaller, while the head, neck, and upper part of the back are greyish brown, and all the under part of the body is a dusky white, rather reddish grey on the breast; and the beak, greyish brown in spring, becomes greyish white in winter. There are some remarkable varieties of this species, one quite white, another with a white collar, a third streaked, spotted, &c. There is no distinction between the wood chaffinches and those of the gardens and orchards, as has been alleged. HABITATION.--In its wild state, the chaffinch frequents forests, copses, and orchards, and ought to be reckoned among birds of passage, though there are always some that remain the winter with us. The time of passage, in autumn, continues from the beginning of October to the middle of November, and in spring during the month of March. These birds perform their journey in large flocks. In the spring the males arrive in separate flights, fifteen days before the females; our bird-catchers know this so well, that as soon as they perceive these they put up their implements, their sport being then over. In the house, though each may vary the form of the cage to his taste, the best, in my opinion, is an oblong cage nine inches long, seven in depth, and seven in height, with the food and water at the two farthest sides, and the perches placed opposite. A bell-shaped cage does not suit the chaffinch, as it prefers jumping down in front, and swinging itself round, to remaining at the top. If there are several in one room they must be placed so as not to see each other, or their song will be injured. Those only are allowed to range whose song is very inferior, and must be provided with a grated place to retire to, or some branches to perch on. These never sing so well as those in cages, their song appearing to require the greatest attention, and hence there should be nothing to distract them. FOOD.--When wild, their food in spring is all sorts of insects, which they carry to their young in their beaks; later in the season they eat various kinds of seeds, pine and fir seeds, when they inhabit forests that contain them, linseed, oats, rape, cabbage, and lettuce, which they know well how to procure and shell. In the house they are fed all the year on rape seed, dried in summer, or, which is better, soaked and swelled in water, on which food they appear to thrive. Every day a sufficient quantity should be soaked for the next, and given them fresh every morning. In the spring they are allowed a little hemp-seed, or the seed of the nettle-hemp (_Galeopsis Tetrahit_), to excite their song, and this plant is therefore very much prized in Thuringia; but these seeds should not be mixed with the rape, as in trying to find them they soon scatter their food; it is best to put it in a separate drawer fastened to the iron wires of the cage, between which it may be slipped. It must not be omitted to supply them with green vegetables, chickweed, lettuce, and the like; and in winter a piece of apple, meal-worms, and ants' eggs agree with them. They must have fresh water regularly every day, both to drink and bathe in. Those that range the room live on the different sorts of food they meet with, bread, meat, and all sorts of seeds. BREEDING.--The nest of the chaffinch is one of the most beautiful of birds' nests, and formed in the most skilful manner. It is the shape of a half globe flattened on the upper part, and so perfectly rounded that it has the appearance of having been turned on a lathe. Cobwebs[36] and wool fasten it to the branch, bits of moss with small twigs entwined form the ground-work; the lining is composed of feathers, thistle-down, the hair of horses and other animals, whilst the outer covering is formed of the different lichens that grow on the tree in which it is placed, the whole firmly united and well cemented. This outer finish is no doubt intended to deceive an enemy's eye; in fact, it is very difficult, even with great attention, to distinguish the nest from the bark of the branch on which it is fixed. The female has two broods in the year; she lays from three to five eggs, of a pale bluish grey, spotted and streaked with brown: the first brood (and this is confirmed in general by observations of other birds) rarely produces any but males, the second only females. Bird-fanciers can distinguish the one from the other before they leave the nest; the breast of the male already discovering a reddish tint, the circle round the eyes being yellower, the wings blacker, and the lines that cross them whiter, though in other respects it resembles its mother. If you wish to be quite sure, pluck some feathers from the breast of the bird you have taken from the nest, in a fortnight they will be replaced, and the presence or absence of red will infallibly decide whether it is male or female. As soon as the tail-feathers begin to appear they must be taken from the nest, to prevent the possibility of their ear being injured by hearing an imperfect song, for scarcely are the wings and tail half grown than these birds begin to warble, and to imitate the song of those around them. They must be fed on rape seed soaked in water and the crumb of white bread; it is very easy to rear them and preserve them healthy till the time of moulting, but then numbers perish, particularly if not quickly relieved by being given meal-worms and ants' eggs, or any other animal food, as bread boiled in or soaked in boiled milk. Chaffinches that have been reared with care become very familiar, and sing at command, or when one approaches their cage in a friendly manner. If they are wished to learn quickly and accurately, they should be kept in an obscure corner of the room, and only hung up at the windows in May; this is the surest way to prevent their learning any thing imperfect. By these means chaffinches that have been taken full grown have forgotten their former song and adopted a better. The whole artifice consists in keeping the bird in such retirement as will remove everything that might distract it when listening to a fine songster, and take away the wish to sing itself. There have been examples of chaffinches pairing with female canaries, and it has been said with a female yellowhammer. The distinction between wood and garden chaffinches is unfounded, at least as to species; the eggs of both are of the same whitish pink colour. DISEASES.--The disorders to which the chaffinch is most subject are the obstruction of the rump gland[37] and diarrhoea. To cure this an old nail or a little saffron should be put in the water. When the scales on the feet become too large, the upper ones must be cut skilfully with a sharp knife, or else the bird would either lose the use of his limbs or become gouty; but this operation must be performed with great care. Blindness also is not uncommon, particularly where they are fed much on hemp seed. This does not, however, injure their song, and as it comes on gradually, it does not prevent their finding their food and hopping about the perches. By means of proper care a chaffinch may be preserved twenty years. MODE OF TAKING.--With good baits the chaffinch may easily be drawn within the area or decoy from Michaelmas to Martinmas, and in spring throughout March. Those that remain the winter, or return early in the year, may be taken in a net baited with oats. Bird-catchers use in spring lures and lime twigs, and the sport lasts as long as the time of flight, which begins at daybreak and ends at nine o'clock. These birds employ the rest of the day in seeking food in the fields, in resting, and singing. In the same manner are taken linnets, goldfinches, siskins, yellowhammers, and bullfinches. Some make use of the excessive jealousy of the males to procure those whose song is very superior. As soon as a bird-catcher who likes this way discovers a fine songster wild, he immediately seeks another male that is in the habit of often repeating its natural cry, _fink, fink_, ties his wings, and fastens to his tail a little forked stick, half a finger long, well covered with bird-lime; thus prepared, he fastens him under the tree on which the one he is watching is perched; this no sooner sees and hears the false rival than he becomes enraged, pounces on him like a bird of prey, and is caught with the bird-lime; his attack is often so violent that sometimes the bird of call is killed by the stroke of its adversary. The following is a surer method:--a soft, narrow leather band is fastened round a male, to which is attached a string a foot long, fastened by a peg, which allows it but a short space to range. This bird, as we have already said, is called, in bird-catchers' language, a percher. A circle of bird-lime is made just beyond its reach, and a cage with a chaffinch, accustomed to sing either in the shade or exposed, is placed under a neighbouring bush; as soon as this last begins his song, which should be a natural one, not any learned in confinement, the chaffinch that is to be procured darts from the tree like an arrow on the percher, which it mistakes for the songster, and remains fixed by the bird-lime. This new prisoner will sing the same year if it is caught before Whitsuntide: if after, it will never sing, but will die, evidently from grief at being separated from its female and young ones. A bird-catcher, cruel as he is stupid, who, without the least reflection, only thinks of gratifying his ridiculous passion for bird-catching, may in an hour deprive ten or twelve females of their beloved companions, their protectors, and numerous young ones of their father, purveyor, and support: such thoughtless cruelty is, alas! only too common in Germany. As soon as the young chaffinches have left the nest, the bird-catchers are very active in discovering the places where at noon they are accustomed to drink; there they set perches covered with bird-lime, and by this means many of these little unwary creatures are taken. However little memory one of these birds may have, it is capable of learning a good song, and being more robust than those brought up from the nest, bird-dealers make a good deal of them. They collect a great many, being sure that some will succeed amongst them. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The first of these is undoubtedly the song of the bird; but our amateurs are not less attentive to the different notes that express its passions and wants. The note of tenderness, and which is also thought to indicate a change of weather, is _trif, trif_: its call, or the rallying note it makes use of on its passage, and which so often draws it within the snares of our bird-catchers, is _ïak, ïak_, repeated several times; the cry _fink, fink_, which it often repeats, and from which its German name is derived, appears, if we may so call it, to be mechanical and involuntary. But what makes it appear to still more advantage among other birds are its clear and trilling tones, that seem almost to approach to words; in fact, its warbling is less a song than a kind of _battement_, to make use of a French word, and is expressed in German by the word _schlag_ (trill), which is used to designate its song as well as the nightingale's. Some chaffinches have two, three, four, and even five different _battemens_, each consisting of several strains, and lasting several minutes. This bird is so great a favourite in Germany, that not a single tone of its voice has escaped the experienced ears of our bird-fanciers. They have observed its nicest shades, and are continually endeavouring to improve and perfect it. I confess I am myself one of its warmest admirers; I have constantly around me the best songsters of its species, and if I liked I could write a good sized volume on all the details of its music, but I will confine myself to that which bears most on this subject. The song of the chaffinch bearing an evident relation to articulate sounds, its has been thought to distinguish its different variations by the final syllable of the last strain. The most admired in Thuringia are the following, which I shall give in their order, and in their different degrees of superiority.[38] 1. _The Double Trill of the Hartz_ in Lower Saxony is composed of six strains, rather long, the last of which is ended by dwelling on the two final syllables, which I shall express here by the word "_weingeh_[39]." I doubt if ever a bird in its wild state has executed this so perfectly as I heard it at Ruhl[40] and at my own house. Art has certainly created it. It is with difficulty that a chaffinch attains it, if, with the best abilities, it has not been instructed from its earliest youth. Rarely can it give it complete without leaving any part out. On this account a high price must be given for the little prodigy that sings it through, full, entire, and in all its strength. 2. _The Reiterzong_, or rider's pull, first heard among the mineral mountains of Saxony and Voigtland, has been known but a short time in Thuringia. It may be heard from a chaffinch in its wild state, but those that have been instructed execute it in a fuller, stronger, and less precipitate manner. This song consists of four strains, the first of which commences in a high key, and gradually descends. When in perfection there is a cadenced pause before the two last syllables, which articulate tolerably clearly _reitzing_ with a _zap_ or clapping, as our amateurs express it. An amateur who has never heard the double trill of the Hartz would not believe that a chaffinch could sing in a superior manner to this; however, in this, as in many other things, each has his taste. 3. _The Wine Song_ is divided into four kinds, 1. the fine, or Längsfeld wine song[41], is very beautiful, but little known except in two or three places in Thuringia. It is composed of four strains, and to be perfect ought to resemble a hautboy, the two last syllables articulating "_weingeh_." This song has never been heard from a wild chaffinch, but is one accidentally produced in the house, and endeavoured to be propagated by education. 2. The bad wine song is not in itself disagreeable, but it is so named when compared with the former. It is composed of three strains, of which the penultimate ought to sound _zap_ five times, and the two last syllables articulate "_weingeh_." When once a wild chaffinch has been heard to utter this in Germany it is not long ere it is caught. 3. The sharp wine song is not ended by "_weingeh_," but "_weingieh_." It is subdivided into the common sharp, such as is sometimes heard in the woods, and the Ruhl sharp, which is an entirely artificial song, confined to Ruhl and a few other villages of Thuringia. It has but two strains, of which the first syllables ought to sound as though flowing into each other, and the penultimate to have an accent. 4. _The Bräutigam_, or bridegroom song, is also divided into good and bad: the good is only heard in the house, and consists of two simple strains; it begins _piano_, afterwards _forte_, and, continuing _crescendo_, ends in the most brilliant sound. After the double trill of the Hartz it appears to my ear the finest of all. The bad is occasionally heard in the woods, and is composed of three strains; but though not devoid of sweetness, does not please so much as the former. 5. _The Double Trill_ is formed of two long strains, divided by a cadenced pause, which is named the shake. They distinguish, 1. the common, subdivided into four; _a_, the strong, _b_, the clear, _c_, the long, and _d_, the short. These are heard sometimes in the woods and orchards; but chaffinches that sing _a_ or _b_ soon become the prey of our bird-catchers. 2. The double trill of Iambach[42]; this is only to be acquired in the house, and is so deep and powerful that one can scarcely conceive how the larynx of so small a bird can produce such sounds. It begins _piano_, and swelling its tones successively in _crescendo_, makes of the _trilling_ a strain of five piercing tones, afterwards repeats "_pfaff_" four or five times, and ends by dwelling on "_Rüdidia_." A chaffinch that possesses this song, either alone, or united with the good bridegroom's song, such as are educated in Iambach, sells here for eighteen French francs. 6. _The Gutjahr_, or good year song, is so named from the two last syllables, and is also divided, 1. into the common, that has but two strains, of which the second ought to roll five times before articulating "_gutjahr_." It is not uncommon in our woods. 2. The good year of the Hartz, which has been acquired in the house, and consists of two very singular strains, in my opinion not very agreeable. Chaffinches are very rare now which sing this, united to that of the wine song of Ruhl, or the sharp song, and their price is consequently high. They are rarely found but at Ersenach and Ruhl. 7. _The Quakia song_ is so called from its last syllables, and is double or single, one with one strain, the other with two. This song was formerly very much admired. It was heard in the woods and house, but it is now lost, as all the wild chaffinches that sung it have been taken, and those in confinement have been taught in preference the good wine song: I believe I possess the only bird that is now to be found which sings this. To be admired, the quakia must be united with the double trill. This my chaffinch sings also. 8. _The Pithia_ or _Trewethia_, is a very uncommon and agreeable song, which is never heard but in the depths of the Thuringian mountains. The bird-catchers of the villages about the forests of Hesse seek for birds that possess it, and actively pursue the songsters. It is first a sonorous strain, followed by several repetitions of the word "_zack_." Some birds unite to it the common sharp wine song, and are more valued. The last syllables ought to sound "_trewididæ_." These eight varieties, or rather melodies, are those most thought of in Saxony and Hesse. I have said that some of them are heard in the woods; but it is very rarely that they are sung with so clear and strong a voice, or that they are so long and perfect. A chaffinch that knows only one of these varieties generally sings it slowly, and introduces a greater number of syllables. Its voice, in fact, executes it with more strength and depth; if it adds to the last strain the sound "_fink_," which our bird-catchers translate by _amen_, it is of the highest value, no price will be taken for it. There are a dozen varieties in all; but as they are not uncommon, and what are everywhere heard, they are less admired; they have even been given in contempt the name of _plain_. One thing worth remarking is that the song of the chaffinch varies almost as much as the countries it inhabits. It is not the same in Thuringia as in the Hartz, and the taste of amateurs differs equally[43]. In Austria several named melodies are admired, but I have never heard them. The chaffinch has so great a facility in learning, that it not only imitates perfectly the song of another chaffinch near which it has been placed from youth, but being hung near a nightingale or canary it learns several parts of their songs, and would no doubt give them completely if its larynx were so formed that it could render notes so long and sustained; in fine, a great difference in memory is observed in these birds, as well as in all others of the singing species. Some require six months to learn an air that others catch on first hearing, and can repeat almost immediately; these can scarcely retain one of the songs given above; those can imitate three, four, and, should you wish it, five different ones. There are also some that cannot give one song without a fault, and we find others that will add to it, perfect it, and embellish it. One thing peculiar to chaffinches is the necessity of teaching them their song every year, and this in the manner proper for them, during the four or five weeks this exercise lasts. They first utter a murmur, or weak warbling, to which they add at first, in an under voice, one or two, and afterwards several syllables of their song; they are then said to _record_. A chaffinch that takes only a week or fortnight to repeat this lesson for fully bringing out its voice, is reckoned among the geniuses of its species. It is known that other birds whose power of singing is confined to a particular season, also warble feebly, and mingle with their warbling some foreign notes, especially harsh and confused sounds; but none produce sounds so peculiar, and that have so little relation to their own song. If we pay a little attention, however, we shall find that this exercise is intended less to awaken the memory than to render the throat, stiffened by a tolerably long state of inaction, more pliant, and to bring back its natural flexibility. Wild chaffinches, on their return in spring, do not delay to record; those in the house soon learn, but they are obliged to exercise themselves for nearly two months before they can execute their song to perfection. The singing season does not generally extend beyond June, but young chaffinches brought up in a room prolong it to October, and sometimes later. Some amateurs of the song, rather than friends of the bird, to procure the pleasure of hearing it night and day in all its strength, employ a very cruel and inhuman contrivance. They first place the cage in a very obscure place, and accustom the poor little creature to find its food in the dark; they then blind it, either by destroying the pupils of the eyes with a red hot iron wire, or by passing it over the edges of the eyelids, unite and paste them completely together. Others shut up these poor mutilated creatures in a cool place, almost without air, during the summer, in order that when in autumn they are brought to the window, and breathe the fresh air, they may express their joy by their lively and repeated song. What can we think of the heart and morals of people who for a slight amusement thus enjoy the sufferings of a sensitive being that is unfortunately in their power? THE MOUNTAIN FINCH. Fringilla montifringilla, LINN�US; Le Pinson d'Ardenne, BUFFON; Der Bergfink, BECHSTEIN. This bird is six inches and a quarter in length, of which the tail measures two and a half and the beak half an inch; this is yellow, with a black tip. The feet, nine lines high, are dark flesh-coloured; all the feathers of the head and cheeks are black with reddish edges, wider and more distinct in young males, and becoming fainter from age, almost disappear in old ones, whose heads become quite black; the tail rather forked, and black. The colours of the female are more uniform; she is brown where the male is black, and only a rusty colour where he is red. Independently of the varieties produced by age, and which are tolerably numerous, without being very remarkable, there are some more remarked, such as those with a white head, a back quite white, &c. HABITATION.--In their wild state this species is scattered throughout Europe; however, it is most probable that in the summer they only inhabit the northern parts. During the three other seasons they are found everywhere in Germany, particularly where there are large forests. When beech-mast is plentiful in Thuringia the mountain finches assemble in immense numbers, it is supposed more than 100,000. In the house they are kept in a cage or not, according as they are esteemed; where they are common they are not thought worthy of one, but allowed to range at will. FOOD.--Wild, and in confinement, it is the same as the chaffinch's. MODE OF TAKING.--This bird's note of call is _ïak, ïak, quääk_, and as the two first sounds are the same as that of the chaffinch, they will come at its call, and fly in its company. They also afford the best sport with a net, for in autumn hundreds may be taken at one cast. In winter they are caught near barns under nets, or even under common sieves; and in spring on a decoy bush, at the call of the chaffinch, if one of its own species cannot be procured. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--We cannot boast of sweetness in the song of this bird, as it consists of low whistling, or a kind of warbling, intermixed at intervals with a shrill "_raitch_," the whole somewhat resembling the first exercises of the chaffinch; but this wretched warbling may be improved by education. A mountain finch placed by the side of a chaffinch that sung well, learnt to imitate it tolerably, but I must confess that it never attained great perfection. I should warn bird-fanciers who wish to keep these birds for the beauty of their plumage, not to let them range with many companions, for they are quarrelsome, and very lavish in distributing severe pecks, especially if food is not very abundant. In Thuringia they are kept in cages to be employed as lures in the area or decoy enclosure. It is said that it is easier to teach them to go and come than the chaffinch. THE HOUSE SPARROW. Passer domestica, RAY; Le Moineau franc, BUFFON; Der Haussperling, BECHSTEIN. Though this and the following species cannot be reckoned among those that are pleasant in a room, yet I must not omit them on account of their being easily preserved, and though distinguished neither for their song nor their colours, yet they make up for the want of these by agreeable qualities, that many, much more admired, do not possess. It is almost superfluous to describe a species so well known. The total length is five inches and three quarters; the beak thick and blue black; the feet greyish brown; the top of the head and cheeks greyish ash-coloured with a broad chestnut streak behind the eyes, elsewhere surrounded with black. The female differs a good deal, the upper part of the body being greyish red, spotted with black on the back, and the under part of a dusky greyish white. The young males before their first moulting very much resemble their mothers. The varieties known here are the white, the yellow, the tawny, the black, the blue, the ash-coloured, and the streaked. HABITATION.--In its wild state, it haunts the vicinity of houses; when confined, it is allowed to range the room. FOOD.--If, unfortunately, it is too true that the sparrows cause great injury in ripe fields of wheat, barley, and peas, it must be acknowledged that they are very useful in our orchards and gardens, by destroying, in the spring, thousands of insects, on which they feed their young ones as well as themselves[44]. In the house, they feed on any kind of food: oats, hemp seed, or rape seed. BREEDING.--Small openings under the tiles, crevices in walls, empty martin's nests, are the places they appropriate for breeding, and they line their nest thickly with feathers. The female has two or three broods every season, and has from five to seven young ones at a time. MODE OF TAKING.--Sparrows are so cunning that it is difficult to attract them within the net or on lime twigs. They may be caught in numbers however on the brambles in a field where sheep are kept, by sticking plenty of bird-lime about them. They may be taken also by placing a net before those that have retired to cherry trees and under the tiles to sleep for the night. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The bird-fancier who enjoys seeing several birds running about the room, will, with pleasure, admit the sparrow among them, and may amuse himself especially by observing it breed and produce mules with the hen tree-sparrow. A jar or cup placed in a corner will serve as their nuptial bed. A male tree-sparrow with a hen sparrow does not succeed. The sparrow may be easily taught to go and come at command, by choosing winter as the time to effect it. It is necessary first to keep it a month near the window in a large cage supplied with the best food, such as millet, meal, or white bread soaked in milk. It will even go there to deposit its eggs if a small box is placed in the cage, with an opening for it to enter at. Finally, no bird becomes more familiar, or testifies more attachment to its master. Its actions are very lively, confiding, and delicate. A soldier, says Buffon, had a sparrow which followed him every where, and knew him in the midst of the regiment. THE TREE SPARROW, LATH. Passer montana, RAY; Friquet, ou Moineau des haies, BUFFON; Der Feldsperling, BECHSTEIN. This species is more beautiful than the preceding. In length it is five inches and a half; the beak is dusky; the feet are bluish flesh-coloured; the upper part of the head as far as the nape of the neck is reddish brown; the cheeks are white with a black spot; a white ring surrounds the neck; the back is spotted with black and red; the lower part of the back and the rump are grey brown; the throat white, the breast light ash-coloured; the belly dusky white; the quill feathers and tail are dark brown; the lesser wing-coverts rust-red; the greater, black with red edges and white tips, which form two transverse bars. Two varieties are known, the white and streaked. HABITATION.--In their wild state, they are not only found throughout Europe, but also in the north of Asia and America. In Germany and England it is not so common as the house sparrow, for in some provinces it is never seen. It frequents gardens, orchards, and fields abounding with trees and hedges. In September, large flights are seen to fall upon the ripe fields of barley and oats. In the house it is let run about like the former, which it does very awkwardly from having short legs, and this gives it the appearance of dragging along on its belly. It is only kept in a cage in countries where it is very rare. FOOD.--This is the same as that of the preceding. BREEDING.--The nest must be sought in the holes of fruit trees, or in hollow willows at the water's edge; it breeds twice in the year. MODE OF TAKING.--This is the same as the preceding; but being less distrustful and cunning, it is easily enticed under a sieve placed before a barn in winter. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its plumage is prettier than the preceding, its song is also less short and monotonous; but it is weak, and when it might be sweet, it is lost among the other songs in the room. The tree sparrow might be accustomed in the country to go and come at command by treating it in the manner described with respect to the house sparrow. It is more difficult to preserve it, and it generally dies of decline. THE COMMON LINNET. [Illustration] Fringilla cannabina, LINN�US; La Linotte, BUFFON; Der Lanning, BECHSTEIN. The length of this well-known bird is more than five inches, of which the tail measures two inches and a half. The beak, six lines long, is dusky blue in summer, and in winter greyish white, with the point brown; the iris dark brown; the feet, eight lines high, are black. There are some very striking varieties produced by the season and age in the plumage of the male, which are not observed in the female, and these have caused great confusion in works on birds, so much, that bird-catchers are still persuaded these birds, in a different dress, are distinct species. Instructed by long experience and the observations of many years, I hope to show in my description that our common linnet (_Fringilla Linota_, Linnæus), the greater redpole (_Fringilla cannabina_, Linnæus), and, according to all appearance, the mountain linnet (_Fringilla montana_, Linnæus), are one and the same species. A male three years old or less, is distinguished in spring by the following colours, and by the name of redpole. The forehead is blood red, the rest of the head reddish ash-coloured, the top rather spotted with black; the cheek, sides of the neck, and the circle round the eyes, have a reddish white tint; the feathers of the back are chestnut with the edges lighter; the upper tail-coverts are black edged with reddish white; the throat and under part of the neck are yellowish white, with some dashes of reddish grey; the sides of the breast are blood red edged with reddish white, the sides of the belly are pale rust-coloured; the rest of the under part of the body is reddish white; the greater wing coverts are black, bordered with reddish white, the others are rusty brown with a lighter border. The quill-feathers are black tipped with white, the first are edged with white nearly to the point, the narrow beard forms a parallel white streak to the quill-feathers; the tail is black and forked, the four outer feathers on both sides have a broad white border, that of the two middle feathers is narrower, and reddish white. After moulting, in autumn, little red is seen on the forehead, because the feathers become coloured from the bottom to the top; the breast has not yet acquired its red tint, for the white border is still too wide; but when winter comes its colours appear. Males one year old have no red on the head, and more dashes of black; the breast is pale red waved with pale and dark, the under part of the feathers on the breast is only a bright reddish grey brown, the edges of these feathers are of a reddish white; the back rust-colour has some detached spots of dark brown and reddish white. These birds are known under the name of grey linnets. After the second moulting, if the reddish grey feathers are blown aside, blood red specks may be discovered on the forehead, and the red of the breast is only hidden by the wide yellowish white borders to the feathers; these are the yellow linnets, or the rock linnets, as they are called in Thuringia. I have myself taken linnets whose foreheads and breasts have been bright reddish yellow instead of blood red, a colour, in fact, that sometimes, in the house, becomes blood red. Bird-catchers give these also the name of yellow linnets. It is a deterioration of the red caused by illness during moulting, or by old age, and they are not wrong in regarding them as the best and the finest singers. I have taken several, but on account of their scarcity, I have always kept them for myself. Their song was very fine and clear, but they cannot be tamed, and have generally died soon of sorrow and melancholy, from which I conclude that they were very old. Besides these three different varieties of plumage of the males, there are several clouded, produced by the seasons and old age; for instance, the older they become, the redder the head is. I have in my cabinet all the gradations of this change. Birds brought up in the house never acquire the fine red on the forehead and breast, but remain grey like the males of one year old; on the other hand, old ones, red when brought into the house, lose their beautiful colours at the first moulting, and remaining grey like the young ones, are no more than grey linnets. This difference of colour does not take place in the females, which are smaller than the males; the upper part of the body is grey streaked with dusky brown and yellowish white, on the rump with greyish brown and reddish white; these spots are more numerous on the breast; the wing-coverts are a dusky chestnut. The females are distinguished in the nest by the back being more grey than brown, and by the number of streaks on the breast, which resembles that of the lark; bird-fanciers leave these in the nest and take only the males. HABITATION.--In its wild state the linnets are spread throughout Europe. In the summer they frequent the skirts of large forests, thickets, hedges, and bushes, particularly furze; but as soon as September arrives, they pass in large flights to the fields. They are wandering birds, that in winter go hither and thither seeking food in places free from snow, but in March they return to their native places. In confinement it is best to keep them in square cages, as they are less subject to giddiness in these than in round ones, and sing better. They are not often allowed to range the room, as they are very indolent, remaining immoveable in the same place, and running the risk of being trodden on; but if a small tree or a roost be placed in a corner, they may be let out of the cage with safety, as they will remain perched there, only leaving it to eat or drink, and will sing all day long. FOOD.--When wild, their food is all kinds of seeds that they can shell, and these remain in the crop some time to be moistened before passing into the stomach. In the house, it is only summer rape seed,[45] which need not be soaked in water for them, as for the chaffinch, since, having a much stronger crop and stomach, they can digest much better. It is not necessary always to give them hemp seed with it, and they must not be fed abundantly, for taking little exercise, they easily become fat, and sometimes die from this cause; but a little salt mixed with their food is useful, as it preserves them from many diseases, and they like it. When linnets are allowed to run about, they will feed with the other birds on the common universal paste; but they must be given green vegetables, water, and sand, as they are very fond of bathing and dusting themselves. BREEDING.--Linnets have two broods in the year. They lay from four to six eggs for each, of a bluish white, speckled with reddish brown, especially at the large end. Their nest placed in a hedge, a white or black-thorn, or, if in a country where they are common, on a vine, or a furze bush, is composed of small twigs, dried grass and moss, and lined with wool, the hair of horses, and other animals. The parent birds feed their young ones from their beaks, and do not discontinue it if prisoners in the same cage. If the young ones are to be taught a new song, they must be taken from the nest when the shafts of the feathers are just appearing, that they may have no idea of their parents' song. The males may be easily distinguished by their white collar, and from having the most white about the wings and tail. DISEASES.--The most common disorders of this species are constipation, atrophy, and epilepsy. A linnet, however, will, in general, live from ten to twelve years in the house. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds are distrustful and suspicious, and, notwithstanding decoys and perching birds, it is very difficult to entice them within the decoy or area, and never many together. In the spring, by means of a good decoy-bird, a few may be taken on a decoy-bush. In the autumn, by fastening snares or lime twigs to the stalks of lettuces, of the seeds of which the linnets are very fond, several may be taken. Our shepherds turn and support the cribs, used to feed the sheep from, in such a manner, that the linnets, coming to gather the grains of salt, easily overturn them on themselves. The call of the linnet is "_gäcker_." ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The agreeable, brilliant, and flute-like song of the linnet, consists of several strains, succeeding each other very harmoniously. Our amateurs consider its beauty to depend on there being often mingled with it some acute and sonorous tones, that a little resemble the crowing of a cock, and have made people say that this bird _crows_. Its song is only interrupted during the year by moulting. A young one taken from the nest, which may be easily brought up on a mixture of the wetted crumb of white bread, soaked rape seed, and eggs boiled hard, not only learns the songs of different birds that it hears in the room, such as nightingales, larks, and chaffinches, but if kept by itself, airs and melodies that are whistled to it, and will even learn to repeat some words. Of all house birds, this, from the softness and flute-like sound of its voice, gives the airs that it is taught in the neatest and most agreeable manner. It is also one of those that pay best; some here cost from three to five rix-dollars when they can warble an air preceded and followed by a grand flourish as of trumpets. The weavers and shoemakers often bring up many of these birds. It is very pleasing and surprising to hear a young linnet that is well taught by a nightingale. I have one, whose imitations are as perfect as possible. It amuses me throughout the year, but especially when my nightingales are silent. Linnets may be accustomed to go and come at command, by treating them in their youth, or in the winter, as I have directed for the house-sparrow; but as they are more timid, it is necessary to be more careful. It is common for a male linnet to pair with a hen canary, and their progeny can scarcely be distinguished from the grey canary. They sing delightfully, and learn different airs with great facility. It is well known, that among linnets, some are finer warblers than others, and that, as with many other birds, the old ones sing better than the young; on which account, yellow linnets, being the oldest, are the most valued. THE LESSER REDPOLE. Fringilla Linaria, LINN�US; Le Sizerin, ou Petite Linotte des Vignes, BUFFON; Der Flachsfink, BECHSTEIN. In its plumage this bird resembles the linnet; but in its actions and shape it more resembles the siskin. It is five inches and one quarter in length, of which the tail measures two and one quarter; the beak, four lines long, is very sharp and yellow; its shanks, eight lines high, are black; the top of the head is a brilliant crimson; the upper part of the body is dark brown, spotted with white and rust yellow; the rump is rose-coloured; the throat black; the feathers on the under part of the neck and breast are bright rose-coloured, edged with white; the rest of the under part is white. The plumage of the female is lighter; the breast is not rose-coloured, except that when very old it acquires a slight tint, as well as the rump; the upper part of the body is spotted with white and deep brown, and the breast is rather speckled with the same colours. The latter characteristics serve to distinguish the females from young males, that also are without the rose-colour on the breast, but have the rust-coloured and dark brown back of the older birds. The males, confined to the house, lose, at the first moulting, the fine rose-coloured breast, and, at the second, the crimson of the head, which generally changes to a greenish yellow. I have a male bird, the top of whose head became, at the third moulting, of a fine golden yellow, and has retained its brilliancy for six years. HABITATION.--In its wild state the lesser redpole is found in every part of Europe; yet we must consider the north as its native home, Scotland, Sweden, Lapland, Norway, and Greenland. Great flights arrive amongst us at the end of October, and leave us in March and April. In winter, they frequent places planted with alders, the seeds of which they appear very fond of. They are principally found in company with siskins. In the house, it shows off its beautiful plumage, which, alas! does not retain that beauty long, it is often placed in a pretty cage, but most commonly allowed to range through a room. FOOD.--When at liberty, the seed of the alder is what these birds seek most eagerly; but they do not despise the seeds of flax, hemp, and even fir, and many other kinds. Being entirely grain-eating birds, their crop has the power of softening the food before it passes into the stomach. In the house, if in a cage, they eat poppy, rape, and hemp seed; when at large, the first universal paste. BREEDING.--Occasionally a few stragglers breed with us, but this is rare. DISEASES.--The disorders of this species are the same as those of the siskin; but their feet are oftener diseased, and the toes skin off one after the other. They may be kept from eight to ten years. MODE OF TAKING.--In the spring and autumn, the lesser redpoles may be taken in flocks in the area, or barn-floor trap, with a decoy of their own species, or even with a siskin. Many may also be caught with such a decoy on a decoy-bush. They are so silly, or so confiding, that they will even allow themselves to be taken close by the bird-catcher, who is collecting their entrapped companions. This stupidity, or simplicity, is common in all birds that come from the more remote northern parts. Brought up far from man, and out of reach of his pursuit, they know not that fear and distrust which is felt by those that inhabit populous countries. Their call is "_peweet_" and "_crec, creck hewid_." ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The lesser redpole pleases the eye more than the ear; its feeble warbling being only, if I may thus express it, a low continued clicking. It may be taught to draw water more easily than the goldfinch, and it will also learn many other little manoeuvres, for it becomes very familiar, and will eat as soon as it is let loose after its capture. The mutual tenderness of the male and female is very pleasing. They are continually caressing each other with their bills, and even do the same to siskins, linnets, goldfinches, and canaries, from which it appears very likely that they would pair with these birds. THE GOLDFINCH. [Illustration] Fringilla Carduelis, LINN�US; Le Chardonneret, BUFFON; Der Distelfink, BECHSTEIN. "Beauty of plumage," says Buffon, "softness of voice, quickness of instinct, remarkable cleverness, proved docility, tender affection, are all united in this delightful little bird; and if it were rare, or if it came from a foreign country, it would then be valued as it deserves." It is five inches and three quarters in length, of which the tail measures two. The beak, five lines long, very pointed, and rather flattish at the sides, is whitish, with the point horn-coloured. The shanks, six lines high, are delicate and brownish. The front of the head is a fine crimson, sometimes scarlet; a wide border of the same colour surrounds the under base of the beak; the bridle, as it is called, is black; the top of the head is black, which colour extends downwards, from the nape on each side, dividing the white on the cheeks from the white spot on the hinder part of the neck; the under part of the neck is white; the hinder part and the back are fine brown. The female is rather smaller, and has not so much red round the bill; the bridle is brownish; the cheeks are mixed with light brown; the lesser wing coverts are brown; the back dark brown. The size, or the want of some white spots at the tips of the feathers, do not serve to distinguished the male from the female, as some bird-catchers say; nor ought we either to imagine that the size or number of these spots constitute different varieties; for all these distinctions are accidental, and depend on physical strength and age. Our bird-catchers think the large ones that are nearly the shape of the greater redpole form a distinct species, and they give them the name of Fir Goldfinches, because they say they always build in fir forests. Those that do not exceed the size of the red-breast, they call Orchard Goldfinches, because they suppose they always build in orchards. But these differences and pretences are imaginary, because both are found of different sizes, the orchard goldfinch large, and the fir, or wood goldfinch, quite small. The young ones that are hatched first are always stronger and larger than those hatched last, because they often carry off the food intended for the latter, and, therefore, being better fed, they become larger and stronger. This is sufficient to explain the difference of size in different individuals of the same species. The following varieties are better established:--1. The goldfinch, with a yellow breast; 2. With a white head; 3. With the head black--four young ones of this variety were found in the same nest; 4. The white goldfinch; 5. And the black goldfinch, this being either entirely black, which often happens in a cage, from giving it too much hemp seed, or from old age; or it only retains the yellow spot on the wings, which is also occasioned by captivity. M. Schilbach, superintendant of the menagerie of Cassel, tried an experiment on a whole brood. He deprived the birds of the light of the sun, even covered the cage with a piece of cloth, and, by these means, obtained very black goldfinches, with only the yellow spot on the wings; but they changed colour after moulting. Those in which the black does not change are very old. It is, in fact, a sign of approaching death. HABITATION.--In their wild state goldfinches are found in all parts of Europe, frequenting orchards, brambles, thickets, and mountainous districts, interspersed with wood and fields, during the summer. These birds are stationary, not changing their haunts in winter; they merely assemble in the autumn in families, or rather in little flocks of fifteen or twenty, seeking here and there places abounding in thistles, and only when the snow becomes too deep leaving such localities for others more accessible. In the house, if kept in a cage, this should be a square one, because these birds do not like hopping about the upper part, as they would be forced to do, if in a bell-shaped cage, and also inclined to swing round. When they run on the floor they should be given a small artificial tree for a roost; for they like to perch on this whilst singing as well as sleeping. FOOD.--Their food, when wild, consists of all kinds of small seeds, such as lettuce, goats'-beard, scorzonera, thistle, radish, and canary seed. With us, in the house, they are principally fed on poppy, hemp seed, properly varied with lettuce, rape, and canary seed. If allowed to range, the second universal paste agrees very well with them. I have a goldfinch, which appears in good health, and eats not only of all the vegetables brought to table, but also meat, though, in their wild state, these birds never touch insects[46]. They must have green food occasionally, such as chickweed, water-cresses, lettuce, or endive. These birds feed largely, when loose in the room, rarely leaving the food-dish, and driving off, if they can, with loud cries, any of their companions who wish to approach. They will allow those birds, however, to feed peaceably with them, that bear some analogy to their species, at least, in the nature of the stomach, such as the canary, siskin, and especially the lesser redpole, without distinction of male or female. BREEDING.--The goldfinch prefers building in large orchards, at the tops of trees, on weak and terminal branches. It makes the most beautiful nest of any of our birds, except the chaffinch, it being finely rounded, very elegant and firm. The outer part is constructed of fine moss, lichens, stalks of grass, and slender twigs; the whole being interwoven with the greatest nicety. The interior is lined with wool, horse-hair, and the cotton or down of the thistle[47], or willow. The female has rarely more than one brood in the year, unless she has been disturbed, and, in this case, the number of eggs is always diminished; on this account goldfinches never appear to increase in number. On a sea-green ground, the eggs have pale red spots and speckles, mingled with streaks of reddish black, which often form a circle at the large end. The parent birds disgorge the food into the young ones' throats. Before the first moulting the heads of the young birds are grey. If it is only wished to take male birds from the nest, all that have a whitish ring round the root of the beak, must be left. They must be brought up on poppy-seed and the crumb of white bread, soaked in milk or water. Of all the natural songs of birds, they imitate most easily and perfectly that of the canary; they also pair with the canary, and produce together fruitful young ones. For this purpose, a male goldfinch is paired with one or two female canaries, which succeeds better than by placing a male canary with a female goldfinch; the former being more amorous, most favours this union, particularly if educated from youth. The fruit of this union are not less distinguished for the beauty of their plumage, often yellow, with the head, wings, and tail, of the goldfinch, than for the sweetness of their song, whether natural or acquired. If you are afraid that a pair of canaries you value, may not hatch their eggs as you wish, place them in the nest of a goldfinch in your orchard, and you may be certain that they will be properly matured, and the young ones brought up in the best manner. When they are ready to fly, place them in a cage, and suspend it by the side of the nest till they can feed themselves. By this means you will have no trouble with their education. [Illustration: CANARY CAGE FOR PARLOUR.] DISEASES.--Epilepsy is one of the commonest disorders of this bird. If the eyes are weak and swollen, anoint them with fresh butter. Stupor and giddiness being very properly attributed to too great a use of hemp seed, it is best to suppress it entirely, and supply its place with the seed of lettuce and thistles. This latter is so beneficial, that it would be well to give them, from time to time, a head to pluck the seeds for themselves. Old age makes them blind, and deprives them of their beautiful colours; yet, notwithstanding all the evils with which they are afflicted, in a cage a goldfinch has been known to live sixteen years, and even twenty, or twenty-four years. MODE OF TAKING.--In spring these birds are taken on a lure bush, with a decoy bird of their own species. They will also enter the area, or barn-floor trap, with chaffinches, if bundles of thistles are placed there; but it is not without difficulty, for they are very watchful to avoid nets and lime-twigs. In the winter, by building up bundles of thistles, and placing snares and traps on them, several may be caught; but in autumn and spring lime-twigs should be placed on them in preference. It is a still better plan to place bundles of thistles in a tree stuck about with lime-twigs. The goldfinch's call is "_tziflit_," or "_sticlit_," which is its name in Bohemia. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The goldfinch is a very beautiful, lively, active bird, always in motion, and turning continually to the right and left. Its agreeable song, which is only discontinued during moulting, is a mixture of tones and harmonies, more or less dwelt upon, and the oftener the sound "_fink_" is introduced the more it is admired amongst us. There are some goldfinches that utter it only once or twice in their strains, whilst others will repeat it four or five times following. This species learn with difficulty to repeat airs from the flageolet, or other birds' songs, and in this respect is inferior to canaries and linnets; but it is remarkable for its docility. Goldfinches have been seen to let off a small cannon, and imitate death. When properly instructed they will draw up their food and water. They are taught this by means of a chain or pulley, furnished with a soft leather band, two lines wide, pierced with four holes, through which the wings and feet are to be passed; the two ends meeting under the belly, and are retained there by a ring, to which is fastened the chain that supports the bucket containing the water or food. Whenever the little waterman wants either, he draws up the chain with his beak, fixing it at intervals with his foot, and thus succeeds in obtaining what he wishes; but if his little buckets are suspended to a pulley, raising one makes the other descend, and he can only enjoy his food and water in turn. I have also seen goldfinches and siskins, placed in different cages, that have little bells fixed to the seed drawer in such a way that the bird cannot take its food without ringing them; the bells being harmonised, tolerably agreeable chimes are produced, but one is soon tired of such trifles. The goldfinch is taught to go and come at command, without any danger of losing it, much sooner than the linnet, though the latter learns quite as soon to build in the room. To accomplish this feat the winter should be chosen, and the cage, containing a goldfinch that has not been rendered tender by having been too long accustomed to the heat of the room, must be placed on the outside of the window every day, or on a shelf intended for it, and where the mice cannot reach it. Hemp seed must be scattered round, and a bunch of thistle heads fastened by the side, the seeds of which should be mixed with the hemp seed. Presently one or more goldfinches, attracted by the call of the prisoner, collect, to take advantage of the scattered food; as soon as you have succeeded so far it is useless to let the decoy remain any longer exposed to the cold, which may injure it. It will be quite sufficient to place the cage within the window, and to put on the outside a cage as a trap, not for the sake of catching these birds, but to scare away the sparrows, that would soon eat up all the seed unless thus prevented; and in order that the trap may only close when you wish, the door should be supported by a string, passing into the room, and loosened, to catch the sparrows, but the goldfinches should be allowed to go in and out at pleasure, till the snow is on the point of disappearing, then close the trap on those you wish to keep: the birds thus captured should be placed in a cage, where they will soon grow tame, and learn to go and return to it. Whatever form this cage is of, the door should be hung so as to remain open as long as is required, and be closed without noise or alarming the bird, either by means of a spring, that may be acted on by the bird, without his perceiving it, or by his pushing the door of it open on the inside. When a goldfinch has been thus trained it may be let fly without fear the following August, at the time of moulting. It is true that it will be lost for some time, but it will not fail to return in December, when the ground is covered with snow, and it will sing much more sweetly than it would had it been kept prisoner. As soon as it has flown, a cage should constantly be hung outside the window, and seeds placed in it, that, if it should chance to return, it may find food; but it is rarely seen again till winter: at that time the cage should be so arranged that the door may be closed as soon as the bird enters, as it used to do in the room; the surest way is to attract it by a call bird. It must not be allowed to come out so often as before, and it will remain, without injury, shut up till the season arrives for giving it its liberty again. The same course may be pursued for the tit, and with still more success for the chaffinch, which does not enter the snares of the bird-catcher as easily as the others. If it is feared that it may be caught in a neighbouring area or barn-floor trap, it may be frightened from this snare in future, by stretching a net once, in the orchard or garden near. The greenfinch is the best for this manoeuvre, as it is extremely fond of hemp seed, is more rarely taken, and returns less wild than the chaffinch. The birds that enjoy their liberty in the summer sing more finely than without this advantage, and, what is almost incredible, though taken to a distance of several leagues, they have always found their master's house again[48]. THE SISKIN. [Illustration] Fringilla Spinus, LINN�US; Le Tarin, BUFFON; Der Zeisig, BECHSTEIN. This bird is four inches and three quarters in length, of which the tail measures one and three quarters. The beak, four lines long, becomes narrower towards the tip, which is very sharp and brown; the rest is light grey, and in winter white. The shanks, eight lines in height, are dusky; the top of the head and throat are black; the cheeks, the back of the neck, and back are green; the latter streaked with a dusky colour; the rump, breast, under part of the neck, and the line that passes over the eyes, are greenish yellow. The throat of the male rarely becomes black till the second year; the older it becomes the more of yellow and beauty it attains. The varieties are the black siskin, the white siskin, and the speckled siskin. I have occasionally killed these birds with a breast entirely black. HABITATION.--In its wild state it is found throughout Europe; it is very common in Germany, where it remains all the year[49], but in winter it wanders about in search of food, and most frequents the parts well planted with alders. In the house, whether in a cage or not, it soon becomes very familiar. FOOD.--When wild it varies according to the season; in summer it eats in the woods the seeds of the pine and fir; in autumn, of hops, thistles, burdock; in winter, of the alder and the buds of trees. In the house its food is poppy-seed and a little hemp-seed bruised. If allowed to range, the first universal paste suits it. It is a complete glutton, and, though so small, eats more than the chaffinch; it is at the seed drawer from morning till night, constantly eating, and driving off all its companions. It does not drink less, and requires abundance of fresh water; yet it bathes but little, only plunging the beak in the water, and thus scattering it over its feathers, but it is very assiduous in arranging them; it may be called a fop, always engaged with finery. BREEDING.--The siskin rarely builds its nest among the alders, but generally in the pine forests, placing it at the extremity of the highest branches, and fixing it there with cobwebs, the threads of insects and lichens. The outer part is well formed of small twigs, and the lining is formed of finely divided roots. It has two broods in the year, each of five or six eggs, of a light grey, strongly spotted with purplish brown, particularly at the large end. The young males become finer each year till the fourth. The mules, produced by the siskin pairing with the canary, partake of the two species, and are very prettily spotted if the canary is yellow; but this union is not so easy as that with the green canary, which appears to bear a nearer relation to the siskin. DISEASES.--To the other maladies common to the birds of this family we must add epilepsy, of which these birds often die[50]. They may, however, be kept from eight to twelve years. MODE OF TAKING.--With good traps and nets made for this purpose, several dozen of these birds may be taken at once in the winter. They also collect in numbers, in the spring, on the decoy bush, and they are so fearless, that in the villages a person, who has his house situated near a stream bordered with alders, need only place a siskin in the window, near a stick covered with bird-lime, and he may catch as many as he wishes. I have caught some at my window in a cage strewed with hemp and poppy-seed, by letting the door fall by means of a string, when the birds had entered, one of the decoy birds in my room serving to attract them. When the place where they drink at noon is discovered amongst the alders, numbers may be caught by merely laying across the stream some branches covered with bird-lime. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Their plumage and song are both attractive, though with the latter several tones are mingled, that somewhat resemble the noise made by a stocking-loom. This makes them great favourites with stocking-weavers. They imitate tolerably the song of other birds, such as that of the tit, the chaffinch, and the lark; but they cannot give a musical air. Their carolling is only interrupted during moulting, and very much tends to excite their companions to warble in their turn. The loss of their liberty affects them so little, that they will eat as soon as let out of the hand, after being caught, and on the second day will allow any one to approach their cage without alarm. They are soon taught to draw up little buckets, and many other little manoeuvres that they execute gaily; there is no difficulty in accustoming them to go and return if the winter is chosen; the cage should be kept open at the window, and hemp and poppy-seed scattered at the entrance; they will return there in general, and bring several companions with them. This plan will not succeed so well in March, September, and October, the time when these birds roam through the country in search of food, though I have seen some tamed in this manner return after a long absence. THE RING SPARROW. Fringilla petronia, LINN�US; La Soulci, BUFFON; Der Graufink, BECHSTEIN. Independently of the beak, this bird may be taken for a female yellowhammer, as it resembles it so much in its shape and plumage. Its length is five inches three-quarters, of which the tail measures two. The beak, five lines long, is thick at the base, grey brown above, and white below. The feet, ten lines high, are grey brown; the whole head is of a reddish ash-colour, but a dirty white ring surrounds it from one eye to the other. The female is greyer on the upper part of the body, and the front of the neck is only pale yellow. OBSERVATIONS.--Ring sparrows are found in most European forests, or woods; they are common enough in several parts of Germany[51], those that inhabit the northern parts removing in winter; but the others are stationary. They live on seeds and insects like the house sparrow, and make their nests in hollows of trees. In the house they are fed on rape and poppy-seeds; they also readily eat the first universal paste. They are less prized for their warbling, which is insignificant, than for their beauty or rarity. THE SERIN FINCH. Fringilla serinus, LINN�US; Le Serin vert, ou le Cini, BUFFON; Der Girlitz, BECHSTEIN. This bird is smaller than the siskin, its length not exceeding four inches and a quarter, of which the tail measures one inch and a third. The beak is short and thick, brown above and white below; the iris is dark chestnut. The shanks are six lines high, and are of a flesh colour. The plumage of the male very much resembles that of the grey canary; the front of the head, the circle round the eyes, a kind of collar, the breast and belly, are pale jonquil-coloured, mixed with a little green; the nape of the neck, the cheeks, the temples, and lesser wing-coverts, are of a canary green, mingled with rust colour and black. The spots scattered over the plumage are not isolated, but united to each other by an undulating line; they are so small on the head, that it is only speckled. It is necessary to examine the female very closely to distinguish it from the siskin, for, with the exception of a reddish grey tint, the colours are the same; but its beak is shorter, its tail longer, and its shape freer. From my latest observations this bird appears to be the same as the citril finch; comparing them together in cabinets has confirmed my opinion; but that which has decided me is the testimony of my friend, Dr. Meyer, of Offenbach, who has often seen and even fed in his house several of these birds. From him I derive the rest of this article. [Illustration: SERIN FINCH.] HABITATION.--It is not more than ten years since the serin was observed between Frankfort and Offenbach. They arrive every year in large flights, during March, and depart in October; but there are always some that remain all the winter. Several were taken in January, 1800, when the thermometer was at twenty-one degrees Réaumur, and I myself have seen some near Offenbach at the end of February. They appear to prefer fruit trees, yet in woods they also appear attached to beech and oak trees; but I have never met with them by the sides of rivers or streams planted with willows. FOOD.--They feed on all the small seeds found in fields and orchards, particularly groundsel, plantain, garden pimpernel, and others of the same kind. In the house, rape, mixed with a little poppy seed, agrees very well with them; a few grains of hemp seed and husked oats may be added from time to time. BREEDING.--Their nest is generally placed on the lower branches of apple and pear trees, sometimes on beeches and oaks, but never on willows by the water-side. It is constructed of fine and divided roots, mosses, lichens, principally of those which are farinaceous, the whole being entwined with great nicety, and lined with a thick bed of feathers, horse-hair, and pigs' bristles. They lay three or four, rarely five, eggs of the form of, but rather smaller than, those of the canary; white, but having at the large end a circle of spots and dots of a bright reddish brown. The hen sits on the eggs thirteen or fourteen days, during which time the male feeds her. He also helps to feed the young ones, which is done by disgorging the food; the young perfectly resemble the grey linnet; they may be reared easily on soaked rape seed; but it is best to take the parent birds, and place them in the cage with their little ones, which they will continue to feed. The young birds remain grey till after moulting, they then attain their full plumage, as described before, but are never so beautiful in the house as in their wild state. After being kept a few years in a cage, the yellow in those taken full grown becomes pale, and fades at length to nearly white. This bird will pair with the canary, siskin, linnet, or goldfinch. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds are easily taken in the area, or barn-floor trap, on a decoy bush, and with lime twigs placed near the stalks of plantain. DISEASES.--With the exception of consumption, of which one I had died, I know of no disease they are subject to. OBSERVATIONS.--Of all house birds, these are the most sprightly and indefatigable songsters. Their voice is not strong, but it is very melodious. The song, with the exception of a few passages, is like the lark's, and might be mistaken for the canary's. In their wild state they sing incessantly, either perched on the outer branches of a tree, or whilst rising in the air, and gently sinking again to their former situation, or whilst flying from tree to tree. Their call resembles that of the canary, and their habits are also similar to that species. They are of a very affectionate character; when allowed to range the room with siskins, linnets, and similar birds, they will caress all with the beak, but seem to prefer the company of the goldfinch, whose tones they will imitate, and improve their warbling by it. They are indeed very attractive birds. THE CITRIL FINCH. Fringilla citrinella, LINN�US; Le Venturon, BUFFON; Der Citronenfink, BECHSTEIN. This bird very nearly resembles the canary in its colour, shape, song, and habits; but it is smaller and its notes weaker. Its resemblance, however, is so marked, that I should be inclined to suppose it the primitive wild stock, if the canary had not its representative in those islands from which it takes its name. The length of the citril finch is five inches, of which the tail measures two. The beak is short, the feet flesh-coloured, the plumage on the upper part of the body yellowish green, streaked with brown; the under part of the rump greenish yellow; the principal tint on the breast yellow. The female is less spotted, and the general shade of colour is lighter. OBSERVATIONS.--This species, inhabiting the south of Europe, occasionally strays into the southern parts of Germany[52], and the sweetness of their song makes them much sought after. They should be treated in the same manner as canaries. THE LAPLAND FINCH. Fringilla Laponica, LINN�US; Le Grand Montain, BUFFON; Der Lerchenfink, BECHSTEIN. This would be mistaken for a lark at first sight, as much from its plumage as from the length of its spur. We should also see them much oftener in Germany if the bird-catchers, who catch them in their lark's nests, did not take or kill them both indifferently. Their decoys are the same as the buntings (_Emberizæ_, Linn.), for though we cannot observe them much whilst alive, we cannot be deceived as to their pairing with finches (_Fringillæ_, Linn.) buntings and larks. They are about the size of the yellowhammer, six inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two. The beak is yellow, with a black tip; the feet dark brown; the head blackish, spotted with reddish white, sometimes quite black; a white line passes from the base of the bill above the eyes, down each side of the neck, curving towards the breast; the upper part of the body is red, with brown spots; the throat and breast are pale red; some males are black in the middle of the lower part. The female is paler in its colours; its breast is spotted with grey and black; in fact its plumage resembles the field lark's. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird is always found in the north, both in the old and new world, and goes towards the south in winter. It is met with by us on its arrival with the larks, and on its return with the snow bunting, but it is oftenest taken with larks. Its call is a kind of shrill whistle, and its song is very similar to the linnet's; the female also warbles, but only in the bullfinch's style. It ranges the room like the lark, and if in a cage hops about its perches like the chaffinch. It is fed on rape, hemp, and poppy seed, which appear to agree with it very well. It may be fed at less expense on the first universal paste, as it also likes meal worms. I think that in its wild state it lives, like the chaffinch, on seeds and insects. THE SNOW FINCH. Fringilla nivalis, LINN�US; Le Niverole, ou Pinson de neige, BUFFON; Der Schneefin, BECHSTEIN. The name has been given it as much from its being found on high mountains and the colour of its plumage, as for its resemblance to the snow bunting. Its total length is seven inches and a quarter, of which the tail measures two and a half; the beak six lines long, very pointed, but thick at the base, and of a glossy black; the feet ten lines high, dark chestnut colour: its plumage is pretty; the top of the head, cheeks, temples, nape, back, and sides of the neck are dark ash-coloured. The female only differs from the male in the grey of the head having a reddish tint, and the whole of the under part of the body, being white; the breast has also a dirtier shade, and the sides are spotted with black. OBSERVATIONS.--The snow finch inhabits the southern Alps, but is found as far north as the middle of Germany. I have even seen them in Thuringia, in company with the mountain finch; it is a sprightly bird, and very fearless in a cage. It may be fed on rape, millet, and hemp seed; but it appears to prefer the seed of the fir and nettle hemp (_Galeopsis cannabina_): one would think that in its wild state it also fed on insects, as it readily takes meal worms when offered them. Its call is "_kipp, kipp_." It sings a great deal, but its song is not more agreeable than the mountain finch's, to which it appears allied, and like that is only kept in the house for its beauty and rarity. THE CANARY. Fringilla canaria, LINN�US; Le Serin de Canarie, BUFFON; Der Canarienvogel, BECHSTEIN. This pleasing bird had its origin in the pleasant climate and delightful valleys of the Canary Islands, and is now spread throughout Europe, part of Asia, and as far as Siberia. The beauty of its form, its plumage, and its song, united with its great docility, soon gained it admittance into the most magnificent abodes, where every one delights in rearing and preserving it, whilst the fairest hands are often eager to present it with the most delicate food. It was brought into our climate as early as the beginning of the sixteenth century. The arrival of the canary in Europe, is thus described:--A vessel, which besides its merchandise was bringing a number of these birds to Leghorn, was shipwrecked on the coast of Italy, opposite the island of Elba, where these little birds, having been set at liberty, took refuge. The climate being favourable, they increased, and would certainly have become naturalised, had not the wish to possess them occasioned their being caught in such numbers, that at last they were extirpated from their new country. From this cause Italy was the first European country where the canary was reared. At first their education was difficult, as the proper manner of treating them was unknown; and what tended to render them scarce was, that only the male birds were brought over, no females. The grey of its primitive colour, darker on the back and greener on the belly, has undergone so many changes from its being domesticated, from the climate, and from the union with birds analogous to it (in Italy with the citril finch, the serin; in our country with the linnet, the green finch, the siskin, and the goldfinch), that now we have canaries of all colours. If we had not sufficient proof that canaries came originally from the Fortunate Islands, we should think the citril finch, the serin, and the siskin, were the wild stock of this domesticated race. I have seen a bird, whose parent birds were a siskin and serin, which perfectly resembled a variety of the canary which is called the green. I have also seen mules from a female grey canary, in which was no trace of their true parentage. The grey, the yellow, the white, the blackish, and the chestnut, are the principal varieties, and it is from their combination, and from their tints, that we derive the numerous varieties that we now possess. Those canaries, that have the upper part of the body of a dusky grey or linnet brown, and the under part the yellowish green of the green-bird, with dark brown eyes, are the strongest, and most nearly resemble the primitive race[53]. The yellow and white often have red eyes, and are the most tender. The chestnut are the most uncommon, and hold a middle rank for strength and length of life between the two extremes. But as the plumage of the intermediate ones is a mixture of these principal colours, their value depends on the pretty and regular manner in which they are marked. The canary that is most admired amongst us now, is one with the body white or yellow, the head, particularly if crested, wings and tail, yellowish dun; the second in degree is of a golden yellow, with the head, wings and tail black, or at least dusky grey. Next follow the grey or blackish, with a yellow head and collar; the yellow, with a blackish or green tuft, which are very much valued. As for those that are irregularly spotted, speckled, or variegated, they are much less sought after, and are used to pair with those of one colour, white, yellow, grey, brown-grey[54], and the like. The female can scarcely be distinguished from the male, but the male has generally deeper and brighter colours, a head rather larger and longish, a longer body, a more elegant form, neck not quite so short, and higher shanks. There is a feather under the beak, of the shape of a bean, placed lower than the rest, and the temples and circle round the eyes are of a deeper yellow than the other parts of the body. The length of the canary is five inches, of which the tail measures two and a quarter: the beak, five lines long, is strong, very pointed, and whitish; the shanks, eight lines in height, are of a flesh-colour. I shall end this description with an account of the different mule birds obtained from the canaries. MULE CANARIES.--1. _Mules between a Canary and a Goldfinch_, present in their plumage an agreeable mixture of the colours of their parents. The most beautiful which I have seen was greyish ash-colour in the middle of its crest, and silvery white on the rest of its head and nape; a broad orange border surrounded the beak, and the neck was adorned with a white collar; the back was a dusky grey, with black streaks; the rump white, the under part of the body of a snowy whiteness; the under tail-coverts, the wings and first quill-feathers white, but the others, as well as the coverts, black, edged with yellow; the middle of the wing was also adorned with a beautiful golden yellow spot; the white tail had a black spot on the sides, the white beak was tipped with black, the feet were white. The mother of this beautiful bird was white, with a greenish grey crest. In general, one may be sure of fine birds when yellow or white females are paired with goldfinches. 2. _Mules between the Canary and the Siskin._--If the mother be a green canary, the mules will resemble a female siskin; but, if she is white or yellow, their colours are lighter, yet without differing greatly from those of the siskin, which they always resemble in shape. 3. _Mules between a Canary and a Green-bird, or a Citril Finch._--If the hen canary is neither white nor yellow, the mules differ little from the common grey or green canary, except in being more slender, and having the beak shorter and thicker. 4. _Mules between a Canary and a Linnet_ will be speckled if the mother is white or yellow, but if she is grey they will be like her, except that the tail will be longer. The other mules are rarer, because more difficult to obtain, as we shall see elsewhere. HABITATION.--Except in the breeding season the male canaries are kept alone in separate cages, which, whatever the shape, ought not to be less than eight inches in diameter and a foot in height, with two sticks placed across for the bird to perch on. The females may be allowed to range the room with one wing clipped, or, what is better, kept in large cages, where, from having plenty of exercise, their health and strength are better preserved. In the small cages, glass vases should be placed on the outside, at the extremities of the lower stick, to hold the food and water. These may be surmounted with a cap of tin, or something of the kind, to prevent the seed from being so easily scattered. It is for this reason that the large seed drawers in an aviary are covered with iron wire-work, leaving only sufficient spaces for the heads of the birds to pass through. Cleanliness being a great preservative against most of their disorders, the bottom of the cage should be made to draw out, that it may the easier be cleaned and covered with sand. This should be done every day, or at least several times a week. These tender birds, being natives of a warm climate, and becoming more delicate instead of hardier from being kept in the house, require a temperature analogous to that of their native climate. They must be protected from the cold, and never allowed to remain in winter in a cold room, which would occasion many diseases, or even death. But, in summer, it is proper to place them in the open air, and they enjoy it very much. Never do they sing so gaily as on fine days, and their cages should therefore be placed at the open window, that they may have the advantage of the light and heat of the sun, which is particularly serviceable to them whilst bathing. FOOD.--This is an important point, for, in proportion as it is simple and natural, it will be wholesome; and, on the contrary, the more it is mixed and rare, the more injurious and productive of disease will it be. What I have found the best is summer rape-seed; I mean that which is sown at the end of spring, which is small and brown, in distinction from the winter rape-seed, which is sown in the autumn, and which is large and black. This seed alone agrees with canaries as well as with linnets: but to give them the pleasure of variety, a little bruised hemp or canary, or poppy-seed, is added to it, especially in the spring, when they are intended to breed. Indeed a mixture of summer rape-seed, oatmeal and millet, or canary-seed, may be given them as a great treat. But whatever seeds they may have, they equally require green food, as chickweed in spring, lettuce and radish leaves in summer, endive, water-cress, and slices of sweet apple, in winter. As to that whimsical and complicated mixture, prescribed and used by many people, of rape, millet, hemp, canary seed, whole oats and oatmeal, poppy, lettuce, plantain, potentilla, and pink seeds, maize, sugar, cake, hard biscuit, cracknels, buns, and the like, so far from being wholesome, it injures the birds in every respect. It spoils their taste, weakens their stomachs, renders them feeble, sickly, and incapable of bearing moulting, under which they most frequently die. It is true, they may be accustomed to eat of everything which comes to table, but to teach this habit is also to prepare a poison for them, which though slow is not the less sure, and brings them to a premature death; whilst every day we see bird-fanciers who are poor, who hardly know the names of these delicacies, rear, on the simplest food, a considerable number of the healthiest, cleverest, and strongest canaries. We must, however, be guided in a great measure by the constitutions of the birds. They should be daily supplied with fresh water, as well for drinking as bathing, in which they delight. In the moulting season, a nail or bit of iron should be put into the water, in order to strengthen the stomach. Saffron and liquorice are in this case more hurtful than useful. Grains of the sand, with which the bottom of the cage is strewed, afford the birds a help to digestion. What has been said above, refers solely to the food of full-grown canaries; the young, which cannot feed themselves, require a different diet. BREEDING.--A very important branch in the history of the canary is its education, which is not without difficulties, but these are augmented by all the refinements and artificial plans which some persons follow with so much parade. A male of from two to five years of age should be chosen for pairing; for experience has taught, that if a young male is placed among older females, they will produce more males than females. A bird is known to be old by the blackish and rough scales of his feet, and by his long and strong claws. Good males are valuable and scarce. Some are dull and melancholy, always sad, and seldom singing; indifferent to their mates, which are equally so to them; others are so passionate, that they beat or even kill their mates and their young; others are too ardent, and pursue their mates while they are sitting, tear the nest, destroy the eggs, or excite the females so much that they voluntarily abandon them. The females have also their defects. Some, too ardent, only lay without sitting; others neglect to feed their young, beat them, and pick out their feathers, so that the wretched little creatures die miserably; to others, laying is so painful that they are too much fatigued to sit, or they lay each egg only after a long interval. Quacks (for we find them on this subject as on others) pretend to have specifics for the cure of these defects; but their pretended remedies are mere deceptions, and the use of them causes much trouble. The best plan is to remove the vicious birds, and to retain only those which have none of the above-named bad qualities. To obtain the most brilliant colours, those birds which have them clear, and whose spots are distinct and regular, are paired together. This, of course, can only be done in separate cages. In aviaries, where the birds pair by choice, the offspring are generally mixed and blotted. A greenish or brownish bird, placed with a bright yellow one, often produces dim white, or other admired colours. It is better never to place together two crested birds, because the offspring is apt to have a part of the head bald or otherwise disfigured. The best time for pairing canaries is the middle of April. Either one male, and one or two females, are placed in a large cage, or many of both sexes are united in a room or aviary, having the advantage of a south aspect. Nests made of turned wood, or osiers, are given them, as straw ones are too easily torn. It is a good plan to place in the room or aviary slips of pine, which being cut in February do not lose their leaves. If a little enclosure of wire-gauze can be fixed over the window, where the birds can enjoy the fresh air, nothing will more effectually contribute to render the young healthy and robust. Birds, which are to be paired for the first time, should be previously placed in the same cage for seven or eight days, in order to become acquainted and accustomed to live together. If two females are to be caged with one male, it is especially necessary that they should be together long enough to leave off quarrelling, and the pairing cage should be divided into two equal parts, communicating by a sliding door. This being done, a lively male and one of the females should be placed in the first division; as soon as she has laid, the male should be moved into the other division, the door of separation being shut; but as soon as the other has also laid, the door may be left open: the male will then visit the females alternately, and they will not trouble themselves about each other; but without these precautions jealousy would incline them to fight, and destroy each other's eggs. When it is intended to place a great many females, double or treble the number of males, in a room or aviary, the latter should always be first paired with a single female, which will ever after remain the favourite; and it will only be when she is about to sit that he will pair with the others, and this is all the notice he will take of them, for afterwards he will only notice their young. It is from these mothers, however, that the most and the best birds are generally procured. If the floor of the room or aviary is well covered with moss, little else need be added for making the nests, otherwise they should be supplied with the hair of cows and deer, hogs' bristles, fine hay, lint, wool cut two or three inches long, paper shavings, and the like. That which is coarsest serves for the outside, and the softest and finest for the inside. If they have shrubs, traces of the natural instinct of the canary are soon observed in the nests which they construct without the help of the turner or basket weaver; but they are of an inelegant form, and the outside is not very carefully finished. The females alone, as is usual among birds, are the builders, the males only choosing the situation and bringing the materials. It is in the nest, where the female is in continual motion, that the pairing takes place; she invites the male by constant little chirpings, repeated more quickly the nearer she is to laying. Seven or eight days are generally reckoned from the first pairing to the laying of the first egg; the other eggs, whose number varies, without exceeding six, are laid successively every following day, and often at the same hour. The laying ended, pairing continues during the first days of incubation. If the pairs agree, they must be left entirely to themselves, without endeavouring to use art to help nature, as many do. It is usual to take away the first egg and substitute an ivory one, which is repeated with the others to the last, preserving them in the mean time in a box filled with fine dry sand; they are afterwards restored all together to the nest to be hatched[55]. The females lay three or four times a year, from April till September; there are some even so prolific that moulting does not stop them. The eggs, of a sea-green colour, are at one end more or less spotted or marked with maroon or violet. The period of incubation is thirteen days. If, owing to the weakness of the male or female, it is suspected that some of the eggs are barren, they should on the eighth day be examined by holding them lightly between the fingers in the sunshine or before a candle; the good ones will be already filled with blood-vessels, while the bad will continue clear, or even be already addled: these must be thrown away. It is rare for the male to sit in his turn during some hours of the day, the female seldom allowing it, for as soon as she has eaten she flies back to the nest. If the male gives up his place readily, so much the better; if not, she drives him away by force and by pecking him. She appears to know his want of skill in this employment. The near discharge of a gun, a door slammed with violence, and other similar noises, will often kill the young in the shell; but their death happens generally through the fault of a bad sitter. As soon as the young are hatched, a small jar is placed beside the usual feeding trough, which contains a quarter of a hard egg minced very fine, white and yellow together, with a bit of white bread steeped in water, and afterwards well pressed; another jar should contain rape seed which has been boiled, and then washed in fresh water, to remove all its acrimony. Some persons, instead of white bread, use biscuit, but this is unnecessary; what, on the contrary, is very essential, is to take care that this food does not turn sour, for it would then infallibly destroy the young nurslings. This food I find by experience to be the best. Now is the time when the male assumes his important duties of nursing-father. These he fulfils indeed almost alone, in order to give his mate time to rest before a new sitting. When it is necessary to bring up the young by hand, a bit of white bread, or some biscuit, should be pounded very fine, and this powder should be mixed with well-bruised rape-seed. This composition serves, with a little yolk of egg and water, to make a paste, which is given to the young birds on a quill cut like a spoon; each nursling requires for a meal four beakfuls, well piled upon the quill, and these meals must not be fewer than ten or twelve a day. The young should remain warmly covered by the mother as long as they continue unfledged[56]; that is to say, generally for twelve days: on the thirteenth day they begin to eat alone. In four weeks they may be placed in other cages of a sufficient size; but they must still for some weeks be fed with the above-mentioned paste, conjointly with the food of full-grown birds; for the sudden privation of this nourishment often occasions death, especially when moulting. Experience proves that generally those canaries which are hatched in a large garden aviary, where they enjoy fresh air, and considerable space for the exercise of their wings, are more vigorous, more healthy, and more robust than those which are bred in rooms, and it is easy to understand the reason. I must not omit to mention here an important observation, which has been often made, that if two females are given to one male, and one of them happens to die, the other immediately takes charge of the abandoned eggs, and assumes so completely the duties of foster-mother, that in order rigorously to fulfil them she avoids and even repulses the caresses of her mate. Canaries pair not only among themselves in our aviaries and cages, they also form connexions foreign to their species, and, provided the analogy is not too remote, produce fruitful mules. Serins, citral finches, siskins, goldfinches, or linnets, are the species which succeed best[57]. To succeed, however, it is necessary that the birds should have been brought up from the nest. The custom is to give an old male of one of the above-named species to a female canary, the principal reason being that an old female of one of those species, though she would not object to the union, could never be induced to lay in an artificial nest, like a female canary. The offspring of these mixtures combine the colours of the father and mother, learn well enough if they descend from a linnet or goldfinch, but sing badly if they come from a siskin or lesser redpole. They are easily brought up with the paste mentioned above for canaries. It is asserted that the mules of serins, citral finches, and goldfinches, are fruitful. It is remarked, however, that their first eggs are very small, and the young hatched from them very weak; but the next year the eggs become larger, and the young stronger and more robust. No sooner can the young canaries eat alone, which happens on the thirteenth or fourteenth day, and sometimes even before they leave the nest, than the males begin to warble, and some females also, but in a less connected manner, which serves to point them out. As these pretty birds are so docile as to neglect entirely their natural song and imitate the harmony of our instruments, it is necessary immediately to separate from his companions and from every other bird the young one which is to be instructed, by putting him aside in a cage which is at first to be covered with a piece of linen, and afterwards with a darker cover. The air which is to be taught should be performed five or six times a day, especially in the evening and morning, either by whistling, or on a flageolet, or bird-organ; he will acquire it more or less readily, in from two to six months, according to his abilities and memory; if his separation from the other birds is delayed beyond the fourteenth day, he will retain some part of his father's song, which he will always intermingle with his acquired air, and consequently never perform it perfectly. The opinion of some, that the grayish canaries have more facility in learning than the yellow or the white, is unfounded, their only advantage over those of a different hue being that they are generally more robust and vigorous. I have not either found that the true No. 3 suits them better than No. 1 or No. 2; these latter, on the contrary, have appeared to me to please them best. There is too much trouble and risk in allowing canaries to go in and out of their cages for it to be worth the trouble of teaching them this. Notwithstanding all my attention, and the care which I have taken to follow exactly the prescribed rules, I have never succeeded; and the cleverest bird-fanciers have assured me that it should never be attempted but when they have young ones, and above all, there must be no canaries in the neighbouring houses, which might entice them away. Indeed it is no easy matter to accustom a bird to go and come. There, as in many other cases, conclusions in regard to the species have been drawn from individuals. It is certain that very few tame birds easily acquire this trick, and as I show in their histories, with respect to others, probabilities are too often stated as truths. DISEASES.--Birds which seldom enjoy the benefit of fresh and pure air, prisoners destitute in their confinement of the means of exercise, must be particularly subject to the common diseases which have been named, and also to many other peculiar ones. The following are some of the disorders incident to canaries. 1. _Rupture_, or _Hernia_: this is very common among young birds, and is a kind of plethora, which produces inflammation in the bowels. The symptoms of this disease are, thinness, the skin of the belly transparent and distended, covered with little red veins surcharged with blood, the bowels are black and knotted, and descend to the extremity of the body; there are no feathers on the diseased part; the invalid does not eat, and dies in a few days. Too nutritious, or too much food, being the cause of the disease, the only remedy is a very severe regimen, and even then it can be cured only in its first stages. The diseased birds must be immediately removed, and fed with nothing but lettuce or rape-seed, in very small quantities. A bit of iron should also be put in the water, and everything be done to invigorate and purify them. It is very rare for young birds which are brought up by their parents to suffer from this disease, as they never over-feed them. In bringing up by hand this moderation should be imitated, and they should neither be over-fed nor pampered. 2. _The yellow gall in the head and eyes_, arises from over heat; a cooling diet is therefore the only remedy. If the tumour has grown to the size of a grain of hemp-seed, it must be cut off, and the wound be anointed with a little fresh butter, or bathed with urine. 3. _Sweating._--There are some females which, during the time of incubation, or while they are on their young, are subject to profuse perspiration; the feathers of the belly are in consequence so wet as to destroy the brood: as soon as this indisposition is perceived the invalid must be washed with salt water, and after a few minutes be plunged into pure water, to wash off the salt, and be dried in the sun as quickly as possible. This operation is to be repeated once or twice a day till recovery; but as relapses are frequent, it is better to separate the female, and not allow her to sit. 4. _Asthma_, or _hard breathing_, which arises from an oppressed stomach, generally yields to plantain and rape seeds moistened with water as the sole food. 5. _Sneezing_, produced by an obstruction in the nostrils, is removed by passing a very small quill up them to clear them. 6. _Loss of voice._--It sometimes happens that after moulting a male suffers the loss of its voice; it must then be fed with the same paste as is prepared for young birds, adding some lettuce-seed, and, according to some bird-fanciers, a bit of bacon should be hung to the cage, for it to peck. 7. _Constipation._--The remedy for this is plenty of green food, as lettuce leaves, water-cress, &c., not forgetting bread and milk. 8. _Epilepsy_, which is common among many kinds of birds, may be produced in canaries by particular causes, as great delicacy and timidity. We should therefore avoid alarming them, either by catching them too suddenly or violently, or by tormenting them in any way. They are to be cured as has been already directed in the Introduction. 9. _Overgrown claws and beak._--When the claws or beak want paring, sharp scissors must be used, and care taken to avoid drawing blood, lest the bird should be maimed. They often injure themselves when their claws are too long, and get hooked in the wires of the cage, and continue thus hanging. The females, in the same way, get entangled in their nests. 10. _Lice._--The parasite insects by which these little prisoners are often tormented, are generally produced by slovenliness. Besides frequent bathing, the cages must be cleaned with much care and vigilance, and have plenty of very dry sand strewed over the bottom. These lice, like bugs, retire during the day to cracks and crevices, which accounts for old wooden cages being often infested. To get rid of them, hollow sticks or stalks of rushes are used, which must be examined and changed every day. The plan is good, but by using only tin cages, which may, more easily than any others, be passed through boiling water, the object is more certainly attained. It is rare for canaries which are kept for breeding to live longer than from seven to ten years; while others, if well used, may be preserved for eighteen or twenty years. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The plumage, pretty form, and docility, the charming familiarity which disposes it to nestle without fear or reserve beside us, as well as its melodious song, have long introduced the canary to all classes of society. Always before our eyes, the object of the most assiduous care, and constant attention, it has afforded a thousand occasions for studying its character, or rather the character and dispositions of the different individuals of its species. It has been discovered that among them, as among quadrupeds, and even man, some individuals are gay and others melancholy; some quarrelsome, others mild; some intelligent, others stupid; some with quick memories, others lazy; some greedy, others frugal; some petulant, others gentle; some ardent, others cold. Its singing, as strong as varied, continues uninterrupted during the year, excepting at the time of moulting, and even this exception is not general. There are some individuals which sing also during the night[58]. Those which introduce into their melody some passages of the nightingale's song are the most esteemed of all canaries; they are called Tyrolean canaries, because they are considered natives of the Tyrol, where they breed many of these birds. The second are the English canaries, which imitate the song of the wood-lark. But in Thuringia the preference is generally given to those which, instead of a succession of noisy bursts, know how, with a silvery sonorous voice, to descend regularly through all the tones of the octave, introducing from time to time the sound of a trumpet. There are some males which, especially in the pairing season, sing with so much strength and ardour that they burst the delicate vessels of the lungs, and die suddenly. The female, particularly in the spring, sings also, but only a few unconnected and unmusical sounds. Old ones which have done breeding often sing in this way at all seasons. Canaries are particularly remarkable for quickness and correctness of ear, for the great ease with which they exactly repeat musical sounds, and for their excellent memory. Not only do they imitate all the birds in whose neighbourhood they have been placed when young[59], mixing agreeably these songs with their own, whence have arisen those beautiful varieties which each family transmits to its descendants; but they also learn to repeat correctly two or three airs of a flute or bird-organ, and even to pronounce distinctly some short words. Females also have been known to perform airs which they had been taught. I shall conclude this article on canaries by pointing out the best rules for obtaining and preserving good singers. The most essential is to choose from among the young that which promises a fine tone, and to seclude it from all other birds, that it may learn and remember nothing bad. The same precaution is necessary during the first and second moulting; for being likely to re-learn (if I may say so) its song, it would introduce into it with equal ease foreign parts. It must be observed whether the bird likes to sing alone, or in company with others, for there are some which appear to have such whims, liking to hear only themselves, and which pout for whole years if they are not humoured on this point. Others sing faintly, and display their powers only when they can try their strength against a rival. It is very important to distribute regularly to singing birds the simple allowance of fresh food which is intended for the day. By this means they will sing every day equally, because they will eat uniformly, and not pick the best one day and be obliged to put up with the refuse the next. About two spoonfuls of the dry food mentioned above, is sufficient for the daily nourishment of a canary; what he leaves may be thrown to the birds which are free in the room, and will serve as a variety to those which have only the universal paste to satisfy their appetite. THE GLOSSY FINCH. Fringilla nitens, LINN�US; Le Moineau du Brésil, BUFFON; Der glänzende Fink, BECHSTEIN. This bird is smaller than the house sparrow, being only four inches and a half long. The beak and feet are flesh-coloured; the iris is white. All the plumage is of a bluish black, or black with a hue of burnished steel; the female has the upper part of the body covered with blackish feathers, bordered with a yellowish brown; the rump gray, the under part of the body dark yellowish brown; the tail-feathers black with gray edges; the feet reddish; in some males the beak and feet are black. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird is found in the woods of Cayenne, and the neighbourhood of Carthagena in America. Its clear note is very agreeable. It appears to sing with so much energy as to ruffle the feathers of the head and neck. Its food consists of all kinds of seeds and fruits. Though bread appears to be sufficient when caged, it is better to add rape, millet, and poppy seed. It is easily tamed. THE PURPLE FINCH. Fringilla purpurea, LINN�US; Bouvreuil violet de la Caroline, BUFFON; Der Purpurfink, BECHSTEIN. The size of this bird is that of the common chaffinch, the length being five inches and a half; the plumage is of a deep violet, or reddish purple, mixed with a little dark brown; the quill-feathers are brown on the inside; the belly is white; the tail is rather forked. The female is all over of a deep blue, except the breast, which is speckled. OBSERVATIONS.--These birds are very numerous during the summer in Carolina, which they quit in the winter in small flights. Juniper berries are their principal food; and they eat them with pleasure when caged. They are generally fed with rape and canary seed; but are soon accustomed to all the food of the aviary. They are more admired for their plumage than their song. THE AMERICAN GOLDFINCH. Fringilla tristis, LINN�US; Le Chardonneret jaune, BUFFON; Der Gelbe Stieglitz, BECHSTEIN. This bird is as large as a linnet, its length being about four inches and a third. The beak and feet are whitish; the iris is nut-brown; the forehead is black, and the rest of the body yellow. The female has no black on the forehead; the upper part of her body is of an olive green; the throat, breast and rump of a bright yellow; the belly and vent white; the wings and tail blackish. The young males at first exactly resemble the females, the only difference being the black forehead. These birds build twice a year, in spring and autumn. Edwards says that they also moult twice, so that it is only during the summer that they are of the colours described above. In the winter the top of the male's head is black; the throat, neck, and breast, yellow; the rump also yellow, but of a whitish hue; the feathers of the back olive brown, lighter at the edges; the wings and the tail black, with white edges to almost all the feathers. The female is generally of a lighter colour, and the top of the head is not black: thus we perceive that in winter these birds very much resemble our siskins. OBSERVATIONS.--These American birds repair in the summer in great numbers to the state of New York; they live on the seeds of different kinds of thistles, like our goldfinches, and eat the same food when caged. They are easily tamed, and sometimes even lay in captivity. Their eggs are of a pearl gray, but I am ignorant whether they are ever productive in confinement. THE BRAZILIAN FINCH. Fringilla granatina, LINN�US; Le Grenadin, BUFFON; Der Brasilische Fink, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is four inches and three quarters, the beak is coral red; the iris is dark brown; the eyelids are scarlet; the feet are light gray; the sides of the head round; the eyes are purplish; the upper base of the beak is blue; the throat, the lower part of the belly, and the thighs, are black; the lower part of the head and the rest of the body are chestnut, with a varying brown on the back and shoulders. The female has a red beak, and a little purple under the eyes; the top of the head orange; the back grayish brown; the throat and lower parts of the body light orange; the lower part of the belly whitish; the rest of the colours differ from those of the male only in being less brilliant. OBSERVATIONS.--This beautiful species comes from Brazil, and is always very expensive. The form of the beak is nearly the same as that of the goldfinch; the food is also the same; its motions are quick, and its song very pleasing. THE BLUE-BELLIED FINCH. Fringilla Bengalus, LINN�US; Le Bengali, ou Fringille à ventre bleu, BUFFON; Der Blaubäuchige Fink, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is four inches and a half, one and a half of which belong to the tail, which is wedge-shaped; the beak is one third of an inch long, flattish at the sides, very sharp, and flesh-coloured; the iris is nut-brown; the feet are light brown; the upper part of the head and body are ash-coloured, varying to purple; the sides of the head, the lower part of the neck, the breast, the belly, and the rump, are light blue. The female has no mark under the eyes. The varieties which are observable among these birds probably arise from difference of age: some are found gray on the back, and others on the lower parts of the body; and some in which the belly inclines to red. OBSERVATIONS.--The blue-bellied finch is a native of Africa, and comes principally from Angola and Guinea: it is a pretty lively bird, with a sweet agreeable song. It is fed with canary-seed, bruised hemp, and poppy-seed. THE LIVER-BROWN FINCH. Fringilla hepatica, LINN�US; Der Leberfarbene Fink, BECHSTEIN. This is about the same size as the last, which it somewhat resembles in plumage; but its air and manner are very different. Its length is four inches, of which the wedge-shaped tail measures one and three quarters. The beak is like that of the sparrow in form, of a blood-red colour, tipped with black; the eyelids are yellowish and bare; the iris is reddish brown; the feet are flesh-coloured; on the cheeks is a dark purple spot; the throat, half the breast, the sides, and the rump, are of a dirty greenish blue: the upper part of the body is of a dark liver-brown, the belly of a lighter shade of the same colour; the wings are of a deep brown, with the edges of the pen-feathers of the same colour as the back; the under side tending to blue, with black tips. I do not know the female. OBSERVATIONS.--This species inhabits the shores of Africa; it is very lively, and its call is "_tzä_." Its weak but sweet song resembles that of the wood wren. It is fed on canary-seed. THE ANGOLA FINCH. Fringilla Angolensis, LINN�US; La Vengoline, BUFFON; Der Angolische Hänfling, BECHSTEIN. This, in form and habits, very much resembles our redpole. Its length is four inches and a half, of which the forked tail contains one and three quarters. The beak is short, and not flattish, blunt at the tip, and of a dingy flesh-colour; the feet are flesh-coloured; the circumference of the beak is black; that of the eyes, with the sides of the throat, is spotted with white; the top of the head, the upper part of the throat, the back, and the little coverts of the wings, are of a brownish ash-colour. OBSERVATIONS.--Angola is the native country of this bird. As to the song, it is sweet and flute-like, very like that of the linnet, but more melodious. It is fed with rape and canary seed. The young males have the same plumage as the females. THE GREEN GOLDFINCH. Fringilla Melba, LINN�US; Le Chardonneret vert, BUFFON; Der grüne Stieglitz, BECHSTEIN. This bird is exactly of the form of our common goldfinch. Its length is four inches and a half, of which the tail measures one and a half. The beak is half an inch long, and of a carnation colour; the iris is chestnut; the feet gray; the front of the head, the back of the eye, and the throat, are of a bright red; the bridle is ash-colour; the upper part of the head, the neck, and the back, are yellowish green. The female has a light yellow beak, the top of the head and the neck ash-colour; the little coverts of the wings and rump yellow-green; the feathers of the tail brown, edged with pale red; the rest like the male. OBSERVATIONS.--This species is found in Brazil. The male pleases the ear by his song, as much as the eye by his plumage. It appears that by feeding them simply with rape and canary seed they may be preserved healthy for many years. [Illustration] WARBLERS. The characteristics of this group are a conical beak, sometimes tending to cylindrical, sharp, generally weak, and the upper mandible fixed. Insects are the food of the greater number; some also feed on berries and worms. The nests are for the most part well made, and the male sits alternately with the female. THE SKY-LARK. Alauda arvensis, LINN�US; L'alouette, BUFFON; Die Felderche, BECHSTEIN. This bird is very generally known. Its length is seven inches, of which the tail contains three. The beak is weak, straight, cylindrical, and terminating in a point; the mandibles are of an equal length, the lower one whitish, the upper black horn colour; the iris is grayish brown; the feet of the same colour, but yellower in the spring; the height of the shanks is nearly an inch, and the hind claw is much longer than the hind toe itself. The female is distinguished by its smaller size, by the absence of the white line round the cheeks, by the great number of black spots on the back and breast, and by the purer white of the breast. In the house we sometimes meet with the two following varieties:-- 1. _The white lark_, which is either clear white or yellowish white. He is occasionally found wild. 2. _The black lark._ The whole body of this variety is black with a rusty tinge, and the belly feathers are edged with white. I am ignorant whether this variety has ever been found wild; but it is not uncommon in dwelling houses, especially when the cages are fixed in a dark place where the rays of the sun cannot penetrate; in moulting, their colour passes away to give place to the primitive plumage, which never happens to the white variety. HABITATION.--In a wild state, the sky-lark is found almost all over the world, frequenting fields and meadows, and by preference plains. It is a bird of passage which generally arrives in our regions in the beginning of February, and departs in great flights in the month of October[60]. No bird of passage returns so soon as the lark; but as it lives not only on insects, but eats all kinds of seeds and even grass, it can seldom be in want of provision even in the severest weather. [Illustration] In rooms, it is common to let it hop about, giving it a retired corner to sleep; it is, however, also kept in cages, where it sings best. Whatever form may be given to these cages, they must be at least eighteen inches long, nine wide, and fifteen high; the bottom should have a drawer in which enough of river sand should be kept for this scratching bird to be able to roll and dust itself conveniently. It is also a good plan to have in a corner a little square of fresh turf, which is as beneficial as it is agreeable. The top of the cage must be of linen, since, from its tendency to rise for flight, it would run the risk of wounding its head against a covering of wood or iron wire, especially before it is well tamed. The vessels for food and drink must be outside, or, which I prefer, a drawer for the food may be introduced in the side of the cage: sticks are not necessary, as the lark does not perch. When it is allowed to hop free in a room, the latter must be very clean and neat, otherwise a thread or hair may entangle the feet, and if not removed it easily cuts the skin, maims the bird, and the entangled toes shrink and fall off. FOOD.--When wild, the food consists of insects, especially ants' eggs; also of all kinds of seeds, and in autumn of oats, which these birds skin by striking them against the ground, their beak being too weak to shell them alone. In the spring the sprouting seeds and young buds, also the blades of young grass, are eaten, and grains of sand help their digestion. In the house, if the lark is hopping about, nothing is better than the first universal paste described in the Introduction; but if caged the second will suit it better. Poppy-seed, bruised hemp, crumb of bread, and plenty of greens, as lettuce, endive, cabbage, or water-cress, according to the season, must be added. A little lean meat and ants' eggs are favourite delicacies, which make it gay and more inclined to sing. When old larks are first made prisoners, they must be fed only with oats and poppy-seed to reconcile them to captivity. BREEDING.--The lark lays but once a year in cold countries, twice in the temperate, and three times in the warmer climates. Its nest, formed on the ground in a little hollow, is made without much art of straw, and the wool and hair of animals, and by preference in hollow ground or among the summer crops of grain. The eggs, in number from three to five, are of a whitish gray, spotted and dotted with dark gray; incubation lasts fourteen days. By the end of April the young are often hatched, and are at first only fed with insects, and leave the nest before they can fly; but they nevertheless continue to be fed by the mother till they can follow her in her excursions. Before the first moulting all the upper part of the body is dotted with white; if it is wished to take nestlings, they must be removed from the nest when the tail is about three quarters of an inch long. They are fed with crumb of white bread, and poppy-seed steeped in milk; some ants' eggs or a little minced lean meat will be a wholesome addition. The males are soon distinguished by their yellow colour. If it is intended to teach them to perform a tune, their instructor must commence before they are ready to fly, for by that time they already begin to record their natural song. They must also be completely separated from other singing birds, otherwise the great flexibility of their organs, joined to their memory, will infallibly cause them to adopt the song of such birds as they are near; and even old larks, brought into my bird-room, have learnt to imitate perfectly the nightingale and chaffinch. They vary, however, very much in this respect. Some females in confinement lay without the presence of a male, and others pair, but I have never yet succeeded in making them sit. One of my neighbours, notwithstanding the greatest care, has succeeded no better, though he had a female which laid from twenty to twenty-five eggs annually. There would undoubtedly be a better chance of success in a large garden aviary[61]. DISEASES.--Besides those which have been named in the Introduction, these birds are very subject to a kind of scurf or yellow crust round the base of the beak. The best remedy is to take care that they have good food; the second universal paste agrees with them particularly well; but greens, ants' eggs, meal-worms, or other insects, must be added. With this food they may be preserved healthy for many years in the house. Instances have been known of larks which have lived in this way for thirty years. MODE OF TAKING.--It would take too long a time to describe all the modes of catching larks which are in use. It is enough to say that with day and night nets, known by the name of lark nets, so large a number of these birds are taken alive in the open country, that it is easy to have a choice of both males and females. This lark snaring is accomplished by placing a considerable number of nets perpendicularly like walls, which are called day-nets, towards which, in the dusk, the birds are forced by means of a long rope, which is drawn along the ground, and drives them forward; in the night a square net called a night-net is carried to a spot where it is known that many larks are collected in the stubble, and there they are covered just when they begin to flutter. If, in the spring, it is wished to procure a good singing male, for some are better than others, a lark whose wings are tied, and with a little forked lime-twig fixed to its back, must be carried to the place where such a bird is to be found. As soon as it is let loose, and the desired male has perceived it from high in the air, he will fall upon it like an arrow and attack it; but soon, the dupe of his jealousy, he will find himself caught by the lime. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The very pleasing song of the sky-lark consists of several stanzas or strains, composed entirely of trills and flourishes, interrupted from time to time by loud whistling. I have already said that the lark has great abilities for learning. The young readily imitate the notes of all the birds in the same room with them, and the old sometimes succeed also: this, however, is not general; for among birds as among men, memories vary in power. Some have a stronger and more melodious voice; there are some which, in confinement, begin to sing as early as December, and continue till they moult; while others, less lively, delay till the month of March, and cease to sing in the month of August. In its wild state, the lark begins to sing in the first fine days of spring, the season of pairing, and ceases at the end of July; this, however, is not without exceptions, as some individuals continue till the end of September. It belongs to the small number of birds which sing as they fly, and the higher it rises the more it appears to elevate its voice, so that it may be heard when it is out of sight. In the country, it very seldom sings when on the ground; in the room it often does, and with ease, and it becomes so tame as to come and eat from the table or the hand. THE CRESTED LARK. Alauda cristata, LINN�US; Le Cochevis, ou la grosse Alouette huppée; Die Haubenlerche, BECHSTEIN. This bird is stronger than the sky-lark, and its colour is lighter, but its length the same. The beak is lead-coloured, and brown at the point, is also rather longer; the iris is dark brown. The shanks are an inch high, and yellowish gray; the head, the cheeks, the upper part of the neck to the upper part of the back, are of a reddish gray, caused by the wide red edges of the feathers, which are brown in the middle; a reddish white line, hardly perceptible above the eyes, but very distinct beyond, extends from the nostrils to the ears; eight or ten long-pointed blackish feathers rising on the head form a beautiful perpendicular crest. The crest of the female is lower, but her breast is covered with more numerous and rounder spots than the male. HABITATION.--When wild it is only in autumn and winter that they appear in Saxony in small or large flights, beside the high roads, on dunghills, near barns and stables, among sparrows and yellowhammers; they are also found all over Europe, from Sweden to Italy[62]; in summer, they frequent the thickets and bushes of the plains, fields, and meadows, or they inhabit the hollows of ditches, paths in woods, and elevated villages. They depart in October. In the house they may be kept in cages, like the sky-lark, or be left to run about. I know no bird whose feathers grow so quickly; if the wings are kept clipped, this must be repeated every three or four weeks, as by that time they are so much grown that they may serve for flying about the room. FOOD.--When wild this bird lives, like the sky-lark, on insects, different sorts of seeds, and oats. In the house it is fed with the same things, but it becomes more robust and healthy than the sky-lark. BREEDING.--This species forms its nest on the ground, under little dry bushes, under garden vegetables, on clay walls, and even on thatched roofs. The eggs, in number from four to five, are of a rusty gray, shaded and spotted at the upper end with dark brown. The first plumage of the young before moulting is variegated white. They are taken from the nest when the feathers are half grown to be tamed and taught airs, or to have them instructed by other birds whose song is admired; they learn every thing with the greatest ease. DISEASES.--They are the same as those of other larks. A lousy disease may be added. I possess two male crested larks, one of which has hardly any of the lice which so commonly torment birds, whilst the other, which is nevertheless as gay and musical, is so covered with them that he cannot be touched without having the hand filled with these nasty insects. He has been with me four years, and though he has maintained for a long time millions of these parasites, he continues in good health, which I attribute to his abundant supply of good food. Is this produced by a difference in the cleanly dispositions of these two birds, or is it a constitutional difference? MODE OF TAKING.--When, in winter, any spot has been remarked which the larks prefer, a place must be cleared from snow, some oats and poppy-seed be thrown upon it for a bait, and limed twigs, nets, or even a simple gauze, be conveniently arranged, and soon plenty will be caught. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the crested lark is, in my opinion, very inferior to that of the sky-lark; it seems composed of the warbling of that and of the linnet; this bird sings also in the night. Its time of singing lasts from February to August, but longer in those birds which have been tamed from the nest. It has not the tottering gait of the sky-lark, but runs nimbly, and moves its crest in the most expressive way. It is rather quarrelsome, and has the peculiarity that when it fights it continues to sing. THE WOOD-LARK. Alauda arborea, LINN�US; Le Cujelier, ou L'Alouette des Bois, ou La Loulou, BUFFON; Die Waldlerche, BECHSTEIN. This charming species is one-third smaller than the field-lark, and resembles it much in form and gait. The beak is black above, brown below, tending to carnation at the tip. The shanks, three quarters of an inch high, are of a brownish flesh-colour. The top of the head is reddish brown, with four dark brown lines; its long feathers render the head large, and they may be raised at pleasure into a crest, which from eye to eye is surrounded by a whitish ash-coloured line. The tail is very short. The female, more beautiful, is of a paler ground, with darker ornaments; her breast more spotted; the crest on her head more prominent, and the line round the cheeks more distinct. It is a well attested observation made on all our indigenous species, that the individuals with the most spots on a lighter ground, and of a clearer white, are certainly females. HABITATION.--When wild these birds inhabit the temperate regions of Europe, in summer the woods of the plain, near fields and meadows, and in the woods of the hills they alternate between heaths and pasture lands. After breeding time they assemble in small flocks of ten or twelve. They are thus found in the stubble, at their departure in October, and their return in March. In the house I prefer letting them run about, because my experience shows that they sing better in this way than when caged. They must be well supplied with river sand, as well to roll and dust themselves as to pick out grains necessary for their digestion. FOOD.--When wild, in summer, the food consists of insects; in autumn, of rape, millet, seed, and oats; in spring, before they can find insects and worms, they are satisfied with the young buds of herbs, water-cresses, and, on an emergency, with the buds of the filbert. In the house, as this species is more delicate than the preceding, it is well to vary the food, and to give it occasionally, independent of the universal paste, poppy-seed, oats, hemp, sprouting wheat, fresh curds, fresh and dried ants' eggs, minced ox heart, meal worms, and the like. When one of these birds is caught by the net or otherwise, the best things to induce it to eat when it reaches the bird-room are poppy-seeds and ants' eggs. I have seen two wood-larks which had been kept in a cage for eight years, very healthy and gay, with their feet quite free from disease, and singing perfectly. Their food consisted of crumbs of white bread and pounded hemp-seed mixed together; a piece of white bread, enough for the day, soaked in milk, which was poured boiling over it every morning, was also furnished; and finally, some ants' eggs, given two or three times a day as a treat. The bottom of the cage was also covered with sand, which was changed regularly every day, as well as the water. They were always kept in summer outside the window, exposed to the free air, screening them from the sun by covering the top of the cage with a sheet of paper or piece of linen by way of parasol. The success of this mode of treatment sufficiently proves its advantage. The cage was furnished with two bars, because the wood-lark perches. BREEDING.--The wood-lark builds among the heath, under juniper bushes, in hedges, high grass, or under a green hillock in fields near the woods, or in copse wood. The nest is made of dry blades of grass, mixed with moss, wool, and hair. The eggs are variegated with light gray and brownish violet. The young may be bred up with bread soaked in milk, and ants' eggs. They readily learn the different songs of the birds with which they are imprisoned; but this medley is less agreeable to me than their natural song. DISEASES.--To the list of diseases already given, to which the wood-lark may be subject, I must add one which is peculiar to it. This attacks the feet and renders them extremely brittle. I cannot too strongly recommend to clean them carefully from everything which might entangle them; a single hair may cut them, so that the toes shrivel, or ulcerate and fall off. They become so brittle with age, that with all my cares I could never keep any beyond four years; the least thing breaks them. Most of the wood-larks which I have had perished from broken legs; and this peculiarity I have remarked in no other species of bird. We see from these instances, that if birds allowed to hop about a room enjoy more space and free exercise, they are also subject to more inconveniences and disadvantages than caged birds. Their food is neither so appropriate or regular; they cannot be kept so clean; their feet are almost inevitably injured; and lice devour them, without the power of prevention. MODE OF TAKING.--The wood-lark may be caught on the nest by means of limed twigs; but as it is very cruel to separate a pair, and thus to destroy a whole family, it is better to wait till autumn, and to use the night-net. They may be caught early in the spring, when there is snow on the ground, by placing limed twigs or nets in cleared places. This is the best method of catching them. It is true that this plan will not succeed in all years; but another may be substituted, if we have a decoy wood-lark, by placing it under a folding net, in a field frequented by a flight of this species, which will not fail to join it. The same means also may be used as with the chaffinch, namely, by tying the wings of a wood-lark with a limed twig on his back, and letting him run to the place where there is a male of the same species. By this means the bird-fancier may obtain whatever kind of singer he prefers. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Of all the species of larks the wood lark has the finest song, and to my taste it is, of all our indigenous birds (always excepting the nightingale), the one whose natural notes are the most delightful. Its clear flute-like voice executes a sonorous, tender, and somewhat melancholy air. In the country it rises from the tops of the trees so high in the air that the eye can scarcely discern it, and there remaining stationary, the wings and the tail expanded, it sings uninterruptedly for hours together; it sings in the same manner when perched on a tree. In the house, it is from a retired corner, tranquil and motionless, that it utters the different modulations of its beautiful voice. The singing time in its wild state is from March to July; in the house, from February to August. The female, like other larks, sings also, but her strains are shorter and less sustained. These birds appear to be subject to whims: I have seen some which would never sing in a room or in the presence of an auditor. These perverse birds must be placed in a long cage outside the window. I have remarked that in general these obstinate birds are the best singers. Their abrupt step and various frolics, in which they raise the feathers of the head and neck, are also very amusing. THE TITLARK. Anthus arboreus, BECHSTEIN; L'Alouette Pipi, BUFFON; Die Waldpieper, BECHSTEIN. This is the smallest of our larks; its length is but five inches and a half, two and a half of which belong to the tail, which it carries and moves like a wagtail, and by this characteristic it seems to stand intermediate between the larks and the wagtails. The sharp beak is dark brown above and whitish below; the iris is brown. The shanks are three quarters of an inch high, and light flesh-coloured; the angle of the hind toe is short and crooked. The head, rather oval than round, is, with the neck, back, rump, and sides, of an olive brown with black wavy spots. The female differs from the male only in the paler yellow of the throat, neck, and breast; the white spot in the second tail-feather is also smaller, and the two transverse bands on the wings are whiter. The young males of the first year have the under part of the body of a lighter yellow than those which are older. HABITATION.--When wild, with the exception of the most northern parts, this species is found all over Europe. They build in great numbers in Germany and England, in mountainous and woody places, and establish themselves by preference on the skirts of forests, in fields, and orchards, in their neighbourhood, or in the cleared parts of woods. In the month of August they arrive in small flights in fields and enclosures planted with cabbages, where caterpillars abound. In September they pass into the oat fields, and in October they are caught in the nets with the common larks. The time of their return is about the end of March; and if the cold is severe they collect by thousands in damp fields and near warm springs. One peculiarity of this species is the having during the rest of the year a call different from that of the breeding season. It no longer perches on trees and bushes, but remains on the ground, crying "_pitt, pitt_," (or rather, I think, "_guik, guik_,") while in the sitting time the cry is more tender, expresses more solicitude, "_tzip, tzip_," and is heard only in the immediate neighbourhood of the nest. As soon, therefore, as this cry strikes the ear, we may be sure the nest is not far off; and if the young are hatched we shall soon see the father or mother with a beakful of insects, redoubling and increasing the cry as they approach their precious charge. The other cry of "_pitt_" or "_guik_" is never heard at this season; whence it happens that sportsmen and bird-catchers make two species of this same lark; one they name the heath lark, whose call in the woods is "_tzip_," and the other the cabbage lark, which in the fields calls "_guik_." I have never been able to convince these people of their error, but by showing them in my bird-room the same lark which called "_guik_" in the autumn and winter, and "_tzip_" in the summer. We may judge by this circumstance how many mistakes and errors may slip into natural history, when in the determination of species we meet with things which we can neither see nor verify. In confinement, I have been accustomed to let the calling lark range freely among my other birds, because I would not trouble myself to give it a particular cage. I own, however, that it would be better so circumstanced, on all accounts, as well in regard to its health as its song. This cage should be long, like that of the sky-lark, and furnished with two sticks, because this kind perches. FOOD.--When wild, the food consists of all sorts of flies, grasshoppers, caterpillars, butterflies, beetles, and ants' eggs. In confinement, as it is the most delicate of its species, the food must be frequently changed and varied. Besides the universal paste, we should sometimes give it the common food of the nightingale, sometimes bruised hemp, mouldy cheese, meal worms, and ants' eggs. It is very difficult to accustom it to take the food of the bird-room. As soon as it arrives, we must throw it some meal worms, ants' eggs, or caterpillars; as soon as these are eaten, some must be mixed with the universal paste and with all its food; it will thus insensibly grow accustomed to the common food. This lark does not roll in the sand, and dust itself like the others, but it thrusts its beak into water and sprinkles itself; another indication of its approximation to the wagtail, as was mentioned above. BREEDING.--The titlark lays twice a year. The nest, placed on the ground in a cleared part of the woods, or under a bush or hillock, in a tuft of grass, in a field or orchard, is made in the simplest manner; coarse hay outside and finer within, with some wool and hair, are all the materials. The eggs, in number from four to five, are gray mottled with brown; the young escape as soon as possible, having but too many enemies to fear on the ground. They may be brought up with ants' eggs and white bread soaked in boiled milk, to which a few poppy-seeds are added. They easily learn to imitate the songs of the birds in the same room with them, especially that of the canary, without however attaining any great perfection. DISEASES.--Independent of those which are common to the other birds of its species, it is particularly subject to the loss of its feathers out of the moulting season; if it is not at once supplied with food more nutritious, and better suited to its natural habits, as ants' eggs, meal worms, and other insects, it soon dies of atrophy. At the best it can only be preserved five or six years[63]. MODE OF TAKING.--To take the bird from its nest by a limed twig, and thus destroy the young family by hunger and misery, is a cruelty which none but a harsh insensible amateur could resolve upon. I prefer using the night-net in autumn; this bird is also caught in the water-trap in August and September. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the titlark, though short, and composed of only three strains mixed with shakes and trills, is nevertheless very pleasing. It sings from the end of March to July, either from the top of a tree, where it is perched, or when rising perpendicularly in the air, where it remains a few minutes and then quietly descends, almost always to the same place. As it alights it repeats several times "_tzia, tzia, tzia_." In the house it begins to sing a month earlier. It pleases also by its pretty ways; its step is somewhat grave, and the tail is in perpetual motion: it is always very clean and trim. THE FIELD PIPIT. Anthus campestris, BECHSTEIN; La Spipolette, BUFFON; Die Brachpieper, BECHSTEIN. In figure it is more slender than the sky-lark; the plumage resembles that of the crested lark, and the form that of the titlark. Its length is six inches and a half. The beak is strong and long, the line above the eyes distinctly marked, the breast yellowish white, with but few rays or lines. In summer it frequents marshy woods, in autumn the edges of the fields, high roads, and meadows, where it may be easily caught with the night-net. Its only known song is its constant cry "_tsirru_" and "_datsida_" while revolving in the air. It departs in September and returns in April. Its food is the same as that of the titlark; it also requires the same treatment when in confinement if it should be wished to keep it, but it has no qualities to make this desirable. THE SHORE LARK. Alauda alpestris, LINN�US; Alouette Haussecol noir, ou Alouette de Virginie, BUFFON; Die Berglerche, BECHSTEIN. This species is seven inches long, rather stronger than the field pipit, and has the same plumage on the upper part of the body; but the throat is light yellow, as well as the rest of the under part of the neck, over which and the top of the breast passes a black band, which in the lower part is shaped like a horse-shoe. The beak, feet, and claws, are black. [Illustration: SHORE LARK.] OBSERVATIONS.--This species properly inhabits the north as well of Europe as of America, as far as Virginia; but in the winter it appears in Germany, where it may be seen by the road side picking for its food the undigested grains in horse-dung. It perches like the wood-lark. It is caught in the southern parts of Thuringia with lime twigs, or nets, at its return in March, when there has happened a heavy fall of snow; but at such times it is so thin and so weak for want of food as scarcely to have strength to eat what is offered to it. It may, no doubt, be preserved in confinement by treating it like other larks, but of this I have no experience, never having been able to procure a single living individual of this species, which also prevents my speaking of its song. THE CALANDRA LARK. Alauda Calandra, LINN�US; La Calandre, BUFFON; Die Kalander, BECHSTEIN. Larger than the common lark, the Calandra is also furnished with a shorter and stronger beak, which enables it to shell its grain; in other respects the plumage, the form, and manners, are the same, the only difference being a very distinct and apparent spot on the lower part of the neck. The male is distinguished by being larger and blacker round the neck; the female has a very narrow collar, and sometimes none at all; some individuals, old ones doubtless, have a large black mark at the top of the breast. The tail is black, according to Linnæus, while in the preceding it is brown. HABITATION.--It appears that this species has much resemblance to the preceding; but it does not inhabit the North; it is found in Syria, Italy, Sardinia, and Provence: it is also said to frequent Carolina, in America. In confinement it must be furnished with a long cage, the top made of linen, because it hops and jumps about a great deal, especially at first. It must be fed like the other larks. BREEDING.--It builds on the ground like the sky-lark, and lays four or five eggs. In order to have calandras which sing well, they must be bred up from the nest, and be fed in the same manner as the young of the sky-lark species; this is how they breed them in Provence. MODE OF TAKING.--In the countries where it is found, the plan consists in spreading a net near the water where it drinks; this method is considered the best. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its song is so admired in Italy, that "to sing like a calandra" is a common expression for to "sing well." It also possesses the talent of imitating, like the sky-lark, the songs of many birds, such as the goldfinch, the linnet, the canary, and even the chirp of young chickens, the cry of the cat, in short, all sounds adapted to its organs, and which may be acquired when they are flexible. THE STARLING. [Illustration] Sturnus vulgaris, LINN�US; L'Etourneau, BUFFON; Der gemeine Staar, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is eight inches and a half, two and a half of which belong to the tail, and one to the beak, which is awl-shaped, angular, flattish, and rather blunt, yellow, brown towards the end, and the tip blue. The iris is nut-brown; the claws an inch long, are deep flesh-coloured. All the plumage is of a blackish hue, changing to purple towards the front of the body, and to green towards the hind part, and on the wing-coverts. The old males are darker, having no white tips to the feathers of the head, cheeks, throat, or belly. The beak of the female is rather brown than yellow; the light spots on the head, neck, and breast, are larger, and the edge of the feathers is wider, which gives it a lighter and more speckled appearance. The starling, like all other species, has its varieties: such are the white, the streaked or variegated, the white-headed, that whose body is white with a black head, and the ash gray. HABITATION.--When wild the starling is found all over the old world. It prefers forests and little thickets, surrounded by fields and meadows; it is often seen, especially in spring, on towers, steeples, and churches; but it is never found either in high mountains or ridges. In our climate, it departs, in October, in great flights for the south, and returns in like manner in the beginning of March. During the journey, these birds pass the night among the rushes, where, on the least alarm, they make a great tumult. In confinement it would be very amusing to let them run free; but let them be ever so neat themselves, they would render the room dirty. When caged, they must be furnished with a cage at least two feet long, and one and a half both in height and width. Very restless and always in motion, they require sufficient space to take exercise and keep their plumage uninjured. FOOD.--When wild they eat not only caterpillars, snails, worms, insects, and the flies which torment the cattle in the field; but also cherries, grapes, berries of all sorts, and different sorts of grain, as millet and hemp seed. In confinement they eat meat, worms, bread, cheese, the universal paste, indeed, any food, provided it is not sour. When first caught, they are supplied with earth and meal-worms, and they soon become as tame as if they had been brought up from the nest; but, as there is no rule without exceptions, we sometimes meet with individuals which obstinately refuse to eat, whatever pains may be taken to induce them, and which die of hunger. This bird delights in bathing often, it must therefore never be left without fresh water in a proper vessel. BREEDING.--The starling builds in the holes of trees, and even in boxes, or pots with long necks, suspended to trees, or under the roof, or in pigeon-houses. Its simple nest is composed of dry leaves, hay, and feathers. Like the swallow it returns to the same nest every year, only taking care to clean it out. It lays twice in the year, seven eggs each time, whose colour is ashy green. The young, before moulting, are of rather a yellowish soot colour, than pure black. The beak is dark brown; those which are bred from the nest, and which are easily reared on white bread soaked in milk, repeat the airs they are taught in a stronger and more distinct manner than bullfinches and linnets. They can, indeed, repeat a succession of couplets without changing or mixing them. In Voigtlande, the peasants use the starling like domestic pigeons; they eat the young, which they take before they can fly; by this means they obtain three broods, but they do not touch the last, both in order not to discourage and drive away the father and mother, and not to diminish this branch of economy. Starlings have been seen to build in dwelling-houses, in an earthen vase with a long neck, appropriated to the purpose[64]. DISEASES.--I know none peculiar to them. These birds will live ten or twelve years in confinement. MODE OF TAKING.--It is principally in autumn, and in places filled with reeds, that the bird-catchers take great numbers of starlings in nets prepared for the purpose. They may also be procured by means of an osier fish-net, placed among the reeds, which they frequent in the evening, and baited with cherries. Though this means is limited, as many as a hundred have been procured by it in one night. In Thuringia it is never attempted to catch them for the house except in the month of March, when snow falls after their arrival. For this purpose limed twigs are put in places cleared from snow, and beside swampy ditches, with some earth-worms for a snare, into which they fall as easily as chickens. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The starling becomes wonderfully familiar in the house; as docile and cunning as a dog, he is always gay, wakeful, soon knows all the inhabitants of the house, remarks their motions and air, and adapts himself to their humours. In his solemn tottering step, he appears to go stupidly forward; but nothing escapes his eye. He learns to pronounce words without having his tongue cut, which proves the uselessness of this cruel operation. He repeats correctly the airs which are taught him, as does also the female, imitates the cries of men and animals, and the songs of all the birds in the room with him. It must be owned that his acquirements are very uncertain: he forgets as fast as he learns, or he mixes up the old and new in utter confusion; therefore, if it is wished to teach him an air, or to pronounce some words clearly and distinctly, it is absolutely necessary to separate him from other birds and animals, in a room where he can hear nothing. Not only are the young susceptible of these instructions, the oldest even show the most astonishing docility. THE BOHEMIAN CHATTERER. Ampelis garrulus, LINN�US; Le Jaseur de Bohème, BUFFON; Der gemeine Seidenschwanz, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is eight inches, one and a quarter of which belong to the tail. The beak is three quarters of an inch long, black, short, straight, arched above, and large at the base, forming a large opening when the mandibles are separated; the iris is brown; the shanks nearly an inch high, and black. The whole body is covered with soft silky feathers; those at the top of the head are long, and rise in a crest; the head and the rest of the upper part of the body are of a reddish ash-colour, changing to gray at the rump; the middle coverts are dark ash gray, with the ends white also, besides which, the shaft of many has a horny tip, shining and red, like a little oval bit of sealing-wax. The female has at most but five of these waxen tips to each wing, while the male has from five to nine; the tail is black, terminated with primrose yellow; very old males have also upon it narrow red wax tips. In the female, the black spot on the throat is smaller; the yellow at the end of the tail is also narrower and paler; the tips of the wings are of a yellowish white; lastly, the horny appendages are small, and often they do not appear at all. HABITATION.--When wild it does not build in Germany, but within the Arctic circle; it is found in Thuringia only in the winter, and if the season is mild in very small numbers, the greater portion remaining in the north; but in severe cold it advances farther south. In moderate seasons it is found in great flights in the skirts of the forests throughout the greater part of Germany and Bohemia. In confinement, it is generally kept in a grated corner, where it may run about freely with the other birds which are also placed there, taking care to keep it at a distance from the stove, the heat of which is so distressing that it opens its beak and breathes with difficulty; this proves that a warm climate is not congenial to the bird. If kept in a cage, it requires one as large as the thrush; and, as it is a very dirty bird, the bottom must be regularly covered with a sufficient quantity of sand. FOOD.--When wild we see it in the spring eating, like thrushes, all sorts of flies and other insects; in autumn and winter different kinds of berries; and, in times of need, the buds and sprouts of the beech, maple, and various fruit trees. In confinement the two universal pastes appear delicacies to it; and it is even satisfied with bran steeped in water. It swallows every thing voraciously, and refuses nothing eatable, such as potatoes, cabbage, salad, fruits of all sorts, and especially white bread. It likes to bathe, or rather to sprinkle itself with water, for it does not wet itself so much as other birds. MODE OF TAKING.--It is taken in nooses, to which berries are fixed, which, for this purpose, should always be kept in store till February; attracted by the bait it falls into the snare. It appears to be frightened at nothing, for it flies into nets and traps, though it sees its companions caught and hanging, and uttering cries of distress and fear. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Nothing but its beauty and scarcity can render the possession of it desirable; for it is a stupid, lazy bird. During the ten or twelve years that it can exist in confinement, and on very meagre food, it does nothing but eat and repose for digestion. If hunger induces it to move, its step is awkward, and its jumps so clumsy as to be disagreeable to the eye. Its song consists only of weak and uncertain whistling, a little resembling the thrush, but not so loud. While singing, it moves the crest up and down, but hardly moves the throat. If this warbling is somewhat unmusical, it has the merit of continuing throughout every season of the year. When the Bohemian chatterer is angry, which happens sometimes near the common feeding-trough, it knocks very violently with its beak. It is easily tamed, but is agreeable only by its beautiful colours, for it is very dirty. It is the greatest eater among birds that I know, being able to devour in a day a quantity of food equal to its own weight. It consequently passes hardly half digested, and, what is very disgusting, it is seen, like the ostrich, to eat again this excrement, if it is destitute of fresh food. I have observed it in this way swallow three times juniper berries which I had given it. In consequence of this voraciousness it must be cleaned very often to be kept sweet. THE DIPPER. [Illustration] Cinclus aquaticus, BECHSTEIN; Le Merle d'Eau, BUFFON; Der Wasserschwätzer, BECHSTEIN. This bird resembles the starling in size, but the head is more pointed, and the body, in general, larger, while the wings and tail are shorter, the tail being only one inch and a quarter long, and the ends of the wings cover a fourth part of it; the beak is three quarters of an inch long, narrow, flattish at the sides, raised in the middle, sharp and black; the narrow nostrils are almost entirely closed by a membrane; the iris is light brown; the shanks are an inch high, and of a dark brown, and have the four toes united together; the head and upper part of the neck are of a dusky rust brown; the rest of the upper part of the body is black, with an ashy gray tint; the quill-feathers and tail are blackish; the neck to half-way down the breast is pure white; the rest of the breast is deep maroon, which shades into the black of the belly. In the female the head and upper part of the neck are lighter, and the white of the breast is not so pure as in the male. HABITATION.--When wild it frequents by preference the banks of rivers and streams in mountainous countries, and remains all the year near those whose waters flow from springs which never freeze. In confinement it has a cage like the thrush, unless it is by preference allowed to run about the room. FOOD.--When wild it feeds upon aquatic insects, worms, and even small fish, which it is said to seize by diving. In confinement it becomes insensibly accustomed to one of the universal pastes, by at first giving it worms, and the eggs of ants and flies. BREEDING.--The female lays from four to six eggs in a rather large nest, which she places in a crack of the rocks at the edge of the water, or in dikes under mill-dams, the wooden gutters of mills, or between the wings of old water-wheels which are not in use. The young may be reared on meal-worms, ants' eggs, and white bread soaked in milk. It is just as well not to take them till they are ready to fly. MODE OF TAKING.--Each pair has a chosen spot, which it seldom leaves: and they are generally seen there either on a trough, a stone, dike, or a bush growing near; by fixing close to these places limed twigs, to which are fastened worms, which writhe about and attract attention, it is very easy to catch them. As soon as one of these birds is caught and caged, he must be put in a quiet place, be fed with earth and meal-worms, and thus be gradually accustomed to the common food. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the dipper is not disagreeable; he has, indeed, some very sonorous strains, which in the distance and during winter have a very good effect. He also sings in the night. THE MISSEL THRUSH. Turdus viscivorus, LINN�US; La Draine, BUFFON; Die Misteldrossel, BECHSTEIN. This is the largest of our thrushes, being in length eleven inches, three and a half of which belong to the tail. The beak is one inch in length, sharp, dark brown, with the lower base and opening yellow; the iris is brown; the shanks an inch high, and of a pale dusky yellow. All the upper part of the body is a brownish gray, with a reddish tint on the lower part of the back and rump; the sides of the head and the rest of the under part of the body are of a pale yellow, with blackish triangular spots on the breast, and oval spots in all other parts. The female is generally lighter in all the colours. HABITATION.--When wild the missel thrush is found all over Europe, but more in the north than the south. It lives in forests, especially those of the mountains, and prefers those of fir to oak and beech. In Thuringia it is a bird of passage, disappearing in December and returning in the month of February, provided the weather is fine[65]. In confinement it is common to assign it a grated corner of the room unless a cage is preferred, which must be at least three feet and a half long, and nearly as many high, a size necessary for it to take the exercise suited to its vivacity and petulance, without injuring its feathers. It would be still better if it could be allowed, as other birds of its size, an aviary or room to itself, where its copious excrements would be less troublesome. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on insects and earth-worms, which it finds in abundance in fields and swamps during the spring and summer; in autumn and winter berries of all sorts make a great addition. In confinement it is not dainty. The two universal pastes are very well liked, but it will put up with plain oatmeal, or even bran moistened with water. It is thus that our bird-fanciers feed it throughout the year, as well as many other large birds caught in traps, which they are obliged to keep as a lure for the snare. It is true, that if this meagre diet is sufficient to keep it alive, it will hardly serve to enliven it and make it sing; for this purpose it must be better fed, with bread and milk, meat, and other dishes served at table, none of which it refuses; and it must also be allowed to bathe, since nothing does it more good, or enlivens it so much. BREEDING.--Its nest, which it places higher or lower in the trees of the forest, is formed at bottom of herb-stalks and lichens, in the middle of earth, and in the interior of mosses, fine roots and hay: it lays twice a year, generally each time four greenish white eggs, a little speckled with violet and maroon. The young birds are gray above and very much spotted under, with a wide edge of rusty yellow on the wing feathers. Much less docile and susceptible of instruction than the blackbird, they hardly remember any little thing which they hear continually, but they become so familiar as to sing without difficulty on the hand. They are fed with white bread soaked in boiled milk. DISEASES.--The commonest disorders of this bird, are an obstruction of the rump gland, constipation, and atrophy[66]. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds are taken in autumn with nets and snares, with berries for the bait, and they are caught in great numbers. They may also be taken in February, by placing under the trees on which the mistleto grows, perches with limed twigs. They may also be caught in the water-traps at sunset. Those which are yellowish under the body, being males, are chosen for confinement. During the first days of captivity, they are savage, sulky, and often refuse to eat, so that many perish in this way; those which are saved soon repay the trouble by their songs and familiarity. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Perched on the top of a tree in the woods, the missel thrush begins, in the month of February, to utter his melancholy but musical warblings, consisting of five or six broken strains, and continues singing for four or five months. As his song is too loud for the sitting-room, this bird should be placed in a large hall, or his cage should be hung outside a window. He lives in captivity from ten to twelve years. His call very much resembles "_iis, r, r, r_." THE SONG THRUSH. [Illustration] Turdus musicus, LINN�US; La Grive, BUFFON; Die Singdrossel, BECHSTEIN. We might, with Brisson, name this bird the _small missel thrush_, so much does it resemble the preceding in form, plumage, abode, manners, and gait. Its length is only eight inches and a half, three and a half of which belong to the tail. The beak is three quarters of an inch, horn brown, the under part yellowish at the base and yellow within; the iris is nut brown; the shanks are an inch high, and of a dingy lead-colour. All the upper part of the body is olive brown; the throat is yellowish white, with a black line on each side; the sides of the neck and breast are of a pale reddish white, variegated with dark brown spots, shaped liked a heart reversed; the belly is white, and covered with more oval spots. In the female the two black lines on the throat are narrower, the breast is lighter, and of a plain yellowish white, and the reddish spots on the wing-coverts are smaller. These slight differences make it desirable for those whose eye is not accustomed to them, to have both sexes before them, if they wish to learn to distinguish them. The white variety, that with a white head, the streaked, and the ash-coloured, are not very rare. HABITATION.--When wild this species is spread all over Europe, frequenting woods near streams and meadows. As soon as the autumnal fogs appear, they collect in large flights to seek a warmer climate[67]. The principal time of passage is from the 15th of September to the 15th of October, and of return about the middle or end of March; each pair then returns to its own district, and the male warbles his hymn to spring from the same tree where he had sung it the preceding year. In confinement this bird is lodged like the missel thrush, and is much more worthy of being kept, as its voice is more beautiful, its song is more varied, and being smaller it makes less dirt. FOOD.--When wild it lives on insects and berries, like the preceding. In confinement, oatmeal moistened with milk is a very good food; and it requires also a great deal of fresh water, as well for bathing as drinking. When taken old it is often very difficult to induce these birds to eat, and the greater number die in consequence. BREEDING.--This species generally builds on the lower branches of trees; the nest being pretty large, and formed of moss mixed with earth or cow-dung. The hen lays twice a year, from three to six green eggs, speckled with large and small dark brown spots. The first brood is ready to fly by the end of April. The upper part of the body in the young ones is speckled with white. By taking them from the nest when half-grown they may be easily reared on white bread soaked in boiled milk; and they are easily taught to perform airs. As this thrush builds by preference in the neighbourhood of water, the nest may be easily found by seeking it in the woods beside a stream, and near it the male will be heard singing. MODE OF TAKING.--This is the same as for the preceding species and the three which follow; of all the birds for which snares are laid, those for the thrush are most successful. A perch with a limed twig is the best method for catching a fine-toned male. In September and October these birds may also be caught in the water traps, where they repair at sunrise and sunset, and sometimes so late that they cannot be seen, and the ear is the only guide. When they enter the water haste must be avoided, because they like to bathe in company, and assemble sometimes to the number of ten or twelve at once, by means of a particular call. The first which finds a convenient stream, and wishes to go to it, cries in a tone of surprise or joy, "_sik, sik, sik, siki, tsac, tsac, tsac_;" immediately all in the neighbourhood reply together, and repair to the place: they enter the bath however with much circumspection, and seldom venture till they have seen a red-breast bathe without danger; but the first which ventures is soon followed by the others, which begin to quarrel if the place is not large enough for all the bathers. In order to attract them, it is a good plan to have a tame bird running and fluttering on the banks of the stream. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song thrush is the great charm of our woods, which it enlivens by the beauty of its song. The rival of the nightingale, it announces in varied accents the return of spring, and continues its delightful notes during all the summer months, particularly at morning and evening twilight. It is to procure this gratification in his dwelling that the bird-fancier rears it, and deprives it of its liberty; and he thus enjoys the pleasures of the woods in the midst of the city. With care and properly varied food it may be preserved in captivity five or six years. THE FIELDFARE. [Illustration] Turdus pilaris, LINN�US; La Litorne, ou La Tourdelle, BUFFON; Die Wachholderdrossel, BECHSTEIN. This bird is in size between the two preceding, its length being ten inches, of which the tail occupies four. The beak is an inch long, blackish at the point, otherwise yellow, as well as the opening of the throat and the tongue. The iris is dark brown. The shanks, an inch and a quarter high, are deep brown; the top of the head and neck, the cheeks, the bottom of the back, and the rump, are ash gray, with some blackish spots at the top of the head; a white line passes above the eyes; the back is rust brown; the throat and half the breast are rusty yellow, strewed with black heart-shaped spots; the rest of the under part of the body is white, with blackish heart-shaped spots on the sides, and longer ones towards the vent and tail. In the female the upper part of the beak is browner, the head and rump of a paler gray, the throat whitish, the back dingy rust colour, and the feet deep brown. Of this species there are many varieties, the white, the spotted, the white headed, and the like. HABITATION.--When wild this species spreads not only all over Europe, but also over Syria and Siberia. In the summer it remains in the northern regions, where it builds in pine forests. It arrives in Germany and England in prodigious flights in November, and passes the winter in places producing the juniper; its return northward takes place in the first fine days of spring. In confinement it is treated like the missel thrush, but it is generally only kept as a decoy bird. Heat being injurious, it is kept as far as possible from the stove. FOOD.--When wild it feeds like the two preceding species. In confinement it is fed in the same way; raw carrots grated with bread is added, which the others like also. MODE OF TAKING.--The same as in the two preceding species. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its song is a mere harsh disagreeable warble. I should not have introduced it among cage birds if the lovers of bird-catching did not in winter require its call when pursuing its species. THE REDWING. [Illustration] Turdus iliacus, LINN�US; Le Mauvis, BUFFON; Die Rothdrossel, BECHSTEIN. This species is smaller than the song thrush, and has much resemblance to the fieldfare. Its length is eight inches, of which the tail occupies three and a quarter. The beak is nearly an inch long, blackish, and yellow only at the base and angles of the lower mandible; the iris is nut-brown. The shanks are an inch high, and light gray; the feet are yellow; the head, the upper part of the neck, the back, the rump, and the small coverts of the wings, are olive brown. The plumage is more brilliant than that of other thrushes, and the orange-hue under the wings, which has procured it the name of the redwing thrush, will always sufficiently distinguish this from those of the same genus. The female is altogether lighter coloured. The line of the eyes is almost white; the spots on the sides of the neck light yellow; the under part of the body is white, the neck alone appearing yellowish; the spots on the breast are grayish brown, and there are none about the vent. This species also has its varieties, as white, streaked, and the like. HABITATION.--When wild it inhabits the north of Europe; it goes to the south only towards the end of October, and returns at the end of March or beginning of April. In confinement the redwing is treated like the preceding; but it is not much valued, as its song is in no respect agreeable. It always requires fresh water and but little warmth. FOOD, MODE OF TAKING, DISEASES.--The same as in the preceding species. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the male is as unmelodious as that of the fieldfare. These birds make a great noise when they are collected in large flights upon the alders, in March and April, but their warbling hardly deserves the name of song. I have known but one which succeeded in imitating, though very indifferently, the notes of the song thrush and some loud tones of the nightingale. It is not therefore their song which will gain these birds a place in the house; but they may please by their familiarity, their patience, their easy motions, and the readiness with which they obey orders. Bird catchers keep them principally as decoy birds. They are good eating. THE ROSE OUZEL. Turdus roseus, LINN�US; Le Merle Couleur de Rose, BUFFON; Die Rosenfarbigedrossel, BECHSTEIN. This is a bird which from its beauty certainly merits a place in this work. Its length is nearly eight inches, of which the tail measures three, and the beak one. This latter is black, sometimes lead-coloured, from the base to the middle, and flesh or rose-coloured from the middle to the point; the iris is whitish; the shanks are fourteen lines high, lighter or darker flesh-coloured; the claws are blackish. The head, neck, and throat, are black, with the tips of the feathers white, very much like the starling, and changeable into green, blue, and purple; the feathers at the top of the head are long and narrow, and rise elegantly into a crest; the back, the rump, the shoulders, the breast, the belly, and the sides, are of a brighter or paler rose-colour, according to the age and season. The female differs from the male only in being less highly and brilliantly coloured. HABITATION.--When wild these birds are to be met with in many parts of Europe and Asia. The inhabitants of Aleppo and the neighbourhood see with pleasure the arrival of large flights of them, in the months of July and August, to extirpate the clouds of locusts which then ravage the country. Great numbers are also seen in spring on the banks of the Don and Irtish, where they build and find abundance of food; also on the shores of the Caspian and the banks of the Wolga. In Europe they appear in Sweden as far as Lapland, in England, in Germany, in Switzerland, and France: rare indeed in all these countries, but least so in Italy. In confinement this bird is kept in a cage of the same size as the blackbird's. FOOD.--When wild this bird appears to subsist entirely on insects. In confinement it would doubtless thrive very well on the food which is given to the blackbird, which will be mentioned hereafter. It is better, however, to study it a little, and find out what suits it best. BREEDING.--It builds among rocks; but its nest has not yet been discovered in Europe, though some circumstances indicate that it propagates there. In 1784, in the duchy of Altenburg, three young ones were killed, but just out of the nest, and which consequently could not have come from far. This fact should excite the attention and vigilance of zealous observers. MODES OF TAKING.--Skilful bird-catchers will soon discover the means of catching the bird: snares and limed twigs, with grasshoppers and other living and moving insects for bait, will probably accomplish this end. It would be hazardous to shoot the birds in the hope of wounding them but slightly, as is sometimes done with other birds, which soon recover, and remain tame, if, during their recovery, they have been well treated. OBSERVATIONS.--A sportsman discovered, in 1794, in the environs of Meiningen, in Suabia, a flight of eight or ten rose ouzels, moving leisurely from south-west to north-east, and passing from one cherry-tree to another. He fired on these birds, only one fell, which was fortunately very slightly wounded, so that it soon quite recovered. Being immediately carried to M. Von Wachter, the rector of Frickenhausen, this clergyman took the greatest care of it; he gave it a spacious cage, and found that barley-meal moistened with milk was as wholesome as agreeable to it. His kindness tamed it in a short time so far that it would come and take from his hand the insects which he offered to it. It soon sang also, but its warbling consisted at first of but a few harsh sounds, pretty well connected however, and this became at length more clear and smooth. Connoisseurs in the songs of birds discover in this song a mixture of many others; one of these connoisseurs, who had not discovered the bird, but heard its voice, thought he was listening to a concert of two starlings, two goldfinches, and perhaps a siskin; and when he saw that it was a single bird, he could not conceive how all this music proceeded from the same throat. This bird was still alive in 1802, and the delight of its possessor. THE BLACKBIRD. Turdus merula, LINN�US; Le Merle, BUFFON; Die Schwarzdrossel, BECHSTEIN. This species, the most docile of its genus, is nine inches and a half long, four of which belong to the tail. The beak is an inch long, and orange yellow; the iris is dark brown; the shanks are an inch high, and black. The whole plumage is of a pure velvety black; the eyelids alone are orange. The female is of a brownish black, with the breast of a reddish hue, and the belly grayish; the throat is spotted with dark and light brown. It is also rather larger than the male, which has led some persons who were not well acquainted with it to make another species of it. The white variety is very well known; there is besides the streaked, the black with a white head, and the pearl gray. [Illustration: CATO'S BLACKBIRD'S CAGE] HABITATION.--When wild the blackbird is found all over the old world, as well as in Germany; it is the only species of its genus which does not migrate thence. In confinement it is kept in a large cage; it is better to keep it separate because, whether from spite or jealousy, it is often inclined, like the tits, to pursue and kill its little companions of the aviary or room. FOOD.--When wild the blackbird eats berries, and, in winter, when insects are scarce, he seeks them near warm springs. In confinement he is satisfied with the first universal paste, but he also eats bread, meat, and anything which comes to table, such as a bit of apple. More delicate than the song thrush, he would not digest mere bran and water. He delights in bathing often, and should therefore be furnished with the means for so doing. BREEDING.--As the blackbird does not travel he pairs early in the spring, and the first young are hatched by the end of March. The nest, placed in a thick bush, or in a heap of boughs, is formed on the outside of stalks, then of moss and mud and lined in the inside with fine hay, hair, and wool. The female lays three times a year, from four to six eggs, of a greenish gray, spotted and streaked with light brown; when the young are hatched the males are always darker than the females, therefore bird-catchers can never be mistaken when they take the former and leave the latter. They are easily reared on white bread soaked in boiled milk, a little raw beef, and worms dipped in water. It is better to take them from the nest when the quills of the feathers are just beginning to develop, because, having then no idea of their natural song, they will retain more perfectly and distinctly the airs which may be taught them. DISEASES.--An obstruction in the rump gland is their most common disorder, and must be treated in the manner described in the Introduction. It would doubtless be prevented by never omitting to furnish the means of bathing. With care, and a proper variety of food, this bird will live in confinement ten or twelve years. METHOD OF CATCHING.--Timid and distrustful, the blackbird seldom enters the area or barn-floor trap, but it is easily caught in the winter with a noose or springe, by using service berries for a bait. It sometimes falls into the large traps set for tits, when the berries are spread over the bottom; limed twigs put with the berries in a place cleared from the snow, will catch many also; it also goes to the water-trap, but generally at night-fall. Its call is "_tsizirr, tak, tak_." ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The natural song of the blackbird is not destitute of melody; but it is broken by noisy tones, and is agreeable only in the open country. When wild it sings only from March to July; but when caged, during the whole year, except when moulting. Its voice is so strong and clear, that in a city it may be heard from one end of a long street to the other. Its memory is so good, that it retains, without mixing them, several airs at once, and it will even repeat little sentences. It is a great favourite with the lovers of a plaintive, clear, and musical song, and may, in these respects, be preferred to the bullfinch, whose voice is softer, more flute-like, but also more melancholy. The price of these two birds, if well taught, is about the same. THE RING BLACKBIRD. Turdus torquatus, LINN�US; Merle à Plastron blanc, BUFFON; Die Ringdrossel, BECHSTEIN. This bird is larger than the common blackbird, being in length ten inches and a half, four of which belong to the tail. The beak is an inch long, raven gray, yellowish white at the base of the lower mandible, and yellow at the angles as well as inside: the iris is chestnut brown; the shanks dark brown, and fourteen lines high; the upper part of the body is black; and it is the principal colour of the under part also; but the feathers of the belly and the coverts of the wings are edged with white; the quill-feathers, and the outside feathers of the tail are grayish white; a white spot, tinged with red, and the size of the finger, placed transversely on the breast, serves to characterize the species, and gives it its name. The female is of a brownish black; the transverse band on the breast is narrower, and of a reddish ash-colour, shaded with brown. Those individuals which combine the brown colour of the female with the pectoral band, large, and of a reddish white, are young males; the others, in which it is scarcely discernible, are young females. OBSERVATIONS.--Though the ring blackbird traverses the whole of Europe, it builds only in the north[68]. It arrives in Germany and England on the foggy days of the end of October and beginning of November. It moves always in small flights, stopping generally in spots covered with briers and juniper bushes, where it may be caught with a noose. Its food, when free and in confinement, is the same as that of the common blackbird, with which it has the most striking resemblance in its gait, the motion of its wings and tail, and its call, "_tak_." Its voice, though hoarser and deeper, is nevertheless more harmonious and agreeable. It is so weak that a red-breast may overpower it. It continues singing at all times, except when moulting. It will live in confinement from six to ten years. THE ROCK THRUSH. Turdus saxatilis, LINN�US; Le Merle de Roche, BUFFON; Die Steindrossel, BECHSTEIN. This rare and striking bird is unknown in many parts of Germany[69]. Though its principal characteristics place it in the genus of the blackbird, it has more resemblance to the starling, both in its manners and gait, which are varied and agreeable. Its length is seven inches and a half, two and three quarters of which belong to the tail. The beak, an inch long, and the shanks, an inch and a quarter high, are black. The head and neck are grayish blue, or ash blue, lighter in the old, and darker in the young birds; the top of the back is dark brown, often varying to a lighter brown, the middle a fine white; the rump, of a dark brown, has the feathers tipped with white; the breast is dark orange, the belly the same; but, according to the season, more or less spotted and undulated with white. The female is dark brown on the upper part of the body, with edges of whitish gray to the feathers; those of the rump are rust-colour, with the same gray edge; the chin is white; the throat brown; the under part of the neck, and the whole under part of the body, of a dirty orange, with waving lines of brown and white; the tail is paler than that of the male, and the feet are dark brown. HABITATION.--When wild it is found in the south of Europe and Germany, in Austria, and the Tyrol. In France, in Bugey, and more to the south; and especially in the Alps and Pyrenees, frequenting rocks or old ruined castles. In its migrations it visits bare rocky mountains, searching for insects which take refuge among the stones. Its departure is in September and its return in March. In confinement it is furnished with a cage larger than that of the nightingale. FOOD.--When wild it appears to live entirely on insects. In confinement it is fed like the nightingale; but with every care it cannot long be preserved. BREEDING.--The female builds her nest in an almost inaccessible crevice of the rocks, and lays five eggs. As the young are very susceptible of instruction, they are readily brought up when they can be obtained[70]; they are fed and treated like young nightingales. MODE OF TAKING.--It is by fixing to the spots they frequent plenty of limed twigs, with meal-worms attached to them; it is said that in the Alps and Pyrenees they are caught with a bird-call. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--It is considered one of the most agreeable singers; and if caught young it soon acquires the songs of the other birds of the chamber, learns to whistle tunes, and even, like the starling, to repeat words. "It begins to sing," says Buffon, "a little before dawn, which it announces by noisy sounds. If its cage is approached during the night with a candle, it begins to sing; and when, during the day, it does not sing, it appears to be practising in an under tone, and preparing new songs." THE SOLITARY THRUSH. Turdus solitarius, LINN�US; Le Merle solitaire, BUFFON; Die Einsame Drossel, BECHSTEIN. This bird is eight inches and a half long, three of which belong to the tail. The beak is an inch and a quarter long, rather crooked at the point, dark brown without, and yellowish within; the iris is orange. The feet are thirteen lines high, and brown. The whole plumage is brown studded with little white spots, with a faint tint of blue on the sides of the head, the throat, under the body, on the breast and coverts of the wings; the rump is brown without spots, and the tail blackish. The female differs from the male in having the little spots of a dirty yellow, and more numerous on the breast than elsewhere, and in being destitute of the blue tint; and finally, in having the pen-feathers and the tail-feathers simply brown. HABITATION.--When wild it seldom quits the mountains in the south of Europe; in spring, however, it advances as far as Burgundy, and returns in the end of August; it arrives, in the month of April, at the spot where it generally passes the summer, and returns constantly every year to the place where it first took up its abode. Two pairs are seldom found in the same district. Except in the pairing season it is a solitary bird. In confinement it is furnished with a cage like that of the blackbird. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on insects, berries, and grapes. In confinement it is treated like the song thrush, adding ants' eggs and meal-worms. BREEDING.--The nest, made of blades of grass and feathers, is generally placed at the top of a solitary chimney, or on the summit of an old castle, or on the top of a large tree, generally near a steeple or high tower. The female lays five or six eggs. The young ones, if taken from the nest soon enough, are capable of instruction; the flexibility of the throat fitting it either for tunes or words. They sing also by candle-light in the night. If treated with care they live in confinement eight or ten years. From the summit of a high tower or steeple the male utters for whole days the most beautiful and pathetic song, accompanying it by flapping his wings, moving his tail, and elevating the feathers of his head. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--His beautiful voice is in great repute in all the countries he inhabits; it is, indeed, very sweet and flute-like; his song, though musical, is somewhat melancholy, as is usual with solitary birds; many persons, however, are very fond of it. This bird, when tamed, fetches a very high price at Milan, Constantinople, &c. In some countries it is so much respected that it is considered sacrilegious to kill it or destroy its nest. THE BLUE THRUSH. Turdus cyaneus, LINN�US; Le Merle bleu, BUFFON; Die blau Drossel, BECHSTEIN. This bird is rather larger than the common blackbird, its length being eight inches, three of which belong to the tail. The beak, fourteen lines in length, is blackish, the iris dark nut brown, the eyelids yellow; the shanks, thirteen lines in height, are blackish; the whole plumage is of an ash blue, but each feather has near its tip a transverse brown line, and the tip itself is whitish. The individual birds vary in the depth of the blue, according to their age and sex. The female is generally more uniform in colour than the male. HABITATION.--When wild the blue thrush is found in the Archipelago, in Dalmatia, Italy, Spain, and other southern countries, always among steep rocks. In confinement it is provided with a convenient cage, like the preceding. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on all sorts of insects. In confinement it is fed like the nightingale. BREEDING.--Like the rock thrush it builds among rocks, on ruined or deserted towers, and the like. The young are reared in the same way as those of the nightingale. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its pretty plumage and fine voice do not constitute its only attractions. It is very easily tamed, and is very capable of instruction, and amuses much by its natural gait and habits, which very much resemble those of the rock thrush. THE REED THRUSH. Turdus arundinaceus, LINN�US; La Rousserole, BUFFON; Die Rohrdrossel, BECHSTEIN. This bird has so much resemblance to the white-throats, as to cause a hesitation whether it should be ranged with them or with the thrush; but the form of the beak and feet, and generally the whole colour of the body, are in favour of the latter. The total length is at most eight inches, four and a quarter of which belong to the tail, which is of a rounded wedge-shape. The beak is ten lines in length, and strong, flattish, brown at the point, yellowish at the base, and orange on the inside; the iris is dark maroon. The shanks are an inch high, strong, and brownish gray, blending into flesh-colour. This bird is so like the nightingale, that if the tail were reddish it would be mistaken for it. The top of the head and neck are dark gray, with a light olive tint; a line of dusky yellow extends above the eyes from the nostrils to the middle; the cheeks are brownish gray; the back and the coverts of the wings reddish gray, which becomes lighter, and passes at the rump into pure rust-colour. The female differs from the male only in being smaller, rather darker on the upper, and lighter on the lower parts of the body; the white of the throat is less extensive, and the upper part of the head is tinged with red. HABITATION.--When wild it is found all over Europe, with the exception of the most northern parts; it is a stranger in those parts of Germany only where there are neither lakes, ponds, nor stagnant rivers abounding with rushes; for it is always on their banks and in large swamps that it resides, and more frequently on the ground than in trees[71]. In confinement it is provided with a nightingale's cage. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on aquatic insects, the enormous multitude of which it seems intended to diminish. In order to catch these it is continually seen climbing the stems of the rushes and reeds: it also eats berries. In confinement, hitherto, no food but that of the nightingale has succeeded with it, and that even for only four or six months. It is soon attacked by a disease which carries off great numbers of white-throats: the feathers falling off without being renewed, the bird declines and dies of atrophy[72]. BREEDING.--The nest is found fastened with wool to the stems of the rushes, or the branches of neighbouring bushes. On the outside it is formed of moss and stubble, firmly mixed, and lined on the inside with fine hay and hair. The eggs, five or six in number, are grayish white, spotted with black. The young, before the first moulting, have the appearance of a white-throat, with some dark spots on the breast. They are taken from the nest and reared, like young nightingales, on ants' eggs; and if they are placed near this winged Orpheus, they learn his song so well and so perfectly that they become as excellent performers as their masters, with the additional advantage of possessing a noise more flute-like and less shrill than that of the nightingale. MODE OF TAKING.--The great difficulty of catching this bird makes it scarce in our rooms. The only means is to ascertain well the place it frequents, then to scratch up the earth and throw upon it some meal-worms, and cover the place with limed twigs. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--With a more beautiful and musical voice, its song is also more varied than that of the song-thrush, without being so long, so sustained, or so brilliant, as that of the nightingale, with which it most deserves to be compared. Some of its couplets resemble those of the blackcap, but broken, like those of the song-thrush. When caged it may be much improved by imitation of the notes of the nightingale, which the young easily copy. It is particularly in the morning and evening that the reed-thrush utters his beautiful warblings. Not only is his throat then in motion; his wings, his tail, and his whole body, are agitated as if to follow the cadence and the measure. THE NIGHTINGALE. [Illustration] Motacilla Luscinia, LINN�US; Le Rossignol, BUFFON; Die Nachtigall, BECHSTEIN. This bird, whose plumage is very ordinary, is scarcely five inches long, two and a half of which belong to the tail. But, in confinement, when it is well fed, and especially when it has been bred from the nest, it is commonly larger, reaching sometimes the size of a lark. The straight beak is seven lines in length, thin, with the two mandibles of nearly the same size, and dark brown above, light gray below, flesh-coloured at the base, and yellow within; the iris is brownish grey. The shanks, three quarters of an inch high, are flesh-coloured; the upper part of the body is brownish gray, tinted with rust-red, and in very old birds is reddish ash-coloured. Among individuals in confinement, some are lighter, others darker. When placed in the windows of a large well-lighted room, which is not exposed to smoke, they are in the upper parts dark gray, or light brownish gray, and the feathers have a reddish edge; below they are white, and grayish on the sides. But those which are shut up in small ill-lighted rooms, subject to smoke, soon lose their colours, the upper part of the body becoming dingy red, the under part grayish white, and the sides brownish gray. Those accustomed to birds distinguish the female at a glance. Her shanks are not so high: she is not so erect; her head is not so long and pointed, but rounder; her neck is shorter, and more inclined back; her eye is smaller and less lively; and her throat is not so white. Notwithstanding these characteristics, no other than an experienced person could decide the sex unless he had them both before him. Nightingales so strongly resemble the female redstart, that the latter is often caught and sold for a nightingale, while the nightingale in its turn is killed and eaten for a redstart. To avoid mistakes, we must observe the following particulars:--The female redstart is always smaller, and her plumage darker: her small feet and beak are blackish; the red of her tail is lighter, and the two middle feathers are blackish, or very dark brown; this long slender tail is in continual motion, while the nightingale moves his only at intervals, for example, when he has hopped a few steps, and he generally carries it raised higher than the point of his wings. His step and attitude are prouder, and his actions seem more deliberate. When he walks, it is by measured regular hops. After a certain number he stops, looks at himself, shakes his wings, raises his tail gracefully, spreads it a little, stoops his head several times, raises his tail again, and proceeds. If any object attracts his attention, he bends his head towards it, and generally looks at it with only one eye. It is true that he jumps hastily upon the insects which constitute his food; but he does not seize them so eagerly as other birds; on the contrary, he stops short, and seems to deliberate whether it is prudent to eat them or not. Generally he has a serious circumspect air, but his foresight is not proportioned to it, for he falls readily into all the snares which are laid for him. If he once escapes, however, he is not so easily caught again, and becomes as cunning as any other bird. The same, indeed, may be said of all birds pursued by man. Nightingales are called, in my opinion very unjustly, silly and curious; for a great number of new things may be offered them without exciting the least attention; but scratch or dig the earth, and they approach directly, because instinct or experience tells them that they shall there find insects, which they are very fond of. Many other species of this group do the same thing; for instance, the blackcap and the red-breast, without its having been mentioned. These birds do not, however, deserve so much of our attention as the nightingale. HABITATION.--When wild, nightingales are found throughout Europe, as far as the north of England and the middle of Sweden: in all Asia, as far as the temperate regions of Siberia; and in Africa on the banks of the Nile. They every where choose for their residence places which are shady, cool, but not cold, such as woods, thickets, and even mere hedges in the fields. They do not go beyond the skirts of the forests on high chains of mountains, and never stop on elevations where the air is too keen. Groves, thick brambles, tufted bushes near fields and meadows, are their favourite abodes. They also like gardens planted with untrimmed elm-hedges, which are consequently thick and bushy down to the ground. It is not true that they like watery situations, and if they frequent them it is not for the water, but because they generally produce thick tufted bushes. It must also be owned that their favourite food is more constantly abundant in such places, and if the cold destroys the insects elsewhere, plenty may always be found in them. It is not however the less certain that the water is not the attraction, or all would repair to its vicinity, which experience contradicts. The fact is, that each nightingale generally establishes himself in the place which gave him birth, whether near the water or not, whether in an orchard or on a mountain; and when once he has fixed on a spot, he returns to it every year, unless the place has lost its charm or advantage. If the wood for instance has been cut down, or has lost the thick shade, which was its chief merit, in such circumstances he seeks in the neighbourhood another spot more to his liking. But if, in a considerable circuit where no change has taken place, a nightingale is seen to establish himself in a spot which was unoccupied the preceding year, it may be concluded that it is a young bird which was born in the vicinity. Convenient places are so much valued, that if the possessors die or are caught, new comers seize upon them immediately; so that the bird which we hear to-day, is very possibly not the same which sang yesterday in the same place. Many other causes may also concur in producing this change of inhabitants, which an ear well versed in the language of these birds will always discover. It may, perhaps, be asked why, in many places which appear so well adapted to attract nightingales, none are found[73]. I reply that these spots may be concealed by woods or mountains, and not lie perceived by the nightingales in their journeys, or they may be quite out of their route, for they have a regular one which they never quit, because, their progress being slow, and subject to interruptions, it is requisite that they should find on their passage every thing necessary for their subsistence, and too cold an atmosphere is painful to them. It may also happen that the nightingales which formerly frequented them, may have been altogether extirpated; and as it has been said that the young always establish themselves in the district which gave them birth, it is by no means surprising that they should not be chosen, at least there are many chances against it. Rather than wait in vain for this chance, there is a means of re-peopling such places with these charming birds. It is only necessary to bring up some broods of young ones, and not let them loose in the following spring till after the period of return is elapsed; because being no longer excited by the instinct which induces them to travel, and the instinct itself being subdued in a great measure by their imprisoned education, they will not wander, but will remain and propagate, provided they are not disturbed, and will return the year following with all their family. I must not omit to say that the young intended for this re-peopling must not be confined in a cage, as they would lose the use of their wings, and run the risk of perishing the first day of their liberation. As soon as they can feed themselves, they must be allowed an entire room, in which they may fly freely, and grow strong and bold. A sort of grove should be formed of branches or small trees, and nature should be imitated as much as possible also in feeding them, by throwing to them more insects and ants' eggs than usual, to accustom them to seek for them. The period of the nightingale's return throughout the greater part of Germany, is the middle of April, rarely either earlier or later[74]: it is always when the white-thorn begins to expand its leaves. Advancing slowly and gradually, these birds are not so likely to suffer from bad weather as those which go straight to their destination by one stage. In the middle of August each family prepares to depart; this is done quietly, removing gradually, and passing from grove to grove to the end of their journey; then it is that these birds are caught with nooses or springes, by using elderberries or currants for a bait. The middle of September is the latest period at which they are seen in Germany. All then disappear imperceptibly, so that the time they employ in the rest of their journey is altogether unknown. Other birds, whose instinct leads them to travel in large flights, do not so easily escape observation. If by accident a nightingale is met with at the end of September, or in October, it must have been delayed by some peculiar circumstance; for instance, it may be a young one that has lost its way, or that was hatched late, or it may be an invalid. In confinement nightingales may be allowed to fly freely, as I have often permitted them; but they do not then sing so well as when in a cage, where they are less subject to interruptions, and where also they live longer and more healthily, from being fed with more care and regularity. The nightingale's cage, of whatever form, must not be less than a foot and a half in length, by about one in width, and one or more in height. The top should be made of linen or soft stuff, that when jumping and struggling, especially when first caught, he may not injure his head. The drinking-cup and feeding-trough are fastened on the outside, unless it is preferred to introduce the latter within, in the form of a drawer. The following are the best form and proportions for a nightingale's cage, that I am acquainted with:--Length, one foot and a half; breadth, eight inches; height, fifteen inches in the middle; thirteen at the sides, because the roof is arched. The sides are made of osiers about a quarter of an inch thick; the bottom is made of the same material, but it is covered by a drawer an inch and a quarter in depth. In order to clean it more easily, I cover it with coarse paper, which I renew every time. The feeding-trough is introduced on one side, with edges high enough to prevent the bird's spilling too much of the food. In the middle of the front of the cage, and extending from top to bottom, is a cylindrical projection in the form of a belfry, in which is suspended a large drinking-glass. The upper stick of the cage is confined here, terminating in a fork, or fixed to a semi-circle, that the projection may not be prevented from moving. This projection is made of osiers, like the rest of the cage. The middle and lower sticks are covered with green cloth, firmly sewed on, that the nightingale may have a softer perch, and not have his feet so soon injured, which is very common with imprisoned birds. The arched roof is also covered with green stuff, which is painted that colour with oil paint, as well as the whole of the cage. But it must be well dried, and quite free from smell before the bird is put into it. My reasons for preferring this cage are, first, because being small, it occupies less room, without disadvantage to the bird or to the apartment; second, because the size of the osiers leave small intervals for the admission of light, and it is consequently darker; third, because the bird can bathe without wetting his cage or his perches: and consequently his feet remain cleaner and more healthy. As to the situation of the cage, the prisoner's taste must be consulted. Some nightingales dislike being in the window, and prefer a dark corner of the room; others like the light and the sun. If it is wished that a nightingale should sing everywhere, it is necessary, when he is moulting, and before he resumes his song, to accustom him to a change of place, by carrying him sometimes here, sometimes there. Some will sing only when they are alone, while others like to perform alternately with a neighbour; but they never sing so loud and well when there are several in a room. Perhaps jealousy is the chief cause of this. On these occasions, the first that begins generally maintains the superiority; the others sing only when he stops, and this but seldom, and in an under tone. Some are so sulky that they will not sing at all. Some of these obstinate pouters are occasionally, from their silence, mistaken for females, and consequently dismissed from the room, but when they find themselves alone they begin to sing at full stretch. FOOD.--When wild nightingales feed on insects, especially little green caterpillars, of which they clear the bushes and trees, small butterflies, flies, and beetles, and the grubs of insects hid among moss or in the earth, which are discovered by turning it up. At their departure, towards the end of summer, they also eat elderberries and currants. In confinement, meal worms and fresh ants' eggs are the first things which should be offered to birds which are just caught; in place of these, when it is not possible to procure them, some persons prepare a mixture of hard eggs, ox heart, and white bread, some mouthfuls of which they force the birds to swallow, and then throw some meal worms on the rest, to induce the nightingale to eat it; but this artificial food is so unfit for these birds, especially at first, that it kills the greater number. They may also be injured by forcibly opening their delicate beak. When ants' eggs cannot be procured, it is better to set the birds at liberty than thus to sacrifice them. Their best food in summer is ants' eggs, to which are daily added two or three meal worms[75]; when none of the former remain fresh they must be supplied by dried or rather roasted ox heart and raw carrot, both grated, and then mixed with dried ants' eggs[76]. The carrot, which may be preserved fresh in sand in the cellar, prevents heat in the stomach and bowels; a little lean beef or mutton minced small may also be used sometimes; after different trials, it is in this way I feed my nightingales. The cheapest food is very ripe elderberries, dried and mixed with ants' eggs, in the same way as the carrots and white bread. Some bird-fanciers, in winter, bake a little loaf made of the flour of peas and eggs, which they grate, moisten, and then mix with dried ants' eggs; others, who would still be more economical, pound poppy-seeds in a mortar to express the oil, and then mix them with the crumb of white bread; when accustomed to it the birds seem very fond of it, but a proof that it does not agree with them is that they soon fall into a decline and die. This plan has lately been introduced into Thuringia; but knowing, as I do from experience, that the stomach of the nightingale is not formed to digest such food, since he is not graminivorous, I take care never to administer it; and I think I ought to warn others against it. The best will always be the simplest, and that which is most conformable to nature. Those who adopt that which I have mentioned will have the satisfaction of finding their nightingales healthy, cheerful, active, and good singers. I have already said that I have tried letting them run about the room, feeding them upon the common universal paste; but this food is not sufficiently nutritious for them: on this diet they can hardly pass six months without falling into a decline, and they would inevitably perish if they were not speedily restored to one which is fitter for them. They require fresh water every day, as well for bathing as drinking; they habitually bathe, when caged, after singing. They have also been observed to do so the first thing in the evening, when the candles were lighted. BREEDING.--Each nightingale has his little district; and if in the pairing season several males are found together, very angry battles take place, which end in the flight of the weakest. The commonest quarrels of this kind are between fathers and sons. The latter, having been born in the place, determine to fix themselves in it; all feeling of relationship is then extinguished, and they are strangers; the relations of father and son, those sweet ties, hitherto so close, are suddenly broken, never more to be felt. The nest is built in a grove or orchard, among a heap of branches, or on a thorn bush, or the trunk of a tree surrounded by briars; or even on the ground when it may be hid by tall grass or thick bushes. Its form is simple and inartificial, on the outside dry leaves, on the inside hay, fine roots, with the hair of animals, is all the apparatus. The female lays from four to six eggs, of a brownish green, on which she sits a fortnight. The young are fed with small caterpillars and butterflies. As the low position of the nest exposes them to become the prey of carnivorous quadrupeds, they soon quit it, even before they can fly. Their plumage before moulting has no resemblance to that of the old birds except the red of the tail; the upper part of the body is of a reddish grey, spotted with yellowish white on the head and coverts of the wings; the under part is of a rusty yellow, spotted on the breast with dark brown; but after moulting the resemblance is so perfect that they can hardly be distinguished. If, therefore, any of these birds are caught towards the end of summer, they are carefully examined on the back of the head, round the eyes, and under the beak and neck, for, provided there remains in these places a small feather, or mere yellow point, it is sufficient to ascertain that they are young. As these are the only means of judging, if no marks appear, it is necessary to wait for a few days till the bird begins to sing. This, however, is not a sure sign, as the young females sing as well as the males, till the month of April, though in a weaker and more unconnected way, and without so visibly swelling their throats: it is by these nice observations that connoisseurs succeed in distinguishing them. It may also be remarked, as a help to those who wish to rear nightingales, that, when in the nest, those which are marked with white, and especially those which have a white throat, are males; the reddest and brownest being always females. The young, when taken, are fed with ants' eggs mixed with white bread, grated and moistened. The males begin to warble even before their tails are quite grown: if the father and mother are taken at the same time as the young ones, they will, when caged, continue to feed them as before. It is said that nightingales sometimes build in the bird room; this, however, can only succeed by giving up to a tame healthy pair a whole room, in which a sort of grove should be formed of branches. DISEASES.--In general moulting amounts to a disease among nightingales: at this critical time they require a more succulent diet, and sometimes a spider by way of purgative. If their stomach is disordered they puff up their feathers, half shut their eyes, and remain for hours with their head under their wing. They are relieved and cured by ants' eggs, some spiders, and by giving them occasionally water impregnated with saffron till it is of an orange colour, to drink. As to those diseases which they have in common with other birds, they are treated according to the directions given in the Introduction. It is especially necessary, every three months, carefully to remove the large scales from their legs and toes. A nightingale may be kept in confinement fifteen years; whilst in a wild state they are never observed to exist so long in the same spot, which seems to prove that they do not attain so great an age when exposed to all sorts of accidents, both from birds of prey and bird-catchers. I have an instance of a nightingale which has lived twenty-five years in confinement. When they have reached six years they begin to sing less frequently and long, with less brilliancy and ornament; it is then better to set them at liberty in the month of May. The open air often invigorates them so much that they regain their song in all its force and beauty. MODE OF TAKING.--Nothing is easier than to catch a nightingale in the season of pairing. If a little furrow, smooth at the bottom, is dug in a dark soil, and some meal worms or ants' eggs are thrown into it, he will immediately fly to these delicacies. By putting also in the same place limed twigs, or a small net which may be easily dropped, he will soon be caught; it is even sufficient to fix over the furrow a bit of wood supported by a stick, which will fall as soon as the bird perches upon it. He is so unsuspicious that he observes the snare being laid, and then foolishly falls into it, when the bird-catcher has moved only a few steps from it; he will even allow himself to be led to it when at a little distance, if in a gentle manner. A bird-catcher may thus, in a few hours, depopulate a whole district of these delightful songsters. If, however, this is feared, there is a means of baffling his intentions, by anticipating him, and catching the nightingale we wish to preserve in our neighbourhood, either by a limed twig or in a net, and letting him go again. This experiment will prevent his falling so readily into the snare in future. In the greater part of Germany, indeed, it is forbidden, under a very heavy penalty, to catch nightingales. Another mode of taking them is by nooses and springes, and suspending for a bait, instead of berries, live meal-worms; but there is one disadvantage attending it, while struggling the bird almost always injures his feet, especially in springes. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The first good quality of a nightingale is undoubtedly its fine voice, and notes which I shall endeavour to describe. The nightingale expresses his different emotions by suitable and particular tones. The most unmeaning cry when he is alone appears to be a simple whistle _fitt_, but if the syllable _crr_ is added, it is then the call of the male to the female. The sign of displeasure or fear is _fitt_ repeated rapidly and loudly before adding the terminating _crr_; whilst that of satisfaction and pleasure such, for example, as conjugal endearments, or on the occasion of finding a delicate morsel, is a deep _tack_, which may be imitated by smacking the tongue. In anger, jealousy, rivalry, or any extraordinary event, he utters hoarse disagreeable sounds, somewhat like a jay or a cat. Lastly, in the season of pairing, when the male and female entice and pursue each other, from the top of a tree to its base, and thence again to the top, a gentle subdued warbling is all that is heard. Nature has granted these tones to both sexes; but the male is particularly endowed with so very striking a musical talent, that in this respect he surpasses all birds, and has acquired the name of the king of songsters. The strength of his vocal organ is indeed wonderful; and it has been found that the muscles of his larynx are much more powerful than those of any other bird. But it is less the strength than the compass, flexibility, prodigious variety, and harmony of his voice which make it so admired by all lovers of the beautiful. Sometimes dwelling for minutes on a strain composed of only two or three melancholy tones, he begins in an under voice, and swelling it gradually by the most superb crescendo to the highest point of strength, he ends it by a dying cadence; or it consists of a rapid succession of more brilliant sounds, terminated, like many other strains of his song, by some detached ascending notes. Twenty-four different strains or couplets may be reckoned in the song of a fine nightingale, without including its delicate little variations; for among these, as among other musicians, there are some great performers and many middling ones. This song is so articulate, so speaking, that it may be very well written. The following is a trial which I have made on that of a nightingale in my neighbourhood, which passes for a very capital singer[77]:-- _Tioû, tioû, tioû, tioû. Spe, tiou, squa. Tiô, tiô, tiô, tiô, tio, tio, tio, tix. Coutio, coutio, coutio, coutio. Squô, squô, squô, squô. Tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzu, tzi. Corror, tiou, squa, pipiqui. Zozozozozozozozozozozozo, zirrhading! Tsissisi, tsissisisisisisisis. Dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, dzorre, hi. Tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, tzatu, dzi. Dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo, dlo. Quio, tr rrrrrrrr itz. Lu, lu, lu, lu, ly, ly, ly, ly, liê, liê, liê, liê[78]. Quio, didl li lulylie. Hagurr, gurr quipio! Coui, coui, coui, coui, qui, qui, qui, qui, gai, gui, gui, gui[79] Goll goll goll goll guia hadadoi. Couigui, horr, ha diadia dill si! Hezezezezezezezezezezezezezezezeze couar ho dze hoi. Quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, quia, ti. Ki, ki, ki, ïo, ïo, ïo, ioioioio ki. Lu ly li le lai la leu lo, didl ïo quia. Kigaigaigaigaigaigaigai guiagaigaigai couior dzio dzio pi._[80] If we could understand the sense of these words, we should doubtless discover the expression of the sensations of this delightful songster. It is true that the nightingales of all countries, the south as well as the north, appear to sing in the same manner; there is, however, as has been already observed, so great a difference in the degree of perfection, that we cannot help acknowledging that one has a great superiority over another. On points of beauty, however, where the senses are the judges, each has his peculiar taste. If one nightingale has the talent of dwelling agreeably on his notes, another utters his with peculiar brilliancy, a third lengthens out his strain in a particular manner, and a fourth excels in the silveriness of his voice. All four may excel in their style, and each will find his admirer; and, truly, it is very difficult to decide which merits the palm of victory. There are, however, individuals so very superior as to unite all the beauties of power and melody; these are generally birds of the first breed, which, having been hatched with the necessary powers, in a district well peopled with nightingales, appropriate what is most striking in the song of each, whence results this perfect compound, so worthy of our admiration. As the return of the males in spring always precedes that of the females by seven or eight days, they are constantly heard to sing before and after midnight, in order to attract their companions on their journey during the fine nights. If their wishes are accomplished they then keep silence during the night, and salute the dawn with their first accents, which are continued through the day. Some persist in their first season in singing before and after midnight, whence they have obtained the name of nocturnal nightingales; but they cannot be distinguished till after some time, when they are established in their district, and have the society of their females. After repeated experiments for many successive years, I think I am authorised in affirming that the nocturnal and diurnal nightingales form distinct varieties, which propagate regularly: for if a young bird is taken from the nest of a night singer, he, in his turn, will sing at the same hours as his father, not the first year, but certainly in the following[81]; while, on the other hand, the young of a day nightingale will never sing in the night, even when it is surrounded by nocturnal nightingales. I have also remarked that the night singers prefer mountainous countries, and even mountains themselves, whilst the others prefer plains, valleys, and the neighbourhood of water. I will also venture to affirm that all the night singers found in the plains have strayed from the mountains; thus in my neighbourhood, inclosed in the first chains of the mountains of Thuringia, we hear only night singers, and in the plains of Gotha they know only the day nightingale. It is a pity that the time for this delightful bird's song should be so short, that is to say, when wild. It endures hardly three months; and during this short interval it is not maintained with equal power. At its first arrival it is the most beautiful, continued, and impassioned; when the young are hatched, it becomes more rare; the attentions which they require occupying considerable time. If from time to time the nightingale's song is heard, it is evident that the fire which animated it is much weakened. After midsummer all is ended, nothing is heard but the warbling of the young, which seem to study their father's song, and try to imitate it. The nightingale sings much longer in confinement: birds which are caught full grown sometimes sing from November to Easter; those which are bred from the nest sing much longer, sometimes as long as seven months; but in order that they may sing well they must be put under the instruction of an old nightingale which is a good singer, otherwise they will be only stammerers, mutilating their natural song, and inserting in a confused manner tones and passages which they have caught from other birds. If, however, they have a good instructor, and a good memory, they imitate perfectly, and often add to their instructor's song some beauties of their own, as is usual among young birds[82]. I cannot help here mentioning the cruel and disgusting selfishness of some men, who, in order a little to prolong the song of this interesting bird, sacrifice to their transient gratification its eyes, by blinding it, as is done to the lark and the chaffinch. It is said that a nightingale and a female red-breast running free in the room will sometimes pair, and produce mules, but I have no experience on this subject. I cannot better complete my account of the nightingale's song than by transcribing the delightful, though somewhat exaggerated picture, which has been given of it by Buffon. "There is no well organised man," says he, "to whom the name of the nightingale does not recall some one of those fine nights in spring, when the sky being clear, the air calm, all nature silent, and as it were attentive, he has listened with delight to the song of this chorister of the woods. Several singing birds may be named whose voices in some respects may compete with that of the nightingale; the lark, the canary, the greenfinch, the blackcap, the linnet, the goldfinch, the common blackbird, the solitary thrush, the American mocking-bird, are all listened to with pleasure when the nightingale is silent: some have fine tones, others have their voice as clear as it is soft, others have as fine flourishes, but there is not one which the nightingale does not surpass in the complete union of all these different talents, and in the prodigious variety of his songs; so that the song of each of the above-named birds is, when taken in its whole extent, only one couplet of that of the nightingale. The nightingale always charms, and never copies himself servilely; if he repeats any passage it is animated with a new accent, embellished by new ornaments. He succeeds in all styles, he renders all expressions, he seizes all characters, and he also augments their effect by contrast. If this Coryphæus of the spring prepares to sing a hymn to nature, he begins by a timid prelude, by faint uncertain sounds, as if he would try his instrument and interest his audience; then gaining courage he becomes gradually animated, warmed, and he soon displays in their plenitude all the resources of his incomparable organ, brilliant bursts, lively delicate trills, volleys of notes whose distinctness equals their volubility; an internal dull murmur, not itself pleasing to the ear, but very fit to enhance the brilliancy of the agreeable strains, sudden, brilliant, and rapid runs, articulated with strength, and even a tasteful ruggedness, plaintive accents, tender cadences; sounds dwelt on without art, but swelling with sentiment; enchantingly penetrating notes, the true sighs of voluptuousness and love, which seem to come from the heart, and make all hearts palpitate; which produce in all who are not insensible a delightful emotion, a touching languor. In those impassioned tones are recognised the language of sentiment which a happy husband addresses to his beloved partner, and which she alone can inspire; while in other strains, more surprising perhaps, but less expressive, are discovered the simple wish of amusing and pleasing her, or of disputing before her the prize of singing with rivals jealous of his glory and happiness. "These different strains are interspersed with pauses which in all styles of melody concur in producing great effects. We dwell on the beautiful notes we have just heard, and which still resound in our ears; we enjoy them the more because the pleasure is more limited, more exclusive, and undisturbed by new sensations. Soon we expect, we desire another strain; we hope it may be pleasing; if we are mistaken, the beauty of what we hear will not leave us room to regret that which is only delayed, and the interest of hope is maintained for the strains which will follow. One of the reasons why the song of the nightingale is so striking, and produces so much effect, is, as Mr. Barington has well said, because he sings in the night, which is the most favourable time, and he sings alone, whereby his voice is heard in all its splendour, and is undisturbed by any other voice. He eclipses all other birds, adds Mr. Barington, by his soft flute-like tones, and by the uninterrupted duration of his warble, which lasts sometimes for twenty seconds. The same observer reckoned in this warble sixteen different strains, well marked by their first and last notes, the intermediate notes being tastefully varied by the bird; and he ascertained that the space filled by the nightingale's voice is no less than an English mile in diameter, especially when the air is calm: this equals the compass of the human voice. "It is surprising that so small a bird, which weighs only half an ounce, should have such force in the vocal organs. Mr. Hunter has observed that the muscles of the larynx, or gullet, are stronger in proportion, in this species, than in any other, and also stronger in the male which sings, than in the female which does not sing. "Aristotle, and Pliny after him, say, that the song of the nightingale lasts in all its strength for fifteen days and fifteen nights uninterruptedly, at the time that the trees are putting forth their leaves; this can refer only to wild nightingales, and must not be taken literally; for these birds are not silent either before or after the period fixed by Aristotle. It is true they do not continue to sing with so much ardour and constancy. They generally begin in the month of April, and do not completely end till the month of June, about the time of the solstice; but the time when their song diminishes most, is when the young are hatched, because they are then occupied in feeding them, and in the order of instincts, that which tends to the preservation of the species is pre-eminent. Captive nightingales continue to sing for nine or ten months, and their song is sustained not only for a longer time, but it is more perfect and studied. Hence Mr. Barington infers, that in this species, and in many others, the male does not sing to amuse the female, and enliven her fatigue when sitting; which appears a very just and probable inference. Indeed, the female when she sits performs her office from an instinct, or rather a passion, stronger in her than even the passion of love; she finds in it an internal satisfaction of which we can form no idea, but which she appears to feel sensibly, and we cannot therefore suppose that at such moments she is in any want of consolation. Since then it is neither from duty nor virtue that the female sits, neither is it on that account that the male sings: indeed he does not sing during the second incubation. It is love, and especially the first season of love, which inspires the song of the bird; it is in spring that they experience the want both to love and to sing; it is the males which have most desire, and it is they who sing the most. They continue to sing during the greater part of the year if we preserve around them a perpetual spring, which incessantly renews their ardour, without affording an occasion for extinguishing it; this happens to caged nightingales, and even, as it has been already mentioned, to those which have been taken full grown. Some have been known to begin to sing with all their strength a few hours after being caught. They must, however, have been insensible of their loss of liberty at first. They would starve the first seven or eight days if they were not fed, and would injure their heads against the top of the cage if their wings were not tied; but at last the passion for singing prevails, because it is produced by a still deeper passion. "The songs of other birds, the sounds of instruments, the tones of a sweet sonorous voice, excite them much. They run, they approach, attracted by the sweet sounds; but duets attract them still more powerfully, which would seem to prove that they are sensible to the effects of harmony. They do not continue silent auditors, they join the performance, and use all their efforts to eclipse their rivals, to surpass all the other voices, and even all other sounds. It is said that they have been known to drop down dead at the feet of a person singing. Another has been seen fluttering, swelling his throat, and uttering an angry warble every time a canary which was near him, began to sing; he succeeded by his threats in imposing silence, so true is it, that superiority is not always free from jealousy. Can it be in consequence of the passion for pre-eminence, that these birds are so careful to seize every advantage, and that they prefer singing in a place favourable to sound, or within reach of an echo? "All nightingales do not sing equally well. Some are so very inferior as not to be worth keeping. It has even been thought that the song of the nightingale is different in different countries. In England, those who are curious respecting these birds, prefer, it is said, those of the county of Surrey, to those of Middlesex; as they prefer the greenfinch of Essex, and the goldfinch of Kent. This diversity of song among birds of the same species has very rationally been compared to the different dialects of the same language. The true causes can hardly be assigned, as they are for the most part accidental. A nightingale may perhaps have heard other singing birds, or emulation may have caused him to perfect his song, which he thus transmits improved to his descendants, for every father is the singing master of his family; and it is easy to perceive that in succeeding generations the song may be still further improved or modified by similar accidents. "After the month of June, the nightingale sings no more, and he retains only a hoarse cry, a sort of croaking, by which the melodious Philomel cannot be recognised, and it is not surprising that formerly, in Italy, they gave him a different name under these circumstances. He is indeed another bird, a bird altogether different in respect of voice, and even, in a great degree, in respect of the colour of his plumage. "Among nightingales, as well as other species, some females are found participating in the constitution of the male, his habits, and especially in his musical powers. I have seen, in confinement, one of these female singers. Her warble resembled that of the male, but was neither so strong nor so varied. She preserved it till spring; but then subduing the exercise of her talent to the natural duties of her sex, she became silent, in order to build her nest, and to lay, though she was solitary. It appears that, in warm countries, such as Greece, it is very common to see these female singers, and respecting this species and many others we may draw the same inference from a passage of Aristotle. One would hardly imagine that so varied a song as that of the nightingale is confined within a single octave; this is, however, the result of the attentive observations of a man of taste (M. le docteur Remond). He remarked, indeed, some sharp tones which formed the double octave, and which were emitted like lightning; but this happens rarely, and when the bird by a powerful effort of the gullet raises his voice to the octave. "The same observer discovered shakes on the third, fourth, and octave, but always from sharp to flat; cadences, generally in the minor, on almost every note; but no arpeggios, no coherent design." Independent of these talents, the nightingale possesses a quality very likely to augment the number of his friends; he is capable, after some time, of forming attachments. When once he has made acquaintance with the person who takes care of him, he distinguishes his step before seeing him; he welcomes him by a cry of joy; and, during the moulting season, he is seen making vain efforts to sing, and supplying by the gaiety of his movements, and the expression of his looks, the demonstrations of joy which his throat refuses to utter. When he loses his benefactor, he sometimes pines to death; if he survives it is long before he is accustomed to another[83]. His attachments are long, because they are not hasty, as is the case with all wild and timid dispositions. THE GREATER NIGHTINGALE. [Illustration] Motacilla Luscinia major, LINN�US; Le Grand Rossignol, ou La Progné[84], BUFFON; Der Sprosser, BECHSTEIN. Naturalists make this bird only a variety, or at most, only a species of the common nightingale; but I find points of difference so numerous and so striking, that I think it right to make it a distinct species. 1. It is larger by an inch and a half in length, being six inches and a half, of which the tail, also half an inch longer, occupies two and three-quarters; 2. The head is larger, and the beak is thicker; 3. The colours are different; 4. The song is different. With respect to gait, manner, habits, and the like, it is true there is a resemblance, which exists, however, only in common with the white-throats, and the blackcap, which have never been considered as varieties of the nightingale. The upper part of the body is a dusky brownish grey; the throat is white bordered with black; the breast is brown, with darker spots; the belly dirty white; the wings are deep brown, edged with dirty red; the tail and its upper large coverts dirty maroon, deeper than in the common nightingale; the whole plumage, in short, is generally and in all parts deeper and darker. OBSERVATIONS.--The difference in the song is very remarkable. The greater nightingale has a much stronger, louder, and deeper voice; but it sings more slowly and more unconnectedly; it has not that astonishing variety, those charming protractions, and harmonious conclusions of the common nightingale; it mutilates all the strains; and, on this account, its song has been compared to the missel-thrush, to which, however, it is superior in softness and pureness. The common nightingale is superior in delicacy and variety, but inferior in force and brilliancy. The greater nightingale sings generally in the night, so that it is the real night-singer; while among nightingales this is rather uncommon. Its voice is so loud that it is almost impossible to bear it in a room. It is necessary to keep it always outside the window, either by hanging its cage there, or by opening from it a sort of passage into which it can remove. Its call is also very different; _hi! glack arrr!_ It seems also to pronounce _David, Jacob_, and generally begins its song by the latter word. If the song is complete, it consists of the following strains:-- _Guia, gu, gu, gu. Hajai, hajai, dzu, dzu, dzu, dzu. Gorgué, guéguéguéguéguéh, Hoa goigoigoi gui. Dzicka, dzicka, dzicka. Davitt, davitt, davitt. Gogock, gogock. Guedum, guedum, guedum, guedum, gueï! Gai, goi, goi, goi, guirrrr. Golka, golka, golka, golk. Hia, guiaguiaguiaguia. Glockglockglockglockglockglock. Gueai, gueaigueai gui! Goi, guaguaguagua guagui. Heid, heid, heid, heid hi. Voi dada! voi dada! Gai, gai, gai, gai, guirr, guirr. Hoi, gueguegue gui. Hoi goi._ This bird is not found in any part of Thuringia. There are some in Silesia, Bohemia, Pomerania, near Wittenberg, Halle, and Dessau; but in Austria, Hungary, and Poland, they are in some districts more abundant than the common nightingale[85]. They generally settle among the bushes of the hills and plains, and especially near rivers. When caged they are fed like nightingales. They are less delicate, however, and live much longer. They are chiefly brought from Vienna to Thuringia, whence they have the name of Vienna Nightingales. Some people make a business of fetching them from Hungary, in the beginning of April, where they buy them cheap, in order to sell them very dear, in Saxony and other remote provinces. Those from Hungary are preferred to the Polish. A distinguishing characteristic is, that they first pronounce the _davitt_ or _jacob_ only once when they call; while the second repeat _davitt_ many times in succession. At Thorn, and all along the Vistula, where the common and the large nightingale equally abound, the latter is called the Polish Nightingale, and the former, the Nightingale of Saxony. The nest of the greater nightingale is built like that of the nightingale; but the eggs are larger, and of an olive brown, with dark shades. These birds are caught like nightingales; their diseases, also, are similar; but they appear to suffer still more when moulting; they become dull and ill, and often die under it. It is usual to give them at this crisis some spiders, and the grubs which gnaw wood; what, however, after many experiments, appears most salutary, is the Golden Tincture of Halle[86], one or two drops of which are poured into the drinking-trough. THE BLACKCAP. Sylvia atricapilla, BECHSTEIN; La Fauvette à tête noire, BUFFON; Die schwarzköpfige Grasmücke, BECHSTEIN. This distinguished singer among birds, bears, in Germany, the name of _Monk_, or _Moor_, from the black or brown cap which covers the top of his head. These two colours have led some to divide them into two species, but it is quite certain that they only designate the sex; the black marking the male, and the brown the female. Its length is five inches and five-sixths, two and a half of which belong to the tail. The beak is five lines in length, formed like that of the nightingale, and is of a brownish blue, with the edges of the lower base and the interior of a yellowish white; the iris maroon; the feet ten lines high, are dark ash-colour; all the top of the head is black; the cheeks and upper part of the neck are light ash-colour; the upper part of the body, as well as the coverts of the wings, ash-colour, tending to olive; the under part of the body is light grey, fading to white under the belly and breast; the sides and thighs are the same colour as the back; the under coverts of the tail and wings are speckled gray and white; the pen-feathers and tail-feathers are dark brown, edged with the colour of the back. The female is rather larger; her cap is reddish brown; the upper part of her body reddish grey, tending to olive; the cheeks and throat are light grey; the breast, the sides, and the thighs, are light grey, varying to light olive; the belly is reddish white. The silky plumage of this bird is so delicate and frail, that it is rare to see one in confinement, whether hopping freely, or caged, which has not its tail or its wings disfigured. HABITATION.--When wild, this bird is found throughout Europe, inhabiting woods and orchards, or their vicinity; it particularly loves thick copse-wood. In September it leaves our climate, and returns about the middle of April, to enliven our woods by its brilliant and well supported song. In confinement, when it is allowed to hop about, it is provided with a branch, or a roost furnished with several sticks, because it walks with difficulty, and prefers perching, on which account a cage is better adapted to it. At the time for departure, these birds, urged by the instinct to travel, are much agitated, especially in the night, by moonlight. The desire to rove is so strong, that they often fall ill and die. FOOD.--When wild, the blackcap feeds on small caterpillars, butterflies, flies, in short, of all kinds, on insects and their grubs; in time of need, on berries and fruits also[87]. In confinement this bird does very well on the universal paste, with which a little bruised hemp seed is mixed, and occasionally meal worms, ants' eggs, or insects. In summer and autumn he is supplied with elderberries, and they are also dried, in order that he may have some in winter, soaked in water, which is found very good for his health. He is a great eater, and when at liberty in the bird room partakes of everything, meat, bread, and even vegetables. As he is generally caught in the autumn he is soon accustomed to artificial food, by having elderberries and meal worms mixed with it for several successive days. He is fond of bathing, and must be always well supplied with fresh water. BREEDING.--This species generally lays but once a year, occasionally twice, and even thrice. His nest, placed near the ground, generally in a hedge or bush of white-thorn, is hemispherical, solid, and well built; the outside of stalks, deserted cocoons, and stubble, the inside of fine soft hay, mixed with hair. It contains from four to six eggs, of a yellowish white mottled with yellow and spotted with brown. The young are fed with small caterpillars, insects, and currants; those which are brought up by hand are fed with white bread and milk. The charming tone of their voice gives to their own song, as well as to that of the nightingale and canary, which they easily learn to imitate, a sweetness and grace which are enchanting. Before moulting there is so little difference between the young males and females that it requires great skill to distinguish them, for the cap of the former is only a slight shade darker of olive brown, and the back a greyish brown, rather more tinted with olive; but on the first moulting the head of the male begins to blacken first behind the beak, while that of the female retains its original colour, except that it becomes more bright and distinct. When it is wished to ascertain the sex of these young birds, the best plan is to pull out a few brown feathers from the head; if it is a male, black ones will come up in their place, and thus there will be no danger of taking females by mistake; these, however, would soon be known, because the males begin to warble as soon as they are able to fly and feed themselves. DISEASES.--The blackcap is subject to the same diseases as the nightingale, but is more frequently attacked by decline. As soon as the symptoms appear he must be fed with a great many meal worms and ants' eggs, and his drinking water must be impregnated with iron, by putting a nail into it. Those which are left to run about the room are apt to lose their feathers. Under such circumstances they must be caged, and exposed to the warmth of the sun or the fire; they must be well fed, especially with the food given to nightingales; these methods generally restore them, and their feathers are gradually renewed. A tepid bath, repeated for two or three days, is very likely to help their development. In epileptic or paralytic attacks I make them swallow, with great success, two or three drops of olive oil; I lately had the pleasure of seeing the success of this remedy on a bird of this species suffering from an apoplectic fit, and which dragged his little paralysed foot about the room where he lived uncaged; he is now quite recovered, very gay, and active; his song was never before so delightful to me. These birds generally live in captivity as long as nightingales. MODES OF TAKING.--Every taste but that of the palate must be destroyed if this charming bird is caught for the table. Besides, it is by no means numerous; but if it is desired as an ornament to the house, snares baited with currants must be laid for it in July and August, the greatest care being taken to save the feet, which are very likely to be broken. Patience is very necessary in order to succeed, for it is a very suspicious bird, approaching slowly, and falling into the snare only when pressed by hunger. The same suspicious disposition causes it to repair with repugnance to the water trap, though in other situations it delights in water, and often bathes. If it perceives anything unusual it will remain for hours without approaching, and will pass twenty times by currants which are hung up as a bait without touching them, though very greedy of this food; but if it sees another bird bathe, or drink, it takes courage, and soon falls into the trap. The young, before moulting, still foolish and inexperienced, are more careless, and may be taken in great numbers in autumn; and in the spring they are as easy to catch as the nightingale, by means of a net or limed twigs, in a place cleared from moss and turf, and baited with meal worms and ants' eggs. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--It is perhaps a sufficient eulogium to say that this bird rivals the nightingale, and many persons even give it the preference. If it has less volume, strength, and expression, it is more pure, easy, and flute-like in its tones, and its song is perhaps more varied, smooth, and delicate. It sings also for a much longer period, both when wild and in confinement, its song being hardly suspended throughout the year by day, and prolonged, like that of the nightingale, far into the night, though begun at dawn. The female sings also, but in a more limited degree, very much like the red-breast, which has caused it to be mistaken for a particular species with a redcap. The call is a sort of smart "_tack_," repeated quickly several times. The sudden view of an unknown object, or of an imminent danger, makes it utter a hoarse disagreeable cry of fear, very like a cat when hurt[88]. THE FAUVETTE. Sylvia hortensis, LATHAM; La Fauvette, BUFFON; Die graue Grasmücke, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is five inches, two and a half of which belong to the tail. The beak, five lines in length, and formed as in the preceding, is brown below, light lead-colour above, and whitish within; the iris is brownish grey; the feet, nine lines high, are strong, and lead-colour; the upper part of the body is reddish grey, tinted slightly with olive brown; the cheeks are darker, and round the eyes whitish; the under part of the body, including the breast and sides, is light reddish grey; the belly is white as far as the under coverts of the tail, which are tinged with reddish grey; the knees are grey; the pen-feathers and tail-feathers are brownish grey, edged with the colour of the back, and spotted with white at the tips; the under coverts of the wings are reddish yellow. The female differs only in having the under part of the body, as far as the breast, of a lighter colour. HABITATION.--When wild, this bird, which is found all over Europe, appears to prefer the groves and bushes which skirt the forests, as well as orchards in their vicinity. He arrives some days before the nightingale, and departs at the end of September. In confinement he is treated like the blackcap, and, being more delicate, must be furnished with a cage. FOOD.--When wild the fauvette feeds on small caterpillars and the other little insects which are found on the bushes, where he is continually searching for them, uttering at the same time the sweetest and softest song. After midsummer he appears very fond of cherries; he eats the pulp up to the stone, and this causes his beak to be at this season always stained; he also likes red currants and elderberries. In confinement he is so great an eater that if he is not caged he hardly ever quits the feeding-trough of the nightingale. Though he is more easily tamed than the blackcap, he seldom survives more than two or three years, and the artificial food is no doubt the cause. He appears very fond of the universal paste; but I have often observed that it causes the feathers to fall off to so great a degree that he becomes almost bare, and then I think he dies of cold rather than from any other cause[89]. BREEDING.--The nest of the fauvette, placed in a hedge or bush of white-thorn, at about three feet above the ground, is well built on the outside with blades of grass and roots, and inside with the finest and softest hay, very seldom with moss. The edges are fastened with spiders' webs and dry cocoons. The female lays four or five eggs, of a yellowish white, spotted all over with light ash grey and olive brown. The young, which are hatched after fifteen days' sitting, are no sooner fledged than they jump out of the nest the moment it is approached. DISEASES.--They are the same as in the blackcap; but the fauvette is still more subject to the loss of its feathers. It fattens so fast upon the first universal paste that it often dies from this cause. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds may be caught during the whole of the summer with nooses and springes baited with cherries, red currants, or elderberries. They go also very readily to the water trap, from seven to nine in the morning, and in the evening a little before sunset. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--"Of the inhabitants of our woods," says Buffon, "fauvettes are the most numerous and agreeable. Lively, nimble, always in motion, they seem occupied only with play and pleasure; as their accents express only joy, it is a pretty sight to watch them sporting, pursuing, and enticing each other; their attacks are gentle, and their combats end with a song." THE WHITE-BREAST[90] Motacilla Fruticeti, LINN�US; La Petite Fauvette, BUFFON; Die rostgraue Grasmücke, BECHSTEIN. This bird, which is but little known, resembles in most points the preceding, but its figure is smaller and its plumage darker. Its length is four inches and three quarters, of which two and a half (being more than half of the whole) belong to the tail. The beak, four lines in length, is brown above and yellowish white below and on the edges; the iris dark brown; the feet, nine lines in height, are pale lead-colour; all the upper part of the body, comprising the wing-coverts, is dusky reddish grey, darker towards the head and lighter towards the rump. I have never been able to discover any difference between the plumage of the male and female. OBSERVATIONS.--This bird arrives among us towards the end of April. It frequents hilly places covered with bushes and briars, among which it builds its nest, about four or five feet from the ground, and among the thickest foliage. The eggs, five in number, are whitish, mottled with bluish brown, and speckled with dark maroon. Incubation lasts but thirteen days. At first the young are fed with the smallest caterpillars, afterwards with larger ones, flies, and other insects; but as soon as they can fly they accompany their parents in search of cherries, red currants, elderberries, and, later in the season, the berries of the service tree. The family departs together in the month of September, and then some are taken in nooses or springes baited with elderberries. But this species is not much valued, and does not therefore excite the attention of bird-catchers, who give the preference to the fauvette. However, this bird is an excellent singer, and though his voice is not so clear and flute-like as that of the fauvette, yet by skilfully introducing his call into his warble, he produces a very striking and agreeable variety. This species is fed and treated like the preceding, but with still greater care, for it is even more delicate. With all my care I have never been able to preserve it more than two years at the utmost: the difficulty, however, does not appear to proceed from the diet, for being caught in the autumn it soon gets accustomed to the food of the nightingale, by first giving it the berries which it selects in a state of freedom. THE DUNNOCK, OR HEDGE SPARROW. Accentor modularis, BECHSTEIN; La Fauvette d'hiver, ou Traine Buisson, BUFFON; Die Braunelle, BECHSTEIN. This species, which in its gait resembles the wren, seems also a link between its own species and that of the lark, for it does not confine itself to insects; it eats all sorts of small seeds, such as those of the poppy and the grasses. Its length is five inches and a quarter, two and a quarter of which belong to the tail. The beak, five lines in length, is very sharp, black, whitish at the tip, and the inside rose-colour; the iris purple; the legs, nine lines in height, are yellowish flesh-colour; the narrow head is, together with the neck, dark ash-colour, marked with very dark brown, like that of the sparrow; the breast a deep slate-colour. The breast of the female is lighter and bluish grey; she has also more brown spots on her head. HABITATION.--When wild it is found all over Europe, making its abode in thick deep forests. It is with us a bird of passage; but some individuals, which come from quite the north, remain during the winter near our dwellings, searching the heaps of wood and stones, the hedges and fences, and, like the wren, entering barns and stables. Those which leave us return at the end of March, stop for some time in the hedges, and then penetrate into the woods. In confinement this bird is so wakeful and gay that it may be safely left at liberty in the room, having a roosting-place for the night; it is also kept in a cage. [Illustration: THE BEARDED TIT.] FOOD.--When wild, the great variety of things which serve it for food prevent its ever being at a loss throughout the year. It is equally fond of small insects and worms and small seeds. In spring it feeds on flies, caterpillars, grubs, and maggots, which it seeks for in the hedges, bushes, and in the earth. In summer it feeds chiefly on caterpillars; in autumn on seeds of all kinds and elderberries; and in winter, when the snow has covered all seeds, it has recourse to insects hid in the cracks and crevices of walls and trees. In confinement it will eat anything that comes to table. It is fond of the universal paste, hemp, rape, and poppy-seeds, and refuses none of these things immediately on being imprisoned, and it soon seems as completely at ease as if accustomed to confinement[91]. BREEDING.--This species lays generally twice a year; placing its nest among the thickest bushes, about five or six feet from the ground; the outside is composed of mosses, and fibres of roots, and wood, and the inside is lined with the fur of deer, hares, and the like. The eggs, five or six in number, are bright bluish green. The young are no sooner fledged than, like the preceding, they quit the nest. Their plumage is then very different from that of their parents: the breast is spotted with grey and yellow, the back with brown and black; lastly, the nostrils and angles of the beak are rose-coloured. They are easily reared on white bread and poppy-seeds moistened with milk. As soon as they are tamed these birds have a great inclination to build in the room. The male and female collect all the little straws, threads, and similar materials which they can find, to build a nest among the boughs with which they are supplied for the purpose. The female lays even when solitary; they may be paired with red-breasts, and these unions succeed very well. DISEASES.--If it were generally true, that birds in a wild state are never ill, this species must be excepted; for, however strange it may appear, the young are subject to the small pox; they are attacked by it while in the nest, or even after they can fly. I have a young bird of this kind, which, at a time when this disease prevailed in my neighbourhood, took it; he recovered, however, tolerably well, but he entirely lost the tail-feathers, which were never afterwards renewed. Old ones are sometimes caught or killed whose feet and eyes are ulcerated, or have tumours on them; perhaps they may be only chilblains. Weavers' stoves appear to be particularly injurious to these birds; in two or three months their eyes swell, and the feathers fall off all round them; the beak is attacked with scurvy, which spreads to the feet, then all over the body; but they nevertheless continue to live from eight to ten years in these rooms. MODE OF TAKING.--This is very easy at their return in the spring. As soon as they appear in the hedges, where they soon discover themselves by the cry "_issri_," a little place near, where the earth is bare, must be found; after having placed limed twigs, and thrown among them earth or meal worms for a bait, the dunnock is gently driven towards them without alarming him; as soon as he perceives the worms he darts upon them and falls into the snare. In the autumn they may be caught in the area and with a noose; in winter in the white-throat's trap; but they resort in the greatest numbers to the water trap, not so much for the sake of bathing as to seek for dead insects or decayed roots. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--However agreeable this bird may be in the room, from its good humour, agility, gaiety, and song, it does not deserve the name of winter nightingale, which it bears in some places; its song is too simple and short; it is a little couplet, composed of a strain of the lark and one of the wren. The sounds _tchondi, hondi, hondi_ are repeated frequently and for a long time, always descending a sixth, and gradually diminishing in power. This song is accompanied with an uninterrupted movement of the wings and tail, and lasts through the year, except at the moulting season. Some young ones, reared in confinement, will, if placed beside a fine singing bird, learn enough of its song to embellish their own. But, whatever may be asserted on the subject, they never succeed in imitating the nightingale. When the dunnock disputes with its fellow captives for a place or for food its anger evaporates in a song, like the crested lark and the wagtail. THE RED-BREAST. [Illustration] Motacilla rubecula, LINN�US; Le Rouge-gorge, BUFFON; Das Rothkelchen, BECHSTEIN. The red-breast is almost universally known in Europe. It is five inches and three quarters long, two and a quarter of which belong to the tail. The beak is five lines in length, and horn brown, with the lower base and the inside yellow; the iris is deep brown; the shanks, eleven lines in height, are of the same colour; the forehead, cheeks, and under part of the body, from the beak to the bottom of the breast, are orange red; the upper part of the body and the wing-coverts dingy olive; the first wing-coverts have at their tip a little triangular spot. The female, which is rather smaller, is not so orange-coloured on the forehead, and this colour is not so bright upon the breast; the shanks are a purplish brown; yellow spots are almost always absent from the wing-coverts; the old females alone having very small yellow marks. The males of the first year, which are caught in the spring, very much resemble the females: they have but very small yellow spots, and sometimes none; the breast is saffron yellow; but the feet are the distinguishing mark, being always very dark brown. This species has varieties, as the white red-breast and the variegated red-breast. In confinement, by sometimes removing successively the quill-feathers and tail-feathers out of the moulting season, they will at last be replaced by white ones. These birds are very pretty; I have had several in this way, but I have observed that these last feathers are so weak and delicate that they are easily injured and broken. This repeated operation must give pain to the little creatures, on which account it should be avoided. HABITATION.--When wild, these birds are found in abundance during the period of migration, on hedges and bushes, but in summer they must be sought in the woods. "This retreat," it has been said, "is necessary to their happiness: the male is engrossed with the society of his mate, all other company is troublesome; he pursues eagerly the birds of his species, and drives them from the district he has chosen for himself; the same bush never contains two pairs of these birds." The red-breasts return to us (in Germany) about the middle of March[92]; they stop for about a fortnight in the hedges, and then proceed into the woods. In October they return towards the bushes, which they busily search as they travel, and proceed gradually to their destination. Some delay their departure till November, some will even remain here and there throughout the winter, but generally to their cost, as their life is usually sacrificed by these delays. Necessity then forces them to draw near to houses, dunghills, and stables, where they are generally caught by men or cats, or die of hunger and cold if the frost is long and severe, and the snow deep. Care must be taken in hard weather not to transport them suddenly into a warm room, the rapid change from cold to heat invariably kills them. They should at first be put in a cold room, and be gradually accustomed to warm air; with these precautions they will do as well as those which are caught in the autumn or spring. In confinement the inhabitants of my neighbourhood like to see red-breasts hopping about the room, and they make a roost for them of oak or elm branches. They find that this bird destroys flies and even bugs. Such a situation appears to agree with him very well, as he lives in this way from ten to twelve years. He is so jealous and unsociable that he must not have a companion; he must be quite alone; a second would cause battles which would end only with the death of one of the combatants; if, however, they are equal in strength, and in a large room, they will divide it, and each taking possession of his half, they remain in peace, unless one should pass his limits, in which case war begins, and is maintained to the last extremity. In order the better to enjoy their pretty song, they are provided with a cage generally resembling that of the nightingale. FOOD.--When wild the red-breast feeds on all sorts of insects, which are pursued with great skill and agility; sometimes this bird is seen fluttering like a butterfly round a leaf on which is a fly, or if he sees an earth-worm he hops forward flapping his wings, and seizes it. In autumn he eats different sorts of berries. In confinement, by giving him at first some earth or meal worms, and in the autumn elderberries, he soon gets accustomed to eat anything: he picks up crumbs of bread, the little fibres of meat, and the like, but cheese appears his favourite food. When hopping about the bird-room he likes the universal paste very much[93]. He chiefly requires a regular supply of fresh water, both for drinking and bathing; and he makes himself so wet as to conceal the colours of his plumage. BREEDING.--The red-breast lays twice a year. The nest, placed near the ground, either among moss, in the crevices of stones, among the roots of a tree, or in the hole of an old felled trunk, is carelessly formed of moss, lined with fine hay, hair, and feathers. She lays from four to six eggs, of a yellowish white, with lines and spots joined and mixed together of a reddish colour; the colours become deeper as the spots approach the large end, where they form a crown of a light brown colour. The young birds are at first covered with yellow down, like chickens, they then become grey, and their feathers are edged with dusky yellow; they do not acquire the orange red till they have moulted. They are easily reared on white bread soaked in boiled milk. When their cage is placed beside a nightingale they acquire some parts of his song, which, introduced into their own, make a very pretty mixture. DISEASES.--Their most common disorder is diarrhoea, for which some spiders are administered. Decline is often cured with plenty of ants' eggs and meal-worms; but indigestion often proves fatal, especially when it arises from having eaten too many earth-worms. It may, however, be cured by making the bird swallow spiders and meal-worms. MODE OF TAKING.--In spring, when the red-breasts frequent the hedges and bushes, sticks are passed transversely through them, on which limed twigs are fastened, then two persons gently beat the hedge or bush to drive the birds towards the twigs, where they are soon caught, for red-breasts have the habit of perching on all the little low projecting branches, in order that they may discover earth-worms. This sort of red-breast chase is very common in Thuringia, where many persons keep them. Limed twigs may also be put in a bare place with earth or meal-worms, just as for the dunnock. The small nightingale net and the white-throat trap catch many. They are also caught at the water trap; but the greatest number are caught in autumn with the noose, baited with elderberries, which are at that season their favourite food. If they are caught for the room (and it is a pity to hunt so pretty a bird for the table), it is necessary, in order to preserve their feet, to cover the springes with felt or cork. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--His pretty plumage, tricks, and great sociability would be enough to make him charming. He is soon tamed, so as to come upon the table and eat from a plate or the hand; his cheerfulness and agility must also give pleasure, always in motion, and bowing after every hop and calling "_sisri_;" but he is particularly valued on account of his song. This song is generally more perfect and altogether superior when he is caged than when hopping about the room. There are however exceptions. The red-breast sings throughout the year, but in spring his voice is most brilliant and his melody most enchanting. In a country residence it is very easy to teach this bird to go and come, whether reared from the nest or caught full grown. THE BLUE-BREAST. Motacilla Suecica, LINN�US; La Gorge bleue, BUFFON; Das Blaukehlchen, BECHSTEIN. This bird may be considered as intermediate between the redstart and the common wagtail, having very strong points of resemblance with both. Its length is five inches and a half, of which the tail occupies two and a quarter. The beak is sharp and blackish, yellow at the angles; the iris is brown; the shanks are fourteen lines high, of a reddish brown, and the toes blackish; the head, the back, and the wing-coverts are ashy brown, mottled with a darker tint; a reddish white line passes above the eyes; the cheeks are dark brown, spotted with rust red, and edged at the side with deep ash grey; a brilliant sky blue covers the throat and half way down the breast; this is set off by a spot of the most dazzling white, the size of a pea, placed precisely over the gullet, which, enlarging and diminishing successively, by the movement of this part when the bird sings, produces the most beautiful effect. Some males have two little white spots on the throat, some even have three, while others have none; these latter are probably very old, for I have observed that as the bird grows older the blue deepens, and the orange band becomes almost maroon. It is easy to distinguish the female; when young she has a celestial blue tint on the sides of the throat; this tint deepens with age, and forms two longitudinal lines on the sides of the neck; no orange band; the throat and gullet are yellowish blue, edged longitudinally with a black line; the feet are flesh-coloured. HABITATION.--When wild this species exists all over Europe[94]. It is a bird of passage, and when returning towards the north, in the beginning of April, it stops in large flights near streams, in hedges, and damp fields, comes even into courts, and on the dunghills of farms, if surprised by snow and a severe return of cold. In the summer it frequents those parts among the mountains abounding with water; in August it approaches cabbage fields enclosed by hedges or bushes. It is very seldom that one or two pairs build in our country. In confinement it may be let run about; it soon grows so tame as to come when called, and feed from the hand. Its rapid motions and races are amusing; but it must not be allowed to fly high enough to get on the tables and furniture, as it would soon dirty them. It sings better and longer when caged. The cage should be, like the nightingale's, large enough for the bird not to spoil its beautiful feathers; the tail-feathers easily drop if they are rubbed. FOOD.--When wild the blue-breast feeds on all sorts of insects; it also eats elderberries. In confinement it must at first be fed with ants' eggs, meal-worms, and even some earth-worms. If it is kept uncaged these things must be thrown upon the universal paste, which it will thus learn to relish; but though it is easily reconciled to it, ants' eggs, earth and meal-worms, must nevertheless be occasionally supplied, or it will soon die in decline. When caged it is fed like nightingales, and on that food it will live seven or eight years. It is a great eater, and can devour in a day its own weight of the first universal paste, so that it mutes incessantly. It requires a constant supply of fresh water for drinking and bathing: it wets itself so much that it is completely drenched. I have observed for several successive years that it never bathes till the afternoon[95]. DISEASES.--Diarrhoea and decline are its commonest disorders. The treatment has been pointed out in the Introduction. MODE OF TAKING.--I often hear it said that the blue-breast is a rare bird; that in some parts of Germany it appears only every five, or even ten, years, but I can declare that this opinion arises from a want of observation. Since I have taught my neighbours to be more attentive to the time of their passage, they every year catch as many as they please. If in the first fortnight of April, up to the 20th, cold and snow return, plenty may be found by merely following the streams, rivers, and ponds, especially in the neighbourhood of a wood. A proper place is chosen, near the water and a bush, meal and earth worms are thrown there, with limed twigs, and soon these poor birds, if ever so little pushed towards it fall blindly into the snare; they also fall into white-throat traps and nightingale nets. In autumn, when they frequent cabbage grounds to hunt for caterpillars, plenty may be caught by planting here and there sticks with limed twigs fastened to them, baited with meal-worms. At this season they sometimes go to the water trap, but this is not usual. If it happens that any are caught in nooses or spring traps baited with elderberries, hunger must have been the cause, and they must have been entirely destitute of food. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its beauty, sprightliness, sociability, and song, unite in rendering the blue-breast delightful. It runs very swiftly, raises its tail with a jerk, and extends it like a fan, keeping it and the wings in perpetual motion, uttering the cry of "_fide, fide_" and "_tac, tac_." It is unfortunate that it gradually loses the fine blue on the breast in successive moultings, when confined to the house, and becomes at length of a whitish grey. In a few days it will become tame enough to eat meal-worms from the hand, and it will not be long before it comes for them when called by the voice or whistle. Its song is very agreeable; it sounds like two voices at once; one deep, resembling the gentle humming of a violin string, the other the soft sound of a flute. When at liberty in the room it always seeks the sunshine, and sleeps on its belly. Its notes very much resemble those of the common wagtail, but much improved by a violin-like hum. THE COMMON WAGTAIL. [Illustration] Motacilla alba, LINN�US; La Lavandière, BUFFON; Die weisse Bachstelze, BECHSTEIN. This species, well known throughout the old world, is seven inches in length, of which the tail measures three and a half. The beak, five lines long, is black, and very pointed; the iris is dark; the shanks, an inch in height, are slender, and black; the upper part of the head, as far as the nape, is black, but the rest of the upper part of the body, the sides of the breast, and lesser wing-coverts, are bluish ash grey; the forehead, cheeks, and sides of the neck are white as snow; the throat, as far as the middle of the breast, is black. The female is without the white forehead and cheeks, the black top to the head being somewhat smaller. Some females have been found with very little of the black cap, and even without it, the head then being of the same colour as the back. The young ones, which are seen in large flocks with the yellow wagtail around herds of cattle, are so different before the first moulting, that they have been considered a distinct species, under the name of the grey wagtail (_Motacilla cinerea_). In fact, the whole of the upper part of the body is grey, more or less pale; the throat and belly dusky white; the breast is generally crossed by a band, sometimes entire, sometimes broken, of a grey or brownish colour, and the quill-feathers are whitish on the outer edge. It is not surprising to find varieties amongst birds so numerous. Some are quite white, others variegated, or speckled with white. HABITATION.--When wild it is found equally near houses, in the fields and mountains, and in every place where insects and worms are in plenty. It is in Germany a bird of passage, which assembles in autumn on the tiles, like the swallow, to prepare for its departure in the first fortnight of October[96]. It returns towards the end of February or beginning of March, though the weather be not mild; it may come thus early without danger, as it does not fear to approach houses, on the walls of which it finds flies that the spring sun has drawn from their retreat; and in the streams it also finds abundance of aquatic insects. In the house it may be kept in a cage, or allowed to range; but in either case it is necessary to scatter plenty of sand about, as it is a very dirty little bird. FOOD.--When wild, it feeds on gnats, water-spiders, aquatic insects, flies, and insects that fasten on cattle, round which it often roams. It also follows the ploughman to feed on the insects turned up by the plough. In the house nothing tames it so soon as ants' eggs, meal-worms, flies, and other insects. By degrees it acquires a taste for other food. In the cage it must be fed in the same manner as the nightingale. BREEDING.--This species breeds two or three times in the course of the season. Its nest, placed in a hole, in a crevice between stones, or even under a tile, is carelessly formed of moss, small roots, hay, or something of the kind, and lined with hair and wool. It lays five or six eggs, of a bluish white, spotted with black. The young ones brought up from the nest become so tame, that they will go and return like a pigeon, build in the room, and seek for food for their little ones in the fields. DISEASES.--Though very subject to diarrhoea, this and the two following species may be preserved in a room five or six years. MODE OF TAKING.--If there is snow on the ground on their return in March, it is only necessary to clear a place (below the window will do), and scatter meal-worms amongst limed twigs, or place these on stones or wood where the birds assemble, or even fasten a meal-worm to a limed twig, loosely stuck in the earth, and you may soon catch a wagtail. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its handsome plumage, its sprightliness, its quick and elegant motions, please one as much as its pretty song, which, without being striking, is varied, and continues the whole year, except during moulting. I always keep a wagtail amongst my birds, and when the blackcap, the blue-breast, the lark, and the linnet sing, it seems to form a counter-tenor. THE GREY WAGTAIL. [Illustration: GREY WAGTAIL.] Motacilla Boarula, LINN�US; La Bergeronette, BUFFON; Die graue Bachstelze, BECHSTEIN. This beautiful species, like the preceding, is seven inches in length, of which the tail alone measures four. The beak is black; the iris brown; the legs, nine lines high, dark flesh-coloured; the upper part of the body, including the lesser wing-coverts, dark ash-grey; the head slightly tinted with olive, and the rump a fine yellow green; there is a white streak above the eyes, and another, beginning at the inferior base of the beak, descends the sides of the neck, whilst a black streak extends from the superior base as far as the eyes; the chin and throat are black, but the breast and under part of the body are of the finest yellow. The throat of the female is not black, but pale orange; her colours are generally less bright. Males a year or two old are without the fine black throat; it is clouded with white. HABITATION.--In their wild state, these wagtails are found throughout Europe; but in the greatest number in mountainous and wooded parts, where the brooks flow over beds of pebbles. They are birds of passage, and return amongst us the end of February or beginning of March. A few have been observed to remain during mild winters, when they take up their abode near dunghills or warm springs. In the house they should be kept in a nightingale's cage, and treated like one; they are so delicate, that with the greatest care they can rarely be preserved two years. FOOD.--When wild they prefer aquatic insects, and are continually chasing them among the plants and stones by the water-side. In the house they should be fed on the same food as the nightingale, to which they may be gradually accustomed, by throwing amongst it meal-worms and ants' eggs. BREEDING.--Their nests, placed by the water-side, in mill-dikes, or heaps of stones, are formed with rather more art than those of the preceding species. They begin to lay as early as March, five or six white eggs, mottled with flesh-colour. The young ones must be reared on ants' eggs and the crumb of white bread, soaked in boiled milk. MODE OF TAKING.--This is very simple; it is only to plant sticks with limed twigs and meal-worms attached to them, on the banks, or in the middle of a stream which they frequent; you will not have to wait long before some are caught. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--They are as pleasing as the common wagtail; but their plumage is more brilliant, and their voice stronger. Their beautiful clear trilling sound renders their song agreeable, though rather short. THE YELLOW WAGTAIL. Motacilla flava, LINN�US; La Bergeronette du printemps, BUFFON; Die gelbe Bachstelze, BECHSTEIN. This might almost be mistaken for the female of the preceding species; but it is smaller, or rather shorter, as its tail is not so long, measuring only two inches and a half. The total length of this bird is six inches and a half; the beak is dusky; the iris nut brown; the shanks ten lines high, and black; the upper part of the body reddish grey, with a decided olive tint, which on the rump becomes a canary green; the head inclines more to grey than green, and above the eyes is a reddish white streak; the under part of the body is of a fine yellow, which becomes citron from age, and is palest at the throat and breast. The back of the female is greyer; the belly of a less beautiful yellow; the throat whitish, and, with the breast as far as the belly, spotted with red or rust colour, in the male. HABITATION.--When wild, this species, better known than the preceding, is found throughout the plains of Europe, running about the pastures amongst the sheep and cattle. They assemble in September, and depart for warmer countries in large flights, uttering the cry "_sipp, sipp!_" in a clear tone; they return in March. It must be treated like the grey wagtail, in the house; but it is not so delicate. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on flies and other insects that tease the cattle. In the house it must be fed like the preceding. BREEDING.--Its nest, made of stubble, and lined with wool, is placed at the water-side, or in a deserted mole-hill, sometimes in the grass, or corn, like the lark's. It breeds twice in the year, each time laying five or six eggs, grey-blue, spotted all over with reddish grey, and very like those described above. The under parts of the young birds are much paler than in the old ones. They must be reared on ants' eggs and white bread soaked in boiled milk. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds are not very easily caught; at least, I have always found it very difficult to succeed; and, therefore, one is reduced to the necessity of placing limed twigs on the nest, which is cruel. If snow should fall, however, after their return in spring, some of them may be taken, by clearing a convenient place, and scattering there meal-worms amongst limed twigs, if you succeed in bringing the birds near. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its beauty and agreeable song make this bird a desirable acquisition; but with every possible attention, I have never been able to keep one more than two years. THE WHEATEAR. [Illustration] Motacilla OEnanthe, LINN�US; L'OEnanthe, ou Le Culblanc, BUFFON; Der Weisschwanz, BECHSTEIN. This bird, found throughout Europe and the northern parts of Asia, resembles the wagtail in size and air; but its tail being only an inch and ten lines, its total length is only five inches and a half. The beak, seven lines long, is black, as well as the iris and feet; the shanks are an inch high; the forehead white, and a white streak passes above the eyes, crossed by a black line springing from the nostrils, which also tints the cheeks; all the upper parts of the body and the scapulars are of a light ash-grey colour, slightly tinged with a reddish hue. The back of the female is reddish grey, and the under parts of the body darker than in the male; the lesser wing-coverts are edged with rust-red, and the white of the tail is not so clear as in the male, but is of a reddish tint. The young ones, before moulting, are spotted with red on a dark brown ground, on the upper part of the body; on the under speckled with orange and black. After moulting, both males and females retain for another year the colour of the female on the back, that is to say, reddish grey. HABITATION.--When wild this species frequents stony and mountainous places; and, during their migration, they may be seen resting in the fields, on the tops of isolated stakes, and other similar places; rarely on trees or bushes. They take their departure during the first fortnight in September, and return towards the middle of April, when white frosts cease. In the house these birds must be kept in nightingales' cages, or shut up behind a grating, and not suffered to range until accustomed in their prison to their new food; for, unless taken good care of at first, they will soon die. They can rarely be tamed. FOOD.--When wild they feed on flies and other insects, which they catch as they run along. In the house they must be given plenty of meal-worms and ants' eggs as soon as they are taken; for, if not fed profusely, they will die, and what is rather astonishing, of diarrhoea, although they have not eaten any of the common house-food. Afterwards they may be fed on nightingales' food, and occasionally on white bread soaked in boiled milk; yet, with every attention, they can rarely be preserved more than two years. BREEDING.--Their nests, formed of stalks of grass and feathers, are generally placed in the crevices of some stone-quarry, sometimes in holes on the banks of streams or rivers, or in an empty mole-hill, or even on a heap of stones. They lay from five to six eggs, of a greenish white. To rear the young ones, they must be taken when half-fledged, and fed on ants' eggs and white bread soaked in boiled milk. MODE OF TAKING.--Limed twigs must be placed on the stones or stakes where these birds rest, or even on sticks fixed in the ground for the purpose, and they must be driven gently towards the snares. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--No one would take the trouble to tame a full-grown wheatear, unless passionately fond of keeping birds. I have one, that, by the use of plenty of fresh ants' eggs, has been accustomed to range the room. Its plumage is pleasing, its actions graceful; it is continually waving and spreading its fine tail. Its song is passable, but is interrupted every now and then by a kind of scream. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE WHEATEAR. The present interesting species generally arrives in this country about the middle of March, and leaves it again the latter end of September or the beginning of October, though I one year saw a pair in Hyde Park as late as the 17th of November. In a wild state they are generally to be found on downs and commons, and in Sussex some hundred dozens are caught annually by the shepherds, who sell them for the sake of their flesh, which is very delicious, particularly in autumn, when they become very fat. This is a very interesting bird in confinement, and is almost continually singing; it will also sing by night as well as by day, if there is a light in the room where it is kept; it has a very pleasant, variable, and agreeable song, different from all other birds, which, in confinement, it continues all the winter. When a pair of them are kept together in a large cage or aviary, it is very amusing to see them at play with each other, flying up and down, and spreading open their long wings in a curious manner, dancing and singing at the same time. I have very little doubt but a young bird, brought up from the nest, might be taught to talk, as they are very imitative. When wild the present species feeds entirely on insects, so that the more it has given it when in confinement, the better. There are very few sorts of insects that it will refuse, except the common earth-worm; small beetles, cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers, most sorts of caterpillars, butterflies, moths, earwigs, woodlice, the common maggots, and almost all other sorts of insects it is very fond of, and the more that is given it, the finer will be its song. Its common food is bruised hemp-seed and bread, intermixed with fresh, raw, lean meat; also a little of the yolk of an egg boiled hard occasionally for a change. THE WHINCHAT. Montacilla Rubetra, _Linnæus_; Le Tarier, ou Le Grand Traquet, BUFFON; Der Braunkehliger Steinschmätzer, BECHSTEIN. This is a delicate bird that is met with throughout Europe, among scattered bushes and abrupt declivities. It is four inches ten lines in length, of which the tail measures an inch and a half. The beak is black, as also the legs, which are nine lines high; the upper parts of the body are dusky, in very old birds black, but streaked with pale rust-red, as all the feathers are edged with this colour; a white line, beginning at the nostrils, passes above the eyes as far as the ears; the cheeks are dusky, spotted with chestnut; the throat and breast are yellow, inclining to orange, the former edged with white on the sides and chin. The colours are paler in the female, the streak above the eyes is yellowish; the upper part of the body dark brown, spotted with rust; the cheeks dark brown; the throat reddish-white; the breast pale orange, with small round, black and brown spots, which gradually disappear from age. These birds vary till the third year. The young ones, which may be seen perched on cabbages and other plants, even on strong wheat stalks, have the whole of the upper part of the body covered with red and blackish spots, and each feather edged with this colour before the first moulting; the under part of the body is like the female. I killed two in their second year, that still had dusky spots on the breast, though they had become darker on the back; in general, the two sexes may be distinguished by the deep brown of the cheeks and back. HABITATION.--When wild they generally frequent the skirts of woods. They appear amongst us the beginning of May, and depart towards the end of September. In August they may be seen scattered over the fields, on the stalks of plants, or detached bushes. In the house they must be kept in a nightingale's cage. BREEDING.--The nest, constructed of dried grass mixed with moss, lined with hair and feathers, is commonly placed in a tuft of grass in the middle of a meadow or orchard. The females lay five or six eggs, of a fine light blue. Young ones reared on ants' eggs succeed much better than those taken full grown. MODE OF TAKING.--In spring, when some of these birds are seen in a field or meadow, sticks, furnished with limed twigs, should be stuck there, and the birds gently driven to that side, to induce them to settle, which they will soon do. In summer, the noose, spring-trap, and limed twigs, must be employed in the following manner:--If the noose is used, a stake must be set up, about three feet high, slit at the top to put in crossways a stick three inches long, and the noose is placed an inch and a half above, to be of the height of the bird's breast when it is perched on the stick. If limed twigs are used, forked switches three feet long should be employed: the fork, four inches in length, must be covered with bird-lime. Spring-traps or gins must be suspended to small stakes or cabbage stalks. As soon as a sufficient number of these spring-traps, snares, and limed twigs, are prepared, they must be carried to a cabbage garden, when a number of these whinchats has been seen; there fix the stakes in cross lines, two or three paces apart; then go to the end of the garden and drive the birds gently towards the snares; they jump from one cabbage stalk to another till they approach the stakes; then you stop, and in a short time the birds are caught one after another. When they are caught, the prisoners must be taken out and the snares arranged again; then go to the other end and again drive the birds forward as before, and thus continue till the sport is over. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--However gay this bird may appear when free, it becomes sad and melancholy in the house. If permitted to range, it only moves to procure food, and then returns to its accustomed place, and keeps its head sunk on its breast. Its pleasing song very much resembles the goldfinch's; but what makes it more admired, is, that it is not only heard during the day, but also in the evening, and sometimes during the night. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE WHINCHAT. This pretty species is also known by the name of Furze Chat, and is very often confounded with the stonechat, which is a very different species. It generally visits this country in the beginning of April, and leaves us towards the end of September. All the fore part of the season it visits commons, where it may be seen on the furze bushes, flying backwards and forwards after the insects that pass. It builds its nest on the ground in a thicket, which it covers up with dry grass, so that it is impossible to find it without watching the old ones, either in carrying materials to build, or food to their young. I have generally found them with six or seven young ones, which, with care, are easily bred up from the nest, keeping them warm, dry, and clean, and feeding them with the same sorts of food as recommended for the old ones; they should not be taken till quite fledged, and should at first be placed in a little basket with covers, as they will then readily open their mouths for food. I consider those reared from the nest much the best, or such as are caught very young, as they may then be taught any tune, or will learn the song of any bird they hear, their own song not being a very good one. This bird may be considered as one of the tenderest of the tribe, being very susceptible of cold. It is one of my greatest favourites. One that I bred from the nest by hand, learnt the song of the white-throat, the redstart, willow-wren, nightingale, and also that of a missel-thrush, which it frequently heard singing in a garden near by; of this latter song it was so fond, that we were frequently obliged to put our favourite out of the room, not being able to bear its loud notes; it was certainly the best bird I ever kept of any kind, singing nearly the whole year through, and varying its song continually; the only fault was its strong voice. At last, our favourite was turned out of its cage by a mischievous servant on a cold winter day, when we were from home for about an hour, and we could not entice it back; it most probably died of the cold, or took its flight to a warmer region. I scarcely entertain any hopes of ever getting such another; the food of the present species is precisely the same as the last. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE STONECHAT. This, like the preceding, is generally to be found on hills and commons, harbouring chiefly amongst the furze bushes, and feeds, as far as I have observed, entirely on insects. It is not so tender as the whinchat, some few of them occasionally stopping in this country all the winter. It feeds, when wild, on small beetles, flies, as also all sorts of butterflies, moths, caterpillars, woodlice, and various other insects. In confinement their food must be the same as the whinchat's. They soon become very tame, and if bred up from the nest will learn the notes of other birds, which are in general better than their own. Their own song, though loud, is very short, but they have a strong voice to repeat the notes of another bird. THE WHITE-THROAT. [Illustration] Sylvia cinerea, BECHSTEIN; Le Fauvette grise ou Grisette, BUFFON; Die gemeine Grasmücke, BECHSTEIN. This bird is five inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two and three-quarters. The beak, five lines long, is dusky above and greyish beneath, with the corners and interior of the throat yellow; the iris is greyish brown; the shanks are brownish flesh-coloured, and ten lines high; the head is ash-grey: the cheeks, neck, back, rump, tail-coverts and lesser wing-coverts, are also ash-grey, but tinged with brown, deeper on the back than elsewhere; the throat and belly are fine white. The female, rather smaller and lighter, rust-coloured on the wings, has not a fine white throat like the male. HABITATION.--When wild the white-throat is spread through Europe. They leave us the beginning of October, and are then observed to retire from bush to bush, and from hedge to hedge. They reappear towards the middle of April, fluttering about the bushes in the fields, the brambles, thickets, underwood of the low mountains, and the orchards, running about very swiftly. In the house they must be treated in the same manner as the fauvette; but they are much more delicate. An amateur had better rear young birds, and treat them like nightingales. It is the only way to keep them many years. FOOD.--When wild these birds are constantly seeking among the bushes for all kinds of insects, grubs, and especially small caterpillars. When, from the air becoming cooler, the supply of this sort of food lessens, they immediately substitute for it currants, cherries, and elderberries. In the house they must be fed, as we said before, on nightingales' food. They may, however, be given, occasionally, barley meal and white bread soaked in boiled milk; but this food alone will not agree with them, for they will upon it gradually lose their feathers, till at length they become quite bare. It is a good thing in summer to give them elderberries, though they may be red, and in winter dried ones, after soaking them in water. BREEDING.--The nest is formed of small grass stems and moss, and lined with horse-hair. It is placed in a thick bush, near the ground, or among roots at the water side, sometimes even in tufts of grass. The eggs, from four to six in number, are greenish white, spotted with olive green, and speckled at the large end with dark ash-grey. The young leave the nest so soon that it is difficult to take them from it. Their first plumage resembles full-grown ones, and the females may be known by the fainter tint of fawn brown with which the wing-feathers are edged. I have reared them easily on ants' eggs. They soon learn to peck alone, and are tolerably satisfied with bread soaked in boiled milk; but to keep them long in health they must be fed in the same manner as the nightingale. They are pretty, engaging birds, thus reared, becoming so tame that they will perch and sing on the finger. DISEASES.--These are the same as those of the blackcap, which may be referred to. MODE OF TAKING.--The easiest way is to place limed twigs on the nest, but this is repugnant to persons not cruel. Towards the end of summer, spring-traps may be set, with elderberries and gooseberries hung near them. It is difficult to take these birds at the water-trap. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--This bird, gay, lively, and constantly in motion, is a pleasing object in the country. Its song, prolonged far into the night, consists of several strains, which rapidly succeed each other, but must be near for all its beauties to be distinguished, since the soft low tones are only occasionally interrupted by louder notes, which are shrill and follow quickly one after the other. The bird rises in the air as it sings, as if to be better heard, circles round as it ceases, and sinks again into its bush. Its call is a loud _tze_. When the white-throat is alone in a room, its song appears very melodious. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE WHITE-THROAT. This is one of the most delightful and pleasing birds that can be imagined. If kept in a large cage with other birds it is so full of antics, in flying and frisking about, and erecting its crest, generally singing all the time, certainly nothing can be more amusing. It is also quite as hardy as the blackcap, and if a good one be procured, it is little inferior in song: but in this they vary considerably, the wild ones as well as those in a cage. I have now one in my possession that I have had about eleven years, in as good health, and singing as well as ever; and certainly no song need be louder, sweeter, or more varied. It is of the same temper as a nightingale, never suffering itself to be outdone. It will indeed sing for hours together against a nightingale, now in the beginning of January, and it will not suffer itself to be outdone; when the nightingale raises its voice, it also does the same, and tries its utmost to get above it; sometimes in the midst of its song it will run up to the nightingale, and stretch out its neck as if in defiance, and whistle as loud as it can, staring it in the face; if the nightingale attempts to peck it, away it is in an instant flying round the aviary, and singing all the time. In a wild state, the present species is generally to be found in hedges and gardens, and is the most common of our British warblers, visiting us the beginning or middle of April, and leaving us towards the end of September; sometimes a solitary one may be seen in October, but not frequently. It is particularly fond of flies, or a rose-branch covered with aphides will please it very much. THE BABILLARD. Sylvia curruca, BECHSTEIN; Motacilla dumetorum, LINN�US; La Fauvette babillarde, BUFFON; Das Müllerchen, BECHSTEIN. This bird somewhat resembles the white-throat, but is smaller, and has less rust colour on the wings. It is five inches long, the tail measuring more than two. The beak is five lines in length, very pointed, black above, and bluish below; the iris has two rings, the outer one pale yellow, the inner a brilliant golden yellow; the shanks, seven lines high, are raven black; the head and rump are dark ash grey; the rest of the upper part of the body is grey, with a reddish tint; the cheeks and the part behind the ears are darker than the head; the throat and under part of the body are white, but the sides of the breast are tinged with reddish grey, and those of the belly with reddish brown. The birds must be before you to be able to distinguish the two sexes; you can then only perceive that the head of the female is of a lighter colour, and the feet rather blue than black. HABITATION.--When wild this species is found throughout Europe, except the north. It is common in the hedges in Germany, disappearing in September, and returning the middle of April. Its taste for currants often draws it to the garden hedge. It is not very often seen in young coppice wood, scarcely ever on trees[97], continually on low bushes. In the house it must be lodged like the fauvette, and taken the same care of; it is so delicate, that when taken rather old it can rarely be preserved. FOOD.--When wild it is the same as the preceding species. In the house these birds cannot be kept long, unless fed on nightingales' food, mingled with ants' eggs and meal-worms. BREEDING.--The nest is generally found on a thick gooseberry bush, or white-thorn, and on young fir trees in fir woods. It is formed of coarse dried grass, lined with small roots mixed with hogs' bristles. There are five or six eggs, white, spotted at the large end with grey and yellow brown in a circle. The female's attachment to her brood may be known from her dropping from her nest almost fainting as soon as any one approaches, uttering anxious cries, fluttering on the ground, and slowly retiring from the nest. Scarcely are the young ones fledged, when, if looked at, they will dart like an arrow from the nest, and run and hide themselves among the bushes. If you wish to rear them, they must be taken as I have directed for the fauvette, remembering that the male and female cannot then be distinguished. DISEASES.--These are the same as in the fauvettes. MODE OF TAKING.--If snow should fall after their return, a place near a hedge should be cleared, and limed twigs fastened to the lower branches; after having thrown meal-worms there, the birds should be gently driven towards it, and for the sake of the worms they will creep under the limed twigs, and remain caught. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Though the plumage is not very striking, yet this bird is very pretty. Some clacking tones, rather like the noise of a mill, have given it in Germany the name of the _little Miller_; as these notes are heard more distinctly than the others, they are erroneously thought to be its whole song; but the rest, certainly very weak, is so soft, so varied, so melodious, that it surpasses other warblers. Whilst singing in this under tone it is continually hopping about the bushes, but when going to utter _clap, clap_, it stops and employs the whole strength of the larynx to pronounce this syllable. To enjoy the beauty of its song it should be alone in a room, and then no other singing bird is more agreeable, as it rarely utters its call. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE BABILLARD. This is a handsome, little, lively species, more elegant and smaller than the white-throat, and of a purer colour; its throat being as white as snow. It generally visits us the beginning or middle of April, and leaves us again the end of August or beginning of September. Its song is not so agreeable as most of the other species of warblers; but it is soft and pretty, and very different from any other. It is also more valuable by being much more rare; some seasons very few visit us, in others they are sufficiently plentiful. Its habits are somewhat similar to those of the white-throat, but it is much more quarrelsome, sometimes so much so, that it must be taken from the other birds or it will worry them to death, even if they are double its size. In confinement it will soon become tame and familiar, and will readily take to feed on bread and milk, and also on bruised hemp-seed and bread. One that I bred up from the nest became so attached to its cage, that it could not be prevailed upon to quit it for any length of time. When the door of it was set open, it would generally come out quickly, and first perch on the door, then mount to the top of the cage, thence it would fly to any other cages that were in the room, and catch any flies that came within its reach; sometimes it would descend to the floor, or perch on a table or chair, and would fly up and take a fly out of the hand, or drink milk out of a spoon if invited: of this it was very fond. As soon as it was the least frightened, it would fly immediately to its cage, first on the top, thence to the door, and would enter in exactly as it came out. I have often hung it out at the window perched on the top of its cage, with the door open, and it would never attempt to fly away. Sometimes if a fly should happen to pass near it, it would fly off and catch it, and return with it to the top of the cage: after remaining there a considerable time, it would either return into it, or fly in at the window, and perch on the cages of the other birds. It is rather more tender than the white-throat. MR. BLYTH'S ACCOUNT OF THE BABILLARD. The warble of the babillard (_Curruca garrula_, Brisson) is pretty and lively, but its song is rendered monotonous in the spring and summer by the constant repetition of its loud note of defiance, analogous to the clear lively note with which the blackcap generally concludes: this may be expressed by the monosyllable _see_, repeated nine or ten times in quick succession, and at times very loudly: it is a note, which, though agreeable enough when only heard occasionally, becomes quite tiresome when continually reiterated. This species, however, can warble very sweetly if it please, and, in confinement, during the first months of the year, its song is heard to great advantage in a room; it then rarely repeats its loud _see see see_, and when, at that time, the above-mentioned note is uttered, it forms, indeed, an agreeable variety. The song of the babillard is formed of a number of soft chirping notes, many of which are extremely sweet and musical, and though at times tolerably loud, yet they are generally delivered in a very low tone, scarcely audible at a little distance. The male is almost perpetually singing, erecting his crest and the feathers of his throat in the manner of a white-throat, and, like that species and the furze warbler, he is in constant motion the whole time, throwing himself into a variety of odd gesticulations. The song of this bird is very superior to that of many white-throats, but not to all; he has none of those harsh sounding notes which so often disfigure the white-throat's song. He seems also to be always in such high spirits as not to know how to contain himself, taking frequently a long circuitous flight from tree to tree, and back again, a dozen times, seemingly for no other purpose than mere exercise; but he never mounts singing into the air, like the white-throat. There are yet many persons, I believe, who consider this species to be "a mere variety" of the white-throat. These two species differ from each other in size, in make, in colour, in their manners, their habits, their song, in the structure of their nest, and in the marking of their eggs; and surely, "if all these circumstances (as Wilson observes, after making similar remarks on two American birds, one of which had been considered a 'bastard' production of the other) be not sufficient to designate this (the babillard) as a distinct species, by what criterion, I would ask, are we to discriminate between a _variety_ and an _original species_, or, to assure ourselves, that the great horned owl is not, in fact, a _bastard_ goose, or the carrion crow a mere _variety_ of the humming bird?" THE BLACK REDSTART. Motacilla Tithys, LINN�US: Le Rouge-queue, BUFFON; Der Wistling, BECHSTEIN. Length five inches and one quarter, of which the tail alone measures two and one quarter. The beak is five lines long, very pointed and black, the inside and corners yellow; the iris is dusky; the shanks are nine lines high, and black; the upper part of the body is dark bluish, or blackish gray; the rump is red; the cheeks, throat, and breast, are black; the belly and sides are of the same dark colour as the back, but tinged with white; the vent is reddish yellow. The upper part of the body in the female is dusky ash grey; the under part ash grey, with a reddish tinge. The colours of this bird vary during the first eight years; the oldest ones, with the exception of the tail and wings, are in general black, but deeper on the under part than the upper; the very oldest have a greyish breast. Those a year or two old very much resemble the females, having the upper part of the body ash grey, but the under rather more of a reddish colour; the quill-feathers have a more decided border. After two years the depth of the colour gradually increases. Several bird-catchers, and from them some authors, have considered these birds of different ages as different species. HABITATION.--In its wild state the black redstart is found in the temperate parts of Europe and in Asia in the same latitudes[98]. They seem to prefer mountainous districts to wide plains, and they are seen in great numbers on bare chalk-hills; if found in woods, it is only in those that are on rocks. They frequent towns and villages, perching on the highest buildings, towers, steeples, churches, and castles[99]. In spring and autumn it hops about the hedges. It arrives early in the spring, its song is heard in the beginning of March, and it quits us in small flights towards the middle of October. It possesses one quality, not common among singing birds, that of singing all the year, or, at least, whilst in our country, however cold and stormy the weather may be. In the house it should be kept in a nightingale's cage, or at least not permitted to range the room. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on flies, drawn by the warmth of spring from their retreat, and settled on walls; afterwards on cabbage caterpillars and other insects, and in autumn on berries. In the house they may be kept in health a long time, if the above insects are procured for them, or if fed on nightingales' food, adding occasionally ants' eggs and meal-worms. Old birds taken in autumn may sometimes be tamed and accustomed to eat the common food in the room, by putting amongst elderberries, in autumn, ants' eggs, and meal-worms at other seasons. They have been known to live five or six years in a cage. BREEDING.--This bird makes its nest in the holes of rocks and walls, particularly in high buildings, on the timbers of barns, and places it at a distance from any other. It is constructed of hay, mixed with the hair of animals. Each laying (for there are two in the year) consists of five or six white eggs. The young have a reddish grey plumage, and should be taken from the nest when the tail is half grown, if it is wished to rear them. They should be fed on ants' eggs, and white bread soaked in boiled milk. DISEASES.--These are the same as those of the fauvette. MODE OF TAKING.--Limed twigs, with meal-worms fastened to them, should be laid wherever these birds are most frequently found. Towards winter they may be caught in spring-traps with elderberries hung opposite. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its call, "_fitza_," being very similar to the nightingale's, has given rise most probably to its name of Wall Nightingale, which it has in common with the following species. Its song certainly cannot enter into comparison with that of the nightingale, for it is sad, and consists of only three strains, the middle one scarcely more than croaking; the other two may boast of a few high clear tones; it may be heard from early in the morning till night. It is always gay and active, its motions light and nimble; it shakes its tail quickly from side to side at every hop or spring, and utters continually the cry "_fitza[100]!_" THE COMMON REDSTART. [Illustration] Motacilla Phoenicurus, LINN�US; Le Rossignol de muraille, BUFFON; Das Gemeiner oder Garten-Rothschwänzchen, BECHSTEIN. Its length is five inches and a quarter, of which the tail measures two and a quarter. The beak is five lines, the tip is blunt, black on the outside, yellow within and at the corners; the iris is black; the shanks are of the same colour, and ten lines high; the base of the upper mandible and cheeks are black, as also the throat, but this is speckled with white; the white on the front of the head unites with a streak of the same colour, which extends above the eyes; the back of the head and neck, the back and lesser wing-coverts, are dark ash grey tinged with a reddish colour; the rump, breast, and sides, are red inclining to orange. The female is very different, very much resembling that of the black redstart, yet its colours are rather lighter. The upper part of its body is reddish ash grey; the whitish throat is not clouded with black till the fifth or sixth year; the breast is dusky rust-red waved with white; the belly is dusky white; the rump is reddish yellow[101]. It is not till after the first moulting that the distinction between the plumage of the males and females is obvious; even then the breast of the male retains the black tinged with white, but loses this tint in the course of the following summer; the males also have for some time a white streak on the forehead, that passes above the eyes, and the belly is more white than rust-red. HABITATION.--In a wild state these birds are found in Europe and Asia, and are very common in Germany and England. They leave us the beginning of October, and return the end of March or beginning of April. At this time and in autumn they haunt hedges and bushes; but in summer they principally frequent gardens, the banks of streams planted with willows, and even forests. Those that frequent gardens also enter towns, and will perch on the roofs of the houses, enlivening the inmates with their song from morning till night. In the house, if given a cage, it should be of such light wire work as not to conceal the beauty of the plumage. FOOD.--When wild they feed on all kinds of insects, earth-worms, currants, and elderberries. In the house, if taken in autumn, they may sometimes be induced to feed on elderberries, rarely on the poultry paste. To entice them to this meal-worms must be mixed with it at first, and some thrown in when it is eaten; ants' eggs must be added in spring. These birds are delicate, and always require to be supplied with insects; but never give them earth-worms, as they do not digest them easily. If kept in cages they should be given nightingales' food; yet fed in this way it is rare to preserve them above three or four years; they generally die of consumption or atrophy. BREEDING.--The redstart generally places its nest in a hole of a tree or wall; it is negligently formed of moss, stalks of grass, feathers, and hair. The female has two broods in the year, and each time she lays from five to seven eggs, of an apple green. Scarcely have the tail-feathers begun to grow ere the young ones hop from the nest and perch on some neighbouring branch, where they receive food from the parent birds till they are able to seek it for themselves. Their plumage before moulting is ash grey spotted with white. The young females resemble the nightingale so much in autumn that they are often mistaken for it. Bird-fanciers should rear these birds on ants' eggs, with white bread soaked in boiled milk occasionally, and thus accustom them to the common universal paste. They learn to repeat parts of the songs of their companions. DISEASES.--Diarrhoea and atrophy carry off the greatest number. MODE OF TAKING.--Sticks covered with bird-lime should be placed across the hedges frequented by these birds; they must then be driven gently towards them. They are also attracted under nets, and amongst limed twigs baited with meal-worms. In autumn they may be taken in nooses, by suspending elderberries near them, either in orchards or thickets. Those intended for the house should be taken in bird-traps or springes, taking care that the wooden part be covered with felt or cork, to prevent the legs being broken. The young ones of the first year are the easiest to preserve. They also go to the water-trap without difficulty. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its plumage, and still more its song and sprightliness, render this a delightful bird. It is always in motion, bowing, and moving its tail from side to side at every step; all its actions are lively and graceful. It can improve its song, composed of some very pretty strains, by adding to it parts of the songs of birds that are found near it. For instance, those that build under my roof imitate tolerably the chaffinch that hangs in a cage at my window; and a neighbour of mine has one in his garden that repeats some strains of a blackcap that has its nest near. This facility in appropriating the song of other birds is rare in birds that live in a state of liberty, and seems peculiar to this species. They become so tame that they will take meal-worms from the hand. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE REDSTART. This is one of the handsomest of our British birds, visiting us the latter end of March or beginning of April; the earliest arrival ever noticed was the 25th of March, and they generally leave us the beginning of September. When they first arrive they mostly frequent old buildings or out-houses, for the sake of flies and small insects that often abound there. They build their nest in a hole or crevice of a wall, or in a hollow tree. They frequently ascend to the top of the highest tree within their haunt, and there sit sometimes for a considerable time, pouring out their quick and sort of fretful song. When kept in confinement I consider it the most sensible, and, if brought up from the nest, the most attached of all small birds; but it may be considered the most tender of the whole tribe. It is a real mocker, and if bred up from a young one, will learn the note or call of almost any other bird; it will also learn a tune that is whistled or sung to it, and will sing by night as well as day if a light be kept in the room where it is. I was in possession of a handsome male bird of this species, which I kept more than six years. It became very tame, though an old wild bird when first caught, and it was so attached to its cage, that one day, having got its liberty, it flew away into the gardens, where it stayed six or seven hours, after which it returned to its cage again. In the year 1825 I saw a female bird of this species so late as the 21st of November, flying about as lively as at midsummer; it had probably escaped or been turned out of a cage. When in confinement it is particularly partial to ants' eggs, and also to the common maggots. THE ARBOUR BIRD. Sylvia polyglotta, RANZANI; Sylvia Hippolais, BECHSTEIN; Le Bec-fin à poitrine jaune, TEMMINCK; Die Gelbbrust, BECHSTEIN; Die Spotvogel, WICHTERICH. This pleasing bird, which is met with wherever there are groves and bushes[102], is five inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures two and a quarter. The beak, seven lines long, is straight, blunt, bluish grey above, and yellow tinged with flesh-colour beneath, with yellowish corners, and the entrance of the throat citron yellow; the iris is dark brown; the shanks, ten lines high, are lead-coloured. The head is pointed in front; the back, rump, and lesser wing-coverts, are olive ash grey; a yellow line extends from the nostrils to the eyes; the whole of the under part of the body is a fine light yellow; the tail and wings are dark brown; the secondary quill-feathers have so wide a white border that it forms a spot on the closed wings. HABITATION.--In its wild state it frequents orchards, groves, and brambles; but with us it seems to prefer small woods that are interspersed with resinous trees. It arrives the end of April, and quits us as early as the end of August, before the moulting season. In the house it is kept in a nightingale's cage, in which no change must be made, still less must another be given it, for it would not survive these disturbances. It is so delicate, that if taken when full grown it is almost impossible to tame it. FOOD.--When wild its food is all kinds of insects, smooth caterpillars, flies, gnats, &c.; and if these are scarce, berries[103]. In the house it prefers these insects and meal-worms. It is only with great patience and management that it can be given a taste for the nightingale's food. In general it will eat nothing but insects. BREEDING.--The nest of the arbour bird is one of those that are so well and curiously formed, commonly placed eight feet above the ground, in the fork of a tree. It is built of pieces of the white bark of the birch tree, dried plants, caterpillars' webs, wool, and the upper layer of down. All these white materials give it the appearance of being made of paper. It is lined with the finest hay. The female lays five eggs, which are at first of a pale rose red, but after having been sat upon some days acquire a dark flesh-coloured tint, speckled with dark red. This species has but one brood in the year, and if the nest is approached two or three times it will desert it, whether the young ones are hatched or not. If a person wish to have this pleasing bird in the house, as it is often seen in Hesse, he must take the young ones early from the nest, feed them on ants' eggs and bullock's heart chopped small, and always keep them in a warm place. As soon as the arbour bird has been placed in the situation destined for it, it must be left there constantly; its cage ought not to be changed, at least there should be no difference in the one given it afterwards, as without this attention it becomes sad, eats no longer, and dies in a short time. I may observe here, that it moults in December or January, whence we may infer that it passes the winter in a southern climate. DISEASES.--These are the same as the nightingale's. MODE OF TAKING.--This can rarely be accomplished but by placing limed twigs on the nest, which is a cruel method, and the nest is often deserted as soon as it has been approached. Neither will these birds go to the water-trap: they may be caught occasionally in bird-traps in August, by baiting them with currants[104]. The surest way then is to take them young, especially as the old ones cannot be tamed. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the arbour bird is sweet, varied, full of power and melody, long sustained; yet some harsh strains have been remarked, and some resembling the notes of the chimney swallow. Whilst singing its throat is much dilated. Its call is _dak, dak! hyovie, hyovie!_ Its plumage is pretty. ACCOUNT OF THE ARBOUR BIRD, FROM THE "FIELD NATURALIST'S MAGAZINE." "British writers, since the time of Pennant and White, have rendered the history of several of our smallest birds a mass of confusion, which even now it will be difficult to clear up, though I feel confident I possess the means of loosening two at least of the knots of the controverted points, as I shall presently show. "When I was residing, in the summer of 1832, at Bonn, on the Rhine, my friend M. Wichterich brought me a pair of birds with their young, which at first sight, judging from colour and size, I took to be pale canaries, till I looked at their bills; I perceived then that it was a species with which I was unacquainted, and certainly not known as British. I was accordingly not a little surprised when he told me it was the _Sylvia Hippolais_ of Bechstein, and astonished when he said it was one of the finest song birds in Europe, very superior to the blackcap and fauvette, and in some respects even to the nightingale. I thence concluded that it was the species whose splendid song had charmed and puzzled me in an orchard at Schiedam, in Holland, and again in the gardens of Prince Maximilian, at Neuwied, on the Rhine; the rich intonation and multitudinous variety of the notes fully bearing out my friend's opinion. This circumstance alone would go far to prove that the species is not British, for it would be impossible so fine a song bird could be concealed, particularly as it haunts gardens, and is rarely found in woods. The very contrary of the statement of Temminck, whose authority, how high soever it may be in other matters, is, with respect to habits and field observations, of not the slightest weight: he might have seen the bird, if he ever looked beyond his cabinet, in most of the gardens about Leyden, where he resides. "I kept the old birds with their young, which they fed in a cage for some time, but to my great regret they fell a sacrifice to the common enemy of cage birds. About the same time I was delighted to find a nest of the same species in a lilac-tree in my own garden, about half a dozen yards from my parlour windows. Three of the young after leaving this nest were secured, and their mother was caught to feed them, which she did successfully, and I brought them all, and three others, home with me to England. The nest was about seven feet high from the garden level, and ten from the base of a low wall, over which the branch where it was built leaned. The workmanship of the nest is very superior to that of the blackcap, coming nearer in character to that of the finches. The frame-work is rather thick, made of dried grass stems, sewing thread, fine wood shavings, birch bark, and small pieces of linen rag. The inside is very neatly lined with roots, hair, and a few feathers and small locks of wool. "In the full grown male the bill is about half an inch long, straight, somewhat blunt, broad and flat at the base. The upper mandible has an exceedingly indistinct notch, and is greyish blue; the under mandible yellowish, with a tinge of red; the angles yellowish, and the opening of the mouth lemon yellow. The tongue is yellow, abrupt at the point, and furnished with three bristles. The iris is dusky brown. The forehead is low, flat, angular, and pointed. The eyebrows and eyelids are yellow, and a yellow line runs from the nostrils to the eyes. The crown of the head, neck, back, and wing-coverts are olive grey, inclining more to green on the rump. The shoulder of the wing (_campterium_, ILLIGER) is yellow: the primary quill-feathers are dusky brown, with a slight fringe of olive grey; the rest of the quill-feathers have a broader fringe of greyish white, which, when the wing is closed, forms a whitish patch. The tail is two inches long, the feathers being of equal length, and of very nearly the same colours and tinge as the wing-quills. All the under parts of the body are of a fine clear lemon colour. The legs are five-sixths of an inch high, and of a lead colour; the claws greyish brown. The whole length is five inches and a half; the extent of the wings nine inches. The female is sometimes, but not always, rather paler than the male. The young have the yellow parts very pale. A species very similar to this has been discovered in Italy by Prince C. Buonaparte--the _Sylvia icterina_? of Vieillot, which frequents marshy places. THE COMMON CHIFF-CHAFF. [Illustration] Sylva loquax, HERBERT; S. Hippolais, MONTAGU; but not the _S. Hippolais_ of the Continental authors, which is _S. polyglotta_. COLONEL MONTAGU AND MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE CHIFF-CHAFF. This bird weighs about two or nearly three drachms; the length varies from four inches and a half to five inches. This species is nearly the same size as the hay-bird. In its plumage it so much resembles that bird, that we shall only make mention here of some essential marks of distinction, and refer our readers to the hay-bird. Its general colour is not so much tinged with yellow, and the legs are dusky, which in the other are brown. The plumage of the sexes are alike. These two birds have been, and are, frequently confounded, and with them the wood wren of this work; but this last is at once distinguished by the under tail-coverts being a pure white, and the plumage of a more lively green on the upper parts than either of the others. The nest, eggs, and notes, will be found also different by consulting and comparing the history of each. This is the first of all the migrative warblers (_Sylviadæ_) in its annual visit, and is, perhaps, the only one that has occasionally been observed with us during the winter, and that only in the milder parts of England. It is generally heard on or before the first of April repeating its song, if that may be so called which consists only of four notes, which seem to express the words _chip, chop, cherry, churry_, four or five times successively. It is a busy, restless bird, always active among the trees and bushes in search of insects. From its early cry in our neighbourhood, we long suspected it would be found that this hardy little bird did not wholly quit us, and in this opinion we were confirmed by seeing one in the garden about Christmas, 1806. In the following January, we observed two of these little creatures busied in catching the small insects which a bright day had roused in great abundance about some fir trees, by springing upon them from the ends of the branches, one of which we succeeded in shooting. Another, which we killed in 1808, on the same spot, while feeding upon a small species of _culex_, weighed one drachm thirty-three grains; this will easily account for the very early cry of this bird in the spring, as it is highly probable that they remain with us the whole year, but are wholly silent in the winter. The earliest we ever heard was on the 14th of March, 1804, when vegetation was unusually early. The nest of this species is oval, with a small hole near the top, composed externally of dry leaves, and then coarse dry grass, and lined with feathers; and is generally placed on or near the ground, frequently on a ditch bank, in a tuft of grass or low bush. The eggs are six in number, white, speckled with purplish red at the larger end only, with here and there a single speck on the sides. It seems to be the hardiest and most generally diffused of all our summer visitants; and is found in all parts of the kingdom where wood or hedges afford it shelter and food. Its note is heard long after the hay-bird is silent. Dr. Latham says this is called in Dorsetshire the hay-bird; but as we are inclined to believe the three species before mentioned have been confounded, it is more probable that our hay-bird should obtain that name, as its nest is composed of that material. Mr. Sweet tells us, "it is readily taken in a trap baited with small caterpillars. They soon get familiar in confinement; when first caught, they should, if possible, be put with other birds, and they will readily take to feed on bruised hemp-seed and bread, and on bread and milk, which must at first be stuck full of small insects, or a quantity of aphides may be shaken off a branch upon it; when they have once tasted it they will be very fond of it. One that I caught took to eat it directly, and became so familiar, that in three or four days it would take a fly out of the hand. It also learnt to drink milk out of a tea-spoon, of which it was so fond, that it would fly after it all round the room, and perch on the hand that held it, without showing the least symptoms of fear. It would also fly up to the ceiling, and bring down a fly in its mouth every time. At last it got so very tame, that it would sit on my knee by the fire and sleep; and when the windows were open, it would never attempt, nor seemed to have the least inclination, to fly out; so that I at last ventured to entice it out in the garden, to see whether it would return. I with difficulty enticed it out at the door with a spoon of milk; it returned twice to the room; the third time it ventured into a little tree; it then fled and perched on my hand, and drank milk out of the spoon; from thence it flew to the ground on some chickweed, in which it washed itself, and got into a holly-bush to dry. After getting among the leaves, I could see no more of it, but heard it call several times. I suppose after it got quite dry that it left the country directly, as I could never see or hear it afterwards, and it was then the end of November, when all the others had left for some time[105]." THE RUFOUS CHIFF-CHAFF. Sylvia rufa, BECHSTEIN; La Fauvette rousse, BUFFON; Der Weidenzeisig, BECHSTEIN. This and the gold-crested wren are the smallest of our European birds. The full-grown male has the bill a third of an inch in length, very narrow, and pointed; of a blackish brown, except at the edges and within, where it is yellow. The iris is dusky brown. From the base of the bill on each side there runs a narrow yellowish white streak, and there is another straight streak of a dusky yellow over the eye. The sides of the head are of a very clear brown. The upper part of the head, neck, and back, are greyish brown, with a slight tinge of olive. The throat is greyish white; the breast light grey, with a very pale tinge of red, or rather rust brown. The belly is greyish white, with faint yellowish streaks. The females and the young males, before the first moult, have the upper parts of a clear olive green, and the under parts reddish white. I have never met with the nest; but it is said to be built on the ground amongst fallen leaves, domed, with a side entrance, and lined with feathers. The eggs are said to be from four to seven, white, with reddish black dots, most crowded at the larger end. The young branchers may be caught in autumn by means of the owl, with limed twigs, and fed on ant's eggs and small meal-worms. They will also soon take to bread and milk, or German paste, and become exceedingly tame, but are very impatient of cold. It is most probably a native of Britain, like the preceding; but is not yet distinctly proved to be so. THE HAY-BIRD, OR WILLOW WREN. [Illustration] Sylvia Fitis, BECHSTEIN; S. Trochilus, LATHAM; Le Bec-fin Pouillot, TEMMINCK; Der Fitis Sanger, MEYER; Der Weidenblatt, BECHSTEIN. This species weighs about two drachms and three quarters; length five inches and a quarter. The bill is dusky above, yellowish beneath; irides hazel. The whole upper parts of the plumage are of a greenish yellow brown: the under parts are white, tinged with yellow; on the breast are a few yellow streaks; legs light brown. This is a plentiful species in some parts; frequents wooded and enclosed situations, especially where willows abound; is frequently found with the wood wren, but does not extend so far to the west in England, as it is rarely met with in Cornwall. It comes to us early in April, and soon begins its usual song, which is short, with little variety. About the latter end of the same month, or beginning of May, it makes a nest of an oval shape, with a small opening near the top, composed of moss and dried grass, and lined with feathers. This is placed in the hollow of a ditch, or in a low bush close to the ground. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE HAY-BIRD. This is another little favourite songster, and a most deserving one it is. It visits us the latter end of March, or beginning of April, and leaves us again at the end of September, or beginning of October. On its first arrival, it enlivens our woods and groves with its lively piercing song and gay frolics, flying about from tree to tree, and catching the small gnats and flies that come in its way. It builds its nest on the ground in a thicket amongst dead leaves and moss, with a covering on the top, of the same materials as those lying all around, so that it is impossible to find it without watching one of the old ones to the nest, which in general consists of six or seven young ones. These may either be brought up from the nest, or if an old one be caught wild it is easily tamed. When first put in the cage with a tame bird, the general food, bread and milk, and eggs, should be stuck full of small flies, aphides, small caterpillars, or other small insects, in picking out which it will taste the other food, and soon take to eat it readily, and will soon become very tame in confinement. One that I caught in September was, in three days afterwards, let out of the aviary into the room to catch the flies, that were numerous at that season. After amusing itself for some time in catching flies, it began singing; and it did the same several other times when it was let out, and in a few days began to sing in its aviary. It soon became so familiar, that it would take flies out of the hand; and when out in the room, if a fly was held towards it, would fly up, and take it immediately. Although the present species is so small a bird, it is very courageous, being generally the master of the cage, and as it is so fine a songster, and almost continually in song, no little bird can be more desirable in a cage with other birds; its note, when in full song, being so loud and shrill, that its voice is plainly heard above the nightingale's when both are in full song. THE WOOD WREN. [Illustration] Sylvia sibilatrix, BECHSTEIN; Le Bec-fin Siffleur, TEMMINCK; Der grüne Sanger, MEYER. This bird remained long unnoticed as a distinct species, from its resemblance to the hay-bird (_Sylvia Trochilus_), with which it is still frequently confounded. It measures in length five inches and a half; bill horn-colour; upper mandible bent at the tip, and rather longer than the under; irides hazel; nostrils beset with bristles; top of the head, neck, back, and tail-coverts olive green; throat and cheeks yellow, paler on the breast; belly and vent of a most beautiful silvery white; through the eye passes a yellow line; legs rather more than an inch long, of a horn-colour, claws paler. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE WOOD WREN. This elegant and beautiful little species ranks itself amongst my list of favourites. It visits this country the beginning of April, and leaves it in August, or the beginning of September. It is generally to be found in summer amongst tall trees in woods and plantations, where it is readily detected on its arrival, by a shrill shaking sort of note that may be heard at a great distance, and cannot be confounded with any other bird. On its first arrival it sings the greater part of the day, and continues its song, more or less, through the summer, except at the time it is engaged in feeding its young. Its nest is built on the ground in a thicket amongst moss and dead leaves, so that it is impossible to find it without watching one of the old ones to the nest, which is easily done when they have young. They may either be tamed when old, or reared from the nest, and are not difficult to be caught when young with a little bird-lime at the end of a fishing-rod, as may several other species of this interesting group. As the present species feeds entirely upon insects when wild, the greater part of which it catches on the wing, it will be useless to give it any sort of fruit or berry; but bread and milk, bruised hemp-seed and bread, with bits of fresh lean meat cut very small and mixed up in it, will be its general food. It is also very fond of the yolk of an egg boiled hard, and crumbled small, or stirred up with the point of a knife that it may peck it out of the shell as it likes. Sometimes these birds are apt to get off their other food, and will live on egg several days; at such a time if a few flies could be procured for them, it would be the most likely to restore their appetite. THE GRASSHOPPER BIRD. [Illustration] Locustella avicula, RAY; Sylvia locustella, LATHAM; L'Alouette locustelle, BUFFON; Der Fleuschrechensanger, MEYER. This species is less than the white-throat; length five inches and a half; weight about three drachms and a quarter. The bill is dusky above, whitish beneath; irides light hazel. The whole upper parts of the bird are olivaceous brown; the middle of each feather dusky, except on the back of the neck, which gives it a pretty spotted appearance; the tail is much cuneiform, and the feathers somewhat pointed, which is a very marked and peculiar character in this species; the outer feather being full an inch shorter than the middle ones, and nearly rounded at the tips, the wing remarkably short, reaching very little beyond the base of the tail; legs very pale brown; claws light-horn colour; hind claw short and crooked. In shape, the grasshopper warbler very much resembles the sedge-bird; is rather inferior in size, and at once distinguished by its spotted back. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE GRASSHOPPER BIRD. The present species is known amongst bird-catchers by the name of the grasshopper lark, and it was originally placed amongst the larks by ornithologists, but has been very properly removed from them by later authors, as it wants the most characteristic mark of that family, namely, its long claw. It is a very rare bird in the neighbourhood of London, and I have never been able to procure but one of them, which I lost the first winter, by letting it wash too much; in confinement it requires the same sort of management as recommended for the two last species, and it will succeed very well. I am not acquainted with their song, never having lived in any neighbourhood where they visit, but I have been credibly informed that they have none but a note like the chirping of the grasshopper; this may probably be the case, but I have often heard the same report of some of our finest songsters, which people had confused with very common birds, there being very few who do not confuse, under the general name of white-throats, the common fly-catcher, both white-throats, the greater pettychaps, and the blackcaps, when young; and many even confuse with these the willow wren, wood wren, and lesser pettychaps: this tribe of birds being only summer visitants, are less known than any others. These birds are not uncommon in several parts of England; they are said to be plentiful on Malmesbury Common, Wiltshire, in summer, where they breed; they are also frequently seen in Norfolk and Suffolk, and in various other parts, where they build their nest among some high grass or sedge, in which it is so concealed that it is with difficulty found, except by watching the old birds carrying food to their young ones; or when building, they may be seen carrying materials to construct their nest. In a wild state these birds feed entirely on insects, such as flies, moths, butterflies, spiders, ants; and their eggs, small beetles, and numerous other sorts, so that in confinement they will frequently require insect food. THE REED WARBLER. [Illustration] Sylvia arundinacea, LATHAM; La Fauvette des Roseaux, BUFFON; Der Teichsänger oder Sumpfsänger, BECHSTEIN. This species has been confounded, not only with others with a greenish plumage that are analogous, but in describing it with the reed thrush (_Turdus arundinaceus_, Linn.), and in its manner of life with the black-bonnet, or reed bunting (_Emberiza Schæniclus_, Linn.). It is five inches in length, of which the tail measures two. The beak, seven lines long, resembles that of the arbour bird, brown above and yellowish beneath; the iris is chestnut brown; the shanks are eight lines high, and ash grey; the forehead is very long, greenish grey; the rest of the upper part of the body, including the wing-coverts, are of the same colour, tinged with olive; the rump is paler; a straw-coloured line extends above the eyes; the cheeks are olive brown; the under part of the body is yellowish white; the knees are olive grey; the anterior quill-feathers are dusky; the secondary are dark brown; all are edged with olive grey; the tail-feathers have the same colour as the quill-feathers, but with a wider olive grey border; the tail is very much rounded, and nearly wedge-formed. There is little difference in the female. Her head is pale brown: a white line passes across the eyes; the upper part is reddish grey, tinged with olive; the under part, except the throat, which is white, is pale grey, tinged with yellow; the quill-feathers are darker brown than the tail, with an olive grey border. HABITATION.--When wild they are found throughout Europe, wherever rushes and reeds abound. They arrive in Germany towards the middle of April, and leave it the beginning of September. As they are very delicate, in the house they must be kept in a nightingale's cage. FOOD.--When wild it feeds on all kinds of aquatic insects, and, when these fail, on berries. In the house, independently of nightingale's food, it requires in a cage all the insects that can be caught, as flies, water-spiders, and gnats. BREEDING.--The nest, rather long and very ingeniously fastened to the stems of the reeds or the branches of bushes by the water side, is constructed of pieces of dried grass, of which the largest are on the outside, and the finer within; these are sometimes mixed with wool and hair. The eggs, five or six in number, are greenish white, streaked and speckled with olive green. The young ones can only be reared on ants' eggs. MODE OF TAKING.--These birds are sometimes caught by placing lime twigs on a place cleared of the turf, and throwing meal-worms there. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The song of the reed warbler very much resembles that of the arbour bird, but is not so full; what renders it so agreeable is, that its varied melody is heard during evening and morning twilight. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE REED WARBLER. This is a very variable bird in its colours, some being of a very pale colour, and others altogether as dark, and those that are pale one season frequently become dark the ensuing one. It is a curious little lively bird, known often by the name of reed wren. It generally makes its appearance with us the beginning of April, and leaves us in September. Its early or late departure seems to depend a good deal on the warmth or coolness of the seasons. It is a very merry bird, almost continually singing, and will sing by night as well as by day, sitting amongst the reeds, or in some bush or tree near the water, where it feeds on the gnats and other insects that infest moist situations. It is very fond of flies, spiders, small caterpillars, moths, grasshoppers, crickets, and many other insects, and will swallow a larger one than could be imagined for so small a bird. In confinement it will feed readily on the general food, and is also very fond of the yolk of an egg boiled hard, so that it may be crumbled on the top of the other food, or put in the cage in an empty egg-shell. It should also be supplied with a few insects occasionally, such as flies, spiders, small caterpillars, moths, or butterflies. Being an inhabitant of the sides of ditches and rivers, it is very partial to washing, which it must not be allowed to do in winter, or it will wash itself until it is so weak that it can never recover. THE SEDGE BIRD. Sylvia Phragmitis, BECHSTEIN; S. salicaria, LATHAM; Le Bec-fin Phragmite, TEMMINCK; Der Schilsänger, MEYER. The weight of this species is about three drachms; length five inches and a half; bill dusky above, whitish beneath; irides hazel; crown of the head and whole upper parts of a yellowish brown, plain on the back and sides of the neck, rump, and upper tail-coverts; tail like the quills a little cuneiform, which, when spread, gives it a rounded shape; legs dusky. MR. SWEET'S ACCOUNT OF THE SEDGE BIRD. In habit and manner the present species approaches to the former, but is a much handsomer bird; though not so rare, it frequents the sides of ditches, ponds, and rivers, like the last species, where it pours forth its variable diurnal and nocturnal song almost incessantly, on its first arrival in this country, which is generally the beginning of April, leaving us again about the middle of September. It builds its nest in a thicket of reeds, or other tall water-grass, on which it is fastened up with the webs of caterpillars, similar to that of the former, which is fastened to the branches of trees, so that no wind or storm can move it. The song of the present species is somewhat similar to that of the last, but is more shrill and chattering; some people prefer it to that of the latter species, but I do not, as it wants some fine deep notes that the other possesses: it is also an imitative bird, its song being intermixed with the call of the sparrow and parts of the songs of other birds. Its food is precisely the same as that of the last species; and in confinement the treatment for both must be exactly alike. THE WREN. [Illustration] Motacilla Troglodytes, LINN�US; Le Roitelet, ou Troglodite, BUFFON; Der Zaunkönig, BECHSTEIN. This, except the rufous chiff-chaff and the gold-crested wren, is the smallest bird of our climate. It is only three inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures one and a half. The beak is five lines, rather curved at the point, dusky above, yellowish white below, and yellow within; the iris is hazel brown; the shanks are seven lines high, and greyish brown; the upper part of the body is dusky rust brown, with indistinct dark brown streaks across. The female is smaller, of a redder brown, and confusedly streaked across; the feet are yellowish. HABITATION.--When wild it is found all over Europe, and particularly frequents mountainous and woody places. It does not quit us, but remains in winter, as in summer, near our dwellings. In the house, on account of its liveliness, it is given rather a large cage, the bars of which should be very near together. If allowed to range it may easily escape through small openings, as it is very fond of penetrating such crevices. FOOD.--At liberty, it consists throughout the year of small insects, which it seeks in winter in barns, stables, cellars, holes in walls, and piles of wood. In autumn, however, it will eat both unripe and black elderberries. As soon as it is brought into the house it must be plentifully supplied with meal-worms, flies, elderberries, and then gradually add nightingales' paste, which will soon become its ordinary food. It is only by adopting this method that I have been successful in preserving one of these birds. BREEDING.--Any nook appears to suit the wren to build its large nest in; which may be found in a hole of a tree, amongst the roots, under a roof, or a cavity under ground; every place is suitable, provided the nest can be concealed. This is oval, covered with moss on the outside, and lined with feathers and hair. It has an opening at the top or side to go in and out by. The female lays from six to eight pretty little white eggs, speckled with red. The young ones are rusty red, spotted with black and white. They may be reared on ants' eggs, adding, as soon as they can fly, the universal paste; but they always prefer ants' eggs. MODE OF TAKING.--If in winter, a white-throat trap is set in a place much frequented by these birds, and meal-worms scattered within and around it. In this the wrens will surely be caught. They may be entrapped in autumn with spring traps and springes, by hanging elderberries before; but, after every precaution, they generally break their legs. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its sprightliness is pleasing, and its actions gay and varied. It has a very powerful voice for its size, and its song is continued throughout the year; it is soft, and mingled with some notes of the canary, which are the more pleasing as they consist of distinct loud tones always descending. Its call is _tzrr, tzetzererr!_ I have never preserved one more than a year, but other amateurs say they may be kept two or three. THE GOLD-CRESTED WREN. Motacilla Regulus, LINN�US; Le Poul, ou Roitelet huppé, BUFFON; Das Goldhähnchen, BECHSTEIN. This is the smallest of European birds. It is three inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures one and a quarter. The beak is four lines, slender, very sharp, and black, having the nostrils covered with a feather divided like a comb; the iris is dusky; the shanks are eight lines in height, and brownish flesh-coloured; the forehead is yellowish brown; a black streak extends from the corners of the beak to the eyes, above which is a white streak, and below them a white speck; the top of the head is saffron yellow, each side edged with golden yellow, beyond which is a black band. [Illustration: GOLD-CRESTED WREN.] The female has the top of the head golden yellow, the forehead and wings grey. HABITATION.--When wild these pretty little birds are diffused throughout the old world, principally frequenting pine and fir forests, and do not appear to migrate, excepting those that inhabit northern countries, and go towards the south in October, and return in March; at least, they are then observed on their passage, in Germany, the hedges being full of them in spring; but those established among us remain, as they are seen all the year. They assemble in small flights in winter, and fly about here and there, like the tits, seeking places where their food is most abundant. In the house a bell-shaped cage appears to suit them best. Several may be kept together in a part of a room enclosed with trellis work, and with a small fir tree for them to perch on. Reared from the nest, they may be allowed to perch on a tree in the room, which they enjoy so much that they are never far from it; if there are many they will perch in a row, press close side by side, and sleep in this manner. FOOD.--In the wild state it feeds on all kinds of small insects and their grubs; they are, however, able to swallow large flies, as the beak has a wide opening. In the house the gold-crests are soon accustomed to the nightingales' paste, by throwing amongst it at first flies deprived of their wings, or half dead, and at length they will be satisfied with bruised hemp-seed; but they must have insects occasionally, flies, meal-worms cut small, ants' eggs, &c.; finally, to keep them healthy, their paste should be neither too stiff nor too moist, and care must be taken to avoid their swallowing rape or camelin seed, which would immediately kill them[106]. BREEDING.--The nest, fixed to the extremity of a branch, is round, and very soft, built of moss, caterpillar's cocoons, and tufts of thistle down; it is generally found in low underwood or meadows with woods adjoining, on the first tree towards the east. About nine eggs are laid, the size of a pea, and pale blush red. Those young ones intended to be reared must not be taken from the nest till they are fledged, and it is best to catch them just as they are leaving the nest. They eat readily meal-worms cut small, flies, ants' eggs, and white bread soaked in boiled milk. MODE OF TAKING.--As they are not fearful, they may easily be caught by gently approaching the tree where one is perched, and merely striking it with a limed twig fastened to a pole long enough to reach it. It may be brought down also with water, in the manner adopted by M. Le Vaillant, that is, by first putting into a gun the common charge of powder, then a wadding of silk, then, as soon as the bird is within reach, two spoonfuls of water are poured in and covered with a second wadding of silk, which must not be rammed down hard, lest the water should reach the powder below. This load, discharged at the distance of twenty paces, is capable of wetting the bird so completely that it may be taken by the hand; but if there are hedges in the neighbourhood, or if a stronger bird be fired at, a chaffinch, for instance, it may easily escape. Many gold-crested wrens may be caught by means of a hut set for any small birds, when the way to attract them is known. They come in great numbers to the water trap, and by their often repeated call of _tzitt, tzitt_, give notice of sunset and the arrival of larger birds. They will soon grow tame enough to eat out of the hand. On account of their delicacy, many often die before a person succeeds in rearing one; but when once accustomed to the house they will live a long time, at least if not hurt by other birds, and if they do not swallow what they cannot digest. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The smallness of their size, their elegance and beauty, render them a pleasant acquisition; but their song adds to their attractions, for though weak it is very melodious, and resembles that of the canary. THE HON. AND REV. W. HERBERT'S ACCOUNT OF THE GOLD-CRESTED WREN. The golden-crested wren and the common brown wren are both very impatient of cold. In confinement, the least frost is immediately fatal to them. In a wild state they keep themselves warm by constant active motion in the day, and at night they secrete themselves in places where the frost cannot reach them; but I apprehend that numbers do perish in severe winters. I once caught half a dozen golden wrens at the beginning of winter, and they lived extremely well upon egg and meat, being exceedingly tame. At roosting time there was always a whimsical conflict amongst them for the inside places, as being the warmest, which ended of course by the weakest going to the wall. The scene began with a low whistling call amongst them to roost, and the two birds on the extreme right and left flew on the backs of those in the centre, and squeezed themselves into the middle. A fresh couple from the flanks immediately renewed the attack upon the centre, and the conflict continued till the light began to fail them. A severe frost in February killed all but one of them in one night, though in a furnished drawing-room. The survivor was preserved in a little cage by burying it every night under the sofa cushions; but having been one sharp morning taken from under them before the room was sufficiently warmed by the fire, though perfectly well when removed, it was dead in ten minutes. The nightingale is not much more tender of cold than a canary bird. The golden-crowned wren very much frequents spruce fir trees and cedars, and hangs its nest under their branches; it is also fond of the neighbourhood of furze bushes, under which it probably finds warm refuge from the cold. The brown wren is very apt in frosty weather to roost in cow-houses, where the cattle keep it warm. THE ALPINE WARBLER. Sturnus collaris, LINN�US; Motacilla Alpina, LINN�US; La Fauvette des Alpes, BUFFON; Der Alpensänger, BECHSTEIN. The characteristics of this bird are so equivocal that it is sometimes ranked with the larks, sometimes with the starlings, and sometimes with the _Motacillæ_. It is six inches and a half in length, but the tail alone measures nearly three. The beak is six lines, and is dark brown above and orange beneath; the mandibles are flattish at the sides; the iris is yellow; the shanks are an inch high, and pale brown; a whitish ash grey predominates on the head, neck, and back, but the latter is streaked with dark brown, the others with pale brown. The female and young ones are variegated with dark brown on the belly; the back is dark, and the spots on the throat less apparent. OBSERVATIONS.--This species frequents the secondary mountains of Switzerland and southern Germany, and is as common there as the field larks on our plains[107]. In winter it descends into the valleys, and approaches villages and barns, around which these birds may be caught, in as great numbers as yellowhammers. They are generally seen on the ground, running as swiftly as the wagtail, and will sometimes hop on stones, but rarely perch on trees. They feed on seeds and insects, and in the house they should be given bruised hemp-seed, poppy-seed, white bread, and ants' eggs. On this food they may be preserved for several years. Their song is sweet, but sad and melancholy; their attitudes are graceful, and often when they hop they flutter their wings and tail. They build on the ground or in clefts of rocks, which has given them the name of rock larks[108]. THE OXEYE, OR GREATER TIT[109]. Parus major, LINN�US; La grosse Mésange, ou Charbonnière, BUFFON; Die Kohlmeise, BECHSTEIN. This well-known bird is five inches and five-sixths in length, of which the tail measures two and a half. The beak is blackish, conical, firm, pointed, and without slope, as are the beaks of the other tits; the iris is dark brown; the shanks are nine lines high, and lead blue; the claws are sharp, and adapted for climbing; the upper part of the head is of a brilliant black, which is joined to the black of the throat by a line of the same colour that borders and sets off the white of the cheeks and temples; the nape is greenish yellow, with some mixture of white; the back is fine olive, and the rump pale ash grey; the breast and belly are a yellowish green, divided lengthways by a black line. The female is smaller, the black on the head and the yellow on the nape are less bright; the line that runs down the belly is narrower and shorter, at least it is lost at the part where in the male it is widest; this marks the difference between young males and females, which are alike in other respects. HABITATION.--In its wild state it is found throughout the old world, but in the greatest numbers in mountainous countries, where orchards and groves abound, and woods of beech, oak, and similar trees, are found alternately with those of fir. Though these birds do not migrate, yet in autumn they assemble and pass the winter together, seeking their food amongst orchards and woods. In autumn, as soon as the bird-catchers see these flights of tits succeed each other quickly, they call it their passage, and immediately prepare snares for taking them. In March each pair separates and prepares for breeding. In the house, if kept in a cage, this should be of iron wire, and bell-shaped, for the advantage of seeing the birds twirl about, and drop from one stick to another like monkeys. If they be allowed to range, it is necessary to supply them with abundance of the food they like, for if this fails they will attack the other birds, and pierce their heads to eat the brain; when once they have tasted this food there is no longer safety for the birds around them, whatever their size may be. I have seen an oxeye attack a quail and kill it in this way. Some bird-catchers say that the tits with forked tails are alone addicted to this, but they are mistaken; it is certainly true that some are more cruel than others, experience teaches us this every day. FOOD.--When wild they feed on insects, seeds, and berries, destroy many smooth caterpillars, flies, grasshoppers, gnats, and small butterflies, and climb about the trees like woodpeckers, seeking in the moss the eggs and grubs of insects. In autumn and winter they eat all kinds of seeds, especially hemp-seed, fir, and pine-seed, oats, kernels of fruit, mast nuts, and occasionally flesh. They hold these things in their claws, tear them with their beak, and skin them with their tongue. In the house they will eat any thing on the table, meat, bread, cheese, vegetables, sweet almonds, walnuts, filberts, lard, and all sorts of fat, all pastes adapted for other birds; so that we must not attribute their early death to the delicacy of the tits, but to the want of care in those that have them. The more they eat the more they sing, and the less inclined they are to attack their companions. They drink often, and enjoy bathing. BREEDING.--The oxeye builds in a hole of a tree or wall, sometimes in the forsaken nest of a squirrel, crow, or woodpecker. It lays on an artless bed of moss, wool, and feathers, eight or ten whitish eggs, sprinkled with large and small spots mixed with streaks of dark red, particularly at the large end, where they form a coronet. The young do not quit the nest till they can fly well. The under parts of the body are pale yellow; and the black about them is not glossy as in the old birds. DISEASES.--In a cage, this species is subject to vertigo or giddiness, occasioned by feeding too much on hemp-seed, which heats it and makes it twirl about too much. To cure the disorder, the bird should be kept for some time in a small square cage, or permitted to range the room. From the same cause often arises atrophy, consumption, and even gout, all which proves the injurious qualities of hemp-seed; but with care on this point and a little attention it may live eight or ten years. MODE OF TAKING.--The chase after tits, is, according to bird-catchers, one of the most agreeable, and is pursued in many ways; but I shall confine myself to two or three of the surest methods, specifying the best for taking those birds that are for the house. In autumn and spring, the bird-catcher should go into an orchard, or any other place much frequented by oxeyes, carrying one with him as a decoy; this must be placed on the ground in a small square cage, and some sticks, with lime-twigs fastened to them, fixed obliquely around it. The tits, attracted by curiosity, or the desire of approaching one of their own species that calls them, quickly descend, and are caught in the lime-twigs. A whistle made of the bone of a goose's leg succeeds still better; with this instrument all the tits in the neighbourhood are quickly assembled; for the tone being stronger than the natural call, it is heard farther; if there are but few of these birds near, they are sure to be all caught. They are easily attracted, in winter, to a trap, by the kernels of nuts, lard, and oats. This trap should be placed in a garden, with a little oat straw fastened under in such a way that it may be seen at a distance, as the tits are instantly attracted thereby. It is a small box a foot in length, and eighteen inches in height and width, the sides of which, when not made of small boards painted green, are formed of small elder sticks, tied or screwed to the four corner sticks; in this case only two small boards are required, one for the bottom, the other for the cover, which must be fastened on with packthread, and turn as with hinges; from the middle of the bottom rises a peg supporting a cross stick, with a nut kernel at one end, and a little lard at the other; this cross stick supports a small perpendicular one, which keeps the cover open three or four inches. When a tit hops on the cross stick and begins pecking the nut or lard, the cover falls, and the bird is caught. The oxeye, like the other tits, assembles in numbers at the water-trap, commonly from seven to nine in the morning, and from four to five in the evening. In autumn these birds are taken in nooses and common bird-traps, baited with berries, but the snare must be of horse hair, for if of thread, the bird, as soon as it feels itself caught, will try to bite through it, as mice do. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The sprightliness and activity of these birds are very pleasing, but their gay and lively song still more so: in it are agreeably mingled the call "_fick, fick_" and the shrill "_tzizerr_." Nothing, in my opinion, is more pleasing than to hear repeated fifteen or twenty times following these striking notes, "_sitzida, sitzida, stiti, stiti_." One may judge of the capability of young ones to imitate the song of other birds, from the facility with which the full-grown birds learn detached parts, and particularly different calls. Some people amuse themselves by making these birds perform many little manoeuvres, such as drawing up their food with a chain, turning a cylinder[110] which has the appearance of being moved by two miners, and hopping after a nut suspended to a thread. THE COLE TIT. [Illustration] Parus ater, LINN�US; La petite Charbonnière, BUFFON; Die Tannenmeise, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is four inches and one-sixth, of which the tail measures one and three-quarters, and the beak one quarter. The back is black, with the tip lighter; the iris is dusky; the shanks are eight lines high, and lead blue; the upper part of the head and neck are black; there is rather a broad streak of white at the back of the head and down the nape of the neck; the cheeks and sides of the neck are also white, forming, when the bird is at rest, a triangular spot; the back is dark bluish ash grey. The female is not easily distinguished from the male, unless both are before you; its being a little less black on the breast, and a little less white on the sides, are the only differences. HABITATION.--When wild these birds are seen in great numbers in pine forests, and seldom, except during their wanderings in autumn, winter, and spring, are they met with in other kinds of woods, groves, and orchards. They often pass from one pine forest to another in large flights during the winter[111]. They appear to like the society of the gold-crested wrens, which are always found in these flights, as also some crested tits, which serve as guides. In the house it is pleasanter to allow them to range with the other birds than to keep them in a cage, yet there is some danger to their companions from their cruelty. FOOD.--When wild, besides insects and their grubs, they feed on the seeds of different resinous trees; but as they are often deprived of this food in winter from the trees being loaded with snow and hoar frost, nature has given them the instinct to provide against this emergency: they hide a great quantity of these seeds in fissures, and under the large scales of the bark of pine trees, to which store they have recourse when in want. The instinct just alluded to is manifested also in the house, even when they have abundance of all kinds of food; where they are observed to rob the other birds of seeds and bits of nuts, and run and hide them immediately in any crevices they may find, often visiting these stolen stores afterwards to see if they are safe. The blue tit and the oxeye are also accustomed to carry part of their food into a corner, but they do not hide with so much care, or from the same cause, as the cole tit. These birds are commonly fed on the universal paste, but they are accustomed to it with difficulty. BREEDING.--This species generally places its nest either in some hole deserted by a mole or mouse, or under the overhanging edges of some deep wheel-rut in an old disused road, rarely in holes of trees or walls. The nest is composed of a layer of moss covered over with the fur of the hare, roe-buck, and stag. There are two broods in the year, each of six or eight white eggs, prettily speckled with pale red. The plumage of the young differs from that of the old only in having the black duller and less glossy. DISEASES.--Decline is the most common disorder of these birds, and it is sometimes prevented by giving them fresh ants' eggs, particularly when moulting. I kept a cole tit six years, and it then died of old age, having first become blind, and been often attacked with vertigo or giddiness. MODE OF TAKING.--Less timid and distrustful than the oxeye, this species may be caught with greater ease. A limed twig fastened to a pole is often sufficient, with which you approach the tree on which the bird is, and, touching it with the twig, it becomes your prisoner. Its call is "_tzip teune_." Like all the tits, it is delicate, and, in the house, often dies soon before being accustomed to the common paste. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--This is a very amusing little bird; bold, lively always in motion, hopping and fluttering about continually. Its song is only a clashing of harsh tones, relieved by a clear sonorous "_tzifi_," repeated twenty times in succession. It sometimes ends, however, with so reflective an air, that you would think it was going to give something very fine. THE BLUE TIT, OR TOM TIT. [Illustration] Parus cæruleus, LINN�US; La Mésange bleue, BUFFON; Der Blaumeise, BECHSTEIN. This pretty bird is four inches and a half long, of which the tail measures two. The beak is three lines in length, and dusky, but whitish at the edges and tip; the iris is dark brown; the shanks are eight lines high, and lead blue; the front of the head and cheeks are white; a white line passing from the forehead above the eyes forms a border to the fine sky-blue of the top of the head; a black line crosses the eyes; the black of the throat becomes on the sides of the neck a dark blue band, which surrounds the head. The female is rather smaller than the male, the streaks about the head not being so clearly defined, while the blue has the appearance of being tinged with ash grey. The line down the under part of the body is scarcely observable. HABITATION.--These birds, in their wild state, frequent woods, particularly those of beech and oak. During autumn and winter they wander from one place to another, and are often seen in considerable numbers in our orchards. In the house they may be kept in a cage like the oxeye; but it is preferable to let them hop and flutter about at pleasure, as their plumage is then seen to the greatest advantage. They are as mischievous and quarrelsome as the oxeye, and pursue the other birds in the same manner, even killing them when they are strong enough. FOOD.--When wild they feed on insects and their grubs, and in autumn on berries[112]. In the house they should be given the same food as the oxeye, accustoming them to it at first by mixing bruised hemp-seed with it. They like to wash themselves. BREEDING.--The nest, placed at the top of a tree in an old hollow branch, is built of moss, hair, and feathers. This species lays from eight to ten reddish white eggs, speckled and spotted with brown. The plumage of the young birds differs from that of the older ones, only in being less bright and glossy. DISEASES.--Most of these birds that are caught in winter, are attacked with vertigo, or giddiness, after being in the house a few days, fall to the right and left, and being unable to find their food, soon die. MODE OF TAKING.--They may be caught in the same way as the oxeye. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The blue tit is easily tamed, and lives two or three years. Its beauty and activity are more attractive than its song, which is merely an indistinct warbling, composed of a few strains, amongst which some higher notes are occasionally introduced. THE MARSH TIT. [Illustration] Parus palustris, LINN�US; La Mésange des marais, BUFFON; Der Sumpfmeise, BECHSTEIN. The length of this bird is four inches and a half, of which the tail measures nearly two; the beak is four lines in length, and black; the shanks are five lines high, and lead blue; the upper part of the head, as far as the nape, is black; the temples and cheeks are white; the upper part of the body is brownish grey; the throat is black. The female has less black on the throat than the male. HABITATION.--In their wild state, these birds, during the summer, frequent groves and orchards; in winter, they assemble in flocks, and when they move from place to place, always fly in a line one behind the other[113]. In the house they should be allowed to flutter and hop about freely; they are very delicate, and require a great deal of care at first. FOOD.--When wild, they feed on insects, seeds, and elderberries, according to the season. In the house they eat the same things as other tits; but at first, ants' eggs and elderberries must be added. The seeds of the sunflower (_Helianthus major_) have succeeded best with me, and preserved them in health longest. They will also eat hemp-seed and oats. BREEDING.--They lay ten or twelve rusty white eggs, spotted with reddish yellow, in a hole of a tree, on a bed of moss, hair, and feathers. MODE OF TAKING.--In winter they will easily enter a trap baited with nut kernels or oats. A surer method is, to lay limed twigs on a sunflower plant, the seeds of which are ripe. If these tits do not enter the garden, a plant must be carried to a place much frequented by them. When once these birds have tasted these seeds, they appear quite contented in the house. It is only necessary to supply them freely; they will seize them eagerly directly after being taken. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Their pretty actions please, and their song is sweet. They relieve it occasionally by a lively strain, "_diar, diar, hitzi, ailtz, ailtz!_" which is their call in the pairing season. I was never able to keep one in the house beyond two or three years. THE CRESTED TIT. Parus cristatus, LINN�US; La Mésange huppée, BUFFON; Die Haubenmeise, BECHSTEIN. This bird is four inches and a half in length, of which the tail measures one and one third. The beak is four lines, and black; the shanks are seven lines high, and lead blue; the head is adorned with a crest, composed of feathers nearly an inch long, black tipped with white, which the bird can erect at pleasure in a conical form. HABITATION.--When wild these birds frequent all the pine and fir woods in Thuringia, but are not so numerous as the other species[114]. They fly about low bushes, and therefore delight in places where juniper bushes abound. In the house they require the same treatment as the blue tit, and even greater attention; they can rarely be tamed when taken full grown[115]. FOOD.--In a wild state it feeds in the same manner as the cole tit. In the house it must be first fed on ants' eggs, flies, and meal-worms. It will afterwards eat nuts and hemp-seed, like the other tits, but it seems to require insects occasionally. BREEDING.--The nest is formed like that of the cole tit, and placed in the hole of a tree, amongst some stones, or in large forsaken nests. The brood consists of from six to ten snow-white eggs, spotted with bright red. The young must be reared on meal-worms cut small and ants' eggs. MODE OF TAKING.--This is the same which is adopted for catching the cole tits. Its call is "_gærrky_." ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Its song is not striking, but its form and habits are very pleasing. THE BEARDED TIT, OR REED BIRD. [Illustration] Parus biarmicus, LINN�US; La Mésange barbue, BUFFON; Die Bartmeise, BECHSTEIN. This singular species is somewhat in shape like the oxeye. It is six inches and a half in length, and measures ten and a quarter across the expanded wings; the tail is two and three quarters. The beak is four lines long, a little bent at the point, and is orange during life, but becomes pale yellow after death; it is surrounded at the base with black hairs. The iris is yellow; the shanks are one inch high, and black; the head is pale ash grey; a tuft of black feathers, which are placed under the eyes and terminate in a point, is no very slight imitation of a moustache. The tail is wedge-shaped, inclining to orange; the outer feathers are dark at the base and whitish at the tip; the third is tipped with white. The female is without the beard, or moustache[116]; the top of the head is rust red, spotted with black; the vent is of the same colour as the belly. HABITATION.--In a wild state these birds are found where there are lakes, large ponds, and extensive marshes full of reeds and aquatic plants; they rarely show themselves in summer, keeping in pairs amongst the tufted reeds; but they are seen in winter, when food failing them in these retreats, they fly about in families, perching on the trees and bushes[117]. In the house they must be kept in a large cage to allow them plenty of exercise, unless permitted to range the room, which is still better. FOOD.--When wild this bird feeds principally on aquatic insects and the seeds of the common reed (_Arundo phragmitis_). In the house they are generally first fed on poppy-seed, ants' eggs, and meal-worms, and afterwards on bruised hemp-seed and the food common for the other tits. It is best to rear them from the nest, as it is very difficult to preserve those taken when full grown. BREEDING.--The knowledge on this head is very limited: the nest, placed in the interwoven stems of the reeds, is in the shape of a purse, and composed of dried grass and the down of several plants. In this the female lays four or five speckled eggs, with a pale red ground. The young birds should be taken from the nest when they are ready to fly, and fed on ants' eggs and meal-worms cut small. MODE OF TAKING.--There is much difficulty in this. Fishermen who know the places frequented by this species place limed twigs on the reeds, and try gently to drive them towards one side, and sometimes catch a few[118]. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--In this bird are united beautiful plumage, a graceful shape, and sprightliness. Its song resembles that of the blue tit, but its call is very different. It is a pity it is so difficult to obtain. Buffon says that all of this species that are found in England sprang from a pair the Countess of Albemarle suffered to escape; but most likely they had not been seen before from want of attention. [Illustration: CATO'S DOVE'S BREEDING CAGE.] DOVES. CHARACTERISTICS.--The beak is slender, straight, rather bent at the point, swelled, and covered with a fleshy membrane at the base; the shanks are short; the toes are divided to their origin. Doves feed uniformly on grain, though some wild species also eat myrtle berries. These birds are faithful to their mates, and produce only two young ones at each brood, which they feed on grain already softened in their own crops[119]. They are generally ranged amongst the passerine birds, or among poultry, but I think it best to make them a distinct order, since they have many distinguishing characteristics. The species I shall mention are indigenous, and easily tamed at any age. THE RING DOVE, OR CUSHAT. [Illustration] Columba Palumbus, LINN�US; Le Pigeon Ramier, BUFFON; Die Ringeltaube, BECHSTEIN. This is the largest of the European wild pigeons, being in length seventeen inches and a half. Some naturalists suppose this to be the parent stock of our large domestic pigeons; but it cannot be domesticated so easily as the stock dove, and never mixes with the common pigeons in the fields. It does not, moreover, retire into hollows, like these, but lives and builds in open and exposed places. The beak is reddish white; the iris is pale yellow; the shanks are reddish; the head and throat are dark ash grey; the front of the neck and the breast are purplish ash grey; the sides and back of the neck are fine iridescent purple; an almost crescent-shaped white streak adorns the sides of the neck towards the base, without quite surrounding it; the belly, the vent, and the thighs, are very pale grey; the sides are light ash grey; the upper part of the back, the scapulars, and the lesser wing-coverts, are light brownish ash grey; the coverts of the primary quill-feathers are black; the remaining greater coverts are pale ash grey; the tail is dark ash grey, deepening into black at the extremity. In the female the streaks on the sides of the neck are not so wide as in the male; her breast is paler, and all the wing-coverts are an obscure grey. HABITATION.--This species, found in Europe and Asia within the temperate zone, is very common in the woods of Germany and Britain: it quits us the beginning of October, in small flights, and does not return till the middle of March, and sometimes later, always some weeks after the stock dove. During harvest it frequents small groves and detached thickets, to be nearer the corn fields. FOOD.--It feeds on all kinds of corn and leguminous seeds, myrtle berries, with the seeds of pines and firs. When a ring dove is caught it must be first fed on wheat, and other species of corn should by degrees be mixed with it, but not oats. It will only live a few years in the house. BREEDING.--This species builds in trees, and forms its nest of dried branches, but so carelessly that a rather high wind will often blow it down. The female has two broods in the year, and lays two large white eggs each time. It succeeds very well to place these eggs under a domestic pigeon, and if care is taken to prevent the young birds from migrating in autumn they will afterwards remain in the pigeon house, going out and returning like the other pigeons that inhabit it; but I have never observed that they pair with them; I have sometimes seen the ring dove tread the domestic pigeon, but as yet nothing has resulted from it; future experiments may perhaps decide this point. MODE OF TAKING.--This is the same as with the stock dove. Ring doves taken when old rarely eat, and die of hunger if they are not crammed, like young pigeons. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Besides being a fine bird, the male coos in a very pleasing and sonorous manner, moving all the time around his mate, now before, then behind, hopping close to her side, and turning his head in every direction. It may be rendered very tame. THE TURTLE DOVE. Columba Turtur, LINN�US; La Tourterelle, BUFFON; Die Turteltaube, BECHSTEIN. This pretty species is ten or eleven inches in length. The beak is slender, and pale blue; the iris is reddish yellow; the naked circle round the eyes is blush red; the legs and feet are reddish purple; the forehead is whitish; the top of the head and upper part of the neck are pale blue; from this to the tail the blue is more dingy; on each side of the neck is a black spot striped with three of four crescent-shaped white lines, which has a pretty effect. HABITATION.--In their wild state these birds are found throughout the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, and also in many of the South Sea Islands. They always prefer woods, but never go far into those on great chains of mountains; they also frequent detached thickets, and even orchards when near forests. Being more delicate than the two preceding species, they do not arrive in our woods till the end of April or beginning of May, and quit us in September. They are often seen in great numbers in the forests of Thuringia when the pine seed has ripened well. In 1788 a prodigious number were seen; they have never since been so numerous there[120]. In the house we keep them within a grated partition near the stove, where they can range freely. Young ones reared by a domestic pigeon are easily accustomed to the dovecot, but as they are very sensible to cold it is necessary to warm the place they are in during winter. These birds multiply fast, either paired amongst themselves or with the collared turtle dove. FOOD.--The seeds of the pine seem to be their favourite food here, but they do not confine themselves to it; they eat peas, vetches, millet, hemp-seed, rye, and wheat. In the house they may be fed on bread and any grain at hand: they are easily preserved. BREEDING.--When wild, their nest, negligently formed of dried sticks, is tolerably secure when placed in a pine, but is often blown down when in a beech. The female lays two white eggs. In the house the turtle dove is given a small straw basket, in which it builds, for, whether reared from the nest, or taken when full grown, it pairs without difficulty, and produces young ones. It will also pair with the collared turtle. The cooing of the male is peculiar; he utters a deep prolonged sound, then bends his head and stops. The young birds are grey on the upper part of the body, and spotted with bluish black on the wings. Those sprung from a collared and a common turtle dove are more or less like either; generally they are reddish grey on the head, neck, and breast, the back and wing-coverts, with red appearing through the grey; the belly, the secondary quill-feathers, and the end of the tail, are white, and the primaries greyish brown. These birds are fruitful, and produce others; what is curious is that they are larger than the parent birds, and have a peculiar note. This is certainly also the case with other mule birds, as I have often observed. MODE OF TAKING.--This is the same as with the two preceding species; snares placed where salt is strewed for deer are sufficient. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--The inhabitants of our forest villages are very fond of having this turtle dove in their stove apartments, less on account of its agreeable qualities than from the persuasion that it cures their colds and rheumatisms. It is certainly true that this bird is generally ill during the illness of its masters[121]. It will, however, live six or eight years in the house. THE COLLARED TURTLE. Columba risoria, LINN�US; La Tourterelle à collier, BUFFON; Die Lachtaube, BECHSTEIN. This bird is twelve inches in length; the beak is reddish white at the base, and dusky on the remaining part; the iris is golden yellow; the shanks are red; the upper part of the body is reddish white, the under part is pure white; the back of the neck is adorned with a black crescent, the points of which turn forward, and the lower part is edged with white; the shafts of the quill and tail feathers are dusky. The female is whiter than the male. HABITATION.--This species is a native of India and China, from which it has been brought to Europe. It is very common among our peasants, who fancy it has the power of curing their colds and rheumatisms[122]. They assign these poor birds some grated place near the stove, sometimes under a bench; if they are allowed to range, their wings must be clipped, to prevent their flying against the windows, and breaking them. They will generally run under the stove, as they are fond of warmth. They may be accustomed to the dovecot, but their showy plumage often occasions them to fall a prey to carnivorous birds. It is also necessary either to warm the dovecot, or remove them to a heated room during the winter. FOOD.--They prefer wheat, and this should be their common food; they will also eat millet, linseed, poppy, and rape-seed, and even bread. The peasants give them the siftings of their corn. BREEDING.--A piece of fur, or soft stuff, or still better, a little basket, serves as the foundation for their nests. To this they merely add a little straw, on which they lay two white eggs. They sit on these a fortnight, but rarely hatch more than one, either from the egg being unfruitful, or from the carelessness of the parent birds. It is therefore rare to see them rear six young ones in the year. These resemble the old ones, and the sex is known by the absence or presence of the reddish colour. DISEASES.--Besides decline, they are subject to all the diseases that attack the persons shut up in the same room; small-pox, when the children have it; swollen legs, when any one is attacked with this complaint; and tumours in the feet, when these are prevalent. Thus we see they partake of the diseases of their masters, but without curing them, which is contrary to the ridiculous persuasion of the ignorant peasant. Yet with all these evils they will live seven years. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--These birds are very neat and gentle. Their cooing resembles laughter; but, besides this, the male has other tones still more tender, to invite his mate to come to the nest, and he passes the night close to her side. When he coos he does not turn like the domestic pigeon, but hops forward a little, then stops, bends his head to the ground, and swells his crop. [Illustration: THE QUAIL.] POULTRY. CHARACTERISTICS.--These birds are characterised by the beak being raised, and the upper mandible being arched, so that the edges of it go beyond those of the under mandible. The nostrils are covered with a convex cartilaginous membrane; the tail is composed of more than twelve feathers; the toes are connected as far as the first joint. Most of the species feed on grain, which is softened in their crops. I only know of six species that can be tamed in the house. THE COMMON PARTRIDGE. Tetrao Perdrix, LINN�US; La Perdrix grise, BUFFON; Das gemeine Rebhuhn, BECHSTEIN. This well known bird, which is very fleshy, and has but few feathers, measures twelve inches and a half. Its beak is bluish, the feet brownish blush red; under each eye is a naked skin of a bright scarlet colour; the general colour of the plumage is brown and ash grey, mixed with black; the forehead, a streak above the eyes, and the throat, are fine chestnut brown; the fore part of the neck and the breast are ash grey, with very fine black lines; below the breast is a deep chestnut brown streak in the shape of a horse shoe, which is not found in the female, or at least not so large nor so clearly defined; the quill-feathers are dusky, with cross bands of rust red; the tail-feathers are rust brown. HABITATION.--The common partridge is found throughout Europe, in fields and adjoining woods: when in the open country, thickets and bushes serve as a retreat during the night. In wide plains, where the frosts are severe, and the snow so deep that the game is in danger of perishing, it is customary, in winter, to catch in a net as many as possible of these birds, and keep them in a warmed room with a high ceiling. If such a room cannot be had, the top of the room and windows should be hung with cloth, to prevent the frightened birds from injuring themselves. FOOD.--In the house, when permitted to range, partridges may be fed on barley and wheat. They will also eat bread, the common universal paste, cabbage, beet, and lettuce; for they like green vegetables, and these are almost indispensable to their health. In a state of liberty, they generally feed in winter on the tops of grass and young springing seeds. In the summer, they eat clover and other green plants, as well as all kinds of grain. They often roll in moist sand, which they should be allowed to do in the house. BREEDING.--The best way to domesticate the partridge, is to rear it young, in which case it becomes extremely tame, and its habits are very pleasing. These young birds must be fed at first on ants' eggs and hens' eggs boiled hard and chopped up with salad; afterwards they will eat barley and other dry food. The covey often consists of twenty young ones, which follow the mother as soon as they are hatched, and often fall in the way of mowers, shepherds, and huntsmen. I am persuaded that it would not be difficult to render these birds quite domestic, if the eggs were hatched by our barn-door fowls, in an open, yet enclosed place, clipping the wings of the young ones, allowing them to range, during the summer, in a garden surrounded with walls, and giving them plenty of food. Supposing that this plan did not quite succeed the first summer, one would have at least half-tamed birds, which, by following the same plan, would gradually become more and more accustomed to domestic food, the society of man, and would certainly at last breed in the house, like our common fowls. THE COMMON QUAIL. Tetrao coturnix, LINN�US; La Caille, BUFFON; Die Wachtel, BECHSTEIN. This species is the most common of wild poultry kept in the house. It is rather more than seven inches in length. The beak is short and horn-coloured, dusky in summer, and ash grey in winter, like the partridge's and common fowl's; the iris is olive brown; the feet pale bluish red; on the upper part of the body are dusky and rust-red spots, with some small white streaks; the throat is dusky, surrounded with two chestnut brown bands; the front of the neck and the breast are pale rust red, with some longitudinal dark streaks; the belly is dusky white; the thighs are reddish grey; the quill-feathers are dark grey, crossed by many rust red lines; the tail is short, dark brown, with pale rust red streaks across it. The female differs sensibly; her throat is white, and her breast, paler than that of the male, is spotted with black like the thrush's. HABITATION.--When wild the quail is found throughout the old world. Unlike the other species of poultry, it is a bird of passage, arriving in Europe in May, and departing the end of September. It keeps continually in corn fields, preferring those of wheat. In the house, if allowed to range, its gentleness, neatness, and peculiar motions, are seen to advantage; but it is often kept in a cage of the following make:--A small box two feet long, one foot deep, and four high, of any shape which is preferred; in this are left two or three openings, one for drinking at, the other to give light; besides this all is dark; the bottom is a drawer, which should be covered with sand, and have a seed drawer at one end; the top is of green cloth, for as the quail often springs up it would hurt itself were it of wood. This case should be suspended during the summer outside the window, for the quail sings much more when confined in this manner than if allowed to range the room, where there are many things to call off its attention from its song[123]. When a male without the female is allowed to run about the room, it is always necessary to shut it up in June (the pairing season), or else its ardent feelings tempt it to attack all the other birds, particularly those with a dark plumage, somewhat resembling its own. Larks, for example, it will follow, and pluck out their feathers till they are nearly bare. FOOD.--In a wild state the quail feeds on wheat and other corn, rape-seed, millet, hemp-seed, and the like. It also eats green vegetables, as well as insects, and particularly ants' eggs. In the house it is fed on the same food, adding bread, barley meal mixed with milk, the universal paste, and occasionally salad or cabbage chopped up small, and, that it may want nothing to keep it in health, plenty of river sand for it to roll in and to peck up grains, which assist its digestion; but this sand must be damp, for if dry it will not touch it. It drinks a great deal, and the water, contrary to the opinion of some persons, should be clear, never turbid. It moults twice in the year, once in autumn, and again in spring; it then requires river sand, and greater attention than at other times. BREEDING.--The quail breeds very late, never before July. Its nest, if it can be called so, is a hole scratched in the earth, in which it lays from ten to fourteen bluish-white eggs, with large brown spots. These are hatched after three weeks' incubation. The young ones, all hairy, follow the mother the moment they leave the shell. Their feathers grow quickly, for in the autumn they are able to depart with her to the southern countries. The males are so ardent, that if one is placed in a room with a female, he will pursue her immediately with extraordinary eagerness, tearing off her feathers if she resists in the least; he is less violent if he has been in the same room with her during the year. The female, in this case, lays a great many eggs, but rarely sits on them; yet if young ones are brought her from the fields, she eagerly receives them under her wings, and becomes a very affectionate mother to them. The young must be fed on eggs boiled hard and cut small, but the best way is to take the mother with the covey, which may be done with a net. She watches over them attentively, and they are more easily reared. During the first year one would think that all in the covey were females, the males resemble them so much, particularly before the brown shows itself on the throat. MODE OF TAKING.--There are several different methods of taking quails, but I shall only mention the commonest and easiest. The male birds are generally caught in a net, called a quail-net, by means of a call which imitates the cry of the female in the breeding season; it is the way adopted by bird-catchers in the spring, when they wish to take a male that sings in a superior manner, that is, which repeats a dozen times following the syllables "_pieveroie_." If the male has not yet met with a mate, and if he has not been rendered suspicious by some unskilful bird-catcher, he will run eagerly into the snare. The most important thing is to have a good call; they may be had cheap of turners at Nuremberg, who make them of leather, with a pipe turned from the bone of a cat or hare, or the leg of a stork; but they may easily be made by any body. The first thing necessary is a piece of calf-skin, one foot in length, and four inches in breadth, the sides must be sewed together within two inches of the end, and the bottom filled with a piece of wood an inch and a half in length, and rings composed of thick leather, the diameter of the interior opening not exceeding an inch and a half, are pushed into the sewed cylinder, and kept about a quarter of an inch apart; the whole may afterwards be pressed close together, making the rings touch each other; then a tube made of the bone of a goose or hare, and filled at the end like a common whistle, is fastened to the part of the cylinder left unsewed; the interior is then stopped with wax near the notch on the side of the leather, and a hole pierced through it with a knitting-needle; the upper part of the tube must also be stopped with wax, and lastly, the lower part, which is thus become a kind of whistle, is very firmly tied to the unsewn part of the cylinder. When the call is to be used, the lower end must be held firmly in one hand, and the leather cylinder worked up and down with the other, making the rings approach and separate, which produces the notes of the female, "_peuk, peuk, pupu_." As soon as the male quail is heard that you wish to procure, you must advance softly to within fifty paces of his station, and place the tray amongst the wheat in such a position as will suffer it to fall level with the ground, to prevent the bird's passing under and escaping. Then retire a few steps back, when the quail will soon utter its song, to which reply with two or three notes, that when the quail is silent he may only hear one or two, from the call exactly resembling the cry of the female. If this is not done with care, the bird will suspect treachery, and will either retire or remain silent, and never after fall into such a snare; but if skilfully done, it is surprising to see how the bird proceeds directly to the call: if by chance he miss the trap, he will go so near as to be within reach of the hand; in this case it is best to retire softly to the other side of the trap and repeat the call, which will again attract it. There are some quails that know how to avoid the net, particularly if placed in too open and exposed a place. In this case it is safest to turn it in a corner at both ends, and thus when it tries to turn it becomes entangled. It is proper to notice, that in damp weather, or when it rains, the quail does not run, but flies immediately towards the call. It does this also in dewy mornings and evenings; dry days should therefore be chosen for this chase. In the pairing season, two, three, or even four quails may be taken at the same place. If no male is heard in the field, the call of the female must be well imitated on a larger and more powerful bird-call, and, if any males are within hearing, they will not fail to answer; the person must then advance quickly, placing the net so as to stop their road, and repeat the call. When a female is to be caught, it is best to employ a common net, such as is used to take quails in autumn; but this chase should be deferred till towards the end of harvest, when most of the corn is cut, and only a few pieces left standing, which serve to harbour numbers of these birds. Several nets are used at once, as many as six or eight; some of them are placed across the field of corn, and the others parallel to them at the extremity of the same field: this being done, the party go to the opposite side and begin to drive the quails into the nets in the middle of the field by means of a packthread stretched across the corn, having little bells suspended to it by threads, so as almost to touch the ground, two persons holding it, and as they advance shaking it from time to time. As soon as the prisoners are secured, the march is continued towards the nets at the end of the field; and in this manner great numbers of quails, both male and female, are procured either for the house or for the table. ATTRACTIVE QUALITIES.--Besides beauty of form and plumage, the song of this bird is no slight recommendation to the amateur. In the breeding season, that of the male commences by repeating softly, tones resembling "_verra, verra_," followed by the word "_pieveroie_," uttered in a bold tone, with the neck raised, the eyes shut, and the head inclined on one side. Those that repeat the last syllables ten or twelve times consecutively, are the most esteemed. That of the female only consists of "_verra, verra_," "_pupu, pupu_," the two last syllables being those by which the male and the female attract each other's attention; when alarmed or angry their cry resembles "_guillah!_" but at other times it is only a murmur, resembling the purring of a cat. The quail never sings when left to run about in a light room, except during the night, but continually when in a darkened cage. Those reared from the nest begin to sing the end of December, and continue till September; whilst those taken full grown rarely commence till the beginning of May, and cease in August. [Illustration] [Illustration: THE STORK.] WADING BIRDS. The birds of this order are more or less bare above the knees; their legs are so long, that they have the appearance of standing on stilts. They may be tamed at any age, but this is best done when they are young. I shall only give here the following species. THE WHITE STORK. Ciconia alba, LINN�US; La Cicogne blanche, BUFFON; Der Weisse Storch, BECHSTEIN. The stork may be considered as half domestic, since it constantly builds on the tops of houses, on churches or towers in the midst of villages, and even towns[124]. Its beak is long and powerful, of a blood red colour, as are its legs and feet. It has a naked black ring round its eyes; the wings are black; the rest of the plumage white. OBSERVATIONS.--It is a bird of passage, which quits Europe the end of September, and returns in April. It feeds on fish, amphibious animals, field-mice, moles, and even weasels, which it catches coming out of their holes. It also eats insects, especially bees, which it catches by the beakfull on flowers. Its nest is only a heap of dry sticks woven together, and it occupies the same nest every year, after repairing it a little. I have been assured, that some nests have lasted a hundred years; and the circumference often becomes covered with sparrows and swallows' nests. The male and female never separate, and are a true model of conjugal fidelity. If the young ones are taken from the nest, and fed on frogs and meat, they may be rendered so tame that they will go a league from the house, and return again regularly. At the time of their flight, in September, the wings of those that are to be kept through the winter should be clipped, and they should be kept in a temperate place, as their feet are very sensible to cold. They become so familiar that they will enter the room during meals, to be fed on meat from the table. A clapping with their beak expresses either anger or affection. It is very pleasing to see a tame stork circling round the house, and descending insensibly in a long spiral line till it reaches the ground. THE BLACK STORK. Ardea nigra, LINN�US; Der schwarze Storch, BECHSTEIN. This species is nearly as large as the white stork, and is of the same form, but its limbs are weaker and more delicate. Its colour is a glossy brownish black, with the breast and belly white. It frequents woods in the neighbourhood of marshes, lakes, and large ponds, and makes its nest on the trees. Its habits and manner of feeding are similar to those of the white stork. In rearing the young ones, they may be accustomed to remain in the house, and will soon become familiar. THE WOODCOCK. Scolopax rusticola, LINN�US; La Bécasse, BUFFON; Die Waldschnepfe, BECHSTEIN. The woodcock is found in every part of Europe where there are forests. The beak is three or four inches in length, straight, and reddish at the base; the back of the head is crossed with dusky bands; the upper part of the body and wings are rust brown, streaked with grey and black; the breast and belly are dusky white, with dark brown lines. OBSERVATIONS.--The woodcock builds its nest on the ground in mountainous districts; lays three or four dusky pale yellow eggs, and feeds on worms, snails, and the grubs of insects, which it seeks in meadows, marshes, and fields. In October it quits the high lands for more temperate parts; this migration is called its _passage_, and as these birds constantly follow the same route, this is the time when fowlers, scattered in its destined path, prepare for a chase, either with guns or large nets made for the purpose, and await the moment when these birds quit the meadows for the woods, or the woods for the meadows. The flight of woodcocks is slow and awkward, but they are very fine game, the flesh being wholesome and of an excellent flavour; they are generally cooked without taking out the intestines. In the house, by beginning with insects and ants' eggs, the woodcock may be accustomed by degrees to the universal paste. Twenty years ago I saw, in an aviary at Carlsruhe, a tame woodcock that would come from his cage and show himself to strangers; it was a male, and appeared very willing to pair, if it could have found a mate. THE COMMON SNIPE. Scolopax Gallinago, LINN�US; La Bécassine, BUFFON; Die Heerschnepfe, BECHSTEIN. This Snipe is nearly the size of the quail, and inhabits the northern countries of Europe, Asia, and America, migrating in autumn to more temperate parts. Its rough beak is black in the front; its feet are brown; the head is divided longitudinally by two reddish brown lines; the back is dark brown, with streaks across; the throat is white; the neck is brown, speckled with brick red; the belly is white; the vent is striped with black; the quill-feathers are dark brown, tipped with white; the tail-feathers are black from the base, tipped with orange, and having two dark brown streaks. OBSERVATIONS.--The snipe darts through the air at a great height, and descends like an arrow, continually uttering the cry "_maicherai_." It is found in marshy places, abounding with bushes and brambles; in a hole in the ground, washed by the water, it lays four or five dusky olive-coloured eggs, streaked with brown. Its common food is worms, and the grubs of insects, but it will eat corn, and the tender roots of marsh plants. Every one knows that it is delicate eating; but many are ignorant that it may be tamed, and that it is then a very pleasing bird. THE LAPWING. [Illustration] Tringa Vanellus, LINN�US; Le Vanneu, BUFFON; Der gemeine Kiebetz, BECHSTEIN. This bird is well known throughout Europe wherever there are water meadows. It is greenish on the back and wings; black on the breast; and has red feet, and a handsome crest. OBSERVATIONS.--It feeds on all sorts of insects, small snails, worms, and even plants. The young ones are easily tamed. They are first fed on ants' eggs, and then gradually accustomed to bread, and even bran mixed with milk. The eggs may be placed under pigeons, but care is necessary when they are hatched, as they run the moment they leave the shell. The old birds may be kept in the garden if the wings are clipped, where they destroy the insects and worms; but they must be brought into the house in the winter, and fed at first on bullocks' heart cut in the form of worms, then with less care, till by degrees they become accustomed to other meat, and even to bread. As these birds are much esteemed game, snares are laid for them in places they frequent in large flocks. They are either taken in nets, throwing worms as baits, or with nooses made of horse hair, and set in the paths they trace in the rushes, or, which is cruel and destructive, in the neighbourhood of their nests. THE RUFF. Tringa pugnax, LINN�US; Le Combattant, ou Paon de Mer, BUFFON; Die Kampfhahn, BECHSTEIN. The ruff is about the size of the lapwing, and is found in the north of Europe, near lakes, ponds, and extensive marshes. It is almost the only wild bird whose plumage varies like our domesticated ones, ash-grey, brown, black, and white, being combined in a thousand different ways, so that it is rare to meet with two birds alike. The following are the characteristics of the species:--1st, a kind of ruff or collar, formed of long feathers hanging around the neck, which are raised when the bird is angry, and stand out on all sides; 2nd, the face red, and covered with pimples; the beak and feet also red. The colours of the females are more uniform:--pale brown, the back streaked with black, the breast and belly white, and the neck plain without the ruff. It feeds on insects, worms, and roots, and makes its nest in a tuft of grass or rushes. The females are tolerably good for the table, but the male must be fattened before it is eatable. The irritable and quarrelsome disposition of these birds is astonishing. When two males meet they are often so enraged with each other that a net may be passed over them without their perceiving it. If several are placed in the same cage, they will kill one another. The young ones may easily be reared; but it is extraordinary, that in the house, their inclination to fight abandons them; whilst most other birds, pacific in a state of freedom, are continually quarrelling and pecking one another when confined. It is customary in the duchy of Bremen to put these birds into enclosed gardens to destroy worms and other insects, but they retire into the house for the winter; and here the old ones still quarrel both for food and the place they wish to lie down in. They are fed on bread soaked in milk, and meat. THE PURR. Tringa Cinclus, LINN�US; L'Alouette de Mer, BUFFON; Der Meerlerche, BECHSTEIN. This is a marsh bird, about the size of the redwing, and is very common on the banks of rivers, lakes, and large ponds. When it rises in the air it cries continually "_tzi, tzi, tzi, tzi_." Its beak is black, and its feet dark brownish green; the feathers on the upper part of the body are grey, glossy, and silky, with blackish bands notched on the sides, and bordered on the outer edge with rust red; a whitish streak passes above the eyes, whilst a narrow dark brown line crosses them; the under part of the body is pure white, but the breast is striped with dark brown; the quill-feathers are black, the anterior having a broad white streak on the inner web, the others having the same on the outer web; the greater coverts are tipped with white, which form two spots on the wings; the three middle feathers of the tail are grey brown with black bands; the others are white, with dark brown bands. The female is rather larger, and her plumage is paler. OBSERVATIONS.--It is easy to obtain this bird, which has many attractions for the amateur. It runs quickly, continually shaking the back part of its body, and repeating, particularly towards evening, its loud and tender call, "_hidutzt_." When wild it eats insects and worms, found near the water. In the house it will soon eat the universal paste, if a few meal-worms and ants' eggs are at first thrown amongst it. If there are other birds in the same room, the water vessel should be removed from the food, or another vessel devoted to it, for not being able to swallow what is not soft, it carries all its food to the water to soak, and thus renders it dirty. It catches insects very dexterously; it advances slowly like a cat, its head bent down, and then darts forward swiftly and slyly. I admire their habits so much that I have one generally in my house. I have observed that all the species of snipes have the habit of turning over any stones they meet with, to look for insects under. It is very easy to take the purr as soon as the stakes, sticks, and other places where they most commonly alight, are known; it is only to put bird-lime on them and drive the birds gently towards the part. This and the corn crake are the only two marsh birds that should properly be reckoned among house-birds. THE MOOR HEN. Fulica enloropus, LINN�US; La Poule d'Eau, BUFFON; Die grünfüssiges Meehuhn, BECHSTEIN. The length of this species is ten or twelve inches. The beak is greenish at the tip, red towards the base; the naked spaces above the knees are of the same colour; the feet are olive green; the claws are very long; the head, the upper part of the neck, the body, and the wing-coverts are dark olive green; the anterior quill-feathers and the tail are dark brown; the breast and belly are ash-grey; the vent and edges of the wings are white. In the female the beak is olive brown towards the base, instead of red. OBSERVATIONS.--Though not web-footed, this species swims as well as those birds that are, and has this advantage over them, that it can rest on trees and bushes by the water side, like land birds, and can also run when inclined. Its nest is placed among bushes that are in the water, or on reeds, and is built of water plants, especially reeds well interwoven; it is so firmly fastened, that if the water rises it floats, but is not carried away; the eggs are often surrounded with water. It feeds on insects, seeds, and aquatic plants. It is easily tamed, particularly when taken young; it likes white bread soaked in milk. I often have these birds in my poultry-yard among my fowls; they go to a neighbouring pond, and regularly return after a short time. I never took any trouble to tame them; they always kept near the water, by the dunghill, seeking after insects and grubs. THE CORN CRAKE. [Illustration] Rallus Crex, LINN�US; Le Rale de Cenet, ou Roi de Cailles, BUFFON; Der Wachtelkönig, BECHSTEIN. The corn crake being always found with quails in proportionate numbers, departing with them in autumn, and returning at the same time in spring, no doubt deserves the name Buffon has given it of King of the Quails. It is ten inches in length. The beak is flattish, greyish brown above, and bluish red beneath; the feet are lead grey; the feathers of the head, of the back of the neck, of the back, and even of the tail, are black, edged with reddish grey; which gives them the appearance of being streaked; a grey ash-coloured streak passes above the eyes, another below them; the wing-coverts and anterior quill-feathers are chestnut brown; the front of the neck and the breast are dusky ash-grey; the belly is white, but the sides and vent are dark brown, spotted with rusty brown and white. The breast of the female is pale grey, and the streaks near her eyes greyish white. OBSERVATIONS.--The male is often heard uttering his kind of croaking notes, "_arrp, schnarrp_," in the meadows and fields, in the evening and at night; but is rarely seen to fly. It feeds on insects and grain, for which bread soaked in milk may be substituted, when it is in the house. The female lays from eight to twelve greenish grey eggs, streaked with pale brown, on the bare ground; the young ones, when hatched, are covered with a kind of black down, the feathers of varied colours do not appear for three weeks. The hen sits with so much constancy, that she will often perish by the sithe rather than quit her eggs. The young, like the young quails, run under the oat sheaves, and may easily be caught there by the hand. The agility of these birds, and their pleasing habits, render them much admired in the house; they chirp very much like chickens. I confess I like very much to hear the "_arrp, schnarrp_" of the male in the evening near me. [Illustration: THE SWAN.] WEB-FOOTED BIRDS. The birds arranged in this order are also known, under the name of aquatic birds. They are distinguished by their feet, the toes being united by a broad membrane, which assists them in swimming. Several live uniformly on the water, others in companies on the water and on the land. There are many that may be tamed, but I shall only speak of those that are able to live without being on the water. The number is thus confined to six species, easily tamed at any age. THE SWAN. Anas Olor, LINN�US; Le gigne, BUFFON; Der Schwan, BECHSTEIN. Instead of the common name of tame swan, I prefer that of mute swan, in order to distinguish this from the whistling, also called the wild swan, but improperly, for in Russia it is more common to have that tamed than the one under notice. This, however, is found wild throughout most parts of Europe, and in great numbers in Siberia. In Germany, when a person wishes to have one on a piece of water, and to keep it there constantly, he chooses some young ones, and breaks or cuts the first bone in the wing, to disable them from flying, and consequently prevent their departing in the autumn with their wild companions. The swan is larger than a domestic goose, it is four feet and a half in length, on account of its long neck, which it bends in the form of an S when it is swimming; it measures seven feet and a quarter from tip to tip of the wings, and weighs from twenty-five to thirty pounds. The beak is dark red, having at the base a large black callous knob, and at the tip something resembling the head of a nail, black, and rather bent; a bare black triangular streak extends from the beak to the eyes; the feet are black the first year, lead grey the second, and reddish lead grey at last; the plumage is a snowy white. OBSERVATIONS.--The story of its melodious death-song is now quite exploded; the organisation of its windpipe permits only a slight hiss, a dull murmur, and a gentle croaking. Song, properly so called, belongs exclusively to the whistling swan; a poet may have heard it once, and without observing the difference between the birds, have attributed it to the common swan. The latter feeds on insects and aquatic plants; during the winter corn should be given it, and it must be kept in a temperate place. The female forms a large nest, of the stalks of rushes, reeds, and other plants, and lines it with feathers from her breast. She lays six or eight greenish white eggs, and sits on them five weeks. During this time, the male is always near her, driving away and pursuing all that would approach. He has such strength of wing, that a well-aimed blow of it would break a man's leg. The young ones are at first grey. It is said that swans will live a hundred years. Their utility as well as their beauty would merit more attention than is commonly paid to their education, which is easier than that of geese. Lithuania, Poland, and eastern Prussia, send several quintals every year to the fair of Frankfort upon Oder. Many tame swans are also collected on the Sprey, round Berlin, Spandau, and Potsdam; particularly in May, to rob them of their down. The skins with the down on them are prepared for pelisses; powder puffs are also made of it. THE SHELDRAKE. Anas Tadorna, LINN�US; Le Tadorne, BUFFON; Der Bruntente, BECHSTEIN. This species measures two feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail; the beak is smooth, flattish, and of a scarlet colour; a fleshy knob covers the upper base; the nostrils and nail at the end of the beak are black; the feet are bluish red; the head and upper part of the neck are duck green; the rest of the neck and belly are white; a wide orange brown band crosses the breast; the back, with the wing-coverts, is white; the scapulars are speckled with black; the first quill-feathers are black, the following violet, the middle ones rusty brown, and the last white; the speculum is green, reflecting a beautiful violet; the feathers of the tail are white, tipped with black. OBSERVATIONS.--This species, found in the north of Europe and Asia, hollows out the sand by the sea-shore, or uses a forsaken rabbit's hole, or some cavity in a rock, to form its nest in. The beauty of its plumage has attracted the attention of amateurs, who tame it, and keep it in the poultry-yard; but it is not useful, its flesh having an unpleasant smell and flavour. It feeds with the other ducks, and becomes very familiar; it ever appears intelligent. THE WILD GOOSE. Anas anser ferus, LINN�US; L'Oie sauvage, BUFFON; Der wilde Gans, BECHSTEIN. This is the parent stock of our domestic goose, and though smaller, it has a longer neck and larger wings. The upper part of the body is brownish grey, the under part is greyish white; the breast is clouded with rusty brown; the beak is orange and black; the feet are red. Several domestic geese preserve this original plumage, even to the colours of the beak. OBSERVATIONS.--This species frequents the shores of the North Sea during the summer; but in autumn departs in large flights disposed in a triangular form, and passes the winter in more southern countries, feeding on the blades of newly-sprung rye. There are places in Thuringia where thousands of these birds collect in winter; they are very distrustful, placing sentinels as soon as they alight, which are so watchful, that it is very difficult to take or shoot them. If by chance the wing of one of these geese is shot, it may easily be kept in the yard with poultry; they are also taken in snares laid in places frequented by them during the night; they associate without difficulty with the domestic geese; but I only know one instance of a wild male pairing with a domesticated female. THE SCAUP DUCK. Anas marila, LINN�US; Le Milloninan, BUFFON; Der Bergente, BECHSTEIN. This species, like the former, passes in autumn from the north to the south. They are caught and shot among the common wild ducks. The scaup duck may be tamed so far as to remain sociably among the domestic ones, will eat bread soaked in water, oats, and barley; in short, all that is given to common ducks. Its size also is similar, but it is black, with the belly and speculum white; five black transverse lines unite on the white ground of the upper part of the body; the wings and tail are dusky. THE MALLARD. Anas Boschas fera, LINN�US; Le Canoel sauvage, BUFFON; Der wilde Ente BECHSTEIN. Our domestic ducks derive their origin from this species. It is spread throughout Europe on lakes, ponds, and rivers. Its length is two feet; its plumage ash grey, striped and waved transversely with white and brown; the head and neck are bright green, known by the name of duck-green; the breast is chestnut brown; the speculum violet green. The female is brown, like a lark. OBSERVATIONS.--Like other birds of the same order, the wild ducks unite in large flights in the autumn, but divide into pairs in summer, and build their nests either near the water, among the reeds and bushes, in the trunks of old trees, or sometimes even in the depths of woods. They lay from twelve to sixteen eggs. In the forest districts of Thuringia, the young ones are met with in considerable numbers, being led to a neighbouring pond by the parent birds. If, after having mutilated or lamed the end of the wing, they are put into a pond with domestic ducks, they live and pair with them, become accustomed to their mode of life, follow them in winter into the house, without any decoy but being fed plentifully. Wild ducks are taken in nets, snares, and even with fishing-hooks. By pairing a mallard with a female domestic duck, a very fine middle race is obtained, which remains domestic[125]. THE TARROCK. Larus tridactylus, LINN�US; Larus rissa, cinereus et nævius, LINN�US; La Monette cendrée, BUFFON; Der Wintermeeve, BECHSTEIN. These birds, about fourteen inches in length, change their plumage till they are four years old, which occasions great variety. In the old ones, the beak is yellowish green on the outside, and orange within; the feet are olive, and are without the back toe; the head, throat, neck, the rest of the upper part of the body, and the tail, are white. There is often a blackish streak behind the ear; the back and wing-coverts are pale grey or bluish; the quill-feathers are white; the primaries are tipped with black; those that have a dark grey crescent on the neck have not attained their fourth year; those streaked are young ones. OBSERVATIONS.--The tarrocks remain in the north of Europe during summer, and go south in winter. In February, when snow comes after mild weather, great numbers are seen to stop on the ponds and rivers in Germany, where many perish; they may then be taken with nets and snares placed on the banks, after removing the snow. Though their proper food is fish and aquatic insects, they are contented, in the poultry-yard, with bread and other food; are easily tamed, and live equally well on the water or the land; in winter, they should be kept in a moderately warm situation; they may even be left in the court, driving them in the evening into the place appropriated to them for the night. [Illustration] FOOTNOTES: [1] See reasons for doubting this conclusion in Professor Rennie's DOMESTIC HABITS OF BIRDS, Chap. xvii.--TRANSLATOR. [2] This previous recording, as it is termed, is not uniform. Mr. Blyth informs as that he had, in the year 1833, a blackcap which struck up all at once into a loud song.--TRANSLATOR. [3] Phil. Trans. vol. lxiii. 1773. [4] Besides, we cannot say that there is a want of variety in this music. I may again quote Mr. Barington (Phil. Trans.): "The death of the male parent, just at the time his instructions were required, will occasion some variety in the song of the young ones, who will thus have their attention directed to other birds, which they will imitate or modify according to the conformation of their larynx; and they will thus create new variations, which will afterwards be imitated by their young ones, and become hereditary, until a circumstance of a similar nature may introduce greater variations. If care was taken there need not be two birds that sung exactly alike: however, these varieties are confined within certain limits."--TRANSLATOR. [5] If pine and fir branches cannot be obtained, oak, elm, or beech will do, cut in winter; though not green, yet there will be leaves.--TRANSLATOR. [6] This perhaps depends on the peculiar forms of the bills more than on inclination, for the fauvette and blackcap often attempt to clean their feet without success.--TRANSLATOR. [7] See Rennie's "FACULTIES OF BIRDS," Chap. V., for experiments on the subject.--TRANSLATOR. [8] The reason of this union of vegetable and animal food may be easily seen; the bread supplies the seed for the birds of the first class, and the milk the insects for those of the second, while the third and fourth here find their mixed food; and thus it ought to agree with all. Besides, the birds of the first class do not confine themselves exclusively to seeds; in their wild state they eat many insects, and some even feed their young entirely with them; this proves that animal food is sometimes useful and beneficial to them.--TRANSLATOR. [9] If a rather large, flat, and not very deep vessel be used, in which the birds can bathe at their ease, it will make them more healthy and clean.--TRANSLATOR. [10] White's Selborne, 8vo. edit. 1833. [11] See Rennie's "HABITS OF BIRDS," p. 13.--TRANSL. [12] This, though the common opinion, seems incorrect. See Rennie's "HABITS OF BIRDS," p. 4.--TRANSLATOR. [13] There are varieties in this species: that with the head grey is rare, but when quite white is still more so.--TRANSLATOR. [14] It is rare in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [15] It is not a native of Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [16] Perhaps from not having been given now and then feathers, the fur and skin of animals, or even beetles, to cleanse the stomach.--TRANSLATOR. [17] It is doubtful as a native of Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [18] The rook, (_Corvus frugilegus_, Linnæus,) seems here to be confounded with the carrion crow. I say nothing about this species, as I have never heard of one being tamed or instructed. It is about the size of the carrion crow, and chiefly differs from it in the base of the beak being naked, and having a rough scabrous skin.--TRANSLATOR. [19] It appears that in its course from Sweden to Algiers it does not range beyond a degree in longitude, and is rarely found in Britain. Few birds of this group, as far as has hitherto been observed, wander to the right or left during their migration. The roller frequents shady and solitary woods, and its character is well adapted to them.--TRANSLATOR. [20] I once saw one of these birds drink, after swallowing dry ants' eggs; it then eat greedily of lettuce and endive. Another, which I kept, liked the outside of lettuces and spinach after having eaten insects, especially beetles, which are very heating. To judge from what I have observed, the roller is by nature wild and solitary; it seldom changes its situation, except to seek its food or to hide itself from strangers. It is a good thing, whether kept in a cage or let range, always to have a box in its way, in which it may take refuge when frightened; it will not fail to hide itself there, and by this means will not be tempted to beat itself violently, which it does when it cannot fly from the object of its fright. It knows its mistress very well, lets her take it up, comes near her, and sits without any fear on her knees for whole hours without stirring. This is as far as it goes even when tamed. It is neither caressing nor familiar; when frightened it utters harsh cries, softer ones when its food is brought, but "_crag, crag, craag_," at the same time raising its head, is the expression of its joy or triumph.--TRANSLATOR. [21] It is rarely found in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [22] These young birds like to wash; but it is dangerous for them to have the water too cold, or to let them remain too long in it, as cramp in the feet may be the consequence. In one which we possessed, the accident was more vexatious as the bird was otherwise in good health, having followed the above mentioned diet.--TRANSLATOR. [23] The natural song is very like the awkward attempts of a country boy with a bad musical ear to whistle the notes of the missel thrush.--TRANSLATOR. [24] It is not common in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [25] It may be added that it also walks very gracefully.--TRANSLATOR. [26] It appears that the _Psittacus Ludovicianus_, LINN�US, _Perruche à tête aurore_, BUFFON, is the same species. [27] I have, however, seen a woodpecker of this species which was reared by a lady, to whom it seemed very much attached. It had learnt of itself to go and return, knocking hard at the window if it was shut out. It was very amusing to see it climbing nimbly over its mistress till it had reached her mouth; it then asked her by light strokes of its beak for the food which she was accustomed to give it; this was generally a little meat. It disappeared one day, without any one's knowing what accident had befallen it.--TRANSLATOR. [28] A bird of this species, which had been accidentally winged by a sportsman, was kept in a small cage of plain oak wood and wire. During a night and a day that his confinement lasted, his tapping labour was incessant; and after occupying his prison for that short space, he left the wood-work pierced and worn like worm-eaten timber. His impatience at his situation was excessive; his efforts to escape were unremitted, and displayed much intelligence and cunning. He was fierce, fearlessly familiar, and voracious of the food placed before him. At the close of the second day he sunk under the combined effects of his vexation, assiduity, and voracity. His hammering was peculiarly laborious, for he did not peck as other birds do, but grasping hold with his immense feet, he turned upon them as a pivot, and struck with the whole weight of his body, thus assuming the appearance, with his entire form, of the head of a hammer, or, as birds may sometimes be seen to do on mechanical clocks, made to strike the hour by swinging on a wheel. The Rev. W. T. Bree, of Allesley, says, that having caught a nuthatch in the common brick trap used by boys, he was struck with the singular appearance of its bill, so unlike that of any bird he had ever seen. It was blunt at the end, and presented the appearance of having been truncated in an oblique direction, as if the natural beak had been cut off. He naturally inferred that it had been fairly ground down to about two-thirds of its original length, by the bird's pecking at the bricks, in its efforts to escape from the trap.--TRANSLATOR. [29] The parrot crossbill is a very different species, but is rare.--TRANSLATOR. [30] The too great heat has doubtless also something to do with it.--TRANSLATOR. [31] However difficult this pairing may be, it sometimes succeeds very well. A bullfinch and female canary once produced five young ones, which died on a journey which they could not bear. Their large beak, and the blackish down with which they were covered, showed that they were more like their father than mother.--TRANSLATOR. [32] I do not recommend the employment of bird organs for instructing birds, because they are rarely accurate, and their notes are harsh and discordant; for bullfinches repeat the sounds exactly as they hear them, whether harsh or false, according to the instrument used. The good and pure whistling of a man of taste is far preferable; the bird repeats it in a soft, flute-like tone. When one cannot whistle well it is better to use a flageolet.--TRANSLATOR. [33] Mr. Thiem, son of the Mr. Thiem in the text, arrives annually in London in April or May, with birds for sale.--TRANSLATOR. [34] It is not found in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [35] Those occasionally caught in the South of England may be purchased in London at about 7_s._--TRANSLATOR. [36] See "Architecture of Birds," page 265. [37] The want of a bathing place in the narrow cages where these unhappy prisoners are kept is the true cause of this disease. [38] A good deal of imagination may be supposed to be put forth in the translation of the song of these birds. An Englishman, a Frenchman, or an Italian would discover in it words in their own language which might express very different sounds. We shall not see with less pleasure here details that are entirely omitted in other works on birds. Some will admire, however far it may go, an ear exercised in discovering the shades, niceties, and, in fact, the beauties that delight it, whilst another would be scarcely struck with any difference. Strangers will no longer be surprised at the excessive passion these birds excite where they are studied with so much care. In England they are very little prized, and but seldom kept.--_Translator._ [39] Literally, "to go to the wine;" pronounced _vine-gay_.--TRANSLATOR. [40] Ruhl is a large manufacturing village in Thuringia, the inhabitants of which, mostly cutlers, have such a passion for chaffinches that some have gone ninety miles from home to take with bird-lime one of these birds distinguished by its song, and have given one of their cows for a fine songster; from which has arisen their common expression, _such a chaffinch is worth a cow_. A common workman will give a _louis d'or_ (sixteen shillings) for a chaffinch he admires, and willingly live on bread and water to gain the money. An amateur cannot hear one that sings in a superior style _the double trill of the Hartz_ without being in an ecstasy. I have heard them say that one which sings this melody perfectly certainly can converse, from its pronouncing the syllables so distinctly.--AUTHOR. [41] Längsfeld, where this song was first discovered, is a large town in the district of Fulda, situated a short distance from the Werra, which at Munden takes the name of Weser, after its junction with the Fulda.--AUTHOR. [42] It is only eight years since this song was accidentally produced. A shoemaker of Iambach had given a chaffinch that sung the double trill five young scholars, one of which struck out for itself this peculiar warbling. From this others were taught, so that amateurs may have the pleasure of hearing at home a song that is now in fashion, and pleases many amateurs. [43] The notes of the wild chaffinches in this country are finer than any cage ones I have heard in Germany.--TRANSLATOR. [44] The destruction of the sparrows has been so great an evil in the countries where the government had ordered it, that it has been found necessary to rescind the order. The injury they do to the corn is something certainly, but it may be exaggerated, besides, ought not these useful creatures to be paid?--TRANSLATOR. [45] It is known from experience that winter rape seed, which is not hurtful to them in a wild state, will soon kill them if they are fed on it in the house.--AUTHOR. [46] We read in Buffon, that the Goldfinch feeds its young with caterpillars; this is not natural to the species, since we find farther on, that the parent birds disgorge the food into the crop of their little ones, and do not merely place it in the beak as those birds do that feed their young on caterpillars and other insects.--TRANSLATOR. [47] This is a mistake. See Architecture of Birds, p. 268. [48] After having shown the skill and docility of the goldfinch, we cannot end our praise of the bird better than by giving an instance of his attachment. Mad. ---- had one that never saw her go out without making every effort in his power to quit his cage and follow her, and welcomed her return with every mark of extreme delight; as soon as she approached, a thousand little actions showed his pleasure and satisfaction: if she presented her finger, he caressed it a long time, uttering a low joyous murmur. This attachment was so exclusive that if his mistress, to prove it, substituted another person's finger for her own, he would peck it sharply, whilst one of his mistress's, placed between two of this person's, would be immediately distinguished, and caressed accordingly.--TRANSLATOR. [49] It only comes to England during winter.--TRANSLATOR. [50] It is not so often of epilepsy, and fat, that male birds die, as for the want of pairing. Perhaps this may be increased, thoughtlessly, by too heating and too succulent food. However this may be, if a male that has died thus in spring be dissected, its reproductive organs will be found exceedingly swelled. It can only be preserved by giving at the time refreshing and moderate food. Boiled bread and milk is very useful.--TRANSLATOR. [51] They are not natives of Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [52] They are not natives of Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [53] I have observed, says Adanson, that the canary which becomes white in France is, at Teneriffe, of a grey, almost as dark as that of the linnet.--AUTHOR. [54] It is a mistaken idea that the difference of colour in canaries depends on the difference of food. The wild birds vary much more than the domestic, yet their food is more uniform. The being domesticated, the want of exercise and natural food united, may occasion an alteration in the colours of the plumage. My birds have only very simple food, and yet they are not the less of various colours.--AUTHOR. [55] This practice is not according to nature, which we can rarely oppose without inconvenience. "This plan causes the mother a greater loss of heat, and burdens her at once with five or six little ones, which coming together, disturb rather than please her; whilst in seeing them hatched successively one after the other, her pleasure is increased and supports her strength and courage. Very intelligent bird-fanciers assure us, that by not removing the eggs from the female, and leaving them to be hatched in succession, they have always succeeded better than when substituting ivory eggs." _Buffon._--TRANSLATOR. [56] It sometimes happens in very dry seasons that the feathers of the young birds cannot develop naturally; a bath of tepid water employed on such an occasion by Madame * * * was so successful that I cannot do better than recommend it. The same lady succeeded equally well in similar circumstances in hatching late eggs; she plunged them for some minutes in water heated to the degree of incubation, and immediately replaced them under the mother; in a short time she enjoyed the pleasure of seeing the little ones make their appearance. This interesting experiment may be applied to all sorts of birds, and may be particularly useful in regard to those of the poultry yard.--TRANSLATOR. [57] Green birds, bullfinches, and even chaffinches, yellowhammers, and the like, have been tried; but the difficulty augments with the difference of species and food: for example, I have never seen a male canary very fond of a female yellowhammer, nor a male of the latter kind of a female canary, though the plumage may be selected so as to offer a striking resemblance. An ardent bullfinch will sometimes yield to the allurements of a very ardent hen canary. I have myself witnessed it; but with every care, it is seldom that the eggs prove fruitful, and produce young. Dr. Jassy, however, writes me from Frankfort, that he has obtained mules of a bullfinch and canary, by making other canaries sit on the eggs and bring up the young; and that this plan is pursued in Bohemia. A tufted or crested female should never be chosen, because this ornament is very unbecoming to the large head of a mule. "My bullfinch," he adds, "is so attached to the female canary that he mourns all the time they are separated, and cannot bear any other bird." I possess a nightingale which, having been for a long time shut up with a female canary, lives very sociably with her, and sings as usual; indeed, he was so ardent in the spring, that he paired with her in my presence, but the eggs were unproductive. I shall try next spring, if the same thing happens, to give the eggs to another sitter.--AUTHOR. [58] Some do this naturally, others are taught it in their youth, by covering the cage and keeping them in the dark during the day, long enough for them to be hungry; they are thus forced to eat by candle-light. Gradually they become accustomed to this, and at last sing.--AUTHOR. [59] Nothing is more delightful than to hear them imitate the song of the nightingale; I prefer those which have this talent, and I never fail to possess one.--AUTHOR. [60] In Britain it is partly migratory and partly stationary.--TRANSLATOR. [61] If it is difficult to induce larks to sit, it appears to be very easy to make them take care of a young brood. "The instinct," says Buffon, "which induces hen larks to bring up and watch over a brood appears sometimes very early, even before that which disposes them to become mothers, and which, in the order of nature, ought, it would seem, to precede it. "In the month of May, a young lark was brought to me which could not feed itself; I fed it, and it could hardly peck up, when a brood of four young ones of the same species was brought to me from another place. She exhibited a singular affection for these new comers, which were not much younger than herself; she nursed them day and night, warmed them under her wings, and pushed the food into their mouths with her beak; nothing could distract her from these interesting duties. If she was removed from the young ones, she flew back to them as soon as she was free, without ever thinking of escaping, as she might have done a hundred times. Her affection increased so much that she literally forgot to eat and drink; and she lived only on the food which was given to her as well as to her adopted young, and she died at length, consumed by this sort of maternal passion. None of the young survived her, they died one after the other, so necessary had her maternal cares become to them; so entirely were these cares produced by affection, and reciprocated." This, it appears, is more than could be said of the persons who had the care of these unfortunate little birds.--TRANSLATOR. [62] They are not natives of Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [63] I possessed a fine one which died from lice.--TRANSLATOR. [64] I saw a colony of starlings established on this plan at an inn at Leyden.--TRANSLATOR. [65] In England it continues throughout the year.--TRANSLATOR. [66] Bathing may prevent the first; boiled bread and milk administered seasonably relieves, and even entirely cures, the other.--TRANSLATOR. [67] In Britain they remain all the year.--TRANSLATOR. [68] I have seen the nest in Scotland.--TRANSLATOR. [69] It occurs on the Rhine at Ehrenbreitzen, and I have seen it on the Siebengebirge.--TRANSLATOR. [70] I purchased two at Coblentz, which lived some time in England. Individuals have been sold in London for seven pounds.--TRANSLATOR. [71] It is not found in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [72] The food of the caged nightingale is probably not sufficiently nutritious for the reed thrush; no doubt, also, it injures the stomach; perhaps the number of meal-worms with which it is supplied should be increased; and small beetles should be offered to it, whose wing-cases and claws, not being digested by the insectivorous bird, serve to purge the stomach; its food, in short, should resemble as much as possible that of its natural condition.--TRANSLATOR. [73] There are some countries which appear not adapted for nightingales, and in which they never stop, as in France, in Le Bugey, as high as Nantua, a part of Holland, North Wales, the north of England, excepting the county of York, and all Scotland and Ireland. [74] In Italy they arrive in March, and depart in the beginning of November. In England they arrive in April and May, and depart in the month of September. [75] The means of always having a plentiful supply of meal worms is to fill a large earthenware or brown stone jar with wheat bran, barley or oatmeal, and put into it some pieces of sugar paper or old shoe leather. Into each of these jars, of about two quarts in size, half a pint of meal worms is thrown (these may be bought at any baker's or miller's), and by leaving them quiet for three months, covered with a bit of woollen cloth soaked in beer, or merely in water, they will change into beetles (_Tenebrio Molitor_, Linnæus). These insects soon propagate by eggs, which renew and increase the number of maggots so much that one such jar will maintain a nightingale.--AUTHOR. [76] Many persons who are not in a situation to buy ants' eggs (improperly so called, since they are the pupæ in their cocoons), will doubtless be glad to know the method used for getting them out of the ant-hill. A fine sunny day in summer is chosen, and, provided with a shovel we begin by gently uncovering a nest of the large wood ants (_Formica rufa_, Linnæus), till we arrive at the eggs; these are then taken away, and placed in the sun, in the middle of a cloth whose corners are turned up over little branches well covered with leaves. The ants, in order to protect the eggs from the heat of the sun, quickly remove them under the shelter which is prepared for them. In this manner they are easily obtained freed from dirt, and from the ants also. In the absence of a cloth a smooth place is chosen, around which some small furrows are cut, over which the branches are laid, which leads to the same result.--AUTHOR. [77] English bird-catchers also express the phrases of the nightingale by words, or particular names, _sweet_, _jug_, _sweet_, _pipe rattle_, _swetswat_, _swaty_, _water bubble_, _skeg_, _skeg_, _whitlow_, _whitlow_, and the like. [78] I possess a nightingale which repeats these drawling melancholy notes often thirty or even fifty times. Many pronounce _gu, guy, gui_, and others _qu, quy, qui_.--AUTHOR. [79] These syllables are pronounced in a sharper clearer manner than the preceding _lu, lu_, &c. [80] However difficult, or even impossible, it may be to express this song upon an instrument (excepting, however, the jay call, made of tin, on which is placed a piece of birch cut in a cross, and which is held between the tongue and the palate), yet it is very true that the accompaniment of a good piano produces the most agreeable effect.--AUTHOR. [81] We must not confound _true nocturnal_ nightingales with those which are called _mopers_. A true nocturnal sings from night to morning without stopping, while a moper sings only at intervals, unconnectedly, and always makes pauses of some minutes between each strain. All nightingales become mopers when they reach five or six years of age; whence arises the mistake of many persons, who think they possess a nocturnal when they have really only a moper. The reverse happens sometimes, also; for a true nocturnal bird, caught such, often loses his power after one or two years of captivity, and is then a mere moper.--AUTHOR. [82] It must, however, be owned, that of twenty young nightingales bred from the nest scarcely one succeeds in all respects. They seldom possess their natural song in its purity; they almost invariably introduce, in spite of all their instruction, foreign and disagreeable tones. The young which are caught in the month of August, before their departure, are the best; they have already learnt their father's song, and they perfect it the following spring, if they are placed beside a good singer.--AUTHOR. [83] "A nightingale which I had given away," says M. Le Manie, "no longer seeing his mistress, left off eating, and was soon reduced to the last gasp; he could not support himself on his perch! but being restored to his mistress, he revived, ate, drank, perched, and had recovered in twenty-four hours. It is said that some have been known, when set at liberty in the woods, to return to their masters." It is quite certain that they recognise the voice of their masters and mistresses, and approach at their call. [84] According to the Greeks, Progné was metamorphosed into a nightingale, and Philomel, her sister, into a swallow. The Latins have changed and confused this story, which the moderns have, in their turn, copied without examination. [85] It is not a native of Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [86] To prepare this tincture, take of water four parts, of black oxide of iron one part; boil the oxide with the water, and then pass a current of chlorine gas through the mixture till it will absorb no more; filter the liquor and evaporate over a slow fire to the consistence of an extract; when this is cold, pour upon it of hydrochloric ether three parts; let it macerate without heat for several days; then add of alcoholised hydrochloric acid nine parts; macerate again, filter the liquor, and expose it to the sun.--TRANSLATOR. [87] This is a mistake; it is as fond of berries as of insects.--TRANSLATOR. [88] This bird also has the art of pleasing by his pretty tricks. He shows a striking affection for his mistress; utters a particular sound, a more tender note to welcome her; at her approach he darts against the wires of his cage, and, by a continued fluttering, accompanied with little cries, he seems to express his eagerness and gratitude. A young male which I had put in the hothouse for the winter, was accustomed to receive from my hand, every time I entered, a meal-worm; this took place so regularly, that immediately on my arrival he placed himself near the little jar where I kept the meal-worms. If I pretended not to notice this signal he would take flight, and, passing close under my nose, immediately resume his post; and this he repeated, sometimes even striking me with his wing, till I satisfied his wishes and impatience. [89] No doubt his great voracity weakens his stomach, and by loading the intestines with glutinous matter the vessels cannot take up sufficient nourishment; it is therefore not conveyed sufficiently to the skin and feathers, whence proceed the fall of the latter and the enfeeblement of the body. [90] This bird is not known in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [91] It is however, by no means easily tamed, but remains fearful and distant.--TRANSLATOR. [92] In Britain they remain all the year.--TRANSLATOR. [93] I have seen some in cages which were entirely fed on white bread which was soaked in hot milk left to get cold, and they were very healthy. If, however, we would feed them well, they require nearly the same diet as the nightingale.--TRANSLATOR. [94] It is rarely seen in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [95] I have made the same observation on the redstart. [96] It remains all winter in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [97] This is a mistake, as it likes to frequent high elms.--TRANSLATOR. [98] It is rare in England.--TRANSLATOR. [99] It is a remarkable fact, that this bird, now so common in Thuringia, was a rarity there twenty years ago. This change cannot be attributed to climate or food. What is the occasion of it then?--AUTHOR. [100] In sitting on house eaves, and singing in the autumn, it performs a similar part in Germany to the red-breast in Britain. No red-breast on the Continent becomes familiar about the house like ours; they keep always in the woods.--TRANSLATOR. [101] At a very advanced age the female acquires all the colours of the male, yet less bright, as I have observed of several birds. Such females do not breed afterwards, and in summer fly from place to place. This peculiarity is also observed in hen-pheasants.--AUTHOR. [102] It is not found in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [103] This I doubt.--TRANSLATOR. [104] Most certainly a mistake.--TRANSLATOR. [105] Sweet's British Warblers. [106] One of these pretty birds, which I had in my room one winter, ate with pleasure, and appeared to thrive upon, a very simple paste, made of the crumb of white bread dried in an oven and powdered: a teaspoonful of this was put in a cup, and three teaspoonfuls of milk, as hot as it could be made without boiling, poured over it.--AUTHOR. [107] It is rare in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [108] It is difficult to decide to what genus this species belongs; it has the characteristics of several. Its size, habit, food, mixed insects and seeds, even its pace, for when on the ground it rarely hops like the warblers, but runs quickly head forwards, like the quails, scarcely ever resting on trees; in all this it bears a relation to the larks. Now as there are larks that appear to form the link between that genus and the warblers, the Alpine warbler may be said to form one also between the warblers and the larks.--TRANSLATOR. [109] It is called Joe Bent by the London bird-catchers.--TRANSLATOR. [110] This cylinder oftens occasions their death. It is only by great address and quickness that they can pass through the hole of communication; each time they run the risk of being crushed, especially on coming out, from the prolonged motion of the machine.--TRANSLATOR. [111] It is not uncommon in Britain, such as near London, &c.--TRANSLATOR. [112] They are fond of picking bones.--TRANSLATOR. [113] They are not uncommon in Britain, such as about London, &c.--TRANSLATOR. [114] It is found, but rarely, in the fir woods in the north of Scotland.--TRANSLATOR. [115] I have, however, seen one old crested tit that was tamed as easily as any other bird. After passing the winter in a cage it refused its liberty in the spring. It was then placed in the garden near the house, where it remained till evening, having hopped about all day, uttering restless anxious cries. Its mistress, fearing some accident befalling it during the night, held the cage towards it, into which it instantly jumped with pleasure. Since then it has been allowed to range three adjoining rooms. It is always lively, coming when its mistress calls, and perching on her finger, and seeking in her half-closed hand the flies she may have there. It made a nest in a window-curtain, into which it would glide secretly in the evening, but would never go whilst any eyes were turned on that side, and seized a favourable moment so quickly, that for some time no one knew where it retired; when it was discovered, the curtains were never touched.--TRANSLATOR. [116] This is not quite correct, the female having small moustaches of a light colour.--TRANSLATOR. [117] They abound in the fens of Lincolnshire, on the Thames below Greenwich, &c.--TRANSLATOR. [118] Great numbers are brought from Holland to London, and sell for about five shillings a pair.--TRANSLATOR. [119] This is a mistake: the food given to the young is a sort of thick milky secretion from the stomach of the parent birds, both male and female.--TRANSLATOR. [120] In England they are not uncommon in the woods.--TRANSLATOR. [121] The close and mephitic air of these rooms, which are kept warmer whilst a person is ill, may well produce this apparent sympathy.--TRANSLATOR. [122] An erroneous opinion, which displays more egotism than humanity; yet do people generally act with more equity and disinterestedness? [123] Here is another instance, in which man, seeking his own pleasure at the expense of the well being of other creatures, deceives himself respecting the motives. The poor prisoner does not sing to amuse himself, or from contentment; its repeated cries call unceasingly for the mate from which it is separated; and though they have been vain throughout the day, he renews them on the morrow, no doubt, like man, supported by hope,--a hope, alas! which is never realised!--AUTHOR. [124] It is now uncommon in Britain.--TRANSLATOR. [125] A great many mallards are half domesticated on the water in St. James' Park, London, and other similar places in England.--TRANSLATOR. INDEX. A. _Accentor modularis_, Bechstein, 228 _Alauda alpestris_, Linnæus, 184 _Alauda arborea_, Linnæus, 179 _Alauda arvensis_, Linnæus, 174 _Alauda Calandra_, Linnæus, 185 _Alauda cristata_, Linnæus, 178 _Alcedo Ispida_, Linnæus, 83 Amandava, 104 _Ampelis garrulus_, Linnæus, 188 _Anthus arboreus_, Bechstein, 182 _Anthus campestris_, Bechstein, 184 Arbour Bird, 255 B. Babillard, 247 Blackbird, 198 Blackbird (Ring), 200 Blackbonnet, 121 Blackcap, 222 Black Stork, 296 Blue-Breast, 233 Bohemian Chatterer, 188 Bullfinch, 92 Bunting (Corn), 116 Bunting (Dominican), 125 Bunting (Foolish), 120 Bunting (Mountain), 114 Bunting (Painted), 127 Bunting (Reed), 121 Bunting (Shaft-tailed), 125 Bunting (Snow), 112 Bunting (Sparrow), 123 Bunting (Whidah), 124 Butcher-bird (Great), 31 C. Calandra Lark, 185 Canary, 158 Carrion Crow, 39 Ceram Lory, 73 Chaffinch, 128 Chiff-Chaff (Common), 258 Chiff-Chaff (Rufous), 261 _Cinclus aquaticus_, Bechstein, 190 Cirl-Bunting, Latham, 119 Cockatoo (Banksian), 70 Cockatoo (Great red-crested), 69 Cockatoo (Great White), 68 Cockatoo (Lesser White), 69 Cockatoo (Red-vented), 70 _Columba Palumbus_, Linnæus, 285 _Columba risoria_, Linnæus, 287 _Columba Turtur_, Linnæus, 286 Common Partridge, 290 Common Quail, 291 Common Snipe, 297 _Coracias garrula_, Linnæus, 44 Corn Crake, 300 _Corvus Caryocatactes_, Linnæus, 42 _Corvus Corax_, Linnæus, 37 _Corvus Cornix_, Linnæus, 39 _Corvus Corone_, Linnæus, 39 _Corvus frugilegus_, Linnæus, 39 _Corvus glandarius_, Linnæus, 40 _Corvus Monedula_, Linnæus, 40 _Corvus Pica_, Linnæus, 43 Crossbill, 89 Cuckoo, 51 _Cuculus canorus_, Linnæus, 51 _Cuculus Persa_, Linnæus, 82 _Curruca garrula_, Brisson, 249 Cushat, 285 D. Dipper, 190 Doves, 284 Dominican, 106 Dunncock, 228 E. _Emberiza Cia_, Linnæus, 120 _Emberiza Ciris_, Linnæus, 127 _Emberiza Cirlus_, Linnæus, 119 _Emberiza citrinella_, Linnæus, 114 _Emberiza cyanea_, Linnæus, 126 _Emberiza Eloeathorax_, 119 _Emberiza hortulana_, Linnæus, 117 _Emberiza miliaria_, Linnæus, 116 _Emberiza montana_, Linnæus, 114 _Emberiza nivalis_, Linnæus, 112 _Emberiza paradisea_, Linnæus, 124 _Emberiza passerina_, Linnæus, 123 _Emberiza regia_, Linnæus, 125 _Emberiza Schoeniclus_, Linnæus, 121, 267 _Emberiza serena_, Linnæus, 125 F. _Falco tinnunculus_, Linnæus, 27 Fauvette, 225 Fieldfare, 195 Finch (Angola), 172 Finch (Banded), 110 Finch (Blue), 108 Finch (Blue-bellied), 171 Finch (Brazilian), 171 Finch (Brown-cheeked), 111 Finch (Caffrarian), 108 Finch (Cape), 107 Finch (Citril), 156 Finch (Glossy), 169 Finch (Lapland), 156 Finch (Liver-brown), 172 Finch (Malacca), 111 Finch (Mountain), 136 Finch (Purple), 169 Finch (Snow), 157 Flusher, 35 _Fringilla amandava_, Linnæus, 104 _Fringilla Angolensis_, Linnæus, 172 _Fringilla Bengalus_, Linnæus, 171 _Fringilla Canaria_, Linnæus, 158 _Fringilla cannabina_, Linnæus, 140 _Fringilla Carduelis_, Linnæus, 146 _Fringilla citrinella_, Linnæus, 156 _Fringilla Coelebs_, Linnæus, 128 _Fringilla cyanea_, Wilson, 126 _Fringilla Granatina_, Linnæus, 171 _Fringilla hepatica_, Linnæus, 172 _Fringilla Laponica_, 156 _Fringilla Linaria_, Linnæus, 144 _Fringilla Linota_, Linnæus, 140 _Fringilla Melba_, Linnæus, 173 _Fringilla montana_, Linnæus, 140 _Fringilla montifringilla_, Linnæus, 136 _Fringilla nitens_, Linnæus, 169 _Fringilla nivalis_, Linnæus, 157 _Fringilla petronia_, Linnæus, 153 _Fringilla purpurea_, Linnæus, 169 _Fringilla serinus_, Linnæus, 154 _Fringilla Spinus_, Linnæus, 151 _Fringilla tristis_, Linnæus, 170 G. Golden Oriole, 46 Goldfinch, 146 Goldfinch (American), 170 Goldfinch (Green), 173 Gowry Bird, 110 _Graecula religiosa_, Linnæus, 52 Grakle (Minor), 52 Grasshopper Bird, 265 Green Bird, 97 Grenadier, 106 Grosbeak (Cardinal), 102 Grosbeak (Paradise), 105 Grosbeak (Pine), 99 Grosbeak (Yellow-bellied), 109 Guinea-Sparrow, 64 H. Hawfinch, 100 Hay-Bird, 262 Hooded Crow, 39 Hoopoe, 48 I & J. Indigo Bird, 126 Jackdaw, 40 Jay, 40 K. Kestril, 27 Kingfisher (Common), 83 L. _Lanius erythrocephalus_, Linnæus, 34 _Lanius Excubitor_, Linnæus, 31 _Lanius minor_, Linnæus, 32 _Lanius spinitorquus_, Bechstein, 35 Lapwing, 297 Large-beaked Birds, 54 Lark (Crested), 178 Lark (Shore), 184 Lark (Sky), 174 Lark (Wood), 179 Linnet (Common), 140 Little Owl, 29 Little Shrike, 32 _Locustella avicula_, Ray, 265 Lory (Black-capped), 74 Lory (Blue-capped), 73 _Loxia Astrild_, Linnæus, 103 _Loxia Caffra_, Linnæus, 108 _Loxia canora_, Linnæus, 111 _Loxia Capensis_, Linnæus, 107 _Loxia Cardinalis_, Linnæus, 102 _Loxia Chloris_, Linnæus, 97 _Loxia coccothraustes_, Linnæus, 100 _Loxia coerulea_, Linnæus, 108 _Loxia curvirostra_, Linnæus, 89 _Loxia Dominicana_, Linnæus, 106 _Loxia Enuclator_, Linnæus, 99 _Loxia erythrocephala_, Linnæus, 105 _Loxia fasciata_, Linnæus, 110 _Loxia flaviventris_, Linnæus, 109 _Loxia Malacca_, Linnæus, 111 _Loxia orix_, Linnæus, 106 _Loxia orycivora_, Linnæus, 102 _Loxia punctularia_, Linnæus, 110 _Loxia pyrrhula_, Linnæus, 92 _Loxia sanguinirostris_, Linnæus, 105 M. Maccaw (Blue and Yellow), 57 Magpie, 43 Mallard, 305 Moor Hen, 300 _Motacilla alba_, Linnæus, 235 _Motacilla Boarula_, Linnæus, 237 _Motacilla dumetorum_, Linnæus, 247 _Motacilla flava_, Linnæus, 238 _Motacilla Fruticeti_, Linnæus, 227 _Motacilla Luscinia_, Linnæus, 206 _Motacilla Luscinia major_, Linnæus, 220 _Motacilla OEnanthe_, Linnæus, 239 _Motacilla Phoenicurus_, Linnæus, 252 _Motacilla Regulus_, Linnæus, 270 _Motacilla rubecula_, Linnæus, 230 _Motacilla Rubetra_, Linnæus, 241 _Motacilla Suecica_, Linnæus, 233 _Motacilla Tithys_, Linnæus, 250 _Motacilla Troglodytes_, Linnæus, 269 N. Nightingale, 206 Nightingale (Greater), 220 Nut-Cracker, 42 Nuthatch, 85 O. _Oriolus Galbula_, Linnæus, 46 Ortolan, 117 Oxeye, 274 P. Parrakeet (Blossom-headed), Latham, 62 Parrakeet (blue and green), 66 Parrakeet (Borneo), 63 Parrakeet (green, long-tailed), 58 Parrakeet (red and blue headed), 67 Parrakeet (red-crescented), 67 Parrakeet (red-headed Guinea), 63 Parrakeet (rose-headed ring), 62 Parrakeet (rose-ringed), 64 Parrot (Amboina), 59 Parrot (ash-coloured), 71 Parrot (blue-faced), 75 Parrot (blue-headed), 59 Parrot (Cardinal), 62 Parrot (Carolina), 65 Parrot (Common Amazon), 75 Parrot (grey-breasted), 66 Parrot (Illinois), 57 Parrot (Pavouan), 64 Parrot (purple), 60 Parrot (whiskered), 61 Parrot (white-fronted), 74 Parrot (yellow-headed Amazon), 76 Parrot (yellow), 59 _Parus ater_, Linnæus, 277 _Parus biarmicus_, Linnæus, 282 _Parus cæruleus_, Linnæus, 278 _Parus cristatus_, Linnæus, 281 _Parus major_, Linnæus, 274 _Parus palustris_, Linnæus, 280 _Passer domestica_, Ray, 137 _Passer montana_, Ray, 139 Passerine Birds, 88 _Picus major_, Linnæus, 79 _Picus medius_, Linnæus, 80 _Picus minor_, Linnæus, 80 _Picus viridis_, Linnæus, 78 Pies, 31 Pipit (Field), 184 _Psittacus æstivus_, Linnæus, 75 _Psittacus Amboinensis_, Linnæus, 59 _Psittacus autumnalis_, Linnæus, 75 _Psittacus Ararauna_, Linnæus, 57 _Psittacus Banksii_, Linnæus, 70 _Psittacus bimaculatus_, Sparrmann, 61 _Psittacus canicularis_, Linnæus, 67 _Psittacus Carolinensis_, Linnæus, 65 _Psittacus cristatus_, Linnæus, 68 _Psittacus cyanocephalus_, Linnæus, 59 _Psittacus domicilla_, Linnæus, 73 _Psittacus erithacus_, Linnæus, 71 _Psittacus erythrocephalus Bengalensis_, Linnæus, 62 _Psittacus erythrocephalus Borneus_, Linnæus, 63 _Psittacus erythrocephalus, Linnæus_, 62 _Psittacus garrulus_, Linnæus, 73 _Psittacus garrulus Auroræ_, Linnæus, 59 _Psittacus Guianensis_, Linnæus, 64 _Psittacus leucocephalus_, Linnæus, 74 _Psittacus Lory_, Linnæus, 74 _Psittacus Ludovicianus_, Linnæus, 65 _Psittacus lunatus_, Bechstein, 67 _Psittacus Macao_, Linnæus, 54 _Psittacus Manillensis_, Bechstein, 63 _Psittacus Moluccensis_, Linnæus, 69 _Psittacus murinus_, Linnæus, 66 _Psittacus nobilis_, Linnæus, 76 _Psittacus ochrocephalus_, Gmelin, 76 _Psittacus passerinus_, Linnæus, 66 _Psittacus Pennanti_, Latham, 60 _Psittacus pertinax_, Linnæus, 57 _Psittacus Philippinarum_, Linnæus, 70 _Psittacus pullarius_, Linnæus, 64 _Psittacus rufirostris_, Linnæus, 58 _Psittacus solstitialis_, Linnæus, 59 _Psittacus sulphureus_, Linnæus, 69 Purr, 299 R. _Ramphastos picatus_, Linnæus, 77 _Ramphastos piscivorus_, Linnæus, 77 _Ramphastos Tucanus_, Linnæus, 76 Raven, 37 Red and Blue Maccaw, 55 Redbill, 105 Red-Breast, 230 Redpole (Lesser), 144 Redstart (Black), 250 Redstart (Common), 252 Redwing, 196 Reed Bird, 282 Reed Warbler, 266 Ring Dove, 285 Ring Parrakeet (Rose-headed), Latham, 62 Roller, 44 Rose Ouzel, 197 Ruff, 298 S. Scaup Duck, 305 Sedge Bird, 268 Serin-finch, 154 Sheldrake, 304 Siskin, 151 _Sitta Europoea_, Linnæus, 85 Sparrow (House), 137 Sparrow (Java), 102 Sparrow (Ring), 153 Sparrow (Tree), 139 Starling, 186 _Strix passerina_, Linnæus, 29 _Sturnus collaris_, Linnæus, 273 _Sturnus vulgaris_, Linnæus, 186 Swan, 303 _Sylvia arundinacea_, Latham, 266 _Sylvia atricapilla_, Bechstein, 222 _Sylvia cinerea_, Bechstein, 244 _Sylvia Curruca_, Bechstein, 247 _Sylvia Fitis_, Bechstein, 262 _Sylvia Hippolais_, Montagu, 258 Bechstein, 255 _Sylvia hortensis_, Latham, 225 _Sylvia icterina_, Vieillot, 258 _Sylvia Locustella_, Latham, 265 _Sylvia Loquax_, Herbert, 258 _Sylvia Phragmitis_, Bechstein, 268 _Sylvia polyglotta_, Ranzani, 255 _Sylvia rufa_, Bechstein, 261 _Sylvia salicaria_, Latham, 268 _Sylvia sibilatrix_, Bechstein, 263 _Sylvia Trochilus_, Latham, 262, 263 T. Tarrock, 306 Thrush (Blue), 204 Thrush (Missel), 191 Thrush (Reed), 204 Thrush (Rock), 201 Thrush (Solitary), 203 Thrush (Song), 193 Tit (Bearded), 282 Tit (Blue), 278 Tit (Cole), 277 Tit (Crested), 281 Tit (Greater), 274 Titlark, 182 Tit (Marsh), 280 Tom Tit, 278 Tourako, 82 Tucan (Brazilian), 77 Tucan (Preacher), 77 Tucan (Yellow-breasted), 76 _Turdus arundinaceus_, Linnæus, 204, 207 _Turdus cyaneus_, Linnæus, 204 _Turdus Iliacus_, Linnæus, 196 _Turdus merula_, Linnæus, 198 _Turdus musicus_, Linnæus, 193 _Turdus pilaris_, Linnæus, 195 _Turdus roseus_, Linnæus, 197 _Turdus saxatilis_, Linnæus, 201 _Turdus solitarius_, Linnæus, 203 _Turdus torquatus_, Linnæus, 200 _Turdus viscivorus_, Linnæus, 191 Turtle (Collared), 287 Turtle Dove, 286 U. _Upupa Epops_, Linnæus, 48 W. Wagtail (Common), 235 Wagtail (Grey), 237 Wagtail (Yellow), 238 Warbler (Alpine), 273 Warblers, 174 Waxbill, 103 Wheatear, 239 Whinchat, 241 White-breast, 227 White-throat, 244 White Stork, 295 Wild Goose, 304 Woodchat, 34 Woodcock, 296 Woodpecker (Greater-spotted), 79 Woodpecker (Green), 78 Woodpecker (Lesser spotted), 80 Woodpecker (Middle spotted), 80 Woodpeckers, 78 Wren, 269 Wren (Gold-crested), 270 Wren (Willow), 262 Wren (Wood), 263 Wryneck, 81 Y. Yellowhammer, 114 _Yunx torquilla_, Linnæus, 81 THE END. * * * * * Crown 8vo, elegantly bound, gilt edges, Illustrated with 12 beautifully Coloured Engravings, price 3s. 6d., post free. THE CANARY Its VARIETIES, MANAGEMENT, and BREEDING; _With Portraits of the Author's own Birds._ BY THE REV. FRANCIS SMITH Contains descriptions of all the Different Varieties of this popular Household Favourite, Illustrated with Coloured Portraits of Birds in the possession of the Author. With this book every care has been taken to produce the most Complete Manual; while the Illustrations, general appearance of the volume, and low price at which it is issued, will render it the most popular work on the subject. CONTENTS. A PLEA FOR THE CANARY ORIGIN OF OUR OWN CANARIA THE WILD CANARY OUR LIZARDS OUR YORKSHIRE SPANGLES OUR NORWICH YELLOWS OUR LONDON FANCY BIRDS OUR BELGIANS OUR GREEN BIRDS OUR CINNAMONS OUR TURNCRESTS THE DOMINIE AND THE GERMANS PREPARATIONS FOR BREEDING NEST BOXES AND NESTS OUR FIRST BIRDS OUR MISFORTUNES OUR INFIRMARY ON CAGES Opinions of the Press. "To the reverend gentleman who gives us this book we owe much; it is so admirably done as to be thoroughly perfect as far as the subject goes. He tells us everything about the canary, and in the pleasantest manner, enlivening his story with many anecdotes. It is written in a tender and loving spirit; lucky are the birds who have so sympathetic and considerate a master, and fortunate is the master who owns so many beautiful birds; for the charming pictures that decorate the volume are so many portraits of '_the author's own pets_.' Mr. Smith is not a writer who has produced a book 'to order;' he has obviously loved his task. Years of thought and study, and familiarity with his subject in all its bearings, have enabled him to tell us everything needful to be known by those who keep the bird--one or many; how best to be its friend and its doctor; how to improve without impairing nature; how, in a word, the extremest amount of enjoyment may be derived from the cultivation of those delicious little inmates of our homes. The book is a delightful book; it may give pleasure to those who do not keep the birds; but to those who do it will be indispensable."--_Art Journal._ "A tasteful little book, written evidently by an enthusiast in the study of the beautiful and innocent creatures whose habits he describes. It is likely to make the canary a greater favourite than ever."--_Morning Star._ "A large amount of pleasure combined with much curious information, may be easily enjoyed by families or young folks who choose to follow Mr. Smith's directions. The book is written in a pleasing style, and will take its place as a popular manual and an ornament for the drawing-room table."--_The Student._ "The style in which the author details the various incidents connected with his little pets is so pleasant and so alluring, that really one feels inclined on laying down the book to rush out forthwith to the nearest dealer, and without delay secure the necessary material for the formation of an aviary."--_City Press._ "This volume contains matter valuable to all who are interested in its subject; while to those who have never paid attention to the canary the work can hardly fail to open up a source of attraction. The reverend author is an enthusiastic lover of the bird, and the result of his experience should find favour with all who share his enthusiasm."--_Glasgow Herald._ GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 
42767	----	HOME LIFE ON AN OSTRICH FARM. [Illustration: TROOP OF OSTRICHES, AND CART WITH PRICKLY-PEAR LEAVES FOR FOOD.] HOME LIFE ON AN OSTRICH FARM By ANNIE MARTIN _WITH TEN ILLUSTRATIONS_ NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1891 _Authorized Edition._ To T. M. IN REMEMBRANCE OF OUR SOUTH AFRICAN LIFE. PREFACE. Some portions of the chapters on "Ostriches" and "Bobby" have already appeared, in an abridged form, in the Saturday _Review_. Part of the chapter on "The Climate of the Karroo" has also appeared in the _St. James's Gazette_. By the kind permission of the editors of both papers I am now enabled to reprint these pages. A. M. CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER I. PORT ELIZABETH AND WALMER. Early ambitions realized--Voyage to South Africa--Cape Town and Wynberg--Profusion of flowers--Port Elizabeth--Christmas decorations--Public library--Malays--Walmer--Hottentot huts--Our little house--Pretty gardens--Honey-suckers--Flowers of Walmer Common--Wax-creeper--Ixias--Scarlet heath--Natal lilies-- "Upholstery flower"--Ticks--Commence ostrich-farming--Counting the birds--A ride after an ostrich 9 CHAPTER II. SOME OF OUR PETS. Friendliness of South African birds and beasts--Our secretary bird--Ungainly appearance of Jacob--His queer ways--Tragic fate of a kitten--A persecuted fowl--Our Dikkops--A baby buffalo--Wounded buffalo more dangerous than lion--A lucky stumble--Hunter attacked by "rogue" buffalo--A midnight ride--Followed by a lion--Toto--A pugnacious goose--South African climate dangerous to imported dogs--Toto and the crows--Animals offered by Moors in exchange for Toto 25 CHAPTER III. PLANTS OF THE KARROO. We move up-country--Situation of farm--Strange vegetation of Karroo district--Karroo plant--Fei-bosch--Brack-bosch--Our flowers--Spekboom--Bitter aloes--Thorny plants--Wacht-een-Beetje --Ostriches killed by prickly pear--Finger-poll--Wild tobacco fatal to ostriches--Carelessness of colonists--Euphorbias-- Candle-bush 46 CHAPTER IV. OUR LITTLE HOME. Building operations--A plucking--Ugliness of Cape houses--Our rooms--Fountain in sitting-room a failure--Drowned pets-- Decoration of rooms--Colonist must be Jack-of-all-trades--Cape waggons--Shooting expeditions--Strange tale told by Boer 61 CHAPTER V. CLIMATE OF THE KARROO. Cape Colony much abused--Healthy climate--Wonderful cures of consumption--Karroo a good place for sanatorium--Rarity of illness and accidents--The young colonist--An independent infant--Long droughts--Hot winds--Dust storms--Dams--Advantage of possessing good wells--Partiality of thunderstorms--Delights of a brack roof--Washed out of bed--After the rain--Our horses--Effects of rain indoors--_Opslaag_--The Cape winter--What to wear on Karroo farms 72 CHAPTER VI. OSTRICHES. An unwilling ride--First sight of an ostrich farm--Ridiculous mistakes about ostriches--Decreased value of birds and feathers --Chicks--Plumage of ostriches--A frightened ostrich--The plucking-box--Sorting feathers--Voice of the ostrich--Savage birds--"Not afraid of a dicky-bird!"--Quelling an ostrich--Birds killed by men in self-defence--Nests--An undutiful hen--Darby and Joan--A disconsolate widower--A hen-pecked husband--Too much zeal--Jackie--Cooling the eggs--The white-necked crow--Poisoning jackals--Ostrich eggs in the kitchen--A quaint old writer on ostriches--A suppliant bird--Nest destroyed by enraged ostrich--An old bachelor 98 CHAPTER VII. OSTRICHES (_continued_). Vagaries of an incubator--Hatching the chicks--A bad egg--Human foster mothers--Chicks difficult to rear--"Yellow-liver"--Cruel boys--Chicks herded by hen ostrich--Visit to Boer's house--A carriage full of ostriches--"The melancholy Jaques"--Ostriches at sea--A stampede--Runaway birds--Branding--Stupidity of ostriches --Accidents--Waltzing and fighting--Ostrich soup--An expensive quince--A feathered Tantalus--Strange things swallowed by ostriches --A court-martial--The ostrich, or the diamond?--A visit to the Zoo 130 CHAPTER VIII. MEERKATS. Meerkats plentiful in the Karroo--Their appearance--Intelligence-- Fearlessness--Friendship for dogs--A meerkat in England--Meerkat an inveterate thief--An owl in Tangier--Taming full-grown meerkat-- Tiny twins--A sad accident--Different characters of meerkats--The turkey-herd--Bob and the meerkat--"The Mouse" 157 CHAPTER IX. BOBBY. Bobby's babyhood--Insatiable appetite--Variety of noises made by Bobby--His tameness--Narrow escape from drowning--A warlike head-gear--Bobby the worse for drink--His love of mischief--He disarms his master--Meerkat persecuted by Bobby--Bobby takes to dishonest ways--He becomes a prisoner--His clever tricks--Death of Bobby 170 CHAPTER X. OUR SERVANTS. A retrospective vision--Phillis in her domain--Her destructiveness --Her ideas on personal adornment--The woes of a mistress-- Eye-service--Abrupt departure of Phillis--Left in the lurch--Nancy and her successors--Cure of sham sickness--The thief's dose--Our ostrich-herd--A bride purchased with cows--English and natives at the Cape--Character of Zulus and Kaffirs 182 CHAPTER XI. HOW WE FARED. Angora goats--Difficulty of keeping meat--The plague of flies-- Rations--Our store--Barter--Fowls--Chasing a dinner--Fowls difficult to rear--Secretary birds as guardians of the poultry-yard --Jacob in the Karroo--He comes down in the world--He dies-- Antelopes--A springbok hunt--The Queen's birthday in the Karroo--Colonial dances--Our klipspringer--Superstition about hares--Game birds--_Paauw_--_Knorhaan_--Namaqua partridges-- Porcupines--A short-lived pet--Indian corn--Stamped mealies-- Whole-meal bread--Plant used for making bread rise--Substitutes for butter--_Priembesjes_--A useful tree--Wild honey--The honey-bird--Enemies of bees--Moth in bees' nests--Good coffee --Sour milk 203 CHAPTER XII. KARROO BEASTS, BIRDS AND REPTILES. Leopard drowned in well--Baboons--Egyptian sacred animals on Cape farms--"Adonis"--A humiliating retreat--A baby baboon--Clever tricks performed by baboons--Adonis as a _Voorlooper_--A four-handed pointsman--Sarah--A baboon at the Diamond Fields-- Adonis's shower-bath--His love of stimulants--His revengeful disposition--Pelops the dog-headed--Horus--_Aasvogels_-- Goat-sucker--The butcher-bird's larder--Nest of the golden oriole --The kapok-bird--Snakes in houses--A puff-adder under a pillow --Puff-adder most dangerous of Cape snakes--Cobras--_Schaapsticker_ --Ugly house-lizards--Dassie-adder--The dassie the coney of Scripture--Stung by a scorpion--Fight between tarantula and centipede--Destructive ants--The _Aardvaark_, or ant-bear-- Ignominious flight of a sentry--Ant-lion--Walking-leaves--The Hottentot god--A mantis at a picnic 237 CHAPTER XIII. OUR NEIGHBOURS. Hospitality of Cape colonists--Cheating and jealousy in business --Comfortless homes--Spoilt children--Education--The "Schoolmaster" --Convent schools--A priest-ridden nation--The _Nachtmaal_-- Old French names--A South African duke in Paris--Fine-looking men--Fat women--Ignorance of _Vrouws_--Boers unfriendly to English--A mean man 266 CHAPTER XIV. GOOD-BYE. Recalled to England--Regrets and farewells--Cape horses lacking in intelligence--"Old Martin"--A chapter of accidents--A horse "after Velasquez"--The Spy's revenge--Virtues and faults of Cape horses-- Horse-sickness--Good-bye to Swaylands--Kaffir crane--The voyage home--Dogs in durance--St. Helena--A visit to Longwood--Home again 277 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I. Troop of Ostriches and Cart, with Prickly-Pear Leaves for food _Frontispiece._ II. 1. Jacob. 2. Toto _Facing page_ 26 III. Some of the best kinds of Ostrich-bush:-- 1. Brack-bosch. 2. Ghanna. 3. Fei-bosch. " 48 IV. Our Sitting-room " 66 V. Ostriches in a Hot Wind " 80 VI. Ostrich-chicks " 104 VII. 1. Ostrich-chick (Photographed from case in Stanley and African Exhibition) 2. Ostriches meditating Escape through defective fence " 150 VIII. A Meerkat " 158 HOME LIFE ON AN OSTRICH FARM. CHAPTER I. PORT ELIZABETH AND WALMER. Early ambitions realized--Voyage to South Africa--Cape Town and Wynberg--Profusion of flowers--Port Elizabeth--Christmas decorations --Public library--Malays--Walmer--Hottentot huts--Our little house-- Pretty gardens--Honey-suckers--Flowers of Walmer Common--Wax-creeper --Ixias--Scarlet heath--Natal lilies--"Upholstery flower"--Ticks-- Commence ostrich-farming--Counting the birds--A ride after an ostrich. In the year 1881, leaving our native land wrapped in the cold fogs of November, my husband and I started for South Africa; where it was the intention of the former to resume the occupation of ostrich-farming, engaged in which he had already spent many years in the Cape Colony. It was my first visit to South Africa, and I was looking forward with great pleasure to the realization of a very early wish; for the adventures of settlers in far-off lands had always from childhood been my favourite reading, and I had become firmly convinced that a colonial life would suit me better than any other. Nor have I been disappointed; but, looking back now on our life in South Africa, I can truthfully say that, though certainly lacking in adventure, it has--unlike many things long wished for and attained at last--in no way fallen short of my expectations. The few hours we spent at Madeira were unfortunately during the night; and the beautiful island I was so longing to see remained hidden from view in a most tantalizing manner, without even the moonlight to give us some faint outline of its far-famed loveliness. After a safe, but most uneventful voyage, enlivened by no more stirring incidents than the occasional breaking down of the engines, we at last looked up at the glories of Table Mountain, and came suddenly into summer; enjoying the flowers and bright sunshine of Cape Town all the more after the dreary weather we had left in England. We landed, and spent a few very pleasant days at the pretty suburb of Wynberg, from whence we took several beautiful drives. On one occasion we left the carriage, and walked over such a carpet of lovely and bright-coloured wild flowers as I have only once seen equalled, when riding some years before through Palestine and Syria. At the end of five minutes we stopped, and counted all the different sorts we had gathered, finding twenty-eight. Another day we collected a number of leaves of the silver tree, which is found only on Table Mountain. The long, pointed leaves seem made of the glossiest pale-grey satin; you can write and paint on their soft surface, and numbers of them are for sale in the Cape Town shops, adorned with highly-coloured pictures of Table Mountain, steamers going at full speed, groups of flowers, Christmas good wishes, etc. We preferred, however, when enclosing the leaves in our letters home, to send them in all their native beauty, and with no clumsy human attempts at improvement. The beautiful plumbago is one of the most common plants, and many of the hedges about Wynberg consist entirely of it; the masses of its delicate blue-grey flowers forming as graceful a setting for the pretty, neatly-kept gardens as can well be imagined. We were quite sorry when the time came for going back to our steamer, Port Elizabeth being our destination. We landed there a few days before Christmas; and, soon after our arrival, walked out to Walmer to call on friends, whom we found busily engaged in decorating the little church. Their materials consisted simply of magnificent blue water-lilies--evidently the sacred blue lotus of the ancient Egyptians, with the sculptured representations of which they are identical--and large, pure white arums, or, as the colonists unromantically call them, "pig-lilies;" both being among the commonest of wild flowers about Walmer. These, with a few large fern-fronds, and the arum's own glossy leaves, formed the loveliest Christmas decoration I have ever seen. There is not much to see in Port Elizabeth; indeed, it is rather uglier than the generality of colonial towns, built simply for business, and with no thought of the picturesque--and what few attempts at ornament have been made are rather disfiguring than otherwise. On a bare hill above the town there is a conspicuous monument, the builders of which appear to have been long undecided as to whether it should be a small pyramid or large obelisk; the result being an ugly compromise between the two. Another work of art, more nearly approaching the obelisk form, but equally far from the Egyptian model both in its shape and in the designs which decorate it, stands in the market-place, in front of the town hall. This latter was by far the best-looking building in Port Elizabeth, until, a few years ago, its appearance was completely spoilt by the addition of an ugly and ponderous clock-tower, quite out of proportion to the rest of the structure, which it seems threatening to crush with its overpowering size and weight. The interior of the town hall, however, compensates for its outward deficiencies; for it contains a most excellent public library, plentifully supplied with books of all kinds, newspapers, and magazines, in two comfortable and well-arranged rooms. It would be well indeed if England would take a lesson from the Cape Colony in this respect; for in all the smaller towns which we visited, _i.e._, Cradock, Graaff-Reinet, Uitenhage, etc., we found good public libraries. There is a good club in Port Elizabeth, and several hotels, all of which we have tried at different times, finding the Standard (Main Street), though small and of unpretending exterior, by far the most comfortable. A little way out of the town there is a very good botanical garden, with a large conservatory, containing many beautiful palms, tree-ferns, and other tropical plants. The Malays are the most picturesque feature of Port Elizabeth; and their bright-coloured Eastern dresses, and the monotonous chant of the priest announcing the hours of prayer from the minaret of the mosque, form a pleasing contrast to the surrounding everyday sights and sounds. Like most other Orientals, they are perfect artists in their appreciation of colour; and, fortunately, they are still old-fashioned enough not yet to have adopted the hideous coal-tar dyes with which Europe has demoralized the taste of some of their brethren in Cairo and Algiers. On Fridays, when all are wearing their best, you often see the most beautiful materials, and the loveliest combinations of colour; especially in the flowing robes of the priests, the tints of which always harmonize perfectly. Thus, for instance, you will see an outer garment of turquoise blue, worn over an inner one of "old gold;" delicate salmon colour over soft creamy white; rich orange in combination with the deepest maroon; with an infinite variety of other lovely tints, any of which a painter might covet for his studio. The Malays often wear as turbans some of the beautiful _sarongs_ of Java, which are simply ordinary calico, painted by hand with a few good colours, and in the most artistic designs; of course there are never two alike, and in these days of machine-made sameness they are refreshing to behold. Some of the men wear immense hats, made of palm leaves very firmly and solidly plaited, and tapering to a point; they are made to fit the head by means of a small crown fixed inside, very like that of a college cap. The Malay women, instead of gliding about veiled to the eyes, like their Mohammedan sisters in other parts of the world, wear the quaint costume which was the fashion among the Dutch women at the time when the Malay race first came as slaves to the Cape. The waist of the dress is extremely short; and the long and voluminous skirts, of which an infinite number seem to be worn, commence close under the arms, spreading out, stiffly starched and spotlessly clean, to dimensions rivalling those of the old hooped petticoats. The good-natured brown faces are most unbecomingly framed by bright-coloured silk handkerchiefs tightly bound under the chin, somewhat after the fashion of the Algerian Jewesses--giving the wearers an appearance of perpetual toothache. Many of the women wear noisy wooden clogs; kept from parting company with the bare feet by nothing but a kind of large button, curiously ornamented, projecting between the two first toes. In the early days of slavery, when the Malays were brought up in the Dutch families, nearly all were Christians; and even so recently as when Sir Bartle Frere was governor there were comparatively few among them who could read the Koran. During the last few years, however, Mohammedanism has been rapidly gaining ground everywhere--the great university of El Azhar in Cairo, especially, training thousands of students to go out as emissaries into all parts of the East to make converts--and the Malays, in constantly increasing numbers, are embracing the creed of Islam. Many of them now save up their money for the pilgrimage to Mecca, which is their great ambition. They are very ignorant; and their Mohammedan fatalism, prejudicing them against all sanitary precautions--especially vaccination--adds very much to the difficulty of contending with small-pox and other epidemics when they appear. In 1882, when there was so severe an outbreak of small-pox in Cape Town and other parts of the colony, the Malays not only opposed all attempts made by the authorities to isolate cases, but did all in their power to spread the disease; many of them being found throwing infected clothing into houses. After staying about a week in the town, we went out to live at Walmer, which is by far the pleasantest part of all the surroundings of Port Elizabeth, and which deserves to be more generally chosen as a residence by the wealthier inhabitants. It stands high, in a most healthy situation, and full in the path of that rough but benevolent south-east wind, which, owing to its kindly property of sweeping away the germs of disease, is called "the Cape doctor." Away beyond Walmer stretch miles of undulating common, covered with short bush and numberless varieties of wild flowers; and a breezy walk across part of this same common leads to Port Elizabeth. The walk is rather a long one; and often, before the arrival of our little "spider" from America, it would have been a comfort, after a long day in town, to avail ourselves of one of the numerous hired carriages for the return journey, were not the drivers of these vehicles so exorbitant in their charges as almost to rival those of New York. They demand ten shillings for the drive to Walmer, taking the passenger only one way; and this too often in a vehicle so near the last stage of dilapidation as to suggest fears of the final collapse occurring on the road. The importunity of the drivers is most troublesome; and when, in spite of their efforts, you remain obdurate, and they fail to secure you as a "fare," they do their best to run over you, hoping no doubt that they may thus at least have a chance of driving you to the hospital. Their cab-stand, where, like a row of vultures, they sit waiting for their prey, is on the market-place; and as you cross the latter, bound for the reading-room, with ears deaf to their shouts, and eyes resolutely fixed on the door of the town hall, leaving no doubt as to your intention _not_ to take a drive, the whole rank move forward in a simultaneous charge; pursuing and surrounding you with artful strategic movements and demoniac cries, and with so evident an intention to knock you down if possible, that when at last you stand safe on the town hall steps, you realize the feelings of Tam O'Shanter on gaining "the keystane of the brig." On the common, about half-way between Port Elizabeth and Walmer, there is a little group of Hottentot huts, shaped like large bee-hives, and made of the strangest building-material I ever saw, _i.e._, a thick mass of the oldest and filthiest rags imaginable. How they hold together has always been a mystery to me; for they flap and flutter ominously in the almost incessant wind, and seem threatening to wing their way across the common and invade the verandahs and gardens of Walmer. Although I have ventured into a good many queer human habitations in different parts of the world, I have never felt inclined to explore the interior of one of these huts, which look as forbidding as their ugly, yellow-skinned inmates. There is no window, no proper outlet for smoke, no room for any one of average figure to stand upright, and the hole which serves as a door is much too low for any more dignified entrance than on all fours--an attitude which, though quite worth while when threading the passages of the Great Pyramid, would hardly be repaid by the sight of the Hottentot in his home; and by the possible acquaintance of creeping, crawling and hopping legions. Numbers of dirty, monkey-like children, and ugly, aggressive dogs of the pariah type, swarm round these huts; the dogs often taking the trouble to pursue the passer-by a long distance on his way, irritating his horse and himself by their clamour, and always keeping just out of reach of the whip. With the exception of the few remaining Bushmen, the Hottentots are the ugliest and most degraded of all the South African natives. The Kaffirs are much pleasanter to look at, some of the young girls being rather nice-looking, with graceful figures, on which blankets of a beautiful artistic terra-cotta colour are draped in folds worthy of an Arab _burnous_. Occasionally some of the red ochre with which the blankets are coloured is daubed over the face and head, the effect being rather startling. The slender, bronze-like arms are often completely hidden from wrist to elbow by a long spirally-twisted brass wire, looking like a succession of the thinnest bangles quite close together. We found a comfortable little furnished house at Walmer, in which we spent the first five months after our arrival. It was just a convenient size for our small party, consisting, besides my husband and myself, of our two English servants, and Toto, a beautiful collie. The rooms were all on the ground floor; shaded, and indeed almost darkened, by a broad verandah running the whole length of the front. This absence of sufficient light in nearly all colonial houses strikes the new-comer unpleasantly; but one gets used to it, and in the heat and strong glare of the Cape summer the darkened rooms are restful and comforting. At one end of our verandah we made a little fernery, which we kept green and bright with trophies brought home from some of our longer walks and rides--also an aviary, the little inhabitants of which kept up a constant chorus, always pleasant to hear, and never loud enough to be troublesome. The Cape canary is a greenish bird, with a very pretty soft note, quite different from the piercing screech of his terrible yellow brother in English homes. Another soft-voiced little singer is the _rooibeck_, or red-beak, a wee thing very like an avadavat; a few goldfinches completed our collection, and all were very tame and happy in their little home. The broad leaves of two fine banana-plants shaded birds and ferns from the sun, which otherwise would have beaten in on them too fiercely through the window of the verandah. A banana-plant is a delightful thing to cultivate; it grows so rapidly, and is so full of health and strength; and the unfolding of each magnificent leaf is a new pleasure. We were within a short walk of our friends' house; and during the frequent absences of T----, my husband, often away for several weeks at a time while searching in different parts of the country for a suitable farm, it was very pleasant for me to have kind neighbours so near, and a bright welcome always awaiting me. Their garden was a large and beautiful one, and its luxuriance of lovely flowers, roses especially, gave ample evidence of their mistress's own care and love for them. Nearly all the houses in Walmer have good gardens, enclosed by the prettiest of hedges, sometimes of pomegranate, plumbago, or passion flowers, but most often of tall American aloes, round the sweet flowers of which the pretty honey-suckers--magnified humming-birds, substantial instead of insect-like--are continually hovering, their jewelled dresses of green, red, and yellow flashing in the sun at every turn of their rapid flight. Close under the hedge, and shaded by the aloe's blue-green spikes, the white arums grow in the thickest profusion. No dining-table in Walmer need be without a simple and beautiful decoration, for if there is no time for a ramble in search of flowers on the surrounding common, you need only run out and pick a few arums from the nearest hedge or small stream; and a few of them go a long way. But the treasures of the common are endless; and first and loveliest among them all is the little "wax-creeper,"[1] than which, tiny as it is, I do not think a more perfect flower could be imagined. It is as modest as a little violet; and you have to seek it out in its hiding-places under the thick foliage of the bushes, round the stems of which it twines so tightly that it is a work of some time to disentangle it. You also get many scratches during the process, for it loves to choose as its protectors the most prickly plants; but when at last you hold the delicate wreath in your hands, and look into its minute beauties--the graceful curves of the slender stalk and tendrils, no two of which ever grow alike; the long, narrow, dark-green leaves; and the clusters of brilliant, carmine-tinted flowers, each like a tiny, exquisitely-shaped vase cut out in glistening wax--you are amply rewarded. It is indeed one of the masterpieces of nature, and the first sight of it was a pleasure I can never forget. [1] _Microloma lineare._ This little flower does not bear transplanting. We often tried to domesticate it in our garden, but the plants invariably died. It was quite the rarest of all our flowers. We have never seen it anywhere but about Walmer, and there it grows only in small patches; five or six plants close together, and then perhaps no more of them to be seen during the whole of a long walk. Another of our favourites was the _aantblom_, a kind of ixia, whose lovely flowers range through all possible shades of rose-colour and orange, from the deepest to the palest tints of pink and yellow, down to the purest white. A large bouquet of nothing but these delicate, fragile-looking blossoms, each one of a different shade, brought to us by some little neighbours soon after our arrival, was a delightful surprise. So also was the first finding of the sweet Cape jessamine growing wild; but this is one of the rarer plants. Then there is the scarlet heath; its cluster of large, velvet-like flowers so vivid in colouring as to look like a flame of fire when the sun comes glancing through it. It is the most beautiful of all the Cape heaths, numerous and lovely as they are--though a delicately-shaded pink and white one comes very near it in beauty. The blue lobelias grow profusely all over the common; they are much larger and finer than those in English gardens, and are of the deepest ultra-marine, only a few here and there being a very pretty pale blue. Occasionally--but this is very rare--you find a pure white lobelia. Another flower of our home gardens, the gazania, is very plentiful, the ground being everywhere studded with its large, bright orange-coloured stars. Pink and white _immortelles_, gladioli, ixias, and irises of all kinds abound; some of the latter are tiny specimens, yet they are pencilled with all the same delicate lines as the larger sorts, though on so small a scale that you almost need a magnifying glass to enable you to see all their beauties. Then there are the Natal lilies, growing in large round clusters, each in itself sufficient to fill a flower-vase; you have but to break a thick, succulent stem, and a perfect, ready-made bouquet of pink, sweet-scented flowers is in your hand. Some of the plants about Walmer are more curious than beautiful; one especially--which, not knowing its real name,[2] we called "the upholstery flower"--is like an enormous tassel of red or pink fringe, gaudily ornamented outside with a stiff pattern in green and brown. It is about seven or eight inches long, solid and heavy in proportion; and looks as if in the fitness of things it ought to be at the end of a thick red and green cord looping up the gorgeous curtains of an American hotel. The flower is shaped like a gigantic thistle, but the plant on which it grows is a shrub, with a hard, woody stem, and laurel-like leaves. These are only a few specimens of the common's wealth of flowers; each time we went out we brought home a different collection, and our little rooms were bright with that intensity of colouring which makes the great difference between these children of the sun and the flora of colder climates. [2] We have since found that this plant is a _Protea_. A search for flowers on the common, or, indeed, a walk anywhere about Walmer, is attended by one very unpleasant penalty--you invariably come home covered with ticks. There are several varieties of these tormentors; the tiny, almost invisible ones being by far the worst and most numerous, and their bites, or rather their presence beneath one's skin, causing intense irritation. The large ticks, though they do not confine their attentions wholly to animals, are much more troublesome to them than to the human race, and our poor horses, dog, and other creatures suffered terribly from their attacks. One day, soon after our arrival, I was much amused by the clumsy antics of a number of fowls, which were continually jumping up and pecking at some cattle grazing near. On investigation, I found that they were regaling on the fat ticks with which the poor animals were covered; and our appetite for the Walmer poultry was considerably lessened by the discovery. Ticks abound everywhere along the coast, but as soon as you move inland you are free from the torment. We had not been very long in Walmer before T---- commenced his ostrich-farming with the purchase of forty-nine young birds, most of them only a few months old, and all wearing the rough, black and grey plumage which, under the name of "chicken-feathers," forms the ostrich's clothing during the first three or four years of his life. We kept them at night in a small enclosure near the house, and during the daytime they grazed on the common, herded by a troublesome little Kaffir boy, who required more looking after than all his charges. The business of counting the latter when they were brought home in the evening was by no means so easy as one would imagine, for the tiresome birds did all in their power to hinder it, and if quiet enough before, seemed always prompted by some mischievous demon to begin moving about as soon as the counting commenced; then, just when we were about half "through"--to use a convenient Americanism--they would get so hopelessly mixed up that we had to begin all over again. One day T---- and I had the excitement of an ostrich-hunt on horseback. One of our birds, which was much larger than any of the others, being nearly full-grown, and which had to be kept separate lest he should ill-treat his weaker brethren, had got away, and we had a long ride after him; T---- following him up by his _spoor_, or footprints, with as unerring an eye as that of a Red Indian, until at last we were rewarded by the sight of a small head and long snake-like neck above the distant bushes. Then came the very enjoyable but somewhat difficult work of driving our prisoner home. He would trot before us quietly enough for a while, with his curious springy step, till he thought we were off our guard, when he would make an abrupt and unexpected run in the wrong direction; and a prompt rush, like that of the _picador_ in a bull-fight, was necessary to cut off his retreat. The horses quite understood what they had to do, and seemed to enter into the spirit of it, and enjoy it as we did. CHAPTER II. SOME OF OUR PETS. Friendliness of South African birds and beasts--Our Secretary bird--Ungainly appearance of Jacob--His queer ways--Tragic fate of a kitten--A persecuted fowl--Our Dikkops--A baby buffalo--Wounded buffalo more dangerous than lion--A lucky stumble--Hunter attacked by "rogue" buffalo--A midnight ride--Followed by a lion--Toto--A pugnacious goose--South African climate dangerous to imported dogs--Toto and the crows--Animals offered by Moors in exchange for Toto. South Africa is the land of pet animals. The feathered and four-footed creatures are all delightful. They have the quaintest and most amusing ways, and they are very easily tamed. The little time and attention which in a busy colonial home can be spared for the pets is always repaid a hundredfold; and often you are surprised to find how quickly the bird or beast which only a few days ago was one of the wild creatures of the _veldt_--torn suddenly from nest or burrow, and abruptly turned out from the depths of a sack or of a Hottentot's pocket into a human home--has become an intimate friend, with a clearly-marked individual character, most interesting to study, and quite different from those of all its fellows, even of the same kind. On one point, however, the whole collection is sure to be unanimous, and that is a strong feeling of rivalry, and jealousy of one another, each one striving to be first in the affections of master and mistress. A great fondness for and sympathy with animals is not the least among the many tastes which T---- and I have in common; and in our up-country home, far off as we were from human neighbours, we were always surrounded by numbers of animal and bird friends. We began to form the nucleus of our small menagerie while still at Walmer; and one of our first acquisitions was a secretary bird. The friends near whom we lived possessed three of these creatures, which had all been found, infants together, in one nest on an ostrich farm near Port Elizabeth; and to my great delight, one of them was given to us. "Jacob," as we named him, turned out a most amusing pet. His personal appearance was decidedly comical; reminding us of a little old-fashioned man in a grey coat and tight black knee-breeches; with pale flesh-coloured stockings clothing the thinnest and most angular of legs, the joints of which might have been stiff with chronic rheumatism, so slowly and cautiously did Jacob bend them when picking anything up, or when settling himself down into his favourite squatting attitude. Not by any means a nice old man did Jacob resemble, but an old reprobate, with evil-looking eye, yellow parchment complexion, bald head, hooked nose and fiendish grin; with his shoulders shrugged up, his hands tucked away under his coat-tails, and several pens stuck behind his ear. Altogether an uncanny-looking creature, and one which, had he appeared in England some two or three centuries ago, would have stood a very fair chance of being burned alive in company with the old witches and their cats; indeed, he looked the part of a familiar spirit far better than the blackest cat could possibly do. [Illustration: JACOB.] [Illustration: TOTO.] Yet with all his diabolical appearance, Jacob was very friendly and affectionate, and soon grew most absurdly tame--too tame, in fact. He would come running to us the moment we appeared in the verandah, and would follow us about the garden, nibbling like a puppy at our hands and clothes. He would walk, quite uninvited, into the house, where his long-legged ungainly figure looked strangely out of place, and where he was much too noisy to be allowed to remain, although the broadest of hints in the shape of wet bath-sponges, soft clothes-brushes, Moorish slippers, and what other harmless missiles came to hand, were quite unavailing to convince him he was not wanted. The noisy scuffle and indignant gruntings attendant on his forcible expulsion had hardly subsided before he would reappear, walking sedately in at the first door or window available, as if nothing had happened. His objectionable noises were very numerous; and some of them were unpleasantly suggestive of a hospital. He would commence, for instance, with what seemed a frightful attack of asthma, and would appear to be very near the final gasp; then for about ten minutes he would have violent and alarming hiccups; the performance concluding with a repulsively realistic imitation of a consumptive cough, at the last stage. His favourite noise of all was a harsh, rasping croak, which he would keep up for any length of time, and with the regularity of a piece of clockwork; this noise was supposed to be a gentle intimation that Jacob was hungry, though the old impostor had probably had a substantial feed just before coming to pose as a starving beggar under our windows. The monotonous grating sound was exasperating; and, when driven quite beyond endurance, T---- would have recourse to extreme measures, and would fling towards Jacob a large dried puff-adder's skin, one of a collection of trophies hanging on the walls of our cottage. The sight of this always threw Jacob into a state of abject terror. He seemed quite to lose his wits, and would dance about wildly, jumping up several feet from the ground in a grotesque manner; till at last, grunting his loudest, and with the pen-like feathers on his head bristling with excitement, he would clear the little white fence, and go off at railway speed across the common, where he would remain out of sight all the rest of the day; only returning at dusk to squat solemnly for the night in his accustomed corner of the garden. His dread of the puff-adder's skin inclined us to doubt the truth of the popular belief in the secretary's usefulness as a destroyer of snakes, on account of which a heavy fine is imposed by the Cape Government on any one found killing one of these birds. I certainly do not think Jacob would have faced a full-grown puff-adder, though we once saw him kill and eat a small young one in the garden, beating it to death with his strong feet, and then swallowing it at one gulp. He was like a boa-constrictor in his capacity for "putting himself outside" the animals on which he fed--lizards, rats, toads, frogs, fat juicy locusts, young chickens, alas! and some of the smaller pets if left incautiously within his reach, even little kittens--all went down whole. The last-named animals were his favourite delicacy, and he was fortunate enough while at Walmer to get plenty of them. His enormous appetite, and our difficulty in satisfying it, were well known in the neighbourhood, and the owners of several prolific cats, instead of drowning the superfluous progeny, bestowed them on us as offerings to Jacob. They were killed and given to him at the rate of one a day. Once, however, by an unlucky accident, one of them got into his clutches without the preliminary knock on the head; and the old barbarian swallowed it alive. For some minutes we could hear the poor thing mewing piteously in Jacob's interior, while he himself stood there listening and looking all round in a puzzled manner, to see where the noise came from. He evidently thought there was another kitten somewhere, and seemed much disappointed at not finding it. One day, when there had been a great catch of rats, he swallowed three large ones in succession, but these were almost too much even for him; the tail of the last rat protruded from his bill, and it was a long time before it quite disappeared from view. The butcher had orders to bring liberal supplies for Jacob every day, and the greedy bird soon learned to know the hour at which he called. He would stand solemnly looking in the direction from which the cart came, and as soon as it appeared, he would run in his ungainly fashion to meet it. Jacob was largely endowed with that quality which is best expressed by the American word "cussedness;" and though friendly enough with us, he was very spiteful and malicious towards all other creatures on the place. He grew much worse after we went to live up-country, and became at last a kind of feathered Ishmael; hated by all his fellows, and returning their dislike with interest. Some time after we settled on our farm we found that he had been systematically inflicting a cruel course of ill-treatment on one unfortunate fowl, which, having been chosen as the next victim for the table, was enclosed, with a view to fattening, in a little old packing-case with wooden bars nailed across the front. Somehow, in spite of abundant mealies and much soaked bread, that fowl never would get fat, nor had his predecessor ever done so; we had grown weary of feeding up the latter for weeks with no result, and in despair had killed and eaten him at last--a poor bag of bones, not worth a tithe of the food he had consumed. And now here was another, apparently suffering from the same kind of atrophy; the whole thing was a puzzle to us, until one day the mystery was solved, and Jacob stood revealed as the author of the mischief. He had devised an ingenious way of persecuting the poor prisoner, and on seeing it we no longer wondered at the latter's careworn looks. Jacob would come up to his box, and make defiant and insulting noises at him--none could do this better than he--until the imbecile curiosity of fowls prompted the victim to protrude his head and neck through the bars; then, before he had time to draw back, Jacob's foot would come down with a vicious dab on his head. The foolish creature never seemed to learn wisdom by experience, though he must have been nearly stunned many times, and his head all but knocked off by Jacob's great powerful foot and leg; yet as often as the foe challenged him, his poor simple face would look inquiringly out, only to meet another buffet. As he would not take care of himself, we had to move him into a safe place; where he no longer died daily, and was able at last to fulfil his destiny by becoming respectably fat. One day T---- returned from bathing, his Turkish towel, instead of being as usual filled with blue lotus for the dining-table, showing very evident signs of living contents; and two of the queerest little birds came tumbling out of it. They were young dikkops, a little covey of which he had surprised near his bathing-place. They possessed very foolish, vacant faces; and their large, round, bright yellow eyes were utterly void of expression, just as if a bird-stuffer had furnished them with two pairs of glass eyes many sizes too large. Their great thick legs, on the enormously swollen-looking knee-joints of which they squatted in a comical manner, were just as much out of proportion as the eyes, and of the same vivid yellow; indeed, the bird-stuffer seemed to have finished off his work with a thick coating of the brightest gamboge over legs and bill. They had no tail to speak of, and their soft plumage was of all different shades of brown and grey, very prettily marked. The dikkop (a Dutch name, meaning "thickhead"), is a small kind of bustard, and is by far the best of the many delicious game-birds of South Africa. It is a nocturnal bird, sleepy during the daytime, but lively and noisy at night--as we soon found to our discomfort. Not being able to decide at once on a place for our newly-acquired specimens, we put them into our bedroom for the first night, but they were soon awake--so, alas! were we--and their plaintive cry, sounding incessantly from all parts of the room as they ran restlessly to and fro, speedily obliged us to turn them out. We found permanent quarters for them at the end of the verandah, opposite the fernery, where my American trunks--too large to go into the house--had been placed. These we arranged to form a little enclosure, in which the dikkops were safe from the voracious Jacob, who would soon have swallowed them, legs and all, if he had had the chance. One, evidently the smallest and weakest of the covey, we named Benjamin; but, unlike his Scriptural namesake, he received rather a smaller than a larger portion of the good things of this world, the greedy Joseph taking advantage of his own superior size and strength to get the lion's share of all the food, and Benjamin meekly submitting; till we interfered, and by separating the two at feeding-time ensured an equal division. Joseph's general conduct was cruel and unbrotherly; and when one day, during the process of packing to move up-country, he came to an untimely end, being accidentally crushed under the heaviest "Saratoga," we naturally expected Benjamin to rejoice. Instead of this, however, the little fellow pined and fretted; refusing to eat, and calling incessantly with his little mournful cry of three soft musical notes in a minor key, as if hoping to bring back his oppressor--from whom he ought to have been thankful to be free--and at the end of two days he also was dead. During one of T----'s journeys up-country he made a strange purchase, which he forwarded at once to me by train. It was a baby buffalo, which had been taken alive by the hunters who shot its mother. The buffalo being a rare animal in the Cape Colony, we looked on this little specimen as a great acquisition; and, had he lived, he would have been a very valuable, though perhaps in time somewhat formidable addition to the menagerie; but the railway officials to whose care he was consigned being no exception to the generality of Cape colonists--whose usual way of doing business is to let things take care of themselves--the poor little fellow was put into the train without being fastened or secured in any way, and the jolting he received en _route_ knocked him about so that he arrived in a very sad state, with his head cut and bleeding in several places; and did not live many days. The buffalo is considered by all hunters a far more dangerous animal to encounter than the lion, and almost as formidable as the elephant or rhinoceros. When wounded, he has an ugly trick of lying in wait, hidden in the bush, with only his nose out; and turning the tables on the pursuer by making an unexpected charge. Many hunters have been killed in this manner by infuriated buffaloes. When T---- was hunting in the interior some years before, a friend who was there with him met with an exciting adventure. Having come across a herd of buffaloes he fired into the midst of them; then, unaware that he had wounded one of the animals, he rode in pursuit of the herd. On coming up with them, he dismounted, and was just preparing to fire again, when a shout from his brother, who was behind, made him look round, just in time to see the wounded buffalo, which had emerged from the bush, charging him furiously. He gave him both barrels, each shot striking him in the centre of the forehead; but, as the buffalo always charges with his nose in the air, both bullets glanced off, and Mr. B---- escaped only by a quick jump on one side. The buffalo passed him; then turning round, tossed and killed the horse. The next shot finished the buffalo's career; and on the great head, which has been kept as a trophy, are the marks of the two first bullets, showing how calm was the presence of mind, and how true the aim, in that moment of danger. Another of T----'s hunting companions, chased in a similar manner by a wounded buffalo, owed his life to a lucky stumble, which so astonished the animal that he stood still for a few seconds staring at the prostrate figure; giving the hunter time to get up and take refuge behind a tree, from whence he shot his assailant. The most dangerous buffaloes are the old solitary bulls which have been turned out of the herd; they become as artful and malicious as rogue elephants, and often hide in the bush when they get your wind, to rush out on you unexpectedly. On another of T----'s hunting expeditions, on the river Sabie, not far from Delagoa Bay, one of the party was walking quietly along with his rifle over his shoulder, when he was suddenly attacked by one of these "rogues," and so frightfully gored that for a time he was not expected to live. T---- started off at once to fetch a doctor; and rode all through the night, steering his course by the stars, to an encampment which most fortunately happened to be within about thirty miles. It was that of a party who were bringing up a number of _mitrailleuses_ and other arms, taken in the Franco-Prussian war and presented by Germany to the Transvaal Government. In the camp there were an immense number of donkeys, which were used for the transport of the guns; and when one commenced braying, all the others immediately following suit, it was a Pandemonium which made night hideous indeed. On retracing his course the next day, accompanied by the doctor, T---- saw by the spoor that during that midnight ride he had been followed by a lion. And now, though the transition seems rather an abrupt one from savage beasts to the sweetest and gentlest of domestic pets, our dear old dog Toto deserves a little notice. We brought him from England with us--he is a dog of Kent, being a native of the Weald--and when put on board the steamer at Southampton he was not many months old. He still had the blunt nose and thick paws of puppyhood; also its mischievous little needle-like teeth, with which he ate off the straps of our portmanteaus, and, when allowed an occasional run on deck, did considerable damage to the Madeira chairs of the passengers. Fortunately he was so general a favourite that his iniquities were overlooked. The children on board were especially fond of him, and would often petition for him to be let loose, to join in their games. He seemed to grow up during the voyage--possibly the sea air hastened his development--and he had almost attained full size and perfect proportions by the time we landed in Cape Town; he, poor fellow, being in such wild delight at finding himself again on _terra firma_ and released from the narrowness of ship life, that he was quite mad with excitement, jumping and dragging at his chain, and knocking us nearly off our legs, besides involving us and himself in numerous entanglements with the legs of others. We had to be perpetually apologizing for his conduct, and really felt quite ashamed of him. He is a large black-and-tan collie; with a soft glossy coat, a big black feather of a tail, and the most superb white frill; of which latter he is justly proud, drawing himself up to show it off to the best advantage whenever it is stroked or admired. Altogether he is a very vain dog, quite conscious of his good looks. His big, honest, loving brown eyes have none of that sly, shifty look which gives a treacherous appearance to so many collies; his face, which is as good and kind as it is pretty, has a great range of expression, and it is wonderful to see how instantly it will change from a benevolent smile, or even a downright laugh, to a pathetic, deeply injured, or scornful look, if Toto considers himself slighted or insulted. We have to study his feelings carefully, for he is proud and sensitive even beyond the usual nature of collies; and if we have been unfortunate enough to offend him--as often as not quite unintentionally--he will give us the cut direct for several days; repelling all advances with the most freezing indifference, and plainly, though always politely, for he is a thorough gentleman, intimating his wish to drop our acquaintance. Sometimes we are puzzled to know why Toto is haughty and distant towards us, or ignores our existence; and, on looking back, recall perhaps that so long ago as the day before yesterday one of us, in the hurry of daily work, finding his large form obstructing the door through which we had to pass, told him, somewhat impatiently, to get out of the way. Or perhaps--worse still--we may have laughed at him. Possibly the mouse he was chasing on the veldt popped into the safety of a hole just as he had all but caught it, and we unfeelingly made a joke of his disappointment--or, in his excessive zeal to hold himself very upright when sitting up to beg at dinner, dear Toto may have leaned back just a little too far and rolled over on to his back; a painful position for so majestic an animal, and one which ought to have commanded respectful silence, instead of provoking an unkind laugh. This misfortune has happened several times to poor Toto, especially during the process of learning his threefold trick of sitting up to beg, "asking"--with a little short bark--for bone or biscuit, and finally catching the contribution in his mouth. It is really difficult to refrain from laughing at his sudden collapse, preceded as it always is by an extra self-satisfied look--just the expression of the dog in Caldecott's "House that Jack built," as he sits smiling and all-unconscious of the cow coming up behind to toss him. A conceited protrusion of Toto's big white shirt-frill is usually the occasion of falling, and no doubt he deserves to be laughed at; but the poor fellow's evident distress, and his "countenance more in sorrow than in anger" at our cruel mirth, have led us to make great efforts to keep our gravity, and, with true politeness, to pretend not to see him. Though Toto is not generally a demonstrative dog, there is no mistake about his affection for us; he shows it in many quiet little sympathetic ways, and seems even more human than the generality of collies. He has constituted himself my special guardian and protector, and though at all times a very devoted attendant, he would always take extra care of me whenever, during T----'s journeys about the country, I was left at home alone. Then the faithful old fellow would not leave me for an instant. The silent sympathy with which he thrust his nose lovingly into my hand cheered the dreary moment when, after watching T---- out of sight, I turned to walk back to the lonely house; and his quiet unobtrusive presence enlivened all the weeks of solitude. He would lie at my feet as I sat working or writing; follow me from room to room or out of doors, always close at my heels; and curl himself up to sleep under my bed, when at any time during the night the slightest word or movement on my part would produce a responsive "tap, tap," of his tail upon the floor. And when his master returned, he always seemed to look to him for approbation; his whole manner expressing his pride in the good care he had taken of house and mistress. Our garden at Walmer was constantly invaded by neighbouring fowls and ducks, which would lie in wait outside, ready to slip in the instant the little gate was left open; the fowls of course found plenty of occupation among the flowers; while the ducks would at once make for a large tub, generally full of photographic prints taking their final bath under a tap of slowly-trickling water. The horrid birds seemed to take a delight in driving their clumsy bills through the soft, sodden paper; and after several prints from our best negatives had been destroyed, we summoned Toto to our aid. He threw himself with great energy into the work of ridding us of the intruders. He would lie in ambush for them, and when, much to his delight, they appeared inside the gate, he would rush to the attack, chasing first one and then another about the garden till he caught it; then, lifting it and carrying it out in his mouth as gently as a cat carries her kitten, he would deposit it outside, with much angry quacking or frightened screeching from the victim, as the case might be, but without the loss of a feather. Once he, in his turn, was attacked by a pugnacious goose, which he was endeavouring to drive out of the garden; and which turned on him savagely, keeping up a desperate battle with him for a long time, until it was quite exhausted, and sat down panting. It chased him many times round our small lawn, and once, in its excitement, put its head right into his mouth. Luckily for the goose, Toto was so utterly bewildered by its strange conduct, that he missed the golden opportunity of snapping off the imbecile head so invitingly presented. He was equally zealous in keeping the garden free from cats; and in pursuit of one of these he actually climbed so far into the lower branches of a tree that his victim, evidently expecting to see him come all the way to the top, gave himself up for lost, and dropped to the ground in a fit. Imported dogs often die in South Africa; especially if they remain near Port Elizabeth, or if they have distemper, which is much more severe in the colony than it is in Europe. Poor Toto laboured under both these disadvantages; for during our stay at Walmer he was attacked with distemper, and, the summer being also an unusually hot one, everything seemed against him. He was so ill that we quite gave up all hope of saving him, and bitterly regretted having brought him out with us. Just when he was at his worst, however, business called us away for a few days to Cradock, which is some distance inland; and T----, knowing it to be a healthy place for dogs, suggested that we should take the poor creature with us--dying as he seemed to be--on the slight chance that the change of climate might save him. We left him there--parting from him sadly and without much hope of seeing him again; but we were leaving him in the kindest of hands, and, thanks to the careful nursing he received, as well as to the timely change of air, he lived--indeed, I am glad to say, lives still. He remained some months at Cradock, whence from time to time came the good news of his steady improvement, and finally, some time after we had settled up-country, the announcement that he would be sent off to us at the first opportunity. Then, one day as we sat at dinner, we heard a sudden and startling tumult in the kitchen; the welcoming voices of the servants; a frantic scuffle outside the sitting-room door; and in rushed Toto, handsomer and fuller of life and spirits than ever; whining and howling with delight, and nearly upsetting us, chairs and all, besides endangering everything on the table, as he jumped wildly to lick our faces. He had been brought from Klipplaat by a passing waggon, in the usual "promiscuous" manner in which property, animate as well as inanimate, is delivered at its destination on Cape farms. After thus paying his footing in South Africa nearly with his life, Toto was thoroughly acclimatized, and passed through several very hot summers on the farm without a day's illness; only showing by increased liveliness his preference for the cooler weather; being very happy on the occasional really cold days of our short winter, and--like everyone else--cross during a hot wind. He has now accompanied us back to England, where--probably on the strength of being an old traveller who has twice crossed the line--he gives himself great airs, and makes no secret of his contempt for the stay-at-home dogs who have not had his advantages. This involves him in many fights; and the brother and sister with whom--having no settled home in England--we have occasionally left him, have several times been threatened with summonses for his misdeeds. Toto is now getting on in years--those few years, alas! which make up the little span of a dog's life--but he is still lively enough; and the crows at Mogador, where we spent the winter of 1888-89, will long remember the games they have had with that comical foreign dog, so unlike any of the jackal-like creatures to which they were accustomed. They knew him well, and always seemed to look out for him; and, as soon as he emerged from the ugly white-washed gateway of the town, and approached their favourite haunt, the dirty rubbish-heaps just outside the walls, they would fly close up to him, challenging him to catch them. Undaunted by invariable failure, he was always ready, and would dash noisily after them; while they, enjoying the joke--for every crow is a fellow of infinite jest--flew tantalizingly along close in front of his nose, and only just out of his reach. Sometimes they would settle on the ground a long way off, and--apparently oblivious of him--become so deeply absorbed in searching for the choicest morsels of rubbish that Toto, deluded by the well-acted little play, would make a wild charge. But the artless-looking crows, who all the while were thinking of him, had accurately calculated time and distance; and as he galloped up--confident that this time at least he was really going to catch one--they would allow him to come within an inch of touching them before they would appear to see him at all; then, rising slowly into the air--as if it were hardly worth the trouble to get out of his way--they would hover, croaking contemptuously, above his head, just out of reach of his spring. And when at last he was tired out with racing after them, and--being, like Hamlet, "fat and scant of breath"--could only fling himself panting on the sand, they would walk derisively all round him; come up defiantly, close to his gasping mouth, and all but perch on him. Before we left, several of the native dogs had learned the game; possibly their descendants will keep it up, and--who knows?--some naturalist of the future may record his discovery of a strange friendship between dogs and crows in Mogador. From the latter place T---- made several expeditions to the interior, travelling on foot and in native dress, for the purpose of distributing Arabic Testaments--on one occasion going as far as the city of Morocco. On these trips Toto accompanied his master, and--far from being the object of contempt and aversion, as a dog usually is in Mohammedan lands--was universally admired and coveted by the natives; by some of whom--had T---- not eaten of their bread and salt, thus placing them on their honour--it is extremely likely that he would have been stolen. It was something quite new to them to see a dog actually fond of his master, and treated by the latter as a friend; full of intelligence, too, and altogether different from their own uninteresting dogs; his clever tricks--which seemed to them almost uncanny--earned him many a good feed; and among the variety of animals offered at different times in exchange for him, were two donkeys, a horse, and a young camel. Toto can boast, too, of having spent many nights in quarters where probably never dog has slept before--_i.e._ in Mohammedan mosques. These were the usual sleeping-places assigned to the travellers by the simple village folk, whose toleration contrasts strongly with the fanaticism of the towns. There the mosques are held very sacred; and for Europeans to look in at their doors, even from across the street, gives great offence. * * * * * And now, as I write, the old dog--faithful and friendly as ever--sits up begging, no longer conceitedly and unsteadily as in his youth, but in the more sober fashion of the poor, fat, apoplectic-looking bears at the Zoo; with legs well spread out to afford the firm foundation needed by the portliness of advancing years. His kind eyes are fixed very lovingly and deferentially on the tiny face of his present queen and mistress, the little fair-haired girl who has come to us since we left the Cape; and who, with a regal air of command, holds out her biscuit to the seated Colossus, who, not so long ago, towered above her small head, and bids him "ask for it." Together these two friends and playfellows make so pretty a picture, that we could wish Briton Rivière or Burton Barber were here to see it and give it to the world. CHAPTER III. PLANTS OF THE KARROO. We move up-country--Situation of farm--Strange vegetation of Karroo district--_Karroo_ plant--_Fei-bosch_--_Brack-bosch_--Our flowers --_Spekboom_--Bitter aloes--Thorny plants--_Wacht-een-Beetje_-- Ostriches killed by prickly pear--Finger-poll--Wild tobacco fatal to ostriches--Carelessness of colonists--Euphorbias--Candle-bush. Our five months at Walmer passed so pleasantly, that in spite of my longing to be settled on a place of our own, and the impatience I felt to enter on all the duties and pleasures of farm life among the ostriches, I was really sorry when the time of departure came, and in the beginning of winter--_i.e._ towards the latter part of May--we left the little house, the first home of our married life, and took our journey up-country. We had no very long distance to travel, for the farm in the Karroo district which T---- had chosen was only a day's journey from "The Bay," as Port Elizabeth, like San Francisco, is familiarly called; and instead of being, like many proprietors of farms, quite out of the world, and obliged to drive for two or even three days to reach the railway, we had our choice of two stations; the nearest, Klipplaat, being only fifteen miles from us, and the railway journey not more than eight hours. Our farm, extending over twelve thousand acres, was situated in a long valley running between two ranges of mountains, the steepness of which rendered enclosing unnecessary in many parts; thus saving much expense in starting the farm, an entirely new one, and chosen purposely by T---- on this account. For it sometimes happens that land on which ostriches have run for years becomes at last unhealthy for the birds. We were in that part of the Karroo which is called the Zwart Ruggens, or "black rugged country;" so named from the appearance it presents when, during the frequent long droughts, the bush loses all its verdure, and becomes outwardly so black and dry-looking that no one unacquainted with this most curious kind of vegetation would suppose it capable of containing the smallest amount of nutriment for ostriches, sheep, or goats. But if you break one of these apparently dried-up sticks, you find it all green and succulent inside, full of a very nourishing saline juice; and thus, even in long droughts which sometimes last more than a year, this country is able to support stock in a most marvellous manner, of which, judging by outward appearance, it certainly does not seem capable. It seems strange that in this land of dryness the plants are so full of moisture; one wonders whence it can possibly have come. The little _karroo_ plant, from which the district takes its name, is one of the best kinds of bush for ostriches, as well as for sheep and goats; it grows in little compact round tufts not more than seven or eight inches from the ground, and though so valuable to farmers, it is but unpretending in appearance, with tiny, narrow leaves, and a little, round, bright yellow flower, exactly resembling the centre of an English daisy after its oracle has been consulted, and its last petal pulled by some enquiring Marguérite. The _fei-bosch_ is another of our commonest and most useful plants; its pinkish-lilac flower is very like that of the portulacca, and its little flat succulent leaves look like miniature prickly pear leaves without the prickles; hence its name, from _Turk-fei_, Turkish fig. When flowering in large masses, and seen at a little distance, the fei-bosch might almost be taken for heather. The _brack-bosch_, which completes our trio of very best kinds of ostrich-bush, is a taller and more graceful plant than either of the preceding, with blue-green leaves, and blossom consisting of a spike of little greenish tufts; but there are an endless variety of other plants, among which there is hardly one that is not good nourishing food for the birds. [Illustration: A. MARTIN, _Del_. _Some of the Best Kinds of Ostrich-Bush._ 1. BRACK-BOSCH. 2. GHANNA. 3. FEI-BOSCH.] All are alike succulent and full of salt, giving out a crisp, crackling sound as you walk over them; all have the same strange way of growing, each plant a little isolated patch by itself, just as the tufts of wool grow on the Hottentots' heads; and the flowers of nearly all are of the portulacca type, some large, some small, some growing singly, others in clusters; they are of different colours--white, yellow, orange, red, pink, lilac, etc. They are very delicate and fragile flowers; and, pretty as they are, it is useless to attempt carrying them home, for they close up and fade as soon as they are gathered. Indeed, nearly all the flowers in that part of the world are unsatisfactory; and those few among them which will keep for a very short time in water are almost useless for table decorations, as they seem incapable of adapting themselves to any sort or form of flower-vase. They are pretty enough in themselves; but the large, thick, stubborn stems, all out of proportion with the flowers, refuse to bend themselves to any graceful form or combination; they all seem starting away from one another in an angular, uncomfortable manner, and of course any pretty arrangement of flowers which _will_ not arrange _themselves_ is impossible. Our thoughts often went back longingly to the flowers of Walmer, compared with which prolific region the Karroo is poverty indeed. A cineraria, very nearly as large as the cultivated varieties, and of a beautiful deep blue, on which the Dutch have bestowed the euphonious name of _blaauw-blometje_ (little blue flower), several tiny irises, and a rather rare bulb, the hyacinth-like blossoms of which, as well as the upper part of the stalk, are of a lovely tint between scarlet and deep rose-colour, and all soft and velvety in texture, are among our prettiest flowers. Then there are the mimosa's balls of soft, sweet-scented yellow fringe, perfuming the air all round for a long distance, and making the trees seem all of gold when covered with their masses of bloom. Here and there is a Kaffir bean, a shrub with rather handsome large red flowers, but it is not common. There are a good many colourless, insignificant-looking flowers, and some which are quite uncanny; one, especially, with pendent, succulent bells of livid green and dull red, looks worthy to be one of the ingredients of a witch's cauldron. These are all flowers of the plains; the mountains are richer, but their treasures are only to be attained by making rather long excursions up their steep sides, over the roughest and stoniest of ground, and through a tangled mass of vegetation, most of which is very thorny. But even the weariest climb is well repaid on reaching the heights where the wild geraniums grow. The immense round bushes, five or six feet in diameter, and brilliant with great bunches of pink or scarlet flowers, are indeed a lovely sight. A creeping ivy-leaved geranium, and a very pretty pelargonium, which is also a creeper, grow in these same far-off regions; the flower of the latter is of a beautiful rich maroon and cream-colour, its curiously jointed stem and tiny leaves are very succulent, salt to the taste, and strongly scented with the sweet geranium perfume. It is strange to notice how plants which in Europe are neither saline nor particularly succulent, when growing in the Karroo assume the prevailing character of its vegetation. Large white _marguérites_, growing on a shrub with a hard, woody stem, inhabit the same heights as the geraniums and pelargoniums; all these together would have been invaluable for the brightening of our little rooms, if we could possibly have brought them home. But they are all much too delicate to survive the long walk or ride back, and the only mountain flowers we could reasonably hope to bring home in a presentable condition were the large, bright yellow _immortelles_. The scanty little streams trickling down some of the cool shady _kloofs_ between the mountains are the home of a few white arums; and their rocky beds are fringed, though not very abundantly, with maidenhair fern. The _spekboom_, which is a good-sized shrub, sometimes attaining the height of fifteen or twenty feet, grows plentifully a little way up the mountains; and in very protracted droughts, when the karroo and other bush of the plains begin at last to fail, it is our great resource for the ostriches, which then ascend for the purpose of feeding on it; and though they do not care for it as they do for their usual kinds of food, it is good and nourishing for them. Elephants are very fond of the _spekboom_, but though a few of these animals are still found near Port Elizabeth, there are fortunately none in our neighbourhood to make inroads on the supplies reserved for the ostriches against what certainly in South Africa cannot be called "a rainy day." The _spekboom_ has a large soft stem, very thick, round, succulent leaves, and its clusters of star-shaped, wax-like flowers are white, sometimes slightly tinged with pink. There are several plants very closely resembling the _spekboom_; one with pretty, bright yellow flowers; and one, the soft stem of which, if cut into thin slices, looks exactly like very red salt tongue. Those unpleasant old acquaintances of childish days, the bitter aloes, are at home in the Karroo in great numbers; and most brilliantly do they light up the somewhat gloomy-looking sides of the mountains in early spring with the great spikes of their shaded scarlet and orange-coloured flowers, looking like gigantic "red-hot poker plants." This African aloe has none of the slender grace of its American relative, and it is only when flowering that it has any claim to beauty; at all other times it is simply a most untidy-looking plant, the thick, clumsy stem for about five or six feet below the crown of leaves being covered with the ragged, decaying remains of former vegetation, suggestive of numberless scorpions and centipedes. Thorny plants abound, especially on the mountains, where indeed almost every bush which is not soft and succulent is armed with strong, sharp, often cruelly hooked spikes. The _wacht-een-beetje_ (wait-a-bit) does not grow in our neighbourhood, but we have several plants which seem to me no less deserving of the name; and often, when held a prisoner on some ingenious arrangement of hooks and spikes viciously pointing in every possible direction, each effort to free myself involving me more deeply, and inflicting fresh damage on clothes and flesh, I should, but for T----'s assurance to the contrary, have quite believed I had encountered it. The constant repairing of frightful "trap-doors" and yawning rents of all shapes and sizes in T----'s garments and in my own, took up a large proportion of time; and often did I congratulate myself on the fact that my riding-habit at least--chosen contrary to the advice of friends at home, who all counselled coolness and lightness above everything--was of such stout, strong cloth as to defy most of the thorns. Any less substantial material would have been reduced to ribbons in some of our rides. On foot, you are perpetually assailed by the great strong hooks of the wild asparagus, a troublesome enemy, whose long straggling branches trailing over the ground are most destructive to the skirts of dresses; while boots have deadly foes, not only in the shape of rough ground and hard, sharp-pointed stones, but also in that of numerous prickly and scratchy kinds of small bush. At the end of one walk in the _veldt_, the surface of a kid boot is all rubbed and torn into little ragged points, and is never again fit to be seen. Fortunately, in the Karroo, no one is over-particular about such small details. Among our troublesome plants, one of the worst and most plentiful is the prickly pear; and farmers have indeed no reason to bless the old Dutchwoman who, by simply bringing one leaf of it from Cape Town to Graaff-Reinet, was the first introducer of what has become so great a nuisance. It spreads with astonishing rapidity, and is so tenacious of life that a leaf, or even a small portion of a leaf, if thrown on the ground, strikes out roots almost immediately, and becomes the parent of a fast-growing plant; and it is not without great trouble and expense that farms can be kept comparatively free from it. Sometimes a little party of Kaffirs would be encamped on some part of our land especially overgrown with prickly pears; and there for months together they would be at work, cutting in pieces and rooting out the intruders; piling the disjointed stems and leaves in neatly-arranged stacks, where they would soon ferment and decay. Labour being dear in the colony, the wages of "prickly-pear-men" form a large item in the expenditure of a farm; in many places indeed, where the plants are very numerous, it does not pay to clear the land, which consequently becomes useless, many farms being thus ruined. Sometimes ostriches, with that equal disregard of their own health and of their possessor's pocket for which they are famous, help themselves to prickly pears, acquire a morbid taste for them, and go on indulging in them, reckless of the long, stiff spikes on the leaves, with which their poor heads and necks soon become so covered as to look like pin-cushions stuck full of pins; and of the still more cruel, almost invisible fruit-thorns which at last line the interior of their throats, besides so injuring their eyes that they become perfectly blind, and are unable to feed themselves. Many a time has a poor unhappy ostrich, the victim of prickly pear, been brought to me in a helpless, half-dead state, to be nursed and fed at the house. Undaunted by previous experience, I perseveringly tended each case, hoping it might prove the exception to the general rule, but never were my care and devotion rewarded by the recovery of my patient. There it would squat for a few days, the picture of misery; its long neck lying along the ground in a limp, despondent manner, suggestive of the attitudes of seasick geese and ducks on the first day of a voyage. Two or three times a day I would feed it, forcing its unwilling bill open with one hand, while with the other I posted large handfuls of porridge, mealies, or chopped prickly pear leaves in the depths of its capacious letter-box of a throat. All to no purpose; it had made up its mind to die, as every ostrich does immediately illness or accident befalls it, and most resolutely did it carry out its intention. The prickly pear, mischievous though it is, is not altogether without its good qualities. Its juicy fruit, though rather deficient in flavour, is delightfully cool and refreshing in the dry heat of summer; and a kind of treacle, by no means to be despised at those not infrequent times when butter is either ruinous in price or quite unattainable, is made from it. A strong, coarse spirit, equal to the _aguardiente_ of Cuba in horrible taste and smell, is distilled from prickly pears; and though to us it seemed only fit to be burned in a spirit-lamp, when nothing better could be procured, it is nectar to the Boers and Hottentots, who drink large quantities of it. Great caution is needed in peeling the prickly pear, the proper way being to impale the fruit on a fork or stick while you cut it open and remove the skin. On no account must the latter be touched with the hands, or direful consequences will ensue. To the inexperienced eye the prickly pear looks innocent enough; with its smooth, shiny skin, suggestive only of a juicy interior, and telling no tale of lurking mischief--yet each of those soft-looking little tufts, with which at regular intervals it is dotted, is a quiver filled with terrible, tiny, hairlike thorns, or rather stings; and woe betide the fingers of the unwary "new chum," who, with no kind friend at hand to warn him, plucks the treacherous fruit. He will carry a lively memento of it for many days. My first sad experience of prickly pears was gained, not in South, but in North Africa. Landing with a friend in Algiers some time ago, our first walk led us to the fruit market, where, before a tempting pile of _figues de Barbarie_, we stopped to quench the thirst of our thirty-six hours' passage. The fruit was handed to us, politely peeled by the Arab dealer; and thus, as we made our first acquaintance with its delightful coolness, no suspicion of its evil qualities entered our minds. And when, a few days later, adding the excitement of a little trespassing to the more legitimate pleasures of a country ramble, we came upon a well-laden group of prickly pear bushes, we could not resist the temptation to help ourselves to some of the fruit--and woeful was the result. Concentrated essence of stinging-nettle seemed all at once to be assailing hands, lips, and tongue; and our skin, wherever it had come in contact with the ill-natured fruit, was covered with a thick crop of minute, bristly hairs, apparently growing from it, and venomous and irritating to the last degree. Our silk gloves, transformed suddenly into miniature robes of Nessus, had to be thrown away, perfectly unwearable; and the inadvertent use of our pocket-handkerchiefs, before we had fully realized the extent of our misfortune, caused fresh agonies, in which nose as well as lips participated. For many a day did the retribution of that theft haunt us in the form of myriads of tiny stings. It was a long time indeed before we were finally rid of the last of them; and we registered a vow that whatever Algerian fruit we might dishonestly acquire in future, it should not be _figues de Barbarie_. In dry weather at the Cape these spiteful little stings do not even wait for the newly-arrived victim; but fly about, light as thistle-down, ready to settle on any one who has not learned by experience to give the prickly pear bushes a wide berth. The leaves of the prickly pear are good for ostriches and cattle, though the work of burning off the thorns and cutting the leaves in pieces is so tedious that it is only resorted to when other food becomes scarce. One kind, the _kahlblad_, or "bald leaf," has no thorns. It is comparatively rare, and farmers plant and cultivate it as carefully as they exterminate its troublesome relative. Another kind of cactus, which, if the beautiful forms in Nature were utilized for artistic purposes half as much as they deserve to be, would long since have been recognized as a most perfect model for a graceful branched candlestick, is used as food for cattle during long droughts, being burnt and cut up in the same manner as the prickly pear. When the plant is in flower, each branch of the candlestick seems tipped with a bright yellow flame. Another of our many eccentric-looking plants, the _finger-poll_, is also used in very dry seasons to feed cattle; the men who go about the country cutting it up being followed by the animals, which are very fond of it, but which, owing to its excessive toughness, are unable to bite it off. It grows close to the ground; its perfect circle of thick, short fingers, rather like gigantic asparagus, radiating stiffly from the centre. How the cattle manage to eat it without serious consequences has always been a matter of wonder to me, for the whole plant is filled with a thick, white, milky juice, which when dry becomes like the strongest india-rubber. We often used this juice for mending china, articles of jewellery, and many things which defied coaguline, to which, indeed, we found it superior. One of our plants always reminded me of those French sweets, threaded on a stiff straw, which often form a part of the contents of a bon-bon box. The thick, succulent leaves, shaded green and red, with a frosted, sparkling surface which increases the resemblance to the candied sweets, and all as exactly alike in shape and size as if made in one mould, are threaded like beads at equal distances along the stem, which passes through a little round hole in the very centre of each. They can all be taken off and threaded on again just as they were before. Close to the ground, and growing from a little round root apparently belonging to the bulbous tribe, you sometimes--though only rarely--see a tiny mass of soft, curling fibres, delicate and unsubstantial-looking as a little green cloud. Even the foliage of asparagus would look coarse and heavy if placed beside this really ethereal little plant, which yet is durable, for I have now with me a specimen which, though gathered five years ago, is still quite unchanged. The wild tobacco is a common--indeed too common--plant in the Karroo; it has clusters of long, narrow, trumpet-shaped flowers, of a light yellow, its leaves are small, and it resembles the cultivated tobacco neither in appearance nor in usefulness. Indeed it is one of our worst enemies, being poisonous to ostriches, which of course--true to their character--lose no opportunity of eating it. We made deadly war upon it, and whenever during our rides about the farm we came upon a clump of its blue-green bushes, we would make up a little bonfire at the foot of each, and burn it down to the ground. But it is tenacious of life, and its roots go down deep, so its career of evil was only cut short for a time. Besides which, our efforts to keep it under were of little avail while our neighbours, "letting things slide," in true colonial fashion, allowed the plants to run wild on their own land; from whence the seeds were always liable to be washed down to us during "a big rain," when the deep _sluits_ which everywhere intersect the country become, in a few hours, raging torrents, dashing along at express speed. Strangely enough, when T----, some years ago, was travelling in Australia, to which country he had brought some ostriches from the Cape, he found that wild tobacco grew nowhere throughout the length and breadth of the land, excepting just in the very region in which the birds had been established. During that trip he also found that the "salt-bush" of Australia, which is there considered the best kind of food for sheep, is almost identical with the brack-bosch of the Cape Colony, the only difference being that it grows higher. We have also seen the same bush growing in Algeria, and near Marseilles. On the lower slopes of some of our mountains grow tall euphorbias, shooting up straight and stiff as if made of metal, and branching out in the exact form of the Jewish candlestick sculptured on the arch of Titus in Rome. Some of these euphorbias attain the height of forty feet--quite important dimensions in that comparatively treeless land. They impart an air of melancholy and desolation to the landscape; and look particularly weird and uncanny when, on a homeward ride, you pass through a grove of them at dusk. One more queer plant in conclusion of these slight and very unscientific reminiscences of our flora, which I trust may never meet the eye of any botanist. The _kerzbosch_, or candle-bush, a stunted, thorny plant, if lighted at one end when in the green state, will burn steadily just like a wax candle, and is used as a torch for burning off the thorns of prickly pear, etc. CHAPTER IV. OUR LITTLE HOME. Building operations--A plucking--Ugliness of Cape houses--Our rooms--Fountain in sitting-room a failure--Drowned pets--Decoration of rooms--Colonist must be Jack-of-all-trades--Cape waggons--Shooting expeditions--Strange tale told by Boer. On our first arrival in the Karroo we were unable to take up our abode at once on our own farm; the best of the three small Dutch houses on it being little better than a hut, and consisting but of two small and badly-built rooms; with mud floors and smoke-blackened reed ceilings, as far removed from the horizontal as the roughly-plastered walls, which bulged and retreated in all unexpected directions, were from the perpendicular--the whole architecture, if so pretentious a term may be used, being entirely innocent of any approach to a straight line or correct angle. We at once commenced building operations; in the meanwhile renting a little house which happened to be vacant on the next farm, about an hour's rough, but pretty ride from our own. Now came a busy time for T----, and for his manager--the latter already installed, uncomfortably enough, in the old Dutch house--for besides the brick-making and building, and the deepening of the well near the house, there was, as must always be the case on starting a new farm, much to be done, and everything required to be done at once. T---- spent most of his time at "Swaylands," as we named our farm; and very enjoyable for me were the days when I could spare a few hours from household duties to ride over with him, to watch the progress of the new rooms, or to be initiated into some of the mysteries of ostrich-farming, all delightfully new and strange to me. The first sight of a plucking interested me especially; and it was not without a proud feeling of ownership that I sat on the ground in one corner of the kraal, or small temporary enclosure, helping to tie up in neat bundles our own first crop of soft, white, black, or grey feathers while watching the busy scene. It all comes back to me now with the clearness of a photograph--the bright, cloudless, metallic-looking South African sky above us; and for a background the long range of rocky mountains, each stain on their rugged sides, each aloe or _spekboom_ plant growing on them, sharply defined in that clear atmosphere as if seen through the large end of an opera-glass. In the foreground a forest of long necks, and a crowd of foolish, frightened faces, gaping beaks, and throats all puffed out with air--the latter ludicrous grimace, accompanied sometimes by a short, hollow sound, half grunt, half cough, being the ostrich's mode of expressing deepest disgust and dejection. There is a constant heavy stamping of powerful two-toed feet; an occasional difference of opinion between two quarrelsome birds eager to fight, craning their snake-like necks hissing savagely, and "lifting up themselves on high," but unable, owing to the closeness with which they are packed, to do each other any injury; and the real or fancied approach of a dog causes a sudden panic and general stampede of the silly birds into one corner of the kraal, threatening to break down its not very substantial hedge of dry bush--one commotion scarcely having time to subside before another arises. And through it all, T----, Mr. B----, and our Kaffirs are calmly going in and out among the struggling throng; all hard at work, the two former steadily and methodically operating with their shears on each bird as in its turn it is tugged along, like a victim to the sacrifice, by three men; two holding its wings, and the third dragging at its long neck till one fears that with all its kicks, plunges, tumbles, and sudden wild leaps into the air, its flat, brainless little head will be pulled off. One extra-refractory bird, when finally subdued, and helpless in the hands of the pluckers, avenges his wrongs upon the ostrich standing nearest to him in the crowd; and, for every feather pulled from his own tail, gives a savage nip to the head of his unoffending neighbour, a mild bird, who does not retaliate, but looks puzzled, his own turn not yet having come. It is amusing to watch the rapid retreat of each poor denuded creature when set free from his tormentors. He goes out at the gate looking crestfallen indeed, but apparently much relieved to find himself still alive. How we enjoyed that day! and how delightful was our ride back to "Hume Cottage" in the evening, with the proceeds of the plucking tied up in two large white bags, and fastened to our saddles; making us look as if we were taking our clothes to the wash. My bundle, by the way, came to grief _en route_, and suddenly--somewhat to the discomposure of my horse--we found ourselves enveloped in a soft snowstorm of feathers, which went flying and whirling merrily away across the _veldt_; many of them, in spite of our prompt dismounting to rush madly hither and thither in pursuit, quite evading all our efforts to catch them. The modern houses on Cape farms are all built entirely on utilitarian principles, with no thought of grace or beauty; indeed, the square and prosaic proportions of the ordinary packing-case seem to have been chosen as the model in the construction of nearly every room. Even if the inmates had any idea of comfort, or feeling for the picturesque--of both of which they are quite innocent--it would be impossible ever to make such rooms look either home-like or pretty. As it is, they are most often like very uncomfortable schoolrooms. Our first plan on coming to South Africa was the ambitious one of setting our fellow-colonists a brilliant example by striking out something entirely new in farm architecture; and many times during our stay at Walmer would we talk over the white Algerian house, with the comfort and loveliness of which our ostrich-farm, wherever it might be, was to be transformed into a little oasis in the desert. T---- covered many sheets of writing-paper with designs for the horse-shoe arches; and with neatly-drawn plans for the long, cool Oriental rooms, surrounding the square open court; in the centre of which was to be a fountain with bananas, ferns, blue lotus, and other water-loving plants. Alas! however; when we did take a farm, we found ourselves obliged after all to sacrifice beauty to usefulness, just like our neighbours. The unlovely Dutch house, incapable as it was of adapting itself to Moorish arches, had to be utilized; the press of other work allowing us no time for pulling down and re-building, neither for indulging in any artistic vagaries; and the two first rooms which--to meet immediate requirements--were added as soon as bricks could be made for them, were, for greater haste, built straight and square, in the true packing-case style. They were the same size as the two old Dutch rooms; flat-roofed like them, and built on to them in a straight line--the four, each with its alternate door and window, reminding us of the rows of little temporary rooms which form the dwellings of railway workmen when a new line is being made, and which are moved on as the work progresses. After this unpromising beginning, it is needless to say that our idea of building an Algerian house was given up; and though in time we improved the outward appearance of our dwelling; breaking the straightness of its outlines by the addition of a pretty little sitting-room projecting from the front, and of a large bedroom and store at the back; and plastering and whitewashing the dirty old bricks and the too-clean new ones; nothing can ever make it anything but an ugly house as far as the outside is concerned. With the interior, however, we have been more successful; and our sitting-room, now consisting of a T-shaped arrangement of three small rooms thrown into one, is really--considering the roughness of the materials with which we started--a very bright and cosy little nook. It is most quaint and irregular, for one end of it is a room of the crookedly-built Dutch house; and when the strong old wall, three feet thick, dividing the latter from the new part, was knocked away, the old ceiling and floor turned out to be considerably lower than the new. We dignify the deep step thus formed by the name of "the dais." [Illustration: OUR SITTING-ROOM.] The latest-added portion of the room--built from T----'s own design--is the prettiest of all; and the bow window at the end, always filled with banana-plants, ferns, creepers, garden and wild flowers, forms quite a little conservatory. Though disappointed of our Moorish court, we could not give up the idea of our fountain without a struggle, and attempted to establish it on a very small scale in this little room; in the cement floor of which, not far from the bow window, we made a round basin some four feet deep, which we filled with water. Then we wrote to Walmer for some roots of our favourite blue lotus; with which, and with the arums' white cups, the surface of the water was to be studded; and by-and-by--we thought--as soon as the completion of more necessary operations should allow leisure for ornamental work, how delightful it would be, on coming in out of the dust and the heat, to hear the sweet, refreshing sound of falling water; and to see the bright drops splashing on the border of maidenhair fern which was to surround the tiny basin. But, after all, our anticipations were never realized; for we soon saw that it would be necessary to choose between our fountain and our pet animals--so numerous among the latter were cases of "Found Drowned." Our meerkats, in their irrepressible liveliness, were always tumbling in; and, being unable to climb up the straight sides, would swim round and round calling loudly for assistance; but we were not always at hand to play the part of Humane Society, and the losses were many, including--saddest of all--that of a too-inquisitive young ostrich. Thousands of gnats, too, as noisy and nearly as venomous as mosquitoes, were brought into existence; and, romantic as was the idea of water-plants growing in our little room, it had to be given up; and we contented ourselves with seeing our blue lotus in the form of a dado, on which we stencilled and painted them ourselves in the true Egyptian conventional style, on alternate long and short stalks. We bordered the fireplace, and decorated the tops of the doors, with a few good old tiles from Damascus, Tunis, Algiers, and the Alhambra; three beautiful hand-painted _sarongs_, brought by T---- from Java, formed each as perfect and artistic a _portière_ as could be wished, and hid the ugly, ill-made doors; and with Turkish rugs, Oriental embroideries of all kinds, Moorish and Kabyle pottery, Algerian coffee-tables and brackets, ancient Egyptian curiosities, and other trophies of travel, we produced a general effect which--especially in South Africa--was not to be despised. I have conceitedly said "we," as if I had had a great share in the work, but it was in reality T---- who did it all, and to whose artistic taste the prettiness of our little home is entirely due. The capacity, too, for turning his hand to anything, which makes him so perfect a colonist, was invaluable to us on that out-of-the-way farm; for, there being, after the departure of the itinerant workmen who built our rooms, no painters, glaziers, masons, carpenters, or other such useful people anywhere nearer than Graaff-Reinet--four hours by rail from Klipplaat--all the repairs and improvements of the house devolved on him. One day he would be putting new panes of glass in the windows--the next, bringing a refractory lock into proper working order, or making and putting up bookshelves--then, perhaps, a defective portion of the roof would claim his attention, or he would enter on a long and persevering conflict with a smoky chimney. One of the latter, indeed, carelessly run up by our ignorant builder, was not cured until T---- had taken it all down and built it over again; since which its behaviour has been blameless. N.B.--When a chimney wants sweeping in the Karroo, the usual mode of procedure is to send a fowl down it. Our furniture, most of which was of that best kind of all for a hot climate, the Austrian bent wood, arrived in very good condition; and in spite of the rough roads along which the waggon had to bring it from Klipplaat, hardly anything was damaged. These Cape waggons, clumsy as they look, are splendidly adapted to the abrupt ups and downs of the country over which they travel. They are very long; and are made in such a way that, instead of jolting and jumping up and down as an English waggon, under the trying circumstances of a journey in South Africa, would certainly consider itself justified in doing, they turn and bend about in quite a snake-like manner, and the motion, even on the roughest road, is never unpleasant. They are usually drawn by a span of sixteen or eighteen oxen, sometimes by mules; and very noisily they go along; night--their favourite travelling-time in hot weather--being made truly hideous while a caravan of some four or five of them is coming slowly on, with wheels creaking and groaning in all possible discordant notes, and the Hottentot drivers and _voorloopers_--boys who run in front--cracking their long hide whips, and urging on their animals with more fiendish sounds than ever issued even from Neapolitan throats. One has to get accustomed to the noise; but, apart from this drawback, the waggons are most comfortable for travelling. They are large and spacious, and roofed in by firmly-made tents which afford complete protection from sun and rain; and for night journeys no Pullman car ever offered more luxurious sleeping accommodation than does the _kartel_, a large, strong framework of wood, as wide as a double-bed, suspended inside the tent of the waggon. Across this framework are stretched narrow, interlacing strips of hide; mattresses and rugs are placed on it, and no more comfortable bed could be desired. The goods are all stowed underneath the _kartel_, in the bottom of the waggon. People often make shooting expeditions to the interior, travelling in waggons and sometimes remaining away a year at a time. T---- has taken several journeys of this kind, and speaks of it as a most enjoyable life. You take a horse or two and a couple of pointers; you get plenty of shooting during the day; and come back to the waggon in the evening to find a bright fire burning near, and dinner being prepared by the servants. The latter camp at night under the waggon. The average distance travelled is twenty-five miles a day. There is no need to take provisions for the cattle, as they are always able to graze on the way; tracts of land, called public outspans, being set apart by Government at convenient distances along the road as halting-places for waggons. A Boer once told T---- a strange story of how--during one of the numerous wars with the natives--he, his wife, and children were travelling at night, when suddenly, without any apparent cause, the waggon came to a standstill; the oxen, though beaten hard and pulling with all their might, being unable to move it, although the road at that place was perfectly level. After some delay, the cattle were just as suddenly again able to move the waggon without difficulty; and the Boer and his family proceeded on their way. They found afterwards that, by this strange interruption to their journey, they had been prevented from encountering an armed party of hostile natives, who just at that time were crossing their road some distance in front of them. CHAPTER V. CLIMATE OF THE KARROO. Cape Colony much abused--Healthy climate--Wonderful cures of consumption--Karroo a good place for sanatorium--Rarity of illness and accidents--The young colonist--An independent infant--Long droughts--Hot winds--Dust storms--Dams--Advantage of possessing good wells--Partiality of thunderstorms--Delights of a brack roof--Washed out of bed--After the rain--Our horses--Effects of rain indoors--_Opslaag_--The Cape winter--What to wear on Karroo farms. OF all portions of the globe, surely none has ever been so much grumbled at, abused, and despised, both justly and unjustly, as the poor Cape Colony. Hardly any one who has lived under its cloudless skies has a kind word to say for it; indeed, it is quite the usual thing to speak of one's residence in it as of an enforced and miserable exile--a kind of penal servitude--though, strangely enough, most of those who go so rejoicingly home to England, like boys released from school, manage sooner or later to find their way out again; as though impelled by a touch of some such magic as that which is supposed to draw back to the Eternal City those who have once drunk at the Trevi fountain. One of the legion of grumblers tells you the Cape Colony is the worst-governed country in the world, which indeed--with the exception, perhaps, of Turkey and Morocco--it undoubtedly is; the grievance of another is that the country in general, and ostrich-farming in particular, is played out, that no more fortunes are to be made, and that life on the farms offers nothing to compensate sufficiently for the numerous discomforts and privations which have to be endured; the heavy import duties and consequent ruinous prices of all the necessaries of life, with the exception of meat, depriving the colonist of even that small consolation of knowing that, though uncomfortable, he is at least economizing. Sybarites accustomed to home comforts make constant comparisons between English and colonial houses, greatly to the disparagement of the latter; epicures complain bitterly of the wearying sameness of the food, resenting most deeply the perpetual recurrence on the table, morning, noon, and night, of the ubiquitous though delicious Angora goat; while ladies are eloquent on the never-ending topics of the bad servants--certainly the worst that can be found anywhere--the difficulties of housekeeping, the rough roads, the inconvenient distance from everywhere, the trouble and delay of getting provisions, etc., sent up to the farms, and, saddest of all, the want of society and the intolerable dulness. In fact, the general opinion seems to be that of Mrs. Jellyby's daughter, that "Africa is a Beast!" You hear so much grumbling, see such bored, dissatisfied faces, and are treated to so many gloomy and desponding views of colonial life, that it is quite a refreshing contrast when you chance to meet an American who is contemptuously jocular on the subject of the ugly scenery, eccentric plants, queer beasts, and general all-pervading look of incompleteness, and who guesses "South Africa was finished off in a hurry late on Saturday night, with a few diamonds thrown in to compensate." Even the climate comes in for its share of abuse: its long droughts, its hot winds, its incessant sunshine--as if you _could_ have too much of that!--and its general dissimilarity to the climate of England--for which surely it ought to be commended,--all are added to the long list of complaints against a land which seems, like the much-abused donkey, to have no friends. And yet that climate, with all its drawbacks and discomforts, is the healthiest in the world; and most especially is the Karroo district the place of all others for invalids suffering from chest complaints. No one need die of consumption, however advanced a stage his disease may have attained, if he can but reach the Cape Colony and _proceed at once inland_. He must not stay near the coast; it would be as well--indeed better--for him to have remained in England to die among friends; for in the moist neighbourhood of the sea the disease cannot be cured, its progress is simply retarded for a while. But a railway journey of only a few hours lands the patient in the very heart of the Karroo; and once in its dry atmosphere, he may hope--nay expect--not a mere prolongation for a few months of such a life as one too often sees sadly ebbing away in Mediterranean winter resorts, but a return to health and strength. Among our Cape acquaintances are some whom T---- knew when, years ago, they landed in the Colony--given up by their doctors at home, and so near the last stage of consumption that on arriving they could not walk on shore, but had to be carried from the vessel--and who are now as strong and well as any of their neighbours. Indeed, on my introduction to more than one of these stout and hearty colonists, I have found it quite impossible to realize that _they_, at any time, could have been consumptive invalids! Unfortunately, too many presume on the completeness of their cure; and, instead of resigning themselves to settling and finding permanent occupation in the colony, as all whose lungs have once been seriously affected ought to do, return to England; and, having grown reckless with long residence in a land where "nothing gives you cold," soon fall victims to their treacherous native climate; the first exposure to its damp chilliness generally bringing back in full force the foe from whose attacks they would always have been safe, had they not left the dry Karroo's protection. It is a pity European doctors do not know more about this wonderful climate for consumptive patients; and also that so few inducements are held out for the latter to settle in the country. What a splendid plan it would be, and how many valuable lives might be saved, if some clever medical man--himself perhaps just enough of an invalid to prefer living out of England--were to take a large farm in the Karroo, and "run" it as a sanatorium. This could be done without the expenditure of any very large amount of capital, as land can be rented from Government at the rate of a very moderate sum per annum. It would be necessary to choose a farm possessing a good fountain; thus a constant supply of vegetables could be kept up, and herds of cattle, flocks of sheep and Angoras, and plenty of fowls, turkeys, etc., be maintained to provide the establishment with meat, milk, butter, and eggs--rendering it to a great extent self-supporting. The young men could occupy themselves in superintending the farming operations, and thus would not only have plenty to do, but would at the same time be gaining health. A good troop of horses would of course be kept, so that patients might have as much riding and driving as they wished; there would be some shooting, as there are partridges, several birds of the bustard tribe, and a few antelopes; and with a house whose interior presented the comforts of a refined home, with prettily-furnished rooms, and with a good supply of books, papers, and magazines, life in that bright, sunny land might be made pleasant enough. The healthiness of the country is greatly owing, not only to its dryness, but also to the fact of its being a table-land, one thousand feet above the sea; thus the nights are always cool, and one is generally glad of two blankets, even in summer. Nor is consumption the only enemy who has to retreat powerless before the Karroo's health-giving atmosphere; many other illnesses seem equally unable to obtain a footing in that perfect climate. T----, for instance, who from childhood had been subject to severe attacks of asthma, was completely cured by his residence on the ostrich farms; and a troublesome remittent fever, caught in the West Indies, from which I had suffered, off and on, during seven years, left me entirely from the time we went to live at Swaylands. There seems, indeed, to be much of truth in the boastful assertion one so often hears, "No one is ever ill here!" and the wonder is, not that doctors are so sparsely distributed throughout the Karroo, but that they ever think it worth while to settle there at all. People live quite contentedly two or more days' drive from the nearest doctor--medical help from Port Elizabeth being equally, if not more, inaccessible, owing to the fact that the train does not run every day--and from year's end to year's end they not only are never ill, but seem also quite exempt from the usual accidents which in other parts of the world are apt to befall humanity. They go out shooting, and their horses buck them off--a trifling, everyday event which is taken as a matter of course; they gallop recklessly across the _veldt_, over ground so full of treacherous holes that a horse is liable at any moment to get a sudden and ugly fall--indeed, he often does, but the colonist always rises unhurt; they drive home late at night along the roughest of roads, at a furious pace--often after imbibing far more than is usually conducive to safety--and their Cape carts or American spiders very naturally tumble into sluits, run into wire fences, perform somersaults down steep banks, and go through other startling acrobatic feats, all with perfect impunity to the occupants. No legs, arms, or ribs, to say nothing of necks, are ever broken. And when the young colonist makes his first appearance on this world's stage, his advent is not made the occasion for any undue display of fuss or anxiety. It is not thought worth while to summon the doctor from his distant abode; some old Dutch or Hottentot woman, who has been a grandmother so often that her experience is large, is called in, and all goes well. The young colonist himself is invariably a flourishing specimen of humanity; the childish ailments to which so many of his less robust European contemporaries succumb, cause him no trouble, and, if indeed they attack him at all, he weathers them triumphantly. He thrives in the pure fresh air, revels in the healthy out-door life, eats, of course, to an enormous and alarming extent, and grows up a young giant. He enjoys the same immunity from accident as his elders, passing safely through even more "hair-breadth 'scapes" than they; his sturdy, independent spirit makes him equal to any emergency, and enables him, in whatever circumstances of difficulty or danger he may be placed, to take very good care of himself. On the farm next to ours a tiny boy of three, while playing with the windlass of a deep well, and hanging on to the rope, suddenly let himself down with a run into the water. He was not much disconcerted, however; but, with wonderful presence of mind for such a baby, managed to get his feet firmly on the bucket, and finding the length of the rope just, though only just, allowed his mouth to come above the surface, remained immovable, roaring steadily and lustily till assistance came. The long droughts are certainly very trying; indeed they could not possibly be endured by any country less wonderfully fertile than South Africa, where it is calculated that three good days' rain in the year, could we but have this regularly, would be sufficient to meet all the needs of the land. But often, for more than a year, there will be no rain worth mentioning; the dams, or large artificial reservoirs, of which each farm usually possesses several, gradually become dry; and the _veldt_ daily loses more of its verdure, till at last all is one dull, ugly brown, and the whole plain lies parched and burnt up under a sky from which every atom of moisture seems to have departed--a hard, grey, metallic sky, as different as possible from the rich, deep-blue canopy which, far away to the north, spreads over lovely Algeria. The stock, with the pathetic tameness of thirst, come from all parts of the farm to congregate close round the house; the inquiring ostriches tapping with their bills on the windows as they look in at you, and the cattle lowing in piteous appeal for water; and you realize very vividly the force of such Scriptural expressions as, "the heaven was shut up," or, "a dry and thirsty land where no water is." Then the hot winds sweep across the country, making everybody tired, languid, head-achy and cross. Indeed, excessive irritability seems to be the general result of hot winds in all parts of the world; in Egypt, for instance, there is never so much crime among the natives as while the _khamseen_ is blowing; every outbreak of the Arabs in Algiers invariably occurs during an extra bad sirocco; and in a Spanish family I knew in Havana there obtained a very sensible rule, unanimously adopted to avoid collisions of temper, _i.e._, on the days of an especially venomous hot wind peculiar to Cuba an unbroken silence was maintained; no member of the family, on any pretence whatever, speaking to another. Even our pets were sulky on a hot wind day; and as for the ostriches, they were deplorable objects indeed as they stood gasping for breath, with pendent wings, open bills, and inflated throats, the pictures of imbecile dejection. In fact, everything human, four-footed, and feathered, in the whole Karroo, was as thoroughly unhappy as it could well be; with the sole exception of myself. My spirits, instead of falling below zero, would always rise in proportion as the surrounding air became more like the breath of a furnace; this was not owing, as may perhaps be supposed, to the possession of so rare a sweetness of temper as to render me happy under even the most adverse circumstances, but simply to a real and intense enjoyment of that weather which everyone else hated. While T----, closing every door and window as tightly as possible (which, however, is not saying much), would retire to his bath, there to spend a couple of hours in company with books, papers, and numberless lemon-squashes, if lemons happened to be attainable; I would carry my chair outside, and, as I darned socks or repaired the latest trap-doors torn in our garments by the thorns, would revel in _my_ bath of hot, dry air. [Illustration: OSTRICHES IN A HOT WIND.] The dust which the hot wind brings with it is, however, a nuisance. There is more than enough dust at the best of times; and the difficulties--already considerable--of keeping a Karroo house neat and clean, are not lessened by the fact that, ten minutes after a careful progress round the room with that most perfect of dusters, a bunch of ostrich-feathers, you can distinctly sign your name with your finger on the little black writing-table, or make a drawing on the piano. But in a good hot wind you have far more than this average, everyday amount of "matter in the wrong place," and you eat and breathe dust. Sometimes the wind carries the dust high up into the air, in straight, solid-looking columns rising from the ground just as a water-spout rises from the sea. An artist wishing to depict the pillar of the cloud going before the Israelites might well take the form of one of them as a model. Occasionally you see two or three of these columns wandering about the _veldt_ in different directions; and woe betide the imperfectly-built house, or tall wind-mill pump, which has the ill-luck to stand in the path of one of these erratic visitants! We, alas! can speak from experience, our own "Stover" mill having been chosen as a victim and whirled aloft to its destruction! T----, while at Kimberley, in the early days of the diamond-fields, has often seen these dusty whirlwinds going about the camp, passing between the long rows of tents as if hesitating for a time which to attack; then suddenly "going for" one of them, causing instantaneous collapse and confusion. Every Karroo house has a dam near it, and on a large farm there are generally three or four more of these reservoirs in different parts of the land. The selection of a suitable site for a dam requires some experience. An embankment is thrown up across a valley, where from the rising ground on either side the water is collected. The ground must be "brack," a peculiar kind of soil which, though loose and friable, is not porous. This brack is often used to cover the flat roofs of the houses; but unless it is well sifted and laid on thickly, dependence cannot always be placed on it, as we have several times found to our cost. Rows of willows or mimosas are generally planted along the banks of the dams; and though the moisture which is sucked up by their thirsty roots can ill be afforded, yet, in that most treeless of lands, their bright, fresh green is of immense value; and the poor ugly houses, standing so forlornly on the bare _veldt_, with but the narrowest and scantiest of gardens--if any--between them and the surrounding desert, seem redeemed from utter dreariness and desolation, and some slight look of home and of refinement is imparted by the dam's semicircle of trees. A good-sized dam is sometimes half a mile broad, and, when just filled after a good thunder-shower, is quite an imposing sheet of water. Occasionally, in very heavy thunder-storms, the glorious supplies pour in too lavishly; the embankment, unable to resist the pressure, gives way; and the disappointed farmer, who has ridden up in the hope of feasting his eyes on watery wealth, beholds his treasure flowing uselessly and aimlessly away across the _veldt_. Then, too, even the noblest of dams _must_ dry up in a long drought; and that landowner is wise who does not depend solely on this form of water-supply, but who takes the precaution of sinking one or more good wells. This is expensive work--especially when, as in our case, the hard rock has to be blown away by dynamite; a party of navvies, encamped on the farm for weeks, progressing but slowly and laboriously at the rate of about one foot per day, for which the payment is £5 a foot; but the advantage is seen during the protracted droughts. Then, on farms which only possess dams, the ostriches and other stock are seen lying dead in all directions, a most melancholy sight. Where there is a well, however, the animals can always be kept alive. The water may go down rather low, and the supply doled out to the thirsty creatures may not be very plentiful; but with careful management no stock need be lost during the longest of droughts. But, even with our good well, we found it necessary to be very economical; and the few small eucalypti and other trees which, with great difficulty, we kept alive near the house, have often for weeks together been obliged to content themselves with the soapy water from the baths; while our poor little patch of kitchen-garden has more than once had to be sacrificed and allowed to dry up--the water necessary for its irrigation being more than we could venture to spare. In some parts of the country the inhabitants are occasionally in terrible straits for want of water; and during one severe drought some passing strangers, who rested a few hours at our house, told us a horrid story of how, at one of the "cantines" (combinations of inn and general store) along their road, they had asked for water to wash their hands, and a scanty supply was brought, with the request that no soap might be used, that same water being ultimately destined to make the tea! It sounds incredible, but I fear it is more likely to be truth than fiction, for the Dutch at the Cape are dirty enough for anything. The partiality of the thunder-storms is surprising; sometimes one farm will have all its dams filled, while another near it does not get a drop of rain. Often, during a whole season, the thunder-clouds will follow the same course; one unlucky place being repeatedly left out. Swaylands was once for months passed over in this manner; our neighbours on both sides having an abundance of water, while we, like the unhappy little pig of nursery fame, "had none," and found it difficult to restrain envy, hatred, and malice. Then, too, the clouds have such a deceitful and tantalizing way of collecting in magnificent masses, and coming rolling grandly up as if they really meant business at last--only to disperse quietly in a few hours, disappointing all the hopes they have raised. Again and again you are deluded into believing the long, weary drought is indeed nearing its end; you feel so sure there is a tremendous rain just at hand, that you prepare for action, and, doubting the trustworthiness of those portions of the roof covered with brack, are careful to remove from beneath them everything liable to be spoilt by wet, then, having set your house in order, you wait eagerly to hear the first pattering of the longed-for drops. They do not come, however; it all ends in nothing, and soon every cloud is gone, and the sun blazes out once more in pitiless splendour. Then at last, after "Wolf!" has been cried so often that you are off your guard, and--obstinately refusing to be taken in by the promising bank of clouds you noticed in the evening--have gone off to bed, expecting your waking eyes to rest only on the usual hard, hot, grey-blue sky--suddenly, in the middle of the night, you are aroused by a deafening noise, and your first confused, half-dreaming thought is that somehow or other you have got underneath the Falls of Niagara--house and all. Then a blue flash wakes you quite up, a terrific roar of thunder shakes the house, and you realize that what for months you have been so longing for has come at last! But there are penalties to be paid for it; and an ominous sound of trickling strikes your ear. Your bedroom unfortunately has a brack roof; and through the defective places in the latter, which every moment become larger and more numerous, streams of water are pouring in, till at last the room seems to be one large shower-bath. You think with horror of the books, writing-case, photographs, lace-trimmed hat, work-basket, boots, etc., all left in various exposed positions about the room, and--most frightful thought of all--of the coats and dresses hanging on the row of pegs in that corner where, to judge by the sound, the most substantial of all the cataracts seems to be descending; and you feel that you _must_ learn at once the extent of your misfortune, and rescue what you can. You try to light a candle; but a well-directed jet of water has been steadily playing straight down into the candlestick, and a vicious sputter is the only response to your efforts. You are still struggling with the candle; trying to wipe it dry, using persuasive language to it, and as far from getting a light as ever; when your breath is suddenly taken away by a stream of ice-cold water pouring over your back, and you find that you have shipped as fine a "sea" as ever dashed through an incautiously-opened port. The flat roof, which has been collecting water till it has become like a tank, has given way under the pressure, and a wide crack has opened just above your head. Of course you are wet through, so is the bed on which you are sitting; and you make a prompt descent from the latter, only to find the floor one vast, shallow bath, in which your slippers are floating. And now, as you grope about, hurriedly collecting the more perishable articles, and flinging them into the safety of the next room--which has a corrugated iron roof--you hear a dull roar; far off at first, but advancing nearer and nearer; till at last a grand volume of sound thunders past, and a broad, tossing river, impetuous as any mountain torrent, is suddenly at your very gates. It is the _sluit_ coming down; filling, and perhaps widely overflowing, its deep channel, which, straight and steep as a railway cutting, has stood dry so long. In all directions these _sluits_ are now careering over the country; and though occasionally their wild rush does some mischief, such as washing away ostriches' nests, drowning stock, or carrying into a dam such an accumulation of soil as to fill it up and render it useless--still, on the whole, the _sluit_ is a most beneficent friend to the farmer. And now, at the first welcome sound of that friend's approach, you hear overhead the loud congratulations of the gentlemen, who, attired in ulsters, are hard at work on the roof, whither they have hastily scrambled to lessen as far as possible the deluge within. "This is worth £200 to us!" you hear in triumphant tones. "We're all right now for six months!" Then--less joyfully--comes a query as to how the great dam in the upper camp, which on a former sad occasion has "gone," will stand this time; but the general opinion is that, with the considerable strengthening it has since received, it will weather the storm; and in the meanwhile souls must be possessed in patience till the morning. And still the rain keeps on, steadily and noisily; and with all the discomfort, and with all the mischief it has wrought indoors, how thankful one is for it! And how one's heart is gladdened by that "sound of abundance of rain," and "voice of many waters!" It means everything to the farmer; the long drought over at last, the dams full, the parched country revived, the poor thin cattle no longer in danger of starvation; healthier ostriches, a better quality of feathers, a near prospect of nests, and in fact the removal of a load of cares and anxieties. How early we are all astir on the morning after a big rain! and with what eager excitement we look out, in the first gleam of daylight, for that most welcome sight, the newly-filled dam! A wonderful transformation has indeed been worked in the appearance of things since last night. That unsightly dry bed of light-coloured soil, baked by the hot sun to the hardness of pottery, and broken up by a thousand intersecting deep cracks and fissures, which has so long been the ugliest feature among all our unpicturesque surroundings, offends the eye no more; and in its place there now lies in the early morning light a beautiful broad sheet of water, into which the yellow _sluit_, a miniature Niagara Rapids, is still lavishly pouring its wealth--not for many hours indeed will the impetuous course of this and numerous other _sluits_, large and small, begin gradually to subside. Everywhere the water is standing in immense pools and ponds; how to feed one unlucky pair of breeding-birds--my special charges--in a low-lying camp on the other side of the sluit is a problem which for the present I do not attempt to solve; indeed, to walk a yard from the door, even in the thickest of boots and shabbiest of garments, requires some courage, for it is anything but an easy matter to keep your feet, and if you fell, you would go into a perfect bath of mud. In some places lie accumulations of hailstones (accounting for the icy coldness of that impromptu shower-bath), and, though partially melted, some of them are still of the size of hazel nuts. The rain is over; and the friendly clouds to which we owe so much are already far off, and lie in white, round, solid-looking masses along the horizon. The sky, as if softened by its tempest of passion, seems of a bluer and more tender tint than it has been for a long time, and all nature appears full of joy and thanksgiving. From all sides you hear the loud chorus of myriads of rejoicing frogs, all croaking congratulations to each other, and all talking at once; they seem to have sprung suddenly into existence since last night, and their noise, discordant as it is, is not unwelcome after the long silence of the drought. Toto, the instant he catches sight of the water, rushes out of the house, gallops wildly down to the dam, and plunges in, to swim round and round and round, barking with delight. He seems as if he could not have enough of the water; for when, after a long time, he has come out, and is on his way back to us, he suddenly changes his mind, and dashes back for another bathe. Then he seems to lose his head altogether, and vents his wild spirits in a sort of frenzied war-dance along the banks of the dam; seriously upsetting the composure, as well as the dignity, of the crow Bobby, a bird of neat and cleanly habits, who, long debarred from any more satisfactory bath than a washing-basin, has walked down, with the air of an explorer, to this new lake he has just discovered; and is croaking softly and contentedly to himself as he splashes the bright drops again and again over his dusty black plumage. He does not like Toto; indeed, there is a mutual jealousy between these two favoured pets of ours, and they are always rather glad of an excuse for a good row, such as now ensues. When the commotion has subsided, and Toto is at a safe distance from the dam, a troop of ostriches come down to drink. They are no doubt delighted to find such an abundant supply of water, after the somewhat scanty allowance which has been portioned out to them of late; and they stand greedily scooping up large quantities with their broad bills; then assuming comical attitudes as they stretch out their distended necks to allow the fluid to run down. In the distance, about a dozen other ostriches are spreading their white wings and waltzing along magnificently--a pretty way of expressing their satisfaction at this new and delightful change in their circumstances. But it is sometimes an expensive amusement; and we feel relieved when all have settled down, with unbroken legs, into a more sober mood. The fowls alone do not participate in the general rejoicing; their house was even less water-tight than our room, and they all seem to have caught cold, and look draggled and miserable. Two poor sitting-hens have been washed out of their nests in the kraal hedge; their eggs are under water, and they wander about clucking despondently. By-and-by they will all be happier, when the waters have subsided a little, and they can pick succulent insects out of the softened ground; but in the meanwhile they show plainly that they do not see the good of living in a half-drowned world. And here come two of the horses, with "September,"[3] one of our Kaffir herds, who has been out on the veldt to find and catch them. Like most of the other colonists, we have no stables, and when our animals have done their day's work, we let them go, unless an early start has to be made in the morning; then, as they sometimes go long distances, and are not to be caught in a hurry, those that will be wanted are kept in the kraal over-night. During severe droughts the horses are fed at the house; but when there is plenty of vegetation on the _veldt_, they pick up a living for themselves. They do not get very fat, nor are they handsome to look at; and if an English coachman could see their bony frames and rough, ungroomed coats, he would no doubt be filled with the profoundest contempt. Yet, with all their uncouth appearance, they are far more serviceable than his fat, sleek, overfed animals. They can travel much longer distances; they do not have such frequent colds and other ailments--lameness especially is quite unknown among them--and their services are always at the command of their master, of any of his friends and acquaintances, or even of perfect strangers who may happen to require a mount or a lift. For the colonist is as hospitable with his horses and his vehicles as he is with everything else that he possesses; and the arrival of an invited guest in a hired conveyance, though no unfrequent event at English country homes, is a thing quite unheard-of on Cape farms. [3] Many of the negroes on Cape farms are named after the months. Although in many parts of South Africa horses do not require shoeing at all, they need it in the Karroo, where the ground is particularly stony. When a horse's shoes are worn out, he is worked for some time unshod, until the hoof, which had grown considerably, has worn down, and the animal begins to be a little tender-footed; then fresh shoes are put on. This plan renders it unnecessary for the blacksmith to use his knife, and ensures that the hoof is worn evenly; thus avoiding the lameness which in England is so often caused by the hoof not being pared straight. And in the meanwhile the two horses have been saddled, and off go T---- and Mr. B---- on a tour of inspection round the farm; first of all making a bee-line for the opposite range of hills, where lies that particular dam in the fate of which we are so deeply interested. I cannot ride with them, much as I should have liked it; for the scenes of devastation indoors claim my attention, and with my dark-skinned hand-maiden and another Kaffir woman, wife of one of the herds, whom I have pressed into the service, I go to work; boldly attacking first the most herculean task of all, _i.e._, the cleaning of the bedroom out of which we were washed last night. Truly an Augean stable is this first room; and the sight of its horrors by daylight makes me wonder how by any possibility it can ever again be fit for human habitation. The water with which the bed has been deluged was no clear crystal stream--far from it--and pillows, sheets, and counter-pane are of a rich brown hue; so are the toilet table and the once pretty window-curtains of blue-and-white Madras muslin, which now look melancholy indeed as they hang down, straight and limp, from their cornice. In fact, hardly anything in the room can boast of having remained perfectly dry and clean; and the floor is a pool of dirty water several inches deep. It all looks hopeless; but we refuse to be daunted, and set to work with a will; things dry quickly in such a sun as is now shining brightly outside; the mud is "clean" mud, too, and does not stain or spoil so irretrievably as that of most other places. A Falstaffian bundle is made up for the wash, which will keep a Kaffir hard at work for two good days turning the washing-machine; a vigorous scrubbing and "swabbing of decks" goes on indoors; and by the time the gentlemen return to lunch, in the best of spirits, and reporting the dam safe and splendidly full, things have already assumed a brighter aspect. T---- spends the afternoon in repairing the roof, and I walk about the house with a long broom, poking and tapping the ceilings to indicate to him the defective spots; he does the work far better than it was originally done by the builder of the house, and never afterwards do we have so bad a deluge. It was, however, very nearly equalled in magnitude by a previous one, which, while we were living at Hume Cottage, gave me the first experience of a big rain--and of a _brack_ roof. T---- being away for a few days, I was alone in the house with my one black servant, who of course slept placidly through all the tumult of the elements. I, on the contrary--the bedroom being water-tight--was lying awake, listening and rejoicing as I thought of all the good this splendid rain would do us. Little did I suspect what it _was_ doing in the sitting-room; and I cheerfully and briskly opened the door of the latter next morning, all unprepared for the sight which met my eyes. Poor little room! only a few days before we had taken such pride and pleasure in beautifying it--and now! It looked like nothing but the saloon of a steamer which had gone down and been fished up again. The treacherous roof had let in floods of dirty brown water in all directions; the Turkish rugs were half buried in mud; the new bent-wood chairs looked like neglected old garden seats which for years had braved all weathers; and the table-cloth, on the artistic colours of which we had prided ourselves, gave a very good idea of the probable state of Sir Walter Raleigh's cloak after serving as an impromptu carpet for his queen. But the brunt of the storm had fallen on two sets of hanging bookshelves, well filled with nicely-bound volumes, and gracefully draped with some of our pet pieces of Turkish needlework. The books all looked as if they had been boiled; and the colour which had come out of their swollen and pulpy bindings had run down the saturated embroideries in long streaks, showing where a red book had stood, where a blue or green one, etc. Fortunately, a good cleaning and washing restored most things to a tidy, if not perfectly fresh appearance; but those poor books never recovered. In a few days--incredibly few--the effects of a good rain are seen in the appearance of the _veldt_, which rapidly loses its dry, burnt-up look. But, even before the perennial bush has had time to recover its succulence and verdure, all the spaces between its isolated tufts are covered with the softest and most delicate-looking vegetation, which, as if by magic, has sprung suddenly into existence. All these plants, which are of many different kinds, and some of which possess very minute and pretty flowers, are indiscriminately called by the Dutch _opslaag_ ("that which comes up"); and if you happen at the time of their appearance to have a troop of infant ostriches, there is no better food for the little creatures than this tender, bright-green foliage. They are but short-lived little plants; the hot sun soon drying them up. If the Cape Colony only possessed mountains high enough to give an abundant rainfall, what a gloriously fertile country it would be! Without droughts, what a splendid possession our farm would be to us! Often, when the coveted clouds have passed so close that it seemed as if they must be just about to break over the farm, T----, remembering how the firing of the great guns at Woolwich sometimes brings down the rain, has thought it might be a good plan to send up a fire-balloon with a charge of dynamite, and, catching the rain on our land, prevent it from going off so disappointingly elsewhere. The short Cape winter, corresponding in duration to the English summer, is never severe. Cold winds blow from the direction of Graaff-Reinet on the not very frequent occasions when the higher mountains round that little town are for a short time topped with snow. In June and July the evenings and early mornings are decidedly cold. There is sometimes a little frost at night, and fires are pleasant; but in the middle of the day there is always warm, bright sunshine. Altogether, our winter under the Southern Cross has nothing cheerless or depressing about it; and those to whom the heat of the long summer has been a little trying, find the change most bracing and invigorating. For farm life in the Karroo much the same kind of clothing is required as in England; everything must of course be of good strong material, and black or very dark colours are, in that dustiest of lands, to be avoided. Ladies' washing dresses should not be too delicate, nor should they be such as to require elaborate getting up; for of all the numerous things which on our isolated farms have to be done--either well, badly, or indifferently--at home, the laundry department is the very furthest from being our _forte_. The clothes become so discoloured from being continually washed in the yellow water of the dams; and the Kaffir women--if they profess to starch and iron at all--do it so badly, that the things are often unwearable. As for myself, I was fortunate in possessing for everyday wear strong cotton dresses of Egyptian manufacture; which required neither starching nor ironing, and, after being washed, and dried in the sun, were ready to be put on at once. For driving, and especially for the long journeys of several days, which sometimes have to be taken in Cape carts or spiders, a light dust-cloak is indispensable. Boots and shoes, more than anything else, need to be strong, and for gentlemen who live the active outdoor life of the farms, there is nothing so serviceable as the country-made _veldtschoon_. CHAPTER VI. OSTRICHES. An unwilling ride--First sight of an ostrich farm--Ridiculous mistakes about ostriches--Decreased value of birds and feathers--Chicks--Plumage of ostriches--A frightened ostrich--The plucking-box--Sorting feathers--Voice of the ostrich--Savage birds--"Not afraid of a dicky-bird!"--Quelling an ostrich--Birds killed by men in self-defence--Nests--An undutiful hen--Darby and Joan--A disconsolate widower--A hen-pecked husband--Too much zeal--Jackie--Cooling the eggs--The white-necked crow--Poisoning jackals--Ostrich eggs in the kitchen--A quaint old writer on ostriches--A suppliant bird--Nest destroyed by enraged ostrich--An old bachelor. A Few years before my marriage, having, as usual, fled the terrors of the English winter, I was with a friend in Egypt. And one morning this friend and I stood in the court of the Hôtel du Nil in Cairo; preparing to mount donkeys and start on a photographing expedition to Heliopolis (the "On" of the Scriptures), and Matariyeh, one of the supposed resting-places of the Holy Family on their flight into Egypt. The fussy, bustling little German manager of the hotel, with his usual paternal care for his guests, was commending us, in a long and voluble Arabic speech, to the special care and attention of the donkey-boys; with numerous minute instructions, all unintelligible to us, as to our route, etc. Then, just as we had mounted, he turned to us and said, "I have told them to show you something more on the way back, something _very interesting_." "What is it?" we were about to ask; but before we could get the words out, the ubiquitous little man had bustled off to other business; and we ourselves were flying at a headlong pace down the narrow Arab street, closely pursued by our impetuous donkey-boys; who, anxious to make an imposing start, urged on our animals, not only with savage yells and blows, but also with frequent and cruel digs from the sharp points of our camera's tripod stand. Even after we had left the town far behind us, and our tyrants, for lack of an admiring crowd before whom to exhibit us, allowed us to settle down into a peaceful trot, it was quite useless to look to them for any information concerning this promised interesting sight; for our few words of Algerian Arabic did not avail in Egypt; and as for the European vocabulary of the donkey-boys, it was, as usual, strictly limited to an accurate knowledge of all the bad words in English, French and German. N.B.--A donkey-boy is never promoted to the dignity of being called a donkey-_man_, but, however old and grey he may have grown in the service, always retains the juvenile appellation. On arriving at Heliopolis, our ungratified curiosity was soon forgotten in the interest of seeing that venerable obelisk which once, in all probability, looked down on the wedding procession of Joseph and the daughter of "Potipherah, priest of On;" and the sun gave us some good pictures of that sole remaining relic of the city where he himself was formerly worshipped. We spent a long morning at Heliopolis and Matariyeh; and it was not until we had proceeded some distance along the dusty road leading back to Cairo, that we suddenly recollected there was yet one more sight on our programme. The sun was blazing down fiercely on us; we were very tired; longing visions of the Hôtel du Nil luncheon, the hour for which had already come, filled our minds; and most devoutly did we hope the donkey-boys might forget they had something more to show us, and--possibly being hungry themselves--take us straight home. But no! suddenly our reluctant donkeys were abruptly turned from the homeward course on which they were trotting so merrily; and by main force pushed into a particularly uninviting path branching off at right angles from the road. We made one desperate effort to turn them back; but our tormentors flew to their heads, and, dragging, pushing, almost lifting them along, applied the tripod's spikes with fresh energy. In vain did we expostulate; explaining piteously, with all the powers of pantomime at our command, that we were tired and hungry, and wanted to go back to the hotel; that we would come and see this interesting sight, whatever it was, tomorrow, bookra--that favourite word of the procrastinating Orientals, which, like the _mañana_ of the Spaniards, soon becomes hatefully familiar from constant hearing, and which is second only to the terrible _baksheesh_! The relentless donkey-boys, beyond chuckling over our disappointment, took no notice whatever of our appeals; and on we had to go at a rapid gallop, stirring up dense clouds of the blinding, choking, evil-smelling Egyptian dust; and realizing, as did Mark Twain when ascending the Pyramid, how powerless one is in the hands of Arabs, who surely, with such iron wills, ought to be good mesmerists. Resigning ourselves at last to our fate with the patience of despair, we tried, though with but languid interest, to find out what we were going to see; but for a long time could get nothing intelligible from the donkey-boys, who only enjoyed our mystification. At last one of them, struck by a bright idea, pointed to J----'s hat, in which was an ostrich-feather; and we guessed at once that the Khedive's ostrich farm, which we knew was somewhere in the neighbourhood of Cairo, was the object of our unwilling ride. Here was another disappointment! Not even a ruined mosque, picturesque Arab house, or other possible subject for the camera, to reward us for our fatigue and discomfort; nothing but dry, barren-looking land, ugly modern European buildings, and ungainly birds! We walked hurriedly, and with great indifference, past the rows of camps, each with its pair of breeding-birds; felt little regret on being denied entrance to the incubator-rooms, which, happening to contain young chicks, were closed to the public; and rejoiced exceedingly when, our task done, and our tyrants appeased by our complete subjugation, we were at last on our way back to Cairo. Thus, in weariness and indifference, I viewed an ostrich farm for the first time. Could I but have had one vision of the happy home, situated among just such surroundings, which awaited me in the future, with what different eyes would I have looked on all the minutest details of a daily life destined one day to be mine! How eagerly would I have bribed the custodian of the incubators for just one peep at the little rough-coated baby ostriches, if I had known what numbers of these comical wee things were in future to be my carefully-tended nurslings! And when T----, anxious to compare notes, sometimes asks me how this or that was managed on the Khedive's farm, and I am unable to give accurate information, I still regret that lost opportunity; and blush at the remembrance of the base longing for luncheon, to which, I fear, the want of observation was chiefly due. It is rather surprising to find how little is known in England about ostrich-farming. Any information on the subject seems quite new to the hearers; and the strangest questions are sometimes asked--as, for instance, whether ostriches fly; whether they bite; whether we ever ride or drive them, etc. It is always taken for granted that a vicious bird administers his kick backwards, like a horse; and there seems still to be a very general belief in those old popular errors of which the natural history of these creatures possesses more than the average share. If you look at the picture of an ostrich, you will be sure to find, in nine cases out of ten, that the drawing is ludicrously incorrect; the bird being almost invariably represented with three toes instead of two; and with a tail consisting of a large and magnificent bunch of _wing_-feathers, the finest and longest of "prime whites." Farmers would only be too thankful if their birds _had_ such tails, instead of the short, stiff, scrubby tuft of inferior feathers which in reality forms the caudal appendage. Each of my friends and relatives, when first told, at the time of our engagement, that T---- was "an ostrich-farmer," received the intelligence with an amused smile; and the clergyman at whose church we were married seemed quite taken aback on obtaining so novel and unexpected an answer to his question, during the vestry formalities, as to T----'s vocation in life. He hesitated, pen in hand, for some time; made T---- repeat and explain the puzzling word; and at last only with evident reluctance inscribed it in the church books. In the early days of ostrich-farming splendid fortunes were made. Then, feathers were worth £100 per lb., the plumes of one bird at a single plucking realizing on an average £25. For a good pair of breeding-birds £400, or even £500, was no uncommon price; and little chicks, only just out of the egg, were worth £10 each. Indeed, the unhatched eggs have sometimes been valued at the same amount. But, since the supply has become so much greater than the demand, things are sadly changed for the farmers; our best pair of ostriches would not now sell for more than £12, and experience has taught us to look for no higher sum than thirty shillings for the feathers of the handsomest bird at one plucking. At the same time, if a lady wishes to buy a good feather in London or Paris, she has to pay nearly the same price as in former times.[4] [4] Although, since these pages were written, ostriches have somewhat increased in value it cannot, of course, be expected that they will ever again command the prices of former days. There are not many young animals prettier than a little ostrich-chick during the first few weeks of life. It has such a sweet, innocent baby-face, such large eyes, and such a plump, round little body. All its movements are comical, and there is an air of conceit and independence about the tiny creature which is most amusing. Instead of feathers, it has a little rough coat which seems all made up of narrow strips of material, of as many different shades of brown and grey as there are in a tailor's pattern-book, mixed with shreds of black; while the head and neck are apparently covered with the softest plush, striped and coloured just like a tiger's skin on a small scale. On the whole, the little fellow, on his first appearance in the world, is not unlike a hedgehog on two legs, with a long neck. One would like these delightful little creatures to remain babies much longer than they do; but they grow quickly, and with their growth they soon lose all their prettiness and roundness; their bodies become angular and ill-proportioned, a crop of coarse, wiry feathers sprouts from the parti-coloured strips which formed their baby-clothes, and they enter on an ugly "hobbledehoy" stage, in which they remain for two or three years. [Illustration: OSTRICH-CHICKS.] A young ostrich's rough, bristly, untidy-looking "chicken-feathers" are plucked for the first time when he is nine months old; they are stiff and narrow, with very pointed tips, and their ugly appearance gives no promise of future beauty. They do not look as if they could be used for anything but making feather brooms. In the second year they are rather more like what ostrich-feathers ought to be, though still very narrow and pointed; and not until their wearer is plucked for the third time have they attained their full width and softness. During the first two years the sexes cannot be distinguished, the plumage of all being of a dingy drab mixed with black; the latter hue then begins to predominate more and more in the male bird with each successive moulting, until at length no drab feathers are left. At five years the bird has attained maturity; the plumage of the male is then of a beautiful glossy black, and that of the female of a soft grey, both having white wings and tails. In each wing there are twenty-four long white feathers, which, when the wing is spread out, hang gracefully round the bird like a lovely deep fringe--just as I have sometimes in Brazilian forests, seen fringes of large and delicate fern-fronds hanging, high overhead, from the branches of some giant tree. The ostrich's body is literally "a bag of bones;" and the enormously-developed thighs, which are the only fleshy part of the bird, are quite bare, their coarse skin being of a peculiarly ugly blue-grey colour. The little flat head, much too small for the huge body, is also bald, with the exception of a few stiff bristles and scanty tufts of down; such as also redeem the neck from absolute bareness. During the breeding season the bill of the male bird, and the large scales on the fore part of his legs, assume a beautiful deep rose-colour, looking just as if they were made of the finest pink coral; in some cases the skin of the head and neck also becomes red at that time. The North African or Barbary ostriches, several of which are to be seen at the Jardin d'Essai, in Algiers, have bright red thighs, head, and neck, and are altogether far handsomer than the Cape birds; their feathers also, being larger, softer, and possessing longer filaments, command much higher prices than those of their southern brethren. Altogether, ostriches are queer-looking creatures; they are so awkward, so out of proportion, and everything about them, with the exception of their plumage and their big, soft, dark eyes, is so quaintly ugly as to suggest the idea that they have only by some mistake survived the Deluge, and that they would be more in their right place embedded in the fossiliferous strata of the earth than running about on its surface. And how they _do_ run! Only startle an ostrich; and very little is sufficient to do this, his nerves being of the feeblest, and "his heart in his mouth" at even the smallest or most imaginary danger. What a jump he gives, and what a swerve to one side! Surely it must have dislocated some of his joints. But no; off he goes, flinging out his clumsy legs, and twisting himself about as he runs, till you almost expect to see him come to pieces, or, at any rate, fling off a leg, as a lobster casts a claw, or a frightened lizard parts from its tail. An ostrich's joints seem to be all loose, like those of a lay-figure when not properly tightened up. He rapidly disappears from view; and the last you see of him he is, as Mark Twain has it, "still running"--apparently with no intention of stopping till he has reached the very centre of Africa. But his mad scamper will most probably end a few miles off, with a tumble into a wire fence, and a broken leg. Sometimes, however, ostriches, when they take fright, run so long and get so far away that their owner never recovers them. One we heard of, to whose tail a mischievous boy had tied a newspaper, went off at railway speed, and no tidings of it were ever received. Once, when T---- was collecting his birds for plucking, one of them was unaccountably seized with a sudden panic, and bolted; and though T---- mounted at once and rode after it, he neither saw nor heard of it again. On a large farm, when plucking is contemplated, it is anything but an easy matter to collect the birds--the gathering together of ours was generally a work of three days. Men have to be sent out in all directions to drive the birds up, by twos and threes, from the far-off spots to which they have wandered; little troops are gradually brought together, and collected, first in a large enclosure, then in a small one, the plucking-kraal, in which they are crowded together so closely, that the most savage bird has no room to make himself disagreeable. Besides the gate through which the ostriches are driven into the kraal, there is an outlet at the opposite end, through the "plucking-box." This latter is a most useful invention, saving much time and trouble. It is a very solid wooden box, in which, though there is just room for an ostrich to stand, he cannot possibly turn round; nor can he kick, the sides of the box being too high. At each end there is a stout door; one opening inside, the other outside the kraal. Each bird in succession is dragged up to the first door, and, after more or less of a scuffle, is pushed in and the door slammed behind him. Then the two operators, standing one on each side of the box, have him completely in their power; and with a few rapid snips of their shears his splendid wings are soon denuded of their long white plumes. These, to prevent their tips from being spoilt, are always cut before the quills are ripe. The stumps of the latter are allowed to remain some two or three months longer, until they are so ripe that they can be pulled out--generally by the teeth of the Kaffirs--without hurting the bird. It is necessary to pull them; the feathers, which by their weight would have caused the stumps to fall out naturally at the right time, being gone. Some farmers, anxious to hurry on the next crop of feathers, are cruel enough to draw the stumps before they are ripe; but nature, as usual, resents the interference with her laws, and the feathers of birds which have been thus treated soon deteriorate. It is best to pluck only once a year. The tails, and the glossy black feathers on the bodies of the birds, having small quills, are not cut, but pulled out; this, everyone says, does not hurt the birds, but there is an unpleasant tearing sound about the operation, and I think it must make their eyes water. After a plucking would come several very busy days of sorting and tying up the feathers in readiness for the market; for T----, whenever he could spare the time, preferred doing this work himself to employing the professional sorters in Port Elizabeth, who charge exorbitantly. During these few days everything had to give way to feathers, large piled-up masses of which crowded the rooms, till we seemed to be over head and ears in feathers. Feathers covered the floor and invaded every article of furniture, especially monopolizing the dining-table; and when, at all sorts of irregular hours, we grudgingly allowed ourselves time for rough, impromptu meals of cold or tinned meat, we picnicked among feathers. It was useless to attempt keeping the rooms either tidy or clean while sorting was going on; and we resigned ourselves to living for those two or three days in a state at which owners of neat English homes would shudder--indeed, those only who have seen the process of sorting can form any idea of the untidiness, the dust, the fluffs, and the sneezing. But they were pleasant days; and many an interesting book will always be associated in our minds with the sorting of ostrich-feathers; for, while T---- arranged prime whites, blacks, tails, feminas, chicken-feathers, etc., according to length, colour, and quality, I enlivened the monotony of his work by reading aloud. Sometimes the white feathers would be dirty--for there is nothing an ostrich likes better than sitting down to cool himself in the muddiest dam he can find--then it was necessary to wash them, dip them into strong raw starch, and shake them in the hot sun, beating two bundles of them together till quite dry. The starch makes them look very pretty and fluffy; and young ladies in England who economically wash their own feathers would find it a great improvement. Ostrich-feathers are quite tabooed by ladies in South Africa; they are too common, every Kaffir or Hottentot wearing one in his dirty, battered hat. If an ostrich-feather is held upright, its beautiful form--graceful as the frond-like branch of the cocoa-nut palm, which it somewhat resembles--is at once seen to be perfectly even and equal on both sides, its stem dividing it exactly in the centre; whereas the stems of other feathers are all more or less on one side. The ancient Egyptians, observant of this--as of everything in nature--chose the ostrich-feather as the sacred emblem of truth and justice, setting it upon the head of Thmei, goddess of truth. After a good rain, ostriches soon begin to make nests; the males become very savage, and their note of defiance--_brooming_, as it is called by the Dutch--is heard in all directions. The bird inflates his neck in a cobra-like fashion, and gives utterance to three deep roars; the two first short and _staccato_, the third very prolonged. Lion-hunters all agree in asserting that the roar of the king of beasts and that of the most foolish of birds are identical in sound; with this difference only, that the latter, when near, resembles the former very far away. T----, when hunting in the interior, has often been deceived by the sound--expecting a lion, and finding only an ostrich. When the birds are savage--_quei_, as the Dutch call it--they become very aggressive, and it is impossible to walk about the camps unless armed with a weapon of defence called a "tackey." This is simply a long and stout branch of mimosa, with the thorns all left on at the end. It seems but a feeble protection against a foe who, with one stroke of his immensely powerful leg, can easily kill a man; the kick, no less violent than that of a horse, being rendered infinitely more dangerous by the formidable claw with which the foot is armed. Those, however, who are well practised in the use of the tackey are able, with the coolness of Spanish bull-fighters, to stand and await the charge of the terrible assailant. They allow him to come to what, to the inexperienced eye, seem unpleasantly close quarters; then, just as he prepares to strike, the tackey is boldly thrust into his face. The thorns oblige him to close his eyes, and he can only run blindly forward; the bearer of the tackey springing on one side, and gaining time to proceed some distance on his way, before the silly bird has recovered from his bewilderment and makes a fresh charge, when the weapon is again presented. Fortunately, you are never assailed by more than one ostrich at a time; for in the large camps of some two thousand acres each--in which the birds are not fenced off in pairs, but live almost in the freedom of wild creatures--each one has his own domain, separated from those of others by some imaginary boundary-line of his own, visible only to himself, but as clearly marked out as the beat of a London policeman. There, in company with one or perhaps two hens, he dwells monarch of all he surveys; any other ostrich daring to invade his territory is at once attacked; and the human intruder is closely followed, his tackey in constant requisition, until the feathered lord of the land has seen him safely off the premises. Immediately after thus speeding the parting guest, the most savage bird is quite harmless; he dismisses you from his thoughts, and walks quietly back, feeding as he goes. And in the distance you see the head and long neck of his neighbour, whose kingdom you have now entered, and whose sharp eyes spied you out the instant your foot crossed his frontier. _He_ now advances towards you with jerky, spasmodic movements, as if he were bowing you a welcome; this, however, is far from his thoughts, and after sitting down once or twice to give you his challenge--whereby he hopes you will be intimidated--he trots up defiantly, and the tackey's services are again required. Thus, during a morning's walk through the camps, you may be escorted in succession by four or five vicious birds, all determined to have your life if possible, yet held completely in check by a few mimosa thorns. When an ostrich challenges he sits down; and, flapping each broad wing alternately, inflates his neck, and throws his head back, rolling it from side to side, and with each roll striking the back of his head against his bony body with so sharp and resounding a blow that a severe headache seems likely to be the result. A person on horseback is even more obnoxious to the ostriches than a pedestrian; and a ride through the camps enables one to realize how true to life is the description, in the Book of Job, of a vicious bird: "What time she lifteth up herself on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider." The creature, when preparing for an attack, draws itself up, stands on tiptoe, stretches its neck to the full extent, and really seems to gain several feet in height. And, indeed, it does its best to knock you off your horse. T---- once saw a man riding as desperately as Tam O'Shanter, with an ostrich in close pursuit. It kept up with him, helping his horse along with an occasional well-placed kick; while the unhappy rider, hoping to intimidate his assailant, was again and again firing off his revolver into the air, but without effect. As the new arrival in a country subject to earthquakes begins by thinking very lightly of these disturbances, but finds his appreciation of their importance increase with every successive shock; so the new chum in South Africa, inclined at first to look with contempt on the precautions taken against savage ostriches, learns in time to have a proper respect for the foolish, innocent-looking creatures, whose soft, dark-brown eyes look at him so mildly (when he is on the right side of the fence) that he finds it impossible to believe the stories told him of their wickedness, and nothing but a closer acquaintance can undeceive him. On one of the farms a sturdy new-comer, six feet in height, starting for an early morning walk, was cautioned against going into a certain camp where the ostriches were dangerous. He laughed at his friends' advice, told them he was "not afraid of a dicky-bird!" and--disdaining the proffered tackey--started off straightway in the forbidden direction. He did not return home to dinner; a search was made for him; and eventually he was found, perched up on a high ironstone boulder; just out of reach of a large ostrich, which was doing sentry, walking up and down, and keeping a vicious eye on him. There he had sat for hours, nearly roasted alive (ironstone boulders in the Karroo can get so hot in the sun that it blisters your hand to touch them); and there he would have had to sit till sundown, had not the timely appearance of his friends relieved him of the too-pressing attentions of the "dicky-bird." Another gentleman had a theory that any creature, however savage, could be subdued--"quelled," as he said--by the human eye. One day he tried to quell one of his own ostriches; with the result that he was presently found by T---- in a very pitiable predicament, lying flat on the ground; while the subject of his experiment jumped up and down on him, occasionally varying the treatment by sitting on him. T---- once bought an ostrich which had killed two men; and which, although an unusually fine bird, was, on account of its evil reputation, sold to him for a very low price. Ostriches appear to have a strong aversion to all the negro race. They attack Kaffirs and Hottentots much more readily than they do their white masters; and although--as has just been seen--they are very far from showing that amount of respect for the latter which is desirable, they seem--except during the breeding season--to stand in some sort of awe of a white man as compared with the "niggers," for whom they have the deepest contempt. They are uncertain, too, and take sudden and unaccountable dislikes. One poor Kaffir woman, coming up to work at the house, was attacked, inside the gate, by one of the tame old ostriches, which--looking out for scraps thrown from the kitchen, stealing the fowls' food, or now and then picking up and swallowing a delicious piece of soap left for an unguarded moment on the washing-machine--prowled about round the house, and of which no one had ever dreamed of being afraid. Her solitary and scanty skirt, torn from the top to the bottom, showed how narrow had been her escape; and she looked livid under her dark skin, as she came in to ask me for needle and thread to repair the rent. It has several times happened that one of our herds, in danger of his life, has been obliged, in self-defence, to kill a vicious ostrich; and, the finest and most promising birds--naturally the most savage--being invariably the victims, the loss is always a serious one. It is indeed no small trial, when, perhaps just as you are comfortably seated at the breakfast table, the black face of "April," "August," or "September"--fraught with bad news, and looking very frightened and ashamed--is suddenly thrust in at the door; and, with much rolling of white eyeballs, a tragic tale is told, in the most dismal of voices, and with many harrowing details, of how "Red Wing" or "White Neck" was _quei_, and attacked the narrator up in the big camp; with the sad consequence that you are now _minus_ one of the best birds on the farm. But the poor fellow cannot be blamed or fined for defending his life; orders are given to pluck and bring down the unfortunate bird's feathers--the last he will ever yield--and somehow a dead bird's plumes _always_ seem the most beautiful-- "And then to breakfast, with What appetite you have." Toto, although in general no coward, could never, after a severe kick he received on first coming to the farm, be brought to face a savage bird. Collies can, however, be made very useful in collecting and driving ostriches; and Mr. Evans, of Rietfontein, one of our neighbours, had several which were perfectly trained; working as well with the birds as their relatives in Scotland and Wales do with sheep. A few of our birds were fenced off in breeding-camps; each pair having a run of about one hundred acres. One of these camps was directly opposite the house; and from the windows we could observe the regularity with which the two birds, sitting alternately on the eggs, came on and off at their fixed times. The cock always takes his place upon the nest at sundown, and sits through the night--his dark plumage making him much less conspicuous than the light-coloured hen; with his superior strength and courage, too, he is a better defender of the nest against midnight marauders. At nine in the morning, with unfailing punctuality, the hen comes to relieve him, and take up her position for the day. At the end of the six weeks of sitting, both birds, faithfully as the task has been shared between them, are in a very enfeebled state, and miserably poor and thin. One undutiful hen--having apparently imbibed advanced otions--absolutely refused to sit at all; and the poor husband, determined not to be disappointed of his little family, did all the work himself; sitting bravely and patiently day and night, though nearly dead with exhaustion, till the chicks were hatched out. The next time this pair of birds had a nest, the cock's mind was firmly made up that he would stand no more nonsense. He fought the hen; giving her so severe a thrashing that she was all but killed--and this Petruchio-like treatment had the desired effect, for the wife never again rebelled, but sat submissively. Very different from this couple were the Darby and Joan in the camp opposite our windows. One unlucky morning the hen, frightened by a Kaffir's dog, ran into the wire fence, and was so terribly injured that she had to be killed. For two years poor Darby was a disconsulate widower, and all attempts to find him a satisfactory second wife were unavailing; several hens, which, soon after his loss, were in succession placed in his camp, being only rescued in time, and at the tackey's point, from being kicked to death. The bare idea of there being anything pathetic about an ostrich seems absurd--and indeed this is the only instance I have known of anything of the kind--but it was truly pitiful to watch this poor bird, as, day after day, and nearly all day long, he wandered up and down, up and down, the length of his camp, in the hard, beaten track worn by his restless feet along the side of the fence. When his time of mourning at length came to an end, and poor Joan's long-vacant place was filled, we at first rejoiced. But we soon doubted whether, after all, he had not been happier as a widower. For the new wife, a magnificent hen, considerably above the average size, had him in complete subjection; his spirit seemed quite broken, probably with long fretting, and he made no attempt to hold his own, but was for the rest of his days the most hen-pecked--or ought I to say hen-_kicked_?-- of husbands. Some amount of stratagem was even necessary on my part, to ensure that he had enough to eat (this pair of birds, being near the house, were under my special care, and during droughts were daily fed by me); for every time he came near the food, the greedy hen would persistently drive him away, standing on tiptoe and hissing viciously at him--and I soon saw that it was useless to attempt feeding them together. But the poor, ill-used old bird and I were good friends, and quite understood one another; and at all sorts of odd times--watching for those golden opportunities when his tyrant was safely out of sight at the further end of the camp--he would come down to the fence and look out for me, and I would bring him a good feed of mealies. As a father, Darby was no less devoted than he had formerly been as a husband; and to please him we allowed his chicks to remain with him, and set the whole family free to roam where they liked about the _veldt_; breaking through the usual rule, which is to take the little birds from the parents when two or three days old, and herd them near the house. For they never become as tame when brought up by the old ones as when accustomed from the first to human society. These poor little birds, I am sorry to say, did not flourish under parental guardianship; indeed, it was not long before they were all dead. For their well-meaning, but over-zealous father, apparently thinking no _veldt_ good enough for them, kept them continually on the move; and, in his perpetual search for "fresh woods and pastures new," took them such long distances that he literally walked them as well as himself to death. Not many days after the last chick's departure, Darby's own poor body, worn to a skeleton by these restless wanderings, following on six weeks of incubation, was found on the _veldt_. When, as sometimes happens, one solitary chick is reared at the house, it becomes absurdly and often inconveniently tame. A friend of ours, on returning to his farm at the end of a severe thunderstorm, found that an ostrich's nest had been washed away. Some of the eggs were rescued from the water, and--being of course deserted by the parents--were placed in an incubator, where, contrary to all expectations, one chick came out. This bird, Jackie, became the tamest and most audacious of pets; and, like many another spoilt only child, was often a terrible nuisance. All the little niggers about the place had a lively dread of him; and he requisitioned their food in the boldest manner. As they sat on the ground at meals, with plates of boiled pumpkin and rice in their laps, he would come up, and, stretching his snake-like neck over their heads, or insinuating it under their arms, would coolly help himself to the contents of one plate after another. Occasionally he would make for the unhappy youngsters in so menacing a manner as to frighten them into dropping their plates altogether; then, while his victims ran away crying, he would squat on his heels among the _débris_, and regale his enormous appetite at leisure. But one day retribution came. Being free of the kitchen--simply because no one could keep him out--he was not long in observing that the pumpkin and rice always came out of one particular pot; and, the idea suddenly occurring to him that he could do no better than go straight to the fountain-head for his favourite dish, he walked up, full of joyful anticipation, to the fire where this pot was bubbling. The cook--who, being mother to several of the ill-used children, did not love Jackie--offered no friendly interference to save him from his fate; and, plunging his bill into the pot, he greedily scooped up, and, with the lightning-like rapidity of ostriches, tossed down his throat, a large mouthful of boiling rice. Poor fellow! the next moment he was dancing round the kitchen, writhing with agony, shaking his head nearly off, and twisting his neck as if bent on tying it in a knot. Finally he dashed wildly from the house; the cook, avenged at last for all the dinners he had devoured, called after him as he stumbled out at the door, "Serve you right, Jackie!"--and away he fled across the _veldt_, till the last that was seen of him was a little cloud of white dust vanishing on the horizon. He returned a sadder and a wiser bird; and it was long before he again ventured inside the kitchen. When about a year old, Jackie was sold to a farmer who had long coveted him; and who, no doubt, soon repented of his purchase. He was now sufficiently strong to give a good hard kick; and, being a more daring freebooter than ever, and no respecter of persons, he would march up and attack any one he saw carrying food, or what he thought might be food; endeavouring, by a well-aimed blow, to strike it out of their hands; his evil design generally succeeding. At length his master, tired of hearing constant complaints of his conduct, and impatient of his perpetual intrusion indoors, tried putting him into a camp. There, however, he obstinately refused to remain. As soon as he was put in, he would squat down, laying his head and neck on the ground; then, making himself as flat as possible, he would "squirm" out, not without some difficulty, under the lowest wire of the fence. It was impossible to keep him in; and he was left to his own devices, calmly regarded as a necessary evil, and allowed to be as great a nuisance as he liked. But poor Jackie soon ceased from troubling--his end, as may well be imagined, being brought about by no other cause than his own moral obliquity. One day he wandered down to the river, where some Kaffir women were washing clothes; their children, a group of little animated nude bronzes, playing near them. One little fellow, who was eating, was of course instantly spied out by the covetous Jackie; who rushed to kick him, but in so doing tumbled down in the rocky bed of the river, and broke his own leg. The inevitable result followed, and Jackie, like all other broken-legged ostriches, had to be killed. The hen ostrich lays every alternate day; and if, for each egg laid, one is taken from the nest, she will continue laying until she has produced from twenty to thirty. One, which belonged to T----, laid sixty eggs without intermission. If no eggs are taken away, the hen leaves off laying as soon as she has from fifteen to twenty; the latter being the greatest number that can be satisfactorily covered by the birds. The surplus eggs are placed in incubators. It is best not to give much artificial food to the birds while sitting; as, if overfed, they become restless, and are liable to desert the nest. Every morning and evening the nest, or rather the shallow indentation in the sandy ground which forms this simplest of all "homes without hands," is left uncovered for a quarter of an hour, to allow the eggs to cool. The sight of nests thus apparently deserted has probably given rise to the erroneous idea that the ostrich leaves her eggs to hatch in the sun. The passage in the book of Job: "Which leaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust," is also generally supposed to point to the same conclusion, though in reality there can be no doubt that the latter part of the sentence simply applies to the warming of the eggs by the heat of the bird's body as she sits over them in her dusty nest. Stupid though she is, she has more sense than to believe in the possibility of the sun hatching her eggs; she is indeed quite aware of the fact that, if allowed to blaze down on them with untempered heat, even during the short time she is off the nest, it would be injurious to them; and therefore, on a hot morning, she does not leave them without first placing on the top of each a good pinch of sand. This she does in order that the germ--which, whatever side of the egg is uppermost, always rises to the highest point--may be shaded and protected. Having thus set her nest in order, she walks off, to fortify herself with a good meal for the duties of the day. And now comes the white-necked crow's chance; for which, ever since at earliest dawn he drew out his artful old head from under his wing, he has been patiently waiting. An ostrich-egg is to him the daintiest of all delicacies; but, nature not having bestowed on him a bill strong enough to break its hard shell, he is only able, by means of an ingenious device, to regale on the interior. He carefully watches till the parent's back is turned, and she is a good distance from the nest; then, flying up into the air, he drops a stone from a great height with a most accurate aim, and breaks an egg. He makes good use of his quarter of an hour; and he, no less than the hen ostrich, has had an ample meal by the time the latter returns to the nest. Perhaps to-morrow she will not wander so far away. This crow, inveterate egg-stealer though he is, has a most respectable and clerical appearance; and with his neat suit of black and his little white tie he looks indeed "unco guid." The Boers--possibly on account of this pious exterior--have a legend to the effect that these birds are the "ravens" which fed Elijah. They say that after the birds had carried the meat, a little of the fat remained on their necks; in commemoration of which their descendants have this one conspicuous white patch on their otherwise black plumage. Numbers of tortoise-shells, some of immense size, are found about the _veldt_; which have been broken in the same manner as the ostrich-eggs, and their inmates devoured, by these crows; who thus reverse the process by which, some twenty-three centuries ago, the eagle, dropping his tortoise on what seemed to him a convenient stone for his purpose, smashed the bald head of poor �schylus. Among the denizens of the _veldt_ the crows, unfortunately, are not the only appreciators of ostrich-eggs: and our worst enemies are the jackals. In lonely, far-off camps they plunder many promising nests; rolling the eggs away with their paws, sometimes to great distances. Occasionally, too, little chicks fall victims. We waged deadly war against the depredators; making liberal use of strychnine pills to "take us the foxes, the little foxes," which, finding no vines to spoil in the Karroo, were instead spoilers of ostrich nests. On a large vine-farm in the Atlas Mountains, where, after leaving the Cape, we spent some months, we were able to note the accuracy of this passage of Scripture--in which, I am told, the word rendered "foxes" ought in reality to have been translated "jackals." These animals did indeed work terrible havoc among the vines, eating incredible numbers of grapes; and T---- did much good by his introduction among them of the South African plan of poisoning, to which many succumbed. The pills, enclosed in pieces of fat, are dropped about the _veldt_; generally by a man on horseback, towing behind him a piece of very "high" meat, which, fastened by a _riem_ (narrow strip of hide) to the horse's tail, drags along the ground. By-and-by the jackals, attracted by the odour of meat, come out; and, following along the route taken by the poisoner, find and eat the tempting pieces of fat. In the morning a good number are sure to be found dead; the survivors, apparently concluding that there is something very wrong about the place, take themselves off for a time to another neighbourhood; and the comparative silence which reigns at night is a pleasant change after the chorus of their querulous, uncanny voices. The partiality of jackals and crows for ostrich-eggs, expensive though it is to us, reflects credit on their taste; for the eggs are certainly delicious. Those which, being useless for setting, found their way into my kitchen, were always most acceptable; and I have never had lighter cakes, nicer omelettes, custards, etc., than those made from them. And then they go so far! Two large square biscuit tins can be filled to overflowing with a noble batch of sponge finger biscuits, for which only one egg has been used. In spite of its large size--equalling twenty-four fowls' eggs--an ostrich-egg has no coarse flavour. It takes an hour to boil one hard; in which state it is a splendid article of food for baby ostriches. Ostrich-eggs were much prized by the ancient Egyptians; and Gardiner Wilkinson tells us that they "were required for some ornamental or religious use, as with the modern Copts; and, with the plumes, formed part of the tribute imposed by the Egyptians on conquered countries." Not long ago, T---- and I were much amused by the discovery, among copious notes in an old Bible dated 1770, of the following passage from a quaint old writer: "The Ostrich, which the _Arabians_ call _Naama_, is a wild Bird of the Shape of a Goose, but much bigger than that; it is very high upon its Legs, and has a Neck of more than four or five Spans long: The Body is very gross, and in its Wings and Tail it has large Feathers black and white (like those of the Stork) and some grey; it cannot fly, but it runs very fast; in which it is much assisted by the Motion of its Wings and Tail: And when it runs, it wounds itself with the Spurs which it has on its Legs. It is bred in the dry Deserts, where there is no Water, and lays ten or twelve Eggs together in the Sand, some as large as a great Bowl, and some less. They say this Bird hath so little Memory that as soon as she hath made an End of laying her Eggs, she forgets the Place where she left them; so that when the Hen comes to a Place where there are Eggs, let them be her own or not, she sets abrood upon them, and hatches them; and as soon as the Chickens are hatched, they immediately run about the Country to look for Meat; and they are so nimble, when they are little, before their Feathers grow, that 'tis impossible to overtake them." One is inclined to think that the old author, Marmol, from whose "History of Africa" the above passage is quoted, cannot have written from any very accurate acquaintance with the Dark Continent; at any rate, it is not likely that he ever saw an ostrich, or he would have known that it possesses no spurs. It is a strange fact that the most savage ostrich, if he comes up and finds you between himself and his nest, does not, as would naturally be supposed, rush to defend his eggs, and, if possible, kick you to death, but is instantly changed into the most abjectly submissive of creatures. "'Umble" as Uriah Heep, he squats at your feet; making a peculiar rattling noise with his wings, biting the ground, snapping his bill, closing his eyes, and looking the very embodiment of imbecility as he meekly implores you to spare his eggs. This suppliant posture is, however, not to be trusted; and, if tackey-less, you had better remain at the nest until assistance--or night--comes, for if once the positions of yourself and bird are reversed, "Richard's himself again." He squats, no longer in servile entreaty, but in defiance; and his challenge is promptly followed by a charge. The hen ostrich, being destitute of a voice, has but one way of calling her chicks, which is by that same rattling and rustling of the wings. In strong contrast to the usual anxiety of the paternal ostrich for his nest was one case of which we heard. In a breeding-camp, containing a cock and two hens, troublesome complications had arisen. One hen persisted in sitting, while the other was as resolutely bent on laying; and, the struggles of the two rivals for the possession of the nest being extremely perilous to the eggs, the Boer to whom the trio belonged removed the laying hen from the enclosure. Now came the cock's turn to be excited. The departed hen was evidently his favourite wife; and, disconsolate at her loss, he ran restlessly about the camp for some time, _brooming_ repeatedly; then, as if struck by some sudden impulse--probably of spite against his master--he ran to the nest, on which he deliberately jumped till he had broken every egg. One of our birds was a morose old bachelor. Whether he had remained single from choice, or whether his surly temper had made him so unpopular that no hen would cast in her lot with him, we knew not; but there he was, living in solitary grandeur on the lower slope of our big mountain. Every time we took a certain favourite walk, a portion of which he had marked out as his beat, he would dispute the right of way with us; resenting the invasion of his solitude with more fuss than was ever made by the father of the largest family of chicks. Sometimes he would lie in ambush, and rush out at us from unexpected places, with all the artfulness of a rogue elephant. Fortunately, his domain being on the mountain-side, there was plenty of high bush, behind which it was not difficult to dodge him. CHAPTER VII. OSTRICHES (_continued_). Vagaries of an incubator--Hatching the chicks--A bad egg--Human foster-mothers--Chicks difficult to rear--"Yellow-liver"--Cruel boys--Chicks herded by hen ostrich--Visit to Boer's house--A carriage full of ostriches--"The melancholy Jaques"--Ostriches at sea--A stampede--Runaway birds--Branding--Stupidity of ostriches --Accidents--Waltzing and fighting--Ostrich soup--An expensive quince--A feathered Tantalus--Strange things swallowed by ostriches --A court-martial--The ostrich, or the diamond?--A visit to the Zoo. An incubator, considerably increasing as it does the number of chicks that can be hatched, is of course of the greatest value on a farm. We had one, capable of holding sixty eggs; and a "finisher," in which thirty more could be placed. Two paraffin lamps, kept constantly burning, heated the large tank of the incubator; and a thermometer, inserted in the water, had to be carefully watched in order that the temperature of the latter might neither exceed nor fall below 103°. Beneath the tank--so that the eggs, as in nature, might be heated from above--were four drawers, each with compartments for fifteen eggs. I was appointed manager of the incubator; and morning and evening--following the example of the hen ostrich--I gave the eggs their quarter of an hour's cooling by allowing the drawers to stand open; also, as she does, I carefully turned each egg. The regulation of the temperature was a matter of some anxiety, and enabled me--especially on first undertaking the work--to form a very good idea of the responsibilities of a vestal tending the sacred fire. Some mischievous imp seemed to be perpetually at work causing that thermometer to indulge in the wildest vagaries. Perhaps just one degree of the required temperature would be wanting; and though, for the best part of the morning, I had been coming anxiously every ten minutes or so to look at the thermometer, it refused, with all the perversity of "a watched pot," to rise above 102°. Then at last, a little off my guard, and absorbed in one of the numerous other home duties, I might possibly forget the incubator's existence for a little while; and, on suddenly remembering and running to it, find that the treacherous mercury had jumped up two or three degrees. Then the drawers would have to be thrown open, and the contents of several jugs of cold water wildly dashed in through the opening at the top of the incubator--and when at last, by still trembling hands, the thermometer was readjusted in the said opening, it would probably register as many degrees _below_ as it had just been above 103°. T---- was away for three weeks during the time the incubator was in full work; and so great was the anxiety which haunted me, lest on his return I should present him with some sixty cooked birds, that I set an alarum every night for two o'clock, to assure myself that the temperature was playing me no tricks. When within about eight or ten days of hatching, the chick can be felt moving about in the egg; and later on, when nearly ready to come out, he is heard squeaking, and tapping with his bill against the shell. Then at last, one day, when you come to turn the eggs in the finisher, where they are placed for the last fortnight, you find one with a hole in it--generally a three-cornered piece is knocked clean out--and in the opening a pinkish, soft-looking bill is making impatient movements, and a bright eye is peeping at you as knowingly as though already well acquainted with all the ways of a world on which its owner has yet to enter. An ostrich, by the way, seems far more intelligent as a baby than he ever is in after life. A strong chick is generally able to free himself, by his own unaided efforts, from the shell; but if after a certain number of hours he is not out, it becomes necessary to assist him. This, however, requires extreme gentleness and caution, as there is great risk of inflicting injury; and, although I have helped many young ostriches into the world--losing but one patient in all my practice--I always preferred leaving that delicate work to nature. And yet there is something so tempting about these little half-opened parcels; one always longs to undo them and have a full view of the contents. The moment the little fellow is out of the egg, he seems to swell out, and looks so large that you wonder how he can possibly have been packed away in such a small space; and I am quite sure that the task of replacing him in the shell would as far surpass the powers of "all the king's horses and all the king's men," as did the reintegration of Humpty Dumpty. Occasionally--and even at this time and distance it is hardly to be recalled without a shudder--the incubator would contain a bad egg. Imagine all the horrors of a bad hen's egg, multiplied by twenty-four! The whole drawer would be so pervaded by the odour that it was difficult for some time to discover the actual offender; and when at last it revealed itself by an uncanny moisture exuding through the shell, an amount of courage and caution was required for its removal and safe depositing outside, which suggested very flattering comparisons of one's own conduct with that of a soldier winning the V.C. by carrying away a live shell. An incautious friend of T----'s was too closely investigating a doubtful ostrich-egg, when it exploded with a loud report. He was an old gentleman, with a beautiful white beard; and his condition, as described by T----, who--luckily from a safe distance--witnessed the accident, is best left to the imagination. Suffice it to say that an immediate and prolonged bath was imperative, and that a whole suit of clothes had to be destroyed. In the days when chicks were so valuable, people who did not possess incubators sometimes had recourse to a strange way of hatching those eggs which, during the sitting, were either left orphaned by accident, or, as in the case of Jackie, deserted in consequence of floods. Some poor old Hottentot woman would be carefully tucked up, in company with the eggs, under numerous blankets,--where she would remain bed-ridden until she had hatched out the last chick. Sometimes, even, the stout, lethargic Dutch _vrouw_ herself, to whose indolent nature the task was doubtless congenial enough, would perform the part of foster-mother. When, either by natural or artificial means, the little ostriches are safely brought into the world, the farmer's next anxiety is to keep them there. They do well enough on the coast; but in the Karroo they are most difficult to rear, and our experience with them has been sad and disheartening. Numbers of them die, when about a month or five weeks old, from an epidemic which comes and goes in the strangest manner. During a whole season, for instance, one farmer will lose nearly every chick; while brood after brood will be successfully reared by another at no very great distance. Next year, perhaps, it is the turn of the latter to be the sufferer; and _vice versa_. _Our_ unlucky year had a most promising beginning, unusually good rains having filled the country with nests; yet at the end of the season all we had to show of the rising generation of ostriches was a poor little troop of fifteen lanky, ragged-looking creatures, which through some rare toughness of constitution had survived the perils of infancy--over two hundred having succumbed. The disappointment of losing the chicks is much intensified by the fact that they always begin so well. For the first three weeks nothing can be more encouraging than the appearance of the stout, sturdy toddlers; they eat voraciously and are full of life and spirits, waltzing, in absurd imitation of their elders, to show their joy on being first let out in the morning--the effort usually ending in a comical sprawl on the back. Again and again comes the delusive hope that the spell is broken at last; that the luck has turned, and that _this_ little brood is really going to live. But alas!--one morning, during that fatal fourth week, you notice that one little head, instead of being held up saucily and independently, is poking forward and downward in a dejected manner with which you are only too well acquainted. You know at once that the owner of that head is doomed, and that it will not be long before most, if not all, of his brethren show the same dreaded symptom. The disease is quite incurable--indeed, I have never known of an ostrich, old or young, recovering from any illness whatever; and though we tried all possible kinds of medicine, diet, and treatment, resolutely refusing to despair of any case while a spark of life remained, those chicks persisted in dying, sometimes at the rate of three or four a day. I was hospital nurse, and so deeply did I take to heart the loss of patient after patient that it became a joke with T----; and a plentiful sprinkling of grey happening just at this time to make its appearance on my head, he still attributes each silver thread to a little dead ostrich. A post-mortem examination of chicks which have died of this disease shows the liver to be of the bright colour of orange-peel. Internal parasites also destroy a good many chicks; and altogether the little lives are precarious, and every troop of young birds successfully reared in the Karroo is a triumph. For the first two or three months the chicks are herded near the house by boys, whose duty it is to keep them well supplied with prickly pear leaves and other green food, cut up small. This work ought to take up the greater part of the young herd's time; but--small boys being no more satisfactory as servants in the Karroo than they are anywhere else--we found it necessary to keep a very strict watch; and often during the day, however busy I might be, I would "make time" to run down to the shady spot which was the chicks' place of encampment--generally to find the infants hungry, and their useless nurse either asleep or plunged in some absorbing business of his own with a knife and a piece of wood. Sometimes, too, the boys, getting impatient with the chicks, were rough and cruel; one budding criminal especially was several times caught making footballs of his innocent charges, kicking them up several feet into the air. And on a farm where T---- was once staying, a juvenile black fiend was found to have deliberately broken the legs of some twenty chicks under his care; and, when asked the reason of his conduct, said, "They run about, give me too much trouble." The chicks are often attacked by old birds--always spiteful to little ones which are not their own--and we have had several kicked to death by their vindictive elders. On a neighbouring farm, however, dwelt the usual exception to the rule, in the shape of an old hen, which--although herself not a mother--showed such a strong affection for chicks, and took such devoted care of them, that at last, much to her delight, she was appointed to the post of herd, _vice_ the small boy, dismissed as incorrigible. She filled the place of the latter far better than he had ever done; leading the little creatures, with the greatest care, wherever the tenderest _veldt_ was to be found; never losing her temper with them, or failing to bring the full number home to bed at sundown; and altogether acquitting herself in a wonderfully sedate and business-like manner for so scatter-brained a creature as an ostrich. Her history ought of course to have ended here; but truth compels me to state that at last, after she had successfully brought up many families of chicks, and had come to be respected and trusted as the steadiest and most useful of farm-servants, one day the idiotic ostrich-nature asserted itself; she took a sudden and senseless fright--probably at nothing--lost her wits, bolted right away, leaving the chicks to get dispersed about the _veldt_, where only a few were found; and was herself never heard of again. I think our friends at home would have been rather amused if they could have seen us one day, driving home from Mount Stewart with _twelve ostriches_ in our extremely small American spider. On our way to a farm where T---- had business we happened to pass a Dutchman's house, round the door of which we noticed a lively little brood of chicks running about. T---- of course no sooner saw them than he coveted them (he frankly confesses himself quite unable to keep the tenth commandment as far as ostriches are concerned); and we pulled up, accepted the hospitable invitation of the Boer, who doubtless read in our eyes the chance of "doing a deal," and went into the house, where, first of all, a solemn, silent, and apparently endless course of hand-shaking had to be gone through. The Cape Dutch living in very patriarchal fashion, there were not only a wife and many sons and daughters, but a well-preserved parental couple, a mother-in-law, several sons and daughters-in-law, and--needless to say--a crowd of children of all sizes, including two babies. All but the two last came forward one after another and gravely took our hands; then we all sat round the room, solemnly looking at each other, and T---- and I felt as if we were at a funeral. We would have been thankful to have fled; but--our own birds not having begun laying--we did so want those chicks, and we felt that it was worth while to endure something for their sakes. Presently coffee was handed round in huge cups, evidently more than half filled with sugar. The more highly the good _vrouw_ wishes to honour you, the more horribly and sickeningly she over-sweetens your cup of tea or coffee; and the syrup we had to drink on this occasion left no doubt as to the kindly feeling of our hosts towards us. The entrance of the tray was the signal for conversation to commence; and, once set free, it flowed abundantly. As we sat drinking our coffee and talking of everything _but_ the business on which we were bent, our thoughts flashed back to Oriental _bazaars_, where these identical preliminaries are necessary to every bargain. The relationship of everybody present to everybody else was accurately explained to us, with much pointing, or clapping on the back, as the case might be; and we in our turn were minutely questioned as to our names, ages, number of brothers and sisters and other relatives, etc.; the women again bringing back Eastern recollections by their resemblance to the inquisitive, chattering inmates of harems. Then T---- ventured to lead the conversation round to the coveted chicks; but it was a little too soon, the subject was abruptly dropped, and we again waded through all manner of irrelevant talk until, a becoming time having elapsed, and the requirements of etiquette being satisfied, the business was allowed to commence. After such an inauguration, it may well be imagined that the bargain was not concluded in a hurry; and we had paid a tediously long visit before we were at last the happy possessors of the chicks for which we had suffered so much; and, putting them loose into the spider at our feet, where--being about as large as ducks--they made rather a tight fit, drove off with them. A little further on, at another Dutchman's house, and with more bargaining, we bought a young _paauw_ (pronounced "pow"). This game bird (the great bustard) grows to an immense size, some being occasionally shot which measure nine feet across the outspread wings; but fortunately--considering the number of passengers already on board--the present specimen, being but a chick, was no larger than a fine fowl. When we arrived at last at our original destination, the young ladies of the house presented us with a pretty little baby hare, which had just been caught; and with this wee creature nestling in my lap, and the _paauw_ and the ostriches all scrambling about among our legs and apparently not on the best of terms, we drove the twenty miles home. The poor _paauw_ was very unhappy, and kept bewailing his fate in a long, weird cry, like the moaning of the wind; whence he immediately acquired his name of "the melancholy Jaques." We had an amusing though rather anxious journey; for the spider--consisting simply of a kind of magnified Japanese tea-tray, supporting the lightest of seats, and mounted on four wheels, almost bicycle-like in their slenderness--was hardly the safest thing in which to convey restless live stock which was not fastened or secured in any way. The road, too, was terrible; indeed, in one place it resembled a steep, rocky staircase, and after every bad jolt I looked anxiously back to see if any of our creatures were lying on the ground. Thanks to T----'s careful driving, however, we brought the whole collection safely home, none the worse for their long journey. Jaques, I may as well mention here, soon grew very tame; but, being--we never knew why--persistently snubbed by all the other pets, was driven to the companionship of the fowls, with which he struck up a close friendship; spending most of his time among them, and always coming with them to be fed. He would also forage about in the kitchen for scraps; and, if disappointed in his search, would utter his desponding cry, and seem quite heart-broken. He was a handsome bird; with delicately-pencilled plumage of different shades of grey and brown, a little neat crest on his head, and absurdly small feet, which looked as if they could not possibly support so large a body. Unfortunately, poor Jaques did not live to attain his full size, but poisoned himself with pumpkin seeds; which had been carelessly dropped on the kitchen floor, in spite of repeated orders that these seeds--being a deadly poison to turkeys--should always be instantly burnt as soon as a pumpkin was cut open. We lost several of our turkeys through the neglect of this rule by the stupid Hottentot girls. Although little ostriches are such good travellers, it is anything but easy to transport full-grown ones about the world. They are wretched sailors, as T---- has found to his cost; for when, some time ago, he took several pairs of birds to Sydney, about half of them died at sea. The day before they were shipped from Port Elizabeth they were placed in a store where there was a large quantity of tobacco, on which some of them regaled, with the consequence that before they had been at sea a week three were dead from nicotine poisoning. T---- does not mind a story told against himself, so I may mention that a plan adopted by him with a view to ensuring the comfort and cleanliness of the birds during the voyage did not--as regards the former advantage--turn out quite a success. He carpeted the pens with cocoa-nut matting; and when the vessel began to roll, and the birds sat down, their legs were terribly chafed and rubbed by the roughness of the matting. And although T----, to procure rag wherewith to bind up their sores, recklessly sacrificed shirts, pocket-handkerchiefs, and whatever other linen came to hand, several succumbed. The survivors did so well in Australia that arrangements were made to carry on ostrich-farming in that country on a large scale; and T---- was about to export two hundred birds when the Cape Government, hearing of the project, imposed an export duty of £100 on every ostrich, and £5 on each egg. Ostriches are very bad railway travellers; and avail themselves of every possible opportunity of coming to grief in the cattle-trucks; in which they often seem to be too closely packed. And as for their behaviour when travelling on foot, T---- has had some experience of the infinity of trouble they can give to those in charge of them. Having once bought a troop of ninety birds on the West Coast, he accompanied them himself on the long journey to Port Elizabeth. One night there was a stampede; and when daylight broke over the vast plain not one ostrich was in sight. Of course "there was mounting in hot haste;" and poor T---- had to ride about the country after the runaways, which were so dispersed that they could only be collected by twos and threes. He had two days of very hard work before he succeeded in getting them all together again. When T---- first started ostrich-farming, a good many years ago, he and his partners--little knowing the "kittle cattle" with which they had to deal--thought they would do without fencing. They soon found all their birds gone; and had to scour the country for hundreds of miles in pursuit of their erratic stock, riding all their horses to death. Profiting by this sad experience, T---- has carefully fenced Swaylands in all directions except where the steepness of the mountain forms a natural barrier. Yet in spite of all the trouble and money spent--and enclosing is one of the heaviest of all expenses incurred in starting a new farm--our birds were continually getting away. We have unfortunately the great disadvantage of a high-road running straight through the farm; and often a lazy Boer, thinking it too much trouble to kick away the stone with which he had propped the gate open while his waggons passed through--though T---- had carefully adjusted that gate to fall to and close itself--would cause the loss of several of our birds; which of course might or might not be heard of again. On one occasion over twenty birds seem to have gone out in a body, owing to the gate being left open; and only a few were eventually recovered. Some birds--artful old rovers who have been away before and have tasted the joys of freedom--will spend days running up and down along the side of the fence; keeping the gate well in sight, and watching for the chance of its being left open. The family of one of our herds, living close to a gate, were supposed to act as lodge-keepers; but--like most of the coloured race--they could never be induced to attend steadily and systematically to their duty, and we often found the gate wide open, inviting an exodus of birds. A fine of five shillings was imposed for each offence; but the hardened sinners knew that T----'s kind heart made him reluctant to enforce the penalty. Ostriches, when very firmly bent on escaping, and finding no gate open, will sometimes charge the fence; and, though occasionally one will succeed in tumbling safely over and getting away, the clumsy performance most frequently results in broken legs. Runaway birds are far from being the least among the many trials of an ostrich-farmer's life; and the annual losses caused by them even exceed in number those resulting from accident. Then they involve such endless waste of time and trouble. T---- was continually riding about, searching and making inquiries, often in vain, for lost ostriches. When he was fortunate enough to find one, or hear of its whereabouts; or perhaps see, from the advertised description of its brand, that it was an inmate of some distant pound, two of the herds--never spared without difficulty from other work--would be sent, often a long journey of three or more days, to bring it back. A returning runaway, always a joyful sight to us, was also rather a laughable one. As he was marched along between the two men, each with a tight grip on his shoulder, he looked just like a pickpocket in the hands of the police, going to prison; and a large piece of sacking, roughly sewn round his body to give his captors a firmer hold, made him appear as though already in convict dress. Then, to prevent his giving trouble on the road, his head would be in a bag. As often as not this bag would be one of my pillow-cases, surreptitiously abstracted by T---- from the linen-drawer before sending off the men. The very necessary operation of branding is performed on the ostrich's large, bare thigh, which seems just made for the purpose. Sometimes a considerable number of our young or newly-purchased birds would be branded at once. The irons with our brand, the Turkish crescent, were heated in a little portable forge placed in one corner of the plucking-kraal; and each poor bird in turn received the mark of our ownership with an agonized start on one side; the smell, and the hissing sound of the frizzling flesh always reminding me unpleasantly of the horrible performances of the _Aïssaoua_, which (because every one else went) I was once foolish enough to go and see in Algiers. Old birds, which have frequently changed hands, sometimes display a fine collection of initials and different designs, covering both thighs. Unfortunately, branding is not always the safeguard against theft which it is intended to be; for there are quite as many dishonest people in the Cape Colony as elsewhere (if not rather more), and it is no uncommon trick to obliterate the brand of a bird which has come astray by applying over it a much larger one--a "frying-pan" brand, as one hears it occasionally called by victims. As regards the stupidity of ostriches, although indeed they are falsely accused on one point; that of hiding their small heads in the sand and imagining therefore that their large bodies are quite invisible to the foe, they do many other things quite as foolish, and--to revert again to the Book of Job--their character could not possibly have been more perfectly summed up than it is in the words: "Because God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He imparted to her understanding." And, indeed, no one looking at the ostrich's ridiculous little head, so flat immediately above the eyes as to leave no room for any brain, can wonder that he is an imbecile; possessing even less intelligence than a common fowl, and not recognizing the man who has fed him every day for years, if the latter comes to the camp in a coat or hat to which he is unaccustomed. A friend of T----'s was attacked and knocked down by one of his own ostriches, an old bird which had been constantly fed by him, but which, on seeing him for the first time in a black hat, took him for a stranger. Fortunately T---- was with him, and, having brought a tackey--in spite of assurances that none would be needed--came promptly to the rescue. Ostriches are long-lived creatures; indeed, it is impossible to say what venerable age they may be capable of attaining, for, however old they become, they never show any signs of decrepitude, nor do their feathers deteriorate; while, as for an ostrich dying of old age, I do not believe any one has ever heard of such a thing. But it is accident which, sooner or later, ends the career of nearly every ostrich; and in about ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the disaster is, in one way or another, the result of the bird's own stupidity. There surely does not exist a creature--past earliest infancy--more utterly incapable of taking care of itself than an ostrich; yet he is full of conceit, and resents the idea of being looked after by his human friends; and when, in spite of all their precautions for his safety, he has succeeded in coming to grief, he quietly opposes every attempt to cure his injuries, and at once makes up his mind to die. If his hurt is not sufficiently severe to kill him, he will attain his object by moping and refusing to eat--anyhow, he dies--often apparently for no other reason than because his master, against whom he has always had a grudge, wishes him to live. He seems to die out of spite; just as a Hindoo servant will starve himself, waste rapidly away, and finally come and expire at the gate of the employer with whom he is offended. The worst and most frequent accidents by which ostriches contrive to make away with themselves are broken legs; these--even were the patients tractable--it would be impossible to cure, owing to the strange fragility of that limb which, as we have seen, is capable of inflicting so deadly a kick,--and any poor bird which breaks a leg has to be instantly killed. The bone seems almost as brittle as porcelain; and a comparatively slight blow is enough to splinter it into just such jagged and pointed fragments as result from breaking the spout of a china teapot. One very fruitful source of broken legs is the dervish-like habit ostriches have of waltzing when in particularly good spirits, and especially when first turned out of the kraal in the morning. They go sailing along so prettily in the bright sunshine; their beautiful wings, spread and erect, giving them at a little distance the appearance of white balloons; but they have a sad tendency to become giddy and tumble down, and, knowing the frailty of their legs, we do not look with unmixed pleasure on the graceful performance. Some birds, indeed, have the sense to save themselves by "reversing," which they do as cleverly as practised human dancers; but the accomplishment seems rare among them, and we calculate that waltzing costs us eight or ten per cent. per annum. Then they often fight savagely; and the terrific "thud" of the blows they deal upon each other's bodies makes one tremble lest the next kick should fall on one of the brittle legs; as indeed frequently happens. One day (a long drought having brought our birds round the house), two splendid young cocks began fighting close to the windows. In an instant one of them was down; with his leg snapped across, and all but knocked off, by a frightful blow. T---- being from home, I had to go and inspect the poor bird's injuries--a sickening sight--and do him the only kindness possible, that of ordering his immediate execution. A couple of hours later, some of the flesh from one massive thigh was simmering in my stock-pot, sending forth a most delicious odour; while both legs, joints from which indeed to "cut and come again," dwarfed the proportions of the Angora meat as they hung beside it, high out of reach of dog or jackal, in our open-air larder. For when by some untoward accident, such as that just described, our birds came suddenly by their death, we had the very small and melancholy consolation of eating them. That is to say, following the example of French frog-eaters, we ate the legs only; there being no meat whatever on any other part of the creature's body. Instead of having a nice plump breast, like that of a fowl, turkey, or any other of the Carinatæ or keel-breasted birds, the ostrich has a flat breast-bone and large ribs shaped wonderfully like those of a human being. His body is always bony; and, however well you may feed him, the nourishment all seems to go to his legs. An unpleasant stringiness prevents ostrich-steaks from being quite nice, but the soup is perfection. I never tasted any quite equal to it; although some, made from the enormous tortoises found occasionally on the _veldt_, came very near it in goodness. The best beef-stock is not to be compared with ostrich-soup; and I imagine the latter would be a most nourishing food for invalids. An ostrich which has died in good condition has a large quantity of beautiful, soft, bright yellow fat. This, being most useful, is always carefully put away in jars; and there is no fat equal to it for guns, saddles, harness, boots, etc. Besides waltzing and fighting, there are endless other ways in which ostriches--always ingenious in devising plans for their own destruction--manage to get their legs broken, and their throats consequently cut; but the favourite form of _felo-de-se_ is collision with the wire fences. These seem to have some magnetic attraction for the _vogels_, as the Dutch call them--the word, appropriately enough, too, being pronounced "fools." [Illustration: OSTRICH-CHICK. (_Photographed from case in Stanley and African Exhibition_.)] [Illustration: OSTRICHES MEDITATING ESCAPE THROUGH DEFECTIVE FENCE.] "Another bird killed in the wires!" How familiar any one living on an ostrich farm becomes with these words of woe! Anything, or nothing--the latter indeed more frequently--suffices either to frighten or embolden an ostrich into flinging himself headlong into the nearest fence. The appearance of a strange dog, for instance--and in spite of strict orders the Kaffirs always _will_ bring dogs about the place--is quite certain, whatever may be the view taken of it by the ostrich, to lead but to one result. Say the dog is coming along on the opposite side of the fence. An imbecile boldness and pugnacity straightway inspire the ostrich; he has no eyes for anything but the dog, and, leaving the fence entirely out of his calculations, he makes a mad, blind charge, which lands him well in the wires; and if he is extricated from the latter with unbroken legs, his owner may be congratulated on a very unusual stroke of luck. If, on the other hand, the dog and bird are on the same side of the fence--then, even Burns's mouse had no greater "panic" in his "breastie" than that which impels the senseless biped to dash straight into the wires on his left; though miles of unfenced _veldt_, along which he might run with safety and soon distance the dog, stretch away to his right. The dog, of course, was not in either case troubling his head about the ostrich; and only wonders what all the commotion is about. One of T----'s birds performed the "happy despatch" in quite a novel manner. Seeing a tempting quince growing on the further side of a hedge, he squeezed his head and neck through a narrow fork in the branches to reach it. Having secured and eaten his prize, he tried to draw his head back. But what was difficult enough before was now impossible; his neck, bulging with the quince, kept him a prisoner, there was no one at hand to help, and the more he tugged and jumped in the frenzied manner of ostriches when held by the head, the more firmly he stuck. And he was found at last, with his neck broken, and his head, to all intents and purposes, pulled off. Another ostrich, running up against some projecting ends of wire, tore his throat open; inflicting so deep a gash as to divide the oesophagus. T---- (surgeon as well as everything else a colonist requires to be) went in quest of needle and thread to sew up the wound; and, on returning, found that his patient, having discovered a sack of mealies, was busily helping himself to the contents; though with the unsatisfactory result that the food, as soon as swallowed, tumbled out again through the slit in his throat. Nothing daunted, however, and apparently insensible to pain, the feathered Tantalus continued to feed; wondering no doubt why, having eaten so much, he remained hungry. Thanks to T----'s care, this bird, a rare exception to the general rule of wounded ostriches, actually recovered. Talking of the ostrich's food-passage, it is rather a curious sight to watch the progress of a large bone, or of a good beakful of mealies, as it travels down the long throat of the bird. During its journey, the large, slowly-moving lump is seen to make the circuit of the whole neck, and while passing round the back of the latter it looks comical indeed. Queer things sometimes find their way down this tortuous passage; the excessive queerness of some of them giving rise to the frequent boast of those persons fortunately able to eat anything, fearless of consequences, that they "have the digestion of an ostrich." But those miscellaneous collections of old bones, glass and china, stones, jewellery, hardware, and odds and ends of all sorts, with which the creature stores his interior, till one is reminded of Mark Twain's "solid dog," fed on paving-stones--far from showing that an ostrich has a good digestion, are necessary to prevent his having a very bad one. They are, of course, simply his teeth, the millstones which grind his food; only they are situated in his stomach instead of in his mouth, and, on an immensely-magnified scale, they only perform the work of those grains of sand with which the little cage-bird keeps himself healthy. Certainly ostriches occasionally show a sad want of discrimination, and make choice of articles which are quite unsuitable for their purpose. The manager's lighted pipe, for instance, was snatched and greedily swallowed by one of our birds before any one could stop him; and for a while the thief was very anxiously watched to see if evil consequences would ensue. Luckily, however, the strange fare did not seem to disagree with him. Another bird picked a gimlet out of a post, in which, for one moment, it had been carelessly left sticking--tossed it down his throat, and was none the worse for it. Ostriches, like magpies, are attracted by everything bright and glittering; hence the frequent and just complaints brought against them for theft. But their own interior is the only hiding-place where they bestow the precious stones and other articles of jewellery which, whenever they have a chance, they will always steal. One day, while yet new to the colony, and to the ways of ostriches, I was standing with T----by the side of one of the camps, looking over the fence at the birds, and much amused by the curious, dancing manner in which the creatures moved, as if hung on wires; when suddenly one of them, with a motion as quick as lightning, made a dash at my earring, a little round knob of gold, exactly the size and colour of a mealie (Indian corn seed), for which perhaps he took it; and I only drew back just in time to save it--and probably a piece of the ear with it--from going down his throat. A newly-arrived gentleman was less fortunate. He, too, was looking over a fence into a camp, when the sharp eye of an ostrich spied a beautiful diamond in his pin, and in an instant the jewel was picked out and swallowed. A kind of court-martial was held on the ostrich; the relative values of himself and of the diamond being accurately calculated, that his judges might decide whether he should live or die. Fortunately for him it was just the time when ostriches were expensive; and his value was estimated at £100, while the diamond was only worth £90. Those £10 saved his life; and the diamond was allowed to remain and perform the part of an extra-good millstone in his interior. Had he waited till the present time to furnish his internal economy thus expensively he would have been very promptly sacrificed. But people should not wear diamonds on ostrich farms. When, soon after our return from the Cape, we were staying for a time in London, one of our first expeditions was to the Zoo. There, with great delight and amusement, we walked about, looking up one after another of our old South African friends. But it was a cold, gloomy day; and in the houses as well as out of doors the exiles from that sunny land seemed much depressed by their changed conditions of climate. The meerkats, curled up in a half-torpid state, were no longer the merry little rogues they had once been, when in happier days they stood on their hind legs outside their burrows, toasting their little backs in their native sunshine. The baboon was morose; the snakes sleepy; the African buffalo no longer terrible as in the wilds of his old home, but a poor dejected creature, utterly crushed and broken-hearted by long residence under cold, grey skies. Altogether, everything hailing from Austral Africa looked very homesick that dull day, with the sole exception of the secretary bird, which, after a long and persevering search--for old Jacob's sake--we at last succeeded in finding. He was a delightful bird; as tame as our own old friend, and evidently a great favourite with his keeper. We felt wickedly covetous, as the man, pleased at the interest we showed, put the intelligent bird through a number of comical performances, which included the "killing" of a stuffed ratskin, kept for the purpose of displaying how the secretary in his wild state beats to death the mice, lizards, and other creatures on which he feeds. But where were the ostriches? Just as actors, when they have a holiday, usually spend it in going to the theatre, so, of all the creatures in the Zoo, those we were most anxious to see were the great birds of whose company during the last few years we might reasonably be supposed to have had enough. But no ostriches were to be seen; and the keeper of whom we inquired told us that all were dead. On asking the cause of death, we heard that it was "because the people fed them on pennies." We went to the office of the secretary of the gardens, and found that this statement was really true, and that the post-mortem examination of each poor bird had brought to light a large number of copper coins which had been swallowed. We were glad to hear that any ostriches kept in the gardens in future were to be separated by glass from a public idiotic enough to waste its money in poisoning them. After this, we were quite able to believe a story told us of how a girl was one day seen at the Zoo, feeding these same unfortunate birds with some ten or twelve pairs of old kid gloves, evidently saved up for the purpose, and presented, one after another, tightly rolled up into a ball; the creatures gulping them down quite as a matter of course, and looking out for more. CHAPTER VIII. MEERKATS. Meerkats plentiful in the Karroo--Their appearance--Intelligence --Fearlessness--Friendship for dogs--A meerkat in England--Meerkat an inveterate thief--An owl in Tangier--Taming full-grown meerkat --Tiny twins--A sad accident--Different characters of meerkats-- The turkey-herd--Bob and the meerkat--"The Mouse." The little meerkats were surely created for the express purpose of being made into pet animals. Certainly no prettier or funnier little live toys could possibly be imagined. Nearly every homestead in the Karroo has its tame meerkat, or more likely two or three, all as much petted and indulged, and requiring as much looking after, as spoilt and mischievous children. In their wild state, these little creatures are gregarious, and live, like the prairie-dogs and biscachas of the Western Continent, in deep holes underground, feeding chiefly on succulent bulbs, which they scratch up with the long, curved, black claws on their fore-feet. They are devoted sun-worshippers; and in the early morning, before it is daylight, they emerge from their burrows, and wait in rows till their divinity appears, when they bask joyfully in his beams. They are very numerous in the Karroo; and as you ride or drive along through the _veldt_ you often come upon little colonies of them, sitting up sunning themselves, and looking, in their quaint and pretty favourite attitude, like tiny dogs begging. As you approach, they look at you fearlessly and impudently, allowing you to come quite close; then, when their confiding manner has tempted you to get down in the wild hope of catching one of them, suddenly all pop so swiftly into their little holes, that they seem to have disappeared by magic. [Illustration: A MEERKAT.] There are two kinds of meerkats; one red, with a bushy tail like that of a squirrel, the other grey, with a pointed tail, and it is this latter kind which makes so charming a pet. The quaint, old-fashioned little fellow is as neatly made as a small bird; his coat, of the softest fur, with markings not unlike those of a tabby cat, is always well kept and spotlessly clean; his tiny feet, ears, and nose are all most daintily and delicately finished off; and the broad circle of black bordering his large dark eyes serves, like the antimony of an Egyptian beauty, to enhance the size and brilliancy of the orbs. A curious kind of seam, starting from the middle of his chin and running underneath him the whole length of his body, gives him somewhat the appearance of a stuffed animal which has not been very carefully sewn up. His bright, pretty little face is capable of assuming the greatest variety of expressions, that which it most frequently wears when in repose being a contented, self-satisfied smirk; impudence and independence displaying themselves at the same time in every line of his plump little figure. With his large, prominent forehead, giving evidence of the ample brain within, one need not, perhaps, wonder at his being one of the most sagacious of animals; although it is certainly almost startling to find all the intelligence of a dog in a wee thing which you can put in your pocket, or which, if buttoned up on a cold day inside the breast of your ulster, is as likely as not, when tired of that retreat, to squirm out down your sleeve. He is absolutely without fear; and with consummate coolness and audacity will walk up to the largest and most forbidding-looking dog, although a perfect stranger to him, and, carefully investigating the intruder on all sides with great curiosity, express disgust and defiance in a succession of little, short, sharp barks--"quark! quark! quark!" He is soon on the friendliest terms with all the resident dogs in the place; showing a marked preference for those possessing soft, long-haired coats, on which he evidently looks as a provision of nature existing solely for his benefit, and in which, like the little Sybarite that he is, he nestles luxuriously on cold days, chattering and scolding indignantly, with a vicious display of teeth, if the dog, getting up and going away, rudely disturbs his nap. Out of doors he is the inseparable satellite of the dog; and during strolls about the farm--in which, by-the-by, one is often attended by a motley crew of furred and feathered friends--the meerkat is sure to be seen following immediately in the wake of the dog, as closely as the latter follows master and mistress. Even a good long walk does not seem to tire his strong little legs, or, at any rate, if it does he is too plucky to give in and turn back, and as long as the dog keeps going on, he valiantly follows every _détour_ of that animal's erratic course. Often, when starting for a ride or drive, we have been obliged to shut up our meerkat, so determined was he to come with us. The astonishment of dogs in England at a meerkat brought home by us was most amusing. They would run after him, apparently taking him for some kind of rat; and when, to their amazement, instead of running away, he boldly trotted up to them, and, calmly and somewhat contemptuously surveying them, began to beg, they would hang their heads and draw back, with looks plainly expressive of their opinion that he was "no canny." It was fortunate for him that he inspired them with such awe, for otherwise he would certainly have died the death of a rat on one of the numerous occasions when he got away and wandered on his own account through the Kentish village where we were staying. The human natives whose cottages and shops he invaded, and to whom, with patronizing coolness and colonial absence of ceremony, he introduced himself, were scarcely less puzzled than the dogs at the queer animal we had brought from "foreign parts." Every meerkat is an inveterate little thief; and if you leave him for one instant where a meal is prepared, you are sure on returning to see him jump guiltily off the table and make for the nearest hiding-place, chattering triumphantly as he goes, like a blackbird caught stealing fruit; an overturned milk-jug, dishes rifled of their contents, and sticky trails of butter, jam, or gravy across the tablecloth, proclaiming how profitably he has used his opportunity. He revels in mischief; and the reckless destructiveness in which he indulges, with no possibility of advantage to himself, but just for the fun of the thing, often brings you to the end of your patience. You vow that you will endure him no longer. You must get rid of him. The great Newton himself could not have pardoned such a constantly-offending Diamond. But the little rogue knows what is passing through your mind; and he knows, too, how to get on the right side of you. He assumes his prettiest attitude and his most benevolent smile; and as he sits bolt upright, turning his little head from side to side with quick, jerky movements, calling to you in the softest and sweetest of the numerous voices with which nature has endowed him, he is so irresistibly comical that, whatever he may have done, you cannot find it in your heart to be wroth with him very long. He is soon restored to favour; and then, to express his extreme contentment, he goes and lies flat on his stomach in the sunshine, with his legs stretched out straight. He is so flat that he seems all poured out over the ground, and looks like an empty skin. What becomes of his bones on these occasions is a constant source of wonder. The only other creature I have seen capable of so entirely changing its form at a moment's notice was a little owl we have since had in Tangier. This was a delightful pet, full of character and intelligence, though but a tiny thing not more than four inches high--a good part of this height consisting of the two long, ear-like tufts of feathers on the head. The absurd little fellow, who looked like one of the owl pepper-pots come to life, had many amusing ways; but what delighted us most about him was the startling abruptness with which not only his manner, but his whole appearance, even his shape, would change as if by magic, according to his frame of mind. He would sit, for instance, in a contemplative attitude, his eyes sleepily half-closed, his "ears" sticking up very straight, and his body looking extremely long and thin, as long as no one was interfering with him; but once disturb his repose, and instantly he would change his shape and become a fat little ball of soft fluffiness;--a grey powder-puff--with no ears visible, and two great yellow eyes glaring at you with the most ireful expression. Unfortunately, relying too much on the tameness of our owl, and fearful of spoiling his beauty, we neglected the precaution of cutting one of his wings, in consequence of which we were one day left lamenting this prettiest of North African pets; and though we tried hard to procure another, explaining, with the little amount of Spanish at our command, to all the small boys in Tangier that we wanted "_un pajarito con orejas_" ("a little bird with ears,") we never looked upon his like again, and I imagine he must have been an uncommon bird. The best chance of capturing full-grown meerkats is when, during long droughts, little companies of them are travelling in search of water; they often have to go long distances, and when they are thus far from their holes it is possible, though by no means easy, to run one down. In a few days, even if quite old when caught, a meerkat will know his name, come to you when called, or at least answer you with a little soft, bird-like note from whatever corner of the room he may be hiding in; scramble up into your lap, eat out of your hand, and altogether be nearly as tame as one which has been brought up in the house from infancy; though of course there is always the chance that, knowing the joys of liberty, he may some day, like the owl, take it into his head to desert. T----, riding one day, and encountering a little travelling party of meerkats, gave chase on horseback. One of the animals, a very large, fat one, made for a hole, but found it a tight fit. He stuck fast, and T---- pulled him out ignominiously by the tail, and rode off with him. The mare--a wild, half-broken young thing--was so mad with fright at the way in which the little fury, though tethered by a handkerchief, dashed about, scratching and tearing at her sides, that she bolted all the way home. And when T---- set the new inmate down on the floor of the sitting-room, where it stood at bay, snarling savagely at us, it seemed about as unpromising a specimen on which to exercise our powers of taming animals as could well be imagined. But, refusing to be daunted, we began by tying our captive to the leg of the table, where he had to accustom himself to seeing us constantly passing and repassing; and though at first he tried to fly at us every time we came near, he soon saw that we had no evil designs against him, and was reassured by our careful avoidance of abrupt movements and sudden noises--most important of all rules to be observed in taming wild creatures. In a few hours he was sufficiently at home to drink milk--though cautiously and watchfully--from a teaspoon held out to him; and in four days he was following us about the house like a little dog. This meerkat, the largest and handsomest we have ever seen, cannot have been anything less than the chief of his tribe. His powerful, tusk-like teeth, his unusually broad and capacious forehead, his superior intelligence, even for so clever a creature as a meerkat, all proclaimed him born to command. When one day he repaid the care and affection of many weeks by cruelly and ungratefully leaving us, we felt little doubt that, after giving civilization a fair trial, and comparing it with his old life, he had decided in favour of the latter, and started off home. We have often wondered whether he succeeded in finding his way back to his subterranean kingdom. And if so, did he find his subjects still faithful? or was he forgotten, and did another king reign in his stead? One evening, when the men returned from the camps, one of the ostrich-herds displayed, nestling together in the palm of his hand, two baby meerkats, no larger than good fat mice, which he had caught in the veldt. Rewarding the captor, in the usual Karroo style of barter, with a pound of coffee, we took possession of his prize; and though at first our chance of rearing the tiny animals seemed doubtful, they flourished, grew up into fine specimens of their kind, and were among the most amusing of all our pets. They looked like a perfectly-matched pair of little images with heads moving by clockwork, as they stood, bolt upright, in their favourite places, one against each door-post, and, critically surveying the view with an air of never having seen it before, revelled in the hot sunshine which came pouring in through the open doorway. Unlike "birds in their little nests," and more after the unamiable fashion of human twins--who generally have to be sent to separate schools--they got on very badly together; and their frequent fights displayed most comically the strong contrast of the two energetic little characters. One of them was selfish and greedy, and, however liberal the supply of food presented--even though it were three times as much as he could possibly eat--always wanted all for himself. Jumping into the middle of the plate, he would stand--a miniature dog in the manger--noisily defending the contents against his gentler brother, whom he would attack and bite savagely if he ventured near. The other was a far nobler and finer character; and, though he too could "bark and bite" on occasion in an equally unbrotherly manner, it was no such base, material cause of jealousy which impelled him to do battle. Our notice and our affection were what _he_ wanted all for himself; and so bitterly did he resent every kind word, every slightest caress bestowed on his companion, that it was the instant signal for war, and, flying at the other, he would attack him as vengefully as he in his turn was attacked at feeding-time. Both brothers were on terms of insolent and contemptuous familiarity with Toto; on whom they looked as their slave, whom they made the butt for their jokes, and in the soft warmth of whose coat they slept as on the most luxurious of fur rugs. And when _he_ wanted to sleep and _they_ did not, how they relished the fun of keeping him awake against his will! What riotous games they would have, chasing each other backwards and forwards across his recumbent form, pulling his poor tired eyes open with their mischievous black claws, scratching and tickling his nose to make him sneeze, and trying their hardest to burrow into his ear or his mouth. One snap of his powerful jaws, and their frivolous career would promptly have been cut short; but the good old dog--who, in spite of all their teasing, loved the troublesome imps--submitted patiently, though they did make his eyes water. One day, alas! tired out with play, they were comfortably nestling close up against their big friend's side, and all three were taking their afternoon nap. Perhaps Toto had a disturbing dream, perhaps the flies bothered him and made him restless,--at any rate during his sleep he rolled over on to one of the meerkats--our favourite, of course--and, all unconscious of what he was doing, crushed and suffocated the poor little fellow. Though no one thought of blaming Toto for what was purely accidental, he instantly and completely realized that he had caused the death; and as we stood lamenting over the flattened little body, the poor old dog's distress was most pathetic. He seemed quite overcome with shame; and as he stole from one of us to the other, timidly licking our hands, his expressive face pleaded eloquently for the forgiveness he had no need to ask. With all our efforts to reassure him it was a long time before his sensitive conscience recovered from the shock. The surviving little brother lived to a good old age, came home with us, and succumbed at last to the severities of an English winter. The variety of character in our numerous meerkats formed quite an amusing study. They differed as much as human beings, and among them all there was but one which was stupid. He, poor fellow, met with injuries in early life at the hands of one of the cruel boys who looked after the little ostriches; who, in a passion with him for getting in the way, picked him up and flung him across the kitchen. He landed in a saucepan, received spinal damage, and grew up stunted in mind and body. And when, one day, he came suddenly to his end by tumbling into that disappointing fountain-basin of which mention has been made, we felt that on the whole it was rather a happy release. One of our meerkats was the devoted ally of the turkeys, and would go out into the _veldt_ with them every day; accompanying them on all their wanderings, and apparently looking upon himself as their herd. He would come trotting home with them in the evening, full of his own importance, and evidently taking to himself the credit of having brought them all safely back. Another was fond of rambling off all by himself, sometimes going a very long way from home. On one occasion some friends from a distant farm, driving to call on us, saw near the road what they took for a wild meerkat, and set their collie at it. But animals have a wonderful instinct for detecting the difference between tame and wild creatures; and good Bob, dearly though he loved a scamper after any of the swift-footed denizens of the _veldt_, saw at once that this was not lawful game. So, instead of the expected chase, there was a friendly and demonstrative greeting between the two animals. The dog stood wagging his tail at the meerkat, the meerkat sat up "quarking" at the dog, and our friends, guessing that the little creature belonged to us, took him up into their Cape cart, and brought him to his home. Another meerkat, being so incorrigibly savage that handling him was always attended with serious damage to the fingers, had to wear a muzzle, improvised for him by T---- out of one of the little wire baskets made for the spouts of teapots. Another, though young and tiny, was a born tyrant; displaying the most overbearing and imperious of characters. In company with two full-grown meerkats, we brought him to England; the trio being taken on board the steamer in a large birdcage. There, however, owing to the truculent conduct of "the Mouse," as we called the little one, it was soon found impossible for all three to remain together; and separate quarters had to be provided for the two older animals. For the impudent mite, hardly out of babyhood, domineered over his seniors in most lordly fashion; forbidding them to take their share of the food, and dancing and jumping excitedly in the dish if they ventured to approach it; while they, although they could easily have made short work of the Mouse, calmly submitted; enduring his tyranny with that wonderful patience and forbearance so often shown by animals to one another under provocation which we human beings would bitterly resent. Perhaps they were overawed by the antics of the pugnacious atom, and thought he was not quite canny; or perhaps they looked leniently on his conduct as on that of a spoilt child accustomed to be humoured. CHAPTER IX. BOBBY. Bobby's babyhood--Insatiable appetite--Variety of noises made by Bobby--His tameness--Narrow escape from drowning--A warlike head-gear--Bobby the worse for drink--His love of mischief--He disarms his master--Meerkat persecuted by Bobby--Bobby takes to dishonest ways--He becomes a prisoner--His clever tricks--Death of Bobby. "Out of question thou wert born in a merry hour." Bobby was our tame crow. We brought him up from earliest infancy; indeed our acquaintance with him commenced when he was nothing but a speckled, reddish-brown egg, in a nest--or, rather, a flat, untidy bundle of sticks--in one of the few and stunted trees on the Klipplaat road. We were anxious to have one of these crows; knowing what intelligent and amusing birds they are, and having struck up a friendship with one on a neighbouring farm, a comical old one-legged fellow, with an inexhaustible fund of high spirits and solemn impudence, which made him a general favourite. So we kept an eye on this egg; riding up to the tree occasionally, and watching the progress of the young bird through various stages of ugliness and bareness; until at last we took Bobby home with us, an ungainly, half-fledged creature, very unsteady on his legs and ragged as to his clothing, which latter indeed consisted more of stiff black quills than anything else. His immense bill was perpetually open; displaying the depths of his wide red throat as he shouted defiantly for porridge, of which he never seemed to have enough. He would take it with a loud, greedy noise, swallowing as much of your finger with it as possible, and apparently very much disappointed at having to let the latter go again. He seemed to live in hope that, if he only held on long enough, it would surely come off at last and slip quite down his throat. If we passed anywhere near his basket--even though he had just had an ample feed--he would shoot up, like a black Jack-in-the-box with a large red mouth, demanding more porridge. The vegetarian diet suited him, and he grew into a very large, handsome bird, with the glossiest and softest of blue-black plumage. He soon refused to stop in his basket; tumbling out head first, and hobbling about the room; then, as his strength increased, he walked and flew about outside the house; always coming at night to sleep on our window. In the morning, as soon as it was light, he would fly in, and wake us up by settling on us and pecking us gently. Then, having given us his morning greeting, he would depart on his rounds outside; and presently we would hear him on the top of the house, or on the wire fence, practising some of his endless variety of noises; imitating the fowls, the donkeys, the dogs, or holding long conversations with himself, the greater part of which sounded like very bad language. One day we heard the cackling of a hen, which had apparently laid an egg on the top of the American windmill; and, on looking up, found that Bobby had selected this airy height as his practising-ground. It was one of his favourite places; and often, when there, he would catch sight of us the moment we came out of the house, and would come flying straight down to us, settling, sometimes quite unexpectedly, on a head or shoulder. He knew his name, and would come to us when we called him; unless indeed we had detected him in some mischief, when he would walk off, and keep carefully out of reach until he thought his offence was forgotten. He was our constant companion out of doors; and when I went round to the store, gave out the men's rations, fed the ostriches and fowls, or superintended the washing, he was sure to be either following close at my heels like a dog, or perched on my shoulder, whispering confidentially in my ear in a most affectionate manner, while his bright little jewel of an eye watched all I did with great interest. His devotion to his master often led him to fly down the well after him, when work had to be done or superintended there. On one occasion he overshot the mark and got into the water, where he very narrowly escaped being drowned. He was pulled out with some difficulty, very wet and miserable, too frightened to know friends from foes, and biting his rescuer with all his might. He would accompany us on our walks; and often took long rides with T----, whose white sun-helmet became a most imposing headgear, as Bobby surmounted it, spreading his great black wings; reminding us of the raven-crest of some ancient Scandinavian warrior. Then, while in full gallop, he would dart after one of the great gaudy locusts--four inches long, and looking like painted toys daubed with red, yellow, and green--and, catching it on the wing with unerring aim, would fly back with it to his place on the sun-helmet, where he would regale with many noises expressive of satisfaction. Bobby was not a "temperance" bird; indeed, his tastes lay in quite an opposite direction. We first discovered his propensity by accident, and in this manner. One day, when doctoring a sick fowl, which needed "picking up," I had mixed some porridge with wine, making it very strong. Just as I was about to administer it, Bobby came hurrying up, with his inquiring mind, as usual, all on the _qui vive_ to see what was going on. He plunged his bill into the porridge, and helped himself to a large mouthful; then, finding it to his taste, he went on eating noisily and greedily, till he had "taken on board" a considerable amount, and walked off satisfied. Then, having attended to my patient, I went indoors, thinking no more of Bobby till, some time after, Nancy, our Hottentot "help," came running to us, calling out, "Missis! Missis! Bobby drunk!" We went outside; and there, sure enough, was Bobby, on his back, his little black feet helplessly kicking the air, his bill wide open, and a variety of the most astonishing sounds proceeding therefrom, compared with which his usual, every-day profanity was mild. He soon recovered, and was on his legs again, none the worse for the adventure; but it left him with a decided taste for stimulants, which he strove to indulge on all possible occasions. From that day he followed me to the store more pertinaciously than ever; sitting on the tap of the cask while I drew the wine for meals, bending down and twisting his neck to reach the stream as it flowed into the jug. He gradually learned to turn the tap himself, and was delighted if he could catch a few drops. At last he became clever enough to set the wine running altogether; and, as he never learned to turn the tap back again, great caution was necessary to see that he did not remain behind in the store, which he was always trying to do. He would often give a good deal of trouble by flying to the very topmost shelf, from whence it was difficult to dislodge him; and where a chase after him involved climbing over numerous sacks on my part, and much knocking over of bottles and tins on that of Bobby. Bobby loved mischief; he revelled in it, not for the sake of any good which it brought him, but simply out of what the Americans call "cussedness." He was never so happy as when busily engaged in some work of destruction. When discovered, he would retreat to a safe distance, and, if pursued, would always manage to keep just out of reach; though not too far for you to see the twinkle of enjoyment in his wicked old eye, and hear his defiant croak; and as he strutted before you, looking back triumphantly over his shoulder, you felt that he was laughing at you. The garden was his favourite field of operations; and, considering the time and trouble spent in producing that little oasis, and in persuading plants to grow in it, it was no small trial to be disappointed of one crop of vegetables after another, simply owing to his careful destruction of the young plants almost as soon as they showed their heads above ground. It was provoking, on going down to the garden, to find that the few rows of peas or French beans, which we had so carefully sown and watered, and which only the day before were coming up so promisingly, had been butchered to make Bobby's holiday, and were now all rooted up, dried and shrivelled in the hot sun, and lying, neatly arranged in order, each one in the place where it had grown. The culprit himself would probably be out of sight, for his gardening operations were usually carried on in the early morning, thus securing a quiet uninterrupted time among the plants before we were about; but once we caught him. We were out earlier than usual, and found Bobby so deeply engrossed in putting the finishing touches to a row of beans which he had pulled up and laid in their places with even more than his usual neatness, that he only looked up in time to see his offended master a few yards off, and just preparing to throw a good-sized stone. In an instant Bobby's mind was made up. Instead of attempting flight, and getting hit by the stone, he impulsively threw himself on T----'s generosity, and flew straight to his hand; looking up confidingly in his face, and at once winning the pardon he sought. His loving ways made us forgive many of his iniquities. He liked to be "around" during meals; experimenting on the different articles of food, and occasionally dipping his bill into a cup of tea, or what pleased him still more, a glass of wine. But, unfortunately, he did not confine his attentions to the provisions, and was constantly attempting to carry off the spoons and forks: we narrowly escaped losing several of them, and he succeeded in getting away with one knife, which we never saw again. He also flew off with one of T----'s razors, and, when just above the middle of the dam, dropped it into the water. At last his thieving propensities obliged us to forbid him the house, and Toto learned to chase him out the instant he appeared inside the door; the noisy hunt often ending in Bobby's being caught, and gently but firmly held down under the paws of Toto, who would lie wagging his tail contentedly, while Bobby, hurt nowhere but in his pride, vented his rage in discordant croaks. He became very jealous of Toto and the other pets which, less mischievous than himself, were allowed indoors; and he delighted especially in teasing the little meerkat, no less constant an attendant than himself among the small train of animal friends which followed us outside. Bobby would come up noiselessly behind, and, catching the tip of the meerkat's tail in his bill, would lift the little fellow off his legs, take him up a few feet into the air, and drop him suddenly. Then, after waiting a few moments till his victim had recovered his composure, and was off his guard, he would repeat the performance. The meerkat, a plucky, independent little character, resented the insult, and scolded and chattered vehemently, showing all his small teeth as he hung helplessly by the tail: but he was powerless against Bobby, and had to submit to being whisked up unexpectedly as often as his tormentor, by right of superior strength, chose to indulge his practical joke. As Bobby grew older he lost his simple vegetarian tastes, despised porridge, and began to pick up a dishonest living about the fowl-house. He would fly to meet us in the morning, and perch on our shoulders with an impudent assumption of innocence; quite unconscious that the yellow stickiness of his bill told us he had just been breakfasting off several eggs. Then he took to eating the little chickens; and here his talent for mimicking the fowls stood him in good stead, and no doubt gained him many a dinner; his exact imitation of the hen's call to her young ones attracting victims within his reach. Many battles were fought by the maternal hens in defence of their progeny; in which Bobby always got the best of it, going off triumphantly with his prize, to regale in safety on the roof, or at the top of the windmill. Our poor little broods of chickens, which had enemies enough before in the shape of hawks, wild cats, snakes, etc., diminished rapidly with this traitor in the camp, whose capacious appetite was equal to consuming as many as four a day, with eggs _ad libitum_. For this, and for his offences in the garden, Bobby was at last sentenced to be tied up: a little bangle of twisted wire was fastened round one leg, and attached to a long piece of stout wire outside our window; and there, so long as there were little chickens about the house, or tender young vegetables in the garden, he had to remain. We felt much compunction at treating our old friend thus, and feared that with his keen appreciation of freedom, and love of independence, he would pine in captivity; but Bobby did nothing of the kind. He was a far greater philosopher than we thought, and resigned himself at once to circumstances; making the best of things in a manner which some of the human race might well imitate. He harboured no resentment against us for depriving him of freedom; but, with his sweet temper quite unimpaired by his reverse of fortune, would give us just as warm and joyful a welcome, and caress us as lovingly, as in brighter days. He did not sit idle on the perch to which we had condemned him; but, his love of mischief breaking out in quite a new direction, he immediately consoled himself by commencing destructive operations on the window in which he sat, and on as much of the outside of the house as came within reach of his tether. He broke away the plaster from the wall, knocked out the mortar from between the bricks, and carefully picked all the putty out of the window, the panes of which he loosened so that they were always threatening to fall out; and in a very short time our room, which was in reality the newest part of the house, looked like an old ruin, with crumbling wall and dilapidated window. He had a variety of resources at his command; and when not engaged in the destruction of the house, he would often be found busy on another work he had in hand, that of trying to free himself from his bonds. No human prisoner, filing through the iron bars of his dungeon, ever worked more perseveringly for his freedom than did Bobby,--biting through strand after strand of his cord of steel wires, or slowly, but surely, unfastening the twisted bangle on his leg; until at last some day he would be missing from his place--devastation in the garden, empty eggshells in the hens' nests, and sad gaps among the rising generation of fowls showing the good use he had made of his opportunities. No small amount of stratagem was required to recapture him when loose; and much time and trouble had to be expended, and tempting dainties displayed, to entice him within reach--a fat mouse, if there happened to be one in the trap, being the most effective bait. Bobby would have been invaluable to an exhibitor of performing animals; his intelligence in learning the few tricks we had the leisure to teach him showed that he would have been capable of distinguishing himself if he had been educated as a member of a "happy family." We often brought him in to show his tricks before visitors; and his solemn way of performing them added much to the amusement he caused. He was a true humourist, and knew that his joke was more telling when made with serious face and grave deportment. He would lie "dead," flat on his back, with his blue eyelids drawn up over his eyes; remaining motionless for any length of time we chose, and waiting for the word of command, when he would scramble to his feet in a great hurry, with a self-satisfied croak at his own cleverness. He would hang by his bill from one of our fingers, which he had swallowed to its point of junction with the hand; and, with his wings drooping, and his legs hanging straight down in a limp and helpless manner, looking altogether a most strange and grotesque object, would allow us to carry him about wherever we liked. A little string of dark red beads, brought from Jerusalem, would always throw him into a perfect frenzy of real or pretended fright--probably the latter; and if they were put anywhere near him, or, worse still, flung across his back, he at once commenced a series of startling antics, jumping and hopping about as if possessed, and uttering very uncanny sounds. As the time for our return to England drew near, we made up our minds that we could not leave Bobby behind--he must be one of the little party of friendly animals which were to accompany us home; and we were already discussing in what kind of cage or box he should travel, wondering how he would like being enclosed in so small a space, and how he would behave at sea: friends in England had promised him a welcome, and were looking forward to seeing him--when, after all, we had to part with him. Just three weeks before we sailed poor old Bobby was suddenly paralyzed, and died in a few hours. We never knew what caused his death: whether his unconquerable curiosity had led him to eat something poisonous; whether the enforced sedentary life he had led for so many weeks together had undermined his constitution; or whether occasional dead snakes, and the contents of the mouse-traps, which during his detention were always contributed in hope of partially satisfying his large appetite, were perhaps unwholesome diet, and shortened his days, we cannot tell. But Bobby was sadly missed; and we still regret that brightest and most comical of all our pets. Some will perhaps say, "What foolish people these must have been, to tolerate a black imp of mischief who destroyed their vegetables, ate their eggs, killed their chickens, did his best to pull down their house, and whose neck ought to have been wrung!" But, just as among the human race those characters we love best are not always the most faultless, so poor Bobby, full of imperfections as he was--far from honest, not always sober, and with that terrible bent for mischief making him so often a nuisance--yet possessed so many lovable qualities that his failings were redeemed; and he lives in our recollection as one of the kindest and most faithful of all our South African friends. We could have better spared a better bird. CHAPTER X. OUR SERVANTS. A retrospective vision--Phillis in her domain--Her destructiveness-- Her ideas on personal adornment--The woes of a mistress--Eye-service --Abrupt departure of Phillis--Left in the lurch--Nancy and her successors--Cure of sham sickness--The thief's dose--Our ostrich-herd --A bride purchased with cows--English and natives at the Cape-- Character of Zulus and Kaffirs. "Man's work is from sun to sun, But woman's work is never done." It is always amusing, for those who have tried housekeeping in South Africa, to hear people in England talk of their "bad" servants. Ladies--who, after the short quarter of an hour devoted to interviewing the cook and giving the day's orders, need trouble themselves no more throughout the twenty-four hours as to the carrying out of those orders, but are free to pursue their own occupations, uninterrupted by a constant need of superintending those of their domestics,--sit in their beautifully-kept drawing-rooms or at their well-appointed dining-tables,--whose spotless linen and bright glass and silver are so delicious a novelty to eyes long accustomed to the Karroo's rough-and-ready backwoods style,--and, much to your surprise, complain bitterly of the unsatisfactory parlour-maid, or are pathetic over the iniquities of the cook who has just sent up a faultless little dinner. When any one, thus blissfully unconscious of what a really bad servant is, appeals to the lady colonist for sympathy, the unfeeling reply of the latter not unfrequently is: "You should try South African servants!" And instantly, before the mind's eye of that lady colonist, there arises a retrospective vision of the average "coloured help" of Cape farms; that yellow Hottentot or dark-skinned Kaffir, attired in a scanty and ragged cotton dress; her woolly head surmounted by a battered and not always over-clean _kappje_ (sun-bonnet), or tied up in a red and yellow handkerchief of the loudest pattern, twisted into an ugly little tight turban. She stands, in the bright morning sunshine, against a background of dirty dishes and uncleaned saucepans, left neglected since last evening's meal; and of the comfort and advantage to herself of cleaning which before the adhering remnants of contents have dried and hardened it is absolutely impossible to convince her. Dogs, fowls, turkeys, and little pigs, in company with all the pet animals of the family and an occasional young ostrich, are kindly acting the part of scavengers on her unswept kitchen floor; where they are _habitués_, her wastefulness and untidiness affording them so good a living that they have grown bold, and, refusing to get out of your way, get under your feet and trip you up at every turn if you are rash enough to enter the dirty domain of their protectress. The latter, like some malevolent goddess, is surrounded by an atmosphere of most evil-smelling fumes, prominent among which is the paraffin with which, to save herself trouble, she liberally feeds the fire every time it becomes low; while the dense smoke and steam arising from several pots and saucepans on the stove proclaim the contents to be in various stages of burning,--the climax being reached by what was once the soup, but of which nothing now remains but a few dried and charred fragments of bone, tightly adhering to an utterly ruined pot--new last week. In answer to all expostulation the doer of the mischief has no word of regret or apology, but, taking the occurrence as a matter of course, shows all her even white teeth in a bright, good-tempered smile, as she says, "Yes, missis, de soup is burnt." Then still more horrible whiffs assail you, viz., the combined odours of the various articles of food which she has put away, carefully covered up in jars and tins, where she has forgotten them; and where, in the close atmosphere of her stuffy kitchen, with the thermometer at 100°, they have promptly gone bad. She has no "nose"; and, though her kitchen may be pervaded with odours which knock you down, she remains smiling and contented, and needs to be informed of the fact that there is a bad smell before she will set to work--with great surprise--to hunt out the cause of it; too often revealing sights which make you shudder. If it is anywhere near a meal-time, her fire is sure to be very low, if not out altogether; she has, of course, forgotten to tell the men, before starting for the camps in the morning, to chop wood for her day's needs; and as they, like all the coloured race, never perform the most every-day duty unless specially reminded, she has to do this work herself, with much difficulty and dawdling; the luncheon or dinner being accordingly delayed indefinitely. If, on the contrary, it is between meals, and no cooking will be required for several hours, there is a roaring fire, over the hottest part of which the chances are ten to one that you will find the empty kettle; while you are fortunate indeed if in your immediate and anxious investigation of the boiler you are yet in time to avert irretrievable damage. Any dirty water or refuse which is thrown away at all is flung just outside the kitchen door, where it lies in unsightly heaps and pools, attracting myriads of flies; a plentiful sprinkling of which, needless to state, find their way, in a drowned, boiled, baked, roast or fried condition, into every article of food sent to table. Occasionally a teaspoon is tossed out among the rubbish, and lies glittering in the sunshine, ready to tempt the first ostrich that happens to prowl past the door. A very frequent counting of plate is necessary; and indeed, with such careless and not always honest servants, it is best to have no silver in daily use. Breakages are ruinously numerous; each rough-handed Phillis in succession having her own private hiding-place, generally in the middle of some large bush, where--in spite of the standing promise that any accident honestly confessed will receive instant pardon--the fragments of all the glass, earthenware, and china destroyed through her carelessness are quietly put away out of sight, and, as she hopes, out of mind. Then perhaps, one day, having a little time to spare, you are looking about among the bushes to find out where the white turkey lays, and suddenly see, gleaming out through the dark foliage, what you at first take for a goodly number of the expected eggs. But alas! on closer investigation you recognize the familiar patterns of your pretty breakfast and dinner services; chosen carefully in England, with bright anticipations of the colonial home for which they were destined. For a long time their number has been mysteriously but steadily decreasing; till now there are but two soup-plates left, the cracked and chipped vegetable-dishes cannot among them boast of one handle, and the tureen, being without a lid, has to be covered ignominiously with a plate. Egg-cups there are none, and their places have long been supplied--not altogether unsuccessfully--by napkin-rings. Constant relays of cups and saucers, as well as of glasses, are needed from Port Elizabeth; a dozen of either lasting but a very short time in the coloured girl's destructive hands. Opportunities of getting things sent up to the farm do not present themselves every week; and to be provided, at one and the same time, with a sufficient supply of both glass and china is as unheard-of a state of affluence as was the possession, by poor Mr. Wilfer, of a hat and a complete suit of clothes all new together. An influx of unexpected visitors is sure to arrive at the time of greatest deficiency; and the wine at dinner often has to be poured into a motley collection of drinking-vessels, among which breakfast and tea-cups, in a sadly saucerless and handleless condition, largely predominate over glasses. Another time it is the china which is conspicuous by its absence; a large party of strangers who have out-spanned at the dam are asked in to rest for an hour or two on their journey, and the hostess finds herself obliged to hand the afternoon tea to her guests in tumblers. The linen fares no better at the hands of Phillis than does the china. The best table-cloths and most delicate articles of clothing are invariably hung to dry, either on ungalvanized wires which streak them with iron-mould, or on the thorniest bushes available, from whose cruel hooks, pointing in all directions, it is impossible to free them without many a rent. You spend much time and trouble over the work of extricating them, remonstrate with Phillis for the hundredth time on her rough treatment of them, and soon after, passing again, find that, all having been spread out on the stony ground near the dam, right in the path of the ostriches coming up from the water, numerous muddy impressions of large, two-toed feet crossing and recrossing the linen necessitate the whole wash being done over again. Although a clothes-line and pegs are provided, they are contemptuously ignored, and--the latter especially--never used except under the closest supervision; thus handkerchiefs, socks, and all the lighter articles of wearing-apparel are allowed to go flying away across the veldt; where, on long rides, you occasionally recognize fragments of them flapping about dismally on the bushes. A strict watch has to be kept on the table-napkins, or they are sure to be carried to the kitchen and pressed into the dirtiest of service as dish-cloths, lamp-cleaners, etc. However many kitchen-cloths and dusters may have been given out, you never find one which is fit to touch; nor, until experience has taught you to keep the paraffin and its attendant rags under lock and key, and yourself to superintend the cleaning and filling of the lamps, is there one cloth which does not communicate the smell and flavour of the oil to every plate, cup, and glass brought to table. Every cloth is saturated with grease, all have large holes burnt in them, and a good many have been deliberately torn into quarters, or into whatever smaller sizes Phillis may have judged convenient for her ends. She has spared only those which, with their broad pink-and-white borders--with "Teacloth" in large letters, and a little teapot in each corner--have pleased her eye, and struck her as suitable adornments for her person; and which accordingly you often find twisted round the woolly head in place of the red and yellow turban, or gracefully draped on neck and shoulders as a _fichu_. Like other daughters of Eve, she possesses her due amount of vanity, and has her own ideas--though they are sometimes strange ones--on the subject of improving her personal appearance. If she is of a careful turn of mind, and mends her own dresses--though most frequently she wears them torn and buttonless, fastened together only by the numerous black or white safety-pins which she has abstracted--she scorns to patch with the same colour, or anything near it, but introduces as much variety as possible into the garment by choosing the strongest contrasts of hue and greatest diversity of materials. Thus her pink or yellow cotton dress will be patched with a piece of scarlet flannel or bright blue woollen stuff; the blue skirt, of which the latter is a portion, having been tastefully repaired with a large square of Turkey red. One day a bottle of salad oil is dropped and broken on the sitting-room floor; and Phillis is called in to remove the traces of the accident. Why does she look so delighted as she goes down on her knees beside the unctuous pool? and why does she not proceed to wipe it up? The reason is soon seen when she prepares for action by whisking off her bright handkerchief-turban. Then the pallid palms of her monkey-like hands are plunged blissfully into the oily mess, and again and again vigorously rubbed over head and countenance, till the thick mass of wool is saturated and dripping like a wet sponge, and the laughing face shines like a mirror. She is far too much absorbed to notice the amusement her performance is giving to hosts and guests; and when all the late contents of the bottle have been successfully transferred to her person, she goes back in high glee to her kitchen, rejoicing in her increased loveliness. The house work is no less of a failure than are the kitchen and laundry departments. The art of bed-making has to be taught, with much patience and perseverance, to each successive untutored savage; who--if she has not come straight from some bee-hive-shaped hut where beds are totally unknown--has lived in a Boer's house where, when it is thought worth while to make the beds at all (by no means an every-day business) it is never done till the evening, when it is just time to return to them--and then is not done in a manner which at all accords with English ideas. In the morning, each portion of the room and each article of furniture which requires cleaning or dusting must be separately and individually pointed out to your handmaiden; the corner where you do not specially tell her to sweep, and the table or bookshelf which you forget to commend to the attentions of her feather-brush, being invariably left untouched. It is the same with all the rest of her work; you have long ago found it impossible to make her understand a thing once for all, or to establish any sort of regular routine. She needs to be daily reminded of each daily duty, or it is not done. And then, unless under constant supervision, most wearying to her mistress, it is sure to be done wrong. Of course she never thinks of reminding you of anything, but is only too delighted if you have forgotten it. If, through some unlucky oversight, _you_ have not told her to put the joint into the oven and the potatoes on the fire, the chances are that both will be found uncooked when the dinner-hour arrives. And even when all is ready to be served up, you must again remind her of each dish, and of the proper order in which it is to make its entrance, or it is quite certain to be brought in at the wrong stage of the repast--if brought at all. But perhaps you have become absorbed in the conversation at table, and so are unobservant of the non-appearance of the greens or other vegetables, till next morning you find them, still in the saucepan, and in a cold and sodden condition. Thus every detail of each day's "trivial round" has to pass through the mind of the mistress, who is compelled to neglect her work in looking after that of a servant who will not use her own head. One goes to bed at night footsore with running after this terrible servant; and with a head still more wearied by the constant strain of doing all the thinking for every department of the housekeeping. Of course it amounts to much the same as doing the work yourself; and but for "the honour of the thing"--like the Irishman strutting along proudly inside the bottomless sedan-chair, though complaining that he "might as well have walked"--you might as well be without a servant. With South African domestics one realizes indeed the meaning of the word "eye-service"; for not one of them, even the best, knows what it is to be conscientious. They never do a thing right because it _is_ right; whatever they think will not be seen is neglected; and they are placidly indifferent as to whether their work is done well or badly, and whether you are pleased or not. One gets so tired of the apathetic yellow or black faces; which never brighten but into a childish laugh, generally at something which is the reverse of a laughing matter for the employer. Altogether, Phillis is in every way exasperating, and is the great drawback to life on Cape farms. But she is the only kind of servant available; and if you lose patience with her and let her go, you may have to do the whole work of the house yourself, possibly for a week or more, till another, closely resembling her, or perhaps worse, can be found. Therefore, you put up with much, rather than make a change which would involve the training of a raw recruit all unused to English ways, to cleanliness, and to comfort; and indeed hardly acquainted with the rudiments of civilization. But, unluckily, Phillis herself loves change; it is irksome to her volatile nature to remain long in one place; and accordingly, just as she is becoming used to your ways, and you flatter yourself that you will eventually get her into some sort of training, she flits off, regardless of the inconvenience she may cause. She never tells you in a straightforward manner that she wishes to leave; never gives you time to look out for a substitute; but departs unexpectedly, and always in one of two ways. Most commonly she rises in sudden insubordination, gets up a row of the first magnitude on some trifling pretence, and behaves in so turbulent and uproarious a manner that you are thankful to be rid of her at any cost, and dismiss her then and there; which is just what she wanted. Or, if she is one of the more peaceful and amiable sort, and has some kindly feeling for the "missis," she leaves the latter in the lurch in a less offensive, though even more heartless manner. She does not _ask_ for a holiday, but announces her intention of taking one; faithfully promises to return at the end of four days, and departs, riding astride on a lean and ragged scarecrow of a horse, brought for her by a party of Hottentot friends. It is true she leaves no possessions behind to ensure her coming back; for she never has any luggage, and her wardrobe, being of the scantiest, is all well contained in the handkerchief-bundle which jogs at her side as she trots off. But new chums, fresh from England, and innocent of the ways of the Karroo, are always taken in the first time the trick is played on them; and as the queer-looking cavalcade departs, bearing in its midst the giggling Phillis, no disquieting suspicions cross the mistress's mind. She determines to make the best of it for those four days, and goes bravely to work; either single-handed, or with the so-called help of a small Hottentot girl, who comes just when she chooses--sometimes remaining away a whole day, sometimes arriving in the afternoon when most of the work is done--and who lives so far off that going after her would be useless waste of time. The hours are counted to the time appointed for Phillis's return, but--needless to state--she is never again seen or heard of; and the victim of her fraud learns by experience that as soon as a servant talks of a holiday it is time to begin the weary search for a successor; never found without plenty of riding about the country, much inquiring on neighbouring and distant farms, and many disappointments. It is not much use taking English servants to the Karroo; the life is too dull for them, they hear of high wages to be had in Port Elizabeth and other towns, and you never keep them long. The man and wife, both excellent servants, who came with us from England, left us soon after we came up-country; and from that time we had none but coloured servants for house and farm. There was indeed a sudden transformation in our little kitchen; from the quiet, neatly-dressed, white-aproned Mrs. Wells to noisy Hottentot Nancy, in dirtiest of pink cotton, profusely patched with blue and yellow. And the kitchen itself was no less changed than its presiding genius. Now began a time of good hard work for me--for which the usual bringing-up of English girls, followed by years of travel and of hotel life, was not the best of training; and, though I had learned much from Mrs. Wells, I was often sadly at a loss during the first weeks after her departure. No dish, however simple, which I myself was not able to cook, could be cooked by Nancy or any of her successors; all were obliged to see it done at least once before they would attempt it. At this time cookery-books were almost my only literature; and many times a day I sought counsel in a bulky volume wherein recipes and prescriptions, law and natural history, etiquette and the poultry-yard, formed a somewhat startling jumble; and whose index presented, in immediate juxtaposition, such incongruous subjects as liver, lobster, lumbago--marmalade, mayonnaise, measles, meat--shrimps, Shropshire pudding, sick-room, sirloin, sitting-hens, etc. As many despairing sighs as ever fluttered the inky pages of a school lesson-book were breathed over this stout volume. T----, who, after living for years in rougher places than the Karroo, has acquired considerable experience and is a capital cook, helped me out of many a difficulty; and in time I learned to be a tolerably good general servant--which you must be yourself, if you are ever to do any good with Kaffirs or Hottentots. But it was a pity that, when young, instead of many of the things learned at school, I did not acquire what would at this time have made me more independent of servants. Why is not a knowledge of cooking and housekeeping made a part of every English girl's education? Then, in the event of a colonial life being one day her lot, she is to some extent prepared to encounter the difficulties of that life; while, even if she should marry a millionaire, and be waited on hand and foot for the rest of her days, she is none the worse for possessing the knowledge of how things ought to be done in her house--indeed, every woman who orders a dinner should know something of how it is to be cooked. Nancy, our first native servant, was also the best we ever had; always bright and good-tempered, and singing over her work in a really charming voice. On the whole she was far more intelligent than most of her race; and we were really sorry when the equestrian family party carried her from our sight, never to return. Then came a succession of "cautions," each worse than her predecessor; and between them all we did indeed, as Mark Twain has it, "know something about woe." Nancy's immediate successor was in every respect her opposite; idle, impudent, surly, and dishonest; eating as much as two men, but doing no work that was worth anything. She kept yawning all day with loud howls that were most depressing to hear; and when I went into the kitchen I was pretty sure to find her fast asleep, with head and arms on the table. Our next specimen was a nearly white half-caste, with light-coloured wool, and pale-grey, dead-looking eyes; who always reminded us of one of the horrible, sickly-looking white lizards, so common in Karroo houses. She was half-witted, and most uncanny-looking; with such a ghastly, cold, unsympathetic manner and stony stare that we named her Medusa. We could have picked out many a better servant from the Earlswood Asylum. I was continually trying to think of all the idiotic things she might possibly do, and thus guard against them beforehand; yet she always took me by surprise by doing something ten times more stupid than anything I had dreamed of. Then came a tall, gaunt old Mozambique negress; in appearance unpleasantly like an ancient Egyptian mummy, and with clothing which looked as though it had been "resurrected" at the same time as herself from a repose of some three thousand years. Only a dirty old black pipe, seldom absent from her lips, savoured, not of the necropolis of Thebes or of Memphis, but of the very vilest Boer tobacco. Besides being an inveterate old thief, she was the exact opposite of a total abstainer; and the frequent "drop too much" in which she indulged was always the occasion for a display of choice language and a reckless destruction of crockery. But these are enough; suffice it to say that the same types of character ran through a long line of successors, and that, taking them all round, I had about the same amount of trouble with all of them. T----'s men required almost as much looking after as my women; and, in order to get his herds off to work in good time, it was generally necessary for him to go down himself at sunrise to their little huts, not far from the house, and wake them up. As a rule they were not fond of work; and many were the excuses they would invent in order to avoid it as much as possible. Being "sick" was of course a favourite plea; and, whatever the nature of the complaint from which they professed themselves to be suffering, they were always convinced that a _suppje_ (drink) of prickly pear brandy or of "Cape smoke"[5] would be just the thing to set them right. At one time quite an epidemic of sham sickness broke out; but, as we soon saw through the trick, and knew that our would-be patients were perfectly well, we did not indulge them with their favourite remedy, but determined to make an example. We accordingly treated a very palpable case of shamming with a medicine of our own concoction. We mixed a good saucerful of Gregory's powder and castor oil into the thickest of paste; and prolonged the agony by making the man eat the stuff with a teaspoon, while we stood sternly on guard, to see that there was no evasion. And then we promised a second dose in the event of the first failing to effect a cure. No need to say that the victim hastened to report himself quite well, and that as long as he remained on the farm he was never "sick" again. The fame of the terrible medicine spread, and we did not hear of much more illness among our men. [5] Boer brandy. This dose was mild, however, in comparison with one of which I have heard, which was prepared by some gentlemen of our acquaintance. They were living in a tent on the Diamond Fields; and for some time had noticed a very rapid diminution of their supply of brandy. Not knowing which of their native servants was the culprit, they resolved to set a trap; and, putting a little croton oil into the brandy-bottle, left the latter in a temptingly prominent position. The next morning one of the servants, a big, stout fellow, was missing; and for ten days nothing was seen or heard of him. When, at the end of that time, he reappeared, he was transformed into such a poor, limp, wasted living skeleton that he could hardly be recognised. He went back to his work without a word; and never again did the brandy-bottle's attractions lure him from the path of honesty. The best and most hard-working of all our men was a sturdy Zulu, who, both in face and figure, exactly resembled that life-like wooden statue--one of the oldest in the world--which, in the Museum at Cairo, gives us so accurate a portrait of an ancient Egyptian. In looking at it you feel that you can read the character of this man who lived three or four thousand years ago; and know that, although one of the best-tempered of souls, he was as obstinate as Pharaoh himself. Nor were these qualities lacking in his modern fac-simile, the ostrich-herd; whose broad countenance, as he strode after his long-legged charges, bearing, in place of the Egyptian's staff of office, a stout tackey, wore the identical expression which that artist of long ago has caught so well. The good fellow showed a laudable tenacity of purpose in the steady perseverance with which he was putting by all he could save of his wages, and investing the money in cows. With these latter it was his intention to purchase a wife, as soon as a sufficient number could be collected to satisfy the demands of the prospective father-in-law. A marriage after this fashion, although not quite in accordance with English ideas, has certainly the advantage of inducing good habits in the intending Benedick. In the first place, he learns to economize instead of spending his money on drink. He will, of course, take as many _suppjes_ as you like to offer him; but you will never find him going off on the spree for two or three days, and coming back considerably the worse for his outing, as those of his brethren who have not his motive for thrift are too fond of doing. He is altogether a better servant than they, being less independent and more anxious to please. Often, too, he learns to exercise much patience; for, if the girl is pretty, or the father--who always has a keen eye to business--observes that the swain is very devoted, a high price is fixed; and the bridegroom-elect has to work for years, like Jacob for Rachel, till he has accumulated the required number of cows. Daughters, being such a profitable source of capital, are of course much valued by the parents; to whom, besides, in that sunniest of climates, a large family brings none of the cares and anxieties which it entails on the English labouring-man. The more children a Zulu has, the better he is pleased; the birth of a girl especially being welcomed as gladly as is that of a son among the Jews, and indeed among Orientals generally. English people settling in the Cape Colony usually start with a strong prejudice in favour of the coloured race. They think them ill-treated, bestow on them a good deal of unmerited sympathy, and credit them with many good qualities which they do not possess. By the time they have been a year or two in the country a reaction has set in; they have discovered that the negro is a fraud; they hate him, and cannot find anything bad enough to say of him. Then a still longer experience teaches them that the members of this childish race are, after all, not so bad, but that they require keeping in their places--treating in fact as you would treat children twelve years old. In intelligence, indeed, they never seem to advance much beyond that age. You must, of course, be just with them; but always keep them at a distance. Above all, never let either men or women servants know that you are pleased with them, or they will invariably presume. It seems a hard thing to say, but it does not do to be too patient and indulgent; excessive leniency only spoils them, just as it does the Hindoo servants. One of our relatives, a kind and gentle chaplain in India, finding that he was worse waited on than any of his neighbours, and asking his head servant one day why the latter and all his subordinates worked so badly, paid so little attention to orders, etc., received the following candid answer from the man: "Why not _sahib_ give plenty stick, and _mem-sahib_ call plenty pig? Then we good servants." A Boer gets much more work out of the natives than an Englishman. The latter is at one time too severe, and at another too lenient; but the Boer's treatment is uniformly just and firm. Perhaps the expression, "like a Dutch uncle," may have originated in the Cape Colony. The Zulus and Kaffirs are by nature fine, generous characters, comparatively free from dishonesty and untruthfulness; though unfortunately they too soon acquire both these vices, as well as numerous others, when they come in contact with civilization, which in their case certainly seems, as Bret Harte has it, "a failure." On the Diamond Fields the best servants are invariably those who are taken fresh from their kraals; even the fact of their knowing a few words of English being found a disadvantage. A Zulu is always somewhat of a gentleman, and possesses a certain code of honour, although to us it seems rather a queer one. For instance, though he will on no account rob his own master, he will not hesitate to steal a sheep from a neighbouring farm, if he should happen to feel inclined for a "big feed"; on which occasion the amount of meat he is able to consume at one sitting is positively alarming. He evidently looks upon the sheep much as Queen Elizabeth is said to have regarded the goose, viz., as a creature of most inconvenient size, "too much for one, but not enough for two." When periodical rations of meat are served out to him he always eats up the whole of his allowance on the first evening, apparently oblivious of the fact that he will have to go without for the rest of the week. And then he subsists, contentedly enough, on mealies, till the joyful time comes for his next good square meal of goat or mutton. He is the happiest and best-tempered of souls, never bearing any animosity, and always ready to forgive; and although he seems incapable of any real attachment to his employers, and is most strangely destitute of all sense of gratitude, one cannot help liking him. Altogether the Zulus are quite the aristocracy of the negro race; and, even at their worst, contrast very favourably with the Hottentots and Bushmen, whose character has hardly a redeeming point, and seems made up of all the lowest and most ignoble qualities. CHAPTER XI. HOW WE FARED. Angora goats--Difficulty of keeping meat--The plague of flies --Rations--Our store--Barter--Fowls--Chasing a dinner--Fowls difficult to rear--Secretary birds as guardians of the poultry-yard--Jacob in the Karroo--He comes down in the world --He dies--Antelopes--A springbok hunt--The Queen's birthday in the Karroo--Colonial dances--Our klipspringer--Superstition about hares--Game birds--_Paauw_--_Knorhaan_--Namaqua partridges --Porcupines--A short-lived pet--Indian corn--Stamped mealies-- Whole-meal bread--Plant used for making bread rise--Substitutes for butter--_Priembesjes_--A useful tree--Wild honey--The honey bird--Enemies of bees--Moth in bees' nests--Good coffee--Sour milk. "How did you live?" is a question we have very often been asked by friends, who, evidently thinking that our fare on that far-away South African farm must necessarily have been of the roughest, and that from a gastronomic point of view we were deeply to be pitied, have been quite surprised to hear that on the whole we lived very well. To be sure there were drawbacks. In the first place, however simply you may live in the Cape Colony, you cannot possibly live cheaply; for import duties are ruinously heavy, and almost everything, with the exception of meat, has to be imported. Wheat, for instance, has to be brought from Australia; the poor, dry South African colony being quite unable to produce anything like a sufficient supply for its needs. Then, too, green vegetables are very far from being an everyday item in the _menu_; and as for fresh fish, it is a still rarer luxury, indeed throughout all the long, hot summer it is absolutely unobtainable on the farms, and one almost forgets what it is like. Eggs and butter, too, have their long periods, first of excessive and increasing scarcity, and then of entire absence from kitchen and table. But in the colonies people soon learn to accommodate themselves to circumstances, and contentedly to do without many of the things which in England seemed such necessary adjuncts to daily life. They even become accustomed to a very sad lack of variety in the matter of meat. From one year's end to another merino mutton and Angora goat are almost unchangingly the order of the day; the bill of fare being varied by beef only on those rare occasions, during the very coldest weather, when one of the farmers--having ascertained beforehand that a sufficient number of neighbours are willing to share the meat--is enterprising enough to slaughter an ox. But the difficulties of keeping meat are such that sheep and goats are generally found to be quite large enough; indeed, in the hot weather, they are very much too large, and one is continually wishing that a diminutive race of mutton-producing quadrupeds--say of the size of Skye terriers--were in existence for the benefit of housekeepers in sultry climates. Fortunately you do not get so tired of perpetual mutton as might be expected, and it does not pall on the taste as beef or fowl would do under the same circumstances. As we had only a few sheep, but possessed a flock of several hundred Angoras, our standing dish was, of course, goat. Let not the traveller pity us who on his journeyings--in Southern Europe for instance--has had the misfortune to partake of the tough, stringy, and strongly-flavoured goat's flesh too often iniquitously substituted for mutton by unprincipled hotel-keepers. As different as black from white is that unholy viand from our delicious Angora meat; equal, if not superior, to the best mutton. The goats are beautiful creatures, with a profusion of long, wavy hair, which is as soft and glossy as the finest silk, and which, in the thoroughbred animals, is of the purest white, and nearly touches the ground. In the evening it is a pretty sight to watch the goats coming down from the mountains, on whose steep and rocky sides they have browsed all day; and where, as they descend, they form a long line of snowy white against the red and green background of the aloes and _spekboom_. It is pleasant, too, to go out to the kraals when the little kids, which all arrive at about the same time, are only a few days old. These goats are prolific creatures, many of them having two, or even three young ones at once. The crowded enclosure is all alive with the merry, noisy little fellows, jumping and scampering about in all directions; and within a few days the number of the flock seems to have almost doubled. Angora goats are now more profitable than ostriches; although the hair, like feathers, has sadly decreased in value, the price having fallen from 4s. 6d. to 9d. per lb. It seems strange that Angora hair should remain at such a low price; for a costly plush is now made from it, besides very beautiful rugs, many of them perfect imitations of leopard, tiger, and seal-skin--the latter hardly less expensive than real seal. The morning on which a goat or sheep is killed--especially during very hot weather--ushers in a time of care and anxiety for the frugal housewife. From the moment when the animal expires under the black herd's hands, until the last joint has been brought to table, that meat is an incubus which sits heavy on her soul all day, and occasionally even haunts her dreams at night. She has to wage persistent war against adverse agencies, always in readiness to work its destruction, and, with all her vigilance, too often successfully robbing her of a good portion of it. First and foremost of all enemies are the flies in the field. As soon as the dead goat or sheep is hung up out of doors, in as cool and shady a place as can be found--though this is by no means saying much--it must instantly be enclosed in a capacious, tightly-tied and carefully-mended bag of mosquito-net, large enough to cover the whole animal. For all around, buzzing excitedly, and eagerly looking out for an opening, however small, through which to squeeze in and do their deadly work, are crowds of big, noisy, determined blue-bottles--though, by the way, if I may be allowed so Irish an expression, in the Karroo these abominations are all green, and--gorgeous as Brazilian beetles--flash like great emeralds in the sunshine. Phillis, of course, cannot be trusted to go alone to that open-air larder, for she will invariably leave the bag unfastened, even if by her rough handling she does not tear a yawning rent in its side. In the house too, she does her utmost to further the evil designs of the flies, and, if she uses the meat-safe at all, makes a point of leaving it wide open till a host of "green-bottles" has collected inside; when she closes it, leaving them in blissful possession of their prize. And oh, the house-flies! Truly the plague of flies is in every Karroo home; and, next to the servants, it is the greatest bane of farm life. And what flies they are! Their brethren in other parts of the world, though obnoxious enough, can almost by comparison be called well-behaved. For, except when eatables are about, they do seem to have some idea of keeping to themselves and minding their own business; which latter usually consists in dancing--in the air, and always in the very centre of the room--a kind of quadrille of many intricate figures, the accurate performance of which, holding them completely engrossed, keeps them, for a time at least, out of mischief. But the South African fly has no such resources of his own to keep him amused; consequently he devotes all his energy and the whole of his time to one object--that of making life a burden to the unfortunate human beings on whom he has chosen to quarter himself. Not content with spoiling your appetite at meals by the exhibition of his repulsive little black body in every dish that comes to table, every cup of tea or glass of wine that is poured out--where, whether cooked to death, or yet alive and struggling, it is an equally unwelcome and disgusting sight--he makes it his business to see that throughout the whole day you do not, if he can help it, get one instant's peace. No matter how large the room may be, no place in it will suit him for a perch but just your nose, or the hand which happens to be busily engaged in some operation requiring extreme steadiness, to which a jerk would be fatal; and however many times he is rebuffed, he comes back, with the most unerring and fiendish precision, to exactly the self-same spot, till he has set up a maddening irritation, not only of the skin, but still more of the temper. For he possesses, in the very strongest degree, the quality which led those most observant of naturalists, the ancient Egyptians, to institute the military order of the Fly. A good general, they argued, is like a fly; for, however often he may be repulsed, he always returns persistently to the attack. So they invested the successful leader of their armies with a gold chain, from which, at intervals, hung several large flies of pure, beaten gold, about four inches broad across the closed wings. And in the Cairo Museum a very beautiful chain of this kind is to be seen. That South African fly was, indeed, the torment of our lives, until one day we made a grand discovery. We found out that he could not stand Keating's insect-powder. If only the smallest grain of it touched any part of his person he was doomed; and in about five minutes would be sprawling helplessly on his back, preparing to quit a world in which he had been so great a nuisance. "Peppering the flies" became a regular institution, the first business of each morning; and in all the rooms, most especially in the kitchen--where the whole atmosphere seemed one vast buzz--the foe would be driven, by the vigorous flapping of a cloth, into the well-sprinkled windows where his fate awaited him. Soon every fly would be dead; and as we gloated over the dustpans full of slain we invoked benedictions on the name of Keating. By taking care to keep every door and window on the sunny side of the house either closed or covered with fine net, we managed, thanks to this delightful powder, to exist in peace, instead of being given over to the flies like our neighbours; many of whom would calmly submit to any nuisance rather than take a little trouble to get rid of it, and would sit quite contentedly in the midst of a buzzing cloud, with flies popping into their tea one after another, or struggling by dozens in the butter-dish. We found that one of the small bellows made for blowing tobacco-smoke into bee-hives became, when filled with Keating, a very formidable engine of destruction; a couple of puffs, sending the fine powder in all directions, would settle every fly in the room. In fact no one, even in the most tropical of climates, need be troubled with flies, if only this simple remedy is used. If I had but known of its efficacy a few years before, when up the Nile on a _dahabieh_ swarming with flies! And if, in that same Egypt, poor Menephtah had only known of it three thousand years ago! Mr. Keating's fortune would have been a colossal one if he had lived then. But to return to our Angora. As soon as the meat has been cut up it is usually sprinkled very plentifully with salt, and wrapped up for a few hours in the skin; after which the greater portion of it is put into pickle. For in the hot weather only a very small quantity can be eaten unsalted, as it becomes tainted almost at once. Even in strong brine, and with the most careful rubbing and turning, the meat is sometimes quite uneatable on the second day, especially if the weather happens to be thundery. And thunder-storms, when they do come, almost invariably select the time when an animal has just been killed. N.B.--The "pope's eye" must always be carefully taken out as soon as the meat is cut up, or the joint will immediately become tainted. Where the family is a small one it is a good plan, during the hot weather, to include meat among the men's rations. The herds on the farms receive weekly, as part of their pay, a certain quantity of meal, coffee, sugar, salt, tobacco, etc.; and the store where all these supplies are kept and weighed out on large and business-like scales, looks--with its piles of sacks and packing-cases, its numerous shelves, rows of bottles, tins of preserved meats and other provisions--not at all unlike the general shop of an English village, with a little in the chemist's and tobacconist's line as well. It is the work of the mistress of the house to give out the rations; and her movements, while manipulating the scales, are watched in a very criticizing and suspicious manner by the black recipients, who always seem terribly afraid that she will give them short weight. In reality she is anxiously and almost nervously careful that every pound she gives them shall be a good one; and if she errs at all it is on their side, never on her own. In the matter of tobacco her heart is especially soft, and the spans she measures off those great coils of dark-brown rope--which surely must be akin to "pigtail tobacco"--are far longer than can be stretched by her hand, or indeed by any hand but that of a giant. But in this, as in every other item of the rations, she is most unjustly and ungratefully suspected of a systematic course of cheating. Sometimes "April" or "August," struck with a sudden bright idea, comes up to the table, and, with many monkey-like gestures, makes a close investigation of the scales and weights; peeping beneath them and looking at them from all sides, to see by what artful device they have been made the means of tricking him. He fails to discover anything; but retires shaking his woolly head dubiously, and as far off as ever from believing in the honesty of his employers. Sometimes a little barter is carried on, in quite a primitive, old-fashioned way, with Dutchmen travelling by in large waggons drawn by sixteen or eighteen oxen, and often bringing with them very good onions, oranges, _naatjes_ or mandarines, nuts, dried peaches and figs--both of which latter are excellent for stewing,--and many other things, which they are glad to exchange on the farms for coffee, sugar, etc. This barter is quite the usual way of doing business in the Karroo; and so many transactions are carried on without the aid of money, that the latter is hardly required, and indeed is seldom seen on the farms. If a man or woman servant comes to do an odd day's work, or a passing workman breaks his journey by staying a couple of days and making himself generally useful, payment is almost always made in meal, coffee, or other articles of food, instead of in money. Copper coins, being universally despised, are not in use; consequently the most trifling service performed, however badly, by one of the coloured race, must be rewarded with no smaller sum than threepence, or--to give it its familiar colonial name--a "tickey." Fowls, of course, with their obligingly convenient size, are an invaluable boon in the hot weather; and it is a delightful relief when, with an empty larder and consequent light heart, free for a while from the cares and anxieties of the meat, you prolong the respite, and--putting off till to-morrow the slaying of the next four-legged incubus--sacrifice in its stead the noisiest crower, or the most inveterate of the kitchen's feathered intruders. To be sure, hurried, as he is, straight from his last agonies, into the pot or the oven, you cannot expect him to be very tender; but an attempt at hanging him is too likely to result in the sudden discovery that he has hung a little too long, and you have learnt by experience that it is best to eat him at once. And a dessert-spoonful of vinegar, administered half an hour before his execution, will always considerably mitigate his toughness. Karroo fowls, living a free and active life, are exceedingly agile on their legs, and when their time comes for paying the debt of nature they are by no means easy to catch. But Toto took this duty upon himself, and very jealously asserted his right to perform it. All we had to do was to point out to him the selected victim. Then, with the true collie instinct, he would follow it up, never losing it or making any mistake; and, though it might take refuge in the midst of some twenty or thirty other fowls, Toto would pick it out from among the crowd without an instant's hesitation. And when caught, it was never pounced on roughly, but just quietly held down by the big, gentle paws, from which it would be taken, perfectly unhurt. How I missed the aid of Toto one day when--he being far away in Kent, and we living near Tangier--I was at my wits' end for a dinner, and trying my hardest to catch a fowl! It was Ramadan--that terrible time when everything goes wrong and everybody is cross--and no wonder; the cruel fast, more strictly kept in orthodox Morocco than it is in most Oriental lands, forbidding the votaries of Islam, from sunrise to sunset, not only to touch food, but even to moisten their parched lips with water--and this in hot weather too! No wonder the sunset gun, instead of being to them the welcome signal for a feast, often finds them so faint and exhausted that they are in no hurry to begin eating. And no wonder, too, that Moorish servants--never very far behind those of South Africa in stupidity--are at this time a greater trial of patience than ever. One does not like to be hard on them, and the minimum of work is given to them; but everything is done so badly that their services might almost as well be dispensed with until the fast is over. Altogether, during this time of woe, the tempers of employers and employed are about equally tried. Mohammed, our genius, who at the best of times was sure to forget one or more important items of the day's marketing, had on this occasion omitted just everything that was necessary to make a dinner. The bread was there, to be sure, so too were figs and dates; but, all having been put loose into the donkey's panniers and well jolted along the roughest of roads, the eatables had become so hopelessly mixed up with a large dab of native soft soap, bought for the week's washing, that they were only disentangled with difficulty, and the most careful cleansing failed to make them fit for human food. An earthenware jar of honey had been bought; but, being unprovided with a stopper, and left to roll about in the pannier as it pleased, it had poured its contents as a libation along the road, and, when complacently handed to me by Mohammed, was perfectly empty. All the non-edible articles of the day's orders had been carefully remembered, and stowed well away from the soap; but of fish, flesh, or fowl there was no sign. The poor fasting man could not be sent all the way back to Tangier to make good the deficiencies; yet a dinner had to be found somehow for T---- and for a gentleman guest, and with the aid of the servants I set to work to catch one of our own fowls. But I little knew what I was attempting. Our garden, on the steep slopes of Mount Washington, with its many terraces and walks, flights of rough stone steps, and tangle of luxuriant vegetation, offered so many points of vantage to the active birds, that at the end of half an hour we were all exhausted with running, breathless and giddy with the heat; while the fowls, on the contrary, fresher and livelier than ever, seemed mocking all our efforts to catch them; and in despair I took from its hiding-place a little weapon of defence, provided in view of possible midnight visits from burglarious Moors. Grasping the revolver in one hand, and with the other treacherously holding out a sieve of barley, I stalked one fowl after another in most unsportsmanlike fashion; inviting the guileless creatures to feed, and then firing at them, sometimes so close that it seemed as if the intended victim must be blown to pieces. But no, there he was, when the smoke cleared away, going off with a triumphant chuckle; wilder and more wary with each unsuccessful shot. What was to be done? Time was passing; T---- would be coming home hungry by dinner-time, ready for something better than a vegetarian repast; and _some_ creature or other--I began to feel that I did not very much care what--had not only to be caught and killed, but also cooked. Reckless and desperate, I began firing indiscriminately, even on my laying hens; but, gladly though I would have killed the best of them, not one could I hit. At last all the hunted birds were in a state of the wildest excitement; none were in sight, and an agonized chorus of cackling resounded from all parts of the garden, as if the largest and most venomous of snakes had been seen. Flinging down the revolver in disgust, I meditated the crowning baseness of snatching the poor old sitting hen from the eggs on which she had quietly sat throughout the commotion, when--joyful sight--Mohammed, who had mysteriously vanished, suddenly reappeared, triumphantly holding up by the neck a plucked fowl. It was but a poor, scraggy, spidery-looking thing, all legs and wings, and with an appearance of having kept Ramadan no less strictly than the Moorish owners from whose hut the poor fellow--anxious to retrieve his fault--had brought it. But it was something off which to dine; and never was the fattest Christmas turkey more welcome than was its timely appearance. The rearing of fowls in South Africa is attended with endless difficulties and discouragements. Frequent epidemics of the fatal disease known as "fowl-sickness" decimate the poultry-yard, which, at the best of times, and with all care, can never be kept sufficiently stocked to supply the needs of the hot weather. Every possible foe of the gallinaceous tribe abounds in the Karroo; snakes invade the hen-house, and the blackmail which they levy on the eggs always amounts to what the Americans call "a large order;" birds of prey of many different sorts are constantly sailing over head, with sharp eyes on the look-out for opportunities of plunder; and jackals, wild cats, lynxes--or, as the Dutch call them, _rooikats_--and numerous other four-legged free-booters pounce at night on those hens foolish enough to make their nests far from the comparative safety of the house; the occasional discovery, in some distant bush, of a collection of empty eggshells and a heap of drifted feathers proclaiming what has been the fate of some long-missing hen or turkey. Altogether, the poultry-keeper's troubles are considerably multiplied by the surpassing imbecility of the Karroo hens, which have no idea of taking care of themselves, and, like the ostriches, stoutly oppose all efforts made for their own welfare and that of their offspring. Their insanely erratic conduct during sitting causes by far the larger proportion of nests to come to nothing; and when they have succeeded in hatching a few chickens, they look as if they did not quite know what to do with them. Secretary birds are sometimes taught to be very useful guardians of the poultry-yard, especially against aerial enemies,--the long-legged, solemn-looking creature stalking about all day among his feeble-minded charges, with much consciousness of his own importance. He is accused of now and then taking toll in the shape of an occasional egg or young chicken--the latter being of course bolted, anaconda-fashion; but his depredations are not extensive, and one tolerates them as one does those of the courier who, though himself not entirely above suspicion, takes good care that his master is robbed by no one else. Our secretary, Jacob, whose education had been neglected in youth, refused to make himself useful as a protector of the poultry-yard. His character, never the most amiable, deteriorated rapidly after we brought him up-country, carefully packed for the long railway journey; the numerous bandages in which he was swathed to secure his long, slender legs from breakage giving him--but for his protruding, vulture-like head--the appearance of a gigantic ibis-mummy. Our first plan of making him trudge on foot along the road with the Walmer caravan of ostriches was given up, as we felt sure that, with his already-mentioned "cussedness," he would give more trouble to the herds than all the rest of the troop together, and either get a knock on the head to settle him, or else escape, never to be heard of again. At any rate, he would be quite sure not to arrive at his destination. Poor Jacob did not flourish in the Karroo, where kittens were scarce, and where no butcher's cart brought daily and ample supplies for his colossal appetite; and an existence in which fresh meat was so rare a luxury must have been for him a kind of perpetual Lent. With much resentment and plainly-expressed disgust at his reverse of fortune, he found himself obliged, late in life, to pick up a living for himself, and would wander dejectedly about the country for miles round, in search of the fat, succulent locusts, the frogs, small snakes, lizards, and mice on which he fed. The latter he caught in a most ingenious manner. Walking up to a bush wherein he knew a mouse was concealed, he would strike a violent blow with his wing on one side; then, as the startled animal ran out in the opposite direction, Jacob would make a lightning-like pounce, and bring down his murderous foot with unerring aim. On the whole he did not fare badly; but of course, after his luxurious bringing-up among the fleshpots of Walmer, it was but natural that he should object to working for a living. Even in prosperous days he loved to look ill-used, and no comic actor could have better represented the character of an ill-tempered old man nursing a grievance than did the well-fed Jacob croaking under the windows in mendacious pretence of starvation; but now his part was so absurdly overacted that it became a burlesque. Nature at the same time assisted him in his make-up for the part, and, moulting and tail-less, with bald head and general out-at-elbows appearance, he looked indeed the seediest and most disreputable of old beggars. At the best of times he looked like a wicked old man, but now--no longer a sleek, well-clothed old sinner--he seemed to have degenerated into a ruined gambler, going rapidly to the dogs. Whenever there was a big rain he would come and stand in front of the windows, wet through and shivering ostentatiously, with the water running in a little stream from the tip of his hooked bill, giving him the appearance of one of the ugly gargoyles on an ancient cathedral. Obstinately refusing to come under cover, or even to keep himself comparatively dry by squatting under the kraal hedge, he would stand for hours out in the rain, looking ill-used and woe-begone; a picture of squalid, unlovely poverty. We really pitied the old bird, and regretted our inability to give him daily the fresh meat which, in spite of frequent disappointments, he never failed to claim, noisily and importunately, as his right. He would come walking excitedly into the kitchen or bedroom, clamouring, with all the persistence of Shylock, for his pound of flesh; or would run after Wells as the latter went to chop wood, knocking against his legs, getting in his way to attract attention, and keeping up his horrible clock-work noise, till we wondered that that most patient and even-tempered of men, with the hatchet so handy, was not provoked into chopping off his head. At last a long drought set in, and poor Jacob came still further down in the world; for, as the ground hardened, and vegetation dried up, the "mice and rats and such small deer" of the _veldt_ became more scarce, and he had to travel longer distances in search of his prey. We did all we could for him, and kept quite a battery of mousetraps constantly set for his benefit; but, compared with his enormous demands, all we could give him was but as a drop in the ocean, and we felt that he despised us for our meanness. He grew daily more morose, and would vent his ill-humour by picking quarrels with the dogs and other creatures about the place, especially with a pretty little _duyker_ antelope. This gentle and timid little favourite--a short-lived pet, which, wandering one day too far from home, was shot by a Boer in mistake for a wild animal--was several times attacked so savagely by the vengeful Jacob, that, if Wells had not beaten off the assailant, the little buck would have been killed. Fortunately Jacob, when excited, always made such a horrible noise, that we could hear when a battle was going on, and rush to the rescue. As the drought continued Jacob took to wandering further and further afield, coming to the house only on rare occasions, until at last he became almost like a wild bird; and we have little doubt that these roving propensities, at a time when water was only to be found at the few-and-far-between homesteads, led at last to the poor old fellow's death from thirst--a sad end for one of the most comical, if not the best-tempered of our pets. Game, of course, forms a very welcome break in the monotony of constant goat and mutton. The antelopes, though by no means plentiful, are all excellent eating, and afford good sport. The graceful springbok, one of the most common, is capable of becoming very tame; and, with its slender limbs and bright-coloured, variegated coat, it is, but for its rather goat-like face, one of the prettiest of pet animals. On a large neighbouring farm the springbok were preserved, and now and then the somewhat even tenour of Karroo existence would be enlivened by a hunt, sometimes of several days' duration. The Queen's birthday is a favourite occasion for these festive gatherings; and from far and wide, some from distances of two or three days' journey, travelling on horseback or in roomy American spiders and carts capable of accommodating large family parties, visitors arrive in rapid succession, till the house--which at these times seems endowed with even more than the usual elasticity of the hospitable colonial homes--appears like some large hotel overflowing with guests. In the extensive plains surrounding the house the chase goes on merrily throughout the whole day; many of the hunted bucks being observable from the verandah as they speed lightly along, with a bounding motion suggestive of india-rubber balls, and with the sunlight flashing upon the ridge of long white bristles along the back, invisible when the animal is in repose, but erected when it is startled. In the evening the trophies of the battue, sometimes amounting to the number of thirty, are laid side by side in close ranks upon the ground in front of the house, forming a noble display. The day's adventures are recounted, with much chaffing of the by no means few who have been bucked off or who have otherwise come to grief; T---- on one occasion bearing off the palm as the butt of the most pitiless jokes, his horse, declining the superadded weight of a fine buck, having deposited him on his head, in which acrobatic posture he is reported to have remained standing long enough to give rise to much speculation among the onlookers as to whether he intended finally to land on face or back. By-and-by the silence of the _veldt_ is further broken by the unaccustomed sound of fireworks, and of loud cheers for the Queen from the stout lungs of her lieges beneath the Southern Cross; then come some capital theatricals and a dance, the latter prolonged a good way into the small hours of the morning. There are no better dancers anywhere than the Cape colonists; they are of course passionately fond of the art in which they so much excel; and thus, when a large and merry party have collected--not without considerable difficulties, and at the cost of the longest and roughest of journeys--they naturally like to keep it up as long as possible, and it is by no means an uncommon thing on these occasions for people not to go to bed at all, but for the morning sun, peeping in under the vines of the verandah, to find the dance still in full swing. The Cape negroes, too, are all born dancers; and it needs but a few notes scraped on a fiddle or wheezed on an asthmatic accordion to set a whole company of even the roughest and most uncouth Hottentots waltzing in perfect time, and in a quiet and almost graceful manner, strangely out of keeping with their ungainly forms. Rarest among the antelopes is the klipspringer,[6] which is called the chamois of South Africa, and which, both in appearance and habits, closely resembles the Alpine animal. Its flesh, which is short and dark, with a flavour very like that of duck, is by far the best of all the venison; and its pretty coat is a marvel of softness and lightness, each hair being a wide tube as thick as a hedgehog's bristle, but soft as a feather. In spite of its light weight, this curious coat is wonderfully thick and durable, and saddle-cloths made from it are simply perfection. [6] _Oreotragus saltatrix._ A little klipspringer was brought to us, so young that for the first few weeks it was fed with milk from a baby's bottle. It soon grew tame, and it was very pretty to see the miniature chamois trotting confidingly about the house, always on the extreme tips of those natural alpenstocks, its little pointed feet. These tiny ferules, all four of which would have stood together on a penny-piece, were evidently capable of giving a firm foothold even in the most impossible places. This little creature was one of our unlucky pets--by far the most numerous class in the collection,--and our hope of taking him to England, where he would have enjoyed the proud distinction of being the first of his kind ever imported, was doomed to disappointment. Whether it is really the fact, as one is always told in South Africa, that this buck cannot live in captivity, or whether an inveterate habit of eating the contents of the waste-paper basket, with an impartial relish for printed and written matter, shortened the life of our specimen, I do not know; but rapid consumption set in, and the pathetic, almost human attacks of coughing were so distressing to witness that it was a relief when the poor little patient succumbed. Then, also among the smaller antelopes, there are the duyker and stenbok. Both these pretty little bucks make forms like hares, and the stenbok, a wee thing very little larger than a hare, is not unlike that animal in flavour. As for "poor Wat" himself, the uncanny reputation which in all lands he seems so unjustly to have acquired is here intensified; and among Boers, Kaffirs, and Hottentots he is the object of so superstitious a dread that none will venture to eat him. His inoffensive little body is firmly believed to be tenanted by the spirits of dead-and-gone relatives and friends; and even Phillis, by no means a dainty feeder--to whom a good epidemic of fowl-sickness is a welcome harvest, and the sudden and fatal apoplectic fit of the fattest turkey the occasion of a right royal feast and long-remembered red-letter day,--is indignant and insulted if you offer her what is left of a particularly delicious jugged hare. To have lent a hand in cooking the unholy beast was sacrilege enough, but there her not over-sensitive conscience draws the line. Most uncanny of all the hares is the _springhaas_. This creature, with disproportionately long hind-legs and kangaroo-like mode of progression, is never seen in the daytime, and can only be shot on moonlight nights. The best game birds of the Karroo are those of the bustard tribe. Of the great bustard, or _paauw_, there are two kinds; one, a gigantic bird, sometimes weighing as much as seventy pounds. In hunting the _paauw_--as in stalking the wily mosquito--your first and special care must be not to let the object of your chase see you looking at him. With well-acted unconsciousness, and eyes carefully turned in any direction but towards the spot where the _paauw_ squats in the grass, you ride round and round him in an ever-lessening circle, until you get within range. Then you jump off, make a run at him, and fire. A smaller bustard, with beautifully-variegated plumage, is about the size of a large fowl. His Dutch name of _knorhaan_--which may be translated "scolding cock," or "growling fowl"--is very justly bestowed on him to express his exceeding noisiness, and I do not think that throughout the whole length and breadth of the bird kingdom there exists such another chatterer. What a start he gives you sometimes when, on a brisk ride or drive through the _veldt_, you approach his hiding-place, and suddenly, before you have had time to see his slender dark neck and head peering out above the low bush, he springs up with a deafening clamour, as of a dozen birds instead of one; and, unless silenced by a shot, he continues his harsh, discordant noise, apparently without once stopping for breath, until his swift wings have borne him far away out of hearing. A whole chorus of blackbirds, suddenly disturbed from revels among ripe fruit, would be nothing in comparison with him. The quaint, old-fashioned-looking little _dikkop_, smallest of the bustard tribe, is, in the opinion of epicures, the best of all. In the bustards the position of the white and dark meat is reversed, the flesh being dark on the breast and white on the legs. They possess certain feathers which are invaluable to the makers of flies for fishing. Of partridges there are two kinds, the red-wing and grey-wing, the latter being found only on the mountains. The beautiful little "Namaqua partridges," which come in flights, are in reality a kind of grouse. It is a pretty sight when, at sundown, these neatest and most delicately-plumaged of little birds collect in large numbers to drink at the dams. Of some of our queer dishes, such as _consomme d'autruche_ and the mock-turtle afforded by the gigantic tortoises of the _veldt_, I have already spoken. Now and then, too, when a porcupine was killed, we would follow the example of the Algerian Arabs, and dine sumptuously off its flesh, which was not unlike English pork with extra-good crackling. A baby porcupine, which was taken alive and unhurt, was for some weeks an amusing addition to the menagerie; and many were our regrets when--just as he was getting tame and friendly--he fell a victim to an unexpected cold night, against which, in his little box out of doors, we had ignorantly left him insufficiently protected. At first his temper, which was decidedly of the kind usually described as "short," gave us much amusement; and, when irritated by our approach, he would stamp his little feet, wheel round impetuously, and come charging at us backwards, with all his quills erect, and an absurd expression of energetic pugnacity depicted, not only on his small, snub-nosed countenance, but throughout the whole of his bristling body. Unfortunately, "the pig with the sticks on his back," as the Kaffirs call the porcupine, is the worst of gardeners; and provoking indeed is the devastation wrought by his omnivorous appetite among potatoes, carrots, parsley, pumpkins, water-melons, and indeed all other plants which, in our most thankless of kitchen gardens, are grown and irrigated with such infinite toil and difficulty. The crop which best repays cultivation in that arid soil is Indian corn. This most wholesome and nourishing food is much more suitable for hot climates than oatmeal, as it possesses none of the heating properties of the latter; and, although in one form or another it is a standing dish at nearly every meal in a Karroo house, one never tires of it. The nicest way of preparing it is in the form called "stamped mealies." The ripe yellow grains of the Indian corn are moistened and placed in a large and massive wooden mortar, generally consisting of the stump of a tree hollowed out. (The centre of an old waggon-wheel did duty very effectually as our mealie-stamper.) Then, with a heavy wooden pestle, they are bruised just sufficiently to remove the yellow husks, though not enough to break up the corn itself, as in the case of the American hominy. After a long and gentle boiling the mealies are as tender as young peas, and it is difficult for a stranger to believe that they have not been cooked in milk. It would be a good thing if those who make it their study to provide cheap and nourishing food for the starving poor of London and other over-populated towns would try stamped mealies. The small cost of the Indian corn and the simple and easy manner of its preparation would enable it to be supplied in large quantities; and the really excellent dish, if it once became known in England, could not fail to be popular. In some parts of South Africa the natives live almost entirely on Indian corn, especially the Zulus, than whom no finer race of men could be found. If, among all the different competitions now set on foot, there were one for bread-makers of all countries, surely the Dutchwomen of the Karroo would bear away the prize for their delicious whole-meal bread, leavened with sour dough and baked in large earthenware pots. It is beautifully sweet and light; and as Phillis's bread--besides containing almost as plentiful a sprinkling of flies as there are currants in a penny bun--is in every way more often a failure than a success, it is as well for the lady settler promptly on arrival to take a lesson from some neighbouring vrouw, and herself to undertake the bread-making. While on the subject of whole-meal bread, why is it that in England the nutritious, flinty part of the grain is almost invariably taken out and made into macaroni or used for other purposes, while the bread is made of flour from which all the goodness has been refined away? If whole-meal bread is ordered of the English baker, he throws a handful of bran into this same flour; and the brown loaf looks tempting enough, but both it and the white one are alike tasteless and insipid, and destitute of nutritious qualities. What is really wanted for good bread is just simply the entire contents of the grain, as nature, who after all knows best, has given it to us. Better than sour dough, yeast, and all the baking-powders in the world is a preparation made by the Kaffir women from a curious and rather rare little plant which grows in the Karroo. This plant is almost all root, the small portion which peeps above the ground consisting only of a few tight clusters of small, shiny knobs, of a dull leaden colour. There is nothing like it for making bread rise; but it is most difficult to get any of it, as the Kaffir women, besides being too lazy to relish the work of preparing it, which is a long and tedious business, make a mystery and a secret of it: no servant will own to understanding it, and somehow one never gets to see the whole process, and is only shown certain stages of it, one of which consists in the hanging up of the substance for a while in a bag exposed to the air, during which time it increases enormously in bulk, in a manner which seems almost miraculous. Butter being so rare a luxury in the Karroo, a number of different substances have to be pressed into the service during long droughts to supply its place, such as lard, dripping, etc., and, for the table, the fat from the huge tails of sheep somewhat resembling those of Syria, though not, like the latter, kindly provided with little carts on which to drag the cumbersome weight. English jams, of course, like all other imported provisions, are ruinously expensive; and it is a pity that the Natal preserves, plentiful as are both fruit and sugar in that most fertile of lands, are hardly less extravagant in price. But very good home-made jams can be obtained from the Cape gooseberry--a kind of small tomato, enclosed in a loose, crackling bag much too large for it; also from _priembesjes_ (pronounced "primbessies"), a delicious wild fruit which grows on small trees along the lower slopes of the mountains. These trees only bear biennially; and, as if exhausted by the lavish profusion of fruit yielded each alternate season, produce nothing in the intermediate year. The pretty fruit, resembling a small, semi-transparent cherry, is at first completely enclosed in such a tight-fitting case that it looks like a soft, velvety green ball. As the fruit ripens this green covering divides in half, and gradually opens wider and wider, disclosing the vivid scarlet within. Amid the prevailing stiffness and sombreness of Karroo vegetation the pretty, rounded outline of these trees, and their bright, glossy, dark foliage--forming an effective background for the jewel-like fruit as it peeps from the delicate pale-green cases in all different stages of expansion--afford a pleasing contrast. In search of _priembesjes_ we made many delightful expeditions on horseback to the foot of the mountains; sitting in our saddles close to the trees and picking from our animals' backs, T---- occasionally standing up like a circus-rider to reach the higher boughs. Our horses became quite accustomed to the work, and, moving into the exact spot desired, would stand motionless as long as we chose while we filled our baskets. The fruit is slightly acid and very refreshing; and the preserve, not unlike cherry jam, well repays the trouble of making, which is considerable, the enormous stones being quite out of proportion to the size of the fruit, and very difficult to separate from the pulp. Even these stones, however, possess their good qualities, and contain a delicate little kernel, as nice a nut as you could wish to eat, from which an excellent oil can be pressed. Then, too,--no small recommendation in the eyes of ladies,--they make the most delightful beads, being just soft enough to pierce with a good strong needle, though not so soft as to shrivel up afterwards. They are of all different shades of rich brown, and, when threaded into necklaces, remind one of the old Arab rosaries in Cairo, made from the "Mecca seeds," and rubbed to a brilliant polish by devout Mohammedan thumbs. Jam, beads, oil, and nuts! Surely a tree with such numerous and varied ways of making itself useful to humanity seems quite worthy to have figured in the pages of "The Swiss Family Robinson." The wild honey of the Karroo is generally very good, though some is occasionally found to which unwholesome flowers have imparted their evil qualities. If, for instance, "where the bee sucks" there is much euphorbia-blossom, the honey is pungent and burns the tongue. Sometimes it is even poisonous. A most useful volunteer assistant in the taking of bees' nests is the honey-bird, an insignificant-looking little brown fellow who seems possessed of an almost uncanny amount of intelligence. Well does he know that old tree or that hole in the ground where there is a goodly store of the sweet food into which he is longing to plunge his bill; but, unfortunately, he cannot get it out for himself, and must needs call in the aid of a human ally to take the nest. So he wanders hither and thither, and, hailing the first person he meets, flies close up to him, chirping and calling loudly to attract attention, and behaving altogether in such a confidingly familiar and impudent manner that strangers unaccustomed to his ways would take him for a tame bird escaped from his cage. If you refuse to follow him he gets very angry, and shows his impatience by flying backwards and forwards, chirping excitedly; but if his guidance is accepted--although he may give you a very long, rough walk--he will lead you without fail to the nest. As soon as the spot is reached he changes his note; and, while his featherless partner secures the prize, he sits close by, watching the proceedings with intense interest, and waiting for his share of the plunder. The natives are always superstitiously careful to leave him a liberal portion; for they credit him with a very vindictive disposition, and say that if any one is base enough to refuse him his well-earned reward, he will revenge himself on the next person he meets, however innocent the latter may be, and, under pretence of taking him to a bees' nest, will lure him to the lair of a leopard, the hole of a venomous snake, or some other equally undesirable spot. One day T----, on a long homeward ride, was waylaid by one of these birds, which, taking him under his protection in the usual business-like and patronizing manner, led him by a most roundabout route, and at last, with many fussy demonstrations, conducted him triumphantly to our own beehive, close to the house. Then he perched on a little bush from whence he could contemplate the bees; and T---- called me out to look at him as he sat chirping, immensely contented with himself, and scolding us loudly for our neglect of duty. Among the numerous enemies of bees the pretty bird called the bee-eater is one of the most destructive; and wherever there is a hive or a nest several of these birds are almost sure to be seen, darting about swiftly and catching the poor little insects on the wing. A large kind of hornet is also continually on the watch for bees, which he slays apparently out of pure spite; and last, though by no means least, a horrid little red scorpion-like creature invades the hive itself, killing many of the inmates. A large moth resembling the death's-head often takes up its abode in bees' nests, betraying its presence by a peculiar plaintive sound, and apparently living in a perfectly friendly and peaceful manner with its hosts. The natives, however, and indeed also many of the colonists, stand in great awe of it, as they imagine it to be possessed of a most deadly sting. Throughout the whole country one hears accounts of men, oxen, etc., being killed by this terrible moth; and T----, wishing to investigate the matter and find out whether there were any truth in the tale, sent several specimens to England, where, on examination by an authority on entomology, they all proved to be destitute of stings. You never get a bad cup of coffee in South Africa. That unholy ingredient, chicory, with which people in England persist in making their coffee undrinkable, is never used, and all, even on the roughest of farms, seem to understand the secret of preparing good coffee, which, after all, needs but the observance of a very simple rule; _i.e._, never to roast or grind more at a time than is required for immediate use. The Dutch _vrouw's_ coffee would be perfection if she would only refrain from making it the medium by which to express the depth of her kindly feelings towards her guests, and turning it to a sickly syrup by adding sugar in the proportion of Falstaff's "intolerable deal of sack." And Phillis, however hopelessly ignorant she may be on all other points of cookery, prepares the huge bowl of _café au lait_, which, in accordance with colonial custom, she brings to your bedside in the early morning, in a manner which partially atones for her multitude of sins. Yet people at home do not seem to realize that coffee, if kept even for a little time after it is roasted, and--worse still--after it is ground, completely loses its flavour. As a rule they buy it ready ground, in large quantities, and keep it for weeks in the house; and under such circumstances it is no wonder that even in the best hotels the coffee is not fit to drink, and that too often, but for the only flavour left in it--that of the acrid chicory with which it has been bountifully doctored--it might be taken for weak tea. And yet there is no better "pick-me-up" after a long walk or tiring day's work, nothing more warming and comforting on a cold day, than a cup of really good coffee. Such, for instance, as you get in any of the numerous Arab _cafés_ in Algiers; a tiny cup of which, hardly larger than an egg-cup, does you more good than a glass of port wine. Indeed, wherever coffee is really well made--as in France and Spain--it does extensively take the place of intoxicating drinks; and it would be a good thing if in England, and especially among our poorer classes, this splendidly nutritious substance--food no less than drink--were as much used as it is abroad. The coffee-house where well-made, unadulterated coffee might be obtained would be a formidable rival to the gin-palace. As it is, however, the art of making coffee--if ever possessed at all in England--has been so completely lost that the increasing disuse of the beverage is no matter of surprise. Angora milk is excellent with coffee, but, though abundant at times, it is hardly to be obtained at all during droughts; and for months you have to be contented with Swiss milk. The Boers and Kaffirs think fresh, sweet milk very unwholesome; a Dutchwoman never gives her child anything but sour milk to drink, and the Kaffirs always keep their milk in large gourds which have the property of rapidly turning it sour. CHAPTER XII. KARROO BEASTS, BIRDS AND REPTILES. Leopard drowned in a well--Baboons--Egyptian sacred animals on Cape farms--"Adonis"--A humiliating retreat--A baby baboon--Clever tricks performed by baboons--Adonis as a _Voorlooper_--A four-handed pointsman--Sarah--A baboon at the Diamond Fields--Adonis's shower-bath--His love of stimulants--His revengeful disposition-- Pelops the dog-headed--Horus--_Aasvogels_--Goat-sucker--The butcher-bird's larder--Nest of the golden oriole--The kapok bird-- Snakes in houses--A puff-adder under a pillow--Puff-adder most dangerous of Cape snakes--Cobras--_Schaapsticker_--Ugly house-lizards --Dassie-adder--The dassie the coney of Scripture--Stung by a scorpion--Fight between tarantula and centipede--Destructive ants --The _Aardvaark_, or ant-bear--Ignominious flight of a sentry-- Ant-lion--Walking-leaves--The Hottentot god--A mantis at a picnic. Although the elephant and lion are now no longer found in the Karroo, there still remain a good number of leopards, or, as the colonists, in calm defiance of natural history, persist in calling them, "tigers." These animals, by the way, seem fated at both ends of the Dark Continent to be the victims of a misnomer, and in Algeria rejoice in the name of _panthère_. Though the South African leopards are now following the example of the larger and more formidable game, and gradually retreating before the advance of man, it is not many years since three or four of them might be seen drinking together at night from the dam close to the Dutch house now transformed into the homestead of Swaylands. Even now, in the hills overlooking the Karroo, there are more of them about than the farmer likes; and sheep, calves, colts and young ostriches are occasionally killed by them. One day, riding up to a well in an out-of-the-way part of the farm, we found that a magnificent full-grown leopard had fallen in and drowned himself. There he was, floating on the surface of the water only five feet below where we stood; his large body extended across the whole diameter of the well, and on the steep but rough and unbricked sides of the latter we could see the traces of his desperate though unavailing struggles to climb out. Unfortunately, the weather being very hot, his beautiful skin was already spoilt; and we rode home regretting the lovely rug "off our own farm," which we might have displayed to admiring friends at home if we had but found him one day earlier. A wounded leopard is a very dangerous customer. One of our neighbours, an old hunter, bears many scars in remembrance of severe injuries received long ago in following up one of these animals which he had shot. The encounter was a terrible one, nearly costing the colonist his life. Next to the leopard in ferocity comes the baboon. He is a big, deep-voiced, sturdy fellow; his short, gruff bark is as dog-like as his head, and there is no doubt that he is identical with the dog-headed ape of ancient Egypt. Indeed, all the sacred animals and birds of Egyptian mythology, and many of the other creatures which are depicted in so life-like a manner on the walls of Nile temples and tombs, are to be found at this day in South Africa. Anubis the jackal; the grey ibis, now extinct in Egypt, but common enough in the Cape Colony, and--audacious insult to that learned god to whom he was sacred--irreverently and absurdly named by the colonials "oddida;" the hawk Horus, with just the same plump little body, round baby-face, and delicately-tinted plumage of softest French grey and white which you see again and again in those comical, toy-like little wooden images in the museum at Cairo; the wild geese, with the identical curious markings of those which, in the oldest picture in the world, may be seen in that same museum; the scarab, rolling his unwieldy ball with Atlas-like efforts;--all these are at home on the Karroo farms. Cynocephalus, indeed, was very much more at home at Swaylands than we liked, and would often frighten the ostriches into a wild state of panic, with the usual inevitable result of broken legs. On mountain excursions you frequently hear his surly bark, and sometimes see him looking out defiantly at you from behind rock or bush, where possibly you have disturbed him in the midst of an exciting lizard-hunt, or careful investigation of loose stones in search of the centipedes, scorpions and beetles hidden beneath. These creatures, uninviting though they appear to us, are among his favourite dainties, and he catches them with wonderful dexterity. In the silence of night his voice is so distinctly audible from the homestead that you would imagine him to be close by, though in reality he is far off in one of the kloofs of the mountains. One night, as we strolled up and down near the house, enjoying the bright moonlight, a loud chorus of distant baboons to which we were listening was suddenly interrupted, evidently by the spring of a hungry leopard, the moment's silence being followed by the agonized and prolonged yells of the victim. Now and then Cynocephalus, or, as the Boers ironically call him, "Adonis," gets too troublesome, and war has to be carried into his camp. Of no avail against him are those neat little strychnine pills, enclosed in tempting pieces of fat, by means of which Anubis is so successfully sent to his account. No vegetable poison has the slightest effect on the baboon's iron constitution, and indeed, if there exists any poison at all capable of killing him, it is quite certain that with his superior intelligence he would be far too artful to take it; and when the fiat for his destruction has gone forth a well-organized attack has to be made on him with dogs and guns. He can show fight, too, and the dogs must be well trained and have the safety of numbers to enable them to face him; for in fighting he has the immense advantage of hands, with which he seizes a dog and holds him fast while he inflicts a fatal bite through the loins. Indeed, for either dog or man, coming to close quarters with Adonis is no trifling matter. One of our friends, travelling on horseback, came upon a number of baboons sitting in solemn parliament on some rocks. He cantered towards them, anticipating the fun of seeing the ungainly beasts take to their heels in grotesque panic; but was somewhat taken aback on finding that--far from being intimidated by his approach--they refused to move, and sat waiting for him, regarding him the while with ominous calmness. The canter subsided into a trot, and the trot into a sedate walk--and still they sat there; and so defiant was the expression on each ugly face that at last the intruder thought it wisest to turn back and ride ignominiously away. A Dutch boy--one of a family temporarily camping in their own waggon on the farm, and employed by T----, rambling one day in one of the far-off kloofs of the mountains, came near the haunt of a party of baboons. Though an occasional bark broke the stillness, only one of the animals was in sight, and that a little one, probably left alone for a while during the mother's search for food. With the baby baboon in his arms the boy was soon speeding at his best pace down the mountain; and, if fortune had but favoured his enterprise as it deserved, what a delightful "new chum" would that day have been added to our collection of animals! But too soon the whole troop of baboons, missing their youngest hope, were in full pursuit of the robber, on whom they gained so rapidly, and with gestures so unmistakeably portending mischief, that young Piet was only too glad to drop his prize and run for his life. The baboon stands in no awe of women; he seems quite aware of their inferiority, in point of strength and courage, to the sterner sex, and despises them accordingly. At one place near Graaff-Reinet the women never dared to go and fetch water unless accompanied by men; for the baboons, which were very numerous, would always chase and threaten any daughter of Eve who ventured, without masculine escort, near their haunts. Baboons captured in babyhood and brought up in human society are capable of becoming extremely tame. Like all other very intelligent animals, they vary much in disposition, a docile and tractable one soon learning to perform many clever tricks, and being an amusing companion, though too often a mischievous one. A gentleman at Willowmore owned two large, splendidly-trained performing baboons, which would have made the fortune of any circus-proprietor. They would together enact a series of complicated tricks, each going through his allotted part without a mistake. Both were most attentive and obedient to orders, and never by any chance would "Joe" so far forget his duty as to respond to the command given to "Jim," or vice versa. Occasionally, too, Adonis--who cannot, even by his best friends, be called ornamental--is taught to make himself useful; he has in several instances been seen filling the post of _voorlooper_ to the waggons of travelling Boers, acquitting himself on the whole quite as creditably as his Hottentot fellow-servants. And at one railway station in the colony a baboon was for a long time employed to work the points. The man in charge of the latter--having in a railway accident lost one arm and part of the remaining hand--had taught the ape to move the levers. This he did most cleverly with three of his powerful hands, using one of the hinder ones; and the fact of the novel pointsman retaining his situation makes it evident that his duties were satisfactorily performed. On the occasion of a raid with dogs and guns on the baboons infesting a friend's farm, one of the animals killed was the mother of a very young infant. When the captors came up to the spot they found the poor little creature crying piteously as it clasped the trunk of the tree beneath which lay its dead parent. They took it home, and our friend, a great lover of animals, was successful in rearing it. "Sarah," a gentle, amiable character, soon became a great favourite, and her comical ways were a source of constant amusement to her human friends. At the word of command she would stand erect, with her arms behind her, and her mouth wide open to catch the pieces of potato, etc., which were thrown into it; and when told to open "wider! wider!" she would distend her jaws almost to the point of breaking. Of course she was occasionally--what member of the ape tribe is not?--the victim of practical jokes. One day her favourite dish, pumpkin, was presented to her, and, all-unconscious of the treachery which lurked within, she applied herself with gusto to her dinner, which, unlike most of her tribe, she always preferred to eat direct from the dish without the intervention of her fingers. Alas! between two of those succulent slices of pumpkin cruel hands had spread a thick layer of mustard; and poor Sarah, eating greedily, soon experienced direful results on tongue, palate, throat, and eyes. She knew at once that she had been tricked; and never were contempt and indignation better expressed than by the lordly manner in which she kicked away the dish with all its remaining contents. After which she retired, much offended, to her bed, from whence she did not emerge for a long time. On another occasion poor Sarah was made the subject of a still more unkind practical joke. She dearly loved sweets, which were often given to her wrapped up in a multitude of papers, one inside the other. It was amusing to watch the patient and deliberate manner in which she would unfold each paper in turn, taking the greatest care never to tear one, and proceeding with all the caution of a good Mohammedan fearful of inadvertently injuring a portion of the Koran. This time, instead of the expected tit-bit, a dead night-adder was wrapped up and presented. When she unfolded the innermost paper, and the snake slipped out, with a horrid writhe, across her hand, Sarah quietly sank backwards and fainted away, her lips turning perfectly white. By dint of throwing water over her, chafing her hands, and bathing her lips with brandy, she was revived from her swoon, though not without some difficulty. Sarah has now been for a long time the inmate of an English country rectory, where, let us hope, no unfeeling jokes at her expense embitter her declining years. Of a far less docile disposition than Sarah was a large baboon kept by T---- at the Diamond Fields. The incessant damage wrought by this creature among his master's property and that of neighbours, and the frequent doctors' bills of which he was the occasion, made him rather an expensive pet. He was kept chained up, but would now and then break loose, on which occasions he never failed to make an excellent use of his opportunities and enjoy as good a "time" as possible before Nemesis overtook him in the form of recapture and well-deserved chastisement. One day, for instance, T----, on returning to his tent, was considerably surprised to find his bed occupied by Mr. Adonis, who, after getting into the shower-bath, pulling the string, and receiving the consequent ducking, had retired in a drenched and dripping condition to the blankets, within which he had comfortably ensconced himself, and from whence he gazed impudently at his master. He no doubt thought that he had well earned the luxuries of bath and bed by his busy morning's work among the contents of T----'s canvas house; and indeed that once cosy little abode now offered to the owner's eye a very good representation of chaos on a small scale. A bottle of acid, in which were a number of diamonds, had been thrown outside and the contents scattered in the sand; T----'s watch had been pulled to pieces and flung through the window; and altogether every conceivable piece of mischief had been done. On attempting to secure and tie up the offender, T---- received a severe bite through the leg; on which, naturally irate, he seized his gun, and capital punishment would then and there have been inflicted but for the discovery that the wily Adonis had balked retributive justice by carefully pulling every cartridge to pieces. Among the numerous vices of this baboon was an incorrigible addiction to stimulants; and after indulging in his favourite drink--gin and ginger-beer--he might very profitably have been displayed on the platform of a temperance lecturer, as the Spartans exhibited their helots, in illustration of the evils of drunkenness. The manner in which, after a drop too much, he invariably persisted in walking upright was unpleasantly suggestive of drunken humanity; so too was his urgent need of soda-water to allay the parched condition of his mouth on the following morning. He would draw the cork with his strong teeth, holding the bottle close to his lips, and taking the greatest care to lose none of the refreshing gas. He could throw stones with the unerring aim of a schoolboy; and, being of a revengeful disposition, and possessed of a wonderful memory, he never failed to requite any insult or injury received. Once a Zulu offended him by striking him with a stick. A long time passed, and then one day the man, who had quite forgotten all about it, came within reach of the baboon's tether, and--blissfully ignorant of the vengeful feelings lurking in the breast of the quadrumane--offered him something to eat. But Adonis, who had not forgotten, and who was only too glad to pay off old scores, caught the man by the hand, and, drawing him towards him, bit and punished him severely. Here is another tale of revenge, in which the poor ape played but a passive part in the hands of the "superior" animal. A colonist, having killed a baboon, and owing several of his neighbours a long-standing grudge, bethought him of a truly fiendish manner of revenging himself. Though it is unlikely that he had ever read of Tantalus, he proceeded somewhat after that classical example, and, cutting up the baboon, made him into a stew, in which savoury disguise he served him up as the _pièce de résistance_ at a dinner to which all the obnoxious neighbours were bidden. The dish proved a delicious one, and all the visitors ate of Pelops Cynocephalus with great relish. The tableau may be imagined when, at the end of the banquet, the host told his guests what they had eaten. It must require considerable hardness of heart to kill a baboon; for the creature is so horribly and uncannily human-looking, and, when wounded, cries in a pathetic manner which must appeal to all but the most callous of consciences. A hunter once told T---- that he felt like a murderer after shooting one of them, and seeing how in its dying agonies it pressed one finger upon the hole made by the bullet; crying like a child as it fixed its eyes on him with piteous looks of reproach. Although the miniature Zoo at Swaylands never boasted of a tame cynocephalus, we numbered among our feathered friends one of the gods of ancient Egypt in the shape of as tiny and chubby a little Horus as ever sat for his portrait to the sculptors of Philæ or Thebes. He was but a wee thing, about the size of a wild dove, but possessed an amount of intelligence which made him one of the most interesting even among Cape pets. Sad to say, the poor little fellow was minus one wing. T----, noticing him one day flying near the house, and not knowing what bird he was, brought him down with a small rifle bullet. The shot passed through the wing, so completely smashing it that the only thing we could do was to take it off close to the body. We tied it up at once and stopped the bleeding, the plucky little patient never uttering a sound, though his jewel-like eyes seemed really to blaze with anger. They were the most wonderful eyes imaginable, almost owl-like in size and roundness, and of a lovely red with an orange tinge. A ruby with a candle behind it is what I imagine would come nearest to them in colour. The plumage of Horus, instead of being speckled and barred with different shades of brown like that of the falcons one is accustomed to see, was of the loveliest silver-grey, darkest on the back and wing, and shading off gradually into very pale grey on the head, and into purest white on the breast and beneath the body; the breast feathers being soft and fluffy, like eider-down. The legs and feet were bright yellow, the bill dark grey, edged with yellow, and a circle of dark feathers round the eyes, drawn off into a long line at each side, gave a sphinx-like appearance to the wise-looking little head. Altogether, Horus was one of the most beautiful little birds we have seen. We took it for granted that he was the sacred falcon; and it will be a disappointment to us if, one day, some learned ornithologist tells us we were quite wrong. The little fellow recovered rapidly; and, although on the first day after the amputation we had to put food down his throat, getting viciously punished by his needle-pointed bill and claws, on the second he took meat from our hands, eating voraciously as much as we would give him, and even coming after us for more; though, not having yet learned to steer himself under his altered circumstances, he hobbled in a very clumsy and crab-like fashion, now and then making futile efforts to fly, and tumbling down on his side. Soon, however, he learned to walk straight, and would follow us about like a little dog, with the quaintest short steps. He was soon tame and friendly with all but the meerkat, for which he showed great animosity, and on which he would jump spitefully--or perhaps hungrily?--whenever it came near him. Possibly, in a wild state, small animals of this kind were his natural prey. He did not object to Toto, who indeed--with the sole exception of his rival and arch-enemy Bobby--has never failed to get on well with all his heterogeneous companions. Horus, debarred by his infirmity from active exercise, and condemned to a somewhat humdrum life, sought consolation in the pleasures of the table, and developed an enormous appetite. He shared the spoils of the mousetraps with Bobby, and would take raw and cooked meat from our hands with equal relish. Indeed I am afraid we overfed him, and induced apoplexy. At any rate, one evening as we sat reading after dinner, he dropped quietly from his perch, and died without a flutter. The aasvogel, a repulsively ugly, bald-headed, bare-necked bird of the most pronounced vulture type, is very common in South Africa, especially in the regions where game is most plentiful. These denizens of the air seem to be perpetually hovering, on the watch for prey, at such immense heights as to be quite out of range of human vision; though their own keen sight enables them instantly to detect the prospect of a feed, and if an animal is killed, or even only wounded, they are at once aware of the fact, and, swooping down from their airy height, sail straight to the spot. Perhaps you are a "new chum" out hunting, and you bring down an antelope. Although, at the moment of firing your shot, you would have been ready to take your affidavit that-- "No birds were flying overhead, There were no birds to fly,"-- your game has hardly fallen before, far up in the grey-blue, a tiny speck appears, at first only just visible, but rapidly increasing in size; then another, and yet another floats into sight, "and still they come," till at last the heavens seem all alive with birds approaching from every direction, outlined against the cloudless sky in different degrees of size and clearness, according to perspective, but all making the straightest of bee-lines towards the wounded animal. In the Free State, where these birds are very numerous, T----, hunting on horseback, has sometimes found that before he could reach the spot where his antelope had fallen the aasvogels were already on it, and had commenced operations by plucking out the eyes, their special tit-bits. These nastiest of birds think nothing of overeating themselves till their condition resembles that of Mark Twain's jumping frog after the famous dose of shot, and, when gorged after a good "square" meal, they are so heavy that they have to run a long way before they can rise into the air. On these occasions, if you are active and have a good long whip, you can catch them by switching the lash round their ugly, bare necks. But a little experience teaches you that this sport has its drawbacks, as the aasvogel invariably swarms with animal life of the most objectionable kind. Owls are plentiful enough in the Karroo; so too are those other nocturnal birds, the goat-suckers, which at sundown begin to fly about, uttering their weird, plaintive cry. They are queer-looking birds, and seem all out of proportion, with a broad, short head and immensely wide bill, surrounded by stiff bristles like a cat's whiskers. On examining a specimen shot near our house, we were amused to find that, by looking into this preposterous bill, we could distinctly see the creature's eyes through the semi-transparent roof of the mouth. Another of our feathered eccentricities, the butcher-bird, called by the colonists Jack Hanger, likes to eat his game high; and you often come across mimosa-bushes which, stuck all over with small birds, beetles, locusts, etc., impaled on the long, stiff thorns, form his well-stocked larder. In such a land of snakes as South Africa it is necessary for the birds to resort to many clever and thoughtful devices for the protection of eggs and young; and some of the "homes without hands" are most ingeniously planned and exquisitely constructed. The golden oriole hangs her graceful nest on the very furthest end of a long bough--over water, if possible, for extra safety,--and always gives the preference to the drooping branches of the willow. The nest is shaped just like a Florence flask with the end curved over; and it is next to impossible for a snake to penetrate into its interior. Even prettier and more wonderfully made is the nest of the kapok bird, a little creature resembling a tom-tit. The material used in the construction of this small domicile is a kind of wild cotton, well named by the Boers _kapok_ (snow). The nest, which is very compact, and looks as if it were made of soft, white felt, is of much the same shape as the oriole's brown flask; but near the outlet it is dented in, forming a kind of second or exterior nest, in which the little paterfamilias mounts guard over his household gods, effectually closing the aperture by the pressure of his back against the curving end of the tube above him. The white felt is very thick and firm throughout the globular part of the flask, but gradually diminishes in density along the neck, till at the orifice it is so thin and loosely woven that the soft edges, pressed together by the bird, remain interlaced even after he has flown from his sentry-box. No apparent aperture is left; and the little stronghold is quite impregnable, and ready to baffle the wiliest of ophidian marauders, until Mrs. Kapok, by flying out, re-opens the tunnel. Snakes are indeed one of the greatest drawbacks to South African life. There are so many of them, they are of such deadly sorts, and the obtrusive familiarity and utter absence of ceremony with which they come into the houses render the nerves of newly-arrived inmates liable at any moment to receive a severe shock. After a time, of course, finding that every one you meet has some startling experiences to relate, of the discovery of intrusive snakes in all sorts of places where they were most unlooked-for and least desirable, you become somewhat inured to this unpleasant feature of colonial existence, and move about your house with the caution of one who would not be surprised to find a snake anywhere. T----, dressing one morning during the early days of his Cape life, had just inserted his foot at one end of his trousers, when a night-adder--a most deadly little snake, with an evil habit of going about at hours when all respectable reptiles are in bed--dropped out at the other. One of our neighbours considerably damaged his drawing-room by firing several shots at a large cobra, which had startled his wife by paying an unwelcome call. Another friend, exploring the depths of her rather dark china-closet, put her hand on a snake, comfortably coiled up beside the teacups. And a ghastly tale we heard, of some one in bed, putting his hand under the pillow at night for his pocket-handkerchief, and pulling out a puff-adder, makes one feel that--for those at least who live at the Cape--there is more of common sense than of irony in Mark Twain's assertion that it is safest not to go to bed. We were more fortunate than our neighbours, and never during our four years' residence did I find in any of our rooms that snake for which--as the old lady for the burglar--I was continually looking. Perhaps we owed our immunity to the narrow strips of horse-hair material, with the rough edge pointing upwards, which T----, having read somewhere that no snake will cross this prickly barrier, had nailed along the threshold of each outer door. In the store, which did not communicate with the house, and the door of which was fortified by no friendly spikes, we did occasionally kill a snake--attracted, no doubt, by the legions of fat mice which ran riot among the sacks. The fowl-house, too, would often be thrown into a state of wild excitement and frenzied cackling by the visits of these dreaded reptiles--most inveterate of egg-stealers. One day, soon after we came up-country, Nancy suddenly burst in upon us, her red turban all awry, and her speech so incoherent with agitation that the only intelligible words were "Missis! _Turkey!!_ Missis! _Snake!!!_" On running out, we found the whole poultry-yard in commotion, and the hens clamouring as if each had laid at least a dozen eggs; while our nine turkeys stood drawn up in a row, pictures of imbecile consternation, chattering feebly as they, one and all, made a dead point at a little empty packing-case, protruding from behind which we could just see the ugly, broad head of a young puff-adder. The enemy was soon despatched; and while the turkeys recovered their equanimity--which process took a long time--I indulged in the pleasure so dear to any one with a taste for natural history, and took a thorough survey of this, the first good-sized puff-adder I had seen. And what a repulsive creature it was, with its short, thick, swollen-looking body, toad-like head, and utterly evil countenance! Only the hideous cerastes, with little demon-like horns--so common in North Africa--comes anywhere near a puff-adder in thorough-paced villainy of expression. Of all the Cape snakes the puff-adder is not only the deadliest, but by far the most to be feared. For, being of the same colour as the ground, it is extremely difficult to see: it is lazy, too, and will not take the trouble to get out of your way as every other snake does; yet, when roused, it is very active, and comes at you backwards, springing a long distance with accurate aim. If you are in front of it you are safe, as it cannot strike forward. One morning, T----, lifting up the rug in which he had been sleeping out on the veldt, found the flattened body of a puff-adder, which had evidently crept between the folds for warmth, and which he had unconsciously crushed to death. Cobras, some of which are quite six feet in length, are very numerous in the Karroo. At certain seasons this snake is very aggressive, and will come at you boldly if you happen to be between it and its nest. T----, when out shooting one day with a pointer, suddenly saw a cobra lift itself up and strike the dog. The venom was so swift in its operation that the poor animal only turned round once, and died almost immediately. The _schaapsticker_, which always reminded me of the beautiful but deadly coral-snakes of South America, has a wonderfully-marked skin, the pretty pattern and bright tints of which might well be utilized by some artistic designer of floor-cloths. A delicate, coral-like red predominates among the colours; and altogether the creature is so small and pretty that it is difficult to believe it is one of the most venomous of snakes. It is particularly destructive to cattle and sheep, hence its name, the literal translation of which is "sheep-stinger." Some of the tree-snakes, too, are very beautiful; and, many of them being of the same bright green as the foliage, a close look is required to distinguish them as they lurk beneath it on the watch for birds, or for little mice which sometimes climb up into bushes, or into the lower branches of trees. Lizards are very plentiful throughout the Karroo; and, as you walk through the veldt, hundreds of them, startled by your footsteps, dart away in all directions from one isolated tuft of bush to another, as if running for their little lives. In strong contrast to these bright, active creatures of the sunshine are the slow-moving, pallid-complexioned house-lizards which are so unpleasantly common. There are few things uglier than one of these _hikés_. With his flat, round toes, serving the purpose of suckers whereby he is enabled to retain his foothold as he perches, fly-like, on the ceilings, his low, criminal type of face, brightened by none of the quaint, antediluvian air of wisdom which redeems the chameleon's honest ugliness, and with his general unhealthy and uncanny appearance, it is no wonder that among the ignorant natives he has the reputation of being as venomous as he looks, and that from one end of the country to the other he is more dreaded than any snake. Yet it is somewhat puzzling to think how he can inflict a poisonous bite, when, on looking into his mouth, you perceive that he has no teeth. An object of even more superstitious dread is that mysterious and deadly creature--half-quadruped, half-reptile, and certainly altogether fabulous--the so-called dassie-adder. Throughout the whole country you hear accounts of this strange animal from Boers, Kaffirs, and Hottentots; many of the coloured race declare that they have seen it, and, though some laugh at the tale, the belief in it is evidently very general. The anterior portion of the mythical creature's body is supposed to be that of a dassie, or rock-rabbit (the coney of Scripture), to which are joined, in somewhat mermaid-like fashion, the thick body and blunt tail of a snake resembling a puff-adder. According to all accounts the dassie-adder, whose bite is instantly fatal, is most vindictive, and, running with all the swiftness of a dassie, will chase any one who comes near it. Some say, too, that it goes about at night. The dassies, so terrible in their fictitious semi-reptile state, are in real life very harmless, timid little animals. They are gregarious, and live among the rocks in such inaccessible places that it is most difficult to capture one of them; and a tame dassie is among the rarest of Karroo pets, so securely do these "feeble folk" make "their houses in the rocks." In appearance the dassie is very like a little brown guinea-pig; as regards intelligence, too, he is just about the equal of his rather uninteresting piebald cousins, and, although he is as pretty, soft-coated and gentle as you could wish, and in his mild, placid way gets very tame, he is nowhere in comparison with that prince of pets, a meerkat. A not unlikely solution of the dassie-adder mystery seems to be that in all probability the puff-adders prey upon the little denizens of the rocks; and a large snake may occasionally have been seen with a half-swallowed dassie in his mouth, just as a common snake sometimes displays, protruding from his jaws, the head and forelegs of the inconveniently fat frog which he is unable to gulp down in a hurry. The negro mind is quite capable of evolving a fabulous animal out of even such slight grounds as this. Of "creepy-crawlies" of all kinds the Karroo possesses more than enough, and--like the snakes--they invade the house, and make themselves at home in a manner which is free and easy rather than pleasant. Legions of venomous centipedes, scorpions, and big, bristly-legged spiders of the tarantula tribe lurk in the old reed ceilings; from whence they drop playfully down now and then, to the consternation of the unwary inmate sitting beneath, on whose head or book they chance to land. Or, if they do not drop down on you, they lie in wait about the room in well-chosen points of vantage, where their sudden discovery is sure to give you a horrid jump, even if you are lucky enough to get off without a venomous bite or sting. One evening, as I was getting ready for bed--oblivious for once of cautious habits acquired, years before, in that land of "jiggers," the West Indies, where you never venture to walk slipperless, even across your bedroom--my bare foot suddenly encountered what seemed like the point of a red-hot needle sticking straight up out of the floor; and, looking down, I found that I had trodden on a scorpion. Fortunately, it was not one of the large black ones, which are the most venomous, but only a light-coloured specimen, about two inches and a half in length. It was, however, quite bad enough; and although T---- recklessly poured away over the foot our whole photographic supply of ammonia, and made me drink the greater part of a bottle of strong Cape wine in the hope of neutralizing the poison--though, alas! only producing other and sad results--it was many hours before that red-hot needle showed any signs of cooling down. And then an exaggerated form of "pins and needles" set in, followed by what resembled a succession of powerful electric shocks running up the leg at intervals of two or three minutes. Altogether, the victim of a scorpion's sting can well realize the feelings of gouty patients, who dread to see even their best friends coming within five or six yards of them. It was two days before I could put my foot to the ground; and then, for several more, I could only hobble painfully with the aid of a stick. Colonial boys are fond of setting scorpions to fight with tarantulas. The great spiders are most pugnacious, and seem only too glad of an opportunity to fight with anything. T---- once watched one of them in desperate battle with a centipede. The vicious spider, whose body was as large as that of a mouse, seized his antagonist and shook him savagely, just as a terrier shakes a rat; then, letting him go for a time, he would spring upon him, pick him up, and worry him again, apparently with fiendish pleasure. He continued this mode of warfare until the final collapse of the poor centipede, whose pluck in facing such an adversary at all deserves to be commended. Prominent among insect nuisances are ants of many different sorts and sizes, the worst of all being the mischievous rice ants. Many a carpet or curtain is utterly ruined by these creatures, which have a trick of coming up unexpectedly through the floor in large numbers, generally during the night, when they can carry on their destructive work without interruption. They work with a zeal worthy of a better cause, and the amount of damage their powerful jaws can do in one night is almost incredible. Very pretty necklaces are made of the threaded eggs of one kind of ant. They are rough and irregular in shape, and possess such a soft lustre, that--but for their deep golden colour--they might almost be taken for inferior pearls. It is some satisfaction to know that the ranks of Cape ants are considerably thinned by several inveterate enemies. One of these is that strange burrowing animal the ant-bear, called by the Dutch _aardvaark_ (earth-pig).[7] There is one in the Zoo; and it is about as uncanny and nightmare-like a beast as could be imagined or dreamed of--a sort of crazy combination of calf and pig, reminding one of the Mock Turtle in "Alice's Adventures." Like that tearful animal, it possesses a head and body which do not in the smallest degree appear to belong to each other. The longest, narrowest and boniest of calves' heads, so pallid and sickly in complexion, and so entirely hairless, as to appear not only dead, but neatly scraped and cleaned all ready for cooking, is joined--without the intervention of any neck to speak of--to a fat, pig-like body, very scantily clothed with short, bristly hairs. The eyes are large and dark, the bare, pink ears are of rabbit-like proportions, and the calf's head terminates in a pig's snout, thickly lined with hair. This latter is the only hirsute adornment possessed by the goblin-like countenance, to which a very cynical expression is given by the animal's ugly trick of wrinkling up its enormously long snout. The thick legs, and the feet, armed with large claws, are immensely strong; so, too, is the broad, flat, almost hairless tail, about the shape of which there is something unpleasantly suggestive of a puff-adder. The specimen in the Zoo has a damaged tail, the result of the force the captors found it necessary to use in dragging it from its hole. A riem was once tied to the tail of an ant-bear, and a span of oxen fastened on to draw it out of the ground. But, after much ineffectual tugging, the experiment ended in the breaking of the riem--or of the tail--our informant had forgotten which; at any rate the animal remained in its hole. [7] _Orycteropus capensis._ Many a time does the unwary rider, cantering across the veldt, come to sudden grief in one of the deep, trap-like holes made by the ant-bear, which seems by no means an uncommon animal. But it is quite possible to live many years in South Africa, and, however often you may tumble into its holes, never once see the creature itself. For, being of nocturnal habits, it is active only at night, when it tunnels its way underground like a mole, occasionally coming to the surface, and now and then emerging in very unexpected places. Some members of a hunting-party, camping out for the night, were much surprised to see the ground heave up suddenly in the centre of their tent, the passing of an ant-bear a little below the surface being the cause of the miniature earthquake. And during the war in Zululand an Irish sentry was on guard at midnight, when suddenly, close to him, the ground opened, and out of it rose a ghastly living Jack-in-the-box. The moonbeams shone full on the horrid form, long head, and deadly-pale, calf-like face; and the man--small blame to him--dropped his gun, deserted his post, and fled in horror, shouting to his astonished comrades the awful news that he had seen Old Nick himself! And indeed, if, on one of our moonlight strolls about the farm, an ant-bear had suddenly risen in our path, I am quite sure that we should have taken to our heels with equal alacrity. The cage of the Cape ant-bear at the Zoo being next to that of the American ant-eater, a good opportunity is afforded for observing the marked dissimilarity of the two animals, which indeed could hardly be more unlike each other. One of the numerous points in which they differ is that the American ant-eater is toothless, while the _aardvaark_ possesses teeth. The ant-lion, so often pictured in books of natural history, is common in the Karroo; and it was a great pleasure for us when, for the first time, we saw him in real life, and examined his cleverly-constructed, funnel-shaped trap, hollowed out in the soft, sliding sand,--down which his victims tumble, to find him waiting open-mouthed at the bottom. Talking of the ant-lion reminds one of another excavator, still more familiar to Cape colonists, the trap-door spider. His "diggings" are in the form of a perpendicular, cylinder-shaped box, the lid of which, level with the surface of the ground, is so neatly made that it is quite impossible to detect it when closed. The walking-leaf tribe is very largely represented in South Africa; and besides simulating leaves of many different kinds, the creatures assume numerous other forms, some looking just like pieces of dried stick, others like bits of straw, blades of grass, etc. The plant, or portion of a plant, which they personate so admirably, is always the chosen resting-place on which they sit, motionless and meditative, often defying detection. The praying mantis is worshipped by the Hottentots, who perhaps, like the ancient Greeks and Romans, look on him as a kind of soothsayer or fortune-teller ([Greek: mantis]). But in spite of being the Hottentot god, and of possessing such a pious-sounding scientific name as _Mantis religiosa_, he is a most pugnacious little beast; and if he has a difficulty to settle with one of his brethren, the pair will fight it out like the Kilkenny cats. Not long ago, at a North African picnic, one of these same little creatures caused much amusement by the tact which he displayed in doing just the right thing at the right time, and in the prettiest manner. It was a very hot day, so close and oppressive that we all felt rather languid; and conversation flagged as we sat at luncheon round the table-cloth spread on the ground in the interior of a large tent. Suddenly, during a long pause, a little mantis appeared on the scene. With a jaunty air, and with all the cool self-possession of a popular performer advancing, confident of success, towards the footlights, he stepped on to the tablecloth, and, crossing it in a bee-line, drew up before Her Britannic Majesty's Consul, to whom, with many jerky inclinations of his gaunt, bright-green body, he made what appeared to be a series of most obsequious bows. Then, having obeyed the first requirements of etiquette, he passed slowly along the line of guests, halting occasionally and paying his respects to one or the other. He seemed quite unabashed by all the notice and applause which he received; and as the plate in which he finally deposited himself was handed round among the guests, he calmly surveyed each one in turn, while continuing, very literally, to "bow and scrape." If he had been a paid performer, engaged beforehand, he could not have played his little part better; and all agreed in giving him a vote of thanks for his timely appearance, which just gave us the mental pick-me-up which, on that enervating day, we all needed. I believe some one carried him home at last in a paper cage; though whether he fulfilled the brilliant promise of his first introduction to human society, and became an intelligent pet, we never heard. CHAPTER XIII. OUR NEIGHBOURS. Hospitality of Cape colonists--Cheating and jealousy in business-- Comfortless homes--Spoilt children--Education--The "Schoolmaster"-- Convent schools--A priest-ridden nation--The _Nachtmaal_--Old French names--A South African duke in Paris--Fine-looking men--Fat women-- Ignorance of _Vrouws_--Boers unfriendly to English--A mean man. There is much to be admired in the character of those decidedly unpolished diamonds, the colonial-born, English-speaking inhabitants of the Karroo. They are a fine, sturdy, self-reliant race, splendidly fitted in every way for their extremely rough-and-ready surroundings. In kindliness and hospitality they are unsurpassed, even by the much-praised dwellers in Arab tents or white, flat-roofed Moorish houses; and in the isolated homesteads where they live their rough, but simple and healthy lives, the heartiest reception is invariably accorded alike to friends, slight acquaintances, and even perfect strangers. Perhaps you are one of the latter, and, on a long journey, you outspan at the dam of a farm, with the intention of remaining only long enough to give the horses the necessary water and rest before you _trek_ again. But no sooner is your cart or spider seen to stop than you are sought out, with kind and pressing invitation to come in. No matter how full the house may already be, how late or inconvenient the hour of your unexpected arrival on a Cape farm, a place is always found for you at the table; and, if needed, some sort of a night's lodging, of however _impromptu_ a description, will be prepared for you. The colonist joyfully makes you welcome to his best. If you are staying in his house, a mount or a seat in his conveyance is always at your disposal; and the longer you can remain, the better he and all his kind-hearted family are pleased. It is true that their home is far from being a luxurious one, and that none of them have much idea of comfort; but the latter article being, on account of the isolation and of the bad servants, somewhat difficult of attainment, it is on the whole just as well that no one misses it sufficiently to regret its absence; and one cannot but admire and envy the philosophical manner in which the colonists take things as they come, making themselves perfectly happy under any circumstances. Altogether there is so much that is lovable in the colonial character, that you are sometimes disappointed to find that there is a reverse to this bright side of the picture, and that--even by those who have received you the most hospitably, and who apparently, while you were their guest, could not do enough for you--you are liable, in business transactions, to be woefully cheated. It is thought no disgrace to get the better of any one in a bargain, whether on an iniquitously large or contemptibly small scale; on the contrary, it is considered rather clever and smart to "do a shot" on the guileless and unsuspecting new chum, fresh from a country where a somewhat different code of honour obtains. Business jealousies, too, are another source of trouble to the uninitiated. If any farmer has a project which seems likely to turn out a good thing for him, he had better be careful that no bird of the air whispers it about beforehand among his neighbours and rivals, who, one and all, will only be too glad if they can bring his plans to naught. Time seems to be of no more value to the Cape colonists than it is to the followers of Islam, and "letting things slide" is pretty generally the order of the day. One is rather puzzled at this weak point in otherwise active, energetic characters; and certainly, living as these people do in the splendid air of the Cape--exhilarating as champagne, and making all who inhale it feel glad to be alive--they cannot, like the limp, supine inhabitants of Eastern lands, plead the excuse of an enervating climate. Much of the discomfort in the houses is due to this frightful habit of procrastinating. Whatever is broken is, as often as not, left unmended for an indefinite time; little repairs, which need but the minimum of time and trouble, but the neglect of which would cause daily annoyance and discomfort to any but these easy-going mortals, are put off from week to week and from month to month. And every one is just as happy and contented, with violent draughts and clouds of dust blowing in through two or three broken windows at once; or with a glass outer door whose handle has been off for months, and which continually flaps noisily backwards and forwards, admitting gusts of cold wind and flocks of turkeys and fowls into the room; as if all things were in perfect order. Poultry and domestic animals, indeed, have it all their own way on Karroo farms with the delightful freedom enjoyed by their brethren in Irish cabins. At one house, for instance, if the dining-room was left for a moment when the cloth was laid for a meal, half a dozen fowls would be on the table, picking the bread to pieces; while in another I have several times assisted our hosts in ejecting a too-friendly pig from the bedroom. To give South African pigs their due, I must say that in that driest of climates they are less uncleanly in their persons, and hence rather less objectionable indoors, than they would be in Europe. But we had English prejudices, and discountenanced the visits of members of the farm-yard; and Toto had standing orders, which he faithfully obeyed, to keep the rooms clear of live stock of all kinds, with the exception of privileged pets. Even more terrible than the intrusive animals are the spoilt children. During their earlier years the little colonists are left very much to themselves: they run wild, like young colts, about their native farm, no one takes the trouble to interfere with them, and they are allowed to retain, unchecked, all the rude, rough habits which they have acquired from their uncivilized Hottentot nurse-girls. They do as they like, say whatever comes uppermost, and behave at table in any sort of outrageous fashion that pleases them; while the father and mother sit unmoved, apparently surprised at nothing their progeny may see fit to do. The latter being totally unencumbered by bashfulness, the presence of strangers acts as no restraint; and a dinner taken in the company of a large family of boys, of stolid parents, and indifferent elder sisters, is for the newly-imported English visitor a novel and rather startling experience, the details of which, however, are best left to oblivion. But, on the whole, the young Africander's bringing-up--unpleasant though he certainly is during the process--is no doubt the best possible one to fit him for the rough and active life of the farms, and to form in him that independent character and those habits of self-reliance and smartness in money matters which, when he is grown up, stand him in such good stead. And he _does_ grow up with astounding rapidity; being at fifteen a thorough man of business, able to "do a deal" with any one, and taking good care, you may be sure, that the transaction is no unprofitable one to himself. In this respect he affords a decided contrast to the average young Englishman, who, at twenty-five, is often--where business matters are concerned--as inexperienced as a boy. The difficulties in the way of providing the children with a good education are by no means one of the least of South African drawbacks; especially for those living on the far-off country farms. Colonial schools do not seem to be much in favour, at least for boys, and the great ambition of a Cape parent is to send his sons home to be educated in Europe--most frequently for the medical profession, a doctor's position being the most coveted one in the colony. In the Edinburgh University, especially, the Africander element is in great force. Those parents who cannot afford to have their boys educated in Europe generally contrive to secure the services of some broken-down gentleman, occasionally even of a clergyman, who lives on the farm and--too often for a shamefully small salary, indeed in one or two instances for nothing but his keep--fills the post of tutor, or, as his employers call him, "schoolmaster," to the turbulent young tribe. As may be imagined, his life is not a very enviable one, the breaking-in process being all the harder in consequence of the long period, prior to his advent, when his charges were allowed to run wild out of doors all day long--to the immense benefit, no doubt, of their robust young bodies, but to the utter neglect of all intellectual and moral training. The schoolmaster does not seem to have been a very general institution in the days when some of the older colonists were young; and a business correspondence with Karroo farmers sometimes elicits the wildest vagaries of orthography. T----, for instance, received a letter from one of our neighbours, in which the following sentences occurred: "Your hostridges are vary onpleasand on the public outspan. Pleas to try and halter tham." Another correspondent, intent on the purchase of ostriches, told us he wished "to bye buirds." For girls, the convent schools in several of the larger towns are undoubtedly the best, both as regards the good, sensible education imparted, and the refined, lady-like manners which are invariably acquired by all who have been brought up under the tutelage of the nuns. Throughout the whole country, the convent-bred girls can always be recognised at a glance, and the contrast is very striking between them and the less fortunate ones who possess but the superficial education and second-rate manners of the average colonial boarding-school. Even the daughters of the roughest Boers, if sent to a convent school, are turned out perfect ladies, and return to their up-country homes with gentle and gracious manners strangely out of keeping with their uncouth surroundings. But there are many parents, of course, to whom all the advantages of convent education could not compensate for that insuperable objection, the risk of Romanizing influence; and intending settlers in the colony who do not wish to expose their daughters to that risk will do well to bring out a good governess with them, and keep the girls at home. The Boer's great desire, like that of his English-speaking neighbour, is to get his boys educated in Europe; but, instead of the medical profession, the pastorate is the object of his ambition. For these Cape Dutch, although Protestants, are quite as priest-ridden as any Roman Catholic nation; the _predikant_ is a great man indeed throughout the widespread circle of his parishioners, and to offend him, or even to fail in paying him the exact amount of deference he considers his due, means to be boycotted. The _nachtmaal_, or communion, is only administered--as among Scotch Presbyterians--twice or three times during the year; and on these rare occasions the little town or village where there is a Dutch church becomes the lively scene of an immense gathering of Boers, vrouws, and families. They have come, many of them from long distances of three or four days' journey, plodding along in waggons drawn by long spans of oxen, driving in roomy conveyances of every possible queer and antiquated shape, or travelling on horseback--the stout, ungainly women, in their white _kappjes_ and gaudily-coloured dresses, cantering clumsily by the side of their lords. The crowd of outspanned vehicles, drawn up close together, form a kind of large camp and, the Boer being always ready to combine piety with business--and, if need be, with a good deal of cheating--the _nachtmaal_ ends with a busy fair or market, in which a very brisk trade is carried on, all kinds of farm produce being sold or bartered. In nearly all the Dutch houses you find curious old family Bibles, many of them in black-letter, with quaint and interesting maps. In some of the latter, representing Africa, the lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanza are marked, though quite in the wrong places. The good old French names borne by so many of the Boers tell of their Huguenot descent; Du Plessis, De Villiers, Du Toit, Du Barry, etc., are all names of frequent occurrence in South Africa, although the French language is never spoken, the Dutch having prohibited its use among the refugees when the latter settled in the colony. Some time ago, Napoleon III., anxious to restore the ancient nobility, sent for one of these Boers, who, in the old country, was the heir to a dukedom, inviting him to resume his title and estates. The colonist came to Paris, and, after giving European life a fair trial, became homesick for his vineyard and his farm, and--perhaps impelled by that attraction which seems to draw back to the Cape those who have once lived under its bright sky--decided in favour of his old-fashioned life, and, resigning all his ancestral rights, went joyfully home to the rough surroundings of his childhood. Although the Boers are fine, well-built, handsome men, their feminine relatives, far from equalling them in good looks, are as fat and ungraceful as any inmates of Turkish harems. Fortunately, however, excessive obesity is in the eyes of a Boer the very quality of all others which constitutes the chief attraction of a _mooie vrouw_ (handsome woman); and when he uses the latter expression you may be sure that he speaks of a ponderous being, no less than thirteen or fourteen stone in weight. In this matter of taste the Boers resemble not only the Turks, but also the Zulus, who can pay a woman no higher compliment than to compare her to a she-elephant. The _vrouws_ become _passées_ at a very early age, and are apparently shortlived in comparison with their lords, if one may judge from the fact that it is no uncommon thing to meet a man of fifty who has already had three wives. Intellectually, no less than physically, the Boer women are considerably the inferiors of the men. They have evidently lived for generations in blissful ignorance, with no more education than falls to the lot of the Oriental ladies they so closely resemble in figure. Their husbands and fathers have been quite contented with the existing state of things; and it is only of late years that a few of the more enlightened parents, beginning at last to recognise the value of female education, have been sending their daughters to the convent schools. In Spain, an equally strong contrast may be observed between the men and the women; but it is reversed, the advantage being on the side of the _señoras_, who somehow appear too handsome and intelligent to belong to the ignoble, mean-looking men. The Boers used to be very friendly with the English; but now--thanks to the sad and too well-known manner in which our Government has muddled South African affairs--we are most unpopular. Formerly, if an Englishman on his journey came to a Dutchman's house, he was most hospitably received--though etiquette demanded that on his departure he should offer money in payment for his food and bed, in order that his host might have the pleasure of refusing it; but now, were he to present himself, the chances are that the Boer would insultingly offer him a night's lodging in the negroes' quarters, as was once the case with T----. Meanness is a prominent trait in the Boer's character. Indeed, the reputation which he has acquired--not altogether justly--for being such a splendid shot, really and truly proceeds from his excessive care to make sure of his game, and thus waste no cartridges. Here is an instance which almost equals Max Adeler's mean man. When T---- was at the Kimberley Diamond Fields, a Kaffir fell one day from the narrow pathway left between the claims into one of the latter, belonging to a Dutchman. He landed on the little table used by the Boer for sorting his diamonds, and--the height from which he had fallen being eighty feet--not only the table, but nearly every bone in the unfortunate man's body was broken. He seems, however, to have possessed a wonderfully strong constitution, and actually recovered from his terrible injuries: and, his case exciting very general sympathy among the kindly diamond-diggers, a subscription was made for him. But, long before he was convalescent, the Boer called on him, demanding payment for the broken table, the whole value of which did not amount to more than thirty shillings. CHAPTER XIV. GOOD-BYE. Recalled to England--Regrets and farewells--Cape horses lacking in intelligence--"Old Martin"--A chapter of accidents--A horse "after Velasquez"--The Spy's revenge--Virtues and faults of Cape horses --Horse-sickness--Good-bye to Swaylands--Kaffir crane--The voyage home--Dogs in durance--St. Helena--A visit to Longwood--Home again. At last, after several busy and most enjoyable years of ostrich-farming life, the time came when--our presence being required in England--we bade farewell to our colonial home, and, leaving the management of affairs in the able hands of a friend from the old country, with whom T---- had recently entered into partnership, took our departure from Swaylands, not without many regrets. Although, within the wide circle enclosed by our wire fence, we were not leaving many of our human fellow-creatures, there were plenty of good-byes to be said; for those who live on these out-of-the-way farms come to be on very intimate and familiar terms with their live stock, and all our creatures--even the fowls, and those tamer members of our large family of ostriches which for years had been daily looking inquiringly in at our windows, and picking and stealing round the kitchen door--were old friends, from whom we were sorry to part. But, strange to say, the very animal which in England becomes one of the friendliest seems here the least domesticated; and it cost us less of a pang to bid adieu to our horses than might be imagined by people at home, unacquainted with the surprising lack of intelligence which, in the Cape Colony, distinguishes the equine race. Their independent lives, and the freedom which most of them enjoy to roam as they will about the veldt, unfettered by the restraints of a stable, seem to have rendered them very indifferent to human society. It is no use trying to make a friend of your horse; he contemptuously repels all your advances, obstinately refuses to eat out of your hand, despises pieces of bread, lumps of sugar, and all such delicate little attentions wherewith you have never failed to win the heart of his English brother, and, however many years he may have lived with you, persists to the last in remaining on the coldest and most distant of terms. Among all our horses the only really intelligent animal was one of Arab descent. But our good-bye to him was said a year before; and now, on leaving Swaylands, we can but take our last look at "the place where the old horse died." The faithful old grey friend who lies under that rough clump of bush was a favourite of long standing. He had belonged to T---- many years ago, was sold by him on leaving the colony, and, after changing hands several times, chiefly among acquaintances of his former owner--in remembrance of whom he acquired the name of "Old Martin"--was repurchased by T---- soon after we came out. Although by this time he was a long way past his prime, he was still considerably the best of all our horses, and for pluck and endurance we have never seen his equal. At the end of the longest day's journey--even though it had covered sixty miles--he would come in pulling as hard as at the start, and apparently as fresh. No matter how poor his condition--and South African horses do indeed get poor during long droughts--he was at all times equally ready for work. We never insulted him by carrying so unnecessary an article as a whip; for he did everything with a will, and whether cantering, trotting, or only walking, always seemed to be endeavouring to run away with you. As a lady's horse he was simply perfect, all his paces being equally delightful for the rider. In former times T---- and his four-footed namesake had gone through many adventures together; and now, when after the lapse of years these two friends and comrades met again, the old horse instantly recognised his master with unmistakeable signs of pleasure. One of these early adventures came very near costing the good grey his life. T----, during a journey on horseback, came one evening to a river crossed by an open railway-bridge consisting only of iron girders. To save time and avoid a circuitous route he decided to take a somewhat reckless short cut and lead the horse over that bridge. In this Blondin-like fashion they had proceeded about half-way across, when poor old Martin's foot slipped, and down he came, falling in such a position that his body lay prone on the narrow iron pathway formed by the rail and girder, while on either side two of his legs dangled helplessly over space. Sundown was approaching; so too was a train which, as T---- remembered, was very nearly due; but, though he tried his utmost to help the poor animal to his feet, all was unavailing, and presently the train hove in sight. T----, waving his handkerchief with wild gestures, succeeded in attracting the attention of the engine-driver, who stopped the train and came to his assistance. But, with all their efforts, they could not succeed in raising the horse from his perilous position; the train could wait no longer, and they had no choice but to resort to the kill-or-cure expedient of rolling him over into the water below. Falling from a height of some twenty-five feet, he went so deep into the mud at the bottom of the shallow African river that T---- was unable to pull him out, and had to leave him there all night. On coming back next morning with a span of oxen and some stout riems, he was horrified to find that during the night the unfortunate animal had sunk deeper and deeper into the mud, till little more than his nose remained above water. It was the work of much time and exertion to drag him out; and during the process his neck got such a twist that for the remainder of his days there was a crook in it, which caused his head to hang meditatively a little on one side. Another time he was attacked by a large swarm of vicious bees, which settled all over him, stinging him so severely that his whole body swelled up, and he assumed the proportions of that preposterously inflated horse by Velasquez in the picture-gallery at Madrid. For three days the poor old fellow stood immoveable; then, after taking an enormous drink of water, he gradually recovered. Very different, too, from the unintelligent Cape horses was "The Spy," a well-known steeple-chaser, imported into the colony by T---- some years ago. An incident which occurred during his voyage out recalls the oft-told anecdote of the elephant and the tailor. The horse-box in which the Spy was placed being just outside the door of the saloon, his head was in close proximity to the waiters as they passed and repassed during their attendance at meals. One of these waiters, being of a malicious turn of mind, found great enjoyment in teasing the unoffending animal, and missed no opportunity of giving him a rough knock on the nose in passing. For a while the Spy bore this treatment patiently; but he was biding his time, and at last had his revenge. One day, as the obnoxious waiter, bearing in either hand a steaming dish of currie and rice, was stepping briskly along to the saloon, he suddenly found himself grasped in a pair of powerful jaws, whisked clean off his legs, shaken like a rat in the grip of a terrier, and, finally, ignominiously dropped on to the deck among the _débris_ and scattered contents of his dishes. Although the horses produced by the Cape Colony are the best in South Africa, they have been much over-rated. It is true that a large number of them are capable of getting through a good deal of slow, continuous work under the saddle, with poor food and hardships as to shelter; but the vast majority of the colonial horses are in all respects indifferent animals, and devoid of good looks. In one point, perhaps, they surpass all other equine races in the world--their feet being generally excellent, and the hoofs so firm and hard as rarely to require shoeing, even on very long journeys. Many horses of most unprepossessing exterior are scarcely to be matched for speed and endurance in the field; but, taken _en masse_, South African horses are a failure. They are almost invariably poor and timid jumpers, and, when in harness, move but very small weights. A light cart containing two persons is sufficient to tax the powers of a pair of average horses, and even then jibbing is always imminent. At least eighty per cent. of the Cape horses are desperate stumblers, and uneasy in their paces--faults attributable to round, heavy shoulders and defective hind-quarters. Among the good horses the greater proportion are ill-tempered, and delight in buck-jumping, whenever they have the rare chance of being in good condition. The terrible distemper known as "horse sickness" periodically causes great destruction in many parts of the colony; and the fear of it operates as a check on breeders, who would otherwise import better horses to improve their studs. A "salted horse"--one which has had horse-sickness--is very valuable, even if abounding in all kinds of equine misfortunes or faults. Such animals range in price from £25 to £100, according to age and quality. Horse-sickness is most partial in its operations; and sometimes, in the case of two adjoining farms, one will be severely attacked by the disease, while the other remains perfectly free from it. And now, at length, the day of departure has come; and we leave Swaylands, though not in our own cosy little American spider. That fairy chariot, alas! is _hors de combat_; its strong, though delicate-looking wheels have succumbed at last to the roughness of Karroo roads and the dryness of the South African climate; and as we pass out at the little gate we take our last look at it as it lies there on the ground, a forlorn, sledge-like thing. What glorious drives we have had in that once daintiest and prettiest of little carriages--travelling to hunts or dances, fetching our mail, or sending off precious freights of feathers to the Port Elizabeth market! and how vividly the recollection of them comes back to us as we pass for the last time along the familiar Mount Stewart road! Even now, at this time and distance, we can still conjure them up, and see and hear once more the well-known and loved sights and sounds of the Karroo. Animal and bird life start into quick motion all round us: the little _duyker_ antelopes spring up from their forms among the bush, and dart gracefully away; the flights of pretty Namaqua partridges run along the ground quite close to us; the _knorhaans_, rending the air with discordant, over-powering noise, chatter out their loud disapproval of our approach; the little bright-eyed meerkats stare audaciously at us, then dive into their holes in pretended fear of us; the air is all full of the sweet scent of mimosa-blossoms, and T----, singing joyously in the overflow of good spirits induced by its pure, fresh, exhilarating qualities, enlivens the journey with one song after another as we spin merrily along on our airy, bicycle-like wheels; while Toto, equally happy, careers at our side, chasing every animal and bird that he sees, though seldom able to catch anything much swifter on its feet than a tortoise. These tortoises, by the way, always afforded Toto excellent sport; he considered it his bounden duty to bring to us--no matter from what distance--all that he could possibly grasp with his teeth; and, many of them being much too large to be carried in this way, he was often obliged to put them down for a while, to rest his poor aching jaws. Sometimes he would come to a standstill before a gigantic specimen, and call us, with loud, excited barks, to the spot where some fifty pounds of splendid material for soup were to be had for the picking-up. He would stand barking triumphantly at the creature, which, in response, kept up a low, roaring noise, expressive of deepest disgust at his proceedings. And when the prize was secured, and we drove off with it safely ensconced at our feet, Toto was a proud dog indeed. Somehow, on this last drive into Mount Stewart, everything is tantalizingly looking its very best; the _veldt_, refreshed by recent rains, is of a lovely soft green, and delicate flowers peep from it in all directions; the dazzling sunshine--so soon to be exchanged for cold northern skies--seems brighter than ever; and, in the clear atmosphere of the Karroo, the bold outlines of the far-off Cock's Comb are lifted up, as it were, by a strange effect of mirage--the mountain appearing quite detached from the horizon, and with blue water flowing at its foot. Just before we reach the turn in the road which hides the homestead of Swaylands from our view, we stop and look back; and, if it must be owned, that last look at the poor little ugly house--our dear home for the past few years--is taken by not quite undimmed eyes. Then on, at a brisk pace, to Mount Stewart, where, at the pleasant little hotel in which we have so often been hospitably entertained, the host and his numerous family are assembled in full force to bid us God-speed. I take my last, wistful look at a long-coveted tame Kaffir crane, a delightful bird, who, in his neat suit of softest French-grey plumage, stalks solemnly--as he has been doing any time these four or five years--about the precincts of station and hotel; and am introduced to a newly-captured baby jackal, which T---- has just bought, and which is to accompany us to England. Then the train, at its usual leisurely pace, crawls down with us to Port Elizabeth. More good-byes--and at last we and all our zoological collection are safe on board the Union Company's _S.S. Mexican_; and soon the coast of Algoa Bay recedes from our view. Toto does not enjoy his journey as he did when outward-bound; for there are too many of the canine race on board, and one little pair of pugs in particular--belonging to richly-jewelled passengers of the Hebrew persuasion, who have not trained up their dogs in the way they should go--commence the voyage by invading everybody's cabin, and making themselves generally so objectionable that on the second day the captain's fiat goes forth for the impartial consignment of all the dogs--good, bad and indifferent--to hen-coops. There they are accordingly, on the second-class deck, ranged in a dismal row, at one end of which poor little caged Anubis, the jackal-cub, yelps piteously for mother, brethren and freedom; and there, for the four weeks of the voyage, they are condemned to remain. All are profoundly miserable; but poor old Toto--being so much the largest--is the most to be pitied. In that narrow cage, where there is hardly room for him to turn round, he travels through the steaming heat of the tropics; his legs become cramped and stiff from want of exercise; he fattens like a Strasburg goose on the Irish stew and other substantial viands from the saloon table with which the waiters--cruelly generous--persist in stuffing him; and when, as a rare treat, he is allowed half an hour's liberty for what is ironically called a "run" on deck, he is able to do little more than sit down and pant. With better luck than often falls to the lot of travellers by steamer, we remain a sufficient time at St. Helena to allow of a somewhat hurried visit to Longwood; and, going ashore with a good number of fellow-passengers, we charter the few carriages and saddle-horses to be had in the little town, and proceed, as fast as we can, up the steep, zigzag road. We notice that in this island there seem to be two completely different climates within a very short distance of one another. Down near the sea-level, bananas and other tropical plants grow luxuriantly in the close, stifling heat: but as we ascend we come into another climate; the air is almost cold, there is a fine, drizzling rain; blackberries, bracken, and other home-like plants border the roadside, and we might imagine ourselves in England, but for the bright-hued little birds which peep fearlessly at us from the bushes. Though the excursion is a most enjoyable one, especially after being cooped up on board ship, Longwood itself is disappointing, the house being quite dismantled, and containing nothing but a very beautiful bust of Napoleon, which has been placed by his family in one of the rooms. Our passage is throughout a calm and prosperous one: we have pleasant company on board; there are none of the cliques and small enmities which so often spoil the enjoyment of a voyage; some of the passengers play and sing well; good concerts and theatricals enliven many of our evenings; and our only disappointment is the unkind fate which again brings us through Madeira in the dark. And at last, one lovely April morning--which seems to have been made on purpose to welcome returning colonists, spoilt by a long continuance of Cape sunshine--we drop quietly into Southampton; English violets and primroses are brought on board in delicious profusion; the usual hurried farewells are exchanged while most of us struggle wildly with refractory bags and wraps; Toto, in an alarmingly plethoric condition, waddles forth from his hen-coop; and very soon we are on _terra firma_, and--paying the first dread penalty of the newly-landed--pass through the ordeal of the Custom House. This turns out to be a very lengthy and tedious business; for, since we have been away, new and stringent regulations have come into force, and we find that our innocent cabin-trunks and hand-bags are all suspected of containing dynamite. Not until every package has been thoroughly ransacked are we allowed to depart, and seek our train. Then the latter bears us along through woodland scenery, brilliant with all the fresh tints of an English spring, which for us seems to have a new beauty. And in a few hours we find ourselves back in old, familiar scenes; friends from whom we have long been parted are round us once more; and the dear, delightful, rough South African life is a thing of the past. THE END. D. APPLETON & CO'S PUBLICATIONS. WORKS BY ARABELLA B. BUCKLEY (MRS. FISHER). _THE FAIRY-LAND OF SCIENCE._ With 74 Illustrations Cloth, gilt, $1.50. "Deserves to take a permanent place in the literature of youth."--_London Times._ "So interesting that, having once opened the book, we do not know how to leave off reading."--_Saturday Review._ _THROUGH MAGIC GLASSES and other Lectures._ A Sequel to "The Fairy-Land of Science." Cloth, $1.50. _CONTENTS._ THE MAGICIAN'S CHAMBER BY MOONLIGHT. MAGIC GLASSES AND HOW TO USE THEM. FAIRY RINGS AND HOW THEY ARE MADE. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF LICHENS AND MOSSES. THE HISTORY OF A LAVA-STREAM. AN HOUR WITH THE SUN. AN EVENING WITH THE STARS. LITTLE BEINGS FROM A MINIATURE OCEAN. THE DARTMOOR PONIES. THE MAGICIAN'S DREAM OF ANCIENT DAYS. _LIFE AND HER CHILDREN: Glimpses of Animal Life from the Amoeba to the Insects._ With over 100 Illustrations. Cloth, gilt, $1.50. "The work forms a charming introduction to the study of zoölogy--the science of living things--which, we trust, will find its way into many hands"--_Nature._ _WINNERS IN LIFE'S RACE; or, The Great Backboned Family._ With numerous Illustrations. Cloth, gilt, $1.50. "We can conceive no better gift-book than this volume. Miss Buckley has spared no pains to incorporate in her book the latest results of scientific research. The illustrations in the book deserve the highest praise--they are numerous, accurate, and striking."--_Spectator._ _A SHORT HISTORY OF NATURAL SCIENCE; and of the Progress of Discovery from the Time of the Greeks to the Present Time._ New edition, revised and rearranged. With 77 Illustrations. Cloth, $2.00. "The work, though mainly intended for children and young persons, may be most advantageously read by many persons of riper age, and may serve to implant in their minds a fuller and clearer conception of 'the promises, the achievements, and claims of science.'"--_Journal of Science._ New York: D. APPLETON & CO. 1, 3. & 5 Bond Street. _NEW EDITION OF ENGLISH ODES._ Selected by EDMUND W. GOSSE. With Frontispiece on India paper from a design by HAMO THORNYCROFT, A.R.A. Forty-two Head and Tail Pieces from Original Drawings by LOUIS RHEAD. 16mo. Cloth, special design in gold, $1.50. Same, in parchment, $1.75. _NEW EDITION OF ENGLISH LYRICS._ Uniform with "English Odes." With nearly Eighty Head and Tail Pieces from Original Drawings by LOUIS RHEAD. 16mo. Cloth, special design in gold, $1.50. Same, in parchment, $1.75. _THE MUSIC SERIES._ Consisting of Biographical and Anecdotical Sketches of the Great German Composers; The Great Italian and French Composers; Great Singers; Great Violinists and Pianists. Five volumes, 18mo. Bound in half white and red sides, $3.50 per set; half calf, $8.00. _THE HOUSEHOLD BOOK OF POETRY._ By CHARLES A. DANA. Entirely new edition, from new stereotype plates, enlarged and brought down to the present time. With nearly Two Hundred additional poems. Illustrated with Steel Engravings. Royal 8vo. Cloth, gilt extra, $5.00; half calf, $8.00; morocco, antique, $10.00; tree calf, $12.00. A CHARMING AUTOBIOGRAPHY. _THE LIFE OF AN ARTIST._ By JULES BRETON. With Portrait. Translated by Mrs. MARY J. SERRANO. 12mo. Bound in cloth, $1.50. "... One of those books the success of which is assured from the first because of its perfect naturalness.... The reader of Jules Breton's memoir ... will close the book without having experienced one misgiving as to its entire truthfulness. From the first page to the last his memoir will be found not merely readable, but fascinating, and the translator has very well reproduced his charms of style, his beautiful simplicity, and that perfume of the love of Nature which breathes through the book and ennobles it."--_New York Tribune._ "The method and spirit ... are most delicate and delightful.... Filled with the poet's glow and the philosopher's peace."--_New York Sun._ "One understands modern France the better for this autobiography of her highly gifted son."--_Boston Pilot._ "Jules Breton, by writing his autobiography, has conferred a lasting favor on the lovers of this class of literature."--_Detroit Journal._ _WIDOW GUTHRIE._ A Novel. By RICHARD MALCOLM JOHNSTON. Illustrated by E. W. KEMBLE. 12mo. Bound in cloth, $1.50. "_It is understood that Colonel Johnston regards 'Widow Guthrie' as his strongest work._" "One of the happiest, sweetest, quaintest novels that have come from the press in a long time is 'Widow Guthrie,' a vigorous, breezy, and faithful picture of life in the South in the days before the war. There is no lack of virility, but there is also a refinement which is exquisite because it is genuine, and a humor which is mellow and sweet because it springs from a clean imagination."--_Brooklyn Standard-Union._ "It is full of strong descriptions and curious and forcible character delineations. There is remarkable freshness in the figures of the story. The duel and the slaying of Duncan Guthrie are descriptive masterpieces."--_New York Sun._ "The Widow Guthrie stands out more boldly than any other figure we know--a figure curiously compounded of cynical hardness, blind love, and broken-hearted pathos.... A strong and interesting study of Georgia characteristics without depending upon dialect. There is just sufficient mannerism and change of speech to give piquancy to the whole."--_Baltimore Sun._ "... Some remarkably vivid portraitures of character.... The book is one that will please men as well as women."--_Boston Evening Gazette._ A NEW BOOK BY THE AUTHOR OF "A SOCIAL DEPARTURE." _AN AMERICAN GIRL IN LONDON._ By SARA JEANNETTE DUNCAN. With 80 Illustrations by F. H. TOWNSEND. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. A brilliant book, picturing English sights, society, customs, and amusements, as seen by an unconventional and witty observer. The same qualities which made "A Social Departure" so remarkable a success will make "An American Girl in London" a book which is "talked about everywhere." "In the lighter literature of last year there was nothing more amusing than 'A Social Departure,' by Sara Jeannette Duncan, of Canada. It was just long enough--it could not well have been longer--but each reader wished that the author might write another book in similar style. Well, she has done it, and she could not have taken a better subject than 'An American Girl in London.'"--_New York Herald._ "The raciness and breeziness which made 'A Social Departure,' by the same author, last season, the best-read and most talked-of book of travel for many a year, permeates the new book, and appears between the lines of every page. It is superfluous to say that 'An American Girl' is 'awfully fetching.'"--_Brooklyn Standard-Union._ _A SOCIAL DEPARTURE: How Orthodocia and I Went Round the World by Ourselves._ By SARA JEANNETTE DUNCAN. Illustrated by F. H. TOWNSEND. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75. "It is _a cheery_, _witty_, _decorous_, _charming_ book."--_New York Herald._ "Widely read and praised on both sides of the Atlantic and Pacific, the diary is now republished in New York, with scores of illustrations which fit the text exactly and show the mind of artist and writer in unison."--_New York Evening Post._ "... It is to be doubted whether another book can be found so thoroughly amusing from beginning to end."--_Boston Daily Advertiser._ "A very bright book on a very entertaining subject. We commend it to those readers who abhor the ordinary statistical book of travels."--_Boston Evening Transcript._ "A brighter, merrier, more entirely charming book would be, indeed, difficult to find."--_St. Louis Republican._ "For sparkling wit, irresistibly contagious fun, keen observation, absolutely poetic appreciation of natural beauty, and vivid descriptiveness, it has no recent rival."--Mrs. P. T. BARNUM'S Letter to the _New York Tribune._ SUMMER READING. _OUTINGS AT ODD TIMES._ By CHARLES C. ABBOTT. 16mo. Cloth, gilt top, $1.25. "Dr. Abbott's love and enthusiasm for Nature, and the things and creatures of Nature, knows no limit. The story they have to tell him is always new, always charming; and he interprets it with an enthusiasm and eloquence that carry conviction to his readers."--_Providence Journal._ "A number of short studies of Nature in her outdoor aspects by one who has established a reputation as a close and sympathetic student and naturalist. He finds somewhat of interest and beauty in each season, and reveals to less observant eyes many of the curiosities and wonders of the living world about us."--_Hartford Courant._ "Short essays on outdoor life set in charming shape."--_Philadelphia Times._ _THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. A Guide to their Interpretation._ With a Map of the Mountains and Ten Illustrations. By Rev. JULIUS H. WARD. 12mo. Cloth, gilt top, $1.25. Mr. Ward has spent his summer vacations in the White Mountains for several years, and has entered deeply into their life and meaning. This book is both a guide to a better knowledge of the White Hills and a souvenir of what one finds in them. "Nature," says the author, "in these retreats is very coy, and her secrets are only communicated to those who seek them. The ability to enjoy natural scenery is partly a gift, but it may be immensely increased by habits of observation." "The author is thoroughly in love with his subject, and not less thoroughly acquainted with it. Though he disclaims intention to write a guide-book, the visitor to the White Mountains can hardly fail to profit by his picturesque descriptions, hints about paths and points of view, and abundant suggestions as to times and seasons."--_New York Tribune._ _THE GARDEN'S STORY; or, Pleasures and Trials of an Amateur Gardener._ By GEORGE H. ELLWANGER. With Head and Tail Pieces by Rhead. 12mo. Cloth, extra, $1.50. A literary ramble amid the flowers of the garden, with practical hints upon the cultivation of plants, and gossipy comments upon the characteristics of favorite flowers. "Mr. Ellwanger's instinct rarely errs in matters of taste. He writes out of the fullness of experimental knowledge, but his knowledge differs from that of many a trained cultivator in that his skill in garden practice is guided by a refined æsthetic sensibility, and his appreciation of what is beautiful in nature is healthy, hearty, and catholic. His record of the garden year as we have said, begins with the earliest violet, and it follows the season through until the witch-hazel is blossoming on the border of the wintry woods.... This little book can not fail to give pleasure to all who take a genuine interest in rural life."--_New York Tribune._ _ASTRONOMY WITH AN OPERA-GLASS._ A Popular Introduction to the Study of the Starry Heavens with the Simplest of Optical Instruments. By GARRETT P. SERVISS. 8vo. Cloth, $1.50. This is a unique book, quite alone in the field that it occupies. The call for a fourth edition within two years after its first publication attests its popularity. As one of its reviewers has said, "It is the most _human_ book on the subject of the stars." It would have supplied Thomas Carlyle's want when he wrote, "Why did not somebody teach me the stars and make me at home in the starry heavens?" Interest in the geography of the heavens is increasing every year, as the discoveries of astronomers with the giant telescopes of our day push back the limits of the known universe, and this book is to those who read of such discoveries like an atlas to the student of history. Some of the compliments that the book has received are these: "A most interesting and even fascinating book."--_Christian Union._ "The glimpses he allows to be seen of far-stretching vistas opening out on every side of his modest course of observation help to fix the attention of the negligent, and lighten the toil of the painstaking student.... Mr. Serviss writes with freshness and vivacity."--_London Saturday Review._ "We are glad to welcome this, the second edition, of a popular introduction to the study of the heavens.... There could hardly be a more pleasant road to astronomical knowledge than it affords.... A child may understand the text, which reads more like a collection of anecdotes than anything else, but this does not mar its scientific value."--_Nature._ "Mr. Garrett P. Serviss's book, 'Astronomy with an Opera-Glass,' offers us an admirable hand-book and guide in the cultivation of this noble æsthetic discipline (the study of the stars)."--_New York Home Journal._ "The book should belong to every family library."--_Boston Home Journal._ "This book ought to make star-gazing popular."--_New York Herald._ "The author attributes much of the indifference of otherwise well-informed persons regarding the wonders of the starry firmament to the fact that telescopes are available to few, and that most people have no idea of the possibilities of the more familiar instrument of almost daily use whose powers he sets forth."--_New Orleans Times-Democrat._ "By its aid thousands of people who have resigned themselves to the ignorance in which they were left at school, by our wretched system of teaching by the book only, will thank Mr. Serviss for the suggestions he has so well carried out."--_New York Times._ "For amateur use this book is easily the best treatise on astronomy yet published."--_Chicago Herald._ "'Astronomy with an Opera-Glass' fills a long-felt want."--_Albany Journal._ "No intelligent reader of this book but will feel that if the author fails to set his public star-gazing the fault is not his, for his style is as winning, as graphic, and as clear as the delightful type in which it is printed."--_Providence Journal._ "Mr. Serviss neither talks over the heads of his readers nor ignores the sublime complexity and range of his themes, but unites simplicity with scholarship, scientific precision with life-long enthusiasm, and a genuine eloquence with rare touches of humor. Considered as a product of the publishing industry, the book is elegance itself."--_The Chautauquan._ FICTION SERIES FOR YOUNG READERS. _A series of Stories elaborately illustrated, which includes_ I. _CROWDED OUT O' CROFIELD._ By WILLIAM O. STODDARD. Illustrated by C. T. HILL. How a plucky country boy made his way. One of the most successful of this popular author's stories. II. _KING TOM AND THE RUNAWAYS._ By LOUIS PENDLETON. Illustrated by E. W. KEMBLE. The strange experiences of two boys in the forests and swamps of Georgia. III. _THE LOG SCHOOL-HOUSE ON THE COLUMBIA._ A Tale of the Pioneers of the Great Northwest. By HEZEKIAH BUTTERWORTH, author of "Zigzag Journeys." Illustrated. In a story romantic, exciting, and instructive as well, the author introduces his readers to a new field which will prove to be one of absorbing interest. Also stories by OCTAVE THANET, RICHARD MALCOLM JOHNSTON, and other well-known authors, which will be published shortly. The series, bound in cloth, with specially designed uniform cover. Per volume, $1.50. FIRST VOLUME IN THE SERIES OF THE YOUNG HEROES OF OUR NAVY. _LITTLE JARVIS._ By MOLLY ELLIOT SEAWELL. Illustrated by J. O. DAVIDSON and GEORGE WHARTON EDWARDS. The story of the heroic midshipman of the frigate Constellation. The second of the _Youth's Companion_ prize stories. Bound in cloth, with specially designed cover. 8vo. $1.00. RECENT ISSUES IN APPLETONS' TOWN AND COUNTRY LIBRARY. _THE NUGENTS OF CARRICONNA._ An Irish Story. By TIGHE HOPKINS. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, 75 cents. "An extremely racy Irish story, quite separated from everything that savors of the present agitation in Ireland, and one of the best things of the kind for several years."--_Springfield Republican._ _A SENSITIVE PLANT._ A novel by E. AND D. GERARD, joint authors of "Reata," "The Waters of Hercules," etc. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, 75 cents. "An agreeable and amusing love-story, the scene of which is part of the time in a coal-mining district in Scotland, and afterward in Venice, and a prominent character in which is a shrinking girl whose sensitiveness is suggestive of the little mimosa flower which gives title to the book."--_Cincinnati Times-Star._ _DO�A LUZ._ By DON JUAN VALERA. Translated by Mrs. MARY J. SERRANO. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. "A triumph of skillful execution as well as of profound conception of modern Spanish character and social life. It is full of the best traditions of Spanish thought, both sacred and secular, of Spanish proverbial wisdom, and of the humor of Cervantes and other lights of the past in the literature of Spain."--_Brooklyn Eagle._ _PEPITA XIMENEZ._ By DON JUAN VALERA. Translated by Mrs. MARY J. SERRANO. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. "A very striking and powerful novel."--_Boston Transcript._ "'One of the jewels of literary Spain' is what a Spanish critic has pronounced the most popular book of recent years in that language, Don Juan Valera's novel 'Pepita Ximenez.'"--_The Nation._ _THE PRIMES AND THEIR NEIGHBORS._ Ten Tales of Middle Georgia. By RICHARD MALCOLM JOHNSTON, author of "Widow Guthrie." 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.25. "The best of Southern tales."--_Chicago Herald._ "The thorough excellence of Col. Johnston's work is well known. He was among the first of the successful short-story writers of this country. The steady increase in his fame is the best indication of the solid appreciation of the reading public. This public will give the new volume the same reception that made 'Widow Guthrie' one of the most successful of recent novels."--_Baltimore American._ _THE IRON GAME._ By HENRY F. KEENAN, author of "Trajan," "The Aliens," etc. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. "An entertaining romance which covers the time from just before the war until soon after the peace. Six young people carry on their love-making under countless difficulties, owing to two of them being on the wrong side of the 'unpleasantness.' Of course, there are all sorts of adventures, plots, misunderstandings, and wonderful escapes.... The book is written in excellent taste."--_Pittsburgh Bulletin._ _STORIES OF OLD NEW SPAIN._ By THOMAS A. JANVIER. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. "The author does for the Mexicans much what Longfellow has done for the Acadians."--_New York Commercial Advertiser._ "Mr. Janvier has evidently explored the ancient ruins and studied the old church records thoroughly, and has drawn therefrom much hitherto unused material."--_Cincinnati Times-Star._ "Another lot of those tales of Mexico, which their author, Thomas A. Janvier, knows how to write with such skill and charm. Nine of the stories are delightful, and nine is the number of stories in the book."--_New York Sun._ _THE MAID OF HONOR._ By the Hon. LEWIS WINGFIELD. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, 75 cents. "A story of France just before, during, and after the Reign of Terror. There are not many novels in our language which portray rural conditions in France in this troubled period, and this has a unique interest for that reason."--_Chicago Times._ "A very graphic story of those troublous times which witnessed the temporary triumphs of 'the people.'"--_Rochester Herald._ "It may safely be said that up to the last page ... the reader's attention is not allowed to flag."--_London Athenæum._ _IN THE HEART OF THE STORM._ By MAXWELL GREY, author of "The Silence of Dean Maitland." 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, 75 cents. "The plot is compact, deftly constructed, free from extravagances and violent improbabilities, with a well-managed element of suspense running nearly to the end, and strongly illustrative throughout of English life and character. The book is likely to add materially to the author's well-earned repute."--_Chicago Times._ _CONSEQUENCES._ By EGERTON CASTLE. 12mo. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00. "It is a real pleasure to welcome a new novelist who shows both promise and performance.... The work is distinguished by _verve_, by close and wide observation of the ways and cities of many men, by touches of a reflection which is neither shallow nor charged with the trappings and suits of weightiness; and in many ways, not least in the striking end, it is decidedly original."--_Saturday Review._ _THE WHITE MOUNTAINS: A Guide to their Interpretation._ With a Map of the Mountains and Ten Illustrations. By Rev. JULIUS H. WARD. 12mo. Cloth, gilt top, $1.25. "Books descriptive of the White Mountains are too few. Any lover of the Granite Hills will gladly welcome this valuable addition to White Mountain literature, both for the pleasure he himself will derive from its perusal, and for the good it will do in exciting an interest in the minds of strangers. So far as we know, Mr. Ward's is only the sixth of such books.... If we were to attempt to classify Mr. Ward's book, we should place it along with that of Starr King, for its sympathetic treatment of the subject. It seems to us, however, to occupy a place not filled by any of them, and to share the merits of all. It is not a guide-book, and yet its systematic arrangement and the intelligent hints in its preliminary chapters give it a real value as a guide to the tourist."--Rev. ITHAMAR W. BEARD, in _White Mountain Echo_. "Mr. Ward's aim has been something apart from the aims of these who have gone before him. He has sought to write neither a guide-book nor an itinerary. He aimed not at mere description, nor did he permit his imagination alone to guide his pen. His was rather a sympathetic and intelligent attempt to interpret for the contemplative mind the great lessons which these impressive elevations are capable of imparting to men.... Mr. Ward's sympathy with his subject is keen and alive. He writes as one who loves Nature profoundly. The faith and devotion of such students we are assured that she never betrays. His in truth is a volume to carry along with one to the mountain and to open and read anywhere. It is also a volume to read at home. Even those who have not in years looked upon those glorious pageants of mountain-tops and moving clouds will find it of great interest and of much practical service in recalling their early impressions and suggesting new ones."--_New York Times._ "The author of 'The White Mountains' is a mountain enthusiast possessing keen poetic conception, the hardihood of a mountaineer, and the especial knowledge of a mountain guide. He, therefore, thoroughly covers his chosen field. Little or nothing is left to any future gleaner; for he has studied this region in all its summer moods and winter tenses, from North Conway to the retreat to Lonesome Lake, from the great wall of the Glen to the heart of the wilderness, from little Jackson Valley to wild-wooded Moosilauke, and the interest of the author is soon communicated to the reader, so that he feels, if he has once visited this region, that he must go again with this book in his hand, to look with wider eyes and finer intelligence, to dream with poets and think with sages."--_The New York Home Journal._ "The volume, although it covers familiar ground, is unique in its plan and treatment, and opens up a new and wonderful source of enjoyment to the lover of natural scenery. It humanizes Nature, or, rather, it brings the single individual soul into communion with that vast and universal soul which pervades the material universe."--_Boston Transcript._ "Description of the perpetually changing mountain view (assisted by ten good photogravures), and interpretation of it after the manner of the poet and the believer in the Divine Immanence, are the two offices which Mr. Ward has so successfully discharged that his volume will become a classic on the White Mountains."--_Literary World._ "It furnishes a great deal of practical information which will be of inestimable service."--_Boston Gazette._ "The book is replete with noble thoughts expressed in language of exquisite beauty."--_New York Observer._ "The author is thoroughly in love with his subject and not less thoroughly acquainted with it."--_New York Tribune._ 
43087	----	Transcriber's note: Changes to the text and known problems are listed at the end of the book. Text bracketed by underscores was in italics in the original book, i. e. _words in italics_. Words in the text (not the titles or cover page) which are ALL CAPITALS were small capitals in the original book. Total Per Cent Lambing Rules [Illustration] COPYRIGHT 1915 BY THOMAS BOYLAN _Total Per Cent Lambing Rules_ _Copyright 1915 by Thomas Boylan_ _To Those Lambing Ewes_: It is quite impossible to give rules that will cover each day all your environs, as shelter, feed and water, help, etc. However, under ordinary circumstances, the following will prove successful: These pages being written for the one who would try, it is the object and desire of the writer to explain to the inexperienced hand, in a plain manner, the work of lambing sheep, especially under range conditions. Having made a study of the work for years, we have seen the utter impossibility of verbally explaining the many necessary details to the "new men" each year. We admit lambing ewes in large numbers successfully is somewhat of a fine art, still common sense, patience and endurance will allow any one adapted to the care of live stock--which means a person who appreciates the worth and meaning of life in any form--to lamb sheep. Common sense will permit any one to readily have at least some idea of the physical endurance, both as to temperature and nutrition, of the animal in his care. The patience which enables you to endure the inclemency of any surrounding for their welfare, is also necessary, for it, too, prevents that hostile, or we might say hideous mood of mind which causes so many people to abuse live stock when it is absolutely uncalled for. It should be self-evident to the ordinary person that life in its beginning is easily overcome by death; that nature has endowed man with a higher intellect that he may care for that life which in his esteem has sufficient worth to justify that care. A providing nature has endowed the sheep with many desires and inclinations, which, while quite clear to the naturalist, to the casual observer and shepherd often appear very contrary. That the sheep is the most contrary animal, other than the hog, is an assertion which often comes from a lack of knowledge of its nature. True, when unintelligently selected surroundings compel you to howl, whistle, and dog it out of its natural contentment, it often becomes contrary, but this mood is forced upon it by its environs, of which the barking dog and the unintelligent and noisy shepherd are generally the greatest fault. Allow sheep their natural contentment by leaving them to their own care whenever possible. They will then hold themselves to the herd and very seldom stray off. Tending sheep in this manner will permit them to show you their wants and necessities. Provide them when you can, for it pays the owner and always lightens your work. Although sheep will soon become used to the whistling and holloing shepherd, together with the barking dog, apparently paying little attention to them, they do, nevertheless, fret, causing them to roughen and lose in flesh. We have seen sheep become so thin by such treatment that they were actually too weak to follow the herd longer. They will always do their best to stray away from such surroundings. Sheep know the intelligent shepherd never whistles, hollos, or rushes the dog at them unless it is absolutely necessary, and they very readily mind such a person. Surely it is not the sheep that is at fault when the shepherd selects as their pasture, during a stormy day, a bleak flat or mesa, where the sheep in their discontent are compelled to run around seeking shelter or to maintain their warmth, vexing the herder, causing him to dog them severely. BEGINNING. Should you have plenty of pasture, put your dropping ewes upon the lambing ground 143 days after the rams were first with them. This gives them a little time to locate, their dropping time not being up until the 145th day. If lambing upon the open range, two or three good, live men to each 1,000 ewes will be necessary, while for shed lambing there should be four or five for that number of ewes. In each case the amount of help necessary depends upon the range and method of lambing. The men should have enough clothing and bedding to be out in all kinds of weather without chilling. Inform them that abusing the sheep by using the crook as a club, dogging, or otherwise, will not help you nor ease their work in the least. Truly, the man worth while in a lambing camp is "the man who can smile when everything goes dead wrong"--the man who sees many things and can find the time, the way, and the will, to better them. Do not bed dropping ewes upon steep hillsides, where they will cast themselves during or before lambing. It may often become necessary to bed small bunches out by themselves; this gives the coyote a great chance to do his work. To keep him and other predatory animals away during the night, it is well to have firecrackers, fuse, or powder, scare-crows and lanterns on hand. To catch and chain a live coyote out upon the lambing ground has been the most effective scare-crow the writer has ever used to keep coyotes from the lambing range. As a disinfectant for bites, cuts, sores and maggots, have carbolic acid, turpentine, or some good creosote sheep dip. Marking materials are also very handy at times to mark certain ewes and lambs. The remedies given here for the treatment of ailments generally found at lambing time are not those found at a drug store twenty miles away, but, rather, those camp necessities which are most always at hand. They have proven their merit and can be relied upon. THE DROP BAND. Put the best man you have with your dropping ewes. He should have a cool temper, good feet, and the will to use them. Each day he should have a sheep crook and some quarter-inch rope with him. The sheep should have salt or salt feed enough to be contented. Water them once a day during dry weather; on rainy days they will feed better when not given water. In bunch lambing, where the new-born lambs are with the dropping ewes all the time, 700 ewes are enough to the band, while if you lamb by the dropping system, where you part the new-born lambs and their mothers from the dropping ewes several times each 24 hours, you may have up to 4,000 ewes in the drop band. This is not advisable where your range is closed in or short on feed or water. Upon such a range 1,500 ewes are enough to the band. Have them bedded in the warmest places at night. In nice weather let them leave the bed ground as early as possible, while in bad weather--if you have them on a good bed ground--let them remain as long as they wish. Never hold them on the bed ground in the morning by rushing them back with a dog when they are ready to leave. By so mixing the ewes you will "bum" lambs dropped during the night. On bad days put them in the warmest places, behind hills, in high brush, or any other good shelter you may have near at hand, which will keep the new-born lambs out of the wind. During warm and pleasant days let them out well in the morning hours, then hold them up a few hours on good feed, turning them toward camp and water early in the afternoon, so that the lambs dropped in the evening hours will be near camp, where they will not have to be moved. Should your range allow you to change the bed ground each night, while the lambs are coming fast, it is best to do so. When the range is so situated that you cannot move camp each day, compelling you to move the ewes with lambs off the bed ground, so the dropping ewes may bed in the same place again, try not to move them until about the time the droppers come in around camp in the evening, say about 4 p. m. Do not move them farther than is necessary to keep them from mixing with the drop band during the night. Before the ewes bed down for the night, catch all ewes that appear sick and have not been on feed or wish to be alone, not caring to follow the herd longer. Such ewes likely have a dead lamb in them. Watch for such ewes during the day and take the lamb from them before blood poison kills the ewe. Safeguard yourself and the ewe, if convenient, by disinfecting your hands before and after doing this. WORKING THE BED GROUND. This seems to be a critical time for many shepherds. Some persons become greatly provoked trying to hold the new-born lambs and their mothers apart from the dropping ewes, as the latter leave the bed ground in the morning. Shepherds who rush among the ewes and lambs, in order to move the dropping ewes off the bed ground in the morning, will make themselves much work, but will never bring out a good per cent of lambs, as ewes having dropped their lambs during the night are always somewhat uneasy and excited when the herd leaves in the morning. It is indeed the height of folly to rush among them, causing them to run away from their new-born lambs in their excitement. Allow the dropping ewes to leave at their will; do not drive them off; all ewes that have not dropped will follow the herd if you will only give them time. Should a few ewes take their lambs and try to follow the herd, let them go a few hundred yards before you try to cut them back. Should there be one or two granny ewes trying to steal lambs, leave them, rather than rush among the others. Wait a few hours until the lambs become dried and the ewes overcome their excitement, before working the bed ground. Allow all ewes that have dead lambs in them, or those unable to drop their lambs, to follow the dropping ewes off the bed ground; then hold up the herd, catch the ewes and pull the lambs from them. At this time, also, catch all ewes that may have left their lambs on the bed ground and turn them back, so they may pick them up. Look over the bed ground during the day for big-teat ewes, weak and "bummed" lambs. Should you have any "bum" lambs, mother them on ewes that have had dead lambs. It is probable that the ewes you pulled the dead lambs from would like to mother the "bums." Keep ALL dogs away while working bed grounds. GATHERING THE DROP. Do not gather new-born lambs during snow or rain storms when they are in good shelter. It is always best, where possible, to leave the new-born lambs where they drop the first 12 to 24 hours. This can be done--where you have them in good enough shelter for the night--by rounding up the outside of the day's drop just a little, then place a tepee with a lantern in it in the center of the bunch, a few firecrackers, with here and there a scarecrow around the outer sides, or have a man sleep near them to keep off coyotes. The ewes will generally bunch themselves by moving up around the tepee during the night. If they must be moved to shelter, or for other reasons, let the men start to move the oldest of the day's drop of lambs as soon as the droppers start back toward camp or water in the afternoon, always moving the oldest to the youngest when convenient to do so. Do not allow anyone to move lambs when wet or too young, unless it is necessary to put them into shelter. In that case, try to move them before the storm, rather than after they become wet. New-born lambs still wet, or having become wet by storm, rubbing together, sometimes change their scent, so that quite a number of their mothers become suspicious of them and will not allow them to suck until they become dried, before which time they may die. We have also on several occasions seen ewes become skeptical of their lamb after having cleaned it, simply because the lamb had come in contact with the cleanings of other ewes. When it is necessary to move new-born lambs, move them slowly and gently to the nearest good shelter. In no case is it advisable to carry lambs around in gunny-sack-full lots. By so doing you are likely to "bum" more lambs than you save. Tie or pen all ewes that do not own their lambs until they do own them. Be sure you are putting THEIR lambs with them. When you have placed the day's drop in good shelter, when you are most sure they are well protected from predatory animals, let them remain quiet for the night. The next morning have someone move them to water. Mix them, when you have to, according to the "table" of these rules. Do not rush the bunches together; get them close to one another, then let them mix themselves. Watch the badger holes. Lambs generally crawl into holes during the cool of night, in hot, sunny days, and during cold, rainy weather. MIXING TO MAKE UP HERDS. It is always best to have your two-year-old ewes mixed with the older ewes during their first lambing. However, this should be given consideration in the mixing of the young lambs, of which the following table will give you a very good idea. Do not drop more at any one place than the table allows. Should the drop be heavier than this during the night hours, cut the drop band in two for a few days. In the following table we count ewes only, and it is always best for your per cent to have less if it is convenient to keep them apart longer: _The Table._ Lambs, Mixed twos Old ewes hours old and older ewes straight 1 to 24 120 or less 150 or less 24 to 48 200 or less 250 or less 3 days or more 350 or less 450 or less From this time on they should be left until they are the following age, when they can be mixed as follows: As ewes know their lambs by scent only during the first four to six days, it should be readily understood that it might become impossible for the ewe to find her lamb should you bunch them sooner than these tables allow, making you many worthless lambs. Lambs 4 to 6 days old (youngest must be 4 days old), 650 to the band. Lambs 8 to 12 days old (youngest must be 8 days old), 1,300 to the band. The above for mixed twos and older ewes. When the herds are made up entirely of ewes past two years old use the following table: Lambs 4 to 6 days old (youngest must be 4 days old), 750 to the band. Lambs 8 to 12 days old (youngest must be 8 days old), 1,500 to the band. These tables should be considered well any time you do any mixing to make up herds. Where you have good feed and water, they will prove very successful. However, as ewes can and will suckle their lambs more readily while in small bands, the development of the lamb will be much more rapid where you are not compelled to bunch them too soon. Let these lamb bunches remain quiet as much as you possibly can. If your feed is poor around the water and the ewes have to leave their lambs to find feed, do not mix so soon nor so many. It may be advisable to move the droppers along a little faster, and by so doing you will leave more feed behind for the ewes with lambs. DOCKING OR TRIMMING LAMBS. Lambs should be docked when from six to twelve days old, when convenient in bands of not more than 700. For several reasons it is best to trim them on a cool day before they move around much in the morning. Avoid trimming in the heat of the day. Docking lambs in old corrals is dangerous, because it is unsanitary--many lambs are likely to die if left standing in old corrals after being cut at docking time. Turn each lamb over the fence and out to pasture as you dock it and you will avoid this trouble. When you can so arrange, it is best to leave these trimmed bunches where they are the balance of the day. At least do not overheat them by rushing them around, either before or after trimming. Let them rest a while. We have used a knife in tailing lambs for years, but find they become a few pounds heavier during the summer season when seared, so advise the use of searing tongs to do the tailing. Keep these tongs red hot, so they will sear and stop all blood. To sear lambs, the docking corral is arranged the same as when you dock with the knife. You simply have an extra man, who places a stove or builds a fire to the right of the person doing the ear-marking and castrating. In this fire or stove the tongs are kept hot, and as the party doing the trimming passes the lamb to the right--the catcher still holding it--along the cutting board, this extra man has the tongs ready to part the tails. One heating of the tongs will sear and part the tails of four or five lambs. You should, however, have at least two or three pairs of these tongs. They are sold at Chicago. If, after a few days, two or three of your largest lambs become sick, bleed them a little by cutting them under the tail stub. Use a solution of 100 parts water to one part creosote sheep dip, or the same solution of carbolic acid, as a wash to swab wether lambs. This will disinfect all cuts and keep flies from them. You will also save many lambs that have been snagged, dog or coyote bitten, by disinfecting them at once, or within a few hours, with either of these solutions. In castrating young lambs, cut the scrotum or sack off about one-half inch from end, then pinch tight above the testicles and draw them. Part the tails at about the lower end of skin on inside of tail. At this time herd-mark each full band of ewes and their lambs distinctly with a separate mark, so they can be parted in case they mix with another band during the summer season. PULLING LAMBS--EVERSION OF WOMB. In pulling lambs from ewes, try to attend to such ewes before the lamb is dead. Get the legs out first; pull slowly and be careful not to jerk--you may pull the lamb bed out of the ewe if you do. Should you do this, or should you find a ewe with her womb cast, it can be replaced by raising her hind parts and slowly forcing the womb back, inserting the parts until the whole womb is turned in its proper shape and is in its natural position. Tie her left hind foot to a bush, or something, allowing her six to eight feet of rope; leave her for an hour, and her pulling will keep the parts in place until they become set. Where the parts have become dirty, they should be brushed clean with a clean brush or rag. Do not wash with water. Inject or insert with a soft rag a few drops of a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid. When the lamb is in his natural position he will arrive with his head and front feet first, giving the ewe little trouble, unless the shoulder or withers are abnormally large. When the head is swollen, or one foot is still back, it is certain the ewe needs assistance at once. Nearly all lambs coming with their hind legs or tail first must be pulled; do this as soon as you notice it. Never neglect ewes laboring more than one hour. If they have not had the lamb in this time, it is absolutely necessary to take the lamb from them or it will be dead. TWINS: THEIR CARE--DEAD LAMBS. When a ewe has twins and is not willing or able to care for them both, try to find a ewe with a dead lamb; take the hide off the dead lamb by case skinning, cutting the hind legs off at the second joint from the foot, then open the skin between the hind legs, pull what is left of the legs up through this opening, then pull the hide back over the body. Cut off the front legs the same way, then pull the hide down over the neck to the head; cut it off there. This will cover the live lamb all except the head and opening you made in taking off the hide. Over these exposed parts rub the entrails of the skinned lamb. Do not make the lamb red with blood, for the ewe may scare from it. Always put the hide on the smallest of the twins, leaving the best one with its own mother. The hide should be left on no longer than is necessary to make the ewe own the lamb, which is generally about 24 hours. In real warm weather, when flies give trouble, it may prove best not to bother with the hide method, but simply cut the entrails out of the dead lamb and rub them well all over the motherless lamb, so the ewe that had the dead lamb will take it from the scent. In most cases where the ewe has not had the opportunity of seeing or smelling her own lamb at birth, she will accept any NEWLY born lamb the same as she would her own without using either of the above methods. Nearly all ewes with much milk will take to such lambs quickly, while those with little milk are not easily "fooled." By either of the above methods it is best to keep the ewe tied or penned until you are sure she does own the strange lamb. Experienced help will generally know by the action of the ewe just when to turn her loose with her adopted lamb. Still, unless she has good feed and water while so tied or penned, she will dry up in a few days, when it becomes impossible for her to mother the "bum." Extra good mothers dropping their lambs near others at times become over-anxious and claim lambs belonging to other ewes, making it look like "twins or better." Do not be fooled, but single such ewes out with their lamb and put her stolen lamb or lambs with their right mothers. GET THE RIGHT MOTHERS. Keep your twinned ewes on good feed and water, also by themselves, if you expect them to raise you two good lambs. At least try not to put them in large bunches until they are at least 10 or 12 days old. DEFORMED AND ALKALIED LAMBS. Most deformed lambs, born with twisted legs, can be cured quickly by tying the deformed parts as near as possible in their natural position for a day or two. Lambs born with their eyelids too large may be cured by taking a pair of scissors or a sharp pocket knife and cutting a small slice or slit horizontally out of the abnormal eyelid, when they will shrink nearly to their normal size, allowing the lamb to open its eyes. Black alkali is very deadly to sheep, and especially to young lambs. Its effects seem to be so sudden that there is little chance for a cure. Keep the young lambs away from all alkali beds and especially from black alkali holes during wet weather. White alkali is not so fatal, yet many good shepherds lose lambs by allowing them to nibble around alkali beds. Should you have some of these alkalied lambs or sheep, treat them at once by giving the lambs one-quarter cupful of vinegar, followed in one hour with three tablespoonsful of raw linseed oil. Sheep should be given one cup of vinegar and one-quarter cup linseed oil. Most sheep sick from this ailment will have a white alkali substance adhering to their nostrils. Where a lamb has no movement of the bowels, give one tablespoonful of molasses and raw linseed oil, mixed. When troubled with too much bowel movement, give one tablespoonful ginger and flour, mixed, once each day in both cases. LARGE AND SPOILED UDDERS. See that all lambs too weak to get up are suckled. That all ewes with large udders are caught and milked out. Catch them without rushing them into a bunch of ewes and young lambs. If you can't, let them go until you can--watch for this opportunity. Tie or pen them up until the udder becomes normal and the lamb can get the teat without help. Many ewes having spoiled udders will come to good milk in a few days, if milked out well two or three times daily. When the ewe has a caked udder, or is troubled with what is commonly known as "blue bag," treat her at once--for she will die if you don't--by milking out what you can. Then mix one pint of coaloil with two gallons of hot water, wrap the udder with a heavy rag wet with this mixture; let it remain for ten minutes, remove, and rub with a mixture of turpentine and lard, or a weak solution of creosote sheep dip or carbolic acid. Repeat this treatment each morning and you will surely save the ewe in a few days. Where the ewe has her udder spoiled on one side only, the milk being good on the other, she is likely to raise her lamb. However, all these ewes should be marked, so they may be disposed of in the fall shipment. When a ewe has "bummed" her lamb because she has a spoiled udder, take the lamb from her before it becomes too weak, or dies; find a ewe with a dead lamb, then try to force the "bummed" lamb upon her as described under twins and their care. TRAILING EWES AND LAMBS--"RUNBACKS." Moving ewes and their lambs from one location to another often brings considerable loss to the owner. Where he has long drives to get to his summer range, he is not only likely to lose many lambs, but will lose considerable in flesh. Lambs are parted too much from their mothers, and cannot get enough sleep while on the trail. The shepherd should do his utmost and use all the care possible to avoid dropping lambs behind, under brush, in holes, or otherwise. The best of men lose lambs while trailing from one part of the range to another; still this does not make it a necessary evil. With due care this loss can be avoided. Try to do your trailing in the cool of early morning and late evening hours. Move them gently, so most of the ewes can tote their lambs along by their side. You will get along quite well this way, for the ewes will then not trouble you trying to run back to hunt lambs. Do not overheat or weaken your lambs by continual dogging. If you must drive them rapidly, use rattle cans. This noise will not only keep them on their feet, but will scare them along much faster than a barking dog that always turns your leaders back on you. Rattle cans will always startle young lambs out of the brush much quicker than any dog when it is necessary to move them. It sometimes takes two or three hours for all the ewes in a large band to find their lambs after being trailed. Until these ewes have all found their lambs there is danger of a "runback" should you leave them. Ewes will invariably become excited and run back to where they saw their lambs last whenever they miss them. Avoid this extra work, and the hardship on the ewes and lambs, by watching them until all the ewes have found their lambs whenever you have moved them. Losing lambs while trailing will generally cause the ewe to become sick with spoiled udder or "blue bag." ACCIDENTAL MIXING. We have seen men try to separate ewes and lambs that have become mixed through their carelessness, or by accident, before the boss got around, causing heavy loss. Warn the men never to try this; they never, or very seldom, can part them straight. In a mix of this kind--we trust there will not be any--by all means try to leave the ewes quiet; hold them still a few hours, not too close, so each ewe can single out her lamb and become contented. This gives other ewes a chance to find their lambs without running from one part of the range to another. When these mixed bunches are not rushed and pushed around they will likely straighten themselves out with as few "bums" as possible under such conditions. Should a mix of this kind make more than a full band, the owner or foreman should put a light slat corral around the bunch (this can be done quicker than moving them to a distant corral), then counting out the number of ewes over and above a normal herd. He should spend considerable time watching these ewes call their lambs out through "lamb holes" made in all parts of the corral. MIXING, SHELTER, COYOTES, BADGER HOLES. To keep each bunch of ewes and lambs from mixing with another bunch; to have them in good shelter during any storm; to milk out ewes with large teats and suckle their lambs until they are able to take the teat themselves, are respectively the most important work for lambing hands. It will be well to keep the men reminded that they will do much, indeed, for you and the sheep by being "on the job" at all times. The sheep may need their attention any moment; they may mix at any time; coyotes are never all asleep; there may be a lamb in a hole that should be pulled out before the ewe loses it; a lamb may have become clogged behind and need cleaning; an oncoming storm may make it necessary to place and hold them in shelter until it has passed. A live, watchful person is worth much indeed at lambing time. A sleepy-head has little value around sheep at any time. FORETELLING WEATHER--ALMANACS, BAROMETERS. Although general storms are expected by everyone, they are considered an abnormal condition. Severity is seldom guarded against, which has often brought much loss at lambing time. Such storms may compel you to make many changes, depending upon their duration and severity. They will test the quality of your endurance. Stay with the ship and save the lambs. The necessary changing of position may make much extra work for everyone. Necessity is the origin of achievement. With your persistent patience, together with your best mental effort, you will come out of the storm with most of the lambs, giving you the baa! baa! as their thanks. As an illustration, perhaps the reader may pardon the following true story: Some years ago while trailing two bands of ewes upon the desert, we, by mishap, became short of camp water. However, necessity strengthened our observing power, causing us to find a ledge of rock at the side of which grew a few wild rose bushes. Here with no little perseverance we dug until we found sufficient water for camp, making a watering place for others where it was always thought impossible for water to be. Who can say, had it been absolutely necessary to water the sheep, also, that we might not have made a pump out of the stove pipe, a handle out of the wagon tongue, a trough out of the wagon box, and with this invention watered the two bands of ewes also? After many years of close observation of weather conditions, during all seasons of the year, we are able to give you valuable information upon the weather you may expect SOME TIME during the seven days following any of the moon's changes. We cannot say upon what exact date certain weather changes will take place, but do state the weather that is most likely to predominate during any of the moon's phases. When the new moon in any month comes in upon his back, these storms will be more severe than when it comes in standing up. The Indian had no powder horn. When the moon is moving from south to north it seldom fails to bring warmth, while it hardly ever fails to bring cold weather upon its return from the north. You should have a reliable almanac, giving the exact time of each of the moon's changes in the standard time of your locality. A storm-glass or barometer will keep you posted 24 to 36 hours before any weather change. This may save you lambs. This table can be used any part of the year, allowing for snow in winter where the calculations foretell rain in summer. If the new moon, first quarter, full moon, or last quarter come in during the time given, the weather most likely to follow SOME TIME during the next seven days will be as follows: 12 midnight to 2 a. m.--Fair days, cold nights. 2 a. m. to 8 a. m.--Cold and rainy. 8 a. m. to 2:30 p. m.--Windy or heavy rains. 2:30 p. m. to 6 p. m.--Fair and warm. 6 p. m. to 12 p. m.--Fair days, cold nights. We have found the new moon most likely to bring an exception to this rule, still we assure you this table is worth your consideration during all seasons of the year. Keep your lambs in shelter during severe storms by reading a good almanac and watching this table. HERDING, DOGS AND FEED. The good shepherd is not born every day. A quiet, unexcitable mental characteristic is the utmost necessity. Nervous, excitable people become too easily angered; they will wear themselves and the sheep out with over-work and abuse, while the overly sentimental person becomes too easily disheartened; others have to do his work while he stands around telling you in a sorrowful tone how it broke his heart to see that poor twin lamb die, during which time other lambs in his care are dying from his neglect. He is the first to give up the ship when "everything goes dead wrong." Most ewes, and especially two-year-olds, are very timid and easily frightened from their lambs when left out by themselves or in small bunches. For this and other reasons it is best to have few dogs upon a lambing ground, especially around the dropping ewes. If any, they should be in care of experienced men only, for whom they may head off a bad mix or find a lamb in a hole, etc. Inexperienced men never watch their dogs close enough, when the very best of dogs will scare many ewes from their lambs, even though they are not very near them. So if you can control the bunches without the aid of dogs, it will always help your per cent to do so. Again, it will be well to remind the help that they are on a lambing ground, where it takes much cool temper and many hard knocks to make things go right at times. Inform them that it is not always possible to fatten the ewes during lambing, so they will not run the drop band, or the ewes with lambs, all over the country each day looking for feed. True, they should be allowed to scatter and spread over their allotted pasture; but we once heard an owner tell a "new man" to take the sheep out on good range and allow them to "cover all the ground possible." The next day we met this shepherd (?) about three miles from his camp, dogging his sheep from one part of the range to another. When asked where he was going, he answered that "the boss had told him to let them cover all the ground possible" and that he was doing the best he could to get over all the ground. Needless to say that the boss is the loser when his flocks are tended in such a manner. The lamb needs milk, and the ewe needs feed to produce it, but the lambs also need much sleep and rest to make them grow fast. Rather have the ewes near water and upon less feed until the lambs become at least ten days old. SHED LAMBING. [Illustration] For early or shed lambing the following illustrations will give a good idea of the individual pens, of which there should be about 70 for each 1,000 ewes. These pens are about three and one-half feet long and 32 inches wide. The panels and gates are 3 feet high and are made of 1 by 4-inch boards; the panels being made exactly 7 feet long, and the gates 32 inches wide. At each end on both sides of the panels is nailed a 1 by 2-inch strip to space the 4-inch boards, as follows: Bottom space, 2½ inches; second space, 3 inches; third space, 5 inches; fourth space, 6 inches. To partition the panels at the center, we use 16 or 20-foot boards, as follows: Bottom space, 4-inch board notched ¾ inch on top and bottom sides, at each cross section of panels; second space, 4-inch board notched ½ inch at each cross section of panels; third space, water trough, 4 inches deep, 8 inches wide; fourth space, 8-inch board notched 1 inch at each cross section of panel. The panel has a 6-inch board nailed upright at each outer end. This makes the slide for the gate to pass up and down in, also holding it in place. On top of the panel notched in ¾ inch is a 2-inch strip passing parallel with the gates, but over the panels. This strip stops the gates from falling inward. As there are no nails used in these top strips nor in the boards which make the partition through the center, these pens are easily collapsed and removed, should the shed be used for other purposes during other seasons of the year. To the sides are fastened gunny sacks to hold feed for each ewe. On top at center is an 8-inch walking board, over which the attendants may pass without disturbing dropping ewes in other parts of the shed. To clean the water trough when it becomes dirty there is an endless ¼-inch rope passing through the trough and over the pens; to this are attached rags or gunny sacks, which are drawn through the trough. Tacked to the top board of panel in each pen there is a small canvas sack containing three different colored small rags or flags to indicate whether the ewe claims her lamb, has twins, large udder, or is ready to turn out. [Illustration] THE "PULLMAN." This is the lamb wagon, which brings the ewe and lamb to the shed from the pasture during the day. It is made of the same material as the individual pens above described, placed upon a low running gear, with a floor made of 1½-inch boards, with a 2 by 2-inch strip along each side to firmly hold the pens from any lateral or side motion. There are seven pens on each side, 14 in all. To each gate and over the top and ends of the pens is tacked heavy canvas to exclude all rains and winds from the newly born lambs while they are being hauled from pasture to shed. Upon the range the ewe and lamb are sheltered during storms with a small "sheep tepee" until the "Pullman" arrives, which insures continual warmth for the lamb until he is placed in the shed. There is feed for the ewe in sacks in each of the 14 pens. Indicating flags or rags are hung on small nails on each gate to show the attendant at the shed, when the wagon arrives, the character of each ewe, that he may intelligently care for her and her lamb at once. The dimensions are: Length of floor, 14 feet; width of floor, 7 feet; length of panel, 6 feet 8 inches; width of gate, 22 inches; height of pens, 3 feet. This allows each ewe a space 39 inches long and 22 inches wide. Such a wagon will cost complete about fifty dollars. It will do the work for about 2,500 dropping ewes, when they are not pastured much more than one mile from the lambing shed. The attendants at the shed, after unloading the wagon and placing each ewe in an individual pen, see that each lamb is suckled; also that the ewe has plenty of good clean feed and water until she is ready to turn out and mix with other ewes and lambs, according to the table of these rules. [Illustration] It may be necessary to keep obstinate ewes, that will not claim their lamb, penned for three or four days; it is not advisable to hold them longer, as they will dry up unless you have good milk-producing feed. Most ewes and their lambs can be numbered and turned out in small bunches of say fifty head, after they have been in the individual pens 24 hours. They can thus be kept in separate yards around the main lambing shed for three or more days. Here the attendant can watch them; should any of the ewes refuse their lambs, they can be easily picked out by their number and returned to the single pen. After the lambs are four or five days old they can be placed in bands of three hundred and removed to other parts of the pasture, where there is good shelter, or, better, where there are other small sheds that will accommodate such small bunches. [Illustration] NIGHT WORK. Some owners have one or two men working among their dropping ewes all night when shed lambing. These men remove the new-born lambs and their mothers from the dropping ewes as soon as they drop. This method is very hard on the ewes; it breaks their rest. After being worked this way for eight or ten nights, all ewes not in extra good condition, together with those heavy with twins, will become very weak; many of them will dry up in milk and become unable to raise a lamb. A much better system is to partition the dropping ewes off with panels each night when they come into the shed, allowing about 150 to each compartment or lot. Thus there will be but few lambs to care for in each lot in the morning; these can be readily removed when turning out the ewes. This permits the ewes to conserve their strength for the sick spell, with a good rest at night. TAGS. During this lambing the sheep generally still carry their wool. This often causes the new-born lamb considerable trouble. Careless shepherds often allow lambs to suck tags until they die. It only takes a moment to remove the tags from the udder, so watch all new-born lambs when lambing "wool sheep" until you are sure the lamb has found the teat. Some flockmasters have all their dropping ewes shorn around the udder just before lambing sheep with the wool on. SALT. After lambs become two weeks old they will begin to nibble for salt. If you do not allow them the salt they will eat any loose dirt. This may kill a few in any case. Should your pasture contain much alkali, or soil containing small quantities of arsenic matter, you are likely to lose quite a number of the lambs about the time they begin eating, as they invariably nibble for a salt substance first. If convenient, feed the loose salt in troughs only; otherwise use block salt. Allow about three ounces per ewe each week, or roughly speaking twenty pounds of salt for each one hundred ewes and their lambs per week. They will require this amount only where they are on very soft, green feed. Upon the range, where there is considerable natural salt feed, or the water is strongly alkalized, they will not consume that amount. Where they are given salt at regular intervals there is no danger of over-feeding. Salt is good for the wool; it makes good healthy lambs. CHILLED LAMBS. Chilled lambs bring "chilled men." These lambs take the life and incentive out of many "new men" who stand around in dejected spirits, while the real shepherd does much of their work to revive and prevent chilled lambs everywhere. There are many ways to revive the chilled lambs found upon any lambing ground. Some persons wrap them in a cloth taken out of hot water. Others wrap them well in dry rags. Some give hot milk, whiskey, brandy, etc. Either of these treatments will generally revive them. A very simple method is to take a rag or gunny sack and rub them until respiration fully returns; rub them quite dry if wet, put a very small amount of salt upon the tongue--this stimulates the heart to action by causing a light general irritation. When the lamb has enough life to take milk, suckle it just a little, not too much; repeat in an hour. When the tongue of the lamb is still warm he will surely and quickly come to real life if you will kindly treat him as described. Place all such lambs in the best shelter, where they are out of the wind, and most of them will be with you when the storm is over. A little extra work at this time will always be greatly appreciated by every one concerned. THE EARLY LAMB. As a general thing early lambs are considerably more expensive to the producer than the late lambs born upon the open range. The ewes need extra feed through the winter months, in order that they may have milk for the young, even though there is no green grass. Yet in most cases this extra cost is justified by the greater value of the lamb at shipping time. These lambs grow and put on flesh very rapidly upon the soft young grass of the early spring months, when their mothers give so much milk. Again, as most breeders use their oldest ewes or the ones that they know will need much extra feed and care through the winter months, for this lambing, there is another consolation in the fact that should such a ewe lose her lamb at lambing time, she, too, will have advantage of that soft green feed so essential to place old ewes in good marketable shape at shipping time. Another advantage is that the lamb can be taken from them during the summer or early fall months, which permits the ewe to become in good condition for the next breeding or the following winter. SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. In docking lambs we have had the best success when the sign was at Taurus, Neck. In breeding, we find when the ewe comes in season or heat while the sign is at Scorpio and the ram is given during her first day in, the ewe will predominate the sex. Especially is this true when the ewe is somewhat older than the ram. Should the ram be given when the ewe is going out, the sex of offspring will be nearly even. When the ewe comes in while the sign is at Aries or Taurus, and the ram is not given until the second day, the ram will strongly predominate the sex. This is also especially true where the ram is a little the oldest and in a somewhat better physical condition. Close attention shows us this law of nature very clearly, yet we have much to learn regarding it. Try it next season when breeding. We are indeed aware that circumstances will not always permit you to abide by these rules to the minute. Perhaps they will save lambs even if followed only in part. Use them--try them. Use the same mental effort to keep you out of MISTAKES that you use to get the OTHER FELLOW to straighten them. In closing, we have tried to make the wording simple and without too much detail, which might give to a simple matter the appearance of being complicated. We would gladly be on the job, to see the boys, "the lay of the land," the feed and water, or other details. For these, and to get the most out of your environs, your judgment is always essential to bring the total per cent for which you are working, and which we so sincerely wish you. Respectfully yours, THOMAS BOYLAN. Transcriber's changes and known problems: Some words or phrases are spelled inconsistently in the original book. These have been transcribed as originally printed: scare-crow and scarecrow, every one and everyone, and any one and anyone. P. 14: In the phrase, "lower end of skin on inside of tail," the word "on" appears to have been changed from "or" by hand on the original page. P. 25: Changed sotrms to storms in the phrase "during severe storms by reading." P. 25: Changed menatl to mental in the phrase "unexcitable mental characteristic." P. 38: The phrase "when the sign was at Taurus, Neck," is transcribed as in the original book. 
37445	----	Transcriber's Note Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. A list of corrections is found at the end of the text. Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been maintained. A list of inconsistently spelled and hyphenated words is found at the end of the text. THE LADY AND HER HORSE, BEING HINTS SELECTED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES AND COMPILED INTO A SYSTEM OF EQUITATION. BY MAJOR T. A. JENKINS. MADRAS: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY PHAROAH AND CO. ATHENÆUM PRESS, MOUNT ROAD. 1857. CONTENTS. _Page._ Introductory Address 1 Preparatory Remarks 2 Directions for Mounting 5 The Seat and Balance 7 Holding the Reins 10 Aids and Indications 11 Guiding 16 Animations 22 Soothing 21 Corrections 25 Vices 26 Paces of the Horse 33 Leaping 39 Road Riding 41 Dismounting 46 Concluding Remarks 48 EQUITATION. INTRODUCTORY ADDRESS. "What delight To back the flying Steed, that challenges The wind for speed! Seems native more of Air, Than Earth! Whose burden only lends him fire! Whose soul is in his task, turns labour into sport And makes your pastime his!" '_Love Chase._' "The chief point in Horsemanship", Colonel GREENWOOD observes in his "Hints on Horsemanship" "is to get your horse to be of your party; and not only to obey, but to obey willingly,"--"Good riding as a whole is indeed no trifle, and is worth acquiring by those whose pleasure or business it is to ride, because it is soon, and easily acquired, and when acquired it becomes habitual, and is as easy, nay much more so; and infinitely more safe, than bad riding. Good riding is an affair of skill, but bad riding is an affair of courage." Yet, in no other art, are there so many self-thought Amateurs. Many ladies have a decided objection to going through the ordeal of a riding school; others have no opportunity of obtaining instructions, and the generality consider, that they are in possession of all that can be acquired upon the subject, when they have discovered a mode of retaining the seat, and guiding the horse; but to those who wish to sit a horse through all his paces, firmly, yet gracefully, to have the animal entirely under command, and as if imbued with one intelligence, to unite boldness, with modesty, and employ energy, without losing delicacy, these hints are addressed. PREPARATORY REMARKS. _A lady's riding dress_, should be neat, and compact, at the same time she should carefully avoid the slightest approach to a _mannish_ appearance; she may study the becoming, provided there be nothing in her whole toilette likely to become disarranged or loosened by wind, or violent exercise. The hair should be so arranged that it cannot be blown about the eyes, and the hat should be perfectly secured on the head. So much for outward appearance, in other respects comfort alone should be studied. _The whip_, should be light, and stiff. When too pliable, a lady frequently touches her horse with it unintentionally, thereby teasing and exciting him, and moreover such a whip is useless as an "aid." _The lady's bridle_, should be, what is called a double bitted bridle, consisting of a bit with a curb-chain; and a snaffle, two separate head-stalls, united by one brow-band, each, with a separate rein. The _curb-bit_ is a very powerful implement, the best for all purposes is a light one; in choosing a bit for a horse, the distance between the cheeks, should accord with the width of the horse's mouth; they should be of an average length, and the mouth-piece should be only sufficiently arched, to admit of the horse's tongue passing freely underneath it. The bit should be placed in the horse's mouth, so that the mouth-piece be one inch above the lower tusk, the curb chain should be laid flat, and smooth under the jaw, and so loose, as to allow a finger to pass freely inside of it. The _snaffle_ acts as an auxiliary to the curb-bit, and is placed above it in the horse's mouth, it should bear slightly upon the corners of the mouth, but not so as to wrinkle the cheeks. For a person who has not a light hand, the curb-bit may, with advantage, be placed a little higher in the horse's mouth; and when the mouth may be wanting in delicacy, it may be lowered a little, but it should never touch the tusk, or it will fret the horse. The _reins_ should be soft, flexible, and of a good quality, the rein which is attached to the curb-bit is usually fastened in the centre by a sewing, while that attached to the snaffle may be known, by its having a small buckle in the centre. _Throat-strap_ should not be buckled too tightly, but only sufficiently so, to prevent the headstalls of the bridle, from getting out of place. _Martingales_, though frequently used, are very seldom necessary if the horse has been educated, and taught to carry his head properly, and to be _obedient to the bit_; but if a horse carries his head high, or be unsteady and fretful, then a light running martingale will be found of service; it must however be attached to the snaffle reins, and never to the curb-bit reins. The _saddle_ should be roomy, but not too large, it should in short, be made to fit the person. The third crutch is indispensable, as it renders the seat so much more secure, and if properly fitted, it never incommodes the rider. The saddle should be placed on the horse's back, so as not in the least to interfere with the action of the horse's shoulder, and care must be taken that the pad, or stuffing, only rests on the horse's ribs, leaving in the centre a thorough channel, over the spine. _The lady's horse_ should be good tempered, free and willing, for a sluggish horse is the most unpleasant of any to a lady; but he must not be restless, nor impatient in company: he should be steady, and safe on the roads, smooth in all his paces; and with these natural qualifications which are essential, he must be properly broken, and taught to go collectedly in all his paces; and particularly to lead off in a canter with the right leg; to arch his neck on the reins being felt, to be obedient, and light in hand; it is further desirable that the horse should possess elegance of figure, power, and action, with speed in all his paces. However, much will depend upon the person, for whom he is intended, as a timid rider would be alarmed by the sprightliness of a free going horse, which might perfectly suit a lady with a light hand, and a steady seat. A young horse is naturally unsteady, the beau ideal of a lady's horse, is an officer's charger, about ten years old, as he still possesses life and spirit, without the freshness of a colt. DIRECTIONS FOR MOUNTING. The lady holding the falling folds of her habit in both hands, walks up to the horse's head, or side; but never behind him, lest he should kick at her. There should be two persons in attendance, the groom should stand before the horse's head, with a hand on each side of the bridle, close to his mouth, to keep him steady; the gentleman takes the reins in his left hand, separating them with his forefingers, the lady receives them in her right hand, in like manner, and lets them glide gently and evenly through her fingers, until her hand reaches the near crutch, which she takes hold of; and having passed the whip over the saddle, she holds it also in her right hand. Standing close to the near side of the saddle, and facing the gentleman who has taken a lock of the mane in his left hand, the lady places her left foot, which he stoops to receive, full in his right hand, lets the habit fall from her left hand, which she places upon his right shoulder, leaning thereon, and assisted by her hold on the crutch, she springs up from her right instep, as uprightly as possible, having been careful not to place her left foot too far forward, but keeping it directly under her, she straightens her left knee and assumes an upright position; the gentleman, when he feels her spring, accelerates the movement, by simultaneously lifting his hand high enough, to place the lady on the saddle, she steadying herself, by the hold she has with her right hand, seats herself, and places her right leg between the two outward pommels, the gentleman places her foot in the stirrup, and she takes the reins in her left hand. To adjust the habit, the lady raises herself by placing her right hand on the off pommel and standing in her stirrup, the gentleman shakes the back part of the skirt into its place, she re-seats herself, and raising her right knee to free the habit, the gentleman assists to adjust the front part of the skirt by gently drawing it forward. THE SEAT AND BALANCE. A lady seldom appears to greater advantage than when mounted on a fine horse, that is, if her deportment be graceful; and her position corresponds with his paces and attitudes; but the reverse is the case, if, instead of acting with, and influencing the movements of, the horse, she appears to be tossed to and fro, and overcome by them. She should rise, and descend, advance, and stop with, and not after the animal. From this harmony of motion results ease, elegance, and a good effect. The lady should sit in such a position, that the weight of her body may rest on the centre of the saddle, and so far back, as just to admit of her right leg passing easily round the crutch, for if the knee be too far forward, the seat will be very insecure; the right foot should be flat to the saddle, the toe turned downwards, that it may not be seen through the habit, when a firmer seat is required, the heel should be depressed, as doing so, will tend to brace the muscles of the leg, and give a firmer hold on the crutch. The _left leg_ and knee must be in close contact with the saddle, from the knee the leg should fall in a natural position, the foot should be parallel to the horse's side, and close to it, the heel slightly depressed. The stirrup leather should be adjusted accordingly, as it is only of use, to support the foot in its proper position, too long a stirrup throws the rider on one side, and raises the right hip, too short a stirrup again, forces the knee outwards, and throws the seat too much to the right, giving to the rider a distorted appearance. A small strap fastened to the surcingle about two inches above the stirrup, passing round the stirrup leather, with a play of about three inches, adds greatly to the security of the seat, as it prevents the leg from flying out from the saddle. The _arms_ should hang straight down from the shoulder, nearly close to the sides, but not stiffly, the elbows bent, and the hands level with the elbows, the right arm and hand, when not occupied with the reins, may be allowed to hang straight from the shoulder. The whip should be held with the lash downwards, between the two fingers and thumb. The whip may also be carried in the manner adopted by gentlemen; but care should be taken that its point does not tickle, or irritate the horse. _The proper position of the bridle hand_, is immediately opposite to the centre of the waist, and about three or four inches from it, the wrist should be slightly rounded, the back of the hand to the front, the knuckles opposite to the horse's ears, the thumb uppermost, and pressed over the third joint of the finger. The hand should not be allowed to move across the body, all the movements being made by the wrist. The arm from the shoulder to the waist, must be one continued spring, impulsive to the motion of the horse's head, moving backwards and forwards as he moves, for if it be not so, the horse's mouth will be spoiled by the dead pull upon it. The _body_ must always be in a situation, as well to preserve the balance, as to maintain the seat. The shoulders should be thrown back, so as to open the chest as much as possible. The rider should look in the direction, and lean to the side the horse is turning to, which is in fact the _necessary balance_. HOLDING THE REINS. There are various ways of holding the reins, depending upon fancy, and circumstances; such as the fineness of a horse's mouth, and the delicacy of the rider's hand. _Holding a single rein._--The rein is taken in the centre where the joining is, between the fore-finger and thumb of the right hand, and drawn towards the body, the left hand is placed over the reins, and the little finger is inserted between them; the hand is then closed, and the reins are drawn through the fingers, by the right hand, until a proper feeling is obtained upon the horse's mouth; the loop end of the rein is allowed to drop over the fore-finger, and the thumb is placed upon the rein, to prevent its slipping. _Holding a double rein._--The curb rein being held as directed, the loop of the snaffle rein is placed over the curb rein in the palm of the left hand, or, to have a double bearing upon the horse's mouth, the rein may be drawn, till the required tension is obtained, the left rein lying over the curb rein in the palm of the hand, the right snaffle rein, passing between the second and third fingers. In dividing the reins with the little finger, the right rein, which passes over that finger, is always a little longer than the other, and requires to be shortened, if this be not attended to, the horse will be ridden chiefly upon the left rein, his head will be bent to the left, and he will not be looking the way he is going. _Holding the Curl and snaffle reins separated._--The curb being held as directed in the first described method, the snaffle rein is taken in the same manner, in the right hand, below the left; the principal bearing is brought upon this rein, which keeps the horse's head steady, while with the left hand the horse's mouth is kept alive, by a play on the bit, giving and taking, but, at the same time retaining a light bearing upon the horse's mouth. This is an excellent method for holding the reins with a fiery, high actioned horse, not up to hand. _Adjusting the reins._--The rider should take hold of the loop end of the rein, and draw it through her hand until the proper bearing and tension has been obtained. AIDS AND INDICATIONS. All those motions of the body, the hand, the leg, and the whip, which either indicate the rider's wishes, or in some degree assist the horse to perform them, are, in the art of riding denominated 'aids;' in their execution, a perfect combination, and the greatest uniformity, exactness, and delicacy are required. _The indications of the hand_ are of two sorts, guiding and retaining, those of the leg and whip, are also of two sorts, guiding and urging. The aids serve to put the horse in movement, to direct, and to stop him; they should not only decide the pace which the horse is to take, but also signify to him, the rate at which each pace is to be executed, and also determine his carriage during the performance of it. The power of these aids, and the degree of severity to be used, must be governed by circumstances, and the sensibility of the horse. _The hand_, being placed holding the reins, as previously described, and the reins being drawn to that determined length, that the bracing of the muscles of the hand would rein the horse back, and the easing of them permit him to advance freely; if the hand be held steady, as the horse advances in a trot, the fingers will feel by the tightening and loosening of the reins, a slight sensation or tug, occasioned by the measure or cadence of every step, this sensation or tug, which is reciprocally felt in the horse's mouth, by means of the correspondence between the hand and the mouth, is called the appui; and while this appui is preserved, the horse is in perfect obedience to the rider, the hand directing him with the greatest ease, so that the horse seems to work by the will of the rider, rather than by the compulsion of the hand. When a horse is ridden on a snaffle, he only feels the direct pull more or less of the rider's hand, with a curb-bit in his mouth the effect is different, and more powerful, on account of the lever which tightens the curb-chain on the horse's jaw. A curb in a rough and uneven hand, becomes an instrument of extreme torture; the hand should always be firm, but delicate, the horse's mouth should never be surprised, by any sudden transition of the bearing from tight to slack, or from slack to tight, every thing in horsemanship should be effected by degrees. The rider should never rest her hand upon the pommel, as by doing so, she at once destroys the sympathy which ought to exist between the hand and the horse's mouth. _Fineness of mouth_, means a mouth that is perfectly trained, and responds to the determined action of a sensitive hand. The acquirement of the bearing upon the horse's mouth, the turning the horse upon the proper rein, the power of collecting the horse, and retaining him on his proper balance, smoothness of indications, in the shortening of the reins, and the working together of the hand, leg, and whip, are the unseen, and unappreciated foundation, upon which good riding stands; these, and not strength, nor violence commands the animal, with these, the horse will rely on the hand, comply to it, and without force on the rider's part, he will bend to the hand in every articulation. Without these, however unintentional on the rider's part, she will be perpetually subjecting him to the severest torture, to defend himself against which, he will resist the hand, poke his nose, stiffen his neck, and every other part of his body; for the horse can endure no greater torture, than that resulting from an uneven hand. _The Leg and Whip._--The leg should hang straight from the knee, easy and steady, and be near to the horse's sides; the pressure being increased as occasion required, but the size and substance of the flap of the saddle, in numerous cases, renders the pressure of the leg nugatory, therefore, as the whip is the chief additional aid a lady has to depend upon, its exact management ought to be reduced to a perfect science. Every movement and touch of the whip must be made for purpose and effect; it can be used on both sides of the horse, as the case may require; the lady will have no difficulty in using it, on the right, or off side of the horse: but to use the whip on the near side requires caution and address. To strike the near forehand; the lady should raise the whip gently to an upright position, holding it with a firm grasp, she should then let the whip suddenly descend along the shoulder, and instantly remove it: she should be careful not to strike the horse on any part of the head except in cases of vice. To strike the near hind quarters, the lady must pass her right hand gently behind her waist, as far as the arm will reach, without distorting the body; and holding the whip between the two first fingers and thumb, strike the horse. This position is most excellent practice, by compelling the pupil to draw in her waist to its proper place: and until a lady can perform it easily, without disturbing the position and action of her bridle hand, she will fail in attaining a graceful and elegant carriage. The whip on the one side, pressed to the horse's side, corresponds with the leg on the other, but except in moving straight-forward, they should not be applied opposite to each other; that the pressure of one, may not counteract the effect of the other; thus the one intended to communicate a forward impulse, should be applied further forward, to keep the horse up to hand, than that, which communicates an impulse to the horse to step side ways, which should be applied behind the girth. The rider must always bear in mind, that every movement of the bridle, the leg, and of the whip, is felt, and responded to, by the sensitiveness of the horse; when she errs, the horse goes wrong, it is therefore indispensable that they should act in conjunction. GUIDING. The horse, previous to moving forward, should be made to collect himself, to arch his neck, and to stand evenly upon both his hind legs, for thereupon depends the balance of the horse's body, his lightness in hand, and proper carriage. _To advance._--The lady should call the attention of the horse, by an increased bearing upon the reins, and at the same time should animate him, by closing the leg, and using the whip gently on the right flank; having communicated a sufficient impulse to the horse, to carry him forward, she should at the same moment, by turning up the back of her hand, ease the pressure upon the reins, and prevent him to move forward: but she should not slacken the reins, because by doing so, the horse's head and neck may relapse into a position, which the hand cannot control. To turn the horse, Colonel GREENWOOD in his book of "Hints on Horsemanship" observes, "When you wish to turn to the right, pull the right rein stronger than the left; this is common sense--the common error is, when you wish to turn to the right, to pass the hand to the right, by which the right rein is slackened, and the left rein tightened, across the horse's neck; and the horse is required to turn to the right, when the left rein is pulled." _To turn to the right._--The hand, holding the reins the proper length, and having a correct appui or feeling of the horse's mouth, must not be moved from its position, in a line with the crest; but the tightening of the rein, must be effected, by turning the wrist; the little finger, with the first joint pressing against the rein, is raised, and turned towards the right shoulder; thus giving a double feeling, or pressure upon the right rein, and turning the horse's head in the desired direction, the pressure of the left rein against the neck, which follows, induces the horse to turn to the right. Or the right hand may be placed upon the right rein, to tighten it. The pressure with the left leg, should at the same time be increased, to prevent the horse from throwing his hind quarters too much outwards, or to the left. The rider's body should incline inwards, and face the direction turning to. If the whip be used, it should be applied upon the left shoulder, with a continued pressure, till the turn has been completed. _To turn to the left._--The lady should increase the bearing upon the left rein, by turning the back of her hand downwards, so as to bring the little finger towards the left shoulder; at the same time, she should apply the whip to the horse's right flank, to make him collect himself, and to prevent him, from throwing his hind-quarters too much to the right; when the horse has completed the turn, the bearing and pressure should be equalized, to induce the horse to move straight forward. The horse, when at a stop, may be made to turn quite round by making him move his hind-quarters only. _To circle the horse to the right, on his fore-hand._--The lady should apply her leg, to the horse's side, as far back as she can; to induce him to step to the right, with his hind legs; at the same time, she must increase the bearing upon the left rein; if the horse does not readily obey the pressure of the foot, she may pass her hand behind her waist, and touch the horse with the whip gently on his left flank. _To circle the horse to the left, on the forehand._--The lady should apply the whip gently to the horse's right flank, to induce him to step to the left, she should have a double bearing upon the right rein, and she should at the same time press her foot against the horse's side, as far forward as she can, to oppose the movement of the fore-legs. The horse can be made to turn on his hind legs, by the movement only of his fore-hand. The lady _to turn the horse to the right_, must apply her leg as far back as possible, to keep the horse's haunches steady; at the same time, she should with the bit, bend the horse's head a little to the right, to induce him to step with his fore-feet to the right. If necessary, the whip may be used, by gentle touches upon the left shoulder. _To turn on the haunches to the left._--The lady must press her whip on the horse's right flank, and her leg, against his side as far forward as possible, at the same time, she should communicate an impulse to the horse, to step to the left, to turn the horse quite round when in movement; the lady should first bring her horse to a momentary stop, and then proceed to turn him. _To stop._--The lady must close her leg smartly to the horse's side, to make him bring his haunches under him; at the same instant she must increase the bearing upon the reins, gradually yet firmly, by turning the back of her bridle hand downwards, and drawing it back, and upwards; the body should also be thrown backwards, to give weight to the pull: as soon as the horse has obeyed the check and remains still, the lady should ease the bearing upon the reins. If the lady does not give an impulse to the horse, by the pressure of her leg to his side, to bring his haunches under him, but merely pulls the bridle, the horse might be stopped by strength of arm, but it would be entirely on his fore-hand; and she would be thrown up and down in her saddle, in a very helpless way. The stop should not be made too suddenly. _Reining back._--The great use of reining back, is to render the horse obedient, and tractable. The lady should first make her horse collect himself, when well balanced, she should communicate an impulse to the horse, by the pressure of her leg and whip to his sides, to induce him to raise one of his hind feet, at the moment of his doing so, she should double the feeling upon both reins, by drawing her hand back, and turning her little finger up towards her chest; the horse, to recover his balance, will step back. The movement of the hand must be repeated, at each step of the horse; should the horse bring his haunches too much under him, the bearing upon the reins must be eased, and the pressure of the leg and whip, increased, to give him a forward impulse. The horse must not be allowed to hurry, or run back out of hand, nor to diverge from the straight line; he should be guided, by an increased pressure of either rein, as may be necessary, and by an additional pressure with the leg, or whip, to keep his hind-quarters in the desired direction. _Reining in._--The object desired is, to make the horse assume a more correct balance. The lady should shorten her reins a little, by drawing them through her left hand, thus keeping the bit-hand low and steady, with an extra bearing upon the reins; she should with her right hand, play with the snaffle rein, and at the same time, communicate to the horse a forward impulse; the horse feeling the bit to be an insurmountable obstacle, will, in place of throwing his weight forward, bring his haunches under him. Should the urging indication be applied too abruptly, the horse may throw so much weight forward, as to pull the reins out of the rider's hands; if used judiciously, and controlled by the hand, the horse will collect himself, arch his neck, champ the bit, and be ready for any movement. This practice gives the horse confidence, for most young horses are afraid of the bit; and if frightened by too sudden a jerk upon the reins will never after, go kindly up to hand. The lady having learnt the indications necessary, to induce the horse to move either, his fore-hand round his haunches, or his croup round his fore-hand; may next proceed to apply them, so as to induce the horse to move diagonally, or sideways. _Shoulder in._--In this movement the horse's body is bent more or less. The pupil should separate her reins, and take one in each hand, holding them rather short; if the horse is to move to the left, her right hand must be drawn back to her hip, to bend the horse's head to the right, her left hand should be advanced to guide the horse, she must apply her whip by light touches to the horse's right side, in line with the girths, to induce him to step diagonally. _Passaging._--Signifies moving side ways.--If the retaining and urging indications be given with equal force, but the right rein be felt the stronger, the horse will incline to the right; to induce him to move his hind quarters also in that direction, the urging indication upon the left flank must be increased, by the rider applying her leg to the horse's side, as far back as she can, if necessary, she may pass her whip behind her waist, and touch the horse with it, on his left flank. In passaging to the left, the whip should be used by gentle touches, on the horse's right shoulder, or flank as may be necessary. The rider should lean to the side, the horse is moving to. ANIMATIONS. _Animations_ are intended to produce greater speed, or to render the horse more lively, and on the alert, without increasing his pace; some horses scarcely ever require animations, while others are so dull, and deficient in mettle, as to call them frequently into use. The slightest movement of the body, the hand, or the leg, is enough to rouse the well bred, and thoroughly trained animal; but it is necessary with sluggish horses, that the animations, to be so spirited and united, as almost to become corrections: in fact, what is mere animation to the one horse, would be a positive correction to another. Animations should be used in all cases, when the horse, contrary to the rider's inclination, either decreases his speed, droops his head, bears heavily and languidly upon the bit, or begins to be lazy and slovenly in the performance of his pace. A good rider foresees the necessity for an animation, before the horse actually abates his speed, or loses the _ensemble_ of his action, and the grace and spirit of his deportment. It is much easier to maintain, than to restore a horse's animation; therefore, the whip, the hand, the leg, or the voice, should do its office a few moments before, rather than at a time, when doing so has become indispensable. A slight motion of the fingers of the bridle hand, serves as an excellent animation; it reminds the horse of his duty, awakens the sensibility of his mouth, and preserves a proper correspondence between that, and the hand. When it is necessary to recur to animation frequently, they ought to be varied; even the whip, if it be often used, unless with different degrees of force, will lose its effect. SOOTHINGS. We should endeavor, as Xenophon observes, "to make ourself to our horse, the organ of pleasure, and that he should associate with our presence, the idea of the absence of pain." Horses are by degrees made obedient, through the hope of recompense, as well as the fear of punishment; to use these two incentives with judgment, is a very difficult matter, requiring much thought, much practice and good temper; mere force, and want of skill, and coolness, tend to confirm vice and restiveness. The voice, the leg and the whole body, may be employed to soothe and encourage. High mettled or fretful horses, it is often necessary to soothe, and timid ones to encourage. A spirited animal is frequently impatient when first mounted, or if a horse or carriage pass him at a quick rate; in either case, the rider should endeavor to soothe her horse, by speaking to him in a calm gentle tone; she should keep her whip as motionless as possible, taking even more care than usual, that its lash do not touch his flank, her seat should be easy, her leg still, and her bridle hand steady. The perfection of soothing consists in the rider sitting so still, and easy, as not to add in the least, to the horse's animation, at the same time being on her guard, so as to be able to meet any contingency that may occur. CORRECTIONS. The best horse sometimes requires correction, but the sooner a lady gets rid of a horse that she is compelled to _flog_, the better; the effect is most unpleasant, though the éclát may be great, and such a sight would destroy every previously formed idea of her grace and gentleness: moderate corrections are however some times necessary, and the lady should make no scruple of having recourse to them when absolutely necessary, but not otherwise. The best way to correct a horse is to dishearten him, and make him do what he would fain avoid, not so much by force and obstinate resolution, in contesting with him openly, and directly, when he is perfectly prepared to resist; as by a cool opposition, and indirect means. There are different methods of attaining the same end, and those which are the least obvious to the animal should be adopted; a lady cannot rival him in physical strength, but she may conquer him by ingenuity, or subdue him by a calm determined assumption of superior power: severe flogging seldom produces good effect, and all quarrels between a horse and his rider should be avoided; on the other hand, too much indulgence may induce him to think that she is afraid of him; should he do so, she will find that he will exercise every means to convince her, that he considers himself her master, instead of acknowledging by implicit obedience, that she is his. When it is necessary to use the whip as a correction, it should be applied, by giving the horse two or three smart cuts in a line with the girths, or on the shoulder. The lady should not fret her horse, by continually tapping him with the whip. VICES. The word vice, is used to signify those actions which arise from a perverse, or mischievous disposition--those, in which the horse opposes his own will, to that of his rider, or those in which he purposely attempts to injure other horses, or the persons about him. A lady certainly should not ride any horse, that is addicted to shying, stumbling, rearing, or any other kind of vice; but she ought nevertheless, to be prepared against their occurrence; for, however careful, and judicious those persons, by whom her horse is selected, may be, and however long a trial she may have had of his temper, and merits, she cannot be sure, even with the best tempered horse, that she may not have to exercise her skill, to save herself from danger; she should therefore, be prepared against frailty, or accident. When a horse resists, or suddenly becomes uneasy in his gait, instead of punishing the animal; the bridle, saddle, girths, &c., should be examined, to ascertain the cause, and remedy it. For want of this necessary precaution, the poor animal is often used ill, without reason, and being forced into despair, is in a manner obliged to act accordingly, be his temper and inclination ever so good. _Weakness_ frequently drives horses into being vicious, when any thing beyond their strength is required of them: great care should therefore be taken, to ascertain from what cause the opposition arises. _Resistance_ in horses, is often a mark of strength and vigour, and proceeds from high spirits, but punishment would turn it into vice; a timorous rider, or a passionate person, would alike spoil the horse; the former, by suffering him to have his own will, establishes bad habits, and creates new ones; for horses find out many ways, and means of opposing what is demanded to them; many will imperceptibly gain a little every day on their riders; the lady must however always treat the horse kindly, at the same time show him that she does not fear him. The other, from want of reason, and temper, enrages the horse, and causes him to become vicious. Horses of a bad disposition or temper, are exceedingly subtle, and watch their opportunity; they first, as it were, feel for their rider's firmness of seat, and her resolution, and are sure to defend themselves upon that point, on which they expect she will attack them; now, the object of the lady in this contest must be, to frustrate the horse's intentions, and protect herself from injury in the struggle. Some horses have a vicious habit of _turning round suddenly_; instead of endeavouring to prevent him, in which the lady would in all probability be foiled, were she to try to do so by force; the better plan is, to turn the horse smartly round to the side to which he is turning, until his head has made a complete circle, and he finds to his astonishment, that he is precisely in the place from which he started. Should he, on the lady attempting to urge him forward, repeat the trick; she should pull him round on the same side three or four times, and assist the hand in doing so, by a smart aid of the whip, or the leg; while this is doing, she must take care to preserve her balance, by an inclination of the body, towards the centre of the circle which is described by the horse's head in his revolution. The same plan may be pursued, when the horse endeavors _to turn a corner contrary to the wish of his rider_; and if he be successfully baffled three or four times, it is most probable that he will not renew his attempts. When a horse _refuses to advance_, and probably whipping would increase his obstinacy, or make him rear, or bolt away in an opposite direction, it is advisable, on the same principle, to make him walk backwards, until he evinces a willingness to advance: should the rider not mind her horse giving a kick or two, a couple of smart cuts over the croup, will generally prove successful. Should a horse _back into difficulties_; he must be turned with his head towards the danger, and then backed off, until there be sufficient room to handle him. Restive horses, and even docile animals when put out of temper, sometimes _rear up against a wall or a carriage_; an inexperienced rider, in such a situation, would strive to pull his head _from_ the wall, which would bring her knee in contact with it, consequently, all further chastisement thereupon ceases; for were the rider to make her horse plunge, her legs would be crushed against the wall, the horse discovering the rider's weakness, and that punishment had ceased; would turn it to her disadvantage, and on future occasions fly to the wall for shelter. Instead of _from_ the wall. The horse's head should be pulled _towards_ it, so as to place his eye, in place of his rider's knee, against it. She should use her leg, and whip, to force the croup out, when the horse can be easily backed off, and he will never go near a wall again. Some horses will _stand stock still_, if ladies have the patience to sit on their backs, and keep them in the same spot for a time, it is the most proper punishment for such an offence, and will surely cure that mode of defence. When a horse begins to _kick_, the rider must bear forcibly upon his mouth, and keep his head up, at the same time, she should press her leg to the horse's side, keeping her body well back, to save herself from being thrown forwards. She should use as little coercion as possible, and be careful to preserve her own temper, and her seat; should the horse, in spite of her exertions, get his head down; she must endeavour to give him a smart blow with her whip on his head, which will induce him to throw it up, and thereby stop his kicking; should an opportunity occur, she should also try to give the horse, two or three smart turns; this may also be done with effect, as a preventative, should she detect any incipient attempts in the animal to kick. _Rearing_ is a bad vice, and in weak horses especially, a dangerous one. When the horse rears, the rider must cease to bear upon the mouth, she should lean her body well forward, towards his neck, and with her right hand take hold of the mane, to save herself from falling off, or pulling the horse backwards upon her; as the horse comes to the ground with his fore-feet, not before, she should give him a few smart cuts with the whip on his croup, to force him forward, and endeavor to pull him round two or three times, and thus divert him from his object; the latter course may also be adopted to prevent rearing, if the rider can foresee the horse's intention. If a lady have the misfortune to be mounted on a _runaway_ horse, she may avoid evil consequences, if she can but contrive to retain her self-possession. She must endeavor also to retain her seat at all hazards, sitting well back and perfectly quiet, for the least symptom of alarm on her part, will increase the terror, or determination of the horse. She should not attempt to throw herself off the horse, except in cases when the horse may be taking her into imminent danger; she should separate her reins, holding the curb in her left hand, and the snaffle in her right, and pull at each alternately; which renders the mouth more sensitive, than a dead heavy pull upon any one bit, and the horse consequently more obedient to the hand. Should an open space present itself, turning a horse in a circle, will frequently bring him up in a few seconds. _Plunging_, is very common amongst restive horses. If the horse continue to do so in one place, or backing; he must be urged forward; but if the horse does it flying forward, he should be kept back, and ridden slowly for some time. _Starting_, often proceeds from a defect in sight, which therefore should be carefully looked to. When a horse starts or shies, no notice should be taken of the movement, further, than to meet him, with the proper bearings and pressures, to compel him to move in the true direction; should he however, be alarmed at an object, and instead of going up to, or passing it, turn round; he should be soothed, and brought up gently to it, caressed at every step, he advances. To attempt to force the horse up to the object he dreads, would not only be ridiculous and dangerous, but the punishment would add to the alarm, and the horse would take an early opportunity to shy afresh, at the first strange object that presented itself, and very probably he would add another start, in anticipation of the chastisement that might be in store for him. Thus, what was originally a failing from defect of vision, or ebullition of spirit from over feeding, or want of proper exercise, becomes a vice rooted, and confirmed, and of a dangerous character. When passing an object that the horse may be alarmed at, his head should be turned away from it, rather than towards it, a good rider thus prevents her horse from shying, while the young and bad rider, by the reverse treatment, of pulling a horse's head towards the object, and whipping him up to it, makes her horse shy. The horse should never be allowed to evade passing the object, but he should be got past in the manner, that occasions the least alarm to, or contention with him. When the horse starts, the rider should instantly direct her eyes to the horse's ears, when her body will naturally take the same direction that the horse shies to, but if her eyes be directed to what the horse shies from, she may loose her balance, and fall. PACES OF THE HORSE. The _walk_ is the least raised, the slowest, and the most gentle of all the paces; but it should be an animated quick step, and to be pleasant to the rider, it must be true; that is, it should be conducted by a harmonious elevation and setting down of the feet, each foot being dropped flat on the ground, and not, as is too often the case, the toe being placed first, and then the heel. One lady by a good seat and hand, will cause her horse to carry his head, with his neck arched, and to elevate and extend his limbs, the one in unison with the other; another, by her bad hand, and seat, will bring the horse she rides, to step short, and irregular, and so mix his trot, with his walk, as to do little more than shuffle over the ground. Previous to urging the horse into a walk, the lady should ascertain that he is well in hand, and on his proper balance; then, by turning her hand, with the little finger towards her breast, she must increase the bearing upon the horse's mouth, to draw his attention, and at the same instant, she must communicate to him, by closing the leg, and using the whip gently upon the right side, a sufficient impulse to carry him forward, easing, as he advances, the bearing upon the mouth, by the hand resuming its proper position, but she must not slacken the reins. In the walk, the reins should be held so that the rider have a delicate, but distinct feeling of the horse's mouth, to cause the horse to carry his head in a proper position, and to keep time in the beats of his action, but not held so tightly, as to impede the measurement of his steps, or to make him, on being slightly animated, break from a walk into a trot. The rider's body should be erect but pliable, neither obeying too much the action of the horse, nor yet resisting it. If the horse do not exert himself sufficiently, or hang on the bit, he should be animated, by a play on the snaffle bridle; should he break into a trot, he must be checked, but the bearing upon the reins, must neither be so firm nor continued, as to make him stop. _The trot_, is a more animated pace. To make the horse advance from the walk into a trot, the horse must, with the leg and whip, be urged into greater animation, at the same time retained, by an increased bearing upon the reins. The lady must be careful, to retain the lightness in hand, without counteracting the impulse necessary to the movement, when the animal will proceed with that safety, which is natural to a horse balanced and light in hand. When the horse trots, the lady must preserve her balance, steadiness and pliancy, as in the walk; the rise in the trot, is to be acquired by practice; when the horse in his action raises the rider from her seat, she should advance her body, and rest a considerable portion of her weight, upon her right knee; by means of which and the bearing of her left foot upon the stirrup, she may return to her former position, without being jerked; but she must carefully time her movements to the horse's action, and the closer she maintains her seat, consistently with her own comfort the better. The _Canter_, and _Gallop_, are paces of still higher animation; the canter is a repetition of bounds, during which the forehand raises first, and higher than the hind quarters; it is the most elegant and agreeable of all the paces, when properly performed by horse and rider; its perfection consists in its union and animation, rather than its speed. A horse may canter false, disunited with the fore, or disunited with the hind legs, for instance, if a horse is cantering in a circle to the right, leads with his near fore leg, followed by the near hind leg, he is cantering false. If leading with the near fore leg, the off hind, remains further back than the near one, he is said to be disunited; if leading with the proper fore leg, the off hind remains further back than the left, the pace must be rectified. The lady should learn to ascertain by the motion of the horse, if his canter be false or true, and she should acquire the means, of making him rectify his action. A horse must not be allowed to canter with either leg leading at his own will, but must be made to do so, at the will of the rider. When cantering with the off fore-leg leading, the pace is more agreeable to the lady, consequently a lady's horse should be taught to start off into a canter, with his right leg leading. There are many opinions, as to what are the proper indications to be given to the horse, to induce him to lead with either particular leg, but considering that a horse when cantering in a circle to the right, must lead with the off-fore, and that the indications in that case are, a double bearing upon the right rein, and an increased pressure with the leg, or whip on the left side of the horse, these appear to be the most rational. To start the horse into a _canter_ with the right or off-fore leg leading. The lady having her horse properly animated, light in hand, and well balanced, should, as in the walk, draw the horse's attention, by an increased bearing upon both reins, but upon the right rein the stronger; and at the same time, by a strong pressure of the leg, or heel, and by the application of the whip to the horse's left shoulder, communicate to him, an impulse to carry him forward. If the horse hesitates to canter, she should pass the whip behind her waist, and strike the horse on his near-hind-quarter; the whip must not be used on the right side of the horse, because muscular action being retractile, doing so, would cause him to draw back his right leg, rather than to advance it before the left. To start the horse into a canter, with the left leg leading, the extra bearing must be made upon the left rein, and the horse should be touched with the whip on the right shoulder or flank. It is an excellent lesson to cause the horse to change the leading leg, when in the canter, so that upon any disturbance of pace, or change of direction, the action of the one, may be as familiar, and as easy to the rider, as the other. The lady should sit well down in the centre of the saddle, with her body perfectly upright, and square to the front, without stiffness or constraint, she must continue the bearings upon the horse's mouth, throughout the entire pace, and if the horse flags in his movements, or does not respond to the action of the bridle-hand, then the whip must be instantly applied. In turning a corner, or cantering in a curve, the lady must incline her body in that direction, to preserve her balance, and she must be careful that the bridle arm, does not acquire the bad habit, of moving from the side of the body, and throwing the elbow outwards. The _gallop_, is a further increase of pace upon the full canter, but no lady of taste ever gallops on the road, into this pace, the lady's horse is never urged, nor permitted to break, excepting in the field. The action being the same as that of the canter, excepting being more extended and quicker, nothing further need be said in this place. LEAPING. A lady's horse must be perfectly steady, and thoroughly trained, before she attempts to put him to a leap. Leaping is beneficial, as it tends to confirm the seat, and enables the rider more effectually to preserve her balance, should she ever be mounted upon an unsteady, or vicious horse. The skill in leaping consists principally, in the rider's own acute anticipation of the horse's spring, and in participating in his movements, going over with him, as a part of the horse's-self; she must not, by being late, and hanging back, have to be jerked forward by the spring; which operating at an angle of the person, pitches the rider over the horse's head, before the animal's fore-quarters reach the ground. Preparatory to the leap, the rider should take up the snaffle rein, and slacken the curb; because the snaffle acting in the corners of the horse's mouth, lifts up his head, and allows him more freedom, whereas the curb-bit acting lower down in the mouth, tends to draw the head and chin inwards, towards the breast, and restrains his power of extension. Leaps are of two kinds, the "standing" and the "flying." In the standing leap, or leap over a height from a standing position; the horse raises himself on his hind feet, and springs from his hind legs, throwing himself over the object. The flying leap, is taken from any pace, it differs from the standing leap, principally in agility, and in the horse being more extended in his movements. The position of the rider is to be governed in this, as in all other cases, by the action of the horse; no weight should be borne on the stirrup, the right leg must press strongly the middle pommel, and the left, be closed to the saddle. The bridle should be held so as to offer no check to the horse's movement, but should the horse show an unwillingness to jump, or be inclined to swerve, it is prudent to keep him firmly in hand, until the moment of his spring, when the tension on the reins may be lessened. _A standing jump._--The rider must press her leg close against the saddle, she must animate the horse to jump, by gently lifting his head; as he raises on his haunches for the leap, she should yield the reins, to give him ample room to extend his neck and shoulders, and to exert himself; as his fore-quarters ascend, the lady should lean slightly forward, keeping her head upright and steady; as he springs, she resumes her upright position, and as he descends, she inclines her body backwards to balance herself; urging, and at the same time restraining the horse, to induce him to collect, and fully recover himself upon his legs. _The flying leap._--In the flying leap, the seat is to be preserved, as in the standing leap, but the horse's posture being more horizontal, the lady need not lean forward as he raises; she must approach the leap in such a manner, as neither to hurry or flurry the horse, but so as to allow him a full view of the place he has to go over. Holding the horse's head with the snaffle, with a firm but delicate hand, straight to his jump, she brings him up at an animated pace. As he springs, she must slightly yield the reins, as he descends, she must incline her body backwards pressing her left leg firmly to the third crutch, and looking straight to her front, she will retain her seat and balance immoveably; she then resumes the tension of the reins; and the moment the horse touches the ground, she should be prepared to use her whip if necessary, to induce the horse to collect himself, to prevent him from stumbling or falling. ROAD RIDING. When persons are pursuing their business or pleasure on the road, precise formality, and attention to the strict rules of riding, would interrupt their enjoyment. The rudiments of the art being once known, when on the road, no more of it is to be applied, than will, with the greatest ease, facilitate our designs. When nothing more is required of the horse, than to perform the natural paces, he will walk, trot, and gallop with the greatest freedom. The rider participates in the like ease, or unrestrained liberty, but this ease or inattention, is not to suffer unseemly habits to take place, such as the back and shoulders to get round, the head to shake, the leg to dangle, and beat against the horse's side. These errors may creep on a person, who has not been confirmed in the principles by sufficient practice; but when habits of good riding are once firmly established, the ease and liberty the rider assumes, will not exceed propriety, risk her security, nor abandon, nor baffle her horse,--her hand will keep its situation and properties, though the body be turned to any extreme for the purpose of conversing, and the like, nor will the body by any freedom it takes, throw itself out of balance, nor take the liberty, when it cannot be done with safety. This freedom and ease, so desirable and so universally admired, is affected by every person who is in the habit of riding, but with this difference, some possess system, with negligence, and ease, and others merely negligence and ease, without system. A lady's horse should be sure footed, but the best become careless. When a horse trips, he should be kept more than usually collected. It is useless to whip a horse after stumbling, as it is also after shying, for it is clear, he would not run the risk of breaking his knees nor his nose if he could help it. A bad horsewoman throws her horse down, which a good horsewoman does not do. That is, because a bad horsewoman hurries her horse, over bad ground, or down hill, or over loose stones, or rough and broken ground, lets him flounder into difficulties, and when there, pulls him so that he cannot see, nor exert himself to get out of them and expecting chastisements, the horse springs to avoid it, before he has recovered his feet, and goes down with a tremendous impetus; if she have to cross a rut to the right, she probably forces her horse across it, when the right foot is on the ground; in which case, unless the horse collect himself, and jump; if he attempts to step across it, the probability is, that crossing his legs, he knocks one against the other and falls. The reverse of all this, Colonel GREENWOOD, writes, should be the case, if the lady have not sufficient tact to feel, which of her horse's feet is on the ground, she must allow him his own time for crossing, which will be, when the left foot is on the ground. The rider should habitually choose her horse's ground for him, this by practice, will become as easy to her, as choosing her own path when walking. It is a common error to suppose, that a rider can support a horse when falling, lift him over a leap, or hold him up, they are mechanical impossibilities. Were a similar weight attached to the thin rein of a lady's bridle, could the lady lift it with her left hand. A pull from the curb, will indeed give the horse so much pain in the mouth, that he will throw up his head, and the rider flatters herself that she has saved her horse from falling; but this error is not harmless, by so doing, she prevents his seeing to foot out any unsafe ground; and further, when an unmounted horse stumbles, nature teaches him to drop his head and neck, which relieves the shoulders of their weight, and that is the instant that the horse makes his effort to recover himself; the muscular power employed to raise the head and neck, will act to sink his knees, for as much as the rider pulls up, so much will she pull down. The great point is, to keep the horse so well balanced and in hand, with his legs well under him, that should the horse stumble, or get into difficulties, he is able to recover himself without much exertion. _When proceeding along a road_, the rule is, to keep to the left side of it, but when about to pass those travelling in the same direction, though at a less speedy pace; to pass on their right. A party meeting another passes to the right, that is, the right hands of the parties meeting, are towards each other. _A gentleman riding with a lady_, should be on her right side, as on that side, if the road be dirty, he does not bespatter the lady's habit, and on that side also, he is situated next the carriages, and various objects they meet, or which may be passing near them. If a lady find her horse become affected and uneasy in his gait, she should endeavor to ascertain the cause, the probability is, there will be found to be something wrong, in the bridle or saddle or perhaps a stone in the horse's foot, and she should have it remedied if possible. A lady should also habitually prevent her horse out-walking, or lagging behind her companions, she is either very unsociable, or a bad horsewoman, who does not keep abreast of them. A lady, although advised to ride in general on the curb bridle, should occasionally use both hands to the reins. It assists in obtaining a firm seat, by giving greater power and command over the horse; it prevents the strain on the left arm, which is the natural result of holding a horse entirely with one hand, it makes the pressure upon the animal's mouth more even, which is so truly essential to the comfort of both horse and rider, it keeps the shoulders square, a very important point in the elegance of a young lady's appearance, it causes the elbows to be even on either side instead of one being infinitely in the rear of the other, as is too often the case, and though last not least, it keeps the whip quiet until its use is called for. There is a piece of inhumanity practised, as much, perhaps more by ladies than by gentlemen, it is, _riding a horse fast on hard ground_. If the ground be hard and even, a collected canter may be allowed, but one hour's gallop on hard and uneven ground, would do the soundest horse irremediable injury, his sinews would be strained, his joints prematurely stiffened, fever in the feet would be produced, and the horse would be deprived at once, and for ever, of his elasticity and action, and be brought prematurely a cripple to the grave. DISMOUNTING. The first operation preparatory to dismounting is, to bring the horse to an easy yet perfect stop. If the lady be light, and dexterous, she may dismount without assistance. The lady when preparing to dismount, should take the reins in her right hand, and put the whip in her left. The reins should be held sufficiently tight, to restrain the horse from advancing; and yet not so firmly, as to cause him to back, rear, or swerve. The lady should next disengage her right leg from the pommel clearing her dress as she raises her knee; place her right hand on the near crutch, and take her foot out of the stirrup. If the lady be assisted, the gentleman taking her left hand in his left, places his right hand under her left elbow, which she keeps firm to her side; as she springs, he supports her in her descent, she retains hold of the crutch or of the hunting pommel; as she quits the saddle, she turns to face the gentleman, who stands near the horse's shoulder, and alights on the ground on the balls of her feet. If the lady dismount without assistance, after clearing her foot from the stirrup, she places her right hand on the near crutch, and her left upon the third crutch or hunting pommel, she must spring clear from the saddle facing towards the horse's side as she descends. By whatever mode the lady dismount, she should, to prevent an unpleasant shock on reaching the ground bend her knees, suffer her body to be perfectly pliant, and alight upon the balls of her feet; she is not to relinquish her hold, nor the gentleman to withdraw his support, until she be perfectly safe on the ground. CONCLUDING REMARKS. Riding for recreation, and riding for improvement, are distinct things, yet both are necessary. Many persons unacquainted with the principles of "Horsemanship," can perceive no other excellence, than riding boldly, and riding fast, and some even assert, that a horse broken by a riding master, has been spoiled; this idea is easily accounted for, as the better a horse is broken or educated, the more unsuited he is for an awkward rider. There are many, it is true, who have been in the habit of riding from their infancy, who, although they never have had any instructions, ride hunting, or on a straight road admirably well; but many more affect to ride as well, who commit the greatest absurdities. Though the ordinary modes of riding may gratify, and convey one on a horse's back, wherever the will directs, yet, from want of knowledge of the true principles of riding, one is continually exposed to innumerable hazards. Most persons are desirous to ride well, though not in a _manége_ style. To ride well, a lady must be perfectly at her ease, with a hand capable of managing her horse, with facility to herself, and comfort to her animal. These requirements will be sooner attained, by a few proper lessons, with study and application, than by years of riding without them. To conclude, a lady on horseback cannot look too quiet; she should appear perfectly at her ease, and in perfect temper with her horse; in short whether natural, or acquired, she should seem, "born with a sweet temper, a light hand, and a good seat." Transcriber's Note The following typographical errors were corrected: Page Error 10 hand is them changed to hand is then 26 by implict changed to by implicit 28 all probabilty changed to all probability 32 should he soothed changed to should be soothed 32 carressed changed to caressed 37 applicacation changed to application 38 perpectly changed to perfectly 39 to a leap, changed to to a leap. 39 rider's own accute changed to rider's own acute 39 of the horses changed to of the horse's The following words were inconsistently spelled. fore-hand / forehand head-stalls / headstalls 
43093	----	Transcriber's note: Spelling and punctuation inconsistencies been harmonized. Obvious printer errors have been repaired. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. Please see the end of this book for further notes. COACHING, WITH ANECDOTES OF THE ROAD. COACHING, WITH ANECDOTES OF THE ROAD. BY LORD WILLIAM PITT LENNOX, AUTHOR OF "CELEBRITIES I HAVE KNOWN," ETC. Dedicated to His Grace the Duke of Beaufort, K.G., PRESIDENT, And the Members of The [Illustration: COACHING CLUB] LONDON: HURST AND BLACKETT, PUBLISHERS. 13, GREAT MARLBOROUGH STREET. 1876. _All rights reserved._ CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ANCIENT CHARIOTEERS--CELEBRATED WHIPS--INTRODUCTION OF CARRIAGES INTO ENGLAND--MR. CRESSET'S PAMPHLET--THE STATE OF THE ROADS IN 1739--DANGEROUS CONVEYANCES--THE FLYING COACH OF 1669--DEAN SWIFT'S POETICAL LINES ON HIS JOURNEY TO CHESTER--DISCOMFORTS OF INSIDE TRAVELLING--TRAVELLING IN BYGONE DAYS 1 CHAPTER II. DANGERS OF TRAVELLING--ANECDOTES OF HIGHWAYMEN--INNKEEPERS AND HIGHWAYMEN--STAGE-COACH ROBBERIES--A 'CUTE LADY--A JOURNEY TO LONDON UNDER DIFFICULTIES--TRAVELLING IN 1770--VANBRUGH'S DESCRIPTION OF AN M.P.'S JOURNEY--SYDNEY SMITH ON MODERN IMPROVEMENT 25 CHAPTER III. SLOW COACHES--FAST COACHES--"THE WONDER" AND "BLENHEIM"--PUBLIC DINNERS TO THE DRIVERS--PRESENTATION OF A SILVER CUP TO A DRIVER OF "THE BLENHEIM"--THE YOUNG OXONIANS FAIRLY TAKEN IN--NIMROD ON THE SHREWSBURY AND CHESTER "HIGHFLYER"--BANEFUL EFFECTS OF RAILWAYS ON THE ROAD--"THE DESERTED VILLAGE"--WONDERFUL FEAT OF LOCOMOTION 49 CHAPTER IV. JOURNEY TO BATH IN THE PALMY DAYS OF COACHING--A DRIVING GIOVANNI--"PARSON DENNIS"--CONTRAST TO THE ABOVE--TENNANT'S DESCRIPTION--THE OLD BRIGHTON ROAD--MODERN IMPROVEMENTS--A SQUIRE OF 1638 67 CHAPTER V. COACH _versus_ RAIL--DESCRIPTION OF A COACH JOURNEY FROM LONDON TO BATH--DIFFERENCES OF OPINION--THE COACH DINNER--LUXURIOUS LIVING--SNUG HÔTELLERIES--ENGLISH _versus_ FOREIGN COOKING 87 CHAPTER VI. "MOVING ACCIDENTS" BY RAIL AND COACH--SHORT TIME FOR THE ISSUE OF RAILWAY TICKETS--RECKLESS DRIVERS--AN AFFAIR OF HONOUR--ANECDOTE OF THE LATE DUKE OF WELLINGTON 101 CHAPTER VII. TRAVELLING IN IRELAND--BIANCONI'S CARS--JOURNEY FROM CORK TO DUBLIN IN A POST-CHAISE--IRISH WIT--A POOR-LAW COMMISSIONER--MR. PEABODY--SIR WALTER SCOTT AND A GENUINE PADDY--MR. CHARLES BIANCONI--IRISH CAR DRIVERS 115 CHAPTER VIII. COACH ACCIDENTS--ACCIDENT FROM RACING--ACTIONS AT LAW--MAIL ROBBERIES--ROBBERY BY CONVICTS--A DANGEROUS START--A DRUNKEN DRIVER 127 CHAPTER IX. EXTRAORDINARY OCCURRENCE--COACH ACCIDENTS--DANGER ATTENDING PRINCE GEORGE OF DENMARK'S VISIT TO PETWORTH--THE MAILS STOPPED BY SEVERE SNOWSTORMS--SLEDGES USED FOR THE MAILS--DEATH FROM INCLEMENCY OF WEATHER--DREADFUL STORMS--FLOODS IN SCOTLAND IN 1829--ACCIDENT TO THE BATH AND DEVONPORT MAILS--MAIL ROBBERIES IN 1839--COACHING IN AUSTRALIA 143 CHAPTER X. COACHING ACQUAINTANCES--STAGE-COACHMEN OF BYGONE AND MODERN DAYS--AMATEUR DRIVERS--REQUISITES FOR DRIVING--CRACK DRIVERS--A POPULAR DRAGSMAN--HIS PRIVILEGES--HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS 169 CHAPTER XI. THE TURNPIKE GATE AT HYDE PARK CORNER--SUBURBAN AND PROVINCIAL TURNPIKE-MEN--THEIR REFLECTIONS--PANORAMA OF THE ROAD--THE "OLD WHITE HORSE CELLAR," PICCADILLY--GROUPS OF ITS FREQUENTERS 181 CHAPTER XII. AMATEUR DRAGSMEN--THE LATE FITZROY STANHOPE--THE OLD DRIVING CLUB OF 1808--THE HON. LINCOLN STANHOPE--THE WHIP CLUB--DESCRIPTION OF THE CARRIAGES--SONG OF THE WHIP CLUB--OUTRÉE DRESS OF THE DRIVERS RIDICULED BY CHARLES MATHEWS AND JOE GRIMALDI--FOUR-IN-HAND CLUB OF THE PRESENT DAY 195 CHAPTER XIII. OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE MEN--ADVENTURE ON THE FAR-FAMED "TANTIVY" COACH--GALLANT CONDUCT OF THE GUARD--MY FIRST ATTEMPT AT DRIVING--JEM REVELL OF "THE PELICAN"--MY UPSET--TANDEM DRIVING--THE OSTLER--COUNTRY INNS--HOTEL CHARGES 209 CHAPTER XIV. NOBLE AND GENTLE DRAGSMEN--JOURNEY TO NEWMARKET--LORD GRANTLEY'S TEAM--A REFRACTORY WHEELER--USE AND ABUSE OF THE BEARING REIN--THE RUNNING REIN--HARNESS OF THE PRESENT DAY--THE ROYAL MAIL--GENERAL REMARKS ON DRIVING 223 CHAPTER XV. CARRIAGES OF BYGONE DAYS AND THE PRESENT--THE CABRIOLET--ANECDOTE OF THE LATE DUKE OF WELLINGTON--A HUNTING ADVENTURE--AN EVENTFUL DAY--A LUCKY ESCAPE--NOBLE CONDUCT OF THE IRON DUKE--SUGGESTIONS 237 CHAPTER XVI. HAIRBREADTH ESCAPES--DRIVE TO VALENCIENNES WITH FREDERICK YATES--MEET A DANCING BEAR--RESULT--WHEEL CARRIAGES IN TOWNS--STATE OF THE PUBLIC STREETS--GAY'S DESCRIPTION OF THEM--HACKNEY COACHES--TAYLOR, THE WATER POET--ROBBERIES IN LONDON--FIRST INTRODUCTION OF OMNIBUSES 251 CHAPTER XVII. AN ADVENTURE WITH BALL HUGHES, COMMONLY CALLED "THE GOLDEN BALL"--A SENSATION AT DARTFORD--A RELIC OF THE COMMUNE--RAILWAYS--PIONEERS OF THE RAIL--INTRODUCTION OF STEAM-CARRIAGES ON ROADS--SEDAN CHAIRS--PADDY'S PRACTICAL JOKE--FEUDS BETWEEN CHAIRMEN AND HACKNEY-COACHMEN 265 CHAPTER XVIII. ANCIENT AND MODERN VEHICLES--PRACTICAL JOKES IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE--FRENCH COACHES--DILIGENCES--THE MALLE-POSTE--CARRIAGES IN THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV.--PORTE FLAMBEAUX--QUARRELS BETWEEN RIVAL COACHMEN--AN ENGLISH STAGE-COACH IN FRANCE--CONCLUSION 285 CHAPTER I. ANCIENT CHARIOTEERS--CELEBRATED WHIPS--INTRODUCTION OF CARRIAGES INTO ENGLAND--MR. CRESSET'S PAMPHLET--THE STATE OF THE ROADS IN 1739--DANGEROUS CONVEYANCES--THE FLYING COACH OF 1669--DEAN SWIFT'S POETICAL LINES ON HIS JOURNEY TO CHESTER--DISCOMFORTS OF INSIDE TRAVELLING--TRAVELLING IN BYGONE DAYS. CHAPTER I. Before I allude to the road as it is, let me refer to what it was, and in so doing bring my classical lore into play. Pelops was a coachman, who has been immortalised for his ability to drive at the rate of fourteen miles an hour by the first of Grecian bards. Despite his ivory arm, he got the whip-hand of OEnomaus, a brother "dragsman" in their celebrated chariot-race from Pisa to the Corinthian Isthmus, owing more to the rascality of the state coachman, Myrtilus, whom he bribed to furnish his master, the King of Pisa, with an old carriage, the axletree of which broke on the course, than to his own coaching merits. Hippolytus, too, "handled the ribbons well," but "came to grief" by being overturned near the sea-shore, when flying from the resentment of his father. His horses were so frightened at the noise of sea-calves, which Neptune had purposely sent there, that they ran among the rocks till his chariot was broken and his body torn to pieces. Virgil and Horace sang the praises and commemorated the honours of the "whips" of their day. Juvenal tells us of a Roman Consul who aspired to be a "dragsman"-- "Volueri Carpento rapitur pinguis Damasippus; et ipse Ipse rotam stringit multo sufflamine Consul." Again, I find the following lines:-- "Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum Collegisse juvat metaque fervidis Evitata rotis, palmaque nobilis Terrarum dominos evehit ad Deos." Which may be thus rendered--"The summit of some men's ambition is to drive four-in-hand." Propertius, too, exclaims against the tandem as rivalling the curricle--that is, according to some witty translators:-- "Invide tu _tandem_ voces compesce molestas. Et sine nos cursu quo sumus _ire pares_." Horace writes:-- "_Tandem_ parcas insane;" and to those who drive this dangerous vehicle the following line may not be inappropriate:-- "_Tandem_ discedere campis admonuit." In addition to the above classical names, there were, early in the present century, hundreds of whips who raised the character of coachmen to the highest pinnacle of fame. Let me instance:-- Richard Vaughan, of the Cambridge "Telegraph," 'scientific in horseflesh, unequalled in driving;' Pears, of the Southampton day coach; Wood, Liley, Wilcocks, and Hayward of the "Wonder," between London and Shrewsbury; Charles Holmes, of the Blenheim coach; Izaac Walton, the Mæcenas of whips, the Braham of the Bath road; Jack Adams, the civil and obliging pastor, who taught the young Etonians to drive; Bramble, Faulkner, Dennis, Cross, and others, all of whom have long since departed this life. Many professional stage-coachmen were men of good education. Indeed, not a few had received the advantage of a college education, and could quote Latin and Greek in a manner that surprised some of their companions. They could also tell a good story and sing a good song; so that their society was much sought after, both on the box and in the snug bar-parlour. I will not here stop to discuss the question of rail and road, or to lament that the "Light (coaches) of other days has faded," although many a man's heart sinks to the axle when he thinks of the past, and feels disposed to sympathise with Jerry Drag, "him wot drove," I quote his own words, "the old Highflyer, Red Rover, and Markiss of Huntley." "Them as 'ave seen coaches," says this knight of the ribbons, "afore rails came into fashion, 'ave seen something worth remembering; them was happy days for Old England, afore reform and rails turned everything upside down, and men rode as natur' intended they should, on pikes with coaches and smart, active cattle, and not by machinery, like bags of cotton and hardware; but coaches is done for ever, and a heavy blow it is. They was the pride of the country, there wasn't anything like them, as I've heerd gemmen say from forrin parts, to be found nowhere, nor never will be again." _Mais revenons à nos moutons_; my present object is to compare coaching as it is with coaching as it was. It may not here be uninteresting to mention that coaches were introduced into England by Fitz Allan, Earl of Arundel, A.D. 1580, before which time Queen Elizabeth, on public occasions, rode behind her chamberlain; and she, in her old age, used reluctantly such an effeminate conveyance. They were at first drawn by only two horses; but, as a writer of those days remarks, "The rest crept in by degrees, as man at first ventured to sea." Historians, however, differ upon this subject, for it is stated by Stow (that ill-used antiquary, who, after a long laborious life, was left by his countrymen to beg his bread) that in 1564, Booner, a Dutchman, became the Queen's coachman, and was the first that brought the use of coaches into England; while Anderson, in his "History of Commerce," says, on the other hand, that about 1580 the use of coaches was introduced by the Earl of Arundel. It was Buckingham, the favourite, who about 1619 began to have a team of six horses, which "was wondered at as a novelty, and imputed to him as a mastering pride." Before that time ladies chiefly rode on horseback--either single, on their palfreys, or double, behind some person, on a pillion. A considerable time elapsed before this luxurious way of locomotion was enjoyed by more than a very few rich and distinguished individuals, and a very much longer time before coaches became general. In the year 1672, at which period throughout the kingdom there were only six stage-coaches running, a pamphlet was written and published by Mr. John Cresset, of the Charterhouse, urging their suppression; and amongst the grave reasons given against their continuance was the following:-- "These stage-coaches make gentlemen come to London on every small occasion, which otherwise they would not do but upon urgent necessity; nay, the convenience of the passage makes their wives often come up, who, rather than come such long journeys on horseback, would stay at home. Then when they come to town they must presently be in the mode, get fine clothes, go to plays and treats, and, by these means, get such a habit of idleness and love of pleasure as makes them uneasy ever after." What would Mr. Cresset have said had he lived some forty years ago, in the palmy days of coaching--coaches full, able dragsmen, spicy teams, doing their eleven miles an hour with ease, without breaking into a gallop or turning a hair? Or how surprised would the worthy chronicler of 1672 be at the present annihilators of time and space--the railroads, when "the convenience of the passage" enables parties to come up to London from Liverpool, Birmingham, Manchester, Bath, and Bristol in time for the play or opera, and return home for dinner the following day. In 1739 Pennant writes:-- "I travelled in the Chester stage to London, then no despicable vehicle for country gentlemen. The first day, with much labour, we got from Chester to Whitchurch (twenty miles), the second day to the Welsh Harp, the third to Coventry, the fourth to Northampton, the fifth to Dunstable, and, as a wondrous effort, on the last to London, before the commencement of the night. The strain and labour of six horses, sometimes eight, drew us through the slough of Mireden and many other places. We were constantly out two hours before day, and as many at night. Families who could afford to travel in their own carriages contracted with Benson and Co., and were dragged up in the same number of days by three sets of able horses." These coaches must have been not only very lumbering, but very dangerous conveyances, as the following newspaper paragraph, dated the 2nd of September, 1770, will prove:-- "It were greatly to be wished that stage-coaches were put under some regulation as to the number of persons and quantity of luggage carried by them. Thirty-four persons were in and about the Hertford coach this day, which broke down, by one of the traces giving way. One outside passenger was killed on the spot, a woman had both legs broken; very few of the number, either within or without, but were severely bruised." Rich or poor, high or low, prior to this were obliged either to walk or ride in the same manner that Queen Elizabeth did from Greenwich to London, behind her Lord Chancellor. Queen Victoria is a graceful horsewoman. Previous to the lamented decease of the Prince Consort, Her Majesty constantly appeared on horseback, and for all we know to the contrary, Lord Cairns is able to "match the world with noble horsemanship;" still we think that such an _entrée_ into London as that performed by the Virgin Queen would surprise the weak minds of the present generation. One can scarcely now realize the state of things when a passenger starting by the waggon from the metropolis at five o'clock in the morning, did not arrive at Blackheath until half-past nine. For four hours and a half were the unfortunate travellers tossed, tumbled, jumbled, and rumbled over a road full of holes and wheel-ruts, out of which extra horses were employed to drag the lumbering vehicle. Break-downs (not the popular dance of that name) were frequent; much time was occupied in repairing the waggons, and it often happened that, when a wheelwright could not be got, the road was blocked up by a broken-down vehicle. Macaulay tells us that, during the year which immediately followed the Restoration, a diligence ran between London and Oxford in two days. The passengers slept at Beaconsfield. At length, in the Spring of 1669, a great and daring innovation was attempted. It was announced that a vehicle, described as the flying coach, would perform the whole journey between sunrise and sunset. "This spirited undertaking was solemnly considered and sanctioned by the heads of the University, and appears to have excited the same sort of interest which is excited in our own time by the opening of a new railway. The Vice-Chancellor, by a notice which was affixed in all public places, prescribed the hour and place of departure. "The success of this experiment was complete. At six in the morning the carriage began to move from before the ancient front of All Souls' College, and at seven in the evening the adventurous gentlemen who had run the first risk were safely deposited at their inn in London. The emulation of the sister University was moved, and soon a diligence was set up which in one day carried passengers from Cambridge to the Capital." In 1678 a contract was made to establish a coach for passengers between Edinburgh and Glasgow, a distance of forty-four miles. This coach was drawn by six horses, and the journey between the two places, to and fro, was completed in six days. At the close of the reign of Charles II. flying carriages ran thrice a week from London to all the chief towns; but no stage-coach appears to have proceeded further north than York, or further west than Exeter. The ordinary day's journey of a flying coach was about fifty miles in the Summer; but in Winter, when the ways were bad and the nights long, little more than thirty miles. The Chester coach, the York coach, and the Exeter coach generally reached London in four days during the fine season, but at Christmas not till the sixth day. The passengers, six in number, were all seated in the carriage; for accidents were so frequent that it would have been most perilous to mount the roof. The ordinary fare was about twopence half-penny a mile in Summer, and somewhat more in Winter. "This mode of travelling, which by Englishmen of the present day would be regarded as insufferably slow, seemed to our ancestors wonderfully, and indeed alarmingly rapid; for, in a work published a few months before the death of Charles II., the flying coaches are extolled as far superior to any similar vehicles ever known in the world. Their velocity is the subject of special commendation, and is triumphantly contrasted with the sluggish pace of the Continental posts. But with boasts like these was mingled the sound of complaint and invective. "The interest of large classes had been unfavourably affected by the establishment of the new diligences, and, as usual, many persons were, from mere stupidity and obstinacy, disposed to clamour against the innovation. It was vehemently argued that this mode of conveyance would be fatal to the breed of horses and to the noble art of horsemanship; that the Thames, which had long been an important nursery of seamen, would cease to be the chief thoroughfare from London up to Windsor, and down to Gravesend; that saddlers and spurriers would be ruined by hundreds; that numerous inns at which mounted travellers had been in the habit of stopping would be deserted, and could no longer pay any rent; that the new carriages were too hot in Summer and too cold in Winter; that the passengers were grievously annoyed by invalids and crying children; that the coach sometimes reached the inn so late that it was impossible to get supper, and sometimes started so early that it was impossible to get breakfast. "On these grounds it was gravely recommended that no public carriage should be permitted to have more than four horses, to start oftener than once a week, or to go more than thirty miles a day. It was hoped that, if this regulation were adopted, all except the sick and the lame would return to the old modes of travelling on horseback and by water. Petitions embodying such opinions as these were presented to the King in Council from several companies of the City of London, from several provincial towns, and from the justices of several counties." It is difficult to determine the exact period at which a stage-coach first appeared upon the road, for there is a wide difference between the stage-coach of the last century and the flying coaches of the previous one. Although the stage-coach may have improved in speed, its discomfort still existed, as may be gleaned from the following lines written by Dean Swift on his journey from London to Chester:-- "Resolved to visit a far-distant friend, A porter to the Bull and Gate I send, And bid the man at all events engage Some place or other in the Chester stage. The man returns--''Tis done as soon as said, Your Honour's sure when once the money's paid. My brother whip, impatient of delay, Puts too at three and swears he cannot stay.' (Four dismal hours ere the break of day.) Roused from sound sleep--thrice called--at length I rise, Yawning, stretch out my arms, half closed my eyes; By steps and lanthorn enter the machine, And take my place, how cordially, between Two aged matrons of excessive bulk, To mend the matter, too, of meaner folk; While in like mood, jammed in on t'other side, A bullying captain and a fair one ride, Foolish as fair, and in whose lap a boy-- _Our_ plague eternal, but _her_ only joy. At last, the glorious number to complete, Steps in my landlord for that bodkin seat; When soon, by every hillock, rut, and stone, In each other's faces by turns we're thrown. _This_ grandam scolds, _that_ coughs, the captain swears, The fair one screams, and has a thousand fears; While our plump landlord, trained in other lore, Slumbers at ease, nor yet ashamed to snore; And Master Dicky, in his mother's lap, Squalling, at once brings up three meals of pap. Sweet company! Next time, I do protest, Sir, I'd walk to Dublin, ere I ride to Chester!" As Dean Swift died in 1745, at the green old age of seventy-eight, the above lines were probably written about the close of the previous century; and certainly not much progress was made for the comfort of passengers, as I can myself bear testimony. I well remember the lumbering, slow coach that used to convey me from London to Chichester thrice a year, when the holidays from Westminster came about. It started at five o'clock in the morning, reaching its destination late in the evening, six inside passengers being stuffed in a small space capable of holding four comfortably. At all the hills--and there are plenty on this road--we were politely asked to descend from the vehicle, as the wretched horses could scarcely drag their heavy load even on level ground. It was always considered in those days dangerous to mount the roof; still any risk was better than being stifled inside, and often have I, despite the inclemency of the weather, taken the box seat, getting thoroughly wet through before half my journey had been accomplished. This reminds me of a witticism of a guard who, being told by a passenger that he had tried every sort of waterproof coat, but that nothing would keep him dry, "Why, then," said the other, "don't you invest a penny in a Yarmouth bloater? Eat that, and I warrant you'll be dry all day?" None except those who have been victims to the misery of inside berths can imagine the wretchedness of them--a coach licensed to carry six inside--for so small was the space, so low was the roof, that the legs of the inmates were cramped, and their backs doubled up. Then the atmosphere was most oppressive--forty, sometimes fifty, stone of human beings huddled together, with both windows up. Again, the occupants--occasionally a fat nurse and a squalling baby; a farmer, rude in health and manners; a painted old Jezebel, redolent of Macassar oil and patchouli; a fledgling dandy, strong of musk; a bloated publican, on the verge of delirium tremens, who, as the old song says, "kept his spirits up by pouring spirits down;" a snuffy old maid, whose nasal organ was so supplied with "lundyfoot" that it set her companions sneezing immoderately. Then the inside passengers were to be fed, and a strong odour of cheese, apples, oranges, cakes, brandy, rum, gin, beer prevailed everywhere. Often in my early days have I travelled from London to Brighthelmstone (now called Brighton) in a coach thus described:-- "Lewes and Brighthelmstone--new machine to hold four persons, by Charley, sets out by the 'George Inn,' in the Haymarket, St. James's at six o'clock in the morning, every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, in one day to the 'Star' at Lewes, and the 'Old Ship' at Brighthelmstone, and returns from there every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday. Inside passengers to Lewes to pay thirteen shillings; to Brighthelmstone, sixteen shillings. To be allowed fourteen pounds weight of baggage, all above to pay one penny per pound." The above was a great improvement upon a coach previously drawn by six long-tailed black horses, thus described:-- "Batchelor's Old Godstone, East Grinstead, and Lewes stage continues to set out every Tuesday at nine o'clock and Saturday at five o'clock from the 'Talbot Inn', in the Borough, returning every Monday and Thursday. Children in lap and outside passengers to pay half price. Half of the fare to be paid at booking. Performed, if God permit, by J. Batchelor." I may here remind my readers that when the Prince Regent, afterwards George IV., selected Brighton, as a marine residence, and squandered thousands and thousands of pounds upon the Pavilion, the journey from London to this then small fishing town occupied two days; the first night being passed at Reigate or at Cuckfield, according to the road the stage travelled. About seventy-five years ago an attempt was made to run through in one day, and, to the surprise of many, was accomplished; but it was not until 1823 that the Brighton road became (what it continued to be until the rail was introduced) the first in England for well-appointed coaches, first-rate teams, and gentleman-like drivers. Harry Stevenson, who was educated at Cambridge, was the first to introduce the fast light coach, called the "Waterwitch," and truly did he "_witch_ the world with noble _coach_manship." After a time this beau-ideal of dragsmen started another coach in lieu of the "Waterwitch," which he called the "Age," and which was unrivalled. Who that ever saw that fancy team, the skewbald, dun, chestnut, and roan, sightly and full of action, leave the Castle Square, witnessed that which never has been and never can be equalled, in this or in any other country. With Stevenson commenced the rage for driving public conveyances by noblemen and gentlemen, to which I shall refer in a future chapter. It may here not be out of place to lay before my readers a statement of the working of the stage-coaches in bygone days. In 1742 a stage-coach left London for Oxford at seven o'clock in the morning, and reached Uxbridge at midday. It arrived at High Wycombe at five in the evening, where it rested for the night, and proceeded at the same rate for the seat of learning on the morrow. Here, then, were ten hours consumed each day in travelling twenty-seven miles, and nearly two days in performing what was afterwards done under six hours by the "Defiance" and other coaches. To go from London to York used to take six days. In 1784 I read of the Edinburgh diligence, horsed with a pair, which set off daily from the "Saracen's Head," in the Gallowgate, Glasgow, at seven o'clock in the morning, and arrived at Edinburgh at eight o'clock at night. This conveyance stopped at Cumbernauld for an hour and a half in order to give the passengers time for breakfast, and again for the same time at Linlithgow for dinner. A third stoppage took place in order that the passengers might enjoy their tea, when they again proceeded on their road, and were finally set down safely in the Grassmarket of Edinburgh at eight o'clock at night. About this period there was a ponderous machine with six broad wheels, and drawn by eight horses, called the Newcastle waggon. In addition to passengers, it generally carried a great portion of the Glasgow linen and cotton manufactures to the London market. It travelled at the rate of twenty-five miles a day, and was three weeks upon the road between Glasgow and London, resting always upon the Sundays. At that time the best mode of conveyance from Glasgow to the English capital was by a trading vessel from Borrowstounness; and so remarkable was a sight of London considered in Glasgow, that a worthy citizen who bore the same Christian and surname as another friend was, after his return from London, distinguished as "London John." The use of stage-coaches rapidly extended itself, and there was scarcely a town through which some stage-coach did not pass. After a time, the heavy six-inside lumbering vehicle gave way to the light four-inside fast coach; and from the year 1825 until the introduction of railways, nothing could exceed the "turns out" on the principal roads. In 1833 the distance between London and Shrewsbury (one hundred and fifty-four miles), Exeter (one hundred and seventy-one miles), and Manchester (one hundred and eighty-seven miles) was done in a day. The Mail to Holyhead performed the journey (two hundred and sixty-one miles) in twenty-seven hours, and that to Liverpool (two hundred and three miles) in twenty-one hours. The journey to Brighton was accomplished at the rate of twelve miles an hour, including stoppages, and the Bath, Bristol, Southampton, Oxford, and Cambridge coaches were famed for their excellent arrangements. In 1807 one of the Stamford stage-coaches that daily ran to London performed the journey (ninety-nine miles) in nine hours and four minutes from the time of starting; although the passengers were allowed time to breakfast and dine upon the road. The coach must necessarily have run at the rate of twelve miles an hour. The fast coach had nearly a horse to every mile of ground it ran, reckoning one way, or "one side of the ground"--for example, from London to Shrewsbury the distance is one hundred and fifty-eight miles, and the number of horses kept for the "Wonder" coach was one hundred and fifty. The average price of horses for these coaches was about £23. Fancy teams, and those working out of London, were rated considerably higher; but, taking a hundred miles of ground, well horsed, the above was about the mark. In these days it would be nearly if not quite double. The average period of each horse's service did not exceed four years. CHAPTER II. DANGERS OF TRAVELLING--ANECDOTES OF HIGHWAYMEN--INNKEEPERS AND HIGHWAYMEN--STAGE-COACH ROBBERIES--A 'CUTE LADY--A JOURNEY TO LONDON UNDER DIFFICULTIES--TRAVELLING IN 1770--VANBRUGH'S DESCRIPTION OF AN M.P.'S JOURNEY--SYDNEY SMITH ON MODERN IMPROVEMENT. CHAPTER II. In the days I write of, Macaulay tells us that the mounted highwayman, a marauder known to the present generation only from books, was to be found on every main road. Hounslow Heath on the Great Western Road, Finchley Common on the Great Northern Road, were, perhaps, the most celebrated of these spots; but there was hardly an open common or steep hill which was not infested with these enterprising plunderers. Upon two occasions I fell in with these gentlemen of the road. Once, when travelling in very early youth from London to Goodwood, the Chichester coach was stopped by two ill-favoured scoundrels, who were about to levy black mail on the inside passengers, when, fortunately, the sound of a travelling-carriage was heard, and thinking, probably, that the inmates of it might be armed, the robbers scampered off. The second adventure occurred to me when returning very late at night from Tunbridge Wells in a dennet with my trusty batman, John Hargreaves, by my side. We were ascending the hill that leads into Sevenoaks, my servant walking up it and I driving, when I heard a shrill whistle from one side of the road, which was immediately responded to. Anticipating some mischief, I said "Jump in," and, obedient to orders, Hargreaves did so. Happily, we had reached the summit of the hill, when one man rushed forward and attempted to seize the horse's bridle, while another tried to hang on behind the gig. Hargreaves had my stick in his hand, a good ash plant, with which he struck the fellow a blow across the face, which made him relax his hold, while I gave a smart lash of the whip to my most willing horse, who started off at a tremendous pace down the hill, leaving my assailant sprawling on the ground, and within an inch of having his head run over by the wheel. "Stage-coach robberies were of daily occurrence, and it was generally supposed that they were connived at by many innkeepers; so much so, indeed, that proclamations were issued warning all innkeepers that the eye of the Government was upon them. Their criminal connivance, it was affirmed, enabled banditti to infest the roads with impunity. That those suspicions were not without foundation is proved by the dying speeches of some penitent robbers of that age, who appear to have received from the innkeepers services much resembling those which Farquhar's 'Boniface' rendered to 'Gibbet.'" In the "Domestic Intelligence" I read that "several passengers, both men and women, to the number of fifteen, going in three or four coaches towards Bath and Bristol, were set upon by some highwaymen (supposed to be soldiers) well armed, about Stoke Church, in Oxfordshire (a very desolate part at that time), who robbed them all of very considerable value." Another adventure may not prove uninteresting. Two travellers were journeying together over a dreary common, when one remarked to the other that he trusted they should not fall in with any highwaymen, as he had one hundred pounds secreted in his boot. They had not gone many miles before they came to a most secluded spot, where four cross roads met; the new-laid earth round the finger-post, and a gibbet at some little distance, with a skeleton body suspended in chains to it, showed that two human beings had met with ignominious deaths. They had been companions in crime, and in robbing the Mail the guard had been killed. An offer of a free pardon and two hundred pounds reward had been proclaimed, when one of the wretches, actuated by vile lucre, turned King's evidence, and sacrificed his friend. Although he had taken part in the robbery, as he did not fire the fatal shot, his pardon was granted and the blood money awarded him. On the morning of the execution of his partner in guilt, remorse seized hold of the informer, and by his own hand he rid the country of a villain. The two travellers, who, I ought to say, had met accidentally at an inn, reached the spot I have described; the wind whistled across the heath--the chains of the gibbet clanked, the birds of carrion hovered over the new-made grave, in which the suicide had been buried, and the body of the murderer dangled in the air. As they passed the grave of the suicide, three men suddenly rushed forward, determined, as they swore, with a dreadful imprecation, to have the money or the lives of the travellers. "Spare our lives! Take all I have!" cried one. "Here it is!" offering a handful of silver. "That won't do!" responded the highwayman. "I'll soon see what you have about you!" "Stay!" said the other. "My companion has our money hid away in his boot." "Traitor!" exclaimed his companion, while one of the gang, with blackened face and cocked pistol, proceeded to take off the boots of the terrified victim. "If you've spoken false," shouted the first, "I'll give you an ounce of lead for your pains." "He has spoken truth," responded the searcher. "Here's a prize--a hundred pounds in Bank of England notes!" Securing the money, the two travellers were blindfolded and bound to the finger-post, while the horse was taken out of their gig and turned loose on the common. It was nearly an hour before they were released from their position, during which period the ill-used victim vented his anger pretty loudly. Upon reaching the next town where a deposition was made before a magistrate, the worthy Justice commented in rather a severe strain upon the base conduct of the miscreant who had acted so treacherous a part. "Hear my palliation," meekly said the accused. "Stand down; I've heard enough;" vociferated the man in authority. "One word," continued the other. "My object was not to screen myself at another's expense. My companion told me he had one hundred pounds in his boot; I had twelve hundred pounds in my waistband. Had I been searched, that must have been discovered, and would probably have led to my companion being searched; so I thought it better to sacrifice the smaller to the larger sum. I now return the money I was the means of his being deprived of, and in future recommend him to be more prudent in keeping his own counsel." One more anecdote of the road must suffice:-- Early in the present century a rider for a mercantile house in the City of London was attacked a few miles beyond Winchester, by a highwayman, who, taking him by surprise, robbed him of his purse and pocket-book, containing cash and notes to a considerable amount. "Sir," said the rider, with great presence of mind, "I have suffered you to take my property, and you are welcome to it. It is my master's, and the loss of it cannot do him much harm; but, as it will look very cowardly in me to have been robbed without making any resistance, I should take it kindly of you just to fire a pistol through my coat." "With all my heart," replied the highwayman; "where will you have the ball?" "Here," said the rider, "just by the side of the button." The highwayman was as good as his word, but the moment he fired the rider knocked him off his horse; and, having stunned him with the blow, aided by a labourer who came up at the time, lodged him safely in Winchester Gaol. As late as the year 1814 stage-coach robberies continued, for I find in 1814 the Stroud Mail was robbed of bank-notes to the amount of two thousand eight hundred pounds; and in the following year the Buckingham stage-coach was robbed of bills and notes to a considerable amount. Occasionally the victims of a robbery advertised for the loss of any valued article, as will be seen by the following whimsical and good-humoured appeal extracted from Salisbury's "Flying Post" of Oct. 27, 1696:-- "Whereas six gentlemen (all of the same honourable profession), having been more than ordinary put to it for a little pocket money, did, on the 14th instant, in the evening, near Kentish Town, borrow of two persons (in a coach) a certain sum of money, without staying to give bond for the repayment, and whereas fancy was taken to the hat, peruke, cravat, sword, and cane of one of the creditors, which were all lent as freely as the money; these are, therefore, to desire the said worthies, how fond soever they may be of the other loans, to unfancy the cane again, and send it to Will's Coffee-House in Scotland-yard, it being too short for any such proper gentlemen as they are to walk with, and too small for any of their important uses, and withal only valuable as having been the gift of a friend." As late as the year 1750 carriages were stopped at noonday in Hyde Park, and even in Piccadilly, and pistols presented at the breasts of the most fashionable people. A celebrated highwayman, by name M'Lean, was that year taken and executed. So eager were persons of all classes to see him that three thousand persons visited him one day after his condemnation. The usual reward offered by Government for the apprehension of every highwayman was a hundred pounds. It was not safe to venture out after dark. Travellers were armed in broad daylight, as though they were going to battle. In Lady Walpole's Letters I find the following description of a very 'cute lady:-- "Lady Browne and I were, as usual, going to the Duchess of Montrose's at seven o'clock. The evening was dark. In the close lane, under the park pale, and within twenty yards of the gate, a black figure pushed by between the chaise and the hedge on my side. I suspected it was a highwayman, and so, I found, did Browne, for she was speaking, and stopped. To divert her fears I was going to say, 'Is not that the apothecary going to the Duchess?' when I heard a voice cry 'Stop!' and then the figure came back to the chaise. I had the presence of mind before I let down the glass, to take out my watch and stuff it within my dress under the arm. He said, "'Your purses and watches?' "'I have no watch,' I replied. "'Then, your purse.' "I gave it to him; it had nine guineas in it. It was so dark that I could not see his hand, but I felt him take it. He then asked for Lady Browne's purse, and said, "'Don't be frightened, I will not hurt you.' "'No, you won't frighten the lady,' I said. "'No, I give you my word I will not hurt you,' he replied. "Lady Browne gave him her purse, and was going to add her watch; but he said, "'I am much obliged to you; I wish you good night,' pulled off his hat, and rode away. "'Well,' said I, 'you will not be afraid of being robbed another time, for, you see, there is nothing in it.' "'Oh! but I am,' she said; 'and now I am in terror lest he return, for I have given him a purse with bad money in it, that I carry on purpose.'" Again we read that not only was it dangerous to travel in bygone days from a fear of being robbed and murdered, but the roads were so bad that scarcely a day passed but a coach stuck fast in the mud, and remained there until a team of cattle could be procured from some neighbouring farm to tug it out of the slough. On the best lines of communication the ruts were deep, the descents precipitous, and the road often such that it was hardly possible to distinguish it in the dusk from the uninclosed heath and fen which lay on both sides. "Ralph Thoresby, the antiquary, was in danger of losing his way on the Great North Road, between Barnby Moor and Tuxford, and actually lost it between Doncaster and York. Pepys and his wife, travelling in their own coach, lost their way between Newbury and Reading. In the course of the same tour they lost their way near Salisbury, and were in danger of having to pass the night on the Plain. It was only in fine weather that the whole breadth of the road was available for wheeled carriages. Often the mud lay deep on the right and the left, and only a narrow track of firm ground rose above the quagmire. At such times obstructions and quarrels were frequent, and the path was sometimes blocked up during a long time by carriers, neither of whom would break the way. "Thoresby has recorded in his diary many perils and disasters that befell him. On one occasion he learned that the floods were out between Ware and London, that passengers had to swim for their lives, and that a higgler had perished in the attempt to cross. In consequence of these tidings he turned out of the high road, and was conducted across some meadows, where it was necessary for him to ride to the saddle skirts in water. In the course of another journey he narrowly escaped being swept away by an inundation of the Trent. "Of course, during the period the waters were out coaches ceased to run. Thoresby was afterwards detained at Stamford four days on account of the state of the roads, and then ventured to proceed only because fourteen Members of the House of Commons, who were going up in a body to Parliament with guides and numerous attendants, took him into their company." The great route through Wales to Holyhead was in such a state that, in 1685, Henry Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, Viceroy, on his way to Ireland, was five hours in travelling fourteen miles from St. Asaph to Conway. Between Conway and Beaumaris he was forced to walk great part of the way, and the Countess was carried in a litter. His coach was, with great difficulty, and by the help of many hands, brought after him entire. In general, carriages were taken to pieces at Conway, and borne on the shoulders of stout Welsh peasants to the Menai Strait. At that period, and long after, the passage in the ferry-boat at the Menai Strait was slow and tedious, and the packet-boat from Holyhead to Kingstown seldom crossed over under eight or ten hours. Now a man may, as I did last Autumn, breakfast in London, and sit down to a half-past seven dinner in Dublin. In Sussex the roads were so bad that when Prince George of Denmark visited the stately mansion of Petworth in wet weather he was six hours in going nine miles, and it was necessary that a body of sturdy hands should be on each side of his coach in order to prop it. Of the carriages which conveyed his retinue, several were upset and injured. A letter from one of his suite has been preserved, in which the unfortunate gentleman-in-waiting complains that during fourteen hours he never once alighted, except when his coach was overturned or stuck fast in the mud. Great contrast is offered in this narrative to the present state of travelling; "only, to be sure," as Macaulay writes, "people did get up again with their heads on after a roll in the Sussex mud, which, unhappily, is not always the case after a railway collision." Arthur Young, who travelled in Lancashire in 1770, has left us the following account of the state of the roads at that time. "I know not," he says, "in the whole range of language, terms sufficiently expressive to describe this awful road. Let me most seriously caution all travellers who may accidentally propose to travel this terrible country to avoid it as they would a pestilence, for a thousand to one they break their necks or their limbs by overthrows or breakings down. They will here meet with ruts which I actually measured four feet deep, and floating with mud, only from a wet Summer. What, therefore, must it be after a Winter? The only mending it receives is tumbling in some loose stones, which serve no other purpose than jolting a carriage in the most intolerable manner. Let me persuade all travellers to avoid this terrible country, which must either dislocate their bones with broken pavement or bury them in muddy sand." In a well-known passage, Arthur Young vents his spleen at the expense of the municipal authorities of Lancashire, and reproachfully reminds them that, thanks to their abominable highways, London often suffers from want of animal food, while country farmers are unable to get more than five farthings a pound for good beef! A coach and six is in our time never seen, except as part of some pageant; the frequent mention, therefore, of such equipages in old books is likely to mislead. We hear of private carriages and public stage-coaches of six, and attribute to magnificence what was really the effect of a very disagreeable necessity. A pair of horses now would do ten times the work six did in the days I write of, and I cannot illustrate this better than by giving Vanbrugh's most humorous description of the way in which a country gentleman, newly chosen a Member of Parliament, came up to London. On that occasion all the exertions of six beasts, two of which had been taken from the plough, could not save the family coach from being embedded in a quagmire. The scene takes place at Uncle Richard's house in London, previous to the arrival of his nephew, Sir Francis Headpiece, a country gentleman and Parliament man, who was strongly addicted to malt-liquor and field sports. Although only forty-two years of age, it appears that Sir Francis had drunk two-and-thirty tuns of ale, while in the pursuit of the chase he had broken his right arm, his left leg, and both his collar-bones. Uncle Richard had just read his wiseacre nephew's letter, when James, the footman, enters hastily. "Sir, Sir," he exclaims, "they're all a-coming; here's John Moody arrived already. He's stamping about the streets in his dirty boots, asking every man he meets if they can tell where he may have a good lodging for a Parliament man, till he can hire such a house as becomes him. He tells them his lady and all the family are coming too, and that they are so nobly attended they care not a fig for anybody. Sir, they have added two cart-horses to the four old bays, because my Lady will have it said she came to town in her coach-and-six; and, ha, ha! heavy George, the ploughman, rides postilion." "Very well, James," responds his master, "the journey begins as it should do. Dost know whether they bring all the children with them?" "Only Squire Humphrey and Miss Betty, Sir; the other six are put to board, at half-a-crown a week a head, with Joan Grouse, at Smokedunghill Farm." "Dost know when they'll be here?" "Sir, they'd have been here last night, but that the old wheezy horse tired, and the two fore wheels came crash down at once in Waggonrut Lane. Sir, they were cruelly loaden, as I understand. My Lady herself, he says, laid on four mail-trunks, besides the great deal box which fat Tom and the monkey sat upon behind." "So." "Then within the coach there was Sir Francis, my Lady, the great fat lap-dog, Squire Humphrey, Miss Betty, my Lady's maid, Mrs. Handy, and Dolly the cook; but she was so ill with sitting backward that they mounted her into the coachbox." "Very well." "Then, Sir, for fear of a famine before they could get to the baiting-place, there were such baskets of plum-cake, Dutch gingerbread, Cheshire cheese, Naples biscuits, macaroons, neats' tongues, and cold boiled beef--and in case of sickness, such bottles of usquebagh, black cherry brandy, cinnamon-water, sack, tent, and strong beer, as made the old coach crack again; and for defence of this good cheer and my Lady's little pearl necklace, there was the family basket-hilt sword, the great Turkish scimitar, the old blunderbuss, a good bag of bullets, and a great horn of gunpowder." "Admirable." "Then for band-boxes, they were so bepiled up to Sir Francis's nose that he could only peep out at a chance hole with one eye, as if he were viewing the country through a perspective-glass." Sir John Vanbrugh, who wrote the above admirable account of a journey to London, was the grandson of a Protestant refugee from the Netherlands, and the son of a wealthy sugar-baker. Little is known of the history of his youth, or of that training which enabled him not only to become one of the most celebrated English architects, but also, in conjunction with Congreve, to produce some excellent comedies. As an architect, he designed Castle Howard and Blenheim; as a dramatist, his most successful plays were "The Relapse" and "The Provoked Wife," and the uncompleted "Journey to London," which was worked up by Colley Cibber into "The Provoked Husband." "The good of ancient times let others state; I think it lucky I was born so late." So wrote Sydney Smith, and it is a sentiment that all must concur in. The witty divine goes on to state:-- "A young man alive at this period hardly knows to what improvement of human life he has been introduced, and I would bring before his notice the following changes which have taken place in England since I first began to breathe in it the breath of life--a period amounting now to nearly seventy-three years. Gas was unknown. I groped about the streets of London in all but the utter darkness of a twinkling oil lamp, under the protection of watchmen in their grand climacteric, and exposed to every species of depredation and insult. I have been nine hours sailing from Dover to Calais before the invention of steam. It took me nine hours to go from Taunton to Bath before the invention of railroads, and I now go in six hours from London to Bath." The witty Reverend then proceeds to refer to wooden pavements instead of stone ones, the new police instead of the superannuated "Charleys," the well-appointed cab (what would he have said to the hansom)? in lieu of the lumbering hackney coach, waterproof instead of primitive pulp hats; he then calls the attention of the reader to the introduction of gentlemen's braces, colchicum, calomel, and clubs. He might have added, the greatest boons of all, the telegraph, which "wafts a sigh from Indus to the Pole," or, unpoetically speaking, announces in an incredibly short space of time the arrival of a friend in India or America, nor would he have omitted chloroform, which saves hours of agony and torture, and which is an especial blessing to the humbler classes, who, when undergoing some painful operation, have not the comforts of the wealthier class about them. CHAPTER III. SLOW COACHES--FAST COACHES--"THE WONDER" AND "BLENHEIM"--PUBLIC DINNERS TO THE DRIVERS--PRESENTATION OF A SILVER CUP TO A DRIVER OF "THE BLENHEIM"--THE YOUNG OXONIANS FAIRLY TAKEN IN--NIMROD ON THE SHREWSBURY AND CHESTER "HIGHFLYER"--BANEFUL EFFECTS OF RAILWAYS ON THE ROAD--"THE DESERTED VILLAGE"--WONDERFUL FEAT OF LOCOMOTION. CHAPTER III. The term "slow coach" became proverbial, and was applied not only to the lumbering six-inside vehicles that travelled at almost a snail's pace, but to every schoolboy and collegian who possessed little or no gumption. Unfortunately, in those days the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals did not exist, or many a hulking fellow would have been had up for his merciless use of the lash when urging his wretched cattle up a severe hill or over ruts recently laid down with large unbroken stones--smooth "macadamised" roads being not then in prospective existence. So heavy was the draught that an appeal was being constantly made to the passengers to alight and walk up any acclivity, which upon a wet day or when the mud was ankle-deep, was not a very pleasant thing. Such was the system of travelling in the good old times, as they were called, when every affair of life moved on at a quiet, jog-trot pace. But when competition of the most eager kind became the order of the day, it cannot be said that mails or coaches stood still. The Edinburgh Mail ran four hundred miles in forty hours, stoppages included. The Exeter day coach, the "Herald," went over its ground, one hundred and seventy-three miles, in twenty hours, an admirable performance, considering the natural unevenness of the country; and the Devonport Mail performed the journey, two hundred and twenty-seven miles, in twenty-two hours. The increase of speed was alarming to those who had been accustomed to the old-fashioned slow coaches, and the rate at which the new vehicles travelled was considered reckless risking of human life. It may not be here out of place to observe that the first requisite in a coach horse is action, and the second sound legs and feet, with blood and bone. The third desideratum is good wind, as the power of respiration is called, without which the first and second qualifications avail but little for any length of time. A clear-winded coach horse will always keep his condition, and consequently his health, because he does not feel distress on a reasonable length of ground. The hunter or racer is good or bad, chiefly in proportion to his powers of respiration, and such equally applies to the coach horse. The food most proper, then, for a coach horse in fast work is that which affords ample support, without having a pernicious influence on his wind; or to use a more elegant, though not more forcible, expression, that which does not impair his respiratory organs by pressing on them. To return to the fast coaches, so splendidly were they horsed, and so admirably well did they keep their time, that they fully merited the following eulogium. At a dinner given at Shrewsbury some five and thirty years ago by coachmen and guards to the Honourable Mr. Kenyon, that gentleman, in proposing the health of Mr. R. Taylor, coach proprietor, made some interesting statements on the subject of stage-coach travelling. Among other remarks, he said:-- "As a coach proprietor, Mr. Taylor was one of the most spirited in England. He had, at one time, two of the very best coaches that ever ran--the "Hirondelle" and "Wonder." No coach established for itself a higher reputation than the former. On May 1st, (the precise year he could not recollect) it accomplished its journey of one hundred and twenty miles in eight hours and twenty minutes--a speed few coaches could ever boast of. "He (Mr. Kenyon) was in Shrewsbury that day, and saw a team of four greys, belonging to Mr. Taylor, enter the town, which had done their nine miles in thirty-five minutes. He recollected that there were two ladies inside the coach, who were informed that, as that day was appointed for a trial of strength, they might, if they were frightened at the speed, choose any other conveyance they pleased, and should be forwarded on their journey immediately; but their answer showed good blood; they said they were not aware that they had come at the great speed they had, and that they preferred going fast. "With regard to the 'Wonder,' he himself left the 'Lion Yard,' Shrewsbury, one morning at six o'clock, and was at Islington the same evening at seven o'clock, being only thirteen hours on the road. On that occasion he was driven by four of the best coachmen he ever saw. "Another instance of the reputation the 'Wonder' had acquired was given him by his friend Sir Henry Peyton, who had informed him that he had frequently seen persons at St. Albans regulating their watches by the 'Wonder' coach as it came into that town. This was the only instance he had ever heard of a coach regulating the time. It was clear that the coach could not have gained such a name for regularity without good cattle and good coachmen, and it was to the proprietors they were indebted." Charles Holmes, the driver of the "Blenheim" coach was in the year 1835 presented with a silver cup bearing the following inscription, "Presented to Charles Holmes by Sir Henry Peyton on behalf of himself and two hundred and fifty subscribers, in testimony of their admiration of his good conduct as driver of the 'Blenheim' coach for a period of upwards of twenty years." The subscription was limited to ten shillings, the actual half sovereign subscribed by the late Duke of Wellington was let into the bottom of the vase. The cup was presented to this first-rate "dragsman" after a dinner at the "Thatched House," presided over by Sir Henry Peyton. Among the numerous anecdotes the road have furnished, perhaps one of the most amusing ones is the story of the Oxford "Defiance." Term was over; the coach was full of young Oxonians returning to their respective colleges; the morning was cold, wet, and miserable, when the well-appointed "drag" drove up to the "White Horse Cellar," Piccadilly. "Have you room for one inside?" asked as pretty a girl as you would wish to see on a Summer's day. "What a beauty!" exclaimed one. "Quite lovely!" said another. "Perfect!" lisped a third. "Quite full, Miss, inside and out," replied the coachman. "Surely you could make room for one," persevered the fair applicant. "Quite impossible, without the young gentlemen's consent." "Lots of room," cried the insides; "we are not very large; we can manage to take one more." "If the gentlemen consent," replied the driver, "I can have no objection." "We agree," said the inside quartette. "All right," responded the coachman. The fare was paid, and the guard proceeded to open the door, and let down the steps. "Now, Miss, if you please; we are behind our time." "Come along, grandfather," cried the damsel, addressing a most respectable-looking, portly, elderly man; "the money is paid; get in, and be sure you thank the young gentlemen," at the same time suiting the action to the word, and, with a smile, assisting her respected grandfather into the coach. "Here's some mistake. You'll squeeze us to death," cried the astonished party. "Sorry to incommode you," replied the intruder; "I hope you won't object to have both windows up, I'm sadly troubled with a cough." At this moment, "All right, sit fast!" was heard; and the "Defiance" rattled away, best pace, drowning the voices of the astonished Oxonians. "Nimrod" tells a good story of the Shrewsbury and Chester "Highflyer," which started at eight o'clock in the morning and arrived at Chester about the same time in the evening--distance forty miles. This was always a good hard road for wheels, and rather favourable for draught; and how, then, could all these hours be accounted for? "Why, if a commercial gentleman had a little business at Ellesmere there was plenty of time for that. If a real gentleman wanted to pay a morning visit on the road, there could be no objection to that. In the pork-pie season half an hour was generally occupied in consuming one of them, for Mr. Williams, the coachman, was a wonderful favourite with the farmers' wives and daughters all along the road. "The coach dined at Wrexham, and Wrexham Church was to be seen--a fine specimen of the florid Gothic, and one of the wonders of Wales. Then Wrexham was also famous for ale, there being no public breweries in those days in Wales; and, above all, the inn belonged to Sir Watkin. About two hours were allowed for dinner, but Billy Williams, one of the best-tempered fellows on earth, as honest as Aristides, was never particular to half an hour or so. "'The coach is ready, gentlemen,' he would say; 'but don't let me disturb you if you wish for another bottle.'" What a contrast does this furnish to the hasty meals at the railway stations, where the bell for departure is heard long before the hungry passenger has swallowed half his scalding soup, or devoured his plate of cold meat! The removal of posting and coaching from the road has had a baneful effect upon every branch of trade and industry. One example from each line of railway will show the consequences of the change that has taken place. In the town of Hounslow, which was the first stage on the Great Western Road, there used to be kept, for the purposes of coaching and posting, two thousand five hundred horses. Any person acquainted with the nature of the business is aware that it would not be by any means an exaggeration to say that every one of these horses, for keep, duty, shoeing, ostlers, harness, &c., occasioned an outlay of two pounds per week, so that there was a sum of five thousand pounds circulated every week in this one town, besides the money that was spent by travellers at the different inns; and a very considerable portion of that amount was paid for labour and distributed among the different tradesmen, every one of whom was benefited directly or indirectly. The state of things on the first stage of the Western Road will serve as an example for the whole of the remaining distance, as, of course, an equal number of horses was required all the way down the road, and the effect, therefore, was equally destructive upon all towns which were formerly thriving and prosperous--witness Reading, Newbury, Hungerford, Marlborough. On the Northern Road an equally disastrous effect has been produced. At Barnet, where formerly Messrs. Bryant and Newman, the rival postmasters, could produce three hundred to four hundred pairs of horses, and where, also an immense number of coach-horses were kept, the grass has grown over the inn yard. The same observation applies with equal force to all towns east and south of the metropolis. The above gave rise to the following parody on Goldsmith's "Deserted Village":-- THE DESERTED VILLAGE. "Quantum mutatus ab illo." Hail, Hounslow! primest town upon the road, Where coaching once in all its glory showed, Where careful drivers might be always found, Ready when ostlers called to "bring 'em round." The Member rattling up at slapping pace, To ease his conscience, or secure a place-- The maiden flying from a guardian's rage, In Hymen's "Union" venturing a stage-- These knew no more of anxious fear or doubt, When John the ostler cried, "the first turn out." Once, Hounslow, there was many a gallant team, The dragsman's pride, the helper's fruitful theme; How dashingly they sweep up to the well-known door, Where rest awaited when their task was o'er; Or, sleek of coat, and deck'd with trappings gay, Bounding they met the labour of the day. Landlord and whip gazed on the thriving trade, And dreamt of fortunes soon and surely made, For then alike both house and coach fill'd well, "And all went merry as a marriage bell." Once it was thus--another age appears, And Hounslow's smiles, alas! are turn'd to tears. No more is heard the mellow winding horn, Waking the drowsy slumbers of the morn; No spicy "change" now waits for the down mail, For, woe is me! the "Bristol's" on the "rail." No longer now is heard the busy din In the full yard that marks the prosperous inn; Unheard is now the watching ostler's call; The only "pair" is weary of the stall. Silent the joke of "boots," ne'er known to fail; The keeper's whistle and the postboy's tale. No waiter now bestirs him for the nonce, To answer fifty summonses at once; E'en Bessy's self, so long the bar's fair boast, The cookmaid's envy, and the bagman's toast, Whose winning smile was so well known to fame That for a ray each traveller duly came,-- E'en she--so hopeless, Hounslow, is thy case-- Hath packed her traps and bolted from her place. A time there was, ere railroads came in force, When every mile of ground maintained its horse; Coach after coach then rattled briskly by, "Live and let live" was then the wholesome cry. 'Tis past! and now succeeds the general doom Of landlord, barmaid, waiters, ostler, groom; The coachman's glories have for ever set, And "boots" has got a place--in the _Gazette_. A popular writer who flourished some five and forty years ago quotes a letter from a personal friend, who boasts of the following wonderful feat of locomotion:-- "I was out hunting last season, on a Monday, near Brighton, and dined with my father in Merrion Square, Dublin, at six o'clock on the following Wednesday, distance four hundred miles." It was done thus:--He went from Brighton in an afternoon coach that set him down in London in time for the Holyhead Mail, and this mail, with the help of the steamer to cross the Channel, delivered him in Dublin at the time mentioned. What would the writer say now, when, by leaving London at 7.15 a.m., he may dine at the table-d'hôte at the Shelbourne Hotel, Dublin, at 7.30 p.m., with ample time to have a hot bath and change his dress before dinner is served? The writer then proceeds to say:-- "In this wonder-working age few greater improvements have been made in any of the useful arts than in those applied to the system of travelling by land. Projectors and projects have multiplied with our years, and the fairy-petted princes of the "Arabian Nights' Entertainments" were scarcely transported from place to place with more facility or dispatch than Englishmen are in A.D. 1832. From Liverpool to Manchester, thirty-six miles, in an hour and a half! Surely Dædalus is come amongst us again." What would the writer of the above have thought if he had lived to travel by what is termed the "Flying Dutchman," which now runs from London to Plymouth in six hours and a quarter, and which, we understand, will shortly accomplish seventy miles an hour. To resume--or, as the gentlemanly gang under Captain Macheath say, "Let us take the road" as it was at the period above mentioned. The Edinburgh Mail ran the distance (four hundred miles) in forty hours, stoppages included. The Exeter day-coach, the "Herald," performed her journey of one hundred and seventy-three miles in twenty hours; Stevenson's Brighton "Age" kept its time to the minute; in short, from London to Cheltenham, Gloucester, Worcester, Birmingham, Norwich, Bath, Bristol, Southampton, Oxford, Cambridge, was little more than a pleasant Summer day's drive. In order to accomplish the above fast journey two important considerations were required; first, that the horses should not be overworked, and, secondly, that they should be well fed. Horses have increased greatly in price since the period I write of, and a team which would have cost a hundred guineas in 1832 could not now be had for two hundred and fifty guineas. The cost of coaches of the best materials varied from one hundred and forty pounds to one hundred and sixty pounds; generally speaking, they were hired from the maker at from twopence half-penny to threepence per mile. CHAPTER IV. JOURNEY TO BATH IN THE PALMY DAYS OF COACHING--A DRIVING GIOVANNI--"PARSON DENNIS"--CONTRAST TO THE ABOVE--TENNANT'S DESCRIPTION--THE OLD BRIGHTON ROAD--MODERN IMPROVEMENTS--A SQUIRE OF 1638. CHAPTER IV. I now proceed to describe the road as it was before panting steeds had givin way to puffing engines, iron greys to iron rails, coachmen and guards to stokers, and horseflesh to steam, which has been likened to water in a high state of perspiration. It was early in a morning, in the merry month of May, when I found myself at the "White Horse Cellar," Piccadilly, just as the York House coach was starting for Bath. I had previously secured the box seat, and, encased in a double-breasted drab coat, waited the arrival of a noble Duke, then a Marquis, well known to all the best coachmen on the road as a most liberal patron, and a first-rate whip himself. "Sorry to have kept you," said the newcomer, "but Swaine only sent home the whip I promised you this morning; you will find it in this narrow deal case." "Allow me to give up my place to you," I said, addressing the Marquis. "Thank you a thousand times," he replied, "I am unfortunately engaged. We are going to man my new cutter, and pull to the Red House and back." The case was handed up; the dragsman expressed his thanks. "All right behind, gentlemen," he thundered, fingering the ribbons in the plenitude of vehicular importance. Away we went, rattling along the stony pavement of Piccadilly at an awful rate to make up for the lost time. "Nice morning, Sir," said my companion, as we passed through the turnpike-gate that then stood opposite the entrance to the Park, near Apsley House. "The flowers are all a-blowing and a-growing." This line he sang, and then continued, "My missus gave me these beautiful violets about an hour ago." "'Sam,' said she, 'I know I can trust you not to give them away to any girls on the road.'" I turned round to admire the bouquet and take a look at the wearer, who fully realised the description of the swell-dragsman immortalised in song by the late Hon. Fitzroy Stanhope. He was a well-dressed, natty-looking fellow, decked out in a neat dark brown coat, white hat, corduroy breeches, well polished boots, cloth leggings, and a splendid pair of double-sewn buckskin gloves. A huge pair of whiskers, shaped like a mutton chop, fringed the borders of each cheek, and were (as a costermonger in Knightsbridge irreverently remarked) large enough to pad a cart-saddle. In the course of conversation he invariably indulged the outside passengers with snatches of the popular ditties of the day, "Oh, say not woman's heart is bought," "Love has Eyes," "Will you come to the bower?" "Savourneen Deelish," "The Thorn," and "Sally in our Alley." I soon discovered, from his manners and remarks, that my new coaching ally was a prodigious favourite with the fair sex, and from the roguish leer that he gave the respective damsels at the different inns and public-houses, I fancied he did not quite merit the confidence his wife placed in him. Indeed, when we stopped to change horses at Slough, I saw the faithless Lothario present the pretty barmaid of the "Red Lion" with the bunch of violets, which she placed near her heart. Nay, more, if my optics did not deceive me, he implanted a kiss on the rosy lips of the blooming landlady, who faintly exclaimed, "For shame, you naughty man." As I had won the good graces of this driving Giovanni, not only by listening to the story of his conquests over the rural Hebes, who dispensed their smiles and liquor to him, but by commending his voice in "Pray, Goody," which I declared to be equal to Sinclair's, he offered me the reins just after passing the "Sun Inn" at Maidenhead. "Take 'em gently up the hill," said he, "and then you can have a spirt over the thicket." To say that I was proud is to say nothing, for, having passed a few months with a private tutor at Littlewick Green, within two miles of the spot where we were, I felt that I should cut no little figure as I drove by the "Coach and Horses," a wayside public-house where I and my companions used to keep our guns when at our tutor's. "Do you pull up at the 'Coach and Horses?'" I inquired, in so nervous a manner--I was then young, and, as Shakespeare writes, "in my salad days"--that the coachman, who is what is termed "wide-awake" upon all affairs of the heart, guessed my motive. "We can, Sir, if you like," he responded. "Perhaps Dick has a parcel to leave for Squire Lee. Anything for the thicket?" he continued, turning to the "shooter" behind, and giving him a knowing wink, a hint which the other took at once. "Why, yes, Sam; I wish to know whether Mr. Vansittart has sent for the empty sack I left there last Monday." As we reached the well-known spot where I had passed many a half-hour in the society of the pretty, innocent girl whose fair face, blue eyes, auburn ringlets, and bewitching smile had turned the heads of all the youths in the neighbourhood, my heart began to palpitate, my hands to tremble, and I should have driven past the house had not my box companion caught hold of the reins with a firm grasp and pulled the horses up in front of the public-house. Fortunately, my Dulcinea had not noticed the hand that assisted me, and, seeing the coach stop, rushed to the door, exclaiming. "Lord William! Who would have thought it! How much you have improved in driving! Do you recollect when you upset the dog-cart close to that pond?" "I hope your father is well," I replied, anxious to change the conversation; "and Sally--I mean Miss Sadbroke--let the coachman and guard have a glass of your cream of the valley." "Pray alight, my Lord," said the coachman, "I was not aware who I had the honour of addressing. Dick, show his Lordship into the bar." I jumped down, rushed into the well-known snuggery, shook hands with poor old Sadgrove, who was a victim to what he called the "rheumatiz," quaffed a glass of bright, sparkling ale, threw down a crown piece, kissed my hand to the blooming girl, and mounted the box, not a little elated with my adventure. But to quit this spot of juvenile reminiscences. We trotted past my tutor's house on the green, where I was cheered by the boys of the village school, and, after an agreeable drive, reached Reading and then Newbury. Here the passengers were allowed twenty minutes for dinner, where we (I can answer for myself) did ample justice to the fare, which consisted of a splendid boiled leg of mutton and a ham-and-veal pie. "I go no further, gentlemen," said the coachman. "All right," I responded, handing him a gold seven-shilling piece, then a current coin of the realm. "Good morning! and thank you, my Lord," replied the deposed monarch of the whip. "I've told Mr. Dennis (commonly called Parson Dennis) that your Lordship has your driving-gloves on." Again mounting the box, I found myself seated by one of the smartest men I ever met with at that period on the road. There was an air of conceit about him that was truly amusing, and it was rendered doubly so by his affected style of conversation. Unlike other dragsmen, he was dressed in the plainest style imaginable--a well-brushed black beaver hat, glossier than silk; a brown cutaway coat, dark Oxford mixed overalls, highly-polished Wellington boots, and fawn-coloured double kid gloves. The first object of my new companion was to inform me that he was well born, that he had been educated at Oxford, and that he was the most popular man at Bath; indeed, so much so that he was called the Beau Nash of the road. Unquestionably, according to his own showing, he was entitled to that distinction, for he offered to point out all the sights of the English Montpellier, including the assemblies, theatre, pump-room, crescents, gardens, walks, and abbey. So delighted was I with the dandified manner of my companion that the journey passed rapidly away. On leaving Marlborough, he offered me the reins, which I accepted; and during the last stage he begged I would accept a pinch of the best Petersham mixture, informing me that it was a present from the noble Lord of that name, to whom he had been presented by an old Oxford acquaintance. Upon reaching the city of Bladud and driving up to the "York House," Mr. Dennis, with the air of Louis le Grand, politely took off his hat, wished me good evening, thanked me for my gratuity, and said that if I mentioned his name at the hotel every attention would be paid to me. As a contrast to the above, let me show how our great-grandfathers travelled in 1739. Tennant writes as follows:-- "In March I changed my Welsh school for one nearer to the capital, and travelled in the Chester stage, then no despicable vehicle for country gentlemen. The first day, with much labour, we got from Chester to Whitchurch, twenty miles; the second day to the "Welsh Harp," the third to Coventry, the fourth to Northampton, the fifth to Dunstable; and, as a wondrous effort, on the last to London before the commencement of the night. The strain and labour of six horses, sometimes eight, drew us through the slough of Mireden and many other places. We were constantly out two hours before day, and as late at night, and in the depth of Winter proportionately later. Families who travelled in their own carriages contracted with Benson and Co., and were dragged up in the same number of days." The single gentlemen--then a hardy race--equipped in jack-boots, rode post, through almost impassable roads, guarded against the mire, defying the frequent stumbles and falls, pursuing their journey with alacrity, while in these our days their enervated posterity sleep away their rapid journeys in easy railway carriages, fitted for the soft inhabitants of Sybaris. I can vouch for the latter, for I left York a few weeks ago at night, after delivering a lecture of an hour and a quarter, and was in bed in Hans Place by four o'clock in the morning. In bygone days a journey to Brighton occupied one entire day. Latterly the march of improvement has made rapid strides upon all roads. Brighton can now be reached in an hour and thirteen minutes; first class fares, by express (which are about to be reduced), thirteen shillings and threepence; by ordinary trains, ten shillings; second class express, ten shillings; ordinary trains, seven shillings and ninepence; third class, four shillings and sixpence. An inside passenger by the old coach had to pay sixteen shillings to Brighton; and for excess of luggage, if he carried what is now allowed to a first class passenger, a further charge of eight shillings and fourpence would be made; total, one pound four shillings and fourpence. "This is the patent age of inventions." So wrote Byron, more than sixty years ago. Had he lived in our time how much greater cause would he have had to make the remark; for since the days of the noble poet how many inventions have been introduced! Steamboats and railways instead of canvas sails and horses; active, wide-awake policemen instead of superannuated, sleeping "Charlies" of the Dogberry school; brilliant gas in lieu of the darkness-made-visible light, "whose oily rays shot from the crystal lamp." No longer can we hail the "officious link-boy's smoky light," except during a dense thick, pea-soup coloured fog in the suicidal month of November. Instead of paved streets we have macadamised roads, albeit, there are some wiseacres who are (to adopt the old joke) _putting their heads together_ to form a wooden pavement. We have light broughams and neat cabs instead of the rattling "agony" or hackney coach; iron vessels have taken the place of the "wooden walls of Old England," though our gallant tars are still "hearts of oak;" light French wines have driven good old humble port from our cellars, much to the advantage of gouty subjects. Last, not least, the improved system of locomotion enables the sportsman to hunt from London, to enjoy his breakfast and return to his dinner in the metropolis, to run down to Ascot, Epsom, Egham, Brighton, Croydon, Sandown Park, Windsor, and Goodwood races, and be back at night, while the follower of old Isaac Walton may kill his trout in some of the Berkshire or Hampshire streams and enjoy the pleasure of his (the fish's) company at a seven o'clock dinner in London. Of course, occasionally there are discomforts connected with the rail, for on a fine Summer's day it is far more agreeable to view the country from a travelling chariot, britchka, or stage-coach, than to be shot forth like an arrow from a crossbow, at an awful rate, amidst a hissing, whizzing, ear-piercing, shrill, sharp noise, something between a catcall in the gallery of some transpontine theatre on Boxing Night and the war-whoop of the Ojibbeway Indians after a scalping-party in North America. Then the odour! Instead of the scent of the brier, the balmy bean-field, the cottage-side honeysuckle, the jessamine, you have an essence of villanous compounds--sulphur, rank oil, and soot. Again, the railway traveller occasionally finds his luggage missing; sometimes it is lost; our only wonder is that the above does not happen more frequently when we find the platform filled with loungers of all classes. Whether there are more fatal accidents by rail (in proportion to the excess of travellers) over those who formerly journeyed by road we know not for certain, but we are disposed to think there are not. Therefore, to sum up, if the question was "Road _versus_ Rail," taking all the pros and cons into consideration, we should give the verdict for the defendant. The modern lover of field sports is no longer a drunken, rollicking, two or four-bottle man; he prefers the society of the ladies in the drawing-room to that of the half-inebriated gentlemen in the dining-room; he dresses in a becoming manner, seldom swears, and, as far as his means go, keeps open house. What a contrast is this to the sportsman of bygone days! Perhaps, however, the following is the most curious picture of the sporting life and rude habits of the English country gentleman of the olden time, extant. "In the year 1638 lived Mr. Hastings, second son of an Earl of Huntingdon. He was, peradventure, an original in our age, or rather the copy of our ancient nobility in hunting, not in warlike times. He was low, very strong, and very active, of a reddish flaxen hair. His clothes, always green cloth, and never all worth (when new) five pounds; his house was perfectly of the old fashion, in the midst of a large park, well stocked with deer, and near the house rabbits, to serve his kitchen; many fishponds, great store of wood and timber, a bowling green in it (long, but narrow), full of high ridges, it being never levelled since it was ploughed. They used round lead bowls, and it had a banqueting house, like a stand, built in a tree. "He kept all manner of sport-hounds, that ran buck, fox, hare, otter, and badger; and hawks, long and short-winged. He had all sorts of nets for fish; he had a walk in the New Forest and the Manor of Christ Church. "This last supplied him with red deer, sea and river fish; and, indeed, all his neighbours grounds and royalties were free to him, who bestowed all his time on these sports. He was popular with his neighbours, and was ever a welcome guest at their houses; he, too, kept open house, where beef, pudding, and small beer, were to be had in plenty; his great hall was full of marrow bones, and full of hawks' perches, hounds, spaniels, and terriers, the upper side of which was hung with foxes' brushes, here and there a polecat intermixed. "The parlour was a very large room, and properly furnished. On a great hearth, paved with brick, lay some terriers, and the choicest hounds and spaniels. Seldom but two of the great chairs had litters of young cats in them, which were not to be disturbed, he having always three or four attending him at dinner, and a little white round stick of fourteen inches lying by his trencher, that he might defend such meat as he had no mind to part with to them. "The windows (which were very large) served for places to lay his arrows, crossbows, stonebows, and other such-like accoutrements. The corners of the room full of the best chase hunting and hawking poles, an oyster-table at the lower end, which was of constant use twice a day all the year round, for he never failed to eat oysters before dinner and supper through all seasons; the neighbouring town of Poole supplied him with them. The upper part of the room had two small tables and a desk, on the one side of which was a Church Bible, and on the other the 'Book of Martyrs.' "On the tables were hawks' hoods, bells, and such like, two or three old green hats, with their crowns thrust in, so as to hold ten or a dozen eggs, which were of a pheasant kind of poultry he took much care of, and fed himself. Tables, dice, cards, and bowls were not wanting. In the hole of the desk were scores of tobacco-pipes that had been used. "On one side of this end of the room was the door of a closet, wherein stood the strong beer and the wine, which never came thence but in single glasses, that being the rule of the house strictly observed, for he never exceeded in drink or permitted it. On the other side was the door into an old chapel, not used for devotion; the pulpit, as the safest place, was never wanting of a cold chine of beef, venison pasty, gammon of bacon, or great apple-pie, with thick crust, extremely baked. "His table cost him not much, though it was good to eat at; his sports supplied all but beef and mutton, except Fridays, when he had the best salt fish (as well as other fish) he could get, and that was the day his neighbours of best quality most visited him. He never wanted a London Pudding, and always sang it in with 'My past lies therein--a.' "He drank a glass of wine or two at meals, very often syrup of gilliflower in his sack, and had always a tun glass without feet by his side, holding a pint of small beer, which he often stirred with rosemary. He was well natured, but soon angry; he lived to be a hundred; never lost his eye-sight, but always read and wrote without spectacles, and got on horseback without help. Until past fourscore he rode to the death of a stag as well as any." CHAPTER V. COACH _versus_ RAIL--DESCRIPTION OF A COACH JOURNEY FROM LONDON TO BATH--DIFFERENCES OF OPINION--THE COACH DINNER--LUXURIOUS LIVING--SNUG HÔTELLERIES--ENGLISH _versus_ FOREIGN COOKING. CHAPTER V. "Every medal has its reverse." Many persons may be found who denounce coaching as an abomination; while others declare that railway travelling is most fatal only not to the lives, but to the comforts of Her Majesty's subjects. I pass over the dangers of the rail, and will lay before my readers the opinions expressed by the two contending parties. One declares that, among the many improvements of which this age has been productive--and many and vast have they been--that of travelling unquestionably bears the bell. The very word, however, has now become a misnomer. It is no longer travelling; it is flying over the country, luxuriously and triumphantly, at a pace that equals the hurricane. The rapidity with which travellers are now conveyed by steam over the length and breadth of the country is a social advantage which, for manifold purposes, cannot be too much appreciated. Some may remember, and have not those suffered from, the old slow and sure system? "This racks the joints, This fires the veins, That every labouring sinew strains," might have been the motto of those stage-coaches which in former days pursued their way at the rate of six miles an hour, to the misery, inconvenience, and detention of every passenger that was doomed to the adoption of such conveyances. The pillory would now be preferable to the top of a stage-coach on its passage from London to Exeter on a dark, tempestuous night in December. What inexpressible horrors does the very idea suggest! The expense, too, was no trifling consideration; for after the fare was paid, half of which was recouped if you did not put in an appearance, fees were incessantly demanded and wrung from the luckless traveller, as if he were a sheep born to be fleeced by a pack of merciless hirelings. Ere you started on your journey, a porter rushed up, and, whether permitted or not, seized your carpet-bag or hat-box, and pitching them into the boot, regardless of their contents, would turn round and, with audacious effrontery, demand a fee for his trouble; ay, and if he did not get it would abuse you roundly to your face. Then, the dignity of the box-seat! "_Nota quæ sedes fuerat columbis_"--pigeons they were, with a vengeance, that occupied it. At what price was it purchased! Entailing a double fee--one to the porter for casting your coat upon it, the other to the coachman for the privilege of sitting with your teeth in the wind, sharing his conversation, his rug, and his seat. Talk not of the spicy team, the rattling bars, which for short journeys in fine weather was an agreeable way of travelling; but for distances the inside of a coach was almost insupportable. Outside in Winter not much better. Then, again, the great improvement in travelling since the road gave way to the rail is never more deeply felt and rejoiced at than at Easter, Whitsuntide, and the festive season of Christmas, as it enables so many more to visit their friends in the country than was formerly the case, with a greater amount, too, of comfort to themselves, and at a considerably less expense. In the old days of coaching and posting few, comparatively speaking, would be conveyed to or from the metropolis. Those who travelled post were often detained for horses; and those who went by coach had to book their places weeks before, paying half the fare, and even then a heavy fall of snow might put an end to all journeys. Now, instead of sitting for hours wet through from the pelting pitiless storm outside a coach--instead of being called by candlelight, and traversing the streets in a slow rumbling vehicle, the traveller can enjoy his breakfast in London, can be conveyed to the station in a fast-trotting hansom, can sit snugly protected from the weather, and reach his destination in a fourth of the time his predecessors could on the road. And here it may not be out of place to describe a journey by coach, say from London to Bath, on a cold raw Winter's day. I speak of the time when the old, crawling, creaking, rattling, six inside vehicle had not given way to the fast four-horse light coach. Often have I travelled by one of these wretched conveyances to Newbury, when I was at a private tutor's at Donnington Grove. As lucifer-matches had not then been introduced, the only method of getting a light was by striking a flint against a steel in a tinder-box. Your candle lit, a hasty toilet made, you descended, if at an hotel, into a coffee-room, miserably lit, and reeking with the odour of gin, brandy, and punch. At that early hour, breakfast was out of the question. Then there was the uncertainty whether the hackney-coach you had ordered over night would be forthcoming; if it did arrive, you reached the "White Horse Cellar" or "Gloucester" Coffee-House by a little before six, where a glass of rum and milk, or some "early purl," might be had. If an inside passenger, you were subjected to being "cribb'd, cabin'd, confined" in a small compass, without head or knee room, for nearly sixteen hours. If an outsider, there was the discomfort of cold winds, drifting snow, heavy rain, and dripping umbrellas. Then the dinners on the road--twenty minutes allowed, with its scalding soup stained warm water, its tough steaks, its Scotch collops, "_liquidis profusus odoribus_," its underdone boiled leg of mutton, its potatoes, hot without and hard within. Then the scramble for a nook by the fire to dry the soaked coat, cloak, or hat; then the change of coachmen, all of whom expected to be remembered; then the fees to guard and porters. Let anyone picture to himself or herself the miseries of such a journey, and be thankful that they have all nearly vanished under the mighty power of steam. Having given the opinions of the advocates of the rail, I turn to those of the road, who thus describe the delights of a journey in a fast coach. They suppose a fine Spring morning, when you find yourself seated by the side of a pleasant companion, behind four blood horses, the roads sufficiently watered by an April shower to lay the dust; the hedgerows shooting forth--buds unfolding, flowers bursting out; the birds carolling cheerfully, as if to welcome the return of Spring; the sun smiling upon the snug cottages, the picturesque village churches, the small hamlets, the peaceful homesteads, the neatly-kept gardens, whose early produce were beginning to bloom--such were the _agréments_ of the road. Every mile presented a new feature; the green fields, the earth teeming with fertility, the velvet lawns, the verdant fields, the luxuriant woods, the peaceful valleys, the shady lanes, the blossomed orchards, the "balmy odours" of nature--her breath upon the breeze--all combined to raise your dull spirits to a state of ecstasy. Then the excitement as the well-appointed "drag" drove through the village, the guard sounding his cheerful horn, and the coach pulled up for a snack at a cleanly wayside public-house, where the buxom landlady and the pretty barmaid dispensed the creature comforts to the hungry guests, their appetites sharpened by a drive of some twenty or five-and-twenty miles. They then turn to the rail, declaring that, instead of the "balmy odours" of nature--her breath upon the breeze--the traveller is nearly suffocated with the rank smell of oil, smoke, gas, and sulphur. Instead of gazing upon the beauties of England's rural scenery, you are whirled along at the rate of fifty miles an hour, amidst the densest smoke, the groanings of engines, through an embankment of chalk or clay. Just as you are contemplating a fine mountainous view, a stately viaduct, a picturesque waterfall, or a placid lake, another train meets yours, and entirely hides the prospect from you. Instead of the warm welcome at the inn, apostrophised by Shenstone, or the less ostentatious, although not less sincere, reception at the wayside public-house, you are shown into a huge room that reminds you of the spot where the lions are wont to be fed at the Zoological Gardens, where all is noise, hurry, and confusion; where your pockets are emptied and your inner man not filled, from the caloric qualities of the food and the haste in which you are called upon to devour it; and last, not least, they compare the comfort of a barouche and four, a chariot and pair, starting at your own hour, stopping where you like, with the levelling system of the rail, where high-born dames of great degree are mixed with blacklegs and sharpers, where the "hereditary pillars of the State" congregate with Whitechapel "gents" and Corinthian "swells," where prim old maids are "cheek by jowl" with libertine _roués_, where young and innocent boarding-school misses sit next to _soidisant_ captains and needy fortune-hunters, where unprincipled debtors are placed opposite their clamorous creditors, where sage philosophers come in collision with unchained lunatics, and proud peeresses are brought in contact with the frail and fair ones of the demimonde. They then describe a stage-coach dinner, contrasting it with one that could be had at all good inns on the road when travelling luxuriously in your own carriage. And they lay the scene at the "Red Lion," Henley-on-Thames; at the "Windmill," Salt-hill; at the "Pelican," Newbury; at the "Bear," Reading; at the "Sugar-loaf," Dunstable; at the "Dun Cow," Dunchurch; at the "Hop Pole," Worcester; at the "King's Arms," Godalming; at the "Castle," Taunton; at the "Lion," Shrewsbury; at the "Hand Inn," Llangollen, and at a variety of other excellent inns, many of which have been swept away since the introduction of the rail. They dwell upon the good old English country fare, which did not require the foreign aid of ornament. Not that they censure French cooking; but what they find fault with--and I heartily concur in this--is an attempt to transmogrify native dishes into Continental ones by what the newspaper advertisements term "a professed woman cook," who is as fit to send up a well-dressed _filet de volaille à la Parisienne_, a _Maintenon cotelette_, or a _Vol au vent à la financière_ as she would be to play a match of polo at Hurlingham, or to take the part of the Countess in the "_Mariage de Figaro_." The plain and perfect English dinners in bygone days generally consisted of mutton broth, rich in meat and herbs; fresh-water fish in every form, eels stewed, fried, boiled, baked, spitch-cocked, and water-suchet; the purest bread and freshest butter; salmon and fennel sauce; mackerel brought down by coach from the Groves of London, with green gooseberries, and the earliest cucumbers; a saddle of Southdown, kept to a moment and done to a turn; mutton chops, hot and hot; marrow-bones; Irish stews; rump-steaks tender and juicy; chicken and ham, plum-pudding, fruit tarts, trifles, and gooseberry-fool. Then the produce of the grape--no thin, washy claret, at eighteen shillings a dozen; no fiery port, one day in bottle; no sherry at twenty-five guineas the cask; but fine old crusted port, sherry dry and fruity, madeira that had made more than one voyage to India. Our readers must decide between the two opinions. CHAPTER VI. "MOVING ACCIDENTS" BY RAIL AND COACH--SHORT TIME FOR THE ISSUE OF RAILWAY TICKETS--RECKLESS DRIVERS--AN AFFAIR OF HONOUR--ANECDOTE OF THE LATE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. CHAPTER VI. A great deal has been written and said upon the subject of accidents in travelling, and comparisons have been made between those caused by rail and road. There can be no doubt that there has been an awful sacrifice of life and an enormous amount of injury attributable to the rail. Where hundreds formerly made their journeys by public mails and stage-coaches, or travelled in their own carriages, thousands upon thousands are now conveyed by steam; and out of those thousands how many are reckless and foolish!--scrambling into the carriages when they are moving, or rushing out before they stop. Although it would be, humanly speaking, impossible to provide against accidents, for in or after a frost ironwork cannot be depended upon; still, some might be averted by extra care and diligence on the part of those to whom the lives of Her Majesty's faithful subjects are entrusted. I believe it is many years since an accident has occurred on the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway; and this is mainly owing to the unremitting attention of the general manager, J. P. Knight, Esq., and his staff; and probably there are other railways equally well looked after and equally free from danger. To render railway travelling safer than it now is, the following rules should be adopted:--First and foremost, the men should be better paid, and not overworked; secondly, the telegraph and signal duties should be placed in the hands of responsible and intelligent persons; and last, not least, punctuality in starting should be rigidly enforced, for in making up for lost time many have found to their cost that the old hunting maxim has been realised, "It is the pace that kills." To carry out the latter, luggage should be sent into the station a quarter of an hour before the time of departure, and the doors closed to passengers five minutes before the train leaves. How often have I seen trains delayed in London and at different stations in the country through the late arrival of some persons of distinction! The humbler classes do not fare quite as well, for many a farmer's wife, country girl, labourer, or mechanic has either been left behind or has been hustled into the third class carriages, leaving band-boxes, baskets, tools or implements on the platform. It is only a few months ago that I saw the above illustrated. At ---- station, just after the train was in motion, a well-appointed waggonette drove up, the coachman shouting "Wait a moment!" The injunction was obeyed, the train was stopped, and in about four or five minutes two middle-aged ladies, a tiny specimen of the canine race, a luncheon basket, dressing case, work-basket, cloaks, umbrella, and parasols were deposited in a first class compartment, and a large amount of luggage placed in the van. The darling little white, curly-haired pet, "Bijou" by name, soon emancipated itself from the muff in which it had been hid, much to the discomfiture of myself and other occupants of the carriage! Mark the contrast! After about an hour's journey we stopped at a very rural station, and just as the whistle was about to be blown a quiet, respectable-looking female, evidently of the humbler grade, rushed out of the office with merely a small basket in her hand, exclaiming, "Am I in time, guard?" "Plenty," he responded, "for the next train." The whistle was heard, and the poor woman left behind, to ruminate for four hours upon her ill-luck. There is another evil which many of the railways have got rid of, and which we trust will shortly be universally adopted--I refer to the brief time allowed for taking tickets. In Glasgow (I speak from experience) you may purchase your ticket in offices appointed for the sale of them independent of the railway station. To the public this is a special boon, and upon one occasion I found the benefit of it. I was engaged to give a lecture at the City Hall, Glasgow, which was to commence at eight o'clock. The night train to London left at twelve minutes after nine, so there was not much time to spare. By taking my ticket in the afternoon, leaving my portmanteau in the cloak-room, engaging an intelligent porter to take it out and have it ready for me, and benefiting by the kindness of my host, Wm. Holms, Esq., M.P. for Paisley, who conveyed me in his brougham from the lecture-hall to the station, I arrived in time for the train, reaching my London home in time for a ten o'clock breakfast, with ample time, as the Yorkshireman says, "to have a wash before a bite." I now turn to accidents by road. These were principally caused through the carelessness of the drivers, a refractory team, a coach that had not been thoroughly inspected before starting, and occasionally by a coachman who had imbibed a considerable quantity of strong ale or fiery spirits. I could fill pages with accidents that have occurred to stage-coaches, in which many were killed and others most severely hurt. If I recollect right, a Worcester coach, descending the steep hill into Severn Stoke, was overturned, none of the passengers escaping death; and on all the roads east, west, south, and north of London frequent upsets took place, more especially during the foggy month of November, where ditches bounded the main road. I well remember travelling from Windsor to London on the box of Moody's coach, driven by "Young Moody," as he was called in contradistinction to his father, the proprietor of it. I was on the box seat; and after passing Cranford Bridge a dense fog set in, one of those fogs that are described as resembling the colour of pea-soup. The coach was full inside and out. "I don't half like this," said Moody. "If I can only manage to get safe to Hounslow, I'll have the lamps lit." In those days lucifer-matches were quite unknown, so to get a light from any of the passengers was impossible; not so would it be at the present time, when almost every one carries with his pipe or cigar a box of matches. Scarcely had my box companion uttered the above words when we were upset, an accident caused by our driving into a deep, broad ditch. I and the outsiders were pitched into the furze on the heath, anything but a bed of roses, while the insides were screeching for help. Some of us ran to the horses to keep them quiet, others lent their aid in extricating three middle-aged ladies and an elderly gentleman who were confined in what one of the females described as the "opaque body of a stage-coach." After some trouble things were put to rights; happily, no one being severely injured. Thinking it more than probable that if we attempted to proceed on our journey without lamps we should meet with another mishap, I got a labouring friend who came to our assistance to walk to the "Travellers' Friend," and borrow two lanthorns. This he accordingly did; so with the aid of our own lamps and the above lights we managed to reach Hounslow in safety. From Hounslow to London we had difficulties to contend against, for the dim oily rays of a few lamps and lights in shops had not then given way to the brilliancy of gas. A few years afterwards, when travelling inside the Henley coach, an axletree broke, and we were upset into a drift of snow--soft, but rather cooling. Upon this occasion an outside passenger had his arm fractured. My third and fourth upsets from private carriages will be duly recorded. It occasionally happened that driving out or into a yard, despite the warning "Take care of your heads," some half-sleepy or inattentive passenger met with a serious accident by his head coming in contact with the roof. Then, again, a skid would come off the wheel going down hill at an awful pace, which, of course, brought the passengers to grief. An inveterate kicker or a giber added to the dangers of the road, and a heavy snowstorm, in which the passengers had to descend and make their way to the nearest wayside inn or cottage, did not improve their condition. Of course when due precautions were taken, the accidents were, comparatively speaking, few. I have travelled at a tremendous pace by the "Hirondelle"--irreverently called the "Iron Devil"--by the "Wonder," between Shrewsbury and London, and by almost all the fast coaches between London and Brighton, London and Oxford, London and Southampton, London and Bath, and have never met with the slightest accident. In bygone days it was very agreeable, albeit rather expensive, to travel post, especially in your own light chariot or britchka; but to be dependent upon hack chaises on the road was far from pleasant. These chaises were not very well hung on springs, the windows seldom fitted closely, and the rattling noise reminded one of a dice-box in full play upon wheels. There was generally straw enough at your feet to hold a covey of partridges. Although these vehicles were light and followed well, a great deal of time was wasted in shifting your luggage from one to another at every stage, or, at most, every other stage. I once left London on an affair of importance--namely, that of carrying a hostile message from a friend to a gentleman who resided near Marlborough, and found it so difficult to rouse the ostler, postboy, and the man who looked after the chaises, that I got no farther than Botham's at Salt Hill. I left the Piazza Coffee-House, where the letter had been concocted demanding an apology or a meeting, about eleven at night, was kept waiting for more than a half hour at the "Red Lion," Hounslow, and only reached Salt Hill about half-past one in the morning. There, again, had I to awake the sleepy ostler and drowsy waiter, the latter of whom strenuously recommended me to sleep at the hotel and continue my journey at daylight. This I accordingly did; but what with the arrangement of the affair of honour, as it was called, and which ended amicably, I was nearly two-and-twenty hours on the journey by road that could now be accomplished with ease by rail in less than seven. I have alluded to two upsets that I have in the course of my life met with from private travelling-carriages. The first occurred in July, 1814, when returning with the late Duke of Wellington from Windsor to London. His Grace had been dining with the officers of the Royal Horse Guards (Blues), in which regiment I had the honour of holding a commission, when, as we reached Brentford, at night, the linch pin came out of the fore wheel of his carriage, by which it was upset. Nothing would satisfy the people but drawing the carriage to London, which they certainly would have done but for the remonstrance of his Grace, which finally succeeded. After a delay of half an hour the damage was repaired, and we reached London in safety. The accident might have proved a fatal one, for we were travelling as fast as four good horses could take us. Had such a calamity happened to Wellington, then in the prime of life, no one can hardly picture the consequences. Happily his life was spared to add another conquest to those he had won on the banks of the Douro, of the Tagus, the Ebro, and the Garonne. The second and last upset I had was on the night of my return from Canada, in 1819, when, in driving through Goodwood Park, the postboys drove over a bank and, to use a common expression, "floored the coach." CHAPTER VII. TRAVELLING IN IRELAND--BIANCONI'S CARS--JOURNEY FROM CORK TO DUBLIN IN A POST-CHAISE--IRISH WIT--A POOR-LAW COMMISSIONER--MR. PEABODY--SIR WALTER SCOTT AND A GENUINE PADDY--MR. CHARLES BIANCONI--IRISH CAR DRIVERS. CHAPTER VII. Travelling by road in Ireland was and is very different from what it was and is in England. The mail and stage-coaches, almost similar to the English ones, were well-horsed, and kept their time very regularly. Occasionally "a frolicsome baste," or "rale bit of blood who won the plate at the Curragh," would start off at a tremendous pace, upset the "drag," the driver assuring the passengers that they were the "quietest craythures in Ireland," adding, "I'll give it ye, ye bastes, ye venomous sarpints, when I get ye home." The harness, too, was not a little the worse for wear, having so often been mended with string and rope that in descending a hill it would break into "smithereens," and now and then, when whisky was in the ascendant, the Jehu was so venturesome that in descending a hill he would come to grief. After a time the public cars, introduced by M. Bianconi displaced the regular coaches. In form they resembled the common outside jaunting-car, but were calculated to hold from twelve to sixteen persons. They were admirably horsed, had steady drivers, the team generally consisting of three horses, which travelled at the rate of seven Irish miles an hour, equivalent to nine English miles, the fares averaging twopence a mile. They were open cars, but a huge leather apron afforded protection from showers of rain, which are so prevalent in the sister isle. Post-chaises, which are now nearly extinct, were awful conveyances. I have a very lively impression of a journey from Cork to Dublin some fifty years ago in these vehicles; the one furnished by the proprietor of the Imperial Hotel, Cork (then, and I believe now, an excellent hôtellerie), which took me the first stage, was clean and comfortable; not so those that followed. Springs they appeared to have none; or, if they had, they were so covered with rope that there was no elasticity left in them. They rattled worse than any fire-engine. The roof was so dilapidated and the windows so broken that, except for the honour of the thing, you might as well have had no covering at all; the harness came to pieces whenever "Paddy" gave his horses a spurt, and the cattle were "divels to go." So disagreeable did I find the journey in a post-chaise that at Youghal I engaged a car, and prosecuted my journey to Dublin in cars. Persons who have never travelled in Ireland in these conveyances can have a very inadequate idea of the ready wit of the drivers. It has been admirably well told by Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall, from whose work on the scenery and character of Ireland I quote the following:-- Some one told a story of a fellow who, on grumbling at the shilling gratuity at his journey's end, said, in a sly undertone, "Faith, it's not putting me off ye'd be if ye knew but all." The traveller's curiosity was excited. "What do you mean?" "Oh, faix! that ud be telling." Another shilling was tendered. "And now," asked the gentleman, "what do you mean by saying if ye knew but all?" "That I driv yer honour the last three miles without a linchpin!" "Will I pay the pike or drive at it, plase yer honour?" was the exclamation of a driver to his passenger as he suddenly drew up a few yards from the turnpike gate. When an Assistant Poor-Law Commissioner first visited Cork, the coach by which he arrived set him down next door to the "Imperial Hotel," his place of destination. Not being aware of this fact, he ordered a car and gave his direction to the driver. The fellow conducted him round the town and through the various streets and lanes, and, after an hour's driving, placed him at the hotel entrance, demanding and receiving a sum of five shillings, which his victim considered a reasonable charge. A few minutes afterwards he discovered the trick that had been played upon him. One of the richest characters of the class we encountered on the road from Ross to Wexford; he told us how he got his first situation. "The masther had two beautiful English horses, and he wanted a careful man to drive them; he was a mighty plisant gentleman, and loved a joke. Well, there was as many as fifteen after the place, and the first that wint up to him was examined as follows:-- "'Now, my man,' says he, 'tell me,' says he, 'how near the edge of a precipice would you undertake to drive my carriage?' "So the boy considered, and he says, says he, "'Within a foot, plaze your honour, and no harm.' "'Very well,' says he, 'go down, I'll give ye yer answer, by-and-by.' "So the next came up, and said he'd be bound to carry 'em within half a foot; and the next said five inches; and another--a dandified chap intirely--was so mighty nice that he would drive it within 'three inches and a half, he'd go bail.' "Well, at last my turn came, and when his honour axed me how nigh I would drive his carriage to a precipice, I said, says I, "'Plaze, yer honour, I'd keep as far off it as I could.' "'Very well, Misther Byrne,' says he, 'you're my coachman,' says he. "Och! the roar there was in the kitchen whin I wint down and tould the joke!" I heard a good story of the philanthropic Peabody, who, though princely in his liberality, did not like to be imposed upon. Upon one occasion he resisted an exorbitant demand, and only gave the car-driver his proper fare! "Bedad!" said the man; "they may call you Mr. Paybody, but I call you Mr. Paynobody." Another instance will suffice. As Sir Walter Scott was riding with a friend in the neighbourhood of Abbotsford, he came to a field-gate, which an Irish beggar, who happened to be near, hastened to open for him. Sir Walter was desirous of rewarding this civility by the present of sixpence, but found that he had not so small a coin in his purse. "Here, my good fellow," said the Baronet, "here is a shilling for you, but mind you owe me sixpence." "God bless your honour," exclaimed Pat, "may your honour live till I pay you." The Irish car is so peculiar and characteristic an institution that a brief sketch of the author of the system may not be here out of place. Mr. Charles Bianconi, a native of Milan, came over to Ireland in the year 1800, and set up at Clonmel as a picture-dealer. Struck with the want of accommodation that existed between the various towns of the district, an idea entered his head of remedying the deficiency by introducing a new conveyance. He had heard that Derrick, in 1760, had been compelled to set out on horseback on a journey from Cork to Killarney, there being no public carriage to be had in the city of Cork. Between that period and 1800 no great improvement had taken place; so the enterprising Italian, who had saved some money, started a car between Clonmel and Cahir. After struggling for some time against all the difficulties that ever attend a new scheme, after inciting the people to abandon their indifference, to conquer their prejudices, he so far succeeded as to enable him to run others to Limerick and Thurles. The public, hitherto apathetic, were roused into action; the new scheme met with universal patronage; soon Bianconi's name was uppermost in everyone's thoughts; the double cars increased to nearly fifty in number, travelling daily over nearly four thousand miles. These vehicles were so constructed as to carry numerous passengers and a large amount of luggage; they were all built at the inventor's factory at Clonmel; they travelled at the rate of six to nine statute miles an hour, and were admirably well adapted for all who journeyed for business or pleasure. For tourists they were invaluable, as from the cars extensive views of the country might be seen; moreover, the driver was always so full of genuine fun that he enlivened the whole journey with his quaint Milesian sayings. Generally, too, he was well acquainted with the locality, and would tell amusing anecdotes of the occupiers of the stately mansions in the neighbourhood, and of their humbler neighbours. The rail has in a great measure driven cars off the road, but they are still to be had at all the principal towns and at almost every village in Ireland. The wit of the drivers is not at all deteriorated, and the cattle they drive are first-rate. Upon a recent occasion I engaged a car at Inistioge, in the county of Kilkenny, from one Mr. Cassin, to take me to New Ross; the distance is nearly ten English miles, and the driver, who had an eye for the picturesque, insisted upon taking me one way and bringing me back another; and from the time I left until my return I was kept in a fit of laughter. Upon dismissing "Paddy" I asked him what I had to pay. "Five shillings, yer honour, for the car, and whatever you plaze for the driver." "But if I plaze to give you nothing?" "Well, then, yer honour, I'll be perfectly satisfied, as you are quite a credit to the car." A good story is told of a car-driver who was conveying a tourist through a most picturesque part of Ireland, when all of a sudden the "baste" began to kick, and showed evident symptoms of going faster down a hill than the unfortunate occupier of the car approved of. "Don't whip him, driver, or you'll make him run away." "Bedad, yer honour, ye needn't be afeard of that. He's a raal sodjer, and 'ud sooner die than run away." I must now take leave of Ireland and return to England. CHAPTER VIII. COACH ACCIDENTS--ACCIDENT FROM RACING--ACTIONS AT LAW--MAIL ROBBERIES--ROBBERY BY CONVICTS--A DANGEROUS START--A DRUNKEN DRIVER. CHAPTER VIII. I have already referred to the numerous accidents that occurred on the road to stage and mail coaches, and could fill a volume with casualties caused by overturns, violent driving, horses proceeding miles without drivers, drunken coachmen, low gateways, overloading, breaking down, and racing. One of the most memorable events connected with racing occurred in 1820, when Thomas Perdy and George Butler were charged at the Hertford Assizes with the wilful murder of William Hart, who was thrown off the Holyhead Mail, of which Perdy was the driver, and which had been upset by the Chester Mail, of which Butler was the driver. The grand jury having thrown out the bill for the capital offence, they were tried on a charge of manslaughter. Two witnesses who were suffering severely from the accident deposed to the following effect:-- Mr. Archer, a respectable bootmaker, of Cheapside, London, stated that he sat on the box with the prisoner Perdy. When the coach arrived at that part of the road beyond Highgate, where a junction is formed between the Archway Road and the old Highgate Road, the Chester Mail came up. Both coachmen began to whip their horses and put them into a gallop, and drove abreast of each other at a furious rate for a considerable distance, when the driver of the Chester Mail slackened the pace of his horses, and seemed conscious of the impropriety of his conduct; but when the coaches approached towards St. Albans, and had arrived at the hill about a mile from that town, the prisoner Perdy put his horses into a furious gallop down the hill. His example was followed by the other prisoner, who endeavoured to overtake him; and a most terrific race ensued between the two carriages, the velocity of both increasing by their own accelerated descent down an abrupt hill. The road was wide enough for three carriages to pass each other; but the prisoner Butler, perceiving that Perdy was keeping ahead of him, pushed his horses on, and waving his hat and cheering, suddenly turned his leaders in front of the leaders of the Holyhead Mail, which, in consequence of being jammed in between the bank of the road and the other vehicle, was immediately upset. The consequences were frightful. The deceased was killed on the spot, the witness had a leg and an arm shattered most dreadfully; and a gentleman's servant, named Fenner, was taken up almost lifeless. Thomas Fenner confirmed the last witness. He stated that both the prisoners were flogging their horses at a most furious rate down the hill, and he was convinced that the accident might have been avoided with common care, notwithstanding the velocity with which the horses were driven, as there was quite room enough for the Chester Mail to have passed the Holyhead. Mr. Baron Gurney summed up the case for the jury in an eloquent and impressive manner. The jury found the prisoners "Guilty." The learned Judge, in passing sentence, commented on the conduct of the prisoners in terms of strong animadversion. His Lordship laid it down distinctly, as a proposition not to be disputed, that it was unlawful for the driver to put his horses into a gallop, and that he was answerable for all the consequences of an infringement of this law. The driver of a stage-coach was bound to protect even the intoxicated, the blind, the aged, and the helpless against their own want of caution or imprudence. The case now before the Court presented circumstances of gross aggravation, and his Lordship felt it his duty to pronounce the severest judgment that the law would allow, which was that the prisoners should be severally confined in the common gaol of this county for the term of one year. At the Wiltshire Assizes in 1813, an action was brought by a Mr. Gooden against the proprietors of a mail coach, to recover damages for a serious injury sustained by the plaintiff, from its being overturned. It appeared in evidence that the plaintiff was an outside passenger, that the coach was overturned immediately on quitting the yard of the "Red Lion Inn," Salisbury, and that a compound fracture of the plaintiff's leg was the consequence of the accident. It seemed established that there was no gross misconduct on the part of the coachman to call for vindictive damages. Mr. Justice Gibbs left it to the jury to determine whether the defendants were liable on account of the apparent heedlessness of the coachman in not leading the horses out of the yard, and it was agreed that if the jury found the defendants liable, the verdict should pass for all such expenses as the plaintiff had reasonably incurred, which were to be ascertained by a reference. The jury found a verdict for the plaintiff, and the referee assessed the damages at six hundred pounds. In the same year there was an inquest held upon a woman who was run over by a Manchester coach, and the verdict was "Accidental death," with a deodand of four pounds on the fore horse. On the night of November the 23rd, 1696, six highwaymen attacked the Ware coach on Stamford Hill, and after the customary amount of imprecations, led the horses, vehicle, and passengers under a gibbet; they then proceeded to rifle each individual, and tore out the breeches-pockets, and the skirts from the waistcoats of the gentlemen, to be certain of their contents, which amounted to above a hundred pounds. At the moment the thieves had completed their intentions, a gentleman's servant passed with a cart; the man was immediately summoned to surrender, which he did without resistance; part of the lading of this prize proved to be several hampers of wine. Elated by the success of the evening, the highwaymen opened the hampers, seized the bottles, and emptied many in repeated healths to the owner of the liquid, which expanding the generous nature of the six, they insisted upon the stage coachman and his passengers solacing themselves for their misfortunes by repeated applications to the favourite beverage of the "Rosy God;" then presenting each with two bottles, they were dismissed on their journey in a state nearly approaching intoxication. A horseman coming by, they robbed him of his palfrey, but plied him so hotly with their liquor that he seemed very little sensible of his loss; so that stumbling to his inn in his boots, with a bottle in each hand, he made all that he found in the kitchen drink of his wine, and gave them no small diversion by acting the story and knocking down several of the company, as the thieves did him. The person who afforded this diversion to his auditor and spectators on the memorable night of the robbery, appears to have retained much of the good-humour produced by the plundered wine when he wrote and sent the following advertisement to the editor of the "Flying Post:"-- "Whereas some gentlemen of a profession that takes denomination from the King's highway, did borrow a little money of a certain person, near the gibbet at Stamford Hill, without any regard to that venerable monitor, on the 23rd of November last, at night; and though they were so generous as to make him drink for his money, yet at the same time they took from him a bright bay nag about thirteen hands high, his mane shorn, thorough-paced, trots a little, with a saddle, bridle, and pilch, without either bargain or promise of payment. He hopes they think his horse worth more than two or three bottles of wine, and desires they would restore him; or if anybody can give notice of him to George Boon at the 'Blue Last,' in Islington, so he may be had again, shall receive ten shillings reward." In the year 1829, about nine o'clock in the morning, the "Albion" coach took up as passengers twelve convicts from Chester, who had been sentenced to transportation for life for various offences, and who were to be forwarded to Portsmouth, for which purpose a Portsmouth coach was to meet them at the "Bull and Mouth," London. The coach had no other passengers except the two keepers who had charge of the convicts. About nine in the evening the coach reached Birmingham, where a new coachman and guard relieved the former ones, and the coach proceeded to Elmedon, where the convicts partook of some refreshment. After having gone on four miles to Meriden, the guard's attention was arrested by hearing one of the convicts filing the chain attached to his handcuffs. Without apparently noticing the noise, he contrived to apprise the keeper of the circumstance, who took the guard's situation behind, the guard placing himself by the side of the coachman on the box. After this alteration everything became quiet, and there were no appearances of an attempt at escape. The coach now approached Coventry, through which it passed; and after it had proceeded nine miles, in a sequestered part of the road, where trees extend on each side upwards of six miles, and not a house is near, in an instant four of the convicts seized hold of the coachman and guard, stopped the horses, and succeeded in fastening both coachman and guard with cords and straps. While this was going on, they stated that they did not intend to injure them or rob the coach, but were determined at every hazard to regain their liberty. While this scene was going on in front of the coach, five other convicts seized the keeper behind, and rifling his pockets obtained the keys of the handcuffs. The confusion outside was the signal to the remaining convicts within; instantly the keeper was laid hold of and confined, and, having got possession of his handcuff-keys also, they lost no time in manacling him. The convicts then descended, and began endeavouring to extricate themselves from their fetters, a work which occupied them some time, and in which, notwithstanding their violence and ingenuity, they made very little progress. While thus engaged, they were suddenly alarmed by the noise of a coach approaching, and immediately rushed to the fields. As the night was exceedingly dark, they succeeded in making their escape before the "Alliance," Liverpool coach, came up, by which time the guard and coachman had extricated themselves, and were assisting in unbinding the keepers. Before the convicts were alarmed by the Liverpool coach, they had detached the horses from the "Albion," probably, if necessary, to make use of them in their flight. Most of them were soon retaken. On the 13th an accident happened to the "Red Rover," Manchester and London coach. When it arrived at Stone, about twelve o'clock at night, it had ten outside passengers and one inside. It stopped as usual at the "Falcon Inn" to change horses. When the fresh horses were put to, eight of the outside passengers had resumed their seats, the gentleman inside retaining his place. The coachman and guard were one of them in the yard, and the other in the kitchen of the inn. The horses started off, turned the sharp corner of the road leading to Stafford, and proceeded at a moderate pace. The outside passengers, on perceiving their situation, began to jump off the coach, and by the time the coach had proceeded a quarter of a mile on the road every outside passenger had quitted it. In their falls they all received injuries more or less severe. After the outside passengers had left the "Red Rover," the horses still pursued their course, and when the Birmingham and Liverpool Mail met them near Ashton they were going at a comparatively steady pace. The "Beehive" afterwards met them near the turnpike gate, at which they were on the full gallop. They avoided, however, any collision with the "Beehive," as they had previously done with the mail. On arriving at Tillington, about a mile from Stafford, the coach was upset. The gentleman inside, having early learned the situation in which he was placed, took his seat on the floor of the coach, and did not stir during the whole time; the consequence was that he escaped without the slightest injury. In August, 1839, on the arrival of the Falmouth Mail at Bodmin, many persons, as is usual at the assizes, were waiting to proceed by it to Exeter, and four inside and three outside passengers were taken up there. The coach was driven by a man who was not the regular coachman, but was considered to be an experienced and sober man. The guard was a young man who had been but recently placed upon that station, and was not very well accustomed to the road. After proceeding a short distance the passengers perceived that the driver was very much intoxicated, and they insisted that he should not drive the coach further; accordingly the guard took the reins, and the coachman took his seat behind. Shortly before reaching the "Jamaica Inn," situate on Bodmin Moors, and ten miles from that town, there is a very steep descent, with a sharp turn at the bottom of the hill, and then a steep ascent up to the inn, where the coach changes horses, and its proper time of arrival was about twelve o'clock. The people at the public-house were alarmed by several horses galloping up to the door and then stopping, and upon going out they discovered they were the mail horses, but with scarcely any harness upon them. It appeared that the guard intended to drag the wheel down the hill, but, the night being very dark and wet, and not well knowing the road, he had got beyond the brow of the hill before he was aware of it; he endeavoured to pull up, and it was believed the coachman got down to tie the wheel, but that he was too tipsy and fell down. The coach then proceeded down the hill at a most frightful pace. Being heavily laden, it rocked from side to side, and on getting to the turn over it went with the most dreadful crash. The horses fortunately at once broke away. All the passengers were more or less stunned, and many of those outside were seriously injured with fractured ribs and bones. CHAPTER IX. EXTRAORDINARY OCCURRENCE--COACH ACCIDENTS--DANGER ATTENDING PRINCE GEORGE OF DENMARK'S VISIT TO PETWORTH--THE MAILS STOPPED BY SEVERE SNOWSTORMS--SLEDGES USED FOR THE MAILS--DEATH FROM INCLEMENCY OF WEATHER--DREADFUL STORMS--FLOODS IN SCOTLAND IN 1829--ACCIDENT TO THE BATH AND DEVONPORT MAILS--MAIL ROBBERIES IN 1839--COACHING IN AUSTRALIA. CHAPTER IX. One of the most serious accidents was caused by the breaking down of the Hertford coach, by which nearly all the passengers, thirty-four in number, were severely hurt. An extraordinary occurrence connected with the road occurred in April, 1820, when a gentleman of noble connection, high fashion, and large fortune had his carriage and horses seized on their way from Brighton to London, in consequence of the carriage containing smuggled goods. A replevin was afterwards effected, on the payment of five hundred pounds. The real state of the case was as follows:-- The coachman had the folly to secrete two half-ankers of Hollands gin within the vehicle; and his fellow-servant, the footman, angry at not being let into the secret, laid an information, and the seizure of the carriage and horse was the consequence. Although, unfortunately, there have been of late years many fatal accidents by rail, caused by carelessness, inattention, and the over-working of pointsmen and others employed on the respective lines, I question much, taking into consideration the thousands on thousands that travel by steam, as compared with those that journeyed by the road, whether the accidents were not as serious and as numerous in the days of coaching as they now are. I shall confine myself to mail and stage-coaches, albeit private carriages and post-chaises were not exempt from breakings down, upsets, and other casualties, caused by drunken or reckless drivers, runaway horses, or by fragile springs, wheels, axletrees, and poles. Macaulay, as I have already said, in describing the mishaps that befell Prince George of Denmark and his suite when visiting the stately mansion of Petworth, draws a favourable contrast between the effects of an accident on the road in bygone days and a railway collision in our time; but the great historian would have thought differently had he been aware of the dangers of the road which I am about to record. Prince George and his courtiers were overturned and stuck fast in the mud upon their journey; but, at the pace they travelled at, no serious consequence was to be apprehended--they were six hours going nine miles. I will now select out of a number a few cases of accidents caused by the inclemency of the weather, carelessness, and reckless driving. It often happened that during heavy snowstorms travelling was impracticable. In March, 1827, the storm was so violent in Scotland that the mails, especially those from the South, were stopped for several days, although no snow had fallen further south than Carlisle. On many parts of the road between Carlisle, Edinburgh, and Glasgow a path had to be cut out by the labour of men the whole way; the snow was so deep as to rise in many places above the heads of the outside passengers of the stage-coaches, while those in the inside saw nothing on their right and on their left but rough walls of snow. The mails dispatched from Glasgow to the south were twenty-four hours proceeding to Douglas Mill, and the mail from Glasgow to Edinburgh only proceeded three miles, though drawn by six horses. The guard and coachman set forward with the mail-bags on horseback, and with great exertion reached Holytown, seven miles further, in as many hours. On the following morning another attempt was made, but, after proceeding a mile, both coachman and guard were obliged to return to Holytown. A number of men were then employed to clear the road, and at three o'clock in the afternoon they made a second attempt, but could only reach Shotts, as the men engaged in cutting the road were obliged to desist, in consequence of the wind filling up the path as fast as they cleared it. Next morning they started again at half-past five, and only reached Edinburgh, in a very exhausted state, in about twelve hours. Again, in 1837 one of the heaviest falls of snow ever remembered in this country took place on the Christmas night. It extended over every part of the kingdom. So deep were the drifts of snow that in some of the lower grounds it was from forty feet to fifty feet deep; thus in many parts of the country all communication by the usual modes of travelling was entirely suspended. The impediments to the mails were of the most serious description. Not a single mail of the 26th of December, which ought to have arrived by six o'clock on Monday morning, reached the Post Office before half-past eight in the evening. Of the mails sent out from London on Christmas night, the Dover went twenty miles and returned, the coachman and guard declaring the roads to be utterly impassable. The letters were conveyed daily from Canterbury to Dover on sledges drawn by three and four horses, tandem. Occasionally they were forwarded by means of pack-horses. The fare for a passenger on a sledge was two pounds. Occasionally passengers suffered from the inclemency of the weather. On one occasion when the Bath coach arrived at Chippenham, the people of the inn were surprised at seeing three outside passengers lying in a state of insensibility. On a nearer approach they perceived that vitality had been actually extinct in two of them for some time, the bodies being perfectly cold. The third, a soldier, had some faint signs of animation left, but he expired the following morning. On the above fatal night it rained incessantly, and the cold was intense. In 1838 one of the most terrible storms of thunder and lightning that had been witnessed for many years took place on the 28th of August, during which the Royal Mail, on its way from York to Leeds, was overturned a short distance before its arrival at Tadcaster. The vivid glare of the lightning and the roar of the thunder so affrighted the horses that they started off, ran the coach upon an embankment, and it was instantly overturned. There were three inside and three outside passengers, besides the coachman and guard, all of whom, with the exception of the coachman, escaped unhurt. A more serious accident occurred in October. Whilst the Coburg coach, on its way from Perth to Edinburgh, was receiving the passengers and luggage from Newhalls Pier, South Queensferry, the leaders suddenly wheeled round, and, notwithstanding that the guard and coachman were almost instantly at their heads, coach and horses were precipitated over the quay. Some of the outside passengers escaped by throwing themselves on the pier, but those in the inside were less fortunate. The inside passengers consisted of three ladies and one gentleman. The coach having fallen into the sea on its side, one lady and gentleman managed to get their heads thrust out of the window above the water till extricated from their perilous situation; the other two were taken out dead. The only outside passenger who kept his place on the coach until it was precipitated into the water was pitched into the sea a considerable distance, but, fortunately, saved himself by swimming ashore. The pole having broken, the leaders were saved, but the two wheel horses were drowned. Another accident occurred at Galashiels, where there is a bridge uniting two curves of the road; upon reaching it one of the horses commenced kicking, and in a few moments had its hind legs over the bar. The coachman tried to arrest their progress, but his efforts were useless, and the coach was overturned in a few seconds. At that time there were four persons inside; one lady had her arm broken, and a gentleman had his leg broken; the other passengers sustained serious injuries, one dying at Galashiels from the effect of the injuries he sustained. About nine o'clock the same night the North Briton coach was approaching Chorley, in Lancashire. The coach was meeting some waggons, and was followed by a number of carts. The coachman, to escape the waggons, drew on the opposite side, and, owing to the mist, went too far, and plunged the vehicle down a precipice. One man was killed on the spot. During the floods in Scotland, in 1829, the coast mail-coach, having left Fochabers at four P.M., got forward, without any interruption, to the Spey, where, in consequence of the boisterous rapidity of the torrent, sweeping along with it corn and wood in great abundance, the boatmen were with difficulty prevailed on to ferry the guard across. They stated their determination not to venture again while the current remained so strong. (Since that period a substantial bridge has been thrown over the Spey.) On his way to the Findhorn the guard of the mail-coach called on Mr. Davidson, who resides about two miles to the eastward of that river. He accompanied the guard, and promptly procured six men to carry the mails across the river, which was done with scarcely any detention, although the ebbing current was fearfully strong. Four of Mr. Davidson's men then volunteered their services and carried the bags on their backs to Earnhill, where the guard procured a horse and cart, in which he proceeded to Dyke. There the Reverend Mr. Anken was waiting in readiness, with his servants and several lights, to assist to forward the mail. One of the servants from the manse waded before the cart for upwards of a mile, the water covering the road, in many places to the depth of three feet. In Auldearn the guard was met by the Reverend Mr. Barclay, who informed him that the bridge of Nairn had been swept away. After a most boisterous night the cart arrived opposite to Nairn, where, the guard blowing his horn, several persons instantly came forward and advised him not to attempt to cross the bridge, a great part of it having fallen. Finding it, however, impossible to get a boat, he drove the cart back to Auldearn, where he remained till three o'clock in the morning, when he again set out on his way to Inverness; and, there being still from two to three feet in breadth of the bridge standing, he, with great peril, passed it. Great apprehensions were entertained that the bridge of Daviot would have been swept away, although founded on a rock considerably beyond the usual height of the water. If this bridge had been carried away the communication with the south by this road, at least for carriages and carts, would have been completely cut off, as there is no place within four miles of the Highland road where the river is fordable. After much toil and perseverance the guard reached his destination at Inverness. In July, 1827, the Bath mail-coach was overturned on its way from London, between Reading and Newbury, in consequence of the horses taking fright and bolting from the road into a gravel-pit. The coachman was thrown from the box among the horses, and received several contusions from being trod upon. The guard and a foreigner, who were on the top, were precipitated by the shock to such a distance, and with such violence, as would probably have proved fatal to them had not the earth and gravel on which they lighted been saturated with the rain that fell in the course of the day; and to the same cause may be ascribed the trifling injury done to the horses and the coach. In a few minutes after the accident took place a Bath coach came up. The passengers rendered every assistance in their power, and, with some difficulty, succeeded in extricating the inside passengers from the mail. Among them was a naval officer who was going to join his ship at Plymouth, but he had suffered so much from the concussion that he was speechless and unable to move. He was conveyed to a small cottage on the roadside, but died the following day. In December of the same year, as the Salisbury coach was on its journey to London, the fog was so thick that the coachman could not see his way, and on entering Bedfont, near Hounslow, the horses went off the road into the pond called the King's Water, dragging the coach along with them. One of the passengers, Mr. Lockhart Wainwright, a young man of five-and-twenty years of age, belonging to the Light Dragoons, was killed on the spot. The water was about two feet deep, with a soft bottom of mud about two feet more. Whether he was suffocated in the mud or killed by a blow was not ascertained. In the inside of the coach were four females--the wife of the deceased, her maid, a Swiss governess in the family of the Marquis of Abercorn, and another lady. They all narrowly escaped drowning. Nothing but the speedy assistance from Bedfont could have saved them. Above one hundred persons were assembled in a few moments, most of them soldiers from Bedfont. The soldiers leaped into the water and extricated the ladies from their perilous situation; the body of the coach lying on its side, with one of the horses drowned, and the rest kicking and plunging violently. The inside passengers were bruised, but not dangerously. Mr. Wainwright owed his death to his humanity. The night being very severe he had given his place inside to his wife's maid, and mounted the box beside the coachman, with whom he was conversing at the time of the accident. In April, 1826, the Dorking coach left the "Elephant and Castle" at nine o'clock, full inside and out, and arrived safe at Ewell, when the driver and proprietor, Joseph Walker, alighted for the purpose of delivering a parcel from the back part of the coach, and gave the reins to a boy who sat on the box. While he was delivering the parcel to a person who stood near the after wheel of the coach the boy cracked the whip, and the horses set off at full speed. Several attempts were made to stop them, but in vain; they passed Ewell church, and tore away about twelve yards of strong paling, when, the wheels mounting a small eminence, the coach was overturned, and the whole of the passengers were thrown from the roof. Some of them were in a state of insensibility, showing no symptoms of life. One female, who was thrown upon some spikes, which entered her breast and neck, was dreadfully mutilated, none of her features being distinguishable; she lingered until the following day, when she expired in the greatest agony. While the "True Blue" coach, which ran daily between Leeds and Wakefield, was descending Belle-hill (the precaution of locking the wheel not having been observed) the horses got into a gallop, and at the bottom, the coach being on the wrong side of the road, came in contact with a coal-cart with such violence as to break the shaft of the cart and to tear away the wheel of the coach with a part of the axletree. The coachman was thrown from the box and pitched with his head upon the ground, by which his skull was dreadfully fractured, and he died instantly. The coach went forward on three wheels for ten yards, and then fell over. One of the outside passengers received a severe internal injury, and very faint hopes were entertained of his recovery. Another of the outside passengers was thrown under the coach, and had his thigh broken in two places. He was conveyed to the Leeds General Infirmary, and suffered the amputation of his limb, but died in the course of the night. In August, 1828, as the Devonport Mail was leaving London, the horses, which were thoroughbred, took fright, and ran off at full speed. The coachman was unable to stop them, and in passing Market Street, the near wheels of the coach coming in contact with the lamp-post at the corner, the pole and splinter-bar were broken, the horses broke loose from the carriage, and galloped off, dragging the pole and broken bar after them, till the near leader rushed against the lamp-post at the corner of Bury Street, the next street to Market Street, with such force that she broke the spine of her back. Another accident occurred on the 20th. The turnpike gate at Matterby, between Winchester and Alresford, is placed at the foot of a hill. The horses of the London and Poole Mail, having become unmanageable at the top of the hill, descended it at a furious gallop, and came so violently in contact with the gate-post, that the post itself was broken off and carried to a considerable distance. One of the wheel-horses had his brains knocked out by the concussion, and the passengers were thrown nearly twenty yards from the coach. One of them was severely injured, but none were killed. The coachman had three ribs and his right arm broken, his eye knocked out, and his head otherwise so bruised and cut that blood flowed copiously from his mouth, nose, and ears. The guard saved himself by lying down on the footboard. The coach, notwithstanding the shock, was not overturned. Again, on the 23rd, as the Mail from Barnstaple to Bristol had changed horses at Wivelscombe, and the coachman was about to mount the box, some noise in the street caused the horses to move down the hill. The coachman used every effort to stop them, till he was knocked down. They proceeded to the bottom of the hill, and in turning a corner the coach upset. Of three outside passengers two were thrown with great violence over a wall, one of them receiving a severe contusion in the head, and the latter having an arm broken. The third was killed. An inside passenger had an arm fractured. In March, 1830, as the Manchester and Huddersfield Mail was returning from the former to the latter place, the horses broke out into a gallop in coming down the hill near Thornton Lodge, and became unmanageable. On arriving at Longroyd Bridge, the mail came violently in contact with the curbstone and the parapet, and the coachman and three outside passengers were precipitated over the parapet on the rocks and gravel below, a fall of eight or nine yards. The horses then broke the pole and proceeded with it at a furious rate to Huddersfield, in the streets of which two of them fell from exhaustion, and, being entangled in the harness, a stop was put to the career of the other two. Of the three passengers, one was found senseless, and died immediately; another had a leg broken; the coachman was much injured; the third passenger, though his fall was four feet lower than that of his companions in misfortune, sustained scarcely any injury. Two other passengers and the guard were providentially thrown upon the road, and were but slightly hurt. In the month of September, 1836, three fatal coach accidents occurred. On the 10th, as the Peveril, Manchester, and London night coach was on its way to London, and about five miles beyond Bedford, the pole-chain got loose and one of the horses began kicking and plunging, and almost immediately the end of the pole attached to the coach became unfastened. The weight of the coach pressed upon the horses (the coach then being at the brow of a hill), and they had no power of resistance. The coachman kept the horses in the road till they reached the bottom of the hill, when the near wheels ran upon the grass, which was not more than four or five inches higher than the road, and caused the coach to overturn on the off side into the road. One gentleman attempted to jump off; he fell upon his face, and the coach fell upon him, and on the coachman. They remained nearly a quarter of an hour in that position, and when extricated the passenger was quite dead, and the coachman severely injured, one shoulder being dislocated, and his head and body much cut and injured. Of the male passengers four had their shoulders dislocated. In the month of February, 1807, as the Liverpool mail coach was changing horses at the inn at Monk's Heath, between Congleton and Newcastle-under-Lyme, the horses which had performed the stage from Congleton having just been taken off, and separated, hearing Sir Peter Warberton's foxhounds in full cry, immediately started after them with their harness on, and kept up the chase to the last. One of them, a blood mare, kept the track with the whipper-in, and gallantly followed him for about two hours, over every leap he took, until the fox, who was a cowardly rogue, had led them round in a ring fence, and ran to ground. The sportsmen who witnessed the feats of this gallant animal were Sir Harry Mainwaring, Messrs. Cholmondeley, Layford Brooke, Edwin Corbett, Davenport, Townshend, Pickford, &c. These spirited horses were led back to the inn at Monk's Heath, and performed their stage back to Congleton the same evening, apparently in higher spirits for having had a gallop with the hounds. Mail robberies, though not so prevalent as in former years, existed as late as the year 1839; for in the month of June, at the Worship Street office, information was given of a daring attempt to rob the mail between Enfield and Edmonton. In October of the same year a box containing five thousand pounds in notes and gold was stolen from the Manchester and Staffordshire coach. An extraordinary accident occurred in the same month, when a coach was burnt on the railway. As the "Regulator" coach, from Bristol to London, was proceeding on one of the uptrains to London, having a quantity of luggage on the top, owing to the large quantity of sparks which issued from the chimney, the luggage took fire, a fact which was only discovered by the coachman (who happened, fortunately, to have remained inside) seeing sparks of fire falling from the top of the coach by the window. The coachman, at the hazard of his life (the train going at the rate of forty miles an hour at the time), got out and clambered on the roof, and by great exertions removed the luggage from the roof, and thereby saved the greater part; but the brisk current of air created by the rapid speed at which the coach was progressing rendered all attempts to extinguish the flame unavailable until the roof was destroyed, when, the embers falling inside, the guard, who had come to the coachman's assistance, succeeded in putting out the fire. In 1832 Mr. Babbage, in his work on the "Economy of Manufactures," suggested a new plan of conveying the mail. The immense revenue of the Post Office would afford means of speedier conveyance. The letter-bags do not ordinarily weigh a hundred pounds, and were then conveyed in bulky machines of many thousand times the weight, drawn by four horses, and delayed by passengers. Mr. Babbage proposed the erection of pillars along each line of road, these pillars to be connected by inclined wires or iron rods, along which the letters inclosed in cylinders attached to the rods by rings are to slide; persons stationed on these columns were to forward the cylinders from each point, after having extracted the contents belonging to their own station. In this manner it was calculated that a letter might be sent (from pillar to post) to the furthest limits of the land in the course of a very small portion of time; from London to York, probably, in an hour or two. In the absence of pillars, and in the interior districts, it was suggested that church-steeples, properly selected, might answer the purpose, and in London the churches might be used for the circulation of the twopenny post. The introduction of the rail and the telegraph has completely remedied the evil Mr. Babbage complained of. In May, 1830, much attention was excited in the neighbourhood of Portland Place by the appearance of a steam-carriage, which made its way through a crowded passage, without any perceptible impulse. There was neither smoke nor noise; there was no external force nor apparent directing agent; the carriage seemed to move by its own volition, passing by horses without giving them the least alarm. Five gentlemen and a lady formed the passengers. One gentleman directed the moving principle, and another appeared to sit unconcerned behind, but his object was ascertained to be the care of the fuel and water. The carriage was lightly and conveniently built, not larger nor heavier than a phaeton. It went without the least vibration, and preserved a balance in the most complicated movements. The pace was varied from five to twelve miles an hour, according to pleasure. Coaching is still the only means of conveyance in many parts of the Australian colonies, and in certain districts where the roads are bad, or owing to the nature of the country, it is often attended with considerable danger. The following account of an accident which lately occurred in Tasmania, taken from the "Hobart Town Mercury," will probably be interesting to many who have travelled by coach in days gone by. "An extraordinary accident happened to the Falmouth mail-coach on the 10th instant, and the passengers experienced an escape from an awful death, which seems little short of miraculous. After leaving the little township of Cullenswood, the coach enters St. Mary's Pass, noted both for its extreme beauty and for the danger with which the journey through it is sometimes attended. About four hundred yards from the mouth of the pass on entering, the road is not more than twelve feet wide. A lofty wall of rock bounds the road on one side, and on the other is a precipice plunging almost sheer down to a depth of between one hundred and fifty and two hundred feet. "When Page's coach arrived at this dangerous spot, on the day in question, a lad with two horses happened to be coming in the opposite direction. Instead of retreating into one of the recesses made for the purpose, while the coach passed, the lad persisted in going on, and drove his horses between the vehicle and the cliff, one of the horses backing across the road in front of the coach, the horses in which took fright and fell, hanging over the precipice. With great presence of mind, the coachman cut the harness, and the horses, thus freed, fell through the brushwood down to the bottom of the precipice of which we have spoken. "Fortunately for the occupants of the coach--Messrs. Wikborg and Rattray, who were on their way to George's Bay--the wheels caught in a log laid on the outside edge of the road, otherwise nothing could have prevented the coach and passengers from following the horses in their headlong fall, with what would almost certainly have been a fatal result. The horses, strange to say, were found almost uninjured, and an attempt was made to get them up the cliff again, but when one of the animals had succeeded in climbing about fifty feet from the valley, he slipped and fell to the bottom. Subsequently a track was cut by some of the natives of the district, and both horses were got out safe and sound." CHAPTER X. COACHING ACQUAINTANCES--STAGE-COACHMEN OF BYGONE AND MODERN DAYS--AMATEUR DRIVERS--REQUISITES FOR DRIVING--CRACK DRIVERS--A POPULAR DRAGSMAN--HIS PRIVILEGES--HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS. CHAPTER X. I once heard a man say that some of his pleasantest acquaintances were people he had picked up on stage-coaches; but I cannot say "ditto" to that. He must either have been singularly fortunate in his companions, or singularly unfortunate in his general acquaintances. A coaching acquaintance seldom--I should imagine--never ripened into intimacy; seldom, indeed, survived the occurrence that produced it. Had the above authority included stage-coachmen, to a certain degree I would have indorsed his opinion; for, in bygone days, I have sat beside many agreeable dragsmen; and, from the time that the heavy coach gave way to the fast one, there has been a wonderful improvement in the coachmen. The driver was formerly a man of enormous bulk, with a rubicund face, greatly addicted to strong ale, often indulging in language the reverse of parliamentary. There are so many varieties of drunkenness, that it is difficult to define the state the old-fashioned coachman was too often reduced to. We hear of a man being "as drunk as a lord;" of being "on;" of being "muzzy;" of being "cut;" of being "two sheets in the wind;" of having "a drop too much;" of being "incapable." Perhaps of the above epithets "muzzy" would be the most appropriate, as owing to the numerous stoppages at wayside public-houses, the coachman had a tankard to his lips every half-hour. The fast coachmen were well-conditioned, in many instances well-educated men, who could sing a song, and tell a good story to while away the time. They formed a great contrast to the old-fashioned coachmen of heavy coaches, who were too often drunkards, as I have remarked, and who were conspicuous for their inhumanity in the use of the double thong and a sort of cat-o'-nine tails called "the apprentice," with which they unmercifully lashed their wheelers. It was rather amusing, though mischievously so, to witness the consternation of the inside passengers when some amateur on the box "handled the ribbons." Except with a very fast team, the coachman would turn to his companion and say, "If you have your driving-gloves on, and would like to take the reins over the next ten miles, you are welcome to do so." Of course the reply was in the affirmative. If a tyro accepted the offer, it was very easy to discover the difference between the professional and the unprofessional, which the horses themselves seemed to feel. They became sluggish; not all the "gee upping" and "go alonging," and the harmless use of the whip, the lash of which usually got entangled in the lamp or harness, could keep them up to their work. This was so apparent that some inside passenger would put his head out of the window and inquire the cause of the creeping pace they were proceeding at. "A heavy piece of road, Sir," responded the coachman, who thought more of the guinea or half-guinea he expected to receive than of the loss of time. "Why, I declare," said the inquiring gentleman, resuming his seat, "there's a young fellow driving, and I rather think it must be his first attempt!" "Oh, let me out!" exclaims an elderly spinster; "we shall be overturned." "Disgraceful!" chimed in another. "It was only last week that the Windsor coach met with an accident through the reckless driving of some inexperienced fellow." "I'll report you," said an old gentleman, just roused from his slumbers. "I paid my fare to be driven by the proper coachman, and not by a puppy who probably never sat behind four horses in his life." "And I'll have you dismissed, coachman, for risking our lives," added another. Then came a jerk, which caused all the insides to break forth into the following exclamations: "There, I told you!" "We are going over!" "Do, pray, take the reins, Mr. Coachman!" In the mean time the "swell dragsman" and his young friend were laughing heartily at the fears of their precious burden. "Lots of fear, ma'am, but no danger," said the former, while the latter inquired where the coachman was going to "shoot his rubbish." When some experienced amateur took the reins, and with the aid of the whip judiciously applied, sent the sluggish steed along at the rate of ten miles an hour, the scene above described again took place, for the timid female passenger, like the widows of Ashur, was "loud in her wail." In those days young Etonians, Harrovians, collegians, and officers were all taught to drive by the professional coachmen on the road, and anyone that could manage a refractory team over a stage or two of ten miles was deemed a proficient, and fit to belong to the four-horse driving club. A great many aspirants for coaching honours fancy that sitting quietly on the box, and guiding the animals safely along the road, without coming in contact with a post, a curb stone, or another carriage, is all that is required; but this is far from being the case. To become a downright good coachman, a man should be able to put the team together, so as to alter a trace or bit during the journey; he must take care that every horse does his work, and must keep the jades up to the collar. He must then be careful to ease his horses up a hill, spirting down one, and taking advantage of any level piece of road, make up for the slower pace of a heavier one. He must also learn how to handle his whip, so as to flip off a horse-fly from his leaders, and to double thong a refractory wheeler when gibbing or refusing to work; he must remain perfectly placid upon the box, even amidst danger never losing his head or his temper, always remembering that upon his presence of mind depends the fate of his passengers. Many noblemen and gentlemen there are who can drive cleverly broken thoroughbred horses admirably well, but who would be at a loss if called upon to drive a stage-coach or a "scratch" team to Epsom or Ascot. There are, of course, many honourable exceptions, and I select a few, and there may be others, who could worthily fill the places of the late "Oxford Will," Jack Adams, "Piers," "Falkner," "Probyn," and Parson Dennis. At the head of the list I would place two noble Plantagenets--the Duke of Beaufort and his son, the Marquis of Worcester, who are _nulli secundus_; next the Earls of Sefton and Craven, Lords Londesborough, Aveland, Carington, Cole, and Tredegar, Colonels Tyrwhitt, Owen Williams, the Honourable C. White, and Armytage, Messrs. Cooper, Trotter, F. Villiers, and H. Wombwell. It may appear invidious to select the above when there are probably many more equally good; but I have witnessed the prowess of the above, and speak not only from what I have myself seen, but from what I have heard from others. There was something in the nature of a stage-coachman, a whip of bygone days, that _smacked_ (we mean no pun) of conscious importance. He was the elect of the road on which he travelled, the imitated of thousands. Talk of an absolute monarch, indeed! The monarch even on his own highway was but a gingerbread one to the "swell dragsman." To him Jem the ostler rushed in servile eagerness, to him Boniface showed the utmost deference, for him the landlady ever had a welcome reception, towards him the barmaid smiled and glanced in perpetual amicability, and around him the helpers crowded as to the service of a feudal lord. Survey him as he bowled along the road, fenced in coats in Winter, or his button-hole decorated with a rose in Summer. Listen to the untutored melody of his voice, as he directed the word of exhortation to his spanking tits--three chestnuts and a grey--enforcing his doctrine with a silver-mounted whip, the gift of some aristocratic patron of the road, and he will present a feature of social life in England which no other country possessed. Hark! already he is entering the village; the well-known horn sounds, the leaders rattle along the road, and the inhabitants rush out to bid him a hearty welcome. To some he grants a familiar nod, to others a smile of recognition, and a few only are honoured by the warmer salutation of, "Ah! how are you, old fellow? Glad to see you. Why, you are as fresh as paint." He was regarded by all as a privileged person, being possessed of the power to speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul, and, at the rate of ten miles an hour, bring the travelled husband to the partner of his sorrow and his joy. He could transport the lover to the feet of his mistress; he could convey the long-absent son to the arms of his doting parents; he could bear the schoolboy from the scene of his tasks to his much-sought-for happy holiday home. How delightful was it to behold him on a calm Summer's evening bowling through the market town, through the well-watered streets, with a crew of ragged urchins, screaming and throwing rural bouquets, culled from the hedgerows and verdant meadows, on to the box-seat! A smile is on every face on hearing the sound of the horn--all run to the door to see the coach go by; the maid-servant drops her mop in the hope of a packet from her rustic admirer; the youngster plays truant for a few seconds in the anticipation of a cake from his too-indulgent mother; the shopman quits his counter to ascertain whether a bale of goods has been consigned to him from the metropolis; the potboy from the public-house holds out his rabbit-skin cap as the guard dexterously throws the neighbouring squire's daily newspaper into it; the barber extends his apron for his weekly journal; and even the parson, the pedagogue, the lawyer, and the exciseman, the four most influential inhabitants of the place, doff their hats as they recognise the popular "dragsman" and his well-appointed "turn-out." With respect to his accomplishments they were usually more select than numerous. I speak of the professional coachman of a century and a half ago, and not of the more gifted ones, and amateurs who came into fashion just before the rail drove horseflesh off the road. If the language of the old whip had not the art of a Sydney Smith, it had the easy style of nature, with expletive beauties more particularly its own. On the Shakespearean principle that "discourse is heavy fasting," the coachman never changed horses at a wayside public-house or inn without fortifying his stomach with a snack. Flowing, natural, anecdotal, and occasionally witty (garnished with a few hearty national Attic anathemas) was the conversation of the driver in bygone days; while in the science of music he was generally no mean proficient, warbling forth "Robin Adair," "The Thorn," "The woodpecker tapping the hollow beech-tree," and other popular melodies of the day, to the delight of the outside passengers. CHAPTER XI. THE TURNPIKE GATE AT HYDE PARK CORNER--SUBURBAN AND PROVINCIAL TURNPIKE-MEN--THEIR REFLECTIONS--PANORAMA OF THE ROAD--THE "OLD WHITE HORSE CELLAR," PICCADILLY--GROUPS OF ITS FREQUENTERS. CHAPTER XI. Few, if any, of my readers will remember the time when a turnpike-gate stood between St. George's Hospital and Apsley House, though many will not be unmindful of those near the Marble Arch, Bayswater, and Kensington, all of which were sad nuisances to the inhabitants of the metropolis. There was, however, a wide distinction between the official in London and its suburbs, and the rural collector. The latter was generally an uncouth, half-sleepy clod, who, on a moderate calculation, detained you three minutes in procuring the ticket and change, finally placing six or eight pennyworth of dirty coppers and a fresh written scrap of paper in your palm, to the detriment of clean hands or gloves. The suburban was generally "wide awake" to everyone and everything. He might be seen in his easy-chair before the door of his contracted space--his smart, white-painted "box"--smoking a mild havannah, which the kindness of some sporting passer-by had presented him with, making remarks on passing events; and when none occurred he would take part in a duet with his blackbird, whose wicker cage hung by his side, and whistle for want of thought. His costume was neat; he was ever on the _qui vive_; his mottoes were "No trust," "_Toujours_ pay, _toujours prêt_." When, like one of Macheath's gang, he heard "the sound of coaches," his cigar was laid aside, a ticket taken from a neatly-arranged file, when he exclaimed "Twopence!" then, twirling the shilling he had received on his thumb-nail, dived into the multitudinous pockets of his white apron, handing out a sixpence and a fourpenny-piece to the nobility, and tenpennyworth of "browns" to the mobility. And what a field he had for contemplation! High life and low life, the Royal cortége, the thoroughbred team, the barouche and four, the yellow post-chaise and pair, the smart tilbury, the light dennet, the sporting dog-cart, the heavy "bus," the gaudy van, the sable hearse, the hackney-coach, the tilted waggon, and the Whitechapel cart. The first object that attracted his notice might have been a ponderous, lumbering, rickety hackney-coach--I write of the days of the fourth George--the arms emblazoned on the panels, showing that it had once seen better days, a remnant of faded greatness. The driver, too, might also have shone in the glittering throng of St. James's on a birthday. And oh, what a sad falling off was there! Instead of the three-cornered hat of quaint appearance, bedizened with gold lace and feathers and its smart cockade, a rusty brown, low-crowned beaver, with a wisp of straw for a hatband. The gaudy livery had given place to an old faded coat, bought in the purlieus of the Seven-dials. Where are the well-curled wig, the silken hose, the silver-buckled shoes, the bouquet, the white gloves--where? Echo answers, "Where?" Behind this vehicle might be heard the wheels of a tilbury, guided by an impatient young exquisite in the extreme of fashion, his glossy hat perched slantingly on his well-oiled, curly hair; his tight frock coat lined and faced with silk and velvet; the snowy corner of a white pocket-handkerchief peeping out of the breast pocket, perfuming the air with the choicest scents of Arabia; the half-blown moss-rose in his button-hole; his boots shining in all the brilliancy of _day_--and Martin, and his hands enveloped in light fawn coloured kid gloves. "How much?" asks the dandy. "Twopence," is the reply. A shilling is thrown to the turnpike man. "You may keep the change, old fellow." "Quite the gentleman!" exclaims the collector. Then comes the cabriolet (now out of fashion), on its well-balanced springs, plainly painted--"unadorned adorned the most." See the owner, how he prides himself on his splendid horse and diminutive "tiger!" "Now, Sir," exclaims the driver and _mis_-conductor of a galloping "bus," with two raw-boned bits of blood, ten outside and thirteen in, trying to pass the cabriolet. "Don't keep the whole of the King's highway." The unfortunate owner of the cabriolet stops rather suddenly, and finds himself, like the lions at the Zoological Gardens, "stirred up with a long pole." A rival "bus" approaches. "Bank! Bank! City! Bank!" cries the conductor. The driver makes a rush to pass both vehicles, locks his wheel in that of the cabriolet, leaving it in what the Americans term "a very unhandsome fix." "I hate these French himportations and hinventions, the homnibusses!" exclaims the gate-keeper, "they're a regular nuisance." Then might be seen approaching a pony-phaeton, with a duedecimo postilion, and a pair of long-tailed Arabians, containing two of England's loveliest daughters--the turnpike-man is lost in admiration. Quickly follows the light Whitechapel cart with a fast trotter, "surrounding objects rendered invisible by extreme _w_elocity," as the owner declares, who by his bulldog and his costume shows he belonged to the once royally-patronised prize-ring. But see! a "drag" approaches; it is the perfection of neatness, one of Adams's[1] best--body yellow, slightly picked out with black; under carriage black; two servants in plain liveries behind four spicy nags--three greys and a chestnut--each ready to leap through his collar, put together with skill and working beautifully. The driver is evidently a first-rate artist, a perfect master of the science. See how well he has his team in hand! He is every inch a coachman. Our turnpike-man brightens up and, doffing his hat respectfully, exclaims, [1] Adams, now Hooper, Victoria Street. "Now, that's what I like to see--a gentleman patronising the road! He's a right regular and right honourable trump, and no mistake!" And no mistake was there, for the driver was John Warde. A fashionable equestrian now rides by, "With heel insidious by the side Provokes the caper which he seems to chide;" and a "galloping snob" of Rotten Row, since immortalised in song, follows him. Half a dozen spring-vans decorated with flags and laurels, containing men, women, and children, barrels of beer, and baskets of provisions, are the East-End Benevolent Society, on their road to Bushey Park to enjoy a picnic under its stately avenues of horse-chestnuts. "It's a poor heart that never rejoices!" says the man at the gate, smirking at the females as he gives the ticket, and helping himself to a handful of apples from a neighbouring barrow-woman's stall, which he throws into the laps of the delighted juveniles. A key bugle, playing "Love's young dream," announces the approach of another "drag;" but what a contrast to the one I have described! It is painted green, picked out with red, evidently an old stage-coach metamorphosed; for a close observer might perceive the words "Chatham and Rochester," partly defaced, and painted over with a fancy crest and motto; the driver sitting, like a journeyman tailor on his board, with one servant behind, with a gaudy livery and gold-laced hat; the horses, one blind, two kickers and a bolter, evidently bent on having a way of their own. "Regular Brummagem," exclaims the man of "no trust." "All is not gold that glitters." Next comes a youth on an animal long in the neck and high in the bone, accoutred with a pair of saddle-bags, his twanging horn announcing him to be the suburban postman, the "Herald of a noisy world; News from all nations lumbering at his back." The hand of the clock is on the stroke of four, and, although no carriage is within sight, the collector is at his post, change and ticket in hand; within a few seconds a phaeton, with "harnessed meteors" flashes through the gate. The words "ticket," "all right," have passed more quickly than I can write them. That is the carriage of some gentleman who possesses a villa at Richmond, and whose avocations call him to town twice a week. "That's a regular gentleman," says the pike; "quite a timekeeper, no need of a watch the day he passes, and he always stands a turkey at Christmas." Next comes a hearse with numerous mourning-coaches, returning from all the pride and pomp of a funeral pageant. What a contrast now to the last time the procession passed the gate! Then the tears of a widowed wife, the sobs of a bereaved daughter, might be heard; now all is vulgar mirth and uproarious merriment; the trappings of woe, the plumes, the "inky cloaks," the customary suits of solemn black, are a perfect mockery of grief. Turn we to a brighter theme. An advanced guard of a crack Lancer regiment announces the approach of the Royal cortége. The acclamations that rend the sky herald the approach of the "observed of all observers," the luxurious George IV., then in the height of his popularity. Such was the turnpike gate in bygone days. Few sights were more amusing than the "White Horse Cellar," Piccadilly, in the old times of coaching. What a confusion--what a Babel of tongues! The tumult, the noise, was worthy the pen of a Boz, or the pencil of Cruikshank. People hurrying hither and thither, some who had come too soon, others too late. There were carriages, hackney-coaches, vans, carts, and barrows; porters jostling, touters swearing, cads elbowing, coachmen wrangling, passengers grumbling, men pushing, women scolding. Trunks, portmanteaus, hat-boxes, band-boxes, strewed the pavement; orange merchants, cigar merchants, umbrella merchants, dog merchants, sponge merchants, proclaiming the superiority of their various wares; pocket-knives with ten blades, a cork-screw, button-hook, punch, picker, lancet, gimlet, gun-screw, and a saw; trouser-straps, four pairs a shilling; silver watch-guards--"cheap, cheap, very cheap;" patent pens and (n)ever-pointed pencils, twelve a shilling; bandana handkerchiefs, that had never seen foreign parts, to be given away for an old hat; London sparrows, as the coachmakers would say, "yellow bodies," were passed off as canaries, though "their wood notes wild" had never been heard out of the sound of Bow Bells; ill-shaven curs, "shaven and shorn," and looking like the priest in the child's story, "all forlorn," painted, powdered, and decked with blue ribbons, assumed the form of French poodles who "did everything but speak;" members of the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge were hawking literature at the lowest rate imaginable--"H'annuals at the small charge of one shilling; the h'engraings, to h'any h'amateur, worth double the money;" the "Prophetic Almanack" neatly bound, one penny; "a yard and a half of songs for a half-penny;" and "Larks in London," pictorially illustrated, for one shilling. The remainder of the group consisting of perambulating piemen, coachmen out of place, country clods, town cads--gaping, talking, wondering; the din occasionally interrupted by a street serenade, the trampling of cattle, or the music of a guard's horn. In our day, the interesting sight of some well-appointed coach drawn up before the old "White Horse Cellar" may still be witnessed, divested of the noise and confusion of former times. The coachman--generally speaking a gentleman--quietly takes his seat on the box, the guard is attentive to the inside and outside passengers, and at the "All ready!" cheers the lookers-on with the sound of his horn; while the four spicy nags trot along Piccadilly at a steady pace, to be increased when they get off the stones. CHAPTER XII. AMATEUR DRAGSMEN--THE LATE FITZROY STANHOPE--THE OLD DRIVING CLUB OF 1808--THE HON. LINCOLN STANHOPE--THE WHIP CLUB--DESCRIPTION OF THE CARRIAGES--SONG OF THE WHIP CLUB--OUTRÉE DRESS OF THE DRIVERS RIDICULED BY CHARLES MATHEWS AND JOE GRIMALDI--FOUR-IN-HAND CLUB OF THE PRESENT DAY. CHAPTER XII. Having dwelt at considerable length upon stage coaches and stage coachmen, I now turn to amateurs who have distinguished themselves on the box, and who were perfectly competent to take the reins in the event of an accident to the regular driver. Here I am reminded that upon one occasion, when Bramble was driving the Chichester coach to London, and was prevented completing the journey from an accident, the present Duke of Richmond, then Earl of March, took his place, and landed his passengers safe and sound at the "White Horse Cellar," Piccadilly. Among gentlemen coachmen of bygone times may be mentioned the late Lords Clonmel and Sefton, Sir Charles Bamfylde, Sir Lawrence Palk, Sir John Rogers, Sir Felix Agar, Sir Bellingham Graham, Sir Henry Parnell, Sir Thomas Mostyn, Sir John Lade, Sir Henry Peyton, the Honourable Fitzroy Stanhope, the Honourable Charles Finch, the Honourable Thomas Kenyon, Messrs. T. R. and J. Walker, Maddox, Warde (the father of the field and road), Charles Buxton, Henry Villebois, Okeover, Annesley, Harrison, of Shelswell, and last, not least, "Tommy Onslow," immortalised in the well-known lines:-- "What can Tommy Onslow do? He can drive a phaeton and two. Can Tommy Onslow do no more? Yes; he can drive a phaeton and four." At a later period we have had the Dukes of Beaufort, the Marquis of Waterford, the Earls of Chesterfield, Londesborough, Waldegrave, Sefton, and Rosslyn; Lords Alfred Paget, Alford, Rivers, Worcester, Macdonald, Powerscourt, Colonel Copeland, Sir St. Vincent Cotton, Sir E. Smythe, George Payne, Esq., H. Villebois, Esq., Prince Batthyany, A. W. Hervey Aston, Esq., J. Angerstein, Esq., and T. Barnard, Esq. And here I am reminded of one who, as an amateur coachman and vocalist, was second to none. I allude to the late Honourable Fitzroy Stanhope, than whom a kinder-hearted creature never existed. Few men had seen more of the world in all its phases than poor Stanhope; but under whatever circumstances you met him, whether at the social board, on the racecourse, on the box of a "drag," in the snuggery of the Garrick Club, or in the shooting-field, he was ever the high-bred gentleman. His nerve and head when on the box were wonderfully good. I well recollect sitting behind him on the late Hervey Aston's coach at Ascot races, when the owner, who was rather short-sighted, drove his leaders against some very strong ropes that surrounded the booths; and, as the team was very skittish, we must have come to grief had not Fitzroy, in the coolest manner, helped us out of the scrape by catching hold of the reins. This he did in a most quiet and good-humoured manner, and with so much tact that Aston was pleased instead of being offended. "You are an excellent coachman," said Stanhope, "but a little too venturesome; there, take the ribbons again, no one handles them better." The above was the second escape from accident that befell us that day. In driving out of the Knightsbridge Barracks, Aston managed to get his leaders and wheelers huddled together, and, the salute of the sentry at the gate frightening them, the wheel came in contact with the post and the pole snapped in two. Fortunately, assistance was at hand, and the only ill result was a delay of some twenty minutes. I was on the box at the time; and, thinking probably other difficulties might arise on the road, I urged Fitzroy Stanhope to change places. Stanhope's vocal powers were of the first-rate order, as all will bear testimony who listened to his merry and musical voice when he carolled forth "The Swell Dragsman," "The Bonny Owl," "The days that we got tipsy in, a long time ago," and other convivial songs. Poor Fitzroy! his loss was deeply felt by a large circle of friends. And here let me place before my readers a description of the four-in-hand club of 1808. This club was in the habit of meeting once or twice a month in London, and then proceeding some fifteen or twenty miles into the country to dine, returning at night. It was called the "Driving Club," and the carriages turned out in the following order:-- Sir Henry Peyton's barouche-landau, four bays. Mr. Annesley's barouche-landau, four roans, thoroughbred. Mr. Stephen Glynn's barouche-landau, four bays. Mr. Villebois's barouche-landau, four bays. Mr. Whitmore's barouche-landau, four bays. Mr. O'Conver's barouche-landau, four bays. Mr. Pierrepoint's barouche-landau, four bays. Sir Thomas Mostyn's barouche-landau, four bays. Lord Foley's barouche-landau, four bays. Mr. J. Warde's barouche-landau, four bays. "After dining at Bedford," so writes a chronicler of that day, "they dashed home in a style of speed and splendour equal to the spirit and judgment displayed by the noble, honourable, and respective drivers." Another club, called the "Whip Club," in rivalship with the above, met once a month in Park Lane, and proceeded thence to dine at Harrow-on-the-Hill. There were fifteen barouche-landaus, with four horses; Lord Hawke, the Honourable Lincoln Stanhope, and Mr. Buxton were among the leaders. Lincoln Stanhope was one of the most popular men of the day. He was never known to say an unkind word, never known to do an unkind action. Peace be with him! for he was one in whom the soldier, the courtier, and the man of honour were so happily blended that, when a few of his remaining compatriots shall have passed away, I fear we may long search the fashionable throng in vain to find another. The following was the style of the sets-out of the Whip Club:--Yellow-bodied carriages, with whip springs and dickey boxes; cattle of a bright bay colour, with silver-plate ornaments on the harness and rosettes to the ears. The costume of the drivers consisted of a light drab-coloured cloth coat, made full, single-breasted, with three tiers of pockets, the skirts reaching to the ankles, a mother o'pearl button of the size of a crown piece; waistcoat blue and yellow stripe, each stripe an inch in depth; small clothes corded silk plush, made to button over the calf of the leg, with sixteen strings, and rosettes to each knee; the boots very short, and finished with very broad straps, which hung over the tops and down to the ankle; a hat three inches and a half deep in the crown only, and the same depth in the brim; each wore a large bouquet of flowers at the breast, resembling the coachmen of the nobility on a drawing-room or levee day. The popular song of the Whip Club ran as follows, I only remember the first verse:-- "With spirits gay we mount the box, the tits up to the traces, Our elbows squared, our wrists turned down, dash off at awful paces; With Buxton bit, bridoon so trim, three chestnuts and a grey-- Well coupled up the wheelers then--Ya, hip! we bowl away." Many most distinguished men have in our day not thought it derogatory to their dignity to work a public stage-coach, and among them may be mentioned the Marquis of Worcester, father to the present Duke of Beaufort, on the "Evening's Amusement;" and most delightful "amusement" it was to pass an "evening" by the side of the noble Plantagenet. Then there were the Earl of Harborough, on the "Monarch," Sir St. Vincent Cotton, Bart., the ex-10th Hussar, and Charles Jones, Esq., on "The Age;" the Honourable Francis Stafford Jerningham, on the "Day Mail," Sackville Gwynne, on the "Beaufort;" John Willan, Esq., on the "Early Times;" and young Musgrave, on the "Union," all of whom "fretted their hour upon the stage." One very great improvement has taken place in the dress of amateur coachmen, whose costume is as different in our day from that of the time when George the Third was king, as the brilliant gas in our streets is from the oily rays that rendered darkness visible in the metropolis. So outrée was the costume of amateur coachmen early in the present century that it gave rise to innumerable squibs and caricatures. One squib, embodied in a popular song, ran as follows:-- "On Epsom Downs Says Billy, 'Zounds! That cannot be Lord Jackey. Egad, but now I see it is, I took him for his lackey.'" Again, Charles Mathews as Dick Cypher in the farce of "Hit or Miss" caricatured the dress so well that he gave offence to many of the noble whips. Grimaldi, the inimitable Joe Grimaldi, also introduced in a Christmas pantomime a scene in which both coaches and coachmen were ridiculed. Out of a light-coloured Witney blanket he made himself a box-coat reaching down to his ankles, small plates formed the buttons, a bunch of cabbages the bouquet in the button-hole; a low, white-crowned hat, purloined from "Mr. Felt, hatter," formed his head-dress; boots with paper tops, from "Mr. Last, shoemaker," adorned his legs, to which were attached some ribbons he abstracted from a lady's bonnet; while the carriage which he drove triumphantly across the stage was composed of a child's wicker cradle, with Gloucester cheeses from a butter-man's for wheels, his whip a fishing-rod with a lash attached to it, and four spotted wooden horses, which (before the march of intellect furnished amusing books for the young) formed the stud of childhood, completed the whole. Seated on a high stool in the above vehicle, his elbows squared, and with the usual number of "ge ups!" "go along!" he convulsed the audience with laughter. What a contrast there is between the dress of the present day and that above recorded! Gentlemen no longer ape the manners or costumes of their coachmen and grooms, but appear as gentlemen should appear. The heavy box-coat is discarded in Summer for the light-coloured dust-coat; the hat is no longer preposterously low; a neat, cutaway olive brown or blue coat, with club buttons, supersedes the over-pocketed drab coat; well-cut trousers from Poole's, with varnished boots, take the place of the cord "inexpressibles" and brown tops; the striped, livery-looking waistcoat and gaudy, "bird's-eye" neckcloth are replaced by a plain waistcoat and simple necktie. Then the improvement in coaches, horses, and harness! The "drags" are not now of showy colours, emblazoned with arms like the Lord Mayor's state carriage; the horses are thoroughbred and fine steppers, the harness neat and plain. Ladies need no longer scramble up to the box-seat or roof to the detriment of their dresses, small iron ladders being made to fix on the sides, while an amateur player on the cornet-à-piston or horn enlivens the journey with a concord of sweet sounds. At this present moment there are two coaching clubs--the Coaching Club and the Four-in-Hand Club. Among the members of the above clubs may be mentioned the following distinguished names: Duke of Beaufort. Duke of Sutherland. Marquis of Londonderry. Earl of Sefton. Earl of Macclesfield. Lord Londesborough. Lord Wenlock. Lord Aveland. * * * * * Earl of Abingdon. Hon. L. Agar Ellis. Colonel Armytage. Mr. J. L. Baldwin. Mr. Hope Barton. Earl of Bective. Marquis of Blandford. Lord Carington. Mr. H. Chaplin. Colonel Stracey Clitherow. Viscount Cole. Mr. W. Cooper. Earl of Craven. Mr. W. G. Craven. Colonel Dickson. Mr. H. W. Eaton. Lieutenant-Colonel Ewart. Adrian Hope. H. R. Hughes. Marquis of Huntly. Sir John Lister Kaye, Bart. Viscount Macduff. Count Munster. Officer driving 1st and 2nd Life Guards Coach. Lord Muncaster. Mr. W. E. Oakley. Mr. R. W. Oswald. Sir Lawrence Palk, Bart. Sir Roger Palmer, Bart. Major-General Sir T. Peyton, Bart. Lord Poltimore. Captain H. R. Ray. Mr. C. Birch Reynardson. Sir. M. Shaw Stewart, Bart. Mr. Ans. Thomson. Lord Tredegar. Sir Henry Tufton, Bart. Colonel Tyrwhitt. Mr. F. Villiers. Colonel the Hon. C. White. Captain Whitmore. Colonel Owen Williams. Sir George Wombwell, Bart. Mr. H. Wombwell. Marquis of Worcester. Officer driving "Blues" Coach. CHAPTER XIII. OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE MEN--ADVENTURE ON THE FAR-FAMED "TANTIVY" COACH--GALLANT CONDUCT OF THE GUARD--MY FIRST ATTEMPT AT DRIVING--JEM REVELL OF "THE PELICAN"--MY UPSET--TANDEM DRIVING--THE OSTLER--COUNTRY INNS--HOTEL CHARGES. CHAPTER XIII. In the days I write of driving was a favourite pursuit, and, independent of the four-in-hand clubs, every young fellow aspired to handle the ribbons whenever a chance threw a drive in his way. The Oxford and Cambridge men were first-rate dragsmen, and many a reverend who may now devote his leisure to "coaching" youths for college or the Army was then "coaching" very different teams. There were some first-rate "turns-out" on the Oxford road. Never shall I forget an adventure that occurred to me on the box of the far-famed "Tantivy." We had just entered the University from Woodstock, when suddenly the horses started off at an awful pace. What made matters worse was that we saw at a distance some men employed in removing a large tree that had fallen during the storm of the previous night across the road near St. John's College. The coachman shook his head, looking very nervous, while the guard, a most powerful man, stood up to be prepared for any emergency. On we went, the coachman trying in vain to check the galloping steeds, and we had got within a few yards of the critical spot, when the guard, crawling over the roof, managed somehow or other to get on the footboard, when, with a spring, he threw himself on the back of the near wheeler, and with a giant's grasp checked the horses at the very moment the leaders were about to charge the tree. Down they came, but the guard never yielded an inch, and, with the assistance of the country people nearest at hand the leaders regained their legs without the slightest damage to man, horse, coach, or harness. A subscription for our gallant preserver was got up on the spot. The coachmen of well-appointed "drags" were a privileged class, they were familiar, "but by no means vulgar," and were universal favourites with all who came in contact with them; Stevenson, the high-bred University man, who, if not, up to "coaching" young graduates for college honours, easily won his "great go" on the box; Parson Dennis, who drove the "White Lion" coach to Bath, knew more of modern than biblical Jehus; Black Will, who drove the Oxford "Defiance," rather ferocious in appearance, but gentle by nature as a lamb. Others, too, I might mention, if memory served me, who raised themselves to the highest pinnacle of fame as civil, obliging, and intelligent men. Having already given the doings of others on the road, I shall now proceed to record my own, hoping that I may be forgiven for indulging in that offensive of all offensive pronouns--I. "The root of all learning," writes Aristotle, "is bitter, but the fruit is sweet," an apothegm which will particularly apply to driving. I well remember, when I was at a private tutor's, at Littlewick-green, Maidenhead Thicket, and subsequently at Donnington-grove, near Newbury, and a bit of a swell, being greatly smitten with the saying of the above learned philosopher. I never got into a buggy, handled the ribbons, rattled the hired horse along at a crack-skull pace of twelve miles an hour, which generally ended in an upset, without reflecting on the above quoted authority which, being interpreted, means it is wormwood to be immersed in a wet ditch, but pleasant enough to get out again. Poor defunct Jem Revell, of the "Pelican," Newbury, was my tutor. Under his auspices I first mounted the box of a tandem, learned the elegant and indispensable accomplishment of driving that most dangerous vehicle, and studied the appalling manoeuvre of turning out of a narrow inn-yard into a densely populated street. Every day, after hours devoted to study, was my drive repeated, until in process of time inexperience was conquered, and, "with elbows squared, and wrists turned down," I could catch hold of the wheeler and leader, in grand style--remembering with Horace that "sæpe _stylum_ vertas," and give the go-by to less dashing whips, with a most condescending nod. At last, after serving a long and tedious apprenticeship, I reached the long-expected haven of success, and set up a dog-cart and pair on my own account. Never shall I forget that proud hour of my triumph when I made my first public essay out of the yard of the "Pelican," on my road to Reading races. I was accompanied by about five or six of my comrades on horseback, and by one or two aspiring Dennets, the drivers of which vainly essayed to beat my two thoroughbred nags. As we entered the town, for a young "chum" of mine, now long since gathered to his ancestors, sat by my side, the streets were lined with an infinite assemblage of peers and peasants, squires and blacklegs, sporting men and bettors, horse-dealers, jockeys, grooms, trainers, and cardsellers. However much it may tell against me--however greatly I may lower myself in the estimation of the reader--truth compels me to admit that my aspiring vanity metamorphosed the gaping crowd into admirers of myself and my turn-out; and when my companion sounded the mail-horn, when I cracked my whip and shook my head knowingly--well, _there was not much in that_, as a cynic will remark--I, with "all my blushing honours thick around me," felt as proud as any peacock that ever strutted in a poultry-yard. But, alas for human greatness! my pride was doomed to have a fall. Just as we approached the "Bear Inn" the leader became restive, turned round and stared me in the face, a mode of salutation by no means agreeable; then he began to lash out, and finally succeeded in upsetting us and breaking the shafts. Happily, we escaped unhurt in body, though not in feeling. In thus alluding to scenes of juvenile folly, I cannot forget that I once was young, and that there are still many (among them my only son, now studying farming at Her Majesty's Royal Norfolk Farm, Windsor Great Park), with others at private tutors' and college, equally devoted to the box as I was. To them I would offer a few suggestions respecting tandem-driving, which of all vehicles is the most difficult to manage. Its height from the ground and peculiar lightness of construction renders it, at first sight, a very formidable machine; and the only way to prevent disaster is for the driver to obtain a firm grasp of the reins before he ventures to cheer his tits, and to ascertain the amount of work which wheeler and leader do, so that the traces may be gently tightened--a proof that both animals are doing their duty. In returning home at night there is no instinct like that of the horse; he seems to acquire mind by the departure of light, and to succeed best when man is most ready to despair. I have trotted a tandem from London to Windsor, at twelve o'clock at night, in the midst of the darkest and most tremendous thunderstorm I ever witnessed, with little chance of safety but what I owed to the docility of my horses. This is an instinct which, like that of the prophet's ass, should not be balked; and so firmly am I convinced of the superior intelligence of the quadruped to the biped, in cases of similar difficulty, that I would actually give up my own fancy to let him have his head, and make the best he can of it. In going down hill, there is one very necessary caution to be observed to which I must now refer. The mode of harnessing a tandem differs from that most usually adopted in a four-in-hand; so that if your leader is a faster trotter than your wheeler, he draws the collar over the neck of the shaft-horse, and a partial strangulation not unfrequently occurs. To prevent this, keep your wheeler at his full pace, slackening in the meantime the extra speed of your leader. The above is necessary at all times--doubly so when going down hill. Whenever you stop to bait, never omit to remain in the stable, unless you have a most trustworthy groom, during the time of feeding. Depend upon it, _haud inexpertus loquor_. There are modern ostlers, of course, with many honourable exceptions, who are not unlike the coachmen satirised by the author of "High Life Below Stairs:" "If your good master on you dotes, Ne'er leave his horse to serve a stranger; But pocket hay, and straw, and oats, And let the horses eat the manger." The oat-stealer, as he has not inappropriately been named, of the present day, will, we fear, in too many cases, follow the example of the unprincipled fraternity above referred to. Independent of this necessary caution, there is surely a feeling of gratitude due to the poor dumb brutes who have toiled all day in our service; and young dragsmen will do well to remember that humanity to defenceless animals is the strongest characteristic of the British sportsman. Through the introduction of the rail, a great saving has been effected, both as regards time and inn bills. Some of the "old school" still, as far as is feasible, stick to the road; but declining accommodation must diminish their numbers every day. Nothing is now so forlorn as a great, rambling, half aired, half appointed country inn; waiter acting boots, boots acting postboy, or, may be, all three; and cook acting chambermaid, barmaid, and all. The extinction of the old posting-houses is, perhaps, the only thing connected with the establishment of railways I lament. There certainly was a nice, fresh, cool country air about the old roadside inns that was particularly grateful and refreshing on a fine evening after emerging from the roasting and stewing of a long London season. The twining roses, the sweet-scented jasmine, the fragrant honeysuckle, the bright evergreens, the flowers and fruit in the trim gardens; above all, the real rich country cream, fresh butter, and new-laid eggs. These--the inns--are now mere matter of history; and the Irishman who travelled with his eggs "because he liked them fresh" is no longer a subject of ridicule. Moreover, these inns were often prettily situated--some by the side of gliding rivers, others near rushing dams, or overlooking ancient bridges, or commanding views over extensive ranges of rich country scenery--very honeymoonish sort of places some of them were: witness the "White Hart," Cranford Bridge; the "Castle," at Salt-hill; the "Salutation," Ambleside; the "White Horse," Haslemere; the "Talbot," Ripley; the "Saracen's Head," Beaconsfield; "Royal Oak," Ivy Bridge; the "Bush," at Staines; "White Lion," Hartford Bridge, Hants; the "Swan," at Chertsey; the "Castle," Speen Hill; "Sugar-Loaf," Dunstable; and last, not least, the "Saracen's Head," Dunmow, suggestive of "The Flitch of Bacon" and the duties of matrimony-- "To fools a torment, but a lasting boon To those who wisely keep their honeymoon." Happily a few are still kept for happy couples on their wedding tour. The bill was generally the only disagreeable feature about these rural caravansaries; and some of the innkeepers were uncommonly exorbitant. Nevertheless, the majority of the victims were in a favourable mood for imposition. Going to London, they had all the bright prospect of a season's gaiety before them, and under that impression people--wise people at least--were inclined to give the reins of the purse a little license, and not criticise charges too severely. Happy is the man who can pass through life in this easy, reins-on-the-neck sort of way, not suffering a slight imposition to mar the general pleasure of his journey! Returning from the metropolis, the country innkeeper had the advantage of having his bill contrasted with a London one--an ordeal that none but a real land shark would wish to shrink from. A comparison of inn charges throughout England, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, for the same style of entertainment, would be curious if not instructive. They would show (what, however, almost every other line of life shows) that one often pays double for nearly the same thing by going to different places for it. Take a bottle of soda-water, for instance. Walk into a large, fashionable hotel, and desire the waiter to bring you one. You drink it, and ask, "What's to pay?" "A shilling, if you please, Sir," (or ninepence--which is the same thing), waiters at large hotels never having any coppers. If you were to go to the next chemist's you would get it for fourpence--very likely of the same quality. But the great impositions were, after all, the charges for wax-lights and breakfasts. Gas has now superseded the former, but breakfasts were and are still charged too high. "Breakfast, with eggs and bacon, three shillings and sixpence," was and is the charge at fashionable hotels; at less pretentious ones you may get the same for two shillings, or at most half-a-crown. CHAPTER XIV. NOBLE AND GENTLE DRAGSMEN--JOURNEY TO NEWMARKET--LORD GRANTLEY'S TEAM--A REFRACTORY WHEELER--USE AND ABUSE OF THE BEARING REIN--THE RUNNING REIN--HARNESS OF THE PRESENT DAY--THE ROYAL MAIL--GENERAL REMARKS ON DRIVING. CHAPTER XIV. Among the amateur knights of the whip of bygone days, though still remembered by many of the present generation, may be mentioned the late Duke of Beaufort, the Earls of Chesterfield and Harborough, Lords Poltimore, Grantley, and Suffield, Colonel the Honourable Lincoln Stanhope, the Honourable Fitzroy Stanhope, Sir St. Vincent Cotton, Sir Henry Peyton, Captains Angerstein and Tollemache. The head of the Somerset family was a very steady dragsman, and knew his business well. He was a less showy coachman than Lord Chesterfield; but his Grace had the qualification of making each horse do his quantum of work. Lord Chesterfield, had he possessed a little more steadiness, would have been scarcely inferior to Stevenson, of the Brighton "Age;" but his exuberant, buoyant spirits ran away with him sometimes; he would lark, and the "old gentleman" himself could not have stopped him. His drag was as well appointed as the Duke's, and looked coaching all over, without a spice of slang, the prevailing error of many amateurs of that day. Lord Harborough gave the tyros a hint touching the stamp of horses befitting the occasion. He always drove a good sort himself, and eschewed the long tails; and, but for a little infirmity of temper occasionally, he put his team along in very good form. No man can excel on the box who is not gifted with good temper and patience; for not only his comfort, but his life and the necks of his friends depend upon the above qualities. Horses have as many whims and caprices as their drivers have; they entertain likes and dislikes, in imitation of their owners; and a little attention to the temper and disposition of this useful quadruped is as necessary as any part of the supervision of the stable. Lord Poltimore's team of roans were always up to the mark, and were such fast steppers that any one of them might justly have been termed the _rapid Rhone_. His Lordship had the smartness and quickness so essential in a thoroughly good dragsman. Four such horses as Lord Grantley's were never put together in the days I write of--they were in every sense of the word matchless. They were purchased at four years old in Yorkshire, and stood nearly seventeen hands high, the colour Arabian grey, with black manes and tails. This was the only admissible case of switch tails; the size and figure of those splendid animals were a sufficient reason for their not being docked. The drag was not a drag, it was an old tub of a family carriage, unworthy the beautiful horses his Lordship drove. Lord Suffield was the quickest and smartest coachman I ever sat on the box with, and never shall I forget a journey I took with him to Newmarket to attend the July Meeting. We started from "Grillon's Hotel" in Albemarle Street, where his Lordship resided, with four as nice cattle as ever the lover of driving could wish to sit behind; but upon reaching the first stage I found, to my dismay, that we were to proceed with posters for the rest of the journey. The team came forth from the yard, and were with some difficulty put to, for the near-side wheel, a mare, was somewhat cantankerous; there was a lurking devil in her eye which foreboded mischief. She took an exception, in the first place, to the pole pieces, and would not be coupled up; this, however, after a little dodging, leaning, and squealing, was achieved, and then came the start--or, rather, I should say the time for starting; not an inch, however, would she budge. She planted her fore feet at a most resisting angle in front of her, and there she stuck; the united forces of the leaders and her collaborateur, the offside wheeler, were insufficient to move her. Coaxing, persuasion, and all sorts of soothing arts were lavished on her in vain; and as the _suaviter in modo_ failed the _fortiter in re_ was tried, and with a better result, for after shoving, thumping, and double thonging, she suddenly bolted into her collar and started off at an awful pace. Suffield kept her head straight, though for miles nothing could stop her. At last the nonsense was taken out of her, and we reached our destination in safety. The mare, as may be imagined, was in no very enviable plight; she shook from head to foot; but we afterwards heard that the lesson she had received was not thrown away, and that she ever after took kindly to her work. Colonel Lincoln Stanhope had a good team, but he was not a first-rate whip. His brother Fitzroy was incomparably one of the best gentlemen-coachmen in England. Many an aspirant to four-in-hand celebrity was indebted to him for the knowledge in driving they possessed; and many a friend's life was saved by his presence of mind, coolness, courage, and skill, as I have already said. Sir St. Vincent Cotton was a first-rate coachman; and, although he must be ranked among the _genus irritabile_, he possessed great coolness, which he invariably exercised when occasion required it. His horses got away with him more than once, as I can vouch for; but I know not the man with whom I would sooner be seated on the box under such trying circumstances. His strength of arm was prodigious; and, although not quite so showy or graceful a whip as some of his compeers, he was a steady and safe one. Sir Henry Peyton was _nulli secundus_: he belonged to the old school; his team was always the same, and his horses were of the right sort--large ones in a small compass. Captain Angerstein's turn-out was exceedingly neat, but his horses never had a fair chance, as he was continually changing them; and Captain Tollemache was first rate as an amateur whip. Many others are equally worthy of honourable mention, but I have confined myself to those I have sat beside on the box. A fashion has lately sprung up amongst us, or rather, I should say, been adopted (for it is of American origin), and that is the almost total abolition of the bearing-rein. Much has been said, written, and argued pro and con.; some assert, and with truth, that, generally speaking, it is less safe, for as the best and soundest horse may once in twelve months make a mistake, the advocates for the loose rein cannot help to admit that a bearing-rein must assist the horse to recover himself under such circumstances. All extremes are bad, and no one would wish to torture an animal's mouth by pulling his head into an unnatural position, like a dromedary, with an excruciatingly tight bearing-rein; but, on the other hand, the absence of one is open to objection. Some horses may, and do, carry themselves so well that a bearing-rein appears superfluous; but, nevertheless, it may be useful, and for this reason should never be entirely dispensed with. I do not say that exceptions may not be permitted. Those possessed of thoroughbred horses, endowed with superior action, may indulge in any whim or caprice they like; and animals worth from four hundred guineas to six hundred guineas apiece, and which go with their heads up, of course do not require a bearing-rein, but I condemn the principle for universal adoption; and I have heard the opinions of some of the best coachmen of the day, both amateurs and professionals, who have asserted that for the generality of horses the practice is a dangerous one. Some animals' heads are put on differently from others, and consequently they vary in their mode of carrying them. Some, for instance, are star-gazers and appear to be taking lunar observations, while others poke their heads forward in such a longitudinal form that they resemble in this particular the Continental swine trained for grubbing truffles. The plan I should like to see adopted would be to have a bearing-rein with an elastic end to it, so that horses that did not require having their heads held well up would not be deprived of the ornament of such a rein, and even with horses that did require it, if the elastic was pretty strong, it would aid them in case of a trip or stumble. In former days it was the custom to drive with wheel-reins home--that is, short to the hand; this was decidedly objectionable, especially in hilly counties; and, with groggy wheel-horses, not unattended with danger, for an awkward blunder might pull you from the box. The running-rein is now universally adopted, and in skilful hands is immeasurably superior to the old system. This is observable in the best-appointed fast coaches, of which there are happily still a few left, as well as private carriages. The harness of the present day is the _ne plus ultra_ of good taste: it is infinitely lighter than formerly, although equally strong, and the less a horse is encumbered the better. Look how superlatively neat are the traces of the coaching clubs; they are narrow, but the strength lies in the thickness, and the collars fit to a nicety. The four-in-hand clubs have set a laudable example; they have produced emulation, and emulation produces good horses. _Cuique sua voluptas_--which, I believe, literally construed, means "every hog to his own apple;" and, delightful as driving a private drag is--for it pleases the ladies, and all goes "merry as a marriage bell" in an excursion to Richmond, Greenwich, Maidenhead, the Crystal or Alexandra Palaces--it, perhaps, was exceeded by the pleasure of sitting on the box-seat of one of the Royal mails, with four fresh horses every eight miles, and a guard decked out in regal livery behind to whisper in your ear if you did not keep your time. The night-mail was very preferable to a day coach--first, because you seldom met any seedy old fellows outside the mail enveloped in stuff cloaks, with cotton umbrellas, which on a rainy day acted as a spout to convey the water down your neck, and who, on seeing the coachman give up the ribbons would instanter bawl out. "I say, coachman, I can't allow that." Then the pace on the mail was always good. Again, the mail was not encumbered with huge piles of massive black boxes, fantastically worked with brass nails, belonging to the lady passenger inside; and last, not least, there was a sort of glorious autocratical independence when you felt that every vehicle on the road made way for the Royal mail. There is no circumstance of greater importance, as tending to the pleasure and facility with which horses are driven, than that of putting them well together; this, of course, applies to a four-horse team. By this term the due regulation of the harness and the most appropriate place for each horse are implied. If properly attended to, it is wonderful the ease with which four horses may be driven, compared with the effort--in some cases risk--consequent upon an injudicious and unskilful disposition of the appointments. With regard to the team, a little extra power in the wheel-horses is desirable, inasmuch as they have a greater portion of labour to perform in holding back the vehicle down hill; while the high-couraged and free-goers will be most advantageously driven as leaders. Practice alone will render a man a proficient in driving four horses. To explain the proper mode of handling "the ribbons," except by actual example, is not an easy task; and the attempt to give hints from which the _sine quâ non_ of a good coachman--hands--are to be acquired, is still more difficult. A few general remarks may, however, not be out of place. The position of the hand and arm has much to do with appearance, and a vast deal more with the art of driving. The left hand should be carried nearly parallel with the elbow, covering about one third of the body: in that position it is ready for the immediate aid of the right whenever the two are required, which in bearing to the right or left of the road, or in turning, is generally the case, as likewise in shortening the hold of the reins. The right hand should at all times be kept as free as possible, so as to be able to make a judicious use of the whip when required. A good mouth is essential to comfort and safety; it enables a horse to be guided simply by a turn of the wrist. Many a good mouth, however, has been spoilt by the heavy, dead pull of an inexperienced driver. The greatest care, then, should be taken not to irritate or suddenly check the animal, but by a certain yielding of the hands (the reins being divided in each), enable him to drop his head and play with the bit. The experienced driver may easily be recognised from the novice the moment he approaches the vehicle he is about to ascend. He invariably casts his scrutinising eye over his horses, his harness, and his carriage, and, if the least thing be out of place, detects it in an instant; nay, more, he will assist in putting to the horses; and, if I required an illustration of what I have asserted, I should find it in the person of the Duke of Beaufort, who, at the sale of Sir Thomas Barrett Lennard's hunters, last October, before mounting the box, aided in putting the team together, and, when his Grace ascertained that all was right, started off in a manner that would have gratified the heart of Sir Henry Peyton had he been alive to witness it. CHAPTER XV. CARRIAGES OF BYGONE DAYS AND THE PRESENT--THE CABRIOLET--ANECDOTE OF THE LATE DUKE OF WELLINGTON--A HUNTING ADVENTURE--AN EVENTFUL DAY--A LUCKY ESCAPE--NOBLE CONDUCT OF THE IRON DUKE--SUGGESTIONS. CHAPTER XV. Among the "wild vicissitudes of taste," few things have undergone greater changes than carriages used for pleasure; we need not go further back than the last half century to prove what we have said. Formerly there was the lumbering heavy family coach, emblazoned with coats of arms, with a most gaudy-coloured hammer-cloth, and harness resplendent with brass or silver work. Then there was the neat, light travelling postchaise, and the britzska--the latter imported from Germany--for those who posted on the roads; together with the graceful curricle, in which the gallant Anglesey and the arbiter of fashion, Count Alfred d'Orsay, were wont to disport themselves in the park; the four-horse "drag," the unpretending "tilbury," the rural-looking "dennet," the sporting mail-coach phaeton, the vis-à-vis, and the cabriolet, a French invention, which was introduced into England after the campaign in the Peninsula. Of the above few remain. Royalty and some of the leading aristocrats alone patronise coaches. Travelling-carriages, tilburies, dennets, curricles, vis-à-vis, cabriolets, are things of the past, and all that remain to us are town-chariots, "drags," and mail-phaetons, in addition to which we have "broughams," "victorias," waggonettes, and a few private Hansom cabs. It will scarcely be believed that, some five-and-forty years ago, almost every nobleman and gentleman used the cabriolet, "slightly altered from the French" (as the playbills say), to convey him to dinner, balls, and parties; for example, the late Duke of Wellington, when Ambassador to the newly-restored monarch, Louis XVIII., in 1814-15, seldom, except on state occasions, made use of any other vehicle, the carriages being devoted to the service of the Duchess. This I can vouch for, for at that period I was attached to his Grace's staff, and was always in the habit of driving him when occupied in paying visits in the morning or of attending dinners and parties in the evening. Never shall I forget one evening, at Paris, when driving my chief in his cabriolet from the Hôtel Borghese to the Théâtre Français, I very nearly upset the vehicle; and, as the accident occurred in a very crowded street, it might have been attended with serious consequences. It was an eventful day in my life; and, to explain my distraction on that occasion, I must enter at some length into the cause of it. This I do most readily, as the whole transaction reflects so much credit on the Duke's kindness of heart. One morning, late in December, the curricle was at the door, and I, equipped for the chase, was waiting to drive Wellington in his curricle to Versailles, the place where the Royal stag-hounds were to meet, when he sent for me. I found him busy over some papers. "I shall not be able to go to-day," said he, "but you can have the curricle. Tell the Duke de Berri I have some letters to write, as the messenger starts for England at two o'clock, which will prevent my meeting His Royal Highness. Elmore is sent on for me; and, as he is short of work, you had better ride him. Don't knock him about." I briefly expressed my thanks, and started for the rendezvous, where I delivered my message, and mounted the far-famed hunter, Elmore, recently purchased in England for the Duke at a high price. From the manner in which he carried me (at that time a very light weight) many of the field were anxious to possess him; indeed, it was hinted to me that the Duke could command almost any sum for him. A party of young men headed by Count d'Orsay, afterwards so well known in London, proposed a steeplechase home for a sweepstakes of one Napoleon each, which, had Elmore been my own property, I should have gladly entered him for; but I remembered the Duke's injunction and declined. Delighted with the character the new purchase had obtained, I started to ride quietly home by myself, when, within half a league of Paris, in crossing a small grip, I found that my horse went lame. To dismount and inspect his foot was the work of a moment, but I could see nothing. No alternative was then left me but to lead the limping animal home, which I did amidst the taunts and jeers of the rabble. No sooner had I reached the stables than I sent for the head-groom and the Duke's state coachman, to whom I explained all that had occurred. "Well, you have gone and done it," said the latter, who was a most eccentric character. "We wouldn't have taken three hundred guineas for that horse." This knight of the ribbons, be it remarked, always spoke in the plural number, and talked of what _we_ had done in the Peninsula, of _our_ triumphal entry into Madrid, and of how _we_ had beaten Ney and all the French marshals. Happily for me the Duke, who had been occupied all day, was out riding, and I did not see him until we met at dinner. I had fully made up my mind to tell him of the accident before going to bed, but waited until I received a further account of the horse's state. As a large party was assembled, little was said about the hunt until the ladies left the room, when I was called upon to give an account of the run, which I did. I then mentioned the brilliant manner in which Elmore had carried me, and the panegyrics he had received from all. "A splendid animal," said Wellington, "I hope to ride him next Monday at Fontainebleau." My heart quailed within me. The hours glided on, and when driving the Duke to the theatre that evening in his cabriolet, so distracted was I that I grazed the curbstone, and was within an inch of knocking over one of the gendarmes as we approached the theatre. It was late when we arrived; the last scene of "Orestes" was going on, with Talma as the hero; then followed the inimitable Mademoiselle Mars in "La Jeunesse de Henri Cinq," from which the English version of "Charles the Second" has been adapted. To account for the change of monarchs, and to explain the inconsistency of having the wicked Earl of Rochester, the companion of "Sweet Prince Hal," I may remark that when the drama was first about to be brought out in Paris, during the reign of Napoleon I., the licenser objected to Charles, he being a restored Monarch, so the author had no alternative left him but to rewrite the whole piece or change his hero. The latter course he adopted, trusting that a Parisian audience would not detect the anachronism. The perfect acting of Talma had no charm for me, and when the after-piece began I was too wretched to laugh at the _bonhomie_ of the actor who represented Captain Copp, or to appreciate the archness of that child of nature, Mlle. Mars as Betty. Upon leaving the theatre I became so thoroughly distracted that I scarcely knew what I was about; unluckily a young horse, who was a little skittish, had on that evening taken the place of the one that I had been in the habit of driving, and, as there was an unusual crowd in the streets, extra care was necessary. "With great difficulty I threaded my way through carriages of all descriptions, and was approaching the Rue de Rivoli when I heard a clattering of horses' hoofs behind me and the cheers of some hundreds of people assembled near the entrance to the Palace of the Tuileries. "It is the King returning from the Louvre, where His Majesty has been dining with the Duke d'Orléans," said my companion. At that moment my thoughts were entirely engrossed with Elmore, and I was rehearsing to myself how I should break the untoward news of the accident to the Duke. So, instead of pulling the left rein to enable the royal cortége and the cavalry escort to pass me, I pulled the right one, and very nearly brought my chief to grief. Happily, however, at this moment the only damage done was to the leg of a mounted police officer, who soundly rated me in language unfit to be repeated. Misfortunes they say never come singly; we had not proceeded many yards, when a _gamin_, who had evidently a taste for pyrotechnic exhibitions, let off a cracker, which so frightened the animal I was driving that he bolted across the street, came in contact with a lamp-post, and as near as possible upset the cabriolet. What made it appear worse was that the escort above referred to was returning at a brisk trot to their barracks, and, had we been overturned, the Duke might, for the first time in his military career, have been trampled upon by French cavalry. "Lucky escape!" was the only remark Wellington made, and as the danger to which I had exposed him had completely roused me from my lethargy, I at once "screwed my courage to the sticking place" and told the whole of my day's adventures with the hounds. "Can't be helped," said he, in his usual quick manner; "accidents will happen." Upon the following morning my worst fears were realised; Elmore was dead lame; and when I reported this to his Grace, his only answer was, "I cannot afford to run the chance of losing my best horses; so, in future, you shall have the brown horse and the chestnut mare, and if you knock them up you must mount yourself." In a previous chapter I have referred to a carriage accident that occurred to Wellington when I was with him; and it is somewhat strange that I should again be by his side, and in a great measure the cause of a second misfortune. I own myself that I regret cabriolets are no longer the fashion. For a man that can afford to keep a number of carriages, a victoria and brougham are all very well; but the former is only available in fine weather, whereas a cabriolet with a projecting head could defy most showers of rain. A well-appointed cabriolet was a comfortable and gentleman-like conveyance, and, for the bachelor, did the duty of a close carriage at half the expense. A perfect cabriolet horse, however, costs money, and the equipage must be well turned out. A seedy-looking cabriolet and horse to match are abominations not to be endured. I have said that a cabriolet should be well "got up;" and in order to do this the owner must possess two horses--one for daylight, and another for night work; a clever "screw" will answer for the latter purpose--one, however, that can go the pace, although he can never show until the gas is lit. No one who values a good horse would dream of allowing him to stand exposed to chilly blasts at the opera, the theatre, or his club. At no period were carriages better constructed or more neatly turned out than they are in the present day, both as regards vehicles, harness, and horses. At the same time, without being hypercritical, I think some changes might be made for the better. Let me instance the following:--A coachman's curly wig seems quite out of character when we consider the costume of the day, and it certainly might be dispensed with. Again, a light victoria or brougham are often to be seen with a pair of horses to each, whereas one fine stepper would be preferable; then (happily only in a few-instances) the case is reversed, and a carriage, open or shut, meant for two horses, has only one. Again in the present day, with some exceptions, noblemen and gentlemen do not keep to their old family colours; and occasionally we see a brougham black picked out with blue, and a chariot of quite a different colour. Nothing looked better than the Russell brown and blue, the Rutland and Sefton light yellow, the Hamilton red, the Foley reddish brown, the Harrington dark brown, the Anglesey dark yellow, more especially when the carriages were drawn by splendid horses. CHAPTER XVI. HAIRBREADTH ESCAPES--DRIVES TO VALENCIENNES WITH FREDERICK YATES--MEET A DANCING BEAR--RESULT--WHEEL CARRIAGES IN TOWNS--STATE OF THE PUBLIC STREETS--GAY'S DESCRIPTION OF THEM--HACKNEY COACHES--TAYLOR, THE WATER POET--ROBBERIES IN LONDON--FIRST INTRODUCTION OF OMNIBUSES. CHAPTER XVI. In addition to the splendid turns-out of the members of the Coaching and Four-in-Hand Club, every cavalry regiment and many infantry corps possess a regimental "drag," which is always well horsed and usually well driven. During the time I served in the army such a thing was unknown, and the only opportunities officers had of driving were when travelling by stage-coach, or when a tandem was improvised in the barrack-yard. Many a hairbreadth escape have I had from one of these breakneck vehicles. When at a private tutor's at Donnington, I and a young companion--alas! now no more--hired a tandem from Botham, of the "Pelican," Newbury, to take us to Reading. Safely should we have arrived there but for a drove of oxen which met us on our way. The result was the accident related in a previous chapter, and my ankle was dislocated. My next attempt was when I was on the Staff of the Duke of Wellington, at Cambrai. Frederick Yates, then in the Commissariat Department, afterwards lessee of the Adelphi Theatre, was anxious, like myself, to visit an amateur performance by the officers stationed at Valenciennes; and it was arranged that we should drive over in my dennet, to which he was to add a leader. All went well until we approached the plains of Denain, when a man leading a dancing bear so frightened our steeds that they set off at a gallop, overturning us in a dry ditch. Unfortunately for me, the handle of my sword, which I had stowed away in front of the apron, came in contact with my body and broke a rib; so, instead of enjoying my visit, I was laid up for a week at a not over-comfortable hotel. This was my second and last appearance in a tandem, and I strongly recommend those who value their limbs never to trust themselves to such a conveyance. In earlier days I have driven four horses many hundred miles on the road and through the crowded streets of the metropolis, and never once came to grief. Let me now refer to the use of wheel carriages in towns, which is not of very ancient date among the English people. During the reign of James I. the drivers of both public and private carriages had no other accommodation than a bar, or driver's chair, placed very low behind the horses; in the following reign they rode postilion fashion. After the Restoration they appeared with whip and spurs, and towards the end of the century mounted a coachman's box. This box, covered with a hammer-cloth, was in reality a box, and within it, or in a leather pouch attached to it, were tools for mending broken wheels or shivered panels, in the event of accidents occurring, which were by no means uncommon; in consequence, first, of the defective construction of the vehicles, which, according to Davenant, were "uneasily hung, and so narrow that he took them for sedans on wheels;" in the second place, from the clumsy driving of carmen in the crowded thoroughfares; and, lastly and principally, from the nature of the streets themselves, full of all the worst perils a coachman could have to encounter. The state of the street ways, where the ruts lay half a yard deep, did not admit of rapid driving, and we read, even in the days of Charles II., of the Royal coach being upset twice in getting from the City to Westminster. At this date, and for some generations after, the custom was, when ladies traversed the city in carriages, for the gentlemen gallants to accompany them on horseback, riding in advance, or on each side. These formed a body-guard, not at all unnecessary or superfluous, looking to the swarms of "scourers," "knights of the road," and "goshawks" who made free warren of London streets and scrupled at no act of violence. The picture Gay has left us of the street ways in the beginning of the eighteenth century will form some estimate of what they were at an earlier period:-- "Where a dim gleam the paly lantern throws, O'er the mid pavement heapy rubbish grows, Or arched vaults their gaping jaws extend, Or the dark caves to common shores descend; Oft by the winds, extinct the signal dies, Or smothered in the glimmering socket lies. Ere night has half rolled round her ebon throne In the wide gulf, the shatter'd coach o'erthrown Sinks with the snorting steeds; the reins are broke, And from the crackling axle flies the spoke." The first hirable vehicles in London were the hackney-coaches, so called not from the village of Hackney, as commonly supposed, but from the old word "to hack," or let on hire. The first hackney-coaches were stout-built vehicles, fitted for the rough roads of the time; they made their appearance originally in 1625, and were kept at certain inns, where they had to be sent for when wanted, and these were only at this time twenty in number. In a proclamation issued by Charles I., in 1635, the King prohibited the general and promiscuous use of hackney-coaches in London, Westminster, and their suburbs, as being "not only a great disturbance to His Majesty, his dearest consort the Queen, the nobility, and others of place and degree, but the streets were so pestered and the pavements broken up that the common passage was thereby hindered." It was therefore commanded that "no hired coaches should be used in London except to travel three miles out of the same." Two years after the foregoing prohibition the King granted a licence for fifty hackney-coachmen in and about London and Westminster, to keep twelve horses each. This licence was extended to other cities and towns. In course of time the increase of street carriages called forth the indignation of Taylor the water-poet. What would that renowned king of scullers, whose wonted boast was that he had often ferried Shakspeare from Whitehall to Paris Garden, and Ben Jonson from Bankside to the Rose and Hope playhouses, have said had he lived in the present days? Probably the poor water rhymer would have drowned himself in his own element, or at least would have drowned his cares in a more spirited mixture. What a fearful picture did he draw of the calamity that assailed his trade! "We poor watermen have not the least cause to complain against any conveyance that belongs to persons of worth or quality, but only against the caterpillar swarm of hirelings. They have undone my poor trade, whereof I am a member. This swarm of trade spoilers, like grasshoppers or caterpillars of Egypt, have so overrun the land that we can get no living on the water; for every day, if the Court be at Whitehall, they do rob us of our livings, and carry five hundred and sixty fares daily from us. I pray you but note the streets and the chambers or lodgings in Fleet Street or the Strand, how they are pestered with coaches, especially after a masque or play at Court, where even the very earth shakes and trembles, the casements shatter, totter, patter, and clatter, and such a confused noise is made that a man can neither sleep, speak, hear, write, nor eat his dinner or supper quiet for them; besides, their tumbling din, like counterfeit thunder, doth sour wine, beer, and ale, almost abominally, to the impairing of their healths that drink it, and the making of many a victualler's trade fallen." In a publication entitled "The Thief," Taylor writes:-- "Carroches, coaches, jades, and Flanders mares, Do rob us of our shares, our wants, our fares; Against the ground we stand, and knock our heels Whilst all our profit runs away on wheels." The London shopkeepers, too, bitterly complained. "Formerly," they said, "when ladies and gentlemen walked in the streets there was a chance of obtaining customers to inspect and purchase our commodities; but now they whisk past in the coaches before our apprentices have time to cry out 'What d'ye lack?'" Taylor above referred to, does not appear to have entertained a very high opinion of the tradesmen of his day, for he writes:-- "When Queen Elizabeth came to the crowne, A coach in England then was scarcely knowne. Then 'twas as rare to see one as to spye A tradesman that had never told a lie." Hackney-coaches were admitted into Hyde Park before the year 1694, but were expelled at that period, through the singular circumstance of some persons of distinction having been insulted by several women in masks; riding there in that description of vehicle. In 1728, the robberies were so frequent in the streets of London, Westminster, and parts adjacent, that Lord Townshend issued a notice offering a reward of £40 "for each felon convict returned from transportation before the expiration of the term for which he or she was transported, who shall, by the means of such discovery, be brought to condign punishment." It appears by the above, that the murders, beatings, and robberies were perpetrated in a great degree by returned convicts, Hackney-coaches being their special mark, as the following paragraph which appeared in the "Postman" of the 19th of October, 1728, will prove:-- "The persons authorised by Government to employ men to drive hackney-coaches, have made great complaints for want of trade, occasioned by the increase of street robbers; so that people, especially in an evening, choose rather to walk than to ride in a coach, on account that they are in a readier posture to defend themselves, or call out for help if attacked. Meantime, it is apparent that, whereas a figure for driving of an hackney-coach used lately to be sold for about £60, besides paying the usual duties to the Commissioners for licensing, they are at this time, for the reasons aforesaid, sold for £3 per figure goodwill." The conveyance now known as the omnibus was borrowed from our Continental neighbours, for it was in existence in France two centuries ago. Its rise and progress may not prove uninteresting. Carriages on hire had long been established in Paris, and were let out by the day or hour from the sign of St. Fiacre. In 1662 a Royal decree of Louis XIV. authorised the establishment of a _carrosse à cinq sous_, got by a company, with the Duke de Rohan and two other noblemen at the head of it. The decree stated that these conveyances, of which there were originally seven, built to carry eight persons, should run at fixed hours, full or empty, to and from the extreme parts of Paris; the object being to convey those who could not afford to hire carriages. The public inauguration of the new vehicles took place on the 18th of March, 1662, and was attended with much state. Three of the coaches started from the Porte St. Antoine, and four from the Luxembourg. Previous to their setting out, the principal legal functionary addressed the drivers, pointing out to them their duties to the public. After this harangue, the procession started, escorted by cavalry, the infantry lined the streets to keep them clear. Writers disagree as to the reception these conveyances met with. Sauval, in his Antiquities of Paris, affirms that the populace hooted the drivers and broke the windows of the carriages with stones; while, on the other hand, Madame Perrier, sister to Pascal, describes the joy with which these "twopenny-halfpenny busses" were received. It appears, too, that the King took a trip in one at St. Germain, and a _pièce de circonstance_ was got up at the Théâtre Marais, entitled "L'Intrigue des Carrosses à Cinq Sous." Strange to say, when the fashionable Parisians ceased to patronise the omnibus, it went completely out of favour, as the poorer class declined to travel in it. Hence the company failed. In 1827 a society entitled "Entreprise Générale des Omnibus" again introduced the system, which was thus alluded to in the newspapers of 1829:-- "The omnibus is a long coach, carrying fifteen or eighteen people, all inside. Of these carriages there were about half-a-dozen some months ago, and they have been augmented since; their profits are said to have repaid the outlay within the first year; the proprietors, among whom is M. Lafitte, the banker, are making a large revenue out of Parisian sous, and speculation is still alive." During the struggle of the three days in July, 1830, the accidental upsetting of one of these vehicles suggested an idea that barricades could be formed out of a number of them; and this plan was tried and followed out. Shortly after the introduction of the omnibus in Paris, a public-spirited individual started two of these carriages in London, which ran from the Bank of England to the Yorkshire Stingo, in the New-road, and were called "Shillibeers," after the introducer. Each of these vehicles carried twenty-two passengers inside, with only the driver and conductor outside; each omnibus was drawn by three horses, abreast, and the fare was one shilling for the whole distance, and sixpence for half. Since that time the fares have been considerably lowered, and outside passengers are taken. CHAPTER XVII. AN ADVENTURE WITH BALL HUGHES, COMMONLY CALLED "THE GOLDEN BALL"--A SENSATION AT DARTFORD--A RELIC OF THE COMMUNE--RAILWAYS--PIONEERS OF THE RAIL--INTRODUCTION OF STEAM-CARRIAGES ON ROADS--SEDAN CHAIRS--PADDY'S PRACTICAL JOKE--FEUDS BETWEEN CHAIRMEN AND HACKNEY-COACHMEN. CHAPTER XVII. An adventure which occurred to me some fifty years ago may not here be out of place. I was dining one day with Ball Hughes, commonly, from his wealth, called "The Golden Ball," when the conversation turned upon Paris. "What say you to going there?" he asked. "I should like it much," I replied. "Send for Guy," continued he, addressing the butler; "and help yourself to claret, we shall not have much time to spare." Before I could express my surprise, Guy, the coachman, entered the room. "Have the travelling-chariot with the four bays round in half-an-hour, and send the seats and imperial into my room to be packed. By the way," he proceeded, turning to me, "you will want some one to go and tell your servant to bring your clothes, we shall return in a week." "Are you in earnest?" I inquired, somewhat taken aback at this hasty movement. "Quite," he answered; "pass the bottle; and, John, take the small front imperial to Lord William's lodgings in Pall Mall, tell his servant to pack it up, and we will call for it on our way." In half-an-hour the carriage was at the door; we took our seats, the faithful valet ascended the rumble, and the order was given, "Make the best of your way to Dartford, call as you go by at No. 4, Pall Mall." It was a lovely evening in July, and despite of having all the windows down we felt greatly oppressed with heat. "What say you to riding?" inquired my companion; "pull up, boys." "I am not in trim for riding," I replied, "with these thin white trousers, shoes, and silk stockings; my legs will be awfully chafed." "Never mind, my good fellow, we will go as slow as you please, and you shall have your choice, short or long traces." The postilions had alighted, and, having borrowed their whips, we exchanged places, and in less time than I can describe it the Golden Ball was mounted on a high-stepping thoroughbred leader, while I was piloting two as handsome wheelers as ever trotted their twelve miles an hour. No event worthy of record occurred upon the road. It is true that the pole occasionally reminded my brother postilion that the traces were slack, that we grazed a carrier's cart upon entering Deptford, that we frightened an itinerant vendor of apples and pears as we dashed over Blackheath, and, finally, that we upset a one-horse chaise standing in the High Street of the town identified with Pigou and gunpowder. As we drove up to the door of the "Bull Inn" we found, to our great horror, a crowd assembled in front of it. "Pull up!" I bellowed at the top of my voice. "I can't," responded my friend. "Then turn in down the yard. Take a good sweep, or we shall upset the carriage." We did turn in with no greater damage than carrying away a wooden post, breaking a lamp, rubbing a piece of skin off the near leader, and tearing his rider's Hessian boot. A cheer was then heard from the assembled crowd. We jumped off our horses, gave them up to the two postilions, who had hastily descended from the carriage, and made our way to the entrance, where the landlord, landlady, waiter, and ostler stood, looking as much astonished as the inhabitants of Edmonton did when Johnny Gilpin made his appearance in that town. Unfortunately Cowper was not with us to immortalise our adventure. "Can we have four horses immediately?" asked Ball Hughes, in his blandest manner. "The packet starts early for Calais." "First and second turn out!" shouted the ostler, while mine host could scarcely repress a smile. An _éclaircissement_ took place when it appeared that Queen Caroline, the ill-fated wife of the Fourth George, had been expected; that some Dartford Paul Pry had caught a view of the gold embroidered velvet jackets and caps of the postilions, and had given the signal for the cheers, mistaking the inmates of the carriage for at least Lord Hood in his Chamberlain's dress, Sir Matthew Wood in his Aldermanic gown, or Her Majesty herself decked out in Royal attire. Finding we could not reach Dover in time for the boat to Calais we stopped for the night at the "Rose," Sittingbourne. I have already referred to the French omnibus; and it may not be here out of place to record an instance of the light-heartedness of our Continental neighbours, who instead of erasing a most painful episode in the history of their country from their minds, appear to perpetuate it, as will be seen by the following statement extracted from one of their own journals:-- "The Parisian Omnibus Company has preserved a curious relic of the late Commune in the shape of an omnibus which the Communists used for one of their barricades, and which was riddled through the street fights between the Versailles troops and the insurgents by as many as eight hundred shots or bomb-shell splinters. The coachman's box is broken, and only one wheel hangs on to the vehicle." I have now given the _agrémens_ and _désagrémens_ of coaching, and have come to the conclusion that all unprejudiced persons would prefer the rail to the road, especially those to whom time and money are objects. A man may now breakfast in London and dine in Dublin, and this journey can be performed at (as compared with former charges) a very considerable reduction. Pullman's cars, now confined to the Midland, and partly to the Brighton line, will soon become universal. Then a night journey will be free from exertion, and after a good night's rest the traveller will find himself some hundred miles from the place of departure. Those, too, who indulge in "sublime tobacco," whether in the shape of a meerschaum, brier, clay pipe, a mild Havannah cigar, or a Latakia cigarette, can smoke in a covered carriage, instead as of old on the outside of a mail coach, amidst a pelting, pitiless storm. However, as tastes differ, there will always be a certain number of old stagers who, denouncing steam, will talk with rapture of the palmy days of the road, and of their delight when they went "coaching, a long time ago." Railways were originally formed altogether of timber, and it was not until 1767 that the first experiment was tried, and that upon a very small scale, to determine the advantage of substituting iron for the less durable material. Nor does it appear that this experiment was successful, or followed by any practical result, for in 1797 Mr. Carr claimed to be considered the inventor of cast-iron rails. The railways which were constructed up to the beginning of 1800 were all private undertakings, and each was confined to the use of the establishment--generally a colliery--in which it was employed. The public railways of the United Kingdom are strictly creations of the present century. Here I may remark that as early as the year 1216 the idea of applying the power of steam to locomotion first suggested itself. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar, who flourished during the reign of Henry III., foretold that ships would some day move without sails, and carriages without horses; and though his scientific researches were not duly appreciated in his own times, he may fairly take rank with the greatest pioneers of modern discovery. In the days of Charles II., Edward Somerset, Earl of Glamorgan and Marquis of Worcester, invented and constructed the first steam-engine. His title to this honour has been the subject of dispute, some historians attributing to him a greater share of merit than there was sufficient evidence to warrant, while others deprive him of even that honour to which he possesses an indefeasible claim. Possessing inventive genius of the highest order, he was considered a mad enthusiast, because his speculations were advanced so far before the age in which he lived, and he has been set down as a quack and impostor by men incapable of comprehending the nature or appreciating the value of his creations. The slow march of knowledge and of time has at last revealed the worth and established the character of an illustrious and unfortunate man of genius, who only lived to complete his mighty design and carry it happily into effect. Macaulay thus refers to the Marquis of Worcester:-- "The Marquis had observed the expansive power of moisture rarefied by heat. After many experiments, he had succeeded in constructing a rude steam-engine, which he called a fire-waterwork, and which he pronounced to be an admirable and most forcible instrument of propulsion." But the Marquis was suspected to be a madman, and known to be a Papist, his inventions therefore found no favourable reception. His fire-waterwork might, perhaps, furnish matter for conversation at a meeting of the Royal Society, but was not applied to any practical purpose. The next engine was invented by Captain Savery, in 1698, for the purpose of raising water by the help of fire. Newcomen came next, followed by James Watt. And here I must pay a passing tribute to the inventive genius and wonderful discoveries of James Watt, to whom, perhaps, more than to any other man, the world is indebted for the beneficial results which have flown from the development of steam power. Some six hundred years after Roger Bacon's prophecy, another prophet arose. In 1804, so writes a popular author, "George Stephenson was a poor labourer, his son Robert lying in his cradle; then the stage-coach dragged along its weary course at about five miles an hour, and a letter posted in London would reach Edinburgh _perhaps_ in a week. In 1824 the father said to the son:-- "I tell you what I think, my lad. You will live to see the day, though I may not, when railroads will supersede all other modes of conveyance; when mail coaches will go by railway, and railways become the great highway for the King and his subjects. The time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man to travel by railway than to walk on foot." A bold, a daring, but a great social and patriotic prediction: both father and son lived to see it fulfilled. These wonderful changes have been brought about through the perseverance of a quintuple alliance--the Stephensons, Brunels, and Locke--of each of whom it may be said, if you seek his monument, "Look not at the place of his birth, his abode, or his death, but survey his works throughout the greater part of the habitable globe." In 1824 the first locomotive constructed by George Stephenson travelled at the rate of six miles an hour; in 1829 the "Rocket" travelled at the rate of fifteen miles an hour, and obtained the prize of five hundred pounds offered by the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company for the best locomotive. In 1834 the "Firefly" attained a speed of twenty miles an hour; and at the present moment locomotives have increased their speed to over sixty miles an hour. Merciless ridicule attended the introduction of railway travelling; and in reference to a proposed line between London and Woolwich, a writer in the "Quarterly Review" not only backed "Old Father Thames" against it for any sum, but assured his readers that the people of Woolwich "would as soon suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of Congreve's ricochet rockets as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine--a high-pressure engine, and going at the rate of eighteen miles an hour." The reviewer adds that he trusts Parliament will limit the speed of railways to eight or nine miles an hour, which is as great as can be ventured upon with safety. Despite this prediction, the rail, as we all know, has proved a perfect success. When railways were first proposed, in order to prove to Parliament that they would pay, persons called "traffic takers" were placed at the entrance of large towns to note down the traffic in and out of the town. When the Brighton and South Coast line was before the House of Commons, and evidence was given as to the existing traffic, the counsel for the company suggested that they might be allowed fairly to say that this would be doubled, when increased means of travelling were afforded. This seems ludicrous now, when probably one train of passengers and one of goods carries considerably more than the above estimate. Many ineffectual attempts have been made to introduce steam-carriages on the roads, and in 1822 Mr. (afterwards Sir) Goldsworthy Gurney--inventor of the steam-jet, emphatically called by engineers "the life and soul of locomotion"--constructed a carriage for that purpose. To show that it was capable of ascending and descending hills, of maintaining a uniformity of speed over long distances and on different kinds of roads, a journey was undertaken from Hounslow Barracks to Bath and back. On arriving at Melksham, where a fair was being held, the people made an attack upon the steam-carriage, wounding the stoker and the engineer severely on their heads from a volley of stones. The return journey was more satisfactory, as the whole distance (eighty-four miles), stoppages for fire and water included, was travelled over in nine hours and twenty minutes, the carriage at one time increasing its speed to twenty miles an hour. The Duke of Wellington and his staff met the carriage at Hounslow Barracks, and were drawn in his Grace's barouche by the steam-engine into the town. From February to June, 1831, steam-carriages ran between Gloucester and Cheltenham regularly four times a day, during which time they carried nearly three thousand persons and travelled nearly four thousand miles, without a single accident. Every obstacle, however, was thrown in the way of this new invention; large heaps of stones were laid across the road eighteen inches deep, under the pretence of repairing the highway; and on an Act of Parliament being passed which imposed prohibitory tolls on turnpike trusts, the steam-carriage was driven off the road. On the journey to Bath above referred to, the toll for the steam-carriage was six guineas each time of passing. About this period Colonel Sir James Viney patronised a Mr. Pocock and the making of kites for the purpose of drawing a carriage, but these paper horses were ungovernable, particularly in a storm, and Sir John gave them up for a couple of ponies, which, in truth, were almost as wayward. One conveyance alone remains to which I have not referred--the sedan chair, named after the town of Sedan, in France. In early days I well remember a very gorgeous specimen of the above, emblazoned with the family arms, which used to convey my mother to evening parties; and as late as the year 1834 I have often, at Leamington, Edinburgh, and Bath, made use of a sedan chair to take me to dinner. One advantage this conveyance had over a carriage was that, upon a snowy or rainy night, you could enter it under cover and get out of it in your Amphitryon's hall. Occasionally it was used by young spendthrifts against whom writs were out, as it enabled them to avoid the sheriff's officers. It was not always, however, a safe refuge, as Hogarth, in one of his prints, represents a tipstaff seizing hold of some debtor he was in search of. Early in the present century a very clever caricature appeared, in which an Irishman was seen wending his way through dirt and slush, his legs and feet obtruding from a sedan chair--some waggish practical joker (the Theodore Hook of that day) having removed the bottom of it. Two stout chairmen, aware of the trick that had been played upon their inside passenger, are selecting the dirtiest streets, or most flinty part of the road, while the unfortunate Emeralder exclaims: "Bedad! if it was not for the honour of the thing, I would as lief walk." The costume of the chairmen at Bath was very peculiar: they wore long, light-blue coats highly ornamented with buttons about the size of a crown piece, the skirts of which reached down to their ankles; short "inexpressibles," white cotton stockings, shoes with buckles, and a huge cocked hat bound with gold lace. They were fine, powerful men, with calves to their legs which would have made the fortune of any fashionable footman. When sedan-chairs were first introduced, a great feud arose between the chairmen and the hackney-coachmen, which led to many serious disturbances. The contest was carried on with the greatest bitterness; and the hatred it engendered was equal to that of the Montagues and Capulets, the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the Red and White Roses; eventually, through the interference of the law, peace was restored. Wilson thus refers to the sedan-chair named after Sedan on the Meuse. In his Life of James I., this passage, in speaking of the Earl of Northumberland, occurs: "The stout old Earl, when he was got loose (he had been imprisoned), hearing that the great favourite, Buckingham, was drawn about with a coach and six horses (which was wondered at then as a novelty, and imputed to him as a mastering pride), thought, if Buckingham had six, he might very well have eight in his coach; with which he rode through the city of London to Bath, to the vulgar talk and admiration; and, recovering his health there, he lived long after at Petworth in Sussex; bating this over-topping humour, which shewed it rather an affected fit than a distemper. "Nor did this addition of two horses, by Buckingham, grow higher than a little murmur. For in the late Queen's time (Elizabeth), there were no coaches, and the First Lord had but two horses; the rest crept in by degrees, as men at first ventured to sea. And every new thing the people disaffect, they stumble at; sometimes at the action of the parties, which rises like a little cloud, but soon vanishes. "So after, when Buckingham came to be carried in a chair upon men's shoulders, the clamour and noise of it was so extravagant that the people would rail on him in the streets, loathing that men should be brought to as servile a condition as horses; so irksome is every little new impression that breaks an old custom, and rubs and grates against the public humour; but when time had made those chairs common, every minion used them; so that that which gave at first so much scandal was the means to convey those privately to such places, where they might give much more. Just like long hair, at one time described as abominable--another time approved of as beautiful." CHAPTER XVIII. ANCIENT AND MODERN VEHICLES--PRACTICAL JOKES IN ENGLAND AND FRANCE--FRENCH COACHES--DILIGENCES--THE MALLE-POSTE--CARRIAGES IN THE REIGN OF LOUIS XIV.--PORTE FLAMBEAUX--QUARRELS BETWEEN RIVAL COACHMEN--AN ENGLISH STAGE-COACH IN FRANCE--CONCLUSION. CHAPTER XVIII. Few of my readers will remember the old hackney-coaches, and fortunate are they who live at a period when they can be driven about the metropolis and throughout all the principal towns in hansom cabs and "four-wheelers." The old hackney-coach was usually a broken-down, rickety vehicle, that had evidently seen better days; it usually bore the arms and crest of some noble family; the lining, torn and faded, showed signs of former grandeur, as did the harness, now patched and tied together with string. The horses looked more fit to furnish a meal for a pack of hungry foxhounds than to go through their daily work. The coachman, becaped and bebooted, was a long time descending from and ascending his box, and when seated there it required a large amount of "ge-upping" and "go-alonging," with the additional aid of whipping, to get his half-starved, broken-down animals into a trot. What a contrast to the Hansom of the present day, which, generally speaking, is clean, admirably horsed, and well driven, so much so that the driver of a well-appointed two-wheeler, like Tom Tug, in "The Waterman," "is never in want of a _fare_!" Would that I could say the same of the four-wheeler! There are some exceptions; but the majority savour too much of the old hackney-coach to merit a eulogium. Practical jokes have often been played by persons representing highwaymen for the time being; a most memorable one was practised by the celebrated John Mytton, of Halston. Upon one occasion, a neighbouring clergyman was invited to dine at the Squire's, as Mytton was called, and in the course of the evening, the conversation turned upon the knights of the road. Whether this casual topic gave the idea to the arch-hoaxer, or that the affair was premeditated, I know not, but it was shortly carried out. After a quiet rubber of whist, the Reverend gentleman's carriage was announced, and he took his departure. He had not proceeded a hundred yards beyond the lodge-gate, when all of a sudden the carriage stopped, and a man with a black crape over his face presented a pistol, exclaiming, "Your money or your life," his companion, equally disguised, catching hold of the horses. Unarmed, and alone, resistance was in vain, he, therefore, gave his purse to the marauder. "This won't do," said the man. "I must have your watch." "Spare that," beseechingly implored the clergyman. "It is of little value to anyone but myself, and was the gift of a beloved mother." "No time for sentiment," continued the other, "you must hand it out," at the same time cocking the pistol. The valued gift now changed hands, and the Reverend gentleman was allowed to proceed to his home in safety. Early the next morning he applied to a magistrate for assistance, and proceeded to Halston to inform Mytton of the disgraceful state of the country, when a man could be robbed within a few yards of his lodge. "I'll send for the constable," said Mytton, "a reward shall be offered, and no exertion shall be wanting on my part to trace the scoundrel and get your property restored." The clergyman was brimming over with gratitude, when the Squire continued. "Come and dine here to-morrow, and I'll send an escort home with you. My keeper and a watcher will be more than a match for any two rascals that infest the road." The invitation was accepted, and in the meantime every exertion was made by the magistrate to discover the offenders. During dinner, the conversation naturally turned upon the bare-faced robbery. "I did not mind the fellows taking my money," said the victim. "Albeit I could not well afford to lose it, but what I felt deeply was the loss of my watch. I would give any sum in my power to recover it." At that moment the second course was put on the table, for at the time I write of _dîners à la Russe_ were unknown, and a large dish with a cover over it was placed before the host. "I wish," said Mytton, addressing his clerical friend, "you would kindly carve the pheasants. I sprained my wrist out hunting last week, and if I attempt the job, it will be a case of 'mangling done here.'" The dish was removed and placed before the clergyman, and upon the cover being taken off, great was the delight and surprise of the victim to find his purse and watch occupying the place of the far-famed bird of Colchis. An angry look at the perpetrator of this practical joke was soon transformed into a smile, for the delight of recovering the watch made him ample compensation for the anxiety of mind he had suffered. A hoax similar in some degree was practised in France on the Baron de Bezenval. This well-known nobleman was in 1788 on a visit at the house of M. de Bercheni, beyond La Ferté-sous-Jouare, an estate now belonging to the family of Castellane. It was the latter end of Autumn. Some bold poachers already disturbed the sport. The wind blew violently, and strewed the ground with leaves; the mornings were misty, the nights long, gloomy, and cold; but gloom never approached the place that the Baron inhabited. The _après-dîner_ had been excessively merry, and all the company had gradually retired. M. de Bezenval had announced his departure, and being almost the only guest in the room, took leave of the mistress of the house. "I hope to see you again soon," said he. "I hope so too," replied the lady with courtesy. He took his departure, and soon fell asleep in his post-chaise, wrapped up in thick fur. He was suddenly roused from his slumbers by a violent shaking. The postilion had been knocked off his horse, a number of armed men surrounded the vehicle, and their leader, whose face was blackened, seizing the Baron, presented a pistol to his breast. "Sir," said the Baron, "your men do not know how to behave themselves--they should at least have given me time to draw my hunting-knife." Without favouring him with a reply, they stripped him--his cane, rings, snuff-boxes of lapis-lazuli, and his two watches and chains decked with gems were wrested from him. "Are you content?" cried Bezenval. "No," replied they, "the chaise is ours, as all the rest; get out of it." He alighted, and the brigands dispersed, one only mounting one of the horses, and driving off at a gallop. "Valentine, what is to be done?" said the Baron to his servant. "I really do not know," replied the latter; "perhaps the wisest step is to go back to the château." Thither they turned, and two hours of most fatiguing walking brought them to it. The gates were open, there were no servants in the courts, and none in the ante-rooms. He entered the drawing-room, and not a soul was in it. But what did his eyes first fall upon? His two watches and their chains were hanging to the chimney-piece! Whilst he was gazing on them, immense shouts of laughter arose, and the bandits of quality crowded into the room in their several disguises. Such was the method devised to bring back the agreeable Baron de Bezenval. Having described coaching in England, it may not be uninteresting to give a brief notice of French coaching. It is now two hundred years ago that La Fontaine wrote the following lines, which began his fable "La Coche et la Mouche:--" "Dans un chemin, montant, sablonneux, malaisé, Et de tous les côtés au soleil exposé, Six forts chevaux tiroient une coche." At that time public and private vehicles had not yet undergone any very notable improvements. When an inhabitant of Bordeaux or Maçon took his departure for Paris he made his will, leaving among other things "son corps à la diligence." Eighty years previous, in the middle of the sixteenth century, private vehicles were not very numerous, if we judge by the predicament in which Henry IV., King of France and Navarre, found himself when he wrote to Sully, "Je n'ai pas pu aller vous voir hier, ma femme ayant pris ma coche." That _coche_ which we in England still call coach, and the driver of which has obtained the name of coacher--coachman was either _coche de terre_ or a _coche d'eau_, both conveying travellers and goods. The coche d'Auxerre alone survived in France until our days. The steamboats have sunk it, in despite of its heroic resistance. It was only in the first year of the seventeenth century that _coches_ or _voitures_, were first ornamented, and provided with leather braces; they then assumed the generic name of _carrosses_, derived from _char_ and _charrette_. It would occupy too much space to write a history of their transformations and successive improvements, and to follow step by step the aristocratic succession of the carrosse, calêche, berline, landau, dormeuse, char-à-banc, demi-fortune, vis-à-vis, coupé, not omitting the cabriolet, phaeton, boguey, tilbury, kibitka, britzska, and other vehicles of the young fashion of all times. The public vehicles have made slower progress. The _diligences_ long continued worthy of their grandfathers the _coches_, and were very unworthy of their new name. At the beginning of the present century, in which everything now moves on so rapidly, two days and a night were still required to pass from Paris to Orleans. Travellers slept on the road at Etampes or Pithiviers, a spot rendered immortal by Perlet's admirable personification in "Le Comédien d'Etampes;" hotel living, with its good fare and bad beds, being preferred to highroad living, with its obligato accompaniment of broken down cattle, rickety coaches, and highwaymen armed to the teeth. The diligences gave birth to the messageries, chaises, chaises-de-poste, and at a later period to the malle-postes, which, however, did not prevent certain provinces from enjoying a sort of progeniture of ancient coches, under the various names of voiturines, guimbardes, carrioles, and other instruments of torture, which enabled the traveller to accomplish easily, as the saying went, "twenty leagues in fifteen days." After that the real _diligences_, the real _messageries_, attained a degree of comfort for which the public were most grateful. To frequent changes and improvement of the horses were added the comfort of the vehicle; and last, not least, the lowness of the prices. The _malle-postes_, destined for the more rapid conveyance of letters, and at the same time of travellers eager to get over their journey quickly--thanks to the attention of the administration--were rendered admirably adapted to the public service, the primary object of their establishment, and to the private service of those who wished for comfort in their travels. The _caisse_ containing the despatches, the high station occupied behind by the courrier-conducteur of the mail, the _caisse_ reserved for travellers, the shape and size of which varied according to the seasons, and the comfortable seat for the passengers, deserved every praise. What could a traveller in those days, when steam was not in prospective existence, desire more than to travel from Paris to Bayonne, two hundred leagues, in fifty-six hours? The humbler history of the _fiacre_ also deserves to have a place here. The _carrosse_ gave birth to the _fiacre_ in the seventeenth century. That was the first coach devoted to public use. I have already said that the head-quarters of these vehicles were in Rue St. Antoine, Paris, and were called "carrosses à cinq sous," five sous being the price for the hour. The _fiacres_ long had a bad name, and not undeservedly so. Who does not remember, even in our days, the wretched equipages that stood on the rank? Who has not had, at least once in his life, a quarrel with the drivers, often more vicious than their cattle? The cabriolets for town and country, and the _coucous_, were scarcely superior in any respect, as many have wofully experienced. Times, however, have altered, and, during the last few years incredible improvements have taken place, not only in the vehicles, but also in the horses and their drivers. Transformations almost as wonderful as that of Cinderella's fairy carriage have been effected. The carriages are better constructed and suspended, and are arranged more comfortably inside. The creation, too, of one-horse coupés (broughams) has successfully provided for the wants of the public, and at the present time a vast number of new companies, under various names, have vied in skill and conferred upon the people vehicles of tasteful shapes, horses in good condition, totally unlike the _rosses_ of former days, harness neat, drivers in uniform liveries, and above all, civil and attentive. To complete this sketch, let me pay a parting tribute to the Parisian omnibus, that accommodating carriage which takes you up at all hours, at every moment, in the street or at your door, and carries you without any delay to any street or door you wish to alight at--sociable vehicles which, for the trifling sum of thirty centimes, convey you two leagues from the Barrière de l'Etoile to that of the Trône, and from the Madelaine to the Place de la Bastille. Would that I had space to review all the varieties of that obliging vehicle, which, it is said, appeared at Nantes, before it invaded the streets, quays, and boulevards of the capital! Were I to enumerate the "Hirondelles," "Favorites," "Dames Françaises," "Parisiennes," "Beauvaises," "Orléannaises," &c., and point out all their graces and charms, it would lead me on to the history of locomotion by conveyance, and the celebration of steam, steamboats, railroads, trains, and their marvellous rapidity. Let me conclude with this observation--namely, that the number of vehicles of all sorts which were wont daily to circulate in the streets of Paris exceeded sixty-one thousand; the cabriolets, hackney-coaches, diligences, and omnibusses--or, as the erudite coachman called them omnibii--amounted, out of the above number, to twenty thousand. What they are at this present moment I have no means of ascertaining. At the commencement of the seventeenth century there were not fifty carriages to be seen in Paris; in the reign of Louis XIV. all the world possessed them, as they would have been unable to present themselves at court. No longer could they go to the Palace on horses, although the privilege was still allowed to certain Members of Parliament. This, however, ceased entirely about the middle of the reign of Louis XIV. The adoption of this general use of wheel carriages produced a great change in the habits of social life, and had much influence on the political state of the country. The state of public roads, which the necessity of travelling on horseback imposes, must immediately influence all military movements and all communication of intelligence, must triple the expense of all commercial transfers, and prevent, or render difficult, all merely social meetings, except between the nearest neighbours. When Laporte, the _valet de chambre_ to Anne of Austria, tells us that in the Winter of the year 1636, between Piteaux and Paris, on the route of Orleans, the road was so bad that the Queen was obliged to sleep in her carriage because neither the mules nor carts that carried her baggage could possibly arrive, we may conceive how little Winter travelling there could have been in France. Although coaches were already known and used in Paris, they were so unlike the modern vehicles of the same name that the pleasures, engagements, and assignations of the young men were still pursued on horseback. A printed paper is yet extant in the Royal, or rather Republican Library at Paris, announcing in all its details to the public the establishment by Government of _porte-flambeaux_ and _porte-lanternes_; persons provided with them were to be posted at the Louvre, the Palais de Justice, and in other public places at Paris. These extempore illuminations must have been very necessary in the streets of a great town still frequented by horsemen, where no aid of light was derived either from the doors of private houses or the windows of shops; the habitual darkness only made more visible from the occasional flambeaux carried before some persons of distinction by their own servants, or accompanying their coach. This establishment of _porte-flambeaux_, which was to take place in October, 1662, was announced with all the forms of a long preamble, and surrounded with all the exclusive privileges which could have accompanied the most important measure of internal government. It furnished a curious example of the minute details into which the hierarchy of despotic power had already entered in France. It called itself "The establishment of _porte-flambeaux_, or _porte-lanternes_, for the town and suburbs of Paris, and other towns, by letters patent of the King, approved of by Parliament, and the prices regulated by this august body." Then follows the orders, which forbid anybody from carrying a "link," or "lantern," without an express permission from the individual who has obtained this privilege from the king, to the exclusion of all others, under pain of a thousand francs (£40) penalty. The price fixed for the hire of a _porte-lanterne_ was three sous a quarter of an hour, for persons who went on foot; for those who went in carriages five sous. The public are then assured that the convenience of being able to go out at night with lights will prove such a boon to all, more especially to men of business and in trade, that the streets will be more frequented, much to the discomfiture of thieves and vagabonds. To nightly depredators, the darkness of the streets must have been very favourable, as we ourselves know it is in London during a dense fog. Thus we see Boileau makes one of the torments of a town life the dread of thieves: "Que dans le marché neuf tout est calme et tranquille, Les voleurs à l'instant s'emparent, Le bois le plus funeste, et le moins fréquenté, Est, au Prix de Paris, un lieu de sûreté, Malheur donc à celui qu'une affaire imprévue Engage un peu tard au détours d'une rue, Bientôt quatre bandits lui servant les côtés, La bourse, il faut se rendre." It will thus be seen that the roads in France, and streets in Paris, in bygone days, were as bad as those of England and London; for we find that frequent and fatal _rencontres_ took place from disturbances in the streets. The Prince de Conti and the Comte de Soissons' coaches meeting in a narrow place near the Louvre, by the bad driving of their coachmen, jostled against each other, and came to blows between their followers, who, departing in that fashion one from another, did, against the next morning call and assemble together such numbers of their followers, as that the Duke de Guise joining his brother-in-law, Prince de Conti, and the Prince de Condé with the Comte de Soissons, his uncle, they came out into the streets with at least three or four hundred mounted men. In a record of that time, I find the following:-- "There do daily break forth new quarrels between the nobility in this town (Paris), who are here in greater numbers than usually have been heretofore, whereof one being between Monsieur d'Andelot and Monsieur Balagny was presently taken up; and another fell out the other day between Colonel d'Ornano and one Monsieur St. André, who, fighting in the streets, were both hurt, and to avoid the mischief that might ensue from such meetings, the gates of the town were for a time shut up." How long the monopoly of _porte-lanternes_ continued a profitable concern I know not; but at the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the luxury of carriages was so universal that riding among the young men was confined entirely to the _manége_, to hunting, and to their military life. A change of dress had indeed necessitated a change in their mode of conveyance. The military costume was no longer that of the Court; their boots and cloaks had disappeared, except when with their regiments; and the knots of ribbons, the short sleeves, the long ruffles, the lace, fringe, and embroidery, and the flowing periwigs now general, were perfectly incompatible with an evening drive from the Louvre to the Marais. I may here remark that the first English stage-coach seen in France was launched at Dieppe in the month of October, 1816. The horses being put to, Mr. Plant, of London, a coachman of about eighteen stone weight, and a real John Bull, mounted the box, and astonished the inhabitants as much by his dexterity in cracking his whip as by the bulk of his person for the burden of his horses. Away he started for St. Denis amid the various grimaces of the populace. A company of London proprietors have obtained the permission of the authorities to run English stage-coaches between St. Denis and Paris. Three more of these vehicles were on their route for the same destination, with English coachmen and harness. The success of the undertaking was far different from what was expected, and after a time the enterprise was abandoned, the Parisians preferring their lumbering conveyances to the well-appointed "drag." In conclusion, I am delighted to find that the love of coaching is not extinct, that at the present time there are some admirably well-appointed teams to be daily seen at the old "White Horse Cellar," and that they are yearly on the increase. We have the Brighton, the Dorking, the Guildford, the Oxford, the Tunbridge, the Windsor, and the Watford, with cattle that would delight the eyes of a Peer, were he alive to see them. Both the amateur and professional "dragsmen" do their work well, and during the Summer season nothing will prove more agreeable than the box-seat or an outside place on one of the above mentioned coaches. I have now reached the last stage, and shall throw aside the ribbons. I trust the journey has been a pleasant one; if so, in the phraseology of the road, I shall say, "I go no further. Please remember the Coachman." THE END. London: Printed by A. Schulze, 13, Poland Street. ERRATUM. Page 306 line 20 _for_ Peer _read_ Pears Transcriber' note: As it states in the Erratum, the word "Peer" has been changed to read "Pears" on page 306. 
30310	----	U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. J. R. MOHLER, CHIEF OF BUREAU. * * * * * SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF CATTLE. BY Drs. ATKINSON, DICKSON, EICHHORN, HICKMAN, LAW, LOWE, MARSH, MOHLER, MURRAY, PEARSON, RANSOM, TRUMBOWER, and WOODWARD. * * * * * REVISED EDITION, 1923. [Illustration: USDA seal] WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1923. * * * * * Transcriber's note: Minor typos have been corrected, tables have been modified where necessary to fit within the constraints of a text file, and footnotes have been moved to the ends of the sections. Inconsistencies in spelling (e.g., D'Arboval/D'Arborval) and hyphenation (e.g., postmortem/post-mortem) have been resolved in all cases where it was possible to divine the author's intent with a reasonable degree of certainty. The occasional error which could not be resolved was marked [sic]. Italicized letters and words are enclosed by _underscores_. Subscripts are represented by an underscore and curly braces: _{2} (for example, SiO_{2}). Ligatures which cannot be reproduced in the Latin-1 character set are enclosed in [brackets] (for example, C[oe]nurus). * * * * * [Extract from "An act making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1924, and for other purposes," approved February 26, 1923. Public--No. 446.] For printing, binding, and distribution of the publications entitled "Diseases of the Horse" and "Diseases of Cattle," $200,000: _Provided_, That said publications shall be deposited one-third in the folding room of the Senate and two-thirds in the folding room of the House of Representatives, and said documents shall be distributed by Members of the Senate and House of Representatives. CONTENTS. Page. Administration of medicines. By LEONARD PEARSON 7 Diseases of the digestive organs. By A. J. MURRAY 12 Poisons and poisoning. By V. T. ATKINSON 51 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics. By W. H. HARBAUGH 73 Noncontagious diseases of the organs of respiration. By WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE 87 Diseases of the nervous system. By W. H. HARBAUGH 101 Diseases of the urinary organs. By JAMES LAW 113 Diseases of the generative organs. By JAMES LAW 147 Diseases following parturition. By JAMES LAW 214 Diseases of young calves. By JAMES LAW 247 Bones: Diseases and accidents. By V. T. ATKINSON 264 Surgical operations. By WILLIAM DICKSON and WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE 289 Tumors affecting cattle. By JOHN R. MOHLER 303 Diseases of the skin. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 320 Diseases of the foot. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 335 Diseases of the eye and its appendages. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 340 Diseases of the ear. By M. R. TRUMBOWER 355 Infectious diseases of cattle. Revised by JOHN R. MOHLER 358 The animal parasites of cattle. By B. H. RANSOM 502 Mycotic stomatitis of cattle. By JOHN R. MOHLER 532 Index 538 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. PLATE I. Position of the first stomach (rumen or paunch) 48 II. Stomachs of ruminants 48 III. Instruments used in treating diseases of digestive organs 48 IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver 48 V. Ergot in hay 48 VI. Ergotism 48 VII. Diagram of the circulation of the blood 86 VIII. Position of the lung 90 IX. Kidney and male generative and urinary organs 145 X. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney 145 XI. Calculi of kidney and bladder 146 XII. Fetal calf within its membranes 210 XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons 210 XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord 211 XV. Normal position of calf in utero 211 XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 211 XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero 211 XVIII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero; surgical instruments and sutures 212 XIX. Monstrosities 212 XX. Instruments used in difficult labor 212 XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor 213 XXII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 246 XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus 246 XXIV. Instruments used in diseases following parturition 246 XXV. Skeleton of the cow 282 XXVI. Devices for casting cattle 302 XXVII. Surgical instruments and sutures 302 XXVIII. Various bacteria which produce disease in cattle 360 XXIX. Upper or dorsal surface of the lungs of the ox 368 XXX. Broncho-pneumonia 368 XXXI. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 368 XXXII. Contagious pleuro-pneumonia 368 XXXIII. Foot-and-mouth disease 384 XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs of cattle 416 XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver 416 XXXVI. Tuberculosis of lymph gland and of omentum (caul) 416 XXXVII. Fig. 1.--Tuberculosis of sirloin and porterhouse cuts of beef. Fig. 2.--Tuberculosis of pleura of cow, so-called "pearly disease" 416 XXXVIII. Tuberculosis of cow's udder 416 XXXIX. Actinomycosis 450 XL. Actinomycosis of the jaw 450 XLI. Actinomycosis of the lungs 450 XLII. Section of muscle from a blackleg swelling 464 XLIII. Necrotic stomatitis (calf diphtheria) 464 XLIV. Normal spleen and spleen affected by Texas fever 504 XLV. Texas fever 504 XLVI. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_), the carrier of Texas fever 504 XLVII. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_) 504 XLVIII. Portion of a steer's hide showing the Texas fever tick (_Margaropus annulatus_) 504 XLIX. Fig. 1.--Tick-infested steer. Fig. 2.--Dipping cattle to kill ticks 504 L. Facsimile of poster comparing ticky and tick-free cattle 504 TEXT FIGURES. FIG. 1. Hornfly (_Hæmatobia serrata_) in resting position 504 2. Hornflies (_Hæmatobia serrata_) on cow horn 505 3. Buffalo gnat 506 4. Screw worm (larva of _Chrysomyia macellaria_) 506 5. Screw-worm fly (_Chrysomyia macellaria_) 507 6. The warble fly (_Hypoderma lineata_) 508 7. Short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) of cattle 512 8. Long-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus vituli_) of cattle 512 9. Red louse (_Trichodectes scalaris_) of cattle 513 10. Egg of short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) attached to a hair 513 11. Mite which causes psoroptic scab of sheep 514 12. Portion of the wall of the first stomach with conical flukes (_Paramphistomum cervi_) attached 519 13. Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_) 519 14. Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_) enlarged 520 15. Embryo of twisted stomach worm (_Hæmonchus contortus_) coiled on tip of grass blade 521 16. A drenching tube made from an ordinary tin funnel, a piece of rubber hose, and a piece of brass pipe 522 17. Piece of lining of fourth stomach showing cysts of the encysted stomach worm (_Ostertatia ostertagi_) 523 18. A tapeworm (_Moniezia planissima_) which infests cattle 524 19. The common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_) 526 20. The large American fluke (_Fasciola magna_) 526 21. Portion of grass stalk bearing three encysted cercariæ of the common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_) 527 22. Hydatids (_Echinococcus granulosus_) in portion of hog's liver 528 23. Thin-necked bladder worm (_Tænia hydatigena_) from abdominal cavity of a steer 529 24. Lung worms (_Dictyocaulus viviparus_) of cattle 530 SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF CATTLE ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES. By LEONARD PEARSON, B. S., V. M. D. Medicines may be administered to cattle in many ways. The channel and method of administration depend on whether a general or local effect is desired, the condition of the animal, and the nature of the medicine that is to be given. The easiest method, and therefore the most common, is to give ordinary remedies by the mouth with the food, with drink, or separately. There, are, however, some conditions in which medicines administered in this way will not act promptly enough, or wherein a desired effect of the medicine on a distant part of the body is wholly lacking unless it is applied in some other way. The various methods of administering medicines to cattle will be considered below. BY THE MOUTH.--The simplest way to give medicines by the mouth is to mix them with the food or water. This can be done when the medicine is in the form of a powder or fluid, if but a small quantity is to be given, if it does not have a taste that is disagreeable to the animal and is not so irritant as to injure the lining membranes of the mouth and throat. The usual method of administering bulky or unpalatable doses is to mix them with a fluid vehicle, such as water, milk, molasses, or broth, and give from a bottle. A dose given in this way is known as a "drench." In administering a drench the head of the animal should be elevated a little by an assistant. This is best accomplished when standing on the left side of the cow's head and by grasping the nose with the thumb and fingers of the right hand inserted in the nostrils; with the left hand beneath the chin the head is further raised and supported. If the animal is unruly, it may be tied in a stall or placed in a stanchion. The medicine can now be poured into the mouth by inserting the neck of the bottle between the lips on the right side. Care must be taken to avoid getting the bottle between the back teeth. The mouth of the bottle should be inserted as far as the middle of the tongue and the contents poured slowly. If the cow coughs, the head must at once be lowered to permit the fluid to escape from the larynx. If medicine is given during coughing, some of the dose may pass down the windpipe to the lungs and cause a severe or a fatal pneumonia. This is especially to be guarded against when the throat is partly paralyzed or insensitive, as in parturient paresis (milk fever). In this disease it has often happened that drenches have been poured into the lungs, thus killing the cow. The quantity of fluid to be given in a drench depends upon the effect desired and the nature of the medicine. In impactions of the stomach very large quantities of fluid may be given--as much as a gallon or several gallons at a time. Usually, however, it is not customary or desirable to give more than from 1 to 2 quarts at a dose, and not more than a pint unless it is necessary on account of the irritant quality of the drug that has to be shielded with a large quantity of the vehicle. Soluble medicines should be completely dissolved before they are given; insoluble ones should be finely divided by powdering or by shaking, and should be well agitated and mixed immediately before they are given. In the latter case a menstruum with considerable body, such as molasses or flaxseed tea or milk, will help to hold solids or oils in suspension until swallowed. _Balls_ are large pills adapted for the larger animals. Powders or gums are sometimes mixed with an adhesive substance and rolled into balls for the purpose of convenience of administration. Balls are not used so much and are not so well adapted to the medication of cattle as of horses. The process of solution is slower in the paunch of a cow than in the stomach of a horse; if the cow is so sick as to have stopped ruminating, a ball may get covered up and lost in the mass of material in the paunch and so lie for days, producing no effect whatever. _Capsules_ are shells or envelopes made of soluble gelatin in which powders or liquids may be inclosed. Capsules and balls are administered by being placed on the tongue well back in the mouth while the tongue is drawn forward and the mouth is held open by a block of wood between the back teeth. The ball should be dropped, the tongue released, and the block removed as nearly simultaneously as possible, so that the backward carriage of the tongue will throw the ball into the throat and lead to its being swallowed. In introducing the ball care must be taken to avoid having the hand cut or crushed. After a little experience it is possible to do away with the block of wood. BY THE STOMACH.--Medicines are introduced directly into the first stomach by the use of an esophageal tube or through the cannula of a trocar passed into the paunch through the side. This method is used in the treatment of diseases of digestion. BY THE RECTUM.--Medicines are usually administered by the rectum for the purpose of controlling the bowels and for the treatment of local diseases. Sometimes, however, medicines that have a general effect are given in this way when, for any reason, it is not possible or convenient to give them through the mouth. Only drugs that are readily absorbed should be given per rectum for a general effect and in somewhat larger dose or more frequently than when given by the mouth. Such stimulants as ether, alcohol, or the aromatic spirits of ammonia, diluted with from four to six times their bulk of warm water, may be used in this way. Rectal injections, or enemata, are used in the treatment of constipation. If it is the purpose of the injection to soften hardened fecal masses, the water should be comfortably warm and may have a little clean soap in it. If it is the purpose of the injection to stimulate sluggish bowels to contraction, the water may be cold. In giving rectal injections a rectal syringe may be used, or, better, a piece of one-half to three-quarter inch rubber hose 5 feet long with a tin funnel attached to one end. The hose is soaped or oiled and introduced slowly and gently into the rectum 2 or 3 feet. The fluid is then slowly poured into the funnel and allowed to gravitate into the rectum. The same apparatus may be used for feeding by the rectum. BY THE VAGINA.--Medicines are inserted into the vagina, and through the vagina into the womb, in a manner similar to that of rectal administration. Most of the medication made use of in this way is for the local treatment of these organs. Following calving, during outbreaks of abortion, and in an infectious disease of the vagina, such injections become necessary. BY THE UDDER.--Injections into the udder are now regularly made in the treatment of parturient paresis (milk fever). For this purpose a 1 per cent solution of iodid of potassium is commonly employed, although some other solutions and oxygen gas are also used. In making this injection so many precautions are necessary in relation to the sterilization of the apparatus and the teats and skin that this work should be left to a skilled veterinarian. The introduction of even a minute quantity of infectious dirt may cause the loss of the udder. For making this injection one may use one of the prepared sets of apparatus or a milking tube and funnel connected by a piece of small rubber hose. The apparatus should be boiled and kept wrapped in a clean towel until needed. The udder and teats and the hands of the operator must be well disinfected, and the solution must be freshly made with recently boiled water kept in a sterile bottle. The udder should be emptied of milk before the injection is made. After all these precautions have been observed the milking tube may be inserted and through it one-half pint of solution introduced by gravity air pressure or by syringe. There is practically no danger in this mode of treatment if it is properly carried out. Injections into the udder are sometimes made in the treatment of garget, but so far with indifferent success. BY THE NOSTRILS.--An animal may be caused to inhale medicine in the form of gas or vapor or to snuff up a fine powder. Sometimes, for the purpose of local treatment, fluids are injected into the nose. A medicine inhaled may have either a local or a general effect. Medicated steam, carrying the volatile products of compound cresol solution, carbolic acid, balsam of Peru, compound tincture of benzoin, tincture of iodin, etc., may be liberated beneath the nostrils of a cow so that she must inhale these soothing vapors; but such treatment is not so common for cattle as for horses. In producing general anesthesia, or insensibility to pain, the vapor of chloroform or ether is administered by the nostrils. As a preliminary to this it is necessary to cast and confine the animal. Great care is necessary to avoid complete stoppage of the heart or breathing. BY THE TRACHEA.--Medicines are injected into the trachea, or windpipe, in the treatment of some forms of diseases of the lungs, and especially in that form of bronchitis or pneumonia that is caused by lungworms. For this injection a large hypodermic syringe, fitted with a very thick, strong needle, is used. The needle is to be inserted about the middle of the neck and between the cartilaginous rings of the trachea. BY THE SKIN.--Although a number of drugs, notably mercury, are so readily absorbed by the skin of cattle as to render poisoning easy, medicines are not given in this way for their general or constitutional but only for their local effect. Diseases of the skin and superficial parasites are treated or destroyed by applications in the forms of washes, ointments, dips, and powders. Liniments and lotions are applied to the skin for the relief of some near-lying part, such as a muscle, tendon, or joint. Blisters are applied to the skin for the purpose of obtaining the effect of counterirritation upon a neighboring region or organ. Cold water may be applied to the skin to reduce the temperature and to diminish congestion or inflammation in a superficial area or to reduce the temperature of the whole body. High fever and heat strokes are treated in this way. BY THE TISSUE BENEATH THE SKIN.--Hypodermic or subcutaneous injections are often made for the purpose of introducing a drug, reagent, or vaccine directly into the connecting tissue beneath the skin. Introduced in this way, the substance is quickly absorbed, none of it is lost, and its whole effect is obtained, often within a few minutes. There are numerous precautions necessary in making a subcutaneous injection, most of which have to do with cleansing and sterilization. It is also important to select a proper site for the injection, so that blood vessels, joints, and superficial nerves, organs, or cavities may all be avoided. With due regard for the necessary precautions, there is practically no danger in such an injection, but it should be attempted only by those who are able to carry it through in a surgically clean way. Only certain drugs can be given subcutaneously, and dosage must be accurately graduated. BY THE VEINS.--Certain medicines act most promptly and surely when introduced directly into the blood by injecting them into a vein, usually the jugular. Some vaccines and antitoxins are administered in this way. Intravenous injection should be practiced only by experienced veterinarians. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By A. J. MURRAY, M. R. C. V. S. [Revised by R.W. HICKMAN, V. M. D.] CHARACTER OF FEEDS AND FEEDING. Diseases of the digestive organs are very common among cattle, and may often be traced to defects in feeding. The first three stomachs of the larger ruminants hold the feed for a long time, during which period it is subjected to macerating, mixing, and straining processes in preparation for entrance into the fourth or true stomach. The straining is accomplished through the medium of the manyplies or book, while the paunch, or rumen, with its adjunct, the waterbag, is concerned in the macerating, kneading, and mixing, as well as in regurgitation for rumination or the chewing of the cud. The action of the first three stomachs is merely preparatory to digestion. Thus it would seem that as a result of their complex anatomical and functional arrangement the feed of the ox, when of good quality and wholesome, is in the most favorable condition possible for the digestive process when it reaches the fourth stomach, where true digestion first takes place. The location and arrangement of the stomachs are shown in Plates I and II. If the feed is of improper character, or is so given that it can not be cared for by the animal in a normal way, false fermentations arise, causing indigestion, and possibly, later, organic disease. In feeding cattle there are a number of important considerations apart from the economy of the ration, and some of these are noted below. Feeds must not be damaged by exposure to the weather, by frost, by molds, or by deleterious fermentations. Damaged feeds retard or prevent digestion, and sometimes they contain or cause to be generated substances that irritate the digestive tract, or are distinctly poisonous to the animal. For example, hay that was rained on severely during curing has not only lost a part of its nutritive value through a washing-out process, but what remains is not so readily available as in good hay. Roots that have been frozen are likely to irritate and injure the digestive tract. Grass eaten with frost on it may cause severe indigestion. All moldy feeds are not injurious, for some molds appear to have no influence on the process of digestion, but those of other species may not only retard digestion and cause local injury to the digestive organs, but may cause general poisoning of a severe and fatal type. The following molds have been shown (Dammann) to be dangerous in respect to the production of the morbid conditions enumerated: _Tilletia caries_ grows chiefly in wheat and may be found with the grain, thus appearing in the bran or meal. It causes paralysis of the throat and spinal cord and irritation of the digestive tract. The rusts, such as _Puccinia graminis_, _P. straminis_, _P. Coronata_, and _P. arudinacea_, cause colic and diarrhea, and in some cases partial paralysis of the throat. The rusts that occur on clovers, beans, and peas cause very severe irritation of the lining membrane of the mouth and throat, resulting sometimes in gangrene of this tissue. _Polydesmus exitans_ grows on the leaves of rape and turnips, appearing in early summer. This fungus is very irritating to the mouths and feet of cattle, causing severe inflammation and the formation of a false membrane. In some instances this condition has been mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease, but it can be differentiated by the absence of the blister that is characteristic of that disease and by the further fact that it is nontransmissible. _Polytrincium trifolii_, which grows on clover, causing it to become black, causes severe irritation of the stomach and intestines of cattle feeding upon it. Feeds must not contain too large a proportion of woody fiber or of indigestible substances. If the dry matter ingested or the bulk of the feed is very great on account of the small proportion of digestible matter, it is impossible for the great mass to be moistened properly with and attacked by the digestive juices. In consequence of this, abnormal fermentations arise, causing indigestion and irritation of the digestive organs. On the other hand, a ration too concentrated, and especially too rich in protein, is not suitable, because, after a meal, the animal must have a certain feeling of fullness in order to be comfortable and quiet, and the digestive organs require a relatively large volume of contents to fill them to the point where secretion is properly stimulated and their activity is most efficient. If too much protein is in the ration there is a waste of expensive feed, and the tendency is for the animal to become thin. It is evident that a cow can not thrive on concentrated feeds alone, even though these contain in assimilable form all the nutritive materials needed for perfect support. It is because bulk is necessary that the standard of about 25 pounds of dry matter per cow per day has been reached by experimenters. There is no objection to feeding grain or meal separately to a cow, provided enough bulky feed is fed at another time in the day to keep the digestive tract sufficiently distended. In changing the ration, and especially in making radical changes, as at the beginning and the end of the pasturing season, the change should be made gradually, so that the digestive organs may accommodate themselves to it. After the digestive organs and juices have from long practice become adjusted to the digestion of a certain feed, which is then suddenly withheld and another of quite different character and properties is substituted, the second feed is not well digested; it may even irritate the digestive canal. It is often observed that cattle lose from 25 to 100 pounds when turned on pasture from dry stable feed. This loss can readily be prevented by not shocking the digestive organs by a sudden change of diet. Regularity in feeding has much to do with the utilization of the ration, and gross irregularity may cause indigestion and serious disease. Water for live stock should be as free from contamination and as nearly pure as that used for household purposes. When practicable it is well to warm the water in the winter to about 50° F. and allow cattle to drink often. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. WOUNDS AND CONTUSIONS OF THE LIPS, AND SNAKE BITE. The lips may become inflamed from contusions, which are sometimes produced by a blow from the horns of another animal, or, in the case of working oxen, by a blow from the driver. While cattle are grazing, more especially when they are in woods, they may be bitten in the lips by insects or serpents. _Symptoms._--As a result of a contusion the lips become thick and swollen, and if treatment is neglected the swelling may become hard and indurated, or an abscess may form. This condition renders it difficult for the animal to get food into its mouth, on account of the lips having lost their natural flexibility. In such cases an ox will use his tongue more in the prehension of food to make up for the incapacity of the lips. In cases of snake bite the swelling is soft or puffy and its limits are not well defined. _Treatment._--When we have to deal with a bruise, the affected part should be bathed with hot water two or three times daily. In recent cases no other treatment will be required, but if the swelling is not recent and has become hard or indurated, then the swollen part should be treated each day by painting it with tincture of iodin. In snake bite a straight incision penetrating into the flesh or muscle should be made across the center of the swelling and in the direction of the long axis of the face. After this has been done a small wad of cotton batting should be pressed against the wounds until the bleeding has almost stopped. Afterwards the following lotion may be applied to the wounds several times a day: Permanganate of potassium, half a dram; distilled water, 1 pint. As snake bites are usually attended with considerable depression, which may terminate in stupor, it is advisable to give a stimulant. One ounce of aromatic spirits of ammonia mixed with a pint of water should be given, and the dose should be repeated in half an hour if the animal is sinking into a stupefied and unconscious condition. The repetition of the dose must depend on the symptoms which the animal shows. It must be borne in mind that the object of treatment is to ward off the stupor, which is one of the results of snake bite. The swelling from an insect bite should be bathed with ammonia water as soon as noticed and then treated with frequent applications of hot water. SALIVATION. Salivation is a symptom of some general or local disorder. It may be a symptom of a general disease, such as rabies or foot-and-mouth disease, or it may be a purely local trouble, as when copious secretion of the salivary glands is produced by the eating of irritating plants, such as wild mustard. When saliva is observed to dribble from the mouth, that part should be carefully examined by introducing into the mouth an instrument like a balling iron, or, if one is not at hand, by grasping the tongue and partially withdrawing it from the mouth, and by placing a block of wood between the back teeth, while all parts of the mouth are exposed to a good light, so that the presence of any foreign substance may be detected. The cause is sometimes found to be a short piece of wood becoming fixed on the palate, its two ends resting on the upper molar teeth of each side; or it may be a needle, thorn, or splinter of wood embedded in the tongue. Sometimes a sharp piece of tin or other metal may become partially embedded in the inner surface of the cheek. Hay occasionally possesses some quality, usually dependent upon its having heated in the mow or having become moldy, which produces salivation. Second-crop clover and some irritant weeds in the pasture or forage may cause salivation. Cattle rubbed with mercurial ointment may swallow enough mercury in licking themselves to bring about the same result. (See "Mercury poisoning," p. 57.) Such cases, of course, arise from the constitutional action of mercury, and, on account of the common habit which the animals have of licking themselves, indicate the danger of using such preparation externally. Mercury is also readily absorbed through the skin, and as cattle are very susceptible to its action it is thus easy for them to be poisoned by it even without licking it from the surface. Cases of mercurial poisoning sometimes follow disinfection of cattle stables with the usual 1 to 1,000 solution of mercuric chlorid. _Treatment._--If salivation depends on the irritation and inflammation set up by the ingestion of acrid plants, or forage possessing some peculiar stimulating property, the feed must be changed, and a lotion composed of an ounce of powdered alum dissolved in a quart of water may be syringed into the mouth twice a day, using half a pint of the solution each time. If, however, the salivation is due to the presence of a thorn, splinter of wood, or any other foreign substance embedded in the cheek or tongue, the offending object should be removed and the mouth washed occasionally with a weak solution (2 per cent) of carbolic acid and tepid water. When salivation is produced by mercurial poisoning or by foot-and-mouth disease, the treatment appropriate to those general conditions of the system, as well as the local treatment should be applied. (For information about foot-and-mouth disease see p. 383.) IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH. Irregularities of the teeth may be occasioned by the unequal wearing of some of the teeth or by some of the incisors being broken, which may happen when cattle are pastured on sandy or gravelly soil. The molar teeth may also show irregular wear from similar causes, or from a disease or malformation of the jaw. Their edges may become sharp, or it may happen that a molar tooth has been accidentally fractured. It may also occur that a supernumerary tooth has developed in an unusual position, and that it interferes with the natural and regular mastication of the feed. _Treatment._--The mouth may be examined by grasping the animal's tongue with one hand and partially withdrawing it from the mouth, so as to expose the incisor and molar teeth to inspection. When it is desired, however, to examine the molar teeth with the fingers, so as to obtain a better idea of their condition, an instrument like the balling iron which is used for the horse should be introduced into the mouth, so as to separate the jaws and keep them apart while the examination is being made. Any sharp edges of the molars must be removed by the tooth rasp, such as is used for horses. Any supernumerary tooth which interferes with mastication or any tooth which is fractured or loose should be extracted. In performing such operations it is desirable to throw, or cast, the animal, and to have its head held securely, so as to enable the operator to do what is necessary without difficulty. CARIES OR DECAY OF THE TEETH. The presence of caries may be suspected if the mouth exhales a bad odor and if the animal during mastication occasionally stops as if it were in pain. The existence of caries in a molar tooth may be ascertained by examining the mouth in the manner already described. If one of the molars is found to be carious, it should be extracted. When the crown of the tooth has been destroyed and only the stump or root is left, extraction is impracticable. In case the animal has special value the root stumps may be removed by a veterinarian by the operation of trephining; otherwise, it is best to sell the animal to the butcher. ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAWBONES (BIG JAW OR LUMPY JAW). [See Actinomycosis, p. 440.] INFLAMMATION OF MUCOUS MEMBRANE OF MOUTH (STOMATITIS). The membrane of the mouth may become inflamed by eating some irritating substance or plant, or little vesicles may form in the mouths of calves when they are affected with indigestion, constituting what is termed aphtha. _Symptoms._--The saliva dribbles from the mouth, and when the mouth is examined the surface of the tongue and other parts appear red and inflamed. When young animals are affected with the form of disease termed aphtha, small red elevations are observed on the tongue and other parts of the mouth, having little white points on their centers, which consist of the epithelium of the mucous membrane raised into vesicles. These white patches are succeeded by ulcerated surfaces, which are caused by the shedding of the white patches of epithelium. _Treatment._--When there is merely a reddened and inflamed condition of the mucous membrane of the mouth, it will suffice to syringe it out several times a day with 4 ounces of the following solution: Alum, 1 ounce; water, 2 pints. When the edges of the tongue and other parts of the mouth are studded with ulcers, they should be painted over once a day with the following solution until the affected surface is healed: Permanganate of potassium, 20 grains; water, 1 ounce. When indigestion is associated with an ulcerated condition of the mouth, separate treatment is required. ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS (OR ULCERS IN THE MOUTHS OF YOUNG CALVES). [See Necrotic stomatitis, p. 464.] MYCOTIC STOMATITIS (SORE MOUTH). [See p. 532.] INDURATION OF THE TONGUE (ACTINOMYCOSIS). [See Actinomycosis, p. 440.] DISEASES OF THE PHARYNX AND GULLET. PHARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT). Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the pharynx. It is frequently associated with inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract, such as laryngitis and bronchitis or pleurisy. _Symptoms._--The muzzle is dry and the saliva dribbles from the corners of the mouth; the animal swallows with difficulty or not at all, and holds its neck in a stiff, straight position, moving it as little as possible. The eyelids are half closed, the white of the eye is bloodshot, and the animal occasionally grinds its teeth. After masticating the feed the animal drops it out of its mouth as if to avoid the pain of swallowing, and also evinces pain when pressure is applied externally on the pharynx and tries to prevent the pressure from being applied. _Causes._--Pharyngitis may be produced by a sudden cooling of the surface of the body, as when cattle are exposed to a cold wind or a cold rain; or by swallowing irritant substances. _Treatment._--The throat should be syringed three times a day with an ounce of the following solution: Nitrate of silver, 1-1/2 drams; distilled water, 1 pint. Bland and soothing drinks, such as linseed tea or oatmeal and water should occasionally be offered. Diet should consist of soft food, such as bran mashes with a little linseed meal mixed in them. Dry hay and fodder should not be given. Fresh, green grass or sound ensilage may be fed in small quantities. The upper part of the throat and the space between the jaws should be well rubbed once a day with the following liniment: Liquor ammonia fortior, 4 ounces; oil of turpentine, 4 ounces; olive oil, 4 ounces; mix. When evidence of blistering appears the application of the liniment should be stopped and the skin anointed with vaseline. Under the treatment described above the inflammation of the throat will gradually subside and the animal will be able to swallow as usual in five or six days. We need hardly say that during its treatment the sick animal should be kept in a comfortable stable. PAROTITIS. Inflammation of the parotid gland may arise from the inflammation extending to it when an ox is affected with pharyngitis or laryngitis, or the inflammation may commence in the salivary ducts and may depend on some influence the nature of which is unknown. Parotitis sometimes arises from a blow or contusion severe enough to set up inflammation in the structure of the gland. Tuberculosis and actinomycosis may infrequently be characterized by the lodgment of their parasitic causes in the parotid glands, in which case parotitis may be a symptom of either of these diseases. _Symptoms._--There is an elongated, painful swelling, beginning at the base of the ear and passing downward along the posterior margin of the lower jaw. The swelling is sometimes limited to one side, and when both are swollen it is generally larger on one side than on the other. The secretion of saliva is increased, the appetite is poor, the neck is stiff, so that it is painful to raise the head, and feed is swallowed with difficulty. In many cases the swelling of the glands, when submitted to proper treatment, disappears in a comparatively short time. In other cases, however, they remain enlarged, even after the animal recovers its appetite. In tuberculosis, lymphatic glands beneath the parotid glands are sometimes enlarged, thus causing the appearance of enlarged parotid glands. _Treatment._--A warm bran poultice, made by mixing bran with a hot 2 per cent compound cresol solution in water, should be applied on the swollen gland and kept in place by means of a bandage. Whenever the poultice has cooled it should be replaced by a new one. This treatment should be continued until the pain is less and the swelling is reduced or until there is evidence of pus formation, which may be ascertained by examining the surface of the gland with the fingers; and when, on pressing any part of the surface, it is found to fluctuate or "give," then we may conclude that there is a collection of pus at that place. It is well not to open the abscess until the fluctuation is well marked, as at this stage the pus or matter is near the surface and there is less trouble in healing the wound than if the pus is deep seated. The abscess should be opened with a clean, sharp knife. The poulticing should then be continued for two or three days, but the form of the poultice should be changed, by replacing the bran with absorbent cotton and pouring the compound cresol solution on the cotton. At all times the wound should be kept clean and the cavity injected once or twice daily with a solution of 1 dram of carbolic acid in 8 ounces of water. Under this treatment the pus may cease and the wound heal without complications. Saliva may issue from the orifice and result in the formation of a salivary fistula. This requires operative treatment by a qualified veterinarian. When poulticing fails to reduce the swelling or produce softening, the inflamed area may be rubbed once daily with camphorated oil, compound iodin ointment, or painted twice daily with Lugol's solution of iodin. The diet should be as recommended under Pharyngitis (p. 17). PHARYNGEAL POLYPI. Tumors form not infrequently in the pharynx, and may give rise to a train of symptoms varying according to their size and location. The tumor may be so situated that by shifting its position a little it may partially obstruct the posterior nares (nostrils), when, of course, it will render nasal breathing very noisy and labored. In another situation its partial displacement may impede the entrance of air into the larynx. In almost any part of the pharynx, but especially near the entrance of the gullet, tumors interfere with the act of swallowing. As they are frequently attached to the wall of the pharynx by a pedicel or stalk, it will be seen that they may readily be displaced in different directions so as to produce the symptoms before described. Enlarged postpharyngeal lymphatic glands are not rare in tuberculosis, and by pressing upon the wall of the pharynx and restricting the lumen of this organ they cause difficulty in both breathing and swallowing. Such enlarged glands may be differentiated from tumors by passing the hand into the cow's throat after the jaws are separated by a suitable speculum or gag. _Treatment._--The method of treatment in such cases is to separate the animal's jaws with an instrument termed a gag, and then, after drawing the tongue partially forward, to pass the hand into the pharynx and to twist the tumor gently from its attachment. One veterinarian who has had considerable practice in treating this form of disease scrapes through the attachment of the tumor gradually with his thumb nail. When the attachment is too strong to be severed in this way an instrument like a thimble, but possessing a sharp edge at the end, may be used to effect the same purpose, or the base of the tumor may be severed by the use of a crushing instrument known as an écraseur. CHOKING. Choking usually happens from attempting to swallow too large an object, such as a turnip, potato, beet, apple, or pear, though in rare cases it may occur from bran, chaff, or some other finely divided feed lodging in and filling up a portion of the gullet. This latter form of the accident is most likely to occur in animals that are greedy feeders. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary somewhat according to the part of the gullet or throat in which the obstruction is. In most cases there is a discharge of saliva from the mouth; the animal coughs frequently, and when it drinks the water is soon ejected. The cow stops eating and stands back from the trough, the expression is troubled, breathing is accelerated, and oftentimes there is bloating as a result of the retention of gas in the paunch. These symptoms, however, are not always present, for if the obstacle does not completely close the throat or gullet, gas and water may pass, thus ameliorating the discomfort. If the obstruction is in the neck portion of the gullet, it may be felt as a lump in the left jugular gutter. _Treatment._--If the object is in the throat, it is advisable to put a gag in the animal's mouth, and, while the head is held in a horizontal direction by two assistants, to pass the hand into the pharynx, grasp the foreign body, and withdraw it gradually and steadily. When the substance is lodged in the upper part of the gullet, pressure should be made by an assistant in an upward direction against the object while the operator passes his hand into the pharynx, and if the assistant can not by pressure dislodge the substance from the gullet, the operator may by passing his middle finger above and partly behind the substance gradually slide it into the pharynx and then withdraw it by the mouth. The presence of an obstructing substance in the cervical (neck) portion of the gullet may be ascertained by passing the hand along the left side of the neck, when a hard and painless swelling will be found to indicate the presence of the foreign body. In such cases we must endeavor by gentle and persevering pressure with the thumb and next two fingers to slide the obstructing substance gradually upward to the pharynx. To facilitate this it is well to give the animal a half pint of raw linseed or olive oil before the manipulations described are commenced. When the substance has been brought into or nearly into the pharynx, then the mouth gag should be used, the tongue drawn partially forward with the left hand, and the right should be passed backward into the pharynx to withdraw the obstruction. When bran or chaff causes the trouble it is best to give a small quantity of oil to lubricate the walls of the gullet, and then by gentle and persevering pressure, to endeavor to separate and divide the mass and to work it downward toward the stomach. This will be assisted by pouring small quantities of oil and water down the animal's throat. It is not advisable to use the probang to push down any soft material, such as oats or chaff, as this generally condenses and renders firmer the obstructing substance by pressing its particles or elements together, so that it forms a solid, resisting mass which can not be moved. In some cases the foreign body, either because it is in the chest portion of the esophagus, and so beyond reach, or because too firmly seated, can not be dislodged from the neck by pressing and manipulating that part externally. In such event we must resort to the use of the probang. (Pl. III, figs. 2 and 3.) A probang is a flexible instrument and adapts itself to the natural curvature of the gullet, and if used cautiously there is not much risk of injury. Before passing the probang, a gag which has an aperture at each end, from which straps pass to be buckled at the back of the head below the horns, is introduced into the mouth. (Pl. III, fig. 4.) The probang should then be oiled, and, the head and neck being held in a straight line by two assistants, the tongue must be partly drawn out of the mouth, the probang cautiously passed along the roof of the mouth into the pharynx and thence into the gullet, through which it is passed down. If resistance is met, gentle and continuous pressure must be used, under the influence of which the object will generally in a short time pass into the stomach. One must be careful not to pass the probang into the larynx and thence into the windpipe, as an animal may readily be killed in this way. This accident is indicated by efforts to cough and by violently disturbed breathing. If such symptoms arise the probang must be withdrawn at once. To avoid a wrong passage, the end of the tube should be pressed very slowly through the throat until its presence in the esophagus is assured. After it is once in the esophagus care is still necessary, because the walls of this tube may easily be torn. Some writers have advised that when the obstruction is lodged in the cervical (neck) portion of the gullet it should be struck with a mallet, to crush it and thus alter its shape, so that it may easily slip down into the stomach. If the obstructing substance is hard, this will be a dangerous operation, but if soft--as in the case of a ripe pear, for example--this procedure may be safely adopted. In all cases, if pressure applied on the neck fails to move the obstruction and the probang also fails to move it, it may be divided by a subcutaneous operation, or the gullet may be opened and the obstructing substance removed through the wound. In such cases the assistance of a veterinarian or a surgeon must be obtained. WOUNDS AND INJURIES OF THE GULLET. Sometimes the walls of the gullet may be more or less lacerated or abraded by the rash and too forcible use of the probang, and the animal consequently swallows with pain and difficulty. In such cases dry feed must be withheld for five or six days, so as to allow the injured parts to heal, and the diet must be limited to linseed tea, hay tea, and thin oatmeal gruel and molasses. The same kind of diet must be fed after the operation of cutting into the gullet has been performed. Sometimes the gullet is ruptured and lacerated to such an extent that treatment of any kind is hopeless. This has been known to occur when the handle of a pitchfork or buggy whip has been pushed down a cow's throat to remove an obstruction. When such treatment has been applied it is best to slaughter the animal without delay, as the flesh may be utilized so long as there is no fever or general disease, and remedial treatment would be hopeless. In this connection it may be mentioned that whatever substitute may be used for a probang, which sometimes is not at hand, it should be flexible and should possess a smooth surface. A piece of new rope, with the end closely wrapped and waxed and then oiled, or a piece of thin garden hose, or a well-wrapped twisted wire may be used in emergencies. DISEASES OF THE STOMACHS. ACUTE TYMPANITES (HOVEN, OR BLOATING). Tympanites is a distention of the rumen or paunch with gases of fermentation, and is manifested outwardly by swelling in the region of the left flank. _Causes._--Tympanites may be caused by any kind of feed which produces indigestion. When cattle are first turned into young clover they eat so greedily of it that tympanites frequently results. Turnips, potatoes, cabbage, or the discarded pulp from sugar-beet factories may also cause it. Middlings and corn meal also frequently give rise to it. Care is necessary in turning animals into fields of clover or stubble fields in which there is a strong growth of volunteer grain. It is always better to keep them from such pasturage while it is wet with dew, and they should be taken out when they have eaten a moderate quantity. When cattle are fed upon pulp from sugar beets, germinated malt, etc., they should be fed in moderate amounts until they have become accustomed to it, as any of these feeds may give rise to severe bloating. An excessive quantity of any of the before-mentioned feeds may bring on this disorder, or it may not be caused by excess, but to eating too hastily. Sometimes the quality of the feed is at fault. Grass or clover when wet by dew or rain frequently disorders digestion and brings on tympanites; frozen roots or pastures covered with hoar frost should also be regarded as dangerous. When feed has been eaten too hastily, or when it is cold and wet, the digestive process is imperfectly performed, and the feed contained in the paunch ferments, during which process large quantities of gas are formed. The same result may follow when a cow is choked, as the obstruction in the gullet prevents the eructation or passing up of gas from the stomach, so that the gas continues to accumulate until tympanites results. _Symptoms._--The swelling of the left flank is very characteristic, as in well-marked cases the flank at its upper part rises above the level of the backbone, and when struck with the tips of the fingers emits a drum-like sound. The animal has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, and is evidently distressed. If relief is not obtained in time, it breathes with difficulty, reels in walking or in standing, and in a short time falls and dies from suffocation. The distention of the stomach may become so great as to prevent the animal from breathing, and in some instances the case may be complicated by rupture of the stomach. _Treatment._--If the case is not extreme, it may be sufficient to drive the animal at a walk for a quarter or half an hour; or cold water by the bucketful may be thrown against the cow's sides. In some cases the following simple treatment is successful: A rope or a twisted straw band is coated with pine tar, wagon grease, or other unsavory substance and is placed in the cow's mouth as a bit, being secured by tying behind the horns. The efforts of the animal to dislodge this object result in movements of the tongue, jaws, and throat that stimulate the secretion of saliva and swallowing, thus opening the esophagus, which permits the exit of gas and at the same time peristalsis is stimulated reflexly. In urgent cases the gas must be allowed to escape without delay, and this is best accomplished by the use of the trocar. The trocar is a sharp-pointed instrument incased in a cannula or sheath, which leaves the sharp point of the trocar free. (See Pl. III, figs. _5a_ and _5b._) In selecting the point for using the trocar a spot on the left side equally distant from the last rib, the hip bone, and the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebræ must be chosen. Here an incision about three-fourths of an inch long should be made with a knife through the skin, and then the sharp point of the trocar, being directed downward, inward, and slightly forward, is thrust into the paunch. (Pl. I.) The cannula or sheath of the trocar should be left in the paunch so long as any gas continues to issue from it. If the cannula is removed while gas is still forming in the paunch and the left flank becomes considerably swollen, it may be necessary to insert it again. It is well, accordingly, to observe the cannula closely, and if gas is found to be issuing from it, it should not be removed. When gas issues from it in considerable quantities the sound accompanying its escape renders the exact condition obvious. It is occasionally necessary to keep the cannula in the stomach for several hours. When this is necessary a piece of stout cord should be passed round the neck of the cannula immediately below the projecting rim and then be passed round the animal's body and tied in a secure knot, and a careful attendant must remain with the cow during the entire period that the instrument is in place. The rim surrounding the mouth of the cannula should be in contact with the skin. Whenever the person in charge of the cow is convinced that gas has ceased to issue from the cannula the instrument should be removed. The trocar is to be used only in extreme or urgent cases, though everyone who has had experience in treating indigestion in cattle realizes that he has saved the lives of many animals by its prompt application. When the tympanitic animal is not distressed and the swelling of the flank is not great, or when the most distressing condition has been removed by the use of the trocar, it is best to use internal medicine. Two ounces of aromatic spirits of ammonia should be given every half hour in a quart of cold water; or half an ounce of chlorid of lime may be dissolved in a pint of tepid water and the dose repeated every half hour until the bloating has subsided; or 1 ounce of creolin in 2 quarts of tepid water may be given at one dose or carefully injected through the cannula directly into the paunch to stop fermentation and the consequent formation of gas. It is generally necessary to give a moderate dose of purgative medicine after bloating has subsided, as animals frequently show symptoms of constipation after attacks of indigestion. For this purpose 1 pound of Glauber's salt may be used. The animal should be fed carefully upon easily digested food for several days after the bloating has subsided, so that all fermenting matter may pass out of the stomach. CHRONIC TYMPANITES. Cattle, especially those that have been kept in the stable all winter, are liable to suffer from chronic tympanites. In this form they bloat up after feeding, but seldom swell so much as to cause any alarm. The chronic form of indigestion may also follow an acute attack like that previously described. This is also a symptom of tuberculosis when the lymphatic glands lying between the lungs are so enlarged as to press upon and partly occlude the esophagus. It may develop in calves as a result of the formation of hair balls in the stomach. _Treatment._--Treatment should be preceded by a moderate dose of purgative medicine: 1 pound of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) or sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt), half an ounce of powdered Barbados aloes, 1 ounce of powdered ginger, 1 pint of molasses. The salts and aloes should be dissolved by stirring for a few minutes in 2 quarts of lukewarm water, then the molasses should be added, and after all the ingredients have been stirred together for about 10 minutes the dose should be administered. After the operation of the purgative it is generally necessary to give some tonic and antacid preparation to promote digestion, which is imperfectly performed in such cases. The following may be used: Powdered gentian, 3 ounces; powdered bicarbonate of potash, 3 ounces; powdered ginger, 3 ounces; powdered capsicum, 1 ounce. Mix and divide into 12 powders, one of which should be given three times a day before feeding, shaken up with a pint and a half of water. It is also advantageous in such cases to give two heaped teaspoonsfuls of wood charcoal, mixed with the animal's feed three times a day. The animal should also go out during the day, as want of exercise favors the continuance of this form of indigestion. If the dung is hard, the constipation should be overcome by feeding a little flaxseed twice daily or by giving a handful of Glauber's salt in the feed once or twice daily, as may be necessary. Roots, silage, and other succulent feeds are useful in this connection. If tuberculosis is suspected as the cause of chronic bloating, a skilled veterinarian should make a diagnosis, using the tuberculin test if necessary. Until it is settled that the cow has not tuberculosis, she should be kept apart from the other members of the herd. DISTENTION OF RUMEN OR PAUNCH WITH FEED. This form of indigestion is caused by the animal gorging itself with feed, and arises more from the animal's voracious appetite than from any defect in the quality of the feed supplied to it. The condition is, however, more severe if the feed consumed is especially concentrated or difficult of digestion. In cases of this kind there is comparatively no great formation of gas, and the gas which is formed is diffused through the stomach instead of accumulating in a layer in its upper part. On pressing the flank with the closed fist the indent of the hand remains for a short time in the flank, as if the rumen were filled with a soft, doughy mass. This form of indigestion should be treated by stimulants, such as aromatic spirits of ammonia. If the formation of gas is not great and the distention with solid material is somewhat limited, the animal may be drenched through a piece of ordinary garden hose, one end inserted in the mouth, and the other end fitted with a funnel, giving 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt or Glauber's salt dissolved in 2 gallons of water, at a single dose. Immediately after this treatment the left side of the animal, extending below the median line of the abdomen, should be powerfully kneaded with the fist, so that the impacted food mass will be broken, allowing the water to separate it into small portions which can be carried downward for the process of digestion. But if the treatment fails and the impacted or overloaded condition of the rumen continues, it may become necessary to make an incision with a sharp, long-bladed knife in the left flank, commencing at the point where it is usual to puncture the stomach of an ox, and prolong the incision in a downward direction until it is long enough to admit the hand. When the point of the knife is thrust into the flank and the blade cuts downward, the wall of the stomach, the muscle, and the skin should all be cut through at the same time. Two assistants should hold the edges of the wound together so as to prevent any food from slipping between the flank and the wall of the stomach, and then the operator should remove two-third [sic] of the contents of the rumen. This having been done, the edges of the wound should be sponged with a little carbolized warm water, and, the lips of the wound in the rumen being turned inward, they should be brought together with catgut stitches. The wound penetrating the muscle and the skin may then be brought together by silk stitches, which should pass through the entire thickness of the muscle and should be about 1 inch apart. The wound should afterwards be dressed once a day with a lotion and the animal covered with a tight linen sheet, to protect the wound from insects and dirt. The lotion to be used in such case is made up as follows: Sulphate of zinc, 1 dram; carbolic acid, 2 drams; glycerin, 2 ounces; water, 14 ounces; mix. It is clear that this operation requires special skill and it should be attempted only by those who are competent. IMAGINARY DISEASES (HOLLOW HORN; LOSS OF CUD; WOLF IN THE TAIL). It would appear quite in place here, in connection with the diseases of the stomach and bowels of cattle, to consider the three old fallacies or superstitions known by the above names, since these names, whenever and wherever used, seem to be invariably applied to some form of digestive derangement or disease having its origin in the stomach and bowels. HOLLOW HORN.--In the first place it should be noted that the horns of all animals of the ox tribe are hollow. The horn cores are elongations of the frontal bones of the skull, and the frontal sinuses, which are the larger of the air spaces of the head, are prolonged into the horn cores. When a cow is sick, if the horns are hot it is an evidence of fever; if they are cold it indicates impaired circulation of the blood; but these manifestations of sickness are to be regarded as symptoms of some constitutional disorder and do not in themselves require treatment. The treatment should be applied to the disease which causes the abnormal temperature of the horns. The usual treatment for the supposed hollow horn, which consists in boring the horns with a gimlet and pouring turpentine into the openings thus made, is not only useless and cruel, but is liable to set up an acute inflammation and result in an abscess of the sinus. LOSS OF CUD.--The so-called loss of cud is simply a cessation of rumination, frequently one of the first indications of some form of disease, since ruminants stop chewing the cud when they feel sick. Loss of cud is a symptom of a great many diseases, and when it is detected it should lead the observer to try to discover other symptoms upon which to base a correct opinion as to the nature of the disease from which the animal suffers. No local treatment is required. WOLF IN THE TAIL.--This term also seems to be vaguely applied to various disturbances of the digestive function, or to some disease which is in reality in the stomach or bowels. VOMITING. Vomiting is not to be confounded with rumination, though some writers have advanced the opinion that it is merely a disordered and irregular rumination. It is not of common occurrence in cattle. _Symptoms._--Animals which vomit are frequently in poor condition. After having eaten tranquilly for some time the animal suddenly becomes uneasy, arches the back, stretches the neck and head, and then suddenly ejects 10 to 12 pounds of the contents of the rumen. After having done this the uneasiness subsides and in a short time the animal resumes eating as if nothing had happened. _Cause._--The cause of this disordered state of the digestive system in cattle is usually obscure, but has in some cases been traced to a partial closure of the opening into the second stomach or to a distention of the esophagus. It has been found to occur when there was cancerous disease of the fourth stomach, and experimentally it has been shown that a suspension of digestion or great derangement of this stomach produces considerable nervous disorder of the rumen and sometimes vomiting or attempts to vomit. TREATMENT.--Easily digested feed and plenty of water should be given. Fear and excitement, chasing, or hurrying animals after they have eaten heartily are liable to bring on this result. In order to overcome irritation which may produce vomiting the following draft should be given: Hydrate of chloral, half an ounce; water, 1 pint. The dose must be repeated when the condition of the animal seems to require it. As a rule, treatment is not successful. DEPRAVED APPETITE (PICA). Cattle suffering from this disease have a capricious and variable appetite as regards their ordinary feed but evince a strong desire to lick and eat substances for which healthy cattle show no inclination. Alkaline and saline-tasting substances are especially attractive to cattle having a depraved appetite and they frequently lick lime, earth, coal, gravel, and even the dung of other cattle. Cows in calf and young cattle are especially liable to develop these symptoms. Animals affected in this way lose condition, their coat is staring, gait slow, and small vesicles containing yellow liquid form under the tongue; the milk given by such cows is thin and watery. Such animals become restless and uneasy, as is indicated by frequent bellowing. The disease may last for months, the animal ultimately dying emaciated and exhausted. Depraved appetite frequently precedes the condition in which the bones of cattle become brittle and fracture easily, which is known as osteomalacia. _Cause._--From the fact that this disease is largely one of regions, it is generally believed that some condition of the soil and water and of the local vegetation is responsible for it. It is more prevalent some years than others, and is most common in old countries, where the soil is more or less depleted. Cattle pastured on low, swampy land become predisposed to it. It occasionally happens, however, that one individual in a herd suffers though all are fed alike; in such cases the disease must arise from the affected animal's imperfect assimilation of the nutritive elements of the feed which is supplied to it. _Treatment._--The aim in such cases must be to improve the process of digestion and to supply the animal with a sufficiency of sound and wholesome feed. The following should be given to the cow three times a day, a heaping tablespoonful constituting a dose: Carbonate of iron, 4 ounces; finely ground bone or "bone flour," 1 pound; powdered gentian, 4 ounces; common salt, 8 ounces; powdered fenugreek, 4 ounces; mix. In addition to this, 3 tablespoonfuls of powdered charcoal may be mixed with the feed three times a day, and a piece of rock salt should be placed where the animal can lick it at will. German veterinarians have had brilliant results from the treatment of this disease with subcutaneous injections of apomorphin in doses of 1-1/2 to 5 grains for three or four days. HAIR CONCRETIONS. Hair concretions, or hair balls, result from the habit which some cattle have of licking themselves or other animals. As a result the hairs which are swallowed are carried around by the contractions of the stomach and gradually assume the form of a small pellet or ball. This increases in size as fresh quantities of hair are introduced into the stomach and adhere to the surface of the ball. These balls are found most frequently in the reticulum or second stomach (Pl. II, B), though sometimes in the rumen. In calves hair balls are generally found in the fourth stomach. There are no certain symptoms by which we can determine the presence of hair balls in the stomach, and therefore no treatment can be recommended for such cases. In making post-mortem examinations of cattle we have sometimes found the walls of the reticulum transfixed with nails or pieces of wire, and yet the animal had not shown any symptoms of indigestion, but had died from maladies not involving the second stomach. INDIGESTION (DYSPEPSIA, OR GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH). Tympanites, already described, is a form of indigestion in which the chief symptom and most threatening condition is the collection of gas in the paunch. This symptom does not always accompany indigestion, so it is well here to consider other forms under a separate head. If indigestion is long continued, the irritant abnormal products developed cause catarrh of the stomach and intestines--gastrointestinal catarrh. On the other hand, however, irritant substances ingested may cause gastrointestinal catarrh, which, in turn, will cause indigestion; hence, it results that these several conditions are usually found existing together. _Causes._--Irritant feed, damaged feed, overloading of the stomach, or sudden changes of diet may cause this disease. Want of exercise predisposes to it, or feed which is coarse and indigestible may after a time produce it. Feed which possesses astringent properties and tends to check secretion may also act as an exciting cause. Feed in excessive quantity may lead to disorder of digestion and to this disease. It is very likely to appear toward the end of protracted seasons of drought; therefore a deficiency of water must be regarded as one of the conditions which favor its development. _Symptoms._--Diminished appetite, rumination irregular, tongue coated, mouth slimy, dung passed apparently not well digested and smelling bad, dullness, and fullness of the flanks. The disease may in some cases assume a chronic character, and in addition to the foregoing symptoms slight bloating or tympanites of the left flank may be observed; the animal breathes with effort and each respiration may be accompanied with a grunt, the ears and horns are alternately hot and cold, rumination ceases, the usual rumbling sound in the stomach is not audible, the passage of dung is almost entirely suspended, and the animal passes only a little mucus occasionally. Sometimes there is alternating constipation and diarrhea. There is low fever in many cases. The disease continues a few days or a week in the mild cases, while the severe cases may last several weeks. In the latter form the emaciation and loss of strength may be very great. There is no appetite, no rumination, nor peristalsis. The mouth is hot and sticky, the eyes have receded in their sockets, and milk secretion has ceased. In such cases the outlook for recovery is unfavorable. The patient falls away in flesh and becomes weaker, as is shown by the fact that one frequently finds it lying down. On examining animals which have died of this disease it is found that the lining membrane of the fourth stomach and the intestines, particularly the small intestine, is red, swollen, streaked with deeper red or bluish lines, or spotted. The lining of the first three stomachs is more or less softened, and may easily be peeled off. The third stomach (psalter) contains dry feed in hard masses closely adherent to its walls. In some cases the brain appears to become disordered, probably from the pain and weakness and from the absorption of toxins generated in the digestive canal. In such cases there is weakness and an unsteady gait, the animal does not appear to take notice of and will consequently run against obstacles; after a time it falls and gives up to violent and disordered movements. This delirious condition is succeeded by coma or stupor, and death ensues. _Treatment._--Small quantities of roots, sweet silage, or selected grass or hay should be offered several times daily. Very little feed should be allowed. Aromatic and demulcent drafts may be given to produce a soothing effect on the mucous lining of the stomachs and to promote digestion. Two ounces of camomile flowers should be boiled for 20 minutes in a quart of water and the infusion on cooling should be given to the affected animal. This may be repeated three or four times a day. When constipation is present the following purgative may be administered: One pound of Glauber's salt dissolved in a quart of linseed tea and a pint of molasses. After this purgative has acted, if there is a lack of appetite and the animal does not ruminate regularly, the powder mentioned in remarks on the treatment of chronic tympanites may be given according to directions. The diet must be rather laxative and of an easily digestible character after an attack of this form of indigestion. Feed should be given in moderate quantities, as excess by overtaxing the digestive functions may bring on a relapse. Ice-cold water should be avoided. INDIGESTION FROM DRINKING COLD WATER (COLIC). This disorder is produced by drinking copiously of cold water, which arrests digestion and produces cramp of the fourth stomach, probably of the other stomachs, and also of the bowels. _Causes._---It is not customary for the ox to drink much water at once. In fact, he usually drinks slowly and as if he were merely tasting the water, letting some fall out at the corners of his mouth at every mouthful. It would therefore seem to be contrary to the habits of the ox to drink copiously; but we find that during hot weather, when he has been working and is consequently very thirsty, if he drinks a large quantity of cold water he may be immediately taken with a very severe colic. Cows which are fed largely on dry hay drink copiously, like the working ox, and become affected in precisely the same manner. In such cases they are seized with a chill or fit of trembling before the cramps come on. _Symptoms._--There is some distension of the abdomen, but no accumulation of gas. As the distension and pain occur immediately after the animal has drunk the water, there can be no doubt as to the exciting cause. _Treatment._--Walk the animal about for 10 minutes before administering medicine, and this allows time for a portion of the contents of the stomach to pass into the bowel, and renders it safer to give medicine. In many cases the walking exercise and the diarrhea bring about a spontaneous cure of this disorder, but as in some instances the cramps and pains of the stomachs persist, one may give 1 ounce of sulphuric ether and 1 ounce of tincture of opium, shaken up with a pint of warm water, and repeat the dose in half an hour if the animal is not relieved. In an emergency when the medicine is not to be had, a tablespoonful of powdered ginger may be administered in a pint of warm water. INDIGESTION IN CALVES (GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH, DIARRHEA, OR SCOUR). Calves are subject to a form of diarrhea to which the foregoing designations have been applied. _Causes._--Calves that suck their dams are not frequently affected with this disease, though it may be occasioned by their sucking at long intervals and thus overloading the stomach and bringing on indigestion, or from improper feeding of the dam on soft, watery, or damaged feeds. Suckling the calf at irregular times may also cause it. Exposure to damp and cold is a potent predisposing cause. Calves separated from their dams and fed considerable quantities of cold milk at long intervals are liable to contract this form of indigestion. Calves fed on artificial feed, used as a substitute for milk, frequently contract it. Damaged feed, sour or rotten milk, milk from dirty cans, skim milk from a dirty creamery skim-milk vat, skim milk hauled warm, exposed to the sun and fed from unclean buckets may all cause this disease. _Symptoms._--The calf is depressed; appetite is poor; sometimes there is fever; the extremities are cold. The dung becomes gradually softer and lighter in color until it is cream colored and little thicker than milk. It has a most offensive odor and may contain clumps of curd. Later it contains mucus and gas bubbles. It sticks to the hair of the tail and buttocks, causing the hair to drop off and the skin to become irritated. There may be pain on passing dung and also abdominal or colicky pain. The calf stands about with the back arched and belly contracted. There may be tympanites. Great weakness ensues in severe cases, and without prompt and successful treatment death soon follows. _Treatment._--Remove the cause. Give appropriate feed of best quality in small quantities. Make sure that the cow furnishing the milk is healthy and is properly fed. Clean all milk vessels. Clean and disinfect the stalls. For the diarrhea give two raw eggs or a cup of strong coffee. If the case is severe, give 1 ounce of castor oil with a teaspoonful of creolin and 20 grains of subnitrate of bismuth. Repeat the bismuth and creolin with flaxseed tea every four hours. Tannopin may be used in doses of 15 to 30 grains. Calves artificially fed on whole or skim milk should receive only such milk as is sweet and has been handled in a sanitary manner. Milk should always be warmed to the temperature of the body before feeding. When calves artificially milk-fed develop diarrhea, the use of the following treatment has given excellent results in many cases: Immediately after milking, or the separation of the skim milk from the cream, formalin in the proportion of 1 to 4,000 should be added to the milk which is used for feeding; this may be closely approximated by adding four drops of formalin to each quart of milk. This medicated milk should be fed to the calf in the usual quantity. When the diarrhea is not controlled in three or four days by this treatment, the additional use of some of the agents recommended above may assist in a recovery. INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; WHITE SCOUR. [See chapter on Diseases of young calves, p. 247.] GASTROENTERITIS. This consists of an inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and of the bowel. Gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the walls of the stomachs and intestines, follows upon irritations more severe or longer continued than those that produce gastrointestinal catarrh. _Causes._--Severe indigestion may be followed by gastroenteritis, or it may be caused by swallowing irritant poisons, such as arsenic or corrosive sublimate or irritant plants. Exposure to cold or inclement weather may produce the disease, especially in debilitated animals or animals fed improperly. It is asserted that if cattle feed on vegetation infested with some kinds of caterpillars this disease may result. _Symptoms._--Dullness; drooping of the ears; dryness of the muzzle; dry skin; staring coat; loins morbidly sensitive to pressure; fullness of the left flank, which is caused by the distention of the fourth stomach by gas. The pulse is small, the gait is feeble and staggering; each step taken is accompanied with a grunt, and this symptom is especially marked if the animal walks in a downward direction. There is loss of appetite, and rumination is suspended. The passages at first are few in number, hard, and are sometimes coated with mucus or with blood. Later a severe diarrhea sets in, when the passages contain mucus and blood and have an offensive odor. There is evidence of colicky pain, and the abdomen is sensitive to pressure. Pain may be continuous. There is fever and acceleration of pulse rate and respirations. Mental depression and even insensibility occur before death. The disease is always severe and often fatal. _Post-mortem appearances._--The mucous membrane of the fourth stomach has a well-marked red color and sometimes presents ulcerations. The wall is thickened and softened, and similar conditions are found in the walls of the intestines. The red discoloration extends in spots or large areas quite through the wall, showing on the outside. _Treatment._--Very small quantities of carefully selected feed must be given and the appetite must not be forced. Protect the animal well from cold and dampness. Internally, give linseed tea, boiled milk, boiled oatmeal gruel, or rice water. These protectives may carry the medicine. Tannopin in doses of 30 to 60 grains is good. Subnitrate of bismuth in doses of 1 to 2 drams may be given. Pulverized opium may be used, if the diarrhea is severe, in 1 to 2 dram doses. If the bowel movements are not free, one may give from a pint to a quart of castor or raw linseed oil. TRAUMATIC INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH. This disease results from the presence of a foreign body. This condition is not rare in cattle, because these animals have the habit of swallowing their feed without careful chewing, and so nails, screws, hairpins, ends of wire, and other metal objects may be swallowed unconsciously. Such objects gravitate to the second stomach, where they may be caught in the folds of the lining mucous membrane, and in some instances the wall of this organ is perforated. From this accident, chronic indigestion results. The symptoms, more or less characteristic, are pain when getting up or lying down; grunting and pain upon sudden motion, especially downhill; coughing; pain on pressure over the second stomach, which lies immediately above the cartilaginous prolongation of the sternum. If the presence of such a foreign body is recognized, it may be removed by a difficult surgical operation, or, as is usually most economical, the animal may be killed for beef, if there is no fever. DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY. [See also Gastrointestinal catarrh, p. 32.] The word "dysentery," as it is commonly used in relation to the diseases of animals, signifies a severe form of diarrhea. _Causes._--Diarrhea is a symptom of irritation of the intestines, resulting in increased secretion or increased muscular contractions, or both. The irritation is sometimes the result of chilling from exposure, improper feeding, irritant feeds, indigestion, organic diseases of the intestines, or parasites. _Symptoms._--Passages from the bowels are frequent, at first consisting of thin dung, but as the disease continues they become watery and offensive smelling, and may be even streaked with blood. At first the animal shows no constitutional disturbance, but later it becomes weak and may exhibit evidence of abdominal pain by looking around to the side, drawing the feet together, lying down, or moving restlessly. Sometimes this malady is accompanied with fever, great depression, loss of strength, rapid loss of flesh, and it may terminate in death. _Treatment._--When the disease depends on irritating properties of the feed which has been supplied to the animal, it is advisable to give a mild purgative, such as a pint of castor or linseed oil. When the secretions of the bowels are irritating, an ounce of carbonate of magnesia and half an ounce of tincture of opium should be shaken up in a quart of linseed tea and given to the animal three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. When there is debility, want of appetite, no fever, but a continuance of the watery discharges from the bowels, then an astringent may be given. For such cases the following is serviceable: Tannic acid, 1 ounce; powdered gentian, 2 ounces; mix and divide into 12 powders, one powder to be given three times a day until the passages present a natural appearance. Each powder may be mixed with a pint and a half of water. Tannopin is a new remedy that is most useful in such cases. The dose is from 30 grains to 2 drams. Useful household remedies are raw eggs, strong coffee, parched rye flour, or decoction of oak bark. In all cases the food must be given sparingly, and it should be carefully selected to insure good quality. Complete rest in a box stall is desirable. When diarrhea is a symptom of a malady characterized by the presence of a blood poison, the treatment appropriate to such disease must be applied. SIMPLE ENTERITIS. [See Gastroenteritis, p. 33.] CROUPOUS ENTERITIS. Under certain conditions, severe irritation of the digestive canal may, in cattle, cause a form of inflammation of the intestines (enteritis) that is characterized by the formation of a false membrane upon the surface of the lining membrane of the intestines, particularly the large ones. _Symptoms._--There is fever, depression, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and in the fecal masses shreds of leathery false membrane may be found. These shreds are sometimes mistaken for parasites or for portions of the wall of the intestine. _Treatment._--Give a pound of Glauber's salt, followed by bicarbonate of soda in doses of 2 ounces four times daily. ENTERITIS (OBSTRUCTION RESULTING FROM INVAGINATION, OR INTUSSUSCEPTION, TWISTING, AND KNOTTING OF THE BOWELS). Inflammation may arise from a knot forming on some part of the small intestine from the portion of the bowel becoming twisted on itself, or from one part of the bowel slipping into another, which is termed invagination. This form of enteritis occurs occasionally in animals of the bovine species. _Causes._--The small intestine, which in the ox rests on the right side of the rumen, is, from the position which it occupies, predisposed to this accident. It has been ascertained that animals which have shown symptoms of this malady have trotted, galloped, or made other violent exertions in coming from drinking, or that they have been chased by dogs or by animals of their own species while at pasture. The accident is most likely to occur among cattle on very hilly pastures. The danger of jumping or running is greatest when the rumen is distended with food. _Symptoms._--This form of enteritis or obstruction is manifested by severe colicky pains; the ox scrapes and strikes the ground with his front and hind feet alternately; keeps lying down and getting up again; he keeps his tail constantly raised and turns his nose frequently to his right flank; he is frequently bloated, or tympanitic, on that side. He refuses feed and does not ruminate, and for some hours suffers severe pains. At first he frequently passes thin dung, and also urinates frequently, but passes only a little urine at a time. On the second day the pains have become less acute; the animal remains lying down; moans occasionally; his pulse is small and quick; he still refuses feed and does not ruminate. At this stage he does not pass any dung, though sometimes a small quantity of bloody mucus may be passed. The animal passes very little urine. This condition may continue for a considerable time, as cattle so affected may live for 15 or even 20 days. _Post-mortem appearance._--At death the bowels are found to be misplaced or obstructed, as mentioned above, and inflamed, the inflammation always originating at the point where the intestine has been invaginated, twisted, or knotted. Sometimes the part is gangrenous, the compression of the blood vessels preventing circulation, and thus causing the death of the tissues. _Treatment._--Purgatives, anodynes, and other remedies are of no service in such cases, and bleeding also fails to produce any benefit. Indeed, it is usually true that in such cases treatment is useless. Some cases are recorded in which an incision has been made in the flank, so as to enable the operator to restore the intestine to its normal position or to remove the kink. CONSTIPATION. Constipation is to be regarded rather as a symptom of disease or of faults in feeding than as a disease in itself. It occurs in almost all general fevers unless the bowels are involved in local disease, in obstructions of all kinds, from feeding on dry, bulky feed, etc. In order to remove the constipation the treatment must be applied to remove the causes which give rise to it. Calves sometimes suffer from constipation immediately after birth when the meconium that accumulates in the bowels before birth is not passed. In such cases, give a rectal injection of warm water and an ounce of castor oil shaken up with an ounce of new milk. The mother's milk is the best food to prevent constipation in the new-born calf, as it contains a large amount of fatty matter which renders it laxative in its effects. It is usually better to treat habitual constipation by a change of diet than by medicine. Flaxseed is a good feed laxative. If the constipation has lasted long, repeated small doses of purgatives are better than a single large dose. INTESTINAL WORMS. [See chapter on "The animal parasites of cattle," p. 502.] RUPTURES (VENTRAL HERNIA). Ventral hernia, or rupture, is an escape of some one of the abdominal organs through a rupture in the abdominal muscles, the skin remaining intact. The rumen, the small intestine, or part of the large intestine, and the fourth stomach are the parts which usually form a ventral hernia in bovine animals. _Causes._--Hernia is frequently produced by blows of the horns, kicks, and falls. In old cows hernia may sometimes occur without any direct injury. HERNIA OF THE RUMEN.--Hernia of the rumen is generally situated on the left side of the abdomen, on account of the situation of the rumen. In exceptional cases it may take place on the right side, and in such cases it also generally happens that some folds of the intestine pass into the hernial sac. Hernias have been classified into simple or complicated, recent or old, traumatic (from mechanical injury) or spontaneous. In recent traumatic hernia there is swelling on the left side of the lower part of the abdomen. The swelling is greatest in the cases of hernia which are situated on the lower part of the abdomen. Unless an examination is made immediately after the injury has been inflicted it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to ascertain the exact extent of the rupture, owing to the swelling which subsequently takes place. Frequently there is no loss of appetite, fever, or other general symptoms attending the injury. From the twelfth to the fifteenth day the swelling has generally subsided to such an extent that it is possible by an examination to determine the extent of the rupture. In old cows what is termed spontaneous hernia may sometimes take place without any direct injury. The occurrence of this form of hernia is explained by the increase in the size of the abdomen, which takes place in an advanced stage of pregnancy, causing a thinning and stretching of the muscular fibers, which at last may rupture, or give way. Such hernias frequently occur about the end of the period of gestation, and in some instances have contained the right sac of the rumen, the omentum, the small and large intestines, a portion of the liver, and the pregnant uterus. In old hernias the swelling is soft and elastic, and if they have not contracted adhesions to the sides of the laceration, they can be made to disappear by pressure carefully applied. Sometimes this accident is complicated by a rupture of the rumen, constituting a complicated hernia. If a portion of the contents of the rumen escape into the abdomen, the case will be aggravated by the occurrence of peritonitis. HERNIA OF THE BOWEL.--When the intestines (Pl. III, fig. 6) form the contents of the hernia, it will be situated at the right side of the abdomen. In an intestinal hernia the swelling is usually not painful, of a doughy consistence or elastic, according as the intestine does or does not contain alimentary matter. This swelling can generally be made to disappear by pressure, and when it has been reduced one can easily recognize the direction and extent of the hernial opening. Hernias of the bowel which are situated at the upper and right side of the abdomen are usually formed by the small intestine. They are less easily reduced than a hernia in a lower situation, but when reduction has been effected they are less readily reproduced than those occurring lower. In hernias of the small intestine, adhesion of the protruding parts to the walls of the opening, or strangulation, are complications which sometimes take place. If adhesion has taken place the hernia can not be reduced by pressure, and when strangulation has occurred the animal shows symptoms of pain--is restless, turns its nose to the painful part, and shows those symptoms which are usually collectively designated under the term colic. If relief is not afforded, the animal will die. HERNIA OF THE RENNET, OR FOURTH STOMACH.--This disease occasionally occurs in calves and is usually caused by a blow from a cow's horn on the right flank of the calf. After such an accident a swelling forms on the right flank near the last rib. This swelling may be neither hot nor painful, even at first, and is soft to the touch. It can be made to disappear by careful pressure, when the sides of the aperture through which it has passed can be felt. The application of pressure so as to cause the disappearance of the hernia is best made immediately after the occurrence of the accident, or when the edema which accompanies the swelling has disappeared. _Treatment._--When a hernia is reducible--that is, can be pushed back into the abdomen--then, if it is of recent occurrence, it is advisable to maintain the natural position of the parts by bandaging and to allow the walls of the laceration to grow together. The bowels should be kept reasonably empty by avoiding the use of bulky feed, and the animal must be kept quiet. The following method of bandaging is recommended by Bouley: First prepare a bandage (must be of strong material), about 10 yards long and between 3 and 4 inches broad, and a flexible and solid piece of pasteboard adapted in size to the surface of the hernia. The protruding organ must then be replaced in the abdomen and maintained in that position during the application of the bandage. This being done, a layer of melted pitch and turpentine is quickly spread on the skin covering the seat of the hernia, so as to extend somewhat beyond that space. This adhesive layer is then covered with a layer of fine tow, then a new layer of pitch and turpentine is spread on the tow, and the piece of pasteboard is applied on the layer of pitch, its outer surface being covered with the same preparation. Lastly, the bandage, adhering to the piece of pasteboard, to the skin, and to the different turns which it makes around the body, is carefully applied so as to form an immovable, rigid, and solid bandage, which will retain the hernia long enough for the wound in the abdominal walls to heal permanently. If the hernia is old and small it may be treated by injecting a strong solution of common salt about the edges of the tear. This causes swelling and inflammation, which, respectively, forces the protruded organ back and closes the opening. There is some risk attached to this method of treatment. In small, old, ventral hernias the method of compressing and sloughing off the skin has been used successfully. If the hernia is large a radical operation will be necessary, and this is also true when the symptoms indicate that a hernia is strangulated. This operation is performed by cutting down on the hernia, restoring the organ to the abdominal cavity, and then closing the wound with two sets of stitches; the inner stitches, in the muscular wall, should be made with catgut and the outer stitches, in the skin, may be made with silk or silver wire. The strictest surgical cleanliness must be observed. Bleeding vessels should be tied. Then a compress composed of ten or twelve folds of cloth must be placed smoothly over the seat of injury and a bandage applied around the body, the two ends being fastened at the back. In the smaller kinds of hernia, nitric acid may sometimes be applied with success. This treatment should not be applied until the swelling and inflammation attending the appearance of the hernia have subsided; then, the contents of the hernia having been returned, the surface of skin corresponding to it is sponged over with a solution composed of 1 part of nitric acid to 2 of water. This treatment acts by exciting considerable inflammation, which has the effect of causing swelling, and thus frequently closing the hernial opening and preventing the contents of the sac from returning. A second application should not be made until the inflammation excited by the first has subsided. In what is termed spontaneous hernia it is useless to apply any kind of treatment. UMBILICAL HERNIA.--The umbilicus, or navel, is the aperture through which the blood vessels pass from the mother to the fetus, and naturally the sides of this aperture ought to adhere or unite after birth. In very young animals, and sometimes in newborn calves, this aperture in the abdominal muscles remains open and a part of the bowel or a portion of the mesentery may slip through the opening, constituting what is called umbilical hernia. The wall of the sac is formed by the skin, which is covered on the inner surface by a layer of cellular tissue, and within this there is sometimes, but not always, a layer of peritoneum. The contents of the hernia may be formed by a part of the bowel, by a portion of the peritoneum, or may contain portions of both peritoneum and bowel. When the sac contains only the peritoneum it has a doughy feel, but when it is formed by a portion of the bowel it is more elastic on pressure. _Causes._--In the new-born animal the opening of the navel is generally large, and may sometimes give way to the pressure of the bowel on account of the weak and relaxed condition of the abdominal muscles. This defective and abnormal condition of the umbilicus is frequently hereditary. It may be occasioned by roughly pulling away the umbilical cord; through kicks or blows on the belly; through any severe straining by which the sides of the navel are stretched apart. We may mention in this connection that it is best in new-born calves to tie the umbilical cord tightly about 2 inches from the navel, and then to leave it alone, when in most cases it will drop off in a few days, leaving the navel closed. _Treatment._--It is well to bear in mind that many, and especially the smaller, umbilical hernias heal spontaneously; that is, nature effects a cure. As the animal gets older the abdominal muscles get stronger and possess more power of resistance to pressure, the bowels become larger and do not pass so readily through a small opening, so that from a combination of causes there is a gradual growing together or adhesion of the sides of the navel. In cases of umbilical hernia in which there are no indications that a spontaneous cure will take place, the calf should be laid on its back; immediately on this being done the hernia will often disappear into the abdomen. If it does not, its reduction may be brought about by gentle handling, endeavoring, if need be, to empty the organs forming the hernia before returning them into the abdomen. After the hernia has been returned, the hair should be clipped from the skin covering it and a compress composed of 10 or 12 folds of linen or cotton should be applied, first smearing the skin with pitch and then a bandage about 3 inches wide should be passed round the body so as to retain the compress in position. The lower part of the compress should be smeared with pitch, and also those portions of the bandage which pass over it, so as to keep it solid and prevent it from shifting. In some cases it will be found that the contents of the sac can not be returned into the abdomen, and this generally arises from the fact that some part of the contents of the sac has grown to or become adherent to the edges of the umbilical opening. In such a case the skin must be carefully laid open in the long direction, the adhesions of the protruding organs carefully separated from the umbilicus, and after the protruding parts have been returned into the abdomen, the sides of the umbilicus must be freshened if necessary by paring, and then the edges of the opening brought together by catgut stitches; the wound in the skin must then also be brought together by stitches. The wound must be carefully dressed every day and a bandage passed round the body so as to cover and protect the part operated on. In small hernias nitric acid has been used successfully in the same manner as has been described in the treatment of ventral hernia. Sulphuric acid has also been used for a similar purpose, diluting it to the extent of 1 part of acid to 3 or 5 of water. In thin-skinned animals the weaker preparations ought to be preferred, and caution must be exercised in using such preparations so as not to destroy the tissues on which they are applied. Another method of treatment is, after the contents of the sac have been returned into the abdomen, to tie a piece of strong waxed cord round the pendulous portion which formed the outer covering of the hernia. The string is apt to slacken after two or three days, when a new piece of cord should be applied above the first one. The constriction of the skin sets up inflammation, which generally extends to the umbilicus and causes the edges to adhere together, and by the time the portion of skin below the ligature has lost its vitality and dropped off, the umbilicus is closed and there is no danger of the abdominal organs protruding through it. This is what takes place when this method has a favorable result, though if the umbilicus does not become adherent and the skin sloughs, the bowels will protrude through the opening. GUT-TIE (PERITONEAL HERNIA).--In peritoneal hernia of the ox a loop or knuckle of intestine enters from the abdomen into a rent in that part of the peritoneum which is situated at the margin of the hip bone or it passes under the remains of the spermatic cord, the end of which may be grown fast to the inner inguinal ring. The onward pressure of the bowel, as well as the occasional turning of the latter round the spermatic cord, is the cause of the cord exercising considerable pressure on the bowel, which occasions irritation, obstructs the passage of excrement, and excites inflammation, which terminates in gangrene and death. The rent in the peritoneum is situated at the upper and front part of the pelvis, nearer to the sacrum than the pubes. _Causes._--Among the causes of peritoneal hernia considerable importance is attached to a method of castration which is practiced in certain districts, viz, the tearing or rupturing of the spermatic cord by main force instead of dividing it at a proper distance above the testicle in a surgical manner. After this violent and rough method of operating, the cord retracts into the abdomen and its stump becomes adherent to some part of the peritoneum, or it may wind around the bowel and then the stump becomes adherent, so that strangulation of the bowel results. The rough dragging on the cord may also cause a tear in the peritoneum, the result of which need not be described. The severe exertion of ascending hills and mountains, drawing heavy loads, or the straining which oxen undergo while fighting each other may also give rise to peritoneal hernia. _Symptoms._--The ox suddenly becomes very restless, stamps with his feet, moves backward and forward, hurriedly lies down, rises, moves his tail uneasily, and kicks at his belly with the foot of the affected side. The pain evinced may diminish but soon returns again. In the early stage there are frequent passages of dung, but after the lapse of 18 or 24 hours this ceases, the bowel apparently being emptied to the point of strangulation, and the passages now consist only of a little mucus mixed with blood. When injections are given at this time the water passes out of the bowel without even being colored. The animal lies down on the side where the hernia exists and stretches out his hind feet in a backward direction. These two particular symptoms serve to distinguish this affection from enteritis and invagination of the bowel. As time passes the animal becomes quieter, but this cessation of pain may indicate that gangrene of the bowel has set in, and may, therefore, under certain circumstances, be considered a precursor of death. Gangrene may take place in from four to six days, when perforation of the bowel may occur and death result in a short time. _Treatment._--In the first place the ox should be examined by passing the oiled hand and arm into the rectum; the hand should be passed along the margin of the pelvis, beginning at the sacrum and continuing downward toward the inguinal ring, when a soft, painful swelling will be felt, which may vary from the size of an apple to that of the two fists. This swelling will be felt to be tightly compressed by the spermatic cord. It very rarely happens that there is any similar swelling on the left side, though in such cases it is best to make a thorough examination. The bowel has sometimes been released from its position by driving the ox down a hill; by causing him to jump from a height of 2 feet to the ground; the expedient of trotting him also has been resorted to with the hope that the jolting movement might bring about a release of the bowel. If the simple expedients mentioned have been tried and failed, then the hand being passed into the rectum should be pressed gently on the swelling in an upward and forward direction, so as to endeavor to push the imprisoned portion of the bowel back into the abdomen. While this is being done the ox's hind feet should stand on higher ground than the front, so as to favor the slipping out of the bowel by its own weight, and at the same time an assistant should squeeze the animal's loins, so as to cause it to bend downward and so relax the band formed by the spermatic cord. If the imprisoned portion of gut is freed, which may be ascertained by the disappearance of the swelling, the usual sounds produced by the bowels moving in the abdomen will be heard, and in a few hours the feces and urine will be passed as usual. If the means mentioned fail to release the imprisoned portion of the gut, then an incision about 4 inches long must be made in the right flank in a downward direction, the hand introduced into the abdomen, the situation and condition of swelling exactly ascertained, and then a probe-pointed knife inserted between the imprisoned bowel and band compressing it, and turned outward against the band, the latter being then cautiously divided and the imprisoned gut allowed to escape, or, if necessary, the bowel should be drawn gently from its position into the abdomen. The wound in the flank must be brought together in the same way as in the case of the wound made in operating for impaction of the rumen. WOUNDS OF THE ABDOMEN. A wound of the abdomen may merely penetrate the skin; but as such cases are not attended with much danger, nor their treatment with much difficulty, we will consider here merely those wounds which penetrate the entire thickness of the abdominal walls and expose to a greater or less extent the organs contained in that cavity. _Causes._--Such accidents may be occasioned by falling on fragments of broken glass or other sharp objects. A blow from the horn of another animal may penetrate the abdomen. Exposure and protrusion of some of the abdominal organs may also be occasioned by the incautious use of caustics in the treatment of umbilical or ventral hernia. The parts which generally escape through an abdominal wound are the small intestine and floating colon. _Symptoms._--When the abdominal wound is small, the bowel exposed presents the appearance of a small round tumor, but in a few moments a loop of intestine may emerge from the opening. The animal then shows symptoms of severe pain by pawing with his feet, which has the effect of accelerating the passage of new loops of intestine through the wound, so that the mass which they form may even touch the ground. The pain becomes so great that the ox now not only paws but lies down and rolls, thus tearing and crushing his bowels. In such cases it is best to slaughter the animal at once; but in the case of a valuable animal in which tearing and crushing of the bowels has not taken place the bowels should be washed with freshly boiled water reduced to the temperature of the body and returned and the wounds in the muscle and skin brought together in a manner somewhat similar to that described in speaking of ventral hernia. DISEASES OF THE LIVER AND SPLEEN. JAUNDICE (THE YELLOWS, OR CONGESTION OF THE LIVER). When jaundice exists, there is a yellow appearance of the white of the eyes and of the mucous membrane of the mouth. A similar aspect of the skin may also be observed in animals which are either partly or altogether covered with white hair. Jaundice is then merely a symptom of disease and ought to direct attention to ascertaining, if possible, the cause or causes which have given rise to it. A swollen condition of the mucous membrane of that part of the bowel called the duodenum may produce jaundice, as that mechanically closes the orifice of the biliary duct. In constipation there is an inactive or torpid condition of the bowel, and the bile which passes into the intestine may be absorbed and cause the yellow staining of jaundice. Jaundice is one of the symptoms of Texas fever. It may also arise from the presence of parasites or gallstones in the ducts, forming a mechanical obstruction to the onward flow of bile. The conditions under which jaundice most commonly calls for treatment are when cattle have been highly fed and kept in a state of inactivity. At such time there is an excess of nutritive elements carried into the blood, which is associated with increased fullness of the portal vein and hepatic artery. When continued high feeding has produced this congested state of the liver, the functions of that organ become disordered, so that a considerable portion of the bile, instead of being excreted and passing into the intestine, is absorbed by the hepatic veins. The structure of the liver is shown in Plate IV. _Symptoms._--This disease, although rare, occurs most frequently among stall-fed cattle. Pressure along the margin of the short ribs on the right side produces pain; the appetite is poor and the animal shows hardly any inclination to drink; the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are yellow, the urine has a yellow or brown appearance, the animal lies down much and moves with reluctance, moans occasionally, and has a tottering gait. The ears and horns are alternately hot and cold; in cows the secretion of milk is much diminished, and that which is secreted has a bitter taste; sometimes the animal has a dry, painful cough and presents a dull, stupefied appearance. _Treatment._--In such cases it is advisable to produce a free action of the bowels, so as to remove the usually congested condition of the portal vein and liver. For this purpose the administration of the following dose is recommended: Sulphate of soda, 16 ounces; molasses, 1 pint; warm water, 1 quart. The sulphate of soda is dissolved by stirring it up in tepid water. Following this the animal should have a heaping tablespoonful of artificial Carlsbad salt in the feed three times daily. This treatment may be assisted by giving occasional injections of warm water and soap. The diet should be laxative and moderate in quantity and may consist of coarse bran mash, pulped roots, grass in the season, and hay in moderate quantity. HEPATITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER). Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver and usually occurs as a complication of some infectious disease. It may also occur as a complication of gastrointestinal catarrh or in hot weather from overheating or damaged (putrid or fermented) feeds. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are sometimes obscure and their real significance is frequently overlooked. The most prominent symptoms are yellowness of the white of the eye and of the membrane lining the mouth; the appetite is poor, the body presents an emaciated appearance, the feces are light colored, while the urine is likely to be unusually dark; there is thirst, and pain is caused by pressing over the liver. The gait is weak and the animal lies down more than usual, and while doing so frequently rests its head on the side of its chest. _Treatment._--Give a purge of Glauber's salt and after it has operated give artificial Carlsbad salts in each feed, as advised under "Jaundice." Give green feed and plenty of water. Oil of turpentine should be rubbed in well once a day over the region of the liver. The skin on which it should be applied extends from the false ribs on the right side to 6 inches in front of the last one, and from the backbone to 12 inches on the right side of it. FLUKE DISEASE. [See chapter on "The animal parasites of cattle," p. 502.] SPLENITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE SPLEEN). This disease occurs almost solely as a result of the existence of some infectious disease, and the symptoms caused by it merge with the symptoms of the accompanying causative disease. The spleen is seriously involved and becomes enlarged and soft in Texas fever, anthrax, and blood poisoning. DISEASES OF THE PERITONEUM. PERITONITIS. Peritonitis consists of an inflammation of the peritoneum, which is the thin, delicate membrane that lines the abdomen and covers the abdominal organs. _Causes._--Wounds are the usual cause in cattle. The wound may be of the abdominal wall or of the intestines, stomach, or uterus; or inflammation may extend from one of the organs of the abdominal cavity to the peritoneum; so this disease may complicate enteritis or inflamed womb. A sharp metal body may perforate the second stomach and allow the gastric contents to escape, irritating the peritoneum. This disease may follow castration or operation for hernia. _Symptoms._--A continuous or occasional shivering; the animal lies down, but appears uneasy; it frequently turns its head toward its belly and lows plaintively; pressure on the flanks produces pain; has no appetite; muzzle is dry and no rumination; while standing, its legs are placed well under its body; pulse small and hard. The evacuations from the bowels are dry and hard. If this disease is complicated by the presence of inflammation of the bowels, the pain is more severe and the animal is more restless. The skin is cold and dry in the early stage of this disease, but in a more advanced stage this condition may be succeeded by heat of the skin and quick breathing. The fits of trembling, uneasiness, small and hard pulse, and tension of the left flank are symptoms the presence of which would enable one to reach the conclusion that peritonitis exists. _Post-mortem appearance._--The membrane lining the abdomen and covering the surface of the bowels is reddened to a greater or less extent, and there is usually considerable serous, or watery, fluid collected in the abdomen. _Treatment._--When we have to do with the form of peritonitis resulting from an injury, as when the horn of another animal has been thrust through the abdominal walls, this lesion must be treated in accordance with directions before given, but the general treatment must be similar to that which follows. Peritonitis resulting from castration or from parturient fever must also be treated in connection with the special conditions which give rise to it, as the general treatment of this disease must be modified to some extent by the exciting cause. The aim must be to discover and remove the cause. The cause must be treated according to its nature. Harms strongly recommends borax in the treatment of peritonitis. He gives 6 ounces in the first 24 hours, divided into three doses, and afterwards he gives 6 drams three times daily. Opium in doses of 2 to 3 drams may be given. To bring on evacuations of the bowels it is better to give rectal injections than to administer purges. The strength may be sustained by coffee or camphor. The body should be warmly clothed, and it is advisable, when practicable, to have a blanket which has been wrung out of hot water placed over the abdomen, then covered by several dry blankets, which are maintained in position by straps or ropes passing round the body. The wet blanket must be changed as it cools--the object of treatment being to warm the surface of the body and to determine as much blood to the skin as possible. The diet should consist of laxative food and drinks, such as linseed tea. If peritonitis assumes chronic form the diet should be nutritious, such as selected clover hay, linseed cake, grass, etc., and iodid of potassium should be given three times a day in gram doses dissolved in a pint of water. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN (ASCITES). In this disease there is a serous, or watery, effusion in the cavity of the abdomen. _Causes._--When old animals are fed on innutritious feed or when reduced by disease, they become anemic; in other words, their blood becomes impoverished and dropsy may follow. An innutritious and insufficient diet produces the same effect in young animals. It is one of the results of peritonitis, and may also arise from acute or chronic inflammation of the liver, such as is of common occurrence when flukes are present in the liver in large numbers. Heart disease and chronic lung disease may be followed by ascites. It is sometimes, in calves, a symptom of infestation with worms. _Symptoms._--A gradual increase in the size of the abdomen at its lower part, while the flanks becomes hollow; pallor of the mucous membrane of the mouth and eye; weak and sluggish gait; want of appetite, and irregularity in ruminating. On percussion or tapping the surface of the abdomen with the fingers, a dull sound is produced. If the hand and arm are oiled and passed into the rectum as far as possible, on moving the hand from one side to the other the fluctuation caused by the presence of fluid in the abdomen may be felt. _Treatment._--If possible the cause must be discovered and removed. The diet should be nutritious, and in those cases in which we have merely to deal with anemia (the bloodless state) arising from insufficient diet, the use of tonics and diuretics, at the same time keeping the skin warm, may bring about a gradual absorption of the fluid contained in the abdomen. One of the following powders may be mixed with the animal's feed three times a day; or, if there is any uncertainty as to its being taken in that way, it should be mixed with sirup, so as to form a paste, and smeared well back on the animal's tongue with a flat wooden spoon: Carbonate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 3 ounces; powdered nitrate of potassium, 3 ounces; mix and divide into 12 powders. The administration of purgatives which promote a watery discharge from the mucous surface of the bowels also tends, by diminishing the serum of the blood, to bring about absorption and a gradual removal of the fluid contained in the abdomen. Large doses should not be given, but moderate ones should be administered morning and night, so as to produce a laxative effect on the bowels for several days. To attain this end the following may be used: Sulphate of soda, 8 ounces; powdered ginger, half an ounce; to be mixed in 2 quarts of tepid water and given at one dose. * * * * * DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE I. Position of the first stomach (rumen or paunch) on the left side. The area inclosed by heavy dotted lines represents the rumen; the elongated, shaded organ is the spleen resting upon it. The skin and muscles have been removed from the ribs to show the position of the lungs and their relation to the paunch. PLATE II. Stomach of ruminants. Fig. 1. Stomach of a full-grown sheep, 1/5 natural size (after Thanhoffer, from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals): _a_, rumen, or first stomach; _b_, reticulum, or second stomach; _c_, omasum, or third stomach; _d_, abomasum, or fourth stomach; _e_, esophagus, or gullet, opening into the first and second stomachs; _f_, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine; _g_, opening of second stomach into third; _h_, opening of third stomach into fourth. The lines indicate the course of the food in the stomachs. The incompletely masticated food passes down the esophagus, or gullet, into the first and second stomachs, in which a churning motion is kept up, carrying the food from side to side and from stomach to stomach. From the first stomach regurgitation takes place; that is, the food is returned through the gullet to the mouth to be more thoroughly chewed, and this constitutes what is known as "chewing the cud." From the second stomach the food passes into the third, and from the third into the fourth, or true, stomach, and from there into the intestines. Fig. 2. Stomach of ox (after Colin, from R. Meade Smith's Physiology of Domestic Animals): _a_, rumen; _b_, reticulum; _c_, omasum; _d_, abomasum; _e_, esophagus; _f_, opening of fourth stomach into small intestine. Fürstenberg calculated that in an ox of 1,400 pounds weight the capacity of the stomach is as follows: Per cent. Rumen, 149.25 quarts, liquid measure 62.4 Reticulum, 23.77 quarts 10 Omasum, 36.98 quarts 15 Abomasum, 29.05 quarts 12.6 According to Colon-- Quarts. The capacity of a beef's stomach is 266.81 Small intestine 69.74 Cecum 9.51 Colon and rectum 25.58 Fig. 1. Clinical thermometer, 4/5 natural size. This is used to determine the temperature of the animal body. The thermometer is passed into the rectum after having been moistened with a little saliva from the mouth, or after having had a little oil or lard rubbed upon it to facilitate its passage. There it is allowed to remain two or three minutes, then withdrawn, and the temperature read as in any ordinary thermometer. The clinical thermometer is made self-registering; that is, the mercury in the stem remains at the height to which it was forced by the heat of the body until it is shaken back into the bulb by taking hold of the upper portion of the instrument and giving it a short, sharp swing. The normal temperature of cattle varies from 100° to 103° F. In young animals it is somewhat higher than in old. The thermometer is a very useful instrument and frequently is the means by which disease is detected before the appearance of any external sign. [Illustration: PLATE I. SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE RUMEN.] [Illustration: PLATE II. STOMACH OF RUMINANTS.] [Illustration: PLATE III. INSTRUMENTS USED IN TREATING DISEASES OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS.] [Illustration: PLATE IV. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE LIVER.] [Illustration: PLATE V. ERGOT IN HAY.] [Illustration: PLATE VI. ERGOTISM.] Fig. 2. Simple probang, used to dislodge foreign bodies, like apples, potatoes, eggs, etc., which have become fastened or stuck in the esophagus or gullet. Fig. 3. Grasping or forceps probang. This instrument, also intended to remove obstructions from the gullet, has a spring forceps at one end in the place of the cup-like arrangement at the end of the simple probang. The forceps are closed while the probang is being introduced; their blades are regulated by a screw in the handle of the instrument. This probang is used to grasp and withdraw an article which may have lodged in the gullet and can not be forced into the stomach by use of the simple probang. Fig. 4. Wooden gag, used when the probang is to be passed. The gag is a piece of wood which fits in the animal's mouth; a cord passes over the head to hold it in place. The central opening in the wood is intended for the passage of the probang. Figs. 5_a_ and 5_b._ Trocar and cannula; 5_a_ shows the trocar covered by the cannula; 5_b_, the cannula from which the trocar has been withdrawn. This instrument is used when the rumen or first stomach becomes distended with gas. The trocar covered by the cannula is forced into the rumen, the trocar withdrawn, and the cannula allowed to remain until the gas has escaped. Fig. 6. Section at right angles through the abdominal wall, showing a hernia or rupture. (Taken from D'Arboval. Dictionnaire de Médecine, de Chirurgie de Hygiene): _a a_, The abdominal muscles cut across; _v_, opening in the abdominal wall permitting the intestines _i i_ to pass through and outward between the abdominal wall and the skin; _p p_, peritoneum, or membrane lining the abdominal cavity, carried through the opening _o_ by the loop of intestine and forming the sac S, the outer walls of which are marked _b f b._ PLATE IV. Microscopic anatomy of the liver. The liver is composed of innumerable small lobules, from 1/20 to 1/10 inch in diameter. The lobules are held together by a small amount of fibrous tissue, in which the bile ducts and larger blood vessels are lodged. Fig. 1 Illustrates the structure of a lobule; _v v_, interlobular veins or the veins between the lobules. These are branches of the portal vein, which carries blood from the stomach and intestines to the liver; _c c_, capillaries, or very fine blood vessels, extending as a very fine network between the groups of liver cells from the interlobular vein to the center of the lobule and emptying there into the intralobular vein to the center of the lobule; _v c_, intralobular vein, or the vein within the lobule. This vessel passes out of the lobule and there becomes the sublobular vein; _v s_, sublobular vein. This joins other similar veins and helps to form the hepatic vein, through which the blood leaves the liver; _d d_, the position of the liver cells between the meshes of the capillaries; _A A_, branches of the hepatic artery to the interlobular connective tissue and the walls of the large veins and large bile ducts. These branches are seen at _r r_ and form the vena vascularis; _v v_, vena vascularis; _i i_, branches of the hepatic artery entering the substance of the lobule and connecting with capillaries from the interlobular vein. The use of the hepatic artery is to nourish the liver, while the other vessels carry blood to be modified by the liver cells in certain important directions; _g_, branches of the bile ducts, carrying bile from the various lobules into the gall bladder and into the intestines; _x x_, intralobular bile capillaries between the liver cells. These form a network of very minute tubes surrounding each ultimate cell, which receives the bile as it is formed by the liver cells and carried outward as described. Fig. 2. Isolated liver cells: _c_, blood capillary; _a_, fine bile capillary channel. PLATE V. Ergot in hay: 1, bluegrass; 2, timothy; 3, wild rye; 4, redtop. Ergot is a fungus which may affect any member of the grass family. The spore of the fungus, by some means brought in contact with the undeveloped seed of the grass, grows, obliterates the seed, and practically takes its place. When hay affected with ergot is fed to animals it is productive of a characteristic and serious affection or poisoning known as ergotism. PLATE VI. Ergotism, or the effects of ergot. The lower part of the limb of a cow, showing the loss of skin and flesh in a narrow ring around the pastern bone and the exposure of the bone itself. * * * * * POISONS AND POISONING. By V. T. ATKINSON, V. S. [Revised by C. DWIGHT MARSH, Ph. D.] DEFINITION OF A POISON. To define clearly the meaning of the word "poison" is somewhat difficult. Even in law the word has never been defined, and when a definition is attempted we are apt to include either too much or too little. The following definition given by Husemann is perhaps the best: "Poisons are those substances, inorganic or organic, existing in the organism or introduced from the outside, produced artificially or formed as natural products, which, through their chemical nature, under definite conditions, so affect some organ of a living organism that the health or well-being of the organism is temporarily or chronically injured." The common conception of a poison is any substance which, in small quantity, will destroy life, except such as act by purely mechanical means, as, for example, powdered glass. Some substances that are not usually looked upon as poisons may destroy life if given in large doses, such as common salt. Other substances which are perfectly harmless when taken into the body in the usual way are poisons if injected into the circulation, such as distilled water, milk, or glycerin. Living organisms are not "chemical substances," and are not considered in this connection. SOURCES OF POISONING. Poisoning may come from many causes, among the chief of which are the following: (1) _Errors in medication._--By using the wrong substance or too large dose an animal may be poisoned. (2) _The exposure of poisons used for horticultural, technical, or other legitimate purposes._--Poisons used for spraying plants, disinfecting, poisoning vermin, dipping cattle or sheep, painting, smelting, dyeing, or other purposes may be so handled as to come within the reach of animals. (3) _Damaged food._--Food that has undergone putrefaction or certain kinds of fermentation or heating, may have become poisonous, producing forage poisoning, meat poisoning, cheese poisoning, etc. (4) _Poisonous plants in the pasture or forage._ (5) _The bite or sting of a poisonous insect or the bite of an animal._ (6) _Malicious poisoning._ THE ACTION OF POISONS. The action of poisons may be either local, and exerted directly on the tissues with which they come in contact, or remote, acting through the circulation or the nervous system; or both local and remote action may be exerted by the same drug. Poisons which act locally generally either destroy by corrosion the tissues with which they come in contact or by inhalation set up acute inflammation. When any corrosive agent is taken into the stomach in poisonous quantities, a group of symptoms is developed which is common to all. The tissues with which the agent comes in contact are destroyed, sloughing and acute inflammation of the surrounding structures take place; intense pain in the abdomen and death ensue. In a like manner, but with less rapidity, the same result is reached if the agent used be not of a sufficiently corrosive nature to destroy the tissues, but sufficiently irritating to set up acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract. If the poison exerts a remote influence alone, the action is quite different, little or no local effect being produced upon the digestive organs. To produce an effect on some part of the body distant from the channel of entrance, a poison must have been absorbed and carried in the blood to the central nervous system or other region involved. The poisonous effect of any substance is modified by the quantity used; by its chemical combinations; by the part of the animal structure with which it comes in contact; by the physical condition of the subject; and also by the rapidity with which the poison is excreted. As an illustration, opium may be given with safety in much larger doses to an animal suffering from acute pain than to one free from pain, and to an adult animal with greater safety than to a young one. The rapidity with which the poison is absorbed, owing to the part of the body with which it is brought in contact, is also an important factor. So marked is this quality that some agents which have the power of destroying life with almost absolute certainty when introduced beneath the skin, may be taken into the stomach without causing inconvenience, as curara, the arrow poisons, or the venomous secretion of snakes. Other agents in chemical combination may tend to intensify, lessen, or wholly neutralize the poisonous effect. For example, arsenic in itself has well-marked poisonous properties, but when brought in contact with dialyzed iron it forms an insoluble compound and becomes innocuous. Idiosyncrasies are not so noticeable in cattle practice as in practice among human beings, but the uncertainty with which some drugs exert their influence would lead us to believe that well-marked differences in susceptibility exist. Even in some cases a tolerance for poison is engendered, so that in a herd of animals equally exposed injurious or fatal effects do not appear with uniformity. For example, among cattle that are compelled to drink water holding in solution a salt of lead the effects of the poisoning will be found varying all the way from fatality to imperceptibility. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF POISONING. It is not always easy to differentiate between poisoning and some disease. Indeed, examination during the life of the animal is sometimes wholly inadequate to the formation of an opinion as to whether the case is one of poisoning or, if it is, as to what the poison may be. A chemical and physical examination after the death of the animal may be necessary to clear up the doubt. On the other hand, the symptoms may be of such a nature as to point unmistakably to poisoning with a certain agent. In general, the following classes of symptoms may be regarded as indicative of poisoning: Sudden onset of the disease without visible cause, a number of animals being similarly affected at once, with severe gastrointestinal disorder or derangement of the nervous system, or both; sudden alteration of heart action in relation to frequency, force, or rhythm; local irritation, dyspnea, or change in the urine or urination. After death, lesions of the greatest variety may be found, and it is necessary for one to be skilled in anatomy and pathology in order to determine their significance. Oftentimes the stomach and intestines are red, have thick walls, and contain blood. This signifies a severe irritant, such as arsenic or corrosive sublimate. Other alterations sometimes found are inflammation of the kidneys or bladder, points of hemorrhage in various organs, changes in the blood, congestion of the lungs, and certain microscopic changes. GENERAL TREATMENT. The treatment of animals suffering from poison must vary according to the nature of the toxic agent. There are a few general plans of action, however, which should be followed so far as possible. In man and in some of the smaller animals it is possible to eliminate unabsorbed poison by the use of the stomach pump or by causing vomiting. These proceedings are impracticable in cattle. It is well, therefore, in many cases to endeavor to expel the unabsorbed poison by emptying the digestive tract, so far as may be, with a nonirritating purge. Castor oil in doses of 1 pint to 2 quarts is adapted to this purpose. If the poison is known to be nonirritant--as a narcotic plant--from 10 to 20 drops of croton oil may be given with a quart of castor oil. When poisons are somewhat prolonged in their effect, Epsom salt in doses of 1 pound can be given advantageously. To protect the mucous membrane from the action of strong irritants, one may give flaxseed tea, barley water, the whites of eggs, milk, butter, olive oil, or fresh lard. Chemical antidotes may sometimes be used for special poisons, as advised below. In general, if an acid has been taken it may be neutralized with an alkali, such as chalk, magnesia, bicarbonate of soda (baking soda), ammonia (diluted), or soap. If the poison is an alkali, such as caustic soda or potash (lye), or ammonia, an acid, such as diluted (1 per cent) sulphuric acid or vinegar, may be administered. Special treatments and antidotes are considered below. A poisonous agent may be so gradually introduced into the system as to slowly develop the power of resistance against its own action. In other cases where the poison is introduced slowly the poisonous action becomes accumulative, and, although there is no increase in the quantity taken, violent symptoms are suddenly developed, as if the whole amount, the consumption of which may have extended over a considerable period, had been given in one dose. Other agents, poisonous in their nature, tend to deteriorate some of the important organs, and, interfering with their natural functions, are productive of conditions of ill health which, although not necessarily fatal, are important. Such might properly be called chronic poisons. Poisons of themselves dangerous when administered in large doses are used medicinally for curative purposes, and a very large percentage of the pharmaceutical preparations used in the practice of medicine if given in excessive quantities may produce serious results. In the administration of medicines, therefore, care should be exercised not only that the animal is not poisoned by the administration of an excessive dose but that injury is not done by continued treatment with medicines the administration of which is not called for. MINERAL POISONS. ARSENIC POISONING. Of the common irritant and corrosive poisons, arsenic, especially one of its compounds (Paris green), is likely to be the most dangerous to our class of patients. The common practice of using Paris green and other compounds of arsenic as insecticides for the destruction of potato beetle and other insect enemies of the farmer and fruit grower has had the effect of introducing it into almost all farming establishments. White arsenic is also a principal ingredient in some popular dipping preparations, and poisoning from this source occasionally takes place when, after dipping, animals are allowed to run in a yard in which there is loose fodder. The drippings from the animals falling on the fodder render it poisonous and dangerous to animal life if eaten. Familiarity with its use has in many instances tended to breed contempt for its potency as a poison. Rat poisons often contain arsenic. The excessive use of arsenic as a tonic, or of "condition powders" containing arsenic, has been the means of poisoning many animals. This is the common poison used by malicious persons with criminal intent. The poison may also be absorbed through wounds or through the skin if used as a dip or bath. If a large dose is given, at once acute poisoning is produced; if repeated small doses are given, chronic poisoning may result. The poisonous dose for an ox is from 3 drams to 1 ounce. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of acute poisoning first appear as those of colic; the animal is restless, stamping with the feet, lying down and getting up. There is tenderness on pressure over the abdomen. The acute symptoms increase; in a few hours violent diarrhea is developed; in many cases blood and shreds of detached mucous membrane are mixed with the evacuations. There is irregular and feeble pulse and respiration, and death is likely to supervene between the eighteenth hour and the third day. If the latter period is passed, there is a reasonable hope of recovery. In chronic poisoning the symptoms are similar to those of chronic gastrointestinal catarrh, with indigestion, diarrhea, and general weakness and loss of condition. _Treatment._--The antidote for arsenic is a solution of hydrated oxid of iron in water. It should be prepared fresh by mixing a solution of sulphate of iron, made by dissolving 4 ounces of sulphate of iron in one-half pint water, with a suspension of 1 ounce of magnesia in one-half pint water. This quantity is sufficient for one dose for a cow and may be repeated in an hour, if much arsenic was taken. A solution of calcined magnesia or powdered iron or iron filings or iron scale from a blacksmith's forge may be given in the absence of other remedies. Powdered sulphur is of some value as an antidote. One must also administer protectives, such as linseed tea, barley water, whites of eggs, etc. LEAD POISONING. Lead poisoning of cattle sometimes comes from their having licked freshly painted surfaces and thus swallowed compounds containing white lead. In several instances cattle have been poisoned by silage from a silo painted inside with lead paint shortly before filling. Sometimes cattle eat dried paint scrapings with apparent relish and are poisoned. Cattle grazing on rifle ranges have been poisoned by lead from the bullets. Sugar of lead has been administered by mistake for Glauber's salt. Lead poisoning may be acute or chronic. The fatal dose of sugar of lead is from 1 to 4 ounces. Water drawn from lead pipes or held in a lead-lined tank may cause poisoning. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are generally dullness, lying down with the head turned toward the flank, colic, rumbling in the abdomen, loss of control of the limbs when walking, twitching, champing of the jaws, moving in a circle, convulsions, delirium, violent bellowing, followed by stupor and death. The symptoms generally extend over considerable time but may end in death after 24 hours. _Chronic lead poisoning_ occasionally occurs in districts where lead mining is the principal industry. The waste products of the mine thrown into streams contaminate the water supply, so that the mineral is taken into the system gradually, and a very small per cent of any of the salts taken into the system in this way is pernicious. Water which contains any salt of lead to the extent of more than one-tenth of a grain to the gallon is unfit to drink. Such water when used continually is likely to produce colic from the resulting intestinal irritation, and in aggravated cases paralysis more or less severe is likely to be developed. A blue line on the margin of the gums, the last symptom, is regarded as diagnostic and its presence as conclusive evidence of the nature of the disorder. _Treatment._--The treatment should first be directed toward removing the cause. A large dose of purgative medicine should be given, and the brain symptoms be relieved by giving bromid of potassium in half-ounce doses every 4 or 5 hours and by the application of cold water to the head. Dilute sulphuric acid in half-ounce doses should be given with the purgative medicine. In this case sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt) is the best purgative, and it may be given in doses of from 1 to 2 pounds dissolved in warm water. After the acute symptoms have abated, iodid of potassium may be given, in doses of 2 drams each, three times a day for a week. No treatment is likely to be of avail until the cause is removed. COPPER POISONING. The soluble salts of copper, though used as a tonic in the medicinal treatment of cattle, are poisonous when taken in large quantities. Like lead and arsenic, they have an irritant effect upon the mucous membrane with which they come in contact in a concentrated form. Cattle are not very likely to be poisoned from this cause unless through carelessness. Sulphate of copper, commonly called blue vitriol, is occasionally used for disinfecting and cleansing stables, where it might inadvertently be mixed with the feed. It is also used largely for making the Bordeaux mixture used in spraying fruit trees. The general symptoms produced are those of intestinal irritation, short breathing, stamping, and tender abdomen. _Treatment._--Give powdered iron, or iron reduced by hydrogen, or calcined magnesia. Sulphur may be used. This should be followed by a liberal supply of demulcents, linseed infusion, boiled starch, whites of eggs, etc. ZINC POISONING. Several of the soluble salts of zinc are irritant poisons. The chlorid and sulphate are those in most common use. In animals which have power to vomit they are emetic in their action. In others, when retained in the stomach, they set up more or less irritation of the mucous membrane and abdominal pain, producing symptoms already described in the action of other poisons which produce the same result. _Treatment._--The treatment should be the same as for copper poisoning. PHOSPHORUS POISONING. Only one of the forms of phosphorus in common use--the ordinary yellow--is poisonous. Phosphorus in this form is used for the destruction of rats and mice and other vermin, and has been largely used in the manufacture of matches. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are loss of appetite, colic, diarrhea, irritation of the mouth and throat, and paralysis of the throat. There is also weakness, difficult breathing, and rapid pulse. The course of the poisoning is usually rapid, terminating in either recovery or death within three days. The toxic dose for cattle is from 5 to 30 grains. If taken in large quantities the excreta are occasionally noticed to be luminous when examined in the dark. _Treatment._--Turpentine is given in an emulsion with flaxseed tea in a single dose of from 2 to 8 ounces. Permanganate of potassium may be given in a one-fourth of 1 per cent solution. Stimulants, such as alcohol and ether, should be administered. Oils and milk must not be given. MERCURY POISONING. Mercury poisoning is not rare in cattle from the fact that these animals have a special susceptibility to the action of this substance. Antiseptic washes or injections containing the bichlorid of mercury (corrosive sublimate) must be used on cattle with great care. Mercurial disinfecting solutions or salves must be used cautiously. Calomel can not be given freely to cattle. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are salivation, sore mouth, indigestion, diarrhea, skin eruption, paralysis of local groups of muscles, and nephritis. _Treatment._--The treatment consists in administering sulphur in large doses (2 to 4 ounces) or iron powder. Both make insoluble compounds with mercury. Follow with the whites of eggs mixed with water and with linseed tea. If the case does not terminate promptly, give iodid of potash in 1-dram doses twice daily. POISONING BY ACIDS. MINERAL ACIDS.--The mineral acids--nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, etc.-- when used in a concentrated form destroy the animal tissues with which they come in contact, and in this respect differ from most of the poisons previously described. When taken into the stomach the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and stomach is apt to be more or less completely destroyed. If taken in large quantities death is likely to result so speedily that nothing can be done to relieve the patient, and even if time is allowed and the action of the acid can be arrested it can not be done until considerable and, perhaps, irreparable damage has been done. The mucous membrane with which the acid has come in contact in the esophagus may be destroyed by its corrosive action and carried away, leaving the muscular tissues exposed. The raw surface heals irregularly, the cicatrice contracting causes stricture, and an animal so injured is likely to die of starvation. In the stomach even greater damage is likely to be done. The peristaltic action of the esophagus carries the irritant along quickly, but here it remains quiet in contact with one surface, destroying it. It is likely to perforate the organ and, coming in contact with the abdominal lining or other organs of digestion, soon sets up a condition that is beyond repair. In a less concentrated form, when this is not sufficiently strong to be corrosive, it exerts an irritant effect. In this form it may not do much harm unless taken in considerable quantity. When thus the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines becomes inflamed pain and diarrhea are likely to result. _Treatment._--Any of the alkalies may be used as an antidote. Most convenient of these are chalk, baking soda, marble dust, magnesia, lime, soap, or plaster from a wall. Mucilaginous drinks should be given in large quantities. VEGETABLE ACIDS.--Oxalic acid in particular is corrosive in its action when taken in concentrated solution, losing its corrosive effect and becoming irritant when more dilute. It also exerts a specific effect on the heart, frequently causing death from syncope. Taken in the form either of the crystals or solution it is likely to cause death in a very short time. Failure of heart action and the attendant small pulse, weakness, staggering, and convulsions are the more noticeable symptoms. Acetic acid is irritant to the gastrointestinal tract, and may cause sudden paralysis of the heart. _Treatment._--The action of the acid should be counteracted by the use of alkalies, as advised above, by limewater or lime or plaster given promptly, by protectives to the digestive tract, and by stimulants. POISONING BY ALKALIES. The carbonates of potash and soda and the alkalies themselves in concentrated form cause symptoms of intestinal irritation similar to those produced by mineral acids. Ammonia, caustic soda, and caustic potash (lye) are those to which animals are most exposed. The degree of their caustic irritant effects depends on their degree of concentration. When they reach the stomach the symptoms are nearly as well marked as in the case of the acids. The irritation is even more noticeable, and purgation is likely to be a more prominent symptom. If death is not caused soon, the irritation of the gastrointestinal tract and malnutrition will last for a long time. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in neutralizing the alkali by an acid, such as dilute sulphuric acid (1 per cent) or strong vinegar. The administration of such an antidote and its action must be carefully watched during administration. In the chemical change which takes place when the acid and alkali are combined, carbonic-acid gas is liberated, which may be to an extent sufficient to cause considerable distention of the abdomen, and even to produce asphyxia from pressure forward on the diaphragm. Should this danger present itself, it may be averted by opening the flank, permitting the gas to escape. (See "Acute tympanites, or Bloating," p. 22.) Flaxseed or slippery-elm decoction must be given to sooth the inflamed mucous surface. Opium may be used to allay pain. COAL-OIL POISONING. Coal oil is sometimes administered empirically as a treatment for intestinal parasites. If given in large doses it produces poisonous effects, which are likely to be manifested some time after the administration. It acts as an irritant to the digestive tract, causing dribbling of ropy saliva from the mouth, diarrhea, tenesmus, and loss of appetite, with increased temperature and cold extremities. Visible mucous membranes are injected, pupils of the eyes are contracted, and there is a watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils. Remotely it exerts a depressing influence on the functions of the brain and slight coma, and occasionally convulsions, from which the animal is easily aroused. The kidneys also suffer. The urine is dark colored and has the characteristic odor of coal oil. Death may result from gastroenteritis or convulsions. _Treatment._--The patient's strength should be fostered by the frequent administration of mild stimulants, of which aromatic spirits of ammonia is perhaps the best. The animal should be encouraged to eat soft feed and given mucilaginous drinks. Crude coal oil is sometimes applied to the skin to kill parasites. If too much is used, especially in hot weather, great weakness and depression may be caused and in some cases death may result. CARBOLIC-ACID POISONING. Although one of the most valuable antiseptic remedies, carbolic acid in a concentrated form, when taken internally or used over a large surface externally, is likely to produce poisonous effects. It causes whitening, shrinking, and numbness of the structures with which it comes in contact, and, besides its irritant effect, exerts a powerful influence on the nervous system. Being readily absorbed, it produces its effect whether swallowed, injected into the rectum, inhaled, or applied to wounds, or even to a large tract of unbroken skin. Used extensively as a dressing, it may produce nausea, dizziness, and smoky or blackish colored urine. The last symptom is nearly always noticeable where the poisonous effect is produced. In more concentrated form, or used in larger quantities, convulsions, followed by fatal coma, are likely to take place. Even in smaller quantities, dullness, trembling, and disinclination for food often continue for several days. In a tolerably concentrated solution it coagulates albumen and acts as an astringent. _Treatment._--As an antidote internally, a solution of sulphate of soda or sulphate of magnesia (Glauber's or Epsom salt) may be given. The white of egg is also useful. Stimulants may be given if needed. When the poisoning occurs through too extensive applications to wounds or the skin, as in treatment of mange, cold water should be freely applied so as to wash off any of the acid that may still remain unabsorbed. As a surgical dressing a 3 per cent solution is strong enough for ordinary purposes. Water will not hold more than 5 per cent in permanent solution. No preparation stronger than the saturated solution should be used medicinally under any circumstances. SALTPETER POISONING. Both nitrate of soda and nitrate of potassium are poisonous to cattle. These substances are used for manure and for preserving meats. They may be administered in a drench by error in place of Glauber's salt, or they may be exposed within reach of cattle and thus be eaten. The toxic dose depends upon the condition of fullness of the stomach. If in solution and given on an empty stomach, as little as 3 ounces of saltpeter (nitrate of potassium) may be fatal to a cow. More of the Chile saltpeter (nitrate of soda) is required to cause serious trouble. _Symptoms._--Severe gastroenteritis, colic, tympanites, diarrhea, excessive urination, weakness, trembling, convulsions, collapse. _Treatment._--Same as for poisoning by common salt. POISONING BY COMMON SALT. A few pounds (3 to 5) of common salt will produce well-marked signs of poisoning in cattle. So much salt as this will not be taken by cattle except under unusual conditions. If the feed is poor in salt, and if no salt has been given for a long time, an intense "salt hunger" may occur that may lead an animal to eat a poisonous quantity, or an overdose of salt may be given by error as a drench. In order to prevent overeating of salt, it is doubtless better in salting cattle to use rock salt rather than that in more or less finely divided form. Herring and mackerel brine and pork pickle are also poisonous, and are especially dangerous for hogs. In these substances there are, in addition to salt, certain products extracted from the fish or meat which undergo change and add to the toxicity of the solution. Sometimes saltpeter is present in such brines. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are great thirst, abdominal pain, diarrhea, poor appetite, redness and dryness of the mouth, increased urination, paralysis of the hind legs, weak pulse, general paralysis, coma, and death in from six to eight hours. _Treatment._--Allow as much warm water as the animal will drink; give protectives, such as linseed tea, etc. Linseed or olive oil may be given. To keep up the heart action give ether, alcohol, camphor, digitalis, or coffee. To allay pain, give opium. VEGETABLE POISONS. Vegetable poisons may be divided into two classes--those that are likely to be administered to the animal as medicine, and such as may be taken in the feed, either in the shape of poisonous plants or as plants or feeds of vegetable origin that have been damaged by fungi or by bacteria which have produced fermentation or putrefaction. VEGETABLE POISONS USED AS MEDICINE. OPIUM (MORPHIN, LAUDANUM) POISONING. Opium and its alkaloid, morphia, are so commonly used in the practice of medicine that the poisonous result of an overdose is not uncommon. The common preparations are gum opium, the inspissated juice of the poppy; powdered opium, made from the gum; tincture of opium, commonly called laudanum; and the alkaloid or active principle, morphia. Laudanum has about one-eighth the strength of the gum or powder. Morphia is present in good opium to the extent of about 10 per cent. In medicine it is a most useful agent in allaying pain. It first produces a stimulating action, which is followed by drowsiness, a disposition to sleep or complete anesthesia, depending on the quantity of the drug used. In poisonous doses a state of exhilaration is well marked at first. This is particularly noticeable in cattle and in horses. The animal becomes much excited, and this stage does not pass into insensibility unless an enormous dose has been given. If the dose is large enough, a second stage sometimes supervenes, in which the symptoms are those of congestion of the brain. The visible membranes have a bluish tint (cyanotic) from interference with the air supply. The breathing is slow, labored, and later stertorous; the pupils of the eyes are very much contracted; the skin dry and warm. Gas accumulates in the stomach, so that tympanites is a prominent symptom. The patient may be aroused by great noise or the infliction of sharp pain, when the breathing becomes more natural. A lapse into the comatose condition takes place when the excitement ceases. Later, there is perfect coma and the patient can no longer be aroused from the insensible condition. The contraction of the pupil becomes more marked, the breathing intermittent and slower, there is perspiration, the pulse more feeble and rapid, till death takes place. Poisoning of cattle with opium or its products rarely goes beyond the stage of excitement, because the quantity of the drug required for the later effects is so great. Seventy-five grains of morphia administered subcutaneously has sufficed merely to excite for 12 hours. _Treatment._--Give strong coffee, 1 to 4 quarts, aromatic spirits of ammonia or carbonate of ammonia. Atropia is the physiological antidote. STRYCHNIN POISONING. Strychnin is a very concentrated poison and produces its effect very quickly, usually only a few minutes being necessary if given in sufficient dose and in such a way that it will be at once absorbed. When employed as a medicine, as a rule, minimum doses should be used, as cattle are quite susceptible to its effects and may be killed by the maximum doses given in the common manuals of veterinary medicine. The first noticeable symptom is evidence of unrest or mental excitement; at the same time the muscles over the shoulder and croup may be seen to quiver or twitch, and later there occurs a more or less well-marked convulsion; the head is jerked back, the back arched and leg extended, the eyes drawn. The spasm continues for only a few minutes, when it relaxes and another occurs in a short time. The return is hastened by excitement and in a short time again disappears, continuing to disappear and reappear until death results. As the poisonous effect advances the intervals between the spasms become shorter and less marked and the spasms more severe until the animal dies in violent struggles. _Treatment._--The best method is to put the patient under the influence of chloral, chloroform, or ether, and keep it there continuously until the effect of the poison has passed off. Alcohol may be given in large doses. ACONITE POISONING. In recent years tincture of aconite has become a popular stable remedy. If an animal is ailing, aconite is given whether indicated or not. Fortunately the dose used is generally small, and for this reason the damage done is much less than it would otherwise be. Aconite is one of the most deadly poisons known. It produces paralysis of motion and sensation, depresses the heart's action, and causes death by paralysis of respiration. In large doses it causes profuse salivation, champing of the jaws, and attempts at swallowing. If not sufficient to cause death, there is impaired appetite with more or less nausea for some time after. In poisonous doses it causes the animal to tremble violently, to lose power to support itself, and brings on slight convulsions, with perspiration. The pulse is depressed, irregular, and afterwards intermittent. _Treatment._--The chemical antidote is tannic acid, which forms an insoluble compound with the aconitin. The depressing effect on the heart should be counteracted by the use of ammonia, digitalis, alcohol, camphor, or other diffusible stimulants, which have a physiological effect opposite to aconite. POISONOUS PLANTS. An important group of poisons may be classed under this head. In most cases it is poison naturally belonging in the plant; in other cases the poisonous principle is developed in what would otherwise be harmless plants as a plant disease, or as a fermentation or putrefaction due to bacterial growth and observed in forage, grain, or meal that has become heated, damaged, or "spoilt." The subject of poisonous plants is an important one and is of especial interest to those using the western stock ranges, for it is probable that there is no other single cause producing so many fatalities. In this article only a few of the more important plants are treated in a brief way, for an extended treatise would be necessary if the subject were to be handled adequately. Further information should be sought in the more elaborate publications. Many of the American poisonous plants have been treated in bulletins issued by the United States Department of Agriculture. _Treatment for plant poisoning._--Remedies given by the mouth in most cases fail to give relief to cattle affected by poisonous plants. The material of the poisonous plants in the first stomach is not very largely affected by a remedy given as a drench. If any beneficial result is effected, it must be on the material which has already passed into the fourth stomach, so that to get any real antidotal result the remedy must be given repeatedly in order to meet the alkaloid poisons as they are passing through the fourth stomach. While certain substances like tannic acid and potassium permanganate are the logical antidotes for plant poisons, in practical application they are very disappointing in the treatment of ruminant animals. Reliance must be mainly on prevention and upon such remedies as will increase elimination. A laxative or purgative is always helpful, and for this purpose Epsom salt may be given in pound doses, or linseed oil in doses of 1 or 2 pints. In some few cases special remedies can be given as is indicated below. It is well to bear in mind that cattle while grazing freely in good pasture are not likely to eat poisonous plants to any extent. If these same plants are gathered and thrown in a pile, the animals, through a kind of pernicious curiosity, may eat them with disastrous results. This has frequently happened when freshly cut branches of cherry, yew, oleander, and other plants have been thrown where dairy cattle could get at them. OAKS. The foliage of oaks is a valuable constituent of the forage on many ranges and pastures. It has been shown, however, that when this is eaten without some admixture of other food, cattle frequently sicken and die. Many cases of the poisoning of cattle by acorns have been reported in England and Germany, and there have been some complaints in the United States. Harmful results from eating acorns do not seem likely to occur except as they are eaten in considerable quantities. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of oak poisoning are constipation, mucus and blood in the feces, emaciation, and edema. The symptoms of acorn poisoning are much the same. _Treatment._--Change of pasture or an addition of other food material. HORSE CHESTNUT--BUCKEYE. All the species of _Æsculus,_ popularly known as horse chestnut or buckeye, are considered poisonous. The bark, leaves, and fruit are injurious. It is said that if the fruit is boiled or roasted and washed out it becomes harmless and even is a desirable addition to the feed of cattle. The Indians in time of scarcity of food have used the fruit after preparing it in this way. The buckeyes are said to have a specific effect in producing abortion in cattle and goats. DEATH CAMAS (SPECIES OF ZYGADENUS). The death-camas plants, which are commonly known in the Pacific States as "lobelia," are especially destructive of sheep, but cattle sometimes eat them and are poisoned. Cases of cattle poisoning are not likely to result fatally. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are salivation, nausea accompanied by vomiting, great weakness, and lowered temperature. _Treatment._--There is no effective treatment for death-camas poisoning. FLY POISON (CHROSPERMA MUSCÆTORIUM). This plant, which is closely related to the death-camas plants, is sometimes known as "stagger grass" and causes a considerable loss in the Southern States. It grows earlier than the grasses, and on this account is more likely to be eaten. Like death camas, it produces pronounced nausea, resulting in vomiting and weakness, and in cases which recover the effects may continue for several days. Apparently the injurious effects are more common in the case of cattle than in other domestic animals. There is no known way of treating these animals, though doubtless purgatives would be beneficial. YEW (TAXUS BACCATA). The European yew has long been known as a very poisonous plant. It is cultivated in America, and while cases of poisoning have not been common, it is well to recognize its dangerous character. A comparatively small dose is poisonous and ordinarily acts with great rapidity. It causes respiratory paralysis and the animal dies in convulsions. LAUREL. The laurels, including the broad-leafed laurel, _Kalmia latifolia_, the narrow-leafed laurel, _Kalmia angustifolia_, the rhododendrons, and other closely related plants are poisonous and cause considerable losses. It is dangerous to let cattle graze where these plants are abundant at times when other forage is scarce. The symptoms are salivation, nausea and vomiting, spasms, dizziness, stupor, and death. FERN. The common brake or bracken fern, _Pteris aquilina_, has been considered responsible for the poisoning of many horses and cattle. Many cases have been reported in England and Germany, and some well-authenticated cases in the United States. Very little has been learned experimentally of fern poisoning, but there seems to be little question that it has been the cause of many deaths. The symptoms are said to be temperature higher than normal, loss of appetite, bloody discharges from mouth, nose, and bowels, and great depression followed by coma and death. Some authors say that the urine is colored by blood. It is thought by some that the disease known as "red water" in the northwestern United States and Canada is caused by eating ferns. SORGHUM POISONING. Under certain conditions sorghum contains enough hydrocyanic acid to make it exceedingly dangerous to cattle. These cases of poisoning most commonly occur when cattle are pastured upon the young plant or upon a field where the crop has been cut and is making a second growth. Conditions of drought make the sorghum especially dangerous. There is some reason to think that the frosted second growth is particularly rich in hydrocyanic acid. The cases of poisoning occur when animals are grazed upon the plant, but not from the harvested crop or from silage. If cattle are grazed on sorghum or sorghum stubble they should at first be under constant observation and should be removed as soon as any signs of illness appear. Similar precautions should be used in grazing kafir. CORNSTALK DISEASE. Considerable losses of cattle have occurred when they were turned upon cornfields in the fall. Deaths come very suddenly and there is no opportunity to apply remedies. It has been thought that these fatalities, like those from sorghum, were caused by hydrocyanic acid, but there is good reason to think that this is not true, and at the present time there is no accepted explanation of this disease, although there seems to be no doubt that it is connected in some way with the condition of the corn. Whether a given field is poisonous or not can only be determined by experiment, and the wise farmer will keep his cattle under close observation when they are first turned into a cornfield. WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA). This plant, growing in wet places by ditches and along creeks, is the most poisonous of North American plants. The root is the poisonous part, and cattle generally get it when it is plowed up or washed out by high water. Sometimes they pull it up, for the plant occasionally grows out into ditches so that the whole plant will be taken in grazing. The most marked symptoms of Cicuta poisoning are the violent convulsions, which remind one of the effect of strychnin. _Treatment._--Little can be done in the way of treatment. The logical thing is to attempt to control the convulsions by means of morphia, but in view of the fact that the stomach can not be emptied, the prognosis is not good, and most cases die. LARKSPURS. The larkspurs are a source of heavy loss to cattle owners in the higher ranges of the West. There are a number of species, growing at altitudes from 4,000 feet to timber line, and all are poisonous. A few cases of poisoning by larkspurs have been reported in the eastern United States, but most of the losses are confined to the West, both because larkspurs grow there in greater profusion and because cattle are grazed in that region on the open ranges. The losses are confined to cattle, for sheep and horses can graze on larkspur with no resulting harm. Most of the larkspur losses occur in the spring and early summer, as the plants lose their toxicity after maturing. _Symptoms._--Larkspur poisoning is accompanied by a definite line of symptoms. In range animals the first symptom noted is generally the sudden falling of the animal and consequent inability to rise. After a while it may rise, only to fall again. This may happen repeatedly. In severe cases the animal lies prone and exhibits nausea, accompanied by vomiting. It dies of respiratory paralysis, death many times being hastened by the asphyxia following the vomiting. _Treatment._--The animal, if found down, should be turned so that its head is uphill in order to relieve the lungs. Many cases will recover with no further treatment. Nearly all cases will recover if a hypodermic injection is given immediately of physostigmin salicylate 1 grain, pilocarpin hydrochlorid 2 grains, strychnin sulphate 1/2 grain. LOCO. The loco plants have caused especially heavy losses of cattle, horses, and sheep. They grow in the semiarid regions of the West and sometimes in great luxuriance. The best known are the "blue loco," the "woolly loco" or "purple loco," and the "white loco" or "rattle-weed." The blue loco is common in parts of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah. It affects both horses and cattle. The purple loco, _Astragalus mollissimus_, is common in Texas and the adjoining States and extends north as far as Nebraska and Colorado. It is especially destructive to horses. The white loco, _Oxytropis lamberti_, is still more widely distributed, being found in the plains region from Alaska to Mexico and west of the Rocky Mountains to central Utah. The white loco is much more important than the purple loco, for it affects not only horses but cattle and sheep. These plants belong to the pea family, and there are a number of other species of this family that are loco plants and produce the same symptoms. _Symptoms._--Loco poisoning is a chronic condition and symptoms are shown only after somewhat prolonged feeding. The condition is one of cumulative poisoning, and animals sometimes decline very rapidly after the first symptoms appear. In many cases animals acquire a habit of eating loco and prefer it to any other feed. The poison affects the central nervous system. There is a lack of muscular coordination and the animal performs very erratic movements. In the later stages the animal becomes emaciated and eventually dies of starvation. _Treatment._--Locoed animals are badly constipated, and it is important that this condition should be remedied at the start. Any purgative can be used, but Epsom salt has been found especially effective. If locoed animals can be turned into a field of alfalfa, a large proportion of them will recover with no further treatment. Recovery may be aided by giving cattle, hypodermically, daily doses of three-twentieths to four-twentieths of a grain of strychnin. By this treatment cattle can be cured and put in condition for market. WHITE SNAKEROOT (EUPATORIUM URTICÆFOLIUM). White snakeroot, frequently known as "rich weed," is a plant growing in great abundance in some of the eastern and central regions of the United States. It is particularly abundant in parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and in western North Carolina. It is responsible for most, if not all, of the cases of a disease which is commonly known as "milk sickness." _Symptoms._--The animals are constipated, sometimes have bloody feces, become weak, and exhibit muscular trembling. This trembling is very characteristic, so that the disease is sometimes known as "the trembles." _Remedy._--There are no remedies which will work very efficiently. It is desirable to give the animals purgatives like Epsom salt and, of course, to remove them from fields where this plant is abundant. RAYLESS GOLDENROD (ISOCOMA WRIGHTII). The rayless goldenrod is a plant growing in especial abundance in parts of the Pecos Valley in New Mexico and Arizona, and there produces a disease so much like that produced in the East by white snakeroot that it is sometimes called milk sickness. More generally this disease goes under the name of "alkali disease." The plant has produced heavy losses in the regions where it grows abundantly. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are much like those produced by the white snakeroot. The animals are constipated, sometimes have bloody feces, become weak, and exhibit muscular trembling. There is good reason to think, too, that the milk of cows eating this plant is more or less injurious. _Treatment._--A purgative like Epsom salt will aid an animal in recovering, but most important is to remove the cattle from pastures where the plant is abundant and give them an abundance of good forage. Under such conditions they are almost certain to recover. MILKWEEDS. Many of the milkweeds have long been known to have more or less poisonous properties. Within the last few years it has been discovered that certain of the milkweeds going under the popular name of whorled milkweeds are especially toxic. There are at least four species of whorled milkweeds, but two of them are particularly important from the standpoint of people handling livestock. One, known scientifically as _Asclepias galioides_, is harmful in Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, while another, known as _Asclepias mexicana_, has produced losses, especially in California and Nevada. These whorled milkweeds are distasteful to all animals and are eaten only when the stock is closely confined to pastures where there is little else in the way of forage. _Symptoms._--The most prominent symptoms are weakness, producing staggering, and this is followed in acute cases by violent spasms. _Treatment._--There is no treatment which will effectively antidote the effect of the poison. In practically all cases, however, poisoning may be avoided if care is taken to prevent animals from being closely confined where this plant is abundant, as they never eat the plant by choice. CHERRY. In the leaves of the cherries more or less hydrocyanic acid is produced, and when these leaves are eaten in any considerable quantity cases of poisoning are likely to arise. It is popularly supposed that these cases arise from eating wilted cherry leaves, but there is every reason to think that the fresh leaves will produce the same results. These cases are easily prevented, because no harm results from eating a small quantity of the leaves, and if the fact is recognized that poisoning may result from eating a large quantity, it is not difficult to care for the animals so as to prevent poisoning. ERGOTISM. The poisonous effects of ergot (Pls. V, VI) appear chiefly in the winter and spring of the year and among cattle. It is developed among grasses grown on rich soil in hot, damp seasons. Rye seems more liable to ergot than any of our other crops. Of the grasses which enter into the composition of hay, bluegrass is the most likely to become affected. Ergot may also affect redtop, oats, grasses, and grains. On the plant the fungus manifests itself on the seeds, where it is easily recognized when the hay is examined in the mow. The ergotized seeds are several times larger than the natural seeds--hard, black, and generally curved in shape. The effect of the protracted use of ergot in the feed is pretty well understood to be that of producing a degeneration and obstruction of the smaller arterial branches. The result is to shut off the blood supply to the distal parts of the body, where the circulation is weakest, and thus to produce a mummification or dry gangrene of the extremities, as the ears, tail, feet, etc. Cattle seem to be more susceptible than other animals to the influence of ergot, possibly on account of the slowness of the heart's action. When the effect of the poison has become sufficient to entirely arrest the circulation in any part, the structures soon die. The disorder manifests itself as lameness in one or more limbs; swelling about the ankle which may result in only a small slough or the loss of a toe, but it may circumscribe the limb at any point below the knee or hock by an indented ring below which the tissues become dead. The indentation soon changes to a crack, which extends completely around the limb, forming the line of separation between the dead and living structures. The crack deepens till the parts below drop off without loss of blood, and frequently with very little pus. Ergot may cause serious irritation of the digestive tract, or by acting upon the nervous system it may cause lethargy or paralysis. It also operates to cause contraction of the uterus, and may thus cause abortion. _Treatment._--Regarding the treatment, change of feed and local antiseptics are, of course, indicated. The former may be useful as a preventive, but when the symptoms have appeared the animal is necessarily so completely saturated that recovery is likely to be tedious. Tannin may be given internally in doses of one-half dram twice daily for a few days to neutralize the unabsorbed alkaloids of the ergot. At the same time give castor oil. To dilate the blood vessels give chloral hydrate. Bathe the affected parts with hot water. If sloughing has gone far, amputation must be resorted to. OTHER POISONOUS FUNGI. Many other fungi poison herbivora. In some instances, however, where fungi are blamed for causing disease their presence on the feedstuff or herbage is but coincidental with some other and more potent disease-producing factor. For example, if the conditions are favorable to the growth of fungi they are also favorable to the growth of bacteria, and bacteria may produce poisons in feeds. In general it may be said that any feed that is moldy, musty, or putrid is possibly dangerous. Silage, properly cured, does not belong to this class, because the curing of silage is not a bacterial process. But spoiled silage and silage matted with mold is dangerous and should not be fed. POISONING BY ANIMAL PRODUCTS. SNAKE BITES. The poison contained in the tooth glands of certain venomous reptiles, particularly some of the snakes, which is injected into or under the skin of an animal bitten by the reptile, is a very powerful agent. It is likely to produce a serious local irritation, and in the case of the more poisonous snakes serious constitutional disturbances, even to causing death, which it may do in either of two ways: First, when very strong, by exerting a narcotic influence similar to that of some of the powerful poisons, checking heart action. Second, by diffused inflammation of the areolar tissue, gangrene, and extensive sloughing. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of snake bite are a local swelling caused by an intense local inflammation, pricks showing where the fangs penetrated, depression, weakness, feeble pulse, difficult breathing, bluish discoloration of the visible mucous membranes, stupor, or convulsions. If the poison is not powerful or plentiful enough to produce death, it is, at any rate, likely to cause severe local abscesses or sloughs. _Treatment._--The treatment may be divided into local and general. Locally every effort should be made to prevent absorption of the poison. If discovered at once the bitten part had better be excised. If that is impracticable and a ligature can be applied, as in the case of a bite to one of the limbs, no time should be lost in applying it above the injury. It should be made sufficiently tight to so far as possible arrest circulation in the bitten part. The wound should be freely incised, so that it will bleed freely, and the poison should be extracted by cupping, or pressed out by squeezing with the fingers. Permanganate of potassium in 5 per cent solution should be applied to and injected into the wound. The depressing effect of the poison on the general system should be counteracted by hypodermic injections of strychnin, or by liberal drenching with stimulants, such as coffee, digitalis, or the aromatic spirits or carbonate of ammonia. In animal practice the alcoholic stimulants and local treatment above described are likely to meet with best success. A special antitoxin for use in treating snake bite is now prepared and may be had from the leading druggists. It is quite effective if used promptly. WASP AND BEE STINGS. Wasps and bees secrete a poisonous substance which they are able to insert through the skin of an animal by the aid of their sharp stings. This poison is a severe local irritant and may even cause local gangrene. It also has a depressing effect upon the central nervous system and destroys the red-blood corpuscles. To produce these general effects it must be introduced in very large quantities, as when an animal is stung by a swarm of bees or wasps. _Treatment._--The treatment is to wash the parts with diluted ammonia or permanganate of potassium solution and to give stimulants internally. If there is so much swelling about the head and nostrils as to interfere with breathing, tracheotomy may be necessary. POISONING WITH SPANISH FLY. Spanish fly, in the form of powdered cantharides, may be given in an overdose, or when applied as a blister to too large a surface of skin enough may be absorbed to poison. If given by the mouth, it causes severe irritation of the gastrointestinal tract, shown by salivation, sore throat, colic, bloody diarrhea, etc. It also produces, whether given by the mouth or absorbed through the skin, irritation of the urinary tract, as shown by frequent and painful urination. If death results, it is due to respiratory paralysis. _Treatment._--Give protectives and the white of egg, with opium. Do not give oils or alcohol. DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. In cattle, as in human beings, the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics may be described as the circulatory apparatus. The heart is in the thoracic cavity (chest). It is conical in form, with the base or large part uppermost, while the apex, or point, rests just above the sternum (breastbone). It is situated between the right and left lungs, the apex inclining to the left, and owing to this the heart beats are best felt on the left side of the chest, behind the elbow. The heart may be considered as a hollow muscle, containing four compartments, two on each side. The upper compartments are called auricles and the lower ones ventricles. The right auricle and ventricle are completely separated from the left auricle and ventricle by a thick septum or wall, so that there is no communication between the right and left sides of the organ. At the bottom of each auricle is the auriculo-ventricular opening, each provided with a valve to close it when the heart contracts to force the blood into the arteries. In the interval between the contractions these valves hang down into the ventricles. The muscular tissue of the heart belongs to that class known as involuntary, because its action is not controlled by the will. The cavities of the heart are lined by a serous membrane, called the endocardium, which may be considered as a continuation of the veins and the arteries, forming their internal lining. The walls of the ventricles are thicker than those of the auricles, and the walls of the left ventricle are much thicker than those of the right. The heart is enveloped by a fibrous sac (or bag), called the pericardium, which assumes much of the general shape of the outer surface of the heart. The action of the heart is similar to that of a pump and its function is to keep the blood in circulation. The auricles may be considered as the reservoirs or receivers of the blood and the ventricles as the pump chambers. During the interval between contractions, the heart being in momentary repose, the blood pours into the auricles from the veins; the auriculo-ventricular orifices being widely open, the ventricles also receive blood; the auricles contract and the ventricles are filled; contraction of the ventricles follows; the auriculo-ventricular valves are forced up by the pressure of the blood and close the auriculo-ventricular openings and prevent the return of blood into the auricles; the contraction of the ventricles forces the blood from the right ventricle into the lungs through the pulmonary artery and its branches, and from the left ventricle into the aorta, thence through the arteries to all parts of the body. After the contraction of the ventricles the heart is again in momentary repose and is being filled with blood, while the valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery close to prevent the return of blood into the ventricles. (See Pl. VII.) The average weight of the heart of an ox is said to be from 3-1/2 to 5 pounds; but, of course, owing to the many breeds and sizes of cattle, it must vary in different animals. The vessels that convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the body are called arteries; those which return the blood to the heart are called veins. The arteries divide and subdivide (like the branches of a tree), become smaller and smaller, and ultimately ramify into every part of the body. Between the ultimate ramifications of the arteries and the beginning of the veins there is an intermediate system of very minute vessels called capillaries, which connect the arterial with the venous system of the circulation. The walls of the arteries are possessed of a certain amount of rigidity, sufficient to keep the tubes open when they are empty. The blood leaves the left ventricle through a single vessel, the common aorta, consisting of the anterior and posterior aortas, which give off the large arteries. The veins take the blood from the capillaries in all parts of the body. They begin in very small tubes, which unite to become larger in size and less in number as they approach the heart. In its course an artery is usually accompanied with a vein and in many situations with a nerve. The more important arteries are placed deep within the body; when they are superficial, however, they are generally found where least exposed to injury, as, for example, on the inner side of the legs. Arteries are less numerous than veins, and their total capacity is much less than that of the veins. A great number of veins are in the tissue immediately beneath the skin and do not generally accompany arteries. The blood, throughout its course in the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins, is inclosed within these vessels. Except where the large lymphatics empty into the venous blood, there is no opening into the course of the blood. All the arteries except the pulmonary and its branches carry bright-red blood, and all the veins, except the pulmonary veins, carry dark-red blood. The impure dark-red blood is collected from the capillary vessels and carried to the right auricle by the veins; it passes down into the right ventricle, and thence into the pulmonary artery and through its branches to the capillaries of the lungs, where the carbonic-acid gas and other impurities are given up to the air in the air cells of the lungs (through the thin walls between the capillaries and the air cells), and where it also absorbs from the air the oxygen gas necessary to sustain life. This gas changes it to the bright-red, pure blood. It passes from the capillaries to the branches of the pulmonary veins, which convey it to the left auricle of the heart; it then passes through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ventricle, the contraction of which forces it through the common aorta into the posterior and anterior aortas, and through all the arteries of the body into the capillaries, where it parts with its oxygen and nutritive elements and where it absorbs carbonic-acid gas and becomes dark colored. (See theoretical diagram of the circulation, Pl. VII.) The branches of certain arteries in different parts unite again after subdividing. This reuniting is called anastomosing, and assures a quota of blood to a part if one of the anastomosing arteries should be tied in case of hemorrhage, or should be destroyed by accident or operation. THE BLOOD. The various kinds of food, after being digested in the alimentary canal, are absorbed and carried into the blood by the lymphatics, and by the blood to the places where nutrition is required. The blood takes from all parts of the body all that is no longer required, and carries it to the different organs through which it is eliminated from the body. It contains within itself all the elements which nourish the body. The blood may be considered as a fluid holding in solution certain inorganic elements and having certain bodies suspended in it. To facilitate description, the blood may be considered as made up of the corpuscles and the liquor sanguinis. The corpuscles are of two kinds, the red and the white, the red being the more numerous. The color of the blood is caused by the coloring matter in the red corpuscles, which are the oxygen carriers. Both kinds are very minute bodies, which require the aid of the microscope to recognize them. The liquor sanguinis is composed of water containing in solution salts, albumen, and the elements of fibrin. The lymphatics, or absorbents, are the vessels which carry the lymph and chyle in the blood. They begin as capillaries in all parts of the body, gradually uniting to form larger trunks. Placed along the course of the lymphatic vessels are glands, in some situations collected into groups; for example, in the groin. These glands are often involved in inflammation arising from the absorption of deleterious matter. Absorption is the function of the lymphatics. The liquor sanguinis passes from the blood capillaries to supply nutrition to the tissues. All of the liquor sanguinis that is not required is absorbed by the lymphatic vessels and conveyed back to the blood by the lymphatic ducts. The lymphatics which proceed from the intestines convey the chyle into the blood during digestion. As a rule, the lymphatic vessels follow the course of the veins. All the absorbent vessels convey their contents to the thoracic duct and right great lymphatic vein, which empty into the anterior vena cava, where the lymph and chyle mix with the venous blood, and thus maintain the supply of nutritive elements in the blood. THE PULSE. As fully explained, the heart pumps the blood throughout the arterial system. The arteries are always full and each contraction of the ventricle pumps more blood into them; this distends their elastic walls and sends along them a wave which gradually becomes less perceptible as it nears the very small arteries. This wave constitutes the pulse, and is lost before the capillaries are reached. The sensation or impression given to the finger when placed upon the artery shows the force exerted by the heart and some important facts concerning the condition of the circulation. In adult cattle the average number of pulsations in a minute is from 50 to 60. The pulse is faster than normal after exercise, excitement, on hot days, from pain, and as a result of fullness of the stomach. In old animals it is slower than in the young and in males slightly slower than in females. In fevers and inflammations and in local diseases of the heart the pulse rate is increased. If the rate is greater than 100 or 110 to the minute the outlook for recovery is not good. Other variations of the pulse are known as infrequent pulse, which means that the number of pulsations in a given time is less than normal. The irregular or the intermittent pulse is when the pulsations do not follow in regular order. The large pulse and the small pulse refer to the volume of the pulse, which may be larger or smaller than usual. The strong pulse and the feeble pulse refer to the strength or weakness of the pulsation. The pulse is said to be hard when the vessel feels hard and incompressible, the soft pulse being the opposite. By dicrotic pulse is meant that kind of pulsation which makes each beat seem double, and therefore it is generally called the double pulse. The venous or "jugular pulse" is the pulsation so frequently observed in the jugular vein of cattle and is particularly noticeable while they are ruminating--"chewing the cud." It is not always associated with disease, but may be a symptom of some disease of the heart; in such cases the jugular pulse is continuous. The place selected for feeling the pulse in cattle is where the submaxillary artery winds around the lower jawbones, just at the lower edge of the flat muscle on the side of the cheek; or, if the cow is lying down, the metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore fetlock is very convenient for the purpose. THE EXAMINATION OF THE HEART. Corresponding to the beats of the heart two sounds are emitted which are of a definite type in healthy animals. The first is produced by the contraction of the heart and the flow of blood out of it; the second is caused by the rebound of blood in the aorta and the closure of the valves that prevent it from flowing backward into the heart, whence it came. The first sound is the longer and louder of the two, though of low pitch. The second sound is sharper and shorter, and is not always easy to hear. There is a brief interval between them. To distinguish these sounds, the ear is placed against the left side of the chest, a little above the point where the elbow rests when the animal is standing in a natural position, and about opposite the sixth rib. Both heart sounds are reduced in intensity when the animal is weak or when the heart is forced away from the chest wall by collections of fluid or by tubercular or other growths. Nonrhythmical heart sound is often caused by pericarditis or by disease of the valves. It may also be attributable to overfilling of the heart upon the right side, as occurs in severe congestion of the lungs and in some febrile diseases. In pericarditis, sounds like scraping, rubbing, or splashing may be heard, entirely apart from the two normal sounds above described. The impulse of the heart, as felt by placing the hand against the chest, is of some consequence in reaching a conclusion in respect to disease of the heart; but it must be remembered that the impulse may be very much increased by diseases other than those of the heart, as, for example, inflammation of various organs, severe pains, etc. The impulse may be increased also (when disease does not exist) by work, exercise, fright, or any cause of excitement, or, in general, by anything that causes acceleration of the pulse. The impulse of the heart may be felt and the sounds may be heard fairly well in lean cattle, but in fat ones it is difficult and often impossible to detect either impulse or sound with any degree of satisfaction. PALPITATION. When the impulse of the heart is excessive--that is, when it beats more or less tumultuously--the familiar expression "palpitation of the heart" is applied; by many it is called "thumps." The hand or ear placed against the chest easily detects the unnatural beating. In some cases it is so violent that the motion may be seen at a distance. Palpitation is but a symptom, and in many instances not connected with disease of the structure of the heart or its membranes. A badly frightened animal may have palpitation. When it comes on suddenly and soon passes away, it depends on some cause other than diseases of the heart; when it is gradually manifested, however, and becomes constant, although more pronounced at one time than another, heart disease may be suspected, especially if other symptoms of heart disease are present. INJURY TO THE HEART BY FOREIGN BODIES. Cattle are addicted to the habit of chewing and swallowing many objects not intended as articles of food. Every veterinarian of experience has met with instances to remind him of this, and it is well known to butchers. Among the great variety of things that have thus found their way into the stomachs of cattle the following have been noticed: Finger rings, knitting needles, old shoes, table knives, wood, pieces of leather, pieces of wire, buttons, hairpins, brushes, nails, coins, etc. The more sharply pointed objects sometimes penetrate the wall of the stomach, in some cases causing gastric irritation enough to produce indigestion, gradually work their way through the diaphragm toward the heart, pierce the pericardium (bag inclosing the heart), wound the heart, and thus prove fatal to the animal. Cases are recorded in which the foreign body has actually worked its way into one of the cavities of the heart. Instances are known, however, in which the object took a different course, and finally worked its way toward the surface and was extracted from the wall of the chest. While it is possible that the foreign body may pierce the wall at different parts of the alimentary canal, as it frequently does that of the rumen (paunch), it is thought that in most cases it passes through the wall of the reticulum (smaller honeycombed compartment, or second stomach) and is drawn toward the heart by the suctionlike action of the chest. Post-mortem examinations have demonstrated the course it pursued, as adhesions and other results of the inflammation it caused were plainly to be seen. All manner of symptoms may precede those showing involvement of the heart, depending upon the location of the foreign body and the extent of inflammation caused by it. Severe indigestion may occur; stiffness and difficulty in moving about owing to the prods of the sharp body following muscular contraction; pain on pressure over the front, lower, or right side of the abdomen; coughing and difficult, quick breathing. In most cases the foreign body does not penetrate to the heart, nor even to the pericardium. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are as follows: The animal is disinclined to move actively, the step is restricted and cautious, sudden motion causes grunting, the attitude is constrained, the feet are drawn somewhat together, the back is arched, the face has an anxious expression. If the disease is of several days' standing, there is likely to be soft swelling (edema) beneath the neck, in the dewlap, and under the chest, between the fore legs. Breathing is short and difficult; it may clearly be painful. The pulse is rapid, 80 to 120 per minute. The muscles quiver as though the animal were cold. Rumination and appetite are depressed or checked. The dung is hard, and to void it appears to cause pain. These symptoms usually develop gradually, and, of course, they vary considerably in different animals, depending upon the size and location of the foreign body and the irritation it causes. As a matter of course, in such cases treatment is useless, but when it is possible to diagnose correctly the animal could be turned over to the butcher before the flesh becomes unfit for use; that is, before there is more than a little suppuration and before there is fever. Knowing that cattle are prone to swallow such objects, ordinary care may be taken in keeping their surroundings as free of them as possible. PERICARDITIS. Inflammation of the pericardium (heart bag) is often associated with pneumonia and pleurisy, rheumatism, and other constitutional diseases, or with an injury. It also occurs as an independent affection, owing to causes similar to those of other chest affections, as exposure to cold or dampness and changes of the weather. _Symptoms._--It may be ushered in with a chill, followed by fever, of more or less severity; the animal stands still and dull, with head hanging low, and anxiety expressed in its countenance. The pulse may be large, perhaps hard; there is also a venous pulse. The hand against the chest will feel the beating of the heart, which is often irregular, sometimes violent, and in other instances weak, depending in part upon the quantity of fluid that has transuded into the pericardial sac. The legs are cold, the breathing quickened and usually abdominal; if the left side of the chest is pressed on or struck, the animal evinces pain. There may be spasms of the muscles in the region of the breast, neck, or hind legs. After a variable time swelling may also appear in the legs and under the chest and brisket. In those animals in which the heart sounds may be heard somewhat distinctly, the ear applied against the chest will detect a to-and-fro friction sound, corresponding to the beats of the heart. This sound is produced by the rubbing of the internal surface of the heart bag against the external surface of the heart. During the first stages of the inflammation these surfaces are dry, and the rubbing of one against the other during the contraction and relaxation of the heart produces this sound. The dry stage is followed by the exudation of fluid into the heart sac, and the friction is not heard until the fluid is absorbed sufficiently to allow the surfaces to come in contact again. But during the time the friction sound is lost a sound which has been called a "churning noise" may take its place. The friction sound of pericarditis can not be mistaken for the friction sound of pleurisy if the examination is a careful one, because in the heart affection the sound is made in connection with the heart beats, while in the pleuritic affection the sound is synchronous with each respiration or breath of air taken in and expelled from the lungs. _Treatment._--When pericarditis is complicated with rheumatism or other diseases the latter must be treated as directed in the description of them. The animal must be kept in a quiet, comfortable place, where it will be free from excitement. Warm clothing should be applied to the body, and the legs should be hand-rubbed until the circulation in them is reestablished, and then they should be snugly bandaged. The food should be nutritive and in moderate quantity. Bleeding should not be performed unless the case is in the hands of an expert. At the beginning give as a purgative Epsom salt--1 pound to an average-sized cow--dissolved in about a quart of warm water and administered as a drench. When there is much pain 2 ounces of laudanum, diluted with a pint of water, may be given every three hours until the animal is better. Do not give the laudanum unless demanded by the severity of the pain, as it tends to constipate. Give one-half ounce of nitrate of potassium (saltpeter), dissolved in drinking water, four or five times a day. After the attack has abated mustard mixed with water may be rubbed well over the left side of the chest to stimulate the absorption of the fluid within the pericardium. The other medicines may be discontinued and the following administered: Sulphate of iron, 2 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 ounces; mix and make 8 powders. Give one powder every day at noon, mixed with feed, if the animal will eat it, or shaken up with water in a bottle as a drench. Also the following: Iodid of potassium, 2 ounces; nitrate of potassium, 8 ounces; mix and make 16 powders. Give one in drinking water or in drench every morning and evening. The last two prescriptions may be continued for several weeks if necessary. In extreme cases tapping the pericardium with a trocar and cannula to draw off the fluid is resorted to, but the operation requires exact anatomical knowledge. After death from pericarditis there is always more or less fluid found in the pericardium; the surfaces are rough and covered with a yellow-colored exudate. There are also in many cases adhesions to a greater or less extent between the heart and pericardium. MYOCARDITIS. Inflammation of the muscular structure of the heart occurs in limited, circumscribed areas, as evidenced by post-mortem examination, and it is probably always somewhat involved in connection with pericarditis and endocarditis. It may readily be inferred that if the whole organ were inflamed death would ensue immediately. Usually myocarditis results from the preexistence of blood poisoning or of some infectious febrile disease. _Symptoms._--The chief symptoms are those of heart weakness. The heart beat is fast, weak, and often irregular. Respiration is difficult and rapid. There is great general weakness and depression. Death comes suddenly. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in supporting the animal by the use of stimulants, such as ammonia, coffee, digitalis, camphor, etc. Complete quiet must be provided, and the general care should be as in pericarditis. ENDOCARDITIS. When the membrane which lines the cavities of the heart--the endocardium-- suffers inflammation, the disease is called endocarditis. The cause is another disease, during which substances that irritate the lining of the heart are produced and admitted into the circulation. These substances are usually living organisms, or it is possible that in some cases they are chemical irritants. Endocarditis occurs as a complication of or sequel to pneumonia, blood poisoning, inflammation of the womb, rheumatism, or severe wounds or abscesses. The symptoms are much the same as those of pericarditis, and it is difficult to discriminate between the two affections. There is a jugular pulse, the legs may become dropsical, and there is a tendency to faint if the head is elevated suddenly. The bellowslike sound is more distinct than it is in pericarditis. It is the most fatal of heart diseases, because of the liability of the formation of clots, which may adhere to the valves, change in the structure of the valves, and often a complication with an abnormal condition of the blood. Clots may be formed in the heart, and, being carried to other parts, prove fatal by interrupting the circulation in some vital organ. Treatment similar to that advised for myocarditis may be followed in this disease. VALVES OF THE HEART. The valves are subject to abnormal growths and structural changes in chronic endocarditis or as a result of acute endocarditis. Sometimes valves are torn by sudden, extreme muscular effort or a congenital abnormality. Cases are also reported in which they have been found ruptured. _Symptoms._--The general symptoms are those of heart weakness, accompanied with edema and congestion of the lungs. _Treatment._--Relief is sometimes afforded, but usually only temporarily, by the use of stimulants, especially digitalis. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. Sudden effort, blows, or disease may lead to rupture of the heart of the ox. The first cause does not operate so often in cattle as in horses. Tuberculosis or ulceration from other causes, such as a foreign body, is the most common source of this accident. Rupture is shown by sudden fainting, followed very shortly by death. HYPERTROPHY AND DILATATION OF THE HEART. This is an enlargement of the heart, and may consist of the thickening of the walls alone, or at the same time the cavities may be either enlarged or diminished. Dilatation of the cavities has been noticed as existing independently of thickened walls. In hypertrophy the sounds of the heart are loud and pronounced, may be heard on both sides of the chest distinctly, and palpitation occurs to a greater or less extent. Fortunately both conditions are very rare in cattle. ATROPHY. Atrophy is the technical term for wasting of the muscular tissue. Atrophy of the heart is very rare among cattle, and is usually a result of other diseases. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. This condition of the heart is met with in some very fat cattle, but it must be understood that the accumulation of fat around the heart is not referred to by this designation. In fatty degeneration the elements of the muscular tissue are replaced by fatty or oily granules. The muscle becomes weak, the heart contractions are insufficient, and heart weakness is shown by general weakness, shortness of breath, and weak, rapid pulse. CYANOSIS. Owing to the most prominent symptoms, cyanosis is also called "blue disease," and is seen occasionally in new-born calves. It is recognized by the blue color of the mucous membrane (easily seen by looking within the mouth and nostrils), the coldness of the surface of the body, and rapid, labored breathing. It is caused by non-closure of the foramen ovale, connecting the right with the left side of the heart, and the consequent mixing of the venous with the arterial blood. Calves so affected live but a short time. MISPLACEMENT OF THE HEART. Cases are recorded in which the heart has been found out of its natural position, sometimes even outside the chest. This is a congenital condition for which there is no remedy. A heifer calf with the heart entirely outside the thoracic cavity and beneath the skin in the lower part of the neck was kept for two years at the veterinary hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, during which time it grew to be a well-developed cow. WOUNDS OF ARTERIES AND VEINS. When a blood vessel is opened a glance will tell whether it is an artery or a vein by simply remembering that bright-red blood comes from arteries and dark-red from veins. When a vein or a very small artery is severed the blood flows from the vessel in a continuous and even stream, but when one of the larger arteries is severed the blood comes in intermitting jets or spurts corresponding to the beats of the heart. It is well to call attention to the fact that the dark-red blood which flows or oozes from a wound soon becomes bright red, because it gives up its carbonic-acid gas to the air, and absorbs oxygen gas from the air, which is exactly the change it undergoes in the capillaries of the lungs. The general treatment of wounds will be found in another section; here it is necessary only to refer briefly to some of the most practical methods used to arrest hemorrhages, as instances occur in which an animal may lose much strength from the loss of blood, or even bleed to death unless action is prompt. BLEEDING (HEMORRHAGE). The severity of a hemorrhage depends upon the size of the vessel from which the blood escapes, though it may be stated that it is more serious when arteries are severed. If the wound in an artery is in the direction of its length, the blood escapes more freely than if the vessel is completely severed, because in the latter instance the severed ends retract, curl in, and may aid very much in arresting the flow. When the blood merely oozes from the wound, and even when it flows in a small stream, the forming of the clot arrests the hemorrhage in a comparatively short time. Slight hemorrhages may be checked by the continuous application of cold water, ice, or snow, to the wound, as cold causes contraction of the small vessels. Water from a hose may be thrown on a wound, or dashed on it from the hand or a cup, or folds of cotton cloths may be held on it and kept wet. Ice or snow may be held against the wound, or they may be put into a bag and conveniently secured in position. Hot water of an average temperature of 115° to 120° F. injected into the vagina or womb is often efficient in arresting hemorrhages from those organs. Tow, raw cotton, lint, or sponges may be forced into a wound and held or bound there with bandages. This is an excellent method of checking the flow of blood until the arrival of an expert. If the flow persists, these articles may be saturated with tincture of iron, but it is not advisable to use it unless necessary, as it is a caustic and retards healing by causing a slough. In cases of necessity, the articles may be saturated with vinegar, or tannic acid or alum dissolved in water may be used instead. Whatever article is used should be left in the wound sufficiently long to make sure that its removal will not be followed by a renewal of the hemorrhage. Sometimes it must remain there one or two days. An iron heated white and then pressed on the bleeding vessel for three or four seconds is occasionally used. It should not be applied longer, or else the charred tissue will come away with the iron and thus defeat the purpose of its application. Compression may be applied in different ways, but only the most convenient will be mentioned. To many wounds bandages may easily be applied. The bandages may be made of linen, muslin, etc., sufficiently wide and long, according to the nature of the wound and the region to be bandaged. Bed sheets torn in strips the full length make excellent bandages for this purpose. Cotton batting, tow, or a piece of sponge may be placed on the wound and firmly bound there with the bandages. Many cases require ligating, which is almost entirely confined to arteries. A ligature is a piece of thread or string tied around the vessel. Veins are not ligated unless very large (and even then only when other means are not available) on account of the danger of causing phlebitis, or inflammation of a vein. The ligature is tied around the end of the artery, but in some instances this is difficult and it is necessary to include some of the adjacent tissue, although care should be taken not to include a nerve. To apply a ligature, it is necessary to have artery forceps (tweezers or small pincers may suffice) by which to draw out the artery in order to tie the string around it. To grasp the vessel it may be necessary to sponge the blood from the wound so that the end will be exposed. In case the end of the bleeding artery has retracted, a sharp-pointed hook, called a tenaculum, is used to draw it out far enough to tie. The ligature should be drawn tightly, so that the middle and internal coats will be cut through. Another method of checking hemorrhage is called torsion. It consists in catching the end of the bleeding vessel, drawing it out a little, and then twisting it around a few times with the forceps, which lacerates the internal coats so that a check is effected. This is very effectual in small vessels, and is to be preferred to ligatures, because it leaves no foreign body in the wound. A needle or pin may be stuck through the edges of the wound and a string passed around between the free ends and the skin (Pl. XXVII, fig. 10), or it may be passed around in the form of a figure 8, as is often done in the operation of bleeding from the jugular vein. ANEURISM. A circumscribed dilatation of an artery, constituting a tumor which pulsates synchronously with the beats of the heart, is called aneurism. It is caused by disease and rupture of one or two of the arterial coats. The true aneurism communicates with the interior of the artery and contains coagulated blood. It is so deeply seated in cattle that treatment is out of the question. Such abnormalities are ascribable to severe exertion, to old age, to fatty or calcareous degeneration, or to parasites in the blood vessels. Death is sudden when caused by the rupture of an aneurism of a large artery, owing to internal hemorrhage. Sometimes spontaneous recovery occurs. As a rule no symptoms are caused in cattle by the presence of deep-seated aneurisms, and their presence is not known until after death. A false aneurism results from blood escaping from a wounded artery into the adjacent tissue, where it clots, and the wound, remaining open in the artery, causes pulsation in the tumor. THROMBOSIS (OBSTRUCTION) OF THE ARTERIES. Arteries become obstructed as a result of wounds and other injuries to them, as those caused by the formation of an abscess or the extension of inflammation from surrounding structures to the coats of an artery. Arteries are also obstructed by the breaking off of particles of a plug or clot, partly obstructing the aorta or other large artery. These small pieces (emboli) are floated to an artery that is too small to permit them to pass and are there securely held, producing obstruction. These obstructions are shown by loss of power in the muscles supplied by the obstructed artery and by excitation of the heart and by respiration after exercise. The loss of power may not come into evidence until after exercise. _Symptoms._--While standing still or when walking slowly the animal may appear to be normal, but after more active exercise a group of muscles, a leg, or both hind legs, may be handled with difficulty, causing lameness, and later there is practically a local paralysis. These symptoms disappear with rest. In some cases the collateral circulation develops in time, so that the parts receive sufficient blood and the symptoms disappear. INFLAMMATION OF VEINS (PHLEBITIS). When bleeding is performed without proper care or with an unclean lancet, inflammation of the vein may result, or it may be caused by the animal rubbing the wound against some object. When inflammation follows the operation, the coats of the vein become so much enlarged that the vessel may be felt hard and knotted beneath the skin, and pressure produces pain. A thin, watery discharge, tinged with blood, issues from the wound. The blood becomes coagulated in the vessel. In inflammation of the jugular the coagulation extends from the wound upward to the first large branch. Abscesses may form along the course of the vein. The inflammation is followed by obliteration of that part in which coagulation exists. This is of small import, as cattle have an accessory jugular vein which gradually enlarges and accommodates itself to the increased quantity of blood it must carry. _Treatment._--The treatment for inflammation of the vein is to clip the hair from along the course of the affected vessel and apply a blister, the cerate of cantharides. Abscesses should be opened as soon as they form, because there is a possibility of the pus getting into the circulation. In the operation of bleeding the instruments should be clean and free from rust. If the skin is not sufficiently opened, or when closing the wound the skin is drawn out too much, blood may accumulate in the tissue, and if it does it should be removed by pressing absorbent cotton or a sponge on the part. Care should also be used in opening the vein, so that the instrument may not pass entirely through both sides of the vein and open the artery beneath it. * * * * * DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. PLATE VII: Diagram illustrating the circulation of the blood. The arrows indicate the direction in which the blood flows. The valves of the heart, situated between the right auricle and ventricle, and left auricle and ventricle, and between the ventricles and large arteries, are represented by curved lines. These valves are intended to prevent the flow of blood in a direction contrary to that indicated by the arrows. [Illustration: PLATE VII. DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.] * * * * * NONCONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. By WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE, D. V. S. DIAGNOSIS. In the determination of disease in the human being the physician, in making his diagnosis, is aided by both subjective and objective symptoms, but the veterinary physician, in a very large majority of cases, is obliged to rely almost solely upon objective symptoms, and perhaps in no class of diseases is this more true than in the exploration of those under consideration. This condition of affairs has a strong tendency to develop observation and discernment in the veterinarian, and not infrequently do we find that the successful veterinary practitioner is a very accurate diagnostician. In order to make a differential diagnosis, however, it is not only necessary to know the structure and functions of the organs in health, but to adopt a rigid system of details of examination, without which successful results can not be reached. _History._--The history of a case should always be ascertained so far as possible. The information obtained is sometimes unsatisfactory and not to be depended upon, but even when this is the case it is advisable to weigh the evidence from every point of view. In connection with the history of every case it is always of primary importance to ascertain the cause of illness. A knowledge of the origin and development of a disease is important, both in making a diagnosis and in formulating the treatment. Exposure to cold and dampness is frequently the exciting cause of affections of the organs of respiration. The experienced practitioner is always sure to ascertain whether the particular animal he is called on to attend is the only one in the stable or on the premises that is similarly affected. If several animals are similarly affected, the disease may have a common cause, which may or may not be of an infectious nature. Another thing that the experienced practitioner ascertains is what previous treatment, if any, the animal has had. Medicine given in excessive doses sometimes produces symptoms resembling those of disease. The hygienic and sanitary conditions must always be considered in connection with the cause as well as the treatment of disease. Much of the disease which occurs in large dairies and elsewhere could be prevented if owners and those in charge of animals had proper regard for the fundamental laws of animal hygiene and modern sanitation. Disregard for these laws is the cause of most of the diseases under consideration in this chapter. _Attitude and general condition._--The feeling of pain in animals suffering from serious affections of the organs of respiration is expressed to the close observer in no uncertain language--by their flinching when the painful part is touched; by the care with which they move or lie down; by walking or standing to "favor" the part; by the general attitude and expression of the eye; by the distress and suffering apparent in the face; and by other evidences. The general physical condition and attitude of the sick animal tell the careful observer much that aids him in making a diagnosis and prognosis. Cows suffering from affections of the organs of respiration usually assume a position or attitude that is characteristic, well known to experienced stockmen, as well as to veterinarians. When an animal has a fever or is suffering from an inflammation, the skin is one of the first parts to undergo a change that is apparent to the average observer, for it soon loses its elasticity and tone, and the hair becomes dry and staring. From the general condition or state of nutrition one is able to judge the effect that the disease has already had upon the animal and to estimate the strength remaining available for its restoration to health; from the degree of emaciation one can approximate the length of time the animal has been ill. The age and breed of the animal, as well as its constitution and temperament, are among the things that have to be taken into account in making a diagnosis and in overcoming the disease. _The mucous membrane._--The mucous membrane should in all cases be examined. It can be readily seen by everting the eyelids or by an inspection of the lining membrane of the nostrils. Paleness of the mucous membrane indicates weak circulation or poor blood and may result from disease, hemorrhage, or from inappropriate feed. In healthy animals increased redness of the mucous membrane occurs from pain, excitement, or severe exertion, and in such instances is always transitory. In certain pathological conditions, such as fevers and inflammation, this condition of the mucous membrane will also be found. The increased redness of the mucous membrane lasts during the duration of the fever or inflammation. A bluish or blue mucous membrane indicates that the blood is imperfectly oxidized and contains an excess of carbon dioxid, and is seen in serious diseases of the respiratory tract, such as pneumonia, and in heart failure. _The secretions._--The secretions may be diminished, increased, or perverted. In the early stage of an inflammation of a secretory organ its secretion is diminished. In the early stage of pleurisy the serous membrane is dry, and as the disease advances the membrane becomes unnaturally moist. The products of secretion are sometimes greatly changed in character from the secretion in health, becoming excessively irritant and yielding evidence of chemical and other alterations in the character of the secretion. _Cough._--Cough depends upon a reflex nervous action and may be primary when the irritation exists in the lungs or air passages, or secondary when caused by irritation of the stomach, intestines, or other parts having nervous communications with the respiratory apparatus. A cough is said to be dry, moist, harsh, hollow, difficult, paroxysmal, suppressed, sympathetic, etc., according to its character. It is a very important symptom, often being diagnostic in diseases of the respiratory organs, but this is a subject, however, which can be more satisfactorily treated in connection with the special diseases of the organs in question. _Respiration._--In making an examination of an animal observe the depth, frequency, quickness, facility, and the nature of the respiratory movements. They may be quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, deep or imperfect, labored, unequal, irregular, etc., each of which indications has its significance to the experienced veterinarian. Sleep, rumination, pregnancy in cows, etc., modify the respiratory movements even in health. Respiration consists of two acts--inspiration and expiration. The function of respiration is to take in oxygen from the atmospheric air, which is essential for the maintenance of life, and to exhale the deleterious gas known as "carbon dioxid." The frequency of the respiratory movements is determined by observing the motions of the nostrils or of the flanks. The normal rate of respiration for a healthy animal of the bovine species is from 15 to 18 times a minute. The extent of the respiratory system renders it liable to become affected by contiguity to many parts and its nervous connections are very important. Rapid, irregular, or difficult breathing is known as dyspnea, and in all such cases the animal has difficulty in obtaining as much oxygen as it requires. Among the conditions that give rise to dyspnea may be mentioned restricted area of active lung tissue, owing to the filling of portions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia; painful movements of the chest, as in rheumatism or pleurisy; fluid in the chest cavity, as in hydrothorax; adhesions between the lungs and chest walls; compression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; excess of carbon dioxid in the blood; weakness of the respiratory passages; tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat; swellings of the throat; foreign bodies and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs; fevers, etc. As already stated, it is only the careful and constant examination of animals in health that will enable one properly to appreciate abnormal conditions. One must become familiar with the frequency and character of the pulse and of the respirations and know the temperature of the animal in health, before changes in abnormal conditions can be properly appreciated. _Temperature._--The temperature should be taken in all cases of sickness. Experienced practitioners can approximate the patient's temperature with remarkable accuracy, but I strongly recommend the use of the self-registering clinical thermometer, which is a most valuable instrument in diagnosing diseases. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) It is advisable to get a tested instrument, as some thermometers in the market are inaccurate and misleading. The proper place to insert the thermometer is in the rectum, where the instrument should be rested against the walls of the cavity for about three minutes. The normal temperature of the bovine is 101° to 102° F., which is higher than that of the horse. A cow breathes faster, her heart beats faster, and her internal temperature is higher than that of the horse. Ordinary physiological influences--such as exercise, digestion, etc.--give rise to slight variations of internal temperature; but if the temperature rises two or three degrees above the normal some diseased condition is indicated. _Pulse._--The pulse in a grown animal of the bovine species in a state of good health beats from 45 to 55 times a minute. Exercise, fright, fear, excitement, overfeeding, pregnancy, and other conditions aside from disease may affect the frequency and character of the pulse. It assumes various characters according to its rapidity of beat, frequency of occurrence, resistance to pressure, regularity, and perceptibility. Thus we have the quick or slow, frequent or infrequent, hard or soft, full or imperceptible, large or small pulse, the character of each of which may be determined from its name; also that known as the intermittent, either regular or irregular. We may have a dicrotic, or double, pulse; a thready pulse, which is extremely small and scarcely perceptible; the venous, or jugular, pulse; the "running down" pulse, and so on. (See p. 76.) In cattle the pulse is conveniently felt over the submaxillary artery where it winds around the lower jawbone, just at the lower edge of the flat muscle on the side of the cheek. If the cow is lying down the pulse may be taken from the metacarpal artery on the back part of the fore fetlock. The pulsations can be felt from any superficial artery, but in order to ascertain the peculiarities it is necessary to select an artery that may be pressed against a bone. [Illustration: PLATE VIII. Position of the Lung.] There is a marked difference in the normal or physiological pulse of the horse and that of the cow, that of the horse being full and rather tense, while in the cow it is soft and rolling. The pulse is faster in young or old cattle than it is in those of middle age. _Auscultation._--Auscultation and percussion are the chief methods used to determine the various pathological changes that occur in the respiratory organs. Auscultation is the act of listening, and may be either mediate or immediate. Mediate auscultation is accomplished by aid of an instrument known as the stethoscope, one extremity of which is applied to the ear and the other to the chest of the animal. In immediate auscultation the ear is applied directly to the part. Immediate auscultation will answer in a large majority of cases. Auscultation is resorted to in cardiac and certain abdominal diseases, but it is mainly employed for determining the condition of the lungs and air passages. Animals can not give the various phases of respiration, as can the patients of the human practitioner. The organs themselves are less accessible than in man, owing to the greater bulk of tissue surrounding them and the pectoral position of the fore extremities, all of which render it more difficult in determining pathological conditions. (See Pl. VIII.) The air going in and out of the lungs makes a certain soft, rustling sound, known as the vesicular murmur, which can be heard distinctly in a healthy state of the animal, especially upon inspiration. Exercise accelerates the rate of respiration and intensifies this sound. The vesicular murmur is heard only where the lung contains air and its function is active. The vesicular murmur is weakened as inflammatory infiltration takes place and when the lungs are compressed by fluids in the thoracic cavity, and disappears when the lung becomes solidified in pneumonia or the chest cavity filled with fluid as in hydrothorax. The bronchial murmur is a harsh, blowing sound, heard in normal conditions by applying the ear over the lower part of the trachea, and may be heard to a limited extent in the anterior portions of the lungs after severe exercise. The bronchial murmur when heard over other portions of the lungs generally signifies that the lung tissue has become more or less solidified or that fluid has collected in the chest cavity. Other sounds, known as mucous râles, are heard in the lungs in pneumonia after the solidified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease and in bronchitis where there is an excess of secretion, as well as in other conditions. Mucous râles are of a gargling or bubbling nature. They are caused by air rushing through tubes containing secretions or pus. They are said to be large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity of fluid that is present and the size of the tubes in which the sound is produced. According to their character they are divided into dry and moist. The friction sound is produced by the rubbing together of roughened surfaces and is characteristic of pleurisy. _Percussion._--Percussion is that mode of examination by which we elicit sounds by striking or tapping over the part. It may be direct or indirect. If the middle finger of the left hand is placed firmly on the chest and smartly tapped or struck with the ends of the first three fingers of the right hand, the sound will be noticed to be more resonant and clear than when the same procedure is practiced on a solid part of the body. This is because the lungs are not solid, but are always, in health, well expanded with air. In certain pulmonary diseases, however, as in pneumonia, they fill up and become solid, when percussion produces a dull sound, like that on any other solid part of the animal. When fluid has collected in the lower part of the chest cavity the sound will also be dull on percussion. Where there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, as in emphysema or in pneumothorax, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. By practice on healthy animals the character and boundaries of the sounds can be so well determined that any variation from them will be readily detected, and will sometimes disclose the presence of a diseased condition when nothing else will. Percussion is sometimes practiced with the aid of a special percussion hammer and an object known as a pleximeter to strike upon. A percussion hammer is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side of the animal, is struck the impact will not be accompanied with a noise. A percussion hammer and pleximeter may be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker. CATARRH (COLD IN THE HEAD). Nasal catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the nostrils and upper air passages. Simple catarrh is not a serious disease in itself, but if neglected is liable to be complicated with laryngitis, bronchitis, pneumonia, plurisy, or other serious and sometimes fatal diseases of the respiratory organs. Catarrh is a common disease among cattle. It is often caused by sudden exposure to wet and cold after they have been accustomed to shelter. It may arise from inhalation of irritating gases. It is also sometimes produced by certain specific atmospheric conditions, and may assume an enzoötic form. It is very debilitating, and requires prompt and judicious treatment. _Symptoms._--Redness of the mucous membranes of the nose and redness and watering of the eyes are symptoms of nasal catarrh. The mucous membrane first becomes dry; afterwards a watery discharge appears, and later, in severe cases, the discharge becomes mucopurulent. In mild cases there is little or no fever, but in severe ones it may run high. The animal becomes dull, languid, and is not inclined to move about, and the appetite may become impaired; there is also variable temperature of the horns and ears. If in a cow giving milk the secretion diminishes, the mucus from the eyes and nose becomes thicker and yellower. Afterwards, as the symptoms increase in severity, the discharge becomes mucopurulent. _Treatment._--The animal should be housed in a well-ventilated place, with good hygienic surroundings. In cold and damp weather it should be kept warm with blanketing, and, in severe cases, hot, medicated inhalations given. If the fever is high, it may be reduced by giving nitrate of potassium, from 1 to 2 ounces, in the drinking water, three times daily. Diffusible stimulants are beneficial in most cases. Too much importance can not be attached to good nursing. There is no necessity to resort to the old system of bleeding, purging, or the use of powerful sedatives. EPISTAXIS (BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE). Bleeding from the nostrils is rather rare in cattle. It may arise from any one of a variety of causes, but usually results from disease or injury to the mucous membranes or to violent exertions in coughing and sneezing. It is seldom serious. It generally occurs in drops from one nostril only, accompanied with sneezing, and without frothing. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils, is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough. _Treatment._--In many cases the bleeding will cease spontaneously and all that is necessary is to keep the animal quiet and bathe the head and nostrils with cold water. The cause of the bleeding should be learned and governed accordingly in the treatment. In severe and exceptional cases, when the hemorrhage is persistent and long continued, the animal's head should be tied to a high rack or beam and cold water or ice applied, or recourse to styptic injections taken. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persistent, either a drench composed of 1-1/2 drams of acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water or 1-1/2 drams of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given. LARYNGITIS (SORE THROAT). An inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the larynx is known as laryngitis. It may be either a primary or a secondary disease, complicated or uncomplicated. In the majority of cases it is attributable to some form of exposure, a sudden change from warm to cold surroundings, or exposure to cold storms. It may also result from inhaling irritating gases or from external violence. In an acute attack of laryngitis there is an elevation of temperature, pain on pressure over the region of the larynx, violent paroxysms of coughing, difficult and noisy respiration. The nostrils are dilated, the nose extended, and the animal has a frightened expression. There is marked difficulty in swallowing. _Treatment._--Treatment consists of fomentations and hot applications over the throat. Stimulating liniments, mustard mixed with cold water and well rubbed in with a stiff brush, or other forms of counterirritation may be applied in severe cases. Hot inhalations should be frequently resorted to, and often afford much relief to the suffering animal. In this disease medicines should be given so far as possible in the form of electuaries (soft solid) on account of the difficulty of deglutition. Large drafts of medicines have a tendency to produce violent spells of coughing, and in this way retard recovery. The subjoined formula for an electuary will be found to answer the purpose in ordinary cases: Chlorate of potassium, pulverized, 8 ounces; fluid extract of belladonna, 2 ounces; powdered opium, 1 ounce; powdered licorice root, 8 ounces; sirup, sufficient quantity; mix. Place a small tablespoonful of the mixture frequently on the tongue or back teeth. Or the following may be used instead: Aloes, powdered opium, and gum camphor in equal parts; mix. Rub an ounce on the molar teeth every four or five hours. The bowels should be kept open and the diet should be such as the patient can easily swallow. Warm, sloppy mashes, boiled oatmeal gruel, linseed tea, and the like are the most suitable substances. If suffocation be threatened during the course of the disease, tracheotomy should be performed without delay. The details of the operation are fully described under the head of "Surgical operations." (See p. 289.) When the disease assumes a chronic form, strong counterirritation is indicated. A cantharides blister may be applied, or the following ointment used: Biniodid of mercury 1 part, lard 6 parts; mix. In some cases it will be found necessary to repeat the application. BRONCHITIS. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. When a primary disease, it is generally the result of what is commonly known as "catching cold." It may be secondary to or complicated with many of the diseases of the respiratory system. It may also be caused by breathing irritating gases, or by the introduction of foreign bodies into the bronchial tubes, which sometimes results from injudicious and careless drenching when the larynx is temporarily relaxed. It may be acute or chronic, and is divided, according to the seat of the inflammation, into bronchitis proper when the large tubes are affected, or capillary bronchitis when the trouble is in the smaller ones. _Symptoms._--Loss of appetite, elevation of temperature, generally 104° or 105° F. The inspiration is incomplete, short, and painful, and the expiration is prolonged. The pulse is increased in frequency and is hard. A characteristic, painful cough is present, but it is paroxysmal and incomplete. Auscultation and percussion greatly aid us in a diagnosis. A normal sound is given on percussion. On auscultation, in the early stages, rhonchus râles are detected if the larger tubes are affected, and sibilant râles if the smaller ones are affected. Later mucous râles are noted, and sometimes all sounds in certain parts are absent, owing to the plugging up of the tubes. This plugging, if extensive enough, is sometimes the cause of death, or death may result from extension of the disease to the lungs or pleura. _Treatment._--The animal should be placed in a light, well-ventilated box, and the bowels kept in a soft condition by enemas, etc. Violent purgatives should not be used. The body should be kept warm by blanketing. In the early stages a draft composed as follows should be given three times daily: Extract of belladonna, 2 drams; solution of acetate of ammonium, 4 fluid ounces; water, one-half pint. In the later stage of the disease the following formula may be substituted and given twice daily: Carbonate of ammonium, 3 drams; liquor hydrochlorate of strychnin, 2 fluid drams; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 fluid ounce; water, one-half pint. In some cases the following is preferable to either of the above, and may be given in a pint of linseed tea every four hours: Spirits of nitrous ether, 1-1/2 ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 2 ounces; powdered camphor, 2 drams. The feed should be light and nutritious. Bronchitis is liable to become chronic if not properly treated in the earliest stage. In this case remedial treatment is of little value. PLEURISY. Pleurisy is an inflammation of the serous membrane lining the chest cavity and enveloping the lungs. It is somewhat rare as an independent disease, but it often complicates pneumonia; indeed, it is often caused by the same germ that causes pneumonia--pneumococcus. It may arise from exposure to cold or wet or from external violence, and is usually present in some degree in cases in which the ribs have been fractured with or without a penetrated wound. _Symptoms._--In the first stage there is great pain aggravated by movement, and the animal is usually stiff as though foundered, the pulse is quick and hard, the breathing abdominal, the chest being fixed so far as possible, the inspiration short and jerky, the expiration longer. The pain is caused by the friction of the dry, inflamed pleural surfaces of the lung and chest on each other. At this stage the ear detects a dry friction murmur, resembling somewhat the sound made by rubbing two pieces of sole leather together. Pressure between the ribs gives pain and usually causes the animal to flinch and grunt. The muzzle is hot and dry, the mouth slimy, and the secretions scanty. After a day or two the severity of the symptoms is much lessened, the temperature, which during the first days may have been as high as 106° F., falls to 103° or 104°, the pain decreases, the stiffness disappears, and the patient eats a little. The pulse softens, but remains quicker than normal. Now, day by day the patient loses a little strength, the friction sound disappears as the exudation moistens the pleural surfaces; percussion now shows a horizontal line of dullness, which day by day rises higher in the chest, the respiration grows more frequent and labored, the countenance is anxious and haggard, the eyes sink somewhat in their sockets, and in unfavorable cases death occurs during the second or third week, from either asphyxia or heart failure. In pleurisy, as in pneumonia, the elbows are usually turned outward. Care must be taken to differentiate pleurisy from traumatic pericarditis (which see). In the latter condition the area of dullness of the heart is much increased, and usually a splashing sound is heard at each beat of the heart. Another diagnostic symptom of value is that in traumatic pericarditis respiration is painful, not difficult, and the respiratory rate is very much increased on movement. In both conditions a considerable swelling of the dewlap may be noticed in the later stages. _Treatment._--Give the same general care as recommended in bronchitis or pneumonia. In the early stages give a febrifuge to reduce the fever, as directed for pneumonia. For relief of the cough give electuary formula, which will be found in the treatment of laryngitis. The bowels must be kept relaxed and the kidneys secreting freely. In the stage of effusion the following should be given three times daily: Digitalis tincture, 1 ounce; iodid of potassium, 30 to 60 grains; mix. Apply strong counterirritant to chest and put seton in dewlap. (See "Setoning," p. 293.) If collapse of the lung is threatened, a surgical operation, termed paracentesis thoracis, is sometimes performed; this consists in puncturing the chest cavity and drawing off a part of the fluid. The instruments used are a small trocar and cannula, which are introduced between the eighth and ninth ribs. The skin should be drawn forward so that the external wound may not correspond to the puncture of the chest, to prevent the entrance of air. Only a portion of the fluid should be removed. The animal gets immediate relief, but it is generally only temporary, as the fluid has a tendency to accumulate again. PNEUMONIA. Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lung substance, and is divided into three forms, viz, croupous, catarrhal, and interstitial. These various forms, however, can be differentiated only by the expert, and it is therefore deemed necessary for the purpose of the present work to treat the subject under the general head of pneumonia. The causes of pneumonia in general are the same as those of the various other inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract. The germ is known as a pneumococcus. The disease mostly follows congestion of the lungs, but may in rare cases have a parasitic origin. _Symptoms._--In the first stage, that of congestion, the disease is usually ushered in by a chill, although this may not always be observed by the attendant. This is followed by an elevation of temperature, usually 105° to 106° F., or it may be even higher. The respirations are quick and shallow; the nostrils are dilated; the pulse is full and hard. Cough may or may not appear in this stage. The nose is hot and dry; the tongue sometimes protrudes and is slimy; the coat is staring, and the skin dry and harsh. The urine is usually diminished in quantity, high colored, and the bowels constipated. The animal stands with the forelegs wide apart to facilitate respiration. On auscultation crepitation will be observed over the portion of the lung affected. The sounds elicited on percussion are practically normal in this stage. In the second stage the temperature generally drops one or two degrees, and respiration is performed with much difficulty. The cough is frequent and painful. The animal still stands with the forelegs wide apart and the elbows turned outward. If it assumes the recumbent position it rests on the sternum. All secretions are more or less suspended, particularly the milk in cows. The animal has a haggard appearance, and the pulse becomes small and wiry at this period. The extremities are hot and cold alternately; the crepitation which was present in the first stage is now absent, and no sound on auscultation is heard, unless it is a slight wheezing or whistling noise. On percussion dullness over the diseased lung is manifested, indicating consolidation. The lung has now assumed a characteristic liverlike appearance. In the third stage, if the disease is to terminate favorably, the cough becomes loose, the animal improves, the appetite returns, and the symptoms above detailed rapidly subside; if, on the other hand, resolution is not progressing, the lung substance degenerates, becomes clogged up, and ceases to function. In fatal cases the breath has a peculiar, fetid, cadaverous odor, and is taken in short gasps; the horns, ears, and extremities become cold and clammy, and the pulse is imperceptible. On auscultation, when suppuration is taking place and the lung structure is breaking down, a bubbling or gurgling crepitation, caused by the passage of air through pus, is heard. _Treatment._--Good hygienic surroundings and good nursing are essential in connection with the medical treatment. The probability of recovery depends largely on the extent of the lung tissue involved, as well as on the intensity of the inflammatory process. In the early stage, when the fever is high, febrifuges should be given. If the pulse be strong and full, aconite (Fleming's tincture, 1 to 2 drams, every four or five hours) may be given for a short time, but should be discontinued as soon as the fever begins to abate. Aconite is a valuable drug in the hands of the intelligent practitioner, but my experience leads me to believe that not infrequently animals are lost by its injudicious use, for in many febrile conditions it is positively contraindicated, owing to its action upon the heart. In a plethoric animal, with a strong, bounding pulse, bleeding may be resorted to instead of administering aconite. If the bowels are constipated, calomel, 1 to 3 drams, which acts as a cathartic and a febrifuge, is advisable. In the second stage diffusible stimulants are required, viz: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; aromatic spirits of ammonia, 1 ounce; mix, and give in gruel three times daily. In some cases carbonate of ammonia, 2 to 5 drams, has been found beneficial. Most practitioners apply counterirritants, such as mustard plasters, turpentine, and ammonia liniment, or cantharides. EMPHYSEMA (HEAVES). Emphysema is a rupture of the minute air vesicles of the lung substance, and may be either interlobular or vesicular. There is an extreme interference with respiration, inspiration being short and expiration prolonged. It is a nonfebrile condition, in which the appetite is not decreased and the milk secretion is kept up. It may be caused by an attack of asthma or may result from chronic bronchitis. The disease can be diagnosed by the marked interference with respiration. The animal, as a rule, is emaciated, has a staring coat, and is hidebound. If percussion is resorted to, the animal's chest will give a tympanic, drumlike sound. The normal resonant sound is exaggerated. _Treatment._--The disease is incurable, and only a palliative form of treatment can be carried out. The destruction of the animal is often advisable, from a humane as well as from a financial point of view. PULMONARY CONGESTION. Cattle that are overdriven or overworked are liable to pulmonary congestion in an acute form, and sometimes to pulmonary apoplexy. In such cases they should be allowed to rest, and if the weather is hot, they should be put in a shady place. Give stimulants internally, unload the venous side of the heart by bleeding, and apply stimulating applications to the legs, and bandage. HEMOPTYSIS. Hemoptysis is a term used to signify bleeding from the lungs. The trouble may result from a previous congestion of the lungs or from a breaking down of the lung substance, or from specific disorders. Bleeding from the lungs comes from both nostrils and from the mouth. The blood is bright red, frothy, and accompanied with a cough, the flow being somewhat profuse and intermingled with mucus. It may cease of its own accord. Internally hemostatics are indicated, and locally over the sides cold applications have a tendency to check the hemorrhage. A drench of 1-1/2 drams of gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water should be given. ABSCESS OF THE LUNG. Abscesses of the lung sometimes form during the course of or subsequent to tuberculosis or other diseases. An animal affected with abscess of the lung usually has a protracted, feeble cough and a general appearance of emaciation and anemia. The pulse is feeble and the breath foul. An offensive discharge from the lungs frequently occurs. Percussion and auscultation aid in making a diagnosis in this condition. The appetite is poor. Such animals go from bad to worse, and their prompt destruction would, as a rule, be to the interest of the owner. HYDROTHORAX. Hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest, is not a disease in itself, but is simply a condition in which an effusion takes place in the chest cavity, and is the result or effect of some disease, mostly pleurisy. It can be easily diagnosed by physical signs. A loss of the respiratory murmur will be noticed on auscultation, and on percussion dullness or flatness on a line as high as the effusion has taken place. When a large amount of effusion is present, tapping with the trocar and cannula is generally resorted to. The proper method of performing this operation will be found under the head of "Pleurisy." PNEUMOTHORAX. An accumulation of gas in the pleural sac is known as pneumothorax. The presence of air may result from either an injury of the lung or a wound communicating from the exterior. The indications for treatment are to remove any foreign body that may have penetrated, to exclude the further entrance of the air into the cavity by the closure of the external opening, and to employ antiseptics and adhesive dressings. The air already in the cavity will in most cases be absorbed. VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS. This is a disease that sometimes attacks young cattle when pastured in low-lying meadows near rivers subject to flood. It is caused by a small worm, _Strongylus micrurus_, which lodges in large numbers in the trachea and bronchial tubes, giving rise to considerable irritation of the air passages and inflammation. Sometimes the strongyles lodge in large numbers in the windpipe, forming themselves into a ball, and thus choke the animal to death. _Symptoms._--It is liable to attack a number of animals at once, and the weakest are the first to give way. The animal has a remarkably forcible cough, distressing, and of a special hacking and paroxysmal character. A stringy mucus is sometimes expelled during the spells of coughing. This mucus contains the _Strongylus micrurus_, which can be detected, or their ova observed, under a low power of the microscope. The attack has a subacute character and is very exhausting. The parasites, by becoming entwined in balls, seriously impede respiration, which is always remarkably labored in this disease. _Treatment._--The affected calves should be placed in a dry stable, protected from dampness, and subjected to fumigations of sulphurous anhydrid or chlorin gas. The liberation of chlorin gas is brought about by the action of sulphuric acid, either on a mixture of chlorid of sodium and black oxid of manganese or on bleaching powder. Sulphurous anhydrid may be procured by burning sulphur. Some practitioners prescribe small doses of spirits of turpentine in linseed oil. The system requires good support, and the diet should therefore be liberal and nutritious. Equal parts of sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger make an excellent tonic. _Prevention._--Avoid pastures notorious for generating verminous bronchitis. PLEURODYNIA. Pleurodynia is a term applied to rheumatism of the intercostal muscles, the apparent symptoms being very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff, is not inclined to turn around, and the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. Pleurodynia may be distinguished from pleurisy by the coexistence of rheumatism in other parts and by the comparative absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, and the effusion into the chest. The treatment for this affection is the same as that for rheumatism affecting other parts. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By W. H. HARBAUGH, V. S. [Revised by John E. Mohler, V. M. D.] THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system is the distinguishing feature of animal life. Without it there can be no intelligence, no instinct, no sensibility, no perception; in fact, existence would be nothing more than vegetable life. The senses--touch, taste, sight, hearing, smell--all depend on the nervous system. Motion depends on it. A muscle can not contract without receiving the stimulus from the nervous system. For example, if a nerve passing from a nerve center to a muscle is severed, the particular muscle that is supplied by the cut nerve is paralyzed. The nervous system is often studied in two divisions--the cerebrospinal division and the sympathetic division. The cerebrospinal division consists of the brain and spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. The nerves of this division convey the impulses of motion and sensation and supply all parts which are under the control of the will. For example, the voluntary muscular tissue includes all the muscles which act as the will directs. Another example: If anything comes in contact with any part of the skin, the impression is immediately perceived. All the special senses belong to this division. The sympathetic division consists of nerves and ganglia. The muscular tissue, which acts independently of the will--as, for example, the stomach, intestines, womb, blood vessels, ducts, etc.--is called involuntary muscular tissue, and receives nervous stimulus from the sympathetic division. The brain, spinal cord, and the ganglia are the central organs of the nervous system. The nerves conduct the nervous influence. The nerves terminate differently according to their function. The terminations are called end organs. The terminal end organs in the skin and other parts endowed with sensation receive the impressions, which are conveyed to the brain, where they are appreciated. They are so sensitive that the most gentle zephyr is perceived. They are so abundant that the point of the finest needle can not pierce the skin without coming in contact with them, and the sensation of pain is instantly conveyed to the brain. The terminal end organs of the nerves that supply the muscles are different, as they give the impulse which is conveyed by the motor nerves to the elements which constitute the muscle, and this impulse is the excitation which causes the muscle to contract. The terminal end organs of the special senses of taste, smell, etc., receive their special impressions, and their respective nerves carry the impressions to the brain. There are two divisions of nerves, the afferent and efferent. The afferent nerves are those which convey the impression to the nerve centers. All the sensory nerves belong to this division. The efferent nerves are those which convey the nervous impulse outward from the nerve centers, and they are further classified according to the function of their respective centers. For example: Motor fibers carry the impulse from the nerve center to a muscle to cause contraction. Vasomotor fibers carry the impulse to the muscular tissue in the blood vessels, which regulates their caliber. The secretory fibers convey the impulse to the cells of the glands and excite the activity of the gland, and its particular product is secreted or evolved, as, for instance, milk in the mammary gland. Inhibitory fibers control or inhibit the action of the organ to which they are distributed, as, for instance, the heart. Nerve centers may be considered as a collection or group of nerve cells. Both the cerebrospinal and the sympathetic divisions have nerve centers. The centers derive their special names from their functions. The brain is the great center of the nervous system, as it is the center of intelligence and perception. The centers of all the special senses, as well as the centers of various functions, are located in different parts of the brain. Nerve centers also exist in the spinal cord and in connection with the sympathetic system. A nerve is a cord consisting of a certain number of fibers of nerve tissue, inclosed in a sheath of connective tissue. Nerves divide and subdivide, sending off branches, which ramify in all parts of the body, and, as they near their terminations, they contain but one or two fibers. The brain and spinal cord are contained within a bony canal, which forms a protective covering for them. The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, lodged within the spinal canal, or hollow of the backbone, is continuous with the brain anteriorly, and terminates in a point in the sacrum (that part of the spinal column which immediately precedes the tail). The spinal cord gives off branches at each of the spaces between the segments of the backbone. These branches form nerve trunks which carry both sensory and motor impressions and impulses. The spinal cord is a grand nerve trunk to carry messages to or from the brain and to and from the reflex centers contained within itself. The brain is contained within the cavity of the skull and is continuous with the spinal cord; there is nothing to mark the place where one leaves off and the other begins. The brain is the seat of reason and intelligence. Voluntary effort originates from the brain. Coordination, or harmony of movement, is controlled by the rear portion of the brain, known as the cerebellum. The meninges are the membranes, three in number, which envelop the brain and spinal cord, and separate them from the bones which form the walls of the cranial cavity and spinal canal. The sympathetic, also called the ganglionic, division of the nervous system consists of two chains of ganglia, reaching from the head to the tail, situated beneath the spinal column, one on either side. The presence of the ganglia or enlargements on the cords give them their chainlike appearance. The sympathetic nerves are closely connected with the cerebrospinal nerves, but are not under the control of the will. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES (STAGGERS). Inflammation of the brain is technically termed encephalitis and of its membranes cerebral-meningitis, but as both conditions usually occur together, and since it is practically impossible to distinguish one from the other by the symptoms shown by the diseased animal, they may as well be considered together here as varieties of the same disease. Staggers, coma, frenzy, etc., are terms that are sometimes applied to this disease in its different forms or stages. _Causes._--Severe blows on the head with a hard object, or the head coming violently in contact with the ground or other hard substance in a fall, may be followed by encephalitis. Irritation caused by tumors in the brain may produce inflammation. Feed containing deleterious matters--for example, ergot (see Pl. V) and other fungi which contain a narcotic principle--is the most frequent cause of this affection, and hence it is often called "grass staggers" and "stomach staggers." Highly nitrogenous feeds are blamed for causing this disease. Parasites, mineral and narcotic poisons, hot weather, and severe exertion or excessive excitement may cause this condition. Inflammation of the brain may occur as a complication of some infectious disease or may follow some forms of indigestion. In many localities certain plants have the reputation of causing staggers. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary much, but a careful observer will detect a trouble connected with the nervous system without much uncertainty. The first signs may be those of frenzy, but generally at the start the animal is dull and sleepy, with little or no inclination to move about; the head may be pressed against the wall or fence and the legs kept moving, as if the animal were endeavoring to walk through the obstruction; the body, especially the hind part, may be leaned against the side of the stall or stable, as if for support. The bowels are constipated; the urine, when passed, is small in quantity and darker in color than natural. There may be trembling and even spasms of muscles in different parts. In the dull stage the animal may breathe less frequently than is natural, and each breath may be accompanied with a snoring-like sound. The pulse may be large and less frequent than normal. If suddenly aroused from the drowsy state, the animal appears startled and stares wildly. When moving about it may stagger, the hind quarters swaying from side to side. If delirium ensues, the cow is commonly said to be mad. She may bellow, stamp her feet, run about wildly, grate the teeth, froth at the mouth. If she is confined in the stable, she rears and plunges; the convulsions are so violent in many instances that it is really dangerous for one to attempt to render aid. The body may be covered with perspiration. She may fall; the muscles twitch and jerk; often the head is raised and then dashed against the ground until blood issues from the nose and mouth; the eyes may be bloodshot and sightless; the limbs stiff and outstretched, or they may be kicked about recklessly; the head may be drawn back and the tail drawn up; the urine may be squirted out in spurts; often the "washer" (membrane nictitans) is forced over the eye. When the convulsions cease they may be followed by a period of quiet unconsciousness (coma) which is more or less prolonged, when the animal may gradually regain consciousness, get up on its feet, and perhaps quietly partake of food, if there be any within reach, while at other times it arises with much difficulty and staggers blindly about the stall or field. It must be remembered that all the foregoing symptoms are not always seen in the same case. In those cases usually designated "sleepy staggers" the general symptoms of drowsiness are presented, while in other cases the symptoms of frenzy cause the affection to be called "mad staggers." In other cases there are symptoms of paralysis, swaying of the hind quarters, inability to rise, etc., and sometimes these symptoms of paralysis are the most striking manifestations and continue until death. Acute cases are accompanied by fever. It is well to remark that when the disease follows injuries to the head the symptoms may not be manifested until two or three days (or longer) after the accident. _Treatment._--Recoveries are rare in spite of careful attention. To be of any service whatever the treatment must be prompt and begin with the disease. In the early stage, when the pulse is large, most cases will admit of bleeding. Eight or 9 quarts of blood should be taken from the jugular vein. This should be followed immediately by a purgative, the following for a cow of average size: Epsom salt, 24 ounces; pulverized gamboge, one-half ounce; croton oil, 20 drops; warm water, 3 quarts; mix all together and give at once as a drench. About 2 quarts of warm water or warm soapsuds should be injected with a syringe into the rectum every three or four hours. It is best to keep the animal in a quiet, sheltered place, where it will be free from noise or other cause of excitement. All the cold water the animal will drink should be allowed, but feed must be withheld, except bran slops occasionally in small quantities, or grass, if in season, which may be cut and carried fresh to the patient. The skull must be examined, and if sign of injury is found, appropriate surgical treatment should be given. During the convulsions all possible efforts should be made to prevent the animal injuring itself. The head should be held down on the ground and straw kept under it. Cold water may be continuously poured on the head, or bags filled with ice broken in small pieces may be applied to the head. Different authors recommend different remedies to allay the convulsions, but for two reasons it will be found extremely difficult to administer medicines during the convulsions: (1) While the animal is unconscious the power to swallow is lost, and therefore the medicine is more liable to go down the windpipe to the lungs than it is to go to the paunch; (2) the convulsions are often so violent that it would be utterly useless to attempt to drench the animal; and furthermore it must be borne in mind that during this stage the functions of digestion and absorption are suspended, and as a consequence the medicine (provided it finds its way to the paunch) is likely to remain there unabsorbed and therefore useless. A blistering compound, composed of mustard, 1 ounce; pulverized cantharides, one-half ounce; hot water, 4 ounces, well mixed together, may be rubbed in over the loins, along the spine, and back of the head on each side of the neck. This is occasionally attended with beneficial effect, and especially so in those cases when paralysis is present. If the purgative acts and the animal shows signs of improvement in the course of two or three days, 2 drams of iodid of potassium may be given every night and morning, dissolved in a half bucketful of drinking water, if the animal will drink it, or it may be dissolved in a half pint of water and given as a drench. Great care must be observed in regard to the food, which should be nutritive, but not coarse, and at first in small quantities, gradually increased as the patient improves. After some progress is made toward recovery 1-1/2 drams of pulverized nux vomica may be given twice a day, added to the iodid of potassium drench. This should be administered so long as a staggering gait continues. In those rare cases when recovery takes place it is only partial as a rule, as there is generally a sequel which remains, such as partial paralysis. However, this is but a slight drawback in cattle, because when it is seen to persist the medicine should be stopped and the animal fattened for butchering. Post-mortem examinations discover congestion of the brain and its membranes. In those cases which have exhibited much paralysis of the hind legs before death the cord may be congested in the lumbar region (loins). When the disease has been caused by injury to the head, the congestion and extravasated blood may be found inside of the cavity in the location corresponding to the place where the injury was inflicted externally. In some cases pus is also discovered. It remains to be said that in all animals that have died from this affection the lungs are found very much congested. This may lead the superficial observer to suppose that the disease was a lung affection, but in fact it is only a natural consequence when death ensues from brain disease. APOPLEXY. That form of congestion of the brain known as parturient apoplexy, or parturient paresis, which is so frequently associated with the period of calving is described in another part of this work. (See "Milk fever," p. 226.) Cerebral apoplexy, not connected with parturition, is a rare disease among cattle. However, it may be due to degeneration and consequent rupture of a blood vessel in the brain. The attack is sudden, the animal in most cases falling as if it had received a blow on the head. It may stagger and reel some time before going down. After falling, there are convulsive movements of the legs or the animal sinks into insensibility. There may be remissions in the severity of the symptoms, but the pressure from the continued escape of blood soon causes death. Rest, quiet, friction to the legs and surface, frequent turning of the animal and cold to the head are to be practiced, if treatment is attempted. CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN. There is a form of congestive apoplexy affecting cattle which are in a plethoric condition. The congestion, or overfilling with blood, causes pressure on the brain substance and disorganizes its function. It occurs mostly in hot weather. In this disease the symptoms are somewhat similar to those exhibited when the animal has encephalitis, but the onset is more sudden, the duration is shorter, and there is less fever. There may be frenzy or coma, or alternations one with the other. The intelligence is diminished, staring eyes, bracing with the legs, pressing against the stall partition or manger, red mucous membranes. This condition usually terminates in recovery. In such cases bleeding should be resorted to immediately, and when the power of swallowing is not lost purgatives should be administered. Cold applications to the head and the general treatment recommended for encephalitis are indicated. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. Severe blows on the head, striking the head against some hard object while running, or falling on the head may cause concussion of the brain. The injury may fracture bones of the cranium and produce compression of the brain. _Symptoms and treatment._--The symptoms and the treatment that is indicated differ very little from what has been said under congestion of the brain and under encephalitis. In some cases it may be necessary to operate to remove a piece of bone that is pressing on the brain or to remove a clot of blood under the area which received the blow. EPILEPSY. This affection is characterized by the occurrence of sudden convulsions. The animal may appear to be in a fair state of health usually, but at any time, in the stable or in the field, it may have a convulsion in which it will fall and lose consciousness. Epilepsy must not be confounded with vertigo--the fainting which is an effect of heart troubles. The exact cause of epilepsy in the majority of cases is unknown. Post-mortem examinations in many instances have failed to discover any lesion in connection with the brain or nervous system, while in other instances disease of the brain has been found in the form of thickening of the membranes, abscesses, and tumors, and in some cases the affection has been manifested in connection with a diseased condition of the blood. The cause has also been traced to reflex irritation, due to teething, worms, and chronic indigestion. _Treatment._--When the affection is due to the last-named causes treatment may be successful if the cause is removed. If there are symptoms of worms or of indigestion, follow the general treatment advised for those troubles under their proper heads. If due to irritation caused by teething, the inflamed gums must be lanced. Examination of the mouth often develops the fact that one of the temporary teeth causes much irritation by remaining unshed, and thereby interfering with the growth of a permanent tooth. The offending tooth should be extracted. When the cause of epilepsy can not be discovered, it must be confessed that there is no prospect of a cure. However, some benefit may be expected from the occasional administration of a purgative dose of medicine. A pound of Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of warm water, for a cow of average size, may be given as a drench once or twice a month. In addition to the purgative, 4 drams of bromid of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water, three times a day, has proved very beneficial in some cases. SUNSTROKE (PROSTRATION FROM HEAT). Owing to the fact that cattle are seldom put to work at which they would have to undergo severe exertion, especially in collars, they are not frequently prostrated by the extreme heat of the summer months. When at pasture they select the coolest places in the shade of trees, in water, etc., when the heat becomes oppressive, and thereby avoid, as much as possible, the effects of it. It does happen, however, that cattle that have been kept up for the purpose of fattening, when driven some distance in very hot weather, are sometimes prostrated, but it must be remembered that it is not really necessary for the animal to be exposed to the rays of the sun, as those confined in hot, close places may suffer. This often happens in shipping, when they are crowded together in cars. _Symptoms._--The premonitory signs are those of exhaustion--dullness, panting, frothing at the mouth, tongue hanging out, irregular gait, uneasiness, palpitation--when, if the circumstances which tend to the prostration are not mitigated, the animal staggers or sways from side to side, falls, struggles for a while, and then gradually becomes quiet, or the struggles may continue, with repeated but ineffectual efforts to regain a standing position. In serious cases the attack may be very sudden, unconsciousness occurring without continued or distressing premonitory symptoms. _Treatment._--At first, when not very serious, removal to a quiet, sheltered place, with a few days on a reduced diet, is all that need be done. When the animal has fallen, apply cold water or ice to the head; rub the body and limbs with cloths or wisps of straw and continue the rubbing for a considerable time. If the power of swallowing is not lost (which may be ascertained by pouring a little cold water into the mouth), give 3 drams of stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water. Be very careful in drenching the animal when lying down. Repeat the drench in a half hour and an hour after the first one has been given. Instead of the ammonia, a drench composed of 3 ounces of spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water may be given, if more convenient, but the ammonia drench is preferable. If unconsciousness continues, so that a drench can not be administered, the same quantity of ammonia and water may be injected with a syringe into the rectum. The popular aqua ammonia, commonly called "hartshorn," will do as well as the stronger liquor ammonia, but as it is weaker than the latter the dose for a cow is about 1-1/2 ounces, which should be diluted with a quart of water before it is given to the animal, either as a drench or an enema. When ammonia can not be obtained, an ounce of tincture of digitalis may be given. As soon as the animal is able to rise it should be assisted and moved to the nearest shelter. All the cold water it will drink should be allowed. The ammonia or spirits of nitrous ether drench should be administered every three hours so long as there is much failure of strength. The diet should be limited for several days--bran slops and a little grass. When signs of returning strength are presented, 12 ounces of Epsom salt dissolved in a quart of warm water may be given in those cases which have been down and unconscious, but do not give it while much weakness remains, which may be for several days after the attack. The flesh of an animal that is suffering from heat stroke should not be prepared for use as food. On account of the fever with which the animal suffers, the flesh contains toxins that may render it poisonous to the consumer. INJURIES TO THE SPINAL CORD. The spinal cord is liable to concussion from blows and falls, and paralysis, to a greater or less extent, may be the result. Fracture, with displacement of the bones (vertebræ) which form the spinal column, by compressing the spinal cord, produces paralysis, which varies in its effect according to the part of the cord that is compressed. If the fracture is above the middle of the neck, death soon follows, as communication between the brain and diaphragm (the essential muscle of inspiration) is stopped. When the fracture is farther down in the neck, posterior to the origin of the phrenic nerve, the breathing continues, but there is paralysis in all parts posterior to the fracture, including the fore and hind legs. When the fracture is in the region of the loins the hind legs are paralyzed, but the fore legs are not. If the fracture is in the sacrum (the division of the spinal column between the loins and the tail), the tail alone is paralyzed. As a matter of course, when the back is broken there is no remedy; the animal should be killed at once. PARALYSIS. Paralysis, or loss of motion in a part, may be due to a lesion of the brain, of the spinal cord, or of a nerve. It may also be caused by reflex irritation. When the paralysis affects both sides of the body, posterior to a point, it is further designated by the name paraplegia. When one side of the body (a lateral half) is paralyzed, the term hemiplegia is applied to the affection. When paralysis is caused by a lesion of a nerve, the paralysis is confined to the particular part supplied by the affected nerve. As already pointed out, paralysis may be due to concussion of the spine, fracture of a bone of the spinal column with consequent compression of the spinal cord, concussion of the brain, or compression of the brain. An injury to one side of the brain may produce paralysis of the same side of the head and of the opposite side of the body (hemiplegia). Paralysis may occur in connection with parturient apoplexy, lead poisoning, ergotism, etc. CONGESTION OF THE SPINAL CORD. Paraplegia, or paralysis of the rear part of the body, is the dominant symptom in congestion or inflammation of the spinal cord. The cause is not known, but the disease is probably due to chilling. It is thought by some that some toxic influence (poison) may be responsible for its development. _Symptoms._--The symptoms usually appear suddenly and consist in inability to stand. Sometimes this is preceded by a period of excitement. The animal usually lies quietly, but sometimes it groans and tosses its head about in a way that indicates pain. Cows heavy with calf are sometimes affected with a form of paraplegia, which usually attacks them from about a month to a few days before calving. Apparently they are in good health in every respect except the inability to stand up on account of the paralysis of the hind quarters. This form is generally attributed to feeding on feeds containing insufficient protein and ash. It is most likely to occur in cows that are weak and thin. With good care and feed recovery usually occurs. _Treatment._--The animal must be given a soft, dry bed under shelter and in a quiet, airy place. It is well to apply mustard along the spine. The action of the mustard may be intensified by rubbing the skin with ammonia or turpentine. Internally give a purge of Glauber's salt. Nux vomica or strychnia (1 to 2 grain doses) may be given. Turn the cow two to four times daily and rub the legs well each time. There are instances when cows will persist in lying down (in spite of all efforts that are made to compel them to stand up), when it can not really be said that they are paralyzed. They have sensation in all parts; they can move all their feet; they can change their position; and in fact every function seems to be normally performed, but they obstinately refuse to rise or even make an effort to do so. Cases of this kind have been killed, as it was an utter impossibility to get the animal on its feet. However, there are instances when a cow, after refusing to rise when all other means had been tried, quickly jumped to her feet and showed fright upon the appearance of a dog or other terrifying object. RABIES (HYDROPHOBIA). [See discussion of this disease in chapter on "Infectious diseases," p. 358.] LIGHTNING STROKE (ASPHYXIA ELECTRICA). When an animal is struck by lightning the shock is instantaneously expended on the nervous system, and as a rule death occurs immediately; but when the shock is not fatal animation is suspended to a greater or less extent, as evidenced by prostration, unconsciousness, and paralysis. _Symptoms._--When not fatal, the symptoms vary much, according to the severity of the shock. The animal usually falls, as from an apoplectic attack, and, as a matter of course, the symptoms are such as are generally manifested in connection with concussion of the brain. The muscular system may be completely relaxed; the legs limber; the muscles flabby and soft to the touch; or there may be convulsions, spasms, and twitching of the muscles. The breathing is generally labored, irregular, or interrupted, and slower than normal. In most instances the electrical fluid leaves its mark by singeing the hair, or by inflicting wounds, burns, or blisters. _Treatment._--So long as the beating of the heart is perceptible the endeavor to resuscitate the animal should be continued. Dash cold water over the head and body; rub the body and legs; smartly whip the body with wet towels or switches. Mustard, mixed with water, should be well rubbed over the legs and back of the head on each side of the neck. Inject into the rectum 4 drams of stronger liquor ammonia, or 1-1/2 ounces of hartshorn diluted with a quart of warm water. Cautiously hold an uncorked bottle of hartshorn to the nostrils, so that some of it is inhaled, but care should be taken that too much is not suddenly inhaled. If the animal is unconscious, hypodermic injections of stimulants are indicated, such as 6 drams of camphorated oil in one dose, subcutaneously, or 20 grains of caffein or 1/2 grain of strychnin, also subcutaneously. When the animal revives sufficiently to be able to swallow, 4 drams of the stronger liquor ammonia, diluted with a quart of cold water, should be given as a drench, and the dose should be repeated in an hour. One and one-half ounces of ordinary hartshorn may be used instead of the stronger liquor ammonia, but, like the latter, it should be diluted with a quart or more of water, and even then care should be exercised in drenching. In cases where the shock has not caused complete insensibility recovery may be hastened by the ammonia and water drench, or 4 ounces of brandy diluted with a quart of water, or 8 ounces of whisky diluted with a quart of water. These doses may be given every three or four hours if necessary. After recovery from the more serious symptoms 2 drams of sulphate of quinin should be given twice a day until health is restored. If any paralysis remains 1-1/2 drams of pulverized nux vomica should be given twice a day with the quinin. The foregoing treatment is also applicable when the electrical shock is given by telephone, electric car, or electric-light wires, etc. The wounds, burns, or blisters should be treated according to the antiseptic method of treating wounds. TUMORS IN THE BRAIN, ETC. Tumors of different kinds have been found within the cranial cavity, and in many cases there have been no well-marked symptoms exhibited during the life of the animal to lead one to suspect their existence. Cases are recorded where bony tumors have been found in the brain of cattle that died suddenly, but during life no signs of disease were manifested. Post-mortem examinations have disclosed tubercles in the membranes of the brain. (See "Tuberculosis," p. 407.) Abscesses, usually the result of inflammation of the brain, have been found post-mortem. For the description of hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain, of calves the reader is referred to the section on parturition. (See "Water in the head," p. 179.) Chorea, constant twitching and irregular spasmodic movements of the muscles, has been noticed in connection with or as a sequel to other affections, as, for example, parturient apoplexy. Various diseases, the description of which will be found in other sections of this work, affect the nervous system to a greater or less extent--for example, ergotism, lead poisoning, uremia, parturient apoplexy, colic, and other affections associated with cramps, or spasms, etc. Disease of the ovaries or of the spinal cord, by reflex irritation, may cause estromania (see "Excess of venereal desire," p. 148, constant desire for the bull). DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ Of the materials that have served their purpose in building up the animal body or in sustaining the body temperature, and that are now to be thrown out as waste, the greater part is expelled from the system through the lungs and the kidneys, but the agents that pass out by either of these two channels differ in the main from those passing by the other. Thus from the lungs in the form of dioxid of carbon--the same gas that comes from burning of coal or oil--there escapes most of the waste material resulting from the destruction in the system of fats, sugars, starch, and such other foods as are wanting in the element nitrogen, and do not form fibrous tissues, but go mainly to support animal heat or maintain functional activity. From the kidneys, on the other hand, are thrown out the waste products resulting from the destruction of the foods and tissues containing nitrogen--of, for instance, albumin, fibrin, gluten, casein, gelatin, woody tissue, etc. While much of the waste material containing nitrogen leaves the body by the bowels, this is virtually only such of the albuminoid food as has failed to be fully digested and absorbed; this has never formed a true constituent part of the body itself or of the blood, but is so much waste food, like that which has come to the table and again carried away unused. If the albuminoid food element has entered the blood, whether or not it has been built up into a constituent part of the structure of the body, its waste products, which contain nitrogen, are in the main expelled through the kidneys, so that the latter become the principal channels for the expulsion of all nitrogen-containing waste. It would be an error, however, to infer that all nitrogenous food, when once digested and absorbed into the blood, must necessarily leave the system in the urine. On the contrary, in the young and growing animal, all increase of the fibrous structures of the body is gained through the building up of those flesh-forming constituents into their substance; in the pregnant animal the growth of the offspring and its envelopes has a similar origin, and in the dairy cow the casein or curd of the milk is a means of constant elimination of these nitrogen-containing agents. Thus, in the breeding cow and, above all, in the milking cow, the womb or udder carries on a work in one sense equivalent to that otherwise performed by the kidneys. Not only are these organs alike channels for the excretion of albuminous products, but they are also related to each other structurally and by nervous sympathy, so that suffering in the one is liable to induce some measure of disorder in the other. As in the case of other mammals, this nitrogenous waste matter is mainly present in the urine of cattle in the form of urea, but also, to some extent, as hippuric acid, a derivative of vegetable food which, in the herbivora, replaces the uric acid found in the urine of man and carnivora. Uric acid is, however, found in the urine of sucking calves which have practically an animal diet, and it may also appear in the adult in case of absolute, prolonged starvation, and in diseases attended with complete loss of appetite and rapid wasting of the body. In such cases the animal lives on its own substance, and the product is that of the wasting flesh. The other products containing nitrogen are present in only small quantities and need not be specially referred to. The urine of cattle contains much less of carbonates than that of the horse, and effervesces less on the addition of an acid. As the carbonates form a large proportion of the solid deposits (gravel, stone) from the horse's urine, the ox may thus be held less liable, yet even in the ox the carbonates become abundant or scanty, according to the nature of the feed, and therefore gravel, formed by carbonate of lime, is not infrequent in cattle. When fed on beets, clover hay, or bean straw carbonates are present in large quantities, these aliments being rich in organic acids and alkaline carbonates; whereas upon oat straw, barley straw, and, above all, wheat straw, they are in small amount. In calves fed on milk alone no carbonates are found in the urine. Phosphates, usually in combination with lime, are, as a rule, present only in traces in the urine of cattle; however, on a dietary of wheat, bran, or other aliment rich in phosphates, these may be present in large amount, so that they render the liquid cloudy or are deposited in solid crystals. The liquid is rendered transparent by nitric acid. The cow's urine, on a diet of hay and potatoes, contained: Parts. Urea 18.5 Potassic hippurate 16.5 Alkaline lactates 17.2 Potassium bicarbonate 16.1 Magnesium carbonate 4.7 Lime carbonate 0.6 Potassium sulphate 3.6 Common salt 1.5 Silica Trace Phosphates 0.0 Water and undetermined substances 921.3 _______ Total 1,000.0 The following table after Tereg[1] gives the different conditions of the urine, and especially the amount of urea and hippuric acid under different rations. The subjects were two oxen, weighing, respectively, 1,260 pounds and 1,060 pounds: --------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----+-----+---- Food per day.|Water. (pounds) | |Urine | |Passed. | | |Density. | | | |Solids | | | |in urine. | | | | |Hippuric | | | | |acid. | | | | | |Urea. | | | | | | |Nitrogen | | | | | | |in hippuric | | | | | | |acid and | | | | | | |urea. | | | | | | | |Total | | | | | | | |nitrogen. | | | | | | | | |Urea | | | | | | | | |per day. | | | | | | | | | |Hip- | | | | | | | | | |puric | | | | | | | | | |acid | | | | | | | | | |per | | | | | | | | | |week --------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- |_Lbs._|_Lbs_| |_Pct_|_Pct_|_Pct_|_Pct_|_Pct_|_Ozs_|_Ozs_ 16.90 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, and | 46.46| 7.40|1,036| 8.41| 2.66| 1.33| 0.83| 0.94| 1.63|3.23 1.30 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14.70 oat | | | | | | | | | | straw, and | 61.10|15.26|1,039| 6.93| 2.09| 0.84| 0.55| 0.49| 2.2 |5.3 2.30 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.4 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10.4 | 71.76|12.36|1,043| 8.05| 0.95| 1.85| 0.93| 0.94| 3.83|1.96 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 0.6 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, and | | | | | | | | | | 2.6 starch | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.4 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10.4 | 80.54|12.46|1,044| 8.29| 8.07| 2.41| 1.19| 1.11| 5.8 |2.1 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 2.7 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 1.4 | | | | | | | | | | starch, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.8 sugar | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10.4 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10.4 | 78.96|17.62|1,043| 8.41| 0.74| 3.12| 1.45| 1.24| 9.17|2.17 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 5 bean meal, | | | | | | | | | | and 0.8 sugar | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10 |110.12|25.86|1,038| 7.00| 0.31| 2.49| 1.19| 1.25|10.9 |1.33 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 6.4 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 1.7 | | | | | | | | | | starch, 4 | | | | | | | | | | sugar, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.4 rape oil | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10 |101.80|27.04|1,037| 7.14| 0.20| 2.95| 1.39| 1.58|13.3 |0.9 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 9.4 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 3.1 | | | | | | | | | | sugar, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.4 rape oil | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 10 wheat | | | | | | | | | | straw, 10 |119.00|23.20|1,038| 7.74| 0.21| 4.06| 1.91| 1.69|15.4 |0.8 clover hay, | | | | | | | | | | 11.7 bean | | | | | | | | | | meal, 2.8 | | | | | | | | | | starch, and | | | | | | | | | | 0.5 rape oil | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 17.86 bean | | | | | | | | | | straw, and | 54.84|12.60|1,043| 7.06| 0.40| 2.53| 1.21| 1.15| 5.3 |0.83 1.6 bean meal | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 14.88 bean | | | | | | | | | | straw | 55.76|16.34|1,036| 5.45| 0.11| 1.41| 0.67| 0.64| 3.83|0.3 | | | | | | | | | | 16.90 meadow | | | | | | | | | | hay | 36.26|15.14|1,042| 7.91| 1.30| 1.73| 0.91| 0.92| 4.37|3.3 --------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- The varying quantity of urea (from 1.6 to 15.4 ounces) is most suggestive as to the action of the more or less nitrogenous feed and the resulting concentration of the urine and blood. Hippuric acid, on the other hand, is most abundant when the animal is fed on hay and straw. The specific gravity of the urine of cattle varies from 1,030 to 1,060 in health, water being 1,000. It is transparent, with a yellowish tinge, and has a characteristic, musky smell. The chemical reaction is alkaline, turning red litmus paper blue. The quantity passed in twenty-four hours varies greatly, increasing not only with the water drunk, but with the albuminoids taken in with the feed and the urea produced. If a solution of urea is injected into the veins the secretion of urine is greatly augmented. Similarly the excess of salts like carbonate of potash in the feed, or of sugar, increases the action of the kidneys. Only about 20 per cent of the water swallowed escapes in the urine, the remaining 80 per cent passing mostly from the lungs, and to a slight extent by the bowels. The skin of the ox does not perspire so readily nor so freely as that of the horse; hence the kidneys and lungs are called upon for extra work. The influence of an excess of water in the feed is most remarkable in swill-fed distillery cattle, which urinate profusely and frequently, yet thrive and fatten rapidly. Among the other conditions that increase the flow of urine is overfilling of (internal pressure in) the blood vessels of the kidneys; hence the contraction of the blood vessels of the skin by cold drives the blood inward, tends to dilate the blood vessels of the kidneys, and to increase the secretion of urine. Nervous disorders, such as excitement, fear, congestions, or structural injuries to the back part of the base of the brain, have a similar result, hence, doubtless, the action of certain fungi growing in musty hay or oats in producing profuse flow of urine, whereas other forms of musty fodder cause stupor, delirium, or paralysis. Bacteria and their products are mainly expelled by the kidneys, and become sources of local infection, irritation, and disease. The quantity of urine passed daily by an ox on dry feeding averages 7 to 12 pints, but this may be increased enormously on a watery diet. The mutual influence of the kidneys and other important organs tends to explain the way in which disease in one part supervenes on preexisting disorder in another. The introduction of albuminoids in excess into the blood means the formation of an excess of urea, and a more profuse secretion of urine, of a higher specific gravity, and with a greater tendency to deposit its solid constituents, as gravel, in the kidneys or bladder. A torpid action of the liver, leaving the albuminoids in transition forms, less soluble than the urea into which they should have been changed, favors the onset of rheumatism or of nervous disorder, the deposit of such albuminoid products in the kidneys, the formation of a deep-brown or reddish urine, and congestion of the kidneys. Any abnormal activity of the liver in the production of sugar--more than can be burned up in the circulation--overstimulates the kidneys and produces increased flow of a heavy urine with a sweetish taste. This increased production of sugar may be primarily due to disease of the brain, which, in its turn, determines the disorder of the liver. Disease of the right side of the heart or of the lungs, by obstructing the onward flow of blood from the veins, increases the blood pressure in the kidneys and produces disorder and excessive secretion. Inactivity of the kidneys determines an increase in the blood of waste products, which become irritating to different parts, producing skin eruptions, itching, dropsies, and nervous disorders. Sprains of the loins produce bleeding from the kidneys and disease of the spinal cord, and sometimes determine albuminous or milky looking urine. The kidney of the ox (Pl. IX, fig. 1) is a compound organ made up of 15 to 25 separate lobules like so many separate kidneys, but all pouring their secretion into one common pouch (pelvis) situated in an excavation in the center of the lower surface. While the ox is the only domesticated quadruped which maintains this divided condition of the kidney after birth, this condition is common to all while at an early stage of development in the womb. The cluster of lobules making up a single kidney forms an ovoid mass flattened from above downward, and extending from the last rib backward beneath the loins and to one side of the solid chain of the backbone. The right is more firmly attached to the loins and extends farther backward than the left. Deeply covered in a mass of suet, each kidney has a strong outer, white, fibrous covering, and inside this two successive layers of kidney substance, of which the outer is that in which the urine is mainly separated from the blood and poured into the fine, microscopic urinary ducts. (Pl. X, fig. 1) These latter, together with blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves, make up the second, or internal, layer. The outer layer is mainly composed of minute globular clusters of microscopic, intercommunicating blood vessels (Malpighian bodies), each of which is furnished with a fibrous capsule that is nothing else than the dilated commencement of a urine tube. These practically microscopic tubes follow at first a winding course through the outer layer (Ferrein's tubes), then form a long loop (doubling on itself) in the inner layer (Henle's loop), and finally pass back through the inner layer (Bellini's tubes) to open through a conical process into the common pouch (pelvis) on the lower surface of the organ. (Pl. X, figs. 1, 2, 3.) The tube that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder is like a white, round cord, about the size of a goose quill, prolonged from the pouch on the lower surface of the kidney backward beneath the loins, then inward, supported by a fold of thin membrane, to open into the bladder just in front of its neck. The canal passes first through the middle (muscular) coat of the bladder, and then advances perceptibly between that and the internal (mucous) coat, through which it finally opens. By this arrangement in overfilling the bladder this opening is closed like a valve by the pressure of the urine, and the return of liquid to the kidney is prevented. The bladder (Pl. IX, fig. 2) is a dilatable, egg-shaped pouch, closed behind by a strong ring of muscular fibers encircling its neck, and enveloped by looped, muscular fibers extending on all sides around its body and closed anterior end. Stimulated by the presence of urine, these last contract and expel contents through the neck into the urethra. This last is the tube leading backward along the floor of the pelvic bones and downward through the penis. In the bull this canal of the urethra is remarkable for its small caliber and for the S-shaped bend which it describes in the space between the thighs and just above the scrotum. This bend is attributable to the fact that the retractor muscles are attached to the penis at this point, and in withdrawing that organ within its sheath they double it upon itself. The small size of the canal and this S-shaped bend are serious obstacles to the passing of a catheter to draw the urine, yet by extending the penis out of its sheath the bend is effaced, and a small, gum-elastic catheter, not more than one-fourth of an inch in diameter, may with care be passed into the bladder. In the cow the urethra is very short, opening in the median line on the floor of the vulva about 4 inches in front of its external orifice. Even in her, however, the passing of a catheter is a matter of no little difficulty, the opening of the urethra being very narrow and encircled by the projecting membranous and rigid margins, and on each side of the opening is a blind pouch (canal of Gärtner) into which the catheter will almost invariably find its way. In both male and female, therefore, the passing of a catheter is an operation which demands special skill. _General symptoms of urinary disorders._--These are not so prominent in cattle as in horses, yet they are of a similar kind. There is a stiff or straddling gait with the hind legs and some difficulty in turning or in lying down and rising, the act causing a groan. The frequent passage of urine in driblets, its continuous escape in drops, the sudden arrest of the flow when in full stream, the rhythmic contraction of the muscles under the anus without any flow resulting, the swelling of the sheath, the collection of hard, gritty masses on the hair surrounding the orifice of the sheath, the occurrence of dropsies in the limbs under the chest or belly, or in either of these cavities, and finally the appearance of nervous stupor, may indicate serious disorder of the urinary organs. The condition of the urine passed may likewise lead to suspicion. It may be white, from crystallized carbonate of lime; brown, red, or even black, from the presence of blood or blood-coloring matter; yellow, from biliary coloring matter; frothy, from contained albumin; cloudy, from phosphates; glairy, from pus; it may also show gritty masses from gravel. In many cases of urinary disorder in the ox, however, the symptoms are by no means prominent, and unless special examination is made of the loins, the bladder, and the urine the true nature of the malady may be overlooked. DIURESIS (POLYURIA, DIABETES INSIPIDUS, EXCESSIVE SECRETION OF URINE). A secretion of urine in excess of the normal amount may be looked on as disease, even if the result does not lead to immediate loss of condition. Cattle fed on distillery swill are striking examples of such excess caused by the enormous consumption of a liquid feed, which nourishes and fattens in spite of the diuresis; the condition is unwholesome, and cattle that have passed four or five months in a swill stable have fatty livers and kidneys, and never again do well on ordinary feed. Diuresis may further occur from increase of blood pressure in the kidneys (diseases of the heart or lungs which hinder the onward passage of the blood, the eating of digitalis, English broom, the contraction of the blood vessels on the surface of the body in cold weather, etc.); also from acrid or diuretic plants taken with the feed (dandelion, burdock, colchicum, digitalis, savin, resinous shoots, etc.); from excess of sugar in the feed (beets, turnips, ripe sorghum); also from the use of frozen feed (frosted turnip tops and other vegetables), and from the growths of certain molds in fodder (musty hay, mow-burnt hay, moldy oats, moldy bread, etc.). Finally, alkaline waters and alkaline incrustations on the soil may be active causes. In some of these cases the result is beneficial rather than injurious, as when cattle affected with gravel in the kidneys are entirely freed from this condition by a run at grass, or by an exclusive diet of roots or swill. In other cases, however, the health and condition suffer, and even inflammation of the kidneys may occur. _Treatment._--The treatment is mainly in the change of diet to a more solid aliment destitute of the special, offensive ingredient. Boiled flaxseed is often the best diet or addition to the wholesome dry food, and, by way of medicine, doses of 2 drams each of sulphate of iron and iodid of potassium may be given twice daily. In obstinate cases 2 drams ergot of rye or of catechu may be added. BLOODY URINE (RED WATER, MOOR ILL, WOOD ILL, HEMATURIA, HEMAGLOBINURIA). This is a common affection among cattle in certain localities, above all on damp, undrained lands and under a backward agriculture. It is simply bloody urine or hematuria when the blood is found in clots, or when under the microscope the blood globules can be detected as distinctly rounded, flattened disks. It is smoky urine--hemaglobinuria--when neither such distinct clots nor blood disks can be found, but merely a general browning, reddening, or blackening of the urine by the presence of dissolved, blood-coloring matter. The bloody urine is the more direct result of structural disease of the kidneys or urinary passages (inflammation, stone, gravel, tumors, hydatids, kidney worms, sprains of the loins), while the stained urine (hemaglobinuria) is usually the result of some general or more distinct disorder in which the globules are destroyed in the circulating blood and the coloring matter dissolved in and diffused through the whole mass of the blood and of the urine secreted from it. As in the two forms, blood and the elements of blood escape into the urine, albumin is always present, so that there is albuminuria with blood-coloring matter superadded. If from stone or gravel, gritty particles are usually passed, and may be detected in the bottom of a dish in which the liquid is caught. If from fracture or severe sprain of the loins, it is liable to be associated not only with some loss of control of the hind limbs and with staggering behind but also with a more or less perfect paralysis of the tail. The bloodstained urine without red globules results from specific diseases--Texas fever (Pl. XLVII, fig. 3), anthrax, spirillosis, and from eating irritant plants (broom, savin, mercury, hellebore, ranunculus, convolvulus, colchicum, oak shoots, ash privet, hazel, hornbeam, and other astringent, acrid, or resinous plants, etc.). The Maybug or Spanish fly taken with the feed or spread over a great extent of skin as a blister has a similar action. Frosted turnips or other roots will bring on the affection in some subjects. Among conditions which act by the direct destruction of the globules in the circulating blood may be named an excess of water in that fluid; the use of water from soils rich in decomposing vegetable matter and containing alkaline salts, particularly nitrites; and the presence in the water and feed of the ptomaines of bacteria growth; hence the prevalence of "red water" in marshy districts and on clayey and other impervious soils, and the occurrence of bloody urine in the advanced stages of several contagious diseases. Some mineral poisons--such as iodin, arsenic, and phosphorus taken to excess--may cause hematuria, and finally the symptoms may be merely the result of a constitutional predisposition of the individual or family to bleeding. In some predisposed subjects, exposure of the body to cold or wet will cause the affection. The specific symptom of bloody or smoky water is a very patent one. It may or may not be associated with fever, with the presence or absence of abdominal tenderness on pressure, with a very frothy state of the milk or even a reddish tinge, with or without marked paleness of the mucous membranes, and general weakness. When direct injury to the kidneys is the immediate cause of the disease the urine will be passed often, in small quantity at a time, and with much straining. When there is bloodlessness (a watery blood) from insufficient nourishment, fever is absent and the red water is at first the only symptom. When the active cause has been irritant plants, abdominal tenderness, colics, and other signs of bowel inflammation are marked features. _Treatment._--Treatment varies according as the cause has been a direct irritant operating on a subject in vigorous health or a microbian poison acting on an animal deficient in blood and vigor. In the first form of red water a smart purgative (1 pound to 1-1/2 pounds Glauber's salt) will clear away the irritants from the bowels and allay the coexistent high fever. It will also serve to divert to the bowels much of the irritant products already absorbed into the blood and will thus protect the kidneys. In many such cases a liberal supply of wholesome, easily digestible feed will be all the additional treatment required. In this connection demulcent feed (boiled flaxseed, wheat bran) is especially good. If much blood has been lost, bitters (gentian, one-half ounce) and iron (sulphate of iron, 2 drams) should be given for a week. For cases in which excess of diuretic plants has been taken, it may be well to replace the salts by 1 to 2 pints of olive oil, adding 1 ounce of laudanum and 2 drams of gum camphor; also to apply fomentations or a fresh sheepskin over the loins. Buttermilk or vinegar, one-half pint, or sulphuric acid, 60 drops in a pint of water, may also be used frequently as injections. In cases caused by sprained or fractured loins, inflamed kidneys, stone or gravel, the treatment will be as for the particular disease in question. In hematuria from anemia (watery blood), whether from insufficient or badly adjusted rations or from the poisonous products of fermentations in impervious or marshy soils, the treatment must be essentially tonic and stimulating. Rich, abundant, and easily digestible feed must be furnished. The different grains (oats, barley, wheat, bran, rye) and seeds (rape, linseed, cotton seed) are especially called for and may be given either ground or boiled. As a bitter, sulphate of quinin, one-half dram, and tincture of chlorid of iron, 2 drams, may be given in a pint of water thrice a day. In some cases 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls of oil of turpentine twice daily in milk will act favorably. In this anemic variety prevention is the great need. The drainage and cultivation of the dangerous soils is the main object. Until this can be accomplished young and newly purchased cattle not yet inured to the poisons must be kept from the dangerous fields and turned on only those which are already drained naturally or artificially. Further, they should have an abundant ration in which the local product of grass, hay, etc., is supplemented by grain or other seeds. Another point to be guarded against is the supply of water that has drained from marshes or impervious soils, rich in organic matter, as such water is charged with nitrites, ptomaines, etc., which directly conduce to the disorder. Fence out from all such waters and supply from living springs or deep wells only. ALBUMIN IN THE URINE (ALBUMINURIA). In bloody urine albumin is always present as an important constituent of the blood, and in congested and inflamed kidneys it is present as a part of the inflammatory exudate. Apart from these, albumin in the urine represents in different cases a variety of diseased conditions of the kidneys or of distant organs. Among the additional causes of albuminuria may be named: (1) An excess of albumin in the blood (after easy calving with little loss of blood and before the secretion of milk has been established, or in cases of sudden suppression of the secretion of milk); (2) under increase of blood pressure (after deep drinking, after doses of digitalis or broom, after transfusion of blood from one animal to another, or in disease of the heart or lungs causing obstruction to the flow of blood from the veins); (3) after cutting (or disease) of the motor nerves of the vessels going to the kidneys, causing congestion of these organs; (4) violent exertion, hence long drives; the same happens with violent, muscular spasms, as from strychnia poisoning, lockjaw, epilepsy, and convulsions; (5) in most fevers and extensive inflammations of important organs, like the lungs or liver, the escape of the albumin being variously attributed to the high temperature of the body and disorder of the nerves, and to resulting congestion and disorder of the secreting cells of the kidneys; (6) in burns and some other congested states of the skin; (7) under the action of certain poisons (strong acids, phosphorous, arsenic, Spanish flies, carbolic acid, and those inducing bloody urine); (8) in certain conditions of weakness or congestion of the secreting cells of the kidneys, so that they allow this element of the blood to escape; (9) when the feed is entirely wanting in common salt, albumin may appear in the urine temporarily after a full meal containing an excess of albumin. It can also be produced experimentally by puncturing the back part of the base of the brain (the floor of the fourth ventricle close to the point the injury to which causes sugary urine). In abscess, tumor, or inflammation of the bladder, ureter, or urethra the urine is albuminous. It follows, therefore, that albumin in the urine does not indicate the existence of any one specific disease, and except when from weakness or loss of function of the kidney cells, it must be looked on as an attendant on another disease, the true nature of which we must try to find out. These affections we must exclude one by one until we are left to assume the noninflammatory disorder of the secreting cells of the kidney. It is especially important to exclude inflammation of the kidney, and to do this may require a microscopic examination of the sediment of the urine and the demonstration of the entire absence of casts of the uriniferous tubes. (See "Nephritis," p. 123.) To detect albumin in the urine, the suspected and frothy liquid must be rendered sour by adding a few drops of nitric acid and then boiled in a test tube. If a solid precipitate forms, then a few more drops of nitric acid should be added, and if the liquid does not clear it up it is albumin. A precipitate thrown down by boiling and redissolved by nitric acid is probably phosphate of lime. _Treatment._--Treatment is usually directed to the disease on which it is dependent. In the absence of any other recognizable disease, mucilaginous drinks of boiled flaxseed, slippery elm, or gum may be given, tannic acid, one-half dram twice daily, and fomentations or even mustard poultices over the loins. When the disease is chronic and there is no attendant fever (elevation of temperature), tonics (hydrochloric acid, 6 drops in a pint of water; phosphate of iron, 2 drams, or sulphate of quinin, 2 drams, repeated twice daily) may be used. In all cases the patient should be kept carefully from cold and wet, a warm, dry shed, or in warm weather a dry, sunny yard or pasture being especially desirable. SUGAR IN URINE (DIABETES MELLITUS). This is a frequent condition of the urine in parturition fever, but as a specific disease, associated with deranged liver or brain, it is practically unknown in cattle. As a mere attendant on another disease it demands no special notice here. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS (NEPHRITIS). This has been divided according as it affects the different parts of the kidneys, as: (1) Its fibrous covering (perinephritis); (2) the secreting tissue of its outer portion (parenchymatous); (3) the connective tissue (interstitial); (4) the lining membrane of its ducts (catarrhal); and (5) its pelvis or sac receiving the urine (pyelitis). It has also been distinguished according to the changes that take place in the kidney, especially as seen after death, according to the quantity of albumin in the urine, and according as the affection is acute or chronic. For the purpose of this work it will be convenient to consider these as one inflammatory disease, making a distinction merely between the acute and the chronic or of long standing. The _causes_ are in the main like those causing bloody urine, such as irritant and diuretic plants, Spanish flies applied as a blister or otherwise, exposure to cold and wet, the presence of stone or gravel in the kidneys, injuries to the back or loins, as by riding one another, the drinking of alkaline or selenitic water, the use of putrid, stagnant water, of that containing bacteria and their products, the consumption of musty fodder, etc. (See "Hematuria," p. 119.) The length of the loins in cattle predisposes these parts to mechanical injury, and in the lean and especially in the thin, working ox the kidney is very liable to suffer. In the absence of an abundance of loose, connective tissue and of fat, the kidneys lie in close contact with the muscles of the loins, and any injury to them may tend to stretch the kidney and its vessels, or to cause its inflammation by direct extension of the disease from the injured muscle to the adjacent kidney. Thus, under unusually heavy draft, under slips or falls on slippery ground, under sudden unexpected drooping or twisting of the loins from missteps or from the feet sinking into holes, under the loading and jarring of the loins when animals ride one another in cases of "heat," the kidneys are subject to injury and inflammation. A hard run, as when chased by a dog, may be the occasion of such an attack. A fodder rich in nitrogenous or flesh-forming elements (beans, peas, vetches (_Vicia sativa_), and other leguminous plants) has been charged with irritating the kidneys through the excess of urea, hippuric acid, and allied products eliminated through these organs and the tendency to the formation of gravel. It seems, however, that these feeds are most dangerous when partially ripened and yet not fully matured, a stage of growth at which they are liable to contain ingredients irritating to the stomach and poisonous to the brain, as seen in their inducing so-called "stomach staggers." Even in the poisoning by the seeds of ripened but only partially cured rye grass (_Lolium perenne_), and darnel (_Lolium temulentum_), the kidneys are found violently congested with black blood; also, in the indigestions that result from the eating of partially ripened corn or millet some congestion of the kidneys is an attendant phenomenon. Cruzel says that the disease as occurring locally is usually not alone from the acrid and resinous plants charged with inducing hematuria, but also from stinking camomile (_Anthemis cotula_) and field poppy when used in the fresh, succulent condition; also from the great prevalence of dead caterpillars on the pasture, or from dead Spanish flies in the stagnant pools of water. The fresh plants are believed to be injurious only by reason of a volatile oil which is dissipated in drying. In the case of the stagnant water it may be questioned whether the chemical products of the contained ferments (bacteria) are not more frequently the cause of the evil than the alleged Spanish flies, though the latter are hurtful enough when present. Inflammation of the kidneys may further be a form or an extension of a specific contagious disease, such as erysipelas, rinderpest, septicemia, or even of poisoning by the spores of fungi. Rivolta reports the case of a cow with spots of local congestion and blood staining in the kidney, the affected parts being loaded with bacteria. Unfortunately he neither cultivated the bacteria nor inoculated them, and thus the case stands without positive demonstration that they were the cause of disease. In certain cases the _symptoms_ of nephritis are very manifest, and in others so hidden that the existence of the affection can be certainly recognized only by a microscopic examination of the urine. In violent cases there is high fever, increase of the body temperature to 103° F. and upward; hurried breathing, with a catching inspiration; accelerated pulse; dry, hot muzzle; burning of the roots of the horns and ears; loss of appetite; suspended rumination; and indications of extreme sensitiveness in the loins. The patient stands with back arched and hind legs extended backward and outward, and passes water frequently, in driblets, of a high color and specific gravity, containing albumin and microscopic casts. (Pl. XI, fig. 5.) When made to move, the patient does so with hesitation and groaning, especially if turned in a narrow circle; when pinched on the flank just beneath the lateral bony processes of the loins, especially on that side on which the disease predominates, it flinches and groans. If the examination is made with oiled hand introduced through the last gut (rectum), the pressure upward on the kidneys gives rise to great pain and to efforts to escape by moving away and by active contractions of the rectum for the expulsion of the hand. Sometimes there is a distinct swelling over the loins or quarter on one or both sides. In uncastrated males the testicle on the affected side is drawn up, or is alternately raised and dropped. In all there is a liability to tremors of the thigh on the side affected. In some severe cases colicky pains are as violent as in the worst forms of indigestion and spasms of the bowels. The animal frequently shifts from one hind foot to the other, stamps, kicks at the belly, frequently looks anxiously at its flank, moans plaintively, lies down and quickly gets up again, grinds its teeth, twists its tail, and keeps the back habitually arched and rigid and the hind feet advanced under the belly. The bowels may be costive and the feces glistening with a coat of mucus, or they may be loose and irritable, and the paunch or even the bowels may become distended with gas (bloating) as the result of indigestion and fermentation. In some animals, male and female alike, the rigid, arched condition of the back will give way to such undulating movements as are sometimes seen in the act of coition. The disease does not always appear in its full severity; for a day, or even two, however, there may be merely loss of appetite, impaired rumination, a disposition to remain lying down, yet when the patient is raised it manifests suffering by anxiously looking at the flanks, shifting or stamping of the hind feet, shaking of the tail, and attempts to urinate, which are either fruitless or lead to the discharge of a small quantity of high-colored or perhaps bloody urine. In some recent slight cases, and in many chronic ones, these symptoms may be absent or unobserved, and an examination of the urine is necessary to reach a safe conclusion. The urine may contain blood, or it may be cloudy from contained albumin, which coagulates on heating with nitric acid (see "Albuminuria," p. 121); it may be slightly glairy from pus, or gritty particles may be detected in it. In seeking for casts of the uriniferous tubes, a drop may be taken with a fine tube from the bottom of the liquid after standing, and examined under a power magnifying 50 diameters. If the fine, cylindroid filaments are seen they may then be examined with a power of 200 or 250 diameters. (Pl. XI, fig. 5.) The appearance of the casts gives some clue to the condition of the kidneys. If made up of large, rounded or slightly columnar cells, with a single nucleus in each cell (epithelial), they imply comparatively slight and recent disease of the kidney tubes, the detachment of the epithelium being like what is seen in any inflamed mucous surface. If made up largely of the small, disk-shaped and nonnucleated red blood globules, they imply escape of blood, and usually a recent injury or congestion of the kidney--it may be from sprains, blows, or the ingestion of acrid or diuretic poisons. If the casts are made of a clear, waxy, homogeneous substance (hyaline), without any admixture of opaque particles, they imply an inflammation of longer standing, in which the inflamed kidney tubules have been already stripped of their cellular (epithelial) lining. If the casts are rendered opaque by the presence of minute, spherical granular cells, like white blood globules, it betokens active suppuration of the kidney tubes. In other cases the casts are rendered opaque by entangled earthy granules (carbonate of lime), or crystals of some other urinary salts. In still other cases the casts entangle clear, refrangent globules of oil or fat, which may imply fatty degeneration of the kidneys or injury to the spinal cord. The presence of free pus giving a glairy, flocculent appearance to the urine is suggestive of inflammation of the urinary pouch at the commencement of the excretory duct (pelvis of kidney) (Pl. IX, fig. 1), especially if complicated with gritty particles of earthy salts. This condition is known as pyelitis. In the chronic cases swelling of the legs or along the lower surface of chest or abdomen, or within these respective cavities, is a common symptom. So, also, stupor or coma, or even convulsions, may supervene from the poisonous action of urea and other waste or morbid products retained in the blood. _Treatment._--In the treatment of acute nephritis the first consideration is the removal of the cause. Acrid or diuretic plants in the feed must be removed, and what of this kind is present in the stomach or bowels may be cleared away by a moderate dose of castor or olive oil; extensive surfaces of inflammation that have been blistered by Spanish flies must be washed clean with soapsuds; sprains of the back or loins must be treated by soothing fomentations or poultices or by a fresh sheepskin with its fleshy side applied on the loins, and the patient must be kept in a narrow stall in which it can not turn even its head. The patient must be kept in a warm, dry building, so that the skin may be kept active rather than the kidneys. Warm blanketing is equally important, or even mustard poultices over the loins will be useful. Blisters of Spanish flies, turpentine, or other agent which may be absorbed and irritate the kidneys must be avoided. The active fever may be checked by 15 drops tincture of aconite every four hours or by one-third ounce of acetanilid. If pain is very acute, 1 ounce of laudanum or 2 drams of solid extract of belladonna will serve to relieve. When the severity of the disease has passed, a course of tonics (quinin, 2 drams, or gentian powder, 4 drams, daily) may be given. Diuretics, too, may be given cautiously at this advanced stage to relieve dropsy and give tone to the kidneys and general system (oil of turpentine, 2 teaspoonfuls; bicarbonate of soda, 1 teaspoonful, repeated twice a day). Pure water is essential, and it should not be given chilled; warm drinks are preferable. In the chronic forms of kidney inflammation the same protection against cold and similar general treatment are demanded. Tonics, however, are important to improve the general health (phosphate of iron, 2 drams; powdered nux vomica, 20 grains; powdered gentian root, 4 drams, daily). In some instances the mineral acids (nitric acid, 60 drops, or nitrohydrochloric acid, 60 drops, daily) may be used with the bitters. Mustard applied to the loins in the form of a thin pulp made with water and covered for an hour with paper or other impervious envelope, or water hotter than the hand can bear, or cupping, may be resorted to as a counterirritant. In cupping, shave the loins, smear them with lard, then take a narrow-mouthed glass, expand the air within by smearing its interior with a few drops of alcohol, setting it on fire and instantly pressing the mouth of the vessel to the oiled portion of the skin. As the air within the vessel cools it contracts, tending to form a partial vacuum, and the skin, charged with blood, is strongly drawn up within it. Several of these being applied at once, a strong derivation from the affected kidneys is obtained. In no case of inflamed or irritable kidney should Spanish flies or oil of turpentine be used upon the skin. PARASITES OF THE KIDNEY. As the kidney is the visual channel by which the bacteria leave the system, this organ is liable to be implicated when microphytes exist in the blood, and congestions and blood extravasions are produced. In anthrax, southern cattle fever (Texas fever), and other such affections bloody urine is the consequence. Of the larger parasites attacking the kidney may be specially named the cystic form of the echinococcus tapeworm of the dog, the cystic form of the unarmed or beef tapeworm of man, the diving bladderworm--the cystic form of the marginate tapeworm of the dog, and the giant strongyle-- the largest of the roundworms. These give rise to general symptoms of kidney disease, but the true source of the trouble is likely to be detected only if the heads or hooklets of the tapeworm or the eggs of the roundworm are found on microscopical examination of the urine. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEY (HYPERTROPHY OR ATROPHY). The kidney may be the seat of cancerous or simple tumors, and it may be unnaturally enlarged or reduced in size, but though there may be signs of urinary disorder the true nature of the disease is seldom manifest until after death. The passing of blood and of large multi-nucleated cells in the urine (to be detected under the microscope) may betray the existence of an ulcerated cancer of the kidney. The presence of cancerous enlargement of (superficial) lymphatic glands may further assist and confirm the decision. RETENTION OF URINE. Inability to pass urine may come from any one of three conditions--first, spasm of the neck of the bladder; second, paralysis of the body of the bladder; third, obstruction of the channel of outlet by a stone (calculus) (see Pl. XI) or other obstacle. In _spasm of the neck of the bladder_ the male animal may stand with the tail slightly raised and making rhythmical contractions of the muscle beneath the anus (accelerator urinæ) (see Pl. IX, fig. 2), but without passing a drop of liquid. In the female the hind legs are extended, widely parted, and the back is arched as if to urinate, but the effort is vain. If the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum or vagina in the early stages of the affection, the bladder may be felt beneath partially filled, but not overdistended with liquid, and its neck or mouth firm and rigid. In the more advanced stages of the affection the organ is felt as a great, tense, elastic bag, extending forward into the abdomen. In this condition the overdistended muscular coat of the bladder has lost its power of contraction, so that true paralysis has set in, the muscle closing the mouth of the sac alone retaining its contractile power. In _paralysis of the body of the bladder_ attention is rarely drawn to the urinary disorder until the bladder has been distended to full repletion and is almost ready to give way by rupture and to allow the escape of the contained liquid into the abdomen. Overdistention is the most common cause of the paralysis, yet it may occur from inflammation of the muscular wall of the bladder, or even from injury to the terminal part of the spinal marrow. In this last condition, however, the tail is liable to be powerless, and the neck of the bladder may also be paralyzed, so that the urine dribbles away continuously. _Causes._--Among the causes of spasm of the neck of the bladder may be named the lodgment of small stones or gravel, the feeding on irritant diuretics (see "Bloody urine," p. 119, or "Nephritis," p. 123), the enforced retention of urine while at work or during a painful or difficult parturition. The irritation attendant on inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bladder may be a further cause of spasms of the neck, as may also be inflammation of the channel (urethra) back of the neck. Extensive applications of Spanish flies to the skin, the abuse of diuretics, and the occurrence of indigestion and spasms of the bowels are further causes. So long as spasmodic colic is unrelieved, retention of water from spasm of the neck of the bladder usually persists. _Treatment._--Treatment depends largely on the cause. In indigestion the irritant contents of the bowels must be got rid of by laxatives and injections of warm water; Spanish-fly blisters must be washed from the surface; a prolonged and too active exertion must be intermitted. The spasm may be relaxed by injecting one-half ounce of solid extract of belladonna in water into the rectum or by a solution of tobacco. Chloroform or ether may be given by inhalation, or chloral hydrate (1 ounce) may be given in water by the mouth. Fomentations of warm water may be made over the loins and between the thighs, and the oiled hand inserted into the rectum may press moderately on the anterior part of the bladder, which can be felt as an elastic fluctuating bag of an oval shape just beneath. All other measures failing, the liquid must be drawn off through a tube (catheter). This is, however, exceedingly difficult, alike in male and female, and we can not expect an amateur to succeed in accomplishing it. In the cow the opening into the bladder is found in the median line of the floor of the generative entrance, about 4 inches in front of the external opening, but it is flanked on either side by a blind pouch, into which the catheter will pass, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, in the hands of any but the most skilled operator. In the bull or steer the penis, when retracted into its sheath, is bent upon itself like the letter S, just above the scrotum and testicles (see Pl. IX, fig. 2), and unless this bend is effaced by extending the organ forward out of its sheath it is quite impossible to pass a catheter beyond this point. When, however, by the presentation of a female, the animal can be tempted to protrude the penis, so that it can be seized and extended, or when it can be manipulated forward out of the sheath, it becomes possible to pass a catheter of small caliber (one-third inch or under) onward into the bladder. Youatt advised laying open the sheath so as to reach and extend the penis, and others have advocated opening the urethra in the space between the thighs or just beneath the anus, but such formidable operations are beyond the stock owner. The incision of the narrow urethra through the great thickness of muscular and erectile bleeding tissue just beneath the anus is especially an operation of extreme delicacy and difficulty. Drawing the liquid through the tube of an aspirator is another possible resort for the professional man. The delicate needle of the aspirator is inserted in such cases through the floor of the vagina and upper wall of the bladder in the female, or through the floor of the rectum (last gut) and roof of the bladder in the male, or finally through the lower and back part of the abdominal wall, just in front of the bones of the pelvis (pubic bones), thence through the lower and anterior part of the bladder near its blind anterior end. After relief has been obtained the administration of belladonna in 2-dram doses daily for several days will tend to prevent a recurrence of the retention. When the body of the bladder has become benumbed or paralyzed by overdistention, we may seek to restore its tone by doses of one-half a dram of powdered nux vomica repeated daily, and by mustard plaster applied over the loins, on the back part of the belly inferiorly, or between the thighs. Small doses (2 drams) of balsam of copaiba are sometimes useful in imparting tone to the partly paralyzed organ. INCONTINENCE OF URINE (PALSY OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER). This may occur from disease or injury to the posterior part of the spinal cord or from broken back, and in these cases the tail, and perhaps the hind limbs, are liable to be paralyzed. In this case the urine dribbles away constantly, and the oiled hand in the vagina or rectum will feel the half-filled and flaccid bladder beneath and may easily empty it by pressure. _Treatment._--Treatment is only successful when the cause of the trouble can be remedied. After these (sprains of the back, etc.) have recovered, blisters (mustard) on the loins, the lower part of the abdomen, or between the thighs may be resorted to with success. Two drams of copaiba or of solid extract of belladonna or 2 grains Spanish flies daily may serve to restore the lost tone. These failing, the use of electric currents may still prove successful. URINARY CALCULI (STONE OR GRAVEL). Stone or gravel consists of hard bodies mainly made up of the solid earthy constituents of the urine which have crystallized out of that liquid at some part of the urinary passage, and have remained as small particles (gravel), or have concreted into large masses (stone, calculus). (See Pl. XI, figs. 1, 2, 3.) In cattle it is no uncommon thing to find them distending the practically microscopic tubes in the red substance of the kidney, having been deposited from the urine in the solid form almost as soon as that liquid has been separated from the blood. These stones appear as white objects on the red ground formed by cutting sections of the kidney, and are essentially products of the dry feed of winter, and are most common in working oxen, which are called upon to exhale more water from the lungs and skin than are the slop-fed and inactive cows. Little water being introduced into the body with the feed and considerable being expelled with the breath and perspiration in connection with the active life, the urine becomes small in amount, but having to carry out all waste material from the tissues and the tissue-forming feed it becomes so charged with solids that it is ready to deposit them on the slightest disturbance. If, therefore, a little of the water of such concentrated urine is reabsorbed at any point of the urinary passages the remainder is no longer able to hold the solids in solution, and they are at once precipitated in the solid form as gravel or commencing stone. In cattle, on the other hand, which are kept at pasture in summer, or which are fed liberally on roots, potatoes, pumpkins, apples, or ensilage in winter, this concentrated condition of the urine is not induced, and under such circumstances, therefore, the formation of stone is practically unknown. Nothing more need be said to show the controlling influence of dry feeding in producing gravel and of a watery ration in preventing it. Calculus in cattle is essentially a disease of winter and of such cattle as are denied succulent feed and are confined to dry fodder as their exclusive ration. While there are exceptions, they are so rare that they do not invalidate this general rule. It is true that stone in the kidney or bladder is often found in the summer or in animals feeding at the time on a more or less succulent ration, yet such masses usually date back to a former period when the animals were restricted to a dry ration. In this connection is should be noted that a great drain of water from the system by any other channel than the kidneys predisposes to the production of gravel or stone. In case of profuse diarrhea, for example, or of excessive secretion of milk, there is a corresponding diminution of the water of the blood, and as the whole quantity of the blood is thus decreased and as the urine secreted is largely influenced by the fullness of the blood vessels and the pressure exerted upon their walls from within, it follows that with this decrease of the mass of the blood and the lessening of its pressure outward there will be a corresponding decrease of urine. The waste of the tissues, however, goes on as before, and if the waste matter is passed out through the kidneys it must be in a more concentrated solution, and the more concentrated the urine the greater the danger that the solids will be deposited as small crystals or calculi. Again, the concentrated condition of the urine which predisposes to such deposits is favored by the quantity of lime salts that may be present in the water drunk by the animal. Water that contains 20 or 30 grains of carbonate or sulphate of lime to the gallon must contribute a large addition of solids to the blood and urine as compared with soft waters from which lime is absent. In this connection it is a remarkable fact that stone and gravel in the domesticated herbivora are notoriously prevalent on many limestone soils, as on the limestone formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan; on the calcareous formations of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England; in Landes in France, and around Munich in Bavaria. It does not follow that the abundance of lime in the water and fodder is the main cause of the calculi, as other poisons which are operative in the same districts in causing goiter in both man and animal probably contribute to the trouble, yet the excess of earthy salts in the drinking water can hardly fail to add to the saturation of both blood and urine, and thereby to favor the precipitation of the urinary solids from their state of solution. The known results of feeding cattle a generous or forcing ration in which phosphate of lime is present to excess adds additional force to the view just advanced. In the writer's experience, the Second Duke of Oneida, a magnificent product of his world-famed family, died as the result of a too liberal allowance of wheat bran, fed with the view of still further improving the bone and general form of the Duchess strain of Shorthorns. Lithotomy was performed and a number of stones removed from the bladder and urethra, but the patient succumbed to an inflammation of the bowels, induced by the violent purgatives given before the writer arrived, under the mistaken idea that the straining had been caused by intestinal impaction. In this case not only the Second Duke of Oneida, but the other males of the herd as well, had the tufts of hairs at the outlet of the sheath encased in hard, cylindroid sheaths of urinary salts, precipitated from the liquid as it ran over them. The tufts were in reality resolved into a series of hard, rollerlike bodies, more or less constricted at intervals, as if beaded. When it is stated that the ash of the whole grain of wheat is but 3 per cent, while the ash of wheat bran is 7.3 per cent, and that in the case of the former 46.38 per cent of the ash is phosphoric acid, and in that of the latter 50 per cent, it can easily be understood how a too liberal use of wheat bran should prove dangerous if fed dry. The following table shows the relative proportion of ash and phosphoric acid in wheat bran and in some common farm seeds: _Ash and phosphoric acid in bran and some common farm seeds._ --------------------+----------+-------------+--------------- Kind of grain. | Ash. | Phosphoric | Phosphoric | |acid in ash. | acid in the | | | entire feed. --------------------+----------+-------------+--------------- |_Per cent_| _Per cent_ | _Per cent_ Wheat bran | 7.3 | 50 | 3.65 Wheat, grain | 3 | 46.38 | 1.3914 Oats, grain | 2.50 | 26.5 | .6625 Barley, grain | 3.10 | 39.6 | 1.2276 Bean, grain | 3.10 | 31.9 | .9864 Peas, grain | 2.75 | 34.8 | .957 Tare, grain | 3 | 36.2 | 1.086 Indian corn, grain. | 1.5 | -- | -- Rye, grain | 1.6 | 39.9 | .6384 --------------------+----------+-------------+--------------- Wheat bran, it will be observed, contains three times as much phosphoric acid as is found in any of the other grains, and four times as much as oats, beans, peas, or rye; so that if fed in excess it will readily overcharge the urine with phosphates. There is another point to be considered, however, in estimating this danger. Wheat bran contains a far greater quantity of albuminoids and other nitrogen-containing constituents than the common grains (these being made up mainly of starch, which contains no nitrogen); and, all nitrogen-bearing products contained in the blood and tissues being expelled from the body mainly through the kidneys in the form of urea and (in cattle) hippuric acid, it follows that the excess of urea formed when such feed is consumed must load the urine with solids and bring it constantly nearer to the point of saturation, when such solids (or the least soluble of them) must be deposited. The following table will show the relative amounts of the nitrogen-bearing products in wheat bran and some of our common grains: _Nitrogenous matter in wheat bran and some common farm grains._ -----------------+---------------+----------------+---------------------- Kind of grain. | Albuminoids | Woody fiber | Total nitrogenous- | (nitrogenous).| (nitrogenous.) | bearing constituents. -----------------+---------------+----------------+---------------------- | _Per cent_ | _Per cent_ | _Per cent_ Wheat bran. | 16.1 | 8 | 24.1 Wheat, grain | 12.5 | 1.8 | 14.3 Barley, grain | 12.4 | 2.7 | 15.1 Oats, grain | 11.8 | 9.5 | 21.3 Rye, grain | 10.6 | 1.7 | 12.3 Indian corn | 10.1 | 1.7 | 11.8 -----------------+---------------+----------------+---------------------- It will be observed that, with the exception of oats, none of the grains contain more than two-thirds of the nitrogenous material present in the wheat bran, while in the case of rye and maize there is practically but one-half. Even in the case of oats the albuminoids, which are the more digestible principles, and therefore those that are the most easily and speedily converted into urea, are present only to the amount of two-thirds of that which exists in the wheat bran. With such an excess of ash, of phosphates, and of nitrogenous (urea-forming) constituents in wheat bran, its tendency to favor the formation of calculi is fully explained. It must not, however, be inferred that wheat bran is not a valuable feedstuff. The inference is only that it should be fed with an abundance of water, as a sloppy mash, or in combination with an abundance of roots, potatoes, pumpkins, or other succulent aliment. In this connection the presence of magnesia in the feed or water must be named as favoring calculous formations in the urinary passages. The explanation is that while the phosphate of magnesia thrown out in the urine is soluble in water, the compound phosphate of ammonia and magnesia is insoluble, and, accordingly, if at any time ammonia is introduced into urine containing the phosphate of magnesia there is instantly formed the ammonio-magnesium phosphate, which is as promptly deposited in the solid form. The common source of ammonia in such cases is from decomposition of the urea in fermenting urine. In order to produce this a ferment is necessary, however, and therefore, as an additional prerequisite, the presence of bacteria, or fungi, in the urine is essential. These ferments may make their way from without along the urinary passage (urethra), and their propagation in the bladder is greatly favored by the prolonged retention of urine, as in case of spasm of the neck of the bladder or obstruction by an already existing stone. Another mode of entrance of the ferment is an unclean catheter used to draw the urine. Still another is the elimination through the kidneys of the bacteria of infectious diseases, or of such as, without producing a general infection, yet determine fermentation in the urine. The precipitation is favored not only by the production of ammonia, but also by the formation of viscid (colloid) products of fermentation. In this sense bacteria are most important factors in causing gritty deposits in the urine. Another insoluble salt which enters largely into the composition of many urinary calculi of the ox is carbonate of lime. This is derived mainly from the lime in the feed and water and from the carbon dioxid formed by the oxidation of the organic acids in the fodder. These organic acids, being composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (without nitrogen), are resolved by the addition of oxygen into carbon dioxid (CO_{2}) and water (H_{2}O). The carbon dioxid unites with the lime in the blood to form carbonate of lime, and in this state passes into the urine. Now, carbonate of lime is soluble in water containing free or uncombined carbon dioxid, but is precipitated whenever the latter is withdrawn. It is only necessary, therefore, to have in the urine sufficient lime or other available base to unite with all the free carbon dioxid in order to bring about the precipitation of the dissolved carbonate of lime in the solid, crystallized form; hence it is that, of all sediments in the urine of herbivora, this is the most frequent and usually the most abundant. A less common constituent of urinary calculi is the insoluble oxalate of lime. In this case the lime is derived as before from the feed or water, or both, while the oxalic acid is a product of the oxidation of organic acids of the feed, less oxygen having been used than in the formation of carbon dioxid. The final product of the complete oxidation of these acids is carbon dioxid, but when less oxygen is furnished, owing to some disease of the lungs or a disease of the nerve centers, which lessens the activity of the breathing, then oxalic acid may be produced. If this oxalic acid comes into contact with lime, it is instantly precipitated as crystals of oxalate of lime. Another inorganic substance at times found in urinary calculi is silica (SiO_{2}). This contributes largely to giving stiffness to the stems of growing plants, and in most of our cereals and grasses makes up a large proportion of the ashes of the burned plant. It is found in the soluble form in combination as silicate of potash, but at times is displaced by oxalic or other acid and then appears as gritty, sandy particles in the stem. This gritty, insoluble silica is especially noticeable among the horsetails (_Equisetacæceæ_), bamboos, and sedges. The per cent of silica in the ash of several common fodder plants is given below: _Silica in ash of various fodder plants._ Ash of-- Silica. _Per cent._ Wheat straw 67.6 Oats and husk 38.6 Oat straw 35.4 Barley straw 73.1 Rye straw 64.4 Rye-grass hay 64.57 Wheat chaff 81.2 Oat chaff 59.9 Barley awn 70.7 It is only soluble silica that is taken up into the system, and it is in this form (usually as silicate of potash or soda) that it enters the urine, but all that is wanted to precipitate it in crystalline form as a gritty sand is the presence of oxalic or other acid having a stronger affinity for its base (potash or soda). Other conditions, however, enter largely into the causation of stone, or gravel. A high density of urine resulting from a highly saturated condition is often present for a length of time without any precipitation of solid materials. Urea and carbonates may be present in excess, the feed may be given dry, and drinking water may be deficient in quantity without any deposition of stone or gravel. In such cases, the presence of noncrystalline organic matter in the urine becomes an exciting cause. Rainey and Ord have shown experimentally that colloid (noncrystallizable) bodies like mucus, epithelial cells, albumin, pus, blood, hyaline casts of the kidney tubes, etc., not only determine the precipitation of crystallizable salts from a strong solution, but they determine the precipitation in the form of globular masses, or minute spheres, which, by further similar accessions, become stones, or calculi, of various sizes. The salts that are deposited by mere chemical reaction without the intervention of colloids appear in the form of sharply defined angular crystals, and hence the rough, jagged crystals of oxalate of lime or ammonia-magnesium phosphate. Heat intensifies the action of the colloids in causing precipitation of the dissolved salts, so that the temperatures of the kidneys and bladder constitute favorable conditions. Colloids that are undergoing decomposition are also specially powerful, so that the presence of bacteria or fungi causing fermentation is an important factor. In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of urinary calculi we must accord a high place to all those conditions which determine the presence of excess of mucus, albumin, pus, blood, kidney casts, blood-coloring matter, etc., in the urine. A catarrhal inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney, of the ureter, or of the bladder, generating excess of mucus or pus; inflammation of the kidneys, causing the discharge of blood, albumin, or hyaline casts into the urinary passages; inflammation of the liver, lungs, or other distant organ, resulting in the escape of albumin in the urine; disorders of the liver or of the blood-forming functions, resulting in hematuria or hemoglobinuria; sprains or other injuries to the back, or disease of the spinal marrow, which cause the escape of blood with the urine; the presence in the bladder of a bacterial ferment, which determines the decomposition of the mucus and urea, the evolution of ammonia and the consequent destruction of the protecting cellular (epithelia) lining of the bladder, or the irritation caused by the presence of an already formed calculus, may produce the colloid or uncrystallizable body that proves so effective in the precipitation of stone or gravel. It has long been known that calculi almost invariably form around any foreign body introduced into the kidney or bladder, and I have seen a large, calculous mass surrounding a splinter of an arrow that had penetrated and broken off in the body of a deer. The explanation is now satisfactory--the foreign body carries in with it bacteria, which act as ferments upon the urine and mucus in addition to the mechanical injury caused by its presence. If such a body has been introduced through the solid tissues, there is, in addition, the presence of the blood and lymph derived from the wounded structures. CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. Urinary calculi are most conveniently divided according to the locality in which they are found. Thus we find first renal calculi, formed in the kidney (Pl. XI, fig. 1), and which for cattle must be again divided into calculi of the uriniferous tubes and calculi of the pelvis. The second class are named ureteral calculi because they are found in the duct leading from the kidney to the bladder (ureter). The third class are the vesical calculi, from the bladder or vesicle in which they are found. The fourth class are the urethral calculi, and are found in the duct leading outward from the bladder through the penis (urethra). The fifth and last class are the preputial calculi, since they are found within the sheath of the penis (prepuce). Calculi may also be classed according to their chemical composition and this has the advantage of suggesting the special cause of each as found in the feed, water, soil, or general conditions of health. This classification affords no guide to their location or symptoms, as calculi of the same chemical composition may be formed at any part of the urinary passages, as those formed in the kidney may pass on through all the various passages outward, unless it is found at any point of their progress that they have grown so large that the passage will not admit them. The following are among the concretions found in the various parts: (1) _Coralline calculi._--These are of a dull-white color and irregular surface, like coral. They are made up of hard and resistant layers evenly deposited around a central nucleus. (Pl. XI, fig. 3.) Their specific gravity is 1,760, water being 1,000, and they contain 74 per cent of carbonate of lime with some carbonate of magnesia, organic matter, and a trace of carbonate of iron. Yellowish-white, smooth, round calculi of the same chemical composition are met with. (2) _Pearly calculi._--These are more frequent than the first-named variety. They are very hard and smooth on the surface, reflecting a play of various colors after the fashion of a pearl. This peculiarity appears to be caused by the thinness and semitransparency of the supposed layers. They have a specific gravity of 2,109 to 2,351, and nearly the same chemical composition as the coralline variety. Golding Bird found a specimen of this kind formed of carbonate of lime and organic matter only. (3) _Green calculi_ (_metalloid calculi_).--These are usually small and numerous, as they are exceedingly common. They are of a very hard consistency, and have a clear-polished, greenish surface of almost metallic brilliancy. They have a specific gravity of 2.301 and a composition almost identical with the second variety. (4) _White calculi._--Pure white, smooth, lustrous calculi are rare. They have a specific gravity of 2.307, and contain as much as 92 per cent of carbonate of lime with carbonate of magnesia and organic matter. (5) _Ammonio-magnesium calculi._--These are of a grayish color and a very rough, crystalline surface, which proves very irritating to the mucous membrane. They have a specific gravity of 1.109 to 1.637, and are composed chiefly of ammonio-magnesium phosphate, oxalate of lime, and organic matter, with a little carbonate of lime and magnesia. (6) _Siliceous calculi._--These are clear, smooth, and hard, and usually spherical. They have a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.376, and contain 57 per cent of silica with carbonates of iron and magnesia, organic matter, and traces of iron. In other specimens of siliceous calculi there was a specific gravity of 3.122, and there was 79 to 85 per cent of carbonate of lime together with carbonate of magnesia, and iron, silica, and organic matter. Others are almost exclusively made of silica. (7) _Oxalate of lime calculi_ (_mulberry calculi_) (Pl. XI, fig. 2).-- These are characterized by their extremely rough, angular surface, formed by the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime. Their specific gravity may be 3.441, and they contain oxalate of lime to the extent of 81 per cent, together with carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. (8) _Gravel_ (_pultaceous deposits_).--Simple crystals may be met with at any point from the kidneys to the external opening at the end of the prepuce (sheath), and they may appear singly, as crystals, or they may accumulate in masses of fine spherical crystals almost like dirty powdered chalk suspended in water. In the ox this is especially common as a collection in the sheath, distending that into a soft, doughy swelling. FORMS OF CALCULI IN DIFFERENT SITUATIONS. Apart from the rough crystalline surfaces of the calculi of oxalate of lime and ammonio-magnesium phosphate, the general tendency is to a smooth, round outline. At times, however, they show more or less flattening with rounded angular edges, caused by the contact and mutual friction of two calculi. Sometimes two or more stones lying together become united into one by a new external deposit, and the resulting mass then shows rounded swellings on opposite sides. The large calculi occupying the pelvis of the kidneys usually show a central part having the outline of the main cavity of the pelvis and two or more projections that have been molded into the corresponding branches or channels which lead to corresponding lobes of the kidney. In winter and spring small concretions in the form of plates are often met with in the branches of the pelvis, having been formed and molded in the confined space between the projecting papilla and the surrounding cuplike branch of the pelvis. Finally, the pulplike deposits in the sheath and elsewhere are made up of globular masses, individually so small as to be often practically microscopic. STONE IN THE KIDNEY (RENAL CALCULI). [Pl. XI, fig. 1.] In an animal leading the quiet, uneventful life of the ox, stones of large size may be present in the kidney without producing any disorder appreciable to the people about him. In cattle fattened on dry feed in winter, on the magnesian limestone of New York, it is exceptional to find the substance of the kidney free from calculi about the size of a grain of wheat or less, and standing out as white objects in the general red of the cut surface of the organ. Similarly around the papillæ in the cuplike arms of the pelvis we find minute, flattened or more or less rounded, yellowish-white concretions. Even the large concretions may prove apparently harmless. I have a calculus several ounces in weight which filled the entire pelvis of the kidney, that was found by accident in a fat carcass while being dressed. In work oxen, however, such concretions may give rise to symptoms of kidney disease, such as stiffness of the loins, shown especially in the acts of rising or turning, weakness of the hind parts when set to pull a heavy load, an irritability of the kidneys, shown by the frequent passage of urine in small quantity, tenderness of the loins, shown when they are pinched or lightly struck, and it may be the passage of blood or minute gritty masses with the urine. If the attack is severe, what is called "renal colic" (kidney colic) may be shown by frequent uneasy shifting of the hind limbs, shaking or twisting of the tail, looking around at the flanks, and lying down and rising again at short intervals without apparent cause. The frequent passage of urine, the blood or gritty masses contained in it, and perhaps the hard, stony cylinders around the tufts of hair of the sheath, show that the source of the suffering is the urinary organs. In bad cases active inflammation of the kidneys may set in. (See "Nephritis," p. 123.) URETERAL CALCULI. These are small stones which have passed from the pelvis of the kidney into the canal (ureter) leading from the kidney to the bladder, but, being too large to pass on easily, have blocked that canal and forced the urine back upon the kidney. The result is the production of symptoms more violent than in renal calculi, though not varying, save in intensity, from those of renal colic. In case of complete and unrelieved obstruction, the secretion of the kidney on that side is entirely abolished, and it becomes the seat of passive congestion, and it may even be absorbed in greater part or as a whole, leaving only a fibrous sac containing fluid with a urinous odor. In small cattle, in which the oiled hand introduced into the last gut may reach the affected part, the distended ureter may be felt as a tense, elastic cord, extending forward from the point of obstruction on the lateral wall of the pelvis and beneath the loins toward the kidney. If relief is obtained by the onward passage of the stone a free flow of urine usually follows, in the midst of which may often be found gritty masses. If the outlets from both kidneys are similarly blocked the animal becomes poisoned by the retention in the blood of the elements of the urine, and by their reabsorption after secretion. _Treatment of renal and ureteral calculi._--Treatment is not very successful, as only the smallest calculi can pass through the ureter and enter the bladder, and even if they should do so they are liable to a progressive increase there, so that later they may cause the symptoms of stone in the bladder. Fortunately, ordinary dairy, growing, or fattening cattle rarely show evident symptoms of illness, and even though they do so they can usually be fattened and slaughtered before the health is seriously impaired. In work oxen the case is different, and acute symptoms may develop, but even then the animal may often be fitted for the butcher. When treatment is demanded it is primarily soothing and antispasmodic. Fomentations with warm water over the loins should be persisted in without intermission until relief has been secured. The soothing effect on the kidney will often relieve inflammation and irritation, should the stone be in that situation, while if in the ureter the warm fomentations will at once soothe irritation, relax spasm of the muscular coat of the canal, and favor an abundant secretion from the kidney, which, pressing on the obstructing stone, may slowly push it on into the bladder. Large doses of laudanum (2 ounces) or of solid extract of belladonna (2 drams) will not only soothe the pain but relax the spasm and favor the onward passage of the calculus. The animal should be encouraged to drink large quantities of cool water to favor the free secretion of a very watery urine, which will not only serve to obviate irritation and continued deposit caused by a highly concentrated urine, but will press the stone onward toward the bladder, and even in certain cases will tend to disintegrate it by solution of some of its elements, and thus to favor its crumbling and expulsion. This is a principle which must never be lost sight of in the treatment of calculi. The immersion of the stone in a liquid of a lower specific gravity than that in which it has formed and grown tends to dissolve out the more soluble of its component parts, and thus to destroy its density and cohesion at all points, and thereby to favor its complete disintegration and expulsion. This explains why cattle taken from a herd on magnesian limestone in spring, after the long, dry feeding of winter, usually have renal calculi, while cattle from the same herd in the fall, after a summer's run on a succulent pasture, are almost always free from concretions. The abundance of liquid taken in the green feed and expelled through the kidneys and the low density or watery nature of the urine have so opened the texture and destroyed the density of the smaller stones and gravel that they have all been disintegrated and removed. This, too, is the main reason why benefit is derived from a prolonged stay at mineral springs by the human victims of gravel. If they had swallowed the same number of quarts of pure water at home and distributed it at suitable times each day, they would have benefited largely without a visit to the springs. It follows from what has been just said that a succulent diet, including a large quantity of water (gruels, sloppy mashes, turnips, beets, potatoes, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses), is an important factor in the relief of the milder forms of stone and gravel. _Prevention._--Prevention of calculus especially demands this supply of water and watery rations on all soils and in all conditions in which there is a predisposition to the disease. It must also be sought by attempts to obviate all those conditions mentioned above as causative of the malady. Sometimes good rain water can be furnished in limestone districts, but putrid or bad-smelling rain water is to be avoided as probably more injurious than that from the limestone. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to dissolve calculi by alkaline salts and mineral acids, respectively, but their failure as a remedy does not necessarily condemn them as preventives. One dram of caustic potash or of hydrochloric acid may be given daily in the drinking water. In diametrically opposite ways these attack and decompose the less soluble salts and form new ones which are more soluble and therefore little disposed to precipitate in the solid form. Both are beneficial as increasing the secretion of urine. In cases in which the diet has been too highly charged with phosphates (wheat bran, etc.), these aliments must be restricted and water allowed ad libitum. If the crystals passed with the urine are the sharp angular (octahedral) ones of oxalate of lime, then the breathing should be made more active by exercise, and any disease of the lungs subjected to appropriate treatment. If the crystals are triangular prisms of ammonia-magnesium phosphate or starlike forms with feathery rays, the indications are to withhold the feed or water that abounds in magnesia and check the fermentation in the urine by attempts to destroy its bacteria. In the latter direction plenty of pure-water diuretics, and a daily dose of oil of turpentine in milk, or a dose thrice a day of a solution containing one-tenth grain each of biniodid of mercury and iodid of potassium would be indicated. In considering the subject of prevention, it must never be forgotten that any disease of a distant organ which determines the passage from the blood into the urine of albumin or any other colloid (uncrystallizable) body is strongly provocative of calculus, and should, if possible, be corrected. Apart from cases from geological formation, faulty feeding, and other causes, the grand preventive of calculus is a long, summer's pasturage of succulent grasses, or in winter a diet of ensilage or other succulent feed. The calculi formed in part of silica demand special notice. This agent is secreted in the urine in the form of silicate of potash and is thrown down as insoluble silica when a stronger acid displaces it by combining with the potash to its exclusion. In cases of siliceous calculi, accordingly, the appropriate chemical prevention is caustic potash, which being present in the free state would attract to itself any free acid and leave the silica in its soluble condition as silicate of potash. STONE IN THE BLADDER (VESICAL CALCULUS, OR URETHRAL CALCULUS). Stone in the bladder may be of any size, but in the ox does not usually exceed half an inch in diameter. There may, however, be a number of small calculi; indeed, they are sometimes so small and numerous as to form a small, pulpy magma by which the bladder is considerably distended. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of stone in the bladder may be absent until one of the masses escapes into the urethra, but when this occurs the escape of urine is prevented, or it is allowed to pass in drops or driblets only, and the effect of such obstruction becomes manifest. The point of obstruction is not always the same, but it is most frequently at the S-shaped curve of the penis, just above the testicles or scrotum. In cows and heifers the urethra is so short and becomes so widely dilated during the urination that the calculi easily escape in the flow of liquid and dangerous symptoms practically never appear. Even in the male the signs of illness are at first very slight. A close observer may notice the cylinders of hard, earthy materials encircling the tufts of hair at the opening of the prepuce. It may further be observed that the stall remains dry and that the animal has not been seen to pass water when out of doors. The tail may at times be gently raised and contractions of the muscle (accelerator urinæ) beneath the anus (Pl. IX, fig. 2) may take place in a rhythmical or pulsating manner. As a rule, however, no symptom is noticed for two days, only the animal is lacking in his usual spirits. By this time the constantly accumulating urine has distended the bladder beyond its power of resistance and a rupture occurs, allowing the urine to escape into the cavity of the abdomen. Then dullness increases; the animal lies down most of his time; he becomes stupid and sometimes drowsy, with reddish-brown congestion of the lining membrane of the eyelids; pressure on the abdomen causes pain, flinching, and perhaps groaning, and the lowest part of the belly fluctuates more and more as the escaping urine accumulates in greater and greater amount. If at this stage the oiled hand is introduced into the rectum (last gut), the animal flinches when pressure is made downward on the floor of the pelvis, and no round, distended bladder is felt. If the same examination is made prior to the rupture, the rounded, tense, elastic bladder is felt extending forward into the abdomen, containing one or two gallons of liquid. There may be uneasy shifting of the hind limbs and twisting of the tail, also frequent lying down and rising, but these symptoms are exceptional. When the obstruction is low down between the thighs (at the S-shaped flexure), the line of the pulsating urethra from the anus downward may be felt distended with liquid, and though, by the hard swelling of the urethra, it is seldom easy to distinguish the exact seat of the stone, yet there is usually tenderness at the point of obstruction, and from this it may be accurately located. _Treatment._--The treatment of stone in the bladder or urethra consists in the removal of the stone by incision and the use of forceps. (Pl. XI, fig. 4.) When the stone has been arrested at the S-shaped flexure just above the scrotum, the patient being lean, the thickened tender part of the penis may be seized between the fingers and thumb of the left hand, while the calculus is exposed by a free incision with the knife held in the right. If there is no other obstruction between this point and the bladder, and if the latter has not yet ruptured, a flow of urine should take place from the opening. If there is no escape of liquid, a catheter or sound, one-fourth of an inch in diameter, must be passed up through the canal (urethra) until it is arrested by the next stone, on which a similar incision should then be made to effect its extraction. In case the stone has been arrested in the portion of the urethra which is in front of the arch of the hip bone and inside the pelvis, it can be reached only by making an opening into the urethra beneath the anus and over the arch of the hip bone, and from this orifice exploring the urethra with fine forceps to the neck of the bladder or until the stone has been reached and extracted. Owing to the small size of the canal (urethra) to be opened and the great thickness of erectile tissue to be cut through, the operation requires a very accurate knowledge of the parts, while the free flow of blood is blinding to the operator. A staff should always be passed up through the urethra from the lower wound, if such has been made, or, in case of its absence, through the whole length of the penis, that organ having been drawn out of its sheath until the S-shaped curve has been effaced and the course of the canal rendered straight. Upon the end of this staff the incision can be made with far more confidence and certainty. The operation can be undertaken only by a skilled veterinary anatomist, but the hints given above may be valuable in showing the stock owner when he is being properly served in such a case. In outlying districts, where no skilled operator can be had, a transverse incision may be made with a clean, sharp knife through the root of the penis, just over the arch of the hip bone, when the urine will flow out in a full stream. The attendant bleeding may be ignored, or if profuse it may be checked by packing the wound firmly with cotton wool for several hours. The urine will continue to escape by the wound, and the ox should be fattened for the butcher. The immediate relief is not to be looked upon as a permanent cure, as the calculi in the affected ox are usually numerous, and later attacks are therefore to be looked for. Hence it is desirable to fatten and kill such cases after a successful operation. If a breeding animal is too valuable to be killed, he should be subjected to preventive measures, as laid down under "Stone in the kidney," page 139. It should be added that when the bladder is filled with a soft magma a catheter may be introduced through the whole length of the urethra to be used in pumping water into the bladder. This water is extracted through the same channel when it has been charged with the suspended solids by manipulations of the bladder with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum. CALCULI, OR GRAVEL, IN THE PREPUCE, OR SHEATH. This is usually a collection of gravel, or a soft, puttylike material which causes distinct swelling of the sheath and gives it a soft, doughy feeling when handled. It may be removed in part by the oiled fingers introduced into the cavity, assisted by manipulation from without, or a tube may be inserted until the end extends behind the collection and water pumped in until the whole mass has been evacuated. Should even this fail of success, the sheath may be slit open from its orifice back in the median line below until the offending matter can be reached and removed. In all such cases the interior of the sheath should be finally lubricated with sweet oil or vaseline. It is unnecessary to stitch up the wound made in the sheath. (See "Inflammation of the sheath," p. 155.) [Illustration: PLATE IX. KIDNEY AND MALE GENERATIVE AND URINARY ORGANS.] [Illustration: PLATE X. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEY.] * * * * * DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE IX. Kidney and male generative and urinary organs. Fig. 1. Kidney of the ox. (From Handbuch des Vergleichenden Anatomie des Haus Säugethiere, vol. 7, 1890.) A, renal artery carrying blood into the kidney; V, renal vein carrying blood from the kidney back to the heart; H, ureter, the tube carrying the urine from kidney to bladder. It is formed by the union of a number of branches which begin as cups (calices), each inclosing the tip of a conical mass of tissue from which the urine excludes. Fig. 2. Genital and urinary organs of the bull. (From Leisering, Mueller, and Ellenberger, Handbuch des Verg. Anat. des Haus Säugethiere.) the serous membrane enveloping the testicles; 3, the right testicle, outer view; 3', left testicle, inner view; 4, epididymis, or the beginning of the excretory canal of the testicle; 4', globus major, or the head of the epididymis; 4'', globus minor, or the tail of the epididymis; 5, vas deferens, the duct through which the seminal fluid reaches the ejaculatory ducts; 5', pelvic dilation of the vas deferens; 6, vesicula seminalis. The vesiculæ seminalis are two oval pouches, which, in addition to their own secretions, receive the semen conveyed by the seminal ducts and hold it in reserve until copulation; 7, membranous or intrapelvic portion of the urethral canal covered by Wilson's muscle; 8, part of the prostate gland, covered by Wilson's muscle; 9, Cowper's gland. This gland, like the prostate gland, secretes a fluid which is thrown into the urethal canal in abundance immediately before ejaculation; by this means the expulsion of the semen is facilitated; 10, ejaculator seminis, or accelerator urinæ muscle; 11, penis; 11', cut portion of same; 12, cut suspensory ligaments of penis; 13, sheath, or prepuce laid open; 14, retractor muscles of sheath; 15, cremaster muscle cut at superior extremity; 16, duplicature of peritoneum; 17, ureters carrying urine from the kidneys to the bladder. PLATE X. Microscopic anatomy of the kidney. Fig. 1. In this figure the minute apparatus for the secretion, collection, and discharge of the urine into the pelvis of the kidney (see preceding plate) is shown. The course is as follows: The urine is secreted from the blood vessels in the little round bodies called glomeruli (12), and by the minute cells in the curved tubes (11, 9, 10, 8), and passes through the convoluted and straight tubes (7, 6) into the larger tube (1), and then out into the pelvis, thence through the ureters into the bladder. The fluid and salts dissolved in the urine are taken from the blood, and the minute blood vessels are therefore very abundant in the kidneys, as is shown by the branches and network on the left of the figure. The blood passes into the kidney in the artery (13), which then divides into branches which pass into the glomeruli (12) and also forms network around the secreting tubules (11, 9). The urine and salts pass from these vessels through the cells lining the tubules into the latter, and are discharged as described above. The blood is again collected in veins drawn black in the figure. Fig. 2 illustrates the manner in which the blood is distributed in the glomerulus (_f_), and also to the secreting tubules (_e_). Fig. 3 shows the relation between the blood vessel in the glomerulus (_e_) the tubule which conducts the urine therein secreted from the blood vessel; (_c_) represents a glomerulus from which the urinary tubule has been removed. PLATE XI. Calculi of kidney and bladder. Fig. 1. Calculus, or stone, from the kidney. These are in the pelvis or portion of the ureter receiving the urine. The prolongations are casts of the branches of the pelvis. See the plates of the kidney for further description. Fig. 2. Calculus made up of oxalate of lime magnified 215 times. Fig. 3. Phosphatic calculus containing a nucleus of uric acid, sawed through to show concentric layers. Fig. 4. Straight forceps used in removing stones from the bladder. Fig. 5. Casts of the minute tubules of the kidney found in the urine in various kinds of kidney disease. Highly magnified. * * * * * [Illustration: Plate XI. CALCULI OF KIDNEY AND BLADDER.] FOOTNOTES: [1] Encyklop. der Thierheilk., Vol. IV, p. 208. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ [Revised by Adolph Eichhorn, D. V. S.] GENERAL DISCUSSION. Diseases of the generative organs are practically confined to animals which are kept for reproduction and the dairy. The castration of the bull condemns these organs to inactivity and protects them from the many causes of injury attendant on the engorged blood vessels in the frequent periods of sexual excitement, on the exposure to mechanical violence, and on the exposure to infective inoculation. In three respects the castrated male is especially subject to disease: (1) To inflammation and tumefaction of the cut end of the cord that supported the testicle and of the loose connective tissue of the scrotum; (2) to inflammation of the sheath and penis from the accumulation of gravel in the former, from which the penis is not usually protruded in passing water; and (3) to bruising, abrasion, and inflammation of the sheath and penis during suspension in the stocks for the purpose of shoeing. Apart from these the ox is practically almost exempt from the inflammations and injuries of the genital organs. The same applies to the castrated heifer. Inflammation may occur in the broad ligament of the womb whence the ovary has been removed or infective inflammation in the abdominal cavity (peritonitis) in case the operation has been performed through the flank, as it usually is in the young heifer. Apart from these, the castrated heifer is practically immune from any trouble of the generative apparatus. Even the virgin heifer is little subject to such troubles, though she is not exempt from inflammations, and above all, from morbid growths in the ovaries which are well developed and functionally very active after the first year, or in precocious animals after the first few months of life. The breeding cow, on the other hand, is subjected to all the disturbances attendant on the gradual enlargement of the womb, the diversion of a large mass of blood to its walls, the constant drain of nutrient materials of all kinds for the nourishment of the fetus, the risks attendant and consequent on abortion and parturition, the dangers of infection from the bull, the risks of sympathetic disturbance in case of serious diseases of other organs, but preeminently of the urinary organs and the udder, and finally the sudden extreme derangements of the circulation and of the nervous functions which attend on the sudden revulsion of a great mass of blood from the walls of the contracting womb into the body at large immediately after calving. In reviewing this class of diseases, therefore, we have to note, first, that they are almost exclusively restricted to breeding animals, and secondly that in keeping with the absolute difference of the organs in the male and female we find two essentially distinct lists of diseases affecting the two sexes. EXCESS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (SATYRIASIS IN MALE, OR NYMPHOMANIA IN FEMALE). This may occur in the male from too frequent sexual intercourse, or from injury and congestion of the base of the brain (vasodilator center in the medulla), or of the posterior end of the spinal cord, or it may be kept up by congestion or inflammation of the testicles or of the mucous membrane covering the penis. It may be manifested by a constant or frequent erection, by attempts at sexual connection, and sometimes by the discharge of semen without connection. In bad cases the feverishness and restlessness lead to loss of flesh, emaciation, and physical weakness. It is, however, in the female especially that this morbid desire is most noticeable and injurious. It may be excited by the stimulating quality of the blood in cows fed to excess on highly nitrogenous feed, as the seeds of the bean, pea, vetch, and tare, and as wheat bran, middlings, cotton seed, gluten meal, etc., especially in the case of such as have no free exercise in the fields, and are subject to constant association with a vigorous young bull. A more frequent cause is the excitation or congestion of some part of the genital organs. Disease of the ovaries is preeminently the cause, and this may be by the formation of cysts (sacs containing liquid) or of solid tumors or degenerations, or, more commonly than all, the formation of tubercle. Indeed, in case of tuberculosis attacking the abdominal organs of cows, the ovaries or the serous membranes that support and cover them (the broad ligaments of the womb) are peculiarly subject to attack, and the animal has constant sexual excitement, incessantly riding or being ridden by other cattle, having no leisure to eat or chew the cud, but moving restlessly, wearing the flesh off its bones, and gradually wasting. In some localities these cows are known as "bullers," because they are nearly always disposed to take the bull, but they do not conceive, or, if they do, they are subject to early abortions. They are, therefore, useless alike for the dairy and for the feeder, unless the removal of the ovaries subdues the sexual excitement, when, in the absence of tuberculous disease elsewhere, they may be fattened for the butcher. Among the other sources of irritation charged with causing nymphomania are tumors and cancers of the womb, rigid closure of the neck of the womb so that conception can not occur and the frequent services by the male which stimulate the unsatisfied appetite, inflammation, and a purulent discharge from the womb or vagina. _Treatment._--The treatment in each case will vary with the cause and is most satisfactory when that cause is a removable one. Overfeeding on richly nitrogenous feed can be stopped, exercise in the open field given, diseased ovaries may be removed (see "Castration," p. 299), catarrhs of the womb and passages overcome by antiseptic, astringent injections (see "Leucorrhea," p. 224), and tumors of the womb may often be detached and extracted, the mouth of that organ having been first dilated by sponge tents or otherwise. The rubber dilator (impregnator), sometimes helpful in the mare, is rarely available for the cow, owing to the different condition of the mouth of the womb. DIMINUTION OR LOSS OF VENEREAL DESIRE (ANAPHRODISIA). This occurs in either sex from low condition and ill health. Longstanding, chronic diseases of important internal organs, leading to emaciation and weakness, or a prolonged semistarvation in winter may be sufficient cause. It is, however, much more common as the result of degeneration or extensive and destructive disease of the secreting organs (testicles, ovaries) which elaborate the male and female sexual products, respectively. Such diseases are, therefore, a common cause of sterility in both sexes. The old bull, fat and lazy, becomes sluggish and unreliable in serving, and finally gets to be useless for breeding purposes. This is not attributable to his weight and clumsiness alone, but largely to the fatty degeneration of his testicles and their excretory ducts, which prevents the due formation and maturation of the semen. If he has been kept in extra high condition for exhibition in the show ring, this disqualification comes upon him sooner and becomes more irremediable. Similarly the overfed, inactive cow, and above all the show cow, fails to come in heat at the usual times, shows little disposition to take the bull, and fails to conceive when served. Her trouble is the same in kind, namely, fatty degeneration of the ovaries and of their excretory ducts (Fallopian tubes), which prevents the formation or maturation of the ovum or, when it has formed, hinders its passage into the womb. Another common defect in such old, fat cows is a rigid closure of the mouth of the womb, which prevents conception, even if the ovum reaches the interior of that organ and even if the semen is discharged into the vagina. _Preventive._--The true preventive of such conditions is to be found in a sound hygiene. The breeding animal should be of adult age, neither overfed nor underfed, but well fed and moderately exercised; in other words, the most vigorous health should be sought, not only that a strong race may be propagated, but that the whole herd, or nearly so, may breed with certainty. Fleming gives 79 per cent as the general average of cows that are found to breed in one year. Here more than a fifth of the progeny is sacrificed and a fifth of the product of the dairy. With careful management the proportion of breeders should approach 100 per cent. The various local and general obstacles to conception should be carefully investigated and removed. The vigorous health which comes from a sufficiently liberal diet and abundant exercise should be solicited, and the comparative bloodlessness and weakness which advance with undue fattening should be sedulously avoided. In bull or cow which is becoming unduly fat and showing indications of sexual indifference, the treatment must be active. Turning out on a short pasture where it must work hard for a living will often suffice. The bull which can not be turned out to pasture may sometimes be utilized in the yoke or tread power, or he may be kept a part of his time in a field or paddock chained by the ring in his nose to a strong wire extending from one side of the lot to the other and attached securely to two trees or posts. The wire should be higher than the back of the bull, which will move frequently from end to end. If he is indisposed to take sufficient exercise in this way he may be safely driven. An instance of the value of the exercise in these incipient cases of fatty degeneration is often quoted. The cow Dodona, condemned as barren at Earl Spencer's, was sold cheap to Jonas Webb, who had her driven by a road a distance of 120 miles to his farm at Wilbraham, soon after which she became pregnant. In advanced cases, however, in which the fatty degeneration is complete, recovery is impossible. In case of rigid closure of the mouth of the womb the only resort is dilatation. This is far more difficult and uncertain in the cow than in the mare. The neck of the womb is longer, is often tortuous in its course, and its walls so approximated to each other and so rigid that it may be all but impossible to follow it, and there is always danger of perforating its walls and opening into the cavity of the abdomen, or, short of that, of causing inflammation and a new, rigid, fibrous formation which on healing leaves matters worse than before. The opening must be carefully made with the finger, and when that has entered the womb further dilatation may be effected by inserting a sponge tent or by careful stretching with a mechanical dilator. (Pl. XX, fig. 6.) STERILITY FROM OTHER CAUSES. The questions as to whether a bull is a sure stock getter and whether a cow is a breeder are so important that it would be wrong to pass over other prominent causes of sterility. Breeding at too early an age is a common source of increasing weakness of constitution which has existed in certain breeds. Jerseys have especially been made the victims of this mistake, the object being to establish the highest milking powers in the smallest obtainable body which will demand the least material and outlay for its constant repair of waste. With success in this line there has been the counterbalancing disadvantage of impaired vigor, with too often lessened fertility as well as increased predisposition to disease. When the heifers of the race have for generation after generation been bred under a year old, the demand for the nourishment of the fetus is too great a drain on the immature animal, which accordingly remains small and stunted. As it fails to develop in size, so every organ fails to be nourished to perfection. Similarly with the immature bull put to too many cows; he fails to develop his full size, vigor, or stamina, and transfers his acquired weakness to his progeny. An increasing number of barren females and an increasing proclivity to abortions are the necessary results of both courses. When this early breeding has occurred accidentally it is well to dry up the dam just after calving, and to avoid having her served again until full grown. Some highly fed and plethoric females seem to escape conception by the very intensity of the generative ardor. The frequent passage of urine, accompanied by contractions of the womb and vagina and a profuse secretion from their surfaces, leads to the expulsion of the semen after it has been lodged in the genital passages. This may be remedied somewhat by giving 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt a day or two before she comes in heat, and subjecting her at the same time to a spare diet. Should the excessive ardor of the cow not be controllable in this way, she may be shut up for a day or two, until the heat is passing off, when under the lessened excitement the semen is more likely to be retained. The various diseases of the ovaries, their tubes, the womb, the testicles and their excretory ducts, as referred to under "Excess of venereal desire," are causes of barrenness. In this connection it may be said that the discharges consequent on calving are fatal to the vitality of semen introduced before these have ceased to flow; hence service too soon after calving, or that of a cow which has had the womb or genital passages injured so as to keep up a mucopurulent flow until the animal comes in heat, is liable to fail of conception. Any such discharge should be first arrested by repeated injections as for leucorrhea, after which the male may be admitted. Feeding on a very saccharine diet, which greatly favors the deposition of fat, seems to have an even more direct effect in preventing conception during such regimen. Among other causes of barrenness are all those that favor abortion, ergoted grasses, smutty wheat or corn, laxative or diuretic drinking water, and any improper or musty feed that causes indigestions, colics, and diseases of the urinary organs, notably gravel; also savin, rue, cantharides, and all other irritants of the bowels or kidneys. Hermaphrodites are barren, of course, as their sexual organs are not distinctively either male or female. The heifer born as a twin with a bull is usually hermaphrodite and barren, but the animals of either sex in which development of the organs is arrested before they are fully matured remain as in the male or female prior to puberty, and are barren. Bulls with both testicles retained within the abdomen may go through the form of serving a cow, but the service is unfruitful; the spermatozoa are not fully elaborated. So I have examined a heifer with a properly formed but very small womb and an extremely narrow vagina and vulva, the walls of which were very muscular, that could never be made to conceive. A post-mortem examination would probably have disclosed an imperfectly formed ovary incapable of bringing ova to maturity. A bull and cow that have been too closely inbred in the same line for generations may prove sexually incompatible and unable to generate together, though both are abundantly prolific when coupled with animals of other strains. Finally, a bull may prove unable to get stock, not from any lack of sexual development, but from disease of other organs (back, loins, hind limbs), which renders him unable to mount with the energy requisite to the perfect service. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES (ORCHITIS). This visually results from blows or other direct injuries, but may be the result of excessive service or of the formation of some new growth (tumor) in the gland tissue. The bull moves stiffly, with straddling gait, and the right or left half of the scrotum in which the affected testicle lies is swollen, red, and tender, and the gland is drawn up within the sac and dropped again at frequent intervals. It may be treated by rest; by 1-1/2 pounds Epsom salt given in 4 quarts of water; by a restricted diet of some succulent feed; by continued fomentations with warm water by means of sponges or rags sustained by a sling passed around the loins and back between the hind legs. The pain may be allayed by smearing with a solution of opium or of extract of belladonna. Should a soft point appear, indicating the formation of matter, it may be opened with a sharp lancet and the wound treated daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a half pint of water. Usually, however, when the inflammation has proceeded to this extent, the gland will be ruined for purposes of procreation and must be cut out. (See "Castration," p. 299.) INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH. While this may occur in bulls from infection during copulation and from bruises, blows, and other mechanical injuries, the condition is more common in the ox in connection with the comparative inactivity of the parts. The sheath has a very small external opening, the mucous membrane of which is studded with sebaceous glands secreting a thick, unctuous matter of a strong, heavy odor. Behind this orifice is a distinct pouch, in which this unctuous matter is liable to accumulate when the penis is habitually drawn back. Moreover, the sheath has two muscles (protractors) which lengthen it, passing into it from the region of the navel, and two (retractors) that shorten it, passing into it from the lower surface of the pelvic bones above. (Pl. IX, fig. 2.) The protractors keep the sheath stretched, so that it habitually covers the penis, while the retractors shorten it up in the act of service, so that the penis can project to its full extent. In stud bulls the frequent protrusion of the erect and enlarged penis and the retraction and dilation of the opening of the sheath serve to empty the pouch and prevent any accumulation of sebaceous matter or urine. In the ox, on the other hand, the undeveloped and inactive penis is usually drawn back so as to leave the anterior preputial pouch empty, so that the sebaceous matter has space to accumulate and is never expelled by the active retraction of the sheath and protrusion of the erect penis in service. Again, the ox rarely protrudes the tip of the penis in urination, the urine is discharged into the preputial pouch and lodges and decomposes there, so that there is a great liability to the precipitation of its earthy salts in the form of gravel. The decomposing ammoniacal urine, the gritty crystals precipitated from it, and the fetid, rancid, sebaceous matter set up inflammation in the delicate mucous membrane lining the passage. The membrane is thickened, reddened, rendered friable, and ultimately ulcerated, and the now narrowed sheath is blocked by the increasing mass of sebaceous and urinous material and the decomposing mucus and pus. The penis can no longer be protruded, the urine escapes in a small stream through the narrowing sheath, and finally the outlet is completely blocked and the urine distends the back part of the sheath. This will fluctuate on being handled, and soon the unhealthy inflammation extends on each side of it, causing a thick, doughy, tender swelling under the belly and between the thighs. The next step in the morbid course is overdistention of the bladder, with the occurrence of colicky pains, looking at the flanks, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, raising or twisting of the tail, pulsatory contractions of the urethra under the anus, and finally a false appearance of relief, which is caused by rupture of the bladder. Before rupture takes place the distended bladder may press on the rectum and obstruct the passage of the bowel dejections. Two mistakes are therefore probable--first, that the bowels alone are to be relieved, and, second, that the trouble is obstruction of the urethra by a stone. Hence the need of examining the sheath and pushing the finger into its opening to see that there is no obstruction there, in all cases of retention of urine, overdistended bladder, or blocked rectum in the ox. The disease may be acute or chronic--the first by reason of acute, adhesive inflammation blocking the outlet, the second by gradual thickening and ulceration of the sheath and blocking by the sebaceous and calculous accretion. _Treatment._--The treatment of this affection depends on the stage. If recent and without instant danger of rupture of the bladder, the narrow opening of the sheath should be freely cut open in the median line below, and the sac emptied out with a finger or spoon, after which it should be thoroughly washed with tepid water. To make the cleansing more thorough a catheter or a small, rubber tube may be inserted well back into the sheath, and water may be forced through it from a syringe or a funnel inserted into the other end of the tube and considerably elevated. A fountain syringe, which should be in every house, answers admirably. The sheath may be daily washed out with tepid water, with a suds made with Castile soap, or with a weak solution of sulphate of zinc (one-half dram to a quart of water). If these attentions are impossible, most cases, after cleansing, will do well if merely driven through clean water up to the belly once a day. In case the disease has progressed to absolute obstruction, with the bladder ready to rupture any moment, no time must be lost in opening into the urethra with a sharp knife over the bony arch under the anus, where the pulsations are seen in urinating. This incision is best made in the median line from above downward, but in the absence of a skillful operator a transverse incision with a sharp knife over the bone in the median line until the urine flows with a gush is better than to let the patient die. Considerable blood will be lost and the wound will heal tardily, but the ox will be preserved. Then the slitting and cleansing of the sheath can be done at leisure, as described above. If the bladder is ruptured, the case is hopeless. INFLAMMATION OF THE SHEATH AND PENIS FROM BRUISING. This also is an affection of work oxen, caused by the pressure and friction of the sling when the animals are held in stocks for shoeing. This crushing of both sheath and penis for half an hour or more leads to the development, some hours later, of a hard, hot, and painful swelling, extending from the scrotum as far as the opening of the sheath. Fever sets in, with dry muzzle, red eyes, hard, full, rapid pulse, accelerated breathing, and elevated temperature. The ox stands obstinately with his hind legs drawn apart and urine falling drop by drop from the sheath. Appetite and rumination are suspended. In twenty-four hours there may be indications of advancing gangrene (mortification), the swelling becomes cold, soft, and doughy; it may even crack slightly from the presence of gas; a reddish brown, fetid liquid oozes from the swelling, especially around the edges, and if the animal survives it is only with a great loss of substance of the sheath and penis. _Prevention._--The prevention of such an injury is easy. It is only necessary to see that the slings do not press upon the posterior part of the abdomen. They must be kept in front of the sheath. _Treatment._--Treatment, to be effective, must be prompt and judicious. Put around the patient a strap with soft pads in contact with the affected parts, constantly soaked in cold water for at least 24 hours. A pound or two of Epsom salt in 4 quarts of hot water should also be given. The second day the parts may be washed with 1 quart of witch-hazel (extract), 2 drams sugar of lead, and 1 ounce laudanum, or the cold-water irrigations may be continued if the active inflammation persists. In case the swelling continues hard and resistant, it may be pricked at the most prominent points to the depth of one-third of an inch with a lancet first dipped in dilute carbolic acid, and the whole surface should be washed frequently with some antiseptic solution. When softening occurs in the center of a hard mass and fluctuation can be felt between two fingers pressed on different parts of such softening, it should be freely opened to let out the putrid pus, and the cavity should be syringed often with antiseptic solution. In bad cases extensive sloughs of dead skin, of the whole wall of the sheath, and even of the penis, may take place, which will require careful antiseptic treatment. The soaking of the urine into the inflamed and softened tissue and the setting up of putrefactive action not only endanger great destruction of the tissues from putrid inflammation, but even threaten life itself from a general blood poisoning (septicemia). Every case should have skillful treatment to meet its various phases, but in the severe ones this is most urgently demanded. INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA. Like other males, the bull sometimes suffers from inflammation of the canal which conveys the urine through the penis, and a whitish mucopurulent discharge forms in consequence. It may have originated in gravel, the excitement of too frequent service, infection from a cow with leucorrhea, or from extension of inflammation from the sheath. Besides the oozing of the whitish liquid from the end of the penis and sheath, there is tenderness and pain when handled, and while there is no actual arrest of the urine, its flow is subject to frequent voluntary checks, as the scalding liquid irritates the tender surface. _Treatment._--If recognized before the discharge sets in, a dose of 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt and local, warm fomentations would be appropriate. After the onset of the whitish discharge a daily injection of a solution of 20 grains of permanganate of potassium in a pint of water into the penis will be beneficial. WARTS AND PAPILLARY GROWTHS ON THE PENIS. These are not frequent in bull or ox. They may interfere with the protrusion of the organ from its sheath or with service, and always give rise to a bad-smelling discharge. _Treatment._--They may be twisted off with a pair of small tweezers or cut off with a pair of scissors, and the seat burned with a pencil of lunar caustic. To get hold of the penis in the bull, bring him up to a cow. In the ox it will be necessary to push it out by manipulation through the sheath. In difficult cases the narrow opening of the sheath may be slit open. WOUNDS OF THE PENIS. The most common wounds are those sustained by blows of horns, sticks, etc. The blood vessels and sacs are ruptured to a greater or less extent and considerable swellings filled with coagulated blood and inflammatory products occur, leading to distortion of the organ, and it may be to the impossibility of protruding it. _Treatment._--A lotion of a dram of alum in a quart of water may be applied (injected into the sheath, if necessary), and a large sponge constantly irrigated by a stream of cold water may be kept applied by means of a surcingle to the outer side of the sheath. Incisions are rarely applicable to an organ of this kind, but in case of the existence of an extensive clot which is unlikely to be absorbed the lancet may be resorted to. If the injury leads to paralysis of the penis and hanging out of its sheath, it should be supported in a sling and astringents used freely until inflammation subsides. Then the restoration of power may be sought by a blister between the thighs, by the use of electricity, or by the careful use of nerve stimulants, such as strychnin, 1 grain twice daily. ULCERS ON THE PENIS. Sores on the penis of the bull may result from gravel or sebaceous masses in the sheath or from having served a cow having leucorrhea. _Treatment._--These may be treated by frequent injections into the sheath of a lotion made with 1 dram sugar of lead, 60 drops carbolic acid, and 1 quart water. POLYPUS OF THE VAGINA OR UTERUS. A polypus is a tumor growing from the mucous membrane, and often connected to it by a narrow neck. A definite cause can not always be assigned. If growing in the vagina, a polypus may project as a reddish, rounded tumor from the vulva, especially during the act of passing water. It can be distinguished from descent of the womb by the absence of the orifice of that cavity, which can be felt by the oiled hand beyond the tumor in the depth of the vagina. From a vaginal hernia caused by the protrusion of some abdominal organ enveloped by the relaxed wall of the vagina it may be distinguished by its persistence, its firm substance, and the impossibility of returning it into the abdomen by pressure. A hernia containing a portion of bowel gurgles when handled and can be completely effaced by pressure, the gut passing into the abdomen. A polypus in the womb is less easily recognized. At the time of calving it may be felt through the open mouth of the womb and recognized by the educated touch (it must be carefully distinguished from the mushroom-formed cotyledons (Pl. XIII, fig. 2), to which in ruminants the fetal membranes are attached). At other times, unless the womb is opened in the effort to expel it, the polypus can be detected only by examining the womb with the oiled hand introduced through the rectum. Polypi may cause a mucopurulent discharge or they may only be suspected when they prove an obstacle to parturition. The best way to remove them is to put the chain of an écraseur around the neck, or pedicle, of the tumor and tear it through; or the narrow neck may be torn through by the emasculator, or in an emergency it may be twisted through by rotating the tumor on its axis. The removal of the tumor will allow calving to proceed; after this the sore may be treated by a daily injection of one-half dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic acid, and 1 quart milk-warm water. SIGNS OF PREGNANCY. If a cow remains for three or four weeks after service without showing signs of heat (bulling), she is probably pregnant. There are very exceptional cases in which the well-fed cow will accept the bull weeks or months after actual conception, and others equally exceptional in which the well-thriven but unimpregnated female will refuse the male persistently, but these in no way invalidate the general rule. The bull, no matter how vigorous or how ardent his sexual instinct, can not be made to pay any attention to a cow which is not in heat; hence indications of pregnancy can be had from both the male and female side. When she has conceived, the cow usually becomes more quiet and docile, and lays on flesh and fat more rapidly, especially during the first four months of gestation. The stimulus to digestion and nutrition created by the demands of the growing fetus, added to the quieter and more uneventful life, contributes to this result. Some feeders avail themselves of this disposition to prepare heifers and cows speedily for the butcher. The enlargement of the abdomen, and its dropping so that it bulges below and to each side, while it falls in at the flank, between the outer angle of the hip bone and the last rib, are significant features which, though they may be caused by abdominal tumor or dropsy, are usually marks of pregnancy. From the same increasing weight of the abdomen the spine in the region of the loins sinks so that the bones of the croup seem to rise, especially back toward the root of the tail. In the early stages of pregnancy the udder develops slowly, and toward its completion quite rapidly. For a long time there is merely a sense of greater fullness when handled; the wrinkles in the skin become shallower and are effaced, and the teats are materially enlarged. Beginning a few weeks after conception, this tends to a steady development, though slight alternations in the sense of successive growth and shrinkage are not uncommon. In milking cows this does not hold, as the milk usually tends to a steady diminution and the udder shrinks slowly until near the completion of the period, when it undergoes its sudden, remarkable development, and yields at first a serous liquid and then the yellow colostrum, which coagulates when heated. As pregnancy advances the mucous membrane lining the vulva becomes swollen and of a darker, bluish-red hue; the mucous secretion also increases, becoming very abundant just before calving. When the feeding has not been altered or restricted, a steady diminution of the salts of lime excreted in the urine is an attendant on pregnancy, the lime being demanded for the growing body of the fetus. After the fifth month the movements of the calf may often be observed in the right flank, nearly in front of the stifle, when the cow is drinking cold water. The sensation of cold on the side of the first stomach, which lies to the left and directly below the womb (Pl. I), stimulates the calf to active movements, which are detected on the sudden jerking outward of the abdominal wall as if from blows delivered from within. In a loose, pendent abdomen in the latter months of gestation the skin may often be seen pushed out at a sharp angle, irrespective of the period of drinking. Another mode of examination through the flank is by touch. The palm of the hand is pressed strongly inward, about 8 inches in front of the stifle and a little below, several times in succession, and is then brought to rest with the pressure maintained. Presently there are felt distinct and characteristic movements of the fetus, which has been disturbed and roused to action. Another mode is to press the closed fist strongly inward in the same situation and hold it so, forming a deep indentation in the abdominal wall. Presently the knuckles are felt to be struck by a solid body, which is no other than the fetus that has been displaced to the left by the push of the hand, and now floats back in its liquid covering (amniotic fluid; see Pl. XII) downward and to the right. Of all the modes of examination by touch, that done through the rectum gives the earliest satisfactory indications. The hand and arm, well oiled, are introduced, and the excrement having been removed if necessary, the palm of the hand is turned downward and the floor of the pelvis carefully examined. There will be felt in the median line the pear-shaped outline of the bladder, more or less full, rounded or tense, according to the quantity of urine it contains. Between this and the hand will be felt a soft, somewhat rounded tubular body, which divides in front into two smaller tubes or branches, extending to the right and left into the abdomen. This is the womb, which in its virgin, or unimpregnated, condition is of nearly uniform size from before backward, the main part or body being from 1-1/2 to 2 inches across, and the two anterior branches or horns being individually little over an inch wide. Immediately after conception the body and one of the horns begin to enlarge, the vacant horn remaining disproportionately small, and the enlargement will be most marked at one point, where a solid, rounded mass indicates the presence of the growing embryo. In case of twins, both horns are enlarged. At a more advanced stage, when the embryo begins to assume the form of the future animal, the rounded form gives place to a more or less irregular nodular mass, while later still the head, limbs, and body of the fetus may be distinctly made out. The chief source of fallacy is found in the very pendent abdomen of certain cows, into which in advanced gestation the fetus has dropped so low that it can not be felt by the hand in the rectum. The absence of the distinct outline of the vacant womb, however, and the clear indications obtained on external examination through the right flank will serve to prevent any mistake. The fetus may still be felt through the rectum if the abdomen is raised by a sheet passed from side to side beneath it. Still another sign is the beating of the fetal heart, which may be heard in the latter half of pregnancy when the ear is pressed on the flank in front of the right stifle or from that downward to the udder. The beats, which are best heard in the absence of rumbling, are about 120 a minute and easily distinguished from any bowel sounds by their perfect regularity. DURATION OF PREGNANCY. From extended statistics it is found that the average duration of pregnancy in the cow is 285 days. A calf born at the two hundred and fortieth day may live, and Dietrichs reported a case of a calf born on the three hundred and thirty-fifth day, and another was reported by the American Journal of Medical Science as having been born on the three hundred and thirty-sixth day. It is the general observation that in most cases of prolonged pregnancies the offspring are males. Lord Spencer found a preponderance of males between the two hundred and ninetieth and the three hundredth days, but strangely enough all born after the three hundredth day under his observation were females. It may be reasonably inferred that while the prevailing tendency is to carry the males overtime, yet that the smaller and comparatively much less developed female sometimes fails to stimulate the womb to contraction until very far beyond the regular date. HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT COW. Among domestic animals considerations of hygiene must be made subservient to profit, and therefore the first consideration is not to obtain the most robust health, but such a measure of vigor and stamina as is compatible with the most profitable utilization of the animal. The breeding cow must carry a calf every year, and this notwithstanding that she is at the same time suckling another large, growing calf. The dairy cow must breed every year, and at the same time must furnish a generous flow of milk from nine to eleven months yearly. If her health is lowered thereby or her life shortened, the question of profit must still hold sway, and, when disqualified, she must yield her place to another. There are exceptions, of course, but this rule generally holds. There are certain points, however, in which the interests of hygiene may be considered. The pregnant cow should have exercise, and as regards both exercise and feed, nothing is better than a run on a smooth pasture. She should be withheld from all violent excitement, hunting with dogs, riding or being ridden by cows in heat, driving in herd rapidly through narrow gateways, causing to jump ditches or fences, subjecting to blows with the horns of pugnacious cattle, driving on icy or otherwise slippery ground, carrying in railroad cars, kicking by vicious attendants, and fastening or throwing down for operations. The diet should be good, not of a kind to fatten, but with a generous quantity of nitrogenous constituents which will favor both the yield of milk and the nourishment of the fetus. Aliments like wheat bran, middlings, etc., which are rich in lime and phosphates, can be used to advantage, as there is a constant drain of earthy salts for the building of the body of the calf, and thereby the danger of undue concentration of the urine is lessened. Hard, innutritious, and indigestible aliments, musty grain or hay, partially ripened rye grass, millet, Hungarian grass, vetches, peas, or maize are objectionable, as they are liable to cause indigestion or even paralysis; and corn or hay affected by smut or ergot, or that has been spoiled by wet, overripened, and rendered fibrous and innutritious, is equally objectionable. In the main the feed should be laxative, as costiveness and straining are liable to cause abortion. Roots and green feed that have been frosted are objectionable, as being liable to cause indigestion, though in their fresh condition most wholesome and desirable. Ice-cold water should be avoided, as calculated to check the flow of milk, to derange digestion, and to cause abortion. A good temperature for the drink of the dairy cow is 55° F. In the case of plethoric and heavy-milking cows of mature age and in the prime of life, the hitherto liberal diet must be changed at the last week for the scantiest possible fare, and the bowels must be kept open by laxatives, if need be, if the owner would avoid milk fever. Her stall should not incline downward from shoulder to croup, lest the pressure of the abdominal organs should produce protrusion or abortion. She should be kept aloof from all causes of acute diseases, and all existing diseases should be remedied speedily and with as little excitement of the abdominal organs as possible. Strong purgatives and diuretics are to be especially avoided, unless it is in the very last days of gestation in very plethoric cows. PROTRUSION OF THE VAGINA (PROLAPSUS VAGINÆ). During pregnancy this is common from chronic relaxation of the vaginal walls and from lying in stalls that are lower behind than in front. The protrusion is of a rounded form and smooth, and if it embraces both sides of the canal it is double, with a passage between. It may sometimes be remedied by raising the hind part of the stall higher than the front part. This failing, a truss may be applied as for eversion of the womb, and worn until the period of calving approaches. (Pls. XXII, XXIII.) HERNIA (BREACH) OF THE UTERUS. In advanced pregnancy this occurs usually from a gradual relaxation and distention of the lower wall of the abdomen in the region of the udder, so that the latter is displaced downward, and in the sac above and in front of it may be felt the form and movements of the fetus. In other cases the womb escapes through a great laceration of the abdominal muscles to one side of the udder, and the hernial mass extends down to one side of that organ. However unsightly, this often allows the animal to complete its pregnancy naturally, and a broad, supporting bandage placed around the abdomen is about all that can be recommended. After calving it is best to fatten the cow. CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. The compression of the nerves by the womb and fetus passing through the pelvis sometimes causes cramp and inability to move the limb, but it disappears under friction and motion and is never seen after calving. DROPSY OF THE HIND LIMBS AND BETWEEN THE THIGHS. In the latter months of pregnancy the hind legs may swell beneath the hocks, or a soft swelling which pits on pressure with the finger appears from the vulva down between the thighs to the udder and in front. It is mainly ascribable to the pressure of the enlarged womb on the blood vessels, is not dangerous, and disappears after calving. DROPSY OF THE MEMBRANES OF THE FETUS (DROPSY OF THE WOMB). The unimpregnated womb may be filled with a dropsical fluid, but the pregnant womb is more liable to become overdistended by an excess of fluid in the inner water bag in which the fetus floats. (Pl. XII.) From an unhealthy state of this membrane or of blood of the fetus (water blood) this liquid may go on accumulating until the cow seems almost as broad as she is long. If the trouble has not originated in the ill health of the cow, the result is still to draw on her system, overtax her strength, and derange her digestion, so that the result may prove fatal to both mother and offspring. On the other hand, I have known extreme cases that came to the natural term without help and produced a living calf, after which the dam did well. The natural resort is to draw off a portion of the fluid through a hollow needle passed through the neck of the womb or through its tense wall adjacent. This may be repeated several times, as demanded, to relieve the cow from the injurious distention. PARALYSIS OF THE HIND PARTS. In ill-fed, weak, unthrifty cows palsy of the hind limbs and tail may appear in the last weeks of pregnancy. The anus and rectum may participate in the palsy so far as to prevent defecation, and the rectum is more or less completely impacted. Exposure to wet and cold are often accessory causes, though the low condition, general weakness, and the pressure on the nerves going to the hind limbs are not to be forgotten. Something may be done for these cases by a warm, dry bed, an abundant diet fed warm, frictions with straw wisps or with a liniment of equal parts of oil of turpentine and sweet oil on the loins, croup, and limbs, by the daily use of ginger and gentian, by the cautious administration of strychnia (1 grain twice daily), and by sending a current of electricity daily from the loins through the various groups of muscles in the hind limbs. The case becomes increasingly hopeful after calving, though some days may still elapse before the animal can support herself upon her limbs. EXTRAUTERINE GESTATION (FETUS DEVELOPING OUTSIDE THE WOMB). These curious cases are rare and are usually divided into three types: (1) That in which the fetus is formed in or on the ovary (ovarian gestation); (2) that in which it is lodged in the Fallopian tube, or canal between the ovary and womb (tubal gestation); and (3) that in which it is lodged in the abdominal cavity and attached to one or more of its contents from which it draws its nourishment (abdominal gestation). Undoubted cases of the first and last varieties are recorded as occurring in the cow. The explanation of such cases is to be found in the fact that the actively moving sperm cells (spermatozoa) thrown into the womb have made their way through the Fallopian tubes to the ovary. If they met and impregnated an ovum in the tube, and if the consequent growth of that ovum prevented its descent and caused its imprisonment within the tube, it developed there, getting attached to and drawing nourishment from the mucous walls. Such product has its development arrested by compression by the undilatable tube, or, bursting through the walls of the tube, it escapes into the abdomen and perishes. If, on the contrary, the spermatozoa only meet and impregnate the ovum on or in the ovary, the development may take place in the substance of the ovary, from which the fetus draws its nourishment, or the impregnated ovum, escaping between the ovary and the open end of the tube, falls into the abdominal cavity and becomes adherent to and draws nourishment from some of the abdominal organs (womb, bowel, liver, stomach, etc.). _Symptoms._--The symptoms are those of pregnancy, which may be suddenly complicated by inflammation (peritonitis), owing to rupture of the sac containing the fetus; or at full term signs of calving appear, but no progress is made; an examination with the oiled hand in the vagina or rectum finds the womb empty and its mouth closed. Further examination will disclose the fetal sac attached in some part of the abdominal cavity and containing the more or less perfectly developed body of a calf. In the most hopeful cases the fetus perishes at an early stage of gestation, becomes inclosed in a fibrous sac, and is slowly absorbed, its soft parts becoming liquefied and removed and the bones remaining encysted. In some cases the bones have finally sloughed into the rectum or through an artificial opening in the side of the belly. _Treatment._--Little can be done in such cases except to quiet pain and excitement by anodynes (opium, chloral, etc.) and leave the rest to nature. A fistula discharging bones may be dilated and the bones extracted, the sac being then washed out with a solution of 10 grains bichlorid of mercury in a quart of water. In certain cases with a live calf a skillful operator may be justified in cutting into the abdomen and extracting the calf with its membranes, using the lotion just named as an antiseptic. PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS. Even when the fetus has developed within the womb it may fail to be delivered at the proper time; labor pains have quickly subsided and the cow resumed her usual health. In such cases the calf dies, and its soft parts are gradually liquefied and absorbed, while its bones remain for years in the womb inclosed in the remains of the fetal membranes. These may be expelled at any time through the natural channels, or they may remain indefinitely in the womb, not interfering with the general health, but preventing conception. If the true condition of things is recognized at the time of the subsidence of the labor pains, the mouth of the womb may be dilated by the fingers, by the insertion of sponge tents, or by a mechanical dilator (Pl. XX, fig. 6), the fetal membranes may be ruptured and the calf extracted. After the removal of the calf and its membranes the danger of putrid poisoning may be obviated by injecting the antiseptic solution advised in the paragraph above. ABORTION (SLINKING THE CALF). Technically, abortion is the term used for the expulsion of the offspring before it can live out of the womb. Its expulsion before the normal time, but after it is capable of an independent existence, is premature parturition. In the cow this may be after seven and one-half months of pregnancy. Earl Spencer failed to raise any calf born before the two hundred and forty-second day. Dairymen use the term abortion for the expulsion of the product of conception at any time before the completion of the full period of a normal pregnancy, and in this sense it will be used in this article. Abortion in cows is either contagious or noncontagious. It does not follow that the contagium is the sole cause in every case in which it is present. We know that the organized germs (microbes) of contagion vary much in potency at different times, and that the animal system also varies in susceptibility to their attack. The germ may therefore be present in a herd without any manifest injury, its disease-producing power having for the time abated considerably, or the whole herd being in a condition of comparative insusceptibility. At other times the same germ may have become so virulent that almost all pregnant cows succumb to its force, or the herd may have been subjected to other causes of abortion which, though of themselves powerless to actually cause abortion, may yet so predispose the animals that even the weaker germ will operate with destructive effect. In dealing with this disease, therefore, it is the part of wisdom not to rest satisfied with the discovery and removal of one specific cause, but rather to try to find every existent cause and to obtain a remedy by correcting all the harmful conditions. NONCONTAGIOUS ABORTION. As abortion most frequently occurs at those three-week intervals at which the cow would have been in heat if nonpregnant, we may assume a predisposition at such times owing to a periodicity in the nervous system and functions. Poor condition, weakness, and a too watery state of the blood is often a predisposing cause. This in its turn may result from poor or insufficient feed, from the excessive drain upon the udder while bearing the calf, from the use of feed deficient in certain essential elements, like the nitrogenous constituents or albuminoids, from chronic, wasting diseases, from roundworms or tapeworms in the bowels, from flat-worms (flukes, trematodes) in the liver, from worms in the lungs, from dark, damp, unhealthful buildings, etc. In some such cases the nourishment is so deficient that the fetus dies in the womb and is expelled in consequence. Excessive loss of blood, attended as it usually is with shock, becomes a direct cause of abortion. Acute inflammations of important organs are notorious causes of abortion, and in most contagious fevers (lung plague, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease) it is a common result. Affections of the chest which prevent due aeration of the blood induce contractions of the womb, as shown experimentally by Brown-Sequard. Pregnant women suffocated in smoke aborted in many cases. (Retoul.) Ergoted grasses have long been known as a cause of widespread abortion in cows. The ergot is familiar as the dark purple or black, hard, spurlike growths which protrude from the seeds of the grasses at the period of their ripening. (Pl. V.) It is especially common, in damp localities and cloudy seasons on meadows shaded by trees and protected against the free sweep of the winds. The same is to a large extent true of smut; hence, wet years have been often remarkable for the great prevalence of abortions. Abortions have greatly increased in New Zealand among cows since the introduction of rye grass, which is specially subject to ergot. As abortion is more prevalent in old dairying districts, the ergot may not be the sole cause in this instance. The riding of one another by cows is attended by such severe muscular exertion, jars, jolts, mental excitement, and gravitation of the womb and abdominal organs backward that it may easily cause abortion in a predisposed animal. Keeping in stalls that slope too much behind (more than 2 inches) acts in the same way, the compression from lying and the gravitation backward proving more than a predisposed cow can safely bear. Deep gutters behind the stalls, into which one or both hind limbs slip unexpectedly, strain the loins and jar the body and womb most injuriously. Slippery stalls in which the flooring boards are laid longitudinally in place of transversely, and on which there is no device to give a firm foothold, are almost equally dangerous. Driving on icy ground, or through a narrow doorway where the abdomen is liable to be jammed, are other common causes. Aborting cows often fail to expel the afterbirth, and if this remains hanging in a putrid condition it is most injurious to pregnant cows in the near vicinity. So with retained afterbirth in other cows after calving. That some cows kept in filthy stables or with slaughterhouses near by may become inured to the odors and escape the evil results is no disproof of the injurious effects so often seen in such cases. The excitement, jarring, and jolting of a railroad journey often cause abortion, especially as the cow nears the period of calving, and the terror or injury of railway or other accidents proves incomparably worse. All irritant poisons cause abortions by the disorder and inflammation of the digestive organs, and if such agents act also on the kidneys or womb, the effect is materially enhanced. Powerful purgatives or diuretics should never be administered to the pregnant cow. Among other causes of abortion must be named the death or the various illnesses of the fetus, which are about as numerous as those of the adult; the slipping of a young fetus through a loop in the navel string so as to tie a knot which will tighten later and interrupt the flow of blood with fatal effect, and the twisting of the navel string by the turning of the fetus until little or no blood can flow through the contorted cord. There is in addition a series of diseases of the mucous membrane of the womb, and of the fetal membranes (inflammation, effusion of blood, detachment of the membranes from the womb, fatty or other degenerations, etc.), which interfere with the supply of blood to the fetus or change its quality so that death is the natural result, followed by abortion. _Treatment._--Although the first symptoms of abortion have appeared, it does not follow that it will go on to completion. So long as the fetus has not perished, if the waters have not been discharged, nor the water bags presented, attempts should be made to check its progress. Every appreciable and removable cause should be done away with, the cow should be placed in a quiet stall alone, and agents given to check the excitement of the labor pains. Laudanum in doses of 1 ounce for a small cow or 2 ounces for a large one should be promptly administered, and repeated in three or four hours should the labor pains recur. This may be kept up for days or even weeks if necessary, though that is rarely required, as the trouble either subsides or abortion occurs. If the laudanum seems to lack permanency of action, use bromid of potassium, or, better, extract of _Viburnum prunifolium_ (black haw), 40 grains, at intervals of two or three hours until five or six doses have been given. CONTAGIOUS ABORTION. Contagious abortion (also known as epizootic abortion, enzootic abortion, and slinking of calves) is a disease affecting chiefly cattle and to a lesser degree other domestic animals, and characterized by an inflammatory condition of the female reproductive organs, which results in the expulsion of the immature young. _History._--This disease has been known in England and continental Europe for many years, and descriptions of it are mentioned in the writings of Mascal, Lafoose, Skellet, Lawrence, St. Cyr, Zündel, and Youatt. In the early part of the eighteenth century British veterinarians recognized its contagiousness, but it remained for Franck (1876), Lehnert (1878), and Bräuer (1880) to produce the disease in healthy, pregnant cows by the introduction of exudate and material from aborting animals. Nocard (1888) isolated from the exudate between the mucous membrane of the uterus and fetal membranes a micrococcus and a short bacillus which were found continually in contagious abortion, but he failed to reproduce the disease by inoculations of pure cultures of these organisms into healthy, pregnant animals. In 1897 Bang, assisted by Stribolt, published their findings regarding infectious abortion of cattle, in which they incriminated Bang's bacillus of abortion as the causative agent. With pure cultures of this bacillus they were able to produce the disease artificially and to recover the same organism from the experimental cases. Since that time many noted investigators, both in this country and in Europe, have confirmed these findings. _Cause._--The _Bacterium abortus_ of Bang is now generally recognized as the causative agent of the disease of cattle. Formerly it was thought that abortion was due to injury, such as blows, horn thrusts, falls, etc., or the eating of spoiled feed and certain plants, and while this may be true in a limited number of cases, careful investigations have demonstrated these claims to be largely unfounded. It is now generally recognized that when abortion occurs in herds from time to time, it is safe to assume that the disorder is of an infectious nature and should be so treated. _Natural mode of infection._--This phase of the disease is of greatest importance for a clear understanding of the methods of prevention. Many investigators have demonstrated that the infection is transmitted through the digestive tract, through contaminated feed and water. The germs are taken up by the body from the intestines with the liquid nourishment, reach the blood, and are carried to the genital organs, where they find conditions best suited to their development. Some assert that calves are infected in this manner by suckling infected mothers, the germs being present in the milk, or the teats having been contaminated by coming in contact with infective discharges. It is claimed that infection contracted in this manner remains dormant in the body of the calf until pregnancy begins, and then the organism, finding conditions suitable for its development, produces the disease. Abortion may occasionally be transmitted from cow to cow by direct contact. The discharges from diseased cows, swarming with the germs, soil the external genitals, tail, and hind quarters, and then a susceptible animal, by contact, gets the infective material upon the vulva, the infection traveling up the genital canal and directly infecting the uterus. The belief long entertained that the female acquires the disease at the time of copulation as a result of transference of the infection from affected to healthy females on the genital organs of the bull has failed to receive the support of experimental evidence. The view that the disease is spread to any great degree in this way has been largely discredited. Cows of all ages are more or less susceptible, but young ones in first or second pregnancy most frequently abort. A second abortion is not unusual, and a third may occasionally occur, after which the cow usually becomes immune and thereafter carries her calf to maturity. Heifers from aborting mothers sometimes seem to be less susceptible than others. _Symptoms._--Contagious abortion is a very insidious disease, developing very slowly through several months of the gestation period, and resulting finally in the expulsion of the immature young, this act being simply an indication of the presence of the disease and not the disease itself. Because of this slow development and the fact that the health of the animal is not noticeably influenced, the presence of the disease may not be suspected until it has gained a firm foothold in the herd. The symptoms of approaching abortion are those preceding normal calving. In addition, there may be observed, a few days previous to abortion, a sticky, sometimes purulent, rusty, and odorless discharge. Abortion occurs most frequently from the third to the seventh month, according to the number of abortions, occurring early in first abortion, and later in each succeeding abortion until the calf is carried to full term and the mother has become immune. It happens frequently that calves are carried almost to full term, and are born alive, but are sickly, and soon die. Following abortion there is a dirty, yellowish-gray mucopurulent discharge which persists for two or more weeks. If abortion occurs early, the fetus is passed surrounded by its membranes, but if late in the period of pregnancy, the membranes are retained, decomposition sets in and blood poisoning, which may cause the death of the animal, or sterility may result. _Lesions._--The most characteristic change is found in the uterus where a dark-brown fluid, purulent or even gluey in consistency, and containing grayish-white flakes separates the material membranes from those of the fetus, preventing that intimate contact between the two which is so necessary for the interchange of fluids and gases by which the fetus is nourished and by which it obtains its oxygen. These being cut off, the fetus must of course die. The germs producing the disease are found in greatest numbers at this point. In addition there may be inflammatory changes, first in the walls of the uterus and then in the tissues of the fetus. These inflammatory changes seem most intense in the cotyledons and result in the destruction of the minute structure of those bodies, and they appear swollen, pale, and soft. The membrane of the uterus between the cotyledons also may show inflamed and necrotic patches. _Complications._--Serious results sometimes follow abortion, and this is particularly the case when there is retained afterbirth. The retained membranes decompose, the poisonous products of decomposition and the organisms of decomposition themselves are absorbed, blood poisoning results, and the animal dies. Sometimes, when the animal is able to resist the effects of this decomposition, the uterus becomes the seat of such severe changes that sterility results. The walls of that organ become thickened and hard, the lining membranes become eroded, and conception can not take place. At other times the ovaries, where the reproductive cells originate, become affected and lose their function. Abortion does not invariably follow infection, but the calf is carried to full term. In these cases, however, retained afterbirth is a common occurrence, even to the extent that frequent retention of afterbirth in a herd may be taken as an indication of the presence of the disease. Very often suppurative processes persist for a long time, preventing conception, or sterility may result without apparent cause. A sterile cow is valueless, of course, for any purpose except for beef. Such animals are a source of infection for the others and should not be allowed to remain in the herd. _Diagnosis._--The diagnosis of infectious abortion is made from the changes occurring in the fetal membranes and in the expelled fetus. This, however, is substantiated with certainty only by microscopic demonstration of the germ of abortion. The fact that repeated abortions are observed in a herd is also evidence of the presence of the disease. In consideration, however, of the fact that animals may be affected with the disease and disseminate the germs, even though they carry the fetus to full time, a diagnosis in such instances is only possible by laboratory methods. For this purpose the agglutination and also the complement-fixation tests are being used with splendid results, and by the aid of these biological tests it is possible to determine all infected animals in a herd. The tests are carried out with the serum from animals to be examined, only a teaspoonful of serum being necessary for the execution of both of these tests. It, however, has to be confined to laboratories which are properly equipped for such work. _Treatment and prevention._--It may be said in general that treatment is without avail and all efforts should be directed toward prevention. Various medicinal agents, such as carbolic acid administered subcutaneously and methylene blue fed in large quantities, have been recommended, but have failed to stand the tests of scientific investigation and practical use. Serums and vaccines have also been prepared and sold as cures and preventives, but the work is still considered in the experimental stage. Bacterial vaccines are at present extensively used in the control of this disease, and while numerous reports indicate beneficial results from their administration, in other instances total failures have been recorded. It appears that the experiments in this line have not progressed sufficiently to justify definite conclusions. The spread of the disease can be controlled to a great degree by the practice of sanitary measures directed toward the disinfection of premises and the isolation of animals at time of calving and aborting. For methods of disinfection of premises see page 363. Make frequent observations of the animals of affected herds for symptoms of aborting, such as swelling of vulva or udder enlargement, and upon the discovery of an animal showing these symptoms place her immediately in a stall which is somewhat remote from healthy stock as a means of confining the products of abortion as much as possible should the act occur. If an animal aborts unexpectedly she should be removed to separate quarters and given proper attention as promptly as possible. The fetus, afterbirth, provided it has been expelled, and all litter that has been contaminated with them and uterine discharges should be gathered up and destroyed either by burning or burying. Clean and thoroughly disinfect the floor, gutters, and manger in the vicinity of the aborting animal. Daily irrigations of the uterus with nonirritating antiseptic solutions, such as 0.5 per cent solution of cresol or compound solution of cresol, at body temperature have a tendency to prevent the multiplication of microorganisms in the uterus and in this way promote recovery. Douching of the uterus should be continued until the discharge ceases. In addition, the external genitals, root of the tail, escutcheon, etc., should be sponged daily with the antiseptic solution. Aim to place all pregnant animals in disinfected individual pens or stalls a few days before they are expected to calve, and confine them to these quarters for three or four weeks following the delivery of the calf, or as long thereafter as uterine discharges are observed. Avoid carrying infection from the maternity stalls to other portions of stable, on shoes or otherwise. This may be prevented to some degree by the use of disinfectant solutions on shoes after the stalls have been entered or by wearing rubbers while in the maternity stalls, removing them after the isolated animals have been attended to. The isolation of cows at time of calving and the aborting animal is based upon the knowledge that the fetus, afterbirth, and uterine discharges of an affected animal at these times very frequently contain myriads of the abortion bacteria, and that unless these substances are confined and promptly destroyed an abundant opportunity is provided for the contamination of the food substances of the healthy animals and their contraction of the disease. Refrain from breeding fresh cows for a period of six weeks to two months following calving. The aborting animal should be isolated for a period of six weeks to two months and under no consideration be permitted to mingle with the rest of the herd as long as uterine discharges are observed. Douching of the external genitals of the bull, a practice formerly regarded as highly important for preventing the spread of the disease, is now recognized as being of doubtful value. The bull is protected from abortion infection to a great degree by permitting him to serve only such animals as have calved or aborted from six weeks to two months previously. Investigational work has indicated that when the bull is affected with the disease the organs of his generative system commonly involved are not reached by the antiseptic solutions. A more rational method for the prevention of the spread of the disease by the bull consists in keeping him in an inclosure separate from the females and in having all services take place on neutral ground. Great care should be used in purchasing cattle, and cows not known to be free from the disease should be kept in separate quarters until this point is determined. GRANULAR VENEREAL DISEASE (INFECTIOUS GRANULAR VAGINITIS). The affection to which the foregoing names have been given is a chronic, mild, and apparently contagious disease of cattle, characterized by an inflammatory condition of the mucous membrane of the vagina and the development of nodules upon its surface. This disease is very widely spread, but from an economic point of view it does not appear to have great significance. Williams, who investigated it, asserts that it is difficult to find a single herd in this country which is free of this disease. He considers it of great importance, claiming that granular vaginitis has a vital relation to abortion. This view, however, is not substantiated by other investigators, it being now generally accepted that the disease is only rarely responsible for abortion, and further, that it exerts no apparent ill effects on the health of the animal and that it has no effect on the milk yield. _Symptoms._--Natural infection may take place either by direct contact of animals or at the time of service. Most of the cows in the affected herd contract the disease, but the bulls are rarely or very mildly affected. The inflamed condition of the membranes of the vagina results in a catarrhal exudate, and this discharge, which soils the external genitals and the tail, and the uneasiness and sometimes the straining of the animal, are the first and most prominent symptoms observed. Upon examination, small, hard, grayish nodules can be seen and felt upon the inflamed membranes. This acute stage may last for three or four weeks, then it gradually subsides and assumes the chronic form, only to flare up again as the animal comes in heat. These nodules are sometimes found on the membranes of the uterus, and some investigators have argued from this fact that it was responsible for abortion and sterility. Others, however, deny this and point out that the bacillus of abortion can be demonstrated in nearly every case. The importance of the disease is therefore in dispute and the decision must be left to future investigation. _Treatment._--The exaggerated importance which has been attached to this disease resulted in the exploitation of the most varied kinds of remedies for its treatment. It is true that with a protracted and laborious treatment it is possible to effect cures in from one to three months, but with our present knowledge of this disorder it is advisable to limit the treatment to animals which show an acute inflammatory condition of the vagina and vulva with a discharge as a result of the granular affection. The treatment should be local and confined to the application of antiseptic washes in the form of irrigations. For this purpose a 0.5 per cent solution of the compound solution of cresol or of Lugol's solution has been found satisfactory. PARTURITION (CALVING). SYMPTOMS OF CALVING. In the cow the premonitions of calving are the enlargement of the udder, which becomes firm and resistant to the touch, with more or less swelling in front, and yields a serous, milky fluid; the enlargement and swelling of the vulva, which discharges an abundant, stringy mucus; the drooping of the belly, and the falling in of the muscles at each side of the root of the tail, so as to leave deep hollows. When this last symptom is seen, calving may be counted on in 24 hours or in 2 or 3 days. When the act is imminent, the cow becomes uneasy, moves restlessly, leaves off eating, in the field leaves the herd, lies down and rises again as if in pain, shifts upon her hind feet, moves the tail, and may bellow or moan. When labor pains come on the back is arched, the croup drooped, the belly is drawn up, and straining is more or less violent and continuous. Meanwhile blood may have appeared on the vulva and tail, and soon the clear water bags protrude between the lips of the vulva. They increase rapidly, hanging down toward the hocks, and the fore or hind feet can be detected within them. With the rupture of the bags and escape of the waters the womb contracts on the solid, angular body of the fetus and is at once stimulated to more violent contractions, so that the work proceeds with redoubled energy to the complete expulsion. This is why it is wrong to rupture the water bags if the presentation is normal, as they furnish a soft, uniform pressure for the preliminary dilation of the mouth of the womb and passages, in anticipation of the severe strain put upon them as the solid body of the calf passes. The cow often calves standing, in which case the navel string is broken as the calf falls to the ground. If, however, she is recumbent, this cord is torn through as she rises. The afterpains come on 3 or 4 hours later and expel the membranes, which should never be left longer than 24 hours. NATURAL PRESENTATION. When there is but one calf the natural presentation is that of the fore feet with the front of the hoofs and knees turned upward toward the tail of the dam and the nose lying between the knees. (Pl. XV.) If there are twins the natural position of the second is that of the hind feet, the heels and hocks turned upward toward the cow's tail. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 1.) In both of these natural positions the curvature of the body of the calf--the back arched upward--is the same with the curvature of the passages, which descend anteriorly into the womb, ascend over the brim of the pelvis, and descend again toward the external opening (vulva). Any presentation differing from the above is abnormal. OBSTACLES TO PARTURITION. With a well-formed cow and calf and a natural presentation as above, calving is usually prompt and easy. Obstacles may, however, come from failure of the mouth of the womb to dilate; from twisting of the neck of the womb; from tumors in the vagina; from dropsy in the womb or abdomen; from overdistention of the rectum or bladder; from undue narrowing of the passages; from excess of fat in the walls of the pelvis; from the disturbance of a nervous cow by noises; from stone or urine in the bladder; from wrong presentation of the calf, its back being turned downward or to one side in place of upward toward the spine of the dam; from the bending backward of one or more limbs or of the head into the body of the womb; from presentation of the back, shoulder, or croup, all four limbs being turned back; from presentation of all four feet at once; from obstruction caused by an extra head or extra limbs, or double body on the part of the offspring (Pl. XIX); from dropsy or other disease of the calf; from excessive or imperfect development of the calf; from the impaction of twins into the passages at the same time; or at times it may be from the mere excessive volume of the fetus. GENERAL MAXIMS FOR THE ASSISTANT CONCERNING DIFFICULT PARTURITION. Do not interfere too soon. "Meddlesome midwifery is bad" with animals as with women. After labor pains set in, give a reasonable time for the water bags to protrude and burst spontaneously, and only interfere when delay suggests some mechanical obstruction. If there is no mechanical obstruction, let the calf be expelled slowly by the unaided efforts of the cow. Bruises and lacerations of the passages and flooding from the uncontracted womb may come from the too speedy extraction of the calf. When assistance is necessary, the operator should dress in a thick flannel shirt from which the sleeves have been cut off clear to the shoulders. This avoids danger of exposure and yet leaves the whole arm free and untrammeled. Before inserting the hand it and the arm should be smeared with oil, lard, or vaseline, care being taken that the oil or lard is fresh, neither salted nor rancid, and that it has been purified by boiling or rendered antiseptic by the addition of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid to the pound. This is a valuable precaution against infecting the cow by introducing putrid ferments into the passages and against poisoning of the arm by decomposing discharges in case the calving is unduly protracted. When labor pains have lasted some time without any signs of the water bags, the dropping in at the sides of the rump, and the other preparations for calving being accomplished, the hand should be introduced to examine. When the water bags have burst and neither feet nor head appear for some time, examination should be made. When one fore foot only and the head appear, or both fore feet without the head, or the head without the fore feet, examine. If one hind foot appears without the other, make examination. The presenting limb or head should be secured by a rope with a running noose, so that it may not pass back into the womb and get lost during the subsequent manipulations, but may be retained in the vagina or brought up again easily. In searching for a missing member it is usually better to turn the head of the cow downhill, so that the gravitation of the fetus and abdominal organs forward into the belly of the cow may give more room in which to bring up the missing limb or head. If the cow is lying down, turn her on the side opposite to that on which the limb is missing, so that there may be more room for bringing the latter up. Even if a missing limb is reached, it is vain to attempt to bring it up during a labor pain. Wait until the pain has ceased and attempt to straighten out the limb before the next pain comes on. If the pains are violent and continuous, they may be checked by pinching the back or by putting a tight surcingle around the body in front of the udder. These failing, 1 ounce or 1-1/2 ounces of chloral hydrate in a quart of water may be given to check the pains. If the passages have dried up or lost their natural, lubricating liquid, smear the interior of the passages and womb and the surface of the calf, so far as it can be reached, with pure fresh lard; or pure sweet oil may be run into the womb through a rubber tube (fountain syringe). In dragging upon the fetus apply strong traction only while the mother is straining, and drag downward toward the hocks as well as backward. The natural curvature of both fetus and passages is thus followed and the extraction rendered easier. LABOR PAINS BEFORE RELAXATION OF THE PASSAGES. Any of the various causes of abortion may bring on labor pains before the time. Straining comes on days or weeks before the time, and there is not the usual enlargement, swelling, and mucous discharge from the vulva. There is little or no falling in by the sides of the root of the tail; the abdomen has not dropped to the usual extent, and the udder is less developed and yields little or no milk. In spite of the pains no water bags appear, and the oiled hand cautiously introduced into the vagina finds the neck of the womb firmly closed, rigid, and undilatable. If it is known that the cow has not reached her proper time of calving, the examination through the vagina should be omitted and the animal should be placed in a dark, quiet place by herself, and be given 1 to 2 ounces laudanum. _Viburnum prunifolium_ (black haw), 1 ounce, may be added, if necessary, and repeated in three hours. The pains will usually subside. In some instances the external parts are relaxed and duly prepared, but the neck of the womb remains rigidly closed. In such case the solid extract of belladonna should be smeared around the constricted opening and the animal left quiet until it relaxes. DISEASED INDURATION OF THE MOUTH OF THE WOMB. From previous lacerations or other injuries the neck of the womb may have become the seat of fibrous hardening and constriction, so as to prevent its dilatation, when all other parts are fully prepared for calving. The enlarged, flabby vulva, the sinking at each side of the rump, the full udder, and drooping abdomen indicate the proper time for calving, but the labor pains effect no progress in the dilatation of the mouth of the womb, and the oiled hand introduced detects the rigid, hard, and, in some cases, nodular feeling of the margins of the closed orifice which no application of belladonna or other antispasmodic suffices to relax. Sponge tents may be inserted or the mechanical dilator (Pl. XX, fig. 6) may be used if there is opening enough to admit it, and if not, a narrow-bladed, probe-pointed knife (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2) may be passed through the orifice and turned upward, downward, and to each side, cutting to a depth not exceeding a quarter of an inch in each case. This done, a finger may be inserted, then two, three, and four, and finally all four fingers and thumb brought together in the form of a cone and made to push in with rotary motion until the whole hand can be introduced. After this the labor pains will induce further dilation, and finally the presenting members of the calf will complete the process. TWISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This is not very uncommon in the cow, the length of the body of the womb and the looseness of the broad ligaments that attach it to the walls of the pelvis favoring the twisting. It is as if one were to take a long sack rather loosely filled at the neck and turn over its closed end, so that its twisting should occur in the neck. The twist may be one-quarter round, so that the upper surface would come to look to one side, or it may be half round, so that what was the upper surface becomes the lower. The relation of the womb of the cow to the upper and right side of the paunch favors the twisting. The paunch occupies the whole left side of the abdomen and extends across its floor to the right side. Its upper surface thus forms an inclined plane, sloping from the left downward and to the right, and on this sloping surface lies the pregnant womb. It is easy to see how, in the constant movements of the paunch upon its contents and the frequent changes of position of the growing fetus within the womb, to say nothing of the contractions of the adjacent bowels and the more or less active movements of the cow, the womb should roll downward to the right. Yet in many cases the twist is toward the left, showing that it is not the result of a simple rolling downward over the paunch, but rather of other disturbances. The condition may be suspected when labor pains have continued for some time without any sign of the water bags, and it is confirmed when the oiled hand, introduced through the vagina, finds the mouth of the womb soft and yielding, but furnished with internal folds running forward in a spiral manner. If the folds on the upper wall of the orifice run toward the right, the womb is twisted to the right; if, on the contrary, they turn toward the left, it indicates that the womb is turned over in that direction. The direction of the twist must be known before treatment can be undertaken. Then, if the twist is toward the right, the cow is laid upon her right side with her head downhill, the hand of the operator is introduced through the spirally constricted neck of the womb, and a limb or other portion of the body of the calf is seized and pressed firmly against the wall of the womb. Meanwhile two or three assistants roll the cow from her right side over on her back to her left side. The object is to hold the womb and calf still while the body of the cow rolls over. If successful, the twist is undone, its grasp on the wrist is slackened, and the water bags and calf press into the now open passage. If the first attempt does not succeed, it is to be repeated until success has been attained. If the spiral folds on the upper wall of the opening turn toward the left, the cow is laid on her left side and rolled over on her back and on to the right side, the hand being, as before, within the womb and holding the fetus, so that all may not rotate with the cow. In introducing the hand it will usually be found needful to perforate the membranes, so that a limb of the calf may be seized direct and firmly held. Among my occasional causes of failure with these cases have been, first, the previous death and decomposition of the fetus, leading to such overdistention of the womb that it could not be made to rotate within the abdomen, and, second, the occurrence of inflammation and an exudate on the twisted neck of the womb, which hindered it from untwisting. In obstinate cases, in which the hand can be made to pass through the neck of the womb easily, additional help may be had from the use of the instrument shown in Plate XX, figure 5. Two cords, with running nooses, are successively introduced and made fast on two limbs of the calf; the cords are then passed through the two rings on the end of the instrument, which is passed into the womb and the cords drawn tight and fixed round the handle. Then, using the handle as a lever, it is turned in the direction opposite to the twist. The hand should meanwhile be introduced into the womb and the snared limbs seized and pressed against its walls so as to secure the rotation of the uterus along with the body of the fetus. The relaxation of the constriction and the effacement of the spiral folds will show when success has been gained, and the different members at one end of the body should then be brought up so as to secure a natural presentation. NARROW PELVIS FROM FRACTURE OR DISEASE. In a small cow the pelvis may be too narrow to pass a calf sired by a bull of a large breed, but this is exceptional, as the fetus usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam and makes its extra growth after birth. When the pelvic bones have been fractured repair takes place with the formation of a large permanent callus, which, projecting internally, may be a serious obstacle to calving. Worse still, if the edge of the broken bone projects internally as a sharp spike or ridge, the vaginal walls are cut upon it during the passage of the calf, with serious or fatal result. In other cases, where the cow has suffered from fragility of bone (fragilitas ossium) the thickening of the bone causes narrowing of the long passage of the pelvis and the crumbling fractures poorly repaired, with an excess of brittle new material, may form an insuperable obstacle to parturition. Cows affected in any of these ways should never again be bred, but if they do get pregnant and reach full time a careful examination will be necessary to determine whether natural parturition can take place or if the calf must be extracted in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) OBSTRUCTION BY MASSES OF FAT. This is not unknown in old cows of the beef breeds, the enormous masses of fat upon and within the pelvis being associated with weakness or fatty degeneration of the muscles. If the presentation is natural, little more is wanted than a judicious traction upon the fetus to compress and overcome the soft resisting masses. OBSTRUCTION BY A FULL BLADDER OR RECTUM OR BY STONE. In all cases of delayed or tardy parturition the evacuation of rectum and bladder is important, and it is no less so in all difficult parturitions. Stone in the bladder is fortunately rare in the cow, but when present it should be removed to obviate crushing and perhaps perforation of the organ during calving. CALVING RETARDED BY NERVOUSNESS. In a public fair ground I have seen labor pains begin early in the day and keep up in a weak and insufficient manner for many hours, until the stall was thoroughly closed in and the cow secluded from the constant stream of visitors and the incessant noise, when at once the pains became strong and effective and the calf was soon born. COAGULATED BLOOD UNDER THE VAGINAL WALLS. This is common after calving, but sometimes occurs before, as the result of accidental injury. The mass may be recognized by its dark hue and the doughy sensation to the touch. It may be cut into and the mass turned out with the fingers, after which it should be washed frequently with an antiseptic lotion (carbolic acid 1 dram in 1 quart of water). CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. In early fetal life the winding of the navel string around a limb may cause the latter to be slowly cut off by absorption under the constricting cord. So at calving the cord wound round a presenting member may retard progress somewhat, and though the calf may still be born tardily by the unaided efforts of the mother, it is liable to come still-born, because the circulation in the cord is interrupted by compression before the offspring can reach the open air and commence to breathe. If, therefore, it is possible to anticipate and prevent this displacement and compression of the navel string it should be done, but if this is no longer possible, then the extraction of the calf should be effected as rapidly as possible, and if breathing is not at once attempted it should be started by artificial means. WATER IN THE HEAD OF THE CALF (HYDROCEPHALUS). This is an enormous distention of the cavity holding the brain, by reason of the accumulation of liquid in the internal cavities (ventricles) of the brain substance. The head back of the eyes rises into a great rounded ball (Pl. XIX, figs. 4 and 5), which proves an insuperable obstacle to parturition. The fore feet and nose being the parts presented, no progress can be made, and even if the feet are pulled upon the nose can not by any means be made to appear. The oiled hand introduced into the passages will feel the nose presenting between the fore limbs, and on passing the hand back over the face the hard rounded mass of the cranium is met with. A sharp-pointed knife or a cannula and trocar should be introduced in the palm of the hand and pushed into the center of the rounded mass so as to evacuate the water. The hand is now used to press together the hitherto distended but thin and fragile walls, and the calf may be delivered in the natural way. If the enlarged head is turned backward it must still be reached and punctured, after which it must be brought up into position and the calf delivered. If the hind feet present first, all may go well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when further progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. If possible, the hand, armed with a knife or trocar, must be passed along the side of the shoulder or neck so as to reach and puncture the distended head. Failing in this, the body may be skinned up from the belly and cut in two at the shoulder or neck, after which the head can easily be reached and punctured. If in such case the fore limbs have been left in the womb, they may now be brought up into the passage, and when dragged upon the collapsed head will follow. If the distention is not sufficient to have rendered the bony walls of the cranium thin and fragile, so that they can be compressed with the hand after puncture, a special method may be necessary. A long incision should be made from behind forward in the median line of the cranium with an embryotomy knife (Pl. XXI, fig. 1) or with a long embryotome (Pl. XX, fig. 3). By this means the bones on the one side are completely separated from those on the other and may be made to overlap and perhaps to flatten down. If this fails they may be cut from the head all around the base of the rounded cranial swelling by means of a guarded chisel (Pl. XX, fig. 8) and mallet, after which there will be no difficulty in causing them to collapse. DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN OF THE CALF (ASCITES). This is less frequent than hydrocephalus, but no less difficult to deal with. With an anterior presentation the fore limbs and head may come away easily enough, but no effort will advance the calf beyond the shoulders. The first thought should be dropsy of the belly, and the oiled hand introduced by the side of the chest will detect the soft and fluctuating yet tense sac of the abdomen. If there is space to allow of the introduction of an embryotomy knife, the abdomen may be freely cut with this, when the fluid will escape into the womb and parturition may proceed naturally. If this can not be effected, a long trocar and cannula may be passed between the first two ribs and straight on beneath the spine until it punctures the abdomen. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 2.) Then the trocar is to be withdrawn and the liquid will flow through the cannula and will be hastened by traction on the fore limbs. In the absence of the trocar and cannula, two or three of the first ribs may be cut from the breastbone, so that the hand may be introduced through the chest to puncture the diaphragm with an embryotomy knife and allow an escape of the water. In some slighter cases a tardy delivery may take place without puncture, the liquid bulging forward into the chest as the abdomen is compressed in the pelvic passages. With a posterior presentation the abdomen may be punctured more easily either in the flank or with a trocar and cannula through the anus. GENERAL DROPSY OF THE CALF. This occurs from watery blood or disease of some internal organ, like the liver or kidney, and is recognized by the general puffed-up and rounded condition of the body, which pits everywhere on pressure but without crackling. If not too extreme a case, the calf may be extracted after it has been very generally punctured over the body, but usually the only resort is to extract it in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) SWELLING OF THE CALF WITH GAS. This is usually the result of the death and decomposition of the fetus when extraction has been delayed for a day or more after the escape of the waters. It is impossible to extract it whole, owing to its large size and the dry state of the skin of the calf, the membranes, and the wall of the womb. These dry surfaces stick with such tenacity that no attempt at traction leads to any advance of the calf out of the womb or into the passages. When the fetus is advanced the adherent womb advances with it, and when the strain is relaxed both recede to where they were at first. The condition may be helped somewhat by the free injection of oil into the womb, but it remains impossible to extract the enormously bloated body, and the only resort is to cut it in pieces and extract it by degrees. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) RIGID CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. In the development of the calf, as in after life, the muscles are subject to cramps, and in certain cases given groups of muscles remain unnaturally short, so that even the bones grow in a twisted and distorted way. In one case the head and neck are drawn round to one side and can not be straightened out, even the bones of the face and the nose being curved around to that side. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore legs are so shortened that the knees are kept constantly bent and can not be extended by force. The bent neck may sometimes be sufficiently straightened for extraction by cutting across the muscles on the side to which it is turned, and the bent knees by cutting the cords on the back of the shank bones just below the knees. If this fails, there remains the resort of cutting off the distorted limbs or head. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) TUMORS OF THE CALF (INCLOSED OVUM). Tumors or new growths grow on the unborn calf as on the mature animal, and by increasing the diameter of the body render its progress through the passage of the pelvis impossible. In my experience with large, fleshy tumors of the abdomen, I have cut open the chest, removed the lungs and heart, cut through the diaphragm with the knife, and removed the tumor piecemeal by alternate tearing and cutting until the volume of the body was sufficiently reduced to pass through. Where this failed it would remain to cut off the anterior part of the body, removing as much of the chest as possible, and cutting freely through the diaphragm; then, pushing back the remainder of the body, the hind limbs may be seized and brought into the passages and the residue thus extracted. The tumor, unless very large, will get displaced backward so as not to prove an insuperable obstacle. In many cases the apparent tumor is a blighted ovum which has failed to develop, but has grafted itself on its more fortunate twin and from it has drawn its nourishment. These are usually sacs containing hair, skin, muscle, bone, or other natural tissues, and only exceptionally do they show the distinct outline of the animal. MONSTROSITY IN THE CALF. As a monstrous development in the calf may hinder calving, it is well to consider shortly the different directions in which these deviations from the natural form appear. Their origin and significance will be rendered clearer if we divide them according to the fault of development in individual cases. Monsters are such-- (1) From absence of parts--absence of head, limb, or other organ--arrested development. (2) From some organ being unnaturally small, as a dwarfed head, limb, trunk, etc.--arrested development. (3) From unnatural division of parts--cleft lips, palate, head, trunk, limbs, etc.--abnormal growth. (4) From the absence of natural divisions--absence of mouth, nose, eye, anus; the cloven foot of ox or pig becomes solid, like that of the horse, etc.--confluence of parts which are rightfully separate. (5) From the fusion of parts--both eyes replaced by central one, both nostrils merged into one central opening, etc.--confluence of parts. (6) From unnatural position or form of parts--curved nose, neck, back, limbs, etc.--lack of balance in the growth of muscles during development. (7) From excessive growth of one or more organs--enormous size of head, double penis, superfluous digits, etc.--redundancy of growth at given points. (8) From imperfect differentiation of the sexual organs--hermaphrodites (organs intermediate between male and female), male organs with certain feminine characters, female organs with certain well-marked male characters. (9) From the doubling of parts or of the entire body--double monsters, doubled heads, doubled bodies, extra limbs, etc.--redundant development. (Pl. XIX, figs. 1, 2, 3.) _Causes._--The causes of monstrosities are varied. Some, like extra digits, lack of horns, etc., run in families, which produce them with absolute certainty when bred in the direct line, although they were originally acquired peculiarities which have merely been fixed by long habit in successive generations. The earliest horse had five toes, and even the most recent fossil horse had three toes, of which the two lateral ones are still represented in the modern animal by the two splint bones. Yet if our horse develops an extra toe it is pronounced a monstrosity. A more genuine monstrosity is the solid-hoofed pig, in which two toes have been merged into one. Another of the same kind is the solid shank bone of the ox, which consists of two bones united into one, but which are still found apart in the early fetus. Though originally acquired peculiarities, they now breed as invariably as color or form. Other monstrosities seem to have begun in too close breeding, by which the powers of symmetrical development are impaired, just as the procreative power weakens under continuous breeding from the closest blood relations. A monstrosity consisting in the absence of an organ often depends on a simple lack of development, the result of disease or injury, as a young bone is permanently shortened by being broken across the soft part between the shaft and the end, the only part where increase in length can take place. As the result of the injury the soft, growing layer becomes prematurely hard and all increase in length at that end of the bone ceases. This will account for some cases of absence of eye, limb, or other organ. Sometimes a monstrosity is owing to the inclosure of one ovum in another while the latter is still but a soft mass of cells and can easily close around the first. Here each ovum has an independent life; they develop simultaneously, only the outer one having direct connection with the womb and being furnished with abundant nourishment advances most rapidly and perfectly, while the inclosed and starved ovum is dwarfed and imperfect often to the last degree. In many cases of excess of parts the extra part or member is manifestly derived from the same ovum, and even the same part of the ovum, being merely the effect of a redundancy and vagary of growth. Such cases include most instances of extra digits or other organs, and even of double monsters, as manifested by the fact that such extra organs grow from the normal identical organs. Hence the extra digit is attached to the normal digit, the extra head to the one neck, the extra tail to the croup, extra teeth to the existing teeth, and even two similarly formed bodies are attached by some point common to both, as the navels, breastbones, backs, etc. (Pl. XIX, figs. 1, 2, 3.) This shows that both have been derived from the same primitive layer of the embryo, which possessed the plastic power of building up a given structure or set of organs. An inclosed ovum, on the other hand, has no such identity or similarity of structure to the part with which it is connected, showing an evident primary independence of both life and the power of building tissues and organs. The power of determining extra growth along a given natural line is very highly developed in the early embryo and is equally manifest in the mature examples of some of the lower forms of animal life. Thus a newt will grow a new tail when that member has been cut off, and a starfish will develop as many new starfishes as the pieces made by cutting up the original one. This power of growth in the embryo and in the lower form of animals is comparable to the branching out again of a tree at the places from which branches have been lopped. The presence of this vegetablelike power of growth in the embryo accounts for most double monsters. The influence of disease in modifying growth in the early embryo, increasing, decreasing, distorting, etc., is well illustrated in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, or otherwise disturbing the connections of eggs and thereby producing monstrosities. One can easily understand how inflammations and other causes of disturbed circulation in the womb, fetal membranes, or fetus would cause similar distortions and variations in the growing fetus. It is doubtless largely in the same way that certain mental disturbances of a very susceptible dam affect the appearance of the progeny. The monstrosities which seriously interfere with calving are mainly such as consist in extra members or head, which can not be admitted into the passages at the same time, where some organ of the body has attained extra size, where a blighted ovum has been inclosed in the body of a more perfect one, or where the body or limbs are so contracted or twisted that the calf must enter the passages doubled up. _Treatment._--Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the distorted members by the force of traction; in other cases the muscles or tendons must be cut across on the side to which the body or limbs are bent to allow of such straightening. Thus, the muscles on the concave side of a wry neck or the cords behind the shank bones of a contracted limb may be cut to allow of these parts being brought into the passages, and there will still be wanting the methods demanded for bringing up missing limbs or head, for which see paragraphs below. In most cases of monstrosity by excess of overgrowth it becomes necessary to cut off the supernumerary or overdeveloped parts, and the same general principles must be followed as laid down in "Embryotomy" (p. 202). WRONG PRESENTATIONS OF THE CALF. The following is a list of abnormal presentations of the calf: Simultaneous presentation of twins. A { {Limbs curved at the knee. Flexor tendons shortened. n {Fore Limbs{Limb crossed over the back of the neck. t { {Limb bent back at the knee. e { {Limb bent back from the shoulder. r { i { {Head bent downward on the neck. o P { {Head and neck turned downward beneath the breast. r r {Head {Head turned to one side upon the side of the neck. e { {Head and neck turned back on the side of the chest and s { { abdomen. e { {Head turned upward and backward on the back. n { t { {Hind limbs rotated outward. Toes and stifles turned a { { outward. t {Hind Limbs{Hind limbs bent forward, their feet resting in the pelvis. i { o {Transverse{Back of the calf turned to the right or left side. n { s {Inverted {Back of the calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and { { udder. P P { o r { {Hind limb bent on itself at the hock. Hock and buttocks s e {Hind Limbs{ present. t s { {Hind limb bent at the hips. Buttocks present. e e { r n {Transverse{Back of calf turned to the right or left side. i t { o a {Inverted {Back of calf turned to the floor of the pelvis and udder. r t { i { o { n { {Head up toward the spine, croup {Position of calf vertical { toward udder. T { { {Head down toward udder, croup r {Back { { toward spine. u P {and { n r {loins { {Head toward the right side, k e {presented.{Position of calf transverse{ croup toward the left. s { { e { { {Head toward the left side, n { { { croup toward the right. t { { a { { t {Breast { {Head toward right side, croup i {and {Position of calf transverse{ toward left. o {abdomen { {Head toward left side, croup n {presented.{ { toward right. s { These include all general presentations, yet other subsidiary ones will at once occur to the attentive reader. Thus, in each anterior or posterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned downward or to one side, the case may be complicated by the bending back of one or more members as a whole or at the joint just above the shank bones (knee or hock). So also in such anterior presentation the head may be turned back. _Head and fore feet presented--Back turned to one side._--The calf has a greater diameter from above down (spine to breastbone) than it has from side to side, and the same is true of the passage of the pelvis of the cow, which measures, on an average, 8-7/10 inches from above downward and 7-9/10 inches from side to side. Hence the calf passes most easily with its back upward, and when turned with its back to one side calving is always tardy and may be difficult or impossible. The obvious remedy is to rotate the calf on its own axis until its spine turns toward the spine of the cow. The operation is not difficult if the body of the calf is not yet fixed in the passages. The presenting feet are twisted over each other in the direction desired, and this is continued until the head and spine have assumed their proper place. If the body is firmly engaged in the passages the skin of the whole engaged portion should be freely lubricated with lard, and the limbs and head twisted over each other as above. The limbs may be twisted by an assistant when the head is manipulated by the operator, who drags on the rope turned halfway round the limbs and assists in the rotation with his other hand in the passages. _Head and fore feet presented--Back turned down toward the udder._--This position (Pl. XVI, fig. 6) is unnatural, and the parturition is difficult for two reasons: First, the natural curvature of the fetus is opposed to the natural curvature of the passages; and, second, the thickest part of the body of the calf (the upper) is engaged in the narrowest part of the passage of the pelvis (the lower). Yet unless the calf is especially large and the pelvis of the cow narrow, parturition may usually be accomplished in this way spontaneously or with very little assistance in the way of traction on the limbs. If this can not be accomplished, two courses are open: First, to rotate the calf as when the back is turned to one side; second, to push back the presenting fore limbs and head and search for and bring up the hind limbs, when the presentation will be a natural, posterior one. _Presentation of the hind feet with the back turned to one side or downward._--These are the exact counterparts of the two conditions last described, are beset with similar drawbacks, and are to be dealt with on the same general principles. (Pl. XVII, fig. 4.) With the back turned to one side the body should be rotated until the back turns toward the spine of the dam, and with the back turned down it must be extracted in that position (care being taken that the feet do not perforate the roof of the vagina) or it must be rotated on its own axis until the back turns upward, or the hind limbs must be pushed back and the fore limbs and head advanced, when the presentation will be a natural anterior one. _Impaction of twins in the passage._--It is very rare to have twins enter the passages together so as to become firmly impacted. As a rule, each of the twins has its own separate membranes, and as the water bags of one will naturally first enter and be the first to burst, so the calf which occupied those membranes will be the first to enter the passage and the other will be thereby excluded. When the membranes of both have burst without either calf having become engaged in the pelvis, it becomes possible for the fore legs of one and the hind legs of the other to enter at one time, and if the straining is very violent they may become firmly impacted. (Pl. XVIII, fig. 1.) The condition may be recognized by the fact that two of the presenting feet have their fronts turned forward, while the two others have their fronts turned backward. If the four feet belonged to one natural calf, they would all have the same direction. By means of this difference in direction we can easily select the two feet of one calf, place running nooses upon them just above the hoofs or fetlocks, and have an assistant drag upon the ropes while the feet of the other calf are pushed back. In selecting one of the twins to come first several considerations should have weight. The one that is most advanced in the passage is, of course, the first choice. Though the fore feet of one are presented, yet if the head is not in place the calf presenting by its hind feet is to be chosen as being less liable to obstruct. Again, if for either calf one limb only is presented and the other missing, the one presenting two feet should be selected to come first. As soon as one calf has been advanced so as to occupy the pelvis the other will be crowded back so that it will not seriously obstruct. _Fore limbs curved at the knee--Limbs sprawling outward._--In this case not only are the knees somewhat bent in a curve, but the calf has a position as if it rested on its breastbone, while the legs were drawn apart and directed to the right and left. The shoulder blades being drawn outward from the chest and the elbows turned out, the muscles extending from the trunk to the limb are unduly stretched and keep the knees bent and the feet directed outward so as to press on the sides of the passages. They become retarded in their progress as compared with the more rapidly advancing head, and may bruise or even lacerate the walls of the vagina. It would seem easy to rectify this by extending the legs, but the already tense and overstretched muscles operate against extension in the present position, and it is not easy to rotate the limbs so as to apply the shoulder flat against the side of the chest. Under these circumstances a repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7) may be planted in the breast and the body of the calf pushed backward into the womb, when the limbs will extend easily under traction and the presentation becomes at once natural. _Fore limbs curved at knee--Flexor tendons shortening._--In this case the feet will press against the floor of the pelvis though the limb has no outward direction, and the shoulder meanwhile presses against the roof of the same passage. Unless the knees can be sufficiently straightened by force a knife must be used to cut across the cords behind the knee, when the limbs may be straightened sufficiently. _Fore limbs flexed at knee--Flexor tendons unshortened._--This is mostly seen in cases in which the body of the calf is in the proper position, its back being turned up toward the back of the dam, and in cows with a drooping abdomen. The feet have been supposed to catch beneath the brim of the pelvis, and being retarded while the head advances into the passages, they get bent at the knee and the nose and knees present. (Pl. XVI, fig. 2.) The calf, however, is not an inanimate body advanced by the mere contraction of the womb, but it moves its limbs freely under the stimulus of the unwonted compression, and in moving the feet as they are advanced they slip down over the pelvic brim and finding no other firm support they bend back until, under the impulsion, they can no longer straighten out again. The knees, therefore, advance with the neck and head, but the feet remain bent back. The result is that the upper part of the limb is also flexed, and the shoulder blade and arm bone with their masses of investing muscles are carried backward and applied on the side of the chest, greatly increasing the bulk of this already bulky part. As the elbow is carried back on the side of the chest, the forearm from elbow to knee further increases the superadded masses of the shoulder and renders it difficult or impossible to drag the mass through the passages. When the fore limbs are fully extended, on the contrary, the shoulder blade is extended forward on the smallest and narrowest part of the chest, the arm bone with its muscles is in great part applied against the side of the back part of the neck, and the forearm is continued forward by the side of the head so that the nose lies between the knees. In this natural presentation the presenting body of the calf forms a long wedge or cone, the increase of which is slow and gradual until it reaches the middle of the chest. The difficulty of extending the fore limbs will be in proportion to the advance of the head through the pelvic cavity. In the early stage all that is necessary may be to introduce the oiled hand, the left one for the right leg or the right one for the left, and passing the hand from the knee on to the foot to seize the foot in the palm, bend it forcibly on the fetlock, and lift it up over the brim of the pelvis, the knee being, of course, pressed upward against the spine. As soon as the foot has been raised above the brim of the pelvis (into the passage) the limb can be straightened out with the greatest ease. When, however, the shoulders are already engaging in the pelvis the feet can not thus be lifted up, and to gain room a repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7) must be used to push back the body of the calf. This is an instrument with a long, straight stem, divided at the end into two short branches (2 to 3 inches long) united to the stem by hinges so that they can be brought into a line with the stem for introduction into the womb and then spread to be implanted in the breast. In the absence of a repeller a smooth, round, fork handle may be used, the prongs having been removed from the other end. A third device is to have an assistant strip his arm to the shoulder and, standing back to back with the operator, to introduce his right arm into the passages along with the operator's left (or vice versa) and push back the body of the calf while the operator seeks to bring up a limb. The repeller or staff having been planted safely in the breast of the calf, an assistant pushes upon it in a direction either forward or slightly upward, so as not only to follow the natural curve of the body and favor its turning in the line of that curve within the womb, but also to carry the shoulders upward toward the spine and obtain more room for bringing up the missing feet. It is good policy, first, to put a halter (Pl. XXI, figs. 4_a_ and 4_b_) on the head or a noose (Pl. XXI, fig. 3) on the lower jaw and a rope round each limb at the knee, so as to provide against the loss of any of these parts when the body is pushed back into the womb. This offers the further advantage that by dragging upon these ropes the body can be advanced in the passage until the foot is reached, when the rope must be slackened and the repeller used to get room for bringing up the foot. If the cow is lying, the operator should first secure the foot on the upper side and then, if necessary, turn the cow on its opposite side so as to bring up the other. In using the instruments some precautions are demanded. They must be invariably warmed before they are introduced, and they should be smeared with lard or oil to make them pass easily and without friction. The assistant who is pushing on the instrument must be warned to stop if at any time resistance gives way. This may mean the turning of the fetus, in which case the object of repulsion has been accomplished, but much more probably it implies the displacement of the instrument from the body of the fetus, and unguarded pressure may drive it through the walls of the womb. When the calf enters the passage with its back turned down toward the belly and udder, the bending back of the fore limbs is rare, probably because the feet can find a straighter and more nearly uniform surface of resistance in the upper wall of the womb and the backbone, and do not slide over a crest into an open cavity, as they do over the brim of the pelvis. The weight of the calf, too, gravitating downward, leaves more room for the straightening of the bent limbs, so that the desired relief is much more easily secured. The manipulation is the same in principle, only one must add the precaution of a steady traction on the feet in extraction, lest, owing to the adverse curvature of the fetus, the hoofs are suddenly forced through the roof of the vagina, and, perhaps, the rectum as well, during a specially powerful labor pain. When the back of the calf is turned to the right side or the left the main difference is that in addition to straightening the limbs the fetus must be rotated to turn its back upward before extraction is attempted. In this case, too, it may be difficult to bring up and straighten the lower of the two limbs until the body has been rotated into its proper position. Cord the upper straightened limb and head, then rotate the body and search for the second missing limb. _Fore limbs bent back from the shoulders._--This is an exaggeration of the condition just named, and is much more difficult to remedy, owing to the distance and inaccessibility of the missing limb. It usually happens with the proper position of the body, the back of the calf being turned toward the back of the mother. The head presents in the passage and may even protrude from the vulva during an active labor pain, but it starts back like a spring when the straining ceases. Examination with the oiled hands in the intervals between the pains fails to detect the missing limbs. (Pl. XVI, fig. 1.) If, however, the hand can be introduced during a pain it may be possible to reach the elbow or upper part of the forearm. In the absence of a pain a halter or noose on the head may be used to advance the whole body until the forearm can be seized just below the elbow. This being firmly held and the head or body pushed back into the womb, room may be obtained for bringing up the knee. The forearm is used as a lever, its upper part being strongly forced back while its lower part is pressed forward. If a pain supervenes the hold must be retained, and whatever gain has been made must be held if possible. Then during the next pain, by pushing back the body and continuing to operate the forearm as a lever, a still further advance may be made. As the knee is brought up in this way, the hand is slid down from the elbow toward the knee, which is finally brought up over the brim of the pelvis and into the passage. It is now corded at the knee, and the subsequent procedure is as described in the last article. In a large, roomy cow with a small calf the latter may pass with one or both forelegs bent back, but this is a very exceptional case, and, as early assistance is the most successful, there should never be delay in hope of such a result. _One fore limb crossed over the back of the neck._--This is a rare obstacle to calving, but one that not altogether unknown. The hand introduced into the passage feels the head and one forefoot, and farther back on the same side of the other foot, from which the womb can be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. (Pl. XVI, fig. 3.) This foot, projecting transversely, is liable to bruise or tear the vagina. If still deeply engaged in the vagina, it may be seized and pushed across to the opposite side of the neck, when the presentation will be natural. _Head bent down beneath the neck._--In this case, with drooping belly and womb allowing the brim of the pelvis to form a ridge, the advancing calf, having unduly depressed its nose, strikes it on the brim of the pelvis, and the neck advancing, the head is bent back and the poll and ears either enter the pelvis or strike against its brim. The two forefeet present, but they make no progress, and the oiled hand introduced can detect no head until the poll is felt at the entrance of the pelvis, between the forearms. The two forefeet must be fixed with running nooses and dragged on moderately while the oiled hand seeks to bring up the head. The hand is slid down over the forehead and brim of the pelvis until the nose is reached, when it is passed into the mouth, the muzzle resting in the palm of the hand. The legs are now pushed upon, and in the space thus gained the muzzle is drawn up so as to enter it into the pelvis. In doing this the operator must carefully see that the mouth does not drop open so that the sharp, front teeth cut through the floor of the womb. Should this danger threaten, the hand should be made to cover the lower jaw as well. The lessened security of the hold is more than compensated by the safety of the procedure. With the nose in the pelvis, it has only to be drawn forward and the parturition is natural. _Head bent down beneath the breast._--This is an exaggerated condition of that last named. The head, arrested by the brim of the pelvis and already bent back on the neck, is pressed farther with each successive throe until it has passed between the forelegs and lodges beneath the breast bone. (Pl. XVI, fig. 4.) On examination, the narrow upper border of the neck is felt between the forearms, but as a rule the head is out of reach below. Keeping the hand on the neck and dragging on the feet by the aid of ropes, the hand may come to touch and seize the ear, or, still better, one or two fingers may be inserted into the orbit of the eye. Then in pushing back upon the limbs, with or without the aid of a repeller applied against the shoulder, space may be obtained to draw the head into a vertical position, and even to slip the hand down so as to seize the nose. Should it prove impossible to draw the head up with the unassisted fingers, a blunt hook (Pl. XXI, fig. 6) may be inserted into the orbit, on which an assistant may drag while another pushes upon the limbs or repeller. Meanwhile the operator may secure an opportunity of reaching and seizing the nose or of passing a blunt hook into the angle of the mouth. Success will be better assured if two hooks (Pl. XXI, fig. 7) are inserted in the two orbits, so as to draw up the head more evenly. In other cases a noose may be placed on the upper jaw, or even around both jaws, and traction made upon this and on the hooks in the orbits while the legs are pushed back, and while the operator pushes back on the poll or forehead. In still more difficult cases, in which even the orbits can not be reached, a sharp hook on the end of a straight iron rod (Pl. XX, fig. 2) may be inserted over the lower jaw as far forward as it can be reached, and by dragging upon this while the body is pushed back the head will be brought up sufficiently to allow the operator to reach the orbit or nose. If even the jaw can not be reached, the hook may be inserted in the neck as near to the head as possible and traction employed so as to bring the head within reach. In all such cases the cow's head should be turned downhill, and in case of special difficulty she should be turned on her back and held there until the head is secured. In old-standing cases, with the womb closely clasping the body of the calf, relaxation may be sought by the use of chloroform or a full dose of chloral hydrate--2 ounces; the free injection of warm water into the womb will also be useful. _Head turned back on the shoulder._--With a natural, anterior presentation this may happen because of the imperfect dilation of the mouth of the womb. Under the throes of the mother the forefeet pass through the narrow opening into the vagina, while the nose, striking against it and unable to enter, is pressed backward into the womb and turns aside on the right or left shoulder. The broad muzzle of the calf forms an especial obstacle to entrance and favors this deviation of the head. The worst form of this deviation is the old-standing one with shortening of the muscles of the neck on that side, and oftentimes distortion of the face and neck bones, as noticed under "Monstrosities" (p. 182). When the head is bent on the shoulder the feet appear in the natural way, but no progress is made, and examination reveals the absence of the nose from between the knees, and farther back, from above and between the elbows, a smooth rounded mass is felt extending to the right or left, which further examination will identify with the neck. Following the upper border of this the hand reaches the crown of the head with the ears, and still further the eyes, or even, in a small calf, the nose. As the bulky head of the calf can not be extracted along with the shoulders, it becomes necessary to push the body of the fetus back and straighten out the head and neck. The cow should be laid with her head downhill and with that side up toward which the head is turned. If the throes are very violent, or the womb strongly contracted on the calf, it may be best to seek relaxation by giving chloroform, or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 ounces of chloral hydrate. If the calf or the passages are dry, sweet oil may be injected, or the whole may be liberally smeared with fresh lard. In the absence of these, warm water rendered slightly slippery by Castile soap may be injected into the womb in quantity. Ropes with running nooses are placed on the presenting feet and the oiled hand introduced to find the head. If, now, the fingers can be passed inside the lower jawbone, and drag the head upward and toward the passage, it unwinds the spiral turn given to the neck in bending back, and greatly improves the chances of bringing forward the nose. If, at first, or if now, the lower jaw can be reached, a noose should be placed around it behind the incisor teeth and traction made upon this, so that the head may continue to be turned, forehead up, toward the spine and jaws down, thereby continuing to undo the screwlike curve of the neck. If, on the contrary, the nose is dragged upon by a cord passing over the upper border of the neck, the screwlike twist is increased and the resistance of the bones and joints of the neck prevents any straightening of the head. As soon as the lower jaw has been seized by the hand or noose, a repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7), planted on the inside of the elbow or shoulder most distant from the head, should be used to push back the body and turn it in the womb, so that the head may be brought nearer to the outlet. In this way the head can usually be brought into position and the further course of delivery will be natural. Sometimes, however, the lower jaw can not be reached with the hand, and then the orbit or, less desirably, the ear, may be availed of. The ear may be pulled by the hand, and by the aid of the repeller on the other shoulder the calf may be so turned that the lower jaw may be reached and availed of. Better still, a clamp (Pl. XVIII, figs. 3 and 4) is firmly fixed on the ear and pulled by a rope, while the repeller is used on the opposite shoulder, and the hand of the operator pulls on the lower border of the neck and lifts it toward the other side. To pull on the upper border of the neck is to increase the spiral twist, while to raise the lower border is to undo it. If the outer orbit can be reached, the fingers may be inserted into it so as to employ traction, or a blunt finger hook (Pl. XXI, fig. 8) may be used, or a hook with a rope attached, or, finally, a hook on the end of a long staff. Then, with the assistance of the repeller, the body may be so turned and the head advanced that the lower jaw may be reached and availed of. In case neither the ears nor the orbit can be reached, a cord should be passed around the neck of the calf as near the head as possible, and traction made upon that while the opposite shoulder is pushed toward the opposite side by the repeller, assisted by the hand dragging on the lower border of the neck. To aid the hand in passing a rope around the neck a cord carrier (Pl. XXI, fig. 5) is in use. It fails, however, to help us in the most difficult part of the operation--the passing of the cord down on the deep or farthest side of the neck--and to remedy this I have devised a cord carrier, furnished with a ring at the end, a joint 6 or 8 inches from the end, and another ring on the handle, close to this joint. (Pl. XX, fig. 4.) A cord is passed through both rings and a knot tied on its end, just back of the terminal ring. The instrument, straightened out, is inserted until it reaches just beyond the upper border of the neck, when, by dragging on the cord, the movable segment is bent down on the farther side of the neck, and is pushed on until it can be felt at its lower border. The hand now seizes the knotted end of the cord beneath the lower border of the neck and pulls it through while the carrier is withdrawn, the cord sliding through its rings. The cord, pushed up as near to the head as possible, is furnished with a running noose by tying the knotted end round the other, or, better, the two ends are twisted around each other so as to give a firm hold on the neck without dangerously compressing the blood vessels. By pushing on the opposite shoulder with the repeller, and, assisting with the hand on shoulder, breastbone, or lower border of the neck, such a change of position will be secured as will speedily bring the head within reach. Afterwards proceed as described above. These cases are always trying, but it is very rarely necessary to resort to embryotomy. When absolutely required, first remove one fore limb, and then, if still unsuccessful, the other, after which the head can easily be secured. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) _Head turned upward and backward._--In this case the face rests upon the spine; the forefeet appear alone in the passage, but fail to advance, and on examination the rounded, inferior border of the neck can be felt, extending upward and backward beneath the spine of the dam, and if the calf is not too large the hand may reach the lower jaw or even the muzzle. (Pl. XVI, fig. 5.) A repeller is planted in the breast and the body of the calf pushed backward and downward so as to make room and bring the head nearer to the passage; or in some cases the body may be pushed back sufficiently by the use of the fore limbs alone. Meanwhile the head is seized by the ear or the eye socket, or, if it can be reached, by the lower jaw, and pulled downward into position as space is obtained for it. If the hand alone is insufficient, the blunt hooks may be inserted in the orbits or in the angle of the mouth, or a noose may be placed on the lower paw, and by traction the head will be easily advanced. In case of a large fetus, the head of which is beyond reach, even when traction is made on the limbs, a rope may be passed around the neck and pulled, while the breastbone is pressed downward and backward by the repeller, and soon the change of position will bring the orbit or lower jaw within reach. With the above-described position the standing position is most favorable for success, but if the calf is placed with its back down toward the udder, and if the head is bent down under the brim of the pelvis, the best position for the cow is on her back, with her head downhill. In neglected cases, with death and putrefaction of the fetus and dryness of the passages, it may be necessary to extract in pieces. (See "Embryotomy," p. 202.) _Outward direction of the stifles_--_Abduction of hind limbs._--As an obstacle to parturition, this is rare in cows. It is most liable to take place in cows with narrow hip bones, and when the service has been made by a bull having great breadth across the quarter. The calf, taking after the sire, presents an obstacle to calving in the breadth of its quarters, and if at the same time the toes and stifles are turned excessively outward and the hocks inward the combined breadth of the hip bones above and the stifles below may be so great that the pelvis will not easily admit them. After the forefeet, head, and shoulders have all passed out through the vulva, further progress suddenly and unaccountably ceases, and some dragging on the parts already delivered does not serve to bring away the hind parts. The oiled hand introduced along the side of the calf will discover the obstacle in the stifle joints turned directly outward and projecting on each side beyond the bones which circumscribe laterally the front entrance of the pelvis. The evident need is to turn the stifles inward; this may be attempted by the hand introduced by the side of the calf, which is meanwhile rotated gently on its own axis to favor the change of position. To correct the deviation of the hind limb is, however, very difficult, as the limbs themselves are out of reach and can not be used as levers to assist. If nothing can be done by pushing the body of the calf back and rotating it and by pressure by the hand in the passages, the only resort appears to be to skin the calf from the shoulder back, cut it in two as far back as can be reached, then push the buttocks well forward into the womb, bring up the hind feet, and so deliver. _Hind limbs excessively bent on the body and engaged in the pelvis._--In this case the presentation is apparently a normal, anterior one; fore limbs and head advanced naturally and the parturition proceeds until half the chest has passed through the external passages, when suddenly progress ceases and no force will effect farther advance. An examination with the oiled hand detects the presence, in the passages, of the hind feet and usually the hind legs up to above the hocks. (Pl. XVII, fig. 1.) The indications for treatment are to return the hind limbs into the body of the womb. If they have not advanced too far into the pelvis, this may be done as follows: A rope with running noose is passed over each hind foot and drawn tight around the lower part of the hock; the ropes are then passed through the two rings in the small end of the rotating instrument (Pl. XX, fig. 5) which is slid into the passages until it reaches the hocks, when the ropes, drawn tight, are tied around the handle of the instrument. Then in the intervals between the pains the hocks are pushed forcibly back into the womb. If by this means flexion can be effected in hocks and stifles, success will follow; the hind feet will pass into the womb and clear of the brim of the pelvis and the body may now be advanced without hindrance, the hind limbs falling into place when the hip joints are extended. At the same time the pressure upon hind limbs must not be relaxed until the buttocks are engaged in the pelvis, as otherwise the feet may again get over the brim and arrest the progress of delivery. When the hind limbs are already so jammed into the pelvis that it is impossible to return them, the calf must be sacrificed to save the mother. Cords with running nooses are first put on the two hind feet. The body must be skinned from the shoulders back as far as can be reached, and is to be then cut in two, if possible, back of the last rib. The remainder of the trunk is now pushed back into the body of the womb and by traction upon the cords the hind feet are brought up into the passages and the extraction will be comparatively easy. _Hind presentation with one or both legs bent at the hock._--After the bursting of the water bags, though labor pains continue, no part of the fetus appears at the vulva unless it be the end of the tail. On examination the buttocks are felt wedged against the spine at the entrance of the pelvis and beneath them the bent hock joints resting on the brim of the pelvis below. (Pl. XVII, fig. 3.) The calf has been caught by the labor pains while the limb was bent beneath it and has been jammed into or against the rim of the pelvis, so that extension of the limb became impossible. With the thigh bent on the flank, the leg on the thigh, and the shank on the leg, and all at once wedged into the passage, delivery is practically impossible. The obvious remedy is to push the croup upward and forward and extend the hind legs, and in the early stages this can usually be accomplished in the cow. A repeller (Pl. XX, fig. 7) is planted across the thighs and pointed upward toward the spine of the cow and pushed forcibly in this direction during the intervals between labor pains. Meanwhile the oiled hand seizes the shank just below the hock and uses it as a lever, pushing the body back and drawing the foot forward, thus effectually seconding the action of the repeller. Soon a distinct gain is manifest, and as soon as the foot can be reached it is bent back strongly at the fetlock, held in the palm of the hand, and pulled up, while the repeller, pressing on the buttocks, assists to make room for it. In this way the foot may be brought safely and easily over the brim of the pelvis without any risk of laceration of the womb of the foot. After the foot has been lifted over the brim, the whole limb can be promptly and easily extended. In cases presenting special difficulty in raising the foot over the brim, help may be had by traction on a rope passed around in front of the hock, and later still by a rope with a noose fastened to the pastern. In the worst cases, with the buttocks and hocks wedged deeply into the passages, it may prove difficult or impossible to push the buttocks back into the abdomen, and in such case the extension of the hind limb is practically impossible without mutilation. In some roomy cows a calf may be dragged through the passages by ropes attached to the bent hocks, but even when this is possible there is great risk of laceration of the floor of the vagina by the feet. The next resort is to cut the hamstring just above the point of the hock and the tendon on the front of the limb (flexor metatarsi) just above the hock, and even the sinews behind the shank bone just below the hock. This allows the stifle and hock to move independently of each other, the one undergoing extension without entailing the extension of the other; it also allows both joints to flex completely, so that the impacted mass can pass through a narrower channel. If now, by dragging on the hocks and operating with the repeller on the buttocks, the latter can be tilted forward sufficiently to allow of the extension of the stifle, the jam will be at once overcome, and the calf may be extracted with the hock bent, but the stifle extended. If even this can not be accomplished, it may now be possible to extract the whole mass with both hocks and stifles fully bent. To attempt this, traction may be made on the rope around the hocks and on a sharp hook (Pl. XX, fig. 2) passed forward between the thighs and hooked on to the brim of the pelvis. Everything else failing, the offending limb or limbs may be cut off at the hip joint and extracted, after which extraction may proceed by dragging on the remaining limb, or by hooks on the hip bones. Very little is to be gained by cutting off the limb at the hock, and the stifle is less accessible than the hip, and amputation of the stifle gives much poorer results. _Hind limbs bent forward from the hip_--_Breech presentation._--This is an exaggeration of the condition last described, only the hocks and stifles are fully extended and the whole limb carried forward beneath the belly. (Pl. XVII, fig. 2.) The water bags appear and burst, but nothing presents unless it may be the tail. Examination in this case detects the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus at its upper part. The remedy, as in the case last described, consists in pushing the buttock upward and forward with a repeller, the cow being kept standing and headed downhill until the thigh bone can be reached and used as a lever. Its upper end is pushed forward and its lower end raised until, the joints becoming fully flexed, the point of the hock can be raised above the brim of the pelvis. If necessary a noose may be passed around the leg as far down toward the hock as possible and pulled on forcibly, while the hand presses forward strongly on the back of the leg above. When both hocks have been lodged above the brim of the pelvis the further procedure is as described under the last heading. If, however, the case is advanced and the buttocks wedged firmly into the passages, it may be impossible safely to push the fetus back into the womb, and the calf must either be dragged through the passage as it is or the limbs or the pelvis must be cut off. To extract successfully with a breech presentation the cow must be large and roomy and the calf not too large. The first step in this case is to separate the pelvic bones on the two sides by cutting from before backward, exactly in the median line below and where the thighs come together above. This may be done with a strong embryotomy knife, but is most easily accomplished with the long embryotome (Pl. XX, fig. 3). The form which I have designed (Pl. XX, fig. 1), with a short cutting branch jointed to the main stem, is to be preferred, as the short cutting piece may be folded on the main stem so that its cutting edge will be covered, and it can be introduced and extracted without danger. This is pushed forward beneath the calf's belly, and the cutting arm opened, inserted in front of the brim of the pelvis and pulled forcibly back through the whole length of the pelvic bones. The divided edges are now made to overlap each other and the breadth of the haunch is materially reduced. One end of the cord may then be passed forward by means of a cord carrier (Pl. XXI, fig. 5) on the inner side of one thigh until it can be seized at the stifle by the hand passed forward on the outer side of that thigh. This end is now pulled back through the vagina, the other end passed through the cord carrier and passed forward on the inner side of the other thigh until it can be seized at the stifle by the hand passed forward outside that thigh. This end is drawn back through the vagina like the first, and is tied around the other so as to form a running noose. The rope is now drawn through the ring until it forms a tight loop, encircling the belly just in front of the hind limbs. On this strong traction can be made without interfering with the full flexion of the limbs on the body, and if the case is a suitable one, and the body of the fetus and the passages are both well lubricated with oil or lard, a successful parturition may be accomplished. A less desirable method is to put a rope around one thigh or a rope around each and drag upon these, but manifestly the strain is not so directly on the spine, and the limbs may be somewhat hampered in flexion. This method being inapplicable, the next resort is to cut off one or both hind limbs at the hip joint. Free incisions are made on the side of the haunch so as to expose the hip joint, and the muscles are cut away from the head of the thigh bone down to its narrow neck, around which a rope is passed and firmly fixed with a running noose. The joint is now cut into all around, and while traction is made on the cord the knife is inserted into the inner side of the joint and the round ligament severed. The cord may now be dragged upon forcibly, and the muscles and other parts cut through as they are drawn tense, until finally the whole member has been extracted. Traction on the rope round the other thigh will now suffice to extract, in most cases, but if it should fail the other limb may be cut off in the same manner, and then hooks inserted in front of the brim of the pelvis or in the openings in the bones of its floor (obturator foramina) will give sufficient purchase for extraction. Another method is to insert a knife between the bone of the rump (sacrum) and the hip bone and sever their connections; then cut through the joint (symphysis) between the two hip bones in the median line of the floor of the pelvis, and then with a hook in the opening on the pelvic bones (obturator foramen) drag upon the limb and cut the tense soft parts until the limb is freed and extracted. _Presentation of the back._--In this presentation straining may be active, but after the rupture of the water bags no progress is made, and the hand introduced will recognize the back with its row of spinous processes and the springing ribs at each side pressed against the entrance to the pelvis. (Pl. XVII, fig. 6.) The presence or absence of the ribs will show whether it is the region of the chest or the loins. By feeling along the line of spines until the ribs are met with we shall learn that the head lies in that direction. If, on the contrary, we follow the ribs until they disappear, and a blank space is succeeded by hip bones, it shows that we are approaching the tail. The head may be turned upward, downward, to the right side, or to the left. The object must be to turn the fetus so that one extremity or the other can enter the passage, and the choice of which end to bring forward will depend on various considerations. If one end is much nearer the outlet than the other, that would naturally be selected for extraction, but if they are equidistant the choice would fall on the hind end, as having only the two limbs to deal with without any risk of complication from the head. When the head is turned upward and forward it will usually be preferable to bring up the hind limb, as, owing to the drooping of the womb into the abdomen, rotation of the fetus will usually be easier in that direction, and if successful the resulting position will be a natural posterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned toward the rump of the cow. Similarly with the croup turned upward and forward, that should be pushed on forward, and if the forefeet and head can be secured it will be a natural anterior presentation, with the back of the calf turned upward toward the rump of the cow. The womb should be injected with warm water or oil, and the turning of the calf will demand the combined action of the repeller and the hand, but in all such cases the operator has an advantage that the body of the fetus is wholly within the body of the womb, and therefore movable with comparative ease. No part is wedged into the pelvic passages as a complication. The general principles are the same as in faulty presentation fore and hind, and no time should be lost in making the manipulations necessary to bring the feet into the pelvis, lest they get inbent or otherwise displaced and add unnecessary complications. With a transverse direction of the calf, the head being turned to one side, the pressure must be directed laterally, so that the body will glide around on one side of the womb, and the extremities when reached must be promptly seized and brought into the passages. Sometimes a fortunate struggle of a live fetus will greatly aid in rectifying the position. _Breast and abdomen presented._--All four feet in the passages._--In this form the calf lies across the womb with its roached back turned forward and its belly toward the pelvis. All four feet may be extended and engaged in the passages, or one or more may be bent on themselves so as to lie in front of the pelvis. The head, too, may usually be felt on the right side or the left, and if detected it serves to identify the exact position of the fetus. The position may further be decided upon by examination of the feet and limbs. With the limbs extended the front of the hoofs and the convex aspect of the bent pasterns and fetlocks will look toward that flank in which lie the head and shoulders. On examination still higher the smooth, even outline of the knee and its bend, looking toward the hind parts, characterize the fore limb, while the sharp prominence of the point of the hock and the bend on the opposite side of the joint, looking toward the head, indicate the hind limb. (Pl. XVII, fig. 5.) The remedy of this condition is to be sought in repelling into the womb those limbs that are least eligible for extraction, and bringing into the passages the most eligible extremities. The most eligible will usually be those which project farthest into the passages, indicating the nearer proximity of that end of the calf. An exception may, however, be made in favor of that extremity which will give the most natural presentation. Thus if, owing to obliquity in the position of the fetus, the hind extremities promised a presentation with the back of the fetus turned down toward the udder, and the anterior extremities one with the back turned up toward the spine, the latter should be selected. Again, if the choice for the two extremities is evenly balanced, the hind may be chosen as offering less risk of complication, there being no head to get displaced. The first step in the treatment is to place a running noose on each of the four feet, marking those of the fore limbs to distinguish them from those of the hind ones. In case it is proposed to bring the anterior extremities into the passage, a noose should also be placed on the lower jaw. Then run the ropes attached to the two feet that are to be pushed back through the ring of a cord carrier (Pl. XXI, fig. 5), passing the rings down to the feet, and by the aid of the carrier push them well back into the womb and hold them there. Meanwhile drag upon the ropes attached to the two other feet so as to bring them into the passage (or, in case of the anterior extremity, on the two foot ropes and the head one). The other feet must be pushed back into the womb until the body of the calf is fully engaged in the passages. After this they can no longer find an entrance, but must follow as the body escapes. NEGLECTED AND AGGRAVATED CASES. In laying down the foregoing rules for giving assistance in critical cases of calving it is not intimated that all cases and stages can be successfully dealt with. Too often assistance is not sought for many hours or even days after labor pains, and the escape of the waters intimate the danger of delay. Not seldom the long delay has been filled up with unintelligent and injurious attempts at rendering assistance, violent pulling when resistance is insurmountable without change of position, injuries to the vagina and womb by ill-considered but too forcibly executed attempts to change the position, the repeated and long-continued contact with rough hands and rougher ropes and hooks, the gashes with knives and lacerations with instruments in ignorant hands, the infecting material introduced on filthy hands and instruments, and the septic inflammations started in the now dry and tender passages and womb. Not infrequently the death, putrefaction, and bloating of the calf in the womb render the case extremely unpromising and make it impossible to apply successfully many of the measures above recommended. The labor pains of the cow may have practically ceased from exhaustion; the passages of the vagina may be so dry, tender, friable, red, and swollen that it requires considerable effort even to pass the oiled hand through them, and the extraction of the calf or any portion of it through such a channel seems a hopeless task; the womb may be equally dry, inflamed and swollen, so that its lining membrane or even its entire thickness is easily torn; the fetal membranes have lost their natural, unctuous and slippery character, and cling firmly to the dry walls of the womb, to the dry skin of the calf, or to the hands of the operator; the dead and putrefying calf may be so bloated with gases that the womb has been overdistended by its presence, and the two adhere so closely that the motion of the one on the other is practically impossible. In other cases reckless attempts to cut the calf in pieces have left raw surfaces with projecting bones which dangerously scratch and tear the womb and passages. In many cases the extreme resort must be had of cutting the fetus to pieces (embryotomy), or the still more redoubtable one of Cæsarean section (extraction through the flank). DISSECTION OF THE UNBORN CALF (EMBRYOTOMY). In some cases the dissection of the calf is the only feasible means of delivering it through the natural passages; and while it is especially applicable to the dead calf, it is also on occasion called for in the case of the living. As a rule, the living calf should be preserved, if possible, but if this threatens to entail the death of the cow it is only in the case of offspring of rare value that its preservation is to be preferred. To those acquainted with the toil, fatigue, and discomfort of embryotomy, no discussion is necessary so long as there is a prospect of success from the simple and generally easier method of rectifying the faulty position of the calf. When the correction of the position is manifestly impossible, however, when distortions and monstrosities of the fetus successfully obstruct delivery, when the pelvic passages are seriously contracted by fractures and bony growths, when the passages are virtually almost closed by swelling, or when the calf is dead and excessively swollen, no other resort may be available. In many cases of distortion and displacement the dismemberment of the entire calf is unnecessary, the removal of the offending member being all that is required. It will be convenient, therefore, to describe the various suboperations one by one and in the order in which they are usually demanded. _Amputation of the fore limb._--In cutting off a fore limb it is the one presenting that should be selected, since it is much more easily operated on, and its complete removal from the side of the chest affords so much more space for manipulation that it often makes it easy to bring the other missing limb or the head into position. The first consideration is to skin the limb from the fetlock up and leave the skin attached to the body. The reasons for this are: (_a_) That the skin is the most resistant structure of the limb, and when it has been removed the entire limb can be easily detached; (_b_) the tough skin left from the amputated limb may be used as a cord in subsequent traction on the body of the calf; (_c_) the dissection and separation of the limb are far more safely accomplished under the protection of the enveloping skin than if the operator's hands and instruments were in direct contact with the walls of the passages or womb; (_d_) the dissection can be much more easily effected while the skin is stretched by the left hand, so as to form a comparatively firmer resistant point for the knife, than when it is attempted to cut the soft, yielding, and elastic tissues which naturally offer little solid resistance, but constantly recede before the cutting edge of the instrument. The preservation of the skin is therefore a cardinal principle in the amputation of all parts in which it is at all feasible. The presenting foot is inclosed in a noose and drawn well out of the passages. Then a circular incision through the skin is made around the limb just above the fetlock. From this the skin is slit up on the inner side of the limb to the breast. Then the projecting part of the limb is skinned up to the vulva, traction being made on the foot by an assistant so as to expose as much as possible. The embryotomy knife may now be taken (Pl. XXI, fig. 2), and a small hole having been cut in the free end of the detached portion of skin, that is seized by the left hand and extended while its firm connections with the deeper structures are cut through. The looser connections can be more quickly torn through with the closed fist or the tips of the four fingers held firmly together in a line or with the spud, of which there are several kinds. Much of the upper part of the limb can be skinned more speedily without the knife, but that must be resorted to to cut across tough bands whenever these interrupt the progress. The skinning should be carried upward on the outer side of the shoulder blade to the spine or nearly so. Then with the knife the muscles attaching the elbow and shoulder to the breastbone are cut across, together with those on the inner side of the shoulder joint and in front and behind it as far as these can be reached. Steady traction is now made upon the foot, the remaining muscles attaching the shoulder blade to the trunk are torn through with a cracking noise, and the whole limb, including the shoulder blade and its investing muscles, comes away. If the shoulder blade is left the bulk of the chest is not diminished, and nothing has been gained. Before going further it is well to see whether the great additional space thus secured in the passages will allow of the missing limb or head to be brought into position. If not, the other presenting part, limb or head, is to be amputated and extracted. For the limb the procedure is a repetition of that just described. _Amputation of the head._--The head is first seized and drawn well forward, or even outside the vulva, by a rope with a running noose placed around the lower jaw just behind the incisor teeth, by a sharp hook inserted in the arch of the lower jaw behind the union of its two branches and back of the incisor teeth, or by hooks inserted in the orbits, or, finally, in case the whole head protrudes, by a halter. (Pl. XXI, figs 4_a_ and 4_b._) In case the whole head protrudes, a circular incision through the skin is made just back of the ear, and the cut edge being held firmly by the left hand, the neck is skinned as far as it can be reached. Then the great ligamentous cord above the spine is cut across at the farthest available point, together with the muscles above and below the spine. Strong traction on the head will then detach it at this point and bring it away, but should there still be too much resistance the knife is inserted between the bodies of two vertebræ just behind one of the prominent points felt in the median line below, and their connecting fibrous cartilage is cut through, after which comparatively moderate pulling will bring it away. The detached neck and body at once slip back into the womb, and if the fore limbs are now brought up and pulled they are advanced so far upon the chest that the transverse diameter of that is greatly diminished and delivery correspondingly facilitated. If the head is still inclosed in the vagina two methods are available: (1) The removal of the lower jaw and subsequent separation of the head from the neck; (2) the skinning of the whole head and its separation from the neck. To remove the lower jaw the skin is dissected away from it until the throat is reached. Then the muscles of the cheeks and side of the jaw (masseters) are cut through and those connecting the jaw with the neck. When traction is made on the rope around the lower jaw it will usually come away with little trouble. Should it resist, its posterior extremity on each side (behind the grinding teeth) may be cut through with bone forceps or with a guarded bone chisel. (Pl. XX, fig. 8.) After the removal of the lower jaw the way will be open to separate the head from the neck, the knife being used to cut into the first or second joint from below, or the bone forceps or chisel being employed to cut through the bones of the neck. Then traction is made on the head by means of hooks in the orbits, and the hand, armed with an embryotomy knife, is introduced to cut through the tense resisting ligament, and muscles above the bones. The skin and the strong ligamentous cord attached to the poll are the essential things to cut, as the muscles can easily be torn across. Unless there are great difficulties in the way it is well to skin the head from the eyes back, and on reaching the poll to cut through the ligament and then bring the head away by pulling. If it is decided to remove the entire head at once, it may be skinned from the front of the eyes back to behind the lower jaw below and the poll above, then cut through the muscles and ligaments around the first joint and pull the head away, assisting, if need be, in the separation of the head by using the knife on the ligament of the joint. If the calf is a double-headed monster, the skinning of the head must be carried backward until the point has been reached where both heads branch from the single neck, and the separation must be made at that point. The muscles and ligaments are first to be cut through; and if the part can not then be detached by pulling, the bodies of the vertebræ may be separated by passing the knife through the joint. The second head may now be secured by a noose around the lower jaw or hooks in the orbits and brought up into place, the body being pushed back toward the other side by a repeller, so as to make room. It should be added that, except in the case of a double-headed monster, or in case of the head protruding or nearly so, and one or both fore limbs presenting, it is rarely desirable to undertake amputation of the head. The space desirable in the passages can usually be obtained by the much simpler and easier procedure of removing one or both fore limbs. _Amputation of the hind limbs._--This is sometimes demanded on the one extended limb when the other can not be brought up and delivery can not be effected; also in case of monsters having extra hind limbs; when the calf is dead, putrid, and bloated with gas; and in some cases of breech presentation, as described under that head. When the limb is extended the guiding principles are as in the case of the fore limbs. The skin is cut through circularly above the fetlock and slit up to beneath the pelvic bones on the inner side of the thigh. It is then dissected from the other parts as high as it has been slit on the inner side and to above the prominence (_trochanter major_) on the upper end of the thigh bone on the outer side of the joint. In this procedure the hands and spud can do much, but owing to the firmer connections the knife will be more frequently required than in the case of the fore limb. The muscles are now cut through all around the hip joint, and strong traction is made by two or three men on the limb. If there is still too much resistance, a knife is inserted into the joint on the inner side and its round ligament cut through, after which extraction will be comparatively easy. This accomplished, it will often be possible to extract the fetus with the other leg turned forward into the womb. If the calf is bloated with gas, it may be necessary to remove the other leg in the same way, and even to cut open the chest and abdomen and remove their contents before extraction can be effected. In the case of extra limbs it may be possible to bring them up into the passages after the presenting hind limbs have been removed. If this is not practicable, they may be detached by cutting them through at the hip joint, as described under "Breech presentation," page 197. Another method of removing the hind limb is, after having skinned it over the quarter, to cut through the pelvic bones from before backward, in the median line below, by knife, saw, or long embryotome (Pl. XX, fig. 1), and then disjoint the bones of the spine (sacrum) and the hip bone (ilium) on that side with embryotome, knife, or saw, and then drag away the entire limb, along with all the hip bones on that side. This has the advantage of securing more room and thereby facilitating subsequent operations. Both limbs may be removed in this way, but on the removal of the second the operator is without any solid point to drag upon in bringing away the remainder of the fetus. _Division across the middle of the body._--In cases of extra size, monstrosity, or distortion of one end of the body it may be requisite to cut the body in two and return the half from the passages into womb, even after one-half has been born. The presenting members are dragged upon forcibly by assistants to bring as much of the body as possible outside. Then cut through the skin around the body at some distance from the vulva, and with hand, knife, and spud detach it from the trunk as far back into the passages as can be reached. Next cut across the body at the point reached, beginning at the lower part (breast, belly) and proceeding up toward the spine. This greatly favors the separation of the backbone when reached, and further allows of its being extended so that it can be divided higher up. When the backbone is reached, the knife is passed between the two bones, the prominent ridges across their ends acting as guides, and by dragging and twisting the one is easily detached from the other. With an anterior presentation the separation should, if possible, be made behind the last rib, while with a posterior presentation as many of the ribs should be brought away as can be accomplished. Having removed one half of the body, the remaining half is to be pushed back into the womb, the feet sought and secured with nooses, and the second half removed in one piece if possible; and if not, then after the removal of the extra limb or other cause of obstruction. _Removed of the contents of chest or abdomen._--If the body of the calf sticks fast in the passages by reason of the mere dryness of its skin and of the passages, the obstacle may be removed by injecting sweet oil past the fetus into the womb through a rubber or other tube, and smearing the passages freely with lard. When the obstruction depends on excess of size of the chest or abdomen or thickening of the body from distorted spine, much advantage may be derived from the removal of the contents of these great cavities of the trunk. We have already seen how the haunches may be narrowed by cutting the bones apart in the median line below and causing their free edges to overlap each other. The abdomen can be cut open by the embryotomy knife or the long embryotome in the median line, or at any point, and the contents pulled out with the hand, the knife being used in any case when especial resistance is encountered. If the abdomen is so firmly impacted that it can not be dealt within this way, one hind limb and the hip bone on the same side may be removed as described under "Amputation of the hind limbs," page 205. This will allow the introduction of the hand into the abdomen from behind, so as to pull out the contents. By introducing an embryotomy knife in the palm of the hand and cutting through the muscle of the diaphragm the interior of the chest can be reached in the same way and the heart and lungs removed. When, in dealing with an anterior presentation, it becomes necessary to remove the contents of the chest, the usual course is to cut through the connections of the ribs with the breastbone (the costal cartilages) close to the breastbone on each side, and from the abdomen forward to the neck. Then cut through the muscles connecting the front of the breastbone with the neck and its hinder end with the belly, and pull out the entire breastbone. Having torn out the heart and lungs with the hand, make the rib cartilages on the one side overlap those on the other, so as to lessen the thickness of the chest, and proceed to extract the body. If it seems needful to empty the abdomen as well, it is easy to reach it by cutting through the diaphragm, which separates it from the chest. _Delivery through the flank_ (_Cæsarean section, or laparotomy_).--This is sometimes demanded, when the distortion and narrowing of the hip bones are such as to forbid the passage of the calf, or when inflammation has practically closed the natural passages and the progeny is more valuable and worthy of being saved than the dam; also in cases in which the cow has been fatally injured, or is ill beyond possibility of recovery and yet carries a living calf. It is too often a last resort after long and fruitless efforts to deliver by the natural channels, and in such cases the saving of the calf is all that can be expected, the exhausted cow, already the subject of active inflammation and too often also of putrid poisoning, is virtually beyond hope. The hope of saving the dam is greatest if she is in good health and not fatigued, in cases, for example, in which the operation is resorted to on account of broken hip bones or abnormally narrow passages. The stock owner will not attempt such a serious operation as this. Yet, if the mother has just died or is to be immediately sacrificed, no one should hesitate to resort to it in order to save the calf. If alive, it is important to have the cow perfectly still. Her left fore leg being bent at the knee by one person, another may seize the left horn and nose and turn the head to the right until the nose rests on the spine just above the shoulder. The cow will sink down gently on her left side without shock or struggle. One may now hold the head firmly to the ground, while a second, carrying the end of the tail from behind forward on the inside of the right thigh, pulls upon it so as to keep the right hind limb well raised from the ground. If time presses she may be operated on in this position, or if the cow is to be sacrificed a blow on the head with an ax will produce quietude. Then the prompt cutting into the abdomen and womb and the extraction of the calf requires no skill. If, however, the cow is to be preserved, her two forefeet and the lower hind one should be safely fastened together and the upper hind one drawn back. Two ounces chloral hydrate, given by injection, should induce sleep in 20 minutes, and the operation may proceed. In case the cow is to be preserved, wash the right flank and apply a solution of 4 grains of corrosive sublimate in a pint of water. Then, with an ordinary scalpel or knife, dipped in the above-mentioned solution, make an incision from 2 inches below and in front of the outer angle of the hip bone in a direction downward and slightly forward to a distance of 12 inches. Cut through the muscles, and more carefully through the transparent lining membrane of the abdomen (peritoneum), letting the point of the knife lie in the groove between the first two fingers of the left hand as they are slid down inside the membrane and with their back to the intestines. An assistant, whose hands, like those of the operator, have been dipped in the sublimate solution, may press his hands on the wound behind the knife to prevent the protrusion of the intestines. The operator now feels for and brings up to the wound the gravid womb, allowing it to bulge well through the abdominal wound, so as to keep back the bowels and prevent any escape of water into the abdomen. This is seconded by two assistants, who press the lips of the wound against the womb. Then an incision 12 inches long is made into the womb at its most prominent point, deep enough to penetrate its walls, but not so as to cut into the water bags. In cutting, carefully avoid the cotyledons, which may be felt as hard masses inside. By pressure the water bags may be made to bulge out as in natural parturition, and this projecting portion may be torn or cut so as to let the liquid flow down outside of the belly. The operator now plunges his hand into the womb, seizes the fore or hind limbs, and quickly extracts the calf and gives it to an attendant to convey to a safe place. The womb may be drawn out, but not until all the liquid has flowed out, and the fetal membranes must be separated from the natural cotyledons, one by one, and the membranes removed. The womb is now emptied with a sponge, which has been boiled or squeezed out of a sublimate solution, and if any liquid has fallen into the abdomen it may be removed in the same way. A few stitches are now placed in the wound in the womb, using carbolized catgut. They need not be very close together, as the wound will diminish greatly when the womb contracts. Should the womb not contract at once it may have applied against it a sponge squeezed out of a cold sublimate solution, or it may be drawn out of the abdominal wound and exposed to the cold air until it contracts. Its contraction is necessary to prevent bleeding from its enormous network of veins. When contracted, the womb is returned into the abdomen and the abdominal wound sewed up. One set of stitches, to be placed at intervals of 2 inches, is passed through the entire thickness of skin and muscles and tied around two quills or little rollers resting on the skin. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 7.) These should be of silver, and may be cut at one end and pulled out after the wound has healed. The superficial stitches are put in every half inch and passed through the skin only. They, too, may be of silver, or pins may be inserted through the lips and a fine cord twisted round their ends like a figure 8. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 9.) The points of the pins may be snipped off with pliers. The edges may be still further held together by the application of Venice turpentine, melted so as to become firmly adherent, and covered with a layer of sterilized cotton wool. Then the whole should be supported by a bandage fixed around the loins and abdomen. * * * * * DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XII. Fetal calf within its membranes (at mid term). The uterus is opened on the left side. In the uterus the fetus is surrounded by several membranes which are known as the amnion or inner layer, the allantois or central layer, and the chorion or outer layer. The amnion is nearest the fetus and forms a closed sac around it filled with a fluid known as liquor amnii, in which the fetus floats. The allantois is composed of two layers, which form a closed sac in connection with the urachus, or the tube which extends from the fetal bladder through the umbilical cord. The one layer of the allantois is spread over the outer surface of the amnion and the other over the inner surface of chorion. The allantois also contains a fluid which is known as the allantoid liquid. The chorion is the outer envelope or membrane of the fetus, completely inclosing the fetus with its other membranes. On the outer surface of this membrane are found the fetal placentulæ, or cotyledons, which, through their attachment to the maternal cotyledons, furnish the fetus with the means of sustaining life. The relation of the fetal and maternal cotyledons to each other is illustrated on the following plate. PLATE XIII. Pregnant uterus with cotyledons. Fig. 1. Uterus of the cow during pregnancy, laid open to show the cotyledons (_d_) on the internal surface of uterus (_c_). The ovary (_a_) is shown cut across, and the two halves are laid open to show the position of the discharged ovum at _a_'. Fig. 2 illustrates the relation of the fetal and maternal parts of a cotyledon. A portion of the uterus (_A_) is shown with the maternal cotyledon (_BB_) attached to it. The fetal portion (_D_) consists of a mass of very minute hairlike processes on the chorion (_E_), which fit into corresponding depressions or pits of the maternal portion. Each portion is abundantly supplied with blood vessels, so that a ready interchange of nutritive fluid may take place between mother and fetus. PLATE XIV. Vessels of umbilical cord. Fig. 1. Fetal calf with a portion of the wall of the abdominal cavity of the right side and the stomach and intestines removed to illustrate the nature of the umbilical or navel cord. It consists of a tube (1-1') into which pass the two umbilical arteries (3) carrying blood to the placenta in the uterus or womb and the umbilical vein (4) bringing the blood back and carrying it into the liver. The cord also contains the urachus (2') which carries urine from the bladder (2) through the cord. These vessels are all obliterated at birth. 5, liver; 5', lobe of same, known as the lobus Spigelii; 5'', gall bladder; 6, right kidney; 6', left kidney; 6'', ureters, or the tubes conducting the urine from the kidneys to the bladder; 7, rectum, where it has been severed in removing the intestines; 8, uterus of the fetus, cut off at the anterior extremity; 9, aorta; 10, posterior vena cava. (From _Fürstenberg-Leisering, Anatomie und Physiologie des Rindes._) Fig. 2. Blood vessels passing through the umbilical cord in a human fetus. (From Quain's Anatomy, vol. 2.) _L_, liver; _K_, kidney; _I_, intestines; _U C_, umbilical cord; _Ua_, umbilical arteries. The posterior aorta coming from the heart passes backward and gives rise to the internal iliac arteries, and of these the umbilical arteries are branches. _Uv_, umbilical vein; this joins the portal vein, passes onward to the liver, breaks up into smaller vessels, which reunite in the hepatic vein; this empties into the posterior vena cava, which carries the blood back to the heart. * * * * * [Illustration: PLATE XII. FETAL CALF WITHIN ITS MEMBRANES.] [Illustration: PLATE XIII. PREGNANT UTERUS WITH COTYLEDONS.] [Illustration: PLATE XIV. VESSELS OF UMBILICAL CORD.] [Illustration: PLATE XV.] [Illustration: PLATE XVI.] [Illustration: PLATE XV. NORMAL POSITION OF CALF IN UTERO.] [Illustration: PLATE XVI. ABNORMAL POSITIONS OF CALF IN UTERO.] [Illustration: PLATE XVII. ABNORMAL POSITIONS OF CALF IN UTERO.] * * * * * PLATE XV. Normal position of calf in utero. This is the most favorable position of the calf or fetus in the womb at birth, and the position in which it is most frequently found. This is known as the normal anterior position. The back of the fetus is directly toward that of the mother, the forelegs are extended back toward the vulva of the mother, and the head rests between them. The birth of the calf in this position usually takes place without artificial assistance. PLATE XVI. Abnormal positions of calf in utero. (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 5 from Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics; fig. 4 after St. Cyr, from Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery; fig. 6 from D'Arboval, Dictionaire de Médecine et de Chirurgie.) Fig. 1. Anterior presentation; one fore limb completely retained. The retained limb must be reached if possible and brought forward joint by joint and the fetus then extracted. Fig. 2. Anterior presentation; fore limbs bent at knee. The limbs must be extended before delivery can be accomplished. Fig. 3. Anterior presentation; fore limb crossed over neck. The leg should be grasped a little above the fetlock, raised, drawn to its proper side, and extended in genital canal. Fig. 4. Anterior presentation; downward deviation of head. The head must be brought into position seen in Plate XV before delivery can take place. Fig. 5. Anterior presentation; deviation of the head upward and backward. Retropulsion is the first indication, and will often bring the head into its normal position. Fig. 6. Anterior presentation; head presented with back down. The fetus should be turned by pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation. PLATE XVII. Abnormal positions of calf in utero. (Figs. 2 and 3 from Fleming; figs. 4, 5, and 6 from D'Arboval.) Fig. 1. Anterior presentation, with hind feet engaged in pelvis. A very serious malpresentation, in which it is generally impossible to save the fetus if delivery is far advanced. The indications are to force back the hind feet. Fig. 2. Thigh and croup presentation, showing the fetus corded. The cord has a ring or noose at one end. The two ends of the cord are passed between the thighs, brought out at the flanks, and the plain end passed through the noose at the top of the back and brought outside the vulva. The fetus must be pushed back and an attempt made to bring the limbs properly into the genital passage. Fig. 3. Croup and hock presentation. The indications in this abnormal presentation are the same as described for Fig. 2. Fig. 4. Posterior presentation; the fetus on its back. Turn the fetus so as to make a normal anterior presentation. Fig. 5. Sterno-abdominal presentation. The fetus is on its side with limbs crossing and presenting. The limbs least eligible for extraction should be forced back into the uterus. Fig. 6. Dorso-lumbar presentation; the back presenting. The fetus must be turned so that one or the other extremity can enter the passage. PLATE XVIII. Abnormal positions of the calf in utero. Surgical instruments and sutures. Fig. 1. Twin pregnancy, showing the normal anterior and posterior presentations. (From Fleming.) Fig. 2. Abdominal dropsy of the fetus; normal presentation; fore limbs corded. (After Armatage.) The drawing illustrates the method of puncturing the abdomen through the chest with a long trocar and cannula. The fluid is represented escaping from the cannula after the withdrawal of the trocar. Fig. 3. Tallich's short, bent, crotchet forceps. The forceps have bent and toothed jaws, which are intended to take hold of the fetus where neither cords nor hooks can be applied, as the ear, nose, or skin of cheek. Fig. 4. Clamp for ear, skin, etc.: 1-1, blades with hooks and corresponding holes; 2, ring to close the blades; 3, stem with female screw for handle; 4, handle, which may be either straight or jointed and flexible. PLATE XIX. Monstrosities. This plate illustrates various malformations and diseases of the fetus which act as the cause of difficult parturition. Figs. 1, 2, 3. Fetuses with portions of their bodies double. Fig. 1 (from Fleming), double head, neck, and fore limbs. Fig. 2 (from Encyclop. der Gesam. Thierheilkunde, 1886), double head, neck, fore limbs, and body. Fig. 3 (from Fleming), double faced. Fig. 4. Fetus with head very much enlarged. (From Fleming.) This affection is known as hydrocephalus, or dropsy of the brain, and is due to a more or less considerable quantity of fluid in the cranial cavity of the fetus. Fig. 5. Skull of the calf represented in Fig. 4. The roof of the skull is absent. (From Fleming.) PLATE XX. Instruments used in difficult labor. Fig. 1. Long embryotome with joint. Fig. 2. Long, sharp hook. This instrument is about 3 feet in length, including the handle. Hooks of this kind, both blunt and sharp, are applied directly to the fetus to assist in delivery. Fig. 3. Günther's long-handled embryotome. This instrument and that represented in Fig. 1 are of special value in cutting through muscular tissue and in separating the limbs from the trunk when the fetus can not be removed entire. These embryotomes are usually 30 inches long, but may be made either longer or shorter. Fig. 4. Jointed cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into regions which can not be reached by the arm. Fig. 5. Instrument used to rotate or turn the fetus, known as a rotator. Fig. 6. Dilator of the neck of the womb, used when conception can not take place owing to a contracted condition of the neck of the womb. Fig. 7. Repeller. An instrument from 2 to 3 feet long, used to force the fetus forward into the womb. This operation is generally necessary when the presentation is abnormal and the fetus has advanced too far into the narrow inlet to the uterus to be moved. Fig. 8. Cartwright's bone chisel. Including the handle, this instrument is about 32 inches in length; the chisel portion is a little more than 2 inches long and 1 to 1-1/2 broad. Only the middle portion is sharp, the projecting corners are blunt, and the sides rounded. This instrument is used for slitting up the skin of a limb and as a bone chisel when it is necessary to mutilate the fetus in order to effect delivery. * * * * * [Illustration: PLATE XVIII. ABNORMAL POSITION OF CALF IN UTERO. SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SUTURES.] [Illustration: PLATE XIX. MONSTROSITIES.] [Illustration: PLATE XX. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR.] [Illustration: PLATE XXI. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR.] * * * * * PLATE XXI. Instruments used in difficult labor. Fig. 1. Embryotome, an instrument used when it is necessary to reduce the size of the fetus by cutting away certain parts before birth can be effected. This instrument may be long or short, straight or curved. Fig. 2. Also an embryotome. The blade can be made to slide out of or into the handle. The instrument can thus be introduced into or withdrawn from the genital passage without risk of injury to the mother. Fig. 3. Schaack's traction cord. This is merely a cord with a running noose at one end and a piece of wood at the other, to offer a better hold for the hand. Figs. 4_a_ and 4_b._ Reuff's head collar for securing the head of the fetus. Fig. 5. Curved cord-carrier, used in difficult parturition to carry a cord into regions which can not be reached by the arm. Fig. 6. Blunt hook, used in difficult parturition. Fig. 7. Short hook forceps, used in difficult parturition. Fig. 8. Blunt finger hook. * * * * * DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ FLOODING (BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB). Though not so common in the cow as in the human female, flooding is sufficiently frequent to demand attention. It may depend on a too rapid calving and a consequent failure of the womb to contract when the calf has been removed. The pregnant womb is extraordinarily rich in blood vessels, especially in large and tortuous veins, which become compressed and almost obliterated under contraction, but remain overfilled and often bleed into the cavity of the womb should no contraction take place. Cox records cases in which the labor pains had detached and expelled the fetal membranes, while the calf, owing to large size or wrong presentation, was detained in the womb, and the continued dilatation of the womb in the absence of the fetal membranes led to a flow of blood which accumulated in clots around the calf. Other causes are laceration of the cotyledons of the womb, or from an antecedent inflammation of the placenta, and the unnatural adhesion of the membranes to the womb, which bleeds when the two are torn apart. Weakness of the womb from overdistention, as in dropsy, twins, etc., is not without its influence. Finally, eversion of the womb (casting the withers) is an occasional cause of flooding. The trouble is only too evident when the blood flows from the external passages in drops or in a fine stream. When it is retained in the cavity of the womb, however, it may remain unsuspected until it has rendered the animal almost bloodless. The symptoms in such case are paleness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and of the lips of the vulva, a weak, rapid pulse, violent and perhaps loud beating of the heart (palpitations), sunken, staring eyes, coldness of the skin, ears, horns, and limbs, perspiration, weakness in standing, staggering gait, and, finally, inability to rise, and death in convulsions. If these symptoms are seen, the oiled hand should be introduced into the womb, which will be found open and flaccid and containing large blood clots. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in the removal of the fetal membranes and blood clots from the womb (which will not contract while they are present), the dashing of cold water on the loins, right flank, and vulva, and if these measures fail, the injection of cold water into the womb through a rubber tube furnished with a funnel. In obstinate cases a good-sized sponge soaked in tincture of muriate of iron should be introduced into the womb and firmly squeezed, so as to bring the iron into contact with the bleeding surface. This is at once an astringent and a coagulant for the blood, besides stimulating the womb to contraction. In the absence of this agent astringents (solution of copperas, alum, tannic acid, or acetate of lead) may be thrown into the womb, and one-half-dram doses of acetate of lead may be given by the mouth, or 1 ounce powdered ergot of rye may be given in gruel. When nothing else is at hand, an injection of oil of turpentine will sometimes promptly check the bleeding. EVERSION OF THE WOMB (CASTING THE WITHERS). Like flooding, this is the result of failure of the womb to contract after calving. If that organ contracts naturally, the afterbirth is expelled, the internal cavity of the womb is nearly closed, and the mouth of the organ becomes so narrow that the hand can not be forced through, much less the whole mass of the matrix. When, however, it fails to contract, the closed end of one of the horns may fall into its open internal cavity, and under the compression of the adjacent intestines, and the straining and contraction of the abdominal walls, it is forced farther and farther, until the whole organ is turned outside in, slides back through the vagina, and hangs from the vulva. The womb can be instantly distinguished from the protruding vagina or bladder by the presence, over its whole surface, of 50 to 100 mushroomlike bodies (cotyledons), each 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and attached by a narrow neck. (Pls. XII, XIII.) When fully everted, it is further recognizable by a large, undivided body hanging from the vulva, and two horns or divisions which hang down toward the hocks. In the imperfect eversions the body of the womb may be present with two depressions leading into the two horns. In the cases of some standing the organ has become inflamed and gorged with blood until it is as large as a bushel basket, its surface has a dark-red, bloodlike hue, and tears and bleeds on the slightest touch. Still later lacerations, raw sores, and even gangrene are shown in the mass. At the moment of protrusion the general health is not altered, but soon the inflammation and fever with the violent and continued straining induce exhaustion, and the cow lies down, making no attempt to rise. _Treatment._--Treatment varies somewhat, according to the degree of the eversion. In partial eversion, with the womb protruding only slightly from the vulva and the cow standing, let an assistant pinch the back to prevent straining while the operator pushes his closed fist into the center of the mass and carries it back through the vagina, assisting in returning the surrounding parts by the other hand. In more complete eversion, but with the womb as yet of its natural bulk and consistency and the cow standing, straining being checked by pinching the back, a sheet is held by two men so as to sustain the everted womb and raise it to the level of the vulva. It is now sponged clean with cold water, the cold being useful in driving out the blood and reducing the bulk, and finally it may be sponged over with laudanum or with a weak solution of carbolic acid (1 dram to 1 quart water). The closed fist may now be planted in the rounded end of the largest horn and pushed on so as to turn it back within itself and carry it on through the vagina, the other hand being used meanwhile to assist in the inversion and in pushing the different masses in succession within the lips of the vulva. In case of failure, resort should be had at once to a plan which I have successfully followed for many years. Take a long linen or cotton bandage, 5 or 6 inches wide, and wind it around the protruding womb as tightly as it can be drawn, beginning at the free end and gradually covering the entire mass up to the vulva. By this means the greater part of the blood will be forced out of the organ and its bulk greatly reduced, so that its reduction is much facilitated. An additional advantage is found in the protection given to the womb by its investing bandage while it is being pushed forward into the vagina and abdomen. In manipulating the exposed womb there is always danger of laceration, but when the organ is covered with a sheet it is next to impossible to tear it. The subsequent manipulation is as in the other case, by pushing the blind end forward within itself with the closed fist and carrying this on through the vagina into the abdomen with the constant assistance of the other hand. Often it will be found convenient to use the edge of the left hand to push the outer part of the protruding mass inside the lips of the vulva, while the right hand and arm are carrying the central portions forward through the vagina. An intelligent assistant, pushing with the palms of both hands on the outer portion of the mass, will also afford material assistance. As the womb is turned within itself the wrapping bandage will gradually loosen, but once the great mass has entered the passages it is easy to compel the rest to follow, and the compression by the bandage is no longer so important. When the womb is fully replaced the bandage is left in its interior in a series of loose folds, and can be easily withdrawn. It is well to move the hand from side to side to insure that the two horns of the womb are fully extended and on about the same level before withdrawing the arm and applying a truss. When the womb has been long everted and is gorged with blood, inflamed, and friable there is often the additional disadvantage that the animal is unable or unwilling to rise. When lying down the straining can not be controlled so effectually, and, even in the absence of straining, the compression of the belly is so great as to prove a serious obstacle to reduction. The straining may be checked by 2 or 3 ounces of laudanum or 2 ounces of chloral hydrate, or by inhalation of chloroform to insensibility, and then by raising the hind parts on straw bundles the gravitation of the abdominal organs forward may be made to lessen the resistance. If not successful in this way, the cow may be further turned on her back, and if return is still impossible, the hind limbs may be tied together and drawn up to a beam overhead by the aid of a pulley. In this position, in place of the pressure backward of the bowels proving a hindrance, their gravitation forward proves a most material help to reduction. In seeking to return the womb the sponging with ice-cold water, raising on a sheet, and wrapping in a tight bandage should be resorted to. Another method which is especially commendable in these inflamed conditions of the womb is to bring a piece of linen sheet, 30 by 36 inches, under the womb, with its anterior border close up to the vulva, then turn the posterior border upward and forward over the organ, and cross the two ends over this and over each other above. The ends of the sheet are steadily drawn, so as to tighten its hold on the womb, which is thus held on the level of the vulva or above, and cold water is constantly poured upon the mass. The reduction is further sought by compression of the mass with the palms applied outside the sheet. Fifteen or twenty minutes are usually sufficient to cause the return of the womb, provided straining is prevented by pinching the back, or otherwise. In old and aggravated cases, with the womb torn, bruised, or even gangrenous, the only resort is to amputate the entire mass. This is done by tying a strong, waxed cord around the protruding mass close to the vulva, winding the cord around pieces of wood, so as to draw it as tightly as possible, cutting off the organ below this ligature, tying a thread on any artery that may still bleed, and returning the stump well into the vagina. Retention of the returned womb is the next point, and is most easily accomplished by a rope truss. Take two ropes, each about 18 feet long and an inch in thickness. Double each rope at its middle, and lay the one above the other at the bend, so as to form an ovoid of about 8 inches in its long diameter. Twist each end of the one rope twice around the other, so that this ovoid will remain when they are drawn tight. (Pls. XXII and XXIII.) Tie a strap or rope around the back part of the neck and a surcingle around the body. Place the rope truss on the animal so that the ovoid ring will surround the vulva, the two ascending ropes on the right and left of the tail and the two descending ones down inside the thighs on the right and left of the udder. These descending ropes are carried forward on the sides of the body and tied to the surcingle and to the neck collar. The ascending ropes proceed forward on the middle of the back, twisting over each other, and are tied to the surcingle and collar. The upper and lower ropes are drawn so tightly that the rope ring is made to press firmly all around the vulva without risk of displacement. This should be worn for several days, until the womb shall have closed and all risk of further eversion is at an end. Variations of this device are found in the use of a narrow triangle of iron applied around the vulva and fixed by a similar arrangement of ropes, surcingle, and collar (Pl. XXIII, fig. 3), a common crupper similarly held around the vulva (Pl. XXII, fig. 1), stitches through the vulva, and wire inserted through the skin on the two hips (Pl. XXIII, fig. 2), so that they will cross behind the vulva; also pessaries of various kinds should be inserted into the vagina. None of these devices, however, present any advantage over the simple and comparatively painless rope truss described above. Such additional precautions as keeping the cow in a stall higher behind than in front, and seeing that the diet is slightly laxative and nonstimulating may be named. If straining is persistent, ounce doses of laudanum may be used twice a day, and the same may be injected into the vagina. If the womb has been cut off, injections of a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water should be used daily, or more frequently, until the discharge ceases. EVERSION OF THE BLADDER. A genuine eversion of the bladder is almost unknown in the cow, owing to the extreme narrowness of its mouth. The protrusion of the bladder, however, through a laceration sustained in calving, in the floor of the vagina and its subsequent protrusion through the vulva, is sometimes met with. In this case the protruding bladder contains urine; this can never be the case in a real eversion, in which the inner surface of the bladder and the openings of the ureters are both exposed outside the vulva. The presence of a bag containing water, which is connected with the floor of the vagina, will serve to identify this condition. If the position of the bladder in the vulva renders it impracticable to pass a catheter to draw off the urine, pierce the organ with the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe, or even a very small trocar and cannula, and draw off the water, when it will be found an easy matter to return the bladder to its place. The rent in the vagina can be stitched up, but as there would be risk in any subsequent calving it is best to prepare the cow for the butcher. RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER. This has been known to occur in protracted parturition when the fetus finally passed while the bladder was full. The symptoms are those of complete suppression of urine and tenderness of the abdomen, with a steady accumulation of liquid, and fluctuation on handling its lower part. If the hand is introduced into the vagina it is felt to be hot and tender, and perhaps slightly swollen along its floor. As a final test, if the lower, fluctuating part of the abdomen is punctured with a hypodermic needle, a straw-colored liquid of a urinous odor flows out. The condition has been considered as past hope. The only chance for recovery would be in opening the abdomen, evacuating the liquid, and stitching up the rent in the bladder, but at such a season, and with inflammation already started, there would be little to hope for. RUPTURE OF THE WOMB. When the womb has been rendered friable by disease rupture may occur in the course of the labor, but much more frequently it occurs from violence sustained in attempting assistance in difficult parturition. It is also liable to occur during eversion of the organ through efforts to replace it. If it happens while the calf is still in the womb, it will usually bleed freely and continuously until the fetus has been extracted, so that the womb can contract on itself and expel its excess of blood. Another danger is that in case of a large rent the calf may escape into the cavity of the abdomen and parturition become impossible. Still another danger is that of the introduction of septic germs and the setting up of a fatal inflammation of the lining membrane of the belly (peritoneum). Still another is the escape of the small intestine through the rent and on through the vagina and vulva, so as to protrude externally and receive perhaps fatal injuries. In case of rupture before calving, that act should be completed as rapidly and carefully as possible, the fetal membranes removed, and the contraction of the womb sought by dashing cold water on the loins, the right flank, or the vulva. If the calf has escaped into the abdomen and can not be brought through the natural channels, it may be permissible to fix the animal and extract it through the side, as in the Cæsarian section. If the laceration has happened during eversion of the womb it is usually less redoubtable, because the womb contracts more readily under the stimulus of the cold air so recently applied. In case the abdomen has been laid open it is well to stitch up the rent, but if not, it should be left to nature, and will often heal satisfactorily, the cow even breeding successfully in after years. Rupture of the floor of the vagina has been already referred to as allowing the protrusion of the bladder. Laceration of the roof of this passage is also met with as the result of deviations of the hind limbs and feet upward when the calf lies on its back. In some such cases the opening passes clear into the rectum, or the foot may even pass out through the anus, so that that opening and the vulva are laid open into one. Simple, superficial lacerations of the vaginal walls are not usually serious, and heal readily unless septic inflammation sets in, in which case the cow is liable to perish. They may be treated with soothing and antiseptic injections, such as carbolic acid, 1 dram; water, 1 quart. The more serious injuries depend on the complications. Rupture of the anterior part of the canal, close to the mouth of the womb, may lead to the introduction of infecting germs into the cavity of the abdomen, or protrusion of the bowel through the rent and externally, either of which may prove fatal. If both these conditions are escaped the wound may heal spontaneously. Rupture into the bladder may lead to nothing worse than a constant dribbling of the urine from the vulva. The cow should be fattened if she survives. Rupture into the rectum will entail a constant escape of feces through the vulva, and, of course, the same condition exists when the anus as well has been torn open. I have successfully sewed up an opening of this kind in the mare, but in the case of the cow it is probably better to prepare her for the butcher. CLOTS OF BLOOD IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. During calving the vagina may be bruised so as to cause escape of blood beneath the mucous membrane and its coagulation into large bulging clots. The vulva may appear swollen, and on separating its lips the mucous membrane of the vagina is seen to be raised into irregular rounded swellings of a dark-blue or black color, and which pit on pressure of the finger. If the accumulation of blood is not extensive it may be reabsorbed, but if abundant it may lead to irritation and dangerous inflammation, and should be incised with a lancet and the clots cleared out. The wounds may then be sponged twice a day with a lotion made with 1 dram sulphate of zinc, 1 dram carbolic acid, and 1 quart water. RETAINED AFTERBIRTH. The cow, of all our domestic animals, is especially subject to this accident. This may be partly accounted for by the firm connections established through the fifty to one hundred cotyledons (Pl. XIII, fig. 2) in which the fetal membranes dovetail with the follicles of the womb. It is also most liable to occur after abortion, in which preparation has not been made by fatty degeneration for the severance of these close connections. In the occurrence of inflammation, causing the formation of new tissue between the membranes and the womb, we find the occasion of unnaturally firm adhesions which prevent the spontaneous detachment of the membranes. Again, in low conditions of health and an imperfect power of contraction we find a potent cause of retention, the general debility showing particularly in the indisposition of the womb to contract, after calving, with sufficient energy to expel the afterbirth. Hence we find the condition common with insufficient or innutritious feed, and in years or localities in which the fodder has suffered from weather. Ergoted, smutty, or musty fodder (Pl. V), by causing abortion, is a frequent cause of retention. Old cows are more subject than young ones, probably because of diminishing vigor. A temporary retention is sometimes owing to a too rapid closure of the neck of the womb after calving, causing strangulation and imprisonment of the membranes. Conditions favoring this are the drinking of cold (iced) water, the eating of cold feed (frosted roots), and (through sympathy between udder and womb) a too prompt sucking by the calf or milking by the attendant. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of retention of the afterbirth are usually only too evident, as the membranes hang from the vulva and rot away gradually, causing the most offensive odor throughout the building. When retained within the womb by closure of its mouth and similarly in cases in which the protruded part has rotted off, the decomposition continues and the fetid products escaping by the vulva appear in offensively smelling pools on the floor and mat together the hairs near the root of the tail. The septic materials retained in the womb cause inflammation of its lining membrane, and this, together with the absorption into the blood of the products of putrefaction, leads to ill health, emaciation, and drying up of the milk. _Treatment._--Treatment varies according to the conditions. When the cow is in low condition, or when retention is connected with drinking iced water or eating frozen feed, hot drinks and hot mashes of wheat bran or other aliment may be sufficient. If along with the above conditions, the bowels are somewhat confined, an ounce of ground ginger, or half an ounce of black pepper, given with a quart of sweet oil, or 1-1/2 pounds of Glauber's salt in at least 4 quarts of warm water, will often prove effectual. A bottle or two of flaxseed tea, made by prolonged boiling, should also be given at frequent intervals. Other stimulants, like rue, savin, laurel, and carminatives like anise, cumin, and coriander, are preferred by some, but with very questionable reason, the more so that the first three are not without danger. Ergot of rye, 1 ounce, or its extract, 1 dram, may be resorted to to induce contraction of the womb. The mechanical extraction of the membranes is, however, often called for; of this there are several methods. The simplest is to hang a weight of 1 or 2 pounds to the hanging portion, and allow this, by its constant dragging and by its jerking effect when the cow moves, to pull the membranes from their attachments and to stimulate the womb to expulsive contractions. It frequently happens that the afterbirth is only loosely adherent to the womb and its removal is effected if but a slight amount of traction on it is exerted. This can be determined by seizing the dependent part of the afterbirth between two sticks and rolling it up on them until they lie against the vulva; then, by careful traction, accompanied with slight jerking movements from side to side, the womb is stimulated to expulsive contractions and the afterbirth is wound up more and more on the sticks until finally its last connections with the womb are severed and the remainder is expelled suddenly en masse. It is quite evident that neglected cases with putrid membranes are poor subjects for this method, as the afterbirth is liable to tear across, leaving a mass in the womb. During the progress of the work any indication of tearing is the signal to stop and proceed with greater caution or altogether abandon the attempt in this way. The following method (that with the skilled hand) is the most promptly and certainly successful. For this the operator had better dress as for a parturition case. Again, the operation should be undertaken within twenty-four hours after calving, since later the mouth of the womb may be so closed that it becomes difficult to introduce the hand. The operator should smear his arms with carbolized lard or vaseline to protect them against infection, and particularly in delayed cases with putrid membranes. An assistant holds the tail to one side, the operator seizes the hanging afterbirth with the left hand, while he introduces the other along the right side of the vagina and womb, letting the membranes slide through his palm until he reaches the first cotyledon to which they remain adherent. In case no such connection is within reach, with the left hand gentle traction is made on the membranes until the deeper parts of the womb are brought within reach and the attachments to the cotyledons can be reached. Then the soft projection of the membrane, which is attached to the firm fungus-shaped cotyledon on the inner surface of the womb, is seized by the little finger, and the other fingers and thumb are closed on it so as to tear it out from its connections. To explain this, it is necessary only to say that the projection from the membrane is covered by soft, conical processes, which are received into cavities of a corresponding size on the summit of the firm, mushroom-shaped cotyledon growing from the inner surface of the womb. To draw upon the former, therefore, is to extract its soft, villous processes from within the follicles or cavities of the other. (Pl. XIII, fig. 2.) If at times it is difficult to start this extraction it may be necessary to get the finger nail inserted between the two, and once started the finger may be pushed on, lifting all the villi, in turn, out of their cavities. This process of separating the cotyledons must be carefully conducted, one after another, until the last has been detached and the afterbirth comes freely out of the passages. I have never found any evil result from the removal of the whole mass at one operation, but Shaack mentions the eversion of the womb as the possible result of the necessary traction, and in cases in which those in the most distant part of the horn of the womb can not be easily reached, he advises to attach a cord to the membranes inside the vulva, letting it hang out behind, and to cut off the membranes below the cord. Then, after two or three days' delay, he extracts the remainder, now softened and easily detached. If carefully conducted, so as not to tear the cotyledons of the womb, the operation is eminently successful; the cow suffers little, and the straining roused by the manipulations soon subsides. Keeping in a quiet, dark place, or driving a short distance at a walking pace, will serve to quiet these. When the membranes have been withdrawn, the hand, half closed, may be used to draw out of the womb the offensive liquid that has collected. If the case is a neglected one, and the discharge is very offensive, the womb must be injected as for leucorrhea. INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA (VAGINITIS). This may occur independently of inflammation of the womb, and usually as the result of bruises, lacerations, or other injuries sustained during calving. It will be shown by swelling of the lips of the vulva, which, together with their lining membrane, become of a dark-red or leaden hue, and the mucous discharge increases and becomes whitish or purulent, and it may be fetid. Slight cases recover spontaneously, or under warm fomentations or mild astringent injections (a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water), but severe cases may go on to the formation of large sores (ulcers), or considerable portions of the mucous membrane may die and slough off. Baumeister records two cases of diphtheritic vaginitis, the second case in a cow four weeks calved, contracted from the first in a newly calved cow. Both proved fatal, with formation of false membranes as far as the interior of the womb. In all severe cases the antiseptic injections must be applied most assiduously. The carbolic acid may be increased to one-half ounce to a quart, or chlorin water, or peroxid of hydrogen solution may be injected at least three times a day. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 ounce to a quart of water, is an excellent application, and the same amount may be given by the mouth. LEUCORRHEA (MUCOPURULENT DISCHARGE FROM THE PASSAGES). This is from a continued or chronic inflammation of the womb, or the vagina, or both. It usually results from injuries sustained in calving or from irritation by putrid matters in connection with retained afterbirth, or from the use of some object in the vagina (pessary) to prevent eversion of the womb. Exposure to cold or other cause of disturbance of the health may affect an organ so susceptible as this at the time of parturition so as to cause inflammation. _Symptoms._--The main symptom is the glairy, white discharge flowing constantly or intermittently (when the cow lies down), soiling the tail and matting its hairs and those of the vulva. When the lips of the vulva are drawn apart the mucous membrane is seen to be red, with minute elevations, or pale and smooth. The health may not suffer at first, but if the discharge continues and is putrid the health fails, the milk shrinks, and flesh is lost. If the womb is involved the hand introduced into the vagina may detect the mouth of the womb slightly open and the liquid collected within its cavity. Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum may detect the outline of the womb beneath, somewhat enlarged, and fluctuating under the touch from contained fluid. In some cases heat is more frequent or intense than natural, but the animal rarely conceives when served, and, if she does, is liable to abort. _Treatment._--Treatment with the injections advised for vaginitis is successful in mild or recent cases. In obstinate ones stronger solutions may be used after the womb has been washed out by a stream of tepid water until it comes clear. A rubber tube is inserted into the womb, a funnel placed in its raised end, and the water, and afterwards the solution, poured slowly through it. If the neck of the womb is so close that the liquid can not escape, a second tube may be inserted to drain it off. As injections may be used chlorid of zinc, one-half dram to the quart of water, or sulphate of iron, 1 dram to the quart. Three drams of sulphate of iron and one-half ounce ground ginger may also be given in the feed daily. INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB (METRITIS, INFLAMMATION OF WOMB AND ABDOMEN, OR METROPERITONITIS). Inflammation of the womb may be slight or violent, simple or associated with putrefaction of its liquid contents and general poisoning, or it may extend so that the inflammation affects the lining membrane of the whole abdominal cavity. In the last two cases the malady is a very grave one. _Causes._--The causes are largely the same as those causing inflammation of the vagina. Greater importance must, however, be attached to exposure to cold and wet and to septic infection. _Symptoms._--The symptoms appear two or three days after calving, when the cow may be seen to shiver, or the hair stands erect, especially along the spine, and the horns, ears, and limbs are cold. The temperature in the rectum is elevated by one or two degrees, the pulse is small, hard, and rapid (70 to 100), appetite is lost, rumination ceases, and the milk shrinks in quantity or is entirely arrested, and the breathing is hurried. The hind limbs may shift uneasily, the tail be twisted, the head and eyes turn to the right flank, and the teeth are ground. With the flush of heat to the horns and other extremities, there is redness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, and usually a dark redness about the vulva. Pressure on the right flank gives manifest pain, causing moaning or grunting, and the hind limbs are moved stiffly, extremely so if the general lining of the abdomen is involved. In severe cases the cow lies down and can not be made to rise. There is usually marked thirst, the bowels are costive, and dung is passed with pain and effort. The hand inserted into the vagina perceives the increased heat, and when the neck of the womb is touched the cow winces. Examination through the rectum detects enlargement and tenderness of the womb. The discharge from the vulva is at first watery, but becomes thick, yellow, and finally red or brown, with a heavy or fetid odor. Some cases recover speedily and may be almost well in two days; a large proportion perish within two days of the attack, and some merge into the chronic form, terminating in leucorrhea. In the worst cases there is local septic infection and ulceration, or even gangrene of the parts, or there is general septicemia, or the inflammation involving the veins of the womb causes coagulation of the blood contained in them, and the washing out of the clots to the right heart and lung leads to the blocking of the vessels in the latter and complicating pneumonia. Inflammation of the womb and passages after calving are always liable to these complications, and consequently to a fatal issue. Franck records three instances of rapidly fatal metritis in cows, all of which had been poisoned from an adjacent cow with retained and putrid afterbirth. Others have had similar cases. _Treatment._--Treatment in the slight cases of simple inflammation does not differ much from that adopted for vaginitis, only care must be taken that the astringent and antiseptic injections are made to penetrate into the womb. After having washed out the womb a solution of chlorid of lime or permanganate of potassium (one-half ounce to 1 quart of water), with an ounce each of glycerin and laudanum to render it more soothing, will often answer every purpose. It is usually desirable to open the bowels with 1-1/2 pounds of Glauber's salt and 1 ounce of ginger in 4 quarts of warm water, and to apply fomentation of warm water or even mustard poultices or turpentine to the right flank. In the violent attacks with high temperature and much prostration, besides the salts agents must be given to lower the temperature and counteract septic poisoning. Salicylate of soda one-half ounce, or quinia 2 drams every four hours will help in both ways, or ounce doses of hyposulphite of soda or dram doses of carbolic acid may be given as often until six doses have been taken. Tincture of aconite has often been used in 20-drop doses every six hours. If the temperature rises to 106° or 107° F., it must be met by the direct application of cold or iced water to the surface. The animal may be covered with wet sheets and cold water poured on them frequently until the temperature in the rectum is lowered to 102° F. In summer the cow may be allowed to dry spontaneously, while in winter it should be rubbed dry and blanketed. Even in the absence of high temperature much good may be obtained from the soothing influence of a wet sheet covering the loins and flanks and well covered at all points by a dry one. This may be followed next day by a free application of mustard and oil of turpentine. When the animal shows extreme prostration, carbonate of ammonia (1 ounce) may be given to tide over the danger, but such cases usually perish. In this disease, even more than in difficult and protracted parturition or retained placenta, the attendants must carefully guard against the infection of their hands and arms from the diseased parts. The hand and arm before entering the passages should always be well smeared with lard impregnated with carbolic acid. MILK FEVER (PARTURITION FEVER, PARTURIENT APOPLEXY, OR PARTURIENT COLLAPSE). This disease is not only peculiar to the cow, but it may be said to be virtually confined to the improved and plethoric cow. It further occurs only at or near the time of calving. Indeed, these two factors, calving and plethora, may be set apart as preeminently the causes of this disease. It is the disease of cows that have been improved in the direction of early maturity, power of rapid fattening, or a heavy yield of milk, and hence it is characteristic of those having great appetites and extraordinary power of digestion. The heavy milking breeds are especially its victims, as in them the demand for the daily yield of 50 to 100 pounds of milk means even more than a daily increase of 2 to 3 pounds of body weight, mainly fat. The victims are not always fat when attacked, but they are cows having enormous powers of digestion, and which have been fed heavily at the time. Hence the stall-fed, city-dairy cow, and the farm cow on a rich clover pasture in June or July are especially subject. The condition of the blood globules in the suffering cow attests the extreme richness and density of the blood, yet this peculiarity appears to have entirely escaped the notice of veterinary writers. I have never examined the blood of a victim of this disease without finding the red-blood globules reduced to little more than one-half their usual size. Now, these globules expand or contract according to the density of the liquid in which they float. If we dilute the blood with water they will expand until they burst, whereas if solids, such as salt or albumin, are added they shrink to a large extent. Their small size, therefore, in parturition fever indicates the extreme richness of the blood, or, in other words, plethora. Confinement in the stall is an accessory cause, partly because stabled cattle are highly fed, partly because the air is hotter and fouler, and partly because there is no expenditure by exercise of the rich products of digestion. High temperature is conducive to the malady, though the extreme colds of winter are no protection against it. Heat, however, conduces to fever, and fever means lessened secretion, which means a plethoric state of the circulation. The heats of summer are, however, often only a coincidence of the real cause, the mature rich pastures, and especially the clover ones, being the greater. Electrical disturbances have an influence of a similar kind, disturbing the functions of the body and favoring sudden variations in the circulation. A succession of cases of the malady often accompany or precede a change of weather from dry to wet, from a low to a high barometric pressure. Costiveness, which is the usual concomitant of fever, may in a case of this kind become an accessory cause, the retention in the blood of what should have passed off by the bowels tending to increase the fullness of the blood vessels and the density of the blood. Mature age is a very strong accessory cause. The disease never occurs with the first parturition, and rarely with the second. It appears with the third, fourth, fifth, or sixth--after the growth of the cow has ceased and when all her powers are devoted to the production of milk. Calving is an essential condition, as the disturbance of the circulation consequent on the contraction of the womb and the expulsion into the general circulation of the enormous mass of blood hitherto circulating in the walls of the womb fills to repletion the vessels of the rest of the body and very greatly intensifies the already existing plethora. If this is not speedily counterbalanced by a free secretion from the udder, kidneys, bowels, and other excretory organs, the most dire results may ensue. Calving may thus be held to be an exciting cause, and yet the labor and fatigue of the act are not active factors. It is after the easy calving, when there has been little expenditure of muscular or nervous energy and no loss of blood, that the malady is seen. Difficult parturitions may be followed by metritis, but they are rarely connected with parturition fever. All these factors coincide in intensifying the one condition of plethora and point to that as a most essential cause of the affection. It is needless to enter here into the much-debated question as to the mode in which the plethora brings about the characteristic symptoms and results. As the results show disorder or suspension of the nervous functions mainly, it may suffice to say that this condition of the blood and blood vessels is incompatible with the normal functional activity of the nerve centers. How much is due to congestion of the brain and how much to bloodlessness may well be debated, yet in a closed box like the cranium, in which the absolute contents can not be appreciably increased or diminished, it is evident that, apart from dropsical effusion or inflammatory exudation, there can be only a given amount of blood; therefore, if one portion of the brain is congested, another must be proportionately bloodless; and as congestion of the eyes and head generally and great heat of the head are most prominent features of the disease, congestion of the brain must be accepted. This, of course, implies a lack of blood in certain other parts or blood vessels. The latest developments of treatment indicate very clearly that the main cause is the production of poisonous, metabolic products (leucomains and toxins) by secreting cells of the follicles of the udder, acting on the susceptible nerve centers of the plethoric, calving cow. Less fatal examples of udder poisons are found in the first milk (colostrum), which is distinctly irritant and purgative, and in the toxic qualities of the first milk drawn from an animal which has been subjected to violent overexertion or excitement. Still more conclusive as to the production of such poisons is the fact that the full distention of the milk ducts and follicles, and the consequent driving of the blood out of the udder and arrest of the formation of depraved products, determines a speedy and complete recovery from the disease. This does not exclude the other causes above named, nor the influence of a reflex nervous derangement proceeding from the udder to the brain. _Symptoms._--It may be said that there are two extreme types of this disease, with intervening grades. In both forms there is the characteristic plethora and more or less sudden loss of voluntary movement and sensation, indicating a sudden collapse of nervous power; in one, however, there is such prominent evidence of congestion of head and brain that it may be called the congestive form par excellence, without thereby intimating that the torpid form is independent of congestion. In the congestive form there is sudden dullness, languor, hanging back in the stall, or drooping the head, uneasy movements of the hind limbs or tail; if the cow is moved, she steps unsteadily, or even staggers; she no longer notices her calf or her feed; the eyes appear red and their pupils dilated; the weakness increases and the cow lies down or falls and after that is unable to rise. At this time the pulse is usually full, bounding, and the temperature raised, though not invariably so, the head, horns, and ears being especially hot and the veins of the head full, while the visible mucous membranes of nose and eyes are deeply congested. The cow may lie on her breastbone with her feet beneath the body and her head turned sleepily round, with the nose resting on the right flank; or, if worse, she may be stretched full on her side, with even the head extended, though at times it is suddenly raised and again dashed back on the ground. At such times the legs, fore and hind, struggle convulsively, evidently through unconscious nervous spasm. By this time the unconsciousness is usually complete; the eyes are glazed, their pupils widely dilated, and their lids are not moved when the ball of the eye is touched with the finger. Pricking the skin with a pin also fails to bring any wincing or other response. The pulse, at first from 50 to 70 a minute, becomes weaker and more accelerated as the disease advances. The breathing is quickened, becoming more and more so with the violence of the symptoms, and at first associated with moaning (in exceptional cases, bellowing), it may, before death, become slow, deep, sighing, or rattling (stertorous). The temperature, at first usually raised, tends to become lower as stupor and utter insensibility and coma supervene. The bowels, which may have moved at the onset of the attack, become torpid or completely paralyzed, and, unless in case of improvement, they are not likely to operate again. Yet this is the result of paralysis and not of induration of the feces, as often shown by the semiliquid, pultaceous condition of the contents after death. The bladder, too, is paralyzed and fails to expel its contents. A free action of either bladder or bowels, or of both, is always a favorable symptom. The urine contains sugar, in quantity proportionate to the severity of the attack. In nearly all cases the torpor of the digestive organs results in gastric disorder; the paunch becomes the seat of fermentation, producing gas, which causes it to bloat like a drum. There are frequent eructations of gas and liquid and solid feed, which, reaching the paralyzed throat, pass in part into the windpipe and cause inflammations of the air passages and lungs. In the torpid form of the disease there is much less indication of fever or violence. There may be no special heat about the horns, ears, or forehead, nor any marked redness or congestion of the eyes or nose, nor engorgement of the veins of the head. The attack comes on more slowly, with apparent weakness of the hind limbs, dullness, drowsiness, suspension of rumination and appetite, and a general indifference to surrounding objects. Soon the cow lies down, or falls and is unable to rise, but for one or two days she may rest on the breastbone and hold the head in the flank without showing any disorderly movements. Meanwhile there is not only loss of muscular power and inability to stand, but also considerable dullness of sensation, pricking the skin producing no quick response, and even touching the edge of the eyelids causing no very prompt winking. Unless she gets relief, however, the case develops all the advanced symptoms of the more violent form, and the animal perishes. In advanced and fatal cases of either form the insensibility becomes complete; no irritation of skin or eye meets any response; the eye becomes more dull and glassy; the head rests on the ground or other object; unless prevented the cow lies stretched fully on her side; the pulse is small, rapid, and finally imperceptible; the breathing is slow, deep, stertorous, and the expirations accompanied with puffing is slow, the cheeks, and death comes quietly or with accompanying struggles. _Prevention._--For such fatal disease prevention is of far more consequence than treatment. Among the most efficient preventives may be named a spare diet (amounting to actual starvation in very plethoric, heavy-milking cows) for a week before calving and at least four days after. A free access to salt and water is most important, as the salt favors drinking and the water serves to dilute the rich and dense blood. Iced water, however, is undesirable, as a chill may favor the onset of fever. A dose of Epsom salt (1 to 2 pounds) should be given 12 to 24 hours before calving is due, so that it may operate at or just before that act. In case calving has occurred unexpectedly in the heavy milker, no time should be lost in giving the purgative thereafter. A most important precaution in the fleshy, plethoric cow, or in one that has been attacked at a previous calving, is to avoid drawing any milk from the bag for 12 or 24 hours after calving. Breeders on the island of Jersey have found that this alone has almost abolished the mortality from milk fever. If Epsom salt is not at hand, saltpeter (1 ounce) should be used for several days. Daily exercise is also of importance, and, excepting in midsummer, when the heat of the sun may be injurious, the value of open air is unquestionable. Even in summer an open shed or shady grove is incomparably better than a close, stuffy stall. A rich pasture (clover especially), in May, June, or July, when at its best, is to be carefully avoided. It is better to keep the cow indoors on dry straw with plenty of salt and water than to have access to such pastures. _Treatment._--Treatment of milk fever has been completely revolutionized, with the result that a former mortality of 50 to 70 per cent has been practically abolished. Formerly the most vigorous treatment was practiced by bleeding, purging, the increase of peristalsis by eserin or pilocarpin, enemas, cold in the head, counterirritants, aconite, tartar emetic, sponging, wet-sheet packing, etc. The gross mortality, however, was not materially reduced, and nearly all that were attacked within the first two days after calving perished. The first step in the modern treatment was made in 1897, when J. Schmidt published his successful treatment by the injection of the teats and milk ducts with a solution of iodid of potassium (1-1/2 drams to 1 quart of water). This reduced the mortality to 17 per cent. Others followed this lead by the injection of other antiseptics (lysol, creolin, creosol, chinosol, common salt, etherized air, oxygen). These succeeded as well as the iodid solution. With the injection of gases, however, a fuller distention of the udder was usually secured, and virtually every case recovered. This suggested the full distention of the udder with common atmospheric air filtered and sterilized, and this with the most perfect success. With sterile air Schmidt-Kolding claimed 96.7 per cent recoveries in 914 cases. In America the full distention of the udder, whether with oxygen or filtered air, has proved invariably successful in all kinds of cases, including the violent ones that set in within a few hours after calving. In 1 or 2 hours after the injection the cow has got up, had free passages from the bowels and bladder, bright expression of countenance, and some return of appetite. In my cases which had made no response for 8 hours to the iodid injection, the injection of the udder to full repletion with the gas (oxygen or air) has had immediately beneficial results. A similar full distention of the bag with a common-salt solution (0.5 to 100), or even with well-boiled water, is equally effective, but in these cases the weight of the liquid causes dragging upon the udder and a measure of discomfort which is escaped under the treatment with gas. The value of each method depends on the fullness of distention of the udder and the arrest in larger part of the circulation and chemical changes in its tissues. This distention acts like magic, and seems hardly to admit of failure in securing a successful outcome. It can not, however, be recommended as absolutely devoid of dangers and serious complications. To get the best results it should be applied only by one who has been trained in the careful antiseptic methods of the bacteriological laboratory. Some readers will recall the case of the injection of the udders of show cows at Toronto to impose upon the judges. The cows treated in this way had the udders infected and ruined, and several lost their lives. There is no better culture medium for septic and other germs than the first milk (colostrum) charged with albumin and retained in the warm udder. Already in the hands of veterinarians even the Schmidt treatment has produced a small proportion of cases of infective mammitis. How many more such cases will develop if this treatment becomes a popular domestic resort, applied by the dairyman himself in all sorts of surroundings and with little or no antiseptic precautions? Even then, however, the losses will by no means approach the past mortality of 50 to 70 per cent, so that the economy will be immeasurable under even the worst conditions. A fair test and judgment of this treatment, however, can be obtained only when the administrator is trustworthy and painstaking, well acquainted with bacteriological antisepsis and with the general and special pathology of the bovine animal. The necessary precautions may be summarized as follows: (1) Provide an elastic rubber ball and tubes furnished with valves to direct the current of air, as in a common Davidson syringe. (2) Fill the delivery tube for a short distance with cotton sterilized by prolonged heating in a water bath. (3) In the free end of the delivery tube fit a milking tube to be inserted into the teat. (4) Sterilize the entire apparatus by boiling for 30 minutes, and, without touching the milking tube, wrap it in a towel that has been sterilized in a water bath or in live steam and dried. (5) Avoid drawing any milk from the teats; wash them and the udder thoroughly with warm soapsuds; rinse off with well-boiled and cooled water, and apply to the teats, and especially to their tips, a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or lysol, taking care that the teats are not allowed to touch any other body from the time they are cleansed until the teat tube is inserted. It is well to rest the cleansed and disinfected udder on a sterilized pad of cotton or a boiled towel. (6) The injecting apparatus is unwrapped; the teat tube, seized by its attached end and kept from contact with any other body, is inserted into the teat, while an assistant working the rubber pump fills the quarter as full as it will hold. The tube is now withdrawn and a broad tape is tied around the free end of the teat to prevent escape of the air. (7) The teat tube, which has been carefully preserved from possible contact with other bodies, is dipped in the carbolic acid solution and inserted in a second teat, and the second quarter is inflated, and so with the third and fourth. (8) The recumbent cow is kept resting on her breastbone, with the head elevated, even if it should be necessary to pack around her with straw bundles or to suspend the head by a halter. When lying on her side she is liable to develop fatal bloating and to have belching of gas and liquids, which, passing down the windpipe, cause fatal broncho-pneumonia. (9) If in 2 hours the cow is not on her feet, if there is no brighter or more intelligent expression, if she has passed no manure or urine, and if the air has become absorbed, leaving the udder less tense, the injection of the bag may be repeated, under the same scrupulous and rigid precautions as at first. In all cases, but especially in severe ones, it is well to keep watch of the patient, and to repeat the distention on the first indication of relapse. Should there not be a free discharge of feces and urine after rising, indicating a natural resumption of the nervous functions, the case should be all the more carefully watched, so that the treatment may be repeated if necessary. Accessory treatment may still be used, but is rarely necessary. A dose of purgative medicine (1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt) in warm water may be given in the early stages, while as yet there is no danger of its passing into the lungs through paralysis of the throat. Eserin or pilocarpin (1-1/2 grains) may be given under the skin to stimulate the movements of the bowels. Sponging the skin, and especially the udder, with cool water, may be resorted to in hot weather. Bloating may demand puncture of the paunch, in the left flank, with a cannula and trocar, the evacuation of the gas, and the introduction through the tube of a tablespoonful of strong liquid ammonia in a quart of cold water or other antiferment. The economic value of the new treatment of milk fever is enormous. The United States has more than 22,000,000 milk cows. If we could raise their quality by preserving and breeding from the largest producers of both milk and butterfat, in place of losing the best by milk fever, as in the past, and if we could thus obtain an average increase of 2 quarts a day, the proceeds at 3 cents a quart would amount to $130,000,000 a year. PALSY AFTER CALVING (DROPPING AFTER CALVING). This consists in a more or less complete loss of control of the hind limbs occurring after calving, and caused by low condition, weakness, and exposure to cold or to injurious compression of the nerves of the hind limbs by a large calf passing through the pelvis. Its symptoms do not differ from those of palsy of the hind limbs, occurring at other times, and it may be treated in the same way, except so far as bruises of the vagina may demand special smoothing treatment. CONGESTION OF THE UDDER (GARGET). In heavy milkers, before and just after calving, it is the rule that the mammary gland is enlarged, hot, tense, and tender, and that a slight exudation or pasty swelling extends forward from the gland on the lower surface of the abdomen. This physiological congestion is looked upon as a matter of course, and disappears in two or three days when the secretion of milk has been fully established. This breaking up of the bag may be greatly hastened by the sucking of a hungry calf and the kneading it gives the udder with its nose, by stripping the glands clean thrice daily, and by active rubbing at each milking with the palm of the hand, with or without lard or, better, with camphorated ointment. The congestion may be at times aggravated by standing in a draft of cold air or by neglect to milk for an entire day or more (overstocking, hefting) with the view of making a great show of udder for purposes of sale. In such cases the surface of the bag pits on pressure, and the milk has a reddish tinge or even streaks of blood, or it is partially or fully clotted and is drawn with difficulty, mixed, it may be, with a yellowish serum (whey) which has separated from the casein. This should be treated like the above, though it may sometimes demand fomentations with warm water to ward off inflammation, and it may be a week before the natural condition of the gland is restored. INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER (SIMPLE MAMMITIS). Congestion may merge into active inflammation, or it may arise direct, in connection with exposure to cold or wet, with standing in a cold draft, with blows on the udder with clubs, stones, horns, or feet, with injury from a sharp or cold stone, or the projecting edge of a board or end of a nail in the floor, with sudden and extreme changes of weather, with overfeeding on rich albuminous feed like cotton seed, beans, or peas, with indigestions, with sores on the teats, or with insufficient stripping of the udder in milking. In the period of full milk the organ is so susceptible that any serious disturbance of the general health is liable to fall upon the udder. _Symptoms._--The symptoms and mode of onset vary in different cases. When following exposure there is usually a violent shivering fit, with cold horns, ears, tail, and limbs, and general erection of the hair. This is succeeded by a flush of heat (reaction) in which the horns, ears, and limbs become unnaturally warm and the gland swells up and becomes firm and solid in one, two, three, or all four quarters. There is hot dry muzzle, elevated temperature, full, accelerated pulse, and excited breathing, impaired or suspended appetite and rumination, with more or less costiveness, suppression of urine, and a lessened yield of milk, which may be entirely suppressed in the affected quarter. In other cases the shivering escapes notice, the general disorder of the system is little marked or comes on late, and the first observed sign of illness is the firm swelling, heat, and tenderness of the bag. As the inflammation increases and extends, the hot, tender udder causes the animal to straddle with its hind limbs, and, when walking, to halt on the limb on that side. If the cow lies down it is on the unaffected side. With the increase in intensity and the extension of the inflammation the general fever manifests itself more prominently. In some instances the connective tissue beneath the skin and between the lobules of the gland is affected, then the swelling is uniformly rounded and of nearly the same consistency, pitting everywhere on pressure. In other cases it primarily attacks the secreting tissue of the gland, then the swelling is more localized and appears as hard, nodular masses in the interior of the gland. This last is the usual form of inflammation occurring from infection entering by the teats. In all cases, but especially in the last-named form, the milk is suppressed and replaced by a watery fluid colored with blood (sometimes deeply) and mingled with masses of clotted casein. Later it becomes white and purulent, and in many cases of an offensive odor. The course of the disease is sometimes so rapid and at others so slow that no definite rule can be laid down. In two or three days, or from that to the end of the week, the bag may soften, lose its heat and tenderness, and subside into the healthy condition, even resuming the secretion of milk. The longer the inflammatory hardness continues the greater the probability that its complete restoration will not be effected. When a portion of the gland fails to be restored in this way, and has its secretion arrested, it usually shrinks to a smaller size. More commonly a greater quantity of the inflammatory product remains in the gland and develops into a solid, fibrous mass, causing permanent hardening (induration). In other cases, in place of the product of inflammation developing into a fibrous mass, it softens and breaks down into white, creamy, liquid pus (abscess). This abscess may make its way to the surface and escape externally, or it may burst into a milk duct and discharge through the teat. It may break into both and establish a channel for the escape of milk (fistula). In the worst types of the disease gangrene may ensue, a quarter or half or even the whole udder, losing its vitality, and sloughing off if the cow can bear up against the depressing influence. These gangrenous cases are probably always the result of infection and sometimes run a very rapidly fatal course. I remember one to which I was called as soon as the owner noticed it, yet I found one-quarter dark blue, cold, and showing a tendency to the formation of blebs containing a bloody secretion. The cow, which had waded through a depth of semiliquid manure to reach her stall, died within 24 hours. _Treatment._--Treatment varies with the type and the stage of the disease. If the case is seen in the shivering fit, every effort should be made to cut it short, as the inflammation may be thereby greatly moderated, if not checked. Copious drinks of warm water thrown in from horn or bottle; equally copious warm injections; the application of heat in some form to the surface of the body (by a rug wrung out of hot water; by hanging over the back and loins bags loosely filled with bran, sand, salt, chaff, or other agent previously heated in a stove; by the use of a flatiron or the warming of the surface by a hot-air bath), or by active friction with straw wisps by two or more persons; the administration of 1 ounce of ground ginger may serve to shorten the attack. After half an hour's sweat the animal should be rubbed and covered with a dry blanket. If, on the other hand, there is little or no fever, and only a slight inflammation, rub well with camphorated ointment or a weak iodin ointment, and milk three, four, or six times a day, rubbing the bag thoroughly each time. Milking must be done with great gentleness, squeezing the teat in place of pulling and stripping it, and if this causes too much pain, the teat tube (Pl. XXIV, fig. 4) or the spring teat dilator (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3) may be employed. Antiseptic injections of the teats and udder are often useful, and iodoform in water has been especially recommended. It may be replaced by one of the injections advised for parturition fever, used with the same careful precautions. In cases in which the fever has set in and the inflammation is more advanced, a dose of laxative medicine is desirable (Epsom salt, 1 to 2 pounds; ginger, 1 ounce), which may be followed, after the purging has ceased, by daily doses of saltpeter, 1 ounce. Many rely on cooling and astringent applications to the inflamed quarter (vinegar, sugar-of-lead lotion, cold water, ice, etc.), but a safer and better resort is continued fomentation with warm water. A bucket of warm water, replenished as it cools, may be set beneath the udder, and two persons can raise a rug cut of this and hold it against the udder, dipping it anew whenever the temperature is somewhat lowered. A sheet may be passed around the body, with holes cut for the teats, soft rags packed between it and the udder, and kept warm by pouring water on every 10 or 15 minutes, as warm as the hand can bear. When this has been kept up for an hour or two, the bag may be dried, well rubbed with soap, and left thus with a soapy coating. If the pain is great, extract of belladonna may be applied along with the soap, and a dry suspensory bandage with holes for the teats may be applied. Strong, mercurial ointment is very useful in relieving pain and softening the bag. This is especially valuable when the disease is protracted and induration threatens. It may be mixed with an equal quantity of soap and half as much extract of belladonna. In cases of threatened induration excellent results are sometimes obtained from a weak-induction current of electricity sent through the gland daily for 10 minutes. If _abscess_ threatens, it may be favored by fomentation and opened as soon as fluctuation from finger to finger shows the formation of matter at a point formerly hard. The wound may bleed freely, and there is a risk of opening a milk duct, yet relief will be obtained; also a dressing twice daily with a lotion of carbolic acid 1 part, water 20 parts, and glycerin 1 part will suffice to keep the wound clean and healthy. _Gangrene_ of the affected part is often fatal. It demands antiseptics (chlorid of zinc, 1 dram to 1 quart water) applied frequently to the part, or, if the case can not be attended, smear the affected quarter with Venice turpentine, melted, or even wood tar. Antiseptic tonics (tincture of chlorid of iron, 4 drams) may also be given four times daily in a quart of water. CONTAGIOUS MAMMITIS (CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER). As stated in the last article, that form of inflammation of the udder which attacks the gland ducts and follicles, causing deep-seated, hard, nodular swellings, is often contagious. Franck has demonstrated this by injecting into the milk ducts in different cows (milking and dry) the pus from the bags of cows affected with mammitis, or the liquids of putrid flesh, or putrid blood, and in every case he produced acute inflammation of the gland tissue within twenty-four hours. He thinks that in ordinary conditions the septic germ gains access by propagating itself through the milk, filling the milk canal and oozing from the external orifice. He points to this as a reason why dry cows escape the malady, though mingling freely with the sufferers, and why such dry cows do not suffer from inflammation of the gland tissue when attacked with foot-and-mouth disease. In this last case it is evident that it is not simply the inoculation with the milker's hand that is lacking, for the skin of the bag is attacked, but not its secreting, glandular parts. Now that in any case of abscess we look for the cause in the chain forms of globular bacteria (_Streptococcus pyogenes_), in the cluster form of white, globular bacteria (_Staphylococcus pyogenes albus_), and in the golden and citron-yellow forms of clustered globular bacteria (_Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _Staphylococcus pyogenes citreus_), the formation of pus gives presumptive evidence of the action of one or more of these germs. So in cases of mortification of the bag; in the very occurrence there is fair circumstantial evidence of the presence of erysipelas micrococcus or other germ which kills the local tissues. Again, in tuberculosis affecting the bag (a not uncommon condition), the active local cause is without doubt the tubercle bacillus. It has been found that false membranes have formed in certain cases of mammitis in the cow, and Klein, after inoculating the diphtheria of man on the cow, found an ulcerous sore in the seat of inoculation and blisters on the teats and udder, in which he found what he believed to be the bacillus of diphtheria. The results are doubtful, even in the absence of false membranes. Löffler, too, in the diphtheria of calves, found that the germ was longer and more delicate than that of man, and that its pathogenesis for rodents was less, guinea pigs having only a nonfatal abscess. The presence of false membranes in one form of mammitis in cows does not necessarily imply its communicability to man. It has been asserted that scarlet fever has been transmitted from the cow to man, and it can not be denied that in many cases the infection has been spread by means of the milk. The facts, however, when brought out fully have shown that in almost every case the milk had first come into contact with a person suffering or recovering from scarlet fever, so that the milk was infected after it left the cow. The alleged exceptional cases at Hendon and Dover, England, are not conclusive. In the Hendon outbreak inoculations were made on calves from the slight eruption on the cow's teats, and they had a slight eruption on the lips and a form of inflammation of the kidneys, which Dr. Klein thought resembled that of scarlatina. The cows that had brought the disease to the Hendon dairies were traced back to Wiltshire, where cows were found suffering from a similar malady, but no sign of scarlet fever resulted. In the Dover outbreak the dairyman first denied any disease in his cows, and brought a certificate of a veterinarian to prove that they were sound at the time of the investigation; then later he confessed that the cows had had foot-and-mouth disease some time before, and consequent eruption on the teats. So the question remains whether the man who denied sickness in the cows to begin with, and adduced professional evidence of it, did not later acknowledge the foot-and-mouth disease as a blind to hide the real source of the trouble in scarlatina in his own family or in the family of an employee. In America Dr. Stickler said that he had produced scarlatina in children by inoculation with imported virus of foot-and-mouth disease, but his contention is negatived by the facts that with foot-and-mouth disease constantly present in Europe scarlatina does not accompany it, and that in America, with scarlatina constantly prevailing at some point, foot-and-mouth disease is unknown locally except at long intervals and as the result of the importation of infected animals or their products. Man is susceptible to foot-and-mouth disease, but it never appears during the frequent epidemics of scarlatina. Among other contagious forms of mammitis I may name one which I have encountered in large dairies, starting as a sore and slight swelling at the opening of the teat and extending up along the milk duct to the gland structure in the bag, all of which become indurated, nodular, and painful. The milk is entirely suppressed in that quarter of the bag, and from that it may extend to the others as it does from cow to cow through the milker's hands. Another form almost universally prevalent in this district of central New York in 1889 broke out on the teats and udders as blisters strongly resembling cowpox, but which were not propagated when inoculated on calves. It was only exceptionally that this extended through the teat to the gland tissue, yet in some instances the bag was lost from this cause. Scarlatina in man was very prevalent at the time (many schools were closed in consequence), but no definite connection seemed to exist between this and the cow disease, and on different dairy farms there were families of young children that had never had scarlet fever and who did not at that time contract it. The most common cause of contagious mammitis in cattle is a spherical bacterium in chain form (_Streptococcus_) (Moore, Ward). Yet it is clear that contagious mammitis is not a single affection, but a group of diseases which have this in common, that they attack the udder. _Prevention._--Prevention is to be especially sought in all such cases. In purchasing new cows see that they come from a herd where the teats and udder are sound. If a new cow with unknown antecedents comes from a public market, let her be milked for a week by a person who does not milk any other cows. Keep her in a separate stall from others, so that there may be no infection from litter or flooring. Wash the udder with soap and water, and wet with a solution of two teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid in a pint of water before letting the regular milker of the other cows take her. If any cow in the herd shows the indurated end of the teat or the inflammation and nodular tender character of the gland, sequestrate her at once and give her a separate milker. If another cow is to be put into the stall she occupied, first clean and scrape it, and wet it with a strong solution of bluestone, 5 ounces in a gallon of water. The milk may be drawn off with a teat tube, or spring teat dilator (Pl. XXIV, figs. 3 and 4), and the milk ducts injected frequently with a solution of peroxid of hydrogen or iodoform. I have had little success in checking the upward progress of the disease through the teat with carbolic acid or boric-acid solutions. Used on the outside of the other teats, however, they may serve to prevent them from becoming infected. In the absence of peroxid of hydrogen the affected teat may be injected with a solution of 1 grain corrosive sublimate in a pint of water, and the same may be used on the other teats, provided it is washed off every time before milking. As additional precautions, no cow with a retained afterbirth or unhealthy discharge from the womb should be left with the other cows. Such cows doubtless infect their own udders and those of the cows next them by lashing with the soiled tail. If milkers handle retained afterbirth or vaginal discharge, or unhealthy wounds, or assist in a difficult and protracted parturition, they should wash the hands and arms thoroughly with soap and warm water and then rub them with the corrosive-sublimate solution, or if not, at least with one of carbolic acid. Clothes stained with such offensive products should be thoroughly washed. The general treatment of contagious mammitis does not differ from that of the simple form, except that antiseptics should be given by the mouth as well as applied locally (hyposulphite of soda, one-half ounce daily). COWPOX. This is another form of contagious inflammation of the udder which does not spread readily from animal to animal except by the hands of the milker. It is held to occur spontaneously in the cow, but this is altogether improbable, and so-called spontaneous cases are rather to be looked on as instances in which the germs have been preserved dry in the buildings or introduced in some unknown manner. It is not uncommon in the horse, attacking the heels, the lips, or some other inoculated part of the body, and is then easily transferred to the cow, if the same man grooms and dresses the horse and milks the cow. It may also appear in the cow by infection, more or less direct, from a person who has been successfully vaccinated. Many believe that it is only a form of the smallpox of man modified by passing through the system of cow or horse. It is, however, unreasonable to suppose that this alleged modified smallpox could have been transmitted from child to child (the most susceptible of the human race) for 90 years, under all possible conditions, without once reverting to its original type of smallpox. Chauveau's experiments on both cattle and horses with the virus of smallpox and its inoculation back on the human subject go far to show that in the climate of western Europe, at least, no such transformation takes place. Smallpox remains smallpox and cowpox, cowpox. Again, smallpox is communicable to a person who visits the patient in his room but avoids touching him, while cowpox is never thus transferred through the air unless deliberately diffused in the form of spray. The disease in the cow is ushered in by a slight fever, which, however, is usually overlooked, and the first sign is tenderness of the teats. Examined, these may be redder and hotter than normal, and at the end of two days there appear little nodules, like small peas, of a pale-red color, and increasing so that by the seventh day they may measure three-fourths of an inch to 1 inch in diameter. The yield of milk diminishes, and when heated it coagulates slightly. From the seventh to the tenth day the eruption forms into a blister, with raised margins and a depression in the center, and from which the whole of the liquid can not be drawn by a single puncture. The blister, in other words, is chambered, and each chamber must be opened to evacuate the whole of the contents. If the pock forms on a surface where there is thick hair it does not rise as a blister, but oozes out a straw-colored fluid which concretes on the hairs in an amber-colored mass. In one or two days after the pock is full it becomes yellow from contained pus and then dries into a brownish-yellow scab, which finally falls, leaving one or more distinct pits in the skin. Upon the teats, however, this regular course is rarely seen; the vesicles are burst by the hands of the milker as soon as liquid is formed, and as they continue to suffer at each milking they form raw, angry sores, scabbing more or less at intervals, but are slow to undergo healing. The only treatment required is to heal the sores. As milking is the main cause of their persistence, that must be done as gently as possible, or even with the teat tube or dilator. (Pl. XXIV, figs. 3 and 4.) It is essential to check the propagation of the germ, and for this purpose the sore teats may be washed frequently with a solution of half an ounce hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water. This will usually check the inflammation and cut short the malady. SUPPRESSION OF MILK. The absence of milk in the udder may result from ill health, debility, emaciation, chronic disease of the bag, wasting of the gland from previous disease, or insufficient feed, but sometimes it will occur suddenly without any appreciable cause. The treatment consists in removing the cause of the disease, giving rich albuminoid feed made into warm mashes, and administering ounce doses of aromatic carminatives, like anise seed, fennel seed, etc. Rubbing and stripping the udder are useful; the application of oil of lavender or of turpentine, or even a blister of Spanish flies, will sometimes succeed. BLOODY MILK. Blood may escape with the milk when the udder has been injured by blows; also when it is congested or inflamed, when the circulation through it has been suddenly increased by richer and more abundant feed, or when the cow is under the excitement of heat. The milk frothing up and assuming a pink tinge is often the first sign of red water, and it may result from eating acrid or irritant plants, like the Ranunculaceæ, resinous plants, etc. Deposits of tubercle or tumors in the udder, or induration of the gland, may be efficient causes, the irritation caused by milking contributing to draw the blood. Finally, there may be a reddish tinge or sediment when madder or logwood has been eaten. In milk which becomes red after it is drawn it may be from the presence in it of the _Bacillus prodigiosus._ This also grows on bread, and is the explanation of the supposed miracle of the "bleeding host." The treatment will vary with the cause. In congested glands give 1 pound of Epsom salt, and daily thereafter one-half ounce saltpeter, with a dram of chlorate of potassium; the bag should be bathed with hot or cold water, and rubbed with camphorated lard. If the feed is too rich or abundant it must be reduced. If from acrid plants, they must be removed from pasture or fodder. Induration of the udder may be met by rubbing with a combination of iodin ointment 1 part, soft soap 2 parts; mercurial ointment and soap also may be used. Careful milking is imperative. BLUE MILK. Watery milk is blue, but the presence of a germ (_Bacillus cyanogenes_) causes a distinct blue shade even in rich milk and cream. It may reach the milk after it has been drawn, or it may find its way into the opening of the milk ducts and enter the milk as it is drawn. In the latter case frequent milking and the injection of a solution of 2 drams of hyposulphite of soda in a pint of water into the teats will serve to destroy the germs. STRINGY MILK. This may be caused by fungi developing in the liquid, and that the spores are present in the system of the cow may be safely inferred from the fact that in a large herd two or three cows only will yield such milk at a time, and that after a run of 10 days or a fortnight they will recover and others will be attacked. I have found that such affected cows had the temperature raised one or two degrees above the others. Like most other fungi this does not grow out into filaments within the body of the cow, but in five or six hours after milking the surface layers are found to be one dense network of filaments. If a needle is dipped in this and lifted the liquid is drawn out into a long thread. In one case which I investigated near Ithaca, N. Y., the contamination was manifestly from a spring which oozed out of a bank of black-muck soil and stood in pools mixed with the dejections of the animals. Inoculation of pure milk with the water as it flowed out of this bank developed in it the fungus and the stringy characters. By fencing the spring in and giving the affected cows each 2 drams bisulphite of soda daily, the trouble was arrested promptly and permanently. CHAPPED TEATS. These may be caused by anything which irritates them. The powerful sucking of the calf; the sudden chilling of the teat in winter after the calf has just let it go or after the completion of milking with a wet hand; contact with cold water or stagnant, putrid water, or with filth or irritants when lying down; slight congestions of the skin in connection with overstocking; indeed, any source of local irritation may cause chapping. This may be slight or extend into great, gaping sores and induce retention of milk or even mammitis. Soothing applications of vaseline or a combination of equal parts of spermaceti and oil of sweet almonds may be applied. If healing is tardy, add 10 grains balsam of Peru to the ounce of ointment. If the irritation is very great, wash first with a solution of 1 dram sugar of lead in 1 pint of water and then apply benzoated zinc-oxid ointment. WARTS ON THE TEATS. These are often very troublesome, yet they may be greatly benefited or entirely removed by smearing them thickly with pure olive oil after each milking. If they persist they may be cut off with a pair of sharp scissors and the sore touched with a stick of lunar caustic. They may now be oiled and the caustic repeated as demanded to prevent their renewed growth. _Scabby teats_ may be smeared with vaseline containing carbolic acid enough to give it an odor. TEAT BLOCKED BY CONCRETION OF CASEIN. Under unhealthy conditions of the gland or milk ducts clots of casein form which, pressed clear of most of their liquid and rolled into rounded masses, may block the passage. They can be moved up and down by manipulation of the teat, and if they can not be pressed out they may be extracted by using the spring teat dilator (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3), being held surrounded by its three limbs. Before extraction is attempted an ounce of almond oil, boiled, should be injected into the teat. TEAT BLOCKED BY CALCULUS. When the calcareous matter of the milk has been precipitated in the form of a smooth, rounded stone, a rough, conglomerated concretion, or a fine, sandlike débris, it may cause obstruction and irritation. These bodies are felt to be much harder than those formed by casein, and the milk usually contains gritty particles. Extraction may be attempted, in the case of the finely divided gritty matter, by simple milking or with the spring dilator (Pl. XXIV, fig. 3) in the case of the larger masses. Should this fail the teat may be laid open with the knife and sewed up again or closed with collodion, but such an operation is best deferred until the cow is dry. TEAT BLOCKED BY A WARTY OR OTHER GROWTH INSIDE. In this case the obstruction may be near the orifice of the teat or farther up, and the solid mass is not movable up and down with the same freedom as are concretions and calculi. The movement is limited by the elasticity of the inner membrane of the teat from which it grows, and is somewhat freer in certain cases because the growth has become loose and hangs by a narrow neck. In the case of the looser growths they may be snared by a fine, spring wire passed as a loop through a fine tube (like a teat tube open at each end) and introduced into the teat. When this can not be done, the only resort is to cut in and excise it while the cow is dry. THICKENING OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE AND CLOSURE OF THE MILK DUCT. As a result of inflammation extending from without inward, a gradual narrowing of the milk duct may occur from thickening and narrowing of its lining membrane. This may be limited to a small area near the lower end, or it may extend through the whole length of the teat. The stream of milk becomes finer and finer until it finally ceases altogether, and a firm cord is felt running through the teat. If the constriction is only at the outlet, the teat may be seized and distended by pressing the milk down into it from above, and an incision may be made with a sharp penknife in two directions at right angles to each other and directly in the original opening. The knife should be first cleansed in boiling water. The opening may be kept from closing by a dumb-bell shaped bougie of gutta-percha (Pl. XXIV, fig. 5) or by the spring dilator. If the obstruction is more extended it may be perforated by Lüthi's perforating sound. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 1A and 1B.) This is a steel wire with a ring at one end, and at the other is screwed on to the wire a conical cap with sharp cutting edges at the base, which scrapes away the thickened masses of cells as it is drawn back. This may be passed again and again to enlarge the passages sufficiently, and then the passage may be kept open by wearing a long, dumb-bell bougie, a thick piece of carbolized catgut, or a spring dilator. If the passage can not be sufficiently opened with the sound it may be incised by the hidden bistoury. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2.) This is a knife lying alongside a flattened protector with smooth, rounded edges, but which can be projected to any required distance by a lever on the handle. The incisions are made in four directions, as deep as may be necessary, and the walls then can be held apart by the spring dilator until they heal. In case the constriction and thickening of the canal extend the whole length of the teat, it is practically beyond remedy, as the gland is usually involved so as to render it useless. CLOSURE OF THE MILK DUCT BY A MEMBRANE. In this form the duct of the teat is closed by the constriction of its lining membrane at one point, usually without thickening. The closure usually takes place while the cow is dry; otherwise its progress is gradual, and for a time the milk may still be pressed through slowly. In such case, if left at rest, the lower part of the teat fills up and the milk flows in a full stream at the first pressure, but after this it will not fill up again without sufficient time for it to filter through. This is to be cut open by the hidden bistoury (Pl. XXIV, fig. 2), which may be first passed through the opening of the membrane, if such exists. If not it may be bored through, or it may be pressed up against the membrane at one side of the teat and opened toward the center, so as to cut its way through. Incisions should be made in at least two opposite directions, and the edges then may be held apart by wearing the spring dilator until healing has been completed. In all cases of operations on the teats the instruments must be thoroughly disinfected with hot water, or by dipping in carbolic acid and then in water that has been boiled. OPENING IN THE SIDE OF THE TEAT (MILK FISTULA). This may occur from wounds penetrating the milk duct and failing to close, or it may be congenital, and then very often it leads to a distinct milk duct and an independent portion of the gland. In the first form it is necessary only to dissect away the skin leading into the opening for some distance down, to close the orifice with stitches, and to cover the whole with collodion. A teat tube or spring dilator may be worn to drain the milk off and prevent distention and reopening of the orifice. In case of an independent milk duct and gland one of two courses may be selected--to open the one duct into the other by incision and then close the offending opening, or to inject the superfluous gland through its duct with a caustic solution, so as to destroy its secreting power. In both cases it is desirable to wait until the cow goes dry. * * * * * DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATES XXII, XXIII. Supports for prolapsed uterus. These illustrations show various appliances used in prolapse or inversion of the uterus. The uterus should first be returned to its proper situation and then some apparatus applied to prevent a recurrence of the inversion or protrusion. PLATE XXII: Fig. 1. Crupper, strap truss. (From Hill's Bovine Medicine and Surgery.) Fig. 2. Renault's rope truss. The rope for this truss should be from 25 to 30 feet long and about the thickness of the little finger. PLATE XXIII: Fig. 1. Cow to which Delwart's rope truss has been applied. Fig. 1_a_ shows the loop of Delwart's truss. Fig. 2. Zundel's labial sutures. These consist of two wires passed through the lips of the vulva in a horizontal direction, and two additional wires passed through the loops at the ends of the horizontal wires in order to hold them in place. Fig. 3. Iron truss for holding the vagina or uterus in place after calving. The cords are passed through the eyes at the corners of the triangular iron; the base of the triangle fits under the tail. The truss is from 5 to 7 inches long and about 2-1/2 inches wide. PLATE XXIV. Instruments used in diseases following parturition. Fig. 1. Lüthi's perforating sound, for opening the milk canal through the teat when this has become occluded; A, the sound one-half the natural size; B, section of head of sound, natural size, showing cutting edge. Fig. 2. Bistouri caché. A blade hidden in its sheath which by pressure of the finger may be made to protrude a certain distance. This distance is regulated by the screw near the handle. The instrument is used to open the milk canal when closed up. It is introduced into the milk canal with its blade in the sheath and withdrawn with the blade protruding. Fig. 3. Spring teat dilator, about one-half natural size, for dilating the milk canal. Fig. 4. Ring teat syphon, for withdrawing milk when the teat is sore or injured. Fig. 5. Gutta-percha bougie, for dilating the opening of the teat. Fig. 6. Truss applied to calf for umbilical or navel hernia. (From Fleming's Veterinary Obstetrics.) Fig. 7. Armatage's iron clamp for umbilical or navel hernia. When this clamp is applied care must be taken not to include a portion of the bowel. * * * * * [Illustration: PLATE XXII. SUPPORTS FOR PROLAPSED UTERUS.] [Illustration: PLATE XXIII. SUPPORTS FOR PROLAPSED UTERUS.] [Illustration: PLATE XXIV. INSTRUMENTS USED IN DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION.] DISEASES OF YOUNG CALVES. By JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., _Formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University._ SUSPENDED BREATHING. The moment the circulation through the navel string is stopped the blood of the calf begins to become overcharged with carbon dioxid (CO_{2}), and unless breathing is speedily established death promptly follows. Fortunately the desire to breathe, roused by the circulation of the venous blood and the reflex action from the wet and chilling skin, usually starts the contractions of the diaphragm at once and life is insured. Among the obstacles to breathing may be named suffocation before or during birth from compression of the navel cord and the arrest of its circulation; the detachment of the fetal membranes from the womb before the calf is born; a too free communication between the two auricles (foramen ovale) of the heart by which the nonaerated blood has mixed too abundantly with the aerated and induced debility and profound weakness; a condition of ill health and debility of the calf as a result of semistarvation, overwork, or disease of the cow; fainting in the debilitated calf when calving has been difficult and prolonged; the birth of the calf with its head enveloped in the fetal membranes, so that it has been unable to breathe, and the presence of tenacious phlegm in the mouth and nose, acting in the same manner. Besides the importance of proper care and feeding of the cow as a preventive measure, attention should be given at once to relieve the newborn calf of its investing membrane and of any mucus that has collected in mouth or nostrils. Wiping out the nose deeply with a finger or feather excites to sneezing, hence to breathing. Blowing into the nose has a similar effect. Sucking the nostril through a tube applied to it is even more effective. Slapping the chest with the palm of the hand or with a towel dipped in cold water, compression and relaxation alternately of the walls of the chest, may start the action, and ammonia or even tobacco smoke blown into the nose may suffice. Every second is precious, however, and if possible the lungs should be dilated by forcibly introducing air from a bellows or from the human lungs. As the air is blown in through bellows or a tube the upper end of the windpipe must be pressed back against the gullet, as otherwise the air will go to the stomach. In a large dairy a piece of elastic tubing one-third of an inch in bore should be kept at hand for sucking and blowing in such cases. BLEEDING FROM THE NAVEL. This may occur in two conditions--when the cord is cut off too close to the navel and left untied and when it tears off at the navel. (Pl. XIV.) It may also bleed when torn across naturally, if it is sucked by the dam or another calf. In an animal with little plasticity to its blood it will flow under almost any circumstances. When any cord is left it is always safe to tie it, and it is only when it is swollen and may possibly contain a loop of the bowel that there is danger in doing so. By pressing upward any bulky contents such danger is avoided. If torn or cut too close to be tied the bleeding may be checked by applying alum, copperas, or for a fraction of a second the end of an iron rod at a dull-red heat. If much blood has been lost it may be requisite to transfuse several ounces of blood or of a weak, common-salt solution into the open, umbilical vein. URINE DISCHARGED THROUGH THE NAVEL (PERSISTENT URACHUS). Before birth the urine passes from the bladder by a special tube through the navel and navel string into the outer water bag (allantois). (Pl. XII.) This closes at birth, and the tube shrinks into a fine cord up to the bladder. It is only in the bull calf that it is liable to remain open, doubtless because of the long, narrow channel through which the urine must otherwise escape. The urethra, too, is sometimes abnormally narrow, or even closed, in the male. If part of the cord remains, it should be tied and the whole allowed to wither up naturally. If the cord has been removed and the tube (urachus) protrudes, discharging the urine, that alone must be tied. If there is nothing pendent the urachus must be seized, covered by the skin, and a curved needle being passed through the skin and above the duct, it may be tied along with this skin. A blister of Spanish flies, causing swelling of the skin, will often close the orifice--so with the hot iron. If the urethra of the male is impervious it can rarely be remedied. INFLAMMATION OF THE URACHUS (NAVEL URINE DUCT). This may originate in direct, mechanical injury to the navel in calving, or shortly after, with or without the lodgment of irritant or septic matter on its lacerated or cut end. The mere contact with healthy urine, hitherto harmless, can now be looked on as becoming suddenly irritating. The affection is usually marked by the presence of redness and swelling at the posterior part of the navel and the escape of urine and a few drops of whitish, serous pus from the orifice of the urachus. In those cases in which urine is not discharged a tender swelling, like a thick cord extending upward and backward from the navel into the abdomen, may be identified. The navel enlargement may be considerable, but it is solid, does not gurgle on handling, and can not be done away with by pressing it back into the abdomen, as in a case of hernia. In cases at first closed the pus may burst out later, coming from the back part of the navel and the swelling extending backward. In other cases whitish pus may pass with the urine by the ordinary channel, showing that it has opened back into the bladder. In other cases the umbilical veins become involved, in which case the swelling extends forward as well as backward. Thus the disease may result in destructive disorders of the liver, lungs, and, above all, of the joints. The disease may usually be warded off or rendered simple and comparatively harmless by applying antiseptics to the navel string at birth (carbolic acid 1 part, water and glycerin 5 parts each, or wood tar). Later, antiseptics may be freely used (hyposulphite of soda 4 drams, water 1 quart) as an application to the surface and as an injection into the urachus, or even into the bladder if the two still communicate. If they no longer communicate, a stronger injection may be used (tincture of chlorid of iron 60 drops, alcohol 1 ounce). Several weeks will be required for complete recovery. ABSCESS OF THE NAVEL. As the result of irritation at calving or by the withered cord, or by licking with the rough tongue of the cow, inflammation may attack the loose connective tissue of the navel to the exclusion of the urachus and veins, and go on to the formation of matter. In this case a firm swelling appears as large as the fist, which softens in the center and may finally burst and discharge. The opening, however, is usually small and may close prematurely, so that abscess after abscess is formed. It is distinguished from hernia by the fact that it can not be returned into the abdomen, and from inflammations of the veins and urachus by the absence of swellings forward and backward along the lines of these canals. Treatment consists in an early opening of the abscess by a free incision and the injection twice a day of an astringent antiseptic (chlorid of zinc one-half dram, water 1 pint). INFLAMMATION OF THE NAVEL VEINS (UMBILICAL PHLEBITIS). In this affection of the navel the inflammation may start directly from mechanical injury, as in either of the two forms just described, but on this are inoculated infective microbes, derived from a retained and putrefying afterbirth, an abortion, a metritis, a fetid discharge from the womb, an unhealthy open sore, a case of erysipelas, from overcrowding, from filthy floor or bedding, or from an offensive accumulation of manure, solid or liquid. As the microbes vary in different cases, given outbreaks will differ materially in their nature. One is erysipelatoid; another purulent infection with the tendency to secondary abscesses in the joints, liver, lungs, etc.; another is from a septic germ and is associated with fetid discharge from the navel and general putrid blood poisoning. In estimating the causes of the disease we must not omit debility of the calf when the mother has been underfed or badly housed or when either she or the fetus has been diseased. _Symptoms._--The symptoms vary. With the chain-form germs (streptococci) the navel becomes intensely red, with a very firm, painful swelling, ending abruptly at the edges in sound skin and extending forward along the umbilical veins. The secondary diseases are circumscribed, black engorgements (infarctions) or abscesses of the liver, lungs, kidneys, bowels, or other internal organs, and sometimes disease of the joints. With the ordinary pus-producing germs (_Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _Streptococcus pyogenes_) the local inflammation in the navel causes a hot, painful swelling, which rapidly advances to the formation of matter (pus), and the raw, exposed surface, at first bright red, becomes dark red or black, soft, friable, and pultaceous. If the pus is white, creamy, and comparatively inoffensive in odor, the secondary formations in internal organs and joints are mainly of the same purulent character (secondary abscesses). If, on the other hand, the discharge is very offensive and the pus more serous, watery, or bloody, there is reason to suspect the presence of some of the septic bacteria, and the results on the general system are a high fever and softening of the liver and spleen and no tendency to abscesses of the internal organs. Diarrhea is a common symptom, and death ensues early, the blood after death being found unclotted. Complicated cases are common, and in all alike the umbilical veins usually remain open and can be explored by a probe passed at first upward and then forward toward the liver. Prevention is sought by applying a lotion of carbolic acid or iodin solution to the navel string at birth, or it may be smeared with common wood tar, which is at once antiseptic and a protective covering against germs. In the absence of either a strong decoction of oak bark may be used. _Local treatment_ consists in the application of antiseptic to the surface and their injection into the vein. As a lotion carbolic acid, 1 ounce in a quart of strong decoction of oak bark, should be used, or salicylic acid or salol may be sprinkled on the surface. The interior of the vein should be swabbed out with a probe wrapped around with cotton wool and dipped in boracic salicylic acid. If complications have extended to the liver or other internal organs, or the joints, other treatment will be demanded. In acute cases of general infection an early fatal result is to be expected. PYEMIC AND SEPTICEMIC INFLAMMATION OF JOINTS IN CALVES (JOINT ILL). This occurs in young calves within the first month after birth. It persists in the joints when once attacked, and is usually connected with disease of the navel. Rheumatism, on the other hand, rarely occurs in a calf under a month old. It tends to shift from joint to joint, and is independent of any navel disease. Again, it affects the fibrous structures of the joints, and rarely results in the formation of white matter, while the affection before named attacks the structures outside as well as inside the joints and, above all, the ends of the bones, and tends to the destruction and crumbling of their tissue, and even to the formation of open sores, through which the fragile bones are exposed. The microbes from the unhealthy and infected wound in the navel pass into the system through the veins, or lymphatics, and form colonies and local inflammations and abscesses in and around the joints. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are the swelling of one or more joints, which are very hot and tender. The calf is stiff and lame, lies down constantly, and does not care to suck. There is very high fever, accelerated breathing and pulse, and there is swelling and purulent discharge (often fetid) from the navel. There may be added symptoms of disease of the liver, lungs, heart, or bowels, on which we need not here delay. The important point is to determine the condition of the navel in all such cases of diseased and swollen joints beginning in the first month of life, and in all cases of general stiffness, for besides the diseases of the internal organs there may be abscesses formed among the muscles of the trunk, though the joints appear sound. Cases of this kind, if they do not speedily die, tend to become emaciated and perish later in a state of weakness and exhaustion. _Prevention._--Prevention must begin with the purity of the buildings and the navel, as noted in the last article. _Treatment._--Treatment is in the main antiseptic. The slighter forms may be painted daily with tincture of iodin, or an ointment of biniodid of mercury (1 dram) and lard (2 ounces) may be rubbed on the affected joints daily until they are blistered. In case of swellings containing matter, this may be drawn through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe and the following solution injected: Compound tincture of iodin, 1 dram; distilled (or boiled) water, 2 ounces. Internally the calf may take 5 grains quinin twice daily and 15 grains hyposulphite of soda, or 20 grains salicylate of soda three times a day. UMBILICAL HERNIA (BREACH AT THE NAVEL). This may exist at birth from imperfect closure of the muscles around the opening; it may even extend backward for a distance, from the two sides failing to come together. Apart from this, the trouble rarely appears after the calf has been some time on solid feed, as the paunch then extends down to the right immediately over the navel, and thus forms an internal pad, preventing the protrusion of intestine. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of umbilical hernia are a soft swelling at the navel, with contents that usually gurgle on handling, and can be entirely returned into the abdomen by pressure. The diseases of the navel hitherto considered have no gurgling contents and can not be completely returned into the abdomen. The only exception in the case of the hernia is when the walls of the sac have become greatly thickened. These will, of course, remain as a swelling after the bowel has been returned; and when the protruding bowel has contracted permanent adhesion to the sac, it is impossible to return it fully without first severing that connection. _Treatment._--Treatment is not always necessary. A small hernia, like an egg, in a new-born calf, usually recovers of itself as the animal changes its diet to solid feed and has the paunch fully developed as an internal pad. In other cases apply a leather pad 8 inches square attached around the body by two elastic bands connected with its four corners, and an elastic band passing from its front border to a collar encircling the neck, and two other elastic bands from the neck collar along the two sides of the body to the two bands passing up over the back. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 6.) For small hernias nitric acid may be used to destroy the skin and cause such swelling as to close the orifice before the skin is separated. For a mass like a large goose egg one-half ounce of the acid may be rubbed in for three minutes. No more must be applied for 15 days. For large masses this is inapplicable, and with too much loss of skin the orifice may fail to close and the bowels may escape. The application of a clamp like those used in castration is a most effective method, but great care must be taken to see that all the contents of the sac are returned so that none may be inclosed in the clamp. (Pl. XXIV, fig. 7.) Another most effective resort is to make a saturated solution of common salt, filter and boil it, and when cool inject under the skin (not into the sac) on each side of the hernia a dram of the fluid. A bandage may then be put around the body. In 10 hours an enormous swelling will have taken place, pressing back the bowel into the abdomen. When this subsides the wound will have closed. DROPSY OF THE NAVEL. A sac formed at the navel, by contained liquid accumulated by reason of sucking by other calves, is unsightly and sometimes injurious. After making sure that it is simply a dropsical collection it may be deeply punctured at various points with a large-sized lancet or knife, fomented with hot water, and then daily treated with a strong decoction of white-oak bark. BLUE DISEASE (CYANOSIS). This appearing in the calf at birth is due to the orifice between the two auricles of the heart (foramen ovale) remaining too open, allowing the nonaerated (venous) blood to mix with the aerated (arterial) blood, and it is beyond the reach of treatment. It is recognized by the blueness of the eyes, nose, mouth, and other mucous membranes, the coldness of the surface, and the extreme sensitiveness to cold. CONSTIPATION. At birth the bowels of the calf contain the meconium, a tenacious, gluey, brownish-yellow material largely derived from the liver, which must be expelled before they can start their functions normally. The first milk of the cow (colostrum, beestings), rich in albumin and salts, is nature's laxative to expel this now offensive material and should never be withheld from the calf. If, for lack of this, from the dry feeding of the cow, or from any other cause, the calf is costive, straining violently without passage, lying down and rising as in colic, and failing in appetite, no time should be lost in giving relief by an ounce dose of castor oil, assisting its action by injections of soapsuds or oil. Whatever meconium is within reach of the finger should be carefully removed. It is also important to give the cow a sloppy, laxative diet. INDIGESTION. This may occur from many different causes, as costiveness; a too liberal supply of milk; milk too rich; the furnishing of the milk of a cow long after calving to a very young calf; allowing a calf to suck the first milk of a cow that has been hunted, driven by road, shipped by rail, or otherwise violently excited; allowing the calf too long time between meals, so that impelled by hunger it quickly overloads and clogs the stomach; feeding from the pail milk that has been held over in unwashed (unscalded) buckets, so that it is fermented and spoiled; feeding the milk of cows kept on unwholesome feed; keeping the calves in cold, damp, dark, filthy, or bad-smelling pens; feeding the calves on artificial mixtures containing too much starchy matter; or overfeeding the calves on artificial feed that may be appropriate enough in smaller quantity. The licking of hair from themselves or others and its formation into balls in the stomach will cause obstinate indigestion in the calf. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are dullness, indisposition to move, uneasiness, eructations of gas from the stomach, sour breath, entire loss of appetite, lying down and rising as if in pain, fullness of the abdomen, which gives out a drumlike sound when tapped with the fingers. The costiveness may be marked at first, but soon it gives place to diarrhea, by which the offensive matters may be carried off and health restored. In other cases it becomes aggravated, merges into inflammation of the bowels, fever sets in, and the calf gradually sinks. _Prevention._--Prevention consists in avoiding the causes enumerated above or any others that may be detected. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in first clearing away the irritant present in the bowels. For this purpose 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil with 20 drops of laudanum may be given, and if the sour eructations are marked a tablespoonful of limewater or one-fourth ounce calcined magnesia may be given and repeated two or three times a day. If the disorder continues after the removal of the irritant, a large tablespoonful of rennet, or 30 grains of pepsin, may be given at each meal along with a teaspoonful of tincture of gentian. Any return of constipation must be treated by injections of warm water and soap, while the persistence of diarrhea must be met as advised under the discussion following this. In case of the formation of loose hair balls inclosing milk undergoing putrid fermentation, temporary benefit may be obtained by giving a tablespoonful of vegetable charcoal three or four times a day, but the only real remedy is to cut the paunch open and extract them. At this early age they may be found in the third or even the fourth stomach; in the adult they are confined to the first two and are comparatively harmless. DIARRHEA (SCOURING) IN CALVES (SIMPLE AND CONTAGIOUS). As stated in the last article, scouring is a common result of indigestion, and at first may be nothing more than an attempt of nature to relieve the stomach and bowels of offensive and irritating contents. As the indigestion persists, however, the fermentations going on in the undigested masses become steadily more complex and active, and what was at first the mere result of irritation or suspended digestion comes to be a genuine contagious disease, in which the organized ferments (bacteria) propagate the affection from animal to animal and from herd to herd. More than once I have seen such epizootic diarrhea start on the headwaters of a creek and, traveling along that stream, follow the watershed and attack the herds supplied with water from the contaminated channel. In the same way the disease, once started in a cow stable, is liable to persist for years, or until the building has been thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. It may be carried into a healthy stable by the introduction of a cow brought from an infected stable when she is closely approaching calving. Another method of its introduction is by the purchase of a calf from a herd where the infection exists. In enumerating the other causes of this disease we may refer to those noted above as inducing indigestion. As a primary consideration any condition which lowers the vitality or vigor of the calf must be accorded a prominent place among factors which, apart from contagion, contribute to start the disease de novo. Other things being equal, the strong, vigorous races are the least predisposed to the malady, and in this respect the compact form, the healthy coat, the clear eye, and the bold, active carriage are desirable. Even the color of the hair is not unimportant, as in the same herd I have found a far greater number of victims among the light colors (light yellow, light brown) than among those of a darker tint. This constitutional predisposition to indigestion and diarrhea is sometimes fostered by too close breeding, without taking due account of the maintenance of a robust constitution; hence animals that are very much inbred need to be especially observed and cared for unless their inherent vigor has been thoroughly attested. The surroundings of the calf are powerful influences. Calves kept indoors suffer to a greater extent than those running in the open air and having the invigorating influences of sunshine, pure air, and exercise; close, crowded, filthy, bad-smelling buildings are especially causative of the complaint. The presence in the air of carbon dioxid, the product of breathing, and of the fetid, gaseous products of decomposing dung and urine diminish by about one-fourth of their volume the life-giving oxygen and in the same ratio hinder the aeration of the blood and the maintenance of vigorous health. Worse than this, such fetid gases are usually direct poisons to the animal breathing them; for example, sulphureted hydrogen (hydrogen sulphid 2 SH_{2}) and various alkaloids (ptomaines) and toxins (neutral poisonous principles) produced in the filth fermentations. These lower the general health and stamina, impair digestion, and by leading to the accumulation in stomach and bowels of undigested materials they lay the foundation for offensive fermentations within these organs and consequent irritation, poisoning, and diarrhea. They further weaken the system so that it can no longer resist and overcome the trouble. The condition of the nursing cow and her milk is another potent cause of trouble. The feed of the cow is important. The influence of this is shown in the following tables: _Influence of feed on milk._ (_From Becquerel and Vernois._) +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+ | | | Casein | | | |Character of feed. | Water. | and | Milk | | | | |extractive| sugar. | Butter.| Salts. | | | matter. | | | +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+ | |_Parts |_Parts |_Parts |_Parts |_Parts | |in 1,000_ in 1,000_|in 1,000_in 1,000_in 1,000_ |Cows on winter feed: | | | | | | Trefoil or lucern, 12-13| | | | | | pounds; oat straw, 9-10 | | | | | | pounds; beets, 7 pounds;| | | | | | water, 2 buckets | 871.26 | 47.81 | 33.47 | 42.07 | 5.34 |Cows on summer feed: | | | | | | Green trefoil, lucern, | | | | | | maize, barley, grass, | | | | | | 2 buckets water | 859.56 | 54.70 | 36.38 | 42.76 | 6.80 |Goat's milk on different | | | | | | feed: | | | | | | On straw and trefoil | 858.68 | 47.38 | 35.47 | 52.54 | 5.93 | On beets | 888.77 | 33.81 | 38.02 | 33.68 | 5.72 |Normal mean | 844.90 | 35.14 | 36.90 | 56.87 | 6.18 | | | | | | +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+--------+--------+ In these examples the deterioration of the milk in casein on the less nutritious winter feeding is very marked, although the relative quantity of butter remains almost unchanged. In the case of the goat the result is even more striking, the beet diet giving a very large decrease of both casein and butter and an increase of milk sugar. The second table following, condensed from the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, gives the results in butter and total solids when the same cows were fed on different rations in succession. Each cow was fed a daily ration of 12 pounds corn fodder and 4 pounds clover hay, besides the test diet of (1) 12-1/4 pounds corn-and-cob meal, and (2) 10 pounds sugar meal--a product of the glucose manufacture. This special feed was given seven days before the commencement of each test period to obviate the effects of transition. The analyses of the special rations are given below: _Analyses of special rations._ ------------------------------+--------------+-----------+ Constituents. | Corn-and-cob | Sugar | | meal. | meal. | ------------------------------+--------------+-----------+ | _Per cent._ |_Per cent._| Moisture | 13.37 | 6.10 | Salts | 1.43 | 1.17 | Fat | 2.81 | 11.16 | Carbohydrates (heat formers). | 65.99 | 52.66 | Woody fiber | 8.03 | 8.64 | Proteids (flesh formers) | 8.37 | 20.27 | ------------------------------+--------------+-----------+ The great excess of fat and nitrogenous or flesh-forming principles in the sugar meal is very evident. _Influence of feed on milk._ (_Iowa station._) ------------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+------------ | | | | | |Ratio of fat Animal. | Milk. |Fat.|Solids.| Fat. |Solids.|to solids | | | | | |not fat. ------------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+------------ _Pounds__Pct_| _Pct_ _Pounds_Pounds_| Grade Shorthorn cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 631.25|3.43| 11.57 |21.67 | 73.02 |422.0:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | sugar meal | 641.50|4.04| 12.53 |25.93 | 83.38 |476.2:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 559.00|3.22| 11.86 |17.97 | 66.32 |371.7:1,000 Grade Shorthorn cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 604.75|3.57| 11.95 |21.56 | 72.28 |425.1:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | sugar meal | 582.00|3.91| 12.37 |22.74 | 72.57 |456.3:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 527.00|3.37| 12.05 |17.78 | 63.48 |389.1:1,000 Grade Shorthorn cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 753.50|3.97| 12.43 |29.94 | 93.67 |469.8:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 601.50|3.15| 11.45 |18.97 | 68.89 |380.0:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 560.50|3.85| 12.16 |21.58 | 68.16 |463.3:1,000 Grade Holstein cow: | | | | | | First period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 487.50|4.15| 13.27 |20.25 | 64.69 |455.6:1,000 Second period, 21 days| | | | | | corn-and-cob meal | 379.00|3.51| 12.69 |13.30 | 48.09 |382.3:1,000 Third period, 21 days,| | | | | | sugar meal | 374.50|3.72| 13.01 |13.95 | 48.74 |401.0:1,000 ------------------------+-------+----+-------+------+-------+------------ Here we see in every instance a marked relative increase of the butter, and to a less extent of the other milk solids whenever the sugar meal--rich in fat and albuminoids--was furnished. The opposite theory having been largely taught, it becomes needful thus to sustain the old and well-founded belief of the dairymen. Not only does the richness of the milk vary with the nature of the food, but it varies also according to the time of the day when it is drawn, the morning milk giving 7-1/2 per cent of cream and the evening milk 9-1/2 per cent (Hassall). Boedecker found that the morning milk had 10 per cent of solids, while the evening milk had 13 per cent. Again, the milk first drawn at any milking is always poorer than the last drawn. The first may have only one-half, or in extreme cases one-fourth, the cream of the last. Once more, when the cow is in heat the milk becomes richer in solids (casein and butter), and contains granular and white blood cells like the colostrum, and often disagrees with the young animal living on it. Now, while these various modifications in the amount of solid matters may prove harmless to a strong and vigorous calf, they can easily be the occasion of intestinal disorder in a weaker one, or in one with health already somewhat impaired by sickness, exposure, or unwholesome buildings. The casein of the cow's milk coagulates in one solid mass, and is much less easily penetrated by the digesting fluids than the fine, flaky coagula of woman's or mare's milk. An excess of casein, therefore, thrown on an already overtaxed stomach can all the more readily induce disorder. So it is with butter fat. While a most important element in nutrition, it may be present in the stomach in such quantity as to interfere with the action of the gastric juice on the casein, and with the interruption of the natural stomach digestion the fats themselves undergo decomposition with the production of offensive and irritating fatty acids. The milk of the very young cow is usually more watery than that of the mature animal, and that of the old cow has a greater liability to become acid. It varies much with the breed, the Channel Island cattle being notorious for the relatively large quantity of cream, while the Holsteins, Ayrshires, and Shorthorns are remarkable rather for the quantity of casein. The milk of cows fed on potatoes and grass is very poor and watery; that from cows fed on cabbage or Swedish turnips has a disagreeable taste and odor (from the former an offensive liquid has been distilled). Cows fed on overkept, fermented, and soured rations have acid milk, which readily turns and coagulates. Thus old, long-kept brewer's grains, swill, the refuse of glucose factories, and ensilage which has been put up too green all act in this way. The same may come from disease in the cow's udder, or any general disease of the cow with attendant fever, and in all such cases the tendency is to rapid change and unwholesomeness. If the milk is drawn and fed from a pail, there is the added danger of all sorts of poisonous ferments getting into it and multiplying; it may be from the imperfect cleansing and scalding of the pail; from rinsing the pails with water that is impure; from the entrance of bacterial ferments floating in the filthy atmosphere of the stable, or from the entrance of the volatile chemical products of fermentation. In addition to the dangers coming through the milk, the calf suffers in its digestive powers from any temporary illness, and among others from the excitement attendant on the cutting of teeth, and impaired digestion means fermentations in the undigested masses and the excessive production of poisonous ptomaines and toxins. Whatever may be the starting or predisposing cause of this malady, when once established it is liable to perpetuate itself by contagion and to prove a veritable plague in a herd or a district. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of a diarrhea may appear so promptly after birth as to lead to the idea that the cause already existed in the body of the calf, and it usually shows itself before the end of the second week. It may be preceded by constipation, as in retained meconium, or by fetid eructations and colicky pains, as in acute indigestion. The tail is stained by the liquid dejections, which are at first simply soft and mixed with mucus with a sour odor, accompanied with a peculiar and characteristic fetor (suggesting rotten cheese), which continually grows worse. The quantity of water and mucus steadily increases, the normal predominance of fatty matters becoming modified by the presence of considerable undigested casein, which is not present in the normal feces, and in acute cases death may result in one or two days from the combined drain on the system and the poisoning by the absorbed products of the decomposition in the stomach and bowels. When the case is prolonged the passages, at first 5 or 6 a day, increase to 15 or 20, and pass with more and more straining, so that they are projected from the animal in a liquid stream. The color of the feces, at first yellow, becomes a lighter grayish yellow or a dirty white (hence the name white scour), and the fetor becomes intolerable. At first the calf retains its appetite, but as the severity of the disease increases the animal shows less and less disposition to suck, and has lost all vivacity, lying dull and listless, and, when raised, walking weakly and unsteadily. Flesh is lost rapidly, the hair stands erect, the skin gets dry and scurfy, the nose is dry and hot, or this condition alternates with a moist and cool one. By this time the mouth and skin, as well as the breath and dung, exhale the peculiar, penetrating, sour, offensive odor, and the poor calf has become an object of disgust to all that approach it. At first, and unless inflammation of the stomach and bowels supervenes (and unless the affection has started in indigestion and colic), the belly is not bloated or painful on pressure, symptoms of acute colicky pains are absent, and the bowels do not rumble; neither are bubbles of gas mingled with the feces. The irritant products of the intestinal fermentations may, however, irritate and excoriate the skin around the anus, which becomes red, raw, and broken out in sores for some distance. Similarly the rectum, exposed by reason of the relaxed condition of the anus, or temporarily in straining to pass the liquid dejection, is of a more or less deep red, and it may be ulcerated. Fever, with rapid pulse and increased breathing and temperature, usually comes on with the very fetid character of the feces and is more pronounced as the bowels become inflamed, the abdomen sore to the touch and tucked up, and the feces more watery and even mixed with blood. _Prevention._--The prevention of these cases is the prevention of constipation and indigestion, with all their varied causes as above enumerated, the selection of a strong, vigorous stock, and, above all, the combating of contagion, especially in the separation of the sick from the healthy, and in the thorough purification and disinfection of the buildings. The cleansing and sweetening of all drains, the removal of dung heaps, and the washing and scraping of floors and walls, followed by a liberal application of chlorid of lime (bleaching powder), 4 ounces to the gallon, are indicated. Great care must be exercised in the feeding of the cow to have sound and wholesome feed and water, so apportioned as to make the milk neither too rich nor too poor, and to her health, so that the calf may be saved from the evil consequences of poisonous principles that may be produced in the body of the cow. The calves should be carefully kept apart from all calving cows and their discharges. Similarly each calf must have special attention to see that its nurse gives milk which agrees with it, and that this is furnished at suitable times. If allowed to suck, it should either be left with the cow or be fed three times a day. If it becomes hungry twice a day, it is more liable to overload and derange the stomach, and if left too long hungry it is tempted to take in unsuitable and unwholesome feed, for which its stomach is as yet unprepared. So, if fed from the pail, it is safer to do so three times daily than twice. There should be the utmost cleanliness of feeding dishes, and the feeder must be ever on the alert to prevent the strong and hungry from drinking the milk of the weaker in addition to their own. In case the cow nurse has been subjected to any great excitement by reason of travel, hunting, or carrying, the first milk she yields thereafter should be used for some other purpose and only the second allowed to the calf. Indeed, one and all of the conditions indicated above as causes should be judiciously guarded against. _Treatment._--Treatment varies according to the nature and stage of the disease. When the disease is not widespread, but isolated cases only occur, it may be assumed to be a simple diarrhea and is easily dealt with. The first object is to remove the irritant matter from stomach and bowels, and for this 1 or 2 ounces of castor oil may be given, according to the size of the calf. Reduce the milk by one-half or two-thirds. If the stools smell particularly sour, the milk may be replaced by 1 ounce calcined magnesia, and in any case a tablespoonful or two of limewater must be given with each meal. Great harm is often done by giving opium and astringents at the outset. These serve merely to bind up the bowels and retain the irritant source of the trouble; literally, "to shut up the wolf in the sheep-fold." When the offending agents have been expelled in this way, carminatives and demulcent agents may be given--1 dram of anise water, 1 dram nitrate of bismuth, and 1 dram of gum arabic, three times a day. Under such course the consistency of the stools should increase until in a day or two they become natural. If, however, the outbreak is more general and evidently the result of contagion, the first consideration is to remove all sources of such contamination. Test the milk of the cow with blue litmus paper; if it reddens, reject the milk until by sound, dry feeding, with perhaps a course of hyposulphite of soda and gentian root, the milk is made alkaline. The castor oil or magnesia will be demanded to clear away the (now infecting) irritants, but they should be combined with antiseptics, and, while the limewater and the carminative mixture may still be used, a most valuable addition will be found in the following: Calomel, 10 grains; prepared chalk, 1 ounce; creosote, 1 teaspoonful; mix, divide into 10 parts, and give one four times a day. Or the following may be given four times a day: One dram Dover's powder, 6 grains powdered ipecacuanha; mix, divide into 10 equal parts. Injections of solutions of gum arabic are often useful, and if the anus is red and excoriated, one-half dram of copperas may be added to each pint of the gummy solution. All the milk given must be boiled, and if that does not agree, eggs made into an emulsion with barley water may be substituted. As the feces lose their watery character and become more consistent, tincture of gentian in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls may be given three or four times a day. Counter-irritants, such as mustard, ammonia, or oil of turpentine, may be rubbed on the abdomen when it becomes tender to the touch. ACUTE CONTAGIOUS SCOURING IN THE NEWBORN. The most violent and deadly form of diarrhea in the newborn calf deserves a special mention. This may appear immediately after birth, and shows itself almost invariably within the first or second day. The most intense symptoms of white scour are complicated by great dullness, weakness, and prostration, sunken eyes, retracted belly, short, hurried breathing, and very low temperature, the calf lying on its side, with the head resting on the ground, lethargic and unconscious or regardless of all around it. The bowel discharges are profuse, yellowish white, and very offensive. As a rule death ensues within 24 to 36 hours. A marked characteristic of this form of illness is that it attacks almost every calf born in the herd, or in the building, rather, and if the calf escapes an attack in the first two or three days of its life it usually survives. Those that recover from an attack, however, are liable one or two weeks later to suffer from an infective inflammation of the lungs. The infection clings to a stable for years, in many cases rendering it impossible to preserve and raise the calves. It has frequently coincided with abortions and failures to conceive in the same herd, so that it has been thought that the same infective germ produces one type of abortion. On the other hand, the removal of the calving cow from the herd to calve in a separate building, hitherto unused and therefore uninfected, usually effects the escape and survival of the offspring. The disease has been traced by Nocard and Lignières to a small bacillus having the general characters of those that produce hemorrhagic septicemia, which is usually combined with a variety of others, but is in some cases alone and in pure culture, especially in the joints. The theory of Lignières is that this bacillus is the primary offender, and that once introduced it so depresses the vital powers of the system and tissue cells that the healthy resistance to other bacteria is impaired or suspended, and hence the general and deadly invasion of the latter. Inoculations with this bacillus killed guinea pigs or rabbits in 6 to 18 hours, and calves in 30 hours, with symptoms and lesions of hemorrhagic septicemia, including profuse fetid diarrhea. The predominance of the early and deadly lesions in the alimentary tract would seem to imply infection through the feed, and the promptitude of the attack after birth, together with the frequent coincidence of contagious abortion in the herd, suggest the presence of the germ in the cow; yet the escape of the calf when the cow calves in a fresh building is equally suggestive of the infection through germs laid up in the building. This conclusion is further sustained by the observation that the bacillus evidently enters by the raw, unhealed navel, that it is diffused in the blood, and that a very careful preservation of the navel against infection gives immunity from attack. _Prevention._--The disease is so certainly and speedily fatal that it is hopeless to expect recovery, and therefore prevention is the rational resort. When a herd is small, the removal of the dam to a clean, unused stable a few days before calving and her retention there for a week usually succeeds. It is in the large herd that the disease is mainly to be dreaded, however, and in this it is impossible to furnish new and pure stables for each successive group of two or three calving cows. The thorough disinfection of the general stable ought to succeed, yet I have seen the cleanest and purest stable repeatedly disinfected with corrosive sublimate without stopping the malady. It would appear as if the germ lodged on the surface or in the bowels of the cow and tided the infection over the period of stable disinfection. Though insufficient of themselves, the supply of separate calving boxes and the frequent thorough cleaning and disinfection of both these and the stables should not be neglected. The most important measure, however, is the disinfection of the navel. The cow should be furnished with abundance of dry, clean bedding, sprinkled with a solution of carbolic acid. As soon as calving sets in the tail and hips and anus and vulva should be sponged with a carbolic-acid solution (one-half ounce to the quart), and the vagina injected with a weaker solution (2 drams to the quart). Fresh carbolized bedding should be constantly supplied, so that the calf may be dropped on that and not on soaked litter nor manure. The navel string should be at once tied with a cord that has been taken from a strong solution of carbolic acid. The stump of the cord and the adjacent skin should then be washed with the following solution: Iodin, one-half dram; iodid of potassium, one-half dram; water, 1 quart. When dry it may be covered with a coating of collodion or tar, each containing 1 per cent of iodin. Whenever a calf shows any sign of scouring it should be instantly removed to another pen and building, and the vacated one should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Different attendants should take care of the sound calves and the infected ones, and all utensils, litter, etc., kept scrupulously apart. After one week the healthy calves may usually be safely herded together, or they may be safely placed in the cow stable. OTHER AILMENTS OF THE CALF. Among these may be named several congenital imperfections, such as imperforate anus, vulva, or prepuce, which are to be recognized by the inability to pass dung or urine, in spite of straining, and the formation of swellings in the anus, vulva, or sheath. Each must be carefully incised with the knife, taking care not to injure the muscles which circumscribe the respective openings; also tongue-tie, in which the thin, flaccid, mucous membrane passing from the median line of the lower surface of the tongue binds the latter too closely to the floor of the mouth and renders the tongue unfit for gathering in the food in after life. This must be cut with knife or scissors, so as to give the tongue a reasonable degree of liberty. APHTHA, or THRUSH, is another trouble of the sucking calf, showing itself as a white, curdy elevation on the tongue, lips, cheeks, or gums, and when detached leaving a raw, red, angry surface. It is due to the growth of a vegetable parasite long recognized as the _Oïdium albicans_ (_Saccharomyces albicans_). It is easily removed by rubbing with powdered borax, but inasmuch as other colonies are liable to start either in the mouth or in the pharynx, gullet, or stomach, it is well to give a dose of one-half dram of hyposulphite of soda in water day by day for several days. RICKETS is not a common disease in calves, and comes on, if at all, later than those we have been considering. It consists in softening and friability of the bones from a deficiency of lime salts, and appears to be mainly connected with an inherited weakness of constitution, unsuitable feeding, cold, close, damp buildings, microbian infection, and other conditions inimical to health. The prevention and treatment of rickets consists essentially in the improvement of the digestion and general health; hence sunshine, open air, exercise, nourishing food, and tonics are indicated. (See p. 267.) BONES: DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS. By V. T. ATKINSON, V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.] Some knowledge of the skeleton is advisable to facilitate the study of diseases of bones and the accidental injuries to which they are exposed. The skeleton of the adult ox is made up of the following number of bones: Spinal column 45 Head 28 Chest 27 Shoulder 2-- 1 on each side. Arm 2-- 1 on each side. Forearm 4-- 2 on each side. Forefoot 40--20 on each side. Pelvis 2-- 1 on each side. Thigh 2-- 1 on each side. Leg 6-- 3 on each side. Hind foot 38--19 on each side. ---- Total 196 Without attempting to burden the reader with the technical names and a scientific classification of each, it appears desirable to describe some of the characteristics of forms in general and of a few classes into which they may be divided, leaving the special study of individual bones to the illustrations of the skeleton (Pl. XXV), which will serve better than a great deal of writing to fix in the mind of the reader the location, relation, and function of each one. In early fetal life the place of bone is supplied by temporary cartilage, which gradually changes to bone. For convenience of study, bones may be said to be composed of a form of dense connective tissue impregnated with lime salts and to contain two elementary constituents--the organic or animal and the inorganic or earthy. In young animals the former predominates; with increasing years the relative proportions of the two change, so that when advanced age is reached the proportion of inorganic far exceeds the organic. The gradual change with advancing years from organic to inorganic has the effect of rendering the bone harder and more brittle, and though it is stronger, the reparative process is slower when injury does occur. The bones are nourished in two ways: First, from the outside through their covering, called the periosteum--the thin, strong membrane that covers every part of the bone except the articular surface of the joints; and, second, from within through the minute branches of blood vessels which pass into the bones through holes (foramina) on their surface and are distributed in the soft structure (medulla) of the inside. The structure of the bone is divided into two parts--the compact or hard material of the outside, which gives strength and is more abundant in the shafts of long bones, and the cancellated, softer tissue of the inside, which affords accommodation to the blood vessels necessary for the nourishment of that part of the structure. In shape, bones are divided into three classes--long, flat, and short. The long bones are the ribs and those mostly found in the limbs; the flat bones are found in the head, the shoulder, and the pelvis; the short bones in the spinal column and in the lower portions of the limbs. With this little introduction, which seems almost indispensable, we will proceed at once to the consideration of diseases of bones, for they undergo disease processes like any other living tissue. OSTEITIS. Inflammation of the compact structure of bones (osteitis) may be either acute or chronic, and may involve the whole extent of the bone affected or may be confined to only a portion of it. This inflammation results from injury, such as concussion, laceration, or a crushing bruise; also from specific influences, as in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw) or cases of foul foot. The latter affection frequently involves the bones, and for this reason the pastern is the most frequent seat of osteitis. There is dull pain on pressure and a painful swelling of bone when pus is present. Suppuration may involve the overlying soft tissues, causing an abscess, which may finally break through the skin. The inflammatory condition sometimes assumes an ulcerated form (caries) or from interrupted nutrition of the part deprived of the blood necessary to its nourishment may cause death of a large section of bone (necrosis); this dead fragment (sequestrum), becoming separated from the main portion of bone, acts as a foreign body. _Treatment._--This consists in resting the affected part and in giving vent at the earliest possible moment to whatever pus may be present. Free drainage should then be maintained. Apply dressings of lactic acid or inject with 5 per cent zinc-chlorid solution and pack with tampons of cotton soaked in antiseptic solutions. A laxative to keep the bowels moving freely is the only internal treatment necessary. PERIOSTITIS. This disease is an inflammation of the external covering of bone (periosteum) and is usually produced by wounds, pressure, or crushing the part. The periosteum is well supplied with sensitive nerve endings and when inflamed is very sensitive to pressure and may cause lameness. This condition is often difficult to determine, and even an acute observer may fail to locate the point of its existence. There are three forms of periostitis--aseptic, purulent, and fibrous. ASEPTIC PERIOSTITIS when it becomes chronic causes such a bony enlargement (exostosis) as is seen in the callous formation following the fracture of a bone. The formation of such a tumor or enlargement on the surface of a bone is liable to occur in any part of the bone covered with periosteum, and when found near a joint involving two or more bones it is liable to result in their union (anchylosis). _Treatment._--Applications of cold water to check the inflammatory processes is indicated for the first few days in aseptic periostitis, followed by hot fomentations to hurry resorption of fluids. Massage should then be given with camphor ointment, mercurial ointment, soap liniment, or Lugol's solution. In the chronic form point firing or a biniodid-of-mercury blister will be found beneficial. PURULENT PERIOSTITIS follows wounds which reach the periosteum and become infected, as observed in compound fractures, or it may result from advancing purulent conditions in neighboring structures, as in foul foot. It may also occur in the course of an infectious disease, when small abscesses are formed under the periosteum (subperiosteal abscess). It may lead to necrosis of the bone or a fistulous tract from the bone to the surface. There is usually much pain and fever, and the odor from the wound is offensive. _Treatment._--In this form of periostitis the periosteum should be freely incised, followed either by continuous irrigation or frequent injection of the wound with antiseptic solutions. FIBROUS PERIOSTITIS.--This form of the disease consists in the thickening of the outer layer of the periosteum from the inflammation reaching it from neighboring structures. This newly formed fibrous tissue may become ossified or may transmit the inflammation to the deeper bony structures. It is frequently seen in cases in which there has been an intense inflammation of the skin close to an underlying bone. _Treatment._--The treatment should be the same as that recommended for aseptic periostitis. OSTEOMYELITIS. This term refers to an inflammation of the bone marrow, which is most commonly seen following the bacterial infection of a compound fracture and usually results in pus formation. The bone is melted away and pus escapes from the bone under the periosteum, involving the soft tissues. It is principally confined to the long bones and seldom affects more than one. _Treatment._--The bone should be opened for the purpose of curetting out the diseased portion of the marrow cavity and removing all the necrotic pieces of bone. This should be undertaken only by a competent veterinarian. The after-treatment consists in tamponing the wound with pledgets of iodoform gauze or a mixture of iodoform 1 part and glycerin 4 parts. The wound in the soft tissue should be kept open until the cavity in the bone has filled with granulation tissue. RICKETS. This disease, also called "rachitis," is an inflammatory affection of young, growing bones, and mostly involves the ribs and long bones of the legs. It consists in a failure of the organism to deposit lime salts in bone, and for this reason the bones do not ossify so rapidly as they should. The cartilaginous ends of the bones grow rapidly, but ossification does not keep pace with it. The bones become long and their ends bend at the joints, the legs become crooked, and the joints are large and irregular. All the bones affected with this disease are thicker than normal, and the gait of the animal is stiff and painful. A row of bony enlargements may be found where the ribs articulate with the cartilages connecting them with the breastbone and is called the "beaded line." A catarrhal condition of the digestive tract is usually observed. The disease may result from an inherited weakness of constitution, poor hygienic surroundings, or improper diet. Calves and foals are less frequently affected with rickets than dogs and pigs. _Treatment._--The affected animal should have nourishing feed containing a proper quantity of lime salts. Outdoor exercise and plenty of fresh air are indispensable. Limewater should be given once daily for drinking purposes and ground bone meal mixed with the food. Phosphorus, one-fortieth of a grain, and calcium phosphate, 1 dram, given twice daily to a 2-month-old calf, and proportionally increased for older animals, has proved efficacious in this disease. In some cases the long bones of the limbs are too weak at birth to support the weight of the animal, and temporary splints, carefully padded and wrapped on with some soft bandages, become necessary. OSTEOMALACIA (CREEPS). This is a condition of bone brittleness or softening of bone found usually in adult life. It consists in the decalcification of mature bone, with the advancing diminution of the compact portion of bone by absorption. The periosteum strips very easily from the bone. This disease is seen in milch cows during the period of heavy lactation or in the later stages of pregnancy, and the greater the yield of milk the more rapid the progress of the disease. Heifers with their first calves are frequently affected, as these animals require a considerable quantity of mineral salts for their own growth and for the nourishment of their offspring. _Symptoms._--In marked cases there is a gradual emaciation and symptoms of gastrointestinal catarrh, with depraved appetite, the animal eating manure, decayed wood, dirt, leather, etc. Muscular weakness is prominent, together with muscle tremors, which simulate chills, but are not accompanied with any rise of temperature. The animal has a stiff, laborious gait; there is pain and swelling of the joints, and constant shifting of the weight from one leg to another. The restricted movements of the joints are frequently accompanied with a crackling sound, which has caused the name of "creeps" to be applied to the disease. The coat is dull and rough and the skin dry and hidebound. The animal is subject to frequent sprains or fracture of bones without apparent cause, as in lying down or turning around, and when such fractures occur they are difficult to unite. The bones principally involved are the upper bones of the legs, the haunch bone, and the middle bones of the spinal column. The disease in this country is confined to localized areas in the Southwest, known as the "alkali districts," and in the old dairy sections of New York State. The cause of this affection is the insufficiency of lime salts in the food, also to feeding hay of low, damp pastures, kitchen slops, and potatoes, or to overstocking lands. It occurs on old, worn-out soil poor in lime salts, and has also been observed to follow a dry season. _Treatment._--This should consist in a change of feed and the artificial feeding of lime salts, such as magnesium and sodium phosphate. Feed rich in mineral salts may be given, such as beans, cowpeas, oats, cottonseed meal, or wheat bran. Cottonseed meal is one of the best feeds for this purpose, but it should be fed carefully, as too large quantities of it are injurious to cows. Phosphorus may also be given in one-fourth grain doses twice daily, together with a tablespoonful of powdered bone meal or crude calcium phosphate at each meal. Ordinary lime dissolved in drinking water (limewater) will also be found efficacious in combating this disease, and can be provided at slight expense. A change of pasture to a locality where the disease is unknown and a free supply of common salt and bone meal will be the most convenient method of treating range cattle. SPRAINS. The most common accident occurring to bones and joints is a sprain of the ligaments uniting the bones, or the tendons uniting the muscles and bones. A sprain is the result of a sudden forcing of a joint in an unnatural direction, or, if in a natural direction, beyond the power of the ligament or tendon to restrain it properly, so that part of the fibers of either are ruptured. When such an accident occurs pain is immediately inflicted, varying in degree with the extent of the injury, which is soon followed by swelling, with more or less heat and tenderness. If the seat of the injury be in any of the limbs, lameness is likely to result. Of the causes of sprain, slipping on ice or a wet floor, playing, and fighting with another animal are the most common. SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER JOINT.--This is liable to occur from any of the causes mentioned above or from the animal slipping suddenly into a rut or hole. When such an accident occurs, sudden lameness will attract attention. The animal will be noticed to drag the leg when walking and to carry it in a circular direction, outward and forward, at each step. The leg should be carefully examined, pressure over the joint causing the animal to evince pain. If the person making the examination is in doubt, it is well to make a comparison between the shoulders by pressing first on one and then the other. After such an accident the animal should be tied up so as to limit so far as possible the use of the injured joint. Soft feed should be given with a view of keeping the bowels acting freely. _Treatment._--During the first three days the treatment should consist of cold-water irrigation to check the inflammation and relieve the pain. Hot fomentations may then be applied to hasten the absorption of the inflammatory fluids. When the pain has somewhat abated, equal parts of mercurial ointment and green soap may be rubbed into the swollen tissue. Should lameness continue after the tenth day, good results will be obtained from the application of a blister. This may be done by carefully clipping off the hair over the joint, including a surface of 4 or 5 inches in circumference, and rubbing in the following preparation: Powdered cantharides dram 1 Biniodid of mercury do 1 Vaseline ounce 1 The animal's head should be carefully tied until the third day, to prevent its licking the blister. The blistered surface should then be smeared with lard or vaseline every other day until the scabs fall off. Gentle exercise should be allowed after the fourth or fifth day from the application of the blister. If the lameness still remains the blister may be repeated in three weeks or a month. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK.--This may occur from misstep when the animal is moving rapidly, and the twisting or wrenching of the foot is sufficient to rupture partially the ligaments which bind the bones together at that part. Such an accident also frequently occurs by the foot getting fastened in a hole in the floor; the wrenching is the result of the animal's attempt to liberate it. Lameness, followed by swelling of the joint and pain when it is handled, or when the animal moves the joint, and heat, are the more noticeable symptoms. If the sprain is very severe, the animal occasionally does not bear its weight on the limb. _Treatment._--The most important consideration in the treatment of this affection is rest, which is best enforced by keeping the animal in the stall and placing strong, muslin bandages about the inflamed joint. As in the sprain of the shoulder, cold water in the form of douches, continuous irrigation with hose or soaking tub, or finely chopped ice poultices are indicated for the first three days. Following this apply a Priessnitz bandage[2] moderately tight about the joint, which not only conduces to rest, but also favors absorption. Massage with stimulating liniments, such as soap or camphor, may later be applied to the affected parts. If the lameness has not disappeared by the tenth day, the blister advised for the sprain of the shoulder should be applied and the same precautions observed as to tying the animal's head and subsequent smearing with vaseline. When a blister is applied in this locality, the back part of the heel should be first filled with lard or vaseline, and care taken to prevent any of the blistering preparation from coming in contact with the skin of that part. If this precaution is not observed, scratches may ensue and prove troublesome. SPRAIN OF THE HIP.--This is liable to result from the animal's slipping in such way as to spread the hind feet wide apart. The patient goes stiff in the hind legs, or lame in one hind leg, walking with a straddling gait and swinging the leg outward as it is carried forward. Tenderness may occasionally be detected on pressure, but owing to the heavy covering of muscles outside the joint this test is not always reliable. In the acute cases give rest and cold local applications. After the fourth or fifth day the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder may be applied with advantage, and if this proves insufficient, as a last resort we may fire in points over the joint. SPRAIN OF THE BACK.--Sprain of the back, particularly in the region of the loins, is not an uncommon accident among cattle. It is liable to occur from the animals slipping with both hind feet sidewise so as to twist the back, or from slipping violently backward so that great stress is thrown on the loins. The patient moves with difficulty, using the hind parts in a guarded manner, as if afraid of causing severe pain. Occasionally, if the sprain is severe, the animal will rise with difficulty. Pressure on the back in the immediate region of the loins causes pain. Such cases may be mistaken for paralysis, and, in fact, in severe cases, during the early stages of the injury, although the nerve supply is not interfered with, the injury to the muscles and resulting pain is so great that the condition is almost equal to paralysis, although liable to be attended with more favorable results. Hot applications, such as blankets wrung out of hot water and changed often, will be likely to afford relief during the earlier stages. Afterwards the blister mentioned for sprain of the shoulder may be applied with advantage. FRACTURES (BROKEN BONES). Bones may be accidentally broken in many ways and from different causes. Fractures in general are liable to be produced by external force suddenly and violently applied, either directly to the part or at a distance, the force being transmitted through the stronger bones until it expends itself by breaking a weaker one remote from the seat of the injury. Occasionally violent contraction of muscles is sufficient to break a bone. Certain bones, those of the limbs in particular, owing to their exposed position, are more liable to fracture than others. Owing to certain predisposing causes, such as age, habit, or hereditary constitutional weakness, the bones of some animals are more easily fractured than those of others. The bones of an animal advanced in years are more subject to fracture because of the preponderance of inorganic matter rendering them more brittle. They are also occasionally rendered liable to fracture by a previously existing diseased condition. Fractures are divided into four classes--partial, simple, compound, and comminuted. PARTIAL FRACTURES.--Partial fractures are those which are liable to occur in a young animal in which the preponderance of animal matter or the semicartilaginous condition of the bone renders it tough, so that even when considerable force is applied the bone bends, breaking on the side opposite that to which the force was applied, after the manner in which a green stick bends and breaks. SIMPLE FRACTURES. Simple fracture is one in which the bone is severed in two parts, transversely, longitudinally, or obliquely, without serious injury to the adjoining structures. COMPOUND FRACTURES.--Compound fracture is one in which there is an open wound permitting the air to communicate with the ends of the broken bones. COMMINUTED FRACTURES.--Comminuted fracture is one in which the bone is shattered or divided into a number of fragments. COMPLICATED FRACTURES.--Complicated fracture is one in which other structures surrounding the bones are injured. GENERAL SYMPTOMS OF FRACTURE.--When a fracture of one or more of the large bones of a limb occurs, symptoms are sure to be well marked. After the accident the animal refuses to touch the foot to the ground and, if compelled to move, does so with great pain and reluctance. There is more or less shortening of the limb, with trembling of the muscles in the vicinity of the injury; deformity, and increased mobility, so that, instead of the natural joints of the limb and the natural, muscular control of their motion, a new joint, over which the animal has no control, is formed where the fracture occurred. As the leg, shortened by the ends of the bones being forced past one another from the muscular contraction which invariably takes place, hangs dependent from the body it swings in an awkward and unnatural manner, permitting the toe and foot to assume positions in their relations to other parts of the body which otherwise would be impossible. If the fractured bone is so situated that the parts may be moved one upon another, a grating sound, known as crepitus, will be heard. GENERAL TREATMENT OF FRACTURES.--When a fracture occurs, the advisability of attempting treatment must first be determined. If the animal is young, valuable, and of reasonably quiet temperament, and the fracture is not too great in extent, the chances of recovery are fair. On the other hand, if the animal should be of little value, irritable, advanced in years, and the fracture is a serious compound or comminuted one, the wiser course would generally be to put the creature out of its misery. Having determined to attempt treatment, no time should be lost in restoring the parts as nearly as possible to their natural position and retaining them there. If the ends of the bones have been drawn one past the other, they should be drawn out by firm and continuous tension, until they again assume the position in which they were before the accident. All this can better be done before the swelling (which is sure to result) takes place. If the swelling has occurred before the injury is noticed, do not attempt to treat it, but proceed at once to treat the fracture as though the swelling were not present, for no step can be taken toward recovery until the ends of the bone have been restored to their proper position. When that is done and proper appliances have been used to prevent them from being again misplaced, the swelling, which is the result of irritation, will be relieved. In selecting the appliances to be used in the treatment of fracture the judgment and ingenuity of the operator are of much importance. Splints, made of wood shaped to fit the limb and padded with soft material where they come in contact with bony prominences, and held in position by means of bandages, are the oldest method, and with some are still most popular. The fracture pads used in human surgery, and for sale in surgical depots, are very convenient. After being dipped in water they may be molded to fit the limb and be retained by means of bandages. Heavy sole leather is also used after being soaked in warm water and molded to the shape of the limb and holes cut in it to fit over any sharp irregularities in the natural shape of the bones. Gutta-percha sheets are also used and answer well. They are prepared and used in the same way as the leather. Another and perhaps the simplest of all methods is the application of a plaster-of-Paris bandage, which is made as follows: Strips of thin cheesecloth 3 inches wide and 8 or 9 feet long are laid flat on a board and on them is spread a layer of plaster of Paris about one-eighth of an inch thick; then, starting at one end, roll carefully so as to gather the plaster in between the layers of the bandage. It is of course important that the cloth be thin and the plaster of Paris fresh and active. After preparing four or five of such bandages the operator is ready to dress the fracture, which, after the parts have been brought into position, should be done by covering all that part of the limb to which the plaster-of-Paris bandage is to be applied with a single layer of the dry bandage, letting it extend both above and below the part to which the plaster bandage is to be applied and including under the folds of the dry bandage at each end a layer of absorbent cotton, which is intended to form a pad to prevent the ends of the plaster bandage from chafing the skin beneath. When this is done one of the plaster bandages should be placed in a vessel of water and allowed to remain till the air bubbles have ceased to rise from it, which will generally indicate that it is soaked through. Then, taking it in the hand, wind it carefully around and around the limb, unrolling the bandage as it is wound around the limb, occasionally smoothing down the plaster of Paris. Should it form roughly or in ridges the hand may be dipped in water to impart increased moisture to it. When about finished with one bandage, place another one in the water, so that the winding operation may be continued without delay. The bandages should be applied till the cast is from one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick, then gently restrain the animal for one-half or three-quarters of an hour till the plaster is hardened. Any of the appliances used should be so manipulated as to prevent absolutely any motion of the detached parts. If the fracture is near a joint, it is generally best to include the joint in the appliance. The part of the limb below the bandage should be carefully and firmly wrapped with an ordinary cotton bandage all the way from the plaster bandage down to the hoof. This last bandage will tend to prevent swelling, which is liable to occur, the result of the dependent position in which the animal is forced by nature to keep the injured limb. When plaster-of-Paris bandages are applied to a compound fracture the injured part may be previously dressed with a small, thick pad of cotton immediately over the wound. In applying the bandage the operator may with a little care so arrange it as to keep the folds of the bandages off the cotton, or have only a thin layer over it, which may be easily cut out and the cotton removed, leaving a convenient opening through which to dress the wound without removing the bandage. The ends of the bandage or other appliance should be carefully watched to see that the skin does not become chafed, particularly at the lower end. If the bandage should become weak or broken at any part, it may be strengthened without removal by applying other bandages immediately over it. If swelling has taken place before the bandage has been applied, there is liable to be some loosening as it disappears, and even without the swelling there may be a tendency of the bandage to slide downward. This may be overcome by fastening it to a suspender attached to a surcingle or passed over the body and attached to the opposite leg. If the looseness can not be overcome in this way, the space may be filled by pouring in a thin paste of plaster of Paris. A better method, however, is to remove the bandage and apply another. Owing to the hardness of the bandage it will be removed with some difficulty. A deep groove should be cut down completely through it on the opposite sides. This may be done with a chisel and a small hammer if the bandage is carefully held by an assistant so that the concussion of the blows is not transmitted to the injured bones. The patient should have a roomy stall, and should be tied by the head to prevent any attempts to move around. In some cases slings have been used. Ordinarily, however, they are not satisfactory in cattle practice, and if applied should be for only a few days at a time, and with a view to lessen the animal's disposition to lie down, rather than to prevent it. When they are used continuously the pressure on the abdomen may interfere with digestion and the general health of the animal. _Modes of union._--The animal should be kept as quiet as possible and given such feed as will have a tendency to keep the bowels slightly relaxed. The success of the operation depends chiefly on the skill of the operator, but not alone in the selection and use of the appliances, for as much attention must be given to subsequent management. The patients are restless, and a single awkward motion may undo the work of weeks so far as the union of the parts of the bone is concerned. Union takes place after the same process and, if the conditions are favorable, with greater rapidity than in the human being. The injury that caused the fracture is almost sure to have extended to some of the adjacent tissues, and even though the fracture may be of the simplest type there is almost sure to be considerable hemorrhage around the ends of the broken bone. This, however, is unimportant if the skin remains intact, unless a very large vessel should be injured, or the fracture should open some of the important cavities of the body, in which case a fatal hemorrhage may result. If, on the other hand, the fracture is compound the external opening furnishes a fertile field for the lodgment of disease-producing germs. Unless great care is taken in such cases, a suppurative process is liable to be established which will seriously interfere with, if not entirely arrest, the process of union between the bones; or it may become so serious as to endanger the general health of the animal and even be attended with fatal results. This last danger is greater if the injury has occurred to the bones of the arm or thigh. In such cases, owing to the dense covering of fascia which ensheathes the muscular covering pus is liable to be imprisoned, and, burrowing downward, saturate the whole structure, not only endangering the limb, but, by absorption, may set up blood poisoning and seriously interfere with the general health of the patient, even to causing death. In order so far as possible to prevent such an unfortunate complication, the wound should be carefully cleansed with a mild solution of carbolic acid, then dusted over with iodoform before the bandages are applied, and cleansed and dressed daily in the same way. After dressing, always cover with absorbent cotton. In the early process of union an exudation of lymph takes place, which is at first fluid, gradually becoming thicker and firmer till it forms a callus, known as the external or ensheathing callus, in the shape of a ring or ferrule surrounding the detached portions of the bone. It occasionally happens that this callus forms only at the ends of the bones, filling the spaces that exist between them, when it is known as the intermediate callus. The process of union may be divided into five stages. In the first stage, including the first eight days, the detached portions of the bone and the sharp projections that are not sufficiently nourished are absorbed; the blood which escaped into the surrounding tissues, the result of the injury, is gradually absorbed, and the effused lymph, which is ultimately to constitute the temporary cartilage, takes it place. In the second stage, from the tenth to the twentieth day, the tumor or callus is formed and fibrocartilage is developed inside and around the exposed end of the bone. In the third stage, extending from the twentieth to the fortieth or fiftieth day, according to the age and strength of the animal, the fibrocartilaginous structure undergoes a change and is gradually converted into bone, forming a ferrule on the outside and a plug on the inside, which serve to hold the part in position. In the fourth stage, extending to about the sixth month, the whole of the new structure is converted into bone. In the fifth stage, extending to the end of the first year, the callus is absorbed, being no longer necessary, and the connection between the cavities of the two bones is again established. _Common complications._--The process of union just described is healthy and normal. Diseased conditions may at any time supervene during the treatment and render the operation unsuccessful. In the case of compound fracture, the open wound communicating with the ends of the bones, a septic condition is liable to arise which may become so serious as to endanger the animal's life and bring about conditions which in human surgery would indicate amputation. Although that operation is not a general one in veterinary practice, there is no reason why it should not be attempted as a last resort, particularly if the animal is valuable or is one whose existence is necessary in order to perpetuate some valuable strain. Even in the simplest form of fracture, if the splints or bandages are improperly applied and the fractured bone left so loosely guarded that the broken ends move one upon another, the formation of the calluses previously described is liable to be interfered with, and in place of a strong, rigid, and healthy union a formation of elastic cartilage is the result. This false structure unites the broken ends of the bones in such way that they move one upon another, depriving the bone of its stability and usefulness. When once the healthy process of union is interrupted in the manner just described, it is again established with great difficulty. It no longer does any good to continue the restraining power; in fact, the change of the temporary cartilage into bone is more liable to be reestablished if the parts move violently upon each other for a short time so as to set up and renew the process of inflammation. Then if the restraint is again applied there is some chance of union. In order so far as possible to avoid this danger, care should be taken to see that the bandage fits closely and that it is kept on till there is no longer any danger but that a perfect union has taken place. It is impossible to say at just what time the splints or bandages can safely be removed. In a young and healthy animal of quiet temperament, if the parts have been firmly held in position throughout the whole time, from 30 to 40 days may be regarded as reasonably safe. Under more unfavorable conditions as to age, vitality, and restraint, the period would better be extended to 60 days, if the general condition of the animal is such as to permit of so long a continuance. After the appliance has been removed the animal should be allowed to stand quiet for a few days, then be given very gentle exercise, gradually increased for a week or 10 days, by which time the patient will be so far recovered as to be placed in pasture. It should, however, be alone for a time, so as not to take any chance of injury from fighting or other accidents that association with other animals might involve. SPECIAL FRACTURES. FRACTURE OF THE HORNS.--Of the special fractures liable to occur, that of the horn is perhaps the most common. It is always the result of violent mechanical means, such as blows, injury occurring while fighting, or from the animal getting its head locked in some manner while feeding from a rack. When it occurs there are two ways in which the injury may affect the animal. First and most common, the horny crust is liable to be stripped from the bony projection which it covers. Second, the crust and bone may both be broken or bent down, the fracture occurring in that case at the root of the horn and involving part of the bones of the head in the immediate vicinity. In the first case, if the horny covering is knocked off, little attention is necessary. The animal may be relieved from suffering if the stump is smeared with pine tar and wrapped in cloth. If the core is much lacerated, perhaps it would be better to amputate. The necessity for such operation must be determined by the condition of the injury, influenced to some extent by the owner's ideas on the subject. When the operation is performed, it should be done with a sharp, fine-toothed saw, and by sawing the horn off close enough to include a little of the skin and hair around its base. The practice of dehorning has grown popular in many parts of the country. It is a simple operation, and, although attended with some immediate suffering, does not produce serious constitutional disturbance. The advisability of performing the operation on all cattle is a question of expediency and must be justified by the expectation of benefit on the part of the feeder. If the horn should be broken so that the core and crust are bent out of shape without the detachment of one from the other, it may be restored to its normal position and retained there by means of a splint made to fit across the back of the head, so as to be laced to both horns, the sound horn serving to hold the broken one in position. Such a splint may be fastened on by means of either a wire or cord and allowed to remain six weeks or two months. If both the horn and core have been broken off, bleeding is usually severe and should be checked by astringents, such as alum, or by pressure. After the hemorrhage has ceased the exposed portion of the fracture should be covered with pine tar, with or without a bandage. An imperfect growth of horn will in due time cover the exposed bone. FRACTURES OF THE BONES OF THE FACE.--These occasionally occur, and when over the cavities of the nose produce depression, disfigurement, and impeded respiration, owing to the lessening of the caliber of the nasal passages. When such accident occurs, the depressed bone should be gently forced back to place by introducing the finger in the nostril, or if the fracture is too far up for this, a probe may be passed and the parts retained by placing immediately over it a plaster of thin leather or strong canvas smeared with tar, extending out to the sound surroundings, taking care to embed the hair over the fractured portion in the tar of the plaster, so that it will be firmly held and prevented from again becoming depressed. If only one nostril is involved, the depressed portion may be held in position by packing that nostril with absorbent cotton. This practice, however, has the objection of giving the animal great discomfort and in some cases a disposition to aggravate the injury. FRACTURE OF THE SKULL (CRANIUM).--Fractures of the bones forming the cavity in which the brain is situated are, owing to their strength, comparatively rare among cattle. Such an accident can only be the result of external violence, and it is hardly possible that it could occur without some fragment of the broken bone pressing upon the brain so as to cause coma or other severe nervous derangement, or even death. If the animal survives the first shock, the efforts should be directed toward relieving the pressure, which may be done by making an opening in the bone (trephining), and with a hook drawing the depressed part outward. Interference is not so liable to be attended with good results as to be warranted in all cases. The effects of a very severe shock which may not have produced a fracture, although the symptoms were alarming, will in many cases pass off, leaving the animal in a better condition than if an operation had been performed. FRACTURE OF THE LOWER JAW.--This occasionally occurs, and is more liable to result from the kick of a horse than from any other cause. The front part of the jaw may be split or shattered in any direction in which the force may have been applied. Bloody discharges from the mouth and failure to eat or ruminate are symptoms most likely to attract attention. The treatment is simple and consists in first removing detached pieces of bone, then drawing the parts together and retaining them by means of pieces of copper wire fastened around the teeth, and feeding the animal on sloppy feed until recovery takes place. The wound should be dressed once or twice a day with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid, forced gently in with a syringe, so as to remove any feed which may have become impacted and interfere with the healing process. FRACTURE OF THE VERTEBRA (SPINAL COLUMN).--This is not so common among cattle as other animals. If the fracture should be through the body of the bone, there may be pressure on or laceration of the spinal cord, causing paralysis of all parts posterior to the seat of injury. Fractures of the prominences on a vertebra occasionally occur without interfering with the canal in which the spinal cord is situated. Such accidents are liable to pass unnoticed, for, although the animal may suffer considerable pain, it may not be manifested in such way as to attract attention, and the deep covering of muscles serves effectually to conceal the injury. When the fracture occurs in the upper part of the neck, paralysis of the muscles used in respiration must result, and death from asphyxia very shortly ensues. The more common accident is to the loins, and when a fracture of the body of a vertebra occurs in this region so as to produce pressure on the spinal cord, paralysis of the hind legs and quarters is the result. Diagnosis of such an accident is more difficult than in the case of any other fracture. The parts can not be moved one upon another so that crepitus is noticeable. The heavy coating of muscles conceals irregularities of shape, which otherwise may attract attention. About the only reliable symptom is paralysis or loss of use and sensation of the parts posterior to the injury. Careful examination may reveal the seat of the injury. If it was the result of a blow, there may be some abrasion of the skin. The diagnosis is only important as an aid in determining the proper course to pursue. If paralysis is present and a depression or irregularity of the spinal column is so apparent as to leave no doubt of the existence of a fracture, the only alternative is to destroy the animal, for of recovery there can be no hope. If, on the other hand, the paralysis is incomplete and there is no depression or irregularity of the spinal column or other evidence of fracture, the patient should be made as comfortable as possible by being placed in a well-bedded box stall and a few days permitted to elapse before the case is abandoned. The symptoms last described may possibly be the result of a severe strain of the muscles of the loins, in which case an improvement will soon be noticeable. FRACTURES OF THE PELVIS.--The pelvis, or bony framework which gives shape to the posterior part of the body, is liable to fracture in many ways. A common one is by a separation of the two bones which constitute the whole pelvis along the bottom and center line (symphysis pubis). In early life the two bones are separate and distinct. The union between them, which is at first cartilaginous, undergoes a change and is converted into bone, so that in adult life the whole pelvis is practically one bone. The point on which the two bones are united is weaker than the adjoining parts of the bone. When an animal slips violently, spreading the legs wide apart, the weaker materials give way and the bones are divided. If the accident is noticed when it occurs, it is likely to throw light on the nature of the injury. The animal will immediately go stiff behind, the legs being spread apart. Further examination may be made by introducing the hand, previously carefully oiled, into the rectum or vagina and pressing down along the central line, which will cause the patient to evince acute pain. In this case no appliance can be used to advantage. The animal should be tied in a stall until the parts become reunited and the lameness disappears. Fracture of the posterior parts of the bone (ischium), which forms the point of the buttocks occasionally occurs. The buttock on the injured side will be less prominent than the other. Careful manipulation will generally move the parts so that crepitus may be recognized. If the fracture is through the posterior part of the bone, it is unimportant and deserving of no more attention than placing the animal in such position as to insure it against subsequent injury until the bones are united. Some distortion may result, but not sufficient to warrant interference. Fracture through the body of the bone on a line with the hip joint (acetabulum) occasionally, though rarely, occurs, and is nearly always associated with dislocation of the hip joint and the forcing of the head of the upper bone of the leg (femur) upward, far out of its place. The violent contraction of the powerful muscles of the hip renders it impossible to reduce the dislocation, and even if it were possible the fractured pelvis could not be held in position, so that the case becomes at once hopeless. It may be recognized by the animal's standing on three legs, the leg on the injured side seeming shorter than its fellow and hanging pendulous, the muscles of the hip violently contracted and hard to the touch. The animal evinces great pain when the limb is moved. There is liable to be some apparent distortion in the relations between the point of the hip and the point of the buttock. This will be more readily noticed by comparing the injured side with the other. The parts may be moved so as to produce crepitus. The examination may be completed by introducing the oiled hand into the vagina or rectum, when the two sides of the pelvis will reveal well-marked differences. FRACTURE OF THE POINT OF THE HIP.--The anterior and external part of the pelvis (ilium), commonly known as the point of the hip, is liable to fracture, which stock owners describe as "hipping," or being "hipped," or having the hip "knocked down." This accident may be the result of crowding while passing through a narrow door, of falling violently on the point of the hip, or from a violent blow directed downward and forward against it. The lesion generally extends across the flat surface of the bone from its outer and posterior edge forward and inward. Distortion is liable to be the only noticeable symptom. The detached portion varies in size in different cases and with it the resulting deformity. The animal is noticed to be slightly lame, but this symptom soon disappears. The detached portion of the bone is drawn downward and away from the main part by the action of the muscles below, which are so powerful as to render return impossible. The bones therefore remain permanently separated, union taking place by fibrous callus. The animal suffers very little inconvenience, and for practical use may be as serviceable as before the accident, though the distorted appearance depreciates its value. FRACTURE OF THE RIBS.--Such an occurrence can take place only as the result of a direct injury, as from blows or crowding. The posterior ribs, being more exposed, are more liable to fracture. Pain in moving, slight swelling over the seat of injury, and difficult breathing are obvious symptoms. If the fracture is complete, crepitation may be occasionally noticed by placing the hand flat over the injured part, carefully observing the motion as the chest contracts and expands during respiration. This symptom is more noticeable when the animal coughs. Unless the point of the broken bone penetrates the cavity of the chest the fracture is usually unimportant and calls for no treatment other than quiet. If the breathing is very labored and attended with much pain, motion may be limited by applying a wide bandage firmly around the chest. The animal should be restricted in the amount of feed and water for a few days, the stomach being kept as nearly empty as possible. Sloppy feed should be given to encourage, as much as possible, free action of the diaphragm in breathing. FRACTURE OF BONES OF THE LIMBS.--On this subject much has been said in the preceding remarks on general fractures. As a rule, fracture through one of the large bones of the shoulder (scapula) or thigh (femur) is very difficult to manage. The powerful contraction of the muscles and the changing shape of the limb resulting from their action renders it impossible to retain the detached parts of the bone in proper position. Therefore, though the union should take place, there is almost sure to be considerable deformity and more or less lameness. Fracture of the arm (humerus) or leg (tibia) is likely to be attended with better results. The muscular covering is not so thick, the sheath in which they are held is more tense, and the change in the shape of the limb from muscular action not so noticeable, the muscular force not so great, all of which facilitate replacing the dislodged ends and retaining them. FRACTURE OF THE KNEE (CARPUS) AND HOCK (TARSUS).--This seldom occurs unless it is the result of a very violent injury, and is generally associated with other injury and serious complications. Displacement does not generally occur to any considerable extent. The treatment, of course, consists in holding the limb perfectly quiet in a natural position, which may be done by the application of long, wooden splints retained by bandages, or a plaster-of-Paris bandage. FRACTURES BELOW THE KNEE.--Fracture of the long bone below the knee (metacarpus) and hock (metatarsus) is more common. In young animals of quiet temperament the treatment of simple fractures here is likely to be attended with good results. On the other hand, a compound fracture in this region becomes a serious matter. The structures which surround the bones are so thin that a very small degree of sloughing will expose parts of the bones and be liable to lead to serious complications and probably fatal results. FRACTURES OF BONES BELOW THE FETLOCK.--These fractures are comparatively unimportant unless associated with other serious injury. The parts can generally be held in position without much difficulty, and union generally takes place quite rapidly. APPLIANCES.--Of the appliances used in the treatment of the fracture of limbs above the knee, splints made of wood or iron strips and bandages are likely to serve best. Below the knee plaster-of-Paris bandages are preferable. The writer is well aware that many of the standard authors deprecate the use of the latter, but an extensive experience leads me to believe that they have many advantages over any of the other appliances when used alone, and in many ways they may be used with advantage in combination with others. DISLOCATIONS. Luxation, or displacement without fracture of the bones forming a joint, is comparatively rare among cattle. It most frequently occurs in the stifle joint, where dislocation of the kneepan (patella) takes place. A glance at the skeleton (Pl. XXV) will show the relations better than they can be described. It will be observed that the small, irregularly shaped bone (patella) plays on the anterior rounded part of the lower edge of the thigh bone (femur) and between it and the upper end of the shank bone (tibia). The outer ridge on the lower end of the thigh bone is less prominent than the inner one, so that displacement, when it does take place, is by slipping outward. Such an accident may occur from direct injury or external force, as a blow, or from slipping. When it does occur the symptoms produced are somewhat alarming. The animal is unable to draw the leg forward, and either stands with it thrown back with the toe pointing downward, or, if it should succeed in getting its weight upon it, holds it firmly on the ground, fearing to move it. Examination of the outside of the joint will disclose the situation of the patella outside its proper place. If the operator is not familiar with the normal appearance of the joint, it is well to make a comparison between the injured and the sound one. If compelled to move, the animal does so with great difficulty, jerking the leg which it is unable to bring forward, hopping with the other, and partially dragging the injured one. [Illustration: PLATE XXV. SKELETON OF THE COW.] _Treatment._--The treatment is simple. A rope 20 feet long should be applied around the fetlock of the affected leg, passed forward between the front legs and up over the opposite side of the neck, back over the withers, and wrapped once behind the elbow around that portion of the rope which passes between the front legs. The leg is then drawn away from the body and forcibly pushed forward by an assistant, while another person tightens up the slack in the rope until the affected leg is off the ground in front of the supporting leg. The rope is then drawn taut and the assistant grasps the tail and pulls the cow toward the affected side. The animal makes a lurch to keep from falling, contracts the muscles, and the patella slips into place with a sharp click, and the animal walks off as if nothing had happened. If the animal resists this method of handling, it may suffice to manipulate the dislocated kneepan by shoving it inward and forward with the heel of the hand while the affected leg is drawn well forward. Unless some precaution is taken the accident is liable to recur, as the ligaments have been stretched by the dislocation till they no longer hold the bone with that firmness necessary to retain it. The animal should be tied and the foot fastened forward, so that the patient can just stand on it comfortably, by means of a rope or strap around the fetlock carried forward between the front legs, around the neck, and tied on the breast. Should this accident occur more than once it is a good practice to apply a blister around the joint, as in the formula recommended for sprain of shoulder, and observe the precautions as to restraint and subsequent treatment there recommended. With this one exception dislocations in the ox occurring independently of other complications are rare. Dislocation with fracture may occur in any of the joints, and if one is suspected or discovered, examination should always be made for the other before treatment is applied. When a fracture occurs near a joint the force sufficient to rend the bone is liable to be partly exerted on the immediate tissues, and when the bone gives way the structures of the joints may be seriously injured. It occasionally happens that the injury to the joint becomes the most important complication in the treatment of a fracture. In order clearly to understand the reason for this a few words are necessary in relation to the structure of joints. The different pieces constituting the skeleton of the animal body are united in such manner as to admit of more or less motion one upon another. In some of the more simple joints the bones fitting one into another are held together by the dense structures around them, admitting of very little or no movement at all, as the bones of the head. In other joints the bones are bound together by dense, cartilaginous structures, admitting of only limited motion, such as the union of the small bones at the back part of the knee and hock (metacarpal and metatarsal). In the more nearly perfect form of joint the power of motion becomes complete and the structures are more complex. The substance of the bone on its articular surface is not covered with periosteum, but is sheathed in a dense, thin layer of cartilage, shaped to fit the other surfaces with which it comes in contact (articular). This layer is thickest toward its center when covering bony eminences, and is elastic, of a pearly whiteness, and resisting, though soft enough to be easily cut. The bones forming an articulation are bound together by numerous ligaments attached to bony prominences. The whole joint is sealed in by a band or ribbonlike ligament (capsular ligament) extending around the joint and attached at the outer edge of the articular surface, uniting the bones and hermetically sealing the cavities of the articulation. This structure and the articular surface of the bone is covered by a thin, delicate membrane, known as the "synovial membrane," which secretes the joint oil (synovia). This fluid is viscid and colorless, or slightly yellow, and although it does not possess a large quantity of fat, its character somewhat resembles oil, and it serves the same purpose in lubricating the joints that oil does to the friction surface of an engine. Although the tissues of the joint when used in a natural way are able to withstand the effect of great exertion, when unnaturally used, as they are very delicate and complex, they are liable to inflammatory and other changes of a very serious nature. The synovial membrane, and in fact the whole structure of the joint, is susceptible to injury and serious inflammatory derangement, and the capsular ligament is liable to be distended from excessive secretion of synovia. The latter process may be almost noninflammatory, and attended with little inconvenience or importance other than a blemish to the animal, which in cattle is not serious. It may occur on the back part of the leg above the fetlock or on the inner and fore part of the hock, corresponding in its location to windgalls and bog spavin of the horse. Continuous support by bandages will generally force reabsorption, and as the limb is not subjected to violent action, as in the case of the horse, the affection is not so liable to recur. SPAVIN. Occasionally working oxen that are used in the lumber woods and made to pull heavily, with bad footing, are afflicted with this condition. When it occurs lameness is the first symptom. During the early stages of the disease the lameness is most severe in the morning, and disappears after the animal is exercised; it gradually becomes more severe as the disease advances, so that when the disease is well established the animal is lame continuously. Shortly after the lameness appears a bunch (exostosis) will be noticed on the inner and fore part of the affected joint. This bunch differs from bog spavin in that it is hard, while bog spavin is soft. It increases in size as the disease advances till the animal is too lame to be used for labor. As the disease is always attended with considerable pain there is more or less loss of flesh. In the most advanced stage the animal will step with difficulty, frequently holding the foot from the ground, or, if forced to take a few steps, stands with it elevated, twitching with pain. In the earlier stages of the disease only a small portion of the fore part of the lower, or second, articulation is involved, but the inflammatory process gradually extends over the whole surface of the lower joints of the hock. The structures of the joint are broken down and the bones are united (anchylosis). This process may include any or all of the three lower joints of the hock. The joint of motion which is situated on the lower end of the leg bone is seldom involved. _Treatment._--Treatment of spavin in the ox, as in the horse, is likely to be tedious, and not always resulting in perfect cure. Usually it is best to fatten the animal for slaughter. If, however, treatment is decided upon, it should consist of complete rest and counterirritation of the part either by sharp blisters or the firing iron. It is advisable to try the effect of blistering first, and for this purpose the following mixture is recommended: Powdered cantharides drams 2 Biniodid of mercury do 2 Vaseline ounces 1-1/2 Clip the hair off and apply over the inner and fore part of the joint, covering the surface an inch and a half in every direction from the enlargement, or over an area 3 to 4 inches across. Fasten the animal's head so that it can not reach the part to lick it; after the third day grease with lard every other day until the scabs come off. This blister may be repeated three or four times at intervals of three weeks. The lameness will generally begin to disappear about the third or fourth month if the above-described treatment proves beneficial. Should lameness persist, firing in points by a qualified veterinarian may effect the desired result and should be tried as a last resort. In a case of spavin the cure is not effected by restoring the diseased parts to their natural condition, but by uniting the bones and obliterating the joints. If this union extends over the whole articular surface of the joints affected and is sufficiently strong to prevent any motion of the bones, the animal will again go sound. The joints that are obliterated, not being those of motion, are not important, so that the animal suffers no inconvenience in their loss. RHEUMATISM. Rheumatism is a constitutional disease from a specific condition of the blood and characterized by inflammation of the fibrous structures of the body. It is usually accompanied with stiffness, lameness, and fever. The parts affected are usually swollen, but swelling may be lacking. The inflammation may be transitory; that is, it changes from place to place. The parts usually affected are the fibrous structures of the joints, tendons, ligaments, and muscles. The serous membranes and heart may also be affected. According to its location, rheumatism is specified as articular or muscular. According to its course, it is designated as acute or chronic. _Cause._--Among the factors which are actively causative of rheumatism may be mentioned exposure to dampness and cold, especially while the animal is perspiring or fatigued after severe physical exertion. Among other causes often mentioned are acidity of the blood, nervous derangement, microbes, and injuries. It occasionally follows another disease, such as pleurisy. The influence of age and heredity may be considered as secondary or predisposing causes. Sometimes the disease appears without any apparent cause. On the whole, it may be said that any of the above-mentioned factors may have more or less influence on the production of rheumatism, but the specific cause is as yet unknown. _Symptoms of articular rheumatism._--The symptoms appear suddenly and with varying degrees of severity. The animal presents a downcast appearance, with staring coat, horns and ears cold, and the mouth and muzzle hot and dry. Appetite and rumination may be impaired and followed later or be accompanied at the same time by constipation. Constipation may be followed by impaction of the stomach or bowels. Thirst is increased, but the amount of urine voided is scanty. Respiration and pulse are accelerated, and there is usually a fever, rising sometimes as high as 108° F. The animal prefers to lie down, and when forced to rise stands with its back arched. The movements are stiff and lame and cause great pain. The disease may attack one or more joints at the same time; in fact, it is often symmetrical. One joint may improve while another becomes affected, thus showing the shifting tendency of the inflammation. The affected joints, including their tendons, ligaments, and synovial membranes, may be swollen, hot, and distended with liquid. They are very tender, and, if treated carelessly or injured, may become infected, thus leading to suppuration. While rheumatism attacks perhaps more frequently the knees and fetlocks, it has no special affinity for any joint and may attack the stifle, hip, shoulder, or elbow joint. In mild cases of articular rheumatism, the animal may fully recover in a few days. In chronic articular rheumatism there is less tendency of the disease to shift about, but there is a greater liability of structural change in the affected joints. This change may consist of induration, exostosis, or even anchylosis. These structural changes about the joints may lead to permanent deformity, such as the bending of the neck. Fever is not so constant in the chronic form as in the acute, and the latter may lapse into the former. _Symptoms of muscular rheumatism._--This form of rheumatism may appear under the same general conditions as the articular form. The general appearance of the animal is the same in both forms. The cow usually assumes a recumbent position, and all the movements made are stiff and lame. The method of rising or of locomotion indicates pain in certain muscles or groups of muscles, as of the croup, shoulder, or neck. As in the case of articular rheumatism, the tendons, ligaments, and synovial membranes may become involved. The constitutional symptoms in both articular and muscular rheumatism are similar, so that it is often perplexing to differentiate between the two forms. _Prevention._--It is somewhat difficult to procure preventive treatment for cattle, especially when there are large numbers with little or no shelter. In general, it is advisable to protect the animals so far as possible from inclement weather conditions, such as cold rains, heavy dews, and frosts. This is more particularly necessary for animals in poor condition, or those which are perspiring or fatigued after long physical exertion. Careful feeding is also essential. _Treatment._--In attempting to treat cattle for rheumatism the first step is to procure proper shelter and environment. The animal should be quartered in a large, clean, dry stall, with plenty of light and fresh air, but protected from strong drafts. There should be an abundance of clean, dry bedding. The feed should be soft, easily digestible, and slightly laxative, and the animal should have access to clean, pure, cool water. For general or constitutional treatment of acute rheumatism, sodium salicylate is indicated. In order to gain the best results from this drug, it should be administered with the idea of rapidly saturating the system. To cattle it may be given in doses of one-half ounce every two hours for ten hours or until immediate relief is obtained. This drug should not be continued indefinitely, but may be given once a day after immediate relief has been obtained, and this single dose continued daily until permanent relief ensues, when it should be stopped. The use of sodium salicylate in chronic rheumatism is not advisable on account of the danger of depressing the heart, whose action is already somewhat impaired by the lesions which have attacked it. In this case one-half ounce doses of potassium nitrate or bicarbonate may be given three times a day. Besides the constitutional treatment, it may be necessary to give special attention to the bowels in order to relieve constipation. Cattle may be given saline laxatives at the outset, such as 1 pound of Epsom salt for an ordinary-sized cow, and the bowels kept regular by an occasional smaller dose. In chronic rheumatism the best course of treatment is to give tonics and local treatment. Local treatment may also be advisable in acute rheumatism in addition to the constitutional treatment already prescribed. External treatment depends solely on the local conditions and should be applied judiciously. Among the various remedies may be mentioned hot or cold moist packs, hot air and vapor baths, friction, etc. Anodynes are often applied locally with good results. Blisters are occasionally indicated. As anodynes may be mentioned liniments and ointments containing salicylic acid or sodium salicylate in combination with laudanum, aconite, or chloral hydrate. Camphorated spirit, soap liniment, and essential oils also afford some relief when applied locally. Of blisters, those containing cantharides are most effective. FOOTNOTES: [2] A Priessnitz bandage is a dressing which combines the three properties of keeping a part warm, moist, and subjecting it to uniform pressure. It consists of three layers of material. The inner layer is composed of absorbent cotton or some other material which is capable of holding moisture. This is soaked in water and wrapped around the part. The second layer consists of a substance which is impervious to moisture, as oiled silk or oiled paper, and is applied about the inner layer to prevent evaporation. The third or outside layer is composed of a flannel or woolen bandage to prevent the radiation of heat and thus keep the moist inner layer at the temperature of the body. SURGICAL OPERATIONS. By WILLIAM DICKSON and WILLIAM HERBERT LOWE, D. V. S. [Revised by B. T. Woodward, V. M. D.] Surgery is both a science and an art. The success of surgical operations depends on the judgment, skill, and dexterity, as well as upon the knowledge of the operator. The same fundamental principles underlie and govern animal and human surgery, although their applications have a wide range and are very different in many essential particulars. We must not lose sight of the fact that hygiene and sanitation are essential to the best results in veterinary as well as in human surgery. Asepsis is an ideal condition which, although not always possible in animal surgery, is highly important in connection with the mechanical details of all surgical operations in proportion to the nature and seriousness of the same. Aseptic surgery is considered to be the performance of operations with sterile instruments with the hands of the operator and the site of operation being rendered as nearly sterile as possible, and the wound treated during operation with sterile solutions and protected following the operation with sterile bandage material. In other words, it is the preservation of the highest degree of cleanliness in connection with operations. Local or general anesthesia should be resorted to in painful and serious surgical operations, as operations upon all living creatures should be humanely performed and all unnecessary pain and suffering avoided. Anesthesia is necessary where absolute immobility of the patient is essential and where entire muscular relaxation is indispensable. The anesthetic condition is also favorable for the adjustment of displaced organs. Large animals have to be cast and secured before an anesthetic is administered. For complete anesthesia inhalations of chloroform are generally employed; sometimes of both ether and chloroform. The quantity of chloroform required to produce insensibility to external impressions varies much in different cases and must be regulated, as well as the admixture of air, by a competent assistant. If the probability of the success of an operation is remote and the animal is in healthy physical condition, so that its flesh is good for human food, it is more advisable to butcher the animal than to attempt a surgical operation that offers little encouragement to the owner. The best judgment has to be exercised in determining a matter of this kind, for no animal suffering from inflammation or that is in a feverish condition is fit for human food. All cases of major operative surgery require the skill and dexterity of the experienced veterinary surgeon, and no one else should attempt such an operation, for unnecessary suffering must be prevented. Nevertheless, the more knowledge and understanding an owner of animals has of the principles of surgical operations and manipulations, the better for all concerned. In the first place, such an owner will appreciate more fully the skill of the qualified veterinarian, and, in the second place, he will be the better prepared and equipped to render assistance to his suffering dumb dependents where no practitioner is accessible and in cases of emergency. There are, moreover, some minor operations upon cattle, some of which can hardly be classed as surgical, that the stockman and farmer should be able to perform himself. In the performance of any operation upon an animal of the size and strength of the bull or cow, the first consideration is to secure the animal in such a manner as to preclude the possibility of its injuring either itself or those taking any part in the operation. The nature and time likely to be occupied by an operation must, of course, largely determine the method to be adopted. The majority of operations with which the present chapter is concerned are usually performed on the animal in a standing position. A bull should always be held by a staff attached to the ring in his nose. To secure the cow in a standing position, grasp the nose, the finger and thumb being introduced into the nostrils, and press against the cartilage which makes a division between them. If she has horns, grasp one of them with the disengaged hand. If this is insufficient the animal should be secured to a post, along the side of a fence, or put into a stanchion. An excellent method of restraint is to tie a long rope in a slip noose over the horns, pass it around the chest just behind the forelegs, taking a half hitch on itself, taking another half hitch in front of the hind limbs, passing the free end under the tail, bringing it forward and making it fast either to the head or one of the hitches. The head should be raised to the level of the back before the final knot is tied, so as to render it too serious and painful a matter for her to repeat the first attempt she makes to lower it. Should the nature or extent of the operation be likely to take up considerable time, it is invariably the best plan to throw the animal. In the case of the ox this is very easily done, either by use of horse hobbles, should they be at hand, or by the application of a simple rope. If the horse hobbles are used, they should be fastened on the leg just above the fetlocks (ankle joints), as in that position they are less liable to come off than if placed around the pastern. Of the many ways of applying the rope for this purpose we will describe only two, which we consider the best and simplest: First. Take a long, strong rope (one which has been used a few times is more flexible), double it, and at 2 or 3 feet from the doubled end, according to the size of the animal, make a knot and pass the collar thus formed over the animal's head, allowing it to rest on what would be the collar place in a horse. Now, pass the ends of the rope between the forelegs, carry one around each hind leg just above the fetlock joint, from outside in, under itself once, and bring the free ends forward, passing each through the collar loop on its own side and bringing the slack back toward and beyond the hind quarters. (Pl. XXVI, fig. 2.) Two or three men should then take hold of each rope and at a given signal pull. The animal's hind legs being drawn forward, the balance is lost, and if the animal does not fall or lie down he can be readily pushed over on his side and secured in the desired position. Second. The three half hitches. Take a rope 30 or more feet long, make a slip noose at the end and pass it over the animal's horns, leaving the knot in the loop between the horns; then pass the rope backward along the neck to the withers, just in front of which take a half hitch on it, passing it along the back, take one half hitch just behind the forelegs and a second in front of the hind limbs round the flank. (Pl. XXVI, fig. 1.) The free end of the rope is taken hold of by one or two assistants while another holds the animal's head. By pulling firmly on the rope, or inducing the animal to make a step or two forward while steady traction is made on the rope, the beast will lie down, when his feet can be secured in the way most convenient for the operator. There are numerous other methods, involving more or less complete restraint, which may be equally efficacious, but one or other of the ways indicated will doubtless be found to meet fully all ordinary cases. RINGING THE BULL. This is usually and ought always to be done before the calf has attained sufficient weight or strength to make his restraint a matter of serious difficulty. An ordinary halter is usually all that is required, the strap being secured to a tree or post. A jointed steel or copper ring is ordinarily used. Those made of the latter metal are preferable. The common method of punching a round piece out of the nasal septum for the introduction of the ring is, I think, open to objection, as portions of the fine nervous filaments are destroyed. The sensibility of the parts is thus lessened and the object of ringing to some extent defeated. The insertion of the ring by means of a trocar and cannula is preferable, as the method is not open to this objection. For some years we have used a little instrument, which can be made by any worker in metal, consisting of a steel point riveted into a short cannula made to fit on one end of the ring while open. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 11.) When attached to the ring it is easily and quickly passed through the septum, the half of the ring following as a matter of course. It can then be removed and the ends of the ring brought together and fastened by means of the screw for that purpose. DEHORNING. In the wild state the utility of the horns of cattle as weapons of offense and defense is apparent, but with domestication of cattle and their confinement the presence of horns constitutes a menace to the safety of their companions. Horned cattle frequently inflict with their horns painful and serious injuries to others. Deaths as a result of such injuries are not unusual. The operation of dehorning would therefore be indicated as a matter of general safety. On farms where breeding is conducted, the most desirable method is to prevent the horns from growing on the young calves. This action results in a more symmetrical appearance of the poll and eliminates the dangers which would result from the presence of horns on the young cattle prior to their operative removal at a later age. A calf should be treated not later than one week after it is born--preferably when it is from 3 to 5 days old. The agent to be used may be either caustic soda or potash in the form of sticks about the thickness of an ordinary lead pencil. These caustics must be handled with care, as they dissolve the cuticle and may make the hands or fingers sore. The preparation of the calf first consists in clipping the hair from the parts, washing clean with soap or warm water, and thoroughly drying with a cloth or towel. The stick of caustic should be wrapped in a piece of paper to protect the hands and fingers, leaving one end of the stick uncovered. Moisten the uncovered end slightly and rub it on the horn buttons or little points which may be felt on the calf's head--first on one, then on the other--two or three times, allowing the caustic to dry after each application. Be careful to apply the caustic to the horn button only, for if it is brought in contact with the surrounding skin it will cause pain. Too much moisture on the stick of caustic will allow the application to spread to the surrounding skin. After treatment keep the calf protected from rain, as water on the head after application of the caustic will cause it to run down over the face. Dehorning of adult animals is usually performed after the age of 2 years, as after that age there is less probability of the horns again growing. The horns should be severed from the head from a quarter to a half-inch below where the skin joins the base of the horn, cutting from the back toward the front if a saw is used. If the horn is not cut close enough to the head, an irregular, gnarly growth of horn is liable to follow. Before attempting to dehorn the animal, it should be securely controlled by ropes in a stanchion or by casting. Upon the range the cattle are usually controlled by casting or by placing them in a "squeezer" connected with a corral. A clean, sharp meat saw or a miter saw with a rigid back may be used. Various types of dehorning shears or clippers are in general use. One type of dehorner has a stationary knife edge with its cutting edge shaped like a very wide V, and opposing this, another knife of similar shape moving in a slide, so that the cutting edges act upon the horn from all four sides at once, all the edges passing the center at the same time. Another type has a movable knife, with one oblique or one curved edge, and the cutting is done in one direction only. The power for cutting with these instruments is supplied by pulling together two long handles which, in order to transmit a greater force, are generally so constructed that they act through the medium of a series of cogs. In dehorning with these instruments the cutting edges should be slipped down over the horn and the knives closed, so that their edges set firmly against the horn in such position that the cut will be made in the right place and in the right direction. The handles should then be drawn together with a quick, firm, strong pull so that the horn will be completely severed by the first act and without twisting. Dehorning should, when possible, be performed in cool weather when the flies are not plentiful. The loss of blood from the operation is not sufficient, as a rule, to be of consequence, and after care being taken to prevent substances from getting into the openings left after the removal of the horns it is not usual to apply any dressing. Pine tar or a mixture of pine tar and tannic acid may be applied, particularly if the weather is warm. SETONING. The ordinary use of a seton is to keep up constant drainage from a cavity containing matter or to act as a stimulant or counterirritant. To insert a seton, the place of entrance and exit having been decided on, with the finger and thumb make a small fold of the skin transversely to the direction the seton is to be inserted, and cut it through, either with a sharp knife or a pair of scissors (this should be done at both the entrance and exit); then with a steady pressure and slight lateral movement insert the seton by means of a seton needle. (Pl. XXVII, figs. 1 and 2.) The seton should consist of a piece of strong tape, varying in breadth according to circumstances, and should be kept in place either by a knot on each end or by tying the ends together. Setons should be gently moved once a day after suppuration is set up, and they should not be allowed to remain in over three weeks, or a month at the outside. TRACHEOTOMY. This operation consists in making an opening in the trachea, or windpipe. It is indicated whenever there is an obstruction from any cause in the upper part of the respiratory tract which threatens the death of the animal by asphyxia (suffocation). The mode of procedure is as follows: Have an assistant extend the animal's head as far as possible to make the trachea tense and prominent; make a longitudinal incision about 2 to 2-1/2 inches long through the skin and deeper tissues and trachea at the most prominent part of the trachea, which is about the middle or upper third, and then insert the tracheotomy tube. The latter should be removed once or twice daily and cleansed, and the wound dressed antiseptically. To ascertain when it is time to discontinue the use of the tube and to allow the wound to close, the hand should be held over the opening, which will require the animal to use its natural passages in breathing. Observe whether it is performed in a natural manner, and if so, remove the tube and allow the wound to close. Often the operation has to be performed in great haste without the proper instruments and under great disadvantages, the operator having to cut down quickly, open the trachea and spread the parts, using some instrument improvised by him at the time. This operation only gives the animal relief in breathing, and therefore the proper remedial treatment should be adopted at the onset of the attack and continued until the cause (the disease) has been overcome. RUMENOTOMY. The opening of the paunch, or rumen, in cattle and the removal of a part or the whole of the ingesta through said opening is termed rumenotomy. The operation should be performed in severe cases only, where the rumen is excessively overloaded and distended. The animal is placed with its right side against a wall and firmly held in position by strong assistants. The incision is made in the same place that the trocar is inserted for puncturing that organ in cases of hoven. The opening is increased in size until the operator's hand can be inserted into the rumen. Before any of the contents are removed from that organ a linen cloth should be placed from the outer wound into the rumen in order to prevent any of the ingesta from getting into the abdominal cavity. Some practitioners, after removing a portion of the contents of the rumen, introduce such medicine as may be indicated before closing the wound. Clean the wound and close the opening in the rumen with uninterrupted (Pl. XXVII, fig. 8) carbolized catgut sutures. Next close the external wound, consisting of the integument, muscle, and peritoneum, with stout, interrupted (Pl. XXVII, fig. 6) metallic sutures. No feed should be given for several hours after the operation, and then gruels only. (See "Distention of rumen or paunch with feed," p. 26.) TREATMENT OF ABSCESSES. An abscess may be detected, if situated externally, by heat, pain, redness, and swelling in the early stages, and, if further developed, by the fluctuation which is present. When any of these symptoms are absent, the suppuration should be encouraged by the means of hot fomentations and poultices. Care must be taken that the abscess is not opened too soon, or to some extent it may cause it to scatter, and the escape of pus will be lessened. The time to open an abscess is just before it is ready to break, and should be done with a sharp lance, a crucial incision sometimes being necessary. The cavity should be syringed out with an antiseptic solution. Care should be taken not to allow the wound to close too rapidly, to prevent which a tent of lint or oakum should be introduced. WOUNDS. For the purposes of the present work wounds may be divided into three classes: (1) Incised; (2) punctured; (3) lacerated or contused. In any wound all that the most suitable applications can accomplish is, in the first place, to prevent the access of those poisonous germs which exist in the animal's surroundings, such as the soil and the manure, and, in the second place, when the process of repair is for some reason temporarily inactive or altogether arrested, to incite that curative inflammation that is the invariable method by which the cure is effected. INCISED WOUND.--This is one with clean-cut edges, and may be either superficial or deep. In wounds of all descriptions there is necessarily more or less bleeding, and this is especially liable to be the case in incised wounds, particularly when they penetrate to a considerable depth, or when inflicted on a part where blood vessels of any considerable size approach the surface. To arrest the hemorrhage must therefore be the first consideration. If slight, a generous use of cold water is all that is necessary, but if one or more vessels of any size have been wounded or entirely severed, they should be taken up and ligated. If the blood flows continuously and is dark in color, it proceeds from a vein, but if bright-colored and jerky in its flow, it is arterial. The taking up of an artery simply means the tying up of the bleeding vessel, which should be accomplished as follows: To discover the bleeding artery take a piece of clean absorbent cotton, dip it in cold water, and by gentle pressure on the wound clear it of the accumulated blood. The jet of fresh blood reveals the end of the vessel, which is readily recognized by its whitish-yellow or buff color. It should be seized with a forceps or pincers and slightly drawn clear of the surrounding tissues. Now take the thread and place the middle of it under the artery, take up the ends, tie one simple knot tightly, pressing the thread down with the forefinger so as not to include the forceps, then a second one over it and cut off the ends. The bleeding being arrested, the operator can now carefully clean and inspect the wound, taking care to remove all blood and foreign matters and clip the hair around the edges before proceeding to stitch it up. If the wound is superficial, the lips may be brought together by a series of independent stitches (Pl. XXVII, fig. 6) about one-half of an inch to three-fourths of an inch apart. The stitches should not be drawn tightly; it is sufficient to bring the edges of the wound in apposition. If the wound is deep, the needle should be introduced perpendicularly at as great a distance from the lip of the wound as the depth it is to be inserted, so as to give the thread sufficient hold. All the stitches should be as nearly as possible at equal distances from the border of the wound, to prevent unequal strain, and the knots should be made at the side, not over the wound. (Pl. XXVII, fig. 6.) When the wound is large and deep, care should be taken to have an opening in the lowest part to allow for the escape of the discharges. In deep wounds which run crosswise of a limb or muscle it is often advisable to use what is technically known as the "quilled suture," which is most readily understood by reference to Plate XXVII, figure 7. To accomplish this method a curved needle with an eye in the point and a strong double thread should be used. The needle thus threaded is introduced perpendicularly at least an inch from the wound on one side, carried across below and brought out the same distance from the border of the cut on the opposite side, the thread being seized and held in position while the needle is withdrawn, leaving a loop of thread protruding on one side and two loose ends on the other side of each stitch. When enough stitches have been made, take a light piece of wood about the size of a lead pencil, corresponding in length to the size of the wound or slightly longer, and insert it through each of the loops, drawing up the free ends of the threads, which should in turn be tied securely on a similar piece of wood on that side. PUNCTURED WOUNDS.--Owing to the uncertainty of their depth and the structures they may involve, punctured wounds are by far the most dangerous and difficult to treat. Not only is the extent of the damage hidden from view, but the very character of the injury, as can be readily understood, implies at least the possibility of deep-seated inflammation and consequent discharge of pus (matter), which, when formed, is kept pent up until it has accumulated to such an extent that it burrows by simple gravity, as no other exit is possible. In this way foreign matters, such as a broken piece of the stake or snag, or whatever caused the wound, may be carried to an indefinite depth, or the cavity of a joint may be invaded and very serious, if not fatal, consequences occur. The danger is especially marked when the injury is inflicted on parts liable to frequent and extensive motion, but all cases of punctured wounds should receive unusual care, as no judgment can be accurately formed from the external appearance of the wound. While a probe can ascertain the depth, it throws but little light on the extent or exact nature of the internal injury. For this reason all punctured wounds should invariably be carefully searched by means of a probe or some substitute devised for the occasion, such as a piece of wire with a smooth blunt end, or a piece of hard wood shaped for the purpose. Stitching is not admissible in the case of punctured wounds. After thoroughly cleansing the opening of the wound and its surroundings, tincture of iodin should be injected directly into the wound. If a punctured wound is not very deep, and when the bruising and laceration are slight, it is possible for healing to take place by adhesion, and this should always be encouraged, as the process of repair by this method is far superior to that by granulation, which will be referred to later. With this object in view, the animal should be kept as quiet as possible. A dose of physic, such as a pound of Glauber's or Epsom salt, should be administered, and warm antiseptic fomentations or poultices, when this is practicable, applied frequently to the surface of the wound. In wounds of this description the process of repair may be complicated by the appearance of exuberant granulations, popularly known as "proud flesh," which is really an overgrowth of new tissue--granulation tissue; but these should not be interfered with unless they continue after the acute stage of inflammation has been subdued. If, after this, they persist, they may be treated with a 10 per cent solution of sulphate of copper (bluestone) or nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) in water. CONTUSED OR LACERATED WOUNDS.--These are usually caused by a blow with some blunt instrument or by falls. The seriousness depends largely on the depth of the injury, and treatment should be directed to allaying the inflammation and preventing the consequent tendency to sloughing. To this end soothing applications, such as antiseptic fomentations and poultices, are plainly indicated. METHODS OF HEALING.--Technically these may be divided into a number of distinct processes, but practically we may speak of them as two only, namely, by primary union, or adhesion, and by granulation. As suppuration is not so liable to occur in cattle as in horses, healing by the former and more speedy process is much more common in the first-named species, more particularly in clean-cut or incised wounds, provided they have been stitched within 12 hours from the time the injury which caused them was inflicted, that they have been kept antiseptically clean, and that the patient by some means has been kept fairly still. This latter stipulation is probably hardest to comply with. Quiet is an important factor in the process of repair among the lower animals. The second method of healing, namely, by granulation, which is, however, the manner in which most wounds in animals heal, takes much longer. In punctured wounds of any depth healing necessarily takes place in this way only, and the treatment should be directed largely to alleviating pain and moderating inflammation. AFTER-TREATMENT AND DRESSING OF WOUNDS.--The dressing of wounds is one of the most important branches of veterinary surgery, and one of the most constant difficulties that the practicing veterinarian has to contend with lies in the lack of cooperation on the part of owners in the care and attention in the after-treatment of wounds. In summarizing the treatment of wounds, the following recommendations should be observed: wounds must be cleansed and kept clean, using antiseptic solutions which do not produce irritation, and applying the solutions with a syringe or with clean pieces of absorbent cotton. Bleeding should be stopped before the closing of the wound by sutures or bandages. An opening at the bottom of all wounds except small superficial wounds should be provided as a drainage outlet for the escape of wound secretions or pus if it should form. The edges of wounds and the muscles involved in the wound should be kept as quiet as possible during the process of healing. Every wound should be protected by a sterile or antiseptic dressing whenever it is possible to retain a dressing in place. Dressings should be changed when it is apparent that they have become drenched with wound secretions or pus, or have become disarranged or too loose, permitting dirt to enter between them and the skin. If swelling appears beyond the edges of a bandage, it is an indication that it is too tight and it should then be removed and again applied. The hands of the operator and all instruments and dressings coming in contact with a wound at any time should be made as clean as possible by the use of antiseptics. BARBED-WIRE CUTS.--We have specified these simply because in some sections of the country there is a fixed idea that there is a specific poison in barbed wire, causing injuries which require treatment differing from that which is applicable to ordinary wounds. Barbed-wire cuts differ from ordinary wounds only in the parts being often lacerated and torn, and the treatment already indicated for wounds of that description is applicable to them. CASTRATION. Castration consists in the removal of the essential organs of generation, and is performed upon both the male and the female. In the male the organs removed are the testicles and in the female the ovaries. CASTRATION OF THE MALE. Castration in the male is performed for several different purposes. It may be necessary, as is the case in certain diseased conditions of the testicles and in strangulated hernia, but the usual object of the operation is to enhance the general value of the animal. For example, if the animal is intended for burden, the operation will better fit him for his work by so modifying his temperament and physical condition that he may easily be controlled by his master. Again, if he is merely to be used for beef purposes, the operation will improve the quality of the flesh and cause an added development of the most valuable portions of the dressed carcass. The operation upon the female may be performed on account of diseased conditions, but we may say that the chief object of the operation is to make the animal one of more profit to its owner by lessening the lacteal secretion and also improving the physical condition from the point of view of beef production. When the cow is spayed, it does away with all trouble attending estrum, or heat, gestation, and parturition with its accidents and ailments. The flesh of the spayed cow is more tender and juicy than that of the natural animal. The operation upon the male may be either the uncovered or the covered. In the former the incision is made down to the testicle proper, and in the latter the cut is made through the scrotum or the outside covering and through the dartos, or the next coat, care being taken to cut no deeper tissues or coats. The age at which the operation is performed varies, but usually it is performed between the second and third month. If done in early life, there is less danger of complications, the organs being in a latent condition and not fully developed. There are many different methods of operating, the principal ones of which we shall mention. In the uncovered operation a good free incision should be made, exposing the testicle completely. Now it may be removed by simply cutting it off. The only danger of doing this is that hemorrhage is liable to follow. To obviate this, before the division of the spermatic cord it should be twisted several times in the following manner: Take hold of the cord with the left hand, having it between the thumb and the index finger. Now twist the free portion several times with the right hand, all the time being careful to push with the left hand toward the body of the animal. In this way the danger of injury to the cord during the animal's struggles will be overcome. There will be no hemorrhage, or very little, if it has been done properly. This is the most simple manner of torsion. There are forceps and other instruments made to perform the operation in this manner. The actual cautery is an old method, but we shall not describe it, as we consider that we have better methods now. The next method with the clamps, although extensively used upon the horse, is not practiced to so great an extent upon the bovine at the present time. It is a very old method, and is considered very safe. Clamps are used in the covered and uncovered operations. More modern methods are by the use of special instruments known as the emasculator and the écraseur. The operation of "mulling" or crushing the spermatic cord is an unscientific and barbarous procedure, causing unnecessary pain and suffering. The methods described above apply only to the animal in a normal condition. Before operating everything should be examined to see that it is as it should be. If otherwise, a special operative procedure will be necessary. Whichever mode of operation is adopted from a practical standpoint, the principal precautions to be taken in order to attain success are as follows: First, thorough cleanliness under strict aseptic and antiseptic precautions; second, a free and boldly made incision; third, the avoidance of undue pulling or tension upon the spermatic cord; fourth, free drainage, which can be maintained, provided the original incision has been properly made. The operation of castration of the male is by no means a serious one, and when properly performed there is little danger from complications. Although the danger is trifling, the complications which may arise are sometimes of a serious nature. Hemorrhage, either primary or secondary, tetanus (or lockjaw), abscesses, hernia (or rupture), gangrene, and peritonitis are the most serious complications that follow castration. Whichever complication arises will require its own special treatment, which we will not go into here, as it will be fully dealt with under another heading. We would add, however, that, generally speaking, the animal, after being castrated, should either be regularly exercised or be allowed freedom so that it can exercise itself. Sudden changes of the temperature are dangerous. The animal should be fed moderately, but of a diet easily digestible. CASTRATION OF THE FEMALE. The operation of ovariotomy (spaying) should be performed when the heifer is in her prime and in moderate condition not too plethoric and not in heat or pregnant. This operation may be performed in one of two ways--namely, by the flank or by the vagina--each operation having its special advantages. In the flank operation the animal may be operated upon either while standing or while in the recumbent position. If standing, she should be placed against a wall or a partition and her head held by a strong assistant. The legs also must be secured to prevent the animal from kicking. A vertical incision should be made in the left flank, about the middle of the upper portion, care being taken not to make the opening too far down, in order to avoid the division of the circumflex artery which traverses that region. The operator should now make an opening through the peritoneum, which is best done with the fingers. Next the hand and arm should be introduced into the abdominal cavity and the hand directed backward toward the pelvis, searching for the horns of the uterus; if followed up the ovaries will easily be found. They should then be drawn outward and may be removed either by the écraseur or by torsion. Closing and suturing the wound will complete the operation. An adhesive plaster bandage can be beneficially applied. The operation by the vagina is more complicated and requires special and expensive instruments. The mode of procedure in brief is as follows: A speculum is introduced into the vagina, and an incision is made into the superior wall of that passage about 2 inches from the neck of the uterus, cutting from below upward and from before backward. An incision which should not exceed 3-1/2 inches in length should be made. The next step is to get possession of the ovaries. They are situated in a fold of the broad ligament and should be drawn carefully through the incision into the vagina. Now take the long-handled scissors, specially made for this purpose, with which the thick border of the broad ligament is divided. The torsion forceps are introduced and applied to the broad ligament above the ovary. The left hand is then introduced, and the thumb and the index finger grasp hold of the broad ligament above the forceps. With the right hand torsion is applied and the ovary removed. The other ovary may be removed in the same manner. What has been said with regard to complications and aftertreatment in the case of the male also applies to the female. OTHER SURGICAL OPERATIONS. Descriptions of other surgical operations not given in this chapter may be found in other parts of this work by reference to the index. * * * * * SURGICAL OPERATIONS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate XXVI. Devices for casting cattle. (From Fleming.) Fig. 1. Reuff's method of throwing or casting the ox. Fig. 2. Miles's method of throwing or casting the ox. Plate XXVII. Surgical instruments and sutures. (After Reynders and Fleming.) Figs. 1 and 2. Seton needles. These may be either long or short, straight or curved, according to the locality in which a seton is to be inserted. Fig. 3. Various forms of surgical needles. Fig. 4. Suture forceps or needle holder, for passing needles through thick and dense tissues. Fig. 5. Knot properly tied. Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Various forms of sutures. Fig. 6, interrupted suture; 7, quilled suture; 8, uninterrupted suture; 9, twisted suture, made by passing suture pins through the parts to be held together and winding the thread about them so as to represent the figure 8; 10, single-pin suture. Fig. 11. Appliance for ringing the bull, one-fourth natural size. Fig. 12. Nose clamp, with spring and keeper. [Illustration: PLATE XXVI. DEVICES FOR CASTING CATTLE.] [Illustration: PLATE XXVII. SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND SUTURES.] * * * * * TUMORS AFFECTING CATTLE. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry._ [_Synonyms:_ New growth, neoplasm, neoformation, pseudoplasm, swelling, and hyperplasia.] _Definition._--Tumors[3] are abnormal masses of tissue, noninflammatory and independent in character, arising, without obvious cause, from cells of preexistent tissue, possessing no physiologic function, and characteristically unrestrained in growth and structure. Tumors are abnormal masses of tissue. The application of the term "tumor" is directly connected with the fact that they produce local enlargement. They are noninflammatory; that is, the process of inflammation is not directly the cause or accompaniment of them. An inflammatory new growth tends to disappear upon the subsidence of the inflammatory process, while spontaneous disappearance of a tumor is comparatively rare. Tumors are independent. For instance, their nutrition bears no relation to the nutrition of the body. A lipoma, or fatty tumor, in the subcutaneous tissue, may go on increasing to huge bulk while the body is steadily emaciating. Again, the tissues of the aged gradually undergo atrophy, yet cancers arise at this time and grow rapidly. Tumors are unrestrained in growth and structure. In the development of an animal we know at what period of its existence the mass of tissue called liver will develop--what its site, structure, and size will be. We know that it will remain only in that locality, and not, as it were, colonize throughout the system. With tumors it is different; there are no laws by which we can forecast the time, place, nature, or size of development of them. There is no cartilage in the kidney or parotid gland, yet a chondroma, or cartilage tumor, may develop in either. Even when a new growth of tissue is started by an injury and consequent inflammation--as, for instance, proud flesh--there is a limitation of its size, but the controlling influences which govern the size of an organ or normal mass of tissue and limit the extent of an inflammatory overgrowth are all absent in the case of tumors. They are unrestrained, lawless. Metastasis expresses the lawlessness of tumors as regards being limited to the original site of development. Small particles of tumors enter the blood vessels or lymph streams and are carried to distant parts of the body, where they lodge and start new tumor formations. Expansion by colonization in this manner is a rule with many tumors, and, since they exercise no function of use to the organism, this dissemination of actively growing particles becomes a menace to the system by numerically increasing the body's burden, opening new channels of drain upon the system and adding new centers for the absorption of putrefactive materials when the secondary tumors shall have degenerated. It is this which makes metastasis such an important element in the malignancy of tumors. Tumors possess no physiological function. They are absolutely useless. Fibrous tumors bind no parts of the organism together; bony tumors add nothing to the supporting framework of the body; the tissue of fatty tumors never serves as a storehouse of feed and energy; the cells of an adenoma, or gland tumor, furnish no secretion; a tumor composed of muscle tissue produces no increase to the strength of the individual--its muscle cells are not contractile. Tumors arise from cells of preexistent tissue. Tumor tissue is not a new variety. Whatever the structure of a tumor, its counterpart is found among the tissues of the body, the lawlessness of the tumor, however, showing itself in more or less departure from the normal type. This departure is usually a reversion to a more elementary or embryonic stage, so that the tumor tissues may be said to be structurally immature. Tumors arise without obvious cause. Concerning the ultimate cause of tumor formation we are absolutely ignorant. Various theories have been advanced from time to time, but none of them have been applicable to more than a limited number of cases. The most important theories may be briefly mentioned. (1) _The theory of tumor diathesis._--Bilroth taught that tumors are caused by a peculiar predisposition consisting of a diseased state of the fluids of the body. This constitutional taint might be acquired, but, having been acquired, is also hereditary. This theory is known also as the heredity hypothesis, but, while it is true that heredity appears to play some role in the causation of certain neoplasms, its application is too limited to make it of value. (2) _The mechanical or irritant theory._--Virchow assumed that tumors arise as the result of previous irritation of the part. This has been noticed particularly in the case of certain cancers. They frequently develop on the edges of old ulcers, thus being dependent apparently on chronic irritation. Cancer of the lip in pipe smokers is a case in point. Cancerous tumors of the skin often develop on the arms of workers in paraffin, tar, or soot, the chemical irritation of these substances being the cause. On the contrary, the proportion of those thus affected among the exposed is very small and forces the conclusion that if the real cause were in the irritation vastly more cases would occur. (3) _The theory of nervous influence._--That is based upon (_a_) the observed fact that tumors occur more frequently in man and the higher animals than in those lower in the scale, among which the nervous system is less highly developed; (_b_) that certain formations seem to be directly connected with nerve distribution, while others have been associated with alternations in neighboring nerve trunks. (4) _The embryonal theory._--This is known also as Cohnheim's hypothesis. In early fetal life there occurs a production of cells in excess of those required for the construction of the various parts of the body, so that a certain number of them are left over in the fully developed tissue or become misplaced during the sorting of cells for future development of tissues and organs. These cells lie dormant until favorable conditions arise or until some sufficient stimulus is applied, when, released from their inactivity, they begin to reproduce and grow. Not being normally related to their site, they lack the controlling and limiting influences of the part, and, their embryonic character enduing them with a most potent proliferating power, they develop in a lawless and unrestrained manner. There are tumors whose existence can be explained only on these grounds. Still, this theory falls far short of answering the question as to the origin of tumors. (5) _The parasitic theory._--This is not only one of the latest, but, merely as a hypothesis, it is the most attractive and plausible of all. The serious objections to it, however, are the almost uniform failure that has met the attempts to transplant these tumors from one animal to another and the absence of any constant variety of organism in them. Several forms of parasites have been found in certain tumors, but nothing definite has been shown with reference to the relation they bear to the causation of the neoplasm. CLASSIFICATION OF TUMORS. In Senn's work on tumors occurs the following: "A uniform system of classification of tumors is one of the great wants of modern pathology, and all attempts in this direction have proved failures." It would be folly, therefore, to burden the pages of a work of this kind with one or several of the proposed systems which have, admittedly, at some important point, failed of their purpose. Since the value of this chapter depends chiefly upon its practical character, which in turn is measured by its aid in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, the old but important clinical division is here adopted. Tumors are either malignant or benign. The essential difference between the two classes is that while _benign tumors depend for their ill effects entirely upon their situation, malignant neoplasms wherever located inevitably destroy life._ The clinical features of each group are in many cases sufficiently marked to distinguish them. MALIGNANT TUMORS. (1) These are invariably pernicious, and from the beginning tend to destroy life. (2) The cellular element predominates; therefore they grow rapidly. (3) Possessing no capsule, they infiltrate surrounding tissues. (4) They infect adjacent lymph glands. (5) They recur even after complete removal. (6) They give metastasis; that is, they become disseminated in different organs. (7) Their presence develops a progressive emaciation. BENIGN TUMORS. (1) These in and of themselves do not tend to produce death. (2) As the cellular element is not liable to predominate, they grow slowly. (3) They are encapsulated, and when diffuse do not infiltrate surrounding tissues. (4) They do not infect adjacent lymph glands. (5) They do not recur after complete removal. (6) They do not manifest metastasis. Benign tumors, though harmless, may, by the accident of their location, indirectly produce death. Mere pressure on the brain substance of an otherwise innocent tumor, compression of the blood supply for vital organs, growth in such manner as to cause obstruction in the alimentary tract or pressure upon nerves, may cause death, or, prior to death, so combine the effects of anemia (deficiency of blood), starvation, and pain, with its consequent restlessness, as to produce a veritable cachexia (condition of general ill health). On the other hand, a malignant tumor in its primary growth may so implicate a vital organ as to destroy life before metastasis can occur or even before cachexia can develop. Thus, to the untrained observer, environment may so operate as to cause these two classes of new growths to simulate each other. The boundary lines may seem to overlap. It is here that the microscope, as the court of last appeal, adjudicates positively in the diagnosis between these two clearly marked divisions. It may almost be asserted that a true classification of tumors can not be made until we know more about the cause of them. The arrangement here presented is offered to meet the practical needs of the veterinarian, student, and farmer rather than of the pathologist. We may roughly divide the tissues of the body into structural and lining tissues. The structural tissues are composed of the tissues of special function and simple connective tissues. The lining or covering tissues, both internal and external, are known as epithelium. Section A of the table below contains the true tumors or proper neoplasms. Section B includes the cysts, some of which are true tumors, while others are false ones, but the latter are added because of their gross resemblance to the true and the consequent necessity of considering them at the same time. TUMORS AND CYSTS. A.--Tumors. BENIGN. I.--_Tumors composed of tissues resembling those of special function._ 1. Type of muscle tissue Myoma. 2. Type of nerve tissue Neuroma. 3. Type of vascular tissue Angioma. 4. Type of gland tissue Adenoma. II.--_Tumors composed of fully developed connective tissue._ 1. Type of fibrous tissue Fibroma. 2. Type of adipose, or fat, tissue Lipoma. 3. Type of cartilage tissue Chondroma. 4. Type of osseous, or bone, tissue Osteoma. 5. Type of neuroglia, or nerve, sheath Glioma. 6. Type of mucoid, or mucous, tissue Myxoma. MALIGNANT. III.--_Tumors composed of embryonic or immature connective tissues._ 1. Type of immature connective tissue Sarcoma. 2. Type of endothelial tissue Endothelioma. IV.--_Tumors in which epithelial elements predominate._ 1. Type of various epithelial cells and associated tissues Carcinoma. B.--CYSTS. I.--_Cysts which develop in preexisting cavities._ 1 Retention cysts. 2 Proliferation cysts. II.--_Cysts which are of congenital origin and are true tumors._ 1 Dermoid cysts. III.--_Cysts which originate independently as the result of pathological changes and are nontumorous._ 1. Cysts formed by the softening and disintegration of lesions Softening cysts. 2. Cysts formed around parasites Parasitic cysts. 3. Cysts formed by an outpouring of blood and lymph into the tissue spaces with subsequent encapsulation of the fluid Extravasation cysts. TERMINOLOGY.--The principle of naming tumors is quite simple. The Greek word "oma" (plural "omata") means tumor. This word "oma" is added to the stem of the word ordinarily used to designate the kind of tissue of which the tumor is composed. Thus a tumor formed after the type of fibrous tissue is a fibroma. The only exception to this is in the naming of the two large classes of malignant neoplasms. There the names were formed from the fleshlike appearance of the one and the crablike proliferations of the other--namely, Sarcoma (sarks=flesh), carcinoma (karkinos=crab). DIAGNOSIS.--In the diagnosis of tumors note is taken of (1) clinical history and (2) examination of the tumor. (1) _Clinical history._--Circumstances connected with the origin of the tumor and its rapidity of growth may point to an inflammatory swelling rather than a tumor. The location of the tumor at its commencement is important, as, for instance, in diagnosing between lipoma and carcinoma, the former being more or less movable under the skin, while a carcinoma develops in the skin. While tenderness on pressure may be caused by compression of a sensitive nerve by a tumor or by tumors of the nerve or nerve sheaths, as a rule this symptom is indicative of inflammatory swelling rather than of the existence of a tumor. (2) _Direct examination of the tumor._--In the application of this diagnosis the trained observer will note color, size, shape, and surface structure, transmission of light, movableness, consistence, resistance, pulsation, and crepitation. Percussion, auscultation, and exploration are also available methods. Finally, microscopic examination of the growing portions of the tumor by a pathologist will be found most satisfactory. GENERAL TREATMENT OF TUMORS. For benign tumors treatment is required only when it damages the animal's value or when merely for sake of appearance. When it is possible, the removal of the tumor by an operation is indicated. If the tumor has a small, constricted base, remove by torsion, ligation, or with an écraseur. Ligation following the incision of the skin with a knife avoids the pain of pressing on the sensitive nerves of the skin and is suitable for tumors of broad base and small bodies. A firing iron, such as is used in line or feather firing, may also be used in removing tumors with small attachments. This not only stops the bleeding but forms a firm scab, under which healing may occur rapidly. Those tumors that can not be removed by the above methods may be treated with caustics or acids, such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, caustic potash, arsenic, silver nitrate, or chromic acid, but it is difficult to limit the action of these drugs. The injection, into the tumor, of such chemicals as anilin dyes, alcohol, acetic acid, citric acid, or ergotin, is of doubtful value, as is also the injection of the germs of erysipelas--thought by some to be a specific. Certain specific tumors, such as actinomycosis and botryomycosis, may be successfully treated by the internal administration of potassium iodid, together with the injection into the tumor or the painting of its surface with either Lugol's solution or the tincture of iodin. The most reliable means of treating tumors is by extirpation with cutting instruments. Dissect the tumor from the surrounding tissue, ligating all the larger blood vessels, and tearing the tissues with the fingers rather than cutting with a knife. The bleeding may be stopped with a hot iron. The after treatment is the same as for any ordinary wound of similar size. DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL TUMORS. Although a full list of the tumors that may be found in bovines has been given above, there are a number that warrant a detailed description, and the following mention will be made of the most important of them: MYOMA. These tumors are after the type of muscle. They are sharply circumscribed and, as a rule, are very hard, a condition owing usually to combination with fibroma and are then known as fibromyoma. In fact, the clinical differentiation between myoma and fibroma is almost impossible. Myomas are found in the uterus, vagina, stomach, intestines, gullet, and bladder of a bovine animal. They grow very large, but, as a rule, are benign. Treatment should consist of their removal. NEUROFIBROMA. A true neuroma built up of nerve fibers and nerve cells is infrequent, if it ever occurs, in cattle. False neuromas, or neurofibromas, are knotty, spreading tumors of the size of a large potato, which are developed within the nerve sheaths and composed of nerve fibers and connective tissue bands interlaced. The commingling of these varied fibers is often so intricate that separation is practically impossible. This tumor is most frequently found upon the shoulder of cattle. Treatment is surgical. ANGIOMA. The angiomas are tumors composed mainly of blood vessels or blood spaces and are observed on the skin of man, where they are called "birthmarks" or "mother marks." Cavernous angiomas are seen in cattle, affecting the liver and the mucous membrane of the nasal septum. In the liver they appear as smooth, flat, nonprojecting tumors of a dark-red or purple color and of about the size of a silver 10-cent piece. They are somewhat softer in consistency than the adjoining liver substance into which they are gradually fused. These tumors are frequently observed by meat inspectors in livers of slaughtered cattle. Treatment of angioma is unnecessary. ADENOMA. The structure of this tumor is after the type of gland tissue. It is rarely seen in cattle except in combination with cancer or sarcoma. A growth which occurs more frequently in bovines, especially calves, and which in some instances bears a striking resemblance to an adenoma is the so-called goiter. GOITER (STRUMA). This is a noninflammatory enlargement or a hyperplasia of the thyroid gland. While it can not be definitely classed among tumors, yet, owing to its resemblance to the latter, it will be discussed at this time. The cause of goiter has never been definitely ascertained. Among the most probable causes may be mentioned heredity, insufficient and improper diet, close confinement, unhygienic surroundings, and an unknown toxic substance which is supposed to obtain in those localities rich in magnesium and lime salts. Certain organisms found in goiter have been suspected of producing this trouble, but their relation to the disease has not been satisfactorily proved. A goiter may consist of (1) simple enlargement of the follicles which are filled with albuminous matter (follicular goiter); (2) an increase of connective tissues between the follicles, causing the swelling to be dense and resistant (fibrous goiter); (3) a great increase in size of one or more follicles, forming a cyst (cystic goiter); (4) great dilatation of the blood vessels in the gland accompanied with pulsation with each heart beat (vascular goiter). _Symptoms._--Goiter may be observed at the side of the throat, reaching the size of a fist or even larger, or it may hang down below the windpipe. In cattle the two thyroid glands are close together, and when the disease affects both there may be but one uniform swelling placed in front of the windpipe below the angle of the jaw. This swelling may be hard, soft, or doughy in consistence, and with each beat of the heart it may pulsate like an artery. It may cause labored breathing by pressure on the windpipe, and death may result from pressure on this structure, on the gullet, or on the adjoining large vessels. _Treatment._--In young animals the treatment is usually satisfactory, and consists in giving the animal a complete change of feed and plenty of exercise in the open air. If the condition appears enzootic in the district, remove the animal to another location when possible. Iodin, either in the form of ointment or the tincture, should be applied to the swelling. Injections of iodin solution, 5 grains of iodin in 1 dram of 25 per cent alcohol, may also be made into the substance of the gland. When the swelling which follows this injection has subsided it may be repeated. Potassium iodid should be given internally in 1-1/2 dram doses twice daily for a cow, or in 20-grain doses twice a day for a calf. Extirpation of all but a small section of the swelling may be successfully accomplished by a qualified veterinarian, but if it should be entirely removed, myxedema and death follow. FIBROMA. Fibromas are tumors made up chiefly of connective tissue and are usually confined to the skin and subcutaneous tissue. Indurative fibromas of the skin appear as tumors of gelatinous connective tissue or as firm, white vascular connective tissue growths, which are more or less sharply outlined, move readily over the underlying tissues in company with the skin, and owe their origin to mechanical injuries, perforating wounds, repeated abrasions, or the invasion of pus cocci or botryomyces into the tissues. These tumors in cattle are frequently found upon the dewlap as solid lumps, hard as stone to the touch, lying loosely between the layers of skin, and gradually losing themselves in the softer tissues of the neck above, or as smooth, hard tumors of glistening white substance with interlacing lines of softer tissue. They may also be found in the region of the knee or at the elbow. The skin over the growths, in accordance with the originating cause, will be found chafed, covered with scabs, or even ulcerated and accompanied with collateral edema. These connective tissue tumors grow slowly but reach enormous size. They sometimes follow injuries to the region of the throat and form there as hard, firm growth, even reaching the size of a child's head. A fibroma upon the larynx is not an infrequent occurrence in the ox. These tumors are always sharply outlined and have a roughened surface. They may be differentiated from actinomycotic tumors (see chapter on "Infectious diseases of cattle," p. 358) in the same location by their firm, fibrous structure and by the absence of pus from the interior. A tumor is sometimes seen upon the muzzle of cattle, which assumes a diameter equaling the width of the muzzle. It is a voluminous connective-tissue formation known by the name of "fibroma diffusum." Another form is sometimes observed upon the tongue. It grows upon a broad, spreading base, becoming very hard. It is almost lacking in blood vessels, although the few that are present are plainly in view, and in consequence is poorly supplied with fluids. It is of a smooth contour, white or whitish yellow in color, is sharply limited from the normal substance of the tongue, may be covered with mucous membrane, on which prominent papillæ are located, or only by a thin, delicate layer of epithelium, and is usually found in the middle part of the tongue, where it may reach the size of two fists. Pedunculate or stemmed fibrous tumors are frequently noticed growing upon or near the extremity of the tails of cows. They are apparently of traumatic origin, such as tying the tail fast while milking or shaving it too closely while trimming for show purposes, and usually contain bloody or gelatinous material within, or, again, they may be strongly edematous throughout. _Treatment._--The treatment of large fibromas is surgical and consists of the operative removal of the tumor, followed by suturing of the wound. Small external tumors may be painted with zinc chlorid, chromic acid, or a concentrated solution of bichlorid of mercury. PAPILLOMA (WART). When fibromas develop from the lining or covering tissues they frequently form papillary growths, more or less thickly covered with epithelium, and are then called papillomas, or warts. Papillomas consist of villouslike projections, resulting from a proliferation of the outer layer (epithelium) of the skin or mucous membrane. These growths are also called "angle berries," and may assume a variety of forms. Sometimes there is a preponderance of epidermis in the formation, and the tumor then appears as a hard, dense, insensitive, clublike growth, or wart. Again the swelling is chiefly in the derm, or true skin, and we have what is known as a flesh wart (verucca carnea). In other cases the growth of papillar bodies projects in great cauliflowerlike tumors with deeply furrowed and lobulated surface, over which a covering of epidermis may or may not be present. These are usually much softer and are well supplied with blood vessels. It is not uncommon for them to be pedunculate or stemmed, and in this case considerable rotary motion or twisting is possible. Their color is cloudy gray or grayish red, with white bands of connective tissue radiating from the center. Their consistence varies. Upon their surfaces and within their clefts and fissures they undergo retrogressive changes, softening, bleeding, or ulcerations. A favorite location for the papilloma in cattle is the udder and teats, where they may develop in such numbers as to cover the entire surface and make the animal troublesome to milk. The sides of the head, neck, and shoulders also afford satisfactory conditions for their growth, and are frequently seen to be affected by them. _Treatment._--Warts may be removed with the scissors, twisted off with the fingers, or ligatured by means of a rubber band or horsehair. The roots should then be cauterized with tincture of iron, glacial acetic acid, or lunar caustic. Acids should never be used in removing warts about the eyes or in the mouth. Papillomas of the eyelids sometimes change to cancers and should be removed by taking out a wedge-shaped section of the eyelid. Young cattle should be given arsenic internally in the form of Fowler's solution, 1 tablespoonful twice a day for a 6-months-old calf. POLYPS. Polyps are usually fibromas or myxomas, occurring on the mucous membrane of the nasal passages or genital tract. They grow upon a narrow stem, bleed readily when injured, and often contain a center of thin, limpid fluid. A bloody discharge is sometimes seen coming from the affected nostril, but this is not always easy of detection in cattle, owing to the pliancy of their tongues and to their habit of licking an irritated nostril. Usually these tumors grow downward and may project from the nostril, causing snoring sounds and uneasy breathing. They may occasionally force themselves backward into the throat, where they interfere seriously with respiration, the patient being obliged to breathe with an effort, and even forced to cough in order to dislodge temporarily the obstruction from the larynx. Such tumors, when near the nostril, may easily be removed by the use of forceps or a loop made of bailing wire. Serious bleeding is not liable to follow their removal, but an astringent wash, such as a solution of the perchlorid of iron, if applied to the cut surface, will be found very beneficial. In case the tumor is not within easy reach, the services of a qualified veterinarian should be obtained to perform the necessary operation. LIPOMA. This is a tumor consisting chiefly of fat cells. The growth is irregularly rounded and distinctly lobulated, very soft, and almost fluctuating. It is insensitive, grows slowly, and is always inclosed in a distinct fibrous capsule, from which it can be easily shelled out. It may become very large and often hangs pendulous from a long, elastic pedicle. In cattle this tumor may be found in the subcutaneous tissues, especially of the back and shoulders, uterus, and intestines, and in the latter position it may cause strangulation, or "gut tie," by winding around a loop of the intestine. _Treatment._--When found on the skin the tumor may be readily removed with a knife or by a ligature. Caustics and the cautery produce wounds that heal slowly and can not be recommended in the treatment of this tumor. CHONDROMA. This tumor formation is composed of cartilage cells. It is a rounded and very often unevenly nodular and sharply described tumor. It is very hard, dense, elastic, and painless and develops principally where we find normal cartilage cells. It is rare in cattle, but has been found in the subcutaneous tissues and nasal cavities. _Treatment._--Extirpation. OSTEOMA (BONY TUMOR). Bones may occasionally grow in such a profuse and irregular manner that the product, or osteophyte, assumes the character of a tumor. The bone tissue may possess either spongy or compact properties and grow either from the periphery of the bone or within its interior. These tumors most frequently appear about the head of the animal, either upon the jawbones, within the nasal passages, or in connection with the horns. They are usually of bony hardness, painless, benign, and sharply outlined. _Treatment._--The treatment consists in either removing them with a saw, chisel, or trephine, or preventing their further development by counterirritation with blisters or firing iron. MYXOMA. Characteristic myxomas are mucoid tumors which chiefly originate from the mucous membrane and are especially to be found within the nasal passages and uteri of cattle. They can reach a size of three fists, are smooth or velvetlike, or may be lobulated, broad at the base, and consist of a glassy-looking mass of connective tissue, which usually shows a distinctive yellowish color. Being homogeneous and elastic, the moist, jellylike tissue composing the tumor may be easily destroyed or crushed. When cut through, these tumors soon collapse from the loss of their fluids. They sometimes inclose elliptical cavities filled with slimy, gelatinous masses. _Treatment._--Extirpation. SARCOMA. This is a malignant tumor after the type of embryonal tissue, and consists of several varieties, such as the round cell, spindle cell, giant cell, alveolar, and melanosarcoma. They grow by preference in connective tissue and are quite vascular. Sarcomas appear either as single or multiple nodules, varying in size from a hempseed to a hazelnut, or else as a moderate number of tumors of the size of hen eggs. Their surface, at first smooth, later becomes lumpy and tuberous from internal degeneration. Secondary nodules may appear near the primary tumor. The outer skin is not involved so soon as in cancer, nor does ulceration follow so rapidly. Sarcoma is about the most frequent and dangerous tumor that is found in cattle. It occurs in young animals, and is found on the serous membranes, in the glandular organs, and on the outer skin, especially of the neck and shoulders--in fact, in nearly every tissue and in almost every part of the body. This tumor is often found in places exposed to traumatisms and at seats of scars, or of irritations from pressure and inflammation. _Treatment._--Treatment should consist in early and complete removal by the knife, including one-half or three-quarters of an inch of the sound tissue adjoining the tumor. If there is a possibility that sarcomatous tissue still remains, either cauterize the wound with a hot iron or powder the walls of the cavity with arsenious acid. CANCER (CARCINOMA). Cancers are tumors of epithelial tissues and are malignant. There are several varieties of cancers, such as hard, soft, and colloid, but only those growing on the surface will be mentioned here. These malignant tumors of the superficial organs develop primarily from the epidermis or from the glands of the skin. They appear secondarily as spreading infections from milk glands, thyroids, anal glands, or as embolisms. In such cases their sole character depends wholly upon the kind of cancer from which they have sprung. The infiltrating cancer begins as an elevation of the skin, which progresses until it becomes rough and nodular. The surface later becomes attacked, and an ulcer results whose edges are outlined by a hard, firm zone. The ulcerations may remain limited by cicatricial tissue, but it is more likely that the infiltration and destruction of tissue will spread out wider and deeper until a rodent ulcer (so called) is formed. One of the most frequent sites of cancer in cattle is in the eye, where they are called fungus hematodes, but they also occur on the skin, on the genitals, in the stomach, and within the organs. _Fungus hematodes._--This starts at the inner corner of the eye as a papillary elevation or as small nodules which become fused. They grow larger and become papillomatous, with superficial ulcerations and a tendency toward hemorrhage. In some cases the eye is displaced by the growing tumor or is attacked by the cancer cells and entirely destroyed. Cancerous growths upon the external genitals and the anus usually present a rough, irregular surface from which there is a constant sloughing of decomposed tissue accompanied with a penetrating disagreeable odor. The diagnosis of cancer may be made clinically by noting the simultaneous infection of the lymph glands which surround the primary lesion. Deeply burrowing and infiltrating forms which appear as lumps and ulcerations cause marked disfiguration of the affected part. The surface becomes a soft, greasy mass; later it cracks open and from the fissures blood-colored pus exudes, being continually formed by the moist degeneration of the tissues beneath. At first the general health of the animal does not appear affected, but later the cancer nodules spread to important organs and give rise to marasmus and progressive emaciation. Cancer is not a frequent tumor of cows. Fröhner states that of 75 cases of tumors in cattle which came under his observation 2, or 2.6 per cent, were found to be cancers, while 20, or 26.6 per cent, were sarcomas. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in the early and complete removal of the tumor, taking care to include a wide border of healthy tissue. This has been most successful in such superficial cancers as those of the eye, penis, anus, testicle, vulva, and sheath. If the disease has advanced too far, this treatment may not prove efficacious, owing to the great malignancy of the cancer and its tendency to recur. In such cases the animal may be slaughtered, but the flesh should be used for food only after inspection by a competent veterinarian. CYSTS. Cysts may be true or false tumors and consist of a capsule containing a fluid or semisolid content. Among the most important cysts, which have been briefly referred to in a previous table, the following are probably the most noteworthy, owing to the frequency with which they are found in bovines: SOFTENING CYSTS. Softening cysts, which result from the degenerative liquefaction of normal or diseased tissues, especially of tumors of different kinds, followed by the encapsulation of the fluid. PARASITIC CYSTS. Parasitic or foreign-body cysts, from the inflammatory reaction induced by such parasites as the echinococcus (hydatid cyst) or by the presence of various kinds of foreign bodies. EXTRAVASATION CYSTS. Extravasation cysts, caused by injuries which rupture blood vessels, followed by an increase of fibrous tissue which forms a capsule about the fluid. The hygromata in front of the knee in cattle, so-called tumor of the knee, and serous cysts belong to this variety. HYGROMATA, OR TUMORS OF THE KNEE.--These consist in the simplest form of a collection of serous fluid mixed with fibrin within a distended bursa. The walls surrounding the fluid become firm, smooth, and dense. Outwardly the tumor appears fluctuating, though tense, while the skin which covers it may be normal, denuded of hair, or covered with hard epidermal scales, possibly half an inch in thickness, forming a hard, horny plate. The cavity which contains the fluid may have the dimensions of a hen's egg, an apple, or a child's head. Its walls are formed by the diseased secreting membrane of the bursal sac, and are readily detachable from the subcutis of the skin. Their internal surfaces are often uneven or supplied with projections or tufted growths which support a fibrous network within the tumor. Tumors of the knee may also assume a granular type, as the result of chronic inflammation or following operative or spontaneous evacuation of pus from the part. They are either firmly connected with the skin or are detachable from it, and when laid open disclose a whitish-red, porklike tissue surrounding a central nucleus of pus, or a fistulous tract leading to the outer surface. They are caused by the chronic inflammation which follows the bruises received by cattle in lying down and in rising, or they may be due to falls on uneven, hard ground. _Treatment for hygromata._--When the swelling first appears cold water should be applied, followed later by bandaging with cloths wrung out of warm water. If the swelling is soft, it should be punctured at the lowest point, and afterwards the cavity should be syringed with Lugol's solution. If the tumor is hard and nonfluctuating, a mercurial blister may cause absorption and at the same time prevent further injury to the part by making it more painful, thus sparing it. SEROUS CYSTS.--These swellings are another variety of extravasation cysts, and are caused by such injuries as butting, running against hard objects, and shipping bruises, which are followed by an outpouring of blood and lymph into the tissue spaces. These cysts develop rapidly and may reach the size of a man's head or even larger. They are soft, edematous, and hot at first and contain a serous or blood-tinged fluid. Later, partially organized clots and shreds of a fibrinous nature and of a gelatinous consistence are formed within, and the temperature of the swelling is reduced. They appear on the surface of the body, especially on the belly and flank of cattle. _Treatment of serous cysts._--Treatment consists in opening the cyst at the most dependent point with a sharp knife. The cavity should be washed out twice daily with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, and drainage encouraged by keeping the incision open. DERMOID CYSTS. These cysts have a wall which is almost an exact duplicate of the structure of the skin, and frequently contain epidermal structures, such as hair and teeth, which, in the development of the embryo, have been misplaced. Thus we may find in an ovary or testicle a dermoid cyst, containing a tooth or a ball of hair. Dental cysts are included in the class above. DENTAL CYSTS.--It happens occasionally that the teeth of cattle, instead of developing normally within strong supporting alveolæ, remain inclosed within a cystic membrane, which assumes a tumorlike character. One tooth may be included alone in the cyst or a number may be inclosed together. However this may be, the malformation progresses, especially if confined to the incisor teeth, until the remaining teeth that began to develop normally are crowded out of position and rendered useless. The tumor may reach the size of a man's fist. It appears to be fleshy and dents upon pressure, but it may also appear on closer examination as though it contained irregular sections of thin bone. The outer surface is always smooth, and no indication of purulence, softening, or scab formation is ever exhibited. Upon being laid open with the knife the tumor is seen to be surrounded by a firm, smooth membrane which limits it completely from the adjoining tissues. It is filled with material which possesses partly edematous, partly fleshy, and partly bony properties. It is supposed that this mass is composed of rudiments of the jawbone or of the alveolar walls which, becoming spongy, lose themselves in the soft, fleshy mass contained within the capsule of the tumor. It occasionally happens that the tumor is hollow and that the cavity extends back into the body of the lower jaw for a considerable distance. Tumors of this kind, being of congenital origin, are very naturally observed most frequently in young cattle, but they may continue to expand for a period of several months after the birth of the calf, even until they become troublesome and unsightly. _Treatment for dental cysts._--Treatment consists in the complete extirpation of the cyst and the destruction of the lining pouch by curetting. RETENTION CYSTS. Retention cysts arise from the retention of normal secretions, owing to obstruction of a duct leading from a gland. The mucous cysts found in the mouth, udder, and vestibule of cows are samples of this form. MUCOUS CYSTS.--Saclike dependent tumors, caused by retention of the secretions from the mucous glands, sometimes develop in the mouth, nose, pharynx, and vulva of cattle. They are called "mucous cysts." These are of sizes varying from peas to pigeon eggs, are roundish and translucent, and surrounded by a delicate, vascular membrane. They contain a siruplike substance more or less thick and transparent and whitish yellow in color. Treatment consists in the puncturing of the swelling, if accessible, and the destruction of the cyst walls by the injection of Lugol's solution. PROLIFERATION CYSTS. These are found especially in the ovaries of cows, called "cystic ovaries," and may produce nymphomania (chronic bulling). The treatment indicated in this case is the removal of the diseased ovaries. FOOTNOTES: [3] The term "tumor" literally means a swelling, and thus has been applied to the prominence caused by an overdistended bladder, to the enlargement of pregnancy, to the swelling produced by an abscess, to the overgrowth of tissue (hyperplasia) associated with injury and consequent inflammation, and to numerous other phases of tissue enlargement directly connected with recognized disease processes. For this reason it is becoming more common for scientists to apply the word "neoplasm" to the new growths described in this chapter. Because of the still popular use of the word "tumor," it is retained in this chapter for the designation of those new growths to which the sevenfold characterization of our descriptive definition applies. DISEASES OF THE SKIN. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by John R. Mohler, V. M. D.] GENERAL DISCUSSION. The skin consists of two parts--a superficial layer, the epidermis, or cuticle, and the deep, or true, skin, the dermis, cutis vera, or corium. The epidermis, cuticle, or scarf skin, is an epithelial structure, forming a protective covering to the corium. It varies in thickness, is quite insensible and nonvascular, and consists of a sheet of cells. The epidermis is divided into a firm and transparent superficial and a deep, soft layer. The latter is the rete mucosum, whose cells contain the pigment which gives color to the skin. The deep surface of the epidermis is accurately molded on the papillary layer of the true skin, and, when removed by maceration, presents depressions which correspond to the elevations on the dermis. From the cuticle tubular prolongations pass into the sebaceous and sudorific glands; thus the entire surface of the body is inclosed by the cuticle. The dermis, or true skin, is vascular and highly sensitive, containing the tactile ends of the nerves of touch. It is covered by epidermis and attached to the underlying parts by a layer of areolar tissue, which usually contains fat. The cutis consists of a fibro-areolar tissue and vessels of supply. It is divided into two layers, the deep, or true, corium and the upper, or papillary. The corium consists of strong interlacing fibrous bands, chiefly white; its meshes are larger and more open toward the attached surface, giving lodgment to the sweat glands and fat. The papillary, or superficial, layer is formed of a series of small conical eminences or papillæ, which are highly sensitive, and consists of a homogenous, transparent tissue. The blood vessels form dense capillary plexuses in the corium, terminating by loops in the papillæ. The papillary nerves run in a waving manner, usually terminating in loops. Hair is an appendage of the skin and forms its external covering. It is a special modification of epidermis, having the same essential structure, and consists of a root, shaft, and point. The root has a bulbous extremity, is lighter and softer than the stem, and is lodged in a recess or hair follicle, which may either be in the corium or subcutaneous areolæ. The follicle is dilated at the bottom to correspond to the root bulb, and the ducts of one or more sebaceous glands open into it. At the bottom of each follicle is a conical, vascular papilla, similar in every respect to those on the surface of the dermis; this papilla fits into a corresponding depression in the root of the hair. The shaft consists of a center, or medulla, a surrounding fibrous portion, and an external coating, or cortex. The medulla consists of cells containing pigment or fat, is opaque, and deeply colored. All kinds of hair do not have this medulla. The fibrous portion occupies the bulk of the stem, and the cortex is merely a single layer of thin, flat, imbricated (shinglelike) scales. The sebaceous glands, lodged in the corium, are most abundant in parts exposed to friction. They generally open into the hair follicles, occasionally on the surface of the body. Each gland consists of a small duct which terminates in a lobulated recess. These lobules vary, and are, as is the duct, lined with epithelium. They are filled with sebaceous matter which, as it is secreted, is detached into the sacs. They are very plentiful between the claws of cattle. The sudorific glands, or sweat glands, are situated in the subcutaneous areolar tissue, surrounded by a quantity of fat. They are small, round, reddish bodies, each of which consists of one or more fine tubes coiled into a ball, the free end of the tube being continued up through the true skin and cuticle, and opening on the surface. Each sweat gland is supplied with a cluster of capillary blood vessels which vary in size, being very large when perspiration is excessive. The contents of the smaller ones are fluid, and of the larger, semifluid. The skin may be regarded as an organ supplementary in its action to the lungs and kidneys, since by its secretion it is capable of removing a considerable quantity of water from the blood; it also removes small quantities of carbon dioxid, salts, and in certain instances during suppression of the renal secretions a small quantity of urea. The skin is also the chief organ for the regulation of animal heat, by or through conduction, radiation, and evaporation of water, permitting of loss of heat, while it also, through other mechanisms, is able to regulate the heat lost. The hair furnishes protection against extreme and sudden variations of temperature by reason of the fact that hairs are poor conductors of heat, and inclose between them a still layer of air, itself a nonconductor. The hairs are also furnished with an apparatus by which the loss of heat may be regulated; thus, in cold weather, through the contraction of unstriped muscular fibers of the skin, the hairs become erect and the external coat becomes thicker. Cold, too, acts as a stimulus to the growth of hair, and we find, in consequence, a thicker coat in winter than in summer. The hairs also furnish protection against wet, as they are always more or less oily from the secretion of sebaceous glands, and thus shed water. Through their elasticity they furnish mechanical protection, and through the thickness of the coat, to a certain degree, resist the attacks of insects. Finally, the hairs assist the sense of touch. The sweat glands are constantly discharging a watery secretion in the form of insensible perspiration, and by their influence act as regulators of the temperature of the body; hence, in warm weather, the secretion of the skin is increased, which tends to prevent overheating. Sweating, in addition to regulating heat, is also an active agent in removing effete material from the blood; therefore this secretion can not be checked without danger. If the skin is covered with an impermeable coating of grease or tar, death results from blood poisoning, owing to the retention of materials destined to be excreted by the skin. All secretion poured out by the skin is not only modified by the condition of the atmosphere but also by the character and quantity of the food, by the amount of exercise, and especially by the quantity of fluid taken. The sebaceous secretion is intended to lubricate the skin and hairs. It consists of soft, fatty material suspended in water, and is characterized by an odor peculiar to the animal by which it is secreted. I will not attempt to classify the various diseases of the skin, for in a work of this kind it would serve only to confuse the reader. We shall first consider a class of diseases which are of an inflammatory type; next, those caused by faulty secretion and abnormal growth; then, diseases of parasitic origin; lastly, local injuries of the skin. PRURITIS (ITCHING). We shall consider pruritis first as a distinct subject. It is not a disease, only a sensation, and therefore a symptom. It is one of the symptoms accompanying the majority of the diseases which we will consider in this chapter. It is, then, a functional affection produced by slight irritation from without or by an internal cause acting upon the sensory nerves of the skin. Nothing characteristic is seen except the secondary lesions, produced mechanically by scratching or rubbing. There are various forms of itching, the result of specific skin diseases, where the pruritis is a secondary symptom. In such cases it should not be regarded as an independent affection. _Causes._--Many causes may induce the condition which we recognize here as pruritis. The most common one is dirt on the skin, resulting from insufficient care. If the ceiling of the stable is open, so that dust and straw may fall, the skin is irritated and pruritis results. It also occurs in some forms of indigestion. The parts of the body most exposed to this condition are the croup, the back, the top of the neck, and the root of the tail. Another cause is found in affections of the liver and of the kidneys, when an increase of effete material has to be thrown off by the skin. Morbid materials circulating in the blood may produce a tickling or smarting sensation of the skin in their passage from the blood to the free surface of the skin. Certain irritating substances when eaten may be excreted by the skin, and coming thus in direct contact with the sensory nerves produce itching, or may go further and cause distinct inflammation of the skin. In another class of cases the pruritis may be ascribable to an atrophy, contraction, or hardening of the skin, when the nerves become irritated by the pressure. These conditions may be so slightly marked in a thick skin like that of the ox that they can not be recognized. It is frequently noticed that cattle rub themselves as soon as they pass from the stable into the open air--changing from a warm to a cold atmosphere. Again, we may find one that does all its rubbing in the stall. We may look for lice, but fail to find them. These conditions are generally attributable to high feeding and to too close confinement. They may be associated with inflammatory irritation or not; certainly we fail to discover any morbid changes in the skin. There is to some extent a delightful sensation produced by rubbing, and it may partly become a habit of pleasure. _Treatment._--We must place our chief reliance upon a change of food, plenty of exercise, and in most cases the administration of an active cathartic--1 to 1-1/2 pounds of Epsom salt, a handful of common salt, a tablespoonful of ginger or pepper, mixed with 2 quarts of water, all of which is to be given at one dose. Afterwards half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda mixed with the feed may be given twice a day for a week. For an external application, when the skin is abraded or thickened from rubbing, a solution of borax, 4 ounces to the quart of water, may be used. Carbolic acid, 1/2 ounce to a quart of water, will give relief in some cases. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE SKIN. ERYTHEMA. This is the simplest form of inflammation of the skin. It consists of an increased redness, which may occur in patches or involve considerable surface. The red coloration disappears when pressed by the finger, but soon returns after the pressure is removed. There is seldom much swelling of the affected part, though often there is a glutinous discharge which dries and mats the hair or forms a thin scale upon the skin. In simple erythema the epidermis alone is affected; when it becomes chronic, fissures form and extend into the corium, or true skin. _Causes._--Simple erythema, consisting of an inflammatory irritation, is seen in very young calves, in which the navels leak. The discharge being urine, it causes an irritation of the surrounding skin. Chafing, which is another form of erythema, is occasionally seen on the udders of cows from rubbing by the legs; chafing between the legs is not uncommon among fat steers. Chronic erythema is found in the form of chapped teats of cows and chapped lips in sucking calves. It frequently occurs in cows when they are turned out in winter directly after milking, and in others from chafing by the sucking calf. Some cows are peculiarly subject to sore teats. The fissures when neglected in the early stage of formation become deep, very painful, often bleeding at the slightest touch, and when milked in that condition cause the animal to become a kicker. Occasionally the lower portions of the legs become irritated and chapped when cattle are fed in a muddy or wet yard in winter, or if they are compelled to wade through water in frosty weather. Another form of erythema occurs in young cattle highly fed and closely stabled for a long winter. The erythema appears in patches, and as it is most common near the end of the winter it is known as the "spring eruption" or "spring itch." _Treatment._--In ordinary cases of erythema the removal of the cause and the application of benzoated oxid of zinc ointment, carbolized cosmoline, or ichthyol ointment applied a few times, will restore the skin to a healthy condition. When there are fissures the zinc ointment is the best. If at the teats, a milk siphon (Pl. XXIV, fig. 4) should be used instead of milking by hand, and the calf, if one is suckled, should be taken away. The calf should be fed by hand if its mouth is affected. When the legs are irritated or chapped, dry stabling for a few days and the application of tar ointment will soon heal them. URTICARIA (NETTLE RASH, OR SURFEIT). This is a mild, inflammatory affection of the skin, characterized by sudden development of patches of various sizes, from that of a nickel to one as large as the hand. The patches of raised skin are marked by an abrupt border and are irregular in form. All the swelling may disappear in a few hours, or it may go away in one place and reappear on another part of the body. It is always accompanied with a great desire to rub the affected part. In its simplest type, as just described, it is never followed by any serous exudation or eruptions, unless the surface of the skin becomes abraded from scratching or rubbing. _Causes._--Digestive derangements caused by overloading the stomach when the animal is turned out to graze in the spring, certain feed constituents, high feeding of fattening stock, functional derangement of the kidneys, spinal and other nervous affections, are the most common sources of nettle rash. The disease consists in paralysis of the nerve ends that control the volume of the capillary vessels in certain areas of skin, thus permitting the vessels to expand, their contents in part to exude, and thus produce a soft, circumscribed swelling. _Treatment._--Administer a full dose of Epsom salt. Give soft, easily digested feed, and wash the affected parts with a solution of bicarbonate of soda (common baking soda), 8 ounces to the gallon of water twice a day, or diluted glycerin may be applied to the skin. If it assumes a persistent tendency, give a tablespoonful of the following powder in the feed three times a day: Cream of tartar, sulphur, and nitrate of potassium, equal parts by weight; mix. ECZEMA. Eczema is a noncontagious inflammation of the skin, characterized by any or all of the results of inflammation at once or in succession, such as erythema, vesicles, or pustules, accompanied with more or less infiltration and itching, terminating in a watery discharge, with the formation of crusts or in scaling off. The disease may run an acute course and then disappear, or it may become chronic; therefore two varieties are recognized, vesicular (or pustular) and chronic eczema. _Causes._--Eczema is not so common among cattle as in horses and in dogs, in which it is the most common of all skin diseases. Among cattle it is occasionally observed under systems of bad hygiene, filthiness, lousiness, overcrowding, overfeeding, excessively damp or too warm stables. It is found to develop now and then in cattle that are fed upon sour substances, distillery swill, house or garden garbage, etc. Localized eczema may be caused by irritant substances applied to the skin--turpentine, ammonia, the essential oils, mustard, Spanish-fly ointment, etc. Occasionally an eruption with vesiculation of the skin has been induced by the excessive use of mercurial preparations for the destruction of lice. It is evident that eczema may arise from local irritation to the skin or from an autointoxication. Cattle fed on the refuse from potato-starch factories develop a most obstinate and widespread eczema, beginning on the legs. _Symptoms._--In accordance with the variety of symptoms during the progress of the disease we may divide it into different stages or periods: (1) Swelling and increased heat of the skin; the formation of vesicles, which are circumscribed, rounded elevations of the epidermis, varying in size from a pinhead to a split pea, containing a clear, watery fluid; (2) exudation of a watery, glutinous fluid, formation of crusts, and sometimes suppuration, or the formation of vesicles containing pus (pustules); (3) scaling off (desquamation), with redness, and thickening of the skin. From the very beginning of the disease the animal commences to rub the affected parts; hence the various stages may not always be easily recognized, as the rubbing produces more or less abrasion, thus leaving the skin raw-- sometimes bleeding. Neither do these symptoms always occur in regular succession, for in some cases the exudation is most prominent, being very profuse, and serve to spread the disorder over a large surface. In other cases the formation of incrustations, or rawness of the skin, is the most striking feature. The disease may be limited to certain small areas, or it may be diffused over the greater part of the body; the vesicles, or pustules, may be scattered in small clusters, or a large number run together. The chronic form is really only a prolongation of the disease, successive crops of pustules appearing on various portions of the body, frequently invading fresh sections of the skin, while the older surfaces form scabs, or crusts, upon the raw, indurated skin. In old, standing cases the skin breaks, forming fissures, especially on portions of the body that bend--the neck and limbs. Thus the disease may be prolonged indefinitely. When eczema reaches its latest period, either acute or chronic, desquamation of the affected parts is the most prominent feature. The formation and shedding of these successive crops of scales constitute the character of the disease frequently denominated psoriasis. _Treatment._--The treatment of eczema is often anything but a pleasant task. There is no one method of treatment which always proves successful, no matter how early it is begun or how small an area is involved. We must endeavor to remove the cause by giving attention to the general health of the animal and to its environment. Feeding should be moderate in quantity and not too stimulating in character--green feed, bran mashes, ground oats, clean hay, plenty of salt. If the animal has been fed too high, give an active purgative--Epsom salt preferred--once a week, if necessary, and half an ounce of acetate or nitrate of potassium may be given in the feed twice a day. If the animal is in poor condition and debilitated, give a tablespoonful of the following mixture in feed twice a day: Powdered copperas, gentian, sulphur, and sassafras bark, equal parts by weight. If the animal is lousy, the parasite must be destroyed before the eczema can be cured. The external treatment must vary with the character of the lesions; no irritating application is to be made while the disease is in its acute vesicular, or pustular, stage, and, in the chronic stage, active stimulants must be used. Much washing is harmful, yet crusts and scales must be removed in order to obtain satisfactory results from the external applications. Both objects, however, can be attained by judiciously combining the curative agents with such substances as will at the same time cleanse the parts. In the vesicular stage, when the skin is feverish and the epidermis peeling off, thus exposing the exuding dermis, an application of boric-acid solution, 2 drams of the acid to 8 ounces of water, often relieves the smarting or itching, and also serves to check the exudation and dry the surface. If this fails to have the desired effect compound cresol, 1 ounce to 2 quarts of water, should be used as a wash. Either of these washes may be used several times a day until incrustation is well established. Then compound cresol, 1 ounce to 2 quarts of sweet oil, or the benzoated oxid of zinc ointment, giving the affected surfaces a thorough application once a day, will be efficacious. When the eczema is not the result of an external irritant, it takes usually from one to two weeks to heal. In chronic eczema, when there is a succession of scabs or scales, indolent sores or fissures, the white precipitate ointment, nitrate of mercury ointment, or blue ointment, mixed with equal parts of cosmoline or fresh lard, may be applied every second day, taking care to protect the parts so that the animal can not lick it off. The internal administration of arsenic often yields excellent results in chronic eczema. Dissolve 1 dram of arsenic and 1 dram of carbonate of potassium in 1 pint of boiling water, and give 1 ounce of this twice a day in water, after feeding. An alkali internally may be of service. As such, one may give 2 ounces of bicarbonate of soda twice daily. Sublimed sulphur may also be tried in ounce doses twice daily. PUSTULES (IMPETIGO). Impetigo is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by the formation of distinct pustules, about the size of a pea or a bean, without itching. The pustules develop from the papular layer of the skin, and contain a yellowish-white pus. After reaching maturity they remain stationary for a few days, then they disappear by absorption and dry up into crusts, which later drop off, leaving upon the skin a red spot that soon disappears. Occasionally the crusts remain firmly adherent for a long time, or they may be raised and loosened by the formation of matter underneath. The dry crusts usually have a brown or black appearance. _Causes._--Impetigo affects sucking calves, in which the disease appears upon the lips, nostrils, and face. It is attributed to some irritant substance contained in the mother's milk. Impetigo is also witnessed among grazing animals, regardless of age, and it especially attacks animals with white hair and skin. The mouth, face, and limbs become covered with pustules, which may rupture in a few hours, followed by rapid and successive incrustations; the scabs frequently coalesce, covering a large surface; pus may form under them, and thus the whole thickness of the skin become involved in the morbid process. This form of the disease is attributed to the local irritant properties of such plants in the pasture as St. John's wort (_Hypericum perforatum_), smartweed (_Polygonum hydropiper_), vetches, honeydew, etc. Buckwheat, at the time the seeds become ripe, is said to have caused it; also bedding with buckwheat straw. _Treatment._--Sucking calves should be removed from the mother, and a purgative given to the latter to divert the poisonous substance secreted with the milk. When the more formidable disease among grazing cattle appears, the pasturage should be changed and the affected parts of the animal thoroughly anointed once a day with sweet oil containing 2 drams of carbolic acid to the pint. This should be continued until the crusts soften and begin to drop off, then the parts may be cleansed thoroughly with warm water and soap. Subsequently the white precipitate ointment or carbolized cosmoline should be applied daily until the parts are healed. PEMPHIGUS (WATER BLISTERS). This is an inflammatory disease of the skin, characterized by successive formations of rounded, irregularly shaped water blisters, varying in size from a pea to a hen's egg. _Causes._--Obscure. _Symptoms._--The formation of a blister is preceded by a congestion or swelling of the skin. Yellowish-colored water collects beneath the cuticle, which raises the latter from its bed in the form of a blister. The blisters appear in a succession of crops; as soon as one crop disappears another forms. They usually occur in clusters, each one being distinct, or they may coalesce. Each crop usually runs its course in a week. The disease is attended with itching or burning sensations which cause the animal to rub, thereby frequently producing excoriations and formation of crust on the affected region. _Treatment._--Give a tablespoonful of the following-described mixture in feed twice a day: Saltpeter, cream of tartar, and sulphur, equal parts by weight. The blisters should be opened as soon as formed, to allow the escape of the serum, followed by a wash composed of chlorid of zinc, 1 dram to 15 ounces of water. When there is any formation of crusts, carbolized cosmoline should be applied. FURUNCULUS (BOILS). This is an acute affection of the skin, usually involving its whole thickness, characterized by the formation of one or more abscesses, originating generally in a sebaceous gland, sweat gland, or hair follicle. They usually terminate by absorption, or by the formation of a central core, which sloughs out, leaving a deep, round cavity that soon heals. _Causes._--Impoverished state of blood, the result of kidney diseases or of local friction or contusions, with the entrance of pus cocci through the damaged skin or through a hair follicle or a sebaceous gland. _Symptoms._--Boils in cattle usually appear singly, not in clusters; they may attain the size of a hen's egg. The abscess begins as a small round nodule, painful on pressure, gradually increases in size until death of the central portion takes place, then the surface of the skin gives way to internal pressure and the core is released and expelled. Constitutional symptoms are generally absent, unless the boils occur in considerable numbers, or by their size involve a great deal of tissue. _Treatment._--Poulticing to ripen the abscess. If this can not be done, apply camphorated oil two or three times a day until the core is formed. As soon as the central or most prominent part becomes soft, the abscess should be opened to release the core. Then use carbolized cosmoline once a day until the healing is completed. If the animal is in poor condition, give tonics--copperas, gentian, ginger, and sulphur, equal parts by weight, 1 tablespoonful twice a day. If the animal manifests a feverish condition of the system, give half an ounce of saltpeter twice a day, continuing it several days or a week. FAULTY SECRETIONS AND ABNORMAL GROWTHS OF THE SKIN. PITYRIASIS (SEBORRHEA, DANDRUFF, OR SCURF). This is a condition characterized by an excessive secretion of sebaceous matter, forming upon the skin in small crusts or scales. _Causes._--It is ascribable to a functional derangement of the sebaceous glands, usually accompanied with dryness and loss of pliancy of the skin. The animal is hidebound, as it is commonly termed, thin in flesh, inclined to rub, and very frequently lousy. The condition is observed most often toward the spring of the year. Animals that are continually housed, and the skins of which receive no cleaning, generally present a coat filled with fine scales, composed of epithelium from the epidermis and dried sebaceous matter. This, however, is a physiological condition and compatible with perfect health. _Symptoms._--Pityriasis may affect the greater portion of the body, though usually only certain parts are affected--the ears, neck, rump, etc. The skin becomes scurfy, the hairy coat filled with branlike gray or whitish scales. _Treatment._--Nutritious feed, such as oil-cake meal, bran, ground oats, and clean hay. In the spring the disease generally disappears after the animal is turned out to pasture. When lice are present they should be destroyed. ELEPHANTIASIS (SCLERODERMA). This condition consists in a chronic thickening of the skin, which may affect one or more limbs or involve the whole integument. It is characterized by recurrent attacks of swelling of the skin and subcutaneous areolar tissue. After each attack the affected parts remain infiltrated to a larger extent than before, until finally the skin may attain a thickness of an inch, becoming wrinkled and fissured. In cattle this disease is confined to hot climates. The predisposing cause is unknown. EDEMA (ANASARCA OF THE SKIN). This is a dropsical condition of the skin and subcutaneous areolar tissue, characterized by pitting under pressure, the fingers leaving a dent which remains a short time. _Causes._--Edema generally results from a weakened state of the system arising from previous disease. It may also be dependent upon a functional derangement of the kidneys, upon weak circulation, or obstruction to the flow of blood through the lungs. In debilitated animals and in some animals highly infested with parasites there is swelling of the dewlap or of the fold of the skin between the jaws. _Symptoms._--Painless swelling of a limb, udder, lower surface of abdomen, or lower jaw becomes apparent. This may increase in dimensions for several days or may attain its maximum in less than 24 hours. Unless complicated with some acute disease of a specific character, there is not much, if any, constitutional disturbance. The deep layer of the skin is infiltrated with serum, which gives it the characteristic condition of pitting under pressure. _Treatment._--When the cause can be ascertained and removed we may expect to see the edema disappear. When no direct specific cause can be discovered and the animal is debilitated, give general tonic. If, on the contrary, it is in good flesh, give a purgative, followed by half an ounce of acetate of potassium twice a day. External applications are useless. Edema may be distinguished from erysipelas or anthrax by the absence of pain and fever. DERMOID AND SEBACEOUS CYSTS (WENS). A dermoid cyst is formed by an involution of the skin with a growth of hair on the inner wall of the sac. It may become embedded deeply in the subcutaneous tissues or may just penetrate the thickness of the skin, where it is movable and painless. They are generally found within the ear or at its base, although they may form on any part of the body. Usually they have a small opening, from which a thick, cheesy matter can be squeezed out. The rational treatment is to dissect them out. Sebaceous cysts appear not unlike the former. They are formed by a dilatation of the hair follicle and sebaceous duct within the skin, and contain a gray or yellowish sebaceous mass. The tumor may attain the size of a cherry stone or a walnut. Generally they are round, movable, and painless, soft or doughy in consistency, and covered with skin and hair. They develop slowly. The best treatment is to dissect out the sac with contents entire. VERRUCA (WARTS). Cattle are affected with two varieties of warts. One, the verruca vulgaris, is composed of a cluster of enlarged papillæ, covered with a thickened epidermis, the number of papillæ determining the breadth and their length its height. They are generally circular in figure, slightly roughened on the surface, and spring from the skin by a broad base. Occasionally large numbers of very thin, long, pedunculated warts grow from the skin of the ear, lips, about the eyes, and vulva. Another variety, the verruca acuminata, sometimes erroneously denominated epithelial cancers, are irregularly shaped elevations, tufted or club shaped, occasionally existing as thick, short, fleshy excrescences, giving the growth the appearance of granulation tissue. Their color is red or purplish, and oftentimes by friction they become raw and bleeding, emitting then a very offensive odor. They usually grow in clusters and their development is rapid. _Causes._--An abnormal nutrition of the skin, determined by increased energy of growth operating upon a healthy skin; at other times, upon a weak or impoverished skin. _Treatment._--When they are small and pedunculated, they may be snipped off with shears and the stump touched with nitrate of silver. When they are broad and flattened, they may be dissected out and the wound cauterized if necessary. If they are large and very vascular, they may be ligated, one by one, by taking a strong cord and tying it as firmly around the base as possible. They will then shrivel, die, and drop off. If there is a tendency to grow again, apply a red-hot iron or nitric acid with a glass rod. Very often warts quickly disappear if they are kept soft by daily applications of sweet or olive oil. KELIS. Kelis is an irregularly shaped flat tumor of the skin, resulting from hypertrophy--increased growth of the fibrous tissue of the corium, producing absorption of the papillary layer. _Causes._--It may arise spontaneously or follow a scar after an injury. _Symptoms._--Kelis generally appears below the knee or hock, and may occur singly or in numbers. There are no constitutional symptoms. Its growth is very slow and seldom causes any inconvenience. It appears as a flattened, irregular, or spreading growth within the substance of the skin, is hard to the touch, and is especially characterized by divergent branches or roots, resembling the claws of a crab; hence the name. Occasionally some part of it may soften and result in an abscess. It may grow several inches in length and encircle the whole limb. _Treatment._--So long as it causes the animal no inconvenience it is best not to meddle with it; when it does the animal ought to be fattened for beef, the meat being perfectly harmless to the consumer. PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. RINGWORM (TINEA TONSURANS AND TINEA FAVOSA). Ringworm is an affection of the skin, caused by a vegetable parasite. The form known as tinea tonsurans is produced by the presence of a minute or microscopic fungus--the _Trichophyton tonsurans_, which affects the hair and the epidermic layer of the skin, and is highly contagious, being readily transmitted from one animal to another. This fungus consists of spores and filaments. The spores, being the most numerous, are round and seldom vary much in size. They are very abundant in the hair follicle. The filaments are articulated, waving, and contain granules. This disease is productive of changes in the root and shaft of the hair, rendering it brittle and easily broken off. This disease becomes manifest by the formation of circular patches on the skin, which soon becomes denuded of hair. The cuticular layer of the skin in slightly inflamed, and vesication with exudation occurs, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts. The patches appear silvery gray when incrusted, and are mostly confined to the head and neck. It is a common disease among young cattle in the winter and spring. Very early in the development of the patches the hairs split, twist, and break off close to the skin. This disease is attended with more or less itching. It is communicable to man. Tinea favosa comes from another fungus, the _Achorion schönleinii._ This enters the hair follicle and involves the cuticle surrounding it, small crusts form which increase in diameter and thickness and then become elevated at their margin, forming a cup-shaped scab, the favus cup, which gives the disease its distinctive character. The number of these cups varies from a few to many hundreds. The hairs involved become brittle and broken, fall off with the crusts, leaving small bald patches. The crusts are of a pale or sulphur-yellow color at first; as they grow older they turn darker, or to a brown color. This form of ringworm has a peculiar odor, resembling that of mice or musty straw. It is occasionally communicated to cattle by man, mice, cats, etc., all being subject to it. _Treatment._--Remove all crusts by washing with soap and water, then apply acetic acid, sulphur ointment, tincture of iodin or nitrate of mercury ointment once a day. Cleanse the stable and whitewash it to destroy the spores scattered by the crusts. OTHER PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. For discussion of mange, itch, scab, lousiness, warbles (grub in the skin), buffalo gnats, hornfly (_Hoematobia serrata_), ticks, flies, etc., see the chapter on "The animal parasites of cattle," page 502. WOUNDS OF THE SKIN. SNAKE BITES AND VENOMOUS STINGS. [See discussion of these subjects in chapter on "Poisons and poisoning."] BURNS AND SCALDS. This is a rare accident among cattle, yet in cases of fire it may occur. The application of heat, whether dry or moist, unless sufficient instantly to destroy the life of a part, is always followed by the development of vesicles or blisters, which contain a thin, watery fluid. The blisters may be isolated and not very large, or one blister may cover a very large surface. When the burn is very severe the skin may be wholly devitalized, or the injury may extend into the deeper structures of the skin. Then sloughs will occur, followed by a contraction of the parts in healing; if on a limb, this may render the animal stiff. When the burn or scald has been a severe one, the resulting pain is great and the constitutional disturbance very marked. _Treatment._--For a superficial burn use a mixture of equal parts of limewater and linseed oil, or common white paint--white lead ground in oil--to exclude the atmosphere and protect the inflamed skin. If it is not convenient to get anything else, chimney soot, flour, or starch may be spread on the wound (dry), and covered with cotton batting and light bandage. The blisters should be opened to let the contained fluid escape, but do not pull off the thin cuticle which has been raised by the blister. When the burn is extensive and deep sloughing occurs, the parts should be treated, like other deep wounds, by poulticing, astringent washes, etc. When the system has sustained much shock, the animal may require internal stimulants, such as 2 drams of carbonate of ammonia every hour until it rallies. When the pain is very great, hypodermic injections of 6 grains of morphia may be administered every six hours. _Frostbite_ on any portion of the body may be treated as recommended in the article on diseases of the ears. EMPHYSEMA (AIR OR GAS UNDER THE SKIN). Emphysema of the skin is not a true disease of the skin, but it is mentioned as a pathological condition. It is characterized by a distention of the skin with air or gas contained in the subcutaneous areolar tissue. It may depend upon a septic condition of the blood, as in anthrax or blackleg, or air may be forced under the skin about the head, neck, and shoulders, as a result of rupture of the windpipe. It occurs in the region of the chest and shoulders from penetrating wounds of the chest and lung, and occasionally follows puncture of the rumen when the escaping gas is retained under the skin. _Symptoms._--The skin is enormously distended over a greater or less portion of the body; thus any region of the body may lose its natural contour and appear like a monstrosity. There is a peculiar crackling beneath the skin when the hand is passed over it, and on tapping it with the fingers a resonant, drumlike sound is elicited. _Treatment._--Puncture the distended skin with a clean, broad-bladed knife and press the air out. Further treatment must be directed with a view to the removal of the cause. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] LAMINITIS (FOUNDER). Laminitis denotes an active inflammation of the sensitive structures within the wall of the hoof, which in severe cases may result in suppuration and the loss of one or more claws. Owing to the simplicity of the structure of the foot of an ox compared with that of the horse, this disease is rarely seen in an acute form, but a mild form, commonly called "foot soreness," is not of infrequent occurrence. _Causes._--Laminitis in cattle may be caused by overfeeding, overheating, continued standing without exercise on a stone or cement floor without sufficient bedding, or by driving long distances over rough or stony soil. _Symptoms._--An unwillingness to maintain the standing position; the animal persists in lying down. The feet will be found unnaturally hot, and frequently some swelling may be noticed above the hoof. Pressure upon the hoof with blacksmith's hoof pincers causes pain and flinching. The general body temperature is increased and the breathing accelerated. Ordinarily the animal eats and drinks as usual. When it is made to move excessive tenderness of the feet becomes manifest, as is shown by reluctance to walk and by the very short, hesitating step. Founder affects the hind as well as the fore feet, although the front feet are more often exposed. _Treatment._--Cold packs to the feet, or if the animal can be made to stand in a stream of water, having a soft bottom, the inflammation is often relieved without the necessity of any additional treatment. It may be well, however, to give a full dose of Epsom salt, 1 to 1-1/2 pounds, followed by half-ounce doses of saltpeter two or three times a day. SORENESS (FOOT SORENESS). Cattle that have been stabled or pastured on soft ground and are driven over stony roads soon wear down the soles of their feet and become lame from foot soreness. Draft oxen, for this reason, require to be shod. When the soreness is excessive it may develop into an active inflammation of all the sensitive structures of the foot--laminitis, or into a local bruise commonly called a "corn." _Treatment._--Rest, poulticing the feet with moistened clay, followed by astringent washes--strong white-oak bark or alum water. If the pain and heat last several days, it is probable that pus has formed beneath the wall of the hoof. In this case it is necessary to cut through the wall, usually at the most prominent part of the sole, to allow the accumulation to drain out. The animal should then stand for several hours daily in a tub containing a 3 per cent solution of some good milky coal-tar disinfectant. When not in the disinfecting solution the foot should be dressed with pine tar and cotton and bandaged with bagging. LOSS OF HOOF. Cattle sometimes become fastened between planks or otherwise and pull off the wall of one or both claws in the effort to extricate themselves. The claws of one or more feet may be shed as the result of acute laminitis. _Treatment._--Wash the bleeding surface with an antiseptic and then with an astringent, such as a weak solution of alum, then apply a thick coating of pine tar; cover this with a layer of oakum or absorbent cotton; apply another coat of tar over this, and then bandage closely and firmly. This may remain without disturbance until the new growing wall becomes sufficiently strong to sustain the pressure and weight of the animal. If, however, at any time oozing or bad smell indicates that pus is forming under this dressing, the bandage should be removed and the suppurating surface freshly cleaned and dressed. This may have to be repeated every few days and should be continued so long as there is any pus formation. If the loss of hoof is owing to suppurative laminitis, the parts denuded of the horny covering must be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected with carbolic acid, lysol, or other antiseptic. Then apply a moderately thick layer of absorbent cotton and over this apply the tar and bandage. After this the antiseptic solution may be poured in daily at the top of the dressing. It will thus soak in and saturate the dressing and inflamed tissue. It may become necessary to remove all the dressing at daily or longer intervals to give the parts a fresh cleaning, and then to reapply it. FOUL IN FOOT (FOOT ROT). A variety of causes may produce inflammation of the foot between the claws or toes. It may be on account of overgrowth of the claws and inward pressure, as in ingrowing nail of man, or it may be caused by the irritation of stable filth by impaction and hardening of soil between the claws, or by other foreign substances becoming wedged in, causing inflammation and softening or ulceration of the skin in the interdigital space. Under some conditions several cattle in the same herd become affected, which has led some to think that the disease may be contagious. Occurrences have been reported in which foot rot of cattle has appeared within a short time among a large proportion of the cattle in a farming district. This disease is most frequently seen in the hind feet, though all four feet may become affected. _Symptoms._--The animal is observed to limp. On examination of the foot we discover heat and swelling above the hoof and of the soft parts between the claws which frequently spreads the claws apart to a considerable extent, or the inflammation may have advanced to softening and sloughing of the interdigital membrane. If the disease is neglected at this stage, deep abscesses may form and the pus burrow under the horny wall, or the joint within the hoof may become inflamed and the articular attachments destroyed, in which case the treatment will be difficult and recovery will be very tedious. _Treatment._--In the earlier stages of the disease, before pus burrows beneath the horn, a thorough cleansing and an application of a carbolic-acid solution--1 ounce to a pint of water--clean stabling, and laxative food will usually remedy the evil. Compound solution of cresol is an excellent remedy at this stage. It should be applied, in its pure or undiluted state, to the suppurating and putrefying tissue between the claws. It is best applied by means of a cotton swab on a thin stick. Care must be taken to keep it from contact with the skin about the coronary band or heels. If deep sloughing has taken place the carbolic solution should be used, and a wad of oakum or cotton smeared with pine tar should be secured firmly in the cleft. This can be done by taking a strip of strong cloth, 2 inches wide, passing the middle between the claws, then tying the ends after winding them in opposite directions above the hoof. Sometimes warm poulticing with flaxseed meal or bran is necessary to relieve excessive fever and pain. If the pus burrows under the horn, its channel must be followed by paring away the horn until the bottom is reached. The aftertreatment is the same as that already recommended. If the joint becomes diseased an amputation of that toe is the quickest and surest method to relieve the suffering of the animal, and offers the best chance for an early recovery. ULCERATION OF THE HEEL. Occasionally we find ulcers at the junction of the hair with the hoof at the heel, which present an elevated, raw, or ragged surface, and cause considerable lameness. This is generally caused by a bruise of the fibrous cushion of the back part of the foot. Subsequent sloughing or necrosis may occur, or pus may form deep within the wall and gain an exit at the margin of the heel. Sometimes, from no visible cause, large pieces of skin slough from the heel and pastern. This condition is caused by an infection with certain microorganisms (streptococci, necrosis bacilli) and may be contagious. _Treatment._--If there is a deep opening, inject carbolic solution once a day until it closes. If the ulcer is only superficial, wash with carbolic solution and apply a mixture of equal parts of blue vitriol and alum in dry powder. FISSURE OF THE WALL (SPLIT HOOF). This is rarely seen among cattle. It may occur in weak walls, in heavily bodied cattle, caused by stepping on an uneven surface, especially when the point of the toe is grown out long. One may find the point of the toe broken and the wall split almost up to the hair. _Treatment._--The divided sections may be brought into approximation and held in place by drilling a small hole from one side into and through the other, commencing half an inch back of the fissure on each side; then drive a light horseshoe nail through the hole and clinch it. Pare the injured claw as short as it will bear. INTERDIGITAL FIBROMA. Hard, nodular, fibrous tumors sometimes grow in the cleft of the foot, and cause inconvenience, lameness, absorption, or ulceration of the contiguous parts. _Treatment._--They should be dissected out and the wound dressed with carbolic-acid lotion and pine tar once a day until healing is completed. DEFORMITIES. Deformities in the feet of cattle usually consist in overgrowth of horn, generally from want of wear in animals which are stabled. The hoof may turn inward, outward, or upward, and may give rise to lameness, inability to walk, foul foot, etc. Bulls which are continually stabled and dairy cows very frequently have misshapen feet from want of an occasional trimming, and this deformity may eventually lead to permanent injury. _Treatment._--Cut the superabundant growth of horn down with saw, knife, or rasp, until the foot assumes its natural form. PRICKS AND WOUNDS. If an animal suffers with a penetrating wound from prick of fork or nail, the orifice of the wound should be enlarged to permit a free discharge of pus; then the foot should be soaked in a cresol compound solution (3 per cent) in a tub, or a flaxseed poultice applied, changing it three times a day until the fever has abated. The foot should be kept bandaged and dressed with pine tar and oakum; the animal must also be kept on a clean floor until the wound is closed and all or nearly all lameness has disappeared. If an animal is cut in the foot with barbed wire, piece of glass, or any other substance, the wound, after proper cleansing, should be dressed with carbolic-acid solution, 1 ounce of the acid to 20 of water. If any uneven edges of horn, skin, or lacerated flesh project, trim them off, and in all cases when it can be done a tarred bandage should be applied. This will serve to sustain the cut surfaces in their place, exclude dirt, and protect against flies, maggots, etc. When the wound has extended into a joint, surgical treatment, which will require the services of an educated veterinarian, may be necessary. Occasionally an animal gets caught by the foot in a crevice and sustains severe bruising, wrenching, or fracture of some part of the foot. In such cases cold-water packs to the injured member are of service until the fever and swelling disappear. Afterwards the animal should rest until the usefulness of the foot is restored. Sometimes such an accident, causing fracture, renders necessary plaster bandages or amputation. DISEASES OF THE EYE AND ITS APPENDAGES. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] DESCRIPTION. For the sake of gaining a clear comprehension of the diseases of the eye it becomes necessary to review the anatomy of this important organ. The essential organ of vision, or globe of the eye, will be first described, then its receptacle or orbital cavity, the muscles that move it, the protective membranes, or eyelids, the membrana nictitans, or accessory eyelids, and, lastly, the lacrimal apparatus. The globe or ball of the eye is almost spherical in form. On closer inspection, however, it appears to be made up of two combined portions from spheres of different sizes. The posterior portion, forming about five-sixths of the ball, is a sphere of comparatively large size with a small segment cut off it in front, and at this point there is applied to it the anterior portion, which, being a segment of a smaller sphere, projects at the front of the ball with a greater convexity than the posterior portion. The eyeball consists of concentrically arranged coats and of refracting media inclosed in them. The coats are three in number, namely, (1) an external protective tunic made up of the sclerotic and cornea; (2) a middle vascular and pigmentary tunic, the choroid; (3) an internal nervous layer, the retina. The sclerotic is the white, opaque part of the outer tunic, of which it forms about the posterior five-sixths, being coextensive with the larger sphere already mentioned. The cornea forms the remaining one-sixth of the outer tunic, being coextensive with the segment of the smaller sphere. It is distinguished from the sclerotic by being colorless and transparent. The choroid coat will be recognized as the black layer lying subjacent to the sclerotic. It does not line the cornea, but terminates behind the line of junction of that coat with the sclerotic by a thickened edge--the ciliary processes. At the line of junction of the sclerotic and cornea the iris passes across the interior of the eye. This (which may be viewed as a dependency of the choroid) is a muscular curtain perforated by an aperture termed the pupil. The retina will be recognized as a delicate, glassy layer, lining the greater part of the choroid. The refracting media of the eye are three in number, namely (1) the aqueous humor, a watery fluid inclosed in a chamber behind the cornea; (2) the crystalline lens and its capsule, a transparent, soft solid of a biconvex form, and placed behind the iris; (3) the vitreous humor, a transparent material with a consistence like thin jelly, and occupying as much of the interior of the eye as is subjacent to the choroid. The sclerotic is a strong, opaque, fibrous membrane, which, in a great measure, maintains the form of the eyeball and protects the more delicate structures within it. Its interior portion, which is covered by the ocular conjunctiva, is commonly known as the "white of the eye." In form it is bell-shaped, and the optic nerve pierces it behind like a handle, the perforation being a little to its inner side. In front, the rim of the bell becomes continuous with the cornea. The outer surface of the membrane receives the insertion of the muscles of the eyeball. The coat is thickest over the posterior part of the eyeball, and is thinnest a little behind its junction with the cornea. The cornea is the anterior transparent portion of the outer coat of the eyeball. It may be viewed as a part of the sclerotic specially modified to permit the passage of light into the interior of the eye. Its outline is elliptical, nearly circular, and its greatest diameter is transverse. At its periphery it joins the sclerotic by continuity of tissue, and as the edge of the cornea is slightly beveled and has the fibrous sclerotic carried for a little distance forward on its outward surface, the cornea is generally said to be fitted into the sclerotic like a watch glass into its rim. The venous canal of Schlemm runs circularly around the eyeball at the line of junction of the sclerotic and cornea. The anterior surface of the cornea is exquisitely smooth, and is kept moist by the lacrimal secretions. Its posterior surface forms the anterior boundary of the chamber in which the aqueous humor is contained. The cornea is of uniform thickness and is of a dense, almost horny, consistence. Save a few capillary loops of blood vessels at its margin the cornea is without vessels. Its structure is comprised of five distinct layers. The aqueous humor occupies a chamber which is bounded in front by the posterior surface of the cornea and behind by the capsule and suspensory ligament of the lens and by the ends of the ciliary processes. It is across this chamber that the iris extends. The aqueous humor is composed of water, with a small proportion of common salt in solution. The iris is a muscular, pigmented curtain extending across the interior of the eye and having about its center an aperture termed the pupil. By variations in the size of this aperture the amount of light transmitted to the retina is regulated. It varies somewhat in color, but is most frequently of a yellowish-brown tint. Its anterior face is bathed by the aqueous humor. The greater part of the posterior surface is in contact with the capsule of the lens and glides on it during the movements of the curtain. The circumferential border is attached within the junction of the sclerotic cornea. The inner border circumscribes the pupil, which varies in outline according to its size. When much contracted the pupil is a very elongated ellipse, the long axis of which is in the line joining the nasal and temporal angles of the eyelids. It contains muscular tissue, which, by contracting or relaxing, lessens or dilates the pupillary opening. The choroid coat is a bell-shaped, dark membrane which lines the sclerotic. Its outer surface has a shaggy appearance, caused by the tunica fusca, which unites the two coats. Between the two the ciliary vessels and nerves pass forward. Behind it is pierced by the optic nerve; in front it is continued as the ciliary processes, which form, as it were, the rim of the bell. The ciliary processes form a fringe around the slightly inverted rim of the choroid. The retina is the most delicate of the coats of the eyeball. It is formed by the expansion of the optic nerve on the inner surface of the choroid, and, like that coat, it is bell-shaped. Its inner surface is molded on the vitreous humor. The nervous structures of the retina terminate at a wavy line, the ora serrata, behind the ciliary processes. Ten distinct layers are described as composing the thickness of the retina. The lens is situated behind the pupil and is contained within a capsule of its own. The capsule is a close-fitting, firm, transparent membrane. The anterior surface forms the posterior boundary of the cavity containing the aqueous humor, and the iris in its movement glides on it. The posterior surface is in contact with the vitreous humor. The vitreous humor occupies four-fifths of the interior of the eyeball. It is globular in form, with a depression in front for the lodgment of the lens. It is colorless, transparent, and of a consistency like thin jelly. It is enveloped by a delicate capsule--the hyaloid membrane--which is connected in front with the suspensory ligament of the lens, and ends by joining the capsule behind the lens. The orbital cavity, at the side of the head, is circumscribed by a bony margin; posteriorly, however, there are no bony walls, and the cavity is often confounded with the depression above and behind the orbit--the temporal fossa. A fibrous membrane completes this cavity and keeps it distinct from the temporal fossa. This membrane--the ocular sheath or periorbita--is attached posteriorly around the opening in the back part of the orbital cavity (the orbital hiatus) and anteriorly to its inner face; then it becomes prolonged beyond the margin to form the fibrous membrane of the eyelids. When complete the orbital cavity has the form of a regular hollow cone, open at its base and closed at the apex. The opening of this cone is directed forward, downward, and outward. Independently of the globe of the eye, this cavity lodges the muscles that move it, the membrana nictitans, and the lacrimal gland. The muscles of the eye are seven in number--one retractor, four straight, and two oblique. The retractor oculi envelops the optic nerve between the brain and the ball of the eye and becomes attached upon the external face of the sclerotic tunic. When this muscle contracts, it draws the globe back into the orbit, away from the light. The superior, inferior, external, and internal recti or straight muscles are attached to the back part of the orbital sheath and spread forward in four bundles over the globe of the eye, where they are inserted by a fibrous expansion into the sclerotic at the margin of the cornea. When they act singly, they turn the globe either upward, downward, inward, or outward. The great oblique, by its action, pivots the eye inward and upward in the orbit. The small oblique turns the eye outward and downward. The eyelids are two movable curtains, superior and inferior, which cover and protect the eye in front. They are attached to the circumference of the orbit and have a convex external face formed by the skin and a concave internal face molded on the anterior surface of the eye and are lined by the conjunctiva, which is reflected above and below on the eyeball. The border of each lid is slightly beveled on the inner side and shows the openings of the Meibomian glands. These glands secrete an unctuous fluid, which is thrown out on the border of the lids, the function of which is to facilitate their movements and enable them to retain the tears in the ocular cavity. The eyelid is composed of a fibrous inner membrane ending in a stiff arch near the border, a muscle to close the lid, another to open it, the skin externally, and the conjunctival mucous membrane internally. The border of each lid is covered and protected by long hairs to prevent floating particles of matter in the atmosphere from gaining entrance to the eye. The membrana nictitans, which is also named the third eyelid, winking eyelid, haw, etc., is placed at the inner angle of the eye, whence it extends over the eyeball to relieve it from foreign bodies which may fall upon it. It has for its framework a fibro-cartilage, irregular in shape, thick, nearly prismatic at its base, and thin anteriorly where it is covered by the conjunctiva; behind, it is loosely attached to a fatty cushion. The lacrimal gland is situated between the orbital process and the upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears destined to lubricate the anterior surface of the eye. This fluid escapes upon the organ at the outer angle of the lids and is carried between them and the eyeball toward the inner angle. The caruncula lacrimalis is a small round body, frequently entirely or partially black, situated in the inner angle of the eye, and is designed to direct the tears toward the puncta lacrimalia. The puncta lacrimalia are two little openings, situated one in each eyelid, a short distance from the inner corner, which admit the tears into the lacrimal ducts leading to the lacrimal canal, whence they are emptied into the nasal passages. CONJUNCTIVITIS (SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA). This is an inflammation of the conjunctival mucous membrane of the eyeball and lids; in severe cases the deeper coats of the eye are involved, seriously complicating the attack. _Causes._--It may result from a bruise of the eyelid; from the introduction of foreign matters into the eye, as chaff, hayseed, dust, gnats, etc.; from exposure to cold; poisonous or irritating vapors arising from filthiness of stable. Dust, cinders, or sand blown into the eyes during transportation frequently cause conjunctivitis. _Symptoms._--A profuse flow of tears, closure of the eyelids from intolerance of light, retraction of the eyeball and corresponding protrusion of the haw, disinclination to move, diminution of milk secretion, etc. On parting the lids the lining membrane is found injected with an excess of blood, giving it a red and swollen appearance; the sclerotic, or white of the eye, is bloodshot and the cornea may be cloudy. If the disease advances, keratitis results, with its train of unfavorable symptoms. _Treatment._--Careful examination should be made to discover particles of chaff, etc., which may have lodged in the eye, and upon the discovery of such a cause prompt removal is indicated. This may be accomplished by flushing the eye with warm water by means of a syringe, or, if the foreign substance is adherent to the eyeball or lid, it may be scooped out with the handle of a teaspoon or some other blunt instrument. To relieve the congestion and local irritation, a wash composed of boracic acid in freshly boiled water, 20 grains to the ounce, or acetate of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of pure soft water, may be used, to which may be added 20 drops of laudanum. A few drops of this should be placed in the eye with a camel's-hair pencil or soft feather three or four times daily. The animal should be placed in a cool, darkened stable; then a cloth folded into several thicknesses should be fastened to the horns in such manner as to reach below the eyes. This should be kept wet with cold water during the day and removed at night. If there is much fever and constitutional disturbance, it becomes advisable to administer 1 pound of Epsom salt dissolved in 1 quart of water. INFECTIOUS CATARRHAL CONJUNCTIVITIS (SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA). This generally appears in an enzootic or epizootic form and affects a considerable number in the herd. It is distinctly a contagious disease and may be brought into a previously healthy herd by one infected animal. It may continue in a herd for a season or for several years, affecting all newly purchased animals. It is seldom seen in the winter months. It affects old and young animals alike. _Symptoms._--This form of catarrh conjunctivitis is characterized chiefly by a mucopurulent discharge from the eyes, an intense degree of inflammation of the mucous membrane, accompanied with swelling of the eyelids and an early opacity of the cornea. The flow of tears is mixed with pus, sometimes streaked with blood, and the skin of the face is kept moist and soiled. The eyes are kept continually closed. The implication of the cornea in the disease frequently blinds the animal for a time, and occasionally suppurative keratitis, ulcers of the cornea, or staphyloma supervene. The attack is marked from the onset by fever, partial loss of appetite, partial loss of milk, suspended rumination, and separation from the herd. _Treatment._--The animal should be housed in a cool, dark stable, supplied with plenty of fresh water to drink and soft, succulent feed. Administer 1 pound of Epsom salt--if a very large animal, use 1-1/2 pounds--dissolved in 2 or 3 pints of water. For an eyewash, take boracic acid, 1 dram, and pour 4 ounces of boiling water over it. Use this as often as is convenient, applying it directly to the eye. In the majority of cases improvement becomes manifest in a few days, and the eye becomes clear and free from inflammation in 10 days or 2 weeks. Where the disease develops ulceration of the cornea, or well-marked, deep-seated keratitis, the treatment recommended for those conditions should be adopted. _Prevention._--Whenever this affection appears in a herd all the unaffected animals should be moved to fields which possess a different character of soil and feed. The water should also be changed, especially if they have been obtaining it from a stagnant pond. KERATITIS (CORNEITIS). This is an inflammation of the cornea proper, although the sclerotic at the corneal border becomes involved to some extent. It may be divided into diffuse and suppurative. _Causes._--The cornea constitutes the most prominent portion of the eyeball, hence it is subject to a variety of injuries--scratches, pricks, contusions, lacerations, etc. Inflammation of the cornea may also be due to the extension of catarrhal conjunctivitis or intraocular disease, and it may occasionally occur without any perceptible cause. _Symptoms._--Diffuse keratitis is characterized by an exudation into and an opacity of the cornea. The swelling of the anterior part of the eyeball may be of an irregular form, in points resembling small bladders, or it may commence at the periphery of the cornea by an abrupt thickening, which gradually diminishes as it approaches the center. If the whole cornea is affected, it has a uniform gray or grayish-white appearance. The flow of tears is not so marked as in conjunctivitis, nor is the suffering so acute, though both conditions often exist together. Both eyes usually become affected, unless it is caused by an external injury. In favorable cases the exudate within the cornea begins to disappear within a week or 10 days, the eye becomes clearer and regains its transparency, until it eventually is fully restored. In unfavorable cases blood vessels form and are seen to traverse the affected part from periphery to center, vision becomes entirely lost, and permanent opacity (albugo or leucoma) remains. When it arises from constitutional causes recurrence is frequent, leaving the corneal membrane more cloudy after each attack, until the sight is permanently lost. Suppurative keratitis may be a sequel of diffuse keratitis; more commonly, however, it abruptly becomes manifest by a raised swelling on or near the center of the cornea that very soon assumes a yellow, turbid color, while the periphery of the swelling fades into an opaque ring. Suppurative keratitis is seldom noticed for the first day or two--not until distinct pus formation has occurred. When it is the result of diffuse keratitis, ulceration and the escape of the contained pus is inevitable; otherwise the pus may be absorbed. When the deeper membranes covering the anterior chamber of the eye become involved, the contents of this chamber may be evacuated and the sight permanently lost. _Treatment._--Place the animal in a darkened stable, give green or sloppy feed, and administer 4 ounces of Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda) dissolved in a quart of water once a day. If the animal is debilitated a tablespoonful of tonic powder should be mixed with the feed three times a day. This may be composed of equal parts by weight of powdered copperas (sulphate of iron), gentian, and ginger. As an application for the eye, nitrate of silver, 3 grains to the ounce of soft water, with the addition of 1 grain sulphate of morphia, may be used several times a day. If ulceration occurs, it is well to dust powdered calomel into the eye twice daily, or apply to the eyelids a salve of yellow oxid of mercury, 5 per cent in lanolin. Some of this may go on to the cornea and beneath the lids. Apply twice daily. (See "Ulcers of the cornea.") To remove opacity, after the inflammation has subsided, apply a few drops of the following solution twice a day: Iodid of potassium, 15 grains; tincture sanguinaria, 20 drops; distilled water, 2 ounces; mix. Sometimes keratitis exists in a herd as a transmissible disease, spreading like infectious conjunctivitis. Calomel, applied to the eye, is especially useful in such cases. ULCERS OF THE CORNEA. An ulcer comes from erosion or is the consequence of the bursting of a small abscess, which may have formed beneath the delicate layer of the conjunctiva, continued over the cornea; or, in the very substance of the cornea itself, after violent keratitis, or catarrhal conjunctivitis. At other times it is produced by bruises, scratches, or other direct injury of the cornea. _Symptoms._--The ulcer is generally at first of a pale gray color, with its edges high and irregular, discharges instead of pus an acrid, watery substance, and has a tendency to spread widely and deeply. If it spreads superficially upon the cornea, the transparency of this membrane is lost; if it proceeds deeply and penetrates the anterior chamber of the aqueous humor, this fluid escapes, the iris may prolapse, and the lens and the vitreous humor become expelled, thus producing destruction of the whole organ. _Treatment._--It is of the greatest importance, as soon as an ulcer appears upon the cornea, to prevent its growing larger. The corroding process must be converted into a healthy one. For this purpose nothing is more reliable than the use of solid nitrate of silver. A stick of this medicine should be scraped to a point; the animal's head should be firmly secured; an assistant should part the lids; if necessary, the haw must be secured within the corner of the eye and then all parts of the ulcer should be lightly touched with the silver. After waiting a few minutes the eye should be thoroughly washed out with a very weak solution of common salt. This operation generally has to be repeated at the end of three or four days. If healthy action succeeds, the ulcer assumes a delicate fleshy tint, and the former redness around the ulcer disappears in proportion as the ulcer heals. In superficial abrasions of the cornea, where there is no distinct excavation, this caustic treatment is not needed. The eye should be bathed several times a day with sulphate of zinc, 30 grains to half a pint of soft water, and protected against exposure to cold air and sunlight. Excessive ulceration sometimes assumes the form of fungous excrescence upon the cornea, appearing to derive its nourishment from loops of blood vessels of the conjunctiva. Under these circumstances the fungoid mass must be cut away and the wound cauterized with the nitrate of silver, or else the eye will soon be destroyed. When ulcers of the cornea appear indolent, with a tendency to slough, in addition to the treatment already prescribed, tonic powders of copperas, gentian, and ginger, equal parts by weight, should be given twice a day, mixed with the feed; dose, one tablespoonful. STAPHYLOMA. This is a disease of the eyeball, in which the cornea loses its transparency, rises above the level of the eye, and even projects beyond the eyelids in the form of an elongated, whitish, or pearl-colored tumor, which is sometimes smooth, at other times uneven. _Causes._--Inflammation is the only known cause, although it may not occur immediately; it frequently follows catarrhal conjunctivitis and keratitis as a sequela. _Treatment._--In a few cases restoration of sight may be effected by puncturing the projecting tumor and treating it afterwards with nitrate of silver in the same manner as prescribed for ulceration of the cornea. In some cases spontaneous rupture has occurred, and healing without any treatment at all. CATARACT. In cataract the crystalline lens becomes opaque and loses its transparency, the power of refraction is lost--the animal can not see. _Causes._--Cataract generally arises from a diminution (atrophy) or other change in the nutrition of the lens; it may occur as a result of inflammation of the deep structures of the eye. Cataract may be simple, or complicated with amaurosis, adhesions, etc. _Symptoms._--It is known by the whiteness or loss of transparency of the lens, although the pupil dilates and contracts. Sight may be totally lost; however, evidence is usually manifested that the animal distinguishes light when brought out of a darkened stable. For the most part the formation of cataract takes place slowly, the cases in which it originates very quickly being but few. _Treatment._--There is only one method for the treatment of cataract--a surgical operation for the removal of the lens; but this is not advisable, for the sight can not be perfectly restored, and objects would be seen imperfectly without the aid of glasses. AMAUROSIS. This is a paralysis of the nerve of sight or the expansion of the retina. _Causes._--This is the result of concussion from a blow upon the forehead, fracture of bone over the eye (causing downward pressure), rheumatic inflammation of the optic nerve, or from extension of deep inflammation of the eye involving the retina. It sometimes occurs as the result of excessive loss of blood or of great debility. _Symptoms._--In this disease observation is seldom made until the animal in its gait and by its action indicates blindness. Generally both eyes are affected. The eyeball remains clear, and the pupil is permanently dilated. No response to light is manifested. _Treatment._--If caused by debility, loss of blood, or associated with rheumatism, general blood tonics may be given in the feed, namely, powdered sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian, 2 drams; nux vomica, one-half dram; to be given twice a day. In cases of rheumatism, one-half ounce of saltpeter may be added. FILARIA OCULI (WORM IN THE EYE). _Filaria oculi_ (provisionally taken as the larva of _F. cervina_) is a small white worm, found swimming in the aqueous fluid in the anterior chamber. It may be apparently harmless for a long time, but will eventually induce keratitis with inflammatory exudations. _Treatment._--The cornea may be punctured at its upper and outer margin, and the worm squeezed out with the aqueous humor. The latter will be formed again. This operation results disastrously unless the greatest care and skill are employed. CORNEAL DERMATOMA (HAIRY TUMOR ON THE EYEBALL). In a few instances this has been seen as a congenital growth. The tumor arises from the cornea or the sclerotic, covered by its respective membrane, with a growth of hair upon its surface. These tumors may be quite prominent or flattened, and are dark in color; the hair may protrude between the eyelids, giving the animal the appearance of having a double eyelid. _Treatment._--A surgical operation becomes necessary for their removal-- one requiring a skilled operator. STRABISMUS (SQUINTING). This is a very rare affection among cattle. Strabismus may be either single or double--affecting one eye or both. It is caused by a paralysis, or a weakening of one of the straight muscles of the eyeball. Generally it is a congenital defect, and the squinting is toward the nose--strabismus convergens. It is best not to attempt to remedy the defect, as the risk in an operation is greater than the chances of success warrant. PTERYGIUM. This term is applied to a flesh-colored membrane, triangular in form, which most frequently grows from the inner angle of the eye and extends over the cornea, thus interfering with vision. It may grow from the outer angle, or even from either the superior or inferior hemisphere of the eyeball. The figure is invariably that of a triangle, with its base on the white of the eye and its apex more or less advanced over the cornea toward its center. The distinguishing characteristics are the constancy of the triangular form, and the facility with which the whole of it may be taken hold of with a pair of forceps and raised into a fold on the cornea. Every other kind of excrescence attached to this membrane continues firmly adherent to it, and can not be folded and raised from the surface of the cornea in any manner whatever. _Treatment._--Raise the fold and dissect it away from all points of attachment. TRICHIASIS (INVERSION OF THE EYELASHES). In the simplest form the eyelashes bend inwardly, touching the eyeball, causing irritation and simple conjunctivitis. It may be also associated with entropion. _Treatment._--The offending eyelashes should be cut off or pulled out. In case the natural growth of the eyelashes is directed inward, an operation similar to that for entropion becomes necessary. ENTROPION (INVERSION OF THE EYELID). In inversion of the eyelid the eyelashes soon irritate the anterior face of the cornea and produce more or less inflammation and opacity. The inversion may be due to the growth of a tumor within or without the lid, to abscess, laceration, or injury, causing the lid to lose its natural conformity to the eyeball, ulcerations, etc. Surgical interference in either case becomes necessary to restore the lid to its natural direction. ECTROPION (EVERSION OF THE EYELID). This serves to injure the eye by permitting dust or other foreign substances to enter the eye and interferes with the natural removal of them. _Treatment._--A delicate surgical operation--the removal of an elliptic section of the palpæbral conjunctiva--may remedy the defect. TUMORS OF THE EYELIDS. Occasionally tumors form upon or within the substance of the eyelid. They may be of a fibroid nature and arise from the follicles of the hair as sebaceous tumors or may be in the form of an abscess. In debilitating diseases the lids sometimes become swollen and puffy, a condition which may possibly be taken for the growth of a tumor. This generally disappears with the improvement of the health of the animal. Warts not uncommonly appear on or about the eyelids of cattle. _Treatment._--The removal of a tumor in the vicinity of so delicate an organ as the eye should not be attempted by anyone not qualified to perform the operation. LACERATION OF THE EYELID. This accident is not uncommon where cattle are fenced in by barbed wire; an animal may be caught under the eyelid by the horn of another, or the laceration may occur in the stable by means of a projecting nail or splinter of wood. _Treatment._--The edges of the wound should be brought together closely and correctly, by means of pins pushed through very nearly the whole thickness of the lid, extending through each lip of the torn part; then a waxed silk or linen thread must be wound over each end of the pin, crossing the torn line in the form of the figure 8 (Pl. XXVII, fig. 9); the pins should be placed about three-eighths of an inch apart. The projecting ends of the pins should be cut off close to the ligature, and the parts kept anointed with vaseline, to which 2 per cent of compound cresol has been added. In place of a pin suture, silver wire, catgut, or strong linen thread may be used in the way of an ordinary suture. FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EYE. Splinters of wood, hedge thorns, pieces of cornstalk or leaves, stems of hay or straw, twigs of trees, or weeds may penetrate into the eye, break off, and remain, causing inflammation, blindness, abscess, etc. These substances may penetrate the eyeball, but more frequently they glide off and enter between the eye and the ocular sheath. _Treatment._--Their removal becomes often a very difficult task, from the fact that the organ is so extremely sensitive, and the retracting power so strong as to necessitate casting the animal, or even the administration of sufficient chloroform to render it completely insensible. The removal, however, is of paramount importance, and the after treatment depends upon the extent and location of the injury--cold water compress over the injured eye, the application of mild astringent and cooling washes, such as acetate or sulphate of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water. When there is extreme suffering from pain a solution of atropia or morphia, 5 grains to the ounce of water, may be dropped into the eye, alternating with the cooling wash several times a day. When abscesses form within the orbit a free opening must be maintained for the discharge of pus. In deep penetrating wounds of the eye there is a great tendency to the formation of a fungous growth, which often necessitates the enucleation of the whole eyeball. ORBITAL AND PERIORBITAL ABSCESS. Orbital abscess may form outside the globe and within the orbital sheath, as the result of a previous wound of the parts or from fracture of the bony orbit, etc. Periorbital abscess commences outside the ocular sheath, beneath the periosteal membrane covering the bone, and is usually the result of a disease or fractured bone which enters into the formation of the orbital cavity. _Symptoms._--Orbital abscess is manifested by a pushing forward of the eyeball (exophthalmos), a swelling of the conjunctiva and eyelids. The bulging out of the eye is in proportion to the size of the abscess; the movement of the eye is fixed, due to the painfulness of any voluntary movement of the eyeball. Periorbital abscess generally pushes the eye to one side; otherwise the symptoms are similar to the foregoing. The pain generally is very great; paralysis of the nerve of sight may occur, and death may be caused by the abscess extending to the brain. _Treatment._--The treatment for either orbital or periorbital abscess is the same as that for abscess occurring in any other part of the body--a free opening for the escape of imprisoned pus. This should be made as soon as the true nature of the disease is recognized. Afterwards antiseptic injections may be needed to stimulate healthy granulation and to prevent septic infection of the ocular membranes. For this purpose a saturated solution of boric acid or listerine 1 part to 10 of water may be used. When the fever runs high, Glauber's salt (sulphate of soda) may be given in 4-ounce doses once a day. The animal should be kept in a darkened stable, on soft or green feed. FRACTURE OF THE ORBIT. This accident occasionally occurs among belligerent animals, or as the result of blows delivered by brutal attendants. The orbital process above the eye may be entirely crushed in, pressing down upon the eyeball. In such an event the depressed bone should be elevated into its proper place, and if it fails to unite it may have to be removed with saw or chisel. The margin of the orbit may be crushed at any point and cause periorbital abscess, or necrosis may result from the presence of a splinter of bone or the excessive destruction of bone. In all cases of fracture the animal should be kept by itself until the injured part heals. NECROSIS OF THE BONY ORBIT. As the result of fracture of the margin of the orbit a part of the injured bone may become necrosed (dead), and periostitis and periorbital abscess will follow as a consequence. The discovery of this disease will at first resemble abscess, but on making an examination with a probe after the abscess is open we find the bone rough and brittle at the point of disease. The discharge has a peculiar fetid odor, and is often mixed with blood. _Treatment._--The affected bone must be laid bare and all diseased portions removed by scraping or, if necessary, with saw or chisel, disregarding the extent of the injury or the size of the wound necessary to be inflicted. A large portion of the bony orbit may be removed without serious danger to the eye, provided the eyeball itself has not been previously affected by the disease or involved in the original injury. TUMORS OF THE ORBIT. A fungous tumor of the eyeball or orbit occasionally appears, which is designated fungus hæmatodes. This may arise without any appreciable cause, or as the result of a wound. It frequently commences within the eyeball as a small, red mass, eventually bursts through, and pushes its way outside the orbit as a large, dark-red mass, bleeding at the slightest touch. It has a peculiar, fetid odor, and early in its appearance destroys sight, involving all the contents of the orbit, not infrequently the bony wall itself. Unless the tumor is totally removed in its early stage of growth, together with the eyeball, the disease will eventually cause emaciation and death of the animal. The enucleation of the eyeball should not be undertaken by anyone unacquainted with the anatomical structures involved in such an operation. When the operation is performed early enough the result is generally satisfactory. Bony tumors of the orbit, the result of bruises, fractures, etc., are occasionally present in cattle. They may encroach upon the contents of the orbit, causing paralysis of the optic nerve--the condition known as amaurosis--or by pressure upon the posterior surface of the eyeball force it forward, or produce atrophy (shrinking). They may displace the eye in any direction, with or without disturbing vision. Fibrous tumors growing within the orbit will produce symptoms similar to those of bony tumors. _Treatment._--When the outlines of the tumor, whether fungoid, bony, or fibrous, can be detected, an operation for its removal should be undertaken as soon as the sight of the eye is in any manner disturbed. DISLOCATION OF THE EYEBALL. The eyeball may be torn out of its socket by the horns of another animal, or it may be crowded out with the blunt end of a club, cane, or probe in the hands of a brutal attendant. _Treatment._--When the optic nerve is not lacerated and the retractor muscles at the back of the eye are intact, an attempt at reduction is advisable. This, however, must follow very soon after the injury--before swelling takes place. Divide the outer corner of the eyelid to enlarge the orifice, then by pressure with the fingers of both hands placed upon the sides of the eye the ball may be put into its place. Apply a firm compress over the injured eye and keep it constantly wet with cold water containing 1 dram of sugar of lead to each quart. If the attempt at reduction proves unsuccessful the artery at the back of the eye should be ligated, and then the whole mass cut off as deep within the orbit as possible. The orbital cavity, after washing it out with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid or compound cresol, should be packed daily with fresh absorbent cotton. INFLAMMATION AND ENLARGEMENT OF THE HAW. The haw, or membrana nictitans, is subject to inflammation and swelling from the extension of conjunctivitis, or direct injury by foreign substances. It presents a red, swollen appearance, accompanied with considerable pain and a profuse flow of tears. A slight scarification with a sharp knife and the application of a cooling lotion, such as is recommended for conjunctivitis, will soon reduce the swelling and restore it to its normal function. There is, however, a tendency for an inflammation of this membrane to take on a chronic character, which may eventually result in a permanent enlargement, resembling a tumor. When it attains sufficient size to protrude itself permanently over the eye, or project between the lids so as to obstruct the sight, its removal may become necessary. A threaded needle is passed through the body of the enlarged mass, by which the membrane is drawn out as far as possible, then with a blunt pair of scissors it may be dissected away from its attachments. The eye is afterwards treated with simple cooling lotions. DISEASES OF THE EAR. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, D. V. S. [Revised by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] Diseases of the ears of cattle are not very common, for the reasons probably that they are not subjected to the brutality of drivers so much as horses and that the horns to a great extent protect them against external violence. OTITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE INTERNAL EAR). Inflammation of the deep part of the ear is often difficult to recognize in cattle. It may be caused by disease of bone in that region, from blows inflicted by drivers, or from injury by other cattle. Occasionally the ear becomes involved in actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), or the inflammation may be the result of a tuberculous affection. _Symptoms._--The animal will hold its head to one side, or shake it, while the ear itself is held immovable. The movement of the jaws in eating usually gives rise to a manifestation of pain; the base of the ear may be feverish and swollen, and very sensitive to the touch. If the inflammation has advanced to a suppurative stage, offensive matter will flow from the ear. _Treatment._--At first, hot fomentations to reduce pain and fever, followed by a sharp blister below the ear. Laudanum, 1 part to 10 of sweet oil, may be injected into the ear to relieve pain and to soften the secretions. If there is a discharge from the ear, it should be thoroughly washed out by injecting warm soapsuds until all the matter has been washed away; then inject the following mixture twice a day: Sulphate of morphia, 20 grains; water, 1 pint; glycerin, 4 ounces. ABSCESS. Abscesses, caused by contusions, sometimes form about the base of the ear, either inside or outside. A serous cyst is found occasionally between the cartilage and the skin on the base of the ear, which may be from a similar cause. _Treatment._--With the knife make a free incision into the most prominent part of the abscess or cyst, then, with a syringe, wash out the sac with carbolized water. If the abscess recurs, open it again, wash it out, and inject tincture of iodin, or fill it with iodoform. FUNGOID GROWTHS. As a result of laceration or wound of any kind, fungous growths, characterized by a raw, bleeding, granulating surface, with a tendency to become pendulous, may develop on the ear. _Treatment._--The whole tumor or diseased structure should be cut away, and the wound treated daily with a dressing of carbolized cosmoline or turpentine and sweet oil, 1 part of the former to 4 of the latter. FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR. Bugs have been known to gain entrance into the ears of animals. I once removed an acorn from the ear of a cow that had been roaming in the woods; also pieces of wood from a stanchion may be lodged accidentally in the ear. _Symptoms._--There is usually a continuous uneasiness or frequent shaking of the head, occasionally the manifestation of exceedingly great pain. The animal may rub the head and ear against trees or other objects in an endeavor to dislodge the offending body. _Treatment._--A careful examination reveals the cause, which may be removed with a pair of forceps or scraped out with a hairpin or piece of wire bent at one end. If much inflammation exists, the ear may be swollen so that the foreign substance is hidden from sight; then a probe may be inserted to feel for the object, which, when found, should be removed, even if it becomes necessary to split the ear at the base. Afterwards treat the ear with frequent warm water fomentations and the injection of soapy water or oil and water. SCURFY EARS. Cattle are subject to scurfy ears, which may be owing to a generally morbid condition of the skin, or may be confined to the ears alone. The affected animal shows an inclination to rub the ear; thick scales, which sometimes have the appearance of hard, dry, horny scales, of scurf collect on it. This condition is chiefly caused by a faulty secretion of the sebaceous glands of the ear. Thoroughly clean the ear with a stiff brush, then anoint it, so far as affected, with vaseline 4 parts to 1 part of white precipitate ointment. If the scurfy ears are only a part of a general scurfiness of the skin, the condition of the animal needs attention. (See "Pityriasis," p. 329.) FROSTBITE. It is not uncommon among young cattle which are poorly nourished and exposed outdoors to storms and extreme cold to suffer frostbite of the ear, which may constitute actual freezing of the part. _Symptoms._--Frostbite presents naturally every degree of severity from the mere chilling of the tip of the ear to positive freezing and death of a portion. In a day or two after the freezing has occurred the ear becomes swollen and very painful; the dead part remains cold and begins to shrivel; a line of separation then forms between the inflamed and the dead or dying portion, and finally the piece destroyed drops off, leaving a raw healing surface. When the ear is only slightly affected by the cold, an excoriation or peeling off of superficial skin takes place, accompanied with some pain and itching. _Treatment._--A good liniment for frozen ears is a mixture of turpentine, ammonia, and chloroform, of each 1 part, added to 6 parts of sweet oil. Rub this on the ear several times a day. It will relieve pain and stimulate the circulation, thus favoring a recovery of the injured structures. LACERATIONS OF THE EAR. Aggressive dogs are the most frequent cause of lacerated ear, generally leaving a torn, ragged edge and bruised cartilage. If the wound is extensive, a trimming of the ragged edges becomes necessary; then the edges should be fastened together with silver wire, catgut, or strong, thick, linen thread, taking a deep hold, and pine tar applied. DISEASE OF THE CARTILAGE AND NECROSIS. Occasionally the cartilages of the ear become affected, usually the result of a deep bruise; pus forms, burrows under the skin, and may find a discharge from any part of the ear more or less distant from the seat of the disease. When the cartilage has been extensively injured, pieces of it may become dead (necrosed) and dissolve, to be carried away with the pus, or it may lead to extensive sloughing and the formation of numerous running sores. In the disease of the cartilage there is seldom much swelling or great pain. The discharge is usually very offensive, and occasionally streaked with blood. Whenever there is a long-continued, persistent discharge from one or more openings in the ear, disease of the cartilage may be suspected. _Treatment._--The sinus formed by the passage of matter should be probed and searched to the bottom for the presence of a foreign substance or the evidence of decaying cartilage. When the probe touches necrosed cartilage it will feel like a piece of dry leather or partially softened wood. A counter opening must then be made at this place, and all diseased cartilage cut away with the knife. The subsequent treatment consists in keeping the artificial wound open for the discharge of pus, and the injection of chlorid of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, once or twice a day, until the wound is healed. ENCHONDROMA OF THE EAR. This is an excessive growth of cartilage, found at the base of the ear in the form of a hard, painless tumor, firmly attached to the movable ear. The only recourse for its removal is the knife in the hands of one acquainted with the anatomy of the part involved in the operation. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE. Revised by JOHN R. MOHLER, A. M., V. M. D., _Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry._ GENERAL INTRODUCTION. The importance, to the farmer and stock raiser, of a general knowledge of the nature of infectious diseases need not be insisted on, as it must be evident to all who have charge of farm animals. The growing facilities for intercourse between one section of a country and another, and between different countries, cause a wide distribution of the infectious diseases once restricted to a definite locality. Not only the animals themselves, but the cars, vessels, or other conveyances in which they are carried may become agents for the dissemination of disease. The growing tendency of specialization in agriculture, which leads to the maintenance of large herds of cattle, sheep, and hogs, makes infectious diseases more common and more dangerous. Fresh animals are being continually introduced which may be the carriers of disease from other herds, and when disease is once brought into a large herd the losses become very high, because it is difficult, if not impossible, to check it after it has once obtained a foothold. These considerations make it plain that only by the most careful supervision by intelligent men who understand the nature of infectious diseases and their causes in a general way can these be kept away. We must likewise consider how incomplete our knowledge concerning many diseases is, and probably will be for some time to come. The suggestions and recommendations offered by investigators, therefore, may not always be correct, and may require frequent modification as our information grows more comprehensive and exact. An infectious disease may be defined as any malady caused by the introduction, into the body, of minute organisms of a vegetable or animal nature which have the power of indefinite multiplication and of setting free certain peculiar poisons which are chiefly responsible for the morbid changes. This definition might include diseases caused by certain animal parasites, such as trichinæ, for example, which multiply in the digestive tract, but whose progeny is limited to a single generation. By common consent the term "infectious" is restricted to those diseases caused by the invasion and multiplication of certain very minute unicellular organisms included under the general classes of bacteria and protozoa. Nearly all the diseases of cattle for which a definite cause has been traced are from bacteria. Among these are tuberculosis, anthrax, blackleg, and tetanus (or lockjaw). Some diseases, such as Texas fever and nagana, are traceable to protozoa, while others, like actinomycosis and aspergillosis, are caused by fungi. Those diseases of which the cause is unknown or imperfectly worked out are pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, cowpox, malignant catarrh, and dysentery. Bacteria may be defined as very minute, unicellular organisms of a plantlike character. Their form is very simple, as may be seen from an inspection of the various species depicted on Plate XXVIII. The description of these figures will be found on page 360. The magnification there given will furnish the reader some idea of their very minute size. They multiply in two ways. The bacterium elongates and then divides in the middle to form 2 daughter cells. These go through the same process at once, and thus 4 cells are produced. The division of these leads to 8, the division of 8 to 16, and so on indefinitely. The rapidity with which this multiplication takes place depends upon the nature of the bacterium. The bacillus of tuberculosis multiplies very slowly, while that of anthrax does so with great rapidity, provided both are in the most favorable condition. Another mode of reproduction, limited to certain classes of bacteria, consists in the formation of a spore within the body of the bacterium. Spore formation usually takes place when the conditions pertaining to the growth of the bacteria become unfavorable. The spores are much more resistant to destructive agents than the bacteria which produced them. The anthrax spore may live several years in a dried state, but the anthrax bacillus perishes in a few days under like conditions. This matter will be referred to again when we come to discuss the subject of disinfection. Of the protozoa which cause disease very little is at present known. One which produces Texas fever is pictured on Plate XLV, in figs. 4 and 5. These parasites have a more complex life history than bacteria; and as they can not be grown in artificial media, their thorough investigation is at present hampered with great difficulties. The differences in the symptoms and lesions of the various infectious diseases are due to differences in the respective organisms causing them. Similarly the great differences observed in the sources from which animals become infected and the manner in which infection takes place are due to differences in the life history of these minute organisms. Much discussion has taken place of late years concerning the precise meaning of the words "infection" and "contagion." * * * * * VARIOUS BACTERIA WHICH PRODUCE DISEASE IN CATTLE. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXVIII. The bacteria on this plate are partly from tissues, partly from cultures, and stained artificially with aniline colors (fuchsin or methylene blue). Figs 6 and 7 are copied from Fränkel and Pfeiffer's atlas. All but fig. 7 are magnified 1,000 times; fig. 7, 500 times. Fig. 1. Bacteria from pneumonia in cattle. These are also the cause of hemorrhagic septicemia and are closely related to swine-plague bacteria. These bacteria were drawn from a piece of spleen pulp (rabbit). Fig. 2. Micrococci (streptococcus) which produce inflammation of the lining membranes of the abdomen, thorax, heart, brain, and joints. Frequently associated with the preceding bacteria in abscesses. Fig. 3. Micrococci (staphylococcus) which produce inflammation and suppuration; also pyemia. Fig. 4. Bacilli of blackleg. The pale oval bodies as well as the light spots in one end of the bacilli represent spores. Fig. 5. Bacilli which produce tetanus or lockjaw. The light spot in the enlarged end of each rod represents a spore. Fig. 6. Bacilli of tuberculosis. Microscopic sections of a pearly nodule from the lining membrane of the chest cavity. The bacilli are stained red and appear as small straight rods within the cells of the nodule or tubercle. Fig. 7. Bacilli of anthrax. Bacilli from the spleen of a mouse inoculated with a culture. The bacilli were obtained from the blood of a cow which died of anthrax in Mississippi. The bacilli appear as rods stained blue. The round bodies are blood corpuscles, also stained artificially. [Illustration: PLATE XXVIII. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. VARIOUS BACTERIA WHICH PRODUCE DISEASE IN CATTLE.] * * * * * These words, however, are now wholly inadequate to express the complex processes of infection, and it may be said that each species of bacterium or protozoon has its own peculiar way of invading the animal body, differing more or less from all the rest. There are, however, a few broad distinctions which may be expressed with the help of these old terms. Infection, as laid down above, refers at present in a comprehensive way to all microorganisms capable of setting up disease in the body. Some microorganisms are transmitted directly from one animal to another, and the diseases produced may be called contagious. Among these are included pleuropneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, rabies, cowpox, and tuberculosis. Again, certain organisms are perhaps never transmitted from one animal to another, but may come from the soil. Among these are tetanus, blackleg, anthrax to a large extent, and perhaps actinomycosis in part. These diseases, according to some authorities, may be called miasmatic. There is a third class of infectious diseases, the specific bacteria of which are transmitted from one animal to another, as with the contagious diseases, but the bacteria may, under certain favorable conditions, find food enough in the soil and in the surroundings of animals to multiply to some extent after they have left the sick animal and before they gain entrance into a healthy one. This general classification is subject to change if we take other characteristics into consideration. Thus tuberculosis, because of its insidious beginning and slow course, would not by many be considered contagious in the sense that foot-and-mouth disease is; yet, in either case, the bacillus must come from preexisting disease. The disease of rabies, or hydrophobia, is not contagious in the sense that rinderpest is, because the virus of rabies must be inoculated into a wound before it can take effect; yet, in both cases, the virus passes without modification from one animal to another, though in different ways. Again, all the diseases under the second group, which seem to come from the soil and from pastures, are in one sense contagious in that the virus may be taken from a sick animal and inoculated directly, with positive results, into a healthy animal. Other illustrations may be cited which show that these old terms are not in themselves satisfactory. There are so many conditions which enter into the process of infection that no single classification will give a sufficiently correct or comprehensive idea of it. These statements will be easily understood if the different infectious diseases in the following pages are studied with reference to the way or ways in which each disease may be contracted. Enough has been said, therefore, to show that if we wish to make ourselves acquainted with the dangers of any given disease, we must study it and not rely upon any single work to tell the whole story. Infectious diseases have, as a general rule, a period of incubation, which comprises the time elapsing between the exposure to the infection and the actual appearance of the disease. This period varies with the malady. The most common symptom of this class of diseases is fever. The severity of the fever is measured by the temperature of the animal; this is readily and accurately ascertainable by the clinical thermometer. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) The other symptoms are variable and depend upon the particular organ or organs most implicated. Loss of appetite, cessation of rumination and milk secretion, and general dullness are symptoms quite invariably present in most infectious diseases. During the course of infectious diseases secondary diseases or complications may arise which are largely caused by bacteria other than those producing the original malady. These complications are often so severe as to become fatal. In general it may be stated that they are due to filthy surroundings, and hence cleanliness may become an important aid to recovery. The treatment of infectious diseases is given under each malady so far as this is allowable or advisable. These diseases are not, as a rule, amenable to treatment. When the symptoms have once appeared the disease is liable to run its course in spite of treatment, and if it is one from which animals usually recover, all that can be done is to put them into the most favorable surroundings. Many infectious diseases lead sooner or later to death, treatment is useless so far as the sick are concerned, and it may be worse than useless for those not yet infected. All animals suffering with infectious diseases are more or less directly a menace to all others. They represent for the time being manufactories of disease germs, and they are giving them off more or less abundantly during the period of disease. They may infect others directly or they may scatter the virus about, and the surroundings may become a future source of infection for healthy animals. This leads us to the subject of prevention as the most important of all which claim our attention. In this place only a few general remarks will suffice to bring the subject before the reader. The most important thing is to keep disease away from a herd or farm. To do this all sick or suspicious animals should be avoided. A grave form of disease may be introduced by apparently mild or trivial cases brought in from without. It is generally conceded that continual change and movement of animals are the most potent means by which infectious diseases are disseminated. With some cattle diseases, such as anthrax, rinderpest, and pleuropneumonia, preventive inoculation is resorted to in some countries. This may be desirable when certain diseases have become established in any locality so that eradication is impossible. It should not be practiced in territories where a given disease may still be extirpated by ordinary precautions. Preventive inoculation is applicable to only a few maladies, and therefore its aid in the control of diseases is limited. When an infectious disease has gained foothold in a herd the course to be pursued will depend upon the nature of the malady. A good rule is to kill diseased animals, especially when the disease is liable to run a chronic course, as in tuberculosis. The next important step is to separate the well from the sick by placing the former on fresh ground. This is rarely possible; hence the destruction or removal of the sick, with thorough disinfection of the infected locality, is the next thing to be done. As to the disinfectants to be used, special directions are given under the various diseases, to which the reader is referred. Here we will simply call attention briefly to the general subject. DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS. Disinfection consists in the use of certain substances which possess the power to destroy bacteria or their spores, or both. Those which are cheapest and most available for animal diseases are ordinary freshly slaked lime or unslaked in powder, chlorid of lime, crude carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde gas, formalin, and compound cresol solution. (1) Slaked lime is perhaps the most easily procured, but its disinfecting power is limited. While it is capable of destroying all bacteria in their vegetative state, it is unable to destroy such spores as those of anthrax and blackleg. It is probable, however, that in incrusting spores it may destroy their vitality sooner or later. It is regarded as safe practice to use only spore-destroying substances for the virus of those diseases of which we have no definite knowledge. Nevertheless, in the absence of other disinfectants, lime is very useful. It may be employed as a whitewash on wood and stone and sprinkled as a dilute wash or in powder over yards, manure heaps, and over carcasses before they are buried, and over the ground on which they have lain to prevent other animals from carrying the infection away. (2) Chlorid of lime is more efficient than simple slaked or unslaked lime, as it destroys spores. It is the ordinary bleaching powder of commerce and is quite unstable, hence old preparations, unless sealed, are of little value. A 5 per cent solution is sufficiently strong for all spore-bearing bacteria (3 ounces in 2 quarts of water). It may be efficiently applied to the walls and floor of an infected stable by mixing with limewash in the proportion of 6 ounces of the lime to each gallon of limewash. The ceilings and those portions of the walls which can not be reached should be disinfected by means of chlorin gas liberated from the chlorid of lime by crude carbolic acid. This is accomplished by making a cone of 5 or 6 pounds of chlorid of lime, in the top of which a deep crater is made for the placement of from 1 to 2 pints of crude acid. The edge of the crater is thereupon pushed into the fluid, when a lively reaction follows. The fumes of chlorin are strongly irritating to the respiratory tract and therefore all live stock should be removed before the work is started. Owing to the heat generated, it is advisable to place the lime in an iron crucible and to have nothing inflammable within a radius of 2 feet. The number and location of these cones of chlorid of lime depend on the size and structure of the building to be disinfected. As a rule, it may be stated that chlorin gas liberated from the above-sized cone will be sufficient for disinfecting 5,200 cubic feet of air space. (3) Crude carbolic acid. The ordinary purified carbolic acid is too expensive to be used on a large scale, and the crude produce is a very good substitute. This is made more powerful by mixing with it an equal volume of commercial sulphuric acid. While the sulphuric acid is being added to the crude carbolic acid much heat is evolved, and if the glass jar in which the two are mixed is placed in cold water the resulting product is said to have a higher disinfecting power. The mixture is added to water enough to make a 5 per cent solution (about 7 ounces to 4 quarts of water). This is strong enough for all purposes. It may be kept in wood or glass, but not in metal, owing to the corroding action of the acid. It should be used freely on woodwork and on infected floors, and a force pump of the kind used by orchardists is very convenient as a means of applying the disinfectant. If the solution is warm when applied, it will penetrate the woodwork better than when cold, especially if the spraying is done during cold weather. The addition of air-slaked lime in any quantity that will dissolve in water to the above solution (say 1-1/2 pounds of lime to 7 ounces of crude carbolic acid to each gallon of water) is preferred by many, as it makes any neglected places at once visible and leaves cleaner and better air within the buildings. In most cases in which its application becomes desirable--and this rule should apply to all disinfections--the disinfected stables, stalls, etc., should remain vacant as long as possible before cattle are again stabled therein. (4) Mercuric chlorid, or corrosive sublimate, is a powerful disinfectant, but it is likewise very poisonous; hence its uses are limited. Cattle are especially susceptible to its action and caution must be used in its application. A solution of one-tenth of 1 per cent is usually sufficient (1 ounce to 8 gallons of water). It should not be placed in wooden pails, which would form the tannate of mercury, a weak antiseptic; nor, owing to its corrosive action, should expensive metal pails be used. Agate vessels or tin pails are to be preferred. All solutions should be labeled "poison," and to avoid accidents none should be kept on hand. (5) Formalin and formaldehyde gas have been found very efficacious as sanitary agents. Formalin is the commercial name for the 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas in water, and is one of the most powerful antiseptic and disinfectants that we possess. Solutions of this strength are manufactured by different commercial houses and sold by the drug trade under the name of "formalose" and "formal." In this connection it should be mentioned that while the 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde gas and formalin are exactly the same thing, the former can be purchased at 33-1/3 to 64 per cent less than the latter. Formalin, diluted with water in the proportion of 1 pint to 30 parts of water, or 4 ounces to each gallon of water, may be applied, and it may thus be used as a wash or as a spray on all paints, metals, and woodwork, as well as on clothing and other fabrics, without injuring them. It may also be applied to floors, walls, and woodwork in whitewash by mixing 1 part to 30 parts of limewash, or 4 ounces to each gallon of limewash. Formalin has the appearance of water and in the strong solution is poisonous, but when diluted as recommended above it is not dangerous. The fumes given off by it, however, are very disagreeable and irritating to the eyes and nasal mucous membranes. One and one-half ounces of formalin added to 1 gallon of water is a valuable agent for the disinfection of the skin or septic wounds, but is somewhat painful and irritating to raw surfaces. Formaldehyde is a gas which is soluble in 2-1/2 parts of water (40 parts of formaldehyde gas to 100 parts of water); this solution constitutes the formalin of commerce. The use of formaldehyde gas is in most cases impracticable for stable disinfection. In case the stable is not too large and can be made almost air-tight the generation of formaldehyde gas, after removing all the animals, will be found very serviceable. It penetrates all parts of the stable--the walls, crevices, floors, ceiling--and is probably the best fumigating disinfectant that we have. Probably one of the most simple and practical methods of liberating this gas is by means of the chemical reaction which takes place when formalin is poured upon permanganate of potassium. For each 1,000 cubic feet of air space, 16-2/3 ounces of crystallized or powdered permanganate of potassium is placed in a wide-surfaced pan; 20 ounces of formalin is then poured upon it, and the stable immediately closed for a period of 12 hours or longer. This method is efficient only when it is possible to seal tightly the place to be disinfected, and should be used only by experienced persons. (6) Some coal-tar products are cheap, effective, and easily applied disinfectants, their action being due to the carbolic acid and creosote in their composition. They may be used in 3 to 5 per cent solution. As a rule they form a milky solution in water. (7) Compound solution of cresol (liquor cresolis compositus), now recognized as an official preparation, is composed of equal parts of cresol and linseed-oil-potash soap. The mixture is a thick, dark, amber-colored fluid which mixes readily with water in all proportions to form a clear, soap solution. It is an efficient disinfectant in a 3 or 4 per cent solution, and in this strength it may be applied in the same manner as a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. When it is desired to apply one of these above-mentioned agents to the stable or barnyard, a preliminary cleaning up of all débris and litter is advisable, together with the scraping of the floor, mangers, and walls of the stable with hoes; also the removal of all dust and filth. This should be followed by the burning of all such accumulations, inasmuch as this material likewise contains the infectious principle and is best destroyed by heat. Heat may be applied to the surface of the affected pen, byre, or barnyard by means of a cyclone burner, which consists of a tank, pump, hose, and cyclone nozzle for spraying with paraffin (gas oil). The latter is ejected in the form of spray, which when ignited gives a very hot and effective flame to be applied to the infected ground. Where such burning is impracticable the surface soil of the yard and surroundings should be removed to a depth of 5 or 6 inches and then placed in a heap and thoroughly mixed with air-slaked lime. The fresh surface of the soil thus exposed may then be sprinkled with the disinfectant. In addition to these artificial substances there are several natural sanitary agents of great importance as destroyers of virus. These are cleanliness, ventilation, drying, and sunshine. All virus, excepting such as may live in the soil, is killed sooner or later by drying and sunshine, and the importance of these factors in the daily life of animals need not be insisted on here. Finally, all sanitary measures which contribute to the healthfulness of animal surroundings are directly or indirectly inimical to disease germs, and all carelessness in the keeping of animals may be regarded as an ally of these destructive organisms. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. [Pls. XXIX-XXXII.] _Definition and history._--This disease has been eradicated from the United States, and it is not probable that it will ever be seen in this country again. As, however, much interest was manifested in regard to it for a number of years, and as our cattle are still prohibited from some foreign markets on account of its previous existence here, the subject is treated at greater length than would otherwise be necessary. The contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle is a specific, epizootic disease which affects bovine animals, and from which other species are exempt. It is characterized, when the disease results from exposure in the usual manner, by an inflammation of the lungs and pleuræ, which is generally extensive, and which has a tendency to invade portions of these organs not primarily affected and to cause death of the diseased portion of the lung. This disease is frequently called the lung plague, which corresponds to its German name of Lungenseuche. In French it is spoken of as the péripneumonie contagieuse. The history of the contagious pleuropneumonia of cattle can not be traced with any certainty to a period earlier than the beginning of the eighteenth century. No doubt it existed and ravaged the herds of Europe for many years and perhaps centuries before that time, but veterinary knowledge was so limited that the descriptions of the symptoms and post-mortem appearance are too vague and too limited to admit of the identification of the maladies to which they refer. It has been supposed by some writers that certain passages in the writings of Aristotle, Livy, and Virgil show the existence of pleuropneumonia at the time that their works were composed, but their references are too indefinite to be seriously accepted as indicating this rather than some other disease. It seems quite plain that as early as 1713 and 1714 pleuropneumonia existed in Swabia and several Cantons of Switzerland. There are even clearer accounts of its prevalence in Switzerland in 1732, 1743, and 1765. In 1769 a disease called murie was investigated in Franche-Comté by Bourgelat which undoubtedly was identical with the pleuropneumonia of to-day. From that period we have frequent and well-authenticated accounts of its existence in various parts of Europe. During the period from 1790 to 1812 it was spread throughout a large portion of the Continent of Europe by the cattle driven for the subsistence of the armies, which marched and countermarched in all directions. It was generally prevalent in Italy in 1800. It appears to have been unknown, however, in the Department of the Nord, France, until 1826, but during the years from 1820 to 1840 it penetrated into most parts of that country. During the same period it was introduced into and allowed to spread over Belgium and Holland. This contagion is said to have been carried to Ireland from Holland in 1839, and is reported as existing in England in 1842. The disease was brought to the United States at several different times. Probably its first introduction was with a diseased cow sold in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1843. It came to New Jersey by importing affected animals in 1847. Massachusetts was infected in the same way in 1859. South Africa was infected by a bull brought from Holland in 1854, and Australia likewise received the contagion with an English cow in 1858. It is also reported as existing in various parts of the Continent of Asia, but the time of its first appearance and the extent of its distribution are very uncertain. Some countries, such as Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, which had been infected for only a short time, have succeeded in eradicating the disease without much difficulty by slaughtering all affected and exposed animals. Other countries long infected and in which the contagion was thoroughly established, like Australia, South Africa, Italy, France, Belgium, and parts of Germany, have labored long, in some cases making no progress and in others being only partially successful. Holland was one of the first of the thoroughly infected countries to free itself from the contagion. In the United States, Massachusetts eradicated pleuropneumonia during the period from 1860 to 1866. New York and New Jersey made an attempt to eradicate it in 1879, but were not successful. Late in 1883 the contagion was carried to Ohio, probably by Jersey cattle purchased in the vicinity of Baltimore, Md., to which place it had extended before 1868. From the herd then infected it was spread by the sale of cattle during 1884 to a limited number of herds in Illinois, to one herd in Missouri, and to two in Kentucky. The alarm caused among the stock owners of the United States by this widespread dissemination of a disease so much dreaded led to the adoption of active measures for its control and eradication. By cooperation between the United States Department of Agriculture and the authorities of the affected States it was found possible to prevent the further spread of the contagion and to eradicate it after a few months' delay. In 1886 pleuropneumonia was discovered in some of the large distillery stables of Chicago and among cows on neighboring lots. This led to renewed efforts for the complete extirpation of this disease from the country. Congress in 1887 enlarged the appropriation available for this purpose and gave more extended authority. During the same year the disease was stamped out of Chicago, and has not since appeared in any district west of the Allegheny Mountains. The work of eradication was at the same time commenced in all the infected States. Before the end of the year 1889 Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, and Virginia had been freed from the disease. More difficulties, however, were encountered in the States of New York and New Jersey, on account of the larger territory infected and the density of the population. The long struggle was successful, however, and the last animal in which the disease appeared in the State of New York was slaughtered early in 1891, and the last one affected in New Jersey met the same fate early in the spring of 1892. [Illustration: PLATE XXIX. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. UPPER OR DORSAL SURFACE OF THE LUNGS OF THE OX. (ONE-TWELFTH NATURAL SIZE.)] [Illustration: PLATE XXX. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. BRONCHOPNEUMONIA.] [Illustration: Plate XXXI. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXII. Haines del. ZEESE-WILKINSON CO., INC., N.Y. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA.] During these same years a supreme effort had been made to stamp out this lung plague from Great Britain. From the official reports it appears that the number of infected districts and of diseased animals had rapidly diminished, but it was not until 1898 that the infection was finally eradicated. The other infected European countries, though they maintain a veterinary sanitary service, are not making satisfactory progress in eradicating the disease. This is owing partly to delays in carrying out the provisions of the laws and partly to mistaken ideas as to the measures which are necessary to accomplish the object. The United States was the last of the countries having old infected districts which undertook to stamp out this contagion, and, except Holland, it was the first to reach success. _The cause (etiology) of pleuropneumonia._--This is a contagious disease, and arises only by contagion from a previously affected animal; consequently it can never be seen here except as the result of importing affected animals from the Old World. When thoroughly stamped out it does not reappear; and if imported animals continue to be properly inspected and quarantined, we have every reason to believe that pleuropneumonia will never again be seen in this country. The exact nature of the virus or contagion of lung plague has never been determined. Various investigators have from time to time claimed the discovery of the specific organism of the disease, but it was not until 1898 that Nocard and Roux, by an ingenious method of cultivation, succeeded in obtaining a very feeble growth of an exceedingly minute microorganism. With these cultures the disease was produced in cattle. Some investigators and writers are of the opinion that the disease can be contracted only by an animal coming near enough to a living diseased one to receive the contagion directly from it. They hold that the contagion is expired with the air from the affected lungs, and that it must be almost immediately inspired by another animal in order to produce the disease. Some experimental attempts to infect animals by placing them in stables where diseased animals have been, and by placing the diseased lungs of slaughtered animals in their feeding troughs have failed, and, consequently, apparently confirm this view. * * * * * CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XXIX. Upper or dorsal surface of the lungs of the ox, reduced to one-twelfth of the natural size: _a_, _a'_, the right and left principal lobes. These are the largest and are situated posteriorly, resting upon the diaphragm; _b_, _b'_, the ventral lobes, situated between the principal lobes; and _c_, _c'_, _c''_ the most anterior, or cephalic, lobes. The right anterior is divided into two lobes (_c_, _c'_), the left is single (_c''_); _d_, trachea, or windpipe. In the majority of the lungs examined in the laboratory of the bureau which were affected with contagious pleuropneumonia the principal lobes (_a_, _a'_) were primarily affected. PLATE XXX. Bronchopneumonia. The ventral or middle lobe of the right lung affected with collapse and beginning bronchopneumonia. The light yellowish portions represent healthy lung tissue; the red represents the disease. It will be noticed that the lines between the lobules are quite faint, indicating little or no inflammation of the connective tissue between the lobules. The healthy lung tissue is seen to be raised above the level of the diseased portion. In contagious pleuropneumonia the exact reverse is the case, the diseased portions being very much larger than the healthy. PLATE XXXI. Contagious pleuropneumonia. Appearance of a cow's lung affected with contagious pleuropneumonia when sections or slices are made of it and cut surfaces examined. Fig. 1. Transverse section through the right principal lobe in a case of acute pleuropneumonia. The area drawn includes the air tubes, veins, and arteries, and illustrates the great thickening of the interlobular connective tissue into broad whitish bands and of the walls of the air tubes, veins, and arteries: _a_, air tube cut obliquely; _a'_, air tube cut directly across; _b_, arteries cut across; _c_, large vein completely occluded by a thrombus or plug formed during life. The great thickening of the walls of the artery and vein in this disease is especially brought out by stating that in the healthy lung they are so thin as to be easily overlooked. Fig. 2. Transverse section of the principal lobe in a case of acute pleuropneumonia, illustrating the different kinds of hepatization or consolidation of the lung. These are indicated by the different colors from dark red to reddish yellow. This variation of color is regarded by some as the real marbling characteristic of pleuropneumonia, while the whitish bands penetrating the lung tissue in all directions constitute the true marbling according to other observers. PLATE XXXII. Contagious pleuropneumonia. This illustrates what are called infarctions. The right half of the figure shows nearly normal lung tissue. The left represents a blackish mass, in which the lung tissue is filled with blood and solidified. This is caused by the plugging of the vein carrying away the blood from this portion. The heart forces the blood through the artery into the tissue at considerable pressure, but owing to the fact that its return is prevented, the minute blood vessels rupture and the air vesicles become distended with blood, which coagulates and causes the firmness of the tissue. * * * * * On the other hand, it is known that the serum from affected lungs retains its virulence and may be used successfully for inoculation weeks or months after the death of the animal from which it was taken. This is particularly the case when this liquid is hermetically sealed in glass tubes. Other investigators state that they have successfully infected cattle by placing, in the nostrils, sponges or pledgets of cotton saturated with such serum. Cattle have also, according to the best evidence obtainable, been infected from the clothing of attendants, from horns used in drenching, and from smelling about wagons which have been used to transport affected carcasses. In the work of eradicating pleuropneumonia from the United States many stables were found in which the disease would appear and reappear after the slaughter of affected herds, and in spite of any precautions which were adopted. These were always old stables, with woodwork in a decaying condition and with floors underlaid with filth which could not be thoroughly removed or disinfected. In every one of these cases the destruction of the stable, the burning of the lumber of which it was constructed, the removal of the accumulations beneath the floors, and thorough disinfection, prevented the recurrence of the plague in new stables built upon the same premises. This experience conclusively shows that under certain conditions, at least, stables may retain the infection for a considerable time, and that when restocked the disease may break out again from such infection. As a rule, however, the disease is acquired by a healthy animal being near an affected one and receiving the contagion direct. Affected animals may give off the contagion in the early stages of the disease before the symptoms are apparent to the observer; also, they may retain this infectious character, if they survive the attack, for six months and probably for a year after all symptoms of the disease have disappeared. _Incubation._--The time which elapses between exposure to the contagion of pleuropneumonia and the first appearance of the symptoms of this disease varies greatly with different individuals and with different outbreaks of the disease. Ordinarily the symptoms of disease make their appearance within three to six weeks after exposure; they may be observed, however, within two weeks or they may not become apparent until nearly or quite three months. It is this long period of incubation and the great length of time that an animal may disseminate the contagion after apparent recovery which give the plague that insidious character so often spoken of, and which greatly increase the difficulties of eradication. _Symptoms._--The symptoms are such as would be expected with inflammation of the lungs and pleuræ, but they vary considerably, according to the type which the disease manifests. If the attack is an acute one, as is frequently seen in hot weather, the symptoms appear suddenly; the breathing becomes rapid and difficult, the animal grunts or moans with each expiration, the shoulders stand out from the chest, the head is extended on the neck, the back is arched, the temperature is 104° to 107° F., the milk secretion is suspended, there is no appetite, rumination is stopped, the animal may bloat and later be affected with a severe diarrhea. Such cases are generally fatal in 7 to 20 days. Very often the attack comes on slowly and the symptoms are much less clear. In the mildest cases there is a cough for a week or two, but no appreciable loss of appetite or elevation of temperature. The lungs are but slightly affected and recovery soon follows. Such animals may disseminate the contagion for a long time without being suspected, and for that reason are the most dangerous of all. A more severe type of the plague is the most frequently seen. In these cases the cough is frequent, more or less painful, the back somewhat arched, and the milk secretion diminished. The prominence of these symptoms increases, the appetite is affected, the animal loses flesh, the breathing becomes more rapid, the cough more painful, pressure of the fingers between the ribs shows tenderness, the hair loses its gloss and stands erect, the skin becomes adherent, little, if any, milk is secreted, and the temperature rises, varying in different animals from 103° to 107° F. Animals thus affected may continue to grow worse and die in from three to eight weeks, or they may after a time begin to improve and make an apparent recovery. The inflammation of the lung does not, as a rule, subside and the organ return to its normal condition, as is the case in ordinary pneumonia, but with this disease the life of the affected portion of the lung is destroyed, the tissue dies, and a fibrous wall is formed around it to shut it away from the living parts. The tissue, thus encysted, gradually softens, becomes disintegrated, and breaks down into pus. The recovery, therefore, is not complete; it is only apparent and partial. To those accustomed to examining the lungs of cattle, other and extremely important symptoms may be apparent during the course of the disease. By applying the ear over the walls of the chest an area of a certain extent may be found in which the natural breathing sound is diminished or entirely lost. This represents the diseased portion of the lungs. In other cases a loud blowing sound may be heard, quite different from any sound produced when the lung is in a healthy condition. In some cases crepitation is heard near the border line of the diseased area and friction sounds produced by the roughened pleura; these can be appreciated, however, only by those whose ears have been trained to distinguish between the different sounds which reach the ear when applied to the chest wall. By percussion--that is, by pressing the fingers of the left hand firmly against the wall of the chest and tapping upon the middle finger with the ends of the fingers of the right hand--an area of dullness may be discovered corresponding to the portion from which the respiratory murmur has disappeared. This loss of respiration detected by auscultation, and the dullness brought out by percussion, are the most important evidences of an inflamed or consolidated lung. Seriously affected animals remain standing if they have sufficient strength, but those which lie down always lie on the affected side. The proportion of animals which become affected after being exposed varies according to the virulence of the outbreak, the susceptibility of the animals, and the length of time during which exposure is continued. Sometimes not more than 15, 20, or 30 per cent will contract the disease when a large herd is exposed; on the other hand, however, 80 or 90 per cent may be affected. The proportion of cases in which the disease proves fatal also varies greatly--it may not exceed 10 and it may reach 50 per cent. In general, it may be said that about 40 per cent of the exposed animals will contract the disease and about one-half of these cases will prove fatal. _Post-mortem appearances._--Owing to the complexity of the structure of the lung tissue, its ramifications of bronchial tubes and blood vessels, and its abundant supply of lymphatics, the pathological changes in pleuropneumonia are interpreted with great difficulty. Furthermore, there are certain kinds of pneumonia which present some resemblances to pleuropneumonia and which may therefore be confused with it in some of its phases. If we kill an animal affected with acute pleuropneumonia and examine the cavity of the chest and lungs, the following appearances will be noted: The thorax may contain more or less serum, which may be clear or clouded. There may be firm adhesions of different parts of the lungs to the chest wall, the extent of which depends on the stage and severity of the disease. The diseased lobes are unusually large and exceedingly firm to the touch. The weight of a single large lobe may reach 40 pounds. Usually only one side is affected, often but a single lobe, and this most commonly the large or principal lobe. The pleura may be covered with one or more layers of a firm, elastic, grayish membrane, which varies in thickness and which sometimes may be pulled away entirely. Sometimes it is absent. The pleura, however, is opaque and apparently very much thickened. This is owing to the diseased condition of the connective tissue beneath the pleura, as will be explained later. When an affected lobe is cut through at right angles to its long diameter, the cut surface presents a variety of interesting changes. In the first place the spaces between the small subdivisions of the lung (the lobules), which in the healthy lung are barely visible, are distended with a yellowish-white, usually quite firm, substance, which is coagulated fibrin. The cut surface thus appears divided into small fields by yellowish-white bands of varying thickness running in various directions through the lung tissue and beneath the pleura. (Pl. XXXI.) These bands may appear honeycombed and the spaces filled with yellowish fluid (serum) or they may be uniformly solid. It will also be noticed that the space immediately outside of and around the artery, vein, and air tube is similarly broadened by fibrinous deposits. Some authorities look upon these bands as constituting the so-called "marbling" of pleuropneumonia. In addition to these changes which have taken place in the connective tissue between the lobules, the lung tissue itself may be markedly altered. Certain areas of the cut surface may be very firm in texture and of a brownish-red color. The cut surface is granular or roughened, not smooth to the eye. Other areas equally firm may be more grayish yellow and still others may be blackish. (Pl. XXXII.) Besides these areas which represent solidified (hepatized) lung tissue there may be others which approach the normal lung tissue in color, are soft, and float in water. From these a milky, purulent fluid may often be expressed. These different shades are represented in Plate XXXI, fig. 2, within a small compass. Some authorities are inclined to consider these variations in color on the same cut surface as the so-called marbling of pleuropneumonia. It matters not whether we regard the bands between the lobules or the varying shades of the lobules themselves as the marbling, provided either or both are peculiar to contagious pleuropneumonia. If we examine the blood vessels appearing on such cut surface they will usually be found plugged within the firmly hepatized regions. The artery contains a dark, soft, removable clot, the vein a grayish-pink, granular, fragile plug (thrombus), which adheres firmly to the wall of the vein, and if this is slit open, indications of a diseased condition of the inner coat will be readily detected. When large regions of the lung tissues are hepatized, the main air tube and its branches are usually filled with grayish, cylindrical branched masses of fibrin that are easily removed, as they do not adhere to the mucous membrane. The views of pathologists differ as to the nature of the earliest changes in pleuropneumonia, and it is not within the scope of this work to present controverted or imperfectly developed theories. In the foregoing description we have taken as a type the acute pleuropneumonia in its fully developed phase, which can scarcely be mistaken for any other disease. We have seen that there is an inflammatory condition of the connective tissue between the lobules, resulting in the exudation of coagulable lymph. This inflammation is equally marked around the blood vessels and air tubes. It leads to inflammatory changes in the inner wall of the veins, and these cause the deposition of thrombi or plugs in the vessels, which prevent the return of the blood. The blood pumped into the lung tissue through the artery, but unable to get out by way of the vein, leaves the mesh-work of capillaries around the air vesicles, enters the latter, and produces the firm, hepatized condition so characteristic of this disease. If we bear in mind that the veins in different parts of the lung tissue are plugged at different times, and that, therefore, the affected regions are in different stages of disease, it will be easily understood how the different shades of color from dark red to grayish or yellowish red are produced. The complete plugging of the veins may lead to the death of circumscribed masses of lung tissue. A line of separation forms between the living and the dead tissue and a thick cyst wall of fibrous tissue forms around the latter. The dead tissue for a time preserves the appearance of lung tissue, then undergoes disintegration and liquefaction. The softened mass is finally absorbed, and the walls of the cyst, or capsule around it, gradually collapse and form a cicatrix. This favorable termination takes place only when the dead mass is not too large. It may, however, involve over half of one of the large lobes. Under such circumstances recovery is improbable. A more favorable termination is the abundant growth of fibrous tissue around and into the hepatized masses. The formation of fibrous tissue may extend to the pleura, or lung covering, and cause firm adhesion of the lungs to the chest wall and to the pericardium, or heart case. The same peculiar, inflammatory changes which take place between the lobules of the lung and around the bronchi and vessels may invade the pleural cavity, cause extensive membranous and spongy deposits on the pleura and firm deposits around the heart and large arteries, the gullet, and windpipe. These are the main features of the lung disease caused by contagious pleuropneumonia. In the typical, acute cases there are a sufficient number of peculiarities to enable us to make a positive diagnosis. There are, however, many cases in which the disease is restricted to small areas, or to the interlobular tissue, or in which the changes are still imperfectly developed, or else so far advanced that doubts may arise as to the true nature of the affection. In such cases all obtainable facts, including the history of the case, the symptoms during life, and the pathological changes observed on post-mortem examination must be taken into consideration. Only one who has made a careful study of the disease is fitted to decide in such cases. Other kinds of lung disease, because of certain features common to most lung diseases of cattle, may be confounded with pleuropneumonia. The inflammation of the connective tissue between the lobules is not infrequently observed in so-called interstitial pneumonia and may lead to the formation of whitish bands intersecting the lung tissues in various directions. On the cut surface these bands may give rise to a decidedly marbled appearance. Again, in traumatic pneumonia, caused, as its name implies, by the entrance of foreign bodies into the lung tissue, generally from the paunch, the connective tissue around the place of disease becomes inflamed and thickened, and the disease itself may simulate pleuropneumonia in its retrogressive stages when it is confined to a small portion of lung tissue. The filling up of the interlobular spaces with fibrin and connective tissue of inflammatory origin is not thus limited to pleuropneumonia, but may appear in a marked degree in other lung diseases. It must not be inferred from this statement that these interlobular changes are necessarily the same as those in pleuropneumonia, although to the naked eye they may appear the same. We simply note their presence without discussing their nature. In general, the distinction between pleuropneumonia and bronchopneumonia is not difficult to make. In the latter disease the pneumonia generally invades certain lobes. The disease attacks the smaller lobes in their lowest portions first and gradually extends upward, i. e., toward the root of the lung or the back of the animal and backward into the large principal lobes. Again, both lungs in advanced cases are often symmetrically affected. In contagious pleuropneumonia the large principal lobe of one side is most frequently affected, and a symmetrical disease of both lungs is very rare, if, in fact, it has ever been observed. The lung tissue in bronchopneumonia is not enlarged, but rather more contracted than the normal tissue around it. This is well illustrated in Plate XXX. Normal, air-containing lobules may be scattered among and around the hepatized portion in an irregular manner. In pleuropneumonia the diseased and healthy portions are either sharply divided off, one from the other, or else they shade into each other by intermediate stages. The hepatized lung tissue in bronchopneumonia when the cut surface is examined is visually of a more or less dark flesh color with paler grayish-yellow dots regularly interspersed, giving it a peculiar, mottled appearance. In the more advanced stages it becomes more firm, and may contain nodular and firmer masses disseminated through it. The air tubes usually contain more or less soft, creamy, or cheesy pus or a turbid fluid quite different from the loose, fibrinous casts of acute pleuropneumonia. The interlobular tissue may or may not be affected. It sometimes contains loose, fibrinous plugs, or it may be greatly distended with air, especially in the still normal portions of the lung. The pleura is seldom seriously diseased. If we contrast with these features the firm dark-red hepatizations, the plugging of the veins, the extensive interlobular deposits, and the well-marked pleuritis in pleuropneumonia, there is little chance for confusion between well-developed cases of these two lung diseases. It should not be forgotten, however, that the lesions of the disease known as contagious pleuropneumonia may be confined to the serous membranes of the thorax, or they may be confined to the parenchyma of the lungs; they may affect a whole lobe, or only a small portion of it; they may or may not cause the so-called marbled appearance. In the same way bronchopneumonia may vary as to the parts of the lung affected, the extent of the lesions, the degree and kind of pathological changes in the interlobular tissue, the color of the lung on cross section and the amount of hepatization. In individual cases, therefore, it is often necessary to take into account the history of the animal, the course of the disease, and the communicability of the affection before a diagnosis can be made between the two diseases. _Prevention and treatment._--The prevention of pleuropneumonia, as of other contagious diseases, consists in keeping animals so that they will not be exposed to the contagion. As the disease arises only by contagion, there is no possibility of an animal becoming affected with it unless it has been exposed. If, therefore, pleuropneumonia exists in a locality the owner of healthy cattle should make every effort to keep his animals from coming near affected ones or which have been exposed. He should be equally particular not to allow persons who have been on the infected premises to visit his own pastures, stables, or cattle. If pleuropneumonia breaks out in a herd, every animal in it should be slaughtered, the stables thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, and no other cattle allowed on the premises until a period of 90 days has elapsed. Medical treatment of affected animals is unavailing and should not be attempted. No matter how valuable the diseased animals may have been before they contracted the disease, they should at once be destroyed and the contagion eradicated. This is the best policy for the individual as well as for the community. The eradication of this disease by local or National Governments can be successful only when the same principles are adopted and carried out as here recommended for individual stables. It is then a difficult undertaking, simply because the contagion is generally widely disseminated before any measures are adopted, and because a great majority of cattle owners will never report the existence of the disease. Regulations must therefore be enforced which will insure the prompt discovery of every herd in which the disease appears, as well as the destruction of all diseased and exposed animals and the thorough disinfection of the premises. To discover pleuropneumonia sufficiently early for this purpose, the district supposed to be infected should be clearly defined and inspectors should be constantly employed to inspect every herd in it at least once in two weeks, or, better, once a week. No bovine animal should be allowed to go out of the defined district alive, and all which enter it should be carefully inspected to insure their freedom from disease. As an assistance to the discovery of diseased herds, every animal which, from any cause, dies in the infected district and every animal which is slaughtered, even if apparently in good health, should be the subject of a careful post-mortem examination. Many affected herds will be found in this way. In addition to these measures it is also necessary to guard against the removal of animals from one stable to another and the mixing of herds upon common pastures or in the public highways. The object must be to isolate every individual's cattle as completely as possible, or otherwise a single affected animal may infect a dozen or more herds. To prevent surreptitious sale or trading of cattle, each animal must in some way be numbered and recorded in the books kept by the official in charge of the district. In the work of the United States Department of Agriculture a numbered metal tag was fastened to each animal's ear and index books were so arranged that with a number given the owner could be at once ascertained, or from the owner's name the cattle for which he was responsible could be at once learned. In this way, if an animal was missing from a stable, the fact became apparent at once, or if one too many was found in a stable the number in its ear would indicate where it came from. When pleuropneumonia is discovered by these means, the entire herd should be slaughtered as soon as the formalities of appraisement can be arranged. In country districts the carcasses should be buried, as it is generally impracticable to dispose of them in any other way. In city districts the animals may be taken to a slaughterhouse, with such precautions as are possible to prevent dissemination of the contagion. The animals should be slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector. The healthy carcasses may be utilized for food, but the blood, entrails, and all diseased carcasses should be heated to a temperature equal to that of boiling water or above, and then used for the manufacture of fertilizers. The disinfection of premises should be thorough and should be carried out by a trained corps of men employed for the purpose. The floors of stables should be removed, the accumulations removed from beneath them, the contents of haylofts should be destroyed, and the woodwork and soil beneath the stables should be thoroughly drenched with a solution of bichlorid of mercury, 1 part to 2,000 of water. After the flooring is replaced the woodwork should be coated with limewash, containing one-fourth pound of chlorid of lime to the gallon of mixture. Usually in these cases the owners are dependent upon their herd of cows for a living, and consequently it is difficult or impossible to hold the stables vacant for any considerable period. In a majority of instances cattle may be admitted at once to stables so disinfected, without the reappearance of the disease. Occasionally, however, it will reappear without apparent cause. For this reason the inspection and other measures must be maintained in the infected district for six months or a year after the last case of disease has been disposed of. Many people have objected to the slaughter of diseased and exposed animals as an unscientific and expensive method of eradicating the disease. To these it may be answered that it is the only method which has ever proved successful, and that in the end it is much more economical than temporizing measures. Inoculation has been adopted in many countries, and has undoubtedly lessened the death rate, but where this practice is allowed the disease is kept up and spreads. For this reason it should be prohibited wherever there is a possibility and disposition to eradicate the contagion. RINDERPEST. Rinderpest, also known as cattle plague, is an acute, infectious disease of cattle, in which the digestive organs are mainly involved. Though unknown in this country, the importance of having near at hand a few definite facts concerning this disease, should it ever reach our shores, will be at once appreciated. A knowledge of such facts may aid in an early recognition of the disease. It must not be forgotten, on the other hand, that a superficial knowledge of diseases, such as the layman may gain through reading, not infrequently leads to confounding comparatively harmless, noninfectious maladies with such as are truly dangerous (foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, etc), and causes temporary panics among stock owners. According to some authorities, rinderpest has its home in the territory around the Black Sea and the Volga River in Russia; according to others, in Central Asia. Thence it has been conveyed at various times by cattle to nearly every country of Europe and Asia, where it has proved to be a veritable bovine scourge. It probably visited Europe as early as the beginning of the Christian era, and since then the migrations of the people from the Far East have from time to time introduced the disease. Especially during the eighteenth century it was more or less prevalent in Europe, owing to the frequent wars, during which herds of cattle were brought from eastern Europe and Asia to supply the demands of the armies. It prevailed in Europe during the Franco-Prussian War. At present it exists in eastern Europe and in portions of Asia and Africa. The virus is conveyed from one country to another chiefly by means of infected cattle, although infected hides, wool, and feed may play an important part in its dissemination. The railroad facilities of the present, which furnish the means of such rapid communication, are particularly liable to aid in the spread of the disease. In the past rinderpest has been supposed to be identical with various human diseases, among them smallpox and typhoid fever. These suppositions are unfounded, and the view of authorities to-day is that it is a disease of a peculiar kind, not identical with any other known infectious disease. _The contagion of rinderpest._--The cause of rinderpest must be looked for among microorganisms--most likely bacteria. The investigations made thus far for this causal factor have been fruitless. However, certain recent experiments would indicate that the unseen microbe is of such dimensions that it is withheld by the dense bacterial filters, but passes through the more porous ones. Formerly it was supposed by various authorities that rinderpest virus appeared spontaneously under the influence of deteriorated feed and long and exhausting drives; also during unusual meteorological conditions. This view, however, is no longer maintained. It is probable that in its home in Asia the disease is perpetuated by continual infection of fresh animals, and some authorities go even so far as to believe that the disease would be entirely stamped out, even in its native haunts, by a destruction of all sick and infected herds. However this may be, the success of such an undertaking would largely depend on the nature of the cause. If a strictly parasitic organism, like the contagion of pleuropneumonia, it might be completely extirpated in this way. If, however, the germs or bacteria may live and multiply outside of the bovine body, in the soil, water, or in some other animal, extirpation would be impossible. The virus may be transmitted in a variety of ways, both direct and indirect, from sick to healthy animals. It is said to be present in the various excreta, such as the discharges from the nose, and the saliva, the urine, and the manure, of the diseased. For months it retains its vitality in a moist state outside the body, and the disease is reported to have developed after feeding hay a year after it had lain in an infected stable; hence manure and the fodder and bedding soiled with discharges may convey it. Persons may carry the virus on their shoes, clothing, or implements. Even small animals, such as cats and rats, which frequent barns and stables, have been looked upon as carriers of the virus. Cattle are very susceptible to the disease, and in its virulent type all those exposed are said to become infected. Buffaloes, sheep, and goats are likewise susceptible, but in a less degree. It is also claimed that animals after having passed through one attack successfully resist future attacks. Inoculation with virus is said to produce immunity, but in many cases the process of inoculation itself is followed by death. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of rinderpest are not very characteristic, and hence the diagnosis of a suspected case in the beginning of an invasion is attended with difficulties. Certain appearances which are characteristic of one epizootic may be absent in another. Different observers are not quite agreed as to the most constant and important. The period of incubation, i. e., the time between the exposure to infection and the earliest outward symptoms, varies from three to nine days. The first sign is a very high fever, which may reach 107° F. The heat of the skin varies in different parts of the body, and may be felt at the base of the ears and horns. Repeated chills are frequently observed. The pulse reaches 50 to 60 beats a minute, and in very severe attacks may rise to 90 or 100. The animal manifests great debility. The head droops and rests on some object of support. One or both ears may droop. The coat is staring and the muzzle dry. The secretion of milk diminishes very rapidly. Within twelve to twenty hours the usual quantity may have become reduced one-half or two-thirds. The back is arched, and the four limbs are brought together under the body. As the disease progresses, symptoms with reference to the digestive and respiratory organs become prominent. The mucous membrane of the mouth and the nose, as well as that of the rectum and vagina, becomes reddened, either in patches or diffusely, and assumes a scarlet hue. The discharges, at first firm, become softer, and soon diarrhea sets in. This is said to be one of the most constant symptoms. The rectum may become everted and paralyzed, and the bowels move spontaneously. The discharges become fetid, viscid, and streaked with blood. Coughing is a common symptom, and by some is considered characteristic. It is associated with discharges from the nose and vagina and dribbling of saliva from the mouth. The eyes also are affected. There is an increased formation of a viscid secretion which flows down the face. Another series of changes prominent in some epizootics and mild or absent in others are the ulcers, or so-called "erosions," in the mouth. These begin as red patches and streaks. The mucous membrane in such localities is converted into a grayish-white slough, which, when shed, leaves a small erosion, or ulcer. At the same time similar changes may go on in the skin of the thighs, the udder, or the scrotum, or about the vagina, which lead to small sloughs. In severe cases, which are the most common in the susceptible cattle of western Europe, death ensues four to seven days after the first appearance of the disease, and is preceded by great emaciation and debility, fetid, purulent discharges from the nose and mouth, and the relaxed rectum and vagina. After death, if the animal is opened and the organs carefully examined, the chief changes are found in the digestive organs. The lining membrane of the mouth and pharynx is covered with mucus, is reddened in spots, and shows superficial, yellowish-gray, cheesy patches, which represent dead tissue, and when removed expose ulcerated depressions. The same reddening in spots and the yellowish-gray, cheesy deposits or patches are found in the fourth stomach, the small intestines, and more rarely in the cecum, while the third stomach, or manyplies, is more or less impacted with dry, hard feed. Similar changes may be found on the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, the uterus, vagina, and rectum. The lungs may be injected, edematous, or pneumonic. The heart muscle is pale and flabby, and frequently hemorrhages are observed in its internal membrane. The liver may be pale or injected with blood, and at times shows hemorrhages beneath its capsule. The bile is thin and watery in consistence. The kidneys may be inflamed or contain small hemorrhages within their substance or under the capsule. The lymphatic glands may be swollen and injected or even hemorrhagic. _Treatment._--On account of the danger of spreading the infection, neither medicinal treatment nor inoculation is permitted in European countries, with the exception of Russia, where the disease is more generally diffused. The most effective method of exterminating rinderpest in those districts in which the disease is not indigenous has been found to be the slaughter of all affected and exposed animals. Where the disease is general, successful efforts adopted for its control have followed the immunization by inoculation of the exposed animals and a strict application of appropriate sanitary measures. This protective inoculation has been practiced with very gratifying results in Russia, South Africa, and in the Philippine Islands. An active immunity is thus induced in susceptible animals which lasts until the danger from exposure to the disease is over. This immunity may be attained (1) by the inoculation of pure bile from an animal which recently died of rinderpest, (2) by the inoculation of glycerinated bile, followed by pure bile or virulent blood, or (3) by the simultaneous inoculation of strong standardized serum and virulent blood. The latter method has been adopted by the United States Government in its endeavor to exterminate the disease in the Philippines, and to protect the cattle and carabaos against rinderpest after their importation into those islands. Owing to the existence of this and other infectious diseases in the Philippine Islands, an order has been issued by the Department of Agriculture prohibiting the landing of any live stock or animals of any kind from the Philippines at any of the ports of the United States or the dependencies thereof. This prohibition removes the greatest source of danger to which the United States is exposed as the result of its intercourse with the islands. The introduction of rinderpest from those countries from which we import animals is rendered extremely improbable, especially in live animals, owing to its short period of incubation and to the 90-day quarantine for cattle (counting from date of shipment) and 15-day (counting from date of landing) quarantine for sheep and other ruminants and swine which are at present enforced in the United States at all ports of entry. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. [Pl. XXXIII.] Foot-and-mouth disease, also known as aphthous fever, epizootic aphtha, and eczema contagiosa, is an acute, highly communicable disease chiefly confined to cloven-footed animals and characterized by an eruption of vesicles or blisters on the mucous membrane of the mouth and on the skin between the toes and above the hoofs. The vesicles rupture, forming erosions and ulcerations; there are also salivation, tenderness of the affected parts, loss of appetite, lameness, emaciation, and diminution in the quantity of milk secreted. The tremendous ravages of the disease are seen in the number and variety of the species attacked. While it may be regarded as essentially a disease of cattle, hogs would seem to be as easy a prey. Almost in the same grade of receptivity are sheep and goats. Next in order of susceptibility come the buffalo, American bison, camel, chamois, llama, giraffe, and antelope. Horses, dogs, cats, and even poultry may occasionally become infected with the disease, the last three being particularly dangerous as carriers of the contagion. Man himself is not immune, and the frequency of his infection by coming in contact with diseased animals is established by numerous observations. As with other communicable diseases, the source and origin of foot-and-mouth disease have given rise to much speculation. The disease had been known in Europe for centuries, but it was not until comparatively recent years that the erroneous conceptions of its spontaneous origin as a result of climatic and meteorological conditions, exhausting journeys, etc., were abandoned. It is now conceded that foot-and-mouth disease is propagated by a specific virus and that every outbreak starts from some preexisting outbreak. So far investigators have been unable to identify or isolate the specific organism causing the disease, although numerous attempts have been made to cultivate and stain it by laboratory methods. Experiments have shown that the virus will pass through standard germ-proof filters, thus indicating its minute size and the reason it has not been detected by the staining methods. The contagion may be found in the serum of the vesicles on the mouth, feet, and udder; in the saliva, milk, and various secretions and excretions; also in the blood during the rise of temperature. A wide distribution of the virus and a rapid infection of a herd is the result. Animals may be infected directly, as by licking, and in calves by sucking, or indirectly by such things as infected manure, hay, utensils, drinking troughs, railway cars, animal markets, barnyards, and pastures. Human beings may carry the virus on their shoes and clothing and transmit it on their hands when milking, since the udder is occasionally the seat of the eruption. It may also be carried by dogs, cats, rats, chickens, pigeons, etc. Milk in a raw state may also transmit the disease to animals fed with it. The observations made by some veterinarians would lead us to suppose that the virus is quite readily destroyed. It is claimed that stables thoroughly cleaned become safe after drying for a short time; hence, litter of all kinds, such as manure or soiled hay and straw, may remain infective for a longer time because they do not dry out. Other authorities maintain that the virus is quite tenacious and may live in stables even so long as a year. They also state that animals which have passed through the disease may be a source of infection for several months after recovery. Unlike most other infectious diseases, foot-and-mouth disease may repeatedly attack the same animals. The immunity conferred by an attack is of limited duration. The period of incubation (that is, the time between the exposure of an animal to infection and the development of the disease) is variable, usually from three to six days. The disease may appear in 24 hours, or, in exceptional cases, not for 18 days or even longer. _Losses._--The highly contagious character of foot-and-mouth disease and its rapid spread to practically all exposed susceptible animals lead to heavy losses. Since the mortality is comparatively low, ranging from only 3 per cent or less in mild forms to 30 or 40 per cent in malignant cases, the havoc caused by the pestilence is sometimes underestimated. But there are other sources of loss which are much more important than the actual mortality. The fever and the difficulty of eating cause a rapid and extreme loss in flesh and a lessening or cessation of the milk secretion. The udders often become inflamed and ruined by the formation of abscesses, and cows affected in this way are sometimes rendered permanently valueless for milk production. The inflammation of the feet may cause the horn to drop from the toes, producing great lameness and lasting injury. Abortion is frequent, and typical lesions have been observed in the newly born at birth. Altogether these losses may amount to 20 or 30 per cent of the value of the affected animals. In addition there are indirect losses of a commercial nature. Dairy farmers are put out of business for a time. Necessary quarantine restrictions greatly interfere with the movement of live stock and such commodities as hay, straw, hides, and farm produce. The business of the stockyards and slaughtering centers is greatly interfered with. Sometimes it is necessary to close stockyards for disinfection. The whole business of marketing, transporting, feeding, and slaughtering is interrupted and deranged. Losses of this character may reach enormous proportions. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIII. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.] _The disease in other countries._--Foot-and-mouth disease has prevailed in Europe for a great many years and has occasioned tremendous economic losses there. In Italy, France, Switzerland, Germany, and Russia the plague has existed so long and has gained such a foothold that it is economically impossible to fight it with the American methods of slaughter and disinfection, for to do so would kill a large percentage of the live stock of those countries. In consequence, little or no progress toward eradication has been made by the authorities, though the severity of the disease in France appears to have abated somewhat in recent months. The outbreak which appeared in Germany in 1888 increased steadily until 1892, when it diminished gradually for a few years, but the disease again reached great proportions in 1899. Thereafter it continued to exist to a greater or less extent until in 1911 it attained a virulence unequaled before. In that year 3,366,369 cattle, 1,602,927 sheep, 2,555,371 hogs, and 53,674 goats were affected. At that time the total number of cattle, sheep, swine, and goats in Germany was only 51,319,000, while there were in the United States 172,572,000, or between three and four times as many. It can readily be imagined, therefore, what it would mean to the United States if the disease were to gain the foothold here that it had in Germany, where, as these figures show, approximately one out of seven of the animals susceptible to the disease was affected. The German Government, of course, has not left the disease to itself. It attempted to control some outbreaks by the method of slaughter, but the pestilence had gained too much headway and was too firmly established in too many portions of the country for this method to succeed, and the slaughter of the infected herds had to be abandoned. It now appears that there is no hope of getting rid of it until the virus has worn itself out. As soon as the animals' period of acquired immunity is over and favorable conditions present themselves, the contagion breaks out with renewed virulence. It has been impossible to control it by means of quarantines. One scientist has asserted that unless all the infected farms were absolutely isolated and the movement, not only of live stock but of persons, absolutely prohibited, the disease could not be stamped out. Such a quarantine is, of course, utterly impossible to enforce. In portions of Germany the farmers, realizing that the disease is inevitable, make haste to be done with it by exposing their stock deliberately to mild cases in the hope that this will result in an immediate, mild attack and immunity for several years thereafter. Such immunity, however, is very uncertain. Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, on account of their comparatively isolated positions, have been more successful in keeping out the disease. The outbreaks in those countries have been more sporadic, and by resorting to immediate slaughter the authorities have been able to stamp them out. Great Britain has applied both quarantine and slaughter for many years, and in an outbreak near Dublin in 1912 measures were adopted which were even more stringent than any that have been used in the United States. A British official (Cope) asserted in 1899 that after his country's experience with this disease it was "more dreaded by the farmers and stock raisers of Great Britain than cattle plague or pleuropneumonia, and they are now willing and ready to put up with any restrictions, of however drastic a character, considered necessary by the central department to stamp it out." The British authorities have succeeded in suppressing each outbreak, but reinfection often occurs from the neighboring continent. At the present time (April, 1922) Great Britain is having a siege of the disease, but is applying vigorous measures for its suppression. In November, 1906, the disease reached Belgium from France, where it was quite prevalent, and by the end of the year every Province in Belgium was affected, and the Netherlands as well. Efforts to eradicate it from Belgium were unavailing. The Netherlands apparently succeeded in stamping it out for about six months, but it reappeared there. The disease is also more or less prevalent in Central Europe, Spain, and in the Balkan countries. Australia and New Zealand have remained free from it. We have less accurate information regarding Asia and Africa, but the disease is known to prevail in Japan and China and in the Philippine Islands, and it is doubtful whether any considerable part of the Orient is free from it. In South America it is reported as common in Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay, and it probably exists in other countries. Canada and Mexico are fortunately free from the disease. _Outbreaks in the United States._--Foot-and-mouth disease has appeared in the United States on six different occasions--1870, 1880, 1884, 1902, 1908, and 1914. An extensive outbreak in 1870 was introduced by way of Canada, where the infection was brought by an importation of cattle from Scotland. It spread into the New England States and New York and appears to have been arrested within a few months. Its failure to spread more extensively and its early disappearance have been ascribed to favorable conditions, such as the movement of live stock from west to east, the limited trading at that period as compared with the present time, the restriction of traffic by winter weather, and the infrequency of travel which obtained at that time among people. About 1880 two or three lots of animals affected by this disease were brought to the United States, but there was no extension from the animals originally affected. In 1884, at Portland, Me., there was a small outbreak caused by imported cattle, and the disease spread to a few herds outside the quarantine station. Owing to the small number of animals affected and the limited area of territory covered by the disease, it was easily controlled by the ordinary measures of quarantine and disinfection. It will be observed that in all these early outbreaks the contagion was introduced with imported animals. Since the development of a stringent system of inspection and quarantine of imported live stock, no instance of that kind has occurred. On subsequent occasions the infection has evidently been brought in with contaminated products or materials and not by means of live animals. In November, 1902, the disease was discovered in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The earliest cases were traced to Chelsea, Mass., near the docks, and it was suspected for a time that the infection was brought in with foreign shipping, by some such means as hay, straw, halters, ropes, hides, hair, wool, etc. Later developments, however, and especially investigations into the cause of the 1908 outbreak, led to the belief that a more probable source of the infection was cowpox vaccine virus imported from a country (probably Japan) where foot-and-mouth disease existed, the vaccine virus being contaminated with the virus of foot-and-mouth disease. A Federal quarantine was declared by the Secretary of Agriculture on November 27, 1902, as soon as the nature of the disease was established, and steps for eradication were at once taken by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with authorities of the affected States. The methods followed consisted of inspection to trace and detect the disease, quarantine of infected premises and territory, slaughter and burial or burning of diseased and exposed animals, and disinfection of premises. This outbreak involved Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Rhode Island, and was eradicated in about six months. Two hundred and forty-four herds, including 4,712 cattle, were found infected. Of these, 205 herds with 3,872 cattle, as well as 360 hogs and 220 sheep and goats, were slaughtered. The cattle infected but not slaughtered were those that either died or completely recovered before slaughtering could be carried out. The animals slaughtered were valued at $184,155.10, and the Federal Government reimbursed owners to the extent of 70 per cent, or $128,908.57. It is understood that the States paid the remainder. The total cost to the Department of Agriculture of stamping out the disease was about $300,000. The next appearance of the foot-and-mouth disease was early in November, 1908, when it was observed in cattle near Danville, Pa. A Federal quarantine was issued November 12. The infection was traced back to the stockyards at East Buffalo, N. Y., and to Detroit, Mich. The disease appeared in the States of Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. A careful and thorough investigation made by Mohler of the Bureau of Animal Industry and Rosenau of the Public Health Service demonstrated that the outbreak started from calves used to propagate vaccine virus at an establishment near Detroit, and that the source of the infection was contaminated Japanese vaccine virus. Vigorous measures of eradication similar to those employed in 1902-3 were at once put into effect and the disease was stamped out in about five months at an expense of about $300,000 to the Department of Agriculture, and of about $113,000 to the States. The inspectors made 108,683 visits to farms, stockyards, etc., and inspected more than 1,500,000 animals (including reinspections). One hundred and fifty-seven premises were found infected, and 3,636 animals (2,025 cattle, 1,329 hogs, and 282 sheep and goats), valued at $90,033.18, were slaughtered. Owners were reimbursed for the value of their animals and property destroyed, one-third being paid by the States and two-thirds by the Federal Government. The latest invasion was discovered in the vicinity of Niles, Mich., in October, 1914, after it had evidently been under way since August of the same year. This is the most serious and extensive outbreak ever known in this country. The disease extended to 22 States and the District of Columbia, at places ranging from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. The work of eradication was not completed for more than a year. The affected States were Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Illinois had the largest infected area and the largest number of animals affected. The Union Stock Yards at Chicago became infected and were a source of dissemination of the contagion north, east, south, and west. These and other yards found infected were closed temporarily and disinfected. The first Federal quarantine was issued October 19, 1914. A campaign to check the spread of the disease and to stamp it out was immediately begun by the United States Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the State authorities. Quarantines against the movement of animals and certain materials from the infected areas were declared, shipments were traced, rumors investigated, and thorough inspections made in an effort to discover all infected stock. As measures of eradication, diseased herds were slaughtered and buried and the premises disinfected. The owners of live stock and other property destroyed on account of the disease were reimbursed to the extent of the appraised value, half of which is paid by the Federal Government and half by the State. There were slaughtered 172,720 animals (76,575 cattle, 86,492 swine, 9,511 sheep, 133 goats, and 9 deer), in 3,482 herds. The total appraised value of these animals was more than $5,800,000. The expense to the Federal Government of eradicating this outbreak was about $4,540,000. _Symptoms._--In three to six days, or even longer, after the exposure of the animal to the infection the disease makes its appearance. It is usually first indicated by the animal suffering from a chill, quickly followed by an invasion of fever, which may cause the temperature to rise as high as 106° F. These symptoms are not always present, or may be in so slight a form as to escape notice. Following this in one or two days it will be noticed that small vesicles or blisters about the size of hempseeds or peas are making their appearance upon the mucous membranes of the mouth at the border and upper surface of the tongue near the tip, the inside of the cheeks, on the gums and the inner surface of the lips, or on the margin of the dental pad. These little blisters contain a yellowish, watery fluid and gradually become more extensive as the disease advances. Soon after the eruptions have appeared in the mouth of the animal considerable swelling, redness, and tenderness will be noticed about the feet, at the coronet, and between the digits of each foot. A day or two later eruptions similar to those within the mouth make their appearance upon these swollen regions of the foot, and at this stage it is usual to find that like lesions have made their appearance upon the perineum of the victim. In the case of milk cows the udder, and more particularly the teats, show the same vesicular eruption, but the latter as the result of milking soon become covered with reddened spots deprived of the superficial layer of skin and may develop deep, obstinate fissures. As soon as the disease has become well established the patient evinces pain when attempting to eat; in fact, the appetite is often so seriously affected that all feed is refused, and the animal uneasily opens and shuts its mouth with a characteristic smacking sound, while strings of cohesive, ropy saliva hang suspended from the lips. With the advance of the disease the vesicles widen and extend until they may reach a diameter ranging from that of a dime to that of a silver dollar. These rupture soon after their appearance, sometimes on the first day, more rarely on the second or third day. After they have ruptured, the grayish-white membrane forming the blister may remain attached for a day or more, or disappear speedily and leave deeply reddened, sensitive spots or erosions, both within the mouth and upon the coronet and between the claws of the feet. Similar erosions, which quickly form scabs, as a rule, may be noticed in cases in which the teats of milk cows have become affected, and instances are reported in which sloughing of the tegument immediately around the lesions upon the udder has occurred. Owing to the tough, fibrous nature of the bovine skin, it is exceedingly rare for sloughing to occur upon any part of the body other than those mentioned. The attack upon the feet of an animal is frequently manifested in all four feet at once, but one or more of the feet may entirely escape and remain unaffected throughout the course of the disease. The ulceration of the interdigital tissue may extend to the ligaments of the fetlock or produce disease of the joint or bone. As the feet become sensitive and sore the animal persistently lies down, and it has been found that bedsores develop with amazing rapidity in all such cases and wholly baffle all attempts at treatment until after the patient has regained its feet. The disease may attack some of the internal organs before it appears upon any of the external tissues. These cases are very liable to prove quickly fatal. The animal dies from paralysis of the heart, due to the formation of poisonous principles within the system; it may suffocate by reason of the action of these same poisons upon the tissues of the lungs, or it may choke to death as a result of paralysis of the throat. In cases of serious affection of the udder the erosions will often be found within the passages of the teats, resulting in a "caked" udder, and the same toxic poisoning which is the cause of death in the apoplectiform types just mentioned may arise from this source. In any event the milk from such cases is dangerous for use, causing fatal diarrhea in sucking calves or young pigs and serious illness in human consumers. The milk obtained from cows suffering with foot-and-mouth disease is not readily converted into either butter or cheese, but remains thick, slimy, and inert in spite of churning and attempts at curdling. Pregnant animals may abort. In pigs, sheep, and goats the lesions in the foot are most common, but both forms may be observed or only the mouth lesions. When the disease has become fully established it will be found that the duration of the attack will vary greatly with different animals. From 10 to 20 days are usually required for the recovery of the normal appetite and spirits in mild outbreaks, while the return to a full flow of milk, in the case of milk cows, seldom occurs before the arrival of the following season. In the malignant type of the disease it requires from three months to a year for an animal to recover. The mortality, as already stated, is usually low. The disease is more fatal in young animals that have been fed on infected milk, and produces death in from 60 to 80 per cent of these cases as a result of gastroenteritis. In the 1914 outbreak numerous new centers of infection started among hogs and calves which were fed on unpasteurized, infected milk from creameries. _Diagnosis._--The recognition of this affection should not, as a rule, be difficult, especially when the disease is known to be in the vicinity; in fact, the group of symptoms form a clinical picture too decided to be doubted. The combination of high fever, vesicular inflammation of the mouth, and hot, painful, swollen condition of the feet, followed 24 to 48 hours later by the appearance of numerous blisters varying in size from that of a pea to that of a walnut on the udder and feet and in the mouth should prevent any serious or long-continued error in the diagnosis; however, in the inoculation of calves we have a certain and final test. In 24 to 96 hours after inoculation the calves present the characteristic blisters. Such inoculation should be practiced, however, only by officials properly authorized to deal with contagious diseases. _Differential diagnosis._--The lesions of no other disease of cattle closely simulate the vesicular eruption of foot-and-mouth disease on the lining membrane of the mouth. When the blisters have ruptured, however, and the resulting lesions have become contaminated by numerous secondary forms of microorganisms, the correct recognition of the disease may be involved in considerable difficulty. Cowpox or horsepox may be accidentally transmitted by inoculation. But the eruption of the "pox" goes on to the development of a pustule, while in foot-and-mouth disease the eruption is never more than a vesicle, even though the contained fluid may become turbid. The inoculation test in the case of cowpox does not respond with fever and eruption for at least 10 days, and often longer. Necrotic stomatitis (sore mouth due to a germ) may be distinguished from foot-and-mouth disease by the fact that in the latter there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, including the adult cattle, as well as the infection of hogs and sheep. The characteristic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of blisters containing a serous fluid upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and upon the udder, teats, and feet of the affected animals. In necrotic stomatitis blisters are never formed, destruction of the tissues occurring from the beginning and being followed by the formation of yellowish, cheesy patches, principally found involving the lining membrane of the mouth, especially the tongue and cheeks. In mycotic stomatitis (sore mouth due to a fungus or mold), portions of the lining membrane become inflamed and in a few days it changes to a croupous membrane which peels off, leaving a raw surface, while the thin skin between the toes may also be inflamed. The previous history of the case; the failure of the blisters, if any appear, to spread extensively; the absence of vesicular eruptions on other portions of the body, notably the udder and teats, and, characteristically, the hoof, together with the absence of rapid spread to practically all cattle in the herd and the complete negative character of inoculation of calves, distinguish between the local disease named and foot-and-mouth disease. Mycotic stomatitis occurs in only from 10 to 50 per cent of the animals in a herd, usually in the late summer or early fall after a dry spell, and it does not run a regular course. The lesion, resulting from ergotism may be distinguished from those of foot-and-mouth disease by the lack of eruptions in the mouth and by the location of the disease at the tips of the ears, end of the tail, or upon the lower part of the legs, usually below the knees or hocks. The lesion of ergotism does not take the form of pustules or blisters, but manifests itself first as a swelling about the ankle, which later may slough and circumscribe the limb, forming a deep crack, extending entirely around the limb and forming a distinct line of demarcation between the healthy skin above and the diseased below. The absence of ulcerous sores on the coronet and between the claws, together with the healthy condition of the membranes of the mouth and the knowledge that the lesion upon the limb in question extends uninterruptedly around it, should point conclusively to a diagnosis of ergotism and to the exclusion of all fears of foot-and-mouth disease. In foul foot or ground itch of cattle, the inflammation of the skin and toes is general and not in certain spots, as in foot-and-mouth disease. The mouth remains unaffected, and the presence of the disease may be traced to filth and poor drainage. The severer forms of the disease might be confounded with certain general diseases. If gastrointestinal symptoms predominate, acute gastric catarrh or inflammation of the intestines might be thought of. Involvement of the lungs may lead to a diagnosis of acute congestion of the lungs or pneumonia. The distinction is apparent in these diseases by the lack of vesicular eruption on the mucous membrane or skin, and also by lack of evidences of infection in the herd or neighboring animals. _Prevention and eradication._--The measures to be adopted to prevent the spread of the affection must take into consideration the highly infectious nature of the disease, its ease of dissemination, and the liability of the virus to live for long periods outside the body of an animal. Great care should therefore be observed in keeping healthy animals unexposed to the contagion. When an outbreak occurs in a community the owner should make every effort to keep other animals from coming in contact with his diseased cattle. This especially applies to dogs, cats, goats, and poultry, which usually have access to the stables and barnyards and in this way furnish excellent means for disseminating the infectious principle. He should be equally particular in prohibiting any person from coming onto his premises, especially an attendant or owner or other person in any way connected with cattle. Such a herd may be placed under quarantine, with an inspector appointed to keep the premises under constant surveillance. This method of quarantine alone, while very satisfactory in many instances, is rather tardy in obtaining the desired result. The experience of European Governments already mentioned shows that eradication by this method alone, when the disease has obtained a foothold, is practically impossible. For this reason, when the disease breaks out in a country like the United States, where the contagion is likely to spread rapidly by means of infected cars, manure, hay, and other feed, and where the results of its obtaining a firm foothold would be so disastrous, it seems that this method of temporizing is rather tedious, and more radical steps are required in order to suppress and eradicate completely the infection in the quickest and most thorough manner possible. It would therefore appear better, after judicious appraisement, to concentrate the expense incident to the extermination of foot-and-mouth disease by purchasing and slaughtering all affected and exposed cattle. The carcasses of these animals should be totally destroyed, preferably by cremation, or otherwise by burying them in a hole 6 feet deep and covering them with air-slaked lime. The infected stable should be disinfected by thoroughly cleaning it, scrubbing the floor with hot water, brushing down all loose dust from the walls, and tearing off all woodwork which is partly decayed. Then the whole interior of the stable should be disinfected with one of the following substances: A 5 per cent solution of pure carbolic acid. Chlorid of lime, U. S. P. strength (30 per cent available chlorin), 1 pound to 3 gallons of water. Formaldehyde, 1 quart 40 per cent solution to 5 gallons of water. A 3 per cent solution of cresol compound, U. S. P., or accepted substitute therefor, containing at least 50 per cent cresylic acid. All stable utensils should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected by the application of a solution of one of the above-named disinfectants. The manure should be burned or disinfected and spread over ground (other than meadow land) that is to be turned under. No other cattle should be purchased for at least sixty days after the complete disinfection of the premises. The success in eradicating the disease by combined quarantine, slaughter, and disinfection, as practiced in the United States, Denmark, Great Britain, and a few other countries, demonstrates in a striking manner the efficacy of slaughtering and the futility of relying upon quarantine alone to stamp out the disease. Inoculation has been adopted in some countries in order to have the disease spread quickly through the herds, and while this practice has undoubted value where the disease is indigenous, it is not desirable in this country and should not be adopted. As a rule medicinal treatment with a view of curing affected animals is not to be recommended under conditions prevailing in the United States, where the disease has not become established, and the first object is to stamp it out as quickly as possible. Even though most animals would recover, with or without treatment, it would be practically impossible, while they were being held for recovery, to prevent the spread of the infection to others. The disease would be liable to spread faster than it could be cured. As already pointed out, it has been found impossible to prevent absolutely the spread of the contagion by the strictest quarantine alone, under the usual farm conditions. In addition, the affected animals that have passed through the disease may become a source of further infection as virus carriers for weeks and months after they have apparently recovered, and are susceptible of reinfection, as one attack does not confer permanent immunity. _Foot-and-mouth disease in man._--Foot-and-mouth disease is primarily and principally a disease of cattle; secondarily and casually, a disease of man. It is transmissible to man through the eating or drinking of raw milk, buttermilk, butter, cheese, and whey from animals suffering from foot-and-mouth disease. It is also transmitted directly, though more rarely, from the salivary secretions or other infected material which may gain entrance through the mucous membrane of the mouth. It is doubtful whether the disease can be transmitted to man by cutaneous or subcutaneous inoculation, though it is probable that the infection may be communicated if the virus directly enters the blood through wounds of any kind. Children are not infrequently infected by drinking unboiled milk during the periods in which the disease is prevalent in the neighborhood, while persons in charge of diseased animals may become infected through contact with the diseased parts or by milking, slaughtering, or caring for the animals. The symptoms in man resemble those observed in animals. There is fever, sometimes vomiting, painful swallowing, heat and dryness of the mouth, followed by an eruption of vesicles on the mucous membrane of the mouth, and very rarely by similar ones on the fingers. The vesicles appear on the lips, gums, cheek, and edge of the tongue, and are about the size of a pea. The vesicles soon rupture, leaving a small erosion which is soon covered by a thin crust under which the new formation of epithelium proceeds rapidly. The skin eruption mostly appears on the hands, tips of the fingers, base of the nails, and more seldom on the toes and other parts of the body. Besides these local changes, during the course of the disease headache, pain in the limbs, vertigo, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, and weakness are occasionally observed. The disease is seldom fatal, usually appearing in a very mild form except in weakened children, in whom an accompanying intestinal catarrh may lead to a fatal termination. Veterinarians who have had considerable experience with the disease among animals regard the human affection as by no means uncommon in countries where foot-and-mouth disease prevails, but the disturbance of health is usually too slight to come to the notice of the family physician. But few outbreaks of the disease in man have occurred in the United States, and therefore cases of its transmission to man in this country are rather rare. Dr. James Law reports having observed the disease in man from drinking infected milk during the epizootic of 1870 in the Eastern States, but the outbreaks of 1880 and 1884 affected such a small number of animals and were so quickly suppressed that no instance of its transmission to man was recorded. A few cases have been reported by Brush accompanying the New England outbreak of 1902. Similar reports have been likewise received concerning the appearance of vesicular eruptions in the mouths of children during the 1908 and 1914 outbreaks, and the history of these cases incriminates the milk supply. Experiments by Loeffler and Froesch, as well as recent experiments which have been made in Denmark and Germany, indicate that the infection is comparatively easy to destroy by heat or the usual antiseptics. Milk pasteurized at a temperature of 60° C. for 20 minutes is safe so far as infection by foot-and-mouth disease is concerned. SEPTICEMIA AND PYEMIA. These two names are applied to diseased conditions which are so nearly alike in their symptoms that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one from the other. Indeed, the name pyosepticemia, or septicopyemia, is often applied when it is impossible to make a distinction between septicemia and pyemia or where each is equally responsible for the diseased condition. The name septicemia is derived from two Greek words meaning "poison" and "blood," and signifies that the germ lives in the blood, hence the use of the term "blood poisoning" for this disease. Pyemia is likewise derived from two Greek words, meaning "pus" and "blood," and is that form of septicemia caused by pus-producing organisms and characterized by secondary abscesses. _Causes._--Neither of these diseases is brought about, strictly speaking, by any specific organism; hence neither can be looked upon as a specific disease. The organisms most frequently found in cases of septicemia are, on the whole, the same as those of pyemia, and may be pus cocci, the bacillus coli, or other pus-producing organisms. These organisms are often found as secondary invaders in other diseases, such as advanced cases of tuberculosis, in which cases they are responsible for the formation of pus. Aside from the causative organism, or, in other words, the active cause, there are many secondary causes. The most important of these in pyemia is a break in continuity of the protective covering, as a wound, which affords an entrance into the tissues for the organisms. Among the different varieties of wounds may be mentioned cuts, bruises, punctures, burns, chemical or frozen wounds, and compound fractures of bones. Injuries received during parturition, stoppage of the milk ducts, and infection of the umbilicus in the newly born are also frequent causes of pyemia. Septicemia usually follows surgical wounds, local suppuration, enteritis, bronchitis--in fact, wherever there is a local lesion of any kind permitting germs to enter the blood. Septicemia was formerly applied to designate the condition in which the organisms were localized, but in which their toxins were diffused in the blood. Pyemia was made to represent that condition when the organisms were localized, but in which the pus was transported by the blood. These terms now are applied to conditions in which both the organisms and their toxins, or the pus, are present in the blood. The term septicemia is indicated when intoxication is the more pronounced symptom and pyemia if pus formation and metastatic or secondary abscess formation are observed. _Symptoms._--The symptoms of both diseases include primarily a high fever (104° to 107° F.). Coupled with this there is disinclination to move, the animal is depressed and not cognizant of its surroundings. The pulse is rapid, small, and feeble, respiration increased, mucous membrane injected, swollen, and of a yellowish tinge. Appetite is lost and death follows in the case of septicemia in from two to four days. In pyemia the symptoms come on more slowly and are not so intense as in septicemia, while the course of the disease is longer, lasting from six days to four weeks. The mortality is not so great as in septicemia, but the period of convalescence is always long. _Lesions._--Septicemia is characterized by the destructive changes in the blood, which is chocolate colored, noncoagulable, and swarms with bacteria. The lining membranes of the heart are studded with red spots, often running together to form a large hemorrhagic area. The lungs, liver, and kidneys may also show these hemorrhages. The spleen is enlarged and full of black blood. The cadaver decomposes very rapidly and in some cases forms great quantities of fetid gas. In pyemia, in addition to these lesions, abscesses are formed in the various organs throughout the body. If the disease develops slowly a post-mortem examination shows the abscesses to be the chief alterations. The pus content is usually greenish, stained with blood, and contains strings of fibrous tissue and necrosed matter. _Treatment._--Treatment is almost futile in advanced cases of either disease. Septicemia is usually fatal and pyemia frequently so. Prevention and the immediate treatment of local infections are the surest means of combating them. For local treatment of wounds the usual antiseptics are indicated, such as 3 per cent compound cresol or carbolic acid, or one one-thousandth bichlorid-of-mercury solution. For pyemia, where the abscesses are near the skin, they should be opened and treated antiseptically by injecting any of the previously mentioned germicides. General and heart stimulants are indicated, such as a drench containing digitalis 2 drams and alcohol 2 ounces. Quinin and calomel in repeated small doses of one-half dram each three times a day are sometimes beneficial. Camphor in the form of oil of camphor (camphor dissolved in 10 parts of sweet oil) is a good stimulant and has some antiseptic properties, which make it a valuable drug in combating these diseases when it is given in doses of 2 drams three times daily. HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICEMIA. Hemorrhagic septicemia is a name applied to a highly fatal, infectious disease existing in various species of domestic and wild animals, from a microorganism having definite biological characters and possessing the properties of producing clearly defined and characteristic lesions. This causal agent, _Bacterium bovisepticum_, belongs to the same group of cocco-bacilli as those causing chicken cholera, swine plague, and rabbit septicemia, and may be described as an ovoid, nonmotile, polar-staining bacterium with rounded ends, 1/38000 of an inch wide by 1/20000 of an inch long, sometimes seen in pairs and sometimes in chains. Various names have been applied to this disease, and though the causative agent and the distinctive lesions are well known, it is more than likely that the affection is seldom recognized. It was described by Bollinger in 1878, and named Wild und Rinderseuche, from its having affected deer, wild boars, cattle, and horses in an epizootic which swept over Germany at that time. Before this, however, several epizootics of what was evidently the same disease had been well described, notably that which occurred in England in 1854. Since then it has occurred in epizootic and enzootic forms in many sections of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. In this country the disease has been observed in Texas, Tennessee, New York, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, District of Columbia, South Dakota, and Wisconsin. Other names given to it are game and cattle disease, buffalo disease, barbone, pasteurellosis bovina, ghotwa, and infectious pneumoenteritis. In earlier times it was evidently confounded with gloss anthrax, and even now it is probably mistaken in a great many instances for anthrax, blackleg, cornstalk disease, and cerebrospinal meningitis. The disease is essentially a septicemia, or blood poisoning, and the microbic invasion occurs from inoculation probably either through abrasions of the skin or by injury to the mucous membranes from coarse fodder, etc. Moore and Smith have found in the mouths and nasal cavities of healthy animals, including cattle, bacteria belonging to this group; but these organisms proved to be nonpathogenic. As is well known, however, many pathogenic germs at times exist in a saprophytic state, and it is not hard to conceive how a microbe may cease such existence and assume parasitic or pathogenic properties when the surroundings are eminently favorable. This may be a connecting link in the etiology of sporadic outbreaks of the disease in which all other hypotheses as to its genesis seem untenable. The disease seems to occur most frequently in swampy or mucky localities or in pastures receiving the overflow from infected fields. It is said to occur usually in the spring of the year, when the melting snows and rains bring to the surface the subterranean waters from rich soils containing nitrogenous materials in which the bacteria have been existing. In a great many instances there does not seem to be any plausible explanation for an outbreak of the disease and one can only surmise as to its origin. _Symptoms._--Three forms of the disease are recognized, based upon the distribution of the lesions--the superficial, or cutaneous, the pectoral, or thoracic, and the intestinal form. The last is a usual accompaniment of the other two and may be mild or severe. Naturally the symptoms vary according to the violence of the attack and to the particular form of disease with which the animal is affected. In the superficial, or cutaneous, form the presence of a swollen tongue, throat, and dewlap, or even of the lower portion of the legs, gives us a clew to the trouble. An entire loss of appetite occurs, and in milk cows there is a diminution of the milk secretion. The temperature may be only slightly elevated, but it is usually very high. Salivation is set up by the inflammation of the mouth and pharynx. Unsuccessful efforts at eating and swallowing are made. There may be difficulty in breathing, depending on the amount of involvement of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, or lungs. There may be a blood-stained discharge from the nostrils, and the mucous membrane thereof will often show punctiform hemorrhages. The pulmonary form shows the same symptoms as croupous pneumonia, with a frequent suffocative cough and oppressed breathing, or dyspnea. When the intestines are involved the patient strains to defecate, and passes shreds of intestinal mucus along with blood-stained feces. The urine also may be tinged with blood. Finally a severe diarrhea takes place, the animal becomes correspondingly weak, and death takes place in 24 to 36 hours. Cases may die in as short a period as six to eight hours, while in the pectoral form of the disease the animal may linger six or eight days. Cases have been reported which became chronic and in which death did not take place for a month or more. In some of the cases running an acute course, symptoms of toxemia are present; there is a lack of sensation of the skin, staggering gait, trembling, eyes fixed, neck at times bent to one side, and the eyes showing a wild expression. At times the animals appear as if in pain and look around at the flanks. In the pectoral form they may stand with the forelegs wide apart in evident effort to breathe more freely. Sometimes there is a champing of the jaws and a very free flow of glairy saliva dropping from the mouth. The prognosis is decidedly unfavorable and 80 to 90 per cent of the cases result fatally. _Lesions._--The characteristic lesions of hemorrhagic septicemia consist of hemorrhagic areas in the subcutaneous, subserous, and muscular tissues, the lymph glands, and the viscera; in fact, they are distributed more or less widely throughout the body and vary in size from a mere speck to the diameter of a half dollar or even larger. The superficial form presents itself first as a doughy tumefaction of the skin about the region of the throat, neck, dewlap, or legs, which pits on pressure. This tumefaction consists essentially of a cerogelatinous exudate into the subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues. Bloody extravasations may take place in subcutaneous tissues in various places, but they are usually seen about the lower portion of the neck. The mucous membranes and submucous tissues of the mouth, tongue, pharynx, and larynx become involved in the process and are greatly thickened, inflamed, and infiltrated with serum. The mucous membrane becomes reddish purple, and that of the nostrils may in addition show hemorrhagic spots on its surface. The lymphatic glands in this region are also swollen and infiltrated with bloody serum. The salivary glands are pale and dry. The pectoral type, though at times existing alone, may coexist with the cutaneous form. The inflammatory edema of the mouth extends to the mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi, producing an extensive thickening and a yellowish infiltration. The lung shows interstitial thickening from the outpouring of serum into its meshes. It may become pneumonic. The diaphragm, heart sac, and heart walls show numerous hemorrhagic points and larger bloody extravasations. Sometimes there is a serous pleurisy, with more or less fibrinous exudate. In the intestinal form the submucous and subperitoneal tissues show alterations from a few hemorrhagic spots to large bloody suffusions, or even gelatinous infiltrations. This latter is seen about the region of the pancreas and in the folds of the mesentery. There is a severe hemorrhagic inflammation of the intestines and a staining of the intestinal contents with blood. The muscular system throughout shows hemorrhagic areas. The abdominal viscera, liver, spleen, and kidneys often present hemorrhagic lesions. _Differential diagnosis._--Anthrax, which presents superficial swellings, like hemorrhagic septicemia, may be distinguished from that affection on post-mortem examination by the enlargement and engorgement of the spleen, the contents of which are soft and tarry. The blood of anthrax animals is very dark, and does not become light red on exposure to air, nor does it coagulate, while in hemorrhagic septicemia the blood is normal in appearance and coagulates. The detection of the anthrax bacillus in the blood would be final. In blackleg the animals affected are usually under 2 years of age. The swellings are quite evident, and usually occur on the legs, above the knees or hocks, and are distended with gas, which crackles, or crepitates, when pressed upon. If one of these tumors is opened, a bloody serum will exude, and the gas gives off the odor of rancid butter. The internal hemorrhages are not general, although they may occur. A microscopic examination of the juices from the tumefaction will show the blackleg bacillus. In cerebrospinal meningitis the causative agent is unknown, but probably exists in the feed. It may occur in any locality and at any season of the year. There are no local swellings, and cattle are not frequently affected. Cornstalk disease may be differentiated from this affection from the fact that it always occurs after the cattle are turned into a cornstalk field, by its sudden onset, the absence of any characteristic symptoms or post-mortem lesions, and the failure to find the causative agent in the blood. In making a post-mortem examination of animals affected with hemorrhagic septicemia, it would be well to examine the articular surfaces of the long bones, as it has been reported that they are frequently ulcerated. This should apply especially to those cases that have shown lameness. _Treatment._--Treatment is absolutely useless, so far as we know at present, and for all practical purposes prophylaxis alone should be relied upon. The same sanitary precautions, such as isolation, disinfection, and burial or burning of all dead carcasses, should be observed as for anthrax and other highly infectious diseases. All the premises, barns, stalls, litter, and stable utensils should be thoroughly disinfected. Separate the apparently well animals from the sick by placing them in a separate lot. Experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry toward protective inoculation of the exposed cattle on infected premises have been made and the results have been so satisfactory that several commercial houses handling biological products are manufacturing a vaccine for hemorrhagic septicemia in accordance with the Government's experiments on this subject. The method of preparing the vaccine is similar to that recommended by Lignières. It consists in growing the cultures of the organism of the disease at 42 to 43° C. and preparing from them growing at this temperature two different strengths of vaccine. The weaker vaccine, which is used for the first injection, is grown for five days at this temperature, whereas the stronger vaccine, for the second injection, is grown for only two days. These vaccines are used with an interval of 10 days between the injections, the dose being 1 cubic centimeter at each injection. The effect of this vaccine in abating outbreaks already in progress has been highly satisfactory and it is plain that the general introduction of preventive vaccination for hemorrhagic septicemia must be of material benefit to the cattle raisers in the infected districts. VESICULAR ERUPTION OF THE GENITAL ORGANS. This contagious disease is called coital exanthema or vesicular exanthema, and is more or less prevalent on the Continent. It has also been observed in the breeding districts of the United States. It is the subject of legislation in Germany, and governmental statistics are published annually concerning its distribution in the Empire. According to the reports from Hungary 492 head of cattle were attacked during 1898, 587 in 1899, and 207 in 1900. A similar or perhaps identical disease of horses has the same distribution and is transmissible from horses to cattle and vice versa. The disease may be defined as a highly contagious eruption situated upon the external genital organs of both sexes and accompanied with little or no general disturbance of health. The contagion, the nature of which remains still unknown, is transmitted mainly during copulation. The bull may have the disease and convey it to all the cows with which he comes in contact, or he may become infected by one cow, and, although not showing the disease, he may, during copulation, transmit it for several days after to all other cows. Simple contact between one cow and another may convey the disease, or the sponges used in cleaning the diseased may carry the virus to the healthy. It has also been conveyed to healthy cows by these animals lying with their hind quarters against infected wooden troughs. _Symptoms._--The period between the infection and the appearance of symptoms is somewhat variable. It is usually given as three to six days. It may be briefer or much longer. In cows the mucous membrane of the vagina and the vulva become swollen, inflamed, very tender, and covered with dark-red spots. The secretion is very abundant and consists at first largely of serum and mucus resembling the white of an egg. Small vesicles then appear, which rapidly burst and are converted into excoriations or deeper ulcerations. The secretion becomes more purulent and is apt to dry in crusts about the root of the tail. The eruption is accompanied with much itching and difficulty in urinating. The walk may be stiff and awkward. In bulls the eruption is situated on the prepuce and the end of the penis, and consists of pimples, vesicles, and ulcers, as in cows. It is accompanied with a little purulent discharge from the prepuce, itching, and difficulty in urinating. In severe cases the inflammation and swelling may extend backward to the scrotum and forward upon the abdomen. The disease lasts from one to four weeks and always terminates in recovery. The acute stage lasts only four or five days, while the complete healing of the inflammation is slow. The eruption is usually accompanied with very little general disturbance. If the pain and irritation are severe, there may be some light loss of appetite and diminished milk secretion in cows. The disease rarely causes abortion. Chronic catarrh of the vagina and permanent sterility frequently follow as sequelæ. _Treatment_ need not be resorted to excepting in severe cases. The secretion and exudation should be washed off and a mild antiseptic applied, such as a 1 per cent solution of carbolic acid (1 ounce to 3 quarts of water) or 2 per cent solution of cresol compound in water. Care must be taken not to carry the disease from the sick to the well by sponges, etc., which have come in contact with the affected organs. These should be destroyed. To prevent the spread of the disease the infected animals should be kept isolated until they have recovered. RABIES OF CATTLE. Rabies is a disease preeminently affecting the canine race, although all warm-blooded animals, including man, are susceptible to the malady, which is always communicated through bites from a preceding case. It has required many years of patient, scientific research to lead the ablest investigators to a clear comprehension of the cause, nature, and characteristics of this affection. It was known and described several centuries prior to the beginning of the Christian era, and from the earliest dawn of history it has been feared and dreaded. Its terrible manifestations have always been surrounded with an atmosphere of awe and mystery, and it is not surprising that myths, fallacies, and misconceptions in regard to it have been common and widely accepted. As the investigations by which we have come to a tolerably clear understanding of the facts concerning rabies have been comparatively recent, and for the most part, have appeared in scientific periodicals, fallacies in regard to the disease continue to have a strong hold upon the public mind. For instance, it is still a widely prevalent belief that if persons or animals are bitten by a dog they are liable to become rabid if the dog should contract the disease at any future time. There is no foundation for this impression, and it would be a great comfort to many people who are now and then bitten by animals if the fallacy of this idea were known. All experience, both scientific and practical, goes to show that rabies is transmitted only by animals that are actually diseased at the time the bite is inflicted. Rabies is an infectious disease involving the nervous system and characterized by extreme excitability and other nervous disorders and always terminating in death. The contagion of this disease has never been isolated, but the fact that it is caused by a specific organism principally found in the nervous system is indisputable. For instance, if an emulsion of the brain of a rabid animal is filtered through a germ-proof filter, the filtrate will be harmless. This fact indicates that the infectious principle is not in solution, but is an organism withheld from the filtrate by the filter. This contagion can be propagated only in the body of an animal. It is transmitted naturally from one animal to another solely by bites, and the old idea of spontaneous appearance of the disease is absolutely fallacious. It may be produced artificially by inoculating susceptible animals with an emulsion of the brain or spinal cord, as well as the saliva, milk, and other secretions of the affected animal. The blood, on the contrary, seems to be free from the infectious principle. The saliva contains the virus, which, under natural conditions, is introduced into or under the skin on the tooth of the rabid animal. The disease is widespread, being found in many countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in certain sections of the United States. Owing to the rigid quarantine regulations enforced against dogs imported into Australia, that country remains absolutely free from the disease. Following the canine race, cattle seem to be the most frequently affected, probably because rabid dogs, next to their morbid desire to attack other members of their own race, have a better opportunity to bite grazing cattle than any other species of animal. The relative frequency of rabies in these two species of animals is indicated by the carefully compiled statistics of the German Empire, which shows that 904 dogs and 223 cows died of rabies in 1898, while in 1899 there were 911 cases in dogs and 171 in cattle. The latter receive bites most frequently on the hind legs and in the hips and about the lower jaw. These places are most accessible to dogs, owing to the habit of cattle to drive their tormentors away by lowering their heads and using their horns. Every animal bitten does not necessarily develop the disease, but the per cent of fatalities has been variously estimated, and averages from 25 to 30. This, however, depends on the location and size of the wound as well as the amount of hemorrhage produced, and various other conditions. In general, the nearer the bite is located to the central nervous system and the deeper the wound inflicted, the greater the danger of a fatal result. In cases in which the hemorrhage resulting from the bite is profuse, there is a possibility that the virus will be washed out of the wound and thus obviate the danger of subsequent appearance of the disease. The virus after being deposited in the wound remains latent for an extremely variable period of time, which also depends on the size and depth of the wound as well as its location and the amount of the virulent saliva introduced. Experiments have proved that the virus follows the course of the nerves to the spinal cord and along the latter to the brain before the symptoms appear. Gerlach, having collected the statistics from 133 cases, has found this time, known as the period of incubation, to vary from 14 to 285 days. The great majority of cases, however, contract the disease in one to three months after the bite has been inflicted. _Symptoms._--As in dogs, both furious and dumb rabies are met with, the former being more common in cattle. A sharp line of distinction, however, can not be drawn between these two forms of the disease, as the furious form usually merges into the dumb, from the paralysis which appears prior to death. The typical cases of dumb rabies are those in which the paralysis appears at the beginning of the attack and remains until death. The disease first manifests itself by a loss of appetite and rumination, stopping of the secretion of milk, great restlessness, anxiety, manifestation of fear, and change in the disposition of the animal. This preliminary stage is followed in a day or two by the stage of excitation, or madness, which is indicated by increasing restlessness, loud roaring at times with a peculiar change in the sound of the voice, violent butting with the horns and pawing the ground with the feet, with an insane tendency to attack other animals, although the desire to bite is not so marked in cattle as in the canine race. A constant symptom is the increased secretion of saliva with a consequent frothing at the mouth, or the secretion may hang from the lips in long strings. Constipation is marked, and there is manifested a continual, although unsuccessful, desire to defecate. Spasms of the muscles in different parts of the body are also seen at intervals. About the fourth day the animal usually becomes quieter and the walk is stiff, unsteady, and swaying, showing that the final paralysis is coming on. This is called the paralytic stage. The loss of flesh is extremely rapid, and even during the short course of the disease the animal becomes exceedingly emaciated. The temperature is never elevated, it usually remaining about normal or even subnormal. Finally, there is complete paralysis of the hind quarters, the animal being unable to rise, and but for irregular convulsive movements lies in a comatose condition and dies usually from the fourth to the sixth day after the appearance of the first symptom. _Anatomy._--If animals which have succumbed to rabies are examined post mortem, very slight evidence of disease will be found in any of the organs, and, indeed, the absence of any specific lesions may be considered as characteristic. The blood is dark and imperfectly coagulated. The throat is frequently reddened, and there may be small spots of extravasated blood in the intestines. The stomachs are usually empty. In the spleen there may be hemorrhagic enlargements (infarcts). The cadavers rapidly undergo decomposition. _Differential diagnosis._--It is not an easy matter to decide definitely that a given animal has rabies, since the symptoms given above belong in part to a variety of other diseases, among which may be mentioned the excitement seen in young animals following close confinement, certain vegetable and mineral poisons, acute enteritis, and alterations of the central nervous system in cattle, the most common of which is tuberculosis of the brain and its covering membranes. The post-mortem lesions, however, should assist in making a correct diagnosis. Tetanus may readily be differentiated from rabies by the persistence of muscular cramps, especially of the face and abdomen, which cause these muscles to become set and as hard as wood. In tetanus there is also an absence of a depraved appetite or of a willful propensity to hurt other animals or to damage the surroundings. The cow remains quiet and the general muscular contraction gives her a rigid appearance. There is an absence of paralysis which marks the advanced stage of rabies. The form of dumb rabies in dogs is characterized by the paralysis and pendency of the lower jaw, while in tetanus the jaws are locked. This locking of the jaws in cattle renders the animal incapable of bellowing, as in rabies. Finally, tetanus may be distinguished from rabies by the fact that the central nervous system does not contain the infectious principle, while in rabies the inoculation of test rabbits with the brain or cord of a rabid animal will produce the disease with characteristic symptoms after an interval of 15 to 20 days. This period of incubation is much longer than in tetanus, since the inoculation of rabbits with tetanus cultures invariably results in death after a short period and usually within three days. The positive evidence that a rabid dog has been near cattle would greatly assist in making a decision in doubtful cases. The disease in dogs is pretty well recognized by most people, but in case a suspected dog is killed it is desirable to open the animal and examine the contents of the stomach. While feed is absent, a variety of odd things may be present which the abnormally changed appetite of the rabid dog has induced it to swallow. Among such things may be straws, sticks, glass, rags, earth, pieces of leather, and whatever the animal may have encountered small enough to be swallowed. This miscellaneous collection in the stomach of dogs, together with absence of feed, is regarded by authorities as a very valuable sign, and in case of doubt may be made use of by laymen. In important cases, however, the head of the dog, cow, or other suspected animal should be removed and sent to the nearest biological laboratory, where a positive diagnosis can be made within 36 hours by the histological examination of the plexiform nerve ganglia, and within two or three weeks by the intracerebral inoculation of rabbits with an emulsion of the brain of the suspected animal. _Treatment._--This is useless after the first appearance of symptoms. When, however, a wound inflicted by a rabid animal can be discovered, it should be immediately cauterized or even completely extirpated, care being taken to cut entirely around the wound in the healthy tissues. For cauterizing the wound, fuming nitric acid, the hot iron, and 10 per cent solution of zinc chlorid are the most efficacious. To afford an absolute protection, this should be done within a few moments after the bite has been inflicted, although even as late as a few hours it has been known to thwart the development of the disease. Pasteur originated and perfected a system of preventive inoculation against this disease which has greatly reduced the mortality in human subjects. Its application to animals, however, is difficult and requires considerable time and expense. A method of vaccination applicable to animals, consisting of a single injection of a suspension of "fixed" rabies virus, is now being quite extensively employed by veterinarians. Sanitary regulations which seek to control effectively the disease by exterminating it among dogs are most likely to prove successful. The measures which are adopted to this end can not be discussed in this place, but it is a striking fact that where the muzzling of all dogs has been rigidly enforced, as in England and in certain German districts, the disease has been practically stamped out. TUBERCULOSIS. [Pls. XXXIV-XXXVIII.] Tuberculosis is an infectious and communicable disease characterized in its early stages by the formation, in various organs of the body, of minute nodules or tubercles, which contain _Mycobacterium tuberculosis_, the cause of the disease. The disease, in its various manifestations, has been known for many centuries, and legislative enactments having reference to the destruction of affected animals and forbidding the use of the flesh date far back into the Middle Ages. The opinions entertained regarding the nature and the cause of the malady varied much in different periods and very markedly influenced the laws and regulations in vogue. Thus, in the sixteenth century, the disease was considered identical with syphilis in man. In consequence of this belief very stringent laws were enacted, which made the destruction of tuberculous cattle compulsory. In the eighteenth century this erroneous conception of the nature of the disease was abandoned and all restrictions against the use of meat were removed. Since that time, however, its communicable nature has been established by many investigators, and the tide of opinion has again turned in favor of repressing the disease and prohibiting the sale of contaminated products. _Occurrence._--The statistics concerning tuberculosis show that it is a disease prevalent in all civilized countries. In some countries, such as the northern part of Norway and Sweden, on the steppes of eastern Europe and Russia, in Sicily and Iceland, and in Algiers, it is said to be quite rare. The returns from testing British cattle with tuberculin, supplied by the Royal Veterinary College, as stated in March, 1900, showed that among 15,392 animals tested 4,105, or 26 per cent, reacted. During the slaughter of cattle for pleuropneumonia careful examinations of the carcasses were made for tuberculosis. Of 300 head killed near Edinburgh 120, or 40 per cent, were tuberculous. Of 4,160 killed in England 20 per cent were tuberculous. Of one of these lots of cattle (451 animals) the president of the Lancashire Farmers' Association testified that they were fairly representative cattle--cows, heifers, and growing stock--a thoroughly mixed lot; 20 per cent of them had tuberculosis. Of 398 bovine animals taken haphazard in the city of Manchester, 120, or 30 per cent, were tuberculous. Among them were 168 cows, 69, or 41 per cent, being tuberculous, and 2 having diseased udders. The result of testing the Queen's herd at Windsor was that 36 out of 40, or 90 per cent, were found tuberculous. The investigations made by the British Dairy Farmers' Association deserve particular attention, coming as they do directly from a cattle owners' organization. The council of this association "resolved to submit the general consideration of the question to a committee, with a view to some more definite understanding as to the possible extent to which tuberculosis exists in dairy cattle." The secretary was instructed to write to a number of dairy farmers being members of the association, asking their cooperation and the use of their herds for the application of the tests. Of the herds offered, 9 were selected, containing 461 cows and 12 bulls, and 188 of these animals reacted, being 40.8 per cent. There were among these cattle 335 Shorthorns, of which 119, or 35 per cent, reacted; 67 crossbreds, of which 28, or 42 per cent, reacted; 47 Ayrshires, of which 37, or 80 per cent, reacted. Another experiment of much interest is that of the Cheshire County Council. The technical instruction committee set aside £250 to be used by a joint committee from the agricultural and horticultural schools and Worleson Dairy Institute for applying the tuberculin test to their herds. The tests were made February 15, 1899. The results were: Worleson herd of 54 animals, 16 diseased, or 29.6 per cent; agricultural school herd of 17 animals, 4 diseased, or 23.5 per cent. The Worleson herd consisted of Shorthorn cows. In each herd the purebred Shorthorn bull was tuberculous. The results of the tuberculin test were confirmed by the slaughter of the animals and examination of the carcasses. Sir T. D. G. Carmichael, member of Parliament for Midlothian, gave evidence before the royal commission that his Polled Angus herd was tested in the spring of 1895. "The results of the test were fearfully unexpected and alarming." Of 30 tested 13 showed decided reaction--43 per cent. Again, he speaks of having 41 animals tested the same spring and 16 reacted--39.5 per cent. Of 80 Shorthorn cattle intended for export which were tested 34 reacted, or 42 per cent. Of a herd of 25 British Shorthorns recently tested in quarantine 40 per cent were found tuberculous. The addition of these animals above referred to gives 20,930 head examined and 5,441, or 26 per cent, pronounced tuberculous. And these herds were not selected because they were supposed to be tuberculous, but represent the general cattle stock of the country. These animals included at least 470 head of Shorthorns, of which 170, or 34 per cent, were tuberculous. To these facts may be added the evidence of Prof. Bang that in the first half of the nineteenth century tuberculosis was brought to Denmark by cattle from Switzerland, Schleswig, and England, and that the same thing is now going on in Sweden and Norway, particularly through English cattle. Also the evidence of M. Sivori, chief of section at the ministry of agriculture, Argentina, who has investigated tuberculosis in that country and who says that "30 or 40 years ago tuberculosis was unknown in Argentine cattle, and it is still unknown among the native (criollo) cattle. Its appearance dates from the introduction of pure breeding animals. Statistics prove that tuberculosis is observed among the grades--above all among those of the Durham and less among the Hereford." Moreover, the reports of the royal commission of Victoria, Australia, and of the New Zealand department of agriculture show a large proportion of tuberculous cattle in those colonies, where the disease was almost certainly carried by British cattle. In the same manner that tuberculosis has been carried from Great Britain to Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Argentina, and Australia, it has also been taken to Canada. In one herd of imported cattle slaughtered in the Canadian quarantine station, 13 of the 14 animals were found tuberculous. One of the largest Shorthorn herds in Canada was some time ago tested because an animal from it was condemned when offered for shipment to the United States. This herd was found to be very badly affected, and an effort is being made to eradicate the disease by the Bang method. A Canadian official publication says of another Shorthorn herd, which at one time had a very high reputation, that when an investigation in regard to tuberculosis was recently made the disease was found among ordinary cattle wherever animals from this herd had been introduced, and that this herd, which had been looked upon as one of the greatest benefits to the farming community, was really a danger, because it disseminated tuberculosis among the farmers' herds. Still another well-known herd recently attracted attention because four animals from it offered for export to the United States were all tuberculous. From December 23, 1900, to February 19, 1901, the period that the department inspector tested all Canadian cattle intended for shipment to the United States, 140 purebred Shorthorns and 3 Shorthorn grades were tested, and of the total number 26, or 18 per cent, reacted. During the first month that this inspection was enforced, and when it may be assumed that the condition of the cattle most nearly represented what it had previously been, 74 cattle were offered for importation, and 18, or 24.3 per cent, were found tuberculous. In justice to Shorthorn cattle it should be said in this connection that they are probably no more susceptible to tuberculosis than are other breeds, but the disease has been allowed to spread in certain herds and families to such an extent as to give a wrong impression concerning the breed as a whole. The slaughterhouse statistics of Prussia show 14.6 per cent of the cattle and 2.14 per cent of the hogs to be tuberculous. In Saxony the percentage is 29.13 with cattle and 3.10 with hogs. In the city of Leipzig the figures are 36.4 for cattle and 2.17 for hogs. (Siedamgrotzky.) Of 20,850 animals in Belgium tested with tuberculin in 1896, 48.88 per cent reacted. (Stubbe.) Of 25,439 tested in Denmark from 1893 to 1895, 49.3 per cent reacted; and of 67,263 tested from 1896 to 1898, 32.8 per cent reacted. (Bang.) Figures available in the United States allow us to make a reliable estimate of the extent of tuberculosis of cattle. The following summary is presented: _Statistics of tests for tuberculosis in the United States, 1917 to March 1, 1922._ -----------------------+---------+------------+------------- State. | Number | Number | Per cent | tested. |tuberculous.|tuberculous. -----------------------+---------+------------+------------- Alabama | 68,772 | 1,071 | 1.6 Arkansas | 5,917 | 98 | 1.7 Colorado | 1,959 | 76 | 3.9 Connecticut | 29,286 | 4,695 | 16.0 Delaware | 19,003 | 2,132 | 11.2 Florida | 56,533 | 1,438 | 2.5 Georgia | 46,522 | 998 | 2.1 Idaho | 57,731 | 1,052 | 1.8 Illinois | 92,781 | 6,112 | 6.6 Indiana | 142,833 | 3,991 | 2.8 Iowa | 158,514 | 9,958 | 6.3 Kansas | 64,341 | 1,796 | 2.8 Kentucky | 66,839 | 1,492 | 2.2 Louisiana | 36,391 | 981 | 2.7 Maine | 67,406 | 1,792 | 2.7 Maryland | 65,888 | 5,491 | 8.3 Massachusetts | 26,297 | 2,371 | 9.0 Michigan | 163,323 | 5,361 | 3.3 Minnesota | 240,888 | 7,555 | 3.1 Mississippi | 99,245 | 503 | .5 Missouri | 196,208 | 2,587 | 1.3 Montana | 165,640 | 3,346 | 2.0 Nebraska | 125,162 | 3,947 | 3.2 Nevada | 29,541 | 1,042 | 3.5 New Hampshire | 16,623 | 1,697 | 10.2 New Jersey | 32,184 | 2,542 | 7.9 New Mexico | 3,897 | 39 | 1.0 New York | 167,852 | 23,071 | 13.7 North Carolina | 64,008 | 1,098 | 1.7 North Dakota | 139,501 | 4,142 | 3.0 Ohio | 97,612 | 4,470 | 4.6 Oklahoma | 67,522 | 2,453 | 3.6 Oregon | 123,792 | 2,581 | 2.1 Pennsylvania | 102,465 | 6,322 | 6.2 Rhode Island | 3,458 | 338 | 9.8 South Carolina | 41,868 | 740 | 1.8 South Dakota | 43,433 | 2,353 | 5.4 Tennessee | 63,631 | 956 | 1.5 Texas | 61,956 | 1,256 | 2.0 Utah | 59,711 | 586 | 1.0 Vermont | 160,361 | 11,486 | 7.2 Virginia | 135,677 | 3,881 | 2.9 Washington | 154,292 | 3,864 | 2.5 West Virginia | 36,603 | 798 | 2.2 Wisconsin | 285,269 | 8,166 | 2.9 Wyoming | 22,811 | 322 | 1.4 -----------------------+---------+------------+------------- Reports of tuberculin tests made on 400,000 cattle in the United States during the years 1893 to 1908 by Federal, State, and other officers with tuberculin prepared by the Bureau of Animal Industry show 37,008 reactions, or 9.25 per cent. These were mostly dairy cattle, and in some cases herds were suspected of being diseased. Later reports of tuberculin tests made in the United States from July 1, 1917, to March 1, 1922, on 3,911,546 cattle by State, county, and Federal officers engaged in cooperative tuberculosis eradication work showed 153,046 reactions, or 3.9 per cent. All cattle in the District of Columbia, numbering 1,701, were tested with tuberculin in 1909-10, and 18.87 per cent reacted. In 1909-11 herds in Maryland and Virginia supplying milk to the District of Columbia were tested, with 19.03 and 15.38 per cent of reactions, respectively, among 4,501 cattle. All cattle in the District of Columbia were tuberculin tested in 1920-21, numbering 1,313, and 5 animals reacted, or 0.4 per cent, demonstrating that tuberculosis may be eradicated from all the herds in a circumscribed area. The beef cattle of the United States show a much smaller proportion of the disease than dairy cattle, though the percentage of cattle found tuberculous in the Government meat-inspection service has increased considerably in recent years. This increase is due partly, but not wholly, to more stringent inspection. Of 7,781,030 adult cattle slaughtered under Federal inspection during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1911, 76,448 were found tuberculous, a percentage of 0.98. From the statistics above referred to, and other data, it appears that in the more densely populated areas of Europe and America from 5 to 50 per cent of the dairy cattle are more or less affected with tuberculosis, while the proportion of beef cattle affected is distinctly less, ranging from 0.14 to 30 per cent. This difference is due to a number of causes. Beef cattle average younger when slaughtered. They are not so frequently stabled, and are for that reason less liable to infection, and as the males constitute a large proportion of this class of animals the effect of milk secretion in lowering the vital forces is not so apparent. In the United States it has been estimated that about 10 per cent of the dairy cattle are tuberculous, while only about 2 per cent of the beef cattle are so infected. _Cause and nature of the disease._--The cause of tuberculosis is the tubercle bacillus, which gains entrance to the body, lodges somewhere in the tissues, and begins to grow and multiply at that point. As this bacillus vegetates and increases in numbers it excretes substances which act as irritants and poisons and which lead to the formation of a small nodule, called a tubercle, at the point of irritation. As the bacilli are disseminated through the animal body they affect many parts and cause the formation of an enormous number of tubercles. By the union of such tubercles, masses of tubercular material are formed, which in some cases are of great size. The disease is called tuberculosis because it is characterized by the formation of these peculiar nodules, and the bacillus which causes the disease is for the same reason known technically as the _Mycobacterium tuberculosis._ There are undoubtedly predisposing conditions which contribute toward the development of the disease; some of these are found in the animal body and others in the environment. An enfeebled condition caused by insufficient feed, exposure to great extremes of atmospheric temperature and insanitary surroundings, or the drain occasioned by heavy production of milk, appear to aid the development of the bacillus, and there is also a special individual susceptibility in some cases which may be otherwise described as an inability of the animal tissues to resist and destroy the bacilli when they have penetrated to the inner recesses of the body. Among the conditions of environment which aid the development of tuberculosis may be mentioned stabling with lack of ventilation, damp buildings, the keeping of many animals together, drafts of air which cause colds and catarrhs, and, in general, everything which prevents the animals from developing and maintaining the highest condition of health. None of these conditions of body or environment are sufficient to cause the disease, however, unless the animals are exposed to the _Mycobacterium tuberculosis_ and it penetrates the tissues of their bodies. The ways in which the tubercle bacilli find their way into the body may be considered under four heads: (1) By inhalation into the lungs; (2) by taking into the digestive tract in the milk of tuberculous cows or with other contaminated feed; (3) during coition when the sexual organs are tuberculous; (4) from the tuberculous mother to the fetus in the uterus. The bacilli can reach the lungs by inhalation only when the bacilli are thoroughly dried and pulverized and in condition to be carried by currents of air. It is well known that the bacilli withstand drying for months before they lose their power of producing disease. They leave the bodies of diseased animals in several ways. There may be a little discharge occasionally coughed up as a spray from the diseased lungs, or this material may be swallowed and the bacilli carried off with the excrement, or milk may be spilt, or there may be a discharge from the vagina when the genital organs are tuberculous. There may also be ulcers of the intestines, from which many bacilli escape with the feces. The bacilli from these sources may become dried and pulverized and carried in the air of the stable and into the lungs of still healthy cattle, where the disease then develops. The disease of the stomach, intestines, and mesenteric glands is very probably the result of feed infection. Tubercle bacilli may have been scattered upon the feed by diseased animals, but the most common source of such infection is the milk of tuberculous cows. Calves may become infected in this way. The disease may remain latent until the animal becomes older. The not-infrequent occurrence of tuberculosis of the uterus and ovaries makes it probable that the disease may be transmitted by a diseased bull or carried by a healthy one from a diseased cow to a number of healthy cows. The source of infection is always some previous case of the disease, for the disease can never rise spontaneously; hence, in those stables in which there is frequent change of cattle the introduction of tuberculosis by cattle coming from other infected stables is the most frequent source of infection. Since the bacilli when dried can be carried by the air, it is not necessary that healthy animals come in direct contact with cases of disease to become infected. In general, the greatest number of cases occur in the immediate environment of cities, where there are not only abundant opportunities for infection, owing to the frequent introduction of new animals into herds, but where the sanitary conditions may be regarded as the poorest. The bacillus of tuberculosis was discovered by Robert Koch in 1882. It is a slender, rodlike body (see Pl. XXVIII, fig. 6) from one-third to two-thirds the diameter of a red blood corpuscle in length. As already explained, when the bacillus has become lodged in any organ or tissue it begins to multiply, and thereby causes an irritation in the tissue around it, which leads to the formation of the so-called tubercle. The tubercle, when it has reached its full growth, is a little nodule about the size of a millet seed. It is composed of several kinds of tissue cells. Soon a change takes place within the tubercle. Disintegration begins, and a soft, cheesy substance is formed in the center, which may contain particles of lime salts. When these tubercles continue to form in large numbers they run together, forming masses of various sizes. The disintegration which attacks them leads to the formation of large cheesy masses of a yellowish color, containing more or less of lime salts in the form of gritty particles. These large tuberculous masses are surrounded by or embedded in layers of fibrous tissue which in some cases becomes very dense and thick. The disease is thus a development of these tubercles in one or more organs of the body. The distribution and number of the tubercles determine the course of the disease. In a large number of cases the changes are limited to the lungs and the serous membranes[4] of the thorax and abdomen. Pathologists have been in the habit of calling the lung disease tuberculosis and the disease of the serous membranes "pearly disease." Statistics have shown that in about one-half of the cases both lungs and serous membranes are diseased, in one-third only the lungs, and in one-fifth only the serous membranes. At the same time the lymphatic glands near the diseased organs are usually involved. Other organs, such as the liver, not infrequently contain tubercles. Though the disease may remain restricted to a single organ, it now and then is found generalized, affecting all organs of the body. In the lungs (Pl. XXXIV) the changes observed vary according to the age and intensity of the disease process. They usually begin with the appearance of very minute tubercles. These may appear in large numbers on the surface of the lungs or within the lung tissue. Later the contents become cheesy and partly calcified. When these tubercles are sufficiently numerous to become confluent, large masses may be formed, which undergo the same retrogressive changes of caseation and calcification. In addition to the formation of tubercles in the lung tissue, certain other changes take place. There is usually bronchitis with abundant catarrhal secretion; this plugs up the smaller air tubes, and the lung tissue supplied with air by the tubes collapses. Subsequently it becomes filled with yellowish, cheesy matter, which greatly distends the small air tubes and air vesicles (bronchopneumonia). The connective tissue between the lung lobules, around the tubercles, and around the air tubes becomes thickened and indurated. In the larynx and the bronchi tubercles may vegetate upon the mucous membrane, and ulcers may result from their breaking down. The inflammatory irritation which the growth of the tubercles on the surface of the lungs arouses gives rise to adhesion of the lungs to the ribs and diaphragm. This adhesion is sometimes so firm and extensive that the lungs appear grown to the chest wall. When, therefore, the lungs in advanced stages of the disease are cut open we observe large yellowish masses, from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, of a cheesy texture, in which calcified, gritty particles are embedded and which are surrounded by very firm connective tissue. The neighboring lung tissue, when collapsed and involved in bronchopneumonia, has the color and consistency of pale-red flesh. The air tubes, large and small, stand out prominently on the cut surface. They are distended with a pasty, yellowish, cheesy mass, surrounded and enveloped in thick mucus, and their walls greatly thickened. The larger bronchi may be sacculated, owing to the distention produced by the cheesy contents. The disease usually attacks the bronchial glands, which are situated on the trachea and bronchial tubes at the bifurcation. The changes in the glands are the same as those going on in the lung tissue, and they frequently reach an enormous size. The tubercle formation on the serous membranes covering the lungs and chest wall (Pl. XXXVII, fig. 2), which may go on at the same time with the lung disease or independent of it, has been called "pearly disease," on account of the peculiar appearance of the tubercles. These begin as very minute, grayish nodules, which give the originally smooth, lustrous membrane a roughened appearance. These minute tubercles enlarge, become confluent, and project above the surface of the membrane as wartlike masses, attaining the size of peas. In this stage their attachment to the membrane is by means of delicate fibers. The attachment is loose, so that the tubercle hangs by a short pedicle or neck and may be moved slightly to and fro. Large masses are frequently formed by a coalescence of many tubercles and the secondary formation of the same. These may be found on the lungs, the ribs, and the diaphragm. These tubercles likewise undergo degenerative changes. The center partly softens and partly calcifies into a grayish mortarlike mass, and is gritty. Associated with the formation of tubercles on the pleura, those glands situated back of the center of the lungs between the two main lobes (posterior mediastinal) become greatly enlarged and the center cheesy. (Pl. XXXVI, fig. 1.) They may compress the esophagus and interfere with swallowing. The size attained by these tumors and new growths is well illustrated by the fact that, taken together, they not infrequently weigh from 60 to 80 pounds. The bronchial glands, which in the healthy state are not so large as horse-chestnuts, have been found to attain a weight of more than 10 pounds. In the abdominal cavity tubercles may be found, both in the organs and on the serous membranes covering them. They are situated usually on the omentum, or caul (see Pl. XXXVI, fig. 2), the diaphragm, and the walls of the abdomen. In the liver large and small tubercular masses are occasionally encountered. (See Pl. XXXV.) The mesenteric glands are occasionally enlarged and tuberculous; likewise the glands near the liver. Tubercles may also develop in the spleen, the kidneys, the uterus and ovaries, and the testicles. Tubercular affection of the intestines seems to be quite rare, although ulcers of the large intestines have been observed. Nodules may also form under the serous covering of the intestines. The brain and spinal cord are occasionally found tuberculous. Of 40 cases, Semmer found tuberculosis of the brain in 4. It is not improbable that, owing to the infrequency of exposing the brain and spinal cord, tuberculosis may have escaped the attention of pathologists, and it may be that it is not so uncommon as is generally supposed. The tubercles occur on the membranes of the brain as well as in the substance of the brain itself. They project into the ventricles as masses, varying in size from a pinhead to a hen's egg. They finally lead to various inflammatory changes. Jöhne has observed numerous small tubercles on the membranes of the spinal cord. Very rarely tuberculous lesions have been observed in the bones and muscles of the body. Not so rare, however, is the affection of the lymphatic glands embedded in the muscular tissue, and those which can be felt beneath the skin. These are situated at the joints, under the jaw, and along the neck. Of late tubercular disease of the udder in cows (Pl. XXXVIII) has received considerable attention from sanitarians, owing to the infection of the milk with the virus of tuberculosis. According to those who have given this subject special attention, the udder becomes swollen uniformly and quite firm. This swelling, which is painless, frequently attacks but one quarter, more rarely two, these being usually the hind quarters. The larger milk ducts contain yellowish, cheesy particles, in which are many tubercle bacilli. Later larger nodules can be felt within the udder, which undergo the various changes to which tubercles are subject. The udder may grow very hard to the touch and become very large, weighing in some cases up to 40 pounds. The milk, at first normal, becomes thin and watery after a month or so, and is mixed with flakes and tubercle bacilli. As regards the frequency of the tuberculous processes in the different organs, the following carefully compiled statistics of the disease in Bavaria and Baden may serve as a guide: Bavaria: Per cent. Tuberculosis of lungs and serous membranes 41 Tuberculosis of lungs alone 33 Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone (pearly disease) 17 Tuberculosis of other organs 8 Baden: Tuberculosis of lungs alone 21 Tuberculosis of serous membranes alone 28 Both combined 39 Generalized tuberculosis 9 Tuberculosis of the sexual organs alone 3 _Symptoms._--The beginning of the disease usually passes unnoticed, inasmuch as it is very slow and insidious and rarely accompanied with fever. When the lungs are involved a dull, short cough is noticed, which may later on become prolonged, convulsive, and very troublesome to the animal. The cough is more frequent in the morning after movement and drinking. The breathing varies. Only when much of the lung tissue is diseased is it labored and accompanied with active movements of the chest and nostrils. Discharge from the nose is rare or absent. At times, however, when the tubercles have broken down and cavities containing cheesy masses have formed in the lung tissue, or when the air tubes have become filled with cheesy and mucous masses, coughing will dislodge them and cause their discharge. In advanced stages the breath may have a disagreeable odor. Pressure on the chest wall may give rise to pain. The general effect on the body is at first slight. In fact, animals may remain in good flesh for a considerable time. Invariably as the disease progresses loss of flesh and appetite and paleness of the mucous membranes become manifest. These symptoms are accompanied with a gradual diminution of the milk secretion. The debilitated condition of the animal is also manifested by a staring coat and a tough, dry, harsh skin (hidebound). Digestive disturbances are indicated by tympanites, or distention of the rumen by gas, colic, and diarrhea, alternating with constipation. The animal generally dies from exhaustion after a period of sickness which may last months or even years. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIV. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LUNGS OF CATTLE.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXV. TUBERCULOSIS OF THE LIVER.] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVI. TUBERCULOSIS OF LYMPH GLAND AND OF OMENTUM (CAUL).] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVII. FIG. 1.--TUBERCULOSIS OF SIRLOIN AND PORTERHOUSE CUTS OF BEEF. FIG. 2.--TUBERCULOSIS OF PLEURA OF A COW, SO-CALLED "PEARLY DISEASE."] [Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII. TUBERCULOSIS OF COW'S UDDER.] * * * * * TUBERCULOSIS. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XXXIV. Tuberculosis of the lungs of cattle. The upper figure represents a large cheesy mass, surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue, the whole embedded in healthy lung tissue. The lower figure illustrates in section a mass of tubercles which have undergone cheesy degeneration, and some of which are surrounded by dense connective tissue. PLATE XXXV. Tuberculosis of the liver. A large portion of the lobe represented in the plate has undergone tuberculous changes. Numerous nodules are shown in various stages of the disease, the majority of which, however, contain the yellowish, partly cheesy, partly gritty areas characteristic of advanced tuberculous degeneration. This large mass involves the surface of the liver, and also extends into the liver substance. PLATE XXXVI. Tuberculosis of lymph gland and of omentum (caul). Fig. 1. A lymph gland from the region of the thorax behind or above the esophagus, or gullet (posterior, or dorsal, mediastinum). The gland is shown cut through and laid open. It is very much enlarged, and the yellowish cheesy masses which represent tissue undergoing tuberculous changes are well shown on the cut surface. Fig. 2. Omentum, or caul, resting upon the paunch. The reddish nodules with which the membrane is beset are tubercles, the product of the disease. PLATE XXXVII. Fig. 1. Tuberculosis of the sirloin and porterhouse cuts of beef. The grapelike tuberculous growths are mainly restricted to the lining membrane of the abdomen. Fig. 2. Tuberculosis of the pleura of a cow, so-called "pearly disease." Notice the grapelike clusters of tubercular nodules scattered over the lining membrane of the chest (pleura). PLATE XXXVIII. Tuberculosis of cow's udder. The udder was uniformly swollen and quite firm. Small cheesy foci and yellowish lines of tuberculous material follow the course of the milk ducts. The mucous membrane of the milk cistern (_a_) is ulcerated and covered with yellowish cheesy particles. The supramammary lymphatic gland (_b_) is greatly enlarged and contains many miliary tubercular foci. * * * * * Tuberculosis in the abdominal organs is often signalized by abortion and by abnormal sexual manifestations. When the brain is involved, the disease may cause convulsions, unconsciousness, paralysis, as well as peculiar movements in a circle, oblique position of the head, etc. Lydtin quotes the following description of the disease as taken from a Swiss sanitary order: A dry, short, interrupted, hoarse cough, which the sick animals manifest, especially in the morning at feeding time, still more after somewhat violent exertion. At first these animals may be full blooded and lay on a considerable amount of fat when well fed. As the disease progresses they grow thin and show more and more those appearances which indicate diseased nutrition, such as a staring, lusterless, disheveled coat; dirty, tense skin, which appears very pale in those regions free from hair. The temperature of the skin is below normal. The loss of fat causes sinking of the eyes in their sockets. They appear swimming in water, and their expression is weak. The cough is more frequent, but never or very rarely accompanied with discharge. The body continues to emaciate, even with plenty of food and a good appetite, so that the quantity of milk is small. At times in the early stages of the disease, still more in the later stages, the diseased animals manifest considerable tenderness when pressure is applied to the front or the sides of the chest by coughing, moaning, etc. Often symptoms are wanting in spite of the existence of the disease. Lydtin also quotes at length a description of the abnormal sexual desire occasionally observed among cows when affected with this disease. _Diagnosis._--A disease so varied in its attack upon the different organs of the body and in the extent of the disease process must necessarily lead to mistakes when diagnosis is attempted by ordinary means of examination. It has been confounded with the later stages of pleuropneumonia, with parasitic diseases of the brain, the lungs, the intestines, and with actinomycosis. A careful examination of the lungs by auscultation and percussion enables the expert to locate large tuberculous masses, owing to dullness, loss of respiratory murmur, and abnormal sounds, such as blowing, whistling, and creaking. The majority of cases of tuberculosis in cattle, however, including many in which the lungs are quite seriously involved, can not be detected in this manner. THE TUBERCULIN TEST. The tuberculin test, which is marvelously accurate in its indications, has been almost universally adopted for the detection of tuberculosis. Tuberculin is a drug prepared by sterilizing, filtering, and concentrating the liquids in which the tubercle bacillus has been allowed to vegetate. It contains the cooked products of the growth of these bacilli, but no living bacilli; consequently, when this substance is injected under the skin of an animal it is absolutely unable to produce the disease, cause abortion, or otherwise injure the animal. In case the injected animal is normal there is no more effect upon the system than would be expected from the injection of sterile water; however, if the animal is tuberculous, a decided rise of temperature will follow the use of tuberculin by the subcutaneous method. This substance, discovered by Koch, has the effect, when injected into the tissues of a tuberculous animal, of causing a decided rise of temperature or other manifestations while it has no such effect upon animals free from the disease. The value of tuberculin for this purpose was tested during the years 1890 and 1891 by Guttman, Roeckl and Schütz, Bang and Salomonsen, Lydtin, Jöhne and Siedamgrotzky, Nocard, and many others. It was at once recognized as a most remarkable and accurate method of detecting tuberculosis even in the early stages and when the disease had yet made but little progress. It is now quite generally employed. The tuberculin test came into existence through the most careful and thorough scientific experimentation. As a result of its use an accurate diagnosis may be established in more than 90 per cent of the cases tested. The relatively few failures in diagnoses are included among two classes of cattle. The first class contains those that are tuberculous, but which do not react either because of the slight effect of an ordinary-sized dose of tuberculin on an advanced case of the disease with so much natural tuberculin already in the system, or on account of a recent previous test with tuberculin which produces a tolerance to this material, lasting for about six weeks. The second class includes those that are not tuberculous, but which show indications of a reaction as a result of (_a_) advanced pregnancy, (_b_) the excitement of [oe]strum, (_c_) concurrent diseases, as inflammation of the lungs, intestines, uterus, udder, or other parts, abortion, retention of afterbirth, indigestion, etc., (_d_) inclosure in a hot, stuffy stable, especially in summer, or exposure to cold drafts or rains, (_e_) any change in the method of feeding, watering, or stabling of the animal during the test. Notwithstanding all these possibilities of error, the results of thousands of tests show that in less than 3 per cent of the cases tested do these failures actually occur. In the first class the chances of error are decidedly reduced by the skilled veterinarian by making careful physical examination and diagnosing clinically these advanced cases, and by the injection of double or triple doses into all recently tested cattle, with the taking of the after-temperature, beginning two hours following the injection and continuing hourly for 20 hours. It is therefore apparent that tuberculin should be applied only by or under the direction of a competent veterinarian, capable not only of injecting the tuberculin but also of interpreting the results, and particularly of picking out all clinical cases by physical examination. The latter observation is extremely important and should always be made on every animal tested. In the second class, where the temperature test is used, errors are avoided by eliminating from the test those cases that are nearing parturition or are in heat or show evidence of the previously mentioned diseases or exhibit temperatures sufficiently high to make them unreliable for use as normal. Where other methods of test are used these conditions do not have an important bearing on the results. In addition, a satisfactory tuberculin must be used; also an accurate thermometer and a reliable syringe, in order that a sufficient dose of tuberculin may be given. Finally, the number of apparent errors of the tuberculin test will be greatly diminished if a careful post-mortem examination is made, giving especial attention to the lymph glands. This low percentage of failures being the case, cattle owners should welcome the tuberculin test, not only for their own interest but for the welfare of the public as well. Where this method of diagnosing the disease has been adopted tuberculosis is gradually being eradicated. Without its use the disease can not be controlled and the owner is confronted with serious and continuous losses; with its use the disease can be eradicated from the herd, a clean herd established in a few years without very serious loss or hardship, and the danger of its spread to man removed. Tuberculin may therefore be considered a most beneficial discovery for the stock raiser. Law has clearly stated the question when he says-- Many stock owners still entertain an ignorant and unwarranted dread of the tuberculin test. It is true that when recklessly used by ignorant and careless people it may be made a root of evil, yet as employed by the intelligent and careful expert it is not only perfectly safe, but it is the only known means of ascertaining approximately the actual number affected in a given herd. In most infected herds living under what are in other respects good hygienic conditions two-thirds or three-fourths are not to be detected without its aid, so that in clearing a herd from tuberculosis and placing both herd and products above suspicion the test becomes essential. * * * In skilled hands the tuberculin test will show at least nine-tenths of all cases of tuberculosis when other methods of diagnosis will not detect one-tenth. Probably the most popular objection to tuberculin is that it is too searching, since it discovers cases in which the lesions are small and obscure. While this fact is admitted, it should also be remembered that such a small lesion to-day may break down and become widely disseminated in a relatively short period. Therefore any cow affected with tuberculosis, even to a slight degree, must be considered as dangerous not only to the other animals in the herd but also to the consumer of her products. In 1898 Bang, of Copenhagen, one of the highest European authorities, in his paper presented to the Congress for the Study of Human and Animal Tuberculosis, at Paris, said: Numerous tests made in almost every civilized country have demonstrated that in the majority of cases tuberculin is an excellent means for diagnosing the existence or nonexistence of the disease, but giving us no positive information as to the extent to which the disease has progressed. When tuberculin produces a typical reaction we may be almost sure that there exists in the body of the animal a tubercular process. The cases in which a careful examiner has not succeeded in finding it are very rare, and I am led to believe that when, notwithstanding all the pains taken, it has escaped discovery, the reason is that it is located in a portion of the body that is particularly inaccessible. Nevertheless, it is not to be denied that a fever, entirely accidental and of short duration, may in some rare cases have simulated a reaction. However this may be, the error committed in wrongly condemning an occasional animal for tuberculosis is of no practical consequence. A worse aspect of the case is that there are some diseased animals in which tuberculin fails to discover the existence of tuberculosis. In most of these, no doubt, the deposits are old, insignificant, and generally calcified, or they are cases where the disease is arrested and perhaps in process of recovery, and which are possibly incapable of disseminating the contagion. But it is known that there are cases, not altogether rare, where tuberculin fails to cause a reaction in a highly tuberculous animal, and consequently one in which the disease exists in an extremely contagious form. For this reason a clinical examination should always be made of an animal which does not give a reaction but which shows symptoms indicating that, notwithstanding the test, it may suffer from tuberculosis. Nocard, of Paris, wrote also in 1898 as follows: The degree of certainty of the indications furnished may be stated in precise terms. _The observation of a clear reaction to tuberculin is unequivocal; the animal is tuberculous._ The pretended errors imputed to the method are explained by the extreme sensitiveness of the reagent, which is capable of detecting the smallest lesion. It often requires prolonged and minute researches in the depths of all the tissues to discover the few miliary centers, the presence of which has been revealed. The reaction is absolutely specific. In those cases where it is observed with animals which show lesions of another disease (actinomycosis, hydatid disease, verminous bronchitis, distomatosis), it may be affirmed that there exists, in addition to these conspicuous changes, a tuberculous center which alone has provoked the reaction. _The failure to react does not necessarily imply absence of tuberculosis._ Such failures of tuberculin are very exceptional. They are seen most frequently with animals affected with tuberculosis in a very advanced stage and made evident by plain external signs. Sometimes, also, there are found at the post-mortem examination of animals which have not reacted small fibrous or calcified lesions in such a condition that one is tempted to believe them cured. Whether sterile or not, these lesions have no tendency to increase, and they are not very dangerous from the point of view of contagion. These opinions of two eminent authorities, living in different countries, after long experience of their own and after studying the results of the many tests made in different parts of the world, should have great weight. They are essentially the same throughout. In 1897 Voges compiled statistics of tuberculin tests, the accuracy of which had been determined by post-mortem examination. Of 7,327 animals tested, it appeared that errors had been made with 204, or 2.78 per cent. In the work of the Pennsylvania Live Stock Sanitary Board post-mortem examinations were made on about 4,400 reacting cattle and the disease was found in all but 8 of those which had given characteristic reactions. The results of a much larger number of tests might be compiled at this time, but they would not materially change the average of those already mentioned. It is plain that tuberculin is a remarkably accurate test of tuberculosis, that the animals which react may be safely considered as tuberculous, and that when a careful clinical examination is practiced in addition to the test there are few animals in a dangerous condition which escape detection. The first questions asked by those who oppose the adoption of the tuberculin tests are: Is this test infallible? and, if it is not infallible, why should it be forced upon the cattle owners of the country? In answer to these questions it may be said that tuberculin is not absolutely infallible, and yet it is by far the best method of diagnosing tuberculosis that has been discovered. It is much better than any test known for pleuropneumonia when that disease was eradicated. Practically all the animals that react are affected with tuberculosis and should be separated from the herd, not only in the interest of the public, but in the interest of the owner of the herd. The best authorities admit, after studying many thousands of tests, that there are few, if any, mistakes made in condemning cattle which show a typical tuberculin reaction. The errors are principally in the other direction--that is, some tuberculous animals are not discovered by the tuberculin test, but as the most dangerous of these may be picked out by ordinary clinical examination this fault of tuberculin is not so serious as it at first sight appears. This being the case, it should not be necessary to force the tuberculin test upon owners. They should be anxious to adopt it in their own interests and for the protection of their patrons. There is to-day no greater danger to the cattle and hog industries than that which confronts them in the form of tuberculosis, a disease already widespread and rapidly extending. Furthermore, in view of the results revealed by numerous tests covering vast numbers of animals, tuberculin must be considered as harmless for healthy animals. It has also been clearly demonstrated that tuberculin interferes in no way with the milking function in healthy cattle; neither in the quantity of milk nor in butter-fat value has any variation been detected. The conclusions of some of the best authorities on the subject of its harmlessness to healthy animals are given below. Nocard and Leclainche state: Direct experiments and observations collected by thousands show that the tuberculin injections have no unfavorable effect. With healthy animals the system is indifferent to the inoculation; with tuberculous animals it causes slight changes which are not at all serious. Bang has written as follows on this question: We will now consider the following question, a very important one, in the application of tuberculin, viz: Can the reaction produce a worse condition in tuberculous animals than before existed? Hess emphatically states that it can, and on this account he earnestly warns against its application. My attention has been directed to this question from the beginning. In my first publication on tuberculin injection I reported two cases in which acute miliary tuberculosis was proved in two high-grade tuberculous cows several weeks after the tuberculin injection. I then stated my suspicion that perhaps the tuberculin injection had some connection with this, just as is often supposed to be the case in human practice. With my present very large amount of material for observation at hand I may express the following opinion: Such an acute development of tuberculosis as a result of tuberculin injection is to be feared only exceptionally, and then in cases of advanced tuberculosis. _It must not be forgotten that acute miliary tuberculosis by no means rarely accompanies an advanced tuberculosis of long standing._ It is therefore impossible to offer strict proof of the causal connection with the injection, and only oft-repeated observation could make this probable. In support of my view I offer the following: In the course of the last three years I have made careful post-mortem examinations of 83 tuberculous animals, which have been removed from my experiment farm, Thurebylille. Among these were 18 (or, strictly speaking, 23) high-grade tuberculous animals. I have been able to prove miliary tuberculosis in only 4 of these. Among the others, which showed less developed tuberculosis, I have never found miliary tuberculosis, and with very many I have never found any sign of a more rapid development of the process. On the contrary, it has been proved that the disease was restricted locally, often for years, in spite of yearly repeated injections. Dissections were made at very different periods after the injections--in 17 cases from 4 to 12 days after the last test. In all of these cases earlier tests had been made months or years before. In 28 cases the injection took place from 19 days to 2 months before the butchering; in 3 of these cases earlier injections had been made. In 38 cases from two and one-half months to one year intervened between the last injection and the dissection. Dissection gives the best explanation of this question, but a clinical observation, continued for years, of a herd tested with tuberculin can render very essential aid. If Hess's opinion is correct, it is to be assumed that tuberculosis must take an unusually vicious course in such herds, but this I have been unable to prove. At Thurebylille there has existed for three years a reacting division, consisting originally of 131 head and now 69. Although these animals are yearly tested, and although most of them react every year, the division certainly appears to be made up of healthy animals, and the farm inspector has expressed the decided opinion that the tuberculosis in this division is no more developed than at the beginning of the experiment. The testimony of many owners of large herds of cattle which have long ago been injected is to the same effect. I will adduce statements from several. A farm tenant whose cattle were injected 20 months previously, when 82 per cent of the grown animals reacted, wrote me recently as follows: "Only 2 cows from the division of 100 head had been sold as decidedly tuberculous. The majority appeared afterwards, just as before, entirely healthy. The fat animals which had been slaughtered had been pronounced healthy by the butchers." Another farm tenant with a herd injected in 1894 had not been obliged to remove a single animal from the tuberculosis division, numbering 70 head. A large farm owner in Jutland stated in September that he had traced no undesirable result from the injection. His herd of 350 had been injected in February and about 75 per cent reacted. Similar answers have been given by other owners and veterinarians. A veterinarian who had injected 600 animals, among them a herd of a large farm, 18 months previously, expressed the belief that the injection had produced in no single case an unusually rapid or vicious course of tuberculosis. In spite of a demand made months ago, I have received thus far no report from any veterinarian of an undesirable result. On a large farm, on which before the injection tuberculosis had appeared in a vicious form, the owner had the impression that the severe cases had afterwards become more numerous. He had, however, not suffered severe losses, and 8 months later the large reacting division by no means made a bad impression. Finally, it is to be noticed that tuberculin has been employed on a large scale in Denmark for years, and still the demand from farmers constantly increases. This could certainly not be the case if the injections were generally followed by bad results. Paige said, after the tests of the herd of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, that "its use is not followed by any ill effects of a serious or permanent nature." Lamson, of the New Hampshire College Agricultural Experiment Station, said: "There is abundant testimony that its use is not in any way injurious to a healthy animal." Conn, who made a special study of the present attitude of European science toward tuberculosis in cattle, reached the following conclusions: It has been, from the first, thought by some that the use of tuberculin produces a direct injury upon the inoculated animals. This, however, is undoubtedly a mistake, and there is no longer any belief anywhere on the part of scientists that the injury thus produced is worthy of note. In the first place, the idea that it may produce the disease in a perfectly healthy animal by the inoculation is absolutely fallacious. The tuberculin does not contain the tubercle bacillus, and it is absolutely certain that it is impossible to produce a case of tuberculosis in an animal unless the tubercle bacilli are present. The use of tuberculin, therefore, certainly can never produce the disease in the inoculated animal. It has been more widely believed, however, that the inoculation of an animal with this material has a tendency to stimulate an incipient case of tuberculosis. It has been thought that an animal with a very slight case of the disease may, after inoculation, show a very rapid extension of this disease and be speedily brought to a condition where it is beyond any use. The reasons given for this have been the apparent activity of the tuberculosis infection in animals that have been slaughtered shortly after inoculation. This has been claimed, not only by agriculturists who have not understood the subject well, but also by veterinarians and bacteriologists. But here, too, we must recognize that the claim has been disproved, and that there is now a practical unanimity of opinion on the part of all who are best calculated to judge that such an injurious effect does not occur. Even those who have been most pronounced in the claim that there is injury thus resulting from tuberculin have, little by little, modified their claim, until at the present time they say either that the injury which they formerly claimed does not occur or that the stimulus of the disease is so slight that it should be absolutely neglected in view of the great value which may arise from the use of tuberculin. Apart from two or three who hold this very moderate opinion, all bacteriologists and veterinarians unite in agreeing that there is no evidence for believing that any injury results. In Denmark, especially, many hundreds of thousands of animals have been inoculated, and the veterinarians say there is absolutely no reason in all their experience for believing that the tuberculin inoculation is followed by any injurious results. In 1898 tuberculosis was found in the large Shorthorn herd belonging to W. C. Edwards, of Canada, who with commendable promptness and public spirit had his animals tested, and at once proceeded to separate the diseased from the healthy animals. They were all finely bred animals, and of the very class which we have been told are most susceptible to the injurious effects of tuberculin. After using this test regularly for two years, Mr. Edwards wrote as follows: I have seen nothing to lead me to believe that the tuberculin test had any injurious influence on the course of the disease. It is by no means our opinion that the disease has been stimulated or aggravated by the application of the tuberculin test. All animals that we have tested two or three times continue as hale and hearty as they were previously, and not one animal in our herds has broken down or failed in any way since we began testing. Mr. Edwards, in December, 1901, verbally stated that his views as to the harmlessness of tuberculin remained unchanged, and that he had not seen the least ill effect in any of his cattle from its use. Those who have had most experience with tuberculin have failed to observe any injurious effects following its use upon healthy cattle. With tuberculous cattle it produces a fever of short duration, and in the great majority of cases all derangement of the system which it causes disappears within 48 hours after the tuberculin is administered. There appear to have been a very few cases in which the disease was aggravated, and a greater number in which it was benefited by the injection of tuberculin. The cases of abortion following the tuberculin test have not been numerous, even when cows were tested within a few weeks of the normal time of calving. The few cases of this kind which have occurred may be explained by the fact that abortion in cattle is a very common occurrence, and that it would inevitably happen sometimes after the tuberculin test as a mere coincidence and without any relation between the test and the loss of the calf. The cases of abortion which have been cited appear to be no more numerous than might be expected to have occurred among the same number of cattle within the same period if the test had not been applied. At the present time there is ample evidence to show that tuberculin is the most reliable means of detecting tuberculosis in the living animal and that its use is not attended by any harmful aftereffects. An act of Congress was approved July 24, 1919, for the purpose of controlling and eradicating tuberculosis of animals. The official means of detecting tuberculosis in the living animal is the tuberculin test, which may be applied by three different methods--the subcutaneous, the intradermic, and the ophthalmic. It is not necessary to discuss here the details of these three methods, which are made use of in the work of eradication of tuberculosis. The plan adopted by the State and Federal authorities in eradication of the disease is known as "The Accredited-Herd Plan." Under this plan herds are tested under State and Federal supervision, the diseased animals are appraised, removed, and slaughtered under Federal inspection. Retests are then made after definite periods of time until two successive tests show all the animals to be free from the disease. At this time the herd owner is given a certificate of an accredited herd. Details concerning the accredited-herd plan may be obtained by applying to the Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C. THE TUBERCULIN TESTS. Testing animals with tuberculin is the process of introducing tuberculin into the animal and interpreting results according to well-known standards. From the investigations and observations that have been mentioned, it may be safely concluded-- 1. That the tuberculin test is a wonderfully accurate method of determining whether an animal is affected with tuberculosis. 2. That by its use the animals diseased with tuberculosis may be detected and removed from the herd, thereby eradicating the disease. 3. That it has no injurious effect upon healthy cattle. 4. That the comparatively small number of cattle which have aborted, suffered in health, or fallen off in condition after the test were either diseased before it was made or were affected by some cause other than the tuberculin. THE SUBCUTANEOUS TEST (UNDER THE SKIN). The most frequently used method of testing is the subcutaneous test, which consists in injecting the proper quantity of tuberculin underneath the skin into the subcutaneous tissue. If an animal is tuberculous, the action of the tuberculin causes a fever, which is indicated by a rise in temperature. This rise, under ordinary conditions, may occur any time between the eighth and twentieth hours after the tuberculin is injected, but in some cases it is desirable to measure the temperature before the eighth hour and continue to the twenty-fourth hour or longer. The temperatures are measured at least 3 times in advance of the injection, at 2-hour intervals, to learn whether the animal is in proper condition to receive the test. The temperatures after injection are taken every 2 hours until the test is completed. The proper interpretation of the temperatures is made by the person applying the test, and a careful observance of any clinical changes is always important in determining the result. It can not be set forth too strongly that the test, including the two following methods, should be attempted only by those who are properly qualified to do the work. THE INTRADERMIC TEST (INTO THE SKIN). The intradermic test for detecting tuberculosis is used to a considerable extent, especially in area work and on range cattle not easily controlled. When made by those who have become skilled in its application, it is very accurate. In this test the tuberculin is injected between the layers of the skin, only a few drops being used, and it is usually applied in the region at the base of the tail, where the skin is soft and nearly hairless. The intradermic test is satisfactory also for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in swine and, when so used, the tuberculin is applied into the skin of the ear near its base. The reaction from the intradermic test consists of a swelling at the point of injection and is observed from 72 to 150 hours after the injection. The character of the swelling varies, and a proper diagnosis of tuberculosis by this test can be made only by an experienced person. THE OPHTHALMIC TEST (INTO THE EYE). Still another method, known as the ophthalmic test, is used quite frequently and has been found to be of considerable value in what is known as "check" testing; that is, it is used in connection with either of the previously described methods. Sometimes a tuberculous animal that fails to react to those tests shows evidence of the disease upon the application of the ophthalmic test. The ophthalmic tuberculin is placed in one eye and the other eye is used as a check. A reaction is indicated by a characteristic discharge from the eye receiving the treatment, which may occur in from 3 to 10 hours after the application or even later. Some swelling and inflammation of the eye and lids are often noted. TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS. Treatment of the disease is not seriously considered by any authorities at the present time. The measures to be adopted to prevent the spreading of the disease must take into consideration not only the tubercle bacillus, but likewise all those circumstances that make cattle more susceptible to the disease, and which have already been dwelt upon. It would be useless to repeat here all that has been said above on the transmission of tubercle bacilli from one animal to another, and on the dangers of certain debilitating influences. A careful study of these influences will show how tuberculosis may, at least in some cases, be prevented. Great care should be bestowed upon the breeding, the surroundings, and the feed of the animal, so that the latter may be put into a condition to resist infection even when exposed to it. A tuberculin test should be applied to all strange cattle before they are introduced into the herd, and those which show a reaction should be refused. A rigid exclusion of tuberculous animals is all that is necessary to prevent the appearance of the disease, provided cattle are not infected by consumptive persons and animals. The transmission of the disease from man to cattle is probably not frequent, but is regarded as a possible source of infection. Tuberculosis in cattle must also be considered as bearing upon tuberculosis of other domesticated animals, particularly hogs. In Europe and the United States this disease is not uncommon among hogs, and appears to be on the increase. The reason for its existence may be looked for in the feeding of pigs with skim milk, buttermilk, and whey from creameries, with the offal of the abattoirs, with the household refuse generally, and behind tuberculous cattle. If tuberculosis is common among cattle, it is likely to be transmitted to hogs kept in this way. The carcasses of animals which have died of tuberculosis should be buried deeply so that they can not be eaten by other animals. This is likewise true of all organs or tissues of slaughtered animals containing tubercles. These should never be fed to other animals, such as hogs, dogs, and cats, and should either be destroyed by fire or deeply buried. When any of the animals in a herd of cattle show evident symptoms of tuberculosis, or when the tuberculin test proves that they are affected with this disease, the best method of procedure in most cases is to have the affected animals slaughtered and the stables disinfected. A large proportion of the animals which are slightly affected yield carcasses which are perfectly wholesome and fit for human food, but in all such cases there should be an inspection by an expert at the time of slaughter to determine which carcasses may be used and which should be destroyed. The disinfection of stables may be accomplished by thoroughly cleaning them, scrubbing the floors with hot water, brushing down all loose dust from the walls, and tearing off all woodwork which is partly decayed. Then the whole interior of the stable should be covered with a good coat of limewash containing 1 part of formalin (which is a 40 per cent watery solution of formaldehyde) to 30 parts of the lime wash, or 4 ounces of formalin to each gallon of lime wash. Similar precautions should be observed in removing the manure of the infected herd from the barnyard and other places accessible to cattle, since it is known that tuberculous cattle frequently eliminate large numbers of tubercle bacilli through the feces. The ground under the manure pile should then be disinfected, either by the above-mentioned formalin solution or by unslaked lime thickly sprinkled over the soil. If all the animals which react are destroyed and the stables disinfected in this manner, the herd should remain free from the disease unless other affected animals are added to it. The introduction of the disease in this manner may be avoided by requiring a tuberculin test of all new animals admitted on the premises. Unfortunately it is a fact that tuberculous animals which have been tested several times may become so accustomed to tuberculin that they will no longer react; consequently it is always advisable to purchase cattle from some one who is known to be reliable, as otherwise animals of this kind may be treated with tuberculin for the purpose of hiding the disease. In the case of very valuable purebred animals and under exceptional circumstances it may be more advantageous to retain the reacting animals which are in good condition in order to breed from them and in that manner avoid the excessive loss which would follow from their immediate slaughter. This may be done if proper precautions are adopted. The disposal of reactors depends upon the State laws and live-stock regulations of the State in which the herd belongs. If this policy is followed it should be attempted only after careful study of the plan known as the Bang method of controlling tuberculosis. The live-stock officials of the State should be frequently consulted and their advice followed; otherwise failure will surely ensue. The plan necessitates considerable trouble and is not recommended except under the circumstances mentioned. BOVINE TUBERCULOSIS AND THE PUBLIC HEALTH. The increasing amount of evidence pointing to the identity of human and animal tuberculosis, combined with the extraordinary mortality of human beings from this disease, often amounting to 10 to 14 per cent, has raised the question in all civilized countries as to how far animal, and especially bovine, tuberculosis is to blame for this high mortality. The medical and veterinary professions have approached this problem with equal zeal, and much has come to light within recent years which enables us to come to some conclusion. If this disease is transmitted from animals to man, how does the transmission take place? As comparatively few people come in direct contact with tuberculous cattle, it must be either through the meat, the milk, the butter, the cheese, or through all these products that the virus enters the human body. The question has thus narrowed itself down to the food products furnished by cattle. It has become a very urgent question, especially in the poorer countries of Europe, whether all flesh from tuberculous animals is unfit for human food. It is argued there that if it can be shown that in the majority of cases of tuberculosis the bones and the muscular system are free from infection, there is no reason why the meat should not be put on sale under certain restrictions. The question may be resolved into two divisions: (1) How frequently does the disease invade those parts of the body which are used as food? (2) When the disease process is manifestly restricted to the internal organs, do tubercle bacilli circulate in the blood and lymph and can they be detected in the muscular tissue? (1) Disease of the bones is not unknown, although very rare. According to Walley, it appears chiefly in the spongy bones of the head and backbone and in the long bones of the limbs. Occasionally the ends of the bones, where they are covered by the synovial membrane of the joints, are dotted with tubercles. The muscular system itself is very rarely the seat of tuberculous deposits, although the lymphatic glands lying near and among the muscles may be not infrequently diseased. (2) Whether tubercle bacilli are found in muscle juice independent of any tuberculous deposits is a question which must be approached experimentally. There is on record a great variety of opinions on this matter, some authorities considering all flesh from tuberculous animals unfit for food, while others hold a contrary view. Experiments have shown that in rare cases the flesh of tuberculous cattle contains a small number of tubercle bacilli. In Germany the flesh of animals in which the disease is just beginning, or in which it is restricted to one or more related organs, is not rejected. When, however, the disease has affected the muscles or bones, or lymphatic glands situated on or between them, the flesh is condemned as unfit and dangerous. Animals are also rejected in which it is evident, from the general distribution of tubercles throughout the various organs, that the bacilli have been distributed by the blood and may have been carried into the muscular system (generalized tuberculosis). Concerning the infectious nature of milk secreted by tuberculous cows, authorities have universally agreed that when the udder itself is in the slightest degree involved the milk possesses infectious properties, and is therefore dangerous. Tubercle bacilli in large numbers have been found in the milk and the udder under such circumstances. Unlike other affections of the udder, tuberculosis of this organ does not at once change the appearance and the quality of the milk secreted. Bang states that for at least a month after the disease has appeared the milk is normal in appearance and may be consumed and sold without arousing the suspicion of the owner. Considerable danger is, therefore, involved in this disease, and the necessity for the careful inspection of dairy cows seems more urgent than ever. Authorities are, however, not fully agreed as to whether the milk from tuberculous cows in which the udder is apparently not invaded by the disease should be considered dangerous or not. Some incline to the belief that the milk secreted by healthy udders is never infectious, even when the lungs or other organs are affected; that, in other words, the tubercle bacilli are rarely, if ever, separated from the lesions which they produce, and that the udder itself must be diseased before tubercle bacilli can appear in the milk. Experiments made with the milk of tuberculous cows in which there were no indications of udder disease do not bear out this theory, since tubercle bacilli have been found in their milk. Some authorities still believe that the udder is diseased when the milk is infected, but that the disease escapes observation. However this may be, the fact that the udder may be diseased and the disease not recognizable simply casts suspicion upon all milk from tuberculous animals. We know that the milk of tuberculous cattle may or may not contain tubercle bacilli when the udder is apparently free from disease, but we have no rapid method of determining whether in any given case the milk contains tubercle bacilli or not. Moreover, the bacilli may be absent at one time and present at another in milk from the same cow. When we consider, therefore, the extent of tuberculosis and the hidden character of the disease, a certain degree of suspicion rests upon all milk from untested cattle. Fortunately, tubercle bacilli are readily destroyed by the temperature of boiling water, and hence both meat and milk are made safe, the former by the various processes of cooking, the latter by boiling for a few moments. It is incumbent upon all communities to have dairy cows examined and tested with tuberculin. If disease is detected, the affected animal should be killed at once or else all opportunity for the sale of such milk removed by appropriate measures. Where milk or cream is sold to the trade in large towns or cities pasteurization should be required as an additional safeguard. Recently there has been much discussion of the question as to whether human and animal tuberculosis are identical diseases and as to the possibility of the tuberculosis of animals being transmitted to man or that of man being transmitted to animals. The fact that tuberculous material from human subjects often failed to produce serious disease in cattle was observed by a number of the earlier investigators who experimented with such virus. It was the experiments and comparative studies of Theobald Smith, however, which attracted special attention to the difference in virulence shown by tubercle bacilli from human and bovine sources when inoculated upon cattle. Smith mentioned also certain morphological and cultural differences in bacilli from these two sources, and in the location and histology of the lesions in cattle produced by such bacilli. He did not conclude, however, that bovine bacilli could not produce disease in the human subject, but said: It seems to me that, accepting the clinical evidence on hand, bovine tuberculosis may be transmitted to children when the body is overpowered by large numbers of bacilli, as in udder tuberculosis, or when certain unknown favorable conditions exist. Koch, however, in his address at the British Congress on Tuberculosis, went far beyond this and maintained that "human tuberculosis differs from bovine and can not be transmitted to cattle." As to the susceptibility of man to bovine tuberculosis, he said it was not yet absolutely decided, but one was "nevertheless already at liberty to say that, if such a susceptibility really exists, the infection of human beings is but a very rare occurrence." He emphasizes this view in the following language: I should estimate the extent of infection by the milk and flesh of tubercular cattle and the butter made of their milk as hardly greater than that of hereditary transmission, and I therefore do not deem it advisable to take any measures against it. This conclusion was so radically different from the views of most experimenters and so out of harmony with facts which had apparently been demonstrated by others that it at once aroused opposition in the congress, followed by the adoption of dissenting resolutions, and led to numerous investigations in various countries. Koch's conclusions were based upon his failure to produce tuberculosis in cattle and other animals by inoculating them with tuberculous material of human origin and his success in causing progressive and fatal tuberculosis in the same kinds of animals when inoculated with tuberculous material of bovine origin. With such positiveness did he hold to the constant and specific difference between the human and bovine bacillus that he promulgated an experimental method of discriminating between them. Speaking of the etiology of intestinal tuberculosis in man, he said: Hitherto nobody could decide with certainty in such a case whether the tuberculosis of the intestine was of human or of animal origin. Now we can diagnose them. All that is necessary is to cultivate in pure culture the tubercle bacilli found in the tubercular material, and to ascertain whether they belong to bovine tuberculosis by inoculating cattle with them. For this purpose I recommend subcutaneous injection, which yields quite specially characteristic and convincing results. These important and comprehensive conclusions followed from a comparatively few experiments upon animals, and apparently no effort had been made to learn to what extent human tubercle bacilli may differ in their virulence for cattle or what grades of virulence there might be among bacilli of bovine origin. Vagedes had already shown that bacilli were sometimes present in human lesions which were as virulent as bovine bacilli, but his work was wholly ignored by Koch. A considerable number of investigators, including Chauveau, Vagedes, Ravenel, De Schweinitz, Mohler, De Jong, Delépine, Orth, Stenström, Fibiger and Jensen, Max Wolff, Nocard, Arloing, Behring, Dean and Todd, Hamilton and Young, the German Tuberculosis Commission, and Theobald Smith, have found tubercle bacilli in the bodies of human beings who died of tuberculosis which proved to have about the same virulence for cattle as had the bacilli from bovine animals affected by the disease. Kossel, in a preliminary report, stated that the German commission had tested 7 cultures of tuberculosis from cattle and hogs--4 from cattle and 3 from hogs. Two proved acutely fatal in cattle after eight to nine weeks; 4 likewise produced a generalized tuberculosis, but which certainly had a more chronic course, while 1 of the cultures caused only an infiltration at the point of inoculation, with some caseous foci in the adjoining prescapular gland and in one of the mediastinal glands, and there was lacking the spreading of the tuberculosis over the entire body which they were accustomed to see after the injection of cultures of bovine tuberculosis. "Hence," says Kossel, "among bovine tuberculosis bacilli there can also occur differences with regard to the virulence." The German commission also tested 39 different freshly made cultures from tuberculous disease in man. Nineteen did not produce the slightest symptoms in cattle; with 9 others the cattle exhibited after four months very minute foci in the prescapular glands, which were mostly encapsuled and showed no inclination to progress; with 7 other cases there was somewhat more marked disease of the prescapular glands, but it did not go so far as a material spreading of the process to the adjoining glands. There were 4 cultures, however, which were more virulent and caused generalized tuberculosis in the cattle inoculated with them. It would appear, therefore, that hereafter everyone must admit that it is impossible always to tell the source of a culture of the tubercle bacillus by its effect when it is inoculated upon cattle. One of the bovine cultures failed to produce generalized tuberculosis in cattle, and some of the human cultures did produce it in such animals. Moreover, while some of the human cultures caused no disease at all, others led to the development of minute foci in the prescapular glands, and still others to somewhat more marked disease of the glands. There were, consequently, four degrees of virulence noted in these 39 cultures of bacilli from human sources and three degrees of virulence in the 7 cultures from animal. Now, if we accept the views of Koch as to the specific difference between human and bovine tubercle bacilli, and that the human bacilli produce only localized lesions in cattle, while bovine bacilli produce generalized lesions in them, must we not conclude that the one non-virulent bovine culture was in reality of human origin, and that the animal from which it was obtained had been infected from man? This is a logical deduction, but reverses the dictum laid down at London that human tuberculosis is not transmissible to cattle. Again, how are we to explain the human cultures of medium virulence? Are they human bacilli which, for some unknown reason, are increasing in virulence and approaching the activity of the bovine bacillus, or are they really bovine bacilli which have multiplied in the human body until their virulence has become attenuated? In whatever manner these questions are decided it would seem that the findings of the German commission, instead of supporting Koch's views that we can decide with certainty by the inoculation of cattle as to the source of any given bacillus, really show that this method of diagnosis is extremely uncertain in the present condition of our knowledge. It is definitely admitted that 4 of the human cultures caused generalized tuberculosis in cattle; Kossel suggest, however, that it may be possible that the bacilli in cases of human tuberculosis under certain circumstances can likewise attain a very high pathogenic activity for cattle without being for that reason bovine bacilli. Undoubtedly the German commission is confronting the two horns of a dilemma, either one of which is fatal to the views of Koch as stated with such positiveness at London. If we accept this suggestion thrown out by Kossel, we must conclude that Koch was wrong in his claim that human tuberculosis can not be transmitted to cattle, and thus with one blow we destroy the entire experimental support which he had for his argument before the British Congress on Tuberculosis. If, on the other hand, we accept the conclusion which follows from the principle laid down by Koch for the discrimination between human and bovine bacilli, and which appears to be favored by Kossel, we must admit that bovine tuberculosis is an extremely important factor in the etiology of human tuberculosis. Of the 39 cases of human tuberculosis tested, 4, or more than 10 per cent, were virulent for cattle and would be classified as of bovine origin; however, these 4 cases, were all found among the 16 cases of tuberculosis in children which the commission investigated; hence it is plain that 25 per cent of the cases tested of tuberculosis in children would by Koch's method be classified as of bovine origin. In the Bureau of Animal Industry two distinct lines of experiments have been carried on, in order that one might serve as a check against the other. There has been, however, no discrepancy in the results. De Schweinitz, in the Biochemic Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, isolated 9 cultures from human tuberculosis. Two were derived from human sputum, 3 from cases of generalized tuberculosis in adults, and 4 from cases of generalized tuberculosis in children. By comparing these cultures with a newly isolated virulent culture of bovine tuberculosis, there were found among them 2 cultures from children which were identical in their cultural and morphological characters with the bovine bacillus. These cultures also killed rabbits and guinea pigs in as short a time as did the bovine bacillus. Hogs which were inoculated subcutaneously with these 2 cultures from children died of generalized tuberculosis. Two calves weighing more than 300 pounds each were inoculated subcutaneously with these virulent human cultures, and as a result developed generalized tuberculosis. A yearling heifer inoculated with 1 of the cultures showed generalized tuberculosis when killed three months after inoculation. Both the cattle and the hogs had been tested with tuberculin and found to be free from tuberculosis before the inoculations were made. It is important to observe in this connection that 2 out of 4, or 50 per cent, of the cultures obtained from cases of generalized tuberculosis in children proved virulent for cattle. Mohler, working in the Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, obtained 3 very virulent cultures of tubercle bacilli from the human subject. A goat inoculated subcutaneously with 1 of these cultures died in 37 days with miliary tuberculosis of the lungs involving the axillary and prescapular glands. This bacillus was obtained from the mesenteric gland of a boy. Of still greater interest is a bacillus isolated by Mohler from human sputum. A goat inoculated subcutaneously with a culture of this germ died in 95 days of pulmonary tuberculosis. A cat inoculated in the same manner died in 23 days of generalized tuberculosis. A rabbit similarly inoculated died in 59 days of pulmonary tuberculosis. Another rabbit inoculated with a bovine culture for comparison lived 10 days longer than the one inoculated with this sputum germ. Mohler also inoculated subcutaneously a 1-year-old heifer with a culture derived from the tuberculosis mesenteric gland of a boy 4 years of age. This culture was always refractory in its growth under artificial conditions, and the bacilli were short, stubby rods, corresponding in appearance to the bovine type. At the autopsy, held 127 days after the inoculation, the general condition was seen to be poor and unthrifty, and large, hard tumors were found at the points of inoculation. On the right side the swelling measured 3-1/2 by 5 inches, and the corresponding lymph gland was 2-3/4 inches long by 1-3/4 inches in diameter. This gland contained numerous calcareous foci; one at the apex was an inch in diameter. The lesions on the left shoulder of the animal were very similar to those found on the right side, but the dimensions of the tumor were slightly less. The lungs presented an irregular mass of tuberculous nodules, and 7 or 8 grapelike nodules were seen on the parietal pleura. Bronchial and mediastinal lymph glands contained numerous tuberculous foci, and the pericardium, peritoneum, spleen, and liver also were affected. In order to throw some light, if possible, upon the morphological constancy of the different types of tubercle bacilli, Mohler made comparative studies of bacilli from various sources, and which had been passed through various species of animals, by making the cultures upon dog serum after the method described by Theobald Smith. Some important results have been obtained. One culture of human bacilli which had morphological and cultural peculiarities similar to those of the bovine bacillus, and which produced only local lesions in cattle, was passed through a series of five cats. It was then found to be completely changed in its morphological characters, the rods being elongated, slender, more or less beaded, and entirely of the human type. Far from decreasing in virulence, however, as might be expected from its morphological appearance, this bacillus had so increased in its pathogenic activity that it produced generalized tuberculosis in a cow. This cow was inoculated subcutaneously in front of each shoulder with 2 cubic centimeters of a salt-solution emulsion of the tuberculous omentum of the last cat of the series. The cow rapidly lost flesh, had a temperature of 104° F., with the point of inoculation and adjacent glands greatly swollen. The autopsy revealed generalized tuberculosis, involving the lungs, mediastinal glands, spleen, liver, and kidneys. Tubercle bacilli of the bovine type obtained from the mesenteric glands of a sheep, hog, and cow were similarly transformed in their morphological appearance after being passed through a series of cats and recovered on dog serum. These bacilli also increased in virulence, as the last cat in the series invariably succumbed in a shorter time than the first of the series. These experiments and observations indicate that the types of tubercle bacilli are very inconstant, and that under suitable conditions they readily change both in morphology and in virulence. A similar conclusion was reached by other investigators in working with the avian and porcine types of tubercle bacilli several years ago, and was reasonably to have been expected with the human and bovine types. Later investigations made by Park and Krumweide, of the Research Laboratory of New York City, Novick, Richard M. Smith, Ravenel, Rosenau, Chung Yik Wang, and others tend to show the incidence of bovine infection in the human family. Chung Yik Wang stated in 1917 that studies of 281 cases of various clinical forms of tuberculosis in Edinburgh, Scotland, resulted in the isolation of the bovine tubercle bacilli in 78.4 per cent of cases under the age of 5 years, in 70.3 per cent between the ages of 5 and 16, and in 7.8 per cent over the age of 16. This investigator states that from the prophylactic point of view any measure resorted to in combating the disease should be directed not only against the human spread of infection, but also, more particularly in children's cases, against the bovine source of infection. Ravenel, in summarizing the work of Drs. Park and Krumweide, as well as others throughout the world, gives the following results: Of 63 children dying of tuberculosis at the babies' hospital 59 cases proved to be human infection and 4 bovine, a percentage of 6-1/3. Of 9 children dying of tuberculosis at the foundling hospital 4 proved to have derived their infection from human sources and 5 from bovine, a percentage of 55. Of a total of 88 children under 5 years of age who died of tuberculosis 77 proved to have derived their infection from human sources and 11 from bovine, a percentage of 12-1/2. Combining the cases studied in New York with those of other observers in different parts of this country and Europe, the following results are obtained: Adults, 787 cases--777 human and 10 bovine infection. Children, 5 to 16 years, 153 cases--117 human and 36 bovine infection. Children under 5 years, 280 cases--215 human and 65 bovine infection. The figures of the foundling hospital show the real danger of unprotected cows' milk. The conclusion from these studies is inevitable, namely, that in children, in addition to the large number of deaths which occur from bovine infection, there are many cases of infection resulting in deformities, necessitating operations more or less severe in character and which frequently leave the patient disfigured permanently. It must be plain to all, from these recent developments, that too much has been made of the slight differences in cultural characteristics, in morphology, and in virulence which have been observed in some cases in comparing the human and the bovine bacilli. The observations were interesting, and it was important that they be followed up until their significance was made entirely clear, but it was an almost unpardonable error, from a sanitary point of view, to promulgate sweeping generalizations calculated to arrest and abolish important measures for preventing human tuberculosis before the soundness of these generalizations had been established by a thorough course of experimentation. When Koch said in the British Congress on Tuberculosis that he should estimate the extent of infection by the milk and flesh of tuberculous cattle and the butter made of their milk as hardly greater than that of hereditary transmission, and that he therefore did not deem it advisable to take any measures against it, he went far beyond what was justified by any experiments or observations which he reported, and he did a great deal of harm, which will be manifested for years to come, to those who endeavor to guard the human race from the dangers of animal tuberculosis. The researches which have been alluded to make these dangers more definite and certain than they have appeared before, and sanitarians should therefore most earnestly endeavor to counteract the erroneous and harmful impression which was made by Koch's address at London and his subsequent address at the International Conference on Tuberculosis at Berlin. VACCINIA OR COWPOX. Variola of cattle, more correctly vaccinia, is a contagious disease of cattle which manifests its presence through an elevation of temperature, a shrinkage in milk production, and by the appearance of characteristic, pustular eruptions, especially upon the teats and udders of dairy cows. Although this is a contagious disease, strictly speaking, it is so universally harmless and benign in its course that it is robbed of the terrors which usually accompany all spreading diseases, and is allowed to enter a herd of cattle, run its course, and disappear without exciting any particular notice. The contagion of cowpox does not travel through the air from animal to animal, but is transfused only by actual contact of the contagious principle with the skin of some susceptible animal. It may be carried in this manner, not alone from cattle to cattle, but horses, sheep, goats, and man may readily contract the disease whenever suitable conditions attend their inoculation. An identical disease frequently appears upon horses, attacking their heels, and thence extending upward along the leg, producing, as it progresses, inflammation and swelling of the skin, followed later by pustules, which soon rupture, discharging a sticky, disagreeable secretion. Other parts of the body are frequently affected in like manner, especially in the region of the head, where the eruptions may appear upon lips and nostrils, or upon the mucous surfaces of the nasal cavities, mouth, or eyes. Variola of the horse is readily transmitted to cattle, if both are cared for by the same attendant, and, conversely, variola of cattle may be carried from the cow to the horse on the hands of a person who has been milking a cow affected with the disease. The method of vaccination with material derived from the eruptions of cowpox as a safeguard against the ravages of smallpox in members of the human family is well known. The immunity which such vaccination confers upon the human subject has led many writers to assert that cowpox is simply a modified form of smallpox, whose harmless attack upon the human system is owing to a certain attenuation derived during its passages through the system of the cow or horse. The results of numerous experiments which have been carried out for the purpose of determining the relationship existing between variola of the human and bovine families seem to show, however, that although possessing many similar characteristics, they are nevertheless distinct, and that in spite of repeated inoculations from cattle to man, and vice versa, no transformation in the real character of the disease ever takes place. _Symptoms._--The disease appears in four to seven days after natural infection, or may evince itself in two or three days as the result of artificial inoculation. Young milch cows are most susceptible to an attack, but older cows, bulls, or young cattle are by no means immune. The attack causes a slight rise in temperature, which is soon followed by the appearance of reddened, inflamed areas, principally upon the teats and udder, and at times on the abdominal skin or the skin of the inner surface of the thighs. In a few cases the skin of the throat and jaws has been found similarly involved. If the affected parts are examined on the second day after the establishment of the inflammation numerous pale-red nodules will be found, which gradually expand until, within a few days, they reach a diameter of one-half inch or even larger. At this period the tops of the nodules become transformed into vesicles which are depressed in the center and contain a pale, serous fluid. They usually reach their maturity by the tenth day of the course of the disease and are then the size of a bean. From this time the contents of the vesicles become purulent, which requires about three days, when the typical pox pustule is present, consisting of a swelling with broad, reddened base, within which is an elevated, conical abscess varying from the size of a pea to that of a hazelnut. The course of the disease after the full maturity of the pustule is rapid if outside interference has not caused a premature rupture of the small abscess at the apex of the swelling. The pustules gradually become darker colored and drier until nothing remains but a thick scab, which at last falls off, leaving only a slight, whitish scar behind. The total duration of the disease covers some 20 days in each animal, and owing to the slow spread of the infection from animal to animal, many weeks may elapse before a stable can be fully freed from it. The fallen scabs and crusts may retain their contagious properties for several days when mixed with litter and bedding upon the floor of the stable, and at any time during this period they are capable of producing new outbreaks should fresh cattle be brought into the stalls and thus come into actual contact with them. Again, the pustules may appear, one after another, on a single animal, in which case the duration of the disease is materially lengthened. _Treatment._--In herds of cattle that regularly receive careful handling, no special treatment will be found necessary beyond the application of softening and disinfecting agents to such vesicles upon the teats as may have become ruptured by the hands of the milker. Carbolized vaseline or iodoform ointment will be found well suited to this work. In more persistent cases it may be found desirable to use a milking tube in order to prevent the repeated opening of the pustules during the operation of milking. Washing the sores twice daily with a weak solution of zinc chlorid (2-1/2 per cent solution) has been found to assist in checking the inflammation and to cleanse and heal the parts by its germicidal action. When the udder is hard, swollen, and painful, support it by a bandage and foment frequently with hot water. If calves are allowed to suckle the cows the pustules become confluent, and the ulcerations may extend up into the teat, causing garget and ruining the whole quarter of the udder. As young cows are most susceptible to variola, the milker must exercise constant patience with these affected animals so long as their teats or udders are sore and tender, else the patient may contract vicious habits while resisting painful handling. The flow of milk is usually lessened as soon as the fever becomes established, but is again normal with the return of perfect health. The practice of thorough cleanliness in handling or milking affected cattle may, in many instances, prevent the dissemination of the trouble among the healthy portion of the herd, but even the greatest care may prove insufficient to check the spread until it has attacked each animal of the herd in turn. ACTINOMYCOSIS (LUMPY JAW) [Pls. XXXIX-XLI.] Actinomycosis, also known as lumpy jaw, big jaw, wooden tongue, etc., is a chronic infectious disease characterized by the formation of peculiar tumors in various regions of the body, more particularly the head, and is due to the specific action of a certain fungus-like germ (actinomyces). This fungus is an organism which occurs in the tissues in the form of rosettes, and it has therefore been termed the "ray fungus." The disease is not directly transmitted from one animal to another, but it seems apparent that the fungus is conveyed into the tissues by various feedstuffs through slight wounds of the mucous membrane of the mouth, decayed teeth, or during the shedding of milk teeth. The ray fungus is found in nature vegetated on grasses, on the awns of barley, the spears of oats, and on other grains. Quantities of the fungi have been found between the vegetable fibers of barley which had penetrated the gums of cattle and on the awns of grain embedded in the tongues of cows. Although actinomycotic tumors on cattle had been the object of study for many years, it was not until 1877 that the constant presence of actinomyces was pointed out by Bollinger, of Munich, and since that time considered the cause. This fungus was observed in these tumors as early as 1860 by Rivolta, and by others subsequently, without having been suspected as causing them. Since Bollinger's publication much work has been done, many observations made, and many hitherto obscure disease processes brought into relation with this fungus. Furthermore, a similar disease in man was first definitely shown to be associated with the same fungus in 1878 by Israel, and in the following year Ponfick pointed out that the disease described by Bollinger in animals and that found by Israel in man were due to the same cause; that is, that the fungi described by these observers were one and the same. The tumors and abscesses wherever they may be are all found to be the same in origin by the presence of the actinomyces fungus. When they are incised, a very close scrutiny with the naked eye, or, at most, a hand lens, will reveal the presence of minute grains which vary from a pale-yellow to a sulphur-yellow color. They may be very abundant or so few as to be overlooked. They are embedded in the soft tissue composing the tumor or in the pus of the abscess. With a needle they are easily lifted out from the tissue, and then they appear as roundish masses about one-half millimeter (1/50 inch) in diameter. To anyone familiar with the use of a microscope the recognition of these grains or particles without any previous preparation is a comparatively easy task. When examined in the fresh condition under a microscope magnifying up to 250 diameters the general structure is made out without much difficulty. These grains consist of collections of minute, roundish masses. Their outer surface is made up of club-shaped bodies all radiating from the center of the mass (see Pl. XXXIX, fig. 2), somewhat like a rosette. If the fungus is crushed, the interior is found made up of bundles of very fine filaments, which are probably continuous into the club-shaped bodies. The addition of a dilute solution of caustic soda or potash greatly aids the examination, as it removes the layer of cells adhering to the fungus, which obscures the structure. Now and then these grains are found to be in a calcified condition. The exterior is incrusted in lime salts, which are dissolved by adding some weak dilute acid, like acetic acid. Only by this procedure can the fungus be definitely recognized when in a mummified condition. These are the bodies whose presence causes sufficient irritation in the tissues into which they find their way to set up inflammatory growths. These growths increase as the fungus continues to multiply until they reach enormous dimensions, if the affected animal is permitted to live long enough. The true nature of this parasite is not yet definitely settled, although many excellent observers have occupied themselves with it. According to earlier observers, it is a true fungus. Later ones are inclined to place it among the higher bacteria. Present knowledge concerning the actinomyces growth indicates that it should be classified with the higher bacteria or trichomycetes. Whatever the situation of the disease caused by actinomyces may be, its nature is fundamentally the same and peculiar to the fungus. The pathological details which make this statement clear can not be entered upon in this place, nor would they be of any practical value to the farmer. We will simply dwell upon a few obvious characters. The consistency of the tumor varies in different situations according to the quantity of fibrous or connective tissue present. When very little of this is present the tumor is of a very soft consistency. As the quantity of connective tissue is increased the tumor is firmer and of a more honeycombed appearance. The individual actinomyces colonies are lodged in the spaces or interstices formed by the meshwork of the connective tissue. There they are surrounded by a mantle of cellular elements which fill up the spaces. By scraping the cut surface of such a tumor these cell masses inclosing the fungi come away, and the latter may be seen as pale-yellow or sulphur-yellow specks, as described above. _Location of the disease._--In cattle the disease process may be located both externally, where it is readily detected, and in internal organs. Its preferred seat is on the bones of the lower and upper jaws, in the parotid salivary gland in the angle of the jaw, and in the region of the throat. It may also appear under the skin in different parts of the body. Internally it may attack the tongue and appear in the form of a tumor in the mouth, pharynx, or larynx. It may cause extensive disease of the lungs, more rarely of the digestive tract. It appears, furthermore, that in certain districts or countries the disease seems by preference to attack certain parts. Thus in England actinomycosis of the tongue is most prevalent. In Denmark the soft parts of the head are most prone to disease, while in Russia the lips are the usual seat. In certain parts of Germany actinomycotic tumors are most frequently encountered in the throat region and in the jawbones. A description of actinomycosis of the jaw (lumpy jaw) and of the tongue has already been given in a previous chapter, and hence they will be dealt with here only very briefly. When the disease attacks the soft parts of the head a rather firm swelling appears, in which are formed one or more smaller projecting tumors, varying from the size of a nut to that of an egg. These push their way outward and finally break through the skin as small, reddish, funguslike bodies covered with thin sloughs. Or the original swelling, in place of enlarging in the manner described, may become transformed into an abscess which finally bursts to discharge creamy pus. The abscess cavity, however, does not disappear, but is soon filled with fungus-like growths, which force their way outward through the opening. When the tumors are situated within the cavity of the pharynx they have broken through from some gland, perhaps beneath the mucous membrane, where the disease first appeared, and hang or project into the cavity of the pharynx, either as pendulous masses with slender stems or as tumors with broad bases. Their position may be such as to interfere with swallowing and with breathing. In either case serious symptoms will soon appear. The invasion of the bones of the jaws by actinomycosis must be regarded as one of the most serious forms of the disease. (Pls. XXXIX, XL.) It may start in the marrow of the bone and by a slow extension gradually undermine the entire thickness of the bone itself. The growth may continue outward, and after working its way through muscle and skin finally break through and appear externally as stinking fungoid growths. The growth may at the same time work its way inward and appear in the mouth. The disease may also begin in the periosteum, or covering of the bone, and destroy the bone from without inward. Actinomycosis of the lungs is occasionally observed, and it is not improbable that at times it has been mistaken for tuberculosis. The actinomyces grains are, however, easily observed if the diseased tissue is carefully examined. The changes in the lungs as they appear to the naked eye vary considerably from case to case. Thus in one animal the lungs were affected as in ordinary bronchopneumonia as to the location, extent, and appearance of the disease process. The affected lobes had a dark-red flesh appearance, with yellowish areas sprinkled in here and there. (See Pl. XLI, figs. 1, 2.) These latter areas were the seat of multiplication of the actinomyces fungus. In another case, of which only a small portion of the lungs was sent to the laboratory, they were completely transformed into a uniformly grayish mass, very soft and pulpy to the touch, and appearing like very soft and moist dough. (Pl. XLI, fig. 3.) The actinomyces grains were exceedingly abundant in this tissue, and appeared when the tissue was incised as minute sulphur-yellow grains, densely sprinkled through the tissue, which readily came away and adhered to the knife blade. In still another case a portion of the lung tissue was converted into large, soft masses from 1 to 3 inches in diameter, each partly inclosed in very dense connective tissue. These soft, grayish-yellow masses likewise resembled moist dough in their consistency, and the actinomyces grains, though neither very distinct nor at all abundant, were easily fished out and identified as such. A portion of this growth, which was as large as a child's head, was converted into an abscess filled with creamy semiliquid pus. This case differed from the preceding in that all appearance of lung tissue had disappeared from the diseased mass. Only on the exterior the lung tissue could be recognized, although even there it had been largely converted into very dense, whitish connective tissue inclosing the fungoid growth. In the other case the external form of the lung and the shape and outline of the lobules were preserved, but the lung tissue itself was not recognizable as such. In the case first mentioned the changes were still less marked, and actinomycosis would not have been suspected by a simple inspection. These few illustrations suffice to show that actinomycosis of the lungs may appear under quite different forms, and that the nature of the disease can be accurately determined only by finding the fungus itself. Rarely actinomycosis attacks the body externally in places other than the head and neck. Crookshank describes the case of a bull in which the flank was attacked and subsequently the scrotum became diseased. A large portion of the skin of the flank was destroyed and covered with a leathery crust. When this was pulled away the pus beneath it showed the actinomyces grains to the naked eye. Actinomycosis may also involve the udder, the spermatic cord of castrated animals, the vagina, and, when it becomes generalized, the brain, liver, spleen, and muscular tissue. Actinomycosis may in some cases be confounded with tuberculosis. The diagnosis does not offer any difficulties, since the presence of the actinomyces fungus at once removes any existing doubts. As has already been intimated, these grains, simulating sulphur balls, are visible to the naked eye, and their nature is readily determined with the aid of a microscope. The course of the disease is quite slow. As the tumors grow they may interfere with the natural functions of the body. According to their situation, mastication, rumination, or breathing may be interfered with, and in this way the animal may become emaciated. Actinomycosis of the jawbones leads to destruction of the teeth and impedes the movements necessary to chewing the feed. Similarly, when the disease attacks the soft parts of the head obstructions may arise in the mouth by an inward growth of the tumor. If tumors exist in the pharynx they may partially obstruct the movements necessary to breathing, or close the air passages and cause partial suffocation. Actinomycosis of the tongue, in interfering with the many and varied movements of this important organ, is also a serious matter. There is no reason to suppose that the localized disease interferes with the general health in any other way than indirectly until internal organs, such as the lungs, become involved. A very small proportion of the cases may recover spontaneously, the tumors being encysted or undergoing calcification. In most cases the disease yields readily to proper treatment, and about 75 per cent of the affected animals may be cured. _Prevention._--The question as to how and where animals take this disease is one concerning which we are still in the stage of conjecture, because so far we possess very little information concerning the life history of the actinomyces itself. The quite unanimous view of all observers is that animals become infected from the feed. The fungus is lodged upon the plants and in some way enters the tissues of the head, the lungs, and the digestive tract, where it sets up its peculiar activity. It is likewise generally believed that the fungus is, as it were, inoculated into the affected part. This inoculation is performed by the sharp and pointed parts of plants which penetrate the mucous membrane and carry the fungus with them. The disease is therefore inoculable rather than contagious. The mere presence of the diseased animal will not give rise to disease in healthy animals unless the actinomyces grains pass directly from the diseased into some wound or abrasion of the healthy or else drop upon the feed which is consumed by the healthy. Not only are these views deducible from clinical observation, but they have been proved by the positive inoculation of calves and smaller animals with actinomyces. The danger therefore of the presence of actinomyces for healthy animals is a limited one. Nevertheless an animal affected with this disease should not be allowed to go at large or run with other animals. If the fungus is being scattered by discharging growths we certainly can not state at this stage of our knowledge that other animals may not be infected by such distribution, and we must assume, until more positive information is at hand, that this actually occurs. It is, however, the opinion of the majority of authorities that when actinomycosis appears among a large number of animals they all contract it in the same way from the feed. Much speculation has therefore arisen whether any particular plant or group of plants is the source of the infection and whether any special condition of the soil favors it. Very little positive information is at hand on these questions. It would be very desirable for those who live in localities where this disease is prevalent to make statistical and other observations on the occurrence of the disease with reference to the season of the year, the kind of feed, the nature of the soil (whether swampy or dry, recently reclaimed, or cultivated for a long time) upon which the animals are pastured or upon which the feed is grown. It is highly probable that such investigations will lead to an understanding of the source of the fungus and the means for checking the spread of the disease itself. Veterinarian Jensen, of Denmark, made some observations upon an extensive outbreak of actinomycosis a number of years ago which led him to infer that the animals were inoculated by eating barley straw harvested from pieces of ground just reclaimed from the sea. While the animals remained unaffected so long as they pastured on this ground or ate the hay obtained from it, they became diseased after eating the straw of cereals from the same territory. Others have found that cattle grazing upon low pastures along the banks of streams and subject to inundations are more prone to the disease. It has also been observed that feed gathered from such grounds, even after prolonged drying, may give rise to the disease. Actinomycosis is not infrequent in cattle in the Southwest and is generally supposed to be the result of eating the prickly fruit of the cactus plant, causing wounds of the mucous membrane and subsequent infection with the parasite. Much additional information of a similar kind must be forthcoming before the source and manner of infection in this disease and its dependence upon external conditions will be known. It is not at all improbable that they may vary considerably from place to place. _Treatment._--Until recently this has been almost entirely surgical. When the tumors are external and attached to soft parts only, an early removal may lead to recovery. This, of course, can be undertaken only by a trained veterinarian, especially as the various parts of the head and neck contain important vessels, nerves, and ducts which should be injured as little as possible in any operation. Unless the tumor is completely removed it will reappear. Disease of the jawbones is at best a very serious matter and treatment is liable to be of no avail. In March, 1892, an important contribution to our knowledge of this subject was made by Nocard, of the Alfort Veterinary School, in a communication to the French Central Society of Veterinary Medicine. He showed clearly that the actinomycosis of the tongue, a disease which appears to be quite common in Germany, and is there known as "wooden tongue," could be quickly and permanently cured by the administration of iodid of potassium. Nocard calls attention to the success of Thomassen, of Utrecht, who recommended this treatment so long ago as 1885, and who has since treated more than 80 cases, all of which have been cured. A French veterinarian, Godbille, has used the same remedy in a number of cases of actinomycosis in the tongue, all of which have been cured. Nocard also gives details of a case which was cured by himself. All the cases referred to were of actinomycosis of the tongue, and no one appears to have attempted the cure of actinomycosis of the jaw until it was undertaken by Nörgaard, of the Bureau of Animal Industry. In April, 1892, he selected a young steer in fair condition which had a tumor on the jaw measuring 15-1/2 inches in circumference and from which a discharge had already been established. This animal was treated with iodid of potassium, and the result was a complete cure. The iodid of potassium is given in doses of 1-1/2 and 2-1/2 drams once a day, dissolved in water, and administered as a drench. The dose should vary somewhat with the size of the animal and with the effects that are produced. If the dose is sufficiently large signs of iodism appear in the course of a week or 10 days. The skin becomes scurfy, there is weeping from the eyes, catarrh of the nose, and loss of appetite. When these symptoms appear the medicine may be suspended for a few days and afterward resumed in the same dose. The cure requires from three to six weeks' treatment. Some animals, generally the ones which show no signs of iodism, do not improve under treatment with iodid of potassium. If there is no sign of improvement after the animals have been treated four or five weeks, and the medicine has been given in as large doses as appear desirable, it is an indication that the particular animal is not susceptible to the curative effects of the drug, and the treatment may therefore be abandoned. It is not, however, advisable to administer iodid of potassium to milch cows, as it will considerably reduce the milk secretion or stop it altogether. Furthermore, a great part of the drug is excreted through the milk, making the milk unfit for use. It should not be given to animals in advanced pregnancy, as there is danger of producing abortion. The best results are obtained by pushing the drug until its effect is seen. The many tests to which this treatment has been subjected have proved, with few exceptions, its specific curative value. In addition to this the tumor should be painted externally with either the tincture of iodin or Lugol's solution, or the drug should be injected subcutaneously into the tumor. Godbille has given as much as 4 drams of potassium iodid in one day to a steer, decreasing the dose one-fourth dram each day until the dose was 1-1/4 drams, which was maintained until the twelfth day of treatment, when the animal appeared to be entirely cured. Nocard gave the first day 1-1/2 drams in one dose to a cow; the second and succeeding days a dose of 1 dram in the morning and evening, in each case before feeding. This treatment was continued for 10 days, when the animal was cured. _Actinomycosis and the public health._--The interest which is shown concerning this cattle disease is largely due to the fact that the same disease attacks human beings. Its slow progress, its tendency to remain restricted to certain localities, and the absence of any directly contagious properties have thus far not aroused any anxiety in other countries as to its influence on the cattle industry, not even to the point of placing it among the infectious diseases of which statistics are annually published. Its possible bearing on public health has, however, given the disease a place in the public mind which it hardly deserves. It has already been stated that the actinomyces fungus found in human disease is considered by authorities the same as that occurring in bovine affections. It is therefore of interest to conclude this article with a brief discussion of the disease in man and its relation to actinomycosis in cattle. In man the location of the disease process corresponds fairly well to that in cattle. The majority of cases which have been reported in different parts of the world--and they are now rather numerous--indicate disease of the face. The skin, tongue, or the jawbones may become affected, and by a very slow process it may extend downward upon the neck and even into the cavity of the chest. In many cases the teeth have been found in a state of more or less advanced decay and ulceration. In a few cases disease of the lungs was observed without coexisting disease of the bones or soft parts of the head. In such cases the fungus must have been inhaled. The disease of the lungs after a time extends upon the chest wall, where it may corrode the ribs and work its way through the muscles and the skin. An abscess is thus formed discharging pus containing actinomyces grains. Disease of the digestive organs caused by this fungus has also been observed in a few instances. Granting the identity of the disease in man and cattle, the question has been raised whether cattle are responsible for its occurrence in man. Any transmission of the infectious agent may be conceived of as taking place during the life of the animal and from the meat after slaughter. That human beings have contracted actinomycosis by coming in contact with diseased cattle is not shown by the cases that have been reported, for the occupations of most of the patients did not bring them into any relation whatever with cattle. While the possibility of such direct transmission is not denied, nevertheless it must be considered as extremely remote. Practically the same position is maintained at present by most authorities as regards the transmission of the disease to man by eating meat. Israel, who has studied this question carefully, found the disease in Jews who never ate pork,[5] and who likewise were protected from bovine actinomycosis by the rigorous meat inspection practiced by that race. Furthermore, it must be borne in mind that actinomycosis is a local disease, causing great destruction of tissue where the fungus multiplies, but which very rarely becomes generally disseminated over the body from the original disease focus. The fungus is found only in places where the disease process is manifest to the eye or becomes so in a very short time after the lodgment of the fungus. Only the greatest negligence would allow the actually diseased parts to be sold and consumed. Finally, this parasite, like all others, would be destroyed in the process of cooking. Most authorities thus do not believe that actinomycosis in man is directly traceable to the disease in animals, but are of the opinion that both man and animals are infected from a third source, which has already been discussed above. How far these views may be modified by further and more telling investigations of the parasite fungus itself no one can predict. There are still wide gaps in our knowledge, and the presentation above simply summarizes the prevailing views, from which there are dissenters, of course. An attempt to give the views of both sides on this question would necessitate the summarizing and impartial discussion of all the experiments thus far made--a task entirely beyond the scope of the present work. Whether an animal affected with actinomycosis should be used for human food after all diseased organs and tissues have been thoroughly removed is a question the answer to which depends on a variety of circumstances. Among these may be mentioned the thoroughness of the meat inspection itself, the extent of the disease, and the general condition of the animal affected. The Federal meat-inspection regulations require that carcasses of animals showing generalized actinomycosis shall be condemned. If carcasses are in a well-nourished condition, showing uncomplicated localized lesions of actinomycosis, they may be passed after the infected organs or parts have been removed and condemned. When the disease of the jaw is slight, strictly localized, and without pus formation, fistulous tracts, or lymph-gland involvement, the tongue, if free from disease, may be passed. The heads affected with actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), including the tongue, shall be condemned, except that when the lesions in the jaw are strictly localized and slight in extent, the tongue may be passed, if free from disease. ANTHRAX. Anthrax or charbon may be defined as an infectious disease which is caused by specific bacteria, known as anthrax bacilli, and which is more or less restricted by conditions of soil and moisture to definite geographical localities. While it is chiefly limited to cattle and sheep, it may be transmitted to goats, horses, cats, and certain kinds of game. Smaller animals, such as mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs, speedily succumb to inoculation. Dogs and hogs are slightly susceptible, while fowls are practically immune. The variety of domesticated animals which it may attack renders it one of the most dreaded scourges of animal life. It may even attack man. Of this more will be stated further on. * * * * * ACTINOMYCOSIS (LUMPY JAW). DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XXXIX. Actinomycosis. (From Jöhne's Encyklopädie d. gesammt. Thierheilkunde.) Fig. 1. Actinomycosis of the jaw. The lower jawbone has been extensively eaten away by the disease. Fig. 2. Actinomyces fungus from a tumor of the jawbone in cattle, magnified 550 times. PLATE XL. Actinomycosis of the jaw. (Reduced one-half. From Jöhne's Encyklopädie d. gesammt. Thierheilkunde.) The lower jaw is sawed through transversely, i.e., from right to left, and shows the disease within the jawbone itself; _a_, within the mouth, showing the papillæ on the mucous membrane of the cheek; _b_, front view of a molar tooth; _c_, the skin covering the lower surface of the jawbone; _d_, the jawbone hollowed out and enlarged by the formation of cavities within it, which are filled with the soft growth of the actinomycotic tumor. The section makes it appear as if the bone were broken into fragments and these forced apart; _e_, a portion of the tumor which has broken through the bone and the skin and appears as a tumor on the cheek. The little roundish masses represent the granulomata (minute tumors) in which the fungus vegetates. PLATE XLI. Actinomycosis of the lungs. Fig. 1. Transverse section of the ventral lobe of the right lung, from a case studied in the laboratory. The yellowish dots represent the places where the actinomyces fungus is lodged. The larger yellowish patches are produced by the confluence of a number of isolated centers. The entire lobe is of a dark flesh-red color, due to collapse and bronchopneumonia. Fig. 2. The cut surface of a portion of the principal lobe of the same lung, showing the recent invasion of antinomycosis from the other lobe: _a_, large air tube; _b_, artery; _c_, a pneumatic lobule; _d_, lobule containing minute yellowish dots. In these the actinomyces fungus is lodged. Fig. 3. Cut surface of a small portion of another lung, showing a few lobules, _a._ The fungus is sprinkled throughout the lung tissue in the form of yellowish grains, as shown in the illustration. The pleural covering of the lung tissue is shown in profile above. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIX. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 ACTINOMYCOSIS.] [Illustration: PLATE XL. ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE JAW.] [Illustration: PLATE XLI. Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE LUNGS.] * * * * * _Cause._--The cause of anthrax is a microscopic organism known as the anthrax bacillus. (See Pl. XXVIII, fig. 7.) In form it is cylindrical or rodlike, measuring 1/5000 to 1/2500 inch in length and 1/25000 inch in diameter. Like all bacteria, these rodlike bodies have the power of indefinite multiplication, and in the bodies of infected animals they produce death by rapidly increasing in numbers and producing substances which poison the body. In the blood they multiply in number by becoming elongated and then dividing into two, each new organism continuing the same process indefinitely. Outside the body, however, they multiply in a different way when under conditions unfavorable to growth. Oval bodies, which are called spores, appear within the rods, and remain alive and capable of germination after years of drying. They also resist heat to a remarkable degree, so that boiling water is necessary to destroy them. The bacilli themselves, on the other hand, show only very little resistance to heat and drying. It has long been known that the anthrax virus thrives best under certain conditions of the soil and on territories subject to floods and inundations. The particular kinds of soil upon which the disease is observed are black, loose, warm, humous soils; also those containing lime, marl, and clay, finally peaty, swampy soils resting upon strata which hold the water, or, in other words, are impervious. Hence fields containing stagnant pools may be the source of infection. The infection may be limited to certain farms, or even to restricted areas on such farms. Even in the Alps, more than 3,000 feet above sea level, where such conditions prevail in secluded valleys, anthrax persists among herds. Aside from these limitations to specific conditions of the soil, anthrax is a disease of world-wide distribution. It exists in most countries of Europe, in Asia, Africa, Australia, and in our own country in the lower Mississippi Valley, the Gulf States, and in some of the Eastern and Western States. It seems to be gradually spreading in this country and every year occurs in new districts. Meteorological conditions also have an important share in determining the severity of the disease. On those tracts subject to inundations in spring a very hot, dry summer is liable to cause a severe outbreak. The relation which the bacillus bears to these conditions is not positively known. It may be that during and immediately after inundations or in stagnant water the bacilli find nourishment enough in the water here and there to multiply and produce an abundant crop of spores, which are subsequently carried, in a dry condition, by the winds during the period of drought and disseminated over the vegetation. Animals feeding upon this vegetation may contract the disease if the spores germinate in the body. Another source of the virus, and one regarded by many authorities as perhaps the most important, is the body of an animal which has died of anthrax. It will be remembered that in such bodies the anthrax bacilli are present in great numbers, and wherever blood or other body fluids are exposed to the air on the surface of the carcass there the formation of spores will go on with great rapidity in the warm season of the year. It will thus be readily understood how this disease may become stationary in a given locality and appear year after year and even grow in severity if the carcasses of animals which have succumbed to it are not properly disposed of. These carcasses should be buried deeply, so that spore formation may be prevented and no animal have access to them. By exercising this precaution the disease will not be disseminated by flies and other insect pests. We have thus two agents at work in maintaining the disease in any locality--the soil and meteorological conditions, and the carcasses of animals that have died of the disease. Besides these dangers, which are of immediate consequence to cattle on pastures, the virus may be carried from place to place in hides, hair, wool, hoofs, and horns, and it may be stored in the hay or other fodder from the infected fields and cause an outbreak among stabled animals feeding upon it in winter. In this manner the affection has been introduced into far-distant localities. _How cattle are infected._--We have seen above that the spores of the anthrax bacilli, which in their functions correspond to the seeds of higher plants and which are the elements that longest resist the unfavorable conditions in the soil, air, and water, are the chief agents of infection. They may be taken into the body with the feed and produce disease which begins in the intestinal tract, or they may come in contact with scratches, bites, or other wounds of the skin, mouth, and tongue, and produce in these situations swellings or carbuncles. From such swellings the bacilli penetrate into the blood and produce a general disease. It has likewise been asserted that the disease may be transmitted by various kinds of insects which carry the bacilli from the sick and inoculate the healthy as they pierce the skin. When infection of the blood takes place from the intestines the carbuncles may be absent. It has already been stated that since anthrax spores live for several years, the disease may be contracted in winter from feed gathered on permanently infected fields. The disease may appear sporadically, i. e., only one or several animals may be infected while the rest of the herd remain well, or it may appear as an epizootic attacking a large number at about the same time. _Symptoms._--The symptoms in cattle vary considerably, according as the disease begins in the skin, in the lungs, or in the intestines. They depend also on the severity of the attack. Thus we may have what is called anthrax peracutus or apoplectiform, when the animal dies very suddenly as if from apoplexy. Such cases usually occur in the beginning of an outbreak. The animal, without having shown any signs of disease, suddenly drops in the pasture and dies in convulsions, or one apparently well at night is found dead in the morning. The second type (anthrax acutis), without any external swellings, is the one most commonly observed in cattle. The disease begins with a high fever. The temperature may reach 106° to 107° F. The pulse beats from 80 to 100 a minute. Feeding and rumination are suspended. Chills and muscular tremors may appear and the skin show uneven temperature. The ears and base of the horns are cold, the coat staring. The animals are dull and stupid and manifest great weakness. To these symptoms others are added in the course of the disease. The dullness may give way to great uneasiness, champing of the jaws, spasms of the limbs, kicking and pawing the ground. The breathing may become labored. The nostrils then dilate, the mouth is open, the head raised, and all muscles of the chest are strained during breathing, while the visible mucous membranes (nose, mouth, rectum, and vagina) become bluish. If the disease has started in the bowels, there is much pain, as shown by the moaning of the animal; the discharges, at first firm, become softer and covered with serum, mucus, and blood. As the disease approaches the fatal termination the weakness of the animal increases. It leans against supports or lies down. Blood vessels may rupture and give rise to spots of blood on the various mucous membranes and bloody discharges from nose, mouth, rectum, and vagina. The urine not infrequently contains blood (red water), and death ensues within one or two days. A third type of the disease (anthrax subacutus), which is rarely observed, includes those cases in which the disease is more prolonged. It may last from three to seven days and terminate fatally or end in recovery. In this type, the symptoms are practically as described in the acute form, only less marked. In connection with these types of intestinal anthrax, swellings may appear in different parts of the body under the skin, or the disease may start from such a swelling, caused by the inoculation of anthrax spores in one of the several different ways already described. If the disease begins in the skin, it agrees in general with the subacute form in prolonged duration, and it may occasionally terminate in recovery if the swellings are thoroughly incised and treated. _Lesions._--These swellings appear as edemas and carbuncles. The former are doughy tumors of a more or less flattish form passing gradually into the surrounding healthy tissue. As a rule, they are situated beneath the skin in the fatty layer, and the skin itself is at first of healthy appearance, so that they are often overlooked, especially when covered with a good coat of hair. When they are cut open they are found to consist of a peculiar, jellylike mass of a yellowish color and more or less stained with blood. The carbuncles are firm, hot, tender swellings, which later become cool and painless and undergo mortification. The edemas and carbuncles may also appear in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, in the tongue, and in the rectum. The bodies of cattle which have died of anthrax soon lose their rigidity and become bloated, because decomposition sets in very rapidly. From the mouth, nose, and anus bloodstained fluid flows in small quantities. When such carcasses are opened and examined it is found that nearly all organs are sprinkled with spots of blood or extravasations of various sizes. The spleen is enlarged from two to five times, the pulp blackish and soft and occasionally disintegrated. The blood is of tarry consistency, not firmly coagulated, and blackish in color. In the abdomen, the thoracic cavity, and in the pericardium, or bag surrounding the heart, more or less blood-stained fluid is present. In addition to these characteristic signs, the carbuncles and swellings under the skin, already described, will aid in determining the true nature of the disease. The most reliable method of diagnosis is the examination of the blood and tissues for anthrax bacilli, which requires a trained bacteriologist. The cases of fatal anthrax number from 70 to 90 per cent, and are usually more numerous at the first outbreak of the disease. _Differential diagnosis._--The diagnosis from blackleg may be made by noting the subcutaneous swellings which appear upon the patient. Those of blackleg are found to crackle under pressure with the finger, owing to the presence of gas within the tissues, while the tumors of anthrax, being caused by the pressure of serum, are entirely free from this quality and have a somewhat doughy consistence. The tumors of blackleg are usually on the shoulder or thigh and are not found so frequently about the neck and side of the body as are the swellings of anthrax. The blood of animals dead of blackleg is normal, and the spleen does not appear swollen or darkened, as in those affected with anthrax. The chief differences between anthrax and Texas fever are that the course of the former is more acute and the blood of the animal is dark and of a tarlike consistence, while in the latter it is thinner than normal. The presence of Texas-fever ticks on the cattle would also lead one to suspect that disease in regions where cattle are not immune from it. _Treatment._--In cases which originate from external wounds, the swellings should be opened freely by long incisions with a sharp knife and washed several times daily with carbolic-acid solution (1 ounce to a quart of water). Care should be taken to disinfect thoroughly any fluid discharge that may follow the incision. When suppuration has set in the treatment recommended in the chapter on wounds should be carried out. In the treatment of animals showing symptoms of anthrax, the serum recommended under the next heading of "Prevention" should be administered in large doses. Animals showing only a high temperature with no other symptoms of the disease should be given from 30 to 50 cubic centimeters of the serum, but if the gravity of the disease is pronounced 100 cubic centimeters should be administered. In most instances a drop in temperature may be observed and a diminishing of the severity of the symptoms. At times, however, a relapse occurs about the second or third day following the serum injection, when it becomes necessary to administer another dose of serum. It has been proved that animals affected with anthrax may recover after injections of potent serum. _Prevention._--In this disease prevention is the most important subject demanding consideration. The various means to be suggested may be brought under two heads: (1) The surroundings of the animal, and (2) preventive inoculation. (1) Surroundings.--What has already been stated of those conditions of the pastures which are favorable to anthrax, after a little thought, will suggest to most minds some of the preventive measures which may be of service in reducing losses in anthrax localities. All that conduces to a better state of the soil should be attempted. The State or Nation, by appropriate engineering, should do its share in preventing frequent inundations. If pools of stagnant water exist in the pastures, or if any particular portions are known by experience to give rise to anthrax, they should be fenced off. Efforts should likewise be made toward the proper draining of swamp lands frequented by cattle. Sometimes it has been found desirable to abandon for a season any infected or dangerous pastures. This remedy can not be carried out by most farmers, and it is liable to extend the infected territory. In some instances withdrawal of cattle from pastures entirely and feeding them in stables is said to have reduced the losses. It is of the utmost importance that carcasses of animals which have died of anthrax be properly disposed of, as every portion of such animal contains the bacilli, ready to form spores when exposed to the air. Perhaps the simplest means is to bury the carcasses deep, where they can not be exposed by dogs or wild animals. It may be necessary to bury them on the pasture, but it is better to remove them to places not frequented by susceptible animals and to a point where drainage from the graves can not infect any water supply. If they are moved some distance it must be borne in mind that the ground and all objects which have come in contact with the carcass should be disinfected. This is best accomplished with chlorid of lime. For washing utensils, etc., a 5 per cent solution may be prepared by adding 3 ounces to 2 quarts of water. This should be prepared fresh from the powder, and it is but little trouble to have a small tin measure of known capacity to dip out the powder, to be added to the water whenever necessary. The carcass and the ground should be sprinkled with powdered chlorid, or, if this is not at hand, an abundance of ordinary, unslaked lime should be used in its place. The removal of carcasses to rendering establishments is always fraught with danger, unless those who handle them are thoroughly aware of the danger of scattering the virus by careless handling in wagons that are not tight. As a rule, the persons in charge of such transfer have no training for this important work, so that deep burial is to be preferred. Burning large carcasses is not always feasible; it is, however, the most certain means of destroying infectious material of any kind, and should be resorted to whenever practicable and economical. All carcasses, whether buried, rendered, or burned, should be disposed of unopened. When stables have become infected they should be thoroughly cleaned out, and the solution of chlorid of lime freely applied on floors and woodwork. The feed should be carefully protected from contamination with the manure or other discharges from the sick. (2) Preventive inoculation.--One of the most important discoveries in connection with the disease was made by Louis Pasteur in 1881, and consisted in the new principle of producing immunity by the inoculation of weakened cultures of the bacillus causing the disease. This method has been quite extensively adopted in France, and to some extent in other European countries, and in the United States. The fluid used for inoculation consists of bouillon in which modified anthrax bacilli have multiplied and are present in large numbers. The bacilli have been modified by heat so that to a certain degree they have lost their original virulence. Two vaccines are prepared. The first or weaker, for the first inoculation, is obtained by subjecting the bacilli to the attenuating effects of heat for a longer period of time than in the case of the second, or stronger vaccine, for a second inoculation some 12 days later. There are several difficulties inherent in the practical application of Pasteur's vaccine. Among them may be mentioned the variable degree of attenuation of different tubes of the vaccine and the varying susceptibility of the animals to be inoculated. The use of this vaccine is increasing, nevertheless, and has reduced the mortality in the affected districts from an average of 10 per cent in the case of sheep, to less than 1 per cent, and from 5 per cent with cattle, to less than one-half of 1 per cent. It is very important to call attention to the possibility of distributing anthrax by this method of protective inoculation, as the bacilli themselves are present in the culture liquid. It is true that they have been modified and weakened by the process adopted by Pasteur, but it is not impossible for such modified virus to regain its original virulence after it has been scattered broadcast by the inoculation of large herds. It is obviously unsafe to have such vaccine injected by a layman; instead, it should be handled only by a competent veterinarian. There are other disadvantages in this method of vaccination, and they all must be given due consideration. The unstable keeping quality of the Pasteur vaccine is a very important factor to be considered. Experience in this line has proved that Pasteur vaccine may deteriorate within a very short time after its preparation, and in repeated instances it has proved inert within three months of its preparation. When exposed to warm temperature and light, it deteriorates very rapidly; and when it is considered that the products of manufacturers may be stored under unfavorable conditions in branch houses and on the shelves of rural drug stores, the loss of potency can be readily explained. These deficiencies have been recognized by many investigators, and because of the superior keeping qualities particular attention has been directed toward the preparation of a spore vaccine by Zenkowsky of Russia, Detre of Hungary, and Nitta of Japan. For the purpose of producing a spore vaccine it is desirable to use a peptone-free agar medium, and after inoculation with an attenuated culture of the anthrax bacillus, it is allowed to grow at a temperature of 37° C. for 4 to 7 days. By this time an abundance of spores will have formed. The growth is then collected in sterile flasks and heated to a temperature of 60° C. for one-half hour to destroy the vegetative forms of the organism. If it is desired to use for vaccination one million spores, it is advisable to dilute the vaccine to a quantity of which 1 cubic centimeter would contain this number. Of such a vaccine 1 cubic centimeter would constitute the dose for cattle and horses. In all forms of vaccination against anthrax in sheep the greatest care must be exercised, as these animals are very susceptible to the disease, and at times vaccines which have no ill effects on cattle will prove fatal to sheep. Therefore the dose of the spore vaccine for sheep should not be more than one-fourth of that given to cattle. Sclavo, Sobernheim, and others have established that injections of increasing quantities of virulent cultures into immune animals produced a serum which has great protective value against anthrax. Such protective serum may be produced in the various susceptible animals. For immunization purposes it is advisable to use the simultaneous method; that is, both the spore vaccine and the anthrax serum should be injected. It is desirable to divide the herd to be treated into groups of ten or twelve and inject, first, each animal of the group with the serum, following this with the injection of the spore vaccine. The serum should be injected on one side, either on the neck or back of the shoulder, and the spore vaccine on the other side, injections being made subcutaneously. In herds in which the disease has already made its appearance it is necessary to take the temperatures of all the animals and to subject to the simultaneous vaccination only those that show no rise in temperature. All others should be given the serum-alone treatment in doses varying in accordance with the severity of the symptoms manifested by the individual animals. If the examination reveals a considerable number of infections, it is advisable to use the serum alone for all the animals, and in three or four weeks to revaccinate by the simultaneous method. The dosage should depend on the potency of the serum, serum of a high potency naturally being most desirable. Thus serum in 10 cubic centimeter doses for large animals, and 3 to 5 cubic centimeter doses for smaller ones, has been found to be effective in producing a temporary immunity. As anthrax is entirely different from blackleg, vaccine for the latter does not act as a preventive against the former. ANTHRAX IN MAN (MALIGNANT PUSTULE, OR CARBUNCLE). Anthrax may be transmitted to man in handling the carcasses and hides of animals which have succumbed to the disease. The infection usually takes place through some abrasion or slight wound of the skin into which the anthrax spores, or bacilli, find their way. The point of inoculation appears at first as a dark point or patch, compared by some writers to the sting of a flea. After a few hours this is changed into a reddened pimple, which bears on its summit, usually around a hair, a yellowish blister, or vesicle, which later on becomes red or bluish in color. The burning sensation in this stage is very great. Later this pimple enlarges, its center becomes dry, gangrenous, and is surrounded by an elevated, discolored swelling. The center becomes drier and more leatherlike, and sinks in as the whole increases in size. The skin around this swelling or carbuncle is stained yellow or bluish, and is not infrequently swollen and doughy to the touch. The carbuncle itself rarely grows larger than a pea or a small nut, and is but slightly painful. Anthrax swellings or edemas, already described as occurring in cattle, may also be found in man, and they are at times so extensive as to produce distortion in the appearance of the part of the body on which they are found. The color of the skin over these swellings varies according to the situation and thickness of the skin and the stage of the disease, and may be white, red, bluish, or blackish. As sooner or later these carbuncles and swellings may lead to an infection of the entire body, and thus be fatal, surgical assistance should at once be called if there is well-grounded suspicion that any swellings resembling those described above have been caused by inoculation with anthrax virus. Inasmuch as physicians differ as to medicinal treatment of such accidents in man, it would be out of place to make any suggestions in this connection. Extensive data are available, however, on the effectiveness of anthrax serum for the treatment of the disease in man. It is recommended that from 30 to 40 cubic centimeters of serum be injected in three or four different places. Should no improvement follow in 24 hours additional injections of 20 to 30 cubic centimeters should be administered. In most instances the results are favorable, and this treatment is acknowledged to be superior to any other mode of treatment known for the disease. To show that the transmission of anthrax to man is not so very uncommon, we take the following figures from the 1890 report of the German Government: The attention of the authorities was brought to 111 cases, of which 11 terminated fatally. The largest number of inoculations were caused by the slaughtering, opening, and skinning of animals affected with anthrax; hence, the butchers suffered most extensively. Of the 111 thus affected, 36 belonged to this craft. Infected shaving brushes also are very dangerous. In addition to anthrax of the skin (known as malignant pustule), human beings are subject, though very rarely, to the disease of the lungs and the digestive organs. In the former case the spores are inhaled by workmen in establishments in which wool, hides, and rags are worked over, and it is therefore known as woolsorter's disease. In the latter case the disease is contracted by eating the flesh of diseased animals which has not been thoroughly cooked. These forms of the disease are more fatal than those in which the disease starts from the skin. BLACKLEG. [Pl. XLII.] Blackleg, black quarter, quarter ill, symptomatic anthrax, charbon symptomatique of the French, Rauschbrand of the Germans, is a rapidly fatal, infectious disease of young cattle, associated with external swellings which emit a crackling sound when handled. This disease was formerly regarded identical with anthrax, but investigations by various scientists in recent times have definitely proved the entire dissimilarity of the two affections, both from a clinical and a causal standpoint. The disease is produced by a specific bacillus, readily distinguishable from that causing anthrax. (Pl. XXVIII, fig. 4.) Cattle between 6 months and 2 years of age are the most susceptible. Sucking calves under 6 months are rarely attacked, nor are they so susceptible to inoculation as older animals. Cattle more than 2 years of age may become affected, but such cases are infrequent. Sheep and goats may also contract the disease, but man, horses, hogs, dogs, cats, and fowls appear to be immune. Like anthrax, blackleg is more or less restricted to definite localities. There are certain pastures upon which the disease regularly appears in the summer and fall of the year. As to any peculiarities of the soil nothing is definitely known. Some authors are inclined to regard moist, undrained, and swampy pastures favorable to this disease, but these theories will hardly hold, as it is found in all kinds of soil, in all altitudes, at all seasons of the year, and under various climatic conditions. It occurs in this country from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Mexico to Canada, but it is more prevalent in the Western and Southwestern States. In Europe it exists in France, various parts of Germany, in Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Italy, and in the Alps of Switzerland. In Africa it occurs in Algeria and to some extent in Natal and bordering countries. In South America it prevails quite extensively throughout Argentina. Cattle in Cuba and Australia also suffer. _Cause._--The cause of the disease is a bacillus resembling in some minor respects the anthrax bacillus and differing but little from it in size. It also possesses the power of forming within itself a spore. In Plate XXVIII, figure 4, this is represented as an uncolored spot located in one end of the rod, which is enlarged so that the rod itself appears more or less club-shaped. What has already been stated concerning the significance of the spore of the anthrax bacillus applies equally well to these bodies. They resist destructive agents for a considerable time, and may still produce disease when inoculated after several years of drying. This fact may account for the occasional appearance of blackleg in stables. In order to meet the requirements for the development of the spores, which takes place only in the absence of the atmosphere, it is necessary that the wound be very small and deep enough to penetrate the subcutaneous tissue. Several observers have found this organism in the mud of swamps. By placing a little of the mud under the skin, the disease has been produced. Since the disease may be produced by placing under the skin material containing the specific bacilli and spores, it has been assumed that cattle contract the disease through wounds, principally of the skin, or very rarely of the mouth, tongue, and throat. Slight wounds into which the virus may find access may be caused by barbed wire, stubbles, thorns, briers, grass burs, and sharp or pointed parts of feed. Infection by way of digestive tract is also probable. _Symptoms and lesions._--The symptoms of blackleg may be either of a general or of a local nature, though more frequently of the latter. The general symptoms are very much like those belonging to other acute infectious or bacterial diseases. They begin, from one to three days after the infection has taken place, with loss of appetite and of rumination, with dullness and debility, and a high fever. The temperature may rise to 107° F. To these may be added lameness or stiffness of one or more limbs, due to the tumor or swelling quite invariably accompanying the disease. After a period of disease lasting from one to three days the affected animal almost always succumbs. Death is preceded by increasing weakness, difficult breathing, and occasional attacks of violent convulsions. The most important characteristic of this disease is the appearance of a tumor or swelling under the skin a few hours after the setting in of the constitutional symptoms described above. In some cases it may appear first. This tumor may be on the thighs (hence "blackleg," "black quarter"), the neck, the shoulder, the breast, the flanks, or the rump; never below the carpal (or knee) and the hock joint. It more rarely appears in the throat and at the base of the tongue. The tumor, at first small and painful, spreads very rapidly both in depth and extent. When it is stroked or handled a peculiar crackling sound is heard under the skin; this is due to a collection of gas formed by the bacilli as they multiply. At this stage the skin becomes dry, parchment-like, and cool to the touch in the center of the tumor. If the swelling is cut into, a frothy, dark-red, rather disagreeable-smelling fluid is discharged. The animal manifests little or no pain during the operation. As it is frequently desirable to know whether the disease is anthrax or blackleg, a few of the most obvious post-mortem changes may here be cited. The characteristic tumor with its crackling sound when stroked has already been described. If after the death of the animal it is more thoroughly examined, it will be noted that the tissues under the skin are infiltrated with blood and yellowish, jellylike material and gas bubbles. The muscular tissue beneath the swelling may be brownish or black, shading into dark red. (Pl. XLII.) It is soft, easily torn and broken up. The muscle tissue is distended with numerous smaller or larger gas-filled cavities, often to such extent as to produce a resemblance to lung tissue. Upon incision it does not collapse perceptibly, as the gas cavities are not connected with one another. In the abdomen and the thorax bloodstained fluid is not infrequently found, together with bloodstaining of the lining membrane of these cavities. Blood spots (or ecchymoses) are also found on the heart and lungs. The liver is congested, but the spleen is always normal in appearance. _Differential diagnosis._--Among the features of this disease which distinguish it from anthrax may be mentioned the unchanged spleen and the ready clotting of the blood. It will be remembered that in anthrax the spleen (milt) is very much enlarged, the blood tarry, coagulating feebly. The anthrax carbuncles and swellings differ from the blackleg swellings in not containing gas, in being hard and solid, and in causing death less rapidly. It is difficult to distinguish between the swellings of blackleg and malignant edema, as they resemble each other very closely and both are distended with gas. Malignant edema, however, generally starts from a wound of considerable size; it usually follows surgical operations, and seldom results from the small abrasions and pricks to which animals are subjected in pastures. Inoculation experiments on guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens will generally disclose the differences between the three diseases above, as all these species are killed by the germ of malignant edema, only the first two species by the anthrax bacillus, while the guinea pigs alone will succumb to the blackleg infection. Hemorrhagic septicemia may be differentiated from blackleg by its affecting cattle of all ages, by the location of the swelling usually about the region of the throat, neck, and dewlap, by the soft, doughy character of the swellings without the presence of gas bubbles, and finally by the characteristic hemorrhages widely distributed throughout the body. Other means of diagnosis, which have reference to the specific bacilli, to the inoculable character of the virus upon small animals, and which are of decisive and final importance, can be utilized only by the trained bacteriologist and veterinarian. _Treatment._--In this disease remedies have thus far proved unavailing. Some writers recommend the use of certain drugs, which seem to have been beneficial in a few cases, but a thorough trial has shown them to be valueless. Others advise that the swelling be opened by deep and long incisions and a strong disinfectant, such as a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, applied to the exposed parts; but this procedure can not be too strongly condemned. As nearly all those attacked die, in spite of every kind of treatment, and in view of the fact that when these tumors are opened the germs of the disease are scattered over the stables or pastures, thus becoming a source of danger to other cattle, it is obvious that such measures do more harm than good and should be put aside as dangerous. Bleeding, nerving, roweling, or setoning have likewise some adherents, but the evidence indicates that they have neither curative nor preventive value and therefore should be discarded for the method of vaccination which has been thoroughly tried and proved to be efficacious. _Prevention._--The various means suggested under "Anthrax" to prevent the spread or recurrence of this disease are equally applicable to blackleg, and hence do not need to be repeated here in full. They consist in the removal of well animals from the infected pasture to a noninfected field, the draining of the swampy ground, the burial or burning of the carcasses to prevent the dissemination of the germs over vast areas through the agency of dogs, wolves, buzzards, or crows, the disinfection of the stables and the ground where the animals lay at the time of death, and, if possible, the destruction of the germs on the infected pastures. One of the most effective methods for freeing an infected pasture from blackleg is to allow the grass to grow high, and when sufficiently dry to burn it off. One burning off is not sufficient to redeem an infected pasture, but the process should be repeated several years in succession. This method, however, is in many instances impracticable, as few cattle owners can afford to do it, and the only means left for the protection of the animals is vaccination. _Immunization by vaccination._--Three French veterinarians, Arloing, Cornevin, and Thomas, were the first to discover that cattle may be protected against blackleg by inoculation with virulent material obtained from animals which have died of this disease. Later they devised a method of inoculation with the attenuated or weakened blackleg spores which produced immunity from natural or artificial inoculation of virulent blackleg germs. Their method has undergone various modifications both in regard to the manufacture of the vaccine and in the mode of its application. Kitt, a German scientist, modified the method so that but one inoculation of the vaccine was required instead of two, as was the case with that made by the French investigators. The vaccine formerly prepared and distributed by the Bureau of Animal Industry combined the principle of Arloing, Cornevin, and Thomas, and the modification of Kitt. By vaccination we understand the injection of a minute amount of attenuated--that is, artificially weakened--blackleg virus into the system. This virus is obtained from animals which have died from blackleg, by securing the affected muscles, cutting them into strips, and drying them in the air. When they are perfectly dry they are pulverized and mixed with water to form a paste, smeared in a thin layer on flat dishes, placed in an oven, and heated for six hours at a temperature close to that of boiling water. The paste is then transformed into a hard crust, which is pulverized and sifted and distributed in packages containing either 10 or 25 doses. This constitutes the vaccine, the strength of which is thoroughly tested on experiment animals before it is distributed among the cattle owners. This vaccine, which is in the form of a brownish, dry powder, is mixed with definite quantities of sterile water, filtered, and by means of a hypodermic syringe the filtrate injected under the skin in front of the shoulder of the animal. The inoculation is usually followed by insignificant symptoms. In a few cases there is a slight rise of temperature, and by close observation a minute swelling may be noted at the point of inoculation. The immunity conferred in this way may last for 18 months, but animals vaccinated before they are 6 months old and those in badly infected districts should be revaccinated before the following blackleg season. The effect of the vaccine prepared by this bureau in preventing outbreaks of the disease and in immediately abating outbreaks already in progress was highly satisfactory, and it is not to be doubted that thousands of young cattle were saved to the stock owners during the 25 years in which the vaccine was distributed.[6] More than 47,000,000 doses were sent out during this period, and from reports received it is safe to conclude that more than 40,000,000 were actually injected, whereby the percentage of loss from blackleg has been reduced from 10 per cent, which annually occurred before using, to less than one-half of 1 per cent per annum. With these figures before us it is plain that the general introduction of preventive vaccination must be of material benefit to the cattle raisers in the infected districts. Moreover, there is every reason to believe that with the continued use of blackleg vaccine in all districts where the disease is known to occur, and an earnest effort on the part of the stock owners to prevent the reinfection of their pastures by following the directions given, blackleg may be kept in check and gradually eradicated. Immunization against blackleg is now frequently accomplished by the use of the so-called blackleg aggressin and blackleg filtrates. NECROTIC STOMATITIS (CALF DIPHTHERIA). [Pl. XLIII.] Necrotic stomatitis is an acute, specific, highly contagious inflammation of the mouth occurring in young cattle, and characterized locally by the formation of ulcers and caseo-necrotic patches and by constitutional symptoms, chiefly toxic. This disease has also been termed calf diphtheria, gangrenous stomatitis, ulcerative stomatitis, malignant stomatitis, tubercular stomatitis, and diphtheritic patches of the oral mucous membrane. _History._--During the last few years farmers and cattlemen in this country, especially in Colorado, Texas, and South Dakota, have increasingly noted the occurrence of enzootics of "sore mouth" among the young animals of their herds. Instead of healing, like the usual forms, of themselves, these cases, if untreated, die. Careful study of some of them has resulted in their identification with cases reported in 1877 by Dammann, from the shore of the Baltic; in 1878 by Blazekowic, in Slavonia; in 1879 by Vollers, in Holstein; in 1880 by Lenglen, in France; in 1881 by Macgillivray, in England; and in 1884 by Löffler, who isolated and described the microorganism which produces the disease. Bang obtained this organism from the diphtheritic lesions of calves in 1890, and Kitt likewise recovered the bacillus from similar lesions of the larynx and pharynx of calves and pigs in 1893. [Illustration: PLATE XLII. SECTION OF MUSCLE FROM A BLACKLEG SWELLING. a. GAS BUBBLES. b. CAVITIES DUE TO GAS FORMATION.] [Illustration: PLATE XLIII. NECROTIC STOMATITIS (CALF DIPTHERIA).] _Etiology._--The cause of necrotic stomatitis, as demonstrated by Löffler and since confirmed by other investigators, is _Bacillus necrophorus_, often spoken of as the bacillus of necrosis. This organism varies in form from a coccoid rod to long, wavy filaments, which may reach a length of 100µ; the width varies from 0.75µ to 1µ. Hence it is described as polymorphic. It does not stain by Gram, but takes the ordinary anilin dyes, often presenting, especially the longer forms, a beaded appearance. A characteristic of the organism, of great moment when we come to treatment, is that it grows only in the absence of oxygen, from which fact it is described as an obligate anærobe. Very few organisms exhibit a wider range of pathogenesis. According to clinical observation to the present time, _Bacillus necrophorus_ is pathogenic for cattle, horses, hogs, sheep, reindeer, kangaroos, antelope, and rabbits. Experimentally it has been proved pathogenic for rabbits and white mice. The dog, cat, guinea pig, pigeon, and chicken appear to be absolutely immune. It is not pathogenic for man. The importance of this bacillus is far beyond even its relation to necrotic stomatitis. Besides this disease it has been demonstrated as the causative factor in foot rot, multiple liver abscesses, disseminated liver necrosis, embolic necrosis of the lungs, necrosis of the heart, in cattle; gangrenous pox of the teats, diphtheria of the uterus and vagina, in cows; diphtheritic inflammation of the small intestine of calves. Among horses it is the agent in the production of necrotic malanders, quittor, and diphtheritic inflammation of the large intestine. In hogs it has caused necrotic or diphtheritic processes in the mucous membrane of the mouth, necrosis of the anterior wall of the nasal septum, and pulmonary and intestinal necrosis, accompanying hog cholera. Abscesses of the liver, gangrenous processes of the lips and nose, and gangrenous affections of the hoof have all been caused in sheep by this organism. _Pathology._--The principal lesions in necrotic stomatitis occur in the mucous membrane of the mouth and pharynx. The alterations may extend to the nasal cavities, the larynx, the trachea, the lung, the esophagus, the intestines, and to the hoof. The oral surfaces affected are, in the order of frequency, tongue, cheeks, hard palate, gums, lips, and pharynx. In the majority of cases the primary infection seems to occur in the tongue. (Pl. XLIII.) Infection takes place by inoculation. Some abrasion or break in the continuity of the mucous membrane of the mouth occurs. Very likely the origin may be connected with the eruption of the first teeth after birth, or, in animals somewhat older, the entrance of a sharp-pointed particle of feed. Gaining an entrance at this point, the bacilli begin to multiply. During their development they elaborate a toxin, or poisonous substance, which causes the death, or necrosis, of the epithelial, or superficial, layer of the mucous membrane and also of the white blood cells which have sallied forth through the vessel walls to the defense of the tissues against the bacillary attack. This destruction of the surface epithelium seems to be the essential factor in the production of the caseous patch, often called the false membrane. From the connective-tissue framework below is poured forth an inflammatory exudate highly albuminous or rich in fibrin-forming elements. When this exudate and the necrosed cellular elements come in contact, the latter furnish a fibrin ferment which transforms the exduate into a fibrinous mass. This process is known as coagulation necrosis, and the resulting fibroid mass, containing in its meshes the necrosed and degenerated epithelium and leucocytes, constitutes the diphtheritic or false membrane. Did the process cease at this point it would be properly called a diphtheritic inflammation, but it does not. A caseating ferment is supplied by the bacilli, and this, acting upon the fibroid patch, transforms it into a dry, finely granular, yellowish mass of tissue detritus resembling cheese. Frequently this caseous inflammation results in the formation of one or more ulcers with thickened, slightly reddened borders, surmounted by several layers of this necrosed tissue. The floor of the ulcer is formed by a grayish-yellow, corroded surface, under which the tissue is transformed into a dry, friable, or firm cheesy mass. In the tongue this may progress to two fingers' thickness into the muscular portion; in the cheek it may form an external opening, permitting fluids to escape from the mouth; upon the palate it frequently reaches and includes the bone in its destructive course; upon the gums it has produced necrosis of the tooth sockets, causing loss of the teeth. In the advanced forms, caseous foci may be seen in the lung and in the liver and necrotic patches observed on the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract. _Symptoms._--Necrotic stomatitis is both a local and a systemic affection. Primarily it is local. The local lesion is the caseo-necrotic patch or ulcer developed as a result of the multiplication of the bacilli at the point of inoculation. The general affection is an intoxication, or poisoning, of the whole system produced by a soluble toxin elaborated by the bacilli. The stage of incubation is from three to five days. The first symptoms noted are a disinclination to take nourishment, some drooling from the mouth, and an examination of the mouth will show on some portion of its mucous membrane a circumscribed area of infiltration and redness, possibly an erosion. The latter gradually extends in size and depth, forming a sharply circumscribed area of necrotic inflammation. It may measure anywhere from the size of a 5-cent piece to that of a silver dollar or even larger. It has the appearance of a corroded surface, under which the mucous membrane or muscular tissue seems transformed into a dry, friable, or firm cheesy mass. It is grayish yellow in color and is bordered by a zone of thickened tissue slightly reddened and somewhat granulated. The necrotic tissue is very adherent and can be only partially peeled off. It is homogeneous, cheesy, and may extend two fingers' depth into the tissues beneath. The general symptoms are languor, weakness, and slight fever. In spite of plenty of good feed the calf is seen to be failing. It stops sucking, or, if older, altogether refuses to eat. The temperature at this time may be from 104° to 107° F. The slobber becomes profuse, swallowing very difficult, opening of the mouth quite painful, and a most offensive odor is exhaled. The tongue is swollen and its motion greatly impaired. Sometimes the mouth is kept open, permitting the tumefied tongue to protrude. One or more of the above symptoms direct the attention to the mouth as the seat of disease; or, having noticed the debility and disinclination to eat, an examination of the animal may show a lump under the neck or swelling of the throat or head. The following extract from a letter is characteristic: I noticed my calves beginning to fail about the first week in December, but could not account for it, as they were getting plenty of grain and hay. My attention was first attracted by a swelling under the neck of one of the calves. I cast the animal and found that it was feed that had collected and the animal couldn't swallow it. I removed it, and in so doing noticed a large ulcer on the tongue and a very offensive odor. This was the first knowledge I had of anything being wrong with the calves' mouths. They may have been sick for some time before this. Out of a herd of 100 belonging to this man, 70 were affected, and the letter emphasizes the insidious character of the onset. The general affection at this time manifests itself by dejectedness, extreme weakness, and emaciation, constant lying down, with stiffness and marked difficulty in standing. The disease frequently extends to the nasal cavities, producing a thin, yellowish, or greenish-yellow, sticky discharge which adheres closely to the borders of the nostrils. Their edges also show caseous patches similar to those in the mouth. Sometimes the nasal passage is obstructed by great masses of the necrosed exudate, thus causing extreme difficulty in breathing. When the caseous process involves the larynx and trachea there result cough, wheezing, and dyspnea, together with a yellowish mucopurulent expectoration. When life is prolonged three or four weeks, caseous foci may be established in the lung, giving rise to all the signs of a bronchopneumonia. Many of these cases are associated with a fibrinous pleurisy. The invasion of the gastrointestinal tract is announced by diarrheal symptoms. This disease principally attacks sucklings not more than 6 weeks of age, but calves 8 and 10 months old are frequently affected, and several cases in adult cattle have been reported to this office. In its very acute form many of the cases run their course in from five to eight days. In these the local lesions are not strongly marked, and death seems due to acute intoxication. In other enzootics the majority of the affected animals live from three to five weeks. These are cases that occasionally present the pulmonary and intestinal symptoms, and sometimes develop also caseo-necrotic lesions in the liver. Ordinarily cases show no tendency to spontaneous cure. Left to themselves they die. On the contrary, if taken in hand early, the disease is readily amenable to treatment. In the latter event the prospects of recovery are excellent. _Differential diagnosis._--Necrotic stomatitis may be differentiated from foot-and-mouth disease by the fact that in the latter there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, including the adult cattle, as well as the infection of hogs and sheep. The characteristic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of vesicles containing a serous fluid upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and upon the udder, teats, and feet of the affected animals. In necrotic stomatitis vesicles are never formed, necrosis occurring from the beginning and followed by the formation of yellowish, cheesy patches, principally found in the mouth. Mycotic stomatitis occurs in only a few animals of the herd, chiefly the adult cattle, and the lesions produced consist of an inflammation of the mouth and lips and of the skin between the toes, followed in a few days by small irregular ulcers in the mouth. This disease appears sporadically, usually in the early fall after a dry summer, does not run a regular course, and can not be inoculated. _Prevention._--Prophylaxis should be carried out along three lines: (1) Separation of the sick from the healthy animals. (2) Close scrutiny and thorough disinfection once or twice daily for five days of the mouths and nasal passages of those animals that have been exposed. (3) Complete disinfection of all stalls and sheds. The disease appears to break out in winter and hold over to spring. It is conceivable that exposure to cold might so disturb the normal circulation of the oral tissues as to make the mucous membrane an excellent location for the causative factor of the disease. There is another possibility, however, which bears on the third line of prophylaxis. The so-called diphtheritic inflammations of the vagina and uterus in cows are caused by the same organism that induces necrotic stomatitis. A European writer has recently pointed out the almost constant relation of such attacks to previous occurrences of foul foot or foot rot in the same or other cattle on the place. In all likelihood, in such cases, the stalls and sheds are the harborers of this germ. It is possible that many of these outbreaks have some relation to preceding cases of the above-mentioned diseases and the greater use in winter of the stalls and sheds, thus harboring the _Bacillus necrophorus._ _Treatment._--The treatment consists almost solely in careful and extensive cleansing and disinfection of the mouth and other affected surfaces. The mucous membrane of the mouth should be copiously irrigated with a 4 per cent solution of boracic acid in warm water at least twice daily. As exposure to oxygen kills the bacilli, one need have no fear about disturbing or tearing off the caseous patches or necrotic tissue during irrigation. The irrigation of the sores should then be followed by the application with a brush or rag on a stick of a paste made with 1 part of salicylic acid and 10 parts of water, or the affected areas may be painted with Lugol's solution of iodin (iodin, 1; potassium iodid, 5; water, 200). Frequent injections of 1 per cent carbolic-acid solution into the mouth make an excellent treatment. The internal administration of 2 grams of salicylic acid and 3 grams of chlorate of potassium three times a day has also proved to be very beneficial when accompanied with local antiseptic treatment. MALIGNANT CATARRH. Malignant catarrh, or infectious catarrhal fever, is an acute infectious disease of cattle preeminently involving the respiratory and digestive tracts, although the sinuses of the head, the eyes, and the urinary and sexual organs are very frequently affected. It is relatively rare in this country, being more common on the continent of Europe. Outbreaks have occurred, however, in Minnesota, New York, and New Jersey. So far the causal agent of the disease has never been isolated, and inoculation experiments with the view of artificially reproducing the disease have proved negative in every case. In spite of the foregoing statements the consensus of opinion of eminent investigators points to malignant catarrh as being of specific origin; that is, due to some form of microorganism the contagious character of which is poorly developed. This accounts for the slow transmissibility of the disease from one animal to another. In fact, malignant catarrh is a type of that class of affections scientifically known as miasmatic diseases; that is, they remain stationary in stables with damp floors, low ceilings, poor ventilation, and bad sanitary conditions in general. Such places furnish a favorable seat of propagation for the infective material, and it will remain active for a long time, causing the loss of a few animals each year. One European veterinarian reports an instance in which the disease remained for 25 years on the same farm, attacking in all 225 animals, with a mortality of about 98 per cent. The disease is most common in late winter and early spring, at all altitudes, and has a special preference for young, well-nourished cattle, although older animals are not immune. The time between the entrance of the infective principle into the body of the animal and the appearance of the first symptoms is relatively very long, averaging, according to German investigators, from 20 to 30 days. Fortunately, it is not a disease which spreads to any great extent or which causes severe losses, and hence legislative enactments do not seem to be necessary for its restriction. _Symptoms._--These are extremely variable according to the point of localization of the lesions. It is usually ushered in with a chill, followed by a marked rise of temperature (104° to 107° F.). The head droops, the skin is hot and dry, and the coat staring. Quivering of the muscles in various parts of the body is frequently observed. Marked dullness of the animal, passing, according to some observers, into an almost stupefied condition later on, is quite common. The secretion of milk stops in the beginning of the disease, and loss of flesh, invariably associated with the disease, is extremely marked and rapid. The lesions of the eyes may best be likened to moon blindness (periodic ophthalmia) in horses. There is first an abundant secretion of tears, which run down the face. The lids are swollen and inflamed, and indeed this may be so marked as to cause involuntary eversion, exposing the reddened conjunctiva to view. Sunlight is painful, as is shown by the fact that the animal keeps the eyes continuously closed. This inflammation may extend to the cornea, causing it to assume a slightly clouded appearance in mild cases or a chalky whiteness in more severe affection. Cases of ulceration of the cornea followed by perforation and subsequent escape of the aqueous humor, leading to shrinking of the eyeball and permanent loss of sight, have been recorded, but these are relatively rare, although slight inflammation of the deeper structures of the eye (iris) are more frequent. In mild cases this inflammation may undergo complete resolution, but more frequently permanent cloudliness of the cornea, either diffuse or in spots (leucoma), is the result. The mucous membrane of the mouth, nose, sinuses of the head, throat, and lower respiratory passages are also involved. It is first catarrhal in character, but soon a false or diphtheritic membrane is formed, with the production of shallow ulcers. There is dribbling of saliva from the mouth and discharge from the nose, at first watery, becoming thicker and mixed with blood and small masses of cast-off croupous membrane, causing a very fetid odor. These croupous areas when they form in the throat, larynx, or windpipe, may lead to narrowing of the passages, with consequent difficult breathing and even suffocation. Various respiratory murmurs may also be heard, caused by the to-and-fro movement of mucus and inflammatory deposits along the air passages. There is also inflammation of the horn core with consequent loosening of the horn shell, and the horns are thus readily knocked off by the uneasy, blind sufferer. The animal may refuse all feed from the time of the initial rise of temperature, or in less severe cases, and especially when the lesions of the digestive tract are not so marked, the appetite may remain until the disease is well advanced. Constipation is quite common at the commencement of the attack, followed by diarrhea and severe straining, the evacuations becoming very soft, fetid, and streaked with blood. Cases of the evacuation of desquamated patches of diphtheritic membrane from the intestinal mucosa 6 to 9 feet in length have been reported. The kidneys and bladder are usually inflamed, the urine being voided with difficulty and the animal evincing signs of pain. Inflammatory elements, as albumen, casts, etc., may be seen on examination of the urine. In cows the mucous membrane of the vestibule is congested, swollen, and may contain ulcers and an excessive quantity of mucus. Abortion during advanced pregnancy is not infrequent, following a severe attack. In connection with these various symptoms there may be much uneasiness on the part of the animal, leading in some cases to madness and furious delirium, in others to spasms and convulsions or paralysis. A vesicular eruption of the skin may occur, seen principally between the toes and on the inside of the flank and in the armpits, with subsequent loss of hair and epidermis. Like other infectious diseases, malignant catarrh pursues a longer or shorter course in accordance with the severity of the attack. In acute cases death is said to take place three to seven days after the appearance of symptoms. Recovery, if it occurs, may take three or four weeks. According to statistics, from 50 to 90 per cent of the affected animals die. If animals which have died of this disease are examined, in addition to the changes of the mucous membrane of mouth and nasal cavities referred to above, shallow ulcers in these situations will be found occasionally. These necrotic processes may pass beneath the mucous membrane and even involve the underlying bony structure. In severe cases membranous (croupous) deposits are found in the throat. Similar deposits have been found upon the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach and intestine, which is always inflamed. There is more or less inflammation of the membranes of the brain, kidneys, and liver, and some fatty degeneration of the voluntary muscles. In countries where rinderpest occasionally appears it may be difficult to distinguish between it and malignant catarrh, owing to a general similarity of the symptoms. The principal points to be observed in differentiating between the two are the very slight transmissibility of the latter as compared with the intense contagiousness of the former, and the tendency of malignant catarrh to run a more chronic course than rinderpest, which usually results fatally in a very few days. Only a trained veterinarian who takes into consideration all the different symptoms and lesions of both diseases should decide in such cases. _Treatment._--There is no specific treatment for this affection. Copious blood letting in the earliest stages has been highly recommended, however, as this has a tendency to deplete the system and lessen the exudation of inflammatory products. Antiseptic washes, such as 4 per cent boric-acid solution to the eyes and Dobell's solution applied to the nose and mouth with ice poultices over the crest of the head and frontal region, have also proved efficacious. Calomel should also be given in 1-dram doses twice a day for three days, and in severe cases, involving the respiratory tract, a powder containing ferrous sulphate, quinin, and subnitrate of bismuth, given twice a day, will be found beneficial. At the same time it must be remembered that much greater success is to be looked for in the preventive treatment. This consists in the removal of the healthy from the infected animals (not vice versa) and thorough cleaning and disinfecting of the contaminated stables. If the floors are low and damp, they should be raised and made dry. If this can not be done, place a layer of cement under the stable floor to prevent water from entering from below. The stable should be well ventilated and the soil in the pastures thoroughly drained. If this is carefully carried out, the contagion should be destroyed and the danger of the reappearance of the disease in a great measure lessened. MALIGNANT EDEMA. Malignant edema, also termed gangrenous septicemia, is an acute, inflammatory disease of domestic and wild animals, resulting from the introduction of a specific organism into the deep connective tissues of a susceptible animal and proving fatal in many instances within 24 to 48 hours. The disease may be inoculated from one animal to another, but only by inserting the virus deeply below the skin. It is infrequently met with in cattle, but may follow operating wounds, as roweling, castration, and phlebotomy, which have become infected with septic matter, soil, or unclean instruments. In the pathological laboratory of the Bureau of Animal Industry the organism has also been obtained from the infected muscles of a calf that was supposed to have died of blackleg, and, as a result, all blackleg virus is thoroughly tested before it is made into blackleg vaccine in order to exclude the malignant-edema organism. The essential cause of malignant edema is a long, slender, motile, spore-bearing bacillus, resembling the bacillus of blackleg, and which can develop only in the absence of the atmosphere. Unlike the bacilli of anthrax and blackleg, which are confined to certain districts, this organism is widely distributed and found in ordinary garden soil, foul water, and in the normal intestinal tract of the herbivora. It may be brought to the surface of the soil by growing plants, rains, winds, or burrowing insects and rodents. In animals that have succumbed to the disease the germ is confined to the seat of infection, but a few hours after death it may migrate through the blood channels to other parts of the body. The bacillus may attack man, horses, asses, goats, sheep, pigs, cats, dogs, and poultry. Adult cattle, although refractory to experimental inoculation, suffer from natural infection, while calves are susceptible to both these methods of exposure. (Kitt.) The introduction of the bacillus into abrasions of the skin and superficial sores rarely does any harm, because the germ is quickly destroyed by contact with air. If, however, the organisms are inserted deeply into the subcutaneous tissues of susceptible animals, they quickly develop, producing a soluble poison, which is the fatal agent. In lamb-shearing season, or after docking or castration, the mortality is higher among these animals because of wounds inflicted at such times. The application of antiseptics to wounds thus made will reduce the percentage of deaths to a minimum. _Symptoms._--Usually the first symptoms are overlooked. In the early stages the animal appears listless, disinclined to move about, and lies down in shady and quiet places. If forced to move about, the hind legs are drawn forward with a peculiar, stiff, dragging movement, and there may be slight muscular trembling over all the body, which becomes more intense as the disease progresses. When driven, the animal shows signs of fatigue, ultimately dropping to the ground completely exhausted. Breathing becomes fast and painful, with frequent spasmodic jerks. The pulse is quick and weak and the temperature is 106° to 107° F. An edematous, doughy, and painful swelling appears at the point of infection. This tumefaction spreads more and more, and crackles on pressure. In case of an open wound, a fetid liquid and frothy discharge is observed. The center of the swelling may appear soft and jellylike, while the margin is tense, hot, and painful. The symptoms increase rapidly, resulting in coma and death. _Lesions._--After death the fat and subcutaneous tissues surrounding the infected area are infiltrated with a yellow gelatinous material containing an orange-colored foam, due to the presence of gas bubbles. The muscles at this point are friable, spongy, and of a uniform brownish tint, dissociated by gas and with a blood-tinged exudate. This gangrenous tissue, when present before death, can be removed without pain to the animal. The intestines are generally normal, but, together with the peritoneum, they may be inflamed, and the lungs are usually the seat of an edema. The spleen, liver, and kidneys retain their normal appearance, in marked contrast with anthrax. _Differential diagnosis._--Unlike blackleg, this disease never appears as an epizootic but in isolated cases. It may also be differentiated from the former by the history of a recent parturition or surgical operation, by the presence of an external injury at the site of the swelling accompanied with a fetid liquid discharge, and the gangrenous appearance of the tumefaction. Man is susceptible to malignant edema, but not to blackleg. Malignant edema may also be easily differentiated from anthrax in that the blood and spleen are normal in appearance, while in the latter disease the blood is dark and of a tarlike consistency, and the spleen appears swollen, injected, and softened. The local tumor in malignant edema contains gas bubbles, which are absent in anthrax swellings. Inoculation experiments of guinea pigs, rabbits, and chickens will also disclose the differences among the above-mentioned three diseases, since all these species are killed by the germ of malignant edema, only the first two species by the anthrax bacillus, while the guinea pig alone will succumb to the blackleg infection. _Treatment._--Treatment is chiefly surgical and consists in laying the infected areas wide open by free incision, followed by a liberal application of a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen dioxid and subsequently a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Usually the disease when observed has advanced to such an extent that medicinal interference is without avail. Preventive treatment is by far the most desirable, and consists, essentially, in a thorough disinfection of all accidental and surgical wounds, the cleansing of the skin, and the exclusion of soil, filth, and bacteria during surgical operations of any nature. Sheds, barns, and stables should receive a thorough application of quicklime or crude carbolic acid wash after all rubbish has been removed and burned. All dead animals should be burned or deeply buried and covered well with quicklime. SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER, TICK FEVER). [Pls. XLIV-XLIX.] This disease, which is more commonly known as Texas fever, and sometimes as splenetic fever, is a specific fever communicated by cattle which have recently been moved northward from the infected district; it is also contracted by cattle taken into the infected district from other parts of the world. It is characterized by the peculiarity among animal diseases that the animals which disseminate the infection are apparently in good health, while those which sicken and die from it do not, as a rule, infect others. It is accompanied with high fever, greatly enlarged spleen, destruction of the red blood corpuscles, escape of the coloring matter of the blood through the kidneys, giving the urine a deep-red color, with a yellowness of the mucous membranes and fat, which is seen more especially in fat cattle, by a rapid loss of strength, and with fatal results in a large proportion of cases. This disease has various names in different sections of the country where it frequently appears. It is often called Spanish fever, acclimation fever, red water, black water, distemper, murrain, dry murrain, yellow murrain, bloody murrain, Australian tick fever, and tristeza of South America. The earliest accounts we have of this disease date back to 1814, when it was stated by Dr. James Mease, before the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, that the cattle from a certain district in South Carolina so certainly disease all others with which they mix in their progress to the North that they are prohibited by the people of Virginia from passing through the State; that these cattle infect others while they themselves are in perfect health, and that cattle from Europe or the interior taken to the vicinity of the sea are attacked by a disease that generally proves fatal. Similar observations have been made in regard to a district in the southern part of the United States. The northern limits of this area are changed yearly as a result of the dissemination or eradication of the cattle tick along the border, but the infected area has gradually decreased, owing to the successful endeavors pushed forward to eliminate the ticks. It was the frequent and severe losses following the driving of cattle from the infected district in Texas into and across the Western States and Territories which led to the disease being denominated Texas fever. It is now known, however, that the infection is not peculiar to Texas or even to the United States, but that it also exists in southern Europe, Central and South America, Australia, South Africa, and the West Indies. When cattle from other sections of the country are taken into the infected district they contract this disease usually during the first summer, and if they are adult animals, particularly milch cows or fat cattle, nearly all die. Calves are much more likely to survive. The disease is one from which immunity is acquired, and therefore calves which recover are not again attacked, as a rule, even after they become adult. When the infection is disseminated beyond the permanently infected district, the roads, pastures, pens, and other inclosures are dangerous for susceptible animals until freezing weather. The infection then disappears, and cattle may be driven over the grounds or kept in the inclosures the succeeding summer and the disease will not reappear. There are some exceptions to this rule in the section just north of the boundary line of the infected district. In this locality the infection sometimes resists the winters, especially if they are mild. In regard to the manner in which the disease is communicated, experience shows that this does not occur by animals coming near or in contact with one another. It is an indirect infection. The cattle from the infected district first infect the pastures, roads, pens, cars, etc., whence the susceptible cattle obtain the virus secondhand. Usually animals do not contract the disease when separated from infected pastures by a fence. If, however, there is any drainage or washing by rains across the line of fence this rule does not hold good. The investigations made by the Bureau of Animal Industry demonstrate that the ticks which adhere to cattle from the infected district are the only known means of conveying the infection to susceptible cattle. The infection is not spread by the saliva, the urine, or the manure of cattle from the infected district. In studying the causation and prevention of this disease, attention must therefore be largely given to the tick, and it now seems apparent that if cattle could be freed from this parasite when leaving the infected district they would not be able to spread the malady. The discovery of the connection of the ticks with the production of the disease has played a very important part in determining the methods that should be adopted in preventing its spread. It established an essential point and indicated many lines of investigation which have yielded and are still likely to yield very important results. _Nature of the disease._--Texas fever is caused by an organism which lives within the red blood corpuscles and breaks them up. It is therefore simply a blood disease. The organism does not belong to the bacteria but to the protozoa. It is not, in other words, a microscopic plant, but it belongs to the lowest forms of the animal kingdom. This very minute organism multiplies very rapidly in the body of the infected animal, and in acute cases causes an enormous destruction of red corpuscles in a few days. How it gets into the red corpuscle it is not possible to state, but it appears that it enters as an exceedingly minute body, probably endowed with motion, and only after it has succeeded in entering the corpuscle does it begin to enlarge. Plate XLV, figure 4, illustrates an early stage of this blood parasite. The red corpuscle contains a very minute, roundish body which is stained blue to bring it into view. The body is, as a rule, situated near the edge of the corpuscle. Figure 5 illustrates an older stage in the growth of the parasite, in fact the largest which has thus far been detected. It will be noticed that there are usually two bodies in a corpuscle. These bodies are in general pear-shaped. The narrow ends are always toward each other when two are present in the same corpuscle. If we bear in mind that the average diameter of the red blood corpuscles of cattle is from 1/4000 to 1/5000 inch, the size of the contained parasite may be at once appreciated by a glance at the figures referred to. The various disease processes which go on in Texas fever, and which we may observe by examining the organs after death, all result from the destruction of the red corpuscles; this destruction may be extremely rapid or slow. When it is rapid we have the acute, usually fatal, type of Texas fever, which is always witnessed in the height of the Texas-fever season, that is, during the latter weeks of August and the early weeks of September. When the destruction of corpuscles is slower, a mild, usually nonfatal, type of the disease is called forth, which is only witnessed late in autumn or more rarely in July and the early part of August. Cases of the mild type occurring thus early usually become acute later and terminate fatally. The acute disease is fatal in most cases, and the fatality is due not so much to the loss of blood corpuscles as to the difficulty which the organs have in getting rid of the waste products arising from this wholesale destruction. How great this may be a simple calculation will serve to illustrate. In a steer weighing 1,000 pounds, the blood in its body weighs about 50 pounds, if we assume that the blood represents one-twentieth of the weight of the body, which is a rather low estimate. According to experimental determination at the bureau station, which consists in counting the number of blood corpuscles in a given quantity of blood from day to day in such an animal, the corpuscles contained in from 5 to 10 pounds of blood may be destroyed within 24 hours. The remains of these corpuscles and the coloring matter in them must be either converted into bile or excreted unchanged. The result of this effort on the part of the liver causes extensive disease of this organ. The bile secreted by the liver cells contains so much solid material that it stagnates in the finest bile canals and chokes these up completely. This in turn interferes with the nutrition of the liver cells and they undergo fatty degeneration and perish. The functions of the liver are thereby completely suspended and death is the result. This enormous destruction of corpuscles takes place to a large extent in the kidneys, where a great number of corpuscles containing the parasites are always found in acute cases. This accounts largely for the blood-colored urine, or red water, which is such a characteristic feature of Texas fever. The corpuscles themselves are not found in the urine; it is the red coloring matter, or hemoglobin, which leaves them when they break up and pass into the urine. _Symptoms._--After a period of exposure to infected soil, which may vary from 13 to 90 days, and which will be more fully discussed under the subject of cattle ticks as bearers of the Texas-fever parasite, the disease first shows itself in dullness, loss of appetite, and a tendency to leave the herd and stand or lie down alone. A few days before these symptoms appear the presence of a high fever may be detected by the clinical thermometer. The temperature rises from a normal of 101° to 103° F. to 106° and 107° F. There seems to be little or no change in temperature until recovery or death ensues. The period of high temperature or fever varies considerably. As it indicates the intensity of the disease process going on within, the higher it is the more rapid the fatal end. When it does not rise above 104° F. the disease is milder and more prolonged. The bowels are mostly constipated during the fever; toward the end the feces may become softer and rather deeply tinged with bile. The urine shows nothing abnormal during the course of the disease until near the fatal termination, when it may be deeply stained with the coloring matter of the blood. (Hemoglobinuria; see Pl. XLV, fig. 3.) Although this symptom is occasionally observed in animals which recover, yet it may generally be regarded as an indication of approaching death. The pulse and respiration are usually much more rapid than during health. Other symptoms in addition to those mentioned have been described by observers, but they do not seem to be constant, and only those described above are nearly always present. As the end approaches emaciation becomes very marked, the blood is very thin and watery, and the closing of any wound of the skin by clots is retarded. The animal manifests increasing stupor and may lie down much of the time. Signs of delirium have been observed in some cases. Death occurs most frequently in the night. The duration of the disease is very variable. Death may ensue in from three days to several weeks after the beginning of the fever. Those that recover ultimately do so very slowly, owing to the great poverty of the blood in red corpuscles. The flesh is regained but very gradually, and the animal may be subjected to a second, though mild, attack later on in the autumn, which pushes the full recovery onward to the beginning of winter. In the mild type of the disease, which occurs in October and November, symptoms of disease are well-nigh absent. There is little if any fever, and if it were not for loss of flesh and more or less dullness the disease may pass unnoticed, as it undoubtedly does in a majority of cases. If, however, the blood corpuscles are counted from time to time a gradually diminishing number will be found, and after several weeks only about one-fifth or one-sixth of the normal number are present. It is indeed surprising how little impression upon the animal this very impoverished condition of the blood appears to make. It is probable, however, that if two animals kept under the same conditions, one healthy and the other at the end of one of these mild attacks, are weighed, the difference would be plainly shown. _Pathological changes observable after death._--In the preceding pages some of these have already been referred to in describing the nature of the disease. It is very important at times to determine whether a certain disease is Texas fever or some other disease, like anthrax, for example. This fact can, as a rule, be determined at once by a thorough microscopic examination of the blood. The necessary apparatus and the requisite qualifications for this task leave this method entirely in the hands of experts. There are, however, a considerable number of changes caused by this disease which may be detected by the naked eye when the body has been opened. Put together they make a mistake quite impossible. The presence of small ticks on the skin of the escutcheon, the thighs, and the udder is a very important sign in herds north of the Texas-fever line, as it indicates that they have been brought in some manner from the South and have carried the disease with them, as will be explained later. Another very important sign is the thin, watery condition of the blood, either just before death or when the fever has been present for four or five days. A little incision into the skin will enable any one to determine this point. Frequently the skin is so poor in blood that it may require several incisions to draw a drop or more. The changes in the internal organs, as found on post-mortem examinations, are briefly as follows: The spleen, or milt, is much larger than in healthy animals. It may weigh three or four times as much. When it is incised the contents or pulp is blackish (see Pl. XLIV, fig. 1), and may even well out as a disintegrated mass. The markings of the healthy spleen (fig. 2) are all effaced by the enormous number of blood corpuscles which have collected in it, and to which the enlargement is attributable. Next to the spleen the liver will arouse our attention. (See Pl. XLV, fig. 2.) It is larger than in the healthy state, has lost its natural brownish color (fig. 1), and now has on the surface a paler, yellowish hue. When it is incised this yellowish tinge, or mahogany color, as it has been called by some, is still more prominent. This is owing to the large quantity of bile in the finest bile capillaries, and as these are not uniformly filled with it the cut surface has a more or less mottled appearance. This bile injection causes in many cases a fatty degeneration of the liver cells, which makes the organ appear still lighter in color. In all cases the gall bladder should be examined. This is distended with bile, which holds in suspension a large number of yellow flakes, so that when it is poured into a tall bottle to settle fully one-half or more of the column of fluid will be occupied by a layer of flakes. If mucus is present at the same time, the bile may become so viscid that when it is poured from one glass to another it forms long bands. The bile in health is a limpid fluid, containing no solid particles. If the animal during life has not been observed to pass urine colored with blood or red water, the bladder should be opened. This quite invariably, in acute cases, contains urine which varies in color from a deep port wine to a light claret. In many cases the color is so dense that light will not pass through even a thin layer. (Pl. XLV, fig. 3.) The kidneys are always found congested in the acute attack. The disease exerts but little effect on the stomach and intestines beyond more or less reddening of the mucous membrane; hence an examination of them may be safely omitted. The lungs are, as a rule, not diseased. The heart usually shows patches of blood extravasation on the inside (left ventricle) and less markedly on the outer surface. We have observed jaundice of the various tissues but very rarely. It has been observed by some quite regularly, however. During the hot season about 90 per cent of the susceptible mature animals from a noninfected district die, but later, in the cool weather, the disease assumes a milder type, with a consequent decrease in the number of deaths. _The cattle tick, Margaropus annulatus, as the carrier of Texas fever._ (Pls. XLVI, XLVII, and XLVIII.)--The cattle tick is, as its name indicates, a parasite of cattle in the southern part of the United States. It belongs to the group of Arthropoda and to the genus _Margaropus_ (or _Boophilus_), which is included in the order Acarina. Its life history is quite simple and easily traced from one generation to another. It is essentially a parasite, attaching itself to the skin (Pl. XLVIII) and drawing the blood of its host. It is unable to come to maturity and reproduce its kind unless it becomes attached to the skin of cattle, whence it may obtain its food. The eggs laid on the ground after the female has dropped from the host begin to develop at once. When the embryo is fully formed within the shell it ruptures this and gains its freedom. The time required from the laying of the eggs to their hatching varies considerably, according to the temperature. In the laboratory in the heat of midsummer this was accomplished in about 13 days. In the late fall, under the same conditions, it required from four to six weeks. The larva after emerging from the egg is very minute, six-legged, and is just visible to the naked eye. (Pl. XLVI, fig. 3.) If these larvæ are kept on a layer of moist sand or earth in a covered dish, they may remain alive for months, but there is no appreciable increase in size. So soon, however, as they are placed upon cattle growth begins. On pastures these little creatures soon find their way on to cattle. They attach themselves by preference to the tender skin on the escutcheon, the inside of the thighs, and on the base of the udder. Yet when they are very numerous they may be found in small numbers on various parts of the body, such as the neck, the chest, and the ears. (Pl. XLVIII and Pl. XLIX, fig. 1.) The changes which they undergo during their parasitic existence were first studied by Dr. Cooper Curtice, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, in 1889. The young tick molts within a week, and the second or nymphal stage of the parasite's life is thus ushered in. After this change it has four pairs of legs. Within another week another molt takes place by which the tick passes from the nymphal to the sexual, or adult, stage. Impregnation now takes place, and, with the development of the ova in the body, the tick takes an increased quantity of blood, so that in a few days it becomes very much larger. That the rapid growth is due to the blood taken in may be easily proved by crushing one. The intestine is distended with a thick, tarry mass composed of partly digested blood. When the female has reached a certain stage of maturity she drops to the ground and begins to lay a large number of eggs, which hatch in the time given above. The life of the cattle tick is thus spent largely on cattle, and although the young, or larvæ may live for a long time on the ground in the summer season, they can not mature except as parasites on cattle and horses. We have purposely omitted various details of the life history, including that of the male, as they are not necessary to an understanding of our present subject--Texas fever. How this is transmitted we will proceed to consider. Before the enforcement of the Federal quarantine southern cattle sent north during the spring and summer months carried on their bodies large numbers of the cattle ticks, which, when matured, would drop off and lay their eggs in the northern pastures. After hatching, the young ticks would soon get upon any northern cattle which happened to be on the pasture. So soon as they attached themselves to the skin they inoculated the cattle, and Texas fever would break out a week or more thereafter. For many years there had been a growing suspicion that the cattle tick was in some way concerned in the spread of Texas fever, and the facts which supported this supposition finally became so numerous and convincing that a series of experiments was inaugurated by the Bureau of Animal Industry which served to show that the tick is abundantly able to carry the disease to a herd of healthy cattle, and, in fact, is probably the only agent concerned in the transmission of the disease from southern cattle to susceptible northern animals. _Injurious effects of cattle ticks._--Unfortunately many cattle owners who have always been accustomed to see both ticks and ticky cattle on their farms are not inclined to attach much importance to these parasites, and, as a rule, through lack of appreciation of their damaging effects, placidly consider them as of little consequence. That ticks may be detrimental to their hosts in several ways has probably not suggested itself to these stockmen, who are most vitally affected, and it therefore seems necessary to emphasize the fact that, in addition to their relation to Texas fever, they may also be injurious to cattle as external parasites. While the power of transmitting Texas fever is undoubtedly the most dangerous property possessed by the cattle tick and is the principal cause for adopting stringent measures looking to its complete eradication, nevertheless there still remain other good reasons for the accomplishment of this achievement. These secondary objections to the presence of ticks on cattle consists in the physical harm they do to the host aside from the production of the specific disease of Texas fever. True, a few parasites may remain on cattle indefinitely without causing any noticeable effect, but it is not uncommon to notice bovine animals on pastures with their hides heavily infested with these pests. In such cases it can readily be seen that the continuous sucking of blood causes more or less impoverishment of the circulation. The animal must therefore be fed more in order to meet the demands of the parasites in addition to the ordinary needs of the host. If the ticks are removed from the body, the bites inflicted are often distinguished by small, inflamed or reddened areas somewhat swollen, with perforations of the skin which may allow the entrance of various kinds of disease germs, and showing that more or less irritation of the hide is produced by these parasites. This condition, together with the loss of blood, frequently induces an irritable state and evidence of uneasiness commonly known as "tick worry," which results in the loss of energy and other derangements of the animal's health. It may in some cases, especially in hot weather, become so pronounced that the animal will lose flesh in spite of good pasturing, thereby reducing the vitality and rendering it more susceptible to the inroads of disease. Moreover, if the infestation of ticks is not controlled, the cattle may be so reduced in condition that growth is retarded, and, in the case of young animals, they may never become fully developed, but remain thin, weak, and stunted--a condition that has been termed "tick poverty"--and easily succumb to other diseases as a result of lowered vitality. In milch cows this debilitating influence of the numerous ticks is shown in a greatly reduced milk supply. This should not appear strange when it is considered that some animals harbor several thousand of the bloodsucking parasites. If these parasites are crushed, it will be found that their intestines are completely filled with a dark, thick mass of blood abstracted from the animal host and containing nutriment that should go to the formation of milk, flesh, and the laying on of fat. In some rare cases the large number of bites on a limited area of skin may be followed by infection with pus-producing organisms, giving rise to small abscesses which may terminate in ulcers. The discharge from these sores, or in some cases the mere oozing of blood serum through the incision made by the mouth parts of the ticks, keeps the hair moist and matted together, and the laying and hatching of fly eggs in these areas give rise to infestation with destructive maggots, causing ulcers and other complications that require medical treatment. These statements regarding the secondary injurious effects of cattle ticks also apply to those ticks which have been previously spoken of as harmless so far as Texas fever is concerned, and, in fact, to all external parasites. Therefore, it is just as important to eradicate the cattle ticks for reasons other than those associated with Texas fever as it is to exterminate lice, fleas, and other vermin. Furthermore, cattle ticks, aside from the losses sustained by their purely parasitic effects, are the greatest menace to the profitable raising and feeding of cattle in the South, because they are an obstacle to cattle traffic between the infected and noninfected districts. _Loss occasioned by cattle ticks._--The economic aspect of the tick problem is unquestionably of the greatest practical interest, since the fundamental importance of all the other questions which surround it depends upon the actual money value involved. A careful and conservative estimate made in 1916 placed the annual loss caused by the ticks in the United States at $40,000,000, and indicated that the ticks also lowered the assets of the South by an additional $33,000,000. The principal items in these losses are set forth below. It is well known that those animals coming from an infected district and sold in the "southern pens" of northern stockyards bring about one-half a cent less per pound than the quoted market price. The handicap that is placed on the southern cattle raiser as a result of this decrease in value of his stock will average at this figure $3 per head, allowing an individual weight of 600 pounds for all classes of animals. This decreased value reacts and fixes the valuation of all cattle which remain in the infected territory, thereby reducing the assets of the cattle industry of that section. In addition there is a very great loss from the decrease in flesh and lack of development of southern cattle occasioned by the parasitic life of the ticks from without and by the blood-destroying and enervating properties of the protozoan parasites from within. The presence of the tick among the cattle of the South not only lessens the value of the cattle on the hoof but causes the gradings of hides that have been infested with ticks as No. 4 quality. The same hide, if free from tick marks, would grade No. 2. The difference in price between these two grades of hides is 3 cents a pound. As the hide of a southern steer weighs about 42 pounds, the presence of the tick in the hide causes a loss in the hide alone of more than $1.26 a hide. It has been shown that the cost of tick eradication is only about 50 cents a head, so that if the counties make a systematic campaign to eradicate the tick, the increase in value of the hide alone would pay for the cost of tick eradication and leave the farmer a net profit of about 76 cents a hide. The shrinkage in the milk production of cattle harboring many ticks will average 1 quart a day, which in the aggregate is a heavy loss. The damage resulting to the southern purchaser of northern purebred or high-grade cattle is another item of no small moment. About 10 per cent of all such cattle taken into the South die of Texas fever, even after they are immunized by blood inoculations, and about 60 per cent of them succumb to Texas fever when not so treated. As they are usually very expensive animals and of a highly valued strain of blood, the loss in certain cases is excessive and in others almost irreparable, owing to the possible extinction of some particular type especially selected for the improvement of the herd. Another instance in which it is difficult to figure the injury done by the ticks is in the case of death of nonimmune cattle in the tick-free pastures of the South. Such animals are as susceptible to Texas fever as nonimmune northern cattle, and inasmuch as there is in many States only one out of every four farms infested with ticks, the cattle on the remaining farms will in many cases contract Texas fever when exposed to the fever tick. These losses can scarcely be computed, as the death rate depends so much on the season of the year when exposure occurs and on the age of the animal affected. However, the deaths among such cattle are considerable, although this fact is little appreciated or understood by many outside the infected area. On rare occasions a small outbreak of Texas fever occurs north of the quarantine line as a result of improperly disinfected cars, of unscrupulous dealers breaking the quarantine regulations, or of some accidental condition. Such damage, however, is slight, but should be considered in summing up the loss occasioned by the fever tick. The advertisement which a breeder obtains and the sales which are made by having his stock in the show ring are usually lost to the cattle raiser in the infected area who aspires to display his animals in the North, as they are barred from most of these exhibitions. On the other hand, the southern farmer is not given an opportunity to see and be stimulated by the fine specimens of northern cattle which might be shown at southern stock exhibits, for the reason that the danger of contracting Texas fever is too patent to warrant such exposure. A heavy expense is incurred by the Government and the States in enforcing the regulations that apply to the quarantine line. Another loss which is indirectly sustained by the southern cattle industry through increased freight rates is the cost, to the railroad companies, of cleaning and disinfecting the cars that carry cattle and in providing separate pens for them at various places. These statements are sufficient to indicate that the loss to the quarantined section from the cattle tick is something enormous. Such a series of encumbrances as those recorded could be carried by the cattle industry of no other section of the country than the South, whose excellent pastures, rich soil, and salubrious climate are the only reasons for its ability to overcome such obstacles in meeting the competition of the West; and it is the inherent capacity of the South for greatly increasing its herds and enlarging its pasture lands that makes the actual loss even secondary to the potential loss from restrictions necessitated by the presence of the cattle tick. This potential loss may be described as the difference between the value of the cattle industry of the South to-day and the extent to which this industry would be increased if farmers and ranchmen were assured that their lands and cattle would not become infested with fever ticks. Could this assurance be given, the beneficial effects would extend over the entire country, because the market of the northern breeder would thereby become greatly extended. These appalling losses and annual sacrifices of the cattle raisers of the infected district can be entirely effaced, and this at a small proportionate cost; for, with enthusiastic stockmen, satisfactory State legislation, sufficient money, and a corps of trained inspectors, the cattle tick may be exterminated, and every dollar expended in this work will be returned many times during each succeeding year. _The so-called period of incubation._--After the young ticks have attached themselves to cattle the fever appears about 10 days thereafter in midsummer. When the weather is cool, as in autumn, this period may be a little longer. The actual period of incubation may be shorter, for if blood from a case of Texas fever is injected into the blood vessels of healthy cattle the fever may appear within five days. When cattle graze upon pastures over which southern cattle have passed, the time when the disease appears varies within wide limits. When the animals have been put upon pastures immediately after southern cattle have infected them with ticks, it may take from 30 to 60 days, or even longer, before the disease appears. This will be readily understood when we recall the life history of ticks. The southern cattle leave only matured ticks which have dropped from them. These must lay their eggs and the latter must be hatched before any ticks can get upon native cattle. The shortest period is thus not less than 30 days if we include 10 days for the period of incubation after the young ticks have attached themselves to native cattle. When the infection of pastures with ticks has taken place early in the season, or when it is cold, the period is much longer, because it takes longer for the eggs to hatch. If native cattle are placed upon pastures which have been infected with ticks some time before, the disease will appear so much sooner, because the young ticks may be already hatched and attack the cattle at once. It will be evident, therefore, that the length of time between the exposure of native cattle on infected fields and the appearance of the disease depends on the date of original infection, and on the weather, whether cold or hot. When native cattle are placed upon fields on which young ticks are already present, they will show the fever in 13 to 15 days if the season is hot. The fever appears before the ticks have matured. In fact, they are still small enough to be overlooked. In any case very careful search should be made for them in those places which they prefer--the thighs, escutcheon, and udder. After the acute stage of the fever has passed the ticks begin to swell up and show very plainly. (Pl. XLVI, figs. 6 and 7.) _Prevention._--It is generally accepted that if southern cattle are entirely free from that species of tick known as _Margaropus annulatus_ they can be allowed to mingle with the most susceptible animals without danger. Furthermore, it has been learned from the study of the life history of the cattle tick and by observation that this tick infests pastures only transiently, never permanently, and will not mature except upon cattle or equines, that its extermination is possible, and that the disease it causes may be prevented. Therefore the various methods with these results in view should be directed toward the destruction of ticks on cattle as well as their eradication from the pastures. METHODS OF ERADICATING THE TICKS.[7] In undertaking measures for eradicating the tick it is evident that the pest may be attacked in two locations, namely, on the pasture and on the cattle. In freeing pastures the method followed may be either a direct or an indirect one. The former consists in excluding all cattle, horses, and mules from pastures until all the ticks have died from starvation. The latter consists in permitting the cattle and other animals to continue on the infested pasture and treating them at regular intervals with agents destructive to ticks and thus preventing engorged females from dropping and reinfesting the pasture. The larvæ on the pasture, or those which hatch from eggs laid by females already there, will all eventually meet death. Such of these as get upon the cattle from time to time will be destroyed by the treatment, while those which fail to find a host will starve in the pasture. Animals may be freed of ticks in two ways. They may be treated with an agent that will destroy all the ticks present, or they may be rotated at proper intervals on tick-free fields until all the ticks have dropped. The method most generally used is dipping the cattle in a solution of arsenic. The pasture-rotation method is not only more complicated, but the necessary tick-free fields are seldom available. DIPPING. The dipping vat is the best and cheapest means of applying the tick-destroying solution. The great advantage of dipping over spraying and applying remedies by hand lies in the fact that thoroughness of the treatment is practically assured. When eradication is undertaken, all the cattle, and also the horses and mules if they harbor ticks, are treated regularly every two weeks during the part of the year that the temperature is favorable to treatment, until the ticks have disappeared. The purpose of the treatment is to destroy all ticks that get on the animals before they have had a chance to mature and drop, thus preventing them from reinfesting the pasture, farm, or range. If the treatment used were absolutely effective in destroying each and every tick on the animals treated there would be no renewal of the infestation after the treatment is begun. The cattle would act simply as collectors of ticks which would be destroyed regularly by the treatment applied every two weeks. It is probable, however, that in most instances, either because of the lack of efficiency of the dip or imperfect application, or because of failure to dip all cattle systematically, some ticks escape treatment and reproduce, thus prolonging the time that otherwise would be required for eradication. If ticks apparently disappear from the cattle after they have been under treatment for some time, the dipping should not be discontinued until a number of careful inspections show that the cattle are free of ticks. If ticks continue on cattle until cold weather and then finally disappear it should be borne in mind that in all probability eradication has not been accomplished and that there may be engorged females, unhatched eggs, and inactive seed ticks on the farm or range, and that even if the cattle should remain free of ticks during the winter they may become reinfested the following spring. In any case in which ticks disappear from the cattle and treatment is discontinued, the cattle should be watched very carefully for ticks until ample time has elapsed to leave no doubt that eradication has been accomplished. As a general rule it has been found that if dipping is begun in March and systematically and thoroughly done, all cattle being dipped every 14 days until November, complete eradication will be secured. In dipping, each animal should be completely covered by the dip. To prevent any animals from going through the vat without becoming wet all over, a man, provided with a forked stick, should be stationed at the middle of the vat to shove under those that have not been completely submerged. Dipping is the only really satisfactory method of treating animals for ticks. In cases of emergency, however, or where there are not cattle enough within a radius of several miles to warrant the construction of a vat in which all the cattle of the community may be dipped, spraying may be advisable. In spraying animals the work should be done with great thoroughness and every portion of the body treated. An animal can not be sprayed properly unless it is tied or otherwise held, nor can good results be obtained unless the hair and skin are thoroughly wetted. _Preparation and use of arsenical dips._[8]--After experimenting for many years to discover a practical method for dipping cattle to destroy ticks without injury to the cattle, the Bureau of Animal Industry has developed a very satisfactory arsenical dip. Two formulas are given for homemade dips, one known as the "S-B" (self-boiled) and the other as the boiled dip. The former is the one usually employed. _The S-B dip._--The formula calls for two stock solutions, arsenic stock and tar stock, which must not be mixed except in the diluted dipping bath. Arsenic stock requires the following materials ready to hand before starting: Pounds. Caustic soda 4 White arsenic 10 Sal-soda crystals 10 There should be also some means for heating the solution in case, as sometimes happens because of impure materials, lack of skill, or some unforeseen circumstance, the heat created by mixing the materials should be insufficient to dissolve all the arsenic. In a 5-gallon kettle or metal[9] pail place the 4 pounds of caustic soda, add 1 gallon of cold water, and stir with a stick until the caustic soda is practically all dissolved. Without delay begin adding the white arsenic, in portions of a pound or two at a time, as fast as it can be dissolved without causing the solution to boil, stirring all the time. If the liquid begins to boil, stop stirring and let it cool slightly before adding more arsenic. The secret of success is to work the arsenic in fast enough to keep the solution very hot--nearly but not quite at the boiling point. The result should be a clear solution, except for dirt. If the liquid persistently remains muddy or milky, it may be because the operation has been conducted so fast that much water has been boiled out and sodium arsenite is beginning to crystallize, so add another gallon of water and stir. If the solution does not then clear up, the caustic soda must have been very low grade, and the undissolved substance must be arsenic. In that case, put the kettle over the fire, heat nearly, but not quite, to boiling, and stir. As soon as the solution of arsenic is complete, dilute to about 4 gallons, add the sodium carbonate, and stir until dissolved. _Cautions._--It is necessary to avoid splashing. Hence never work hurriedly; stir deliberately and regularly; do not dump in the arsenic and sal soda, but carefully slide them in from a grocer's scoop held close to the side of the pail and to the surface of the liquid. Perform the whole operation in a well-ventilated place and avoid inhaling steam. After the solution has become cold add water to make it to exactly 5 gallons,[10] mix well, let settle, and draw off into containers which can be tightly corked or otherwise closed. Jugs or demijohns are best, but tin cans will serve if occasionally inspected for leaks which may occur after a time through the action of the solution upon the solder of the can. Tar stock is prepared thus: In a large metal pail dissolve three-fourths of a pound of caustic soda in 1 quart of water, add 1 gallon of pine tar, and stir thoroughly with a wooden paddle until the mixture, which at first looks streaked and muddy, brightens to a uniform, thick fluid somewhat resembling molasses. Test it by letting about a teaspoonful drip from the paddle into a glass of water (a glass fruit jar or a wide-mouth bottle will do) and stirring thoroughly with a sliver of wood. It should mix perfectly with the water. Globules of tar which can be seen by looking at the glass from underneath and which can not be blended with the water by repeated stirring indicate that more caustic-soda solution is needed. In that case make up more caustic-soda solution of the same strength and add it, not more than a pint at a time, with thorough stirring, until the desired effect is produced. If an appropriate glass vessel for making the test is not at hand, take a little of the mixture between the fingers, then dip the fingers under water and try to rub off the tar. It should leave the fingers perfectly clean after a little rubbing with water. If an oily coating remains, more caustic-soda solution is needed. Such an extra addition of caustic soda will be required only in case of a very low-grade chemical or a very highly acid tar. The tar stock should be kept in closed containers, such as a pail with a friction top. The quantity of S-B arsenic stock or of tar stock made in one operation can be varied as desired, provided the above-given proportions of the ingredients are adhered to. But one should attempt to work the S-B formula on a larger scale only after skill and experience have been acquired. _The boiled dip_ is less convenient than the S-B dip, but the final composition and effect of dipping baths prepared from the two are the same. To make a 500-gallon bath provide: Sal-soda crystals 24 pounds. White arsenic 8 pounds. Pine tar 1 gallon. Put 25 gallons of water into a kettle or tank of from 40 to 50 gallons' capacity, heat to boiling, and add the sal soda. When this has dissolved add the white arsenic, then boil and stir for 15 minutes or longer, until the white arsenic has entirely disappeared. If intended for immediate use cool to 140° F. (by addition of cold water if desired), then pour in the pine tar in a thin stream while constantly and vigorously stirring the solution. Immediately empty the liquid into the dipping vat, which has already been three-fourths filled with water, and stir thoroughly. All the utensils must be free from greasy or oily matter which would coat the arsenic and hinder its solution. The operation of boiling requires constant attention to avoid loss by foaming. Hard water may be used, but in that case considerable undissolved material, which, however, does not contain any arsenic, may be left after boiling. For a stock solution to be kept on hand and used when needed add no tar, but after the solution has become cold make it up to 25 gallons, stir well, let settle, and draw off into containers which can be well closed. In this case the tar stock previously described is also required. _Diluting the dip._--First run water into the vat about three-fourths up to the dipping line, at which its capacity must be known. If tar stock is to be used the necessary amount will be one-third of a gallon for every 100 gallons of vat capacity. Measure it out, mix it with 2 or 3 times its volume of water and pour it along the surface of the water in the vat, stirring a little. Every 100 gallons of standard-strength bath calls for 1-3/5 pounds white arsenic, which quantity is contained in four-fifths of a gallon of S-B stock or in 5 gallons of boiled stock. From these figures the quantity of arsenic or stock needed to charge the vat may be calculated. Or one may base the calculation on the following facts: One pound of white arsenic will make 62-1/2 gallons of bath. One gallon of S-B stock will make 125 gallons of bath. One gallon of boiled arsenic stock will make 20 gallons of bath. All solutions of arsenic are considerably heavier than water and if carelessly put into the vat they may plunge to the bottom and be difficult to mix. Therefore always pour the arsenic stock or a proprietary dip in a thin stream evenly along the vat except at the shallow exit end. Another precaution to be taken in handling proprietary dips is never to mix them first with small quantities of water, which may "break" them. Pour them directly into the water in the vat. Finally, add water up to the dipping line and stir well. An excellent way to stir is by a pail tied to a rope. Sink it at the entrance end of the vat and haul it along the bottom to the exit. Then raise it, throw it back to the entrance end, and haul through again, repeating as many times as necessary but always hauling through in the same direction. The standard-strength bath prepared as above contains practically 0.19 per cent arsenious oxid when fresh. After use oxidation may set in and weaken it, but it will not need to be strengthened so long as it tests not less than 0.175 per cent arsenious oxid. To make up small quantities for spraying, to each 5 gallons of water measured out add first 2 fluid ounces (4 tablespoonfuls) of tar stock, and then 5-1/8 fluid ounces of S-B stock or 2-1/8 pints of boiled arsenic stock. The standard strength of bath should be adhered to so far as possible because its effectiveness against ticks will effect eradication in the least time and with fewest dippings. But if time is not pressing it is sometimes best to begin with a lower strength, say 0.14 or 0.15 per cent, and gradually work up to full strength as the cattle become accustomed to the treatment. This is certainly a wise method for the individual cattle owner who is outside the area of cooperative work and who lacks aid and advice from experts. Weather conditions also need to be considered. Hot or moist weather is more trying to the cattle than cool or dry weather. The longer the time needed for the cattle to dry off after dipping, which of course primarily depends on the proportion of moisture in the air, the more liable they are to show blistering or other injury through the continued absorption of arsenic by the skin. The combination of heat and moisture is particularly bad, and under such conditions it may be desirable, unless other conditions prohibit, to use the bath somewhat weaker than standard strength. The following table shows the quantities of arsenic and stock solutions contained in 100 gallons of bath of different strengths, so that the quantities necessary to charge a vat of any size at any strength can be found by simple multiplication. _Composition of dipping baths._ +-----------+------------------------------+ | Actual | Per 100 gallons of bath. | | arsenious +------------------------------+ | oxid. | White | S-B | Boiled | | | arsenic. | stock. | stock. | +-----------+----------+---------+---------+ | Per cent. | Pounds. | Gallons.| Gallons.| | 0.05 | 0.42 | 0.21 | 1.3 | | .06 | .50 | .25 | 1.6 | | .07 | .58 | .29 | 1.8 | | .08 | .66 | .33 | 2.1 | | .09 | .75 | .38 | 2.3 | | .10 | .83 | .42 | 2.6 | | .11 | .91 | .46 | 2.8 | | .12 | 1.00 | .50 | 3.1 | | .13 | 1.08 | .54 | 3.4 | | .14 | 1.16 | .58 | 3.6 | | .15 | 1.25 | .63 | 3.9 | | .16 | 1.33 | .67 | 4.2 | | .17 | 1.41 | .71 | 4.4 | | .18 | 1.49 | .75 | 4.7 | | .19 | 1.58 | .79 | 4.9 | | .20 | 1.66 | .83 | ... | | .21 | 1.74 | .87 | ... | | .22 | 1.83 | .92 | ... | | .23 | 1.91 | .96 | ... | | .24 | 2.00 | 1.00 | ... | +-----------+----------+---------+---------+ As dipping goes on the bath naturally needs replenishing, and its strength probably needs correction from time to time. Full directions on these points may be found in Farmers' Bulletin 1057. _Prepared dips._--Proprietary arsenical cattle dips appear now to have passed the experimental stage and to have become established as reliable and useful products. At any rate this can be said of the brands which have received permission for use in official dipping in place of the homemade dip. The formulas and standard samples of all such brands are in possession of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the manufacturers are required to guarantee that their products as placed on the market will be kept up to standard and that all requirements of the bureau will be observed. Like the homemade dip they all contain sodium arsenite as the active tick-killing agent. They do not all contain pine tar, because that substance is difficult to blend into a highly concentrated product, but they all contain some other substance or mixture of substances of such character and in such quantity as field trials have proved will produce the same effects. They are not regarded as any more effective or any milder on the cattle than properly prepared homemade dips. None the less they are undoubtedly safer for general use because they offer decidedly fewer opportunities for making mistakes in the quantities used or in the operations gone through and also fewer chances for accidental poisoning or other injury from the handling of powerful chemicals. Whether their higher cost is sufficiently outweighed by these considerations is necessarily a matter for individual decision. _Precautions in the use of arsenic and arsenical dips._--The fact that arsenic is a violent poison is what renders it valuable, for the fever tick is hard to kill. But, like a keen-edged tool, it may be decidedly dangerous if ignorantly or carelessly handled. Three possibilities of danger must be kept constantly in mind; danger to oneself, danger to other persons, danger to animals. The dry, powdered white arsenic should be kept in a tightly covered pail, plainly labeled. Paper bags are unsafe because they easily burst, and arsenic so scattered about looks harmless enough. In weighing or otherwise handling the arsenic avoid raising dust or breathing it in, if raised, and keep it off the skin and clothing. In mixing or boiling stock solutions work only in a well-ventilated place, and on the windward side of the kettle so that steam arising from it will not be inhaled. The stock solutions are in some respects more dangerous than the original substance because the arsenic in them is already in solution and can act very quickly. If any gets on the skin or clothing it must be washed off without delay. Cattle must be kept away from such solutions or from anything that has been in contact with them, for cattle craving salt have been poisoned by licking the outside of leaky barrels and by licking the earth around dipping vats where a little concentrate had been carelessly spilled in charging the vat. All such poisoned earth must be removed, buried, and replaced by fresh. The diluted bath is naturally much less dangerous, but no chances can be taken with it. No puddles from which animals may drink should be allowed to accumulate. The persons who do the dipping should not allow the skin or clothing to be wet by the dip any more or any longer than absolutely necessary. When spraying, the operator should see to it that neither he nor the animals inhale any of the spray. When a vat is to be emptied the approved practice is to run the waste bath into a pit properly guarded by a fence, where it will gradually seep away under the surface and do no harm, provided only that seepage can not be carried to a well, stream, or spring from which any person or domestic animal may drink. The symptoms of arsenical poisoning are rather variable and also depend on the size of the dose and the method of administration. If an animal sickens or dies shortly after dipping it by no means follows that arsenical poisoning or any other effect of the dipping is the cause. Very few cattle relative to the total number dipped have suffered undoubted arsenical poisoning and in most of the cases the cause could be traced to somebody's error or carelessness. In regard to arsenical poisoning of human beings there is a standard antidote, which may be obtained at any drug store with directions for use. It should be kept on hand for emergencies. If the antidote is not at hand the poison must be removed from the stomach by encouraging repeated vomiting, and soothing drinks such as milk, white of eggs and water, or flour and water must be freely given meanwhile. A suspected case of arsenical poisoning must have the attention of a physician at the earliest possible moment, as sometimes the poison works very quickly. _Crude petroleum._--Various kinds of crude petroleum and emulsions of it have been used with more or less success in destroying ticks, but on account of the difficulty of obtaining suitable grades of oil and the liability of injury to cattle, their use has been practically abandoned. _Method of dipping._--The method usually adopted in dipping cattle is to construct a narrow swimming tank with a chute at one end for the entrance of the cattle, and a sloping exit at the other end when the cattle emerge after passing through the vat. (See Pl. XLIX, fig. 2.) A drip chute, or floor, is connected with the exit, where the excess of dip is allowed to drip off the animals and to drain into the vat. Plans and specifications for installing dipping plants may be obtained from the Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. TREATMENT. When Texas fever has broken out, all animals, the sick as well as the healthy, should at once be removed to a noninfected pasture. While this may not cut short the disease, it may save the lives of some by removing them from the possibility of attack by more young ticks. Removal from infected pastures likewise prevents a second attack, in October or early in November, which is caused by another generation of ticks. Sick native cattle infect with a new generation of ticks the pasture to which they are removed, but these usually appear so late that they have but little opportunity to do any damage; hence, sick natives do not, as a rule, cause visible disease in other natives. It is of importance to remove all ticks, so far as this is possible, from sick animals, since they abstract a considerable quantity of blood and thereby retard the final recovery. Medical treatment of the sick has generally been unsatisfactory, although in chronic cases and those occurring late in the fall beneficial results have followed. If the animal is constipated, a drench containing 1 pound of Epsom salt dissolved in 1 quart of water should be administered, followed by sulphate of quinin in doses of 30 to 90 grains, according to the size of the animal, four times a day until the system is well saturated with it. Tincture of digitalis one-half ounce and alcohol 2 ounces may be combined with the quinin, according to indications of individual cases. An iron tonic containing reduced iron 2 ounces, powdered gentian 4 ounces, powdered nux vomica 2 ounces, powdered rhubarb 2 ounces, and potassium nitrate 6 ounces will be found beneficial in the convalescent stage when the fever has run its course. This tonic should be given in heaping teaspoonful doses three times a day in the feed. Good nursing is essential in treating these cases, and the animal should be given a nutritious, laxative diet with plenty of clean and cool drinking water and allowed to rest in a quiet place. If the stable or pasture is infested with ticks, the animal should be placed in a tick-free inclosure to prevent additional infestation with these parasites and the introduction of fresh infection into the blood. Furthermore, all ticks that can be seen should be removed from the sick cattle, as they keep weakening the animal by withdrawing a considerable quantity of blood, and thereby retard recovery. QUARANTINE REGULATIONS. The sanitary regulations issued by the Department of Agriculture for the control of cattle shipments from the infected districts have for their initial purpose the prevention of the transportation of ticks from infected regions to those that are not infected, either upon cattle or in stock cars or other conveyer. They are based upon the fact that Texas fever is carried north only by the cattle tick, and the exclusion of this parasite from the noninfected territory has in every instance been found a certain method of excluding Texas fever. The regulations governing the movement of cattle from below the quarantine line are made yearly by the Secretary of Agriculture, and they define the boundary of infected districts. The infected area as now determined is shown in maps issued periodically. In consequence of the enforcement of these quarantine regulations, Texas fever has been practically prevented in the noninfected districts for several years, and little or no hardship has been caused to stockmen handling cattle from the infected areas. Prior to the adoption of these regulations the tick-infested district was rapidly extending northward, but since the quarantine line was established and rational regulations enforced it has gradually been moved farther south. This problem of still further reducing the infested area is of the greatest importance to the cattlemen of the South--in fact, to those on both sides of the line--and one which is receiving special consideration by this department as well as by many of the interested States. TICK ERADICATION. Systematic cooperative work by the Federal Government and the affected States for the eradication of the cattle ticks which transmit Texas fever was begun in the summer of 1906 under authority given by Congress in the appropriation act for the Department of Agriculture. The first Federal appropriation for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1907, was $82,500, and for the fiscal year 1908 an appropriation of $150,000 was made, then for several years $250,000, and this has been increased to $660,000 for 1922. Funds have also been provided by States and counties. The original infected area amounted to 728,543 square miles. Of this territory there has been released from quarantine as a result of the work above mentioned 523,837 square miles (up to July 1, 1922). In other words, 72 per cent of the area has been freed from ticks in 16 years. Great improvement has resulted from this work in the released territory. More cattle are being raised, and a better grade of breeding stock is being introduced; calves grow faster, and cattle put on flesh more rapidly during the grazing season and go into the winter in better condition because of the absence of the ticks; they can be marketed without quarantine restrictions, and higher prices are being obtained; dairy cows give a larger yield of milk; and values of farm lands are enhanced. The difference between the prices realized for cattle from the tick-infested region and the prices of cattle of similar grades from above the quarantine line has ranged from $2.25 to $5 a head at the principal northern live-stock markets, without taking into account the improvement in quality and weight of cattle because of the eradication of the ticks. It can easily be seen that the extermination of the ticks means a large total annual increase in the prices obtained for southern cattle sold in northern markets. In addition to this, the increase in prices of cattle sold locally in the South would represent a large sum. This local increase has been found to amount to from $3 to $15 a head in territory freed from ticks. An agricultural official of one of the Southern States has reported that calves in the tick-free area bring double the prices that can be obtained for similar calves in the tick-infested region. Heretofore it has been impracticable to improve the quality of southern cattle by introducing fine breeding animals from other sections, because such animals were liable to contract Texas fever and die unless protected by inoculation. Furthermore, it is impossible for animals to attain good growth and to thrive when they are heavily infested with ticks. With the eradication of the ticks, however, the southern farmers are enabled to introduce good breeding animals and to improve the grade of their stock. There is no longer any doubt that it is entirely practicable to exterminate the ticks throughout the entire region, and the accomplishment of this result will be of tremendous economic advantage not only to the South but to the whole country. The rate of progress depends mainly on two factors-- the amounts appropriated by the Federal and State Governments, and the cooperation of the people. * * * * * SOUTHERN CATTLE FEVER (TEXAS FEVER, TICK FEVER). DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PLATE XLIV. Normal spleen and spleen affected by Texas fever. Fig. 1. Spleen of an acute, fatal case of Texas fever. The narrow end of the spleen is here represented. Fig. 2. Spleen of healthy steer. Though the latter animal weighed one-half more than the former, the weight of the diseased spleen (6-7/8 pounds) was nearly three times that of the healthy spleen (2-3/8 pounds). PLATE XLV. Texas fever. Fig. 1. The cut surface of a healthy liver taken from a steer slaughtered for beef. Fig. 2. The cut surface of the liver in Texas fever. Fig. 3. Appearance of the urine in an acute, fatal case of Texas fever. Fig. 4. Red corpuscles, magnified 1,000 diameters, containing the parasite of Texas fever. This appears as a blue point _a_ near the edge of the corpuscle. The blood was taken from a skin incision. The case was nonfatal and occurred late in the fall. Fig. 5. Red corpuscles from the blood of an acute, fatal case, 20 hours before death. The Texas-fever microbes _a_ are shown as pear-shaped bodies, stained with methylene blue, within the red corpuscles. The larger body on the right _b_ is a white blood corpuscle, also stained with methylene blue. (Magnified 1,000 diameters.) PLATE XLVI. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_), the carrier of Texas fever. Fig. 1. A series of ticks, natural size, from the smallest, just hatched from the egg, to the mature female, ready to drop off and lay eggs. Fig. 2. Eggs, magnified 5 times. Fig. 3. The young tick just hatched (magnified 40 times). Fig. 4. The male after the last molt (magnified 10 times). Fig. 5. The female after the last molt (magnified 10 times). Fig. 6. A portion of the skin of the udder, showing the small ticks. From a fatal case of Texas fever produced by placing young ticks on the animal. (Natural size.) Fig. 7. A portion of the ear of the same animal, showing same full-grown ticks ready to drop off. (Natural size.) PLATE XLVII. The cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_). Fig. 1. Dorsal view of male. (Greatly enlarged. Original.) Fig. 2. Ventral view of male. (Greatly enlarged. Original.) Fig. 3. Dorsal view of replete female. (Greatly enlarged. Original.) Fig. 4. Ventral view of same. PLATE XLVIII. Portion of a steer's hide, showing the Texas-fever tick (_Margaropus annulatus_). (Natural size. Original.) PLATE XLIX. Fig. 1. Tick-infested steer. Fig. 2. Dipping cattle to kill ticks. PLATE L. Facsimile of poster used to show the difference between cattle of similar breeding raised on a tick-free farm in one case and on a ticky farm in the other. * * * * * CHRONIC BACTERIAL DYSENTERY. Chronic bacterial dysentery is a chronic infectious disease of bovines caused by an acid-fast bacillus simulating the tubercle bacillus and characterized by marked diarrhea, anemia, and emaciation, terminating in death. This disease was observed in the United States for the first time by Pearson in Pennsylvania cattle, and later by Mohler in Virginia cattle, and in an imported heifer from the island of Jersey at the Athenia quarantine station of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Pearson proposed the name chronic bacterial dysentery for this affection, and it has also been termed Johne's disease, chronic bacterial enteritis, chronic hypertrophic enteritis, and chronic bovine pseudotuberculous enteritis by various European investigators. The disease was first studied in 1895 by Johne and Frothingham in Dresden, but they were inclined to attribute to the avian tubercle bacillus the cause of the peculiar lesions of enteritis which they observed. In 1904 Markus reported this disease in Holland, and subsequently it was observed in Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, and Great Britain. _Cause._--The bacillus, which has been invariably demonstrated in the intestinal lesions and mesenteric lymph glands in this disease, is a rod about 2 to 3 microns long and 0.5 micron wide. It stains more or less irregularly, like the tubercle bacillus, and moreover the similarity goes further, in that the organism is also strongly acid-fast, which facts led Johne and Frothingham to surmise that the disease was caused by avian tubercle bacilli. However, it has now been plainly demonstrated that the bacillus of chronic bacterial dysentery is readily distinguished from the latter organisms, for while it resembles the tubercle bacillus in form and staining qualities, no one has succeeded in growing it in culture media or in reproducing the disease by injecting experiment animals. _Symptoms._--Probably the first symptom noticed is that the animal is losing condition despite the fact that its appetite is good and the food nourishing. This is soon followed by a diarrhea which, while moderate at first, soon becomes excessive and may be either irregular or persistent, the feces being of the consistency of molasses and passed frequently. In the meantime the hair becomes dry and harsh and the animal falls off considerably in weight. The temperature, however, remains about normal. The appetite does not seem to be greatly impaired until the last few weeks of life, but nevertheless emaciation continues, the animal becomes more and more anemic, great muscular weakness and exhaustion are manifested, and death follows, apparently as the result of the persistent diarrhea and great emaciation. The disease may continue for four or five weeks or may last for a year, or even longer, before death intervenes. _Lesions._--The lesions observed on post-mortem are remarkably slight and are out of all proportion to the severity of the symptoms manifested. The disease appears to start in the small intestines, especially in the lower portion, where the lesions are usually the most marked, but it also involves the large intestines, including the rectum. The mucous membrane may alone be affected, although usually in the long-standing cases the submucosa is also invaded and the entire intestinal wall is then much thicker than normal and the tissue infiltrated with an inflammatory exudate. The mucous membrane or inside lining membrane is markedly wrinkled or corrugated, showing large, coarse folds with more or less reddening or hemorrhagic patches or spots on the summits of the ridges, especially noticeable in the large intestines. The mesenteric lymph glands are usually somewhat enlarged and appear watery on section. The other organs do not appear to be affected except from the anemia present in the later stages of the disease. _Differential diagnosis._--The principal disease with which bacterial dysentery may be confused is tuberculosis, but the application of the tuberculin test will readily diagnose the latter disease, while no reaction will be noted in case the injected animal is suffering with the former affection. The disease may also be mistaken for the parasitic affections resulting from stomach worms (verminous gastritis) and intestinal parasites, especially uncinariasis, but a microscopic examination of the feces is necessary in order to establish definitely the diagnosis. _Treatment._--As with all other forms of infectious disease, it is advisable to separate immediately the diseased and suspected cattle from the healthy animals. The feces passed by the former animals should be placed on cultivated soil where healthy cattle will not be exposed to them, as the bacilli producing the disease are readily found in such manure. The stalls, stables, and barnyards should also be thoroughly disinfected, as has been described under "Tuberculosis," in this chapter, special attention being given to those places which have been soiled by feces. The administration of medicines has thus far been quite unsatisfactory, although treatment should be directed toward disinfecting the intestines with intestinal antiseptics, such as tannopin in 1 dram doses twice daily, and strengthening the animal by the use of stimulants such as strychnin in half-grain doses given twice daily hypodermically. Salol, turpentine, or subnitrate of bismuth in a starch or wheat-flour gruel may also give temporary relief, but the diarrhea is likely to reappear and cause the death of the animal. In all cases the feed must be carefully selected to assure good quality, and should consist preferably of nutritious dry feed. NAGANA. Nagana, also called tsetse-fly disease, is an infectious fever occurring chiefly in horses and cattle, characterized by alternating paroxysms and intermissions and produced by a specific flagellate protozoan (_Trypanosoma brucei_) in the blood. It is probably transmitted from animal to animal solely by the bites of the tsetse fly. This insect is something like a large house fly, and when it settles on a diseased animal, sucks the blood and infects its proboscis, it is enabled on biting a second animal to infect the latter by direct inoculation. This disease is found throughout a large portion of central and southern Africa, along the low-lying and swampy valleys. It has never occurred in the United States, nor is it known to be present in the Philippines, but its relation to surra and the possibility of its appearance in one of our island dependencies are the reasons for including a few remarks at this time. _Symptoms._--The chief symptoms in addition to the fever, which is usually about 104° to 105° F., are the muscular wasting, progressive anemia, and loss of power, together with the edema most marked about the head, legs, abdomen, and genital organs. The urine is yellow and turbid, and occasionally contains albumin and blood. There is paralysis of one or both of the hind legs, difficult urination and defecation, labored breathing, discharge from the eyes and nose, extreme thirst, and gradual extension of paralysis to other parts of the body. The disease runs a chronic course, lasting from three to six weeks in horses, and from one to six months in cattle. Besides these animals, the mule, ass, buffalo, antelope, hyena, camel, and dog contract the disease naturally, and sheep, goats, cats, and small laboratory animals succumb to artificial inoculation. _Lesions._--The spleen and lymphatic glands are enlarged. There are sero-fibrinous exudates in the body cavities, the liver is enlarged and engorged, heart flabby, and a catarrhal condition is present in the respiratory passages. Pathological changes occur in the spinal cord. The finding of the trypanosoma by microscopic examination of the blood will be conclusive evidence for diagnosis. _Treatment._--Treatment has not proved satisfactory. Quinin, arsenic, methylene blue, and other drugs have been used, but without success. Endeavors thus far made to produce immunity from this disease have likewise been unavailing. CATTLE FARCY. This is a chronic disease of cattle occurring in France and the island of Guadeloupe, West Indies. It is characterized by caseating nodular swellings, first of the skin and afterwards of the superficial lymphatic vessels and glands, finally proving fatal within a year by extension to the viscera. The swellings rupture and discharge a purulent yellowish fluid, which contains the causative organism. This affection, called farcin du boeuf by the French, resembles cutaneous glanders or farcy of horses, but is caused by an entirely different organism, the streptothrix of Nocard. Moreover, cattle are immune from glanders, and for this reason the name, unfortunately applied to this disease, should not lead to any confusion with the cutaneous glanders or farcy of horses. Although the disease has been described as occurring only in Guadeloupe and France, the possibility of its occurrence in American possessions warrants its mention in this chapter. _Treatment._--Treatment consists in making incisions into the swellings and syringing them out with 2 per cent compound cresol solution. The cavities may then be packed with cotton, soaked in 5 per cent zinc-chlorid solution. The swollen lymphatics may also be bathed or covered with cloths wrung out in this solution. OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES. The following are also infectious diseases of cattle, a discussion of which will be found in previous chapters: Page. Contagious abortion 167 White scour of calves 261 Infectious ophthalmia (pink eye) 345 FOOTNOTES: [4] These membranes comprise the smooth, very delicate, glistening lining of the large body cavities. In the thorax the serous membrane (pleura) covers the ribs and diaphragm as well as the whole lung surface. In the abdomen a similar membrane (peritoneum) lines the interior of the cavity and covers the bowels, liver, spleen, etc. [5] Hogs are subject to actinomycosis. [6] The distribution of Government blackleg vaccine was discontinued July 1, 1922. [7] Only a general outline of methods of eradication will be given here. For detailed information, including directions for the construction of dipping vats and for the preparation of dips, the reader is referred to Farmers' Bulletin 1057, which may be obtained free upon application to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. [8] For fuller information see Farmers' Bulletin 1057, from which the directions here given are mainly derived. [9] The chemicals employed have no effect upon iron. They will, however, actively corrode zinc, tin, or solder; hence a soldered pail must be watched for leaks and is far inferior to a seamless pail, stamped from a single sheet of iron. A tinned pail is preferred to a galvanized one, but a plain iron seamless pail or an iron kettle should be obtained if possible. [10] Best done by previously determining by measurement the depth of 5 gallons of water in the kettle. Set the kettle exactly level and mark the depth on a stick held vertically on the center of the bottom. ANIMAL PARASITES OF CATTLE. By B. H. RANSOM, Ph. D., _Chief of Zoological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry._ The animal parasites of cattle comprise more than a hundred different species, belonging to various groups of the animal kingdom. Fortunately not all these parasites occur in this country--many are uncommon, and many are comparatively harmless. Some forms, however, occur frequently, and some are of distinct importance to the American stockman on account of the damage for which they are responsible. It is these parasites particularly which will be referred to in the present article, and although some forms are discussed which are rare or apparently of little economic importance, most of the minor and unusual parasites and species not found in this country have been omitted from consideration. FLIES.[11] Of the various species of flies which infest cattle some are injurious on account of the annoyance, pain, and loss of blood due to their bites, and sometimes also on account of diseases or parasites which are thus transmitted from the blood of diseased animals to that of healthy cattle, while others, which in the winged adult state do not bite, are injurious because they live parasitic on cattle during their larval stages. _Remedies for flies._[12]--Most remedies used for protecting cattle from the attacks of flies have to be applied frequently, and few, if any, will keep flies away for more than a day or two following their application. The numerous proprietary fly repellents to be found on the market are usually more expensive, and often less efficacious than homemade mixtures. At the Minnesota experiment station rancid lard 1 pound and kerosene one-half pint, mixed thoroughly until a creamy mass forms, was found to give excellent results as a fly repellent, lasting for two or three days, when rubbed not too thickly with a cloth or with the bare hand over the backs of cows. Mixtures of cottonseed oil and pine tar containing from 10 to 50 per cent of the latter substance were found by investigations in the Bureau of Animal Industry to have a marked repellent action against flies when applied lightly every day. A too free application of tar mixtures and other preparations containing phenols is liable to cause poisoning; hence care should be observed in this regard. Jensen (1909) recommends the following formula, which is said to protect cows for a week: Common laundry soap 1 pound. Water 4 gallons. Crude petroleum 1 gallon. Powdered naphthalin 4 ounces. Cut the soap into thin shavings and dissolve in water by the aid of heat; dissolve the naphthalin in the crude oil, mix the two solutions, put them into an old dasher churn, and mix thoroughly for 15 minutes. The mixture should be applied once or twice a week with a brush. It must be stirred well before being used. THE STABLE FLY (STOMOXYS CALCITRANS).[13] This fly very closely resembles the house fly, but, unlike the latter, it is a biting fly. It is common about stables and often enters dwellings, especially in cloudy weather. According to Noé, it is the agent of transmission of a parasitic roundworm of cattle (_Setaria labiato-papillosa_, see p. 529). This fly has been shown capable of transmitting anthrax from diseased to healthy animals, and under some conditions it may transmit surra, a disease caused by a blood parasite which affects horses, cattle, and other livestock. The annoyance suffered by cattle and horses from stable flies is much lessened if the stables are darkened. The screening of doors and windows, however, is preferable, as ventilation is not interfered with as it is in darkening stables. For milk cows coverings made from burlap (double thickness), including trouserlike coverings for the legs, may be used when the flies are very numerous and troublesome. One of the fly repellents mentioned above may be applied to cattle to protect them from stable flies. The Hodge flytrap fitted to the windows of dairy barns is a useful means of destroying stable flies. The United States Bureau of Entomology has found that a mixture of fish oil (1 gallon), oil of pine tar (2 ounces), oil of pennyroyal (2 ounces), and kerosene (1/2 pint) is fairly effective for a short time when applied lightly, but thoroughly, to the portions of animals not covered with blankets. The risk of poisoning with tar mixtures as already mentioned should be borne in mind in using this remedy. Care should be taken to apply it lightly. The stable fly breeds in moist accumulations of straw, chaff, cow or horse manure, and various fermenting vegetable substances. The débris collecting in and under outdoor feed troughs, and the remains of straw stacks are favorable breeding places for the stable fly. Under the most favorable conditions about three weeks are required for development from the egg to the adult stage. The proper care of straw and the proper disposal of stable manure are very necessary in the control of stable flies. Straw stacks should be carefully built so as to shed rain, and loose straw or chaff should be scattered or burned. Straw not required for winter feed should be promptly disposed of by burning or scattering and plowing it under. Stable manure should be hauled out and scattered at regular intervals, preferably every three days, and the vicinity of stables should be kept free from accumulations of straw and hay that may become wet and serve as breeding places for the stable fly. THE HORNFLY (LYPEROSIA IRRITANS).[14] This fly, now found nearly everywhere in the United States, was introduced into this country from Europe about the year 1885. Hornflies have the habit of clustering about the base of the horn (fig. 2), whence the name by which they are popularly known. They do not damage the horn, and congregate there only to rest. In view of the general practice of dehorning cattle, the name hornfly is less distinctive than it once was. Moreover, hornflies rest on other parts of the body as well as the horns. When resting, their wings are held down close to the body (fig. 1); when feeding, their wings are held out nearly at right angles, ready for flight. They puncture the skin and suck blood, usually attacking the upper parts of the body, particularly those which are out of reach of the animal's head or tail. Unlike most flies, they remain on the animal more or less constantly, day and night. Owing probably to the irritation and annoyance caused by these flies, cattle often do not thrive as they should during seasons when the flies are numerous. The hornfly has also been charged with transmitting diseases, such as anthrax. [Illustration: PLATE XLIV. NORMAL SPLEEN AND SPLEEN AFFECTED BY TEXAS FEVER. Fig. 1. SPLEEN OF AN ACUTE, FATAL CASE OF TEXAS FEVER. Fig. 2. SPLEEN OF HEALTHY STEER.] [Illustration: PLATE XLV. TEXAS FEVER.] [Illustration: PLATE XLVI. THE CATTLE TICK (MARGAROPUS ANNULATUS), THE CARRIER OF TEXAS FEVER.] [Illustration: PLATE XLVII. THE CATTLE TICK (MARGAROPUS ANNULATUS). Figs. 1 and 2 DORSAL AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF MALE. Figs. 3 and 4 DORSAL AND VENTRAL VIEWS OF REPLETE FEMALE. (GREATLY ENLARGED.)] [Illustration: PLATE XLVIII. PORTION OF A STEER'S HIDE, SHOWING THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK (MARGAROPUS ANNULATUS) OF THE UNITED STATES. NATURAL SIZE. ORIGINAL.] [Illustration: PLATE XLIX. FIG. 1.--TICK-INFESTED STEER.] FIG. 2.--DIPPING CATTLE TO KILL TICKS.] [Illustration: PLATE L. FACSIMILE OF POSTER USED IN TICK ERADICATION WORK.] The fly lays its eggs in freshly dropped cow manure. They hatch in about 24 hours, and the larvæ or maggots in four or five days develop to the pupal stage, which lasts a week or 10 days. From the pupal stage the mature fly emerges. The entire process of development from the deposition of the egg to the appearance of the mature fly therefore may be completed in two weeks, or even in a shorter time. To protect cattle from attacks of the hornfly they may be treated with one of the remedies mentioned above (p. 502). Dipping cattle in a vat provided with splashboards set at the proper angle destroys most of the hornflies present on the animals. Unless the splashboards are used all but a few of the flies succeed in escaping as the cattle plunge into the bath and later return to them. Scattering the droppings of cattle with a shovel, or with brush dragged over pastures, in order to insure the rapid drying of the manure and consequent destruction of the larvæ, is, when practicable, an efficient means of reducing the number of these flies. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Hornfly (_Lyperosia irritans_) in resting position. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Hornflies (_Lyperosia irritans_) on cow horn. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] BUFFALO GNATS. These small flies, also known as black flies, are about one-eighth of an inch long and have a characteristic "humped" back (fig. 3). They breed in running water and appear in swarms during spring and summer, often in enormous numbers, causing great annoyance to stock and human beings, on account of their bites and their entrance into the eyes, nose, mouth, and other openings of the body. Their bites appear to be poisonous, and in seasons especially favorable to the gnats heavy losses of horses and cattle often occur. Buffalo gnats are more troublesome in bright, sunny weather than when it is cloudy, and animals which have not shed their winter coats suffer more from their attacks than those with smooth coats. Cattle kept in darkened stables are not molested. The application of one of the fly repellents already mentioned (p. 502) may help to protect animals from buffalo gnats. The burning of smudges is also a useful means of protecting stock from the attacks of these flies. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Buffalo gnat. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] SCREW WORMS.[15] Screw worms (fig. 4) are the maggots of a fly (_Chrysomyia macellaria_), so called from their fancied resemblance to a screw. The adult fly (fig. 5) is about one-third of an inch long, with a bluish-green body, red eyes, and with three dark longitudinal stripes on the back (thorax). Attracted by odors of decay, it deposits its eggs, 300 to 400 at a time, in cuts, sores, castration wounds, etc. The crushing of a tick on the skin commonly results in screw-worm infection at that point. The eggs hatch in a few hours and the larvæ or maggots, or so-called screw worms, begin to burrow into the flesh and continue burrowing and feeding from three to six days, after which they leave the wound and crawl into the earth, there transforming into the quiescent pupal stage. This stage is completed in three to fourteen days. The mature flies then emerge from the pupal envelope and are soon ready for egg laying. From two to three weeks are therefore required for the entire life cycle, although under certain conditions it is possible for the fly to undergo its full development in as short a time as seven days, and on the other hand as long as a month is often required. Besides cattle, the screw-worm fly attacks sheep, horses, dogs, and man. In the case of hogs it is generally the ears which are affected. The fly also breeds in dead animals, and all carcasses should therefore be buried deeply or burned. The complete destruction of all dead animals by burning has been found by the Bureau of Entomology to be by far the best method of controlling screw worms. _Treatment for screw worms._--For proper treatment an animal suffering from screw worms should be caught and thrown. Chloroform is then poured into the wound, taking care that it penetrates thoroughly into all the burrows of the screw worm, if necessary using a slender stick or a small bunch of twisted hay as a probe. The animal should be held for several minutes in order to insure the continued action of chloroform. Instead of chloroform, gasoline may be used, and carbon tetrachlorid is said by some authorities to give good results. Finally, the dead or dying maggots may be removed with forceps, the wound washed with a weak carbolic or cresylic acid solution, and painted with pine tar to reduce the chances of further attack by flies. Finally the wound should be dressed with a carbolic or cresylic ointment to promote healing and thus prevent further infection, or the wound may be painted with pine tar. Dipping in the arsenical dips used for destroying cattle ticks is a convenient method of treatment if many animals are involved. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Screw worm (larva of _Chrysomyia macellaria_). Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Screw-worm fly (_Chrysomyia macellaria_). Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] GRUBS, WARBLES, BOTS. Ox warbles are whitish or, when full grown, dark-colored grubs or maggots that develop from the eggs deposited on the hairs of cattle by certain flies known as warble flies. In the United States there are two species of ox-warble flies, technically known as _Hypoderma lineatum_ and _Hypoderma bovis._ These flies somewhat resemble bees in their general appearance, but like all flies have only two wings. The first named, _H. lineatum_, is commonly called the heel fly and is more generally distributed over the United States than the other species. The tail has a distinctive reddish-orange color and the legs are rough and hairy. This fly commonly deposits its eggs about the coronet, whence the name of heel fly, and on the fetlocks, knees, and hocks. When cattle are resting, eggs are deposited along the line of contact of the body with the soil. Cattle are frequently indifferent to the activity of this fly in depositing its eggs. Commonly 8 to 10 eggs, sometimes as many as 14, are attached to a single hair. In the United States the other warble fly, _H. bovis_, has been found only in the North (New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Michigan, Iowa, Missouri, and Washington) and has not yet been found in the Southern States. The tail is orange-yellow, lighter in color than that of the other species, and the legs have but few hairs. This fly commonly deposits its eggs on the outside of the hind quarters and above the fetlocks when the animals are moving, or lower down if they are quiet. Cattle are usually much disturbed by the activity of this fly and not infrequently appear terror stricken. The eggs are attached singly, one egg to a hair near its base. The eggs of the warble flies hatch as a rule in about a week, the time varying with local conditions. The young warble is about 1 mm. (1/25 inch) long. It crawls to the base of the hair and burrows into the hair follicle. The entrance of the larvæ frequently causes sudden appearance of swellings. The larvæ of _H. bovis_ in entering the skin rarely cause a flow of serum or pus formation, but those of _H. lineatum_ commonly cause a considerable flow of serum with pus formation resulting in a matting of the hair on affected areas of the skin. The warbles after penetrating the skin migrate through the body and ultimately reach the backs of the cattle, _H. lineatum_ usually appearing there in northern latitudes about the middle of December and _H. bovis_ about a month later. During their migrations, before they reach the back, the young warbles spend a considerable period in the walls of the esophagus, or gullet, and may be found in this location as early as August 15. During the fall and winter a large proportion of the gullets of cattle that are slaughtered are found to be infested with warbles, and are known as grubby gullets or weasands in the packing houses. When the warbles first appear in the back they are about 3/5 inch long. They cause swellings about the size of pigeons' eggs, each swelling having a small hole in the center, which has been punctured in the skin by the warble to enable it to breathe. Through this hole the warble leaves the back of the cow when it has completed its parasitic stage of development, at which time it measures nearly an inch in length. The full-grown larvæ begin to leave the backs of the cattle early in the year, and in northern latitudes the last leave before the middle of July. After leaving the backs of the cattle they burrow into the ground, lie quiescent for about a month, and become transformed into mature flies. In northern latitudes the mature flies of the species _H. lineatum_ may be observed during April and May, and those of the other species during June and July. The damage caused by warbles includes injury to stampeding cattle frightened by the fly, decreased milk flow and diminished growth in infested animals, and injury to hides, the last item being especially serious. _Treatment._--The best method of control known at present is to extract the warbles from the backs of cattle and kill them. If they are almost ready to leave the cattle, they may be squeezed from the backs with the fingers. Forceps are useful in removing the warbles, but it is important to be careful in extracting warbles not to crush them, as the body juices of these parasites are sometimes poisonous to cattle if absorbed into their circulation. In the South herds may be examined in November or early in December and once a month during the next two or three months. In the North the first examination may be made six weeks to two months later, with two or, better, three following examinations at intervals of a month. If this procedure is carefully carried out there will be a noticeable diminution of warbles the following year, and if persisted in the warble can be almost if not completely eradicated. Where an entire community follows up the practice of removing and destroying warbles, the results are highly beneficial. As a result of recent studies by various investigators it appears that the tiny grubs, newly hatched from the eggs, may gain entrance to the body by penetrating directly through the skin. Many observers, however, have held that the eggs or newly hatched larvæ are taken into the mouth by the cattle licking themselves. It is possible, as in the case of several other parasites, that both modes of infection may occur and that the larvæ may gain entrance to the body either by penetrating the skin or by being swallowed. From the evidence at present available it seems likely that the usual mode of entrance is through the skin. Irrespective of the mode of infection, the larvæ evidently wander extensively through the tissues of the body, developmental stages being found in considerable numbers in the wall of the esophagus during the fall of the year. They have also been found in the spinal canal and in various other locations. Finally, about January they appear beneath the skin of the back, forming the well-known swellings. The posterior end of the grub is near the small opening in the hide, through which the grub breathes and discharges its excrement, and through which, when its development is complete, it finally escapes. The anterior end of the grub is at the bottom of the tumor, where the mucus collects upon which it feeds. By spring or early summer the grub is full grown and forces its way out of the skin, falling to the ground, into which it burrows for a short distance and transforms into the pupal stage. In about a month the mature fly emerges. It has lately been discovered that a second species of warble fly (_Hypoderma bovis_) common in Europe is of not uncommon occurrence in Canada and the northern part of the United States, whereas it was formerly supposed that the ox warbles of this country were all of the one kind. The general appearance, life history, and effects of the European species are much the same as those of the American form. Grubs weaken cattle, cause them to fall off in flesh and milk, and decrease the value of the hide. The beef in the immediate vicinity of a grub becomes slimy and of a greenish color, and is known to the butchers as "licked beef." The total loss to this country on account of the warble fly is estimated at $35,000,000 to $50,000,000 a year, at the least, and may amount to considerably more. _Treatment for warbles._--During the winter and spring examine the cattle for the presence of warbles. By passing the hand over the backs of the animals the swellings marking the location of the grubs may be readily found. Pressure properly applied to the swellings will cause the grubs to "pop out" if they have reached a late stage of development. They may be more easily removed by means of slender forceps inserted into the opening of the warbles, and a still more certain method of removing them, particularly if the lumps are still very small, is to cut into the swellings with a sharp knife or bistoury, after which they may be pressed out. Care should be taken to crush all grubs removed, so as to prevent the possibility of their further development and transformation into flies. In order that none may escape it is advisable to examine the cattle every two weeks during the late winter and spring, at each examination removing the grubs which have developed sufficiently to cause perceptible swellings. Another method of treatment is to force grease or oil into the openings of the warbles, which kills the grubs. This method is less certain than that of removing the grubs, and has the further objection that the dead grubs remain beneath the skin. Cattle may be treated during the summer with fly repellents (p. 502) to keep off the warble flies. The efficacy of repellents against these flies is probably, however, not very great. In localities where the character of the cattle industry is such as to render practicable the systematic examination of cattle and the removal of the grubs--that is, where the herds are comparatively small and subject to the close supervision of the owners--it is possible, by the exercise of a little care and with very little effort on the part of the cattle owners, provided they work together, each doing his share by seeing to the removal of grubs from his own cattle, so that as few as possible survive to transform into flies, to reduce the number of grubs within one or two seasons almost, if not entirely, to the point of extinction. Investigations not yet completed indicate that grub eradication may sometimes be accomplished by the use of arsenical dips, which are extensively used at the present time for destroying cattle ticks. (See p. 497.) It is possible that the destructive action of arsenical dips upon warbles is more or less dependent upon the fact that arsenic is stored up in small quantities in and upon the skin of cattle that are repeatedly dipped in arsenical dips. The arsenical dip appears to act, not upon the well-developed grub beneath the skin, but upon the eggs or the newly hatched larvæ, probably the latter. Accordingly the dipping of cattle to destroy grubs should be carried out during the fly season and repeated treatments should be given every two or three weeks, as in dipping cattle to eradicate ticks. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The warble fly (_Hypoderma lineatum_): _a_, adult female; _b_, eggs attached to a hair, × 25; _c_, larva as seen in egg; _d_, larva from esophagus of an ox; _e_, later stage of larva from beneath the skin of the back; _f_, larva at the stage when it leaves the back of cattle and falls to the ground--all enlarged (after Riley).] LICE.[16] Cattle in the United States are commonly infested with three species of lice, two of them sucking lice (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_, the short-nosed cattle louse, and _Linognathus vituli_, the long-nosed cattle louse), commonly known as blue lice, and one biting louse (_Trichodectes scalaris_), commonly known as the red louse. The blue lice (figs. 7 and 8) suck the blood of cattle and are more injurious than the red lice (fig. 9). Unless very abundant the latter cause little injury. If numerous they irritate and worry their host probably more by their sharp claws than by their bites, as their food seems to consist entirely of particles of hair and dead skin. Cattle lice reproduce by means of eggs or nits (fig. 10) which they fasten to the hair. The blue lice infest chiefly the neck and shoulders; red lice, when present, may be found almost anywhere on the body, but are usually most numerous on neck, shoulders, and at the root of the tail. On account of the itching caused by the lice, infested cattle rub against posts, trees, etc., and lick themselves, the hair sometimes coming out and the skin becoming thickened so that mange may be suspected. _Treatment for lice._--Cattle may be treated for lice by means of hand applications, spraying, or dipping. Dusting powders sold under various trade names are of value in helping to hold lice in check when the weather is too cold for dipping or spraying. The application of greases and insecticidal liquids by hand is fairly effective and practicable in cases in which there are only a few animals to be treated. The following remedies have proved effective when applied by hand, the treatment being repeated if necessary in about 16 days: (1) Cottonseed oil and kerosene, equal parts; (2) kerosene, 1/2 pint, mixed with lard, 1 pound; (3) crude petroleum; (4) any of the dips recommended for use in dipping, and diluted in the same proportions as for dipping. Oils or greases should not be used in very warm or very cold weather. The remedies mentioned may be applied with a brush or a cloth. They should be distributed in a thin, even coating over the surface of the body, taking care that there is no excess quantity at any point. In spraying, any of the dips recommended for lice, properly diluted, are applied by means of a spray pump over the entire body. Thorough wetting of the skin and hair is important, and a second treatment should be given 15 or 16 days later. When a considerable number of animals are to be treated the most satisfactory method of destroying lice is by the use of a dipping vat. Two dippings should be given 15 or 16 days apart. Dipping in the fall is good insurance against risk of loss from lice during the winter. All animals in the herd should be treated regardless of the number showing infestation. Either coal-tar-creosote or nicotin dips may be used. These are sold under various trade names. The directions for dilution given by the manufacturer should be carefully followed. As coal-tar-creosote dips do not mix well with all kinds of water, they should be tested with the water to be used for making the solution by mixing some of the dip in the proper proportions with the water in a clean and clear-glass bottle or jar. If an oily layer or mass of globules collects either at the top or the bottom of the mixture after standing an hour, the dip is not suitable for use with that kind of water. Imperfectly mixed coal-tar-creosote dips are liable to poison animals even when not used in stronger solutions than that recommended by the manufacturers, and are also likely to be inefficacious. The lime-sulphur dip, which is highly efficacious as a mange remedy, is of little value for destroying lice, especially blue lice. The arsenical dip used in tick eradication is a good louse remedy, but its use is not advisable on account of its poisonous nature, except under the supervision of capable persons who know how to use it and what precautions to take. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) of cattle. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Long-nosed bluelouse (_Linognathus vituli_) of cattle. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Red louse (_Trichodectes scalaris_) of cattle. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Egg of short-nosed blue louse (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_) attached to a hair. Enlarged. (From Bureau of Entomology.)] MANGE, ITCH, SCAB.[17] Cattle are subject to four kinds of mange, of which common mange or psoroptic mange is the most important. PSOROPTIC MANGE. Psoroptic mange of cattle is caused by small mites (fig. 11) which multiply rapidly and are spread from diseased to healthy cattle by bodily contact, or by pens, stables, railroad cars, etc., recently occupied by mangy cattle. The mites attack the skin and cause it to become thickened and covered with crusts and scabs, with a consequent loss of hair. Intense itching accompanies the disease, and affected cattle are more or less constantly rubbing and licking themselves. Psoroptic mange commences at the root of the tail, or on the neck, or withers, and gradually extends over the back up to the head, over the sides, and may finally affect nearly the entire body except the legs. In serious cases the skin may become ulcerated; the animals are greatly weakened and emaciated, and finally die. By taking scrapings from the edges of scabby patches and placing them on a piece of black paper in a warm place the mites may be seen as tiny white objects crawling over the paper, more distinctly if a magnifying glass is used. Mange may be confused with lousiness, ringworm, or with any condition in which there is itching or loss of hair, but if mites are found there is no question of the diagnosis. The disease is worse during cold, wet weather. Mangy cattle when on good pasture during the summer often seem to recover, but in the fall the disease again appears in a severe form. _Treatment._--The most generally used and most satisfactory method of treating cattle mange consists in dipping the animals in a vat filled with a liquid of such nature that it will kill the parasites without injuring the cattle. Vats for dipping cattle are built of wood, stone, or concrete, and vary in length from 30 to 100 feet or more. They vary in width from 3 to 7 feet at the top and 1-1/2 to 3 feet at the bottom, and the depth may be from 7 to 10 feet. A narrow chute through which the cattle are driven leads to one end of the vat, where a steep slide pitches the cattle into the dipping fluid, through which they swim, and climb out of the vat at the other end, which is built sloping and provided with cross cleats to give the animals a foothold. A draining pen with floor sloping back toward the vat is generally provided. The dip should be used warm, 100° to 105° F., and the cattle should be held in the vat for two minutes to insure thorough action of the dip. The head of each animal should be ducked at least once. Care should be taken that the vat contains a sufficient depth of fluid to swim the animals to be dipped. The dipping fluid may be heated from a steam boiler by pipes or hose, or water heated in large iron cauldrons or tanks may be used for charging the vat, and hot water with a proper quantity of dip added from time to time as the dipping fluid becomes cool. If crude-petroleum dips are used, one dipping is usually sufficient, and the dip is used cold. Crude-petroleum dips are rarely used for common mange, but are of special value for sarcoptic mange, which is cured with difficulty by the ordinary dips. In the treatment of ordinary mange with lime-sulphur or nicotin dips two dippings are necessary, the second dipping being given 10 to 14 days after the first. The second treatment is necessary to kill the few parasites which sometimes escape at the first treatment, either in the egg stage or as fecundated females. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Mite which causes psoroptic scab of sheep. Enlarged about 100 times. The mite of psoroptic cattle mange is almost identical in appearance.] LIME-SULPHUR DIP. The lime-sulphur dip is made in the proportion of 12 pounds of unslaked lime (or 16 pounds of commercial hydrated lime--not air-slaked lime), 24 pounds of flowers of sulphur, and 100 gallons of water. _Directions for preparing 100 gallons of dip._--Weigh out the lime, 12 pounds (or hydrated lime, 16 pounds), and sulphur, 24 pounds. Place the unslaked lime in a shallow, water-tight box similar to a mortar box, or some other suitable vessel, and add water enough to slake the lime and form a lime paste or lime putty. Sift into this paste the flowers of sulphur and stir well; then place the lime-sulphur paste in a kettle, boiler, or tank containing 30 gallons of water, the water being first heated nearly to the boiling point. Boil the mixture for two hours at least, stirring frequently; add water occasionally to maintain the original quantity. Allow the mixture to settle in the tank or draw the entire contents of the kettle or boiling tank into a large tub or barrel placed near the dipping vat and provided with a bunghole about 4 inches from the bottom, and then allow ample time to settle--from two to three hours or more if necessary. When fully settled, draw off the clear liquid into the dipping vat, taking care not to allow any of the sediment to accompany it, as the sediment is liable to render the dip unnecessarily caustic. The clear liquid thus obtained requires only the addition of sufficient clear warm water to bring the total up to 100 gallons. Flowers of sulphur must be used and the lime must be of good quality. The dipping bath should be used at a temperature of 100° to 105° F., and for official dippings must be maintained at all times at a strength of not less than 2 per cent of "sulphid sulphur" as indicated by the Bureau of Animal Industry field test for lime-sulphur baths. NICOTIN DIP. The nicotin dip is made with sufficient extract of tobacco, or nicotin solution, to give a mixture containing not less than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent nicotin and 2 per cent flowers of sulphur. Sufficient nicotin would therefore be furnished for 96 gallons (about 800 pounds) of dip by 1 pound of a 40 per cent solution of nicotin. The formula for this dip would be: Nicotin, four-tenths of a pound; flowers of sulphur, 16 pounds; water, 96 gallons. To calculate how much nicotin solution or extract of tobacco should be used for 96 gallons of water, divide the quantity of nicotin required in the dip by the proportion of nicotin in the extract. For example, suppose the nicotin solution contains 25 per cent nicotin, we have 0.40 ÷ 0.25 = 1.6. Therefore in this case it would require 1.6 pounds of nicotin solution for the 96 gallons of dip. Or, if a tobacco extract is used, having, for example, 2.4 per cent of nicotin, the formula would be as follows: 0.40 ÷ 0.024 = 16.66, and therefore 16.66 pounds would be required for 96 gallons of dip. Do not use any preparation the strength of which is not given on the outside of the package. In preparing these dips the nicotin solution and sulphur should be mixed together with water before adding them to the water in the dipping vat. On no account should the dip be heated above 110° F. after the nicotin solution is added, as heat is liable to evaporate the nicotin and weaken the dip. For official dippings the dipping bath should be used at a temperature of 100° to 105° F. and at all times must be maintained at a strength of not less than five one-hundredths of 1 per cent nicotin as indicated by a field test approved by the Bureau of Animal Industry. A homemade nicotin dip may be prepared as follows: For each 100 gallons of dip desired, take 21 pounds of good, prepared tobacco leaves; soak the leaves in cold or lukewarm water for 24 hours in a covered pot or kettle; then bring the water to near the boiling point for a moment, and, if in the morning, allow the infusion to draw for an hour; if in the evening, allow it to draw overnight; the liquid is next strained (pressure being used to extract as much nicotin as possible from the wet leaves) and diluted to 100 gallons per 21 pounds of tobacco. This dip should be used as fresh as possible, as it contains a large amount of organic material which will soon decompose. CRUDE-PETROLEUM DIPS. Crude-petroleum dips, which are valuable for the treatment of sarcoptic mange, are not often used for the treatment of psoroptic mange or of chorioptic mange, oily dips being liable to injure animals, especially if they are moved rapidly soon after treatment, if they are exposed to bright sunshine, or if they become chilled. Besides unprocessed crude petroleum, processed petroleum from which the gasoline and other light hydrocarbons have been removed may be utilized in the treatment of cattle for mange, particularly sarcoptic mange. There are a number of proprietary brands of crude-petroleum dips on the market, consisting of processed crude petroleum with other substances added, mainly lighter oils to give the dip a suitable consistency. In dipping cattle in crude-petroleum dips fill the vat with water to within 1 foot or 18 inches of the dip line and then add the oil until the surface is flush with the dip line. The oil floats on the water, and as the animals pass through the vat their bodies become coated with oil. CHORIOPTIC MANGE. Chorioptic mange, due to a species of mite different from that causing common cattle mange, is confined almost entirely to the region at the root of the tail and if not treated may persist for years. The treatment is the same as for psoroptic mange. SARCOPTIC MANGE. Sarcoptic mange, frequently called "barn itch," is caused by a mite very similar to that which causes itch in human beings. It commonly affects the head and neck, but may also occur on various other parts of the body. Bulls are particularly liable to be affected with this form of mange. Cattle may become infected not only from other cattle, but also from horses, goats, dogs, sheep, and hogs. As a rule sarcoptic mange in any species of animal, if acquired from an animal of another species, is likely to run a short course and tend toward a spontaneous recovery. The treatment likely to be most efficacious is that of dipping in a crude-petroleum dip, one treatment as a rule being sufficient. If lime-sulphur dip is used, four or five successive treatments, or even more, at weekly intervals, may be necessary before a cure is effected. DEMODECTIC MANGE. Demodectic mange, which is caused by a small parasite that lives in the hair follicles, causing pustules, especially on the neck and shoulders, occurs occasionally among cattle in this country and is of importance on account of the injury to the hide. When tanned, hides infested by this parasite are pitted, the pits, in some cases, being so deep that they form holes. No practicable treatment is known for this disease. TICKS.[18] About 10 species of ticks have been reported as parasites of cattle in the United States. The most common and most important is the species known as _Margaropus annulatus_, which transmits Texas fever. Information concerning this tick and Texas fever has been given elsewhere in this volume (p. 475). The spinose ear tick (_Ornithodoros megnini_) is frequently found in the ears of cattle in the western part of the United States, and is of common occurrence also in the ears of horses, dogs, cats, etc. When its parasitic stage of development is completed the ear tick leaves its host. Mating between the sexes occurs after the ticks have cast their skins following the abandonment of their host. They usually crawl up some distance from the ground and secrete themselves in cracks and crevices in trees, walls of buildings, etc., where the females deposit their eggs. After the eggs hatch, the larval ticks, which emerge from them, when they succeed in finding a host, enter the ears and gradually develop to the stage at which they are ready to leave the host animal. The females may live several months, or even years, if they do not find mates. After mating they may deposit their eggs intermittently. Hatching of the eggs may occur as early as 10 days after deposition. The larvæ may live for 80 days without a host. The parasitic period has been observed to vary from about two to about seven months. _Treatment._--On account of their habits and great vitality and their occurrence in various kinds of animals besides cattle, complete eradication is a difficult problem. The only effective treatment known is to introduce directly into the ear passages a remedy that will kill the ticks. Later, of course, the cattle may become reinfested from exposure to infested ranges or inclosures. The following mixture, however, in addition to killing the ticks in the ears, will protect against reinfestation for about 30 days: Ordinary commercial pine tar, two parts; cottonseed oil, one part--in each case by volume. Animals to be treated are confined in a chute, and the mixture is injected into the ears with a syringe, after the wax and other débris in the ears have been cleaned out with a wire probe that has an eyelet at one end. Further information concerning ear ticks and the details of their treatment is given in Farmers' Bulletin 980. BLOODSUCKERS OR LEECHES. These worms are sometimes taken up by cattle when drinking from ponds. They may attach themselves to the inner surface of the mouth or nose, and sometimes reach the upper part of the windpipe or of the gullet. Bleeding at the mouth or nose may be noticed, the membranes where the leech is attached are liable to be swollen and congested, and as a result of the loss of blood a condition of anemia may result. _Treatment._--If the worm can be reached it may be destroyed by cutting it in two with a pair of scissors, or it may be removed with forceps or with the fingers after wrapping a towel around the hand so that the worm can be held without slipping. Fumigation with tobacco or tar may cause the worm to release its hold if it can not be removed by other means. Ponds may be rid of infestation with bloodsuckers by the introduction of eels. PARASITES OF THE STOMACH. The stomach of cattle consists of four compartments, of which the first and fourth are most likely to be the seat of parasitic infestation. The first stomach, or paunch, contains large numbers of minute parasites known as protozoa, which are too small to be seen with the naked eye. These small organisms apparently are in no way injurious. A species of fluke (_Paramphistomum cervi_ or a closely related species) is occasionally found in North American cattle, especially grass-fed cattle, attached to the inner surface of the first stomach (fig. 12). This worm is about one-half inch long, and somewhat conical in shape; hence the name, conical fluke, by which it is sometimes known. Although this parasite has been accused of producing serious effects, it is generally considered harmless. Several species of roundworms may occur in the fourth stomach. Two of these are of special importance. [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Portion of the wall of the first stomach with conical flukes attached.] THE TWISTED STOMACH WORM (HÆMONCHUS CONTORTUS). The twisted stomach worm (_Hæmonchus contortus_, figs. 13, 14, 15) is sometimes found in enormous numbers in the fourth stomach of cattle. Sheep, goats, and other ruminants may also be infested with it. Among the symptoms caused by this parasite may be mentioned anemia, loss of flesh, general weakness, dullness, capricious appetite, excessive thirst, and diarrhea. The anemic condition is seen in the paleness of the skin and mucous membranes of the mouth and eye, and in the watery swellings which often develop under the lower jaw ("poverty jaw"). If the fourth stomach of a dead animal is cut open and the contents carefully examined, the parasites, which are from 1/2 inch to 1-1/4 inches in length and about as thick as an ordinary pin, may be seen, if present in any considerable number, actively wriggling about like little snakes. Cattle become infected with these parasites by grazing on pastures on which infested cattle, sheep, or goats have grazed and scattered their droppings. The worms in the stomach produce a multitude of eggs (fig. 14_c_) of microscopic size, which pass out of the body in the feces. In warm weather these eggs hatch in a few hours. If the temperature is below 40° F., they remain dormant, and if below freezing, they soon die. The eggs are also killed by dryness; moisture, on the other hand, favoring their development. The larvæ which hatch from the eggs are microscopic in size, and, like the eggs, are, at first and until they have developed to a certain stage, very susceptible to freezing and drying. In very warm weather the larvæ complete their development, so far as they are able to develop outside the body, in two or three days. In cooler weather the time required for this development is longer, and at temperatures below 70° F. 10 days to several weeks may be necessary. The larvæ are then ready to be taken into the body. The eggs and early stages of the larvæ apparently do not develop if swallowed, and only the completed larval stage seems to be infectious. In this stage the larvæ migrate up grass stalks (fig. 15) or other objects, showing activity whenever the air is saturated with moisture; that is, during rains, fogs, and dews. When the air becomes dry and the moisture evaporates from the grass the young worms cease their activity, resuming their migrations when the air again becomes overladen with moisture. Larvæ which have developed to the infectious stage, unlike the eggs and early larval stages, are able to survive long periods of freezing and dryness. In two weeks to a month after the embryos are swallowed they reach maturity and begin producing eggs. _Preventive treatment._--Preventive measures are important. As moisture favors the development of the embryos, high sloping ground is preferable for pastures. If low ground is used, it should be properly drained. The pasture should not be overstocked. Burning over the pasture will destroy most of the young worms on the grass and on the ground, and this means of disinfection under certain circumstances may be very advantageously used. The herd should be changed to fresh pasture as often as possible. Cattle should be supplied with water from wells, springs, or flowing streams, preferably in tanks or troughs raised above the ground. To a slight degree salt serves to protect cattle against infection with internal parasites, and plenty of it should therefore be kept accessible. Affected animals should be isolated from the rest of the herd in hospital pens or pastures. A plentiful supply of nourishing feed is an important factor in enabling cattle to withstand the attacks of stomach worms and other intestinal parasites. The stabling of cattle, with the maintenance of clean and sanitary surroundings and liberal feeding, will often stop losses from internal parasites, even though no medicinal treatment is given. _Medicinal treatment._--In dosing animals for stomach worms it is advisable to treat not only the animals which are seriously affected, but the rest of the herd as well, since the parasites with which they are infested will remain as a source of reinfection to the others. The cattle should be removed to fresh pasture after treatment, if possible. The animals to be treated should be deprived of feed for 12 to 16, or even 24, hours before they are dosed, and if the bluestone treatment is used should receive no water on the day they are dosed until several hours after dosing. In drenching, a long-necked bottle or a drenching tube may be used. In case the former is used the dose to be given may be first measured off, poured into the bottle, and the point marked on the outside with a file, so that subsequent doses may be measured in the bottle itself. A simple form of drenching tube (fig. 16) consists of a piece of rubber tubing about 3 feet long and one-half inch in diameter, with an ordinary tin funnel inserted in one end and a piece of brass or iron tubing 4 to 6 inches long, of suitable diameter, inserted in the other end. In use the metal tube is placed in the animal's mouth between the back teeth, and the dose is poured into the funnel, which is either held by an assistant or fastened to a post. The flow of liquid through the tube is controlled by pinching the rubber tubing near the point of union with the metal tube. It is important not to raise the animal's head too high on account of the danger of the dose entering the lungs. The nose should not be raised higher than the level of the eyes. The animal may be dosed either standing on all fours or lying on the side. The position on all fours is preferred by some authorities, who believe that more of the remedy is likely to reach the fourth stomach when the animal is dosed standing than when dosed in other positions. Great care should be used in dosing to prevent the entrance of the liquid into the lungs, and in the preparation and administration of the remedy to avoid getting the solution too strong or the dose too large. Bluestone, or copper sulphate, has been extensively used in South Africa in the treatment of sheep and cattle for stomach worms and is recommended by the colonial veterinary surgeon of the Cape Colony as the best and safest remedy. To prepare the solution take 1 pound (avoirdupois) of pure bluestone, powder it fine, and dissolve in 9-1/2 gallons of warm water. It is better first to dissolve the bluestone in 2 or 3 quarts of boiling water, then add the remaining quantity of cold water, and mix thoroughly. This solution may be given to cattle in the following-sized doses: Calves 3-1/2 to 4 fluid ounces. Yearlings 6 fluid ounces. Two-year-olds and over 12 to 16 fluid ounces. In making up the solution only clear blue crystals of bluestone should be used. Bluestone with white patches or crusts should be rejected. It is especially important that the bluestone and water be accurately weighed and measured, and that the size of the dose be graduated according to the age of the animal. The special value of medicated salts advertised under various trade names as preventives against worms is problematical. Commonly they contain little else than ordinary salt, the other substances being in such small quantity that their therapeutic effect is practically negligible. Definite evidence that they are more efficacious than plain salt is not yet available and their use is not recommended. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_). Outlines showing natural size of male (above) and female.] [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Twisted stomach worms (_Hæmonchus contortus_). Male (_a_), female (_b_), and egg (_c_). Enlarged.] [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Larva of twisted stomach worm (_Hæmonchus contortus_) coiled on tip of grass blade. Enlarged.] [Illustration: FIG. 16.--A drenching tube made from an ordinary tin funnel, a piece of rubber hose, and a piece of brass pipe.] THE ENCYSTED STOMACH WORM (OSTERTAGIA OSTERTAGI). This parasite is as thick as a fine hair and less than half an inch in length. It lives in small cysts in the wall of the fourth stomach (fig. 17) and is also found free in the cavity of the stomach. When numerous, these parasites cause a thickening of the stomach wall and disturb its digestive functions. The symptoms caused by this parasite are very similar to those produced by the twisted stomach worm. The life history of the encysted stomach worm is not known in detail, but it is undoubtedly very much the same as that of the twisted stomach worm. The same measures as recommended above for preventing infection with the twisted stomach worm should be used. Medicinal treatment would seem to be of little use, owing to the protected position in which the parasite occurs. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Piece of lining of fourth stomach, showing cysts of the encysted stomach worm (_Ostertagia ostertagi_).] INTESTINAL PARASITES. TAPEWORMS. Two species of tapeworms (fig. 18) are known to occur in the small intestine of American cattle. They sometimes grow to a length of several yards and to a breadth of three-fourths of an inch. Small portions of tapeworms, consisting of one or more segments, are occasionally seen in the droppings of infested cattle. The life history is not known, but the infectious stage is undoubtedly taken in with the feed or water, infection being spread by the eggs of the parasite contained in the feces of infested animals. The eggs are perhaps swallowed by some small creature (an insect, worm, or snail) which acts as an intermediate host, and which when accidentally swallowed by a cow while grazing or drinking carries with it into her stomach the infectious stage of the tapeworm. Adult cattle do not seem to suffer much from infestation with tapeworms, but in calves these parasites may cause scouring and emaciation. _Treatment._--Medicinal treatment for tapeworms in cattle is usually unsatisfactory, but the bluestone treatment used for stomach worms and mentioned above (p. 522) sometimes expels tapeworms. Arsenic in doses of 1-1/2 to 3 grains has been claimed to give good results in the treatment of calves for tapeworms. From results obtained at the Oklahoma Experiment Station in the treatment of tapeworms of sheep it would appear that the efficacy of the bluestone treatment against these parasites may be increased by the addition of tobacco. For use on cattle the bluestone and tobacco mixture may be prepared as follows: 13 ounces of snuff or powdered tobacco is soaked over night in about 8 gallons of water. To this decoction is added 1 pound of copper sulphate which has been dissolved in 2 or 3 quarts of boiling water. Sufficient water is then added to the mixture to make a total of 9-1/2 gallons. The doses of this solution are the same as for the simple copper sulphate solution, described on page 522, namely: Calves 3-1/2 to 4 fluid ounces. Yearlings 6 fluid ounces. Two-year-olds and over 12 to 16 fluid ounces. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A tapeworm (_Moniezia planissima_) which infests cattle.] ROUNDWORMS. A large roundworm (_Ascaris vitulorum_) measuring 6 to 12 inches in length, sometimes found in the intestines of cattle, especially calves, may cause inflammation and occasionally rupture of the intestine. Infection occurs through the swallowing of the eggs of the parasite in feed or water which has been contaminated with the feces of infested cattle. A number of species of small roundworms, varying in size from an eighth of an inch to an inch or more in length, occur in the intestines. Of these may be mentioned the hookworm (_Bunostomum phlebotomum_) and the nodular worm (_[OE]sophagostomum radiatum_). The former is about an inch long and is found in the small intestine. The latter is somewhat smaller and is found in the cecum and large intestine. Hookworms, when numerous, may cause anemia and other symptoms similar to those caused by stomach worms (see p. 519). The injury to the mucous lining of the intestine from the bites of hookworms may cause severe inflammation, and affords an avenue of infection with the germs of various diseases. The adult nodular worms apparently do not attack the wall of the intestine, but derive their nourishment from the intestinal contents. Several species of small, very slender roundworms (_Trichostrongylus_), less than a quarter of an inch in length, sometimes occur in the small intestine and fourth stomach, and a severe gastroenteritis, or inflammation of the stomach and intestines, has been attributed to them. One species of small roundworm (_Cooperia punctata_) burrows in the wall of the small intestine and causes caseous nodules in the mucous lining. This parasite sometimes occurs in very large numbers in the intestines of cattle in certain sections of the country, and apparently does considerable damage. _Nodular disease_ of the intestine, due to young nodular worms which burrow in the intestinal wall during a certain stage in their life history, sometimes apparently produces serious effects, particularly in young cattle, but commonly has little or no perceptible influence on the general health. It, however, often renders the intestine unfit for use as sausage casings, and as it is widely prevalent among cattle the loss from this source is considerable. The greenish or yellowish nodules with cheesy contents are frequently mistaken by the inexperienced for lesions of tuberculosis. The life histories of the various small roundworms occurring in the intestines of cattle, so far as they have been worked out, are very similar to that of the twisted stomach worm as described on page 519. _Treatment for intestinal roundworms._--The preventive measures are similar to those recommended in the case of the twisted stomach worm (p. 521). Medical treatment is generally not very satisfactory. According to the Oklahoma Experiment Station, the addition of 1 per cent of tobacco to the bluestone solution used in the treatment of stomach worms in sheep is effective in the removal of hookworms. The bluestone and tobacco mixture described on page 524 may be of value in the treatment of hookworms in cattle. It is asserted by one author that 2 or 3 drams of rectified empyreumatic oil in a mucilaginous emulsion, followed the next morning with a purgative of 1 to 1-1/2 pounds of sulphate of soda, will expel the large roundworms (_Ascaris vitulorum_). PROTOZOA. A number of species of protozoa have been reported as parasites of the intestines of cattle. To one species has been attributed a serious disease of cattle in Switzerland known as red dysentery, but so far comparatively few cases of this disease have been recorded in America. It is probably more common than is generally supposed. Calves particularly seem most likely to be affected. FLUKES IN LIVER AND LUNGS. Two species of flukes occurring in the liver and lungs are known to affect cattle in the United States. These parasites are flat, leaf-like worms; one of them, the common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_, fig. 19), is less than an inch in length, while the other, the large American fluke (_Fasciola magna_, fig. 20), is considerably larger when full grown. In their life history these flukes depend on snails as intermediate hosts. At a certain stage of development the young flukes leave the snails, become encysted on stalks of grass (fig. 21), or fall into drinking water, and finally may be swallowed by cattle. Stiles writes as follows: Flukes may produce a serious, often fatal, disease, more especially in younger animals. The symptoms are somewhat similar to those produced by worms in the stomach. The first symptoms are generally overlooked, the disease not attracting attention until the appetite is diminished; rumination becomes irregular, the animals become hidebound, and the coat dull and staring. The staring coat is due to the contraction of the muscles of the hair follicles. The visible mucous membranes become pale, eyes become dull, there is running at the eyes, and the animal gradually becomes emaciated. As the disease advances the milk supply is lessened, fever appears, there is generally great thirst, but the appetite almost ceases; edematous swellings appear on the belly, breast, etc.; diarrhea at first alternates with constipation, but finally becomes continuous. The disease lasts from two to five months, when the most extreme cases succumb. Most of the German cattle are said to be infested with liver flukes, but even when a large number are present the nourishment of the cattle is not disturbed. Thickening of the gall ducts, so that a so-called "Medusa's head" forms on the surface of the liver toward the stomach, appears in even well-nourished animals; even in cases of a cirrhosis of the liver it is seldom that any effect upon the cattle's health can be noticed, and so long as a portion of the liver tissue about twice the size of the fist remains intact, the nourishment of the animal may be comparatively good. It is rare that one sees a generalized edema in slaughtered cattle as a result of fluke invasion, and even in the heaviest infections of young cattle only emaciation is noticed. _Treatment._--Medicinal treatment is unsatisfactory. The disease may be prevented to a considerable extent by giving animals plenty of salt, and by introducing carp, frogs, and toads into infected districts; these animals destroy the young stages of the parasite and feed upon the snails which serve as intermediate hosts. The drainage of wet pastures and the avoidance of swampy lands for grazing purposes are important measures in the prevention of fluke diseases. Railliet and others have recently recommended the application of lime to fluky pastures, having discovered that very weak solutions are destructive not only to fluke embryos but to snails. This application is to be made during the summer months at the rate of about 500 to 1,000 pounds of lime per acre. The same authors also recommend extract of male fern for the treatment of fluke disease. Moussu states that the average dose for cattle is 1 gram of the extract for each 10 kilograms of live weight; that is, 10 grams for a young animal weighing 100 kilograms (about 220 pounds) up to 50 grams as a maximum for large animals weighing 500 kilograms (about 1,100 pounds) or more. The extract is mixed with about 5 times as much non-purgative oil and the dose is administered each morning for five consecutive days two hours before the animal is allowed to feed after having been fasted over night. The extract of male fern used should have a guaranteed strength of 22 to 25 per cent of filicine and 3.5 per cent of filicic acid. [Illustration: FIG. 19.--The common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_).] [Illustration: FIG. 20.--The large American fluke (_Fasciola magna_).] [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Portion of grass stalk bearing three encysted cercariæ of the common liver fluke (_Fasciola hepatica_). Enlarged.] TAPEWORM CYSTS OF LIVER AND OTHER VISCERA. Three kinds of tapeworm cysts are found in the viscera of cattle. One of these (_Multiceps multiceps_, or _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_) will be further referred to in the discussion of gid (p. 528). All these are the intermediate stages of tapeworms, which live when mature in the intestines of dogs, wolves, and other canines. The eggs of the tapeworms are scattered over the fields in the droppings of infested dogs or wolves, and when swallowed in food or water by cattle hatch out and the embryos migrate to the liver, mesentery, lungs, brain, or other organs, where they develop into cysts, variously known as hydatids, bladder worms, water balls, etc. When organs of cattle thus infested are eaten by dogs or wolves the cystic worms are also liable to be swallowed and then develop into mature tapeworms. To prevent cattle from infection with these parasites stray dogs, wolves, and coyotes should be killed wherever found, and dogs too valuable to kill should be kept free from tapeworms. As a precaution against infection with tapeworms, the viscera of cattle, sheep, or hogs should not be fed to dogs unless cooked. HYDATIDS (_Echinococcus granulosus_) form tumors (fig. 22) of varying size (sometimes as large as 6 inches in diameter) in the liver, lungs, and other organs. Their contents are liquid, resembling water. The presence of these parasites can not be detected in the living animal and there is no medicinal treatment for them. Organs containing hydatids should be destroyed by burning in order to prevent their being eaten by dogs. This is especially important, as dogs infested with the tapeworm stage of this parasite are a menace to human beings on account of the danger of infecting them with hydatids, which develop in man if the eggs of the hydatid tapeworm are swallowed. THIN-NECKED BLADDER WORMS (_Tænia hydatigena_, fig. 23) are most commonly found attached to the mesentery and omentum. There is no medicinal treatment. GID.--Bladder worms (_Multiceps multiceps_, or _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_), which are occasionally found in the brain of cattle and cause gid, "turnsick," or "staggers," deserve mention, as they are rather common among sheep in the Northwest. As already alluded to, these worms are the intermediate stage of a tapeworm found in dogs, and their life history and the means of preventing infection have been briefly discussed above (see p. 527). Cattle harboring this parasite show symptoms indicating an affection of the brain, walking or turning in circles, dizziness, uneven gait, impaired vision, etc. Treatment consists in trephining the skull and removing the parasite, an operation which requires a skillful operator and is frequently unsuccessful. Unless the parasite is removed affected cattle almost invariably die. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Hydatids (_Echinococcus granulosus_) in portion of hog's liver.] [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Thin-necked bladder worm (Tænia hydatigena) from abdominal cavity of a steer.] TAPEWORM CYSTS IN THE MUSCLES, BEEF MEASLES.[19] Small tapeworm cysts (_Tænia saginatæ_), about the size of a pea, found in the muscles of cattle are the larvæ of the common tapeworm of man. Cattle become infected from feed or water which has been contaminated by the feces of persons harboring the adult tapeworms, and human beings in turn become infected by eating raw or rare beef infested with the larval stage (measly beef). To prevent cattle from becoming infested with this parasite care should be taken that human feces are not placed where they will contaminate the feed or drinking water. This parasite is very common in cattle in the United States, at least 1 per cent being infested. As a result considerable loss is entailed through condemnations of beef carcasses by meat inspectors, because of the presence of tapeworm cysts. All this loss could be avoided and the danger of tapeworm infestation in human beings from this source could be removed by the observance of proper precautions in disposing of human excreta. At the same time much sickness and many deaths from diseases (hookworm, typhoid fever, etc.) caused by soil pollution would be prevented, and farm life would be rendered much safer than under the poor sanitary conditions which are responsible for the high percentage of tapeworm cysts among cattle in the United States. THREAD WORMS IN THE ABDOMINAL CAVITY. Thread worms (_Setaria labiato-papillosa_) 2 to 4 inches long are frequently found in the abdominal cavity. They seem to cause little or no trouble. The embryos produced by these worms enter the blood vessels. According to Noé, they are spread from one animal to another by stable flies (see p. 503), but this has not been definitely proved. The roundworms found occasionally in the anterior chamber of the eye (see p. 531) are perhaps immature forms of this species which have reached this location during their migration. LUNG WORMS. Lung worms (_Dictyocaulus viviparus_, fig. 24) in cattle are thread-like worms 2 to 4 inches long, found in the bronchial tubes and producing a condition known as verminous bronchitis. The life history of the parasite is not fully known, but infection is evidently derived through the medium of pastures where infested cattle have grazed. In the later stages of the disease the cattle cough, especially at night. Young cattle are more seriously affected than old animals. _Treatment for lung worms._--Various treatments have been advocated for lung worms, including fumigating with different substances and injections of remedies into the trachea by means of a large hypodermic syringe or by a special spraying apparatus, but none have been very successful from a practical standpoint. About all that can be done is to feed affected animals well and protect them from exposure, removing them from the pasture and keeping them in dry yards or stables maintained in a cleanly, sanitary condition. The methods of prevention in general are similar to those described under the discussion of the twisted stomach worm (p. 521). [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Lung worm (_Dictyocaulus viviparus_) of cattle. Outlines showing natural size of male (above) and female.] PARASITES OF THE BLOOD. Certain flukes (_Schistosoma bovis_ and related species) which live in the blood vessels (the large veins) of cattle in tropical and sub-tropical countries cause bloody urine and diarrhea, the feces being mixed with blood. These parasites have not yet been discovered in the United States, although the natural conditions are such in some parts of the country that they are liable to become established if introduced. The embryos of _Setaria labiato-papillosa_ (p. 529) which occur in the blood may be found by microscopical examination. They apparently cause no trouble. The organism which causes Texas fever is a protozoan parasite (_Piroplasma bigeminum_) of microscopic size, which lives in the blood and attacks the red blood corpuscles. For a discussion of this parasite and the disease which it produces see page 476 of this volume. Other parasites which live in the blood cause serious diseases known as surra and nagana (p. 500), but as yet neither of these diseases has gained a foothold in the United States. PARASITES OF THE EYE. Small roundworms, one-third to four-fifths of an inch in length, may occur in the ducts of the lacrimal glands. Several species all belonging to the same genus (_Thelazia_) are known. They sometimes escape from their usual location and may be found on the surface of the eyeball beneath the lids, or even in the eyeball. It has been supposed by some writers that the worms seen in the interior of the eyeball ("snakes in the eye") are immature stages of _Setaria labiato-papilosa_ (see p. 529) which have gone astray from the normal course of their migration, but the correctness of this supposition is uncertain. Worms in the eyes and lacrimal ducts may cause inflammation, in which case the eyes may be syringed with an antiseptic, such as a weak solution of coal-tar stock dip, and iodoform ointment applied if the condition is severe. When worms are present in the eyeball itself, their removal depends upon surgical treatment, usually not advisable, as the worms in that location either cause but little trouble or disappear without treatment. FOOTNOTES: [11] Further information may be found in a very full report on "Insects Affecting Domestic Animals," issued as Bulletin 5, new series, of the Bureau of Entomology of this department. [12] Further information on fly repellents may be found in Bulletin 131 of the Department of Agriculture. [13] For further information consult Farmers' Bulletin 1097. [14] For further information consult Circular 115 of the Bureau of Entomology. [15] For further information consult Farmers' Bulletin 857. [16] For further information see Farmers' Bulletin 909. [17] For a fuller discussion see Farmers' Bulletin 1017, issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. [18] For a more complete discussion consult Farmers' Bulletin 1057, Bulletins 130 and 152 of the Bureau of Animal Industry, and Bulletins 15 (technical series), 72, and 106 of the Bureau of Entomology, all issued by the United States Department of Agriculture. [19] For further information consult Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 214. MYCOTIC STOMATITIS OF CATTLE. By JOHN R. MOHLER, V. M. D., _Chief, Bureau of Animal Industry._ INTRODUCTION. Numerous letters have been received by this bureau in recent years relative to the existence of a disease affecting the mouths and feet of cattle in certain Eastern and Central Western States. Later reports indicate that the malady has made its appearance in the Southwest, where it has caused much alarm among the stockmen owing to its similarity to the foot-and-mouth disease of Europe. The disease, which is to be discussed under the name of mycotic stomatitis, has been carefully investigated by this department on various occasions, and it is with the view of giving the results of these clinical investigations as well as to assert its noninfectiousness and to differentiate it from the virulent foot-and-mouth disease, which it so closely simulates, that this article is prepared. NAME AND SYNONYMS. The name stomatitis signifies that there is present in the affected animals an inflammation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. This inflammation, which quickly develops into ulcers, is one of the principal and most frequently observed lesions. Mycotic stomatitis refers to that form of stomatitis which results from eating food containing irritant fungi. Thus the name not only suggests the cause of the disease, but also indicates the location of the earliest and most prominent symptoms. Other names which have been applied to this disease by different writers are sporadic aphthæ; aphthous stomatitis; sore mouth of cattle; sore tongue; benign, simple, or noninfectious foot-and-mouth disease; mycotic aphthous stomatitis; and sporadic stomatitis aphthosa. CHARACTER OF THE DISEASE. Mycotic stomatitis is a sporadic, or noninfectious, disease which affects cattle of all ages that are on pasture, but more especially milch cows. It is characterized by inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membrane of the mouth, producing salivation and inappetence, and secondarily affecting the feet, which become sore and swollen. Superficial erosions of the skin, particularly of the muzzle and of the teats and udders of cows, may also be present, with some elevation of temperature and emaciation. CAUSE. This disease, as its name indicates, results from the eating of forage containing fungi or molds. It is probable that more than one fungus is involved in the production of this disease, but no particular species has been definitely proved to be the causative factor. Several attempts have been made by the writer to determine the exact cause and also to transmit the disease to other animals by direct inoculation, but with negative results. Suspicion, however, has been directed by various observers to the Uromyces and the red and black rusts that occur on clovers. These fungi cause very severe irritation of the lining membrane of the mouth, producing sometimes a catarrhal, at other times an aphthous, and occasionally an ulcerous stomatitis. The fungus of rape, etc. (_Polydesmus excitiosus_), is very irritating to the mouths and feet of cattle, causing severe inflammation and in some instances producing symptoms that have been mistaken for foot-and-mouth disease. The fungi (Penicillium and Puccinia) found on grasses have also been credited with the production of stomatitis. The fact that this disease disappears from a locality at a certain time and reappears at irregular intervals would suggest the probability that certain climatic conditions were essential for the propagation of the causative fungi, since it is well known that the malady becomes prevalent after a hot, dry period has been followed by rain, thus furnishing the requirements necessary for the luxuriant development of molds and fungi. Owing to this fact the disease is observed in one locality during one season and in an entirely different section another year, but reappears in the former center when favorable conditions prevail. In this way the affection has occurred at irregular intervals in certain sections of both the United States and Canada. SYMPTOMS AND LESIONS. Among the first symptoms observed in mycotic stomatitis are inability to eat, suspension of rumination, frequent movements of the lips with the formation of froth on their margins, and in some cases a dribbling of saliva from the mouth. There is a desire to eat, and frequent attempts to take food are made, but prehension is very difficult. If, however, feed is placed on the back of the tongue, it is readily masticated and swallowed. If the mouth is examined at this time, it will be found red and hot, and exceptionally small blisters will be seen, which, however, quickly become eroded and develop into active ulcers varying in size from one-eighth to 1 inch in diameter. Where several ulcers have coalesced a large and irregularly indented patch is formed. These erosions are most frequently found on the gums around the incisor teeth, on the dental pad, inside the lips, and on the tip of the tongue, but they also occur on the cheeks, interdental space, and dorsum of the tongue. The ulcers have a hemorrhagic border, a depressed suppurating surface, and contain a brownish or yellowish colored débris, which is soon replaced by granulation tissue. As a result of this sloughing of the tissues and the retention of food in the mouth, a very offensive odor is exhaled. The muzzle becomes dry and parched in appearance, which condition is shortly followed by erosions and exfoliations of the superficial layer of the skin. Adherent brownish crusts and scabs form over the parts, and similar lesions are seen around the nostrils and external surface of the lips. In some cases there are associated with these alterations a slight swelling and painfulness in the region of the pasterns, at times affecting the forefeet, at other times the hind feet, and occasionally all four feet. In a few cases the swelling may extend above the fetlock, but it has never been observed above the knee or hock. The skin around the coronet may occasionally become fissured and the thin skin in the cleft of the foot eroded and suppurated, but without the formation of vesicles. As a result of these feet lesions, the affected animal may assume a position with its back arched and the limbs propped under the body as in a case of founder, and will manifest much pain and lameness in walking. If it lies down, the animal shows reluctance in getting up, and although manifesting no inclination to move about, when forced to do so there is more or less stiffness and a tendency to kick or shake the foot as if to dislodge a foreign body from between the claws. In some outbreaks the milch cows have slight superficial erosions on the teats which at times extend to the udder. The cracks in the skin are filled with serum and form brownish-colored scabs. The teats become tender and the milk secretion diminishes; in some cases it disappears. A similar tendency toward the formation of fissures and scabs on the skin of the neck and shoulders has manifested itself in a recent outbreak in Texas, and this feature was likewise noticeable in the disease when it occurred in Maryland and Virginia in 1889. In mild cases only the mouth lesions may be observed, or these alterations may be associated with one or more of the other above-described symptoms, but in severe cases, where there is a generalized mycotic intoxication, one animal may show all these alterations. When the disease is well developed the general appearance of the animal is one of great lassitude, and it either stands off by itself with hind feet drawn under the body and its forefeet extended, or it assumes a recumbent position. Owing to the inability to eat and to the general systemic disturbance present, the animal loses flesh very rapidly and becomes greatly emaciated in the latter stages of the disease. The temperature and pulse are somewhat increased, the former 2 or 3 degrees, the latter to from 75 to 90 beats per minute. The fever is not lasting, and these symptoms are soon modified. The animal has an anxious look, and in a few cases there is a gastrointestinal irritation, the feces being thin, of a dark color, and of an offensive odor. PROGNOSIS AND MORTALITY. Mycotic stomatitis is not a serious disease, and in uncomplicated cases recoveries soon follow the removal of the cause and the application of the indicated remedies. In such cases complete restoration may take place within one week. In mild outbreaks a large percentage of the animals will recover without treatment, but that the disease is fatal is shown by the fact that animals which develop an aggravated form of the affection succumb if not treated. In such animals death occurs in 6 or 8 days, but the mortality in the serious outbreaks thus far investigated has been less than 0.5 per cent. The course of this disease is irregular and runs from 7 to 15 days, the average case covering a period of about 10 days. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. In examining a case of mycotic stomatitis it is important not to mistake it for foot-and-mouth disease, which has appeared in this country on six occasions only. This may be easily accomplished by taking into consideration the fact that in the contagious foot-and-mouth disease there is a rapid infection of the entire herd, as well as of any hogs and sheep that may be on the premises. It is also readily transmitted to neighboring herds by the spread of the infection from diseased animals, but it never occurs spontaneously. The characteristic lesion of foot-and-mouth disease is the appearance of vesicles containing serous fluid in the mouth and upon the udder, teats, heels, and coronary bands of the affected animals. Drooling is profuse, and there is a peculiar smacking sound made by sucking the affected lips. Mycotic stomatitis occurs sporadically on widely separated farms, affecting only a few animals in each herd, and the lesions produced consist of erosions without the typical vesicular formations of foot-and-mouth disease. The failure of the vesicles, if any appear, to spread extensively in the mouth, the absence of these blisters on other portions of the body-- notably the teats and udder, and characteristically the feet--together with the absence of infection in the herd, and the inability to transmit the disease to calves by inoculation, distinguish between this affection and foot-and-mouth disease. The erosions of the mouth are not so extensive and they heal more rapidly in mycotic stomatitis. The swelling of the feet and stiffness of the animal are also more marked in mycotic stomatitis. ERGOTISM. The lesions resulting from ergotism may be differentiated from those of mycotic stomatitis by the lack of ulcerative eruptions in the mouth and by the location of the lesions at the tips of the ears, end of the tail, or upon the lower part of the legs, usually below the knees or hocks. The lesions of ergotism do not take the form of ulcers or festers, but the end of the limb affected is diseased "in toto" and the eruption extends entirely around the limbs, followed soon afterwards by a distinct line of demarcation between the healthy skin above and the diseased below. The absence of suppurating sores between the claws and on the mucous membrane of the mouth, the knowledge that the lesion upon the limb in question extends uninterruptedly around it, and the presence of ergotized seeds in the hay or grain fed the animals should point conclusively to a diagnosis of ergotism. FOUL FOOT. In foul foot, or ground itch, of cattle, the inflammation of the skin and toes usually affects but one foot. It begins as a superficial inflammation followed by sloughing, ulceration, and the formation of fistulous tracts which may involve the tendons, bones, and joints. The mouth remains unaffected, and the presence of the disease may be traced to filth and poor drainage. NECROTIC STOMATITIS. In necrotic stomatitis (calf diphtheria) there is a formation of yellowish cheesy patches in the mouth without any lesions of the feet or udder. It affects sucking calves chiefly, and is caused by the _Bacillus necrophorus._ TREATMENT. The treatment of mycotic stomatitis should consist in first removing the herd of cattle from the pasture in which they have been running. The affected animals should, if it is possible, be brought to the barn or corral and fed on soft, nutritious food, such as bran mashes, ground feed, and gruels. A bucket of clear, cool water should be kept constantly in the manger, so that the animal may drink or rinse the mouth at its pleasure; and it will be found beneficial to dissolve 2 heaping tablespoonfuls of borax or 1 tablespoonful of potassium chlorate in each of the first two buckets of water taken during the day. If the animals are gentle enough to be handled, the mouth should be swabbed out daily with antiseptic washes, such as a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a 1 per cent solution of compound solution of cresol or of permanganate of potassium, or 1 part of hydrogen peroxid to 2 parts of water. This should be followed by astringents, such as one-half tablespoonful of alum, borax, or chlorate of potassium placed on the tongue. Probably a more satisfactory method of administering the antiseptic treatment to a large number of animals would be to mix thoroughly 2 teaspoonfuls of pure carbolic acid every morning in a quart of bran mash and give to each affected animal for a period of five days. Range cattle may be more readily treated by the use of medicated salt placed in troughs accessible to the animals. This salt may be prepared by pouring 4 ounces of crude carbolic acid upon 12 quarts of ordinary barrel salt, after which they are thoroughly mixed. The lesions of the feet should be treated with a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid, while the fissures and other lesions of the skin will be benefited by the application of carbolized vaseline or zinc ointment. If the animals are treated in this manner and carefully fed, the disease will rapidly disappear. INDEX. Abdomen-- dropsy affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 47 inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 of calf, dropsy, description, and treatment, 180 wounds, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 43 Abdominal cavity, kinds of parasites affecting, 529 Abortion-- contagious-- description and causes, 165 treatment and prevention, 170 noncontagious-- causes, 165 treatment, 170 Abscess-- bacteria causing, 237 ear treatment, 355 lung, description, 99 navel, cause and treatment, 249 orbital and periorbital, symptoms and treatment, 352 Abscesses-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 treatment, 295 Absorbents, description, 75 _Achorion schonleinii_, fungus causing _Tinea favosa_, 332 Acids-- mineral, poisoning, description and treatment, 54 poisoning, description and treatment, 54 vegetable, poisonous, description and treatment, 61 Aconite poisoning, description and treatment, 63 Actinomycosis-- description and symptoms, 440-449 jawbone, description and treatment, 442 lungs, 442 prevention and treatment, 445-446 relation to public health, 447 Adenoma, description, 310 Administration of medicines, chapter by Leonard Pearson, 7-11 Afterbirth, retention, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 220 Air tubes, lung, parasites affecting, description and treatment, 530 Air under the skin, description, symptoms, and treatment, 334 Albumin, urine, description and treatment, 121 Albuminuria, description and treatment, 121 Alkalies, poisoning, description and treatment, 59 Amaurosis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 348 Anaphrodisia, cause, prevention, and treatment, 149 Anasarca of the skin, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 330 Anesthesia, uses in operations, 289 Aneurism, description, 85 Angioma tumor, description, 310 Animal Industry Bureau, experiments against hemorrhagic septicemia, 401 Animal parasites of cattle, chapter by B. H. Ranson, 502-531 Animal products, poisonous, description and treatment, 71 Anthrax-- cause, symptoms, treatment, etc., 449-458 human, description, 458 serum, relation to blackleg, 458 symptomatic, description, cause, treatment, etc., 449-458 treatment by use of serum, 455 Aphtha, calf, description and treatment, 263 Aphtha parasite (_Saccharomyces albicans_), cause, 263 Aphthous fever. _See_ Foot-and-mouth disease. Aphthous stomatitis, reference, 532 Apoplexy-- cerebral, description and treatment, 106 parturient, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 Appetite-- depraved, description, causes and treatment, 28 Loss, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Aqueous humor of eye, description, 341 Argentina, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Arsenic poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 54 Arsenical dips-- for destroying cattle ticks, 488 use against screw worms, 507 Arsenical vapor, danger of inhalation in making cattle dip, 489 Arteries-- and veins, wounds, description and treatment, 83 obstruction, description and treatment, 85 _Ascaris vitulorum_, intestinal roundworm, description and treatment, 524 Ascites-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 47 description and treatment, 180 Asepsis in surgical operations, 289 Aseptic periostitis, description and treatment, 266 Asphyxia electrica, symptoms and treatment, 111 Atkinson, V. T.-- chapter on "Bones: Diseases and accidents", 264-288 chapter on "Poison and poisoning", 51-70 Atrophy, description, 81 Auscultation, definition, 91 Austria-Hungary, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 _Bacillus_-- _cyanogenes_, causing blue milk, 242 _tuberculosis_, (_Mycobacterium tuberculosis_, new terminology) causing tuberculosis, 407 Back, sprain, causes and treatment, 270 Bacteria-- causing abscess, 237 definition, 360 _Bacterium bovisepticum_, causing hemorrhagic septicemia, 397 Balkan countries, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Ball-- eye, description, 340 hair, in stomach, description, 29 Balls, use in administering medicines, 8 Bee stings, description and treatment, 71 Beef measles, discussion and management, 529 Belgium, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Benign tumors, description, 306 Big jaw. _See_ Actinomycosis. Black quarter. _See_ Blackleg. Blackleg-- description, cause and treatment, 459, 464 serum, relation to anthrax, 458 vaccine, note on distribution by Animal Industry Bureau, 463 Bladder-- eversion, description, and treatment, 218 or rectum, full, as obstruction to parturition, 178 palsy of neck, cause and treatment, 130 paralysis, causes and treatment, 128 rupture, symptoms, 218 spasms, description and treatment, 128 stone, symptoms and treatment, 142 Bladder worms-- affecting brain, description and treatment, 528 thin-necked, description and treatment, 528 Bleeding-- description and treatment, 83 lungs, description and treatment, 99 navel, cause and treatment, 248 nose, cause and treatment, 93 womb, description, symptoms, and treatment, 214 Blisters, water, symptoms and treatment, 328 Bloating, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22 Blood-- clots on walls of vagina, description and treatment, 220 coagulated, under vaginal walls after calving, treatment, 179 description and influence of food on, 75 flukes (_Schistosoma bovis_), note, 526 parasites affecting, different kinds, 526 protozoa affecting, 510-536 vessels-- functions, 73 heart, lymphatics, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 73-86 Bloodsuckers affecting cattle, description and treatment, 519 Bloody milk, cause and treatment, 241 Bloody urine-- caused by blood flukes, 526 description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Blue disease, cause, 253 Blue lice (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_ and _H. vitali_), description, 512 Blue milk, cause and treatment, 242 Boils, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 328 Bones-- broken, description of kinds and treatment, 271-282 diseases and accidents, chapter by V. T. Atkinson, 264-288 dislocations, description and treatment, 282 face, fracture, description, and treatment, 277 luxations, description and treatment, 282 manner of nourishment, 264 number and description, 264 shape, classes, 265 Bony tumor, description and treatment, 314 _Boophilus annulatus_, Texas fever tick. _See Margaropus annulatus._ Bots affecting cattle, description and treatment, 507 Bovine tuberculosis and the public health, 429 Bowel hernia, description and treatment, 39 Bowels-- diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34-43 obstruction resulting from invagination, symptoms and treatment, 35 twisting and knotting, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 Brain-- and its membranes, inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 103 bladder worms affecting, treatment, 527 _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_ _(Multiceps multiceps)_ affecting, treatment, 527 concussion, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 107 congestion, description and treatment, 106 description, 101 tumors, description, 112 Brazil, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Breach-- navel, symptoms and treatment, 252 uterus, cause and treatment, 162 Breathing, suspended in young calves, discussion, 247 Bronchial tubes, parasites affecting, 530 Bronchitis-- description, symptoms, and treatment, 94 verminous-- description, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 100 parasite (_Strongylus micrurus_), cause, 100 Brush, report of foot-and-mouth disease in man, 394 Buffalo gnats, description and remedy, 505 Bull, ringing, method, 291 Bulls, susceptibility to sarcoptic mange, 517 Burns and scalds, causes and treatment, 333 Calculi-- classification, 137 forms in different situations, 138 in prepuce or sheath, treatment, 144 renal, description and treatment, 139 urethral, description and treatment, 139 urinary-- classification, 137 description and causes, 130 effect of different feeds, 131 Calculus-- blocking teats, treatment, 243 prevention, 141 vesical or urethral, symptoms and treatment, 142 Calf-- attention necessary at birth, 247 diphtheria, description, symptoms, and treatment, 464-469 dropsy-- general, cause and treatment, 180 of abdomen, description and treatment, 180 monstrosities, descriptions, causes, and treatment, 182-184 muscles, rigid contraction, cause and treatment, 181 slinking, description, 165 swelling, caused by gas, treatment, 181 tumors affecting, description and treatment, 181 Calves-- congenital imperfections, kinds, 263 indigestion affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34 newborn, acute scouring, description, prevention and treatment, 261 pyemic and septicemic inflammation, symptoms and treatment, 251 young-- aphtha, or thrush, affecting, description and treatment, 233 constipation affecting, cause and treatment, 253 diseases affecting, chapter by James Law, 247-263 rickets affecting, description and treatment, 263 ulcers in mouth, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 464 Calving-- dropping and palsy following, description and treatment, 233 retarded by nervousness, 179 symptoms, 173 Canada, source of foot-and-mouth infection, 386 Cancer, description and treatment, 315 Capsule, eye, description, 342 Capsules, use in administering medicines, 8 Carbolic-acid poisoning, description and treatment, 60 Carbon dioxid, formation in preparing cattle dip, 489 Carbuncle, description, 458 Carcinoma, description and treatment, 315 Caries, teeth, description, 16 Carpus, fracture, description and treatment, 281 Cartilage, ear, necrosis affecting, 357 Caruncula lacrimalis of eye, description, 344 Casein concretions blocking teats, cause and treatment, 343 Casting the withers, cause and treatment, 215 Castration-- dangers and care, 299-301 of female, description of operation, 300 of male, description of operation, 299 Cataract, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 348 Catarrh-- description, symptoms, and treatment, 92, 93 gastrointestinal, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32, 33 malignant, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 nasal, description, symptoms, and treatment, 92 Catarrhal fever, infectious, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 Cats, ear ticks on, note, 518 Cattle-- animal parasites affecting, chapter by B. H. Ransom, 502-531 dip, preparation and use, 488-494 dose of vaccine against anthrax, 459 drenching, care of lungs, 522 farcy, description and treatment, 501 infected with anthrax, description, 458 infection with sarcoptic mange, 517 infectious diseases, chapter by John R. Mohler, 358-501 infestation with tapeworm, 523 injury by use of petroleum against ticks, 494 loss of blood by inoculations, limits of safety, 500 northern, immunization against Texas fever, manner, 498 parasitic diseases, prevention, 510 plague. _See_ Rinderpest. protection from flies, formulas for mixtures, 502-503 rabies affecting, description, symptoms, etc, 402-406 southern, injury by ticks, 482 tick, _Margaropus annulatus_, as carrier of Texas fever, 480 ticks-- injurious effects of and losses caused by, 481-485 methods of ridding cattle of, 485-494 tumors affecting, chapter by John R. Mohler, 303-319 Cerebral apoplexy, description and treatment, 106 Cerebrospinal division, description, 101 Chapped teats, cause and treatment, 243 Charbon. _See_ Anthrax. Chest, dropsy affecting, description and treatment, 99 Children, infection with foot-and-mouth disease, 394 China, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Choking, symptoms and treatment, 20 Chorioptic mange, location and treatment, 517 Choroid coat of the eye, description, 342 Chrondroma tumor, description and treatment, 314 Chronic tympanites, cause and treatment, 25 Coal-oil poisoning, description and treatment, 59 _C[oe]nurus cerebralis_ (_Multiceps multiceps_) affecting brain, treatment, 527 Coital exanthema, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Cold in the head, description, symptoms, and treatment, 92 Colic, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 31 Concussion of the brain, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 107 Congenital imperfections in calves, kinds, 263 Congestion-- and inflammation of testicles, description and treatment, 152 brain, description and treatment, 106 liver, description, symptoms, and treatment, 45 spinal cord, description, symptoms, and treatment, 110 bladder, description and treatment, 233 Conjunctivitis-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 344 infectious catarrhal, symptoms, treatment and prevention, 345 Connecticut, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Constipation-- cause and treatment, 36 young calves, cause and treatment, 253 Contagious-- abortion-- causes, 165-172 prevention and treatment, 170 diseases, disinfection of premises, 363 inflammation of the udder, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 mammitis, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 pleuropneumonia-- cause, incubation, and symptoms, 369 definition and history, 366 post-mortem appearance, 373 prevention and treatment, 377 scouring, acute, in newborn calves, description, prevention, and treatment, 261 Contused or lacerated wounds, description and treatment, 298 Contusion of lips, wounds, and snake bites of mouth, symptoms and treatment, 14 Copper poisoning, description and treatment, 56 Cornea-- eye, description, 341 ulcers, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 Corneal dermatoma, description and treatment, 349 Corneitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 345 Cough, examination, 89 Cow, pregnant, hygiene, 160 Cowpox, description, symptoms, and treatment, 240, 438 Cows, milk, protection from flies, 503 Cramps of hind limbs during pregnancy, cause, 162 Cranium, fracture, description and treatment, 278 Creeps, description, symptoms, and treatment, 267 Cresol-- compound solution, composition and use, 366 use in foot-and-mouth disease, 393 Croupous enteritis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 35 Crude petroleum-- danger to cattle in use against ticks, 494 dip for destroying cattle ticks, 491 Cud, loss, description, 27 Cuts, barbed-wire, description and treatment, 297 Cyanosis, cause, 81, 253 Cysts-- dental, description and treatment, 318 dermoid-- and sebaceous, description and treatment, 330 description and treatment, 318 description, 308 extravasation, description, 317 mucous, description and treatment, 319 parasitic, description, 317 proliferation, description and treatment, 319 serous, description and treatment, 318 Dairy business, injury by foot-and-mouth disease, 384 Dandruff, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Deformities, hoof, causes and treatment, 338 Dehorning, description, 292 Delaware, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Demodectic mange, description and treatment, 517 Denmark, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Dental cysts, description and treatment, 318 Dermis, description, 320 Dermoid cysts, description and treatment, 318, 330 Diabetes-- insipidus, cause and treatment, 118 mellitus, description, 123 Diarrhea-- and dysentery, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34 calf, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32 causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 254-261 _See also_ Gastrointestinal catarrh. Dickson, William, and William H. Lowe, chapter on "Surgical operations", 289-302 Digestive organs, diseases affecting, chapter by A. J. Murray, 14-50 Dilatation and hypertrophy of heart, description, 82 Diphtheria, calf, description, cause, treatment, etc, 464-469 Dipping-- bath, cattle, temperature, 490 remedy for screw worms, 506 Dips-- arsenical, protection of hands in use, 493 cattle, for ticks, 494-498 mange and scab, 513, 514 Disinfection, house, methods, 363 Dislocation, eyeball, treatment, 353 Dislocations, bones, description and treatment, 282 Diuresis, causes and treatment, 118 Dogs, ear tick, 518 Drainage, usefulness in prevention of fluke diseases, 527 Drenching tube, use in eradicating worms, 522 Dropping, following calving, description and treatment, 233 Dropsy-- abdomen, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 47 abdomen of calf, description and treatment, 180 chest, description and treatment, 99 general, of calf, cause and treatment, 180 hind limbs and between thighs, during pregnancy, cause, 162 membranes of fetus, description and treatment 162 navel, description and treatment, 253 womb, description and treatment, 162 Dysentery-- and diarrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 34 chronic bacterial, description, treatment, etc, 498 red, note, 531 _See also_ Gastrointestinal catarrh. Dyspepsia, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 29 Ear tick, spinose, presence in cattle, horses, dogs, etc, 518 Ears-- abscess affecting, treatment, 355 cartilage, necrosis affecting, 357 diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 355-357 enchondroma, description and treatment, 357 foreign bodies lodging in, symptoms and treatment, 356 frostbite, symptoms and treatment, 357 fungoid growths, cause and treatment, 356 internal inflammation, symptoms and treatment, 355 lacerations, cause and treatment, 357 scurvy, cause and treatment, 356 ticks affecting, treatment, 518 _Echinococcus granulosus_, hydatid, description, 528 Ectropion of the eyelid, description and treatment, 350 Eczema-- description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 325 epizootic, reference, 383 Edema-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 330 malignant, description, symptoms, and treatment, 472-474 Elephantiasis, description, 330 Emaciation, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Emphysema, description and treatment, 98, 334 Enchondroma, ear, description and treatment, 357 Encysted stomach worm, description and treatment, 523 Endocarditis, description and treatment, 81 Enemata, uses and methods, 9 Enteritis-- causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 croupous, description, symptoms, and treatment, 35 simple. _See_ Gastroenteritis. Entropion, eyelid, description and treatment, 350 Epidermis, description, 320 Epilepsy, description, cause, and treatment, 107 Epistaxis, cause and treatment, 93 Epizootic aphtha, reference, 383 Ergotism-- and mycotic stomatitis, differentiation, 536 description and treatment, 69 Eruption, vesicular, of genital organs, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Erythema, description, causes, and treatment, 323 Eversion-- bladder, description and treatment, 218 eyelid, description and treatment, 350 womb, cause and treatment, 215 Extra-uterine gestation, description and treatment, 163 Extravasation cysts, description, 317 Eye-- and its appendages, diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 340-354 aqueous humor, description, 341 capsule, description, 342 caruncula, lacrimalis affecting, 344 choroid coat, description, 342 cornea-- description, 341 ulcers affecting, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 description, 340 foreign bodies penetrating, treatment, 351 lens, description, 342 muscles, description, 343 parasites affecting, treatment, 349, 531 puncta lacrimalia, description, 344 retina, description, 342 roundworms affecting, treatment, 524 sclerotic membrane, description, 341 vitreous humor, description, 342 Eyeball-- description, 340 dislocation, cause and treatment, 353 hairy tumor affecting, description and treatment, 349 Eyelashes, inversion, treatment, 350 Eyelids-- description, 343 ectropion affecting, description and treatment, 350 entropion, description and treatment, 350 eversion, description and treatment, 350 inversion, description and treatment, 350 laceration, cause and treatment, 351 tumors affecting, description and treatment, 350 Face bones, fracture, description and treatment, 277 Farcy, cattle, description and treatment, 501 _Fasciola hepatica_, description, 526 _Fasciola magna_, description, 526 Fatty degeneration, heart, description, 82 Feed, character, analyses, effect on milk, 256-258 Feeding-- character, effect on digestive organs, 12 value as remedy for stomach worms, 521-523 "Feeding-lot" method of freeing cattle and pastures from ticks, 494-497 Fetlock-- fracture below, treatment, 282 sprain, causes and treatment, 269 Fetus-- developing outside womb, description and treatment, 163 membranes, dropsy affecting, description and treatment, 162 prolonged retention, description and treatment, 164 Fever-- milk, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226-237 parturition, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 southern, splenetic, or Texas. _See_ Texas fever. Fibroma-- interdigital, description and treatment, 338 tumor, description and treatment, 311 Fibrous periostitis, description and treatment, 266 _Filaria cervina_, worm found in the eye, 349 _Filaria lablato-papillosa_, parasitic roundworm of cattle, 524 _Filaria oculi_, description and treatment, 349 Fissure of the wall of hoof, description and treatment, 338 Fistula, milk, description and treatment, 245 Flies-- injurious to cattle, 502-506 larval, note, 502 Flooding from womb, description and treatment, 214 Fluke disease, control by use of lime, 526 Flukes, prevention by drainage, 526 Fly-- Spanish, poison, description and treatment, 70 stable, breeding places, 503 Fly preventives, injury to cattle by poisoning, 503 Flytrap, use against stable flies, 503 Fluke, disease of cattle, 526 Flukes, liver and lungs, description, 526 Foods, character, effect on digestive organs, 12 Foot-- diseases affecting, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 335-339 foul, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 336 soreness, description and treatment, 335 Foot rot, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 336 Foot-and-mouth disease-- benign, simple, or noninfectious, 535 danger to man, 394-395 description, cause, symptoms, etc., 383-395 diagnosis, 391-392 eradication by slaughter, efficacy, 394 incubation period, 384 losses other than by death of animal, 384 mortality, 384, 391 occurrence in various countries of world, 385-386 prevention and eradication, 392-394 similarity to mycotic stomatitis, 536 symptoms, 383, 389-391 symptoms in man, 394 United States, outbreaks, 386-389 Forage, insects on, description of poisonous effect, 70 Formaldehyde gas, liberation by use of permanganate, 365 Foul in foot, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 336 Founder, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 335 Fractures-- below hock and fetlock, description and treatment, 282 compound, comminuted, and complicated, 271 description of different kinds, and treatment, 271-282 face bones, description and treatment, 277 general symptoms and treatment, 272, 273 hip point, causes and treatment, 280 horns, description and treatment, 277 limbs, description and appliances for treatment, 281-2 lower jaw, cause and treatment, 278 metacarpus and metatarsus, description and treatment, 282 pelvis, description and treatment, 178, 279 ribs, cause and treatment, 281 special, descriptions and treatment, 277 spinal column, description and treatment, 279 vertebra, description and treatment, 279 France, foot-and-mouth disease, 385 Froesch, note on destruction of foot-and-mouth infection, 395 Frostbites-- ears, symptoms and treatment, 357 treatment, 334 Fungi, poisonous, description of poisoning, 70 Fungoid growth of the ear, cause and treatment, 356 Fungus hematodes-- cause and treatment, 353 description, 316 Furunculus, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 328 Ganglionic division of the nervous system, 103 Gangrene, danger in castration of cattle, 300 Gangrenous septicemia, symptoms and treatment, 472 Garget, description and treatment, 233 Gas-- cause of swelling in calf, treatment, 181 under the skin, symptoms and treatment, 334 Gastroenteritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 33 Gastrointestinal catarrh, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 29, 32 Generative organs-- diseases, chapter by James Law, 147-214 discussion, 147 Genital organs, vesicular eruption affecting, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Germany, foot-and-mouth disease, 385-386 Gestation, extra-uterine, description and treatment, 163 Gid, parasite of sheep and cattle, 528 Glands, skin, location and use, 321 Gnats, buffalo, description and remedy, 505 Goiter, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 310 Gonorrhea, description and treatment, 156 Gravel-- description and cause, 130 effect of different feeds, 132 in prepuce or sheath, treatment, 144 Great Britain, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Grubs, cattle, description, 507 Gullet-- diseases affecting, description, symptoms, and treatment, 17-22 wounds and injuries, cause and treatment, 22 Gut tie, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 41 _Hæmatopinus eurysternus_ and _H. vituli_, description and treatment, 508 _Hæmonchus contortus_, description and treatment, 519 Hair balls, cause, 29 Hair, description, 320 Harbaugh, W. H.-- chapter on "Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics", 73-86 chapter on "Diseases of the nervous system", 101-112 Haw, inflammation and enlargement, description and treatment, 354 Health, public, relation of actinomycosis, 447 Heart-- blood vessels and lymphatics, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 73-86 description, 73 dilation and hypertrophy, description, 82 examination of, 77 fatty degeneration, description, 82 injury by foreign bodies, description, symptoms, and treatment, 78 misplacement, description, 83 palpitation, description, 78 rupture, description, 82 valves, diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment, 82 Heat prostration, symptoms and treatment, 108 Heaves, description and treatment, 98 Heel, ulcerations, causes and treatment, 337 Hemaglobinuria or hematuria, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Hematodes, fungus, description, 316 Hemoptysis, description and treatment, 99 Hemorrhage-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 treatment, 83 Hemorrhagic septicemia, causes, symptoms, etc, 397-401 Hepatitis, symptoms and treatment, 45 Hernia-- bowel, description and treatment, 38 danger in castration of cattle, 300 peritoneal, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 41 rennet, description and treatment, 38 rumen, description and cause, 37 stomach, description and treatment, 38 umbilical, description, causes, and treatment, 41, 252 uterus, cause and treatment, 162 ventral, description and causes, 37 Hides, injury by cattle ticks, 484 Hip point, fracture, causes and treatment, 280 Hip sprain, cause and treatment, 270 Hock-- fracture below, description and treatment, 282 fracture, treatment, 281 Hollow horn, imaginary disease, 27 Hoof-- deformities, causes and treatment, 338 loss, causes and treatment, 336 split, description and treatment, 338 wall, fissure affecting, description and treatment, 338 wounds and pricks, treatment, 338 Horns, fracture, description and treatment, 277 Horses-- dose of vaccine against anthrax, 457 ear tick, note, 518 Hoven, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22 Hydatids-- and flukes affecting the lungs of animals, 526 description and treatment, 526 Hydrocephalus, description and treatment, 179 Hydrophobia. _See_ Rabies. Hydrothorax, description and treatment, 99 Hygiene, pregnant cow, 160 Hygromata, description and treatment, 317 Hyperplasia, reference, 303 Hypertrophy-- description, 128 heart, with dilation, description, 82 _Hypoderma bovis_, new warble fly, 507 _Hypoderma lineata_, warble fly, description, 507 Illinois, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Immunization, northern cattle against Texas fever, manner, 500 Impetigo, description, causes, and treatment, 327 Incised wounds, description and treatment, 295 Incontinence, urine, cause and treatment, 130 Incubation period of infectious diseases, 362 Indiana, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Indigestion-- calves, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32, 253 causes, symptoms, and treatment, 26, 29, 31 Induration-- tongue. _See_ Actinomycosis. womb mouth, description and treatment, 176 Infectious aphtha. _See_ Foot-and-mouth disease. Infectious catarrhal conjunctivitis, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 345 Infectious catarrhal fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 Infectious diseases-- cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler, 358-511 classification of symptoms and lesions, 359 general discussion, 358 incubation periods, 362 treatment, discussion, 362 Infectious ophthalmia, or infectious catarrhal conjunctivitis, 345 Inflammation-- brain and its membranes, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 103 contagious, of the udder, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 ear, symptoms and treatment, 355 haw, description and treatment, 354 kidneys, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 123 liver, symptoms and treatment, 45 mucous membrane of mouth, symptoms and treatment, 17 navel veins, description, symptoms, and treatment, 249 parotid gland, symptoms and treatment, 18 pyemic and septicemic, of joints of calves, symptoms and treatment, 251 sheath and penis from bruising, prevention and treatment, 155 sheath, causes and treatment, 153 spleen, description, 45 testicles, description and treatment, 152 traumatic, of the stomach, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 34 udder, description, symptoms, and treatment, 234 urachus, causes and treatment, 248 urethra, description and treatment, 156 vagina, causes and treatment, 223 veins, description and treatment, 86 womb, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 Inflammatory diseases, skin, description, symptoms, and treatment, 320-334 Inhalation of medicines, manner, 10 Inoculation, use against hemorrhagic septicemia, 401 Intercostal muscles, rheumatism affecting, description and treatment, 100 Interdigital fibroma, description and treatment, 338 Intestinal parasites, description and treatment, 523 Intestines, roundworms affecting, kind and treatment, 532 Intussusception, causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 Invagination, cause of obstruction of bowels, symptoms, and treatment, 35 Inversion-- eyelashes, treatment, 350 eyelid, description and treatment, 350 Iodin, tincture, use in punctured wounds, 297 Iowa, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Iris, description, 341 Italy, foot-and-mouth disease, 385 Itch, scab, mites, and mange, description and treatment, 513 Itching, cause and treatment, 322 Japan, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Jaundice, description, symptoms and treatment, 44 Jaw-- big, lump, or lumpy, _See_ Actinomycosis. lower, fracture, cause and treatment, 278 poverty, caused by twisted wireworms, 520 Jawbones, actinomycosis affecting, description and treatment, 440-449 Jensen, formula for protection of cattle from flies, 503 Joint-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 Kansas, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Kelis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 331 Kentucky, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Keratitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 345 Kidney-- ox, description, 117 parasites affecting, discussion, 127 stone in, description and treatment, 139 Kidneys-- inflammation, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 123 tumors affecting, description, 128 Knee-- fracture below, description and treatment, 282 fracture, description and treatment, 281 tumors, description and treatment, 317 Knotting and twisting of bowels, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 35 Labor pains before relaxation of passages, 175 Lacerated wounds, description and treatment, 298 Laceration, eyelid, cause and treatment, 351 Lacerations-- and ruptures of the vagina, description and treatment, 219 ear, cause and treatment, 357 Lacrimal gland of the eye, description, 343 Lameness, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Laminitis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 335 Laryngitis, cause and treatment, 93 Laurel poisoning, description and treatment, 65 Law, James-- chapter on "Diseases following parturition", 214-246 chapter on "Diseases of the generative organs", 147-214 chapter on "Diseases of the urinary organs", 113-146 chapter on "Diseases of young calves", 247-263 observation of foot-and-mouth disease in man, 395 Lead poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 55 Leeches in cattle, description and treatment, 519 Lens of the eye, description, 342 Leucorrhea, symptoms and treatment, 224 Lice-- blue (_Hæmatopinus eurysternus_ and _H. vituli_), description and treatment, 512 red, description and treatment, 513 Lightning stroke, symptoms and treatment, 111 Limbs, fracture of bones, description, 281 Lime, use in fluke control, 534 Lipoma tumor, description and treatment, 314 Lips, contusions, wounds, and snake bites, symptoms and treatment, 14 Livestock, immunization against anthrax, 457-458 Liver-- congestion, description, symptoms, and treatment, 44 diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 44-45 flukes, description and treatment, 526 inflammation affecting, symptoms and treatment, 45 Lockjaw-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 reference, 300 Loco weed poisoning, description and treatment, 67 Loeffler, note on description of foot-and-mouth infection, 395 Louse, red (_Trichodectes scalaris_), description and treatment, 513 Lowe, William H.-- and William Dickson, chapter on "Surgical operations", 289-302 chapter on "Noncontagious diseases of organs of respiration", 87-100 Lump, or lumpy jaw. _See_ Actinomycosis. Lung-- abscess, description, 99 tissue, parasites affecting, 526 Lungs-- actinomycosis affecting, 443 bleeding from, description and treatment, 99 bronchial tubes, parasites affecting, description and treatment, 530 parasites affecting, note, 526 worms of cattle, description and treatment, 530 Luxations of bones, description and treatment, 282 Lymphatics-- description, 75 heart, and blood vessels, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 73-86 Malignant-- catarrh, description, symptoms, and treatment, 469-472 edema, description, symptoms, and treatment, 472-474 pustule, description, 458 tumors, description, 306 Mammitis-- contagious, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 simple, description, symptoms, and treatment, 234 Man-- relation to beef measles in cattle, 529 symptoms of foot-and-mouth disease, 394 treatment with anthrax serum, 459 Mange-- common, description and treatment, 513 itch, scab, mites, description and treatment, 513 psoroptic, description and treatment, 513 sarcoptic, cause and treatment, 517 Manure, breeding place for flies, 511 _Margaropus annulatus_, Texas fever tick, 480 Maryland, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Massachusetts, foot-and-mouth disease, 387, 388 Measles, beef, discussion and management, 529 Measly beef, description and prevention, 529 Medicines, methods of administration, chapter by Leonard Pearson, 7-11 Membrana nictitans of eye, description, 343 Meninges, number and functions, 103 Mercury poisoning, symptoms and treatment, 57 Metacarpus, fracture, description and treatment, 282 Metatarsus, fracture, description, treatment, 282 Metritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 Metroperitonitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 Michigan, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 _Micrococcus prodigiosus_, cause of bloody milk, 242 Microorganisms, transmission, 361 Milk-- absence, cause and treatment, 241 bloody and blue, cause and treatment, 239, 240, 241-242 diminution, symptom of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 duct-- closure and thickening of mucous membrane, cause and treatment, 244 closure by membrane, description and treatment, 245 effect of different feeds, analyses, 256-258 fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226-237 fistula, description and treatment, 245 pasteurization as guard against foot-and-mouth infection, 395 source of foot-and-mouth disease infection, 394 stringy, cause and treatment, 242 Mineral-- acid poisoning, description and treatment, 58 poisons, description and kinds, 54 Minnesota, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Misplacement, heart, description, 83 Mites-- description, 511 mange, itch, scab, description and treatment, 513 Mohler, John R.-- chapter on "Infectious diseases of cattle", 358-511 chapter on "Mycotic stomatitis of cattle", 539-544 chapter on "Tumors affecting cattle", 303-320 Monstrosities, calf, descriptions, causes, and treatment, 182-184 Montana, foot-and-mouth disease, 384 Moor-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Morphia, poisoning, description and treatment, 61 Mouth-- diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment, 14-17 inflammation of the mucous membrane, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 17 sore, characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-392 ulcers affecting, in young calves. _See_ Necrotic stomatitis. Mucopurulent discharge from passages, symptoms and treatment, 224 Mucous cysts, description and treatment, 319 Mucous membrane-- of mouth, inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 17 thickening and closure of milk duct, cause and treatment, 244 _Multiceps multiceps_ (bladderworm), parasite of brain, 527 Murray, A. J., chapter on "Diseases of digestive organs", 12-50 Muscles-- calf, rigid contraction, cause, and treatment, 181 eye, description, 343 intercostal, rheumatism affecting, description and treatment, 100 Mycotic stomatitis-- cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler, 539-542 character, cause, symptoms, lesions, etc., 540 characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-392 differential diagnosis and treatment, 542 prevalence, 539 synonyms, 539 Myocarditis, description, symptoms, and treatment, 81 Myoma tumor, description and treatment, 309 Myxoma tumor, description and treatment, 314 Nagana, description, symptoms, and treatment, 510 Nasal catarrh, description, symptoms, and treatment, 92 Navel-- abscess affecting, causes and treatment, 99 bleeding, cause, and treatment, 248 breach, symptoms, and treatment, 252 dropsy, description and treatment, 253 string, constricting member of fetus, description, 179 urine discharged through, description and treatment, 248 urine duct, inflammation, cause, and treatment, 248 veins, inflammation, description, causes, and treatment, 249 Necrosis-- and diseases of cartilage of the ear, cause and treatment, 357 bony orbit, cause and treatment, 352 Necrotic stomatitis-- characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391 description, symptoms, and treatment, 464-469 differentiation from foot-and-mouth disease, 391 Neoformation and neoplasm. _See_ Tumors. Nephritis, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 123 Nerves, description, 101-103 Nervous system, diseases, chapter by W. H. Harbaugh, 101-112 Nervousness, cause of retarding calving, 179 Netherlands, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Nettle rash, description, causes, and treatment, 324 Neurofibroma tumor, description and treatment, 310 New Hampshire, foot-and-mouth disease, 387-388 New Jersey, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 New York, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Nicotin dip, directions for making, 516 Nodular disease of intestines due to hookworms, note, 525 Noncontagious-- abortion-- causes, 165 treatment, 167 diseases of organs of respiration, chapter by William H. Lowe, 87-100 foot-and-mouth disease, reference, 532 Norway, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Nose bleeding, cause and treatment, 93 Nymphomania in female, cause and treatment, 148 Obstruction-- arteries, description and treatment, 85 bowels, resulting from invagination, causes, symptoms, etc, 35 parturition by full bladder or rectum, 178 parturition by masses of fat, cause, 178 _[OE]sophagostomum radiatum_, parasite causing nodular disease, treatment, 525 Ohio, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 _Oidirum albicans_, parasite causing aphtha, or thrush, 263 Operations-- asepsis, importance of, 289 surgical-- chapter by William Dickson, William H. Lowe, 289-302 manner of securing the animals, 289 uses of anesthesia, 289 Ophthalmia-- simple, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 344 specific, symptoms, treatment, and prevention, 345 Opium poisoning, description and treatment, 61 Orbit-- bony, necrosis affecting, cause and treatment, 352 fracture, cause and treatment, 352 tumors, cause and treatment, 353 Orbital-- and periorbital abscess, symptoms and treatment, 352 cavity of the eye, description, 342 Orchitis, description and treatment, 152 _Ornithodoros megnini_, ear tick of cattle, 518 Osteitis, description and treatment, 265 Osteoma, description and treatment, 314 Osteomalacia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 267 Osteomyelitis, description and treatment, 266 _Ostertagia ostertagi_, encysted stomach worm of cattle, 523 Otitis, symptoms and treatment, 355 _Otobius magnini_, ear tick, 518 Ovariotomy, description of the operation, 301 Ovum, inclosed, description and treatment, 181 Ox warbles and grubs, treatment, 507 Pains, labor, before relaxation of passages, 175 Palpitation of heart, description, 76 Palsy-- following calving, description and treatment, 233 of neck of bladder, cause and treatment, 130 Papillary growths and warts on the penis, treatment, 156 Papilloma, description and treatment, 312 Paralysis-- bladder, causes and treatment, 130 description, 109 hind parts during pregnancy, cause and treatment, 163 rear parts of body, cause, 109 _Paramphistonum cervi_, parasite affecting cattle, 519 Paraplegia, symptoms and treatment, 110 Parasites-- animal, of cattle, chapter by B. H. Ransom, 502-531 blood, kinds, 530 bronchial tubes, description and treatment, 530 ear, kinds and treatment, 518 eye, kinds and treatment, 531 intestinal tract, kinds and treatment, 523 kidney, discussion, 125 lung, kinds, 530 stomach, kinds and treatment, 519 Parasitic-- cysts, description, 317 diseases of the skin, description and treatment, 332 Parotid gland, inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 18 Parotitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 18 Parturient-- apoplexy, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 collapse, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 fever, description, symptoms, and treatment, 226 Parturition-- difficult, suggestions for assisting, 74 diseases following, chapter by James Law, 214-245 obstacles, causes, 174 Pasteurization, value in check of foot-and-mouth infection, 395 Pastures, how to free from ticks, 490 Paunch, distention with food, description and treatment, 26 Pearson, Leonard, chapter on "Administration of medicines", 7-11 Pelvis-- fracture, description and treatment, 279 narrow, fracture, cause of difficult parturition, 178 Pemphigus, symptoms and treatment, 328 Penis-- inflammation from bruising, prevention and treatment, 155 ulcers affecting, cause and treatment, 157 warts and papillary growths, treatment, 156 wounds, cause and treatment, 156 Pennsylvania, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Percussion method of examination, 92 Pericarditis, symptoms and treatment, 79 Periorbital and orbital abscess, symptoms and treatment, 352 Periostitis, aseptic, purulent, and fibrous, description and treatment, 265 Peritoneal hernia, description, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 41 Peritoneum, diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 45-47 Peritonitis-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 45, 46 danger in castration of cattle, 300 Permanganate, use in production of formaldehyde gas, 365 Persistent urachus, description and treatment, 248 Pharyngeal polypi, description and treatment, 19 Pharyngitis, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 17 Pharynx-- diseases, description, symptoms, and treatment, 19-22 tumors affecting, description and treatment, 19 Philippine Islands, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Phlebitis-- description and treatment, 86 umbilical, description, symptoms, and treatment, 249 Phosphorus poisoning, symptoms and treatment, 57 Pica, description, causes, and treatment, 28 Pink eye. _See_ Ophthalmia. _Piroplasma bigeminum_, _protozoan_ causing Texas fever, 530 Pityriasis, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Plants, poisonous, description of poisoning, 63-69 Pleurisy, description, symptoms, and treatment, 95 Pleurodynia, description and treatment, 100 Pleuropneumonia-- cause, incubation, and symptoms, 369 definition and history, 366 post-mortem appearance, 373 prevention and treatment, 377 Pneumonia, description, symptoms, and treatment, 96 Pneumothorax, description and treatment, 99 Poison, definition, 51 Poisoning-- acid, description and treatment, 58 aconite, description and treatment, 63 alkali, description and treatment, 59 animal products, description and treatment, 69 arsenic, description, symptoms, and treatment, 54 carbolic acid, description and treatment, 60 chapter by V. T. Atkinson, 51-72 coal oil, description and treatment, 59 copper, description and treatment, 56 fungi, description, 70 laurel, description and treatment, 65 lead, description, symptoms, and treatment, 55 loco weed, description and treatment, 67 mercury, description, symptoms, and treatment, 57 phosphorus, symptoms and treatment, 57 plant, description, 63 salt and saltpeter, description, symptoms, and treatment, 60-61 sources, 51 strychnin, description and treatment, 62 symptoms and treatment, 53 Poisonous-- fungi, description, 68 plants, description, 63-69 Poisons-- chapter by V. T. Atkinson, 51-72 description of action, 52 mineral, descriptions, 54-58 vegetables, uses as medicine, 61-71 _Polydesmus excitans_, effect on cattle, 13 Polypi-- description and treatment, 313 pharyngeal, description and treatment, 19 vagina or uterus, description and treatment, 157 Polyuria, causes and treatment, 118 Pork measles, note, 536 Potash, permanganate, use in production of formaldehyde gas, 365 Poverty jaw and scours, caused by twisted wireworm, treatment, 527 Pregnancy-- cramps of hind limbs during, cause, 162 duration, 160 signs, 157 Pregnant cow, hygiene, 160 Prepuce, calculi affecting, treatment, 144 Presentation of fetus, natural, 173 Pricks, hoof, treatment, 338 Probang, use in prevention of choking, 21 Prolapsus vaginæ, description and treatment, 162 Proliferation cysts, description and treatment, 319 Prostration, heat, symptoms and treatment, 108 Protozoa-- as intestinal parasites, note, 526 definition, 359 Protrusion, vagina, description and treatment, 162 Pruritis, causes and treatment, 322 Pseudoplasm. _See_ Tumors. Psoroptic mange, description and treatment, 513 _Pucinia arundinacea_, _P. coronata_, _P. graminis_, _P. straminis_, effect on cattle, 13 Pulmonary congestion, treatment, 98 Pulse-- description, 74 examination, 90 Puncta lacrimalia of the eye, description, 344 Purulent periostitis, description and treatment, 266 Pustule-- description, causes, and treatment, 327 malignant, in man, description, 458 Pterygium, description and treatment, 349 Pyemia, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 395 Pyemic inflammation of joints in calves, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 Quarter-ill. _See_ Blackleg. Rabies, cattle, description, symptoms, etc., 402-406 Rachitis. _See_ Rickets. Ransom, B. H., chapter on "Animal parasites of cattle", 502-531 Rauschbrand. _See_ Blackleg. Rectal injections, uses and methods, 9 Rectum-- full, obstruction to parturition, 178 method of administering medicines, 9 Red dysentery, note, 526 Red water, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Regulations, sanitary, for controlling Texas fever, 495 Renal calculi, description and treatment, 139 Rennet, hernia affecting, description and treatment, 38 Respiration-- examination, 89 organs, methods of diagnosis, 37 organs, noncontagious diseases affecting, chapter by William H. Lowe, 87-100 Retina, eye, description, 342 Rheumatism-- articular and muscular, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 287, 288 intercostal muscles, description and treatment, 101 Rhode Island, foot-and-mouth disease, 387, 388 Ribs, fracture, cause and treatment, 281 Rickets-- description and treatment, 267 in young calves, description and treatment, 263 Rinderpest, description, cause, symptoms, etc., 379-383 Ringing, bull, method, 291 Ringworm, description, symptoms, and treatment, 332 Roundworms-- description, 524 eye, treatment, 531 intestine, kinds and treatment, 523 stomach, description, 519 Rumen-- distention with food, description and treatment, 22 hernia, description and cause, 37 Rumenotomy, description, 294 Rupture-- bladder, symptoms, 218 danger in castration of cattle, 300 heart, description, 82 womb, cause and treatment, 219 Ruptures-- and lacerations of the vagina, description and treatment, 219-220 description and cause, 37 Russia, foot-and-mouth disease, 382 _Saccharomyces albicans_, parasite of aphtha, or thrush, 263 Salivation-- cause, symptoms, and treatment, 15 symptoms of foot-and-mouth disease, 383 Salt, common, poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 61 Saltpeter poisoning, description, symptoms, and treatment, 60 Salts, medicated, doubtful value against worms, 523 Sarcoma tumor, description and treatment, 315 Satyriasis in male, cause and treatment, 148 Scab, mange, itch, description of kinds and treatment, 513 Scabby teats, treatment, 243 Scalds, causes and treatment, 333 _Schistosoma bovis_, cause of bloody urine, 530 Scleroderma, description, 330 Sclerotic membrane of eye, description, 341 Scouring-- acute contagious, in newborn calves, description, prevention, and treatment, 261 causes, symptoms, prevention, and treatment, 253-263 Scours-- and poverty jaw, caused by twisted wireworm, treatment, 519 causes, symptoms, and treatment, 32 Screens, use against flies, remarks, 503 Screwworms-- affecting animals, description and remedy, 506 control by dipping, 506 Scurf, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Scurfy ears, cause and treatment, 356 Sebaceous cysts, description and treatment, 330 Sebaceous glands, location, 321 Seborrhea, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 329 Septicemia-- causes, symptoms, and treatment, 395 gangrenous, description, symptoms, and treatment, 472 hemorrhagic, causes, symptoms, etc, 397-401 hemorrhagic, control by vaccination, etc, 401 Septicemic inflammation of joints in calves, description, symptoms, and treatment, 251 Serous cysts, description and treatment, 318 Serum, use against anthrax, 455 _Setaria labiato-papillosa_, embryo in blood, note, 529 Setoning, description and use, 293 Sheath-- calculi affecting, treatment, 144 inflammation, causes and treatment, 153 penis, inflammation from bruising, prevention and treatment, 155 Sheep, dose of vaccine against anthrax, 455 Shoulder joint, sprain, causes and treatment, 269 Skeleton, number of bones, 264 Skin-- description, 318 diseases, chapter by M. R. Trumbower, 320-334 gas or air under, symptoms and treatment, 334 glands, location and use, 321 inflammatory diseases, causes and treatment, 323 parasites affecting, description and treatment, 502-521 secretions and growths, descriptions, causes, and treatment, 329-331 wounds, kinds, description and treatment, 333-334 Skull, fracture, description and treatment, 278 Slinking, calf, description, 165 Snake bites, description, symptoms, and treatment, 14, 69 Sore mouth-- characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-392 reference, 532 Sore throat, cause and treatment, 17, 93 Sore tongue, reference, 533 Soreness, foot, description and treatment, 335 Southern cattle fever. _See_ Texas fever. Spanish-fly poisoning, description and treatment, 72 Spasm of the neck of the bladder, description and treatment, 128 Spavin, description and treatment, 284 Spaying, description of operation, 301 Spinal column, fracture, description and treatment, 279 Spinal cord-- congestion, description, symptom, and treatment, 110 description, 102 injuries, description, 109 Spleen-- diseases, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 44-45 inflammation, description, 45 Splenetic fever. _See_ Texas fever. Splenitis, description, 45 Split hoof, description and treatment, 338 Sporadic-- aphthae, reference, 532 stomatitis aphthosa, reference, 532 Sprain-- fetlock, causes and treatment, 269 hip, cause and treatment, 270 shoulder joint, causes and treatment, 269 Sprains, description and treatment, 268 Squinting, description, 349 Stable flies (_Stomoxys calcitrans_), affecting cattle, 503 Stabling, value against stomach worms, 521-522 Staggers, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 103, 529 _Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _S. pyogenes citreus_, bacteria of abscess, 237 Staphyloma, description, symptoms, and treatment, 348 Sterility, causes, 151 Stings-- venomous. _See_ Snake bites. wasps and bees, description and treatment, 71 Stomach-- diseases affecting, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22-34 fourth, affected with hernia, description and treatment, 38 hair balls in, 29 parasites affecting, treatment, 519, 524, 529 roundworms affecting, 524 traumatic inflammation, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 34 worm-- encysted, description and treatment, 523 sanitary measures for suppression, 521-522 worms, different kinds affecting cattle, 519 Stomatitis-- cause, symptoms, and treatment, 17 characteristic differences from foot-and-mouth disease, 391-393 mycotic. _See_ Mycotic stomatitis. necrotic, description, symptoms, treatment, etc., 464-469 _Stomoxys calcitrans_ affecting cattle, 503 Stone-- bladder, obstruction to parturition, 178 bladder, symptoms and treatment, 142 description and causes, 130 effect of different feeds, 132-134 kidney, description and treatment, 139 Strabismus, description, 349 Straw, breeding place of stable fly, 503 _Streptococcus pyogenes_, bacteria of abscess, 237 String, navel, constricting member of fetus, description, 179 Stringy milk, cause and treatment, 242 _Strongylus micrurus_, parasite of verminous bronchitis, 100 Struma, cause, description, symptoms, and treatment, 310 Strychnin poisoning, description and treatment, 62 Sudorific glands, location and use, 321 Sugar in urine, description, 123 Sunstroke, symptoms and treatment, 108 Suppression, milk, cause and treatment, 241 Surfeit, description, causes, and treatment, 324 Surgery, discussion, 289 Surgical operations-- asepsis, importance, 289 chapter by William Dickson and William H. Lowe, 289-302 manner of securing the animals during, 290 uses of anesthesia, 289 Swamp lands, drainage as measure against fluke disease, 527 Sweat glands, location and use, 322 Sweden, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Swelling of calf with gas, cause and treatment, 181 Switzerland, foot-and-mouth disease, 385 Symptomatic anthrax. _See_ Blackleg. _Tænia saginatæ_, tapeworm cysts, presence in cattle, 529 Tail, wolf in, imaginary disease, 27 Tapeworm cysts, source of injury to cattle, 529 Tapeworms-- adult, of small intestine, species and remedy, 523 cysts in muscles of cattle, 529 cysts of liver, 527 Tarsus, fracture, description and treatment, 281 Teats-- blocked by calculus, treatment, 243 blocked by concretion of casein, cause and treatment, 243 blocked by warty and other growth inside, description and treatment, 244 chapped, cause and treatment, 243 opening in the side, description and treatment, 245 scabby, treatment, 243 warts affecting, treatment, 243 Teeth-- caries, description, 16 irregularities, cause and treatment, 16 Temperature-- how to examine, 90 limits for dipping bath, 490 Test, tuberculin. _See_ Tuberculin test. Testicles, congestion and inflammation, description and treatment, 152 Tetanus-- danger in castration of cattle, 300 reference, 405 Texas fever-- description, symptoms, prevention, etc, 475-501 immunization of northern cattle, 495 infection carried by the cattle tick (_Margaropus annulatus_), 480 injurious effect of ticks, 482 loss occasioned by cattle ticks, 483 methods of eradication, 487-500 nature of the disease, 476 period of incubation of ticks, 486 prevention, 487 quarantine regulations, 495 symptoms and pathological changes after death, 478-480 tick eradication, plan of work, 487 Threadworms in abdominal cavity of cattle, 529 Throat, sore, symptoms, causes, and treatment, 17 Thrombosis, description and symptoms, 85 Thrush-- calf, description and treatment, 263 parasite (_Saccharomyces albicans_), cause, 263 Ticks-- cattle, time required to kill, 488 ear, 518 injury to cattle hides, 484 parasites of cattle, note, 502 _See also_ Cattle tick; Texas fever. _Tilletia caries_ in wheat, effect on cattle, 13 _Tinea favosa_, description, symptoms, and treatment, 332 _Tinea tonsurans_, description, symptoms, and treatment, 332 Tracheotomy, description, 294 Traumatic inflammation of the stomach, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 34 Trichiasis, treatment, 350 _Trichodectes scalaris_ (red louse), description and treatment, 513 _Trichophyton tonsurans_, fungus causing _Tinea tonsurans_, 332 Trumbower, M. R.-- chapter on "Diseases of the ear", 353-357 chapter on "Diseases of the eye and its appendages", 340-354 chapter on "Diseases of the foot", 335-339 chapter on "Diseases of the skin", 320-334 _Trypanosoma brucei_, cause of nagana, or tsetse-fly disease, 500 Tsetse-fly disease, description, symptoms, and treatment, 500 Tuberculin test-- description and history, 417 harmless to healthy animals, 426 summary of directions for making, 427 _Tuberculosis_-- bovine, and public health, 430 cause and nature of disease, 411 occurrence, 407 statistics of tests in United States, 410 symptoms and diagnosis, 416-417 transmissibility of human and bovine, 432 treatment, 428 Tumor-- bony, description and treatment, 314 chrondroma, description and treatment, 314 fibroma, description and treatment, 311 hairy, on eyeball, description and treatment, 349 lipoma, description and treatment, 314 sarcoma, description and treatment, 315 Tumors-- brain, description, 112 calf, description and treatment, 181 cattle, chapter by John R. Mohler, 303-319 definition and description, 303 description, 303, 305, 307 description of kinds, 309 diagnosis, 308 eyelid, description and treatment, 350 general treatment, 309 kidney, description, 128 malignant and benign, description, 306 orbit, cause and treatment, 353 pharynx, description and treatment, 19 Twisted stomach worms, description and treatment, 519-523 Twisting-- and knotting of the bowels, causes, symptoms, post-mortem appearance, and treatment, 35 of the neck of the womb, description and treatment, 176 Tympanites-- acute, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 22 chronic, causes and treatment, 25 Udder-- congestion, description and treatment, 233 contagious inflammation affecting, description, prevention, and treatment, 237 inflammation, description, symptoms, and treatment, 234 Ulceration, heel, causes and treatment, 337 Ulcerative stomatitis. _See_ Necrotic stomatitis. Ulcers-- calves. _See_ Necrotic stomatitis. cornea, cause, symptoms, and treatment, 347 penis, cause and treatment, 157 Umbilical hernia-- description, causes, and treatment, 39 symptoms and treatment, 252 Umbilical phlebitis, description, causes, and treatment, 249 Urachus-- inflammation, causes and treatment, 248 persistent, description and treatment, 248 Ureteral calculi, description and treatment, 139 Urethra, inflammation affecting, description and treatment, 156 Urethral calculus, symptoms and treatment, 142 Urinary calculi-- classification, 138 description and causes, 130, 137 effect of different feeds, 133 Urinary disorders, symptoms, 118 Urinary organs-- diseases, chapter by James Law, 113-146 functions, 113 Urine-- albumin in, description and treatment, 121 amount passed daily, 115 analyses under different rations, 114 bloody, caused by blood flukes, 526 bloody, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 cow, analysis, 114 discharged through navel, description and treatment, 248 excessive secretion, cause and treatment, 118 incontinence, cause and treatment, 130 ox, analysis, 115 retention, effect, cause, and treatment, 128 sugar in, description, 123 Urticaria, description, causes and treatment, 124 Uruguay, foot-and-mouth disease, 386 Uterus-- hernia affecting, cause and treatment, 162 polypus affecting, description and treatment, 157 Vaccination, disadvantages in use against anthrax, 457 Vaccine-- anthrax, care and use, 457 blackleg, free distribution, note, 463 preparation and use against hemorrhagic septicemia, 395 Vagina-- clots of blood on walls, description and treatment, 220 inflammation, causes and treatment, 223 lacerations and rupture, description and treatment, 219 polypus affecting, description and treatment, 157 _Vaginæ prolapsus_, description and treatment, 162 Vaginal walls, affected with coagulated blood after calving, treatment, 179 Vaginitis, causes and treatment, 223 Valves, heart, diseases affecting, symptoms and treatment, 80 Variola, description, symptoms, and treatment, 438 Vegetable-- acids, poisonous, description and treatment, 58 poisons-- note, 61 uses as medicine, description, symptoms, and treatment, 61-69 Veins-- inflammation, description and treatment, 86 wounds, description and treatment, 83 Venereal desire, diminution or loss, cause, prevention, and treatment, 149 Venereal excess, cause and treatment, 148 Venomous stings. _See_ Snake bites. Ventral hernia, description and causes, 37 Verminous bronchitis-- description, symptoms, and prevention, 100 _parasites_ causing, 100 Vermont, foot-and-mouth disease, 387 Verruca, description, cause, and treatment, 331 Vertebra, fracture, description, and treatment, 279 Vesical calculus, symptoms and treatment, 142 Vesicular eruption of genital organs, description, symptoms, and treatment, 401 Vesicular exanthema, symptoms and treatment, 401 Veterinarians, views on foot-and-mouth disease in man, 395 Virginia, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Vitreous humor of the eye, description, 342 Vomiting, symptoms, cause, and treatment, 27 Wall, hoof, fissure, description and treatment, 338 Warble fly-- damages, estimate, 510 European species, appearance in United States, 510 Warbles-- description and treatment, 507 penetration of skins of cattle, 508 reference, 333 Warts-- description, causes, and treatment, 312, 331 penis, treatment, 156 teats, treatment, 243 Washington, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Wasp stings, description and treatment, 71 Water-- blisters, symptoms and treatment, 328 cold, drinking, a cause of indigestion, symptoms and treatment, 33 head of calf, description and treatment, 179 Weather, relation to occurrence of mycotic stomatitis, 392 Wens, description and treatment, 330 West Virginia, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Wisconsin, foot-and-mouth disease, 388 Withers, casting, cause and treatment, 215 Wolf in the tail, imaginary disease, 27 Womb-- bleeding from, description, symptoms, and treatment, 214 dropsy, description and treatment, 162 eversion, cause and treatment, 215 fetus developing outside, description and treatment, 163 inflammation, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 224 mouth, induration, description and treatment, 176 rupture, cause and treatment, 219 twisting of neck, description and treatment, 176 Wooden tongue. _See_ Actinomycosis. Wood-ill, description, symptoms, and treatment, 119 Worm-- encysted stomach, description and treatment, 523 eye, description and treatment, 349 Worms-- bladder, description, 528 lung, of cattle, description and treatment, 530 screw, description and remedies, 506 thread, in abdominal cavity of cattle, 529 twisted stomach, description and treatment, 519-520 Wounds-- abdomen, causes, symptoms, and treatment, 43 arteries and veins, description and treatment, 83 contused and lacerated, description and treatment, 298 contusions of the lips and snake bites of mouth, description and treatment, 14 danger of infection from foot-and-mouth disease, 394 drainage, necessity, 298 gullet, description and treatment, 22 healing, treatment and dressing, description, 298 hoof, treatment, 338 incised-- description and treatment, 295 punctured, and lacerated, description and treatment, 295-299 mouth, snake bites and contusions of lips, treatment, 14 penis, cause and treatment, 156 skin, kinds, description, and treatment, 333-334 treatment, summary of care after dressing, 298 Yellows, description, symptoms, and treatment, 44 Zinc poisoning, description and treatment, 57 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT $1.00 PER COPY 
43323	----	HINTS ON CHEESE-MAKING, FOR THE DAIRYMAN, THE FACTORYMAN, AND THE MANUFACTURER. BY T. D. CURTIS. UTICA, N. Y. ROBERTS, PRINTER, MORNING HERALD ESTABLISHMENT. 1870. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by THOMAS DAY CURTIS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Northern District of New York. INTRODUCTORY. The following pages comprise the series of articles which appeared, during the last season, in the columns of the UTICA MORNING and WEEKLY HERALD. It is not claimed that they exhaust the several questions discussed; but it is believed that they constitute the most practical treatise on cheese-making that has yet appeared, and that they embrace the leading features and indicate the more advanced methods of the art as practiced by the best manufacturers. Every experienced cheese-maker may find something in them to object to and criticise, as there is diversity of opinion on many, as yet, not definitely settled questions. The writer would not check honest and intelligent criticism, if he could, but, on the contrary, encourage it. Nor would he have others adopt any of the suggestions, methods or practices herein mentioned, if they think they have better of their own. He would rather stimulate independent thought and action, and urge each to observe closely, experiment thoroughly, and be guided by his own experience. Beginners, without a complete knowledge of all the branches of cheese-making, it is believed, will be able to glean from these pages what will afford valuable assistance to them; but they should accept nothing as conclusive. There is much to be discovered and learned about cheese-making. Those who have worked at the business for years, without material progress, are not as likely to make important discoveries or improvements as those who now or may hereafter come to a knowledge of the subject with fresh minds and faculties newly stimulated. They will begin where the old cheese-makers leave off, and ought to be able to make advances in the work thus far developed by their predecessors. That each may keep his wits about him and add something valuable to our present stock of knowledge in regard to cheese-making, is the earnest wish of THE AUTHOR. UTICA, January, 1870. CONTENTS. PAGE. INTRODUCTORY, 5 BUILDING CHEESE FACTORIES, 9 PRODUCTION OF MILK, 14 COMPOSITION OF MILK, 18 TAINTS AND ODORS, 23 COOLING MILK, 27 DELIVERING MILK, 31 RECEIVING MILK, 36 BIG AVERAGES, 40 CONDUCTORS, STRAINERS, &C., 45 COLOR, 49 RENNETS, 55 PREPARING RENNET, 60 SETTING, 64 CUTTING CURDS, 68 HEAT, 73 ACID, 79 DIPPING CURDS, 84 SALTING CURDS, 87 TAINTED MILK, 91 CURING, 93 GREASING CHEESE, 95 SKIPPERS, 99 CHEDDAR PROCESS, 102 HINTS ON CHEESE-MAKING. CHAPTER I. BUILDING CHEESE-FACTORIES. We frequently receive inquiries from parties who contemplate building cheese-factories, regarding certain details which none but those who have actual experience can readily carry out. For the benefit of all needing such information, we have taken pains to prepare the following: Small or medium-sized factories now seem to be in order. People do not like to carry milk long distances, and this fact undoubtedly accounts for the tendency to small factories, conveniently located. We will give the size of a building suitable for a dairy of 300 to 500 cows. Let it be 80 by 26 feet, with 16 feet posts and two floors. From one end of the lower story take 24 feet for a make room, leaving the remainder for a curing room. Should more than one vat be used, the make room will need to be about six feet larger one way. It may be made so by taking the space off from the curing room, or by putting a projection on the side. The upper story will be used for curing, but should be partitioned off the same as the lower story. The room over the make room should be lathed and plastered, and provided with heating apparatus, so as to make a suitable place for curing early and late made cheese. The building may be cheap, or as expensive as desired. Either setters and ranges, or the old style tables, may be used. The latter, since small-sized cheeses have come in fashion, are the more common. They are quite as cheap and convenient, and by using them, factorymen avoid the annoyance consequent upon the pretended patent right which is claimed on the rails and turners. We shall not recommend any particular style of vat, since by doing so we should seem to condemn others. But we will mention the fact that for small factories, vats with self-heaters are preferable and the more economical. A self-heater can be set up and run anywhere, with a piece of stove-pipe to conduct off the smoke, and the expense of boilers, mason-work, etc., is avoided. Five or six cords of maple stove-wood, split fine and well seasoned, will run a good self-heater through the season. The appearance of a dairy depends very much on the trueness, as well as uniformity in hight, of the cheeses. Good presses and hoops are therefore essential, and save a great deal of trouble as well as give a great deal of satisfaction. The press, therefore, needs to be made heavy and strong, so as not to spring or warp. Let the sill be 14 by 4 inches; the beam, 10 by 6 inches; posts, 4 by 14 inches, slanted from the sill upward to 10, the width of the beam. The sill and beam should be boxed into the posts three-fourths of an inch, and the posts should extend above the beam some 4 inches or more. The top of the sill should stand about 2 feet from the floor. The space between the sill and beam should be 2 feet 4 inches. The lateral space allowed for each hoop should be 2 feet; and in each space between the hoops the sill and beam should be held in place by seven-eighths inch rods of iron. In the first space from either end, a single rod is sufficient; the next should have two rods, and so on, alternately. The single rod should extend through the middle of the sill and beam, and have heavy washers attached to each end, to prevent the head or nut from settling into the wood. The double rods should go through the edges of the beam and sill, and through heavy washers of iron on the bottom of the sill, and through strong straps extending across the top of the beam. The presses should be made for pressing four or six cheeses, and be made of hard, seasoned timber. The screws should be 1¾ inch. Of the various kinds of screws introduced, we know of none better than the old-fashioned ones, with holes through them to receive the bar. The curd-sink is an important thing in a factory. Its construction is always a matter of considerable speculation and perplexity. We will give dimensions for one suitable for a factory of the size we have indicated. It should be 16 feet long, 2 feet 10 inches in width inside, and 1 foot deep. The bottom should be 1½ inch thick, and the sides 1 inch thick. The legs should be 3 feet high, extending up the sides, so that the top of the sink will be 3 feet from the floor. The sink should be made of clear, seasoned pine, and the legs be well braced, with cross and side pieces connecting them about 6 inches from the floor. Backs and a cloth strainer may be used, or a false bottom with perforated tin strainers may be substituted. The proper hight of the weighing can, of the dumping window from the ground, and the best apparatus for unloading, are generally matters quite perplexing. The proper hight of the receiving can is that which gives a gentle slope to the conductor, as too much current not only causes the milk to slop over the sides of the strainer, but drives the dirt through the strainer. With vats 3 feet 2 inches high, the platform for the scales should be 3 feet 8 inches from the floor. Of the many appliances used for unloading, none is simpler, cheaper or more satisfactory than the crane. Make it of scantling 4 by 4 inches, the upright 8 feet long, and the arm 7 feet. Hang it as you would a barn-door. Fasten one end of a strong half or three-quarter inch rope to the end of the arm; run it through a pully to which is attached the tongs; then over a 4 inch pully above, near the end of the arm; run it back over a similar pully next to the upright, then down to a 3 inch roller, with a crank, at a convenient hight for turning. One end of the crank must be sustained by a strong iron strap, bowing outward, in the direction of the arm, to admit the roller (about 6 inches long) lengthwise, and fastened to the upright above and below. The window-sill should be not more than two or three inches above the edge of the receiving-can, which should stand close to the window, just clearing the sill. The road should be eighteen inches below the platform on which stand the scales and weighing can. Then the can, when raised just enough to clear the wagon-box and wheels, will be of the right hight for dumping when swung round to the window. Many make the mistake of getting the road too low, which causes the unnecessary work of raising the milk 3 or 4 feet by hand before it can be dumped, and wastes strength and time, both in raising the can and lowering it back again into the wagon after it is emptied. In building a factory, every provision should be made for cleanliness. It should be located near a living spring of water, ranging in temperature somewhere between 45° and 55°. There should be sufficient water to fill, at all times, an inch pipe, and care should be taken to secure a fair head--enough to carry the water above the vats, at least. The water should be carried in pipes under the building, along by the ends of the vats where it is wanted, with penstocks rising from the pipe, to furnish water for each vat. The faucets in the penstocks should be all of the same hight--if any difference is made, the one farthest from the head might be a quarter or half an inch the lowest. Outside should be a penstock, to carry off the superfluous water. The outlet to this should be a few inches higher than the faucets in the penstocks for supplying the vats with water. This is necessary to secure a flow of water in the factory. In freezing weather, and during the winter, the penstocks in the factory can be removed, until needed for use, and the holes in the pipe beneath plugged up. An extra faucet in one of the penstocks at the ends of the vats, inserted high enough from the floor to set a pail under, will supply all the necessary water for cleaning and other purposes. CHAPTER II. PRODUCTION OF MILK. The requisites of good milk have been so frequently and fully discussed, that we need not more than briefly advert to them now. The importance of good milk, for either cheese or butter, will be conceded, and therefore the question need not be argued. The first requisites of good milk are good cows. But these will disappoint their owners if they have not good keep. Plenty of good clean hay and pure water, with warm quarters, are indispensable. The old-fashioned method of allowing cows, or other cattle, to weather all kinds of storms, with a snow-bank for a bed at night, we believe is pretty effectually done away with. It has been found that it does not pay. It is not yet quite so universally admitted that generous feeding is equally advantageous, nor that a warm stable is as much an advance on an open, cold one, where the cows stand and shiver throughout the twenty-four hours, as a common shelter is an improvement on no shelter. Yet, a warm stable, which may be had for a small expense, is decided economy, in the saving of food, as well as a comfort to the cows; and generous feeding will be found a profitable investment, both by the increased flow of milk and by its increased richness. A poorly-kept cow will give less milk than a well-kept one, and its poorer quality will be more manifest than the diminution in quantity. When turned out to grass, if the feed should prove good, it will take the cow weeks to build up her system and get in the condition she should have been in at the start; and though the quantity and quality of her milk will improve, she will reach the time when the mess naturally begins to shrink before she will have thoroughly recuperated. After this, the richness of the milk will probably be satisfactory. But in case the season should open dry and cold, so that the grass starts slowly, and is then followed by the hot dry weather of July and August, as is not unfrequently the case, a cow that starts "spring poor" will scarcely get in good condition before the grass is nipped by the fall frosts and it becomes necessary to begin to fodder. There is a marked difference in the quality of the messes of milk delivered at a cheese-factory. The use of the lactometer and cream-gauges will show this. It will be an interesting experiment, for cheese-makers who never tried it, to test in this way the quality of the milk delivered by the different patrons, and then ascertain the style in which each keeps his cows, the character of the pastures of each, the kind of water which the pastures afford--whether brook, river, swamp or spring--and to note any other facts and conditions which may be apparent or may suggest themselves. It will be found, we think, that bad wintering and poor pastures have as much or more to do than anything else with the production of poor milk. No breed of cows nor selection of a dairy can wholly counteract these evils. The yield of milk will undoubtedly be greater and better with some cows than with others; and so with naturally good cows, good wintering and pasturing will show quite as marked improvements. We have in our mind an instance where, at the opening of a cheese-factory, only a few of the farmers, having the largest dairies, delivered milk. They were all men who fed their cows well during the winter, and gave them meal before and after coming in. The result was an astonishingly large yield of cheese from milk at that season of the year. But as the messes increased, and milk from dairies poorly-kept came in, the yield of cheese in proportion to the number of pounds of milk steadily diminished. The lactometer and cream-gauges showed that the poorest milk came from the poorest-kept cows. The forepart of the season proved a cold and wet one, which made the grass more juicy and less nutritious. This, with the accidental or intentional watering which the milk got from the rain falling in the cans, either at home or on the road, was also believed to decrease the yield of cheese. It appeared that milk coming long distances through the rain, other things being equal, showed more water than that brought short distances. Manifestly, some sort of shelter to the cans should be devised, to be used both at home and on the road, during rainy weather--and the same for keeping off the rays of the sun, in fair weather, is equally desirable. All through the season, in the instance referred to, there was a marked difference in the quality of the milk of the well-kept and of the poorly-kept dairies. Swampy pastures also seemed to impoverish the milk. Those pastures that were dry, with pure water accessible, appeared to produce the richest milk. While the milk of the best dairies, on being tested, would indicate a yield of a pound of cheese to eight or nine pounds of milk, the milk of others would not yield a pound of cheese to less than eleven or twelve pounds of milk. The average number of pounds of milk for a pound of cheese, during the season, was about 9.9. In the foregoing, will be seen a manifest objection to the factory system, as at present conducted. The quality of the milk delivered is nowhere taken into consideration. The man who has a well-selected dairy, keeps it well, and delivers milk that will turn out, for the season, a hundred pounds of cheese for every nine hundred pounds of milk, gets no more returns for a given number of pounds of milk than the man who delivers milk so poor that twelve hundred pounds of it will not make more than a hundred pounds of cheese, or the same as the former's nine hundred pounds. There is a difference of about twenty-five per cent, in the quality of the milk turned out by the good and the poor dairies, one-half of which the owner of the former loses, and the other half of which the owner of the latter gains, by getting his milk made up at the factory. Some means should be devised for remedying this piece of injustice, if the better class of dairies is to be retained by the factories. CHAPTER III. COMPOSITION OF MILK. The composition of milk, though frequently discussed, is not generally well understood. It is quite variable, not only in the milk from different cows, but in that from the same cow at different times, and in different conditions, but especially at different seasons of the year. It is more buttery in winter, and more cheesy in summer. A cow milked three times a day would give more in quantity but poorer in quality, than if milked twice; while one milked twice a day will yield more milk than if milked once a day, but one milking a day would be the richer. The first milk drawn from the udder is more watery than what follows; the last is the richest. The accumulation of milk in the cow's bag is influenced by the law of gravitation. The water being the heaviest ingredient, settles to the bottom, and is the first milked; the cream, which is the lightest, rises, and is the last milked. That is to say, a partial separation takes place in the udder, sufficient to make the "strippings" some ten or twelve times as rich in butter as the first milk drawn. We would, therefore, infer that the first third contains the most water, the second third the most cheese, and the last third the most butter. There is said to be a difference in the milk drawn from the compartments of the udder of the same cow, or from different teats. The variation in the composition of milk, of course, is indicated by different chemical analyses, no two of which can be found to exactly agree. We give an analysis by HAIDLEN. He found that the specimen contained, in 1,000 parts, 873 parts of water, 30 of butter, 48.2 of cheese, 43.9 of sugar of milk, 2.31 of phosphate of lime, .42 of magnesia, .47 of iron, 1.04 of chloride of potassium, and .66 of sodium and soda. Other chemists have found albumen among the constituents of milk, and this ingredient is believed, by many, to be the one that first commences decaying, in hot weather, and produces, "tainted" milk, "floating" curds, and "huffy" cheese. Skimmed milk has been found, in some instances, to contain as high as 97 parts of water in 100, and only 3 per cent. of solids, or cheesy matter. "Swill milk" has been found to contain as low as 1½ per cent. of butter. An analysis of the first milk taken from a cow's bag after calving, showed it to consist of 15.1 per cent. of caseine, or cheese, 2.6 of butter, 2 of mucous matter, and 80.3 of water. Ordinary pure milk will average about 12½ per cent. of cream. But it is not unfrequently found to yield 15 to 20 per cent., and even as high as 25 per cent. of cream has been obtained. If milk yields less than 10 per cent. of cream, it is below the average, and unprofitable for butter-making. We know of no single instrument that will at once indicate the quality of milk. What is called the lactometer, but is properly a hydrometer, will indicate the density of milk, and if its specific gravity in a pure state be known, it will show the amount of water added, if any. On an average, milk is about 4 per cent. heavier than water. That is, a hydrometer with a scale graded at 100 for milk at 60° Farenheit, ought to sink to 96 in water. The variation in the density of milk will be shown by an experiment given by CHARLES L. FLINT, in his "Milch Cows and Dairy Farming." He says: "For the purpose of showing the difference in the specific gravity of different specimens of pure milk, taken from the cows in the morning, and allowed to cool down to about 60°, I used an instrument graduated with the pure milk mark at 100, with the following results: The first pint drawn from a native cow stood at 101. The last pint of the same milking, being the strippings of the same cow, stood at 86. The mixture of the two pints stood at about 93½. The milk of a pure bred Jersey stood at 95, that of an Ayrshire at 100, that of a Hereford at 106, that of a Devon at 111, while a thin cream stood at 66. All these specimens of milk were pure, and milked at the same time in the morning, carefully labeled in separate vessels, and set upon the same shelf to cool off; and yet the variations of specific gravity amounted to 25, or, taking the average quality of the native cow's milk at 93½, the variations amounted to 17½." It will be seen, by these experiments, that the richer the milk in butter, the less the specific gravity, thin cream being 30° below the water mark. The richer the milk in caseine, or cheese, the greater the specific gravity, the milk of the Devon indicating 15° above the water mark. Watering milk will of course reduce the specific gravity of milk rich in cheese, and by this means it can be made to indicate the average density of pure milk. In the same way, milk rich in butter may have its specific gravity increased until it nearly reaches that of water, but no amount of watering can make it indicate over 96°, which is the figure given for pure water. A little salt, or other ingredient, may be added to bring the density up to the pure milk mark. So the blueness of milk, produced by either skimming or watering, may be removed by the use of burnt sugar, which will give it a rich color. Or annotto may be used for the same purpose. Many expedients have been resorted to, from time to time, by the dishonest, for the purpose of disguising the impoverishment of milk by skimming and watering. "But," says some one, "why tell dishonest men how they can skim and adulterate their milk?" We have not done so. We have told honest men some of the practices of the dishonest, with the view of enabling them to detect the fraud. True, the hydrometer is not an accurate or legal test; but it shows the exact density of the milk tried, and this is a very important point. When you have decided this, by the use of the cream-gauges, you can determine the amount of cream; and if you let the milk stand until it coagulates, and the cheese separates from the whey, you can tell the relative proportion of water and cheese. This may be a somewhat slow and clumsy process, but it is nevertheless decisive, and often repays the trouble. Foreign substances, so far as not held in solution by the water, or not entangled in the cheese or cream, will settle at the bottom of the glasses. Besides, with these evidences to start on, the ways of a suspected person can be watched, and he often be caught in the very act of violating the law, which we quote below: § 1. Whoever shall knowingly sell, supply, or bring to be manufactured to any cheese manufactory in this State, any milk diluted with water, or in any way adulterated, or milk from which any cream has been taken, or milk commonly known as skimmed milk; or whoever shall keep back any part of the milk known as "strippings;" or whoever shall knowingly bring or supply milk to any cheese manufactory that is tainted or partly sour from want of proper care in keeping pails, strainers, or any vessel in which said milk is kept, clean and sweet, after being notified of such taint or carelessness; or any cheese manufacturer who shall knowingly use, or direct any of his employes to use, for his or their individual benefit, any cream from the milk brought to said cheese manufacturer, without the consent of all the owners thereof, shall, for each and every offense, forfeit and pay a sum not less than twenty-five dollars, nor more than one hundred dollars, with costs of suit, to be sued for in any court of competent jurisdiction, for the benefit of the person or persons, firm or association or corporation, or their assigns, upon whom such fraud be committed. CHAPTER IV. TAINTS AND ODORS. Whatever be the grade of cows and the quality of milk, much depends upon its management. A good deal of care and attention are requisite for the attainment of the best possible results with such milk as we may have to work up. But before we come to the process of milking, let us look a moment at the effect of food in regard to taints and the flavor of milk. It is now universally conceded, that the flavor as well as the quality of the milk depends very materially upon the food of the cow. Coarse swamp-grasses and weeds do not produce as rich or sweet milk as clover, timothy and red-top, grown on dry upland soil; while swamp-water gives a ranker flavor than the sweet spring and brook-water of hilly regions. Leeks are not the only weeds which taint the milk before it is taken from the cow. All rank vegetable growths lend a similar influence to injure flavor. Indeed, that which the cow eats is what she makes the milk of, and if these offensive things are taken into her system, she cannot be expected to turn out milk that will not partake of their qualities, any more than a man can be expected to make sweet cider of sour apples by running them through the mill and press. Even the atmosphere which the cows breathe affects the flavor of the milk. Carrion in the lot where the cows feed has been known to impart its odor to the milk of the dairy. Dirty stables and barnyards, the odor of which is breathed by the cows, makes the milk "taste of the barnyard," as the common expression goes. It becomes of the greatest importance, therefore, that cows should have clean, sweet pastures to feed in, and clear spring or brook-water to drink; also, that they should have clean, well-ventilated stables to stand in, and be milked in clean yards or stables, as free from all taints and bad odors as possible. The cows should not be heated by hurried driving with a dog, or by a man or boy on horseback, as this fevers the milk, giving it an unwholesome quality, leading to rapid decay as well as producing bad flavor. And, if quantity as well as quality is to be attained, pastures must contain plenty of feed, so that the cow can soon fill her stomach and then lie down or stand in the shade and ruminate at ease, instead of working constantly from morning to night to gather food enough to satisfy her. She must have water handy, instead of away back in some retired corner of a large pasture, as she naturally wants to drink a few swallows quite often, in warm weather, but will go until she gets excessively dry and feverish before she will travel a long distance to get water. When thus very dry, she drinks an inordinate quantity, which makes her feel heavy and uncomfortable--and whatever annoys a cow lessens the flow and reduces the quality of the milk. A little reflection must make these things apparent to every reasoning mind. Cows must have plenty of clean, wholesome food and pure water, and must be every way made comfortable and contented, if the largest flow and best quality of milk is expected. The cow is sure to show, not only her own naturally good or bad qualities, but her keep and care, in the milk pail. There is no cheating her. She will make a corresponding discount or dividend on every iota of ill or good treatment she receives. In this, she is an exact accountant, and she will insist upon keeping the account square. Milk requires not only favorable conditions for its production, as above indicated, but needs great care and cleanliness after it is drawn from the cows. A foul yard or stable will impart its odors to the milk. Uncleanliness in milking not only gets filth into the milk, but taints and injures its flavor. Some, for this reason, recommend washing the cow's bag before milking. But if this washing is done with cold water by the milker, it is quite likely to consume time, cool the bag and cause the cow to hold up a portion of the mess. Experience shows that the quicker the milk can be drawn, after the operation is commenced, the better the yield. If washing is done, it should be with warm or tepid water, and be the work of one person, who should go through the whole dairy in advance of the milkers. But, in our opinion, where the stable or yard is kept clean, a careful brushing of the bag with the hands before beginning, and care in holding the pail a little toward you from under the teats, will obviate all the evils of uncleanliness from milking; and, certain it is, where all the surroundings are dirty, no amount of washing the cow's bag will get rid of the bad effects of the odors arising from the filth. Clean quarters for milking are indispensable to the furnishing of sweet, nice-flavored milk. Cleanliness in all the pails, cans, strainers, and whatever comes in contact with the milk, is equally necessary. Thorough washing, not omitting the use of soap, scalding and airing, are the only things that will keep them sweet and free from taint. All implements and utensils should be as free from sharp corners as possible, as these are difficult to clean, and taints are apt to be left in them to come in contact with the new milk and infect it, as a small quantity of yeast leavens a batch of bread. The milk will, therefore, soon begin to ferment, producing one of the worst conditions which the cheese-maker has to contend with, and rendering it impossible for him to make firm, clean-flavored cheese of the milk. In no case should wooden vessels be used for milk. The wood will absorb the milk, and no amount of washing and scalding will get it entirely out. What remains will get frowy and impart its infection to the warm milk and cause it to rapidly taint. Tin vessels are the best of anything yet devised, and are recommended universally by the best dairymen and by the American Dairymen's Association. Those with pressed or round bottoms, having no inside angles for ferments to collect in, are preferable. These can be obtained for a trifle if any more money than common tin pails cost, and should receive the preference of dairymen when purchasing. In short, the greatest care should be taken to have all things strictly clean--not only those that come in contact with the milk, but those surrounding it. The milkers should be as clean, careful and expeditious as possible, avoiding all unnecessary or unusual motions, and everything calculated to alarm or excite the cows. Then, if the cows have had proper food, drink, care and treatment, there is little reason to apprehend anything objectionable in either the quantity or quality of the milk. CHAPTER V. COOLING MILK. The management of milk, when once obtained, is the great practical consideration with the farmer and cheese-maker. But the first handling and care devolve upon the farmer; the cheese-maker's duties begin with the delivery of the milk at the factory. Much, very much, depends upon the treatment of the milk after milking, and the consequent condition in which it is delivered. We will therefore begin at the stable or yard and follow the milk through all its stages, until it is run into the weighing-can. Previous suggestions as to cleanliness, etc., being adopted, we find the hot milk in the pails ready to be strained into the can standing on the platform or in the wagon. We say "strained," because this is necessary to absolute cleanliness, which affects the flavor, though at some factories the patrons are directed not to strain the milk, for the reason that poor care is so often taken of the strainer, and the keeping of the strainer drawn tight over the top of the can prevents cooling and hastens taint. For this reason, we would recommend the use of strainer-pails, unless the cloth strainer can be stretched above the can so as to allow the heat to escape and the cool air to come in. These precautions should be observed, most certainly, if no means is adopted for cooling the milk before starting for the factory. The subject of cooling and airing milk has long been earnestly discussed, and the importance of cooling, at least, we believe is universally conceded. But how is this end to be attained, with the thermometer indicating an average temperature of 80°, and perhaps higher? The first and simplest suggestion is to set the can in a tub of cold water--cold spring or well-water, or iced water--and to give the milk frequent agitation with a dipper or other convenient article, care being taken to stir it from the bottom, as the cold milk naturally settles, and of course the hot milk lies on the top. Gentle agitation secures the advantage, also, of preventing the cream from rising. This makes trouble, and consumes a little time, but we believe the result will well repay both. The milk-can should, by all means, be kept out of the sun's rays, and in a clean airy place. As to the importance of airing milk, there is a difference of opinion. Some assert that the airing is beneficial only so far as it assists in cooling, and that if we can succeed in cooling the milk down to 60°, or thereabouts, immediately after milking, we shall attain all the good results apparent from exposure to the air. All the "animal odors," they say, disappear. Be that as it may, it is scarcely possible to cool milk without more or less exposure to the atmosphere, and we have never heard it claimed that any bad consequences follow this exposure. It is possible, however, that it may more rapidly absorb oxygen, and thus sooner sour. The probability is, that any process which will secure the proper cooling will also afford the necessary exposure for the escape of all animal or other odors likely to pass off in the form of gas. Therefore, practically, it is of very little importance whether we consider the question of airing milk, in any of the stages of its management. So we will first look after the processes which secure known advantages. Several inventions for the purpose of cooling milk have made their appearance within the past year or two. Some for the use of factories, which seem to work quite satisfactorily, and others for the use of farmers, none of which, we believe, have yet been received with much favor. They are mostly too complicated, if not too expensive, and too difficult to keep clean, to ever become generally adopted. Yet, enough has already been developed to convince us that the desideratum, of a satisfactory apparatus for cooling milk as fast as, or soon after, it is taken from the cow, can be realized. The great trouble is, to make farmers use it faithfully, if at all. The cooling of milk as fast as milked, or very soon afterward, is the great question now presented to farmers and cheese-makers. It is of quite as much and more consequence, than keeping it cool at the factory--for milk is often so far advanced in decomposition, if not actually sour or tainted, when received, that it is impossible to work it up satisfactorily. Some Yankee must give us a simple and cheap apparatus that will effect the desired result. Such an invention will greatly improve the quality and increase the consumption and price of American cheese. But, in the absence of anything better, the can set in a tub of water and the milk frequently stirred, would be a great improvement on starting for the factory with hot milk. If the water can be made to constantly run into the tub, fresh and cool, as the warm water runs out, so much the better. Another improvement would be some kind of wagon-cover, permitting the air to pass under it, to keep off the sun in clear weather and keep out the rain in wet weather. The hot rays of the sun, pouring on a can of milk for the distance of two or three miles, perhaps--especially if the milk is not cooled before starting--cannot fail to do it serious injury. Milk thus exposed often has a very offensive smell when it reaches the factory-door. This shows that it is already tainted and in a condition to injure the good milk in the vat into which it is run, and cause a porous or "huffy" curd. The question as to the effect of suddenly cooling milk has been somewhat discussed; also as to how low a temperature is beneficial. Experiments are necessary to definitely and satisfactorily settle these questions. Our impression is that, if ice is not used, there is no danger of cooling milk too suddenly or of getting it too cool. But where ice is used, especially if permitted to come in contact with the milk, or even to be separated from it only by a thickness of tin, there is danger of chilling the particles of milk in immediate contact with the cold surface, and causing them to prematurely decay. This would, of course, injure the keeping qualities of the rest of the batch. So far as the suddenness of the operation is concerned, we doubt if it would have any material effect, one way or the other. But where any portion of the milk is chilled, whether the whole batch of milk be slowly or suddenly reduced in temperature, we should expect it to injure the flavor and keeping qualities of the cheese. Some experiments, like the one made and related by Mr. FARRINGTON, of Canada, at the last Convention of the American Dairymen's Association, would seem to favor the conclusion, that suddenly reducing the milk to a low temperature is unfavorable to the production of the best quality of cheese. More experiments, as we have previously suggested, are necessary to finally settle these questions. But of the importance of cooling milk down to as low a temperature as 60° to 65°, there can be no doubt; and there need be no fear of milk being cooled rapidly enough to injure it where only water is used in the process of cooling. CHAPTER VI. DELIVERING MILK. Very little attention is usually paid to carrying milk to the factory. Too many pour the hot milk into a can standing on a wagon or platform, in the broiling sun, put on the cover, which fits almost air-tight, as soon as through, and then haul it in this condition, without any shelter or protection from the sun's rays, to the factory. It is sometimes drawn two or three miles in this way. Or, as is often the case, it is left standing on the platform, covered air-tight, until the milk-wagon comes along. Whether taken on the wagon at the beginning of the route, or left standing on the platform at the last end of the route, it broils in the sun an hour or two, with the animal heat all in it. If drawn a long distance, it is pretty well churned, in addition, and thus a separation of the butter takes place which no ingenuity of the cheese-maker can remedy; but when the result is seen in the cream rising on the whey-vat, anathemas are heaped on his head. Where the milk stands quiet on the platform, the cream rises and forms an air-tight covering over the top of the milk, which soon taints next to the cream. And whether standing still or riding in a tight can, exposed to the sun's rays, without the animal heat having been expelled, it is scarcely possible to avoid taint. In this way, the manufacturer is furnished with perhaps fifty or seventy-five messes of milk, all more or less tainted, or at least progressed in decomposition, whether any offensive odor is perceptible or not. He has these to cool off and keep over night--often with poor facilities for cooling--for proprietors of factories are too often ignorant of the importance of providing ample means for cooling, or are too eager for large profits on small investments, to furnish them. So the operator dips and stirs away at the decomposing mass until ten or eleven o'clock, if not later, and finally yields to "tired nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep," to rest his weary muscles and care-worn brain--exhausted, perhaps, by months of incessant toil seven days every week. By five the next morning he must be on hand, to receive the scattering messes of milk. At seven or eight o'clock comes the rush. Then the messes begin to drop off, and by half-past nine or ten o'clock the last steaming batch, with an unmistakable rotten-egg smell, makes its appearance. Now, what has the cheese-maker got on his hands, some sweltering morning, during the season when it is "too hot to make butter," and people kindly draw their dairy liquids to the cheese-factory? Why, on rising in the morning and rubbing open his eyes, he breaks the cream on his milk. The under surface has a sickish, sour smell, which tells him very plainly that it cannot be worked up too soon. But what is he to do? The answer is plain enough: Run into this fermenting mass an equal quantity of the same hot stuff which he received the night before! What will be its condition by the time he gets through? No matter! It is his business to make cheese of it. He is employed for that purpose. If the cheese does not prove of the first quality, every patron who furnishes him stinking milk will have strong suspicions that he does not understand his business! And some even insist that the cheese-maker shall pay for all the poor cheese! But any man who is fool enough to make such an agreement, ought to suffer, at least one season. The thought of it, however, is almost "enough to make a minister swear." And, by the way, we have been told of one instance where a minister left the pulpit and took to the cheese-factory--probably for the purpose of practically learning a lesson of patience. He was simple-minded enough to agree to pay for all the poor cheese. He soon found his salary was not equal to such a demand. So he set himself about watching the weighing-can, to keep out the bad milk. This was a Herculean task he had not counted on. We are not informed whether he swore or not; but he actually took his station outside, with a heavy rod of iron, which he was compelled to use, on one or two occasions, to keep the patrons from running rotten milk into the weighing-can! His experience was an instructive one, and ought to be a warning to all ambitious clergymen, as well as to innocent-minded cheese-makers! We do not mean to say, that the patrons of all factories are as bad as above indicated, nor that they are no better on an average. But we do mean to say, that too many are very careless, and that almost every factory has a few patrons whose milk is apt to be in a bad condition when delivered. Besides, while we hear frequent complaints about bad milk, we never hear of any one's delivering milk in too good a condition. Patrons need have no fears of this, and may take it for granted that they cannot take too much pains with milk, both in point of cleanliness and of keeping it out of the hot sun and expelling the animal heat. We should expect to find, if a careful investigation were made, that the most unsuccessful factories are those where milk is delivered in the worst condition, while the successful ones are those where patrons are more careful and the milk received is generally good. More often depends on the milk than on the cheese-maker. We have heard it remarked, that "almost anybody can make good cheese of perfectly sweet milk;" but it is a smart chap indeed who can make good cheese of poor milk. Every cheese-maker will appreciate our remarks, and we hope they may not be altogether lost on some patrons. It will not, as a general thing, pay to draw milk over two or two and a half miles, for two reasons: First, it consumes too much valuable time, and next, it churns the milk too much and keeps it too long shut up tight and exposed to the hot atmosphere, if not the sun. If milk, however, were thoroughly cooled as soon as milked, and then carried on easy springs over a smooth road, there is little doubt that it might be drawn four or five miles without much injury, but the expense would be a serious objection to going so long a distance. Cans that hold over a barrel will be found inconvenient. It is better to use two smaller ones, that can be easily handled, than one very large one. They will cost but little more, and will last considerably longer, as the strain on them will be less. A large can is made of the same material, and is but little if any stronger from additional bracing and staying, and is liable to spring aleak. As to the use of faucets, it is generally objected to by cheese-makers, as too little pains is taken by many to keep them clean. Their use is, therefore, discarded as far as possible, and we believe cans are generally made without them. Yet, some factories still continue receiving milk through conductors, where, of course, faucets are necessary. They are also a convenience to the patron, in many instances, where the can may be used for other purposes than holding milk. It is, therefore, not likely that their use will ever be entirely done away with. But, if neatly and smoothly put in, and care is observed in cleaning them, there can be no serious objection to them. Small faucets, however, should never be tolerated. Nothing smaller than inch-and-a-half or two-inch faucets should be put in. These are easy to clean, and greatly facilitate emptying. A small spiteful stream is a nuisance, and causes a waste of time at the factory door where expedition is what everybody wants, and is what is needed. If you use a faucet, use a large one, and keep it scrupulously clean. CHAPTER VII. RECEIVING MILK. Most factories now unload milk by the use of cranes or some other kind of tipping apparatus. Some of the older factories--there are no very old ones--continue the use of conductors for transferring the milk to the weighing-can. This is the easier but the slower way, and necessitates the use of at least double the number of weighing-cans that are required by the crane. Besides, in the use of conductors, there is the constant inconvenience of standing out in the rain, in wet weather, to hold the conductor, while there is more or less liability to accident from the backing up or starting of the team. Conductors are mean, even impossible, things to clean; and their use, when there is a rush of teams, requires a second man or boy to hold them, while the first does the weighing and makes the necessary entries on the milk-book. If sixty to eighty messes are to be received, at least two weighing cans will be necessary. But by the use of a crane, one weighing-can will do the same work--always provided it has a faucet of not less than three inches in diameter, so that the can may be emptied while a team is driving up and the patron's can is being grappled and elevated ready for tipping. A large faucet is of equal advantage when conductors are used, and, in that case, every patron's can should be furnished with at least a two-inch faucet, to facilitate the transfer of milk to the weighing-can. The use of the crane is, of course, not entirely free from accident. The strain on the can, when full, is very great, and it is liable to spring aleak, unless well made. But cans made with reference to this use are now furnished with crowning or with patent bottoms, and are so well hooped and braced that no serious accidents of this kind are likely to occur. A can-ear, or a rope long in use, may break. There may be carelessness in hooking on to the can, and the milk may be slopped or spilled by letting a full can turn over too soon, or by too suddenly letting the milk dash into the weighing-can. All these operations require care and experience; but, with proper management, the loss from accident, during a season, will be very slight--perhaps nothing at all. Great care should be taken in weighing milk, to not only weigh it right, but to make the patron feel that his milk is honestly weighed, and that he is likewise honestly credited on the milk-book. Much suspicion and hard feeling are liable to spring up, if the man who weighs the milk has the appearance of being hasty and careless--especially if he should be ill-natured and disagreeable in his manners. And it may not be out of place here to remark, that good manners and a spirit of accommodation are no more out of place in a cheese-factory than anywhere else. Among a large number of patrons, it would be strange if there were not disagreeable, ill-mannerly men; but a man who retains his self-possession and always acts fairly and talks reasonably, will seldom fail to get along tolerably well and retain the good will of all. It is the right of the patron to know that his milk is correctly weighed and credited, and every reasonable facility should be afforded him to satisfy himself that he is fairly dealt with. It becomes the duty of one receiving milk to see that it is delivered in proper condition. Experience, a good eye and a good nose, are all useful assistants. Even with the use of all these, messes will sometimes get into the vat that never ought to be there. But when a patron's milk is found not to be right, it is not necessary to insult or abuse him, nor to make a general exposure of him. Neither law nor duty requires this. He should be kindly informed of the fact, told what the matter is with his milk and what he had better do to remove the evil. If you do not wish to take the mess, you can express your regrets at his misfortune, and show him that it would cause great damage, some of which must necessarily fall on himself. If the mess is objectionable, but will pass, give him notice that you will be obliged to refuse it in future, if not in a better condition. When you have done this, more words with him are unnecessary, and you have all the advantage, for the law and the community are on your side. But, with a reasonable man, it will not be necessary to more than call his attention to the fact that his milk is bad. The cause may be the result of accident or oversight on the part of his help, and he will at once set himself to work to apply the remedy. The importance of delivering milk in good condition is more and more acknowledged every year, and not a few patrons pride themselves on delivering as good milk as any of their neighbors. It is well to encourage this feeling by giving every man credit who takes pains with his milk. Nothing is worse than wholesale denunciation and fault finding. It only discourages many, creates bad feeling, and makes an up-hill road a rough one as well. A cheese-maker needs friends, if anybody does; and if he does not get them among his patrons, he is not likely to get them at all. In that case, his seven days a week of hard, thankless toil and care are likely to weigh heavily on body and mind. The greatest difficulty is usually experienced in old factories, where the conveniences are not generally up to the more modern mark, and patrons fell into bad habits before experience had developed a better knowledge of the requirements of cheese-making. New patrons will submit to be trained, and a sensible cheese-maker, who knows what he wants, can generally get them to do almost anything at the opening of a new factory. In this way, he can discipline them and get them in the habit of taking good care of their milk. But, in an old factory, where everything started off badly, the old adage, that "it is hard to learn old dogs new tricks," is apt to be exemplified. They dislike innovations, think a new man, who wants to be particular, wishes to put them to useless trouble, and they are not disposed to gratify him, but rather to growl at him, and feel that what was good enough for others is good enough for him. Such conduct is all wrong, and those who are guilty of it stand in their own light. CHAPTER VIII. BIG AVERAGES. It is the custom in many factories to balance the scales so that a pound or so is taken out of each mess, in order to help make "a big average" for the season. That is, every mess is made to weigh a pound or so less than its actual weight, and is so entered on the book. In this way, if sixty or seventy messes are received, the cheese-maker has that number of pounds of milk more to make up than is charged against him. This amount twice a day would enable him to turn out some twelve or fourteen pounds of cheese more than he ought to if he received no more pounds of milk than he gives credit for on the milk-book. Thus he makes it appear to the patrons, and publishes it ultimately to the world, that he uses less pounds of milk in making a pound of cheese than is the actual fact. In common phrase, he "makes a big average." Let us illustrate a little. Suppose ten hundred and ten pounds of milk are delivered in ten messes. The entry on the book is one thousand pounds. Out of this he makes one hundred and one pounds of cured cheese. If the milk had been correctly weighed, the fact would appear that he made one pound of marketable cheese for every ten pounds of milk. But it really appears that it took a fraction less than ten pounds of milk, or 9.9 pounds, for a pound of cheese. This is the advantage which he has, in the eyes of the community, over the maker who gives honest weight. This is the reward of his petty dishonesty. In justification of this, it is argued that it keeps up not only the reputation of the maker but the reputation of the factory, while it wrongs no one, since the patrons get all the cheese, or its equivalent in money, and all are served alike. We admit that the patrons get all the products of the milk, but let us see for a moment whether all are treated fairly. Every patron has a pound of milk deducted from each mess. SMITH brings a hundred pound mess, and is therefore docked one hundredth part of it. JONES, with only one cow, delivers a ten pound mess, and is docked one-tenth of it. Thus, at the end of thirty days, each has delivered sixty messes. SMITH has delivered 6,000 pounds and been credited for 5,940. JONES has delivered 600 pounds, and got credit for 540. If ten pounds of milk make one pound of cheese, the account ought to stand thus: Smith, 6000 lbs. milk, 600 lbs. cheese. Jones, 600 lbs. milk, 60 lbs. cheese. --- Total, 660 But, under the system of deducting a pound from each mess, in order to show a "big average," the account really stands thus: Smith, 5,940 lbs. milk, 605 lbs. cheese. Jones, 540 lbs. milk, 55 lbs. cheese. --- Total, 660 At twenty cents a pound for cheese, JONES, because he is poor and delivers a small mess, loses just one dollar on his month's milk, and SMITH, because he is better off and has a bigger mess, gets the dollar added to his profits. This, in plain figures, is the result of deducting weight in order to show a "big average." Let no one who reads this do it again. He can no longer plead ignorance, and continue to rob PETER for the benefit of PAUL, under the supposition that he is treating all alike and fairly. Unquestionably, something should be allowed for the difference between a dry and a wet can. The amount is trifling, and can be got at by balancing the scales immediately after running out a can of milk. But, when the scales are balanced with a wet can, they will not balance exactly when the can is dry; and whoever delivers the first mess and wets the can will suffer a slight loss, unless care is taken to give good weight. The variation will generally not be more than a quarter of a pound or so, and can be nearly enough approximated by attention to the fractions of a pound denoted by the scales. Of course, in weighing milk, only the full pounds can be counted and credited, the fractions going to make up full weight. As quick weight is demanded in selling cheese, milk when received should be weighed in the same way. This is fair, and ought to be satisfactory to all. But whether quick or slow weight is given, let it be honest. In the long run, "honesty is the best policy" in weighing milk as well as in other transactions; and, in this case, it is absolutely essential to justice. A little deduction or variation on a single mess, is of small consequence; but "many mickles make a muckle," and when the variation from a correct standard is constantly in one direction, after a while it amounts to a noticeable quantity. Occasionally a mess of milk will get run into the vat without weighing, by the weigher forgetting to close the gate or faucet. When an accident of this kind happens, there is no fairer way than to give credit for an average mess as compared with the messes at the same time of day previously. If the patron is a fair man, there will be little trouble in hitting upon a satisfactory figure. If disposed to make the most of a mistake, he will be likely to tell you that he thought he had a larger mess than usual, and crowd you up to as high a figure as possible. But one has to exercise his best judgment, and give such credit as he thinks will wrong no one. Such mistakes, though almost unavoidable, are unpleasant to one who is sensitive and wishes to keep the good side of all; and not only care should be taken, but every precaution should be used, to prevent them. The handle or lever for closing the gate should be in full sight, and one should acquire the habit of working systematically, so that he may instinctively do what is necessary, even though his attention be for the moment diverted from his business. Great care is required, too, in making the entries in the milk book. A mess, by carelessness, may be credited to the wrong man; but when the man to whom the credit is wrongfully given presents himself, the mistake is likely to be discovered, though you may not be able to determine at once to whom the credit belongs. In such case, preserve the figures, and when your messes are all in, turn over the leaves of the book and see who is without credit. The size of the mess is generally some indication. One is liable, too, to make a mistake of fifty or a hundred pounds in looking at the scales. But the habit of comparing every entry with the previous ones as you make it, will show the discrepancy. Where such variation is noticed, of course another glance at the weight will determine whether it is a mistake or not. It is a very good practice to call out the weight of each mess. This affords satisfaction to the patron as well as guards against allowing errors to pass. But, under all circumstances, too much attention cannot be paid to keeping the milk-book correctly. It is the only guide to the distribution of the proceeds of the factory, and the thought of even a possible mistake ought to give an honest man a strong sense of responsibility. No bank book is of more importance. CHAPTER IX. CONDUCTORS, STRAINERS, ETC. When treating of receiving milk, we spake of conductors as difficult to clean. We consider them an abomination in a cheese factory; yet almost every factory uses them. We believe there are some, however, arranged for delivering and receiving milk by driving through one end of the factory. The milk is brought in small cans, out of which it is poured into the weighing-can by hand. The weighing-can is on a truck running on a railway along the sides or ends of the vats, into which the milk is readily emptied by tipping. This does away with both faucets and conductors, and the idea is worthy the attention of all factorymen. When cranes are used in receiving milk, the outside conductors are not needed, but there are two or three long conductors, inside the factory, used for running the milk from the weighing-can into the vats. Sometimes we see one of these tin tubes ten or fifteen feet long. It is impossible to keep such a thing clean. A peep into this, or shorter ones, will show that they are not kept clean. Take as much pains as the hands may to clean them with a swab on a long stick, they will soon get coated over inside by the milk drying on; and, unless extra pains is taken, they will be lined with a beautiful coating of green and gold! They are used at night, and, unless the weather is very bad--and many pay no attention to the weather--they are allowed to stand over night where used, ready for the next morning. The milk and cream get dried on the inside surface, and nobody has the time, if the disposition, to soak it off. Further, tin conductors will get dents in them. The milk will collect and dry in the angles made by these dents. How, in the name of common sense, can any one get at them to clean them, in a tube ten or even four feet long? It is an impossibility. The milk collects, from day to day, until the conductor is full of foul ferments, through which all the milk of the factory is run and tainted. It is no fault of the cheese-maker, because he can't help it, if he employs a hand constantly on these abominable tubes. He may use a swab with strong ley, or salt and water, or both, and run hot water through the tubes till the patrons begin to come with their milk, but the "damned spots" will not "out." Of course, he will somewhat neutralize their active properties as ferments, but he does not altogether get rid of them. The only way in which he can do it, is to pitch the nasty things out of the window. If conductors must be used--and their use seems to be a foregone conclusion--let them be made in the form of open spouts. A foot or so next to the head, is all the tube that is needed--and this should be large enough to readily admit the hand for the purpose of washing. The rest should be an open spout, which can be easily and speedily cleaned and scalded. Many owners of factories, however, are too penurious to spend a few dollars in order to get rid of this nuisance of long tin conductors. They would rather lose--or, at least, run the risk of losing--five hundred dollars on the sale of their cheese, than spend five dollars for the purpose of avoiding this fruitful source of taint. If the cheese is poor, the blame can be laid on the cheese-maker; or, if the taint is too manifest in the vat of milk or curd, it can be charged upon the carelessness of the patrons. There is another source of trouble, which lies entirely with the cheese-maker, or with the hands under him whom he trusts. This is the strainer. In cool weather, perhaps there will be no difficulty, if the strainer is properly washed, scalded and dried each morning after the milk is all in. But in hot weather, especially if the atmosphere is damp and steamy, if a strainer is left over night without rinsing, it is sure to sour. Yet, the strainer, like the conductor, is often left at night just as used, ready for the reception of the next morning's milk. Both are likely to be sour. The milk in the vat is "old," especially next the cream, which acts as an air-tight covering. Now, run hot milk through the sour can, conductor and strainer, into this mess of changed milk, and any one, with even but a modicum of brains, can see what is likely to be the consequence. It will be a batch of sour, leaky cheese. Where an agitator is used, the trouble of milk souring or tainting beneath an air-tight covering of cream, is obviated. Washing cans, conductors and strainers at night, gets rid of the difficulty from these sources--that is, as far as the can and strainer are concerned, and partially as regards the conductor. A thorough rinsing in cold water, immediately after the last mess is run in, will be found to answer the purpose. It is usually late, and there is no hot water for regular washing and scalding. But a few moments' work will complete the rinsing in cold water, and this will not be found a very hard task for even the jaded hands of a cheese-factory. During all the hot weather, this should be strictly attended to. It will pay in a double sense--it will prevent sourness, and make the can, conductor and strainer easier to wash the next day. The old-fashioned thermometer is also a source of annoyance, if care is not taken in cleaning it. It will fill up with ferments between the face and back, in an astonishingly short space of time, during hot weather. In short, there is no way of keeping it perfectly clean, except by slipping the thermometer out of the back or case, and carefully washing and scalding it--and in doing this, it is exceedingly liable to get broken. We are therefore glad to notice the introduction of a new thermometer for dairy purposes. It is simply constructed, plain, easy to clean, and no more expensive than the common kind now in use. Those in need of thermometers will find this style much better adapted to their uses. The glass is fastened to a plain plate of metal, the two edges of which are bent forward to give it the requisite stiffness. Of course, agitators, dippers, rakes, &c., need to be carefully cleaned. But we have before spoken of the importance of the most scrupulous attention to cleanliness throughout, on the part of the cheese-maker as well as of the patron. Cleanliness is an indispensable virtue in all departments of dairying. CHAPTER X. COLOR. One would hardly think of associating cheese-making with the fine arts; yet, in what other light can we view the subject of color? It adds nothing to the quality of the cheese, but rather detracts from it. It is expensive and troublesome, and grows more so every year, as the demand for annotto runs up the price and leads to adulteration. But as long as we make cheese for a foreign market, we must adapt our goods to the tastes of that market, whether they be physical or mental. Our home market would, perhaps, not suffer from the omission of color; but the English market demands, to a large extent, highly-colored cheese. The Liverpool market will take a small quantity of pale cheese, but it does not equal more than one-fifth of the demand of the English market. A few factories, which sell exclusively to buyers who supply the Liverpool demand for pale cheese, may safely omit the color; but all which depend on the general market cannot safely do so. The London market specially demands a high color, and it is no less exacting now than it has been heretofore. The cry of buyers generally is, "Keep up the color!" The exceptions to this are few, and are confined to those who have special orders for pale cheese to supply the demand above indicated. The English consumer acquired his taste for golden-hued cheese before the American make found any considerable market abroad--indeed, before we had much cheese to sell. The first object in coloring seems to have been to give a rich butter color. In this way, cheese was made to appear rich whether it really was so or not. But the shade has been considerably intensified and the English eye is best pleased with the color produced by the use of prime annotto, with which it has become familiar. This may be a prejudice, but it is a comparatively harmless one; and since our customer is willing to pay for it, there seems to be no good reason why it should not be gratified. It is for our interest to please the eye as well as the appetite of so large a buyer of our products as England. She wants about four-fifths of her cheese highly but nicely colored. The complaint among buyers generally is, that color is too low. In reply to suggestions about the fact, makers often say that they never used more coloring, but it does not produce the desired effect. They have paid a high price for what was supposed to be prime annotto, but it proves to be extensively adulterated, and therefore weak. This is not the complaint of all, but of many. Some have adopted the use of prepared annotto, and find it cheaper and more satisfactory. When prime annotto could readily be had, it was cheaper to buy the basket and prepare it themselves. But now, one poor basket, during a season, imposes a loss greater than the difference in price between the prepared and the unprepared. There is another evil about the use of poor annotto. It is not only expensive and does not give the desired color, but what color it does give fades out with age, and leaves the cheese with a cloudy, mottled appearance, which is very offensive to the eye of our best customers. Again, where poor annotto is bought in the basket and prepared at the factory, it contains a large amount of sediment, and this sediment, often containing deleterious substances, too frequently gets into the cheese. The liquid is not properly settled and racked off. This affords another argument in favor of buying prepared annotto, which, if properly put up, is free from sediment. Those who prefer to buy the basket annotto and prepare it themselves, should buy only on the warrant of the dealer that it is what it is recommended to be. The dealer should test a sample of his annotto, before offering it for sale, and know precisely what he is selling. Buyers by thus purchasing only of well-known dealers, who sell upon honor, will discourage rascality. This is the only method we see for keeping the spurious article out of market, and securing satisfactory results in coloring. We would suggest to those who prepare their own annotto, that they use concentrated ley or potash. By doing so, they will secure just as good a shade as they can by using ley from wood-ashes, and not only save the trouble of bothering with a leach, but secure uniform strength. Two leaches will seldom turn out ley of the same strength. Sometimes it will be strong and satisfactory. But if you happen to get a lot of soft wood ashes in your leach, the ley will be weak, imperfectly dissolve the annotto, and materially injure the liquid. In fact, it is difficult to get your coloring twice alike by the use of a common leach. But with concentrated ley or potash, the same quantities or proportions of materials, mixed in the same way, will produce the same result. You can therefore keep your color even, and will not be called upon to experiment and change your hand every time you prepare a new batch of annotto. The difference in expense will be trifling, and rather in favor of the use of potash, if time and trouble are counted of any value. The prepared annotto ought to be kept in a stone jar, as the ley operates injuriously upon wood, and is liable to leave a tub in a leaky condition as the liquid is used out and the tub dries. Where annotto is purchased already prepared, of course it comes in vessels suitable to keep it in; but when prepared at the factory, a receptacle has to be provided, and nothing is better than stone or earthen-ware. In hot weather, the liquid is liable to smell badly from the action of the heat on it. A little salt stirred in will be found useful as a preventive against this. It is not necessary to discuss at length the question of the effect of coloring on the quality of the cheese. The introduction of a strong alkaline preparation cannot be without some effect; and when that happens to be adulterated with some vile substance, the effect cannot be otherwise than injurious. The annotto itself is generally conceded to be harmless; and the ley is, at most, but a neutralizer of the lactic acid, but the quantity is not sufficient, perhaps, to produce any perceptible result. At all events, color is demanded; annotto, prepared with ley or potash, is the accepted material; so we have only to color with annotto to suit the taste of our customer. We are assured that nicely colored cheese will bring from a cent to a cent and a half a pound more than the same quality of cheese will bring when pale. Buyers in some instances advise the making of pale cheese because they have a special order for it; but they usually expect to get it a little under the highest market quotations, and factorymen who allow themselves to drop the color on the advice of an interested buyer, because it is easy and costs nothing directly to do so, run the risk of being caught and of losing a great deal more than they can save by omitting the coloring. We never heard of a lot of cheese being condemned because it was too nicely colored; but we frequently hear of complaints and losses because cheese is too pale. The chances are at least four to one in favor of high-colored cheese; and even the fifth chance is not positively against color, though the other four are strongly against _lack_ of color. He who wishes to have the widest range of markets, and to command the best markets, must pay strict attention to color--not only must he color, but color well and evenly. We have an objection to color, for reasons satisfactory to ourselves; and buyers can have no interest in inducing makers to color their cheese, beyond the fact that it makes it more marketable--and in this, patrons and factorymen have a much greater interest than dealers can have. The market demands a rich, even color, and will not be satisfied without it. We say, therefore, _as a matter of dollars and cents_--not of taste, choice or convenience--_keep up the color_. We will give two recipes for preparing annotto: 1. To five pounds of prime annotto put five gallons of strong ley, made from wood ashes; gradually heat up and dissolve the annotto, care being taken to not scorch it on the bottom of the kettle. Of course thorough stirring is essential. When the annotto is all dissolved, add five pounds of sal soda and five gallons of soft water. Then gently boil the whole for twenty or thirty minutes. This makes about ten gallons of prepared coloring. If boiled away to less, add sufficient ley and soft water, in equal quantities, to make that amount. Some omit the sal soda; but it is generally believed that it not only adds strength to the preparation, but improves the color by giving it more of a rich, buttery hue, instead of a red. The whole, when sufficiently cooled to handle safely, should be set in a tub, with a faucet two or three inches from the bottom, to settle. When settled, it can be drawn off, and is ready for use. 2. Mix in the proportion of five quarts of water to half a pound of concentrated ley, and one pound of prime annotto. First dissolve the ley in the water, by heating and stirring, and then add the annotto, and dissolve it. Boil gently for half an hour. Care, as with the other preparation, should be taken not to burn it. Settle and rack off. Then your liquid is ready for use. The second recipe is the one most used, and is easiest to prepare, as it avoids the labor, perplexity and risk of making the ley, which may not always be of the desired strength, as the ashes may not be the same. But if ashes are used, hot water is best to leech through them. A quart of salt to ten gallons of preparation will improve its keeping qualities. CHAPTER XI. RENNET. An indispensable requisite in making cheese is good rennet. Nothing else will answer the purpose. Different substitutes have from time to time been tried, but all have met with indifferent success, or absolutely failed. Acids will produce coagulation, but they spoil the quality of the cheese. It was once supposed that the gastric juice of the calve's stomach was acid, and produced coagulation by souring. But it has been demonstrated that good curd can be produced from sweet new milk, by the use of rennet, without the development of acid in either the curd or the whey. How or why the principle obtained by soaking the calve's stomach produces coagulation has not yet been discovered. What the principle _is_, is not even known. It appears to be contained in the gastric juice secreted by the inner membranes of the stomach, and a small quantity of rennet, stirred into a vat of milk, seems to coagulate it in the same manner that milk taken into the calve's stomach is coagulated. We all know the fact that by the use of rennet we can make cheese. Beyond this, we have little knowledge; so far as we are aware, scientific men are just as much in the dark as the cheese-maker. As the stomach of the calf is bifold, we have seen the mistake frequently made of saving the wrong one. But we presume patrons are generally well informed on this point now, after so many years' experience. Where the stomach is not entirely empty, the presence of curd is a sure guide. Always save the stomach that contains the curd, and no mistake will be made. If the stomach is empty, save the one that has a smooth inside surface. The one that has a rough, honey-comb-like inside surface is worthless for cheese-making, and should, of course, be rejected. There are three or four ways of preserving the rennet or stomach, for future use. Only two, we believe, are generally practiced in America. In all cases, the rennet is to be turned wrong side out, all its contents being thrown away, and the inner surface carefully cleaned by picking off all hairs and bits of grass, hay or other substance which the calf may have taken into its stomach. But the rennet should never be washed, and great care should be taken not to remove any of the inner membrane of the rennet, as in this membrane resides all its strength. Washing would rinse out the gastric juice, and weaken the rennet; and much washing would render it nearly or quite worthless. When properly cleaned, the rennet should be thoroughly rubbed with salt, outside and in, turned the right side out, stretched on a crotched stick or on a hoop, and hung up in a cool, dry place, to cure. In private dairies, the farmer's wife, after salting the rennet, sometimes spreads it on an earthen plate and sets it away to dry, frequently turning it on the plate. Rennets dried in this way are nice, but it is too much work to tend to them for a general adoption of this method of drying. Drying on a stick or a hoop is the common way, and answers the purpose very well. The only trouble is to find a place both dry and cool. It is generally conceded, we believe, that heat injures the strength of the rennet. Hence the importance of curing it in a cool place. Freezing is thought by many to add to or develop the strength of the rennet. Be this as it may, old rennets, that have hang up in the dry-house or some other convenient place through the winter, will go much further in cheese-making than new rennets. Another method of preserving rennets is by packing them into salt. This is quite common, and is practiced by some of our best factories. It is less troublesome than drying them, and is a sure preventive against moths, which are apt to get into dried rennets. By salting them down, there is less trouble to find a cool place in which to keep them during the summer. But care should be taken to use only the purest salt in packing rennets. Salt not fit to salt curd with is not fit to pack rennets in, for when the rennets are used, the salt will be in the liquid and find its way into the mass of curd. Besides, pure salt is much the better preservative, and will keep either meat or rennets sweeter than impure salt. Some think rennets preserved in this way are not as strong as those that are dried. We do not quite see the philosophy of this, since by packing in salt, none of the virtues of the rennet can escape by evaporation, and must be retained either in the rennet or in the salt. It may be said that the salt injures the strength of the rennet. If so, why does it not prove equally injurious when the rennet is dried? In both methods of preserving, salt is freely used--generally all that the rennet will absorb. A batch of dried rennets may go farther than the same number packed in salt, and _vice versa_; but this does not prove that the _same_ rennets would not have equal virtues preserved by either method. The German method of preserving rennets is by blowing them up like a bladder, and drying them. This is the way in which the Bavarian rennets, which reach this country, are preserved. We believe no salt is used. The method is simple, and if it answers the purpose equally well, we see not why it may not be adopted in this country. We understand that the Bavarian rennets give very good satisfaction. But, as we have never used them, nor seen them used, we cannot speak from positive knowledge. Veal rennets are generally supposed to be better than deacon rennets. Certain it is that the stomach of a calf that never sucked the cow is not worth much in cheese-making. It is both small and weak. It seems to be necessary that the process of digestion should go on for a while, at least, that all the functions of the animal may become active and a full secretion of gastric juice take place. Some are of the opinion that the rennet is best when the calf is from three to five days old, as at that age it is not likely to have taken anything but milk into its stomach, which is best prepared for digesting that kind of food, the first process of which is coagulation. Veal calves are apt to get hold of other food, and the stomach is therefore less exclusively adapted to a milk diet. Hence, it is argued, if the veal rennet is better than the deacon, the stomach of the cow or ox ought to be better than that of the veal calf. Whatever may be the conclusion, we have, and shall probably continue to have, both deacon and veal rennets, both kinds of which have been found to work satisfactorily. Much seems to depend on the condition of the calf when killed. If it goes too long without food, the stomach gets inflamed and is not only deprived of its strength, but is partially diseased, and, therefore, unfit for cheese-making. This is the condition of most of the rennets taken from calves killed in our larger cities, the calves going without food sometimes two or three days. On the other hand, when the calf has a full stomach, the juices seem to be absorbed in the food, and the rennet is, therefore, weak. The best time for killing the calf appears to be just after the stomach has emptied itself, when the appetite of the calf begins to be sharp and the secretions of gastric juice are copious. This will generally be found from twelve to eighteen hours after eating. If fed at night, it may be killed any time the next forenoon. CHAPTER XII. PREPARING RENNET. The process of preparing rennet for use is very simple, and so generally understood that we need not more than give a few hints on the subject. In putting rennets to soak, care should be taken not to allow any tainted ones to get into the batch. When they are packed in salt, it is not difficult to make a selection. If the poor rennet does not smell, it will be pretty likely to be discolored and unhealthful looking, instead of having a whitish, wholesome appearance. All rennets thus discolored should be thrown away as worse than useless--as positively injurious. If the rennets are dried, it may not be so easy to detect the poor ones before putting them to soak. After soaking, their quality will be quite apparent; but much of their injurious effect may be avoided by promptly rejecting them without rubbing. It is generally, and we believe correctly, understood that diseased or tainted rennets produce both huffy and bad-keeping cheese, by the introduction of decayed animal substances. It certainly cannot improve the quality of the cheese to mix with it the broth of carrion. Clear whey is the common and best liquid for soaking rennets. Water was once and is now sometimes used, but it needs to be very soft and pure, and is improved by boiling. We have never tried water, but it is asserted by those who have used it for soaking rennets that a batch prepared with it will not keep sweet as long as one prepared with whey, but that boiling the water keeps it sweet longer than it will keep if not boiled. We think the purer the whey the better, and therefore prefer that which first separates from the curd after setting. Some are not particular, and some prefer the salt whey that runs from the presses. There is a saving of salt in this, but we think this liquid cannot be as good to introduce into milk as that containing less cheesy and buttery particles. Boiling the whey and skimming it, afterward allowing it to cool and settle, that the sediment may also be excluded, is said to be a great improvement, and we can easily believe this to be true. It is not only free from impurities, but it forms a sharp acid that acts readily upon the rennets and extracts more completely the pepsin, gastric juice, or whatever it may be that coagulates the milk. It is said that quite a saving in rennets can be effected by using scalded whey for soaking them. Twenty or twenty-five prime rennets put into a half barrel of whey will make a good preparation. It can be made stronger, of course, by the addition of more rennets, or pouring in a less amount of whey; but it is questionable if the entire strength can be extracted by using a less quantity of whey in proportion to the number of rennets. They need to be rubbed at least three times, each time in a new batch of whey. The second time the preparation will be found about as strong as the first. The third rubbing and rinsing may be in fresh whey to be used for soaking a new batch of rennets. We like to have two tubs or jars for soaking the rennets, one for the first and the other for the second rubbing, alternately. After rubbing the second time, put the rennets in a sack made of strainer cloth, to keep them separate, and soak them with the batch intended for the next second rubbing. In this way the strength of the preparation from the batch may be kept equal to that from the first. Rub the third time, and rinse in fresh whey, as before indicated, when the strength will be found pretty completely extracted. If dried rennets are used, it will be necessary to add salt to the whey when the batch is put to soak. Every time new whey is added, more salt will be required. Where the rennets are packed in salt there will usually be salt enough for the first soaking adhering to them; if not, it may be increased in quantity by a few handfuls of that loose in the barrel in which they have been packed. As the rennets will float on the whey, they should be thoroughly stirred up as often as night and morning, and a little salt sprinkled over those left on the top. We prefer stone jars, both for soaking rennets and to keep the prepared rennet in, because they are so much more easily kept sweet than wooden tubs can be. Of all things, we detest a stinking rennet tub or jar. Frequent scalding, when emptied, is necessary. When the preparation is kept in a tub, it will be advantageous to rub a little salt, each morning, on the sides of the tub left exposed to the air, after setting the milk, by the lowering of the liquid. By all means, do anything and everything that may be necessary to keep the rennet tubs or jars from stinking so badly that the stench will nearly suffocate one on uncovering them. A sweet rennet tub is the evidence of important qualities in a cheese-maker--care and cleanliness. Of course, there are various ways of managing, as regards quantity, convenience's sake, and so on, but we do not believe the principles involved in the process of selecting and preparing rennets for use, as we have given it, can be violated or neglected without loss in some manner. The importance of properly-prepared rennet, and of keeping it sweet and clean, cannot be too highly estimated. "Bad luck" in cheese-making might not infrequently be traced to the rennet tub; while "good luck" may be as often traced to the same source. Look out for your rennets and take care of your rennet-tubs or jars. They may make or mar your fortune. CHAPTER XIII. SETTING. The temperature of 82° to 86° is generally considered the best for setting--the former in hot and the latter in cold weather. This gives an average of 84° for mild weather. Perhaps this point is as good as any for setting. But it is worth bearing in mind that the milk will coagulate sooner, after adding the rennet, at a high than at a low temperature. The same milk will set quicker at 86° than at 82°, and at the points in the vat where the heat is greatest, or the milk cools least by radiation, the curd will become tough and difficult to cut, while other parts of the mass will remain tender and cut easily. This not only demonstrates the greater activity of the rennet at a higher heat, but the importance of an even heat throughout, and of keeping it from falling. Some throw a cloth over the vat, after the milk begins to thicken and agitation is no longer necessary to keep the cream from rising. This is a good practice, we believe, as it retards the reduction of temperature by radiation, and keeps the heat more equalized. This will secure a more uniform action of the rennet, and render the cutting less difficult and less liable to cause waste. When the rennet is once added and thoroughly incorporated with the milk, we believe it would be better if the mass could have perfect rest until the curd is ready to cut. We think the curd is more likely to be spongy in consequence of the continued or frequent agitation kept up to prevent the cream from rising. All know that a stir too much after the milk begins to look thick, and roll heavily, prevents the formation of a solid curd. It refuses to unite in one uniform mass, and remains in small, separate particles. But, when the milk is all right, observation will show that such a curd makes fine cheese, though there is great waste from the fine particles floating off with the whey. And why will it make fine cheese? Because it is in small particles, gets thoroughly and evenly cooked, and the butter is equally distributed through it. But the difficulty of preventing the cream from rising and forming a cream-curd, that will float on the whey, if it does not waste, needs to be overcome before we can allow the milk perfect rest after incorporating the rennet. We are not aware of any method for accomplishing this. Agitation of the surface, at least, seems necessary to retain the cream; but if the surface only is agitated, manifestly the cream will escape from the bottom of the mass and impoverish it while enriching the top. A thorough stirring of the whole mass, therefore, will keep the cream more equally distributed, and it will also secure a greater uniformity of temperature. The cheese must be of evener texture than if made of curd of different degrees of richness mixed together. It is a question for debate as to whether the cream which rises on milk is thoroughly incorporated with it by stirring. That butter is wasted in making cheese, is a fact that cannot be denied. Some think that nearly all the cream that rises on the vat during the night is floated off in the whey. We cannot indorse this conclusion, although it is asserted that where agitators are used, and the cream is thus prevented from rising, there is a great saving of the butter. But one fact is worth a thousand fictions in the practical affairs of life, whatever it be in romance. Cream will mix with the milk by stirring, and go to enrich the cheese, as is proved in the manufacture of the English Stilton cheese. In the manufacture of this, the cream of the night's milk is taken off and added to the morning's milk, which is worked up separately. The cheese is greatly enriched thereby. How much the waste of butter is increased, we are unable to say. We know from our own experience, that skimming the night's milk, instead of stirring in the cream, makes a marked difference in the yield and quality of the make. The first thing in setting, when a vat of milk is raised to the proper temperature, is to add the coloring. This is a strong alkaline preparation, and must have a tendency to retard the development of the lactic acid, if it does not combine with it in forming a neutral salt. If no effect is perceptible, beyond the color it imparts, it is simply because the quantity is so small. Probably the effect of the alkali in the annotto is more than counteracted by the acid in the rennet. Nothing as good as clear whey has been found for soaking rennets. Some think the acid an advantage in the working of the milk, and others go so far as to add, in cold weather, a quantity of sharp whey to the milk along with that in the prepared rennet. This, of course, hastens the development of acid throughout the mass. But we cannot say that we approve of doing anything to change the milk, and thus sour the curd before cooking. We prefer to have the milk as sweet as possible when set, and to keep the curd sweet until it is cooked. Then we would develop the acid in the whey. For this reason, if sour whey is to be added, we should add it after the curd is cooked, for the purpose of hastening the development of the lactic acid in the whey. This seems to us to be the most rational course, from what our experience has taught us. If fair experiment should demonstrate that we are in error as to when and where the development of the acid should take place, we shall be willing to yield the point. The amount of prepared rennet that it is necessary to add to the milk, depends upon its strength, which can be determined only by experiment. Sufficient should be used to coagulate the milk in ten or fifteen minutes, and render it fit to cut in thirty or forty minutes. If the milk is "old," the same quantity of rennet will cause it to work sooner, as it should. Some would add less rennet. We would not. The milk needs to work faster, and the acid, although it coagulates the milk, will not supply the place of the rennet. The rennet ought to be strong enough to require not more than a quart to a thousand pounds of milk. CHAPTER XIV. CUTTING CURDS. Cheese-making was once carried on without cutting the curd; and even since the introduction of the factory system, there have been those who denounced the idea of using a cutting instrument. Breaking up the curd with the hands was considered the better method as incurring less waste, both of butter and cheese. Such ideas, though entertained but a few years ago, are obsolete. Cutting curds is now universal, certainly in America. The only questions are as to the time, manner and extent of cutting. When should the curd be cut? Practically, there is little difference of opinion on this question. Some may cut a little sooner or later than others, and even the same person may not always be precise as to the time of cutting. But all will agree that a curd should not be cut before it is firm enough to break square and smooth over the finger without whitening the whey; and they will also agree that it should be cut before it gets tough enough to drive along ahead of the knife. We would cut it as soon as it can be done without waste, while the curd is tender; and we would do all the cutting at once. There is no sense in running the knife through the curd one way, and then letting the curd stand and toughen before cross-cutting and completing the operation. If it is fit to partly cut, it is fit to wholly cut; and the sooner the cutting is done with, the better. Time for the separation of the whey can be given after the cutting is done, and before the heat is further raised. The cutting should be done as carefully as possible and as evenly as possible. The fewer the motions, the better. If it could be done instantaneously and uniformly, without agitation, it would be an advantage. At the right time, we would like to have the entire vat of curd instantaneously separated into pieces of uniform size. This is the end to be aimed at. We are far from reaching it with present appliances. We can only approximate it as nearly as possible. A knife, therefore, with blades near together is preferable to one with blades farther apart. As to the extent of the cutting, there is more difference of opinion, though the difference has much diminished since the mania for coarse curds ran its course. A few yet cling to this exploded notion; but the great majority choose a medium degree of fineness. It has been found that the large pieces do not sufficiently cook, especially if the milk is old enough to work quick. The consequence is an uneven texture, and a deteriorated flavor. Sufficient whey remains in the centers of the large lumps to ferment and give the cheese the smell of the whey-vat, if it does not sour and cause the cheese to become leaky and dry. Possibly, if the weather be favorable for curing, the whey may collect in pungent drops throughout the cheese, showing themselves when cut somewhat as they do in the Limburger. Such cheese, we think, is likely to ultimately approximate the Limburger in both odor and flavor. It will please some tastes, but will not answer for the best markets. Medium curds are now the rule. As cheese-makers have approximated fine curds, they have improved the quality of their cheese. We believe still finer cutting will prove a further advantage. We will give our reasons for thinking so, and will add that our experience, as far as it goes, corroborates the idea. It secures a more uniform action of the heat and separation of the whey, and therefore an evener texture and better flavor, with correspondingly improved keeping qualities. What is the object and advantage of cutting at all? Why not let the curd remain in one unbroken mass? We cut the curd for the purpose of facilitating the separation of the fluids from the solids by the combined action of the rennet and heat. Is it not desirable that this action should be uniform on every particle of curd? We think this question will be generally answered in the affirmative. If so, then it must be conceded that the finer the curd is cut the more nearly the desired result will be attained. If it could be separated particle from particle, without waste, would not the action of the heat and rennet be more perfect still? When in lumps, the externals of them must necessarily be cooked more than the centers, and the evil of over-cooking--if there is such an evil with a blood heat temperature--is illy counteracted by the mixture of curd cooked to different degrees--some overdone and some underdone. It should all be cooked alike, to whatever degree the cooking may be carried. This will secure uniformity of texture and quality, and also clean flavor, if the cooking is complete. But, of course, in cutting a curd fine there is danger of waste--waste of curd, but not necessarily waste of butter, unless the curd is sour. Then it is impossible to avoid waste of butter by any process that we are aware of--and with a sour curd there is all the more necessity for cutting fine and cooking rapidly and thoroughly. With proper care, the evil of sour milk can be avoided. With good sweet milk and proper management, there is very little danger of waste of any kind, cut as fine as we can with the common knife. We would cut so that the pieces when cooked should not be larger than kernels of corn; and though many object to it, we should not, if the pieces were as small as buckwheat--and as regular in size. We would not use a knife with the blades more than a quarter of an inch apart. Though we have never used a knife for cutting horizontally, the idea commends itself to our judgment. We would carefully cut first with the horizontal knife, leaving the thin slabs of curd lying one upon the other. Then, without waiting for the whey to rise or the curd to sink, we would use the perpendicular blades lengthwise of the vat, reducing the slabs to long square strips, and follow this with the cross-cutting until the pieces were at least as small as beechnuts. After this, the curd may be allowed to stand a few minutes, for the whey to separate, before starting the heat--provided the milk is sweet enough to permit of delay. But if the milk should give any indication of being old, we would begin at once to gradually raise the heat; if quite old and changed, we would crowd the heat as fast as practicable. To sum up in brief, we would cut a curd and complete the cutting as soon as it can be done without waste; we would cut it as expeditiously as possible and with as few motions; we would cut it as fine as care against waste would warrant; we would raise the heat as gradually and evenly as circumstances would permit; we would cook as thoroughly and as evenly as possible; we would keep up the heat until the curd is done; we would then let the acid develop in the whey until it is plainly changed; we would dip as warm as convenient, drain and salt, cool to at least 80°, and then put to press. With good milk, good rennet and a good place to cure the cheese in, we should expect in this way to turn out a tip-top article. CHAPTER XV. HEAT. One of the most important elements in cheese-making is heat; but we do not believe the importance of its proper regulation is sufficiently understood by our cheese-makers. We are aware that cheese can be made without the use of artificial heat. It is not such an article, however, as would meet with a ready sale, or be likely to increase the consumptive demand for cheese. A good-keeping, mild and nutty-flavored cheese cannot readily be produced, if at all, with a temperature lower than 96°; nor can a rich, buttery article be made with a temperature over 102°. We consider 6° the widest allowable range of heat, and think 98° to 100°, or full blood-heat, the best temperature. Evenness and steadiness of temperature are two important points. That apparatus is best which heats the milk throughout the vat the most evenly--leaves it the freest from hot places and cold places, at the sides, ends, or on the bottom. A perfect apparatus would raise the temperature of every particle of milk at the same time and at the same rate; and retain this perfectly even heat at the desired point until the cooking is completed. The difficulty, with most or all heating apparatus, is to raise the heat of the entire mass to the required temperature, without submitting some particles to a greater degree of heat than is necessary, or heating them in advance of the rest, to be stirred in and partially cooled again. We believe that an even cook or scald is of the utmost importance, and that everything that can be should be done to secure that end. If thoroughly accomplished, with sweet milk to begin with, we have no fears as to the richness, fine flavor and good keeping qualities of the cheese. There is no other thing, in our opinion, which will go so far toward securing these three desirable qualities. Another thing, as before indicated, we consider of great importance in securing a thorough cooking and proper separation of the whey from the curd. We refer to steadiness of temperature. It seems to us a great mistake, when the temperature is once up, to not keep it there, without rising or lowering. It seems a misapplication of terms to speak of cooking or scalding at a temperature of 98 or 100 degrees; yet, we all know that blood-heat is all that is required for cheese-making. This heat seems necessary. Perhaps it is because nature designed the gastric juice from the rennet to operate at the temperature. It is a well established fact that digestion will not go on when the temperature of the stomach is below that of blood-heat. We presume a much higher temperature is equally detrimental. This may account for the fact that blood-heat is the best for cheese-making, as at that temperature the rennet is most active. Be this as it may, we are satisfied that the process is retarded and the curd deteriorated by allowing the temperature to fall during the time it is in the scald. Instead of cooking, and condensing, as it should, in order to expel the whey, it is only soaking and souring. The moment the acid is sufficiently developed, though the curd be yet soft and raw, the whey is drawn, the curd is further cooled and soaked, and then dipped, drained, salted and put to press. A leaky cheese is the result. If the weather is cool and bad for curing, a sour cheese follows. But whatever the weather may be, we doubt if a leaky cheese ever yet turned out all right in flavor and quality. It can never have that nutty, new-milk flavor which belongs to cheese properly cooked. We presume there are those who will differ with us in opinion, but we should demand the positive evidence of at least four senses before believing we are wrong. We say, therefore, raise your temperature gradually and evenly, to full blood-heat, and there retain it until your curd is ready to dip. Then we believe it would be an advantage to dip and drain, without cooling more than what cannot be avoided, and salt warm. But of salting, we will speak more at length some other time. We are now discussing the question of heat. Let us give a little every-day illustration. Suppose the housewife were to put her potatoes for dinner in a kettle of water, run the heat up to 212°, and then allow it to cool by radiation until the potatoes are done. What kind of a dish would they make? Or, after she had cooked her potatoes, suppose she should let them stand and soak until they are cool enough to handle without danger of burning or scalding any one. Who would want to eat the watery things? The truth is, 212° is the proper temperature for boiling potatoes, and the sooner and hotter you can get them out of the water, the better. So, in our opinion, blood-heat, or 98° to 100°, is the proper temperature for cooking cheese curd, and that after the curd is done, the sooner and warmer it is dipped, the better for the curd--the sweeter, richer-flavored and better grained (not pasty, but more of the consistency of hard, well-made butter, which shows the batter globules whole) will be the cheese, and its keeping qualities will be correspondingly improved. It may be a little more work to cool the curd in the air, and harder keeping it from packing; but if dipped warm, the whey will the sooner drain off, and the salt can be the sooner thrown on, when it will penetrate quicker, season the mass more evenly, and form a coating to the particles of curd, which will keep them from packing together. But whether the curd is cooled before dipping or not, we maintain that it is a great advantage to keep the temperature up to blood-heat during the entire process after the heat is once raised. With self-heating apparatus, this can be done by keeping a very little fire going--just enough to supply the loss of heat from radiation. Where the heating is done by running warm water around the milk-vat, a current of the proper temperature can be kept up. If steam is used, perhaps a small jet can be kept pouring into the space around the vat. But in all these cases, the danger is that too high a temperature will have to be kept up at the point of applying the heat, in order to prevent the temperature of the whole mass from falling. This is a decided objection, and necessitates a great deal of stirring, which is only a palliative of and not a remedy for the evil. Of course we write with reference to the management of heat with milk that is sweet and in proper condition for cheese-making. Where it is "old," or tainted, to begin with, it is necessary to hurry the heat, and every operation connected with the process of making it up. A higher temperature and less time will be found to produce a very similar effect to a lower temperature and more time. But, in all cases, an even, steady heat should be aimed at and maintained to the end. We never could quite understand the philosophy of cooking less in the spring and fall than in the summer. The idea that it makes the cheese more buttery to dip the curd raw, seems to us very absurd. If there is any time when a curd needs to be thoroughly cooked, it is when the weather is cool and unfavorable for curing. If the whey is not properly expelled by the action of heat, it has got to either dry out or leak out, or both. If there is too much left in the curd to dry out, long before it can leak out, your cheese will be sour, with a puckered face, and sundry ugly cracks. Even when the cheese does not absolutely drip, if the curd is dipped while underdone, it will sour, the face will have a corrugated appearance, and the cheese will "try" crumbly and sour. The color will also be paler than in those that are properly cooked, the general look will be clammy, and no rind will form that will be satisfactory. Even when well-cooked and well-made, if a cheese does not have sufficient warmth, it will sour on the ranges and spoil; and it stands to reason that cheese made from a curd insufficiently cooked must work a great deal worse under unfavorable conditions for curing. Our experience is, that a curd needs more cooking in the spring and fall than will answer in hot, dry weather. If we must have a curd dipped soft at any season of the year, we say let it be at that season when the weather is best for drying and curing. A cheese that would become worthless on the ranges in cold, wet weather, may turn out pretty fair in "dog days." But we do not believe in undercooking at any time. Food, of all kinds, needs as much cooking one season of the year as another. It is quite likely, however, that a degree or two lower heat will answer in cool weather, for the reason that milk keeps better then, and the curd remains longer in the scald before taking on acid. In this case, we have a lower heat for a longer time, which will produce the same result as a higher heat for a shorter time. But in both cases the curd ought to be cooked the same. Whatever degree of heat is decided upon, let it be kept up, steady and uniform throughout the mass, and at all seasons of the year let the curd be cooked done. This is specially important when the conditions for curing are unfavorable. You must do, then, in the vat part of the work which can be done on the ranges when the weather is favorable. CHAPTER XVI. ACID. Another important agent in cheese-making is acid. This you are pretty sure to have, at some stage of the process, and the chief question seems to be as to _when_ you will have it. It is said that milk fresh from the cow manifests the presence of lactic acid. The quantity is very slight, however, and under favorable circumstances the development is slow. Where milk is properly cooled immediately after being taken from the cow, and the factoryman has good facilities for keeping it cool, it will be found, when the time comes to begin the process of working up, what is called "sweet." It will not taste as fresh and clean as when first cooled after milking; but no acid will be perceptible to either taste or smell--not even enough to make it what is termed "old." Some think age makes the milk all the better for cheese-making, and we believe it is generally understood that milk fresh from the cow does not work quite satisfactorily. However, we place no great stress on this opinion. Old milk will work quicker than new milk; the acid will develop sooner to the point desired by the cheese-maker, and this saving of time doubtless has something to do with the decision in favor of age in milk for the purpose of cheese-making. Our impression is, that milk cannot be too sweet when the rennet is added, and that if sufficient time is taken to develop the acid in the whey before dipping, the fresh milk will be found to turn out the finest-flavored and best-keeping cheese. The acid is not wanted in the _curd_, but in the _whey_. If the milk is sour, to begin with, or quite advanced toward sourness, the lactic acid must pervade every particle of the whole mass. Now, it strikes us that the correct idea is to expel the whey from the curd, as far as possible, before the acid makes its appearance, and let the acid develop in the whey afterward, so as to furnish a sort of pickle. The acid will develop sharply at some stage in the process; and, as we have before said, the question to be decided seems to be as to what point it is best to have it develop at. We say, with the light we at present have before us, we think the acid should never be allowed to develop much before the curd is cooked and the whey is properly expelled; then let the whey take on acid to quite a perceptible degree before dipping the curd. We doubt if it makes much difference whether the acidulation takes place while the curd is floating in the whey, or after the whey is drawn off and while the curd stands and drains. There is rather more convenience in handling to leave the whey on and stir the curd sufficiently to keep it from packing; but the "cheddar" cheese, which is generally considered the best of any, is made by stacking the curd, after cooking, and allowing the whey that clings to it to take on acid. But where the milk is all right, to begin with, and the curd is properly managed and cooked, we doubt if it makes any material difference which process is adopted for allowing the acid to develop. With such a curd, there is little danger of its being injured by the acid, as any one can demonstrate by allowing curd to stand unpressed over night, as is often done with small remnants, when the pieces will be found covered with an almost vinegar-sour acid. Grind this curd and put it to press, and there will be no signs of sour cheese. The development of the acid is absolutely necessary to secure good keeping qualities and a mild, clean flavor. Dip a curd before the whey has become perceptibly acid, or is on the verge of "changing," and we think that a rank, bitter flavor will be sure to follow. The absence of sufficient lactic acid leaves the albumen in a condition likely to decompose, while the butyric acid develops itself, as in rancid butter, and the two combine to make a very unpalatable flavor to one nice about the taste of his cheese. Some prefer strong cheese. To such, the nearer the flavor approaches that of smoked herring and tobacco, the greater the gustatory gratification. The principal difficulty in working up sour milk is to get sufficient action of the rennet and heat on the curd to properly condense it and expel the whey. It is a mistake, therefore, to dip a curd soft because it is sour. Run your heat up to 104° or even 106°, as soon as possible, and keep it there until your curd is cooked. It is sour, and nothing but cooking will save it, if anything will. The whey must and will come out. If you do not expel it from the particles of curd in the vat, you will not be able to press it out sufficiently to keep it from working and leaking out while the cheese stands on the ranges. If anything will prevent sour milk from making leaky cheese, it is thorough cooking. This process you should hurry up as much as possible--always having an eye to keeping the heat even, and preventing waste of butter. The acid, acting on the butter globules, makes their coatings tender. Therefore, handle the curd as carefully as possible, cool well before putting to press, and press gently, increasing the pressure gradually. But, if you have succeeded in getting your curd properly cooked, you have done one of the best things possible to retain the butter. If, when you put the curd to press, you find you have more than the usual bulk of curd, filling the hoops fuller and refusing to yield readily to the pressure of the screw--as is generally the case with sour milk, as managed in most factories--you may know that you have not done your work thoroughly, and therefore look out for leaky, sour, poor cheese. On the other hand, if you have condensed the curd to the usual bulk, so that it works well under the screw, you may hope for a fair cheese, that may pass muster when the buyer comes along. We often hear the remark, when anything is said about developing the acid, "No sour cheese for me; I prefer to dip my curd sweet." People who talk in this way either make bitter, bad-flavored cheese, or else get on more acid than they are aware of, in consequence of having dull taste and smell. They judge by the _appearance_ and _feel_ of the curd when it is in condition to dip, and may succeed in hitting the right point. In hot weather, it is hardly possible not to develop the acid sufficiently. But if they really dip the curd sweet, we do not believe it possible that their cheese can be up to the standard demanded by the best markets, though they may succeed in getting a fair price for it. Not all buyers are really good judges, and fewer still know what the matter is with a cheese that is imperfectly made. They know, perhaps, that there is something wrong about it; but what, they are unable to say. Further, we believe the average price of American cheese lower than it should be, in consequence of so little really prime cheese, and of the large amount of second-rate; and that, as yet, our buyers are not sufficiently discriminating in their purchases and prices, though they are yearly growing more so. Both buyers and cheese-makers need more experience and a better understanding of what is requisite in the manufacture of a prime article. CHAPTER XVII. DIPPING CURDS. There is nothing so difficult in cheese-making as to determine the exact point when a curd ought to be taken out of the vat and salted. A slight variation either way from this point makes an uneven lot of cheese, and much variation spoils the batch, so that it will not pass for "prime." Every cheese-maker has felt the want of some test whereby the exact point, when a curd is sufficiently "done" to dip, can be determined with certainty. Neither the sense of smell, the sense of taste, nor the sense of touch is infallible. The evidence of this fact can be seen in any factory during the season of cheese-making. A simple test of acidity, which is claimed to be conclusive, is the application of a hot iron to a lump of curd. The iron wants to be searing hot--not red hot, but hot enough to toast cheese. Take up a small handful of curd, squeeze the whey out of it, and touch the hot iron to it, holding it there for a moment, or until it adheres and begins to melt or toast the cheese. Then pull the iron gently away from the curd. If the curd is raw and sweet, it will break short off from the iron and appear crumbly. If slightly acid, it will slightly pull out in threads, but not very long ones. As the acid develops, the stringiness increases. At a certain point, the curd will cling to the iron and pull out in numerous fine threads an inch or two long. Beyond this point, the threads grow longer but fewer, until there will be only one, which will draw out a foot or so, and then break, recoiling somewhat like India-rubber. Indeed, the curd grows tougher and more stringy from the time it begins to take on acid perceptibly, until it finally ends in stringing indefinitely, like wax, having passed the point of breaking and flying back. The successive stages of development are gradual, but very marked, and cannot fail to be recognized after a few experiments. Thus having obtained a means of telling the degree of acid developed, it only remains to be decided at what point to dip the curd. It is claimed that the proper one is where the threads are the finest and most numerous. Beyond this point, the threads diminish in number but increase in length, which is an indication of too much acid. It is asserted that the hot iron test is uniform and reliable, besides being easy of application. Cheese-makers can make their own experiments, and we advise them to try the hot iron to their own satisfaction. If it should prove as conclusive as good judges think it will, it will be of immense value to our dairymen. This test reminds us of the test used by maple-sugar makers to determine when the batch has reached the point where it will "grain" and "cake" well. They make a small bow of a twig, dip it into the sugar, which adheres to and fills it, and then they blow through the bow. If no bubble forms and floats off like a soap-bubble, the batch is not done. But if they can blow a string of bubbles, or one long bubble, it is time to remove the heat. The stringing of the cheese-curd, on the application of the hot iron, seems to afford a very similar test for the cheese-maker. It is not claimed that the use of the hot iron will necessarily insure the making of good cheese. It only determines the degree of acidity, which is one very important point. Other things are requisite to the manufacture of a prime article, and the same care, attention, and labor, in other matters, will remain just as essential. By using the hot iron, however, it is claimed that the cheese-maker can tell, every time, just how sour his curd is. CHAPTER XVIII. SALTING CURDS. We believe there is not much controversy on the question of salting curd. One says, salt it hot, and another says, cool it first. But the variation in temperature is but a few degrees, and can hardly be supposed to have much effect. On the whole, we prefer salting as warm as practicable, as the curd then takes the salt better and the seasoning is likely to be evener. But the sooner the salt is thrown on, the greater the waste will be from running off in the whey. If the curd were thoroughly drained, or pressed out, as it is by the English in the manufacture of cheddar cheese, before the salt is added, considerable less would be needed. Some salt the curd in the vat, while it is yet covered with whey, and think this the better way. We opine, however, it matters but little when the salt is added, if it be distributed evenly throughout the mass of curd and is used in the proper quantity. The common method is to salt in the curd-sink, while the curd is draining--generally as soon after it is dipped as it can be stirred into a loose condition suitable for evenly mixing the salt. We have heard the opinion expressed that it matters not whether the curd is well separated after salting, or left in coarse chunks with the salt adhering to their surfaces when put to press, as salt is very penetrating and the pressing drives the salt whey all through the cheese. But the common practice is not based on such a conclusion, and we think it well that it is not. Even salting we consider as essential in cheese-making as in butter-making. The amount of salt used at the different factories varies from four ounces to five ounces for a hundred pounds of milk, or from two pounds and a half to three pounds and an eighth for a thousand pounds of milk, or a hundred pounds of curd. The higher rate of salting is thought to somewhat retard the curing, but it will help the keeping qualities of the cheese. For convenience sake, and to save time and the liability to mistakes when in a hurry, we would recommend the making of a scale or table, based on the rate of salting adopted, ranging from twenty or twenty-five pounds up to a hundred, and then for the hundreds up to the capacity of the vat. It takes but a little while, during some leisure hour, to make such a tabular scale. When made and stuck up in some convenient place--say, over the salt barrel, or over the balances--it will enable any one not familiar with or quick in figures to see at a glance how much salt is needed for the curd of a given amount of milk. It is a convenience, too, that will last as long as the factory, if taken care of. For the benefit of whom it may concern, we give the following tables: TABLE FOR SALTING AT THE RATE OF 2 LBS. 8 OZS. TO 1,000 LBS. OF MILK. -----------+---------------++---------+--------------- MILK. | SALT. || MILK. | SALT. -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- lbs. | lbs. | ozs. || lbs. | lbs. | ozs. 25 | 0 | 1 || 1,000 | 2 | 8 50 | 0 | 2 || 2,000 | 5 | 0 75 | 0 | 3 || 3,000 | 7 | 8 100 | 0 | 4 || 4,000 | 10 | 0 200 | 0 | 8 || 5,000 | 12 | 8 300 | 0 | 12 || 6,000 | 15 | 0 400 | 1 | 0 || 7,000 | 17 | 8 500 | 1 | 4 || 8,000 | 20 | 0 600 | 1 | 8 || 9,000 | 22 | 8 700 | 1 | 12 || | | 800 | 2 | 0 || | | 900 | 2 | 4 || | | -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- TABLE FOR SALTING AT THE RATE OF 3 LBS. 2 OZS. TO 1,000 LBS. OF MILK. -----------+---------------++---------+--------------- MILK. | SALT. || MILK. | SALT. -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- lbs. | lbs. | ozs. || lbs. | lbs. | ozs. 20 | 0 | 1 || 1,000 | 3 | 2 40 | 0 | 2 || 2,000 | 6 | 4 60 | 0 | 3 || 3,000 | 9 | 6 80 | 0 | 4 || 4,000 | 12 | 8 100 | 0 | 5 || 5,000 | 15 | 10 200 | 0 | 10 || 6,000 | 18 | 12 300 | 0 | 15 || 7,000 | 21 | 14 400 | 1 | 4 || 8,000 | 25 | 0 500 | 1 | 9 || 9,000 | 28 | 2 600 | 1 | 14 || | | 700 | 2 | 3 || | | 800 | 2 | 8 || | | 900 | 2 | 13 || | | -----------+-------+-------++---------+-------+------- We presume the method of using these tables will be plain enough to most cheese-makers. But we will give a single illustration. Supposing the batch of milk to be 4,640 pounds, if we wish to salt at the rate of 3 lbs. 2 ozs. to the 1,000 pounds of milk, we look at the column indicating the quantity of salt for a given number of thousands, and find that 4,000 pounds of milk require 12 lbs. 8 ozs. of salt. Referring to the other column, we find 400 pounds of milk require 1 lb. 4 ozs. salt, and 40 pounds, 2 ozs. Add these together, and we have 13 lbs. 14 ozs. as the quantity of salt required for 4,640 lbs. of milk. If desired, a table can be made out, with little trouble, that will show the quantity of salt required for any given number of hundreds of pounds of milk likely to be contained in a single vat. CHAPTER XIX. TAINTED MILK. The most abominable of all things in a cheese-factory is tainted milk. It means floating curds, "huffy" cheese, bad flavor and poor prices. Yet, as milk is now managed, most factories will, in hot weather, get occasionally caught with a mess of tainted milk. There are hard work, anxiety and unsatisfactory results in it for the cheese-maker, and dissatisfaction and small profits for the patron. Such things never ought to be; but, when such a catastrophe happens, like other disagreeable things, it has to be borne and the best made of it that circumstances will permit. We know of no way to make good cheese out of tainted milk, and have had comparatively little experience with it--though quite as much as we desire. But from our own knowledge and what we can learn from the experience of others, if we had a tainted mess of milk to work up, we should heat it up as soon as possible, cut the curd fine, cook it thoroughly and develop the acid as much as we thought the curd would bear and stick together so as to bandage well. If we had another batch, in which the whey was all right, we would draw off the whey from the tainted batch as early as possible and add whey from the sweet batch to the tainted curd, to cook it in. If not, as soon as cooked, we would draw off the whey and allow the acid to develop in the curd. We presume sour whey added to the batch would be an advantage in developing the acid, and acid is what seems to be needed to check the decomposition and further tainting of the curd. An extra quantity of salt would doubtless be an advantage in stopping further taint. The curd should be cooled to the temperature of the atmosphere, and well aired before being put to press, and the pressing should be thorough. Old cheese-makers have told us that they thought they found an advantage in washing and cooling a tainted curd with ice water--that is, by chilling it. It seems to us that, though this might check taint for the time being, it would hasten it when the cheese warmed up in curing, as butter or meat will spoil rapidly after having come in contact with ice, if exposed to the atmosphere. Prime cheese never can be made of bad milk. But, if milk is not too badly tainted, a mess managed on the principles we have indicated will make a fair cheese--one that will suit many palates. A curd made of sour milk may be improved by washing out some of the acid by the use of warm water. With such a curd, extra cooking is an important point; but generally there is less cooking, owing to the hurry to get the curd out of the sour whey. It is in almost the opposite condition, so far as acid is concerned, of curd made from tainted milk. The latter has too little acid; the former too much. We therefore want to develop the acid in a tainted curd, and to retard or diminish it in a sour one. CHAPTER XX. CURING. There is no part of the process of making up milk and getting the product ready for market which requires more care and judgment, as well as some hard work, than curing. Few rooms are properly prepared for the purpose. They are left too open and barn-like, with no means of controlling the temperature. Factorymen generally seem to think that if the cheese is only made and put on the ranges, there is little or no need of making any further provision. We have seen cheese, which we believe had deteriorated from one to two cents a pound in value, because the curing process had not gone on properly. The curing rooms were full of cracks which let in the wind, cold or hot, dry or damp, as it might be, and the cheese stood on the ranges in the cold, damp atmosphere, turning to swill--to hog feed, instead of human food. The faces were cracked; the flavor was bad; "too much acid," the buyers said; the makers were perplexed, and quite sure they had not changed their hands from what they were when they made a good reputation; the patrons were dissatisfied, and the committeemen grumbled. There might have been other failings; but we are quite sure that no one has a right to expect prime cheese where there are not the proper facilities for curing. If the weather happens to be right, a barn may answer the purpose. But no one has a right to presume on always having favorable weather; and it is the part of wisdom to make preparations for all sorts of contingencies. A curing-room should be made with a wind-proof wall. This would guard against sudden changes of weather, by keeping out both heat and cold. Sufficient air can be introduced through the windows, which should be made to open easily, and be provided with blinds. There should also be provision for supplying artificial heat, equally distributed throughout the building, and not from a red-hot stove set in the middle, or in one end or corner, where it will toast the cheeses near it, and leave those farther off to chill in the cold weather of spring and fall. If steam is used, the heating apparatus may be made to do the double work of cooking the curd, and warming the drying-room. This may be done by means of hot-air tubes, or by the use of steam-pipes running round the room. Of course it would cost a little at the beginning; but a curing room once properly fitted up would soon pay the extra expense in the saving of time, labor, care, vexation and money. A thousand and one annoyances would be guarded against, and the proprietor would have the satisfaction of knowing that he had got a good thing, which would insure the most that could be expected from the product of the cheese-vat, and build up a first-class reputation and a permanent business. A curing-room should not only be kept at an equable temperature of 70° to 80°, but be well ventilated. The gases constantly emitted by the curing process should have a chance to freely escape and leave the atmosphere as pure and sweet as possible. There is no more sense in supposing that a cheese can cure properly and have a clean, wholesome flavor, if kept in a close, unventilated room, than that a human being can retain his health in impure air. The curing-room must be kept clean and sweet, dry and airy--not by allowing the wind to whistle through it as it listeth, but by a judicious system of heating and ventilating, which will allow the hot and chill blasts to blow harmlessly by. CHAPTER XXI. GREASING CHEESE. When a cheese is first removed from the hoops, care should be taken that its face be not allowed to dry and crack before it is greased with hot whey-butter. Nothing has been found so good as whey-butter for the purpose of greasing cheese, and it should be applied hot, and as soon after the cheese is set on the range as possible. If it dries at all, we think it injurious to the formation of a smooth, glassy face; and if it dries much, the face is sure to check and present an unsatisfactory appearance, besides furnishing convenient places for the cheese-fly to deposit its eggs. A very convenient thing for applying the hot butter is a paint-brush. It is much handier and better every way than a swab. But care must be taken, or the bristles of the brush will get scorched. This can be avoided by removing the brush from the dish when through using it, and not putting it in the grease again until you are ready to grease the faces of your cheeses. A pressed iron dish with a handle riveted on, is handy for melting the grease. There is no danger of melting out the bottom, or melting off the handle, and you are less liable to burn yourself or spill your grease than you are if you melt the whey butter in an old basin, which very soon gets burnt and leaky. Little conveniences, like the iron dish and brush we have mentioned, help a great deal, in the course of a season, about cheese-making; and a cheese-maker had better furnish them at his own expense, if his employers are too stingy to do it, than not to have them. There are many such little things that greatly assist in doing work easily and in keeping neat and tidy. One can do without them, on the principle that a farmer can hoe his corn without a cultivator, but it does not pay. If a cheese cannot be greased as soon as taken out, spread a cloth or put a turner over it, or both. This will keep the moisture from escaping and the air from immediate contact with the face of the cheese. As whey-butter is the best and nearly the only material used for greasing the faces of cheeses, it will not be amiss and may be of use to inexperienced cheese-makers, to say a few words on the mode of trying out the whey-butter. Prepare a skimmer with a long handle, which may be cheaply made by punching the bottom of an old tin-pan full of holes and fastening a wooden handle to it with bits of wire. A shrub five or six feet long and of suitable size, with a short crook at the larger end, is convenient. It can be split at the crooked end, slipped on the edge of the pan and wired there without much trouble. Hang a large kettle--a cauldron is best--in a convenient place, and fill it about two-thirds fall of the grease and scum which you skim off from the vat. It is yeasty stuff, and requires a good deal of room, at first, to swell in when the heat is started. Keep up a moderate fire, so as to boil it gently without scorching, and continue the boiling until the cheesy portion is sufficiently cooked to sink to the bottom. Then allow the batch to rest and cool down. Dip off the butter, while still warm and oily, and carefully strain it into a clean tub. When cooled sufficiently to begin to thicken somewhat, a little salt sprinkled on the surface and thoroughly stirred in, as the farmers' wives sometimes salt their lard, will help prevent it from getting rancid and stinking. Set it in a cool place, and keep it covered tightly. Near the close of the fall's operations, a nice tub of whey butter should be thus prepared and set by for use the next spring--for, in the cold spring weather, when cheese-making first commences, very little cream will rise on the whey-vat, and it will take some time before a batch can be procured. In applying the whey-butter to the face of the cheese, no more should be used than the surface of the cheese will absorb and leave it moist and shiny. If enough is put on so that it will cool in streaks and stick to whatever it touches, it should be wiped off, or it will daub the turner or bench, and not only make unnecessary work in cleaning, but prevent a hard, smooth rind from forming. Many give themselves a good deal of annoyance by putting on too much grease. The next morning after the cheese has been set on the range, and had its upper face greased with hot whey-butter, it should be turned over, when a similar application of hot butter should be made to the other face. If the cheese is well made and of good milk, and properly greased, as we have indicated, more greasing will seldom be needed. A little care will determine when more is needed, if at all. If the face begins to look dry and feel harsh, in spite of thorough rubbing with the hands, call the grease-brush into requisition again. In hot, dry weather--especially if the air is allowed to strike the face of the cheese--a timely application of more whey-butter may keep the face from cracking and save considerable trouble. The cheeses should be regularly turned, for the first fortnight, every day, and have their faces thoroughly rubbed and polished with the naked hand. Nothing else will do so much to help form a satisfactory rind. A cloth carried along should be used to wipe off any surplus grease on the bench or turner, so as to prevent its daubing the next cheese and making additional work. This same cloth, thus made greasy, will answer the additional use of wiping off any mould that may be found collecting on the bandage. In this way, a lot of cheese, with comparatively little additional work and trouble, but a trifle more attention, can be kept looking clean and wholesome; and if this neatness does not actually help improve the quality of the cheese--we think it does--it will so much improve the appearance, that you will not only be rewarded by the satisfaction afforded, but can safely count on a fraction more from the buyer--enough to more than pay for all the labor bestowed in curing. CHAPTER XXII. SKIPPERS. One of the most annoying things in the drying-room is the cheese-fly. It is very small but very effective in its way; and as it has the power to so rapidly increase its numbers, it sometimes gives a good deal of trouble. To a beginner, its ways seem almost past finding out, yet its path often becomes disgustingly visible. We know of no sovereign remedy for these pests of the drying-room. The best preventive is perfect cleanliness in all the surroundings. No pools of whey or slops of any kind in, under or around the building, should be allowed to furnish the first broods. But few factories are so arranged as to leave no putrid whey-spouts or other receptacles for the eggs of the fly. When hot weather comes on, the flies, therefore, swarm all around the building; and most curing-rooms are so open as to afford them easy access. Once in the room, the trouble and warfare begin, and cease not until the dog-star no longer rages. The cheese-fly is not very particular where it deposits its eggs--whether in the cracks in the benches or turners, in wrinkles in the bandage, in the checks in the rind of the cheese, or on the smooth face. If the weather is warm enough and there is the least bit of moisture, the eggs will hatch anywhere around the cheese. As soon as hatched, instinct leads the skipper to burrow in the cheese at once. It is a mistaken idea, we think, that the fly inserts the eggs. It drops them in clusters, wherever it is convenient. It may be on a turner, which is standing idle. It is taken up thoughtlessly, clapped over a cheese, which is turned on it, nicely covering the eggs, which hatch between it and the rind, and the brood is soon found thriving nicely in the cheese. Perhaps the eggs are laid on the smooth face of the cheese, in plain sight, if one looks carefully enough for them. The next time the cheese is turned, the eggs are in the same situation as those laid on the turner. They may be laid on the bench, and the cheese set on them. A careful hand, who is used to hunting eggs as well as skippers, will look closely for them everywhere, and be sure that the face of no cheese that has them on is turned down, and that no turner is used containing them. In all these cases, care and neatness have their advantages, and pay. If a cheese is leaky, look out for it. We have seen the eggs of the cheese-fly deposited on the best cheeses; but sour, stinking, leaky cheeses attract them most. Here they are in their natural element. The eggs dropped on the moist cheese anywhere, even on the bandage, will do remarkably well. They no sooner hatch, than the tiny worm works its way through the bandage or rind into the cheese, and there he feasts, fattens and grows. It is almost traditional that a skippery cheese is invariably a good one. We admit that good cheese may be skippery--it is so, sometimes; but the leaky, greasy, rank smelling and strong-tasting cheese, is the skipper's delight. In such a cheese, he luxuriates in all his disgusting glory. When skippers get into a cheese, we know of no better way than to dig or cut them out as soon as possible. Their presence is at once indicated by a moist spot, when the bottom face of the cheese is first turned up. Greasing a piece of paper over the hole in the cheese, which is the entrance of the skipper, will bring him to the surface after air, but it does not kill him nor free the cheese from skippers. We say, cut them out. Cut freely, and make sure work. If the spot is near the edge, a wedge-shaped piece may be cut out, and a piece of another cheese--there is usually one cut for patrons of a factory--can be fitted in, a second bandage drawn over, and the cheese slipped into a hoop, when a little pressing will smooth down all roughness and heal all scars. Some put cayenne pepper in whey-butter used for greasing cheeses. But, though it may help keep flies off, it will not prevent trouble. They will work their way wherever there is a chance for them. Dryness, cleanliness and watchful care, are the only sure preventives of skippers, in hot weather. To one who has had experience, it is not so very difficult to guard against serious loss from skippery cheese. But beginners need to be put on their guard--and for their benefit we have penned this article on skippers. CHAPTER XXIII. CHEDDAR PROCESS. During the summer of 1869, we had the pleasure of visiting the Spring Creek and Slate Hill factories, in Montgomery county, under the charge of Mr. ALEXANDER MACADAM. Mr. MACADAM'S father is an old cheese-maker, who learned the Cheddar process from the celebrated English dairyman, Mr. JOSEPH HARDING, of Somerset, about 1855. The son has had all the advantages of the father's experience, and, in addition to an active, inquiring and practical turn of mind, has had experience in one of the heaviest cheese houses in London. If any one knows what good cheese is, and what is required by the English taste, as well as by the American market, we think Mr. ALEXANDER MACADAM does. He is, besides, intelligent, free and communicative--ready to impart any information within his knowledge. We propose to give as intelligible an account of his process as we were able to pick up in our brief visit. But, as he adopts in part the American method, and humors considerably American ideas, we will first give a brief description of the real Cheddar process, as explained in a pamphlet written by Mr. ROBERT MACADAM, of Gorsty Hill Dairy, Crewe, who is the father of our host: In describing the process of cheese-making, it is necessary to keep in view some definite size of dairy; and for this reason, we will allude in the present section to one making cheese from the milk of 60 cows. As detailed in the paragraph on the morning's operations, the evening's milk having cooled down to 62°, is lifted and sieved into the cheese tub, and the morning's milk added to it, as it comes from the cow-house. If the temperature of the milk, when thus mixed, be under 78°, it must be raised to that degree of warmth, as from 78° to 80° is the best temperature at which milk can be set for coagulation. This may be effected either by warming a portion of the milk among hot water to any temperature not above 150°, or, when the cheese-tub is double-bottomed, by introducing a jet of steam, or allowing the hot water to circulate. The quantity of milk in the cheese-tub being one hundred and sixty-five gallons, the requisite quantity of annotto is now added, and carefully mixed, to produce a rich straw or cowslip color. Five quarts of sour whey being added, and a quantity of rennet sufficient to coagulate the mass of milk in sixty minutes, the whole is gently stirred and completely mixed, covered over with a clean cloth, and allowed to stand for coagulation. After the milk has stood for fifteen minutes, the top or surface should be gently stirred, to prevent the cream from ascending, and this must be repeated if the curd is long in beginning to form. Hence it is preferable that the coagulation should be completed in from fifty to sixty minutes, as otherwise a waste of richness is likely to ensue. When the cream shows a decided tendency to rise to the surface, it is advisable to skim it off, previous to lifting the evening's milk, and warm it to a temperature of 95°, as this prevents it from ascending, and causes it to amalgamate more completely with the mass of milk set for coagulation. In stirring the milk to prevent the cream from ascending, the strictest attention should be observed to abstain from doing so if the slightest degree of coagulation is perceived. As soon as the curd has acquired a moderate degree of firmness, the operation of breaking-up should be at once commenced, and must be performed carefully, gently and minutely. This may be accomplished by one person in about thirty minutes, when the revolving knife breaker is employed, or by two persons in about the same time, when the shovel or wire-breakers are used. Before this operation is finished, a quantity of whey must be taken from the cheese-tub, heated to 150°, and again poured upon the mass, stirring being actively kept up beneath the stream, to prevent any portion of the curd from being scalded. The quantity thus heated must be sufficient to raise the temperature of the contents of the cheese-tub to 80°, and the whole must be carefully and completely mixed. The addition of warm whey raises the temperature, and consequently hastens the separation of the whey from the curd, and assists in promoting the necessary acidity. [If, however, the presence of acidity can be detected by the smell or taste, no warm whey should be used at this stage of the process.] The curd being broken to a sufficient degree of fineness, it is allowed to remain undisturbed for one hour, except when the acid exists in too great a degree, in which case it should only stand during the time occupied by warming the whey for scalding. The whey-separator is then inserted, and the liquid allowed to run off until the surface of the curd appears among the whey, after which the separator is taken out, and the curd properly broken up with the shovel-breaker. But before breaking up the curd, a quantity of whey should be heated to 150°, for the purpose of scalding it. One person pours a portion of this hot whey over the curd, while another stirs actively beneath the stream with a shovel-breaker. The hot whey is poured cautiously over the mass at intervals, and the stirring is kept up gently but briskly, until the temperature is raised gradually to 98° or 100° Fah. The stirring is continued, and the temperature maintained, until the curd acquires a certain degree of firmness and consistency, which it is difficult to describe, but which the intelligent cheese-maker soon learns to recognize by its appearance, and by its peculiarly elastic feel when handled. It is therefore of the utmost importance to possess the discrimination and tact necessary for discerning when the proper degree of firmness and consistency has been attained. When the curd is sufficiently "cooked," it is in small granular particles, firm and elastic to the touch, and when a portion is taken in the hand and squeezed, it does not readily adhere, but separates into particles. The stirring must be continued till this peculiar consistency is attained, without any regard to the length of time, but should on no account be farther prolonged, because the cheese will then have a tendency to be hard and stiff, and will require a longer time to mature in the cheese-room. The length of time required for stirring varies according to the previous condition of the milk, being from twenty to thirty minutes when the acid exists in a sufficient degree, or even double that time when the natural process of change in the milk has been slow. This process of saturating the curd with heated whey has the effect of completely separating the solid and fluid parts, the only moisture left being that which adheres to the particles, and which comes away under pressure. But when the temperature is raised in this manner, or by heat from the bottom of the cheese-tub, the utmost care is necessary to keep the curd from being over-scalded, as, when the temperature is too suddenly raised, part of buttraceous matter may be lost, and the small pulpy particles get skinned over, inclosing a quantity of the whey, which it is extremely difficult again to separate. If the milk has been in proper condition to begin with, and the process carried on in the manner thus detailed, the curd will retain all the natural richness of the milk, and the cheese produced will have that rich creamy taste and sweet milky flavor, something like the odor of new milk, known as the _Cheddar flavor_. When the curd is raised (in the manner described above) to the natural heat of the milk (98°,) or only one or two degrees above it, all the butter is retained and fixed in the curd; for although subjected even at first to a pressure of half a ton, little or no trace of butter will appear. This is unquestionably a more rational and far superior method of separating the whey from the curd than that of heating beside a fire or in a furnace, with its attendant skewerings and changings. The next step in the continuation of the process is to insert the separator, after the curd has been allowed to remain undisturbed in the scald for the space of thirty minutes. After the whey is run off, the curd is thrown up into a heap in the center of the cheese-tub, covered over with a clean cheese-cloth, and the whey allowed to drain away from it for another half-hour. At the end of that time the curd is cut across, turned over in square lumps, heaped up, covered as before, and then allowed to lie for half an hour longer. The curd is then taken from the cheese-tub, laid upon a cooler, split by the hand into thin flakes, and spread out to cool. The curd at this stage has a distinctly acid smell; it is slightly sour, and by no means palatable; and its taste and appearance are such as would lead a novice to think it unlikely to produce a fine cheese. When the curd has been exposed on the cooler for fifteen minutes, it is turned over, and allowed to lie for the same length of time. It is then packed into a cheese-vat, having a clean cloth under it, placed under the press for the space of ten minutes, and subjected to a pressure of half a ton. When taken out, it is ground in the mill, weighed, and returned to the cooler, and if the acid is sufficiently developed, it should be at once salted, cooled down to about 65°, and placed under pressure. The purest refined salt should be used, and should be weighed and carefully mixed with the mass, one pound of salt being sufficient for fifty-six pounds of curd. When the acid is found to be insufficiently developed in the previous stages of the process, the curd is allowed to lie unsalted, and is stirred up occasionally, until the necessary degree of acidity is acquired. The curd is then finally put into the cheese-vat, and at once put under pressure, at first under a weight of five or six cwt. The cheese is taken out of the press in the evening, and a clean cloth put upon it, and being turned in the vat, is subjected to a pressure of half a ton. Next morning, it is again taken out, wrapped in a dry cloth, reversed in the vat, and returned into the press with four cwt. additional pressure placed upon it. On the following morning it receives its third and last cloth, and when placed in the press, is now subjected to the pressure of 18 cwt. In the evening, it is once more removed from the press, gets a calico cap neatly stitched upon it, is reversed in the vat, placed under a pressure of one ton till the following morning, and is then finally taken from the press. The cheese is then tightly bandaged to preserve its proper shape, and being ticketed with its date and number, is carried to the cheese-room, where it must be turned every day until fully ripe for market. Cheeses may always be in the store-room in seventy-two hours after they are first put into the press, and, indeed, they might be placed there much earlier; only to insure consolidation, it is preferable to maintain the pressure during the time specified. A diary or register should be kept, into which the date and number of each cheese should be formally entered, together with such remarks as may be needful and proper concerning the condition of the milk, and the peculiarities of the curd, &c. The cheese-maker, when testing the quality of any cheese after it is ripe, may learn from the register the precise conditions of its manufacture, and will thus be assisted in attaining that degree of excellence which was laid down in the beginning of this work as a proper standard or quality.[A] It will also be found highly useful to note down many similar facts, such as the various yields of milk at particular seasons, and from different kinds of pasture or house-feeding, as the practice will not only give wide views of the subject, and correct information regarding it, but will also tend greatly to foster accurate and business-like habits. It is necessary to state distinctly the mode of procedure best adapted for this contingency because the over-acidity of milk when not detected and duly attended to in the process, produces a corresponding blemish in the cheese. In very warm weather, when the temperature of the evening's milk stands in the morning as high as 70° or upwards, every part of the process described in the previous section must be hastened. The curd is broken more speedily than usual, and whey is taken off as soon as possible, and quickly warmed for scalding. When the operation of breaking is concluded, an interval of only five minutes is allowed before the whey is run off. Scalding is then proceeded with, but, under these circumstances, the curd and whey should only be raised to the temperature of 98°. When the proper degree of firmness has been attained by stirring, the rest of the whey is run off after another interval of five minutes, and when the curd is heaped up, ten minutes only are allowed to elapse before it is cut across and turned over. At the end of other ten minutes, it is laid upon the cooler, in five minutes more it is turned over, and at the end of other five it is put into the vat and under the press. Having been subjected to pressure for five minutes, the curd is taken out, ground in the mill, put back into the cooler, and salted. It is then stirred up to cool, until the temperature of the mass is reduced to 65°, when it is placed in the vat, and subjected to the ordinary routine of pressure. It may be stated, in illustration of the time occupied by these operations, that if the curd be ready for breaking at eight o'clock, it may be milled and salted by eleven. By expeditiously conducting every stage of the process, excellent cheeses may be produced, even at the above temperature; but when the ordinary time is allowed to elapse before the curd is "cooked" and salted, the cheeses will likely be sour. These rules and statements are based on the safe ground of personal experience, for in a very warm season we have made upwards of forty tons of cheese without one being sour. In these days of dispatch and outward display, when men seek so eagerly for the shortest and easiest ways of doing things, some will doubtless be found to carp at the minuteness and extent of the foregoing details, and at the repeated injunction to strive after a clear and intelligent conception of the principles on which this branch of industry is founded. And many more, whose past experience has been little else than a slothful compliance with false rules and prejudices, may, perhaps, censure the system as too abstruse and complicated. But all such objections are refuted by the simple fact that no common product, made from raw material universally the same, varies more in quality and value than cheese, from the one cause of difference in the skill with which it is made. To attain to excellence in cheese-making, it is absolutely necessary that the hand and the head should work together. The Cheddar process, as carried on at Spring Creek factory, is an adaptation of the foregoing to American apparatus and implements, with other variations. The milk is set in the usual manner, and at the usual temperature--say, 82° to 84°. It is cut in the usual manner, and gradually heated up to 98°. Then the whole is allowed to stand, with occasional stirring, until the whey is perceptibly acid. The day we were there, we found the curd in the whey, and as much changed as is generally considered by Americans sufficient for dipping and salting. But as soon as a slight change is perceptible--indeed, as soon as any one of the hands fancies it is changed--the whey is drawn off. If the whey should still be sweet and the curd soft, there is no harm in drawing off the whey. Then one end of the vat is raised, the curd is poked away from the lower end, and the whey is allowed to drain out. If the curd is quite soft, the further separation of the whey is facilitated by cross-cuttings with a large butcher or groceryman's cheese-knife. If it is well "cooked," this is not necessary. At the expiration of half an hour or so--provided the whey is not rapidly taking on acid, in which case, at the expiration of five, ten, or fifteen minutes, according to condition--the curd is cut into pieces six or eight inches square, with the knife just mentioned; these pieces are split laterally through the middle with the knife; the top and bottom surfaces are put together, and the whole piled up along the sides of the vat. The object of this operation is to get the cool surfaces into the middle, to be influenced by the heat, and to give the already heated center contact with the atmosphere. In a little while, the bottom pieces are piled on top. The cutting and splitting operation may be repeated at intervals of twenty or thirty minutes until the whey that runs from the curd has much the taste of sour milk just before it begins to lopper. The whey looks white and rich, and is really so; but it is claimed, that there is not as much waste as is caused by keeping the curd in the whey and stirring it, when the butter and cheese that escape are so diluted as not to be noticed. When the whey draining from the curd has a decided sour-milk taste, the accumulation is removed, the curd mill is set on the end of the vat, and the large square pieces of curd thrown into the hopper and run through. The mill tears them into pieces varying in size from that of a kernel of corn to a butternut. When ground, two pounds and an eighth of salt are sprinkled over the curd and stirred in. (Considering the dry state of curd, this is really heavy salting--heavier than three pounds thrown on the dripping curd, in the usual manner.) The salting done, the curd is allowed to stand, with occasional stirring, as long as convenient--indeed, the longer the better. It will take no harm after being salted; and if a curd is at all tainted, or is made of sour-milk, and is rather soft, it should be allowed to stand as long as possible, and permit the hands to get it to press and ready to bandage the same afternoon or evening. This is the simple process, as we saw it at Spring Creek factory. The pressing and curing are not essentially different from the common methods. Thorough pressing, however, is considered essential; and so is an equable temperature in the drying room--which, by the way, Mr. MACADAM did not have the advantage of, as the building was erected on economical principles, with a very primitive but thorough system of ventilation--not under his direction or supervision, however. With sour-milk, Mr. MACADAM hastens every stage of the process, up to the time of salting. When the requisite degree of acid is developed, even though the heat may not have gone above 90°, and the curd is very soft, the whey is drawn off, and the curd repeatedly cut into small squares with a knife, to facilitate the separation of the whey. The curd is ground, and the salt thrown on--in less quantity--when the whey that drains off has the proper sour milk taste. It is then allowed to stand in the vat, and drain and harden, as long as the work of the factory will permit. If it can remain a couple of days in the press, it is an advantage. The curds prepared in the manner we have been describing for good milk, does not have a very promising look to an American cheese-maker. It is tough and stringy, and quite elastic. At least, such was the appearance of the curd which we saw. It is proper to state, however, that it was made of tainted milk, and the taint was quite marked in the curd. This, Mr. MACADAM told us, was the condition of most of the milk and curds for some weeks past in that factory; yet, the taint did not show in the cheese on the ranges, except in a few instances where the curd had been salted a little too sweet, as he thought. The great secret of his success, he seemed to think, was in getting rid of the whey early, in allowing a good deal of acid to develop, especially in tainted curds, in airing the curds and allowing the gases to escape, and in salting well. Mr. MACADAM'S cheese, as a general thing, tried splendidly. It was firm, flaky, buttery and fine-flavored. His opinion is, that American cheese is, as a general rule, salted too sweet and too low, for the purpose of having it cure quick for market; but it lacks good keeping qualities, and verifies the old adage, "Soon ripe, soon rotten." It is hard to overcome this desire for quick returns; but he would recommend those who wish to improve American cheese, to sour rather more, salt a little more, and color a little less--as little as the market will allow--as coloring is believed to be positively injurious to quality. The _tendency_ should be in these directions, in order to make a slower curing, better keeping and better flavored article. But, it must be borne in mind, that Mr. MACADAM has in view his own process of manufacture, and that allowances must be made for different modes. Let each be ready to receive hints, make his own experiments, and abide by his own decisions. FOOTNOTE: [A] "A good cheese is rich, without being greasy, with a sweet, nutty flavor; clear, equal color throughout; of a compact, solid texture, without being waxy; firm, yet melting easily in the mouth, and leaving no rough flavor on the palate." ADVERTISEMENTS Utica Morning Herald BOOK AND JOB PRINTING ESTABLISHMENT, No. 60 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y., Possesses EXTENSIVE MODERN FACILITIES for all kinds of LETTER PRESS PRINTING, And increased attention will be paid to this department, under the direction of R. W. ROBERTS. NEW STYLES OF TYPE, BORDERS, &C., are provided as they appear in the Eastern cities, and the Long Established Reputation of the office will be maintained, for THE BEST WORK AT THE LOWEST PRICES. MANUFACTURERS, LAWYERS, AND BUSINESS MEN, Will have their orders carefully and intelligently filled. ELLIS H. ROBERTS, Proprietor. Utica Morning Herald AND DAILY GAZETTE, NINE DOLLARS A YEAR IN ADVANCE, contains more reading matter than any other daily published in Central New York, including the Fullest and Latest TELEGRAPHIC REPORTS, CORRESPONDENCE From the State and National Capitals, and elsewhere, while especial attention is bestowed on LOCAL AND GENERAL NEWS, and a high Literary Standard is aimed at. An AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT is well maintained especially designed for the Dairymen and Farmers of the Central and Northern Counties. The UTICA HERALD has by far the largest circulation in the City, and its AGGREGATE CIRCULATION IS OVER 12,000. ADVERTISE IN IT. THE DAIRYMEN'S PAPER! THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD has, since the first organization of the Dairymen's Association, reported promptly and fully all of its proceedings and never more fully and satisfactorily than the addresses and debates before the Convention held in Utica in January, 1870. The UTICA HERALD also devotes especial attention to everything connected with the dairy interest; to Diseases of Cattle and their Cure; The Manufacture of Butter and Cheese, and to all Improved Processes and Apparatus. The weekly edition every Tuesday contains the report of the LITTLE FALLS MARKET OF THE PREVIOUS DAY. The UTICA HERALD has made the dairy interest a specialty, and in its weekly edition devotes to it More Space and Attention than any other Paper in the Country. At the same time, the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD aims to be in all respects a FIRST-CLASS FAMILY PAPER. Its Editorial Articles are accepted and recognized as fitly speaking the Union sentiment, the intelligent convictions, and the thoughtful aspirations of the million of people which it represents. The UTICA HERALD, in its weekly as well as its morning edition, is pre-eminently A NEWSPAPER. By thorough classification and elaborate condensation it presents the gist of all the news in the briefest space, and the person who reads no other journal, will not be ignorant of the current of events, and the movement of men and principles. THE CORRESPONDENCE weekly published in our columns, from Washington, New York, Albany and elsewhere, is not inferior in literary or political interest to that of any other journal in the country. THE LITERARY DEPARTMENT will receive during the coming year, increased attention, and we trust will deserve in even a higher degree than heretofore the encomiums which have been bestowed upon it. ADVERTISE IN IT. Manufacturers and merchants wishing to reach dairymen and producers of butter and cheese, can do so in no other way so readily and so cheaply, as through the columns of the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD. THE TERMS. The UTICA WEEKLY HERALD is published at the low price of TWO DOLLARS A YEAR. Payment is required in advance. Taking into account the size and character of the paper--its political, news, literary and agricultural merits--it is believed that this is THE CHEAPEST PAPER PUBLISHED. Now is the time to form clubs. Let the circulation be doubled during the current year. _Address, UTICA HERALD_, 60 Genesee Street, Utica, N. Y. BOOK BINDING! THE OLD ESTABLISHED BOOK BINDERY, No. 60 GENESEE ST., UTICA, N. Y., (_Morning Herald Block_,) Has all the facilities for BINDING BOOKS, new and old, in as good style, and at as low prices as can be obtained anywhere in New York or elsewhere. Many families may gather a respectable library by gathering up their Magazines, Newspapers, and other Serials, And we are prepared to bind in any desirable style ATLANTIC MAGAZINE, HARPER'S MAGAZINE, KNICKERBOCKER MAGAZINE, GRAHAM'S MAGAZINE, PETERSON'S MAGAZINE, HOME MAGAZINE, LESLIE'S MAGAZINE, BALLOU'S MAGAZINE, LADY'S BOOK, MUSIC, LIBRARY BOOKS, LAW BOOKS, LESLIE'S PICTORIAL, HARPER'S PICTORIAL, BALLOU'S PICTORIAL, ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, SPENCER'S HISTORY OF UNITED STATES, TALLIS'S SHAKESPEARE, JOHNSON'S SHAKESPEARE, BOYDELL'S SHAKESPEARE, IRVING'S WASHINGTON, LOSSING'S WASHINGTON, SCRIPTURE HISTORY, LIFE OF CHRIST, HARPER'S BIBLE, BROWN'S BIBLE, FLETCHER'S BIBLE, VIRTUE'S BIBLE, DOUAY BIBLE, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, HINTON'S HISTORY OF UNITED STATES, And all newspapers, whether great or small, as well as collections of Pamphlets, Manuscripts, or whatever else is worthy of preservation. Books will be bound in any style to suit the taste of our customers in Full Turkey Gilt, Full Calf, Antique Finished, Half Calf, or Half Turkey, or in Full Sheep, Full or Half Cloth, with Edges Gilt, Marbled, or Sprinkled, as may be desired. Books sent by express or otherwise, will receive prompt attention. Good Workmanship and Reasonable Prices warranted. The Largest Fancy Goods House IN CENTRAL NEW YORK, W. M. STORRS, 71 Genesee Street, Utica, --DEALER IN-- FOREIGN & DOMESTIC FANCY GOODS, Shot Guns, Rifles, Revolvers, Cartridges, Ammunition, Fishing Tackle and Sporting Apparatus of every Description. Wooden & Willow Ware, HOUSE-KEEPING GOODS, Farm Baskets, Pails, Churns, &c., &c. CALL AND SEE MY IMMENSE STOCK. W. M. STORRS, UTICA, N. Y. READY-MADE CLOTHING! Every farmer in this and adjoining counties will find it to his advantage to purchase his Clothing of C. A. YATES & CO., AT THE MARBLE BLOCK CLOTHING STORE. We pay particular attention to the quality of the Cloth, have every garment substantially made, and guarantee durability. We also keep the LARGEST STOCK OF CLOTHING in this section of the country, and can therefore give the advantage of an immense variety. Our prices will at all times be the lowest in the market, and goods will be freely shown, whether for the purpose of buying at the time or at some future time. We therefore _invite all to call and see our store and stock, and to learn our prices_. Particular attention paid to Youth's and Boys' Clothing. The most extensive assortment in the county can be found at our store. When in search of Clothing, _Look for the Marble Block_, No. 54 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y. C. A. YATES & CO. AMERICAN BUTTON HOLE, OVERSEAMING AND SEWING MACHINE. The cheapest as well as the best, since it combines a Button Hole, Overseaming and Sewing Machine, in one simple form, making either the Lock Stitch or Button Hole Stitch, as occasion may require; doing every variety of sewing in a SUPERIOR MANNER, and in addition works a most perfect Button Hole and Overseams nicely. Received a _First Premium_ at the New York State Fair, and numerous other Fairs throughout the United States and Canada. [Illustration: LAMB KNITTING MACHINE] Knits Hosiery of all sizes. _Sets up its own work._ Knits the Heel and narrows off the Toe, and knits a pair of socks in thirty minutes. The _only_ Knitting Machine in the world that can shape a stocking the same as can be done when knit by hand. Will make four distinct webs, thus enabling the operator to do a great variety of FANCY WORK. For samples of work, and circulars of both Sewing Machine and Knitting Machine, address, H. J. HILLIARD, (BUTTERFIELD HOUSE.) 205 Genesee St., Utica. HOWES & CLARK, Real Estate Brokers, 178 GENESEE STREET, Z. M. HOWES,} UTICA, N. Y. B. A. CLARK.} Agents for Sale, Purchase, Leasing, Care, and Management of Real Estate. Mortgages Negotiated and Investments Made. FIRE, LIFE AND ACCIDENTAL INSURANCE IN FIRST CLASS COMPANIES. _Deeds, Mortgages and Leases Drawn and Executed._ The Best Dairy Paper! At a recent meeting of the Farmers' Club, of the American Institute, in New York City, a correspondent asked for "The Best Paper IN THIS COUNTRY DEVOTED TO THE DAIRY INTEREST?" Mr. F. D. CURTIS, Vice President of the STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, answered, and it went on record as the SENTIMENT OF THE CLUB: "THE UTICA HERALD." THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD IS ONLY TWO DOLLARS A YEAR, IN ADVANCE. [Illustration: WOOD & MANN STEAM ENGINE CO.,] PORTABLE STEAM ENGINES, From 4 to 20 Horse Power. STATIONARY ENGINES, From 4 to 500 Horse Power. BOILERS OF ALL KINDS, CIRCULAR SAW MILLS, &C. Boilers Especially Adapted to Cheese Factories On Hand or Furnished on Short Notice. Having one of the Oldest, Largest and Most Complete Works in the United States, especially adapted to the manufacture of Engines, Boilers, Saw Mills, &c., we are able to furnish them, built of the very best materials, and at the lowest prices at which work in any way equal, can be obtained. Prices furnished on application. Wood & Mann Steam Engine Co., UTICA, N. Y. WILLIAM RALPH & CO., 173 & 175 Genesee St., WM. RALPH, } UTICA, N. Y. JOHN CARTON.} MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN CHEESE-FACTORY AND FARM Dairy Apparatus, TOOLS, IMPLEMENTS AND FURNISHING GOODS, SUCH AS CHEESE VATS FOR FACTORIES, CHEESE VATS FOR DAIRIES, FACTORY WARMING AND VENTILATING APPARATUS, WATER-HEATERS, WEIGHING CANS, CARRYING CANS, CHEESE PRESSES, PRESS SCREWS, WOOD PRESS HOOPS, METALLIC PRESS HOOPS, MILK AGITATORS, "AMERICAN" CURD MILL, CURD AGITATORS, LACTOMETERS, MILK TEST GLASSES, CREAM GAUGES, THERMOMETERS, STEEL CURD KNIVES, DRAINING SINKS, MILK CONDUCTORS, PLATFORM SCALES, IMPROVED TIN MILK PAILS, DAIRY PAILS, DAIRY DIPPERS, CURD SCOOPS, WHEY STRAINERS, RENNET JARS, PATENT MILK CAN HANDLES, STENCIL PLATES, FACTORY MILK BOOKS, ANNOTTA, SCALE BOARDS, CHEESE BANDAGE, RENNETS, MILK, WATER AND WHEY FAUCETS, SINK CASTORS, CHEESE HOOPS, HANDLES, &c., &c. All articles in our line are of the best kinds and most approved patterns, and our prices as low as first class goods can be furnished. Plans, Estimates, &c., for Cheese-Factories and Dairies, together with other information pertaining thereto, will be cheerfully furnished to parties interested, on application. RALPH'S ONEIDA CHEESE VATS For Cheese Factories & Farm Dairies. ADAPTED TO ALL CLASSES, HOWEVER LARGE OR SMALL. (_See cut of 600 gallon, factory size, on cover._) This Cheese Vat is constantly growing in favor as its merits become known; it is now used in about 500 Cheese Factories and 1400 Dairies. From its construction and principle of operation--differing essentially from all others,--a larger amount of cheese from a given amount of milk can be made with it, with a much less consumption of fuel and labor. By it _the heat is perfectly controllable, and distributed absolutely equal in every part_, except that there is a slightly less amount at the bottom of the Milk Vat; this is effected by the "EQUALIZER"--which is not used in any other apparatus,--and is an advantage duly appreciated by all good cheese-makers. These Vats are complete and ready for use on attaching smoke pipe, involving the use of _no steam-boiler or pipes, brick arches or other expensive appertenance_; are quite simple in arrangement, strong and durable in construction. _Send for Descriptive Circular and Price List._ WM. RALPH & CO., UTICA, N. Y. CHEESE FACTORY WARMING & VENTILATING APPARATUS. WE WOULD INVITE ATTENTION TO THIS ARTICLE: It is admirably adapted to securing a proper condition of the atmosphere in the curing-room to facilitate the curing of the cheese, particularly in cool and damp weather, in spring and fall, giving A Soft Genial Temperature Throughout the Building, favorable to a rapid and proper ripening of the cheese; there being no more heat near the heater than in remote parts of the room. By a suitable inlet and ventiducts, air from the outside may be conducted to the heater and from thence distributed to all parts of the curing-room, expelling the old and perhaps tainted air from the building. For further information address, WM. RALPH & CO., UTICA, N. Y. JONES & FAULKNER'S Dairy Furnishing Store, No. 141 GENESEE STREET, UTICA, N. Y. We beg leave to call your attention to our stock of Dairy Furnishing Goods, being the only complete assortment in this line to be found in the United States. Believing we can make it an object for you to purchase of us, we earnestly solicit your patronage. We shall issue our Price List about the 1st of March. Those sending their names to us, will receive a copy of the same by mail. CHEESE VATS. WE SELL Ralph's and O'Neil's Patent Vats, Bagg's, Miller's, and Schermerhorn's Patent Heaters, at Manufacturers' prices. HOOPS. ALL SIZES. Improved Hard Wood, Extra Hooped with Iron, Welded and Riveted Bands, and Malleable Handles, also Galvanized Hoops. SCREWS. ALL STYLES AND SIZES. Wrought Iron, and of superior manufacture. BANDAGE. ALL WIDTHS. 26, 28, 34, 36, 38 and 40 inch, Bleached and Unbleached. Linen Strainer and Linen and Cotton Press and Cap Cloth, also Bleached and Brown Sheetings. STONE RENNET JARS. Sizes 8, 10, 12, 15 and 20 gallons. WEIGH and CARRYING CANS. ALL SIZES. With Patent Bottoms, and extra heavy Tin. Burnap's Concave Can Bottoms and Convex Tops, best thing made. DAIRY KNIVES. Young's celebrated Two Edged, Cast Steel, best in use, all sizes, with Perpendicular and Horizontal Blades. ANNOTTO. Common, Medium, and Extra Fine, also Liquid Annato. RENNETS. _American and Imported, of superior quality and strength._ MISCELLANEOUS. Factory Account Books, all Sizes. Curd Scoops, wood and tin. Rubber and Tin Syphons and Strainers. Rubber Mops and Aprons. Improved Per Cent. Lactometers. Alkali and Spirit Meters. Legal Instruments for detecting impurities in Milk. Glass Test Tubes. Cheese and Butter Tryers. Indelible Marking Paste, red, blue and black. Stencil Plates and Brushes. Factory Brands. Factory Slates. Factory Soldering Irons. Weigh Can Gates, 3 in. Dairy Dippers. Milk and Hot Water Faucets, all sizes. Conductor Heads. Scale Boards, all sizes. Wood, Iron and Lead Water Pipes and Steam Pipes. Curd Sink Castors. McAdams' English Curd Mills. Platform Scales. Potash and Concentrated Lye. New Style Brass Thermometers. Finally, every article used by Cheese Factory and Dairymen, pertaining to the manufacture of Cheese. We also sell the Annual Reports of the American Dairymen's Association, and McAdams' explanation of the Cheddar System. Factorymen wishing Cheese-Makers, will do well to apply to us, as we have a list of First Class Makers desiring situations. Cheese-Makers who are competent, and can give satisfactory references, may do well to make application to us. Goods ordered from us will be carefully packed and shipped as directed to any part of the World. JONES & FAULKNER, No. 141 GENESEE STREET, UTICA, N. Y. GREAT REDUCTION IN THE PRICE OF CLOTHING! Some of the BARGAINS to be found at the GREAT WARDROBE. CALL AND INSPECT THEM. BLACK BROADCLOTH FROCKCOATS, Only Seven Dollars. HEAVY BLACK DOESKIN PANTS, Only Four Dollars. FINE BLACK DOESKIN VESTS, Only Two Dollars and Fifty Cents. HEAVY STOUT PANTS, (BLACK OR MIXED,) Only Three Dollars. HEAVY MOSCOW BEAVER OVERCOATS, Only Fifteen Dollars. HEAVY AND WARM OVERCOATS, Only Six Dollars and Fifty Cents. GOOD ALL WOOL OVERCOATS, Only Seven Dollars. HEAVY ALL WOOL SACKCOATS, Only Six Dollars. A LARGE STOCK OF BOYS' CLOTHING, A Good Share at Cost, and part Less than Cost. A Splendid Assortment of FURNISHING GOODS, Cheaper than at any other Store. The New and Elegant "IRVING" PAPER COLLAR, Only Ten Cents per Box. FINE LINEN COLLARS, Only One Dollar and Fifty Cents per Dozen. GOOD WHITE SHIRTS, Only One Dollar Each. QUAKER CITY FINE SHIRTS, the Best Shirts in the United States. Those Made from New York Mills Muslin, Only Three Dollars Each. From Wamsutta Muslin, Only Two Dollars and Seventy-five Cents. Lower Grades of the same make, at Two Dollars and Fifty Cents and Two Dollars Each. Don't Fail to Examine these Shirts--It may be an Advantage to You. FINE WHITE WRAPPERS AND DRAWERS, Only One Dollar Each. HEAVY MIXED WRAPPERS AND DRAWERS, Only Fifty Cents Each. CALL AT THE GREAT WARDROBE THE MODEL CLOTHING STORE, 110 & 112 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y. CHARLES C. KINGSLEY. Agents for the Double Warp Royal Standard Alpacas. We Make a Specialty of Flannels and Blankets. [Illustration] AGENTS FOR MATIER & CO., OF BELFAST, LINEN MANUFACTURERS. Agents for Williston's Combed Sea Island Machine Thread. V. B. STEWART & CO., Manufacturers of and Dealers in CLOAKS, DRY & FANCY GOODS, Silks, Shawls, Dress Goods, Cloakings, CARPETS, OIL CLOTHS, MATS, &c., Nos. 166 & 168 Genesee Street, Utica, N. Y. CHAMBERLAIN & CUSHMAN, --GENERAL AGENTS FOR THE-- Singer's Sewing Machines --AND-- BICKFORD FAMILY KNITTING MACHINE, FOR THE COUNTIES OF Chenango, Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Oneida, Otsego and St. Lawrence. 113 GENESEE ST., UTICA, N. Y. The Celebrated Singer Family Sewing Machine, one of the oldest and most reliable Sewing Machines in use. It has been very much improved in the past year, making it the most quiet and easiest running shuttle machine now in use. It is adapted to a greater range of work than any other one machine, sewing from the finest tuck in Tarliton to a heavy Beaver coat. Its Attachments for Hemming, Braiding, Cording, Tucking, Quilting, Felling, Trimming, Binding, Ruffling and Embroidering, are novel and practical, and have been invented and adjusted especially for this Machine. There is now nearly 400,000 in use. There is now being made and sold over 4,000 machines each week, which is one of its best recommendations over other machines. It is perfectly simple and easy to learn. Don't fail to see one before purchasing a machine. THE BICKFORD KNITTING MACHINE Will Knit 15,000 stitches or 18 inches of Perfect Work in a Minute. Socks complete and whole with double heel and toe. Strips from 1 to 12 inches wide, with selvedge on each edge. Fringe of any length, Cord of any size, and Tufting of any style. PRICE 30 DOLLARS. TAYLOR & CO.'S Jewelry Establishment, 70 GENESEE ST., UTICA, N. Y. AMERICAN WATCHES, COMPRISING THE [Illustration] HOWARD WATCH, WALTHAM WATCH, ELGIN WATCH, UNITED STATES WATCH, ALL AT FACTORY PRICES, In Gold and Silver Cases. In SOLID SILVER WARE, of Gorham Manufacture, and in FINE SILVER PLATED WARE, of Rogers & Bros. make, we have a great variety of the very best patterns. In ELEGANT JEWELRY we have the newest and most desirable patterns, consisting of Gold Chains, Sets--Pins and Ear-Rings, Finger-Rings, Lockets, Bracelets, Sleeve-Buttons, Studs, &c., &c. Purchasers of any articles in our line are invited to give us a call. All goods warranted. W. S. TAYLOR & CO., 70 Genesee St. THE GENUINE OR, Elias Howe Sewing Machine. [Illustration: THIS MEDALLION IS EMBEDDED IN EVERY GENUINE HOWE SEWING MACHINE] Hemmer, Feller, Binder, Braider, Quilter, Self-Baster, Corder, (adjustable foot,) Embroidery Attachment, and Gage. SOLD ONLY AT 87 GENESEE ST., UTICA. OVERTON & BUCKINGHAM, Agents. N. B.--None genuine without the Trade Mark, (Medallion Profile of ELIAS HOWE, Jr.,) is imbedded in the Machine. This is the GENUINE HOWE. Prof. "ELIAS HOWE, Jr., the inventor, has +The Exclusive Right to Make and Sell this Machine+." Decision, Judge INGRAHAM--May, 1867. _Awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, the Grand Gold Medal and a Silver Medal, Paris Exposition, 1867; the Grand Gold Medal, London, 1862; Six First Premiums, N. Y. State Fair, 1867, on Machine and Samples of Work._ Also, the following STATE FAIRS of 1868, have awarded this Machine the FIRST PREMIUM: New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts. Vermont, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Indiana. At the County Fairs of Madison, Onondaga, Oswego, Wayne, Orleans, Tompkins, Seneca, Monroe, Herkimer, Schuyler, Livingston and a host of others, and Town Fairs too numerous to mention. _Agents for the NEW WILLISTON THREAD, made of Combed Sea Island Cotton._ PECKHAM'S POPULAR COOKING STOVE. [Illustration: P.P.C.] A New Strictly First Class Cooking Stove, _FOR COAL AND WOOD_. Unequalled and Warranted IN EVERY RESPECT. The Success and Superiority of this new Stove is Established beyond a doubt. For its Economy of Fuel, Spacious Ovens, Splendid Baking Qualities, Facilities for Keeping Fire for great length of time, Extra Weight and Quality of Castings, and Superior Fitting of the Joints. New Patent Movable Reservoir, New Patent Sectional Fire-Plate, New Patent Sad Iron Heater, New Patent Roaster. _All Valuable Improvements._ Call and Examine the Stoves and get Circulars with Testimonials. MANUFACTURED AND SOLD BY J. S. & M. PECKHAM, 20 Catharine St., Utica, N. Y. PECKHAM'S NEW PATTERN Agricultural Furnace & Boiler, [Illustration] Warranted to Boil with Less Fuel and in Less Time than any Boiler Made. This Furnace is used to great advantage by _Cheese-Makers, Farmers, Butchers, Bakers and Hotel Keepers_, and for various other Manufacturing and Mechanical purposes. The Flues of this Boiler are so constructed that the whole surface of the Caldron is heated at the same time. They are portable, and require only a few lengths of pipe to fit them for use, and possess great advantages over Caldron Kettles set in brick. J. S. & M. PECKHAM, Sole Manufacturers, Utica, N. Y. THE PREMIUM HARVESTER OF AMERICA. [Illustration: ON THE ROAD.] THE ORIGINAL AND ONLY PREMIUM BUCKEYE MOWER AND COMBINED SELF-RAKING REAPER. Awarded the _Highest_ Premium both in _Mowing and Self-Raking_, at the most important field trials ever held in _any_ country. Over 125,000 now in use. 30,000 sold in a single season. MANUFACTURED BY ADRIANCE, PLATT & CO., FOR J. M. CHILDS & CO., UTICA, N. Y. Office, 121 Genesee Street. Circulars forwarded by mail. HINTS ON CHEESE-MAKING, FOR THE Dairyman, the Factoryman, AND THE MANUFACTURER. BY T. D. CURTIS. UTICA, N. Y. ROBERTS, PRINTER, MORNING HERALD ESTABLISHMENT. 1870. THE BEST DAIRY PAPER! At a recent meeting of the Farmers' Club, of the American Institute, in New York City, a correspondent asked for "THE BEST PAPER IN THIS COUNTRY DEVOTED TO THE DAIRY INTEREST?" Mr. F. D. CURTIS, Vice-President of the _State Agricultural Society_, answered, and it went on record as the SENTIMENT OF THE CLUB: "THE UTICA HERALD." THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD Is Only Two Dollars a Year, in advance. THE DAIRYMEN'S PAPER! THE UTICA WEEKLY HERALD has, since the first organization of the Dairymen's Association, reported promptly and fully all of its proceedings and never more fully and satisfactorily than the addresses and debates before the Convention held in Utica in January, 1870. The UTICA HERALD also devotes especial attention to everything connected with the dairy interest; to Diseases of Cattle and their Cure; The Manufacture of Butter and Cheese, and to all Improved Processes and Apparatus. The weekly edition every Tuesday contains the report of the LITTLE FALLS MARKET OF THE PREVIOUS DAY. The UTICA HERALD has made the dairy interest a specialty, and in its weekly edition devotes to it More Space and Attention than any other Paper in the Country. At the same time, the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD aims to be in all respects a FIRST-CLASS FAMILY PAPER. Its Editorial Articles are accepted and recognized as fitly speaking the Union sentiment, the intelligent convictions, and the thoughtful aspirations of the million of people which it represents. The UTICA HERALD, in its weekly as well as its morning edition, is pre-eminently A NEWSPAPER. By thorough classification and elaborate condensation it presents the gist of all the news in the briefest space, and the person who reads no other journal, will not be ignorant of the current of events, and the movement of men and principles. THE CORRESPONDENCE weekly published in our columns, from Washington, New York, Albany and elsewhere, is not inferior in literary or political interest to that of any other journal in the country. THE LITERARY DEPARTMENT will receive during the coming year, increased attention, and we trust will deserve in even a higher degree than heretofore the encomiums which have been bestowed upon it. ADVERTISE IN IT. Manufacturers and merchants wishing to reach dairymen and producers of butter and cheese, can do so in no other way so readily and so cheaply, as through the columns of the UTICA WEEKLY HERALD. THE TERMS. The UTICA WEEKLY HERALD is published at the low price of TWO DOLLARS A YEAR. Payment is required in advance. Taking into account the size and character of the paper--its political, news, literary and agricultural merits--it is believed that this is THE CHEAPEST PAPER PUBLISHED. Now is the time to form clubs. Let the circulation be doubled during the current year. _Address_, _UTICA HERALD_, 60 Genesee Street, Utica, N. Y. WILLIAM RALPH & CO., MANUFACTURERS OF ONEIDA CHEESE VATS, FOR CHEESE-FACTORIES AND DAIRIES. (See Advertisements Inside.) [Illustration] Address, WILLIAM RALPH & CO., 173 and 175 Genesee St., Utica, N. Y. 
43580	----	Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible. Some changes have been made. They are listed at the end of the text. The illustration "On Saddle and Pillion" is the frontispiece, but the list of illustrations has it "Face p. 28". Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. Bold text has been marked with =equals signs=. HORSES PAST AND PRESENT [Illustration: SADDLE AND PILLION. (From "The Procession of the Flitch of Bacon," by THOMAS STOTHARD, R.A.)] HORSES PAST AND PRESENT BY SIR WALTER GILBEY, BART. ILLUSTRATED VINTON & Co., LTD. 9, NEW BRIDGE STREET, LONDON, E.C. 1900 CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction 1 Before the Conquest 2 William the Conqueror 5 William Rufus 7 Henry I. 7 Henry II. 8 Richard I. 9 John 10 Edward II. 11 Edward III. 12 Richard II. 15 Henry VII. 17 Henry VIII. 18 Edward VI. and Queen Mary 22 Elizabeth 24 James I. 30 Charles I. 33 The Commonwealth 36 Charles II. 38 William III. 41 Queen Anne 43 George I. 46 George II. 48 George III. 52 George IV. 59 William IV. 60 Her Majesty Queen Victoria 62 Light Horses: Breed--Societies 88 Heavy Horses: Breed--Societies 89 ILLUSTRATIONS. A Cart-Horse of the XVth Century Face p. 16 On Saddle and Pillion " 28 Guy, Earl of Warwick, XVIth Century " 32 The Darley Arabian " 46 Jacob Bates, The Trick Rider " 52 Grey Diomed " 55 Hunter Sire, Cognac " 64 The Hack Hunter " 70 The Norfolk Phenomenon " 80 _This brief history of the Horse in England to the close of the nineteenth century is a compilation which, it is hoped, may prove useful as well as interesting._ _So much has been done to improve our breeds of horses since the year 1800, and so many and important have been the changes in our methods of travel, in the use of heavy horses in agriculture, in hunting, racing and steeplechasing, that the latter portion of the book might be amplified indefinitely._ _It is not thought necessary to do more than touch briefly upon the more important events which have occurred during Her Majesty's reign._ _The interesting and instructive work by Mr. Huth, which contains the titles of all the books written in all languages relating to the Horse shows that the number published up to the year 1886 exceeds 4,060: and since that date, works on the Horse, embracing veterinary science, breeding, cavalry, coaching, racing, hunting and kindred subjects, have been issued from the publishing houses of Europe at the rate of about two per month. During the ten years 1886-95 upwards of 232 such works were issued, and there has been no perceptible decrease during the last four years._ _Under these circumstances an apology for adding to the mass of literature on the Horse seems almost necessary._ WG _Elsenham Hall, Essex, November, 1900._ HORSES PAST AND PRESENT. First among animals which man has domesticated, or brought under control to do him service, stands the horse. The beauty of his form, his strength, speed and retentive memory, alike commend him to admiration; the place he holds, whether in relation to our military strength, our commercial and agricultural pursuits, or our pleasures, is unique. Whether as servant or companion of man the horse stands alone among animals. There can be no doubt but that the horse was broken to man's service at an early period of the world's history. The art of taming him was first practised by the peoples of Asia and Africa, who earliest attained to a degree of civilisation; but whether he was first ridden or driven is a question which has often been debated with no definite result. The earliest references to the use of horses occur in the Old Testament, where numerous passages make mention of chariots and horsemen in connection with all warlike operations. BEFORE THE CONQUEST. From very remote times England has possessed horses which her inhabitants turned to valuable account, as we find occasion to note elsewhere[1]; and the farther she advanced on the path of civilisation the wider became the field for utility open to the horse. To the necessity for adapting him to various purposes, to the carrying of armour-clad soldiery, to draught, pack work, hawking, hunting, coaching, for use in mines where ponies are required, &c., we owe the several distinct breeds which we now possess in such perfection. In early times horses were held the most valuable of all property in Britain; we see evidence of the importance attached to them in the figures on ancient coins. The Venerable Bede states that the English first used saddle horses about the year 631, when prelates and other Church dignitaries were granted the privilege of riding. This statement needs qualification, for it is certain that riding was practised by the ancient Britons and their descendants; we shall no doubt be right in reading Bede's assertion to refer to _saddles_, which were in use among the nations of Eastern Europe in the fourth century. The ancient Greek and Roman horsemen rode barebacked; but a law in the Theodosian Code, promulgated in the fifth century, by which the weight of a saddle was limited to 60 Roman lbs., proves that saddles were then in general use in the Roman Empire. The Saxon saddle was little more than a pad; this would give no very secure seat to the rider, and therefore we cannot marvel that the art of fighting on horseback remained unknown in Britain until it was introduced by our Norman conquerors. Even after that epoch only the heavily-mailed knights fought from the saddle; for some centuries subsequently the lightly armed horsemen dismounted to go into action, leaving their horses in charge of those who remained with the baggage of the army in the rear. It would be wrong to call these troops cavalry; they employed horses only for the sake of greater mobility, and were what in modern phrase are styled mounted infantry. Saxons and Danes brought horses of various breeds into England, primarily to carry on their warfare against the British; the most useful of these were horses of Eastern blood, which doubtless performed valuable service in improving the English breeds. The Saxon and Danish kings of necessity maintained large studs of horses for military purposes, but whether they took measures to improve them by systematic breeding history does not record. King Alfred (871 to 899) had a Master of the Horse, named Ecquef, and the existence of such an office indicates that the Royal stables were ordered on a scale of considerable magnitude. King Athelstan (925-940) is entitled to special mention, for it was he who passed the first of a long series of laws by which the export of horses was forbidden. Athelstan's law assigns no reason for this step; but the only possible motive for such a law must have been to check the trade which the high qualities of English-bred horses had brought into existence. At no period of our history have we possessed more horses than would supply our requirements, and Athelstan's prohibition of the export of horses beyond sea, unless they were sent as gifts, was undoubtedly due to a growing demand which threatened to produce scarcity. This king saw no objection to the importation of horses: he accepted several as gifts from Continental Sovereigns, and evidently attached much value to them, for in his will he made certain bequests of white horses and others which had been given him by Saxon friends. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR (1066-1087). William the Conqueror brought with him many horses from Normandy when he invaded England. Many of these were Spanish horses, if we may apply to the famous Bayeux tapestry the test of comparison. William himself, at Hastings, rode a Spanish horse, which had been presented to him by his friend, Alfonso of Spain, and the riders on horseback on the tapestry show that the Norman knights rode horses similar in all respects to that of their leader. They are small, probably not exceeding 14 hands, and of course all stallions. Berenger[2] describes these horses as of a class adapted to the "purposes of war and the exhibition of public assemblies." There is nothing to tell us when horses were first used in agriculture in England; the earliest mention of such, some considerable research has revealed, is the reference to "four draught horses" owned by the proprietor of an Essex manor in the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066). Under the Norman and Plantagenet kings the plough appears to have been adapted for draught by either oxen or horses. The former undoubtedly were the more generally used, and continued in use until comparatively recent times in some parts of the country. One of the pieces of tapestry worked in Bayonne in 1066 shows the figure of a man driving a horse harnessed to a harrow. This is the earliest pictorial evidence we possess of the employment of the horse in field labour. The Conqueror and his followers came from a country in which agriculture was in a more advanced state than it was in England, and it cannot be doubted that the Normans did much to promote the interests of English husbandry. WILLIAM RUFUS (1087-1100). It was probably during the reign of William Rufus that the first endeavour to improve the British breed of horses was made. Giraldus Cambrensis informs us that Robert de Belesme brought Spanish stallions to his property in Powysland, Central Wales, and that to these importations many years afterwards the district owed its reputation for a superior stamp of horse. The results of this enterprise were certainly of a lasting character, for "a Powys horse" occurs among the purchases made by Edward II. (1272-1307), indicating clearly that the locality still produced a good stamp of animal. HENRY I. (1100-1135). King Henry I. would appear to have taken an interest in the work of horse-breeding. The scanty existing records of his reign contain mention of a visit paid in 1130 to the royal manor at Gillingham, in Dorsetshire, by a squire "with a stallion to leap the king's mares." In this king's reign the first Arabs were received in England from Eastern Europe, in the shape of two horses, with costly Turkish armour, as a gift. One of these horses was retained in England and the other was sent to King Alexander I. of Scotland, who presented it to the Church of St. Andrews. HENRY II. (1154-1189). Henry II. took a keen interest in horses, and the records of his reign show us the system then in vogue for the maintaining the royal studs. The horses, in greater or smaller numbers, with their grooms, were placed under the charge of the Sheriffs of counties, whose duty it was to provide them with pasture, stabling, and all necessaries, recovering the cost from the Exchequer. The Tournament was introduced into England in this reign; but these knightly exercises received little encouragement from the king, who forbade them under ecclesiastical pressure. William Stephanides, a monk of Canterbury, has left us a Latin tract or pamphlet descriptive of the mounted sports of Londoners in the latter half of the twelfth century, which possesses both interest and value. From this it is evident that races of a primitive character, and sham fights of a rough and ready kind had place among the recreations of the people of Henry II.'s time. Smithfield, then a level expanse of grass where periodical horse markets were held, was the scene of these amusements:-- "Every Sunday in Lent after dinner young men ride out into the fields on horses which are fit for war and excellent for their speed. The citizens' sons issue out through the gates by troops, furnished with lances and shields, and make representation of battle and exercise and skirmish. To this performance many young courtiers yet uninitiated in arms resort, and great persons to train and practice. They begin by dividing into troops; some labour to outstrip their leaders without being able to reach them; others unhorse their antagonists without being able to get beyond them. At times two or three boys are set on horseback to ride a race and push their horses to their utmost speed, sparing neither whip nor spur."[3] RICHARD I. (1189-1199). Richard I., ignoring the opposition of the Church, which held them dangerous alike to body and soul, encouraged tournaments as valuable training for his knights; and it may here be observed that from his time through the succeeding ages until 1559, when a fatal accident to King Henry II., of France, in the lists, caused the institution to go out of fashion, tournaments were held from time to time in England. Some of our kings encouraged them for military reasons; others discouraged them under Church influence, or as records show, because they were productive of loss in horses and arms, which the resources of the country could ill afford. We find traces of the old "Justs of Peace," as tournaments were officially called, in the names of streets in London. Knightrider and Giltspur Streets, for example: the former owed its name to the circumstance that through it lay the route taken by knights on their way from the Tower to the lists at Smithfield; the latter to the fact that the makers of the gilt spurs worn by knights carried on their business there. Cheapside was the scene of some historical tournaments, as were the Barbican and Roderwell. The Tiltyard near St. James's was the exercise ground of knights and gentlemen at a later date. JOHN (1199-1216). King John reigned at a period when the armour worn by mounted men was becoming stronger, and when the difficulty of finding horses powerful enough to carry heavily mailed riders was increasing. This sovereign, so far as can be discovered, was the first to make an endeavour to increase the size of our English breed of Great Horses; he imported from Flanders one hundred stallions of large size. The Low Countries, in the Early and Middle Ages, were the breeding grounds of the largest and most powerful horses known; and John's importations must have wrought marked influence upon the British stock. He also purchased horses in Spain which are described as Spanish _dextrarii_, or Great Horses. _Dextrarius_ was the name by which the war horse was known at this period and for centuries afterwards. EDWARD II. (1307-1327). Edward II. devoted both energy and money to the task of improving our horses. We have record of several horse-buying commissions despatched by him to the Champaign district in France, to Italy and other parts vaguely described as "beyond seas." One such commission brought home from Lombardy thirty war horses and twelve others of the heavy type. There can be no doubt but that the foreign purchases of Edward II. were destined for stud purposes; the more extensive purchases of his successor, Edward III., suggest that he required horses for immediate use in the ranks. Husbandry in England was at a low ebb during the thirteenth century, but towards the end of Edward II.'s reign it began to make progress in the midland and southwestern counties. The high esteem in which English wool was held caused large tracts of country to be retained as pasture for sheep for a long period, and while farmers possessed this certain source of revenue the science of cultivation was naturally neglected. EDWARD III. (1327-1377). Edward III., to meet the drain upon the horse supply caused by his wars with Scotland and France, bought large numbers of horses on the Continent; more, it would appear, than his Treasury could pay for, as he was at one time in the Count of Hainault's debt for upwards of 25,000 florins for horses. These were obviously the Great Horses for which the Low Countries were famous; all the animals so imported were marked or branded. Edward III. organised his remount department on a scale previously unknown in England. It was established in two great divisions under responsible officers, one of whom had charge of all the studs on the royal manors north of the Trent, the other exercising control of those south of that boundary; these two custodians being in their turn responsible to the Master of the Horse. There is ample evidence to prove that Edward III. took close personal interest in horse-breeding, and it is certain that the cavalry was better mounted in his wars than it had been at any previous period. The Great Horse, or War Horse, essential to the efficiency of heavily armoured cavalry, was by far the most valuable breed and received the greatest meed of attention; but the Wardrobe Accounts of this reign contain mention of many other breeds or classes of horse indispensable for campaigning or useful for sport and ordinary saddle work--palfreys, hackneys, hengests, and somers, coursers, trotters, hobbies, nags, and genets. The distinction between some of these classes was probably somewhat slight. The palfrey was the animal used for daily riding for pleasure or travel by persons of the upper ranks of life, and was essentially the lady's mount, though knights habitually rode palfreys or hackneys on the march, while circumstances allowed them to put off for the time their armour. The weight of this, with the discomfort of wearing it in the cold of winter and heat of summer, furnished sufficient reason for the knights to don their mail only when actually going into action, or on occasions of ceremony. "Hengests and somers" were probably used for very similar purposes, as more than once we find them coupled thus: these were the baggage or transport animals, and were doubtless of no great value. "Courser" is a term somewhat loosely used in the old records; it is applied indifferently to the war horse, to the horse used in hunting, and for daily road work, but generally in a sense that suggests speed. "Trotters," we must assume, were horses that were not taught to amble; and the name was distinctive at a period when all horses used for saddle by the better classes were taught that gait. Edward III.'s Wardrobe Accounts mention payment for _trammels_, the appliances, it is supposed, used for this purpose, and at a much later date in another Royal Account Book, we find an item "To making an horse to amble, 2 marks (13s. 4d.)." The amble was a peculiarly easy and comfortable pace which would strongly commend itself to riders on a long journey. Hobbies were Irish horses, small but active and enduring; genets were Spanish horses nearly allied to, if not practically identical with, the barbs introduced into Spain by the Moors. The animal described as a "nag" was probably the saddle-horse used by servants and camp followers. RICHARD II. (1377-1399). Richard II. was fond of horses and did not neglect the interests of breeding; though he on one occasion displayed his regard in a fashion which to modern minds is at least high-handed. There was a scarcity of horses in the early years of his reign, and prices rose in conformity with the law of supply and demand. Richard, considering only the needs of his knights, issued a proclamation (1386) forbidding breeders to ask the high prices they were demanding. This proclamation was published in Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and Yorkshire. Passing mention may be made of an Act which was placed on the Statute Book in 1396. In those days all travelling was performed on horseback, and the equivalent of the coach or jobmaster of much later times was the hackneyman, who let out horses to travellers at rates of hire fixed by law. The hackneymen were in the very nature of their business liable to be imposed upon by unprincipled persons, who would demand horses from them without tendering payment, on the false plea that they were royal messengers journeying in haste on business of the State. Not infrequently, too, the hirer or borrower was none other than a horse-thief, who rode the animal into some remote country town, and sold him to whoever would buy. Richard II.'s Act of 1396, aimed at suppression of these practices, laying penalties upon anyone found guilty of them; and it further called upon the hackneymen to help themselves by placing a distinctive mark on their horses. Any animal bearing such a mark might be seized by the hackneyman if he found it in possession of another, and no compensation could be claimed by the person from whose custody it was taken. The earliest account of a race that we can trace (apart from the sports at Smithfield) refers to the year 1377, the first of Richard's reign. In that year the King and the Earl of Arundel rode a race[4] (particulars of conditions, distance, weights, &c., are wanting!), which it would seem was won by the Earl, since the King purchased his horse afterwards for a sum equal to £20,000 in modern money. [Illustration: A CART-HORSE OF THE XVth CENTURY. From a Contemporary MS.] For nearly a hundred years after the deposition of Richard II., the available records throw little or no light upon our subject. The Wars of the Roses (1450-1471) were productive of results injurious alike to agriculture, stock breeding, and commerce. During a period when horses for military service were in constant demand, and were liable, unless the property of some powerful noble, to seizure by men of either of the contending factions, it was not worth any man's while to breed horses, still less to try to improve them. The fifteenth century, therefore, or at least a considerable portion of it, saw retrogression rather than progress in English horse-breeding. HENRY VII. (1485-1509). Henry VII., in 1495, found the horse supply of the country so deficient, and the prices so high, that he passed an Act forbidding the export of any horse without Royal permission, on pain of forfeiture, and of any mare whose value exceeded six shillings and eightpence; no mare under three years old might be sent out of the country, and on all exported a duty of six shillings and eightpence was levied. Under the old "Statutes of Arms" Henry VII. established a force known as Yeomen of the Crown. There were fifty of these; each yeoman had a spare horse and was attended by a mounted groom. In times of peace they acted as Royal messengers carrying letters and orders. In disturbed times they formed the backbone of the militia levies. HENRY VIII. (1509-1547). Henry VIII. went a good deal further in his efforts to foster and promote the breeding of good horses. In 1514 he absolutely forbade the export of horses abroad, and extended the prohibition to Scotland. He obliged all prelates and nobles of a certain degree, to be ascertained by the richness of their wives' dress, to maintain stallions of a given stature. He made the theft of horse, mare, or gelding a capital offence, and deprived persons convicted under this law (37 Henry VIII., c. 8) of the benefit of clergy. And by two Acts, the gist of which will be found on page 5 _et seq._ of _Ponies Past and Present_, he made a vigorous attempt to weed out the ponies whose small size rendered them useless. It is to be borne in mind that the King's legislation against the animals that ran in the forests and wastes aimed definitely at the greater development and perfection of the Great Horse. Armour during Henry VIII.'s time had reached its maximum weight, and a horse might be required to carry a load of from 25 to 30 stone;[5] hence very powerful horses were indispensable. Henry's interest in horseflesh was not confined to the breed on which the efficiency of his cavalry depended. He was a keen sportsman, who took a lively pleasure in all forms of sport, and he appears to have been the first king who ran horses for his own amusement. It would hardly be correct to date the beginnings of the English Turf from Henry VIII.'s reign, as the "running geldings" kept in the Royal Stables at Windsor seem to have been run only against one another in a field hired by the king for the purpose. The _Privy Purse Expenses_ contain very curious scraps of information concerning the running geldings, their maintenance, and that of the boys retained to ride them. There is mention of "rewardes" to the keeper of the running geldings, to the "children of the stable," and also to the "dyatter" of the running geldings. This last functionary's existence is worth notice, as it indicates some method of training or dieting the horses. Nearly seventy years later--in 1599--Gervaise Markham produced his book, "How to Chuse, Ryde and Dyet both Hunting and Running Horses." In the year 1514, the Marquis of Mantua sent Henry VIII., from Italy, a present of some thoroughbred horses; these in all probability formed the foundation stock of our sixteenth-century racehorses. The _Privy Purse Expenses_ quoted above refer to "the Barbaranto hors" and "the Barbary hors," which are doubtless the same animal. A hint that it was raced occurs in the mention of a payment to Polle (Paul, who as previous entries show, was the keeper of this horse), "by way of rewarde," 18s. 4d., and on the same day (March 17, 1532), "paid in rewarde to the boy that ran the horse, 18s. 4d." That curious record, _The Regulations of the Establishment of Algernon Percy, Fifth Earl of Northumberland_, which was commenced in the year 1512, gives us a very valuable glimpse of the private stud maintained by a great noble in Henry VIII.'s time. The list of the Earl's horses "that are appointed to be in the charge of the house yearly, as to say, gentell horseys, palfreys, hobys, naggis, cloth-sek hors, male hors," is as follows:-- "First, gentell horsys, to stand in my lordis stable, six. Item, palfreys of my ladis, to wit, oone for my lady and two for her gentell-women, and oone for her chamberer. Four hobys and nags for my lordis oone ('own' in this connection) saddill, viz., oone for my lord, and oone to stay at home for my lord. "Item, chariot hors to stand in my lordis stable yerely. "Seven great trottynge horsys to draw in the chariot and a nag for the chariott man to ride--eight. Again, hors for Lord Lerey, his lordship's son and heir. A gret doble trottynge hors called a curtal, for his lordship to ride out on out of towns. Another trottynge gambaldyn hors for his lordship to ride on when he comes into towns. An amblynge hors for his lordship to journeye on daily. A proper amblynge little nag for his lordship when he goeth on hunting and hawking. A gret amblynge gelding, or trottynge gelding, to carry his male." In regard to these various horses, it may be added that the "gentell hors" was one of superior breeding; the chariott horse and "gret trotting horsys" were powerful cart horses; the "curtal" was a docked great horse; the "trottynge gambaldyn" horse one with high and showy action, and the "cloth sek" and "male hors" carried respectively personal luggage and armour. EDWARD VI. (1547-1553) AND QUEEN MARY (1553-1558). The brief reign of Edward VI. was productive of little legislation that had reference to horse-breeding. An Act was passed to sanction the export of mares worth not more than ten shillings, and another to remove some ambiguity in Henry VIII.'s law concerning the death penalty, without benefit of clergy, for horse-stealers. If nothing was done to promote the breeding industry during this reign, the King's advisers took measures to raise the English standard of horsemanship. The Duke of Newcastle informs us that he "engaged Regnatelle to teach, and invited two Italians who had been his scholars, into England. The King had an Italian farrier named Hemnibale, who taught more than had been known before." The farrier of old times was the veterinary surgeon--as the barber was the surgeon--and the invitations so given show that the Royal advisers were conscious of English shortcomings. Horsemanship and the principles of stable management perhaps stood at a higher level in Italy than in any other European country at this period; whence the choice of Italians as riding-masters. The crime of horse-theft was so rife at this period that one of the first Acts of Queen Mary (2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, 7), passed in 1555, aimed at its suppression. A place was to be appointed in every fair for the sale of horses, and there the market toll-gatherer was to call the seller and buyer before him and register their names and addresses, with a description of the horse changing hands. Under this law the property in a stolen horse was not diverted from the lawful owner unless the horse had been publicly shown in the market for one hour; if it had not been so exposed, the owner might seize and retain it if he discovered the horse in possession of another afterwards. Queen Mary, by the Statute known as 4 Phil. & Mary, considerably extended the obligation to keep horses which Henry VIII. had laid upon persons of the upper and middle class; but the object of this law was to provide for the defences of the kingdom, and there is nothing in its clauses that would indicate desire to promote horse-breeding; on the contrary, geldings are frequently mentioned as alternative to horses. ELIZABETH (1558-1603). Queen Elizabeth, herself an admirable horsewoman, was as fully imbued with the necessity for encouraging the breeding of horses as her father, Henry VIII., and she lost little time in dealing with the whole subject after her accession. Energetic measures were evidently much needed, if we may accept the statements made by Sir Thomas Chaloner, in a Latin poem written when he was ambassador at Madrid, in 1579. He observes that if Englishmen chose to devote attention to breeding, with all the advantages their country offered, they could rear better horses than they could import. England, he averred, had none but "vile and ordinary horses," which were suffered to run at large with the mares. In the first year of her reign Elizabeth renewed Henry VIII.'s Act forbidding the export of horses to Scotland. Her next important step was taken in the fourth year of her reign; she issued a Proclamation in which she reminded her subjects that various laws had been made and that the penalties for disobedience would be enforced. The Proclamation announced the creation of machinery to see that her father's statute requiring nobles of prescribed degree to keep a stallion was being obeyed; that his laws[6] concerning the height of mares in parks and enclosed lands, and requiring chases, forests and moors, to be periodically driven, and worthless mares, fillies and geldings found thereon destroyed, should be vigorously enforced. The law of Philip and Mary which obliged people to keep horses or geldings in conformity with the scheme for national defence, was recapitulated at length, and obedience within three months enjoined on penalty of fine. The Queen evidently considered the laws she found on the statute book all that were necessary to ensure attention to the interests of horse-breeding; for she refrained for many years from fresh legislation, contenting herself with Royal Proclamations in which she prescribed limits of time for her subjects to supply themselves with horses according to their legal obligation, and appointed suitable persons to see that her commands were carried out. One of these documents, issued in 1580, announces that the number of horsemen in the country shown by the returns is "much less than she looked for." She made some changes in the existing laws, notably that passed in the thirty-second year of Henry VIII.'s reign, concerning the stature of horses in specified shires. That law applied among other counties to Cambridgeshire, Huntingdon, Northampton, Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Suffolk; 8 Eliz., c. 8, passed in 1566, exempted the Isle of Ely and "other moors, marshes and fens of Cambridgeshire," and the above-mentioned counties from operation of the Act because "the said moors, of their unfirmness, moysture and wateryshnes" could not bear such big horses without danger of their "mireyng, drowning and peryshinge." She also (31 Eliz. 12) passed another "Acte to avoyde horse stealinge," the chief feature of which was to forbid anyone unknown to the toll-taker to sell a horse in the market unless the would-be seller could produce "one sufficient and credible" witness to vouch for his respectability. The evil had grown to the proportions of a national scandal at this time: Holinshed's account, published eleven years before this Act was passed, shows us that no horse in pasture or stable was safe. Queen Elizabeth's reign saw important changes. The application of gunpowder to hand-firearms destroyed the protective value of heavy armour, and with heavy armour gradually went the horse required to carry it. The disappearance of the Great Horse as a charger was very slow, however. In 1685 the Duke of Newcastle published his famous work, _The Manner of Feeding, Dressing and Training of Horses for the Great Saddle, and fitting them for the Service of the Field in time of War_. The book was probably of little use to posterity, for by that time the day of the Great Horse as a charger was very near its close, if not quite at an end. The introduction of coaches was another mark of social progress; and light horses, Arab, Barb and Spanish, were in demand to improve our native breeds. Until 1580, when carriages came into use in England, saddle horses were used by all of whatever degree. Though the side saddle had been introduced in Richard II.'s time, ladies still rode frequently on a pillion behind a gentleman or man-servant. Queen Elizabeth rode on a pillion behind her Master of the Horse when she went in state to St. Paul's; but when hunting or hawking she seems to have ridden her own palfrey. Coaches increased so rapidly towards the end of Elizabeth's reign that a bill was brought into the House of Lords (1601) to check their use. The measure was lost, the Lords directing the Attorney-General to frame a new bill to secure more attention to horse-breeding instead, but if this was done the bill never passed into law. The Queen was an ardent supporter of the Turf and kept racehorses at Greenwich, Waltham, St. Albans, Eaton, Hampton Court, Richmond, Windsor and Charing Cross. Racing had become a popular amusement in the earlier years of Elizabeth's reign, and her participation in the sport was probably due in great measure to her conviction that it must prove beneficial to the breeding industry. The Roodee at Chester appears to have been one of the first public racecourses; the townspeople gave a silver bell to be run for. Racing was well established in Scotland at an earlier date; in 1552, during Edward VI.'s reign, there were races with bells as prizes. There were races at Salisbury in 1585, when the Earl of Cumberland won "the golden bell." In 1599, the Corporation of Carlisle took the sport under its patronage and gave silver bells. According to Comminius, who wrote about the year 1590, racing had grown out of fashion at that period; the old sport of tilting at the quintain had been revived and was apparently a more popular spectacle. It is probable that suspension of public interest in racing was of a very temporary character, for Bishop Hall, in one of his _Satires_, published in 1599, refers to the esteem in which racehorses were then held. Queen Elizabeth retained her love of sport and the physical ability to indulge it to an advanced age. It is said that in April, 1602, being then in her sixty-ninth year, she rode ten miles on horseback and hunted the same day. Following the example set in Edward VI.'s reign, Sir Philip Sydney engaged two Italian experts named Prospero and Romano, to teach riding; the Earl of Leicester, the Queen's Master of the Horse, also had among his suite an Italian horseman, named Claudio Corte, who wrote a book on the art of riding, which was published in London, in 1584. Thomas Blundeville, of Newton Hotman, in Norfolk, ere this date, had published a curious little black-letter volume, entitled "The Art of Ryding and Breaking Great Horses" (1566), which was sold by William Seres, at "The Sygne of the Hedgehogge," in St. Paul's Churchyard. Some extracts from this very interesting little work have been given in a previous book.[7] JAMES I. (1603-1625). The feature of King James's reign was the formation of a racecourse at Newmarket, which had previously been a favourite hunting-ground of Royalty, and continued to be so, at least till James II.'s time. Mr. J. P. Hore[8] says that the King probably resided at an inn known as "The Griffin," and held court there during his early visits, and that this inn subsequently became the King's own property. It is quite certain that Newmarket as a Turf centre dates from the time of James I.; he spent some days there in the year 1605, and appears to have paid very frequent visits to the place to enjoy the sport he was anxious to encourage. He kept racehorses, and in his purchase of the Markham Arabian[9] we have evidence that he did not spare endeavour to procure the best. It is true that this horse proved a failure on the Turf; that his indifferent performance did something to discredit the Arab in the eyes of Englishmen, and no doubt contributed to check the importation of Eastern sires for racing; but his failure does not affect the fact that his purchase goes for proof of King James's desire to improve the breed of racehorses. Many foreign horses were imported into England during this reign. The Spanish horse still held its high reputation; in 1623, the Duke of Buckingham, then at Madrid, shipped from St. Sebastian thirty-five horses, a present from the Court of Spain to the Prince of Wales. Whether these were racehorses or not records omit to tell us. Under royal encouragement and patronage the Turf soon took its place as a national institution. Races were held at Croydon, Theobalds on Enfield Chase, and Garterly in Yorkshire, among other places, and of each of the meetings named the King was the President. James's most important studs were stabled at Newmarket, Middle Park, Eltham, Malmesbury, Nutbury and Tetbury. During this reign a silver bell and bowl were among the prizes offered at the Chester Races; the races for these were now run on St. George's Day, and the trophies then came to be known by the name of England's patron saint. Horses were regularly trained and prepared for these "bell courses;" the usual weight carried was 10 stone, and riders went to scale before starting. [Illustration: GUY, EARL OF WARWICK. XVIth CENTURY. _The fact that Guy of Warwick was a hero of legend does not affect the utility of the picture as an example of the type of horse ridden by knights in the XVIth century._] In Scotland it would appear that betting on races was carried on to an extent that called for legislative interference; for in 1621 the Parliament at Edinburgh passed an Act which required any man who might win over 100 marks in twenty-four hours "at cards, dice, or wagering on horse races," to make over the surplus to the kirk for the benefit of the poor. Apart from the fostering care James I. bestowed upon the Turf, the only proceedings that require mention are: his Proclamation issued in 1608, which notified that the laws against the export of horses were not being obeyed, and would thenceforward be enforced; and his repeal in 1624 of Henry VIII.'s law obliging every person whose wife wore "any French hood or bonnet of velvet" to keep a stallion. He also repealed 32 Henry VIII., so far as it applied to Cornwall (21 Jac. I., c. 28), even as Queen Elizabeth had relieved some Eastern and Midland counties from operation of that law, in view of their unsuitability to breed heavy horses. CHARLES I. (1625, Behd. 1649). Charles I. inherited, to some extent, his father's taste for the Turf, and combined therewith a love of the _manége_, due to his own accomplished horsemanship. The interest in racing was now so general, and the inducement to breed light and swift horses for the purpose so great, that other classes of horse were neglected, to the alarm of the more far-seeing among the King's subjects. So seriously was the tendency to breed only light horses regarded, that Sir Edward Harwood presented a memorial to Charles, in which it was pointed out that there was a great deficiency in the kingdom of horses of a useful type, and praying that steps should be taken to encourage the breeding of horses for service, and racing discouraged. Charles would seem to have been conscious that excessive attention to breeding light horses was a national question; at all events, that animals of a more generally useful stamp were scarce; for in 1641 he granted licenses for the importation of horses, enjoining the licensees to import coach horses, mares, and geldings not under 14 hands, and between the ages of three and seven years. In November, 1627, Charles issued his Proclamation forbidding the use of snaffles, except for hunting and hawking ("in times of Disport"), and requiring all riders to use bits. His motive was, no doubt, a desire to encourage the _manége_, which was then considered the highest form of horsemanship. The King and the Queen had separate establishments, and each kept a large number of horses, including racehorses. The English system of stable management had made such advances at this time that Marshal Bassompierre, the French Ambassador in London, refers to it in his memoirs, and recommends that English methods be followed in France. The same writer speaks, too, of the superiority of English horses. The hackney-coach question came up again in this reign, and Charles issued a Proclamation dealing with the subject in January, 1636. He forbade the use of coaches in London and Westminster unless they were about to make a journey of at least three miles; and he required every owner of a coach to keep four horses for the King's service. We may conjecture that his prohibition of hackney coaches was not the outcome of a desire to encourage horsemanship; for about eighteen months later he granted to his Master of the Horse, James, Marquis of Hamilton, power to license fifty hackney coachmen in London and the suburbs and convenient places in other parts of the realm. This license, granted by Proclamation in July, 1637, suggests favouritism, as according to a contemporary publication[10] there were in 1636 over 6,000 coaches, private and public, in London and the suburbs: surely more than were needed, as some 10,000 odd hansoms and four-wheelers meet London's normal requirements to-day. Thomas D'Urfey's song,[11] "Newmarket," which is thought to have been written in the reign of Charles I., shows that Newmarket was then, as now, regarded as the headquarters of the Turf. THE COMMONWEALTH (1649-1659). Mr. Christie Whyte, in his _History of the English Turf_, says:-- "Oliver Cromwell, with his accustomed sagacity, perceiving the vast benefit derived to the nation by the improvement of its breed of horses, the natural consequence of racing, patronised this peculiarly national amusement, and we find accordingly that he kept a racing stud." If Cromwell kept a racing stable it was before he took the style of "Lord Protector," in December, 1653; for in February, 1654, he issued his first Proclamation against racing, in the shape of a prohibition for six months, which prohibition was repeated in July. In subsequent years, by the same means, he made racing, cock-fighting, bear-baiting, and gambling, illegal. Owing what he did to his cavalry, it was only to be expected that he should devote attention to the matter of remounts. He imported many Arabs, Barbs, and other horses suitable for the lightly armoured troops which had now replaced the knighthood of former days; he also took measures to encourage the breeding of horses for hunting and hawking, sports in which he himself indulged. At what date stage-coaches began to supersede the old waggons, which (apart from saddle and pack horses) were the only means of journeying in England in Queen Elizabeth's time, is not known. In the year 1610, a Pomeranian speculator was granted a royal patent for fifteen years to run coaches and waggons between Edinburgh and Leith;[12] but not until the end of the Commonwealth (May, 1659) do we find definite mention of a stage coach in England in the diary of a Yorkshire clergyman.[13] This diary shows that stage coaches and waggons were then plying between London and Coventry, London and Aylesbury, London and Bedford, and on other roads. It is highly improbable that there existed any horses of the coaching stamp at this period; on the contrary, the wretched condition of the roads until late in the eighteenth century,[14] and the time occupied on a journey, indicates that animals of the Great Horse breed were used to drag the ponderous vehicles through the mud. CHARLES II. (1660-1685). After the gloom of the Commonwealth the nation was ripe for such changes in its social life as came in with the Restoration. Newmarket, which had been deserted during the civil war and the rule of Cromwell, recovered its former position as the headquarters of racing under the patronage of Charles II. The King entered his horses in his own name, and came to see them run, residing at the King's House when he visited Newmarket. He did away with the bell as a prize, substituting a bowl or cup of the value of a hundred guineas, upon which the name and pedigree of the winner was engraved. He also devoted considerable attention to improving the English racehorse; he sent his Master of Horse abroad to purchase stallions and brood mares, principally Arabs, Barbs and Turkish horses. To these "King's mares," as they were entitled, our modern racehorse traces his descent on the dam's side. Charles II.'s love of racing was not satisfied by the meetings at Newmarket, which was not readily accessible from Windsor, and he instituted races on Datchet Mead, within sight of the castle, across the Thames. Here, as at Newmarket, he encouraged the sport by the presentation of cups and bowls. Burford Races owed the prestige they long enjoyed to the encouragement of Charles II. in 1681. Political considerations required that public attention should be diverted for the time, if possible, and to secure this end Charles had all his best horses brought from Newmarket for the occasion. The only piece of legislation that demands notice is the repeal of the laws against export, which had been on the Statute Book since Henry VII.'s reign. The prohibition was cancelled and a duty of 5s. per head imposed on every horse sent over sea. As proving the wide interest now taken in racing, the publication in 1680 of a curious little book called _The Compleat Gamester_, may be mentioned. This gives very full and minute instructions for the preparation and training of racehorses. Stage coaches and waggons increased in number during Charles II.'s reign. There is among the _Harleian Miscellany_ (vol. viii.) a tract dated 1673, in which the writer adduces several reasons for the suppression of coaches, "especially those within 40, 50, or 60 miles off London." His first reason for objecting to the coach is that it works harm to the nation "by destroying the breed of good horses, the strength of the nation, and making men careless of attaining to good horsemanship, a thing so useful and commendable in a gentleman." Charles apparently did not share this opinion; at all events, he gave countenance to the coach-building industry by founding, in 1677, the Company of Coach and Coach Harness Makers.[15] We may pass over the brief reign of James II. (1685-1688), as it was marked by nothing of importance bearing on our subject. WILLIAM III. (1689-1702). The first year of this reign saw the importation of the first of the Eastern sires which contributed to found the modern breed of racehorses--the Byerley Turk. The Oglethorpe Arabian arrived about the same time. The Turf was growing in importance and popularity; and we find that a gold bowl was one of the prizes offered at the Newmarket meeting of 1689. King William took personal interest in racing, and kept a stud under the charge of the famous Tregonwell Frampton, who filled the office of Keeper of the Running Horses under Queen Anne, George I. and George II. The King seems often to have visited Newmarket, and he encouraged other meetings--Burford, for example--by his presence. He was keenly alive to the importance of encouraging horsemanship; sharing, perhaps, the view held by many persons at this period that the general use of stage coaches and carriages was likely to lead to loss of proficiency in the saddle. He established a riding school, placing in charge Major Foubert, a French officer, whom he invited to England for the purpose. At the same time he recognised that travelling on wheels would increase in popularity, and took such measures as he might to prevent the breed of horses from degenerating. His Act of 1694 (5 and 6 Wm. and M., c. 22), granting licenses to 700 hackney coaches, four-wheel carriages, now called cabs, in London and Westminster, contains a clause forbidding the use of any horse, gelding or mare under 14 hands in hackney or stage coach. The increasing numbers of people who travelled by stage coach had brought the highwayman into flourishing existence, and 4 of Wm. and M. c. 8, to encourage the apprehension of these gentry, gave the taker of a highwayman the horse, arms, and other property of the thief. In the tenth year of his reign another Act was passed (10 Wm. III., c. 12) which made horse stealers liable to the penalty of branding on the cheek; this enactment, however, was repealed in 1706 by Queen Anne (6 Anne, 9), who substituted burning in the hand for a penalty which declared the sufferer's character to all who saw him. William, by legislation, endeavoured to procure improvements in the public highways, whose condition in many parts had become dangerous "by reason of the great and many loads which are weekly drawn through the same." The records of subsequent years, however, showed that the state of the roads continued to leave much to be desired. QUEEN ANNE (1702-1714). The arrival in England of the Darley Arabian in 1706 was a fit opening of the era of prosperity on the Turf which dawned in Anne's time. The Queen, from the beginning of her reign, evinced her desire to promote racing, and added several royal plates to those already in existence--at the instance, says Berenger,[16] of her consort, Prince George of Denmark, who is said to have been exceedingly fond of the Turf. A writer in the _Sporting Magazine_ of 1810 gives the following account of the circumstances under which the royal plates were given:-- "... Gentlemen went on breeding their horses so fine for the sake of shape and speed only. Those animals which were only second, third or fourth rates in speed were considered to be quite useless. This custom continued until the reign of Queen Anne, when a public spirited gentleman (observing inconvenience arising from this exclusiveness) left thirteen plates or purses to be run for at such places as the Crown should appoint. Hence they are called the King's or Queen's Plates or Guineas. They were given upon the condition that each horse, mare or gelding should carry twelve stone weight, the best of three heats over a four-mile course. By this method a stronger and more useful breed was soon raised; and if the horse did not win the guineas, he was yet strong enough to make a good hunter. By these crossings--as the jockeys term it--we have horses of full blood, three-quarters blood, or half bred, suitable to carry burthens; by which means the English breed of horses is allowed to be the best and is greatly esteemed by foreigners." Whether the money for the royal plates was provided, as Berenger states, from the Queen's own purse, at the instance of her consort, or whether it came from the estate of the public spirited gentleman referred to by the contributor to the _Sporting Magazine_, the fact remains that these plates were established in Anne's reign, and that they did something to encourage the production of a better stamp of horse. An animal able to carry twelve stone three four-mile heats must be one of substance, and not merely a racing machine. Much attention would seem to have been given to the mounting of our cavalry and the general efficiency of that arm by Anne's generals. Col. Geo. Denison, in his _History of Cavalry_ (London, 1877), says that the battle of Blenheim in 1704 was almost altogether decided by the judicious use of cavalry, while at Ramillies in 1706, and Malplaquet, the cavalry played a very important part in the operations. In the later years of her reign the Queen's interest in racing became still more apparent; she gave her first Royal gold cup, value 60 guineas, in 1710; and yet more plates: further, she ran horses in her own name at York and elsewhere. There was little change on the "Road" during Anne's time; springs of steel had replaced the leather straps used in England until about 1700, but the coaches, improved in minor details, were still ponderous and required powerful teams to draw them. The Queen's own state coach was drawn by six mares of the Great Horse, or as it should be called in connection with the period under survey, the Shire Horse breed. Oxen were used in the slow stage waggons, as appears from the laws passed by William III. and Anne. The law of the latter sovereign (6 Anne, cap. 56) enacted that not more than six horses or oxen might be harnessed to any vehicle plying on the public roads except to drag them up hills; and this latter indulgence was withdrawn three years later (1710), leaving the team of six to negotiate hills as they might. Hackney coachmen evidently displayed a tendency to evade their legal obligations in the matter of size in their horses; for in 1710 another Act (9 Anne, c. 16) was passed to the same effect as a former law, requiring hackney-coach horses to be not less than 14 hands in height. [Illustration: THE DARLEY-ARABIAN (Foaled 1702).] GEORGE I. (1714-1727). During the first seventy years of the eighteenth century Eastern horses were imported in large numbers; there is in existence a list of 200 stallions which were sent to this country, but that number does not represent a tithe of the whole. The event of George I.'s reign, from a Turf point of view, was, of course, the arrival, in 1724, of the Godolphin Arabian, the sire to which our racers of to-day owe so much. George I. appears to have taken little personal interest in the Turf, though at least one visit paid by him to Newmarket, in October 1717, is recorded; nor does the parliamentary history of his brief reign show that much attention was given to the work of improving our horses. The science of travel had gone back rather than forward, for in 1715 the post from London to Edinburgh took six days, whereas in 1635 it took three. At this time, and until 1784, the mails were carried by boys on horseback; and between the badness of the roads, the untrustworthiness of the boys, and the wretched quality of the horses supplied them, the postal service was both slow and uncertain. The Post Office still held the monopoly (first granted in 1603) of furnishing post-horses at a rate of threepence a mile, and its control over its subordinates was of the slightest. The only Act of George I.'s reign relating to horses was that of 1714 (1 George I., c. 11), which forbade waggoners, carriers, and others, from drawing any vehicle "with more than four horses in length." The omission of reference to oxen in this connection may indicate that for draught purposes on the highways they were going out of use. GEORGE II. (1727-1760). An important step was taken in regard to the Turf by George II. in 1740; some of its provisions will be found in _Ponies Past and Present_ (pp. 8 and 9), but it contained other clauses of a far-reaching character. This law (13 Geo. II., c. 19) provided that every horse entered for a race must be _bonâ fide_ the property of the person entering it, and that one person might enter only one horse for a race on pain of forfeiture. The weights to be carried were prescribed: A 5-year-old was to carry 10 stone. A 6-year-old " " 11 stone. A 7-year-old " " 12 stone. Any horse carrying less was to be forfeited and his owner fined £200. Every race was to be finished on the day it began, that is to say, all heats were to be run off in one day. The Act went even further. It declared that matches might be run for a stake of under £50, only at Newmarket and Black Hambleton in Yorkshire, under a penalty of £200 for disobedience. Prizes elsewhere were to be of an intrinsic value of at least £50, and entrance money was to go to the second horse. So drastic a measure as this could not long be upheld in a free and sport-loving country; and it is without surprise we find the Government, five years later, withdrawing from a position which must have made it excessively unpopular. The next law (18 Geo. II., c. 34, sec. xi.) opens with the announcement that, whereas the thirteen Royal Plates of 100 guineas value each, annually run for, as also the high prices that are continually given for horses of strength and size are sufficient to encourage breeders to raise their cattle (_sic_) to the utmost size and strength possible, "Therefore it shall be lawful to run any match for a stake of not less than £50 value at any weights whatsoever and at any place or places whatsoever." The effect of this "climbing down" measure was naturally to introduce lighter weights. Thus in 1754, to take an example that presents itself, Mr. Fenwick's Match'em won the Ladies' Plate of 126 guineas at York carrying nine stone, as a five-year-old; six-year-olds carrying 10 stone, four-mile heats; and in 1755 Match'em beat Trajan at Newmarket carrying 8 stone 7 lbs. Perhaps it is not too much to say that the Act of 1745 was the first step towards modern light-weight racing. It must be added that the scale of weights prescribed for the Royal Plates was as follows:-- 4-year-olds carried 10 stone 4 lb. 5-year-olds " 11 " 6 " 6-and aged " 12 " Races decided in 4-mile heats. The King himself lent a somewhat perfunctory support to the Turf, keeping at Hampton Court a grey Arab stallion, whose services were available for mares at a stated fee. A most important event in the history of the Turf marks George II.'s reign. The Jockey Club was founded, and its existence first received public recognition in Mr. John Pond's _Sporting Kalendar_, published at the end of 1751 or the beginning of 1752. It is probable, however, that the club was actually in existence in the year 1750; but it was started without any attempt at publicity, and, so far as can be ascertained, with no idea whatever of acquiring the despotic power which eventually came into its hands. As Mr. Robert Black, in _The Jockey Club and its Founders_, remarks: "What more natural than that the noblemen and gentlemen who frequented Newmarket, where ruffians and blacklegs were wont to congregate, should conceive the notion of forming themselves into a body apart, so that they might have at Newmarket as well as in London and elsewhere a place of their own, to which not every blackguard who could pay a certain sum of money would have as much right as they to claim entrance." The conjecture is a most plausible one; but it was not long before the Club showed that it intended to support racing in practical fashion, for at the Newmarket meeting in May, 1753, two Jockey Club Plates were given for horses belonging to members of the Club. It is stated that, in the year 1752, sixty thoroughbred stallions, of which only eight were reputed imported Arabs, were standing for service in various parts of England; fees, as may be supposed, were low. A horse named Oronooka headed the list at a fee of 20 guineas; another, Bolton Starling, covered at 8½ guineas; but the usual charge was one, two or three guineas. Flying Childers in the earlier part of the century stood at 50 guineas, then at 100 guineas, and one season at 200 guineas. There is little to note concerning the "Road" or other spheres of equine work during this reign. The roads were as bad as ever, and travel was so slow that in 1740 Metcalf, the blind road-maker, walked the 200 miles from London to Harrogate more quickly than Colonel Liddell could cover the distance in his coach with post-horses. The barbarous methods of training cavalry recruits at this period was attracting notice, as we learn from a little work on _Military Equitation_, by Henry Earl of Pembroke, which was published in 1761. The writer refers to the "wretched system of horsemanship at present prevailing in the army," and refers to the common method of putting a man on a rough trotting horse, to which he is obliged to stick with all his might of arms and legs." Most of the officers, he says, when on horseback are a disgrace to themselves and the animals they ride; and he proceeds to urge the adoption of methods based on practical common sense. [Illustration: JACOB BATES, THE TRICK RIDER. (About 1750.)] GEORGE III. (1760-1820.) The laws concerning horses made by the Parliaments of George III. have bearing on the subject of breeding and improvement, inasmuch as they deal with the horse as taxable property. The turf, road, and hunting history of the reign is important, the first particularly so, though the King himself took little personal interest in racing. "Give and Take" plates for horses from 12 to 15 hands were in fashion during the latter part of the last century, George II.'s Act directed against small racehorses notwithstanding. A 12-hand pony carried 5 stone, and the scale of weight for inches prescribed 14 oz. for each additional quarter of an inch; whereby 13 hands carried 7 stone, 14 hands 9 stone, 15 hands 11 stone. Hunter races were run at Ascot in 1722, and after that date the _Calendar_ of 1762, however, is the first of the series that contains the form of "Qualification for a Hunter." The Royal Plates were still among the most important events of the Turf; in 1760 there were 18 of these in England and Scotland, and 6 in Ireland, 5 of the latter in Kildare. The "King's Plate Articles," which appear in every annual issue of the _Racing Calendars_ for very many years, were retained in their original form. "Six-year-olds shall carry 12 stone, 14 lbs. to the stone; three heats"; but in the _Calendar_ of 1773 a footnote occurs, "By a late order altered to one heat." Nevertheless, very cursory inspection of the books shows that much latitude was allowed in weights, distances, and numbers of heats both before 1773 and after. In 1799 another footnote appears under the "King's Plate Articles," to effect that the conditions "By a late order are altered to one heat and different weights are appointed." In spite of this order races for the plates were on occasion still run in two or three heats, apparently by permission of the Master of the Horse. We are not informed what weight the new scale required, but the pages of the _Calendar_ show they were reduced; authoritative information on the point appears with the Articles at a later date. In 1807 the number of Royal Plates had been increased to 23 in Great Britain. On the 4th May, 1780, the first Derby was run; the value of the stake was 50 guineas, and the race, open to three-year-old colts at 8 stone, and fillies at 7 stone 11 lbs., distance one mile, was won by Diomed. In 1801, 1803, 1807, and 1862, the weights for the Derby were altered, always increasing by a few pounds, till they reached their present level. By 1793, the Derby had grown into great popularity. The establishment of the St. Leger, in 1776, and the Oaks in 1779, are events which also aid to make King George III.'s reign memorable. Races for Arab produce occur on the Newmarket "cards" about the time our classic races were founded; sweepstakes of 100 guineas being run for in 1775, 1776, and 1777. Races for Arabs, however, have never been continued for many years in succession. [Illustration: _After J. N. Sartorius_ GREY DIOMED, foaled 1785. By Diomed--Grey Dorimant. Bred by Sir CHARLES BUNBURY, Bart.] The accompanying portrait of Grey Diomed, a son of Diomed, the winner of the first Derby, in 1780, gives a good idea of the racehorse of this period. Grey Diomed was foaled in 1785, and won many important races between the years 1788 and 1792. He was bred at Great Barton, Bury St. Edmunds, by Sir Charles Bunbury. It was in 1780 that Mr. William Childe, of Kinlet, "Flying Childe," introduced the modern method of riding fast to hounds. Prior to Mr. Childe's time, men rode to hounds in a fashion we should consider slow and over-cautious, timber being taken at a stand; but once the superior excitement of fast riding across country was realised, the old, slow method soon disappeared. Though the Norfolk Hackney achieved its fame through Blaze (foaled 1733), who begat the original Shales, foaled in 1755, and the foundations of this invaluable breed were thus laid in George II.'s time, we must have regard to the period during which the breed achieved its celebrity both at home and abroad, and that period is the long reign of George III. The old system of conveying mails on horseback, with its innumerable faults and drawbacks, came to an end in George III.'s time, a mail coach making its first trip in August, 1784, when the journey from Bristol to London, about 119 miles, was performed in 17 hours, or at a rate of 7 miles per hour. The era of macadamised roads, which was followed by the short "golden age" of fast coaching, can hardly be said to belong to this reign, Mr. Macadam's system of road-making having been generally adopted only in 1819. The founding of the Royal Veterinary College at Camden Town in 1791 was by no means the least important event of this reign; it is not too much to say that it marked an epoch in the history of the Horse; for the establishment of this institution made an end of the quackery, often exceedingly cruel, which for centuries had passed for medical treatment of animals. Until the end of the eighteenth century English veterinary practitioners had been content to follow in the footsteps of such teachers as Gervaise Markham, who was the great authority on equine diseases two hundred years before; and the principles and practice of Gervaise Markham were hardly free from the taint of witchcraft and sorcery. Some of the more drastic and obviously useless remedies had been discredited and abandoned, but at the period of which we write, English veterinarians appear to have been following their own way regardless of the more enlightened methods which were beginning to gain acceptance among the advanced practitioners of France. For to the French is due the credit of laying the first foundations on which scientific veterinary surgery was built. The helplessness of the old school is proved by the ravages of epizootics. The loss of horses and other live stock when contagious disease gained footing was enormous, such diseases being entirely beyond the understanding of veterinarians. The last half of the eighteenth century saw the establishment of veterinary colleges in Europe. Lyons led the way in 1761; the next to be founded was that of Alfort near Paris in 1765; the next, Copenhagen, in 1773; Vienna, 1775; Berlin, 1790, and London, as already mentioned, in 1791. Study of animal diseases was stimulated by the invasion of deadly plagues, which wrought such havoc that stock-raising in some countries threatened to disappear as an industry. Knowledge of these plagues and efficient remedies had become essential to the existence of horse and cattle breeding, and the collection of facts and correct views concerning such diseases was the greatest task of the veterinary colleges: the progress made was necessarily slow; but the foundation of veterinary surgery as a science dates from the establishment of the colleges named. For many years the new school of veterinarians were groping in the dark; but if they made no striking advance they did valuable work in collecting facts and correct views concerning animal diseases, which were of great value to a later generation. The Royal Veterinary College was founded by a Frenchman named Charles Vial de St. Bel, or Sainbel. Sainbel was born at Lyons in 1753. His talents developed early in life, and after a brief but brilliantly successful career in France he came over to England in 1788. He published proposals for founding a Veterinary School in this country, but his suggestions were not favourably received, and he returned home. Perhaps the fact that he had married an Englishwoman during his short residence on this side of the Channel influenced Sainbel in his choice of refuge when the Revolution threatened; but however that may be, it was to London that he repaired when political unrest in Paris bade him seek a new sphere of activity. By a stroke of good fortune Mr. Dennis O'Kelly selected the young French veterinary surgeon to dissect the carcase of the great race-horse Eclipse in February, 1789. Sainbel did the work, and wrote an "Essay on the Geometrical Proportions of Eclipse," which attracted immediate notice and established his reputation as a veterinary anatomist. He still cherished his scheme for founding a Veterinary School, and his abilities now being recognised, it was taken up by the Odiham Agricultural Society. In 1791 Sainbel had the satisfaction of seeing the school established, in the shape of a farriery with stabling for fifty horses. He did not live to see the success that was destined to attend his enterprise, as he died in 1793 in his fortieth year. During the two years of his work as principal, however, he had laid down the lines on which scientific veterinary practice should be conducted; in the words of his biographer, "Sainbel may justly be looked upon as the founder of scientific veterinary practice in England" (_Dictionary of National Biography_). GEORGE IV. (1820-1830). In George IV. the Turf had, perhaps, the most ardent supporter it ever boasted among our sovereigns, though the unfortunate Escape affair caused him to renounce the sport altogether for many years (1791-1810): The King was passionately fond of horses, and never wearied of trying hacks and hunters; he got together a splendid breeding stud at Hampton Court. In the last year of his reign he increased the number of Royal Plates to 43, of which 27 were run for in England, Scotland and Wales, and 16 in Ireland: he was also instrumental in bringing about vast improvements in the royal buckhounds. The legislative measures of George IV. were a bill to entirely relieve agricultural horses from taxation, the duties thereon having been reduced by George III. in the last year of his reign; and a bill to relieve horses let for travelling of the duties that had been imposed upon them by his father. WILLIAM IV. (1830-1837). William IV. had no great love of racing, and his personal attitude towards the sport is well reflected in his oft-quoted order to "start the whole fleet" for the Goodwood Cup of 1830. He was, however, fully alive to the national importance of racing, and did something to encourage it, presenting the Jockey Club in 1832 with one of the hoofs of Eclipse set in gold, which, with £200 given by himself, was to be run for annually by horses the property of members. "The Eclipse Foot" appears to have brought fields for only four years, and then remained an ornament of the Jockey Club rooms at Newmarket. In the same year, 1832, a new schedule of weights was appended to the Articles for the King's Plates; this shows that the weights to be carried varied somewhat according to the places where the races were run. No scale was prescribed for Newmarket, the conditions being left for settlement by the Jockey Club. In 1837, the last year of William's reign, the number of Royal Plates had again increased and stood at 48, 34 in England and Scotland, 14 in Ireland. The king continued the breeding stud at Hampton Court which his brother had bequeathed to him; if his affection for the Turf was slight, he deserves the greater credit for having maintained it. The reign of William IV. saw the coaching age at its best, for rapid travel by road was raised to a science only a few years before its extinction by the introduction of railways. Good roads, good horses and improved coaches in combination rendered it possible to cover long distances at a uniformly high speed, from 10 to 10½ miles per hour being the rate at which the mails ran between London and Exeter, London and York, and other important centres. HER MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA. ACC. JUNE 20, 1837. The sale of the Hampton Court Stud is the first noteworthy event of Her Majesty's reign. The step taken by the Queen's advisers, with Lord Melbourne, the Prime Minister, at their head, was deeply regretted by all interested in horse breeding, as one seeming to imply that the national sport would no longer receive the patronage of the Throne. A respectful but strong memorial against the sale was presented by the Jockey Club, but without avail, and on October 25, 1837, Messrs. Tattersall disposed of the stud before a crowded audience, which included buyers from France, Germany, Russia, and other foreign countries. The catalogue included 43 brood mares, which brought 9,568 guineas; 13 colt foals, 1,471 guineas; 18 filly foals, 1,109 guineas; and 5 stallions, including The Colonel and Actæon and two imported Arabs, 3,556 guineas. Actuated by patriotic motives and unwilling that so fine a horse should go abroad, Mr. Richard Tattersall bought The Colonel for 1,600 guineas; a price which was then considered a very large one. The total realised by sale of the stud, including a couple of geldings, was 15,692 guineas. Thirteen years later, in 1850, the clear-sightedness of H.R.H. the Prince Consort, saw that the dispersal had been a mistake, and that year saw the foundation of a new stud which flourished until 1894, when it was sent to the hammer. Regarding this second dispersal, it was urged that the stud did not pay its expenses; and although it produced The Earl, Springfield and La Flèche, good judges, including the late General Peel, were of opinion that the ground, on which for so many years Thoroughbreds had been reared, was tainted and therefore needed rest. In 1840 the fifth Duke of Richmond brought in a bill to repeal those clauses of 13 George II. which still remained on the Statute Book limiting the value of stakes, and this measure passed into law, not without opposition (3 and 4 Vic. 5). Some interesting evidence bearing on our subject was given before the Select Committee on Gaming which was appointed in 1844. Mr. John Day gave it as his opinion that the breed of horses had much improved during the twenty to twenty-five years preceding, the improvement being apparent in riding and draught horses. Mr. Richard Tattersall shared Mr. Day's opinion as regarded improvement, but thought fewer horses were bred. About 1836 or 1837 farmers were in such a state that they could not, or did not think it worth while to breed; by consequence the industry had fallen off and there was a scarcity. Railways, in Mr. Tattersall's opinion, had affected the market. "The middling sort does not sell in consequence of railways; horses that used to fetch £40 now bring £17 or £18." Riding horses sold better than the middling class, but hunters did not fetch half the price they did in former years. [Illustration: HUNTER SIRE COGNAC. (From a Painting by J. E. FERNELEY, about 1826.)] The result of this investigation, as far as the horse question is concerned, was briefly summarised in the following passage of the Third Report of the Lords' Committee. They thought it desirable that this amusement should be upheld, "because, without the stimulus which racing affords, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to maintain that purity of blood and standard of excellence which have rendered the breed of English horses superior to that of any other country in the world." The last statement was borne out by Mr. Tattersall's evidence. He said that he had sent horses to every part of the world except China. America and the countries of Europe have been purchasing the best stallions and mares money could buy in England during the last hundred years and more. In 1845 the number of Queen's Plates stood at 51; 36 in Great Britain and 15 in Ireland. In 1861 the scale of weights was remodelled and made applicable to all the Plates wherever run; and in the same year it was enacted that "none of Her Majesty's Plates shall be run in heats." Some few abortive attempts to control racing by law have been made since Her Majesty's accession. In 1860 Lord Redesdale introduced into the House of Lords a bill to stop light-weight racing by fixing the minimum weight at 7 stone. This measure was withdrawn, Lord Derby and Lord Granville, also a member of the Jockey Club and leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Lords, promising on behalf of the Jockey Club that that body was prepared to deal with the matter; but nothing was done in the direction indicated. In May, 1870, Mr. Thomas Hughes, the member for Frome, brought in a bill to amend the laws relating to racing. This bill proposed to make it unlawful to race any horse or mare under three years old, and to make the Queen's Plates open only to horses four years old and upwards. Mr. Hughes, in introducing his measure, said that between 1843 and 1868 the number of two-year-olds running had increased fourfold, while the number of races of a mile and upwards had decreased, and urged that the system which had grown up tended to cause deterioration in the breed of horses. As was well known at the time, Mr. Hughes was indebted for his facts and figures to Sir Joseph Hawley. This bill was read a first time by 132 votes to 44, but was withdrawn in the following July. Great and radical changes had come over the Turf during the twenty-five years mentioned by Mr. Hughes, but they were only incidental to the general process of Turf development which has been going on since the advent of the railway. In 1836 the travelling van was first used for conveying a horse from training quarters to the race course. Lord George Bentinck, who managed Lord Lichfield's racing stable, resolved at the last moment to run Elis in the St. Leger, and astonished the betting fraternity by producing him at Doncaster in time for the race; to do this he had borrowed a van which had been constructed to carry fat cattle to Smithfield Show. The fact that Elis won the St. Leger to which he had been brought in this, then novel, fashion no doubt did something to stimulate the practice of transporting race horses thus; but the van was gradually superseded by the horse-box, which was first employed for the purpose about 1840. Railways, as they spread over the country, did much to increase the number of meetings held and to increase the numbers of entries. We find that in the period between 1827 and 1837 the number of horses running increased from 1,166 in the former year to 1,213 in the latter; while during the period between 1860, when railroads had become numerous, and 1870, the number of horses running rose from 1,717 in the former year to 2,569 in the latter. The development of the daily sporting press and the spread of the telegraph system have also contributed to the changes on the Turf. By quickening the interest of the people in racing, these factors have helped to increase the attendance on race courses, and at "gate money meetings," to enhance the funds at the disposal of promoters, whereby the latter are able to offer in prize money sums beyond the conception of our grandfathers in the early years of the century. With the increase in the number of meetings, of horses running and the value of prizes, other changes have gradually crept in. The Challenge Whip remains the solitary survival of the old four-mile races. The Whip, it may be well to remind the reader, was originally the property of Thomas Lennard, Lord Dacre, whose arms are engraved upon it. Lord Dacre was created Earl of Sussex in 1674 by Charles II.: he was devoted to the Turf, and it is believed that he left his Whip (a short, heavy, old-fashioned jockey-whip with hair from the tail of Eclipse interwoven into the ring on the handle) as a trophy to be run for at Newmarket. He died in 1715, but the first race for the Whip does not appear to have been run till 1756, when Mr. Fenwick's Match'em won from Mr. Bowles' Trajan. Gimcrack, Mambrino, Shark, Pot-8-os, Dungannon, Thormanby, and many other famous horses have run for the Whip. The course is the Beacon, 4 miles 1 furlong 177 yards, and the weight to be carried is 10 stone. The tendency for years has been in favour of short races at the expense of long distance events. At the Newmarket Craven meeting of 1820 there was one race of about three miles, five races of two miles or over, twenty of about one mile and two of under one mile. At the Newmarket Craven meeting of 1900 there were three races of about one mile and a half, six of about one mile, and eleven of five or six furlongs. The necessity for breeding race horses that could carry from ten to twelve stone twice or thrice in an afternoon over a four-mile course has disappeared altogether. In his place we have the animal which can carry seven stone over six or seven furlongs at a pace that would probably have left Eclipse hopelessly behind, but which is useless for any purpose off the race-course. The highly artificial existence to which our race horses are now subjected, jealously protected from change of temperature, and "forced" in preparation to take part in two-year-old races, has done much to impair fitness to beget horses that will stand work in the hunting field or on the road. This is a result of the changes which have come over the English Turf during the century. We must, however, retrace our steps and glance at the endeavours to improve our horses which have been made within the last thirty years. [Illustration: THE HACK HUNTER. (From a Painting by GEORGE STUBBS, R.A., 1793.)] The year 1873 saw the appointment of the Select Committee generally known as Lord Rosebery's Committee "to Enquire into the Condition of the Country with regard to Horses, and its Capabilities of Supplying any Present or Future Demands for them." This committee did not consider the question of Racing; their labours during their sixteen sittings were restricted to eliciting facts from the witnesses concerning the breeding and supply of horses of the generally useful stamp; and much valuable evidence was given before them. To summarise them briefly, the main points of their Report were as follows:-- The Committee considered that so far as the Army was concerned it seemed to be admitted that the mounted branches were never better horsed than they were now: Mr. H. R. Phillips had given evidence that Irish mares were chiefly used in the Army. They were not prepared to recommend the formation of Government breeding studs on the Continental plan, deeming it better that the military authorities should continue to buy as private customers. They did not recommend any check on the use of unsound stallions, though admitting this to be a great evil; to restrain owners of unsound sires from offering their services for hire would, they thought, be construed as interference with individual liberty; but, if practicable, they would have prizes given at agricultural shows to sound stallions which covered mares at a low fee. They also recommended (and this was the only one of their recommendations adopted by the House of Commons) the abolition of taxes on horses which operated as a deterrent to farmers who would otherwise pay more attention to breeding. The evidence given before them showed that there appeared to be no scarcity of Thoroughbreds: high-class hunters had increased in price and more in proportion than other horses, but those who could afford to pay could generally find what they required. There was a general decrease in the number of horses in England; the evidence pointed to a great scarcity of agricultural horses, and while the Cleveland Bay and old-fashioned Hackney or Roadster had become extremely rare, we had been obliged of late years to look abroad for supplies of harness horses. The causes of deficiency in these breeds were (1) the export of mares; (2) the increased profits accruing to sheep and cattle rearing, and (3) the increased demand for horses, consequent on increased population and augmented wealth, which produced a relative scarcity. The Committee recorded great improvements during the few years preceding in Cornwall and Devon, where formerly few horses had been bred. The value of the work performed by this Committee was much qualified by the disinclination of its members to hear any evidence which did not bear directly upon Thoroughbreds and the production of saddle horses. Perusal of the mass of evidence given by numerous witnesses shows that the Committee would hear little or nothing in relation to the condition of Harness Horse breeding, apparently holding that very important department of the industry as without the scope of their inquiry. It is difficult to understand why this attitude was adopted, but the published minutes stand to prove that any witness who ventured to comment upon harness horses and the advisability of stimulating their production, was not encouraged to give information. What little evidence was accepted in regard to harness horses showed the existence of a growing demand for the best Roadster stock in continental countries. French, Italian, German and Austrian breeders were fully alive to the value of Hackney blood, and their agents coming every year to England for the purpose since about 1840 had purchased all the good stallions they could find to foster and promote the breeding of horses eminently suitable for carriage artillery and transport work. Mr. J. East, of the firm of Phillips and East, said that the French agents "buy the very best mares they can get; you cannot get them to buy a bad mare." The late Mr. H. R. Phillips stated in course of his evidence that his firm sent "from thirty to forty of these roadster stallions every year to France and Italy and different countries; they sent as many as they could procure." When asked how the number of Hackney stallions exported at that date compared with the number exported ten or fifteen years previously (say about the year 1858), Mr. Phillips replied that the foreigners had always taken as many as they could get. Horses of roadster stamp are not less necessary to the efficiency of the British army than to Continental armies; but while the Committee displayed the greatest care and assiduity in their investigations concerning the causes of dearth in saddle horses, they passed over the not less important question of harness horse supply, as though holding that a matter of no account. It is to be regretted that the Committee did not ask questions as to the enormous number of mares purchased for France, Germany, Russia and Austria, and also enquire concerning the use to which the mares are put in those countries. The answers would have been instructive, for it is now well known that fifteen out of every twenty of them were medium and heavy weight hunter mares--many of them stale for riding to hounds, but in every other respect suitable for breeding. These foreign buyers had no prejudices: they bought the mares with the view of breeding stock of the type most suitable for the requirements of their respective countries: the mares had plenty of thoroughbred blood in their veins, and it remained for breeders to select stallions of the right stamp. Hence the demand from all continental countries for Hackney sires which began sixty years ago and which has continued ever since. How urgent was the necessity for attention to this department of horse-breeding was very fully demonstrated by Earl Cathcart in a paper[17] which was published in the _Journal_ of the Royal Agricultural Society of England about ten years afterwards. Lord Cathcart adopted the practical method of obtaining from friends who had long experience, their opinions on the condition of the breeding of horses other than thoroughbreds; and the communications sent by these gentlemen make up the bulk of the paper referred to. There was but one opinion among Lord Cathcart's correspondents who, it must be noted, wrote quite independently of one another. To briefly summarise their statements, they deplored the disappearance of the old-fashioned thoroughbred with bone and stamina, and the disappearance of the Cleveland breed and the Hackney of the 'thirties. Many influences had been at work to bring about the regrettable change in the stock of the country. The spread of railways had put an end to the demand for coach horses and roadsters, and the men who used to ride everywhere in the old days had given up their hardy and enduring saddle horses for the more luxurious seat in the train. At the same time buyers from France, Germany, and other Continental countries, having discovered the willingness of English breeders to part with their breeding stock if sufficiently tempted, purchased every good mare money could command. Again, the craze for height had done something to impair the merits of what roadsters the foreigners left us. The Clevelands were ruined by crossing with leggy inferior thoroughbreds, whose sole recommendation consisted in their height at the shoulder and which were wanting in every useful quality. The value of the half-bred hunter was also insisted on by Lord Cathcart's correspondents--all of them men who had right to form an opinion. Mr. Sax Maynard, who for fifteen years was Master of the North Durham Hounds, laid stress on the "wear and tear" qualities of the hunter got by the old stamp of thoroughbred out of the Cleveland mare, and conversely of hunters got by Cleveland sires out of thoroughbred mares. The superior speed of the thoroughbred was admitted; but the greater endurance of the half-bred hunter in hilly country was a quality which gave him a value which did not attach to the pure thoroughbred. Nothing more convincing could have been compiled than this essay from several horse-breeding correspondents. It shows clearly how very great is the change which has come over the principal breeding grounds of England during the present reign. In regard to the disappearance of horses of the useful stamp for harness and saddle it is not necessary to require evidence for the reasons. When we remember how enormous was the network of coach route that spread all over the kingdom in pre-railway days; and consider how vast were the studs necessary to horse the mail and passenger coaches, to say nothing of the post-chaises preferred by people of means; and when we think that the road-coach survives now only in a few out-of-the-way corners of the country, and is regarded as an interesting relic of by-gone days where it does exist, we can form perhaps a vague idea of the extent of the change. About the year 1830 upwards of 1,040 coaches were running daily out of London alone. We need not, thanks to "Nimrod" and other chroniclers of the coaching age, remain content with a vague idea of the number of horses then in use on the roads. It is easy to take a single route and reckon up the stud required to work a coach running thereon. The usual "stage" for a team was from eight to ten miles, and making due provision for rests, accidents, &c., the proprietors estimated the needs of a coach at one horse per mile "one way." Therefore a coach running from London to York, 200 miles, and back, required about 200 horses; from London to Edinburgh, 400 miles, and back, about 400 horses; from London to Exeter, 175 miles, and back, about 175 horses. On roads where the passenger traffic was heavy, coaches were numerous: as many as twenty-five ran daily in the summer during the 'thirties from London to Brighton. The distance by road is about sixty miles, whence it would seem that no fewer than 1,500 horses were used by the coach proprietors on that route alone; probably more, as competition was keen and the speed maintained was hard upon horseflesh. The average working life of a horse in a fast road coach was about four years, according to Nimrod. Hence the coach proprietor found it necessary to renew one fourth of his stud at a cost of from £25 to £45 per head every year. Mr. Chaplin, who owned five "yards" in London in the 'thirties, had upwards of 1,300 horses at work in various coaches on various roads, and would therefore have been obliged to purchase about £11,375 worth of horses every year. When the railway banished the coach from the highroad, which it did with considerable rapidity, these great coaching studs were necessarily given up, and a market for horses of the most useful stamp disappeared. An eminent proprietor gave the qualities required in a road coach-horse for fast work as follows: "First requisite, action; second, sound legs and feet, with power and breeding equal to the nature and length of the ground he will work upon; third, good wind, without which the first and second qualifications will not avail in very fast work for any length of time. The hunter and racer are good or bad, chiefly in proportion to their powers of respiration; and such is the case with the road-coach horse." The practical disappearance from our country of such horses as those used in the mail and ordinary coaches and in post carriages was nothing short of a national calamity. They were horses of the essentially useful stamp, sound, hardy and enduring, just such animals as are indispensable for cavalry, artillery, and transport work on a campaign. And though the full importance of the loss which had befallen us was evident, the difficulties in the way of retrieving our position as breeders was not less evident. The breeding of horses had ceased to be remunerative, and as a natural consequence men had ceased to breed them, preferring to devote their energies and capital to stock of a stamp for which they could depend upon finding a market. Any horses of the useful class that were produced found their way, if worth having, into the hands of foreigners, as we have seen. [Illustration: NORFOLK PHENOMENON (Foaled 1824).] In March, 1887, Lord Ribblesdale took the matter up and in a very able speech drew the attention of the House of Lords to the question of the "Horse Supply for Military and Industrial Purposes." He rendered a tribute to the work that was being done by private persons and by societies and associations, thanks to whose endeavours the breeders of Shire horses and Clydesdales were prospering. The brisk foreign demand for British stock proved its merit, but so long as halfbred horses suitable for remounts and all useful purposes were as scarce as they were, while we were importing horses to the value of over a quarter of a million sterling annually, including harness-horses and match pairs of carriage-horses, we had evidence that we were not breeding high class horses up to the demand for our own daily increasing needs. He urged that the money given in Queen's Plates be diverted from its then use and devoted to subsidising approved stallions, which should serve at low fees; and that large prizes should be offered from the public purse for foals, yearlings, and two-year-olds. As regarded military horses he advised the purchase of two-year-olds to be kept at maturing _depôts_ till old enough to take in hand; and in recommending the system of direct purchase from the breeder referred to the fact that direct purchase was approved by Baron Nathansius, the French Inspector General of Remounts, in a letter which that officer had addressed to the present writer. Lord Ribblesdale paid me the compliment of seeking my assistance in his task: and in order to obtain the actual views of the horse-breeding interest in England, Colonel Sir Nigel Kingscote, Sir Jacob Wilson and the writer met in February, 1887, and drew up a series of questions. These questions were printed and sent out to between three and four hundred of the best known horse-breeders in the Kingdom; to all, in point of fact, whose experience would lend weight to their views and whose addresses could be secured. The principal questions put were as follows:-- "_Q. 1._ Assuming that an annual Grant from the Government of £5,000 be made for the encouragement of the breeding of halfbred horses, to whom in your opinion ought such grant to be entrusted for distribution? Whether to a specially constituted Board of Trustees or to any other body? "_Q. 2._ Is it your opinion that the distribution of the above Grant should take the form of a subsidy in the shape of Premiums for Thoroughbred Stallions covering at a moderate fee similar to those offered by the Hunters' Improvement Society at their Annual Spring Show, and this year by the Royal Agricultural Society at Newcastle?" In answer to Question 1, 194 replies were received in time for tabulation; of these 79 were in favour of the grant being distributed by a specially constituted Board of Trustees; 60 were in favour of its distribution by the Royal Agricultural, Hibernian and Caledonian Societies; 33 preferred that the duty should be vested in local and county societies, and 22 offered no opinion. Of answers to Question 2, 113 were in the affirmative, 44 replied "No," and partial concurrence was expressed by 19; a few gentlemen advised subsidising roomy halfbred mares. The body of opinion so collected and tabulated was placed in Lord Ribblesdale's hands about the end of April; but not until August did opportunity occur for him to ask in the House of Lords whether the Government proposed to take any action in the matter. He referred briefly to the fact that the breeders of the Kingdom had been circularised on the subject, but omitted to support his enquiry by any analysis of the very important and valuable mass of expert opinion thus placed at his disposal. It is quite probable that during the months which elapsed between receipt of the information we had collected for him and the date of his August speech, Lord Ribblesdale had made use of them to influence the Government in the desired direction; for the speech appeared to be framed solely for the purpose of affording Lord Salisbury opportunity to declare the intentions of his Government. In brief, the Premier announced that it was proposed to devote the money theretofore given as Queen's Plates to breeding; that this sum, £3,000 a year, would be made up to £5,000 by a small addition to the Estimates; and that it was proposed to assign the duty of administering the fund to an independent Trust. The Royal Commission on Horse Breeding was appointed, consisting of the Duke of Portland, the Earl of Coventry, Lord Ribblesdale, Mr. Chaplin, M.P., Mr. F. G. Ravenhill, Mr. John Gilmour, Sir Jacob Wilson and Mr. Bowen Jones; and, acting in concert with the Royal Agricultural Society, the Commissioners, in December, 1887, issued their first Report. This document stated that only in recent years had any further necessity arisen to encourage breeding apart from private enterprise; the scarcity of horses was due, in their opinion, to the creation of large breeding studs by foreign Governments, who came to us for their stock and caused a drain upon our resources. The Commission reported "there was little doubt that the Queen's Plates had failed to fulfil their purpose;" but perhaps it had been nearer the mark to say that the Royal Plates had _ceased_ to fulfil their original purpose, owing to the multiplication of valuable stakes which reduced the Royal hundred-guinea prizes to third-class rank and rendered them useless as factors in the encouragement of breeding. The Commission recommended the abolition of the Royal Plates and the application of the money thereto devoted to a scheme of Queen's Premiums, under which sound and approved thoroughbred sires should stand in specified districts and under control of a local committee, serve mares at a low fee. The scheme was at once adopted, and has worked well in practice. The year 1896 saw the appointment of the Royal Commission to Inquire into the Horse Breeding Industry in Ireland. Though the enquiry resolved itself into a comparatively narrow issue, a very large amount of evidence, much of it exceedingly interesting and instructive, was recorded. In pursuance of their policy of encouraging the breeding of all live stock in Ireland, it was proposed to send over selected stallions, thoroughbred and roadster, for the use of owners of mares in the horse-breeding districts. There was much diversity of opinion on the propriety of establishing hackney sires in a country so famed for its hunters, and the principal object of the Commission was to take the opinions of experts on the proposed step. While the majority of witnesses were averse from the introduction of the hackney sire, on the ground that the happy-go-lucky methods of the small Irish farmer would lead to intermingling of blood to the ultimate deterioration of the Irish hunter, it was generally acknowledged that the bone and substance of the hackney was eminently desirable in many districts to improve the character of the local stock. Could a workable system of mare registration have been devised to prevent hunter mares being sent to hackney sires in those counties where hunter-breeding is a valuable industry, there can be no doubt that the introduction of such sires would lay the foundation in Ireland of the breed of high class harness-horses in which Britain is so singularly deficient, and which could be produced in Ireland with as much, if not greater, success, as they are produced on the Continent. Her Majesty's reign has seen the rapid growth of demands from every civilised country in the world for British horses of every breed, eloquent proof of the esteem in which our horses are held abroad and of the success which has attended our endeavours to improve them. We have, it must be confessed, "gone back" in our department of horse-breeding; the supersession of coaches and their teams of fast and enduring horses by railway traffic has brought about neglect of this most useful stamp of animal. The tens of thousands of coach horses formerly required created a large and valuable industry, and it is only in the natural order of things that when railways made an end of the coaching era that horse-breeders should have turned their energies into new channels. It is only within recent years that breeders have recognised how much combined and systematic endeavour can do to assist them in their task of improving our several breeds; and it is worth observing that the most important societies for the promotion of horse-breeding (apart from the General Stud Book) were all founded in the short space of nine years, one after the other, till at the present day every breed is represented by a body whose sole aim is to care for its interests. LIGHT HORSES. _The Hunters' Improvement Society_, founded 1885. Secretary, Mr. A. B. Charlton, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. _The Hackney Horse Society_, founded 1884. Secretary, Mr. Euren, 12, Hanover Square, W. _The Cleveland Bay Horse Society_, founded 1884. Secretary, Mr. F. W. Horsfall, Potto Grange, Northallerton, Yorks. _The Yorkshire Coach Horse Society_, founded 1886. Secretary, Mr. J. White, Appleton Roebuck, Yorkshire. _The Trotting Union of Great Britain and Ireland_, founded 1889. Secretary, Mr. E. Cathcart, 7, Trinity Square, Brixton, London. _The Polo Pony Society_, founded 1894. Secretary, Mr. A. B. Charlton. _The New Forest Pony Society_, founded 1891. Secretary, Mr. H. St. Barbe, Lymington, Hants. _The Shetland Pony Society_, founded 1891. Secretary, Mr. Robert R. Ross, 35, Market Street, Aberdeen. HEAVY HORSES. _The Shire Horse Society_, founded 1878 (as the English Cart Horse Society; name changed in 1884). Secretary, Mr. J. Sloughgrove, 12, Hanover Square, W. _The Suffolk Horse Society_, founded 1891. Secretary, Mr. Fred Smith, Woodbridge, Suffolk. _The Clydesdale Horse Society_, founded 1883. Secretary, Mr. Archibald MacMilage, 93, Hope Street, Glasgow. _London Cart Horse Parade Society_, founded 1885. Secretary, Mr. Euren, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. The dates when these Societies were established are given, as the information eloquently bears out that passage in the Report of the Royal Commission on Horse-breeding which refers to private enterprise. FOOTNOTES: [1] _Ponies Past and Present._ By Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart, published by Vinton & Co., Limited. [2] "The History and Art of Horsemanship." By Richard Berenger, Gentleman of the Horse to George III., published 1771. [3] "London," by Stephanides. Leland's _Itinerary_, vol. viii. [4] "The History of Newmarket." By T. P. Hore. (3 vols.) H. Baily & Co. London, 1886. [5] See _The Great Horse or War Horse_ (p. 26). Third edition. By Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart. Vinton & Co., Ltd. 1899. [6] See _Ponies Past and Present_, pp. 5-6. [7] _The Great Horse or War Horse_. Third edition. By Sir Walter Gilbey, Bart., Vinton & Co., Ltd., 1899. [8] "History of Newmarket." [9] There is some doubt concerning the price paid by the King for the Markham Arabian. The Duke of Newcastle, in _The New Method of Dressing Horses_ (1667) says: "Mr. Markham sold him to King James for five hundred pounds," and this statement has been repeated by Sidney and other writers. In the _Times_ of September 1, 1878, however, a correspondent signing himself "H" drew attention to the following entry in the "Records of the Exchequer:" "Item, December 20, 1616, paid to Master Markham for an Arabian Horse for His Majesty's own use £154. Item, the same paid to a man that brought the same Arabian Horse and kept him £11." [10] _Coach and Sedan._ [11] _Pills to Purge Melancholy._ [12] "Remarks on the Early Use of Carriages in England," _Archæologia_, 1821. [13] _Ibid._ [14] "Carriages: Their First Use in England," by Sir Walter Gilbey; _Live Stock Journal Almanac_, 1897. [15] _History of the Art of Coach Building_. By Geo. A. Thrupp, London, 1876. [16] _The History and Art of Horsemanship._ By Richard Berenger, London, 1771. [17] "Half Bred Horses for Field and Road; Their Breeding and Management," _Journal_ of the R. A. S. E. vol. xix., part 1, No. xxxvii. VINTON'S SPORTING BOOKS. =ANIMAL PAINTERS OF ENGLAND=, Vols. I. and II., =21s.= each: =Lives of Fifty Painters whose works appertain to Animal Life and Sport=. Illustrated. By Sir WALTER GILBEY, Bart. =BAILY'S HUNTING DIRECTORY.= Cloth, gilt, =5s.=; by Post, =5s. 4d.= =DRUID SPORTING LIBRARY.= Five Vols., =5s.= each; Post Free, =5s. 4d.=, or complete, =25s.=, Carriage Free. 1.--The Post and the Paddock. 2.--Silk and Scarlet. 3.--Scott and Sebright. 4.--Saddle and Sirloin. 5.--Life and Times of "The Druid." =DRY FLY ENTOMOLOGY.= =25s.= net. Illustrated. By FREDERIC M. HALFORD. =DRY FLY FISHING.= =15s.= net. By FREDERIC M. HALFORD. Illustrated. =ESSEX FOXHOUNDS,= =25s.=, =with Notes and full History.= Illustrated. =HARNESS HORSE.= Post Free, =2s. 3d.= By Sir WALTER GILBEY. =HINTS TO HUNTSMEN.= Post Free, =1s. 1d.= By Col. J. ANSTRUTHER THOMSON. =HORSES, PAST AND PRESENT.= Post Free, =2s. 3d.= By Sir WALTER GILBEY. =LAYS OF THE CHASE, and Odds and Ends.= By HARRY L. =2s. 6d.= =LEAVES FROM A HUNTING DIARY IN ESSEX.= 2 Vols., =21s.= each. By H. BEAUCHAMP YERBURGH ("McAdam"). =LETTERS ON WHIST.= =1s.=, Post Free. By W. M. DEANE, C.M.G., M.A. =LIFE OF GEORGE STUBBS, R. A.= =£3 3s.= By Sir WALTER GILBEY, Bart. =LIGHT HORSES: Breeds and Management.= Post Free, =3s. 10d.= =LIVE STOCK JOURNAL ALMANAC.= Illustrated. Cloth, =2s.=; By post, =2s. 6d.= Paper covers, =1s.=; by Post, =1s. 4d.= =LORD HENRY BENTINCK ON FOXHOUNDS.= 1s.; Post Free, =1s. 1d.= =NOTES ON THE RIFLE.= By Hon. T. F. FREMANTLE. Post Free, =5s. 4d.= =POLO.= Post Free, =5s. 3d.= By the late J. MORAY BROWN. Illustrated. =POLO.= Price =15s.= net, Post Free. By T. B. DRYBROUGH. Prospectus free. =PONIES: Past and Present.= Post Free, =2s. 3d.= By Sir WALTER GILBEY, Bart. =PRACTICAL VETERINARY ADVICE.= Post Free, =1s. 8d.= By A. H. AIDEN. =SIDE-SADDLE RIDING.= Illustrated. By EVA CHRISTY. =6s.=; by Post, =6s. 3d.= =SMALL HORSES IN WARFARE.= Post Free, =2s. 2d.= By Sir WALTER GILBEY. =YOUNG RACE HORSES.= Post Free, =2s. 2d.= By Sir WALTER GILBEY. Complete Catalogue Free on Application. VINTON & CO., LTD., 9, New Bridge Street, Ludgate Circus, London, E.C. Transcriber's notes: The following is a list of changes made to the original. The first line is the original line, the second the corrected one. King Alfred (871 to 991) had a Master of the Horse, named Ecquef, King Alfred (871 to 899) had a Master of the Horse, named Ecquef, It is stated that, in the year 1752, sixty throughbred stallions, It is stated that, in the year 1752, sixty thoroughbred stallions, putting a man on a rough trotting horse, to which he is obliged putting a man on a rough trotting horse, "to which he is obliged GREY DIOMED, folded 1785. By Diomed--Grey Dorimant. GREY DIOMED, foaled 1785. By Diomed--Grey Dorimant. 
43895	----	Transcriber's Note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. Words printed in italics are noted with underscores: _italics_. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. WYLE COP. SHREWSBURY. A MINUTE TO 12.] AN OLD COACHMAN'S CHATTER WITH SOME Practical Remarks on Driving. BY A SEMI-PROFESSIONAL, EDWARD CORBETT, _Colonel late Shropshire Militia_. _With Eight full-page Illustrations on Stone, by_ JOHN STURGESS. LONDON: RICHARD BENTLEY AND SON, Publishers in Ordinary to Her Majesty the Queen. 1890. [_The right of Translation and all other rights reserved._] TO MY QUONDAM PASSENGERS OF DAYS GONE BY I Venture to Dedicate this Volume, THANKING THEM FOR THEIR FORMER SUPPORT AND HOPING FOR THEIR KIND PATRONAGE OF THIS LITTLE BOOK. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I. THE ROYAL MAILS 9 CHAPTER II. THE ROYAL MAILS (_continued_) 25 CHAPTER III. ACCIDENTS 48 CHAPTER IV. COMBATING WITH SNOW, FOGS, AND FLOODS 65 CHAPTER V. NOTHING NEW UNDER THE SUN 75 CHAPTER VI. HORSES 80 CHAPTER VII. THE ROADS 96 CHAPTER VIII. A SCIENTIFIC CHAPTER 104 CHAPTER IX. A NOTE ON THE HORN 120 CHAPTER X. THE HOLYHEAD ROAD 125 CHAPTER XI. THE BRIGHTON ROAD 140 CHAPTER XII. EARLY DAYS 152 CHAPTER XIII. OLD TIMES 162 CHAPTER XIV. COACHMEN: WHERE DID THEY COME FROM 169 CHAPTER XV. GUARDS 186 CHAPTER XVI. WHERE DID THEY ALL GO TO? 192 CHAPTER XVII. SOME CHARACTERS 196 CHAPTER XVIII. MONOTONY 205 CHAPTER XIX. TANDEM 209 CHAPTER XX. THE CONVICT SHIP 224 CHAPTER XXI. DRIVING 235 CHAPTER XXII. DRIVING (_continued_) 253 CHAPTER XXIII. THE END OF THE JOURNEY 278 APPENDIX 285-308 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS _ON STONE_ BY JOHN STURGESS. I. WYLE COP, SHREWSBURY, "A MINUTE BEFORE TWELVE" _Frontispiece._ II. HORSES IN A HEAP, LEADER DOWN, WHEELERS FALLING OVER HIM _to face page_ 50 III. WENT OVER BANK AND HEDGE " 52 IV. OBSTRUCTION ON THE BRIDGE " 120 V. GALLOPED THE FIVE MILE STAGE IN EIGHTEEN MINUTES " 130 VI. EXTRA PAIR OF HORSES FOR FAST COACHES FOR STEEP ASCENTS " 172 VII. ONCE MORE RUNNING A STEEPLECHASE " 244 VIII. WE MET THE LOOSE HORSE TEARING DOWN THE HILL " 246 _ON WOOD._ THE EXTRA COACH AT CHRISTMAS " 233 DIAGRAMS. I. A NEAT MEETING " 248 II. A MUFFISH MEETING " 248 III. DOWN HILL " 254 IV. A SUDDEN EMERGENCY " 254 V. THE TEAM EXTENDED " 256 VI. THE TEAM GATHERED " 256 AN OLD COACHMAN'S CHATTER, WITH SOME REMARKS ON DRIVING. INTRODUCTION. I think it is Dr. Johnson who has somewhere remarked, that "everyone who writes a book should either help men to enjoy life or to endure it." Whether these few pages will have the former effect I know not, but if they only help to dispel _ennui_ for an hour or two, they will not have been written quite in vain, and, at any rate, I trust they will not be found so unendurable as to be unceremoniously thrown out of the railway carriage window, or behind the fire. Though several books on the same subject have been already published, I entertain a hope that this may not prove "one too many," as the interest taken in coaching, so far from diminishing, would appear to be increasing, judging by the number of coaches running out of London and other places, some even facing the inclemency of winter in the love for the road. The number of private drags also never was so large. "Nimrod" put it at twenty to thirty in the early part of the century. It must be nearly four times that now. I have not the vanity to suppose that I can contribute anything more racy or better told than much that has gone before, but having engaged in coaching as a matter of business, and in partnership with business men, when and where coaches were the only means of public travelling, and having driven professionally for upwards of four years, I have had the opportunity of looking behind the scenes, and have had experiences which cannot have fallen to the lot of most gentlemen coachmen, and certainly will fall to the lot of no others again. I lay no claim to literary merit, nor will what I offer savour much of the sensational or perhaps of novelty; but this I can say, that it is all drawn from personal knowledge, and that, with the exception of one old friend, who has had great experience on some of the best coaches in England, I am indebted to no one for my facts, which has not been the case in all which has been published, judging from some inaccuracies I have met with. To mention only one, which, if considered for a moment, is so improbable, not to say impossible, that it surely must be a misprint. In "Highways and Horses" we are told that the fare for one passenger by mails was eight shillings outside and twelve inside for a hundred miles. Why, this is less than Parliamentary trains! It would have been impossible to have horsed coaches at such prices. The real rate was from fourpence to fivepence per mile inside, and from twopence to threepence outside for that distance. The highest fares were charged by the mails and fast day coaches, the heavy night coaches having to be content with the lower rate. The reader will observe that I do not confine myself to what were called, _par excellence_, "the palmy days of coaching," but have brought it down to a period twenty years later, when the coaches, though comparatively few, were still running in considerable numbers in out-of-the-way districts, upon the old lines, and by those who had learned their business in those palmy days. The pace was not generally so great, judged by the number of miles to the hour, but, taking into consideration the great inferiority of the roads, there was little or no falling off. Indeed, I doubt whether over some roads, eight miles an hour was not harder to accomplish than ten had been over the better roads. Of course, as in earlier days, the work was unequally done, sometimes good, sometimes bad, and sometimes indifferent. If these pages should happen to fall into the hands of any of the many thousand passengers I have had the pleasure of driving, and on whom I hope Father Time has laid benevolent hands, perhaps some of them may recognize scenes which they themselves experienced; and to others memory may bring back the recollection of happy wanderings, thereby causing renewed pleasure. For, as the poet says: "When time, which steals our hours away, Shall steal our pleasures too, The memory of the past shall stay, And half our joys renew." In the remarks on driving, I do not profess to have written a treatise or to have by any means exhausted the subject--that, indeed, were hard to do; a coachman should be always learning;--they are the result of having carefully watched old and experienced hands, together with such instructions as they gave me, followed up by long and continuous practice. I know that some, whose opinions are entitled to the greatest respect, hold different views upon some points; but, at any rate, whether others agree with me or not, they will see, from the examples I have given, that I have practical reasons for all that I advance. I should like to add that these pages were in MS. previously to the publication of the seventh volume of the Badminton Library, and, indeed, I have not yet had the pleasure of reading it; therefore, if I have enunciated doctrines the same as are there given, I cannot be accused of plagiarism. I have felt compelled to make this statement on account of the very high authority of the writers in that book, and when we agree, I shall experience the satisfaction of knowing that I travel in good company. I have been led on by my subject to spread my wings, and fly to southern latitudes; indeed, I have ventured, like Mr. Cook, to take my readers a personally-conducted tour round the world, I will not say exactly in search of knowledge, though, to most, what I have introduced them to must be an unknown world. So fast, indeed, has the world travelled in the last half century, that it has now become ancient history, indeed, sufficiently out of date to afford interest to an antiquary. "_Seated on the old mail-coach, we needed no evidence out of ourselves to indicate the velocity. The vital experience of the glad animal sensibilities made doubts impossible. We heard our speed, we saw it, we felt it as a thrilling; and this speed was not the product of blind insensate agencies that had no sympathy to give, but was incarnated in the fiery eyeballs of the noblest among brutes, in his dilated nostril, spasmodic muscles, and thunder-beating hoofs._"--DE QUINCEY. AN OLD COACHMAN'S CHATTER, WITH SOME REMARKS ON DRIVING. "GOING DOWN WITH VICTORY. "_The absolute perfection of all the appointments, their strength, their brilliant cleanliness, their beautiful simplicity, but more than all the royal magnificence of the horses were, what might first have fixed the attention. On any night the spectacle was beautiful. But the night before us is a night of victory, and, behold, to the ordinary display what a heart-shaking addition! Horses, men, carriages, all are dressed in laurels and flowers, oak-leaves and ribbons. The guards as officially His Majesty's servants, and such coachmen as are within the privilege of the Post Office, wear the royal liveries of course, and on this evening exposed to view without upper coats. Such costume, and the laurels in their hats dilate their hearts by giving them a personal connection with the great news. One heart, one pride, one glory, connects every man by the transcendent bond of his national blood. The spectators, numerous beyond precedent, express their sympathy with these fervent feelings by continual hurrahs. Every moment are shouted aloud by the Post-Office servants and summoned to draw up the great ancestral names of cities known to history through a thousand years--Lincoln, Winchester, Portsmouth, Gloucester, Oxford, Bristol, Manchester, York, Newcastle, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Stirling, Aberdeen--expressing the grandeur of the Empire by the antiquity of its towns, and the grandeur of the mail establishment by the diffusive radiation of its separate missions. Every moment you hear the thunder of lids locked down upon the mail-bags. That sound to each individual mail is the signal for drawing off which is the finest part of the entire spectacle. Then come the horses into play. Horses! can these be horses that bound off with the action and gestures of leopards? What stir! what ferment! what a thundering of wheels! what a trampling of hoofs! what a sounding of trumpets! what farewell cheers! what peals of congratulation, connecting the name of the particular mail, 'Liverpool for ever,' with the name of the particular Victory, 'Salamanca for ever,' The consciousness that all night long, and all the next day, perhaps even longer, many of these mails like fire racing along a train of gunpowder, will be kindling at every instant new successions of burning joy, has an obscure effect of multiplying the victory itself_"--THOMAS DE QUINCEY, _The English Mail-Coach_. CHAPTER I. THE ROYAL MAILS. It is not within the scope of a book on coaching to go behind the time when mail bags were conveyed on wheels, and the coaches became public conveyances, carrying passengers as well as mail bags. The first mail coach was put on the road between Bristol and London in the year 1784, and it is worthy of remark that it was originated by a man who had previously had no practical knowledge of either post office or road work. In this respect, curiously enough, the same remark applies to what became so very large a business in the Sister Isle, as to be quite a national institution. In the former case Mr. Palmer, to whose energy and perseverance the mail coach owed its existence, was by profession a theatrical manager, whilst the inaugurator of the Irish car business, which grew to such large dimensions as to employ more than a thousand horses, was a pedlar, neither of which businesses would appear to lead to horse and road work. Bianconi's cars involuntary bring to my mind a recipe given me many years ago by one of his foremen for preventing crib-biting in horses. It would hardly pass muster with the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, but he declared it was always effective if applied in the first instance. It was to nip off a very small piece from the tip of the horse's tongue. I never tried it, but can quite understand why it was a cure, as horses almost invariably commence the vice by licking the manger, and this process rendered the tongue so tender as to put a summary end to this preliminary proceeding. But this by the way. Before, however, carrying the history of the mails further, I am tempted to introduce the reader to an account of a highway robbery of mail bags, which occurred in Yorkshire in the year 1798, and which shows that the change in the way of conveying the mails was not commenced before it was wanted. The following letter from the Post-office in York, gives a full and graphic account of the circumstance. "POST-OFFICE, YORK, _February 22nd, 1798_. "SIR,--I am sorry to acquaint you that the post-boy coming from Selby to this city, was robbed of his mail, between six and seven o'clock this evening. About three miles this side Selby, he was accosted by a man on foot with a gun in his hand, who asked him if he was the post-boy, and at the same time seizing hold of the bridle. Without waiting for any answer, he told the boy he must immediately unstrap the mail and give it to him, pointing the muzzle of the gun at him whilst he did it. When he had given up the mail, the boy begged he would not hurt him, to which the man replied, 'He need not be afraid,' and at the same time pulled the bridle from the horse's head. The horse immediately galloped off with the boy who had never dismounted. He was a stout man dressed in a drab jacket and had the appearance of a heckler. The boy was too much frightened to make any other remark upon his person, and says he was totally unknown to him. "The mail contained bags for Howden and London, Howden and York, and Selby and York. I have informed the surveyors of the robbery, and have forwarded handbills this night to be distributed in the country, and will take care to insert it in the first paper published here. Waiting your further instructions, I remain with respect, Sir, "Your Obliged and Obedient Humble Servant, "THOS. OLDFIELD." Although two hundred pounds' reward was offered nothing more was ever found out about this transaction for about eighty years, when the missing bag was discovered in a very unexpected manner, which is so well described in a notice contained in the _Daily Telegraph_ newspaper of August 24th, 1876, that I cannot do better than give their account. After describing the nature of the robbery it goes on to say, "So the matter rested for nearly eighty years, and it would probably have been altogether forgotten but for a strange discovery which was made a few days ago. As an old wayside public-house, standing by the side of the high road near Selby, in a district known as Churchhill, was being pulled down, the workmen found in the roof a worn and rotten coat, a southwester hat, and a mail bag marked Selby. This led to further search, and we are told that in digging fresh foundations on the site of the old hostel, a large number of skeletons were found, buried at a small distance beneath the surface. There can be no doubt that in what were affectionately known as 'good old times,' strange scenes occurred at road-side inns, especially on the great roads running north and west from London. The highwaymen of those days were a sort of local Robin Hood, and were only too often on best of terms with the innkeepers. Nothing, indeed, is more likely than for the relic of the highwayman's plunder to be brought to light from out of the mouldering thatch of an old wayside inn. The unearthing of the skeletons is a more serious matter, and looks as if the Selby hostel had, as many old houses have, a dark history of its own." The existence of the skeletons was, however, accounted for by archæologists in a more natural, if less sensational manner. They arrived at the conclusion that the spot had been the site of a very old Christian burial ground, whence called Churchhill; and this opinion would appear to be borne out by the fact of the skeletons having been encased in a very primitive sort of coffin, consisting of nothing more than the trunk of a tree, which had been sawn asunder and hollowed out to receive the body, the two halves being afterwards closed together again. If they had been the victims of foul play, they would probably have been buried without any coffins at all. The old mail bag, after some dispute about ownership, came into the possession of the Post-Office, and is to be seen in the library of that establishment at the present time. Like all other new inventions, the change in the manner of conveying the mails was not without its adversaries, and among the different objections raised one was that it would lead to bloodshed. These objectors, who were, I suppose, the humanitarians of the day, grounded their argument on the fact that the post-boys were so helplessly in the power of the highwaymen, that they made no attempt to defend the property in their charge, but only thought of saving their own lives and limbs; and it is clearly shown by the case adduced that this is what did happen upon such meetings, and small blame to the boys either. But they went on to prophesy, which is not a safe thing to do. They said that when the bags were in the charge of two men, coachman and guard, well armed, they would be obliged to show fight, which would lead to carnage. It was rather a Quaker sort of argument, but, perhaps, it was "Friends" who employed it. Possibly the change did not all at once put a stop to the attentions of the gentlemen of the road, but as I have not found in the archives at the General Post-Office--which are very complete--any records of an attack upon the mail coaches, we may infer that none of any moment did occur. At any rate, the scheme seems to have met with popular approval, judging by two cuttings I have seen from newspapers of the period, which I introduce as conveying the public opinion of the time. The first is dated January 19th, 1784, and says, "Within these last few days Ministers have had several meetings with the Postmaster-General, Secretary, and other officers of the General Post-Office, on the subject of the regulation of mails, which is to make a branch of the Budget this year. It is proposed that instead of the mail-cart, there shall be established carriages in the nature of stage coaches, in the boot of which the mail shall be carried, and in the inside four passengers. The advantages proposed from this regulation are various. The passengers will defray the whole expense of the conveyance. The progress of the post will be considerably quicker, as the coach is to wait but a certain time in every place, and the time to be marked on the messenger's express, that there be no intermediate delay. The parcels which are now transmitted from one place to another by the common stage coaches and diligences, to the injury of the revenue, will by a restriction be confined to the mail coaches, and, indeed, the public will prefer the security of the General Post-Office to that of the private man; for the same reason of safety, persons will prefer travelling in these carriages, as measures are to be taken to prevent robbery. The plan is expected to produce a great deal of money, as well as to afford facility and security to correspondence. It will give a decisive blow to the common stages, and in so far will hurt the late tax, but that loss will be amply recompensed. The plan is the production of Mr. Palmer, manager of the Bath Theatre, and he has been present at the conference on the subject." The other cutting is of the same year, and says: "A scheme is on foot, and will be put in execution on Monday se'ennight, to send by a post coach from the Post-office at eight o'clock in the evening, letters for Bath, Bristol, Bradford, Calne, Chippenham, Colnbrook, Devizes, Henley, Hounslow, Maidenhead, Marlborough, Melksham, Nettlebed, Newbury, Ramsbury, Reading, Trowbridge, Wallingford, and Windsor. The coach is also to carry passengers." As will be seen from these extracts the Post-office must have made a very good bargain, as they only paid one penny a mile to the horse contractors, which must have been considerably less than the cost of the boys, carts, and horses. Who found the coaches is not stated, but, in later years, though contracted for by the Post-office, they were paid for by the coach proprietors. At any rate, the fares paid by the passengers, of whom only four were carried, must have been very high, for the coach had to pay to the exchequer a mileage duty of one penny, thereby taking away all that was given by the Post-office for the conveyance of the letters. There are no records to show in what order of rotation the different mail coaches came into existence; but I know that the one to Shrewsbury commenced running in 1785, and many others must have been put on the roads about that time, as I find that in 1786, no less than twenty left London every evening, besides seven that were at work in different parts of England. The work, however, appears to have, been very imperfectly performed. The coaches must at first have been cumbersome. In the year 1786, the coach to Norwich, _viâ_ Newmarket, weighed 21 cwt. 2 qrs., and one to the same place, _viâ_ Colchester, weighed 18 cwt., which, however, must have been well constructed, as those coaches were known to have carried as many as twenty-two passengers. There was also what was called a caravan, or three-bodied coach, _via_ Ipswich, carrying twelve inside, weighing 21 cwt. 3 qrs., and is stated to have followed the horses very well indeed. In November, 1786, Bezant's patent coach was first submitted to the post-office, and was first used on the coach roads in the spring of 1787. Previously the mail coaches were very heavy and badly constructed, and made of such inferior materials that accidents were general and of daily occurrence, so much so that the public became afraid to venture their lives in them. The general establishment of mail coaches took place in the spring of 1788. The terms on which Mr. Bezant, the patentee of the patent coaches supplied then, was that he engaged to provide and keep them in constant and thorough repair at two pence halfpenny the double mile. At first, from want of system, these coaches were often sent on their journeys without being greased, and generally even without being washed and cleaned, with the result that seldom a day passed that a coach wheel did not fire. As the business became more and more matured, spare coaches were put on the roads, so that each one on arriving in London should have two complete days for repair. This increased the number of coaches to nearly double. As each came into London it was sent to the factory at Millbank, nearly five miles off, to be cleaned, greased, and examined, for which the charge of one shilling was to be paid for each coach, and this price included the drawing of the coach to Millbank and back. Before this arrangement was made, it was nothing unusual for passengers to be kept waiting for a couple of hours, whilst some repairs were being done, which were only discovered to be necessary just as the coach was about to start, and then the work was naturally done in such a hasty manner that the coach started in far from good condition. The coach masters objected to this payment of one shilling for drawing and cleaning, and stated that if it was enforced they would require threepence per mile instead of one penny, which would have made a difference of twenty thousand pounds a year to the post-office revenue. In the end an agreement was made with the patentee, and the post-office paid the bills. In 1791, Mr. Bezant, who was an engineer from Henley-on-Thames, died, and the business fell into the hands of Mr. Vidler, his partner, and in the following year there were one hundred and twenty of those coaches in use on the mail roads. Their weight was from 16 cwt. to 16 cwt. 2 qrs. I have not been able to find any time-bills for this early stage of the work, and do not, therefore, know at what pace the mail coaches were expected to travel, but, judging from the rather unique instruction issued to a guard in the year 1796, great pace on the road was not desired. Perhaps, however, this omission is not important, as the time of arrival at the journey's end must have depended very much upon how many accidents were experienced on the road. It reminds me of the coachman on the Dover road, who, on being asked by a passenger what time he arrived in London, replied, "That the proper hour was six o'clock, but that he had been every hour of the four-and-twenty after it." INSTRUCTIONS TO A GUARD GIVEN IN 1796. "You remember you are to go down with the coach to Weymouth, and come up with the last Tuesday afternoon. Take care that they do not drive fast, make long stops or get drunk. I have told you this all before." The following letter addressed in the same year to one of the horse contractors throws some light upon the way in which the work was done. "Some time since, hearing that your harness was in a very unfit state to do duty, I sent you a set, as is the custom of the office to supply contractors whose harness and reins are bad, when they do not attend to the representatives of the office. The harness cost fourteen guineas, but, as they had been used a few times with the 'King's Royal,' Weymouth, you will only be charged twelve for them." Who would have supposed that from so unpromising a beginning there should have developed the most perfect system of road travelling which the world has ever seen? Verily, it goes to prove the truth of the old adage that "practice makes perfect." This same year, on 11th May, the Liverpool and Hull mail coach was stopped by a pressgang outside Liverpool. A rather serious affray took place, but no mischief was done. The Mayor of Liverpool was communicated with, and asked to give such instructions to the lieutenant of the gang as would prevent any further molestation. Probably, the pressgang saw some passengers on the mail which they supposed to be seafaring men, but it goes to show that the relative positions and rights of the different branches of His Majesty's service were not well understood. However this might have been, it appears that the guards and coachmen of the mails were capable of exerting their rights of free passage along the road to, at least, their full extent. In July, 1796, three gentlemen were riding on horseback, when the Liverpool and Manchester mail coach came up behind them. It would appear that they did not attempt to get out of the way, whereupon the coachman is stated to have used his whip to one of them, and the guard pulled another off his horse, and then brought out his firearm, and threatened to shoot them. According to the guard's statement the gentleman, without speaking a word, stopped the horses of the coach by laying hold of the reins, and nearly overturned it. The coachman flogged the gentleman and his horse; the guard got down and begged them to be off, and when they were going to strike him he threatened to shoot them, upon which they let them go. After a full inquiry from passengers, etc., it was found that the guard's statement was false, and he was instantly dismissed, as was also the coachman. From the following instructions given in 1796, to a contractor, asking how the coachman should act under certain circumstances, it appears that passengers were apt to be very inconsiderate and difficult to manage in those days, as they continued to be later on. "Stick to your bill, and never mind what passengers say respecting waiting over time. Is it not the fault of the landlord to keep them so long? Some day, when you have waited a considerable time, say five or eight minutes longer than is allowed by the bill, drive away and leave them behind, only take care that you have a witness that you called them out two or three times. Then let them get forward how they can." This is much more consideration than was generally shown in later years. I was once driving a mail when I had a Yankee gentleman for one of the outside passengers, who was disposed to give trouble in this way, and after being nearly left behind once or twice, he told me that I was bound to give him five minutes at every change of horses. I told him I would not give him two if I could help it, and would leave him behind as soon as look at him. I guess he was smarter in his movements for the rest of the journey. The following instructions, issued to the guards in the same year, seem to point to their having delivered single letters as they passed through the villages, but I certainly never saw such a thing done in later years. In all the towns there were probably post-offices, though such things were then few and far between, not as they are now, in every village. "You are not to stop at any place to leave letters, etc., but to blow your horn to give the people notice that you have got letters for them; therefore, if they do not choose to come out to receive them, don't you get down from your dickey, but take them on, and bring them back with you on your next journey. You are ordered by your instructions to blow your horn when you pass through a town or village. Be careful to perform this duty, or I shall be obliged to punish you." In the months of January and February, 1795, the whole country was visited by most serious storms and floods. It is described in the post-office minutes as "dreadful;" great holes were made in the roads, and many accidents happened through both coachman and guard being chucked from their boxes, and frequently coaches arrived having lost the guard from that cause. Many bridges were washed away all over the country, of which three alone were between Doncaster and Ferrybridge. The mail coach between Edinburgh and Newcastle took a day longer than usual to do the journey. Nearly all the coaches that attempted to perform their journeys had to take circuitous routes on account of floods. Bridges were washed away, roads rendered impassable by great holes in them, and, in Scotland and the north of England, blocked by snow. In the south, a fast thaw set in, which suddenly changed to intense cold, leaving roads simply sheets of ice. Through the combined exertions of the postmasters, a large number of whom were also mail contractors, many of the roads were cleared sufficiently to admit of the coaches running, but it was months before the mails began to arrive with punctuality, and many mail coach routes had to be altered on account of the roads and bridges not being repaired. This was owing, in most instances, to the road commissioners and local authorities failing to come to settlement in supplying the money for the work to be done, and in many instances the Postmaster-General was compelled to indict them for neglecting to put the road in good repair. The guards suffered very much from the intense cold and dampness, and many were allowed, in addition to the half-guinea per week wages, a further half-guinea, as, on account of their having no passengers to carry, they received no "vails." All their doctors' bills were paid, and the following are but a few of the many guards who received rewards for the manner in which they performed their duty. John Rees, guard from Swansea to Bristol, who, in consequence of the waters being so rapid, was obliged to proceed by horse, when near Bridgend, was up to his shoulders, and in that condition, in the night, did not wait to change his clothes, but proceeded on his duty; was awarded one guinea. Thomas Sweatman, guard to the Chester mail, was obliged to alight from his mail box at Hockliffe to fix the bars and put on some traces, up to his hips in water in the middle of the night, after which it froze severely, and he came in that condition to London; awarded half a guinea. John Jelfs rode all the way from Cirencester to Oxford, and Oxford to Cirencester through snow and water, the coach not being able to proceed; awarded five shillings. To our modern notions, the post-office authorities hardly erred on the side of liberality, but half a guinea was thought much more of in those days. CHAPTER II. THE ROYAL MAILS (_continued_). By the beginning of the new century the mail coach system appears to have begun to settle into its place pretty well. Mr. Vidler had the contract for the coaches, which he continued to hold for at least a quarter of a century, and appears to have brought much spirit to bear upon the work. In the year 1820 he was evidently engaged in making experiments with the view of making the coaches run lighter after the horses, and also to test their stability. He writes to Mr. Johnson, the Superintendent of mail coaches, May 15, saying, "As below, I send you the particulars of an experiment made this morning with a mail coach with the five hundredweight in the three different positions," and he accompanied this letter with cards, of which I give an exact copy. POST COACH. MAIL. 77 lbs. to remove with 5 cwt. on | 70 lbs. to remove with 5 front wheels. | cwt. on front wheels. | 74 lbs. to remove with 5 cwt. on | 65 lbs. to remove with 5 hind wheels. | cwt. on hind wheels. | 68 lbs. to remove with 5 cwt. in | 61 lbs. to remove with 5 centre of the coach. | cwt. in centre of coach. MAIL. BALLOON. 56 lbs. suspended over a pulley | It required 60 lbs. to move moved the mail on a horizontal | the Balloon. plane. | | Weight 18 cwt. 20 lbs. | Weight 18 cwt. 1 qr. 19 lbs. | Fore wheels 3 feet 8 inches. | Fore wheels 3 feet 6 inches. | Hind wheels 4 feet 6 inches. | Hind wheels 4 feet 10 inches. | The fore wheel raised on a block, | The fore wheel of the Balloon stood at 26 inches without | would only stand at 17. upsetting. | | The hind at 16-1/2. DOUBLE-BODIED COACH WITH FORE AND HIND BOOT. Weight 14 cwt. Fore wheels 3 feet 8 inches. Hind wheels 4 feet 6 inches. 28 lbs. suspended over a pulley moved this coach on a horizontal plane. The fore and hind wheels raised on blocks at 31 inches did not upset the coach. It required only 35 lbs. to move this coach with 5 cwt. in front boot. 32 lbs. to move it with 5 cwt. in the hind boot. 33-1/4 lbs. to move it with 5 cwt. in the centre of the body. I confess I am not expert enough to quite understand all this, but I have been induced to place it before the reader, as it occupies little space, and may be of interest to those who have a practical acquaintance with mechanics. I am equally at a loss to say what sort of conveyance the Balloon or the Double-bodied Coach were. The Postmaster-General, and those under him, appear to have always been ready to listen to any proposals or suggestions made to them for the improvement of coaches, even if, as in the case below, they were not very promising. In the year 1811, the Rev. Mr. Milton tried to persuade the Postmaster-General to adopt a system of broad wheels to save the roads, and got it adopted by a Reading coach; but, as might be expected, it was found to add immensely to the draught, and is described as being the only coach which distressed the horses. The rev. gentleman must have been a commissioner of some turnpike trust, and had imbibed such a predilection for broad wheels for the sake of the roads, that he resembled the tanner, who affirmed that "there was nothing like leather." Even without the wheels being broad, the difference between square tires and round tires is enormous. This was brought to my notice very strongly one summer when the round tires which were worn out were replaced by square ones. The difference to the horses in the draught was considerable, but it was most striking when going down hill, where the change made the difference of a notch or two in the brake. But, without having broad wheels, coaches were by far the best customers the roads had. They paid large sums of money, and really benefited the roads, rather than injured them. A road is more easily kept in repair when it has a variety of traffic over it. When, as is commonly the case now, it is nearly all single horse work, the wheels and the horses always keep to the same tracks, and the new metal requires constant raking to prevent the road getting into ruts; whereas, with a variety in the traffic, the stone settles with little trouble. Probably little or no alteration took place in the build of the mail coaches during Mr. Vidler's contract, but at the expiration of it the telegraph spring, the same as was at work under the other coaches, was substituted for what was termed the mail coach spring, which had hitherto been in use as the hind spring. This alteration had the desirable effect of shortening the perch, which was favourable to draught, and, at the same time, it let down the body, which was of a square build, lower down between the springs, which added to the stability. The same axles and wheels were continued, only that the tires, instead of being put on in "stocks," were like those on other coach wheels fastened on in one circle. As late, however, as the year 1839, the post-office authorities did not appear to be quite satisfied, as an enquiry was instituted; but I cannot find that any change of much value was suggested, and certainly none was the outcome of the enquiry. A Mr. J. M'Neil, in his evidence, said that there was no reason why, if the front part of the carriage was upon telegraph springs, the hind part should not be upon C springs. This, no doubt, would check the swing attendant upon the C spring, but might give a rather rude shock to the telegraph spring in doing so. Four years later I find that the sum of thirty shillings was allowed for "drawing the pattern of a coach." The plan, however, was not forthcoming. The following statement shows how large the business of the mail coach department had become by the year 1834, just half a century after its establishment. In England alone the number of miles travelled daily by mail coaches was 16,262. The amount of expense for forwarding the mails was £56,334; amount of mail guards' wages £6,743; the number of them employed was 247; the number of roads on which the coachman acted as guard was 34; the number of roads on which the patent coaches were used was 63, and on which not used was 51. The patent coaches, therefore, seem to have been brought into use slowly. MILEAGE WARRANTS (October, 1834). 3 at 1d. 1 at 1-1/4d. 34 at 1-1/2d. 42 at 2d. 4 at 3d. 1 at 3-1/2d. 1 at 4d. 3 paid yearly sums. 1 received no pay. Perhaps I shall find no better place than this for introducing the reader more intimately to the mail guards. It will be seen that their numbers were very considerable, and as they had exceedingly onerous and responsible duties to perform (and that sometimes at the risk of their lives), and were the servants of the post-office, it would naturally have been expected that they should have been well paid. All that they received, however, from the post-office was ten shillings and sixpence a week and one suit of clothes, in addition to which they were entitled to a superannuation allowance of seven shillings a week, and frequently received assistance in illness. For the rest they had to trust to the tips given to them by the passengers, and I think it speaks well for the liberality of the travelling public that they were satisfied with their places; for having post-office duty to perform in every town they passed through, they could have had little opportunity to confer any benefits upon them. On the subject of fees, too, their employers blew hot and cold. At one time, as has been observed, they made them an allowance for the loss of "vails"; and at another, as will be seen by the accompanying letter, the practice was condemned. A complaint had been received from a passenger respecting fees to coachmen and guards; but the letter will speak for itself. "I have the honour of your letter, to which I beg leave to observe that neither coachman nor guard should claim anything of 'vails' as a right, having ten and sixpence per week each; but the custom too much prevailed of giving generally each a shilling at the end of the ground, but as a courtesy, not a right; and it is the absolute order of the office that they shall not use a word beyond solicitation. This is particularly strong to the guard, for, indeed, over the coachman we have not much power; but if he drives less than thirty miles, as your first did, they should think themselves well content with sixpence from each passenger." It goes on to say that the guard was suspended for his conduct. I don't know how far coachmen were contented with sixpence in those days; but I know that so small a sum, if offered, would have given little satisfaction in later years, if not returned with thanks. It will still be in the recollection of a good many that in the early days of railways the mail bags were only forwarded by a certain number of trains, which were called mail trains, and were in charge of a post-office guard. They may also call to mind that there used to be attached to those trains some carriages a good deal resembling the old mail coaches, and constructed to carry only four passengers in each compartment. So difficult is it to break altogether with old associations. The guards were then placed on what was termed the treasury list, and their salary was raised to seventy pounds a year and upwards. Before I pass on from the subject of the guards, I should like to put once again before the reader the onerous and, indeed, dangerous nature of their duties, and the admirable and faithful way in which they performed them. Among other reports of the same nature I have selected the following, which occurred in November, 1836:-- "The guard, Rands, a very old servant, on the Ludlow and Worcester line, states the coach and passengers were left at a place called Newnham, in consequence of the water being too deep for the coach to travel. I took the mail on horseback until I could procure a post chaise to convey the bags to meet the mail for London. This lost one hour and fourteen minutes, but only forty-five minutes' delay on the arrival in London." Out of their very moderate pay, those of them working out of London, and in Ireland, were called upon to pay the sum of six shillings and sixpence quarterly to the armourer for cleaning arms, but in the country they looked after their own. How far these were kept in serviceable order I have no means of knowing, but judging from a very strange and melancholy accident which occurred in Ireland, those in charge of the armourers appear to have been kept in very fit condition for use, indeed, if not rather too much so. The report says, "As the Sligo mail was preparing to start from Ballina, the guard, Samuel Middleton, was in the act of closing the lid of his arm chest, when, unfortunately, a blunderbuss exploded, one of the balls from which entered the side of a poor countryman, name Terence M'Donagh, and caused his instant death." If this had occurred now, I suppose, by some reasoning peculiarly Hibernian, this accident would have been laid at Mr. Balfour's door. As has been shown by the mileage warrant the remuneration paid to the coach proprietors for horsing the mails was, with the exception of two or three cases, always very small. How they contrived to make any profit out of it, with at first only four passengers, is to me a mystery. I can only suppose that the fares charged to the passengers were very high. As the roads improved, and the conveyances were made more comfortable and commodious, three outside passengers were allowed to be carried, and the pace being accelerated, no doubt many of the mails had a pretty good time of it till the roads were sufficiently improved for the fast day coaches to commence running. Up to this time the only competition they experienced was that of the slow and heavy night coaches, and all the "_élite_" who did not object to pay well for the improved accommodation, travelled by the mails, which were performing their journeys at a good speed considering the then condition of the roads. In the year 1811, according to a table in the edition of "Patterson's Roads," published in that year, the mail from London to Chester and Holyhead, which started from the General Post-Office at eight o'clock on Monday evening, arrived at Chester at twenty-five minutes past twelve on the morning of the following Wednesday, thus taking about twenty-eight hours and a half to perform a journey of one hundred and eighty miles. The "Bristol" occupied fifteen hours and three-quarters on her journey of one hundred and twenty miles, whilst that to Shrewsbury, which at that time ran by Uxbridge and Oxford, consumed twenty-three hours in accomplishing the distance of one hundred and sixty-two miles, and, as Nimrod remarked in his article on the Road, "Perhaps, an hour after her time by Shrewsbury clock." This shows a speed of nearly eight miles an hour, which, if kept, was very creditable work; but upon this we see that Nimrod casts a doubt, and he adds "The betting were not ten to one that she had not been overturned on the road." By the year 1825, some considerable acceleration had taken place. The Shrewsbury mail, which had then become the more important Holyhead mail, performed the journey to Shrewsbury in twenty hours and a half, and was again accelerated in the following year, but to how great an extent I have no knowledge. I only know that a few years later the time allowed was reduced to sixteen hours and a quarter, and she was due at Holyhead about the same time as, a few years previously, she had reached Shrewsbury, or twenty-eight hours from London; and thus, owing in a great degree to the admirable efficiency of Mr. Telford's road-making, surpassing by six hours the opinion expressed by him in the year 1830, that the mail ought to go to Holyhead in thirty-four hours. The remuneration paid to the horse contractors was, with very few exceptions, always very small, as the table already introduced shows. Notwithstanding all the improvements in the mails, however, when the fast day coaches became their rivals, they more and more lost their good customers and then began the complaints about the small amount paid by the post-office. So much, indeed, did this competition tell, that when the Shrewsbury mail became the Holyhead, and changed its route from the Oxford road to that through Coventry, the contractors would accept no less than a shilling a mile, fearing the opposition they would have to meet by those who had lost the mail on the other road. It was, however, largely reduced afterwards, but to what extent I have not ascertained; and again, upon an acceleration in 1826, it was increased to fourpence, with the proviso that if it shared less than four pounds a mile per month during the ensuing year, the price should be raised to fivepence. The Chester mail also obtained a rise to sixpence at the same time, as it did not earn four pounds a mile; doubtless in consequence of its having ceased to carry the Holyhead traffic. The dissatisfaction of the contractors, appears to have continued, and, indeed, became more intense as the coaches improved and multiplied, till at last a committee of the House of Commons was appointed to investigate the circumstances, which, however, I should have thought were not very far to seek; but at any rate, it elicited some good, sound, common sense from Mr. Johnson, the superintendent of mail coaches. He was of opinion that anything under fivepence a mile was too little, and that mail coaches which received less than that were decidedly underpaid. Still the competition was so great that persons were generally found to undertake the contract for less; but he did not desire to bring forward persons to take it at less than threepence a mile, as it would be injurious to them if they excited that sort of opposition. He considered that a dividend of four pounds a mile a month was sufficient to cover loss, but with scarcely sufficient profit. Indeed, fast coaches ought to share five, and I can quite bear him out in this. He was, evidently, a very sensible, practical man, and knew that innkeepers would be found to horse mails for almost nothing, merely for the sake of the prestige which attached to them, the increased custom they brought to the bar, and old rivalry, which was often exceedingly strong, and he preferred to pay a fair sum to be sure and keep responsible men. He considered that mails, on account of the limited number of passengers, worked at a disadvantage when opposed by other coaches; and no doubt he was right, because if a coach carrying fifteen or sixteen passengers was nearly empty to-day, it would be remunerated by a full load to-morrow; whereas, the mail with only seven, when full, could not be reimbursed by one good load. It required to be pretty evenly loaded every day to make it pay. He said a majority of our mail coaches are not earning what is considered the minimum remuneration for a public carriage. He considered that to run toll free and duty free was sufficient to secure them against competition, but, curiously enough, this never seems to have been tried, for though the roads were compelled to let the mails run without paying toll, the Chancellor of the Exchequer always claimed the mileage duty, which was twopence a mile. There was also a duty of five pounds for the stage-coach licence, or what was termed the plates, which they were obliged to carry. The mails, however, were excused from carrying the plates, as it was said His Majesty's mails ought not to be disfigured; but whether they enjoyed the more substantial benefit of having the five pounds remitted I have not been able to ascertain. As time went on, and fast coaches increased, Mr. Johnson must have been at his wit's end to know how to get the mail bags carried. Mail carts appear to have been an expensive luxury, as they cost a shilling a mile, and he could generally do better with the coach proprietors. In some cases there was so much difficulty in filling up stages that it was repeatedly necessary to send orders that if no horses were to be found to take the coach over a certain stage, to forward it by post horses. The Norwich mail, through Newmarket, received eightpence a mile, of which two hundred pounds seems to have been advanced to help the proprietors out of difficulties, and to induce them to go on at all; but that mail was very strongly opposed by an excellent day coach, the "Norwich Telegraph," from the "Golden Cross," Charing Cross. So little at this time was the post-office work valued where it interfered with the hours or increased the pace, that a night coach on the same Norwich road as the mail declined to compete, and it was suggested, but not carried out, to put a guard upon a coach, making a contract with him to carry the letters, giving them some advantage for so doing, which would make it worth their while; and a coach at one time was employed to carry the bags between Alton and Gosport, which were brought to the former place by the Poole mail. It did not, however, meet with Mr. Johnson's approval. He says, "I think that the use of coaches in that way goes directly to destroy the regular mail coach system. I think that if any coach from London to Manchester were to be allowed to carry ten outsides, it never would arrive within an hour of the present mail coach, from the interruption which is occasioned by the number of outside passengers, not to speak of the insecurity of the bags." No doubt he was quite right, as a rule; but if he lived to witness the "Telegraph" coach perform with regularity that journey of one hundred and eighty-six miles in eighteen hours, he would have confessed that there might be exceptions to the rule. He says, speaking generally of the system, with a justifiable spice of _esprit de corps_, "I think we should look to the general result of the mail coach system, and that we should provide the best expedient we can for cases of difficulty. If we employed such coaches we could not prevent the parties from writing Royal Mail Coach upon them, and writing Royal Mail Coach Office upon all their establishments in the towns where they reside; all of which would go very much to destroy the distinction by which the present mail coaches greatly depend, and we should consider that after the mail coach system has supplied all the uses of the post-office, it is still valuable as a national system. It originally set the example of that travelling which is so much admired, not only at home, but even throughout Europe, and I hope continues to set an example now. I am persuaded that the manner in which the stage coaches have been accelerated arose entirely from their desire to rival the mails upon their old plan, and they now try to keep as close to them as they can, though, in all long distances, they are certainly very far behind. Persons of the first distinction travel by the mail coaches. I don't mean amateur whips, but persons who depend upon the regularity, security, and comfort of the mail coach, and being less likely to meet with disagreeable passengers." He adds, "I am not aware of any coach that goes as fast as the mail for a hundred and fifty miles, not even the 'Wonder,' and if some days as fast, they are able, whenever they think proper, to relax their speed, which the mail, being under contract, cannot do." The keen competition between the mails and other coaches is well emphasized by a letter written by Mr. Spencer, the coach proprietor at Holyhead, to Mr. Chaplin in London, complaining that as the "Nimrod" had commenced running through to Holyhead, they were obliged to carry passengers at lower fares, and saying that he had by that night's mail booked a lady through to London, inside, for four pounds; and from my own experience, I can quite believe this, as some of the ladies of the Principality are like Mrs. Gilpin, who, though on pleasure bent, had a frugal mind. When I was driving the "Snowdonian" upon one up journey, upon looking at the "way-bill," as I left Dolgelly, I perceived that there was a lady booked, to be taken up a mile or two out of the town, to go a short distance, the fare for which was three shillings and sixpence "_to pay_." She took her place in the coach in due course, and having alighted at her destination, I demanded her fare from her, upon which she assured me that she could only pay half-a-crown, as she had no more money with her. I told her that I was responsible for the full fare, and that she really must pay it; and when she saw that I was determined to have no nonsense about it, she asked me if I could give her change for a sovereign, to which I replied, "Yes, or two, if you like;" whereupon, she opened her purse and exposed to my delighted eyes two or three shiners. But to show how serious was the reduction made by the Holyhead mail, it will be sufficient to say that the fares by the Edinburgh mail, which ran a distance of only one hundred and thirty miles more, were eleven guineas and a half inside, and seven and a half outside: a full way-bill amounting to sixty-eight guineas and a half. Now this, with fees to coachmen, guards, and porters, would make a journey to the northern capital from the southern one cost about fourteen pounds for an inside passenger, and about ten for one travelling outside, and it occupied forty hours. The distance may now be performed in nine hours and at a cost of two pounds, or less by Parliamentary train. We have seen the mail bags no heavier than could be carried by a boy riding a pony, but before the railway system commenced they had increased to such an extent that some mail coaches could carry no more, and, in two cases, they required to be subsidised. For some time the "Greyhound," Shrewsbury coach, was paid every Saturday night for two outside places to Birmingham, in consideration of their carrying two mail bags as far as that town on account of the number of newspapers; and when that coach ceased running the Holyhead mail was paid for outside places to enable them to dispense with that number of passengers, and find the extra space required for these bags. The Dover mail also received assistance in the form of an extra coach once a week for the foreign, or what were called the black bags, as they were dressed with tar to render them waterproof. With this before me I cannot help asking myself whether it was not somewhat of a leap in the dark to reduce the postage at one bound from the existing high rates to one penny. If the railways had not been constructed with the celerity they were, there must have been great difficulty and increased expenses in conveying the mails, as it would have been impossible for the mail coaches to carry them and passengers as well. I suppose, however, we must conclude that Sir Rowland Hill had, with great foresight, and much consideration, assured himself that such would be the case with the railways, and that he might safely trust to their rapid development and co-operation for carrying out his great project. Though the result might not have been equally clear to others as to himself, he was only like the great engineer, George Stephenson, who, when examined before a Committee of the House of Commons, for the sake of humouring the distrust and nervousness of his interrogators, placed the speed at which he expected the trains to travel at ten miles an hour, though, at the same time he quite reckoned upon, at least, double that speed. The mail coaches working out of London had a gala day every year. On the King's birthday they all paraded, spick and span, with the coaches new or else freshly painted and varnished, the coachmen and guards wearing their new scarlet liveries, picked teams with new harness, and rosettes in their heads: blue and orange ones in old George the Third's day; but the orange, for some cause or other, was changed to red in the succeeding reign. In this form they formed up and paraded through several of the principal thoroughfares at the West End, returning to their respective yards preparatory to the serious business of the night. It was a very pretty pageant, but there was another scene connected with them, and which, to my mind, was quite, if not more interesting, which could be witnessed every week-day evening in St. Martin's-le-Grand, between the hours of half-past seven and eight. Soon after the former hour all the mail coaches--with the exception of seven or eight, which left London by the western roads, and received their bags at the "White Horse Cellar," or "Gloucester Coffee-house," to which places they were taken in mail carts--began to arrive at the General Post-Office to receive their bags. They turned into the yard, through the gateway nearest to Cheapside, and took up their places behind the building in a space which has been very much encroached upon since by buildings, and, as eight o'clock struck, they were to be seen emerging through the lower gateway, and turning off on their respective routes, spreading out like a sky rocket as they advanced into the country. During the long days in summer they turned out nearly as smart as upon the Royal birthday, but on a dark, stormy blustering evening in December or January, when snow or rain were falling steadily, there was an appearance of business, and very serious business about them. The scarlet coats were obscured from view by the somewhat elaborate upper coats which have been elsewhere described; and there was a feeling of serious reality about the whole thing, not unlike that which comes over one upon seeing a ship start on a long voyage, or a regiment embarking for foreign service. One felt that they would probably meet with more or less difficulty, or, at any rate, that there was an arduous task before them. The horses would be changed, the coachmen would be changed, the guards would be changed, probably there would be a considerable change in the passengers, but the wheels roll on for ever, or, at any rate, till they arrive at their journey's end, which, in some cases, would extend not only through that night, but continue till darkness again returned, when the same work went on through another night, and in two or three instances was not concluded till the sun was again high in the heavens; and so admirably was the service performed that the betting was long odds in favour of each coach reaching its destination at the correct time. They had to contend not only with climatic influences, but sometimes the malice of man placed stumbling-blocks in their way. The same diabolical spirit which induces men at the present time to place obstructions across the permanent way of railways, led some miscreants in November, 1815, to place several gates at night right across the road near Warrington, which caused the guard of the Leicester mail to get down ten times to remove them, and, but for the moonlight, would have caused serious accidents, and a cart was also fixed across the road. Gates were also, on a subsequent occasion, placed on the road near Stockton to catch the Chester mail. The perpetrators of these wanton outrages do not appear to have been discovered, or they would doubtless have met with their deserts, as the Postmaster-General was armed with large powers for protecting and preventing delay to the mails. Among other convictions for interrupting the free passage of the mails, one toll-gate man near Henley is recorded to have been fined fifty shillings, and also different carters in sums up to thirty shillings. An innkeeper was liable to the forfeiture of his licence for such an offence. The most trying time for the coachmen and guards were the two first hours on the road. After that, few vehicles were moving about, but up to that time a large number of all sorts, many of which were without lights, were in motion, and not only was a very careful look-out by the former necessary, but the latter had often, especially on thick nights, to make a free use of his horn to avoid collisions. The roads for the first ten miles out of town, as far as Barnet to the north and Hounslow to the west, might, when the days were not at their longest, be said to be a blaze of light. Between the down mails leaving London and the day coaches arriving, none with less than three lamps, and many with five, and some even with six, it was a bad look-out for travellers who drove horses that were frightened at lights. Indeed, I have known some persons very nervous on this subject. They seemed to think that because the strong light dazzled them, it must have the same effect upon the coachman's eyes; and, when I have been driving a coach very strongly lighted, I have known men to leave the road and drive into a field to get out of my way. The presence of a number of coaches carrying powerful lights, and going both ways, probably does have the tendency of throwing small carriages without lamps into the shade, and so making it more difficult to see them. An aspiring costermonger, trying to thread his way with his donkey and cart among the numerous other vehicles, might be overlooked without much difficulty among such a brilliant company. CHAPTER III. ACCIDENTS. I have sometimes been asked, when I was driving coaches, whether I had ever had an accident, to which I was able to reply for a good many years, that, though I had been very near several, I had been fortunate enough to steer clear of them. I had experienced different things which might easily have ended in an accident, such as a leader's rein breaking, the bit falling out of a wheel horse's mouth, a fore wheel coming off, and similar things, but had always managed to pull up without coming to grief. The case of the wheel might have been attended with very serious consequences if we had been going fast at the time, but fortunately it occurred just when I had pulled up to go slowly round a corner. At last, however, it did come, and I think I may say "with a vengeance," though it was not accompanied with any loss of life or limb, or indeed any very serious consequences. It occurred when I was working the Aberystwith and Caernarvon "Snowdonian." A pole chain broke when descending a rather steep fall of ground, which caused the coach to approach the off-side of the road, and, as the lamps threw their light very high, I did not see a large stone, commonly called in the parlance of the road, "a waggoner," until it was close under the roller bolt, and immediately afterwards the fore wheel struck it with such violence that the concussion threw the box passenger and myself off the box. He was thrown clear of the coach, whilst I was pitched over the wheelers' heads, but, alighting upon the leaders' backs, was quietly let down to the ground between them. This, mercifully, laid me what the sailors call "fore and aft," and consequently the coach was able to pass over without touching me, and beyond a broken arm, I was little the worse. The horses galloped on for a few hundred yards, and then ran the off-side wheels up the hedgebank, upsetting the coach into the road. This was somewhat of a lesson to me, for perhaps I had got the horses into the habit of going rather too fast down the falls of ground, of which there were several in the stage, but if I had not made play there, it would have been impossible to keep time. We were horsed by one of the hotel proprietors in Caernarvon, and it was certainly the worst team I ever drove. Underbred to start with, and, though our pace was not fast, yet from age and other infirmities too slow for it even such as it was. Nevertheless, time was bound to be kept somehow, as we not unfrequently carried passengers who wanted to proceed from Caernarvon by the up mail train, and there was not much time to spare. There was one thing I never would do, and that was to call upon good horses, the property of one proprietor, to fetch up time lost by the bad ones belonging to another. I have previously alluded to being near accidents in consequence of a broken rein, and when I was driving the Aberystwith and Kington "Cambrian" I had a very near shave indeed from that cause. We had just commenced the descent of Radnor forest on the up journey, and I had begun to "shove 'em along a bit," when the near lead rein broke, and, consequently, the leaders got, to use a nautical phrase, athwart the wheelers. Of course, I tightened the brake at once, and was able to bring the coach to a standstill before any harm was done, as the pole held, and the horses were quiet, but another yard or two more and the coach must have gone over, as the leaders were already jammed in between the wheelers and a high hedgebank, with their heads turned the wrong way. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. HORSES IN A HEAP. LEADER DOWN, WHEELERS FALLING OVER HIM.] Perhaps some reader may say, "What a shame it was to use such reins, they ought not to be able to break;" and of course they ought not, but horsekeepers were not the most reliable of men, and no coachman could possibly find time to examine the harness at every stage. If leading reins could be cut out of one length of leather, there would be very few or no breakages, but as they are obliged to be made of several lengths sewn together, they are liable to break, as they get old, from the stitches becoming rotten. Nevertheless such things ought not to happen, but as I knew they would, I always carried about me two short straps the same width as the reins, one about two inches long, with a buckle at both ends, and the other with a buckle at one end and a billet at the other, so that a breakage would be easily repaired at whatever part it might occur. I have twice had three out of the four horses in a heap, from a leader coming down and the two wheelers falling over him; but in such a case as this there is very little danger if the coachman has the presence of mind not to leave his box till there is sufficient strength at the horses' heads to prevent them jumping up and starting off frightened. These, and a few others which have come to the front in connection with other subjects, are all the accidents and close shaves which I have experienced as a coachman; and when I call to mind the many thousand miles I have driven, over some very indifferent roads, with heavy loads, at all hours, in all weathers, and with all sorts of "_cattle_," I think I may consider myself fortunate. But then I was insured in the "Railway Passengers' Insurance Company," and recommend all other coachmen to do the same. So much for my own experiences. Now for a few which have been gone through by others. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. WENT OVER BANK & HEDGE.] All those which have resulted from climatic influences will be introduced in connection with their respective causes, but I will venture to present to the reader others which, from one cause or another, possess more or less a character of their own, and are distinguished either by extraordinary escapes, great recklessness, or some other remarkable feature. The first I shall notice is distinguished by the singularity of the escapes, and I cannot convey the circumstances connected with it better than by giving the report of the inspector upon the accident which occurred to the Gloucester and Caermarthen mail on December 19, 1835. He says:-- "It appears from the tracks of the wheels, which are still visible, owing to the frost setting in immediately after the accident, that about a hundred yards before the cart was met, the mail was in the middle of the road, leaving room on either side for the cart to pass, and at this distance the cart was seen to be on the wrong side of the road. The coachman called out in the usual way when the carter crossed to his near side of the road, and had the coachman gone to his near side, no accident would have occurred; but, by the tracks of the wheels, it is quite clear that the coachman took the off-side of the road in a sort of sweep, when the leaders coming in front of the cart, and not being able to pass, went over the bank and hedge, the latter being low; and then the wheelers followed in as regular a manner as if they had been going down a street, and all the four wheels of the coach went on the bank straight forward and went down the precipice in this manner for some short distance before the mail went over, which it did on the right side, and turned over four times before it was stopped by coming against an oak tree. But for this impediment to its progress it would have turned over again and fallen into a river. The pole was broken at both ends, and the perch and hind springs were broken. The fore boot was left in its progress; the mail box was dashed to atoms, and the luggage and bags strewed in all directions. A tin box containing valuable deeds was broken, and the deeds scattered in all directions, but have been all recovered, and are safe in Colonel Gwynne's possession, to whom they belong. When the coach came against the tree it was on its wheels. Colonel Gwynne caused it to be chained and locked to the tree till the inspector should see it. The distance from the road to the tree is eighty-seven feet. The passengers were Colonel Gwynne on the box, Mr. D. Jones, Mr. Edwards, and Mr. Kenrick on the roof, and Mr. Lloyd Harris and Mr. Church inside. Colonel Gwynne jumped off when he saw the leaders going over the bank, as did Edward Jenkins the coachman and Compton the guard. The latter was somewhat stunned at first, but all escaped with slight hurt. "Mr. D. Jones was found about half-way down the precipice, bleeding much, having received several cuts about the head and face, and was a good deal bruised and in a senseless state. Mr. Harris, when the coach came in contact with the tree, was forced through the part from which the boot had been separated, and fell into the river. He remembers nothing of the accident except feeling cold when in the river, from which, somehow or other, he got out and went to a farmhouse near, where he was found in a senseless state. He has a severe cut on the upper lip, but both he and Mr. Jones are recovering rapidly. Mr. Kenrick was not hurt in the least. The accident appears to have been one of the most extraordinary ever heard of, and the escape of the passengers with their lives most miraculous. The coachman's conduct seems to have been most censurable. He is reported by the guard and passengers to have driven the whole of the way most irregularly. He was remonstrated with by them, but, as has been seen, with no effect. One of the passengers thought he was drunk, but the guard says he did not observe it, but that he only heard him speak once. The horses were so little injured that they were at work the next day in their usual places." The coachman was afterwards brought before the magistrates, when he pleaded guilty to negligence and being on the wrong side of the road, and was fined five pounds. On 13th January, 1836, when the Falmouth and Exeter mail was about three miles from Okehampton, the coachman drove against a heap of stones which had been placed too far out from the off-side of the road, and the concussion was so great that both himself and the guard were thrown off. The horses, finding themselves under no control, immediately went off at a smart pace, and, although they had three sharp turns to take, and a hill to go down, actually arrived at the Okehampton turnpike gate without the slightest accident. There was one gentleman inside, who was not aware that anything was amiss, but merely thought the coachman was driving too fast. Perhaps the despised turnpike gate prevented a serious accident in this case. In July, 1839, the Ipswich mail, when arriving at Colchester, the coachman Flack, as is usual, threw down the reins and got down when no horsekeeper was at the horses' heads, and they galloped off till the near leader fell and broke his neck, which stopped them. Probably this accident would not have occurred if the coach had been fitted with a brake, which the coachman ought to put on tight before leaving his box. An old friend of mine writes me, "One night I was a passenger in the Glasgow mail, driven by Captain Baynton, and felt rather uneasy when I found we were racing with the Edinburgh mail for the Stamford Hill toll-gate. The consequence was, we cannoned in the gate, and a most awful crash ensued, killing two wheel horses and seriously injuring the other two. It is needless to say that Billy Chaplin never allowed the captain to take the Glasgow mail out of the yard again." Anything more reckless than this could not possibly be. Not only were they racing down hill, but the gate was too narrow to admit of both coaches going through abreast; consequently, unless the nerve of one of the coachmen gave way before it was too late, so as to make him decline the contest in time, a smash was inevitable. Neither had they the excuse that they were driving opposition coaches. On September 29th, 1835, when the coachman of the Ipswich mail was getting into his seat at the "Swan with Two Necks" yard in Lad Lane, the horses suddenly started off, knocking down the man who was attending at their heads, and throwing the coachman off the steps. They then proceeded at a rapid pace into Cheapside, when the coach, catching the hind part of the Poole mail, the concussion was so great that it threw the coachman of that mail from his box with such violence that he was taken up senseless, and was carried to the hospital in a dangerous state. The horses of the Ipswich mail, continuing their speed, ran the pole into the iron railings of the area of Mr. Ripling's house, which breaking, fortunately set the leaders at liberty, when the wheel horses were soon stopped without doing any further damage. To anyone who remembers the situation of the yard of the "Swan with Two Necks," it will be a matter of surprise how four horses, entirely left to their own guidance, could possibly steer the coach clear of the different corners between it and Cheapside. The following is an instance of a coach absolutely rolling over. The "Liverpool Express," when near Chalk Hill on her journey to London, though not a particularly fast coach, was going at a great pace, as the stage was only four miles, and she was making time for a long stage to follow. Somehow or another she got on the rock, which is easily done with a coach heavily loaded on the roof if the wheel horses are not poled up even, or not the right length, and the coach is kept too much on the side of the road. Though I have elsewhere said a good deal on the subject of pole chains, I have been induced to make a practical application here for the benefit of any young coachmen who may be disposed to spring their teams on a nice piece of flat ground. But to return to the "Express." It was a very old coach, and the transom plate was so much worn as to have become round, and she rolled over, killing one passenger and severely injuring two more. "They were thrown off like a man sowing wheat broadcast," says my informant. One passenger brought an action against the proprietors and recovered heavy damages, though they tried to saddle it on the coachman's driving too fast; but the jury laid it to the bad state of the transom plate, and gave damages accordingly. The following accident, like many others, is one which ought not to have happened at all, and it appears to me that, after all the investigation which took place, the saddle was put upon the back of the wrong horse. However, I will give the Post-office minute upon the occasion:-- "London and Worcester mail coach accident caused through carrying an extra passenger on the box, July 9th, 1838. "As the mail coach was entering Broadway, the horses ran away; when the leading reins breaking, the coach was drawn against a post, and the pole and splinter bar were broken. Fortunately, the coach did not overturn. The reason for the horses taking fright could not be ascertained, but the guard stated that the book-keeper at Oxford had insisted on placing an extra passenger on the box seat with the coachman, who had declared since the accident that, if the extra passenger had not been on the box seat, he would have been enabled to stop the horses. "An order was issued that the book-keeper and coachman were to be summoned, with the intent of punishing them both with the utmost rigour of the law; as regards the coachman for allowing an extra person to ride with him, and the book-keeper for insisting that the coachman (who was in a manner obliged to obey his orders) should carry the passenger on the seat with him. "The inspector found, when applying for the summons, that he could only proceed against the coachman. The case was heard before the magistrates at Oxford, when the coachman was fined in the penalty of fifty shillings and costs." The question was raised as to asking the contractor to dismiss the coachman, but the opinion of the Postmaster-General was that the punishment had fallen on the wrong man, and he would, therefore, not insist upon his dismissal. I should have supposed that, in such a case as this, the guard would have had power to summarily prevent an extra passenger being carried. If he had not that power he surely ought to have had it, and if he did possess it, and did not exercise it, he alone was to blame. But, after all, it is difficult to understand how the presence of a third person on the box could have contributed to the breaking of the reins, which was the ultimate cause of the accident. Amongst the other old institutions and customs which I have raked up from the dust-heap of time, is the law of Deodand, and I will now, by means of an accident, give a practical insight into the working of it. As the Holyhead mail was one day galloping down a sharp pitch in the road at Shenley, three boys on their way to school, as was a not uncommon practice with boys in those days, tried which of them could run across the road nearest to the horses' heads of the coach. Two of them got across in time and escaped without harm, but the third, being foolhardy, tried to return; the lamentable result of which was that the near side leading bar struck him and knocked him down, causing the mail to run over him, and he was killed on the spot. A coroner's inquest was held, before which the coachman had to appear, but no blame was attached to him, although a deodand of one sovereign was levied on the coach. The law appears to have worked hardly in this case. If any one was to blame, it must have been the coachman, and it was rather rough on the proprietors to fine them indirectly for an accident over which they could have no control. There was a coach from Cambridge to London, called the "Star," what was called an up and down coach; that is, leaving Cambridge in the morning, and returning again in the evening, from the "Belle Sauvage," Ludgate Hill, which was driven by Joe Walton, a very steady, good coachman, but which, nevertheless, met with a very serious and expensive accident. Sir St. Vincent Cotton, well known afterwards on the Brighton road, whenever he travelled by the "Star," was allowed by Mr. Nelson, the London proprietor, to waggon it, and it was considered a great piece of condescension on the part of old Joe to give up the ribbons to anyone; but the baronet was a first-rate amateur, and a liberal tipper, so he waived the etiquette. On one of these occasions the "Star" was a little behind time, and St. Vincent was making it up by springing the team a little too freely, which set the coach on the rock, and old Joe becoming nervous, seized hold of the near side reins and thus threw her over. Calloway, the jockey, who was on the coach, had his leg broken, and the accident altogether cost the proprietors nearly two thousand pounds. Sir St. Vincent was unable to assist them much, as he was hard-up at the time. Probably the fact of the coach being driven by an amateur was not without its effect upon the costs, as, whether he was to blame or not, a jury would not be unlikely to arrive at the conclusion that he was the wrong man in the wrong place. And now I will wind up this formidable chapter of accidents with one which indicates that the palmy days were passing away, and as it is always somewhat painful to witness the decay of anything one has been fond of, I will draw the veil over the decadence of a system which arrived nearer to perfection than any other road travelling that was ever seen in the world. Sufficient to say that my own experience on a journey during that winter on the Holyhead mail quite confirms the description given of the state of the horses and harness. I was on the box of the mail one night in the month of January in that winter, when I saw the old short Tommy, which had lain so long on the shelf, reproduced, to enable time to be kept, and in one place there lay by the side of the road the carcase of a horse which had fallen in the up mail. Perhaps it was not very much to be wondered at that the proprietors should be unwilling to go to the expense of buying fresh horses at such a time, but they carried their prudence so far that it partook of cruelty. The mail coach minute of the General Post-Office says: "Collision between the Holyhead mail coach and the Manchester mail coach, 29 June, 1838, at Dirty House Hill, between Weedon and Foster's Booth." "Both coachmen were in fault. The Holyhead coach had no lamps, and the explanation of their absence was that 28th June of that year was the Coronation Day of our beloved Queen, and the crowd was so great in Birmingham that, in paying attention to getting the horses through the streets, and having lost considerable time in so doing, in the hurry to get the coach off again, the guard did not ascertain if the lamps were with the coach or not. The Manchester coach, at the time of the accident, was attempting, when climbing the hill, to pass the Carlisle mail coach, and was ascending on the wrong side of the road. The horses dashed into each other, with the result that one of the wheel horses of the Holyhead mail, belonging to Mr. Wilson, of Daventry, was killed, and the others injured, one of the leaders seriously. The harness was old, and snapped like chips, or more serious would have been the consequences. In fact, the horse killed was old and worn-out, otherwise, the sudden concussion might have deprived the passengers of life, and, probably, more horses would have been killed. As it was difficult to decide which of the two coachmen was most in the wrong, it was left to the two coachmasters to arrange affairs between themselves." How the Holyhead, the Manchester, and the Carlisle mails ever got together on the same road I am unable to say, but can only suppose that the railway being open at that time from Liverpool and Manchester to Birmingham, the bags were in some way handed over to them for conveyance as far as was possible, and were then consigned at the terminus at Birmingham to their respective mail coaches; but, even then, I should have thought that the weight of the bags could not have been sufficient to necessitate a separate coach for each place. CHAPTER IV. COMBATING WITH SNOW, FOGS, AND FLOODS. How vividly do these words recall the many wet and snowy journeys which I have experienced, both as coachman and passenger, in years gone by, and, strange as it may appear to most people now-a-days, with no unpleasurable associations, though no doubt it was rather trying at the time. Snowstorms, in particular, were very detrimental to coachmen's eyes, particularly when accompanied with high winds. A good look out forward could on no account be relaxed, and that placed the eyes in such a position as was most favourable for the large flakes to fall into them. One coachman on the Holyhead mail, I forget his name, lost his sight from the effects of a snowstorm in the pass of Nant Francon, but probably his eyes had already been weakened by previous experiences of the same nature. I don't think my own have even quite recovered the effects of three winters over the base of Cader Idris. But, notwithstanding all the bad weather I have been exposed to, I cannot call to mind having ever been wet through outside a coach; but then I always took care to be well protected by coats, and all other contrivances for withstanding it. I have, however, seen a fellow-passenger, when he dismounted from a coach at the end of an eighty miles' journey, performed in soaking rain, whose boots were as full of water from the rain having run down him, as if he had just walked through a brook. I never had the misfortune of being regularly snowed up, though I have had some experience of snowdrifts. One of the winters that I drove the "Harkaway" was accompanied by a good deal of snow, and the road for part of the journey, which ran over high and exposed ground, became drifted up, preventing the coach running for two days. On the third, however, as a slight thaw had set in, it was determined to try and force a way through, especially as the road surveyor had sent some men to clear away the snow. As far as the coach road was concerned, however, these men might nearly as well have stayed at home, as they had confined their attention to letting off the water where it had melted, and when the coach arrived at the spot the drifts remained very much as they had been. Under these circumstances, instead of the proverbial three courses there were only two offered to us--namely, to "go at it or go home." I chose the former alternative, and, catching the horses fast by the head, sent them at the first drift with such a will, that, between the force of the pace and a struggle or two besides, the coach was landed about half way through, when it stuck fast. The workmen now came to our assistance, and dug us out, and I had then only to do the same at the other two drifts, and we managed to catch a train at Machynlleth, though not the right one, as it had taken us two hours to cover a distance of one mile and a half. Though I have always been fortunate enough to keep clear of dangerous floods, I did so once only by a detour of seven miles, thereby lengthening the day's drive to one hundred, and this reminds me of a rather droll request that was once made to me. I was driving my drag with a party going to a picnic, and in the course of the drive we had to ford a river which had risen very considerably from the rains of the previous night. When we had got about half-way across, the water had become deep enough to rise a foot or so up the leaders' sides, and the spray was dashing over their backs. Of course, there was nothing to be done except to push on, but a lady called to me from behind, begging me either to turn round, or else put her down. If I had acceded to her last request, she would have met with a cool reception! Notwithstanding all that was done by the great improvement made in roads, together with the superior class of horses employed and the general excellence of the coachmen, nothing could be effected to prevent loss of time or accidents occurring through severe snows, floods, and fogs, and the mail-bags were from these causes delayed, although, as we have already seen, almost superhuman efforts were made by the guards to get them through the stoppages. Neither were the Postmaster-General and his subordinates wanting in using all the means in their power, whether by expenditure of money or in any other way, to secure the safety and punctuality of the mails. The expenses incurred during serious snows, in paying for the removal of the snow or for extra horses to the coaches, were considerable. In one heavy snowstorm the sum of one hundred and ninety pounds was paid for these purposes, and for another the cost was one hundred and sixty. At one time the attention of the Postmaster-General was called to a snow-plough, and the following circular was issued in December, 1836, to the postmasters: "I send you some copies of a description of snow-plough, which has been used with great advantage in former seasons for the purpose of forcing a passage through the snow, and I have to request that you will communicate with the magistrates, commissioners, trustees, and surveyors of roads, or other influential persons, urging their co-operation in endeavouring to remove the impediments to the progress of the mails. The Postmaster-General relies on all possible efforts being made by yourself and others to secure this important object, and I would suggest whether, among other methods, the passage of the mail coaches through the snow might not be facilitated by placing them on sledges." Whether any pattern of snow-plough or sledge accompanied this missive is not clear, but, judging from some correspondence on the subject, I should fancy there was. Nothing appears to have been done with either implement, and, indeed, it is not very likely that they would have been popular with the horse contractors. If the snow-ploughs had succeeded in clearing a space sufficient to permit of the passage of a coach, it would probably have left the road in a very heavy state, and I should doubt whether in the climate of this country sledges would have been found of much use. Our frosts are seldom intense enough, and too frequently accompanied with thaws, to allow of the surface being in a fit state for their use for sufficient length of time to make it worth while adapting the coaches to them. If sledges had been brought into general use, probably a good many proprietors would have followed the example set them by one of their number, who, when the coachman had succeeded by great exertions in getting his coach through the snow, said to him, "Why don't you stick her?" and, strange to relate, she did stick in a drift on the next journey. Dense fogs, although not altogether stopping the traffic on the roads, were more conducive to accidents than heavy snows, which did absolutely prohibit progress. In the latter case, at the worst, conveyances were reduced to a complete standstill, and there was an end of it for the time; but if the fog was of such a density as to be capable of being cut with a knife and fork an attempt must be made. Though we hear from time to time of all traffic being stopped in the streets of the metropolis, I never recollect to have known of coaches being quite reduced to that state of helplessness; and, here again, the Postmaster-General is found providing what remedy he could. In November, 1835, he ordered links to be prepared, but with the assistance of those, even if carried by men on horseback, only very slow progress could have been effected. It is one of the greatest evils attendant on a fog that it renders lamps useless, and very much circumscribes the light thrown by a link. If the fog was not very thick indeed, it was possible, though it might be attended by some little risk, to keep going pretty well, but when it became so dense as to hide the horses from the coachman's view there would be no travelling beyond a foot's pace. One could keep pushing along pretty well, as I recollect having done myself when driving a mail, and time had to be kept if at all possible, as long as the hedges could be distinguished, though I hardly knew how soon my leaders would be in the middle of a lot of loose horses which I could not see, but distinctly hear clattering along just in front of us. Notwithstanding all the care that could be taken, accidents were the inevitable result of the attempts made to keep going, of which I will now give one or two instances, though they were not of a serious nature. On December 3rd, 1839, the Gloucester and Stroud mails, which ran for a long distance over the same ground, were both drawn off the road and upset in a thick fog, and within a few days of this occurrence the Edinburgh mail was overturned into a ditch, owing to the fog being so thick that the coachman could not see his horses. But floods were most to be dreaded. As has been shown, though fogs and snowstorms were great hindrances to locomotion, and the cause of a vast amount of inconvenience and expense, they were seldom attended with loss of life, whereas sad records of fatal issues are to be found in connection with floods, to a few of which I will call the reader's attention. On September 11th, 1829, when the Birmingham and Liverpool mail reached Smallwood Bridge, it turned out that the bridge had been blown up by the force of the water, and the coachman, not being aware of it, the coach was precipitated into the river. The guard was washed down under a remaining arch. The coachman caught hold of a stump and saved himself. Of the three inside passengers, one being a slender, active young man, managed to get out by breaking the glass of the window, and helped to save the guard. The two others sunk to the bottom with one of the horses, and nothing could be seen but water. Strange to say, however, the bags were eventually recovered, when the letters were carefully spread out to dry, and were, most of them, eventually delivered in tolerable condition. Some few fragments are to be seen now at the General Post-Office. Moreton, the guard, was washed down about two hundreds yards, when he caught hold of a tree, and remained there up to his neck in water for an hour before he was rescued. A most serious flood took place near Newport Pagnel, in November, 1823, though, fortunately, not attended with any fatal consequences, though the stoppage of traffic was very great. The report to the General Post-Office was, "Owing to a sudden rise in the waters near Newport Pagnel, two mails, six coaches, and a van were unable to proceed on their journeys, and, but for the hospitality of Mr. R. Walker, brick-maker, the passengers, amounting to upwards of sixty persons, would have been exposed during the tempestuous night to all the severities of the season. He most kindly opened his doors, and generously offered to the passengers and horses every assistance and comfort in his power; turning his own horses out of the stables to afford shelter to those of the mails." On February 9th, 1831, the Milford Haven mail met with a most serious accident. The following is the report of the inspector, which, though rather involved, affords a graphic account of the circumstances, and I think I cannot do better than give it in his words. He says, "About two o'clock in the morning, when crossing a small bridge near the river Towy, about six miles from Caermarthen, on the London road between Caermarthen and Llandilo, owing to the heavy falls of snow and rain on the mountains and a rapid thaw afterwards, which caused the river to overflow the bridge and high road, the morning also being very dark, and the rain falling heavily, the coach was overtaken by the flood, and before the coachman was aware of it, the water rose to such a height in a few minutes that the four horses were unfortunately drowned, and all on the coach would undoubtedly have shared the same fate but for the meritorious conduct of a passenger named John Cressy (a servant in the employ of Sir Richard Phillips), who swam through the flood for about one hundred yards, and secured some boats, which he brought to their assistance, just as the water had reached the top of the coach, and by this means all the passengers, together with coachman, guard, and mails, were saved. John Cressy was awarded fifteen pounds by the Postmaster-General for his gallant conduct." Some years after this, but I have not got the date, a somewhat similar accident happened on the down journey of the Gloucester and Aberystwith mail. The water had flooded the road at Lugwardine to a considerable depth, and one of the arches of the bridge had collapsed; the result of which was that coach, horses, passengers, and all were precipitated into the water, and were with great difficulty rescued, and though no life was lost at the time, one passenger, a Mr. Hardwick, died afterwards from being so long immersed in the water. CHAPTER V. NOTHING NEW UNDER THE SUN. There can be but few left now who are able to call to mind that the style of coaches which now run in the summer months from the "White Horse Cellars," and traverse the different roads out of London, were to a great extent anticipated more than fifty years ago. But so it is, and I have a vivid recollection of having seen, in the years 1837 or 38, a remarkably well-appointed coach start from the "Cellars," which created quite a crowd of people, even in those days when coaches were as common as blackberries. It was named the "Taglioni," after a favourite _danseuse_ of those days, and ran to Windsor and back in the day. It was painted blue, with a red undercarriage, the family colours of Lord Chesterfield, who horsed it, in conjunction with Count d'Orsay and Prince Bathyani. Young Brackenbury was the professional coachman, for, though his Lordship and his brother proprietors drove very frequently, they kept a curate to do the work when they had other things to do which they liked better. Brackenbury used to wear a most _récherché_ blue scarf, with "Taglioni" embroidered on it by the Countess's own hands. His Lordship had the credit of being a very good coachman, as will be seen from the few lines I venture to produce, which appeared in one of the sporting periodicals of that time:-- "See Chesterfield advance with steady hand, Swish at a rasper and in safety land, Who sits his horse so well, or at a race, Drives four in hand with greater skill or grace." No doubt, the "Taglioni" did take her share in the ordinary business of a public conveyance, and not, as in the present day, of carrying only parties on "pleasure bent," but it had a certain spice of the toy about it; and I should think did not much exercise the minds of Pears or Shepherd, who each had a coach on the same road. As a boy, I had an eye for a coach, and remember, as well as I remember old Keat's birch, seeing those two coaches pass through Eton. Shepherd's was a true blue coach, and travelled on the maxim of "Certain, though slow." Pears drove a coach painted chocolate with red undercarriage, and was altogether a smarter turn-out than the gentle Shepherd, and travelled somewhat faster, but, I believe, ran little chance of being run in for furious driving. Whilst I stand in fancy upon the classic ground of Eton, there arises before my sight a pageant, which for better or worse has now, like so many other antique customs, passed away never to be revived. I suppose this is a necessary accompaniment of the progress of the age, and that "Montem" could hardly have been carried on in the days of the boiling kettle. It would have been as easy to get blood out of a stone as _salt_ from a rushing train; besides which the present facilities of locomotion would have brought together an exceedingly miscellaneous gathering at Salt Hill, to say the least of it. Still it was a unique institution, and contained in it a very kindly feeling--that of giving a little start in the world to a youth who had attained the top rung of the college ladder, and was entering upon his university career. Most of the ways and doings of old Eton have found plenty of chroniclers. The institution in the library is never forgotten. The birch and the block always come in for their fair share of comment, but the triennial festival of "Montem" has, so far as I am aware, not received anything like the same amount of attention; and as I acted a part in two of them, both in blue and red, I will venture to intrude upon the patience of the reader whilst I make a short digression, emboldened thereto by the fact that Eton customs have already been handled, as well as the ribbons, in a book on coaching. Well, then, "Montem" was celebrated every third year. The day's work began by four boys, selected for the purpose and gaily habited, starting off by two and two, early in the morning, to scour the principal roads in the neighbourhood, and gather donations in money--called for the occasion "_Salt_"--from all the travellers they met with. By this means a nice sum was collected, which was given to the senior boy on the foundation upon his leaving the college for the University of Cambridge. At a later hour, about ten o'clock, the whole school assembled in the college square. The sixth form, if I recollect rightly, wore fancy dresses, representing some classical or historical characters, and attended by one or two pages, selected from the lower boys, and also wearing fancy dresses. The fifth form wore a rather heterogeneous dress, a mixture of military and civil. It consisted of a red coat and white trousers, with a sword and sash, surmounted by a cocked hat, from which was fluttering in the wind a feather, such as was worn by a Field-Marshal or a General Officer, according to the taste of the wearer, or in what he could get. The lower boys were dressed in blue jackets and white trousers, each carrying in his hand a white wand, in length about six or seven feet, and in the procession were mixed alternately with the semi-military fifth form. In this formation they marched round the quadrangle of the college, upon debouching from which a somewhat strange scene ensued. The wearers of the red coats drew their swords and began hacking vigorously at the wands, which were held out by their owners for the purpose of being cut to pieces. The swords, however, were so blunt that more wands owed their destruction to the hands of the blue boys than the swords of the red. The work of destruction being accomplished, the whole fell in again and marched to Salt Hill, where dinners were provided for them by their different houses; and dinner being ended, they returned to college as they liked. The two hotels at Salt Hill are, I believe, now converted to other uses, and the dwellers there would be as much astonished to see a "Montem," as one of the hundred and odd mails and coaches which passed their doors in those days. CHAPTER VI. HORSES. A book about coaching would be very incomplete without touching on the subject of horses, as they were like the main spring of a watch: the coach could not go without them. Of course, a very large number of horses were employed in the coaches, and I can remember that many people feared that, if coaches ceased to run, the number and quality of the horses bred in the country would deteriorate, in consequence of this demand for them falling off; but that, like most prognostications of the same sort, has proved to be unfounded, and I should think the number of horses at the present time employed in public conveyances, must exceed considerably what it was in the days of road travelling. However that may be, no doubt very large numbers were kept by the different coach proprietors, both in town and country, at the head of which stood Mr. Chaplin, with about thirteen hundred; and a very large capital was invested in the business, though probably not so large as might be supposed by the uninitiated; for, judging by my own experience, I should say that the price of horses used for that purpose has been over-stated. Nimrod, who was no doubt a very competent authority on the subject, at the time he wrote his article in the _Quarterly Review_,[1] puts the average price at twenty-five pounds, with about thirty pounds for those working out of London; but I think those prices are rather high. [1] _Quarterly Review_ for 1832, vol. 48, pages 346-375. This statement may appear erroneous to those who would judge by the sums now obtained for the horses which have been running in the summer coaches out of London in the present day; but the two businesses have little in common, except that the coaches go on wheels and are drawn by horses. Six months' work on a coach, loaded as they used to be, would take more out of the horses employed in them than would two years in the coaches which look so pretty at Hatchett's on a fine summer morning, and no one could have afforded to give high prices for what wore out so quickly; not but that horses increased in value for the work required of them as they became seasoned to it; but, again, some wore out in the seasoning. Many horses, doubtless, were bought at the price of twenty-five pounds, and perhaps in some cases a little over, though those were exceptional cases, and for myself, I can say that I never found it necessary to exceed that sum; but in drawing the average, we must not leave out of the calculation the large number of horses which found their way into coaches in consequence of the infirmity of their tempers, and, I may add, of the bad management they had been subjected to. If a horse, though from no fault of his own, ran away with the parson's or lawyer's "four-wheeler," he was immediately offered to the nearest coach proprietor. If another kicked a commercial traveller out of his buggy, he was at once offered to the coach proprietor. If a gentleman's carriage-horse took to any bad habit, which rendered him unfit for his work, or unpleasant to the coachman to drive, he also was offered to the coach proprietor; and I once came into possession of a very good horse at the price of ten pounds from this last cause. He had taken to jibbing, probably because he had a very light mouth, which caused him to resent the bearing rein, and was offered to me for the above-named sum, at which I immediately closed. The coachman brought him to my stable in time for him to be harnessed and take his place in the team going out that evening, and he stayed to witness the start, quite expecting, I make no doubt, to see some fun. I put him at lead, by the side of a very good horse, though, by the by, he had brought a coach to grief when placed alongside of the pole. Of course, there was no bearing rein, and he only just stood for a moment till the bars began to rattle against his houghs, when he started off with a bound and a hop, and never gave the slightest trouble. Horses also got into coaches in consequence of unsoundnesses, which, though little or no detriment to them for work, reduced their market value very considerably; and I once became possessed, for the sum of eighteen pounds, of a very fine horse, nearly thorough-bred, and only five years old, because he had become a roarer, and which had been bought as a hunter for one hundred guineas only a short time previously; but though he ran over a nine-mile stage with some very heavy hills upon it, having no weight on his back, he never made the slightest noise. There are other causes of unsoundness, such as crib-biting, which are no detriment to a coach-horse, though lowering their value in the market. Then, again, if a horse fell and chipped his knees, whether it arose from any fault or not, he was, as a general rule, sold out of a gentleman's stable; and I once picked up an excellent horse merely for fear he should break his knees. He was a very well-made animal, with the exception that he turned his toes in. He was the property of a clergyman, who must have known little or nothing about horses, and, I suppose, some knowing friend who thought he _did_ know must have alarmed him by telling him that the horse was certain to come down with such a pair of forelegs; so, to save a greater loss, a horse worth thirty pounds at least came into my possession for twenty. So far from falling, he was a safe goer, both in saddle and harness. The instances to which I have alluded may be classed perhaps more as shortcomings and failings than vice, but to those must be added many whose tempers were apparently incorrigible, and they could only be put in a coach, as those who travelled post would not put up with them. Just one word _en passant_ on that mode of travelling, as it must be quite unknown to the majority of people now living; but, as one who can recollect it, I venture to say that a well-built comfortable carriage with four post-horses was the perfection of travelling. It is not to be denied that it took a day or two to get over the same distance as is now travelled by a train in a few hours, but the inns on the road were good, generally afforded comfortable accommodation, the cooking was also good, and the wine very fair, of which it was usual to order a bottle for the "good of the house." Some of them had a special character for what were called sleeping-houses, and travellers would continue their journey for an extra stage for the purpose of reaching one of these houses for the night. The attention paid to posting travellers was very great. Upon the carriage stopping at the door, the entrance was perceived to be lined by the hostess, waiters, chambermaids, etc., and the universal question was, "Will you please to alight?" If they elected to proceed, the cry was immediately raised, "First and second turns out," and in a minute would be seen approaching two mounted postboys, with two other men leading the hand horses, and in about three minutes they were off again, dashing along at about nine miles an hour. If, however, the day's journey was ended, the dusk of evening was exchanged for a comfortable private sitting-room with a bright fire--no public rooms in those days. At the time appointed a comfortable dinner would be served, the _piece de resistance_ being very commonly placed on the table by the host himself. Indeed, one of the great recommendations of the inns of those days was that the host and hostess interested _themselves_ in the comfort of their guests. If we add to this the fact that at the beginning of the journey you were taken from your own door, and at the end of it landed at your own or a friend's door, without the experiences of a crowded railway station, there may be something to be said in favour of it. I can imagine I hear someone say, "Oh, yes, it might have been pleasant enough for those swells who could afford to pay for four horses, but how about the smaller fry who were obliged to be contented with the modest pair?" Well, I must confess that the odd mile or two an hour did make a difference, and posting in a travelling carriage packed with all its boxes, and containing four or five persons about it, such, in fact, as was called by the postboys a "_bounder_, having everything except the kitchen grate," was often, especially in winter, not unattended with discomfort and tediousness. How well can I recollect, when quite a child, at the end of a day's travelling of seventy or eighty miles on a winter's day, when twilight was fast sinking into darkness, envying the people who I could see through the windows of the houses, sitting round a blazing fire! And, indeed, the blacksmith, blowing up the fire on his hearth and making the sparks fly from the iron by the blows administered by his brawny arms, possessed much attraction. This, however, was quite made up for on the down journey later in the year. This, indeed, was unalloyed delight. After having been "cribbed, cabined, and confined" in London for five months, with nothing more nearly approaching to the country than Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens (and in those days there was not a flower-bed in either of them), when one emerged from the suburbs, which was sooner done in those days than now, and the eye beheld the fields and green hedges, made brilliant by wild flowers, it seemed a very Elysium; and to hold in one's hand a posy of dog-roses was bliss itself, even though they had received a peppering of road dust. I have always loved a dog-rose since, and shall continue to do so as long as I live. The longest summer day was hardly long enough for taking in such happiness. No amount of railway travelling will ever leave behind such happy reminiscences of childhood. Then, again, there was time and opportunity for other things, which can never be the case in railway travelling; amongst which was the childish pleasure of being fitted with a new straw hat whilst the horses were being changed at Dunstable. It was not all _couleur de rose_, neither was it all labour and sorrow. Like all other things in this world, it had its lights and shades. Perhaps it may be urged against this that there is no time for such a mode of travelling now. It may be so, but, as a nearly worn-out old roadster, it strikes me there may be too much haste for comfort. It was undeniably slow and expensive, though it may be doubted whether people generally spent more money in travelling than they do now. The facilities offered by railways cause the present generation to move about a great deal more freely than did their ancestors. But all this is skirting, and I must return to the scent, which was, I think, very much the sort of horses which we coachmen had to drive. They were, indeed, often a very queer lot, but they had to be driven, and were driven. Of course, four of this sort were not put all together; there were always one or two steady ones among them. But even if they had been, and all had determined to do wrong, it is most improbable that all would have gone wrong in the same way, and one could have been played off against another. This is one great advantage in four. In single harness, if the horse takes to bad ways, you have the whole team against you, but that is, as I have said, very unlikely with four. Perhaps this may account for the old saying that "half the coachmen were killed out of gigs." When I got a horse that was very troublesome, I always found that doubling him, that is, making him run his stage double, brought him to his senses in the course of a week or two. Some may say it was not right to risk the lives and limbs of the passengers, by using unruly horses, but, practically, very little danger was incurred. I will not say that no accidents ever occurred from this cause, but they were very rare. If an accident should have happened, and a life been lost from that cause, the old law of "deodand" would have touched up the proprietor's pockets severely; besides which, horses of this description were only entrusted to the hands of well-tried men. Notwithstanding all this, however, accidents did occasionally happen from this cause, and sometimes of a very serious nature, one or two of which I will now produce. The first was an exceedingly calamitous one, and I think I cannot do better than use the words of a friend of mine, who was an eye-witness to the scene, as they will be more likely to convey a full idea of the horrible appearance presented by the mingled heap of injured human beings and horses, with the coach on the top of them, than anything I can say at second hand. He says: "I was staying at the 'White Horse,' at Hockliffe, for a few days, and on the first night I was disturbed by a man knocking at the front door and shouting, 'Get up, the "Greyhound" is overturned and all the passengers are killed.' Upon hearing of this terrific slaughter," he proceeds to say, "I got up, and with others started to the scene of the catastrophe, which was about a mile and a half distant, opposite to a large mansion called 'Battleden House,' then the residence of Sir G. P. Turner, and there we found a mass of human beings and horses all of a heap. The coachman was under the coach with his leg broken, many of the passengers dangerously injured, and two horses had legs broken. It was a shocking sight to witness, and melancholy to hear the squealing of horses, and the passengers moaning." After all, however, it was found that there was not so much damage done here to the passengers as would have been expected. None were killed, nor any so seriously injured but that they were able to be conveyed to their destinations in a few days. The cause of the accident originated in the near side wheeler accomplishing what she had tried to do many times before, viz., kick over the pole, which broke, when, of course, all control was lost, and the coach was overturned into the ravine where it was found. In the other case no injury was sustained by anyone except the culprit himself, who must have been an exceedingly violent brute. In October, 1839, when near Maidenhead a horse in the Bristol mail kicked so violently that he broke the pole-hook and harness, and put out his own shoulder in his fall. Blind horses, again, found their way into coaches, and, if high mettled ones, performed very good work. The worst of them was, that they became too knowing about the corners, and when at wheel, where they were generally driven (though in Ireland I have had both leaders blind), if the coachman was not on the look out for it, might hang him into one. Some however, were very bold, and high couraged. I recollect one which ran in the lead of the "Greyhound" out of Shrewsbury, of this sort. He was so handsome a horse, that, if he had been all right, he would have commanded at least a hundred guineas for a gentleman's carriage, but being blind, of course, was only fit for a coach. One day, when I was travelling by that coach, and was as usual driving, he quite won my heart by the high couraged manner in which he elbowed his way through the large droves of cattle which were being driven along the road from Shrewsbury fair. The reader will now understand how it came to pass that the average value of coach-horses was so low, as these blemished, unsound, and vicious ones never cost more than fifteen pounds, and very often not much above half that sum. I once purchased a good mare for the very modest figure of twenty-five shillings. It may be asked, how was it possible to buy a horse fit to run a coach, or indeed do any fast work, for such a sum? to which I reply, that she had only one place where she could possibly be utilized, and that at the time she came into my possession coaches were continually being supplanted by railways, and therefore there was very little demand for such as her. She had neither size nor form for a wheeler, even if she would have condescended to go there, and only of use on one side at lead, I forget which, and I suppose would very promptly have made fragments of any carriage behind her in single harness. She was, however, a real good leader where she chose to go, and I drove her in a match team of chestnuts for a considerable time. I bought her with confidence, as I had frequently driven her in another coach previously. Talking of only going on one side, I do not think coachmen always consider this enough. There is a theory with many gentlemen, and their coachmen, that the sides should be changed frequently; but with hard work, such as that in a coach, horses do their work better and easier to themselves by always going in the same place. At one time I was horsing a coach, and driving one side, as it was called, another coachman driving the other; and, consequently, we both drove the same horses over some stages. He said to me, "That in one of my teams, one leader could not go up to the other." I asked him on which side he drove him. He replied, "I put him on the off side, because I can get at him better there." I said, "You try the near side," which was where I always drove him, "and you will not want to get at him." Of course, if a horse begins to hang to one side, it has become time to change him. The vices which most commonly brought horses into coaches were jibbing and kicking. I do not recollect to have ever known a case of either of them being thoroughly eradicated, though they were sufficiently kept under to render them of little moment; but they were liable to return if a fresh hand took hold of them, especially if he showed any signs of indecision. It is astonishing how soon horses find out a change of hand. The great thing to attend to with jibbers is not to keep them standing. If they have time to plant themselves they will give trouble; but if the coachman is up and off at once, they will generally start. With kickers at wheel I never found two or three good punishments over the ears to fail in bringing them into subjection, or, at any rate, sufficiently so, though a "ventilated" front boot might occasionally be the result. With a road coach, however, this did not much signify. A leader might be harder to tame, as he cannot be got at in the same way. I have heard it said of some one that he was so excellent a whip that he could hit a fly on a leader's ear. I can only say I never saw it done. But if a leader will not stand still to kick, he can be driven; kick and keep going doesn't much matter. In justice to the horses, however, it must be said that they are not the only ones to blame. No small number of them are rendered vicious, or unsteady, by mismanagement, and irremediable mischief is not unfrequently produced from quite unexpected causes. To give one instance: I am convinced that many a leader is set kicking by the pole-chains being too slack. I fancy I hear someone say, "What on earth have the pole-chains to do with the leaders?" Well, I will try and show how intimately they are connected. When pulling up or going down-hill, the wheel horses must come back towards the coach sufficiently to tighten the pole-chains. They will thus be nearer the coach, or further off, by just that number of inches. Then, as the leaders' reins are held in the same place as the wheelers', they must also come back by the same number of inches, which may, in the case of very slack pole-chains, be sufficient to allow the bars to fall upon the leaders' houghs, which is a fertile source of kicking; and it is a very true saying that a horse which has once kicked in harness is never to be trusted again. For a large number of jibbers I believe the bearing rein to be responsible. But, after all, horses are queer creatures. They have as many fads and fancies as men and women. Some will kick for being touched in one spot, and some in another. I drove a leader for some time who was easily set kicking by the bar touching him above his houghs; but upon lengthening his traces by two or three holes, so as to let the bar fall below the hough, in case it should touch him, he was quite contented. And, again, some horses will kick when touched by a low pole, others by a high one. Coupling reins also are frequently so arranged as to be a cause of discomfort to horses. It is manifest that when one horse carries his head high, and his partner low, the coupling rein of the former should be above that of the latter; and, again, if one horse tosses his head, and his coupling rein is the under one, he must cause much annoyance to the other, especially if he has a light mouth. Parliament has now passed a Bill for the purpose of regulating the traffic in horseflesh. Such an Act, if it had been placed on the Statute Book, and had resulted in creating a demand for horseflesh for food, would have been a great boon to stage coachmen formerly, as they would not have been called upon to wear out the old horses. It would have paid the proprietors better to put them up to feed when they became stale, and fatten them for the market. It would also have prevented much suffering to horses. And now, if any reader is astonished at the price of horses, if he has never heard of a less price for a set of harness than sixty guineas, he will be incredulous when I mention the cost of that generally used with coaches. Eighteen pounds was the top price usually given, and I have driven with well-shaped and good-looking harness which only cost sixteen. Indeed, at Walsall, which was the chief emporium for low-priced harness, if two or three sets were taken at the same time, they could be had for eleven pounds each. Collars were not included. Of course, such harness as this did not last long, and, perhaps, was not the cheapest in the long run; though I doubt whether the leather was not better then than it is now, being all tanned with oak bark. CHAPTER VII. THE ROADS. As the railways are dependent upon the excellence of the permanent way for the pace at which they can travel, so were coaches indebted to the good state of the roads for the great speed at which they were able to perform their journeys by day and night; and it may be safely said, without fear of contradiction, that in no other country had they been brought so near to perfection, although a good deal of improvement still remained to be done, and would have been effected if the railway era had been postponed for another decade. Everything that could be thought of to lighten the draught was being adopted. Not only were hills cut down and valleys filled up, but on one hill on the Holyhead road, between Dunstable and Brickhill, a tram of granite had been laid on one side of the road to render the draught lighter to carriages ascending the hill, though it had been very greatly eased by a deep cutting through the chalk. I was one day travelling up by the "Wonder," and when going up this hill, Harry Liley, who was driving, although it was a hard frost, put the wheels upon the tram to show me what a help it was to the horses. If it was of so much benefit when the frost had hardened the road, what must it have been when the road was soft? If these trams had become general, they would have saved the extra pair of horses which used to be frequently employed to pull the fast coaches up the worst ascents. Notwithstanding all that had been done on the main roads, there remained miles and miles of cross roads which were traversed by coaches at high speed, where little had been effected in the way of lowering hills, and it was then that the greatest care and skill were required to ensure the safety of heavily loaded coaches. It must be recollected that up to quite the latter end of the great coaching days no patent breaks were in use. They were not invented till about the year 1835, and were very slow in coming into use. I knew a case of the Post-Office authorities refusing their sanction for the proprietors to have one attached to a mail coach at their own expense, because they thought it would break the contract with the coachmaker, and I can quite imagine that the breaks were no favourites of those who miled the coaches, as there was not only the original cost, but the use of one has a considerable influence in wearing out the hind wheels. I had on one occasion undertaken to horse a coach over a stage, when the coach was supplied by one of the proprietors, and to save his hind wheels he wanted to omit the break. I immediately said, that no horse of mine would be put to a coach which was sent out without a break, as I believed them to be a great security against accidents. I have known of one instance, however, where, a break caused an accident instead of preventing it, but then the hind wheels must have been in a shameful condition, as they both broke upon its application. I really think that wheel horses held back better in the days before breaks came into use than they do now. It was then necessary to take a hill in time, as it was called, which meant going slowly over the brow, and about half-way down it; and horses were, by this means, better educated in holding than they are now, when it is not generally necessary even to slacken the pace at all, as the pressure upon the horses can be regulated by the break. This is also an enormous help to a fast coach, even if it did not render the use of the skid almost unnecessary. I was once talking this subject over with little Bob Leek, who, from having driven the "Hirondelle" for some years, was a very competent judge, and I remarked that I thought a break was worth a mile an hour to a coach. He replied, he thought it was worth two, and I have little doubt he was right over hilly roads, such as some which the "Hirondelle" travelled over. It was to the system of turnpike trusts, now unfortunately no more, that this country is indebted for the general excellence of its roads, and against which I never heard more than two objections raised. One, that it was very unpleasant and annoying to be obliged to stop at the toll bars and pull out the money when the fingers were cold, and the other, that it was a very expensive method of collecting money. The first of these objections, I think, may be passed over in silence. It, no doubt, is unpleasant to do anything which requires the use of the fingers when they are cold, but surely that should not be held to be sufficient reason for putting an end to a system which in the main worked well. To the second a plea of guilty must be returned; but with mitigating circumstances. Indeed, there was no necessity for it at all, if the trustees had carried out their work well. The "pikers," as they were called, did, no doubt, make a good living out of the business, but so do most middlemen, and they need not have been permitted to make an exorbitant profit. But before going further, perhaps, I had better explain what a "piker" is, as they, like the dodo, no longer exist. Well, then, they were a class of men who leased the turnpike tolls, each of them generally taking all the gates in a larger or smaller district. Sam Weller said they were "Misanthropes who levied tolls on mankind;" but, as a general rule, these men did not collect themselves, but employed others to do it, who resided in the houses. Of course, these "pikers," like other people, thought their first duty was to themselves, and they usually put their heads together previous to the lettings of the gates, and agreed to divide the spoils amicably, instead of bidding against one another. There was nothing, however, to prevent the trustees putting in collectors, the same as the pikers did, and by that means find out the real value of the tolls, and at the same time keep Mr. Piker up to the scratch. This, indeed, was often done, but when it was omitted, great losses were incurred, as I have found to my own advantage. The tolls were not levied under the General Turnpike Act of Parliament, but under local Acts, and it was usual to insert in these local Acts a clause compelling coaches to pay toll both going and returning, even if drawn by the same horses. This, I think, was a decided hardship, but it was generally mitigated by the pikers allowing them to pay for only three horses instead of four, making six a day instead of eight, and this led to a contest which I once had with a piker. At the first gate, a short distance out of Machynlleth, the lessee of it refused this concession to the "Harkaway" coach; therefore, when the day arrived for the annual letting, my partner and myself outbid him and took the gate, putting in a collector, and at the end of the year, after paying for the collecting, we had fifty pounds to divide between us. Now, I think I have shown that if proper care was taken by the trustees, no necessity existed, on this score, for abandoning the turnpike system, for in this one example they gratuitously threw away at least sixty pounds a year, which ought to have been available for repairing the roads. In another trust on the same road, the trustees tried to be a little too sharp. As I have already said, the tolls were levied under local Acts, and in this case, the special clause relating to coaches had been, either intentionally or inadvertently, omitted, and we consequently claimed that the coach should, like all other conveyances, be exempted from paying if returning with the same horses. The trustees, however, contended that a public conveyance was liable to pay both ways, independently of a special clause to that effect. The question was referred to counsel's opinion, which was given in favour of the coach, and this so exasperated the trustees that they proceeded in hot haste to erect a new toll-gate to catch it after the change of horses. In their hurry, however, they forgot that there were yet three months before the annual letting of the gates, and they found themselves face to face with the difficulty that no one could be persuaded to become a lessee for that short period. In this dilemma, we coach proprietors stepped in, and, _faute de mieux_, were accepted as lessees, the result being that, instead of paying the toll at the end of the three months, we retired from the business with a profit of thirty shillings, after paying the expenses of collecting. On the day following, the stables were changed to the other side of the gate, and the coach ran through free with a ticket from the previous one. These seem small things to write about, but they afforded some interest and amusement at the time, and may be worth mentioning as being a sample of the life. The turnpike system, no doubt, like all other human inventions, had its defects, but to it we are indebted for the excellence of our internal communications; and I cannot help thinking that it was unjust both to the bondholders and the ratepayers to allow it to die out. Though the former were fairly liable to the diminished value of their property caused by the rivalry of the railways, they, or those before them, had honestly lent their money upon the understanding that the Acts of Parliament would be renewed from time to time, and it was little short of robbery to allow them to expire. Hardships, no doubt, did exist in some districts from the excessive number of the toll gates, especially in Wales, where it was no uncommon thing to be called upon to pay at three gates in a distance of ten or twelve miles. This was found so burdensome that it produced the Rebecca riots in South Wales, which led to the passing of an excellent Act for that part of the Principality, and if that Act had been extended to North Wales and England, the turnpike gates would, most probably, have been standing at the present day, and I know not who would have been losers by it, except the doctors and the timber merchants and other hauliers. At any rate, the cost of repairing the roads fell on those who enjoyed the benefit. The system, on the whole, worked well, and might easily have been made to work better, and I entertain no doubt, indeed, I know it, that large numbers of those who clamoured against it, would now recall it if possible. If it was expensive to collect the tolls, it appears to be impossible to collect a wheel and van tax. It is easier to destroy than to build up, and I only hope that, after the same length of trial, it may not be found that it would have been wiser if we had remained contented with the old form of county government, which had done its work so well for a great number of years. Since the above was penned the South Wales Turnpike Act has expired, thereby saddling £25,000 a year upon those who do not use the roads, instead of upon those who do. Where is Rebecca now? CHAPTER VIII. A SCIENTIFIC CHAPTER. I had intended to conclude my remarks on the subject of the mail coaches, but have been induced to invest in another chapter by an ingenious proposal which was brought to the notice of the Postmaster-General in the year 1807. If it led to no results, at any rate it shows that there were those who took a keen interest in the subject. [Illustration] The Rev. W. Milton, Rector of Heckfield, Hartford Bridge--the same reverend gentleman whose acquaintance we have previously made as the advocate of broad wheels--invented a coach, which he claimed would prevent overturns and breakdowns. The body of it was this shape, which I give as it appears in the minutes on the subject, still preserved at the General Post-Office. It is certainly singularly deficient in graceful curves, and I can only suppose that it is meant to indicate the manner in which the luggage box was placed. At any rate, we are told that the coach was so constructed that nearly all the luggage was carried in a box below the body of the carriage, which was not higher than usual; but the appearance of the coach was deemed heavy, and as the load was low, it was thought that the draught would be heavier than the coaches then in use. Many coaches which loaded heavily with luggage were already furnished with a receptacle for it denominated the "slide," which was fixed under the hind axle, and thus, no doubt, did add considerably to the draught; but to remedy this, as we shall see, Mr. Milton makes use of unusually high wheels. To prevent breakdowns the coach was fitted with idle wheels on each side of the luggage box, with their periphery below the floor, and each as near as was requisite to its respective active wheel. These idle wheels were ready, in case of breakdowns on either side, to catch the falling carriage, and instantly to continue its previous velocity, till the coachman could pull up the horses. The bottom of the luggage box was fourteen inches from the ground, and the idle wheel five or six inches. The following extracts will convey a better idea of the value of the invention. It evidently received a practical trial:-- "Mr. Ward, the coachman, soon found what he might venture, and he took the coach accordingly over such ground as would most assuredly have caused an overturn of any stage-coach with its usual load. This was repeatedly done in the presence of six insides and ten outsides, besides the coachman. Seven parts, perhaps, in ten of the load, which was nearly three tons, lay on the hind wheels. These, by the patentee's directions, were six feet high, and with no dishing, and, as he deemed, sufficiently strong. They did not fail; but it was the opinion of Mr. Thomas Ward, and all the practical men on the spot, that they were not such as could show the principle of safety as to dangerous and side-long ground up to its full extent. As it was, however, any common coach would have gone over at fifty different places during the stage which this coach took without the least symptom of overturning. A linch-pin of one of the hind wheels was taken out. The coach went on, and presently off came the wheel, and down dropped the carriage about seven inches on a small idle wheel, which immediately continued the motion without the least inconvenience to the outside passengers or puzzle to the horses, and the shock was not greater than what was produced by taking over a stone in the night, and, if it had been required, the coach might have been taken five or six miles by means of the idle wheel; and Mr. Thomas Ward very confidently thinks these two circumstances of safety would invariably attend any stage-coach so constructed." So confident was the reverend patentee that he wrote the following challenge: "I have no fear that either science or practice can effectually controvert the following remark: Supposing, in a stage-coach as at present, that the centre of gravity be four feet above the main axle, and the width on the ground the same in two cases, then the higher the wheels the greater will be the danger of an overturn from an equal cause. It is not so with me, for the higher the wheels the deeper may the luggage box be, so that the antidote follows the growth of the danger; and here, from the full conviction I have of its truth, I wish to offer the following opinion: Let seven or eight parts in ten of the total load be within the hind wheels, and let them be at least six feet high, on horizontal cylindric arms, by this disposition, compared against the present, more than one horse in forty would be saved or spared, for the goodness of the draught would come out even through the intricacy of the medium, the fore-carriage; but in many coaches the door at the middle of the side does not permit so advantageous a hind wheel, and that at the expense just mentioned." The invention was not accepted by the Postmaster-General, although it was, to some extent, admitted to combine a principle of safety with the celerity required in mail carriages. The cost, however, of such a change in the mail coaches would have been very heavy, which, no doubt, had a good deal to do with its rejection. The fact, however, is that these inventions were not wanted, clever as they might have been and effective where required. The mail coaches were not called upon to travel over "dangerous and side-long ground," but upon fairly good roads at the worst, for which the coaches, as then constructed, possessed quite sufficient stability, and the idle wheels, however great the security they would have imparted to heavily-loaded stage-coaches, were not required on the mails, where the sustaining power was so great in proportion to the comparatively light loads which they carried, that a broken axle was unknown among them, and it was impossible for a wheel to come off with Mr. Vidler's axle and boxes; and, of course, the idle wheels must have added to the weight. Although these patent-safety coaches were rejected by the Post-office, they did find favour in one or two quarters. One worked for some time between London and Stroudwater, and several were in use in Reading, as the following certificate will prove:-- "We, the proprietors of the Reading coaches, beg leave thus jointly to inform our friends and the public that we have each of us, during the last five weeks, tried the Rev. W. Milton's patent-safety coach, built by Brown and Day. We are fully persuaded that its draught will be as fair as that of any coach on the road, and have such a conviction of the safety of its principles, that we have no doubt that we shall be induced to put them on as early as shall be convenient to every coach we have. "Signed, "WILLIAMS & CO., Coachmasters, London and Reading; "E. EDWARDS, Coachmaster, Reading; "J. MOODY, Coachmaster, London." It is very disappointing that no drawing appears to have been preserved showing what these coaches looked like when they stood up upon their wheels; but evidently the patent parts were capable of being applied to the ordinary coaches, as is proved by the following portion of an advertisement:-- "Any particulars regarding these coaches and the application of the principles of it to stage-coaches at present in use may be had by applying to Brown and Day, Coachmakers, Reading." And again they say, "The safety of the plan depends upon the union of the two principles. The same charge will be made for the application of the luggage box or idle wheels, where either may be required separately, as for the two together." The Postmaster-General appears to have been fortunate in the number of his counsellors, but, judging by the following suggestion, it would have required a very great multitude to produce wisdom. Indeed, a more objectionable change could hardly have been thought of. By a memorandum at the General Post-Office, it appears that in February, 1831, the Rev. W. C. Fenton, of Doncaster, made a suggestion that postilions should be substituted for the coachmen. The suggestion was rejected, as it was considered that the change of postilions would necessarily be much more frequent than the change of coachmen, and therefore the chances of delays would be greatly multiplied. It was also thought that, were such a mode of driving adopted, it would be the means of raising the fares, and the mails would again require support. Many of the coachmen drove from forty to fifty miles without a change. The Postmaster-General, Duke of Richmond, considered the horses had enough to do without carrying additional weight. The horses would not only have had the weight of an extra man to share among them, but they would have had to carry both men in a way best calculated to distress them. The easiest way for a horse to move a weight is by his draught, the worst when placed upon his back. Then again there was the difficulty of who was to pay the postilions. They must have been changed at every stage, and I should think the passengers, although in those days pretty well accustomed to giving fees of one sort or another, would have objected to being _kicked_ by two postboys at the end of every stage. I can fancy I hear one of the uninitiated exclaim, "I should think they would object to such treatment as that at any time," but, in the language of the road, the word _kicking_ had no brutal signification attached to it--it only meant asking the passengers for their fees, and the word _shelling_ was often used to express the same process in less objectionable language. The word was understood something in the way that an Irishman uses the word _kilt_, which the following anecdote will explain:-- An English gentleman had rented some shooting in Ireland, and had gone over to enjoy the sport. On the morning after his arrival, having engaged a lot of boys to beat for him, he started off to look for game, but before he had gone very far, after firing a shot, he heard a great commotion and chatter among the boys. Thereupon he called out to them to ask if anything was the matter, to which the answer he received was, "Nothing your 'anour,' only you've kilt a boy." I need hardly say, that, being a stranger to the country, he was very much alarmed till he reached the spot where the boys were assembled, when he discovered, to his infinite relief, that the word "kilt" conveyed no mortal signification in that country. I will venture to give a few more instances of the propositions made to the Postmaster-General. Some were certainly ingenious, but he very wisely could not be induced to give up a system which had been well proved, for what at the best, and however clever in itself, was untried. On September 14th, 1816, Mr. Peter M'Kenzie of Paddington offered to construct a steam engine to run on rails at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. He asserted that the mountains of Wales or any other part of the United Kingdom would not impede its velocity. To enable him to build a small model he asked that a hundred and fifty or two hundred pounds might be advanced to him. As may be supposed this was refused him, and the plan was abandoned. This gentleman also claimed that in 1802 the idea of printing newspapers by steam first originated with him. Mr. John England, writing from Aberdeen in August, 1820, wants the department to adopt a travelling carriage or machine, which was impelled by means of the expansion and contraction of compound fluids. The machine was stated to weigh about 90 lbs. The plan was not entertained. Again, in the year 1832 the same person submitted an improved machine worked on the same principle, but, as may be imagined, it met with no better result than the first. In the next suggestion we appear to be approaching the present railway system, but I should suppose that he intended laying his rails by the side of the turnpike roads. Mr. Thomas Gray, writing from Brussels in November, 1821, suggests steam coaches on iron rails. In support of it, he stated that the journey to Edinburgh would be done in half the time taken by the mail coaches, and that the expense of laying the iron rails would be more than covered by the extra passengers that could be carried in the additional coaches which could be run. This also met with a cold reception, and no doubt appeared at the time to be simply speculative, yet the light of time compels us to take a different view, and to recognize in it the germs of a great invention. Mr. James Rondeen, of Lambeth, on June 3rd, 1823, submitted a scheme to convey the mails by engines consuming their own smoke, of four or six-horse power, which would cost from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds each, and impel a coach at the rate of from fifteen to twenty miles an hour. He estimated that there were two hundred and eighty coaches running daily from London and on the cross roads, the work of which, if his scheme was adopted, would be performed by eighty-two engines. This scheme was considered an extraordinary one, but the condition of its acceptance imposed by the inventor could not be complied with. I should gather from what is said here, that Mr. Rondeen's plan was of the nature of a traction engine to run upon the existing turnpike roads, and, if I am right, the Postmaster-General of that day had a better opinion of that mode of progression than of the system of rails. No doubt, several descriptions of traction engines were tried, but none succeeded, and I have heard of surveyors of turnpike roads laying such extra thick coverings of stone on the roads as to clog the engine wheels; but however this may be, experience has proved that they are not capable of much pace, however useful they may be found for slow traffic. A Mr. Knight, in January, 1822, suggested an elevated road or railway. The carriage was to be slung from the road on rails above, and two men, suspended in it at the bottom, would turn machinery to propel it along the groove or railway. After the idea had been talked over by Mr. Knight with the head of the mail coach department, the latter was satisfied that it would be of no use to the Post-office. A Mr. Elmes of Regent Street, in October, 1823, offered to convey the mails to any part of the United Kingdom at the rate of from fifteen to seventeen miles an hour, by means of a mechanical carriage, which could be worked by horses or not. He stated that his contrivance would reduce the cost of conveyance to about a quarter of that then incurred. It need hardly be said that this proposal was too indefinite to be entertained. On the 25th of November, 1826, a Mr. Thorold, of Great Milton, Norfolk, suggested the application of steam to mail coaches for propelling them on turnpike roads. This plan appears to have been considered feasible, as it is recorded that the plan was not adopted, as it was considered best to wait until the idea was _seen_ in practice. On April 27, 1826, a Mr. Cadogan Williams submitted a plan for the rapid conveyance of mails by means of tubes. The outline of his plan was this: That a square of cast-iron or brick be laid from one stage to another, with its extremities communicating with vaults of sufficient magnitude for the purpose; one vault having an air-evaporating apparatus, and the other a condensing, such as is used to blow iron furnaces worked by steam power. At the neck of the tube joining the condensing apparatus should be two stoppers, on the principle of those that are used in beer cocks. Between the stoppers should be a door for putting in the box of letters. On closing it the stoppers should be turned, and the condensed air would exert itself in the box and produce its rapid movement. This was certainly very ingenious, if somewhat complicated. At any rate, he was informed that his plan was not applicable to the purposes of the department. And now comes a really wonderful proposal. A Mr. Slade, on May 14, 1827, offered to convey the mails at the rate of a mile a minute; but he appears not to have been of a very communicative disposition, as he did not state by what means this very high rate of speed was to be obtained, but he estimated the cost for carrying out his plan at two thousand pounds a mile. As may be supposed, this was considered too visionary and costly to be enquired into further. And now I have got what I think will raise a smile. It will hardly be believed, but so it was, that a Royal Engineer--an officer, I suppose--suggested that the mails should be conveyed by means of shells and cannon. His idea was to enclose the letters in shells and then fire them to the next stage, three miles distant, and then to the next stage, and so on to the end of the journey. He said a good bombardier could drop the shell within a few feet of the spot where the next one was stationed. As early as the year 1811 a trial was made of a drag, or break, apparently a good deal resembling the breaks now so generally applied to wheels. In that year a drag, as it was then called, was introduced by a Mr. Simpson to the Post-office authorities, and was tried on the Brighton and Worcester mails; but the advantages claimed for it by the patentee were not borne out in practice. The advantages claimed were that in case of the reins or pole breaking, or horses running away, the drag could be at once applied by the guard without leaving his seat, as it was put in action by a lever or shaft affixed to the body of the coach, and worked by hand. It does not appear, however, to have possessed sufficient attractions for it to be brought into general use, as nothing more is heard of it. In the year 1811 I don't suppose there was much to be feared from horses running away! Before quite taking leave of science I will venture to touch upon a subject which, if not exactly science, is nearly related to it. At any rate, it can only be solved, if at all, through the medium of science. I can fancy I hear some votary of science exclaim with some indignation, "What is this doughty question which is to puzzle science?" To this I can only answer that if science has or can solve it satisfactorily, I humbly beg its pardon for doubting its powers. Well, the subject I am raising is expressed by the word _Traction_. Traction, I mean, as connected with pace. What is the difference in power required to move a given load at ten miles an hour and at five miles an hour? I have somewhere seen it argued as if it was the same, and that therefore the horses must suffer greatly over the latter part of a stage, supposing that their powers were less and the weight to be drawn remained the same. Of course, the weight does in one sense continue the same, but every coachman who has had any experience in driving will have observed how much longer time it requires to pull up a coach going at a high speed than one at a slow pace; which of itself proves that after the coach is once set in motion and has acquired a fast pace, the exertion required to keep it going is considerably reduced. Without for a moment forgetting the cardinal truth that "it is the pace which kills," it is quite apparent that the disease and the remedy, to some extent at least, travel together. Another fact which can be attested by all old stage coachmen, and which goes strongly to prove how much reduced the draught is by pace, is that four light horses can get a load up a steep pitch at a gallop which they would be quite incapable of surmounting at a walk. Then there is another item which adds to the complexity, which is this--that the greater the weight, the longer the time required for pulling up. It would seem, therefore, as if a heavy weight, to a certain extent, assisted its own propulsion. The same circumstances are observed on the railways, and, probably, from the hardness of the metal on which their wheels run, it is still more apparent than on a road. I was once travelling for a short distance upon a locomotive engine without a train behind it, and upon asking the driver how long it would take to bring his engine to a standstill, he said, "I could stop it almost immediately now, but it would be very different with a long train behind her." Probably there are few coachmen who have driven any great number, of miles through whose brain this question has never trotted, but without arriving at any solution of it. At any rate, I confess my own ignorance, and only throw down the question at the feet of science after the custom of the ages of chivalry, when the herald threw down the gauntlet into the midst of the assembled knights, to be picked up by the best man. The following narrative will convey some idea of the force of velocity which appertains to the wheels of a coach travelling at a high speed:-- As the "Mazeppa" coach was proceeding on her journey from Monmouth to Gloucester, when descending a hill about three miles from the former place at a fast pace, the tire of the near hind wheel came off, and the impetus was so great that it caused it to pass the coach and run on for nearly half a mile, thus proving that the power required to draw a carriage when it has attained much speed must be very much diminished. It only requires to be kept moving. CHAPTER IX. A NOTE ON THE HORN. Many guards on the day coaches carried key bugles, on which some of them were able to play exceedingly well, and helped to while away many a half hour on the journey; but on the mails and night coaches, the former especially, straight horns were employed. Formerly these were all made of tin, hence the "yard of tin," but in later years a good many copper or brass ones came into use, and a few, in quite late years, adopted a twisted horn without keys, much like the infantry field bugle used in the army. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. OBSTRUCTION ON THE BRIDGE.] These horns, of whichever sort, were generally efficacious in warning carts, carriages, or other vehicles to get out of the way, but were of little avail against the worst obstruction met with on the roads. At that time all the sheep, cattle and pigs which travelled from one part of the country to another were obliged to make use of the highways, and though the drovers were possessed of marvellous skill in avoiding the turnpike roads on account of the tolls, nevertheless large droves and flocks were not unfrequently met with, and were the cause of considerable delay, and also sometimes of altercation. I was once forcing my way through a large drove of cattle, rather more unceremoniously than the drover approved of, when he threw his heavy stick at my head, and only narrowly missed it; and here perhaps it will not be out of place to introduce a few cases which exhibit the danger incurred by coaches from the presence of cattle and sheep, whether in droves and flocks or straying on the roads. On November 7th, 1789, the Preston and Carlisle mail, after changing horses at Garstang, when about three miles on the road to Preston, in crossing a bridge over the Lancaster and Preston canal, encountered some drove cattle in the road, when the coach was coming down the bridge, which is a declivity, and the coachman pulled his horses too much to the off-side of the road to avoid the cattle, and the off wheels ran up the bank and upset the coach. Nobody seems to have been injured. A curious accident happened to the Devonport mail _en route_ to Bath, on November 7th, 1839. The guard's report says: "A short distance from New House, a bullock straying on the road became frightened at the light of the lamps, and attempted to leap the hedge, but falling back against the leaders, the horses all sprung across the road, and running the coach into the hedge, threw the coachman off the box, and the wheels passed over him." He, the guard, then proceeds to say that he only lost one hour and a half's time, but gives no account of what became of the coachman. His whole thoughts appear to have been concentrated on his business, and he reminds one of the anecdote about the trainer and the old woman. As a string of race-horses were out at exercise one morning, one of them bolted and came into collision with some obstacle which threw him down, seriously injuring him, and killing the lad who was riding him. The unfortunate lad was soon removed, and the trainer was lamenting over the horse when he was accosted by an old woman, who happened to be passing by at the time, and began to condole with him on the accident. He replied, "Ah! it is a bad job, indeed, I am afraid he will never be able to run for another race;" but, says she, "How's the poor boy?" "Oh! drat the boy, he's dead," was the answer. Sheep were sometimes the cause of accidents. On January 10th, 1840, when the London and Hull mail was within a mile of Peterborough, the horses shied at a flock of sheep, and ran the coach into a ditch six feet deep, overturning it, and causing three hours' loss of time. And now, having indulged in a stave on the guards' horns, perhaps the coachmen's whips may feel themselves neglected if I have no word to say about them, and on this subject it must be admitted that rather different opinions prevailed. _Tot homines tot sententiæ._ Some preferred, I think most professionals did, a stiff crop and a light thong, but others, especially amateurs, were in favour of a supple stick with a heavier thong. The latter are no doubt easier to manage in a high wind, and can also be caught up with greater facility; but, in my humble opinion, the former are far preferable for general use, a supple stick and a heavy thong being insufferable in wet weather. In the selection of a whip it is easy to observe whether the person selecting is an old hand or not. If he is he will pick out a crop without knots, or with as few as possible, whereas the tyro is nearly sure to take the knotty one. The large knots, of course, tend to keep the thong, when caught, from slipping down towards the hand, but it ought to be caught tight enough to stay in its proper place without them, and sticks always break first at the knots. Some people are now in favour of long crops. I fancy a cricketer might as well demand a bat of extra length. In old days W. and T. Ward, who were by odds the best whipmakers, never thought of turning out whips with crops of greater length than five feet two or three inches to the holder, and most were not quite so long. Beyond this length it becomes almost impossible to obtain a good balance. A very long stick must be top heavy, and I will defy anyone to use a long top heavy whip as effectually as one that is of a more handy length. Even when the cattle were good, and but little whip was required, thongs soon became rotten from the sweat of the horses and the rain, and to avoid the frequent necessity for new ones, what were called "three quarters and middles" were made, which coachmen were generally able to splice on for themselves. Thongs also wear out more quickly if they are not kept supple, for which purpose a dressing of two-thirds hog's lard and one-third bees wax will be found very efficacious. CHAPTER X. THE HOLYHEAD ROAD. I have endeavoured to show in a previous chapter, on the subject of coachmen, with what rapidity the carrying business of the country increased and multiplied, but, perhaps, this may be better elucidated by taking some particular road and district, and devoting a separate chapter to the subject; and probably no better road can be selected for this purpose than that from London to Holyhead, which, judging from the amount of money and care expended upon it, one may naturally conclude was better adapted for great speed than any other, and this, I believe, really was the case. Some particular portions of other roads might have been better--for instance, the Hartford Bridge flats--and as great, or possibly still greater pace accomplished; but for the distance over which this road extended, no other could vie with it; and I will venture to say, that on no other were an equal average number of miles of fast work performed; and we must recollect that it is one thing to go very fast for a short distance, but another to keep that pace up for the distance of from one hundred miles and upwards. Well, then, if we take this road, and make Birmingham, the most important town on the road, a sort of centre of a district, we shall obtain a pretty good insight into the subject. The metropolis of the Midlands has always been celebrated for its public spirit, and it has nowhere been made more conspicuous than in the way it met the demand for good coaches. In the year 1823, I find there were twenty-three coaches advertised in _Aris's Gazette_ (which was the principal medium of advertisement at that time in the Midlands) to run out of Birmingham to all parts of the country, though no doubt there were others, for it would appear that some inns, from which coaches ran, did not avail themselves of that medium of publicity. Probably, therefore, after making all allowances, we shall not err much in putting the total number at thirty. Four years later, in 1827, the number of those advertised had risen to no less than thirty-eight, and making the same allowance for those not advertised, the total can hardly be placed at less than forty-five, an increase of fifteen in four years. From this time the number was steadily added to, till by the year 1835, which may be called the culminating point (making allowances for those not advertised, of which three occur to my memory at once--namely, the "Rocket" night, and "Triumph" day coaches, through Oxford and Henley to London, and the "Erin-go-bragh" from Liverpool, driven by Tolly, all three horsed by Mr. Waddle from the "Hen and Chickens," in New Street), there must have been at least sixty. During these years also the pace had not been neglected, as several of these new coaches travelled at great speed, and the pace of those of older standing had been increased. In the year 1826, considerable stimulus was given to speed by a great acceleration in the time of the Holyhead mail. About which time the "Union" commenced to perform the journey from Shrewsbury to London, through Birmingham and Oxford, in four hours less time. The "Oxonian" also, over the same ground, was accelerated five hours. It will tend to exhibit the great keenness with which the competition was carried on, if I here introduce two advertisements which appeared in the newspapers during this period. In the month of June, 1834, the following advertisement appeared in _Aris's Gazette_:-- "The 'Greyhound,' only carrying passengers and small parcels, leaves Birmingham at a quarter past nine in the evening, arriving in London at a quarter to eight on the following morning. This coach has an imperial on the roof to prevent luggage being placed there, and passengers' luggage must be sent to the office in time to be forwarded by the 'Economist.'" An attempt was at one time made to light this coach with gas, but the practice was, I believe, discontinued. Unless it proved of very great benefit in the power of light, it had certainly one great drawback, which was that the necessary apparatus occupied the whole front boot, causing that receptacle to be altogether useless for the carriage of parcels. Again, in July, 1835, the following advertisement appeared in the _Shrewsbury Chronicle_:-- "Isaac Taylor, ever grateful for the distinguished support he has received from the public, announces a new and elegant fast day coach to London, called the 'Stag,' every morning at a quarter before five, arriving at the 'Bull and Mouth,' opposite the General Post-Office, at seven the same evening. I. T. has been induced to commence running the 'Stag' to prevent the celebrated 'Wonder' being in any way injured by racing, or at all interfered with in the regularity which has been hitherto observed in that coach." It will be observed here, that the "Stag" was advertised to run the distance of one hundred and fifty-four miles in fourteen hours and a quarter. Whether this pace was really intended to be always maintained may perhaps be doubtful. Probably it depended a good deal on the amount of racing with the "Nimrod," but of this more will be heard presently. For the present, however, we will retrace our steps for a few years, and take a journey or two with the "Tally-hoes," and go more into particulars than has yet been the case. Previously to the great improvement which I have denoted in the night travelling, a great advance had been established in the day work by the three "Tally-hoes." These coaches were put on the road about the year 1823, and were among the fastest coaches in England. Why all three bore the same name I never heard, and cannot understand, unless it were with the view of intensifying the keenness of the opposition, which, as they were all on the road at the same time, was very great. I suppose, however, that it was found to create inconvenience in practice, as they were soon supplied with distinctive titles--one being designated the "Independent Tally-ho," another the "Eclipse Tally-ho," and the other the "Patent Tally-ho." They were timed at ten miles an hour, but when racing, as was frequently the case, were not particular to a mile or two, and, of course, went much faster. Indeed, on the recurrence of what may be called the coach festival, May 1st, they more than once covered the distance, one hundred and eight miles, under seven hours. The "Independent Tally-ho," started from London from the "Golden Cross," Charing Cross, horsed by Horne as far as Colney, and driven by Andrew Morris to Dunstable, where the box was filled by an old friend of mine, to whom I am indebted for assistance in compiling this book, but whose name I am not at liberty to mention, who also horsed it as far as Stoney Stratford. Out of Birmingham it started from the "Nelson," horsed by Radenhurst, and driven to Daventry and back by Harry Tresslove, who was an excellent waggoner, and always galloped the five-mile stage between Dunchurch and the "Black Dog" in eighteen minutes. The road was straight, hard, and flat, and ran between a splendid avenue of trees--perhaps some of the finest elms in the world--the property of Lord John Scott. The stage was horsed by the landlord of the "Bell," at Dunchurch, who could afford to do the work well, as he reaped the benefit of the coach breakfasting at his house on the up journey, and dining there on the down one. The "Eclipse Tally-ho" was horsed out of Ludlow on one side by Mrs. Mountain, from the "Saracen's Head," Snow Hill, and consequently sometimes called "Mountain's Tally-ho," and on the other side by Chaplin, from the "Swan with Two Necks," Lad Lane, as far as Colney, and driven by Tom Boyce, who also horsed it over twenty-five miles of the lower ground. It was horsed out of Birmingham by Waddle. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. GALLOPED THE FIVE MILE STAGE, IN EIGHTEEN MINUTES.] The "Patent Tally-ho" ran from the "Belle Sauvage," Ludgate Hill, and horsed by Robert Nelson as far as South Mimms, and was driven out of London by old Bob Flack, who also horsed twenty-five miles of the lower ground. It will be observed that a change had come over coaching, in that the coachmen were covering a good many stages of the lower ground. Probably this arose partly from the innkeepers, now that the opposition had become so exceedingly keen, not caring for the business, and also partly from the great change which had taken place in their social position and character. They were become quite a different class of persons to what they had been a generation before, and, indeed, such might be expected to be the case, as the occupation was one which brought them into contact with gentlemen, and it was entirely their own faults if they derived no benefit from such association. The pace, in consequence of the severe competition, had also become so severe that the old style of coachman, who had been accustomed to take it easy, and stop at most of the roadside inns he passed, and got half-seas over before arriving at the end of the journey, could no longer be employed, and their places had to be filled with an altogether different class of men. Indeed, it was no longer the disgusting work, in which he was most esteemed who could hit the hardest, and had for its supporters only the lower grades of society, but had become one which no gentleman need be ashamed to be occupied in, or have lost his self-respect by embracing; and, doubtless, if coaching had not been supplanted by railways, the press of competition, which is felt by all classes, would have induced more of them to turn their attention to it. In new countries, such as our colonies, what a man's employment is, so long as it is honest and respectable, goes for little or nothing, provided he is a gentleman in every sense of the word. He may drive a bullock dray in the morning, and associate with the _élite_ in the evening--at least, so it was when I knew Australia a "long time ago," which would appear to be a better system than our own more exclusive one. Probably, however, it would be impossible to carry it out in an old and wealthy country like that in which we live. The dust kicked up by the Tally-hoes was not long laid in Birmingham before the three Shrewsbury coaches came bustling through the town on their journey to London. Of these the "Wonder" probably had the most world-wide fame of any coach in England. It set the fashion of day coaches running long distances, and was the first ever established to cover much above one hundred miles in a day, the distance from London to Shrewsbury being one hundred and fifty-four; and it was unrivalled in its punctuality. It was horsed by Sherman out of London, from the "Bull and Mouth" to St. Albans, to which place he worked most of his coaches on that road, though he extended the distance in the case of one Birmingham night coach for some time as far as Daventry, a distance of seventy-four miles. Whether this was done because he considered it too good a thing to part with, or that it was so poor a concern that no one would join him in it, I do not know. The "Wonder" was driven out of London by Wood as far as Redbourn, from whence Harry Liley worked till he met John Wilcox, when they both turned back; and between Birmingham to Shrewsbury, Sam Hayward occupied the box. I need hardly say that on such a coach, which was the pride of the road, they were all first-rate artists. The "Wonder" was allowed to enjoy the fruits of its enterprise, and to go on its way unmolested for several years; but by the year 1830, or thereabouts, its success as a good loading coach tempted opposition, and the "Nimrod" was called into existence. It started from London on alternate days from the "Bull Inn," Holborn, and the "Belle Sauvage," Ludgate Hill, horsed from the former by Horne, and from the latter by R. Nelson, and worked by them, side by side, to Redbourn, and driven by my old friend already mentioned on the "Independent Tally-ho," who drove it to near Stoney Stratford and back, making a drive of one hundred miles a day. On one occasion, in consequence of the up coach being delayed by a broken pole, he was obliged to drive on till he met it below Daventry, which lengthened the day's work to about one hundred and seventy miles without a rest. This distance is, I think, one of the longest ever driven at one time. Mr. Kenyon has been known to drive the "Wonder" the whole journey from London to Shrewsbury, which is nearly equal; but I fancy it has seldom if ever been exceeded, except by the memorable drive of Captain Barclay, who undertook for a bet to drive two hundred, and won it. But to return to the "Nimrod." The opposition of these two coaches was, as one would have thought, fierce enough, but it was not sufficient to satisfy the wounded feelings of the "Wonder" proprietors, who were indignant at anyone presuming to oppose the coach of which they were so justly proud. After a few years, therefore, the "Stag" was ushered in by the glowing advertisement I have given in a previous page. It was started to run a little in front of the "Nimrod," which was followed by the "Wonder," and was therefore pretty well nursed. The orders given to the "Nimrod" coachman were, if the "Wonder" pressed to keep first, which caused him of course to run into the "Stag," and then, as may well be imagined, the racing became somewhat exciting, and the "Wonder," we may rely upon it, did not always act up to the pacific course laid down for her in the advertisement, and the result was that the three coaches sometimes arrived all together at the "Peacock" at Islington two hours before time. Perhaps the greatest wonder would have been if a coachman had been found who would not have joined in the fun when it was going on under his eyes. When the proprietors found they could not kill one another by racing, they tried the suicidal plan of cutting down fares, which were reduced, between London and Birmingham, from two pounds eight shillings inside to thirty shillings, and outside from thirty shillings to one pound. This, coupled with the wear and tear of horse flesh caused by the pace, was, of course, ruinous, and one of them told me that he lost fifteen hundred pounds in a little over twelve months by it. Why an agreement could not have been come to whereby the coaches should have run at different times seems to be a puzzle. One would have supposed that it would have answered better for them to have set out with an hour or two between them, which would have afforded better accommodation to the public. I can only imagine one reason which actuated them, which is, that every traveller would have taken the first coach as long as there was room for him in it, for fear of the others being full, and so the first would have had an undue advantage, and little or nothing might have been left for the last. There was also another fast night coach between London and Birmingham, called the "Emerald," driven out of the latter place by Harry Lee, whose complexion was of a very peculiar colour, almost resembling that of a bullock's liver, the fruit of strong potations of "early purl" or "dog's nose," taken after the exertions of the night and before going to roost. Besides all the coaches I have named, the Oxford road was not neglected. The well-known "Tantivy" commenced running over it between Birmingham and London about the year 1832, and must have proved successful, for in 1835 the same proprietors put on another fast day coach, called the "Courier," to start at a quarter before seven in the morning, and precede the old-established coach, which started two hours later. There was also a third road between the great Metropolis and that of the Midlands which ran through Warwick, Banbury, and Buckingham, and which was traversed by the Birmingham mail, and, if I recollect right, also by a night coach called the "Crown Prince." It was not, however, on the London roads only that coaches increased and multiplied, for in the year 1834 the "Fairtrader" commenced running to Liverpool, and three other new coaches were advertised in other directions--namely, the "Red Rover" to Brecon, the "Beehive" to Manchester, and the "Criterion" to Chester. At this time, there was also an exceedingly keen opposition between Birmingham and Derby. One of the coaches was horsed and driven by Captain Baring, and the other was horsed by Stovin and driven by Captain Douglas, who has been already mentioned as piloting the Sheffield mail. He was a most determined fellow, and stood at nothing. Indeed, the animosity between these two Jehus was quite alarming when they encountered one another, and at last became so intense that they resorted to the dangerous expedient of crossing one another, which, on one occasion, caused Douglas to run into Baring's coach, thereby causing a smash and bruising several passengers, but very fortunately none were seriously injured. This is the only instance I ever knew of coachmen driving opposition coaches entertaining a personal animosity for one another. And now we have arrived at the last coach which was put on the road between London and Birmingham. In the year 1837 a very fast day mail was started to run to Birmingham and to go on to Crewe, where it transferred mails and passengers to the railway for conveyance to Liverpool, and was largely patronised by Irish M.P.'s, as it ran in connection with the packet to the Sister Isle, and booked through. Half a dozen of those notables of the day could frequently be seen travelling by her at one time. It was timed at twelve miles an hour. It was horsed by Sherman of the "Bull and Mouth" out of London, and was driven by H. Liley, who had long experience on the "Wonder" over the lower ground. At Redbourn, he was replaced on the box by my before-mentioned friend as having driven both the "Independent Tally-ho" and afterwards the "Nimrod," and he drove till he met the up coach tooled by Jonathan Morris, when they changed, each one returning to the place from which he started, and it was taken into Birmingham by T. Liley, a brother of Harry. He had previously driven the "Eclipse Tally-ho," and Jonathan Morris had had his experience upon the "Hibernia," already mentioned as running between Liverpool and Cheltenham. He was pitted on that coach against Jordan, who drove the "Hirondelle," and was noted as a "butcher," but was possessed of great strength and had adamantine nerve, and only a first rate practitioner had a chance with him. Jonathan was quite a different class of coachman, and saved his stock as well as the pace and load would allow him, and I have myself seen him trot by Jordan in ascending the Wyle Cop in Shrewsbury, when the latter had nearly flogged his horses to a standstill. Perhaps I should add, in fairness to Jordan, that, though he had a beautiful team, it was composed of light horses, and that the other coach was drawn by horses possessing more size and power for enabling them to get a load up a steep ascent. I have been particular in giving the antecedents of these coachmen, as, of course, they were picked out as especially qualified for the great pace at which this mail was timed, and it was a feather in their caps. Indeed, it may be said that, as at that time the end of coaching was within measurable distance, they represented "the survival of the fittest." About this time the Postmaster-General started several day mails besides the one just mentioned. There was one on the Brighton road, and one between Birmingham and Shrewsbury, which left the Holyhead road at Shiffnal, and, passing through Ironbridge, joined it again about four miles from Shrewsbury, and probably there were others of which I have no cognizance. CHAPTER XI. THE BRIGHTON ROAD. So much has already been written about the Brighton road that, perhaps, it may seem presumptuous in me to re-open the subject, but as I have noticed the Birmingham road, I will venture to dwell very shortly upon the Brighton one, as they may be said to have been the antithesis to each other, much in the same way as now the business of the southern railways differs from that of what are called by way of distinction the heavy lines. No observant person can, I think, arrive in London from the south and drive through town straight to one of the large railway stations in the north, without being struck with the difference of the traffic. So it was in the coaching days; on one road business was paramount, on the other a little time for pleasure could be indulged in. I do not mean to say that they carried on the old practice of throwing away ten minutes or a quarter of an hour at each change of horses; far from it. The work was admirably done, but it had not about it the severe utilitarianism which was the prevailing feature with the other. The horses on the northern road showed, as a rule, more blood, and the coaches gave the idea of their having been built with a view to carrying loads at a high rate of speed. Nothing seemed wanting to ensure pace with safety, whilst, at the same time, there was nothing to lead anyone to suppose for a moment that they were anything but stage coaches. On the other hand, on the road to the fashionable watering-place, some of the coaches, from the small amount of lettering upon them, and bright pole chains, might at first sight have been mistaken for private drags. Notwithstanding all this pace, it must not be supposed that a journey by one of those fast coaches on the northern road was a hurried, uncomfortable day's work, with no time to eat a comfortable meal. On the contrary, though only twenty-five minutes were allowed for dinner, so much assistance was generally given in waiters to carve and wait upon the passengers, that a by no means bad dinner could be made in the allotted time; and to show that the food was not otherwise than palatable, I may instance the case of a medical gentleman residing at Brickhill (I think), but, at any rate, in the town where the up "Wonder" dined, who, whenever possible, went in with the passengers and made his dinner with them. I will now venture on a few circumstances and anecdotes connected with the Brighton road, which may help to portray the differences I have been describing in the two roads; but, before doing so, I should like to remark that anyone writing at this time on the subject is liable to make mistakes, as those coaches in some cases changed hands, as, for instance, at one time the "Age" was the property of and driven by Mr. Stevenson, and at a later period was in the possession of Sir St. Vincent Cotton. Of this coach it has been written by Nimrod that "Mr. Stevenson had arrived at perfection in his art and had introduced the phenomenon of refinement into a stage coach." I never happened to see this coach in his time, but can well remember Sir St. Vincent Cotton on the box of his neat brown coach, with bright pole chains. A friend of mine says, "Well I remember Harry Stevenson, with his beautiful team, starting from the 'White Horse Cellars,' and calling for his box passenger at the United Service Club, and from thence to the 'Elephant and Castle,' the final stop before departure for Brighton, and his guard, George Carrington, who was the essence of neatness and politeness to his passengers." This coach was for a short time driven by Sackville Gwynne, who ran through all his property, and died in Liverpool, where he was driving a cab. It would be tedious to enumerate half the coaches, nearly thirty in number, which ran out of Brighton every day, and many of them the best looking turns-out in the kingdom. A few as specimens will suffice. First and foremost came the "Times," starting at seven in the morning, arriving at Charing Cross at twelve, and returning to Brighton at two, driven by Sam Goodman. Bob Brackenbury, a first-rate amateur whip at that time, used to drive from Brighton to Sam Goodman's farm, a distance of eleven miles, and back again in the evening. Then there was the "Dart," another up and down coach, driven by Bob Snow, a first-rate artist. Some may even now remember his rubicund face, which he had just helped to colour with a pint of sherry after his dinner, as he mounted his box like a workman, when returning from the "Spread Eagle," Gracechurch Street, with his faultless drab great-coat, and a bale of white muslin round his neck; and such top boots! The "Elephant and Castle" was his first stopping-place, to meet the West End branch coach; and here he always replenished his inner man with a glass of hot brandy and water with a spoonful of ground ginger in it, as he said, to assist his digestion. After he started from there, it was woe-betide the poor horse that offended him before he reached Reigate, where the "Dart" stopped for dinner, and in those days the city merchants and stockbrokers knew how to take care of themselves. His only opponent was the "Item," driven by Charles Newman, who was always wretchedly horsed, and could not come near him. Another well known face on this road was that of John Willan, who, after having lost a good fortune on the turf, started the "Arrow," which was also horsed by Horne and Sam Goodman. This coach was mostly supported by the _élite_ of the sporting world. The turn-out was altogether most unique. The late Duke of Beaufort had some horses at work on this road at one time. He horsed a coach called the "Quicksilver," and Bob Pointer was the coachman (one of the best waggoners in England). He drove till he met Charley Harker half way, and then turned back. One very fine day the Duke went, as was not unusual, with some friends to see the "Quicksilver" start from the Red Office, and there found our friend Bob, not in the most upright position, just about to take hold of the ribbons from the off-wheeler's back. As soon as his Grace saw how matters stood he took them out of his hands, and drove up till he met the other coach, which he drove back, and after kicking the passengers handed the money to Bob, telling him not to let him see him in that state again. The warning, however, was not attended to for long, for, although the best of coachmen, he was a very wet 'un. I will now ask the reader to fancy himself for a moment transported by the touch of Columbine's wand into the Midlands, and set down in the fashionable town of Cheltenham, which, fifty years ago, was justly famed for its fast and well-appointed coaches, as well as for its health-giving waters. Though situated far inland it was, like Brighton, very much dependent on the same element for its prosperity, and was frequented by much the same class of people, though the efficacy of the waters at one place depended upon external, and at the other upon internal application. Still they resembled one another in drawing together a society of persons who had little or no occupation except that of either bathing in or drinking the water. The High Street of Cheltenham presents now a very different aspect to what it did at the time I am writing about, when the seats on the sunny side were occupied by visitors looking at the coaches passing to and fro or turning into the "Plough" yard. It was a sight worth coming for to see those well-horsed coaches. There were, first, the London coaches arriving: the "Magnet," driven by Jemmy Witherington, and the "Berkely Hunt," with Frank Martindale on the box, who was always the pink of neatness--indeed, as he once said to me a good many years afterwards, "You know, I was a bit of a dandy in those days." Then there was also the London day mail with four greys, running alternately to the "Plough" and "Queen's Hotel," and later on in the day the "Hirondelle," driven by Finch, a rather wet soul, and the "Hibernia," arrived from Liverpool, both of which coaches are incidentally mentioned in another chapter, and were two of the fastest in England. Besides them, there were others running to Bath, Bristol, Leamington, Birmingham, and other places, and by the time all these had been inspected, it was time to think of dinner. And now, having already made this chapter something of a "fugitive piece," I will, for the second time, make use of the fairy wand, and by one of its miraculous touches translate us back again to the Brighton road, which, being the one on which so many amateurs have become professionals, may be not inappropriately called the border land between them, and, therefore, as rather pointed out for considering the difference between them. Of course, in one sense, the demarcation is as plain as the nose on one's face. The man who drives for pay is a professional, at any rate for a time; but the question I would now raise is not that, but one more likely to prove an apple of discord--I mean what allowance should be made between them in estimating their proficiency in driving. What might be good for one might be decidedly under the mark for the other. To more fully explain my meaning, I will take a strong case. Sir St. Vincent Cotton, as is well known, drove professionally for some years on the Brighton road after having been acknowledged to be a first-rate amateur, and the question is, how soon after taking to the box professionally could he have been expected to pass muster with the professionals? Perhaps some will say that he was quite as good a coachman before as after he took to the bench professionally. No doubt his is a strong case, and I only give it as one in point; but, for myself, I very much doubt whether, even in those _coachy_ days, it was possible for a man to get sufficient practice, only as an amateur, to make him equal to one who drove professionally. Doubtless, among the professionals there were men who never with any amount of practice became good coachmen; but then we must remember that in all classes and conditions of men some are to be found who, from indolence or taking no pride in their work, never even reach mediocrity, whilst others are too conceited to learn; but these were in a small minority, and in driving, as in all other crafts, practice makes perfect. If it confers no other benefit, it must strengthen the muscles, and, no doubt, imparts a handiness, readiness, and resource which nothing else can produce. The difference is, perhaps, oftener to be observed in the whip hand than the rein one. A well-practised professional with a pair of sluggish leaders will make every cut tell, and then bring the thong up to his hand without staring about to see where the wind had blown it to; whereas, it would too often be the case with an amateur that, for want of having had sufficient practice, half his cuts fell flat, and not unfrequently, especially on a windy or wet day, he will get hung up in some part of the harness or in the pole chains, or possibly even round the stock of the wheel. It is not only in the art of driving that this difference is to be met with, but it extends to huntsmen and jockeys. In neither of these occupations does a gentleman attain to sufficient proficiency to be called more than a good amateur, which implies that he is not equal to a professional, or at any rate to a good one. Now, why is this? Surely not because he was born a gentleman, and is, therefore, disqualified by nature. Still less, because education has unfitted him. No--it is simply because he does not give up his time to it, but only follows it as a recreation. Cricket might, perhaps, at first sight, contradict this rule, but in truth, I believe it only tends to confirm it. The gentlemen are able to hold their own with the players, but then, whilst the cricket season lasts, they work as hard as the professionals. To come to the point, then, how soon after taking to the bench professionally ought an amateur to cease to claim any indulgence in criticism? I do not, of course, mean a muff, whose natural inaptitude might render him proof against any amount of practice, but one called "a good amateur whip;" and, probably, it would not be erring much to say that a period of from one to two years, with sixty to eighty miles of driving a day, including a fair share of night work, is sufficient to land him at the top of the profession, if the _gift_ is in him. Talking of the "gift," reminds me of a conversation which once took place between the late Mr. J. Taylor, who kept the "Lion" yard in Shrewsbury, and the well known "Chester Billy." They had been talking on the subject of driving, and the latter finished it by saying, "Well, master, it is a gift," to which the other replied, "It is, Billy, and it's a pity you never got it." I need hardly say, the old man turned away rather disgusted, and, no doubt, with the firm conviction that his master was no judge. Perhaps, in opposition to what I have said, I may be directed to some instances where very fine samples of driving have been executed by gentlemen. I will only mention two of them. The first took place in times long ago, and is thus described by Nimrod. "Perhaps one of the finest specimens of good coachmanship was performed by Sir Felix Agar. He made a bet, which he won, that he would drive his own four horses in hand up Grosvenor Place, down the passage into Tattersall's yard, around the pillar which stands in the centre of it, and back again into Grosvenor Place, without either of the horses going at a slower pace than trot." So long a time has expired since this feat was performed, and all spectators have passed away, that it is impossible to criticise it in any way. Many, however, must be still alive who remember the old Tattersall's, and they will be able to appreciate the difficulty of the task. The other is quite of a recent date, only occurring last summer, and was performed by my friend, Mr. Pryce Hamilton, who was the victor in the obstacle competition. Not having seen this, I am unable to say anything about it, but make no doubt that those who laid out the course did not err on the side of leniency to the coachmen, and that it was a feat of no easy performance. But, then, these things are hardly tests of every day coachmanship. No doubt they require very neat handling of the reins, but, of course, the horses have individually the best of manners, and the teams are as hardy as it is possible to make them; but if the whip had been wanted in Tattersall's yard, perhaps Sir Felix might have lost his bet. Perhaps, it may be thought by some that the time I have stated is an unnecessarily long apprenticeship. It may be for some, but for myself, I can answer that, whether from natural stupidity or not, it was no more than I required. Driving, if by that is understood a perfect knowledge of the art, is, like most other things, a plant of slow growth, and, to any one who has given much thought and attention to it, it is surprising how long he finds something to learn. For myself, although I had done many hundreds of miles of spare work for different coachmen, and out of different yards, with the approval of the proprietors, I did not find that I had been able to overcome shortcomings and defects, of which I was conscious, till I had driven regularly for three summers, and, perhaps, even then many remained of which I was unconscious. If there are any who think there is no difference between amateur and professional coachmen, I would ask them why there was not one of the owners of the "Old Times" put up to drive the justly celebrated match instead of Selby? CHAPTER XII. EARLY DAYS. Though it is rather a singular coincidence that my earliest experiences should be laid in the same neighbourhood as has been more than once mentioned by the late Mr. Birch Reynardson in "Down the Road," if the incidents are different, I suppose it will not signify much if the road is the same. I have no recollection that we ever did actually drive opposition to one another, but it is not impossible that we may have done so, as I was in the habit of driving the "Royal Oak," which he mentions as running opposition to the "Nettle," on which coach he frequently handled the ribbons. However this may be, I can recollect well that he bore the character of a good, powerful coachman, and I only hope I may be able to approach him at all in my powers of description. His spirited narratives carry one's thoughts back to scenes of a kindred nature, after a lapse of half a century, nearly as fresh as if it were only yesterday. For, reader, I am another old coachman, having driven one coach ninety-three miles a-day during one summer, and have worked another about fifteen thousand miles a-year for three years, besides others for myself, or for other coachmen. I well recollect the "yard of tin"; indeed, when a youth, I possessed one, and flattered myself I could blow it pretty well. Such, indeed, was my passion for the road, that I was not satisfied till I could perform every feat performed by coachmen or guards. To pass from the back of the coach to the front, or _vice versa_, was sometimes accomplished by guards, and, of course, I must do the same, creeping between the hind wheel and the body, whilst the coach was proceeding at the rate of ten miles an hour. This was not a very easy performance, but to get up and down whilst the coach was in motion was not at all difficult, and doing this once led to my being mistaken for a professional guard. I was travelling through North Wales, from Oswestry to Bangor, by a pair-horse coach, which, of course, did not aspire to much pace, and, as the day was wet, the road was heavy, which brought the two-horse power to a walk up some of the hills, slight as Mr. Telford's engineering skill had made them. Upon these occasions I got down to walk, and as my pace was faster than that of the horses, I was part way down the next hill before they overtook me, when, motioning to the coachman not to pull up, I returned to my seat by his side, and after having done this once or twice he said, "I beg your pardon, sir, but were you ever a guard on any coach?" It is somewhat strange that Mr. Reynardson and I should both have good reason for remembering the Llanymynech toll-bar, but its existence was nearly being impressed on my mind by a far more serious accident than killing poor piggy. Many years ago, about the year 1836, before I had the honour of wearing His Majesty's uniform, I used to indulge my love of driving by starting from my father's house, about three miles from Welshpool, about five o'clock in the morning, and walking to that town for the pleasure of driving the "Royal Oak" coach, which started at six, and returning the same day by the down coach. Thereby getting a drive of about eighty miles, and the pace was fast, especially if the "Nettle" was supposed to be near, for we knew by experience that it followed very quickly; so there was pretty well enough of practice to be had. On one of these mornings, when we were about two miles on our journey, Harry Booth, the coachman, who was sitting by my side, whistled to the horses, which started them off beyond my powers of holding them. I said, "For goodness' sake be quiet," when he coolly replied, "I thought you wanted to drive." Fortunately, however, they came back to me after going a short distance, and we completed the nine miles to Llanymynech in thirty-five minutes from the start. This was, perhaps, a rather rough way of learning to drive, and something like throwing a fellow into deep water to teach him to swim. At any rate, it taught me to gallop, and a coachman who could not do that was of little use on a good many coaches in those days. This, however, is a digression, as it was on the return journey of that day that I nearly came to grief at the Llanymynech toll-bar. It occurred in this way-- The "Royal Oak" did not carry a guard, and Tom Loader, the coachman, having resigned his seat to me when the coaches met, had retired to the one usually occupied by that functionary. As, however, he was not accustomed to guard's work, he was deficient in the activity necessary for slipping the skid pan under the wheel whilst the coach was in motion, and when he tried to do so at the top of Llanymynech hill he failed in the attempt. Consequently, we got over the brow of the hill without the wheel being locked, and, as there were no patent breaks in those days, there was nothing for it but a gallop, as the wheel horses were unable to hold the big load of passengers and luggage, and, of course, the lurches of the coach became considerable, to say the least of it. The turnpike gate, which was at the bottom of the hill, was rather a narrow one, and a collision seemed not altogether improbable, when, just as the leaders reached the gate, the passenger sitting on the roof seat behind me became so much alarmed that he seized hold of my right arm, thereby rendering any use of the whip impossible if it had been necessary, which, fortunately, it was not, as the coach was then in a safe direction, though rather too near the off-side gate-post to be pleasant. If the whip had been wanted to make the off-wheel horse pull us clear of the post I was helpless, and a collision would have been attended with an awful smash, as we were going at the rate of a mile in five minutes at the time. Killing the pig would have been nothing to it. Whilst on the subject of toll gates I am reminded that I did on one occasion break one all to pieces, and, though chronologically out of place here, I am tempted to introduce it. It occurred many years subsequently to the affair at Llanymynech, when I was residing at Aberystwith, and, as often happened whilst there, I was working the Shrewsbury and Aberystwith mail between the latter place and Newtown for one of the regular coachmen, who wanted a few days' rest. One morning on the down journey, on our reaching the toll gate at Caersws, the gatekeeper threw it open to allow the mail to pass, but, as he did not throw it sufficiently far back to hold in the catch, the high wind blew it back again, causing it to come in contact with the stock of the near fore wheel. Of course, it was too late to pull up, but, fortunately, the gate was old and very rotten, and doubled up with the collision. It was broken all to pieces, but, with the exception of a few slight cuts on the horses from splinters of wood, no injury was sustained. The toll-bar man was disposed to give some trouble, but little Rhodes, the post-office guard (for it was one of the last mails that carried them), shut him up with the remark that the penalty for delaying the mails was fifty pounds. Before taking leave of the subject of racing, such as was carried on by the "Royal Oak" and "Nettle" coaches, I am induced to make a few remarks about it. Perhaps, some one on reading what I have said, may be disposed to exclaim, "how dangerous it must have been!" and, indeed, Mr. Reynardson says in "Down the Road," speaking of these coaches, "they were often too fast to be quite safe, as I sometimes used to fancy." To this, the result of his practical experience, I will not demur, suffice it to say that, though I have known a coachman of the "Royal Oak" fined for furious driving, I never knew a case of one scattering his passengers. Of course, it was not altogether unaccompanied by danger, but, judging by results, it could not have been very serious, as the accidents which occurred from it were not greater than were produced by other causes. Indeed, there are some reasons why they may have been less. When coaches were running strong opposition, everything, horses, coaches, and harness, were all of the very best, and none but real "artists" could be placed upon the box. (I think I hear a whisper that sometimes boys got there.) They were, therefore, secure from any accident caused, as was sometimes the case, by carelessness and penuriousness, which, to my own knowledge, have been productive of some very serious ones, as I shall show. About twenty-five years ago, during one summer, two accidents occurred on the road between Dolgelly and Caernarvon, which might easily have been prevented--one of which was accompanied by serious loss of life, and which was to be attributed entirely to the use of old worn-out coaches and harness, or inferior coachmen and horses, such as, if the pace had been greater, no one would have ventured to employ. To the other accident there was a rather comic side, though not, perhaps, exactly to the sufferer. The coach was upset a few miles from Barmouth, on the road to Harlech, and the coachman's shoulder was dislocated; whereupon, a medical practitioner, who was passing at the time, mistaking the injury for a fracture, splintered it up. This treatment, of course, did not tend to mend matters, and the shoulder continued so painful that upon arriving at Caernarvon another surgeon was called in, who perceived the real nature of the injury, and reduced the dislocation. Then, again, as a fact, there was not so often, as may be supposed, a neck-and-neck race with two coaches galloping alongside of each other. Such things did occur at times, when the road was wide enough to admit of it; but much oftener the coachmen did not try to give one another the "_go-bye_," except when the leading one was called upon to stop to pick up or put down a passenger, or for any other purpose. It was understood that on those occasions, if the opposition was close behind, the one which stopped should pull to his own side of the road, leaving space to pass. Then the other one, getting in front, would "_spring 'em_" to try, if possible, to complete his next change of horses and be off again without being passed. No coachman, who knew his business, or was not utterly reckless, would think of racing down hill, though occasionally, no doubt, they did take liberties at the top of a hill and come to grief. There could, however, be no danger in trying to pass when ascending a hill, and then was the opportunity for the coachman with the lightest load or strongest team to challenge his opponent. Of course, the leading one would not give his rival the road if he could help it, and I have had my near-side leader's bar rattling against his off-side hind wheel before he would give me room to pass; but there was no danger involved in that, as, being on the ascent, I could have pulled up at any moment. As to there being any danger in merely galloping a coach, I am sure there is not, even at a high speed, provided the wheel horses are well matched in stride, the team well put together, and kept well in hand, and when there is sufficient draught to keep the leaders' traces tight. This will be apparent from the fact that, however much a coach may have been lurching previously, as soon as the leaders commence drawing, she becomes perfectly steady. Of course with the pole chains too slack there would be danger. Then, again, the build of the coach has a good deal to do with it. For very fast work, coaches were generally kept what was called near the ground. Those which were built by Shackleford, of Cheltenham, for the "Hirondelle," which raced with the "Hibernia," between that town and Liverpool, at a pace as great if not greater than any coaches in England, were contracted to be made so that the roof should not exceed a certain height from the ground. I forget now what the exact measurement was, but it was some inches less than the general build, and to enable this to be done the perch was slightly bent. The "Hibernia" coaches also, which were supplied by Williams, of Bristol, were admirably adapted for the work they had to perform, being low and remarkably steady, but heavier than those of their opponent. Indeed, Williams's coaches were not favourites with coachmen on account of their weight, but as they were generally contracted for by the mile, those were most profitable to the contractor that required the least repairs. I have heard of a coachman complaining to Mr. Williams about the weight of his coaches, to which the laconic answer was a five-shilling piece, and "Don't you bother about that." These two coaches always made the first of May a day for more than ordinary racing, and performed the journey on those occasions at a very accelerated pace. I am afraid, at this distance of time, to say exactly by how much the time was shortened, but certainly by two or three hours, and as the ordinary time was twelve hours and a half to cover the distance of one hundred and thirty-three miles, the pace must have been very severe. On one of these annual festivals there was a lady travelling inside the "Hirondelle," and one of the proprietors, thinking she might be alarmed at the terrific pace the coach was going at, offered to "post her" the remainder of the journey without extra charge. She, however, was quite equal to the occasion, and replied that she was much obliged by the offer, but that she liked going fast. This showed well, not only for her nerve, but also that the driving was good, and that the coachmen "made their play" judiciously. CHAPTER XIII. OLD TIMES. It may seem strange to those who have never had any experience of road travelling, that the memory of hours spent in journeys, when the passengers by public conveyances had only the choice between passing a whole day, and still more, a night, exposed to all the vicissitudes of the British climate, or else in what, compared even to a third-class carriage on a railway, was little better than a box upon wheels, should conjure up reminiscences of happy hours passed under circumstances which must naturally appear to those who have never tried it, absolutely insufferable. Such, however, I believe to be the case, and I very much doubt whether anything like the same affectionate reminiscences will linger about the present luxurious mode of travelling. At the present age, in consequence of the generally increased luxury, there has arisen an impatience of discomfort unknown to previous generations. Whether this arises from the fact that journeys are now so soon accomplished that one never feels it necessary to try and make the best of it, and affords no opportunity for a trial of pluck and endurance, dear to the heart of an Englishman, I know not; but that there is something deeply seated in human nature, which takes delight in recounting what it has gone through in the way of suffering is certain; or, perhaps, it may be that there was something which addressed itself to the love of sport, innate to man, in travelling behind four horses. This point I will not venture to decide. Certain it is that coaching has always been supposed to be nearly related to sporting. In the daytime, especially in fine weather, there is something very exhilarating in passing quickly through the air, and hearing the rapid steps of four horses on the hard road; and then there was, at least by day, just time enough, even on the fastest coaches, to run into the bar occasionally, whilst the horses were being changed, to have a glass of brown sherry, and exchange a word and a laugh with the pretty barmaid--for they were all pretty! At any rate, these things helped to break the monotony of the journey. Again, if the traveller desired to become acquainted with the country he was passing through, he could be in no better place for seeing it than on the outside of a coach, which by passing through the towns on the route afforded a much better idea of what they were like in architecture and other things, than by only skirting them, as must necessarily be the case on a railway. I often fancy that entering a town from a railway station is something like sneaking into a house by the back door. Night travelling, no doubt, had its serious drawbacks, but they were, to some extent at least, alleviated by a stoppage of sufficient time to get a good supper, such as would warm up the cockles of the heart, and enable the passengers to start again warm, and with a fresh stock of pluck to endure what they could not cure. At any rate, they knew no better. I tell my grandson that he loses twelve hours of his holidays from Eton now, since he does not have what I look back upon as a downright jolly night. Instead of not leaving college till the morning of breaking up as at present, the "Rocket" coach of the old days, from London to Birmingham and Shrewsbury, used on the previous evening to come to Slough empty, where it arrived about seven o'clock, and at which place we boys who were going long journeys in that direction were allowed to join it; and right well we filled it, inside and out, though the latter was the most coveted position, as being thought more manly. I recollect on my second journey home, though it was the Christmas holidays, my anxious parents having secured an inside place for me, I exchanged it with another boy, "without receiving the difference," so that I might not travel inside, and after that I was left to my own choice. As it was known some days before what the load would be composed of on those nights, an extra good supper was provided at Oxford, to which we did ample justice, and, as the coach was pretty much at our service on that occasion, there was time to enjoy ourselves thoroughly, which we did to our hearts' content, and started off again warm and comfortable and as "jolly as sand-boys," though I must admit we did know what cold feet were before arriving at Birmingham about eight o'clock on the following morning. That, however, coach travellers expected, and would, perhaps, have been rather disappointed without it. On these nights the coach used to be so heavily loaded with luggage that things were hung to the lamp-irons, and everything else that could be pressed into the service, and on one sharp, frosty night some small articles were slung under the hind axle, amongst which was a basket of fish; unfortunately, this had been allowed to hang so low down that it came in contact with the hard, frosty road, and when the place was reached where it was to be delivered, nothing could be found but the basket with the bottom out, the cod and oysters having been scattered on the road. The "Rocket" was not so fast a coach as its name might imply, and old Rook, who drove one side between Birmingham and Shrewsbury, though a good coachman of the old school, was not very particular to ten minutes or so, but would sometimes stop and take a little pleasure on the road; and I well remember passing through Bilson when a bull was being baited on a piece of open ground between the houses, and close to the roadside, and he pulled up to watch the operations for some time. There was a story told of him, that he had a friend who was a pig dealer, whose business frequently caused him to be walking in the same direction as the coach, and if there was room he would give him a lift. One day he came up with his friend walking at his very best pace, when, as usual, he offered him a ride, to which he replied, "No thank you, old fellow, not to-day; I am in a hurry, and can't while." I cannot say that the return journey carries with it the same pleasurable recollections, even after this distance of time. The "Triumph" coach by which it was performed, was a night one between Shrewsbury and Birmingham, and travelled by day above the latter town, but as it had only a pair of horses up to there it was a very slow affair, starting from Shrewsbury at eleven o'clock at night, and not arriving at Birmingham before six on the following morning. To send a boy back to school on a two-horse power, which consumed seven hours in covering forty-four miles, seems rather like "adding insult to injury." The only amusement we could by any possibility indulge in was when we came to a turnpike gate, when the collector was sleepy and slow in opening it, to cry out "Fire!" as loud as we could to alarm him. We found that the cry of "Murder!" had no effect. My recollection also reminds me that we did not always travel home by the "Rocket." One Easter holidays three of us started from Eton to post to London in one of the old yellow post-chaises, when soon after passing Slough, the demon of mischief taking possession of us, we determined to have some fun on the road, for which purpose we changed half-a-crown into coppers, and using them as missiles, made a stealthy attack upon the shop windows as we drove along. This fun lasted very well till after changing horses at Hounslow, but upon passing through Brentford, whether we had become too bold and careless, or whether the inhabitants of that town were a sharper race, I don't know, but we all of a sudden found ourselves the object of much interest to them, and a man running out of a shop, seized hold of our horses' heads, and calling us all the young blackguards he could think of, presented his little account for broken glass, etc., etc. I need hardly say that this was immediately settled without haggling, and telling the post-boy to make the best of his way, we soon left the town of Brentford, and further hostile attention on the part of its inhabitants, behind us. In the previous generation a case occurred when a journey home from Eton was performed on a much grander scale than that which I have just recorded, and as it was of necessity performed by road, may not be inappropriately introduced in this place. The then Bishop of Worcester, Dr. Cornwall, had two sons at Eton, and on a certain Election Monday they started to go home to their paternal mansion at Diddlesbury, situate in Corvedale in the county of Salop, where the Bishop resided a good deal of his time. The family temper was of rather a hasty nature, and something occurred after the young gentlemen had proceeded a certain distance on the journey which stirred up this hereditary failing, the altercation becoming so strong that they parted company, each one ordering out a post-chaise and four for his own individual use; and it ended in first of all one of them arriving at his destination in a post-chaise and four from Ludlow, followed in about a quarter-of-an-hour by the other brother in a similar conveyance. Report does not say how the Right Rev. father received his sons, but if he had a spice of the family temper, he probably gave them a "_mauvais quart d'heure_" as the Frenchman says. At any rate, one thing is certain, that it would puzzle the picturesque little town of Ludlow at the present time to turn out "_two fours_" without a long warning. CHAPTER XIV. COACHMEN: WHERE DID THEY COME FROM? Coachmen, as they used to be, are now nearly, or quite, lost to sight, and it is difficult to describe them. Most of the descriptions given of them have been, more or less, caricatures; still, from the time of Tony Weller, they have been a rather peculiar people, although that character, as depicted by Dickens, was more in keeping with a previous generation, and even highly coloured for that, and as unlike what they were in the palmy days of coaching as were two men I saw at Hatchetts a summer or two ago, dressed in such great-coats as were never seen down any road, and with such hats upon their heads as, I should think, never made their appearance anywhere, unless it was on the stage. They were a sort of Gog and Magog of the road. The coachman of the fastest and best days, which really lasted for a comparatively small number of years, was better educated, and was rarely slangy in his dress, which was well suited to his avocation, and, except in winter, would not generally attract attention. At that season, however, he did require to be well protected against weather, for he had to face all sorts, and that for nearly a whole day or night at a time. On one journey the rain might fall incessantly, on another our changeable climate would produce clear weather accompanied by intense frost, whilst on the following day there might be a driving snow, the wind blowing the flakes into the eyes till it was almost impossible to see the road. Now all these alternations of weather had to be taken into account, and, I believe, the art of resisting them had well-nigh reached perfection; therefore, with the dread before my eyes of wearying some of my readers, I am tempted to enter with some minuteness into the subject, as, judging from the garments now usually worn, the art is lost in the present day. It was a well established fact that two moderately thick coats gave more warmth and kept out wet better than one which was very thick, and besides which, a very thick coat becomes insufferably heavy after being out many hours in the rain. Indeed, a great change had taken place in the dress of coachmen. As the pace increased, and better bred horses were employed, and greater activity was required in the coachmen, the cumbersome old great-coat, with innumerable capes, had to make room for garments which interfered less with the movements of the wearer. I need hardly say to those who have had much experience, that there is no hope of keeping dry and warm if the neck is not secured by an ample upper neckcloth; for, tying up this part of the body not only excludes the wet and cold, but also has the effect of keeping in the natural heat of the body. Nothing chills worse than a cold draught passing up the sleeves and coming out at the neck, and to prevent this what were called coachman's cuffs were employed. These consisted of a piece of cloth about six inches in length, which buttoned over the sleeve of the ordinary coat, and when over these were added, first, a strong cloth coat, and over that a waterproof cape with sleeves, and ample enough to spread well over the apron, no wet and little cold could penetrate. Protected in this way, and with a relay of dry woollen gloves and whips, a not unpleasant day might be spent on the coach box even when the elements were unpropitious. When a man is cased in all these clothes, he can hardly help being a little stiff in his movements, and this imparted a peculiar gait which betrayed the occupation. The left hand also generally acted as a tell tale, as the rounded position in which the wrist was necessarily held during many hours of the day could not be altogether thrown off at other times. It was not uncommon for guards in the fast day coaches to wear red coats, not the post-office guard's livery, as I have seen at Hatchett's, but an ordinary hunting coat. As roads improved pace increased, and fast day coaches gradually appeared, notably the three "Tallyhoes" between Birmingham and London, distinguished from one another by the words "Eclipse," "Patent," and "Independent;" also the "York House," Bath, and the "Berkely Hunt," Cheltenham. It was not, however, till about the year 1825 that the "Wonder" commenced running between Shrewsbury and London, a distance of one hundred and fifty-four miles, and it ceased running the whole journey through in the year 1840 or 1841. And this having been the first coach which attempted to cover so long a journey in one day, it marks with sufficient accuracy the time during which coaching was at its zenith. Of course, there were many fast and good coaches running after this date; but subsequent to the year 1842, most of the roads, taking their start from the Metropolis, were, more or less, pressed upon by railways, and the coaches were either taken off altogether, or else the distance run was curtailed. We may therefore put down about twenty-five years as the period during which the coaches covered the roads, though many equally good ones continued to run in Scotland, Wales, and other remote places for many years later. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. EXTRA PAIR OF HORSES FOR FAST COACHES, FOR STEEP ASCENTS.] During this quarter of a century the fun was fast, not to say furious, and with such rapidity did coaches increase and multiply, that it is a wonder how the demand for coachmen was satisfied, for to become one fit to be entrusted with a fast coach, and one which loaded heavily, necessitates no little practice. From whence then was this demand supplied? Principally, I believe, like that in other trades, on the hereditary principle. It was no uncommon thing for old coachmen to have several sons at work; but, as the box of a good day coach was a lucrative post, a considerable number of men were gradually attracted to it from superior positions in life. The value of a "drive" differed very much, according to the loading of the coach, distance driven, whether single or double journey, or whether the passengers were what was called "_good cloth_," or the contrary; but one which did not bring in twenty shillings a day was not thought much of, and some were worth double. This may appear a large remuneration to be received for a day's work, seldom occupying more than nine or ten hours; but I know it is not overstated, as I have not only been told it by others, but have myself fingered forty-five shillings in one day. Perhaps, however, I should add that I was then driving as much as ninety-three miles a day, and had no guard. There were also other sources from which money was made, and from which coachmen driving slow coaches were enabled to make amends for the inferior quality of their passengers; and, indeed, in quite old days, the best wheel of the coach was often his. The late Mr. Jobson, who for many years kept the "Talbot Hotel" in Shrewsbury, and horsed the "Nimrod," which ran opposition to the "Wonder," had previously driven the "Prince of Wales" coach between that town and Birmingham, during which time he had the opportunity of buying up the guineas, when they were called in by the Mint, at a trifle under their standard value, and being able to dispose of them at their full price he realised a handsome profit. Again, fish was not an unusual article to be made the subject of trading, and I once was tempted to embark in this business myself, but, as the sequel will show, not with satisfactory results. When I was driving the "Snowdonian," I was frequently asked by friends and acquaintances on the road to bring some fish from Caernarvon, as the towns through which I passed were badly supplied with it. Accordingly, one morning, hearing that a good catch of fish had been brought in, I invested, before starting, in forty pounds of very nice small salmon at sixpence a pound, with the expectation of obliging friends, and at the same time making some profit for my trouble. However, I was soon undeceived. As I went from place to place I announced with a feeling of much complacency that I had got the long-wanted article, but in most cases the answer was that they did not want salmon--any other fish would have been acceptable. Consequently, when I arrived at the end of my journey, I found that more than half was left in hand. Pickled salmon was the standard dish on my table for a fortnight. It was my first and last appearance in the character of a fishmonger. I tried no other sort of fish, as I thought they were too dainty if they could not eat salmon. But perhaps I have digressed too far, and will return to where coachmen sprang from in the required numbers. I once sat by the side of a Captain Douglas, who had seen service in the Peninsular war, and was then driving the Birmingham and Sheffield mail out of the former town, and a quiet, nice coachman he was. He had a long stage of sixteen miles to Lichfield, and brought his team in fresh at the end of it. From the officer coachman I come to the private. He was named Marsh, and had served at Waterloo with the 14th Regiment, and after leaving the army, had driven a coach between Maidstone and London for many years. When I first became acquainted with him, he had, like a good many others, followed the receding tide to the west, and was driving one side of the Aberystwith and Shrewsbury mail, between the former place and Newtown, during which time I occasionally worked for him; but, like an old soldier, he was always, if possible, ready for duty. It is curious enough that I first came across him on a Waterloo day, when he modestly remarked, upon the subject being alluded to, "I happened to be there." I had lost sight of him for some years, till I observed a notice of him in the _World_ newspaper of July 11th, 1888. It occurred in a short account of Lord Albemarle, and mentioned the interest he took in "the old soldier Matty Marsh, private 14th Foot, who was wounded at Waterloo, witnessed the funerals of Wellington and Napoleon, drove a coach from Maidstone for many years, and recently died at the advanced age of ninety-four years." I never heard him allude to either of the funerals, and don't very well see how he could have been at that of Napoleon's; but so far as I know, he may have attended both. A few postboys were elevated to the "bench," notably little Dick Vickers, of the Holyhead mail; but few of them were equal to the task, and, indeed, some of them could not even handle four-horse reins sufficiently well for black work, and consequently the night coachmen were occasionally pressed into this service, much to their dislike, and this once led to a rather droll scene. A gentleman, who had taken to professional coach driving, found himself one day let in for the job of driving a hearse, and, of course, was obliged to get himself up for the occasion something like a mute, when catching sight of himself in a glass, he was so much struck with his personal appearance, that he remarked, "Well, if only some of my family could see me now, I wonder what they _would_ say?" Indeed, it is difficult to determine from what ranks and professions the large body of coachmen required in those days was not recruited. I suppose few would have looked among the list of publishers for one, but, nevertheless, one, at any rate, from that business was drawn into the service of the road, not having been successful in the former trade. A letter from an old friend of mine, also a coachman, will, I think, interest or amuse some readers, and will show that he possessed a considerable amount of grim humour, as well as some acuteness in business. "Many years ago," says my friend, "I took up my residence for a short time at the 'Kentish Hotel' in Tunbridge Wells--the best hotel there, and at that time there were very few houses built upon the Common. After stopping there some time, the season ended, and the exodus of visitors had commenced, I took the box seat on Stockdale's coach. I must tell you he had been a large publisher in Piccadilly, but failed, and then took to the road, this being the first coach he had driven, and being part proprietor. He was an exceedingly good amateur whip, but still, not a first-rate artist, as he would try to make you believe. "A short time before we started, a lady with her maid, who had been stopping in the hotel, sent her luggage to be placed on the coach, and upon Stockdale seeing it, he said to the porter, 'How many passengers, Tom?' 'Two, sir,' says Tom. 'Scale it, Tom,' says he, which he immediately did. When twelve shillings was demanded for extra luggage, the lady said, 'I never paid it before, and have taken two inside places.' 'You see, _ma'ame_,' says he, 'I horse this coach over Maramscote hill, and I cannot carry your luggage for nothing; you will bring the kitchen range next time if you have nothing to pay.' "Having seated myself very comfortably on the box seat, our friend Stockdale and myself lit our cigars, going at a fair pace till we were descending Maramscote hill, the skid-pan being on the wheel. The wheel horses did not step well together, and we rocked very considerably, which led me to observe he had better be careful, or he would put the passengers down to count them. Upon this he turned round to me, looking daggers, and asked me to look what was painted on the board at the side of the hill, and looking, I read, '_Dry rubbish may be thrown here_.' You may be sure I did not offer any more advice for the remainder of the stage; but our _contretemps_ soon cooled down, and when we were changing horses, 'I say, governor!' says he, 'forget the dry rubbish, and come in and take a little cold brandy and water. It's the only place I ever go into on the road, for it's the only place where you can escape being poisoned.' After our refreshment we went at a very jolly pace, having Robert Nelson's horses, which were first-rate, and soon arrived at the Belle Sauvage, Ludgate Hill, where we found a great bustle of coaches, and luggage just come by other coaches, arriving from different parts of the country, and porters were calling out, 'Any passengers for Leeds "Courier," "Hope," "Halifax,"'" etc., etc. It was not only necessary that a coachman should be able to drive well, which required time and practice to acquire, but, what was of nearly equal importance, he had to learn how to get his coach quick through the country. Indeed, his was a position of no small responsibility, for he had the lives and limbs of the passengers in his hands, and as, when was sometimes the case with a strong opposition, his orders were simply "_be first_" his was no very enviable situation. When he could do all this with the minimum of wear and tear of the stock, he was a very valuable man to his employers. As a rule, I think they were fairly careful of the stock, though certainly on slow coaches, when a little time lost could be recovered without much difficulty, the horses by no means always reaped the full benefit of the time allowed them. This, however, it must with justice be admitted, was not altogether the fault of the coachmen. The proprietors were too prone to encourage delay for the custom it brought to the "bar," and if a coachman was heard to decline the offer of a glass of sherry or brandy and water from his box passenger, he might expect black looks. Of course, with the fastest coaches, such delays were impossible, neither could the coachman find time to pull up and patronize the house of a friend, as was frequently done by his brethren on the slower drags. I have heard of the late Mr. Isaac Taylor, of Shrewsbury, when he wanted to select from among his coachmen one fitted for a fast coach, adopting the following plan: One of his coaches was driven by a man who he knew to be coachman enough for the job, but he was not so sure about his power of getting through the country. He, therefore, one day, quietly seated himself inside this man's coach, and after a time his doubts were confirmed, for on pulling up at a roadside inn, the landlady, without observing him, said to the coachman, "Mr. So-and-So, how will you have your eggs done to-day? Shall they be poached or boiled?" I need hardly add, he remained on the slow coach. A smart coachman usually took his place in changing horses, and it is quite possible, as I know from experience, having been timed by a box passenger, to effect the change in one minute and a half, with only one horse-keeper, assisted by coachman and guard; but to do this, each one must know his own place; they must not be tumbling over one another. The best drill I ever knew for this purpose was as follows: As the coach gradually stopped, the guard got down, and ran forward to unhook the near leader's outside trace, and then drew the near lead rein through the territs, after which he changed the near wheel horse, and finished by running the near lead rein. The horse-keeper, on the off-side, unhooked the remaining lead traces, uncoupled the wheel horses, and changed the off-side one. The coachman, getting down from his box as fast as he could, finished changing the leaders. The horses had, of course, previous to the arrival of the coach, been properly placed; one wheeler on each side of the road, and the leaders coupled. This, of course, could only be carried out when the team was pretty quiet to "put to," for with queer tempered ones, all sorts of dodges had to be resorted to, attended sometimes with considerable loss of time. Occasionally, it would be necessary to run a leader's rein the first thing, and then the coachman had to bustle up to his box as quick as he could, trusting to the horse-keeper and guard to get the traces hooked as best they might. Again, some wheelers could not bear to be poled up till after the coach was started. Horse-keepers were often exceedingly smart at this sort of work, though they varied a good deal, so much so, that it was no uncommon thing for "queer ones" to start better from one end of the stage than the other. These said horse-keepers were a rough lot, and no great wonder, for they had rough work to do. They were frequently expected to attend to eight horses, four out and four in, every day, or to take charge of six, with eight out and eight in, during the course of the day. But, what was worse than the work, they constantly had vicious horses to attend to, and such as it was dangerous to approach in the stall. To meet this difficulty, I have known a long cord used, with one end fastened to the head collar, and the other made fast to the stall-post, by which the horse could be pulled back far enough to enable the horse-keeper to keep clear of his heels whilst entering the stall. I was once travelling at night, when, upon arriving at the end of a stage, the coachman said to the horsekeeper, "Mind what you are about with that horse," pointing to a fresh one, "he bit a piece out of a man just before starting." It struck me as not a very enviable position to be left, in the middle of a dark night, to look single-handed after four dirty horses, and one of them a "savage." But to return to changing horses, for it was an item of the very greatest importance in fast work. It was necessary at times to use a twitch with kickers, or to strap up one foreleg, though I have known this latter insufficient to keep the hind feet on the ground, and was once compelled to "Rarey" a mare before she would suffer herself to be put to the coach. She was, from some cause or another, the worst tempered horse I ever met with. When I first knew her, she was the property of a gentleman residing at Dolgelly, but her temper was so violent and untractable, that she had got the better of one or two breakers, and the ostler at the "Wynnstay Arms" at Machynlleth, having undertaken to conquer her, she had been taken there for that purpose. It happened that I had promised to drive, a day or two afterwards, for another coachman, who wanted a rest, and as his coach did not start till after I had arrived with the "Harkaway" from Barmouth, and was back again in time for my return coach, I was able to oblige him, little thinking what I had undertaken. On looking over the team before mounting my box, what should I espy but this very animal at off-lead. "Oh," says I, "then this is the way you are going to be broken? Well, we shall see how we can agree." And taking up the reins, I mounted the box. Cautioning the horse-keeper not to touch her, but to keep alongside the other leader through the archway out of the inn yard, and to be sure and make him carry his bar well, we started, the hitherto unmanageable mare giving very little trouble, and, after a few more journeys in the coach, she was considered to have finished her education, and returned home. I suppose, however, that she was not much to the taste of her owner, as she was very soon purchased, for a small sum, by my partner, Mr. E. Jones, of the "Ship Hotel," Dolgelly, and put to run in the "Harkaway." I drove her for many months, and considered that she was quite subdued, though it was always necessary to strap up a foreleg when putting her to the coach, and she was always nasty in the stable. All of a sudden, however, as spring came on, she returned to her old tricks, and thought so little of having a leg strapped up, that she kicked her bar over the top of the coach, and was so violent that it was impossible to "put her to." I determined, therefore, to "Rarey" her, so, getting a long rope, and fastening it to the foreleg which was not strapped, and passing it over her withers, I gradually pulled her down, and, after the most approved "Rarey" fashion, sat upon her. After a few minutes, I allowed her to get up, but she seemed still to be very light behind, so I put her into her place at near-lead, all the while keeping a strain upon the rope, and so kept her peaceable whilst the traces were hooked, the rein run, etc. Then, handing over the rope to the guard, I got into my place, when it became, "Let 'em go, and take care of yourselves." The brute went right enough for about a couple of hundred yards, when all of a sudden, she ran her head into the near-side hedge, and set to kicking in earnest; but as this movement exposed her flank, I was soon able to make it too hot for her, and she finished the stage to Dolgelly quietly. I drove her again the next day, but she continued so violent that, as we carried a great many ladies and children at that time of year, she was taken away for fear of alarming them, especially as some parts of the road were not of the safest. CHAPTER XV. GUARDS. The guard of the olden day was generally exceedingly quick in putting on the skid and taking it off, which with fast coaches travelling hilly roads, before the patent break was in use, was of first-rate importance. Most of them were able to do the former without entirely stopping the coach, but only a very few could unskid without the coachman pulling up and backing his horses. It required a man of unusual strength and activity to unskid whilst the coach was in motion, as it was necessary for him to twist the wheel back out of the pan with the right hand, and at the same moment to seize the chain with the left, and hang it to the hook on the coach, and these skid-pans were not a very light weight. Probably few of my readers will know the manner in which wheels were dragged in a frost, therefore I will try and explain it here. It is manifest that the usual way of doing it would have been not only useless, but absolutely mischievous, as it would have had a tendency to pull the hind part of the coach into the side of the road when it was slippery. The method adopted, therefore, was to tie a strong chain round the felloe of the wheel, in such a position that it pressed upon the ground and broke up the surface sufficiently to get a good hold on it. This chain was then fastened to the safety hook. Guards were frequently obliged to work very long hours, as it was usually the case that, on coaches running long distances, one of them would cover the ground driven over by four coachmen. In severe weather this was naturally very trying, consequently, they did not work every day. For instance, the "Wonder," from Shrewsbury to London, a distance of one hundred and fifty-four miles, had three guards, each of whom worked two double journeys and then rested for one. The object of these men going the whole journey no doubt was that there should be no break in the parcel department, which might have caused delay or loss. Talking of the "Wonder" reminds me that, fast as it travelled, the proprietors had intended doing better. The late Mr. Taylor, who horsed it out of Shrewsbury, told me that it had been in contemplation to expedite it so as to perform the journey in thirteen hours instead of sixteen, and that, to enable this pace to be kept up, the stages would have been limited to six miles each, and the coach was not to stop to pick up passengers, or for any other business, except at the changes. This idea, however, was abandoned when it was seen that the railways would certainly obtain possession of the traffic. I question whether the public would have been satisfied with the proposed arrangement. They would have complained very much of being obliged to go two or three miles to get on to the coach when it passed their own doors. But really that part of the plan was hardly necessary. Horsed as the "Wonder" was, and travelling over such a first-rate road, it would not have puzzled it much to do twelve miles an hour; but then every stage exceeding seven miles must have been divided. Some guards were quite natty with their parcels and luggage. I was one day, when driving the Aberystwith and Shrewsbury mail, amused with Jem Large, who was one of the guards on it at the time, and perhaps the best to get a coach through a country that I ever drove. He had, as usual, before leaving Shrewsbury, packed the front boot so carefully that he could lay his hand upon everything in it even in the dark. When, however, the mail arrived at Welshpool, it was found necessary to change the coach, and as Jem was occupied with Post-office business, he was unable to attend to the front boot, and, consequently, what he had placed at the top of one was promptly consigned to the bottom of the other. When we reached Caersws a passenger left us, and Jem opened the boot to take out his portmanteau; but what did he see? Instead of what he wanted being at the top, it was now at the bottom, and with many groans and anathemas he began to dive in pursuit of it, and as he disappeared further and further the language which I heard from under my feet became more and more pointed, till at last it became quite unparliamentary, even for the present day. The situation of guard was a very responsible one also in a pecuniary point of view, as he had the power of defrauding his employer to a very considerable extent, and the temptation to do so was enhanced by the pace the coach travelled at; more especially was this the case when the opposition was keen, and I fear it was sometimes too strong to be resisted. To obviate this he always carried with him a "way-bill," and the theory was that it was compared by the book-keeper with the number of passengers on the coach at each stage. It often happened, however, that by the time the parcels had been given in and compared with the way-bill, the horses were changed and the coach was off again without the passengers having been counted, and thus having afforded opportunities for what was called "shouldering," that is, pocketing a passenger's fare, or "swallowing him," as it was sometimes denominated. Everything had to be done at the "change," as there was no convenience for the guard to go over his parcels, as is done in a van on the railways. By the bye, I wonder what John Ash would have thought of himself if he had got down from the back of the "Wonder" with a pencil behind his ear? To a certain extent, what were termed "shorts" were allowed, as it was customary for all passengers' fares not exceeding two shillings to be the perquisite of the coachman and guard on coaches, and of the latter only on mails, as he was the servant of the proprietors, carrying the way-bill and having charge of the parcels. The Post-office guard was occupied with his bags; but his was a rather anomalous position, receiving only the munificent sum of ten shillings and sixpence a week from the Post-Office, and being supposed to eke out a living by fees from the passengers, to whom he had little or no time to attend. Of quite late years, however, this was corrected, and the few who were then employed were more liberally dealt with. They received as much as seventy pounds a year from the Post-Office; but then they were not supposed to take fees from the passengers, or, at any rate, not to ask for them. So much was this system of "shorts" an acknowledged thing, that I have had two shillings handed to me by the book-keeper as I was getting on to my box, with the following remark, "I took it from him, thinking he might fork out something more when he gets down." These perquisites, however, were not altogether untaxed, as coachmen were expected to subsidize the wages of the horse-keepers to the amount of one shilling a week, and sometimes more. Talking of parcels brings to my mind a rather comical scene I once witnessed. It so happened that one day I came across one of the "Tourist" coaches, running between Caernarvon and Dolgelly, which had pulled up at a wayside inn about thirteen miles from Tan-y-bwlch. I was attracted by the coachman, whose name was, if I recollect rightly, Roberts, intently studying the address on a small parcel. It evidently caused him great trouble to decipher it, as he first turned it up, and then he turned it down, but neither right side up nor wrong side up could he satisfy himself, and, at last, looking up and seeing me, he came for assistance out of his difficulties, saying he was not a very good scholar. When I looked at the address, I said, "You should have left this at Tan-y-bwlch." "Well, dear me," said he, "that was a bad job; indeed, it is doctor's stuff." CHAPTER XVI. WHERE DID THEY ALL GO TO? Having indicated to some extent the sources from which the great demand for coachmen were supplied, I will venture to dwell, for a moment, and not without feelings of regret, on the subject of their no less rapid disappearance from the scene. It will, I am aware, have little or no interest to many: well, then, let them skip it; but some there may be, into whose hands this little volume finds its way, who have sufficient remembrance of old days to be interested in it, and, at any rate, it shall not occupy much space. It is always a melancholy thing to see any class of men suddenly deprived of their means of subsistence from no fault of their own. It is very easy to say that if one trade fails another must be found, and to some political economists this appears to be a sufficient solution of the difficulty, but it by no means has that effect on the sufferers. A man who has thoroughly learned one handicraft, can very seldom become a proficient in any others; and it is always the inferior workmen who are left out in the cold. Driving, like other trades, was not learned without much practice, and does not fit a man for any other business. Where, then, did they vanish to? The guards could, and I believe did, to a large extent, find employment on the railways in the same capacity, and, probably, some coachmen also; but this could not absorb all, or, indeed, any very large proportion of them. His means of subsistence consisted in his power of driving horses. He could not drive a steam engine. It is difficult to say where they all dispersed to. A considerable number, no doubt, found employment upon omnibuses in London and other large towns; but that was a sorry life, indeed, like slavery compared to freedom, to one who had been accustomed to the cheery work on a coach. Many of those who had had the good fortune to drive good paying coaches, and had been thrifty, invested their savings in inns, and, in some cases, in hotels of some importance. A few, some of whom I have previously mentioned, followed the receding tide, and obtained drives upon summer coaches. One who could horse a stage was pretty sure of getting a drive on one of them, as there was frequently some difficulty in finding people to cover the middle ground. Some few took to farming, but I cannot call to mind anyone who prospered as an agriculturist. I fear the larger part died off rapidly. They were never a long-lived class of men. Strange as it may sound, the natural healthiness of the employment tended to shorten their lives. The constant passing through the air promoted great appetites, which, for the most part were fully gratified, and this, together with insufficient exercise, produced disease. I have known some who took a good walk before or after the day's drive, who lived to a hale old age, but too many seemed to think that the driving was sufficient exercise, though it could only have been very bad teams that made it so; worse than were put to coaches of late years. Joe Wall, who drove the Manchester "Telegraph" out of London, used to take his exercise in a very aristocratic manner, as he always kept one, and sometimes two hunters, at Hockliffe, where he left the coach, and enjoyed his love for sport, as well as getting healthy exercise, and occupying the time which would otherwise have hung heavy on his hands, and possibly might have led him into mischief. This, however, had its drawbacks, and, on one occasion, was very near leading to a difficulty of no small magnitude. He had, as usual, been out hunting, and had, unfortunately, experienced a bad fall, which incapacitated him from driving the return coach, and, at first, it seemed as if it could not find its way to London that evening, for it was not every one, even though he might call himself a coachman, who was capable of driving a coach at the pace at which the "Telegraph" was timed, on a dark winter's evening, along a road crowded with so large a number of vehicles of all descriptions as would be the case on one approaching the metropolis. As good luck, however, would have it, an efficient substitute turned up in the shape of a very able and experienced hand, who had driven equally fast coaches. A few became horse-dealers, and I knew one who was for many years the highly-valued stud-groom to the late Sir W. W. Wynn, but, if I ever heard it, I have quite forgotten what coach it was that Simpson drove. I believe he was a good coachman, but he had the misfortune, though by no fault of his own, to capsize the hound van, nearly killing that prince of huntsmen, John Walker. I once knew a guard who had previously followed the occupation of clown in a circus. His experience there had made him active enough for anything, but he and the coachman did not, I fancy, get on very well together, as the latter used sometimes to speak of him in derision as "my fool." CHAPTER XVII. SOME CHARACTERS. There was a great character who drove out of Machynlleth at that time. His name was David Lloyd, and he worked the mail between that place and Dolgelly round by Towyn and the coast. When he came to a certain long fall of ground, he would put his team into a gallop, and then, taking a small twisted horn, which he slung in a strap over his shoulder, would blow almost without ceasing, especially when it was dusk, as was more or less the case during a considerable part of the year, and, as his right hand was fully occupied with the horn, if he wanted to take a pull at the reins he made use of his foot. It was dark for the greater part of the year before he reached the end of the journey, and, as his sight was not very good at night, he would sometimes say to his box passenger, "If you please, sir, will you tell me what is coming towards us." Perhaps the passenger after looking, would say "A cart," to which David would reply, "Then I was get out of his way;" but if the answer was "A gig," or "A carriage," he would say, "Then he was get out of my way," and would keep straight on. Dolgelly at that time contained a few boon companions, some of whom were rather given to practical joking. One morning there happened to be on the box seat one of these gentlemen, and when they had proceeded a few miles on the road, he pulled a pill-box out of his pocket and took some of the pills. Upon seeing this, David said to him, "If you please, sir, what have you got there?" He replied, "Only a few pills, which I find very beneficial after a hard night." "Well, indeed," says David, "I had a rather heavy night; was you please give me some of them?" "All right," says he, "hold out your hand," when he poured several pills into it; and upon David asking how many he was to take, he said, "Take them all," which he did; and the sequel was, that he drove his coach to Machynlleth, but another man brought it back in the evening. For two summers, when I was driving the Aberystwith and Kington "Cambrian," I had Ben Haslam as guard, who was also something of a character, and quite one of the old coachmen. He had driven for many years out of London on different coaches, and, like a good many others, had followed the receding tide, and had got down to Herefordshire, where coaches lingered for several years, and then on to Wales, where, at that time, railways had not penetrated. He was full of anecdotes connected with the road, and towards autumn, when the down loads were usually very light, I would sometimes get him to sit by me on the box that he might enliven the way with some of them. He had one story which amused me, of the only really crusty coachman I ever heard of. They were, as a rule, very cheery, genial spirits, and, indeed, had not much cause to be otherwise. There were few pleasanter lives. They were generally made a great deal of, indeed, perhaps rather too much so at times, although, as a body, they bore their honours becomingly. Between the patronage they received from the gentlemen and the deference shown them by the horse-keepers and others, it is hardly to be wondered at if sometimes their heads were a little turned, and they became rather too big for their boots. There was a story told of one, who was rather cheeky, giving great offence to a parson, who was his box passenger, by saying that he was not going to drive the next day, but should send his curate. They were, however, not very unfrequently taken down a peg by a lick from the rough side of a crusty proprietor's tongue; but on the whole, they were, as Tony Weller said, "priviledged indiwiduals." But to return to the crusty coachman. His name was Spooner, and he drove out of Oxford, and, though often causing trouble with the passengers by his want of urbanity, he was too valuable a servant to get rid of. As was not so very unusual with him, he had been lately called to account for some want of civility to a passenger, whereupon he announced his determination never to speak to one of them again, and he kept his word, till one day, a gentleman who was going to travel by his coach, asked him some question, but after repeating it several times and eliciting no reply, turned to the proprietor, who was in the office, saying, "Your coachman is so surly, he won't answer a single question I put to him." The proprietor asked him what he meant by not answering the gentleman, to which he replied, "If I do speak to him he will only complain, like that other fool did the other day." On another occasion his whole coach was occupied by musicians, coming to play at a ball at Oxford, and, as he did not expect very good pay from them, he was not in the best of tempers. It happened that at the last change of horses before arriving at Oxford, a boy, who had been sent with a fresh horse, was returning by the coach, and, as every seat was occupied, he sat upon the footboard by the bandmaster's feet, and after they had gone a short distance, pulled a Jew's harp out of his pocket and began to play upon it. Upon this the bandmaster asked the boy to allow him to try what he could do with it, saying, "He could play a good many instruments, but had never tried a Jew's harp." The new instrument proved too much for him, whereupon old Spooner looked at him with scorn and contempt, and said, "You are a pretty sort of a man for a bandmaster, and cannot play a Jew's harp." He also narrated how, when the Great Western Railway was opened over only certain lengths, and coaches were employed over the other ground, some of those were conveyed certain distances on trucks, and the coachmen travelled in their respective coaches. Of course they did not overflow with affection for their rivals, and the way they tried to annoy them was by getting out of their coaches and applying the breaks to the wheels of the trucks. This reminds me of how very slow all those connected with coaches, as also those who took a warm interest in them, were to realize the fact that their occupation was fast leaving them, and that the railways would, before many years, have entirely superseded the old system of travelling. We were not, however, the only people who were somewhat sceptical on the subject, though with us, no doubt, the wish was father to the thought; but the _Times_ newspaper, whilst admitting the financial success of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, warned investors against speculative imitation, saying, "Where there are good roads and convenient coaches, it would be a mistake to alter existing arrangements." Every little failure of the railways raised our spirits and gave strength to the hope that they would fail, as all attempts to utilize steam upon ordinary roads had hitherto done. At first, they were unable to keep time in frosty weather, as the driving-wheels kept turning round and round on the same spot of the slippery rail. In the beginning of January, in the year 1838, I was travelling down to Shrewsbury by the Holyhead mail. It was the first night of the long frost and snow-up of that winter, which continued for two months, and the roads were so much blocked up with snow, that for a few days the coachmen and guards held a sort of wake at Dunchurch. On the night I travelled down the frost set in exceedingly sharp, and the only up mail that kept time was the Holyhead, which had come by road the whole distance through North Wales. The other mails, whose bags had been brought to Birmingham by what was then called the Grand Junction Railway, were after time, as the trains could make but slow progress on the slippery rails. The coachman and I, two silly creatures as we were, made ourselves happy with the conviction that railways must always be a failure for fast work, and that the coaching business was not in such great danger after all. No doubt this opinion was entertained by a good many others, and led to losses, by inducing some coach proprietors to oppose the railways instead of coming to terms with them. It was on this journey, if I recollect rightly, that I had my last experience of that conveyance, long since quite lost to sight, and now nearly so to memory, that perhaps I may be pardoned if I linger for a few moments to raise it, or its ghost, before the eyes of the present generation, especially as I have seen some not very accurate descriptions of them. The old hackney coach, though frousty and damp, was generally roomy and easy, as it had nearly always commenced its career in gentlemen's service, and had consequently been built by one of the best coachmakers of the day, and so far was decidedly better than the modern "bounder." It carried about it a character of decayed respectability, not to say grandeur, and upon entering one of them it was not impossible for a gentleman to be greeted by his own quarterings upon the panel. They were as ramshackling looking things as could be imagined, with occasionally, wheels of different colours, and the horses and coachman, together with his clothes, seemed made to match. But to return to coaches proper again: one called the "Dart" used to run between Oxford and London, driven by a coachman who was commonly known by the name of "Black Will;" and one fine morning the box seat was occupied by an Oxford Don, who thought he would enjoy the air on his journey. After they had gone a short distance he addressed our friend Black Will, saying, "Are you the coachman they call Black Will?" His answer was, "Blackguards call me Black Will, but gentlemen call me Mr. Walters." It is needless to say that this shut up the Don for the remainder of the journey. Dick Dicas drove the "Cambrian" between Llangollen and Dolgelly for several years, and one day it so happened that among the outside passengers there was a ventriloquist. As they drove along the road a man was seen walking leisurely across a field in the direction of the coach, when the ventriloquist threw his voice so as to make it appear that he was calling to it to stop. Of course, Dick pulled up, thinking he had got another passenger; but as he did not quicken his pace, he began to get impatient, for he was not a Job under any circumstances, and called out to him to "Come on," and "Do you suppose I can wait here all day for you?" At last, as he approached nearer, he said, "What do you want with me?" when friend Dick answered, "Why, you called me to stop." "I did nothing of the sort," replied the man in the field. "I tell you you did," said Dick, waxing warmer. "Well, I'm not coming with you, anyhow," said the leisurely man; whereupon there was nothing left for Dick to do but to drive on, not in the best of tempers, as may be supposed. Whether he ever knew of the trick played upon him I do not remember to have heard, but if he did find it out in time, I suspect he made it hot for the ventriloquist. At one time Cambridge could boast of a clever poet as a coachman. Tom Cross was his name, and he drove the Lynn coach from the "Golden Cross," Charing Cross. He wrote "The Conflagration of Rome," and "Paul before Nero," and some wags among the undergraduates said the idea was given him by the fat from the bacon he was frying in the garret igniting. But be that as it may, they were very clever compositions. I fancy it was this man who published the first book on coaching which has appeared in print. CHAPTER XVIII. MONOTONY. I have sometimes been asked if I did not find it very monotonous to be always travelling the same road day after day. Some might have found it so, but I never did. There was never wanting something to break through the monotony. One was brought into contact with fresh passengers every journey, and constantly some fresh incident arose. Indeed, on many roads the scenery alone would beguile the time. In leafy England there are few roads on which there is not something to admire even if other parts are devoid of attraction, and with the real lover of scenery, the eye does not easily tire of looking at the same picture. I must admit that I have been especially favoured in this respect, as my drives lay through some of the most lovely scenery in Wales, notably the valley of the Mawddach, so eulogistically spoken of by the late Judge Talfourd; and also the magnificent scenery of Snowdonia. I can never forget the remarkable reflection in the water with which I was once favoured at Port Madoc, on the down journey from Caernarvon to Aberystwith. As we passed over the embankment and bridge, which at that place unite the counties of Caernarvon and Merioneth, the whole of the mountain range for many miles round, including Snowdon and the remarkable peak-shaped Cnicht, together with many other mountains, whose names I cannot now call to mind, were reflected in the clear water of the estuary, which was then at full tide, as clearly as they could have been in a mirror. It was a sight not to be erased from memory. Then, again, he was a fortunate man who drove seventy or eighty miles a day, who had no horse to deal with which would not pretty effectually banish _ennui_ for one stage. Again, the coach was the bringer of the news of the day, and, moreover, never stayed long enough in one place but that it was always "welcome in and welcome out," and this brings to my mind a rather amusing incident--at least, it was good fun to one side--which occurred at a contested election a good many years ago. On the occasion of a warmly-contested election for Montgomeryshire, in the year 1862, I had been to Welshpool to vote for my friend Mr. C. W. W. Wynn, and when, on my down journey, I arrived at Machynlleth, there being no electric telegraph, great anxiety was felt to know the state of the poll. This I gave them as far as it was known when I left Welshpool, but the returns from some of the strongest Conservative districts not having then been received, it was very far from perfection. However, it being favourable to the other side, they jumped at it, and it was not my business to undeceive them; so in their flush of confidence and the height of their happiness, they backed their man freely. The next morning, when I returned with my up coach, the final result of the poll was known, which was in favour of the Conservatives, and they had only to pay and look pleased, which, to their credit, I believe they did very good-humouredly. I think I have now shown that if there is monotony in always driving the same road, it may, at any rate, be monotony with variations, and a strong opposition at once scattered it all to the winds, as one day one would be in front, and on another the other one. Night driving had always a strong fascination for me. The sensation of always, as it were, driving into darkness, not knowing what would appear next, kept up the zest of the thing. I do not mean to say that I was in love with poking along in a dark night with only two indifferent lamps; but having time to keep, and plenty of light, I did enjoy. No fast coach could be said to be efficiently lighted without five lamps--two on each side and one under the footboard. The best lamps for throwing a strong light forward which I ever used, were made by Messrs. Kay and Johnson, of Edinburgh. They were what were designated "Argand burners," and being constructed strong and without unnecessary ornament, were sold to stage coachmen for four pounds ten shillings the pair. As they only threw their light nearly straight ahead, they required to be supplemented, except upon very wide, good roads, by other lamps placed lower down on the coach, which threw a strong light to the side; and with them, and one under the footboard, if there were no fog, the darkest night could be set at defiance. I always-used the best sperm oil, as I found that colza oil had a tendency to become thick from the shaking of the coach, which caused the brightness of the light to become dimmed. At night, also, a coachman must depend upon his hands to tell him how his horses are working, and as he may never see some of the teams by daylight at all, his left hand is all he has got to rely upon to inform him how the horse-keepers are doing their duty by the stock, and whether they are doing well or not. CHAPTER XIX. TANDEM. I have never been very much of a tandem driver, for having been entered upon stage coaches, and driven them for a good many hundred miles before getting hold of a tandem, I must confess I rather looked down upon it, and regarded it somewhat in the light of a toy. The first time of my embarking in one I felt like the proverbial tin kettle to the dog's tail. There was no weight behind the horses to bring them to their collars, and they appeared to be almost drawing by my hands, like the Yankee trotters. Of course, that sensation went off after a little practice, and, though it is a team that requires careful handling, it is one exceedingly well adapted for heavy roads, as there is great strength of horse power in proportion to the load which is usually placed behind them. This not only enables one to ascend steep hills with ease, but also greatly facilitates the descent, as it is almost impossible to place a sufficient load upon only two wheels to overpower the shaft horse. It was in the act of descending hills that most coach accidents happened, by the load overpowering the wheel horses; and, of course, the load on a tandem cart can never be top heavy, which was another fertile source of accidents to coaches. When I first tried my hand at tandem I was quartered at Chatham, and being cut off from the coaches I had been accustomed to drive, my hands itched for the double reins, and I condescended to the hitherto despised tandem; but upon my first attempt, I soon found myself brought up with the leader on one side a small tree and the wheeler on the other. Rather a humiliating position for one who thought himself a coachman! At that time, however, I little realized how much practice is required to master the science of driving, though I must confess that something short of that ought to have kept me clear of the tree. This brings to my recollection a scene which occurred during the time I was quartered in that garrison, which throws some light on the manners and customs of military life half a century ago. It so happened, as also occurred to Mr. Pickwick and his friends on another occasion, that a ball was held at the Assembly Rooms in Rochester, and a good sprinkling of officers from the barracks were present, among which I counted one. When the small hours of the morning were reached, and it was time to return home, another officer and I, each in full uniform, jumped on the boxes of two of what were then termed "dicky chaises," and raced nearly as fast as the old screws could gallop along the streets of Rochester and Chatham up to the barracks; and upon our arriving there the gates were thrown open, and we did not finish our race till we reached the officers' quarters. It was, however, in the Australian colonies that I did most of my tandem driving, and as the roads in those new countries were often, to say the least of it, imperfectly made, and houses were few and far between, causing a journey of sixty or seventy miles in the day to be sometimes necessary, I found it a team by no means to be despised. It was early in the year of 1840 that I landed at Hobart Town (now abbreviated to Hobart), from the good ship "Layton," of five hundred tons burden, after a voyage of nearly five months, which had brought out four hundred convicts, who were in those days sent out under a small military guard; and it was not long after finding myself on terra firma before the old craving took possession of me, nor long after that before it was gratified, as already a good foundation had been laid. A dear old brother officer, many years dead, who had gone out with a previous guard, had had a tandem cart built; and he also supplied leader and harness, I finding wheeler and coachman, as he did not care for driving; so I think I had the best of it. However, both were satisfied, which is not always the case. In that lovely island, then called Van Diemen's Land, but now Tasmania, there were many miles of roads as good as any to be found in England, constructed by convict labour, and admirably engineered over the hills. Indeed, the greater part of the one hundred and twenty miles between Hobart and Launceston was good enough for almost any pace, as I can vouch for from having driven the whole distance both ways. I was not, however, allowed to remain in that delightful island for long, but was sent away with a detachment of two companies to the colony then called Swan River, but now changed to West Australia; and there we bid adieu to roads such as are generally understood by that word. All that was ever done there at that time was to cut off the trees, when they were in great numbers, about a foot from the ground; so anyone may imagine how the horses stumbled over one stump and the wheels bounded over another. In other places, where the trees were few and the bush thin, nothing was done unless it were what was called "blazing," which consisted of cutting off a piece of bark from some of the trees to indicate what was meant to be a road; but in many parts nothing at all had been done, and the traveller had nothing to show him the road except a few wheel marks, and was obliged to thread his way between the trees as best he could. Even in the settlements there was no attempt at macadam. These were just the circumstances to show off a tandem to the best advantage and for finding out its merits, which I soon had an opportunity of doing, as an agricultural gathering was to be held at a place called York, about eighty miles from the capital, Perth, where we were quartered. My old friend and I determined to make a start for the scene of festivity. The tandem cart, which had come with us, was looked over, and the harness rubbed up; but the difficulty was how to get horsed, as we had none of our own at that time. However, without very much trouble we engaged two of some sort, though one of them turned out to be as much plague as profit, as the sequel will show. He was in the lead, and for a good while we were quite unable to make him budge an inch in the right direction. At last we saddled him, and my companion mounting, armed with a good stick, began to lay about him so vigorously that the brute made off fast enough; but his rider was so intent on keeping him moving that he quite forgot to look what direction he was going in, and led the way off the road into the bush, though, indeed, there was little difference between them. I was almost falling off my box from laughter, much less was I able to make myself heard to recall him into the road. At last, however, the direction was changed and the road regained, but I don't think I have ever laughed so much before or since, so ridiculous was the scene. Well, we managed to get as far as the first settlement on the road, about ten miles, where a good many others, all riding, had collected from different parts, and were bound to the same destination; and here we met with a Good Samaritan indeed, in the shape of a friend who had settled in the colony, and was riding a very nice quiet mare, which he most kindly exchanged with us for our leader. The only drawback to this arrangement was that she was followed by a foal at her heels, which every now and then would pass between the leader and wheeler, and it was as much as I could do to avoid injuring it. We travelled pretty comfortably, however, in this manner for a good many miles till it became dark, when it was necessary to light the lamps, as there remained some miles to be covered before arriving at the end of the day's journey; the delay at starting having thrown us behind time. If it was difficult to thread the way among the stumps and avoid running over the foal in the daylight, I leave the reader to judge what it was after dark; sufficient to say that we jumped and bumped first over one stump and then over another, the horses continually blundering over them as well. However, all's well that ends well, and we reached the journey's end at last for that day. A solitary hostelry it was in the midst of the bush, miles distant from any other habitation, generally little used, but on the present occasion full to overflowing. As we approached the house in the dark, voices as of quarrelling reached our ears, for it so happened that a certain naval officer, who was not usually given to falling out, but who, like many others of his craft, was safer "aloft" than on a horse's back, had just ridden up at a sharp pace to the house, and the landlord, appearing at the door with a light at the same moment, made the horse stop short, which caused the rider to be deposited on the ground, and he, thinking it had been done intentionally, was very wrathful; mine host, also becoming heated, made use of the words that had caught my ears as I drove up, which were, "If the gentleman wants a game of fives, I am his man." After a few minutes, however, peacemakers appeared upon the scene, explanations took place, and harmony was restored. The house was so crowded that none but those who had taken the precaution to bespeak beds beforehand could get them, and, of those, I will not venture to say how many slept in the same one. The rest of us had to deposit our carcases where we could, and I got possession of a sofa, in what I suppose must be called the coffee-room, where I lay down and went to sleep, but only for a very short time, as the bugs, the most voracious I ever met with, nearly pulled me off it. I then tried the floor, but with, if possible, worse results, so, like the man in the song of the "Cork Leg," "I soon got up and was off again." By this time I had had enough of the inside of the house, and therefore betook myself out of it, where I found some natives in their small tents made of bark, and gathering some wood and getting a light from them, I soon had a fire, and lying down by it, with the driving cushion for a pillow, passed the rest of the night in peace and comfort. Probably by this time a railway has been constructed through this country, and for all I know a grand company hotel may have taken the place of the old "Half-way House" in the bush. These said natives always went about in those days, and probably do now--though perhaps civilization and Bryant and May may have rendered it unnecessary--well provided with a light; and it was the usual thing, when meeting them in the bush, to see one or two women carrying what was termed a fire stick, which consisted of two pieces of bark placed together, and of such a nature that it kept alight for a considerable length of time; nor, indeed, to anyone who had witnessed the labour it was to them to strike a light in their primitive fashion, would this carefulness of the household fire excite any wonder. I will endeavour to explain how they did it. As was my frequent custom, I was passing a few days in the bush, hunting kangaroos, and the first evening upon arriving at our camping ground, we told the native, who was accompanying us as guide, that he must strike a light, but he replied, "No, white fellow make fire." We said, "Black fellow have no fire to-night if he no make it;" and after a good deal of persuasion he was prevailed upon to set to work, which he did in the following manner:-- First, he cut a sort of reed which grew upon a shrub, which went by the name of the black boy, bringing one end to a point. He then got a flat piece of stick, about a foot in length, in the middle of which he made a small hole, just large enough to hold the pointed end of the reed. Then after heaping a small quantity of the dryest old leaves he could find upon the flat stick, he inserted the point of the reed into the hole in it in an upright position, then holding the stick firm by sitting down and putting his feet upon it, he commenced to rub the reed backwards and forwards between his hands so energetically that in the space of about ten minutes or less, some smoke made its appearance, which was very soon followed by fire. It was certainly an ingenious way of striking a light, but decidedly laborious, and very primitive even in comparison with the old tinder-box and matches, which I can recollect as the only means the _civilized_ world had of obtaining a light. Like other savages living in fine climates, where food could be obtained with little labour, they were naturally indolent, of which I had an amusing instance on one occasion. I was walking one very hot summer clay along what, by courtesy, was called a street in Perth, which--though laid out with the view of being at some future time, and now probably is, a wide and handsome thoroughfare--consisted at that time of deep sand, when, from a native sitting basking in the sunshine on the opposite side, I was accosted in a plaintive tone with the words, "White fellow, money give it 'em." I pulled some small coin out of my pocket, and held it out in my hand for him to fetch, but instead of exerting himself to get up, he said, "Oh, white fellow bring it 'em." After this length of time I cannot charge my memory with what the result was, but suppose he had to fetch it. It is much to the credit of the settlers in this colony that these children of nature had, at that time, and I dare say it is the same now, been always kindly treated, and so far from the advent of the white man being the signal for the diminution of the dusky one, the Aborigines, in some parts of the colony at the time I am speaking of, were actually increasing in numbers. Especially was this the case with the tribe which lived round Perth, and it was accounted for in this way. They had a rough and ready way of maintaining the balance of power among themselves, which was that upon the death of a man in one tribe, one of his relations speared one belonging to some other adjoining tribe to keep the balance even, and as what was called the Perth tribe was supposed to be under the protection of the whites, they were left pretty much unmolested in this way. Though averse to anything like labour, some of them made fairly good shepherds, but the same man was not allowed by his tribe to work continuously. I heard of a case in which one man regularly served a settler in the capacity of shepherd for six months in the year; that is to say, he worked for three months, after which he went away for the same length of time, sending another to fill his place; at the expiration of which time he returned to his charge for another three months. If he had taken service permanently, his tribe would have speared him, so jealous were they of their liberty, and, like many others better instructed, rejecting the good things within their reach. I have made a long digression, which I hope has not wearied the reader, and it is time to return to the solitary hostelry in the bush, which was the only one at that time where any accommodation could be obtained for the whole journey between Perth and York. At an early hour of the morning all the guests at the "Half-way House" were astir, comparing notes of their nocturnal experiences, and getting breakfast; and when in due time a start was effected, there was a goodly cavalcade, we two being the only ones on wheels. Riding is the universal mode of traversing the bush. At the "Half-way House" we had met with the man from whom we had hired our horses, and he changed with us, giving us the one he was riding, so that we were enabled to return the mare and foal to our kind benefactor, and we reached our destination the same day without any further adventures. We had been kindly asked to stay at the house of a settler close to the settlement for two or three days, and he received us with that true and genuine hospitality which so universally distinguished the residents in all parts of Australia, and nowhere more than in the colony I am now writing about. Of course, the accommodation they could offer was not particularly commodious, but the welcome was warm, and nothing that could be obtained, and no trouble that could be taken, were considered too much to make the guests comfortable. Though accommodation was always made in the house for the guests, there were sometimes no stables, and the horses were obliged to be tethered in the bush near the house, and, consequently, no one ever thought of going from home without having a tether rope coiled round his horse's neck. Of course, in so sparsely populated a district, houses were few and far between, and, consequently, there was but little society, though a matter of twenty miles or so would not deter one resident from visiting another; and as news was scarce in these backwoods, anyone coming from the more accessible parts, and therefore a bearer of news, especially if it emanated from the "Old Country," was very acceptable. As I remarked before, however, occasionally, at the less busy times of the year, one settler would ride over to pay a visit to a neighbour fifteen or twenty miles distant, and having arrived at his destination, after removing the saddle and bridle, and tethering his horse, would offer himself at the house, where he was certain of finding a hearty welcome. There was a story told of one having done this who, after enjoying himself till well on in the night, and having been rather powerfully refreshed, thinking it time to return home, replaced the saddle and bridle upon his horse, but forgot all about the tether rope, and, consequently, continued riding round and round in a circle, whilst he most complacently thought he was pursuing his homeward journey. After partaking of our good friend's hospitality for two or three days, we retraced our steps to Perth, without anything occurring worthy of note; but fully convinced, by experience, of the peculiar adaptability of tandem for travelling over bush roads. It would hardly be possible to use a four-wheel carriage under such circumstances. In those out-of-the-way places people cannot be very particular, and are obliged to improvise things as best they can. On one occasion, when visiting a friend in the bush, I came across two others, who were driving an unusual team. I can only designate it as an "inverted pick-axe." It consisted of a horse, as usual, in the shafts of a dog-cart, with two abreast in front of him. Upon remarking on the peculiarity of the turn-out, and asking how it answered, I was told that the team was not very handy. The cause of this did not require much time to discover, for there were no coupling reins to the leaders, who were only kept together, like G O horses in a plough, by a single strap. With the help of some strong string I rigged out coupling reins, and they went on their way rejoicing. The danger commonly alleged against tandem is that the leader can turn round and face you. I never had this happen to me, but fancy it is little to be dreaded if the coachman will not loose his thong, but keep it caught up ready to administer a good dose of double thong over the horse's face as soon as he comes within reach. If worst comes to worst, however, a two-wheeled conveyance is able to turn on its own ground, and follow the horses, even if it is in the wrong direction. CHAPTER XX. THE CONVICT SHIP. In the last chapter the reader was casually introduced to a convict ship, and as it is now about half a century since they became obsolete, it may not be altogether without interest to some readers to have a short account of them from one who can say _quorum pars fui_. I will therefore venture upon a short digression, which, though it introduces a subject foreign to the one which this little book professes to treat upon, nevertheless may yet bring a coach upon the stage when least expected. Probably to the mind of some readers the very name of a convict ship will conjure up all sorts of horrors, culminating in a surprise, the capture of the ship by the convicts, and in all who resisted them being thrown overboard. Well, at any rate, no such thing occurred on board the "Layton," nor did it ever on board any vessel carrying male convicts; though I have heard that such a thing did happen once to one conveying women, which having no military guard on board, the crew intrigued with the prisoners and carried the ship into some port on the South American coast. The convicts were under the immediate charge of a naval surgeon, and, as I have already mentioned in the last chapter, he was supported by a small military guard. When first brought on board every man had irons on his legs, but upon the ship getting to sea, these were gradually knocked off as the surgeon considered could be done with safety. One-third of the guard were always on duty on the poop of the ship, with their muskets (it was in the time of old "Brown Bess," with flint locks) loaded, and placed in a rack ready to hand; and to prevent any sudden rush to attack them, a strong wooden barricade was erected just abaft the mainmast, about seven feet high, with no opening through it except a small, low door in each gangway, just large enough to admit of one person passing through in a stooping posture. With very few exceptions, the convicts gave no trouble. They had a saying among themselves that they were patriots, who left their country for their country's good; and an opportunity occurred during the voyage for some of them to do good service, which greatly improved their condition upon landing. As is not very unfrequently the case in that latitude, when off the Cape de Verd Islands, the ship was caught in a violent squall, when the chief mate, who was in charge of the deck, "luffed up," and had commenced to take in sail, till the skipper appeared on the scene, who, without giving himself sufficient time to consider, immediately put the ship before the wind. By this action the sails, which were being reefed, were refilled suddenly, with the result of several of the masts and spars being carried away; and the saddest thing was that several of the crew, who were aloft at the time, went overboard with the rigging, and three poor fellows were drowned, notwithstanding all that could be done to save them. I believe sailors recognize two ways of acting under these circumstances: the one what the mate did, to reduce sail; the other what the captain did, to run before the wind. As a land-lubber, I give no opinion between them; but a mixture of the two cannot help being fatal, as was the case with us. Never shall I forget the crash, crash, crash, of the falling masts. If, however, the skipper made a mistake this time, he showed himself quite equal to the occasion at a subsequent period of the voyage. He and I were pacing the poop together, when suddenly the cabin-boy came up and whispered something to him which I did not catch, but which had the effect of making him scuttle at double-quick time. In about a quarter of an hour he returned, saying, "What do you think I was wanted for?" Of course, I answered, "I do not know." "Why," he replied, "they had set fire to a cask of spirits in the lazaret." "What on earth did you do?" I said. "Well," says he, "I sat upon the bunghole." This move on his part had the effect of excluding the air, and, consequently, of extinguishing the fire. It was a quick, smart thing to do, and saved what would have been an awful catastrophe--a ship on fire at sea, with about five hundred souls on board, and not boat accommodation enough for one hundred. At the end of nearly a five months' voyage we found ourselves sailing up the beautiful Storm Bay, and never did land appear so lovely to my eyes before. The anchor was soon let down in the river Derwent, and the convict ship lay with her living freight off Hobart Town. It is wonderful how time passes on board ship where there is nothing to mark it, and in this case the only break we had to the daily routine was occasional tiffs between the surgeon and the skipper. The former was anxious to get to the end of the voyage as quickly as possible, as he received ten shillings a head for all the prisoners that landed alive, and was sorely put out when every effort was not made to keep the old tub moving. The skipper, on the other hand, being paid by the month, preferred his comfort, and was fond of making all snug for the night in rough weather, and turning in, whilst we soldiers looked on with patience, if not contentment, for, as was the usual custom, we had received an advance of four months' pay upon leaving England, and didn't much care about landing till some more had become due. It is poor fun to go on shore with an empty pocket. I believe it was unfortunate for the convicts that the system of transportation was obliged to be abandoned, as any of them in those new countries were able to return to an honest life if they really chose to do so, which, in an old and thickly populated country like England, is a very difficult thing to do. At the time I am writing about, the system of assigned servants was in practice, and though it was liable to much abuse, and was largely abused, still it had this advantage, that it admitted of their return to ordinary life long before their sentences had expired. The system though, as I think, good in itself was shamefully administered, especially in the earliest years of the colony. At that time any free man or woman who had settled in the colony was not only entitled to a convict servant or servants, but could have any prisoner they liked, and this naturally led to the grossest abuses, of which the following is an example:-- Some men in England managed to find out that on a certain night, one of the mail coaches (and here comes in the coach) was to carry a large amount of bullion, which they concluded would be placed in the front boot of the coach, as the safest place, and in this they were not disappointed. They then secured the four inside places for that night, and whilst on the journey set to work to make a way into the boot and abstract the coin. Upon arriving at the end of the journey they immediately handed this over to their wives, who were in readiness to receive it, and straightway made off with it. The men were taken up, tried and convicted of the robbery, and sentenced to transportation. Soon after they landed in the new country they were assigned to their respective wives as servants, and, as is said in the children's story books, "lived very happily ever after." Such a glaring case as this of course could hardly occur a second time, but sufficient care was never taken to see that convicts were only assigned to those masters whose character and position warranted it. At last, like many other things, good in themselves, it was abandoned altogether, instead of the trouble being taken to administer it properly. There was one institution I must mention connected with convict life, as I suppose it was quite peculiar to Van Diemen's Land. A penal settlement was established for those who committed offences after their arrival in the colony, situated on a small peninsula called Port Arthur, and separated from the mainland by a very narrow isthmus. Across this, called Eagle Hawk Neck, there was placed a line of savage dogs, each one chained to a kennel with just sufficient length of chain to prevent anyone passing through the cordon without being seized, and at the same time short enough to prevent the dogs fighting each other.[2] [2] Two works giving a vivid picture of convict life in Australia have appeared--_The Broad Arrow_, and _For the Term of his Natural Life_, by the late Marcus Clarke. What strides have been made since then! Whether greater by sea or land appears doubtful; but one thing is certain--that the last forty years has produced more change on both elements than the previous hundred. In the year 1772 Captain Cook started on his voyage of discovery in a vessel of four hundred and sixty tons--about the same size as those that were in use at the time I have treated of; and I need not remind the reader of the immense growth in the size of ships since then. The time consumed in going from one part of the world to another has also been altered in a no less remarkable manner. If to those who, at the present day, would shrink from trusting their lives and comforts for a long voyage to any vessel of less than three or four thousand tons, a ship of only five hundred tons, such as I have already mentioned, seems uncomfortable, if not hazardous, what will they say when I mention that the vessel on board of which I returned to England measured only two hundred and eight tons--probably about the same size as the largest boat carried on board some of the leviathan steamers of the present day. But, however hazardous they may think it, I believe that so far from any extra danger being incurred from sailing in these small ships, it was not only as safe, but, judging from the accounts we read of the damage sustained by these monsters of the deep in heavy weather, the balance may be in favour of the smaller craft. They were so buoyant that they rose with the waves instead of going through them, and, like the little "Eudora," in which I made the homeward voyage, were like a duck upon the water. In my own case, the small size of the ship had a special advantage, as I was allowed to take the wheel whenever I liked, which could hardly have been the case in a large one; and really the steering her over the grand waves in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in half a gale of wind was not very much inferior to driving a racing coach. One day, however, I was let in for rather more than I bargained for. It was blowing an increasingly heavy gale off Cape Horn, such as it knows how to blow in that part of the world in winter, and the hands were all aloft taking in sail, when the skipper turned to me and said, "I wish you would take the wheel and send the man forward, as I want more strength aloft." Thus the whole crew were in the rigging, and if by any mistake I had allowed the sail they were reefing to fill, they must have been carried overboard with it. It may seem rather a happy-go-lucky way of sending a ship to sea, for the crew to be so short-handed as to make it necessary to call in the aid of a passenger in such an emergency, but those were the "pre-Plimsoll days," and before ships' masters and other officers were subjected to examinations. In one ship on board which I sailed, the owner was overheard to say to a friend who had accompanied him on board, "With such a captain and such a mate, I only wonder the ship ever comes home safe again." If we return to the other element we shall see that though improvements had taken place, to some extent, as early as the beginning of this century, still little had been effected before the year 1820. From that date great improvements were made in everything connected with road travelling, so much so, that we in England congratulated ourselves that it had pretty well arrived at perfection, when, lo and behold! a new power asserted itself, and produced such a metamorphosis that few persons not exceeding fifty years of age have ever taken a long road journey in their lives. Road travelling is as much a thing of the past as "pigtails," and if it were not for the few coaches running in the summer from Hatchett's and other places in London, the shape of such a thing would be forgotten by most people. As it is, those give but a slight notion of what a long coach used to look like when commencing its journey of 150 or 200 miles. It would be looked upon as a curiosity if one was placed in the Baker Street Bazaar, or some other suitable site, loaded as they used to be. Probably there are not twenty of us now living who have put one of these loads on with our own hands, or would have any idea of how to build it up. [Illustration: THE EXTRA COACH AT CHRISTMAS.] The loads, especially about Christmas, on the night coaches used to be "prodigious," as Dominie Samson would have said. An inexperienced eye would almost expect the coach to collapse under them when the load was of such dimensions that the ordinary luggage strap was not long enough to span the pile, but had to be supplemented with what was called a lengthening strap, which consisted of a strap about four feet long, with a buckle at one end, and the whole length perforated with holes. Nothing saved them but their admirable construction, which combined the greatest strength with moderate weight; those built to carry the heaviest loads seldom exceeding a ton or twenty-two hundredweight, and the perch being short was favourable to draught. For a great many years they were nearly all perch coaches, as it was pretty well the universal opinion that under-spring coaches were not so steady or well calculated for heavy loads and high speed. This opinion, however, was in later years considerably modified, and most coachmen that I was acquainted with had arrived at a conclusion favourable to the under-spring build. I can say this for them, that the fastest work I ever did was on one of them, and also that the heaviest load I ever drove was on another of that description; and I cannot but "speak well of the bridges which carried me safe over," for they performed their journeys admirably. They certainly possess the advantage of weighing two or three hundredweight less, and, from the splinter-bar being higher, the line of draught from the wheel horses' collars to the roller bolts is straighter. Though they are lighter, they lose nothing in strength when originally so constructed; but I would not recommend anyone to convert a perch coach, as I once did so with the result that the front boot came away from the body. CHAPTER XXI. DRIVING. Those who aspire to distinction on the coach box now-a-days, are deprived of two great helps, perhaps the two greatest helps, which were enjoyed by their predecessors--I mean example and practice. As a lad I always, when travelling, got the box seat, if possible, and never took my eyes off the coachman's hands; the consequence was that when I became old enough to be trusted with the ribbons, I naturally fell into the form which I had noticed in them, and then followed the second help, which was the opportunity of driving sixty to eighty miles a day. "Easy the lesson of the youthful train, When instinct prompts and when example guides." It is very difficult to explain clearly the motions of the hands in shooting or fishing, and it is no easier to do so in driving. A few hours of careful observation are of more value to a beginner than a great deal of instruction. If he starts in a bad form it is long odds against his ever getting out of it. I have heard opinions broached by young men of the present day which would not have found favour fifty years ago, and, though I will not venture to say that no changes have taken place for the better since then, I would call to mind the fact, that as driving was then the real business of life to thousands, and that coachmen at that time had a much more extensive practice than can be obtained now, the presumption is that they were likely to have found out the right way to go to work. Indeed, there were _artists_ in those days--men who would drive any brute that could be harnessed, and could get any load through the country at almost any pace and in all weathers, by night or day. But before going further on this subject, perhaps it will be better to lay a foundation. Before horses can be driven satisfactorily they must be properly put together, and to this end everyone who aspires to be a coachman should have a practical knowledge of how his team should be harnessed and "put to the coach." It has been truly remarked that horses well put together are half driven. Now, first, for a few faults, one of the greatest of which, and one not very uncommon, is to have the pole chains too slack. If they are hooked so that there is no strain upon them when the traces are tight, they are slack enough, and more than that is bad, as it takes away the power of the horses over the coach and of the coachman over the horses, and has oftener than generally supposed been the cause of a kicking bout, as I have endeavoured to show in a previous chapter. The London "'bus men" do have their pole chains very slack, and they are right, because their horses are continually falling upon the slippery streets, and it gives them room to struggle and get up again with little danger of breaking the pole; but this does not apply to road work, and there, if the pace is very fast, it is dangerous from its tendency to make the coach rock. I am always puzzled when I see coachmen driving with the present fashion of long coupling reins. What good can they see in them? Here again the 'bus men, who I suppose set the example, have reason on their side. They sometimes require to alter a coupling rein on the journey, and, from being able to reach the buckle from their seat, can do so at any stopping, without help from the conductor, who is engaged with the passengers; but this can never be necessary with a gentleman's drag or a coach. In the one case there is the groom, and in the other, the guard, to do what is required--that is to say, in the latter case, if there is time to do anything at all, for I recollect on one occasion having to drive an eleven mile stage in an hour, when the horsekeeper had carelessly reversed the reins by putting the leading draught one's inside and the coupling reins outside, but the pace was too good to alter. It appears to me that the long coupling reins only add to the weight, which is necessarily considerable, without conferring any benefit, and, indeed, when, as I have seen them, they are so long that the buckle touches the left hand, they can hardly be unattended with danger. When I first learned driving scarcely anyone thought of going without bearing reins, they were considered by all, except a few who were looked upon as innovators, to be as necessary as the traces. Their utility, however, soon began to be questioned, and they rapidly came into disuse in the coaches, and no doubt horses do work easier to themselves without them, especially with heavy loads and fast pace. Still they are of use occasionally, and I have employed a slack one to the cheek of the bit when a horse has a trick of throwing out his head and snatching at his reins, and so making it impossible to prevent his rein slipping through the fingers, which should never occur. I believe that bearing reins may also be useful, and indeed a security (though as a general rule I hate them) when, as is the fashion now, a pair of high-bred powerful horses are put to draw a Victoria or some other very light carriage, for doubtless a bit does act more powerfully when accompanied by a bearing rein than without one. I dare say I shall be thought very old fashioned, but I do not think that horses do generally go as pleasantly to the coachman with such very light weights behind them, as when there is weight enough to make them feel their collars. A team, to go pleasantly, should have a load proportioned to its power, so that they may have something to pull at besides the coachman's hand. It must be admitted also in their favour, that bearing reins do prevent wheel horses rubbing and scratching their bridles against the pole chains when standing still. Like many other old established institutions, they continued to have their advocates for a long time, and by some very competent judges bearing reins were considered necessary for safety, as will appear from the anecdote I am about to narrate. When they were first being dispensed with, Ned Cracknell, who drove a Birmingham day coach called the "Triumph," left them off. Upon the coach arriving at Hounslow one day, who should be standing there but Mr. Chaplin, commonly known as Billy Chaplin, the proprietor out of London, and before Cracknell had time to get on his box, though they were very quick in changing at Hounslow, he observed that there were no bearing reins, and only snaffle bits in the horses' mouths, whereupon he called out, "Hallo, Mr. Cracknell, what monkey tricks are these you are playing? If you don't put on the curb bits and the bearing reins, you don't take the 'Triumph' coach out of the 'Swan with Two Necks' again." Probably he was quite right about the snaffle bits, as the following instance will show:-- Seven mail coaches used to leave the "White Horse Cellars" every evening, and at one time there was a great rivalry between the Devonport mail, commonly called the "Quicksilver," driven by Captain Davies, and the Stroud mail, driven by Harry Downs, a broken-down gentleman, for here I may remark, though it is a fact well known to most people, that in those days it was no uncommon thing to see well-bred men driving stage-coaches. But to return. As the Stroud mail with four bright bays, and the "Quicksilver" with four bright chestnuts, were racing at a very merry pace, our friend Harry's bays, having only snaffle bits, bolted across Turnham Green, which would probably be a feat incapable of accomplishment now, and an old friend of mine, who was travelling by it, and by the bye a very good coachman himself, says, "I experienced a very unsmooth journey until we reached the road again, and by that time the 'Quicksilver' was through Brentford." Of late years there has sprung up a fancy that blinkers are not only unnecessary, but absolutely an evil, and a good deal of newspaper correspondence has been the result, without going very far towards elucidating the subject. So far as I am able to understand the controversy, the opponents of blinkers consider they have proved their case when they tell us that horses, when accustomed to it, are not frightened by seeing the carriage behind them, and that therefore there can be no danger in going without them. That horses can be used to seeing the carriage behind them without taking fright, there can be no doubt, but that by no means ends the question. Those on the other side say, and with truth, that in double harness, when the bridles are without blinkers, one horse does occasionally, either from tossing his head or some other cause, injure the eye of the other one by striking it with the cheek of the bit. A well-fitting blinker is no discomfort to a horse, and I think I can bring forward a case which will go very far to prove that they may be of great use. One evening when I was driving the "Harkaway" coach on the down journey, when within about a mile from Dolgelly, as we rounded a sharpish corner of the road, the leaders caught sight of some boards which had been left, very improperly, on the near side of the road, and were so much frightened at the sight that they bolted right across to the other side of the road, and, that being rather narrow, it was as much as I could do to prevent the coach running into the off-side hedge, which would most certainly have ended in a spill, and probably have been attended with very disastrous consequences, for, as was usual in summer, there was a good load of passengers and luggage. We must recollect that a horse, from the position of his eye, has the power of seeing a long way behind him, which is necessary to his safety in a wild state, as he depends very largely for defence upon his heels; consequently, any object which alarms him continues in sight for a long time, and in the case I have just mentioned, I am certain that if they could have seen the object of their terror another moment, nothing I could have done would have saved an accident. Perhaps I shall be told that if these horses had never been driven in blinkers they would not have shied at the boards; to which I can only answer that saddle horses which have never had their sight restricted in their lives are by no means free from the fault of shying. As I have already remarked, a well-fitting blinker can cause no discomfort to a horse, as it presses upon and rubs no part of the head, and, to say the least of it, they may be a great safeguard against accidents. With regard to those other parts of the harness now more or less disused, what shall be said? Well, a good deal will depend upon circumstances. Where there is no bearing rein a crupper may not be necessary upon level roads if the pads are well shaped; but if they are not, or the road is hilly, those on the wheel horses may work forward and wound the withers. With leaders this is less likely to occur, for their reins run in a straight line through the pad territs; but the reins, taking a turn from the wheel pad territs up to the coachman's hand, have a tendency to work those pads forward. I have used a light pad for leaders made without a tree, which is what I like best for them, and which, from fitting closer to the horses' backs, hardly can work forward, and they are less likely to rub the withers if they do; but probably this make would not be strong enough for wheel harness except upon level ground, where there is very little holding back. I must confess that I do hold to the old lines, "Here's to the arm which can hold 'em when gone, Still to a gallop inclined, sir; Heads in the front without bearing reins on, And tails with no cruppers behind, sir." Without wheel pads the coachman must lose power immensely. He has not only lost the leverage caused by the change of direction of the reins from the pads to his hand, but he can hardly have his horses so well in hand but that he will require to shorten his reins through his left hand if, from any cause, he wants to get a stronger pull upon his horses; and this, in my humble opinion, is inadmissible in really good driving, except upon very rare exceptions. I fear I shall meet with a good deal of dissent to this statement, and can fancy that already I hear some one saying that it is impossible. Doubtless it is not easy, and requires much practice, more, perhaps, than can fall to the lot of most men now-a-days; but that it is possible I know, as I think I can make out clearly at a future time. Half a century ago I do not remember ever to have seen leading reins run anywhere except over the heads of the wheel horses, between the ears. Perhaps it was rather rough on the wheel horses to keep their heads up with the bearing rein, and then put the weight of a pulling leader's rein on the top of it; but there is a good deal to be said in favour of head territs, and when horses are allowed to carry their heads as low as they like, the principal objection to them is removed; and they certainly help to keep the leading reins higher, and therefore less likely to be caught under a leader's tail, which sets some horses kicking, and, at any rate, interferes with the running of the rein. When leading reins are run through the throat latch, they are very easily caught by the tail, and when this is done, the best thing I have found to keep the rein clear of a kicking leader is to pass both leading reins through a ring, and then run the kicker's rein through the inside of the wheeler's throat latch. I have seen the leader's rein run through the outside of his bar, but fancy the other method is better. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. ONCE MORE RUNNING A STEEPLE CHASE.] Occasionally a wheel horse will make himself exceedingly objectionable to the one in front of him by tossing his head, and I once had a case of this sort so bad that the leader's mouth had no peace. I ran the rein direct from his pad to the wheel hame territ, and concord was at once established. Before leaving the subject of the ribbons, perhaps I may as well touch upon the subject of "pinning them." Shall they be pinned or shall they not be pinned? It is not a subject of so much interest now as it used to be, since, whether on a private drag or a modern coach, there is generally time enough to buckle and unbuckle; but in former days this was not always the case, for in very fast work there was not a moment to spare. Is then the practice of going without the buckle dangerous or not? Nimrod, in his article in the _Quarterly Review_ denounced it, calling it a "mere piece of affectation." A Postmaster-General also denounced the practice as being the cause of accidents. Of course, if the reins are short, which they ought not to be, there is the danger of their being drawn through the hand, but the plan I have adopted in such a case has been to tie a knot in the end of the rein, so that it was impossible for it to slip out of my hand. And now, having quoted two high authorities in favour of pinning, I will cite the same number of instances which tend to favour the other side of the question. The first occurred to the Gloucester and Aberystwith mail about forty years ago when on its down-journey, and was a rather curious incident. When the mail changed horses at Torrington, just as it was starting, the leaders, both old steeplechasers, named Blue Bonnet and Cleanthus, sprang off with such force as to break the pole-hook, and, of course, took the swinging bars with them, and the leading reins went through the coachman's hand with the rapidity of lightning. Fortunately, however, these were not buckled, and the horses got off clear, perhaps indulging in the idea that they were once more running a steeplechase, and so they continued their career till they arrived at the toll-gate at Stoke Edith, which, trying to jump, they broke into atoms, at the same time clearing themselves of most of the harness, indeed, all except the bridles and collars, and were found some time afterwards grazing quietly by the side of the road. Now if the reins had been buckled it would have been impossible for the coachman to unbuckle them quick enough to allow the horses to get clear off, and an accident of a very serious nature would most likely have happened, as, it being an election day, the mail was very heavily loaded with passengers and luggage. [Illustration: J. Sturgess del. et lith. M&N. Hanhart imp. MET THE LOOSE HORSE TEARING DOWN THE HILL.] The other case occurred to a coach which we put on in summer between Dolgelly and Machynlleth as a sort of auxiliary to the "Harkaway." It was only a three-horse power, and one morning on the up journey the leader was so alarmed by a dog running and barking at him that he sprang round suddenly, and the bar very fortunately twisted out of the pole-hook as he did so; and Jack Andrews, who was driving, not having buckled his reins, had only got to let them run through his fingers to release him entirely from the coach. As I was following with the "Harkaway" about half a mile behind, I was astonished to meet the loose horse tearing down the hill towards us, terrified by the bar banging about his houghs and the reins dangling at his heels, I feared I should shortly come upon a smash, which certainly must have been the case if the horse had not been able to go away clear of the coach. And now, gentle readers, I leave you to take your choice, premising that, for myself, I lean to unpinned ribbons. Perhaps it may not be generally known now that, long years ago, in the days of the slow and heavy, it was the custom to use what was called "the short wheel rein;" that is, they were just long enough to hook upon the finger. In those days, also, coachmen did not catch their whips, only giving the thong a few turns round the crop at the upper ferrule. Having now, I think, said enough on the subject of harness, we are ready to proceed to mounting the box. Nimrod has somewhere said that a good coachman could almost be perceived by the manner in which he put his gloves on, or words to that effect; but without going so far as that, I believe the way in which he mounts his box is no bad criterion. How different to see a practised hand approach his team with confidence, and the almost mechanical way in which he handles the reins, from the hesitation and fumbling so often apparent in a tyro. Let us picture him to ourselves as he approaches his horses, how easily he catches his whip, the crop held well up so as not to run the chance of the thong being entangled in the wheeler's ears, and there are no festoons of the thong. Then taking hold with the left hand of the leading reins, nearly up at the territs, beginning with the near side, he gives them a pull sufficient to satisfy himself that no impediment exists to their free running, and passes them to the centre finger of the right hand; after which, doing the same with the wheel reins, he places them on the forefinger of the right hand, in which position they are ready to be transferred to the left hand, only reversing the fingers. This will prevent any necessity for sorting the reins after having mounted the box, and thus enabling him to start without a moment's delay. The other two fingers should be tightly pressed upon the reins to prevent them slipping. I should not have entered into all this minutiæ if I had not seen, on one or two occasions, the reins divided by placing one finger between the two nearside reins, and the other between the off-side ones. Then there is another form to be equally deprecated, which, though seldom seen in double reins, is far too common with those driving a pair, or in single harness. I mean the thumb pressed down upon the reins and pointing to the front, a position which must inevitably pin the elbow to the side, and be destructive of all strength. [Illustration: A NEAT MEETING.] [Illustration: A MUFFISH MEETING.] But I have seen what is even worse. I once beheld a gentleman performing in Hyde Park, who, finding himself seriously incommoded with the slack of his reins, stretched out his right hand over the left, seizing the reins in front of it, and then, like sailors hauling a rope hand over hand, proceeding to pass his left hand to the front and take hold of them in front of the right hand. I have frequently seen this manoeuvre practised by coachmen driving one, or a pair, but only this once did I see the trick played on a four-horse box, and I should think, when it was completed, that the reins must have very much resembled a pack of cards well shuffled, and admirably calculated to land the coach in a ditch after dark. If there is leisure for looking carefully over each horse before starting, the strain upon the reins, as previously recommended, is not necessary, but when every moment of time is of importance, that is quite impossible, and especially is it so at night, but for all practical purposes it will generally be found sufficient; and to try and point my moral, I will mention what happened to one of the best coachmen I ever saw handle the ribbons. One evening, after dark, Charles Tustin, with the up Aberystwith and Shrewsbury mail, as he was driving out of Newtown, found when he wanted to turn at the end of the first street, that the near wheel draught rein would not run, and consequently the coach came in collision with the corner shop. Now if he had taken a pull at his reins, as I have ventured to recommend, and as I have little doubt he usually did, he would have found out that the horsekeeper had carelessly fastened the rein in question between the hame and the collar. He was too good a coachman not to make the least of an accident, and no harm happened to anything except the glass in the shop window. There is, however, one exception to this rule, which is that some horses are so exceedingly nervous that if they find out when the coachman is mounting his box, they are immediately all over the road, and these must be humoured. It is very important that the reins should be so arranged in the right hand before leaving the ground that they can be transferred to the left in working order immediately upon placing both feet on the footboard, for some horses will brook no delay; and if the coachman is not at once in a position to say, "Let 'em go, and take care of yourselves," almost before he is seated, there may be a jibbing bout, or a mess of some sort. With some teams it is, or at any rate used to be "If you will not when you may, When you will you shall have nay." I had at one time a leader of so nervous a temperament, though very good tempered, that, having to pull up to take up a passenger in the street just after leaving the inn yard, and where a brass band was playing, he reared so high, that in his descent he fell clean over his partner, but, as he had no vice, no injury was sustained except some slight breakages to the harness. On being "put to" on one occasion he so alarmed the box passenger that he took only one step from the footboard to "terra firma," and if he had not been nearly as quick in getting back he must have been left behind, as it was my taking up the reins and mounting the box which started the horse off in his capers. With such horses as these, when the rein is run and the inside trace hooked, it is time to be off, and the horsekeeper must hook the other as best he can, but if the coachman is not smart with his reins he cannot do it. I hope I shall not weary the reader with these digressions, and make him exclaim, "What an egotistical old ass he is," but as I do not pretend to say that no improvements have taken place in the art of driving during the last forty or fifty years, I am endeavouring to enforce my recommendations with facts which have occurred to myself or those I have known. CHAPTER XXII. DRIVING. Well, the ideal coachman is now on his box, and I hope with straight knees, feet close together, and well out in front of him, shoulders well thrown back, and arms hanging naturally, and without any effort, to his sides. The left arm should be straight or nearly so, and hand lightly resting against the outside of the left thigh, with the wrist slightly rounded and the thumb a little turned up; that is to say, when the horses are drawing. The difference between his hand when in this position and when the elbow is bent and the hand brought up towards the body, should be just the difference between slack and tight pole-chains. When more power is wanted the hand will be raised and the wrist turned so as to bring the back of the hand to the front. This will throw the elbow a little forward, which will add greatly to the strength of the arm, and by this time the right hand would most probably have taken hold of the off-side reins, which of itself lends much to the power of the other. I fear I may have made myself but imperfectly understood, but perhaps the accompanying sketches may assist in explaining what I mean. The reins, by right, should never be allowed to slip through the fingers. It looks bad, to say the least of it, to see a coachman shortening them, and, at night especially, is not safe. I know that this is not easy to do, and perhaps impossible to most amateurs, as it requires constant practice to give the necessary strength to the fingers, and the difficulty is much enhanced by well cleaned reins, especially if they are thin. I know that many good coachmen differ with me as to the position of the left arm, and, like a dear old friend of mine, and good coachman, now no more, say that a straight arm is not neat. For myself I am unable to see the want of neatness in it; but even if there is I cannot consent to sacrifice strength, and I am convinced that no man can, under all circumstances, be thoroughly powerful on his box, who drives habitually with a bent arm. With the fear of being called egotistical before my eyes, I will again endeavour to enforce what I have advanced by a case in point. One afternoon on the down journey with the "Harkaway," when within about a mile from Dolgelly, the skid-pan, though nearly a new one, broke off at the neck, and the force of the jerk upon the safety hook broke that also. The whole weight of the load consequently, and it was a bumper, came immediately upon the necks of the wheel horses, naturally somewhat startling them; and if I had lost hold of their heads for a second, they would most likely have been frightened, and refused to hold, when there would have been nothing but galloping for it, but by having the left arm in the position I have endeavoured to explain, I was enabled at the same moment to apply the brake, and keep a firm hold of the horses' heads. [Illustration: DOWN HILL.] [Illustration: A SUDDEN EMERGENCY.] It is from driving with a bent arm that one hears people say they cannot work their own brakes. If I had been in that form on the occasion I have mentioned, I must first of all have used the right hand to shorten the reins through the left, before I could have employed it to put on the brake. As it was, the wheelers landed the coach down the hill without serious difficulty, though one of them was only four years old, and by no means a strong holder. I cannot understand how any coachman can like to have his brake worked for him. The want of it differs so much from day to day, depending upon the load, the state of the road and other causes, that nothing but his own left hand can tell him how to work it. I am sure I should have been impossible to please. It is a most invaluable thing when properly used, but is very liable to be abused. Few things are more aggravating than to see it so applied as to cause horses to draw down hill, as I have often witnessed. The change from drawing to holding back, brings fresh muscles into play, and must therefore be a great relief to horses, as we know the change from up hill to down, and vice versa, is to us when walking. Before leaving the subject of reins, which may be called the "key of the position," I would venture to raise my voice against what is too often done, which is to pass the right hand across to pull the near side reins. Hands across is very proper in a country dance, but a little of it goes a long way in driving. It is more honoured in the breach than in the observance. If the team is well "put together" and the reins are properly held in the left hand, the wrist should be sufficiently supple to lift a near wheel horse nearly off his legs. It is a good test that all is as it should be if, upon pulling up to unskid, the wheelers will back the coach off the skid-pan without any difficulty. Of course, the right hand must be used to the off-side reins, which itself is a help to the left, but no shortening of the reins through the fingers of the left hand should be wanted, and to reach the right hand out to grasp the reins in front of the left, as I have seen done, is absolutely insufferable. [Illustration: THE TEAM EXTENDED.] [Illustration: THE TEAM GATHERED.] I was once talking on this subject to Charles Tustin, with whose name I have already taken liberties, when he remarked that a coachman should take up his reins at the beginning of a stage, and never have to alter them in his left hand till he throws them down at the end of it. Some drivers I have seen appear to think it a sign of a light hand to be constantly fiddling with the reins. I believe it is more a sign of a fidgeting hand, and I am quite sure, from experience, that hot-tempered horses settle down much better without it. The less their mouths are meddled with the better. There is one use, however, to which the right hand may sometimes be applied, which is to take hold of the near lead rein and loop it up under the left thumb upon turning a sharp corner to the left, and also if a near wheel horse throws himself against the pole in going down hill or pulling up, to do the same with his rein. From the position a horse in this posture has placed his pad territs in, the rein will naturally become slack and useless, and by shortening it in the way I have described, the left arm resumes its power, and, what is of nearly as much importance, the right is free to use the whip, which will probably be wanted at such a crisis. One hint may not be out of place here as it may not have occurred to some, and that is, when bringing up the right hand to take hold of the off-side reins, not to reach forward with it, but to bring it up just touching the left, and to seize the reins immediately below that hand. The right hand can then be passed along the reins as far as is necessary, placing a finger to separate the lead and wheel, when either can be pulled separately as may be required. This may seem to some so small a thing, as not to be worth bothering about, but it is by attending to minutiæ that the accomplished coachman is made; neither is it of such very small importance, as I have known a coach upset for want of its being attended to, and it is especially necessary at night when everything is done by feel. Old Griffie Williams, as honest a fellow as ever lived, but not the most accomplished of coachmen, who for many summers partly horsed and drove the "Tourist" coach between Aberystwith and Dolgelly, when descending a hill on his up journey, wanted to pull his horses out of the near side of the road, and, reaching forward too far with his right hand, he took up the near wheel rein together with the off-side ones. Of course, the more he pulled at the reins the harder he pulled the near wheeler towards the near side of the road, and it ended in the wheels running up the hedge bank, and putting the coach on its side into the road. Fortunately he was, as usual, going slowly, and very little harm was done to anyone. Upon my asking him afterwards how he came to scatter his passengers, he replied, "Inteed, I was put them down as nice as was go to bed." Young coachmen may possibly mistake the weight inseparable from four-horse reins from having got them too tight, but upon looking they may see that the curb-chains are slack, and if that is the case the reins are not too tight. It is not desirable to hold horses too hard, but if a lot of slack is out a coachman is helpless if a horse falls or anything else goes wrong. Moreover, horses generally go better for being well held together. A coachman driving a coach, such as they used to be, who loosed his horses' heads, was generally soon brought to the use of his whip, whilst the same horses, well held together, would be fresh at the end of their stage. I can now call to mind an instance of this. About half a century ago it was a common lounge in Shrewsbury for those whose time was not fully occupied, to collect at the top of the Wyle Cop, where the "Lion Hotel" was situated, to see the "Hirondelle" and "Hibernia," Liverpool and Cheltenham coaches, come up the hill, and perhaps sometimes a bet might be made as to which would be first, for they did a good deal of racing. Of course, I never let the opportunity slip when I was in that ancient borough of forming one of this number. The late Mr. Isaac Taylor had, at that time, a team of chestnuts as good as could be put to a coach working in the "Hirondelle" on the down side between Shrewsbury and Leighton, a stage of about eight miles. Little Bob Leek, a very clever coachman, used to drive the up side from Shrewsbury, and Jordan, a very powerful man, the down side. When they met they changed coaches, each returning over his own ground, which he drove double. Shrewsbury was, I believe, the correct place for the coaches to meet at, but, as the opposition was keen, it depended on the racing whether they met in Shrewsbury or a few miles on either side of it; and I have seen this same team driven by Jordan, and when he was hard at work with his whip to get up the hill, ascend it another day when driven by Bob Leek with ease, and he sitting on his box as if he had nothing to do. And, strange as it may appear to some, I believe one of the best tests that can be applied to a coachman is that he should appear to do nothing. I suppose, however, that this rule applies to most other crafts, for what a man does well he does easily to himself, and one who is always hard at work may be set down as a muff. I know from experience that this rule applies to steering a ship. If a helmsman is seen to be constantly at work with the wheel, it is a sure proof that he is not a good hand at it. Just the movement of a spoke or two occasionally is generally enough in the hands of a good helmsman. And now I will bring the subject of driving to an end by giving a few hints, which, though simple in themselves, and probably known to many of my readers, may not have suggested themselves to some modern coachmen, for the simple reason that they have never felt the want of them, but which were well known to those coachmen whose business it was to get a coach through a country with all sorts of cattle, and when every little dodge was a help. One of the commonest evils which befell coachmen was to deal with jibbers, they caused the loss of so much time. A kicker, especially if a well-bred one, would kick and keep going too, but a jibber sometimes stuck to the same ground if not got off with the first attempt. As a rule, flogging is of no use, though I have a few times in my life succeeded in making it too hot for them; and, of course, with three good starters one wheeler may be dragged on if he does not lie down. Sometimes, however, a whole team was not to be trusted. I was once travelling from Aberystwith to Oswestry by the "Engineer" coach, and, as usual, was working, when, upon nearing Machynlleth, Wigram, the coachman, said to me, "You will find the next a good team, but they are all jibbers." I asked him if any one of them was a better starter than the others, to which he replied, "Well, perhaps the off wheeler is a little." The hint was sufficient, and as soon as I was on the box I laid the whip quietly over the off wheeler before trying to start the others, and then immediately pulling the leaders across to the near side, and at the same time speaking to them, the start was effected without any trouble. Perhaps it may be thought by some that this was no very great test, as the horses were always what was called "running home," that is, they had always their own stable at each end of the stage. At the risk, therefore, of tiring the reader and being accused of egotism, I will venture to mention one other case where there was no assistance from that cause; and as a failure to start makes a fellow look foolish, there can be no harm in impressing upon the minds of young coachmen what will, in nine cases out of ten, save them from being placed in such a situation. I was quartered with my regiment, the 72nd Highlanders, in the Royal Barracks, Dublin, so many years ago that the Garrison Steeplechases were run off at Maynooth instead of Punchestown as at present, and we had got up a regimental drag for the occasion, of which I was waggoner. As we were starting to return home, the off wheeler jibbed, much to the delight of the Paddies, who had come there for a day's "divarshun," and had some fun in them in those days. Of course, a small crowd was fast collected, and everyone was giving advice and wanting to help, the old Irishman's remedy of lighting a fire under him not being forgotten. I made everyone stand clear, and would not allow anybody to touch a horse, and then, after giving them a minute or two to settle down, I laid the whip lightly over the near wheeler, and then pulling the leaders across to the off side, spoke to them, and we were off in a jiffy. The pulling the leaders across is very important, as it greatly facilitates the draught. There is also another good result which frequently follows the pulling of the leaders across in case of a jibbing wheeler, which is, that as he will probably have only placed his legs with the view of resisting forward motion, a sudden rough lateral bump of the pole may disconcert his plans and render it necessary for him to move his feet, in which case he is more than half conquered, unless, indeed, he lies down, which the coachman should be too quick to permit. I think I have already remarked that flogging makes flogging, especially if the horses' heads are loosed too much. It adds, no doubt, somewhat to the labour of the coachman, but for all that he should always keep a good hold of his horses' heads, and a pull of the reins and then giving back again I have often found more efficacious than a good deal of whip. This movement used sometimes to be called by the uncomplimentary name of the "Blackguard's Snatch," but, in spite of an ugly name, it often had salutary results, and with a weak team, heavy load, and time to keep, a coachman could not afford to despise anything. I have known sluggish leaders very much astonished when hit on the inside. Having only been accustomed to the punishment coming from the outside, they do not know what to make of it when coming from another quarter. It is not difficult to hit the near leader from behind the off pretty sharply, but it is by no means easy to do the same on the other side. It requires the elbow to be well raised, and the back of the hand turned well downwards, for, of course, the thong must be sent under the bars. If done well these are very neat hits. Very hard-pulling leaders are often easier brought back by sending the other one well up to them than by pulling at them. I have had a raking leader, irritated by a very slow partner, try to bolt, and by hitting his partner have brought him back directly; but he must be "hit sly," so as to make no noise with the whip. The same thing will occur when a hard-pulling leader has a harder puller put alongside him--he comes back at once. With two leaders of unequal strength it is a good plan to cross the inside traces. It is an assistance to the weaker one, and tends to keep the coach straight. Check reins are often of use to bring these sort of horses together, and I have, with a very hard puller, had a long one from his nose-band back to the pole-hook. Lastly, what about kickers, which were, perhaps, the most numerous of all the reprobates that found their way into coaches. I have known a short stick placed between the bottom of the collar and the horse's jaws so as to keep the head raised, in which position he cannot kick badly; but I never used one myself, as I never knew a good dose or two of counter irritation over the ears fail to make a sufficient cure of a wheel horse to enable him to be driven, and a little kicking by a leader does not so much signify if he will keep moving at the same time. There was an old saying, "Point your leaders and shoot your wheelers," which, perhaps, some of the younger generation may not have heard. It does not very often require to be put in practice, especially at the present time, as it is only really necessary in awkward turns, such as the "Swan with Two Necks," in Lad Lane, in former days, and, more recently, the "Belle Vue" yard at Aberystwith. Of course, there were many more, but these two will suffice as specimens of what I mean. The latter I have known a coachman of long experience fail to get into, in consequence, as I suppose, of his not observing this precept. To get into this yard two turns had to be taken in a very limited space. The first was to the left, into a street just about wide enough for two coaches to pass, and as soon as the coach and horses were straight after completing this turn, it was time to point the leaders to the right for the narrow entrance to the yard, and if that operation was not accompanied by a shoot of the wheelers to the left, the off hind wheel would not pass clear of the gate post. This "shoot" is a momentary thing, and should be done by a twist of the left wrist. If the right hand is called in to assist it looks bad. More like a man playing the harp than driving four horses, and, moreover, it is wanted to the off-side reins at the same time. If the turns are in the contrary direction, of course the manipulation of the reins must be done with the right hand. The "point and shoot" would be a great assistance at an "obstacle contest." While on the subject of turns, perhaps I may be allowed to offer another small hint, which, though stale news to many, may be a useful wrinkle for others. It is a good plan, when rounding a sharp corner with a top-heavy load, to make the turn so as to place the outside wheels as much as possible on the crest of the road. This can be effected, if the angle is to the left, by keeping near to the off-side of the road as you approach the bend, and then making a rather short turn so as to hug the near side hedge, by which means the outside wheels will be placed on the highest part of the road, just when the coach most requires the support, and this also gives the coachman more freedom in case of his meeting any vehicle in the middle of the turn. Should the angle be to the right instead of the left, the principle is just the same. There yet remain two or three other subjects connected with driving, which, though of comparatively little importance in the present day, must, nevertheless, be taken into account in the making of a perfect "waggoner:" these are the power of using the whip and a capacity to judge of pace. We commonly hear a man called a good whip, thereby meaning a good coachman; but the fact is that comparatively few coachmen in the present day use their whips really well, for the simple reason that they are not called upon to do so. Still the necessity might arise, and then the power of doing so might save an accident. At any rate, a man who can only use one arm is but half a coachman. From what I have said on previous occasions, it will not, I think, be supposed that I am an advocate for "hitting 'em all round," but in days of yore no man could be considered really safe who was not able to hit when necessary, and to hit hard. I received an early lesson on this subject when I was at work on the Birmingham and Manchester Express, taking a lesson from Wood, who was my first mentor. There was at off wheel what was called a "stiff-necked one" that no pulling at was able to turn if he took it into his head to resist, and I was helplessly approaching a coal cart, when Wood said, "Why don't you hit him?" I obeyed the hint with so satisfactory a result, that I have never since forgotten it, and have to thank it for getting me out of accidents, one of which at once recurs to my memory, and may perhaps tend to impress it on the minds of others. I was driving a coach on the Dover Road, and as we were ascending Shooter's Hill a four-horse posting job appeared coming towards us at a good pace, when, upon pulling the reins to draw to the near side of the road, I found that the off wheel horse refused to obey them, and persistently hung to the off side. The posting job was coming nearer with rapid strides. The reins were evidently useless, and it was a matter for the whip, whether I could hit hard enough. If I could not, nothing remained but to pull up, and ignominiously beckon to the postboys to pass on the wrong side. However, I dropped into him with such effect that he became in as great a hurry to cross the road as the proverbial duck before thunder. But perhaps this old road joke may convey no meaning to many in the present day, so I may as well explain. It was a favourite conundrum, when some ducks hurried across the road under the leaders' noses, and apparently at the imminent risk of their lives, "Why do ducks cross the road before thunder?" Do you give it up? Because they want to get to the other side. Perhaps I may be permitted here to introduce another old road story. A boy in charge of a sow and pigs was asked by a passenger the following question: "I say, my boy, whose pigs are those?" _Boy._ "Why, that old sow's." _Querist._ "I don't mean that, you stupid boy. I want to know who's the master of them." _Boy._ "Oh, the maister of 'em? why, that little sandy 'un. He's a deuce of a pig to fight." But to return to ducks for just one minute. It is commonly said that it is impossible to run over a duck, and in truth, clumsy as they appear to be on their legs, it is very nearly so, though I did once accomplish the feat. I was driving fast round a rather sharp turn in the road, when I suddenly found myself in the middle of them, and one was unable to waddle off quick enough to save his life. Then, again, to be a judge of pace, although of little importance now, should form part of a coachman's education. If a gentleman driving his private drag thinks he is going at the rate of twelve miles an hour when he is only going nine, it amuses him and hurts no one, neither is it very essential for those who drive the modern coaches from Hatchett's and other places. They, with few exceptions, only run by day, so that the coachman can consult his watch at every milestone if he likes, and the horsing is so admirable and the loading so light that he can experience no difficulty in picking up some lost time. In the old days, however, it was very different. If only five minutes were lost, it was often difficult to recover it with full loads and heavy roads, and, perhaps, weak teams. Moreover, at night the time-piece could only be seen at the different changes, and then, if the coachman was no judge of pace, he might easily find at the end of a ten miles' stage that he had lost five or ten minutes. To be a good judge of pace requires experience, as the pace that horses appear to be going is very deceptive. When the draught is heavy horses step short, and, though their legs move as rapidly as usual, time is being lost, or at best only kept with difficulty; whilst, on another day, when circumstances are different, load lighter and road hard, the horses step out, and the result is that over the same stage and with the same team, instead of losing time it is hardly possible to throw it away. Again at night horses always seem to be going faster than they really are, and perhaps this may have had something to do with the idea that horses go better by night than day, so happily explained, as Mr. Reynoldson tells us, by Billy Williams, who said it was because the driver had had his dinner. Apropos of Billy Williams, I may relate an anecdote of him, which I had from undeniable authority, but which I do not think is generally known. His Honour, as he was called, the late Honourable Thomas Kenyon, used not unfrequently to ask him, or some other coachman, to spend a day or two at Pradoe, and he also made a practice of driving his own drag to Chester races on the Cup day. On one of these occasions it happened that Billy was at Pradoe, and was to accompany the party to Chester. The day being hot, and His Honour thinking that Billy, whose get up was always breeches and top boots, would be more comfortable in lighter clothing, made him a present of a pair of white trousers, such as were commonly worn by gentlemen of that period. Billy having received them, went to put them on, and returned looking quite smart and cool. It turned out, however, afterwards, that he had only worn them over his usual garments! There remains one other item to mention, which, though not absolutely a part of driving, is yet of so much importance that without it all knowledge may fail at an important crisis. Nerve is the article I mean, or what may be called the next door to it, that confidence which is begotten of practice. An inferior coachman with this is generally safer than one who is his superior in neatness and knowledge, but without this gift. When a man's nerve fails him, he loses his head, and then he is unable to make use of any knowledge he possesses, whereas, one with nerve and strength would pull through a difficulty and save an accident. Nerve, no doubt, is largely constitutional, but it is capable of being very much strengthened by use and practice. But of all things to try nerve commend me to the locomotive engine. Though I had driven coaches for many years under all imaginable circumstances, and my nerve had never failed me, I must confess that I never thoroughly understood what it meant till I had had the experience of a ride on a locomotive engine. To find myself travelling at a high speed, without there being the slightest power of guidance, caused a sensation I had never experienced before. All that the engine-driver could have done, if a pointsman had made a mistake, was to try and stop the engine before it ran into anything else; whereas, on a road, when the driver has the power of guiding as well as stopping, if he is unable quite to accomplish the latter he may do so sufficiently to enable him to escape a collision. To explain my meaning I will shortly narrate what has happened to myself. I was driving rather fast over a nice level length of road, and was overtaking a waggon drawn by three or four horses. The waggoner very properly pulled to his own side of the road, and anticipating no difficulty I kept on at the pace I was previously going, but just as my leaders arrived within a short distance of the waggon, the horses overpowered the waggoner and crossed the road immediately in front of them. To stop the coach was impossible, but I was just able to check the pace sufficiently to enable me to pull across to the near side of the road, and pass on the wrong side. In the case of a railway there would be no such chance. There they could only stop, or have an accident. One gets used to everything after a time, and, I suppose, if I had been an engine-driver, I should become so accustomed to this as to think nothing of it; but, as it was, I never felt so helpless. I cannot conceive a greater trial of nerve than to be driving at the rate of twenty miles an hour, or more, among a labyrinth of rails, and entirely dependent on other people for safety. It is not very long ago since I saw in a newspaper an account of a pointsman being found dead in his box! I am reminded of the hackneyed saying of an old coachman in the early days of railways: "If a coach is upset," he said, "why, there you are; but if an accident happens to a railway train, where are you?" It is now upwards of twenty years since the last time I handled four-horse reins, and more than fifty-five since the first time, and I am not going to say that no improvements have taken place during that long period of time. Possibly some may have been found, but I must confess that those I have heard of do not appear to me to come into that category. It is a common reply to those who stand up for old systems that they were slow. That, at any rate, can hardly be alleged in the present case, for, though I admire the very smart thing done by poor Selby between London and Brighton, I think, when we consider the fast work habitually done in coaches in days of yore, and still more on the first of May and other special occasions, it must be admitted that the pace has, to say the least, not increased. Indeed, allowing for stoppages, taking up and putting down passengers, which lost many minutes in a journey, and the heavy loads carried, by neither of which was the "Old Times" troubled, I think the Brighton feat, good as it was, has often been surpassed. The three Birmingham Tally-ho's generally had a spurt on the first of May, and more than once performed the journey of a hundred and eight miles under seven hours--the best record, I believe, in existence. Pace, however, at last, is a relative thing, and eight or nine miles an hour on one road may be really as fast as twelve or thirteen on another. I can safely say that, though I have driven some fast coaches in my time, I never had a day of harder work to keep time than in doing eighty miles in ten hours. What with one weak team in the early part of the journey, hilly roads, a heavy load, and frequent delays for changing passengers and luggage, the last stage of nine miles had to be covered in forty-two minutes to bring us in to time and catch the train. Before finally bidding adieu to the subject of driving, it may perhaps be allowed me to say a few words about harness and the fitting of it. Of course it hardly needs saying that a coachman _ought_ to be familiar with every strap and buckle of it, though this intimate knowledge may be dispensed with by those who only drive their own teams, and are always waited on by one or two good and experienced servants. Indeed, from what I witnessed in Hyde Park several years ago, I have had my suspicions whether these same servants are not sometimes utilised on early mornings in training the teams, and putting them straight for the masters' driving in the afternoon. I once saw a drag brought round to the right at the Magazine without the gentleman in charge of the box touching the off-side reins with his right hand at all; and I fail to see how this could have been accomplished unless the horses were as well trained to it as circus steeds. Still, however perfect these men may be as gentlemen's servants, their experience has not generally led them to attend very closely to the exact fitting of the harness--the collars particularly--which used often to be the plague of their lives to stage coachmen, and even might give trouble to a gentleman, if driving an extended tour. A few hints, therefore, from an old hand may perhaps not be thrown away. With horses freshly put into harness their shoulders are always liable to be rubbed, and they require the greatest care and attention; and one thing should always be insisted on in these cases, which is to wash the shoulders with cold water after work, and to leave the collars on till they have become quite dry again. But if care is necessary in the case of gentlemen's work, what must have been that required with coach horses--especially if running over long stages, with heavy loads and in hot weather. Of course, a good deal depended upon the care of the horse-keeper; but nothing he could do had any chance of keeping the shoulders sound if the collars "_wobbled_" which they certainly always will do if the least light can be seen between the collar and the upper part of the horse's neck. Then, again, it is most important for the collar to be the right length to suit the individual horse. One which carries his head high will require a longer one in proportion than one which carries it low, because the former position of the head has the effect of causing the windpipe to protrude. On stage-coach work we never cared so much about the weight of the collar as the fitting, and offering a fairly broad surface to the pressure. Two or three pounds extra weight in a collar is nothing compared to the comfortable fitting of it, as we ourselves know to be the case with half-a-pound or so when walking a long distance in strong boots. If a wound should appear, after all the care that can be taken, a paste made of fullers' earth with some weak salt and water will nearly always effect a cure, if the collar is properly chambered, so as to remove all pressure from the part. In case of a shoulder showing a disposition to gall, I always carried in the hind boot two or three small pads, which I could strap on to the collar, so as to remove the pressure temporarily till it could be chambered; and any gentleman embarking on a driving tour would find this to be a good precaution to take, especially if he is going into out-of-the-way districts. I will conclude in the words of Horace-- "Si quid noviste rectius istis, Candidus imperti: si non his utere mecum." CHAPTER XXIII. THE END OF THE JOURNEY. And now, ladies and gentlemen, "I leave you here," and trust I have given you no cause for complaint on the score of either civility or politeness to my passengers. I fear that in some places the road may have been heavy and the pace slow. Perhaps it may be thought that the style is incoherent, to which I can only say that such is usually the character of chatter; and if I have written anything which has afforded some interest or amusement, my most ardent hopes are satisfied. The tale I have told has, in one sense, been told before, but so many fresh phases and incidents were so constantly turning up in the old mode of travelling, that it is not necessarily a twice-told tale. Probably the first idea of most readers upon closing the book will be, "How thankful I am that my lot was not cast in the days of my father or grandfather;" and this naturally leads to the reflection that when the busy wit of man had not produced so many inventions for evading the minor ills of life, the first idea was to endure them; but now, when fresh schemes of all sorts and descriptions are being propounded every day to render life easy, it is to cure them; and if this does not go to the length of making artificial wants, no doubt it is the wisest course to adopt. To the old hand, however, who has not forgotten his early experiences, this eagerness to escape all hardship may seem to savour of softness and effeminacy, but I make no doubt that, though not called forth as it used to be in the days of yore, there still exists in the youth and manhood of Old England the same pluck and power of endurance when duty calls, as there ever was; and that as long as we continue to cherish our old field sports and games, we are not in much danger of losing them. It were folly to stand up for road travelling as against the greater convenience of railways; still, I confess to a lingering feeling of regret that what was brought to such a state of perfection should have so completely vanished, and I think I cannot express these feelings better than by a short anecdote. Many years ago, when hunting with the late Sir W. W. Wynn's hounds, when they had the advantage of the guidance of John Walker, I asked him which pack, whether the large or small, showed the best sport and killed the most foxes. His answer was, "Well, I really think the large pack does kill most foxes and give the best sport altogether, but _I like the little ones_." And if asked which is the best mode of travelling, whether by road or rail, I must confess that, as a travelling machine for conveying us from one part of the country to another, the railway is the best both for safety, speed, and economy; but having said this, I am constrained to make the same sort of reservation as was made by John Walker, and say, "_I like the coaches_." Most noticeable of all, perhaps, was the plucky effort made in 1837 to revive the favourite "Red Rover" coach between London and Manchester, which had been discontinued upon the opening of the London and Birmingham and the Grand Junction Railways. It was "the last charge of the Old Guard," and shared the same fate. It may be interesting, however, to append a copy of this singular notice--one more evidence of the reluctance of Englishmen to be beaten, even at long odds. The very date at foot is significant, for the enterprise was embarked on in the teeth of the approaching winter. THE RED ROVER RE�STABLISHED THROUGHOUT TO MANCHESTER. Bull and Mouth Inn. It is with much satisfaction that the Proprietors of the RED ROVER oach are enabled to announce its RE�STABLISHMENT as a direct conveyance THROUGHOUT BETWEEN LONDON AND MANCHESTER, and that the arrangements will be the same as those which before obtained for it such entire and general approval. In this effort the Proprietors anxiously hope that the public will recognize and appreciate the desire to supply an accommodation which will require and deserve the patronage and support of the large and busy community on that line of road. The RED ROVER will start every evening, at a quarter before seven, by way of COVENTRY STAFFORD MACCLESFIELD BIRMINGHAM NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYNE AND WALSALL CONGLETON STOCKPORT and perform the journey _in the time which before gave such general satisfaction_. [Symbol: Pointing hand] It will also start from the "Moseley Arms" Hotel, MANCHESTER, for LONDON, every evening, at nine o'clock. EDWARD SHERMAN ) _Joint_ JOHN WEATHERALD and Co. ) _Proprietors_. _LONDON_, _October 28, 1837_. An old song may come in here:-- "The road, the road, the turnpike road, The hard, the brown, the smooth, the broad, Without a mark, without a bend, Horses 'gainst horses on it contend. Men laugh at the gates, they bilk the tolls, Or stop and pay like honest souls. I'm on the road, I'm on the road, I'm never so blithe as when abroad With the hills above and the vales below, And merry wheresoe'er I go. If the Opposition appear in sight, What matter, what matter, we'll set that all right." In the introduction I ventured to point out some inaccuracies which I had observed in a statement made upon the subject of coach fares, and as it is probably one which few remember anything about, I give a statement of what would be about the profit and loss of a month's working of a coach for a hundred miles. RECEIPTS. A Full Load on the Way-bill both ways. £ s. d. 8 inside passengers 15 0 0 14 outside 25 4 0 Parcels 1 0 0 ----------- £ 41 4 0 ----------- Month's receipts 988 16 0 Deduct expenses 113 14 0 ----------- £875 2 0 ----------- PAYMENTS. Daily £ s. d. 15 toll-gates, at 3s.[3] 2 5 0 Hire of coach, per mile 2-1/2d. 1 0 10 Mileage duty, 2d.[4] 0 6 8 Washing and oiling coaches 0 2 0 ----------- 4 8 6 ----------- For 4 weeks 106 4 0 Monthly. 8 road booking-offices £ 4 0 0 2 end booking-offices 2 0 0 Making Share bills 1 0 0 Oil and trimming lamps, say 0 10 0 ----------- Total £113 14 0 ----------- [3] It was usual for coaches to come to terms with the pikers to pay for three horses instead of four. [4] There had also to be paid £5 licence duty yearly when the plates were taken out. This makes £8 15s. to be divided per mile, which, of course, would give a very handsome profit; but full loading could not be expected every day, and if it was reduced to half loads, it would not be such a very fat concern. The cost of each horse was usually put at 17s. 6d. a week, including blacksmith, and that, supposing a man to cover a ten-mile stage for which eight horses would be ample if not running on Sundays, would cost £7 a week, or £28 a month, leaving, at about half loading, say £20 profit. But from this has to be deducted saddler, veterinary surgeon, and wear and tear, the two latter of which depend, to a certain extent, on circumstances over which he has not much control, as it depends upon such things as sickness in the stables and accidents. [_APPENDIX._] His Majesty's Mails. [Illustration: V. R.] G. P. O. APPENDIX. LIST OF MAIL COACHES WHICH WORKED OUT OF LONDON. { Hounslow, } From the { Maidenhead, } "Spread Eagle," { Reading, } Gracechurch Street, Bath, { Newbury, } and through { } "Swan with Two { Hungerford, } Necks," { Marlborough, } Lad Lane. { Devizes, } { Aylesbury, } { Bicester, } From the Birmingham, { } "King's Arms," through { Banbury, } Holborn Bridge. { Leamington, } { Warwick, } { Croydon, } Brighton, { Reigate, } From the through { Crawley, } "Blossoms Inn," { Cuckfield, } Lawrence Lane. { Hounslow, } { Reading, } From the Bristol, { Newbury, } "Swan with Two through { Marlborough, } Necks," { Calne, } Lad Lane. { Chippenham, } { Bath, } Carlisle--_See Glasgow_. { Barnet, } { St. Albans, } { Dunstable, } { Northampton, } Chester, { Hinckley, } From the through { Atherstone, } "Golden Cross," { Lichfield, } Charing Cross. { Stafford, } { Nantwich, } { Tarporley, } { Hounslow, } { Bagshot, } { Basingstoke, } { Andover, } Devonport, { Salisbury; } From the through { Sherborne; } "Swan with Two { Chard, } Necks," { Honiton, } Lad Lane. { Exeter } { Dartford, } From the { Rochester, } "Swan with Two Dover, { Sittingbourne, } Necks," through. { Faversham, } Lad Lane. { Canterbury, } { Ware, } { Buntingford, } { Royston, } { Caxton, } From the Edinburgh, { Huntingdon, } "Bull and Mouth," through { Grantham } St. Martin's-le-Grand. { Newark } { Doncaster } { Ferry Bridge, } { York, } { Northallerton, } { Darlington, } { Durham, } { Newcastle, } { Alnwick, } { Berwick, } { Dunbar, } { Haddington, } { Basingstoke, } { Andover, } { Salisbury, } Exeter, { Blandford, } From the through { Dorchester, } "Bull and Mouth," { Bridport, } St Martin's-le-Grand. { Axminster, } { Honiton, } { Barnet, } { Hatfield, } { Baldock, } { Biggleswade, } { Stilton, } { Stamford } From the Glasgow, { Grantham, } "Bull and Mouth," through { Newark, } St Martin's-le-Grand. { Doncaster, } { Wetherby, } { Boroughbridge, } { Greta Bridge, } { Appleby, } { Carlisle, } { Hounslow, } { Maidenhead, } From the Gloucester, { Henley, } "Cross Keys," through { Nettlebed, } Wood Street, { Oxford } and { Witney, } "Golden Cross," { Burford, } Charing Cross. { Cheltenham, } { Barnet, } From the { Woburn, } "Swan with Two { Newport-Pagnel, } Necks," Halifax, { Market Harborough, } Lad Lane, through { Nottingham, } and { Sheffield, } "Bull and Mouth," { Huddersfield, } St. Martin's-le-Grand. { } From the { } "Golden Cross," Hastings, { Farnborough, } Charing Cross. through { Tunbridge, } and "Bolt in Tun," { Lamberhurst, } Fleet Street. { Barnet, } { St. Albans, } { Coventry, } From the Holyhead, { Birmingham, } "Swan with Two through { Wolverhampton, } Necks, { Shrewsbury, } Lad Lane. { Oswestry, } { North Wales, } { Barnet, } { Hertford, } { Biggleswade, } From the { Stilton, } "Spread Eagle," Hull, { Peterborough, } Gracechurch Street, through { Folkingham, } and { Lincoln, } "Swan with Two { Brigg, } Necks," { Across the Humber to } Lad Lane. { Kingston-upon-Hull } { Barnet, } { Bedford, } Leeds, { Higham Ferrers, } From the through { Kettering, } "Bull and Mouth," { Nottingham, } St. Martin's-le-Grand. { Sheffield, } { Wakefield, } { Barnet, } { St. Albans, } From the { Coventry, } "Swan with Two Liverpool, { Lichfield, } Necks," through { Newcastle-u-Lyne, } Lad Lane. { Knutsford, } { Warrington, } { Caxton, } From the Louth, by { Peterborough, } "Bell and Crown," Boston, { Deeping, } Holborn, and through { Spalding, } "Saracen's Head," { Spilsby, } Skinner Street. { Barnet, } { St. Albans, } { Dunstable, } { Northampton, } From the Manchester, { Market Harborough, } "Swan with Two through { Leicester, } Necks," { Derby, } Lad Lane. { Ashbourne, } { Congleton, } { Macclesfield, } { Ilford, } Norwich, { Romford, } by Ipswich, { Brentwood, } From the through { Chelmsford, } "Spread Eagle," { Witham } Gracechurch Street. { Colchester, } Norwich, by { Epping, } From the Newmarket, { Bury St. Edmunds, } "Belle Sauvage," through { Thetford, } Ludgate Hill. { Kingston, } From the Portsmouth, { Esher, } "White Horse," through { Guildford, } Fetter Lane and { Godalming, } "Bolt in Tun," { Petersfield, } Fleet Street. { Hounslow, } From the { Staines, } "Swan with Two Southampton { Bagshot } Necks," and Poole, { Alton, } Lad Lane, and through { Alresford } "Bell and Crown," { Winchester, } Holborn. } From the {Hounslow, } "Cross Keys," Stroud, { Henley, } Wood Street, through { Abingdon, } and the "Swan { Faringdon, } with Two Necks," { Cirencester, } Lad Lane. { Lynn, } From the Wells { Ely, } "Swan with Two (Norfolk), { Cambridge, } Necks," through { Royston, } Lad Lane. { Ware, } { Uxbridge, } { Beaconsfield, } { High Wycombe, } { Oxford, } From the Worcester, { Woodstock, } "Bull and Mouth," through { Chipping Norton, } St. Martin's-le-Grand. { Moreton-in-Marsh, } { Evesham, } { Pershore, } { Romford, } { Chelmsford, } { Witham, } From the Yarmouth, { Colchester, } "White Horse," through { Ipswich, } Fetter Lane. { Saxmundham, } { Lowestoft, } So much for the main arteries, but the account would hardly be complete without showing how the more remote and out-of-the-way districts were provided for. I will, therefore, add the routes of a few mails which might be considered as prolongations of some of those already mentioned, but they were worked under fresh contracts and with fresh coaches. South Wales was served by three--one from Bristol and two from Gloucester, as shown below:-- { New Passage Ferry, { Newport, Bristol to { Cardiff, Milford Haven, { Cowbridge, by { Neath, { Caermarthen. { Ross, { Monmouth, Gloucester to { Abergavenny, Milford Haven, { Brecon, by { Llandovery, { Caermarthen, { Haverfordwest. Gloucester to Aberystwith, by Ross, Hereford, Kington, Rhayader, and Dyffryn Castle. The Gloucester and Milford was, I think, driven out of Gloucester at one time by Jack Andrews, a very good coachman, and over the lower ground there was a man of the name of Jones. I may, perhaps, be told that that is not a very distinguishing mark of a man in those parts, perhaps it is not, but if the name failed to convey a knowledge of who he was, he, at any rate, possessed one very characteristic feature which was that he always drove without gloves whatever might be the state of the weather. If he saw his box passenger beating his hands against his body or going through any other process with the vain hope of restoring the circulation into his well-nigh frozen fingers, his delight was to hold out his gloveless hand and say, "Indeed, now there is a hand that never wore a glove." And this recalls to my memory another anecdote which was told me a great many years ago, and which, though it refers to the other extremities, may not be inappropriately introduced here. It appertains to a very well known character already mentioned, the well known Billy Williams, often spoken of as Chester Billy. I am aware that tales are sometimes engrafted on remarkable characters which are also told of others, still I believe I shall not be doing a wrong to any one if I tell this as "'twas told to me," of our old friend Billy. At any rate, it is too good to be lost, so here it is. On one very cold winter morning it happened that Billy had a box passenger who was stamping his feet on the footboard in the vain attempt to restore the circulation of the blood, which led Billy to remark, "Your feet seem cold this morning, sir," to which the gentleman answered, "I should think they were, are not yours?" "No," says Billy, "they're not;" adding, "I expect you wash 'em." "Wash them," says the passenger, "of course I do, don't you?" "No," was the reply, "I should think not, I _iles_ 'em." The Manchester mail was also prolonged to Carlisle, though the direct Carlisle mail went by a rather shorter route, but then the populous district on the west coast had to be provided for. It travelled through Preston, Lancaster, Kendal and Penrith. This was, over some of the ground at any rate, one of the fastest mails in England. Again, in addition to these, which may be said to have had their origin in London, there existed a considerable number of what were called "cross country mails," some of which ran long distances and at high speed, connecting together many important districts. A few of them I will mention, beginning with the Bristol and Liverpool, which was a very fast one. { Aust Passage Ferry, Bristol to { Monmouth, Liverpool, { Hereford, by { Shrewsbury, { Chester, { Woodside Ferry. { Bath, Bristol to { Tetbury, Oxford, { Cirencester, by { Fairford, { Faringdon. { Warrington, { Manchester, Liverpool { Rochdale, to { Halifax, Hull, { Bradford, by { Leeds, { Tadcaster, { York. Bristol { Gloucester, to { Wincanton, Birmingham, { Droitwich, by { Bromsgrove. Birmingham { Lichfield, to { Derby, Sheffield, by { Chesterfield. And no doubt there were several others in one part of the country or another, but I have been unable to meet with any regular list of them, though it is very unlikely that such a road as that between Bristol and Exeter by Taunton, for example, should have been left out. This road certainly had a fast coach on it. The "Royal Exeter" ran from Cheltenham to Exeter through Gloucester and Bristol, driven between Cheltenham and Bristol at one time by Capt. Probyn, and afterwards by William Small. It was a fast coach, stopping for dinner at Nisblete's, at Bristol, and then proceeding on its journey to Exeter. Then, again, there was a populous and important district through the Staffordshire Potteries, from Birmingham to Liverpool and Manchester, which must have been provided for somehow, but it is not impossible that this may have been effected by the bags being conveyed to Lichfield by the Sheffield, and then transferred to the down Liverpool and Chester mails. There were also running short distances what were called third class mails, which carried twelve passengers, and the coachman was in charge of the bags. On one of them which ran between Shrewsbury and Newtown I did a good deal of my early practice. And now, having given a list, more or less perfect, of the mails which traversed England and Wales, perhaps a few words on the subject of the pace at which they travelled may not be without interest. After singling out the London and Birmingham day mail, which was timed at twelve miles an hour, it is impossible to say, at the present date, which was the fastest coach. That the "Quicksilver" was the fastest mail, I have no doubt, though I believe the palm has been disputed by the Bristol, and perhaps some others; for if a passenger asked a coachman which was the fastest, he was very likely to be told that the one he was travelling in was. I cannot, however, believe that any of these claims could have been supported by facts. "_Cui bono?_" We can see at a glance why the Devonport should be pushed along as fast as possible, because the journey was a long one; but the distance to Bristol was only one hundred and twenty miles, and whether the mail arrived there at eight or nine o'clock in the morning would have been thought little of in those days, but in a journey of two hundred and twenty-seven miles half a mile an hour makes an appreciable difference. It would seem reasonable, therefore, that the longer mails should have been accelerated as much as possible, and so I believe it really was the case, and that the Holyhead was, after the "Quicksilver," the fastest out of London. At any rate, I know that, when travelling by it, we always passed all the other mails going the same road, and that included a considerable number, as the north road and the Holyhead were synonymous as far as Barnet, and, moreover, the Post-Office was likely to have screwed up these two mails the tightest, as one carried the Irish bags and the other had the correspondence of an important dockyard and naval station. To single out the fastest coach would be still more impossible. The "Wonder" had a world-wide reputation, which was well deserved, both for the pace and regularity with which she travelled and the admirable manner in which she was appointed in every way; but what gave that coach its preponderating name was the fact of its being the first which undertook to be a day coach over a distance much exceeding one hundred and twenty miles. The Manchester Telegraph must have surpassed the "Wonder" in pace, and, certainly, when we consider the difference of the roads and the hills by which she was opposed in her journey through Derbyshire, had the most difficult task to accomplish; and, again, the "Hirondelle" was timed to go the journey of one hundred and thirty-three miles between Cheltenham and Liverpool in twelve hours and a half, which is a higher rate of speed than the "Wonder," which was allowed fifteen and a half hours to cover the one hundred and fifty-four miles between London and Shrewsbury, and on a far superior road. I have been induced to enter into this subject because one sometimes now-a-days meets with people who appear to have a somewhat hazy idea about it, and talk glibly of twelve miles an hour as if it was nothing so very great after all. Well, I am not going to deny that it can be done, because I know that it has been effected by the Birmingham day mail, as already stated, and I have also been told by an old inspector of mails that in the latter days they did contrive to screw some Scotch mails up to that speed; but I am sure I can safely say that no mail or stage-coach ever was timed at even eleven miles an hour during the main coaching days, however much faster they might have gone when racing or on special occasions, though I believe it would have been attempted, at any rate, if road travelling had not been put an end to by the railways. Twelve miles an hour is very great work to accomplish. Why, when stoppages of all sorts are allowed for, it means thirteen miles, and that means galloping for the greater part of the way. Though the subjoined List is not comprehensive, nor indeed absolutely accurate, it may be worth inserting, as conveying a fair idea of what coaches ran. PRINCIPAL NIGHT MAILS SOME NOTED DAY COACHES Time (including stoppages) Miles from of Mail London. TO h. m. 110-1/2 BATH 11 0 { "Beaufort Hunt," "York { House," "White Hart." 50 BEDFORD "Times." 119 BIRMINGHAM 11 56 { "Tally-Ho," "Tantivy," { "Greyhound," "Economist," { "Rocket," "Eclipse," { "Triumph," "Crown Prince," { "Emerald," "Albion," "Day," { etc. BRECON "Red Rover." 53 BRIGHTON { "Red Rover," "Times," { "Age," "Quicksilver," { "Pearl," "Dart," "Arrow," { "Vivid." 121 BRISTOL 11 45 { "Prince of Wales," "Monarch," { "Regulator." 50 CAMBRIDGE "Star." 95 Cheltenham (_see below_) { "Berkeley Hunt," "Rival," { "Magnet," "Favourite." 181 CHESTER "Criterion." 217-1/2 DEVONPORT 23 45 "Quicksilver." 71 DOVER 176 EXETER 19 0 { "Telegraph" (165 miles) { 17 hours; "Defiance" { (168 miles), 19 hours; { "Nonpareil," "Herald." 111 GLOUCESTER 11 55 195-1/2 HALIFAX 20 5 "Hope." 68 HASTINGS 135 HEREFORD "Champion," "Tiger." 259 HOLYHEAD 26 55 172-1/2 HULL 18 12 197 LEEDS 21 0 "Courier," "Rockingham.' 201-1/2 LIVERPOOL 20 50 { "Umpire," "Fair Trader," { "Express," "Erin-go-bragh." 148 LOUTH 16 0 99 LYNN 10 33 185 MANCHESTER 19 0 { Telegraph" (186 miles), { 18 hours 15 minutes, { "Beehive", "Estafette," { "Peveril of the Peak," { "Cobourg," "Red Rover." 129 MONMOUTH "Mazeppa," "Royal Forester." 113-1/2 NORWICH _viâ_ IPSWICH 11 38 "Shannon." 117-1/2 NORWICH _viâ_ NEWMARKET 13 0 "Phenomenon." 106 POOLE "Phoenix." 73 PORTSMOUTH { "Diligence," "Regulator," { "Hero." 158 SHREWSBURY { "Wonder," 15 hours 45 { minutes; "Nimrod," "Stag," { "Union," "Oxonian." SOUTHAMPTON "Star." 105 STROUD 12 9 195 WETHERBY (Glasgow Mail) 20 36 128 WEYMOUTH "King's Royal." 23 WINDSOR "Taglioni." 114 WORCESTER 12 20 197 YORK (Edinburgh Mail) 20 54 "Wellington." 30 LIVERPOOL AND PRESTON 129-1/2 EDINBURGH AND ABERDEEN { "Defiance" (12 hrs. { 10 min., including { 30 min. Ferry). CHELTENHAM AND LIVERPOOL { "Hirondelle," "Hibernia" { (see above). SHREWSBURY AND { "ROYAL OAK," "NETTLE," WELSHPOOL { "ENGINEER." AND ABERYSTWITH NOTES. The fastest coaches were the "Defiance" (Edinburgh and Aberdeen), the "Wonder" (Shrewsbury and London), for which alone 150 horses were kept, and the mail from Liverpool to Preston. The next fastest were the Holyhead, Exeter, and Scotch mails, and those to Bath and Bristol (which last ones did not stop for meals on the road). The slowest is the Stroud mail, but formerly was the Worcester mail, which used to be most frequently overturned of any. The Hastings and Brighton mails had only two horses. For some reason or other, with which I am not acquainted, the Liverpool mail, and, I believe, the Halifax also, though leaving London at the same time as the others, had a day coach on the up journey, arriving at St. Martin's-le-Grand about 7 p.m. One of the Birmingham coaches was lighted by gas for a time, as far back as 1834. A coach running every day between London and Birmingham paid annually for toll-gates the sum of £1,428. The double miles of the mails travelling reached at one time 6,619 a journey. SCOTCH AND IRISH MAILS. It is interesting to compare the running of the Edinburgh and Glasgow coaches out of London. Both left St. Martin's at the same hour, but by a different road. At Alconbury (65 miles out of London) the two coaches must have frequently been in sight of each other on a moonlight night--if punctual a bare four minutes divided them (not a yokel in that part of Huntingdonshire but could discuss the merits of the rival whips)--and at Grantham (108 miles out) they probably transferred some mail bags picked up upon their different roads. At Doncaster (159 miles from London) less than a quarter of an hour divided the two vehicles after travelling all through the night and portion of the following day, a feat successfully performed that would make the hair of a modern South-Eastern Railway guard stand upon end. Indeed, tradition says that the up and down coaches nearly always "crossed" within a few yards of the same bridge. Even that northern metropolis, Newcastle, was treated with scant ceremony; as soon as fresh horses were attached and the mail bags exchanged, the coach went forward without pause, the next "stop and examine coach" after York being at Belford (near Berwick-upon-Tweed). With the Edinburgh coach there were three halts only upon the road for refreshments, and these were liable to curtailment in heavy weather when any minutes had been lost on the way--at the ordinary stages the changes of horses being sometimes made in less than a minute. The Glasgow coach, though over a considerably more uneven road, was slightly the quicker of the two, the rival distances by road being almost identical. This coach was not encumbered with heavy bags for the Highlands, and had the additional stimulus for the first dozen miles or so out of London of racing the Holyhead mail through Barnet. This celebrated mail made its "first stop" (other than for change of horses) at Birmingham, its second at Shrewsbury, its third at Corwen, and its fourth at Bangor. The speed of this mail was no less than nine and three-quarters miles an hour, or over ten miles if stoppages are taken into account. At Shrewsbury five minutes only were allowed for refreshments, and the timing of this coach was so close that it was due there one minute before the beautiful, varied, and sonorous clocks of that proud borough struck the hour of noon (11.59 a.m.). At Wolverhampton it was timed to arrive also at one minute past the hour (9.1 a.m.), while the timepieces of the guards were checked once or twice on the road by special clocks, and the discrepancy, if any, taken note of in writing. Another notable piece of "good running" was shown by the rival mails to Caermarthen, which reached there from town the following evening. The Gloucester coach arrived at eight o'clock (224 miles), and was followed at only half-an-hour's interval by the Bristol (238 miles) coming by a different road the whole journey, and having often to face a rough sea when transferring its passengers at Aust Passage, near Chepstow. This last mail was one of the quickest of all out of London; as far as Bristol it was expedited in 1837 to run at the speed of ten miles and three furlongs an hour, prior to which time it had to cede the palm to the celebrated Falmouth (or, as it was often miscalled, Devonport--confusing it with the Plymouth coach) Quicksilver mail. No doubt a higher speed still would have been attained in the winter months had these coaches not to include so much night work in their running. It is very difficult, unless precise dates are attached, to give now the absolute distances travelled. Each year roads were straightened out and bends removed, gradients modified, or minor deviations to towns of less importance struck out. A list of such accelerations will be found in Mogg's edition of Paterson and of the principal ordinary routes traversed in Paterson, Leigh, or Cary. What prospects the Coventry bicycle might have had _before_ the arrival of the telegraph and railway epoch it is difficult to conjecture; but its speed must then have placed it in the first rank of means of locomotion. 1837. Scotch Mails. DOWN. TO THURSO VI� EDINBURGH. Miles _St. Martin's-le-Grand._ p.m. -- LONDON dep. 8. 0 night 12-1/2 Waltham Cross arr. 9.25 -- 22 Ware " 10.26 -- 35-1/4 Buckland " 11.52 -- a.m. 45-1/2 Arrington " 12.57 -- 60 HUNTINGDON " 2.30 -- 65-1/4 Alconbury Hill " 3. 3 -- 72-1/4 Stilton " 3.45 -- 87 STAMFORD " 5.15 -- 95 Stretton " 6. 3 day 108-1/2 GRANTHAM { arr. 7.23 -- { dep. 8. 3 -- 115-3/4 Long Bennington arr. 8.53 -- 122-1/4 NEWARK " 9.30 -- 132-3/4 Scarthing Moor " 10.34 -- 145-1/2 Barnby Moor " 11.49 -- p.m. 155-1/4 Rossington Bridge " 12.47 -- 159-1/2 DONCASTER " 1.12 -- 166-1/4 Askerne " 1.55 -- 179-3/4 Selby " 3.21 -- 194 YORK { arr. 4.54 -- { dep. 5.34 -- 207-1/4 Easingwold arr. 6.54 night 218 Thirsk " 7.58 -- 227 NORTHALLERTON " 8.52 -- 243 DARLINGTON " 10.28 -- a.m. 261-1/2 DURHAM " 12.23 -- 276 NEWCASTLE- { arr. 1.50 -- ON-TYNE { dep. 1.53 -- 290-1/2 Morpeth arr. 3.22 -- 300-1/2 Felton " 4.23 -- 309-3/4 ALNWICK " 5.17 -- 324-1/2 BELFORD { arr. 6.47 day { dep. 7.17 -- 339-3/4 BERWICK-ON-TWEED arr. 8.47 -- 353-1/2 Houndswood " 0. 9 -- 369-1/4 Dunbar " 11.41 -- p.m. 380-1/4 Haddington " 12.45 -- 397-1/4 EDINBURGH G.P.O. " 2.23 -- (_Time on road_ 42 h. 23 m. _The quickest train time the journey has been performed in was on August 31, 1888, when the King's Cross train arrived in_ 7h. 27m.) 444 Perth arr. 9. 0 night 466 Dundee " 11.15 -- a.m. 534 Aberdeen " 6.22 day p.m. -- 641 Iverness " 8. 6 night a.m. 783 Thurso " 8.10 day TO GLASGOW. Miles. _St. Martin's-le-Grand._ p.m. LONDON dep. 8. 0 night 11-1/4 Barnet arr. 9.18 -- 25-1/4 Welwyn " 10.46 -- a.m. 37-1/2 Baldock " 12. 6 -- 46-3/4 Caldecot " 1. 2 -- 55-1/4 Eaton " 1.55 -- 65-3/4 Alconbury Church " 2.59 -- 75-1/4 Stilton " 3.56 -- 90 STAMFORD " 5.28 -- 98 Stretton " 6.18 day 111-1/2 GRANTHAM { arr. 7.40 -- { dep. 8.20 -- 117-1/2 Foston arr. 8.56 -- 125-1/2 NEWARK " 9.44 -- 138-1/2 Ollerton " 11. 3 -- 143 Worksop " 11.52 -- p.m. 151-1/2 Bagley " 12.40 -- 159-3/4 DONCASTER " 1.26 -- 174-1/4 Pontefract " 2.53 -- [asterism] _Change for_ LEEDS _and_ WAKEFIELD. 184-1/4 Aberford arr. 3.52 -- [asterism] _Change for_ BRADFORD. 191-3/4 WETHERBY. { arr. 4.36 -- { dep. 5.11 -- [asterism] _Change here for_ YORK. 204 Boroughbridge arr. 6.23 night 216 Leeming " 7.35 -- 227 Catterick Bridge " 8.41 -- 236 Foxhall " 9.35 -- 240-1/2 Greta Bridge " 10. 2 -- 250-1/2 New Spital " 11.10 -- a.m. 260 Brough " 12.15 -- 268 APPLEBY " 1. 7 -- 282 PENRITH " 2.28 -- 293 Hesketh " 3.23 -- _Manchester Mail_ 3.0 p.m., reaches _Carlisle G.P.O._ 4.48 a.m. 303 CARLISLE G.P.O. { arr. 4.17 -- { dep. 5. 0 -- 312-3/4 Gretna arr. 5.55 -- 322 Ecclefechan " 6.48 day 332-3/4 Dunwoodie " 7.49 -- 342-1/2 Beattock Bridge " 8.42 -- 361 Abington " 10.26 -- 370 Douglas Mill " 11.18 -- 376 Lesmahagow Bar. " bags dropped. p.m. 387-1/4 Hamilton " 12.57 -- 397-3/4 GLASGOW G.P.O. " 2. 0 -- (_Time on road, 42 hours._) 1837. Irish Mails. DOWN. TO KINGSTOWN VI� HOLYHEAD. Miles. _St. Martin's-le-Grand._ p.m. LONDON dep. 8. 0 night 11-1/4 Harriet arr. ---- -- 20-1/2 St. Albans " ---- -- 24-1/2 Redbourne " 10.44 -- 33-1/2 DUNSTABLE " ---- -- a.m. 42-1/4 Brickhill " 12.32 -- 51-1/4 Stony Stratford " 1.26 -- 59 Towcester " 2.12 -- 71-1/4 Daventry " 3.25 -- 79 Dunchurch " 4.11 -- 90-1/4 COVENTRY " 5.18 -- 108-1/2 BIRMINGHAM { arr. 7. 8 day { dep. 7.43 -- 116-1/2 Wednesbury arr. 8.28 -- 122 WOLVERHAMPTON " 9. 1 -- 134-1/2 Shiffnal " 10.14 -- 142-1/4 Heygate Junction. " 10.59 -- 144-1/2 Wellington " 11.20 -- 152-1/2 SHREWSBURY { arr. 11.59 -- p.m. { dep. 12. 4 -- 161 Netcliffe arr. 12.52 -- 170-1/2 OSWESTRY " 1.45 -- 176-1/4 Chirk " ---- -- 183 LLANGOLLEN " 2.57 -- 193-1/4 CORWEN { arr. 3.57 -- { dep. 4.25 -- 199-1/2 Tynant arr. 5. 1 -- 206-1/4 Cernioge " 5.39 -- 213-1/2 "New Stables" " 6.21 night 220-3/4 Capel Curig " 7. 2 -- 228-1/4 Tyn-y-maes " 7.46 -- BANGOR { arr. 8.20 -- { dep. 8.25 -- Anglesea Ferry arr. 8.43 -- _Here cross the Menai Straits at night by ferry until the opening of Telford's Suspension Bridge, in 1826._ Mona Inn arr. 9.43 -- 259 Holyhead Post Office { arr. 10.55 -- { dep. 323 Kingstown arr. 327 Dublin " (_Time on journey, h. m. Present time on journey, h. m._) [asterism] _It may be curious to note that the present train mail service is under the liability of a penalty of £1 14s. for each minute it is after time through any avoidable cause._ TO WATERFORD (P) VI� GLOUCESTER AND MILFORD. Miles. p.m. LONDON dep. 8. 0 night 12-1/4 Hounslow arr. 9.20 -- 19-3/4 Colnbrook " ---- -- 23-3/4 Slough " ---- -- 29 Maidenhead " 11. 8 -- 38-1/4 Henley-on-Thames " ---- -- 43 Nettlebed " ---- -- a.m. 61-1/4 OXFORD { arr. 2.38 -- { dep. ---- -- 72-3/4 Witney arr. 3.58 -- 80 Burford " ---- -- 89-3/4 Northleach " 5.43 -- 97-1/4 Andoverford " ---- day 102-3/4 CHELTENHAM { arr. 7. 3 -- { dep. ---- -- 112 GLOUCESTER { arr. 8. 0 -- { dep. ---- -- 129 Ross arr.10. 8 -- 139 MONMOUTH " 11.11 -- p.m. 156 Abergavenny " 12.53 -- 176 BRECON " 3. 1 -- 197 Llandovery " 5.22 -- 224 CARMARTHEN " 8. 0 night Haverfordwest " HUBBERSTON " [asterism] _Compare the quicker relative time to Carmarthen made by the Bristol mail immediately following, notwithstanding having to cross the Bristol Channel._ TO WATERFORD (P) VI� BRISTOL AND PEMBROKE. Miles _St. Martin's-le-Grand._ p.m. LONDON dep. 8. 0 night 12-1/4 Hounslow arr. 9.12 -- 29 Maidenhead " 10.50 -- READING " ---- -- a.m. 59 Newbury " 1.41 -- Marlborough " ---- -- 90 CALNE " 4.49 -- Chippenham " ---- -- 109 BATH " 6.32 day 122 BRISTOL { arr. 7.45 -- { dep. ---- -- 134 New Passage Ferry arr. 9.12 -- NEWPORT " ---- -- p.m. 166 CARDIFF " 12.53 -- Cowbridge " ---- -- Neath " ---- -- 211 Swansea " 5.18 -- 238 CARMARTHEN " 8.31 night a.m. 273 Hobbs Point " 12.34 -- Pembroke " 1. 9 -- Western and Foreign Mails.--1837.--Up and Down. Falmouth Exeter Devonport Mail.[5] Mail. Mail. ST. MARTIN'S-LE-GRAND dep. 8. 0 p.m. 8. 0 p.m. 8. 0 p.m. 12 Hounslow arr. ---- ---- 9.12 19 Staines " ---- 9.56 ---- 23 Slough " ---- ---- ---- 29 Maidenhead " ---- ---- 10.40 58 Newbury " ---- ---- 1.53 a.m. 77 Marlborough " ---- ---- 3.43 91 Devizes " ---- ---- 5. 6 109 BATH " ---- ---- 7. 0 149 Bridgewater " ---- ---- 11.30 160 TAUNTON " ---- ---- 12.35 p.m. 180 Collumpton " ---- ---- 2.42 29 Bagshot " 10.47 p.m. ---- ---- 67 Andover " 2.20 a.m. 2.42 a.m. ---- 84 SALISBURY " ---- 4.27 ---- 126 Yeovil " ---- 8.53 ---- 143 Chard " ---- 11. 0 ---- 80 Amesbury " 3.39 ---- ---- 125 Ilchester " 7.50 ---- ---- Honiton " 11. 0 12.31 p.m. ---- EXETER { arr. 12.34 p.m. 2.12 3.57 { dep. 12.44 ---- ---- 210 Newton arr. ---- 6.33 218 Totnes " ---- 7.25 190 Ashburton " 2.41 ---- 214 PLYMOUTH " 5. 5 ---- DEVONPORT { arr. 5.14 10. 5 { dep. ---- ---- 234 Liskeard arr. 7.55 246 Lostwithiel " 9.12 254 St. Austell " 10.20 268 TRURO " 11.55 279 FALMOUTH " 1. 5 a.m. _Naval Station for the departure of the foreign packets._ Miles from London:--HONITON, via Amesbury, 154; via Salisbury, 156. EXETER, via Amesbury, 170; via Salisbury, 173; via, Taunton, 193. DEVONPORT, via Amesbury, 216; via Taunton, 243. _Packet arrives from abroad._ FALMOUTH dep. 1.45 a.m. TRURO arr. 2.55 St. Austell " 4.29 Lostwithiel " 5.36 Liskeard " 6.52 DEVONPORT { arr. ---- { dep. 9.30 4.45 a.m. PLYMOUTH dep. ---- ---- Ashburton " 12. 3 p.m. ---- Totnes " ---- 7.30 Newton " ---- 8.25 EXETER { arr. 2. 0 ---- ---- { dep. 2.20 11.50 p.m. 10.15 Honiton dep. 4. 4 1.27 a.m. ---- Ilchester " 6.49 ---- ---- Amesbury " 11. 0 ---- ---- Chard " ---- 2.55 ---- Yeovil " ---- 4.30 ---- SALISBURY " ---- 8.50 ---- Andover " 12.19 a.m. 11. 0 ---- Bagshot " 4. 2 ---- ---- Collumpton " ---- ---- 11.38 TAUNTON " ---- ---- 1.37 p.m. Bridgewater " ---- ---- 2.52 BATH " ---- ---- 7.30 Devizes " ---- ---- 9.24 Marlborough " ---- ---- 10.49 Newbury " ---- ---- 12.42 a.m. Maidenhead " ---- ---- 3.44 Slough " ---- ---- ---- Staines " ---- 3.46 p.m. ---- Hounslow " ---- ---- 5.26 ST. MARTIN'S-LE-GRAND arr. 6.50 5.42 6.40 NOTES.--Greenwich time throughout. The mails left London one hour earlier (at 7.0 p.m.) on Sundays. The Falmouth (nicknamed the "Quicksilver") mail averaged over 10 miles an hour between London and Devonport. [5] NOTE. The Falmouth mail was allowed 25 minutes stoppage at Ilminster (8.58 a.m. to 9.23), notwithstanding which it travelled between London and Exeter at the average speed of 10 miles and 2 furlongs an hour. SIMMONS & BOTTEN, Printers, LONDON, E.C. 
43930	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) THE CAT [Illustration: WHITE CAT AND KITTENS.] THE CAT: _ITS NATURAL HISTORY; DOMESTIC VARIETIES; MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT._ (_WITH ILLUSTRATIONS._) BY PHILIP M. RULE. _WITH AN ESSAY ON FELINE INSTINCT, BY BERNARD PEREZ._ London: SWAN SONNENSCHEIN, LOWREY & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE. 1887. Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. TO JOHN COLAM, ESQ., SECRETARY TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, THIS BOOK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, IN RECOGNITION OF THE NOBLE AND UNFAILING DEVOTION DISPLAYED BY HIM IN ADVOCATING THE CAUSE OF HUMANITY; AND IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE AUTHOR'S APPRECIATION OF HIS REGARD FOR AND INTEREST IN THE SUBJECT OF THE FOLLOWING PAGES. CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 1 CHAPTER II. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS (_continued_) 10 CHAPTER III. FOOD 31 CHAPTER IV. ON THE MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT OF CATS 45 CHAPTER V. DOMESTIC VARIETIES 58 CHAPTER VI. ON THE DISEASES OF CATS 80 CHAPTER VII. ON THE DISEASES OF CATS (_continued_) 102 ESSAY ON FELINE INSTINCT 133 PREFACE. Before sending forth this little book, I consider it my duty to request the attention of the patient reader to a few introductory and explanatory remarks. During some portion of the past year I contributed a series of short papers upon the cat to that most admirable monthly _The Animal World_. Through the kind and hearty manner in which the Editor brought the papers out from month to month, and also by the expressed desire of many friends, I have been encouraged to reproduce the papers in the present form. Some slight revision has, of course, been found necessary; but very little addition has been made, it being my desire to produce a small and attractive volume, with the hope that it may reach to many homes where the hints it contains can perhaps be of some practical service. Nevertheless, I hope there may be found enough interesting or instructive matter to excite in the mind and heart of some a deeper interest in or regard for an animal that too often is esteemed worthy of but slight attention. I am indebted to Mr. Harrison Weir for his kindness in supplying me with a few particulars connected with the organization of the first Cat Show, held at the Crystal Palace, in 1871. In the last chapter the reader will see that I have made several quotations, somewhat at length: I have done so with the very kind and ready permission of the writer, MR. HAROLD LEENEY, M.R.C.V.S. P. M. RULE. MAIDSTONE. THE CAT. CHAPTER I. _GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS._ The origin of the domestic cat (_Felis domestica_) is a subject about which there has been much conjecture and scientific discussion, but without any positive issue. Very long before the cat was kept in this country as a domesticated animal it was possessed by the ancient Egyptians in a tame state, and was, moreover, held in reverence by that remarkable and superstitious people, being regarded sacred to the goddess Pasht. At death the body was embalmed with devout care, and specimens of cat mummies may be seen in the British Museum. The Egyptian cat (_Felis maniculata_) may, however, be regarded as probably the original source of our familiar puss. This wild cat is of a sandy-grey or tawny colour, and with more or less indistinct markings of the tabby character. It is of about ordinary size; the tail is in form somewhat like that of most of our cats, and the ears are largish and pointed in a slightly lynx-like fashion. It is supposed that domesticated animals spread from Egypt with the tide of civilization westward. I may here notice that, unlike the dog, the cat has never been tamed by the savage races of mankind. But by the civilized, or even the semi-civilized, peoples of the world the cat is at the present day more or less valued as a useful mouser or as a cherished household pet. It is remarkable that at a time when the wild cat (_Felis catus_) was very abundant in England, the house-cat was unknown. It was evidently an animal of foreign importation, and so highly valued as a mouser as to have been protected by royal statute. The earliest record of the tame cat in this country is as remote as A.D. 948. Prince Howel Dda, or Howel the Good, enforced the very just but primitive fine of a milch ewe, its fleece and lamb, or as much wheat from the destroyer or robber of a cat at the Royal granary as would cover it to the tip of the tail, the animal being suspended by that member, with the head only touching the ground. As the domestic cat in different parts of the world will breed occasionally with the wild races of the locality, and as cats are conveyed from country to country, it is probable that our cats are of somewhat compound pedigree. It is considered probable that our fine English tabbies have a trace of the British wild-cat blood in their veins, although it may be obscure. The domestic cat is not regarded in zoology as the typical form to represent the beautiful group known as the _Felidæ_, or the cat family, as might naturally be supposed; and it might have justly been so. But the animal chosen as the generic example is the common wild cat, and therefore known in science as _Felis catus_, _felis_ being the generic title and _catus_ the specific name, which every reader will understand to signify cat. It will be beyond the scope and aim of this chapter to describe all the known distinct species of wild cat. In describing the true cats, such as the Pampas cat, or the Colocolo of America, the Chaus, or the Serval of Africa, the Viverrine, or the Leopard cat of India, our subject would lead us on from these and other "tiger cats," as the Ocelot, and the Riman-Dahan, without power to define a clear line of distinction, up to the leopards, and finally to the "King of Beasts" himself. Of all these _Felidæ_ there are upwards of half a hundred distinct species known, to say nothing of the permanent varieties--which, with regard to domestic animals, are termed "breeds"--and the casual "sports," and variations of colour, etc. But the true wild cat (_Felis catus_) is deserving of notice, being the only form that is a native of this country, and often termed by us the British wild cat, although now almost totally extinct on our island. Its last haunt here is in the remote parts of Scotland; and so scarce has it become, that its existence, even there, is now somewhat doubtful. But it is still now to be found, with but slight local variations, on the continent of Europe and Northern Asia, and is, therefore, also known as the European wild cat. It is not found very far north, and neither in Norway nor Sweden; there the lynx reigns supreme. The wild cat is a fine animal, of larger growth than the cat of our familiar acquaintance, and stands tall. It is a strong, muscular, well-built cat,--a perfect tabby,--and so fierce an animal as to have been justly termed the "British Tiger." An adult male measures about twenty-eight inches in length from the nose to the root of the tail, and the tail is about thirteen inches, which is proportionately short, and it does not taper at the end, as does that of our domestic cats, but is about the same thickness throughout, resembling somewhat that of the Serval. When the animal is excited, and the tail enlarges, after the manner of all cats, it presents a splendid brush. [Illustration: WILD CAT.] In country places, where rabbits are abundant,--and, we may add, the smaller, but not less destructive, rodents, and a variety of feathered game,--the barn-door cat is sometimes tempted to abscond and take to a romantic and semi-wild life in the woods. Kittens born of such parents have no desire for the domestic hearth, and are wild and suspicions to a degree. Were it not for the vigilance and unremitting persecution of gamekeepers and others, which has robbed our land of the noble _Felis catus_, in common with many other rare and interesting creatures, it is probable that but very few consecutive generations would suffice to produce a truly wild race. CHAPTER II. _GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS._ (_Continued._) A short time ago I had two kittens which were born in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, and bred between the domestic tortoiseshell and the British wild cat, that have for several years occupied together a cage in the winter aviary. This crescent-shaped row of cages, although originally an aviary, has for some years been occupied by animals of a decidedly bird-fancying character. There the animals in question may have been seen, and in an adjoining cage a specimen of the Viverrine cat--so named from the somewhat civet-like form of the muzzle. But it is a true cat, every inch, and bears every cat in countenance by its love of fish. Being most unusually adroit at capturing fish from shallow water, it is commonly named the Fishing Cat. The specimen I allude to was brought from India by the Prince of Wales, and graciously presented to the Zoological Society. These cages contain also other animals of interest, such as the Civet, Poradoxure, etc.[1] But to return to the kittens. When only able to crawl, as I examined the litter, the little things spat most vigorously, for probably they had not before seen anybody in the cage except their keeper. The two I selected were a red tabby and a tortoiseshell. The red tabby was a male, as red tabby cats generally are, and he decidedly resembled his father, if not in colour, in disposition and temperament. I took them from the litter at the early age of nearly seven weeks. The contrast between their behaviour and that of tame kittens was most remarkable. At the slightest surprise or displeasure they would spit with wide-open mouth and a display of ivory fangs in a most threatening manner. When I gave them milk, they would in a very unpolite fashion growl together. They never ate near each other, but pouncing upon their meat and carrying it to a far corner apart, would growl in a most warning tone, and answer back again and again till the last morsel should be consumed. On one occasion they had quite a desperate tug of war over the same piece of meat, and it was with some difficulty that I could part them, for fear of using too much force and hurting their young teeth. But when not feeding, the tortoiseshell became not only docile, but most affectionate and pleasing, in her little ways. She would fondle and purr in a manner that won the affection of my heart. On the other hand, the tabby was, at the best, passively composed, but always watchful, and never certain in mood. I can hardly say which of the two I prized most. In the one I admired the manifestations of its inborn nature, and would on no account check or discourage such signs of high blood. Towards the other I felt there was a mutual and spiritual bond of affection, which I can better conceive than describe. Dryden's lines upon a tame leopard express very nearly my feelings respecting these two little beasts (see page 21). Unfortunately, the kittens died very suddenly, and at the same hour, after a short career of three months. There is reason to suspect that poison was the cause of their untimely end. Nothing now remains but the stuffed skins, mounted in admirable style, under a glass case. Probably the veneration with which the Egyptians regarded the cat was in no way diminished by the probable utility of their revered favourites in keeping under the increase of such remarkably prolific and fast-growing rodents as are mice and rats; and it is reasonable to suppose these little animals must have been harmful in the vast stores of grain which are recorded in ancient history. Pussy's valuable qualities as a mouser are to the present day too well known to need much comment. A friend of mine told me the other day that once, when he removed to another house, and had also deposited his favourite cat, with the usual precaution of buttering paws, and consolation of a more solid nature in addition, the servant, on entering the kitchen in the morning, found fourteen mice lying dead on the hearth-rug, most of them decapitated. The usual preference which cats have for the heads of their prey is remarkable, and has been noticed in both tame and wild animals. One of the most noticeable characteristics of the cat kind is the silent tread. Even the footfall of the huge tigers, as they pace to and fro in their roomy cages or in their open-air enclosures at the Zoological Gardens is hardly to be heard. For not only is the cat a digitigrade animal, walking absolutely "tiptoe" in the most perfect manner, but the toes are furnished with a most elastic membrane, constituting what are commonly called pussy's "pads." She is thus enabled to skulk stealthily in search of her desired prey, and can on all occasions move with that unobtrusive grace and silent ease peculiarly characteristic of her race. The retractile construction of the peculiarity sharp claws is also a beautiful adaptation to the requirements of these Nimrods of creation. Generally these useful weapons are held back, nicely sheathed and safe from harm. They are readily, however, protruded at will when required for offensive or defensive service, in holding secure an unfortunate victim, or as hooks to assist in climbing trees, etc. The senses of the cat are all highly developed. That of hearing is most acute. The sense of smell is not so acute as in the dog and some other animals--at least, it is assumed so; but it is quite evident that the ear and the eye are put to the best service by the cat. But dirt and bad smells are much disliked, while, on the other hand, there is a remarkable partiality for some smells. Cats appear to enjoy the perfume of many flowers, and their fondness for the odour of cat-mint or valerian is remarkable. As may be noticed by the prompt, unerring manner in which a cat will dart at a mouse or any small moving object in almost total darkness, she has the power to see near objects without the light required by ourselves and most animals. Absolutely total darkness is evidently not advantageous to pussy's vision, and the assertion that the cat can see better in the dark must not be regarded in an abstract, but in a comparative, sense. The pupil of the eye has the round shape, as in ourselves, only during darkness, when it is dilated so as to receive every ray of light available. By day, on the other hand, when there is more light than the eye requires, the pupil contracts to an ellipse, or, in the strongest light, to a mere line. This peculiarity is absent in the lion and tiger and a few others. A peculiarity in the cat and some other animals may be noticed in the highly-developed bristles, commonly called "whiskers," but more appropriately termed "feelers." These are not, as some may suppose, only common hairs of larger growth, but are deeply implanted, having large swollen roots, somewhat in the form of young onions, and are connected with highly sensitive nerves which communicate with the brain. By means of these bristles the cat is enabled to feel its way the more stealthily, avoiding the clumsy disturbance of surrounding objects that might impede its progress. It will be seen by the foregoing brief description of its leading physical characteristics that the cat is, of all animals, the most perfectly and beautifully formed for the fulfilments of the instincts and requirements of its nature. The silent, soft tread of the velvet paw, with the finely pointed and carefully preserved claws, the terrible fangs, the keen eye, and the light, easy, soft, yet powerful and unerring, action of the whole body--all these render the cats, from the great Bengal tiger downwards, the most charming and graceful creatures in animated nature. The panther, sure the noblest next the hind, And fairest creature of the spotted kind; Oh, could her inborn stains be washed away, She were too good to be a beast of prey! How can I praise or blame, and not offend, Or how divide the frailty from the friend? Her faults and virtues lie so mixed that she Nor wholly stands condemned, nor wholly free. But there is yet another physical peculiarity worthy of passing notice; viz., the remarkably loose skin. This is connected with the flesh by a layer of very loose fibres. The cat's loose skin serves her well on many occasions as a shield of protection, especially when scuffling with her neighbours--an occurrence which will sometimes take place. This peculiarity may be occasionally seen well exhibited in the jaguars and other great cats at the Zoological Gardens, more especially when they are young and sportive. To see the powerful manner in which these animals embrace each other with their great hooked claws may cause some apprehension that serious consequences are about to result. If the skin were tightly fitted to the body, as with the horse, hog, ox, and other herbivorous animals, the result of such violent scufflings would be very serious. But, as may be seen, the animals do not get good hold of each other, as the skin is dragged round with the claws, and the hold is lost. The following account of the sagacity of a young black-and-white tom-cat, which occurred about twenty years ago, is, I think, worth relating as illustrative of the retentive memory and the remarkable prescience which many cats appear to possess as a peculiar mental endowment. The house being covered with corrugated iron, and the spaces formed by the corrugations where the roof met the walls not being stopped, but left open to admit air into the roof, the whole space of the unused interior of the roof was a favourite breeding-place for countless broods of sparrows and starlings. The roof was accessible to human and other intruders by a small trap-door above the lobby at the top of the staircase. It was a square house, of good dimensions, but of only two stories. I have described these particulars in order to be better understood in narrating the circumstances. It so happened that we wanted some small boards which had been stored away in the roof, and we entered by the aid of a light ladder; and it also happened that puss, unobserved, followed the example of the man-servant and myself, but from quite another motive, prompted, doubtless, by the chirping of the birds, it being early summer. As soon, however, as we could get Tom down, we closed the trap, and returned the ladder to its proper place. About a month afterwards, I had to resort to the roof again, and accordingly went for the ladder, which was kept against a fence at another part of the premises. As soon as I brought the ladder into the back yard, and laid it on the ground, in order to unfasten a door leading straight into the hall, Tom became suddenly most excited with delight. He must have seen the ladder often since he entered the roof by it, as it was used for various purposes, such as lighting the outdoor lamps, window-cleaning, etc. But now he at once conceived, by a most sagacious inference, my intention. He paced about the yard, close to the ladder, tail erect, and talking as only an earnest and happy cat can talk. Immediately I took the ladder in and hoisted it through the well of the staircase, he scaled it like a squirrel, and was waiting for me to follow upstairs. As soon then as I drew the ladder up, and raised the trap with the end of it, and while it was in my hands, he clambered up and out of sight. Before going up myself I thought it best to await Tom's return, and there was but little time lost before he came down, stile by stile, with a sparrow in his mouth. Then I at once brought down what I wanted, closed the trap, returned the ladder to its place, and the birds afterwards enjoyed undisturbed safety and peace. There was, about the same time, a tortoiseshell cat at the house of a relative which became much attached to me. Her affection was so strong that she even knew my knock at the front door from that of anybody else. On hearing my knock, she would speak in her loving and expressive tone, and meet me in the hall. She was an adult cat, the mother of many kittens, and yet, notwithstanding the cares of life, she delighted in a most remarkable little eccentricity of her own. It was the peculiar habit of taking the pendent lobe of my ear into her mouth and sucking it with charming avidity. The peculiar sensation felt under the operation, though not unpleasant to me, was not enjoyed or tolerated by other persons, and she was sometimes rather rudely repulsed when trying to practise upon strangers. Those who admire and observe the habits of cats may have noticed that when two are snugly engaged together in dressing their fur, they are often mutually pleased in paying particular attention to the face and ears of each other. A short time ago I was pleased and amused with two charming kittens upon my knee. They were each equally resolved to lick the face and ears of the other, and tried hard to prevail. Eventually, one became resolute, and placing her left arm round her brother's shoulder and her right paw upon his cheek, she licked and nibbled into his short, round velvet ear (for they were little over two months old at the time), to her utmost satisfaction and his evident enjoyment. As is well known, the cat often evinces to a remarkable degree an instinctive power, if such it may be called, of finding its way back to a home from which it has been removed. Some years ago, an officer of the Royal Marines, upon promotion, removed from his private quarters at Stonehouse, Plymouth, to Portsmouth. Having a favourite cat,--a black male of about twelve months old,--he resolved to send it to Portsmouth by rail in a hamper. It arrived at its destination safely enough, but on the afternoon of the day following, which was Sunday, it was missing, but was actually found in the garden of its beloved home at Stonehouse on the evening of Wednesday in the ensuing week. It was at once recognised and taken charge of by a kind neighbour, who knew the cat well. Considering it went by train, secured in a hamper, it is difficult even to conjecture by what means it was guided homewards, a distance of about a hundred and thirty miles as the crow flies, and within ten or eleven days. I was living at Stonehouse at the time this strange occurrence took place,--about nineteen years ago,--and narrate the particulars from memory. CHAPTER III. _FOOD._ Although the cat is in many respects so hardy an animal as to have the popular reputation of possessing nine lives, we must bear in mind that puss is not of such an iron constitution as to be entirely independent of all care. No animal better repays its owner for the attention rightly bestowed upon it than does the cat. Pussy's wants are not many, and are very simple indeed. It is the duty of every owner of pet animals first to ascertain the nature and requirements of his charge, and then to use that knowledge with thought and right feeling. Subsequent experience also proves a good teacher, and especially so when it is supported by previous knowledge. Being normally a purely carnivorous creature, the cat requires to subsist principally upon animal food. But, nevertheless, owing to its long established association with mankind, the domestic cat has acquired a constitutional capacity for subsisting upon a somewhat miscellaneous bill of fare. Consequently, the intestines of the tame cat are said to be slightly longer and somewhat wider than in the wild races--the latter requiring a rather less lengthened process in digesting the simple and highly nutritious diet which instinct teaches them to select. But still our puss is, as God created her, a perfect beast of prey. There is no complicated stomach, as in the ox, antelope, sheep, and other ruminants--no perfect grinders, like mill-stones, as in the mouth of the horse, elephant, hog, etc. The dentition of the cat, as also that of the lion, leopard, ocelot, lynx, and other _Felidæ_, is beautifully adapted by the all-wise Creator for holding, tearing, or devouring their living prey. On inspecting the teeth of a cat, the four large, powerful, and sharply pointed canine teeth, or fangs, will naturally attract attention. With these the prey is seized, and is usually carried, or the piercing and fatal bite is effected. It will be noticed, by the way, that a cat, if possible, always carries a mouse or a bird, quite away from the spot where it may have been captured. The attack is, however, made with the claws first, and the cat does not seize with teeth only, as does the dog. At the front, between the tusks, will be seen six small incisors, and back, behind the tusks, on fangs, are the molar and premolar, or crushing teeth. The dentition of the cat is as follows (the letters _i_, _c_, _p_, _m_ signifying incisor, canine, premolar, and molar):-- _i_{3--3 _c_{1--1 _p_{3--3 _m_{1--1} 30. {3--3 {1--1 {2--2 {1--1} The milk dentition in the kitten is the same as to number, with the exception of the molars, which are absent, and appear only as permanent teeth. The incisors appear between two and three weeks after birth, and are followed by the canines and molars, which are all cut by the time the kitten has attained the age of six weeks. They are shed, and replaced by the permanent teeth, after the seventh month. Therefore the teeth in a kitten are twenty-six in number. It may be easily noticed that the teeth of the lower jaw bite within those of the upper. The jaws are so articulated as to allow of up-and-down motion only, and accordingly the cats and other carnivora are unable to grind their food by a sideway motion, as we do ourselves, and as is most noticeable in a horse when feeding, but crush and chop the flesh and bones upon which they feed by a jerking motion of the head. We are all familiar with the rough nature of the tongue--a peculiarity in the cat and all her kind. It is in dressing the exceedingly beautiful and sleek fur that the tongue is of important service, as comb, brush, and sponge in combination. The domestic cat being almost a purely carnivorous animal, to say the least, requires food of a character congenial to the instincts of her nature. It is difficult to state in measured terms the needful quantity of a cat's daily allowance. The amount may be regulated by observation, right judgment, and experience. It is not so needful with cats that live in the country, especially at a farm, where mice of different kinds and other small game are plentiful, and a liberal supply of milk, to feed them largely upon meat; but under less favourable circumstances the common house cat often suffers much privation. Where there is a large family, and but one cat or so, there may generally, with a little thought, be odd pieces of various kinds gathered together sufficient to meet pussy's wants. But in a small household, where limited and strict economy is rightly observed, the poor cat may fare but badly. Under such circumstances, in order to maintain a vigorous, happy, and respectable cat, it will be found needful to buy cats'-meat of some sort. For this purpose boiled horseflesh is commonly supplied, the peculiar call of the cats'-meat man being a well-known sound in our large towns. There is, however, but slight risk of animals fed upon this meat becoming diseased by eating the flesh of unhealthy horses. Horseflesh is to be recommended as convenient and cheap, and cats are also very fond of it. When in a state of putrefaction it is most unwholesome, and if those who buy horseflesh will be a little careful in the selection of it, the horse-slaughterer, or "knacker," will be accordingly regardful of the condition of the meat he supplies. Bullocks' or sheep's lights are excellent, especially the latter. These are usually boiled, as they will then keep longer, and when given largely, are better so prepared. But they are good raw, occasionally. Too constant and abundant feeding upon raw lights, or even raw flesh of a more solid kind, especially if not quite fresh and healthy, is liable sometimes to scour the cat. The poor animal, however clean and regular in its habits, may then become offensive in the house. Boiled lights are very unsubstantial, and can be given liberally. Raw meat, however, in moderation, is often good for a cat, especially where there are no mice or other game, and it tends to improve the spirit of the animal. Cats generally prefer mutton to beef, but they will not touch fat meat, unless they are famished, and it is most unsuitable, and should never be offered. Fish is exceedingly good for a change, and the cat's love for such light and cooling diet is well known; and as to rabbit or hare, there can be no greater treat. We may also say the same of feathered game. An adult cat will thrive well with one feed per day, in addition to a little good, pure milk in the morning. To this a little sweet, stale white bread may be added. The rest can be left to chance. But I may here warn the owner of a pet cat against over-feeding. It is well to be regular as to the time of feeding, for this reason: an animal that is fed at all hours of the day will be always expecting, and always asking and looking in a very expressive manner, and it, of course, receives the attention of its affectionate guardians; whereas, an animal that is regularly fed will enjoy its food with hungry relish, and will not at other times be over-troublesome. Two errors have to be guarded against in the feeding of animals generally, and the cat in particular: careless neglect or grudged attention on the one hand, and, on the other, thoughtless tampering and weak-minded indulgence. A supply of pure water should be kept within the cat's reach. Although of by no means a thirsty nature, there are times when water will be sought after, as during very dry and hot weather, or after food of a thirst-producing character; and we never know what a cat may pick up. Notwithstanding that the generality of cats are very badly attended to, I may here remark that large, strong, high conditioned animals are much benefited by an occasional fast. This remark I make, however, with caution, and rely upon the good sense of the reader. Be careful never to feed in a stale dish, and always give milk in a well washed saucer or other vessel. Never let what the cat may leave stand about, but dispose of it otherwise. The savour of onion is very distasteful to all cats, and they will often loathe good meat that is strongly seasoned with it. It may here be observed that the cat is even sometimes of a slightly insectivorous propensity. Young, sportive cats, more especially, have much amusement in playing with cockroaches, and sometimes eat them. But they appear to eat them more from accident or idleness than from desire; much the same as a schoolboy will eat acorns. Occasionally, pussy will be fortunate in catching such rare game as a cricket. Flies are not easily caught, except in a window; and they are said to make cats thin. Beetles, I think, do a cat no harm. Lions and other beasts of prey are known to feed largely upon locusts, which occur in such vast swarms in the great African continent. It should be observed, respecting milk, that for animals generally, as for ourselves, it is decidedly improved by boiling. Pussy will, therefore, readily partake of bread and milk prepared for the family breakfast or supper. And she will not often refuse a little plain baked rice-pudding, or other simple preparation containing milk as the principal ingredient. CHAPTER IV. _ON THE MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT OF CATS._ Having briefly considered the general feeding of our fireside favourite, we may proceed to discuss the consideration of its proper care and treatment during the different stages, conditions, and circumstances of a life that can be made happy or wretched at the mercy of those who undertake, or may pretend to undertake, to be its possessors and guardians. To begin towards the beginning, we may suppose that a charming little kitten, of about ten or twelve weeks, has been deposited in its new home. Being an innocent, simple, happy tempered little creature, it will make itself at home in so pleasing a manner as to gain the approval, if not the affection, of every kind-hearted person in the house. Supposing it to be a well conditioned little animal, of good parentage, and from a comfortable home, it will probably be found to prove itself a clean and nicely behaved little innocent, if rightly managed with care and quiet attention. No animal is instinctively cleaner in its habits, in every way, than is the cat. It is this natural virtue which renders pussy so generally a favoured inmate of the household. As is well known, cats are guided by a peculiar instinct to scratch up earth for the purpose of hiding their excrements. Where there is no access to a garden, they will resort to cinders or coal-dust, and although not, perhaps, desirable, will meet with better approval than the carpet. For the accommodation of a kitten indoors, it is a good plan to have a large flower-pot saucer--the larger the better, but not less than fifteen inches in diameter--kept in some suitable corner, with a little clean garden-earth or sand in it. It need not contain much earth, and it can be changed at will; but should not be allowed to become so foul as to offend the cat. This plan, once tried, will be found to answer well. Week by week the kitten increases in strength and vivacity. Do not discourage or check the young cat in its sportiveness, although it may be a little too rough in its vivacious evolutions. The most skittish kittens usually make the best cats. They are generally the delight of young children, and make charming playmates when treated gently, and not simply made toys of. Although cats differ in disposition very considerably, they are alike as regards a common dislike for noise and confusion, and the little folks will sometimes require guidance and instruction in their treatment of most pet animals. The cat is an animal of naturally a very strong will, being most impatient of control, and the kitten that is allowed quietly to enjoy unmolested freedom of purpose in its queer little ways and freaks will develop, under good treatment, into a noble spirited and well behaved cat. The kitten will, of course, be kept indoors at night, and as it grows, continue the good practice. It is a common custom--but, for many reasons, a very bad and cruel one--to habitually shut the cat out of the house at night. If you wish pussy to have a good, sleek, unsoiled coat,--to be a nice pet, not to be dull or asleep all the day,--and, especially, if you wish the house kept clear of mice, keep her in at night, and let her have, as much as may be convenient, the range of the premises. Persons who are quite ready to complain about the nightly disturbance caused by cats in the back-gardens of their neighbours' houses are apt to forget that their own gentle pet may possibly be a leading performer in the nocturnal concert. A cat will play truant occasionally, but this will not often happen with a well cared for animal, which will prefer human society and the comforts of a good home on most occasions. It is well, however, to let the cat out of doors the very first thing in the morning. There is seldom any thought or attention given to the breeding of the cat. This is left to nature, and with very natural result. But, notwithstanding, those who possess a cat of a choice sort, and wish to continue or improve the strain, or to effect a cross, can do so with less trouble than may be supposed to be needful. Watch the cat well, if a female, and upon the first indication of the well-known sign be very careful to prevent her from straying in the least. Then introduce the approved "tom," and allow them to remain together--say for a night--in some outbuilding or spare room. He can afterwards be returned with thanks; but be careful to keep "kitty" quite safe for more than a week afterwards, or as long as may be considered needful. All will then be right, and there need be no more thought or care upon the subject. At the completion of a term of fifty-six days, the litter may be expected. As is well known, kittens are born blind, and remain so till about the ninth day. The domestic cat is more prolific than the wild species, having often three litters in the year. A cat of mine, some time ago, gave birth to twenty-two within twelve months. The age of sterility commences about the ninth year. The wild cat reproduces about twice a year, and the period of gestation is said to be as long as sixty-eight days, which may be correct, and if so, is remarkable. It is usually expedient to destroy some of the new-born kittens--of course, the least handsome and promising of the litter. But it is exceedingly cruel to rob the fond mother of all her little ones. When thus deprived, a cat often suffers exceedingly, as may be evident by the symptoms which ensue; and her lamentations are painful to hear--much too expressive to be misunderstood. Always retain one, if not two or more, of your selection--the whole litter, if you really wish it. If there be a numerous litter,--say, five,--it is better not to remove all at once, but two the first day and two the next day; or, better still, a third kitten the second day, and afterwards the fourth. Take them as much unobserved by the mother as possible. Drowning is the usual and probably the simplest and best method of ending the brief existence of the little creatures; but it must be properly and completely done. Have ample depth of water in a pail or other vessel, with the addition of just enough hot water to take off the chill--not more. They must be put completely under, and on no account allowed to rise for one second. If you have nerve and patience, simply keep them down with your hand till they cease to move, or else place some article above them in such a way as to serve effectually. They must remain under water for some time, even though life may appear to be extinct. Many years ago, I learned by sad experience the danger of being too expeditious in executing this duty. In drowning a large, powerful animal, care and tact are especially required. Be quiet, cool, prompt, and firm. The loving and devoted attachment to her offspring is remarkable in the cat. She will face any danger in defending them, and will, above any other animal, often delight to foster kittens not her own, and has been known to cherish and rear the young of animals of quite a distinct kind, such as puppies, the young of the squirrel, rat, hedgehog, etc. The following touching incident took place at the destructive fire that burned down Lusby's Music Hall, London, on the 20th January, 1884. I give the account as related in _The Animal World_ for March, 1884:-- "Mr. Crowder, one of the proprietors of the hall, possessed a favourite tabby and tortoiseshell cat, which was well known to the frequenters of the hall. The cat had a family of four kittens, which she was allowed to keep in a basket at the rear of the stage. Soon after the fire was discovered, the cat was seen rushing about frantically. She several times attempted to make her way down the corridor in the direction of the stage, but each time was beaten back by the smoke. Presently she reappeared with one of the kittens in her mouth. This she laid carefully down at her master's feet in the small hall which the fire had not touched. Again she rushed through the smoke, and again reappeared with a kitten, and this manoeuvre she repeated the third time. She was now apparently half-blinded and choked by the smoke she had passed through, and it was thought that she would be content; but she seemed unable to rest while she knew that one of her kittens was still in danger; and, giving a look at the little struggling group on the floor, the cat, evading some one who tried to stop her, once more dashed down the corridor towards the seething mass of flames, which by this time had enveloped the stage and the lower end of the hall. Her return was anxiously awaited, but she did not come back. Afterwards, when examining the ruins, some of the firemen came across the charred and blackened remains of the mother and kitten, lying side by side where the fire had overtaken them." CHAPTER V. _DOMESTIC VARIETIES._ In the estimation of persons who have no appreciation of the beautiful in animal life, a cat is a cat, and nothing but a cat. I have often observed some surprise expressed by visitors at a large cat-show on seeing an assemblage of so many different sorts of cats. These same persons had often seen examples of every class before--in the houses of friends, in shops, gardens, etc., etc.; but the beauties had been passed unobserved. At a good show, where well-selected specimens of the common house cat are arranged in line, and classed according to colour, sex, etc., a novice cannot but be surprised at the unexpected sight of so interesting an array of feline beauty. At the leading shows the animals are arranged in two main divisions; viz., long-haired and short-haired cats. These two divisions are again sub-divided into he-cats, she-cats, kittens, and gelded cats. The he and she-cats are again divided in classes according to colour, as tortoiseshell and tortoiseshell and white, brown, blue or silver, and red tabby, tabby and white, and spotted tabby; also cats of unusual colour, and Manx, or tailless cats. A brief description of the characteristic points of the different classes, as at the Crystal Palace, will be given in this chapter. The 13th of July, 1871, was a memorable day in the cat world, and an eventful one at the Crystal Palace, for it was then and there that the very first cat-show took place. Mr. Harrison Weir, F.R.H.S., the well-known animal painter, has the honour of being the originator of these interesting exhibitions; and he has kindly placed at my disposal a few particulars respecting the primary arrangements. He suggested the idea to Mr. Isaac Wilkinson, manager at that time, drew up the schedule of prizes, the way in which the classes were to be judged, the amount of prize-money, etc.; and he also acted as judge. The show was put under the management of Mr. Wilson, of the Natural History Department, who very ably conducted it; and the whole affair proved a gratifying success--so much so, that Mr. Weir received the thanks of the Directors, and a very handsome, large silver tankard, with suitable inscription. So great a success did the exhibition prove, that it was immediately decided to repeat it later in the year.[2] The show was also held twice in the year following (1872), and has been continued annually ever since. "My idea," Mr. Weir remarks, "for holding a show was that the cat was a truly useful domestic animal, though a much neglected one, and if I could only induce the multitude to take a pride in their cats, and select them more for their beauty and ultimate value in the market, I might achieve a good result in the way of kindly treatment to an animal much neglected by some." The great success and the good example of the Crystal Palace show was very naturally soon followed up at Edinburgh, Birmingham, Glasgow, and many large centres of population, and now even the smaller provincial towns can boast an annual exhibition of feline favourites. The varieties of our short-haired cat will now deserve our attention. _Tortoiseshell._--Cats of this breed are also sometimes called Spanish cats, and display a very marked contrast to the tabby varieties. The general colour is a kind of reddish tawny, or sandy, more or less thickly covered with blotches or dabs of black. So very irregular are the markings in these cats, that some individuals are very handsome creatures, and some, on the other hand, are far from prepossessing in appearance. Tortoiseshell cats are of somewhat smaller growth. But, in our comparative estimate of size, we are apt to be somewhat misguided, from the fact that all the tortoiseshell cats we meet with are she-cats, and can never attain the large size of the tom tabby cats, with which they are often compared. The tortoiseshell male cat is a treasure often sought for, but very, very seldom found. Ever since the commencement of the shows just alluded to, there has been only a single specimen of the pure tortoiseshell male cat exhibited. Experiments have been tried in every way to breed to this colour, but without the desired result. But tortoiseshell and white he-cats are occasionally to be seen. At the last Crystal Palace show there were two very fine toms of this description. Our common favourites, the tabby cats, are, on the whole, the handsomest and the best. They are of every shade, but three distinct varieties are known as brown, blue or silver, and red. [Illustration: TABBY CAT.] _Brown Tabby._--Although there is considerable individual variation in these cats, the general characteristics are as follows:--The ground-colour should be a deep, rich brown grey, striped with black. These markings converge from a central stripe of black, more or less broken, which follows the line of the spine, a mark in some degree characteristic of the whole feline race. The tail is barred with black, and a line of narrow stripes runs from the forehead, passes between the ears, and, passing down the neck, it disappears. The face is adorned with little swirls and stripes, so disposed as to give the general expression of the countenance that air of satisfaction so peculiar to puss. The under parts of the body may be of a paler colour, but no pure white is seen in a true tabby tom-cat. The tip of the nose, the lips, and the pads of the paws are to be desired of a dark colour. One, if not two, bold swirls of black across the chest are to be looked for in these cats. They have been appropriately termed "the Lord Mayor's chain." These tabby cats are generally large, portly animals, if properly reared, very intelligent, and often most affectionate. The females are most gentle, and the best of mothers. _Blue or Silver Tabby._--This is a pale variety of tabby, which is sometimes beautiful. The ground-colour is a silver grey, with the stripes of a darker shade. _Red Tabby._--In bold contrast with the blue, these fine cats are of a bright sandy yellow, with the usual markings of a deeper shade. Some of these cats are of very good colour, so much so as to be distinguished by their proud owners under the very aspiring title of "Orange Tabby." These cats, in the main points, are like the brown tabby. The fur should be short, but full and thick, the ears rather short and round. In the tabby breeds the female is seldom without white, which generally appears upon the muzzle, throat, paws, etc. This is, most remarkably, a characteristic in the red tabby cats, a female of that colour without white being almost as rare a zoological curiosity as the wonderful tortoiseshell tom. _Spotted Tabby_ cats are distinguished from the others by having, instead of the usual stripes or cloudings, a pattern of quite a distinct type. The markings are broken up into small, well-defined spots, being more or less elongated upon the sides, transversely to the stripes along the back. In the class of spotted tabby he-cats at the Crystal Palace there might have been seen a specimen named "Coppa," which was justly awarded first prize. The owner of this cat, Mr. J. Scott, has kindly favoured me with the history of Coppa, which is of some interest when regarded zoologically. The father of Coppa was a leopard-cat (_Felis Bengalensis_), picked up at an East Indian coffee plantation, and brought to England by a gentleman, who handed it over to Mr. Scott. He kept it for two years, and bred ten kittens by two mothers. Coppa is one of these kittens. As his mother was an English tabby, and as the pedigree of the sire is so unmistakably pure, and of the spotted kind, it is not surprising that he was the model of a spotted tabby. It will not be out of place here to give a brief description of the leopard-cat, as delineated in "Cassell's Natural History." "This is another of the numerous Indian cats, and is a very beautiful species. Its hide is of a yellowish grey, or bright tawny hue, quite white below, and marked with longitudinal stripes on the head, shoulders, and back, and with large irregular spots on the sides, which become rounded towards the belly. The tail is a spotted colour, indistinctly ringed towards the tip. The body, from the end of the snout to the tip of the tail, attains a length of from thirty-five to thirty-nine inches, eleven or twelve of which are made up by the tail. "The leopard-cat is found throughout the hilly region of India, from the Himalayas to the extreme south, and Ceylon, and in richly wooded districts, at a low elevation occasionally, or when heavy jungle grass is abundant, mixed with forest and brushwood. It ascends the Himalayas to a considerable elevation, and is said by Hodgson even to occur in Tibet, and is found at the level of the sea in the Bengal Sunderbunds. It extends through Assam, Burmah, the Malayan peninsula to the islands of Java and Sumatra, at all events. It is as fierce as any of its savage kin." Mr. Scott sold his leopard-cat to the Zoological Society, and also presented with it the mother of Coppa and one kitten. But they unfortunately took a form of distemper, and all died, and other cats by the side of them. Coppa, Mr. Scott remarks, is probably the only one left. Mr. Scott also remarks that he keeps Coppa confined, for fear of losing him. He was marked as dangerous at the show, on account of his pedigree, but is really "perfectly tame and very fond." I judged so myself from his appearance and manner. He did, certainly, spit at a lady who blew in his face; but any good cat, with a spark of self-respect, would do so. _Black._--These fine cats are not so commonly met with, of entire colour, as the brown tabbies, but are more plentiful than either the red or the blue. This colour is probably never met with in any of the wild cats, and would, I am inclined to think, be rare in the domestic races but for a prevailing superstitious notion, to be met with even in our enlightened age, that in some way good fortune or luck attends the homestead where a black cat dwells. And, moreover, that to destroy a black cat, or even a black kitten, from the purest motive, is an act likely to be followed by some misfortune. May I be allowed to endeavour to dispel this notion from the mind of any reader who may cherish a vestige of belief in the old charms of witchcraft, by boldly asserting that the black cat is simply a tabby. In some black cats, and commonly in black kittens, the tabby character of the fur may be distinctly seen. Black leopards and jaguars are occasionally, but rarely, to be met with; and this natural melanizm has been attributed to a larger proportion of iron in the blood. There is more iron in the blood of negroes, it is said, than in that of Europeans. Now, in these black leopards the distinctive pardine livery of the species is always present, and visible upon minute inspection. "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?" (Jer. xiii. 23). Likewise, in our black cats, although not visible, the normal tendency of the species to maintain and reproduce its characteristic livery is inherent in the blood. The black cat, like the black leopard, if well bred and properly reared, is a most perfect specimen of its kind, having all the powers and instincts of his nature most strongly developed. When in good health and properly managed, and not shut out of doors at night, the black cat is generally a splendid creature, with a coat like satin for lustre. _White._--In bold contrast to the black cat is the white. Albinos, or abnormally colourless animals, are generally deficient in strength of constitution. It is owing to this fact that white cats are often more or less deaf. In selecting a kitten, I would never choose a white one. There is something very charming about a snow-white kitten, but, when it becomes a cat, expect disappointment, more especially if in or near London, or some large town, where its purity is sure to be sullied by fog or smoke. It will, moreover, probably become dull and listless, and more liable to colds and other ailments than its more robust relatives. _Manx_ cats, as is well known, are remarkable for having no tail, or rather, only a very rudimentary tail. The breed is curious, and it is doubtless on that account alone that it is preserved. In other respects these cats are like the ordinary animals. _Siamese._--The handsome royal cat of Siam is at present but rare in this country, and is worthy of careful preservation as a breed. It is a curious cat, of one colour, a clear tawny or buff, with the exception of the muzzle, face, ears, and feet, which are black; and the fur is short, but thick and sleek. It is a cat of average size, and of compact build. At first glance it almost suggests to the mind the figure of a pug dog. Cats are occasionally met with, in the unusual variety class at shows, of very extraordinary colour, as slate colour, uniform grey, or mouse colour, brown, tawny, etc. Such as these may be regarded as simply unfinished tabby cats--if I may be allowed to use the convenient expression. And, occasionally, cats may be seen with six claws. [Illustration: LONG HAIRED CAT.] _Long-haired cats_, as Angola (or Angora) and Persian.--These cats, especially the Angola, are sometimes very fine animals. The hair is very long and silky, forming a thick mane upon the neck and upon the cheeks, and hangs from the sides in a manner which somewhat reminds one of the musk ox. The long tail is likewise pendant with long, silken hair, and when in good order looks very handsome. A good cat of the kind seems almost aware of its own beauty; and we know that puss has the universal reputation of being proud. But these cats require care and a good home. If neglected, exposed, or ill-treated, no animals sooner degenerate. They are, moreover, disposed to become lazy and listless, and, although fashionable in a drawing-room, are not such pleasing companions, or of the same utility as mousers, as are the sleek, agile, graceful, and intelligent animals with which we are more familiar. _Gelded cats_ often grow very large, and, if properly kept, sometimes live to a great age. They make good, sociable pets, are not inclined to play truant, and they do not smell. The process is not a painful one if properly performed, and an animal thus treated will escape the temptation to stray or to combat with his fellows. At the age of six months, or even a little earlier, is the time at which a kitten should be sent to the veterinary surgeon. But on no account whatever must the operation be attempted upon an animal of more advanced growth. As I have just intimated, one advantage gained is that it will not secrete and eject that characteristic fluid, the pungent odour of which is well known, and is, to some persons, very offensive. CHAPTER VI. _ON THE DISEASES OF CATS._ I must now endeavour to describe a few of the ailments to which pussy is liable, and by pointing out the cause, when possible, may hope to assist the kind reader in avoiding the evil effect, bearing in mind the well-known proverb, Prevention is better than cure. Considering the careless feeding to which the cat is often subjected, her digestive organs must be somewhat enduring; but, on this account, they must not be overtaxed or disregarded. There is a very simple medicine to which puss will instinctively resort occasionally, which is grass. In an old translation of Pliny may be found the following quaint prescription for the cure of a sick lion:-- "The lion is never sicke but of the peevishness of his stomache, loathing all meat: and then the way to cure him is to ty unto him certaine shee apes, which, with their wanton mocking and making mowes at him, may move his patience, and drive him, from the very indignitie of their malapert saucinesse, into a fit of madnesse, and then, so soon as he hath tasted their bloud, he is perfectly wel againe: and this is the only help." Now, without the aid of a violent remedy such as the above-prescribed, Miss Puss can stroll quietly out of doors and help herself to a small quantity of selected grass. This simply acts medicinally as either an emetic or as a purgative. It has been my practice, when keeping cats confined, to have some fresh, healthy grass in a large flower-pot in the most sunny spot, and sometimes put out in the open garden, so as to receive the benefit of all the light, air, and sunshine available. _Diarrhoea_ is a complaint to which the cat is sometimes subject in a mild form, and may attract but little notice; or it may be so severe or protracted as to cause great distress, and even prove fatal. As in ourselves, it may be brought on by violent changes of temperature, together with unwholesome food or drink, irregular feeding, too much fat meat, putrid matter, too much liver, sour milk, etc. But in the cat the excrements may occasionally appear slightly loose without the animal seeming in the least unwell. This need cause little concern, although slight attention to the general diet and requirements of the animal will not be unwise. In this respect cats differ somewhat from dogs, which are constitutionally of rather constipated habit. When the cat is really ill, it will look so. Puss is a comfort-loving creature, and in nursing, comfort is to be the main consideration. Be careful to attend to the accommodation of clean habits, and allow a fresh supply of earth or sand, as alluded to in Chapter IV. There is a very simple remedy, and which I have proved to be a sufficient one, prescribed by the Honourable Lady Cust in her little book upon the cat, and I may here quote her own words:-- "In the commencement give new milk, with mutton-suet melted in it; the proportion of a piece of nice fresh suet, without skin, the size of a large walnut, to a teacupful of milk. Keep the cat warm and quiet in a comfortable nest, and if it be too ill to lap, give it, every two hours, a teaspoonful of the mixture, only just warm enough to melt the suet. Put it gently into the mouth with a small spoon. You need not swathe the cat, as after the first spoonful is swallowed it will feel the benefit, and swallow another; but do not give much; it is better to give very little that will remain and do good, than a large quantity which will return. Treat the complaint in other ways as in the human subject. Observe if there be no bile; and if there is not, give to a full-grown cat a grain and a half of the grey powder (_Album. cum creta_) used in similar cases. As I before observed, you must watch the effect of your remedy, as the complaint may change at once; if it does not, and there is still no bile, give, in about two hours, another dose. "If the diarrhoea continue, give a teaspoonful of chalk mixture, used for the same complaint in human beings, with seven or eight drops of tincture of rhubarb, and four or five of laudanum, every few hours, until it cures. Cats will continue as ill as possible for a few days, their eyes even fixed; but still, with watching and care, can be cured. A teaspoonful of pure meat gravy at a time should be given now and then (but not until near two hours after medicine), to keep up the strength until appetite returns; then be careful what food you give, and in small quantities at a time, as the digestion will be weak." If, however, under fair treatment, the poor cat does not quickly recover, or if dysentery ensue, no hope can be entertained of its restoration; and the wisest and most merciful act will be to end quickly the life that must undoubtedly perish. In administering medicine to a cat, be careful not to alarm or excite it by needless fuss and ado, nor try its patience by delay. Have what you require ready to hand, and the assistance of one person. Take a large, coarse cloth, such as a round kitchen towel or coarse apron, and seat yourself with your face or left side to the window. Then, with the cloth across your knees, take the cat from your assistant, and lightly gathering up the cloth, wrap it round the cat. The reason of this is twofold: to assist in gently holding the cat secure, and also to prevent its fur from getting soiled by any of the medicine that may drop, and, moreover, save your clothes also. With the cat facing towards your left hand, carefully open the mouth. This must be done with the left hand. The mouth will be easily opened by finger and thumb, the palm of the hand being under the cat's throat. Gently feel with finger and thumb between the loose skin of the lips, and then, with very slight pressure just behind the molar teeth, the mouth will be opened wide, like magic. So long as you gently but steadily retain the hold, the mouth will remain open. But don't allow the cat time to become impatient, and mind your fingers. When the mouth is opened, your assistant must promptly and carefully administer the medicine. If it is a liquid, it must be poured in very little at a time from a small spoon. This must not touch the mouth, or the cat will instinctively bite at it. The instant the medicine is given, remove your hold of the mouth and leave the head at liberty, in order that the cat may swallow at ease. A pill should be placed well back, so as to go the right way. A simple powder may be placed upon the tongue dry, mixed with butter, or, if not unpleasant, can be put in a little milk, to be drank as usual. _The Yellows._--The cat is liable to a form of distemper known as cat-sickness, or the yellows, which is analogous to jaundice in the human subject. It occurs more generally in large, high-conditioned animals, and I think it is more common in he-cats than in those of the other sex, and it more generally occurs in early life, but seldom before the attainment of full growth. On the approach of the malady, the cat appears unusually dull and sleepy, and disinclined to touch any kind of food, but may attract little attention. Soon, however, the complaint will be self-evident by the vomiting of a peculiar yellow, frothy fluid. This sickness will recur at intervals, and the poor animal will loathe all food, and drink nothing but water. Sometimes the malady will run its course, and an unexpected recovery may follow; but in many cases the unfortunate cat becomes weaker and weaker, and ultimately dies. Two or three months ago, from the time I am now writing, I nearly lost a splendid young cat named Colocolo; and I consider the unexpected recovery due to the great strength of his constitution. He is totally black, and was, at the time of the attack, just over eight months of age. And as the circumstances connected with this individual case may perhaps be interesting to any who may have a cat similarly affected, it will not be out of place here to narrate the symptoms and the treatment, such as it was, from first to last. Colocolo had been to the Crystal Palace Show, was highly commended, and the best behaved cat in his class, often ready for a little skittish sport with an attentive visitor. He had been home just a week when he was taken ill. Whether he had been made a little too much of after his return from the Palace, I cannot say for certain; but I may here remark that I do not in the least think the show disagreed with him. He stood a four-day show at the Albert Palace well, was very highly commended there, and returned in high spirit. At these exhibitions the cats, many of them animals of considerable value, have the best and most careful attention on the part of the management. But they are sometimes pampered by their fond owners, and I may here suggest that after the confinement and restraint of even two nights and two days, it will be wise to be a little careful to avoid undue feeding for a day or two if the cat be in high condition, as show cats often are. [This mistake is equal to the folly, described with telling effect by the late Albert Smith, of supplying blankets to a beloved son to keep him warm while ascending Mont Blanc!--ED.][3] But to return to the subject now under consideration. Colocolo was as bright as a lark, romping about, at times, with surprising vivacity and great bodily force. He was not less lively on the evening of Tuesday, October 27th, but the next day, however, he was observed to be listless, and disposed only to sleep. He declined to eat throughout the day, and about dusk his first sickness came on. For the next two days he continued to vomit occasionally, in less quantity, however, and the bowels were also disordered. He became weak to a degree most distressing to behold, and the whole skin was tinged with yellow. Nature was left to work her own cure. For five whole days and nights the poor creature ate absolutely nothing, but he frequently manifested a desire for water. A supply was kept constantly within his reach, and often completely renewed, for his mouth was very foul. On the forenoon of the Monday following, the weather being unusually mild, he crept into the garden and basked in the sunshine for some hours. It was sad to see a fine, noble, happy-spirited animal so altered. He was unable to move without staggering, and his hind limbs appeared as if paralyzed. He mounted a step with difficulty, and in descending it he tottered and rolled, or rather sank upon his side. When he came indoors again, he returned to his bed, and fell into a most unusually heavy sleep--in fact, I never knew a cat to sleep so heavily. There was not a sign of life, and the eyes even appeared fixed. We thought he had at last slept the sleep of death, and felt a pang of regret, but not without a feeling of relief to think that the poor cat was thus released from its distress. But, strange to say, we shortly afterwards found that he had aroused and altered his position from on his left side, being coiled in a ball upon the right. After some time, he left his cushion and actually partook of a little milk, but only four or five laps. Probably the strong air in the garden had overpowered his weak frame, and caused that extraordinary sleep, which was the turning-point, apparently, in his illness. But scarcely anything would he touch until Thursday (November 5th), when I offered him some fresh raw sheep's lights, full of blood. To my agreeable surprise, he ate what I gave, and looked for more. I allowed him a good sized piece, as much as I considered safe to give at first, taking into account his very weak state. On the strength of this he picked up as by magic, and forthwith began to recruit strength at a marvellous rate, and in a few days he became as well as ever. All his former energy had now returned; his coat, which had become dull, dirty, dry, and staring, is now as soft, sleek, and pure as it ever was. Fortunately he appeared to suffer no acute pain during his illness, although, he certainly was very miserable and dejected. But I have seen more distressing cases of this malady in cats, and it is often most humane to put the wretched animal out of its misery by a speedy destruction. Fortunately the yellows is an ailment that occurs but once. It is, I consider, both unwise and cruel to tamper with strong drugs, and certainly it is mistaken kindness to force milk, or any other food, down the throat of a cat suffering from sickness. Let the poor animal be as quiet as possible, in a comfortable nest, but not so near a fire as to be hot. Sick animals require air, but are very sensitive to cold or the slightest draught. As the cat is such a remarkably clean animal, it will, whether ill or well, often take a dislike to a favourite resting-place, if it become in the slightest degree foul or tainted. At the very commencement of the sickness, however, an emetic may do good in clearing the stomach. But it should be administered at the beginning or not at all. I have tried it with good result, and have found simple salt and water most handy: it is harmless, at any rate. It may be mixed in the proportion of about one-fifth part of salt. Sulphate of soda (Glauber's salt) is sometimes preferred to salt. It must, however, be diluted in a much larger proportion of water, and less than a teaspoonful of the mixture will be as much as should be given. To allay an undue continuance of sickness, arising from irritation, about half a teaspoonful of melted beef-marrow may be found to give relief. _Fits._--The cat is liable to fits of a distressing nature, and they occur in young animals--more generally about the time they attain their full growth--and are more common in male than in female cats. When seized with a delirious fit, the poor animal suddenly appears to go wild, dashes about in a frantic manner, with staring eyes, often darts through a window, open or shut, and then hides in some corner. The symptoms of a convulsive fit are somewhat different. In such a case it utters a cry, with staring eyes, and falls upon its side. The whole body appears stiffened, the limbs struggle convulsively, and the mouth foams. The cat is quite harmless, however, during the fit, and there need be no fear in handling it. But be gentle and quiet with the poor animal. The best way to give relief is to cut a very small slit in the thin part of the ear with a sharp pair of scissors, or to make slight incisions with a lancet; not enough to hurt or disfigure the ear, but just sufficient to draw a few drops of blood. It is well to encourage the bleeding by carefully fomenting the spot with warm water, but be very careful not to let any water enter the ear. If, however, the bleeding is free, there will be no need for the warm-water applications. The loss of only a few drops of blood will afford relief. After the fit the cat will generally be timid and nervous, and should therefore be treated with consideration. Be careful to avoid overfeeding it; in fact, for a short time let its feeding be slightly lowered, if in high condition. The cat will quickly outgrow these fits. Many young toms have one attack, and a she-cat never has a fit after having once littered. CHAPTER VII. _ON THE DISEASES OF CATS._ (_Continued._) _Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs_, is not an uncommon malady in the cat, and the tendency to pulmonary weakness appears to be transmitted from generation to generation, and is certainly more generally met with in cats of foreign origin, as Persian, etc., than in our own native kind. In fact, all the felines are evidently much more liable to lung disease than are the dogs. Nor are the larger forms exempt, for many a majestic lion, or a beautiful leopard in our best-managed zoological collections, has succumbed to this fatal distemper. Exposure to cold and damp, poor feeding, etc., are generally the immediate causes of lung disease in the feline, as in the human subject. The symptoms in pneumonia are a dull, uneasy restlessness; the poor cat looks miserable, as doubtless it feels, and mopes about in a very dejected manner. It is less disposed to lie than it is to squat about. Pneumonia is usually accompanied by pleurisy, and if this complaint is as distressingly painful as I have experienced it to be, I am sure the cat must at times suffer the most acute pain. Inflammation of the lungs, although so generally fatal, may nevertheless be overcome by good nursing under favourable circumstances. It occurs more generally in winter and spring--the most trying time, in our English climate, for both man and beast. Keep the cat indoors, and in a room of comfortable temperature, but not too warm, at, say, not much over 55° Fahr. A troublesome cough distresses the poor cat frequently, and the laborious breathing is manifest by the heaving of the flanks. In the treatment of the disease, apply, in the first instance, a stimulating liniment composed of equal parts of compound camphor liniment of the British Pharmacopoeia and soap liniment. Rub it in upon the sides of the chest, and do not spread about more than is necessary, as cats are made miserable by the fur being soiled or tainted. The operation may be repeated the next day if the liniment has not produced tenderness. Administer, internally, the following mixture every four hours, in a dose of ten drops:--Syrup of chloral, forty drops; syrup of squills, forty drops; ipecacuanha wine, ten drops. As, probably, the cat will not eat, it will be well to keep up its strength by administering beef tea or good milk at intervals. _Bronchitis_, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the bronchial tube, arises from much the same causes that produce inflammation of the lungs and pleura, and often accompanies these affections. Bronchitis may be readily distinguished by the peculiar wheezing and rattling sound which is made when the poor cat is coughing. It may be treated the same as inflammation of the lungs, but the mixture to be given may contain twenty instead of ten drops of ipecacuanha wine, and also, in addition, ten drops of antimony wine; and fifteen drops may be given every four hours. _Mange_ is caused by a minute insect which burrows into the skin and there multiplies. The sarcoptic mange is the most common form that attacks the cat, and generally appears first upon the head and neck, and will, in time, if not destroyed, spread over other parts of the unfortunate animal. It is both humane and prudent, therefore, to check it at the outset. The disease is, moreover, contagious, and if a mangy cat is allowed to wander at large, it will communicate its trouble, to the ultimate distress of its fellows, and the annoyance of their owners. Sarcoptic mange may be at first detected by an irritating itching, but it soon breaks out into painful sores, which are aggravated by the repeated efforts of the poor cat to ease itself by rubbing and scratching. Fortunately, however, this disease is not difficult to cure in the cat, and with but little trouble. The principal agent employed, both externally and internally, should be sulphur. On no account use the strong dressings that are prepared for the skin diseases of animals of a different nature. An ointment composed of flowers of sulphur and fresh lard, rubbed upon the spot with the finger, is a very simple remedy, and I have proved it to be a very effectual one. It is well, however, before applying this simple compound, to foment the spot with tepid water, and dry it with a soft, clean rag. Apply the flowers of sulphur and lard once or twice a day until it has taken effect. As it is not in the least unpleasant to the taste, the cat is sure to swallow more or less of it in dressing the fur, and more readily so if within direct reach of the tongue. The sulphur swallowed acts upon the system from within, most effectually poisoning the offending intruders in course of time. Mr. Harold Leeney, M.R.C.V.S., remarks that "a proof of this eccentric behaviour of sulphur may be found in the blackened watches and silver coins carried in the pockets of persons taking the drug." In the _Animal World_ for October, 1882, Mr. Leeney alludes to the application of sulphur as follows:--"Sulphur in almost any form will destroy the parasites, but used as an ointment, much difficulty is experienced in washing it off again, and sulphur pure and simple being insoluble, and more active remedies dangerous, there is nothing better than a solution of sulphuretted potash, which should be applied warm, in the proportion of half an ounce dissolved in a quart of water. In using any skin dressing, whether for mange or fleas, or any other parasite, it is always advisable to begin at the head, as the opposite course leaves open a retreat to the ears and eyes, where the application is less likely to reach the enemy. That fleas take refuge round the animal's ears when in the water was, no doubt, early observed, and gave rise to the story, current in sporting circles, that foxes rid themselves of fleas by swimming with a piece of wool in their mouths, to which the insects betake themselves for safety, and find out their mistake when it is too late. "The sulphuretted potash lotion need only remain on the cat an hour or two, when it should be washed off with more tepid water, to which some glycerine has been added, to about the proportion of one ounce to each quart of water used. The animal should be carefully dried, giving special attention to the face and ears." _Follicular Mange_, so named from its being caused by the presence of a parasite distinguished as _Demodex folliculorum_, is of a different nature to the sarcoptic mange, and is less readily expelled. "Unlike sarcoptic mange, which oftenest affects the hairless parts of the body, the follicular mange is found upon the back from the neck, down the course of the spine, to the tail. I think the reason of the selection on the part of the demodex is that the hair follicles, or little bags from which the hairs grow, and in which the parasite lives, are much larger, and afford better accommodation. The first symptom of anger in a dog or cat is usually the elevation of these hairs, showing them to be stronger, and consequently having a larger base, than at other parts of the body. "The unfortunate cat affected with this malady soon begins to arch her back and rub it against the staves of the chairs or the under part of a low couch or other convenient furniture; then the hairs are observed to be broken, and their condition attributed to this habit of rubbing, so that the real cause is often not suspected till great mischief is done and the parasites thoroughly established, the back becoming sore all the way down, and the animal rapidly losing condition. "_Treatment._--Since the cause is parasitic, destruction of the offenders is the object to be attained, and the best method is by laying bare their stronghold, by removing the scurf, etc., with soft soap, before applying any remedy. The reason for using soft soap is that the potash it contains causes the outer cuticle to swell up and become detached, and thereby permits the remedies to come in close contact with the insects, who are tenacious of life, like most low forms of animal life. Having thoroughly washed the sore skin, apply gently, but with a good deal of persistence, a lotion composed of one part of oil of tar to four parts of olive oil, taking care to cover the infected area, but not using any more than is necessary, as it is most easy to excite nausea in the cat, but not easy to allay it. This should be repeated alternate days, washing it off in the intervals with plain curd soap, until the skin begins to look dry and scaly, and loses its redness. The administration of small doses of sulphur (milk of sulphur, two to three grains) daily will facilitate the cure, because it is found to make its way through the skin from within, rendering the cat a less desirable host." _Eczema_ (from the Greek, _ekzeo_, I boil out) is another form of skin disease to which the cat is sometimes subject, and is the effect of an unhealthy condition of the blood. Unlike mange, eczema is not caused by the intrusion of an insect parasite. The disease, being of quite a different nature, requires treatment of another character altogether. Again I use Mr. Leeney's words:-- "Those parts of the skin which have upon them the least hair, as the belly and thighs, and under the elbows, are the most frequently attacked. It commences with a simple reddening of the skin, and a few days afterwards little watery bladders or vesicles are observed. These breaking, and their contents drying upon the skin, form an offensive, unctuous matter, which becomes mixed with dirt and the _débris_ of broken hair, etc., and reacts upon the already inflamed skin. It is caused by an arid condition of the blood, or perhaps it would be more correct to say an insufficiently alkaline condition of it, since in health that fluid should have an alkaline reaction. Whatever doubt may be cast upon this theory as to the origin of the malady, there is no doubt but that alkaline bicarbonates produce a speedy cure, and the recovery is much facilitated by soothing applications to the abraded parts. "I would advise as a mixture, bicarbonate of potash, two grains; water, thirty drops; mix for one draught; to be taken twice a day. If the nurse cannot give the medicine as a fluid, the same quantity of potash may be mixed with a little butter or honey, and smeared upon the cat's toes or shoulders, for she will soon lick it off there. Many cats will not detect it dissolved in a saucer of milk, as it has only the slightest saline taste. If neither of these methods is successful, two grains of exsiccated carbonate of soda may be made into a tiny pill and given in a piece of fish. "The skin should be well fomented with warm water and a sponge, with a little curd soap and glycerine added to the water. After carefully drying with a piece of lint or old, soft calico, an ointment of zinc (benzoated zinc ointment of the British Pharmacopoeia) should be carefully applied for several minutes, careful manipulation being of more service than a large amount of ointment. We have spoken of the condition of the blood which gives rise to eczema, and of remedies likely to cure it; but prevention is, of course, better still. "I have been able to trace the disease in some cats to access to a neighbouring fishmonger's dust-hole, where offal has been thrown and allowed to decompose; in others it is traceable to milk. It is difficult enough to keep dogs from eating filth in the streets after refusing good food at home; but who shall restrain the cat? The removal of the offending material, rather than any additional restraint upon pussy, will be, if permissible, the best remedy. "I have known many cats quite cured without any other remedy than an abundant supply of horse-flesh, as retailed by the cats'-meat men. "While the subject of food is under consideration, I may mention that a very unfounded prejudice exists against horse-flesh; and while our French neighbours are making it an article of human food, we retain our insular prejudices to such an extent that many people do not even like their dogs and cats to eat it. As a general rule, horses are slaughtered because lame or incapable, and their flesh is in a healthy state, and affords good, sound muscular fibre, while those who die generally do so from acute diseases, as colic, inflammation of the lungs, hernia, etc., etc., the flesh or muscular parts being in no way injured or rendered deleterious. A noticeable example of flesh-fed cats is to be seen in the many large and handsome cats at the Royal Veterinary College, who feed themselves on the donkeys and horses in the dissecting-room." Before concluding this chapter I may suggest that, with fair attention, a good cat may be expected to live out a fair term of years, and perhaps without any special ailment. Certainly the causes of disease and death are not a few, sometimes obscure, or of a complicated character; yet the cat is not singular in its liability to pain and death, for such is the portion which falls to all creatures, man not excepted. But when we consider that the cat is a rather fast-breeding animal, and has fewer natural enemies than many other creatures--the rodents, for example--it is evident that the feline race, both in its wild and domesticated state, must be subject to such a constant check upon its undue increase as is justly required to maintain the right balance in creation. Few cats live to old age, which may be estimated at fourteen years. I have heard, however, of two cases at least in which the extraordinary age of twenty-two years has been attained. But what a vast proportion are not permitted to survive as many hours! The irrefutable assertion in the Book of Ecclesiastes, that there is "a time to be born, and a time to die," having reference to the limited duration of human life, may with equal truth and propriety be considered respecting the whole animal creation. Death is one of the essential laws in nature. Disease and violence may be regarded as but instruments of destruction in the hand of the Almighty. No thoughtful student of nature can fail, however, to be deeply impressed by the evidence that the great God that made all things is not only infinite in power and wisdom, but a God of love. To use the words of Isaac Walton: "The study of the works of nature is the most effectual way to open and excite in us the affections of reverence and gratitude towards that Being whose wisdom and goodness are discernible in the structure of the meanest reptile." _Worms._--It may be difficult, however, to comprehend, or to regard without disgust, such loathsome forms of life as are the different worms, in some form peculiar to, perhaps, every species of mammal, bird, or fish. As Mr. Leeney observes:--"Cats are subject to wandering parasites, which pierce the tissues and cause much pain and illness in seeking 'fresh fields and pastures new.' Pussy is not exempt from the _Trichina spiralis_, which, as my readers are probably aware, is the cause in man, in swine, and other animals, of the dreadful malady known as trichinosis. "It is during the wandering of these minute worms that the fever and pain is produced in the subject, be he human or any other animal. "That cats should be more liable to this parasite than man is readily understood when we take into account the liking they have for raw meat, while cooking generally obviates the danger from man. The prevalence of trichina, and the disease produced by it, in Germany, is to be accounted for by the custom of eating uncooked ham and other things. I have myself eaten this 'schinken' in Germany. I am afraid if trichinosis could be detected in a cat no remedy could be suggested; but in speaking of worms, it ought to be taken into consideration, and may, perhaps, account for some of the obscure causes of death in our domestic pet. "There are, again, worms whose habitat is the blood-vessels, and whose choice for a nest is the junction or branch of some artery--a favourite one being that vessel which is given off from the great trunk (_posterior aorta_) to the liver (_hepatic_). The presence of such a nest occludes the vessel, and produces changes in the structure of its coat, which, together with the diminished calibre of the vessel, seriously affects the liver, by depriving it in a great measure of its nourishment, its substance, like all other parts of the body, depending for its maintenance and repair on the constant circulation of fresh blood, charged with material for supplying the daily waste. "The ducts or passages from the liver through which the bile should pass are the favourite haunt of another kind of parasite--the fluke; here 'they do most breed and haunt,' producing dropsy, a condition well known in sheep, and called the 'rot.' "These, like the strongylus occasionally found in the kidneys, are most fatal to their bearers, and unfortunately beyond the reach of remedies. "A great many remedies have been suggested for sheep suffering from their presence, but the chief difficulty consists in the fact that any remedy, in order to affect the parasite, must enter first into the circulation of the bearer, and the turpentine which would kill the fluke would first kill the cat; and again, the salt, which ruminants enjoy, could not be given to the cat, because vomition is so easily excited, and so much would be required. "Fortunately for cats and dogs, the kind of worms to which they are most subject are generally situated in the stomach and bowels, and are to be dislodged without much difficulty. It may be taken as a general rule that round worms can be expelled by santonin, and flat worms by areca-nut; but some care should be exercised in the administration of these drugs. "If a cat is found to be very thin, and her coat is stiff and harsh, accompanied with vomiting of round worms, or they are observed in the excrement, a pill should be made of half a grain of santonin, and ten grains of extract of gentian, and two or three grains of saccharated carbonate of iron, and given fasting, at intervals of two or three days. The best way of giving a pill to a cat is to stick it on the end of a penholder, and, having opened her mouth, push it back on the tongue without any fear of its going the wrong way, and withdraw the penholder suddenly. The pill will almost certainly be swallowed, as the rough, papillæ on the cat's tongue will have prevented the pill being withdrawn with the holder, and it should have been placed too far back for the patient to do anything with it but swallow it. "If tape-worm has been observed, from one to three grains of areca-nut (freshly grated) should be given in the form of a pill, mixed with five grains of extract of gentian, and two grains of extract of hyoscyamus. Areca-nut will probably produce the desired effect given alone, but it too often produces acute colic, and even fits, if not mixed with some sedative." There is a worm peculiar to the feline race only, and known as _Ascaris mystax_, or the moustached worm, so called from the four projections at the head. This worm more generally infests the intestines, but often lodges in the stomach, and grows to a considerable length, and is then usually vomited up, to the relief of the poor cat. "The presence of this or other guests within the stomach is often a cause of gastric derangement, and the cat will be at times voracious, and at others 'very dainty,' no doubt feeling faint and nauseated by the irritating presence of the worms, and desperately hungry sometimes from being robbed of its nourishment; for it must be remembered that worms do not simply eat the food as it reaches the stomach from time to time, but they live on the all but completely digested food, or chyle, which is just ready to enter the circulation, and contains all the most nutritive part of the food in a condition fit for building up the animal structures, and replacing the waste which is always taking place. It is only by the consideration of this fact that we can understand how a few small worms can so rapidly cause the bearer to waste away." And now, in concluding, may I suggest that there is "a time to kill, and a time to heal," and that when a favourite cat is really ill, in pain, or has met with a serious accident, it is often both wise and merciful to drown or shoot the poor animal effectually, and without delay. Drowning, as I have before observed, is, perhaps, the simplest and the least painful of the ordinary methods of destruction. Shooting must be resorted to with care and forethought, and no possibility allowed of the cat escaping but only wounded. Poison is at all times to be avoided. FELINE INSTINCT. I. Mitis and Riquet are two tom-cats saved from a litter of five; their mother is an Angora, slate-coloured, with the neck, breast, and tips of the paws white. Mitis has a large head and limbs, and a coat which promises to be Angora and the same colour as his mother's, a white muzzle, and white underneath his eyes, while his lips and the tip of his nose are bright pink. Riquet's body and tail are black, with grey marks; his head, which is smaller than his brother's, is grey, with zebra-like bands of black crossing longitudinally and laterally; two white streaks branch out from the upper end of the nose, and on the forehead two curved lines, starting from the corners of his eyes, surround a disc of black and grey. No sooner has their mother licked them over than they set off whining and seeking for her teats. I made some observations of their movements on the first and second days; but as I am afraid of not recording them with sufficient accuracy from memory, I will begin with the third day, when I took to writing down my observations. _12th May._--They are perpetually moving about, even when sucking and sleeping. Sleep overtakes them in the act of sucking, and then, according to what position they were in at the moment, they either remain ensconced in their mother's silky breast, or fall over with open mouths into some graceful attitude. The little gluttons, Riquet especially, who seems to be delicately organised, are often troubled with hiccoughs, reminding one of young children who have sucked too copiously. It is curious to watch them when searching for a teat, turning their heads abruptly from right to left, and left to right, pushing now with their foreheads, now with their muzzles; tumbling and jumping one over the other, sliding between their mother's legs, trying to suck no matter what part of her body; and finally, when they have settled down to their meal, resembling leeches, whose whole activity is concentrated on the work of suction, and who, as soon as they have thoroughly gorged themselves, let go their hold and fall back into _inertia_. Whenever their sensibility is unpleasantly excited, as, for instance, if their mother leans on them too heavily, or leaves them alone, or performs their toilet too roughly, they give vent to monotonous--I had almost said monosyllabic--plaints; sounds which can scarcely be called _mias_, still less _miaows_; they are best described as trembling _mi-i-is_. They also emit these plaintive sounds when they have been searching long for a teat without finding one, or if they annoy each other during the laborious search; or if I take them up too quickly, or turn them over in the palm of my hand to examine them. If I set them up in my hand in a standing position, they will remain motionless for a few seconds, as if enjoying the warmth of my hand; but very soon again they begin clamouring with loud whines for their home in the mother's warm, soft stomach, which is at once their shelter and their dining-room, the familiar, and perhaps the loved, theatre of their nascent activity. _13th May._--This morning Mitis appeared to be ill. He was languid, did not whine when I took him up, and made no attempt at sucking; he had an attack of hiccoughs, accompanied by shiverings all over his body, which made me anxious. It only lasted an hour, however: there may have been some temporary cause of indisposition; or perhaps excessive sucking, or a very great need of sleep, had reduced him to a semi-inert mass. Riquet's head is prettier than it was yesterday; the white spot has increased in size, the grey marks have spread and grown lighter, and the head and neck are rather larger; but Mitis has still by far the finest carriage. _Twelve o'clock._--The two leeches have been operating for twenty minutes without desisting. They are now brimful of milk, and settling themselves down, no matter where--one on the mother's stomach, the other on her paws; no sooner have they placed themselves than they fall asleep. _Two o'clock._--They have no fixed position for sucking; any does that comes first. When the mother leaves them alone for a moment they turn in rapid gyrations round and round, over and under each other, delighting in the mutual contact of their bodies and the warmth which it engenders. If the mother remains absent for some minutes, they end by falling asleep one over the other in the shape of a cross. If I lift up the top one, the other soon begins to whine: they are not accustomed to solitude, and it produces a painful impression of cold. Very young animals are easily chilled, and sometimes die of cold in a temperature which is not very low. This is owing to the smallness of their bodies and the feebleness of their respiratory organs. Between four and five o'clock Riquet seemed to me very lively. He was searching for a teat which he could not find, and for ten minutes he crossed backwards and forwards over his brother's body, giving him frequent slaps with his paws. Riquet's nose is a pink-brown, but tending to red-brown. This evening (ten o'clock) I showed the mother a saucer full of milk; she left her kittens to go and drink it, and afterwards she took a turn at a plate of porridge; her absence lasted barely five minutes. The kittens, during this time, went through their usual manoeuvres: Riquet turned three times running round his brother; the latter, who is more indolent, or perhaps has more need of sleep, stretched himself out full length on his side. Riquet, however, cannot rest till he has found what he is searching for--viz., the body of his mother. He is still in a state of agitation when the cat comes back, raises herself with her front-paws on the edge of the box, and drops quietly down by the side of her little ones without touching them. Instantly they start up, raising their little waggling heads; they know that their mother is there--the slight noise she made in getting into the box, and the movement she imparted to it, are associated in their memory with the idea of her presence. The mother's first care is to see to their toilet, and she proceeds to turn them over with two or three strokes of her tongue, and then operates on them with the same natural instrument. Both have their turn; and at the end of the operation, which seems to worry them, they whine considerably, though not at all loud. A few minutes after, the melodious snoring of the mother informs me that the whole family is at rest. I take a peep at them: the mother is laid on her left side, describing a large and elegant curve; Mitis, half on his hind-paws, half on his stomach, is stretched across Riquet, and both are sleeping, or sucking--perhaps doing both at the same time. _14th May._--My kittens seem to grow as I watch them, especially Mitis' head, neck, and back; he is a massive heavy kitten, but his forehead is broad and high: he will probably be an intelligent cat; his leonine chin, large and well developed, indicates energy and goodness. He begins to show more vivacity than during the earlier days; when he encounters his brother in searching for a teat, or if the latter disputes with him the one he has got hold of, he deals out at him rapid strokes with his paw, which remind one of a dog swimming. His mother has just been performing his toilet in the manner aforesaid, and has no doubt kept him longer at it than he liked; he shows his displeasure by striking out his hind paws, one of which knocks against his ear, and uttering two or three impatient _mis_. These very occasional and but slightly emphasised cries are the only ones which Riquet--even the brisk and lively Riquet--gives out, even when I take him in my hand. I have seen other cats that were more unhappy complain more: one, for instance, which was the only one I had kept out of a litter, and which died at ten days old, just as it was beginning to open its eyes; in her grief at having lost all her other kittens, the mother used to carry this one about from place to place, and even leave it alone for hours at a time; I believe it died from bad treatment and insufficient feeding; the poor little thing frequently uttered loud moanings. I cannot feel the slightest doubt as to the causes of its death when I see the mother so happy with the two that I have left her this time; she has not once called or searched for the other three which I drowned. Does this proceed from a want of arithmetical aptitude? _Two_, for her, are _many_ as well as _five_. However this may be, she is very happy, very _repue_, very attentive, and her little ones are habituated to comfort, ease, satisfied desires, and tranquil sleep and digestion. If they do not know how to complain I think it is because they have had no reason to learn to do so. The colour of Riquet's hair is changing sensibly: the grey-white now preponderates on his face. The velvety black of his neck, back, and sides is silvered with whitish tints, which have spread since the morning. Often when they are alone, or even if their mother is with them, they will mistake no matter what part of their bodies for teats and begin to suck it, as a child of six months will suck its finger or even the tip of its foot. _15th May._--To-day I held Riquet on my hand for three minutes. I was smoking a cigar; the little creature stretched out its neck, poked its nose up in the air, and sniffed with a persistent little noise. A sparrow, whose cage was hung up over us, frightened at my smoking-cap, began to fly round the cage and beat at it with its wings. At the sound of this noise Riquet was seized with a sudden fit of trembling, which made him squat down precipitately in my hand. Movements of this kind are reflex ones, the production of which is associated in the organism with certain auditory impressions; but the animal is necessarily more or less conscious of them, or will soon be so. From five minutes' observation I have thus learnt that Riquet is sensible to strong smells, and that he already goes through the consecutive movements of sentiment and fear. Riquet's head is visibly changing to silver-grey; the marks on his back are also assuming this shade. I took Mitis in my hands, stretched them out and drew them up again. He does not seem to know quite what to make of it; he attempts a few steps, feels about uncertainly with his head, and comes in contact with my coat smelling of the cigar; he appears to be scenting my coat, but not with so much noise and vivacity as Riquet does. He waggles his head about, feels about with his paws, and tries to suck my coat and my hands; he is evidently out of his element and unhappy. The mother calls to him from the bottom of the box; this causes him to turn his head quickly in the direction from which the sound comes (what a number of movements or ideas associated in the intelligence and organism of a little animal four days old!); he starts off again, making a step forward, then drawing back, turning to the right and to the left, with a waddling movement. I give him back to his mother. I thought I noticed once again this evening that the light of my lamp, when held near the kittens' box, caused rather lively excitation of their eyelids, although these were closed. The light must pass through these thin coverings and startle the retinas. The kittens were agitated during a few seconds; they raised and shook their heads, then lowered them and hid them in the maternal bosom. The noise of carriages, the sound of my voice, the twittering of the sparrow, the movements imparted to the box by my hand--all throw them into the same kind of agitation. These movements may be coupled with the movements, unconscious no doubt, but determined by external causes, which are observed in the young. _16th May._--Mitis' tail is thickening at the root; the hair of its head and neck is close and silky; he will no doubt turn out a considerable fraction of an Angora. When I place the kittens on the palm of my hand they inhale strongly and with a certain amount of persistence; this is because their sense of smell operates no doubt with tolerable completeness, in view of the species, and in the absence of visual perception, and by reason of the imperfect operation of their touch. This evening Mitis, having escaped from the constraint in which his mother holds him to perform his toilet, half _plantigrade_ half _gastéropode_, dragged himself slowly, though as fast as he was able, along his mother's paws, and at last nestled down in the soft fur of her stomach. While in this position his head, rolling like that of a drunken man, knocked against the head of Riquet, who was in the act of sucking. Instantly Mitis lifts a paw and brings it down on his brother's head. The latter holds on, as he is very comfortably spread out on the bottom of the box, and is sucking a teat placed low down. A second attempt of Mitis' fails equally. He then performs rapid movements with his head, searching vigorously for his cup, but not finding it. The mother then places a paw on his back, and his centre of gravity being thus better established, he at last accomplishes his object. Here we have several actions which are no doubt in some degree conscious, but which come chiefly under the head of automatism: the scent which helps in the search for the teat, the instinct to dispute the ground with another who is discovered to be sucking, the movements of intentional repulsion, of struggle, of combativeness. What an admirable machine for sensation, sentiment, volition, activity, and consciousness, is a young animal only just born! _17th May._--I have observed--or think I have observed--in Mitis, the more indolent of the two brothers, the first symptoms of playfulness: lying on his back with his mouth half open, he twiddles his four paws with an air of satisfaction, and as if seeking to touch some one or something. It is eight o'clock in the evening, the window is open, the sparrow is singing with all its might in its cage, we are talking and laughing close to the cat's box. Do all these noises in some way excite the sensoriums of the two _repus_ kittens? The fact is, that they have been in a state of agitation for more than a quarter of an hour, travelling one over the other and walking over their mother's stomach, paws, and head. Mitis, the heavier of the two and soonest tired out, was the first to return to the teat. Riquet's return to the maternal breast has been a long and roundabout journey from one corner of the box to the other, and round and round his mother. At nine o'clock I went to look at them with the light. This threw them into dreadful consternation. I observe in them both something like intentions to bite, while rolling each other over, they keep their mouths open, and snap instead of sucking when they come in contact with any part of each other's bodies; but it is all mechanical. Here we have an increase of activity produced by an accession of powers and temporary over-excitement. _18th May._--They are lying asleep on their sides, facing each other, with their fore-paws half stretched out against the hind ones. Riquet's sleep is much disturbed; his mouth touches one of his brother's paws, which he instantly begins to suck. Is this a mechanical or unconscious action? Is he not possibly dreaming? After four or five attempts at sucking he lets go the paw, and sleeps on tranquilly for four minutes; but the noise of a carriage passing in the street, and perhaps the consequent vibration of the floor and the bottom of the box, cause violent trembling in his lips, paws, and tail. The mother gets back in the box; and the kittens, instantly awake and erect, utter three or four _mis_ to welcome the joyful return. In settling herself down the mother leans rather heavily on Riquet; the latter, who used formerly to extricate himself mechanically, and who already knows from experience the inconvenience of such a position, moves off brusquely, goes further away than he would have done formerly, and Mitis, on the lookout for a teat, hears close to him the noise of his brother's sucking. He pommels his head with his hind-paws, rolls up against him, striking out with his fore-paws, and knocks him over with the weight of his body; he is now in possession of the teat which his brother had first tried, and, finding it as good as the one he was sucking before, he sticks to it. _18th May._--Mitis was trying to worry Riquet who was busy sucking. I hold out my hand to make a barrier between the two; Mitis pushes it back with his paw, but soon perceives the difference between the two bodies which he is pushing against, gives over his excitement, and looks out for another teat. No doubt in this case there was no comparative perception of difference, but different sensations producing different muscular actions; that is all, I imagine, but this is nevertheless the germ of veritable comparison. _19th May._--Both the eyes of both kittens are about to open; the eyelids seem slightly slit, and are covered with an oozy film. At the external corner of Mitis' right eye there is a little round opening disclosing a pale blue speck of eyeball, the size of a pin's head. At the internal commissure of the left eye there is also a round opening, but much smaller, and showing no eye-ball through it. Riquet's right eye is also opening slightly; the edges of the left eyelids are stopped up by a yellowish discharge. I fancied that Mitis was playing in the box; I tumbled him over on his back, tickled his stomach, and stroked his head; he struck out his paws without attempting to pick himself up; this was evidently a more or less conscious attempt at play. His mother came to lick him in this attitude, and he performed with his fore-paws as previously. Riquet, too, shows a tendency to play, but not of such a pronounced nature. _21st May._--Riquet's left eye is beginning to open at the inside corner. I took them both up on my hand, and waved my fingers in front of their partially opened eyes; but I did not observe any movement from which I could infer the power of distinguishing objects. Mitis, placed close to his mother's head, nibbles at it and plays with his paws on her nose; the mother does not approve of this amusement; she lays a paw on her son's neck and teaches him respect; soon he escapes from her grasp, and begins searching for a teat. Some streaks of fawn-colour have mixed with the zebra-like black and grey on Riquet's neck: he is now quadri-coloured. Mitis is seated on my hand. I kiss him on the head, three times running, making a slight noise with my lips; he shakes his head twice. This is an habitual movement of the mother cat when one kisses her or strokes her head and it displeases, or if she is occupied with something else. When I pass my hand in front of their heads, at about four _centimètres'_ distance, they make a movement with the head and wink their eyes; I am not sure whether this means that they see, though their eyes have been more or less open since yesterday evening. They have not yet begun to purr. _22nd May._--I went up to the box towards twelve o'clock. Riquet's left eye, the light blue colour of which I can see, seems to perceive me, but it must be very indistinctly. I wave my hand at ten _centimètres_ from his eyes, and it is only the noise I make and the disturbance of the air that cause him to make any movement. Both Mitis' eyes are almost entirely open; I hold my finger near his nose without touching it, I wave it from right to left and left to right, and I fancy I perceive in the eyes--in the eyes more than in the head--a slight tendency to move in the direction of my movements. _23rd May_, 7 P.M.--Their movements are less trembling, quicker, and fierce not only because of increased strength and exercise, but because intention, directed by eyesight, is beginning to operate. The more I observe young animals, the more it seems to me that the external circumstances of their development--alimentation, exercise (more or less stimulated and controlled), ventilation, light, attention to their health and their _affective_ sensibilities, care in breeding and training,--are perhaps only secondary factors in their development. Actual sensations, it seems to me, serve only to bring to the service one set of virtualities rather than another; a sentient, intelligent, active being is a tangled skein of innumerable threads, some of which, and not others, will be drawn out by the events of life. This it is that marks out the precise work, limits the power, but at the same time encourages all the pretensions of educators. If all is not present in all, as Jacolot asserted, who can say what is and what is not present in a young animal or a young child? I placed Mitis on a foot-warmer, the contact with which produced two or three nervous tremblings, somewhat similar to slight shiverings; he seemed pleased, however, and stretched himself out on the warm surface, with his eyes half-closed, as if going to sleep. Afterwards I placed Riquet there; he went through the same trembling movements, but then proceeded with an inspection with his muzzle--scenting or feeling, I do not know which, the article on which he had been deposited. He then gently stretched out a paw and laid himself down flat, the contact with the warm surface inducing sleep, by reason of the familiar associations between the like sensation of warmth experienced on his mother's breast and the instinctive need of sleep. When they trot about in their box, some of their movements appear to be directed by sight. Their ears have lengthened perceptibly during the last two days, and so have their tails. When any one walks about the room, if they are not asleep or sucking, they begin frisking about immediately. The mother, whom I sent to take a little exercise in the courtyard, has been absent for half an hour. Mitis is asleep; Riquet, lying with his head on his brother's neck, was awakened by the sound of my footsteps, all the more easily roused no doubt because he was hungry, and because his mother had been absent so long. I stroke his head with my finger, and he puts on a smiling look. I make a little noise with my lips to rouse the sparrow, and this noise pleases Riquet, who listens with the same smiling countenance. They now attempt to climb higher; they do not knock their noses so frequently against the partitions of the box, they certainly direct their paws at certain points determined by their vision; eyes, noses, and paws now operate in concert on the teats or any other objects that come across their way; for they do not go much in search of objects as yet. Their field of vision does not stretch very far; what they see is matter of chance and accident rather than of real intention. If I wish to attract their attention by waving my hand, I must not hold it further than fifteen _centimètres_ from their eyes. I must go very close to them before they appear to distinguish my person. I am not sure that they see the whole of it; I rather think that only certain portions are visible to them,--amongst others my nose, because it stands out in relief, and my eyes, because they reflect the light vividly. _24th May_, 9 P.M.--The orbits of their eyes seem to me rather more expanded than this morning, possibly because the light makes their pupils contract. I placed a candle on a chair by the side of their box; the light evidently annoyed them, but it stimulated them to exercise their limbs. Mitis, after having promenaded and struggled about in a corner of the box, and grown accustomed to the lively sensations on his retina, directs his steps towards the most brightly-lighted point of the box. A band of light falls full on the upper part of the partition on the side facing me. Mitis, and Riquet after him,--more from imitation than personal excitement,--tries to climb up this luminous board; he does not succeed, but the attraction continues undiminished. I thought involuntarily of the plants which struggle up walls to reach the light. Mitis, still somewhat disconcerted--though much less so than at first--when he looks directly at light, retires into a corner, and tired, no doubt, with the exercise he has just been taking, places himself, or rather falls back, on his mother's tail. I take him up gently, and set him in front of his mother's stomach, and by the side of Riquet, who had just finished his gambols also, and was sucking. Then began a scuffle, the front paws working away perceptibly like the _battoirs_ of a washerwoman. I come to the rescue, placing my hand between them, and this calms them down; they favour me, however, with a few ridiculous little taps. Mitis, meanwhile, has taken possession of the contested teat, and celebrates his victory by the first _purr_ that to my knowledge he has produced. Riquet is now in a great state of agitation; he is lying in the dark, behind his mother's back, and close to the side of the box facing me. I hold my finger to him; he lifts himself up and leans his head slowly forward to touch or scent my finger. He can now distinguish people, but more by touch, scent, or hearing than by sight, the latter sense being very imperfectly developed and little exercised. When I make a slight noise with my lips the little creature starts and jumps about, but does not lift up his eyes to my face, which he has seen close to him, has looked at with attention, but which he is very imperfectly acquainted with, and does not accurately localise with respect to my hand and my body. Riquet is close to his mother's head. He has stretched a paw over her neck, and is looking at some part or other of her head, I don't know which, while playing gently with his little paw. Here we see an intelligent development of affection; he now loves his mother in a more conscious way; his visual and tactile perceptions are becoming co-ordinated, are amplifying his knowledge, and giving strength and precision to his sentiments. I stretch out my finger to Mitis, who is still lying on the spot where I found him at first. In return, either from curiosity, or from instinctive impulse and movement, he holds out his little paw, which seems to enjoy the grasp of my finger, and sticks to it. _25th May._--I place my kittens, one after the other, in the hollow of my hand. Mitis squealed when I lifted him out of the box, and during the three minutes that I kept them in my hand they both seemed almost indifferent. The instant, however, that I put them back in the box they seemed quite delighted to get back again, or else they were stimulated to play by the various sensations--muscular, visual, tactile, and thermal--which I had occasioned them. Standing and walking about on my hand had stimulated Mitis to an extraordinary display of strength. In his desire for prolonged exercise, and no doubt also wishing to renew the vivid sensations of light he had just experienced, he set to work to climb up the perpendicular wall of his dwelling, making all the time a great noise of scratching. All movement produces sensations; and all sensations produce movements. _26th May._--They both play with their paws and their muzzles, but frequently, as if by chance, only without very marked intention, and with very uncertain movements. I seem already to distinguish in them two different characters. If one can go by appearances, Mitis will be gentle, patient, rather indolent and lazy, prudent and good-natured; Riquet, on the contrary, lively, petulant, irritable, playful, and audacious. Noise and contact seem to excite him more than his brother. But both of them are very affectionate towards their mother, or perhaps I should say very appreciative of the pleasure of being with her, of seeing, hearing, and touching her, and not only of sucking from her. I hold Mitis up to the edge of the box; he evinces a desire to get back to his mother, but does not know how to manage it. His muscles have not yet acquired the habit of responding to this particular psycho-motive stimulus; he crawls up to where my hand ends, advances first one paw, then another, and finds only empty space; he then stretches out his neck, and two or three times running makes an attempt with his paws at the movements which are the precursors of the act of jumping. He would like to jump down, but cannot do so; instinctive intention is here in advance of the adaptiveness or the strength of the muscular apparatus fitted to execute it. He retreats frightened and discouraged, and whines for help. Riquet placed in the same position, goes through almost the same movements, but he is able to do more; he has managed to seize hold (chance perhaps assisting him) of the edge of the box, he sticks to it, leans over without letting go, and would have got down, or rather tumbled down, into the box, if I had let him. _27th May._ Every day they get to know me better. Now, after I have taken them in my hands, or stroked their head, neck, or lips, they go back to their box quite excited; they walk about in it faster than before, snap at each other and strike out their paws with much more spirit. Play has now become a matter of experience with them, and grows day by day a little more complicated; they seem to be aware of their growth in strength and skill, and to derive pleasure from it. To-day, for the first time, Riquet scratched the piece of stuff on the bottom of the box, and he did it with playful gestures and an expression of delight; first he stretched out one paw, then the other, with his claws turned out, and, being pleased with the noise produced by drawing back his claws, he renewed the operation twice, but no more. It will be necessary to go through the same experience two or three times more, in order to fix the idea of this game in his little head. They have already tried several times running (either by accident or with a vague idea of ascending) to hold on to, or climb up, the sides of the box; if they were not slippery, or were covered with a cloth, I think they would have strength enough to lift themselves up to the edge. They lift their head and paws as high as they can, in order to see better. All the inside of the box seems to be sufficiently well known to them, but all the same they are constantly making experiments in it, either by touch, sight, hearing, scent, and even taste; for they frequently lick the board, and try to suck the cloth at the bottom. They would no doubt gladly extend the area of their experiences, but I shall leave them habitually in the box until they are able to get out of it by themselves; they can get quite enough exercise in it, and they have enough air and light, and I think the prolongation of this calm, happy, retired existence makes them more gentle. The mother prefers their being in the box, and I am of the same opinion, though not perhaps for the same reasons. They would become too independent if allowed to follow their caprices, and exposed to the dangers of adventure, instead of being accustomed to the restraint of the hand which they love and which _humanises_[4] them. I want them to become so thoroughly accustomed to my hand, that, when they receive their freedom, they will still recognise it from a distance, and come to it at my will. My hand is a very precious instrument of preservation and education for them. _28th May._ When, standing close to the box, I take Mitis in my hands, he looks at the box, bends his head, stretches out his paws, and shows a considerable desire to get down, but without making any effort towards this end. I hold him a little lower down, at a few _centimètres_ from his mother, and he no longer hesitates but lets himself glide down to her, his movements, however, only turning out a success thanks to my assistance. Can it be that he had (what Tiedemann does not even allow his fourteen-months-old child to have possessed) a vague perception of distance, of empty and inhabited space, anterior to personal experience? "He had not yet any idea of the falling of bodies from a height, or of the difference between empty and inhabited space. On the 14th October he still wanted to precipitate himself from heights, and several times he let his biscuit fall to the ground when intending to dip it in his cup." The kittens endeavour to climb along the sides of the box, but their idea of height (perhaps an instinctive idea) is not sufficiently determined; they seem quite astounded at not reaching the goal with the first stroke. At the same time I may be mistaken in my observations; perhaps they went up these four or five _centimètres_ mechanically, because in walking along horizontally they found under their paws the surface of the partition which may have seemed a natural continuation of their road. Perhaps they have no wish to get up to the edge of the box. _28th May._--The grey spots on Riquet's back are now almost as large as the black ones. The eyes of both kittens are getting less and less blue; they are assuming an indistinct colour, between dirty grey and light brown. Their expression is frank and sympathetic; they seem to direct their looks consciously and voluntarily. Riquet is looking at me with an expression of pleasure, seated upright, with his paws lifted languidly. I hold my finger near him, and he extends his left paw. I stroke the left side of his head, and he leans the part which I caress on my finger, as a full-grown cat would do, and rubs himself two or three times running against my finger. These are _invented_ movements--I mean movements furnished all of a sudden by the stimulus of hereditary virtualities, and which seem to astonish the young animal as well as to please him; it is thus that we see automatic movements at one moment coming under the control of consciousness, and the next escaping from it, refined, simplified, adapted, and perfected. Life invents but few new movements; but there are many, no doubt, ready to appear if the influences of surroundings permitted it. _29th May._--They are learning more and more to exercise their muscles and perfect their movements; they are daily acquiring fresh powers and _adaptations_, and in their games with each other and their mother they show intention and pleasure; they are learning more and more to distinguish people; if any one presents a finger to them, they always hold out their nose, or else a paw; this seems to have become a reflex action with them. They also appear to localise certain sensations which are in some sort artificial. I touch the tip of Mitis' left paw, (he has been sucking for the last ten minutes); he stops sucking, and instantly turns his head in the direction of his paw; but this is perhaps because he has seen my hand, and the muscular sensation associated with this visual sensation may have determined his movement alone and almost automatically. I vary the experiment, however, and pass my finger two or three times running across his neck; he raises his head and looks behind him, as if understanding where I had touched him. However this may be, I should not like to affirm in him the faculty of localising pleasure or pain, except as a sort of automatic localisation of sensations, which would be the result of certain anterior _adaptations_. The mother is engaged on the toilet of Mitis, who neither looks pleased nor displeased; he makes a sound which is neither a cry of pain, nor the whining of complaint or anger; if he is giving expression to a mental condition well defined to himself, I cannot guess at it. It is a tremulous noise which might be represented by the following letters: _mrrrimr_.... _2nd June._--Riquet's ears grow more than those of Mitis. The hair of the latter has ceased to grow, and his tail is scarcely more bushy than his brother's. He will not be more of an Angora than Riquet, in spite of the long silky hair, which during the first days grew so abundantly on his neck, stomach, and thighs. Riquet has become more patient, and Mitis more lively during the last few days. It would be very presumptuous to pretend to found precise inductions as to the future on observations taken during the first days; hypothesis itself must maintain the most scrupulous reserve, especially as regards predictions concerning intelligence and character. A cat which appears very intelligent at the age of one or two months, often shows very mediocre intelligence when a year or two old, and _vice versâ_. As to the colour and nature of the hair, six weeks must have elapsed before one can give any certain opinion as to the real shade that it will be, and as to its flexibility, abundance, brilliancy, and waviness. As for the ears I have often erred in my predictions ... which are scarcely perceptible at birth, and during the first eight or ten days, will sometimes grow to a disproportionate length afterwards. With regard to the paws and the tail, half a _decimètre's_ length at the moment of birth indicates undoubtedly an appreciable length later on. One can also determine on the first day the future firmness of the muscles and bones by the relative resistance of these little velvety lumps when held in the hand. A strong voice, which is more especially the appendage of male kittens, indicates at any rate good lungs. Mitis, who is so gentle, has more flattened ears than Riquet; the latter's stand up more like those of foxes and wolves. The little complementary _pavillion_ ... which is attached to both edges of the ear, slightly towards the bottom, and which in man is designated by a slight rudimentary excrescence, is beginning to appear in both my kittens. They are now well advanced in the art of play; they fence well with their paws, lick each other, and tumble and roll each other over. Riquet, who has some difficulty in standing upright on his legs, has attempted a jump. They try to bite each other at play, specially aiming at each other's paws. Often by mistake they seize their own paws with their teeth and gnaw at them; but they are not long in finding out their error. I place them on the ground. They tremble, seem frightened, or rather astonished, or undecided, and make a few uncertain movements. One of them perceives the mother at a distance of about a _mètre_, looking at them from under a chair. He goes straight up to her, but very slowly, and with a great deal of waddling; all of a sudden he stops. He has heard his brother's voice, the latter having whined on my touching him to rouse him out of his persistent immovability; he turns his head in our direction, distinguishes me, turns straight round, and comes up to me with much greater rapidity and assurance than he had shown in going to his mother. The reason of this is, that the road to me was shorter and surer, and the stimulus to traverse it greater, owing to the larger proportions of my body. I place them back in the box, and they begin playing again with zest. The one who had only moved feebly on the floor, walks, and even jumps, much better this morning. This little outing seems to have stimulated him to an effort which he had not made before. In like manner we sometimes note progress in young children from day to day. They can now climb up to the middle of the box. A board, a few _centimètres_ wide, is nailed to the top of the box, and covers about a fourth part of it. Mitis looks at it with longing eyes; he makes up his mind, draws himself up as erect as he can, stretches up his paws to the partition and within five _centimètres_ of the upper plank; he is longing to make an upward leap, and finally he ventures on it; but his heavy abdomen and his weak legs play him false, and he rolls over ignominiously. In like manner a young child, not yet firm on his legs, leaving the support of the chair to venture a step alone, falls in a soft heap on the floor. _4th June._--They play more and more with my finger, bite at it and lick it. They seem to look at all objects more attentively, and more sympathetically at their mother and me. When they are playing about under their mother, one sees only a confusion of white paws, pink noses, shining eyes, and whisking tails. I have put them on my bed. They walk much better there than in the box, and infinitely better than on the floor; they studied everything in this new locality, walking, climbing up and down, sliding and rolling about. Riquet, having reached the edge of the bed, would have fallen over if I had not held him back. His more circumspect brother, finding himself in the same situation, leant his head over for a moment, and then, as if defying a danger more or less realised; turned round and precipitated himself at the other side of the bed. _11th June._--They frisk and bound about, and catch at all objects indiscriminately with their claws to try and climb. They look into each other's eyes as if trying to discover the expression of sentiments and ideas. This may proceed from astonishment and curiosity, and the delight of the ever new impressions which the movement of the eyes cannot fail to produce in them. But must it not also be partly the result of an hereditary predisposition of their organisation, which leads them to seek in the eyes for the meaning which they express? We know that adult animals, as well as man, are endowed with this tendency which proceeds from instinct rather than individual experience. Partly from imitation of their mother and sister, partly from the teaching of their instinct, they went off one day to a certain out-of-the-way spot, where was placed a pan full of ashes, the object of which does not require to be explained. Observing this, I carried them from time to time to this pan. The smell proceeding from it was in itself sufficient to excite them to satisfy their needs. Three or four such experiences sufficed to associate with the idea of this smell the idea of the pan, of the place where it was, and of the need to be satisfied. I do not say that this habit of cleanliness, so quickly acquired, may not as quickly be lost, by means of new associations taking the place of the first. There is no doubt, however, that if the people would make it a rule to watch over the formation of habits in cats during the first weeks (and probably also in other animals and in children), it would not afterwards be necessary to have recourse to a system of barbarous, and often useless measures, in order to obtain from them by violence that which nature will manage alone with but very slight assistance. The shutters are closed on account of the extreme heat, so that the room is in semi-darkness, and all the objects in it steeped in mysterious shadow. Riquet, frisking about at a little distance from the box, sees a footstool at about a _mètre's_ distance. This object, with its four feet and their shadows would easily produce in my mind the illusion of some mysterious animal. This, however, cannot be the case with the kitten, unless we suppose in it a mental confusion of the inanimate with the animate, that is to say, the animalisation of the inanimate. My opinion is that the surprise, and presently, too, the terror which Riquet manifests, and which keeps him transfixed to the spot, have their origin rather in a certain indeterminate tendency to fear in the presence of all sudden and unusual impressions. Such an apparition would have had no effect whatever on him a few days ago; but to-day it is so much out of harmony with his now numerous experiences, that it contradicts and jars against all his familiar habits. This is, in my mind, the sole cause of his terror. However it may be, he draws himself up on his small paws, bristles his tail, humps up his back, and without either retreating or advancing, sways right and left in the same attitude. I make a movement; this noise brings his paroxysm of fear to a crisis, and he gives expression to it by a fretful _fû_; he then turns round and goes off as fast as his legs will carry him, the first way that comes, which happens to be to the side of the bed. _12th June._--They are attracted by the noise which I make in crumpling paper, in scratching the wall, or tapping a piece of furniture; but metallic sounds, if soft, do not have the same effect on them; the noise of objects being knocked, dull heavy sounds, or the noise of sharp voices, astonish them and make them prick up their ears, but not lift their paws. They take pleasure, however, in all the noises which they make themselves, provided they are not too reverberating, or caused by the displacement or fall of some large object. The loudest voice that I can put on pleases them almost as much as the little playful tones I generally address them in; they also delight in the strings of articulated consonants, which I repeat to them; but they do not like whistling, although they are not so much annoyed by it as is their mother, who comes up to me and rubs her head under my chin and over my mouth, and gives me little taps on my lips with her paw directly she hears me whistling. What specially delights them are the dry sounds which their claws make on wood, linen, paper, the straw seats of chairs, and the covering of the bed. Mitis has drunk some milk this morning for the first time. I put the tip of my finger, moistened with this fluid, under his nose, and he licked it several times running. Enticed by the smell, he dipped his nose into a cup of milk, but did not know how to set about drinking; up came the mother and took his place, as if the milk was her rightful property. She generally tries to take away from her little ones anything fresh, when it is first given to them, perhaps out of maternal precaution, not thinking them strong enough to digest anything but her milk. As she laps in a great hurry, she always spills a certain quantity of milk round the saucer. I placed Mitis in front of what had been spilled, and whether by chance, or because he was incited by the smell, he fell to licking and cleaned it all up. A quarter of an hour later he drank out of the cup, very awkwardly however, and very little, plunging his nose so far into the milk as to make him sneeze. Riquet, to whom the same advances were made, licked the tip of my finger, but did not touch the milk in the cup. He is less strong than Mitis, and possibly less precocious in this respect. When I come back into the room after an absence of even half an hour, the mother raises herself on her paws, as if moved by a spring, and her two satellites with her,--all at the same instant and with the same movement. They still continue to be very fond of us, and not to be startled by strangers. I have tried to make Riquet drink: I put his nose into the milk, and he then dipped his paw in himself and licked it, but would not lap. He went so far as to approach the cup with his nose and just touch it with his lips, but he then started off again. He is now under the chimney, sniffing and then scratching the ashes, which, as his movements indicate, remind him of his ash-pan. If I once or twice tolerated an infraction of my rule, the habit of cleanliness so easily formed in him would perhaps be hopelessly lost; this is why I hasten to carry him to his pan. At 3 o'clock we repeated with Riquet the experiment which had failed in the morning; we smeared his nose with milk. He then licked it, and afterwards put his nose in the cup, and drank a good teaspoonful. This morning they are more vigorous and nimble than yesterday, and they have been disporting themselves on my bed for more than an hour, whilst their mother and elder sister were engaged, by way of recreation, in snatching tufts of hair from each other's coats, in scratching and throttling each other. The mother gives a cry to indicate that this sport has reached its limits. Mitis has tumbled off the bed with affright, uttering a plaintive cry. A ludicrous incident very nearly parted me from my two little pets. An old laundress, whose sight is very feeble, as well as her mind, shut them up in her bundle of linen, on which they had been playing whilst she was counting it. I gave them up for lost, having searched for them everywhere, even in my boots. Three hours later they were brought back to me safe and sound. This is what had happened: on opening the bundle, out walked a kitten (Mitis) who seemed very much surprised, he was put in a basket with a cup of milk beside him; the other was only found an hour later, to the great astonishment of the laundress, squatting under a cupboard and showing nothing but the tip of his nose. He refused all manner of consolation, and would not touch the milk, in spite of the example of Mitis who did not wait to be pressed. As soon as they were safe back with me they both ate some bread soaked in milk. The mother was very much dejected by their absence. When, after calling them in vain with her most caressing voice, and making pretence to play to entice them to come to her, she became convinced of their absence, she filled my rooms with agonised screams. She then begged to be let out to look for them in the court-yard, but soon came in again and began screaming and hunting about as before. She came up to me and got up on my knees, looked me fixedly in the eyes, and then curled herself up on the bed where the kittens often sleep with her. Her eyes went beyond the expression of profound despair; her eyelids quivered, a slight moisture covered the eyeballs, and at the inside corners there was the appearance of tears. There is no doubt that cats cry. I have several times noticed, but in a specially distinct manner to-day, on lifting them away from any place where they are comfortable, an instinctive, or perhaps intentional, tendency to lean either with the stomach or the paws, in order to remain fixed to the spot. An analogous movement may be noticed in young children, when one tries to take them out of the arms of some one they are fond of. I might no doubt have observed this fact in my kittens long ago. I was holding Mitis in my hands, and I lifted him near to his mother and Riquet; he made a precipitate movement to get down to them, instinct urging him to spring--and that all the more since he is now stronger;--but his experience and his strength not sufficing to enable him to adapt his efforts to the distance he had to cross. Thus it is that falling from the bed often means in his case a bad attempt at jumping down. It is also possible that it is the example of his mother and big sister, as much as his increased strength, which suggests these somewhat impulsive bounds, which moreover belong to the organic habits of the species. The little unfledged bird also falls from its nest, when attempting a premature flight. Nothing in the shape of food comes amiss to Riquet: soup, meat, potatoes, pease, lard--he snaps at, and devours whatever he comes across and whatever is offered him; but one must beware of the little glutton's sharp claws. Mitis takes his food more gently. _18th June._--Riquet is playing with me on the sofa. A sole is placed on the table. The smell of the fish excites and puzzles him, for he does not know whence it comes; he travels over me in all directions, trying to follow the scent, and is soon perched up on my left shoulder, which is tolerably close to the table; he works towards the table, and I stoop my shoulder to let him slide on to it. He rubs his nose first against a spoon and then against a glass; the plate containing the sole is only a _decimètre_ from the glass, but as he does not know that a plate contains food, and that it is from there that the savoury smell proceeds, he does not direct his steps towards it. Finally, however, he finds himself in front of the plate, puts his four paws on it, and instantly disposes himself to eat the whole fish. I instantly carry him off. What a small number of experiences he will need (two or three only I have determined) in order to adapt to actual practice these judgments and movements which unite instinctively with certain sensations! We call this _reasoning_ in man, and, nevertheless, it closely resembles a piece of subjective mechanism, which is blind at starting, and which adapts itself to objective representations with such promptitude, that consciousness seems to follow, not to precede, its operations. Whilst I was at my breakfast they climbed up my legs, and I had the weakness to let them stay for a moment on the table. They invaded my plate, Mitis going so far as to bite into the fish, and Riquet licking and gnawing the edge of the plate; the smell of the fish is so penetrating that he confuses it with the plate. Moreover, he has no idea of _containing_ and being _contained_. Soon he comes across a mouthful of fish which I have prepared for him: he flattens himself out on the plate, and eats with courageous and deliberate precipitation, inclining his head now to the left, now to the right, sometimes closing his eyes from delight, but oftenest keeping them open and fixed attentively on the plate,--one would say he was afraid of losing his precious morsel; and here we see a result of the preservative instinct which he has received from his ancestors. Mitis has got into a round earthen pan, and from association of impressions tries to satisfy a need which he would not otherwise have felt. The vessel, however, being small, and his movements causing it to totter, he jumped out and ran off to his own pan. _20th June._--Mitis suddenly springs from the table to the floor, first feeling his mother with the end of his paw, and then passing over her without touching her: is it a personal or a social motive which makes him act thus? Does he wish to avoid walking on ground that is not firm, or is he trying not to hurt his mother? In like manner will a horse, on the point of trampling a live body, hastily withdraw his foot. They have been playing for a long time on my bed; before I go to sleep I shall carry them to their own bedroom, to their mother who awaits them somewhat sadly. They came back into my room as soon as I did myself. I sit down in front of my table, they climb up along my legs, and I determine to place them back on my bed. Twenty minutes later I reinstate them a second time in their domicile, but they do not stay there two minutes. I had just got into bed again when back they come, spring at the bed-cover, the chairs, the wall, with a noise of scratching and rustling which excites them to continue their difficult ascent; at the end of two minutes the siege is accomplished, and I am seized upon, trodden over, scratched and gnawed. I cannot be master in my own room except by shutting the door, at which, however, they come and scratch, but without much persistence. So there they are, now pretty well masters of their movements, taking headers to get down from the bed to the chair, from the chair to the floor, climbing up along the curtains and the tapestry, and even attempting to climb the furniture and polished objects. A few more days and their mode of descending will be less like tumbling, their ascents less like scrambling: they will spring and they will bound, and will be real individual cats. Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome and London. FOOTNOTES: [1] The Zoological Society has now fitted up the building, which was formerly the Reptile House, with new cages, and to this "Cat House" the specimens above alluded to have been removed, together with other forms which were kept within the "Small Mammals' House," such as the Pampas Cat, the Ocelot, the Geoffroy's Cat, Serval, etc. [2] The number of visitors admitted on the occasion of this one-day show amounted to the grand total of 19,310. [3] The above editorial note was added when the chapter appeared in _The Animal World_. [4] The Latins had the happy expression _mansuetus_ to express this idea. 
43998	----	Internet Archive (https://archive.org) Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/airedale00haynrich Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). THE AIREDALE by WILLIAMS HAYNES Author of "Beagles and Beagling," "Toy Dogs," etc. Outing Handbooks New York Outing Publishing Company MCMXI Copyright, 1911, by Outing Publishing Company. Entered at Stationer's Hall, London, England. All rights reserved CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE BIGGEST AND BEST TERRIER 9 II. THE AIREDALE'S HISTORY 21 III. THE CARE OF A TERRIER 35 IV. BREEDING TERRIERS 49 V. DOG SHOWS AND SHOWING 65 VI. THE USEFUL AIREDALE 79 VII. COMMON AILMENTS 91 CHAPTER I THE BIGGEST AND BEST TERRIER It was in the Merchants' Hotel, Manchester--a famous gathering place for the dog fanciers of the English Midlands, the most thickly dog populated district in the whole world--that one autumn evening I heard the best definition of an Airedale that I ever knew. A party of us, fresh from some bench show, were seated round a table waiting for dinner, and naturally we were talking dog, telling dog stories, anecdotes, and jokes. I gave the American definition of a dachshund; "half a dog high and a dog and a half long," and Theodore Marples, editor of _Our Dogs_, turning to a quiet little man, noted as a wild fanatic on the subject of Airedales, asked him his definition of his favorite breed. Quick as a spark he answered, "The biggest and best terrier!" There are thousands of people, all sorts of people from bankers to beggars, scattered all over this earth from Dawson City to Capetown, from Moscow to Manila, who will echo the statement that the Airedale is indeed the biggest and the best of all the terriers. Moreover, their votes would not be bribed by mere sentiment, but based upon good, sound reasons, for it is certain that he is the biggest, and he is "best" at doing more things than any other dog in the stud book. An Airedale will drive sheep or cattle; he will help drag a sled; he will tend the baby; he will hunt anything from a bear to a field mouse. He can run like a wolf and will take to water like an otter. He does not "butt in" looking for trouble with each dog that he passes on the street, but once he is "in" he will stick, for he is game as a pebble. He is kind, obedient, thoroughly trustworthy as a companion for children, or a watchman for your property. He has the disposition of a lamb combined with the courage of a lion. He is certainly the most all-round dog that there is and, unlike many Jacks-of-all-trades, he is apparently quite able to master all tasks a dog is called upon to perform. Over and above his talents and his character, the Airedale has a constitution made of steel and stone. He is equally at home in the snow wastes of the Arctic Circle and on the alkali deserts of Arizona. The dry, bracing air of Colorado and the fever-soaked atmosphere of Florida's Everglades both seem to agree with him perfectly. A sick Airedale is just about as common as a dodo. "The biggest and best terrier" indeed fits him to a T, but it does not convey any very definite idea as to what he should look like. Even his most enthusiastic admirers never claimed beauty for the Airedale. He is not pretty, unless we acknowledge that "handsome is that handsome does," and can see the beauty of perfect symmetry under wiry coat and odd coloring. A good Airedale is about as big as a pointer; somewhere in the neighborhood of forty-five pounds, a little more for a dog and a little less for a bitch. His head should be long; the skull flat and broad; the cheeks smooth; the muzzle strong with tight lips over big, white, even teeth. His eyes should be small, dark, and full of fire and his ears little, carried high, and shaped like a V, for nothing can so detract from the correct terrier expression as large, light eyes and houndy ears. His front legs ought to be a pair of gun barrels, straight and strong and about the same thickness all the way down. His shoulders are like those of a race horse, long and sloping; while his pads should be firm and hard, not those loose, sprawly feet sometimes seen. The only kind of a back for him to have is short, and his ribs must be well sprung. A long backed dog lacks staying qualities, and a slab-sided one has not the room for lungs. His chest should be deep, but narrow, and he should be slightly cut up in the loin--not the wasp-like waist of a greyhound,--but no better is a body like a stovepipe. His hindquarters should be strong, with the hocks quite near the ground. The Airedale that does not carry a gay tail is a delight to no eye. Last, but not least, comes the coat. In color this should be a deep, rich tan on the head, face, chest, legs, and under parts, while over the back is a saddle of black or iron-grey. Personally, I like the black more than the grizzle, for it makes a prettier contrast with the tan, but "a good horse cannot be a bad color." The Airedale's coat is (or rather should be) double. The overcoat is of hair like wire, stiff and hard, about an inch long all over the dog, except on the skull where it is shorter. Under this jacket of wire, there ought to be a vest of soft, woolly hair. If you can collect in your mind's eye all the above details of description you should see a big, strong, compact, businesslike dog, full of the proverbial up-and-ever-coming spirit that inspires all terriers. His every movement shows strength, yet he always moves in that effort-economizing way which is the very personification of grace. When running he sweeps along with the free open stride of a galloping thoroughbred, with his head often carried low, but his tail always high. Very often the man wanting a dog for hunting, for a guard, for a pal turns up his nose at all the finely enumerated details in which the standard describes the fanciers' ideal of Airedale perfection. He is wrong, for, as the advertisements say, "There's a reason." Take the double coat for example. The Airedale was originally bred to be a water dog. The wiry coat sheds water like a duck's back, and the undercoat keeps him warm in all weather. With the kind of a jacket for which the standard calls an Airedale can swim the river, scramble out, shake himself, roll over, and be dry. Moreover, such a coat is a perfect armor against all kinds of thorns, claws, and teeth. The long, clean head with its strong muzzle means a jaw with plenty of room for big, strong teeth and muscles to shut those teeth as quickly and as surely as a spring trap. Of course, not one Airedale in a thousand comes within seventy-five per cent. of being all that the standard describes. The average, however, is high in America; much higher here than anywhere else in the world, except England, and our best can even hold their own with the champions from the land of the breed's creation. Americans who have been interested in the dog have been blessed with enough of this world's goods to buy what they want, and almost without exception, they have been inspired with the best fancier ideal, that of breeding their own winners. This has given us a breeding stock second only in numbers to that of Great Britain in the hands of men who could and would use the material to the best advantage. Accordingly, the American-bred Airedale is noted the world over as a show dog, and in no other country has the breed's sporting possibilities been so fully tested as here in the United States. By birth and breeding the Airedale is a sporting terrier. A dog bred originally to do the work of a vermin destroyer, he has taken naturally to all kinds of game. In the Rockies, he is used on bear, and he has won a name as a dog of exceptional brains, unfailing courage, and remarkable stamina at work from which no fool, coward, or weakling comes home to supper. On the farms of New England, he is cherished as an exterminator of wood-chucks, moles, rats, and vermin of this class. He hunts all the way down the scale from the giant "silver tip" to the mouse in the pantry--mountain lions, wolves, panthers, lynx, wild cats, foxes, coons, skunks, rabbits, mink, what not, each and all he hunts with equal gusto and success. Is it any wonder that though the Airedale is only a little over half a century old his fame has spread from pole to pole? The Airedale is a dog that no one can know well without becoming his friend, but all his friends do not know him well. For this reason, and because so much depends upon one's first dog, it seems particularly necessary to give some advice to intending Airedale purchasers, whom we may divide into dog owners and kennel owners. By a dog owner I mean one who wants an Airedale or two as a companion, guard, and all-round dog. Kennel owners are those who intend keeping, breeding, and showing or hunting several dogs. The dog owner does not as a rule think it worth while to post himself on the history and points of the breed. He has heard the praises sung of "the biggest and best terrier," and has decided that he is the dog he wants. If that is all he wants let him get some friend to give him an Airedale puppy or let him buy one as cheaply as he can, but he is going to lose half the pleasure of owning a good dog of a good breed. Merrinac, the best known _maitre d'armes_ in France, once said to a party of American fencers that it was the romance of the sword that made fencing so fascinating to its devotees, and there is romance in the history of the Airedale that weaves its charm round an Airedale owner. Whatever we know well is interesting and wonderful, and a knowledge of the Airedale's past and his points, which is an absolute necessity to the kennel owner, adds one hundred per cent. to the dog owner's pleasure. The wise dog owner then will learn all he can about his breed. "Book larnin'" is good, but better still are talks with all sorts and conditions of Airedale owners and a visit to an Airedale kennel or the ringside at a dog show when the breed is being judged. No men ride their hobbies harder than dog fanciers, and all will talk and from all can something be learned. When one has learned something about Airedales let him then buy his dog. It is best to buy a dog about six months old--old enough to be over puppy ills and not too old to learn new tricks. A puppy of that age, over distemper and house broken, is as satisfactory as it is possible for a pup to be. Bringing up a terrier puppy is hard on one's shoes, the ladies' hats, and everyone's disposition, but it is much more satisfactory to train him yourself in the ways you would have him go. In picking out a puppy select the bright little chap to whom you are naturally attracted--I am advising the "dog owner" who knows the breed well enough not to be interested in any litter not of orthodox breeding. Only in case of doubt need you pay attention to show points. If it comes to a question of that pick the dark eye, small ear, long head, short back, straight legs. Do not worry about size or color or coat, nor must a novice expect to be able to "pick the winner" of a litter. Go to a reputable breeder and pay as much as you can afford. You can take his advice, for all dog breeders are not crooks and grafters, but like any other kind of a business transaction knowledge is very valuable to the purchaser. May I plead the case of the bitch as a companion? Nine out of ten want a dog, but a bitch has many advantages. She is usually more clever, a great deal more affectionate and faithful, much less given to roaming from home, and should one ever want to raise some puppies she may prove a valuable investment. The kennel owner, turning now to him, will, I take it for granted, read all he can lay his hands on that treats of the Airedale, go to shows, visit kennels, and talk, think, and dream Airedale. If he is to have a small kennel I advise his buying one or two good young bitches. Puppies are a chance and old bitches, however famous, are poor breeding stock. Buy young winning bitches, proved mothers and of desirable blood lines and you will have the best possible start along the road of kennel success. It is as rocky a thoroughfare as the proverbial one to Dublin, full of all sorts of disappointments and maybe even losses, but its pleasures and its gains are sure to come to the man who follows it in the right spirit. The large kennel owner is either going into it for pleasure, where he will have a check book to help him, or for a business. In the former case he will probably leave much on the shoulders of his kennel manager, and I am writing on Airedales not the servant problem. If he is going to make a business of raising Airedales that is his business, not the author's. To all Airedale buyers let me again say that it pays to know all you can about the breed and to buy the best you can afford. The "biggest and best terrier" has been tried by so many different people in all parts of the world and has won such unanimous praise that his admirers can recommend him to anyone, anywhere, for anything. CHAPTER II THE AIREDALE'S HISTORY The Airedale is a product of the middle of the nineteenth century and was manufactured in Yorkshire. The streams that tumble down the deep vales of that Midland county are the homes of hundreds of crafty, hardbitten otters; there are thieving foxes and very game, but very rascally badgers in snug dens in the hills; many a swift English hare lives in the broad game preserves. The hardy Yorkshireman of 1850--his sons and grandsons to-day are real "chips of the old block"--loved nothing so much as a hunt after the vermin, with possibly a rat killing contest with "a couple o' bob" at stake of a Saturday night, and sometimes, on moonless nights, when game keepers were asleep, a little trip after the filling for a rabbit pie. Now, you cannot do these things without a dog that is brainy, game, obedient, and as much at home in water as on dry land; so they just naturally set to work to make themselves such a dog. All this we know positively, but when it comes to saying anything definite about how they made that dog, which we now call the Airedale, you begin to deal in traditions as conflicting as theories on the Martian canals and speculations as vague as old wives' tales. Taking all the yarns and guesses and boiling them down to an average, we find that the Airedale, so most people think, was originally a cross between a tan-grizzle terrier, now extinct or absorbed in other breeds, but once common in the Midlands, and the otterhound, a big, wire-coated water dog of the bloodhound type, that comes in all colors of Joseph's famous coat, but mainly white with black and tannish markings. To this cross were added dashes of bull terrier, which breed was, at that time, just coming to the fore with its deserved reputation for grit, and Bedlington terrier, a light-weight, top-knotted dog from the North of England. Probably there were sprinkles of the blood of the collie and of all terriers found at the time between the Midlands and the Scottish Borderland. All these (fox, Manchester, Welsh, Old English, and Dandy Dinmont) were then more or less indefinite as to type and uncertain as to breeding, which helps materially in making confusion worse confounded. Just how and why this strange, indefinite mixture should have resulted in the Airedale no one can say. The otterhound donated the size and the love of the water, and all the terrier blood made him a terrier in spite of his size. From the very beginning the breed had the advantage of having an object. The Yorkshireman wanted a big, strong, dead game, water-loving terrier. That furnished a standard to breed to, and they got what they wanted. When the fame of this dog first spread from the valleys of his birthplace, he was pretty well established as to type, and once taken up by the dog showing fancy and a standard drawn up the type was soon firmly fixed. Since his first introduction to the world he has changed, becoming somewhat larger. The seers and wise men of English dogdom raised a great hullaballoo when this giant among terriers appeared, saying that no dog over twenty pounds could be a terrier because a terrier must go to earth. The dog, however, was mainly terrier in blood and so very certainly terrier in characteristics that he was classed with the family. Maybe it is out of respect to the authorities of the early days of the dog fancy that we have gradually dropped the terrier in his name, and though it is a part of his official title, still the dog is universally spoken of as the Airedale. This, however, was not his original name, for in early days he was called the "waterside terrier," and his official début at the English dog shows was in classes for "broken-haired working terriers." Both titles were felt to be too indefinite, and "Stonehenge," the sporting authority, suggested "Bingley terrier," from the town in the heart of the district where the breed originated. Local jealousies prevented any one town giving its name to the breed, and there was quite a war waged till some unrecorded genius suggested that, as the birthplace of the breed had been in the valleys of the Aire River and its little tributaries, Airedale was the best name. So Airedale he became, having an official christening at the Otley show in the late seventies. Besides adding some ten pounds to his weight and getting a distinctive and pleasing name, the Airedale has changed in other ways since he took his light from under the bushel basket. His head has lengthened, following the tendency of all terrier breeds. His shoulders, legs, and feet are worlds better now than they were years ago, but coats have suffered. The wire jacket has improved, but the woolly undervest has been sacrificed, though now more and more attention is being paid to this by breeders and judges. The honor of having brought the first Airedale to America is generally ascribed to Mr. C. H. Mason, who is better known to this generation of fanciers as a cocker spaniel owner and editor of _Man's Best Friend_. He was originally a Yorkshire man, who had known and loved the breed since his youth. He imported Bruce, a fairish dog, blind in one eye, but useful in stud, where he sired Ch. Brush. Bruce is merely a sentiment with Americans, for all he has left is a reputation for bad temper and a yarn about having been sold for a few dollars at a horse auction in New York in 1885. The breed first "took on" in New York, but Philadelphia has long been its stronghold. The Quaker City, boasting such fanciers as Clement Newbold, William Barclay, Russel H. Johnson, W. H. Whittem, Daniel Buckley, and Dr. Henry Jarrett, has away and beyond passed other cities in the number and quality of its Airedales. In early days the New York fancy was represented by Mr. J. L. Lorillard, the purchaser of Clonmel Marvel, whose importation boomed the breed's stock in this country; Messrs. De Witt Cochrane, Foxhall Keene, and C. O'Donnel, all of whom have not been so active lately. Later Theodore Offerman, James H. Brookfield, James Watson, and John Gough entered the game, and they figure to-day as owners of winners. This is a short sketch of how the breed originated and how they came to America, but real "history is men, not events," or rather dogs, not events. It is interesting, but more important is a knowledge of the dogs of the past. In limited space, one can only say a word or two about the most famous of the breed's celebrities, so I must be pardoned if some reader is disappointed in not finding mention of some dog in which he is particularly interested. Almost each year has seen its good dogs, but we can only touch those which time has declared to be truly great. The sigh for "the good old days" is common in all things, and we often hear it from dog fanciers. It is good food for talk, but that is all, for the old-timers of any breed could not win in the ring against the cracks of to-day. Among the very early Airedale winners were: Tanner, Young Tanner, Rustic Twig, Rustic Kitty, Rustic Lad, Newbold Fritz, Vixen, and Venom, none of whom would be one, two, three in a good show to-day. Clip and Ch. Cholmondeley Briar were the two first really good dogs. Clip was a sound, honest dog who showed real modern type, and gave black, real terrier eyes to his pups; while Briar was the first real show hero, having gone undefeated till he met Clonmel Marvel. Clonmel Marvel, one of the really great dogs of the world, was bred by a novice, a Mr. F. C. Brown, who mated his Cholmondeley Mona to Clipper, a good dog, but no wonder. There were nine in the litter, and Mr. Brown showed Marvel, whom he called Warfield Victor, in a £3 Selling Class, where he was placed second, being sadly out of condition. "Jack" Holgate saw the rough diamond, bought it, and resold it to Messrs. Mills and Buckley, the famous Clonmel firm. Marvel beat all of his time--dogs and bitches--and won eighteen championships. Eventually he came to America, along with Ch. Clonmel Sensation and Clonmel Veracity. He was by far the best Airedale seen up to his time, a dog hard to fault, even in "the light of modern criticism." He proved as wonderful a sire as he was a show crack, and much of real terrier style in the breed to-day is due to him. A contemporary of Marvel's was Ch. Dumbarton Lass, who also came to this side of the Atlantic to the kennels of Mr. Joseph Laurin, in Montreal. She was bred by Capt. Baird Smith, who benched her at Woolwich in poor condition. Mr. A. E. Jennings, whose kennels were then paramount, bought her and showed her for three years, when she went to Mr. Stuart Noble and was later bought by the Canadian fancier. She proved a gold mine as a brood bitch and was personally hard to fault--barring her coat. But the most wonderful brood bitch of the breed, one whose name should be written in gold in the Airedale Hall of Fame, was not a great show winner. She was Bath Lady. Her first big winning puppy was Briarwood, who came out in London in 1896. Briarwood was by Hyndman Briar, by Willow Nut, and like all Bath Lady stock proved his value in the breeding kennels. His most famous get was the beautiful bitch of Ch. Broadlands Bashful. We can only mention two others of Bath Lady's offspring, but those fanciers who have dogs in whose pedigrees she appears can congratulate themselves. To Ch. Clonmel Marvel she produced Ch. Clonmel Kitty, a really good one all over, and to Master Briar she had Walton Victory, even better--except in skull--than Kitty. During the nineties the Tone Kennels with Ch. Tone Jerry, whose forte was his wonderful coat and color, and Ch. Tone Crack, excelling in bone, coat, and body, but broad across the skull, had a big say in the prize-lists. In 1896 Studholme Sherry came out and was hailed as a flyer, but he did not last, though in his day he was a beautiful terrier. Ch. Clonmel Monarch, who has done so much for Philadelphia's Airedale supremacy as a sire and as a show dog came as near the ideal Airedale as we find, made his début about this time in Leicester and ran second to Ch. Rock Salt. Monarch was undeveloped, but six months later at Alexandra Palace he came to his own and after that his show record in England was an unbroken string of firsts. He was a grand terrier--almost faultless--his coat waved a bit and his critics used to say he was "so fine he was bitchy." Just to mention some of his pups shows what he was at stud: Ch. Broadlands, Royal Descendant, Ch. Tone Regent, Ch. Clonmel Bed Rock, Claverhouse Enchantress, Clonmel Coronation, and Strathallan Solace. Ch. Rock Salt, mentioned as the conqueror of Monarch, was a good one whom Americans know best through Ch. The New King, his son, who has done so well for the New England fancier, Mr. Arthur Merritt. Ch. Tone Masterpiece--known here as Ch. York Masterpiece, for Mr. Offerman gave him his own kennel's prefix--was a dog of ups and downs, but he was an honest champion, who just missed being great. His son (bred in England) Floriform was another good dog who did things in New York in the early years of the new century where he was owned by Mr. Offerman and later by Mr. Brookfield. Floriform was the sire of Ch. Engaflora, the first great American bitch. In 1902 two good but unfortunate sons of Clonmel Monarch came out, Ch. Legrams Prince--a real flyer--and Bandolero, who never got his just deserts at the shows. Rheumatism spoiled Prince's shoulders for the show ring and his ill-starred half brother died of wasp stings. A contemporary of these dogs was Ch. Wombwell Rattler, a rattling good one with a softish coat who sired Mr. Offerman's well known crack Ch. York the Conqueror. In the same year (1902) Ch. Delph Girl, wonderful color and coat, good head and expression, but too fine, and Ch. Dumbarton Sceptre, the best bitch of the time, both made their début and eventually came to the United States. The dam of Sceptre, Claverhouse Enchantress (by Clonmel Monarch out of Clonmel Winifreda), needs special mention. She won a number of prizes, but soon passed into the hands of a novice, Mrs. Cuthell, and as a mother and grand-mother of champions made a place for herself second only to Bath Lady. Dumbarton Sceptre and Claverhouse Sorcerer--the former a real flyer, the other a dog above the average--were in her first litter. Her second, by Ch. Master Briar, resulted in the great Ch. Mistress Royal, probably the best show bitch produced. Enchantress was next bred to her own son Solace, mentioned above, but died of poison before whelping. Ch. Clonmel Bed Rock, whom Mr. Foxhall Keene later imported, came out about this time. He was a good, sound terrier, full of fire, sound as a bell, with wonderful legs and feet and won lots of honors here and in England. Ch. Broadland's Royal Descendant was a rival of Bed Rock and a very classy dog with exceptional coat, real terrier fire, a good head, but not very beautiful ears. After these dogs came Ch. Master Royal, which brings us down to the dogs of to-day--if not the present generation and it is out of place to say aught of dogs which one can see and judge in flesh and blood. The show cracks have so very often proved so valuable in the breeding kennels that the two terms--great sire and show crack--may seem synonyms. They are not. Nevertheless there is a close chain that binds the whole of a breed of dogs to the show ring, for the show ring winners are the dogs most often sought for breeding purposes and so the styles of the main bench authorities are forcibly, if unwittingly, thrust on the race. The Airedale, however, has always been known and appreciated as a sporting terrier. His owners have fortunately never lost sight of the reason he was manufactured, and they remember that to-day he is intended to be a rough-and-ready dog, willing and able to do all terrier work just a little better than the other members of the family, and because of his greater weight enabled to do things his smaller cousins could not even attempt. His great usefulness has kept him from being wholly at the mercy of the faddists of the dog shows, who have given him all the great advantages of their skill in scientific breeding and all the advertising of public exhibition without turning him into a freak. CHAPTER III THE CARE OF A TERRIER One of the most noted veterinarians in New York once said to me that, if it were not for too much or too little attention, he doubted if he should ever be called upon to treat a dog. He explained his meaning by adding that the toy dogs are generally killed by kindness and most terriers die of neglect. If this is true, and this doctor has a canine practice that keeps him busy from morning till night, there must be something radically wrong with the care of most dogs. The terriers--for the evils of a candy diet and a life spent on silken pillows do not need to be even mentioned here--the terriers can, it is perfectly true, get along with less attention than most breeds of dogs, for they all have wonderful constitutions. Does that, however, give the terrier owner a free right and license to neglect his dogs? It is almost a joke to keep such a naturally healthy dog as a terrier in the pink of condition. All he needs is dry, clean kennels, with decent bedding; good, nourishing food at regular hours; all the fresh water he wants to drink; plenty of exercise, and a little grooming. Given these few things and a terrier will be "disgustingly well," full of high spirits, and happy as a clam at high tide. It is really so easy to keep a terrier "fit," and it means so much to the dog and his owner, whether he be a dog owner for pleasure or profit, that it is nothing less than criminal not to do so. Kennels, bedding, food and feeding, water, exercise, and grooming--these are the things which given proper attention mean a healthy and happy dog. Let us take them up, one at a time, for it is as often ignorance as thoughtlessness that causes the trouble. The question as to the kind of a kennel is bound to have a variety of different answers according to whether one lives in the city or the country, in the North or the South, and whether one is to keep one dog or fifty. There are, however, certain fundamental considerations that apply to any home for dogs. In the first place, all terriers, especially those wearing those wonderful, double, weather-proof garments we call "wire coats," are best off living the simple life out of doors. This is true in any climate. I used to have all sorts of troubles with the skins and coats of my wire terriers till I just turned them out, providing them with dry, draft-proof, but unheated shelters in which to sleep and where they could escape very bad weather. My own experience has proved to me that wire coated terriers are worlds better off for being out every day and night in the year. Even in the severest weather they do not need artificial heat, if they have a perfectly dry, draftless, well bedded place to sleep in and to serve as a shelter on very wet, stormy days. A decent kennel for any dog from a St. Bernard to a Pomeranian is dry and draft-proof, and so the terrier owner can eliminate the question of artificial heating. The man who lives in the city should try to keep his dog out in the yard as much as possible, and, if at all feasible, let him sleep there. Dogs have an inborn instinct to "bay the moon" and terriers are supposed to be great talkers. Moreover, city backyards, since the days when town residences were hollow stone piles lined with hides to keep the wind out, have always been a favorite _rendezvous_ for Thomas Catt, Esq., and Mistress Tabby, meetings just as hard on the nerves of a self respecting terrier as they are on those of his sleepy master. The trouble is that, while master becomes a public benefactor by hurling his shaving mug out the window, the efforts of his dog to drive away the disturbers are regarded by the unsympathetic neighbors as quite as bad as the feline serenades and battle cries. No dog will bark at night if he is in a dark, quiet place, and the terrier in the backyard will sleep like a baby if he is shut up in a box covered with burlap. The ideal terrier kennel is an oil barrel. These cannot always be obtained, but any barrel or keg intended to hold liquids, and so made water tight, will answer. A hole, just large enough to let the dog in and out, should be cut in one end. Then the inside may be painted with kerosene and a lighted paper dropped in. This cleans the barrel and destroys any insects, and is an excellent thing to do every month or so. The barrel ought to be painted inside and out, and to keep it from rotting on the bottom must be mounted on blocks so that it just clears the ground. Rain can be kept out of the door either by tacking a curtain of sacking over it (a dog soon learns to go through this and it can be hung up in good weather) or by making a roof of V shaped planking, which sets over the barrel, projecting in front like the eaves of a barn. Two small terriers or one Airedale can live easily in these keg kennels in summer, with an extra dog added, for warmth's sake, in cold weather. Another kennel that is fine for terriers is one I adapted from the suggestions of a chicken owner, who used a similar box as a coop for hens with young chicks. It is a box that can be taken all apart. The floor is a raised platform against which the sides fit closely, being fastened together with hooks. The roof slants backward and is held in place by thin strips that fit just inside the walls. This is fine for summer, but must be very carefully made to be tight enough for cold weather. Its flat floor makes it admirable for a bitch with puppies and it has the great advantage of enabling you to leave off any side you wish. Naturally, they are very easy to clean. They can be made any size or shape you wish and cost from five dollars up. For the man who is going into a large kennel little can be said that will be broadly useful. One wants to build a model kennel of hard wood and concrete, while the next has an old chicken house to adapt to doggy uses; naturally requirements and conditions are very different. The first thing that any kennel builder wants to see to is that he has good natural drainage and that his runs are on quickly drying ground, gravel rather than clay. Southern exposures are the favorites, and it is better to have two or three smaller buildings rather than to house all the dogs in one. In this way there is opportunity to give each building a rest once in a while, and this should be done in the case of the individual runs and pens, if not for the whole building. Good hard wood, varnished and kept clean and well drained, is the most popular floor for kennels. Concrete is cold in winter, asphalt is far from desirable in summer, and both are hard on a dog's feet. Dirt, gravel, and ashes are very hard to clean. Cork is expensive and rots out with amazing speed. The sleeping benches ought to be about two feet off the floor and so arranged that they can be taken down, cleaned, and set out in the sun to dry. Plenty of elbow grease, backed up with a good strong disinfectant and fresh air and sunlight, these are the secrets of a successful kennel. Cleanliness means that disease and parasites will be unknown. Wheat or rye straw or wood shavings make the best bedding. The straw costs more than hay, but it is ten times as cleanly, lasts twice as long, and is much better for a dog's skin. Very often shavings will be given away for the carting of them, and they make a fine summer bedding, though they are not very warm for winter. Shavings, especially pine shavings, make a very poor home for fleas. Excelsior is not popular. It has a distressing habit of wadding up in hard bunches in corners, absorbs moisture, and does not dry out easily. Moss and sea weed and such beddings are dirty and hard to handle. Food is an important item in the care of the dog. Table scraps make, in my opinion, the ideal food for a dog. In this the house pet has the advantage over his friend of the kennels, for he gets a wide variety of well cooked and nourishing food, and variety, cooking, and nourishment are the foundation of good feeding. Dog biscuits, which are so cheap and easy to handle, are excellent in their way, but one should resist the temptation to feed them all the time. You would not like to live on beefsteak three times a day, week in and week out. Dry bread can be bought by the barrel from most bakers and is at once inexpensive and nourishing. Shredded wheat and cracker scraps can also be gotten and are useful for a change. All of these should be fed soaked in some soup. In the winter I have found corn meal very acceptable, but the moment hot weather comes along its use should be discontinued, or skin troubles will surely result. It can either be made in a mush with milk or water, or baked into corn bread cakes. I use a homemade dog biscuit from corn meal and meat in the following way. The meat stock is boiled over night in a kettle and the unstrained soup is used instead of water with the meal in making dough, which is put in pans of two or three inches in thickness and baked in a slow oven till hard all the way through. This will take a day. These cakes are rich and should not be fed too often, but they can be kept a month, and I never saw a terrier that did not relish them. In summer, fish boiled twenty-four hours, till the bones are all soft, makes a nice change from the meat soups of the winter. There are many who might be called canine vegetarians, but experimenting has convinced me that meat is the best and most natural food for the dog. Sirloin does cost a lot of money these days, but hearts, lungs, heads, odds and ends of ribs, and shank bones do not cost so much, and you can always make arrangements with a butcher to save you these. Under no circumstances feed meat that is decayed. It does not have to be as fresh as you demand for your own table, if you take care to cook it thoroughly, but meat that is mouldy or rotting is poison, not food. Most kennels feed twice a day,--a light lunch in the morning and the regular day's feed in the evening. The morning bite can be bread or biscuits with a little soup over them. The evening meal ought to be all that the dog will comfortably eat without stuffing. If any food is left in the dishes it should be cleaned away before night, and a dog who is "off his feed" should have attention. Dogs vary as much as people in the amount they will eat. One gobbler is always thin, while a dainty eater will put on more flesh than necessary. It is the height of foolishness to pamper a dog's taste and make him an epicure, but neither is it wise to treat them all just alike. Exercise naturally follows feeding in our consideration of the health of the dog. Exercise, and plenty of it, is the best tonic, it keeps the muscles hard and the stomach in shape; it prevents fatness, and is just play for a dog. There is, however, exercise and exercise. To walk a dog along on a lead is exercise, but three minutes' free running is worth half an hour of "taking the dog out for a walk" after the manner of the young lady who lives in the city. Each kennel should have an exercising yard, a lot as big as possible, where the dogs can be turned out for a romp. One wants to be a little careful about leaving a lot of dogs turned out together, for their likes and dislikes are as strong as our own. I remember with sorrow an experience of this kind. A recently purchased dog was added to a run full of home bred youngsters, and because he was older and bigger he played the bully till one bright morning three of his victims combined forces and gave him a lesson in manners. It was a lesson for his owner too, for the dog's ear was so chewed that he was ruined for showing. The last item in the care of the dog is grooming, but it is at least as important as any of the others we have taken up. Most dogs are washed too often and not brushed often enough. Washing once in two weeks in summer and once a month in winter is all that is needed to keep a terrier clean, but he should be brushed daily. In washing a dog start at the head with a good disinfectant soap and work backwards and downwards, for fleas make for the head when threatened with drowning and only in this way can these pests be gotten rid of. It is well to let the soap stay in the coat a few minutes, but it must be all washed out very carefully before drying the dog. The daily grooming should consist first of a combing with a fairly fine comb to clean out matted dirt and hair. This should be followed by a sharp brushing with what is called in stable a dandy brush. The finishing touches will be a rub down with a hound glove, such as is sold in the kennel supply stores. Such treatment will keep a terrier in almost perfect show form all the time and the stimulation of the skin will be found to act as a regular tonic. Housed in clean, draftless kennels; given good food with lots of exercise, and with some little attention bestowed on his toilet, a terrier is sure to be healthy and happy. Prevention is proverbially better than cure, and the little work of keeping a terrier well is nothing compared to the care of a sick dog. Dogs do not make very pleasant patients, and there is the added difficulty in finding out just what really ails them, for even the most intelligent of our animals cannot tell us where his aches are and how a dose of certain medicine affects him. CHAPTER IV BREEDING TERRIERS The principles upon which Darwin based his theory of evolution--which are now accepted by scientists the world over as biological laws--are the very same as those under which the dog breeder works. Modern animal breeding is evolution in which man plays Dame Nature's part. Breeding is, however, far from being an exact science, though it is continually becoming more and more scientific in its methods. We cannot sit down, a pencil in our fingers and paper before us, and with the aid of the stud book and a set of mathematical formulas figure out a dog that will surely be a champion. We can, however, with a knowledge of the scientific data that biologists have collected in their research work supplementing the lore and traditions of the kennels, come nearer and nearer to the breeder's ideal of "a champion in every litter." It is quite obvious that with such plastic materials to work with we can never hope to have a perfectly uniform product, but who would have it so? Dog breeding is now more uncertain than roulette, twice as fascinating as the stock market, as interestingly exciting as auction bridge. Make it a matter of mathematically exact rules working out as invariably and regularly as a machine, and the charm has vanished. The three principles of Darwin's idea of how and why evolution acts, are heredity, variation, and selection. The law of heredity says that like will produce like; that two Airedales will have Airedale puppies; two Scotties will have Scotties; two Irish terriers will have Irish terriers. The law of variation says that no two dogs, even if they be of the same litter, will ever be exactly alike even in the smallest details. No two St. Bernards were ever alike, nor were the smallest teeth of the two smallest Pomeranians ever identical. There is ample evidence to show that the chemical composition of the muscles, bones, and blood of different animals of the same species are different, and even vary considerably in one individual at different times. The law of selection is the law of the struggle for existence, the survival of the fittest. The three laws together make up the theory of evolution by means of natural selection. What man does in breeding is the making and improving of species by artificial selection. He takes advantage of the law of heredity to establish breeds. If like always exactly reproduced like, however, that is as far as he could ever get, but because there is infinite variation, the offspring differ from their parents. By selecting those that come nearest his ideal, the breeder does just the same as Dame Nature when she kills off the unfit. Since earliest times, man, more or less without thought or any knowledge of the whys and wherefores, has been carrying on scientific breeding in an unscientific way. Ever since he has kept domestic animals, his selection, formerly more or less unconscious, has been exerting its powerful force. For generations, the dog fanciers have been doing this: picking out the dogs and bitches most to their liking and mating them. The result is that while all breeds of dogs are closely enough related to inter-breed, still some are of comparative age and most breed wonderfully true to type. Until quite recently, the dog breeders have been following the old, unscientific method, with some additional effort to correct faulty points in their dogs. That is, they have picked out individuals for breeding stock that came as near as possible to their ideals, and if the prospective mother was bad in head they selected a stud dog strong in this point; while a very good coated matron might be mated to a poor coated dog provided he possessed marked excellencies in other directions. Unfortunately, but very scant attention was paid to the dams. This was largely from economical considerations, which led them to believing, or thinking they did merely because they wanted to, that "any old bitch with a pedigree was good enough to breed from." To bolster up their economy, they said that the pups inherited their looks from their sire and their dispositions from their dam. Two changes have taken place in the past decade. Breeders now know that physically as well as mentally the dam is quite as important as the sire. Moreover, they have learned that individual characteristics, however marked they may appear to be, do not have the force of family traits. In other words, a short, thick headed bitch bred to the longest headed dog alive would have short headed pups, if that dog had short headed parents and grandparents. These two fundamental bits of knowledge, learned originally from the biologists, have had a big effect on breeding operations. A logical outgrowth of the importance that has been placed on family, with the naturally lessened emphasis on the individual, has been an increased number of the devotees of line rather than in-breeding. In-breeding is beyond all doubt the strongest weapon the dog breeder has, but it is a boomerang that is very apt to come back and knock its thrower in the head. In-breeding is the breeding together of the blood of one dog--mother to son, or brother to sister. Line-breeding is the breeding together of dogs of the same general strain, comparable to second or third cousins among people. These breeding experiments fix the good and bad points of a dog or a strain very strongly. Carried to an extreme, they result in bad constitutions, lack of gameness, and in extreme cases, in actual deformity. Such breeding demands that only the strongest and youngest dogs be mated. In selecting a sire, one should pick out a dog of recognized breeding, whose ancestors were dogs of the type you desire. A winner and a son of winners has better chances of being a sire of winners than an unknown dog of doubtful family, but it is not always wise to rush to the latest champion. A popular bench hero is apt to be over-worked at stud. If your bitch is very young send her to an older dog and vice versa. Best results are not obtained if the dogs are over eight years old--that is a very good age limit at which to retire them from active service. A bitch may be bred at her first "heat," if she is not too young and is strong and healthy. Most people know that a bitch comes in season, or is "in heat," fairly regularly at six months intervals, and that this is the only time when she will have any sexual connections with a dog. The terriers generally come into their first heat when eight or nine months old and are remarkable for the regularity of their periods. The first sign is a swelling of the external parts and bleeding. After a week or ten days the bleeding is followed by a thickish, white discharge. This is the time to breed her. One service is all that is necessary--the old timers to the contrary notwithstanding. Two services were formerly given, but this is no longer done by the best breeders. The time of gestation is only sixty-three days, and the second service, two days after the first, has been suspected of destroying the effect of the former. Statistics show that there are fewer misses and just as many puppies when there is but one service, as when there are two. The single service is obviously a great saving of the energies of the stud dog, who, if he be popular, has to make heavy demands on his vitality. One who places a dog at public stud assumes certain responsibilities,--the keeping of his dog in perfect health and attending most carefully to visiting matrons. The stud dog should have lots of exercise, all the water he wants, and an abundance of good food. Raw lean meat, chopped fine or run through a mechanical grinder, makes a fine supplementary diet, and raw eggs and a little sherry can be added to this if he becomes at all run down. Visiting bitches must be guarded against all possible chance of a misalliance. If practical, they should be kept far off from the other kennel inmates, for quiet is something to be greatly desired for them. When they arrive, they should be given a run and drink, but do not feed them till they have quieted down a little from the excitement of the trip. The Golden Rule covers the care of these visitors like a blanket--just treat them as you would have a bitch of your own treated under the same circumstances. When a bitch has returned to her home kennels, she should take the rest cure a day or so. After that for a month or six weeks she need be treated no differently from any of her kennel mates, save to see that she has plenty to eat and that her stomach and bowels are in perfect order. When she begins to show signs of heavy whelp take her away from the others, and while her exercise wants to be kept up by long walks she should not be allowed to run or romp, or she may miscarry. Her box should be fixed a few days before the pups are to be born. Let it be large enough for her to stretch out in, but not big enough to give her room in which to move about, or she may kill or injure the pups by treading on them. Once in a while one has a bitch who neglects her pups disgracefully, but the usual thing, in terriers at least, is over attention to the sacrifice of her own condition. A few bitches eat their newborn pups. Fear is the motive, but once done they seem to get the habit. Feeding quantities of raw meat just before they are to whelp is the best, but not a sure cure. Bad mothers, ones who walk on their babies, neglect them, or turn cannibal, are very rare among the terriers. To return to the box: it should, as I have said, be just large enough to be comfortable. The best bedding for the whelping time is a bit of old carpet, to be substituted for straw when the family has safely arrived. A little shelf, about three inches from the bottom and two inches wide, tacked round the box will prove to be good puppy life insurance, for it keeps them from being pressed to death against the sides of the nest. Terriers whelp better if left to themselves. It is the rarest thing for them to have any trouble, and if one will just keep a weather eye open to see that things are really going well, they will continue to go well without interference. The pups should be born inside two hour intervals, and if this limit be passed the mother needs attention. The drugs used, however, are so strong and so poisonous and an operation is so delicate that it is invariably better to call in the veterinarian's skilled aid. After the puppies are all born the mother should be given a bowl of thin oatmeal gruel and left to herself. She will ordinarily clean up the nest herself, eating the after-births and licking the puppies clean. I have found that after she has cleaned a pup, which she does as soon as it is born, it is advisable to take it from her, wrap it in flannel to keep it warm and dry, and to wash off the navel cord with some mild disinfectant such as listerine, or a very dilute solution of bichloride of mercury or carbolic acid. Cold is fatal to very young puppies, and the navel cord is the source of a germ infection that kills many in the nest. The dam, while nursing her family, must have an abundance of food--plenty of soups, gruels, meats, and milk, but not many vegetables, for they are full of water and waste. She needs more concentrated nourishment. When you think that you can fairly "see puppies grow," you can appreciate how great a drain there is on the mother. Because of this, it is never advisable to let a terrier attempt to raise more than five at the outside, and four is really better than five. If a foster cannot be obtained--very often the local pound will have a healthy mongrel which they will let you have for the license fee--it is kindness and economy to kill off the puppies in excess of four or five. What ones to destroy is a delicate question. It is usually safe to discard the last one born, who is so often the runt of the family that he is known to kennel men and veterinarians as the "wreckling." It takes a very experienced eye to tell much about the points of a new born puppy, but two salient features to be remembered are that not once in a hundred times will a light eye get darker and any tendency to big ears is comparatively easy to spot and invariably gets worse. A good safe rule in terrier puppies is to save the ones with the longest, flattest heads, the heaviest, straightest fore legs, dark eyes, small ears, short bodies, taking these points in the order named, but discarding any pup who is glaringly off in any of these details. The mother will wean the pups herself when they begin to grow their teeth, and it is best to leave this to nature. When their eyes are opened they should be taught to drink for themselves by sticking their noses in a saucer of sweetened milk. About the time they are fully weaned they should be treated for worms. After this first worming, they should have similar treatment every six weeks till they are six months old, and twice more after that before they are out of the puppy class. All dogs should be treated for worms twice a year as long as they live. It is the style, or custom, or what you will, to cut the tails of Airedales, Irish, Welsh, and fox terrier puppies. This ought to be done when they are three or four days old. Three vertebrae are left, that is, the tail is cut at the third "knuckle," not counting the first one at the root of the tail. Rumor says that the operation is done with the kennelman's or groom's teeth, but in reality a dull pair of scissors is the usual and best instrument. The skin should be pulled back toward the body, so that there will be a little extra to cover the end, and not leave it bare of hair. Growing pups need three things--food, room, and sunlight. When first weaned, they should be fed milk, gruels, and soups five times a day and the number of meals gradually lessened and the amount of solid food gradually increased till at a year old they are fed the same as their older kennel companions. The more room puppies have, the better they are. This is probably the reason that puppies farmed out always do so much better than those kennel raised. They may get all sorts of food and they certainly do not get the attention given the ones in the kennels, but a farm raised youngster is always healthier, bigger, and stronger. Sunlight acts on puppies as it does on growing plants. Winter pups are proverbially more troublesome than those born in the spring. Most fanciers, therefore, see to it that their brood bitches whelp only in the spring. One litter a year is enough to ask of any terrier. In conclusion, a word to the small kennel owner. He is apt to think things are unfairly distributed and that he has not the chance either in the show ring, the field, or the breeding kennel that the large owner has. In the latter two, and especially in the breeding kennel, he really has an advantage. It is well known that the greatest number of good dogs are bred by owners of from one to five bitches, for they study their needs more carefully and can give the puppies better attention. Let the small breeder but study his breed; know its past great dogs; understand the meaning of pedigrees; mate his bitches according to his knowledge; rear his puppies carefully, and he will find that he will turn out better home breds than ever come from the big kennels. CHAPTER V DOG SHOWS AND SHOWING The Britisher's inborn love of sport, dogs, and breeding invented the dog show, but not so very long ago, for even in England bench shows, as a recognized institution, are only a little over half a century old. Their fame and popularity have, however, circled the globe. The English fancier can truly boast that there are more thoroughbred dogs to the mile in Great Britain than to fifty miles in any other country, and one is not surprised to find that there are more bench shows held there in a week than in a month in the United States. We, on this side of the ocean, are their nearest rival, for while European countries have taken up the dog and his showing, still they are as much behind us as we are behind "the tight little isle." Continental fanciers have a great deal to learn about dogs, and from their very dispositions it is doubtful if, with the possible exception of the serious, hard-working, painstaking Germans, they will ever become truly doggy. In the first place, they count their pennies very carefully when buying a dog; and in the second place, they are not really fanciers at heart, but have merely taken up dogs as a fashionable whim. The first American shows were run in a haphazard, friendly, go-as-you-please way, but it very soon became evident that some governing body was as much a necessity in dogdom as on the race track, in college athletics, or among yachtsmen. Accordingly, the American Kennel Club grew up naturally to fill this place. In form the A.K.C., as it is called, is a congress. Its members are not individuals, but clubs, which are represented by regularly elected delegates at the meetings of the parent organization. These clubs are of two types, the local clubs, composed of the fanciers of a certain city or district, and the specialty clubs, whose members are the fanciers the country over devoted to one particular breed. The local clubs, like the Westminster Kennel Club of New York City or the Philadelphia Dog Show Association, are organized primarily for the giving of bench shows. The specialty clubs, of which the Scottish Terrier Club of America and the Airedale Terrier Club of New England are examples, are devoted primarily to fostering the interests of their breed, which they do by offering special prizes, seeing that competent judges officiate, and even by holding shows where only dogs of their breed are exhibited. All shows, whether given by local or specialty associations, are held under A.K.C. rules, and the regulation of these shows is the main work done at the club's offices at 1 Liberty Street, New York. The A.K.C., however, does more than this. It publishes the dog Stud Book, a volume annually, and also a semi-monthly, official journal, the _A.K.C. Gazette_. Moreover, the club is judicial as well as legislative and executive in its functions, and tries the offenders of the kennel world. Last, but not least, it has jurisdiction over field trials, both for bird dogs and hounds. The A.K.C. recognizes seventy-seven distinct breeds as thoroughbred dogs--not counting several subdivision of breeds into varieties based on coats or colors. Any dog of any of these recognized breeds may be entered in the Stud Book, provided it has three generations of known, pure-blood pedigree. The registration fee is one dollar and includes the assigning of an official number to the dog, entry in the Stud Book for that year, a certificate of his registration, and the right, throughout the life of the dog, to show him, regardless of ownership, at any A.K.C. show. Unregistered dogs have to be "listed" for each show they attend, and a fee of twenty-five cents is always charged. The usual classes at a bench show are the puppy, novice, limit, open, and winners', and in the more popular breeds these are divided by sex. The puppy class is for any dog between the ages of six months and one year, but, of course, none can be entered whose date of birth, sire, dam, place of birth, and breeder are unknown. The novice class is for dogs bred in the United States who have never won a first prize, wins in the puppy class being excepted. The limit class is for dogs who have not won six first prizes in that class, but dogs who have won their championship are barred. Any dog, who is over six months of age, may be shown in the open class. If three of the above classes are given at a show, a winners' class is added. There is no entry fee for this class, but in it the winners of the other classes meet and are judged. At different shows various other classes are sometimes given, as a junior class for dogs between six and eighteen months, a class for champions, and many divisions are made according to weight and color in different breeds. It is by wins in the winners' class that a dog secures the right to prefix to his name the honorable and much-coveted title of "Champion." To win this, the dog must get fifteen points. Every win in the winners' class counts a certain number of points according to the number of dogs actually on the bench at the show: 1000 dogs or over, five points; 750 dogs or over, four points; 500 dogs or over, three points; 250 dogs or over, two points; under 250 dogs, one point. Specialty shows devoted to one breed count five points. Fifteen of these points, provided three of them have been won at one show and at least three different judges have awarded the dog first in the winners' class, make a dog a champion. The A.K.C. gives a championship certificate to the owner, who can also buy a championship medal for three dollars, if his dog is registered. Novices are cautioned to read most carefully the rules published in the premium lists of all A.K.C. dog shows before they fill out their entry blanks and to exercise great care in doing this, for mistakes are on their own heads. Their dog may be disqualified and his wins canceled should they fail to fill in the necessary particulars correctly. In case of any attempt at fraud, they will be themselves disqualified, which is a doggy ex-communication. Disqualified persons are not only barred from judging, showing, or registering, but dogs owned or bred by them during their term of disqualification cannot be shown or registered. No dog that is lame (except temporarily), blind, castrated, spayed, deaf, dyed, or in any way "faked" can be shown, and all entries are examined by a registered veterinarian when they first come to the show. They must be passed by him, as sound and free from contagious disease, before they will be accepted. Every dog must be the _bona fide_ property of the exhibitor. These, and the other rules, are simple, founded on common justice and reason, and easy to understand. They are all such that intent to deceive can be the only reason for their neglect or misunderstanding. To show a dog at his best, in the very pink of perfect condition, is the only way to insure that he will be placed by the judge where he deserves. Many a dog, really better than his rival in the ring, has gone down because of condition, and defeat is not only unpleasant, but also a great handicap to a show dog. Perfect health, no fat, well-developed muscles--these are the foundation of a terrier's "fitness." A little change in diet or exercise is the best and the easiest way to accomplish this physical perfection. Tonics and pills and powders, conditioners, as they are called, are not all they are cracked up to be. It is like doping a race-horse or a pugilist. It works for a time, but the end is inevitable and always the same. A terrier is easy to get "fit," and the only thing that may cause the exhibitor loss of sleep is the condition of the wire coat. Wire coats are--there is no use fishing about for any excuse--wire coats are a bother. A great, big three-quarters of the trouble is overcome, however, if the dog has been carefully and regularly groomed. Such a dog does not need much trimming,--mainly a little cleaning up about the head and legs. On the other hand, one who has been neglected needs the services of a skilled canine tonsorial artist to put him down before the judge with a coat that meets the requirements of the ring. The A.K.C. lets one pluck and pull with his fingers, and brush and comb away as much as he wishes, but the use of knives, razors, scissors, or clippers is strictly tabooed. It is too bad that the trimming of wire terriers is carried so far as is the style to-day, for, even if legalized by the A.K.C, it so alters a dog and so improves a bad coat that it savors pretty strongly of faking. There is, however, little chance of there being any immediate reform, and to show successfully one must obey the dictates of Mistress Fashion. A dog in perfect condition, with his coat trimmed in the approved style, may yet fail to get his deserts in the show ring, if not properly handled. The professional handlers are past masters at the art of making a dog appear at his very best in the ring, and a great deal of their success is due to this skill. The cry of the partiality of judges to professionally shown dogs has been often heard, but it is not so serious to one who will watch a class actually being shown on the sawdust. The humorousness of the man who can realize the better showing of the dogs handled by the paid professionals in every ring but his own appeals to a close and impartial observer. The novice cannot do better than to steal a leaf out of the book of the professional handlers, and by a careful study of their methods, learn to show his own dogs so that they will always be at their best, making their strongest points apparent and hiding their weaknesses, and religiously seeing to it that he catches the judicial eye. It is well to take a puppy destined for a show career and to teach him to show. It is just as easy to teach him to stand firm on his pins, all alert, full of fire, yet not bobbing about like a jumping-jack, as it is to have him sit up and beg or to "play dead." To a "public dog" it is an innately more useful accomplishment. A little bit of boiled liver, the sweetest tit-bit on a dog's menu, is an excellent thing to carry into the ring with you, but it is a grave mistake to be forever teasing and nagging at your entry. Leave him alone as much as possible. Do not wear out his spirits and your own patience, but just see that he is kept awake, standing firm so as to show his front to advantage, and so placed that the judge looks at him from the most advantageous position. If he has a poor colored eye, keep his tail pointed at the source of the light; if his back is plenty long, do not let the judge see more of his profile than possible, and so on, with different rules for each dog in the world. Bad manners in the ring are the poorest of poor sportsmanship. Never try to hide another's dog and do not let your dog pick at or worry another entry. The terriers are all inclined to "start things" in the ring anyway, and each exhibitor ought to do his best to prevent the ring from becoming a whirling, barking, tugging bedlam. No judge can do his best under such disconcerting, if exciting, conditions, and he has a hard enough time at best, so exhibitors ought to help him as much as they are able. Very, very seldom does one meet an exhibitor who will come out frankly and say that he was beaten fairly, even if he has shown a regular "rotter" against an "out-and-outer." It does not cost one single, red cent to congratulate the owner of the dog who has beaten yours. If he has done so fairly, it is but the decent thing to do, and if you think your dog is the better, why you have the consolation of knowing that there is going to be another show where another judge will hand out the ribbons probably the very next week. It is also a mighty nice thing to find a good point or two to mention in the dogs that have been placed behind yours, assuming, of course, that you have not had the fate of being "given the gate." These little courtesies of the ring are often sadly lacking at our American shows. Fanciers have a world of things in common and, instead of bitterest rivals, they should be the best of friends. Friendly rivalry adds ninety per cent. to the pleasures of being a fancier, and in this a man gets just about what he gives. In sending a dog to a show, even if the distance be but a mile or two and you are going along, too, it is best to crate him. It costs a little more, but many an unboxed dog has been lost or injured, and the railroads assume absolutely no responsibility in these cases. The express companies do charge a very high rate (one and a half times that charged for merchandise) for very poor service, but they are at least legally responsible for dogs committed to their charge. In England, wicker hampers are very popular for shipping dogs, but here, while lightness is to be sought, they are hardly strong enough to withstand the gentle care of our "baggage heavers." The shows provide bedding, food, and water, but the fancier supplies his own chains and leads. To fasten a dog on the exhibition bench, bench chains, as they are called, are used. These are either nickel or brass finish, with snaps at both ends, and by means of them a dog can be so fastened that he can move about comfortably and yet not hang himself by getting over the front or get into trouble with his neighbors beyond the partitions. In the show ring, however, these chains would be too heavy, and it is the custom to show terriers on long leather leads. There are two styles in vogue. One is a regular lead fastened with a snap to an ordinary collar, which should be a half inch strap of plain leather. The other is the slip collar, or a long lead with a loop at one or both ends. The loop is slipped over the dog's head and fastened by a sliding clasp. All leads and collars for terriers should be light and plain. Fancy, studded, bebelled, and beribboned collars look about as well on a terrier as diamonds on a bellboy. The showing of dogs is rapidly becoming one of our most popular sports. The number of shows increases wonderfully each year, and every season the entries become more and more numerous. Daily, there are recruits enlisting in the army of dog fanciers. There is no denying the potency of the charm woven by the dog show. The confirmed fancier fairly loves the barking roar of the benched dogs; that peculiarly distinctive smell--a strange mixture of dog, disinfectant, and sawdust; the excitement of the ring; the doggy parties at lunches, dinners, and at night after the show is over. It is all different from anything else in the world of sport, this charm of the bench show, and it is sure to hold in a fast grip any dog lover who falls under its sway. CHAPTER VI THE USEFUL AIREDALE Had there never been a specific need for just such a dog as the Airedale, he would never have existed. He was "manufactured" to meet a distinct want: the need for a big, strong dog, game to the bottom and with a liking for water, who would serve the all-round purpose of pal, guard, poacher, and vermin destroyer. Had the Airedale not filled this bill, he would never have persisted. He would have died out ignominiously, without even winning a local fame. The Airedale, however, is not only all that his Yorkshire "manufacturers" longed for, but he has shown himself much more. Wider acquaintance with the world has placed him under many different conditions, and he has not very often been weighed and found wanting. He has made his home in all countries from Alaska to India. He has been used for all sorts of game from the grizzly to mice; he has done police duty in France, Germany, and America; he has drawn sleds in the Arctic and driven sheep in Australia--all these things and many others he has done, and in the doing of them he has won a reputation for intelligence, docility, and affectionate disposition that few less talented dogs do not envy. As a writer in the _Belgian Breeder_, the Brussels journal devoted to horses, dogs, and livestock, has said, he is indeed "_le chien le plus utile_," which is freely Americanized by the doggy epigram that "an Airedale will do anything any other dog can do and then lick the other dog." The Airedale is indeed ideally useful, and he is also usefully ideal, for he has size and strength; nobody ever questioned his courage; he is blessed with exceptional brains; and he is obedient, faithful, and affectionate. What more can man ask of a dog? By inheritance he is a thorough sportsman and by instinct a perfect gentleman. Training, education, and specialization are all familiar terms these days. It is acknowledged that the skilled dwarf is more powerful than the ignorant giant: that the efficiency of the genius is increased many times by proper schooling. So it is with dogs. By nature and by the art of breeding the Airedale has been endowed with gifts fitting him to do whatever a dog may be called upon to do, but proper training will enable him to do it more easily and better. With a dog of so many talents it is somewhat difficult to decide just the best way in which to take up the different branches of his education, but let us divide his training upon the basis of the Airedale in town and in the country. I suppose that it is useless to say, for dogs will always be kept in the cities as companions, that a Harlem flat is just about the worst place in the world for an Airedale. Any terrier just cries for room. He is lively as a cricket and as full of spirits as a nut is of kernel--both excellent qualities in any dog outside a flat. The city at best is no place for any dog; no place for terriers of all dogs, and of all terriers, the Airedale! Yet hundreds of dogs live in town, and they serve their purpose. Also, they have a great deal to learn. House-breaking is the first lesson that has to be taught the city dog. Usually it saves time and money to see that the dog you buy is already so trained, but this cannot always be done. It is a risky business to guarantee a dog house-broken and too much faith must not be placed in any such promises. It often happens that while a dog will always behave perfectly in one house he may have to be trained all over again when introduced into another. This is mainly true of puppies, so you need not consider yourself basely deceived if, in this particular, a youngster does not live strictly up to the word of his seller. If your dog arrives in a crate, he should be given a run the very first thing after unpacking. The safest way is to bring him into the house on a lead and to keep him tied up short in some convenient place for a couple of days, taking him out regularly at fixed hours. He will soon get into these habits. Should he offend, he ought to be punished at the scene of his crime, taking care that he is aware of his offense and tied up again. A very few days of this treatment will house-break any dog who is old enough to understand what you are driving at. Trying to house-break a very young puppy is cruelty pure and simple. In punishing a dog, do not beat him about the ears and never use either a fine whip, or a stick. It has happened twice in my knowledge that a dog has had his hearing seriously damaged by a rupturing of the ear drums caused by blows on the head. A whip will cut the skin of a dog and a stick may break a bone. A smart slap under the jaw, accompanied by a word-scolding in a severe tone and uncompromising manner, is a thousand times better. In extreme cases a strap may be used, but always remember that the object is not to flog the dog into cowardly and broken submission, but merely to impress upon him that he is not doing as you wish. In all cases it is best to punish a dog "red handed," but in no case should you punish him "red headed." Unless the dog knows for what he is being punished, you are like Xerxes whipping the Hellespont for wrecking his ships, except that a dog has more feelings than the sea. The best way to be sure that the dog knows is to catch him in the very act. This has the disadvantage, however, of making it likely that you will be in a temper. No dog should ever be punished when you have not got perfect control over yourself. The patience of Job was never tried by a healthy, terrier puppy, or it might have reached its limit. A spoiled rug, the flower-beds wrecked, a new hat chewed up, slippers and rubbers all over the house, religious disobedience, all these things do cultivate a temper, but temper and dog-training do not live together successfully. In training a dog be sure that he knows exactly what you want him to do, and then be sure that he always does it. Make obedience a habit. In time, it will come as natural to him as breathing. When you say "Come here," see that he comes, and let him understand that "Lie down" means just that and nothing more. It is very useful to have a dog that lives in the house "stay put" when placed in a chair or a corner, and this should be part of his education. It is very bad dog manners to jump up on visitors. Even to those who love dogs it is often disagreeably bothersome. It is bad enough in a toy dog, but in an Airedale it is worse in the ratio of five pounds to fifty. I am not personally in favor of teaching a dog tricks. A trick dog soon learns to "love the limelight," and will be continually begging to be allowed to show off. Besides, I have an inborn dislike to seeing a dog doing stunts, and I know the feeling is shared by others who are fond of a good dog. It seems a silly thing to see a big, strong terrier begging or walking on his hind legs. It may be very clever for poodles and pugs, but with a man's dog--and the terriers are all "man's dogs"--it always calls to my mind a painting in the Louvre in which Hercules is depicted sitting at the feet of Venus industriously winding up a ball of yarn. However, tastes differ, and these tricks are all easy to teach a bright pupil, who has already learned the lesson of minding. When the city dog goes out for a walk his training gets its real test. What a lovely spectacle it is to see a dog owner rushing and yelling after a dog who runs about paying no more attention to him than to the clouds overhead. It is a sight that has but one equal, that of a portly, pompous gentleman chasing his own hat. Even if a dog is perfectly trained indoors, he may break loose when first taken out on the street, but he can easily be made to understand that master is to be boss on the street as well as in the house. One of the best habits a city dog can have is that of keeping close to his owner's heels crossing streets. A dog is perfectly well able to cross a crowded street, but in busy thoroughfares a dog and his master are apt to get separated, and all may not be so fortunate as the Washington physician who had his champion Airedale returned with a note which read: "Dere Doc--Here is your Yeller Dog. Will you Please give me 15 cents I hate to ask so much but i had to fead him 2 days." The Airedale who lives in the country is more fortunate than his brother in town. His preliminary education is just the same, but he gets a college course in hunting, and maybe a little post-graduate work in cattle driving. All that has been said about house-breaking and teaching to mind applies with equal force to the country dog. If there are not so many interested spectators to make it embarrassing it is just as provoking to have a runaway dog in the meadows and pastures as in the streets and avenues. A single motor at sixty or seventy miles an hour on the turnpike is harder for a dog to dodge than the whole flood of traffic that streams up and down the city thoroughfares. So, city or country, teach your dog to mind. An Airedale will take as naturally to rats, woodchucks, and such vermin as a lot of little yellow ducklings will to the mill pond. But to make assurance doubly sure, it is best to introduce him to mice or small rats when he is four or five months old, then leading on and on till you can end with the biggest game found in America. This is the way terriers are broken in England. It has been found that if a terrier is jumped bang at Mr. Woodchuck, for example, he may be spoiled by biting off more than he can chew the first time. In the Rockies, where Airedales are used on grizzly and mountain lion, the dogs hunt in packs, and the old dogs train the youngsters. Example and experience make an excellent pair of tutors, and the work is such that unless the lessons are grasped pretty quickly, there will be a dead dog. The gradual system of breaking applies to water. The veins of the Airedale are filled with the blood of the otter-hound, and from this ancestor he has inherited a love for the water. Practically all Airedales will swim naturally without any training at all, but once in a while there comes along one who does not take to water. He should be coaxed in, not taken by the scruff of the neck and pitched overboard. Methods like that are not generally successful when dogs are concerned. In hunting and swimming the Airedale is but following the strongest instincts that he has. All one has to do is to curb and direct these instincts. Experience will do the rest, for the dog has brains and is very quick to learn, and the teacher is proverbially a good one. In driving cattle and sheep, however, the dog is going into a new trade, as it were, and not one to which he was born. He proves his versatility by the quickness with which he can learn to be an excellent drover. The easiest way is to take him out with a dog experienced in this work. If this cannot be done, one will have to train him himself, and this is not so difficult as it sounds, but it is best to make sure that the dog has carefully learned that minding trick above mentioned before undertaking this. Almost any and all dogs are watch-dogs, but the Airedale, because of his size and intelligence, is a particularly good one. It is not the wisest policy to chain up a dog at night, for he will be much more apt to sound false alarms, and in any case of real need he is powerless to give active defense of himself or his friends. The watch-dog ought not to have his big, heavy meal at night, or he will go to sleep and snore peacefully till cock crow, while if fed but lightly, he will rest in a series of cat naps, if a dog can do that. The Airedale is more practically useful than any other breed of dog. He can do more things better than any other variety. It is this eminent utility of his that has been one of the greatest factors in his success, but he would never have become so widely popular with men, women, and children of all classes had it not been that behind his usefulness there is sterling character and good disposition. CHAPTER VII COMMON AILMENTS The terrier owner is a "lucky devil," for his dogs do not, as a rule, spend a great deal of time in the hospital. All members of the terrier family, from the giant of the race, the Airedale, way down to little Scottie, owe a big debt to nature for having blessed them with remarkably robust constitutions. They do not catch cold from every draft; they throw off the various contagious diseases; even when really sick, they make wonderfully rapid recoveries. All dog flesh, however, is heir to certain diseases, and even the most healthy and strong are not exceptions to this rule. Many of the books on doggy subjects are so deep and technical that the poor novice who has waded through their sonorous and involved phrases is really more at sea about how to treat his sick dog than before he took them from the shelf. Other books on dogs, especially the popular ones, are so brief in their descriptions that no amount of study of them can teach much. It is my object to steer between these two extremes and to tell something of the common ailments, so all may understand their causes, symptoms, and treatments. Two good rules for the amateur veterinarian to learn at the very outset are: In case of any doubt, or if the case is at all serious, time, money, and maybe the dog's life will be saved by calling at once upon a registered D.V.S.; and nine times out of ten a dog's ailments are the same, with the same symptoms and results, as among humans. A dog, therefore, can receive the same treatment as people, for the same medicines act upon him as upon yourself. In the case of the terriers, the dose is one-fourth of that for an adult human. To use more commonsense than medicine is another good rule to use, for nursing and a little attention to diet often effect a cure without any drugs at all. Remembering that the same treatment that you would give yourself cures your dogs makes it unnecessary to go into such ailments as cuts, burns, colds, stomach disorders, and poisons. There are, however, some distinctively canine ailments. For convenience let us take these up alphabetically. _Canker of the ear_ is not by any means so common in terriers as in the long-eared breeds, but it sometimes affects dogs who go a great deal in the water, though it may be caused by any foreign substance getting into the ear. There are two forms--the external and the internal. The external shows itself by sores on the ear flaps, which are most painful and cause the dog to scratch and paw at his ear. The sores ought to be cleaned thoroughly with hot water and dressed with zinc ointment daily. In bad cases the head may be bandaged to prevent aggravation of the ulcers by scratching. The internal form is harder to cure. Its symptoms are hot, inflamed ears, pain, pawing, and rubbing the head against the floor or walls. The interior of the ear should be douched out with warm water and boracic acid or witch hazel, and then syringed with a solution of one part of spirits of wine and twenty parts of water. Afterwards the ear should be carefully dried out with cotton on the end of a pencil--care must be taken not to injure the interior of the ear--and finally dusted with boracic acid. _Chorea_, or, as it is sometimes called, St. Vitus's Dance, is generally a legacy of distemper. It is a peculiar nervous twitching, generally affecting the forelegs and shoulders. It is almost incurable, but good food, exercise, and a tonic may work wonders. _Cramps_ in the hindquarters may sometimes attack a dog who goes a great deal into the water and they are not unknown as a result of cold and damp kennels or great exposure to cold. The symptoms are a more or less complete paralysis of the hindlegs, accompanied by great pain. The dog should be given a hot bath and the affected parts, after a careful drying, should be rubbed well with chloroform liniment. _Diarrhoea_, which may be caused by food or worms, can usually be stopped by a mild purge of half castor oil and half syrup of buckthorn, which may be followed by a dose of prepared chalk. Boiled rice is an excellent food for dogs suffering from disordered bowels. _Distemper_ is the bane of the dog owner's existence. It is a highly contagious disease generally attacking puppies, and is comparable to scarlet fever in that one attack successfully gone through usually means immunity. It was formerly thought that distemper could arise spontaneously from improper feeding or unsanitary kenneling, but the germ of the disease has been isolated, and while poor food and dirty kennels increase the chances of the disease by lowering the dog's resistance, they are not in themselves causes. The distemper germ is possessed of remarkable vitality and may be transferred either directly from dog to dog or through the medium of crates, bedding, clothing, and even the air. Shows are a source of spreading the disease, though there is much less danger of this now than formerly for the veterinary inspection and proper disinfecting methods have improved conditions wonderfully. A bitch from an infected kennel may give distemper to the inmates of the kennels she visits for breeding purposes. Plenty of soap and water, disinfectant, and elbow grease make a distemper prevention that is much better than any cure. The discovery of the distemper germ has naturally resulted in the making of an anti-toxin, by attenuating the virus till a weakened form is obtained. Using this to inoculate a well dog, a mild form of the disease attacks him, but this "vaccination" has not proved unqualifiedly successful, especially when used by amateurs. The commonest form of distemper is catarrhal, with symptoms much like those of an ordinary cold, lack of appetite, fever, disordered bowels, vomiting, staring coat, rapid loss of flesh, and discharges from the nose and eyes. The distemper germ, however, may attack other organs than the nose and eyes. The lungs and bronchial tubes and the stomach and intestines are also seats of the trouble. These forms are harder to diagnose and harder to cure. The presence of dysentery and sometimes of jaundice are indications that the digestive tract is involved. I know of no sure cure for distemper, and I never knew a dog owner who did, though, to be sure, they all have their favorite remedies. There are no end of patent specifics on the market, and some of these are very good, but the best thing for a tyro to do is to call a veterinarian. Leave the doctoring to him, at least till you have had the experience gained by a couple of good cases of distemper in your kennels. There will be plenty for you to do without bother about prescribing. The dog with distemper must be isolated, and you must take the precautions that you would if there were smallpox in the neighborhood. Wash with disinfectants, burn sulphur candles, scrupulously destroy all bedding--use all the knowledge of antiseptic disinfecting that you have. As for the patient, you will find that nursing is just as important as medicine--in fact, the more I have to do with the disease, the less medicine I administer and the more care I give to nursing. Keep up the dog's strength with almost any sick room food that he will eat. Raw meat, eggs, gruels, soups, milk, all these are good, and the dog should be fed often. The discharges from the nose and eyes should be wiped away regularly. If the nose becomes very badly stopped up, so that breathing is difficult, the dog's head may be held over a pail of hot water in which a little turpentine has been dropped and he made to inhale the fumes. If the throat and bronchial tubes are affected, give a little cough syrup--any one will do, but be careful not to give enough to upset the stomach. See that the dog has plenty of water to drink and keep him out of all drafts, though the room must be well ventilated. _Fits_ seem to be a part of the life of most puppies. They are not dangerous and usually pass off without bad effects. But fits are a symptom, and the cause should be removed. They may be caused by worms, stomach troubles, or heat. Keep the dog quiet and give him a dose of castor oil and buckthorn. _Insects_ of several kinds take pleasure in seeing to it that neither the dog or his owner gets lazy. The commonest and the easiest to get rid of are fleas, but they are dangerous as being the cause of tapeworm, for the tapeworm of the dog spends part of his life (in the larva form) in the fleas. There are any number of good flea soaps on the market and a dozen good flea powders, so little need be said about ridding the dog of these pests. Lice are harder to get rid of, but the dog can be freed of them in the same way as of fleas. Care should be taken to get rid of as many of the lice eggs, little black specks that stick to the hair, as possible. Ticks are the least common, but because of their habit of burrowing into the skin cannot be washed out. The best way is to give the dog a good rubbing in a dressing composed of olive and kerosene oils, equal parts of each, followed by a bath. _Kennel Lameness_, or rheumatism, affects a dog similarly to human beings, there being a soreness of certain parts--usually the foreshoulders or back--and pain, with even swelling of the joints. The dog should be kept in a light, dry, well-ventilated place, his bowels kept open, and the food given light, but nourishing. A little sodium bicarbonate or sodium salicylate added to his drinking water will be found to be beneficial, and hot baths and rubbings with liniments eases the pain considerably. _Skin diseases_ are among the common troubles of the dog owner, for there are three varieties. The wire terriers seem to suffer a good deal from eczema,--this is especially true of Scotties,--and their owner is sure to know it before he has been in the game very long. It is a skin disease, noncontagious, arising from the blood and showing itself in red eruptions which burst, oozing their contents and forming scabs. The hair comes off, and by scratching the dog aggravates the condition. High feeding and too little exercise are the usual cause of the trouble, and the root of the matter must be gotten at before a cure can be effected. A good purge should be given and the dog put on a light, simple diet. The sores should be washed clean and then treated with a wash of four parts of sugar of lead and one part of zinc sulphate in water. Fowler's Solution is also given sometimes, but this is a poison and ought not to be administered save on a veterinarian's advice. There are two forms of mange--sarcoptic and follicular, both highly infectious, and the latter so hard to cure that many dog owners would almost rather kill a dog than go through the siege with the constant danger of inoculating other dogs. The sarcoptic form is more on the surface and attacks dogs under the legs, which become red and inflamed, little reddish pimples forming, which break and form dark red scabs. The follicular mange usually starts on the back near the tail or over the collar. The hair falls out, red scabs form and there is a peculiar odor. It is difficult to tell just which form one is dealing with after the case has gone far, but at the outset it is comparatively easy. Both of these manges are caused by parasites which live in the skin. The microscope reveals these, and this is the only way that one, at the outset, can be sure he is dealing with mange and not eczema. The dog should be thoroughly cleaned and then dressed with the following ointment: creosote 1/2 oz.; oil of cade 1 oz.; zinc ointment and lanoline each 3 ozs.; and sulphur 1/2 oz. This is not a pretty or a nice mixture, but it has done the work more than once for me. The main thing with mange is cleanliness and keeping everlastingly at it. Skipping a day in the treatment will add a week to the cure. Sarcoptic mange caught in time can be cured in two weeks. Follicular mange may take three months, or even longer, to be cured completely. _Worms_ are almost sure to be found in all dogs not regularly treated for them, and they are the cause of a good deal of trouble. Puppies are favorite victims for these internal parasites and youngsters who serve as hosts for these undesirable visitors never do well. Worms come from fleas, sheep and cattle stomachs and intestines, and sheep heads. Three varieties are common--the round, thread, and the tape, the last the most dangerous. Puppies should be given a good vermifuge when weaned and the treatment should be kept up all through the dog's life. Emaciation, vomiting, bloating of the stomach, bad breath, and dragging the rectum along the ground after stool are the usual evidences of worms, but the wise dog owner does not wait for such signs. There are several good vermifuges on the market, usually containing santonin, male fern, or acerca nut, but naturally I do not feel that this is the place to mention them by name. Almost any of them will do the work if the manufacturer's directions are followed. In conclusion, a word or two about giving medicines. The best way to hold a terrier is to sit in a low chair and place him so that his body is under you and his shoulders between your knees. To give a pill you do not need help for so small a dog, but by putting your left hand over his mouth and pressing you force him to open his mouth by forcing his lips against his teeth. Lift up his head and put the pill as far back as you can on his tongue and hold his mouth closed till he has swallowed. With liquids you will need an assistant to pour the medicine into the natural funnel you make of the dog's mouth by pulling his lips on one side out. In this you do not open the mouth but merely hold up the head. The medicine should be poured slowly between the teeth and lips and the mouth held closed till swallowed. Let me again impress the importance of remembering the similarity of canine and human ills. It is also well to bear in mind that careful nursing is usually very much better than dosing, especially when the dosing is done by one who is not perfectly sure just what he is doing and why he is doing it. * * * * * * Transcriber's note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. 
44472	----	MAKING A POULTRY HOUSE _THE HOUSE & GARDEN ~MAKING~ BOOKS_ It is the intention of the publishers to make this series of little volumes, of which _Making a Poultry House_ is one, a complete library of authoritative and well illustrated handbooks dealing with the activities of the home-maker and amateur gardener. Text, pictures and diagrams will, in each respective book, aim to make perfectly clear the possibility of having, and the means of having, some of the more important features of a modern country or suburban home. Among the titles already issued or planned for early publication are the following: _Making a Rose Garden_; _Making a Lawn_; _Making a Tennis Court_; _Making a Fireplace_; _Making Paths and Driveways_; _Making a Rock Garden_; _Making a Garden with Hotbed and Coldframe_; _Making Built-in Bookcases, Shelves and Seats_; _Making a Garden to Bloom This Year_; _Making a Water Garden_; _Making a Garden of Perennials_; _Making the Grounds Attractive with Shrubbery_; _Making a Naturalized Bulb Garden_; with others to be announced later. [Illustration: It is not a difficult matter to care for a small flock, but the old unsanitary methods of housing will have to be abandoned] MAKING A POULTRY HOUSE _By_ M. ROBERTS CONOVER [Illustration] NEW YORK McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY 1912 COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY McBRIDE, NAST & CO. Published May, 1912 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS FOR HOUSES 7 FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS 23 THE ROOF 28 WALLS, WINDOWS AND VENTILATION 33 THE DOOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE 40 NESTS AND ROOSTS 43 THE RUN 50 SOME HINTS ON UPKEEP 52 THE ILLUSTRATIONS UNSANITARY HOUSING MUST GIVE WAY TO MODERN METHODS _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE A COLONY HOUSE RECOMMENDED BY THE OREGON EXPERIMENT STATION 12 TWO PORTABLE COLONY HOUSES ADAPTABLE FOR THE HOME FLOCK 16 BROOD HOUSES FOR THE YOUNG BIRDS 20 FLOORS OF EARTH AND OF WOOD 26 THE SINGLE-PITCH ROOF IN A SERIES OF CONNECTED HOUSES 30 A COMBINED POULTRY HOUSE AND PIGEON LOFT 38 ALFALFA UNDER NETTING IN THE RUN 46 A SIMPLE FORM OF TRAP NEST 46 Making a Poultry House INTRODUCTION To close one's eyes and dream of a home in the country with its lawns, its gardens, its flowers, its songs of birds and drone of bees, proves the sentimental in man, but he is not practical who cannot call into fancy's realm the cackle of the hen. Having conceded her a legitimate place in the scheme of the country home, good housing is of the utmost importance, and it is in regard to this that one easily blunders. Few would idealize a rickety hovel as a home for the flock, but many of us, while we would not put our highly prized birds into an airtight box, so over-house them that they weaken instead of profiting by our care. That the poultry house is yet in an evolutionary stage, all must admit, but no one can deny that great strides have been made since the once neglected barnyard fowl has come to be known as a very understandable and responsive creature, to be dealt with on common-sense grounds. Only that poultry house is a good shelter which in winter conserves as much warmth as possible, and yet permits an abundance of fresh air; that admits sunlight, and yet in summer is cool. Such a building must offer no hospitality to other than poultry life, and it must be constructed in line with the economic value of its residents. In short, the structure must be so contrived as to guard against drafts, dampness, disease, and vermin, to insure a profitable result. A maximum of comfort with a minimum of risk insures healthy poultry. The location of the poultry house has an important bearing upon the style of the building. It is better to put the building where the land will slope away from, rather than toward, it. A large and durable poultry house was recently built and afterwards condemned by its owners as damp. The land sloped slightly towards the building, but sufficiently to convey all surface water towards it, making its earth floor always damp in wet weather. If no other site can be secured, then it is better to mount the building on posts rather than on the ordinary foundation. If one has room enough to consider the kind of soil, sand is best, as it dries quickly, and the runs--one can scarcely consider the building without runs--can be kept much cleaner. A windbreak of some kind on the cold side of the building is a decided advantage--a wall, an evergreen hedge, a grove, or other buildings, will protect the poultry house, and, perhaps, also a portion of the runs, with benefit to the poultry. In that the family flock may range in size from half a dozen to fifty or seventy-five fowls, the size of the building, and even its style, must vary to suit one's needs. A small coop, almost square, may house your flock of eight or ten, but the larger flock requires a house longer and higher, with more ample ventilation. Ventilation by means of the canvas or burlap curtain has so simplified the fresh-air problem that less building room is needed where sleeping-quarters alone are considered. Hence the necessary house room for hens depends upon the mode of ventilation. That a large building with no direct ventilation is not so healthful for fowls as a small house that admits the fresh air direct, was proved in the case of a flock of fowls, during the last two winters. The previous winter seventy-five fowls were kept in a large building adjoining a barn. Its walls were thick, the place was very high and roomy. Ventilation was given through a loft. The quarters were kept clean, and all known rules of health observed. A glass door was fitted into the doorway, thus admitting sunlight to a small part of the floor. Not a hen was allowed to place her fair foot upon the cold snowy ground. The birds were taken sick with catarrhal troubles early in the winter, and were in an unpromising condition until spring. This last winter the birds, now forty in number, were housed in a seven by twelve building, seven feet high, with two windows in the front, each thirty-four inches wide and twenty-one inches high, placed one foot below the eaves, and one foot from the sides. Fresh air came through a canvas curtain in one window; the other had a glass sash. The birds came through the winter in fine condition. This building would have held the original number, but in that case the burlap curtain would have been used in the other window also. The cooping of the young chicks must be considered as a problem somewhat distinct until they are old enough to contend with the other fowls for their rights. Water-tight roofs, walls, and floors are essential to the life and health of the birds. SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS FOR HOUSES While no one style of hen house can meet all the conditions for all localities, almost any good model may be adapted to almost any locality, or at least suggest adaptable features. The descriptions of houses that have been adapted as here given may easily suggest other modifications. A house eight by seventeen feet should give ample roosting and nesting room for a flock of thirty or forty hens. One used by the author is seven feet wide, fifteen feet long, and ten feet high from peak to floor, and is satisfactory during spring, summer, and fall. In winter, however, a scratching-shed of equal area is desirable. It need not be higher than three feet. It should adjoin the hennery, and a section of its roof should be movable to allow a change of litter. The sunlight should be freely admitted to this through glass. [Illustration: The front of a house that will shelter satisfactorily a dozen fowls] A small coop that will house a dozen fowls, and may be used where one has little space, or is just getting into poultry keeping, is eight feet long and six feet deep. It has a double-pitched roof, is five and one-half feet high from the lower edges of the roof to the foundation, and seven from the peak to the foundation. The eaves project four inches, but in front a board eight inches wide is hinged to the lower edge of the eaves. This is swung back and hooked against the side of the building on sunny days, but in rainy weather it is swung outward, thus extending the roof eight inches to prevent the rain from beating into the muslin-covered windows below. It is held in this position by brackets at either end, which are hinged to the building, and may be turned back against it when not in use. Two windows, two feet high and three feet wide, are placed in the front, six inches from either side, thirty-four inches from the ground, and eight inches below the eaves. Burlap-covered frames are fitted to the windows, and these swing inward when necessary, and may be fastened by hooks suspended from the roof of the building. [Illustration: The door may be at either end of the building and it must be made draft-proof] The building has a brick foundation and a concrete floor six inches higher than the surrounding surface of the ground, and on a level with the top of the foundation. At the rear are nests beneath the roosts. These are 14 in. long, 12 in. high, and 11 in. wide. There are seven on the bottom row placed alternately in a lengthwise and crosswise manner, and six above. The lower nests are improvised from boxes bought from a grocer's at five cents each, and are set upon a skeleton shelf raised 4 in. above the floor. The upper nests are likewise set upon a skeleton shelf 3 in. above the first tier. The sides of boxes are cut away to 5 in. height to allow the hens room to enter the nests. These nests are accessible to the hens from the front and are reached for egg collection by lifting a hinged door at the back; this door is 7 ft. long, 18 in. wide, and is 12 in. above the foundation in the rear. The roosts are thirty-four inches above the floor, and run lengthwise of the house. Two will accommodate the small flock of twelve or fifteen fowls. Three inches below is the drop-board supported upon horizontal braces. It is in two sections, and slides out when desired. It is twenty inches wide, its outer edge being even with the first roost. The walls are covered with sheathing paper laid inside over the studs, and tongue-and-groove boards are nailed over this. The outside is weather-boarded, and the roof covered with tarred paper over boards laid closely together. A door at one end, 26 in. wide and 5 ft. 6 in. high, gives access to the building, and a small door, 12 × 12 in., sliding in grooves, is placed in the front near the floor, for the use of the fowls. This coop may be modified to suit individual preference; for instance, by giving it a single-pitched roof. [Illustration: A portable colony house of simple design recommended by J. Dryden and A. G. Lunn in a bulletin of the Oregon Experiment Station] [Illustration: The rear of the same house, showing the extension nest boxes with individual covers] For the framework and inclosure these materials will be required: Hemlock or spruce for sills (5 × 6 in.) 38 lineal feet Hemlock or spruce for corner supports and plate to support rafters (3 × 4 in.) 60 lineal feet For intermediate supports, or studs, corner braces, and rafters (2 × 4) 120 lineal feet For the roof beneath the tarred paper, 128 lineal feet of six-inch boards will be required, or 160 feet of five-inch boards; 400 lineal feet of five-inch weather boards will be required to inclose the building. For the window and door casings 50 lineal feet of suitable lumber will be required, and 30 lineal feet of five-inch tongue-and-groove boards for the door. The hinged door in the rear is made of the weather boards and covered with tarred paper on the inside. About 75 square feet of tarred paper will be required. About 120 sq. ft. of boarding will be required for the inside. Where circumstances compel one to use a damp location, the building must be constructed so as to meet these conditions. Foundations of concrete, brick, or stone do not meet the conditions for a dry floor where one must use a badly-drained site. In such a case, the building must be set on posts. Short posts, only a foot high, hardly answer, for debris may collect thereunder, and harbor wild animals. Three feet of space, at least, should be given underneath. Cedar posts six feet apart, sunk into the ground to a depth of three and one-half or four feet, a foot of concrete being first poured into the hole, will insure a firm support. The back and sides of this open space may be inclosed with boards, the open front being protected with heavy, close-meshed galvanized poultry wire, to prevent wild animals or poultry from taking refuge underneath. In a very wet place, however, I would not inclose with boards at all. The floor of such a building should be: First, wide, rough boards, then rubber roofing laid over them, and secured at all joints to make it moisture-proof, and then narrow boards, tightly fitted together. This upper flooring should be well seasoned and well nailed down. A house of this character, that will hold from twenty-five to thirty-five fowls, with nesting, scratching, roosting, and sand-bath accommodations, is eight and one-half feet deep, twelve feet long, six feet high in back, and nine feet in front. It has the single-pitched roof, shingled. Its walls are double-boarded, with an interlining of sheathing paper. In the front are two windows, six feet high by three and one-half feet wide. They are fitted with double sash, which can be removed in summer. At night these sash are let down from the top, and a burlap-covered frame placed over the entire window, admitting fresh air and preventing radiation of warmer air within through the exposed glass. For a house in a damp location the large windows provide an excellent means of insuring dryness in winter if used to transmit sunlight during the day, and covered at night as explained above. [Illustration: One of the Oregon Station types in which the whole end is of netting, covered with fabric in cold weather] [Illustration: A colony house on skids, 7 × 12 feet, as recommended by the Oregon Experiment Station to accommodate 30 to 40 fowls] A building that is practically fireproof may be made of cement blocks for foundation and walls, with a concrete floor six inches higher than the outside ground. Wood may be used for the rafters and ceiling, the roof being covered with metal, tile, or asbestos roofing, and the inside ceiling plastered. Another building which will provide seventy-five or one hundred fowls with roosting, scratching, and nesting-room in the winter, when foul weather makes confinement necessary, is twenty feet long, twelve feet deep, six feet high in the rear, and ten feet high in front. It has a brick foundation and a concrete floor that is ten inches above the level of the ground at the front of the building, in order to bring it well above the surface of the ground in the rear--the site is a sloping one. In the front are three windows, one foot from the sides of the building, one foot below the top, and one foot apart. They are five feet four inches wide, three and one-half feet high, and fitted with burlap-covered frames, which may be lifted and fastened against the ceiling when so desired. Weather boards, sheathing paper, and narrow boards on the inside form the walls. [Illustration: Plan of a house to give roosting, scratching and nesting accommodations to seventy-five or a hundred fowls] Directly in front, and extending the length of the building, is a glass-inclosed sun room four feet high and five feet wide. One end of this has a door to allow for the cleaning of the floor. The concrete floor of the main room extends into the sun room. Three openings, ten inches wide and one foot high, connect this sun room with the main room, and are provided with slides to be closed at night when the sun room is no longer a warm place. The roosts are in the rear and extend the entire length of the building. There are three, placed four feet above the ground floor. These roosts are removable, being set in grooves cut into the wooden brackets which hold them. A hinged drop-board in sections is hung below the roosts. The nests are forty in number in two tiers, and are fixed to the front wall of the building, below the windows. They are covered at the top, open at the side, and have a running-board before them one foot wide. Nests and boards are supported by stout wooden brackets about three feet apart. Nests and perches are reached by climbing-boards at one end of the room. The door is placed at the opposite end of the building, and is twenty-six inches wide and six feet high. It can be made wider if desired, as there is room. [Illustration: Cross-section of the house for seventy-five or a hundred fowls, showing the glazed scratching shed on the south front] The care of the young birds is greatly lightened by houses built for them especially. These need not be large nor elaborate, and, since they are for use in the milder seasons of the year, do not require great precautions against the cold. [Illustration: The care of the young birds is greatly lightened by the use of small houses that can be moved about] While the slant-roofed colony coops, which can be moved about, are best for the care of large flocks of growing poultry, the progeny of the small family flock may be conveniently housed in one long coop divided into compartments, with separate little pens before each division. A coop of this kind, six feet long, thirty inches wide, and twenty-seven inches high, will shelter seventy-five young chicks very comfortably from babyhood to large broiler age. The floor should be made tight and warm, and the coop mounted upon skids or runners, so that it may be moved if desired. The top of this coop slants gently and lifts up like a lid for inspection and cleaning, and this top is hinged to the rear side, and covered with tarred paper. Since young chicks will crowd and smother if the air supply is limited, the entire front of the coop, to seven inches above the bottom, is covered with coarse muslin or sacking during spring, and with galvanized wire netting in the summer. The size of the lumber necessary for any of these buildings is about the same: Timber for sills, 5 × 6 in.; cross-beams and main supports, 4 × 3 in.; intermediate joists, supports, and rafters, 2 × 4 in.; and for weather boards and floor boards, any convenient width. Well-seasoned lumber should be used, and should be first-class of its kind. Second-grade material may be used for the wood-house, but faulty building of the poultry house may mean more in losses from drafty floors or walls than the saving in the first outlay will warrant. FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS The floor of the poultry house sustains as important a relation to the health of the fowls as any other part of the building. A cold, drafty floor is a constant menace, inducing catarrhal affections, and a damp floor, with its constant evaporation of unwholesome moisture, is equally unfavorable. The floor of the building bears a close relation to the foundation; indeed, its character is actually determined by the kind of foundation used. From this relation have developed three distinct styles of flooring: the earth or cement floor with brick or stone foundations; the board floor with a foundation; and the board floor without a foundation, the structure being supported on posts. Any one of these can be made a success if its peculiar requirements are complied with. The board floor with a foundation makes a warm floor, but it is not durable over a perfectly tight foundation, which tends to induce rotting from the dampness of the soil beneath. To insure against this, openings should be left in either end of the foundation--openings about the size of a brick's end. In a long building, such openings should occur at intervals of ten feet. Such places are an invitation to rats, however, and should be securely protected by heavy, close-meshed galvanized wire, or by iron grating. The flooring must be so tight as to prevent drafts coming up through it. In the case of the board floor without a foundation, the building rests upon posts, and some poultrymen leave the space beneath open so that the air sweeps through beneath it. Others board up the windside. Such buildings should never be boarded all the way around, however, as rats will burrow beneath or gnaw through, giving a great deal of trouble. Laying tin around the edges over the interlining to a width of about six inches, letting it project under the inner wall, and meeting the outer wall, will prevent rats from gnawing into the building. A warm floor is secured by laying it double with an airtight interlining of roofing paper or similar substance. (For the lower layer of boards, hemlock answers well.) Cementing the surface of the floor gives a clean smooth surface. An earth floor or one of cement is cold and damp, if lower or even level with the outside surface of the ground. It should be at least six inches higher, and, to render it dry, a layer of stone several inches deep should be placed in beneath the six inches of earth. All floors must be cleaned frequently, fresh litter being placed in all scratching rooms, and sunlight be allowed to stream in upon them. Where an earth floor is used, fresh earth or ashes must take the place of that cleared away each day. Though not of secondary importance, the foundation of the poultry house is a secondary consideration, for after one has decided upon his location, manner of building, and the best kind of floor for his hens under those conditions, he may come to a conclusion about the foundation. [Illustration: An earth floor lower than the outside surface is cold and damp] [Illustration: The flooring must be perfectly tight to prevent drafts coming through it] The brick, concrete, or stone continuous foundations have such a stable appearance that, looks alone considered, they are preferable to posts. Where brick or concrete posts are used, however, the effect is not unstable. On a good building site, I like the brick or concrete foundation, and would have no other. Under such conditions, it meets the requirements of a durable building for fowls. The foundation of the poultry house need not be deeper than two or two and one-half feet below the surface of the ground, according to the climate of the locality. The object is to lay it below the freezing point. It must be high enough to actually raise the building above the earth and its dampness. Where the soil washes in around the foundation, gradually covering it and partly burying the wood above, it is likely to cause the weather boards to decay around the base. Get a man who understands his job to do the work of foundation-laying, else your superstructure will suffer. THE ROOF The roof of the poultry house is, for the average poultryman, a problem solved by the state of his pocketbook, climate, and the location of his buildings, as well as personal preference. The shape of the roof may be governed by taste, the prevailing type of architecture, etc., but where the welfare of the fowls themselves is jeopardized by a certain style, personal preference must yield and the health of the birds themselves determine the choice. Roofs that can be made watertight with the least difficulty, which do not overhang so far as to prevent sunlight from entering the windows, and which are sightly, are the aim of the average builder. Considered from the point of utility alone, the single-pitched roof seems to be the most popular. It gives the necessary watershed and interior room for the least amount of material. While the height of the roof from the floor should be influenced by the other dimensions of the building, the fowls will do as well with a low-roofed building properly cleaned and ventilated, as with one of lofty roof, but the inconvenience of caring for the low-roofed building must be considered, and hence few of us want a roof lower than six feet. After one has decided the form of the roof, the next point is the material. In counting the cost, one must consider the possible expense in keeping in repair a roof cheap at the outset. Some roofs absorb the sun's rays to such a degree as to make the building too warm. In certain locations a fireproof roof is imperative, by law or expediency. [Illustration: The single-pitched roof is the most economical of material and labor, a consideration of importance in the housing of large flocks] Wood, metal, and the tarred paper or felt roofing have peculiar qualifications which adapt them to individual requirements. The paper or felt roofings appeal to a great many people, as the work of applying the material can be done by an amateur. These roofings are laid on over boards and secured in position by nails, the joinings being made watertight with cement. Pliant roofings should be turned well over the edges of the roof and fastened securely. Allowance for lapping of the strips is made on the material, and this lap should be observed. The cost of the cement and nails necessary to the work is included in the price of the roofing per roll. There are several good tarred roofings on the market at one dollar and eighty cents or one dollar and ninety cents per roll of about one hundred square feet. When buying, it is best to select those having a fireproof surface. Two-ply felt roofing is more economical than the one-ply, as it makes a much more lasting roof. After three or four years it will require repainting, and this must be done promptly to preserve the roof. The price of the felt roofings varies, costing from two to two and one-half dollars per square. All flexible roofings must be laid over boards that are fitted closely, else they will tend to break over the crevices. The galvanized steel and iron roofings are the most durable of all. The best grade of galvanized iron costs from four dollars and twenty-five cents to five dollars per square (100 square feet), covering the cost of laying, but as it is absolutely fireproof, lower insurance rates are obtainable on buildings where it is used. The galvanized roof is very warm in summer, which in some sections proves an objection. Tarred paper also is hot. Roofs of cedar or white pine shingles outlast the pliant roofings, and really cost less in the end. One poultryman who has had experience with metal, felt, paper, and shingle roofing, prefers the last, claiming that it serves him best for least cost. Where other buildings have just been constructed, there may be left-over roofing material of a higher grade, which will serve to cover the poultry house. Roofing tile and asbestos shingles make excellent roofs, and are very sightly, but their use demands a different treatment of the roof framing, and an experienced workman to make a satisfactory job. WALLS, WINDOWS AND VENTILATION Obtain an influx of fresh air without drafts and without too great cooling of the air, and you have solved the problem of ventilation. To prevent an undue fall of temperature, there must be, in addition to a fresh-air supply, a continuous heat supply, and this exists in the fowls themselves. This we must plan to conserve. Admitting the fabric-covered window--now so universally used--to be the best solution of how to admit fresh air with the least loss of heat, the accompaniment of this is perfect tightness of the windowless sides. As far as materials are concerned, wood, brick, cement blocks, or stone, are equally satisfactory if their requirements are understood, and they are used to suit conditions. Some poultrymen object to brick or stone, claiming that they are damp, yet we know that stone does not create moisture. Of course, masonry being a better conductor of heat than wood, moisture already in the air will condense upon stone, concrete, etc., when it will not be evident on wood. The moisture-laden air, which is cold and unhealthy for the fowls, must be due to a damp floor, poor ventilation, or some such reason. The fact that a certain concrete or stone wall is dry would prove that conditions were right, while the wooden wall would show warning signs only in extreme dampness. In localities where stone abounds, the entire building may be constructed of stone, giving ample window room. All buildings which are plastered or cemented in any part of their construction should be allowed to dry thoroughly before the flock moves in. As an important aid to uniformity of temperature in winter, the wall space filled with confined air is important. The cement blocks and hollow building tile provide for this to a certain extent. A double board wall may give this result if carefully constructed. By placing sheathing paper under the weather boards, and also under the ceiling boards, a very satisfactory wall is possible. A warm wall is made by combining brick and boards--using weather boards outside, brick within, and plaster, or ceiling boards, on the inner side. A single board wall can be made comfortable as winter quarters by covering the outside with roofing paper and having it painted black. These black-painted hen houses and coops are too warm in summer, however. The inside walls of the hen house should be smooth enough to be kept clean. A good wood-filler in the crevices prevents lice and mites from lodging there, but if, when whitewashing the walls, care is taken to work the lime into the crevices with the brush, and this work is done often enough, say four times a year, such pests would be kept down. Make it a rule to have the windows on the light, sunny side of the building, facing south or southeast, but have none on the other three sides. Windows really ought to be of such a size and position that the sunlight can reach every part of the floor space during some part of the day. Though we all believe in the benefit of sunlight, we do not always realize how important a part it plays in the care of poultry. When we consider that vermin and disease thrive in its absence, and that remedial measures are more or less troublesome and expensive, we will work into our building schemes every possible inlet for sunlight. The windows should occupy a large part of the front wall area--one-third of it, at least, and be evenly distributed over the upper part of the surface. _Movable_ window sash or curtain frames are imperative. The position of the ventilating arrangement depends upon the position of the fowls at night. It is a strange fact that human beings, animals, and poultry can better stand a current of air coming directly toward the front of the head than from the rear or sides; hence I would place the roosts so that the fowls face the window and get the fresh air on a level with the nostrils rather than from above or below. Thus they are fortified against a drop in temperature. For example, where the roosts are to be two feet above the floor, I would have the windows about twenty inches from the floor, provided the roof is correspondingly low. With the roosts three or four feet above the floor, the window should be from thirty-two to forty-four inches above the floor, etc. I think it is safe to have the windows not higher than eight or twelve inches below the eaves, and six inches from the sides of the building. [Illustration: When pigeons as well as chickens are kept the shelters for both may be economically combined] Despite the fact that some poultrymen have discarded glass, I cannot rule it out altogether. It certainly has its uses on cold wintry days when the heat of the sun's rays is wanted without the chill wintry air. I believe these glass windows should be covered at night, and that the fabric curtain is therefore the most sensible mode of night ventilation. Burlap, sacking, or coarse muslin may be used to cover the window frames. Burlap is the most substantial. In tacking it to the frame, tacks with tin discs beneath the head (like those with roofing nails) may be used, or a thin light strip of wood may bind the burlap to the frame, and through it the tacks are driven. Wherever glass is used, some protection of poultry wire is necessary to prevent its being broken. THE DOOR OF THE POULTRY HOUSE It aids in ridding the house of dust if, when the fowls are out, a searching breeze can blow through occasionally. For this reason, end doors are a great advantage, but they must be draft-proof. The good points of an otherwise well-built poultry house may be set at naught by carelessly made doors, which fit loosely in their casings. Doors which open on the cold or exposed side of a building require more precautions against drafts than those on the sunny side. The door should be of tightly fitted boards, and covered on the inner side with tarred roofing paper, or thin, narrow boards. The following hints are for a door that is practically draft-proof: For the door itself use tongue-and-groove boards, an inch thick, reinforced six inches from the top and bottom by cross-pieces six inches wide, and beneath the latch by a rectangle of the same wood. Over this is tacked sheathing paper, fitting it about the cross-pieces. The inner side is finished with narrow tongue-and-groove ceiling boards. (These may be placed over the battens or between them.) In case they are to be placed over the battens, the open space between the two board surfaces is closed with a narrow wooden strip. The door casing is five inches thick, the sill board six inches wide, and slanting to one inch lower on the outside than on the inside. On the sides and across the upper part of the door casing are nailed inch-thick strips which, with the edge of the casing against which the door shuts, gives a two-inch edge which effectually excludes air currents. Against the lower edge of the door is a heavy strip of felt, reinforced with leather where it is tacked to the door. NESTS AND ROOSTS When we have come to the interior fittings of the poultry house, we are about ready for the flock to move in, and may consult the peculiarities of our chosen breed to some extent. In the matter of nests, heavier breeds of fowls need them of easier access than do the lighter breeds. The latter class seem to enjoy an ascent to their nests, and it is as well to favor them. The nests may be around the sides of the building, beneath the roosts and drop-board, or in any convenient place, and there should be as many as there is room for. Nests that are scattered about and possess some distinctive characteristics seem to make a greater appeal to some fowls. Nests in tiers of three or in blocks of three seem to be readily identified by the hens if the different sets of nests are differently placed, but a row of half a dozen nests exactly alike is confusing to the average hen. When space is at a premium, the nests should stand beneath the roosts, protected by a wooden drop-board--smooth to be vermin-proof and removable to be sanitary. A hinged board serves to darken the nest and at the same time can be held up by a hook when so desired. For cleanliness the nest should be made of wood and treated with some vermin preventive which should be washed well into all crevices. If the nest is raised four or five inches from the floor and built with a porous bottom, it is more easily kept dry. The compartments should be separated to prevent interference between layers. Each of these should be, as a rule, 16 × 12 × 14 inches, although I am now using nests 13-1/2 in. long by 10-1/2 in. wide and 12 in. high. In order to be lifted for cleaning some light material must be used. A convenient arrangement is a long, narrow box, fitting the available space, divided by partitions into individual nests. Wire netting makes a very good bottom for this type of nest. I like either this or the slat bottom, through which the dust and worn nest material sift and the air circulates. Of course, such a nest should be supported on brackets or suspended so that the air can penetrate its parts. Grocer's boxes may be converted into good nests by removing the bottom and tacking smooth slats across, with one and one-half inches of space between each. Inch-meshed poultry wire may be used if one is going to use the wire netting. A coat of paint gives a more sanitary surface, but if this is not practicable, the wood should be planed as smooth as possible and whitewashed. Concealment is usually favorable to the use of the nests, and if the apartment is light and sunny, a board screen may be used to secure this, or the nest entrance may be turned away from the light. I am using curtains of sacking with marked increase of popularity among my fowls. Nests which were persistently shunned are now constantly used since thus darkened. The sacking may be hung from a wooden strip placed in front of the nests. It gets dusty, but if one is provided with two or three such curtains, the soiled ones may be hung outdoors in the wind and rain for cleansing. [Illustration: Alfalfa in the run under netting, through which the hens may pick] [Illustration: Even with the small flock the trap nest should be used--there is no use feeding non-producers] The trap nest is as useful to the small poultryman as to the man who runs a large poultry plant. It is so arranged that each laying hen and her product may be identified. A trap nest may be improvised from a box of suitable size. Cut out entrance and exit in opposite sides, and in each suspend a door so that it will swing at a pressure of the fowl's head. The entrance door swings inward only--the exit door swings outward. After the egg is laid, the hen passes through the exit into a small inclosure, from which she is liberated after her achievement has been recorded. Where rational methods are used in nest construction, it is hardly necessary to use nest-eggs to secure the fowl's patronage of the nests. Where they are used, however, those of dull finish are preferable to the smooth glass ones. Hens want a roost that they can clasp with their toes. It should be broad enough to support the bird's weight upon the ball of the foot and thin enough to allow the toes to curl under. This act is a reflex one and as much a part of their slumber as scratching is a part of their waking activities. This power of clasping the perch seems to belong to birds in vigorous conditions. Ailing birds that cannot roost seldom have enough vitality to recover. Roosts two and one-quarter inches wide and not more than an inch thick, with slightly rounded edges favoring the curl of the toes, are satisfactory. They may be arranged horizontally, or slightly inclined, ladder fashion. Light poles cut from young saplings make suitable roosts, if scraped clean of bark and shaved to flatten them slightly on the upper side. Horizontal roosts may be placed about one foot apart, and not more than three lying parallel, or the fowls roosting on the rear perch do not get enough air. I prefer them slightly inclined, ladder fashion, at an angle of nearly thirty degrees, the lowest perch not lower than three feet from the floor, and not more than three perches parallel. Where the fabric curtain is used, all get the benefit of the fresh air coming through the canvas curtain. THE RUN The runs are essentially a part of the problem of housing. Fowls need plenty of exercise, yet they are entirely too meddlesome to be given full liberty where one has a garden, a good lawn, and flowers. While hens may be kept in buildings and, with proper care, still retain their health, the average owner of a small flock can keep the birds more economically if he gives them the natural advantages of outdoor exercise. The most useful run is the divided pen, each section to be used alternately. For the active-laying breeds, three runs, about ten by forty feet, to be used alternately by the flock of forty hens, are advisable. Where two are used the dimensions should be greater--say ten by sixty. A yard inclosure for large birds requires two-inch meshed poultry wire, five and one-half or six feet in width, supported by posts set nine or ten feet apart. The wire is attached to the posts by staples about four inches apart. A wooden strip or any other finish along the top of the fence is an objection. The lower edge of the wire requires a board or strip to which it is tacked. Boards six inches wide may be used for this. SOME HINTS ON UPKEEP The poultry house, no matter how carefully built, is not a fit place for poultry, if it is neglected. Cobwebs draped across the corners hold dust and disease germs. Neglected perches become mite-infested and are thereafter a menace to the health of the poultry. Grooves and crevices in walls harbor mites, lice, and disease. Burlap curtains that become dusty do not readily admit pure air, or else convey a cloud of dust directly back to the fowls. Floors that are covered with an accumulation of dirt become damp and cold, aside from the danger of contamination. Window panes that are cloudy with dirt do not admit sunlight properly. The proper care of the poultry house means work, and the place seems hopelessly unlovely when the task has been ignored from day to day, and one's sins of omission are seen in the aggregate. The proper way to perform such work is daily, when but a few minutes will serve to keep the building sanitary. The litter of straw should be changed frequently, say, every third day--the floor swept and fresh litter spread upon it. The droppings should be removed daily. A little fine dry sand acts as an absorbent if sprinkled over the cleaned surface. Walls should be swept down once a week, giving attention to corners, under and behind nests, perches, etc. For this purpose a splint broom, such as is used around stables, is most useful. For thorough cleansing after all loose dirt has been swept away nothing is superior to whitewashing. It makes the room lighter, sweetens the air, and is a "cold shoulder" to all vermin. A sprinkling of dilute carbolic acid is a safeguard against disease. Perches are best cleaned by washing with some liquid insecticide, and then allowing them to dry in the sun. A good wash is made by dissolving half a cake of any laundry soap in ten quarts of water and adding five tablespoonfuls of kerosene oil. Transcriber's note: Italics is represented with underscore _, small caps with ALL CAPS and underlining with tilde ~. Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained and illustrations moved to paragraph breaks. The following corrections have been made: p. 11 are 14 in. long., -> removed period after long p. 11 to 5-in. height -> removed hyphen after 5 Everything else has been retained as printed. 
44477	----	NOTE TO THE WWER The tables on pages 45 and 58 have been left as a replica of the original because there is no way to ensure a clear reading if the size is reduced. Farmer and Dairyman Edited by T.D. Curtis. AN EIGHT PAGE MONTHLY, 6 COLUMNS 20 INCHES LONG TO THE PAGE. THE * BEST * AND * CHEAPEST * PAPER * PUBLISHED FOR THE Dairy or the Farm. IT KEEPS UP WITH THE TIMES AND GIVES ALL THE LATEST METHODS AND IDEAS. [Illustration] Price Only 50 Cents a Year. T.D. CURTIS & SONS, - SYRACUSE, N.Y. [Illustration: THOMAS HIGGIN, ESQ., LIVERPOOL, Inventor of the Higgin Improved Process for manufacturing Salt, an improvement in this industry as important as the Bessemer process in the manufacture of steel. His firm are the owners of two of the largest salt works in the Cheshire salt district, turning out immense quantities of this article, which they ship to all parts of the world.] THE HIGGIN "EUREKA" SALT CO., Liverpool, England, and 116 Reade St., New York. USING POOR SALT TO SEASON GOOD BUTTER IS LIKE USING POOR THREAD IN SEWING GOOD CLOTH. HIGGIN'S "EUREKA" ENGLISH HIGH GRADE DAIRY * AND * TABLE * SALT [Illustration] GOLD MEDALS AND HIGHEST AWARDS AT THE Great Fairs of the World. 1st Prize Centennial Ex., Phila. 1876 " Ex. Universelle, Paris 1878 " Dairy Show, London 1879 " Dairy Show, Dublin 1879 " International Exposition, Melbourne 1881 " International Exhibition, Adelaide 1881 " Dairy Show, London 1882 " International Exhibition, New Zealand 1882 " Dairy Show, London 1883 " Dairy Show, London 1884 " World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Ex. New Orleans 1885 Over $15,000 in Premiums were awarded to parties using =HIGGIN'S "EUREKA" SALT= in their Prize Butter and Cheese at the principal Dairy Fairs in the U.S., carrying sweepstakes and highest awards wherever put in competition. ="EUREKA" SALT= has no equal in Purity, Strength, Flavor, Uniform Grain of Crystal, Keeping Quality, Perfect Dryness and cheapness. Give it a trial and be convinced of its merits. THE HIGGIN "EUREKA" SALT CO., (OF LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND) Office, 116 Reade Street,--- NEW YORK. [Illustration: JERSEYS--ONE TON 2,000, MARPETRO 3,352, BOMA 4,834. PROPERTY OF BEECH GROVE FARM, BEECH GROVE, IND.] HINTS --ON-- DAIRYING. BY T.D. CURTIS. Complete success in dairying depends on right conditions. SYRACUSE, N.Y. PUBLISHED FROM THE OFFICE OF THE _FARMER AND DAIRYMAN_. 1885. COPYRIGHTED IN THE YEAR 1885 BY T.D. CURTIS. PREFACE. It was intended by the Author to publish an exhaustive practical work on Dairying. But his time was so occupied by other matters that he was compelled to abandon the idea. Much of the following pages was written while traveling, the intervals of waiting at hotels and railroad stations being devoted to this work. But on reperusing the chapters as they appeared in the columns of the FARMER AND DAIRYMAN, and making slight additions, he has concluded to give them to the Dairy Public in their present form, believing that they may be of some assistance to the tyro, and perhaps afford a hint, here and there, to the dairyman of more experience who wishes to keep abreast of his fellows in the march of progress. This little book is not intended to supersede any other work on the subject, but to play the part of an auxiliary and present in a condensed form the pith which the reader might not have time to get from a more elaborate volume. The favor with which his "Hints on Cheesmaking"--now out of date--was received, gives the author confidence that his later effort may serve to fill a place that now remains unoccupied. Providence seems to have selected him as one of the laborers in this field of education, and he conscientiously devotes a portion of his energies to the service with envy toward none, but entertaining the hope that his mite may not be unacceptable among so many larger contributions. HINTS ON DAIRYING. HISTORICAL. Dairying runs back to a period in the development of the human race of which we have no record. Man early learned to not only slay animals and eat their flesh, but to appropriate to himself the food belonging to their young--a trait of selfishness which he has not yet overcome, and even manifests by preying in various ways upon his fellows. We have in the world large classes who add nothing to its real wealth, but live and luxuriate on the fat of the earth by drawing the results of labor from the toilers through cunningly devised schemes of finance, business and government. IN ASIA. Away back in the dimness of antiquity, of which even tradition gives no hint, comparative philology shows us that a civilized race, now known as the Aryan race, dwelt on the steppes of Central Asia, and that the ox and the cow constituted their chief means of subsistence. They lived in simple peace and innocence, their language having no terms of war and strife. But there came a time when separation began and migration followed. They were scattered to the four corners of the Eastern Continent, and their descendants now constitute the progressive nations of the earth. The parent nation appears to have utterly perished in giving birth to the nations of the future. No trace of it is left, save the remnants of its language inherited by its children; but they furnish indisputable evidence of a common parentage. AMONG THE JEWS. Our earliest authentic records about the dairy are of the use of milk and its products among the Jews. We are told, in the 8th verse of the 18th chapter of Genesis, that when Abraham entertained the three strangers, "he took butter and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them." Moses, in his song, as recorded in the 23d chapter of Deuteronomy, 14th verse, says of Jacob that the Lord, among other things, gave him to eat "butter of kine and milk of sheep." Deborah, who declares in her song that "the stars in their courses did fight against Sisera," who was entertained and slain by Jael, says of the murderess (Judges, 25th verse and 8th chapter) "he asked water and she gave him milk, she brought forth butter in a lordly dish." In the 17th chapter and 5th verse of 2d Samuel, the writer tells us that David and his people, after the battle in the wood of Ephraim, were given "honey and butter, and sheep and cheese of kine," to eat. Zophar, in the 20th chapter of Job, 17th verse, declares of the wicked hypocrite, who "hath swallowed down riches," that his triumph is short, and "he shall not see the rivers, the floods, the brooks of honey and butter"--which, we infer, are designed for the righteous; and Job (29th chapter and 6th verse) bemoans the loss of his former prosperity, "when I washed my steps with butter." In the 55th Psalm, 24th verse, David says of his enemy that "the words of his mouth were smoother than butter." Solomon appears to have understood the whole business. In Proverbs, 30th chapter and 33d verse, he exclaims: "Surely, the churning of milk bringeth forth butter." Isaiah, in the 7th chapter and 15th verse, declares of the coming Immanuel, that "butter and honey shall he eat;" and again (22d verse) that "for the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall eat butter." IN SOUTHERN EUROPE. Chambers says: "In ancient times, the Hebrews seem to have made copious use of butter as food; but the Greeks and the Romans used it only as an ointment in their baths, and it is probable that the Greeks obtained their knowledge of the subject from the Scythians, Thracians, and Phrygians, whilst the Romans obtained it of Germany." This would indicate that the Germans at that time were engaged in dairying. But, even now, in Southern Europe, butter is sparingly used, and in Italy, Spain, Portugal and Southern France, it is sold by apothecaries as an ointment. Dairying is now extensively carried on in all the countries of Northern Europe. IN AMERICA. When the early settlers of America crossed the Atlantic, they brought with them their favorite domestic animals, including the family cow. But dairying for a long time, in this country, appears to have been confined mainly to producing supplies for the family of the dairyman. It was not until quite a recent date that dairying sprang into commercial importance. But, to-day, dairying cannot be considered second to any other industry as to either magnitude or importance; and it is a patent fact that, in those sections where dairying is most extensively and successfully carried on, the farming population is the most prosperous and happy. Within the last twenty years, since associated dairying has been introduced, great progress has been made in the dairy--but not greater than in many other occupations, nor out of proportion with the growth of population. The growth of the dairy will probably never exceed the growth of population so long as the present heavy tide of immigration continues to set toward our shores. FIGURES FROM THE CENSUS. Let us refer to the census of 1880, and note the development of the dairy during the previous 30 years: By the census of 1850, we had 6,385,094 cows, and produced 314,345,306 pounds of butter, and 105,535,893 pounds of cheese--a total of 418,881,199 pounds of product. By the census of 1860, we had 8,585,735 cows, and produced 459,681,372 pounds of butter, and 103,663,927 pounds of cheese--a total of 563,345,299 pounds of product. By the census of 1870, we had 8,935,332 cows and produced 514,692,683 pounds of butter, and 162,927,382 pounds of cheese--a total of 677,620,065 pounds of product--and this notwithstanding the war of the rebellion came in this decade. By the census of 1880, we had 12,443,120 cows, and produced 803,662,071 pounds of butter, and 243,157,850 pounds of cheese--a total of 1,049,819,921 pounds of product. GROWTH IN THIRTY YEARS. This is an increase in annual product of 630,948,622 pounds in thirty years, or 212,057,523 pounds more than double the amount, in 1880, that was manufactured in 1850. History records no parallel to this anywhere on the face of the globe. Let us put some of these figures into tabular form. We had in Cows Inhabitants 1880 12,443,120 to 50,155,783 1850 6,385,094 to 23,191,876 --------- ---------- Increase in 30 years 6,058,026 26,963,907 We did not quite double the number of cows, but considerably more than doubled the population. The number of inhabitants was, in 1850 3.63 per cow 1880 4.03 " The increase in 30 years is .40 inhabitant to each cow. That is to say, the population, as compared with the number of cows, was .40 larger in 1880 than it was in 1850. PRODUCT PER COW AND PER CAPITA. And now let us compare the product per cow and per capita. It was in Lbs. per Lbs. per cow capita 1850 418,881,199 lbs., or 65.77 or 18.06 1880 1,049,829,921 lbs., or 84.37 or 20.93 ----- ----- Increase in 30 years 18.60 2.87 HOME CONSUMPTION VS. EXPORTS. But it should be borne in mind that in 1850 very nearly all our dairy products were consumed at home; whereas in 1880, we exported a large amount. As the exports do not all come in the year of production, we will take the average amount of exports for 1879 and 1880: Lbs. Butter. Lbs. Cheese. Exports, 1879 38,248,016 141,654,474 " 1880 39,236,658 127,553,907 ---------- ----------- Divided by 2)77,484,674 269,208,381 ---------- ----------- Yearly average 38,742,337 134,604,190 Add butter and cheese together 38,742,337 ----------- We have a yearly av. export of 173,346,527 pounds of product. If we take this from the total product of 1880 1,049,829,921 pounds 173,346,527 pounds ------------- we have 876,483,394 pounds of product for home consumption, or more than five times as much as we export. This is a consumption of 17.47 pounds per capita for our 50,155,783 inhabitants, or .59 of a pound less than in 1850, when it was 18.60 pounds per capita. Does not this indicate the folly of catering for a foreign market to the neglect of our own? FORMS OF MILK CONSUMPTION. It is estimated by good judges that 45 per cent. of our milk product is consumed in its natural state, 50 per cent. is used in butter making, and 5 per cent. is made into cheese. The fact of there being a foreign demand for so large a proportion of our cheese, has led everybody astray, and magnified the cheese factory into the position of supreme importance. THE PRIVATE DAIRY VS. THE FACTORY. Let us again turn to the census of 1880, and see how the factory product compares in amount and importance with the product of the private dairy. It appears by the census of 1880 that the number of pounds of dairy products made in factories was as follows: Cheese made in factories 215,885,361 lbs. Butter " " " 29,411,784 " ----------- Total factory product 245,307,145 lbs. Cheese made on farms 27,272,489 lbs. Butter " " " 777,250,287 " ----------- Total farm product 804,522,776 lbs. Deduct factory product 245,307,145 " ----------- Excess of private dairy 559,215,631 lbs. or considerably more than double the total factory product. Now, let us make a comparison by values, calling the cheese 10 cents and the butter 25 cents a pound. We made in factories: Cheese, 215,885,361 lbs., @ 1Oc. $21,538,536 Butter, 29,411,784 lbs., @ 25c. 7,352,946 ---------- Value of factory product $29,941,482 There was made in the private dairies: Cheese, 27,272,489 lbs., @ 10c. $ 2,727,249 Butter, 777,250,287 lbs., @ 25c. 194,312,571 ----------- Value of private dairy products $197,039,820 Deduct value of factory products 29,941,482 ----------- In favor of private dairy $167,098,338 In short, the product of the private dairy is between three and four times larger than that of the factory, and nearly seven times its value. Important as the factory is and is likely to become, let us not forget the private dairy nor overlook the home interest in striving for a little foreign patronage. Notwithstanding the fault with the census that is found by some, the census is the most reliable source of statistical information about the dairy that we have. CONDITIONS. It is not every novice that can take up the business of dairying and carry it on successfully; yet, some of our most successful dairymen are comparative novices in the business. Quick observation and sound judgment are important qualities in a dairyman. These qualities are not always acquired by long experience, but are oftener the generous gifts of nature. Hence, it frequently happens that men of quick discernment step into a new business and achieve success where others have met only years of failure. Improvements in all callings are apt to be made by sharp lookers-on, who are not bred in the habits of routinism, nor prejudiced against radical innovations. They see at a glance where the plodder fails, and fearlessly apply the remedy--often a short-cut to ends that have hitherto been reached with much difficulty and hard labor. And here is where the real inventor finds his greatest field of usefulness. PASTURES. Sweet pastures, with a variety of nutritious grasses growing in them, are essentials to success in dairying--especially in butter making--in summer. Bitter and other mal flavored weeds must be avoided, as they flavor both the milk and the product manufactured from it. The cows must not be worried, nor over-worked in rambling over poor pastures to get sufficient food. WATER. Plenty of clean water must be conveniently at hand for the cows to drink. The water must be sweet and clean enough for the human stomach. Abundance of such water is more essential in the pasture--for the cows to drink while secreting milk that contains 87 per cent. of water--than it is in the daily-house, where a small amount of water will answer, if ice is used, and hence can more easily be obtained pure. WINTER FOOD. In winter, the food must be in proper condition, properly balanced between the nitrogenous and carbonaceous materials, and in full supply--all the cow can digest and assimilate. At least one ration a day should include sweet ensilage, roots, or other succulent food, to aid in the separation of the butter from the cream by action of the churn, it having been shown that all dry feed not only reduces the flow of milk, but makes churning slow and difficult, leaving a large percentage of fat in the buttermilk. THE STABLE. While in stable, the cow must also have plenty of pure air and sweet water, and not be chilled in obtaining either. Without pure air, the cow becomes debilitated and diseased, and the milk impure and unwholesome. Impure water both taints and corrupts the product. A proper temperature--certainly above freezing--should be kept up. Remember, the cow standing still cannot resist cold as she could if she were free to move about. It is cheaper to build warm stables--always providing for perfect ventilation, the air coming in at the head and passing off in the rear of the cow--and even to resort to artificial heating, than to compel the cow to burn an extra amount of carbonaceous food in her system to keep up the temperature of her body. Not only is fuel cheaper than food, but the system of the cow cannot devote to milk secretion the energy which is expending in secreting and consuming fat to maintain a proper amount of vital heat. SHELTER. Proper shelter in summer, from the scorching rays of the mid-day sun, and from beating storms and winds, is necessary. This should be easily accessible. Especially in early spring and late fall do the animals suffer severely from exposure to the cold winds and storms of all hours in the twenty-four. DAIRY HOUSE. Every dairyman should have a good dairy house distinct from the dwelling apartments. It need not, necessarily, be a separate building, but it should not be subject to the inflowing of odors from the kitchen and sitting rooms. The dairy house should be so constructed that the temperature may at all times be kept under perfect control. There should be no surrounding cesspools or other malodorous sources of taint, and the ventilation should be free without perceptible drafts or currents of air. No matter what method of setting milk and churning may be adopted, there is a decided advantage in having the dairy house, or any other workshop, separate from the dwelling apartments, so that the work of the one shall in no way interfere with the work of the other. Almost all dairymen fail, to some extent, in not having the dairy house entirely separate. It would cost but little extra; and until dairymen look upon the business as their life work and build and plan accordingly, we need not expect the best possible success in dairying. CLEANLINESS. Cleanliness everywhere and at all times is an absolute necessity. There is not the least danger of being too clean. The writer has never yet seen a dairy without defects in this particular. Yet, most people mean to be clean, and suppose they are. Lack of information is often the cause of uncleanliness, and habit goes a great way in making people indifferent to untidy surroundings. It is safe to copy the neat points found in every dairy, as well as to avoid the offensive ones. As Gov. Seymour once said, "cleanliness is a comparative term." It is well to keep making comparisons on this point, until no unfavorable comparisons with anybody's dairy can be found; and these comparisons should extend to the surroundings of the cows, the manner of milking, the handling of the milk, the cleansing of milk utensils, and all the processes of manipulation from beginning to end. The dairy house should not only look clean, but be, as it were, fragrant with neatness and sweetness. And it is all-important that the clothing and person should be clean and neat to a fault. A sweet temper, even is no drawback. THE HERD. Of course, a thorough knowledge of the business must be had or be acquired. The proper selection or rearing of dairy stock is essential to success. The cow should not only be a good milker, but give milk suited to the line of dairying pursued. If cheese making is the object, there must be a large flow of milk rich in caseine. In butter making, a large flow of milk is not essential, but there must be a large percentage of fat in it. And the breeding must be such as to keep up the status of the herd. Some depend on purchasing cows, and exercise great care and judgment in so doing. In exceptional cases, a herd may be kept up in this way. But somebody must breed and rear good cows, or soon none can be had at any price. As a rule, it may be said to be the duty of every dairyman to breed from the best blood obtainable, and to rear the heifer calves from his best cows. Unless this condition is fulfilled, the dairy as a whole must run down. It is only by constant care and breeding from the best that the present status can be maintained, and possibly a little progress made. It should be the ambition of every dairyman to constantly improve the value of his herd, and to make progress in every department of his dairy, while improving the quality of his product. DAIRY STOCK. There is no more important subject connected with the dairy than that of the selection and rearing of stock. The herd is the fountain head. If there is failure here there is failure everywhere. Many a dairyman has remained poor all his days because he spent his time and energies on an unprofitable herd. This is the first thing to be looked after. The selection of a herd is a matter of both knowledge and judgment--knowledge of the characteristics of breeds and of the requisites of a good dairy cow, and judgment as to whether the individual cow in question possesses these characteristics and requisites. We will give some of the generally acknowledged characteristics of the different breeds, first indicating, as far as we can in words, some of the points of a good dairy cow. POINTS OF A MILKER. The dairy cow should be deep and broad through the flank--deeper and broader than through the shoulders--but must have a comparatively large chest, giving capacity of lungs and stomach, for she must have good digestive powers and inhale plenty of fresh air. Her hips should be broad, setting her thighs well apart, and her thighs should be rather thin. This gives space for a large udder, which is indispensable, for it is unreasonable to expect a large flow of milk from an udder of small capacity. The udder should be soft and fleshless when empty, and extend high up in the rear. It should also extend well forward, and from it should extend further forward large, protruding milk-veins. If they are double and are crooked and knotty, all the better. These veins carry off the blood after it has passed through the udder and performed its part in elaborating milk, and their size indicates the amount of blood employed, and by inference the amount of milk secreted. So the escutcheon, which should extend out on the thighs and run with even edges and unbroken surface up to or near the vulva, is supposed to be some indication of the extent of the arterial system that contributes blood for the elaboration of milk. The neck should be slender, taper and thin, the horns small and slender, the face dishing or flat, the eyes wide apart and mild and intelligent in expression, the muzzle broad when viewed from the front but thin when viewed from the side, and the lips thick and strong. A long, slender tail is indicative of good breeding. A yellow skin, or one which secretes an oily yellow scurf--especially seen in the ears, along the back and at the end of the tail--is considered a sign of milk rich in fat. The skin should be soft and pliable, the hair fine, and the coat glossy. We prefer rather light to very dark colors. Our observation is that a black cow never gives as rich milk as one in which the white predominates. In other colors we have not noted such a difference. Viewed from the front, the general shape of the cow should be a little wedging--thinner in front and thicker in the rear. Viewed from the side, the cow should taper from rear to front, with the upper and lower lines generally straight, with little or no, slope from the rump to the tail. DUTCH-FRIESIAN. For general or all purposes, the Dutch-Friesian cow is not excelled. She may be equaled, but where is her superior? We use the name Dutch-Friesian because it expresses precisely what we mean--the black and white cattle of Friesian origin which have been bred pure in Friesland or North Holland, and not the cattle called "Holstein" in this country, which have been picked up promiscuously in the different provinces of Germany, because of their peculiar markings, but without reference to their breeding. Some of these may be pure bred, but they are liable to disappoint the honest purchaser, who buys them for and pays the price of pure bloods. The Dutch-Friesian cow is large, readily takes on flesh when not in milk, and therefore makes splendid beef. She is hardy, docile and easily cared for. No other breed equals her in yield of milk. Her milk is of average richness, and she gives so much of it that it makes her valuable as a butter cow. Microscopists say the fat globules in her milk are very small. This makes it somewhat difficult to separate the fats from the milk for the purposes of butter making. Though the fat globules are quite uniform in size, it requires a long time to raise the cream by the ordinary methods, and the separation is not complete; but this makes the skim-milk all the more valuable for cheese making, feeding, or to market. With the centrifuge, there would be no difficulty in getting out all the cream. For market, or family use, or for cheese making, the milk of the Dutch-Friesian cow, because of the slowness with which the cream separates from the milk, is superior. It is rich in caseine, and therefore very valuable for cheese making. We could not recommend any other breed with greater confidence. Dutch-Friesian grades--the result of using pure-blooded Dutch-Friesian bulls on common or other stock--make very valuable dairy stock. [Illustration: Dutch-Friesian Bull, MOOIE, 26 D.F.H.B. Property of the Unadilla Valley Stock Breeders' Association, Whitestown, N.Y.] [Illustration: Dutch-Friesian Cow, JACOBA HARTOG, 2 D.F.H.B. Property of the Unadilla Valley Stock Breeders' Association, Whitestown, N.Y.] THE JERSEY. Perhaps as widely separated from the Dutch-Friesian cow as any breed is the Jersey. She certainly is the smallest of all as the Dutch-Friesian is the largest--unless we except the Shorthorn and Hereford. The Jersey gives a small mess of milk, but it is very rich in fat, and the fat readily separates from the milk, leaving the skim-milk very blue and poor. It is not generally considered very rich in caseine, and it is therefore as poor and worthless as skim-milk well can be. But, considering size, the Jersey is conceded to yield more butter than any other breed. The cream globules are said to be very large and very uniform in size. Hence, they not only readily separate from the milk, but churn easily. The Jersey is out of the question as a beef animal, there is so little of her carcass; but we never heard complaint of the quality of the meat. But lack of beef qualities we do not consider a very serious objection in a dairy cow. We get our profit from her in the dairy. We cannot reasonably expect all good qualities in one animal or one breed. Nature is nowhere thus partial in her gifts. We find some good quality predominating in every one of the several breeds, and we must select accordingly to suit our line of dairying and our circumstances. The Jersey is a fawn-like, beautiful animal, with a mild eye and intelligent face, but usually has a quite angular frame, as a consequence of her excessive dairy qualities. She is rather tender, and cannot bear the exposure and harsh treatment that some of the breeds can. But no animal ought to receive such treatment. Kindness and comfortable quarters are due to all domestic animals, and such care, with proper feed, is the most profitable to the owner. The Jersey will not stand harsh usage; but for the man of refined taste and good judgment, who wants a nice thing and to turn out fancy goods, she is most decidedly the cow, and will not disappoint him. Solid colors and black muzzles are the fashion in Jerseys, but we are not aware that there is any practical merit in these. They have been bred down in size, to suit the taste of the English Lord, who wants them as pets on his lawns. This is rather against than in favor of the Jersey as a dairy cow, as it must of necessity reduce her capacity for converting food into milk and cream. THE GUERNSEY. There are but few of these animals as yet in this country, but the few that have been imported and bred here have proved very satisfactory and promising. They are pale red or buff red and white. The colors are about in equal proportions, though the red may predominate. They are considerably larger than the Jersey and possess all the good qualities of the latter. Indeed, there is pretty good evidence that these breeds have the same origin, and that the Jersey is the Guernsey bred down in size and bred also for solid colors. The Guernsey is just as beautiful in face and form as the Jersey, and we think rather hardier and possesses more capacity. For all practical purposes, we should be inclined to give preference to the Guernsey, which has no rival in her line, except the Jersey. This breed can lay claim to some beef qualities, because of its size. It is destined to become a popular favorite in the butter dairy and as a family cow. THE AYRSHIRE. This breed is a great favorite with many. It is small--scarcely larger than the Guernsey--and is remarkably nimble and hardy, thriving on scant feed and in rough pastures where some of the other breeds would starve. The Ayrshires are red or red and white and give a large flow of milk, fairly rich in caseine and in butter. The breed has its phenomenal cows, both as milkers and as butter makers. The cream globules of the milk are quite irregular in size, and hence do not readily separate from the milk by ordinary methods of cream raising. But this fact makes the milk all the better for family use, for marketing and for the cheese factory, or for both butter and cheese from the same milk. The Ayrshire, like the Dutch-Friesian, may be called a good general purpose cow. The greatest objections to this breed have been its nervousness and its small teats; but both of these may be overcome by gentle treatment and careful breeding--indeed, have been overcome in many cases. For rough, hilly pastures, there is no better cow than the Ayrshire. But although she can stand some hard fare, she responds quickly to gentle and generous usage. Well-selected and well-bred Ayrshires make a splendid dairy herd. THE SHORTHORN. This has long been a popular breed, and there may be said to be a strong popular prejudice in its favor. Its undisputed, and perhaps unequaled, beef qualities have been its strongest recommend. It was, however, originally a milch breed, and some families of the breed are still hard to excel for the dairy. But it is quite difficult to select and maintain a milking strain, so long have the Shorthorns been bred for "beef and beauty," and so effectually have the milking qualities been bred out of them. In some of the beef families, the cows do not give milk enough to support their calves. Yet, many dairymen cling to this breed and keep unprofitable dairies because they can get a good price for the old carcass as beef when the cow is no longer tolerable in the dairy herd. This is short-sightedness, and holding beef for market too long and at too great a cost. The profit should be in the dairy products, where a dairy herd is kept, and beef should be altogether a subordinate consideration. The Shorthorn is usually red or roan, and occasionally red and white, though we always suspect other blood--Ayrshire, for instance--in the spotted animals. As a rule, we do not consider the Shorthorns as really profitable dairy cows, though there are many exceptions where a milking strain is cultivated. But there is no disputing their value for beef. [Illustration: GUERNSEY BULL, "LORD FERNWOOD." PROPERTY OF L.W. LEDYARD, FERNWOOD FARM, CAZENOVIA, N.Y.] [Illustration: GUERNSEY COW, "COUNTESS OF FERNWOOD." PROPERTY OF L.W. LEDYARD, FERNWOOD FARM, CAZENOVIA, N.Y.] THE DEVON. This is one of the choicest and most reliable of the dairy breeds. They are uniformly red, of fair size, have a sprightly appearance, and reproduce their like more certainly than any other breed that we know. As has been said, they are so prepotent, uniform, and distinct from the other breeds that they may be called a _race_ of cattle. Their history runs back hundreds of years, until it is lost in tradition and uncertainty. But origin and history are of little consequence, since it is the living fact--the cattle themselves--that we have to deal with. The cows give a good sized mess of milk--large milkers have appeared among them as among other breeds--and their milk is very rich. It is not as rich as the Jersey's and the Guernsey's milk, but there is more of it, and it approximates the richness of the milk of these breeds more closely than that of any other. Hence, they are excellent butter cows, and justly favorites among those who are the most familiar with them and know how to breed them. Healthy, hardy, and easy to keep, they are adapted to almost any circumstances, and are excellent as butter or family cows, while the males, owing to their activity and endurance, make splendid oxen--both useful and fine looking. They make fine beef and a fair amount of it. They would be useful animals for crossing on the common stock and grades of the Northwest, where the climate is rigorous and both butter and beef are objects of importance. As workers, they would be very useful there. They will stand as much hardship as any breed we have, and as much as any breed ought to, but will do better under favorable than under unfavorable circumstances. Like all other breeds, they respond readily to kind and generous treatment, it being a universal law that want and abuse are sources of loss in the keeping of stock, the best results always following the best treatment. They will do well on level, hilly or rough pastures, because of their nimbleness and endurance: while the certainty of their breeding makes it perhaps less difficult to perpetuate their good qualities than is the case with any of the other breeds. In short, they are the most prepotent and uniform of all, give a good-sized mess of very rich milk, are easy to keep, hardy and active, and fill a sphere which it would be difficult to fill without them. We do not know how their milk appears under the microscope, but we judge from the characteristics of these animals that the butter globules are above the average size and very uniform. Hence the cream rises readily, is easily churned, and makes a rich-colored, fine-flavored butter. It is a little remarkable that the breeders of these cattle have not succeeded in getting up a "boom;" but the probability is that no strenuous and persistent effort has been made in this direction. Their superior merits are unquestioned and unquestionable. THE AMERICAN HOLDERNESS. This is a new breed, and its reputation is mainly of a local character. But it is not without its representatives in most of the Northern and Northwestern States, and its fame has traveled quite extensively, considering the quiet and unpretentious manner in which it was originated and has been bred. In some particulars it is the most uniform of the breeds, even more uniform than the Devon. Especially is this true of the quality of the milk, which is as uniform throughout the herd as if it were drawn from a single cow, the quality varying, where the keep is the same, only with the age of the cow, and the lapse of time since calving. The yield of milk, though not excessive, is large and very rich--almost equal to that of the Jersey and Guernsey, and quite equal to that of the Devon. It churns easily, and the butter completely separates from the buttermilk, rendering a second churning of no avail. Three hundred pounds per cow a year of high-colored and fine-flavored butter is a fair average for a herd. Few, even of selected herds, of other animals equal this. We are not aware of phenomenal milkers among the Holderness cattle, unless all can be called such, their chief characteristic being uniformity. They breed, it may be said, perfectly true to type, so that all are excellent. The reason for this uniformity is plain, and is found in the origin of the breed in the closest possible inbreeding for thirty years. They originated from a cow with calf which was bought by Mr. Truman A. Cole, of Solsville, N.Y., of a drover who had just purchased it at auction in Knoxboro, N.Y., where a herd of pure-bloods, because of the death of the owner, had been sold under the auctioneer's hammer. The cow dropped a bull calf, which was bred to its mother, then to both mother and sister; and this system of close inbreeding, even sire to daughter, as well as brother to sister, has been continued down to the present time, or for thirty years, as before stated. This has fixed and intensified the qualities, and at the same time secured the greatest possible uniformity and really established a breed, separate and distinct from all others. This is the way in which all the valuable breeds have been established, and this is the first persistent and successful effort at establishing a purely American breed that has ever been made. While carefully watching results and selecting for breeding purposes, Mr. Cole has steadily refused to be turned from his course, or to change his purpose of establishing a uniform butter breed, and of testing the fallacy of the popular notion about the injurious effects of inbreeding. His thirty years of the closest inbreeding have shown no such disastrous effects, but, on the contrary, have produced only good ones. There is no failure in form or constitution. The only marked external change, save in securing the greatest uniformity, has been in the gradual change of color. The original animals were pale red and white, the white being along the back from the shoulders to the tail, down the hind-quarters, and along the belly to the shoulders. This distribution of the light and dark colors has remained essentially the same, but the light red gradually turned to dark red, then to brindle and finally to black. The later bred animals are all black and white. But the calves, when first dropped, are still red and white, the red changing to black when the first coat of hair is shed. This is probably one of the most remarkable cases of inbreeding on record, as the breed is also one of the most remarkable. All who have tried this stock are remarkably well pleased with it, and calves readily sell for $100 a head with a demand greater than the supply--and this without any newspaper advertising. The breed is endorsed by Mr. Lewis F. Allen, former editor of the Shorthorn Herd-Book, and author of a work on cattle that stands second to none as authority. This endorsement has appeared in print over Mr. Allen's signature, as have the favorable opinions of many other good judges. In the latest edition of his book on the Cattle of America, he says: "I never saw a more uniform herd of cows, in their general appearance and excellence, which latter quality they daily prove in the milk they produce. * * Compared with ordinary dairy herds, the uniformity in yield testifies to their purity of breeding and management." [Illustration: American Holderness Bull, LEWIS F. ALLEN, at 16 months. Property of T.A. Cole, Solsville, N.Y.] [Illustration: American Holderness Cow, ADELAIDE 17th. Property of T.A. Cole, Solsville, N.Y.] Col. Weld, who saw these cattle on exhibition at the New York State Fair, held at Utica in 1879, said of them, in the November number of the _American Agriculturist_; "The cattle of this 'Cole-Holderness breed' are of good size and fair form as beef animals. * * * They are deep-bodied, with large udders and teats, with excellent escutcheons, great swollen and tortuous milk-veins and skins as yellow as Guernsey's. The interior of their ears was almost like orange-peel. The butter made from their milk * * * showed admirable color and keeping qualities. * * * Could we test the various breeds of cattle, with the view of determining with accuracy which is the most profitable dairy cow for all purposes--butter, cheese, veal, and ultimately beef--giving to each its fair weight in the scale of excellence, I would not be surprised if Mr. Cole's breed would win the distinction of being the most useful of all." INBREEDING. A word here about inbreeding will not be out of place. It may be disastrous, or it may be beneficial. So also may be crossing or grading. The evil as well as the good qualities are developed and intensified. Like begets like. Couple animals having the same bad points, and these points will be increased and strengthened. Couple those with good points, and corresponding results follow--that is, the good are increased and strengthened. But if one animal has one point to excess, so as to become a deformity, and the other is deformed by lack of this same point, it is both safe and advantageous to breed them together, as the result is likely to be a medium between the two. So, whatever the manner of breeding--inbreeding, crossing or grading--the good or evil results depend altogether on the characteristics of the animals coupled. Inbreeding intensifies and fixes the qualities, be they good or bad. SWISS. There have been a few importations of Swiss cattle, which are short-legged and strong-boned, and hence well adapted to hilly regions. Some of these have made splendid butter records--from 500 to over 700 pounds of butter in a year. We should have great hopes of them for the mountainous sections of our country; but as yet importation and breeding of this stock is not extensive enough to permit of their availability to any considerable extent for dairy purposes. POLLED. The polled or hornless cattle are great favorites with some of the Western people, and an effort is made to get up a boom on them. But they not only lack in numbers, but in the essential quality of a large flow of milk, or of a very rich one. The best information we can get does not indicate usefulness for the dairy. Neither do they excel several of the other breeds for beef. Their chief recommend appears to be their destitution of horns, which in our eye is far from a mark of beauty. It gives them a sort of bald, unfinished look that is anything but pleasing. We prefer, for looks, short, well-turned horns. But of course, without horns there is no hooking, but pushing is by no means avoided. Besides, in some cases we have known a lack of horns to make it difficult to fasten the animals in stanchions or with ropes. This may not be true of the cows; but we were cognizant of an instance on the New York State Fair grounds where a polled bull was constantly getting loose. His neck was so thick that he could slip his head through any place not tight enough to choke him. As to disposition, we presume the lack of horns would not make the bulls any more amiable. However, we have nothing to say against this kind of stock, and would advise all who like them to keep them. If horns are objectionable, it is easy to prevent them from growing on any stock by removing the first appearance of them on the calf. This can be done without much pain to the calf and without much trouble to one who knows how to do it. It, as we understand, requires no great skill, and can hardly be said to come under the head of cruelty to animals. It is nothing like as painful as castration. HEREFORDS. The Herefords are having quite a boom in the West, but it is not as dairy stock, but as superior for beef. We have seen no strong claims put in for them for dairy purposes. The few we have seen did not seem to indicate any great dairy qualities, nor have any of the numerous portraits we have seen published borne the marks of dairy stock. But the claim of beef qualities we believe is well founded. Their great rivals in this line are the Shorthorns. COMMON STOCK. We have not mentioned the so-called "Native" stock as a dairy breed, because it is not a breed, but a mixture of breeds--crazy-quilt stock. We would not be understood as considering it of no value for dairy purposes, for when carefully selected, a dairy herd of common stock may be very valuable. Great milkers and great butter makers are not uncommon among them; but there is such a mixture of blood in their veins that there is no guarantee of their producing their like. They originally sprang from the best animals that the early emigrants could select to bring over with them from Europe. But they were subsequently cross-bred so promiscuously that no trace of the original blood can be discovered with any certainty. They were also subjected to great exposure and hardship, with scanty food, which had a greatly deteriorating tendency. But, perhaps worst of all, there was no careful selection of males for breeding purposes, nor any attempt at judicious coupling for improvement, or for even the maintenance of the existing status. In short, the entire treatment and all the surroundings had a deteriorating influence and a tendency to the production of scrubs. If we were to take all the existing pure-blood stock and breed it together promiscuously, while at the same time subjecting it to harsh treatment and neglect, it would not require a very long period to reduce it to the same mongrel and scrub condition in which we now find the common stock of the country. Yet some of our common stock make excellent crosses, when pure-blood males are used. But no improvement or valuable results could come from using common stock bulls on pure-blood or other cows. The male has the controlling influence, and to the constant use of pure-blood males must we look for the improvement of the common stock of the country and for the maintenance of the existing status of the pure-bloods; and not only must we use pure-blood males, but keep up a constant and careful selection of the best. Neither should we trust to cross-bred or grade bulls for breeding purposes; for the progeny will inherit the traits of ancestors on one side or the other, and hence will lack in uniformity, both in appearance and in quality. When we use a grade bull, the result is just the opposite of what it is when we use a pure blood. With the latter, we get half-bloods, then quarter, then eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and so on, toward pure blood; but with a half-blood grade bull, the first offspring from common stock has only one-fourth pure blood, the next cross has only one-eighth, the third one-sixteenth pure blood, and so on--reducing the purity in the same ratio as the use of pure blood improves it--if we continue to breed from the grade male offspring. If we always use a half-blood male, there may be a slight improvement in the blood. But the improvement is too slow and the benefit too uncertain to make the use of a grade bull advisable when a pure blood can be had. BREEDING DAIRY STOCK. Having briefly glanced at the characteristics of the different breeds, it will not be out of place to say a few words about breeding and rearing dairy stock. There are three things to be considered: 1. Selection. 2. Coupling. 3. Care. SELECTION. By selection, we mean not only the selection of the breed adapted to the line of dairying pursued, but the selection of the individual animals to breed and rear animals from, and especially the bull to be used on the herd. This male should have a good pedigree--that is, be the lineal descendant of animals known to possess the qualities desired in the future herd. This is all-important; for however well-formed and comely he may be, he will transmit the qualities of his ancestors as surely as like begets like. This fact can never be safely ignored. Milk and butter qualities, in a dairy herd, must take precedence over beauty of form, however desirable the latter may be. The cows to rear stock from should be selected, as far as possible, on the same principle. Pedigree is not of as much consequence in a cow, so far as practical results are concerned, though it helps insure certainly in the quality of the offspring when that of the cow, as well as of the bull, is right. But we may safely venture on raising the calves of a good milker, as the probabilities are that the offspring will inherit the qualities of the sire, while it may also inherit the qualities of the dam, though she be of the most mongrel or mixed blood. If there is failure, however, it need not go beyond that one animal--unless an attempt is made to use a grade bull on a nondescript dam, in which case prepotency is weakened and mongrelism may show in the offspring. But grade bulls should never be used when it is possible to have the use of the right kind of pure blood, which is always stronger than mixed blood, and hence a pure blood sire is pretty sure to transmit the qualities of his herd and family, in a great degree, even when coupled with a cow of uncertain blood. In breeding, the one bull makes half the herd, and when used on common stock, the offspring will always be half-bloods the first generation. The second generation they become three-quarter bloods; the third seven eighths; the fourth fifteen-sixteenth, and so on, constantly approaching, but never reaching, purity. For all dairy purposes, however, they become practically as good as pure-bloods. But if the breeding is the other way--that is, if a scrub bull is used on pure-blood cows--the degeneration to the scrub status is in precisely the same ratio that we have just given for improvement when pure-blood males are constantly used. By using grade bulls, there is also a constant deterioration of blood, but not as rapid as when scrub bulls are used. The only safety is in using pure blood males. With these well selected and all other conditions maintained, the status is certain to be preserved, if improvements, in consequence of better care and selection, are not secured. COUPLING. Proper coupling, or rather the coupling of proper animals, has received little attention, and is now confined generally if not exclusively to professional breeders. But it is a subject to which the dairymen can as well as not pay attention with good results. By coupling proper animals, we mean having regard to individual points and qualities, never coupling those having the same defects, either in form or quality. For instance, to illustrate, a cow high on the rump may be safely bred to a bull low on the rump, or _vice versa_, the result, in all probability, being an offspring with a level rump. This is breeding together opposite extremes, depending on the one to correct the other. But if we breed two sloped rumps together, or two humped rumps, the result would be to exaggerate and intensify or strengthen this deformity in the offspring. So of quality or disposition. A nervous cow bred to a nervous or irritable bull, would be pretty sure to drop a calf that would be more nervous than either sire or dam. But if one of the parents is dull and sluggish and the other irritable and sensitive, the offspring might be an improvement on both. Again, a cow lacking in the quality of richness of milk, though giving a large flow, should not be coupled with a bull descended from a family having the same peculiarity of large flow lacking in richness. But if there is richness on one side and abundance on the other, the coupling of the two might reasonably be expected to result in improvement in the offspring, which might inherit both the large flow and the rich quality. Bad points and qualities are inherited as well as good ones. Hence, the constant aim and care must be to avoid developing what is objectionable as well as to develop what is desired. It must be constantly borne in mind that like begets like. All the trouble attending inbreeding, crossing or grading comes from not properly regarding this fact. Where inbreeding is followed, the only disadvantage arises from the fact that all the animals are likely to have the same defects of form, quality and constitution. But where these are all right, the advantage is that inbreeding fixes the features and qualities and secures the establishment of them in a type or breed. But crossing or grading animals having the same failing will prove just as disastrous as would inbreeding. But crossing may be done in a way to develop good qualities, and these may afterward be fixed by careful selection and inbreeding of offspring. This subject of breeding is one of great importance, and yet little understood. Many things pertaining to it are yet to be settled, though great progress has been made during the last few years, and public attention is being drawn to it as it never was before. It will be found that man can become master of the situation, and may, by observing certain fundamental conditions and varying only the details, breed domestic animals of almost any form, disposition, and quality, that he may desire. CARE AND KEEP. Better care and keep, however, are the key notes to improvement. Higher conditions and better surroundings lead to improvements which may be developed into fixed traits by proper selection and coupling, provided the improved environment is maintained. The status can be maintained only by maintaining the conditions. This is what we mean by care. Under this head, we include all that pertains to the health and comfort of the animal. Judicious care is of prime importance not only in breeding but in securing the best results in dairy products. Proper food and drink and enough of it, with shelter, kind treatment, regularity and the most thorough system, must be provided, or corresponding failure, for any and all abuse, neglect or mistake, is sure to follow. FEEDING STOCK. The question of feeding stock is yearly rising into greater prominence and importance. Formerly, it was thought that anybody who could throw out coarse fodder and hay to cattle knew enough for all practical purposes about feeding, and that any sort of a shelter, or no shelter, if the animal survived, was sufficient. Better ideas are beginning to prevail. Few men now think they know all that can be learned about feeding stock, and those who know the most are the most anxious to learn. A thorough knowledge of feeding requires a knowledge of physiology and biology, with the chemical composition and nutritive qualities of the different kinds of food. Added to this must be the practical knowledge gained by observation of the effects of the different foods on different animals under various conditions. And when all is known that can be, there will still be room left for the exercise of the best judgment of the feeder as to the conditions and requirements of the animal fed, and as to the quality of the foods available and the quantity and proportions of each. CARBONACEOUS AND NITROGENOUS FOODS. It is pretty well known what the constituents of the animal organism are, and what elements of nutrition are required in the food for the sustenance of the animal. Of these primal elements--some twelve or fifteen in number--it is found that, practically, when foods combined contain two of them in proper proportion, the rest are generally present in sufficient quantity. These two are CARBON and NITROGEN, and the foods containing them in relatively large proportion are respectively called _carbonaceous_ and _nitrogenous_. All foods contain these elements in greater or less proportion. The proper proportion for feeding is found to be about _one_ of nitrogen to _five_ or _six_ of carbon. If the temperature of the weather is low, the proportion of carbon may be raised to eight, and even ten, where little exercise is had--as, for instance, milch cows standing in a cold stable. But, in hot weather, when cows are giving milk, the carbon may be reduced to four and even three--that is, so that there shall be one part of nitrogen to three or four parts of carbon. The carbon is heat and fat producing, and some class it as motor producing, but we think this is a mistake, save so far as heat is essential to motion. We think nitrogen is motor producing as well as muscle producing--or, in other words, that the element which produces the organs of motion also fills them with energy, for the exercise of which heat is essential. We cannot have motion, or even life, much below the normal temperature of about 98 degrees Fahrenheit. At all events, it is found necessary to feed nitrogenous food to all animals that are working hard, to supply the waste of muscle--and we think also to replace the expended energy. Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, in his work on the "Maintenance of Health," published by G.P. Putnam's Sons, says: "The effect of the nitrogen upon the brain is to _evolve nerve force freely_, and this rules and regulates the actual force which takes its origin in the respiratory foods consumed. These respiratory foods furnish the force itself, but the nitrogenized foods furnish the manifesters of force." It appears to us that the nerve force, which he says is evolved, is all there is of it, save the requisite conditions afforded by heat. Dr. Houghton says: "The hunted deer will outrun the leopard in a fair open chase, because the force supplied to its muscles by vegetable food is capable of being given out continuously for a long period of time; but in a sudden rush at a near distance, the leopard will infallibly overtake the deer, because its flesh food stores up in the blood a reserve of force capable of being given out instantaneously in the form of exceedingly swift muscular action." Dr. Fothergill goes on to say: "Nitrogen is the essential factor in all explosive compounds, from gunpowder to nerve force. It endows the consumer of it with energy and enables him to discharge his force quickly and rapidly." Again, he says of the race-horse: "His food affects his speed and endurance, and without his nitrogenized food he would cut a poor figure at a race, because without it he could not discharge his force fast enough." WHAT IS CARBON? It is pure in the diamond, nearly pure in coal, and is the principal constituent of all woody fiber--also of oils, fat, starch, sugar, etc. Nearly all the visible organic world is composed of carbon. It appears to be very plentiful, but of our atmosphere it composes only about four-ten-thousandths, while oxygen, with which it unites to form carbonic acid gas for vegetation to feed on, composes one-fifth and nitrogen four-fifths. Really, we have little trouble in securing carbonaceous foods. The only difficulty is to get them in a digestible form. Only what is soluble can be digested and assimilated by the animal organism. Hence, great care must be taken to get food in a proper condition for animal nutrition. WHAT IS NITROGEN? It is almost pure in the albumens; both vegetable and animal. It is nearly pure in the white of egg. Hence, nitrogenous foods are quite commonly called albuminoids. It exists abundantly in all the proteins--as cheese or caseine, fibrin or lean meat, albumen, etc. Nitrogen, in its free state, appears to be an innocuous gas, diluting the oxygen and preventing it from rapidly oxydizing or burning up everything. As before said, it constitutes four-fifths of our atmosphere, but does not appear to be directly appropriated by either vegetables or animals. As food for either, it must be in combination with other elements--especially carbon--and yet it is very difficult to make it unite with other elements, and hard to maintain the union when it is once formed. Its disposition is to break these unions and seek an idle state of freedom. Hence it is that, when held in durance, its constant tendency to free itself makes it the motor force in all animal organisms, and the terrible energy in all explosives. It is secured in the form of ammonia in rain, by a process called nitrification it unites with the soil, and it exists in all decayed animal and vegetable matter in a form suitable for plant food. Men and animals get it by eating vegetables or by eating one another. It is a very abundant and important element, yet very difficult to obtain in an available form for plant and animal food. Fortunately, but comparatively little of it is needed. COMPOUNDING RATIONS. By referring to the feed tables furnished by the analysts of this country and Europe, the farmer can learn the constituents of foods. Then, knowing the ration required, he can take different foods and compound in the right proportions aimed at in feeding, whether for work, for growth, for fat, for bare maintenance, or for milk. We give the German standards for feeding animals: PER DAY AND PER 1,000 LBS. LIVE WEIGHT. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Nutritive digestible sub. ------------------------- ANIMALS. Total Albumi- Carbo- Total Nutritive organic dry noids. hydrates. Fat. nutritive ratio. substance. sub. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1. Oxen at rest in stall 17.5 0.7 8.0 0.15 8.85 1:12 2. Oxen moderately worked 24.0 1.6 11.3 0.30 13.20 1:7.5 3. Oxen heavily worked 26.0 2.4 13.2 0.50 16.10 1:6.0 4. Oxen fattening, 1st period 27.0 2.5 15.0 0.50 18.00 1:6.5 Oxen fattening, 2d period 26.0 3.0 14.8 0.70 18.50 1:5.5 Oxen fattening, 3d period 25.0 2.7 14.8 0.60 18.10 1:6.0 5. Cows in milk 24.0 2.5 12.5 0.40 15.40 1:5.4 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- GROWING CATTLE--PER DAY AND PER HEAD. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Age. Average live weight Months. per head. 2 to 3 150 pounds 3.3 0.6 2.1 0.30 3.00 1:4.7 3 to 6 300 pounds 7.0 1.0 4.1 0.30 5.40 1:5.0 6 to 12 500 pounds 12.0 1.3 6.8 0.30 8.40 1:6.0 12 to 18 700 pounds 16.8 1.4 9.1 0.28 10.78 1:7.0 18 to 24 850 pounds 20.4 1.4 19.3 0.26 11.96 1:8.0 SAMPLE RATIONS. Dr. Wolf gives an illustration of the standard for a milch cow, by saying that 30 lbs. of young clover hay will keep a cow in good milk; and that this contains of dry organic substance, 23 lbs., of which is digestible--albuminoids 3.21, carbohydrates 11.28, and fat 0.63. This is .71 lb. albuminoids more, and .22 lb. of carbohydrates less, with .13 lb. of fat more, than the standard. Then he takes the richest and best meadow hay, of which 30 lbs. contains of organic substance 23.2 lbs., having digestible--albuminoids 2.49 lbs., carbohydrates 12.75 lbs., and fat 42 lb. This is almost exactly the feeding standard. As will have been seen by what has preceded, the German standard ration for a milch cow is 24 lbs. of dry organic substance, containing 2.50 lbs. nitrogenous food, and 12.90 lbs. of carbonaceous food. To secure this, Dr. Wolff recommends for every 1,000 lbs. of live weight: 12 lbs. average meadow hay. 6 " oat straw. 20 " mangolds. 25 " brewers' grain. 2 " cotton seed cake. Prof. S.W. Johnson's ration for the same purpose is: 20 lbs. corn fodder. 5 " rye straw. 6 " malt sprouts. 2 " cotton seed meal. The following milk rations are recommended by Prof. E.W. Stewart: No. 1. 18 lbs. oat straw. 5 " bean straw. 6 " cotton seed cake. No. 2. 20 lbs. barley straw. 5 " pea straw. 2 " wheat bran. 5 " linseed meal. No. 3. 20 lbs. poor hay. 5 " corn meal. 5 " cotton seed cake. No. 4. 20 lbs. wheat straw. 5 " wheat bran. 3 " corn meal. 4 " linseed meal. No. 5. 20 lbs. fresh marsh hay. 5 " corn meal. 5 " cotton seed meal. No. 6. 10 lbs. good mead'w hay. 10 " rye straw. 3 " wheat bran. 5 " linseed meal. The following are given by the same author as milk rations: No. 1. 10 lbs. clover hay. 10 " straw. 4 " linseed oil cake. 4 " wheat bran. 2 " cotton seed cake. 4 " corn meal. No. 2. 16 lbs. meadow hay. 8 " wheat bran. 2 " linseed meal. 6 " corn meal. No. 3. 18 lbs. corn fodder. 8 " wheat bran. 4 " cotton seed meal. 4 " corn meal. No. 4. 15 lbs. straw. 5 " hay. 4 " cotton seed meal. 4 " bran. 4 " corn meal. 3 " malt sprouts. No. 5. 10 lbs. corn fodder. 10 " oat straw. 2 " linseed meal. 4 " malt sprouts. 10 " oat & corn meal. No. 6. 60 lbs. corn ensilage. 5 " hay. 2 " linseed meal. 4 " bran. FATTENING RATIONS. The following rations are recommended by Prof. E.W. Stewart for fattening cattle. The rations are for 1,000 pounds of live weight: No. 1. 18 lbs. wint'r wh't straw. 40 " corn sugar meal. 4 " cotton seed meal. No. 2. 12 lbs oat straw. 10 " wheat bran. 40 " corn sugar meal. No. 3. 12 lbs. clover hay. 6 " oat straw. 40 " corn sugar meal. 2 " linseed meal. No. 4. 15 lbs. corn fodder. 5 " malt sprouts. 3 " corn meal. 40 " corn sugar meal. No. 5. 20 lbs. best clover hay. 50 " corn sugar meal. No. 6. 20 lbs. wheat straw. 8 " timothy hay. 6 " cotton seed cake. No. 7. 20 lbs. corn fodder. 6 " Indian corn. 6 " linseed cake. WORKING RATIONS. The following are rations for oxen at hard work, as given by Prof. Stewart: No. 1. 20 lbs. best meadow hay. 10 " corn meal. No. 2. 20 lbs. corn fodder. 5 " clover hay. 2 " wheat bran. 3 " cotton seed cake. No. 3. 17 lbs. clover hay. 3 " wheat bran. 10 " corn meal. No. 4. 25 lbs. oat straw. 5 " wheat bran. 4 " linseed cake. DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. The following table, copied from Prof. Stewart, gives the digestibility of a few of the more common foods: Digestible In 100 lbs. Digestible. in 2,000 lbs. ------------------------------------------------------------- CLOVER HAY. Albuminoids 15.3 10.7 214 Carbo-hydrates 35.8} 37.5 752 Crude fibre 22.2} Fat 3.2 2.1 42 ---- 1008 In 100 lbs. Digestible. Digestible in 2,000 lbs. ------------------------------------------------------------------- AVERAGE MEADOW HAY. Albuminoids 9.7 5.4 108 Carbo-hydrates 41.6} 41.0 820 Crude fiber 21.9} Fat 2.5 1.0 20 ---- 948 CORN FODDER. Albuminoids 4.4 3.2 66 Carbo hydrates 37.9} 43.4 868 Crude fiber 25.0} Fat 1.3 1.0 20 ---- 954 OAT STRAW. Albuminoids 4.0 1.4 28 Carbo-hydrates 36.2} 40.1 802 Crude fibre 39.5} Fat 2.0 0.7 14 ---- 844 LINSEED OIL CAKE. Albuminoids 28.3 23.77 475 Carbo-hydrates 32.3} 35.15 703 Fibre 10.0} Fat 10.0 9.0 180 ---- 1358 WHEAT BRAN. Albuminoids 15.0 12.9 252 Carbo-hydrates 52.2} 42.6 852 Fibre 10.1} Fat 3.2 2.6 52 ---- 1156 CORN MEAL. Albuminoids 10.0 8.4 168 Carbo-hydrates 62.1} 60.6 1212 Crude fibre 5.5} Fat 6.5 4.8 96 ---- 1476 OATS. Albuminoids 12.0 9.0 180 Carbo-hydrates 55.0} 43.0 860 Crude fibre 9.3} Fat 6.5 4.7 94 ---- 1134 ELEMENTS OF FOOD. We give the names of a few foods, with their relative amount of nitrogenous and carbonaceous elements: FOODS. Nitrogenous. Carbonaceous. ------------------------------------------------------ Meadow hay, medium 1 to 8.0 Red clover, medium 1 " 5.9 Lucerne, good 1 " 2.8 Swedish clover (alsike) 1 " 4.9 Orchard grass, in blos'm 1 " 6.5 White clover, medium 1 " 5.0 Timothy 1 " 8.1 Blue grass, in blossom 1 " 7.5 Red top 1 " 5.4 Fodder rye 1 " 7.2 Italian rye grass 1 " 6.3 Hungarian grass 1 " 7.1 Rich pasture grass 1 " 3.6 Green maize, German 1 " 8.9 Fodder oats 1 " 7.2 Sorghum 1 " 7.4 Pasture clover, young 1 " 2.5 Red clover, before bl's'm 1 " 3.8 Red clover, in blossom 1 " 5.7 White clover, in blossom 1 " 4.2 Buckwheat, in blossom 1 " 5.1 Fodder cabbage 1 " 5.2 Ruttabaga leaves 1 " 3.9 Fermented hay, from maize 1 " 12.0 Fermented hay, from beet leaves 1 " 4.0 Fermented hay, from red clover 1 " 4.1 Winter wheat straw 1 " 45.8 Winter rye straw 1 " 52.0 Winter barley straw 1 " 40.5 Oat straw 1 " 29.9 Corn stalks 1 " 34.4 Seed clover 1 " 7.4 Wheat chaff 1 " 24.1 Rye chaff 1 " 32.6 Oat chaff 1 " 23.8 Barley chaff 1 " 30.4 Potatoes 1 to 10.6 Artichokes 1 " 8.7 Ruttabagas 1 " 8.3 Sugar beets 1 " 17.0 Carrots 1 " 9.3 Turnips 1 " 5.8 Wheat, grain 1 " 5.8 Rye, grain 1 " 7.0 Barley, grain 1 " 7.9 Oats, grain 1 " 6.1 Maize, grain 1 " 8.6 Millet, grain 1 " 5.4 Peas, grain 1 " 2.9 Buckwheat, grain 1 " 7.4 Cotton seed 1 " 4.6 Pumpkins 1 " 18.4 Coarse wheat bran 1 " 5.6 Wheat middlings 1 " 6.9 Rye bran 1 " 5.3 Barley bran 1 " 4.5 Buckwheat bran 1 " 4.1 Hempseed cake 1 " 1.5 Sunflower 1 " 1.3 Corn bran 1 " 10.3 Brewers' grain 1 " 3.0 Malt sprouts 1 " 2.2 Wheat meal 1 " 5.7 Rape cake 1 " 1.7 Rape meal, extracted 1 " 1.3 Barley, middlings 1 " 6.0 Oat bran 1 " 9.7 Linseed cake 1 " 2.0 Linseed meal, extracted 1 " 1.4 Cot'n-seed meal, decort. 1 " 1.8 Cot'n-s'd cake, undecort. 1 " 1.7 Cow's milk 1 " 4.4 Buttermilk 1 " 2.6 Skimmed milk 1 " 1.9 Cream 1 " 30.5 ENSILAGE. Major Henry E. Alvord, of Houghton Farm, N.Y., gives the following as the range and average of analyses by a large number of eminent scientists: Range in 100 lbs. Average. Total dry matter 15.10 to 25.90 18.60 Water 84.90 to 74.10 81.40 Protein 0.90 to 1.90 1.30 Fat 0.30 to 0.90 0.60 Nitrogen-free extract 7.60 to 13.40 9.60 Crude Fiber 4.70 to 7.90 5.90 Ash 0.90 to 1.40 1.20 REMARKS. It is safe to always feed cotton seed meal, bran, or linseed cake with corn fodder, or fodder corn, or ensilage. And it will always be found to work well if corn meal is fed with clover hay. Corn ensilage with clover hay will constitute a proper feed. To avoid waste, and secure the best results, we must learn to balance the nitrogenous and carbonaceous foods. Our greatest difficulty in feeding, as in manuring the soil, is to secure enough of the nitrogenous elements. These are what we have mainly to look out for, the carbonaceous foods usually being over abundant. Not only must we proportion the elements of food properly, but we must prepare the food so that it will be in a proper condition. It may contain all the elements, but in consequence of being in a bad or wrong condition, the animal cannot digest it. There is plenty of carbon in coal, but who would expect the animal stomach to digest it? So there is nitrogen in saltpeter and gun-cotton, but they are not in a suitable condition or form for digestion, and hence have no food value. Most raw vegetables are indigestible in the human stomach, but cook them, and thus put them in a proper condition, and they become nutritious foods. There are few, if any, perfect foods. Every food needs to be supplemented with something else. Hence it is that both men and animals want variety. Summer pasture, composed of mixed grasses, makes the best food for all kinds of stock. Meadow hay, cut at the right time and properly cured--provided there is a mixture of grasses--makes a proper food for winter; but even this needs to be accompanied by roots, ensilage or something of a juicy nature, as a relish, if for nothing else, and as an aid to digestion. In a state of nature, roaming free, animals select and balance their rations according to the cravings of appetite. But when domesticated, they have no such freedom of choice, except perhaps in a few of the summer months. In winter, they must take what is given to them. It is our duty, therefore, to give their food a proper balance of elements as far as possible; and in thus conforming to the laws of nature, we shall find both the greatest economy and the greatest profit. HANDLING MILK. It is a comparatively easy operation to milk, if one knows how. The process is about as simple as that of Columbus in making an egg stand on end, but it requires skill, practice and a muscular hand to do it well. Grasping the teat so as to fill it with milk, and then tighten the thumb and fore finger so as to prevent a return of the milk to the udder as the rest of the fingers are gently but firmly closed, so as to give a downward pressure and expel the milk, is not likely to be done by the novice the first time trying. But ordinarily, the performance of this operation is soon achieved by any one who wishes to learn, though it is declared by some that they "never could learn to milk." Substitute "would" for "could," and we think the truth is more nearly approximated. Still there is a great difference in milkers, as well as in cows, the man or woman with a good grip in the hand having decidedly the advantage, both as regards ease and expedition--and it is quite important that the milk should all be quickly and continuously drawn from the cow after the milking is begun, and while the cow is in the mood of "giving down." KEEP QUIET. If a cow is suddenly disturbed, so as to get excited, or gets tired and out of patience, the flow of milk may be prematurely stopped. If this disturbance is continued from time to time, the effect will be to permanently lessen the flow, or "dry up" the cow. Anything that irritates a cow, while being milked, reduces both quality and quantity. Hence, milking should be done in a quiet and orderly manner. Treat the cow very kindly and gently, so as to gain her confidence, and be as careful as possible not to hurt her teats by unnecessarily tearing open any cracks there may be, or pinching any warts, and be sure to not dig your finger-nails into the teats. REGULARITY. It is a good plan to milk cows regularly in the same order, taking the same one first, and winding up with the same one every time. Regularity of hour in commencing the milking of the herd is an advantage, in securing the best results, since animals as well as men are greatly the creatures of habit, and when the time comes around the cow will desire to be milked and all the functions of her system will concur in this desire. KEEP DOWN THE FOUL ODORS. The milking should be done in a sweet, clean place--either a stable kept scrupulously clean, and plaster or other deoderizer freely used, or in a row of stanchions in an open shed, with barely a roof to keep off storm and sunshine, and no filthy deposits allowed to accumulate around it. The milk, as fast as drawn, should be removed from the place of milking, lest it absorb odors from the droppings, the breath, or the exhalations from the cow's body--or even from the sweat and grime of the person and clothes of the milker--for milk is extremely sensitive to these influences. It is much more so than is popularly supposed, and should be put in a sweet atmosphere as soon as possible when drawn. Fine fancy goods, with the most delicious and delicate flavor, cannot be made from milk that has been exposed to the influence of a foul atmosphere. KEEP OUT THE DIRT. So, also, great care should be taken to keep out all hairs, dirt and filth of every kind. If permitted to get into the milk, filth cannot be entirely strained out, and hence some of its odors and flavors will linger in the fats of the milk and appear in the product manufactured from it. The indispensable necessity for clean utensils has already been mentioned. Filth from this source will not only affect odor and flavor, but is quite likely to contain the germs of ferment which will multiply in the milk and product, and cause disastrous results. With a clean can, clean pails and clean hands, begin the task of milking by brushing off all loose materials from the cow's side that may rattle down into the pail, carefully brush and clean the udder and teats, and then place the pail between your knees in a way to prevent the cow putting her foot into it, or upsetting it, if she should move about nervously, or be suddenly startled--which should not be permitted if it is possible to avoid it. LET OUT THE COWS. As fast as milked, it is best to let the cows go. This gives more room, reduces the generation of heat in the stable or milking place, and lessens the amount of droppings and consequent bad odors rising from them. Those left will soon understand this and not get uneasy. A LICK OF MEAL. If the cows have been prepared for milking by giving them a lick of meal, or a little dry hay, when they come into the stable, it will be found to have a good effect. It will also cultivate a willingness to come home at milking time and take their respective places in the stanchions. It pays to please and satisfy a cow. She will deposit her appreciation in the pail. CARE OF MILK. When the milking is over, the milk should be taken as directly to the place of manufacture as possible. If it must be kept over night, see that it is well stirred and properly cooled to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, before leaving it. Do not put on a close cover, unless the milk is thoroughly cooled. It is far better to deliver it directly to the cheese or butter maker, who knows how to care for it, and has facilities for doing the work--or, at least, ought to have. Very much depends on having the milk delivered in good condition. If it is not, no after care and skill can make a perfect product from it. True, if all right when delivered, it may be afterward injured or spoiled, but it is not likely to be. It is therefore the duty of the patron to do his part of the work all right; then he may with some reason blame the operator if the result is not right. But butter and cheese makers are too often expected to turn out first-class products from second or third class milk--a task impossible to perform. With good milk and proper facilities, there is no valid excuse for failure. The first object is the production of good milk. This is of prime importance. Without it, the after product must of necessity be inferior. The next object is to preserve the milk in its best condition, all through the handling, in order to reach the best results. Milk is often spoiled in the handling. Hence care and judgment must be exercised to maintain the proper conditions to the end. COMPOSITION OF MILK. Few understand the delicate and complex nature of milk. It is a compound of many ingredients; and if any one of these is disturbed, it affects the whole. Their union is very weak and unstable, and liable to be broken by many influences. To give a clearer idea of the composition of milk, we copy the following diagram, prepared by Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant, Director of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station: MILK. | +-----------------+--------------+ Cream. Skim Milk. | | +----------+---------+ +-------+-----------+ Butter. Butter Milk. Coag'ble Matter. Whey or Serum. | | | | +------+------+ ------+------ +--+----+ +------+---------- Solid Fat. Liquid Fat. Casein. Whey By By Salts. Nitrog. Matter | | or Rennet. Acetic | or ---+--- ----+---- Serum. | Acid. ---+--- Osmazome. Stearin Olein ---+--- | Potash Sach. Matter Palmatin Butyrin Casein. --+-- Soda or Caproin [2]Ziega. Lime Milk Sugar. Caprylm Magnesia Caprin Iron Arachin Phos. Acid [1]Myristin. Sulph. Acid Carbonic Acid Silicic Acid Chlorine. [1] Not found in all milk. [2] Includes, albumen and whatever else is coagulable by acetic acid. Here are between twenty and thirty different constituents, in various proportions. Their combination is effected through the organism of the cow, the ultimate work being performed by the udder, where it is no sooner completed than reaction begins and change is the result. DETERIORATION OF MILK IN THE UDDER. The longer the milk remains in the udder, the more it is impoverished by absorption of some of its ingredients. This is specially true of the fats, which are taken up by the absorbent vessels of the udder and carried into general circulation. For this reason, the first milk drawn--which is the first secreted, and therefore remains in the udder the longest--is the poorest milk drawn, and that which is last secreted and last milked (the strippings) is the richest. Hence, the longer the interval between milkings, the poorer the milk for butter making. Three milkings a day will give better results than two. DO FATS EXPAND BEFORE CONGEALING? If milk is to be set for cream, the sooner it is put to rest and the less heat it looses before setting, the better for the separation of the cream. If cooled down much, the cream will rise more slowly and separate more imperfectly. In cooling, the fluids and semi-fluids condense faster than the fats, and hence become relatively heavier, and settle as the fat globules rise, by virtue of the law of gravitation. The theory has been broached by Mr. H.B. Gurler, of DeKalb, Illinois, that in sudden cooling, the fluids and semi-fluids are not only condensed, but the fats expanded, thus increasing the difference in specific gravity in both directions. In this way, the rapid rising of cream in sudden cooling he thinks may be better accounted for. His idea is based on the fact that water, just before congealing, begins to expand and continues to expand as the temperature lowers. Fats consolidate at a much higher temperature than water, and he thinks the same law of expansion may intervene in both cases. So far as we are aware, it is not known whether fats do actually expand before and after reaching the point of congelation or not, and we shall feel an interest in having the question positively settled by the scientists. If it is a fact, it introduces a new element into our philosophy, and will help in the solution of some points not yet satisfactorily determined. EFFECTS OF FALLING TEMPERATURE. It is a fact that cream rises best in a falling temperature, very slowly in a stationary one, and little or none in a rising temperature. Hence, in cold weather, when milk cools very rapidly after being drawn from the cow, it is the practice of many good dairymen to raise the temperature of the milk to 100 degrees when set. In this way, they get a quicker and more complete separation of the cream as the milk cools down. It would be a good idea to have, in all butter factories, apparatus for setting milk so constructed that the temperature of the mass of milk can be gradually and evenly raised to 100 degrees, or even slightly above; for it is difficult to deliver warm milk in a good condition especially in hot weather--if it has to be carried any considerable distance, while in cold weather, it is sure to get considerably reduced in temperature, both in milking and on the road to the factory. Hence, it seems almost absolutely essential, if the best results are to be attained, to have some means of properly raising the temperature of the milk at the factory. COOLING AND AIRING. If milk is to be sent to the factory, for either butter or cheese making, where the distance is half a mile or more, it should be aired and cooled--especially if it is to be shut up in a tight can. This cooling should be done as speedily as possible after milking, to avoid taint or souring. If the milk is kept over night, such airing and cooling are absolutely indispensable. The mode of doing this must vary with conditions and circumstances; but, whatever method may be adopted, we would by no means recommend putting ice directly into the milk. The effect cannot be to improve flavor or keeping quality. PROTECTION FROM THE HOT SUN. By no means should the can of milk be exposed to the direct rays of a hot sun, either on the platform waiting for the delivery wagon, or on the wagon. Give it shelter and shade of some kind, in both cases. If a woolen blanket is wet in cold water and wrapped around the can, the rapid evaporation from the blanket will keep down the temperature. Everything that can be should be done to preserve milk in its normal condition. TREATMENT OF NIGHT'S AND MORNING'S MILK. The night's milk and the morning's milk should never be mixed before starting for the factory, but kept in separate cans and so delivered. The effect of mixing will be seen soon enough at the factory, and often much too soon in hot weather. If the morning's milk were made as cool as the night's, the effect of mixing would not be so speedy and disastrous. But it appears to be an immutable law, that reducing the temperature and then raising it hastens decomposition. A low temperature only retards decomposition; it does not prevent it, unless very low and it is continued. As soon as the temperature is raised, decomposition sets in with accelerated rapidity, as if to make up for lost time. Hence, we have always looked upon low temperatures in the dairy as objectionable. As low as 60 degrees but not below 50 degrees is the limit which we prefer. We think this range more effective for long keeping than a lower one. Certainly, dairy goods made and kept within this range will not go to decay so soon as in a higher temperature. RECEIVING. In receiving either milk or cream from the patron, it is essential not only that justice be done in the weight or measure, but that the patron should be satisfied of this fact. The agent sent out to gather cream should be an honest man, in whom the patrons as well as the employer have confidence, and should understand his business and do it in a workman-like manner, so as to inspire confidence. He should also be versed in the various tricks that may be resorted to by patrons to deceive and cheat, and be on his guard, quick to discern any suspicious surroundings or indications. As much depends on his judgment and observation as on his honesty--especially if any of the patrons are disposed to be dishonest, as is sometimes the case where it would generally be least suspected. The later device of not only measuring cream by the gauge, but of testing its yield of butter by churning a sample, is not only a guard, to considerable extent, against fraud, but more closely approximates justice by getting at the actual quality of the cream, on which depends its value. There is no associated system yet devised--save that of churning every patron's cream separately and weighing the product--that secures exact justice to all. Nature does not appear to have furnished standards of commercial measure or value for the purpose of indicating mine and thine in mixed transactions, or in speculative exchange. We have only relative and approximate guides, by which justice, in a business sense, is by no means secured. TESTING. Where milk is delivered at the factory, we have as yet no standard test of value. All the receiver can do is to see that it is in a normal condition--neither sour nor tainted, nor containing bad odors. For this purpose, the smell must mainly be relied on. Hence, healthy and keen olfactories are a great aid here, as in some other cases. If one catches the fumes when the can cover is first removed, or as the milk runs into the weighing can, he is pretty sure to detect any very positive bad odor. The eye, to one of experience, is almost certain to detect any great variation. Even slight watering is seen by some from the peculiarity of the reflection of light from the surface--especially when in motion. Much water shows from the "thin" appearance of the fluid. Where the smell or appearance are cause for suspicion, or there is any other cause, a sample may be saved and such tests as are at hand may be applied. The so-called lactometer will show whether the specific gravity is below or above the normal standard. The cream gauge will give the percent of cream at a given temperature. If, afterward, a sample right from the herd, taken so as to know that it has not been tampered with, shows better quality by these two tests, it is pretty conclusive evidence that the milk from which the factory sample was taken was not in a normal condition. If the herd has been subject to no change of feed or conditions between the times of taking the two samples, any jury would be safe in bringing in a verdict against the defendant for watering, skimming, or otherwise tampering with his milk, as the facts in evidence might indicate. BAD MILK. Sour or tainted milk, to any perceptible degree, ought not to be received at the factory. One such mess will injure, if it does not spoil, a whole batch. The sour milk is likely to lead to a sour, leaky batch, and the tainted milk to huffy if not floating curd, and porous, quickly off-flavor and decaying cheese. We have little patience with those who deliver such milk, and none with those who attempt to devise means to work it into palatable cheese and thus to get it into the unsuspecting stomachs of the consumers. It is too much like making omelets of rotten eggs. This is especially the case with tainted milk. The first stages of souring are not so objectionable, so far as wholesomeness is concerned. Sour milk may make good pot-cheese to which we do not object, but it will not make good American cheddar cheese. To attempt to work it into this is the worst use it can be put to. WEIGHING. All possible precautions should be taken to avoid mistakes in weighing and giving credit. A hasty comparison of each mess with that of the previous one delivered by the same man will indicate any marked departure from weight and serve as a check against error. It is well to always announce the weight to the patron, who then has a chance for comparison with his average or previous messes. He will be pretty likely to mention any marked variation, especially if it is against him. Some patrons like to have a pass-book, in which the weight of each mess is entered. This is a little trouble to the receiver when in a hurry, but it is a complete check against errors of entry on the factory book, and against the forgetfulness of the patron, who may get the impression that he has delivered more milk in a given time than he has been credited with. Everything that guards against error or misunderstanding will be found to pay and give satisfaction to honest men. An honest factoryman not only wants to be right, but to appear right and have the confidence of his patrons. A dishonest one will want to appear right, and it is well to take such precautions as will make him what he appears. See that the weighing can is properly balanced, that the scales are true, and that the weights are correct. An honest man will bear watching, and it is absolutely necessary to watch a rogue. Where the milk is sold to the factory, of course all interest in the matter with the patron ends when he gets his milk correctly weighed and his money for it. Where the _pro rata_ system is carried out, this interest extends to the weighing of the cheese, its marketing and the division of the proceeds. KEEPING MILK. When the milk is in the cheese vat, it should be stirred and aired at night until the temperature is down to 70 degrees, if it is to stand quiet; if an agitator is used, which is preferable, no further attention need be paid to the milk but to see that the supply of cold water is ample and continuous. As to mixing the morning's with the night's milk, it appears to be preferable to working up the two milkings separately. BUTTER MAKING. There really are but four systems of setting milk for cream, notwithstanding the numerous inventions and devices. These are: 1. Cooling in water; 2. cooling in air; 3. shallow setting; 4. deep setting. DEEP SETTING AND WATER COOLING. Deep setting, whether in pails or pans, is always accompanied with water and the use of ice. In many instances, however, where running water is abundant, ice is dispensed with, and the pails are set in pools or tanks, while the pans have water run around them, if not under them. Under-cooling, however, is pretty well understood to be a disadvantage, unless the vessel containing the milk is submerged in water or nearly so. Ice is a good deal used, and the milk rapidly run down in temperature. Some think this is the better as well as the quicker way, if not the only way to get all the cream. Our only objection to this rapid cooling is that it runs the temperature too low, and, in our opinion, injures the keeping quality of the product. EFFECT OF TOO LOW COOLING. If run below 40 degrees, or the point where water begins to expand, all cooling below that point lessens the difference in specific gravity between the water and the fat globules, and operates diametrically in the opposite direction to what is desired. The aim is to condense the water, which is a good conductor, and leave the fat globules, which are poor conductors, unchanged or but slightly contracted. In this way, the heavier fluid settles and drives the light particles of fat upward to rest on the surface. But, if we go below 40 degrees, we produce the directly opposite effect and retard the rising of the cream. For quality, we prefer the slower cooling in water, and think the longer time given will secure all the cream available and in a purer condition. BUTTERMILK FLAVOR. If more cream or butter is obtained by rapid cooling, we think it is because more particles of caseine are entangled in the cream and remain in the butter when churned. This would of course make more weight for market, but of inferior quality and sooner to go off flavor. But where the butter is consumed fresh from the churn, this does not matter so much; and if the particles of caseine give the butter a slight buttermilk flavor, it pleases some palates that have been educated to like it. We, however, prefer the sweet, delicate flavor of cream butter, free from caseine or lactic acid. But, if one has a special line of customers, he must please them, whatever the demand may be. If the butter is thrown on the general market, and there is liable to be delay in getting it into consumption, it cannot be made too pure, nor retain its rosy flavor too long. SHALLOW SETTING AND AIR COOLING. Generally, in shallow setting, whether in large or small pans, cooling the milk in air is depended upon. Formerly, an underground room, or one in a shady place, was the only appliance usually resorted to for cooling. But, of late years, some method of artificially cooling the air by the use of ice is generally adopted. In some cases, the milk room is made small, with low ceiling and double walls, so that a cake of ice near the ceiling does the cooling. Usually, however, some sort of refrigerator construction is resorted to, so that cool air from the ice-house, or ice placed above the milk room, is introduced to regulate the temperature and keep it steady. We prefer cooling in air, though it may take a little more space and time. By this method, extremely rapid cooling and low temperature are avoided, and no violence is done to the milk or cream. Deep setting, it is true, exposes less surface to the air; but if the milk is not submerged, the surface is likely to be cooler than the air above, and to condense the vapor in it, which falls with all its impurities on the surface of the cream. Any foulness or bad odors are thus absorbed and go into the butter product. While submerging obviates this objection and keeps out all impurities from the air, it also prevents all escape of bad odors by evaporation. Whatever that is objectionable may be in the milk is retained there. By setting in open air, which should of course always be pure and sweet, the air, being cooled down and used as a medium for cooling the milk, takes up the exhalations of moisture and odor from the milk, and thus purifies it. The colder medium is always the condenser and absorbent, and it is only when the milk gets colder than the air above it that it condenses the moisture in the air and absorbs its odor. This will never occur where cold air is the cooling medium. The milk theoretically can never get cooler than the air, while practically it remains a degree or two warmer than the air. OXYDIZING CREAM. There is another advantage in using the air as a cooling medium. In shallow setting, more surface is exposed and the air, coming in contact with the surface, imparts to it a portion of its oxygen, which mingles with the oils and develops that fine butter flavor so much relished by most and which is a peculiarity of fine butter. Again, slow cooling gives more time for this oxydation to go on, and thus "ripen" the cream for churning without souring it. This leaves all the fine flavor in it, unmixed with flavors resulting from acidification. But, where milk is set deep for creaming--and especially where there is no exposure to the air, as is the case in submerging--no butter flavor is developed, and the cream has to be kept until sour before it is properly oxydized. There is not a full development of butter flavor proper, but development of flavor resulting from the mingling of lactic acid with the oils. But without this exposure and acidification, the butter is insipid and comparatively flavorless. Any subsequent exposure to the air soon throws the butter off flavor, the oxygen mingling with the fats alone while the cream is rising and still sweet. This development of flavor by oxydation is not mere theory; it has been scientifically demonstrated at Cornell University, New York, if not elsewhere, and must sooner or later be generally accepted and butter making proceed on a more rational and certain basis. But it is hard work to get people out of old ruts, or to overcome fixed habits and prejudices. Really scientific butter making, in which every step will be thoroughly understood and deliberately taken, is a thing of the future. It will come in time, and then our descendants will wonder why we were so stupid and slow as not to see and adopt the simplest principles when they were thrust into our very faces. But mind and judgment are matters of growth, the same as everything else in this universe of being. SKIMMING MILK. So many improvements or inventions have been introduced in the setting of milk for cream that the term "skimming" has become almost a misnomer. In both deep and shallow setting, arrangements have been made in several of the patent pans and cans for drawing out the milk from the bottom and leaving the cream. Glass gauges are set in the vessels so that the exact depth of the cream can be seen, and the milk drawn down close to the cream or a small amount of the upper portion of the milk left with the cream. In skimming with a skimmer or dipper, many aim to take the upper portion of the milk, on the theory that the separation is less perfect toward the top than it is lower down. Especially may this be done where a dipper or skimmer without holes is used. It is claimed by some careful experimenters and close observers that this adds to the quantity of butter yielded without deteriorating the quality. WHEN TO SKIM. Whether skimming off the cream or drawing off the milk be practiced, the question arises as to the proper time for performing the operation. The more general practice is to "skim" just as the milk gives unmistakable signs of acidity, or thickens a very little on the bottom of the pan or can. A few prefer to skim the cream sweet, and still another few let the milk lopper. This wide divergence of opinion and practice shows how very imperfectly is the real philosophy of butter making understood; but, notwithstanding this, each one is usually very tenacious in his belief as to the superiority of his own practice. A few fancy butter makers say that the finest butter is made from sweet cream, raised in cold air by shallow setting. It is insisted by them that airing and oxydizing, and not souring, is what "ripens" cream and fits it for easy churning, while this airing and oxydizing imparts the fine aroma so much desired in the finest butter. This view of the origin or development of flavor is sustained by experiments made at Cornell University, at the suggestion or under the supervision of Prof. L.B. Arnold. It is also claimed that the lack of flavor and the short-keeping of sweet-cream butter churned from cream raised by deep setting is due to its lack of oxygen, and that souring the cream thus raised, before churning, both oxydizes it and imparts a ranker and more positive flavor resulting from the effects of the lactic acid. We think both propositions look reasonable, and we should like to see a series of scientific experiments made to determine both the effects of oxygen and the effects of lactic acid on the butter product of cream. At present, theory and practice vary so widely with different butter makers who turn out a high-priced butter for the market, that one is led to doubt all theories and query whether the quality of butter does not depend on something not yet known, which is independent of all current theories and practices. CHURNING. And as to the proper time of churning, there is an equal divergence of opinion and practice. One churns his cream sweet, another wants it slightly changed, a third wants positive acidity in the cream, and a fourth loppers the cream, while a fifth lets the cream stand even twelve hours after loppering--and this extremely sour cream butter sells for the very highest market price. So we are left all at sea, so far as acidity is an element in butter making. Again, to further illustrate these extremes, while a gentleman in Vermont is setting his neighbors agog by raising cream in a vacuum, a Canada gentleman is experimenting with an invention to raise cream by hydrostatic pressure and get the fat of the milk so pure as to dispense with churning. We hope both will succeed. TEMPERATURES. There is not so wide a difference in opinion and practice as regards the temperature at which churning should be done in order to secure the best results; yet there is quite a wide range--from 55 degrees to 65 degrees--or 10 degrees Fahrenheit. But only a few go as high as 65 degrees or as low as 55 degrees. The great majority favor 60 degrees to 63 degrees as the proper range of temperature for different seasons and conditions. Some favor 58 degrees to 60 degrees, and all appear satisfied with results. It is not improbable that different degrees of acidity in the cream require different degrees of temperature for churning, and that sweet cream requires still another variation of temperature. So the breed, condition of the cows, kind of feed, quality of feed, character of the water drank, length of time the cows have been in milk, and other considerations, require variations in the temperature. Sure we are that the difference in conditions and surroundings must explain some of the differences of opinions and practices among butter makers. WHAT MAKES THE BUTTER COME. It is not known whether concussion or friction, or both, cause the separation of the butter from the buttermilk in churning. But we suspect that concussion is the real agent that produces the separation, as we have really seen no churn that did not in some way produce more or less concussion. All the churns we have seen used appeared to produce good results, and we find every dairyman is satisfied with the work of the churn he uses, whatever the kind, style or patent. We cannot, therefore, recommend any style of churn as superior to another, but we prefer the simple and less expensive forms, as not only costing less but being easier to keep clean. The churning should be steady and not violent. A too rapid or sudden separation of the butter from the buttermilk is not desirable. It is no recommend for a churn that it churns quick. Such a churn is apt to injure the so-called grain of the butter and make it salvy and greasy. The least churning that will separate the butter from the buttermilk is the best. WHEN TO STOP CHURNING. The improved modern method, now in practice by the best butter makers generally, is to stop the churn as soon as the butter is collected in particles the size of wheat kernels. Just before this, when the first signs of the separation of the butter is seen, the sides of the churn are washed down with cold water--usually below 60 degrees, or about 55 degrees--to not only prevent waste, but to harden the butter and make it easier to handle. When the granules are the size of wheat kernels, the butter is drawn off or the butter taken out of the buttermilk, as the case may be. If the butter is left in the churn, water is poured in to float the butter, which is then gently agitated a moment and the water drawn off. This operation is repeated until the water runs clear. Sometimes one of the washings is in brine, which coagulates the caseine into a soluble form and prepares it to be washed out afterward. In this way, it is believed that purer, longer-keeping butter can be made. In some cases, however, butter makers have customers who want a buttermilk flavor in their butter. They, therefore, do not wash the butter, or wash it very little. Such butter must be consumed at once, as it will not keep. WORKING. By this method of retaining the butter in a granulated form, only sufficient working is required to evenly work in the salt. The less working the better. SALTING. The salt, after the butter is properly drained, can be carefully mixed with the butter by stirring. When thoroughly incorporated, barely pressing the butter together into a solid mass is all that is needed. If one does not want butter very salty to the taste, it can be evenly and nicely salted by completely wetting it with saturated brine, then carefully pressing the granulated butter together and leaving in it as much of the strong brine as will remain. We have seen butter salted in this way, and it was very evenly and completely salted, having in it no undissolved grains of salt, but it was not as salt to the taste as some like. About an ounce to the pound is good salting; but more or less salt must be used to suit the taste of customers. None but refined salt should be put into butter. No salt is better for this purpose than the Onondaga F.F., which is American, and the cheapest salt fit for dairy use that can be obtained. The principal office of the salt in butter is to impart an agreeable flavor, in conjunction with the natural aroma of fine butter; but it is a fact that too much salt injures good flavor, and it may, to some extent, be used to cover up or neutralize bad flavors. We do not recommend its use for this latter purpose, preferring that the natural flavor of butter from pure cream should be preserved. SALT AS A PRESERVATIVE. Salt does very little to preserve butter. It retards the decomposition of the caseous and albuminous materials left in it; but if butter is properly made of cream not mixed with loppered milk and is completely washed with pure water, it is a fair question if butter will not keep longer without salt than with it. There are instances on record where butter has been kept sweet without salt for a long time. We half suspect that, though salt at first retards decomposition, the salt itself, in time, decomposes and becomes sodium and chlorine gas, or enters into new combinations with the constituents of the butter, and thus makes new compounds that do not in the least improve the flavor. We have no positive evidence of this, but have had this suspicion awakened by facts related about the keeping of butter and by a process of general reasoning. It is true that salt is one of the most stable compounds known, but we have proof that it can be resolved into its original elements, when stronger affinities are presented for one or both of them to unite with. It would not, therefore, be strange if such decomposition sometimes follows when used in our food preparations. PACKING BUTTER. It is quite a knack to properly pack butter in large packages, and the work needs to be carefully done. Some use it too violently, by pounding it down, and thus making the butter greasy or oily. It should be gently pressed together in the package in such a way as to leave no spaces filled with air, for the air will surely mingle with the surrounding butter and injure its flavor. A good way is to begin the pressure at the center and work carefully toward the circumference, so that all air may escape at the sides. In this way, perfect solidity of the mass is secured, and it is left in the best condition for keeping, so far as the packing is concerned. PREPARING THE PACKAGE. Before putting the butter in the package, the package should be soaked in water, so as to remove the taste of the wood, and then thoroughly soaked in saturated brine, so that the wood will not draw the salt from the butter which comes in contact with it. If it does, the butter thus deprived of salt will turn white, have a sickish flavor, and soon turn rancid. It is a good idea to not only sprinkle a thin layer of salt over the bottom of the package, but to rub the moist inner sides with dairy salt, and thus make sure that there is salt enough in contact with the wood to prevent its absorbing the salt from the butter. CLOSING THE PACKAGE. When a package is filled, a piece of thin muslin, cut so as to just fit into the top of the package and completely cover the butter, should be wet in cold water and carefully placed over the top, having the edges pressed down close to the sides of the tub. Then the cloth should be completely covered with a thin layer of salt; and if the salt is moistened, so as to form of it a thick paste that will become air-tight when it dries, it will do much to keep the top of the butter clean and sweet--for the more nearly air tight the package is when completed the better it is for the preservation of the butter. Then put on the cover, and seal the whole as tightly as possible. STORING. Remove the package to a cool, sweet place, not above the temperature of 60 degrees, and set it so that it will absorb no moisture or odors from the ground. Much butter is spoiled by keeping, because of neglecting the temperature, and setting the bottom of the package directly on the cellar bottom. If kept at a temperature above 60 degrees, butter will surely go off flavor, and wood will as surely draw moisture from the ground, if in contact with it, and become sour and musty, sooner or later affecting the flavor of the butter within the package. Nothing is to be lost, but all to be gained, by paying attention to these little things. STYLE OF PACKAGE. Of course, where a maker has a special market for his butter, he will put it up in such style and form of package as suits his customers. He needs no other guide and would injure his business if he followed one. But, for general market purposes, the 50 lb. tub is the best form. The New York and Boston dealers like this because it is convenient for the retailer, who can readily slip the tub off from the butter for either weighing or cutting up for his customers. But aside from these considerations, the Welsh tub is a very bad form of package for keeping butter, as it is by no means air-tight nor anything approaching it. Hence, butter sent to market in these tubs must soon be sold and go into consumption, or there is material depreciation in quality and a corresponding loss in price. The old-fashioned firkin, which could be headed up and the butter covered with brine, is a much better package for keeping butter. But, where butter is consumed as fast as it is made, and fresh winter made butter supplies the demand through the cold season, the keeping of butter for any considerable length of time is not of so much consideration. We think it fortunate that this is so. CHEESE MAKING. So much has been written and said, and so little understood, about cheese making, that it seems almost a hopeless task, as well as a thankless one, to attempt to say anything more on the subject. Sour ignoramuses and floating charlatans have spoiled more curds than have been spoiled by any defect in the milk. Sour, whey-soaked cheese has been the rage, and it is generally supposed that acid alone makes a firm cheese, when the experience of every cheese maker is that it is very difficult, by the ordinary processes, to make a firm curd out of sour milk--which, of course, no one ought to be asked to make into cheese--unless it be pot-cheese. Acid may make a curd solid, but not until it has cut out a large share of the goodness of the curd, and the cheese resulting will be about as digestible as so much putty. DUTY OF PATRONS. It is the duty of every patron of a cheese factory to send good milk to it, and to send the milk in good condition. It is not only his duty, but his interest to do this. A bad mess of milk may spoil a whole vat-full. This not only entails loss on his neighbor, where the factory is run on the _pro rata_ plan, but the patron must stand his share of the loss. Aside from the loss entailed on others and himself, he ought to be ashamed to deliver milk in a bad condition. There is no valid excuse for it. It ought to be his pride to deliver milk in as good condition as anybody does. If he cannot, he should leave the business, and go into something in which he has the ability to excel. Care and cleanliness, if the cows are healthy and have proper food, will insure good milk always. UNREASONABLE EXPECTATION. It is unreasonable to expect a cheese maker to turn a prime article of cheese out of poor milk. If one carries shoddy cloth to the tailor, he expects a shoddy suit in return, not a broadcloth one. So, if he carries bad milk to the factory, he must expect bad cheese. If he takes sour apples to the cider mill, he does not expect sweet-flavored cider, but sour. So, if he carries sour milk to the cheese factory, he must expect sour cheese. These defects, when they exist in a small degree, may be overcome, or nearly so, and a passable cheese made. But, is the cheese made from imperfect milk really a fit article of food? Who would work rotten eggs into custard, or sour meal into bread? Yet this is just as consistent as working sour or tainted milk into cheese, and the product is just as wholesome. That which makes stinking eggs makes stinking milk--decayed albumen--which is just as wholesome in the one as in the other. GUARANTEES. The cheese maker who guarantees his cheese is very foolish if he does not insist on a guarantee of good milk, nor should he be compelled to rely on his judgment formed in the haste of receiving the milk. A tricky man may juggle a bad mess of milk on to the best expert. How can the cheese maker tell whether the milk is from a gargetty udder, or the first milk after calving--both of which may develop in a very offensive way when the milk is heated up? So the milk may be so nearly tainted or so nearly sour that it will not stand the process of heating up and cooking. The law ought to be very severe on the man who delivers bad milk at a factory, or sells it to anyone. The factoryman who pays the price of good milk for sour or tainted milk is certainly very short-sighted, and cannot long maintain the respect of the man who sells it to him, nor sustain himself pecuniarily. The man who pays cash for milk has the right, above all others, to demand that the milk shall be sweet and wholesome. This is one point that should be insisted upon--the delivery of good milk in good condition. HEATING. After the milk is all in, or the requisite amount is in the vat, the heat may at once be started and raised to some point between 80 and 86 degrees. If we set below this, the rennet works too slow; if we set above, it is thought to work too fast--so custom has fixed upon this range of temperature for setting, and there appears to be no valid objection to it. But while the temperature of the milk is being raised, and before, it should receive frequent stirrings to keep the cream from rising, and thus becoming partially or wholly wasted. The rennet should by no means be added until the temperature stops rising--or so nearly so that by the time the rennet is stirred in and the stirring stopped, because the milk begins to coagulate, a stationary temperature will have been reached. COLORING. The coloring fluid should be added just before the rennet is--unless white cheese is made. There is a limited demand for white cheese for the London market. But do not make the color too high--as there is a limited demand for high-colored goods, and this mainly from the South, in spring and fall. Nor should the color be too pale, as there is really no demand for pale cheese. It should be either white or of a medium hue--a bright, golden yellow. There is a demand for uniformity of color, as buyers often want large lots, all of the same hue or shade. In selecting such a lot, they may rule out first-class cheese that is too pale or too high-colored. The universal use of the same manufacture of coloring extract guaranteed of uniform strength, might secure uniformity in coloring. But this is doubtful and difficult. A better, and we think, a feasible way, would be to have a standard color--like those accompanying paints--furnished to every cheese maker as a guide, and let him color to it as nearly as possible. In this way, a close approximate to uniformity of color might be secured. He could then use whatever coloring fluid he chose, and his eye would be his guide. Coloring does not improve the product. If it does no harm, it does no good beyond gratifying the eye and deceiving the palate through the common notion that high color and high flavor go together. SETTING. Theoretically, 98 degrees or blood heat would seem to be the temperature for setting, as rennet is the most active at this point. Usually, 82 degrees in warm weather, and 86 degrees in cool weather, are the points at which the rennet is added in setting. But there is no reason for a different temperature at different seasons, except that in cool weather the temperature is liable to run down a little--which should not and would not be the case, if the make room were so constructed that the temperature could be controlled and kept at summer heat. OTHER DETAILS. Enough rennet should be added, as a rule, to cause thickening of the milk to begin in 20 minutes, at 82 degrees. More or less rennet may be used, as it is designed to have cheese cure more or less rapidly. As a rule, the more rennet is used, the lower should be the temperature at which the milk is set and the curd worked. Agitation of the milk should be kept up for at least 15 minutes, where coagulation begins in 20 minutes, or as long as it can be and not prevent a solid coagulation. The stirring after the rennet is incorporated is merely to keep the cream from rising. The less cream gets to the surface, the less waste there will be. In a cool room, where the surface cools quickly and there is a falling of the temperature of the milk, there will be a thin cream on the surface. This will form a soft cream curd, which will adhere to the sides of the vat, to the rake, and to the hands, and be quite annoying. The amount is trifling, but the annoyance of the thing is enough of itself to make it desirable to keep the cream down; and a summer temperature of the room is useful for this purpose, aside from the comfort and the better handling of the curd, from first to last. KEEP THE TEMPERATURE EVEN. After the milk begins to thicken, a cloth should be thrown over the vat to keep the surface warm. A convenient way is to tack a cloth to slats a little longer than the vat is wide, putting the slats a foot or eighteen inches apart. This is easily rolled up and set aside, when not wanted, and is easily unrolled over the vat when needed. There should be no raising of the temperature after the rennet is added and the mass comes to a standstill. If there is, the portion next to the sides and in the bottom of the vat will get the most heat, and there the rennet will work the fastest and the curd will become tough before it is firm enough on the surface. Therefore, let the heat be stationary after the rennet is added and until the curd is cut fine, and keep the heat as even as possible all this time. CUTTING. The coagulum should be cut as soon as it will break clean across the finger when placed in it and lifted gently upward. This early cutting is essential. There is seldom, if ever, any waste from cutting a curd too soon. The clearest whey will always be obtained by cutting early. The whey exudes from the curd much more freely when it is yet young and tender--and the only object in cutting the curd at all is to get out the whey. When cutting is begun, let it be continued as expeditiously as possible until it is finished. Do not stop and let the curd stand and toughen. It cuts more easily, with less friction and less waste by loosening fine particles of curd, when it is tender and parts easily before the knife. The more it toughens, the harder it cuts, the more friction there is, the more the curd is torn and bruised, and the more the waste. If we could cut early and cut instantaneously, it would be all the better. CUT FINE. Cut the curd very fine. Seldom, if ever, is a curd cut too fine. As the object is to get rid of the whey, the finer it is cut, the more easily we achieve our object. It is not as far from the center of a small piece of curd for the whey to run out as it is from the center of a large piece. By cutting fine, we expose more surface for the whey to run out of, and we have smaller pieces to heat up. Curd is a bad conductor of heat. If the pieces are large, it takes a long time for the heat to slowly penetrate them when we want to increase it. The small pieces, therefore, absorb the heat more evenly, and this gives an evener action of the rennet. "COOKING." After the cutting is done, if the whey is separating rapidly, the heat may be started at once. If the action of the rennet is rather slow, it is better to wait a few minutes for the curd to harden a little, while with your hand you carefully rub down the side of the vat, thus removing all the curd that may be adhering to it. Not over five minutes waiting, as a usual thing, is necessary, and generally there need be no waiting. But as soon as the heat is started, begin to gently stir the curd with a rake, by passing it down into the middle of the vat and gently raising the curd on each side. If uncut pieces appear, carefully separate them with the teeth of the rake. Keep up this stirring, which may be more violent after the curd hardens, until the whole is heated up to 98 or 100 degrees--or to blood heat. The reason for constant agitation is to keep an even temperature throughout the mass and prevent the curd from packing. This secures even action of the rennet. The reason for going to blood heat is because rennet is most active at this point. It is the temperature indicated by Nature. It is the one at which we digest our food, and the one at which the calf's stomach forms curd and afterwards digests it. The pepsin or gastric juice is more potent at blood heat, and this pepsin or rennet is what does the work. The heat does not cook the curd in the vat any more than it cooks the milk in the cow's udder. We choose 98 degrees as the proper temperature because the digestive or cheesing process of the rennet goes on faster at this point. To go above or below it is to lose instead of gain. This temperature should therefore be maintained until the curd is "cooked"--that is, until the action of the rennet has expelled the proper amount of whey and the curd is as firm as we want it. Anent the stirring of curds, use the hands as little as possible. There is nothing better for this purpose than the common hay rake with the handle shortened and one tooth cut off from each end by severing the rake-head within three quarters of an inch of the next tooth. DRAWING THE WHEY. We next draw the whey down to the curd--leaving enough to stir it in easily, and cool the whole mass down to 90 degrees, to avoid too much packing, and draw off the balance of the whey. The whey should be run off before the acid develops, because acid, formed from the milk in the sugar, dissolves the minerals and cuts some of the oils in the curd, and these run off in the whey. Many curds, by remaining in the whey too long, become whey-soaked, and make cheese that is soggy and hard, with a sour flavor. This kind of firmness is not desirable, notwithstanding it is called for by buyers, who seldom know anything about cheese making. If the acid develops before the whey is properly expelled, or the curd is "cooked," it carries off the minerals, which are in the form of phosphates, and this makes the cheese poor indeed. These phosphates are of lime, iron, magnesium, etc., but the principal is phosphate of lime. The affinity of these minerals for lactic acid is stronger than for phosphoric acid; so they let go of the latter and unite with the lactic acid, forming lactates and leaving the phosphoric acid free. But if we get all of the whey out of the curd that we desire, and then get the curd out of the whey--that is, draw off the whey--before the acid comes on, we retain the phosphates and fats in the cheese--all the goodness that belongs in it. The acid will come on afterward, but we have reduced the sugar to a minimum, and the amount of acid developed does no serious injury. As the whey is already expelled, of course it cannot wash out the minerals that are dissolved. These remain, and in the process of curing recombine with the phosphoric acid. We have left in the curd about 3-1/2 parts of the 87 parts in 100 parts of milk. The whey left in the curd contains, we will say, 1-10th of the sugar that was in the milk. The acid formed from this, though too small to do any known injury, is large enough to do all the good required, if it does any good at all. We are, therefore, safe when we get the whey out of the curd and the curd out of the whey before the development of the lactic acid. SALTING. When the whey is well out of the curd, so as not to waste the salt, the salt may be applied and stirred in. The salt does not stop the development of acid, as is popularly supposed. When applied, it aids in keeping the curd loose. Then the curd may stand, with occasional stirring, almost any length of time for the purpose of airing and cooling, of getting rid of any bad odors, of developing flavor by oxydation from contact with the atmosphere, and of letting the acid come on. It is safest not to put the curd to press until it has a positively clean sour smell. This shows that certain chemical changes have taken place, freeing the curd of the gases generated by this process, and prevents any huffing of the cheese on the shelf in the curing room. Where cheddaring and grinding are practiced, the salt is of course applied after the curd is ground. Cheddaring is the easier and safer method, as the whey can be drawn early, and there is no danger from the acid. Salting at the rate of 2-1/2 lbs. of salt to 1,000 lbs. of milk is the usual practice and not far from right. For long keeping, 3 lbs. of salt are not too much. Use none but the best dairy salt--the best of all the dairy salts, as well as the cheapest, being the Onondaga, F.F. PUTTING TO PRESS. After the acid fermentation is properly progressed, the curd should be put to press at a temperature not much below 80 degrees, nor much above 85. If higher, it is liable to heat and taint the cheese at the center; if lower it is difficult to face the cheese and press the curd together properly. But in warm weather, there is not much danger of getting the curd too cool. ACID IN CHEESE MAKING. This has been written on so much that the subject has become hackneyed. The acid seems to have eaten into the souls of some and turned them sour; but notwithstanding, the so-called "sweet curd" idea has made steady progress. Much of the opposition has come from buyers for export, who do not appear to be able to distinguish between a firm cheese and a hard cheese, and who ignore quality if they get a cheese hard enough to ship, without danger of breaking, by the time it is ten days old. This has been demonstrated by the fact that cheese condemned when green as too soft has been pronounced by the same buyers fine and all right, even endorsed with enthusiasm, when it was two or three months old, which is about as young as a first-class cheese should be shipped. ANALYSIS OF MILK. Of course, there would be no acid in milk if there were no sugar in it. The proportion of sugar is shown by the following analysis of an average sample of good milk made by Dr. Voelcker, the late chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of Great Britain: Water 87.30 Butter 3.75 Caseine 3.31 Milk-sugar and extractive matter 4.86 Mineral matter (ash) 0.78 ------ Total 100.00 It will be seen by this that the per cent. of sugar is at least 4.50, if we deduct the extractive matter, the proportion of which is not given. Numerous German analyses show it to range from 3.50 to 5.75 per cent. Henry and Chevalier put the average at 4.77, and Prof. L.B. Arnold says milk from cows in perfect health should contain, during the month of August, 4.30 to 5.50 per cent. We will call it 4.50 per cent. There is 87.30 per cent of water. WHAT THE CHEESE MAKER DOES. In separating the solids from the liquids, by the action of rennet, at the proper temperature, we expel, say 83.30 parts of the water, leaving 4 parts. We get rid of, say 4.20 parts of the sugar, which is held in perfect solution in the water. We lose, say .50 of one part of butter, .31 of one part of the caseine or albuminoids, and .13 of one part of ash. This leaves-- Water 4.00 Butter 3.25 Caseine 3.00 Sugar .30 Ash .65 ----- Total 11.20 We thus have 11.20 per cent. of the 100 parts out of which to get our cured cheese. A fair average is 10 lbs. of cheese for 100 pounds of milk. Some of the water evaporates in curing, say 1 part, leaving 3 parts. Our 10.20 parts of cheese is then composed of the following: Water 3.00 Butter 3.25 Caseine 3.00 Sugar, or what results from decomposition .30 Ash .65 ----- Total 10.20 This is a little in excess of the general yield. The waste is usually in the greater amount of ash, sometimes nearly the whole of it, when the acid develops before the whey is expelled. In that case, the lactic acid dissolves the phosphates and they run out with the whey. This is so much loss of ingredients absolutely essential to digestion and assimilation. WHAT OUGHT TO BE. So far from this, there ought to be less loss of ingredients than we have supposed in our illustrative figures. But more of the butter is cut and runs off with the whey when the acid is developed before drawing the whey. The aim of the "sweet curd" system is to avoid this waste as much as possible, especially that of the butter and ash. To effect this, the whey is drawn sweet and the acid allowed to develop after the curd is cooked and the whey expelled. There need be no more water left in the curd, but more butter and ash, both of which tend to make the cheese softer. But with proper curing rooms, there is no trouble in making the cheese firm enough for all practical purposes, including shipping. It is better to use less rennet and not have coagulation begin under 25 minutes, cutting the curd about 15 or 20 minutes later, and to take more time for curing, at a lower temperature. We then have a firmer, more buttery, and better flavored cheese, which is a desideratum. But, with high and changing temperature in the curing room, no certain or satisfactory results can be counted on. THEORY AND PRACTICE. In theory, we ought to prevent the waste of butter and caseous matter altogether; but in practice, there is always a little loss of butter, and there are certain albuminous ingredients, called by the Germans _ziega_, which rennet will not coagulate. There is, of course, no means of saving this. The sugar we cannot and do not want to save in the cheese. If retained, it would be injurious and probably spoil the cheese, as the lactic acid in the small amount of sugar retained in the water is all that we can well manage. But all matter coagulable by rennet, all the butter, and all the ash, we ought to retain; and we cannot really call ourselves scientific cheese makers until we can do this. When accomplished, a greater weight of cheese will be the result. There is no avoiding the acid resulting from the small amount of sugar retained in the curd; but, having expelled sufficient whey, if we keep the curd warm enough, and hold it in the vat or the sink long enough, the lactic acid will come on and we shall get rid of the bad results of putting a curd to press sweet. This acidity is absolutely necessary with the generality of curing rooms. But with low and steady temperature in the curing room, we can do about as we please. RENNET. Our recent observations more than ever convince us of the importance of good rennet in cheese making. Great evils and losses result from the use of bad rennet; and the great trouble is that many cheese makers do not know when rennet is bad. There is not only the evil of diseased and tainted rennets, to begin with, but the preparation from good rennets is often spoiled in the preparing. Frequently, in hot weather, they are allowed to taint while soaking; and when the liquid is prepared sweet, it is often allowed to ferment and taint for want of sufficient salt and from exposure in a high temperature. SOAKING IN WHEY. Soaking in whey, containing all its taints and impurities, is the source of a vast amount of foul rennet and off-flavored cheese. If whey is used, it should be boiled to kill taints and precipitate, as far as possible, the solids remaining in it. But, do the best that can be done with it, and still whey is objectionable for soaking rennets, because of the acid that develops in it from the presence of sugar. This acid neutralizes a corresponding amount of rennet and helps to impoverish the cheese. Indeed, if carried far enough before the curd is removed from it, the finer flavoring oils are cut by it, the phosphates are dissolved, and these pass out with the whey, leaving the cheese but little better than an indigestible mass. If the acid adds solidity to the cheese, it does it by removing from it valuable ingredients. TAINTED RENNET. Frequently, we have encountered rennet preparations that were not only very sour, but also tainted and having a strong smell of carrion. Nothing but huffy, porous, stinking and rotten cheese can result from the use of such rennet preparation. Yet it is used, and the result is attributed to bad milk, or to the presence of some inscrutable taint or ferment, so prone are mankind to attribute effects to wrong causes. It has been to us unaccountable that cheese makers should use such horrid broth as we have seen them use, if they have any sense of smell whatever, and utterly astonishing that they should expect good cheese to be made from using it. With good milk, the cheese may appear fairly good for several days--especially if put to curing at a low temperature. But sooner or later, the taint must make its appearance. Possibly, it may not show ten days from the hoops, but the cheese can never become a mellow mass without also becoming a stinking one. It will soon be ripe and soon rotten. CURING RENNETS. It is usually understood that rennets are calves' stomachs salted and dried, or otherwise prepared; but it is not so certain that all the rennets in market are of this kind. The stomachs of the young of all milk-eating animals may be used for curding milk. We are not so sure but that among "Bavarian" rennets we get the stomachs of the young of every animal known under the sun. They are of all sizes and all degrees of strength, but are generally liked by those who use them. They are cured by tying the two ends, and blowing the rennets up, like bladders. A better way, we think, is to rub them well with pure dairy salt, stretch them on a hoop or crotched stick, and hang them in a cool dry place. Some simply fill them with salt, tie them, and hang them up to dry. A great objection to this is, that the salt is likely to draw moisture from the atmosphere, and in wet weather the rennets are liable to drip and thus lose strength. Salting rennets down in a barrel, as we do meat, is considered objectionable--for what reason, we know not. The writer had excellent "luck," one season, with rennets preserved in this way. In whatever way preserved, rennets should, by all means, be kept cool. Heat is found to be very injurious, while cold--even freezing and thawing--appears advantageous. Possibly because the freezing and thawing loosen the fiber and set the rennet spores free. AGE AN ADVANTAGE. No rennets less than a year old should be used, if it can possibly be avoided. The old rennets, other things being equal, are stronger and make a firmer curd than new ones. Any one who has experimented with both will always aim to have a supply of good old rennets on hand. SAVING RENNETS. In saving rennets, great care should be taken to have them right. The fourth stomach of the calf is what is saved. Cut it from the adjoining stomach, at the point of junction, and do not leave a piece of intestine on the other end, but cut close to the opening of the rennet. Remove straws and dirt of all kinds carefully, but be sure to not rub off the delicate lining of the stomach, which is the digestive or coagulative part and very much inclined to adhere to your hands, especially if they are dry. Do not try to rinse off anything more than the loose dirt, and that without rubbing, for you cannot rub without waste. What is better, avoid having dirt or any thing else in the stomach to remove. This you can do by letting the calf go sixteen or eighteen hours without eating, and placed where it can get hold of nothing to swallow before killing. Say, feed it at night and slay it the next day about noon. The stomach will then be empty and clean and well stored with pepsin for the digestion of the next meal. This secretion, is just what you want. The rennet is best when the calf is six or eight days old. But, in any case, digestion should be well established before killing. If the calf should go too long without food--as is often the case with veal calves--the stomach will get inflamed. This is objectionable. SELECTING RENNETS. In selecting rennets to soak, all discolored and bad smelling ones should be scrupulously rejected. But rubbing rennets is a disagreeable and disgusting business, and it is somewhat difficult to keep your rennet of uniform strength. Therefore, if good rennet extract can be bought at a reasonable price, we would recommend its use. It ought to be made better and cheaper in a wholesale way than in little batches at each factory. To guard against imposition, one should buy only of known reputable dealers. Preparing your own rennet is much like doing your own shoe making. It doesn't pay, if you have got anything else remunerative to do. WHOLESALE PREPARATION. If one must prepare his own rennet, the better way is to do it in a lump before the cheese-making season begins. Get a strong barrel and a pounder--such as used by washerwomen; also a wringer. Take old rennets and cut them into strips. Make a weak brine of pure water, by using one pound of salt to twenty pounds of water, and in this, soak, pound and wring your rennets. Hang them up and freeze them; then soak, pound and wring them again; and so on as long as you can get any strength. When done, carefully settle, skim, and strain your liquid. Put it in a clean barrel or stone jars, put in all the salt that it will dissolve, so that a little will settle on the bottom, then stop or cover tight; put in a cool place and take from it as wanted for use. There is nothing better than saturated brine for keeping animal products. Be sure, however, that you use only the purest dairy salt in preparing brine. Some say that only stone jars should be used for keeping rennet. We have used an ash tub for the amount prepared weekly. To keep the wood from tainting, we invariably, every time we dipped out rennet and exposed new surface, rubbed it with salt. EXCLUDING AIR. Rennet could be much more easily kept sweet if put in an air-tight vessel. The "American Dispensatory" says: "When gastric juice is completely protected from the air it may be kept unchanged for a longtime; but on exposure it speedily undergoes decomposition, acquires a very offensive odor, and loses its characteristic digestive property." We think that the Dispensatory is right. The composition of pure gastric juice is as follows: Water, 97.00; salts, 1.75; pepsin, 1.25; total, 100.00. There is also a small amount of free acid. Both rennet extract and pepsin are used as medicine. CURING ROOMS. It is hard to determine which is of the greater importance, good rennet or properly constructed curing-rooms; for both are necessary to the production of the best cheese, while the want of either is sure to injure if not to spoil it. The importance of controlling the temperature in curing has not yet taken hold of the popular mind. The best milk in the world may be spoiled by bad rennet, and the best curd in the world may be spoiled by a bad curing-room. TEMPERATURE. In a large majority of the curing-rooms of the country, the temperature ranges from 60 degrees Fahrenheit to 90 degrees and even above. Sometimes these extremes are realized within a few days. Think of setting a curd to fermenting at 80 to 90 degrees, when it ought to start at 60 to 65 degrees! Yet, this is frequently done; and to prevent the cheese from huffing and crawling it is proposed by some to make the curd so dry and sour in the beginning that heat will not soften it. In this way, is made what some buyers style a "firm" cheese. The best English Cheddars, according to the American Encyclopedia, are set to curing at a temperature of 60 degrees, and are never allowed to go above 70 degrees. Our observation and experience are that the range of temperature should never go above 75 degrees. Curing should begin as low as 65 degrees, and no cheese should be marketed under thirty days from the hoops. When the curing is slow, as it ought to be, the cheese will not be ripe in less than that time. If sixty days old before ready for market, the better. The hurrying process is everywhere bad for the product, and no amount of souring helps the matter, however hard it may make the cheese and however well it may stand up in hot weather. We want something else besides standing-up quality. With a low and even temperature for curing, we do not need to work all the goodness out of the curd to make a firm cheese. We do not have to cut the fats and phosphates out with acid, nor to dry all the moisture out by fine cutting and high scalding or long scalding. We can stop the cooking when the curd is evenly cooked through so as to be springy when pressed together by the hands, take it out of the whey before the acid develops, and put it to press without unnecessary delay. AN EXAMPLE. In the fall of 1884, we ate some cheese at Mr. N.L. Brown's, Gurnee, Ill., which was dipped sweeter and put to press softer than we ever thought of doing; yet the cheese was close-grained and fine-flavored, and one that would pass muster as a first-class cheese anywhere. But it was not cured in a hot curing room, nor in one where the temperature went up and down the same as it did on the outside of the building. It was placed in his cellar, at a temperature of 64 degrees, and there remained until it was fit to cut. Nor was it even rubbed, but occasionally turned over. When out, it looked like a cheese that had been kept in a box a year, covered with mold and mites. The superfluous moisture was dried out but the butter was all left. It demonstrated what can be done by temperature. Had this cheese been cured in an ordinary curing-room, it would have gone all out of shape in a few days--as soon as rapid fermentation set in--and been off flavor by the time it was ten days old. Several other cheeses were cured in the same cellar, in the same way, but none of them were put to press so soft or sweet, but all sweet-curd cheeses, and all buttery and fine. This particular one was the result of hurry, as other matters than the curd demanded attention. But the thought came that it would be a good experiment, as it was, and the result was satisfactory, though not different from what was expected. Cheeses made in the same way as the others that were cured in the cellar, and some cooked more and soured more, were made by the same gentleman and cured in an ordinary curing-room. In hot weather, they swelled and some of them got out of shape, while the flavor was sharp and rough. But those in the cellar, at 64 degrees, apparently never moved a hair's breadth out of shape, were as solid as old butter, yet firm enough for shipping even, and of the finest flavor. It is hardly necessary to say that the cellar was exceedingly clean and sweet, and was well ventilated. These cheeses were a demonstration, if not a revelation. MOISTURE IN CURING. It should be remarked, by the way, that a curing-room does not want to be a dry room. We do not want to dry cheese; we want to cure it; that is, let it go through the proper chemical change. This it does best in a somewhat moist room, in which the surface does not dry and become hard and impervious, so that the gases cannot escape. It is better to contend with a little mold than a dry atmosphere. BETTER CHEESE CAN BE MADE. We see, on turning to Prof. Arnold's "American Dairying," that he says: "The temperature of a curing-room for whole milk should be 65 to 70 degrees; for part skims, 75 to 80 degrees." It is thus seen that fat plays an important part in curing. "The more fat," he says, "the cooler may be the room; and the less fat, the warmer may it be." Again: "Under the present state of things, a cheese that will stand a voyage of 4,000 miles can hardly be called a fancy cheese. * * * But a much fancier cheese than we are now producing, one that will stand shipping, can be made. To do this will require milk to be free from some of the imperfections which are now quite common; it must be transported to the factories in much better ventilated cans; _it must be made with less rennet and less acidity; and it must be cured in an even and lower temperature_." We mark the conclusion in _italics_, because we believe these are vital points. We insist that we cannot do ourselves credit nor realize the best financial results in cheese making until we build better curing rooms--rooms in which we can control the temperature without fail. We have not yet settled down to cheese making. We are still trying experiments and resorting to temporary expedients. We must build far more deliberately and for permanency. It is not necessary that we should point out just how a building may be erected so as to give control of the inside temperature. Architects know how to do it. When our cheese makers get to the point where they demand such buildings, they will get them without much trouble and at moderate expense. It is only necessary that they should have the "will." The "way" will speedily open. WHEY. We notice that, in some localities, the patrons of the cheese factory are very much interested in the question of the value of whey for feeding purposes--some going so far as to assert that what is left of milk in cheese making is as valuable as what is removed! This is a startling assertion, and, if true, would convict our dairymen of a vast amount of stupid waste. Is it true? Let us try to get at the facts of the case by a direct, common-sense investigation of it. COMPOSITION OF MILK. We will begin with the composition of milk. From hundreds of German analyses, ranging from 81.30 to 91.50 parts of water, we take a fair average analysis, which we think will do justice to the mixed milk of our best cheese factories: Water 87.18 Caseine 4.21 Albumen .55 Fat 3.24 Sugar 4.21 Ash .60 ----- Total 99.99 WHAT IS TAKEN OUT BY CHEESE MAKING. Now, in making cheese, what follows? We ought to secure all the caseine, but we do not quite. There is a small waste. We loose all, or nearly all, of the albumen. We leave in the whey most of the sugar, if we do not convert it into acid before getting rid of the whey, in which case we may have an injurious amount of the acid in the curd, besides dissolving and washing out nearly all the ash, which is composed of phosphates, principally of iron, magnesia and lime. These are changed into lactates, leaving the phosphoric acid free--not a very good food for anything but rats. We ought to save nearly or quite all the ash--the phosphates. But by the ordinary process of cheese making, these are nearly all lost, as is shown by the analyses of whey, which probably accounts for the low estimate in the popular mind of the value of cheese as food, it being rated at one-half the value that it would have were the phosphates all retained. But, four-fifths of the nitrogenous and muscle-making material has been removed, and also nine-tenths of the fat, which is heat producing and some say furnishes motor power. We have retained in the cheese 5.84 of the 12.82 parts of solids, leaving 5.98 parts, 4.21 parts of which are sugar and not wanted in the cheese, or, at most, only a fraction of it. We leave less than one part of the albuminous and caseous matter, which is the most valuable, and only one-third of one part of fat. So there is less than one part of solids left besides sugar, and the rest of the whey is water. COMPOSITION OF WHEY. What is whey, then, but sweetened water, using sugar of a very low sweetening quality, with a fraction of albuminous matter and ash in it? Again, by the so-called "sweet" process, which retains all, or nearly all, the phosphates in the cheese, the whey is made still poorer by analysis. Only the sugar and a fraction of the albuminous matter, not coagulated by rennet, is left in the whey; and the amount of sugar in milk varies considerably, ranging, in a large number of German analyses, from 3.0 to 5.48 per cent. of sugar. But let us more closely examine the composition of whey. An average of eighteen analyses made by Voelcker is as follows: Water 93.02 Nitrogenous matter .96 Fat .33 Ash .70 Sugar } 4.99 Lactic acid } ----- Total 100.00 POOR STUFF. Thus it is very plainly to be seen that whey is poor stuff to feed, even in its best estate. It has some value to mix with other foods, if used sweet; but when the sugar has all turned to acid, and the phosphates have become lactates, leaving the phosphoric acid free, the whey is abominable, and can be used only in small quantities and with great care. It ought not to be fed to young animals with tender stomachs, and does older animals no good. CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. All this corresponds with general observation and experience. The most intelligent dairymen with whom we are acquainted do not consider sour whey worth drawing home. It is cruel to feed sweet whey to any animal exclusively. Even a hog, which has made its growth--and no animal can more fully extract the nutrihealth while actually growing fat on sweet whey. The portion of less than one per cent. of albuminous matter prolongs, rather than sustains life. That is to say, the hog will not starve to death quite so quick if fed whey as it will without it. The sugar accumulates in the system as fat, while the hog is slowly perishing of inanition. But if it is thus cruel to feed it alone to full grown animals, it is doubly so to feed it to young and growing animals--as pigs and calves--the necessities of the lives of which demand tissue-making material as well as life-sustaining. If whey is used, let it be fed sweet, and always with some kind of dry nitrogenous food, as bean meal, oil meal, pea meal, clover, etc. But, with the acid system of cheese-making, it is impossible to do this. The whey is decomposed before run into the whey-vat. [Illustration: THE END] CONTENTS. PREFACE 3-4 HISTORICAL--In Asia; Among the Jews; In Southern Europe; In America; Figures from the Census; Growth in Thirty Years; Product per Cow and per Capita; Home Consumption vs. Exports; Forms of Milk Consumption; The Private Dairy vs. the Factory 5-12 CONDITIONS--Pastures; Water; Winter Food; The Stable; Shelter; The Dairy House; Cleanliness; The Herd. 13-17 DAIRY STOCK--Points of a Milker; Dutch-Friesian; The Jersey; The Guernsey; The Ayrshire; The Shorthorn; The Devon; The American Holderness; Inbreeding; Swiss; Polled; Hereford; Common Stock 18-34 BREEDING DAIRY STOCK--Selection; Coupling; Care 35-39 FEEDING STOCK--Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Foods; What is Carbon? What is Nitrogen? Compounding Rations; Per day and per 1,000 lbs. Live Weight; Sample Rations; Fattening Rations; Working Rations; Digestibility of Foods; Elements of Foods; Ensilage; Remarks 40-52 HANDLING MILK--Keep Quiet; Regularity; Keep Down the Foul Odors; Keep Out the Dirt; Let Out the Cows; A Lick of Meal; Care of Milk; Composition of Milk; Deterioration of Milk in the Udder; Do Fats Expand Before Congealing? Effects of Falling Temperature; Cooling and Airing; Protection from the Hot Sun; Treatment of Night's and Morning's Milk; Receiving; Testing; Bad Milk; Weighing; Keeping Milk 53-66 BUTTER MAKING--Deep Setting and Water Cooling; Effect of Too Low Cooling; Buttermilk Flavor; Shallow Setting and Air Cooling; Oxydizing Cream; Skimming Milk; When to Skim; Churning; Temperatures; What Makes the Butter Come; When to Stop Churning; Working; Salting; Salt as a Preservative; Packing Butter; Preparing the Package; Closing the Package; Storing; Style of Package 67-80 CHEESE MAKING--Duty of Patrons; Unreasonable Expectation; Guarantees; Heating; Coloring; Setting; Other Details; Keep the Temperature Even; Cutting; Cut Fine; "Cooking;" Drawing the Whey; Salting; Putting to Press 81-91 ACID IN CHEESE MAKING--Analysis of Milk; What the Cheese Maker Does; What Ought to Be; Theory and Practice 92-95 RENNET--Soaking in Whey; Tainted Rennet; Curing Rennets; Age an Advantage; Saving Rennets; Selecting Rennets; Wholesale Preparation; Excluding Air 96-101 CURING ROOMS--Temperature; An Example; Moisture in Curing; Better Cheese Can Be Made 102-106 WHEY--Composition of Milk; Composition of Whey; Poor Stuff; Cruelty to Animals 107-110 Apparatus & Supplies FOR CHEESE FACTORIES, CREAMERIES AND DAIRIES. AT WHOLESALE A LIST OF ARTICLES NECESSARY FOR MAKING CHEESE FROM 20 TO 800 COWS SENT ON APPLICATION. CHILDS & JONES, UTICA, N.Y. FREISIAN CATTLE. THE UNADILLA VALLEY STOCK BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION import only the finest registered Stock found in Friesland and North Holland, in conformity with the requirements of the Dutch-Friesian Breeders' Association of America. The renowned prize Bull, MOOIE 26, at head of herd. Their herd has been widely exhibited and awarded more prizes than any herd in this country. An examination of the herd will convince the most skeptical of its great superiority. Catalogues on application. W. Langworthy, Sec'y, _WEST EDMESTON, N.Y._ CHEESE AND BUTTER MAKERS' SUPPLIES and Complete Manufacturing Outfits. Pat. Gang Cheese Presses, Self Bandaging Cheese Hoops, Cheese Vats, Patent Twin Creamery Vats, Curd Sinks, Curd Mills, Curd Knives, Churns, Butter Workers, Rennet and Annatto Jars, Fairbanks Scales, Cheese Screws and Hoops. PHILADELPHIA DANISH-WESTON CREAM SEPARATOR. It saves time; gives ten to fifteen per cent. more butter and of better quality; no ice required; leaves skim milk fresh and purified; saves room in creamery; pays for itself in a short time; cost of maintenance very small as machine is very durable. Small Separator, portable, capacity 650 lbs. per hour. Medium Separator, capacity 900 to 1,000 lbs. per hour. Large Separator, capacity 1,600 to 1,800 lbs. per hour. Extra Separator, capacity 2,200 to 2,500 lbs. per hour. Send for Special Circular. Bradley Butter Boxes, Butter Pails and Butter Trays. CHEESE BOX MATERIAL, TACKS AND NAILS. Wire's Patent, Self Cutting, Self Agitating, Self Salting CIRCULAR CHEESE VAT. Three Sizes:--5,000, 8,000, 12,000 pounds of milk respectively. HANSEN'S DANISH LIQUID BUTTER COLOR. FORTY-SIX HIGHEST PRIZES, 3 GOLD MEDALS at World's Fairs. Vegetable Oil. Colors the Finest butter made in Europe. Fast superseding all other Coloring in America. Does not color the Buttermilk. Butter beautiful. Greatly enhances value. No Alkali. Dozen bottles and Directions free to Druggists. HANSEN'S EXTRACT of RENNET and STANDARD CHEESE COLOR. No manufacturer or repacker can afford to neglect Danish preparations. BURRELL & WHITMAN, LITTLE FALLS, N.Y. F.B. FARGO & CO.'S Improved BUTTER COLOR. Will Not Color the Buttermilk. It is the Strongest Color Made. It will not Change to Rancidity. It is the ONLY Oil Butter Color manufactured that _WILL NOT FLAVOR BUTTER_ BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. _USE ONLY THE MOST RELIABLE._ Took the Highest Award at New Orleans and Wherever Exhibited. We have been engaged in the manufacture of butter color since 1870, and were the first to make an oil color in this country. Other manufacturers have followed our example, and are now endeavoring to reap where we have sown. Ours is the old reliable butter color and the only one that is safe to use. All others flavor the butter. Our Butter Color is for sale by druggists and grocers generally throughout the United States. If they do not have it, ask them to order it from their wholesale druggist or grocer. On receipt of price we will send our color to any point. Send for prices. F.B. Fargo & Co., LAKE MILLS, WIS. ONONDAGA F.F. SALT WARRANTED as Pure as any Salt in the Market. Not Excelled for Butter or Cheese, for the Table, or for all Culinary Purposes. The following is the analysis made by Prof. Babcock, of the New York Experiment Station, in January, 1884: Water 0.593 Insoluble Matter 0.019 Sulphate of Lime 0.760 Sulphate of Magnesia 0.094 Chloride of Sodium (Pure Salt) 98.501 ------ 99.967 It will be seen by the foregoing that, the Onondaga F.F. Salt is very pure, containing only 1-1/2 per cent. of impurities and water. The amount of pure salt is 98.501. This is not materially different from the analysis of Walz & Stillwell, made by the direction of the New York Butter and Cheese Exchange, in 1875--one analysis showing 98.5242, and the other 98.3864 parts of pure salt. Ashton contained, according to their analysis, 97.7598, and Higgin 97.6809 parts of pure salt, the impurities equaling 2.20 per cent. in Ashton and 2.25 per cent. in Higgin, while the impurities in Onondaga F.F. Salt are only 1.50 per cent. First premiums were taken at New Orleans, at the World's Fair, by both Butter and Cheese salted with Onondaga F.F. Salt. It wins everywhere that there is open and fair competition. Dairy goods salted with it took a majority of all the premiums (46 out of 89) awarded at the Grand Union Fair in Milwaukee, December 2d to 9th. 1882, over four foreign competitors. It was awarded a medal at the Centennial by a committee of scientists and experts from all parts of the world, "for purity and high degree of excellence." SOLE Manufacturers, AMERICAN DAIRY SALT CO., L. ADDRESS J.W. Barker, Sec'y, _SYRACUSE, N.Y._ THE CROWELL CREAMER, (_Patent Applied for_) W.H. BOND, Sole Manufacturer. It is very easily adjusted when cleaning, no tools or wrenches being required, has no glass tubes to get broken, is smoothly, strongly and mechanically made and easy to handle or move, and is made in all sizes to suit small dairies. It consists of a heavy tin receptacle for milk, immersed in water, which is held in a double walled vat, and is so constructed that either a running stream ornd keeps the milk at an even temperature. Lowest in Price, Smoothest Make, Most Durable Stock Very Easily Cleaned, No Possible Chance for Souring, and is a Complete Success. THE NEWEST IN THE MARKET Price, size for 56 Quarts, $25. Dealers Should Secure the Sale of it at Once. _SPECIALTIES_: Tin Roofing, Eave Troughs and Conductors, Sinks, Pumps and Lead Pipe, all kinds of Tin, Copper and Sheet Iron Work: Cream Pails, Milk Pails, Strainers, and other Dairy Goods Made to Order. W.H. BOND, 127 So. Salina and 3 E. Onondaga Sts., Syracuse, N.Y. Cornish, Curtis & Greene. [Illustration: RECTANGULAR CHURN] DAIRY GOODS AND CHURNS. We make from the best material SUPERIOR ARTICLES that are models of strength and simplicity. _Unquestioned Proof Given of their Durability_ SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE Curtis' Improved Factory Churn, Mason's Power Butter Worker, Lever Worker, Curtis' Square Box Churn, Rectangular Churn, Cream Vats, Dog Power, etc., etc. "ONE FAMILY CHURN AT WHOLESALE WHERE WE HAVE NO AGENT." All goods warranted exactly as represented. TWO GOLD AND FOURTEEN SILVER MEDALS AWARDED FOR SUPERIORITY =CORNISH, CURTIS & GREENE, Ft. Atkinson, Wis.= JENK'S AUTOMATIC CHEESE MAKER, The Latest and Greatest Improvement in Cheese Making Appliances for Factory Use. WILL PAY FOR ITSELF IN ONE SEASON. AMERICAN SWEEPSTAKES CURD CUTTER and Other Great Improvements in Cheese and Butter Apparatus. The Cheapest, Handiest and Best Bandage Made, and a full line of CHEESE FACTORY AND DAIRY SUPPLIES. Send for our Illustrated Circular. =CHARLES MILLAR & SON=, UTICA, N.Y. Transcriber's Notes: There were a number of printer's errors in punctuation that have been corrected silently. The following changes in spelling have been made: Page 26 breedidg is now breeding Page 31 aovided is now avoided Page 32 ean is now can Page 32 commonn is now common Page 38 crossiug is now crossing Page 54 advantange is now advantage Page 67 disadvantange is now disadvantage Page 81 disadvantange is now disadvantage Page 85 controled is now controlled Page 86 aide is now aside Words that were printed in bold font are displayed in = =. 
45372	----	Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible. The errata listed at the end of the book have been fixed. Some minor corrections of puctuation have been made. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. Bold text has been marked with =equals signs=. OE ligatures have been expanded. [Illustration: "THE DEFIANCE HAS GONE 10 MINUTES!"] ROAD SCRAPINGS: COACHES AND COACHING. [Illustration: THE DEVIL AMONGST THE TAILORS!] LONDON: TINSLEY BROTHERS, 8, CATHERINE STREET, STRAND. 1882. ROAD SCRAPINGS: _COACHES AND COACHING_. BY CAPTAIN M. E. HAWORTH, AUTHOR OF "THE SILVER GREYHOUND." London: TINSLEY BROTHERS, 8, CATHERINE ST., STRAND. 1882. [_All rights reserved._] INTRODUCTION. In offering these pages to the public, my object has been confined to imparting such advice, in matters connected with _coaching_, as has been suggested by long experience; whilst, in order to dissipate as much as possible the "dryness" of being told "what to do" and "how to do it," I have mingled the instruction with illustrative anecdotes and incidents, which may afford amusement to the general reader. If whilst my bars are "whistling" up the hill, and rattling down, I have been able to combine some useful hints with the amusement often to be discovered in what I have termed "Scrapings of the Road," my desire will be amply gratified. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE The revival--Magazine magnificence--Death of coaching--Resurrection--Avoid powder--Does the post pull?--Summering hunters--The "Lawyer's Daughter"--An unexpected guest 1 CHAPTER II. Young coachmen--Save your horses--The ribbons--The whip--A professional Jehu--An amateur--Paralysed fingers 20 CHAPTER III. ANECDOTES: Coachmen (friends and enemies)--Roadside burial--Old John's holiday--How the mail was robbed--Another method--A visit from a well-known character--A wild-beast attack--Carrier's fear of the supernatural--Classical teams--Early practice with the pickaxe--Catechism capsized 34 CHAPTER IV. Opposition--A quick change--How to do it--Accident to the Yeovil mail--A gallop for our lives--Unconscious passengers--Western whips--Parliamentary obstruction 51 CHAPTER V. The "Warwick Crown Prince"--"Spicy Jack"--Poor old Lal!--"Go it, you cripples!"--A model horsekeeper--The coach dines here--Coroner's inquest--The haunted glen--Lal's funeral 65 CHAPTER VI. Commercial-room--The bagman's tale--Yes--Strange company 90 CHAPTER VII. Draught horses--The old "fly-waggon"--Weight and pace--Sagacity of mules--Hanging on by a wheel--The Refuge--Hot fighting in the Alps--Suffocation--Over at last--Railway to Paris 104 CHAPTER VIII. Right as the mail--Proprietors and contractors--Guards and coachmen--A cold foot-bath--A lawyer nonsuited--Old Mac--The Spectre Squire--An unsolved mystery 126 CHAPTER IX. Public and private conveyances in Austria and Hungary--An English dragsman posed--The Vienna race-meeting--Gentleman "Jocks"--A moral exemplified 145 CHAPTER X. North-country fairs--An untrained foxhunter--Tempted again--Extraordinary memory of the horse--Satisfactory results from a Latch-key 154 CHAPTER XI. The Coach and Horses (sign of)--Beware of bog spirits--Tell that to the Marines--An early breakfast--Salmon poaching with lights--Am I the man? or, the day of judgment--Acquittal! 168 CHAPTER XII. Coaches in Ireland fifty years ago--Warm welcome--Still-hunting--Another blank day--Talent and temper--The Avoca coach 182 CHAPTER XIII. Virtue and vice--Sowing wild oats--They can all jump--Drive down Box Hill--A gig across country 195 ROAD SCRAPINGS. Sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum Collegisse juvat. CHAPTER I. The revival--Magazine magnificence--Death of coaching--Resurrection--Avoid powder--Does the post pull?--Summering hunters--The "Lawyer's Daughter"--An unexpected guest. To their honour be it said, that there are noblemen and gentlemen in the land, who willingly devote time, energy, and money, to keep the dust flying from the wheels of the real old stage coach. The importance of driving well, and the pleasure derivable therefrom, are both enhanced by the moral duty and responsibility involved in directing a public conveyance. The journey once advertised forms a contract which is most religiously observed, and the punctuality and precision noticeable in the coaches of the revival are among their most commendable features. This is fortunate--since elderly critics may still be seen, grouped around the door of the White Horse Cellars, prepared to institute invidious comparisons, and difficult to be won over to believe in anything but "the old times," when Sir Vincent Cotton and Brackenbury worked the "Brighton Age," when Lord Edward Thynne piloted the "Portsmouth Rocket," when "Gentleman Dean" waggoned the Bath mail, and a hundred minor celebrities glistened in the coaching sphere. Although the interval between these old coaching days and the revival was a long one, the connecting-link was never entirely broken. The "how to do it" has been handed down by some of the most brilliant coachmen of the age, gentle and simple, who, although the obituary shows their ranks to have been grievously thinned, are still warm supporters of the revival, and who, by their example and practice, have restored in an amateur form a system of coaching which is quite equal (if not a little superior) to anything in the olden times. Where so many excel it would be invidious to particularise, but I have seen the "Oxford," the "Portsmouth," the "Guildford," the "Brighton," the "Windsor," "St. Albans," and "Box Hill," as well as sundry other short coaches, leave the White Horse Cellars as perfectly appointed in every particular as anything the old coaching days could supply. Coaching in England had well-nigh died a natural death--ay, and, what is worse, been buried! Poor "Old Clarke" (supported by a noble duke, the staunchest patron of the road) fanned the last expiring spark with the "Brighton Age," until his health broke down and he succumbed. Another coach started against him on the opposite days by Kingston and Ewell, called the "Recherché" (a private venture), but it did not last even so long as the "Age." Here was the interval! The end of everything. In 1868 a coach was started to Brighton called the "Old Times,"[1] the property of a company composed of all the _élite_ of the coaching talent of the day. It proved a great success, and became very popular; especially, it may be added, among its own shareholders, who, being all coachmen, in turn aspired to the box--those who could, as well as those who only fancied they could. The initiated will at once understand how fatal this was to the comfort of every fresh team which came under their lash. At the end of the coaching season (October 30th, 1868) the stock was sold, and realised two-thirds more than had been invested in it. The goodwill and a large portion of the stock were purchased by Chandos Pole, who was afterwards joined by the Duke of Beaufort and "Cherry Angel," and these gentlemen carried on the coach for three years. The second coach started in the revival was one to Beckenham and Bromley, horsed and driven by Charles Hoare, who afterwards extended it to Tunbridge Wells. It was very well appointed, and justly popular. The ball once set rolling, coaching quickly became a mania. The railings of the White Horse Cellars were placarded with boards and handbills of all colours and dimensions: "A well-appointed four-horse coach will leave Hatchett's Hotel on such and such days, for nearly every provincial town within fifty miles of London." From the 1st May to the 1st September the pavement opposite to the coach-office was crowded by all the "hossy" gentlemen of the period. Guards and professionals might be seen busy with the coach-ladders, arranging their passengers, especially attentive to those attired in muslin, who seemed to require as much coupling and pairing as pigeons in a dovecot. Knots of gentlemen discussed the merits of this or that wheeler or leader, till, reminded by the White Horse clock that time was up, they took a cursory glance at their way-bills, and, mounting their boxes, stole away to the accompaniment of "a yard of tin." A well-loaded coach with a level team properly handled, is an object which inspires even the passing crowd with a thrill of pleasurable approbation, if not a tiny atom of envy. Whyte Melville contended that a lady could never look so well as in a riding-habit and properly mounted. Other authorities incline to the fact that the exhilarating effect produced by riding upon a drag, coupled with the opportunity of social conversation and repartee, enhances, if possible, the charms of female attractiveness. Be this as it may, when the end of a journey is reached, the universal regret of the lady passengers is, not that the coachman has driven too quickly, but that the journey is not twice as long as it is. Interesting as the animated scene in Piccadilly during the summer months may be to those who have a taste for the road, there is another treat in store for the coaching man, afforded by a meet of the drags at the Magazine during the London season on special days, of which notice is given. We do not stop to inquire if the coach was built in Oxford Street, Park Street, Piccadilly, or Long Acre; whether the harness was made by Merry or Gibson; whether the team had cost a thousand guineas or two hundred pounds, but we say that the display of the whole stands unequalled and unrivalled by the rest of the world. This unbounded admiration and approval do not at all deteriorate from the merits of the well-appointed four-horse coaches leaving Piccadilly every morning (Sundays excepted), as there is as much difference between a stage-coach and a four-in-hand as there is between a mirror and a mopstick. Horses for a road-coach should have sufficient breeding to insure that courage and endurance which enable them to travel with ease to themselves at the pace required, and if they are all of one class, or, as old Jack Peer used to say, "all of a mind," the work is reduced to a minimum. Whereas, horses for the parade at the Magazine must stand sixteen hands; and, when bitted and beared up, should not see the ground they stand upon. They must have action enough to kill them in a twelve-mile stage with a coach, even without a Shooter's Hill in it. I do not say this in any spirit of disparagement of the magnificent animals provided by the London dealers at the prices which such animals ought to command. I may here remind my patient reader that unless the greatest care and vigilance is exercised in driving these Magazine teams, it is three to one in favour of one horse, one showy impetuous favourite, doing all the work, whilst the other three are running behind their collars, because they dare not face their bits. It's a caution to a young coachman, and spoils all the pleasure of the drive. "He's a good match in size, colour, and action, but he pulls me off the box; I've tried a tight curb and nose-band, a high port, a gag, all in vain! If I keep him and he must pull, let him pull the coach instead of my fingers; run a side-rein through his own harness-terret to his partner's tug." No amount of driving power or resin will prevent one "borer" from pulling the reins through your fingers. I hereby utterly condemn the use of anything of the sort. If your reins are new, they can be educated in the harness-room; but the rendering them sticky with composition entirely prevents the driver from exercising the "give and take" with the mouths of his team which is the key to good coachmanship. Let the back of the left hand be turned well down, the fingers erect; let the whip-hand act occasionally as a pedal does to a pianoforte, and, rely upon it, you are better without resin. Whyte Melville, in his interesting work, "Riding Recollections," recites an anecdote, which I may be forgiven for quoting, as it combines both theory and instruction. "A celebrated Mr. Maxse, celebrated some fifteen years ago for a fineness of hand that enabled him to cross Leicestershire with fewer falls than any other sportsman of fifteen stone who rode equally straight, used to display much comical impatience with the insensibility of his servants to this useful quality. He was once seen explaining to his coachman, with a silk handkerchief passed round a post. 'Pull at it,' says the master. 'Does it pull at you?' 'Yes, sir,' answered the servant, grinning. 'Slack it off then. Does it pull at you now?' 'No, sir.' 'Well then, you double-distilled fool, can't you see that your horses are like that post? If you don't pull at _them_, they won't pull at _you_.'" A team, if carelessly driven for a few journeys, will soon forget their good manners, and begin to lean and bore upon a coachman's hands; and when the weight of one horse's head (if he declines to carry it himself) is considered and multiplied by four, it will readily be believed that a coachman driving fifty or sixty miles daily will make it his study to reduce his own labour by getting his horses to go pleasantly and cheerfully together. There are, of course, instances which defy all the science which can be brought to bear. Horses do not come to a coach because they are found too virtuous for other employment, and the fact of their being engaged with a blank character, or, at most, "has been in harness," does not inform the purchaser that they made firewood of the trap in their last situation. I do not intend this remark to be defamatory of the whole of the horses working in the coaches of the revival. The average prices obtained at the sales at the end of the season prove the contrary. Many horses working in the coaches of the present day have occupied very creditable places in the hunting-field, and, should they return thither, will be found none the worse for having been summered in a stage-coach. Indeed, I am of opinion that this method of summering has considerable advantages over the system so often adopted, of first inflicting the greatest pain and punishment upon the animal by blistering all round, whether he requires it or not, and then sentencing him to five months' solitary confinement in a melancholy box or very limited yard. In the first case, a horse doing a comparatively short stage, provided he is carefully driven, is always amused. His muscles and sinews are kept in action without being distressed, his diet is generous and sufficient without being inflammatory, and, though last not least, he is a constant source of pleasurable satisfaction to his owner, as well as a means of bringing him to the notice of many sporting admirers, who may materially help the average in the autumn sale. There is no doubt that horses, as a rule, enjoy coaching work, and many become good disciples to a ten-mile stage which could not be persuaded to do a stroke of work of any other description. There are many exceptions to this rule. I have found in my own experience that, when hurriedly getting together twenty or thirty horses for coaching purposes, I have been fascinated by symmetry, and perhaps by small figures, and have bought an unprofitable horse. A visit to St. Martin's Lane, under such circumstances, once made me possessor of the very prettiest animal I almost ever saw--a red chestnut mare, a broad front, two full intelligent eyes, with a head which would have gone easily into a pint pot, ears well set on, a long lean neck, joining to such withers and shoulders as would have shamed a Derby winner, legs and feet which defied unfavourable criticism. Here was a catch! And all this for eighteen guineas! Nothing said, nothing written; her face was her fortune, and I thought, mine too. She's too good for the coach; she ought to ride, to carry a lady; appears a perfect lamb. I could not resist what appeared to me an opportunity which everybody except myself seemed to neglect; I bowed to the gentleman in the box, who immediately dropped his hammer, saying: "For you!" I overheard some remarks from the spectators which did not confirm my satisfaction at having invested in an animal without any character. "She knows her way here by herself;" "She won't have leather at any price," whispered another coper; but, as all evil reports are resorted to by the craft on such occasions, I did not heed them. I soon found out that my new purchase was not precisely a lamb. To mount her was impossible. She reared, bucked, kicked, plunged, and finally threw herself down; so that part of the business I gave up. I then began to put harness upon her. To this she submitted cheerfully, and, when she had stood in it for two days, I gammoned her into her place in the break, when, having planted herself, she declined to move one inch. The schoolmaster (break-horse) exercised all the patience and encouragement which such equine instructors know so well how to administer. He started the load, pulling very gently. He pulled a little across her, he backed a few inches, then leaned suddenly from her. All this being to no purpose, he tried coercion, and dragged her on, upon which, turning the whites of her innocent eyes up, she made one plunge and flung herself down. The schoolmaster looked at her reproachfully, but stood still as a mouse, in spite of her whole weight being upon his pole-chain, till she was freed. [Illustration: AN UNEXPECTED GUEST.] She was too handsome to fight about on the stones, so I determined to try another dodge; and, putting a pair of wheelers behind her, and giving her a good free partner, I put her before the bars (near-side lead). Here the cross of the lamb in her was predominant, she went away, showing all the gentleness without even the skipping. I took her immediately into the crowded streets, a system I have always found most successful with those horses which require distraction, and her behaviour was perfect. I was so well satisfied, that without further trial I sent her down the road to make one of a team from Sutton to Reigate, where she worked steadily, and remained an excellent leader for one week, when it seemed as if a sudden inspiration reminded her that the monotony of the work, as well as the bars of the coach, should be broken by some flight of fancy. She made one tremendous jump into the air, as high as a swallow ordinarily flies in fine weather--which evolution cost me "a bar," and after a few consecutive buck-jumps went quietly away. She did not confine her romps, however, to this comparatively harmless frolic, but contrived to land from these wonderful jumps among groups of Her Majesty's subjects where she was least expected. On one occasion I was coming away from a change at D----d, when, at the signal to go, she jumped from the middle of the road completely through the bay-window of a tailor's shop, where several men were occupied on the board. At another time she was put to at S----n, where, the weather being oppressively hot, a party of yokels were regaling _al fresco_ round a large table under the trees. Their attention was naturally attracted to the coach during the change of horses, but little did they dream that in another minute one of the leaders would be on the table before them. So, however, it was. With one bound, scattering the pipes and pewters far and wide, she landed in the middle of the board. I should have delighted in continuing my attempts to subdue the temper of this beautiful animal, especially as, once off, she made a superlatively good leader; but, where the public safety was jeopardised, I did not feel justified in further argument with the young lady, and therefore sold her to a stud company on the Continent.[2] CHAPTER II. Young coachmen--Save your horses--The ribbons--The whip--A professional Jehu--An amateur--Paralysed fingers. To a man who has a taste for driving, what can be more fascinating than to find himself upon the box of his own drag, with four three-parts-bred, well-matched horses before him, of which he is master? But how is this supreme pleasure to be arrived at? He may give fabulous prices for his horses, his coach and appointments may be faultless, all selected with great judgment, and still there will be moments when aching arms, paralysed fingers, and animals who seem determined to go "no how," will compel him to wish himself in any other position. In order to guard against this, I would enjoin a young beginner not to run away with the idea that because he has driven four horses without getting into trouble, or, as still more frequently occurs, because he can drive a tandem, he can be in any degree a match for a team of horses with spirit and mettle, unless he have first carefully mastered the rudiments of the ribbons. There are many self-taught men who are excellent coachmen, and who, from long habit and experience, may be as much at home, in cases of sudden difficulty, as some of the more educated; but they invariably lack a certain precautionary system which makes almost any team go well and comfortably, and reduces the chance of an accident to a minimum. There are, alas, very few preceptors of the old school, but why the present generation should not be as well able to instruct themselves as were the men of fifty years ago is to me an unexplained marvel. It is quite true that when coaching was a most important business, and when the component parties--contractors, coachmen, horsekeepers, and horses--sprang into existence, apparently for the purpose of carrying it on, there was a professional caste about the whole affair which kept it distinct and separate from all others. A proprietor was a big man, and his importance was measured by the ground he covered. There was an emulative rivalry between these gentlemen, which reflected very healthily upon the style in which their coaches were done. The contractor supplied such horses as the proprietor required to cover the ground at a given coaching price. The coachman had to keep such time as was laid down by the rules of the coach, and this was a point upon which depended much of the merit of the man. A coachman who, from an intimate knowledge of his ground, knew when to bustle and where to save his horses, was an invaluable acquisition to his employer. Horses themselves will sometimes suggest a little judicious springing, by which some of the most trying hills are more easily negotiated; but there is nothing better than to keep an even pace throughout the stage, jogging up all hills, easing them at the top, and coming steady off the crown of a descent. If circumstances should arise by which the time has been stolen from the horses, let me enjoin you, in the name of the whole equine race, not to attempt to make it up by showing your expertness with the whip up the hills; this is downright cruelty; and, in nine cases out of ten, the extra exertion and nervous efforts to respond are all made by one horse more sensitive than the rest of the team. It is better to wait for time than to race after it, the latter invariably resulting in one horse being so much more baked than the others as to cause the knowing eyes around the White Horse Cellars to wink when you do arrive. To make my reader comfortable with his team as quickly as possible, I would here offer a few hints, which I venture to think will be found valuable to all not too proud to learn. Being, then, comfortably attired, taking care that no part of his clothing approaches to tightness, supplied with a good thick shoe and gaiter, an easy (very easy) dogskin glove, taking care that the fingers are not too long (he should always be provided with a pair of woollen gloves in case of wet weather), we may safely leave supplementary garments to his own taste. Having looked round his horses--a proceeding which no coachman should neglect--he walks up to the flank of the off-wheeler and takes _all_ his reins, which should have been doubled and tucked into the tug on the off-side. Stepping back a pace, he separates his leading-reins, and pulls them through the terrets till he has gathered up the slack. He then slips his wheel-reins on either side of his right hand middle-finger, the near-side leading-rein over the forefinger, and the other over the wheel-rein between the fore and middle fingers of his right hand. If he changes his whip it will be laid across the cruppers of the wheelers, and must be taken up, caught, and placed in the same hand with the reins, so as to leave the left free to seize the step of the front-boot, when, by stepping on the fore-wheel, and throwing the weight of his body well before it, the walk up on the bench will be comparatively easy and graceful. Having arrived there, still keeping the whip and reins in the right hand, he quickly settles his seat and apron, then shifting his reins to his left hand, in the same order which they occupied in the right, he proceeds to shorten them till he just feels the mouths of his horses. The beauty and grace of a driving-seat is to assume such a posture as does not admit of any constraint. Without freedom of the wrist and arm, the whip, instead of being a most interesting plaything, will be a constant source of annoyance and difficulty to a young coachman. "It won't catch." "Why not?" Always because he will not let the bow of the thong swing sufficiently away from him, but tries it with a stiff arm. When once the knack is acquired it will last a lifetime, and there is no instrument the proper handling of which gives such a finish and proficiency, as a well-poised "yew" or a properly-weighted "holly." Often have I been obliged to give away old favourite "crops" because mine would "catch" and others would not. A good coachman shows his proficiency as well by the manner of his getting up on the bench as by the necessary preliminaries to make a comfortable start after he is seated. A lady, who must have been a close observer, once remarked to me that a certain gentleman, who was a mutual acquaintance, must be a very careful coachman, for, when riding upon the box-seat with him, he constantly asked her to hold the whip for him, while he went through a process of what appeared to her like "plaiting the reins." There is a right way and a wrong way, and, at the risk of being a trifle wearisome, I venture to introduce a few hints for the benefit of such of my young readers as may desire to be guided in the acquirements of an art at once useful and agreeable, by tracing some of the oldest habits of the profession, and thus, in coaching parlance, picking up some of the "dodges of the road." Let us attempt to follow a professional "Jehu" over a stage or two of his ground. His coach loaded and passengers placed, he takes a careful look round to see that every part of his harness is in its place and properly adjusted, and, if reminded by seeing any particular horse that he had gone uncomfortably on his last journey, to endeavour to find out the cause and have it altered. I have known a horse, usually straight and pleasant in his work, all at once take to snatching the rein and run away wide of his partner, and this occasioned only by the winker-strap being too short, causing the winker to press against his frontal-bone, the apparently trifling irregularity causing so much pain as to drive him almost mad. A wheeler sometimes takes to _diving_ suddenly with his head, and almost snatching the rein out of the driver's hand. This can only be prevented by putting a bearing-rein upon him; and though this has often been censured (on the road), it has as often been condoned at the end of the stage. His inspection made, he mounts his box, according to the foregoing rules, and having given some parting instructions to his horsekeeper--"Send 'Old Giles' down o' the off-side to-morrow, and rest the 'Betsy Mare,' etc. etc."--the office to start is given; when the lightest feel of their mouths (wheelers having a little the most room) and a "klick" ought to be enough to start them.[3] Nothing is such "bad form" as to start with the whip; in dismissing which latter article I would caution young coachmen against the practice of carrying it in the socket. The moment when it may be required cannot be foreseen. A well-organised team soon settles, and though for a mile or two they may appear to pull uncomfortably and not divide the work evenly, this is often occasioned merely by freshness and impatience, when presently they will settle down and go like "oil." A young friend, who lived not one hundred miles from Queen's Gate, once asked me to come and see a splendid team he had purchased. I was indeed struck by their appearance when they came to the door. All roans, sixteen-and-a-half hands, very well bred, decorated all over with crest and coronet. There was a small party for the drag, with, of course, some muslin on the box, and I took my place behind the driver. I very soon observed that, although they were very highly bitted, they were carrying too many guns for our coachman; and we had not proceeded far when I ventured to remark that he was going rather fast (at this moment three were cantering), and in reply my friend candidly declared "he could not hold them." "Then pull them all up at once," I said promptly, "or they'll be away with you." Failing in this he accepted an offer of assistance, and, taking the reins, I, not without difficulty, stopped the runaways, and effected several alterations in their couplings, bittings, and harness. I expected my friend would have resumed his post, but his hand was so paralysed that he could not grasp the reins. The explanation of this episode is twofold--firstly, the team was improperly put together; secondly, my friend discovered when we got to Richmond that he had been attempting to drive in a tight wrist-band, which, next to a tight glove, is of all things to be avoided. We had had unquestionably a narrow escape from what might have been a very serious accident. When four high-couraged horses, all very green and not properly strung together, get off "the balance" with a weak coachman, it is time to look out for a soft place. After I had made this team more comfortable in their harness, and their mouths more easily reached by the coupling-reins, they became, in my hands, perfectly temperate and docile, and gave every promise of becoming a handy pleasant lot. It is a dangerous thing for a young coachman to embark with a team without somebody with him who can relieve his paralysed fingers and wrists if occasion requires; and this danger is increased tenfold if the team is composed of high-mettled cattle unused to their work or their places. I have found it very useful to condition the muscles of the arm by dumb-belling or balancing a chair upon the middle-finger of the left hand with the arm extended. I trust that the foregoing hints may not be received with disdain. How many men there are who, from mistaken self-sufficiency, go through a whole life in practising what must be very uncomfortable, merely because they have been too proud to learn the A B C of the business. Without confidence--I may almost say without courage--no man can enjoy driving "a team." He will be in a constant state of fret and in apprehension of all sorts of imaginary eventualities. The misgiving that they are either going too fast or not fast enough, not working straight, won't stop the coach down hill, and a thousand other qualms, might all have been prevented by spending a few pounds at The Paxton. CHAPTER III. ANECDOTES. Coachmen (friends and enemies)--Roadside burial--Old John's holiday--How the mail was robbed--Another method--A visit from a well-known character--A wild-beast attack--Carrier's fear of the supernatural--Classical teams--Early practice with the pickaxe--Catechism capsized. In the time when the only method of telegraphing was through the arms and legs of a wooden semaphore, and the only means of public locomotion the public highroad, competition for public favour carried opposition to the highest pitch, and the pace acquired by some of the fast coaches was extraordinary. When ten or fifteen minutes could be scored over the arrival of the opposition--if the "Telegraph" could get in four or five minutes before the "Eclipse"--it was a subject of anxious comment until this state of things was reversed. Notwithstanding this, no class of men lived on better terms with each other than stage-coachmen off the bench. They were a class of men peculiar to themselves. The very fact of the trust reposed in them invested them with a superiority. Many coachmen in those days were educated men and had occupied higher positions in life; but in cases where the taste existed, and the talent could be acquired, although the work was extremely hard--exposure to every change of weather, the unflagging strain upon the attention, the grave responsibility incurred by the charge of so many lives--there was something so fascinating in the work, that there were few instances of their relinquishing the ribbons except from physical incapacity. This love of the business followed them through life--and even after death--as exemplified by the following anecdote. An old coachman, who had driven the Norwich mail for thirty years of his life, became at last superannuated, and retired to his native village and repose. But to the last day of his life he prepared himself at the accustomed hour to take his usual seat, being at great pains to adjust his shawl and pull on his driving-gloves, then, taking his coat upon his arm and his whip in his hand, he would shuffle down the little gravel path to the garden-gate, to await the passing of the mail. He died at the good old age of eighty-six years; but not before he had expressed his desire to be buried at the corner of the churchyard abutting upon the highroad, in order that "he might hear the coach go by." Another instance of the fascination of coach-driving is to be found in the case of "Old John," who drove a pair-horse coach from Exeter to Teignmouth and back daily, a distance of forty miles, for a period of eighteen years, without missing a single day. At last, being half-teazed, half-joked by his fellow-whips into taking a holiday, he reluctantly consented to do so. Being much at a loss how to spend "a happy day," and enjoy his leisure to the full, he at length decided upon going to the coach-office and booking himself as a passenger on the opposition coach to Teignmouth and back. "Old John" (as he was called) never drove with lamps but once, and then he upset his coach. He always buckled his reins to the iron rail of the box before starting. The guards of the old mails were always provided with spare gear in case of accidents, as well as a tool-chest; and--though last not least--an armoury consisting of one bell-mouthed blunderbuss--a formidable weapon, which, for an all-round shot would have been as effective as a mitrailleuse, both amongst friends and enemies--two large horse-pistols (ammunition to match), and a short dirky-looking sword. There were many instances of the mails being robbed and plundered upon the road; but the success was more attributable to intrigue and stratagem than to personal daring and courage. The plan was this. An impediment is placed in the road by lacing cords across the track. The mail comes to a stop; the horses are in confusion; the guard steps down to render assistance, when one of the highwaymen immediately jumps up and secures the arms, and probably the bags, which were carried under the feet of the guard. Any attempt at resistance on the part of the guard is met by threats with his own arms. The coachman being rendered powerless by the traces having been cut, in many instances (the day having been carefully selected as one of those on which the bankers' parcel travelled) mail and cargo fell a rich and easy prey to the robbers. Apart from the mails being selected by highwaymen as victims of plunder, they were frequently used as co-operative vehicles in their iniquitous traffic. On one occasion when the way-bill of the Dover mail bore the name of Miss ----, two inside places had been booked three weeks in advance. At the hour of leaving the coach-office, two trunks covered and sewn up in the whitest linen, two dressing-cases, two carpet-bags, besides the smaller articles, baskets, reticules, wrappers, etc., had been duly stowed in the inside. Presently the growl of a King Charles, thrusting his head out of a muff, proclaimed the advent of another occupant of the two vacant seats. A gentlemanly-looking man, with fine open features, and what was at once written down by the old ladies as a charitable expression, much wrapped up with shawls, etc., round his neck, stepped into the mail. He caressed, admired, and noticed Bess. He helped to adjust shawls, and placed the windows entirely at the disposal of the ladies, though he looked as though he might be suffocated at any moment. The conversation was animated; the stranger entering freely into all the views and opinions of his fellow-travellers--politics, agriculture, history--endorsing every opinion which they might express. Both inwardly pronounced him a most charming companion, and blessed the stars which had introduced them to such society. "You reside in the neighbourhood of Charlton, madam?" "Yes; we have a lovely villa on the edge of Blackheath." "Blackheath! that is a favourite neighbourhood of mine. In fact I am going to Woolwich to join my regiment this evening, and I intend to get out at Blackheath to enjoy an evening stroll over the Heath." "Are you not afraid of being molested at night over Blackheath? Isn't it very lonesome?" [Illustration: THE LIONESS ATTACKING CARRIERS CART.] "Sometimes it is lonesome, but I often meet very useful agreeable people in rambling over the Heath." Arrived at Blackheath, the two ladies descended, and, feeling that they had established a sufficient acquaintance with the polite gentleman who had been their fellow-traveller, they invited him to partake of a cup of tea at their residence before proceeding on his journey, which invitation he gratefully accepted. As the evening wore on, a rubber of whist was proposed, the gentleman taking "dummy." After a short lapse of time, looking at his watch as by a sudden impulse, he observed that it was growing late, and he was afraid he was keeping them up. "I shall now take my leave, deeply impressed by your kind hospitality; but before I make my bow I must trouble you for your watches, chains, money, and any small articles of jewellery which you may have in the house." The ladies looked aghast, hardly able to realise the situation. Their guest however remained inflexible, and having, with his own dexterous hands, cleared the tables of all articles sufficiently portable, was proceeding to ascend the stairs, when one of the ladies uttered a piercing scream. On this, he sternly assured them that silence was their only safety, whilst giving any alarm would be attended by instant death. Then, having possessed himself of all the money and valuables he could command, he left the house, telling the ladies with a smile, that they had conferred a most delightful and profitable evening on Mr. Richard Turpin. There are instances on record of attacks of other descriptions upon the royal mails. History records the strange adventure of the Salisbury mail, on its journey from London to Exeter in the year ----. Whilst passing the neighbourhood of Winterslow Hut, on Salisbury Plain, the coachman's attention was attracted to what he at first thought was a huge calf cantering alongside of his leaders. The team at once became very fretful, and evinced such fear that the driver had some difficulty in keeping them in the road. Suddenly the creature he had mistaken for a calf made a lightning spring on to the back of one of the leaders, and swinging round so as to catch it by the throat, clung like a leech to the paralysed and terrified animal. The guard displayed great presence of mind, and taking his firearms with him, ran forward and delivered a _coup de grâce_ to the attacking monster, which proved to be a lioness escaped from a travelling menagerie. This was her second exploit of the kind. She had previously pounced upon a horse drawing a carrier's cart, and killed, but not mutilated, the animal, the driver being far too much bewildered and alarmed to dream of resistance. "A team well put together is half driven," was an old and true adage, and of more certain application than many of the same character, as for example: "A bird well marked is half bagged." Not a bit of it. The bird is awake, and, expecting to be flushed again, gets up much sooner than he is expected and flies awkwardly. "A bottle of physic well shaken is half taken." I trust my readers have discovered this way of diminishing the dose. In illustration of the first adage, I may mention that I had an innate love for driving, dating from so early a period as my keeping in my desk at school a well-matched team of cockchafers, until, finding them too slow for my work, I established in their place a very fashionable team of white mice, all bred on the premises. These when harnessed to a "Gradus" as a break were very safe and steady. With a Greek grammar or "Delectus" they could fly. I inherited the love of driving from my father, who was a very good coachman; and in early days would frequently hang on a single leader to his carriage, making a "pickaxe" team, merely for the sake of initiating me in the manipulation of four reins. The promotion from donkies to ponies rather interrupted my practice; as, though we could always borrow mokes to make up a four-in-hand, it was not so easy to do so with ponies. A real stage-coach passed our gates twice each day; and for the convenience of the contractor who horsed it, a stable was built upon my father's premises. The incentive given to me by the desire to get my dismissal from my tutor in time to see the coach change horses conduced more to my classical acquirements than any other circumstance. The regularity of coach work is one of its greatest merits, and operates more upon the well-conditioning of the men, horses, and all concerned, than is usually supposed. It is a pretty sight to see a team of coach horses at a roadside change prepared and turned round, each one listening anxiously for the horn which proclaims the arrival of the coach, and the commencement for them of a ten-mile stage, which may have to be done perhaps in fifty-two minutes, with a heavy load, woolly roads, and the wind behind. This does not sound like attraction to create much pleasurable impatience; but such is the fascination of coaching work that all horses, except, of course, those underbred vulgar screws which can take delight in nothing, whatever their antecedents may have been, become so moulded into their work and places (for this is a most important feature in my text) that it perfects them for the work expected of them in every particular. Bad tempers are subdued and become amiable; bad feeders become after a time so ravenous as to be able to entertain a "duck in their mess;" nervous fretful horses become bold and settled. Old Crab, who persistently refused to drink out of a bucket when he came here, or even to allow a stable bucket to be brought near him, has overcome all his scruples, and, to use the horsekeeper's own words: "He wun't wait for his turn, but when the bucket is 'ung on to the nose of the pump he'll go and stick his old nose in it, and begin to neigh and 'oller like anything." A coach horse, although he has apparently few opportunities of employing his intelligence to his own advantage, whose life is spent in the stable, except when taken to the forge, or to the horsepond, will evince to his employers, in spite of this monotony, some habits and tastes which, if he is indulged in them, will nearly double his value. For instance, every coach horse has a favourite place in a team, and will go well and do well in that place; and by careful watching it will soon become evident to the coachman and to the horsekeeper which is the place selected by his taste. Regard to this is most important. The same animal which becomes a "lawyer," because "he won't do no more than we pay him for," and is often forgotten at the near-side wheel, and is always coming back to you if put on the off-side, or, better still, before the bars, will be straight, steady, and cheerful in his work, with a mouth you might control with a thread. This is when you have found out the place with which he is pleased and satisfied. Try him on the opposite side, and you will find him laying his whole weight upon the pole, his partner on your fingers. "Everything in its place and a place for everything" was a maxim constantly preached by the head-master of a certain public school, founded by one Sutton; and the proof of his theory was put to the test by a strange fancy he had taken. He was watching the evolutions of a small Carthusian army, under the command of a colour-sergeant of the Scots Guards, and observed that his first word of command was to "fall in" and "size." This was quickly done, and the effect so much tickled the doctor, that, on the following Sunday morning, when his catechism class was arranged before him, he thought it would be well to impress a little of the military element into the arrangement of the boys; so he requested the young gentlemen to take their places according to their sizes. Of course they were very obtuse, and could not for the life of them understand his order. Even when he placed them with his own hands, there was a deal of shuffling and confusion to get back to their old places. The doctor, however, had his way, and M or N, who was a short, thick, rosy-cheeked boy, was supplanted by a tall, overgrown, sickly-looking youth of double his stature, and so on according to height, the lowest being in the centre. No. 2 agreed to his "godfather" and "godmother" having given the name of M or N to No. 1; but he could not tell why No. 3, when asked what his sponsors then did for him, preserved an obstinate silence, and, when much pressed, said they were both dead! In fact, arranged as the class then was, if the doctor had asked the questions in High Dutch and expected the answers in Hebrew, he would have got as much information; whereas, if they had kept their own places there would not have been a word in the answers omitted. CHAPTER IV. Opposition--A quick change--How to do it--Accident to the Yeovil mail--A gallop for our lives--Unconscious passengers--Western whips--Parliamentary obstruction. Although opposition was fierce, certain rules of etiquette and honour were most rigidly observed on the road, which rendered immunity from accidents much more general than would have been supposed. It was an understood thing that no coach should pass another actually in motion unless invited to do so by the coachman driving the leading coach at the time. The race became much more exciting in cases where there was a little diversity in the roads between two points in the destination. The change in the fast coaches, where the horsekeeper and his mate knew their business, was effected in a minute and a half; and, like everything else connected with the fast coaches, required to be done strictly according to rule. The man receiving the leader, near or off-side, seizes the rein behind the saddle or pad, and draws it out of the head-terret of the wheeler, then, doubling it several times, he passes of it through the terret, unhooks the coch-eyes the traces, and the leaders are free. Though still coupled they should be accustomed to walk aside a few paces, out of the way of the coach. The horsekeeper at the heads of the wheelers should first double the rein through the terret, to prevent its being trodden upon and cut; then, by raising the end of the pole, unhook the pole-chain, which will admit of the horse standing back in his work, and enable the traces to be easily lifted off the roller-bolts, the wheelers being uncoupled before he leaves their heads. The fresh team, when brought out, should be placed behind the spot where the coach pulls up, so that they may walk straight up into their places without having to be turned round, which always entails delay. The fresh team being "in-spanned," the coachman or guard (or both) assisting in running and buckling the reins, the business is complete. However quickly the change may be effected, it behoves a coachman to look round before he takes his reins, as a very trifling omission may give rise to serious delay, if not dangerous trouble. I have known the most careful horsekeepers forget to couple the wheel-horses, which, especially in the dark, when it is more likely to happen, is an omission nothing but the greatest judgment and patience on the part of the coachman can render harmless, since most coach-teams, more frequently than not, jump forward into their work, and are not so easily stopped. It is in cases of this description that so many accidents are prevented, in the present day, by the use of that admirable invention the patent break. We are indebted to the French for this very useful appliance, and although many wheel-horses are spoiled by the too frequent use of it, the number of accidents and broken knees which are averted must be untold. To pull up a heavily-loaded coach on a descent requires strength of arm, as well as power in the wheelers, to stop it; whereas, after having stopped the coach with a good strong break, the pulling up of the horses is comparatively easy. How different from the days when we had nothing but the old skid (or slipper) and chain, which was very little used except on the heavy coaches and over the most severe pitches, on account of the loss of time occasioned by its adjustment and removal. Accidents, however, are not always to be avoided by pulling-up, as I shall show by relating an incident which occurred to me many years ago in the West of England, in which nothing could have saved our limbs or necks but my having recourse to the opposite alternative, and keeping the team at the top of their speed for dear life. I was indulging in my favourite pastime and driving the "Yeovil" mail. We were full inside, and there were two gentlemen besides the professional coachman, Jack Everett, outside. I had a little short-legged quick team, belonging to Mrs. Stevens, of the Halfmoon, from Crewkerne to Chard. They were accustomed to do this ground very fast, but would not stop an ounce down the hills. The roads being hard and slippery, and, having a load, I took the precaution to put on the shoe to come down Chard Hill. We were swinging along merrily when suddenly the skid chain, in jumping over a stone, parted. This catastrophe allowed the coach to slip uncomfortably and suddenly upon the shoulders and cruppers of the wheelers, and one of them, being a bit of a rogue, evinced his disapprobation by giving several sudden bolting lurches and throwing himself upon the pole. In one of these evolutions more sudden and violent than the rest the pole snapped off in the futchells! Here was a predicament! Half-way down one of the ugliest hills in England, with a resolute frightened team and a broken pole. Nothing for it but to put them along and keep them galloping. The broken pole bobbing and dancing along at the end of the chains helped me materially to do this. The leaders finding the bars at the end of the whippletree all gone mad, took the hint and went off as hard as they could lay legs to the ground. My only care was to keep them straight, and the pace so good as to prevent the coach getting upon the lock, in which case we must have gone over. [Illustration: THE "YEOVIL" MAIL.] It was a fearful moment, and never in all my coaching experience have I passed through such a crisis. "Let 'em have it!" cries Jack Everett. "Nothing but the pace can save us!" cries Fred North, the guard. She rocked, they galloped, we shouted to encourage them. Fortunately they were very evenly matched in pace. If there had been one shirk it must have been fatal. Providence protected us on this occasion, and I had the good fortune to keep the pace up till we got upon a level, and then gradually stopped her, and, by way of a finale, we had a rattling good kicking match before we could get the wheelers away from the coach. I have been in many coach accidents, some of which, I regret to say, have been much more serious in their results, but I always consider that our lives were in greater jeopardy for the four or five minutes after that pole snapped than during any other epoch of my life. Rarely, if ever, has there been a similar accident upon a plain open road. Poles are often snapped by inexperienced coachmen getting upon the lock in attempting to turn without room, and trusting to the strength of the pole to drag the coach across the road. Not a hundred yards from the place where I pulled up the mail stood the yard and premises of a working wheelwright, who improvised, in a marvellously short time, a temporary pole, and by attaching the main-bar to a chain leading from the foot-bed, and splicing it to the pole, we did not lose three-quarters of an hour by the whole _contretemps_. Moreover, strange to say, until the wheelers began trying to write their names on the front-boot at the bottom of the hill, the four inside passengers were perfectly unconscious that there had been anything wrong! One of the party--a lady--remarked to me that "the mail travelled so delightfully fast that it appeared to have wings instead of wheels." When the iron monster had invaded England, and the investment of the principal towns was nearly complete, the last corner which remained to the coaches was the far West, where the business was carried on with great energy and spirit to the very last. Exeter became the great centre. About seventy coaches left the city daily, Sundays excepted--the "Dorchester" and "London," the "Falmouth," "Plymouth," "Bath," "Launceston," and "Truro" mails. The "London" mail (direct), commonly called the "Quicksilver," was said to be the fastest mail in England, performing the journey (one hundred and sixty-six miles) in twenty hours, except during fogs or heavy snow. This mail was driven out of London by Charles Ward (now the proprietor of the Paxton Yard, Knightsbridge), who left the White Horse Cellars (now the Bath Hotel), Piccadilly, at eight every evening, until Mr. Chaplin shifted his booking office to the Regent Circus. The numerous coaches working between Exeter and the west coast were principally horsed by Cockrane, New London Inn; Pratt, Old London (now the Buda), and Stevens, Halfmoon Hotel. The day and night travelling was kept up until fairly driven off by the common enemy. During the two or three years before the railway was opened this part of England became the warm corner for coaching; and all the talent of the road, having been elbowed out of other places, flocked to the West. Charles and Henry Ward, Tim Carter, Jack Everett, Bill Harbridge, Bill Williams, and Wood, not forgetting Jack Goodwin, the guard, who was one of the best key-buglers that ever rode behind a coach. This incursion of talent aroused the energies of some of the Devonshire whips engaged at that time, M. Hervey, Sam Granville, Harry Gillard, Paul Collyns, William Skinner, etc. There were four Johnsons, all first-class coachmen, sons of a tailor at Marlborough, who were working up to the last days of coaching. Anthony Deane--or Gentleman Deane, as he was commonly called--drove the only mail left after the opening of the rail to Plymouth--the "Cornish" mail to Launceston. After she was taken off the road he did not long survive, but died at Okehampton. He was a fine coachman, a good nurse, and an admirable timekeeper. The "Telegraph," when first put on by Stevens of the Halfmoon, left Exeter at 6.30 A.M., breakfasted at Ilminster, dined at the Star at Andover, and reached Hyde Park Corner at 9.30 P.M., thus performing a journey of one hundred and sixty-six miles in fifteen hours, including stoppages. There was some encouragement to coaching in those days. A good mail was a real good property. The "Quicksilver" mail and the "Dorchester" mail, alone, paid the rent (twelve hundred pounds per annum) of the New London Inn. The profits of the former were a thousand pounds per annum; and those of the "Dorchester" two hundred pounds; the profits of the first-named being augmented by the fact of the booking office, both ways, being at Exeter. The mails from London on the second of each month were always a little behind time, being so heavily laden with the magazines and periodicals. In spite of the tremendous pace at which the mails travelled, accidents were very rare. All coaches were heavily laden about Christmas time with parcels and presents. On one occasion, the "Defiance" from Exeter, with an unreasonable top-load, was overtaken by a dense fog, and the coachman (Beavis), getting off the road before he got to Ilminster, was upset and the driver killed upon the spot. An eminent friend and patron of the road, Mr. E. A. Sanders, took the matter in hand, and collected upwards of eight hundred pounds for the widow and children, with which, as the latter grew up, he started them all in life. There were many fast coaches besides the ordinary six-insider, such as the "Balloon" and "Traveller," from Pratt's, New London, the "Defiance," a fast coach, from the Clarence Hotel, Congleton, the "Favourite" (subscription), and several others. In the year 1835, all the Exeter and London coaches were stopped by heavy snow, at Mere, on the borders of Salisbury Plain. Amongst the passengers were the late Earl of Devon, the Bishop of Exeter, Mr. Charles Buller, and seven other members of Parliament, all on their way to attend the opening of the session. They were delayed a whole week. As the London coaches were gradually knocked off by the advance of the rail, the competition upon other roads out of Exeter became more rife, and the opposition warmer. CHAPTER V. The "Warwick Crown Prince"--"Spicy Jack"--Poor old Lal!--"Go it, you cripples!"--A model horsekeeper--The coach dines here--Coroner's inquest--The haunted glen--Lal's funeral. The coach which I have selected by way of exemplifying my remarks was the "Warwick Crown Prince," and, at the time I adopted it, was driven by Jack Everett, who was reckoned in his day to be as good a nurse, and to have fingers as fine, as anybody in the profession. He took the coach from The Swan with Two Necks, in Ladd Lane, to Dunstable, and there split the work with young Johnson, who, though sixty years of age, had three older brothers on the bench. "Spicy Jack" was the beau ideal of a sporting whip. He was always dressed to the letter, though his personal appearance had been very much marred by two coach accidents, in each of which he fractured a leg. The first one having been hurriedly set a little on the bow, he wished to have the other arranged as much like it as possible; the result being that they grew very much in the form of a horse-collar. These "crook'd legs," as he called them, reduced his stature to about five feet three inches. He had a clean-shaved face, short black hair, sharp intelligent blue eyes, a very florid complexion, rather portly frame, clad in the taste of the period: A blue coat, buttons very widely apart over the region of the kidneys, looking as if they had taken their places to fight a duel, rather than belonging to the same coat. A large kersey vest of a horsecloth pattern; a startling blue fogle and breast-pin; drab overalls, tightly fitted to the ankle and instep of a Wellington boot, strapped under the foot with a very narrow tan-coloured strap. The whole surmounted by a drab, napless hat, with rather a brim, producing a "slap-up" effect. When at the local race-meetings, "Spicy Jack" dashed on to the course in a sporting yellow mail-phaeton, his whip perpendicular, his left hand holding the reins just opposite the third button of his waistcoat from the top. Driving a pair of "tits" which, though they had both chipped their knees against their front teeth, and one of them (a white one) worked in suspicious boots, produced such an impression upon the yokels that no one but "Spicy Jack" could come on to a racecourse in such form.[4] All this appeared like "cheek," but it was quite the reverse; for in spite of the familiarity which was universally extended to this "sporting whip," he never forgot his place with a gentleman, and a more respectful man in his avocation did not exist. "Well, Jack, what are we backing?" was the salutation of a noble lord who had given him a fiver to invest to the best of his judgment. "Nothing, my lord; we are not in the robbery." "How's that? we shall lose a race." "Well, you see, my lord, it was all squared and the plunder divided before I could get on." Nobody knew the ropes at Harpenden, Barnet, and St. Albans, when the platers ran to amuse the public, and the public "greased the ropes," better than the waggoner of the "Crown Prince." This is a rest day and the "spare man" works. Let us take a full load away from Ladd Lane. Ten and four with all their luggage; roof piled, boots chock full, besides a few candle-boxes in the cellar.[5] She groans and creaks her way through the city, carefully, yet boldly driven by our artist, and when she leaves her London team at the Hyde and emerges into an open road, she steals away at her natural pace, which, from the evenness of its character, is very hard to beat. There was one coach, and only one, which could give these fast stage-coaches ten minutes and beat them over a twelve-mile stage! It was before the legislature forbade the use of dogs as animals of draught, that there dwelt upon the Great North Road, sometimes in one place, sometimes in another, an old pauper who was born without legs, and, being of a sporting turn of mind, had contrived to get built for himself a small simple carriage, or waggon, very light, having nothing but a board for the body, but fitted with springs, lamps, and all necessary appliances. To this cart he harnessed four fox-hounds, though to perform his quickest time he preferred three abreast. He carried nothing, and lived upon the alms of the passengers by the coaches. His team were cleverly harnessed and well matched in size and pace. His speed was terrific, and as he shot by a coach going ten or twelve miles an hour, he would give a slight cheer of encouragement to his team; but this was done in no spirit of insolence or defiance, merely to urge the hounds to their pace. Arriving at the end of the stage, the passengers would find poor "Old Lal" hopping on his hands to the door of the hostelry, whilst his team, having walked out into the road, would throw themselves down to rest and recover their wind. For many years poor Old Lal continued his amateur competition with some of the fastest and best-appointed coaches on the road; his favourite ground being upon the North Road, between the Peacock at Islington and the Sugarloaf at Dunstable. The latter place was his favourite haven of rest. He had selected it in consequence of a friendship he had formed with one Daniel Sleigh, a double-ground horsekeeper, and the only human being who was in any way enlightened as to the worldly affairs of this poor legless beggar. Daniel Sleigh, as the sequel will prove, richly deserved the confidence so unreservedly placed in him--a confidence far exceeding the mutual sympathies of ordinary friendship; and Daniel Sleigh became Old Lal's banker, sworn to secrecy. Years went on, during which the glossy coats of Lal's team on a bright December morning--to say nothing of their condition--would have humbled the pride of some of the crack kennel huntsmen of the shires. When asked how he fed his hounds, he was wont to say: "I never feed them at all. They know all the hog-tubs down the road, and it is hard if they can't satisfy themselves with somebody else's leavings." Where they slept was another affair; but it would seem that they went out foraging in couples, as Old Lal declared that there were always two on duty with the waggon.[6] When the poor old man required the use of his hands, it was a matter of some difficulty to keep his perpendicular, his nether being shaped like the fag-end of a farthing rushlight; and he was constantly propped up against a wall to polish the brass fittings of his harness. In this particular his turnout did him infinite credit. Of course his most intimate, and indeed only friend, Dan Sleigh, supplied him with oil and rotten-stone when he quartered at Dunstable; and brass, when once cleaned and kept in daily use, does not require much elbow-grease. Lal's travelling attire was simplicity itself. His wardrobe consisted of nothing but waistcoats, and these garments, having no peg whereon to hang except the poor old man's shoulders, he usually wore five or six, of various hues; the whole topped by a long scarlet livery waistcoat. These, with a spotted shawl round his neck, and an old velvet hunting-cap upon his head, completed his costume. The seat of Lal's waggon was like an inverted beehive. It would have puzzled a man with legs to be the companion of his daily journeys. These generally consisted of an eight-mile stage and back, or, more frequently, two consecutive stages of eight and ten miles. An interval of several years elapsed, during which I did not visit the Great North Road. When at length I did so, I hastened to inquire for my old friends, many of whom I found had disappeared from the scene--coachmen changed, retired, or dead; horsekeepers whom I had known from my boyhood, shifted, discharged, or dead. Under any other circumstances than driving a coach rapidly through the air of a fine brisk autumnal morning, at the rate of eleven miles an hour, including stoppages, the answers to my inquiries would have been most depressing. Dunstable was the extent of my work for that day, which afforded me the opportunity of working back on the following morning. Arrived at The Sugarloaf, gradually slackening my pace and unbuckling my reins, I pulled up within an inch of the place whence I had so often watched every minute particular in the actions of the finished professionals. D---- was the place at which the coach dined, and, being somewhat sharp set, I determined to dine with the coach, though I should have to spend the evening in one of the dullest provincial towns in England. I had brought a full load down. The coaches dined in those days upon the fat of the land. Always one hot joint (if not two) awaited the arrival of the coach, and the twenty minutes allotted for the refreshment of the inward passenger were thoroughly utilised. A boiled round of beef, a roast loin of pork, a roast aitchbone of beef, and a boiled hand of pork with peas-pudding and parsnips, a roast goose and a boiled leg of mutton, frequently composed a _menu_ well calculated to amuse a hungry passenger for the short space allotted him. The repast concluded and the coach reloaded, I watched her ascend the hill at a steady jog till she became a mere black spot in the road. I then directed my steps to the bottom of the long range of red-brick buildings used as coach-stables, where I found old Daniel Sleigh still busily engaged in what he called "Setting his 'osses fair." This implied the washing legs, drying flanks, and rubbing heads and ears of the team I had brought in half-an-hour ago. Although the old man looked after the "in-and-out" horses, he always designated the last arrival as "My 'osses," and they consequently enjoyed the largest share of Dan's attention: "Bill the Brewer," "Betsy Mare," "Old Giles," and "The Doctor." Dan Sleigh was a specimen of the old-fashioned horsekeeper, a race which has now become obsolete. He had lived with Mrs. Nelson, who was one of the largest coach proprietors of the period, for thirty-nine years, always having charge of a double team. He rarely conversed with anybody but "his 'osses," with whom, between the h--i--ss--e--s which accompanied every action of his life, he carried on a _sotto voce_ conversation, asking questions as to what they did with them, at the other end, and agreeing with himself as to the iniquitous system of taking them out of the coach and riding them into the horsepond, then leaving them to dry whilst Ben Ball--the other horsekeeper--went round to the tap to have half-a-pint of beer. _O tempora! O mores!_ Many of his old friends had fallen victims to this cruel treatment. A recent case had occurred in the death of old Blind Sal, who had worked over the same ground for thirteen years, and never required a hand put to her, either from the stable to the coach or from the coach to the stable. She caught a chill in the horsepond, and died of acute inflammation. When I interrupted old Dan he was just "hissing" out his final touches, and beginning to sponge the dirt off his harness. He recognised me with a smile--a shilling smile--and the following dialogue ensued. Daniel Sleigh was a man who, to use his own words, "kep' 'isself to 'isself." He never went to "no public 'ouses, nor yet no churches." He had never altered his time of getting up or going to bed for forty years; and, except when he lay in the "horsepital" six weeks, through a kick from a young horse, he had never been beyond the smithy for eleven years. In any other grade of life he would have been a "recluse." His personal appearance was not engaging--high cheek-bones, small gray sunken eyes, a large mouth, and long wiry neck, with broad shoulders, a little curved by the _anno domini_; clothed always in one style, namely, a long plush vest, which might have been blue once; a pair of drab nethers, well veneered with blacking and harness paste; from which was suspended a pair of black leather leggings, meeting some thin ankle-jacks. This, with a no-coloured string, which had once been a necktie, and a catskin cap, completed his attire. My attention had been attracted to an old hound--a fox-hound--reclining at full length on his side on the pathway leading to the stables, his slumbers broken by sudden jerks of his body and twitches of his limbs, accompanied by almost inaudible little screams; leading me to suppose that this poor old hound was reviewing in his slumbers some of the scenes of his early life, and dreaming of bygone November days when he had taken part in the pursuit of some good straight-necked fox in the Oakley or the Grafton country. "What is that hound?" I asked. "He looks like one of poor Old Lal's team." "Ah, that's the _last_ on 'em. They are all gone now but poor old Trojan, and he gets very weak and old." When I noticed him he slowly rose, and sauntered across the yard towards a large open coachhouse, used as a receptacle for hearses and mourning-coaches. He did not respond to my advances, except by standing still and looking me in the face with the most wobegone expression possible, his deep brow almost concealing his red eyes. He was very poor, his long staring coat barely covering his protruding hips and ribs. There he stood, motionless, as if listening intently to the sad tale Daniel Sleigh was graphically relating. "And what has become of poor Old Lal?" I asked. "Oh, he's left this two years or more." "Whither is he gone?" "I don't know as he's gone anywheres; they took him up to the churchyard to be left till called for. You see, sir, he never 'ad no kins nor directors (executors), or anybody as cared whether they ever see him again or not. He was an honest man though a wagrant; which he never robbed nobody, nor ever had any parish relief. What money he had I used to take care of for him; and when he went away he had a matter of sixteen pounds twelve and twopence, which I kep' for him, only as he wanted now and again tenpence or a shilling to give a treat to his hounds." "Where did he die?" "Ah, that's what nobody knows nothing about. You see, sir, it was as this: He'd been on the road a-many years; but as he had no house in particular, nobody noticed when he came and when he went; when he laid here o' nights, he used to sleep in the hay-house. The boys in the town would come down and harness up his team and set him fair for the day. He would go away with one of the up-coaches, and not be here again for a week (perhaps more). Well, there was one time, it was two years agone last March, I hadn't seen nothing of Lal not for three weeks or a month; the weather was terrible rough, there was snow and hice; and the storm blowed down a-many big trees, and them as stood used to 'oller and grunt up in the Pine Bottom, so that I've heerd folks say that the fir-trees a-rubbing theirselves against one another, made noises a nights like a pack of hounds howling; and people were afraid to go down the Pine Bottom for weeks, and are now, for a matter of that. For they do say as poor Old Lal drives down there very often in the winter nights. Well, one Sunday afternoon I had just four-o'clocked my 'osses, and was a-popping a sack over my shoulders to go down to my cottage; it was sleeting and raining, and piercing cold, when who should I meet but poor old Trojan. He come up, rubbed my hand with his nose, and seemed quite silly with pleasure at seeing me. Now, though I've known him on and off this five or six year, I never knew him do the like before. He had a part of his harness on, which set me a thinking that he had cut and run, and perhaps left Old Lal in trouble. "You see, sir, what a quiet sullen dog he is. Always like that, never moves hisself quickly. Still, when he come to me that Sunday, he was quite different; he kep' trotting along the road, and stopping a bit, then he'd look round, then come and lay hold of the sack and lead me along by it. "The next day there was another of poor Old Lal's team come to our place (Rocket), and he had part of his breast-collar fastened to him. They were both pretty nigh starved to death. Trojan he went on with these manoeuvres, always trying to 'tice me down to the road leading to the Pine Bottom. Word was sent up and down the road by the guards and coachmen to inquire where Old Lal had been last seen. No tidings could be got, and strange tales got abroad. Some said the hounds had killed and eaten him! Some that he had been robbed and murdered! No tidings could be got. Still old Trojan seemed always to point the same way, and would look pleased and excited if I would only go a little way down the road towards the Pine Bottom with him. "Many men joined together and agreed to make a search, but nothing could be found in connection with the poor old man; so they gave it up. One morning after my coach had gone, I determined to follow old Trojan. The poor old dog was overjoyed, and led me right down to the Pine Bottom. I followed him pretty near a mile through the trees and that, until at last we come upon poor Old Lal's waggon. There was his seat, there was part of the harness, and there lay, stone-dead, one of the hounds. "No trace could be found of the poor old man, and folks were more puzzled than ever about his whereabouts. "It seemed as though the waggon had got set fast between the trees, and Trojan and Rocket had bitten themselves free, the third, a light-coloured one (a yellow one), had died. "The finding of the waggon set all the country up to search for poor Old Lal, but it wasn't for more'n a week after finding the waggon, that Trojan and Rocket pointed out by their action where to go and look for the poor old man. And he was found, but it was a long ways off from his waggon. There he lay, quite comfortable, by the side of a bank. The crowner said the hounds had given chase to something (maybe a fox crossed 'em) and clashed off the road, throw'd the poor old man off--perhaps stunned with the fall--and the hounds had persevered through the wood till the waggon got locked up in the trees. And there the poor things lay and would have died if they had not gnawed themselves out of their harness." "And what was the verdict?" "Oh, there was no verdic'! They never found that." "There must have been some opinion given." "Jury said he was a pauper wagrant, that he had committed accidental death, and the crowner sentenced him to be buried in the parish in which he was last seen alive." "Had he any friends or relatives?" "No; he said he never had any. He had no name, only Lal. Old Trojan has been with me ever since we followed a short square box up to the churchyard, containing the body of poor Old Lal, where we left it. There was nobody attended the funeral only we two. If the old dog ever wanders away for a day or two, he allers comes back more gloomier like than he looks now." The old hound had been standing in the same attitude, apparently a most attentive listener to this sad tale, and when I attempted a pat of sympathy he turned round and threaded his way through the crowd of mourning-coaches; and Daniel Sleigh informed me that the wreck of poor Old Lal's waggon had been stowed away at the back of this melancholy group. Upon this the old hound usually lay. "And what about Rocket?" "He was a younger and more ramblier dog. He never settled nowhere. The last I heerd of him, he had joined a pack of harriers (a trencher pack) at Luton. He was kinder master of them, frequently collecting the whole pack and going a-hunting with them by hisself. He was allers wonderful fond of sport. I mind one time when a lot of boys had bolted a hotter just above the mill, and was a-hunting him with all manner of dogs, Old Lal happened to come along with his waggon. The whole team bolted down to the water's edge, and just at that moment the hotter gave them a view. The hue-gaze[7] was too much for Rocket. He plunged in, taking with him the waggon and the other two hounds. Poor Old Lal bobbed up and down like a fishing-float, always keeping his head up, though before he could be poked out he was as nigh drownded as possible. And this is what makes me think Rocket was the instigator of the poor old man's death. He must have caught a view of a fox, perhaps, or, at any rate, have crossed a line of scent, and bolted off the road and up through the wood, and after they had throwed the poor old man, continued the chase till the waggon got hung fast to a tree and tied them all up." "Was there any wound or fracture about poor Old Lal's body which might have caused his death?" "None whatever; no mark, no sign of violence which could have caused his death. They do say he is often heerd 'ollering for help o' nights since he has been buried. There's a-many people won't go through the Pine Bottom after dark to save their lives." CHAPTER VI. Commercial-room--The bagman's tale--Yes--Strange company. When driving the coaches in the olden time, it frequently happened that I remained for the night at the stage from which I should take the coach back on the following day. On one of these occasions I accidentally spent the evening in the commercial-room at ----. I say "accidentally," because in all provincial hotels the bagman's room is considered sacred to commercial travellers, and I have been informed by landlords that any intrusion upon them would prove dangerous to the house's popularity. I had dined early, and, unaware of the trespass, happened to look into a long, dreary, deserted room, with "Coffee-room" written upon the door; a stale number of "The Illustrated News" and a well-thumbed Post Office Directory upon the table; a very bad fire, and altogether the air of a methodist meeting-house on a weekday. I turned to another room, in which were three or four gentlemen, who appeared to be surrounded by every comfort; coats, hats, wrappers, hung in clusters against the wall, and a cheerful fire. A stout round-faced man, much marked by smallpox, dressed in a suit of tweed dittos, with an elaborate pin in his necktie resembling the dial of a good-sized watch, appeared to be the senior officer or "boss" of the party, as much in manner and bearing as he was in size. Addressing a small-featured, light-haired, thin young man, dressed in black-silk waistcoat, he said in a stentorian voice: "Have you done floating here, Mr. Ruffins?" "No, Mr. Staines; I've not done yet. I've quoted twice. My people won't let me sink." A third party, an older man, attired in gray, with hair to match, was busily engaged at one end of the room packing a quantity of small cases into a larger one, and continuing to hold converse with himself by means of the monosyllable "yes," differently intonated, at intervals of half-a-minute, "y-e-s--y-e-s." Having finished his packing, he advanced slowly towards me, and, scanning me from head to foot, resumed his affirmative expression, but at longer intervals. "Been round this way before--y-e-s? Bulk or samples--yes?" In answer to his first question I informed him that I was no stranger to the place, to which he replied: "Yes." Desks were now locked and stowed away. The table having been cleared, the stout man advanced, stirred the fire, and rang the bell. "Give your orders, gents. I am going to stand glasses round, for a slice of luck I've experienced to-day. _I_ call it luck, though it was no more than common honesty. But I was lucky in meeting an honest man instead of a rogue. When I was on this circuit six months ago I was settling a small account with one of my clients, taking a receipt for the amount, four pounds seventeen shillings. I inadvertently handed him a cheque for seventeen pounds, saying to the clerk to whom I paid it: 'You may keep the balance.' The other cheque having been paid in in due course, I was quite ignorant of the error I had made; until, on meeting the party to whom I paid it, in the street this morning, although now thrown out of employ, he handed me twelve pounds three shillings, the balance of my cheque, which I thought had been drawn for five pounds." "One bottom of brandy and two whiskies, with hot water." "Draw round to the fire, sir," he continued. "Though we have not met before we may often meet again. We travellers do run against each other in strange ways." (Here the gray old man groaned out another "Y-e-s.") "The commercial interest of this great country is entirely in our hands, and if we don't take care of ourselves it is our own fault." The smoking tumblers having been supplied, and the party seated round the fire, the conversation became gradually more brisk, chiefly led by the man in gray, whose opinion on all points seemed absolute. I was a tacit listener, understanding very little of that part of the conversation which related to business, viz.: "Quoting 7-18ths at 223 and sliding 347 and 19 net;" but at length anecdotes and experience took the place of business, and proved intensely amusing. I should have enjoyed the occasion if I could have divested myself of the idea that, as regards my vocation, I was an impostor, with no right to be there. It was evident that the gray man of the "yes" had his suspicions as to my not being a member of the craft. Many glances he directed at me, each accompanied by a muttered "yes." All doubts upon the subject were at length dispelled by a question from the little man in the black-silk waistcoat, Mr. Ruffins, who abruptly inquired: "What is your route from here? Who are your clients?" "I am not here," I replied, "on any particular business, and, to own the truth, gentlemen, I doubt if I have any in this room." "Excuse me, sir, did I not see you on the coach this morning?" "I came by the coach, and shall return with it to-morrow." "Then we shall be fellow-travellers. I leave my trap here, and return to ---- by the coach." The gray man now commenced an anecdote, which I shall give in his own words. [Illustration: "THE COMMERCIAL ROOM?" "YES."] * * * * * "It was in the winter of 1855. I was on the northern circuit, in the midst of a terrific snowfall which buried everything. "At dusk one evening the wind rose and caused the snow to drift in heaps so quickly that I lost the road. My horse became frightened, and I could scarcely induce him to proceed. I did, however, force him on till I came to a small roadside inn, at which the mail changed. "Here I determined to leave my horse and trap and proceed by the coach. It was a fearful night, snow falling thickly, icy cold, and the roads almost impassable. The mail was three hours late, and when it did arrive there was question of the advisability of proceeding farther. I found at the inn a traveller who was storm-staid, and, whilst waiting in the bar-parlour for the arrival of the mail, displayed the most marked impatience, constantly breaking out into ejaculations. "'Oh dear, oh dear! what a disappointment! But if I can't get there I can't. Never was late before--such a lot of people too.' "I tried in vain to reconcile him to the delay. He could do nothing but lament the accident which seemed likely to prevent his keeping his appointment at Durham on the following day. "As we became more intimate I condoled with him, hinting that such anxiety led me to fear that it was a matter of life and death. "'It _is_ a matter of life and death,' he exclaimed. 'If I can't get there in time, I shall be ready to hang myself.' "Time wore on. The mail at length drew up, making that peculiar squeaking noise through the deep snow which indicates the heaviest draught for the horses, which were sobbing and sweating, the wet pouring in streams from their sides; the delay having been caused by the coach having got into a drift, from which it had been with difficulty extricated by a plough-team. "The change being effected, we took our places inside, and, travelling under great difficulty, we jogged on; the guard occasionally getting down to feel for the road with a stick. "I sympathised with my fellow-traveller, and encouraged him by expressing my conviction that we should arrive at Durham at four A.M., instead of the usual hour, eleven P.M.; but it proved difficult to reconcile him even to this delay. "Thus we passed hour after hour; the wheels of the mail groaning and squeaking through the drifted snow, and the horses frequently brought to a walk. By dint of perseverance, however, and the pluck of the coachman, we did arrive at Durham at half-past four A.M., five hours late. When we alighted at the Crown I was surprised to find that my fellow-traveller appeared to excite in the night-porter a sneer of disgust. Turning his whole attention to _my_ luggage, he allowed the man to snatch up his own valise and depart. "'Nice company you've got into,' growled boots. "'Doesn't he stop here?' I asked. "'Thank you, we don't accommodate gentlemen of _his_ profession. They make room for him when they want him at the county gaol.' "'Who and what is he?' "'Why, don't you know him? That's the hangman; and he brings that there trunk with him to take away his perquisites, which is the wearing apparel of the poor wretch he's a-going to swing off at eight o'clock this morning; and the mail being so late, he has only just saved his bacon this journey.'" * * * * * Having finished his tale, the gray man looked hard at me, and again uttered his favourite "Y-e-s," which this time I was half inclined to interpret into a warning to his friend that, whilst encouraging outsiders in the bagman's room, they might be entertaining an executioner unawares. Travelling by public conveyances naturally leads to strange rencounters. It has often happened that wealth has been acquired, lost friends restored, estates bought and sold, etc., entirely through accidental meetings on the road. Men without heirs have been known in many instances to adopt a fellow-traveller, either from the fact of finding a person possessing the same name, or from some trifling civility or sacrifice being made in their favour by a stranger during a long and perhaps irksome journey. There is no doubt people became acquainted, as a general rule, and shook off the rigid forms of etiquette--so essentially English--much more readily during the days of the coach travelling than now; but on the other hand, one may escape more quickly from objectionable fellow-travellers, from whom in the coaching days there was no escape till the end of the journey. This inconvenience was more felt on the Continent than in England, where the passengers were divided into three lots, or compartments--front, back, and inside; whereas the interior of the diligence, carrying ten persons, contained barely room for each person to sit upright. I was once returning from Madrid to Paris, after having accomplished a riding tour through Spain, visiting most of the principal towns. On quitting Madrid I rode to Bayonne, where, my horse having a bad sore back, I left him, and proceeded by diligence. Some consternation was caused on our arrival at the hotel at Bayonne by the mispronunciation of one of my travelling companions. We had lived very sparely during our riding tour, oil and garlic predominating to such a degree in all the second-class "fondas" in Spain, as to prevent an English palate taking food, except he cooked it himself. As we were a party of three, this difficulty was easily got over by our taking it in turns to make the omelettes, or spatchcock a fowl at our different halting-places. This sort of diet had naturally sharpened our appetites, and even the "sniff" of a real French dinner made us ravenous. Influenced by this feeling, Colonel C----ll, addressing our hostess of The Hôtel de France, exclaimed: "Avez-vous assez, madame, parce-que j'ai beaucoup de femmes?" The poor woman looked thunderstruck. "Mais, monsieur, vous m'avez rien dit de ça! Où sont-elles donc ces dames?" I need not say that her notion that the colonel was a Turkish pasha, travelling with his harem, was soon dispelled when we took our places at the table-d'hôte _en garçon_. CHAPTER VII. Draught horses--The old "fly-waggon"--Weight and pace--Sagacity of mules--Hanging on by a wheel--The Refuge--Hot fighting in the Alps--Suffocation--Over at last--Railway to Paris. The selection of horses for draught purposes should be made with a view to the pace at which they are expected to work. You may get a perfect model for harness and draught, but if he is not cut according to the pattern which is required for fast work, half his energy and good intention will be exhausted in trying to do that for which he is physically unfit. He is prevented from throwing his weight and strength into his work, because it takes him all his time to keep his place. [Illustration: THE OLD FLY WAGGON.] In the old days of "fly-waggons,"[8] the only means of transit for heavy goods, except by canal, the cart horse was an animal now almost extinct. He was never expected to move beyond a walk, but this walk was almost perpetual motion. He took all his food, and I may say his rest, while strolling along by day and night in the waggon. The halting-places were few and far between, and were made more for the accommodation of the few passengers who were carried in the "crate"[9] than for the convenience of the horses. In those days the brewers and millers emulated each other in the size and condition of their horses; one constantly met in the streets of London a mountain of a horse, seventeen and a half hands high, loaded with flesh, legs like an elephant, drawing one small nine-gallon cask (perhaps empty) upon a truck. _Mais tout cela est changé._ All waggons are now vans, cart horses machiners, and must trot at least six miles an hour. We now take for our model the Clydesdale and the Suffolk in preference to the Flemish and the Yorkshire. Even in agricultural work the style of horses and the rate of ploughing is widely different from that of half a century ago. In this particular the afternoon of the worn-out coach horse or hunter is rendered less irksome to him than formerly, as he can more readily accommodate himself to a good fair walk than to be always snatching at the chains only to find he must come back to his partners. Weight in a horse is a great element in his composition for purposes of heavy draught; but it should be taken into consideration that he has to carry that weight in addition to the work which is expected from him; and for every ounce by which he is assisted in weight, his strain in draught is increased three pounds, and so on proportionately. Treating the subject of draught, there is no more practical illustration of the way in which the subject is understood by the animals themselves than is afforded by the long string of mules which are attached to carriages, both private and public, in crossing the Alps. The mode of putting them together is by having two at the wheel, with a continuous long string in single file before them, often as many as seventeen or twenty. The intelligence shown by these animals in threading the side of a mountain by a zigzag road is remarkable. Each mule, as he arrives at the angle, ceases to pull, apparently knowing that having turned out of the straight line the weight of his draught would be rather an impediment to progress. I write feelingly upon the instinct of the Italian mules, having been once indebted to their sagacity and obedience for my escape from what might have been a very serious accident. I was travelling from Turin to Paris. The journey over Mont Cenis was then only to be performed by Fell's railway, or by the road, by diligence or private carriage. I took the latter, making a contract for the posting, and not binding the _maître de poste_ to any limited number of mules for the ascent. It was in the month of December, and at the time I left Susa, at five P.M., the snow was falling so thickly that by the time I had completed half the ascent, the road or track was completely obliterated. It was a beautiful moonlight night. I was lost in admiration of the manner in which the nine mules, attached to a light travelling carriage, wended their way over the trackless snow. The stupendous mountains, clothed in all the sombre grandeur of their winter attire, surged up before me, peeping, as it were, into the deep chasms beneath, on the very verge of which the mules moved cautiously along. It was wonderful to watch, where the road twisted and turned almost at right angles, the careful manner in which each animal in turn dropped out of his work till they were again in the straight running. Notwithstanding the beauty of the scenery and the interest with which I watched the long string of mules, which appeared at times to be actually balancing themselves upon the narrow ledges, I was not without anxiety, partly, perhaps, on account of a friend to whom I had given a seat in my carriage. He had recently broken his leg at Turin, and was taking the earliest opportunity of a safe escort to London. The driver had no more direct control over the mules than could be conveyed by his voice, though I must do him the justice to say that when he did open his mouth he did so to some purpose. His mules, however, did not often require reproof, and a short grunt, with the name Garibaldi or Emanuel, sufficed to make them spring forward as if they were ashamed of being named before strangers. The driver himself frequently makes short cuts across the angles of the road as he plods through the snow, leaving the mules to thread their way entirely according to their own judgment. It was on one of these occasions, when the driver loitering out of sight, perhaps to cut his tobacco, was absent somewhat longer than usual, that the mules appeared to be feeling their way with more than ordinary caution, while the uneasy motion of the carriage indicated that we were not travelling upon a plain surface. Almost instinctively, I ejaculated at the top of my voice, imitating as near as I could the driver's intonation: "Wo-a-a-h!" Every mule stopped dead short. If they had not done so, or moved on one single inch, this incident would never have been recorded by me! Opening the door of the carriage I beheld a frightful precipice, over which we were literally hanging; while, turning round in order to step out with greater caution, I found that the weight of my body perforated the lightly-packed snow, and that I could not feel the ground beneath it. Had it not been for the firm grip I had of the wing of the carriage, I must inevitably have been precipitated into the abyss of snow-covered boulders many hundred feet deep below. When I had recovered my footing by clinging to the wheels of the carriage, I found that there was not more than an inch of ground between us and eternity. Thus, but for the admirable patience and obedience of the mules, we must in another instant have been launched bodily down the precipice. We looked round in vain for the driver, and it was not till I had succeeded in pulling out my lame companion, and seating him in the snow, that I saw the fellow come strolling up the hill in a cloud of tobacco smoke, singing at the top of his voice one of the patois refrains. To punch his head was my first impulse; but this was soon dispelled by the duties imposed on me at this moment of peril. [Illustration: OVER MOUNT CENIS IN A MULE CARRIAGE.] First, if the mules moved an inch the carriage, with baggage, etc., must have lost its balance and gone down. Second, the attention required by my poor friend, who, unable to stand in consequence of his accident, sat by the roadside in the snow, praying me to seek for his crutches. Third, the doubt if it would be wise to unhitch the mules from the carriage, a dangerous experiment, as I verily believe the weight of the carriage was sustained in a great measure by the traces of the wheelers. There are upon Mont Cenis houses of Refuge, at intervals of about an English mile, occupied by people employed by the Government, to render assistance and shelter to travellers who may be overtaken by snowstorms. Countless lives have been rescued by means of the appliances which these afford. They are conducted upon something the same principle as our Humane Society. During the winter season when the snow drifts, it is no uncommon thing for travellers to be snow-staid in these Refuges for eight or ten days. On the occasion of which I write the snow continued to fall thickly, and, there being wind enough to cause a drift, I was anxious to get my sick friend into one of these houses with as little delay as possible. Now came the difficulty. To get the carriage back on to the road without letting it slip over the ridge required skilful engineering. The mules at the wheels hung on with exemplary perseverance. Had they relaxed in the slightest degree the carriage must have taken them, and probably some more of the string, down the frightful precipice. The intelligent animals appeared to understand the situation as well as we, and scarcely needed the driver's ceaseless cautious "W-o-a-a-h! w-o-a-a-h!" I decided first upon lightening the carriage, by removal of the heavier luggage. This I did with the double view of relieving the mules from the strain they were maintaining, and of rescuing some at least of our worldly goods from impending danger. Whilst thus engaged the snow continued to fall in such blinding clouds as to darken the air; and the wind drifted it, and hurried it about, half burying every article of baggage as we detached it in turn from the carriage. My next object was to rescue the carriage from its imminent peril, as being the only means of getting my lame friend to the Refuge, a quarter of a mile distant. I therefore detached the string of mules from those at the wheel--the latter holding on like grim death to the carriage during the necessary delay--then, taking three from the string of single mules (there was no room for more on the road), I fastened their rope-traces round the body of the carriage, when, all being ready, a few grunts from the driver made them spring across the track and land the carriage on its side in the road. The two mules who had held on so resolutely came over also, and, from the draught becoming irregular, some confusion occurred; chiefly owing to the stupidity of the driver, who uttered in the same breath "Wo-a-a-h!" and "U-u-u-p!" one being the word to stop, the other to proceed. All this occurred in the midst of heavy blinding clouds of snow, covering every article which impeded its course. Having arrested the carriage in its downward course, the next thing was to get it on its perpendicular; and this we accomplished with the assistance of the same three mules which had capsized it. Right glad was I to replace my poor friend in his seat. He had been suffering agony from cold whilst sitting in the snow, incapable, through his accident, to render me the least assistance. Finally, I collected such of our traps as could be recovered from the snow, and, having hitched on the string anew, proceeded cautiously to the Refuge. * * * * * This being the first heavy fall of snow of the winter, our arrival was rather a surprise, and found the inhabitants somewhat unprepared. It was the work, however, but of a few minutes to kindle an enormous wood fire, in front of which we soon became dry and warm. * * * * * The inmates of the Refuge, who were of the peasant class, overwhelmed us with simple attentions. The supply of provisions was small and presented no great variety, comprising chiefly black bread, macaroni, dry beans, and hard sausages, with a little oil. The first night spent at the Refuge was amusing from its novelty, and as we all slept in the same apartment with the Piedmontese family, we had to make ourselves at home as best we could. One of the daughters, a girl of sixteen, had served a campaign in London with a tambourine as an accompaniment to her own voice and her brother's barrel-organ. The boy was about twelve, with very black eyes and a long Italian chin. When addressed, his countenance relaxed into a beseeching smile, showing a set of the whitest teeth, thrusting forward his half-open palm, and jerking his long forelock with the other hand, he whimpered out: "_Carità, signori, si vi piaci. Signori, pauvre geen-peeg._" He had carried a guinea-pig on the top of his organ when in England, but all their property had been confiscated for arrears of rent, and they were sent home as paupers by the Italian consul. * * * * * What was our horror when on the following morning we looked out upon mountains of snow, without the slightest indication of any track. Our prospect of being able to proceed was doubtful enough. Both our host and the muleteer returned from reconnoitring with hopeless faces. Snow had been falling all night, and, until a track had been cleared, the road was quite impassable even for mules without a vehicle, and we were unfortunately so near the summit as to be beyond communication with either base. There was nothing for it but to remain where we were, and to be thankful for our escape. * * * * * The prospect of passing another night in these wretched quarters was not exhilarating; but my lame friend was so unequal to any exertion, that I did not dare (in opposition to the opinions of the driver and the padrone) to make any attempt to proceed. Moreover, we were getting more accustomed to the smell of oil and garlic, with which the whole atmosphere of the Refuge was impregnated. The surprise and confusion consequent upon our arrival had worn off; and we had fallen into our places more as members of the family than strangers. As the second evening advanced, I took my last look of the snowy world, and found it dismal in the extreme. The sheds and yard in which the mules were picketed were barricaded against attack from the wolves which infest these Alpine ridges, two lamps being hung at either entrance as the best safeguard against these ferocious marauders, who become so bold during the winter months, as to carry away goats and sheep from beneath the very roofs of inhabited dwellings. I now turned my attention to the prospects for the night; and having arranged a comfortable shake-down with the cushions of the carriage, I stretched myself on a bench; where our late exposure to the cold, added to the anxiety of the circumstances, aided and encouraged by the heat of a superb fire composed of roots and peat, lulled me into a profound sleep. During this state of unconsciousness I travelled over miles of snow, the surface being sufficiently hard to carry my horses and sleigh without perforating it. I saw myriads of wolves and bears, which grinned and snarled at me as I passed, but did not interrupt my progress; on the contrary, they encouraged me by their gestures to proceed, always pointing onwards. It would have been well for me if I had disregarded their direction, as I flew on, urging my horses to a gallop, always ascending the hill, though I did not appear to get any higher; at length I turned upon the trackless height, out of consideration for my horses; and was about to descend into a ravine, when I found myself surrounded by hundreds of savages engaged in hot warfare. I was in the thick of the fight. No firearms, no smoke; but a great deal of yelling and screaming. I was surrounded by both sides; and though my appearance upon the field caused a momentary truce, hostilities were soon resumed, and I was struck in the chest by an arrow--which, being barbed, could not be extricated. I made great efforts to protect my lame friend from being trampled upon in the _mêlée_. No more violence was offered, and I hoped, from the more subdued tones of the contending warriors, that negotiations for a peaceful solution of the strife--whatever it might be--were taking the place of the fight. * * * * * I tried to persuade myself that I had been dreaming, and that the barbed arrow in my breast was the effect of the hard savoyard upon which I had supped; but there was the reality. There was my poor friend imploring me to keep them off his broken limb. There were the savages, yelling and disputing in unknown languages, covered by their shields, and encased in armour which looked like straw bands bound round their legs to the knee. The reader will have guessed the solution; and he is right. The savoyard and black bread upon which I supped, succeeded by the heavy sleep which was induced by the roaring fire, occasioned the dream which supplies the story. Late in the night the Refuge was invaded by a crowd of Piedmontese peasants, who are engaged to cut passes in the snow to enable the traffic to be carried on. These gangs are hired without reference to character or conduct; consequently, when the first deep snow of the winter occurs, it brings together many opposite feuds and factions, who take this opportunity of settling, either by stiletto or by words and wrangling, all existing differences. Finding the snow not sufficiently settled to proceed with their operations, they had sought the nearest refuge to their work to await the lulling of the storm, their huge wooden shovels slung across their shoulders, and the straw bands round their legs doing duty for the shields and armour of the contending savages. * * * * * The remainder of the night was passed in a dense cloud of the smoke of bad tobacco, mingled with the vapours arising from our damp visitors. I could not in common humanity leave my disabled comrade to the rough treatment of this army of road-cleaners, or I should have much preferred the outside elements, with all their severity, to the offensive atmosphere of the Refuge. * * * * * The dawn of day, however, brought with it a slight change in the direction of the wind, which had very much abated in its violence, and this enabled the men of the wooden shovels to clear out and continue their work. It was not till late on the following morning that the track had been sufficiently worked out for us to proceed. We then attached our mules to a sleigh and crawled to the summit, where we left our long team and proceeded, with one pair of horses, to descend the mountain. When the snow has fallen in sufficient quantities to cover the road, carriages on wheels are abandoned, and the traffic is carried on by means of sleighs. * * * * * The descent is performed in a marvellously short time, the horses being very clever, and the driver having sufficient nerve to let them use their own discretion as to pace. * * * * * The railway terminus at St. Jean de Maurienne affording a good buffet, we were right glad of an opportunity of refreshing our exhausted systems with some civilised food, and, having done so, took the train to Paris. CHAPTER VIII. Right as the mail--Proprietors and contractors--Guards and coachmen--A cold foot-bath--A lawyer nonsuited--Old Mac--The Spectre squire--An unsolved mystery. "Right as the mail," is an expression which even now conveys an impression of perfection; and what indeed could have been more thoroughly adapted to the work for which it was designed than the old English mail? There was an air of solidity and importance about the royal mail to which everything gave way. The origin of the term "Right as the Mail," arose more from the fact that the guards (Government servants) were supplied with chronometers which were compared daily at the General Post Office, and consequently dictated the correct time to all the clocks and watches down the road. As some of my younger readers may not have seen a stage-coach, it may be well to describe one. The weight was about one ton. It was painted red, having a royal coat-of-arms on the panel of the door. It was constructed to carry four inside and four out, having a bag or basket for luggage, the roof being reserved for heavy mail-bags. A round seat behind, covered with a skin, was for the guard, pockets for pistols being placed on either side. Contracts for horsing the mails did not often change hands, though tenders were formally invited every year. Nelson, Shearman, and Chaplin were amongst the largest contractors. The latter had at one time one thousand seven hundred horses employed in coaching. A story is told of him which proves that, whilst he was a kind and considerate master, he always kept his weather eye open. He used to dine with his coachmen once every year, when one of his toasts was "Success to shouldering!"[10] adding: "But let me catch _you_ at it!" One great source of profit to a mail was the oil which was allowed by the General Post Office. A mail was always expected to have its lamps lighted after sunset, moonlight or not, consequently the amount of oil "shouldered," or charged for, though not used, was considerable. [Illustration: THE ROYAL MAIL.] It was a beautiful sight to see the mails on the King's birthday assembled at the General Post Office--the men all dressed in new liveries, and in most cases with new harness; the horses decorated with bouquets of flowers--making a promenade through the principal streets in the west of London. This parade did not in any way interfere with the regular work, and nearly all the night mails assembled at the General Post Office at eight o'clock to receive their bags. Some of the Western and Southern mails were met by a mail-cart with their bags at their own booking offices in the West-end. The fastest mail out of London was the "Devonport," commonly called the "Quicksilver;" and who that ever saw can forget it, with its four chestnuts, driven by Charles Ward, leaving the White Horse Cellars at half-past eight! How it rattled through Piccadilly! passing all the other mails, eight in number, and arriving first at Hounslow, where they all changed horses. Ward drove on to Bagshot, returning with the up-mail about three A.M.; sixty miles a-night, and this for seven years. Another coachman, Bill Harbridge, to whom I have already referred in these pages, drove the "Manchester" mail for two years out of London, performing one hundred miles a-night; fifty miles down and fifty miles up. I have his own authority for saying that he used to take as much as fourteen pounds to sixteen pounds a-week in fees, the Manchester merchants used to pay so well. The General Post Office also allowed him two guineas a-week. He was another instance of the total want of prudence, unfortunately so common to his class, and died in the workhouse. Although coachmen and guards, when coaching was in its zenith, were in receipt of comfortable incomes, it is very rare that an instance is found of their having provided for a rainy day, and still more rare to find any instance of their having taken service in any railway establishment. Many of the coaches, when there was not too much opposition, would earn from five pounds to six pounds a-mile per month. If corn and beans were not unusually high, three pounds a mile was said to pay. The profits of a coach were divided monthly, and all outgoings disbursed--the mails having considerable advantage from their having neither duty nor gates to pay. One of the largest sources of revenue was derived from the booking of parcels, each article being charged twopence. Articles of value were registered, and paid according to the amount insured. * * * * * Some years ago I was driving a fast coach in the north of England, when a singular surprise occurred to me. It was sometimes the custom to give the mail teams a rest, by letting them run over a longer stage, where they were not expected to go so fast as the mail was timed. This change had been made, on the occasion of which I write, from Barnby Moor. We rattled along over the eight miles of ground allotted to the mail stage, and here was their natural stop. No remark had been made to me either by the coachman or by the proprietor (who happened to be upon the coach), and who then cautioned me that the horses would want to run up to the place where the mail pulled up to change. I took precautionary measures accordingly, in order to get them by it. I had succeeded (as I thought) admirably, and, having passed the place, was looking round rather with a view of inviting a compliment from the professional coachman who was sitting behind me, when, all at once, as if shot out of a gun, the whole team bolted out of the road, and we found ourselves in the middle of a deep horsepond. This team was accustomed, when taken out of the mail, to be ridden at once into the pond to be washed. They had run cheerfully past their stable, but the temptation of the horsepond was irresistible, so in they went. There were two elderly ladies inside the coach, who screamed out loudly for help and a lifeboat. It was one of those deep roadside ponds, with a white rail round it; plenty of room to get in, but very little room to get out. Here we were planted, water up to the axles, inside full, and the team, in the greatest confusion; although each horse looked satisfied that he had done the right thing, and was in no particular hurry to get out. After much splashing and pawing we got the leaders off, and, by backing her on the lock, I got the coach safely ashore; not, however, before the old ladies had got a thorough ducking. I superintended personally the administration of two glasses of hot brandy-and-water to each of the ladies who had been involuntarily subjected to a cold foot-bath. * * * * * There was so much opposition, in the days of which I am writing--forty years ago--that coach proprietors were only too anxious to make reparation in the most liberal manner for any little inconvenience to which passengers might be accidentally exposed. In this case the proprietor was present, and would readily have complied with any reasonable wish expressed by the passengers. Modesty almost forbids me to mention here that, when the coach was ready to start, I was requested by the proprietor to continue to drive; which, to an amateur, and a young amateur, was no small compliment--evidently showing that our immersion in the horsepond had not been caused by any want of skill or experience on my part. * * * * * When opposition was at its height in England, every device was resorted to in order to render one coach more popular than another. Advertising was carried to a very great extent, and squibs were unreservedly circulated in order to lower the prestige of the contending parties. As, for instance, notice was given that a certain coach had reduced its rate for carrying pigs and poultry; no charge would be made for children under twelve, provided they sat upon the knees of their parents, or those of some other passenger; great care was taken that "hospital linen" should be stowed _inside_. Although opposition between the coaches was carried to great extremes, it never got to quite so high a pitch as amongst the postmasters, amongst whom within the last fifty years the emulation was so rife upon the North Road that the horses of a private carriage would be forcibly taken off and a fresh pair attached at the Red Lion at Barnet, and the next stage to St. Albans (nine miles) performed without charge, in order to prevent the "turn" from going to the White Hart, where the traveller might have partaken of a sandwich and a glass of sherry gratis. This state of things could not last long, especially as in its next phase it entailed the hiring of a staff of fighting-men to secure the employment of the Red Lion horses. Matters having arrived at such a pitch as to cause a free fight in the highroad whenever a posting job hove in sight, the local authorities were obliged to interfere, and Messrs. Newman and Bryant, the landlords of the two hotels, were bound over to keep the peace and abide by the regular tariff of one shilling and threepence a mile, and threepence the postboy. * * * * * The guard of the mail, apart from his being a certificated newsmonger, was held in great respect by the idlers who collected to see the mail change in every town or village through which he passed. What he said was absolute, there was no time for argument, and the few words which he addressed to the customary group afforded matter for the smoking-room for a whole evening. Many trifling incidents and occurrences, by the time they had passed through a jury of gin-and-water and churchwardens, were distorted into the most terrible and tragic facts. Every road has its legend, and guards of the coaches make stock-in-trade of the ghosts and supernatural appearances as it suits their opportunity. A tale may be so often repeated that, however sceptical the narrator is at first, he becomes quite ready to vouch for the whole truth of it on more intimate acquaintance. Some ghosts are more profitable than others, their feats and appearances being varied in character. An old mail guard, who had served the Government in that capacity for forty years, and who was in receipt of a pension of eighty pounds per annum, was in the habit of coming to London during the summer season and taking service on one of the "Revival" coaches; he rode behind me for three seasons to Rochester, and two to Brighton, and behind Chandos Pole, upon that road, for many more. His anecdotes were inexhaustible; he recounted the most incredible catalogue of accidents, attacks, delays, impediments to the mails he had been on, in all of which he had played the hero's part. His quixotic triumphs over every sort of difficulty were most amusing, and not without result, as I know, on one occasion, he declined a Saturday journey behind me to Brighton. He had one ghost only upon this road, whose appearances, however, were so innocent and evident that he was obliged to draw largely upon his imagination, and borrow matter from other goblins, in order to make him sufficiently sensational. I give the naked tale, and leave the garnishing of "Old Mac" to the imagination of my readers. * * * * * Upon the side of the highroad to Brighton, not a hundred miles from Handcross, there stands, in its own ornamental grounds, one of those very picturesque residences which is neither a villa nor a mansion, though it combined the modesty of the one with the importance of the other. The house was sufficiently retired from the road to admit of a spacious lawn studded with ornamental trees of considerable size, which gave the whole thing a park-like appearance, and, standing as it did upon an eminence, presented a generally picturesque appearance. The owner of this property was a gentleman of independent means, and of rather eccentric habits. He resided all the year round at ----, never went into society, and never entertained friends at home. Many years were passed in the quiet routine of everyday life; nothing remarkable occurred except that the owner was absent daily for several hours, and could not be induced to give any explanation of whither he went, or otherwise account for his absence. When closely questioned by his wife, he used to evade the subject, and implore her not to press her inquiry upon him, as, if he were to disclose the secret, he might never be allowed to return. * * * * * Time went on, and the anxiety (to say nothing of the curiosity) of the wife to solve this mysterious absence and the secrecy it involved, induced her to communicate with a private inquiry office to solve it. This step was no sooner taken than an end was put to all local evidence, by the sudden disappearance of the gentleman, without leaving the slightest clue to his whereabouts. Coverts were searched, ponds dragged, rewards offered, all in vain. No word was ever heard from that day to this of the missing gentleman. The wife continued to live at ---- until her death, which occurred several years after the mysterious disappearance of her husband. And, during these years, the room which had been occupied by the gentleman, upon the ground-floor (window opening upon the lawn) was still visited on occasions by an apparition, who frequently changed his hat and gloves, leaving old ones behind, and taking those which were always neatly brushed and laid out for his use. There is a broad quick-set hedge, cut square upon the top, separating the premises from the highroad, and, walking upon this hedge, may be seen on almost any night the "Spectre Squire." The apparition of the squire was not seen only by a few of the neighbours, but sceptics came from long distances, and returned satisfied that they had seen (and some that they had conversed with) the phantom. An old man who kept a turnpike-gate, not a quarter of a mile from the haunted residence, assured me that he had seen him, night after night, and described it as follows: "I'd a-come in, and was sitting in the porch doorway, about _leben_ o'clock, as fur as I remember. My old 'oman she kep' 'ollering out to me: 'Why don't you ope' the gate; there's a funeral a-coming?' I thought she was mazed. 'There's nobody there,' says I. Well, whilst I was there I could see nothing, but the gate took and swung open of itself, and come back on the bolt, and this it did four or five times! I took and I got up and put the chain on the gate and locked it. Oh dear, oh dear! Down he come, and he was that angry! He walked backwards and forwards through the gate, right through the middle--that never stopped him a minute! "Since that I've a-seed him scores of times doing the same thing, and he takes no notice of me, only scowling-like. "I chain and lock the gate o' nights, but I always find it open in the morning; and I can't tell how." This was one of the best-conducted ghosts I have come across; as, apart from scaring the villagers by his midnight rambles, he bore the best of characters in the neighbourhood. This house and premises to this day share the fate of others which have fallen into the hands of unexplained tenants, and are subject to visits from supernatural agents. Strange noises are heard; windows, which were barred and fastened overnight, are found open in the morning. Servants will not remain in the situation, and do not like to explain the cause of their wishing to leave. The turnpike-house is pulled down, as no one could be found to inhabit it. [Illustration: AN AUSTRIAN DRAG.] CHAPTER IX. Public and private conveyances in Austria and Hungary--An English dragsman posed--The Vienna race-meeting--Gentleman "Jocks"--A moral exemplified. All matters connected with the management and treatment of horses are better understood in Austria and Hungary than in any other part of the Continent; but even there they have not arrived at the completeness so familiar here. The public conveyances still partake of the genus diligence, though they have the advantage of being divided into two classes--first and second. In the latter smoking is allowed. The horses are yoked much in the same manner as in France--three at wheel, and any number in pairs before them, as the nature of the road may require. The travelling pace is about eight English miles per hour, and to this they adhere. The length of the posts, or stages, makes a journey more tedious than it would otherwise be, as it always conveys the impression that the last four or five miles of the sixteen or eighteen has to be performed by jaded cattle, which must use them up more quickly, in the long run, than letting them work in more reasonable distances. If economy be the object, it must certainly be negatived in the end by the last four or five miles which are tacked on to every post. The conductor, or guard, goes through the whole journey, be it long or short; but the driver is changed at every stage, with the horses. The public conveyances at Vienna and Pesth are excellent, very superior to anything we have in London. The carriages for hire in the streets consist of open britzskas and landaus, with pairs of horses, which are of a very good class. The drivers are very respectable men, and excellent coachmen. They drive very fast, and, though the streets are narrow and tortuous, collisions are very rare. There are also close carriages (broughams) with one horse or a pair, the former being called _coupés_, and not held in much favour with the _élite_. The tariff is not excessive, and a wrangle is rarely heard. With reference to private equipages, although they imitate as much as possible the English style, they invariably fail in some little particular, which, to an English critic, stamps the turn-out as continental. For instance, the coachman sits low, with his knees bent, having one rein in each hand; the horses are so coupled that their heads touch each other; the pole-pieces are so tight as to destroy any action which the horses might otherwise display. Some years ago I made the acquaintance of a noble prince in Hungary, who owned a large stud of horses of all descriptions--racers, hunters, harness-horses, and hacks. He invited me to stay with him during the race-week at Vienna, asking me at the same time if I would drive his drag each day to the course, assuring me that it was appointed quite in the English style, and that I should feel myself entirely at home. The first day of the meeting having arrived, my host introduced me to various other noble persons, descanting loudly, as I could not avoid hearing, on my talent as a coachman; after which, and having partaken of a sumptuous _déjeûner_, we walked round to the stables. Here my anticipations were somewhat damped, as my noble host, pointing to a very long low _char-à-banc_, much upon the principle of an elongated Croydon basket, exclaimed: "Ah, ecco a qui chè la carozza. Heer ees my drarg." And, seizing a long pig-whip from the socket of the carriage, he said: "You can make ze weep, ah yes?" Suiting the action to the word, he began cracking it backwards and forwards over his head with wonderful proficiency, after the manner of the French postilions. My heart sank within me; if this was expected of me, I felt I should signally fail--I who had been brought up to learn that to _hear_ the whip at all was a fault. To be expected to flourish out of the courtyard with a succession of reports like an eighteen-pounder, was rather too severe a test of my knowledge of "making ze weep." After walking round the stables, which were very complete and in fine order, the team was brought out. It was composed of four Hungarian horses with very long manes and tails, smacking rather of the circus than the road. I did not at all approve of the way in which they were being strung together, but an English stud-groom in the prince's service advised my making no alteration "at present," as they had always been driven in that way, and they could be very awkward if they liked. All being ready, and the party having taken their seats, I took mine, and found myself--with a mere apology for a footboard--seated pretty nearly on a level with the wheelers' backs. The prince, who had continued to "make ze weep" (albeit of this the animals took not the slightest notice), now handed it to me, and we started, or rather the whole affair went jumping out of the courtyard in a succession of terrible bounds. The horses were, however, very highly bitted, and I had no difficulty in holding them in on our passage through the town; but, when we got to the open "prater," they became very restless and impatient, a phenomenon explained in a whisper from my host: "Heer I make ze gallop. You not?" Upon this I slacked my hand, and they went away like four demons; dashing past everything on the road at the rate of fifty miles an hour! The prince, who expressed his surprise that I had not "knocked" anything in our wild career, was less astonished than myself, especially as when, nearing the course, the track became crowded with every description of vehicle, while the rules of the road were entirely set at defiance! We managed, however, to reach the grandstand in safety. It was a brilliant day, and the glowing colours of female costume, from the royal family downwards, produced a magnificent effect. But if the colours worn by the ladies were dazzling and gorgeous, what shall we say of the hues selected for the silk jackets of the gentlemen riders, who, in order to proclaim to the multitude the part they were about to take, hovered about amongst the crowd, like tropical butterflies who had lost their way? Indeed, so much importance is attached to the privilege of sporting silk, that it is no uncommon thing for a noble owner to carry a stone over his weight, in order to display jacket and boots on the course, rather than "give a leg up" to a lighter man. The events of the day were contended for principally by gentlemen "jocks;" and bets of a few guldens produced as much interest as if thousands of pounds had been staked. After passing an agreeable day (the larger portion of which was occupied in getting the amateur jocks to the post) I proceeded to find my team; and took a sly opportunity of making many alterations in the _attelage_, giving them all more room in their couplings and in their pole-pieces, middle bar instead of lower, and cheek to those I thought would bear it, buckling the traces (as near as I could) at even lengths, slacking all the curbs, and lengthening some of the head-stalls. The effect was marvellous; instead of the wild impetuous team I had brought up from the city, I had now four horses working evenly and pleasantly together, and, after the first quarter of a mile, not pulling an ounce more than they ought. Here let me repeat the maxim: "A team properly put together is half driven." CHAPTER X. North-country fairs--An untrained foxhunter--Tempted again--Extraordinary memory of the horse--Satisfactory results from a Latch-key. In former chapters I have spoken of coachmen and guards, both in the heyday and afternoon of their career--then, once qualified for this line of life, seldom exhibiting an inclination to change. But let me now descend to the coach _horse_. In the good old coaching days, so great was the demand, that breeders were found who devoted themselves to a class of animal calculated for coach work and little else. There was an understood price, and buyers for the contractors attended the North-country fairs and made their selection--twenty, fifty, or eighty horses, as required--the individual price never being referred to during the deal, so long as the average was not exceeded. Seasoned horses were more valuable to proprietors than green uneducated colts from the fair; consequently, many opportunities were afforded for "chops" equally advantageous to both parties. An old hunter (old, not so much with reference to his years, as because he had been thus employed) made an admirable teamster. Horses with a blemish, or perhaps from some caprice of their owners, were often drafted while in their zenith, and those who were fortunate enough to pick them up, purchased with them some months (if not years) of good keep and condition, which could not be too highly appreciated. Condition means time; and nothing but time can effectually produce it. The power of a horse may be doubled by the condition of his frame, as it may be reduced by mismanagement and low keep to half its natural strength. A large breeder in the North of England, a fine specimen of the old English yeoman, whom I visited some years ago, remarked to me: "I send all my colts, at two years old, to plough. They may play with it or they may work, just as they please. They are only out from eleven to three. It makes them temperate, accustoms them to be handled, and develops their muscles. I have bred some high-priced ones, and all have been served the same. "In fifty-five examples of this treatment I have never known a single instance of harm arising from it. This horse which I am now riding" (and he called my attention to a very clever-looking black-brown gelding, about fifteen hands three inches) "has worked on-and-off on this farm for twenty-three years. I have been tempted to sell him four different times, but he has always come back to me. We nearly lost each other the last time, but, by a strange accident, I recovered him. "I was on the coach, going to Doncaster, and when we changed horses at ---- I noticed that one of them began pawing and neighing, appearing much excited. The horsekeeper reproved him, and led him into his place at the wheel. Having taken my seat on the box with the coachman, I observed that the animal was troubled by the fretfulness of his near-side wheeler. He jumped, backed, and shied to such a degree as to induce me to remark to the coachman that he had a fresh one there. "'No, not fresh,' was the reply. 'I've had him here these ten months, and a better I never drove. He never played this game before.' "'Where does he come from?' I asked. "'I heard the governor say from Cornwall, but he bought him at Bristol,' said the man. "Up to this moment every action, every movement, had so entirely reminded me of my friend Latch-key, that I could almost have sworn to his identity. But how he could have come out of Cornwall to be sold at Bristol puzzled me. "On arriving at the end of the stage, however, my suspicions were confirmed. This was my old friend and favourite, Latch-key, and although we had been separated for more than two years, he remembered me better than I did him, and seemed anxious to renew all the pettings and caresses which used to pass between us." Not to weary my reader with a history of the whole life of this horse, there is still something so remarkable in the fact of a man having bred a horse, and then purchased him four different times, that I may be forgiven for giving a slight sketch of his antecedents--as far as they could be traced by my host. "Foaled in 1828. The dam, being blind, lost her way, fell into a ditch, and was fatally injured. The foal was reared by hand, chiefly upon ass's milk. Being a privileged member of the farmyard group, he became the constant companion of his foster-brother, the foal of the mare donkey which had supplied all his wants. These two grazed in the orchard, frolicked in the park, and were always to be found near the house together. The young ass was an adept at opening gates, and the colt had acquired a knowledge of the art to such perfection that no fastening short of a chain and padlock could keep him in. Thence he acquired the sobriquet of Latch-key. "At the age of two years he went to plough with other colts of his own age. The monotony of this work did not suit him, and hearing the hounds one day running at a short distance from his work, he was seized with a sudden determination to follow them, and after a severe and protracted kicking-match, having knocked two partners out of time, made his escape. Away he went, with part of his chains and a spreading-bar still hanging to him. These encumbrances caused him some awkward falls to begin with, which only served to increase the amusement he afforded to the field, as he quickly righted himself and resumed his place in the front rank. "The country was stiff and the field getting select when Latch-key joined the cry. The hounds had got a good straight-necked fox before them, and there was a rattling scent--one of those days when the only way to live with them was by galloping from parish to parish, and then only to find they were two fields before you. But I am digressing, and it is quite necessary to go straight in such an affair as I am describing. Taking every fence as it came, in company with the foremost riders, Latch-key held his own, and it was not till, at the end of forty-five minutes, the gallant fox saved his brush by getting into a rabbit-hole, that, with heaving flanks, distended nostrils, and dripping with perspiration, he received the commendations of the field as they came up on the line. "'Bravo, young 'un! I should like to have you at five years old.' "'Where does he come from?' etc. etc. "The fox had brought them over a distance of nine miles as the crow flies, and few witnessed the finish. "'Catch that cart-colt, and take him down to the farmhouse. They may know him, my lad. And here is a pot of beer for you.' "All good fox-hunters are Good Samaritans, and in this case the life of what proved afterwards to be a most valuable animal was saved by the charitable attention of the gentlemen in scarlet. It was found, when the yokel went up to him to lead him away, that he was standing in a pool of blood, having staked himself severely in the chest. If the wound had not been plugged and promptly attended to, the colt's first day's hunting would have been his last. "Latch-key remained in the quarters he had accidentally dropped into until he was well enough to travel, when he returned to his native home. In addition to a very severe stake, he was otherwise much scarred by the broken plough-harness, and consequently required careful nursing to restore him to health and soundness. "During the next two years he was kept apart from other young stock, and was constantly fed and petted by the farmer and his family. At the beginning of the fifth year, when he had been broken and was in his best looks, a dealer from London came down and bought him for a handsome sum. "When he had been sufficiently prepared for a London show he was sold to a gentleman in Berkshire, who hunted him four seasons, and then, finding he did not like harness, sold him for a reduced price at Tattersall's, and he fell into the hands of a coper, who, finding he would not harness, chopped him away to a salesman. The latter sent him, with several others, to Hull, to be shipped for St. Petersburg. He was on the point of being embarked, when my son, who happened to be at Hull at the time, recognised and, well knowing his intrinsic value, bought him for double the contract price. This was in 1838. He had not been at home a week when he was sold to a cavalry officer, who found him a first-class hunter, and did not regret having given me two hundred guineas for him. "He changed hands several times in the regiment, at various prices, and was finally sold to a young squire, whose effects came to the hammer under the superintendence of the sheriff, at York. At this sale I purchased Latch-key for thirty-seven guineas, and took him for my own riding. "Although much attached to the horse, a very good offer tempted me once more to part with him, in order to effect the sale of several others which had been selected, provided he were thrown in. "This time he went to London again, and was broken to harness, and sold to a noble lord, who took him to Edinburgh. Here he met with an accident through collision with a tradesman's cart, which disfigured and lamed him for a considerable time. Whilst under treatment of a veterinary surgeon, an intimate friend of mine, and belonging to my neighbourhood, finding the horse would be sold for 'a song,' purchased him for me, and sent him home, where he soon recovered, and resumed his place as my hack. This was in the year 1845. "I continued to ride him for several years, until on one eventful day I was induced once more to throw him in with a string I was selling to a London dealer; and from that time we never set eyes on each other till our mutual recognition in the coach at ----. "This is another instance of the extraordinary memory possessed by horses, and a convincing proof that they are as prone to remember kindness and good treatment as they do punishment and discomfort. "After this, I lost no time in purchasing my old friend from the proprietors of the coach, which I did for the reasonable sum of thirty-five guineas. When grazing in the meadows near the highroad, he listens for the horn, and always trots cheerfully down to the gate to see the coach pass. * * * * * "I subjoin a statistical account of the career of Latch-key, showing the difference between buying and selling. Foaled in 1828. Sold in 1833 £120 Repurchased 1838 £80 Sold in 1838 200 Repurchased 1841 37 Sold in 1842 75 Repurchased 1845 25 Sold in 1846 75 Repurchased 1850 35 ------------- £470 £177 ============= "So that this horse returned to me, in his sales and purchases in the course of twenty-two years, a net sum of two hundred and ninety-three pounds! We make no mystery as to his age, since money would no longer buy him; but during his career as a marketable animal, Latch-key chanced to be never more than 'eight years old!' He is now twenty-seven, and a cleverer animal could not be found." As my host finished his account of the career of his now old favourite, Latch-key confirmed it with a whinny, accompanied, however, by a significant shake of his head, which might have implied: "I wouldn't trust you, even _now_, if a good offer came in your way!" CHAPTER XI. The Coach and Horses (sign of)--Beware of bog spirits--Tell that to the Marines--An early breakfast--Salmon poaching with lights--Am I the man? or, the day of judgment--Acquittal! The Coach and Horses was the sign of a small roadside inn in North Wales, beautifully situated, as far as scenery and landscape were concerned, but as the house was built upon the steepest part of a severe hill, it was as difficult to stop in descending as it was inviting to "pull-up" in the ascent. The house was kept by an old coachman, whose family consisted of his wife, daughter, and son, a boy twelve years old. The old man's knowledge of the requirements necessary to make both man and horse comfortable, acquired for him a just reputation, and tourists (especially with their own horses) frequently made the Coach and Horses their headquarters from which to make expeditions into the country. Two fast coaches changed horses, up and down, daily, serving as antidotes to the usual dulness of a country inn. Some years ago I was making a "drag-tour" through that part of the country, and, one of my wheelers having picked up a nail, I was compelled to halt for some days at the Coach and Horses. At any other time I should have enjoyed some fishing, but the season had closed. I passed, the time in rambling amongst the magnificent scenery which the country afforded, devoting my attention to the objects of natural history with which it abounds, and taking advantage of the coaches for a lift home when I exceeded my distance. On one of these occasions I had been led far into the wildest part of the hills in endeavouring to watch a dispute between a kestrel and a raven, which interested me so much that I was quite unmindful of time, distance, or direction, and found myself at dusk completely lost. No landmark, no guide of any description to suggest my course. I had come out "down wind," but the wind may have changed! There was the sunset, _et voilà tout_. A thick fog now began to rise, entirely concealing every trace of outline. To light a pipe and sit down upon a rock to consider what was to be done, was all that remained to me. The darkness increased rapidly, and, with the rising vapour, soon rendered it impossible to see a yard in advance. The situation was grave. I knew I was in the neighbourhood of steep declivities, and therefore decided upon remaining where I was till the fog lifted and there was more light. The time passed heavily, and the scene would have been gloomy in the extreme, if the busy lights of the Jack-o'-lanterns had not kept me constantly on the _qui vive_. These singular visitors appeared to venture nearer and nearer to my sheltering rock and endeavour to entice me to follow them, bounding and dancing down the hill before me, and joining a host of other lights which appeared to be holding high revel in the valley beneath. The mist thickened into a drizzling rain, which made the darkness even darker, and caused my weird companions to flit about with increased activity. So natural were these appearances that I could scarcely refrain from following one larger light which appeared to be sent forward to escort me, venturing each time nearer and nearer to my stony refuge. If any of my readers have involuntarily passed a night upon a Welsh mountain, they will know what mingled distress and pleasure the dawn produces--distress, because, however cold, wet, and miserable you may have been during the night, the dawn brings with it a change of atmosphere which runs through your bones, and causes your whole frame to shiver; and the waiting for the light, intolerable pleasure, because, with the return of glorious day, come relief and light. The longed-for light at length began to creep amongst the boulders and the heather, and show me once more how wisely I had decided in remaining still, instead of attempting to feel my way in any uncertain direction, surrounded as I was by deep ravines and precipices. Tired, wet through, and with aching bones, I began my peregrination, and after walking some two miles through the hills I espied a cottage, to which I directed my steps in the hope of getting some refreshment. To my surprise and joy, I found a woman at the cottage who was evidently expecting some arrival. I had some difficulty in making the woman understand that I appealed only for a glass of milk. She spoke nothing but Welsh, and appeared much alarmed at my visit. If it had not been for the opportune arrival of two men (peasants), one of whom spoke English, I might have failed to obtain even the modest hospitality I so much needed. After some conversation, in which I described myself and my position without reserve, we were all, within a few minutes, supplied with an ample bowl of hot oatmeal porridge. The cottage was situated in a lonely glen, thickly studded with brushwood, but I could discern no road leading to it. I had made my way across the hills, and on inquiring the distance to the Coach and Horses, I found it was five miles. Feeling that my unaccountable absence must have given rise to some anxiety, I was eager to depart as soon as I had finished breakfast, and with that view had arranged with the peasant to conduct me to the highroad. Suddenly, as we were about to leave the cottage, the door was rudely forced open, and two men, entering, seized me by the collar, saying: "We're looking for _you_." "Then I'm glad you've found me," said I; "for the good people at the Coach and Horses must have been much distressed at my disappearance." "They won't be distressed when they hear that you've got three months for this job." "What do you mean?" "Mean! Why, we mean that we have been a-watching of you all night." "I wish you had made your presence known," said I. "I would have made it worth your while." "Ah, but we don't do business in that way. No, no! a good catch like this for us is better than a good catch of fish is for you. We saw your lights a mile off." I was more puzzled than ever. Except an occasional fusee for my pipe, and the marsh-light, I had passed the whole weary night without seeing a light at all. But on further explanation I began to comprehend that the river-watchers had suspected me of having been flame-poaching all night, and followed me to the cottage. I protested that I was no poacher, but a benighted tourist who had accidentally lost his way upon the hills, and that I could prove my assertions if taken to the Coach and Horses. All I could say was of no avail, and with a fellow-prisoner--a peasant, now brought in--I was marched off to Rhyadder; where, at eleven o'clock on the same day, we were taken before a bench of magistrates, charged with having "unlawfully, by means of torches and spears, captured salmon during the night season." An anxious night had been passed at the Coach and Horses in consequence of my absence. Messengers had been despatched in all directions to inquire and search; and it was not until my messenger arrived, requesting the landlord of the Coach and Horses to come at once and identify me, that the apprehensions of my friends were allayed. * * * * * To prove my innocence was by no means so easy a task as it would appear. Two river-watchers swore point-blank to having seen me and my fellow-prisoner at the edge of the pool fishing with torches, that they watched us for a considerable time, and at daybreak followed us to the cottage where we were apprehended. The oaths of these two men, combined with circumstantial evidence, were so strong against me that I almost doubted whether I had been poaching or not! My urgent declaration that I had been sitting upon a rock all night seemed weakish; it wouldn't "wash." I overheard one of the magistrates whisper to his neighbour something about "a cock-and-bull story." I had well-nigh broken down in my _alibi_ when the landlord of the Coach and Horses rushed into court. But he could only identify me as the missing gentleman. "Where did you pass the night?" was the repeated question from the Bench. I had never found so much difficulty in accounting for myself during a night in my life; and my assurance that I had been benighted upon a mountain gave rise to much merriment amongst the audience, salmon poaching being at that time a very common offence in Wales. On the other hand the two river-watchers had sworn that they had followed us, step by step, from the pool to the cottage--a distance of two miles--and that they had never lost sight of us. The fact proved to be that they had followed and apprehended two men, but the second poacher had slipped out of the cottage when the watchers entered, and _I_ had slipped into his place! My landlord of the Coach and Horses pleaded earnestly for my acquittal, but facts are stubborn--so are Welsh justices; and it was with the greatest reluctance that the Bench consented to release me on bail, to come up again for judgment in a week, during which time further inquiry would be made into my statement. My triumphant return to the Coach and Horses was an occasion of much rejoicing, though I believe there are some who to this day have felt disinclined to acquit me of all complicity in the salmon poaching foray. When the day of judgment arrived I took with me "young David," the son of the landlord, and sought the cottage from which I had been so roughly taken. My disappointment was great at finding the house closed and the door barred, having no appearance of occupation about it. I was turning away in despair when we heard the bleating of a calf, which showed the place was not altogether deserted. We resolved to wait till the evening set in, concluding that someone interested in the young calf would respond to its pitiful appeal; nor were we wrong in our surmise. As the evening closed in we espied a woman in the distance, leading a black cow towards the house. We lay in ambush till matters were sufficiently advanced to prevent an abrupt appearance from interrupting the domestic arrangements, and then, taking David to interpret for me, I asked the woman if she remembered having seen me before. Apparently much alarmed, she flew into a rage, denouncing me in terms which, David informed me, were anything but complimentary, and declaring that I had betrayed her husband and brother, and caused them to be apprehended by the watchers. It took some time to "moderate the rancour" of this lady's tongue, but when we had brought her to reason, she agreed to come forward and state in the court that I had come to the cottage, on the morning in question, before her husband and brother, and had not seen them till we met at the cottage. Questioned about her brother, she said he had sailed for America. Armed with this evidence, I presented myself before the bench of magistrates at the appointed time. The woman had kept faith, and was present, although not called, for the watchers had become a little shaken in their belief; and inquiry having been made, and proving satisfactory, I was at once acquitted. Not so my fellow-prisoner, who, this being his fourth conviction, was sentenced to six months' hard labour. CHAPTER XII. Coaches in Ireland fifty years ago--Warm welcome--Still-hunting--Another blank day--Talent and temper--The Avoca coach. Before the reign of King Bianconi in Ireland, the coaching and all public conveyances were of a most primitive description.[11] I am writing of Ireland fifty years ago, when it was a real pleasure to have intercourse with the peasantry; when every look was a smile; when the hardest raps with a shillelah were accepted as additional tokens of friendship; and if a few heads were broken it was looked upon simply as part of the fun of the fair. Hospitality is no word for the overflowing welcome which was invariably extended to a stranger, and the sincerity of the men was only equalled by the fascination of the softer sex. The ready repartee, the quick appreciation of wit or satire, were ingredients which gave zest to conversation and piquancy to a society unlike that which may be met with in any other country. In the same degree, the peasantry, as far as their humble means would permit, were ever ready to display their kindly feeling towards a stranger, no matter of what social grade. As a soldier in those days I had some disagreeable duties to perform, but these were frequently rendered less painful by the very people against whom these duties were directed. I allude, for example, to "still-hunting." It was the rule in those days for the gauger, whose duty it was to hunt up all illicit stills in the country, to make a requisition for a party of military, to supervise and surround the suspected spot, prevent the escape of those concerned in the manufacture, and secure, if possible, the worm of the still. The latter part of the triumph was seldom achieved; a small steel worm, which would go into a man's hat, would take a party of gaugers a long night to hunt for, and often wind up with a blank after all. [Illustration: "THE PUBLIC CAR."] * * * * * I was detached from the headquarters of my regiment at the town of Ballingarry, Limerick. I had been out as usual with my gun in the bogs, which, in that neighbourhood, abounded in snipe, and having dined in my snug quarters (the lodge at the gate of the Protestant minister's demesne), had just finished my tumbler of "hot stoppings," when the thump of an open palm against my door announced a visit from my sergeant-major. * * * * * "Here's the gauger, sir; and he wants our men to capture a still." * * * * * A cold frosty night outside, and a clear turf fire within, with other pictures of comfort, did not help to inflame my soul with military ardour in the prospect of a still-hunt among the mountains five miles off. I was bound, however, to interview the gauger, and thereupon there entered a stout man, with a very blossomy nose, dressed in rusty black, who, at my invitation, seated himself by the fire. * * * * * "I have a requisition for twelve rank and file to assist in capturing a still in the neighbourhood, and here, sir, is the fee."[12] "When do you propose to make the expedition?" "We should leave this at eleven to-night, and as no suspicion is aroused, we shall probably capture the lot, still and all." I pushed the materials towards the gauger, who required very little persuasion to avail himself of the opportunity to brew a hot tumbler of punch. On many former occasions I had by judicious hospitality kept this functionary at bay until it became too late, or the weather set in too bad, to make a start, thus saving my men the harassing duty we all disliked. Now, however, the summons was imperative; and I accordingly turned out my picquet, and started with the revenue officer and his assistant for a mountain some five or six miles distant from my post. The moon was shining brightly, and the sharp frosty air of the night was most exhilarating. The light and springy step of my riflemen suggested the idea of being on a poaching lark rather than a solemn expedition for the vindication of the law. We had left the highway and ascended a few hundred yards of the mountain-road, when the gauger pointed out to me a light curling white cloud, distant about a quarter of a mile, rising as if from the ground. That was the still. Extending my small force, I formed a cordon round the point, gradually closing in, till within fifty yards of our object. This operation completed, I left further proceedings to the gauger. Suddenly my attention was attracted by the melancholy wailing of a woman, and, on investigation, I discovered an old hag who might easily have been great-grandmother of all the stills in the district. "Och-hone, och-hone! We'll all be kilt entirely. We'll all be kilt outright wid dem soldiers. Och-hone!" The gauger now reappeared. His search, both for men and machinery, had been fruitless. At once the old woman opened upon him a broadside of execrations such as are rarely heard even from the lips of an infuriated Irish beldame, strangely mixed with benedictions--the curses for the gauger, the blessings for me. "To the divil I pitch them gaugers. Long life to y'r honour. Bad cess to 'em, I'd bail 'em out of ---- (purgatory?) ev they'd wait. Och, thin, God bless you and y'r min! And thim to say I had a still!--the blag-g-a-ards!" All the time never moving from her seat amongst the ferns, whence she challenged the gaugers to search the skibeen and welcome. "Bad luck to you and your ugly mate!" * * * * * Finding the fun was over, I assembled my men and started on the homeward march; but wishing to reward the ancient sibyl for her blessing with a taste of tobacco, I halted the party in the road for a minute, and hurried back. "You're lucky not to have had your still discovered," I remarked. "Oh thin, good luck to your honour, and it's you and your min saved it. May you live till the longest tooth in your head makes a walking-stick for you." "How do you mean, my good woman?" "Sure the boys seen the soldiers coming, and they lighted a bit fire to blind 'em. The gauger was never near our plant; and for the worm, I was sitting on it all the time." I gave the old woman a blast for her pipe, and drank a tot of the best potheen I ever tasted. To revert to the subject of Irish coaching which, as I have said before, was of the wildest and most primitive description, before the great mail contractor monopolised nearly every road in the country, conveying both mails and passengers on cars in a manner much better suited to the taste and habits of the people. What the original coaches lacked in neatness they made up in pace. It was no uncommon thing to see a team brought out to attach to a coach, one blinded with a rubber, two with twitches on their noses, and the fourth having his leg tied up till the moment of departure. I once started from Waterford under these circumstances, and when all was ready, at the moment of starting, the coachman having climbed up, with his rope reins in hand, began shouting, cheering, and rattling his feet against the footboard to make them start. On this I reminded him that his whip was lying on the top of the luggage behind him. "Oh, bad luck to 'em! I wouldn't show 'em that till they'd ask for it," was the answer "Sure they'd never lave home if they thought I'd take that along wid me." They did start, with the vocal assistance of half the spalpeens of the city, who followed us barefooted for at least a mile--an Irish mile--out of the town. There is no country in the world where so many clever horses are bred as in Ireland. I say clever in the general acceptation of the word, for an Irish horse is as great an adept at an argument with his driver as he is in the falling at once into the latter's views, and performing all that he can expect from him with cheerfulness. I have generally found in my experience that a horse with a bad temper is a good stayer; while, on the other hand, an animal with a little temper, easily got the better of, is a cur. A horse in Ireland is never allowed to have a bad temper; he only rises to tricks. I was driving in Dublin some time since to catch a boat, and the horse in the car, after being very refractory, lay down. I was very much incensed, and afraid of losing my passage, when the driver quietly said: "Oh, don't mind him, sir; it's only _tricks_." Since the reign of Bianconi the travelling has very much improved. The long car, substituted for the coach, is by no means an uncomfortable carriage, and the weight being kept so near the ground reduces the chances of being upset to a minimum. The roads are extremely good, and the scenery in some parts indescribably beautiful. * * * * * A revival of coaching was attempted in Dublin in the year 1879, but it did not attain any great proportions. There was one coach, however, with which I was intimately connected, which ran from the Sherbourne Hotel, Dublin, to the Vale of Avoca, and enjoyed a fair share of success. It was a private venture, was well horsed and appointed, changing four times in fifty-four miles (down one day and up another), and performing the journey in six hours, including a liberal interval for lunch each way. This route embraces one of the most beautiful parts of Ireland, through the county of Wicklow, and the coach was consequently much encouraged by tourists and foreigners. When the days of Land League and low rents (no rents) shall be buried in oblivion, and the country restored to the condition which I have described as its natural social aspect fifty years ago, I have no doubt that this and many other roads out of Dublin will be as thickly covered by amateur coaches as are the suburban roads from London. CHAPTER XIII. Virtue and vice--Sowing wild oats--They can all jump--Drive down Box Hill--A gig across country. The intelligence of the horse, and his judgment in hesitating to perform feats which, if attempted, must result in dangerous accidents, have afforded many proofs of equine sagacity. On the other hand there are bolters and kickers which indulge in these vices apropos to nothing, and at times when a bad accident must inevitably ensue. The worst vices of the horse are comprised in the _two_ faults I have named. "Bolting" means shying, running away, shifting suddenly out of the road, or turning round short without notice. "Kicking" includes all the damage that can be inflicted on man, carriage, harness, etc., by a living catapult tipped with iron. There is a third defect--one of character--denominated "sulk." This is most tiresome and trying, and, if not carefully and promptly dealt with, may never be eradicated. One thing is quite certain, that punishment will not avail. Patience offers the only chance. If the weather be fine and the driver in no particular hurry, a daily paper is an excellent antidote to this evil. I knew an instance of a sulky horse being checked when he attempted to move, and forced to stand in one place almost in one position, till his owner had read through _The Morning Post_ (advertisements and all), taking care to rustle the paper occasionally in order to let the animal know the cause of his detention. So effectual was this remedy, that his master had only to show him a newspaper to make him start like a lamb. [Illustration: "WILL HE JUMP?"] If, as is sometimes the case, a horse be absolutely determined not to move, and defies all the usual methods of persuasion--holding up the fore-leg, tying whip-cord tightly round his ear, pushing at the wheel, etc.--but throws himself down as if purposing to remain there, nothing is left but to put a wisp of straw under him, and set it alight. This, albeit it sounds cruel, need not inflict the slightest injury--since the horse at once obeys the instinct of alarm and pain, and never forgets the experience; so that straw, without the match, will always be sufficient for the future. * * * * * The ready obedience to his rider's wishes, even when the horse's own judgment does not confirm them, is another proof of the animal's generous nature. We constantly hear of young men sowing wild oats, but the _récolte_ is seldom, if ever, sufficiently successful to enable them to feed their horses upon the produce. There is indeed a _morne_ silence in respect to the germinating of this seed, which suggests the inference that no crop can be expected till the grain has perished and the granary is bare! * * * * * A young friend of mine was driving his team through some unfinished streets in one of our favourite marine resorts. Not being much practised in the art of "pointing his leaders" in the direction which he intended to pursue, he allowed them to continue a straight course in a road which had no egress, but was blocked at the end by a dwarf wall three feet in height. A friend on the box beside him, finding he had passed the turn by which he could have got out, called to him: "Hallo! pull up, man! You can't get out, and you can't turn round." Slacking his hand and fanning his wheelers, the young Jehu quietly replied: "Never mind; they can all _jump_." And they did all jump. No refusal. The leaders got clear over without a scratch; the wheelers, having broken the pole and splinter-bar, got over the wall, but of course fell in a confused heap, and were a good deal hurt. The gentlemen on the box were shot to a considerable distance into some "ground to be let for building purposes" which lay convenient, "rubbish" being also shot there! Many of my readers may remember that during the severe frost in the year that made the fortune of Murphy's Almanac, Mr. Hunt, the successful rival of Messrs. Day and Martin in the manufacture of blacking, drove his team and drag across the Serpentine; a foolhardy feat, seeing that the Serpentine was a treacherous lake, and at that time of uncertain depth, both of mud and water. * * * * * Another instance, which illustrates forcibly the courage and obedience of the horse, may be in the reader's recollection. A gentleman drove his curricle and pair down Box Hill in Surrey, a descending declivity upon which most horses would find it difficult to stand, even without a carriage. One more example I may adduce--which, had I not been an eye-witness of it, I should find it difficult to believe--illustrates the courage of the horse and the folly of the man. A dealer was showing a horse, in harness, to a customer who, after a short trial, finding that the animal was likely to suit him, inquired if he would jump. Being assured that he would, the intending purchaser requested that a hurdle might be set up. Another gentleman, probably Irish, then assumed the vacant seat in the tilbury, and to the dealer's utter amazement the horse was dashed at the obstacle. There was no refusal; the obedient animal bounded at the hurdle (a good stiff one), was brought up by the wheels and shafts of the gig, and tumbled backwards into the vehicle, uninjured. The results to the gentlemen were less than their folly deserved--a broken collarbone apiece--sprained wrists, and various contusions, at least severe enough to confine them to their beds for several days. * * * * * I now humbly submit these my Road Scrapings to the reader, in the earnest hope that I may have, in some measure, cleared the way for those who are disposed to avail themselves of my suggestions, and enlivened it for those who are not. THE END. CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. FOOTNOTES: [1] This coach was managed and driven by Captain Laurie and Captain Haworth. [2] This mare was in the English stud-book under the name of the "Lawyer's Daughter." [3] It is always desirable that the wheelers should start the load, as the leaders, if free starters, may jump into their work, and either spring a bar or bring the coach so suddenly on the wheel-horses that the trial may be too great for the weight of their heels. [4] Silver-mounted harness, with red morocco collars. [5] Heavy road parcels were frequently stowed underneath the coach upon a swinging shelf, called "the cellar." [6] Possibly tied to it. [7] Corresponding with Tally-ho in fox-hunting, to announce a view. [8] Russell's "waggons took twelve days between Falmouth and London, drawn by eight powerful horses--the driver riding a pony. [9] A part of the waggon kept for passengers. [10] The term "shouldering" referred to many short shillings which were not put upon the way-bill, consequently perquisites of coachmen and guards. [11] So primitive was the manner in which draught-horses were used that I know an instance of horses being attached to a plough by the hair of their tails. [12] The requisition fee for a party in those days was accompanied by the tender of a guinea to the officer in command. ERRATA. Page 5. For "Cheny Angel," _read_ "Cherry Angel." " 10. } " 25. } For "tenet," _read_ "terret." " 52. } " 36. 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NOW READY, In One Vol. demy 8vo, price Ten Shillings and Sixpence, SIX MONTHS IN MECCAH: AN ACCOUNT OF The Mohammedan Pilgrimage to Meccah recently performed by an Englishman professing Mohammedanism. BY J. F. KEANE (HAJJ MOHAMMED AMIN). _At all Libraries and Book-sellers'._ The ATHENÆUM says: "Those orthodox geographers who were startled by the American outsider's successful walk into Africa will receive a hardly less severe shock on learning that the pilgrimage to Meccah has been performed by a youngster of five-and-twenty, apparently a sailor by profession, and with none of the special training enjoyed by his few predecessors.... The style of the work, if something eccentric and unconventional, is amusingly direct and natural, and the occasional digressions are as original and characteristic as the rest. His whole narrative, indeed, is a series of pictures." PUBLIC OPINION says: "Mr. Keane has given an account of everything of interest that came under his notice when in Meccah during the pilgrim season 1877-8.... The precarious position of an unbeliever in any wholly Mohammedan town is well known, and Mr. Keane appears to have run many risks; but he has managed to give us his narrative in a modest style, free from all sorts of egotism; and any tale of Meccah that is within the comprehension of the general public will always find auditors." The GRAPHIC says: "It deserves to succeed; for though full of incidents which seem marvellous even to Mr. Keane, it is rich in local colouring.... The book is well written, and deserves to be widely read. Like Captain Burton, Mr. Keane believes in the gold and precious stones of Arabia." The LITERARY WORLD says: "His description of this place [the Haram] and of the 'holy Kaabah' is exceedingly full and interesting, and, were it possible, we should like to have given an extract from it. We give instead his description of Meccah.... The book is exceedingly readable, and helps us to a better understanding of modern Mohammedanism." The DAILY CHRONICLE says: "The simplicity of the narrative precludes any idea of book-making; and the scenes described are so fresh that they will awaken considerable interest, and lead the readers to look anxiously for the fresh volume of adventure half promised by the author." JOHN BULL says: "A very entertaining book.... We have little but praise to give to his spirited narrative. He is never dull, and has given us a most graphic picture of his personal experiences when making the pilgrimage to Meccah.... His account of Meccah itself, and of the various pilgrims from different countries who there congregate, is full of interest." The GLOBE says: "The book is full of interest.... The author must have mixed freely with the lower classes of Asiatics, either in Arabia or elsewhere, to be able to give such faithful descriptions of what passes among them when by themselves.... Eminently readable." The SUNDAY TIMES says: "He tells his own story, and gives his own experiences, with graphic power. The book is full of interest." VANITY FAIR says: "Mr. Keane's account of the pilgrimage to Meccah, in the disguise of a Mohammedan, is both interesting and amusing." MANCHESTER POST says: "The book is a remarkable one--unpretentious, yet absorbing, and crammed full of incidents which have never before been narrated." TINSLEY BROTHERS, 8, CATHERINE STREET, STRAND. 
45754	----	[Illustration: JERSEY COW, MATILDA 4TH.] ABC BUTTER MAKING ----A---- HAND-BOOK FOR THE BEGINNER. BY F. S. BURCH, [Illustration] EDITOR OF THE DAIRY WORLD. CHICAGO: C. S. BURCH PUBLISHING COMPANY. 1888. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by F. S. BURCH, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. CONTENTS. PAGE MILKING 17 Washing the Udder--The Slow Milker--The Jerky Milker--Best Time to Milk--Kicking Cows--Feeding during the Milking-- Loud Talking--Milking Tubes--The Stool--The Pail. CARE OF MILK 23 Animal Heat--Milk as an Absorbant--Stable Odors--Cooling-- Keeping in Pantry or Cellar--Deep Setting--Temperature of the Water--To Raise Cream Quickly--When to Skim. THE MILK ROOM 27 To have well Ventilated--Controlling the Temperature--Pure Air--Management of Cream--Stirring the Cream--Proper Temperature at which to keep Cream--Ripening Cream-- Straining Cream--Cream in Winter. BUTTER COLOR 30 Rich Orange Color--White butter--The Juice of Carrots--The Use of Annato--Commercial Colors--Beginners generally use too much. CHURNING 32 The Patent Lightning Churn--Churning too Quickly--The amount of time to properly do the Work--Churning Cream at 60 degrees--Winter Churning--Starting the Churn at a Slow Movement--The Churn with a Dasher--Stopping at the proper time--Granular Butter--Draining off the Buttermilk--Washing in the Churn--To have the Churn sufficiently Large--Churning whole Milk--The Best Churn for the Dairy. WORKING THE BUTTER 38 The Right Temperature--To get the Buttermilk all out--Half Worked Butter--Overworking--Use of the Lever--Working in the Salt--Rule for Salting--Butter Salting Scales. MARKETING BUTTER 43 The way Four-fifths of the Farmers do it--The Right Way and the Wrong Way--Waiting for Better Prices--City Customers-- Have a Commission man Judge your Butter. PACKING AND SHIPPING 46 The Size and Style of Package--Roll Butter--Packing ter-- Packing in Earthen Jars--Tin Packages--The Relative Cost of Wooden Packages--Ninepound Bale Boxes--To avoid "Woody Taste"--Parchment Paper--Excluding the Air--Print Butter-- Uniformity of Color--Top of Packages--Keeping Packed Butter Cold. THERMOMETERS IN THE DAIRY 52 Price of a Good Tested Article--The kind our Grandmothers' used--Floating Thermometers--Importance of their use. MAXIMS FOR A B C BUTTER-MAKERS 54 HOW TO MAKE GOOD BUTTER. A chapter by Mr. N. Bigalow 57 [Illustration] INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Frontispiece. Jersey Cow Matilda 4th. Milking Tube, 19 Milk Stool, 20 Milk Pail, 21 Haney Deep Setting Can, 23 Jersey Milk Can, 24 Shot Gun Deep Setting Can, 25 Cooley Can, 25 Conical Skimmer, 28 Branch of Annato Tree, 30 Rectangular Churn, 32 Pendulum Churn, 33 Bowl of Granular Butter, 34 Barrel Churn, 36 Danish Butter Worker, 38 Eureka Butter Worker, 39 Favorite Butter Worker, 41 Butter Salting Scale, 41 White Ash Butter Tub, 46 Ninepound Bale Boxes in Crate, 47 I X L Butter Printer, 49 Onepound Butter Mould, 50 Glass Dairy Thermometer, 52 PREFACE. I do not claim anything new or startling for this little work, nor do I claim to be what is usually termed "an authority" on the subject treated. A B C BUTTER MAKING is the result of my own experience in the dairy, together with an extended and careful observation of the experiences and practices of some of the most successful butter-makers in the country, and is an answer, in a complete form, to the numberless questions asked me (as Editor of the DAIRY WORLD), by beginners in the dairy. THE AUTHOR. MILKING. Before we can make butter we must have milk, and a few suggestions on this important question will not be out of place here. In order that no dirt or hairs may find their way into the milk-pail, a careful dairyman will always brush off the teats and udder of his cow before he begins to milk, yet, I am sorry to say, thousands of men who profess to be careful dairymen do not know this, and are sometimes guilty of that most uncleanly habit of softening up the teats by squeezing out a little milk on their hands. A large number of cows are utterly ruined every year by improper milking; irregular milking spoils a large number; noisy, loud talking and rough milkers help to spoil a good many more. The very slow milker, as well as the quick, jerky milker, who never strips the cow thoroughly, are helping to make a large number of our cows unprofitable. Six o'clock in the morning and six o'clock in the evening are by far the best hours to do the milking. Some of our deep milkers should be milked three times a day for a week or more after calving. I might write a chapter on kicking cows, but after a wide and exceedingly costly experience in this line will simply say I do not believe in them, and would not accept the best one I ever saw as a gift. I am satisfied that it is not a good plan to feed or "slop" a cow during the milking, as a hungry animal will be too deeply absorbed in eating to "give down" all the milk. Better feed just before or immediately after milking. Keep strangers away from the stable during the milking hour; never carry on a conversation in a loud voice with some person in another part of the stable while milking; in short, do nothing that will be likely to draw the attention of your cow, or she will in a greater or less degree "hold up" a part of the milk. When possible a cow should always be milked by the same person, as the milker soon learns any little peculiarity of the animal, and knows exactly how to handle her, as well as readily detecting any unusual occurrence, such as shortage of milk, sore or caked teats, etc. Milk as rapidly as possible, without jerking, and avoid hurting the teats with sharp and long finger nails by keeping them well pared. Never attempt to draw the milk from a very sore or inflamed teat with your hands; it only causes the animal great pain, and in nine cases out of ten you will fail to secure all of the milk. Milking tubes, made of silver, are not only great conveniences, but now that they can be bought so cheaply, are an absolute necessity, and all farmers should keep a few on hand for use in case of an emergency. The silver tubes are the best, and can be purchased for half a dollar each of almost any dealer in dairy goods. I have mailed thousands of them during the past few years to dairymen in all parts of the country, and have received hundreds of letters stating that valuable cows have been saved that would otherwise have been ruined for milking, but for the use of these tubes. It might be well to say right here that in no case would I recommend the use of tubes for regular milking, as their constant use would soon distend the orifice of the teat, so that it would leak. Grease or wet the tubes before inserting, and be careful to push in slowly. If the teat is very sore the tubes may be allowed to remain in the teat for a day or two, but I would advise that they be removed after each milking when possible, and always wiped perfectly dry. [Illustration] [Illustration] A good milking stool not only adds comfort to the milker, but helps to facilitate the work to a greater degree than one would naturally suppose. I give an illustration of a handy stool, and as a novice can easily make one, I will simply say, make the leg according to the length of your own. Before closing this chapter on milking I want to say a word about the pail. Never use a wooden pail or vessel to milk in. The best pail I ever used was a patent device called the "Michigan Milk Bucket," and were it not for the expense (I believe the price is two dollars), they would soon come into general use. The illustration shows exactly what they are--a combined pail, strainer and stool; and as the strainer prevents any dirt or hairs from getting into the pail, and the close-fitting cover precludes any possibility of the milk absorbing stable odors, I cannot say too much in their praise. When these pails were first placed on the market the strainer was at the bottom of the receiving cup, and all the dirt was washed into the pail, but the manufacturers altered them by placing the strainer an inch above the bottom of the receiver, and I believe that they are now as near perfect a milk-pail as one could ask for. [Illustration] THE CARE OF MILK. I shall not attempt to enter into the chemistry of the milk. It would be out of place in this A B C treatise. One peculiar thing I wish to draw your attention to is the "animal heat." When the milk first comes from the cow you cannot help noticing that it has a sort of feverish smell, which soon passes off after exposure to the air. This "cowey" smell should, of course, be allowed to pass off, but not in the stable, where the milk would be likely to take on a worse and more lasting odor. Milk is a great absorbent, and quickly takes on any and all odors which it comes in contact with, and when once taken on, they can never be got rid of. Therefore, the moment we are through milking a cow, we should either take the milk out of the stable and into another room, or pour it at once into a can or some vessel with a tight-fitting cover, that it may not absorb stable odors before we are through with the milking of all the cows. I think the best plan is to strain the milk at once into an ordinary deep setting can and put the cover on tight. Remove the can, as soon as it is filled, to the milk-room. [Illustration: HANEY CAN, BACK VIEW.] [Illustration: HANEY CAN.] [Illustration: JERSEY CAN.] Now comes the cooling of the milk. To make good butter we must cool our milk rapidly. The sooner we cool it down to 47 degrees after it leaves the cow the better the butter will be. The old-fashioned way of setting the milk in shallow pans or crocks in the milk cupboard, which in summer was placed in the cellar and in the pantry in winter, is still kept up by a good many farmers, and this no doubt accounts for the steady production of ten-cent store butter with which our markets are always overstocked. If you expect to make good butter never set the milk in the pantry or cellar, as the odors which it will absorb there are just as numerous, if not quite so bad, as those in the cow stable. There is but one way, and dairymen are pretty generally agreed upon it, and that is to set the milk in deep cans in cold water, and the colder the water the quicker the separation of the cream from the milk. If you cannot afford to buy the patent deep setting cans like the Cooley, the Haney, the Jersey, or the Wilhelm, by all means get the common deep setting "shot-gun" can, with or without the glass gauges in the sides. The purpose of all these cans is to cool the milk rapidly, and though the manufacturers of this or that can may claim that their can does the work more quickly than the others, I am of opinion that they are all good, and one as good as the rest. If you have a spring, and can set the cans in the ground, where the water can flow all around and over the cans, you will be fortunate indeed. If you have no spring, and cannot afford a creamer, make a tank a little deeper than the cans, and keep the water flowing around the cans. The colder the water the better. If the water from your well is not colder than 47 degrees you should use ice. By using ice or very cold spring or well water you get all, or nearly all, the cream to rise in from twelve to twenty hours, and as I said before, and I want to firmly impress it upon your minds, the quicker you get the cream to rise the better butter you can make. Never allow the milk to set more than thirty hours, as it becomes acid or too thick, and loses much in flavor. I would much prefer to skim sooner, if I lost some of the cream by so doing, as I would more than make up what I lost in quantity by the improved quality. [Illustration: "SHOT-GUN" CAN.] [Illustration: COOLEY CAN.] [Illustration] THE MILK-ROOM. It would be well to say a word about the milk-room before passing on to the management of cream. It is absolutely necessary that we have a good milk-room in which to not only set the milk, but to ripen the cream, do the churning, and work the butter. Have the milk-room well ventilated, and build it so that you can control the temperature at the proper point all the year 'round. A good airy place, with plenty of elbow-room is essential. I see too many small, "stuffy" crowded rooms, where there is scarcely a place for half the utensils. Now, see that the air in your room is always pure, and do not pollute it by going directly into it from the cow stable, with all the odors clinging to your clothes and manure on your boots. Also have the room situated as far from the barnyard and hog-pen as possible. MANAGEMENT OF CREAM. Skim the milk before the cream becomes too thick and tough on top. I never allow the cream to remain on the milk a moment after I think it is all up or separated from the milk. If you use the deep setting cans you will find the little conical skimmer, with ten or twelve inch handle, the easiest to skim with. [Illustration] If you put the cream in a can, or other vessel containing cream that was skimmed some hours previous, be sure to stir it all well together, so that it may be of the same consistency. Keep the cream at a temperature of 62 to 68 degrees until it becomes slightly sour, when it is ready for churning. I have churned very sweet cream and very sour cream, but have never been able to get butter of good flavor from anything but slightly soured cream. I am also of the opinion that butter made from cream only slightly sour will keep much longer than when made from a very sweet or sour cream. I am often asked if I think that straining the cream is an advantage, and I will answer by saying that I do think it aids somewhat in helping the butter to come more evenly. In the winter it may be found necessary to place the cream near the stove, where it can be gradually warmed up to 68 or even 70 degrees, in order to have it sufficiently sour. [Illustration] BUTTER COLOR. [Illustration: BRANCH OF ANNATO TREE, SHOWING BLOSSOMS AND SEED PODS.] We all prefer to have our butter of a rich orange color. White butter looks too much like lard. Then, too, butter of a pale white hue never sells for as much in the market as the rich colored article. Years ago people colored butter with the juice of carrots; later on the seeds of the Annato plant were crushed and the juice mixed with potash and water. We now have many specially prepared compounds in the market, put up in liquid form and ready for immediate use. Almost all of these commercial colors are good, but should be used sparingly. Nearly all the beginners use too much the first time. There is no general rule to follow in using color, and you will only be able to tell how much to use by practice, as the butter of some cows is naturally of a richer color than others; this is especially true of the Jersey cows, the butter from which needs but little artificial coloring. Always put the coloring into the cream before beginning to churn. [Illustration] CHURNING. [Illustration: RECTANGULAR CHURN.] [Illustration: PENDULUM CHURN.] Few persons know how to churn properly. No matter how rich or nice the cream, if the churning is not done at a proper temperature and in a proper manner you cannot make good butter. Avoid the "lightning" patent churn, which the agent will claim to bring butter in five minutes. Cream that is churned too quickly always makes butter of a cheesey flavor, and quick to get rancid. Churning should never be done in less than twenty minutes, and, if possible, not longer than forty minutes. Generally the proper temperature at which to have the cream before beginning to churn is 60 degrees, but sometimes this must be varied a few degrees, according to circumstances. In winter we find 65 or 68 degrees will be necessary in order to have the butter come within forty minutes. When cows are fresh the butter comes much more quickly than it will after they have been fresh for a long period. Always start the churn with a slow movement, gradually increasing until you have reached the proper speed, which is 40 to 50 strokes per minute. I do not believe in the churn with a dash inside, nor do I believe in keeping the churn in motion a moment after the cream breaks. All sensible dairymen are trying to keep pace with the times, and have adopted the granular plan. This idea of scooping out great lumps of butter from a churn, and trying to squeeze and rub out the buttermilk with its caseous and albuminous matters is a thing of the past. Squeeze and press and knead all you please, and nothing but the water of the buttermilk will come out; the very impurities which you desire to get out of the butter will be all the more firmly incorporated in it. Not one butter-maker in ten (no, nor fifty) knows enough to stop the churn at the proper time, when the butter has formed into little pellets the size of a wheat kernel. When those little pellets have formed, pull out the plug or stopper in the bottom of your churn; if you have not got such a thing as a hole in your churn, don't waste a moment until you have bored one there, at least an inch in diameter, and place a small piece of very fine wire sieve on the inside of the churn over the hole, and thereafter be careful not to have your plug so long that it will punch the sieve off every time you put it in. Let the buttermilk drain off through this hole, after first pouring in a little cold water and cooling the contents of churn down to a point where the globules or kernels of butter will stick together when you agitate the churn. Now let the churn stand and rest a few minutes, then pour in more cold water, and let it drain off through the hole again, and if the water comes out as clear as it went in, stop pouring, shake the churn a little, then make a good strong brine of well powdered salt that has been first sifted thoroughly, cork up the hole and pour in your brine, and let it stand on the butter for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which draw off as you did the water. You now have your butter in the best possible condition for working. When you purchase your churn be sure and get one large enough; it is much better to have it too large than not large enough. If you think you have not sufficient cream for a churning and the cream is ripe, do not wait for another skimming, but add sufficient milk to have the churn filled to about one-fourth its capacity. Do not use milk that is very sour, as it is likely to contain so much casein that your butter will not be of good flavor. Many dairymen churn all the milk with the cream, but as it only adds more work to the churning, I do not recommend it except in cases where there is not cream enough to properly fill the churn. Illustrations are given of the best churns for the dairy, viz., the Barrel Churn, the Rectangular Churn, and the Pendulum Churn. [Illustration: BOWL OF GRANULAR BUTTER.] [Illustration: BARREL CHURN.] [Illustration] WORKING THE BUTTER. [Illustration: HOME-MADE DANISH BUTTER WORKER.] Never work the butter when it is too warm. I find that 56 degrees is about right. The main point in working butter is to get the buttermilk all out, and also to get it in good solid compact form. More depends upon proper working than one would naturally suppose. You often see butter with great drops of buttermilk standing all over it; such butter was only half worked, and will generally contain thirty to forty per cent. of water, and will keep sweet but a very short time. The other extreme is overworking, and this produces a dry crumbly mass, with no flavor. If the churning is done as described in the foregoing chapter very little working is necessary, as the buttermilk is very nearly all out of the butter before it leaves the churn. Take the butter out of the churn with your butter spade, and heap it up on the worker. If too warm for working at once, throw a cloth wet in cold water over it, and leave to drain and cool for thirty minutes. Before using the lever of your worker always dip it in cold water. Now take the lever and gently press the butter out over the full surface of the worker, and sprinkle on some salt; begin at the sides, and roll the butter back into the centre, being careful not to do any rubbing or you will have greasy butter. Now press out the whole mass again, and give it another salting, and repeat the working two or three times until you have incorporated the salt throughout the whole mass evenly. The general rule for salting is to use one ounce of salt to a pound of butter, but as some people like "salty" butter and some "fresh" butter, you must salt according to the wants of your patrons. I always use a fine sieve, and sift the salt over the butter on the worker, just as the baker sifts his flour over the dough when making it. Much depends upon the quality of the salt used in butter-making, and if you desire to make good butter use only good salt, which is put up in sacks, and branded "Dairy Salt," by nearly all the large salt makers in the country. If you have a large dairy do not trust to guesswork, but buy a scale and use it. An illustration of a scale which is made especially for salting butter is given above. These scales weigh from one-half ounce up to 250 pounds, and as they can be used for ordinary weighing without regard to the butter-salting attachment, every dairyman should have one. They cost about six dollars. [Illustration: EUREKA BUTTER WORKER.] [Illustration: WATERS' PATENT BUTTER WORKER.] [Illustration: CURTIS FAVORITE BUTTER WORKER, FOR ONE OR TWO COWS.] [Illustration: BUTTER-SALTING SCALE.] An illustration of a home-made butter worker, which is used largely by the Danes, is herewith given. Any man that is handy with tools, can make one. Cuts of three other good workers are shown; they are well made, and cost but a small amount. [Illustration] MARKETING BUTTER. "Butter well made is half sold," says an old maxim; but one would naturally suppose that it was "quite sold," to observe the careless manner in which four-fifths of the farmers market their butter. Who has not observed the tactics of the country storekeeper in buying butter? Here comes Mrs. Smith, or Jones, who is known near and far as a good butter maker. See how anxious the merchant is to please her; he knows that her butter is in great demand and will be sold at a good price before night. He pays her the highest market price, and while weighing the neat prints of golden butter, carefully wrapped in spotless cloth or snow-white parchment paper, tells her that he wishes she could have brought in more. It's a pleasure to have the trade of such a woman. But now comes Mrs. Easy. Observe the cloudy expression on the merchant's countenance, as he tells her that he's overstocked with butter; that the market is "way down." You will notice that he charges her a "long price" for whatever he sells her, and dumps her butter, which is generally in mussy rolls, into the nearest shoe box. And who can blame him, knowing that he cannot sell Mrs. Easy's butter at home, but must ship it to the nearest market and sell it for "low grade dairy" at a price which seldom, if ever, nets him a profit. One seldom hears of the markets being overstocked with "gilt edge" butter; on the other hand, the market is nearly always loaded down with "low grades" and grease. The best plan for marketing butter is to endeavor to find customers at home, and sell as soon as possible. People that pack their butter and wait for a rise, are sometimes disappointed, and no butter can be as good four or six months after it is made as when fresh. It is far better, as a rule, to sell as soon as possible, at the best price you can get, than to wait for a rise that sometimes fails to come. I receive many letters during the year from people asking me to find them city customers. Such customers, as a rule, are very exacting; they expect much, and paying a high price, have a perfect right to do so. These private customers (unless acquainted with the butter maker) seldom prove agreeable people to deal with. It is better to sell for a few cents less at home, and leave no chance for dissatisfaction, or if you cannot possibly sell all you make at home, better ship it to some reliable commission merchant, and leave him to fight out the battle with the customers. A good plan is to make up a sample pail or tub, and ship to the commission merchant with a request that he "judge" and report on it, with any suggestions he has to offer. Such a request will be sure to bring you a prompt report from any good dealer. [Illustration] PACKING AND SHIPPING. [Illustration: WHITE ASH BUTTER TUB] [Illustration: NINE POUND BALE BOXES.] The size, shape and style of package for butter makers to use, must depend largely upon the demands of the market to which the butter is shipped. A few years ago large quantities of roll butter were marketed in Chicago during the colder months; now you may travel from one end of the market to the other and not see a hundred rolls. It is but a short time ago that earthen crocks and jars were extensively used; now you scarcely ever see them. The cause for this is, that earthen vessels, of any kind, are not only liable to break, but are also more difficult to handle in large quantities, and weigh much more than wooden packages. The great bulk of butter that comes to Chicago now, is packed in white ash tubs and bale boxes. Occasionally we see a tin package with wood veneer, but they have never come into general use for the reason that the acid gets under the tin and causes rust. Wooden packages are just now most popular, and as the manufacturers have reduced the cost of manufacturing them to a point where earthenware and tin cannot compete in price, we may look to see them in use for years to come. The ordinary white ash tubs can be had of every dairy supply dealer and nearly all of the general stores; they may be had in 20 lb., 25 lb., 30 lb., 40 lb. and 60 lb. sizes. An illustration of the nine-pound bale boxes in crate is also given. During the last two years these bale boxes have become very popular. They can be shipped in crates of six and are convenient to handle; they can be had for about twelve cents apiece. In packing butter in wooden vessels we must guard against "woody taste," and there is but one way to do this, that is, to soak the packages from 24 to 48 hours in strong brine and then thoroughly scald them out. Even this method sometimes fails to accomplish the work. A capital way to prevent woody taste, is to line the package with parchment paper, which not only prevents the butter from taking on a woody flavor, but also prevents soakage and excludes the air. This parchment paper may now be had of all dairy implement dealers, in sheets and circles of any size. It costs about thirty cents a pound, and a pound is sufficient to pack several hundred pounds of butter. There is still quite a trade in print butter, and when nicely packed in one or two-pound prints and of good quality it sells quickly, on account of its convenient shape for family use. For print butter there has been invented a machine which stamps out one-half and one-pound blocks very quickly and quite artistically. When butter is shipped in this form it should be first carefully wrapped in cloth or parchment paper and packed in boxes in crates. Each box should contain but one block of butter, as piling one block upon another would be likely to press out the delicate figures moulded or stamped on the block. The blocks for these patent printing machines are sometimes artistically carved, so that the blocks of butter show sheaves of wheat, acorns, etc., and sometimes with the maker's initials or monogram. For home use the old fashioned round mould holding from a quarter of a pound to two pounds is still extensively used, and when properly soaked in cold water before moulding, makes a very nice print of butter. These patent printers and moulds save much time and are a great convenience over the old way of forming the butter into rolls. [Illustration: I X L BUTTER PRINTER.] In packing it is always better to pack each churning in a separate tub or box, as the tub that contains different churnings will not be of uniform solidity or color throughout, and will therefore not sell for as much as a tub perfectly uniform. [Illustration: ONE POUND BUTTER MOULD.] Remember to soak the covers of the packages, and before fastening them on sprinkle salt to a depth of a quarter of an inch over the top of the butter cloth or paper. Never leave the cover off the packages for any length of time, for the reason that it will not only cause the top of the butter to become discolored, but it will also admit the air and spoil the top of the butter for several inches. The moment you have packed your butter get it into a cool place--the cooler the better--and thereafter keep it as cool as possible, until you have disposed of it. [Illustration] THERMOMETERS IN THE DAIRY. [Illustration] Frederic Sumner says "There is no more use in trying to run a dairy without a good tested thermometer than there would be to attempt sailing a vessel without a rudder," and I heartily agree with him. A good thermometer can be purchased for from fifty cents to a dollar, and at these prices is certainly within the reach of every dairyman. Too much depends upon the temperature of the water in which we cool our milk, the room we ripen our cream in, do our churning in, and the temperature of the milk, cream, and the butter itself, to attempt any guess work. Our grandmothers used thumb and finger to ascertain the temperature of milk and cream, but in these days of fifty cents, seventy-five cents, and a dollar a pound butter we find "thumb-rule" will not work. An illustration of a thermometer made expressly for dairy use, is given; they are made of glass and float upright in the milk or cream. The churning and cheese points are marked for the convenience of new beginners; they retail at about fifty cents, and can be purchased from any dealer in dairy goods. [Illustration] MAXIMS For A B C Butter Makers. Test your cows. Never fill the churn over half full. Never touch the butter with your hands. Cream rises best in a falling temperature. Never churn fresh unripened cream with ripened cream. After cream becomes sour, the more ripening the more it depreciates. The best time for churning is just before the acidity becomes apparent. Never let your butter get warm; when once warmed through it will lose its flavor. Excessive working makes crumbly butter, spoils the grain and injures the flavor. Never mix night's with morning's milk, as the warmth of the new and the coldness of the old, hastens change and decomposition. All kinds of disagreeable odors are easily absorbed by salt. Keep it, therefore, in a clean, dry place, in linen sacks, if it is to be used for butter making. The best butter has the least competition to contend against, while the worst dairy products have the most. The better anything is, the more rare is it and the greater its value. A butter maker that uses his fingers instead of a thermometer, to find out the temperature of milk or cream will never make a success. Cleanliness should be the Alpha and Omega of butter making. Absolute cleanliness as regards person, stable, utensils and package. Faults--The quickest way to find out the faulty points in your butter, is to send a sample of it to some reliable butter buyer and ask him to score it. The difference between the dairyman who makes $50.00 a year, per cow, and one who makes $30.00, is that the first works intelligently, the second mechanically. Details--The price of success in butter making, as in all other classes of business, is strict attention to the little details; it's the sum of all these little things that determines whether your butter is to be sold for ten cents a pound or as a high priced luxury. The disadvantages of the system of setting milk in shallow pans or crocks, for raising cream, are that a long period elapses before the skimming is completed, too much space is required, and in Summer the milk becomes sour before the whole of the cream is raised. Labor saving appliances are intended, as the name implies, to save labor, but they do not render care, thought and diligence the less necessary. To understand the principles that underlie the business of butter making, is as imperative as to use the most improved utensils. By keeping a strict account only, can you find out the extent of your success or failure. If the balance is on the right side, you will know whether and how much it can be increased; if it is on the wrong side, you will be more strongly convinced of the necessity for improvement. If you keep your cows in a healthy condition, milk regularly; set the milk in air tight cans with good cold water (either ice or spring); skim every twenty-four hours; ripen the cream properly; churn in a barrel churn or some other good churn on the same principle; wash the butter well while still in the churn in granular state; you will never be troubled with white specks in your butter. HOW TO MAKE GOOD BUTTER. --BY N. BIGALOW, STOWE, VERMONT.-- It is necessary to have good cows to start with, and if _good butter_ is the object sought I prefer good Jerseys. The next thing is good feed. Grass that is fresh and tender is best of all. This does not last very long up here in Vermont. My cows have a feed of green corn fodder, at night, and a small feed of grain, in the morning. I prefer to mix different kinds of grain together. It must be all sound and good. Make the cows comfortable and contented. Kind treatment is indispensable, and the more regularity in caring for them the better. We try to keep the milk entirely clean. If it is necessary we wash the cows' bags, before milking. The milk is strained into large, open pans, and as soon as the animal heat is out of it, the pans are covered over with thin cotton cloth. The covers are made by sewing the edges of the cloth to some strips of basswood, about three-fourths of an inch square and a little longer than the pans. They cost but a trifle, and after using them ten years we would hardly make butter without them. The butter is not quite so yellow, at first, for raising the cream under the covers, but will be after it has stood a few hours. When we first tried our large pans, we used to run water around them, but the coolers have got to leaking, and we do not think it would pay to get new ones. Our rule is to skim the milk soon after it sours, as the cream will come off easily. We keep the cream in a cellar, when it is necessary, but prefer to keep it in the milk room, when it is not too warm. Our dairy is small, and we have churned only twice a week, this year. We use the Stoddard churn, and would not use a float churn. I have never seen the acme churn yet, and hardly think it has been made. 58 degrees is the right temperature at which to churn the cream, in warm weather: 62 in cold, and 60 in spring and fall. We put in from three to six quarts of water to thin the cream, and if the cream is too warm we use cold water (we have a cold spring), and in extreme warm weather use a little ice. If the cream is too cold we warm the water sometimes up to 120 degrees. If that will not answer, the cream must be warmed beforehand. The buttermilk is drawn off as soon as it can be done, and leave most of the butter in the churn. Any butter that runs out is put back with a skimmer. We use cold water enough to keep the butter in the grain, and wash it until the water runs clear. I suppose brine would be better, but have not used it much. After the butter has drained, the salt is strained in with a paddle; and then it is taken out with the paddle and pressed into the butter bowl. We use about an ounce of salt to a pound, but some of it works out. After it has stood a few hours, it is worked with a lever in an old fashioned butter worker, just enough to get the salt in evenly, and then it is ready to print. We always try to injure the grain as little as possible. Our printer holds four pounds, and makes eight half pound prints. The prints are put up in four pound boxes, and cut apart with wooden blades. The boxes are made here in Stowe, and are washed and scalded with boiling water, sprinkled with salt. Our milk house is shaded on the eastern side by a willow tree, and on the southern by another building, and we can cool it to some extent with currents of air. But if we should admit currents of air, without the covers over the pans, there would be white specks in the butter. We use butter color when it is necessary to color the butter, but think it better to color it too little than too much. I am in the habit of mixing a small quantity of cotton seed meal with the grain for the cows, and think I get a little more milk from that than anything else. Linseed meal is very high here, and I have never used it. Last, but not least, the cows must have pure air to breathe, and the milk, cream and butter must be kept in a good atmosphere. I am fully convinced that any farmer that makes a prime article of butter, of uniform quality, has an excellent opportunity to use common sense and sound judgment. Consumers of such butter, as I have described, need not have any fear that they are eating anything that is, or _ever was_, filthy or unwholesome. THE DAIRYMAN'S LIBRARY. Creaming Milk by Centrifugal Force $ 50 Hazard's Butter and Butter Making 25 Curtis' Hints on Dairying 50 Willard's Practical Dairy Husbandry 3 00 Willard's Practical Butter Book 1 25 ABC Butter Making, by Burch 30 Harris' Cheese and Butter Maker's Hand Book 1 50 The Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey Cow 1 75 Feeding Animals. Stewart 2 00 Dadd's American Cattle Doctor 1 75 Guenon's Treatise on Milch Cows 1 25 Quincy on Soiling of Cattle 1 50 Keeping One Cow 1 25 Jennings' Cattle and their Diseases 2 00 Barn Plans and Out Buildings 1 75 Any one of the above books will be sent post-paid on receipt of price. The DAIRY WORLD, Chicago, Ill. THE DAIRY WORLD A MONTHLY JOURNAL FOR THE Creamery, Cheese Factory AND PRIVATE DAIRY. Finely Printed, Elegantly Illustrated and ably Edited by Practical American, Swedish and Danish Butter and Cheese Makers. $1.00 PER ANNUM, SAMPLE COPIES 10 CENTS. THE DAIRY WORLD, CHICAGO, ILL. WOOL GROWERS! READ THE AMERICAN SHEEP BREEDER. [Illustration] An ably edited, elegantly illustrated monthly magazine, published in the interests of sheep-breeders and wool-growers everywhere. _ONLY $1.00 PER ANNUM._ Address, C. S. BURCH PUBLISHING CO., CHICAGO, ILL. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES -Obvious print and punctuation errors fixed. -Illustrations have been repositioned so as not to split paragraphs. 
46696	----	[Illustration: _Insultare solopet gressus glomerare superbos._] A NEW SYSTEM OF HORSEMANSHIP: From the French of Monsieur Bourgelat. BY RICHARD BERENGER, Esq; _Content, if hence th' Unlearn'd their Wants may view, The Learn'd reflect on what before they knew._ Pope's Essay on Crit. _LONDON_: Printed by Henry Woodfall, For Paul Vaillant in the _Strand_, facing _Southampton-Street_. M.DCC.LIV. THE TRANSLATOR's PREFACE. _IT is not my Design, in the Task I undertake of giving some Account of this Work, as well as of the Art which is the Subject of it, to trace its Origin back into past Times, or to wander in search of it in the Darkness and Confusion of remote Antiquity. Let it suffice to say, that though its Beginning, as well as that of other Arts, was imperfect, yet its Use, and the Entertainment it affords, have been known and tasted in all Ages. But however distinguish'd it may be by the Notice of the Great, who have at all Times deign'd to profess and practise it; it is yet less entitled to our Regard for these Distinctions, than for the real Advantages we derive from it. Riding consists of two Parts, the_ useful _and the_ ornamental. _That the latter of these may be dispensed with, is most readily granted; but that it behoves every one who puts himself upon a Horse to have some Knowledge of the first, is most evident.--For who would trust to the Mercy of an Animal that may prove wild and ungovernable, who knows himself to be incapable of controuling him, and of acting for his own Safety? Who would venture alone into a Vessel, that can neither row, nor manage a Sail, but must trust entirely to the Winds and Tide? Yet is this the Case with the Generality of Mankind, who are carried upon the Back of a Horse, and think they_ ride. _The_ Utility _of this Art consists then in knowing how to guide and direct your Horse as you please, and in reducing him to Obedience, so as to make him execute readily what you require of him. Thus far it is to be wish'd every Person who is conversant with Horses, would endeavour to attain. The_ ornamental _Part, I have already said, is not so requisite to be known: It can only be called an Accomplishment, and placed among the superfluous but refin'd Pleasures of Life. In what Esteem and Honour however it has constantly been held, abundantly appears from the Schools and Academies every where erected for teaching its Elements, as well as from the Number of Books, ancient and modern, given to the World by eminent and accomplished Persons who have studied and practis'd it. Among these our illustrious Countryman_, William Cavendish, _Duke of_ Newcastle, _has the highest Claim to our Praise and Acknowledgments. It would be needless to describe his Excellencies; his Character, as a Horseman, is universally known, and universally admir'd. The Truth and Soundness of his Principles, and the Extensiveness of his Knowledge, have opened to us an easier, a shorter, and more certain Way to Perfection in the Art, than was known before. His Precepts have accordingly been adopted by all succeeding Professors, and his Writings consider'd as the Oracle of Horsemanship, notwithstanding a Want of Method and Exactness, which has been objected to them. To remedy these Imperfections, is the Design of the present Undertaking, and the Labours of a judicious and experienced Foreigner, must consummate in the Knowledge of the Art he professes. He has presented us with a new System of Horsemanship, extracted from the Rules of that great Master. The Method and Conciseness with which he has digested the Whole, have made the Copy much less than the Original, but it is a small well-polished Gem. To speak truth, he has made the Subject so much his own by the Refinement of his Remarks, the Justness of his Reasoning, and the Light he has diffused through it, that it must have the Merit of an Original; at least the Reader will be divided to whom he shall render most Thanks, whether to him who has given the Food, or to him who has prepar'd and set it before us with so much Elegance and Order. This at least is our Author's Praise.----The Translator has endeavoured to do him as much Justice, in the following Sheets, as he has done his great Original; sensible of the Danger of so difficult an Enterprize, but prompted to it in hopes of making his Merit more known. He translated the Work, that the Treasures it contains may be gathered by those who are so unfortunate as to want this Assistance to obtain them. He has been as faithful to his Author, as the Languages will allow, judging that to be the surest way of doing him Justice. In some Places however he has used (as all Translators must) a discretionary Power. Every Art has technical terms, or Words of its own; these he has preserved in the Translation, the_ English _affording none adequate to them. He has given no Notes or Comments, imagining the Original can, and hoping the Translation will, want none. Of this however his Readers will be the best Judges; he will say no more of himself, but that he has endeavoured to make the Work as perfect as he could; and for this Reason will be very ready to own any Faults that may be pointed out; for, though desirous of Approbation, he is not vain enough to think, there may not be room for Censure._ TABLE of CHAPTERS. I. _Of the Horseman's Seat_ page 1 II. _Of the Hand, and its Effects_ 10 III. _Of Disobedience in Horses, and the Means to correct it_ 19 IV. _Of the Trot_ 33 V. _Of the Stop_ 43 VI. _Of teaching a Horse to go backward_ 50 VII. _Of the uniting or putting a Horse together_ 54 VIII. _Of the Pillars_ 60 IX. _Of Aids and Corrections_ 64 X. _Of the Passage_ 75 XI. _Of working with the Head and Croupe to the Wall_ 79 XII. _Of Changes of the Hand, large and narrow, and of Voltes and Demi-voltes_ 82 XIII. _Of the Aids of the Body_ 92 XIV. _Of the Gallop_ 98 XV. _Of Passades_ 107 XVI. _Of Pesades_ 111 XVII. _Of the Mezair_ 115 XVIII. _Of Curvets_ 117 XIX. _Of Croupades and Balotades_ 129 XX. _Of Caprioles_ 132 XXI. _Of the Step and Leap_ 142 TO SIDNEY MEDOWS, Esq; The Following SHEETS, Eminently due to Him from their Subject, And not Less so From the AUTHOR's sincere Regard TO His Person and Character, Are Inscrib'd, By his Faithful and Obedient Servant, RICHARD BERENGER. ERRATA. Page 36. _for_ Remingue _read_ Ramingue. p. 38. _dele_ and. p. 66. _for_ in _read_ it. p. 79. _for_ Care _read_ Ease. p. 80. _for_ acting _read_ aiding. p. 85. _dele_ so. p. 116. _for_ Lines _read_ Times. A NEW SYSTEM OF HORSEMANSHIP. CHAP. I. _Of the Horseman's Seat._ THE Principles and Rules which have hitherto been given for the Horseman's Seat, are various, and even opposite, according as they have been adopted by different Masters, and taught in different Countries; almost each Master, in particular, and every Nation, having certain Rules and Notions of their own. Let us see, however, if Art can discover nothing to us that is certain and invariably true. THE _Italians_, the _Spaniards_, the _French_, and, in a word, every Country, where Riding is in repute, adopt each a Posture which is peculiar to themselves; the Foundation of their general Notions, is, if I may so say, the same, but yet each Country has prescribed Rules for the Placing of the Man in the Saddle. THIS Contrariety of Opinions, which have their Origin more in Prejudice, than in Truth and Reality, has given rise to many vain Reasonings and Speculations, each System having its Followers; and, as if Truth was not always the same and unchangeable, but at liberty to assume various, and even opposite Appearances; sometimes one Opinion prevailed, sometimes another dazzled; insomuch, that those who understand nothing of the Subject, but yet are desirous of informing themselves, by searching it to the Bottom, have hitherto been lost in Doubt and Perplexity. THERE is nevertheless a sure and infallible Method, by the Assistance of which it would be very easy to overturn all these Systems: But not to enter into a needless Detail, of the extravagant Notions which the Seat alone has given rise to, let us trace it from Principles by so much the more solid, as their Authority will be supported by the most convincing and self-evident Reasons. IN order to succeed in an Art where the Mechanism of the Body is absolutely necessary, and where each Part of the Body has proper Functions, which are peculiar to it, it is most certain, that all and every Part of the Body should be in a natural Posture; were they in an imperfect Situation, they would want that Ease and Freedom which is inseparable from Grace; and as every Motion which is constrained, being false in itself, is incapable of Justness; it is clear that the Part so constrained and forced would throw the whole into Disorder, because each Part belonging to, and depending upon the whole Body, and the Body partaking of the Constraint of its Parts, can never feel that fix'd Point, that just Counterpoise and Equilibre in which alone a fine and just Execution consists. IT is not therefore sufficient in giving Directions for the Seat, to keep altogether to trivial and common Rules which may be followed or left at pleasure; we ought to weigh and examine them with Skill and Judgment, in order to know how to apply them properly and suitably as the Shape and Figure of the Person to whom we undertake to give a Seat will allow; for many Motions and Attitudes that appear easy and natural in one Man, in another are awkward and ungraceful; whence all those Faults and Difficulties which in many Persons have been thought insuperable; whereas a little more Knowledge, a closer Attention, and a more serious Examination into the Principles of the Art, would convert in the same Subject an awkward and displeasing Appearance, into an easy, natural, and graceful Figure, capable of drawing the Eyes even of Judges themselves. INDEED the Objects, to which a Master, anxious for the Advancement of his Pupil, should attend, are infinite. To little Purpose will it be to keep the strictest Eye upon all the Parts and Limbs of his Pupil's Body; in vain will he endeavour to remedy all the Defects and Faults which are found in the Posture of almost every Scholar in the Beginning; unless he is intimately acquainted with, and apprized of, the close Dependance and Connection that there is between the Motions of each Part of the Body, and all the Rest; a Correspondence caused by the reciprocal Action of the Muscles which govern and direct them; unless therefore he is Master of this Secret, and has this Clue to the Labyrinth, he will never attain the End he proposes, particularly in his first Lessons, upon which the Success of the rest always depends. THESE Principles being established, let us reason in consequence of them; we shall display them with great Force and Clearness. THE Body of a Man is divided into three Parts, two of which are moveable, the other immoveable. THE First of the two moveable Parts is the Trunk or Body, down to the Waist; the Second is from the Knees to the Feet; so that the remaining immoveable Part is that between the Waist and the Knees. THE Parts then which ought to be without Motion, are the Fork or Twist of the Horseman, and his Thighs: Now, that these Parts may be kept without Motion, they ought to have a certain Hold and Center, if I may so say, to rest upon, which no Motion that the Horse can make, can disturb or loosen; this Point or Center is the Basis of the Hold which the Horseman has upon his Horse, and is what is called the _Seat_. Now, if the Seat is nothing else but this Point or Center, it must follow, that not only the Grace, but the Symmetry and true Proportion of the whole Attitude depends upon those Parts of the Body that are immoveable. LET the Horseman then place himself at once upon his Twist, sitting exactly in the Middle of the Saddle, let him support this Posture, in which the Twist alone seems to sustain the Weight of the whole Body, by moderately leaning upon the Buttocks; let his Thighs be turned inward, and rest flat upon the Sides of the Saddle, and in order to this, let the Turn of the Thighs proceed directly from the Hips, and let him employ no Force or Strength to keep himself in the Saddle, but trust to the Weight of his Body and Thighs; this is the exact Equilibre; in this consists the Firmness of the whole Building; a Firmness which young Beginners are never sensible of at first, but which is to be acquired, and will always be attained by Exercise and Practice. I demand but a moderate Stress upon the Buttocks, because a Man that sits full upon them, can never turn his Thighs flat upon the Saddle; and the Thighs should always lay flat, because the fleshy Part of the Thigh being insensible, the Horseman would not otherwise be able to feel the Motions of his Horse. I insist that the Turn of the Thigh should be from the Hip, because this Turn can never be natural, but as it proceeds from the Hollow of the Hip-bone. I insist further, that the Horseman never avail himself of the Strength or Help of his Thighs; because, besides that he would then be not only less steady, but the closer he prest them to the Saddle, the more would he be lifted above it; and with respect to his Buttocks and Thighs, he ought always to be in the Middle of the Saddle, and sit down full and close upon it. HAVING thus firmly placed the immoveable Parts, let us pass on to the first of the Moveable; which is, as I have already observed, the Body or Trunk, as far as to the Waist: I comprehend in the Body or Trunk, the Head, the Shoulders, the Breast, the Arms, the Hands, the Loins, and the Waist, of the Horseman. THE Head should be free, firm, and easy, in order to be ready for all the natural Motions that the Horseman may make, in turning it to one Side or the other: It should be firm, that is to say strait, without leaning to the Right or Left, neither advanced, nor thrown back; it should be easy, because if otherwise, it would occasion a Stiffness, and that Stiffness affecting the different Parts of the Body, especially the Back-bone, they would be without Ease, and constrained. THE Shoulders alone influence by their Motion the Breast, the Reins, and the Waist. THE Horseman should present or advance his Breast; by this his whole Figure opens and displays itself: He should have a small Hollow in his Loins, and should push his Waist forward to the Pommel of the Saddle, because this Position corresponds and unites him to all the Motions of the Horse. Now, only throwing the Shoulders back produces all these Effects, and gives them exactly in the Degree that is requisite; whereas, if we were to look for the particular Position of each Part separately, and by itself, without examining the Connection that there is between the Motions of one Part with those of another, there would be such a Bending in the Loins, that the Horseman would be, if I may so say, _hollow-back'd_; and as from that he would force his Breast forward, and his Waist towards the Pommel of the Saddle, he would be flung back, and must sit upon the Rump of the Horse. THE Arms should be bent at the Elbows, and the Elbows should rest equally upon the Hips; if the Arms were strait, the Consequence would be, that the Hands would be infinitely too low, or at much too great a Distance from the Body; and if the Elbows were not kept steady, they would of consequence give an Uncertainty and Fickleness to the Hand, sufficient to ruin it for ever. IT is true, that the Bridle-hand is that which absolutely ought to be steady and immoveable, and one might conclude from hence, that the Left-elbow only ought to rest upon the Hip, but Grace consists in the exact Proportion and Symmetry of all the Parts of the Body, and to have the Arm on one Side raised and advanced, and that of the other kept down and close to the Body, would present but an awkward and disagreeable Appearance. IT is this which determines the Situation of the Hand, which holds the Switch. The Left-hand being of an equal Height with the Elbow, so that the Knuckle of the Little-finger, and the Tip of the Elbow, be both in a Line; this Hand then being rounded neither too much nor too little, but just so that the Wrist may direct all its Motions; place your Right-hand, or the Switch-hand, lower and more forward than the Bridle-hand; it should be lower than the other Hand, because if it was upon a Level with it, it would restrain or obstruct its Motions; and were it to be higher, as it cannot take so great a Compass as the Bridle-hand, which must always be kept over against the Horseman's Body, it is absolutely necessary to keep the Proportion of the Elbows, that it should be lower than the other. THE Legs and Feet make up the second Division, of what I call the moveable Parts of the Body. THE Legs serve for two Purposes; they may be used as Aids, or Corrections, to the Animal. They should then be kept near the Sides of the Horse, and in a Line with the Man's Body; for being near the Part of the Horse's Body where his Feeling is most delicate, they are ready to do their Office in the Instant they are wanted. Moreover, as they are an Appendix of the Thighs, if the Thigh is upon its Flat in the Saddle, they will, by a necessary Consequence, be turned just as they ought, and will infallibly give the same Turn to the Feet; because the Feet depend upon them, as they depend upon the Thighs. THE Toe should be held a little higher than the Heel, for the lower the Toe is, the nearer the Heel will be to the Sides of the Horse, and must be in danger of touching his Flank. Many Persons, notwithstanding, when they raise their Toe, bend and twist their Ankle, as if they were lame in that Part. The Reason of this is very plain; it is because they make use of the Muscles in their Legs and Thighs; whereas, they should employ only the Joint of the Foot for this Purpose; a Joint, given by Nature to facilitate all the Motions of the Foot, and to enable it to turn to the Right or Left, upwards or downwards. SUCH is, in short, the mechanical Disposition of all the Parts of the Horseman's Body. I will enlarge no further upon a Subject treated on already so amply by every Writer; as it is needless to write what has been already handled. I have had no other Design in this Chapter, than to give an Idea of the Correspondence that there is between all the Parts of the Body, because it is only by a just Knowledge of this mutual Relation of all the different Parts, that we can be enabled to prescribe Rules for giving that true and natural Seat, which is not only the Principle of Justness, but likewise the Foundation of all Grace in the Horseman. CHAP. II. _Of the Hand, and its Effects._ THE Knowledge of the different Characters, and the different Nature of Horses, together with the Vices, and Imperfections, as well as the exact and just Proportions of the Parts of a Horse's Body, is the Foundation upon which is built the Theory of our Art; but this Theory will be unnecessary and even useless, it we are not able likewise to carry it into Execution. THIS depends chiefly upon the Goodness and Quickness of Feeling in the Hand, a Delicacy which Nature alone can give, and which she does not always bestow. The first Sensation of the Hand consists in a greater or less Degree of Fineness in the Touch or Feeling; all of us are equally furnished with Nerves, from which we have the Sense of Feeling, but as this Sense is much more subtle and quick in some Persons than in others, it is impossible to give a precise Definition of the exact Degree of Feeling in the Hand, which ought to communicate and answer to the same Degree of Feeling in the Horse's Mouth; because there is as much difference in the Degrees of Feeling in Men, as there is in the Mouths of Horses. I SUPPOSE then a Man, who is not only capable to judge of the Qualities of a Horse's Mouth from a Knowledge of the Theory, but who has likewise by Nature that Fineness of Touch, which helps to form a good Hand; let us see then what the Rules are that we must follow, in order to make it perfect, and by which we must direct all its Operations. A HORSE can move four different Ways, he can advance, go back, turn to the Right, and to the Left; but he can never make these different Motions, unless the Hand of the Rider permits him by making four other Motions which answer to them: So that there are five different Positions for the Hand. THE first is that general Position, from which proceed, and indeed ought to proceed, the other four. HOLD your Hand three Fingers breadth from your Body, as high as your Elbow, in such a Manner that the Joint of your Little-finger be upon a right Line with the Tip of the Elbow; let your Wrist be sufficiently rounded, so that your Knuckles may be kept directly above the Neck of your Horse; let your Nails be exactly opposite your Body, the Little-finger nearer to it than the others, your Thumb quite flat upon the Reins, which you must separate, by putting your Little-finger between them, the right Rein lying upon it; this is the first and general Position. DOES your Horse go forward, or rather would you have him go forward? Yield to him your Hand, and for that Purpose turn your Nails downwards, in such a Manner as to bring your Thumb near your Body, remove your Little-finger from it, and bring it into the Place where your Knuckles were in the first Position, keeping your Nails directly above your Horse's Neck; this is the second. WOULD you make your Horse go backwards? quit the first Position, let your Wrist be quite round, let your Thumb be in the Place of the Little-finger in the second Position, and the Little-finger in that of the Thumb, turn your Nails quite upwards, and towards your Face, and your Knuckles will be towards your Horse's Neck; this is the third. WOULD you turn your Horse to the Right, leave the first Position, carry your Nails to the Right, turning your Hand upside down, in such a manner, that your Thumb be carried out to the Left, and the Little-finger brought in to the Right; this is the fourth Position. LASTLY, Would you turn to the Left, quit again the first Position, carry the Back of your Hand a little to the Left, so that the Knuckles come under a little, but that your Thumb incline to the Right, and the Little-finger to the Left; this makes the fifth. THESE different Positions however alone are not sufficient; we must be able to pass from one to another with Readiness and Order.----Three Qualities are especially necessary to the Hand. It ought to be _firm_, _gentle_, and _light_; I call that a _firm_ or _steady Hand_, whose Feeling corresponds exactly with the Feeling in the Horse's Mouth, and which consists in a certain Degree of Steadiness, which constitutes the just Correspondence between the Hand and the Horse's Mouth, which every Horseman wishes to find. AN _easy_ and _gentle Hand_ is that which by relaxing a little of its Strength and Firmness, eases and mitigates the Degree of Feeling between the Hand and Horse's Mouth, which I have already described. LASTLY, a _light_ Hand is that which lessens still more the Feeling between the Rider's Hand and the Horse's Mouth, which was before moderated by the _gentle_ Hand. THE Hand therefore, with respect to these Properties, must operate in part, and within certain Degrees; and depends upon being more or less felt, or yielded to the Horse, or with-held. IT should be a Rule with every Horseman, not to pass at once from one Extreme to another, from a firm Hand to a slack one; so that in the Motions of the Hand, you must upon no account jump over that Degree of Sensation which constitutes the _easy_ or _gentle_ Hand. Were you at once to go from a firm Hand or a slack one, you would then entirely abandon your Horse; you would surprize him, deprive him of the Support he trusted to, and precipitate him on his Shoulders, supposing you do this at an improper time; on the contrary, were you to pass from a slack to a tight Rein all at once, you must jerk your Hand, and give a violent Shock to the Horse's Mouth, which rough and irregular Motion would be sufficient to falsify the finest Apuy, and ruin a good Mouth. IT is indispensibly necessary therefore, that all its Operations should be gentle and light; and in order to this, it is necessary that the Wrist alone should direct and govern all its Motions, by turning and steering it, if I may so say, through every Motion that it is to make. IN consequence then of these Principles, I insist that the Wrist be kept so round, that your Knuckles may be always directly above the Horse's Neck, and that your Thumb be always kept flat upon the Reins. In reality, were your Wrist to be more or less rounded, than in the Degree I have fixed, you could never work with your Hand, but by the means of your Arm; and besides, it would appear as if it were lame: Again, were your Thumb not to be upon the Flat of the Reins, they would continually slip through the Hand, and, by being lengthen'd, would spoil the Apuy; and in order to recover them, you would be obliged every Moment to raise your Hand and Arm, which would throw you into Confusion, and make you lose that Justness and Order, without which no Horse will be obedient, and work with Readiness and Pleasure. IT is nevertheless true, that with Horses that are well drest, one may take Liberties; these are nothing else but those Motions which are called _Descents_ of the Hand, and they are to be made three different ways; either by dropping the Knuckles directly and at once upon the Horse's Neck, or by taking the Reins in the Right-hand, about four Fingers breadth above the Left, and letting them slide through the Left, dropping your Right-hand at the same time upon the Horse's Neck; or else by putting the Horse under the _Button_, as it is call'd; that is, by taking the End of the Reins in your Right-hand, quitting them entirely with your Left, and letting the End of them fall upon your Horse's Neck: these Motions however, which give a prodigious Grace to the Horseman, never should be made but with great Caution, and exactly in the time when the Horse is quite _together_, and in the Hand; and you must take care to counter-balance, by throwing back your Body, the Weight of the Horse upon his Haunches. THE Apuy being always in the same Degree, would heat the Mouth, would dull the Sense of Feeling, would deaden the Horse's Bars, and render them insensible and callous; this shews the Necessity of continually yielding and drawing back the Hand to keep the Horse's Mouth fresh and awake. BESIDES these Rules and Principles, there are others not less just and certain, but whose Niceness and Refinement it is not the Lot of every Man to be able to taste and understand. My Hand being in the first Position, I open the two Middle-fingers, I consequently ease and slacken my Right Rein; I shut my Hand, the Right Rein operates again, and resumes the Apuy. I open my Little-finger, and putting the End of it upon the Right Rein, I thereby slacken the Left, and shorten the Right. I shut my Hand entirely, and open it immediately again; I thereby lessen the Degree of Tension and Force of the two Reins at the same time; again I close my Hand not quite so much, but still I close it. It is by these Methods, and by the Vibration of the Reins, that I unite the Feeling in my Hand with that in the Horse's Mouth; and it is thus that I play with a fine and _made_ Mouth, and freshen and relieve the Bars in which the Feeling or Apuy resides. IT is the same with respect to the second _Descent_ of the Hand: My Right-hand holding the Reins, I pass and slide my Left-hand upon the Reins up and down, and in the Degree of Apuy of the _easy_ and _slack_ Hand; by the means of which the Horse endeavours of himself to preserve the Correspondence and Harmony of that mutual Sensation, between his Mouth and the Rider's Hand, which alone can make him submit with Pleasure to the Constraint of the Bit. I HAVE thus explained the different Positions and Motions of the Hand; let me shew now in a few Words the Effects which they produce. THE Horseman's Hand directs the Reins; the Reins operate upon the Branches of the Bit; the Branches upon the Mouth-piece and the Curb; the Mouth-piece operates upon the Bars, and the Curb upon the Beard of the Horse. THE Right Rein guides the Horse to the Left; the Left Rein to the Right. Would you go to the Right, you pass to the fourth Position of the Hand, that is, you carry and turn your Nails to the Right; now in carrying thus your Nails to the Right, and reversing your Hand in such a manner, that your Thumb point to the Left, and your Little-finger being raised turns to the Right, you by this means shorten your Left Rein; it is this Left therefore that turns and guides the Horse to the Right: Would you go to the Left, pass to the fifth Position, you will carry the Back of your Hand to the Left, so that your Nails will be turned down a little, your Thumb will be to the Right, and the Little-finger to the Left; this will shorten the right Rein, and the right Rein determines your Horse to the Left. I HAVE already said, that the Effect which the Mouth-piece has upon the Bars, and the Curb upon the Beard, depends upon the Branches of the Bitt; when the Branches rise or are turned upwards, the Mouth-piece sinks, and when the Branches sink, the Mouth-piece rises; so that when your Horse is going strait forward, if you keep your Hand low and close to your Body, the Mouth-piece then presses strong upon the Bars, and the Chain or Curb having, in consequence more Liberty, acts less upon the Beard; on the contrary, if you keep your Hand high, a little forward, and consequently a little out of the Line of the End of the Branches, the Mouth-piece then sinks, and the Branches of necessity operate upon the Curb, which presses then very strongly upon the Beard; now, in order to place, and to bring in your Horse's Head, you must hold your Hand low, and in order to raise and lighten a Horse that weighs upon the Hand, and carries his Head too low, you must advance your Hand a little, and keep it high. WOULD you have your Horse go backward? Come to the third Position, but take care to round your Wrist exactly, in order to work equally with both Reins, and by this means to aid your Horse more effectually to go backward strait and ballanced between your Legs, which he could never do, if one Rein was to operate stronger than the other. THERE are particular Cases, where the Reins are separated, and one held in each Hand; it is usual to separate them when you trot a young Horse, or when you are to work one who is disobedient, and resists his Rider; upon these occasions, keep both your Hands upon a Level, low and near your Body: To turn to the right, use your right Rein; to go to the left, use your left Rein; but in order to make them have their Effect, move your Arm gently, turning it a little from your Body, keeping your Hand always low and even near your Boot. SUCH are the Principles upon which the Perfection and Justness of the Aids of the Hand depend, all others are false, and not to be regarded; Experience has so much the more evinced the Truth of this, as the new Discoveries which some People imagine they have lately made, have produced nothing but Hands, cold and unactive, without Firmness, whose irregular and capricious Motions serve only to render a Horse's Mouth uncertain and fickle, and who, by their manner of holding them high, have ruined absolutely the Hocks of all the Horses, that they have worked according to these absurd Notions. CHAP. III. _Of Disobedience in Horses, and the Means to correct it._ DISOBEDIENCE in Horses is more frequently owing to the want of Skill in the Horseman, than proceeding from any natural Imperfections in the Horse; in effect, three things may give rise to it, Ignorance, a bad Temper, and an Incapacity in the Animal to do what is required of him. IF a Horse is ignorant of what you expect him to do, and you press him, he will rebel, nothing is more common; teach him then, and he will know; a frequent Repetition of the Lessons will convert this Knowledge into a Habit, and you will reduce him to the most exact Obedience. HE refuses perhaps to obey, this Fault may arise either from Ill-humour, Dullness, or from too much Mettle; it often is the Effect of the two first Vices, sometimes the Result of all the three. In either, or all these Instances, recourse must be had to Rigour, but it must be used with Caution; for we must not forget, that the Hopes of Recompence have as great an Influence over the Understanding of the Animal, as the Fear of Punishment. Perhaps he is not able to execute what you ask of him; examine him, something may be amiss in some Part of his Body, or perhaps in the whole Body; he may be deficient, he may want Strength, or not be light enough; perhaps he is deficient in both, in that he resists and rebels. Consider whether he knows what he should do or not; if he is ignorant, teach him; if he knows, but can't execute through Inability, endeavour to assist Nature as far as you can, by the Help of Art. But does he already know, and is he able too, and yet does he refuse to obey? After having first tried every Method that Patience and Lenity can suggest, compel him by Force and Severity. It behoves then every Horseman, who would be perfect in his Art, to distinguish from whence the different Sorts of Defences and Rebellion in Horses proceed: And this Knowledge is by so much the more difficult to attain, as he must have Penetration enough to distinguish if the Cause of their Rebellion is in their Character and Nature, or owing to any Fault in their Make and Structure. THE different Natures of Horses are infinite, though there are certain general Principles, of which all, more or less, always partake. A HORSE may be imperfect from four Causes, Weakness, Heaviness in his Make, Want of Courage, and Sloth. FOUR Qualities must conspire to make a perfect Horse, Strength, Activity, Courage, and Judgment. THE Mixture of these different Qualities occasions the different Natures and Dispositions of the Creature, according as he is form'd better or worse; for it is from his Temper, or rather from the Harmony or Unfitness of the Parts and Elements, of which he is composed, that we are enabled to fix his Character; it is therefore the Part of every Horseman never to work but with Discretion and Caution, and to adapt his Rules and Lessons to the Nature and Ability of the Horse he undertakes, and which he ought to know. A HORSE may be difficult to be mounted, examine the Source of this Vice; it may be owing either to the Ignorance or the Brutality of those who have first had to do with him, or perhaps that the Saddle may have hurt him, or else to a Temper naturally bad. To whatever Cause it may be owing, remember never to beat him, for instead of curing him, you would certainly confirm him in his Vice; clap him gently when you approach him, stroke his Head and Mane, talk to him, and as you talk, clap the Seat of the Saddle; keep yourself still all the while, put your Foot only in the Stirrup to encourage your Horse, without doing any more, in order to make him familiar, and lose all Apprehension and Fear when he is going to be mounted; by degrees at last he will let you mount him, you will immediately get down and remount, and so successively for several Times together, without attempting to do any thing else, but send him back to the Stable. If it happens that then when you are upon him, he runs from the Place where you got upon him, bring him to it immediately, keep him there some Time, coax him, and send him away.----The first Lessons ought to be well weigh'd; when you undertake to bring a young Horse to Obedience, and to reclaim him from Liberty to the Subjection of the Bridle, Saddle, and the Weight of his Rider, so restrain'd, it is not surprizing if he should employ all his Strength against you in his own Defence. THE Generality of Colts are difficult to be turn'd and guided as you would have them go; we ought not however to be surprized at this their first Disobedience, it must be imputed to the Habit they acquire from their Birth, of constantly following their Dams. Indulged in this Liberty, and subjected all at once by the Bit, it is but natural they should rebel; there is no way of eradicating these first Impressions, but by Gentleness and Patience: A Horseman, who should make use of Force and Correction, and employ it all at once upon a young Horse, would discourage and make him vicious ever after. If therefore your Horse refuses to go forward, you must lead another Horse before him, the Person who rides the Colt will try from Time to Time, and insensibly, to make the Colt go a-breast with him, and afterwards get before him; if being surprized at seeing the Horse no longer, he stops or runs back, the Rider must endeavour to drive him forward, either by his Voice, or some Kind of slight Punishment, or he that rides the other Horse may give him a Stroke with the Chambriere, in order to make him go forward; if these Methods should not succeed, he will go before him again with the other Horse, by degrees (for one Lesson wont be sufficient) the Colt will grow accustom'd to it, and at last will go on of himself. MOST Horses who start, have some Defect in their Sight, which makes them fear to approach the Object. The Horseman, upon those Occasions, instead of having Recourse to Punishment, which serves only to alarm the Horse, and extinguish his Courage and Vigour, should first endeavour to lead him gently towards the Object that terrifies him, either by encouraging him with his Voice, or by closing his Legs upon him, to make him go up to it. If he wont go towards it, you may give him the Spurs, but with Discretion, and by Coaxing and Caresses push him towards it insensibly; severe Correction will never cure him of this fearful Temper, which is a Fault inherent in his Nature, nor of any Imperfections in his Sight, which is a Disorder belonging to him, but the Habit of viewing the Objects which alarm him, may in time remedy the Defects of Nature. IF notwithstanding you perceive that Sloth and Malice are added to these Faults, you must use as you find necessary both Mildness and severe Correction, and you will bestow them in proportion to the Effect they produce. For the rest, be careful never to surprize a young Horse who is shy, and apt to start, never terrify him with what he most fears, never beat him to make him come up to an Object which he dreads; accustom him by degrees to it, and have Patience; the Fear of Punishment does oftentimes more harm, and is more dreaded by him, than the very Object which first alarmed him. THERE are some Horses, who are struck with such Terror at the Sight of a Stone or Wooden Bridge, and at the Sound and Echo of the hollow Part of it, that they will fling themselves headlong into the Water, without the Riders being able to restrain them: They are to be cur'd of this Apprehension by covering the Pavement of their Stall with Wooden Planks, between two or three Feet high; and the Horse standing constantly upon them, his Feet will make the same Noise as they do when he goes over a Bridge, and he will of course grow familiar to the Sound, and lose all Apprehension of it. TO accustom them likewise to the Noise of the Water running under the Bridge, lead him to a Mill, fix two Pillars directly over against the Wheels, and tie your Horse constantly for two Hours together, several Times in the Day; having done this, bring him back to the Bridge, let an old Horse, that is not afraid, go before him upon the Bridge, by degrees you will find him go over the Bridge as readily and quietly as if he had never had the least Apprehension. FOR Horses that are addicted to lay down in the Water, you must provide yourself with two little Leaden Balls, tie them to a Piece of Packthread, and in the Moment that he is lying down, you must drop these into his Ears, and if he rises instantly, or forbears to lay down, draw them back; but this Method is not less sure than that of breaking a Flask fill'd with Water upon his Head, and letting the Water run into his Ears. FIRE, Smoke, the Smell of Gunpowder, and the Noise of Guns, or other Arms, naturally surprize and frighten a Horse.--There are few that will come near Fire, or pass by it without Difficulty. THERE are many Occasions however, wherein it is necessary; it is therefore proper to accustom your Horse to it. In the first place, begin with your Horse by letting him see it; and for that purpose tie him between two Pillars, and hold before him, at about thirty Paces distant, a burning Wisp of Straw; this should be continued for some Days together, repeating it several times each Day. Let the Person who holds the Brand, advance towards the Horse step by step, and let him take care to advance or stop often, as he perceives the Horse is more or less frighten'd, who in a short time will be imbolden'd, and no longer afraid of the Fire: After this get up on him, carry him slowly, and, as it were, insensibly towards the Brand, the Person who holds it taking care not to stir: If your Horse comes up to it, without being frighten'd, let the Man on Foot walk on, and let the Horse follow the Fire. Lay upon the Ground some Straw about half burnt out, and he will pass over it. WITH respect to the Noise of Arms and Drums, let your Horse hear them before you give him his Oats: Do this regularly every Day, for some time, and he will be so used to them as not to mind them. A HORSE is said to be _entier_ to that Hand, to which he refuses to turn; a Hurt in his Foot, Leg, or Shoulder, may often be the Cause of his refusing to turn to that Side, where he feels any Pain; a Hurt in his Loins or Haunch, a Curb or Spavin, by hindering him to bend and rest upon his Hocks, may make him guilty of this Disobedience. Art can do little towards curing these Evils, consequently a Horse so affected will never dress well, because he never can be made supple and ready; besides, every Horse is naturally inclin'd to go to one Hand more than the other, and then he will go to that Hand on which he finds himself the weakest, because with the strongest he can turn more easily. THEY may likewise refuse to turn, from some Defect in their Sight, natural or accidental. I have tried a Method to remedy this Vice, which has answer'd very well; I have put a Lunette upon the ailing Eye, and as his Fault was owing to his Eye, the Horse began by degrees to go to that Hand to which before he had refused to turn: After this I made two little Holes in the Lunette; I enlarged them afterwards, and the Eye of the Horse being thus insensibly accustom'd to receive the Light, and he to turn to that Hand, he no longer disobeyed; I exercised him in this Manner from time to time, in order to confirm him in his Obedience.--I have said, that there is no Horse who is not by Nature inclin'd to go better to one Hand than the other; their inclination generally carries them to the Left rather than to the Right. Some People impute this Preference to the Manner in which the Foal lies in its Dam's Belly, and pretend that even then it is entirely bent and turn'd to the Left: Others insist that Horses lay down generally upon their Right-side, and from thence contract a Habit to turn their Heads and Necks to the Left: But not to regard these groundless Notions, it is easier and more natural to believe, that this Habit is owing to Use, and the Manner in which they are treated by those who first have had the Care of them. THE Halter, the Bridle, the Saddle, and the Girths are all put on and tied on the Left-side; when they are rubb'd or curried, the Man stands on the Left-side; the same when they are fed, and when they are led out, the Man holds them in his Right-hand, consequently their Head is pull'd to the Left. Here are a Chain of Reasons, sufficient to induce us to believe that if they are readier to turn to one Hand than the other, it is owing to a Habit and Custom which we ourselves have given. We seldom meet with Horses that are readier to turn to the Right-hand than the Left; and when it so happens, it oftentimes denotes an ill Temper; it demands much Time and Pains to cure them of this Fault. IT is not proper to use severe Correction to make a Horse obey, who refuses to turn to one Hand; if he is cold and dull, he will lose all his Vigour and Courage; if he is of an angry Temper, hot and brisk, you would make him desperate and mad; work him then upon the Principles of Art, and pursue the Methods you think most likely to reform his ill Habit, and reduce him to Obedience; if he obstinately refuses to turn to one Hand, begin the next Lesson, by letting him go to his favourite Hand a turn or two; finish him on the same Hand, by degrees you'll gain him; whereas were you to do otherwise, you might make him ever afterwards rebellious. A Horse that strenuously resists his Rider, if he has Vigour and Courage, after he is reduced and conquer'd, will nevertheless succeed in what you want of him, provided he is under the Direction of an able and knowing Person, who understands the Aids of the Hand and Legs, and their mutual Harmony and Correspondence. SUCH a Horse is even preferable to one who never rebels; because in this last, Nature may be deficient, if I may so express myself, from his Want of Strength and Resolution. IN order to teach your Horses to turn to both Hands, you must separate your Reins, as I have already mention'd; don't confine him too much, support him moderately so that you may easily draw his Head to one side or the other, as you would have him go, and to give him the greater Liberty to turn. IF he refuses to obey, examine him; if he is by Nature impatient, hot and vicious, by no means beat him, provided he will go forwards; because being held in Hand, and kept back a little, is Punishment enough; if he stops, and strives to resist by running back, drive him forward with the Chambriere. THE Resistance of a Horse, whose Mouth is faulty, discovers itself more in going forward than backward, and in forcing the Hand; a Horse of this sort ought never to be beat; he ought to be kept back, as I have just now said. You must endeavour to give him a good and just Apuy, and put him upon his Haunches, in order to cure him of the Trick of leaning upon his Bit, and forcing the Hand. If your Horse is heavy, never press or put him together, till you have lighten'd his Fore-part, and put him upon his Haunches, for fear of throwing him so much upon his Shoulders, that it may be very difficult afterwards to raise him. Take particular care to lighten every Horse that is heavy before, and has Malice in his Temper at the same time; for if you were to press him, he would resist you through Vice; in which Case by his Want of Strength on one hand, and being heavy and unwieldy on the other, you would be exposed to evident Danger. A _restive_ Horse is one that refuses to go forward, who standing still in the same Place, defends himself, and resists his Rider in several different Manners; it is much to be fear'd that one should lose all Temper with such a Horse, since it requires a great deal of Patience to cure so Capital a Fault, and which perhaps by Habit and Time is so rooted in him as to be almost natural to him; treat a Horse of this sort, who has been too much constrain'd and tyrannized over, with the same Lenity that you would shew to a young Colt. THE Spurs are as improper to be used to one as the other; make use of your Switch in order to drive him forward, you will alarm him the less; the Spurs surprize a Horse, abate his Courage, and are more likely to make him restive, than oblige him to go forward, if he refuses to do so. There is likewise another Method to punish a restive Horse; it is to make him go backwards the Moment he begins to resist; this Correction often succeeds; but the general Rule is to push and carry your Horse forward, whenever he refuses to advance, but continues in the same Place, and defends himself, either by turning or flinging his Croupe on one side or the other; and for this Purpose nothing is so efficacious as to push him forward vigorously. THE most dangerous of all Defences a Horse can make is to rise directly upon his Hind-legs, and stand almost quite strait, because he runs a risque of falling backwards; and in that Case the Rider would be in Danger of his Life. People have endeavour'd to correct this Vice, by a Method of Punishment, which might prove dangerous, unless given in _time_ and with the greatest Exactness. WHEN the Horse rises strait up, throw your Body forward, and give him all the Bridle; the Weight of your Body on his Fore-parts will oblige him to come down: In the Minute that his Fore-feet are coming to the Ground, give him both the Spurs firm, and as quick as you can; these Aids and Corrections however must be given with the greatest Caution and Exactness: For were you to give him the Spurs when he is in the Air, he would fall over; whereas if you watch the Time so as not to spur him but when he is coming down, and his Fore-feet near the Ground, it is then impossible he should fall backwards; for then his Balance is destroy'd, and he is upon all his Legs again, and can't rise without first touching the Ground, and taking his Spring thence; if therefore you give him the Spurs before he is in a Situation to rise again, you will punish him, and drive him forward at the same time. THIS Defence is still more dangerous in Horses who are of a fiery Temper, and weak in their Haunches, at the same time; these are continually apt to rise, and whatever Precautions the Rider may take, he is in continual Danger of their coming over. The way to correct them is this: Tie your Horse between the Pillars very short, put on a good Cavason of Cord, and don't suffer him to be mounted; prick him upon the Buttocks with a Hand-spur in order to make him strike out; encourage him when he kicks, and continue to make him kick; encourage him from time to time when he obeys; do this for a Quarter of an Hour every Day; when you perceive that he begins to kick the Moment you offer to prick him, without waiting till he feels it, get upon him, hold your Reins long, prick him, and let a Man stand by and prick him at the same time. Encourage him when he kicks, and continue to prick him to make him do it, till he will kick readily only at the Offer you make of pricking him; he ought to be brought to this Point in five or six Days: After this take him out of the Pillars, mount him, and trot him in the Longe, and make him kick by pricking him behind; after that let him walk two or three Steps, then make him kick again, and so work him by degrees. Put him to the Gallop; if he offers to rise, prick him behind, and make him kick: Nothing excels this Method to break a Horse of this terrible and dangerous Vice. THOSE Horses who are apt to kick, either when they go forward or stand still, must be kept much together, or held in closely; make them go backward briskly, and you will cure them of this Vice. TO resume our Subject. All Horses are by Nature rather aukward than nervous and strong; fearful than bold; hot and fretful than mischievous or ill-temper'd; whenever they grow desperate and absolutely ungovernable, it is often rather to avoid the extreme Pain which they feel, or expect to feel from too great a Constraint, than merely to resist the Horseman. Arm yourself then with great Patience; keep such Horses as are of a fiery and fretful Disposition, rather in Awe than in absolute Subjection; they are naturally fearful, and apt to be alarm'd; and violent Correction and Force would dishearten and make them quite desperate. Such as are of a hot and impetuous Temper, are generally timid and malicious. Endeavour therefore to prevent the Disorders they would commit; for Lenity and good Usage would never reduce them to Obedience, and Severity would make them lifeless and jadish. In fine, let your Lessons be short, easy, and often repeated to Horses of a cold and heavy Disposition, because they have no Memory, and want both Resolution and Strength. IN a word, never depart from this great Maxim, "Always observe a just Medium between too indulgent a Lenity and extreme Severity;" work your Horse according to his Strength and Capacity, give your Lessons in proportion to his Memory, and dispense your Punishment and Rewards suitable to his Courage and Disposition. CHAP. IV. _Of the Trot._ WHEN a Horse trots, his Legs are in this Position, two in the Air and two upon the Ground, at the same time cross-wise; that is to say, the Near-foot before, and the Off-foot behind are off the Ground, and the other two upon it; and so alternately of the other two. This Action of his Legs is the same as when he walks, except that in the Trot his Motions are more quick. All Writers, both ancient and modern, have constantly asserted the Trot to be the Foundation of every Lesson you can teach a Horse; there are none likewise who have not thought proper to give general Rules upon this Subject, but none have been exact enough to descend into a Detail of particular Rules, and to distinguish such Cases as are different, and admit of Exceptions, tho' such often are found from the different Make and Tempers of Horses, as they happen to be more or less suited to what they are destin'd; so that by following their general Maxims, many Horses have been spoil'd, and made heavy and aukward, instead of becoming supple and active; and as much Mischief has been occasion'd by adopting their Principles, although just, as if they had been suggested by Ignorance itself. THREE Qualities are essentially necessary to make the Trot useful, it ought to be _extended_, _supple_, and _even_ or _equal_; these three Qualities are related to, and mutually depend upon each other: In effect, you can't pass to the supple Trot, without having first work'd your Horse upon the _extended_ Trot; and you can never arrive at the even and equal Trot, without having practised the Supple. I MEAN by the _extended_ Trot, that in which the Horse trots out without retaining himself, being quite strait, and going directly forwards; this consequently is the kind of Trot, with which you must begin; for before any thing else ought to be meditated, the Horse should be taught to embrace and cover his Ground readily, and without fear. THE Trot however may be _extended_ without being supple, for the Horse may go directly forward, and yet not have that Ease and Suppleness of Limbs, which distinguishes and characterizes the _Supple_. I DEFINE the _supple_ Trot to be that in which the Horse at every Motion that he makes bends and plays all his Joints; that is to say, those of his Shoulders, his Knees and Feet, which no Colts or raw Horses can execute, who have not had their Limbs suppled by Exercise, and who always trot with a surprizing Stiffness and Aukwardness, and without the least Spring or Play in their Joints. The _even_ or _equal_ Trot, is that wherein the Horse makes all his Limbs and Joints move so equally and exactly, that his Legs never cover more Ground one than the other, nor at one Time more than another: To do this, the Horse must of necessity unite and collect all his Strength, and if I may be allowed the Expression, distribute it equally through all his Joints. TO go from the _extended_ Trot, to the _supple_, you must gently, and by degrees, hold in your Horse; and when by Exercise he has attain'd sufficient Ease and Suppleness to manage his Limbs readily, you must insensibly hold him in, still more and more, and by degrees you will lead him to the _equal_ Trot. THE Trot is the first Exercise to which a Horse is put; this is a necessary Lesson, but if given unskilfully it loses its End, and even does harm. HORSES of a hot and fretful Temper have generally too great a Disposition to the _extended_ Trot; never abandon these Horses to their Will, hold them in, pacify them, moderate their Motion by retaining them judiciously, and their Limbs will grow supple; they will acquire at the same time that Union and Equality, which is so essentially necessary. IF you have a Horse that is heavy, consider if this Heaviness or Stiffness of his Shoulders or Legs is owing to a Want of Strength, or of Suppleness; whether it proceeds from his having been exercised unskilfully, too much, or too little. If he is heavy, because the Motions of his Legs and Shoulders are naturally cold and sluggish, tho' at the same time his Limbs are good, and his Strength is only confin'd and shut up, if I may so say, a moderate but continual Exercise of the Trot will open and supple his Joints, and render the Action of his Shoulders and Legs more free and bold; hold him in the Hand, and support him in the Trot, but take care so to do it, as not to check or slacken his Pace: Aid him and drive him forward, while you support him; remember at the same time, that if he is loaded with a great Head, the Continuation of the Trot, will make his Apuy hard and dull, because he will by this means abandon himself still more, and weigh upon the Hand. All Horses that are inclined to be _remingue_, should be kept to the extended Trot; every Horse who has a Tendency to be _remingue_ is naturally disposed to collect all his Strength, and to unite himself; your only way with such Horses is to force them forward: In the Instant that he obeys, and goes freely on, retain him a little; yield your Hand immediately after, and you will find soon that the Horse of himself will bend his Joints, and go united and equally. A HORSE of a sluggish and cold Disposition, which has nevertheless Strength and Bottom, should likewise be put to the extended Trot; as he grows animated, and begins to go free, keep him together by little and little, in order to lead him insensibly to the _supple_ Trot; but if while you keep him together, you perceive that he slackens his Action, and retains himself, give him the Aids briskly, and push him forward, keeping him nevertheless gently in Hand; by this means he will be taught to go freely and equally at the same time. IF a Horse of a cold and sluggish Temper is weak in his Legs and Loins, you must manage him cautiously in working him in the Trot, or otherwise you will enervate and spoil him. Besides, in order to make the most of a Horse, who is not over strong, endeavour to give him Wind, by working him slowly, and at Intervals, and by increasing the Vigour of his Exercise by degrees; for you must remember that you ought always to dismiss your Horse, before he is spent and overcome with Fatigue. Never push your Lesson too far in hopes of suppling your Horse's Limbs by means of the Trot; instead of this you will falsify and harden his Apuy, which is a Case which happens but too frequently. FARTHER, it is of Importance to remark, that you ought at no time, neither in the _extended_, _supple_ or _equal_ Trot, to confine your Horse in the Hand in Expectation of raising him, and fixing his Head in a proper Place; if his Apuy be full in the Hand, and the Action of his Trot should be check'd and restrain'd by the Power of his Bridle, his Bars would very soon grow callous, and his Mouth be harden'd and dead; if, on the contrary, he has a fine and sensible Mouth, this very Restraint would offend and make him uneasy. You must endeavour then, as has already been said, to give him by degrees, and insensibly, a true and just Apuy, to place his Head, and form his Mouth, by Stops and Half-stops; by sometimes moderating and restraining him with a gentle and light Hand, and yielding it to him immediately again; and by sometimes letting him trot without feeling the Bridle at all. THERE is a Difference between Horses who are _heavy_ in the Hand, and such as endeavour to _force_ it. The first Sort lean and throw all their Weight upon the Hand, either as they happen to be weak, or too heavy and clumsy in their Fore-parts, or from having their Mouths too fleshy and gross, and consequently dull and insensible. The second _pull_ against the Hand, because their Bars are lean, hard, and generally round; and the first may be brought to go equal, and upon their Haunches, by means of the Trot and slow Gallop; and the other may be made light and active by Art, and by settling them well in their Trot, which will also give them Strength and Vigour. Horses of the first sort are generally sluggish, the other kind are for the most part impatient and disobedient, and upon that very account more dangerous and incorrigible. THE only Proof, or rather the most certain Sign of your Horse's trotting well, is, that when he is in his Trot, and you begin to press him a little, he offers to Gallop. AFTER having trotted your Horse sufficiently upon a strait Line, or directly forward, work him upon large Circles; but before you put him to this, walk him gently round the Circle, that he may comprehend and know the Ground he is to go over.--This being done, work him in the Trot; a Horse that is loaded before, and heavily made, will find more Pains and Difficulty in uniting his Strength, in order to be able to turn, than in going strait forward.--The Action of turning trys the Strength of his Reins, and employs his Memory and Attention, therefore let one Part of your Lessons be to trot them strait forward; finish them in the same Manner, observing that the Intervals between the Stops (which you should make very often) be long, or short, as you judge necessary: I say you should make frequent Stops, for they often serve as a Correction to Horses that abandon themselves, force the Hand, or bear too much upon it in their Trot. THERE are some Horses who are supple in their Shoulders, but which nevertheless abandon themselves; this Fault is occasion'd by the Rider's having often held his Bridle-hand too tight and strict in working them upon large Circles: To remedy this, trot them upon one _Line_ or _Tread_, and very large; stop them often, keeping back your Body and outward Leg, in order to make them bend and play their Haunches. THE principal Effects then of the Trot, are to make a Horse light and active, and to give him a just Apuy. In reality, in this Action he is always supported on one Side by one of his Fore-legs, and on the other by one of his Hind-legs: Now the fore and hind Parts being equally supported cross-wise, the Rider can't fail to supple and loosen his Limbs, and fix his Head; but if the Trot disposes and prepares the Spirits and Motions of a sinewy and active Horse for the justest Lessons, if it calls out and unfolds the Powers and Strength of the Animal, which before were buried and shut up, if I may use the Expression, in the Stiffness of his Joints and Limbs; if this first Exercise to which you put your Horse, is the Foundation of all the different Airs and Manages, it ought to be given in Proportion to the Strength and Vigour of the Horse. TO judge of this you must go farther than mere outward Appearances. A Horse may be but weak in the Loins, and yet execute any Air, and accompany it with Vigour, as long as his Strength is united and intire; but if he becomes disunited, by having been work'd beyond his Ability in the Trot, he will then falter in his Air, and perform it without Vigour and Grace. THERE are also some Horses, who are very strong in the Loins, but who are weak in their Limbs; these are apt to retain themselves, they bend and sink in their Trot, and go as if they were afraid of hurting their Shoulders, their Legs or Feet. This Irresolution proceeds only from a natural Sense they have of their Weakness.--This kind of Horses should not be too much exercised in the Trot, nor have sharp Correction; their Shoulders, Legs, or Hocks would be weaken'd and injur'd; so that learning in a little Time to hang back, and abandon themselves on the Apuy, they would never be able to furnish any Air with Vigour and Justness. LET every Lesson then be weigh'd; the only Method by which Success can be insured, is the Discretion you shall use, in giving them in proportion to the Strength of the Horse, and from your Sagacity in deciding upon what Air or Manage is most proper for him; to which you must be directed by observing which seems most suited to his Inclination and Capacity. I FINISH this Chapter by describing the Manner of trotting a Colt, who has never been back'd. Put a plain Snaffle in his Mouth, fit a Caveson to his Nose, to the Ring of which you will tie a Longe of a reasonable Length; let a Groom hold this Longe, who having got at some Distance from the Colt, must stand still in the Middle of the Circle, which the Horse will make; let another follow him with a long Whip or Chambriere in his Hand.--The Colt being alarm'd, will be forced to go forward, and to turn within the Length of the Cord.--The Groom must hold it tight in his Hand, by this means he will draw _in_ or towards the Center the Head of the Colt, and his Croupe will consequently be _out_ of the Circle.--In working a young Horse after this Manner, don't press or hurry him, let him walk first, afterwards put him to the Trot; if you neglect this Method his Legs will be embarras'd, he will lean on one Side, and be more upon one Haunch than the other; the inner Fore-foot will strike against the outward, and the Pain which this will occasion, will drive him to seek some Means of Defence, and make him disobedient. IF he refuses to trot, the Person who holds the Chambriere will animate him, by hitting him, or striking the Ground with it. If he offers to gallop instead of trotting, the Groom must shake or jirk the Cord that is tied to the Caveson, and he will fall into his Trot. IN this Lesson you may decide more readily upon the Nature, the Strength, the Inclination, and Carriage of the Horse, than you can of one that has already been rode, as it is more easy to consider and examine all his Motions; whereas when he is under his Rider, being naturally inclin'd to resist at first, to free himself from Restraint, and to employ all his Strength and Cunning to defend himself against his Rider, it is morally impossible to form a true Judgment of his Disposition and Capacity. CHAP. V. _Of the Stop._ THE most certain Method to unite and assemble together the Strength of a Horse, in order to give him a good Mouth, to fix and place his Head, as well as to regulate his Shoulders, to make him light in the Hand, and capable of performing all Sorts of Airs, depends entirely upon the Perfection and Exactness of the Stop. IN order to mark or form the Stop justly, you must quicken him a little, and in the Instant that he begins to go faster than the usual _Cadence_ or _Time_ of his Pace, approach the Calves of your Legs, and immediately afterwards fling back your Shoulders; always holding your Bridle more and more tight, till the Stop is made, aiding the Horse with the Calves of your Legs, in order to make him bend and play his Haunches. BY varying the Times of making your Stops, and the Places where you make them, you will teach your Horse to obey exactly the Hand and Heel; which is the End that every one should propose to attain in every Kind of Exercise of the Manege. WITH a raw and young Horse make but very few Stops, and when you make them, do it by degrees, very gently, and not all at once, because nothing so much strains and weakens the Hocks of a stiff and aukward Horse, as a sudden and rude Stop. IT is agreed by every Body, that nothing so much shews the Vigour and Obedience of a Horse as his making a beautiful and firm Stop, at the End of a swift and violent Career. There are however many Horses that have a good deal of Vigour and Agility, who can't stop without feeling Pain, while there are others who are not so strong and active, who stop very easily; the Reason of this is plain. IN the first place, the Facility of stopping depends upon the natural Aptness and Consent of the Horse; in the next place, his Make, and the Proportions which the different Parts of his Body have to each other, must be consider'd: Therefore we must measure the Merit of a Stop by the Strength and Temper of the Horse, by the Steadiness of his Head and Neck, and the Condition of his Mouth and Haunches. IT will be in vain to look for the Justness and Perfection of the Stop in a Horse that is any ways defective, the Bars being too delicate, or too hard, a thick Tongue, the Channel of his Mouth narrow, the Thropple confin'd, Neck short, Fore-hand heavy, or too low, weak Loins, or too stiff, too much Heat, or too much Flegm in his Temper, or Sluggishness; here are a Number of Faults not easily to be corrected. A HORSE, though he is strong in his Shoulders, in his Legs and Loins, yet if he is low before, will have much Difficulty to collect himself upon his Haunches, so as to make a good Stop; on the contrary, if his Shoulders and Neck are high and raised, he will have the greater Part of the Qualities requisite to it. A HORSE who is long in the Back generally stops very aukwardly, and without keeping his Head steady; a Horse that is short and truss'd, with a thick Neck, generally stops upon his Shoulders. The first finds too much Difficulty to collect his Strength so suddenly, in order to put himself upon his Haunches, and the other is not able to call it out, and distribute it with Vigour through his Limbs.--In effect, when a Horse gallops, the Strength of his Loins, of his Haunches and Hocks, is all employed in pushing the whole Machine forwards, and that of his Shoulders and Fore-legs, to support the Action: Now the Force of his hinder Parts being thus violently agitated, and approaching too near that which lies in the fore Parts, a short-body'd Horse can't find all at once, that Counterpoise, that just Equilibre which characterizes a beautiful Stop. A HORSE which can't stop readily, misemploys very often his Strength in running; examine him, and you will find that he abandons himself entirely upon his Shoulders; consider likewise the Proportions of his Neck and his Thropple, the Condition of his Feet, the Make of his Loins and Hocks; in short, apply yourself to the Discovery of his Temper, Character and Humour.--That Horse whose Neck is hollow, or Ewe-neck'd, instead of ballancing himself upon his Haunches, will arm himself against his Chest, and will thereby make his Stops harsh and disagreeable: Weak Feet, or Hocks that give him Pain, will make him hate the Stop.--He will either endeavour to avoid it, or will make it with Fear, so that he will be totally abandon'd upon the Apuy. If he carries his Nose high, and is hollow-back'd at the same time, it will be impossible for him to unite and put himself together, so as to be ready, and to present his Front, if I may be allow'd the Word, to the Stop; because the Strength of the Nape of the Neck depends upon the Chine; and his Powers being thus disunited and broken, he will make his Stop upon his Shoulders. THERE is another Sort of Horses, who in hopes of avoiding the Constraint of stopping upon their Haunches, plant themselves upon their two Hind-legs; yield the Hand to them, in the Instant, and press them forward, you will insensibly correct them of their Defence, which happens only in Cases, where you stop them upon declining or uneven Ground. THERE are many People, who imagining they can unite their Horses by the means of making a great Number of precipitate Stops, take little heed whether the Creature which they undertake is too weak, or has Strength sufficient for his Task.--The Horse, who, though strong, has suffer'd in his Chine, in making the first Stop, will meditate a Defence in his second or third; this will be to prevent the Rider in his Design: And being alarm'd at the slightest Motion of the Hand he will stop all at once, leaning with all his Force upon his Shoulders, and lifting up his Croupe; which is a capital Fault, and not easy to be remedied. THUS it may happen, that a Horse may make his Stops very defectively, either from some natural or accidental Faults in the different Parts of his Body; or it may be owing to the Unskilfulness and Ignorance of the Rider, or the Effect of Faults and bad Lessons all together. Principles that are true and just will assist and reform Nature, but a bad School gives birth to Vice and Defences that are often not to be conquer'd. It behoves us then to follow with Exactness those Lessons which are capable of bringing a Horse to form a perfect Stop; that is to say, to such a Point as to be able to make his Stop short, firm, and in one _time_; and in which he collects and throws his Strength equally upon his Haunches and Hocks, widening and anchoring, if I may so say, his two Hind-feet exactly even on the Ground, in such a Manner that one does not stand before the other, but both are in a Line. IT would be a Proof of great Ignorance to undertake to reduce a Horse to the Justness of the Stop, before he had been work'd and push'd out in the Trot and Gallop to both Hands, or before he was so ready as never to refuse to launch out immediately into a full Gallop; for if he should happen to be _restiff_, should disobey the Spurs, or refuse to turn to either Hand, the Means that then must be used to fix his Head, would contribute towards confirming him in one or other of these Vices. IF your Horse has not readily obey'd in making his Stops, make him go backwards, it is a proper Punishment for the Fault. If in stopping he tosses up his Nose, or forces the Hand, in this Case keep your Bridle-hand low and firm, and your Reins quite equal; give him no Liberty, press upon his Neck with your Right-hand, till he has brought down his Nose, and then immediately give him all his Bridle; this is the surest Method to bring him into the Hand. TO compel a Horse to stop upon his Haunches, nothing is so efficacious as Ground that is a little sloping; this is of service to exercise such Horses upon as are naturally too loose in their Paces, who are heavy and apt to abandon themselves upon the Hand, by this means they become light before; you must nevertheless examine if his Feet, his Loins, his Shoulders and Legs are sufficiently able to bear it, for otherwise your Horse would soon be spoil'd: The whole therefore depends in this Case, as in all others, upon the Sagacity and Experience of the Horseman. WHEN a Horseman puts his Horse to the Stop, in such a Place as I have mentioned, he should put the Stress of his Aids rather in his Thighs and Knees, than in his Stirrups; one of the most trying Lessons a Horse can be put to, is to stop him, and make him go backwards up Hill; therefore upon these Occasions you must ease the fore Part of the Horse as much as you can, and throw your whole Weight upon the hinder. We have already said, that there are some Horses, which from Weakness in their Make, can never be brought to form a just and beautiful Stop. There are others likewise, who are apt to stop too suddenly and short upon their Shoulders, tho' otherwise naturally too much raised before, and too light. These employ all their Power in order to stop all at once, in hopes either of putting an end to the Pain they feel, from the Rudeness of the Stop; or else perhaps that some Defect of Sight makes them apprehend they are near something that they fear, for almost all Horses, blind of one Eye, or of both, stop with the greatest Readiness: take care never to make this sort of Horses go backward; on the contrary, stop them slowly and by degrees, in order to embolden them, remembring never to force, or keep them in too great a degree of Subjection. I HAVE thus shown, that a Stop that is made with Ease, Steadiness, and according to the Rules, will contribute a great deal towards putting a Horse upon his Haunches, and giving him that firm, equal, and light Apuy, which we always desire to gain; because a just Stop makes a Horse bend and sink his hinder Parts; I have made it likewise appear, that a sudden and ill-executed Stop raises the fore Parts too much, stiffens the Hocks, and rather takes a Horse off his Haunches, than sets him upon them. Let us now proceed to the Lesson of teaching a Horse to go backward. CHAP. VI. _Of teaching a Horse to go backward._ THE Action of a Horse, when he goes backward, is to have always one of his hinder Legs under his Belly, to push his Croupe backward, to bend his Haunches, and to rest and ballance himself, one time on one Leg, one on the other; this Lesson is very efficacious to lighten a Horse, to settle him in the Hand, to make him ready to advance and go forward, and to prepare him to put himself together, and sit down upon his Haunches. IT should not however be practised, till the Horse has been well laid out and worked in the Trot, and his Limbs are become supple; because, till he is arrived to this Point, you should not begin to unite or put him together: Care must be taken, that this Action of going backward be just, and that in performing it, the Horse keeps his Head steady, fixt, and in a right Place; that his Body be trussed or gathered up, as it were, under him; that his Feet be even; that he be not upon his Shoulders, but on the contrary, on his Haunches; for if he should be false as to any of these Particulars, this Lesson, very far from putting him together, would have the contrary Effect, and dis-unite him. IN order that a Horse may be able to execute what is required of him, he must first comprehend what it is that is asked of him, and for this Purpose the Horseman should make his Lessons short, and demand but little at a Time; begin then to make him go backward, when he is arrived far enough to understand what you expect him to do; but at first be contented with a little, it is sufficient if he understands what you want. THERE are Horses, who can go backward, not only with great Ease, but do it even with the Exactness of Horses that are perfectly drest; if you examine these Horses, you will find that all the Parts of their Body are exactly proportioned; they have Strength, and Nature herself has taught them to unite themselves; but there are others, who can't go backwards without great Difficulty; these are weak in the Back, or otherwise imperfect in their Make; don't demand too much of these, work them with caution, for Rigour with such Horses, is never successful. THERE are another sort of Horses, who never can be reconciled to Subjection; whenever you try to make them go backward, they fix their fore Feet fast upon the Ground, and _arm_ themselves; in this Case you must endeavour to win them, as it were insensibly, and by degrees. For this Purpose, raise your hand a little, remove it from your Body, at the same time shake your Reins, and you will find that by degrees you will accustom your Horse to obey; but remember at the same time, that you would have a less share of Reason, than the Animal you undertake to dress, were you to expect to reduce him to Obedience all at once; your Horse answering to the Reins which you shake, will move perhaps only one of his fore Feet, leaving the other advanced; this Posture without doubt is defective, because he is dis-united; but as Perfection can't be gained at once, Patience and gentle Usage are the only certain Methods of bringing your Horse to perform what you want. There are others, who when they go backward, do it with Fury and Impatience; these you should correct, briskly, and support lightly with your Legs, while they go backward. There are another sort, who work their lower Jaw about as if they wanted to catch hold of the Bit, who bear upon the Hand, and endeavour to force it; to such Horses you must keep your Hand extremely low, and your Reins exactly even, distribute equally the Power of each, by rounding your Wrist, and keeping your Nails exactly opposite your Body. AFTER having made your Horse go backward, let him advance two or three Steps, if he obeys the Hand readily.--This will take off any Dislike or Fear, he may entertain from the Constraint of going backward; if he forces the Hand in going backward, these three Steps forward will contribute to bring him into it again; and lastly, they prevent any Vice, that this Lesson might otherwise produce. AFTER having advanced three Steps, let him stop, and turn him; you will by these means support him, and take him off from any ill Designs, which the Treatment you are obliged to observe towards him, in order to make him stop and go backward with Precision and Order, might otherwise give rise to.--After having turned him, make him go backward, you will prevent his having too great Desire of going too soon from the Place where he stopp'd, as well as from that to which he turned. THE Moment the Stop is made, give him his Bridle; by stopping you have augmented the Degree of the Apuy in the Horse's Mouth; you must increase it still more, in order to make him go backwards; hence a hard Hand and bad Mouth. THIS Reasoning is plain, and these Principles are true; notwithstanding which, there are few Horsemen who attend to it, either because they never think and reflect, or else that the Force of bad Habits overcomes them. THIS Lesson, if well weigh'd and given properly, is a necessary and certain Method of teaching Horses to make a good Stop, of rendering them light and obedient when they pull or are beyond the Degree of what is call'd _full in the Hand_.--But if given improperly, or if too often repeated, it then grows to be a Habit, and a Habit is no Correction. Never practise it long with Horses who are hot, and who have hard Mouths, their Impatience and Heat, join'd to Habit and Custom, would prevent them from knowing the Cause, and feeling the Effects. It is the same with those who have short Fore-hands; for as they are generally thick-shoulder'd and heavy, the Difficulty they feel to collect themselves upon their Haunches, naturally disposes them to press the Branches of the Bit against their Chest, by which means this Lesson becomes quite ineffectual. CHAP. VII. _Of the uniting or putting a Horse together._ THE End which the Horseman proposes to attain by his Art, is to give to the Horses, which he undertakes, the _Union_, without which, no Horse can be said to be perfectly drest; every one allows that the whole of the Art depends upon this, yet few People reason or act from Principles and Theory, but trust entirely to Practice; hence it follows, that they must work upon Foundations false and uncertain, and so thick is the Darkness in which they wander, that it is difficult to find any one who is able to define this Term of _uniting_ or _putting_ a Horse _together_, which is yet so constantly in the Mouth of every Body; I will undertake, however, to give a clear and distinct Idea of it; and for that Purpose shall treat it with Order and Method. THE uniting then or putting together, is the Action by which a Horse draws together and assembles the Parts of his Body, and his Strength, in distributing it equally upon his four Legs, and in re-uniting or drawing them together, as we do ourselves, when we are going to jump, or perform any other Action which demands Strength and Agility. This Posture alone is sufficient to settle and place the Head of the Animal, to lighten and render his Shoulders and Legs active, which from the Structure of his Body, support and govern the greater Part of his Weight; being then by these means made steady, and his Head well placed, you will perceive in every Motion that he makes, a surprizing Correspondence of the Parts with the whole. I say, that from the natural Structure of a Horse's Body, his Legs and Shoulders support the greatest Part of his Weight, in reality his Croupe or Haunches carry nothing but his Tail, while his fore Legs, being perpendicular, are loaded with the Head, Neck, and Shoulders; so that, let the Animal be ever so well made, ever so well proportioned, his fore Part, either when he is in Motion, or in a State of Rest, is always employed, and consequently in want of the Assistance of Art to ease it; and in this consists the _Union_ or putting together, which by putting the Horse upon his Haunches, counterballances and relieves his fore Part. THE _Union_ not only helps and relieves the Part of the Horse that is the weakest, but it is so necessary to every Horse, that no Horse that is dis-united can go freely, he can neither Leap nor Gallop with Agility and Lightness, nor run without being in manifest Danger of falling and pitching himself headlong, because his Motions have no Harmony, no Agreement one with another. It is allowed, that Nature has given to every Horse a certain Equilibre, by which he supports and regulates himself in all his Motions; we knew that his Body is supported by his four Legs, and that his four Legs have a Motion, which his Body must of necessity follow; but yet this natural Equilibre is not sufficient. All Men can walk, they are supported on two Legs, notwithstanding this we make a great Difference between that Person to whom proper Exercises have taught the free Use of his Limbs, and him whose Carriage is unimproved by Art, and consequently heavy and aukward. 'TIS just the same with respect to a Horse; we must have recourse to Art to unfold the natural Powers that lay hid and are shut up in him, if we mean he should make a proper Use of the Limbs which Nature has given him; the Use of which can be discover'd and made familiar to him no other way than by working him upon true and just Principles. THE Trot is very efficacious to bring a Horse to this Union so important, and so necessary; I speak of the Trot, in which he is supported and kept together, and suppled at the same time; this compels the Horse to put himself together: in effect, the Trot in which a Horse is well supported partakes of a quick and violent Motion: It forces a Horse to collect and unite all his Strength, because it is impossible that a Horse that is kept together, should at the same time abandon and fling himself forward. I explain myself thus.--In order to support your Horse in his Trot, the Horseman should hold his Hand near his Body, keeping his Horse together a little, and have his Legs near his Sides. The Effect of the Hand is to confine and raise the fore Parts of the Horse; the Effect of the Legs is to push and drive forward the hinder Parts: Now if the fore Parts are kept back or confin'd, and the hinder Parts are driven forward, the Horse in a quick Motion, such as the Trot, must of necessity sit down upon his Haunches, and unite and put himself together. FOR the same Reason making your Horse launch out vigorously in his Trot, and quickening his Cadence from time to time, putting him to make Pesades, stopping him and making him go backward, will all contribute towards his acquiring the Union.--I would define his going off readily, or all at once, not to be a violent and precipitate Manner of Running, but only to consist in the Horse's being a little animated, and going somewhat faster than the ordinary Time of his Pace.--Your Horse trots, press him a little; in the Instant that he redoubles and quickens his Action, moderate and shorten, if I may so say, the Hurry of his Pace; the more then that he presses to go forward, the more will his being check'd and confin'd tend to unite his Limbs, and the _Union_ will owe its Birth to opposite Causes; that is to say, on one hand to the Ardour of the Horse who presses to go forward, and to the Diligence and Attention of the Horseman on the other, who, by holding him in, slackens the Pace, and raises the Fore-parts of the Creature, and at the same time distributes his Strength equally to all his Limbs. The Action of a Horse, when going backward, is directly opposite to his abandoning himself upon his Shoulders; by this you compel him to put himself upon his Haunches: this Lesson is by so much therefore the more effectual, as that the Cause of a Horse's being dis-united, is often owing to the Pain he feels in bending his Haunches. THE Pesades have no less Effect, especially upon Horses that are clumsy and heavy shoulder'd; because they teach them to use them, and to raise them; and when they raise them up, it follows of necessity that all their Weight must be thrown upon their Haunches. A light and gentle Hand then, and the Aids of the Legs judiciously managed, are capable to give a Horse the _Union_; but it is not so clear at what time we ought to begin to put a Horse upon his Haunches. Is it not necessary before we do this, that the Horse should have his Shoulders entirely suppled? It is evident, that a Horse can never support himself upon his Haunches, unless his Fore-part be lightened; let us see then by what means we may hope to acquire this Suppleness, the only Source of light and free Action. Nothing can supple more the Shoulders than the Working a Horse upon large Circles.--Walk him first round the Circle, in order to make him know his Ground; afterwards try to draw his Head _in_, or towards the Center, by means of your inner Rein and inner Leg. For instance,--I work my Horse upon a Circle, and I go to the Right by pulling the right Rein; I bring in his outward Shoulder by the means of the left Rein, and support him at the same time with my inner Leg; thus the Horse has, if I may so say, his Head _in_, or towards the Center, although the Croupe is at Liberty. The right Leg crosses over the left Leg, and the right Shoulder is suppled, while the left Leg supports the whole Weight of the Horse in the Action: In working him to the left Hand, and following the same Method, the left Shoulder supples, and the right is pressed and confined. This Lesson, which tends not only to supple the Shoulders, but likewise to give an Apuy, being well comprehended by the Horse, I lead him along the Side of the Wall,--having placed his Head, I make use of the inner Rein, which draws in his Head, and I bring in his outward Shoulder by means of the other Rein: In this Posture, I support him with my inner Leg, and he goes along the Wall, his Croupe being out and at liberty, and his inner Leg passing over and crossing his outward Leg at every Step he makes.--By this, I supple his Neck, I supple his Shoulders, I work his Haunches, and I teach the Horse to know the Heels. I say, that the Haunches are worked, though his Croupe is at liberty, because it is from the Fore-parts only, that a Horse can be upon his Haunches. IN effect, after having placed his Head, draw it _in_, and you will lengthen his Croupe, you raise him higher before than behind, his Legs come under his Belly, and consequently he bends his Haunches. It is the same as when he comes down Hill, his Croupe, being higher than his Fore-parts, is pushed under him, and the Horse is upon his Haunches; since it is evident that the Hinder support all the Fore-parts, therefore in going along the Side of the Wall, by the means of the inner Rein, I put together and unite my Horse. BEHOLD then, in short, the most certain Methods of enabling yourself to give to a Horse this _Union_, this Freedom and Ease, by which learning how to ballance his Weight equally and with Art, and distributing his Strength with Exactness to all his Limbs, he becomes able to undertake and execute with Justness and Grace, whatever the Horseman demands of him, conformable to his Strength and Disposition. CHAP. VIII. _Of the Pillars._ IT is the same with respect to the Pillars, as with all other Lessons which you must teach a Horse, in order to make him perfect in his Air. Excellent in itself, it becomes pernicious and destructive under the Direction of the Ignorant, and is not only capable to dishearten any Horse, but to strain and ruin him entirely. THE Pillar partly owes its Origin to the famous _Pignatelli_[1]. Mess. _de la Broue_ and _Pluvinel_, who were his Scholars, brought it first into _France_; the first indeed made little use of it, and seem'd to be very well appriz'd of its Inconveniencies and Dangers; as for the other, one may say, that he knew not a better or shorter Method of dressing and adjusting a Horse. In effect, according to his Notions, working a Horse round a single Pillar could never fail of setting him upon his Haunches, making him advance, suppling and teaching him to turn roundly and exactly; and by putting him between two Pillars, provided he had Vigour, he was taught to obey the Heels readily, to unite himself, and acquire in a shorter time a good Apuy in making Curvets. If he wanted to settle his Horse's Head in a short time, the Pillars were very efficacious. He tied the Horse between them to the Cords of the Snaffle which he had in his Mouth, instead of the Bridle. There he work'd his Horse without a Saddle, and maintain'd, that if the Horse tossed or shook his Head, bore too much, or too little upon his Bridle, he punish'd himself in such a manner, that (as he imagin'd) the Horse was compell'd to put himself upon his Haunches, and to take a good Apuy; especially as the Fear of the Chambriere or Whip, always ready behind him, kept him in awe. The Horse was often taken out of the two Pillars, in order to be put to the single Pillar, with a Cord tied to the Banquet of the Bit as a false Rein; here he was work'd by being made to rise before, and driven round the Pillar, with a design and in hopes of making him step out and embrace, or cover well the Ground he went round, as well as to give him Resolution in his Work, and to cure him of Dullness and Sloth, if he had it in his Temper. We don't know whether Mr. _Pluvinel_ designed any real Advantages from this Method or no; but be that as it will, it prevails no longer among us.--It must be owned, that the two Pillars of his inventing are still preserved, and that no Manage is without them; but at least we have suppress'd the single Pillar, which serves only to fatigue and harrass a Horse: Learn never to put a Horse between the two Pillars till he is well suppled, and you have given him the first Principles of the _Union_ between the Legs, which are the natural Pillars that every Horseman should employ. We must take care to work the Horse with great Prudence at first, and as gently as possible; for a Horse being in this Lesson very much confined and forced, and not able to escape, nor to go forward nor backward, he oftentimes grows quite furious, and abandons himself to every Motion that Rage and Resentment can suggest. Begin then this Lesson in the plainest Manner, contenting yourself with only making him go from side to side, by means of the Switch, or from fear of the Chambriere. At the End of some Days, the Horse, thus become obedient, and accustomed to the Subjection of the Pillars; try to make him insensibly go into the Cords, which when he will do readily, endeavour to get a Step or two exact and in _time_ of the _Passage_ or _Piaffer_. Footnote 1: He liv'd at _Naples_, and was the most eminent Horseman of his Time. IF he offers to present himself to it, be it never so little, make him leave off, encourage him, and send him to the Stable; augment thus your Lessons by degrees, and examine and endeavour to discover to what his Disposition turns, that you may cultivate and improve it. The worst Effect of the Pillars is the Hazard you run of entirely ruining the Hocks of your Horse, if you don't distinguish very exactly between those Parts and the Haunches. Many People think that when the Horse goes into the Cords, he is of consequence upon his Haunches; but they don't remark, that often the Horse only bends his Hocks, and that his Hocks pain him by so much the more, as his hinder Feet are not in their due Equilibre. THE Fore-legs of a Horse are made like those of a Man, the Knees are before or _without_, the Hinder-legs are shaped like our Arms, he bends his Hocks as we do our Elbows; therefore if he rises before very high, he must stretch and stiffen his Hocks, and consequently can never be seated upon his Haunches; to be upon them, the Horse must bend and bring them under him, because the more his Hinder-legs are brought under him, the more his Hinder-feet are in the necessary Point of Gravity, to support all the Weight of his Body, which is in the Air, in a just Equilibre.--These Remarks are sufficient to evince the Inconveniencies that may arise from the Pillars; never quit sight of these Principles, you will find by adhering to them, the Horse that is drest according to their Tenour, will be a Proof of the real Advantages that you may draw from a Lesson, which never does harm, but when occasioned by the Imprudence or Ignorance of those who give it. CHAP. IX. _Of Aids and Corrections._ AN Aid may be termed whatever assists or directs a Horse, and whatever enables him to execute what we put him to do.--Corrections are whatever Methods we use to awe and punish him, whenever he disobeys: Aids therefore are to prevent, and Corrections to punish, whatever Fault he may commit. THE Aids are various, and are to be given in different Manners, upon different Occasions, they are only meant to accompany the Ease and Smoothness of the Horse in his Air, and to form and maintain the Justness of it; for this Reason they ought to be delicate, fine, smooth, and steady, and proportioned to the Sensibility or Feeling of the Horse; for if they are harsh and rude, very far from Aiding, they would throw the Horse into Disorder, or else occasion his Manage to be false, his Time broken, constrained, and disagreeable. CORRECTIONS are of two Sorts; you may punish your Horse with the Spurs, the Switch, or Chambriere; you may punish him by keeping him in a greater Degree of Subjection; but in all these Cases, a real Horseman will endeavour rather to work upon the Understanding of the Creature, than upon the different Parts of his Body. A Horse has Imagination, Memory and Judgment; work upon these three Faculties, and you will be most likely to succeed. In reality, the Corrections which reduce a Horse to the greatest Obedience, and which dishearten him the least, are such as are not severe, but such as consist in opposing his Will and Humour, by restraining and putting him to do directly the contrary.--If your Horse don't advance or go off readily, or if he is sluggish, make him go sideways, sometimes to one hand, sometimes to the other, and drive him forward; and so alternatively.--If he goes forward too fast, being extremely quick of feeling, moderate your Aids, and make him go backwards some Steps; if he presses forward with Hurry and Violence, make him go backward a great deal.--If he is disorderly and turbulent, walk him strait forward, with his Head _in_ and Croupe _out_; these sorts of Corrections have great Influence upon most Horses. It is true, that there are some of so bad and rebellious Dispositions, which availing themselves of their Memory to falsify their Lessons, require sharp Correction, and upon whom gentle Punishment would have no Effect; but in using Severity to such Horses, great Prudence and Management are necessary. The Character of a Horseman is to work with Design, and to execute with Method and Order; he should have more Forbearance, more Experience, and more Sagacity than most People are possessed of. THE Spurs, when used by a knowing and able Horseman, are of great Service; but when used improperly, nothing so soon makes a Horse abject and jadish. Given properly, they awe and correct the Animal; given unduly, they make him restive and vicious, and are even capable of Discouraging a drest Horse, and giving him a Disgust to the Manage; don't be too hasty therefore to correct your Horse with them. BE patient; if your Horse deserves Punishment, punish him smartly, but seldom; for besides your habituating him to Blows, till he ceases to mind them, you will astonish and confound him, and be more likely to make him rebel, than to bring him to the Point you aim at. To give your Horse both Spurs properly, you must change the Posture of your Legs, and bending your Knee, strike him with them at once as quick and firmly as you can. A Stroke of the Spurs wrongly given is no Punishment; it rather hardens the Horse against them, teaches him to shake and frisk about his Tail, and often to return the Blow with a Kick. Take care never to open your Thighs and Legs in order to give both Spurs, for besides that the Blow would not be at all stronger for being given in this Manner, you would by this means lose the Time in which you ought to give it, and the Horse would rather be alarmed at the Motion you make in order to give the Blow, than punished by it when he felt in; and thence your Action becoming irregular, could never produce a good Effect. THE Chambriere is used as a Correction, it ought however to be used with Discretion; we will suppose it to be in able Hands, and forbear to say more about it. As for the Switch, it is so seldom made use of to punish a Horse, that I shall not speak of it, till I come to treat of the Aids. BY what has been said of Corrections, it is apparent, that the Horseman works not only upon the Horse's Understanding, but even upon his Sense of Feeling. A HORSE has three Senses upon which we may work, Hearing, Feeling and Seeing. The Touch is that Sense, by which we are enabled to make him very quick and delicate, and when he is once brought to understand the Aids which operate upon this Sense, he will be able to answer to all that you can put him to. THOUGH the Senses of Hearing and Sight are good in themselves, they are yet apt to give a Horse a Habit of Working by Rote and of himself, which is bad and dangerous. The Aids which are employed upon the Touch or Feeling, are those of the Legs, of the Hand, and of the Switch. Those which influence the Sight, proceed from the Switch; those which affect the Sight and Hearing both, are derived from the Switch and the Horseman's Tongue. THE Switch ought neither to be long nor short, from three to four Feet or thereabouts is a sufficient Length; you can give your Aids more gracefully with a short than a long one. In a Manage, it is generally held on the contrary Hand to which the Horse is going; or else it is held up high at every Change of Hand: By holding the Switch, the Horseman learns to carry his Sword in his Hand with Ease and Grace, and to manage his Horse without being encumber'd by it. To aid with the Switch, you must hold it in your Hand, in such a manner that the Point of it be turned towards the Horse's Croupe, this is the most convenient and easy Manner; that of aiding with it, not over the Shoulder, but over the Bending of your Arm, by removing your left Arm from your Body, and keeping it a little bent, so as to make the End of the Switch fall upon the Middle of the Horse's Back, is very difficult to execute. SHAKING the Switch backward and forward to animate the Horse with the Sound, is a graceful Aid; but till a Horse is accustom'd to it, it is apt to drive him forward too much. IN case your Horse is too light and nimble with his Croupe, you must aid before only with the Switch; if he bends or sinks his Croupe, or tosses it about without kicking out, you must aid just at the Setting on of the Tail.--If you would have him make Croupades, give him the Switch a little above the Hocks. TO aid with your Tongue, you must turn it upward against the Palate of the Mouth, shut your Teeth, and then remove it from your Palate; the Noise it makes is admirable to encourage a Horse, to quicken and put him together; but you must not use it continually, for so, instead of animating your Horse, it would serve only to lull him.--There are People who when they work their Horses, whistle and make use of their Voices; these Aids are ridiculous, we should leave these Habits to Grooms and Coachmen, and know that Crys and Threats are useless.--The Sense of hearing can serve at the most only to confound and surprize a Horse, and you will never give him Exactness and Sensibility by surprizing him.--The same may be said of the Sight; whatever strikes this Sense, operates likewise upon the Memory, and this Method seldom produces a good Effect; for you ought to know how important it is to vary the Order of your Lessons, and the Places where you give them; since it is certain, that a Horse who is always work'd in the same Place, works by rote, and attends no longer to the Aids of the Hand and Heels.--It is the same with hot and angry Horses, whose Memory is so exact, and who are so ready to be disorder'd and put out of Humour, that if the least thing comes in their Way during their Lesson, they no longer think of what they were about: The way of dealing with these Horses, is to work them with Lunettes on their Eyes; but it must be remembered, that this Method would be dangerous with Horses which are very impatient, hot, and averse to all Subjection, and so sensible to the Aids, as to grow desperate to such a degree, as to break through all Restraint, and run away headlong; it is therefore unsafe with these Horses, because they could not be more blinded even with the Lunettes, than they are when possessed with this Madness, which so blinds them, that they no longer fear the most apparent Dangers. HAVING said thus much of the Aids which operate upon the Touch, Hearing and Sight, we must now confine ourselves to discourse upon those, which regard the Touch only; for as it has been already said, these only are the Aids by which a Horse can be drest, because it is only by the Hand and Heel that he can be adjusted. THE Horseman's Legs, by being kept near the Horse's Sides, serve not only to embellish his Seat, but without keeping them in this Posture, he never will be able to give his Aids justly.--To explain this: If the Motion of my Leg is made at a distance from the Horse, it is rather a Correction than an Aid, and alarms and disorders the Horse; on the contrary, if my Leg is near the Part that is most sensible, the Horse may be aided, advertised of his Fault, and even punished, in much less time, and consequently by this means kept in a much greater Degree of Obedience.--The Legs furnish us with four Sorts of Aids, the Inside of the Knees, the Calfs, pinching delicately with the Spurs, and pressing strongly upon the Stirrups. The essential Article in dressing a Horse, is to make known the Gradation of these several Aids, which I will explain. The Aid of the Inside of the Knees is given, by closing and squeezing your Knees, in such a manner, that you feel them press and grasp your Horse extremely. You aid with the Calfs of your Legs, by bending your Knees, so as to bring your Calfs so close as to touch the Horse with them. THE Aid of Pinching with the Spurs, is performed in the same manner, by bending your Knees, and touching with the Spurs the Hair of the Horse, without piercing the Skin. The last Aid, which is only proper for very sensible and delicate Horses, consists in stretching down your Legs, and pressing firm upon the Stirrups. THE strongest Aid is that of pinching with the Spur; the next in degree, is applying the Calf of the Leg; pressing with the Knees is the third, and leaning upon the Stirrup is the last and least; but if these Aids are given injudiciously, they will have no Effect. They must accompany and keep Pace with the Hand; for it is the just Correspondence between the Heel and Hand, in which the Truth and Delicacy of the Art consists; and without this Agreement there can be no riding. IT is the Foundation of all Justness; it constitutes and directs the Cadence, Measure and Harmony of all the Airs; it is the Soul of Delicacy, Brilliancy and Truth in riding; and as a Person who plays upon a musical Instrument adapts and suits his two Hands equally to the Instrument, so the Man who works a Horse ought to make his Hands and Legs accord exactly together. I say his Hands and Legs should accord and answer one to the other with the strictest Exactness, because the nicest and most subtle Effects of the Bridle proceed entirely from this Agreement; and however fine and nice a Touch a Horseman may be endued with, if the Times of aiding with the Legs are broken and imperfect, he never can have a good Hand; because it is evident that a good Hand is not the Offspring only of a firm and good Seat, but owing likewise to the Proportion and Harmony of all the Aids together. I understand by the Harmony and Agreement of the Aids, the Art of knowing how to seize the Moment in which they are to be given, and of giving them equally and in a due Degree, as well as of measuring and comparing the Action of the Hand and Legs together; by which both these Parts being made to act together, and in time, will create and call out, as it were, those Cadences and Equalities of Time, of which the finest Airs are compos'd; Measures and Cadences which it is not possible to describe, but which every Horseman ought to comprehend, attend to, and feel. If I want to make my Horse go forward, I yield my Hand to him, and at the same time close my Legs; the Hand ceasing to confine, and the Legs driving on his hinder Parts, the Horse obeys. I have a mind to stop him, I hold him in, and approach my Legs to his Sides gently, in order to proportion my Aids to what I ask him to do; for I would not have it felt more than just to make him stop upon his Haunches. I WANT to turn him to the Left, I carry my Hand to the Left, and support him at the same time; that is to say, I approach my Left-leg, my Hand then guides the Horse to the Left, and my Leg, which operates at the same time, helps him to turn; because by driving his Croupe to the Right, his Shoulder is enabled to turn with more Ease. I want to go to the Right, I carry my Hand to the Right, and I support him with my Right-hand, my Leg determining his Croupe to the Left, facilitates the Action of the Shoulder which my Hand had turned to the Right. I WOULD make a Change to the Right, my Left-rein directs the Horse, and my Left-leg at the same time confines his Croupe, so that it can't escape, but must follow the Shoulders.--I would change Hands again to the Left, my Right-rein then guides the Horse, and my Right-leg does just the same as my Left-leg did in going to the Right.--I undertake to work the Shoulder and Croupe at the same time; for this Purpose I carry my Hand _out_.--The inner Rein acts, and the outward Leg of the Horse is press'd, either by this Rein, or by my outward Leg, so that the outward Rein operates upon the Shoulder, and the inner Rein with my outward Leg directs the Croupe.--I put my Horse to Curvets.--I aid him with my outward Rein, and if he is not enough upon his Haunches, my Legs, accompanied with the inner Rein, aid me to put him more upon them; if he turns his Croupe out, I aid and support him with my outward Leg; if he flings it in too much, I confine him with my inner Leg. I PUT him to make Curvets sideways, my outward Rein brings his outward Shoulder in, because the outward Shoulder being brought in, his Croupe is left at liberty; but if I have occasion I use my inner Rein, and if his Croupe is not sufficiently confin'd, I support it with my outward Leg.--Again, I put him to make Curvets backwards, I use then my outward Rein, and keep my Hand near my Body. At each Cadence that the Horse makes, I make him feel a _Time_; one, and every time he comes to the Ground, I receive and catch him as it were in my Hand; but these _Times_ ought not to be distant above an Inch or two at the most; I then ease my Legs to him, which nevertheless I approach insensibly every time he rises. Thus by making my Hands and Legs act together, I learn not only to work a Horse with Justness and Precision, but even to dress him to all the Airs; which I shall speak of distinctly and more at large. AS to the rest, be it remember'd, that it is not alone sufficient to know how to unite your Aids, and to proportion them, as well as the Corrections, to the Motions and the Faults in the Horse's Air, which you would remedy; but whenever you are to make use of them, you must consider likewise if they are suitable and adapted to the Nature of the Horse; for otherwise they will not only prove ineffectual, but be the Occasion even of many Disorders. CHAP. X. _Of the Passage._ THE Passage is the Key which opens to us all the Justness of the Art of riding, and is the only Means of adjusting and regulating Horses in all sorts of Airs; because in this Action you may work them slowly, and teach them all the Knowledge of the Leg and Hand, as it were insensibly, and without running any risque of disgusting them, so as to make them rebel.--There are many sorts of the Passage: In that which is derived from the Trot, the Action of the Horse's Legs is the same as in the Trot; the Passage is only distinguish'd from the Trot, which is the Foundation of it, by the extreme Union of the Horse, and by his keeping his Legs longer in the Air, and lifting them both equally high, and being neither so quick nor violent as in the Action of the Trot. IN the Passage which is founded on the Walk, the Action of the Horse is the same as in the Trot, and of consequence the same as in the Walk; with this Difference, that the Horse lifts his Fore-feet a good deal higher than his Hind-feet, that he _marks_ a certain Time or Interval sufficiently long between the Motion of each Leg; his Action being much more together and short, and more distinct and slow than the ordinary Walk, and not so extended as in the Trot, in such a manner that he is, as it were, kept together and supported under himself. LASTLY, there is another sort of Passage to which the Trot likewise gives birth, and in which the Action is so quick, so diligent, and so supported, that the Horse seems not to advance, but to work upon the same Spot of Ground. The _Spaniards_ call the Horses who make this sort of Passage _Pissadores_. This sort of Horses have not their Action so high and strong as the other, it being too quick and sudden; but almost all Horses which are inclin'd to this sort of Passage, are generally endowed with a great Share of Gentleness and Activity. NO Horse should be put to the Passage till he has been well trotted out, is supple, and has acquir'd some Knowledge of the _Union_.--If he has not been well trotted, and by that means taught to go forward readily, his Action, when put to the Passage, being shorten'd and retain'd, you would run the risque of his becoming _restive_ and _ramingue_; and was he utterly unacquainted with the Union, the Passage requiring that he should be very much together, he would not be able to bear it; so that finding himself press'd and forced on one hand, and being incapable of obeying on the other, he would resist and defend himself. THERE are some People, who observing a Horse to have Strength and Agility, and naturally disposed to unite himself, endeavour to get from him some _Times_ of the Passage.--They succeed in their Attempt, and immediately conclude that they can passage their Horse whenever they will, and so press him to it, before he has been sufficiently suppled and taught to go forward readily, and without retaining himself. --Hence arise all the Disorders into which Horses plunge themselves, which, if they had been properly managed at first, would have been innocent of all Vice.--Farther, you ought to study well the Nature of every Horse; you will discover of what Temper he is from the first Moment you see him passage, and to what he is most inclin'd by Nature. IF he has any Seeds of the _Ramingue_ in him, his Action will be short and _together_; but it will be retain'd and loitering, the Horse craving the Aids, and only advancing in proportion as the Rider gives them, and drives him forward.--If he is light and active, quick of Feeling, and willing, his Action will be free and diligent, and you will perceive that he takes a Pleasure to work of himself, without expecting the Aids.--If he be of a hot and fiery Nature, his Actions will be quick and sudden, and will shew that he is angry and impatient of the Subjection. If he wants Inclination and Will, he will be unquiet, he will cross his Legs, and his Actions will be perplex'd. If he is fiery, and heavy at the same time, his Action will be all upon the Hand. If besides this, he has but little Strength, he will abandon himself entirely upon the _Apuy_. Lastly, if he is cold and sluggish in his Nature, his Motion will be unactive and dead; and even when he is enliven'd by good Lessons, you will always be able to discover his Temper by seeing the Aids, which the Rider is oblig'd to give him from time to time, to hinder him from slackening or stopping the _Cadence_ of his Passage. HAVING acquir'd a thorough Knowledge of your Horse's Character, you should regulate all your Lessons and Proceedings conformable to it.--If it hurts a Horse who partakes of the _Ramingue_ to be kept too much together, unite him by little and little, and insensibly as it were, and quite contrary to putting him to a short and united Passage all at once. Extend and push him forward, passing one while from the Walk to that of the Trot, and so alternatively. IF your Horse is hot and impatient, he will cross his Steps, and not go equal; keep such a Horse in a less degree of Subjection, ease his Rein, pacify him, and retain or hold him in no more than is sufficient to make him more quiet.--If with this he is heavy, put him to a Walk somewhat shorter and slower than the Passage, and endeavour to put him upon his Haunches insensibly, and by degrees. By these means you will be enabled by Art to bring him to an Action, by so much the more essential, as by this alone a Horse is taught to know the Hands and Heels, as I have already observed, without ever being perplex'd or disordered. CHAP. XI. _Of working with the Head and Croupe to the Wall._ THE Lessons of the Head and Croupe to the Wall are excellent to confirm a Horse in Obedience. In effect, when in this Action he is, as it were, balanced between the Rider's Legs, and by working the Croupe along the Wall, you are enabled not only to supple his Shoulders, but likewise to teach him the Aids of the Legs. FOR this Purpose, after having well open'd the Corner, turn your Hand immediately, and carry it _in_, in order to direct your Horse by your outward Rein; taking always care to support the Croupe with your outward Leg directly over-against, and about two Feet distant from the Wall: Bend your Horse to the Way he goes, and draw back the Shoulder that is _in_ with your inner Rein, because the outward Leg being carried with more care over the inner Leg by means of the outward Rein, the Horse will cross and bring one Leg over the other, the Shoulders will go before the Croupe, you will narrow him behind, and consequently put him upon his Haunches. YOU ought to be careful at the same time, and see that your Horse never falsifies or quits the Line, either in advancing or going backward.--If he presses forward, support him with your Hand; if he hangs back, support him with your Legs, always giving him the Leg that serves to drive him on, stronger than the other which serves only to support him; that is, acting stronger with the Leg that is _without_, than with that which is within. THE Lesson of the Head to the Wall is very efficacious to correct a Horse that forces the Hand, or who leans heavily upon it, because it compels him to put himself together, and be light upon the Hand with less Aids of the Bridle; but no Horse that is _restive_ or _ramingue_ should be put to it, for all narrow and confin'd Lessons serve only to confirm them in their natural Vice.--Place your Horse directly opposite the Wall, at about two Feet distance from it; make him go sideways, as I have already directed in the Article of Croupe to the Wall; but left one Foot should tread upon the other, and he should knock them together and hurt himself, in the Beginning of both Lessons you must not be too strict with him, but let his Croupe be rather on the contrary Side of his Shoulders, since by this means he will look towards the Way he is going more easily, and be better able to raise the Shoulder and Leg which is to cross over the other.--By degrees you will gain his Haunches, and he will grow supple before and behind, and at the same time become light in the Hand: Never forget that your Horse ought always to be bent to the Way he goes; in order to do this readily, guide him with the outward Rein; for very often the Stiffness of the Neck or Head is owing to nothing but the confined Action of the outward Shoulder; it being certain, that either the Difficulty or Ease of working either of those Parts, depends entirely upon the other; your Horse going thus sideways, carry your Hand a little out from time to time; the inner Rein by this means will be shortened, and make the Horse look _in_, the more it enlarges him before, by keeping his Fore-leg that is _in_, at a distance from the Fore-leg that is _out_, which consequently bringing the inner Hinder-leg near to the outward, confines his hinder Parts, and makes him bend his Haunches, especially the outward, upon which he rests his Weight, and keeps him in an equal Balance.--Never put your Horse to this Lesson, till he has been work'd a long while upon large Circles, his Head _in_, or to the Center, and his Croupe _out_; otherwise you would run the Risque of throwing him into great Disorder. THE greater part of Defences proceed from the Shoulders or Haunches, that is to say, from the fore or hinder Parts; and thence the Horse learns to resist the Hand or Heel. It is the want of Suppleness then, that hinders the Horse from executing what you put him to do; and how can it be expected that he should answer and obey, when he is stiff in the Shoulders, Haunches, and Ribs? especially if, without reflecting that Suppleness is the Foundation of all, you press and teize him, and put him to Lessons beyond his Power and Capacity. CHAP. XII. _Of Changes of the Hand, large and narrow, and of Voltes and Demi-voltes._ A CHANGE is that Action, whereby the Horseman guides and causes his Horse to go from the Right-hand to the Left, and from the Left to the Right, in order to work him equally to both Hands; therefore changing the Hand, when you are to the Right, is making your Horse go to the Left-hand, and when on the Left, making him go to the Right. The Changes are made either on one _Line_ or _Path_, or on two, and are either large or narrow. Changing the Hand upon one Line, is when the Horse describes but one Line with his Feet; changing upon two Lines, is when the Haunches follow and accompany the Shoulders; and to make this Change, the Horse's Feet must consequently describe two Lines, one made by his Fore-feet, the other with his Hinder-feet. CHANGING large, is when the Line, if the Horse makes but one, or both Lines, when he describes two, cross the Manage from Corner to Corner; changing narrow, is when these Lines pass over but a Part of it. A _Volte_ is generally defined to be whatever forms a Circle.--Voltes of two Lines or Paths, describe two, one with the Horse's Fore, the other with his Hinder-feet. IF the Circle then forms a Volte, by consequence half a Circle forms what is called the _Half-volte_.--These Half-voltes, and Quarters of Voltes, are made upon two Lines, as well as the Volte.--A Demi-volte of two Treads, is nothing else than two half Circles, one drawn by the Horse's Fore-feet, the other by the Hinder; it is the same with Quarters of Voltes.--A Horse can be work'd, and put to all sorts of Airs upon the Voltes, Half-voltes, and Quarters of Voltes.--But as the Rules necessary to be observed and followed in making Voltes of two Treads, and in changing of Hands in the Passage, are only general, I shall content myself with explaining them in this Chapter; reserving to myself a Power of pointing out the Exceptions, when I shall come to treat of the different Airs, and the different Manages, that are practised upon the Voltes. Three things equally essential, and equally difficult to attain, must concur to form the Justness of a Change; they are the manner of beginning it, of continuing, and closing it.--We will suppose you in the Manage, you walk your Horse forward, you bend him properly, and you are come to the Place where you intend to change large. For this Purpose, make a half Stop, and take care never to abandon the Rein which is to bend your Horse's Neck; the other Rein, that is, the outward Rein, is that, which you must use to guide and direct him, but you must proportion the Stress you lay upon one with the other.--As it is the outward Rein which determines your Horse the Way he is to go, make that operate, its Effect will be to bring the outward Shoulder _in_; if then it brings the outward Shoulder _in_, it guides and determines the Horse to the Side to which you are going, and confines and fixes the Croupe at the same time. This is not all, at the same Instant that your Hand operates, support your Horse with your outward Leg: Your Hand having determined the Shoulder, and fixed the Croupe, your Leg must help to secure it; for without the Aid of the Leg, the Croupe would be unconfined, would be lost, and the Horse would work only upon one Line. You see then, how requisite it is for the Horseman to be exact, active, and to give his Aids with the greatest Delicacy, in order to _begin_ his Change with Justness; because it is necessary, that the Times of giving the Hand and Leg, should be so close one to the other, as not to be perceived or distinguished.--You should never abandon, I have already said, that Rein with which you bend your Horse; this is the Reason--Every Horse when he makes a Change, ought to look towards the Way he is going; this Turn of the Neck, this Attitude, enables him to perform his Work better, and makes him appear graceful in it; therefore if he is turned or bent before he begins to change, why should you abandon the Rein that serves to bend him; since in this case, you would be under a double Difficulty in wanting on one hand the Point of Apuy, which ought to be found in the Rein which serves to bend him, and the Point of Apuy which ought to result from the working of the other Rein, which is to determine him.--The outward Rein operates to bring in the outward Shoulder, your outward Leg accompanies the Action of your Hand; here then is your Change begun. THE outward Shoulder and Leg never could have been brought in, without passing over or crossing the inner Leg and Shoulder; this is the Action which the outward Leg should constantly perform through the whole Change. In order to arrive at a just Execution of this, you should be able to feel which Feet are off the Ground, and which are upon it. If the inner Leg is in the Air, and the Horse is ready to put it to the Ground, raise your Hand, and carry it _in_ insensibly, and your Horse will be oblig'd to advance his outward Leg and Shoulder, which must by this means cross the inner Leg and Shoulder whether he will or no. IT is not sufficient for the Horse to cross his Legs only one over the other, he must go forward likewise at the same time, because in making the Change large, his Feet should describe two diagonal Lines.--It is of Importance therefore, that the same Attention be had to the inner as the outward Leg, for it is by the means of his Legs only that he can advance. It is true that you should endeavour to make him go forward by putting back your Body, and yielding your Hand; but if he won't obey these Aids, you must make use of the Calfs of your Legs, aiding more strongly with your Left-leg when you are going to the Right-hand, and more strongly with your Right-leg when you are going to the Left. Besides, it is so necessary to have an equal Attention to the Legs, because the Horse could never work with Justness, if he were not ballanced equally between the Rider's Legs; and it is from this exact Obedience only, that he is enabled to make the Changes with Precision, because without a Knowledge of the Hand and Heels, it is impossible he should obey the Motions of his Rider--In order to _close_ the Change justly, the Horses Fore-legs should arrive at the same time upon a strait Line; so that a Change justly executed, and in the same Cadence or Time, is such, as is not only begun, but finish'd likewise, and closed in such a Proportion, that the Croupe always accompanies and keeps Pace with the Shoulders throughout.--In order to finish it in this manner, you must observe the following Rules. The greater Number of Horses, instead of finishing their Changes with Exactness, are apt to lean on one Side, to make their Croupe go before their Shoulders, and to throw themselves with Impatience, in order to get upon one Line again; the Method of correcting them for these Irregularities, is to make a Demi-volte of two Lines, in the same Place where they were to have closed their Change; for Example, if in changing to the Right, they are too eager to come upon the strait Line, without having properly finish'd their Change, demand of them a Demi-volte to the Left, which you must make them round equally with their Shoulders and Haunches. AN essential Point, which nevertheless is little regarded, is the making your Horse resume his Line, or go off again to the other Hand, when he has made his Change. To make him do this, you must carry your Hand to the Side to which you have closed your Change, and carry it insensibly as it were, after which you will be able with great Ease to bend your Horse to the Inside. I must further explain the Necessity of this Action. IT is evident that a Horse in the Passage, neither can, nor ought if he could, move the two Feet on the same Side together. In beginning and finishing the Change, the outward Leg and Shoulder pass and cross over the inner Leg and Shoulder; he is consequently supported in this Action on the outward Haunch, for the inner Foot behind was off the Ground; now, if at the Closing of the Change, and in the Instant that he is again upon one Line; as for Example--If in closing his Change to the Right, the Horse is supported in this Action by the left Haunch, how is it possible that he can be bent to the Left? To attempt this, would be to make him move two Legs on the same Side, which would be undertaking a thing impossible to be done. Being therefore arrived upon one Line, carry your Hand to the Wall, this will make your Horse change his Leg; he will be supported in his Action by his right Haunch, and will be able to bend himself with great Facility. IN order to make the Volte true and perfect, he ought to be just with respect to his Head and Neck, and have the Action of his Shoulders and Haunches quite equal. When I say that a Horse should have his Shoulders and Haunches equal, I would not be understood to mean, that his Fore-feet should not cover more Ground than his Hinder; on the contrary, I know it is a Rule never to be departed from, that his Shoulders should precede half of the Haunches; but I insist that the Haunches should go along with, and follow exactly the Motion of, the Shoulders; for 'tis from their Agreement, and from the Harmony between the Hind-legs and the Fore, upon which the Truth of the Volte depends. The four Legs of a Horse may be compared to the four Strings of an Instrument; if these four Cords don't correspond, it is impossible there should be any Musick; it is the same with a Horse, if the Motions of his Haunches and Fore-legs don't act together and assist each other, and if he has not acquired a Habit and Ease to perform what he ought to do, the most expert and dextrous Horseman will never be able to acquit himself as he ought, nor execute any Air justly and with Pleasure, be it either on the Volte or strait forward. WHENEVER you put your Horse to the Passage upon the Voltes, he ought to make the same Number of Steps or Times with his Hinder, as with his Fore-feet; if the Space of the Ground upon which he works is narrow and confin'd, his Steps should be shorter. I WILL suppose that he describes a large Circle with his Fore-feet; the Action of his outward Shoulder ought consequently to be free, and the Shoulder much advanced, in order to make the outward Leg pass over and cross at every Step the inner Leg, that he may more easily embrace his Volte, without quitting the Line of the Circle, and without disordering his Hinder-leg; which ought likewise to be subject to the same Laws as the Fore-legs, and cross the outward Leg over the inner, but not so much as the Fore-legs, because they have less Ground to go over, and should only keep the Proportion.--In working upon Voltes of two Lines, the Horse should make as many Steps with his Hinder as with his Fore-feet; because those Horses whose Haunches go before the Shoulders, and who cut and shorten the exact Line of the Volte, are apt to keep their Hinder-feet in one Place, and make at the same time one or two Steps with their Fore-feet, and by this means falsify and avoid filling up the Circle in the Proportion they begun it. The same Fault is to be found with Horses who hang back at the End of a Change, and throwing out their Croupe, arrive at the Wall with their Shoulders, and consequently fail to close their Change justly. FURTHER, in working upon this Lesson, it is indispensably necessary that at every Step the Horse takes, he should make his outward Leg cross and come over the inner, because this will prevent a Horse that is too quick of Feeling, or one, that is _ramingue_, from becoming _entier_, or to bend himself, or lean in his Voltes, Vices that are occasion'd from having the Haunches or Hinder-legs too much constrain'd. There are Horses likewise who have their Croupe so light and uncertain, that from the Moment they have begun the Volte, they lean and widen their Hinder-legs, and throw them out of the Volte. TO remedy this, aid with the outward Leg, carrying your Bridle-hand to the same Side, and not _in_, because it is by the Means of the outward Leg and inner Rein, that you will be enabled to adjust and bring in the Croupe upon the Line which it ought to keep. IF it happens that the Horse don't keep up to the Line of his Volte, or throws his Croupe out, press him forward, letting him go strait on two or three Steps, keeping him firm in the Hand, and in a slow and just Time, and use the Aids which I have just now directed.--This Lesson is equally useful in case your Horse is naturally inclin'd to carry his Haunches too much in, and where he is _ramingue_, or in danger of becoming so; but then the Aids must be given on the Side to which he leans, and presses, in order to widen his Hinder-parts, and to push the Croupe out. ABOVE all you should remember, that whatever tends to bend or turn the Head on one side, will always drive the Croupe on the other; when the Horse's Croupe don't follow his Shoulders equally, the Fault may proceed either from a Disobedience to the Hand, or from his not answering the Heels as he ought. If you would remedy this, keep him low before; that is to say, keep your Bridle-hand very low, and while you make him advance upon two Treads, aid him firmly with the Calfs of the Legs; for as the outward Leg will confine and keep his Croupe _in_, the inner Leg, operating with the outward, will make him go forward. IF you find that your Horse disobeys the Heel, and throws his Croupe out in spite of that Aid, in this Case make use of your inner Rein, carrying your Hand out with your Nails turned upwards; this will infallibly operate upon the Croupe, and restrain it. Use the same Remedy, if in the Passage your Horse carries his Head out of the Volte, and you will bring it in; but you must remember, in both Cases, to replace your Hand immediately after having carried it out, in order to make the outward Rein work, which will facilitate and enable the outward Legs to cross over the inner. IF the Horse breaks the Line, and flings his Croupe upon the Right-heel, work him to that Side with your Left; if he would go sideways to the Left, make him go to the Right; if he flings his Croupe _out_, put it quietly _in_; in short, if all at once he brings it _in_, put it quietly _out_; and, in a word, teach him by the Practice of good Lessons to acquire a Facility and Habit of executing whatever you demand of him. _The_ Consequence of all the different Rules and Principles, which I have here laid down, and which may be applied equally to the Changes, large and narrow, to Changes upon the Voltes, and Half-voltes; the Consequence of these Instructions I say will be, if practised judiciously, a most implicit and exact Obedience on the Part of the Horse, who from that Moment, will resign his own Will and Inclination, and make it subservient to that of the Rider, which he must teach him to know by making him acquainted with the Hand and Heel. CHAP. XIII. _Of the Aids of the Body._ THE Perfection of all the Aids consists, as I have already proved, in their mutual Harmony and Correspondence, for without this Agreement, they must be always ineffectual; because the Horse can never work with Exactness and Delicacy, and keep the Proportion and Measure which is inseparable to all Airs, when justly and beautifully executed. THIS Maxim being laid down, we shall undertake to demonstrate, that the Aids of the Body contribute, and are even capable of themselves, from the Principles of Geometry, to make us acquire the Union of the Aids of the Hand and Leg; and if so, we shall be obliged to own the Conclusion, that they are to be prefer'd to all the rest. THE Justness of the Aids of the Body depends upon the Seat of the Horseman.--Till he is arrived at the Point of being able to sit down close and firm in his Saddle, so as to be immoveable in it, it would be vain to expect he should be able to manage a Horse; because, besides that he would be incapable of feeling his Motions, he would not be possessed of that Equilibre and Firmness of Seat, which is the Characteristic of a Horseman. I would define the Equilibre to be, when the Horseman sits upon his Twist, directly down and close upon the Saddle, and so firm that nothing can loosen or disturb his Seat; and by Firmness, I express that Grasp or Hold with which he keeps himself on the Horse, without employing any Strength, but trusting entirely to his Ballance, to humour and accompany all the Motions of the Horse. NOTHING but Exercise and Practice can give this Equilibre, and consequently this Hold upon the Horse. In the Beginning, the Fear which almost every Scholar feels, and the Constraint which all his Limbs are under, make him apt to press the Saddle very close with his Thighs and Knees, as he imagines he shall by this Method acquire a firmer Seat; but the very Efforts that he makes to resist the Motions of the Horse, stiffen his Body, and lift him out of the Saddle, so that any rude Motion, or unexpected Shock, would be likely to unhorse him; for from the Moment that he ceases to sit down and quite close to the Saddle, every sudden Jirk and Motion of the Horse attacking him under his Twist, must shove him out of the Saddle. WE will suppose then a Person, the Position of whose Body is just and regular, and who, by being able to sit down perpendicular and full in his Saddle, can feel and unite himself to his Horse so as to accompany all his Motions; let us see then how this Person, from the Motions of his own Body, will be able to accord and unite the Aids or Times of the Hands and Legs. IN order to make your Horse take or go into the Corner of the Manage, you must begin by _opening_ it. TO open a Corner, is to turn the Shoulder before you come to it, in order to make it cover the Ground; and then the Croupe which is turn'd _in_ will not follow the Line of the Shoulders, till they are turn'd and brought upon a strait Line in order to come out of the Corner.--In order to turn the Shoulder to open the Corner, you must carry your Hand to the Right or Left, according to the Hand to which you are to go; and to throw in the Croupe, you must support it with the Leg on that Side to which you carry your Hand.--To make the Shoulders turn and come out of the Corner, you must carry your Hand on the Side opposite to that to which you turned it, in order to go into the Corner; and that the Croupe may pass over the same Ground as the Shoulders, you must support with the Leg on the contrary Side to that with which you aided in order to bring the Haunches in; the Horse never can perform any of these Actions without an entire Agreement of all these Aids, and one single Motion of the Body will be sufficient to unite them all with the utmost Exactness. IN effect, instead of carrying your Hand out, and seconding that Aid with the Leg, turn your Body but imperceptibly towards the Corner, just as if you intended to go into it yourself; your Body then turning to the Right or Left, your Hand, which is one of its Appurtenances, must necessarily turn likewise, and the Leg of the Side on which you turn, will infallibly press against the Horse, and aid him.--If you would come out of the Corner, turn your Body again, your Hand will follow it, and your other Leg approaching the Horse, will put his Croupe into the Corner, in such a manner, that it will follow the Shoulders, and be upon the same Line.--It is by these means that you will be enabled to time the Aids of the Hand and Legs with greater Exactness, than you could do, were you not to move your Body; for how dextrous and ready soever you may be, yet when you only use your Hand and Legs, without letting their Aids proceed from, and be guided by your Body, they can never operate so effectually, and their Action is infinitely less smooth, and not so measured and proportioned, as when it proceeds only from the Motion of the Body. THE same Motion of the Body is likewise necessary in turning entirely to the Right or Left, or to make your Horse go sideways on one Line, or in making the Changes. IF when you make a Change, you perceive the Croupe to be too much _in_, by turning your Body _in_, you will drive it out, and the Hand following the Body, determines the Shoulder by means of the outward Rein, which is shorten'd; if the Croupe is too much _out_, turn your Body _out_, and this Posture carrying the Hand out, shortens the inner Rein, and confines the Croupe, acting in concert with the outward Leg, which works and approaches the Side of the Horse.--This Aid is by so much better, because if executed with Delicacy, it is imperceptible, and never alarms the Horse; I say, if executed as it ought to be, for we are not talking here of turning the Shoulder, and so falsifying the Posture. In order to make the Hand and Leg work together, it is necessary that the Motion should proceed from the Horseman, which in turning carries with it the rest of the Body insensibly; without this, very far from being assisted by the Ballance of your Body in the Saddle, you would lose it entirely, and together with it the Gracefulness of your Seat; and your Ballance being gone, how can you expect to find any Justness in the Motions of your Horse, since all the Justness and Beauty of his Motions must depend upon the Exactness of your own? THE secret Aids of the Body are such then as serve to prevent, and accompany all the Motions of the Horse. If you will make him go backward, throw back your own Body, your Hand will go with it, and you will make the Horse obey by a single Turn of the Waist.--Would you have him go forward, for this purpose put your Body back, but in a less degree; don't press the Horse's Fore-parts with your Weight, because by leaning a little back you will be able to approach your Legs to his Sides with greater Ease.--If your Horse rises up, bend your Body forward; if he kicks, leaps, or strikes out behind, throw your Body back; if he gallops when he should not, oppose all his Motions, and for this purpose push your Waist forward towards the Pummel of the Saddle, making a Bend or Hollow at the same time in your Loins: In short, do you work your Horse upon great Circles, with the Head _in_ and Croupe _out_? let your Body then be a Part of the Circle, because this Posture bringing your Hand _in_, you bring in the Horse's outward Shoulder, over which the inner Shoulder crosses circularly, and your inner Leg being likewise by this Method near your Horse's Side, you leave his Croupe at liberty. I call it becoming a Part of the Circle yourself, when you incline a little the Balance of your Body towards the Center; and this Balance proceeds entirely from the outward Hip, and turning it _in_. THE Aids of the Body then are those which conduce to make the Horse work with greater Pleasure, and consequently perform his Business with more Grace; if then they are such, as to be capable alone of constituting the Justness of the Airs; if they unite, and make the Hand and Legs work in concert; if they are so fine and subtle, as to be imperceptible, and occasion no visible Motion in the Rider, but the Horse seems to work of himself; if they comprize at the same time, the most established and certain Principles of the Art; if the Body of the Horseman, which is capable of employing them, is of consequence firm without Constraint or Stiffness, and supple without being weak or loose; if these are the Fruits which we derive from them, we must fairly own, that this is the shortest, the most certain, and plainest Method we can follow, in order to form a Horseman. CHAP. XIV. _Of the Gallop._ THE Trot is the Foundation of the Gallop; the Proof of its being so is very clear and natural. The Action of the Trot is crosswise, that of the Gallop is from an equal Motion of the Fore and Hinder-legs; now, if you trot out your Horse briskly and beyond his Pitch, he will be compell'd when his Fore-feet are off the Ground, to put his Hinder-foot down so quick, that it will follow the Fore-foot of the same Side; and it is this which forms the true Gallop: The Trot then is beyond dispute the Foundation of the Gallop. AS the Perfection of the Trot consists in the Suppleness of the Joints and Limbs, that of the Gallop depends upon the Lightness and Activity of the Shoulders; a good Apuy, and the Vigour and Resolution of the Career, must depend upon the natural Spirit and Courage of the Horse. It should be a Rule, never to make a Horse gallop, till he presents and offers to do it of himself.--Trotting him out boldly and freely, and keeping him in the Hand, so as to raise and support his Fore-parts, will assist him greatly; for when his Limbs are become supple and ready, and he is so far advanced, as to be able to unite and put himself together without Difficulty, he will then go off readily in his Gallop; whereas, if on the contrary he should pull or be heavy, the Gallop would only make him abandon himself upon the Hand, and fling him entirely upon his Shoulders. TO put a Horse in the Beginning of his Lessons from the Walk to the Gallop, and to work him in it upon Circles, is demanding of him too great a degree of Obedience. In the first place, it is very sure that the Horse can unite himself with greater Ease in going strait forward, than in turning; and, in the next place, the Walk being a slow and distinct Pace, and the Gallop being quick and violent, it is much better to begin with the Trot, which is a quick Action, than with the Walk, which is slow and calm, however raised and supported its Action may be.--Two things are requisite to form the Gallop, _viz._ it ought to be _just_, and it ought to be _even_ or _equal_.--I call that Gallop _just_, in which the Horse leads with the Right-leg before, and I call that the Right-leg which is foremost, and which the Horse puts out beyond the other. For Instance--A Horse gallops and supports himself in his Gallop, upon the outward Fore-foot, the Right Fore-foot clears the Way, the Horse consequently gallops with the Right-foot, and the Gallop is just, because he puts forward and leads with his Right-foot. THIS Motion of the Right-foot is indispensably necessary, for if the Horse were to put his Left Fore-foot first, his Gallop would be _false_; so that it is to be understood, that whenever you put a Horse to the Gallop, he should always go off with his Right fore-foot, and keep it foremost, or he can never be said to gallop _just_ and _true_.--I understand by an _even_ or _equal_ Gallop, that in which the Hind-parts follow and accompany the Fore-parts; as for Example--If a Horse gallops, or leads with his Right-leg before, the Hind Right-leg ought to follow; for if the Left Hind-leg were to follow, the Horse would then be disunited: The Justness then of the Gallop depends upon the Action of the Fore-feet, as the Union or Evenness of it does on the Hind-feet. THIS general Rule which fixes the Justness of the Gallop, that is to say, this Principle which obliges the Horse to lead with the Right Fore-foot when he gallops, strict as it is, yet sometimes parts with its Privileges in deference to the Laws of the Manage.--The Design of this School is to make equally supple and active all the Limbs of a Horse.--It is not requisite then that the Horse should lead always with the same Leg, because it is absolutely necessary that he should be equally ready and supple with both his Shoulders, in order to work properly upon the different Airs.--It seems but reasonable that this Rule should be observed likewise out of the Manage; and therefore it has of late obtain'd that Hunting-horses should lead indifferently with both Legs; because it has been found on Trial, that by strictly adhering to the Rule of never suffering a Horse to gallop but with his Right Fore-leg, he has been quite ruin'd and worn out on one Side, when he was quite fresh and sound on the other.--Be that as it will, it is not less certain, that in the Manage a Horse may gallop false, either in going strait forward, or in going round, or upon a Circle; for instance--He is going strait, and to the Right-hand, and sets off with the Left Fore-foot; he then is false, just as he would be, if in going to the Left, he should lead with his Right Fore-foot. THE Motions of a Horse, when disunited, are so disorder'd and perplex'd, that he runs a risque of falling, because his Action then is the Action of the Trot, and quite opposite to the Nature of the Gallop. It is true, that for the Rider's Sake he had better be false. IF a Horse in full Gallop changes his Legs from one side to the other alternately, this Action of the Amble in the Midst of his Course, is so different from the Action of the Gallop, that it occasions the Horse to go from the Trot to the Amble, and from the Amble to the Trot. WHEN a Horse gallops strait forward, however short and confin'd his Gallop is, his Hind-feet always go beyond his Fore feet, even the Foot that leads, as well as the other.--To explain this.--If the inner Fore-foot leads, the inner Hind-foot ought to follow, so that the inner Feet, both that which leads, and that which follows, are prest, the other two at liberty.--The Horse sets off, the outward Fore-foot is on the Ground, and at liberty, this makes one _Time_; immediately the inner Fore-foot which leads and is prest, marks a second, here are two _Times_; then the outward Hind-foot which was on the Ground, and at liberty, marks the third _Time_; lastly, the inner Hind-foot which leads and is prest, comes to the Ground, and marks the fourth; so that when a Horse goes strait forward and gallops just, he performs it in four distinct _Times_, _one_, _two_, _three_, _four_. IT is very difficult to feel exactly, and perceive these Times of the Gallop; but yet by Observation and Practice it may be done.--The Times of a Horse, who covers and embraces a good deal of Ground, are much more easy to mark than his who covers but little.--The Action of the one is quick and short, and that of the other long, slow, and distinct; but whether the natural Motions and _Beats_ of the Horse are slow or quick, the Horseman absolutely ought to know them, in order to humour and work conformably to them; for should he endeavour to lengthen and prolong the Action of the one, in hopes of making him go forward more readily, and to shorten and confine that of the other, in order to put him more _together_; the Action of both would in this Case not only be forced and disagreeable, but the Horses would resist and defend themselves, because Art is intended only to assist and correct, but not to change Nature.--In working your Horse upon Circles, it is the outward Rein that you must use to guide and make him go forward; for this purpose turn your Hand _in_ from time to time, and aid with your outward Leg.--If the Croupe should be turn'd too much out, you must carry your Hand on the outward Side of your Horse's Neck; and you will confine it, and keep it from quitting its Line.--I would be understood of Circles of two Lines or Treads, where the Haunches are to be attended to.--Before you put your Horse to this, he should be gallop'd upon plain, or Circles of one Line only.--In this Lesson, in order to supple your Horse, make use of your inner Rein to pull his Head towards the Center, and aid with the Leg of the same Side, to push his Croupe out of the Volte; by this means you bend the Ribs of the Horse. THE Hind-feet certainly describe a much larger Circle than his Fore-feet; indeed they make a second Line: but when a Horse is said to gallop only upon a Circle of one Line or Tread, he always and of necessity makes two; because, were the Hind-feet to make the same Line as the Fore-feet, the Lesson would be of no use, and the Horse would never be made supple; for he only becomes supple in proportion as the Circle made with his Hind-feet is greater than that described by his Fore-feet. WHEN your Horse is so far advanced, as to be able to gallop lightly and readily upon this sort of Circle, begin then to make frequent Stops with him.--To make them well in the Gallop, with his Head in, and Croupe out, the Rider must use his outward Leg, to bring _in_ the outward Leg of the Horse; otherwise he would never be able to stop upon his Haunches, because the outward Haunch is always out of the Volte. TO make a Stop in a Gallop strait forwards, you should carefully put your Horse _together_, without altering or disturbing the Apuy, and throw your Body back a little, in order to accompany the Action, and to relieve the Horse's Shoulders.--You should seize the time of making the Stop, keeping your Hand and Body quite still, exactly when you feel the Horse put his Fore-feet to the Ground, in order that by raising them immediately, by the next Motion that he would make, he may be upon his Haunches.--If on the contrary, you were to begin to make the Stop, while the Shoulders of the Horse were advanced, or in the Air, you would run the Risque of hardening his Mouth, and must throw him upon his Shoulders, and even upon the Hand, and occasion him to make some wrong Motions with his Head, being thus surprized at the Time when his Shoulders and Feet are coming to the Ground. THERE are some Horses who retain themselves, and don't put out their Strength sufficiently; these should be galloped briskly, and then slowly again, remembring to gallop them sometimes fast, and sometimes slow, as you judge necessary.--Let them go a little Way at full Speed, make a half Stop, by putting back your Body, and bring them again to a slow Gallop; by these means they will most certainly be compelled both to obey the Hand and Heel. IN the slow Gallop, as well as in the Trot, it is necessary sometimes to close your Heels to the Horse's Sides, this is called _pinching_; but you must pinch him in such a manner, as not to make him abandon himself upon the Hand, and take care that he be upon his Haunches, and not upon his Shoulders, and therefore whenever you pinch him, keep him in the Hand. TO put him well together, and make him bring his Hind-legs under him, close your two Legs upon him, putting them very back; this will oblige him to slide his Legs under him; at the same Instant, raise your Hand a little to support him before, and yield it again immediately. Support him and give him the Rein again from time to time, till you find that he begins to play and bend his Haunches, and that he gallops leaning and sitting down as it were upon them; press him with the Calfs of the Legs, and you will make him quick and sensible to the Touch. IF your Horse has too fine a Mouth, gallop him upon sloping ground, this will oblige him to lean a little upon the Hand, the better to put himself upon his Haunches; and the Fear that he will be under of hurting his Bars, will prevent his resisting the Operation of the Bitt. IF Galloping upon a sloping Ground assures and fixes a Mouth that is weak and fickle, make use of the same Ground in making your Horse ascend it, in case he is heavy in the Hand; and his Apuy be too strong, and it will lighten him. THERE are some Horsemen who mark each Motion of the Horse in his Gallop, by moving their Bodies and Heads; they ought, however, without Stiffness or Constraint to consent and yield to all his Motions, yet with a Smoothness and Pliancy so as not to be perceived, for all great or rude Motions always disturb the Horse.--To do this you must advance or present your Breast, and stretch yourself firm in your Stirrups; this is the only Way to fix and unite yourself entirely to the Animal who carries you. THE Property of the Gallop is, as may be gathered from all that has been said of it, to give the Horse a good Apuy. IN reality, in this Action he lifts at every time both his Shoulders and Legs together, in such a manner, that in making this Motion his Fore-part is without Support, till his Fore-feet come to the Ground; so that the Rider, by supporting or bearing him gently in Hand, as he comes down, can consequently give an Apuy to a Mouth that has none.----You must take care, that by retaining your Horse too much in his Gallop, you don't make him become _ramingue_, and weaken the Mouth that is light and unsteady; as the full or extended Gallop is capable on the other Hand, to harden an Apuy which was strong and _full in the Hand_ before. THE Gallop does not only assure and make steady a weak and delicate Mouth, but it also supples a Horse, and makes him ready and active in his Limbs.--It fixes the Memory and Attention of Horses likewise, who from too much Heat and Impetuosity in their Temper, never attend to the Aids of the Rider, nor the Times of their setting off; it teaches those who retain themselves, to go forward, and to set off ready and with Spirit; and lastly, it takes off all the superfluous Vigour of such Horses as, from too much Gaiety, avail themselves of their Strength and Courage to resist their Riders.--Take care, however, to proportion this Lesson to the Nature, the Strength, and Inclination of the Animal; and remember, that a violent and precipitate Gallop would hurt an impatient and hot Horse, as much as it would be proper and useful to one who retains himself, and is jadish and lazy. CHAP. XV. _Of Passades._ THE Passades are the truest Proofs a Horse can give of his Goodness.--By his going off you judge of his Swiftness; by his Stop, you discover the Goodness or Imperfection of his Mouth; and by the Readiness with which he turns, you are enabled to decide upon his Address and Grace; in short, by making him go off a second time you discover his Temper and Vigour.--When your Horse is light and active before, is firm upon his Haunches, and has them supple and free, so as to be able to accompany the Shoulders, is obedient and ready to both Hands, and to the Stop, he is then fit to be work'd upon Passades. [Illustration: Passade to the Right.] Walk him along the Side of the Wall in a steady even Pace, supporting and keeping him light in the Hand, in order to shew him the Length of the Passade, and the Roundness of the _Volte_ or _Demi-volte_, which he is to make at the End of each Line.--Stop at the End, and when he has finish'd the last Time of the Stop raise him, and let him make two or three Pesades. After this make a Demivolte of two Lines in the Walk; and while he is turning, and the Moment you have clos'd it, demand again of him two or three Pesades, and then let him walk on in order to make as many to the other Hand. [Illustration: Passade to the Left.] You must take care to confirm him well in this Lesson.--From the Walk you will put him to the Trot upon a strait Line; from the Trot to a slow Gallop, from that to a swifter; being thus led on by degrees, and step by step, he will be able to furnish all sorts of Passades, and to make the Demi-volte in any Air that you have taught him. YOU should never put your Horse to make a Volte or Demi-volte at the time that he is disunited, pulls, or is heavy in the Hand, or is upon his Shoulders; on the contrary, you should stop him at once, and make him go backward till you perceive that he is regulated and united upon his Haunches, light _before_, and has taken a good and just Apuy. A PERFECT Passade is made in this Manner.--Your Horse standing strait and true upon all his Feet, you go off with him at once, you stop him upon his Haunches; and in the same _Time_ or _Cadence_ in which he made his Stop, being exactly obedient to the Hand and Heel, he ought to make the Demi-volte, balancing himself upon his Haunches, and so waiting till you give him the Aid to set off again. It is requisite then that the least Motion or Hint of the Rider should be an absolute Command to the Horse.--If you would have him go off at full Speed, yield your Hand, close the Calves of your Legs upon him; if he don't answer to this Aid, give him the Spurs, but you must give them so as not to remove them from the Place where they were, and without opening or advancing your Legs before you strike. THE high Passades are those which a Horse makes, when being at the End of his Line, he makes his Demi-volte in any Air he has been taught, either in the _Mezair_ or in _Curvets_, which is very beautiful.--Therefore in high Passades let your Horse go off at full Speed; let your Stop be follow'd by three Curvets; let the Demi-volte consist of the same Number, and demand of him three more before he sets off again.--It is usual to make nine Curvets when you work a Horse alone and by himself. THE furious or violent Passades, are when a Horse gallops at his utmost Speed strait forward, and makes his half Stop, bending and playing his Haunches two or three times, before he begins his Demi-volte, which is made upon one Line, in three Times; for at the third Time he should finish the Demi-volte, and be strait upon the Line of the Passade, in order to go off again and continue it. THIS sort of Passades was heretofore used in private Combats, and although it may appear that the Time that is employed in making the half Stop is lost, and only hinders you from gaining the Croupe of the Enemy; yet the half Stop is indispensably necessary, for unless a Horse is balanced upon his Haunches, and they bend and play under him, he could never make his Demi-volte, without being in danger of Falling. CHAP. XVI. _Of Pesades._ THE Pesade takes its Name from the Motion of the Horse, which, in this Action, leans and lays all the Weight of his Body upon his Haunches.--To be perfect, the Hind-feet which support the whole ought to be fix'd and immoveable, and the Fore-part of the Horse more or less rais'd, according as the Creature will allow, but the Fore-legs, from the Knee to the Feet, must always be extremely bent and brought under him. THE Property of the Pesade is to dispose and prepare a Horse for all sorts of Manages; for it is the Foundation of all the Airs: Great Caution, however, must be had not to teach your Horse to rise up or stand upon his Haunches, which is making a _Pesade_, if he is not quite exact and obedient to the Hand and Heel; for in this Case you would throw him into great Disorder, spoil his Mouth, and falsify the Apuy, would teach him to make _Points_, as they are called, and even make him become _restive_; inasmuch as the generality of Horses only rise up to resist their Rider, and because they will neither go forward nor turn. YOUR Horse then being so far advanced as to be fit to be tried and exercised in the Pesade, work him upon the Walk, the Trot, and Gallop; stop him in the Hand, keep him firm and moderately _together_; aid with the Tongue, the Switch, and your Legs; the Moment you perceive he comprehends what it is you would have him to do, though never so little, encourage and caress him.--If in the Beginning of this Lesson you were to use Force or Rigour, he would consider the Strictness of your Hand, and the Aids of the Legs, as a Punishment, and it would discourage him. It is therefore proper to work gently and by degrees; whenever then he makes an Attempt to rise, caress him; make him go forwards, try to make him rise a second time, either more or less, and use him by degrees to rise higher and higher; you will find that he will soon be able to make his Pesades perfect, and to make four, or even more, with Ease and Readiness; sluggish and heavy Horses require in the Beginning stronger and sharper Aids. THERE are other Horses who are apt to rise of themselves, without being requir'd to do so; drive them forward in order to prevent them.--Some in making the Pesade, don't bend and gather up their Fore-legs, but stretch them out, paw, and cross them one over the other in the Air, resembling the Action of a Person's Hands who plays upon the Spinnet; to these Horses you mush apply the Switch, striking them briskly upon the Shoulders or Knees.--There are others, who in the Instant that you endeavour to make them rise, availing themselves of the Power which they have from being put _together_, in order to perform this Action, throw themselves forward in hopes of freeing themselves from all Subjection; the only Way to correct such Vices, is to make the Horse go backward the same Length of Ground, that he forced and broke through.--There is another kind of Horses, who to avoid being _put together_ in order to make a Pesade, as well as to resist the Rider, will fling their Croupe _in_ and _out_, sometimes to one side, sometimes to the other; in this Case, if you perceive that your Horse is apt to fling his Croupe more to the Left than to the Right, you must put him to the Wall, the Wall being on the Left-hand, and there support and confine him with your Right-leg, and even _pinch_ him if there should be occasion; taking care to carry your Hand to the Right, but imperceptibly, and no more than what will just serve to shorten the left Rein. IF he throws himself to the Right, you must put him so as to have the Wall on the Right; you must support and pinch him with your Left-leg, and shorten your Right-rein by carrying your Hand to the Left.--I must however repeat it over and over, that in a Lesson of this kind, in which a Horse may find out Methods and Inventions to resist and defend himself; I say, in giving such Lessons, the Rider ought to be Master of the surest Judgment and most consummate Prudence. MOREOVER, you should take care not to fall into the Mistake of those who imagine that the higher a Horse rises, the more he is upon his Haunches.--In the Pesade, the Croupe is pushed back, and the Horse bends his Haunches; but if he rises too high, he no longer sits upon his Haunches, for from that Moment he becomes stiff, and stands strait upon his Hocks; and instead of throwing his Croupe back, he draws it towards him. THOSE Sort of Pesades, in which the Horse rises too high, and stiffens his Hocks, are call'd _Goat-Pesades_, as they resemble the Action of that Animal. THE Aids that are to be given in Pesades are derived from those used to make a Horse go backward.--Place your Hand as if you intended to make your Horse go backward, but close your Legs at the same time, and he will rise.--For this reason nothing is more absurd than the Method which some Horsemen teach their Scholars, who oblige them, in order to make their Horses rise, to use only their Switch; they must certainly not know that the Hand confining the Fore-part, and the Rider's Legs driving the Hinder-parts forward, the Horse is compell'd, whether he will or no, to raise his Shoulders from the Ground, and to throw all the Weight of his Body upon his Haunches. CHAP. XVII. _Of the Mezair._ THE Gallop is the Foundation of the _Terre-a-Terre_; for in these two Motions the Principle of the Action is the same, since the _Terre-a-Terre_ is only a shorten'd Gallop, with the Croupe _in_, and the Haunches following in a close and quick Time. THE Mezair is higher than the Action of _Terre-a-Terre_, and lower than that of _Curvets_; we may therefore conclude, that the _Terre-a-Terre_, is the Foundation of the Mezair, as well as of _Curvets_.--In the _Terre-a-Terre_, the Horse should be more _together_ than in the Gallop, that he may mark his _Time_ or _Cadence_ more distinctly; although in a true _Terre-a-Terre_, there are no Times to be mark'd, for it is rather a gliding of the Haunches, which comes from the natural Springs in the Limbs of the Horse. I HAVE said, that the _Terre-a-Terre_ is the Foundation of the _Mezair_; in effect, the higher you raise the Fore-parts of the Horse, the slower and more distinct his Action will be, and by making him beat and mark the Time with his Hind-feet, instead of gliding them along as in the _Terre-a-Terre_, you put him to the _Mezair_, or _Half-curvets_. WHEN a Horse works _Terre-a-Terre_, he always ought, the same as in the _Gallop_, to lead with the Legs that are within the Volte, his two Fore-feet being in the Air, and the Moment that they are coming down, his two Hind-feet following. THE Action of the Gallop is always one, two, three, and four; the _Terre-a-Terre_ consists only of two Lines, one, two.--The Action is like that of _Curvets_, except that it is more under the Horse; that is, he bends his Haunches more, and moves them quicker and closer than in Curvets. TO work a Horse _Terre-a-Terre_ upon large Circles, take care to keep your Body strait, steady and true in the Saddle, without leaning to one side or the other.--Lean upon the outward Stirrup, and keep your outward Leg nearer the Side of the Horse than the other Leg, taking care to do it so as not to let it be perceived.--If you go to the Right, keep your Bridle-hand a little on the Outside of the Horse's Neck, turning your little finger up, without turning your Nails at the same time; although if need be you must turn them, in order to make the inner Rein work which passes over the Little-finger.--Keep your Arms and Elbows to your Hips, by this means you will assure and confine your Hands, which ought to accompany, and, if I may so say, run along the Line of the Circle with the Horse. IN the _Mezair_, use the same Aids as in working upon _Curvets_.--Give the Aids of the Legs with Delicacy, and no stronger than is just necessary to carry your Horse forward.--Remember when you close your Legs to make him go forward, to press with the Outward in such a degree as to keep your Horse confin'd; and to assist the other in driving him forward; it is not necessary to lay so much Stress on the inner Leg, because that serves only to guide the Horse, and make him cover and embrace the Ground that lays before him. CHAP. XVIII. _Of Curvets._ OF all the high Airs, Curvets are the least violent, and consequently the most easy to the Horse, inasmuch as they require nothing of the Horse but what he has done before. In reality, to make him stop readily and justly, he has been taught to take a good and true Apuy; in order to make him rise, he has been put _together_, and supported firm upon his Haunches; to make him advance, to make him go backward, and to make him stop, he has been made acquainted with the Aids of the Heels and Hands; so that in order to execute Curvets, nothing remains for him to do, but to learn and comprehend the Measure and Time of the Air. CURVETS are derived and drawn out of the Pesades.--We have already said that Pesades ought to be made slowly, very high before, and accompanied a little by the Haunches. Curvets are lower before, the Horse must advance, his Haunches must follow closer, and _beat_ or mark a quicker _Time_; the Haunches must be bent, his Hocks be firm, his two Hind-feet advance equally at every Time, and their Action must be short quick, just, and in exact Measure and Proportion. THIS Action, when suited to the Strength and Disposition of the Horse, is not only beautiful in itself, but even necessary to fix and place his Head; because this Air is, or ought to be founded, upon the true _Apuy_ of his Mouth. It likewise lightens the Fore-part; for as it can't be perform'd unless the Horse collects his Strength upon his Haunches, it must of consequence take the Weight off from the Shoulders. IT is well known, that in working upon every Air, the Strength, the Vigour, and the Disposition of the Horse should be consider'd; the Importance of this Attention to these Qualities is sufficiently acknowledged; and it is granted and allowed, that Art serves, and can serve, to no other end than to improve and make Nature perfect.--Now it will be easy to discover to what Air a Horse should be destin'd, and to what he is most dispos'd and capable of executing, by seeing his Actions, and by the greater or less Degree of Pains which will be requisite to supple him. When you design a Horse for the _Curvets_, take care to chuse one, which, besides having the necessary Disposition to that Manage, will have likewise Patience enough in his Temper to perform them well.--A natural Disposition alone will not suffice; there are Horses who will present themselves to them, but being by Nature impatient of all Restraint, from the Moment that they feel any Pain or Difficulty in furnishing what you ask of them, they will disobey and deceive you in the very Instant that you thought them gain'd.--It requires much Skill to know how to begin with such Horses, and to confirm them in their Business.--Take it for a certain Truth, that you will never succeed, if your Horse is not perfectly obedient to the Hand and Heel; if he is not supple, and able to work upon one Line or Path, with Freedom and Ease; and if he is not likewise very well seated upon his Haunches in his _Terre-a-Terre_, which he ought to be able to execute perfectly well. CURVETS are improper, and never succeed with Horses which have bad Feet, or any Weakness or Complaint in their Hocks, whatever Powers and Qualifications they may otherwise have.--They are likewise apt to encourage a Horse that is _ramingue_ in his Vice, and are capable of teaching one which is not so by Nature, to become _ramingue_, if he is not adjusted and brought to this Air with great Prudence. Indeed, Impatience and Fretfulness often make a Horse desperate when put to this Manage; and not being able to endure the Correction, nor comprehend the Aids, he betakes himself to all sorts of Defences, as well as that being confounded through Fear, he is bewilder'd, and becomes abject and jadish.--It is almost impossible to say which of these Imperfections are the most difficult to be cured.--Before you put a Horse to make _Curvets_, he ought to work _Terre-a-Terre_; and if he can do this, he ought to be able to change Hands upon _one_ and _two Lines_, to go off readily, and to make a good Stop. After this he should be able to make Pesades easily, and so high before as to be held and supported in the Hand, and always make them upon a strait Line at first, and not on a Circle.--After this ask of him two or three _Curvets_; let him go then two or three Steps, then make two or three _Curvets_; and so alternately.--If you find that your Horse is well in the Hand, and that he advances regularly, is patient, and don't break his Line, but keeps even upon it, he will dress very easily, and soon; if he presses forward too much, make him curvet in the same Place, and make him often go backward.--After he has thus made two or three, demand then more of him, afterwards make him go backward, and so successively. ONE sees but few Horses which in making Curvets, plant themselves well upon their Haunches and Hocks, at least that are not apt to hang back, and who beat and mark equally and smartly the Measure of the Air, and keep their Heads true and steady; for this Reason the first Lessons should be slow and gentle, making your Horse rise very high before, because the longer time the Horse is in the Air, the easier it will be to him to adjust himself upon his Haunches, and to assure his Head, and bend or _gather up_ his Fore-legs; on the contrary, if he don't rise high before, he only beats and throws about the Dust, and shuffles his Legs, and can never assemble the different Parts of his Body and be united, as he ought to be in this Manage. WHEN a Horse in his first Curvets makes of himself his Beats, or Times, diligent and quick, it is to be fear'd that this is only owing to Fire and Impatience; in this Case there will be reason to suspect, that he has not Strength sufficient for this Manage, that he will soon do nothing but shuffle and throw about his Legs without rising as he ought, or else that he will become _entier_; but if he rises freely and sufficiently high, without being in a hurry, or stiffening himself, and bends his Hocks, it will then be very easy to shorten, reduce, and adjust the Measure of his Air, and to make it perfect in proportion to his Resolution, his Strength, and Activity.--If when you are going to raise him, he rises suddenly of himself, consider whether this hasty Action be not a Proof likewise of what I have just now told you. THE Beauty and Perfection of the fine Airs when neatly executed, and their Time just and true, don't consist so much in the Diligence and Quickness with which the Horse brings his Hind-feet to the Ground and makes his _Beats_; for if that were the Proof, the Horse would not have sufficient Time to raise his Fore-part, and to gather his Fore-legs under him; but the true Measure, and the Harmony of his _Time_, is when the Hind-feet follow smoothly, and answer immediately to the Fore-feet, and that these rise again in the Instant that the others touch the Ground. TO teach a Horse to _beat_ his _Curvets_ neatly, and in an equal _Time_ and _Measure_, take care to keep him in a good and just _Apuy_; keep yourself strait and well stretch'd down in the Saddle, but without any Stiffness, preserving always a certain Ease and Freedom, which is the Characteristic of an Horseman: let your Hand be about three Fingers Breadth above the Pommel of the Saddle, and a little forward or advanced, keeping your Nails up, and be diligent and ready to raise your Horse; when you do this, put your Body a little forward, but so as not to let it be perceived: above all put no Stress in your Legs, but let them be easy and loose, they will catch the _Time_ of themselves better than you can give it. I am now speaking of an high-drest and perfect Horse, who works with the greatest Exactness; for if he was to break the Line, to throw himself from one Side to the other, refuse to advance, or not to lift his Legs, you would then be obliged to give the Aids in proportion to his Understanding and Feeling. IT is not requisite that a Horse should be absolutely perfect in Curvets strait forward, before you put him to make them upon _Voltes_. By being accustom'd to make them strait forward, when he is put to do them differently, he would feel a fresh Constraint; in this Case he might break and perplex his Air in the Action of turning, he would falsify the _Volte_, and perhaps fall into many Disorders; it is therefore right, as soon as he is grounded a little in Curvets strait forwards, to begin to teach him the _Time_ and the Proportions of the _Volte_. WALK him then upon a _Volte_ that is sufficiently large, and exactly round, taking care that he walks neither too slow nor too fast, and making him bring _in_ his Head to the _Volte_, so that he may acquire a Habit of looking always into the _Volte_, without letting his Hind-feet however go off the Line of his Fore-feet. HAVING thus taught him in the Walk to both Hands the Space or Ground of the _Volte_, let him make three _Pesades_, then three more, and let him make them with Patience and lightly, but without stopping. Trot him then upon the _Volte_, stop him without letting him rise, caress him, and begin with him again to the other Hand, and repeat the same.--When he begins to understand this Lesson, let him make two _Pesades_ together, then let him walk as before; observe these Rules and this Method, without hurrying or pressing him; increase by degrees by the Number of _Pesades_, and let him walk less as he begins to work with more Ease; by these means he will soon be brought to furnish an entire _Volte_. WHEN your Horse is so far advanced as to work upon the large _Voltes_ in this slow Manner, begin then by degrees to contract his Compass of Ground, and the Measure of the Pesades, till the _Volte_ and the _Air_ are reduced to their exact Proportion; preventing him by Aids and Correction from putting his Croupe _out_, or bringing it too much _within_ the _Volte_, and taking care that he makes no wrong or aukward Action with his Head. IT is impossible that a Horse should furnish his Air high, without shortening and contracting his Body a good deal beyond his natural Posture or Make; because the Action of itself is contracted and supported on the Haunches, in such a manner that the Hind-feet must of necessity advance, and widen the Line which they made in the Walk; or else the Fore-feet must go back, and keep up the Line and Roundness of the _Volte_; or else that the Hind or Fore-feet keeping an equal Proportion, and answering each to each shorten it equally.--These different Effects are very essential and worth remarking.--The first Aid to be given should be with the Legs, in order to make the Horse's Fore-feet keep thro' this high Air the Line of the _Volte_, which he had mark'd out before in the Walk. If he goes large, or quits the Line, or abandons himself upon his Shoulders, or upon the Hand, the first Aid then should come from the Hand; this by confining will operate so as to raise him, and the Hind-feet will come upon the Line describ'd in the Passage; lastly, if the Horse is obedient, the Rider will be able to unite him both behind and before, by the usual Aids of the Hand and Heel acting together. WHEN a Horse walks or trots upon the _Volte_, he is supported in his Action by one of his Fore and one of his Hind-feet, which are both upon the Ground together, while the other two are in the Air; so that according to this Method the Line of the Fore-feet, and that of the hind, are made at the same time; but when he raises his Air and advances upon the _Volte_, all his Actions are changed; for then the two Fore-feet are lifted up the first, and while they are coming down, he lifts the two Hind-feet from the Ground together, to finish and continue the _Beats_ or _Time_ of his Air. The Fore-feet being more advanced than the hind, must necessarily come down first, and consequently the Horse can never be upon strait Lines crossing each other, as he is when he walks or trots upon the _Volte_. Moreover, in a high Air the Horse does not only shorten and contract his whole Action; but the better to strengthen and assist the Attitude in which he supports and goes through his Air, he opens and widens his Hind-feet, keeping them at least twice the Distance one from the other, that he did when he only walk'd or trotted upon the _Volte_, and by consequence describes different Lines.--There are three Actions, and three Motions, still to be consider'd in making _Curvets_. These are, to raise him, to support him while he is in the Air, and to make him go forwards.--To raise him, is to lift him up as it were by the Action of the Hand, and put him upon an high Air; to support, is to hinder him from bringing his Fore-part too soon to the Ground; and carrying him forward, is to raise, support, and go forward at the same time, while the Horse is off the Ground. TO make a Horse go in _Curvets_ sideways, aid only with the Hand, keeping his Head to the Wall. For instance, to the Right, aid him chiefly with the outward Rein; that is to say, turn your Hand to the Right, for then the Left-rein, which is the outward Rein, will be shorten'd and operate upon the Shoulders so as to work them.--If they go too much, use your inner Rein, carrying your Hand _out_, and in such a manner that the Shoulders may go before the Croupe.--Let him make three _Curvets_ sideways, passage him afterwards, always sideways; then let him make the same Number of _Curvets_ sideways, and obliquely, again, and begin by little and little to diminish his _Passage_, and augment the _Curvets_, till he is able to furnish without Intervals an entire _Volte_ of two Lines. The same Method must be followed in working to the Left, as has been prescribed for the Right. _Curvets_ made backward are more fatiguing, and more apt to make a Horse rebel, than _Curvets_ strait forward upon the _Voltes_, _Demi-voltes_, or _sideways_.--To teach him to make them backwards, you must make him go backward; afterwards put him to make three or four _Curvets_ in the same Place, that is, without advancing.--Then make him go forward again, let him make the same Number again; and so successively till he makes them readily and without Assistance. BY Habit he will expect to be made to go backward immediately after the last _Curvet_: now, the Moment he has made one in the same Place, when he is making the second, seize the Moment just as he is coming down, and pull him back, marking a _Time_ with your Hand, just as you would pull to make a Horse go backward which resisted the Hand; and this _Time_ of the Hand being made, ease it immediately. In this Manner continue the _Curvets_, pulling more or less, according as he obeys or resists; observing to lessen the Times of pulling him back, and to increase the Number of the _Curvets_ backwards.--If he drags his Haunches, that is, if the Hind-feet don't go together, but one after the other, pinch him with both Spurs; but you must put them very back, applying them with great Delicacy, and taking care that he be in the Hand when he comes down.--If with all this he continues _disunited_, aid on the Croupe with the Switch, turning the bigger End of it in your Hand; and this will make him work and keep his _Time_ or _Beats_ very exactly. TO go backwards in _Curvets_, aid with the outward Rein, you will confine the Fore-part, and widen the Hind-legs, which ought to be at liberty, because it is with them that he leads. They are follow'd by the Fore-parts, which should keep the same Ground or Tract.--You must keep your Hand low, that the Horse may not go too high.--Let your Body be a little forward to give the greater Liberty to the Hind-legs, which are those that lead; and don't aid with your Legs, unless he drags his Haunches.--If the Horse does not _unite_ of his own accord, you must catch the _Time_ with your Bridle-hand, as the Horse is coming to the Ground; in that Instant, put your Hand to your Body, and so pull him back.--Let us now see how you should be placed in the Saddle, to make _Curvets_ upon the _Voltes_.--Let only your outward Hip and outward Haunch be a little advanc'd; and remember to loosen always, and relax the Inside of your Knees, or your Legs from the Knees. When you intend to change to the Left, let your Hand accompany and correspond with your Right-leg, which is to operate; when you would change to the Right, let it answer to your Left-leg: Having given this Aid, replace yourself, stretch yourself down in your Saddle, take away your Legs, one or the other, forbear to aid, and let the Balance of your Body be somewhat on the Inside. UNDERSTANDING thus, and being Master of the Aids for working a Horse in _Curvets_ strait forwards, backwards, sideways, to the Right and Left, you will be able easily to teach your Horse to make a Cross, or even dance the Saraband in this Air; but this requires as much Justness and Activity in the Horse, as Exactness and Delicacy in the Rider to be able to give the Aids, and very few Horses are able to execute all these Lessons which I have described: the utmost Efforts of Art, and the greatest Suppleness that a Horse can acquire, will be in vain, and unsuccessful, if he is not by Nature inclin'd and disposed to the Manage. That sort of Exercise which hits the Temper, and best suits the Strength of a Horse, will appear graceful, and preserve his Health; while that which is opposite to his Temper and Genius will dishearten him, make him timid and abject, and plunge him into numberless Ails and Vices. CHAP. XIX. _Of Croupades and Balotades._ THE _Croupade_ is a Leap, in which the Horse draws up his Hinder-legs as if he meant to shorten and truss them up under his Belly. THE _Balotade_ is likewise a Leap, in which the Horse seems as if he intended to kick out, but without doing it; he only offers or makes a half Kick, shewing only the Shoes of his Hind-feet. THE Horses that are destin'd to these Airs ought to have a light and steady Mouth, and an active and lively Disposition, with clean and nervous Strength; for all the Art and Knowledge of the Horseman can never confer these Qualities, which are essentially necessary to the Perfection of this Manage. THE _Croupades_ and _Balotades_ are different from _Curvets_, inasmuch as that they are much higher behind, and consequently their Time and Measure not so quick and close, but slower and more extended. Therefore the Rider should keep his Horse's Croupe ready and in awe, by striking it from time to time with the Switch, supporting him not quite so high before, and observing to aid with his Legs slower, and not so forward, as in the _Curvets_. AS the Perfection of _Curvets_, both upon the _Voltes_ and strait forwards, is owing to the Ease and Justness of the Pesades, the Goodness of _Croupades_ and _Balotades_ depends likewise upon the same Rules. Your Horse being made light before by the means of _Pesades_ and _Curvets_, begin by making him rise, as well before as behind, less however in the first Lessons than afterwards; for you will never bring him to the true Pitch, were you to exhaust all his Strength at once, since while he is prest and compell'd to put forth all his Strength, he will never be able to catch and mark the _Time_, the Cadence, and the just _Beats_ of his Air, both behind and before. I HAVE already said, that the _Croupades_ and the _Balotades_ are higher than the Curvets, they nevertheless partake of it; for though a Horse that makes _Balotades_, makes the Measure of each Time as high behind as before, yet he follows the _Beat_ of his Fore-feet with that of his Hind-feet, the same as in _Curvets_; for this Reason, a Horse that is intended for the _Croupades_ and _Balotades_, ought to be more active, light, and strong than one that is to be drest for _Curvets_, as he should have less Strength than one who is put to make Caprioles strait forwards, or on Voltes of one Line, and to repeat them in the same Place. TO manage the Strength and Vigour of the Horse you intend to work upon the _Voltes_ in _Croupades_ and _Balotades_, let the Line of the _Volte_ be larger than for _Curvets_, and let the Action of the Shoulders not be quite so high; thus you will not only check and confine his Activity and Lightness; but by raising his Shoulders in a less Degree, you will give Liberty to his Croupe, and he will be enabled by this Method to furnish his Airs all together, that is _before_ and _behind_, better, and with more Ease; there is still another Reason for this, for when the Shoulders come to the Ground from too great a Height, the Shock alarms and disorders the Mouth; and then the Horse losing the Steadiness of his _Apuy_, he never will raise his Croupe so high as he ought, to make perfect _Balotades_. CHAP. XX. _Of Caprioles._ THERE is no such Thing as an universal Horse; that is, as a Horse who works equally well upon all Airs, the _Terre-a-Terre_, the _Curvets_, _Mezair_, _Croupades_, _Balotades_, and _Caprioles_, each Horse having a particular Disposition, which inclines to some certain Air which suits him best. A Horse that is naturally inclin'd to the high Airs, ought to be managed with great Gentleness and Patience; inasmuch as he will be in greater Danger of being disgusted and spoil'd, as his Disposition to the high Airs is owing generally to the Gaiety and Sprightliness of his Temper; and as such Tempers are usually averse to Subjection, Constraint and Correction, Rigour and Severity would make him become timid and angry, and then he could not attend to and catch the _Time_, _Order_, and _Measure_ of the high Airs; therefore if you would reduce him to the Justness of the high Airs, and teach him their Harmony and Measure, you must not expect to succeed by any other ways than by giving your Instructions with great Patience and Judgment, and soon or late he will be gain'd. THE Feet are the Foundations upon which all the high Airs, if I may use the Word, are built. They ought then to be attended to very strictly; for if your Horse has any Pain, Weakness, or other Defect in his Feet, he will be so much the more improper to leap, as the Pain which he must feel when he comes to the Ground, would shoot quite to his Brain. AS a Proof of this, when a Horse whose Feet are bad or tender trots upon the Stones, or hard Ground, you will see him shut his Eyes, drop his Head at each Step, and shake his Tail from very Pain. THE _Capriole_ is the most violent of the high Airs. To make it perfect, the Horse is to raise his Fore-parts and his Hinder to an equal Height; and when he strikes out behind, his Croupe should be upon a Level with his Withers. In rising and in coming down his Head and Mouth should be quite steady and firm, and he should present his Forehead quite strait.--When he rises, his Fore-legs should be bent under him a good deal, and equally. When he strikes out with his Hind-legs, he ought to do it nervously, and with all his Force; and his two Feet should be even, of an equal Height, and their Action the same when he strikes out: lastly, the Horse should at every Leap fall a Foot and a half, or the Space of two Feet distance from the Spot from which he rose.--I don't assert, that in order to make _Caprioles_ a Horse must necessarily pass through _Curvets_ and _Balotades_; for there are Horses who are naturally more light and active in their Loins than strong, and who are brought to leap with more Difficulty, than to the other Airs in which their Strength must be much more united, and their Disposition attended to; but yet it is certain, that if the Horse is brought to rise by Degrees, and is work'd in the intermediate Airs, before he undertakes the _Caprioles_, he will not weaken and strain himself so much, and will be sooner confirm'd in his Lesson than one who begins at once with the _Caprioles_. HAVING thus explain'd to Demonstration the Motions of a Horse, when he makes a perfect _Capriole_, you may hence gather that they have an Effect directly opposite to that of _Curvets_ and _Pesades_.--These two Airs are proper to assure the Head of the Horse, and to make it light, and this by so much the more as the principal Action depends upon the Haunches, and a moderate _Apuy_ of the Mouth; but _Caprioles_ are apt to give too great an _Apuy_, because the Horse when he makes the strongest Action of his Air, that is, when he strikes out as he is coming to the Ground, is entirely supported by the Hand; therefore before he is put to leap, he ought to have a perfect Apuy, and his Shoulders should at least be suppled and lighten'd by having made _Pesades_; and he should be without Fear, Anger, or any kind of Uneasiness, because, as I have already said, by leaping he learns to know his own Strength and Power; and he may put it to bad Purposes to free himself from Obedience, and indulge his Caprice and Ill-humour. Some Horses have a Disposition to this Air, and sufficient Strength to go through it; yet have their Mouth so delicate, sensible, and averse to the Hand, that you can't support them without hindering them from advancing; hence it follows that their Action before is cold and slow, and never sufficiently high, and they can't be carried forward when they raise their Croupe and strike out; and it is impossible to keep them firm as they come down. To remedy this, begin their Lesson upon the Trot, and press them in it so smartly as to make them often go into the Gallop; observe a Medium however in order to save their Strength and Vigour, that they may furnish as many Leaps as is requisite to the Perfection of the Air. Do the same with a Horse that has too much Strength, and who retains and avails himself it, so as not to make his Leaps freely and readily; by this means you will abate his superfluous Vigour, which serves only to _disunite_ and make him troublesome. IT is usual to supple a Horse that is light in the Hand by means of the Trot, before you teach him to leap: but a contrary Method must be observed with those which are heavy and clumsey, or that are heavy in the Hand. Gallop and trot them, and when they are made obedient and drest to the _Caprioles_, their Apuy in leaping will grow by degrees lighter and more temperate. The Exercise of the Trot and Gallop will take away all Fear of the Aids and Corrections, and the Day following they will present themselves more freely and willingly. With respect to the Horse who pulls or wants to force the Hand, don't try to correct him by making him go backward, because by working upon his Bars too much with the Bit, you would make them become hard and insensible; but compel him to make some _Caprioles_ with his Face to the Wall, and keep him up to it closer or further off, as you find him heavy, or endeavouring to force the Hand; by these Methods you will constrain him to shorten his Leaps, and give more Attention to his Business. If he abandons himself, or bears too hard upon the Hand, hold him firm at the End of his Leap; and in the Instant that his Feet are coming to the Ground, yield it immediately to him, and he will abandon himself much less upon the Bit.--If he retains himself, and hangs back, easing your Hand to him alone will not be sufficient; but to make him advance you must push him up to his Bit, by aiding him briskly and in _Time_ with your Legs. TO dress a Horse to the Caprioles, the Pillars may be employ'd, or they may be dispens'd with: let us explain the Rules we should follow with respect to both these Methods. IT is certain that the Pillars are of use in putting a Horse to this Air.--Tie him to them, make him keep up to his Bit properly, or what is call'd _fill up the Cords_, and endeavour by little and little to make him rise before, taking care to make him bend his Knees, and gather up his Legs as much as you possibly can. For this purpose use your Switch briskly; for if you can teach him to bend his Legs well, his Manage will be infinitely more beautiful; as well as that he will be much lighter in the Hand. HAVING thus gain'd the Fore-part, put him in the Pillars again, making the Cords somewhat shorter in order to make him raise his Croupe from the Ground, and yerk out equally at the same time with both his Hind-legs, which you must teach him to do, by attacking and striking him upon the Croupe with the Switch or _Chambriere_. WHEN he is so far advanced as to rise before, and lash out behind, it will be proper to teach him to unite these two Times, and perform them together.--Let him then be mounted, and always in the Pillars; let the Rider support him in the Hand, and try to make him make one or two Leaps, without hanging upon the Cords of the Caveson, in order that he may learn to take a just Apuy, and to feel it. As soon as he begins to know and obey the Hand, he should be aided gently with the Calves of the Legs, should be supported, and you should pinch him delicately and finely with both Spurs. If he answers once or twice to these Aids, without losing his Temper, or being angry, you will have great Reason to expect that he will soon furnish his Leaps equally and justly with respect to the Hand and Heel. HAVING brought him thus far between the Pillars, walk him strait forward for a certain Space, and if he don't offer to rise of himself, try to make him. If he himself takes the right Time, seize the Moment, avail yourself of it, and make him make two or three _Caprioles_, or one or two, according as you judge it necessary; by letting him walk thus calmly and quietly, in a short time he will of himself begin to make _Caprioles_ strait forward; but in case he should discover any Signs of Resistance to the Hand or Heel, or the other Aids, immediately have recourse to the Caveson and Pillars. THIS is in short the Method of adjusting and dressing a Horse for _Caprioles_ by the means of the Pillars.--A Method extremely dangerous in itself, and capable of spoiling and making a Horse become desperate and ungovernable, if it is not practised by Persons of the most consummate Skill and Experience. THE Method which I prefer is indeed more difficult and painful to the Horse, but more perfect and sure. THE Horse having been well exercised in _Pesades_, walk him strait forward, keeping him together, and supporting him so as to hold and keep him in the Hand, but not to such a degree as to stop him entirely. After this strike him gently with the End of the Switch upon his Croupe and Buttocks, and continue to do it till he lifts up his Croupe, and kicks.--You should then caress him, and let him walk some Steps, and then attack him again, not minding to make him rise before, nor hindering him from it, if he offers so to do. Remember to encourage and coax him every time that he answers to the Aids, and obeys.--Being thus acquainted with the Aid of the Switch, put him to make _Pesades_ of a moderate Height strait forward, and at the second or third, attack him behind with your Switch to make him lash out. If he obeys, make him rise before again in the Minute that his Hind-legs come to the Ground, in order to make him furnish two or three more _Pesades_, to work his Haunches. After this coax and caress him without letting him stir from the Place, if his _Apuy_ be firm and good; and in case it is hard, make him go backward, or if it is light and just, letting him advance quietly and slowly. TO enable him to make his Leaps just, and to know the exact Time of making them, you should no longer regard what Number of _Pesades_ he makes before or after his Leap, but in the Moment that you feel him ready and prepar'd, and whilst he is in the _Pesade_, aid him briskly behind, letting him in the Beginning not rise so high before, when you intend he should yerk out behind, as you would were he only to make a _Pesade_, that so his Croupe may be more at liberty, and he may yerk out with greater Ease; in proportion as his Croupe becomes light and active, you may raise his Fore-parts higher and higher, and support him while in the Air, till he makes his Leaps true and in just Proportion. WHEN you have sufficiently practised these Lessons, you may retrench by degrees the Number of the _Pesades_ which separated and divided the Leaps. You may demand now of him two Leaps together; from these you may come, with Patience and Discretion, to three, from three to four Leaps; and lastly, to as many as he can furnish in the same Air, and with equal Strength. Remember always to make him finish upon his Haunches, it is the only sure way to prevent all the Disorders a Horse may be guilty of from Impatience and Fear. THERE are some Horses who will leap very high, and with great Agility strait forwards, which when put to leap upon the _Voltes_, lose all their natural Grace and Beauty; the Reason is, that they fail for Want of Strength, and are not equal to the Task, in which all their Motions are forced and constrain'd. IF you find a Horse who has a good and firm _Apuy_, and who has Strength sufficient to furnish this Air upon the _Voltes_; begin with him by making him know the Space and Roundness of the _Volte_ to each Hand; let him walk round it in a slow and distinct Pace, keeping his Croupe very much press'd and confin'd upon the Line of the _Volte_, which ought to be much larger for this Air than for _Croupades_ and _Balotades_. THIS being done, make him rise, and let him make one or two _Caprioles_, follow'd by as many _Pesades_; then walk on two or three Steps upon the same Line; then raise him again, supporting him more and more, and keeping him even on the Line of the _Volte_, so that it may be exactly round, and confining his Croupe with your outward Leg. IF this Lesson be given with Judgment, your Horse will soon make all the _Volte_, in the same Air; and to make him furnish a second, as soon as he has closed and finish'd the first, raise him again, and without letting him stop get from him as many as you can, working him always upon this _Volte_, in which he walks and leaps alternatively, till he closes and ends it with the same Vigour and Resolution as he did the first. AID always with the outward Rein, either upon the _Voltes_, or when you leap strait forwards, you will narrow and confine the Fore-parts, and enlarge the Hind-parts, by which means the Croupe will not be press'd, but free and unconstrain'd. I WILL enlarge no further upon his Chapter; for what regards the making _Caprioles_ upon the _Voltes_, you may look back to what has been already said on the Subject of _Curvets_: remember that the surest way to succeed, when you undertake to dress a Horse to _Caprioles_, is to arm yourself with a Patience that nothing can subdue or shake; and to prefer for this purpose such Horses as have a Disposition, are active, light, and have a clean sinewy Strength, to such as are endowed with greater Strength and Force; for these last never leap regularly, and are fit for nothing but to break their Riders Backs, and make them spit Blood, by their irregular, violent, and unexpected Motions. CHAP. XXI. _Of the Step and Leap._ THE Step and Leap is composed of three Airs; of the _Step_, which is the Action of the _Terre-a-Terre_; the rising before, which is a _Curvet_; and the Leap, which is a _Capriole_. THIS Manage is infinitely less painful to a Horse than that of the _Capriole_; for when you dress a Horse to the _Capriole_, he will of himself take this Air for his Ease and Relief; and in time those Horses, which have been drest to the _Caprioles_, will execute only _Balotades_ and _Croupades_, unless particular Care is taken to make them yerk out. IT is this likewise, which, next to running a brisk Course, enlivens and animates a Horse most.--To reduce a Horse to the Justness of this Air, you must begin by emboldening and making him lose all fear of Correction; teaching him to keep his Head steady, and in a proper Place; lightening His Fore-parts, by putting him to make _Pesades_; teaching him to know the Aids of the Switch, the same as in the Lesson of the _Caprioles_; and by giving him a firm and good _Apuy_, _full in the Hand_: though it is certain, that the _Step_ contributes to give him this _Apuy_, inasmuch as that it puts him in the Hand; besides that it gives him Strength and Agility to leap, just as we ourselves leap with a quicker Spring while running, than if we were to stand quite still and leap; therefore most old Horses generally fall into this Air. WHEN your Horse is sufficiently knowing in these several Particulars, teach him to rise, and support or hold him in the Air; then let him make four _Pesades_, and afterwards let him walk four or five Steps slow and equal; if he forces the Hand, or retains himself too much, he should be made to trot these four or five Steps rather than walk; after this make him rise again, and continue this Lesson for some Days. WHEN he is so far advanced as to comprehend and understand this sufficiently, begin by putting him to make a _Pesade_, demand then a _Leap_, and finish by letting him make two _Pesades_ together. There are two things to be observ'd, which are very essential in this Lesson; one, that when he is to make the Leap he should not rise so high before as when he makes _Pesades_ only, that so he may yerk out with greater Ease and Liberty; the other Caution is always to make your last _Pesade_ longer and higher than the other, in order to prevent your Horse from making any irregular Motions by shuffling about his Legs, if he should be angry and impatient, as well as to keep him in a more exact Obedience; and to make him light, if he is naturally heavy and loaded in his Fore-parts, or apt to lean too much upon the Hand. AGAIN, reduce the fourth _Pesade_ into a Leap, as you did the first; then make two _Pesades_ following, and after this let him walk quietly four or five Steps, that he may make again the same Number of _Pesades_, and in the same Order. In proportion as the Horse begins to understand, and is able to execute these Lessons, you should augment likewise the Leaps one by one, without hurrying or changing the Order, making always between the Leaps a single _Pesade_, but lower than those in the first Lesson; and then two more again after the last Leap, sufficiently _high_. By degrees the Horse will grow active and light in his Hind-parts, you must raise him then higher before, and support him longer in the Air, in order to make him form the Leaps perfect, by means of prudent and judicious Rules, often practised and repeated. If your Horse forces the Hand, or presses forward more than you would have him, either from Heaviness of Make, or from having too much Fire in his Temper; in this case you should oblige him to make the _Pesades_ in the same Place, without stirring from it; and instead of letting him advance four or five Steps, you should make him go backwards as many. This Correction will cure him of the Habit of pressing forward, and forcing the Hand. Upon this Occasion likewise you should use a Hand-spur to prick his Croupe, instead of a Switch. TO make this Air just and perfect, it is necessary that the Action of the Leap be finish'd as in the _Caprioles_, except that it ought to be more _extended_, and the _Pesade_ which is made between the two Leaps should be changed into a _Time_ of a quick and short Gallop; that is, the two Hind-feet ought to follow the Fore-feet, together in a quick Time and briskly, as in _Curvets_ in the _Mezair_; but in this the Horse should advance more, not be so much _together_, nor rise so high. THE Perfection of this _Time_ of the Gallop depends upon the Justness of the Horseman's Motions.--They ought to be infinitely more exact in this Lesson, than in the Caprioles, or any other Airs, which are performed strait forward. IN reality, if the Horseman is too slow, and don't catch the exact Time which parts the two Leaps, the Leap which follows will be without any Spring or Vigour, because the Animal so restrain'd and held back, can never extend himself, or put forth his Strength; if he don't support and raise his Shoulders sufficiently high, the Croupe will then be higher than it ought to be; and this Disproportion will force the Horse to toss up his Nose, or make some other bad Motion with his Head as he is coming to the Ground in his Leap; or else it will happen that the succeeding Time will be so precipitate, that the next Leap will be false and imperfect, as the Horse will not be sufficiently united, but will be too heavy and lean upon the Hand.--If he is not together, the Leap will be too much extended, and consequently weak and loose, because the Horse will not be able to collect his Strength, in order to make it equal to the first. LEARN then in a few Words what should be the Horseman's Seat, and what Actions he should use in this Lesson. HE should never force, alter, or lose the true _Apuy_, either in raising, supporting, holding in, or driving forward his Horse.--His Head should be not only firm and steady, but it is indispensably necessary that his Seat should be exactly strait and just; for since the Arm is an Appendix of the Body, it is certain that if the Motions of the Horse shake or disorder the Body of the Rider, the Bridle-hand must inevitably be shook, and consequently the true Apuy destroy'd. IN this Attitude then approach the Calves of your Legs, support and hold your Horse up with your Hand, and when the Fore-part is at its due Height, aid with the Switch upon the Croupe. IF your Horse rises before, keep your Body strait and firm; if he lifts or tosses up his Croupe, or yerks out, fling your Shoulders back without turning your Head to one side or the other, continuing the Action of the Hand that holds the Switch. REMEMBER that all the Motions of your Body should be so neat and fine as to be imperceptible; as to what is the most graceful Action for the Switch-hand, that over the Shoulder is thought the best; but then this Shoulder must not be more back than the other; and care must be taken that the Motion be quick and neat, and that the Horse do not see it so plainly as to be alarm'd. I HAVE said, that when the Horse made his Leaps too _long_ and _extended_, you should then aid with your Hand-spur; and for this Reason, because the Hand-spur will make the Horse raise his Croupe without advancing, as the Effect of the Switch will be to raise the Croupe, and drive the Horse forward at the same time; it should therefore be used to such Horses as retain themselves. REMEMBER that you should never be extreme with your Horse, and work him beyond his Strength and Ability; indeed one should never ask of a Horse above half of what he can do; for if you work him till he grows languid and tired, and his Strength and Wind fail him, you will be compell'd to give your Aids roughly and openly; and when that happens, neither the Rider or the Horse can appear with Brilliancy and Grace. THE END. 
44492	----	WHIP AND SPUR BY COL. GEORGE E. WARING, JR. NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY MCMIV COPYRIGHT, 1897 BY DOUBLEDAY & McCLURE CO. CONTENTS. PAGE VIX 7 RUBY 34 WETTSTEIN 67 CAMPAIGNING WITH MAX 93 HOW I GOT MY OVERCOAT 138 TWO SCOUTS 162 IN THE GLOAMING 186 FOX-HUNTING IN ENGLAND 201 WHIP AND SPUR. VIX. When the work on the Central Park had fairly commenced, in the spring of 1858, I found--or I fancied--that proper attention to my scattered duties made it necessary that I should have a saddle-horse. How easily, by the way, the arguments that convince us of these pleasant necessities find their way to the understanding! Yet, how to subsist a horse after buying one, and how to buy? The memory of a well-bred and keen-eyed gray, dating back to the earliest days of my boyhood, and forming the chief feature of my recollection of play-time for years; an idle propensity, not a whit dulled yet, to linger over Leech's long-necked hunters, and Herring's field scenes; an almost superstitious faith in the different analyses of the bones of the racer and of the cart-horse; a firm belief in Frank Forester's teachings of the value of "blood,"--all these conspired to narrow my range of selection, and, unfortunately, to confine it to a very expensive class of horses. Unfortunately, again, the commissioners of the Park had extremely inconvenient ideas of economy, and evidently did not consider, in fixing their schedule of salaries, how much more satisfactory our positions would have been with more generous emolument. How a man with only a Park salary, and with a family to support, could set up a saddle-horse,--and not ride to the dogs,--was a question that exercised not a little of my engineering talent for weeks; and many an odd corner of plans and estimates was figured over with calculations of the cost of forage and shoeing. Stable-room was plenty and free in the condemned buildings of the former occupants, and a little "over-time" of one of the men would suffice for the grooming. I finally concluded that, by giving up cigars, and devoting my energies to the pipe in their stead, I could save enough to pay for my horse's keep; and so, the ways and means having been, in this somewhat vague manner, provided, the next step was to buy a horse. To tell of the days passed at auction sales in the hope (never there realized) of finding goodness and cheapness combined,--of the stationery wasted in answering advertisements based on every conceivable form of false pretence; to describe the numberless broken-kneed, broken-winded, and broken-down brutes that came under inspection,--would be tedious and disheartening. Good horses there were, of course, though very few good saddle-horses (America is not productive in this direction),--and the possible animals were held at impossible prices. Those who rode over the new Park lands usually rode anything but good saddle-horses. Fast trotters, stout ponies, tolerable carriage-horses, capital cart-horses, there were in plenty. But the clean-cut, thin-crested, bright-eyed, fine-eared, steel-limbed saddle-horse, the saddle-horse _par excellence_,--may I say the only saddle-horse?--rarely came under observation; and when, by exception, such a one did appear, he was usually so ridden that his light was sadly dimmed. It was hard to recognize an elastic step under such an unelastic seat. Finally, in the days of my despair, a kind saddler,--kept to his daily awl by a too keen eye for sport, and still, I believe, a victim to his propensity for laying his money on the horse that ought to win but don't,--hearing of my ambition (to him the most laudable of all ambitions), came to put me on the long-sought path. He knew a mare, or he had known one, that would exactly suit me. She was in a bad way now, and a good deal run down, but he always thought she "had it in her," and that some gentleman ought to keep her for the saddle,--"which, in my mind, sir, she be the finest bit of 'orse-flesh that was hever imported, sir." That was enough. "Imported" decided my case, and I listened eagerly to the enthusiastic story,--a story to which this man's life was bound with threads of hard-earned silver, and not less by a real honest love for a fine animal. He had never been much given to saving, but he was a good workman, and the little he had saved had been blown away in the dust that clouded his favorite at the tail of the race. Still, he attached himself to her person, and followed her in her disgrace. "She weren't quite quick enough for the turf, sir, but she be a good 'un for a gentleman's 'ack." He had watched her for years, and scraped acquaintance with her different owners as fast as she had changed them, and finally, when she was far gone with pneumonia, he had accepted her as a gift, and, by careful nursing, had cured her. Then, for a time, he rode her himself, and his eye brightened as he told of her leaps and her stride. Of course he rode her to the races, and--one luckless day--when he had lost everything, and his passion had got the better of his prudence, he staked the mare herself on a perfectly sure thing in two-mile-heats. Like most of the sure things of life, this venture went to the bad, and the mare was lost,--lost to a Bull's Head dealer in single driving horses. "I see her in his stable ahfter that, sir; and, forbieten she were twelve year old, sir, and 'ad 'ad a 'ard life of it, she were the youngest and likeliest of the lot,--you'd swore she were a three-year-old, sir." If that dealer had had a soul above trotting-wagons, my story would never have been written; but all was fish that came to his net, and this thoroughbred racer, this beautiful creature who had never worn harness in her life, must be shown to a purchaser who was seeking something to drive. She was always quick to decide, and her actions followed close on the heels of her thought. She did not complicate matters by waiting for the gentleman to get into the wagon, but then and there--on the instant--kicked it to kindlings. This ended the story. She had been shown at a high figure, and was subsequently sold for a song,--he could tell me no more. She had passed to the lower sphere of equine life and usefulness,--he _had_ heard of a fish-wagon, but he knew nothing about it. What he did know was, that the dealer was a dreadful jockey, and that it would never do to ask him. Now, here was something to live for,--a sort of princess in disgrace, whom it would be an honor to rescue, and my horse-hunting acquired a new interest. By easy stages, I cultivated the friendship of the youth who, in those days, did the morning's sweeping-out at the Bull's Head Hotel. He had grown up in the alluring shades of the horse-market, and his daily communion from childhood had been with that "noble animal." To him horses were the individuals of the world,--men their necessary attendants, and of only attendant importance. Of course he knew of this black she-devil; and he thought that "a hoss that could trot like she could on the halter" must be crazy not to go in harness. However, he thought she had got her deserts now, for he had seen her, only a few weeks before, "a draggin' clams for a feller in the Tenth Avener." Here was a clew at last,--clams and the Tenth Avenue. For several days the scent grew cold. The people of the Licensed Vender part of this street seemed to have little interest in their neighbors' horses; but I found one man, an Irish grocer, who had been bred a stable-boy to the Marquis of Waterford, and who did know of a "poor old screw of a black mare" that had a good head, and might be the one I was looking for; but, if she was, he thought I might as well give it up, for she was all broken down, and would never be good for anything again. Taking the address, I went to a stable-yard, in what was then the very edge of the town, and here I found a knowing young man, who devoted his time to peddling clams and potatoes between New York and Sing Sing. Clams up, and potatoes down,--twice every week,--distance thirty miles; road hilly; and that was the wagon he did it with,--a heavy wagon with a heavy arched top, and room for a heavy load, and only shafts for a single horse. In reply to my question, he said he changed horses pretty often, because the work broke them down; but he had a mare now that had been at it for three months, and he thought she would last some time longer. "She's pretty thin, but you ought to see her trot with that wagon." With an air of idle curiosity, I asked to see her,--I had gone shabbily dressed, not to excite suspicion; for men of the class I had to treat with are usually sharp horse-traders,--and this fellow, clam-pedler though he was, showed an enthusiastic alacrity in taking me to her stall. She had won even his dull heart, and he spoke of her gently, as he made the most of her good points, and glossed over her wretched condition. Poor Vixen (that had been her name in her better days, and it was to be her name again), she had found it hard kicking against the pricks! Clam-carts are stronger than trotting-wagons, and even her efforts had been vain. She had succumbed to dire necessity, and earned her ignoble oats with dogged fidelity. She had a little warm corner in her driver's affections,--as she always had in the affections of all who came to know her well,--but her lot was a very hard one. Worn to a skeleton, with sore galls wherever the harness had pressed her, her pasterns bruised by clumsy shoes, her silky coat burned brown by the sun, and her neck curved upward, it would have needed more than my knowledge of anatomy to see anything good in her but for her wonderful head. This was the perfection of a horse's head,--small, bony, and of perfect shape, with keen, deer-like eyes, and thin, active ears; it told the whole story of her virtues, and showed no trace of her sufferings. Her royal blood shone out from her face, and kept it beautiful. My mind was made up, and Vixen must be mine at any cost. Still, it was important to me to buy as cheaply as I could,--and desirable, above all, not to be jockeyed in a horse-trade; so it required some diplomacy (an account of which would not be edifying here) to bring the transaction to its successful close. The pendulum which swung between offer and demand finally rested at seventy-five dollars. She was brought to me at the Park on a bright moonlight evening in June, and we were called out to see her. I think she knew that her harness days were over, and she danced off to her new quarters as gay as a colt in training. That night my wakefulness would have done credit to a boy of sixteen; and I was up with the dawn, and bound for a ride; but when I examined poor Vix again in her stable, it seemed almost cruel to think of using her at all for a month. She was so thin, so worn, so bruised, that I determined to give her a long rest and good care,--only I must try her once, just to get a leg over her for five minutes, and then she should come back and be cared for until really well. It was a weak thing to do, and I confess it with all needful humiliation, but I mounted her at once; and, although I had been a rider all my days, this was the first time I had ever really ridden. For the first time in my life I felt as though I had four whalebone legs of my own, worked by steel muscles in accordance with my will, but without even a conscious effort of will. That that anatomy of a horse should so easily, so playfully, handle my heavy weight was a mystery, and is a mystery still. She carried me in the same high, long-reaching, elastic trot that we sometimes see a young horse strike when first turned into a field. A low fence was near by, and I turned her toward it. She cleared it with a bound that sent all my blood thrilling through my veins, and trotted on again as though nothing had occurred. The five minutes' turn was taken with so much ease, with such evident delight, that I made it a virtue to indulge her with a longer course and a longer stride. We went to the far corners of the Park, and tried all our paces; all were marvellous for the power so easily exerted and the evident power in reserve. Yes, Frank Forester was right, blood horses are made of finer stuff than others. My intention of giving the poor old mare a month's rest was never carried out, because each return to her old recreation--it was never work--made it more evident that the simple change in her life was all she needed; and, although in constant use from the first, she soon put on the flesh and form of a sound horse. Her minor bruises were obliterated, and her more grievous ones grew into permanent scars,--blemishes, but only skin deep; for every fibre of every muscle, and every tendon and bone in her whole body, was as strong and supple as spring steel. The Park afforded good leaping in those days. Some of the fences were still standing around the abandoned gardens, and new ditches and old brooks were plenty. Vixen gave me lessons in fencing which a few years later, in time of graver need, stood me in good stead. She weighed less than four times the weight that she carried; yet she cleared a four-foot fence with apparent ease, and once, in a moment of excitement, she carried me over a brook, with a clear leap of twenty-six feet, measured from the taking-off to the landing. Her feats of endurance were equal to her feats of strength. I once rode her from Yorkville to Rye (twenty-one miles) in an hour and forty-five minutes, including a rest of twenty minutes at Pelham Bridge, and I frequently rode twenty-five miles out in the morning and back in the afternoon. When put to her work, her steady road gallop (mostly on the grassy sides) was fifteen miles an hour. Of course these were extreme cases; but she never showed fatigue from them, and she did good service nearly every day, winter and summer, from her twelfth to her fifteenth year, keeping always in good condition, though thin as a racer, and looking like a colt at the end of the time. Horsemen never guessed her age at more than half of what it actually was. Beyond the average of even the most intelligent horses, she showed some almost human traits. Above all was she fond of children, and would quiet down from her wildest moods to allow a child to be carried on the pommel. When engaged in this serious duty, it was difficult to excite her, or to urge her out of a slow and measured pace, although usually ready for any extravagance. Not the least marked of her peculiarities was her inordinate vanity. On a country road, or among the workmen of the Park, she was as staid and business-like as a parson's cob; but let a carriage or a party of visitors come in sight, and she would give herself the prancing airs of a circus horse, seeming to watch as eagerly for some sign of approval, and to be made as happy by it, as though she only lived to be admired. Many a time have I heard the exclamation, "What a beautiful horse!" and Vix seemed to hear it too, and to appreciate it quite as keenly as I did. A trip down the Fifth Avenue in the afternoon was an immense excitement to her, and she was more fatigued by it than by a twenty-mile gallop. However slowly she travelled, it was always with the high springing action of a fast trot, or with that long-stepping, sidelong action that the French call _á deux pistes_; few people allowed her to pass without admiring notice. Her most satisfactory trait was her fondness for her master; she was as good company as a dog,--better, perhaps, because she seemed more really a part of one's self; and she was quick to respond to my changing moods. I have sometimes, when unable to sleep, got up in the night and saddled for a ride, usually ending in a long walk home, with the bridle over my arm, and the old mare's kind face close beside my own, in something akin to human sympathy; she had a way of sighing, when things were especially sad, that made her very comforting to have about. So we went on for three years, always together, and always very much to each other. We had our little unhappy episodes, when she was pettish and I was harsh,--sometimes her feminine freaks were the cause, sometimes my masculine blundering,--but we always made it up, and were soon good friends again, and, on the whole, we were both better for the friendship. I am sure that I was, and some of my more grateful recollections are connected with this dumb companion. The spring of 1861 opened a new life for both of us,--a sad and a short one for poor Vix. I never knew just how much influence she had in getting my commission, but, judging by the manner of the other field officers of the regiment, she was evidently regarded as the better half of the new acquisition. The pomp and circumstance of glorious war suited her temper exactly, and it was ludicrous to see her satisfaction in first wearing her gorgeous red-bordered shabrack; for a time she carried her head on one side to see it. She conceived a new affection for me from the moment when she saw me bedecked with the dazzling bloom that preceded the serious fruitage of the early New York volunteer organizations. At last the thrilling day came. Broadway was alive from end to end with flags and white cambric and sad faces. Another thousand were going to the war. With Swiss bugle-march and chanted Marseillaise, we made our solemn way through the grave and anxious throng. To us it was naturally a day of sore trial; but with brilliant, happy Vixen it was far different; she was leaving no friends behind, was going to meet no unknown peril. She was showing her royal, stylish beauty to an admiring crowd, and she acted as though she took to her own especial behoof every cheer that rang from Union Square to Cortlandt Street. It was the glorious day of her life, and, as we dismounted at the Jersey ferry, she was trembling still with the delightful excitement. At Washington we were encamped east of the Capitol, and for a month were busy in getting settled in the new harness. Mr. Lincoln used to drive out sometimes to our evening drill, and he always had a pleasant word--as he always had for every one, and as every one had for her--for my charming thoroughbred, who had made herself perfectly at home with the troops, and enjoyed every display of the marvellous raiment of the regiment. On the 4th of July we crossed the Potomac and went below Alexandria, where we lay in idle preparation for the coming disaster. On the 16th we marched, in Blenker's brigade of Miles's division, and we passed the night in a hay-field, with a confusion of horses' feed and riders' bed, that brought Vix and me very closely together. On the 18th we reached the valley this side of Centreville, while the skirmish of Blackburn's Ford was going on,--a skirmish now, but a battle then. For three nights and two days we lay in the bushes, waiting for rations and orders. On Sunday morning McDowell's army moved out;--we all know the rest. Miles's thirteen thousand fresh troops lay within sight and sound of the lost battle-field,--he drunk and unable, even if not unwilling, to take them to the rescue,--and all we did was, late in the evening, to turn back a few troopers of the Black Horse Cavalry, the moral effect of whose unseen terrors was driving our herds, panting, back to the Potomac. Late in the night we turned our backs on our idle field, and brought up the rear of the sad retreat. Our regiment was the last to move out, and Vix and I were with the rear-guard. Wet, cold, tired, hungry, unpursued, we crept slowly through the scattered _débris_ of the broken-up camp equipage, and dismally crossed the Long Bridge in a pitiless rain, as Monday's evening was closing in. O, the dreadful days that followed, when a dozen resolute men might have taken Washington, and have driven the army across the Chesapeake, when everything was filled with gloom and rain and grave uncertainty! Again the old mare came to my aid. My regiment was not a pleasant one to be with, for its excellent material did not redeem its very bad commander, and I longed for service with the cavalry. Frémont was going to St. Louis, and his chief of staff was looking for cavalry officers. He had long known Vixen, and was kind enough to tell me that he wanted _her_ for the new organization, and (as I was her necessary appendage), he procured my transfer, and we set out for the West. It was not especially flattering to me to be taken on these grounds; but it was flattering to Vixen, and that was quite as pleasant. Arrived at St. Louis, we set about the organization of the enthusiastic thousands who rushed to serve under Frémont. Whatever there was of ostentatious display, Vixen and I took part in, but this was not much. Once we turned out in great state to receive Prince Plon-Plon, but that was in the night, and he didn't come after all. Once again there was a review of all the troops, and that _was_ magnificent. This was all. There was no coach and four, nor anything else but downright hard work from early morning till late bedtime, from Sunday morning till Saturday night. For six weeks, while my regiment of German horsemen was fitting up and drilling at the Abbey Race-track, I rode a cart-horse, and kept the mare in training for the hard work ahead. At last we were off, going up the Missouri, sticking in its mud, poling over its shoals, and being bored generally. At Jefferson City Vixen made her last appearance in ladies' society, as by the twilight fires of the General's camp she went through her graceful paces before Mrs. Frémont and her daughter. I pass over the eventful pursuit of Price's army, because the subject of my story played only a passive part in it. At Springfield I tried her nerve by jumping her over the dead horses on brave Zagonyi's bloody field; and, although distastefully, she did my bidding without flinching, when she found it must be done. The camp-life at Springfield was full of excitement and earnestness; Price, with his army, was near at hand (or we believed that he was, which was essentially the same). Our work in the cavalry was very active, and Vix had hard service on insufficient food,--she seemed to be sustained by sheer nervous strength. At last the order to advance was given, and we were to move out at daybreak; then came a countermanding order; and then, late in the evening, Frémont's farewell. He had been relieved. There was genuine and universal grief. Good or bad, competent or incompetent,--this is not the place to argue that,--he was the life and the soul of his army, and it was cruelly wronged in his removal. Spiritless and full of disappointment, we again turned back from our aim;--then would have been Price's opportunity. It was the loveliest Indian-summer weather, and the wonderful opal atmosphere of the Ozark Mountains was redolent with the freshness of a second spring. As had always been my habit in dreamy or unhappy moods, I rode my poor tired mare for companionship's sake,--I ought not to have done it,--I would give much not to have done it, for I never rode her again. The march was long, and the noonday sun was oppressive. She who had never faltered before grew nervous and shaky now, and once, after fording the Pomme-de-Terre in deep water, she behaved wildly; but when I talked to her, called her a good girl, and combed her silken mane with my fingers, she came back to her old way, and went on nicely. Still she perspired unnaturally, and I felt uneasy about her when I dismounted and gave her rein to Rudolf, my orderly. Late in the night, when the moon was in mid-heaven, he came to my tent, and told me that something was the matter with Vixen. My adjutant and I hastened out, and there we beheld her in the agony of a brain fever. She was the most painfully magnificent animal I ever saw. Crouched on the ground, with her forelegs stretched out and wide apart, she was swaying to and fro, with hard and stertorous breath,--every vein swollen and throbbing in the moonlight. De Grandèle, our quiet veterinary surgeon, had been called while it was yet time to apply the lancet. As the hot stream spurted from her neck she grew easier; her eye recovered its gentleness, and she laid her head against my breast with the old sigh, and seemed to know and to return all my love for her. I sat with her until the first gray of dawn, when she had grown quite calm, and then I left her with De Grandèle and Rudolf while I went to my duties. We must march at five o'clock, and poor Vixen could not be moved. The thought of leaving her was very bitter, but I feared it must be done, and I asked De Grandèle how he could best end her sufferings,--or was there still some hope? He shook his head mournfully, like a kind-hearted doctor as he was, and said that he feared not; but still, as I was so fond of her, if I would leave him six men, he would do his best to bring her on, and, if he could not, he would not leave her alive. I have had few harder duties than to march that morning. Four days after, De Grandèle sent a message to me at our station near Rolla, that he was coming on nicely, and hoped to be in at nightfall. "Vixen seems to be better and stronger." At nightfall they came, the poor old creature stepping slowly and timidly over the rough road, all the old fire and force gone out of her, and with only a feeble whinny as she saw me walking to meet her. We built for her the best quarters we could under the mountain-side, and spread her a soft bed of leaves. There was now hope that she would recover sufficiently to be sent to St. Louis to be nursed. That night, an infernal brute of a troop horse that had already killed Ludlow's charger, led by some fiendish spirit, broke into Vixen's enclosure, and with one kick laid open her hock joint. In vain they told me that she was incurable. I could not let her die now, when she was just restored to me; and I forced from De Grandèle the confession that she _might_ be slung up and so bound that the wound would heal, although the joint must be stiff. She could never carry me again, but she could be my pet; and I would send her home, and make her happy for many a long year yet. We moved camp two miles, to the edge of the town, and she followed, painfully and slowly, the injured limb dragging behind her; I could not give her up. She was picketed near my tent, and for some days grew no worse. Finally, one lovely Sunday morning, I found her sitting on her haunches like a dog, patient and gentle, and wondering at her pain. She remained in this position all day, refusing food. I stroked her velvet crest, and coaxed her with sugar. She rubbed her nose against my arm, and was evidently thankful for my caresses, but she showed no disposition to rise. The adjutant led me into my tent as he would have led me from the bedside of a dying friend. I turned to look back at poor Vixen, and she gave me a little neigh of farewell. They told me then, and they told it very tenderly, that there was no possibility that she could get well in camp, and that they wanted me to give her over to them. The adjutant sat by me, and talked of the old days when I had had her at home, and when he had known her well. We brought back all of her pleasant ways, and agreed that her trouble ought to be ended. As we talked, a single shot was fired, and all was over. The setting sun was shining through the bare November branches, and lay warm in my open tent-front. The band, which had been brought out for the only funeral ceremony, breathed softly Kreutzer's touching "Die Kapelle," and the sun went down on one of the very sad days of my life. The next morning I carved deeply in the bark of a great oak-tree, at the side of the Pacific Railroad, beneath which they had buried my lovely mare, a simple VIX; and some day I shall go to scrape the moss from the inscription. RUBY. I was a colonel commanding a regiment of German cavalrymen in South Missouri, and must have a horse; it was desirable to be conspicuously well mounted, and so it must be a showy horse; being a heavy weight and a rough rider, it must be a good horse. With less rank, I might have been compelled to take a very ordinary mount and be content: my vanity would not have availed me, and my rough riding must have ceased. But I was chief ruler of the little world that lay encamped on the beautiful banks of the Roubie d'Eaux; and probably life was easier to all under me when I was satisfied and happy. I am not conscious of having been mean and crabbed, or of favoring those who favored me to the disadvantage of those who did not. I cannot recall an instance of taking a bribe, even in the form of a pleasant smile. It was probably easier, in the long run, to be fair than to be unfair, and therefore the laziest private ever ordered on extra duty could not lay his hand on his heart and say he thinks it was done because he was not diligent in foraging for turkeys and hens for my private mess. I had very early in life been impressed with the consciousness that the way of the transgressor is not easy; and as I wanted my way to be easy, I fell into the way of not transgressing. This may not have been a very worthy motive to actuate the conduct of a military commander; but perhaps it was as good as the average in our Department of the Southwest, where, if the truth must be told, virtue did not have it all its own way,--we were different from troops farther east; and although it made me sometimes wince to have my conduct ascribed to a noble uprightness of purpose, and showed that it would really have been more honest not to have been quite so good, yet one should perhaps be satisfied with having carried out one's intention of treating every man in the command, officer or soldier, as nearly as he should be treated as the interests of the public service, the good of the individual himself, and one's own personal convenience would allow. Therefore, I say, I am not conscious of having favored those who favored me, to the disadvantage of those who did not; neither do I think that (at this stage of our acquaintance) the Grafs and Barons and simple Mister Vons, of whom the command was so largely composed, entertained the hope of personal benefit when they laid their kindnesses at my accustomed feet, and tried to smooth my way of life. The headquarters' mess was generally well supplied,--and no questions asked. My relations with most of the command were kindly, and it apparently came to be understood--for German cavalrymen are not without intelligence--that the happiness of the individual members of the regiment depended rather on the happiness of its colonel than on any direct bids for his favor. Be this as it may, I am not conscious of having received such direct appeals, and I am entirely conscious of the fullest measure of happiness that my circumstances would allow; not an ecstasy of delight,--far from that,--but a comfortable sense of such well-fed, well-paid, well-encamped, and pleasantly occupied virtue as had left nothing undone that my subordinates could be made to do, and did nothing that my conditions rendered difficult. My own good-humor was equalled by that of the regiment at large, and the beetling sides of the Ozark valleys nowhere sheltered a happier campful of jolly good fellows than the Vierte Missouri Cavalry. We lay on the marvellous Roubie d'Eaux, at its source; no such babbling brook as trickles from the hillside springs of New England, but a roaring torrent, breaking at once from a fathomless vent in the mountain. The processes of formation with these South Missouri rivers are all hidden from sight, but, far away in the topmost caves of the Ozark hills, the little streamlets trickle, and unite for a larger and ever larger flow, gorging at last the huge caverns of the limestone rock and bursting upon the world a full-grown river. Within our camp this wonderful spring broke forth, and close at hand was a large grist-mill that it drove. We were a self-sustaining community,--in this, that we foraged our own corn and ground our own meal. With similar industry we provided ourselves with fish, flesh, and fowl. The trees were bare with the November frosts, but the Indian summer had come, and, day after day, it bathed every twig and spray with its amber breath, warming all nature to a second life, and floating the remoter hills far away into a hazy dreamland. But personally, notwithstanding all this, I was not content: I was practically a dismounted cavalryman. Indeed, it would even have been a pity to see a colonel of infantry riding such brutes as fell to my lot, for good weight-carriers were rare in that section. I had paid a very high price for a young thoroughbred stallion (afterwards, happily, sold for a large advance), only to find him a year too young for his work, and the regiment had been scoured in vain for an available mount. I would have gone any reasonable length, even in injustice, to secure such an animal as was needed. It was not easy to make up one's mind to order a soldier to give up a horse he was fond of, and some soldier had an especial fondness for all but the worthless brutes. My reluctance to do this was perhaps not lessened by the fact that it was forbidden for officers to ride United States horses. It finally became evident that the chances were very small of ever finding a suitable animal, and I even went out, on one shooting excursion, mounted on a mule. Up to this time the regiment had been all that could be asked, but now it seemed to contain a thousand ill-tempered, sore-headed men. The whole camp was awry. Some of the officers intimated that this was all the fault of the adjutant; that the orders from headquarters had lately been unusually harsh. This officer, when remonstrated with, insisted that he had only transmitted the exact orders given him, and I knew that my own action had always been reasonable,--on principle so. Sometimes one almost wished himself back in civil life, away from such constant annoyances. We had in the regiment one Captain Graf von Gluckmansklegge, who was in many respects the most accomplished and skilful officer of us all. His life had been passed in the profession, and he had only left his position of major in a Bavarian Uhlan regiment to draw his sabre in defence of "die Freiheit," in America, as senior captain of the Fourth Missouri Cavalry. He was an officer of Asboth's selection, and had many of that veteran's qualities. Tall, thin, of elegant figure, as perfect a horseman as good natural advantages and good training could make, and near-sighted, as a German cavalry officer must be, he was as natty a fellow as ever wore an eye-glass and a blond mustache. He was, at the same time, a man of keen worldly shrewdness and of quick judgment,--qualities which, in his case, may have been sharpened by long practice at those games of chance with which it has not been unusual for European officers to preface their coming to draw their sabres in defence of "die Freiheit" in America. With Gluckmansklegge I had always been on friendly terms. Among the many lessons of his life he had learned none more thoroughly than the best way to treat his commanding officer; and there was in his manner an air of friendly deference and of cordial submission to rank, accompanied by a degree of personal dignity, that elevated the colonel rather than lowered the captain,--a manner that probably makes its way with a newly fledged officer more surely than any other form of appeal to his vanity. One sometimes saw a brand-new second-lieutenant made happier than a king by this same touch of skill from an old soldier in his company, whom he knew to be far his superior in all matters of service. To be quite frank, if I have an element of snobbishness in my own organization, it has been more nurtured into life by the military deference of better soldiers than myself under my command than by all other influences combined; thus modified do the best of us become in the presence of unmerited praise. One evening Gluckmansklegge came to my tent door: "Escoose, Col-o-nel, may I come?" And then, flinging out his eye-glass with a toss of the head, he went on, with his imperfect English, to tell me he had just learned from his lieutenant that I could find no horse to suit me; that he had a good one strong enough for my weight, and, he thought, even good enough for my needs. He had bought him in St. Louis from the quartermaster, and would I oblige him by trying him? He was quite at my service, at the government price, for he, being lighter, could easily replace him. Did I remember his horse,--his "Fuchs"? "He is good, nice, strong horse, an he yoomp!--yei!!" I did remember his horse, and I had seen him "yoomp." It had long been a subject of regret to think that such an animal should be in the regiment, yet not on my own picket-line. It was well known that great prices had been offered for him, only to make Gluckmansklegge fling his eye-glass loose, and grin in derision. "Fuchs is--how you call?--'heelty,' an gesund; wenn you like, your Ike will go to my company to bring him." I did like, and I had no scruples against buying him for one hundred and twenty-five dollars. Ike, a handsome contraband, went early the next morning with a halter for the Fuchs, and I was up bright and betimes to try him. I had only seen the horse before under the saddle, perfectly equipped, perfectly bitted, and perfectly ridden, an almost ideal charger. There was a great firebrand scar on the flat of each shoulder, where he had been fired for a cough,--so said Gluckmansklegge;--others intimated that this effaced a U. S. brand; but, except this, not a sign of a blemish. In form, action, style, color (chestnut), and training he was unexceptionably good, and might well excite the envy of all good horsemen who saw him _under the saddle_. Knowing him so well, I went rather eagerly to the picket-line to refresh myself with the added sensation that the actual ownership of such a horse must give. There stood the new purchase,--a picture of the most abject misery; his hind legs drawn under him; the immense muscles of his hips lying flabby, like a cart-horse's; his head hanging to the level of his knees, and his under-lip drooping; his eyes half shut, and his long ears falling out sidewise like a sleepy mule's. I had bought him for a safe price, and he would probably do to carry Ike and the saddle-bags; but I felt as far as ever from a mount for myself, and went back to my tent wiser and no happier than before. Presently Ike appeared with the coffee, and asked how I liked the new horse. "Not at all." "Don't ye? well now, I reckon he's a consid'able of a hoss." I sent him to look at him again, and he came back with a very thoughtful air,--evidently he had been impressed. At last he said, "Well now, Colonel, I don't reckon you bought that hoss to look at him on the picket-line, did ye?" "No, Ike, or he should be sold out very cheap; but he is not the _kind_ of horse I supposed he was; he ought to work in a mule-team." "Well now, Colonel, mebbe he is; but you can't never tell nothin' about a hoss till you get him between ye; and I reckon he's a consid'able of a hoss, I reckon he is." Ike was wise, in his way, and his way was a very horsy one,--so my hopes revived a little; and when Gluckmansklegge came up on a capital little beast he had been handling (secretly to replace the Fuchs), I had the new venture saddled and brought round. He came blundering along, head and ears and tail down, and stood like a leathern horse for me to mount, Gluckmansklegge dropping his eye-glass and grinning. It was as well to find out first as last whether he had anything in him or not, and I gathered up the curb-rein, which brought his head into superb position and settled him well back upon his haunches; but, as the movement had been made with dignity, I gave him both heels, firmly,--when we went sailing!--how high I don't know, probably not fifteen feet, but it seemed that, and covering a good stretch to the front. It was the most enormous lift I had ever had, and (after an appreciable time in the air), when he landed square on all four feet, it was to strike a spanking, even trot, the bit playing loose in his mouth, his head swaying easily with his step, and his tail flying. I had never been more amazed in my life than by the wonderful grace and agility of this splendid brute. As he trotted along with his high, strong, and perfectly cadenced step, he showed in the swing of his head all the satisfaction of an athlete turning, conscious, lightly away from the footlights, after his especial _tour de force_. As Gluckmansklegge rode up, he said, "Well, Col-o-nel, how you like? Nice pretty strong horse, what?" And then, his English failing him, he fell, through an attempt at French, into German, in which his tongue was far more ready than my ear. Still it was easy to gather enough to understand some of the processes by which the animal's natural qualifications for his work had been developed into such unusual accomplishments; and then he glided into the complimentary assertion that no one but the colonel of his regiment could ever have hoped to buy him at any price,--and of course he did not consider it a sale. His original outlay, which he could not afford to lose, had been reimbursed; but the true value of the horse, his education, he was only too glad to give me. And then, the pleasure of seeing his colonel suitably mounted, and the satisfaction of seeing the horse properly ridden, really threw the obligation on his side. Then, with his inimitable _naïveté_, he not only expressed, but demonstrated, in every look and gesture, more delight in watching our movements than he had felt in his own riding. "Praise a horseman for his horsemanship, and he will ride to the Devil." Gluckmansklegge (I did not suspect him of a desire for promotion) pointed to a strong rail-fence near by, and suggested that the combination of man and horse for that sort of thing was unusual. Whether it was a banter or a compliment, it would have been impossible for any man who properly esteemed himself and his riding to stop to consider. Turned toward the fence, the Fuchs, checking his speed, seemed to creep toward it, as a cat would, making it very uncertain what he proposed; but as he came nearer to it, that willingness to leap that an accustomed rider will always recognize communicated itself to me, and, with perfect judgment, but with a force and spirit I had never hoped to meet in a horse of this world, he carried me over the enormous height, and landed like a deer, among the stumps and brush on the other side, and trotted gayly away, athlete-like again, happier and prouder than ever horse was before. Sitting that evening at my tent door, opposite the spring, bragging, as the custom is, over the new purchase, it occurred to me that that stream of water and that bit of horse-flesh had some qualities alike; so I christened the latter "Roubie d'Eaux," which was soon translated and shortened to "Ruby,"--a name henceforth familiar throughout the regiment. To become my property was the only thing needed to make him perfect, for Ike was born in a racing stud in Kentucky, and had practised all the arts of the craft, up to the time when, being both jockey and "the stakes" in a race he rode, he was lost to a Missouri gentleman of fortune, and became a body-servant. He was once confidential:-- "Well, now, Colonel, you see, this is how it was: I hadn't nothin' ag'in my master,--he was a right nice man; but then, you see, he drinked, and I didn't know what might become of me some time. Then, you see, I knowed this man was stiddy, an' he'd jess done bought a yallar gal I kinder had a notion for, an' so,--don't ye see why?--well, the hoss could have won the _race_ fast enough, but then, you see, my master,--well, he was a drinkin' kind of a man, an' I thought I might as well fix it. I knowed I was up for stakes, an' that's how I come to Missouri; I ain't no Missouri man _born_, but that's how it was." He had become a good body-servant without forgetting his stable training, and his horses bore testimony to his skill and fidelity. After going through the routine of a well-regulated stable, he gave each horse a half-hour's stroking with the flat of his hands, brisk and invigorating; and the result was a more blooming condition and more vigorous health than is often seen in horses on a campaign. The best substitute that could be secured for a stable was a very heavy canvas blanket, covering the horse from his ears to his tail and down to his knees, water-proof and wind-proof. It was a standing entertainment with the less dignified members of the mess to invite attention to Ruby as he stood moping under this hideous housing. Certainly I never saw him thus without thinking that his time had at last come, and that he surely would never again be able to carry me creditably. Yet, as Ike's devotion continued, he grew better and better, commanding daily more of the respect and admiration of all who knew him, and attaching himself to me more and more as we learned each other's ways. One never loves but one horse entirely, and so Ruby never quite filled Vixen's place; but as a serviceable friend, he was all that could be desired. The unsupplied want of my life, that had made me restless and discontented, was now satisfied, and my duties became easy, and my pastimes (the principal times of South Missouri warfare) entirely agreeable. It was no slight addition to these sources of contentment to feel that the command had at last awakened to a sense of its dereliction, and was fast reforming its ways. I had hardly owned Ruby for a fortnight before the old cheerfulness and alacrity returned to the regiment, and by the time we broke up our camp on the Roubie d'Eaux and went over to Lebanon for the shooting season, the entire organization was in a most satisfactory condition. Our life in Lebanon was an episode of the war that we shall not soon forget. To the best of my knowledge and belief, after Price had retreated from Pea Ridge, the only organized forces of armed Rebels to be found north of the White River were local bands of jay-hawkers, whose rebellion was mainly directed against the laws of property, and the actuating motive of whose military movements was "nags." The stealing of horses, with the consequent application of Lynch law, was all that the native male population had to keep them out of mischief, for weeks and weeks together. There was just enough of this sort of armed lawlessness to furnish us with a semblance of duty; not enough seriously to interrupt our more regular avocations. Lebanon is on the high table-land of the Ozarks, in the heart of a country flowing with prairie-hens and wild turkeys, and bountifully productive of the more humdrum necessaries of life. Thanks to the fleeing of Rebel families, we found comfortable quarters without too severely oppressing those who had remained. What with moving the court-house away from the public square, leaving the space free for a parade, and substituting a garrison flag-staff for the town pump, we kept our men from rusting; and when, after a time, we had established a comfortable post-hospital and a commodious military prison, Lebanon was as complete and well-ordered a station as could be found in South Missouri. I had the questionable honor and the unquestionable comfort of holding its command from the end of January to the end of April,--three dreamy months, that seem now to have been passed in a shooting-lodge, under favorable auspices. As a legacy of the "Hundred Days," when the "Fourth Missouri" was the "Frémont Hussars," we had an able-bodied and extremely well-selected regimental band, that soothed our over-tasked senses when we came in from our work in the fields, gathering where our enemies had sown, and (under the suspended game-laws of the State) shooting grouse and quail in the early spring. Naturally, most of my official duties were such as could be performed by an extremely well-regulated adjutant; and I usually passed his busy half-hour (in private) with Ruby. There had been an impetuosity about the horse at the outset which it was desirable to quell, and I rode him regularly in a nicely fenced kitchen-garden, where, after he learned that fences are not always intended for leaping-bars, he fell slowly into the routine of the training-school, and easily acquired a perfect self-command and _aplomb_ that enabled him, under all circumstances, to await his rider's instructions. I wish that less account had been made, in the writings of those whose horse-stories have preceded mine, of the specified feats of their animals. The _rôle_ of a horse's performances is necessarily limited, and it is probably impossible for a well-constituted mind to recite the simple story of his deeds without seeming to draw largely on the imagination. Consequently, an unexaggerated account of what Ruby actually did (and I cannot bring my mind to an embellishment of the truth) would hardly interest a public whose fancy has been thus pampered and spoiled. But for this, these pages could be filled with instances of his strength and agility that would almost tax belief. Suffice it to say that while, like most good high leapers, he would cover but a moderate breadth of water, he would get over anything reasonable in the shape of a fence that could be found about the town. I was a heavy weight,--riding nearly two hundred pounds,--and necessarily rode with judgment. If there was a low place in a fence, we never chose a high one; but, at the same time, if there were no low places, we took the best we could find. Ruby seemed to know that the two of us were solid enough to break through any ordinary pile of rails, and what we could not jump over we jumped _at_. More than once did he carry away the top rail of a snake fence with his knees, and land fair and square on the other side; but it was a very high leap that made this necessary. He would jump on to the porch of the quartermaster's office (approached from the ground by four steps), and then jump over the hand-rail and land on the ground below again, almost wagging his tail with delight at the feat. His ear was quicker than mine for the peeping of quail and for the drumming of grouse, and, in the absence of a good dog, there is no doubt that my pot (for which alone I have been said to hunt) was better filled by reason of his intelligence in the field, and because he would allow one to shoot from the saddle. The birds never mistook me for a sportsman until I was quite in among them, blazing away. In coming home from the prairie, we generally rode round by the way of a certain sunken garden that stood a couple of feet below the level of the road. A five-foot picket-fence that stood at the roadside had fallen over toward the garden, so that its top was hardly four feet higher than the road. This made the most satisfactory leap we ever took,--the long, sailing descent, and the safe landing on sandy loam, satisfied so completely one's prudent love of danger. I think I missed this leap more than anything at Lebanon when, finally, we set out for Arkansas. We made our first considerable halt early in May, at Batesville, on the White River,--a lovely, rose-grown village, carrying, in the neatly kept home of its New England secessionists, evidence that they remembered their native land, where, in their day, before the age of railroads, the "village" flourished in all its freshness and simplicity. It had now acquired the picturesque dilapidation, in the manner of fences and gates and defective window-panes, that marked the Southern domicile during the war. Ruby had strained himself quite seriously during the march, and had been left to come on slowly with the quartermaster's train. This left me quite free for the social life, such as it was, to which we--the only available men that had been seen there since Price gathered his forces at Springfield--were welcomed with a reserved cordiality. Our facilities for forming a correct opinion of society were not especially good, but I fancied I should have passed my time to as good advantage in the saddle. We soon left for an active expedition in the direction of Little Rock, of which it is only necessary to say, here, that it lasted about a month, and brought the writer acquainted with some very unsatisfactory horses,--a fact which heightened his pleasure, on striking the White River bottom again, at finding that Ruby had been brought over the ferry to meet him. Tired as I was, I took a glorious brisk trot through the Canebrake Road, with a couple of leaps over fallen trees, that revived the old emotions and made a man of me again. While we lay at Batesville we were unusually active in the matter of drill and reorganization; and this, with our engagements in the town, kept us too busy for much recreation; but Ludlow and I managed to work in a daily swim in the White River, with old saddles on our horses, and scant clothing on our persons. Talk of aquatic sports! there is no royal bath without a plucky horse to assist; and a swim across the swift current at Batesville, with a horse like Ruby snorting and straining at every stroke, belittled even the leaping at Lebanon. From Batesville we commenced our memorable march to join the fleet that had just passed Memphis, following down the left bank of the river to Augusta, and then striking across the cotton country to Helena,--a march on which we enjoyed the rarest picturesqueness of plantation life, and suffered enough from heat and hunger and thirst, and stifling, golden dust to more than pay for it. Helena was a pestiferous swamp, worth more than an active campaign to our enemies, filling our hospitals, and furrowing the levee bank with graves. It was too hot for much drilling, and we kept our better horses in order by daybreak races. With the local fever feeling its way into my veins, I was too listless to care much for any diversion; but Ike came to me one evening to say that he "reckoned" Ruby was as good a horse as anybody had in the "camps," and he might as well take a hand in the games. I told him I had no objection to his being run, if he could find a suitable boy, but that both he and I were too heavy for race-riding. "I don't weigh only about a hundred and a half," said the ambitious man. "Well, suppose you don't, that is ten pounds too much." "I reckon a man can ride ten pound lighter 'n he is if he knows how to ride; anyhow, if Rube can't skin anything around here, I don't know nothin' about horses." "Ike, did you ever run that horse?" "Well, Colonel, now you ask me, I did jest give Dwight's darkey a little brush once." Conquering my indignation and my scruples, I went over, just for the honor of the establishment, and made up a race for the next day. I have seen crack race-horses in my time, but I never saw more artistic riding nor more capital running than that summer morning on the River Road at Helena, just as the sun began to gild the muddy Mississippi. The satisfaction of this conquest, and the activity with which new engagements were offered by ambitious lieutenants, who little knew the stuff my man and horse were made of, kept off my fever for some weeks; but I steadily declined all opportunity of racing with horses outside of our command, for I had been reared in a school of Puritan severity, and had never quite overcome my convictions against the public turf. A corporal of an "Injeanny rege_ment_" took occasion to crow lustily--so I heard--because "one of them French coveys" was afraid to run him a quarter for five dollars. It appeared that a cleanly European was always supposed by this gentry to be French; and in the army at large I was better known by the company I kept than by my New England characteristics. Naturally, Ike thought that, while Ruby was engaged in this more legitimate occupation, he ought not to be ridden for mere pleasure; and it was only when a visitor was to be entertained, or when I went out on plea of duty, that I could steal an opportunity to leap him; but he took one fence that fairly did him credit. It was a snake fence measuring four feet and two inches, with a deep ditch on each side cut close to the projecting angles of the rails. Ruby carried me over the first ditch into the angle between the rails, then over the fence into the narrow space on the other side, and then over the second ditch into the field. It was the most perfect combination of skill, strength, and judgment that was possible to horse-flesh; and I think Gluckmansklegge, who was with me and had suggested the venture, despaired of ever getting his promotion by any fair means, when we rejoined him by the return leap and rode safely to camp. Unhappily, even entire satisfaction with one's horse is powerless to ward off such malaria as that of the camp at Helena, and in due time I fell ill with the fever. The horse was turned over to the care of the quartermaster, and Ike and I came wearily home on sick-leave. Late in the autumn we returned to St. Louis, where one of the German officers told me that the regiment had joined Davidson's army at "Pilot K-nopp"; and after the Hun, our new adjutant, arrived from the East, we set out for headquarters, and took command of the cavalry brigade of Davidson's army. From November until January we were tossed about from post to post, wearing out our horses, wearying our men, and accomplishing absolutely nothing of value beyond the destruction of an enormous amount of the rough forage, which would otherwise have been used to feed "nags,"--stolen or to be stolen,--and would have thus tended to foster the prevailing vice of the region. At last we settled down in a pleasant camp at Thomasville,--a good twelve miles away from Davidson,--and were at rest; it was only those near him who suffered from his fitful caprices, and he was now encamped with the infantry. Pleasant as we found it with our little duty and much sport, I can never look back to Thomasville without sorrow. To say that I had acquired a tenderness for Ruby would not be strictly just; but I felt for him all the respect and admiration and fondness that is possible short of love. Vix had been my heroine, and my only one; but Ruby was my hero, and I depended on him for my duty and my pleasure more than I knew. With his full measure of intelligence he had learned exactly his _rôle_, and he was always eager, whenever occasion offered, to show the world what a remarkably fine horse I had,--being himself conscious, not only of his unusual virtues, but, no less, of the praise they elicited. One sunny Southern day, toward the end of January, Davidson had ridden over, with his following, to dine with us; and as we were sitting before our mess-tent, mellow with after-dinner talk of our guns and our dogs and our horses, the General was good enough to remember that he had seen me riding a chestnut that he thought much too finely bred for field work: had I been able to keep him? Then Ruby was discussed, and all his successes were recalled, first by one friend and then by another, until Davidson needed ocular proof of our truthfulness. Ike had taken the hint, and brought Ruby round in due time,--glistening like gold in the slanting rays of the setting sun, but blundering along with his head down and ears drooping in his old, dismal way. "O no, I don't mean that horse," said Davidson; "I mean a very high-strung horse I have seen you ride on the march." "Very well, General, that is the animal; he keeps his strings loose when he is not at his work." "No, I have seen you riding a far better horse than that; I am too old a cavalryman to be caught by such chaff." To the great glee of the Hun, whose faith in Ruby was unbounded, Davidson's whole staff turned the laugh on me for trying to deceive the General just because he had been dining. I mounted, and started off with one of Ruby's enormous lifts, that brought the whole company to their feet. It was the supreme moment with him. Full of consciousness, as though he knew the opportunity would never come again, and quivering in anticipation of his triumph, he was yet true to his training, and held himself subject to my least impulse. We had lain in our camp for more than a week, and there was not a vestige left of the recently substantial fences,--only the suggestive and conspicuous gateways that stood to mark the march of our armies from the Chesapeake to the Indian Nation. But Ruby built fences in his imagination higher than any he had ever faced, and cleared them without a scratch, landing close as though the Helena ditch were still to be taken. It would take long to tell all he did and how perfectly he did it; he went back at last to his canvas blanket, loaded with adulation, and as happy as it is given a horse to be. In his leaping he had started a shoe, and Ike took him in the morning to the smith (who had taken possession of an actual forge), to have it reset. A moment later, the Hun cried, "My God, Colonel, look at Ruby!" Hobbling along with one hind foot drawn up with pain, he was making his last mournful march, and we laid him that day to rest,--as true a friend and as faithful a fellow as ever wore a chestnut coat. He had reared in the shop, parted his halter, and fallen under a bench, breaking his thigh far up above the stifle. WETTSTEIN. It is a pleasant thing to be a colonel of cavalry in active field-service. There are circumstances of authority and responsibility that fan the latent spark of barbarism which, however dull, glows in all our breasts, and which generations of republican civilization have been powerless to quench. We may not have confessed it even to ourselves; but on looking back to the years of the war, we must recognize many things that patted our vanity greatly on the back,--things so different from all the dull routine of equality and fraternity of home, that those four years seem to belong to a dreamland, over which the haze of the life before them and of the life after them draws a misty veil. Equality and Fraternity! a pretty sentiment, yes, and full of sensible and kindly regard for all mankind, and full of hope for the men who are to come after us; but Superiority and Fraternity! who shall tell all the secret emotions this implies? To be the head of the brotherhood, with the unremitted clank of a guard's empty scabbard trailing before one's tent-door day and night; with the standard of the regiment proclaiming the house of chief authority; with the respectful salute of all passers, and the natural obedience of all members of the command; with the shade of deference that even comrades show to superior rank; and with that just sufficient check upon coarseness during the jovial bouts of the headquarters' mess, making them not less genial, but void of all offence,--living in this atmosphere, one almost feels the breath of feudal days coming modified through the long tempestuous ages to touch his cheek, whispering to him that the savage instinct of the sires has not been, and never will be, quite civilized out of the sons. And then the thousand men, and the yearly million that they cost, while they fill the cup of the colonel's responsibility (sometimes to overflowing), and give him many heavy trials,--they are his own men; their usefulness is almost of his own creation, and their renown is his highest glory. I may not depict the feelings of others; but I find in the recollection of my own service--as succeeding years dull its details and cast the nimbus of distance about it--the source of emotions which differ widely from those to which our modern life has schooled us. One of the colonel's constant attendants is the chief bugler, or, as he is called in hussar Dutch, the "Stabstrompaytr"; mine was the prince of Trompaytrs, and his name was Wettstein. He was a Swiss, whose native language was a mixture of guttural French and mincing German. English was an impossible field to him. He had learned to say "yes" and "matches"; but not one other of our words could he ever lay his tongue to, except the universal "damn." But for his bugle and his little gray mare, I should never have had occasion to know his worth. Music filled every pore of his Alpine soul, and his wonderful Swiss "Retreat" must ring to this day in the memory of every man of the regiment whose thoughts turn again to the romantic campaign of South Missouri. What with other buglers was a matter of routine training was with him an inspiration. All knew well enough the meaning of the commands that the company trumpets stammered or blared forth; but when they rang from Wettstein's horn, they carried with them a _vim_ and energy that secured their prompt execution; and his note in the wild Ozark Hills would mark the headquarters of the "Vierte Missouri" for miles around. From a hill-top, half a mile in advance of the marching command, I have turned the regiment into its camping-ground and dismounted it in perfect order by the melodious telegraphy of Wettstein's brazen lips alone. That other chief attribute of his, Klitschka, his little beast, stayed longer with me than his bugle did, and is hardly less identified with the varied reminiscences of my army life. I bought her, as a prize, with the original mount of the regiment, in Frémont's time, and was mildly informed by that officer that I must be careful how I accepted many such animals from the contractor, though a few for the smaller men might answer. Asboth, Frémont's chief of staff, with a scornful rolling up of his cataract of a mustache, and a shrug of his broad, thin shoulders, said, "Whyfor you buy such horses? What your bugler ride, it is not a horse, it is a cat." His remark was not intended as a question, and it ended the conversation. Months after that, he eagerly begged for the nine-lived Klitschka for one of his orderlies; being refused him, she remained good to the end. She was an animal that defied every rule by which casual observers test the merit of a horse; but analytically considered she was nearly perfect. Better legs, a better body, and a better head, it is rare to see, than she had. But she lacked the arched neck and the proud step that she needed all the more because of her small size. By no means showy in figure or in action, it took a second look to see her perfect fitness for her work. Her color was iron-gray, and no iron could be tougher than she was; while her full, prominent eye and ample brain-room, and her quick paper-thin ear, told of courage and intelligence that made her invaluable throughout four years of hard and often dangerous service. Like many other ill-favored little people, she was very lovable, and Wettstein loved her like a woman. He would never hesitate to relax those strict rules of conduct by which German cavalrymen are supposed to govern themselves, if it was a question of stealing forage for Klitschka; and he was (amiable fellow!) never so happy as when, from a scanty supply in the country, he had taken enough oat-sheaves to bed her in and almost cover her up, while other horses of the command must go hungry; and was never so shaken in his regard for me as when I made him give up all but double rations for her. Double rations she often earned, for Wettstein was a heavy youth, with a constitutional passion for baggage out of all proportion to his means of transportation. Mounted for the march, he was an odd sight. Little Klitschka's back, with his immense rolls of blankets and clothing before and behind, looked like a dromedary's. Planted between the humps, straight as a gun-barrel, the brightest of bugles suspended across his back by its tasselled yellow braid, slashed like a harlequin over the breast, his arms chevroned with gorgeous gold,--Wettstein, with his cap-front turned up so as to let the sun fall full on his frank blue eyes and his resolute blond mustache, was the very picture of a cavalry bugler in active campaign. Smoking, gabbling, singing, rollicking, from morning until night, and still on until morning again if need be, he never lost spirit nor temper. He seemed to absorb sunshine enough during the day to keep every one bright around him all night. When at last his bugle had been stilled forever, we long missed the cheer of his indomitable gayety; wearying service became more irksome than while his bubbling mirth had tempered its dulness; and even little Klitschka, although she remained an example of steady pluck, had never so potent an influence as while he had put his own unfailing mettle into her heels. After she was bequeathed to me, she was always most useful, but never so gay and frisky as while she carried her own devoted groom. No day was too long for her and no road too heavy; her brisk trot knew no failing, but she refused ever again to form the personal attachment that had sealed her and Wettstein to each other. The two of them together, like the fabled Centaur, made the complete creature. He with the hardened frame and bright nature of his Alpine race, and she with her veins full of the mustang blood of the Rocky Mountains, were fitted to each other as almost never were horse and rider before. Their performances were astonishing. In addition to a constant attendance on his commander (who, riding without baggage, and of no heavier person than Wettstein himself, sometimes fagged out three good horses between one morning and the next), the Trompaytr yet volunteered for all sorts of extra service,--carried messages over miles of bad road to the general's camp, gave riding-lessons and music-lessons to the company buglers, and then--fear of the guard-house and fear of capture always unheeded--he never missed an opportunity for the most hazardous and most laborious foraging. He was a thorough soldier,--always "for duty," always cleanly, always handsome and cheery, and heedlessly brave. If detected in a fault (and he was, as I have hinted, an incorrigible forager), he took his punishment like a man, and stole milk for himself or fodder for Klitschka at the next convenient (or inconvenient) opportunity, with an imperturbability that no punishment could reach. Once, when supplies were short, he sent me, from the guard-house where he had been confined for getting them, a dozen bundles of corn-blades for my horses; not as a bribe, but because he would not allow the incidents of discipline to disturb our friendly relations; and in the matter of fodder in scarce times he held me as a helpless pensioner, dependent on his bounty. When in arrest by my order, his "Pon chour, Herr Oberist," was as cordial and happy as when he strolled free past my tent. Altogether, I never saw his like before or since. The good fortune to get such a bugle, such a soldier, and such a mount combined, comes but once in the lifetime of the luckiest officer. It was only his uncouth tongue that kept him from being pilfered from me by every general who had the power to "detail" him to his own headquarters. So universal, by the way, was this petty vice of commanding officers, that one was never safe until he adopted the plan, in selecting a staff officer, of securing his promise to resign from the service, point-blank, if ordered to other duty, and more than one offended general has been made indignant by this policy. With Wettstein, I felt perfectly easy, for the average capacity of brigadier-generals stopped far short of the analysis of his dual jargon. Several tried him for a day, but they found that his comprehension was no better than his speech, and that his manifest ability was a sealed book to them. He always came home by nightfall with a chuckle, and "Le général versteht mich nicht. Je blase 'marrrsch' für 'halt.'" So it was that, for a couple of years, this trusty fellow trotted at my heels through rain and shine, by day and by night, with his face full of glee, and his well-filled canteen at the service of our little staff. Mud and mire, ditches and fences, were all one to him and Klitschka; and in Vix's day they followed her lead over many a spot that the others had to take by flank movement. Our work in Missouri was but little more than the work of subsistence. We were a part of an army too large for any Rebel force in that region to attack, and too unwieldy to pursue guerillas with much effect. But now and then we made a little scout that varied our otherwise dull lives; and at such times Wettstein always attached himself to the most dangerous patrolling party, and Klitschka was usually the first to bring back news of the trifling encounters. At last, in February, 1863, when we had lain for a month in delicious idleness in the heart of a rich country, literally flowing with poultry and corn-fodder, I, being then in command of a division of cavalry, received an order from Davidson to select six hundred of the best-mounted of my men, and to attack Marmaduke, who was recruiting, ninety miles away, at Batesville on the White River in Arkansas. His main body, three thousand five hundred strong, lay in the "Oil-Trough Bottom," on the other side of the river. A brigade of Western infantry was to march as far as Salem (thirty miles), and to support us if necessary; though we afterward found that at the only moment when we might have had grave occasion to depend on them, they were, with an inconsistency that was not the least attribute of our commanding officer, withdrawn without notice to us. We were to go in light marching order, carrying only the necessary clothing, and rations of salt and coffee. Wettstein's ideas of lightness differing from mine, I had to use some authority to rid poor Klitschka of saucepans, extra boots, and such trash; and after all, the rascal had, under the plea of a cold, requiring extra blankets, smuggled a neatly sewn sausage of corn, weighing some fifteen pounds, into one of his rolls. Eager men, too, whose horses were out of trim, had to be discarded, and the whole detail to be thoroughly overhauled. But the jovial anticipation of seeing Batesville once more--a New England village planted on a charming hillside in Arkansas, where we had sojourned with Curtis the summer before, and where we all had the pleasant acquaintance that even an enemy makes in a town from which the native men have long been gone, and only the women remain--made the work of preparation go smoothly, and long before dawn Wettstein's bugle summoned the details from the several camps. There was a ringing joyousness in his call, that spoke of the cosey, roaring fire of a certain Batesville kitchen to which his bright face and his well-filled haversack had long ago made him welcome, and prospective feasting gave an added trill to his blast. The little detachments trotted gayly into line, officers were assigned for special duty, temporary divisions were told off, and a working organization was soon completed. Before the sun was up, such a Ra, t't'ta, t't'ta, _t't'ta_! as South Missouri had never heard before, broke the line by twos from the right, and we were off for a promising trip. Marmaduke we knew of old, and personal cowardice would have deterred no one from joining our party, for he could be reached from our stronger army only by a complete surprise; and in a country where every woman and child (white, I mean) was his friend and our enemy, a surprise, over ninety miles of bad roads, seemed out of the question. Indeed, before we had made a half of the distance, one of his flying scouts told a negro woman by the roadside, as he checked his run to water his horse, "There's a hell's-mint o' Yanks a comin' over the mountain, and I must git to Marmyjuke"; and to Marmaduke he "got," half a day ahead of us, only to be laughed at for a coward who had been frightened by a foraging-party. The second night brought us to Evening Shade, a little village where one Captain Smith was raising a company. They had all gone, hours ahead of us, but had left their supplies and their fires behind them, and these, with the aid of a grist-mill (for which an Illinois regiment furnished a miller), gave us a bountiful supper. At daybreak we set out for our last day's march, still supposing that Marmaduke's men would put the river between themselves and us before night, but confident of comfortable quarters at Batesville. A few miles out, we began to pick up Rebel stragglers, and Wettstein soon came rattling through the woods, from a house to which he had been allowed to go for milk, with the story of a sick officer lodged there. Following his lead with a surgeon and a small escort, I found the captain of the Evening Shade company lying in a raging fever, with which he had found it impossible to ride, and nearly dead with terror lest we should hang him at once. His really beautiful young wife, who had gone to enliven his recruiting labors, was in tears over his impending fate. While we were talking with him concerning his parole, she bribed Wettstein with a royal pair of Mexican spurs to save his life, evidently thinking from his display of finery that he was a major-general at the very least. The kind fellow buckled the spurs on my heels, and they evidently gave me new consequence in his eyes as we rode on our way. Presently we struck a party of about twenty-five, under a Captain Mosby, who had been making a circuit after conscripts and had had no news of us. After a running fight, during which there occurred some casualties on the other side, we captured the survivors of the party and sent them to the rear. From midday on, we heard rumors of a sally in strong force from Batesville, and were compelled to move cautiously,--straggling parties of Rebel scouts serving to give credibility to the story. At sunset we were within six miles of the town; and, halting in the deep snow of a large farm-yard, I sent a picked party of thirty, under Rosa, to secure the ferry, if possible,--Wettstein and Klitschka accompanying to bring back word of the result. After two anxious hours, he came into camp with a note from Rosa: "Marmaduke is over the river and has the ferry-boat with him; three of his men killed. Wettstein did bravely." The poor fellow had a bad cut on his arm and was in pain, but not a moment would he give himself until brave little Klitschka, smothered in bright straw, was filling herself from the smuggled bag of corn. Then he came to the surgeon and had his wounded arm duly dressed. Although evidently suffering and weak from loss of blood, he gave us a cheering account of Rosa's fight, and dwelt fondly on the supper he had bespoken for us at good Mrs. ----'s house, where we had quartered in the summer. At nine o'clock, after Klitschka had fed and the patrols had come in, we set out on our march. It was still snowing hard, and even the dead men that marked Rosa's recent ride were fast being shrouded in purest white. One of them Wettstein pointed out as the man with whom he had crossed sabres, and he asked permission to stay with the party detailed to bury him, for he had been a "braff homme." With his tender sympathy for friend or foe, he was a truer mourner than a dead soldier often gets from the ranks of his enemy. Even this sad ride came to an end, as all things must, and at the edge of the town soldierly Rosa stood, to report that the pickets were posted and our quarters ready. Giving him a fresh detail to relieve his pickets, and asking his company at our midnight supper, we pushed on to our chosen house. Here we found all in order, save that the young lady of the family had so hastily put on the jacket bearing the U. S. buttons of her last summer's conquests, that she failed quite to conceal the C. S. buttons on a prettier one under it. She and her mother scolded us for driving the Rebel beaux from town, when there was to have been a grand farewell ball only the next night; but they seemed in no wise impressed with regret for the friends who had been killed and wounded in the chase. It turned out that Marmaduke had grown tired of reports that we were marching on him in force, and would not believe it now until his own men rode into town at nightfall with the marks of Rosa's sabres on their heads. The place had been filled with the officers of his command, and he with them, come for their parting flirtations before the ball. They were to march to Little Rock, and their men were nearly all collected in the "Bottom," over the river. On this sudden proof of the attack, they made a stampede for the flat-boat of the rope-ferry, and nearly sunk it by over-crowding, the hindmost men cutting the rope and swimming their horses across the wintry torrent. We had full possession of the town, and were little disturbed by the dropping shots from the Rebel side. We visited on our unfaithful friends such punishment as enforced hospitality could compass, and, on the whole, we hadn't a bad "time." The morning after our arrival we levied such contributions of supplies as were necessary for our return march, and, in order that the return might not look like a retreat, we loaded two wagons with hogsheads of sugar (which would be welcome in Davidson's commissariat), and made every arrangement for the establishment of the camping of the whole army in the country back of the town; for our force was so small that, with our tired horses, it would have been imprudent to turn our backs to Marmaduke's little army, if he supposed us to be alone. Keeping the town well picketed and making much show of laying out an encampment, we started the teams and the main body of the command at nightfall, holding back a hundred men for a cover until a later hour. During the evening the Rebels on the south side of the river became suspiciously quiet, and there was, apparently, some new movement on foot. The only possible chance for an attack was by Magnus's ferry, ten miles below, where the boat was so small and the river so wide that not more than twenty horses could be crossed in an hour, and our sharpshooters were sufficient to prevent the removal of the Batesville boat to that point. Still it was important to know what was going on, and especially important to prevent even a scouting-party of the enemy from harassing the rear of our tired column by the shorter road from Magnus's to Evening Shade; and I started at nine o'clock (when the moon rose), with twenty men, to go round that way, directing the remainder of the rear-guard to follow the main body at midnight. The ride to Magnus's was without other adventure than bad roads and almost impassable bayous always entail, and in a few hours we reached the plantation, where I had a former ally in an old negro who had done us good service during Curtis's campaign. He said that the Rebels had left the Bottom, and were going to Little Rock, but, as a precaution he took a canoe and crossed over to the house of another negro on the south bank, and returned with a confirmation of his opinion. As it was very important to know whether the only enemy of Davidson's army had really withdrawn from his front, and, as this might be definitely learned through the assistance of an old scout who lived in the edge of the Bottom, it seemed best to cross the river to give him instructions for his work. I took Ruby, my best horse. He was a sure reliance under all circumstances, and he and I knew each other perfectly. We were at home in every foot-path in the country, having had many a summer's swim in this very river; and now, accompanied only by Wettstein and Klitschka, I went on to the ferry-boat. It was what is known as a "swing" ferry. A stout rope is stretched between trees on the opposite shores, and the boat is attached to a couple of pulleys arranged to traverse the length of this rope. The attaching cords--one at each end of the up-stream side of the boat--are long enough to allow it to swing some rods down the stream; by shortening one of the ropes and lengthening the other, the boat is placed at an angle with the swift current, which propels it toward one shore or the other, the pulleys keeping pace in their course on the main rope. The main rope was rough from long use, and often the pulleys would halt in their course, until the pull of the advancing boat dragged them free. Then the rickety craft, shivering from end to end, would make a rapid shoot, until another defective place in the rope brought her to again. At each vibration, the horses nearly lost their feet, and the surging stream almost sent its muddy water over the gunwale. It was a long and anxious trip,--the rotten guy-rope hardly serving to hold us to our course. At last we reached the shore and rode on to Craikill's house in the Bottom. He had been "conscripted," and forced to go with the army, so his wife told us, and she had seen him march with the rest on the Fairview Road for Little Rock. The last bird had flown, and we could safely march back at our leisure. Wettstein filled his pipe, emptied his haversack for the benefit of Craikill's hungry children, and, cheery as ever, followed me to the ferry. On the way over he had been as still as a mouse, for he was too old a soldier to give an enemy any sign of our approach. But, as we set out on the return trip, in the cold moonlight, he sang the "Ranz des Vaches," fondled his little mare, and, unmindful of his wounded arm, gave way to the flow of spirits that the past few days' duty had checked. I never knew him more gay and delightful; and, as we stood leaning on our saddles and chatting together, I congratulated myself upon the possession of such a perpetual sunbeam. We were barely half-way across, when, suddenly, coming out of the darkness, riding half hidden in the boiling, whirling tide, a huge floating tree struck the boat with a thud that parted the rotten guy-rope, and carried us floating down the stream. For a moment there seemed no danger, but a branch of the tree had caught the corner of the boat, and the pulleys had become entangled in the rope. When this had been drawn to its full length, and the tree felt the strain, the boat dipped to the current, filled, and sank under our feet. I called to Wettstein to take Klitschka by the tail, but it was too late; he had grasped the saddle with the desperation of a drowning man, and made her fairly helpless. The boat soon passed from under us, and, relieved of our weight, came to the surface at our side; but, bringing the rope against poor Wettstein's wounded arm, it tore loose his hold, and soon went down again in the eddy, and Klitschka was free. "Adieu, Herr Oberist; tenez Klitschka pour vous! Adieu!" And that happy, honest face sank almost within reach of me. The weight of his arms prevented his rising again, and only an angry eddy, glistening in the moonlight, marked his turbid grave. Ruby, snorting, and struggling hard with the current, pulled me safely to the shore, and little Klitschka followed as well as her loaded saddle would permit. For the moment, with my own life and the lives of two tried companions to care for, I thought of nothing else; but as I sat drying at Magnus's roaring hearth the direst desolation overwhelmed me. Very far from home,--far even from the home-like surroundings of my own camp,--I had clung to this devoted fellow as a part of myself. He was a proven friend; with him I never lacked the sympathy that, in the army at least, is born of constant companionship, and he filled a place in my life that dearer friends at home might not find. He was the one comrade whose heart, I was sure, was filled only with unquestioning love for me. Henceforth I must look for support to companions who saw me as I was, who knew my faults and my weaknesses, and whose kind regard was tempered with criticism. The one love that was blind, that took me for better or for worse, had been, in an instant, torn from my life, and I was more sad than I can tell. But Duty knows no sentiment. A saddened party, we mounted, to join the main command; and, as we rode on through the rest of that desolate night, no word passed to tell the gloom that each man felt. The petty distinctions of earthly rank were swallowed up in a feeling of true brotherhood, and Wettstein--promoted now--rode at our head as a worthy leader, showing the way to a faithful performance of all duty, and a kindly and cheerful bearing of all life's burdens; and, through the long and trying campaigns that followed, more than one of us was the better soldier for the lesson his soldierly life had taught. CAMPAIGNING WITH MAX. Union City was not a city at all; it was hardly a village, and "Disunion" would have been its fairer designation. It lay in the woods at the crossing of two railroads, one pointing toward Mobile and one toward Memphis, but neither leading anywhere. There was a tradition that trains had once been run upon each, but many bridges had had to be rebuilt to make the short line to Columbus passable, and the rest was ruin; for Forrest had been there with his cavalry. The land was just so much raised above the broad swamp of Northwestern Tennessee that whiskey with men to drink it, and a Methodist Church South with people to attend it, were possible. With these meagre facilities for life, and the vague inducement of a railroad-crossing. Union City had struggled into an amphibious subsistence; but it had never thriven, and its corner-lots had but feebly responded to the hopes of its projectors. For many a mile around, the forests and swamps were well-nigh impenetrable, and the occasional clearings were but desolate oases in the waste of marsh and fallen timber. The roads were wood-trails leading nowhere in particular, and all marked a region of the most scanty and unfulfilled promise. General Asboth, seeing (by the map) that it commanded two lines of railroad, sent us to occupy this strategic point, and we gradually accumulated to the number of twenty-five hundred cavalry and four thousand infantry, drawing our regular supplies from Columbus; and occupying our time with a happy round of drills, inspections, horse-races, cock-fights, and poker. It was not an elevating existence, but it was charmingly idle, and we passed the serene and lovely autumn of 1863 in a military dreamland, where nothing ever came to disturb our quiet, or to mar our repose with the realities of war. We built ourselves houses, we shot game for our tables, we made egg-nog for our evenings, and we were happy. The charm of camp-life--with just enough of occupation and responsibility, and with enough improvement in the troops for a reward--made even this wilderness enjoyable. I had the advantage of seniority and command, and the physical comforts that naturally gravitate toward a commanding officer did not fail me. My house, built with the mouse-colored logs of a Rebel block-house, covered with the roof of the post-office, and floored and ceiled with the smoke-mellowed lining of the Methodist church, was broad and low and snug. Its windows, also taken from the sanctuary in question, were set on their sides, and gave to each of the two rooms wide, low-browed outlooks into the woods and over the drill-ground, that would have made worse quarters agreeable. The bricks of an abandoned domestic fireside built a spacious fireplace across an angle of each of the rooms, and the clay of the locality plastered all our chinks "to keep the wind away." I have seen more pretentious houses and more costly, but never one in which three chosen spirits--I had, in a happy moment, selected Voisin and the Hun for my staff--got more that is worth the getting out of the simple and virtuous life of a cavalry headquarters. We were at peace with all the world (Forrest was in Mississippi), our pay was regular, our rations were ample,--and Asboth had been ordered to Pensacola. Old A. J., his successor,--every inch a soldier, and a good fellow to the very core,--used sometimes to roll up his camp mattress and run down from Columbus for an inspection. Those are marked days in our memories. He was a lynx in the field, and wry buttoning roused him to articulate wrath; but he unbuckled his sabre at the door, and brought only geniality within,--a mellow geniality that warmed to the influences of our modest hospitality, and lasted far into the night; and then, when the simple and inoffensive game was over, and its scores were settled, the dear old boy--usually with a smile of conquest wandering through his gray beard--would unroll his bundle before the fire and sleep like a baby until reveille. Happy, happy days,--and still happier nights! Naturally, in such a life as we led at Union City, our horses formed a very important element in our occupation and in our amusements. Soon after our arrival at Columbus,--an event which had taken place a few months before,--a spanking mare that I had bought to replace Ruby had gone hopelessly lame, and it became again important to all who were concerned in my peace of mind, that a satisfactory substitute should be found for her. I had still in my stable a little thoroughbred (Guy), who, though excellent in all respects, was a trifle under my weight, and not at all up to the rough riding that was a necessary part of our army life. He could go anywhere, could jump any practicable barrier, was fleet and sound, and in all respects admirable, but he was made for a lighter weight than mine, and, except for show and parade riding, must mainly be used to carry Ike and the saddle-bags, or to mount a friend when a friend favored me. In a second search, in which most of the officers of the regiment took a lively interest, there was found, in Frank Moore's Battalion of the Second Illinois Cavalry, a tall, gaunt, lean, haggard, thoroughbred-looking beast, which had been captured from Merryweather's men in Western Tennessee. He was not a handsome horse, nor was he to the ordinary eye in any respect promising; but a trial showed that he had that peculiar whalebone character, and wiry, nervous action, which come only with blood, and without which no horse is really fit for the saddle. The chances were very much against him. He did not possess the first element of beauty, save in a clean-cut head, a prominent eye, a quick ear, a thin neck, sloping shoulders, high withers, and the brilliant activity that no abuse had been able to conquer. He was held in abeyance until a careful examination of the two thousand horses at the post showed that, even as he stood, he had no equal there for my purposes. Since he had come into the army he had been in the possession of a private soldier, who had done much scouting duty, and he had been initiated (successfully) into the scrub-racing which Illinois soldiers much affected. The serious amount of one hundred and forty dollars was hazarded in the venture, and he was transferred to our stable. That increment of value which always follows the purchase of a new horse came rapidly in his case, and it needed only a few gallops on the breezy bluffs beyond Fort Halleck, to install him as prime favorite among the headquarters' mess. He was deemed worthy of the noble name of Max, and under Ike's careful grooming he returned daily toward the blooming condition that only Second Illinois abuse had been able to subdue. In an early race with the Hun we were ingloriously beaten; but the Hun rode a marvellous little blood mare, blooming with hundreds of bushels of oats, and with two years of careful handling. Max, though beaten, was not discouraged, and seemed to say that with time and good treatment he would be ready for a more successful trial. During his period of tutelage, and while he was kept from all excessive exertion, he was inducted into the mysteries of the art, to him quite new, of jumping timber. Columbus had been occupied by Rebel and Union soldiers since the outbreak of the war, and its fences, far and wide, had all disappeared; but nowhere in the world was there a greater variety nor a more ample stock of fallen trees, whose huge boles made capital leaping-bars; and over these, almost daily, for some months, beginning with the smaller ones and going gradually to the largest we could find, Max learned to carry a heavy weight with a power and precision that even Ruby could not have excelled. During all this time, ample feed, good shelter, regular exercise, and a couple of hours of Ike's hand-rubbing daily, worked an uninterrupted improvement in limb and wind and sinews and coat, until, by the time we were ordered to Union City, Max had become the pride of the camp. He was over sixteen hands high, of a solid dark bay color, glistening like polished mahogany, and active and spirited as a horse in training for the Derby. At Union City the headquarters' horses were stabled under a capital shed, close at hand, and all that master's eye and servant's labor could accomplish for their care and improvement was lavished upon them; so that, during our long months' stay, we were among the best-mounted men in the Western army. Our pleasure-riding and our work lay through swampy wood-roads, over obstructions of every sort, and across the occasional grass farms, with their neglected rail-fences. The weather was almost uninterruptedly fine, our few visiting neighbors were miles away from us, the shooting was good, and the enjoyment we got from our vagabond life in camp was well supplemented by the royal rides we almost daily took. Naturally, in a camp full of idle men given largely to sport, the elevating entertainment of horse-racing played a prominent part. Both Max and Guy were conspicuous by their successes until, long before the close of our leisurely career, but only after they had hung my walls with spurs and whips and other trophies of their successful competition with all comers, both were ruled out by the impossible odds they were obliged to give. The actual military service required was only enough to convince me that Max was a beast of endless bottom and endurance, and that, accidents apart, he would need no help in any work he might be called on to perform. For the rest of the war, with much duty of untold severity, I habitually rode no other horse for light work or for hard, for long rides or for short ones, on the march or on parade; and with all my sentiment for his charming predecessors, I had to confess that his equal as a campaigner had never come under my leg. He would walk like a cart-horse at the head of a marching column, would step like a lord in passing in review, would prance down the main street of a town as though vain of all applause, would leap any fence or ditch or fallen timber to which he might be put, would fly as though shot from a gun in passing along the line; and when, whether early or late, he was taken to his stable, would eat like a hungry colt and sleep like a tired plough-horse. In all weathers and under all circumstances he was steady, honest, intelligent, and ready for every duty. I had ridden before, at home and in the army, horses ideally good; I have ridden since, over the hunting country of Warwickshire and Northamptonshire, horses that were counted of the best, but never, before or since, have I mounted such a magnificent piece of perfectly trained and perfectly capable horse-flesh. On one occasion, at Union City, word was brought in that a flag of truce from Faulkner had arrived at our picket line, and I rode out for a parley over a trifling matter of an exchange of prisoners. The officer in charge of the flag, with the company escorting him, had originally come from our neighborhood and had belonged to Merryweather's "band." As Max trotted up to their bivouac, he was greeted with cries of recognition, and a lieutenant of the company was kind enough to warn me that I had shown them a stronger inducement than they had hitherto had to make an attack on our position; for, since Frank Moore had captured the horse I rode, they had determined to regain him at any risk. Happily, this laudable wish was never fulfilled, and Max remained, in spite of the devices they may have laid for his recapture. During the five months of our stay at this post, we made some hard scouts in a hard country, and we held a good part of West Tennessee under strict surveillance, but the most memorable feature of all our scouting was generally the welcome dismounting under the wide eaves of our own house; not, I hope, that we had grown effeminate, but a week's tramp through the woods of West Tennessee offers little that memory can cherish, and prepares one for a sensation on the near approach of comfort. But five months of such life is enough, and I was not sorry when the order came that I must go for a soldier again. Sherman was about to advance eastward from Vicksburg, destroy the lines of railroad by which Forrest received supplies from the fertile prairie region of Northern Mississippi, and strike the Rebellion in the pit of its stomach. A. J. was to take all my infantry down the river, and the cavalry was to move to Colliersville, on the line of the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, and join a considerable cavalry force gathering there under Sooy Smith and Grierson; thence we were to move southeasterly through Mississippi, to engage Forrest's forces and to meet Sherman's army at the crossing of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad at Meridian. We lay in camp more than a week, ready to move, but awaiting orders. The country (a very wet one) was frozen hard and covered with snow. Our order to march and the thaw came together, on the 22d of January. We were to cross the Obion River (and bottom) at Sharp's Ferry, twenty-three miles southwest of our camp. The command consisted of the Fourth Missouri (with a battery), Second New Jersey, Seventh Indiana, Nineteenth Pennsylvania, and Frank Moore's Battalion of the Second Illinois; in all about twenty-five hundred well-mounted men present for duty. The roads were deep with mud and slush, and every creek was "out of its banks" with the thaw. We reached the ferry only at nightfall of the 23d, over roads that had hourly grown deeper and more difficult. Two regiments had crossed, through floating ice (eight horses at a trip), by a rope-ferry, and at nine o'clock in the evening, under a full moon and a summer temperature, I crossed with staff and escort. The river was already so swollen that we landed in two feet of water, and still it was rising. Our camp was fixed five miles away on the upland. The first mile was only wet and nasty, and the trail not hard to follow. Then we came to the "back slough," thirty feet wide, four feet deep, and still covered with four inches of ice. Those who had gone before had broken a track through this, and swept the fragments of ice forward until near the shore they were packed in for a width of ten feet or more, and to the full depth of the water. I can make no stronger statement than that we all got through safely, only wet to the skin. How it was done I do not pretend to know. Some went in one way and some in another. All I can assert is that my stalwart old Max, when he found himself standing, belly deep, in broken ice, settled quietly on his haunches and took my two hundred pounds with one spring on to dry land four feet higher than his starting-point, and twelve feet away,--but then, Max always was a marvel. Guy, who carried Ike, scrambled over the top of the broken ice as only he or a cat could do. The others fared variously. All were drenched, and some were hurt, but all got to the shore at last. Then came the hour-long tug to get my ambulance through with its store of tent-hold goods and we started for our remaining four miles. The trail, even of cavalry, is not easily followed by moonlight when covered with half a foot of water, and we lost our way; reaching camp, after fourteen miles of hard travel, at four o'clock in the morning. The river was still rising rapidly, and word was brought that Kargé, with more than half the brigade, would have to make a détour of fifty miles and cross the Three Forks of the Obion far to the eastward, joining us some days later, near Jackson. So we idled on, marching a few miles each day, camping early, cooking the fat of the land for our evening meal, cultivating the questionable friendship of the Rebel population by forced contributions of subsistence, and leading, on the whole, a peaceful, unlaborious, and charming picnic life. Finally, taking Kargé again under our wing, we pushed on, resolutely and rapidly, over flooded swamps, across deep, rapid rivers, and through hostile towns, to our rendezvous; whence, under the command of two generals, and as part of an army of eight thousand well-mounted cavalry and light artillery, and all in light marching order, we started for our more serious work. The chief in command was a young and handsome, but slightly nervous individual, who eschewed the vanities of uniform, and had about himself and his horse no evidence of his military character that could not be unbuckled and dropped with his sword-belt in case of impending capture. He was vacillating in his orders, and a little anxious in his demeanor, but he had shown himself cool and clear-headed under fire, and seemed resolutely bent on the destruction of the last vestige of Forrest's troublesome army. It would be tedious to tell all the adventures of our forward expedition; how we marched in three columns over different roads, each for himself, and with only a vague notion where and how we should meet, and how we should support each other. As it afterward proved, the details of the order of march had been given to the commanders of the other brigades, while I had been forgotten; so that the whole advance was vexed with cross-purposes and with the evidences of a hidden misunderstanding. The _contretemps_ that thus came about were annoying, and, in one instance, came near being serious: as we were going into camp at Prairie Station, my advance reported having come in sight of the camp-fires of the enemy; a skirmish-line was sent forward, and only on the eve of engaging did they discover that we were approaching Hepburn's Brigade, of our column, which had reached the same point by another road. The first days of our march in Mississippi were through Tippah County, as rough, hopeless, God-forsaken a country as was ever seen outside of Southern Missouri. Its hills were steep, its mud was deep, its houses and farms were poor, its facilities for the subsistence of a protecting army like ours were of the most meagre description, and its streams delayed us long with their torrents of bottomless muddy water, fast swelling from the thaw that had unlocked the snow of all the deep-buried hills and morasses of their upper waters. We built ferry-boats and swamped them, built bridges and broke them, and slowly and painfully, horse by horse, transferred the command across the nasty riverbeds. Tippah Creek detained us and kept us hard at work all day and all night, and we reached the Tallahatchee at New Albany barely in time to ford our last man across before it rose to an impassable depth. And then for two days we pressed forward, in company with the whole column, through the rough, rocky, and wooded country, reaching Okolona only at nightfall. Here we struck the marvellous prairie region of Northeastern Mississippi, literally a land flowing with milk and honey. An interminable, fertile, rolling prairie lay before us in every direction. The stern rule of the Confederacy had compelled the planters to offset every small field of cotton with a wide area of corn, until the region had become known as the granary of the Southern army. Not only must every land-owner devote his broadest fields to the cultivation of the much-needed cereal, but one tenth of all his crop must be stacked for public use in cribs at the side of the railroad. It was an important incident of our mission to destroy everything which directly or indirectly could afford subsistence to the Rebel forces; and during the two days following our arrival at Okolona, while we marched as far south as West Point, the sky was red with the flames of burning corn and cotton. On a single plantation, our flanking party burned thirty-seven hundred bushels of tithe corn, which was cribbed near the railroad; no sooner was its light seen at the plantation houses than hundreds of negroes, who swarmed from their quarters to join our column, fired the rail-built cribs in which the remaining nine-tenths of the crop was stored. Driven wild with the infection, they set the torch to mansion house, stables, cotton-gin, and quarters, until the whole village-like settlement was blazing in an unchecked conflagration. To see such wealth, and the accumulated products of such vast labor, swept from the face of the earth, gave to the aspect of war a saddening reality, which was in strong contrast to the peaceful and harmless life our brigade had thus far led. In all this prairie region there is no waste land, and the evidences of wealth and fertility lay before us in all directions. As we marched, the negroes came _en masse_ from every plantation to join our column, leaving only fire and absolute destruction behind them. It was estimated that during these two days' march two thousand slaves and one thousand mules were added to our train. The incidents of all this desolation were often sickening and heart-rending; delicate women and children, whom the morning had found in peace and plenty, and glowing with pride in the valor of Southern arms and the certainty of an early independence for their beloved half-country, found themselves, before nightfall, homeless, penniless, and alone, in the midst of a desolate land. Captain Frank Moore, the Cossack of our brigade, went at night to an outlying plantation, of which the showy mansion-house stood on a gentle acclivity in the edge of a fine grove. Here lived alone with an only daughter, a beautiful girl, a man who had been conspicuous in his aid to the Rebellion, and whose arrest had been ordered. The squadron drew up in front of the house and summoned its owner to come forth. He came, armed, sullen, stolid, and determined, but obviously unnerved by the force confronting him. Behind him followed his daughter, dressed in white, and with her long light hair falling over her shoulders. The sight of the hated "Yanks" crazed her with rage, and before her father could reply to the question with which he had been accosted, she called to him wildly, "Don't speak to the villains! Shoot! shoot them down, shoot them down!" wringing her hands, and screaming with rage. The excitement was too much for his judgment, and he fired wildly on the troops. He was riddled through and through with bullets; and as Moore turned away, he left that fine house blazing in the black night, and lighting up the figure of the crazy girl as she wandered, desolate and beautiful, to and fro before her burning home, unheeded by the negroes who ran with their hastily made bundles to join the band of their deliverers. Moore's description of this scene in the simple language that it was his unpretending way to use, gave the most vivid picture we had seen of the unmitigated horror and badness of war. As an instrument of destruction in the enemy's country, our raid had thus far been more successful than we could have anticipated; but we had come for even more serious business than this, and there were already indications that its main purpose would be a failure. Our commander had evidently no stomach for a close approach to the enemy, and his injunctions at Colliersville that we were to try always to "Fight at close quarters!" "Go at them as soon as possible with the sabre!" and other valorous ejaculations, were in singular contrast to the impressions he evinced as the prospect of an actual engagement drew near. Forrest was in our front with about our own number of cavalry, but without artillery, of which we had twenty good pieces. The open country offered good fighting ground, and gave to our better drilled and more completely organized forces a decided advantage, even without our great odds in artillery. There lay before us a fair opportunity for dispersing the most successful body of cavalry in the Rebel service; and, could we effect a junction with Sherman, we should enable him to divide the Confederacy from Vicksburg to Atlanta. One of the most brilliant and damaging campaigns of the war seemed ready to open. Its key lay in our successful engagement, on a fair field, with an inferior force. Yet all of us who were in a position to know the spirit with which we were commanded were conscious of a gradual oozing out at the finger-ends of the determination to make a successful fight; and it was a sad night for us all when, at West Point, with our skirmish-line steadily engaging the Rebel outposts, an order came that we were to fall back before daybreak toward Okolona. The brigade commanders and their staffs had had severe duty in the scattered work of destruction, and even Max, tough though he was, had been almost overworked with constant galloping to and fro, and with the frequent countermarching our varying orders had required. Still he was better than his comrades, and many a man was anxious for his mount, should our retreat be pressed. Early in the morning we were on our way toward the rear,--about eight thousand cavalry, ten sections of artillery, two thousand pack-mules, and an unnumbered cloud of fugitive slaves mounted on their masters' mules, often two or three on each, and clustering under our shadow as their only means of escape to the happy land of freedom. In an organized advance, all of this vast hanging on could be kept at the rear and in good order; but on a retreat the instinct of self-preservation always attacks first the non-combatant element, and during all the days that followed, we found our way constantly blocked with these throngs of panic-stricken people. No sooner had we turned tail than Forrest saw his time had come, and he pressed us sorely all day and until nightfall, and tried hard to gain our flanks. A hundred times we might have turned and given him successful battle, but, at every suggestion of this, we received from our general, who was well in advance of the retiring column, the order to push forward and give our rear a free road for retreat. Midnight found us again in the vicinity of Okolona, and the next daybreak showed the enemy's long column filing out of the woods and stretching well on toward our right flank. Even the plains of Texas could offer no field better suited for a cavalry engagement, and it was with satisfaction that we received, at five o'clock in the morning, an order to prepare at once for a fight; but our men were barely mounted and in line when an order came to turn our backs upon this open field, and to retreat with all expedition toward Memphis. When we left Okolona we left hope behind, for our road struck at once into a wooded, hilly country, full of by-ways and cross-roads known to the enemy and unknown to us, and we well knew that this movement would double Forrest's power and divide our own. Then, for a long day, tired and hungry from the hard work and constant movement we had just gone through, and with our horses half-fed and overworked, we pushed on, our rear often attacked and sometimes broken, our mule-train and negroes thrown into frequent confusion, one of our brigades demoralized and put to flight, and the enemy still pressing our rear and reaching for our flanks. At last, towards night, it became evident that a stand must be made or all would be entirely lost, and at Ivy Farm, near Pontotoc, we found a broad, open hill-top, with large fields, high fences, and stout log-houses, which offered an opportunity. By this time the command was too widely separated, and some of it too much disorganized, for the concentration of even a whole brigade, but a part of Hepburn's and a part of my own were disentangled from the corral of fugitives and brought into line. Both of our generals were upon the field, and to our surprise both seemed brave and resolute; and this not with the resolution of despair, for the actual immediate necessity of fighting often steadies nerves which are easily shaken by the anticipation of danger. Brave they were, but not always of the same mind, and conflicting orders continued to add to our embarrassment and insecurity. It is not worth while to detail all the incidents of the opening of the short engagement; it was ended by the only legitimate cavalry charge made by the "Vierte Missouri" during the whole of its four years' history. We had withdrawn from the line where we had been fighting on foot, had mounted, formed, and drawn sabre; the road about one hundred yards in front of us was swarming with Rebels, who crept along the fence-lines and in the edge of the bordering woods, and kept up a steady rain of fire well over our heads, where we heard that _pfwit_--_pfwit_--_pfwit_ of flying bullets which, happily, has no relative in the whole chorus of sounds, and which is heard above all the din of battle, and is felt through every remotest nerve. At the command "Forward," excitement ran down the line, and there was a disposition for an immediate rush. But "Steady--right dress--trot!" in a measured tone, taken up in turn by the company officers, brought back all the effect of our three years' discipline of the drill-ground. Later, "Steady--gallop--right dress!" accelerated the speed without disturbing the alignment, and then, at last, "Charge!" and with a universal yelling and brandishing of sabres we went forward like the wind. I then felt how mad a venture we had undertaken, for before us was the enemy, it is true, but the enemy behind a high and stout, staked and ridered rail-fence. As we drew very near this, still under heavy fire, which now at the short range was telling, the command became conscious that the six-foot fence would withstand our shock, and it wavered. I turned to my bugler to sound the recall, when I saw him out of the corner of my eye, his white horse rearing literally to his full height and falling backward with a crash that must have killed the poor boy at once. The recall was not needed: the regiment had turned and was running. The officers, being the best mounted and generally the lightest weights, soon reached the front, and "Steady--right dress--trot! Steady--right dress--trot!" was repeated along the line, until the drill-ground precision was regained, and then "By fours--right about--wheel!" and we stood facing the enemy again, ready for another advance. Max had been struck by a grazing bullet and had been plunging heavily, but the wound was not serious and he was soon quieted. We now saw that our charge, futile though it seemed, had done its work. The advance of the enemy was checked; the sight of troops that could retire and re-form for a new attack seemed to have a stunning effect upon them. Practically the engagement was ended. Subsequently, one of Forrest's staff officers told the Hun that the size of the division which had charged was variously estimated at from five to ten thousand, but that he had been accustomed to such things and knew that we were not more than two thousand. In fact, we were less than six hundred. Forrest's report of the battle of Pontotoc states that the engagement was ended "by a cavalry charge of the enemy, which was repulsed." There was still some sharp scrimmaging, and we had to make two or three more squadron and company charges to drive away small attacks upon our retreating guns; but the battle, as a battle, was over, and Forrest's whole advance had been stopped and ended by six hundred Fourth Missouri Dutchmen, galloping, yelling, and swinging their sabres at several thousand men well secured behind a rail-fence. I had before, in drill-ground charges, seen old soldiers and experienced officers jump down and run away from a fence on which they were sitting to watch the advance of charging cavalry which they knew must wheel before coming within five rods of them; but I had never supposed that hot-blooded soldiers, in the full excitement of a successful attack, could be unnerved and turned by the roar and thundering oncoming of a regiment that could by no possibility reach them. Our first setting out had driven back a thin skirmish-line which had to cross the fence under high speed; this, doubtless, aided in the _débâcle_; the charge had stunned them, but it was the rally that stopped the pursuit. The rest of our march was without interesting incident all the way to Memphis, but it was almost incessant, day and night; without incident, that is, that it is worth while to tell here, but our days and nights upon the road were filled with annoyance and disgust, and with a store of unhappy and ludicrous memories that will last the lifetime of all who knew them. One day, at New Albany, Max and I were feeding and sleeping in the door of an old mill while the command was slowly crossing the antiquated bridge over the Tallahatchie, when I was awakened by Grierson's riding up in great alarm, calling upon me "for God's sake" to use the ford as well as the bridge, for Hepburn was being cut to pieces in the rear, and I must give him the full road for his retreat. I had always been a respectful subordinate, but none of us were then in the best temper; I did not believe a word of it, and I frankly told him so. Even old Max pricked up his ears and snorted as if in derision. Almost as we were talking, there came an aid from Hepburn saying that he had found a good supply of forage and would be glad to go into camp for the night. But there was no camp to be thought of for that tired crew; the bogey of incessant pursuit loomed up portentously close upon our rear-guard, and sent its shadow deep into the bowels of our commander, who was miles away in the advance, and who would allow us only the fewest possible hours in the very dead of night for hasty cooking and scant repose. We were a worn and weary lot as we finally went into camp at the rear of the town; worn and weary, sadly demoralized, and almost dismounted. I had lost fifteen hundred good horses, and my men, who had been eager and ready for a successful campaign, were broken in spirit and sadly weakened in discipline. All who had been compelled to bear the brunt of the hard work now needed for themselves and their horses absolute rest for days; but being called into the city the morning after our arrival, my eyes were greeted with the spectacle of General Sooy Smith, no longer ill, and with no trace of shame or annoyance on his face. He had shed his modest and prudent attire, and shone out with all the brass radiance of a full-fledged major-general. From this time until the Fourth Missouri cavalry was mustered out of service, our headquarters were in the immediate neighborhood of Memphis, and our life was much more active than it had been at Union City. Not very much is to be said for Max during this time, except in connection with the Sturgis expedition, beyond the fact that we lay long in the immediate vicinity of the race-course, which we repaired and used faithfully, and, so far as he was concerned, with eminent success. The more frequent necessity for duty, the great labor of remounting, reorganizing, and redrilling the command, united with the greater publicity of our position to lay some restraint on our mode of life, and to make our conduct more circumspect. Still we were not miserable, and the neighborhood of a large town has, to a well-regulated headquarters' mess, its compensations as well as its drawbacks. Sturgis's expedition to Guntown and back--especially back--has passed into history, and its unwritten memories will always remain with those who took part in it. Guntown is far away in Northeastern Mississippi. It is not laid down on the map of the country, but it lies just across the Tishamingo Creek, and it consists mainly of two plantation houses and a school-house. Our stay there was not long, and we were too much occupied to study the locality minutely, but it is my impression that the most important incident in its history was connected with our visit. We were a force of about nine thousand infantry, cavalry, and artillery,--some black and some white, some good and some bad,--sent out by Sherman as a tub to the Forrest whale; a diversion to keep this commander from joining Hood in Northern Georgia; though I doubt if even General Sherman in his moments of wildest enthusiasm anticipated just the issue that followed. Our march out was not rapid, and it was well ordered. We were allowed to take our train, and old John Ellard's four stupendous mules drew our headquarters' wagon, well laden with the comforts we had accumulated during a long service, including a brand-new, well-furnished, and abundantly stored camp-chest that had just arrived from St. Louis. So far as the comforts of a home for five youngsters can be stored in one mule-wagon, we were well supplied for a campaign of any length; and judging from the mess-tables to which we were invited, others of the command were no less well provided. In due time we reached the town of Ripley, a rather pretty New-England-looking village, but, like all Southern towns at that time, entirely devoid of men and overflowing with women of the most venomous and spiteful sort, who did all in their power to add to the interest of the Sunday evening we passed in their company. We had some light skirmishing on our arrival, but whoever it was that attacked us withdrew and left us in undisturbed possession of the comfortable rooms and fireplaces of the town. Our next day's march brought us to a large open plantation on a commanding hill, whence our evening scouting-parties soon found the enemy posted in some force and apparently disposed for an engagement. It seemed always Forrest's plan to select his own fighting-ground, and the plan of our commanders to gratify him. Sturgis committed the usual folly of trying to hold every inch he had gained, and of forming his line of battle on the head of the column and under fire. We breakfasted at three in the morning, and marched at half past four. My command had the advance. The enemy allowed himself to be easily driven until half past eight, when he made some show of resistance. At this time the last of our regiments could hardly have left the camping-ground, and probably a judicious retreat would have drawn Forrest's whole force back to the open country we had left. But "retreat" was not yet written on our banners (of that day), and orders came from our general to support the advance-guard, form line of battle, and hold our position. So far as the cavalry brigade was concerned this was easily done, and we got into good line near the edge of a wood without difficulty. Here, for four mortal hours, or until half past twelve, we carried on a tolerably equal warfare, both sides blazing away at each other with little effect across the six hundred yards of cleared valley that lay between two skirts of wood. So far as the endurance of our troops was concerned, this engagement could have been kept up until nightfall, though our ranks were slowly thinning. Several desperate charges were made on our position, and were repulsed with considerable loss to both sides. Pending the arrival of the infantry it would have been folly for us to attempt a further advance, but had we been properly supported, or, better, had we at once fallen back upon our support, we might have given, as the _post bellum_ reports of Forrest's officers show, a better ending to the day's work. It was only at half past twelve, when our ammunition was reduced to five rounds per man, and when our battery had fired its last shot, that the infantry began to arrive, and then they came a regiment at a time, or only so fast as the Forrest mill could grind them up in detail. They had taken our place, and we had withdrawn to their rear, where we were joined by one after another of the defeated or exhausted infantry regiments. Little by little the enemy pressed upon us, gaining rod after rod of our position, until finally our last arriving troops, a splendid colored regiment, reached the field of battle at double-quick, breathless and beaten by their own speed, barely in time to check the assault until we could cross the creek and move toward the rear. The retreat was but fairly begun when we came upon our train of two hundred wagons piled pell-mell in a small field and blocked in beyond the possibility of removal. With sad eyes we saw John Ellard cut his traces and leave all that was dear to us--tents, camp-chest, poker-table, and all that we cherished--to inevitable capture. The train was _our_ tub to the whale; and while Forrest's men were sacking our treasures, and refilling the caissons of all our batteries, which they had captured, we had time to form for the retreat, more or less orderly according as we had come early or late off the field. The demoralizing roar of our own guns, and the howling over our heads of our own shells, together with the sharp rattle of musketry in our rear, hastened and saddened the ignominious flight of the head of our column, though, for some reason, the enemy's advance upon us was slow. All that long night we marched on, without food and without rest. At early dawn we reached Ripley, where we paused for breath. Max had been ridden almost uninterruptedly for twenty-four hours, and for four hours had done the constant hard work that the supervision of a long line in active engagement had made necessary; and he was glad to be unsaddled and turned for fifteen minutes into a scantily grown paddock, where he rolled and nibbled and refreshed himself as much as ordinary horses do with a whole night's rest. The ambulances with our groaning wounded men came pouring into the village, and to our surprise, those women, who had so recently given only evidence of a horrified hatred, pressed round to offer every aid that lay in their power, and to comfort our suffering men as only kind-hearted women can. With the increasing daylight the pursuit was reopened with vigor, and on we went, and ever on, marching all that day, our rear-guard being constantly engaged, and hundreds of our men being captured, thousands more scattering into the woods. My lieutenant-colonel, Von Helmrich, who had been for twenty-eight years a cavalry officer in Germany, and who, after thirteen months in Libby Prison, had overtaken us as we were leaving Memphis, was recaptured and carried back to Richmond,--to die of a good dinner on his second release, ten months later. At nightfall, the pursuit growing weak, we halted to collect together our stragglers, but not to rest, and after a short half-hour pushed on again; and all that interminable night, and until half past ten the next morning, when we reached Colliersville and the railroad, reinforcements, and supplies, we marched, marched, marched, without rest, without sleep, and without food. The cavalrymen were mainly dismounted and driving their tired jades before them, only Max and a few others carrying their riders to the very end, and coming in with a whinny of content to the familiar stables and back-yards of the little town. Most other officers whose service had been as constant as mine had had extra horses to ride for relief; but I had never yet found march too long for Max's wiry sinews, and trusted to him alone. He had now been ridden almost absolutely without intermission, and much of the time at a gallop or a rapid trot, for fifty-four hours. I had had for my own support the excitement and then the anxious despair of responsible service, and Ike had filled his haversack with hard-bread from John Ellard's abandoned wagon; an occasional nibble at this, and unlimited pipes of tobacco, had fortified me in my endurance of the work; but Max had had in the whole time not the half of what he would have made light of for a single meal. I have known and have written about brilliant feats of other horses, but as I look over the whole range of all the best animals I have seen, I bow with respect to the wonderful courage, endurance, and fidelity of this superbly useful brute. There is an elasticity in youth and health, trained and hardened by years of active field-service, which asserts itself under the most depressing circumstances. Even this shameful and horrible defeat and flight had their ludicrous incidents, which we were permitted to appreciate. Thus, for instance, during a lull in the engagement at Guntown, I had seated myself in a rush-bottomed chair under the lee of a broad tree-trunk; a prudent pig, suspecting danger, had taken shelter between the legs of the chair, leaving, however, his rear unprotected. Random bullets have an odd way of finding weak places, and it was due to one of these that I was unseated, with an accompaniment of squeal, by the rapid and articulate flight of my companion. During our last night's march, my brigade having the advance, and I being at its rear, Grierson ordered me to prevent the pushing ahead of the stragglers of the other brigades, who were to be recognized, he reminded me, by their wearing hats (mine wore caps). The order was peremptory, and was to be enforced even at the cost of cutting the offenders down. Grierson's adjutant was at my side; we were all sleeping more or less of the time, but constantly some hatted straggler was detected pushing toward the front, and ordered back,--the adjutant being especially sharp-eyed in detecting the mutilated sugar-loaves through the gloom. Finally, close to my right and pushing slowly to the front, in a long-strided walk, came a gray horse with a hatted rider,--an india-rubber poncho covering his uniform. I ordered him back; the adjutant, eager for the enforcement of the order, remonstrated at the man's disobedience; I ordered again, but without result; the adjutant ejaculated, "Damn him, cut him down!" I drew my sabre and laid its flat in one long, stinging welt across that black poncho: "----! who are you hitting?" Then we both remembered that Grierson too wore a hat; and I tender him here my public acknowledgment of a good-nature so great that an evening reunion in Memphis over a dozen of wine won his generous silence. One might go on with interminable gossip over incidents of camp and field for which at this late day only scant interest is felt; but nothing that I could say more would probably aid my purpose, which has been simply by a trifling sketch to recall the jollity, the comfort, the suffering, and the misery of campaign life, and to show how in the field more than anywhere else one learns to cherish and to depend upon a faithful and honest and willing comrade like my royal old Max. HOW I GOT MY OVERCOAT. (CIRCUMSTANTIALLY TRUE.) The war was not quite over, but my regiment was old enough to have grown too small for a colonel, and I sat, the dismalest of all men, a "mustered-out" officer, sated with such good things as a suddenly arrested income had allowed me, over an after-dinner table in a little room at the Athenæum Club. My coffee was gone to its dregs; the closing day was shutting down gloomily in such a weary rain as only a New York back-yard ever knows; and I was wondering what was to become of a man whom four years of cavalry service had estranged from every good and useful thing in life. The only career that then seemed worth running was run out for me; and, worst of all, my pay had been finally stopped. The world was before me for a choice, but I had no choice. The only thing I could do was to command mounted troops, and commanders of mounted troops were not in demand. Ages ago I had known how to do other things, but the knowledge had gone from me, and was not to be recalled so long as I had enough money left with which to be unhappy in idle foreboding. I had not laid down my life in the war, but during its wonderful four years I had laid down, so completely, the ways of life of a sober and industrious citizen, and had soaked my whole nature so full of the subtile ether of idleness and vagabondism, that it seemed as easy and as natural to become the Aladdin I might have dreamed myself to be as the delver I had really been. With a heavy heart, then, and a full stomach, I sat in a half-disconsolate, half-reminiscent, not wholly unhappy mood, relapsing with post-prandial ease into that befogged intellectual condition in which even the drizzle against the window-panes can confuse itself with the patter on a tent roof; and the charm of the old wanderings came over me again, filling my table with the old comrades, even elevating my cigar to a brier-wood, and recalling such fellowship as only tent-life ever knows. Such dreaming is always interrupted, else it would never end; mine was disturbed by a small card on a small salver, held meekly across the table by the meekest of waiters. The card bore the name "Adolf zu Dohna-Schlodien," and a count's coronet,--a count's coronet and "zu" (a touch above "von")! I remembered to have seen a letter from my adjutant to the Prussian Consul in Philadelphia, asking him to obtain information about a handsome young musical "Graf zu" something, who was creating a sensation in St. Louis society, and the "zu" seemed to indicate this as the party in question; he had spoken of him as having defective front teeth, which seemed to be pointing to the "color and distinguishing marks," known in Herd Book pedigrees, and human passports,--a means of identification I resolved to make use of; for my experience with the German nobility in America had been rather wide than remunerative. The "Herr zu" had waited in the hall, and was standing under the full light of the lamp. He was very tall, very slight, and very young, apparently not more than twenty, modestly dressed, and quiet in his manner. He was not strikingly handsome, though very well looking. His hands were the most perfect I ever saw, and the ungloved one showed careful attention. There was no defect noticeable in his front teeth. He bowed slightly and handed me a letter. It was from Voisin, my former adjutant, but it was not exactly a letter of introduction. At least, it was less cordial than Voisin's letters of introduction were wont to be. Yet it was kind. Without commending the Count as a bosom friend, he still said he was much interested in him, had reason to believe in him, was sorry for him, had given him material aid, and was very desirous that he should pull through some pecuniary troubles, which he could do only by enlisting in the Regular Army, and receiving his bounty. From this he would give me money to release his baggage, which was valuable, from some inconveniences that were then attending it in St. Louis. Would I get him enlisted? He said he would enlist, and would prefer to be known under the name Adolph Danforth. The gentleman himself took early occasion to express this preference. I debated a little what to do. He was not introduced as a friend, only as a person in need of help; yet Voisin believed in him, and he had asked a service that he would not have asked for an unworthy man. I engaged him in conversation and got him to smile. It was a very frank smile, but it displayed a singular defect far up on the front teeth. This decided me. He was the same Graf zu whose position had been asked of the Prussian Consul, and I knew he had learned that the Graf zu Dohna-Schlodien, an officer in the Gardecorps Kürassier, was of the highest nobility and of a family of great wealth. There was evidently no technical reason why the poor fellow should not be received cordially and well treated. So we went back to the smoking-room, and with fresh coffee and cigars opened an acquaintance which resulted not altogether uneventfully. He was not obtrusive. His story was not forced upon me; but as I already had its thread, I was able to draw it from him in a natural way, and he told it very frankly, though halting a little at its more important turnings, as if wondering how its development would strike me. There was just enough of hesitancy over a harrowing tale to throw on myself the responsibility of learning it. He had been brought up by the tenderest of mothers at the castle of Schlodien (I think in Silesia), had early joined the Cuirassiers of the Body Guard, had fought a fatal duel in which he had been the aggressor, and had been condemned to the Fortress of Spandau. Only his mother's great influence (exercised without the knowledge of his stern and much older father, who was then on his distant estates) had secured for him an opportunity to escape. He had come directly to America, and had remained near Boston until he received intimation (again the result of his mother's influence with Baron Gerolt, the Prussian Minister at Washington) that his return under the Extradition Treaty was being urged at the solicitation of the family of his fallen antagonist. He had then taken refuge in a remote town in South Missouri, where he amused himself with shooting. His mother had written to him but once, and had not been able to send him money. He had at last returned to St. Louis, where he had contracted some small debts which Voisin and another kind friend had assumed. To reimburse them and to gain more perfect seclusion, he had resolved to enlist in the Regular Army. It was a sad conclusion of his career, but as an honorable man (and a pursued one) he had no choice but to accept it. It was the old story,--_noblesse oblige_. There was but one way out of a sad affair, and--like a very Graf zu--this stripling, who had been born and bred to a better fate, faced the penalty of his misfortune without flinching. I tried infinite suggestions, but nothing else offered the immediate money which alone could relieve him of debt and restore him his wardrobe and the portraits of his mother and sister, which with a few well-worn letters, were all he had to cheer him in his exile. We sat till far into the night and until my kindest sympathies were fully aroused by the utter and almost childlike simplicity and frankness with which the poor boy told of his sorrows. I had been taught by a very ample experience to look with much caution on German counts and barons,--an experience that, if it was worth what it had cost, I could not prize too highly; but here was an entirely new type, a combination of the gentlest breeding with an unsophistication that argued more of a mother's care than of garrison influences, and an utter absence of the devil-may-care manner that army life in Germany had hitherto seemed to give. With the improvidence of one who had never known the lack of money, he had lodged himself at the Everett House; and as I left him at its door, I resolved to lose no time in getting him enlisted and stopping an expense that would only add to his troubles. The next day I saw the official who had charge of the making up of the city's quota, and easily arranged for the examination of my candidate. Dohna begged me to secure his admission to a command whose officers would be able to appreciate his difficult position, and a weary time I had of it. At last it was all arranged; he had passed, with much shock to his sensibilities, the surgeon's examination, and had been enrolled in a company of Regular Infantry, whose captain (then serving on the general staff of the department) had acquired a sympathy for him not less than my own. His bounty (over seven hundred dollars) he put into my hands, and he went with me to Adams's Express office, where we sent more than half the sum to St. Louis,--the full amount of his indebtedness. One specified trunk was to be sent to the Everett House, and the rest of his luggage--which Voisin had described as valuable--to me. I received by an early mail the receipt of the St. Louis express-office for it, and found it most convenient to let it lie for the present, addressed to me personally, at the office in New York. It would be useless to Dohna in the army, and I was to take care of it for him. The captain of the company in which he was enlisted secured him a furlough for ten days, and, to show his gratitude, he invited us both to dine with him at the Everett. We sat down at seven, and we sat long. The best that either cellar or kitchen afforded was spread before us in wasteful profusion, and our host, temperate in his sipping, but eating with the appetite of youth, seemed only to regret the limit of our capacity. As we walked across the square, filled and with the kindest emotions, we planned means for so occupying the remaining days of the furlough as to allow but little opportunity for money-spending. His company was at Fort Trumbull, and after he joined he would be safe. The next day being Saturday, I took him to my father's house in the country, where his unfortunate story was already known, and where as much real interest was felt in him as the good people of Connecticut ever accord to a duellist. He had a friend living farther out on the New Haven road, and he took an early train to see her (this was a new feature), returning to me in the evening. I met him at the depot. He wore the superb uniform overcoat of the Gardecorps Kürassier, long, flowing, and rich, with a broad, scarlet-lined fur collar. It was caught across the throat with a scarlet snood, and hung loosely from the shoulders. It made his six feet two really becoming. At home he was easy but very quiet, saying little but saying it very well, and he won as much confidence as the stain on his moral character would allow. Like most of his class, he knew and cared absolutely nothing for what interests the New England mind, and he would early have palled on our taste but for his music. His performance was skilful; he played difficult music, and he played it very well, but without vanity or apparent consciousness. When not occupied in this way, and when not addressed, he neither spoke nor read, apparently he did not even think, but relapsed into a sad and somewhat vacant reticence. But for our knowledge of his misfortunes, he would have been uninteresting. On Sunday he gave me a new confidence. His friend up the road was an Everett House acquaintance, made when he first came from Boston. She was an angel! She knew his sad story, and she had given him her Puritan heart. In the trying days to come I was to be the link that should bind them in their correspondence. She must not know of his degraded position, and all letters were to pass under cover to me. Even _noblesse_ did not hide the tears that this prospect of long separation wrung from him, and he poured out his grief with most touching unrestraint. This was the one sorrow of his life that even his trained equanimity could not conquer. It made me still more respect his simple, honest nature and his unfeigned grief. I was doubly sorry that this last trial of separated love should be added to his cup of bitterness. In our long Sunday talk he told me of his home, and showed me the singularly beautiful photographs of his mother and sister, and--quite incidentally--one of himself in the full uniform of his regiment, bearing on its back the imprint of a Berlin photographer. He evinced a natural curiosity about the mode of our garrison life, and I prepared him as gently as I could for a decided change from his former customs. It was, of course, depressing to him, but he bore the prospect like a man, and gave it no importance as compared with his more essential downfall. He had seen enough of our troops to be especially uneasy at the prospect of an ill-fitting uniform. In the matter of linen he was well provided, but he was really unhappy over the thought of adapting his long and easy figure to a clothing-contractor's idea of proportion. So it was arranged that he should go to my tailor and be suitably clad, according to regulation of course, but also according to measure. He proposed, too, to leave his overcoat for some repairs and to be cared for while he should have no use for it. I gave the tailor assurances of prompt payment. One fine morning Dohna came to my room in his new rig and bade me a brave good-by. He was off for Fort Trumbull. I felt an almost parental sorrow over his going, and had much misgiving as to his ability to face his ill-bred soldier comrades. There came soon after a letter to say that he was well treated personally, only the rations were so horrible; pork and salt beef and beans and molasses. He could not eat such things, and he was growing faint for want of food. I had seen such dainty appetites cured too often to have any fear on this score, and only replied in general terms of encouragement, and asked for frequent letters. These came. There were no incidents of his life that were not described almost with wonder, for a noble officer of the Gardecorps of the king of Prussia knows really nothing of the ways of life of the men he is supposed to command. Often there were thick letters for the _fiancée_, and answers to these (also thick) had often to be forwarded. I felt the enthusiastic glow natural to one who carries alone the tender secrets of younger lovers, and was not altogether unhappy under the subjective romance of my mediation. Sometimes there were touching tales of trouble. Once he had been detailed to the "police" squad, and had to clean spittoons and do other menial work. This was a touch of reality that fairly opened his eyes to his abasement, and he wrote much more sadly than ever before, making me sad, too, to think how powerless I was to help him in any way. A few days later he sent a wail of real agony. While he had been out on drill, some scoundrel had broken into his satchel and had stolen all his papers,--his letters from his mother, her photograph, and those of his sister and his sweetheart, and all the bundle of affectionate epistles over which he had pored again and again in his desolation. The loss was absolutely heart-breaking and irreparable, and he had passed hours sitting on the rocks at the shore, pouring bitter tears into the Thames. This was a blow to me too. I knew that Dohna was of a simple mind, and utterly without resources within himself; but he was also of a simple heart, and one could only grieve over this last blow as over the sorrows of a helpless little child. However, I wrote all I could to encourage him, and was gratified, though a little surprised, to see how soon he became cheerful again, and how earnestly he seemed to have set about the work of becoming a really good soldier. After a time the captain of his company--still in New York and maintaining a lively interest in the poor fellow's case--procured an order for him to go to Annapolis to be examined for promotion. He was already a sergeant, and a pretty good one. He stopped in New York a few days on his way through for some refitting,--again at my tailor's. On his way back he stopped again to tell of his failure. I was delicate about questioning him too closely, but I learned enough to suppose that different ideas as to practical education are entertained by a board of army examiners and by a fond young mother in the remote castle of Schlodien; but I encouraged him to believe that a little more study would enable him to pass the second examination that had been promised him, and he rejoined his company. In the general mustering-out Voisin had been set free and had joined me in New York, and had, naturally, participated in all my interest in the quondam Count. He gradually, as an adjutant should, assumed the correspondence, which was voluminous, and by the time we were informed that Dohna was detailed for recruiting duty in the city, neither he nor I was glad to know it. Something more than a feeling of regretful sympathy is necessary to the enjoyment of frequent companionship, and we both felt that the fact of having credit with a tailor was a dangerous element in the possible future combinations. However, Dohna's arrival at our room followed close upon the announcement of the order. He was still simple in his way and of modest deportment, but he seemed to have accepted his new life almost too entirely, and he had come to look not very much out of place among his comrades. Their quarters were in a basement in Chambers Street, back of the City Hall, where we occasionally dropped in to see him. After a while he was always out when we called, and once when I stopped to give him a foreign letter, sent to my care, I was told that he had not been there for a week, but one of the men volunteered to find him. He came that night to the club for his letter, in civilian's dress, and appeared much as he did when I first saw him, except that he had two beautiful false teeth, in the place of the defective ones. I gave him his letter, a long one from Berlin, from his father. He showed Voisin the postscript, in which it was stated that a box containing a breech-loading shot-gun, a dozen shirts, and a draft for five hundred thalers would be forwarded by the Hamburg line to my care. On the strength of this he hoped it would not inconvenience us to advance him a couple of hundred dollars. It was thus far inconvenient that we were obliged to decline, which gave him no offence, and he invited us to dine with him the following day at the Everett House. At this point, in view of the extreme youth and inexperience of our friend, we took occasion to read him a short homily on the value of economy, and to urge him immediately to leave the Everett, return to his barracks in Chambers Street, and as he valued his future peace of mind to avoid running in debt; mildly hinting that, if found in the public streets without his uniform, he would be very likely to get himself into trouble. He begged that we would not expose him, and promised to return that very night. Then for some time we lost sight of him; his captain said that, so far as he knew, he was attentive to his duty with the recruiting squad, and he certainly kept out of our way. The box from Germany did not arrive. No more letters came, and we had no occasion to seek him out. It was evident that he was no longer unhappy, and so our interest in him, though still warm, remained inactive. * * * * * One night I was awakened, quite late, by Voisin, sitting on the side of my bed, big-eyed and excited, and with a wonderful story to tell. He had been, at the request of the counsel of the Prussian Consul, to the detectives' rooms at police headquarters. Here he had been questioned as to his knowledge of one Adolph Danforth, _alias_ Graf zu Dohna-Schlodien, _alias_ Fritz Stabenow, and had subsequently had an interview with that interesting youth in the lock-up. The glory had all departed. He had been there forty-eight hours, was unwashed, uncombed, stolid, comfortable, and quite at home. There was no remnant left of the simple and modest demeanor of the well-bred aristocrat. It was hard to see a trace of likeness to the Kürassier officer with whose photograph we were familiar. The obligations of _noblesse_ seemed to be entirely removed, and there was nothing left but plain, ignoble Fritz Stabenow. An examination of his pockets developed a singular folly. He had kept every scrap of paper on which a word had ever been written to him. Tailors' bills, love-letters, duns, photographs of half a dozen different girls, all were huddled together. He had a package of the Count Dohna cards and the plate from which they had been printed,--made in Boston; a letter of credit from a banking-house in Berlin to its New York correspondent had the copperplate card of the firm on the paper, but the paper was ruled as a German banker's paper never is, and the plate from which the card had been printed (also made in Boston) was in the envelope with it. A letter from plain father Stabenow enclosed photographs of still plainer mother and sister Stabenow, which were a sad contrast to the glory of the Countess Dohna's picture. The father's letter was full of kindly reproof and affectionate regret. "Ach! Fritz, ich hätte das von Dir nicht gedacht,"--"I never thought that of you"; but it was forgiving too, and promised the remittance, clothing, and gun I have spoken of before. The papers, for the loss of which such tears had been shed at Fort Trumbull, were all there in their well-worn companionship with a soiled paper-collar, and that badge of dawning civilization, a tooth-brush. Here were also two photographs, one of the statue of Frederick the Great in Berlin on the card of a St. Louis photographer, and another of himself in Prussian uniform, on the card of a Berlin photographer. The pictures had been "lifted" and changed to the different cards. A more careful neglect of track-covering was never known. The evidence of all his deceptions had been studiously preserved. Voisin had given him a dollar to buy some necessary articles, and had left him to his fate. The disillusion was complete, and I saw that I had been swindled by a false count even more completely than I ever had been by real barons,--which is much to say. Voisin had gathered from the Consul's lawyer that this Stabenow, a valet of the veritable Count Dohna, had been one of a party who had robbed him and committed other serious crimes, and he had fled to this country, with his master's uniform, a valuable wardrobe, and costly jewels. He had here undertaken to personify the Count, and had had on the whole not an unhappy time, especially since he came to New York in recruiting service. He had finally been arrested on the complaint of a lady, one of the many whom he had attempted to blackmail, by threatening exposure through letters they had written him in the kindest spirit. Fortunately this one had had the good sense to refer the matter to her husband, who brought the interesting career to a close. He had obtained several thousand dollars in this way from different persons, and had contracted considerable debts in all directions. The Everett House was an especial sufferer. I felt that my claim was secured by the luggage at the express-office, and I called for it the next day. The gentlemanly clerk of the establishment blandly showed me my name, neatly written in a strange Teutonic hand, to a receipt for the property. Just then I had information that a box addressed to my care was lying at the Hoboken office of the German steamers. Indiscreetly mentioning this fact to the Prussian Consul's lawyer, I was informed that it would be necessary to take the box in evidence, and I prudently refrained from making further efforts for its recovery. It was with a chastened spirit that I paid a considerable bill at my tailor's and ordered the overcoat sent to my address; and it was with only mitigated satisfaction that I heard of the sending in irons to his company in California of deserter Stabenow. If the Herr Lieutenant Graf zu Dohna-Schlodien of the Gardecorps Kürassier is still living, I beg to inform him that his overcoat--the only memento of a grave _Schwindelei_--is now a comfortable wrap to a Rhode Island farmer, who hopes that its rightful owner is as snugly clad in his winter rides about Versailles. TWO SCOUTS. In the desultory and sporadic warfare carried on in the Southwest, the scout--or "skeout," according to the dialect of the region--was a very important element of our organization, and it is amusing now to recall the variety of odd-fish of every description who applied for the remunerative employment that this branch of the service afforded. The interest of our life at Union City was not a little enhanced by two specimens of this genus with whom we had much to do,--Pat Dixon and "The Blind Preacher." One day the guard brought in a suspicious character from the picket-line. He was about twenty-five years old, long, lank, and dusky,--a sort of half-Indian, half-Irish looking fellow, with uncombed hair and an over-prominent quid of tobacco. He rode the usual "nag" of the country,--an animal with more blood than bone and more vice than beauty. He dismounted, passed his bridle over his arm, and "squatted,"--the usual posture of the country. "The Hun," the professional bully of all our culprits, took this creature in hand, and presently came in with a suggestion that I had better see him alone. He followed me cautiously to one side, leading his horse with him, and squatted again when we had halted at a safe distance from curious ears. "I'm Pat Dixon. I live down Troy way on the North Fork. Ye see, when this yer muss fust broke out I didn't go to take no sides in it. But Merryweather's men they come along a little 'fore sun-up, last month was a year, an' they taken the only nag we had left. I'd had him hid out all summer, but some derned skunk done found him out. I heern the cusses a trampin' roun' an' I was goin' to take a crack at 'em for 'good mornin',' but, you see, I knowed if I did they'd just burn the old woman out, an' she don't git along but porely, anyhow, so I didn't. They _con_scripted the old man the year afore, an' he hain't been heern on sence. So I come to the conclushin that I wa'n't agoin' to stan' no such treatmint as that--by King! an' I jest took to the bresh, an' I reckon I've pestered them 'uns right smart. I ain't agoin' afoot long as theys hosses in West Tannisy,--you bet! I was agoin' to jine you Yanks, but thinks sez I: 'Old Pat, you kin do a heap better in the bresh nor what you kin in no army,' and so I stuck to it. O, now, I'm squar'! Frank Moore can tell you all 'bout me; I ain't no gum-game, I ain't. If you want a skeout, I'm on hand, an' I don't want no pass, I kin git 'roun' in this kentry. "Which? _hoss?_ Well, 't ain't much of a nag, but theys more on 'em roun', an' if this 'un tuckers out I'll git somethin' to ride. I ain't goin' afoot.--no, mam!" This was very much the sort of talk "Mr." Forrest's emissaries used in seeking our services for his purposes; so, partly to secure ourselves on this point, and partly to give Dixon a good character should he go out from our camp in his professional capacity, he was sent for a few days to the guard-house, until Frank Moore should return from an expedition. I believe Frank knew most of the vagabonds of Obion County, and he at once certified that this was no other than Pat Dixon; that his story was true; and that, while his controlling motives were not perhaps such as one would most admire, his unconquerable hatred of Merryweather's men and all their confederates might be relied on with implicit confidence; so Pat was engaged as an employé of our Secret Service Department, and sent outside the lines with a conspicuous assurance, as he left his fellow-prisoners, that if found again within our reach he would be hanged forthwith for a spy. I was riding on the road he took, and he gave me a leering wink as he departed,--with instructions to watch the movements of all guerilla bands in our front, and to bring speedily any information he might obtain. During the remaining months of our stay he was almost ubiquitous. Every scouting-party that we sent out in any direction, though entirely without notice to him, was pretty sure to meet him with important information, just when information was most needed. This part of his work was done perfectly, but he seemed to regard his relation with us as a warrant for unending private iniquities. After his own code of morals he was a strictly virtuous man, but his code was of an extremely loose and pliable character. It is probably safe to say that he never murdered a Union man, and that, unless sorely tempted by the difference in value of the animals, he never forcibly exchanged horses with a Union widow; neither, I believe, did he commit any offence against a known Rebel when there was a probability of his being found out and caught; but the complaints that came to us of the manner in which he vented his private wrongs and carried on the feuds of his ancestors gave us frequent annoyance. Sometimes it seemed necessary to recall his commission and declare him an outlaw, but just then there would transpire some particularly brilliant achievement that showed him invaluable for our purposes. More than once, when our patrols reported the immediate presence of the enemy, Pat would turn up with the assurance that it was only so-and-so's "band," who had come into the neighborhood on a visiting or a marauding expedition, but with no intention of putting themselves in our way; and invariably we found his report to be correct. Indeed, so frequently did this happen that we became almost too confident in his assistance, and when an excitable picket shot at a donkey or a cow in the night-time, although the patrol of the guard went through the usual routine of investigation, we felt that there could be no serious attack or Dixon would have notified us. How he obtained his information we could not guess, and his own account of the matter was never satisfactory; but I believe that no considerable force of the enemy ever crossed the Memphis and Charleston Railroad (the whole State's width to the south of us) without our being speedily notified; and through this means we were several times enabled to telegraph to Columbus early information of contemplated raids,--information that was not always heeded, as the surprise of Paducah (on the Ohio River) several days after our warning sufficiently proved. One ambition of this worthy man had to remain unsatisfied. How little this was due to the fact that we at the headquarters were all perfectly mounted, modesty makes it improper to state here; but in our frequent meetings as we rode outside the lines, he rarely failed to tell of some particularly fine horse belonging to some particularly bad man and especially virulent Rebel, which it would really be a virtue to "confisticate." The worthy fellow was not satisfied with his own conspicuous appropriations; he would fain have mounted our regiments on the weedy screws which the Rebel impressments had left for the horsing of the crippled region of Western Tennessee. Possibly, too, he may have had some lurking fear that there was a suspicion of iniquity in his thefts, and longed for the reassurance of similar conduct on the part of true men like ourselves. It was, of course, not long after the commencement of this active campaign against the rights of ownership, that we began to receive assurances on every hand that unless we could do something to repress Pat Dixon's vagabondage an outraged people would take the law into their own hands, and avenge the wrongs he had inflicted. With a laudable desire to prevent unnecessary bloodshed, I told him one day of the state of feeling against him, urging him to be more circumspect and to conduct himself like a decent man, else he would be hanged the first time he was caught; intimating, too, that it would be improper for us to continue to employ him to such needless injury to an inoffensive people. His reply was characteristic. "Inoffensive, _which_? Mebbe you know these people an' mebbe you don't. I do! and a dern'der lot of unhung cutthroats an' hoss-thieves you can't find nowheres. As for hangin', you needn't give yourself no worryment 'bout that. They're safe enough to hang me if they ketch me, an' I guess I sha'n't hang no higher if I go right on my own gait. If you don't want to employ me you needn't; theys enough corn an' bacon in th' Obion bottom to keep me awhile yet, and money ain't no 'count down here; but, by King! if I kin git a chance to tell you anything that them 'uns don't want you to know, you bet your skin I'll do it, an' you kin trust me every time, for I ain't goin' to lie,--not to your side, not if I know it. Why, you talk to me about inikities. I don't want to do no man any hurt; but my old dad _he_ was _con_scripted, an' me an' my brother Jake had to take to the bresh to save ourselves, an' then Jake he was shot in cold blood right afore my eyes, an' I made up my mind then an' there that I wouldn't give no quarter to the whole State of West Tannisy till this war was over an' ther' was some stronger hand than mine to do jestis an' to furnish revenge. That's all I've got to say about it. You needn't give yourself no oneasiness 'bout my doin's, I'll answer for the hull on 'em; an' p'r'aps the last thing you'll hear of Pat Dixon will be that he's hangin' to a tree somewheres down Troy way. I know I'm booked for that if I'm ketched, and till I am ketched I'm goin' my own gait." We had become too much accustomed to this state of feeling among the scanty Union population of the Southwest to be so shocked by it as we ought to have been, and it was not without sympathy with Dixon's wrongs that I let him go, with an earnest caution that he should mend his ways, if only for his own sake. It remains only to say that he _did_ go his own gait, and that he went it with a desperation and an _élan_ that I have never known equalled; and that, months later, after our snug quarters at Union City had been turned over to a feeble band of home-guards, word came that they had been burned to the ground, and that Pat Dixon, betrayed at last into the hands of the enemy, had been hanged in the woods near Troy. We could find no fault with the retribution that had overtaken him; for, viewed with the eyes of his executioners, he had richly merited it: but we had learned to like him for his frank and generous qualities, and to make full allowance for the degree to which his rough, barbaric nature had been outraged and inflamed by the wrongs inflicted on his family. * * * * * A returning patrol one afternoon led to the parade-ground a sorry horse drawing an open wagon in which were a man and a woman. The woman had a cold-blooded, stolid look, and her eyes were filled with the overflowing hatred we so often inspired among her sex at the South. Her husband was dressed in black, and wore a rather scrupulously brushed but over-old silk hat. In his hand was a ponderous and bulging cotton umbrella. They had been taken "under suspicious circumstances" at a house a few miles outside the lines,--the suspicion attaching only to the fact that they were not members of the family and seemed to have no particular business in that region. When asked for an explanation, the woman said she had nothing to say but that her husband was a blind clergyman intending to fulfil an engagement to preach, and that she had driven him, as was her habit. He said nothing. It was a rule of our system to follow Hoyle's instructions, and "when in doubt to take the trick": this pair were remanded to the guard-house. As they turned away, the reverend gentleman said, in a feeble voice, that if he could see me alone later in the evening, when he had recovered from the shock of his capture, I might be willing to talk with him. In the evening the Hun repaired to the dismantled warehouse where the prisoners were lodged, to hold conversation with the new-comers. When he came to the clergyman he found him so low spoken that their talk fell almost to a whisper, but it was whispered that he was to be taken alone, and subsequent disclosures led to his being brought to headquarters. He there informed me that he was a minister of the Methodist church, Canadian by birth and education, but married to a lady of that region, and had been for some years engaged there in his capacity as a circuit preacher. He was quite blind, and found it impossible to make his rounds without being driven. His sympathies were with the North, and he was burning to make himself useful in the only way left him by his infirmity. His wife was of a suspecting disposition, and their peaceful consorting required that she should always accompany him; but, unfortunately, she was a violent secessionist, and he had been compelled, in the interest of the peaceful consorting above named, to acknowledge sympathy with her views, and to join her in her revilings of the Union army. All this made his position difficult, yet he believed that, if the opportunity were given him, he could hide his intention even from her, and could gather for us much useful information. He was a welcome visitor at the houses of the faithful, far and near, and warmed their hearts with frequent and feeling exhortation, as he gathered his little meetings at his nightly stopping-places. He was now about starting for the southern circuit, and had appointments to preach and to pray at every town between us and Bolivar. Evidently, if this man were honest in his intentions, he could be of great service, but I suggested the difficulty that having once started for an appointed round he could not return to bring us any information he might receive. To this he replied that his wife believed him to be in Forrest's service, and that he could at any time come as a spy into our lines. It seemed a very questionable case, but, after consultation with Voisin and the Hun, it was determined to give him a trial, to prevent his wife from seeing more than was necessary of our position, and to believe so much as we liked of the information he might give us. The conditions of the engagement were agreed upon, and after a severe public admonition, and threats especially appalling to his wife, he was sent outside the lines, with hints of the serious consequences that would follow his second capture. We were never quite sure that his wife was wrong in crediting him with complicity with Forrest; but the worst that could be said of him (and this was very likely true) was that he was pre-eminently a man of peace, and if he gave information to both sides, it was always information in compliance with the injunctions of his sacred calling. The Rebel forces several times crossed into Tennessee, and came toward us in numbers that indicated foul intentions, but, from the time our pious friend first visited us, they invariably withdrew without an engagement. Frequently small expeditions of our own forces went scouting to the southward, and were checked and turned back by the reports of this benevolent man. He may have kept us from the successful fulfilment of some bloody intentions, but we had occasion to know from other sources that he sometimes kept small detachments of our troops from falling in with overpowering numbers of the enemy. Be the theory what it may, from November until February there was no conflict of arms in all the counties we traversed, and neither side advanced to within deadly range of the other. The processes of this emissary were hidden and curious. He was employed in a much more regulated manner than Dixon, and we generally knew his whereabouts. Every interview had with him, either within our own camp or when we were abroad, had to be so skilfully managed that no suspicion, even in the eyes of his catlike wife, should attach to him. He never came into our lines except as an unwilling prisoner, and was never sent without them without dire admonition as to the consequences of his return. On one occasion Pat Dixon reported that a detachment of Forrest's command, about three hundred strong, had crossed the railroad and was moving north in the direction of our camp. At this time the preacher was near us, and I had an interview with him. He doubted the report, but would investigate. I told him we would start the next day, with five hundred men, in the direction of Trenton,--where he was to hold a prayer-meeting at the house of one of Forrest's captains. The meeting was held, and after it was over, the subject of the advance was talked over very freely by the officers present, he sitting in a rapt state of unconsciousness--his thoughts on higher things--at the chimney-corner. Pleading an early appointment at McKenzie's Station for the following day, he left as soon as the moon was up, and drove to the house of a friend in the village. His wife supposed that he was coming with a false report to lead us into a trap laid for us. We arrived at McKenzie's at one o'clock in the morning, after a detestably cold, hard ride, and took up our quarters in a half-finished and half-furnished house, where we struggled the whole night through in the endeavor to get heat out of a fire of wet dead-wood. Early in the morning the Hun started out, in his fiercest mood, with a small escort, seeking for information and hunting up suspicious characters. At breakfast-time he came upon a large family comfortably seated at table, with our preacher and his wife as guests. He was asked to "sit by." "Thank you; I have come for more serious business. Who is at the head of this house? I should like to see you alone, sir." The trembling, invalided paterfamilias was taken into an adjoining room, and put through the usual course of questions as to his age, place of birth, occupation, condition as to literacy, the number of negroes owned, the amount of land, what relatives in the Rebel army, to what extent a sympathizer with the Rebellion, when he had last seen any Rebel soldiers or scouts or guerillas or suspicious persons of any description, and so on, through the tortuous and aggravating list that only a lawyer could invent. Questions and answers were taken down in writing. The sterner questions were spoken in a voice audible to the terror-stricken family in the adjoining room. The man, of course, communicated nothing, and probably knew nothing, of the least consequence. He was sent to a third room and kept under guard. His case disposed of, his wife was examined in like manner, and then the other members of the family. Finally, the coast being clear, our emissary was sent for. He came into the room chuckling with delight over this skilful exercise of the art of deceit, in which he was himself such an adept, and laying his hand on the Hun's arm, said, "My dear fellow, I respect you. This has been the most brilliant dodge I ever knew,--capital,--capital!" And he then went on to recount all that he had heard the evening before. A large detachment of Forrest's command was advancing under Faulkner's leadership, and they doubtless had by this time a full report of our position, for he had met acquaintance on the road who had reported it to him. If we were able to engage a body of three thousand men without artillery, we might find them that night in Trenton,--he was confident that that was about their number. The family were now notified that they had been guilty of a great offence in harboring a known spy of the enemy; but they insisted that they knew him only as a devout and active minister, and had no suspicion, nor could they believe, that he had the least knowledge of or interest in either army. With due warning as to the consequences of a repetition of their crime, they were allowed to return to their breakfast, and their guest was brought under guard to headquarters. Being satisfied, after a close examination of the report, that it would be imprudent to remain so far from our camp, which could be best reached from Trenton by another road, we left a party of observation, and returned to Union City, directing our scout to go to the vicinity of Trenton and bring to our detachment any information he might obtain. Twelve hours after our arrival home, the detachment returned with the news that Faulkner, with a large force, had moved toward Mayfield, Kentucky, and the event proved that every item of the intelligence we had received had been substantially correct. In this manner we were enabled to learn pretty definitely the character of any movement of the enemy anywhere in Western Tennessee, and so far as we had opportunity to investigate the reports they generally proved to be essentially true. These two scouts were worth more as a source of information, than would have been two regiments of cavalry in active service. Sometimes our Methodist friend acted under definite orders, but more often only according to his own judgment of what was necessary. A few days before Christmas we received word that Forrest in person was in Jackson, with a large force, and we moved against him with nearly the whole body of our troops, under the command of old A. J. himself. We reached Jackson at night, after three days' hard marching, only to find that Forrest's army had left that morning, destroying the bridges over the swollen rivers and making organized pursuit impossible. We took up quarters for some days in the town, where we enjoyed the peculiarly lovely climate of the "sunny South" with the thermometer seven degrees below zero, six inches of snow on the ground, and a howling wind blowing. Our own mess was very snugly entertained at the house of a magnate, where we had an opportunity to study the fitness of even the best Southern architecture for an Arctic winter climate. On New Year's day, as we were sitting at a sumptuous dinner, and mitigating so far as we could the annoyance to our hosts of being invaded by a rollicking party of Northern officers, Voisin, who had been called out, returned to the table to tell me that a man and a woman would like to see me in my room. I was not prompt to respond, and asked who they were. He replied, "O, who can tell? I suppose somebody with a complaint that our men have 'taken some hams of meat' ["meat" being the Tennessee vulgate for hog flesh only], or something of that sort; the man seemed to have something the matter with his eyes." And he gave me a large and expressive wink. Ensconced, with such comfort as large and rattling windows permitted, before our blazing fire, sat our serene Methodist friend and his sullen wife. Taking me aside, he told me that he had passed the previous evening at a private house between Jackson and Bolivar in religious exercises, which were attended by Forrest and officers of his command. After the devotions there was much cheerful and unrestrained talk as to the plans and prospects of the future campaign, disclosing the fact that as there seemed no chance of doing efficient service in Tennessee, the whole body would move at once to Central Mississippi and operate in connection with the army in Georgia. This report, which we had no reason to disbelieve, decided A. J. to abandon a difficult and unpromising pursuit, and to return to Union City and Columbus. We found, on our return, a communication from the headquarters at Memphis to the effect that Forrest had crossed the railroad and gone far south into Mississippi. We had no further service of importance or interest in this region. "Jackson's Purchase" was thenceforward quite free from any considerable body of the enemy; and when our clergyman found, a few weeks later, that we were all ordered to the south, he came for a settlement of his accounts, saying that he had been able to deceive his wife only up to the time of our interview at Jackson, and as his life was no longer safe in the country, he must depart for the more secure region of his former home in Canada,--where let us hope that he has been allowed to answer the behests of his sacred vocation with a mind single to his pious duties, and that domestic suspicion no longer clouds his happy hearthstone. Happily, neither A. J. nor Forrest himself had further occasion for his peaceful intervention, the fortunate absence of which may have had to do with the notable encounter between these two generals at Tupelo. IN THE GLOAMING. The sun had gone, and above the dreamy blue of the far-lying woods, the early evening had hung the sky with mellow, summery, twilight loveliness. The casements of the old house at Whittington glowed ruddy and warm through their marvellous clustering ivy, and it was the idlest luxury to hang over the crumbling road-wall, peopling its suggestive chambers with the spirits of their long-gone tenants. It is a farm-house now, and there is no available record to tell the stranger the story of its more glorious days. No rigid history hampers the fancy, and the strolling lover of the by-ways and roadsides of our dear Mother England may let his imagination run with flowing rein, sweeping away the hayricks and marigold beds, and calling back the peacocks and bagwigs of the halcyon days. Perhaps for the last time in my life I was taking the breath of an English twilight,--sweetest to those whose childhood and youth have fed on the rhyme and tale the green old land has sent to her world-wide brood, and who come, in riper life, to find the fancies of early years warm and living on every side, in hedge and field, in cowslip and primrose, in nightingale and lark. The thick-coming impressions such musing brings are vague and dreamy, so that there seemed a shade of unreality in the quiet voice that bade me "Good evening," and added, "Yes, it is an engaging old house, and it has a story that you may be glad to hear." It was not from perversity that I turned the subject, but no tale of real life could have added interest to the fancies with which the old manse had clad itself in the slowly waning day. Wayside impressions lose their charm if too much considered, and, as my new companion was walking toward Lichfield, I was glad to turn away and join him,--ending a long day's tramp with the slow and quiet gait that his age compelled. There was the least shade of the uncanny in his bearing, and his speech was timorous and gentle. His threadbare and seedy look betokened a native unthrift, but there was an undercurrent of refinement in his mien and in his manner, and a trusting outlook from his large blue eyes that made him the fittest of companions for a summer evening's walk in a country filled with the mingled flavor of history and romance. He was a man of the intensest local training. To him "the County of the City of Lichfield" was of more consequence than all Staffordshire besides, and far more than all England and all that vague entity called the World. Even the County of the City of Lichfield was large for his concentrated attachment: he knew it as one must know a small town in which he has passed the whole of a long life; but his heart lay within the cathedral close, and the cathedral close lay deep within his heart,--deep and warm, with its history and its traditions, its romance and its reality, so interlaced that he had long since ceased to ask what was real and what unreal. All was unreal in the sense of being of more than worldly consequence in his estimation, and all real as a part of the training of his whole life. To him Lichfield Cathedral was no mere pile of sculptured stone, built round with the facts of recorded history; it was the fairy handiwork of times and scenes long past, its walls raised by the hand of pious enthusiasm, shattered and cemented by the strife and blood of the civil war, hallowed by the returning glory of the Restoration, blessed by the favor of royal presence, and now made admirable in his daily sight by the dignity and grace of those holy men its dean and chapter. As it was the cathedral I had come to see, and as I had come for no architect's measurements, for no student's lore, only to bathe in the charmed atmosphere of its storied past, I had fallen upon a guide after my own heart, and it was as pleasant as it was easy to lend full credence to all he so honestly believed and told. In early life he had had gentler training, but he had long been a Poor Brother of the Hospital of St. John the Baptist in Lichfield, and had, for many years, held, by seniority, the right of presenting a rose, on St. John's nativity day, to the heirs of William Juvenis (goldsmith), who, by grants made in consideration of this ceremony, had secured perennial prayers for the souls of his ancestors and a fragrant memory for his own. Hedged about by the traditionary customs and quaint observances of an ancient charitable foundation, deadened in a way, if you please, by the aristocratic pauperism of his condition, my gentle companion had grown to his present dreamy estate. As we reached Stow Pool, near the old parish church of St. Chad, he pointed out the spring of pure water where, twelve hundred years ago, this future Bishop of Lichfield--who during his hermit life supported himself on the milk of a doe--was wont to pray naked in the water, standing upon the stone still seen at the bottom of the well, and where St. Ovin heard the angels sing as his good soul passed away. Then, with the trusting look of a little child, the Poor Brother went on to tell of the virtues and good deeds of this holy life;--how even the King of the Mercians, struck with remorse for the crimes he had committed, visited the saint in person, yielded to his eloquent persuasion, became a convert to the true faith, and banished all idolatry from his realm; how he became the head of the church of Lichfield and laid its strong foundations of piety and faith; and how his virtues so outlived him that his very tomb swallowed the ill-humors of diseased minds resorting to its serene presence, that the dust from his grave healed all ills of man and beast, and that the shrine built in his honor after his canonization was so sought by numberless devotees that Lichfield itself began thereupon to increase and flourish. To our left, as he ceased, the evening's lingering glow gilded the silent pool, where lay the unrippled reflection of the three spires of the cathedral, hardly more unsubstantial than the fairy silhouette that stood clean-cut against the sky, and dividing with the reality the rapt admiration of the Poor Brother of St. John's. We stood by the water's edge, and he turned toward the phantom spires reversed within it, his talk wandering back to the days of the church's troubles,--when the cathedral close was a fortress, with strong walls and well-filled moat; when the beautiful west gate, which only our own age was vile enough to destroy, kept stout ward against the outer world, and protected the favored community who formed within the walls a county independent of Lichfield and of Staffordshire. Within the sacred pale no law had force save that of the Ecclesiastical Court, and then, as now, none could there be taken for debt or crime save on the warrant of the dean and chapter. He knew by heart the long list of bishops, and would gladly have held me to hear of the good deeds of Langton and Hackett. He was fairly launched in his favorite enthusiasm, and told warmly the more striking features of the church's history, but he told them rapidly lest I should reach the storied pile with less than a full appreciation of its traditional interest. From his nervous lips I learned how King Richard II. kept Christmas revels here with a splendor that lavished two hundred tuns of wine, and roasted two thousand oxen, whose bones are still found in Oxenbury field hard by; how Elizabeth passed three whole days in the close; and how the solidity of its fortification, the consummate grace and finish of its architecture, the richness of its sculpture, and the surpassing beauty and magnificence of the nine windows of its lady chapel marked it as the crowning glory of the Western Church, until the dark days of the Revolution lowered. Then its sore trials were recounted, and I learned of the fanatical attack of Lord Brooke, "with his horde of impious Roundheads," made by strange fatality on St. Chad's day; of the shooting of Lord Brooke by "Dumb Dyott," who was perched in the steeple with a fowling-piece that now hangs over the fireplace of Colonel Dyott's house; of the surrender of the close by Lord Chesterfield; of the sack and bout that followed; of the recapture by Prince Rupert. He told of the foul desecration by the Roundheads, who used every species of havoc, plunder, and profanation,--pulling down the sacred effigies which were the glory of the western front, hacking to pieces the curious carvings of the choir, mashing the noses of the monumental statues, destroying the valuable evidences and records of the church and the city, shattering the glass of the costly windows,--save only that of the marvellous nine of the lady chapel, which a pious care was said to have removed to a place of safety. They kept courts of guard in the cross aisles, broke up the pavements, and every day hunted a cat with hounds throughout the church, delighting in the echoes from the vaulted roof; they wrapped a calf in linen, and "in derision and scorn of the sacrament of baptism," sprinkled it at the font and gave it a name. How the King, after the defeat of Naseby, came from Ashby-de-la-Zouche, and passed the night in the close,--how Cromwell's defaming crew completed the work of demolition and desecration, and smashed the old bell called "Jesus," with its legend "I am the bell of Jesus, and Edward is our King; Sir Thomas Heywood first causéd me to ring,"--how, finally, the chapter-house alone had a roof under which service might be said,--how the good Hackett on the first day of his bishopric set his own servants and his own coach-horses at work removing the rubbish, and never tired until in eight years' time the magnificence of the cathedral was restored, except for the forever irreparable loss of the decorations, and especially of the lady chapel windows, which all the cost of the restoration would not have sufficed to renew,--how the church was reconsecrated with great pomp and solemnity,--all this he told me in detail, and he would gladly have told more, for this Poor Brother had made these few rich historic acres nearly his whole world, and had peopled it with all who throughout the long ages had marred it or had made it. To have given "two good trees" for the rebuilding of the church was a title to his lasting and grateful recognition. But the light was fast waning, and the cathedral must be seen now or perhaps never. It was already past the hour for closing, but one of the vergers had formerly been a Poor Brother of St. John's, and my companion went to him to secure our admission. I stood before the west front of the cathedral, which was then bathed in the lingering light of the after-day, its great central window gleaming as though the altar lamps were still burning behind it, and the western spires almost losing themselves in the sky. The quaint effigies that fill the niches across the whole façade lost their grotesqueness in the dusk, and seemed really the sacred sculptures they were meant to be. Fair though this rich front must be at high midday, it needs for its full beauty the half-light of a Northern evening. As seen on that rarest of all evenings, it was a fit introduction to the subdued glory which greeted us in the dim religious light to which we entered as the great central door closed behind us. We stood, uncovered and reverent, beneath the vaulted nave, looking down the long curved aisle, bordered by the majesty of the clustered columns, through the light illuminated screen of the choir, full upon the sculptured and gem-set alabaster reredos, above and beyond which stood the famed group of windows of the lady chapel, mellowed by the light of the streaming full moon. Rich in the blended mosaic of the floor, in the dimmed canopy overhead, in the lightly arched gallery of the triforium, in the mellow cross-lights of the side windows, in the sombre carvings of the choir, and above all in the marvellous glass of the chapel, it was the very perfection of a worshipful church. It was too nearly dark to examine the details of the decoration, and we wandered down the aisles, remarking here and there the bruised statues of the tombs, and halting before the sleeping children of Chantrey to marvel how much somnolent repose can be cut in chiselled stone. "But come," said the gentle Brother, "we have only light enough left for the storied glass which alone of all the richness of the old church outlived its desecration, and, as by a miracle, was preserved to tell these later generations of the higher art our forefathers' sons forgot." As he spoke, we stood within the charmed light of the nine windows of the apse,--windows which have perhaps no remaining equals in the world, and before which one can only bow in admiration and regret for an art that seems forever lost. Holding me fast by the arm, he went on:-- "In the restoration of the church, the spandrels of the old windows were rebuilt, and the frames were set with plain glass, to the sad defacement of the edifice; and so they stood for nigh two hundred years, no art being equal to their worthy replacement, and no ancient store to the supplying of so large a demand. "But listen, now, how the hand of Heaven sheltered its own, and how true servants of the Church are ever guided to reclaim its lost splendor. "A few years ago, a canon of the cathedral, travelling in Flanders, wishing to contribute to the renewed work of restoration, visited the dismantled convent of Herkenrode in the ancient bishopric of Liege. Here he sought among the rubbish of the lumber-room for wood-carvings which might be used in the rebuilding of the prebendal stalls. His search discovered many boxes of colored glass, the origin of which no one knew, and whose existence even had been forgotten. Thinking to embellish some of the curious triangular windows above the triforium, he purchased the whole store for two hundred pounds of our money, and presented it to the dean and chapter as a tribute of affectionate devotion to the cathedral. There was more than he had supposed, and the large figures of some of the fragments indicated a coherent design. "This chapel was fenced off from the aisles, and here the canon's wife and daughter, devoting themselves to the solution of the puzzle, slowly pieced out the varying connections. They worked patiently for weeks, with a steadily increasing excitement of success, until [and here his grasp grew tremulous and close], lying collated on this pavement where we stand, only a bit wanting here and there, marking the exact sizes of the varied openings, the grand old Lichfield windows, perfect as you see them now in this softened moonlight, had come back to enrich forevermore the dear old church to whose glory they had shone in the bygone centuries, and whose sore trials their absence had so long recalled. "Kind stranger," said he, "this is a true tale. Sceptics have questioned it, but it is true! true! And I thank Heaven that it has been permitted to me, who have grown old in the love of this sacred pile, to live to see, in this crowning act of its restoration, the higher help the hand of man has had in performing its holy work." His upturned blue eyes were moistened with tears, and his voice trembled with emotion. I led him gently away and to the doorstep of the Hospital of St. John the Baptist, where we parted in silence, and forever. Supping at the Swan Inn, I took the late train for Liverpool and home, bringing with me an ideal Lichfield, to which it would perhaps have been rash to hold the light of a Lichfield day. FOX-HUNTING IN ENGLAND. On entering the Regent Hotel at Leamington the first object that attracts attention, after the stuffy old porter who hobbles about to see some one else handle the luggage, is a small frame, over the smoking coal-fire, which contains the following notice, decorated with an old cut of a fox's mask:-- MERRY & CO.'S HUNTING APPOINTMENTS, AND GUIDE TO THE DIFFERENT COVERTS. December 30, 1872. WARWICKSHIRE,--at 10.45. _Days._ _Meet at_ _Miles._ _To go through_ M. Goldicote House. 11. Wellerbourne and Loxley. Tu. Radway Grange. 12. Tachbrook and Kineton. W. Snitterfield. 7. Warwick and Stratford Road. Th. Red Hill. 13. Warwick and Snitterfield. F. Pebworth. 16. Warwick and Stratford. NORTH WARWICKSHIRE,--at 11. M. Solihull. 14. Warwick and Hatton. Tu. Cubbington Gate. 2. Lillington. Th. Stoneleigh Abbey. 4. On Kenilworth Road. F. Tile Hill. 9. By Kenilworth Castle. PYTCHLEY,--at 10.45. M. Naseby. 26. Princethorpe and Rugby. Tu. Hazlebeach. 31. Dunchurch and Crick. W. Dingley. 33. Rugby and Swinford. F. Cransley. 36. Maidwell. S. Swinford. 19. Princethorpe and Rugby. ATHERSTONE,--at 11. M. Coombe. 12. Bubbenhall and Wolston. W. Harrow Inn Gate. 20. Coventry and Nuneaton. F. Brinklow Station. 12. Bubbenhall and Wolston. S. Corley. 14. Stoneleigh and Coventry. BICESTER,--at 10.45. M. Fenny Compton. 12. Radford and Ladbrook. Tu. Trafford Bridge. 19. Southam and Wormleighton. Th. Hellidon. 14. Southam and Priory Marston. S. Steeple Claydon. 40. Gaydon and Banbury. Twenty-two meets in the week, all within easy reach, by road or rail. Let us dine and decide. At table we will leave the _menu_ to the waiter; but let him bring for consideration during the meal the list of _meets_. "Brinklow Station, twelve miles"; that seems the most feasible thing in the catalogue for the morrow, and who has not heard that the Atherstone is a capital pack? But then the Pytchley is even better known, and the train reaches Rugby in time for the meet. Let the choice be decided with the help of coffee and cigars and possible advice, during the soothing digestive half-hour in the smoking-room. Dinner over, wander away through the tortuous, dim passage that leads to the sombre hall where alone in English inns the twin crimes of billiards and smoking are permitted, and, while writhing under the furtive glances of the staid and middle-aged East-Indian who evidently knows you for an American, and who is your only companion, decide, with your nation's ability to reach conclusions without premises, whether it shall be Pytchley or Atherstone. Don't ask your neighbor: he is an Englishman, and have we not been told that Englishmen are gruff, reticent men, who wear thick shells, and whose warm hearts can be reached only with the knife of a regular introduction? However, you must make up your mind what to do, and you need help which neither the waiter nor the porter can give; the "gentlemanly clerk" does not exist in England (thank Heaven!) and you have not yet learned what an invaluable mine of information "Boots" is,--faithful, useful, helpful, and serviceable to the last degree. I salute him with gratitude for all he has done to make life in English hotels almost easier and more home-like than in one's own house. It is safe to advise all travellers to make him an early ally, to depend on him, to use him, almost to abuse him, and, finally, on leaving, to "remember" him. Not yet having come to know the Boots, I determined to throw myself on the tender mercies of my stern, silent companion, and I very simply stated my case. My stern, silent companion was an exception to the rule, and he told me all I wanted to know (and more than I knew I needed to know) with a cordiality and frankness not always to be found among the genial smokers of our own hotels. His voice was in favor of the Atherstone as being the most acceptable thing for the next day. Ford, the veterinary surgeon of Leamington, had, on several occasions, done good service for friends who had gone before me over the hedges of North Warwickshire, and I went to him for advice about a mount. Here I found that I had made a mistake in not engaging horses in advance. To get a "hunter" for the next day would be impossible, but he would do what he could for a few days hence. All he could promise for the morning would be to lend me a horse of his own, a thoroughbred mare, not up to my weight, but tough and wiry, and good for any amount of road-work. He kindly volunteered to arrange for our going by the first train to Coventry, only a couple of miles from Brinklow (it turned out to be nine miles), so that we should arrive fresh on the ground. At seven o'clock in the morning he came to my room to say that everything was arranged, and that I should find the mare at the station in an hour. Swallowing a glass of milk as a stay-stomach,--my usual habit,--I put myself, for the first time since the war ended, into breeches and boots, and drove to the station. On a turn-out stood a "horse-box," one of the institutions of England,--a three-stabled freight-car for the transportation of horses. Paying five shillings for a horse-ticket to Coventry (only twice the cost of my own seat), I saw the mare snugly packed into one of the narrow stalls and made fast for the journey. Passing through a beautiful farming country, we came in due time to the quaint old town of Coventry, where several horse-boxes, coming from Birmingham and other stations, were discharging their freight of well-bred hunters. As we rode from this station another hard-shelled Englishman in brown top-boots and spotless white leather breeches accosted me pleasantly, reminding me that we had come from London together the day before, and asking, as he had recognized me for an American, if he could be of service to me. "Pray how did you know that I am from America?" "Only by your asking if you should change 'cars' at Rugby. An Englishman would have said 'carriages.'" "Very well; I am glad my ear-mark was no greater. Can you direct me to a hotel where I can get a bite before I go on?" "Certainly: you will find the Angel very comfortable; take the next street to the right, and you will soon reach it. Good morning; it is nine miles to the meet, and I will move on slowly. Command me if I can help you when you come up." I did find the Angel comfortable, (as what English inn is not?) and soon fortified myself with cold pheasant and sherry,--a compact and little-burdensome repast to ride upon,--served in a cosey old coffee-room by the neatest and most obliging of handmaidens. On the road I fell in with straggling groups of horsemen, in red coats and black coats, leather breeches and cords, white tops and black; all neat and jaunty, and all wearing the canonical stove-pipe hat. My little mare was brisk, and I had no hard riding to save her for, so I passed a dozen or more of the party, getting from each one some form or other of pleasant recognition, and finally from a handsome young fellow on a very spicy mount, "Excuse me, are you going to Brinklow? You must turn to the right." Confound these Englishmen, thought I, where is their traditional coldness and reserve? And I reined up for a chat. My companion came from the vicinity of Birmingham. Like so many of his class, he devotes three days a week to systematic hunting, and he was as enthusiastic as an American boy could have been in telling me all I wanted to know about the sport. To get hold of a grown man who had never seen a foxhound seemed an event for him, and my first instructions were very agreeably taken. Our road ran past the beautiful deer-stocked park of Coombe Abbey, where the green grass of a moist December and the thick clustering growth of all-embracing ivy carried the fresh hues of our summer over the wide lawn and to the very tops of the trees about the grand old house. The few villages on our way were neither interesting nor pleasant, but the thatched farm-houses and cottages, and the wonderful ivy, and the charming fields and hedges were all that could have been asked. And then the roadsides! and the stiles and the foot-paths, and the look of age and the richness of the well-kept farms; and again and everywhere the ivy clinging fast to each naked thing, and clothing it with luxuriant beauty! There is in all our hearts an inherited chord that thrills in the presence of this dear old home of our race. Not this spot and not these scenes, but the air, the tone, the spirit of it all,--these are as familiar to our instincts as water to the hen-brooded duckling. Brinklow Station has the modern hideousness and newness of railroad stations everywhere in country neighborhoods, and it was pleasant to leave it behind and follow the gay crowd down a sloping and winding road into the real country again, and into a handsome and well-kept park, beyond which there stood a fine old house of some pretension, and well set about with terraced lawn and shrubbery,--a charming English country-seat. Here my eyes were greeted with the glory of my first "meet," and a glory it was indeed! Pictures and descriptions had suggested it, but they had only suggested it. This was the reality, and it far exceeded my anticipation. The grounds were fairly alive with a brilliant company of men and women,--happy and hearty, and just gathered for the day's sport. Red coats, white breeches, and top-boots were plenty, and the neat holiday air of the whole company was refreshing and delightful. Scattered about singly and in groups, mounted, on foot, and in carriages, were a couple of hundred people of all ages and of all conditions. Chatting from the saddle and over carriage-doors, lounging up and down the Drive, or looking over the hounds, the company were leisurely awaiting the opening of the ball. They had come from a circuit of twenty miles around, and they appeared to be mainly people who habitually congregate at the cover-side throughout the hunting-season, and to be generally more or less acquainted with each other. The element of coquetry was not absent; but coquetry is apparently not a natural product of the English soil, and that sort of intercourse was not conspicuous. The same number of handsome young men and women would be more demonstrative at a similar gathering in America. A similar gathering, however, would not be possible in America. We have no occasion on which people of all sorts come so freely and so naturally together, interested in a traditional and national sport, which is alike open to rich and poor, and meeting, not for the single occasion only, but several times a week, winter after winter, often for many years. Noblemen, gentlemen, farmers, manufacturers, professional men, snobs, cads, errand-boys,--everybody, in short, who cared to come seemed to have the right to come, and, so far as the hunt was concerned, seemed to be on an equal footing. Of course the poorer element was comparatively small, and mainly from the immediate neighborhood. The _habitués_ of a hunt are seldom below the grade of well-to-do farmers. Servants from the house were distributing refreshments, riders were mounting their hunters, grooms were adjusting saddle-girths, too fiery animals were being quieted, and there was generally an air of preparation about the whole assemblage. A little at one side, kept well together by the huntsman and a couple of whippers-in, were the hounds (the Atherstone pack), about forty of them, or, technically, "twenty couples," strong-limbed, large-eared, party-colored, wholesome-looking fellows. They attracted much attention and elicited frequent commendation, for they were said to be the very finest pack in England,--as was also each of the three other packs that I saw. To the unskilled eye, and simply viewed as dogs, they were not remarkable; but it was a case in which the judgment of an unskilled person could have no value. The horses appealed to me much more strongly. Certainly I had never before seen together the same number of the same average excellence; and some of them were fit to drive one wild with envy. There was, on the whole, less of the "blood" look than would be expected by a man who had got his ideas of the hunting-field from Leech's drawings, but there was a good deal of it, nevertheless, and in its perfection too; and where it was wanting there was plenty of bone to make up for it. At eleven the hounds were led out to the cover, and the whole field followed slowly and irregularly and at some distance. There were about one hundred and fifty mounted for the hunt. Perhaps one third of these wore scarlet coats, white breeches, and top-boots; another third had black coats and some of them black boots; and the remainder of the field was made up of half a dozen ladies, a few stout old gentlemen of seventy or so on stout old cobs of discreet age, little boys on smart ponies, farmers and tradesmen and their clerks mounted on whatever they could get, and men of every intermediate grade, and with all sorts of horses. A certain amount of riff-raff, not mounted at all, but good on their pins and ready for a run, were hanging about for a chance to pick up a whip or a hat, or to catch a horse, or brush a muddy coat, or turn an honest shilling in any way that might offer in the chances of the day. Some of these fellows, rigged out with the cast-off clothing of their betters, sported red coats, black velvet caps, and leather leggings. One added to all this gorgeousness the refinement of bare feet. The hounds were taken into the cover, a brambly, tangled wood near by, which had probably been planted and made a little wilderness to serve as a cover for foxes. They soon found a fox, drove him to the open, and followed him out of the wood with a whimpering sort of cry which was disappointing after the notion that the "full cry" of the books had given, and which is heard in the very different fox-hunting of our Southern woods. The run lay up a steepish hill, several fields wide and across an open country. One bold rider (not a light one), mounted on a staving black horse, went to the right of the cover, and made a splendid leap up hill, over a stiff-looking hedge, and landed at the tail of the pack. The "master" and his assistants had got away with the hounds. The rest of the field went to the left, waiting their turns, through a farm-gate. Once through, some twenty of them dashed up the hill, cleared a clever hedge, and kept the pack in sight. The rest took an easier place, where a farm laborer had pulled away the stakes by which a gap had been filled. Here there was much very light jumping, and much more of waiting until predecessors had made it lighter. In the mean time other gaps were found, and it was not many minutes before all were through; but during these minutes the fox, the hounds, and the harder riding men were putting a wide space between themselves and us, who were at the tail of the field. Yet there were some in the party who did not look like laggards, and whose horses were good enough for any work such a country could give them. Even when across the gap, these men went with the rest of us, by gates and lanes, toward a point to which it was thought by the knowing ones that the fox would double,--and the knowing ones were right. Gradually, as their judgment indicated, they left the roads and took to the fields. This course was taken by three well-mounted young ladies. I followed the gate-openers for about half an hour, when, coming out on a high-road, I concluded that, with seventeen miles to ride home, it was only just to my little mare to give the thing up and head for Leamington. The hounds were far away on my right and quite out of sight. Having come to look on and learn, I had probably seen and heard all that day had in store for me,--surely enough for one's first day at fox-hunting. When I had ridden for a few minutes I saw, far across the fields, that the hounds had turned to the left and were making for my road. Pressing forward, I came up in time to see them cross to the front, and go scurrying away over the grass, nosing out the scent as they ran. There had been a check, and "the field" was well up. The road was lower than the fields, and was bordered by a ditch at each side. From this the ground rose a little, and on each bank stood a three-and-a-half-foot thorn hedge. Neither leap was difficult, but the one out of the road was not easy. Here I sat and saw fully a hundred horsemen, dressed in the gay colors of the hunting-field and mounted as men rarely are mounted out of England, all, horses as well as men, eager and excited in the chase, flying over hedge and ditch into the carriage-way and over ditch and hedge into the higher field, beyond and away, headlong after the hounds, every man for himself, and every man for the front, and on they went over another hedge, and out of sight. In the thick of the flight were two ladies, riding as well and as boldly as the men, and two men were brushing their hats in the road, their empty saddles keeping well up with the run. More than satisfied with this climax of my first day's experience, I trotted out for home. The result of the run I never heard, and I leave its description where I lost sight of it. A mile farther on I did see a fagged-looking fox making his rapid way across my road again, and sneaking off under the hedge toward a thicket, and I halted to listen to what sounded like the horn of a huntsman at check over the hill to the left; but possibly the conclusion I drew was not a correct one. I wish that words could give an idea of the life and action of the headlong flight I had just seen; but the inadequacy of all I had read to convey it to me makes it seem useless to try. Photography and description may, in a measure, supply the place of travel; but he who would realize the most thrilling intensity of eager horsemanship must stand in a hedge-bound English lane, and see with his own eyes, and for the first time in his life, a hundred gayly dressed and splendidly mounted fox-hunters flashing at full speed across his path; and it is worth the while to see. Rain never fell on a more lovely country than that part of Warwickshire through which my wet way lay. For ten miles of the seventeen it rained, gently as it rains with us in April; nor is our grass more green in April than this was in Christmas week. The all-prevailing ivy was filled with berries, and the laurustinus was already in bloom. No born Englishman could have cared less for the soaking rain; and, wet to the skin, tired to the bone, and stiff to the marrow, I have rarely been more exuberant than when I gradually regained the use of my legs in the half-mile walk to the hotel, resolving that not even the glories of American citizenship should ever keep me away from England in winter were I only able to afford the luxury of regular hunting. But the exuberance was moral rather than physical. I had not been so tired for years,--stiff as an old horse, after over thirty miles of really hard riding (the last seventeen miles in two hours). The cure was a hot bath and a dish of hot soup, followed by a log-like sleep of two hours on a sofa before a blazing hot fire, a sharp half-hour's walk, a very plain dinner, and a couple of hours' chat with my interested East-Indiaman in the smoking-room: the cure was complete; and all that was left of the day's sport was its brilliant recollection. * * * * * My second day was near Stratford-on-Avon,--on _Ay_-von, the misguided English call it. The meet was to be at Goldicote House, one of the "fixtures" of the Warwickshire Hunt. There were about a hundred persons, including a few ladies, and one little bareheaded "blue-coat" school-boy (from Charles Lamb's school), who, with his folded umbrella, long skirt, low shoes, and yellow hose, was in for as much sport as his Christmas holiday could give him. As a farther penalty for want of forethought, I was reduced to riding a friend's coach-horse. However, the reduction was not great, for whether by early instruction or by inheritance, he was more than half a hunter, and gave me a capital look at the whole day's chase; while his owner, on a most charming black blood mare, being out of condition for hard riding, kindly applied himself to urging me to severer work than one likes to do with a borrowed horse. He introduced me to a venerable old gentleman in a time-and-weather-stained red coat, velvet cap, and well-used nether gear, mounted on a knowing-looking old gray, and attended by his granddaughter. He could not have been less than eighty years old, and his days of hard riding were over; but constant hunting exercise every winter for over sixty years had protected him wonderfully well against the ravages of time, and it is rare to see an American of sixty so hale and hearty, and so cheerful and jolly. I was told that if I would take him for my leader, I would see more of the run than I could in any other way with such a mount as I had. He seemed to know the habits of the foxes of South Warwickshire as thoroughly as he did every foot-path and gate of the country, and he led us by cross-cuts to the various points to which Reynard circled, so that we often had the whole field in sight. It was not an especially interesting day, and the fox got away at last, among a tangle of railway lines that blocked our passage. My old mentor, who had given me much valuable instruction in the details of hunting, was vastly disgusted at the result, and broke out with, "Ah! it's all up with old England, I doubt; these confounded railways have killed sport. There's no hunting to be had any longer, for their infernal cutting up the country in this way. I've hunted with these hounds under fifteen different masters, but I've about done, and I sha'n't lose much,--it's all up. However, I suppose we could never pay the interest on the national debt without the railways; but it's all up with hunting." At that, he called away the young lady, bade me a melancholy "good-by," and rode half sadly home. I galloped back to Stratford with my handsome old host,--a little more knowing in the ways of the field, but without yet having had a fair taste of the sport. * * * * * Seven miles from Peterborough, in the dismal little village of Wansford, near the borders of Northamptonshire and Huntingdonshire, is, perhaps, the only remaining old posting-inn in England that is kept up in the unchanged style of the ante-railroad days. The post-horses are gone, but the posting-stables are filled with hunters; the travelling public have fled to the swifter lines, and Wansford is forever deserted of them; but the old Haycock keeps up its old cheer, and Tom Percival, who boasts that he has had the Princess Victoria for a guest, and has slept five dukes in one night, has little occasion to complain of neglect. The good wine that needs no bush still makes his cellar known, and no one should criticise English cooking until he has dined once at the Haycock. Nowhere is the inn-maid of whom we have read so much to be found in such simple, tidy, and courtesying perfection; and nowhere, in short, can one find so completely the solid comfort of hostelry life. Half old farm-house and half wayside-inn; with a marvellous larder, through whose glass-closed side the guest sees visions of joints and jams and pastry in lavish profusion; backed by a stable-yard where boys are always exercising good horses; and flanked by a yardful of quaint clipped yews,--the old house at Wansford (in spite of its dull-looking road front) is worth a visit from those who would get out of the sight and sound of steam, and see the old, old country life of England. The visitor is not numbered and billeted and pigeon-holed, as in the modern hotel; but the old fiction of host and guest is well kept up. Your coming should be announced in advance; and you are received as in some sort a member of the family, whose ways are made to conform more or less to the wishes of yourself and your convives, mainly young swells from London, who are few, and who are there, as you are, not for business, but for rest, good living, and regular sport. Three packs of hounds are within reach; and on the days when none of the meets is near, there is always the "larking"--the training of young horses--to supply a good substitute, so far as the riding goes. One who cares for hunting pure and simple, rather than for the gayer life of Leamington and Cheltenham, cannot do better than to make the season, or a part of it, at the Haycock, with regularly engaged horses for as many days in the week as he may choose to ride. It costs,--but it pays. One is none the less welcome among the guests for being an American. I there had a day with the George Fitz William hounds. Not being, as yet, quite at home in the field, I took a wise old horse, "Cock Robin," who was well up to my weight, and who, as Percival told me, would teach me more than I could teach him. He was sent on early with the other hunters, and I took a "hack" to ride to cover. We were a party of four, and we went through the fields and the lawns and the rain, to where the meet was fixed for eleven o'clock, at Barnwell Castle, a fine old Norman ruin,--square and low, with four large corner towers draped in magnificent ivy. It was a dreary morning, and not more than sixty were out; but among these, as always, there were ladies, and there was more than the usual proportion of fine horses. One cover was drawn blank, and we moved to another, where a fox was found, and whence the run was sharp and too straight for a prudent novice to see very much of it; and it was some minutes before Cock Robin and his rider came up with the hounds, who had come to a check in a large wood. Throughout the day there was a good deal of waiting about different covers, between which the fox ran back and forth. Finally he broke away for a long, quick burst over the fields, which lay to the left of a farm-road down which we were riding, and which was flanked by a high and solid-looking hedge. Near the head of the party was a well-mounted blonde of seventeen, who had hitherto seemed to avoid the open country and to keep prudently near to her mother and her groom. The sight of the splendid run, fast leaving us behind, was too much for her, and she turned straight for the hedge, clearing it with a grander leap than I had seen taken that day, and flying on over hedges and ditches in the direct wake of the hounds. A young German who followed her said, as we rode back to the Haycock, "It is vort to come from America or from Owstria to see zat lofely Lady ---- go over ze cowntry"; and it was. Luck often favors the timid; Cock Robin and I were quite alone--he disgusted, and I half ashamed with my prudence--when the fox, who had found straight running of no avail, came swerving to the right over the crest of a distant hill, closely followed by the hounds, and, in splendid style, by the first flight of the field. Soon he crossed a brook which was fenced in with rails, and the horsemen all had to make a long détour, so that I, who had been last, now became first. I had the fox and the hounds all to myself; my horse was fresh, and the way was easy. My monopoly lasted only a moment, but it was not a moment of tranquillity. Finding an open gate and bridge, I followed the pack into a large low field, surrounded on three sides by the wide brook. The fox was turned by this and ran to the right along the bank; at the corner of the field he turned again to the right, still keeping by the edge of the stream; this gave the hounds an immense advantage, and cutting off the angle, they came so closely upon him that with still another turn of the brook ahead of him, he had but one chance for his life, and that was a desperate one for a tired fox to consider. He did not consider, but went slap at the brook, and cleared it with a leap of nearly twenty feet. The foremost hounds whimpered for a moment on the bank before they took to the water, and when they were across Reynard was well out of sight, and they had to nose out his trail afresh. He brought them again to a check, and finally, after half an hour's skirmishing, he ran down a railway cutting in the wake of a train, and got away. Incidentally, here was an opportunity for an English gentleman to show more good temper and breeding than it is one's daily lot to see. He was one of a bridgeful of horsemen watching the hounds as they vainly tried to unravel the fox's scent from the bituminous trail of the locomotive, when, full of eager curiosity, one of the ladies, middle-aged and not "native and to the manner born," but not an American, rode directly on to his horse's heels. To the confusion of my lady, the horse, like a sensible horse as he was, resented the attack with both his feet. His rider got him at once out of the way, and then returned, bowing his venerable head in regretful apology, and trusting that no serious harm had been done. "How can you ride such a kicking brute!" was the gracious acknowledgment of his forbearance. In this storied little island one is never for long out of the presence of places on the traditions of which our life-long fancies have been fed. Our road home lay past the indistinct mass of rubbish, clustered round with ivy and with the saddest associations, which was once Fotheringay Castle; and as we turned into the village my companions pointed out the still serviceable but long-unused "stocks" where the minor malefactors of the olden time expiated their offences. We reached the Haycock at three, a moist but far from unpleasant body of tired and dirty men, having ridden, since nine in the morning, over fifty-five miles, mostly in the rain, and often in a shower of mud splashed by galloping hoofs. By six o'clock we were in good trim for dinner, and after dinner for a long, cosey talk over the events of the day, and horses and fox-hunting in general. My own interest in the sport is confined mainly to its equestrian side, and I am not able to give much information as to its details. Any stranger must be impressed with the firm hold it has on the affections of the people, and with the little public sympathy that is shown for the rare attempts that are made to restrict its rights. It would seem natural that the farmers should be its bitter opponents. It can hardly be a cheerful sight, in March, for a thrifty man to see a crowd of mad horsemen tearing through his twenty acres of well-wintered wheat, filling the air with a spray of soil and uprooted plants. But let a non-riding reformer get up after the annual dinner of the local Agricultural Association and suggest that the rights of tenant-farmers have long enough lain at the mercy of their landlord and his fox-hunting friends, with the rabble of idle sports and ruthless ne'er-do-weels who follow at their heels, and that it is time for them to assert themselves and try to secure the prohibition of a costly pastime, which leads to no good practical result, and the burdens of which fall so heavily on the producing classes,--and then see how his brother farmers will second his efforts. The very man whose wheat was apparently ruined will tell him that in March one would have said the whole crop was destroyed, but that the stirring up seemed to do it good, for he had never before seen such an even stand on that field. Another will argue that while hunting does give him some extra work in the repair of hedges and gates, and while he sometimes has his fields torn up more than he likes, yet the hounds are the best neighbors he has; they bring a good market for hay and oats, and, for his part, he likes to get a day with them himself now and then. Another raises a young horse when he can, and if he turns out a clever fencer, he gets a much larger price for him than he could if there were no hunting in the country. Another has now and then lost poultry by the depredations of foxes, but he never knew the master to refuse a fair claim for damages; for his part, he would scorn to ask compensation; he likes to see the noble sport, which is the glory of England, flourishing, in spite of modern improvements. At this point, and at this stage of the convivial cheer, they bring in the charge at Balaklava, and other evidences that the noble sport, which is the glory of old England, breeds a race of men whose invincible daring always has won and always shall win her honor in the field;--and Long live the Queen, and Here's a health to the Handley Cross Hunt, and Confusion to the mean and niggardly spirit that is filling the country with wire fences and that would do away with the noble sport which is the glory of old England! Hear! hear!! And so it ends, and half the company, in velvet caps, scarlet coats, leathers and top-boots, will be early on the ground at the first meet of the next autumn, glad to see their old cover-side friends once more, and hoping for a jolly winter of such healthful amusements and pleasant intercourse as shall put into their heads and their hearts and into their hearty frames and ruddy faces a tenfold compensation for the trifling loss they may sustain in the way of broken gates and trampled fields. I saw too little to be able to form a fair opinion as to the harm done; but when once the run commences no more account is made of wheat, which is carefully avoided when going at a slow pace, than if it were so much sawdust; fences are torn down, and there is no time to replace them; if gates are locked, they are taken off the hinges or broken; if sheep join the crowd in an enclosure and follow them into the road, no one stops to see that they are returned: we are after the hounds, and sheep must take care of themselves. I saw one farmer, in an excited manner, open the gates of his kitchen-garden and turn the hounds and twenty horsemen through it as the shortest way to where he had seen the fox go; his womenfolk eagerly calling "Tally-ho!" to others who were going wrong. I have never seen a railroad train stopped because of the conductor's interest in a passing hunt, but I fancy that is the only thing in England that does not stop when the all-absorbing interest is once awakened. Whatever may be the effect on material interests, the benefit of this eager, vigorous, outdoor life on the health and morals of the people is most unmistakable. Such a race of handsome, hale, straight-limbed, honest, and simple-hearted men can nowhere else be found as in the wide class that passes as much of every winter as is possible in regular fox-hunting; and to make an application of their example, we could well afford to give over many of our fertile fields to ruthless destruction, and many of our fertile hours to the most senseless sport, if it would only replace our dyspeptic stomachs, sallow cheeks, stooping shoulders, and restless eagerness with the hale and hearty and easy-going life and energy of our English cousins. Hardly enough women hunt in England to constitute an example; but those who do are such models of health and freshness as to make one wish that more women had the benefit of such amusement both there and here. It is very common to see men of over sixty following the hounds in the very _élite_ of the field; they seem still in the vigor of youth. At seventy many are yet regular at their work; and it is hardly remarkable when one finally hangs up his red coat only at the age of eighty. Considering all this, it almost becomes a question whether, patriotism to the contrary notwithstanding, it would not be a good thing for a prosperous American, instead of settling down at the age of forty-five to a special partnership and a painful digestion, to take a smaller income where it would bring more comfort, and by a judicious application of the pig-skin to rehabilitate his enfeebled alimentation. Fox-hunting is a costly luxury if one goes well mounted and well appointed. It can hardly be made cheap, even when one lives in his own house and rides his own horses. With hotel bills and horse-hire, it costs still more. As an occasional indulgence it is always a good investment. My own score at the Haycock was as follows,--by way of illustration, and because actual figures are worth more than estimates. (I was there from Thursday afternoon until Sunday morning, went out with a shooting-party on Friday, dined out on Friday night, and hunted on Saturday.) THE HAYCOCK INN. £ _s._ _d._ Jan. 2. Dinner and wine, 10 6 Bed and fire, 3 6 " 3. Breakfast, 2 6 Apartments,[A] bed and fire, 5 0 Attendance,[B] 1 6 Jan. 4. Breakfast, 2 6 Dinner and wine, 10 6 Apartments, bed and fire, 5 6 Attendance, 1 6 " 5. Breakfast, 2 6 STABLE. Conveying luggage from station, 2 6 Dog-cart to Sharks Lodge, 10 6 " " " Oundle, 12 6 " " " Peterborough, 8 0 THOMAS PERCIVAL. Jan. 4. Hire of hunter to Barnwell, 4 4 0 " hack " " 10 6 [A] The run of the house. [B] We are apt to consider this a petty swindle, but it has the advantage that you get what you pay for. Eight pounds, twelve shillings, and sixpence; which being interpreted means $47.30 in the lawful currency of the United States. The hunter and hack for one day cost $23.52. An American friend living with his family in Leamington (much more cheaply than he could live at home), kept two hunters and a hack, and hunted them twice a week for the whole season (nearly six months) at a cost, including the loss on his horses, which he sold in the spring, of less than $1,500. I think this is below the average expense. The cost of keeping up a pack of hounds is very heavy. The hounds themselves, a well-paid huntsman, two or three whippers-in, two horses a day for each of these attendants (hunting four days a week, this would probably require four horses for each man), and no end of incidental expenses, bring the cost to fully $20,000 per annum. This is sometimes paid wholly or in part by subscription and sometimes entirely by the Master of the Hounds. One item of my friend's expenses at Leamington was a subscription of ten guineas each to the Warwickshire, North Warwickshire, Atherstone, and Pytchley hunts. Something of this sort would be necessary if one hunted for any considerable time with any subscription pack, but an occasional visitor is not expected to contribute. A stranger participating in the sport need only be guided by common modesty and common-sense. However good a horseman he may be, he cannot make a sensation among the old stagers of the hunting-field. Probably he will get no commendation of any sort. If he does, it will be for keeping out of the way of others,--taking always the easiest and safest road that will bring him well up with the hounds, not flinching when a desperate leap must be taken, and following (at a respectful distance) a good leader, rather than trying to take the lead himself. However promising the prospect may be, he had better not do anything on his own hook; if he makes a conspicuous mistake, he will probably be corrected for it in plainer English than it is pleasant to hear. * * * * * One of the memorable days of my life was the day before New-Year's. Ford had secured me a capital hunter, a well-clipped gelding, over sixteen hands high, glossy, lean, and wiry as a racer. "You've got a rare mount to-day, sir," said the groom as he held him for me to get up; and a rare dismount I came near having in the little measure of capacity with which Master Dick and I commenced our acquaintance, before we left the Regent. He was one of those horses whose spirits are just a little too much for their skins, and all the way out he kept up a restless questioning of his prospect of having his own way. Still he was in all this, as in his manner of doing his work when he got into the open country, such a perfect counterpart of old Max, who had carried me for two years in the Southwest, that I was at home at once. If I had had a hunter made to order, I could not have been more perfectly suited. The meet (North Warwickshire) was at Cubbington Gate, only two miles from Leamington, and a very gay meet it was. The road was filled with carriages, and there was a goodly rabble on foot. About three hundred, in every variety of dress, were mounted for the hunt, a dozen or so of ladies among them. Three of these kept well up all day, and one of them rode very straight. The hounds were taken to a wood about a mile to the eastward of Cubbington, where they soon found a fox, which led us a very straight course to Princethorpe, about three miles to the northeast. I had done little fencing for seven or eight years, and the sort of propulsion one gets in being carried over a hedge is sufficiently different from the ordinary impulses of civil life to suggest at first the element of surprise. Consequently, though our initial leap was a modest one, I landed with only one foot in the stirrup and with one hand in the mane; but I now saw that Dick was but another name for Max, and this one moderate failure was enough to recall the old tricks of the craft. As the opportunity would perhaps never come again, this one was not to be neglected, and I resolved to have one fair inside view of real fox-hunting. Dick was clearly as good a horse as was out that day; the leaping was less than that to which we were used among the worm-fences, fallen timber, and gullies of Arkansas and Tennessee; and there was but a plain Anglo-Saxon name for the only motive that could deter me from making the most of the occasion. Mr. Lant, the Master of the Hounds, was not better mounted for his lighter weight than was I for my fourteen stone; and his position as well as his look indicated that he would probably go by the nearest practicable route to where the fox might lead, so we kept at a safe distance behind him and well in his wake. The hesitation and uncertainty which had at first confused my bridle-hand being removed, my horse, recognizing the changed position of affairs, settled down to his work like a well-trained and sensible but eager beast as he was. From the covert to Princethorpe we took seven fences and some small ditches, and we got there with the first half-dozen of the field, both of us in higher spirits than horse and rider ever get except by dint of hard going and successful fencing. Here there was a short check, but the fox was soon routed out again and made for Waveley Wood, a couple of miles to the northwest. Waveley Wood is what is called in England a "biggish bit of timber," and the check here was long enough to allow the whole field to come up. As we sat chatting and lighting our cigars, "Tally-ho!" was called from the other side of the cover, and we splashed through a muddy cart-road and out into the open just as the hounds were well away. Now was a ride for dear life. Every one had on all the speed the heavy ground would allow. In front of us was a "bullfinch" (a neglected hedge, out of which strong thorny shoots of several years' growth have run up ten or twelve feet above it). I had often heard of bullfinches, and no hunting experience could be complete without taking one. It was some distance around by the gate, the pace was strong, and the spiny fringe had just closed behind Mr. Lant's red coat as he dropped into the field beyond. "Follow my leader" is a game that must be boldly played; so, settling my hat well down, holding my bridle-hand low, and covering my closed eyes with my right elbow, with the whip-hand over the left shoulder, I put my heart in my pocket and went at it, and through it with a crash! An ugly scratch on the fleshy part of the right hand was the only damage done, and I was one of the very few near the pack. Dick and I were now up to anything; we made very light of a thick tall hedge that came next in order, and we cleared it like a bird; but we landed in a pool of standing water, covering deeply ploughed ground, the horse's forefeet sinking so deeply that he could not get them out in time, and our headway rolled us both over in the mud, I flat on my back. Dick got up just in time for his pastern to strike me in the face as I was rising, giving me a cut lip, a mouthful of blood, and a black and blue nose-bridge. My appearance has, on occasions, been more respectable and my temper more serene than as I ran, soiled and bleeding, over the ploughed ground, calling to some workmen to "catch my horse." I was soon up and away again. There seemed some confusion in the run, and the master being out of sight, I followed one of the whips as he struck into a blind path in a wood. It was a tangled mass of briers, but he went in at full pace, and evidently there was no time to be lost. At the other side of the copse there was a set of low bars, and beyond this a small, slimy ditch. My leader cleared the bars, but his horse's hind feet slipped on the bank of the ditch, and he fell backwards with an ugly kind of sprawl that I had no time to examine, for Dick took the leap easily and soon brought me into a field where, on a little hillock, and quite alone, stood the huntsman, dismounted, holding the dead fox high in his left hand, while with his long-leashed hunting-crop he kept the hungry and howling pack at bay. The master soon came up, as did about a dozen others, including a bright little boy on a light little pony. The fox's head (mask), tail (brush), and feet (pads) were now cut off and distributed as trophies under the master's direction. The carcass was then thrown to the pack, that fought and snarled over it until, in a twinkling, the last morsel had disappeared. This was the "death,"--by no means the most engaging part of the amusement. From the find to the killing was only twenty-five minutes, into which had been crowded more excitement and more physical happiness than I had known for many a long day. The second cover drawn was not far away. With this fox we had two hours' work, mainly through woods at a walk and with the hounds frequently at fault, but with some good leaping. Finally he was run to earth and abandoned. We then went to a cover near Bubbenhall, but found no fox, and then, with the same luck, to another east of Baggington. It was now nearly four o'clock, growing dusk, and beginning to rain. The hounds started for their kennels, and Dick and I took a soft bridle-path skirting the charming road that leads, under such ivy-clad tree-trunks and between such hedges as no other land can show, through Stoneleigh Village and past Stoneleigh Abbey to Leamington, and a well-earned rest. * * * * * My memorandum for that day closes: "Horse, £2 12_s._ 6_d._; Fees, 2_s._; and well worth the money." THE END. 
47162	----	TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE oe ligatures have been expanded. The footnote in Paragraph #35 on page 69 (the only one in the book) was moved to follow the paragraph from which it is referenced. Eight pages of advertisements that preceded the title page have been moved to the end of the book and placed before the two pages of advertisements that closed the book. Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. More detail can be found at the end of the book. [Illustration: THE HORSE'S MOUTH, SHOWING THE AGE BY THE TEETH.] THE HORSE'S MOUTH, SHOWING THE AGE BY THE TEETH. CONTAINING A FULL DESCRIPTION OF THE PERIODS WHEN THE TEETH ARE CUT; THE APPEARANCES THEY PRESENT; THE TRICKS TO WHICH THEY ARE EXPOSED; THE ECCENTRICITIES TO WHICH THEY ARE LIABLE; AND THE DISEASES TO WHICH THEY ARE SUBJECT. BY EDWARD MAYHEW, M. R. C. V. S. DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION, TO THE PRESIDENT AND COUNCIL OF The Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, AND EMBELLISHED WITH NUMEROUS COLOURED ENGRAVINGS FROM DRAWINGS MADE EXPRESSLY FOR THE WORK, AND TAKEN FROM AUTHENTICATED MOUTHS; WITH THIRTY-TWO WOOD-CUTS, ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE LETTER-PRESS. FOURTH EDITION. LONDON: MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY. TO THE PRESIDENT AND COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SURGEONS, THIS WORK IS (BY PERMISSION) RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, BY THEIR OBLIGED AND VERY OBEDIENT SERVANTS, THE PUBLISHERS. 41, _Piccadilly_. ILLUSTRATIONS. COLOURED ENGRAVINGS. Page. Frontispiece--The Head of a Horse with the teeth exposed Nine months old, and 2 years old 70 Three years old, and 3 years off 80 Rising 4 years, and 4 years old 82 Rising 5 years, and 5 years old 94 Five years off, and 6 years off 96 Seven years off, and 8 years off 104 Twelve years old, and 20 years old 112 Sixteen years old, and 30 years old 120 WOOD CUTS. Section of an incisor tooth 21 Arrangement of the substances composing a molar tooth 26 View of a molar tooth 29 A permanent and temporary incisor tooth 48 Molar tooth about to be shed 62 Molar tooth recently cut 62 Table of the 3 year old incisor tooth 79 Table of the 3 year off incisor tooth 79 Tables of the incisor teeth at 4 years off 85 Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth rising 5 years 92 Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 5 years old 95 Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 6 years old 99 Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 7 years off 103 Tables of the incisor teeth at 8 years off 106 Tables of the incisor teeth at 9 years old 109 Tables of the incisor teeth at 10 years old 110 Tables of the incisor teeth at 12 years old 112 Tables of the incisor teeth at 14 years old 112 Tables of the incisor teeth at 16 years old 115 Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 28 years old 119 Tables and arrangement of the incisor teeth at 29 years old 120 Tables of the incisor teeth at 30 years old 121 Irregularity in the growth of the corner incisor tooth 140 A parrot mouth 147 Changes caused by a diseased tooth 175 Mr. Gowing's tooth forceps 183 The lever to ditto 184 The forceps, fixed 185 Mr. Gowing's framed chisel 188 Mr. Gowing's guarded chisel 190 Mr. Gowing's repeller for the guarded chisel 191 Mr. Gowing's lateral repeller for the guarded chisel 193 CONTENTS. Par. Page. 1. That the teeth of the horse denote the age of the animal &c. 1 2. In every case the evidence of the teeth is secondary to direct and substantiated testimony; &c. 3 3. Some of the causes which induce certain persons to doubt &c. 4 4. The teeth more frequently contradict an arbitrary calculation than disagree with fact. 7 5. For the security of the purchaser of a horse, not connected with the turf, the teeth are a sufficient guard, &c. 10 6. The description of the teeth &c. 14 7. The teeth are situated &c. 15 8. The teeth are organised, &c. 16 9. The horse possesses forty teeth, &c. 16 10. Three substances enter into the composition of the horse's tooth. 18 11. The crusta petrosa &c. 18 12. The enamel &c. 20 13. The ivory &c. 20 14. The uses of the ivory, enamel, and crusta petrosa &c. 22 15. The separate uses of the three component structures, &c. 24 16. The various parts and peculiarities of form, &c. 32 17. There are infundibula also in the molar teeth, &c. 35 18. To distinguish an upper from a lower molar tooth &c. 36 19. The teeth of the horse are very firmly implanted in the jaws, &c. 37 20. The molars of the lower jaw are the active agents of mastication, &c. 37 21. Provision has been made by Nature to meet the wear to which the horse's teeth are subjected. 38 22. The cavity of the pulp &c. 42 23. Nature provides the horse with two sets of teeth. 43 24. To know the temporary from the permanent teeth, &c. 46 25. To recognise a milk incisor tooth &c. 46 26. The permanent incisors are indicated by their greater size, &c. 49 27. The temporary cannot be well distinguished from the permanent molars, while the horse is alive. 51 28. The various points which denote youth &c. 52 29. The indications of age &c. 53 30. The incisor teeth in old age, &c. 54 31. Some judges depend upon the tushes as indicative of the age, &c. 57 32. The wolf's teeth or eye teeth aid us in judging of the age; &c. 59 33. The mode in which the horse cuts his teeth &c. 60 34. The manner of examining the teeth &c. 65 35. At birth &c. 69 36. At six weeks, &c. 69 37. At six months, &c. 69 38. At nine months old, the corner milk teeth are up, but their edges do not yet meet. 70 39. At one year, &c. 70 40. At eighteen months, &c. 71 41. At two years old, there is a full mouth of milk incisors, all of which show considerable wear. 71 42. At three years old, the centre horse teeth are well up, and are distinguished by their size, shape, and colour. 72 43. At three years off, the lateral milk teeth are shed, and the permanent teeth are coming up. 80 44. When rising four years old the lateral horse teeth are in the mouth, but their edges do not fairly meet. 81 45. At four years, four pair of horse teeth are well up, but the corner milk teeth are retained. 82 46. When rising five years old all the horse teeth are in the mouth, but the corner teeth have yet to meet. 90 47. At five years old there is a full mouth of horse incisors, all the edges of which fairly meet. 94 48. At five years off the corner teeth only show slight wear, and the posterior margins are round. 95 49. At six years of age the corner teeth look more firmly set, and their edges begin to be uneven; &c. 97 50. At seven years off, the corner teeth, without showing age, exhibit further evidence of wear. 99 51. At eight years off, the gum of the lower corner tooth has become square, and the lower tush blunt. 104 52. After the eighth year, &c. 106 53. At twelve years old, there may be tartar on the lower tush. The teeth are longer, narrower, and the enamel darker. 110 54. At sixteen years old, when the teeth are viewed from the side, only two incisors can be seen in the lower jaw, &c. 112 55. At twenty years old, the form of the mouth has changed, and the lower teeth are imperfectly seen from the front. 115 56. At thirty years old, the jaws are contracted; the lower are not seen when the upper teeth are in view. 117 57. The tricks that are practised on the teeth, &c. 123 58. The irregularities of growth in the horse's teeth &c. 138 59. The diseases to which the teeth of the horse are subjected, &c. 149 60. The agents which are likely to injure the teeth, &c. 177 61. The instruments used in connexion with the teeth of the horse &c. 181 PREFACE. When submitting to the reader this my first work on Veterinary Science, I cannot forbear from addressing to him a few remarks, in the hope of explaining some of those peculiarities which it may appear to present. At a period of life, when many men retire from active business, I commenced the study of a new profession. My mind was not prepared to receive instruction through the ordinary process, and I was, by necessity, obliged to be, in a great measure, my own tutor. I found that I could learn only through observation, and this circumstance led me into inquiries which often left me in opposition with established opinions. Hence many of the facts announced in the following pages are new, and not very much contained in them is strictly accordant with the acknowledged authorities. The latter circumstance I may regret, but I have no apology to offer for it. My convictions are derived from the study of Nature, and are conclusions gained from a higher source than conjecture or opinion sanctioned by time or approved by professors. Short as may have been my experience, nothing herein set down will be found which is not the result of practice, or the consequence of reasoning. Perhaps a longer professional existence would have given more weight to that which is either novel in its announcement, or may appear to be bold in its assurance. Truth, however, is speedily read by those who are intent on deciphering it, and facts are not rendered more clear to the mental vision by years of conventional dependence. The teaching of our English Veterinary School has, for too long a period, been traditional; what one had said, he who succeeded him repeated, and when I entered as a pupil, there existed no spirit of inquiry, or thought of extending the boundaries of knowledge. To what a degree an evil system had been established, I may here state as an instance, that in the first horse which I dissected, I was able to demonstrate the existence of four muscles that had previously been unnoticed by my teachers. Under such circumstances, it is not surprising if a fresh intruder, on a comparatively unexplored soil, did turn up something which, though it laid near to the surface, had not before been exposed. On the teeth, my investigations began from the beginning; and though I cannot but say I have been greatly assisted by the information derived from the labours of previous writers, yet I have, in every instance, accepted their assertions only after I had tested them, and found them to be correct. To the members of my profession, I am deeply indebted. When they knew the subject on which I was engaged, each volunteered to aid me, and generously gave me the benefit of that experience, which personally I was unfortunate in not possessing. It was acknowledged, that upon the teeth, some work which might be depended upon, was sadly needed, and to render the present worthy of the confidence of the public, all to whom I applied cheerfully gave their utmost help. From their cordial communications and disinterested co-operation, I learnt much, and gained many valuable ideas. _16, Spring Street,_ _Westbourne Terrace._ THE HORSE'S MOUTH, SHOWING THE AGE BY THE TEETH. 1. _That the teeth of the horse denoted the age of the animal_ appears to have been a very ancient belief, which the experience of centuries seems in no degree to have weakened. As a general rule, applied within certain limitations, the impression is certainly well founded; for perhaps no development is more regular than the teeth of the horse, and no natural process so little exposed to the distortions of artifice. We are, nevertheless, not to expect that the animal carries about in its mouth a certificate of birth, written in characters so deep or legible that they cannot be obliterated or misinterpreted. The indications to be discovered by an inspection of the mouth of the horse, however, are so generally true, that in these dependence may be placed; although they are not so arbitrary or invariable, that upon them in every instance an absolute opinion can hastily be pronounced. He who would judge of the age by the teeth, must therefore be content to study and prepared to encounter difficulties. In proportion as he has done the one, and is fortified thereby to overcome the other, will be his success. There is no secret charm which will enable man to unravel Nature's mysteries. Her ways are regular, but they are not uniform--her laws are fixed, but her acts cannot be measured by a system of rule or compass. The qualified judge alone will read the teeth correctly; but in proportion as the task is difficult, will be the candour and caution of him who fulfils it properly. He will make allowance where certain marks are indistinct or absent--he will not feel himself degraded by a confession of inability to speak with certainty when the signs are complex or confused--and above all, he will be cautious before he pronounces a final opinion, and gives it forth as a decision, against which there ought to be no appeal. The Veterinary Practitioner knows from repeated trials, tested by long experience, that the teeth of the horse are worthy of attention; he feels that their indications, scientifically interpreted, will seldom mislead; but he does not regard them with a reverence resembling that originating from an antiquated superstition, or look upon them as the exemplifications of a principle which admits of no exceptions. 2. _In every case the evidence of the teeth is secondary to direct and substantiated testimony_; for as there is no limit to possibility, so no man can be prepared to say what Nature may or may not do. In the absence, however, of positive and corroborated testimony, the teeth become the best evidence, and that on which reliance should be placed. When opposed to the indications of the mouth, the oath of a single individual, for obvious reasons, would be of no weight. A foal can hardly be born without many parties being cognizant of the fact--the colt cannot change its master without several persons being made aware of the transaction--and horses, for honest purposes, are not generally sold or bought in secret. Proof of the age can generally be adduced, if the parties interested think proper to seek it; or when it is not possible to adduce such proof, the teeth deserve more confidence than an uncorroborated assertion. An individual may be interested to mis-state, or may be mistaken in his belief; whereas the teeth, being natural growths, are removed from such suspicions. 3. _Some of the causes which induce certain persons to doubt_ the possibility of the horse's age being accurately told from the teeth, are not difficult to explain away. The Jockey Club has seen reason to declare, that all thorough-bred animals shall be born on the 1st of January, or if any should make their appearances at a later period, such shall be esteemed one year old when the 31st of December has expired. All blood horses have but one birth-day, nor do they in that respect differ from their brethren of the coarser breeds; only those of the last description are supposed to begin their existences upon the 1st of May. If a racer has seen six Januaries, it is said to be six years old; and if a nag had looked upon half a dozen Mays it would be pronounced to be of a similar age. These customs are convenient, as affording a point from which to date the age of an animal; but under such regulations, confusion will and does frequently arise. In a long number of years, a few months may be of little importance; but at the earlier period the difference of several weeks may, in the calculation of the age, be a serious matter. I will endeavour to show how far, in an extreme case, confusion may be created by the operation of these customs, and to prove, that he who should read the teeth correctly, would be unable to satisfactorily pronounce the accepted age of a colt. According to the received laws, a blood foal dropt on the 31st of December, and a foal not thorough-bred, born on the 30th of April, would each, the second day of life, complete the first year of its existence. Let it be supposed that a blood mare bore a foal in the latter end of December--the animal would be entered in the stud book according to the year of its birth, but for obvious reasons could never be put into training; it would be kept until another January arrived, when, although but one year and a few days of age, it could, in strict accordance with the established custom, be sold as a two-year-old; and the entry being in the stud book, of course the point would not be disputed. The colt is bought and taken into an ordinary stable, where all the horses not being thorough-bred advance a year when the 1st of May appears; and when that day dawns, the blood colt, not eighteen months of age, rising with the rest, is called three years off. Now in such a case, the man who judged by the teeth would be certain to be wrong; and if it is possible under any circumstances for truth to be discredited, we may imagine that many apparent mistakes would, on inquiry, be cleared up. The age of a horse is seldom correctly stated even in a court of law. Witnesses swear by the customs of men, and it never seems to occur to them that Nature has not yet given in her adherence to the codes by which their consciences are narcotized. Horses are born at all times and seasons. The regular breeder, it is true, takes care towards the observance of the regulations; but all who may think proper to have "a foal out of the old mare when she's done up for work," are by no means nice in that particular. Stallions are paraded for "service" in the autumn, and there are to be found men who will argue stoutly in favour of a "late get." 4. _The teeth more frequently contradict an arbitrary calculation than disagree with fact._ The mouth declares only the positive age, reckoned from the actual day of birth, and I know of no evidence of a similar description which may be more confidently trusted. Occasional exceptions are to be found, and of these notice will be hereafter taken; such exceptions, however, are not sufficiently frequent to upset the rule, and were the testimony of the teeth to be rejected, I know of no other that could be substituted. We are therefore necessitated to retain the test, and consequently should know how to apply it. Almost every one within or about the stable pretends to be able to do this, but some even of those who have studied the subject are not capable of doing it correctly. The evidence is often true when the judgment is false, and in this circumstance, perhaps, lies the chief danger of the test. A knowledge of the teeth is by no means universal; but where that knowledge is profound, though the test may seldom disappoint, yet because it will occasionally do so, the indications of the mouth ought to be corroborated. To proceed summarily (as in the case of the Queen of Cyprus) upon an inspection of the teeth, is certainly not justifiable, since the mouth may possibly be eccentric, or the judgment pronounced upon it may be erroneous. The teeth in every horse case are of importance. The suggestions to which they give rise should not be disregarded; yet at the same time no opinion of a final kind should be based upon their showing. The utmost that the inspection of the teeth could warrant is a doubt, certainly a strong one, as to the reported age of the animal. That doubt would justify inquiry, and the teeth can substantiate no more than the right to inquire. Some may be disposed to think that such a right would not be worth possessing; but it must be remembered, that until the inquiry were ended, no decision as to the qualification of the animal could be arrived at. A valid doubt would have been created. Let the owner of the suspected horse dispel it, or the party who is interested to do so have time to seek the evidence which would convert it into certainty. The umpire, on the showing of the teeth, would be bound to withhold his judgment, not called upon to decide. Were such the rule, all fear of injustice would be guarded against; and as gentlemen connected with the turf cannot endure suspicion, and are not very patient of delay, those who were the owners of animals, the mouths of which presented any peculiarities, ought to notify the fact some days before the horses started. By forbearing to do so, gentlemen expose themselves to accusation. By examining the animal at the moment of starting, and founding a decision thereon, no good can be done, but injustice may be perpetrated; for supposing the suspected horse is pronounced to exhibit the tokens of the lawful age, the inspection of its mouth by a stranger may, by exciting its irritability, lose the race. At the same time, to permit an unqualified animal to start, would be unjust; and therefore the greater necessity for such a timely inspection as would allow of a preliminary investigation of the proofs that could be brought forward in contradiction of the teeth. These suggestions are made with the less hesitation, as the writer feels that were they adopted, few cases would spring out of them; for the mouths of racers are so regular in their development, that the age of this description of animal can with more certainty be pronounced than that of any other kind of horse. 5. _For the security of the purchaser of a horse not connected with the turf, the teeth are a sufficient guard_, and their indications, when properly understood, may be confidently acted upon. This opinion is put forth after a matured consideration of the subject, and probably there is no dealer who would dissent from the decision at which the author has arrived. The purchasers possibly may, on reflection, see less reason to be satisfied, because the teeth would, perhaps, in many instances, seem to favour the interest opposed to theirs. Let the matter, however, be deliberately weighed, and perhaps it may be found that neither party is likely to gain considerably, or to be seriously injured. In ordinary trade, the word of the seller is not much regarded; but in horse transactions, the assertion of the dealer is never received. One source of evidence is therefore discarded, and some other must be sought. Now, where horses are concerned, even the oaths of men appear to be of little force; "hard" swearing is expected in every business of that nature, and such expectation almost disqualifies all those persons to whose testimony the dealer could appeal. Let it be remembered that it is not the dealer who refuses to give evidence, or to adduce it; but the purchaser, who is prejudiced against accepting it. This act on the purchaser's part limits the proof he might demand; for as attestation is rejected by him, not denied to him, he is by his conduct left without cause of complaint, and bound to seek the evidence which he will accept. Such evidence he looks for in the mouth of the animal, and is seldom deceived when capable of interpreting it. The teeth, in fact, are the only testimony that his caution leaves him to decide upon; and it will be hereafter shown, that even when the teeth are early in their development, the purchaser is not virtually wronged. All men, however, seek to arm themselves by suspicion, when dealing in horse-flesh; and the tricks that are played upon the teeth, rise immediately to the mind. Such tricks certainly are played, but they are assuredly more talked about than practised. There is a superstitious idea afloat, that breeders can make horses appear of any age they please, by torturing the mouths of the poor animals. The folly of such a belief will be exposed in another part of this work; it is sufficient for the present to state, that the credulity of the public in this matter has no foundation. A colt cannot be made by any barbarity to look like a horse; and an old horse cannot be forced to exhibit the mouth of a colt. That attempts are made to disguise the teeth, and that such attempts occasionally impose upon the buyer, is not denied; but all of such practices are shallow in the extreme, and so easily detected, that the person deceived by them is not an object of pity. If people will presume to judge before they have learnt to recognize, their temerity is more to be blamed than its consequence is to be commiserated. No one goes to buy a horse unwarned of the dangers that will surround him; and if in his conceit he rather prefers to hazard these than to seek protection, what right has he to murmur at a result which it needed no conjurer to foretell? Is there any market in the world where ignorance is secure from imposition? The world is not yet so honest that the affairs of the horse mart are a subject worthy of its special wonder; and it may be doubted if the principles which regulate the conduct of the horse dealer, are not those which influence the transactions of the most honourable traders. There are men of the highest character living by the sale of horses; and it is creditable to humanity, that after all of a certain class have been unscrupulously stigmatized and openly reproached, there may still among its members be found, beings preserving honour for the sake of itself alone. The liberal public, however, in its wisdom, has pronounced the character of the horse dealer; it has rejected his attestations, and refused to listen to the testimony of those with whom he has communication. The age of a horse is not taken from the mouth of its owner, but looked for in that of the animal. This mode of procedure is convenient--the record is at hand, the evidence brief, and the decision to which it leads is that to which the purchaser by choice appeals. The dealer stands by and knows that his voice is to be restrained. The teeth denote the age, and when the word of the owner is not to be accepted, there is no other evidence at hand. Were additional proof to be required, in some instances it could not be procured, and in the majority its production would be attended with an expense perhaps equal to the price of the horse which it concerned. The expence, the seller of course could not be expected to bear, and the buyer equally would resist its infliction. Nothing is more high priced than absolute proof of any kind; and there is always a further difficulty in the difference of opinion which prevails, as to what constitutes absolute proof. A cursory glance at the matter is enough to convince us, that the custom of inspecting the teeth of the horse to ascertain the age of the animal, is one which has had its origin in necessity. Experience has taught that the mouth of the horse affords the most satisfactory evidence, and the author's investigations on this subject have convinced him that the public need require no better or more conclusive testimony. The reader, however, before he ventures to abide by his own interpretation of the signs which the horse's teeth exhibit, must be content to study, and prepared to find the task somewhat difficult. All that can be done to render the subject plain and clear, the author will attempt. 6. _The description of the teeth_ cannot be rendered pleasing; but as it is a necessary part of the subject, the reader must exert his patience, while the matter is briefly discussed. Teeth are anatomically classed with bones, which in many respects they resemble. A tooth is divided into two parts, or into _crown_ and _fang_. The _crown_ is that portion which projects above the gum into the mouth; therefore so much as can be seen while the animal lives, is the crown of the tooth. The _fang_, the end of which is called the _root_, is that part of the tooth which is hidden from view, and is inserted into the jaw. For the convenience of description, however, other portions of the tooth have received distinct names, and the _neck_ and _table_ are spoken of. The neck is that portion of the tooth which is immediately surrounded by the gum. The _table_ is the upper surface, or the part which touches the corresponding tooth of the opposing jaw when the mouth is closed. Such is the division made, and it will hereafter be found to assist the description of the various changes which the teeth undergo. 7. _The teeth are situated_ in the maxillary bones, in which certain osseous cups, like indentations or holes, called the alveolar cavities, are developed for their reception. Each tooth has its separate cavity, and however close the crowns may appear, nevertheless each fang is divided from those before and behind by bony plates. The alveolar cavity always corresponds to the fang. As the fang alters in form, or diminishes in length, so does the shape of the cavity simultaneously change; and should the tooth be removed, the space, no longer needed, is filled up; the alveolar cavity being obliterated by a growth of bony matter. 8. _Teeth are organised_, that is, they possess nerves, arteries, veins, and absorbents, or are endowed with those vessels needed to resist decay, and to promote nutrition. That a tooth possesses nerves, no one who has submitted to have these members filed by the dentist, or who has endured the tooth-ache, can for an instant doubt; and that they are even, in some degree, susceptible of external impressions, the sensation produced by certain acids seems to render probable. The growth they exhibit shows they are gifted with arteries and veins; and these vessels can be traced directly to and from, though not unto, their substance. The existence of absorbents some have doubted; but the removal by nature of the fangs of the temporary teeth, clearly testifies the presence of these vessels. 9. _The horse possesses forty teeth_, viz., twelve incisors, four tushes, and twenty-four molars. The _incisors_, sometimes called _nippers_, are those which, situated in front of the mouth, are seen when the lips are parted. They are the instruments, by means of which the animal bites its food, and are placed six in the upper, and six in the lower jaw. They are classed as pairs, being generally cut or developed after that fashion. The middle two, in both jaws, are called the _centre_ incisors; the two most backward, on either side of the mouth, the _corner_ incisors; and the teeth, by which the corners and centres are separated, the _lateral_ incisors. Of the _tushes_, the two placed in the lower jaw are the most forward. These teeth, which are sometimes termed canines, and sometimes cuspidati, (from _cuspis_, a point,) are isolated, appearing in the space which divides the incisors from the molars. They are only fully developed in the male, the mare often being without any indication of them, and never displaying them in so prominent a degree as the horse. Their use is not very apparent, but they certainly would be employed in those combats to which stallions seem naturally predisposed, and would render the grasp, and the wound it could inflict, more severe. Because the mare is of a more pacific temperament, Nature seems to have denied to her a perfect tush, by the presence or absence of which, the sex is indicated by the mouth, and upon which castration appears to exercise no influence, since the gelding has as well-formed a tush as the perfect male. The _molars_ are ranged in companies of six, one company on either side of the upper, and a like number similarly situated in the lower jaw. The molars are the instruments which enable the horse to grind down the fibrous and hard food upon which it subsists, and they are distinguished by their locality, as first, second, third, fourth, fifth, or sixth molar tooth of the near or off side in the upper or lower jaw; the first being that growing in front, or nearest to the incisors, and the sixth that placed most backward in the cavity of the mouth. 10. _Three substances enter into the composition of the horse's tooth._ Each of these substances is distinct, and can be distinguished from either of the others. The names given to the various parts are--1, crusta petrosa, or hard crust; 2, enamel; and 3, ivory. 11. _The crusta petrosa_ is the most externally situated, and when the tooth first appears in the mouth, it is entirely coated by this substance, having a somewhat dull and dark appearance, which is only lost when the hard crust is removed by attrition, and the enamel thereby exposed. In amount, the crusta petrosa is second to the ivory, being more in quantity than the enamel. In composition, it is characterized by containing a great amount of animal substance; and, in structure, it is peculiar for exhibiting, under the microscope, numerous corpuscles or cells, from which pores or minute tubes appear to radiate. Within the alveolar cavity, the crusta petrosa, which around the fang becomes of considerable thickness, is of a yellowish white colour; but where, in connexion with the crown of the tooth, it is exposed to the chemical action of the food and air, it presents a darker aspect and looks like an accumulation of tartar, for which indeed it has been mistaken. It fills up the infundibula of the molars of the upper jaw, and lines those of the incisors, being pierced by all the vessels which nourish the teeth. If a tooth be subjected to the action of dilute hydrochloric acid, the enamel will be removed, and the ivory and crusta petrosa be rendered separate and distinct. 12. _The enamel_ of the horse's tooth appears to be unorganized, and to contain no animal matter. Hydrochloric acid entirely dissolves it with a slight effervescence, and though a few and a very few threads remain, these rather seem to be connexions between the ivory and crusta petrosa, than component parts of the enamel itself. That the enamel is an unorganized substance, it may be essential to state, is asserted only of this body in the tooth of the horse; for the enamel of the cow's tooth is of a different nature, since hydrochloric acid does not dissolve it, affect its whiteness, or destroy its form. The enamel is the least of the three components of the tooth; of a whitish semi-transparent shining aspect, it forms a thin crust to the ivory, lying immediately under the crusta petrosa, and extending nearly to the root. 13. _The ivory_ forms the main bulk of the tooth, and though blood vessels can be traced to, but not within its substance, yet it presents numerous pores or minute canals, radiating from the centre to the circumference, which the mind naturally associates with nutrition. These pores cannot be traced to the cells or corpuscles of the crusta petrosa, though in works of high authority, drawings obviously indicating such a connexion, are presented; they are limited to the ivory, and terminate within it. What their exact use may be, is not known, but that they are of service, their presence is sufficient proof. Like the minute canals of bone, they probably convey a serous or colourless fluid, for the nutrition of the part in which they are developed. [Illustration] The relative positions of the various structures that enter into the composition of the incisor tooth, will be better understood by reference to the accompanying wood-cut, which represents one of those members divided down its centre:--_a_ indicates the crusta petrosa, which can be traced to enclose the organ, and to dip down the infundibulum B. The crusta petrosa is shown to be thicker at the root of the fang, and at the base of the infundibulum, than at other parts. _b_ denotes the ivory, which forms the principal and central portion of the tooth, in the middle of which is the darker space marked by the letter _d_. This last is intended to represent the cavity of the pulp, which, in the young incisor is, as in the diagram, of great length. Between the ivory _b_, and the crusta petrosa _a_, is a white line _c_, which indicates the position of the enamel, and will be seen to cover the upper surface of the tooth dipping into the infundibulum, but not to extend quite to the root. 14. _The uses of the ivory, enamel, and crusta petrosa_ must be now noticed. The ivory is less dense than the enamel, and harder than the crusta petrosa. On the external surface of the incisor teeth, the crusta petrosa is, by the attrition to which this part must be subjected during the gathering of the food, soon sufficiently removed to expose a portion of the enamel: as the years of the animal increase, the outer coating is almost worn away, and not being reproduced, little of the crusta petrosa will be found on the nippers of very old horses. The ivory, however, is always nearly on a level with the enamel, notwithstanding the greater attrition which the substance forming the principal portion of the table of the tooth must necessarily endure. A sufficient indentation of the ivory, nevertheless, can be observed, to render prominent the ridge of enamel, and to indicate that the last-named material is endowed with the greatest power of resistance. The enamel, in fact, is as hard as flint, and by striking it against a steel, fire can be drawn forth. The three structures, therefore, vary in hardness, and in an opposite direction they contrast to one another in toughness. The ivory is sometimes fractured, but not frequently. I have never seen the crusta petrosa of a living tooth exhibit such an injury; but the enamel is rarely inspected without its being discovered to be more or less in a ragged, chipped, and broken condition, especially at the anterior edge of the table of the incisors. 15. _The separate uses of the three component structures_, however, is not well shown in the incisors; for as the crusta petrosa is by a natural process removed, and the ivory is not of essential service in cutting the food, it might be supposed that the first was no more than a temporary covering to, and the last only a basement for, the enamel. When the mind, however, is directed to the observation of the molars or double teeth, the properties and uses of all become apparent. The sense of touch in the horse resides in the lips; with those organs he gathers together the food before he grasps it with the incisors. Delicate, however, as the animal's sense of touch is, the selection of the food is further aided by the sight and smell. The most fragrant, the softest, and the cleanest portions, therefore, are selected; but it would be too much to suppose, that no particle of dirt, sand, or grit, was ever taken into the mouth. That much is necessarily bitten, the incisors of those horses which pasture on sandy soils, afford sufficient proof, as such animals generally exhibit the anterior edges of those teeth considerably jagged or notched. In the best fields, the grass is never free from adherent impurities, and the manger, as well as the rack, is not always remarkable in that respect. All, however, that is gathered by the lips, or grasped by the incisors, passes to the molars to be comminuted and mixed with the saliva previous to being swallowed. The molars, in fact, are animal grindstones, and the different degrees of hardness which the three component substances display, by wearing unevenly, always keep the grinding surfaces irregular or sharp. The inequality of the grinding surfaces of the molars enables the horse to reduce the toughest fibre to a pulpy mass; but as many substances little less hard than the tooth itself must frequently be ground up with the food, the molars would, at first sight, appear to be subject to injury, especially as they have ten times the work of the incisors to perform, and the senses of touch, smell, and sight, cannot operate for their protection. Nature, however, has provided against the danger to which they appear to be exposed; for if, notwithstanding the guarding agency of the senses, the incisors are so often injured, the molars, blindly employed, and used when the full power of the horse's jaw is exerted, certainly needed some provision against fracture. The crusta petrosa gives all the security that could be desired; it encircles these teeth, dips into their fissures, and fills their infundibula, forming no small part of the substance of the molars. The subjoined wood-cut will better explain the manner in which the various substances are arranged. [Illustration: _Fig._ 1.] [Illustration: _Fig._ 2.] _Figure_ 1 represents the table of one of the molars taken from the upper jaw. _Figure_ 2 the table of a molar extracted from the lower jaw. The difference of size between the two organs is thus well marked, as also the difference of shape. The white line indicates the enamel, and the variegated substance which is encircled by it, denotes the comparative quantity and position of the ivory. The crusta petrosa is represented by the somewhat darker shade situated on the exterior of the enamel. In figure 1, however, the reader will observe two patches enclosed by white lines. These are the representatives of the two infundibula which exist in all of the molars of the upper jaw, but which are not developed in the lower teeth. The similar direction of the lines will enable the reader to connect them with the crusta petrosa, which substance, save in the newly-cut tooth, generally fills up these cavities, although the enamel lining extends almost to the root. The intricacy of the arrangement is, by this diagram, made apparent, and the purpose rendered plain. Without such a provision, the first meal of the animal consumed would probably shatter the instruments of mastication into innumerable atoms; but girded round, and bound up with the tough and resistant crusta petrosa, however hard may be the fibre the animal chews--however much of grit or sand may be contained in it--or however great may be the force by which the molars are pressed together, and made to pass at the same time from side to side--not a particle of the brittle enamel is fractured. Like a thin layer of glass, guarded between two pieces of wood, it performs its office in security; and as the necessity for the provision, towards which I have directed attention, is obvious, so is it the more strange that the thick coating of the crusta petrosa around the molars should by authors have been mistaken for an accumulation of tartar. The mistake was certainly extraordinary, as the crusta petrosa in the horse's tooth is of physiological importance, and will presently be shown to merit the attention of the pathologist. I am aware, when making this statement, that contradiction is offered to the opinions of many and deservedly esteemed authorities; and while I regret the necessity of differing with such writers, I also lament that my opinion as to the supposed use of the outer membrane of the newly-developed organ, does not coincide with theirs. The nature of this treatise will not allow me to enter into the subject of the development of the teeth; but I may here say, that the outer membrane has been generally stated to secrete the enamel. It is that membrane which, thickening with the growth of the tooth, becomes the crusta petrosa; but with regard to its secretive powers, I do not imagine it is endowed with any function of that description, or that it is in any way concerned in the production of the enamel. My reasons for making such and so bold an assertion are well considered, not hastily advanced. I have before me the left anterior molar, taken from the jaw of a colt which was rising four. A representation of the tooth alluded to is here given. [Illustration] _a_ denotes the crusta petrosa, _b_ the outer surface of the enamel, the lines representing the plated or finely grooved aspect, which this part exhibits on its exterior. _c_, which letter will, on inspection, be discovered in the centre of the darkened space to the right of the lower portion of the enamel, indicates a spot where disease was existing, and to which reference will be hereafter made. _d_ denotes the roots, which, as will be seen, are (although the tooth had been in active employment for twelve months) still incomplete, and not enveloped by crusta petrosa. The above wood-cut, the accuracy of which is not to be disputed, shows a comparatively large portion of the assumed secretive membrane to be absent. The deficient part of the outer covering, I may here state, was removed by a natural process, as I myself extracted the tooth. Nevertheless where the crusta petrosa is deficient, the laminated external surface of the enamel is exposed in perfect and normal condition. This evidence appears pretty conclusive, for where the secretive substance is absent, the secretion would hardly appear. On the other hand, if the secretion of the enamel were the special function of the crusta petrosa, then wherever the one was found, the other would also be present. Let the reader, however, refer to the wood-cut inserted at page 21. In that diagram, the crusta petrosa is faithfully represented as thickest at the root; but at this very point the enamel is seen to be entirely wanting. The conclusion towards which such facts point, is almost decisive; but, nevertheless, there are many inferences which help to support it. If a longitudinal section of a tooth be made, a very thin white line may be plainly seen, indicating, probably between the ivory and the enamel, another source for the production of the substance which the crusta petrosa has been said to secrete. Moreover, if a tooth be boiled for some hours, a very little force will enable any person to pull off the enamel from the ivory; and this experiment likewise suggests the intervention of some gelatinous membrane between the two structures. The microscope also confirms the opinion I advance, and shows that, in the old tooth, the membrane is absorbed, for its remains can only be detected in isolated places. I am fully aware that none of the arguments here advanced are, with the exception of the first, at all conclusive. Appearances are deceptive, and results consequent upon artificial processes by no means to be trusted. After all, however, the necessity for such a secretive membrane is by no means imperative for the production of the enamel. Our views on these points may be too circumscribed, since at the extremities of the bones we see cartilage and osseous structure connected, without any such interposition; and no one expects such a matrix for the vitreous table of the cranial parietes. The crusta petrosa may have its uses apart from any conjectural function of secretion; and, in further proof that it does not secrete, it can, in the young subject, before the tooth has emerged from its primary cavity, be separated with the greatest facility from the enamel. It serves to protect the enamel, but it likewise answers the end of keeping the tooth firm in the jaw: around the neck of the molars it becomes thickened to a great extent; and at the roots, especially of old teeth, it exhibits considerable substance. The horse's molars are continually being wrenched from side to side while the food is being ground, and unless they were very firmly mortised, the vessels which nurture them would be continually lacerated: this the crusta petrosa, by entirely filling the alveolar cavity, prevents; and as the molars wear down with age, the thickening of the membrane enables the jaw to retain with security the latest portion of the tooth. I have specimens taken from very aged subjects, where the fang having been worn away, the molar consists merely of the roots of teeth embedded in a mass of crusta petrosa. 16. _The various parts and peculiarities of form_, now require consideration. If the table of an incisor tooth be observed, a cavity will be seen in the centre of it: this cavity, called the infundibulum, is of variable depth. In the temporary or milk teeth, it extends only half way down the crown; in the permanent or horse incisors, it is from three quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter deep, being of greater depth in the teeth of the upper than in those of the lower jaw, and not of the same magnitude in all horses. The infundibula are indentations in the body of the ivory, and they possess two coverings, an external one of crusta petrosa, and internal investment of enamel: the enamel does not materially vary in thickness upon this part, but the crusta petrosa of the infundibula is, in different subjects, of very unequal extent. In some animals it becomes very thick, and in such, the infundibula seem soon to be obliterated, owing to the crusta petrosa filling up the cavity. A good specimen of the early obliteration of the cavity, by the thickness of its investing membrane, is shown by the teeth preserved with the jaw of the horse Leander, which is now in the possession of Mr. W. Field. That animal, though but four years old, had lost the "marks" in the central incisors. A white line, however, shows that the enamel dips deep into the substance of the ivory, and indicates what would have been the form of the infundibula, had not the crusta petrosa filled up the cavities. The infundibula have received special attention from horsemen, and have been thought to indicate correctly the age of the horse; their lining membrane speedily becomes blackened by the chemical action of the food, &c., constituting what are called the "marks" of the mouth; and as the teeth undergo wear, these marks are ultimately lost. The period at which they may disappear, and the appearances which they may put on, are well shown in a plate which Mr. Fores has published, entitled "_The Age of the Horse_," and to that plate I therefore refer the reader; but, while doing so, I must caution him not to depend too much upon a sign, which is only true as a general rule; for as the infundibula in all animals are not of the same depth, or supposing them to be of one depth, the crusta petrosa is seldom of the like thickness in any two horses, and the teeth do not wear uniformly in different subjects, of course the indications they exhibit cannot be absolutely relied upon. Those indications, however, ought to be known, and should never be disregarded. Some animals of seventeen years of age, and even in rare instances of twenty-eight years old, will retain the marks in two or more of the incisors; nevertheless, as a general rule, these signs are worthy of attention, and, taken in conjunction with the illustrations presented in this work, afford all that can be obtained to confirm the judgment. 17. _There are infundibula also in the molar teeth_, but not in all of them. Those of the lower jaw have no infundibula, but only grooves or fissures, into which the crusta petrosa dips, and which it fills up. The manner of the arrangement will be seen in the table of one of these teeth represented in figure 2, page 26. In the same place, the wood-cut, figure 1, depicts the grinding surface of one of the superior molars. Every tooth of the last description, possesses two infundibula, which extend almost to the root, and are possessed of the same coverings as the like cavities in the incisors. The crusta petrosa, however, which lines the infundibula of the superior molars, is much thicker than the similar membrane inverting the like parts in the incisors; consequently, absolute cavities, answering to the marks of the nippers, are of comparatively slight extent, soon obliterated, and not generally found in any of these teeth after the horse is six years old; indeed all the marks are often obliterated before the fifth year. 18. _To distinguish an upper from a lower molar tooth_ is not difficult. The presence of the infundibula in the first would alone enable it to be pointed out; but there are other indications that are worthy of a passing notice. The table of the upper molars is much broader, being compared to those of the lower jaw as nine is to five. Then the form of the table is different in each. The table of the lower tooth is indented on either side, the indentation extending downwards along the fang. The table of the upper molars present two narrow prominences, and two broad grooves on the outer side; and also exhibits one broad prominence upon the centre of the inner side--all of these developments being likewise contained along the fang. The slant of the tables also differs. In the upper jaw, the outer edge is the lowest. In the lower jaw, the tables incline in the opposite direction. 19. _The teeth of the horse are very firmly implanted in the jaws._ The fangs are of a length which they who have only seen the teeth extracted from the mouth of a human being would hardly imagine. The length of fang of course gives the teeth some security; but this is not the only provision made for that end. The teeth radiate towards a common centre, being widely separated at their roots, but approximating at the crowns. They also incline laterally from the perpendicular, so that the force applied to them never acts in a direct line, or is concentrated upon one particular point. 20. _The molars of the lower jaw are the active agents of mastication_, for motion, during this process, only takes place in that part of the head in which those teeth are placed. The inferior molars are the instruments that grind--the upper molars are simply the surfaces upon which the food is ground. The whole of the molars, however, are never simultaneously employed. The horse can chew but on one side at a time, for as the inferior maxillary bone is considerably narrower than the superior, if the teeth on one side are brought into apposition, those of the opposite side are necessarily separated. Any one who has observed a horse feeding, will have remarked that the animal, during the act, continually abducts and adducts, the lower jaw not causing it to describe a circle, as does the cow, but urging it first to one side and then to the other. It will be seen, therefore, that the whole force of those strong muscles, which close the mouth of the horse, is employed on a portion of the jaw at the same moment, and the power then exerted must obviously be very great. Recognizing this fact, the reason for all that has been pointed out--the shelving tables--the grooved or indented sides--the double inclination, and the great length of the fangs is at once perceived, for the action is a wrenching one; and the greater extent of, and more uneven, surface presented by the molars of the upper jaw, facilitates the comminution, without imposing weight upon the muscular activity. Had the larger teeth been implanted in the inferior maxillary bone, the labour imposed would have been much augmented, and the end attained have been in no way expedited. 21. _Provision has been made by Nature to meet the wear to which the horse's teeth are subjected._ Such provision, however, I am of opinion, has been somewhat mis-stated by the majority of writers who have treated of this matter. Many of these authors dwell greatly upon the growth of the teeth of the horse, as though this function were in constant activity during the life of the animal. The arguments by which their views are supported, are primarily drawn from analogy rather than deduced from observation. Because the teeth of certain animals, especially those classed by naturalists as rodentia, and of which the rat and rabbit are familiar types--because the teeth of these creatures are known to grow, and those of the elephant are also proved to increase--the same is assumed of the horse. The inference is certainly of strength, but nevertheless it is far short of proof; a similarity between the animals is not demonstrated, and a sameness cannot be shown. Moreover, in another direction, an evidence is attempted to be made of the consequence which ensues when one of the molar teeth loses its vitality; the tooth that so suffers is rapidly worn down, and the opposing tooth becomes of an unnatural length, projecting far beyond its fellows. The increase of length in such a case has been supposed to go on in the sound organ at the natural rate, and the growth of the diseased tooth only has been thought to be stopped; hence the amount of wear and of growth is attempted to be measured; but on consideration it will be seen, that something more than the mere cessation of increase has to be calculated. The carious tooth had ceased to be a part of the living body, and with its vitality the organ lost its capability of self-preservation. The condition of the part had changed, and of the strength which vitality bestows, all persons must be conscious. To argue from the results produced upon dead matter, and then apply the deductions to living organs, is a course which no physiologist will sanction. The tooth that had ceased to live, might be quickly worn down, for other reasons than that it had ceased to grow. This is so clear, and the inference to which allusion was formerly made so obviously untenable, that I shall not longer detain the reader by dwelling upon either, but proceed to state my own views of the subject. I admit the teeth of the horse do grow, and only doubt if the process has been properly described. When the crown of the tooth first appears in the mouth, the fang is not completed, and the root has not even been developed. The horse is seven years old before all the roots are perfected, and when these are completed, I doubt if the after growth is material. If the jaw of an old horse be examined, the alveolar cavities will be found to be shallow, showing that the loss, consequent upon the wear, was compensated by the tooth being projected into the mouth, and not by any increase of substance. Again, those animals, the incisors of which retain the marks in extreme old age, may show long teeth, but not of that excessive length which growth would suppose; only such as the want of wear would occasion, supposing the increase to cease when the root was perfected. The fang, in fact, is so much tooth in reserve, and as such answers the purpose for which growth was supposed to be necessitated. I have by me, specimens of old teeth, but the measurement of none of them contradicts the opinion I have advanced, there being but a material increase of the crusta petrosa, which at the root blends with the ivory, and cannot be clearly separated from it. The thickening of the crusta petrosa around the root and neck, probably never ceases during the health of the animal; but to this substance alone is confined the imaginary growth of the horse's teeth. When the roots are perfected, the length of the tooth is completed, and the only after process consists in a gradual deposition of earthy matter, within the body of the member, the bulk of which is defined. In old teeth, the ivory becomes very dense; and he who attempts to cut through an old and young tooth, will be made aware of a contrast. The pulp in the teeth, after the formation of the root, gradually diminishes and ultimately disappears, in consequence of the ossific deposition. In fact, when growth ceases, consolidation has taken place, and rendered its continuance no longer necessary. 22. _The cavity of the pulp_ has been always stated to exist in the tooth of the horse. In the human tooth it occupies the extremity of the fang, being situated within the substance of the ivory; and the double teeth are known to have as many cavities of this kind as there are roots to the part. The same has been assumed to be the case also with the horse, but I cannot say that investigation enables me to corroborate this opinion. I find no cavity, that is no empty space, constantly present in the fangs of the horse's teeth, and no separate or defined cavities at the roots of the molars. The bone or ivory may be deficient, more or less, towards the centre of the fang; but this space, not yet occupied by the osseous deposit, is filled by a membraneous substance which is continuous with the crusta petrosa of the root, and will ultimately be converted into bone. I cannot separate the tissues forming the pulp, from the crusta petrosa itself; and I assume the two to be continuous. The only difference I can observe is, that the tissue of the pulp is the finest; but as the vessels of the one primarily pierce through and ramify upon the other, I cannot perceive the necessity for their separation. It will be understood, that I am speaking of these parts in a fresh subject, and not alluding to a mascerated and dried specimen, the appearance presented by the last being calculated to mislead. With age, the pulp diminishes; and in a tooth extracted from a very old animal, no positive remains of it will be found--osseous matter filling up the space which the pulp once occupied. 23. _Nature provides the horse with two sets of teeth._ The first are small, or of a size proportioned to the diminutive stature of the foal, and are called milk teeth--colt's teeth--or temporary teeth--either of which terms equally well characterizes them. The temporary teeth are twenty-four in number--six incisors in either jaw, and three molars on both sides of the upper and also of the lower jaw. The incisors sometimes begin to appear in the mouth before birth, though generally the gums are unbroken when the foal is dropped; they commence to be shed when the colt is two years and a half old--none remaining in the jaws after the fifth year. The molars, which are the first, second, and third, or the anterior three, begin to be cast off at two years and a half, being entirely removed between the third and fourth year. It used to be asserted that the last temporary molar was shed between the fourth and fifth year of the animal's life; but while I was connected with the Veterinary College, I inspected several heads and found none that corroborated the doctrine, which, for half a century, had been inculcated at that Institution. My observations were at first violently contested, and opportunities were sought to uphold the received and old manner of teaching. By slow degrees, however, the truth prevailed; and I have now the pleasure of knowing, that what I pointed out to the professors, those gentlemen at present communicate to their pupils. Several parties, however, have been mean enough to pretend they either are ignorant of what I effected, or believe what I accomplished was the work of another person; while I am sorry to add, that a professor has even gone so far as to lay claim to a discovery, which at the time cost me some pains to fully make out, and more to firmly establish. My observations were, in the first instance, made alone, and the only person who eventually assisted me was Mr. I. K. Lord, of Tavistock. That gentleman did afford me much help, and to him I beg publicly to record my sense of obligation. No other individual was in any manner concerned in the investigation, and I regret that I should be necessitated to make such an assertion. The point, however, is now fully established; and it will be seen, that it may be of practical importance. The molars, as truthfully as the incisors, denote the age; and, as corroborators, they should, in every doubtful case, be inspected. 24. _To know the temporary from the permanent teeth_, or to be able to distinguish one from the other, is very essential; but such knowledge is not so common as may be generally imagined. Dealers have blundered, and many a gentleman having purchased a yearling for a horse, has afterwards been surprised to discover that the animal was losing some of its front teeth. These kind of mistakes are mostly confined to the smaller breeds--with ponies the incident is common enough, but even with horses it has occurred. I may therefore be excused if I enter rather minutely into those points of difference which distinguish the one from the other. The reader must be content to study well this portion of the treatise, for the age is best marked by the number of milk teeth retained in the jaw, and easiest told during those years when these teeth are in the course of being shed. 25. _To recognize a milk incisor tooth_ the reader must bear in mind that it is of a temporary nature, and intended only to exist during the few first years of the animal's life, or during its colthood; for when all the permanent teeth are fairly up, the creature becomes a horse. The recollection of their temporary character will cause them to be the more easily distinguished: they look less solid and less firm; they are smaller, more white, and if ideas of beauty and sentiment befit such a subject, have a prettier and more innocent appearance. This is perfectly true as a general rule, but nevertheless must not be absolutely applied; for I have seen rare instances in which the milk teeth were, from constitutional or other causes, so discoloured, as altogether to lose their infantine and prepossessing character--the permanent incisors appearing cleanly by the contrast. On account of so singular a circumstance occasionally happening, if for no stronger reason, it is imperative therefore, even at the risk of being tedious, to enter minutely into this part of the subject. In colour these teeth are white, because the coating of crusta petrosa which originally invests them is particularly thin, and soon, for the most part, disappears, exposing the enamel; their crowns are shorter, and the neck is well developed, because their fangs are narrow and of less length. In the annexed wood-cut, for the purpose of making the dissimilarity the more conspicuous, a temporary and a permanent incisor are contrasted. _Figure_ 1 is the horse, _Figure_ 2 the milk tooth. The fang of the milk tooth is properly represented of considerable less diameter than the crown; and just where it arises will be observed a little shading, which indicates a sinking in, or nipping up, at that particular spot: the place so narrowed is the neck, which in the temporary teeth of the colt is not badly developed. [Illustration: _Fig._ 1.] [Illustration: _Fig._ 2.] However, while the milk tooth is retained in the mouth the neck is not particularly well shown, because the gum encircling the crown in a great measure conceals that part. But the form of the outer surface of the crown can hardly be mistaken. In the foal's tooth it more or less approaches to a semi-circle, from which the permanent teeth greatly differ, as will be seen by comparing the representations of the two as given in the plates. The outer surface likewise is characterized by peculiar indentations: a number of small channels run along it, taking a course from the neck towards the margin of the table, and giving an irregular fluted appearance to the enamel. There will be seen, on the crown of _Figure_ 2, lines intended to convey an idea of the situation and direction of these little grooves. The table is always oblong, but the infundibula are generally absent after the second year, and when they are present, the cavities are narrow, and obviously of little depth. These numerous signs enable the milk tooth to be recognized with facility, at a single glance, for it is seldom that one of the various indications is absent; and after all have been impressed by observation, the milk tooth can hardly be mistaken. 26. _The permanent incisors are indicated by their greater size_, a circumstance which the foregoing wood-cut does not exaggerate. The gum is much further retracted, and this gives to these organs an irregular oblong figure, which is very different from the semi-circular shape of the milk teeth. The incisors, however, are not of equal length in all horses, and in some the gum may be so prominent as to give the permanent somewhat the appearance of a temporary incisor; other indications, however, even then, enable the different nature of each to be with certainty distinguished. The enamel is only partially exposed in the horse tooth; the shaded portion of _Figure_ 1, in the preceding wood-cut, denotes the extent to which it is generally covered during the period of dentition; and when the teeth first appear, the enamel is wholly concealed by a covering of crusta petrosa. That covering is never entirely removed--a small portion of it, even in the oldest mouths, is seen near to the gums. It looks like an accumulation of tartar, and is most conspicuous in the tooth that has been newly cut. The presence or absence of this substance, therefore, should be noted, and moreover, the enamel surface should be further inspected. The numerous channels that give so peculiar a fluted appearance to the milk tooth, are not to be seen upon that of a permanent description; but in the stead are to be detected only one or two broad grooves, which extend the entire length of the crown. _Figure_ 1, at page 48, indicates the shape and direction of the grooves upon the surface of the permanent tooth, though probably a better idea of them is to be derived from an inspection of the coloured engravings, in which they are more prominently exhibited. By means of such guides, the opinion is rendered positive, and the inspection of the table is hardly needed to confirm it; but the table affords corroborative evidence, which may be of service. The table is broader, and the infundibulum is deeper. In this latter cavity, food accumulates in the permanent, but rarely in the temporary incisor. The gum may so contract as to give to the tooth some appearance of possessing a neck, but in reality no such part is developed in the horse incisors, as will be seen by referring to the previous cut, which may, with profit, be compared with the coloured engravings, which depict these members as they are exhibited in the mouth of the living animal. 27. _The temporary cannot be well distinguished from the permanent molars, while the horse is alive._ It is true that the table of the first is somewhat narrower than, though of equal length, with that of the last; but the difference is not so marked as to justify an opinion being pronounced upon the imperfect inspection which, under the most favourable circumstances, can be made of these organs. The number of the molars may, however, be counted, and from this the age of the animal deduced with correctness. The operation can be at all times performed, and the fact ascertained. When, however, removed from the jaw, the character of the molar is easily recognized, for the difference in the length and shape of the fang renders it then impossible to confound the temporary with the permanent tooth. 28. _The various points which denote youth_ must now be noticed. The remarks on this subject, however, must be confined to the mouth, to which this treatise is devoted. In the foal, the membrane of the mouth is of a delicate pink colour, suggestive of its high vascularity. The gums are prominent, for as the permanent are cut posteriorly to the milk incisors, and the germs of the horse teeth are developed even at the time of birth, the anterior part of the jaw is pushed forward to make room for their growth. This gives the little animal somewhat the appearance of being parrot-mouthed, as will be observed by referring to the coloured plate of nine months. Then the palate is low in its position, and the bars appear almost on a level with the tables of the upper teeth, and may even descend beyond them. The lower jaw, also, if felt, will be found to be quite round; and the face, if observed at that part under which the molar teeth are situated, will seem full, or the cheek will look a little blown out. These last signs, more or less, remain till the process of dentition is completed. 29. _The indications of age_ are no less deserving of notice. The edges of the lower jaw become sharp, and ultimately retracted; the cheeks grow flat; the membrane of the mouth loses its vascularity, and puts on a dull yellowish colour; the gums look hard, and the front of the jaw becomes narrower, while at the same time it inclines more backward, causing the teeth to project horizontally. The inclination which age gives to the teeth, will be easily perceived by comparing the coloured engravings with each other; and the peculiarity of the upper and lower incisors not being perceptible at the same time in the mouth of a thirty-years old, entirely springs from the acuteness of the angle which they form at that period. The bars, as years accumulate, also change their positions, being drawn upwards. From the space between the corner incisors and the first molars, the tongue on either side protrudes, as if the narrowed cavity left not sufficient room for the organ to repose in. The extent to which the tongue will project may be conjectured, by regarding the representation of it given in the coloured plate of the thirty-year old mouth. At that age, the protrusion is too strongly marked to escape the observation of any one whose attention has once been directed to the circumstance. Accompanying the inability to retain the tongue within the jaws, is a constant flow of saliva, which continually falls from the mouth of the old horse when the lips be held apart. The latter fact, the author, when he made the drawings for the present work, had ample experience of, as in some instances it occasioned serious delay. 30. _The incisor teeth, in old age_, have their characteristic signs. Mostly they appear unnaturally long, though in rare instances they are worn down almost to the gums. When long, they will generally show interstices dividing them, such interstices, however, not being free, but occupied by a compact mass of foreign matter, derived from the food, and having a black colour. The reader will, by turning to the coloured plates of twenty and thirty years, see these accumulations indicated. When the incisors are very short, they are arranged in a different order to those of the young animal. The tables of the teeth of the young horse, form almost a semi-circle; in the adult animal, they gradually assume a crescentic order, and as age progresses, they ultimately range, more or less, in a straight line. The teeth also look narrower as the fangs descend with the wear of the organs, and in colour they slightly change. The enamel loses much of its semi-opaque and characteristic appearance, assuming a more dull aspect, and a yellowish tint. The crusta petrosa is to be seen only near to the gums, and within the grooves, which often are deep and very well defined, and within which the remains of the once-investing membrane becomes almost black. Then again, the tables themselves change their shape as the years increase. At first, these surfaces are of an oblong and somewhat oval figure; by degrees, however, they become angular, and ultimately more or less square. The continental authors have been very minute, and not a little profuse upon the changes of form which the tables undergo, and attribute the alteration to the gradual wear of the teeth. The correctness of this view they endeavour to establish by sawing a tooth through at various places, and attempting to show, that the forms of the surfaces exposed by this process correspond to the shapes assumed by the table during the progress of age. Their deductions can, in the study, be made to appear true, but in the stable will not bear the absolute application to which these writers would put them. By means of this test, Pessina asserted he would tell the age of a horse, accurately, up to the twenty-second year. The Girards acknowledge the tables will not guide them so far, but nevertheless are willing to apply them during the first seventeen years of the animal's life. I leave the reader to form his own opinion of the value of such speculations--for while I confess they are of some worth as guides to the primary study, and helps to the proper understanding of the cause of those changes of figure to be anticipated--I am not satisfied that any rule drawn from them can be depended upon. For that reason I shall hereafter present the reader with figures of the tables taken from authenticated mouths, rather than amuse him with speculations, which, however imposing they may seem to the ignorant, practice soon discovers to be no more than remote and plausible possibilities. 31. _Some judges depend upon the tushes as indicative of the age_, and taken in conjunction with the other parts they afford corroborative evidence; singly, however, they should not be relied upon, nor should too much weight at any time be placed upon their appearance. In the first place, the tushes are cut irregularly; they may appear in the mouth between the second and third, and they may not pierce the gums so late even as the eighth year; the periods named being of course the extremes. As a general rule, however, they come up between the fourth and fifth year. The custom, however, which Nature so frequently disregards, can afford no positive guide to the judgment, and the wear which may begin thus early or late, should not be too particularly insisted upon. The tushes when they first show are shaped somewhat like a spear head, smooth and rounded on their external surfaces, but grooved on the side which touches the tongue, pointed at their extremities, and sharp at their edges. The inclination of the young tush is oblique, standing forward, and the situation is comparatively near to the incisors. As the animal's age advances, the tushes retract, the grooves on the inner surfaces wear out, and the space which separates them from the incisors increases: all observations, however, concerning the tushes, must be accepted with much allowance, for these teeth are very irregular. As a general rule, the lower tush becomes blunt, or rounded at its point and edges, and also of considerable length, while the upper is often so diminished as to be worn almost to the level of the gum. In stallions, kept only for service, the lower tush, however, frequently attains a great length, presenting the appearance depicted in the coloured engravings of the mouths at twelve and sixteen years. In those plates, the reader will observe the tushes no longer point in a forward direction, but have a decided inclination outward, and somewhat backward also. Another indication of extreme age is also worthy of notice, although, if too absolutely relied upon, it may occasionally mislead. Tartar, not generally found in any quantity upon the other teeth in the horse, accumulates around the tush, and in very old animals almost conceals it. This excessive deposit I have rarely observed in horses of moderate age. 32. _The wolf's teeth or eye teeth aid us in judging of the age_; though we are bound to state of these that they can be received only as presumptive evidence. The wolf's teeth have not been before alluded to, because they are not concerned in mastication, and are no more than the representatives of those organs which form the continuous chain in the mouths of some other animals. These teeth appear to be of no use to the horse. They are little nodules of tooth-like structure, having minute fangs, which are inserted immediately anterior to the first molars of the upper, being rarely seen in the lower jaw, and when present there, always being even yet more diminutive. These wolf's teeth are generally shed with the first temporary molars, and therefore if they can be seen, it may be assumed that the permanent molars have not begun to appear. The assumption, however, must not be converted into an assertion; for in some instances the wolf's teeth are retained, and, in a few heads, will remain after the horse has reached an age far beyond that of colthood: their presence, therefore, rather leads our expectations than confirms our judgment. 33. _The mode in which the horse cuts his teeth_ remains to be pointed out. It is generally said, that the tooth, originally growing in its circumscribed cavity, pushes its way through the parts which oppose its entrance into the mouth. So mechanical an idea is characterized by a small amount of physiological knowledge, and it is time the notions which attributed development to mere force were discarded. The tooth is first a pulpy mass, very soft and highly vascular; the superior part, or that part which primarily shows itself above the gum, is the first to become consolidated. Enamel and ivory are there simultaneously deposited, and gradually these extend towards the fang. When a portion of the fang is completed, and the time has arrived for the tooth to be cut, those structures which oppose the egress of the tooth are absorbed; the absorption taking place, not only on the internal surface, against which the young tooth has been supposed to exert its force, but also upon the external parts, upon which it could have no effect. By absorption the barrier is removed and the tooth then comes forward. The process is very beautiful, and no less worthy of admiration is the manner in which the milk teeth are shed. The incisors lose their fangs, and just when the permanent teeth appear, the crown of the temporary ones is removed from the mouth. The removal of the fangs of the milk incisors is the result also of absorption, and the same process effects the removal of the temporary molars, only its operation is not precisely similar; for in these last, not only the fang but the greater portion of the crown is taken away, and little more than the table is cast off when the remnant of what once was a tooth is at length shed. The process of cutting the molar teeth will be more clearly comprehended by referring to the annexed wood-cut, in which the darkened spots indicated by the line running from _a_ denotes the permanent tooth already through the gum and in the mouth, though still covered and partially concealed by the retained table of the temporary grinder _c_. The appearance of the table of the temporary molar when cast off is shown in the figure immediately underneath, to which the letter _c_ is also affixed, and the projecting portions ascending from its edges exhibit the last remnants of what originally was the fang: _b b_ are molars, well up and worn to a level. [Illustration] The next wood-cut exhibits the molar _a_, immediately after it has lost its covering. At this time the table is very uneven, presenting points which the finger would readily recognize, but in a short time these wear off, and an even surface is obtained, rendering it level with the other teeth, _b b_. [Illustration] As is here seen, when the crown has been removed, the permanent molar is well up, although it occupies the same place, and fills the same alveolar cavity which the temporary molar originally held. The horse incisors do not occupy the same cavities in which the milk incisors were placed, but are developed in cells formed especially for their reception, and come up rather behind than absolutely under the primary teeth. The form of the anterior part of the jaw in the foal admits of such an arrangement, and its greater comparative bulk gives all the space that was required. The space, however, between the branches of the lower jaw where the molars are developed, is filled by important muscles; and while any thickening externally would deteriorate from the symmetry of the head, any internal enlargement would have interfered with the free motion of the tongue and hyoideal appendages, the movements of both being as essential to perfect mastication as the presence of the teeth themselves. Hence the grinders are in their development regulated by a different law to the incisors; nor is the ordinization which declared the first should be well up, and the last scarcely to be seen when the period for casting off the temporary teeth arrived, to be passed over in silence. The molars are more important to the welfare of the animal than the incisors can be supposed to be. If the front teeth are irregular, the horse, nevertheless, can manage to feed; and if some are even wanting, the animal can subsist. A few would serve to grasp a sufficiency of food, especially such food as the state of the mouth, during the period of dentition, would dispose the colt to partake of. The animal is then in an inflammatory condition--the system is excited--and it is a wise provision which leaves the creature inclined only, at such a time, to consume a soft and laxative herbage, not in too great a quantity. The molars, on the contrary, if irregular in their growth, or uneven upon their surfaces for any lengthened period, would produce great local pain, and much constitutional disturbance. The food, in consequence of the rugged condition of these teeth, would be imperfectly masticated, the organs of digestion would become impaired, and the whole frame would suffer. To prevent this, the molars are fully cut before the temporary tables are cast off, nor do both the tables leave the mouth at the same time. The one on the upper jaw is first shed, and it is not until this has, by attrition, been rendered somewhat flat, so as to present a surface upon, or against which the food can be ground that the permanent molar of the lower jaw is uncovered. The unevenness of the grinding agent becomes now of less moment, since the part over which it is to be moved has been rendered fit for its uses, and since there are other teeth that present all their surfaces, suited for the purposes of mastication. 34. _The manner of examining the teeth_ is simple enough, and yet a few remarks may as well be made upon this part of the subject. To see the incisors, all that is necessary is to part the lips; but many horses are naturally shy when their mouths are touched, and more are rendered so by unnecessary severity in the administration of medicine, or by the tricks to which they may have been subjected. A certain degree of caution is always needed when an animal is strange to the examiner. Where the horse shows a disposition to resist, the groom who attends upon it, if present, should be allowed to handle the mouth, the judge being content to look and form his opinion from what he sees. If the groom be not in the way and the horse seems nervous, let the neck be patted, the face below the eye gently rubbed, then the nose caressed; and when the timid animal is assured that no harm is intended, the lips may be freely drawn asunder: but should the head be snatched away, when the first attempt to see the teeth is made, let the hand immediately release the mouth, rather than endeavour to retain the hold. It is far better to begin again than justify the fears of the horse, by a needless and worse than useless struggle, which in the end will probably be of no avail. After the horse has by forbearance been rendered quiet, while the lips are held asunder, the _shape_, _colour_, _length_, and _obliquity_ of the teeth are noted, and the presence or absence of milk teeth observed. When this is done without violence, the animal will not often offer any opposition to the finger being introduced to feel the tushes, or to the sides of the mouth being separated so as to obtain a fair view of them. The examiner now places himself in front of the horse, and by introducing one finger behind the incisors and getting it under the tongue, will cause the animal to open its mouth, or the tongue may be seized and drawn out of the mouth; and if confidence is established, no opposition will be offered to the jaws being kept for a short time apart. Of this, advantage is taken to observe the arrangement of the teeth, to inspect the tables, and to note the shape or depth of the infundibula. When all this has been accomplished, in less time perhaps than it takes to read a description of the process, the business is generally finished, and a conclusion has been arrived at that amounts to positive conviction. On certain occasions, however, it may be desirable to inspect the molars; and to do this properly requires a little tact. Some persons cast the horse for this slight operation: indeed, there are people who throw horses as though they imagined nothing could be done without the hobbles. There is, however, generally no occasion for such a proceeding; the twitch in the great majority of cases is all that is needed, and, with a little patience, even that instrument of torture may be dispensed with. A stool, or if nothing better is at hand, the stable pail is fetched for the operator to stand upon, so as to look with ease into the mouth of the elevated head. The animal is led into a good light, the balling iron placed between its jaws to keep them asunder, the tongue being drawn out to the side, removed from that which it is desired to inspect. While the mouth is thus distended, the person who is to judge, mounts the stool or pail, and looks into it till he is satisfied. Should the operator be desirous of feeling the teeth, he descends from his rostrum, and having pulled off his coat and bared his arm, introduces it into the mouth, while the tongue is drawn to one side by the assistant who holds the iron; always, however, taking care if possible, to have a balling iron which is open on one side, the arm being so introduced that the elbow is towards the free space. Should this precaution be neglected, if the horse prove suddenly restive, an accident may ensue. The lower jaw being easiest felt, and the teeth therein situated being most readily counted, that is the part generally manipulated. This is not difficult unless made so, and often rendered dangerous by the intemperance of the party who undertakes to accomplish it. Having described it, the author will now proceed to state the times at which the different teeth appear, and the signs which they exhibit. 35. _At birth_ the foal has usually three molar teeth on either side of each jaw,[*] and perhaps two front incisors, which last are then lateral in situation, and appear to be very large in proportion to the age of the animal. It is, however, usually a fortnight or three weeks after birth before the incisors appear. I have to acknowledge the greatest obligations to the Messrs. Tattersall, for the valuable opportunities afforded me of inspecting blood stock, at their large and admirably-conducted establishment at Willesden Paddocks. [Footnote *: The wolf's teeth at the anterior of the two rows of upper molars are generally present or indicated at birth; but as they are not invariably found, and are by no means to be depended upon as significant of the age, no direct notice need be taken of their existence.] 36. _At six weeks_, two more incisors are generally cut in either jaw, and those which originally seemed to grow from the sides, have, by this time, taken a position more directly in the front of the mouth. 37. _At six months_, the incisors have moved almost into the situation they will hereafter occupy, and the jaw appears somewhat elongated; but, if the gums be observed, it will be seen that nature is preparing to cut the corner milk teeth, which may even be through the gum. 38. _At nine months old, the corner milk teeth are up, but their edges do not yet meet._ The coloured engraving will show the appearance they present, and likewise exhibit the protruded state of the gums at this age. The drawing was made from a head in the author's possession. It has been tested several times, and its correctness fully ascertained. The last occasion, when it was authenticated, was by the mouth of a bay colt, by Muley Moloch, out of Canaletti's dam, with which it perfectly agreed. [Illustration: _NINE MONTHS OLD._ _The Corner Milk-teeth up, but their edges do not yet meet._] [Illustration: _TWO YEARS OLD._ _A full Mouth of Milk Incisors, all of which show considerable wear._] 39. _At one year_, all the temporary teeth are up and in apposition; but by this time two pairs of permanent teeth, which are the fourth molars, have made their appearance, and the yearling therefore has sixteen molars and twelve incisors, or twenty-eight teeth. The large number of yearlings annually brought into the market afford such frequent opportunities of examining the mouth at this age, that I need not state here the means by which the drawing has been authenticated. It would be a task of supererrogation to allude further to a fact which is so well known and thoroughly established. 40. _At eighteen months_, the incisors show some wear, the infundibula look as if they would soon be obliterated; indeed some of them may be lost. At or about this time also four more permanent molars, one on each side of either jaw, being the fifth in situation, protrude into the mouth. 41. _At two years old, there is a full mouth of milk incisors, all of which show considerable wear._ The coloured engraving of the two-year old mouth, will convey an accurate idea of the features which it presents at that age. The original drawing was made for the Jockey Club in anticipation of the celebrated Running Rein trial. Accepted by such authority, it perhaps hardly requires further proof of its correctness, but it has since been repeatedly tested. On the last occasion it was compared with the mouth of a chesnut filly, by Calmuck out of Miss Greatrex, and was found to agree with the indication therein presented. At two years, the infundibula are lost in the temporary incisors, and the fifth molars are in perfect apposition; indeed the smooth surfaces of these last are the best evidence that the animal is two years old, for he cannot then be far below that age. The incisors having been for some time employed, but still being to be retained for some months, have an aspect of wear and strength conjoined. The two-year old mouth, therefore, by those who cannot distinguish the milk from the horse teeth, (none of the latter being present to help the judgment by the contrast they exhibit) is likely to be mistaken for that of a five-year old; especially if the colt chances to be somewhat fully developed. A regular horseman, however, would not require the aid of the mouth to discover the animal was still in its colthood. 42. _At three years old, the centre horse teeth are well up, and are distinguished by their size, shape, and colour._ The appearance which the mouth will exhibit, the coloured engraving represents. The original drawing is in the possession of the Jockey Club, for whom it was made. It has, however, been repeatedly tested, in order to place its correctness beyond doubt. Both colts and fillies have been inspected for this purpose, and equally have the different breeds been consulted. As the public, however, place the greater confidence in blood stock, it may here be mentioned that the appearances perfectly coincided with those exhibited by a brown colt by Muley Moloch out of Miss Greatrex, and Roxey, a brown filly, by Lanercost, out of Ellen Percy, besides various others which it would be both needless and tedious to recapitulate. The mouth, at this period, indeed is so marked, and in general so regular, that it is the more readily recognized. The new horse incisors, by their size, contrast with the milk teeth which are still retained. The comparative length and squareness of their figure cannot fail to attract attention, and their deeper colour can hardly be unobserved; that colour is caused by much of the primitive coating of crusta petrosa being retained, or only removed from the edges where the enamel is bright. But as a vast number of horses are sold at this age, and many are started for heavy stakes, it will be imperative now to proceed more cautiously in the description. About this time the terms "rising three," or "coming three," or "three next birth-day," are made use of, as well as "three off"--the first phrases indicating that the colt is yet between its second and third year, or will in a month or more be three years old, and the last term meaning that the animal has attained its third year, and has recently entered the fourth year of its existence. The season here materially aids the judgment; for if a blood horse shows a fair three-year old mouth in December, it is unhesitatingly pronounced to be "coming three;" and if it exhibits the same appearance in January the animal is declared to be "three off." The same holds good with the coarser breeds, only, as before stated, the month of April would then be estimated as that of December in the former case, and May would answer to January. "Coming three," however, can, with a little stretching of the term, be applied to any foal; and is commonly used when the colt is strictly but "two off;" for the terms are somewhat loosely used, though in their stringent sense a horse is only rising three, four, or five, after the mouth has began to assume the form which characterizes the respective ages. When the colt is two off, that is two years and three months old, the milk teeth are all retained, and to a casual observer, the mouth would still say "two." A little closer observation will, however, correct the judgment, for looking attentively, perhaps a slight, and only a slight difference in the colour of the central incisors may be remarked. The tinting of the enamel may be a "thought" darker, and yet the contrast so delicate, that the difference can only be seen in a certain light. Then again casting the eye to the gums of the upper central incisors which are first shed, that part of them immediately covering the neck of one of these teeth may show a little redness, and the other exhibit nothing of the kind. The redness indicates that nature is making ready for the appearance of the permanent incisors, and on evidence no heavier than this, the animal is pronounced to be "two off." The redness, it may be said, can be artificially produced--so it may be, but the natural character can hardly be imitated. The colour in the normal mouth is not deep or angry; it is not caused by inflammation, but is only increased vascularity of the part, and it is at first limited to the edge of the gum. The colt shows no symptoms of tenderness in the reddened gum, but stands quite as still, and even more quiet when it is pressed, than when the opposite one is handled. If the part had been tampered with, the animal would probably tell tales when the finger touched it, and the redness would be more intense on the prominent or bulging portion of the gum than where the margin encircles the neck of the tooth; while it is ten to one inflammation had been produced rather than vascularity excited. Little occasion, therefore, is there to fear imposition, and little room for those who would practise it to hope for success. The next indication of advancing age is given by the gums growing more vascular, even now looking inflamed, while a yellow deposit (the nature of which is not well understood) may be seen upon the neck of the tooth, and the central incisors of the upper jaw, if felt, may probably be found loose. In another or about the sixth month, one of the central incisors is removed. It does not fall out, as is generally stated, but while the animal is feeding, the tooth is, as by accident, wrenched off. The gum bleeds, and being slightly lacerated, looks sore and angry for some time. The sharp edge of the new brown-coated permanent incisor is now seen protruding. In a week or two the remaining milk central incisor of the upper jaw is, by a seeming accident, forced out; and the mouth now has an irregular appearance, the edges of the upper central incisors not being level with the tables of the lateral milk teeth. The lower central incisors, when the upper milk teeth are lost, generally are loose, and their gums inflamed; but a month or sometimes six weeks may elapse before these are gone: by that time the upper permanent teeth have grown considerably. When the central milk incisors have disappeared, the molars begin to change, and those of the upper jaw are the first uncovered; not in any regular order, or the two teeth on the same day, but generally the first molar before the second, the wolf's teeth mostly departing at the same time. A week or two subsequent, the first two permanent molars of the lower jaw are laid bare, so that at or about the ninth month, the horse has all those teeth, which denote the animal to be three years old, fairly in the mouth; that is, he has between the second and third year cut four horse incisors and eight permanent molars. Lest the description should not be perfectly clear, or such as to enable the reader to readily understand which teeth by this time are shed, a drawing of the head of an adult animal, which forms the frontispiece of this work, was designed. It will enable the reader to form some notion of the extent of the horse's mouth and likewise of the positions of the teeth. Near to the teeth will be seen figures which do not denote the periods when these organs first appear, but the time at which they are fairly up, or to some extent exhibit wear. In that engraving no further notice is taken of the milk teeth than is conveyed by the small star associated with such of the figures as indicate the places from which they have been displaced: thus the figures 1, 2, and the last 4, having no star, indicate that those molars are developed only as permanent teeth. The figures 3*, 3*, 3*, having stars, denote that milk teeth originally occupied the situations where these teeth are shown: those figures will be seen above and below the central incisors and the first two molars of either jaw; and as but one side of the face could be displayed, of course the number has to be doubled, the colt getting twelve additional permanent teeth by the time it completes the third year. At three years, therefore, the central permanent nippers are in apposition, and show wear, though to only a limited extent. The infundibulum is broad, as depicted in the accompanying cut. [Illustration] In the above representation of the table of a three year old tooth, it will be remarked that the infundibulum appears in the outward direction to extend quite across the surface. This aspect is produced by an indentation at that part, which, by the completion of the third year, is in most instances not worn out, but after the third year is attained, it speedily disappears; so the table of the three year off has become somewhat broader, and the infundibulum circumscribed, or well defined, as it is shown in the subjoined wood-cut. [Illustration] In fact, the shape of the table is here the best guide, and should be carefully studied, as otherwise the judgment can never be assured. At this age, one tush may be peeping through. I have never seen more than one present at three years, and then these teeth have always been slightly developed, rather indicating what was to grow than exhibiting that which had actually grown. The tushes, however, now in almost every case, may be felt under the membrane through which they are ultimately to protrude, and can most readily be felt in the upper jaw. Nevertheless, the tushes of the lower jaw always make their appearance first, because the membrane covering these is less loose, and therefore more easily penetrated; and also because the lower jaw being the active agent of mastication, as well as the resting place for the bit, it is naturally subjected to greater wear, thereby assisting the egress of the tushes. In the upper jaw they are often concealed by the loose membrane long after they are fully developed. The tushes, at this age, however, are no guides. The three year old colt, for general purposes, is easily recognized, when the lips only are separated. [Illustration: _THREE YEARS OLD._ _The Centre Horse Teeth well up and distinguished by size, shape, and Colour._] [Illustration: _THREE YEARS OFF._ _One of the lateral Milk-teeth shed, and the permanent Tooth coming up._] 43. _At three years off, the lateral milk teeth are shed, and the permanent teeth are coming up._ The coloured engraving, the original of which is also the property of the Jockey Club, for whom it was executed, was made from the mouth of a bay gelding, by Almack, out of a mare by Rubens, Jun., belonging to--Goring, Esq. The state of the mouth therein exhibited is so peculiar to the age, and so decided in its indications, that it can hardly be mistaken. One of the lateral milk teeth from the lower jaw has been recently lost. The gum is sore, and the top of the permanent incisor is seen rising up. By comparing the temporary incisor, which is speedily to fall from the upper jaw, with those representations of the same teeth given in the previous plates, the gum will be observed to have considerably retracted. Preparation is evidently being made for the change which will in a few weeks take place. The milk teeth begin to be shed about the seventh or eighth month after the completion of the third year, those in the lower jaw being the first to quit the mouth; and all that was observed on the subject in the former paragraph, may be applied to the present, only making allowance for the differences of position in the teeth. 44. _When rising four years old the lateral horse teeth are in the mouth, but their edges do not fairly meet._ The coloured engraving of this age will denote the altered aspect of the mouth, consequent upon the development of a few months, when the colt may want only a dozen weeks for the completion of its fourth year. The original sketch for this plate was taken from the mouth of a horse called the General, the property of Sir Samuel Spry. To test it, however, it has been largely applied, and in every case it has been confirmed. If the mention of names is here required, I may repeat those of Blackbird, Marquiss of Conyngham, and a host of others. The plate, therefore, may be regarded as fully established, and the reader, without fear, may depend upon its correctness. As is shown in the engraving, the lateral incisors, at this age, touch, but nevertheless do not meet so as to be of any service in nipping the food. It is of some importance to attend to this peculiarity, inasmuch as were the presence of the indicative teeth alone remarked, an animal wanting some months to be four years old might be purchased for one that was rising five. [Illustration: _RISING FOUR YEARS._ _The lateral Horse Teeth in the Mouth, but their edges not fairly meeting._] [Illustration: _FOUR YEARS OLD._ _Four pairs of Horse Teeth well up, but the Corner Milk teeth retained._] 45. _At four years, four pairs of horse teeth are well up, but the corner milk teeth are retained._ Such a state of the mouth is very characteristic of the age, and not likely to be mistaken. The appearance which the teeth present, if viewed from the front when the lips are separated, is shown in the coloured engraving, and it is such as no person can well mistake. The original drawing in this case was also made for the Jockey Club, and was produced upon the famous trial. On all occasions that presented themselves, which have indeed been numerous, it has been compared with the mouths of living animals, and in no single instance has it been found to be contradicted. This has not only been done with colts, but also with fillies, among which last I may mention Lupine, Mora, Nightcap, Chamois, and Jew Girl. To the plate, therefore, the reader should refer; and supposing him to have done so, the other indications which the mouth presents between the third and fourth year will now be enlarged upon. The state of the molars at this period may be regarded as demonstrative of the age of the animal. The reader will remember, that according to what has been pointed out, the colt at three years old has five molar teeth on either side of both jaws, and that of these teeth, one only, the third in situation, marked thus, 4* in the frontispiece, is of a temporary nature. Shortly after the upper lateral milk incisors have been cast off, and sometimes previous to that occurrence, the point of the sixth molar penetrates through the gum, and before it is fully up the covering of the third permanent molar is removed. This effected, the colt has six molars on either side of both jaws, and whenever that number is found they may be assumed to be all of a permanent character; so at four years old the tables of the central incisors exhibit some considerable wear, the infundibula no longer extend entirely across, but have become circumscribed and well defined. The tables of the lateral incisors, on the contrary, are only beginning to be formed, and very often the part posterior to the infundibulum has not received any attrition. The infundibula in these last extend the entire breadth of the table, and in consequence of an indentation on that side which touches the corner milk teeth, the space is there free. The reader will comprehend this particular formation, by referring to the wood-cut of the table of the tooth presented at page 79, the appearance being so much alike as not to necessitate a repetition to enforce it. When the fourth year, however, has been for a month or two perfected, the tables then assume the form represented in the following wood-cut, which exhibits the change that has taken place in the central incisor, and also the appearance of the more recent lateral tooth when the colt is fairly four years off. [Illustration] One or more of the tushes may also be well up: the whole may have made their appearance; but more frequently only the two originating from the lower jaw are through the gum. No dependence, however, can be placed on the presence or absence of the tushes, which repeated proof has shown to be irregular in their development: nor is the state of the mouth during the fourth year such as justifies an off-hand opinion being pronounced; for though during that period the growth of the teeth is generally well marked, nevertheless exceptions more frequently happen than between the second and third years. An instance illustrative of this fact occurred at the Veterinary College, at St. Pancras, during November, 1844. To that Institution was brought a dun colt, which the professors, one and all, pronounced to be "rising three." Mr. Robb, a gentleman of great talent, and then a pupil at the school, having looked at the animal's mouth, pronounced it to be "three off," or "rising four." Here was a difference of opinion to the extent of a whole year; and of course the pupil was sneered at for his ignorance and presumption. Mr. Robb, however, had reasons for his conviction; he would not give up the point, but wrote to the breeder, and obtained a reply which showed the teachers had yet to learn. Being an acute observer, Mr. Robb had attended to the wear of the tables; had seen the infundibula had become defined, and the surrounding surface broad. He had also remarked the gums, and seen that those of the lower jaw were slightly red; and, taking these tokens in conjunction with the appearance of the colt, arrived at a conclusion which the result proved to be correct, and which did not show the mouth deficient in its symbols. Mr. Goodwin, veterinary surgeon to the Queen, has casts of mouths taken from horses of known ages. No gentleman connected with the veterinary profession, perhaps, has enjoyed such peculiar opportunities as Mr. Goodwin, and no one could be characterized by a greater inclination to take advantage of them. With a natural talent for observation, and an innate love for scientific inquiry, combined with enthusiasm in the cause of truth, Mr. Goodwin has, in the midst of ill health, pursued his researches, and spite of an opposition, which did not stop short of calumny, fearlessly advanced his opinions. Those opinions, Mr. Goodwin's position, and his acknowledged ability should have claimed consideration for. The conclusions which had not been hastily arrived at, ought to have been deliberately weighed. The author of this work is proud to acknowledge the obligation under which the courtesy of Mr. Goodwin has placed him, and with pleasure confesses that he has, in that gentleman's society, learned much upon a subject which he had previously diligently studied to become the master of. The facts which Mr. Goodwin brings forward in support of his convictions, are strange and startling. The candour with which he courts investigation, enforces belief. He is certainly right in his own sphere; so far as his observations have extended, his conclusion cannot be overthrown. To the information he has generously afforded the author, allusion will repeatedly be made in the course of this work; but at present the remarks must be confined to the models in Mr. Goodwin's possession. One of these exhibits the mouth of a colt called Julius, (which was ridden by Her Majesty) retaining the lateral milk incisors, when but a few days were wanting for the completion of the fourth year. The teeth that should have been shed, however, are evidently on the eve of leaving the jaw, and therefore though an exception, it is not so much so as to grossly mislead the judgment beyond a few months. It is to be regretted that the molars of this horse were not examined, and to the tables of the incisors, as shown in the model, I make no allusion, because these parts evidently have not received the particular attention of the artist, and consequently cannot be argued upon. The same gentleman has also favoured me with the inspection of a model of the teeth of a horse known to have wanted three months of the third year: nevertheless the mouth is that of a colt which would be pronounced to be "rising four." The lateral incisors on both sides, and in both jaws are fully up, and they possess tables, which, if correctly depicted, indicate that for some time they have been in apposition. A lusus naturæ of this sort is beyond the pale of reason. Connected with it there is no record of the development of the molars; and on the state of the tables as shown in the cast, I am, for the causes before stated, not inclined to place any great reliance. The growth of the incisors shows the colt to be "rising four;" the evidence declares it only to be "coming three." Here is an exception to a general rule: one which I believe is unique; at all events I am aware of the existence of no similar specimen; and it is to be lamented that the growth of the incisors, from the earliest period, had not in this horse been observed. As a unique specimen it is curious, but as a premature and extraordinary development, it cannot be opposed to a general rule. Children have been born with three legs, or joined together at various parts; but the race of men are nevertheless described as having two inferior extremities, and as being independent in their existence. A solitary instance is no more than a curiosity, and, until it is proved to be the exemplification of a general rule, must not be made the basis of a general deduction. Such occurrences, however rare, nevertheless deserve consideration; and had the animal last alluded to been trained, there is no doubt any qualified judge would have pronounced it beyond the actual age. Therefore, gentlemen possessed of racing studs, should, from time to time, have the mouths of their horses examined by approved members of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, that any irregularity of development may be known and stated. To neglect so simple and reasonable a precaution, is to incur a needless hazard. By adopting it, the proprietor would be prepared to meet objection; and the idle reports that every year get into circulation would be quashed at their birth. A firmer basis for the authenticity of the age would be established than the reputation of the owner; and gentlemen would not annually be subjected to having their characters questioned by a host of interested ignoramuses. The turf is bound to adopt some measure of this kind for its own defence, especially as the honour of its members is, on every occasion, called into question, and a single instance of suspicion, seems, in the public eye, to warrant a general aspersion. 46. _When rising five years old all the horse teeth are in the mouth, but the corner teeth have yet to meet._ The peculiar sign of this particular age is the loss of the corner temporary incisors. It is scarcely possible to mistake the last milk tooth of the four year old, for the horse incisor which is characteristic of the fifth year; the difference between them is so great, that no person ought to confound one with the other. The corner milk tooth is often by the third year worn almost to a stump; its table being somewhat triangular, or occasionally round. By the fourth year it generally becomes a mere stump, or so changed in appearance that it contrasts in size with the other nippers, and seems incapable of performing any active function. At first, the permanent tooth when it makes its appearance, strikes us by its greater breadth, the gum not then having sufficiently retracted, or the tooth sufficiently grown to allow its after length being estimated. When the corner teeth are in the mouth, some time will elapse before they touch, but the incisors are then arranged so as to represent almost a semi-circle. The annexed wood-cut will convey an idea of the manner in which they are placed, and also of the shape of the tables of the central and lateral nippers, at the time when the corner teeth do not approximate, although they are through the gums. [Illustration] The periods when the teeth which characterize the fifth year make their appearance, must now be described. When the animal is four years and three months of age, the gums of the upper corner teeth begin to redden, and before it is three months older, one of the corner milk teeth may have been removed. The opposite milk tooth speedily follows, and then the corner horse incisors grow down, and seem almost to be fully developed before the corner milk teeth of the lower jaw are shed. When, however, all the milk teeth are lost, the corner incisors will not touch for some time; and by the completion of the fifth year, though the teeth approximate, their tables are not formed, nor do their edges denote any amount of attrition. The corner tooth at five years old, looks young, and is principally covered by the membraneous crusta petrosa, which give to it a dark aspect, as though it were encrusted with tartar, little of the enamel being to be seen, while the shape of the gum is also characteristic. The five year old mouth, therefore, is easy of recognition, the shelly character of the corner teeth being very marked and not subject to much eccentricity in its figure. As five however, is the age when, for general purposes, the majority of high priced horses are brought into the market, the changes which take place before and after this period have been illustrated in the coloured engravings. When the animal is near to or rising five, the corner teeth are dark coloured, and though they touch, nevertheless their edges are not fairly together. The superior surfaces exhibit no tables, and the general aspect is such as is depicted in the engraving; the original of which was made from recollection of the appearances presented by the mouth of Mr. Payne's Rebel, which horse was seen at Hampton Court. The drawing was more recently corroborated and corrected by the mouth of a fine young black hunter, the property E. C. Crowley, Esq. The peculiarities of this age, as denoted by the corner teeth not closing, should be remarked. It is not altogether unimportant to observe this circumstance, as animals are esteemed suitable for particular uses, only after the fifth year has been completed, and certainly all are less liable to disease when the mouth has been perfected. The distinction, therefore, is of some moment; and the better to enforce it, the reader will remember, that not until the accomplishment of the fifth year do the tables of the corner teeth begin to show: even at that time, however, they are very imperfect. [Illustration: _FIVE YEARS OLD._ _A full Mouth of Horse Incisors, all the edges of which fairly meet._] [Illustration: _RISING FIVE YEARS._ _All the Horse Teeth in the Mouth, but the Corner Teeth have yet to meet._] 47. _At five years old there is a full mouth of horse incisors, all the edges of which fairly meet._ The coloured engraving--which has been amply proved, by comparing it with the mouths of horses of various breed, among which those of blood have not been forgotten, since it was last tested by the aspect presented by the teeth of the well-known horse, The Baron,--will instruct the reader in the altered character which the mouth now assumes. It looks more huge, and far more powerful than it did at the fourth year. The teeth fairly close, but on inspection there can be detected slight signs of wear. The tables are not yet formed. The anterior edges alone are rendered level; all posterior to the infundibulum being as yet untouched. The tables then present the appearance indicated in the following wood-cut, which also represents the semi-circular order in which they are arranged. [Illustration] 48. _At five years off the corner teeth only show slight wear, and the posterior margins are round._ Much of the original coating of the crusta petrosa is retained, but in colour it may not at this time be dark. At those places where it has been recently worn down, it is often of a yellow tint, which is but a little deeper than the enamel, which last, however, is nevertheless easily distinguished by its greater transparency and more pearly appearance. This peculiarity in the crusta petrosa not unseldom gives to the six year old mouth a darker aspect than is presented by the teeth of the younger animal; and the author, to convey to the reader some idea of this fact, has purposely rendered the incisors of the next representation of the mouth, as they frequently are seen. Such a circumstance, however, will not confuse the judgment. The corner nippers still look young to him who is acquainted with those signs which denote youth in the horse's teeth, and the coloured engraving will convey a fair idea of the aspect they now put on. The corner nipper, in fact, after the fourth year, leads, in a great measure, if it does not entirely sway, the judgment. This tooth is sometimes called the shell tooth, on account of its infundibulum being, for the most part, better exhibited and longer retained than in the other incisors. The tables, however, of the other teeth should also receive some attention: those of the centre nippers may exhibit the infundibula shallow, or, in certain instances, when the crusta petrosa which lines these cavities is very thick, no infundibula may be distinguishable: even then, however, on close inspection, the form of the cavity will be discovered, marked out by a line of enamel, and the space that is usually vacant filled up with a substance, which in appearance differs little from the ivory. The tables of the lateral incisors will be fully formed, and the infundibulum is rarely obliterated, while its margin is always circumscribed and well defined, as the previous wood-cuts will indicate. [Illustration: _FIVE YEARS OFF._ _The Corner Teeth only show slight wear, and the posterior Margins are round._] [Illustration: _SIX YEARS OFF._ _The Corner Teeth look more firmly set, and their edges begin to be uneven._] 49. _At six years of age, the corner teeth look more firmly set, and their edges begin to be uneven_; they have become more square in the figure of the external surface; the edges of the teeth, when the mouth is closed, fairly meet; the round appearance of the posterior border is nearly lost, and the teeth are altogether of a most prominent character. The table of the corner teeth, nevertheless, is still confined to the part anterior to the infundibulum, which cavity is not yet fairly circumscribed or surrounded by a level margin. The infundibula may be lost in the central incisors, and those of the lateral teeth may begin to look shallow; but more generally these cavities are retained at six years old. The tables, likewise, have somewhat changed their positions, and the semi-circle which they formed at the fifth year, now is hardly so perfect, though still well marked. The above description will be the better understood by reference to the coloured engraving, which has been compared with the mouths of numerous animals, viz., Skeleton Sorella, and a brown horse, the property of Mr. T. Brown, &c., &c. The reader, however, will at once recognise the general truth of the drawing, the purpose of which the accompanying wood-cut will serve to explain. The alteration in the semi-circular arrangement will be better perceived by contrasting the present diagram with the one which preceded it, and though the change may not seem very great, nevertheless, sufficient is indicated to instruct the eye accustomed to observe it. The corner teeth have now acquired a degree of surface which will fairly represent a table, though it is still imperfect. The more darkly shaded portion of the separated table denotes the part which has yet received no attrition, but notwithstanding it is readily discerned that the nipper has come into active use. [Illustration] 50. _At seven years off, the corner teeth, without showing age, exhibit further evidence of wear._ The coloured engraving to which the reader must refer, exhibits those alterations which have now taken place. The original sketch was made from the mouth of a horse in the possession of the author's father, and having been corroborated by the inspection of numerous others, it is confidently put forward as characteristic of the age. I cannot here forbear from acknowledging the personal kindness and professional attention bestowed upon me by Mr. Percival, who, on being made aware that I was engaged upon a work illustrative of the horse's teeth, not only allowed me to inspect the mouths of the animals under his charge, but honoured me by accompanying me and assisted my endeavours to arrive at a just conclusion by his remarks. I have also to express my thanks to Mr. Braby for the liberty to inspect the large stud of heavy dray horses in the stables of Messrs. Barclay and Perkins, the eminent brewers. The advantages I derived from comparing so many mouths of the same age at the same time, and the facilities which were given of minutely examining each, enable me with more certainty to speak upon a subject which otherwise it would have been prudent to mention only in the most qualified terms. However, after such ample investigation, I can, with confidence, refer to the plate depicting the mouth at seven years off. Looking at it, the reader will see the teeth have become more white, in consequence of the crusta petrosa having, by the natural wear, been to a greater extent removed. The tushes are exhibited as fully up, in which condition they are generally seen. Where the corner teeth meet, they close in such a manner as denotes considerable use. The way in which the gums encircle the necks of the shell teeth has also changed. By referring back to the engraving of the five-year off mouth, the difference will be more readily understood, the round arrangement of the gums at the earlier age being very significant. The tables of the teeth, however, at this period ought never to be overlooked; they afford, perhaps, the best indications on which the judgment can be based. The infundibula may or may not be gone in the lateral teeth; but those of the corner teeth have at this age become defined. Where the corner teeth meet, in consequence of those of the lower jaw being, in many horses, a little the most forward, the upper shell teeth may present posteriorly a small projection, which is seldom seen prior to the seventh year. When this is present, it is so obvious as not to escape observation, therefore, it has not been depicted in the coloured engraving, which has purposely been made to represent the less marked indication that is more difficult to judge by. The reader will see the projection alluded to slightly indicated in the previous coloured engraving, portraying the mouth at six years off. Where the two shell teeth meet, he will observe that the most backward portion of the upper, not being opposed by the lower tooth, and consequently suffering no wear, bulges slightly downwards. It is this particular part, which often at the seventh year, by the wearing down of the upper tooth, becomes so apparent as to be significant of the age. It is, however, not constantly present, and the tables consequently become of the greater importance, as they are always to be found. Those of the lateral incisors begin to depart from their oval figure, and those of the central nippers are growing decidedly angular: the tushes may have the edges slightly rounded, and the semi-circle which the tables of the incisors formed when the animal was five years old, may exhibit some inclination to change in favour of the lineal arrangement that is in many horses so prominently marked in old age. This semi-circular arrangement of the incisors is most conspicuous when the colt is rising five; and from that period gradually alters, till in very old subjects the tables will occasionally be ranged almost in a straight line. The alteration which takes place in this respect is, however, by no means uniform, and though, consequently, no rule can be absolutely laid down concerning it, yet, from the known inclination of the teeth to assume a certain figure, an inference can be drawn which, connected with other signs, enables a pretty close opinion to be formed. At the seventh year, however, the corner teeth, their external figure, and the form of their tables, taken in conjunction with the wear exhibited by the central and lateral incisors, and considered with the narrowed but not yet sharp edge of the lower jaw, enable the judge to arrive, with tolerable certainty, at a conclusion. The following representation of the tables, taken in conjunction with the coloured engraving of the seven-year old mouth, will convey an idea of its appearance at that age. The reader will remark the infundibulum of the corner tooth has become circumscribed, being now encircled by a flattened surface, which posteriorly is of some width. [Illustration] [Illustration: _SEVEN YEARS OFF._ _The Corner Teeth without showing age, exhibit further evidence of wear._] [Illustration: _EIGHT YEARS OFF._ _The Gum of the lower Corner Teeth has become Square, and the lower Tush blunt._] 51. _At eight years off, the gum of the lower corner tooth has become square, and the lower tush blunt._ The original drawing was made from the teeth of that noted horse, Oakley; and in order to render it as perfect as possible, the mouths of mares (Meal, Edgworth, Bess, &c.) have been compared. The departure from the circular form of the gum, as depicted in the coloured engraving, is even more marked than it was at the seventh year. Added to this change of figure, the gums appear more hard and less delicate; the mouth looks more firm, and seems to have attained the perfection of its strength. The margin of the lower jaw is now comparatively sharp, and the cheeks are flat. The crusta petrosa on the upper teeth is in a great degree removed; the enamel not yet, however, having a marked yellow tinge. On the lower corner incisors the crusta petrosa may still continue, but it no longer has a dull brown aspect: it is never prominent at this age, but rather speckled over the outer surface, than regularly enveloping any portion of it. It has a somewhat rough and worm-eaten aspect, and in colour is nearer to a dirty yellow than a dull brown. If the posterior angle of the upper corner incisor is pendant, or exhibits that species of notch, which was alluded to in the previous paragraph, it is at the eighth year well shown, and the table has undergone considerable alteration. There is now on the shell tooth, a full table, the infundibulum of which, if not obliterated, is always of lessened size, well marked out, and on all sides surrounded by a broad and a flattened surface. The other teeth have also changed their figures. The tables of the centre nippers have taken on a decided angular shape, and those of the lateral display no dubious tendency to assume that form. The infundibula may be obliterated, but more generally those in the lateral and corner teeth are retained, or if now absent, the circle of enamel will, on inspection, show that the cavity is only filled up by crusta petrosa, not absolutely worn out. The following wood-cuts exhibit the changes which the tables undergo; and as the eighth year is an important one, inasmuch as the horse which has attained it is called "aged," a double set is here introduced, to show the difference of figure which these parts may present. In those tables, it will be seen the infundibulum has gone from a central nipper only; but even in that instance, a white mark indicates that the cavity is merely filled up by crusta petrosa, the enamelled lining not being yet worn out. The alteration in the form and magnitude of the infundibula cannot, if the accompanying wood-cut be compared with those which have preceded it, fail to strike the reader; indeed these changes, aided by the worn appearance of tables of the shell teeth, are now the principal guides when judging of the age by the mouth. [Illustration] 52. _After the eighth year_, there is no certainty in any opinion drawn from the teeth. A guess may be hazarded, and very often that guess will prove correct, but at the same time it should be received only as a conjecture. The chance of naming the age decreases as the number of years increase. After the twelfth, the probability of hitting the exact year is very small. After the sixteenth year, all is confusion, and there remains no sign which could warrant any person in pretending he could pronounce the age by the teeth. It is true that certain tokens may induce a conviction that an animal is much older than sixteen, and this conviction may be so justified as to amount almost to a certainty; but no man, I imagine, could form any opinion with regard to the number of years by which a horse exceeded sixteen, or pronounce a decision that should have any appearance of exactitude. They who pretend to an ability of this kind, may, in a few solitary instances, strike the point; but repeated failures will show that there is no positive principle in operation to guide the judgment. Indeed the age is most correctly told during the periods of dentition, and up to the sixth year. After the sixth year, the certainty is not so great, but a very fair, if not a positive judgment can be pronounced until the eighth year is accomplished. After the eighth year, no man should give an unqualified opinion concerning the age of a horse. After the twelfth, whatever may be pronounced should be offered only as a conjecture; and, after the sixteenth, the practitioner had better be silent. When stating this the author must be understood as expressing the conviction at which almost exclusive attention to the subject, and much necessary consideration, has enabled him to arrive. It must not, however, be thought that he is arrogating a power of measuring the capabilities of genius; his wish is only to declare the truth as he perceives it. The intention to publish a work upon the teeth has not been concealed; opinions have been solicited and information sought; the author has many obligations to acknowledge; all to whom he has made application have been liberal in their communications; but from no one has he been able to obtain anything opposed to the conclusions he has here promulgated. It may be that hereafter the power of judging of the age shall be extended. Pessina and the Girards thought it could be done with exactitude up to an extreme point, and saw a principle in the latest changes which the teeth undergo. The general experience in this country, however, seems to have decided that, after the eighth year, there is no certainty. With that decision the author is reluctantly obliged to acquiesce, and even to add that certainty is not to be obtained after the sixth year. This limitation, coupled as it is with a confession of inability, may seem to be a backward movement; but truth cannot retrograde. By ascertaining how far our present knowledge leads us, a motive is given to genius by the opportunity created for its exercise. No pains have been spared to investigate the hypotheses which have been made known; they have been candidly put to the test, and on the proof of their inefficiency discarded. That the reader may judge for himself, the tables of teeth, and mouths of various ages are presented. The altered aspect of the tables at the ninth year is indicated in the following wood-cut, which exhibits these surfaces as gaining depth and narrowing from side to side. This appearance they generally assume, and at the same time the infundibula are either lost or much contracted. [Illustration] The next wood-cut, which depicts the form of the tables at the tenth year, though true in its general character, will serve to show how far dependence may be placed in ordinary signs, since the infundibulum of the lateral nipper shows a well-marked cavity, while from the other teeth it seems to be upon the eve of disappearing. On inspection, however, it will be seen that in figures the tables approach more towards the square, which is the last form these surfaces assume. [Illustration] 53. _At twelve years old, there may be tartar on the lower tush. The teeth are longer, narrower, and the enamel darker._ The coloured engraving, which was, on the last occasion justified by a comparison with the mouth of that famous horse, Charles the Twelfth, will convey a general idea of the prevailing characteristics of this age. The teeth have lost the white and firm set aspect they bore at the eighth year. Often, at this period, they have, by wear, become irregular generally, as exhibited in the plate; the grooves, extending down the length of the upper incisors, contain the remnants of the crusta petrosa, which is almost black. The upper tush is usually much diminished, while the lower is long, especially in stallions kept for service. The teeth project more outward and begin to arrange themselves more in a line, no longer showing the crescentic order which they assumed at five years old. Also, by the twelfth year, the tongue, when the jaws are closed, protrudes from the open space between the incisors and molars. The degree in which these alterations have taken place, together with the protrusion of the incisors, is all that is present to guide the judgment; and practical experience is needed, to give him, who attempts to decide upon such weak evidence, any chance of success. As in cases of this description every thing that can help the judgment is eagerly seized upon, the general appearance of the animal is always to be considered; and that may warn the practitioner to modify his opinion. The lower jaw is sharp, the cheeks flat, and around the tushes there may be an accumulation of tartar. It is true the tables, consequent on the wear of the teeth, will have undergone some change, but that alteration is now so slightly marked as not to enforce itself upon the observation. It is easily overlooked, and by no means easily recognised. The annexed wood-cut will suggest the nature of the change. In it will be seen a further remove from the oval form of these parts in the young mouth. The surfaces have become square or angular, and the corners are only sufficiently rounded to indicate what once was the shape which they exhibited. [Illustration] The following wood-cut depicts the tables at the completion of the fourteenth year, and only by careful comparison could the increase of age which they denote be detected. On inspection, however, it will be seen that the irregularities of outline are less prominent even than at the twelfth year. [Illustration] [Illustration: _TWELVE YEARS OLD._ _Tartar on the lower Tush. The teeth longer, narrower, and the enamel darker._] [Illustration: _TWENTY YEARS OLD._ _The Form of the Mouth changed, and the lower Teeth imperfectly seen from the front._] 54. _At sixteen years old, when the teeth are viewed from the side, only two incisors can be seen in the lower jaw_, as depicted in the coloured engraving, which was last authenticated by the mouth of Muley Moloch, which favourite stallion I was, by the kindness of Mr. Theobald, permitted to examine at his well-known establishment, where I also saw many other horses of the purest blood and highest promise. Of the excellence of the arrangements and the value of the animals, which give character to that gentleman's establishment, it would be presumption of me to speak. I have only to express my admiration of what I beheld, and tender my thanks for the attention I received. The engraving, however, was fortunately corroborated, and its general indications may therefore be accepted. The enamel has entirely lost its white and pearly tone. The tushes, perhaps, loaded with tartar in both jaws, are blunt, and generally either very short or long, inclining somewhat outward. The extension of the crescentic arrangement of the lower teeth enables only two to be seen when the parts are viewed from the side. The tongue protrudes to an obvious degree, and the saliva runs from the mouth when the jaws are separated. The edge of the lower jaw is very sharp and somewhat retracted, while the incisors have taken a horizontal direction. No sign, however, save the protrusion of the tongue, is positive. The general character is that of advanced age, and this general character, at once recognised by the eye of experience, is more to be depended upon than the teeth themselves. The teeth have now assumed the permanent character of old age; and in the figure of the tables will undergo no further alteration upon which any dependence can be placed. Up to the sixteenth year, however, the tables deserve to be consulted. Below is exhibited such evidence as they present, which the reader will perceive is so nice and delicately marked as to be easily misinterpreted. In the tables which belonged to the fourteenth year, it will be seen the infundibula are almost gone, a speck alone denotes their latest trace; nevertheless, the next wood-cut, which exhibits the tables at the sixteenth year, will show that the absence of the infundibula is not to be relied upon. Still the advance in age is, though feebly, indicated. The central incisor has assumed a form which is peculiarly characteristic of age in the horse. It is seldom that at sixteen years all the tables take so marked a shape, but some of them, and generally those in the centre, will, at this period, be symbolical of the truth. [Illustration] Had it not been for the very conspicuous indication of the central tables, the others in the former wood-cut might have been reasonably decided to be more juvenile in their aspect. 55. _At twenty years old, the form of the mouth has changed, and the lower teeth are imperfectly seen from the front._ This circumstance springs from the more horizontal direction which the teeth have now assumed, and the acuteness of the angle which they consequently form when closed. The engraving also depicts that alteration in position which disables a person, standing in front, from well seeing both rows of incisors when the lips are separated. When the upper incisors are fairly presented to the sight, a partial view only of the lower teeth is obtained, and as the age advances even that is lost. Further inspection also shows additional changes in position, shape, and tint. The grooves are broad, deep, and well marked by their dark colour. Between the upper incisors there are interspaces in which the food has accumulated and become black, giving to the mouth the appearance represented in the coloured plate. The upper tush, which is now of a brownish hue, may be worn to the gum, and the lower continue long and surrounded by tartar, or both may be reduced to mere stumps. The tongue protrudes greatly; the membrane of the mouth seems hard; and no longer vascular, it is thrown into wrinkles. The edge of the lower jaw is sensibly retracted, and its sides are flattened or narrowed. The general appearance indicates the decay of nature. Here again, however, nothing is positive, save the yellowness of the teeth and the protrusion of the tongue. The general character of the animal is of more value than the indications of the mouth; and, persons familiar with horses can, sometimes by this, guess the age of an animal with the same approach to accuracy, which most people exhibit, when pronouncing the extent of an individual's life, by simply looking at a man's face. In neither instance, perhaps, could the basis of the opinion, which possibly shall approach very close to correctness, be accurately stated. Proof, as to the evidence upon which a conclusion is in such cases based, cannot be anticipated, and to the inquiry how they were able to tell the age, each would probably answer, by the "looks," but neither would be capable of precisely defining in what these "looks" consisted. 56. _At thirty years old, the jaws are contracted; the lower are not seen when the upper teeth are in view._ The coloured engraving, which at first sight seems to suggest that the animal possessed only a single jaw, exhibits the mouth as it appears at the thirtieth year. The animal, the mouth of which is here depicted, had a lower jaw with excellent teeth considering its age, but without elevating its head these could not, while the mouth was closed, be seen, or when seen, the view of those in the upper jaw was lost. This peculiarity arises from the teeth having taken a still more horizontal inclination; they are now crowded together; and, from the irregularity of their wear, may assume the pointed figure indicated in the plate. The change of colour also has become more decided, and the general indications, which have been before alluded to, are more marked. After what has been so frequently repeated concerning the deceptive character of the tables in extreme age, little, perhaps, need be added to that subject. Nevertheless, to convey an idea of the appearances which these surfaces may assume, subjoined are wood-cuts taken from authenticated mouths, for the inspection of which I am indebted to the liberality of Mr. Ernes, of Dockhead, who has paid great attention to the changes of the teeth. To the honour of that gentleman, I may, while confessing the heavy obligations under which his generosity has placed me, here mention, that no member of the veterinary profession had, to my knowledge, under his care so great a number of animals working at a period of life when the horse is usually supposed to be worthless. The majority of these were in good condition, active, and capable of doing every kind of ordinary service. They presented a pleasing spectacle, more than creditable to the talent of him under whose charge they had retained health and vigour. The aspects which the tables of the teeth exhibited, however, were such as set judgment at defiance, and for the purpose of enabling the reader to form his own opinion on the matter, engravings of a few of them are here introduced. [Illustration] The above wood-cut exhibits the tables and arrangement of the incisors as they were seen in the mouth of an animal which was proved to be no less than twenty-eight years old. Any one, who should base his opinion solely on the marks, must have pronounced the creature to have been no more than five, since none of the infundibula are lost. The semi-circular arrangement also had suffered no very material change, and altogether the contrast with the next representation of the same parts, as they appeared in the mouth of a horse which was but one year older, is very striking. [Illustration] In the above engraving the teeth are seen to be ranged almost in a line, which is the form they have a disposition to take at this great age. The appearance, here delineated, is more true than the foregoing in its general character, the infundibula being entirely worn out; for the specks in the centre of the tables show, not the remains of the last portion of the marks, but the exposure of the upper extremity of what once was the cavity of the pulp. In the next wood-cut, however, which depicts the tables of the teeth which were in the jaw of a horse, that had reached its thirtieth year, and from which the drawing for the coloured engraving was made, displays a portion of the infundibulum still retained in the corner incisor. The true character of age nevertheless is conspicuous in the form of the tables. [Illustration: _THIRTY YEARS OLD._ _The jaw contracted. The lower teeth not seen when the upper are in view._] [Illustration: _SIXTEEN YEARS OLD._ _Viewed from the side, only two Incisors can be seen in the lower jaw._] [Illustration] Such contradictory indications admit of being to a certain degree reconciled. The representations of the tables are correctly given, but, in the living mouths, these were corrected by the appearances of the teeth themselves. The incisors of the horse which was twenty-eight years old had suffered but little wear. An unusual degree of hardness, or an extraordinary power of self-preservation, contributed to keep them, so far as the tables were concerned, in appearance, young, long after the season of youth had passed. Almost from the fifth year the tables would seem to have suffered but a very gradual change; for even when twenty-eight, these parts do not indicate the horse to be more than "aged." The absence of wear may, in some measure, be attributed to the kind of food which the animal had consumed, it having been chiefly fed from the manger; and also to its being of a quiet disposition, or not inclined to bite and snap when the groom was dressing it. The want of wear, however, did not necessitate the cessation of growth, which went on at the natural rate; therefore, though the tables had a very youthful look, the teeth were, nevertheless, unusually long, and gave to the mouth a decided appearance of age. Their colour, and the removal of almost every vestige of the crusta petrosa, together with the general appearance of the horse, was sufficient to awaken those suspicions which would warn the practitioner. The eccentricities, however, which particular parts can exhibit, will teach the student, that a conclusion should only be drawn from observation and comparison of all the various signs which the teeth present. No sign can be singly relied on; but, by weighing the evidence, and placing the contradictory indications in opposition, something approaching to truth may, even in extreme age, be deduced; though such deductions, for obvious reasons, ought to be expressed with caution, and never, under any circumstances, positively advanced. Mr. Henderson, the respected veterinary surgeon to Her Majesty the Queen Dowager, possesses in his museum many interesting specimens of the teeth. Among the rest, he has the jaw of an animal which was ascertained to have reached the thirty-eighth year. This preparation, however, exhibits no sign that could characterize the extreme age which the horse had attained, and I allude to it, only as a confirmation of the opinion I have expressed, that, as the period of life advances, the mouth of the horse becomes more and more difficult of interpretation. 57. _The tricks, that are practised on the teeth_, are so much talked about and so generally feared, that the subject demands a few words in explanation. The breeders are known to extract the milk teeth, hoping thereby to hasten the growth of the permanent incisors, and to increase the apparent age of the colt. The gums they are likewise known to touch with the hot iron, or to freely lance for the same purpose. All of these practices are common enough; but that they accomplish the design of the persons who employ them is not at all certain. By either of these practices the animal is pained, and pain does not favour development, but, on the contrary, retards it. The suffering, however, may be brief, yet the effect does not stop there. If the milk tooth is firm in the mouth, when the attempt is made to extract it, in nineteen cases out of twenty, it will be broken and the fang left in the jaw. When the extraction of the milk teeth has been general, I have seen numbers of horses, with the broken fangs in their mouths, palpable evidences that the animals have been tampered with. But, supposing all of the tooth to be removed, nothing would be thereby gained. The permanent tooth does not push out the temporary; nor does the temporary, so directly obstruct the coming up of the permanent, as to render its presence or absence of much consequence. If the fang be removed, there may be nothing to absorb, but on that account it does not follow that there will be anything more deposited. The body of a man does not grow larger because one or more of his limbs have been amputated. On the contrary, the shock occasioned to the system by the operation, and the consequence ensuing on the loss of blood, may cause an immediate diminution of the frame. So, if a horse's tooth be drawn, the animal is alarmed, tortured--and, if the creature recovers from these effects very speedily, so that no loss of growth could be estimated, certainly the most favourable circumstances would not allow us to imagine any stimulus to development had been created. There will be some loss of blood, and this, however slight it may be, nevertheless being taken from the immediate part, must act as a local depletion. Now to deplete is to check growth by abstracting the very source of nutriment. The hemorrhage, however small, must be injurious; and the mouth being made more or less sore, the inclination to feed, as a natural consequence, is diminished, thereby further checking the development. I cannot see in what manner the extraction of the milk teeth is to hasten the growth of the permanent incisors; but I can perceive that the operation may have the opposite effect; and I have known the practice to have been followed by the non-appearance of the very tooth, the protrusion of which through the gum, it was employed to quicken. The tooth, which previously seemed to be on the eve of piercing the gum, after the extraction of the milk incisor never came up,--nor will any person who has thought for an instant, wonder if the violence, necessarily used, does occasionally injure or rupture the delicate vessels and gelatinous tissues of the pulp. More often the breeder's impatient interference breaks the tooth off at the neck and leaves the fang in the jaw. This he has not the skill to extract, and as it is not afterwards absorbed but speedily assumes a dark colour, it remains a tell-tale and an eye-sore during the life of the animal. Had the colt been left alone, the fang in a few months would, by the natural process, have been absorbed: but the force which broke the tooth, though incapable of extracting it, probably ruptured the delicate tubes of the absorbent vessels. The broken member is left in the mouth, either to act as a foreign body, or to become united by anchylosis to the jaw, and continue for life a deformity. The folly of the practice will surely on reflection be evident to all; and the other means employed for the same end are in a like degree injurious. The breeder will consult his own interest best by studying the feelings of his animals. For the sake of profit, if not for the love of humanity, he had better cease to torture the poor beasts by which he hopes to gain. Suffering will neither engender spirit, growth, or fat, and the market pays price for each of these. The mouth of the horse is too important towards the value of the animal to be ignorantly mutilated. Let the mind reflect, before the hand is permitted even to use the lancet. To lance the gums of the human infant was once a favourite practice; nor has the custom at the present time fallen quite into disuse, but it is generally resorted to only during the cutting of the primary teeth, and not commonly adopted to facilitate the appearance of those teeth which the horse-dealer employs it to quicken. In the latter case, on man the gum lancet is not employed; and, if found useless on one animal, a strong inference is created as to the inutility of constantly experimentalizing with the instrument upon another. By incising the gums a wound is created, the part is thickened, and a cicatrix induced; the effects of which are to cause an impediment to the growing tooth; and this being seen and corroborated by practical observation, the best dentists and surgeons of the present day are not very enthusiastic in the use of the gum lancet, which they have in a great measure cast aside, and which is beneficial only in scientific hands. The loss of blood likewise is to be considered, and that certainly aids in retarding the growth, which the adoption of the other means, general with the breeders of horses, could not accelerate. The employment of the cautery, to expedite the appearance of the teeth, is so strange a resort, that I can only account for the use of that agent by imagining certain persons to be totally ignorant of its action. In the first place, it destroys the part with which it comes in contact; inflammation follows and suppuration ensues; a quantity of blood is diverted to the surface, and of course drawn from the pulp of the new tooth, which originally it flowed to and nurtured. A slough must take place, and the mouth remain sore till the escar is thrown off and the exposed granulating surface cicatrized. But wherever the hot iron is applied the immediate part is thickened, rendered more hard and tense. Which of these effects is it the horse-dealer regards as likely to promote his wishes? A little knowledge would inform any one, that the cautery must act in the opposite direction to that, which it is supposed, by ignorant people, to favour. Indeed, I do not think, that horse-dealers or others have yet obtained so great a mastery over nature, that the dame can be made to hurry at their bidding, however cruelly their orders may be enforced. A "Yorkshire five" may sound well, but there is no more possibility of making a four-year old colt, by barbarity, show the development of a five-year old horse, than there is, by wrenching, cutting, and burning, of making a boy of fifteen look like a man of twenty. Nature obeys her own laws, and is not yet subjected to human practices. Careful rearing, nutritious food, sufficient exercise, and no work does promote development, and of the growth thereby engendered, the purchaser has no reason to be in fear; for if one part shows maturity, he may be assured, that the other parts are also equally matured. The time the animal has lived is not of half the consequence, that the use which has been made of its life is, to the future possessor. The horse that has a mouth indicating five, and that can be proved to be five, if it has been worked from its earliest year and stinted in its food, has less energy and life than a younger creature forwarded by the fostering care of the breeder. The two animals are not to be compared. Supposing the one to be no more than four, it possesses the vigour and development of five; while the other, which is five, may have the decrepitude and constitutional infirmity of twenty. Let not the buyer fear the deceit of the breeder, but without dread accept the mouth as proof of the age; if the animal is not in years, he is in development, that which the teeth declare. To this conclusion, however, some will oppose their opinions. The animal, they will argue, has been stimulated to exhibit an unnatural maturity, and the seeds of future disease have thereby been planted in the system; therefore, it will be urged, the worth is depreciated. The statement looks well, but it is of no value, for a little inquiry will prove it to be based on false principles. Excessive stimulus checks the growth, or causes early disease, sacrificing either the health or life of the being. The feeder knows, from experience, that the quantity of nutriment must be measured by the powers of the creature that consumes it; and that over-feeding, by impairing the digestion, destroys or weakens rather than nurtures the body. The stimulus, pushed beyond a certain point, would keep the horse in the infirmary, and never fit it for the market. Every dealer knows this, and though such persons are, by the prejudice of the public, obliged to keep their animals loaded with fat, or in what is called "bloomy condition," they nevertheless fear to maintain this state of body for too long a period; and while it lasts, constantly resort to drugs, to counteract that tendency to disease which it engenders. They treat their stock, almost as a physician would treat so many city aldermen; and give dinner or digestive pills almost as regularly. A _fatted_ beast is always diseased, but an animal liberally fed is thereby rendered the more healthy. In fact, the dread of those results which ensue from comfort is, with regard to the horse, quite as unfounded as the fear, that mankind once had, of the "miseries of the rich," and the envy, poets taught them to indulge, towards the starvation of the poor. Such idle fancies may be dismissed with profit to the person who discards them; but at the same time there are some practices the reader needs to be cautioned against. To give the face of the horse a youthful appearance, some of the class of dealers who frequent public markets, low auctions, and country fairs, puncture the skin at that part where the falling or depression is seen above the eyes in old animals. Having inserted into the orifice a small quill, they then blow into the part, thereby inflating the subjacent tissue, and concealing the cavity. This notable artifice, which is called "_puffing the glym_" ought to impose upon no one. Should the trick be suspected, let the hand be carelessly raised to pat the neck and cheek of the animal, when it can, under pretence of likewise stroking the face, be passed over the part which is supposed to have been tampered with; and in the act a little pressure may be made upon the suspicious region: then, if the swelling has been induced in the manner stated, the passage of the hand is sufficient to squeeze out the air, and the contrast which the two sides of the face will afterwards present, gives to the countenance of the poor horse, a very knowing and peculiar expression. Let the person, however, who thus undertakes to expose roguery, be assured of his ability to protect himself in the office he has assumed; for the gentlemen who display their ingenuity on horses, are not averse to occasionally mutilating the human frame. To lay bare and detect such low, mean, and obvious cheatery, as the above, properly belongs to the police; and the least acute of the force, ought to be equal to the detection of so gross an imposition. The swelling, when caused by inflation, always has an unnatural aspect, such as a school-boy would find no difficulty in recognising, after his attention has been directed to the point. It looks puffed, and when the jaw moves, the part does not play freely with the motion. These circumstances, at a glance, declare the cheat which the pressure of the hand can, in an instant, prove to have been practised. The artifice, however, when adopted, ought to be of no avail. Young horses often exhibit the depression above the eye, of great depth; nor is it unusual to see old animals, in which the cavity is naturally shallow. The qualified judge, therefore, glances at, but never permits the state of, the part, to influence his decision; and the trick, when resorted to, can impose only on those who are too vain to acknowledge their ignorance, or too mean to pay for protection. Other indications are of greater worth, and to these, observation is directed. The roundness or flatness of the cheek, the sharpness or fulness of the lower jaw, no art can imitate: these, consequently, receive more attention. The eye is directed to the mouth; and still supposing the reader to be present at such places as the parties who practise tricks with horse flesh mostly frequent, let him be thought desirous of purchasing the animal, and therefore proceed with an examination: it will not be long before the teeth will be inspected. When the lips are separated, the incisors may be long and horizontal in their inclination; and, by the time this is noted, the seller probably has volunteered the information, that the horse he is most reluctantly obliged to part from, was six years old last grass. The expression of surprise such a statement elicits, is answered by oaths as to the fact, and direct accusations of ignorance against any one who would assert the animal to be a day older. The jaws are pulled asunder, and all the marks are seen. Here is proof; no man who knows anything of horses, he is told, would reject such evidence; and a host of ready bye-standers stare at the mouth, and only doubt if the creature is full six _yet_. The judge also looks at the marks, and then walks away: he has formed his opinion, and the sight of the marks confirms him in the conclusion he had arrived at. The absence of the police may caution him not to expose himself by noticing the shout of defiance, and bellowed taunts, that signalize his retreat; but he has seen the animal is a "bishop." Now what promoted the poor brute to ecclesiastical dignity? The term in horse slang, simply means that the marks are not natural, but have been made. There are two means by which that can be done. When time presses, and tools or skill are wanted, the tables of the teeth are touched only with a red hot wire, which leaves a black _mark_ wherever it is applied. This, however, is a coarse expedient, and the more usual practice is, to dig out the cavities with a kind of engraver's tool, and then to blacken the spaces thus created. The infundibula are imitated with much nicity; but the resemblance, however close it may be, never for a moment imposes on the qualified judge. The shape of the table, characteristic of the old tooth, cannot be altered, nor can the edge of enamel, which should gird the infundibulum, be artificially produced. Moreover, many of the people who "bishop" horses, are content to perform the operation only on the lower jaw, leaving the upper teeth untouched, because these are not generally inspected. Should such be the case, of course the marks will be more or less faded, where naturally they would be most fresh; for the infundibula of the lower jaw are lost some years prior to those of the upper disappearing. The attempted deception, therefore, is never successful, save when the "copers" are fortunate enough to meet with a "flat," who has just knowledge enough to be very wise in his own conceit. It must, however, be remembered, that the lower class of dealers are not limited in their transactions, and often dispose of animals to persons of respectability; therefore, it is not unusual to find horses standing for sale at commission stables, with mouths of a most conspicuous character. The owners of such horses may be gentlemen of the highest probity, and in ignorance the age may be mis-stated. For this reason, no man should purchase a horse of any individual, without having the animal previously examined by a certificated member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. The money so spent, is the smallest item in the account; and the sum saved by following this rule is often disproportioned to the expenditure,--to make no estimate of the disappointment and vexation which may be prevented. Respectable dealers will not knowingly allow the character of their stables to be injured by the presence of a "bishoped" animal. This class of persons are very scrupulous in that respect, but they are not always able to detect the truth--their education is often limited, and though good ordinary judges, they cannot, under every circumstance, decide correctly--they unconsciously deceive, being themselves deceived; and consequently every purchaser should take the precaution pointed out, no matter whence, or from whom, he may be buying a horse. Were all to act in the way indicated, much law would be spared, and a great deal of anger allowed to slumber. The dealers are not the rogues the enlightened public are fond of believing--many among them are as honourable as all men should be--some of the class, however, never let a horse escape out of their hands unmutilated. The teeth invariably receive the primary attention: if long, they are, by the application of a file, reduced to the length which the self-taught equine dentist supposes proper to youth. An acid is also applied to the enamelled surface, in order to render it white. No vast good is effected, but if the means were not designed to impose, no great harm would perhaps be done. The acid is not allowed to corrode the tooth, and the diminution of the length may possibly in some degree benefit the animal. The welfare of the creature, however, is not the object sought--the hope is to cheat; but no person who ought to be trusted, or even to trust himself to purchase a horse, should be so imposed upon. Whiteness is no sign of youth in the tooth of a horse, and the file cannot make the tables assume the juvenile figure. Horses that show such mouths, may be easily recognised--perhaps they are quiet while their legs are handled, but shy when the head is touched--they are not vicious, but timid, and the teeth tell the reason of their fear. It is well to pass them by, and dangerous to accept them at any price. If the teeth have been tampered with, what tricks may not have been practised to conceal other defects? 58. _Irregularity of growth in the horse's teeth_, should, in all cases, be early noticed, and speedily attended to, for so much of the worth of the horse depends on the animal's ability to feed, that it may be said, "no teeth no horse." The milk teeth are so regular in their growth, that I have not been able to hear of, or meet with a specimen, in which they were eccentric. The permanent teeth, however, are not unusually irregular; the most common irregularity which they exhibit, is that of retention of one or more of the milk incisors, and this more frequently is to be seen in the lower than in the upper jaw. Mr. Ernes, of whom I have before spoken as an excellent judge of the teeth, and a most able practitioner, was kind enough to show me the mouth of a cart horse which was under his care; the lower jaw had eleven incisors, but of these five were milk teeth. The appearance which the mouth presented was rather that of some foreign animal than of an ordinary horse. The bone had become deformed, and the gums were in several places in an inflammatory condition. Mr. Henderson possesses a most curious preparation of the lower jaw of a horse, in which there is exhibited eleven permanent teeth. The appearance which this specimen presents is extraordinary, and the existence of such a monstrosity, showing the extent to which nature may violate her own laws, deserves special attention. The possibility of so great a variation being encountered, will prepare the mind to expect and to consider the less marked deformities, which in practice are not unusually met with. It is not unusual to find horses with eight teeth in one jaw, two of which are generally, on inspection, found to be retained milk incisors. The milk teeth, if allowed to remain after the horse incisors are fairly up, often give to these last a very strange appearance. The following wood-cut depicts the mouth of a mare, to which my notice was directed by Mr. Henderson, the gentleman to whose generosity I have before had occasion to confess my obligations. [Illustration] The corner milk tooth here not having been extracted after nature had failed to remove it by the process of absorption, has caused the last permanent incisor to take an unnatural situation, where, being removed from attrition, it has become of extraordinary length, and looks as much like a curious tush as the thing it really is. Such a state of the mouth is far from rare, and because of its frequency, being the more likely to be met with in practice, it was chosen for illustration. The molar teeth are less subject to distortion, but, nevertheless, are sometimes irregular, and from the same causes. I have seen the palate pierced by a tooth which grew in an unnatural direction. The treatment, in both cases, would be alike. The milk teeth should never be allowed to remain in the mouth after the corresponding permanent teeth are fairly up. If removal prior to this period does no good, now the operation is suggested by its accordance with the natural process, and the sooner it is undertaken the better: any delay will only create difficulty, and render the restoration of the displaced tooth, more problematical. The unabsorbing fang, will, in time, become united to the bone; and if its extraction is then attempted, fracture of the jaw may be the consequence. In no instance should the stable keeper be told to pull out the teeth: he has not the proper instruments for the purpose, and must use unnecessary violence even if he does no greater injury. The animal, besides, is rendered shy of him, in whom it is essential it should be educated to repose confidence; and many a horse, by the bungling efforts of such people, pretending to operate, is ultimately rendered dangerous in the stable. Moreover, the horse owner cannot be too seriously cautioned, against giving permission to those who attend on his animals, to overstep their lawful limits. In the first instance he may, perhaps, congratulate himself upon the result, but speedy experience will convince him, to his cost, of the danger of the system. If the operation should have been delayed so long, as to allow the teeth to have become of unequal lengths, then, after the milk incisors are extracted, the permanent teeth must be rendered level; and, however far apart they may at first be, in time they will approximate. The operation, which is recommended, any Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons will execute; and, as in skilful hands, it is never dangerous, so it should, on no account, be entrusted to quacks or pretenders. For some irregularities, however, there is no help; for instance, when the lower jaw exhibits only four permanent incisors, which is by no means unusual, and which, in the majority of cases, could be traced to the efforts made to extract the corner milk teeth, before the time had arrived for their removal. An animal with such a mouth is obviously deteriorated. The lessened number of its teeth may be of little consequence while it is young and kept in the stable. During the earlier years, the corner nippers, which are those most frequently wanting, are not in perfect apposition, nor are the incisors of so great importance, when the food is to be pulled from the rack or gathered from the manger. But at grass, especially in old age, when horses are most frequently turned out, and when the spreading of the semi-circle brings all the teeth into play, none can be spared. The absence of one-third of the nippers in the active jaw, would then cause the animal more work for its livelihood, and probably counteract all the benefit which "the run" was intended to produce, even if more serious evils did not ensue. The eccentricities of the teeth should always be regarded, to conjecture how far they may retard the welfare of the horse. The presence of an additional molar in each jaw is sometimes seen, and is hardly to be counted a defect: such supernumerary teeth are generally posteriorly situated, and of small size; they may cause no inconvenience, and their existence not be suspected during the life of the animal. The reverse, however, is the case when an extra tooth is found only in one jaw. I am indebted to Mr. Dunsford, a gentleman who pays more than usual attention to every case entrusted to his care, for a fine specimen of the evil which may result from an abnormal molar. In the lower jaw, on the near side, are seen seven molar teeth; and the last has, from the absence of attrition, grown to a length which caused it to do serious injury to the mouth. The teeth are placed one behind the other in a perfect row; hence, as well as from their all being of the full size, one, the last in position, was occasioned to project, forcing itself through the gum, even into the substance of the superior maxillary bone. The horse was destroyed, having become useless, in consequence of its inability to masticate its food. Another defect in the molars is observed, in these teeth sometimes being placed apart from one another, leaving interspaces between them, in which the food accumulates, and inflaming the gums, causes the animal much pain whenever it attempts to feed. For this, nothing can be done, beyond giving the poor beast its meat artificially prepared; but with all care the unfortunate animal becomes emaciated, and is speedily consigned to the knacker. Fortunately, however, the molars are not often irregular in their growth. In fact, most irregularities of the teeth must be carefully sought for, but one form which is not rare by any means ought to be always observed. In certain animals the lower jaw is so short, that the creatures cannot place the incisors together or in apposition: the consequence is, that the lower incisors being active instruments, have to perform their functions at considerable disadvantage; but, nevertheless, they act and receive wear. The upper incisors, however, are, in such mouths, subjected to little attrition; the corner, and a portion of the lateral nippers alone, meeting each other; hence the central nippers, which grow more forward than they ought, at length project downwards, and overhang those of the lower jaw. This arrangement of the incisors constitutes what is called a "parrot mouth," because of the resemblance which the teeth bear to the bill of the bird. Most old horses are more or less parrot-mouthed; but young horses also occasionally exhibit mouths of this description, and in these last it is certainly a defect, for in a state of nature, or at grass, the animal would be necessitated to tear rather than bite its food. The proprietor of such a beast, therefore, can or ought never to turn the creature out, but keep it constantly in the stable, and under many circumstances this would entail inconvenience and expense. There is nothing to be done for such a malformation, but an allowance should be made for it in the price. That the reader may be able to recognise it, a copy of a mouth, in which the deformity was well marked, is here presented. The animal, which was introduced to my notice by my talented friend, Mr. Broad, of Paddington, was twenty-one years of age; and though more conspicuous cases of the kind are sometimes seen, the one I have chosen for illustration shows a rather greater malformation than is usually met with; but, nevertheless, it well illustrates the point upon which I have been dwelling. [Illustration] The molars sometimes wear unevenly, their edges becoming as sharp as knives, and their tables slanting in an unnatural degree. The slanting tables cannot perfectly comminute the food, so that which is swallowed, not being properly prepared, affords little sustenance; while the sharp edges cutting the inside of the mouth, and causing it to ulcerate, render the animal, from the pain, disinclined to eat. The contraction of the bones of the lower jaw, in some old horses, by disabling them from bringing the tables of the molars in perfect apposition, is the cause of these teeth assuming such a shape; for in young animals this species of distortion is never witnessed, save as the consequence of disease. The horse not feeding, attracts the attention of the groom, and rarely does his intelligence detect the cause. Any member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, however, will soon discover the seat of mischief; by reducing the cutting edges of the molars, and invigorating the constitution, while the ulcerated mouth is properly treated, and the food carefully attended to, he will soon restore the horse once more to health and activity. The proprietor, however, must ever after have the horse, from time to time, attended to, as the symptoms denote a relapse; and with such precaution the animal may continue in full work for a number of years. Not a few horses show the edges of the incisor teeth perfectly rounded, so that when the mouth is closed the tables no longer touch in every part; indeed the form of the tables is destroyed, and the age of the animal can by them hardly be conjectured. These rounded teeth have been supposed to denote crib-biting, and gentlemen have for fifty years been told, to set down every horse presenting such a mouth, as a confirmed cribber. The notion, however, is not supported by fact, for cribbers generally exhibit even mouths; and I have not yet been able to discover an instance in which this habit had caused the tabulated surfaces of the teeth to be convex. The round form of the tables results from the horse biting when being groomed, and generally is seen in those which are of an excitable nature. These animals are usually good servants, but this shape of teeth unfits them for being turned out to grass, as the cutting edges of the nippers are destroyed. 59. _The diseases to which the teeth of the horse are subjected_, are, fortunately, not very common; though this assertion must not induce any person to imagine that his animals may not be afflicted in this respect. Every owner should be particularly watchful on such a point; for so important are the teeth to the welfare of the animal, and so difficult of cure are neglected cases of this description, that numbers of valuable horses have been and will be slaughtered, simply on their account. No animal is exempt from this species of affliction. One man may during his life possess many horses, and die without knowing how fatal are the diseases of the teeth. Another person, whose stable shall contain but a single nag, may, in a few months, be taught how dreadful are the ravages which this affection can induce. All therefore should, for the security of their property, be aware of the first indication of this species of disease. Though the teeth are not vital organs, and the course of the malady is generally slow, nevertheless, the consequences to which it gives rise are such as in every case, deteriorate the value of the animal; and, in many, nay, perhaps the majority of instances, render it alike prudent and humane to deprive the poor beast of existence. Probably I do not assert too much when I add that, in the ordinary examination of horses, little attention is paid to the condition of the teeth. The incisors are inspected to ascertain the age, and any peculiarity in these is particularly noted; but for the most part the molars are passed over without comment. Here the rarity of disease may shield the negligence of the practitioner, who, nevertheless, is in every case exposed to blame through his inattention. Such a man may pass through a long practice, and escape reproach; but, nevertheless, the first horse on which he pronounced an opinion, might have blighted his reputation, by exhibiting the disease he had taken no pains to detect. Every animal purchased of a party whose warranty might be at all suspicious, ought to be seen to feed before a conclusion as to soundness is pronounced. If then the molars are affected, the truth would be made obvious; and there is nothing can render a horse more unsound than disease of these teeth. The animal so afflicted, may, for a time, be equal to its work: yet to render it capable of exertion it requires continual care, and in the end, spite of all precaution, it may become worthless. Some means should therefore be adopted to ascertain that the grinders are free from disease, and a little corn will enable the fact to be conjectured. Should any suspicion be created, a further examination will discover the truth. The molars, in the judgment of every one who has thought upon the matter, are the teeth which, especially in aged animals, require attention. The incisors indicate the age, but they are not usually liable to disease. I have not met with a single case in which the incisors were affected, nor in which the tushes were diseased. I am, however, informed by Mr. Field, whose high reputation and extensive practice give weight to his assertion, that he has had to treat horses for disease of the incisor teeth, and has even been obliged to remove a portion of the lower jaw in order to procure relief. Other practitioners, of whom inquiry has been made, have not known such a form of disease, neither have I witnessed it: instances of this kind, therefore, are rare, and hitherto have not attracted attention. The honour of making known the possibility of their existence, belongs to a gentleman whose name is proudly associated with the science which it has so long adorned. The incisors of the colt are not, however, liable to be seriously affected: when those teeth decay, age must have advanced. During colthood, nevertheless, the teeth, if exempt from disease, may be the causes of great constitutional disturbance. Mr. Percival, the gentleman who, as editor of the "Veterinarian," and author of the best and most elaborate works on the diseases of the horse that have yet appeared in the English language, attaches much importance to those ailments incidental to dentition. Of the consequences that may ensue from the cutting of the tushes, he adduces positive proof, and from his admirable work on "Hippopathology," page 172, vol. 2, I cannot forbear extracting the following most valuable case:-- "I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth, without having discovered any defect or disease; though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion, that the averseness or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent _cudding_, arose from preternatural _bluntness_ of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in consequence, filed; but without beneficial result. It was after this that I saw the horse; and I confess I was, at my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any thing satisfactory as others had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I went back, and discovered two little tumours, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insufferable pain. I instantly took a pocket-knife, and made crucial incisions through them, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite, and by degrees his wonted condition." The fact here recorded has certainly been generally overlooked; and Mr. Percival deserves the gratitude of his professional brethren for directing their observation to the point. Every practitioner, however, has met with instances in which the molars were implicated. There are two forms of disease to which these teeth are liable; caries, or decay, and a loss of vitality, or death. The death of a tooth has not hitherto been observed upon by veterinary authors, but it is not rare. The causes which may give rise to it cannot be accurately stated, though they may be conjectured. The vessels that nurture the fang and ramify through the pulp, are small and delicate; the alveolar cavities are thin, some of them in the upper jaw being not thicker in parts of their walls than brown paper. The force of the masticatory muscles is very great, and if any hard substance be taken between the teeth, it is easy to imagine that the minute arteries of the fang should thereby be ruptured. The effect produced upon the pulp, and the transient agony occasioned by biting a piece of hard crust, are familiar to every human being; nor can we suppose that the horse's teeth, especially when the greater strength of its muscles is duly considered, are not liable to similar and proportionably greater injury. There may be no history to such a case, no record of the date when the occurrence took place; for the horse is not always watched during the time of its feeding, nor were it watched, is it possible that the groom would attribute the sudden exhibition of pain to the right cause. The primary effect is therefore misinterpreted or unnoticed; but after a time it is remarked that the creature is longer than its companions emptying the manger; then it begins to quid its hay,--that is, the hay is taken into the mouth partially masticated and formed into a pellet or round mass; but instead of being swallowed, the prepared morsel is allowed to fall from the mouth. Should no advice be taken, the horse becomes bad in its coat, and loses flesh. No amount of corn, or extra grooming, will restore it to condition; medicines may be administered with no better effect. The disease is strictly local in its nature, and the constitutional symptoms are only sympathetic. Should the affection still be suffered to proceed unchecked, the animal is continually moving its lips; either it is restless in the stable, or leans the head against the manger, and neglecting the food which is before it, remains dull and quiet, the eyes half closed, and the breathing quickened. A dose of medicine seems to do it some temporary good, but the purgation has hardly ceased before the symptoms reappear; saliva runs from the mouth, and the food in the manger is rendered sloppy, almost like to a mash, before it is eaten; the bones of the face at last swell; the breath becomes fetid; and a thick offensive purulent discharge issues from one of the nostrils. That discharge is not continuous; sometimes it will cease for days, and the proprietor congratulates himself that the horse is getting well; the fetor, however, remains, and after a time it breaks forth again with redoubled vigour. The animal becomes daily worse, and would linger on, but the patience of the owner is exhausted; the knacker is employed to cut short the hopeless trouble and expense, and then a hasty examination is made for the cause of all this mischief. Such is a condensed description of the customary incidents, in the order in which they ensue; but of course the intelligent reader is aware that the symptoms of disease cannot be mapped down, as though they were results obtained from inorganic matter. Such symptoms always more or less vary, though upon the whole they present sufficient similarity to enable them, in every case, to be interpreted; and hence the value of practical experience, which enables the party possessing it to recognise a fact, when not fully declared. The writer cannot, to the like extent, communicate instruction; he must condense his remarks, and be content to speak a general truth; for if he descends to particulars he becomes tedious, and that which he would teach is disregarded. Of course the symptoms vary: all may not be present, yet one or more will lead the practised mind to the seat of injury. The history, however, which has been recorded, supposes the dead tooth to be located in the upper jaw: should it be situated in the lower jaw, some difference will be presented in the effect; for then the injury is not so serious. The discharge from the nostrils does not ensue, but the inferior maxillary bone enlarges, and the breath becomes offensive. The swelling of the bone takes place immediately under the tooth which has ceased to be a part of the living frame; and at this point also an abscess forms; this bursts, and discharges an unhealthy matter: unlike ordinary abscesses, however, which, when they have thrown out their contents, close, this, notwithstanding that the orifice is dependent, exhibits no disposition to heal up: a thin stinking liquid continuously issues from the opening, which becomes hard around its edges, and the hair about which sticks out, looking coarse and ragged. Such outward and visible signs are hardly to be misunderstood; and attention being directed to the mouth, the examination of the teeth will confirm them. From one jaw will be felt a molar projecting far above the level of the rest, and in a like degree will the opposing tooth in the other jaw be found depressed--worn down actually to the gum. All is now clear; and the question is, what shall be done? In the first place the condition of the mouth has certainly deranged the digestive organs, and, where there is room for choice, no operation, however simple or apparently safe, should be undertaken while the stomach is out of order. The seat of the disease is known, but the general health is first attended to; and when that has been in some measure re-established, the great object of the surgeon is fit to be accomplished. The question is, which of the teeth are to be interfered with? One is diseased or dead, and there can be no doubt that the diseased tooth should be removed. That which is unnaturally long, obviously indicates that its power of growth is retained; and though hypertrophy is an abnormal action, teeth are not parts liable to that species of affection. The one which by its growth indicates vitality, therefore displays no symptom of disease; but the tooth that is reduced to the level of the gums, tells us that its power of self-preservation has ceased, and that its vitality is gone. If that tooth be felt, it will, in the majority of instances, be found loose, and therefore it can be easily extracted: the operation, however, is not then ended. Should the affected organ have occupied the upper jaw, a quantity of pus may flow freely into the mouth on its extraction, but more frequently such will not be the case: nevertheless, the discharge from the nostril, (should the case have been of long standing,) together with the softened and swollen condition of the facial bones, may convince the attendant that matter is locked up in the maxillary sinuses. Some writers speak of the antrum as the part most seriously affected; but I cannot find any thing corresponding to the antrum in the horse's head. That animal has no development of this description, and therefore it only shows ignorance to operate with a special view to opening an imaginary cavity. The maxillary sinuses are spacious cells, and freely communicate with the frontal sinuses, which are also large. These facial sinuses have but a limited and kind of valvular opening into the nasal chambers, and if pus is allowed to remain within them there is little hope of cure: therefore a means must be found for its escape. To this end the finger is employed to probe the alveolar cavity, whence the tooth was taken, and it will probably prove to be of no great depth. An instrument constructed for the purpose is now used, and with it a hole is made through the walls of the alveolar, directly into the maxillary sinus--his knowledge of anatomy teaching the operator so to direct his hand that none of the important nerves and vessels, which ramify through the parts he is penetrating into, may be injured. On the withdrawal of the instrument, pus will mostly follow, but not gush forth as from an ordinary abscess. A dependent orifice has now been established, and if the case is not a severe one, that may be sufficient: if, however, the disease is aggravated, it will be necessary to trepline the frontal and perhaps the maxillary bone, leaving in each a free space, from which a circular piece has been removed. Through the superior opening, warm water is injected; but if the stench be very offensive, a weak solution of chloride of lime or of creosote may be employed, and must be daily repeated. None of the coarse applications which some ignorant persons recommend, ought to be used. A strong solution of the sulphate of copper or of zinc, by coming in contact with a large surface of granulating mucous membrane, can hardly be expected to allay its irritability, or dispose it to take on a healthy action; and a seton, forced barbarously through the orifices made with the trephine, can only exist as a foreign agent, keeping up the action which the surgeon is desirous should terminate. Gentle means are, in every sense, the ones to be adopted. Mild tepid injections are to be employed, with the intention to wash out the accumulated pus, allay the inflammation that caused it to be secreted, and correct the diseased tendency of the part. All stronger agents are barbarous; and I have witnessed animals rendered dangerously vicious by their employment. When, however, the acute stage has past; when the inflamed and secreting surface has lost its activity, not unfrequently succeeds a dull, lethargic state, which the mild treatment, hitherto advised, will not touch: now it is that stimulating injections are beneficial; and however much reason there was in the first instance to denounce their employment, they are now indicated by the soundest principles of scientific practice. Even at this time, however, they must not be pushed too far. The constitution should be stimulated, that their effect may be aided, and their continuance necessitated for the shortest possible period. The sulphate of copper or of zinc; the acetate of copper or of zinc; the chloride of zinc or of lime; the nitrate of silver or of mercury; the black or yellow wash, in strength proportioned to the symptoms, may here be of service. It is well, however, to remember that these agents soon lose the efficacy, and the greatest benefit, therefore, is obtained when they are occasionally changed on the first sign of their potency decreasing. Still injections alone cannot be expected to effect a restoration, and, therefore, topical measures must be combined with constitutional treatment. A course of mercury may be tried, or some of the many agents, which, like balsams, peppers, and essential oils, act on the mucous system, can be administered,--never, however, relying upon any one medicine for too long a period; but, as in the previous case of injections, changing it wherever the drug appears either to have no effect, or to have lost its power over the system. By such treatment, actively employed and combined with a proper attention to exercise and diet, the case must be aggravated indeed which is beyond relief. The cure, however, we must not expect to be quick; but it will generally in the end be realized. Perseverance may be required, but barbarity will not hasten success. I object to many of the practices which the veterinary professors of the London College inculcate to their pupils; because those practices, in my opinion, being based on false principles, are needlessly severe. Of the potent solutions habitually employed at the St. Pancras School, I have spoken; but there is another practice to which I have not alluded: corks are forcibly thrust into the holes made by the trephine, under the notion that by such means the opening can be kept free, and the wound uncorked and corked up like the mouth of a bottle. Mr. Percival has spared me the trouble of exposing the folly of the idea, and the inutility of the practice. That gentleman tried the notable experiment, and found that the cork in no degree delayed the consequence it was employed to retard. The presence of a foreign body thrust into immediate connexion with a diseased surface, and violently there retained, must cause excruciating agony--promote serious irritation--and might lead to the worst possible results. The ignorance should indeed be gross, which could conjecture such a vulgar resort was capable of inducing the slightest benefit. Equally objectionable is the custom recommended by the veterinary professors, of shutting an animal up in a close stable, and causing it to inhale the fumes of chlorine gas. Chlorine is an irritant to mucous membranes. If the nasal cavities were the seat of the disease, the passage of the air being rapid through these channels, and retained for a comparatively long period in the bronchia, the supposed remedy would be far more likely to affect the lungs, than to act immediately on the part which it was intended to benefit. In respiration, however, it is not probable that even during health, any large quantity of air enters the sinuses, which, in these cases, are the seats of the disease; and when those cavities are blocked up by an abnormal secretion, none could possibly gain admittance to them. Chlorine, therefore, obviously is inoperative in the direction where its remedial agency is desired to act; and it does some injury. It violently affects the animal which requires to be soothed; causes it to endure much inconvenience and even suffering; produces quickened respiration with violent cough, and may be reasonably supposed to lay the foundation of subsequent disease. The advantages of its employment have not been demonstrated, but the results of practice rather show it to be injurious. By the members of the veterinary profession it is not generally used: gentler measures are of greater importance, and these ought, only under very peculiar circumstances, to be abandoned. There, however, yet remains to be described, the mode of proceeding when the diseased tooth is seated in the lower jaw. In that case, a sinus or canal, discharging an unhealthy matter, is present. No treatment will cause that sinus to close, while the diseased tooth is retained; and until its removal is effected, all applications designed for that end are thrown away. After the tooth has been extracted, a solution of sulphate of zinc may, with advantage, be daily injected, and constitutional measures at the same time adopted, till an altered action has been called forth, when the annoyance will quickly cease. The enlarged bone will, however, remain; and, in the majority of cases, it may be best no further to interfere with it, than by the external application of such agents as are likely to promote absorption. In such cases, however, no means are very speedily beneficial, and time must be given for their operation: but should the deformity be great, the firing iron may be employed to cause exfoliation of the part. Yet as in the removal of one blemish, it is not justifiable to create another, the violent agent must be applied after a particular manner. The integument should be first divided, and the edges of the incision drawn asunder, so as to expose the bone, which alone should be touched with the cautery. By this simple expedient the osseous structure will be destroyed; and as such structure is not highly sensitive, the suffering of the animal will be slight, while after exfoliation has taken place, the trivial cicatrix will be concealed by the hair. When caries is present, the symptoms do not materially differ from those described as indicating the death of a tooth. The disease may commence at any part of the fang or crown; but the structure which it generally first involves in the horse, is the crusta petrosa: for however far the caries had proceeded, I have usually recognised it working from this substance into the ivory. The crusta petrosa is the least osseous, and most vascular of all the structures that enter the composition of the tooth. In proportion to the vascularity, may be estimated the disposition to assume disease; and when it is further remembered that the crusta petrosa being the external, is the most exposed portion of the tooth, and that any wrenching action, or other violence, would first affect this part, the dullest comprehension will perceive why the crusta petrosa is likely to be the primary seat of caries. Enamel is not subject to caries, nor is it otherwise involved than by being deprived of its supports, and chemically acted upon by the decomposed matters with which it is in contact. The ivory, however, may, in exceptionable cases, be the original seat of the affection; and when decay has commenced, this part of the tooth is speedily diseased. When caries begins, there is only partial death of the tooth; but the portions which retain their vitality and are becoming affected, cause excruciating fits of agony. Before anything can be perceived by manipulating the molars, the animal may exhibit frequent slight fits of illness, being occasionally dull--off its feed--sluggish at its work--soon fatigued--resting the head on the manger, and displaying symptoms of transient attacks of fever. On other days the animal is lively; eats well, looks well, and works well, and is all the owner could desire. Something is evidently wrong, but as yet all is doubt: then the hay is quidded and another examination of the molars is made, when there may be detected a little roughness on some part of one of those teeth, and the mystery is explained. There may be no, or a very slight increased growth of the molar, which, in the opposing jaw, corresponds to that which is evidently carious. The carious tooth may be firmly implanted; and yet, notwithstanding the firm manner in which it is fixed in the jaw, no time ought to be lost in its removal. The operation may occupy some time, and should be conducted with proper caution if the horse be young; and I have by me a molar taken from the jaw of a colt that was rising four, in which the crusta petrosa was diseased. A wood-cut representing that tooth, is inserted at page 29; and the darker spot indicates the place where decay had commenced. During youth the fangs of the molars are of great length, consequently, any violence would be likely to do injury to the thin plates of the alveolar cavity. In old animals the fangs being shorter, greater speed may be allowable; but in every instance where the tooth is firm, judgment must be exercised. Supposing the horse to be young, the following method will be found to answer:--The precise position of the tooth having been ascertained, and the animal cast, traction, with a proper instrument, is made in the right direction. In the first attempt the force is not designed to extract the tooth; if it can be perceptibly moved or raised upward, so that the nerves and arteries of the pulp may be broken or ruptured, a great point has been gained, and the molar should be no further drawn in the first instance. The instrument should be then loosened, and another hold having been taken, a renewed effort should be made, when a little additional way may be gained. After this, a further hold should be taken, and thus adapting the grasp of the instrument to each pull, and proceeding gradually, the molar may be extracted. The operator, however, must not, in every instance, anticipate that he will be thus successful. The tooth may be perceptibly moved, but after this it may resist all subsequent attempts. The surgeon will become aware that only great force could accomplish his wishes, and he will therefore reflect whether the employment of the necessary violence might not fracture the jaw as well as extract the tooth. Something has been gained by rupturing the arteries and nerves. The pain and course of the disease has, in a degree, been checked. The molar is no longer a part of the body, but a foreign substance; and Nature, if left alone, will proceed in her own way to eject it. The course, however, that Nature, if unaided, would pursue, might be too slow to prevent evil consequences. The operator, therefore, discontinues his attempts for the present; and though some foolish persons will think slightly of him, for not at once doing the thing he desired to accomplish, he orders the animal to be let up, and led back into the stable. Many a proprietor has been so displeased by this, that he has thereupon sought other advice; and the next operator has pleasingly surprised him, by extracting, with ease, the tooth which the first wisely forbore to wrench out of the jaw. The fact is, that the time which intervened had made a material change; the molar had become loose, and he who properly refused in the first instance to drag it forth, would now, had he been permitted, have taken it out without difficulty. Indeed in every case where the operator is made conscious of great opposition from natural causes, it is better to cease all attempts for the present--to wait for a week or two, and then renew the trial; and even make a third effort, after a like pause, rather than by unjustifiable violence hazard an accident, perhaps more fatal in its consequences than the evil which it was desired should be removed. The course of the malady allows the surgeon to exercise his patience, without effort; and even if danger threatened, his principles teach him that force is never justifiable. Gentle, resolute, and collected, must such a person be at all times: the violence he seems to employ is but the proper application of his art, and the speed he appears to make is but the graceful use of the time and means at his command. Often does he to the ignorant appear to be idle, when he is only anxiously waiting for the proper time to commence his operations; and frequently is he accused of precipitation, when he knows that activity alone can crown his efforts with success. Let there then be no authority exercised over him whose painful duty it is to deal with disease. The means at his command are confessedly small, the end to be accomplished is acknowledged to be great. The labour is harrassing, the result is dubious, and any interference can but deteriorate from the success of the issue. A wise person will therefore see often, observe much, and think long, before he presumes to suggest anything to a medical practitioner, and never will a command issue from his mouth. All, however, within and about the stable, are, for the most part, in their own conceits, qualified to cure the horse; and curious are the suggestions obtrusively volunteered, and the judgments pronounced during every operation. Frequently, indeed, is the animal sacrificed by the ignorance of its anxious attendants, who, in their zeal, will often, out of their scanty wages, purchase injurious nostrums, notwithstanding a member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons may be in regular attendance. Happily for the teeth, no specifics are yet declared, and the groom is therefore unwillingly obliged to be idle. The owner should also be passive, seeing that which is ordered is administered, and taking care that no charms are employed. When the tooth that was carious is in the early stage extracted, the animal is by a little constitutional treatment, afterwards quickly restored, but from time to time will require attention; for the teeth that have once been operated on, will, at intervals, ever after during the life of the horse, need the hand of the surgeon. If caries, however, is neglected, and proceeds to the last stage, cure is all but hopeless. During the death of a tooth, the symptoms are continuous. In caries, there are intermissions, seasons of uncertain duration, during which the horse appears to be free from suffering; but the effects, if not so rapid in their development, are more frequently fatal in their termination. When a tooth has lost its vitality, it becomes a foreign body, which Nature, in time, will cast out. The retention irritates the surrounding structures, but the irritation may in part be regarded as a restorative process. When caries takes place, a portion only dies, but that portion has all the injurious effect which could be attributed to the former case, and even more, for the remaining vitality in the unaffected part of the tooth, prevents Nature from resorting to that process by which she would otherwise cast off the dead matter. In consequence of this, a foreign substance is retained for a longer period, and at the same time disease is progressing. Here, therefore, is an additional cause at work, and hence the excess of effect. The arteries which nourish the pulp, and the crusta petrosa, proceed from the vessels which nurture the bone, and supply the mucous membrane of the sinuses with the means of secretion. The same, likewise, may be stated of the nerves going to the tooth, and though through these last the constitution is affected, it is mainly through the agency of the blood vessels, that the sinuses become diseased. Hence the necessity for decision, and the need of judgment, in the application of the remedy. To enforce the foregoing remarks, and convey to the reader a slight idea of the consequences which ensue from a carious tooth, the accompanying wood-cut is introduced. The specimen selected for illustration, does not exhibit a rare or extraordinary proof of the results of this species of disease. [Illustration] The head of a horse has been divided below the orbits, and a back view of the facial portion is here shown, the spectator being supposed to look into the cavities, which have been thereby exposed. _a_ indicates the molar teeth on that side which was not the seat of disease, and they are of the natural length and obliquity. _b_ denotes the teeth on that side where the disease was seated, and shows them to be not only unusually slanting on their grinding surfaces or tables, but also of considerable length. It was the last tooth on this side which was carious, and the shape of the molars has been occasioned by the animal during its life, being unable, because of pain, to freely use these organs in chewing its food. The effort to avoid any stress upon the diseased tooth, has caused those on the same side to suffer only partial attrition; hence they have become long and slanting, presenting sharp pointed edges, which lacerated the lining membrane of the mouth. The incisors, a distant view of which is given, likewise display the consequence of the animal's mode of feeding. Turning from the teeth to the exposed cavities above them, it will be seen that these are not symmetrical, or of equal dimensions, which in the head of a healthy subject, they undoubtedly ought to be. Those on the diseased side are not only the largest, but differently formed. The alteration has resulted from the inflammation and accumulation of pus within them. Something besides pus, however, has been thrown out. _e_ represents the healthy maxillary sinus as an empty space: _d_ is the like part, but it is here filled by a fine cellular structure composed of bone, which has been produced by the action of disease. The plates which form the cells are delicately thin, and beautifully arranged: the little cavities were once full of a thick and sanguineous matter, and the larger spaces above them contained a very fetid but almost solid substance, which was pus, that, by being pent up, had become of a cheesy consistency. _c_ indicates the nasal division, or cartilaginous wall, which separates the two chambers of the nose. As will be observed, it has been forced on one side by the enlargement of the affected parts. 60. _The agents which are likely to injure the teeth_, have been, perhaps, too little regarded, especially when the importance of these organs to the horse is considered. Some grooms, to increase the appetites of the animals under their care, sprinkle vitriol, or sulphuric acid upon the food; and the horse will ultimately become fond of this kind of seasoning to his corn. Some veterinary surgeons, even of high standing, will administer monstrous doses of the sulphates in solution; and others will mingle, for a lengthened period, large quantities of the acids in the animal's water. No suspicion seems hitherto to have been entertained of the ill effects likely to ensue upon a mode of treatment, which is often prolonged for months. The human physician, however, has remarked, that most acids have a tendency to affect the teeth, and that sulphuric acid, whether in the diluted state, or in combination with substances of low affinity, is particularly destructive in this respect. The patient who now takes the soluble preparations of iron, is provided with an instrument to convey the liquid into the pharynx, and prevent any portion of it from coming in contact with the teeth. Those who swallow such a form of medicine, without employing the tube, soon exhibit the consequence in the general discolourization and decay of the mouth. The man, however, gulps his physic, and can rinse out his mouth if the taste be retained; the horse, when it takes a drench, holds the liquid for a considerable time before it swallows, and the administration of the fluid is not very quickly accomplished. Now, in proportion to the duration of contact would be the effect; and if the hasty deglutition of the one being cannot save the teeth from the ravage of the sulphate, is the prolonged retention of the substance likely to be without effect upon the same organs in the other? The horse, however, takes the sulphates of a strength which the human being would not survive--where the one for a dose swallows a grain, the other may imbibe a drachm. The consequences must bear some proportion to the quantity, nor will the composition of the horse's tooth allow us to suppose that it is less affected by chemical agents. The enamel of the horse is more speedily acted upon than that of any other animal I am acquainted with; and the substance being unorganized, the results obtained by experiments tried on it when removed from the body, are as conclusive as any effects produced during the life of the animal. The sulphates are potent and valuable medicines; the Veterinary Pharmacopoeia could not afford to discard them; but they can be administered in substance, and should with caution be exhibited in a liquid form. I am positive when promulgating this opinion, and nevertheless I have no instance of their injurious effects to adduce. I have not been able to trace caries in the horse to the use of the sulphates or of acids, but the mind often recognises what the senses fail to perceive; and the fact is so clear to reason, that it is not disproved, because it hitherto has not been rendered plain to the vision. Neither does it invalidate my conclusion to adduce instances where the horse had been observed to exhibit no affection subsequent to the use of these medicines. The negative can establish nothing. The cause has not been suspected, and the effect, of course, has not yet been observed; but we abuse our reason, if we refuse to listen to its teachings. I am not likely to have met with the proof it may be desirable I should adduce; for perceiving the evil I early forbore, to render possible any evidence of its tendency in my own practice. Herein lies my excuse; and though it may not be satisfactory to all, the arguments I have advanced, I think, must be plain to everybody. The sulphates, in substance, are as efficacious as when given in solution; and if so large doses cannot be administered in the former manner, the necessity for such prodigious quantities has never been demonstrated. Let it, therefore, only be admitted, that there is room for suspicion, and perseverance in the old practice is no longer justifiable. The number of horses that exhibit diseased teeth, teaches us to look for some cause. I cannot attribute every case to derangement of the digestive organs, or to idiosyncracy. The latter term rather avoids the question than elucidates it; and the former effect is as likely to be produced by imperfect mastication, consequent upon chemical injury to the teeth, as to be the primary cause of the disease of the masticatory organs. 61. _The instruments used in connexion with the teeth of the horse_ are not very numerous. _The gum lancet_, shaped like that used by the human surgeon, and employed after the same manner, is seldom required, save for the tushes, when any knife will be found equally if not even more convenient. The rasp or file, for it is either, according to the taste of the surgeon, though most commonly the former, consists of the necessary part that gives the name to the instrument attached to a long lever, which is inserted into a handle. Its employment is rather laborious than difficult, and demands more endurance than skill on the part of the practitioner. Several of different degrees of coarseness should be used, and during the operation, a pail of water ought to be at hand, so that the roughened surface may be constantly washed and moistened, to increase its cutting power, and prevent it becoming clogged. The rasp, however, though fitted to reduce any slight inequality, or take down the sharp edges of the teeth, is not sufficiently operative to level the long projections that are often found in the horse's mouth. For that purpose a guarded chisel has been employed; but the blow of the hammer or mallet very often fractures the alveolar cavities, and the cutting edge, despite the guard, generally wounds the mouth. The rasp may be tedious, but the chisel is dangerous; and neither one or the other are proper for the purpose, though till lately, these rude tools were the only dental instruments the veterinary surgeon could boast of. A want of some more surgical and appropriate means of shortening the projecting molars has long been seriously felt; and that want the ingenuity of Mr. T. W. Gowing, the esteemed practitioner of Camden Town, to whose inventive genius the members of the veterinary profession are so largely indebted, has at length supplied. The instruments he has constructed have two grand recommendations: they are equally simple and effective. Seeing how little complexity they exhibit, it seems strange that no one should have previously thought of them; but the same thing is generally said of every invention of real utility. The only difficulty in these matters is to catch the idea, and this Mr. Gowing has most happily accomplished. He has produced a complete set of veterinary dental instruments; discarding all of those which have hitherto been employed, with the exception of the mouth rasp, which he leaves untouched. Instead of the old tooth key which was so formidable to look at, but so difficult and often impossible to use, he employs a pair of forceps, of which the following wood-cut will give the reader some idea. [Illustration] They are about twenty-two inches long, in order that they may be applied, if required, to the most backward of the grinders, and of such substance, as renders impossible any springy action which might cause the bite to be lost when the force was applied. As will be imagined, forceps of such dimensions are not to be used by the unassisted hand. The reader, by looking at the end of the handles, will observe that one is comparatively large: the smaller of the two contains within it a female screw, and the other is only a plain eye. To act on these, a cross handle or lever is added, and of this the following is an outline. [Illustration] This, as is shown in the wood-cut, consists of two pieces, the smaller of which works freely in a hole made for its reception, and being curved at one end, can be either extended in the manner represented above, or laid close to the lever in the way depicted in the next view of the instrument. It is what is technically called a "tommy," and its use is to gain dispatch and power in the employment of the forceps. The main part consists of a rod of steel, having in the centre a screw, which at the end towards the "tommy" exhibits an enlargement or shoulder. Such are the various parts, and when using them, the operator having fixed the claws of the forceps upon the tooth he wishes to extract, gives the forceps to an assistant, whom he orders to hold them firmly in their situation. He then takes the handle, and introducing it through the open eye with the "tommy" as rapidly as possible, winds it round until he feels the grasp is secure. Any amount of power can be thus obtained; for as the screw threads through one handle, the shoulder presses against the other, and thus forcing the claws together, fixes them upon the substance which may be placed between them. When this is done, the operator closes or folds up the free lever, and using both hands, has at his command a power which will not necessitate employment of his utmost strength. [Illustration] The above wood-cut depicts the forceps as they appear when put together; and to render their mode of action more clear, a body indicative of the situation which the tooth would occupy, has been introduced. The advantages which these forceps have over the tooth-key in common use, are so obvious, that the reader will not require they should be pointed out. The benefits which this instrument confers, are indeed great; neither can it be supposed that the principle can be changed, or its adaptation improved upon. For its purpose, the thing appears perfect; and I can speak confidently as to the admirable manner in which it acts. One caution, however, may not be unnecessary. All surgical instruments are capable of being abused, and in exact proportion to their utility is their liability to abuse. With Mr. Gowing's forceps a horse's jaw could be easily broken, or he who did not know the power of the screw, would, if he kept on winding the handle, crush the tooth it was his intention to secure. So much strength is gained that the judgment must be employed to regulate it. Huge as the instrument looks, it requires delicacy in the hand which uses it. With such a tool at his command, a child is in power equal to a giant; and the man therefore must exercise his mind rather than strain his muscles, when he has to operate with it. In cautious hands it gives every facility that could be desired, and is both more certain in its action, and more expeditious in its results than anything of the kind which we at present possess, besides having the further advantage of not requiring those adjustments and unsatisfactory changes which the common instruments necessitate to be made. For extraction, nothing beyond these forceps is wanted: they answer every purpose; but the veterinary surgeon is less frequently called upon to extract, than to shorten the horse's teeth. To this subject Mr. Gowing has likewise given his attention, and it is pleasant to state he has equally succeeded. The ordinary chisel was alike inefficient and dangerous. The guard was not sufficient to prevent the edge from seriously wounding the mouth, and the chisel could remove but a small portion at a time. The shock, moreover, was sustained by the tooth itself, which, transferring the force to the alveolar cavity, was too often the cause of fracture. When cautiously conducted, the operation was tedious, and the struggles of the horse were not devoid of danger. We were possessed of nothing which, at a single blow, could remove the entire bulk of a projecting tooth. To supply this desideratum was Mr. Gowing's object, and the annexed wood-cut will, at a glance, convince the reader that the requirement has been satisfactorily complied with. [Illustration] A long cylindrical tube, of sufficient stoutness to afford the requisite strength, forms the handle of this instrument, and being hollow, permits a chisel to work freely within it. Indeed the chisel would work too freely if some means were not employed to steady it, therefore a large bulb, which is filled with packing and constitutes a stuffing box, is fixed at one end, and by pressing against the shaft of the chisel prevents it from being too readily displaced; though at the same time it allows of the cutting agent being propelled, with all the force that could be desired. The bulb likewise serves another purpose, as it gives the operator a firm grasp, and prevents the danger of the hold being lost when the instrument is struck. At the opposite end of the handle there is a frame, the further part or base of which is sharp upon the inner side; within this frame the chisel plays, and by it therefore is securely guarded. When the instrument is used, the chisel is drawn back to about the extent represented in the foregoing wood-cut, and into the space thus created is introduced the projecting tooth, which consequently is encircled on every side, and both before and behind is between two cutting edges. The operator then firmly grasps the handle, and applies to it such force as he calculates will be sufficient to counteract the effect of that blow which he is about to deliver. With a hammer of adequate weight he now strikes the head of the chisel, and the tooth flies off. The operation is instantaneous, and so far it is an advantage; but beyond this is the safety which accompanies it. The softer parts cannot be wounded, for the action is strictly circumscribed in every direction, but the main principle of the invention remains to be pointed out. However great may be the force employed, no sensible jar is communicated to the jaw. The writer has held between his fingers a tooth which has been divided with this instrument at a single blow, and the shock was so trivial as to be unworthy of any notice. The concussion is received upon the guard resting against the hind part of the tooth, and beyond that annoyance which the accompanying sound may excite, the horse suffers no inconvenience. Fracture of the alveolar processes is rendered impossible, and the ease with which the instrument is applied, considerably enhances its value. It would, however, be of service only when the tooth was large, and the entire body projected above the level of the other molars. It is not unfrequent for portions of the grinders, worn into various angles, to present themselves, and to occasion very serious effects upon the health of the horse. To remove these is of no less importance than to cut off the more regular and larger substance; and Mr. Gowing has produced instruments capable of fulfilling these intentions. In the first place he has improved upon the old guarded chisel, concerning the danger and inefficiency of which, remarks have been already made. [Illustration] In the old tool the cutting surface was small, being rarely more than three quarters of an inch broad, and the blunt sides afforded rather a show of protection than any positive security. Mr. Gowing has increased the breadth needed to make the chisel useful, and he has also added two falling sides, that, dropping over the lateral surfaces of the molars, guide the instrument, which works as in a groove. More steadiness is thus obtained, and the operator, consequently, can act with decision. The new chisel, however, is not intended to be used alone; if singly employed, it might do some damage, and fracture almost as readily be induced as formerly. To prevent such an accident other aids were imperative, and perceiving this, the instrument, which the following wood-cut represents, was invented by Mr. Gowing. [Illustration] It is carved, so as to be suited to the shape of the horse's mouth, and at one end has a handle, while at the other is a cutting edge, between two circular guards, which prevent any injury being done to the softer parts. When a shelving projection of tooth is to be removed, this instrument is introduced into the mouth, and the sharp edge is lodged against the back of the tooth, when it is given to an assistant to hold, while the operator, taking the chisel, proceeds to employ it in the way before mentioned. The object here is two-fold. In the first place, the chisel is restrained or prevented from being urged against the posterior of the mouth by the stroke of the hammer; and in the next place, the concussion is received upon the instrument, and taken from the jaw. Sometimes when a tooth is loose, but not either of sufficient size, or fitting shape, for the application of the forceps, the sharp edge can be got to a certain degree behind, and under it, when by a wrenching action it can be either elevated or forced out. There are, however, cases in which none of the instruments hitherto described answer so well as might be wished. Frequently little pieces or sharp corners of teeth project, and to remove these, demands more variety of position on the part of the operator, than the previous instruments will admit of. To meet this difficulty, Mr. Gowing, who to the surgery of the teeth has devoted more study than any person has hitherto bestowed upon the subject, invented the instrument represented in the annexed wood-cut. [Illustration] In principle it is similar to the one which preceded it, but the handle being at the side instead of above, it can be adapted to those irregularities which the former would not readily catch. The operator can move it about at his pleasure, and where nicety is required, he can, with it, take off particles, such as the previous instruments would not enable him to touch. It consists of a cutting edge, guarded on one side by the handle, and on the other by a rounded projection. In the manner of its application, it is similar to the last, and like that is held by an assistant when used in operation. For many points this is of much service, but in order to be prepared for every difficulty, a pair of them suited to the opposite sides are required. Possessed of these the veterinary surgeon has, for the first time, what may be regarded as a complete set of dental instruments, with which he can operate, with ease to himself, and without hazard to his patient. The mouth rasp is all that he requires, in addition to what has been depicted; and thus armed, he can overcome obstacles which once bid defiance to his skill. FINIS. G. J. & E. WILSON, Printers, George Court, Piccadilly. =FORES'S SPORTING ENGRAVINGS,= ACCURATELY COLOURED FROM THE ORIGINAL PICTURES. =FORES'S NATIONAL SPORTS.= FOX HUNTING. From the Original Pictures by MR. J. F. HERRING, Sen. A SERIES OF FOUR ADMIRABLY COLOURED ENGRAVINGS. Price to Subscribers, £10 10_s._--Size, with margin for Framing, 45 inches long by 26 high. The Set comprises-- =Plate I.--THE MEET.= "Delightful scene! Where all around is gay--men, horses, dogs, And in each smiling countenance appears Fresh blooming health and universal joy." "Then to the copse, Thick with entangling grass or prickly furze, With silence lead thy many-coloured hounds In all their beauty's pride."--SOMERVILE. =Plate II.--THE FIND.= "Hark! what loud shouts Re-echo thro' the groves: he breaks away; Shrill horns proclaim his flight; each straggling hound Strains o'er the lawn to reach the distant pack. 'Tis triumph all and joy." "Hark! on the drag I hear Their doubtful notes preluding to a cry; More nobly full, and swell'd with every mouth."--SOMERVILE. =Plate III.--THE RUN.= "The riders bend O'er their arch'd necks; with steady hands, by turns Indulge their speed, or moderate their rage." "Happy the man who with unrivall'd speed Can pass his fellows, and with pleasure view The struggling pack."--SOMERVILE. =Plate IV.--THE KILL.= "The pack inquisitive, with clamour loud, Drag out their trembling prize; and on his blood With greedy transport feast." "A chosen few Alone the sport enjoy, nor droop beneath Their pleasing toils."--SOMERVILE. Corresponding in Size and Style with FORES'S NATIONAL SPORTS-- =Plate I.--The START FOR THE DERBY.= =Plate II.--STEEPLE-CHASE CRACKS.= Price £3 3_s._ 0_d._ each. Coloured in close imitation of the Original Pictures by MR. J. F. HERRING, SEN. LONDON: PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.) =FORES'S HUNTING SCENES=, Price 12_s._ each, Coloured, from Pictures by H. ALKEN. =Plate 1. The First introduction to Hounds.= A string of young horses, crossed by a pack of hounds in full cry, put on their mettle for the chase, proving "What's bred in the bone will show in the flesh." =Plate 2. Renewal of Acquaintance with Hounds.= The young bloods represented in Plate 1., having had their day, now form a team, and being brought out for "the change," are startled by the well-known music of "hounds giving tongue," and dash after them in true hunting style, as they were wont to do. =FORES'S HUNTING ACCOMPLISHMENTS=, INDISPENSABLE WITH HOUNDS. Six Plates, price £1 5_s._, Coloured, from Original Drawings by H. ALKEN. 1. GOING ALONG A SLAPPING PACE. 2. TOPPING A FLIGHT OF RAILS, AND COMING WELL INTO THE NEXT FIELD. 3. SWISHING A RASPER. 4. IN AND OUT CLEVER. 5. CHARGING AN OX FENCE. 6. FACING A BROOK. =FORES'S HUNTING CASUALTIES=, THAT MAY OCCUR WITH HOUNDS. Six Plates, price £1 5_s._, Coloured, from Original Drawings by H. ALKEN. =1. A TURN OF SPEED OVER THE FLAT.= The result of being broke in a grazing country. =2. A STRANGE COUNTRY.= "Only give him his head, and he'll bring you in at the death." =3. DESPATCHED TO HEAD QUARTERS.= Taking it with a Military Seat. =4. UP TO SIXTEEN STONE.= "Master of my weight, but would rather my weight was master of him." =5. A RARE SORT FOR THE DOWNS.= "They told me he'd leave everything behind him." =6. A MUTUAL DETERMINATION.= "If he goes on at this rate I'm afraid I must part with him." =LEFT AT HOME=, FROM THE ORIGINAL PICTURE BY MR. R. B. DAVIS. PROOFS ... £2 2 0 | PRINTS, COLOURED £1 11 6 Represents a fine stamp of Hunter, and Hounds of perfect form, excited by the sound of the huntsman's horn.--A subject full of life, and possessing inexpressible charms for the eye of a sportsman. Price 5_s._, post free, 5_s._ 6_d._ =Fores's Hunting Diary=, To record the sport of the season with Fox Hounds, Stag Hounds, and Harriers. Coloured, price 10_s._, =Fores's Hunting Rack=, A Receptacle for the Appointment Cards. =Appointment Cards for Ditto, 5s.= Arranged for the Meets of Three Packs. =Pocket Hunting Maps, price 3s. 6d. and 5s. each.= PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.) =FORES'S CONTRASTS, FROM ORIGINAL PICTURES BY MR. H. ALKEN.= Price 10_s._ each Plate, Coloured, Illustrative of the Road, the Rail, &c. I.--THE DRIVER (Coachman) of 1832--THE DRIVER (Engineer) of 1852. II.--THE GUARD (Coach) of 1832--THE GUARD (locomotive) of 1852. III.--THE DRIVER of the MAIL of 1832--THE DRIVER of the MAIL of 1852. IV.--ST. GEORGE'S--ST. GILES'S. =FORES'S SERIES OF THE BRITISH STUD.= PORTRAITS OF CELEBRATED STALLIONS AND MARES Whose Performances and Produce are well known on the Turf, Price £1 1_s._ each, coloured, from the Original Pictures by Mr. J. F. HERRING, sen. =1. Sir Hercules and Beeswing.= =2. Touchstone and Emma.= =3. Pantaloon and Languish.= =4. Camel and Banter.= =5. Muley Moloch and Rebecca.= =6. Lanercost and Crucifix.= =7. Bay Middleton and Barbelle.= (The Sire and Dam of THE FLYING DUTCHMAN.) =FORES'S RACING SCENES.= Price 21_s._ each, coloured, from Pictures painted expressly by MR. J. F. HERRING, sen. =Plate 1. ASCOT.= THE EMPEROR, FAUGH A BALLAGH, and ALICE HAWTHORN, RUNNING FOR THE EMPEROR'S PLATE, VALUE 500 SOVS. =Plate 2. YORK.= THE FLYING DUTCHMAN AND VOLTIGEUR RUNNING THE GREAT MATCH FOR 1000 SOVS. A SIDE. =FORES'S CELEBRATED WINNERS.= Price 21_s._ each, coloured, from Pictures by MR. J. F. HERRING, sen., and others. =1. THE HERO,= WITH JOHN DAY, SEN., AND ALFRED DAY. =2. THE FLYING DUTCHMAN,= WITH J. FOBERT AND C. MARLOW. =3. TEDDINGTON,= WITH A. TAYLOR AND JOB MARSON. PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET). =FORES'S STABLE SCENES.= ENGRAVED FROM PAINTINGS BY MR. J. F. HERRING, SEN. Price £4 4_s._ the set of Four, highly coloured. =1. THE MAIL CHANGE.= =2. THE HUNTING STUD.= =3. THOROUGH-BREDS.= =4. THE TEAM.= =FORES'S COACHING RECOLLECTIONS.= ENGRAVED FROM PAINTINGS BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON. Price £5 5_s._ the set of Five, highly coloured. =1. CHANGING HORSES.= =2. ALL RIGHT.= =3. PULLING UP TO UNSKID.= =4. WAKING UP.= =5. THE OLDEN TIME.= =FORES'S COACHING INCIDENTS.= ENGRAVED FROM PAINTINGS BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON: Price £4 10_s._ the set of Six, highly coloured. =1. KNEE DEEP.= =2. STUCK FAST.= =3. FLOODED.= =4. THE ROAD v. THE RAIL.= =5. IN TIME FOR THE COACH.= =6. LATE FOR THE MAIL.= =FORES'S SPORTING TRAPS.= FROM THE ORIGINAL PICTURES BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON. Price 21_s._ each, coloured, TO RANGE WITH THE STABLE SCENES AND COACHING RECOLLECTIONS. =1. GOING TO THE MOORS.= =2. GOING TO COVER.= =FORES'S ROAD SCENES.= "GOING TO A FAIR." PAINTED BY MR. C. C. HENDERSON. Price 15_s._ each, coloured. =1. HUNTERS AND HACKS.= =2. CART HORSES.= PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, AT THEIR Sporting and Fine Engraving Repository and Frame Manufactory, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.) Fores's Marine Sketches. Price 10_s._ each, coloured; tinted, 5_s._ each. The Cutter Yacht MARIA, 170 Tons. The Schooner Yacht AMERICA, 180 Tons. The Schooner Yacht ALARM, 248 Tons. The Cutter Yacht VOLANTE, 49 Tons. The Emperor of Russia's Iron Steam Yacht ALEXANDRIA. The Cutter Yacht CYNTHIA, 50 Tons. The Schooner Yacht NANCY DAWSON, 160 Tons. The Schooner Yacht WYVERN, 205 Tons. A Pair. The Schooner Yacht LEDA, 120 Tons. A Pair. YACHTING--SCENE OFF COWES, ISLE OF WIGHT. The ROYAL NAVY--The VICTORY SALUTING HER MAJESTY. Price 21_s._ each, coloured; 10_s._ 6_d._ plain. The KESTREL, R.Y.S. The DOLPHIN, R.T.Y.C. A COLLECTION OF MARINE PICTURES AND DRAWINGS BY SUPERIOR ARTISTS. =FORES'S SPORTING SCRAPS=, Price 7_s._ per sheet, coloured; or 2_s._ each mounted as Drawings. =1. STEEPLECHASING.= THE START. THE WALL. THE BROOK. THE FINISH. =2. HUNTING.= GOING TO THE MEET. THE MEET. COVER SIDE. DRAWING COVER. =3. HUNTING.= TALLY HO! THE BURST. A CHECK. FULL CRY. =4. HUNTING.= RUN TO EARTH. BOLTING THE FOX. WHOOP. THE RETURN HOME. =5. RACING.= SADDLING. READY FOR A CANTER. THE START. THE STRUGGLE. =6. COURSING.= GOING OUT. SOHO! THE COURSE. THE DEATH. =7. BOATING.= FOUR-OAR'D OUTRIGGER. PAIR-OAR'D OUTRIGGER. A FUNNY SCULLER'S OUTRIGGER. =FORES'S STEEPLECHASE SCENES.= Six Plates, coloured, price £2 12_s._ 6_d._, from Original Drawings by MR. H. ALKEN. 1. THE STARTING FIELD. "A picked lot, possessed of judgment and confidence." 2. WATTLE FENCE WITH A DEEP DROP. "Skill and nerve brought into play." 3. IN AND OUT OF THE LANE. "Science and a firm seat put to the test." 4. THE WARREN WALL. "A quick eye and steady hand often save a fall." 5. THE BROOK. "The pace and pluck clear it gallantly." 6. THE RUN IN. "A good finisher, backed by luck, lands him a winner." =FORES'S ANATOMICAL PLATES OF THE HORSE.= Price 6_s._, mounted on Cloth to fold up like a Map, The Age Exhibited by the Shape of the Teeth. Price 5_s._ each, mounted on Cloth to fold up like a Map. The Age Exhibited by the Tables of the Teeth. The Structure of the Foot clearly defined. The Muscles and Tendons accurately delineated. PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.) FINE ENGRAVINGS, PUBLISHED OR IN PROGRESS. THE ARCTIC COUNCIL. =Painted by S. PEARCE, Esq. Engraved by J. SCOTT.= Artists' Proofs, £6 6_s._; Prints, £2 2_s._ "THERE'S LIFE IN THE OLD DOG YET." PAINTED BY SIR E. LANDSEER. ENGRAVED BY H. T. RYALL, ESQ. Artists' Proofs, £12 12_s._ Prints, £3 3_s._ WEIGHING THE STAG. Painted by F. TAYLER, Esq. Engraved by T. L. ATKINSON, Esq. Artists' Proofs, £12 12_s._ Prints £4 4_s._ =SIR RICHARD SUTTON'S HOUNDS.= Painted by F. GRANT, Esq. Engraved by F. BROMLEY, Esq. Proofs before Letters, £6 6_s._ Prints, £3 3_s._ =THE BEST RUN OF THE SEASON.= Painted by SIR E. LANDSEER. Engraved by T. LANDSEER, Esq. Artists' Proofs, £8 8_s._ Prints, £2 2_s._ =THE MONARCH OF THE GLEN.= PAINTED BY SIR E. LANDSEER. ENGRAVED BY T. LANDSEER, ESQ. Artists' Proofs, £10 10_s._ Prints, £3 3_s._ =NAPOLEON CROSSING THE ALPS.= PAINTED BY M. PAUL DELAROCHE. ENGRAVED BY M. FRANCOIS. Artists' Proofs, £12 12_s._ Prints, £2 12_s._ 6_d._ =SYMPATHY.= =Painted by FRANK STONE, Esq. Engraved by T. L. ATKINSON, Esq.= Artists' Proofs, £4 4_s._ Prints, £1 1_s._ PORTRAIT OF LORD WILLIAM BERESFORD. PAINTED BY R. THORBURN, ESQ. ENGRAVED BY W. J. EDWARDS, ESQ. Proofs, £2 2s. Prints, £1 1s. =THE DUKE OF CAMBRIDGE.= PAINTED BY J. CROWLEY, Esq. ENGRAVED BY T. L. ATKINSON, Esq. Artists' Proofs, £5 5_s._ Prints, £1 11_s._ 6_d._ =A DIALOGUE AT WATERLOO.= =Painted by SIR E. LANDSEER. Engraved by T. L. ATKINSON, Esq.= Artists' Proofs, £15 15_s._ Prints, £7 7_s._ THE RUBBER AT WHIST. Painted by T. WEBSTER, Esq. Engraved by L. STOCKS, Esq. Artists' Proofs, £8 8_s._ Prints, £2 2_s._ THE FORESTER'S FAMILY. PAINTED BY SIR E. LANDSEER. ENGRAVED BY T. L. ATKINSON, ESQ. Artists' Proofs, £10 10_s._ Prints, £4 4_s._ MESSRS. FORES'S REPOSITORY OF WORKS OF ART, 41, PICCADILLY (Corner of Sackville Street) LONDON. SPORTING AND VETERINARY WORKS. £._s. d._ CHAMOIS HUNTING by _Boner_ 0 18 0 BREEDING AND TRAINING GREYHOUNDS _Stonehenge_ YACHT LIST _Hunt_ 0 4 0 YACHT SIGNALS _Ackers_ 1 0 0 SECTION OF A LINE OF BATTLE SHIP 131 GUNS, IN A CASE _Pickering_ 1 5 0 SEAMAN'S MANUAL _Dana_ 0 5 0 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE _Lord R. Montagu_ 0 6 0 MR. SPONGE'S SPORTING TOUR 0 14 0 MANAGEMENT OF HOUNDS _Scrutator_ 0 15 0 THE LIFE OF A SPORTSMAN _Nimrod_ 2 2 0 THE LIFE OF JOHN MYTTON, ESQ. _Ditto_ 1 5 0 THE CONDITION OF HUNTERS _Ditto_ 0 15 0 HUNTING TOURS _Ditto_ 0 15 0 THE CHASE, TURF, AND ROAD _Ditto_ 0 6 0 ANALYSIS OF THE HUNTING FIELD 1 11 6 JORROCK'S JAUNTS AND JOLLITIES 1 5 0 THE ROADSTER'S ALBUM 1 11 6 HUNTING REMINISCENCES _Wildrake_ 0 16 0 PICTORIAL GALLERY OF ENGLISH RACE HORSES _Geo. Tattersall_ 1 10 0 SPORTING ARCHITECTURE _Ditto_ 1 1 0 STABLE TALK AND TABLE TALK, 2 VOLS _Harry Hieover_ 1 4 0 THE POCKET AND THE STUD _Ditto_ 0 5 0 THE STUD FOR PRACTICAL PURPOSES _Ditto_ 0 5 0 PRACTICAL HORSEMANSHIP _Ditto_ 0 5 0 THE HUNTING FIELD _Ditto_ 0 5 0 THE PROPER CONDITION FOR ALL HORSES _Ditto_ 0 5 0 SPORTING FACTS AND SPORTING FANCIES _Ditto_ 0 12 0 DIARY OF A HUNTSMAN _T. Smith_ 0 5 6 THE LIFE OF A FOX _Ditto_ 0 3 0 THE LIFE OF A FOX HOUND _J. Mills_ 0 10 6 THE NOBLE SCIENCE _D. Radcliffe_ 0 14 0 FORES'S GUIDE TO THE HOUNDS OF ENGLAND _Gêlert_ 0 5 0 FORES'S HUNTING RACK 0 10 0 APPOINTMENT CARDS FOR DO. 0 5 0 FORES'S HUNTING DIARY 0 5 0 FORES'S GAME BOOK 0 2 6 THE STUD FARM _Cecil_ 0 5 0 STABLE PRACTICE _Ditto_ 0 5 0 HUNTING ATLAS _Hobson_ 4 4 0 TURF RECKONER OR BOOK OF THE ODDS _Green_ 0 2 0 THE LAWS OF HORSE RACING _Capt. Rous_ 0 3 6 TRAINING THE RACE HORSE, 2 VOLS. _Darvill_ 1 10 0 DEER STALKING _W. Scrope_ 1 0 0 SALMON FISHING _Ditto_ 2 2 0 HAND BOOK OF ANGLING _Ephemera_ 0 9 0 BRITISH ANGLER'S MANUAL _Hofland_ 1 1 0 ANGLER'S COMPANION _Stoddart_ 0 10 6 WILD SPORTS OF THE HIGHLANDS _St. John_ 0 6 0 THE BAT _Felix_ 0 12 0 THE CRICKET FIELD 0 5 0 DOG BREAKING _Hutchinson_ 0 7 6 THE MODERN SHOOTER _Lacy_ 1 1 0 GAMEKEEPER'S DIRECTORY _Johnson_ 0 5 0 ENCYCLOP�DIA OF RURAL SPORTS _Blaine_ 2 10 0 VETERINARY ART _Ditto_ 1 1 0 CANINE PATHOLOGY _Ditto_ 0 9 0 WHITE'S FARRIERY _Spooner_ 0 14 0 FARRIERY _Brown_ 0 13 6 THE HORSE _Youatt_ 0 10 0 THE DOG _Ditto_ 0 6 0 THE HORSE'S MOUTH _Mayhew_ 0 10 6 THE HORSE'S FOOT _Spooner_ 0 7 6 THE HORSE'S FOOT _Miles_ 0 10 6 TWO CASTS OF DITTO _Ditto_ 0 6 0 THE AGES OF THE HORSE IN CASE 0 5 0 THE MUSCLES OF THE HORSE DITTO 0 5 0 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE'S FOOT DITTO 0 5 0 STABLE ECONOMY _Stewart_ 0 6 6 ADVICE TO PURCHASERS OF HORSES _Ditto_ 0 2 6 NATURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE _Roper_ 0 3 0 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE _Percivall_ 1 0 0 HIPPOPATHOLOGY, 5 VOLS. _Ditto_ 3 17 6 FORM AND ACTION OF THE HORSE _Percivall_ 0 12 0 VETERINARY PHARMACY _Morton_ 0 10 0 NOTITIA VENATICA _Vyner_ 0 15 0 THE RACING CALENDAR. STEEPLE-CHASE CALENDAR. STUD BOOK, AND GUIDE TO THE TURF. LONDON, MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY, (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.) May and December, FROM THE ADMIRABLE PICTURE BY MR. J. L. BRODIE, EXHIBITED AT THE ROYAL ACADEMY, Engraved in Mezzotint, highly finished, BY MR. W. H. SIMMONS. SIZE OF THE ENGRAVING, WITH MARGIN FOR FRAMING, 30 BY 25 INCHES. Artists' Proofs £3 3 0 Proofs Before Letters 2 2 0 Prints 1 1 0 Prints, Coloured from the Original Picture 2 2 0 MAY AND DECEMBER. Engraved by W. H. Simmons, from a Painting by J. Lamont Brodie.--Fores & Co. The visitors to the Royal Academy Exhibition of the past year, such at least of them as have an eye for the pleasing, the merry, and the bright--the admirers of Allegro, rather than her more solemn sister-nymph Penseroso--must have noticed, and having noticed, been attracted, by the clever painting of Mr. Brodie, bearing the title of "May and December." The original picture, which can throw sunshine but on one apartment, is now multiplied; and numerous cheerful rays may beam from the walls of humbler persons of taste, less fortunate than the possessor of the artist's first conception. Mr. Simmons has well performed his task of transferring from the canvas to the plate, the spirit, the mind, the _vis comica_ of the original, while the depth of the middle-tinting and the chalklike softness of the flesh are evidences of his skilful care in the mechanical details. The subject, we may observe, for the information of those who did not visit the Exhibition, is a fine ripe laughing lass, a long way in her "teens," if not just coming out of them; her face, which "smiles all over," is turned full towards the spectator, and her half-delighted, half-mischievous eyes, are glittering with a mixture of gratified vanity, and a sense of the ludicrous absurdity of the situation of herself and her aged _innamorato_. The latter is indeed "December" personified. Imagine a beetle-browed, heavy-featured sexagenarian, or perchance approximating the three-score-and-ten of man's pilgrimage, bending, with the devotion of an idol-worshipper, over one of the plump hands of his earthly divinity, which he holds in his gnarled and knotted fingers, and presses to his sensual lips, exposing over his artistically foreshortened face a polished cranium, denuded of its hirsute covering, except at the sides, where two fiercely brushed tufts of white hair still stand upright in admirable agreement with the organic development of obstinacy in its general bony contour. The accessories of the picture are also suggestive: on the left, where the mischievous maiden is seated, are a modern flower-vase, a guitar, &c., and in the chimney glass is reflected the portrait of a moustached _militaire_ (doubtless a suitor for the fair hand here in the cold grasp of winter), which looks down on the group with an expression of appealing regret. On the right of the old man is a tankard of elegant chasing, a pen, and inkstand, and the like emblems. As a composition the picture is excellent, and as a piece of _genre_ painting, and highly-finished engraving, "May and December" is a most agreeable and talented work.--_Morning Advertiser._ PUBLISHED BY MESSRS. FORES, 41, PICCADILLY. (CORNER OF SACKVILLE STREET.) London: Printed by HARRISON AND SONS, 45, St. Martin's Lane. =FORES'S SPORTING ENGRAVINGS.= =Fores's Steeple-Chase Scenes.= From Original Drawings, by H. ALKEN, Sen. 1. THE STARTING FIELD. 2. WATTLE FENCE WITH DEEP DROP. 3. IN AND OUT OF THE LANE. 4. THE WARREN WALL. 5. THE BROOK. 6. THE RUN IN. Price £2. 12_s._ 6_d._ the Set, colored. =Fores's National Sports--Plates 1 & 2.= THE START FOR THE MEMORABLE DERBY. STEEPLE-CHASE CRACKS, (GOING AT A WALL FULL TILT,) From Pictures by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen. Size of the Engravings, 42 in. by 21. Price £3. 3_s._ each, colored in close imitation of the Original Pictures. =Fores's Coaching Recollections.= The Set of Five, colored, price £5. 5_s._ By C. C. HENDERSON, Esq. 1. CHANGING HORSES. 2. ALL RIGHT. 3. PULLING UP TO UNSKID. 4. WAKING UP. 5. THE OLDEN TIME. =Fores's Stable Scenes.= The Set of Four, colored, price £4. 4_s._ By Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen. 1. THE MAIL CHANGE. 2. THE HUNTING STUD. 3. THOROUGH BREDS. 4. THE TEAM. =Fores's Sporting Traps.= From the Original Pictures, by C. C. HENDERSON, Esq. Price 21_s._ each, colored. To range with the Stable Scenes and Coaching Recollections. Plate 1. GOING TO THE MOORS. Plate 2. GOING TO COVER. =Fores's Series of the British Stud.= Comprising Portraits of the most celebrated Thorough-bred Stallions and Mares. 1. SIR HERCULES AND BEESWING. 2. TOUCHSTONE AND EMMA. 3. PANTALOON AND LANGUISH. 4. CAMEL AND BANTER. 5. MULEY MOLOCH AND REBECCA. 6. LANERCOST AND CRUCIFIX. Price £1. 1_s._ each plate, colored in close imitation of the Original Pictures, painted expressly, by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen., for this Work. =Fores's Coaching Incidents.= Plate 1. KNEE DEEP. 2. STUCK FAST. 3. FLOODED. 4. THE ROAD VERSUS RAIL. 5. IN TIME FOR THE COACH. 6. LATE FOR THE MAIL. Price 15_s._ each, colored from the Original Pictures, by C. C. HENDERSON, Esq. =Fores's Celebrated Winners.= The HERO. With Portraits of JOHN DAY, Sen., and ALFRED DAY. Price 21_s._, colored from the Original Picture. Painted expressly at Danebury. =Fores's Steeple-Chase Winners.= BRUNETTE. An admirable Portrait of this extraordinary Animal. Painted by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen. Price 21_s._ colored. =Fores's Racing Scenes.= Plate 1. ASCOT. THE EMPEROR, _Ridden by Whitehouse._ FAUGH A BALLAGH, _Bell._ ALICE HAWTHORN, _Robinson._ Running for the Emperor's Cup, value £500. Price 21_s._, colored from the Original Picture, by Mr. J. F. HERRING, Sen. =Fores's Road Scenes.= Price £1. 10_s._ the Pair, colored from the Original Pictures, by C. C. HENDERSON, Esq. HORSES GOING TO A FAIR. 1. HUNTERS AND HACKS. 2. CART HORSES. =Fores's Instructive Anatomical Plates of the Horse.= The Age exhibited by the Tables of the Teeth--the Structure of the Foot clearly defined--the Muscles and Tendons accurately delineated. Price 4_s._ each Plate colored, 5_s._ each in a case pocket size, or 5_s._ 6_d._ postage free. LONDON: Published by MESSRS. FORES, _at their Sporting & Fine Print Repository and Frame Manufactory_, 41, Piccadilly, corner of Sackville Street. SPORTING & VETERINARY WORKS. £._s. d._ THE LIFE OF A SPORTSMAN by _Nimrod_ 2 2 0 THE LIFE OF JOHN MYTTON, ESQ. _Ditto_ 1 5 0 THE CONDITION OF HUNTERS _Ditto_ 0 15 0 THE HORSE AND THE HOUND _Ditto_ 0 12 0 THE CHASE, TURF, AND ROAD _Ditto_ 0 9 6 HUNTING TOURS _Ditto_ 0 15 0 ANALYSIS OF THE HUNTING FIELD 1 11 6 THE ROADSTER'S ALBUM 2 12 6 HUNTING REMINISCENCES _Wildrake_ 0 16 0 PICTORIAL GALLERY OF ENGLISH RACE HORSES _Ditto_ 0 18 0 FORES'S TURF COMPANION, CONTAINING 40 PORTRAITS} 1 11 6 OF CELEBRATED OLD RACE HORSES } STABLE TALK AND TABLE TALK, 2 vols. _Harry Hieover_ 1 4 0 THE POCKET AND THE STUD _Ditto_ 0 5 0 THE LIFE OF A FOX _T. Smith_ 0 8 6 DIARY OF A HUNTSMAN _Ditto_ 0 10 6 THE LIFE OF A FOX HOUND _J. Mills_ 0 10 6 THE NOBLE SCIENCE _D. Radcliffe_ 0 14 0 DEER STALKING _W. Scrope_ 1 0 0 SALMON FISHING _Ditto_ 2 2 0 WILD SPORTS OF THE HIGHLANDS _St. John_ 0 6 0 THE BAT _Felix_ 0 12 0 HAND BOOK OF ANGLING _Ephemera_ 0 9 0 DOG BREAKING _Hutchinson_ 0 6 0 THE MODERN SHOOTER _Lacy_ 1 1 0 TRAINING THE RACE HORSE, 2 vols. _Darvill_ 1 10 0 THE HORSE'S MOUTH _Mayhew_ 0 10 6 WHITE'S FARRIERY _Spooner_ 0 16 0 WHITE ON CATTLE MEDICINE _Ditto_ 0 9 0 THE HORSE _Youatt_ 0 10 0 THE DOG _Ditto_ 0 6 0 CANINE PATHOLOGY _Blaine_ 0 9 0 ENCYCLOP�DIA OF RURAL SPORTS _Ditto_ 2 10 0 THE HORSE'S FOOT _Miles_ 0 9 0 SET OF FOUR CASTS OF DITTO _Ditto_ 0 10 6 STABLE ECONOMY _Stewart_ 0 6 6 ADVICE TO PURCHASERS OF HORSES _Ditto_ 0 2 6 THE HORSE IN HEALTH AND DISEASE _Winter_ 0 10 6 NATURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE _Roper_ 0 3 0 THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE _Percivall_ 1 0 0 HIPPOPATHOLOGY, 3 vols. _Ditto_ 1 18 6 VETERINARY PHARMACY _Morton_ 0 10 0 VETERINARY ART _Blaine_ 1 1 0 ADVENTURES OF A GENTLEMAN IN SEARCH OF A } _Sir Geo. 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FORES, 41, PICCADILLY. Corner of Sackville Street. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE The footnote in Paragraph #35 on page 69 (the only one in the book) was moved to follow the paragraph from which it is referenced. Eight pages of advertisements that preceded the title page have been moved to the end of the book and placed before the two pages of advertisements that closed the book. Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. Except for those changes noted below, misspelling by the author, and inconsistent or archaic usage, has been retained. For example, Milk teeth, Milk-teeth; Steeplechase, Steeple-Chase; Thorough Breds, Thorough-Breds. Page Error 9 'unqalified' changed to 'unqualified' 12 'foretel?' changed to 'foretell?' 36 'development' changed to 'developments' 44 'temporay' changed to 'temporary' 59 'have not began' changed to 'have not begun' 64 'imflammatory' changed to 'inflammatory' 76 'lascerated' changed to 'lacerated' 97 'infundibula is' changed to 'infundibulum is' 105 'infundibula of which' changed to 'infundibulum of which' 108 'exteme' changed to 'extreme' 110 'dependance' changed to 'dependence' 114 'dependance' changed to 'dependence' 122 'vestage' changed to 'vestige' 122 'excentricities,' changed to 'eccentricities,' 138 'is to seen' changed to 'is to be seen' 144 'obnormal' changed to 'abnormal' 166 'sensative' changed to 'sensitive' 167 'transcient' changed to 'transient' 169 'perceptably' changed to 'perceptibly' 178 'rince' changed to 'rinse' 187 'stuggles' changed to 'struggles' 
48546	----	at The Internet Archive (https://www.archive.org). Transcriber Notes Text emphasis is displayed as _Italics_ and =Bold=. Whole and fractional parts of numbers are displayed as 2-1/2. * * * * * U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 59. BEE KEEPING. BY FRANK BENTON, M. S., IN CHARGE OF APICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS. =[Revised, March 1905.]= [Illustration] WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1905. * * * * * LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, _Washington, D. O., March 1905._ Sir: Frequent inquiries from correspondents of the Department of Agriculture for information on matters pertaining to the culture of bees, and particularly as to the conditions under which one may reasonably expect to meet with success in this pursuit, led to the preparation of this bulletin in July, 1897. Though designed by the author primarily to answer a few of the specific questions which are most likely to present themselves to the mind of the inquirer wholly unfamiliar with the subject, the aim has been also to introduce in the treatment of the various topics information which it is hoped will lead many of longer experience into more successful methods than they have yet practiced. The stereotype plates of the earlier editions having become much worn, necessitating the resetting of the type of the entire bulletin, the opportunity has been afforded of inserting several new paragraphs and making a few slight changes in the text as heretofore published. Respectfully, L. O. Howard, _Entomologist,_ Hon. James Wilson, _Secretary of Agriculture,_ CONTENTS. Page. Locations suited to the keeping of bees 9 The returns to be expected from an apiary 11 Anyone who desires to do so can learn to manipulate bees 13 How to avoid stings 14 What race of bees to choose 16 Caucasians 16 Carniolans 17 Italians 17 Cyprians 17 Cyprio-Carniolans and Cyprio-Caucasians 18 Syrian and Palestine or "Holy-Land" bees 18 German, common black, or brown bees 18 What hive to adopt 19 Management in swarming 21 Natural swarming 21 Artificial swarming 22 Dividing 22 Nucleus system 22 Shaken or brushed swarms 23 Prevention of swarming 23 Dequeening 24 Requeening 24 Space near entrances 25 Selection in breeding 25 Special crops for honey alone not profitable 26 Economic plants and trees for cultivation for honey and pollen 27 How to obtain surplus honey and wax 29 Extracted honey 30 Comb honey 31 Grading and shipping comb honey 33 Production of wax 34 The wintering of bees 35 General considerations 37 Indoor wintering 38 Outdoor wintering 38 The risk of loss through disease and enemies 41 Foul brood or bacillus of the hive 41 Bee paralysis 44 Insect and other enemies 45 Robber bees 46 Legislation affecting apiarian interests 47 Journals treating of apiculture 47 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Fig. 1. The Bingham bee smoker 14 2. Bee veil 15 3. The Porter spring bee escape 16 4. Langstroth hive with two half-depth supers for surplus honey 19 5. The Langstroth hive--Dadant-Quinby form--cross section showing construction 20 6. Quinby closed-end frames 20 7. The Simmins nonswarming system--single-story hive with supers 24 8. The Simmins nonswarming system--double-story hive with supers 25 9. Quinby uncapping knife 30 10. The automatic reversible honey extractor 31 11. Langstroth hive--super above, holding 28 sections for comb honey 32 12. Comb honey stored in pound section 32 13. Perforated zinc queen excluder 33 14. Shipping cases for comb honey 34 15. Solar wax-extractor 35 16. Steam wax-extractor 35 17. Double-walled hive adapted to outdoor wintering, as well as summer use 39 18. The American straw hive (Langstroth principle) of Hayek Brothers 40 19. Colony of bees with newspapers packed between inner and outer cases and brood frames on end for the winter 41 BEE KEEPING. LOCATIONS SUITED TO THE KEEPING OF BEES. It may be safely said that any place where farming, gardening, or fruit raising can be successfully followed is adapted to the profitable keeping of bees--in a limited way at least, if not extensively. Many of these localities will support extensive apiaries. In addition to this there are, within the borders of the United States, thousands of good locations for the apiarist--forest, prairie, swamp, and mountain regions--where agriculture has as yet not gained a foothold, either because of remoteness from markets or the uninviting character of soil or climate. This pursuit may also be followed in or near towns and, to a limited extent, in large cities. It even happens in some instances that bees in cities or towns find more abundant pasturage than in country locations which are considered fair. The city of Washington is an example of this, bees located here doing better during the spring and summer months than those in the surrounding country, owing to the bee pasturage found in the numerous gardens and parks and the nectar-yielding shade trees along the streets. This is due mainly to the fact that the linden, or basswood, which is rarely seen in the country about Washington, has been planted extensively in the parks and for miles on both sides of many of the streets and avenues of the city.[A] Another source in the city not found extensively in the country adjacent is melilot, Bokhara or sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_), which has crept into vacant lots and neglected corners, and diffuses its agreeable perfume to the delight of all city dwellers, whether human or insect. The writer has practiced with profit the transportation of nearly a hundred colonies from a country apiary 10 miles distant to Washington for the linden and sweet clover yield. He has also seen a prosperous apiary kept on the roof of a business house in the heart of New York City, and on several occasions has visited another apiary of 30 to 40 colonies, which a skillful apiarist had located on the roof of his store in the business portion of Cincinnati, Ohio, and from which 30 to 40 pounds of honey per colony were usually obtained each year. [A] Several species of lindens are included in these plantings, but none yields more than our common American linden, or basswood (_Tilia americana_). Another apiary personally inspected was located directly on the sand banks forming the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. These bees were, of course, unable to forage westward from the apiary, hence had but half "a field." The soil of the area over which the bees ranged was a light sand, unproductive for most crops, and the region was little developed agriculturally, most of the honey coming from forest trees and from shrubs and wild plants growing in old burnings and windfalls, yet 25 to 30 pounds of excellent honey per colony was the usual surplus obtained. At one time the writer had an apiary in the city of Detroit, Mich., where the wide river on one side cut off nearly half of the pasturage, yet the bees did will. And again for several years he had an apiary containing from 100 to 200 colonies of bees on a very sterile coast of the Island of Cyprus, and another nearly as large located but a few rods from the seashore on a rocky point of Syria. Both of these apiaries were devoted in the main to queen rearing, yet the yield of honey was not an unimportant item, especially in the Syrian apiary, while in the Cyprus apiary some honey was frequently taken, and it was rarely necessary to feed the bees for stores. In the latter case about one-fourth of the range was out off by the sea, the bees being located at the head of an open bay and a short distance from the shore, while the location of the Syrian apiary prevented the bees from securing half of the usual range, hence their greater prosperity was due to the nature and quantity of the pasturage of their limited range. It is evident, therefore, that no one similarly located need be deterred from keeping bees, provided the nectar-yielding trees and plants of the half range are of the right sort and abundant. Moreover, regions so rough and sterile or so swampy as to give no encouragement to the agriculturist, or even to the stock raiser, will often yield a good income to the bee keeper, insignificant and apparently worthless herbs and shrubs furnishing forage for the bees. The ability of the bees to range over areas inaccessible to other farm stock and to draw their sustenance from dense forests when the timber is of the right kind, and the freedom which, because of their nature, must be accorded them to pasture on whatever natural sources are within their range of 3 or 4 miles, must be taken into account in estimating the possibilities of a locality. It will be found that very few localities exist in our country where at least a few colonies of bees may not be kept. Whether a large number might be profitably kept in a given locality can be decided only by a careful examination as to the honey-producing flora within range of the apiary (see pp. 12 and 26-29). The danger of overstocking a given locality is very frequently exaggerated. Each range, it is self-evident, has a limit. The writer is, however, fully convinced, after long experience in numerous localities and under the most varied circumstances, that three or four times as many colonies as are commonly considered sufficient to stock a given range may usually be kept with a relative degree of profit. But to secure such results sufficient care and close observation have too frequently not been given in the selection of bees adapted to the locality and conditions. A more frequent failure has been lack of proper attention to the individual colonies, particularly as to the age and character of the queens in each. The space given for brood rearing is often too small, and frequently no care is given to secure the proper amount of brood in time to insure a population ready for each harvest. Attention to these points would enable great numbers of bee keepers who now regard 50 to 100 colonies as fully stocking their range to reach several hundreds in a single apiary, with slight or no diminution in the average yield per colony. THE RETURNS TO BE EXPECTED FROM AN APIARY. Although apiculture is extremely fascinating to most people who have a taste for the study of nature, requiring, as it does, out-of-door life, with enough exercise to be of benefit to one whose main occupation is sedentary, the income to be derived from it when rightly followed is a consideration which generally has some weight and is often the chief factor in leading one to undertake the care of bees. Certainly, where large apiaries are planned, the prime object is the material profit, for they require much hard labor and great watchfulness, and the performance of the work at stated times is imperative, so that in this case there is less opportunity than where but a few colonies are kept to make a leisurely study of the natural history and habits of these interesting insects, because--unless the keeper is willing to forego a considerable portion of his profits--his time must necessarily be almost wholly taken up in attending to the most apparent wants of his charges. One very naturally supposes that the return from a single hive, or several of them, in a given locality, may be taken as a fair index of what may be expected each season. Such return, if considered average, may serve as a basis on which to reckon, but as so many conditions influence it, great differences in actual results-will be found to occur in successive seasons. Apiculture, like all other branches of agriculture, depends largely upon the natural resources of the location, and the favorableness or unfavorableness of any particular season, no matter how skillful the management, may make great differences in the year's return. The knowledge, skill, industry, and promptness of the one who undertakes the care of the apiary have likewise much to do with the return. Furthermore, profits are of course largely affected by the nature and proximity of the markets. A moderate estimate for a fairly good locality would be 35 to 40 pounds of extracted honey or 25 pounds of comb honey per colony. This presupposes good wintering and an average season. When two or more of the important honey-yielding plants are present in abundance and are fairly supplemented by minor miscellaneous honey plants the locality may be considered excellent, and an expectation of realizing more than the yield mentioned above may be entertained. With extracted honey of good quality at its present wholesale price of 6 to 8 cents per pound and comb honey at 12 to 14 cents, each hive should under favorable circumstances give a gross annual return of $2.50 to $3. From this about one-third is to be deducted to cover expenses other than the item of labor. These will include the purchase of comb foundation and sections, repairs, eventual replacing of hives and implements, and the interest on the capital invested. By locating in some section particularly favorable to apiculture--that is, near large linden forests, with clover fields within range, supplemented by buckwheat; or in a section where alfalfa is raised for seed; where mesquite, California sages, and wild buckwheat abound; where mangrove, palmettos, and titi, or where sourwood, tulip tree, and asters are plentiful--the net profits here indicated may frequently be doubled or trebled. But these favored locations, like all others, are also subject to reverses--the result of droughts, great wet, freezes which kill back the bee pasturage, etc., and though some years the profits are so much larger than those named above as to lend a very roseate hue to the outlook for the accumulation of wealth on the part of anyone who can possess himself of a hundred or two colonies of bees, the beginner will do well to proceed cautiously, bearing in mind that much experience is necessary to enable him to turn to the best account seasons below the average, while during poor seasons it will take considerable under standing of the subject, energetic action, and some sacrifice to tide over, without disaster, or at least without such great discouragement as to cause neglect and loss of faith in the business. On the whole, there should be expected from the raising of bees for any purpose whatever only fair pay for one's time, good interest on the money invested, and a sufficient margin to cover contingencies. With no greater expectations from it than this, and where intelligence directs the work, apiculture will be found, in the long run, to rank among the best and safest of rural industries. The value of bees in the pollination of various fruit and seed crops is often sufficient reason to warrant the keeping of a small apiary, even if circumstances do not favor its management in such a manner as to secure the largest possible crops of honey or to insure the saving of all swarms. The quality and quantity of many varieties of apples, pears, plums, and small fruits depend absolutely upon complete cross-pollination. The most active agents in this work are honey bees. ANYONE WHO DESIRES TO DO SO CAN LEARN TO MANIPULATE BEES. Any person with fairly steady nerves and some patience and courage can easily learn to control and manipulate bees. There are, it is true, a few exceptional individuals whose systems are particularly susceptible to the poison injected by the bee, so much so that serious effects follow a single sting. Such cases are, however, very rare. In most instances where care is not taken to avoid all stings the system eventually becomes accustomed to the poison, so that beyond momentary pain a sting causes no inconvenience. To a certain extent the belief exists that bees have, without apparent cause, a violent dislike for some people, while others, without any effort, are received into their favor. The latter part of this proposition has a better foundation than the first part, for it is the actions, rather than any peculiarity of the individual himself, that anger the bees. Bees prefer, of course, not to be disturbed; hence they usually keep guards on the lookout for intruders. When visitors approach the hives these guards are very apt to fly toward them as if to inquire whether harm is intended or not, and should the visitor not inspire them with fear by using smoke or some similar means, but should himself show fear and nervousness, he will be very likely to arouse their suspicions still further, or even to anger them should he strike at them or endeavor to dodge their approach. Indeed, one not accustomed to the notes of bees is very likely, unconsciously, to dodge his head about when a worker buzzes uncomfortably close to his face. It may be a movement of but an inch or two, but perhaps a quick jerk, and being noticed by the suspicious guard is resented; a sting follows, and yet the recipient declares that he did nothing to cause the attack, but that bees merely hate him and always sting him when he approaches them. On the other hand, an equally unprotected person who moves about with deliberation may generally, under the same circumstances, be let off without receiving a sting. It is in this case not so much what he does as what he does not do. It is not to be understood that bees will always refrain from stinging if one remains somewhat passive in the vicinity of their hives, for the fact is that at some seasons common black bees and crosses having blood of this race fly some distance to attack passers-by, or even, without just provocation and with but slight warning, to plant a sting in the face of one who is standing near the apiary. But as the avoidance of such unpleasant occurrences depends largely upon the kind of bees kept, and, to a certain extent, upon an acquaintance with a few facts with which anyone of intelligence may easily familiarize himself, and the observance of certain precautions which are quite simple and after a little practice will become easy, and as the opening and manipulation of hives in securing honey, etc., is equally simple and attended with no greater risks, it is safe to say that almost anyone can, with perseverance and the exercise of due caution, learn to manipulate bees with perfect freedom and without serious risk of being stung. HOW TO AVOID STINGS. Stings can be avoided, first, by having gentle bees. If no other point of superiority over the common brown or black bee than that of gentleness could be fairly claimed for some of the races introduced and some of the strains developed in recent years, it would still be worth while to get them on this account alone. When the fact of superiority in several other important points is considered also, there should be no further question as to the advisability of procuring them in preference to the common variety. The beginner is advised never to think of doing otherwise. No one likes stings, and even the veteran who affects insensibility to the wrath of his charges will find his interest and pleasure in them much increased by replacing blacks and their crosses with better varieties. Nor is this merely to gratify a fancy or for convenience alone. If, by reason of the stinging qualities of the bees kept, an examination for the purpose of ascertaining the condition of a colony of bees becomes a disagreeable task to the one who cares for the apiary, little things necessary to the welfare of the colonies will be postponed or omitted altogether and the apiary will soon present a neglected appearance, and the actual profits will be affected. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--The Bingham bee smoker.] Of the races already in general cultivation, Carniolans are the gentlest, although Caucasians, more recently introduced from south-eastern Russia and only now being put on sale, are by far the least inclined to sting of any bees, and may be handled at all times without resorting to the protection of a bee veil, and generally without smoke, or at most a very slight application of smoke. Some strains of Italians equal in gentleness average Carniolans, but in general the race native to Italy is by no means as gentle as that found in Carniola, Austria, and the Caucasians are much to be preferred for the beginner. In case these gentler races are not easily procurable he need not hesitate, however, to undertake, after adopting due precautions, the manipulation of pure Italians. In crossing well-established breeds the males of a gentle race should be used, otherwise the workers of the cross may vary greatly in temper, especially in the first few generations. Only careful selection continued for some time will so fix the desirable traits as to result in their reproduction with a fair degree of certainty in the offspring. Bees having the blood of blacks and Italians are nearly always quite vicious in the case of the first cross, and are even harder to subdue with smoke than are pure blacks. Other races need not be considered here, as they are adapted to special purposes; and the skill of the bee-master, the conditions of climate, flora, etc., and the particular line of production to be followed, should decide whether their introduction is advisable or not.[B] [B] For a fuller discussion of this subject, see "The Honey Bee: A Manual of Instruction in Apiculture," by Frank Benton, M. S., Bulletin No. 1, new series, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, third edition, 1899, Chap. I, pp. 11-18. The second essential to enable one to avoid stings is to have a good smoker at hand whenever the bees are to be handled. Any way of getting smoke of any kind into the hive and about it may answer the purpose, but for ease and effectiveness in keeping bees under control nothing will take the place of the modern bellows smoker (fig. 1). A good one lasts years, and its cost is so slight ($1 to $1.25 for the medium sizes) that the expenditure may be considered one of the wisest that can be made in fitting up an apiary. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Bee veil.] A veil (fig. 2), made of black bobinet or Brussels net, to draw over the hat, and a pair of gloves, preferably of rubber, may be used at first. But whoever has fairly peaceable bees and learns even a little about their ways will soon discard the gloves, unless, indeed, he be exceedingly timid, or one of those to whom a bee sting would be a dreadful affliction. The veil can be safely dispensed with if the gentlest bees are kept. Simple and convenient hives, employing the Langstroth principle, and with stories and frames interchangeable and so constructed as to reduce propolization to a minimum and to insure straight combs, will much facilitate the avoidance of stings. The use of the bee escape (fig. 3) in removing surplus honey greatly reduces the risk of being stung during this operation, for it saves much manipulation of combs and shaking and brushing of bees. This useful device is fitted into a slot made in a board the same size as the top of the hive, and the whole, when slipped in between the brood apartment and an upper story or super, will permit all of the workers above to go down into the lower story but not to return to the top above to go down into the lower story, but not to return to the top one, so that in one night it is possible to free entirely a set of combs from bees without any manipulation of the combs, and without smoking, shaking, or brushing the bees. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--The Porter spring bee escape.] Lastly, reasonable care in manipulation and a suitable system of management, which, of course, implies the doing of work in proper season, will, with the observance of the foregoing points, make the risk of stings exceedingly slight. Indeed, intelligent attention to the most important of the points mentioned above, with extra gentleness and moderation in manipulation, will enable anyone who so desires to avoid all stings. WHAT RACE OF BEES TO CHOOSE. Reference has already been made to the relative gentleness of the various races, and since the gentler types are themselves excellent honey gatherers, and the particular advantages to be derived from some of the more energetic races which do not happen to be so mild in temperament are not likely to be secured by the beginner who is unfamiliar with the most approved methods of manipulation of such bees, it is strongly recommended that only the gentle ones be at first adopted--either Caucasians, Carniolans, or Italians. Should full colonies of these not be obtainable near home, colonies of ordinary bees may be changed by replacing their queens with queens of the desired race, the latter having been procured in small boxes by mail. If possible the introduction had better be made by an expert, although in general, by following the instructions which accompany the new queen, success will also be attained by the beginner. A brief summary of the leading traits of the various races now in this country will be of use in guiding the purchaser, as well as instructive to him for reference. =Caucasians= are natives of that portion of Russia lying between the Black and Caspian seas, are exceedingly gentle, good workers, good defenders of their hives, prolific, build many queen cells, and swarm often if confined to small hives. The workers are dark leaden gray in their general color, and present quite a ringed appearance because of the alternation of this dark color with the lighter fuzz which edges the segments of the abdomen. They also show frequently one to two yellow or leather-colored bands, are somewhat smaller bodied than Italians or Carniolans, have good wing-expanse, and hence are nimble flyers. The drones are rather small and quite dark in color; queens not large, and vary in color from a coppery-yellow to a dark bronze. =Carniolans= are much larger bodied and somewhat lighter gray in color than the Caucasians, but show likewise in many instances one or two rusty or dark-red bands. Their great hardiness and excellent wing-power enable them to fly freely in much cooler weather than some other races stand, and to regain their hive entrances under adverse conditions. They are prolific, active, and good honey gatherers, producing combs of snowy whiteness. As in the case of the Caucasians, their prolificness causes them to fill small hives to overflowing with bees, and this naturally results in numerous swarms. It is therefore advisable to use hives containing ten to twelve frames in the brood chamber. The nature of the Carniolans is essentially a quiet one, so that upon the approach of cold weather they settle down in a very compact and extremely quiet cluster, a condition which contributes in no small degree to their excellent wintering qualities. The drones are the largest of all drones of this species, and are covered with a thick coat of gray fuzz. The queens vary from a light color to a very dark leather color, the typical queen being, however, dark bronze, large, well rounded, strong, and active. =Italians=, the first of the foreign races to be introduced into this country, are much more widely known, and have with reason found great favor, since they are industrious, good defenders of their hives, and excellent honey gatherers, as well as handsome in appearance, being usually evenly marked with three yellow bands across the anterior portion of the abdomen. The blood has become so disseminated through the apiaries of the country that many hybrid bees having but one to two yellow bands are counted as Italians, and their cross disposition, derived through the males of the common race, is charged to the Italians. Strains of Italians pure in blood have been bred by selection in this country until the three yellow bands have become so wide as to be nearly or quite joined, and in some instances nearly the whole abdomen is yellow. In general, however, as regards gathering powers it does not seem that any improvement has been made by this selection, the dark or leather-colored Italians proving, all in all, more vigorous, gentle, and better honey gatherers, while as regards wintering they are also superior. It must be acknowledged, however, that the Italian race is slightly inferior in wintering qualities to all of the others which have been generally introduced into America. =Cyprians=, from the island of Cyprus, may be taken as a general type with which to compare other eastern races. They are small bodied, more slender, in fact, than any of the European races of bees. The abdomen is more pointed and shows, when the bees are purely bred, three light-colored bands on the upper surface, and considerable yellow on the under side. Between the wing attachments on the thorax is a little prominence, shaped like a half moon, which is usually quite plainly yellow in color. The queens are small bodied, yellow in color, with more or less black at the tip of the abdomen. The drones have a heavy coat of fuzz on the thorax, and the abdomen presents a mottled yellow appearance, being often highly yellow. Cyprians possess longer tongues and greater wing-power than other races. This, combined with great prolificness and most remarkable activity, renders them the best of honey gatherers. In temper, however, they may be regarded as rather aggressive, rendering their management by any who are not experts extremely difficult. This feature may, however, be largely overcome by crossing the queens of this race with the drones of very gentle types. In this manner bees are produced that are readily amenable to smoke and ordinary methods in manipulation, combined with the excellent honey-gathering powers and prolificness of the eastern races. =Cyprio-Carniolans and Cyprio-Caucasians.=--The author conceived the idea in the early eighties that by crossing the Cyprian and Carniolan races a type might be developed which would combine the excellent traits of both of these. The first matings of Cyprians and Carniolans were made by him in 1883 in Carniola itself, thus insuring positively the fecundation of the Cyprian queens by Carniolan drones. Bees combining the blood of the two races in various proportions have since been tested for years in comparison with all other known races, with the result that the cross mentioned above has been found to exceed all of the pure races in honey-gathering powers, owing undoubtedly to the combination of great energy, hardiness, prolificness, and wing-power, as well as greater length of tongue--a fact established by actual measurements. Similar results, with even greater gentleness, may be expected from the cross obtained between Cyprian queens and Caucasian drones. =Syrian and Palestine or "Holy-Land" bees.=--What has been said of Cyprians may be taken to apply in a general sense to Syrian and Palestine bees, except that in these the good qualities are slightly less prominent, while some of the bad ones of the Cyprians are accentuated. No separate description of these is, therefore, particularly necessary in this place. =German, Common Black, or Brown bees.=--The bees commonly found wild, and cultivated to a greater or less extent, in this country, and known under the above name, are probably derived from early introductions from the Old World. In comparison with the races above enumerated, they may be said to be inferior, since they possess the least energy in honey collecting, are less prolific, and not as good defenders of their hives. Under favorable conditions, however, as regards pasturage they may be relied upon for excellent results. They are, however, spiteful under manipulation, and have the disagreeable habit of running from the combs and dropping in bunches on the ground, likewise of flying from the hive entrance and attacking passers-by. They are more easily discouraged than other bees during slack times as regards honey production, and this is doubtless the main reason for their generally inferior economic value. WHAT HIVE TO ADOPT. The suspended Langstroth frame is used more than any other frame among English-speaking bee keepers. It is safe to say that in the United States 500 hives are made and used which are essentially Langstroth in principle to one frame hive of any other kind whatever. In the British Islands, Australia, and New Zealand the proportion of frames on the Langstroth principle in use is probably even greater, scarcely any other frame hives being employed. The success of American bee culture in the last twenty years was first attributed by European bee keepers to the honey-producing power of the country; but the most intelligent apiarists who have tried the American methods with the Langstroth hive now recognize that success is principally due to the manipulations that it permits. ("The Hive and Honey Bee," revised, 1888, page 145.) We can predict, and without any fear of mistake, that the principles on which the Langstroth hive is based will be admitted sooner or later by the most progressive bee keepers of the world. ("Revue Internationale d'Apiculture" (Switzerland), September, 1885, edited by Edouard Bertrand.) [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Langstroth hive with two half-depth supers for surplus honey.] There being no patent on the Langstroth hive, and accurately made hives being obtainable at moderate prices from hive factories in various parts of the country, it is taken for granted that the enterprising beginner will adopt a simple form embodying this principle--the loose-fitting, suspended comb frame--as its main feature. The hive should not only be substantially built, but should have accurate bee-spaces and a close-fitting, rain-proof cover or roof. Factory-made hives, as a rule, best meet these requirements, as both lock joints and halved corners can only be made to advantage by machinery, and the expert hive builder understands, of course, the absolute necessity of great accuracy in bee-spaces, as well as the great desirability of good material and workmanship (figs. 4, 5, and 11). Provision should also be made for winter protection. (See pages 39-41.) [Illustration: Fig. 5.--The Langstroth hive--Dadant-Quinby form--cross section showing construction.] For comb honey, hives permitting the insertion in the brood apartment of any number of frames up to eight, or frequently up to ten, are most in use. In securing extracted honey, those with ten to twelve frames in each story are preferable, and as many stories, one above the other, are employed as the strength of the colony and a given harvest may require. A construction, therefore, which readily admits of expansion and of contraction, as occasion demands, is desirable. Mention should be made of a hive of quite different construction, a prominent feature of which is this ease of contraction and expansion. It is the last hive which the late M. Quinby gave to the public--the Quinby closed-end frame hive (fig. 6). This hive is used with great success by certain American bee keepers of long experience and whose apiaries are among the largest in the world. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Quinby closed-end frames.] MANAGEMENT IN SWARMING. NATURAL SWARMING. When a swarm is seen issuing or in the air, the best thing to do is, in general, simply to wait a bit. The weather is usually rather warm then, and rushing about to get tin pans, dinner gongs, spraying outfits, etc., aside from its disagreeableness, may get one so excited and into such a perspiration as to unfit him to do with the bees that which is likely to be necessary a few minutes later. The bees will probably gather in a clump on a tree or bush near the apiary, and however formidable getting them into the hive may at first seem, nothing will be simpler than shaking them into their new hive, or into a basket or box, from which they may be poured in front of the hive, just as one would pour out a measure of wheat or beans. If any stick to the basket or box, invert it and give a sharp thump with one edge against the ground. If the hive has been standing in the shade so that the boards composing it are not heated, and if it be now well shaded and plenty of ventilation be given above and below, the bees are almost certain to take possession at once and begin work actively. The securing of swarms can be made, however, even simpler than this by having the colonies placed several feet apart on a smooth lawn or dooryard and clipping one wing of each laying queen so as to prevent her flying. The prime or first swarm from each hive is accompanied by the old queen, and if she be clipped she will of course fall from the alighting board to the ground and may be secured in a cage. The bees will circle about a few times and return. Meanwhile the only thing for the attendant to do is to replace the parent colony by an empty hive. The returning bees will enter the latter and the queen may be allowed to go in with them, the cage being placed with its open end directly against the entrance to insure this. The swarm is thus made to hive itself. The parent colony removed to a new stand a rod or more away will rarely give a second swarm. But to make certain all queen cells except one may be cut out four or five days after the issuance of the first swarm. At the same time one-third to one-half of the remaining bee's of the removed colony may be shaken at the entrance of the hive containing the swarm. This reduces the population of the parent colony greatly, but the loss is soon made good by the young workers emerging daily, and the new queen which will issue from the single queen cell, spared when cutting out cells, will soon restock the hive with brood. The shaking out of additional bees, coupled with the removal of all queen cells but one, will prevent for the time all further swarming from the given hive, and in most instances end it for the season. The bees thus added to the newly hived swarm, even though too young to enter the field at once as honey gatherers, will nevertheless release from inside work an equal number of older bees, enabling the latter to go out as field bees. Each after-swarm (second, third, etc.), it should be borne in mind, is accompanied by one or more unimpregnated queens, and these must not be clipped until they have flown out and mated. The regular deposition of eggs in worker cells may nearly always be regarded as a safe sign that mating has taken place. Eggs will usually be found in such cells within the first ten days of the queen's life. After-swarms may remain in the air, circling about for some time, and they frequently cluster high--a good reason, in addition to the more important fact that their issuance is not consistent with the production of the most surplus honey, for the prevention of all after-swarming. ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. Where an increase of colonies is desired, and in case no one can be near the apiary to care for natural swarms with clipped queens, some one of the artificial methods of forming new colonies may be advantageously employed. Natural swarming is, however, to be preferred to a poor system of artificial increase. And no matter which of the artificial methods be adopted, it should be cautiously followed, lest, should unfavorable weather appear suddenly, considerable labor and expense be incurred to prevent disastrous results. It is also of prime importance not to weaken materially the gathering powers of strong colonies just at the opening of the harvest or during its progress; hence, whatever division takes place then must leave the field force--the gatherers--in one mass and in normal condition for work, that is, not discouraged by being queenless, and not overburdened by having brood without a sufficient number of nurse bees to care for it. =Dividing.=--A plan which fulfills these conditions is the following: From a populous colony a comb or two with adhering bees and the queen may be taken and placed in a new hive, which, when other frames with starters have been added, is then to be put on the stand of the populous colony from which the combs were taken. The removed colony is to be taken a rod or more from its old stand, so that the flight bees returning from the field will enter the newly established colony. The old colony may be given a laying queen or a mature queen cell a day or two later This finishes the work in a short time. =Nucleus system.=--A better plan, though not so quickly completed, is to take from the populous colony only enough bees and combs to make a fair nucleus on a new stand. A queen is easily and safely introduced into this nucleus, or a queen cell is readily accepted a day or two later. As soon as the young queen has begun egg laying, combs of emerging brood may be added from time to time. These may be obtained from any populous colonies whose tendency to swarm it is desirable to check, the bees adhering to them when they are removed being in all instances brushed back into their own hive. With fair pasturage the nucleus will soon be able to build combs and may be given frames of comb foundation, or, if the queen be of the current year's raising, frames with narrow strips of foundation as guides may be inserted, since all combs constructed by the nucleus will be composed of worker cells. =Shaken or brushed swarms.=--The practice of shaking or brushing bees from the combs of populous colonies into new hives to form artificial or forced swarms has been practiced for many years, to a limited extent in this country and more largely abroad. As early, at least, as 1872 the late C. J. H. Gravenhorst, the editor of Die Illustrierte Bienenzeitung, author of Der Praktische Imker, and inventor of the Bogenstuelper hive, made artificial swarms in this manner. His articles led the author to experiment in this line and finally to settle upon the plan of placing colonies designed for honey production in pairs in the apiary and, after having brought them up to a suitable strength, shaking or brushing most of the bees of the two into a third hive at the approach of the main honey flow, one queen being allowed to enter the new hive with the shaken swarm. The latter is to be placed on the old stand midway in position between the spots previously occupied by the parent colonies, these having been removed some distance, to be managed thereafter as colonies that have swarmed. The newly shaken swarm is to receive comb foundation starters in the frames and within a day or two surplus receptacles for honey. In case, however, drawn combs be used in the super, there had better be one or two frames in the brood apartment partly filled with completed comb to hold the first pollen collected. The shaking or brushing should be done toward the latter part of the day and during a time when new honey is coming in, or in the absence of the latter liberal feeding should precede the shaking and be kept up until the start of the honey flow. The shaken swarm is thus brought into quite the same condition as usually obtains in the case of a natural swarm. It is able to send out a strong gathering force at once and will store honey rapidly. The increase of 50 per cent is as large as is consistent with the securing of the best honey yield. PREVENTION OF SWARMING. Under the conditions most frequently occurring, however--that is, where it is not practicable to be present at all times during the swarming season, or where the desired number of colonies has been attained--a system of management is advisable which in general contemplates the prevention, in so far as possible, of the issuance of swarms without at the same time interfering with honey storing. The paragraphs following on this subject are taken from the Department publication "The Honey Bee," cited on page 15, footnote: The most commonly practiced and easily applied preventive measure is that of giving abundant room for storage of honey. This to be effective should be given early in the season, before the bees get fairly into the swarming notion, and the honey should be removed frequently, unless additional empty combs can be given in the case of colonies managed for extracted honey, while those storing in sections should be given additional supers before those already on are completed. With colonies run for comb honey it is not so easy to keep down swarming as in those run for extracted honey and kept supplied with empty comb. Free ventilation and shading of the hives as soon as warm days come will also tend toward prevention. Opening the hives once or twice weekly and destroying all queen cells that have been commenced will check swarming for a time in many instances, and is a plan which seems very thorough and the most plausible of any to beginners. But sometimes swarms issue without waiting to form cells; it is also very difficult to find all cells without shaking the bees from each comb in succession, an operation which, besides consuming much time, is very laborious when supers have to be removed, and greatly disturbs the labors of the bees. If but one cell is overlooked the colony will still swarm. The plan therefore leaves at best much to be desired, and is in general not worth the effort it costs and can not be depended on. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--The Simmins nonswarming system--single-story hive with supers: _bc_, brood chamber; _sc_, supers; _st_, starters of foundation; _e_, entrance.] =Dequeening.=--The removal of a queen at the opening of a swarming season interferes, of course, with the plans of the bees, and they will then delay swarming until they get a young queen. Then, if the bee keeper destroys all queen cells before the tenth day, swarming will again be checked. But to prevent swarming by keeping colonies queenless longer than a few days at most is to attain a certain desired result at a disproportionate cost, for the bees will not store diligently when first made queenless, and the whole yield of honey, especially if the flow is extended over some time, or other yields come later in the season, is likely or even nearly sure to be less from such colonies, while the interruption to brood roaring may decimate the colony and prove very disastrous to it. The plan is therefore not to be commended. =Requeening.=--Quite the opposite of this, and more efficacious in the prevention of swarming, is the practice of replacing the old queen early in the season with a young one of the same season's raising, produced, perhaps, in the South before it is possible to rear queens in the North. Such queens are not likely to swarm during the first season, and, as they are vigorous layers, the hive will be well populated at all times and thus ready for any harvest. This is important, inasmuch as a flow of honey may come unexpectedly from some plant ordinarily not counted upon; and also, since the conditions essential to the development of the various honey-yielding plants differ greatly, their time and succession of honey yield will also differ with the season the same as the quantity may vary. Young queens are also safest to head the colonies for the winter. The plan is conducive to the highest prosperity of the colonies, and is consistent with the securing of the largest average yield of honey, since, besides giving them vigorous layers, it generally keeps the population together in powerful colonies. It is therefore to be commended on all accounts as being in line with the most progressive management, without at the same time interfering with the application of other preventive measures. =Space near entrances.=--Arranging frames with starters, or combs merely begun, between the brood nest and the flight hole of the hive, while the bees are given storing space above or back of the brood nest (figs. 7 and 8), is a plan strongly recommended by Mr. Samuel Simmins, of England, and which has come to be known as "the Simmins nonswarming method," some features of it and the combination into a well-defined method having been original with him. It is an excellent preventive measure, though not invariably successful, even when the distinctive features brought forward prominently by Mr. Simmins--empty space between the brood combs and entrance, together with the employment of drawn combs in the supers--are supplemented by other measures already mentioned; but when, in addition to the space between the brood and the flight hole, the precaution be taken to get supers on in time, to ventilate the hive well, and to keep queens not over two years old, swarming will be very limited. If to these precautions be added that of substituting for the old queens young ones of the current season's raising, before swarming has begun, practical immunity from swarming is generally insured. =Selection in breeding.=--Some races of bees show greater inclination than others toward swarming, and the same difference can be noted between individual colonies of a given race; therefore, whatever methods be adopted to prevent or limit increase, no doubt the constant selection of those queens to breed from whose workers show the least tendency toward swarming would in time greatly reduce this disposition. Indeed, it is perfectly consistent to believe that persistent effort, coupled with rigid and intelligent selection, will eventually result in a strain of bees quite as much entitled to be termed nonswarming as certain breeds of fowls which have been produced by artificial selection are to be called nonsitters. These terms are of course only relative, being merely indicative of the possession of a certain disposition in a less degree than that shown by others of the same species. It might never be possible to change the nature of our honeybees so completely that they would never swarm under any circumstances, and even if possible it would take a long period, so strongly implanted seems this instinct. But to modify it is within the reach of any intelligent breeder who will persistently make the effort. Such work should be undertaken in experimental apiaries where its continuance when a single point has been gained will not be affected by the changes of individual fortunes. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--The Simmins nonswarming system--double-story hive with supers: _bc_, brood chamber; _sc_, supers; _st_, chamber with starters of comb foundation; _e_, entrance.] SPECIAL CROPS FOR HONEY ALONE NOT PROFITABLE. With a small apiary, planting for honey alone certainly can not be made profitable. Small plats of honey-producing plants are valuable mainly because they afford an opportunity of observing when and under what circumstances the bees work on certain blossoms, and for the purpose of determining what might be depended upon to fill a gap in the honey resources of a given locality whenever the size of the apiary might make this a consideration of some importance. Even with a large apiary probably no case exists in which, in the present condition of the subject, planting for honey alone would prove profitable. But when selecting crops for cultivation for other purposes, or shrubs and trees for planting, the bee keeper should of course choose such as will also furnish honey at a time when pasturage for his bees would otherwise be wanting. As complete a list as possible should be made of the plants and trees visited by honeybees, and notes should be added as to period of blossoming, importance of yield, whether honey or pollen or both of these are collected, quality of the product, etc. If gaps occur during which no natural forage abounds for the bees, some crop can usually be selected which will fill the interval, and, while supplying a continuous succession of honey-yielding blossoms for the bees, will give in addition a yield of fruit, grain, or forage from the same land. The novice is warned, however, not to expect too much from a small area. He must remember that as the bees commonly go 2-1/2 to 3 miles in all directions from the apiary, they thus range over an area of 12,000 to 18,000 acres, and if but 1 square foot in 100 produces a honey-yielding plant they still have 120 to 180 acres of pasturage, and quite likely the equivalent of 30 to 40 acres may be in bloom at one time within range of the bees. A few acres more or less at such a time will therefore not make a great deal of difference. But if coming between the principal crops--especially if the bees, as is often the case, would otherwise have no pasturage at all--the area provided for them may be of greater relative importance than the larger area of natural pasturage; for it frequently occurs that the smaller part only of the honey produced by the field over which the bees of an apiary range can be collected by them before it is washed out by rains, or the liquid portion is evaporated and the blossoms withered, while a smaller area may be more assiduously visited, and, the nectar being gathered as fast as secreted, a greater yield per acre may result. It is further of some importance to fill in such a gap with something to keep the bees busy, instead of letting them spend their time trying to rob one another; and, what is probably even more important, the pasturage thus furnished will keep up brood rearing and comb building and assist materially in preparing the colonies for the succeeding honey flow. There are many plants and trees of economic value, in addition to their production of honey, which may be utilized in one portion or another of the United States in the manner indicated. Adaptability to climate and soil, the periods of honey dearth to be filled in, markets for the crop produced, etc., must all come in to influence the choice. The following list includes the more important plants of economic value in this country which are good honey and pollen yielders. Most of those named are adapted to a considerable portion of the Union. Except in the case of plants restricted to the South, the dates given are applicable, in the main, to middle latitudes. ECONOMIC PLANTS AND TREES FOR CULTIVATION FOR HONEY AND POLLEN. =Filbert bushes=, useful for wind-breaks and for their nuts, yield pollen in February and March. =Rape= can be grown successfully in the North for pasturage, for green manuring, or for seed, and when permitted to blossom yields considerable pollen and honey. Winter varieties are sown late in the summer or early in the autumn, and blossom in April or May following. This early yield forms an excellent stimulus to brood rearing. Summer or bird rape, grown chiefly for its seed, blossoms about a month after sowing. It does best during the cooler months of the growing season. =Russian or hairy vetch= is a hardy leguminous plant of great value for forage and use in green manuring. The blossoms appear early in the season, and, where there is any lack in early pollen, especially in northern and cool regions, this vetch will be found of great value to the bees. =Fruit blossoms=--apricot, peach, pear, plum, cherry, apple, currant, and gooseberry--yield pollen and honey in abundance during April or May; strawberry and blackberry are sometimes visited freely by bees, but are generally far less important than the others mentioned. Colonies that have wintered well often gather during apple bloom 12 to 15 pounds of surplus honey of fine quality. The raspberry secretes a large amount of nectar of superb quality, and coming in May or June, thus later than the other fruit blossoms and when the colonies are stronger and the weather is more settled, full advantage can nearly always be taken of this yield. Grape and persimmon blossom also in June; the latter is an excellent source. In subtropical portions of the country orange and lemon trees yield fine honey in March and April, and the cultivation of the banana has added a profuse honey yielder which puts forth successive blossoms all through the summer months. =Locust=, =tulip tree= ("poplar," or whitewood), and =horse-chestnut=, useful for shade, ornament, and timber, are all fine honey producers in May. The locust yields light-colored, clear honey of fine quality, the others amber-colored honey of good body and fair flavor. =Clovers.=--Crimson, blossoming in April or May, yields fine, light-colored honey; white, alsike, and mammoth or medium, blossoming in May, June, and July, give honey of excellent quality and rich yellow color. =Mustard= grown for seed flowers from June to August. The honey is somewhat acrid and crystallizes soon, yet the plant, where abundant, is of much importance to the bees and the bee keeper in case other forage is scant at the time. =Asparagus= blossoms are much visited by bees in June and July. =Esparcet=, or =sainfoin=, yields in May and June fine honey, almost as clear as spring water. It is a perennial leguminous plant, rather hardy, an excellent forage crop, and particularly valuable for milch cows. It succeeds best on a limestone soil or when lime is used as a fertilizer, and is itself an excellent green manure for soils deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. =Sulla, or sulla clover=, a perennial plant, closely related to esparcet or sainfoin, succeeds, like the latter, best upon limestone soil or when fertilized with lime. It yields a splendid quality of honey from beautiful pink blossoms, which continue during May and June. The plant is an excellent soil fertilizer and of great value in connection with the feeding of stock, particularly dairy animals. It is, however, much less hardy than esparcet, and success with it can therefore hardly be looked for above the latitude of North Carolina and Arkansas. When the qualities and requirements of this plant were brought by the writer to the notice of a prominent scientific agriculturist of the South, this gentleman suggested as very probable that the black belt of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas would be well adapted to it, the lands of this region being exceedingly strong in lime. In portions of southern Europe sulla clover is a most important forage crop for farm stock as well as for honey bees. =Serradella= is an annual leguminous plant which will grow on sandy land, and which yields, besides good forage, clear honey of good quality in June and July. =Chestnut=, valuable for timber, ornament, shade, and nuts, yields honey and pollen in June or July. =Linden=, =sourwood=, and =catalpa=, fine shade, ornamental, and timber trees, yield great quantities of first quality honey in June and July. =Cotton.=--In the South cotton blossoms, appearing as they do in succession during the whole summer, often yield considerable honey. It would appear, however, that when the plants are very rank in growth the blossoms--being correspondingly large--are too deep for the bees to reach the nectar. =Chicory=, raised for salad and for its roots, is, whenever permitted to blossom, eagerly visited for honey in July and August. =Sweet, medicinal, and pot herbs=, such as marjoram, savory, lavender, catnip, balm, sage, thyme, etc., when allowed to blossom, nearly all yield honey in June, July, or August. Where fields of them are grown for the seed the honey yield may be considerable from this source. =Alfalfa= furnishes in the West a large amount of very fine honey during June and July. Its importance there as a forage crop is well known, but how far eastward its cultivation may be profitably extended is still a question, and even should it prove of value in the East as a forage plant, its honey-producing qualities there would be still uncertain. =Parsnips=, when left for seed, blossom freely from June to August, inclusive, and are much frequented by honey bees. =Peppermint=, raised for its foliage, from which oil is distilled, is most frequently cut before the bees derive much benefit from it, but whenever allowed to blossom it is eagerly sought after by them, and yields honey freely during July and August. =Bokhara=, or =sweet clover=, is in some sections of the country considered a valuable forage crop. Animals can be taught to like it, and it is very valuable as a restorer of exhausted lime soils, while in regions lacking in bee pasturage during the summer months it is a very important addition. It withstands drought remarkably well and yields a large quantity of fine honey. =Cucumber=, =squash=, =pumpkin=, and =melon= blossoms furnish honey and some pollen to the bees in July and August. =Eucalypti=, valuable for their timber and as ornaments to lawn and roadside, are quick-growing trees adapted to the southern portions of the United States. They yield much honey between July and October. The =carob tree=, whose cultivation has been commenced in the Southwest, is an excellent honey yielder in late summer. It is an ornamental tree and gives, in addition to honey, another valuable product--the carob bean of commerce. =Sacaline=, a forage and ornamental plant of recent introduction, is a great favorite with bees. It blossoms profusely during August, is a hardy perennial, and thrives in wet and also fairly in dry situations, withstanding the ordinary summer drought of the Eastern States because of its deeply penetrating roots. =Buckwheat= is an important honey and pollen producer. Its blossoms appear about four weeks after the seed is sown, hence it may be made to fill in a summer dearth of honey plants. HOW TO OBTAIN SURPLUS HONEY AND WAX. Good wintering, followed by careful conservation of the natural warmth of the colony, the presence of a prolific queen--preferably a young one--with abundant stores for brood rearing, are, together with the prevention, in so far as possible, of swarming, the prime conditions necessary to bring a colony of bees to the chief honey flow in shape to enable it to take full advantage of the harvest. In addition it is only necessary to adjust the surplus honey receptacles in time, making the space given proportionate to the strength of the colony, and, while continuing to prevent as far as possible the issuance of swarms, to remove the accumulated honey fast enough to give abundant storage room. EXTRACTED HONEY. To secure extracted honey, the requisite number of combs may be in one long hive, or in stories one above another. Preference is most generally given to the latter plan. The brood apartment is made in this case to hold eight to twelve Langstroth frames, and a second, and sometimes a third or even a fourth story, may be added temporarily. These added stories may be for full-depth frames, or, for convenience in handling and in order to be able to control more closely the amount of space given, they may be half the usual depth, and but one of the half-depth stories added at a time. If numerous sets of combs are at hand, or if it is desirable to have others built, additional stories are put on as fast as the combs already occupied by the bees are filled. Before removing the filled combs time should be allowed the bees to ripen and cap the honey; hence enough combs are necessary to give the bees storage room while they are capping others, the honey in combs that are quite or nearly sealed over may be considered sufficiently ripened to be removed from the hive. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Quinby uncapping knife.] It should also be taken promptly, in order to keep the various grades or kinds separate. However, when the combs of a given super are completely filled and sealed it may be marked and left on the hive if more convenient to be extracted later. The cells are uncapped by means of a sharp knife, made especially for this purpose (fig. 9), and the combs are then made to revolve rapidly in the honey extractor (fig. 10). The centrifugal force exerted on the honey throws it out, leaving the comb cells uninjured, or so slightly injured that they are wholly repaired within an hour or so after the return of the comb to the hive. The chief advantages of this method of harvesting over that of crushing the combs are at once apparent when it is known that each pound of comb saved represents several pounds of honey (consumed in its construction), and may, with care be used over almost indefinitely in securing surplus honey. Furthermore, extracted honey is of much finer quality than that obtained by crushing the combs and straining out the liquid part, since it is free from crushed bees, larvæ, pollen or "bee bread," etc., which not only render strained honey dark and strong in flavor, but also make it liable to fermentation and souring. The extracted honey is run into open buckets or tanks and left, covered with cheese cloth, to stand a week or so in a dry, warm room not frequented by ants. It should be skimmed each day until perfectly clear, and is then ready to be put into cans or barrels for marketing, or to be stored in a dry place. Square tin cans, each made to hold 60 pounds of extracted honey, are sold by dealers in apiarian supplies. This style of package is a convenient one to transport, and is also acceptable to dealers. Wooden shipping cases are usually constructed so as to hold two of these cans. Barrels and kegs may be used, especially for the cheaper grades of honey used chiefly in the manufacture of other articles. They should be dry, made of well-seasoned, sound wood, and the hoops driven tight and secured, as well-ripened honey readily absorbs moisture from wood, causing shrinkage and leakage. They should also be coated inside with bees-wax or paraffin. This is easily done by warming the barrels and then pouring in a gallon or two of hot wax or paraffin, and, after having driven in the bungs tightly, rolling the barrels about a few times and turning them on end. The work should be done quickly and the liquid not adhering to the inner surfaces poured out at once, in order to leave but a thin coating inside. The surplus combs are to be removed at the close of the season and hung an inch or so apart on racks placed in a dry, airy room, where no artificial heat is felt. Mice, if permitted to reach them, will do considerable damage by gnawing away the cells containing pollen or those in which bees have been bred, and which therefore contain larval and pupal skins. Moth larvæ are not likely to trouble them until the following spring, but upon the appearance of milder weather their ravages will begin, and if the combs can not be placed under the care of the bees at once they must be fumigated with burning sulphur or with bisulphide of carbon. COMB HONEY. The main difference to be observed in preparing colonies for the production of comb honey, instead of extracted, is in the adjustment of the brood apartment at the time the supers are added. After the colony has been bred up to the greatest possible strength, the brood apartment should be so regulated in size, when the honey flow begins and the supers are added, as to crowd many of the bees out and into the supers placed above. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Automatic reversible honey extractor.] On each hive a super is placed (fig. 11) holding 24 to 48 sections, each section supplied with a strip or a full sheet of very thin foundation. It is best not to give too much space at once, as considerable warmth is necessary to enable the bees to draw out foundation or to build comb. A single set of sections is usually sufficient at a time. When the honey is designed for home use or for a local market, half-depth frames are sometimes used, the same as those often used above the brood nests when colonies are run for extracted honey, but for the general market pound sections (fig. 12) are better adapted. It is the practice of many to have nice white comb partially drawn out before the main honey flow begins, or even the season before, feeding the colonies, if necessary, to secure this; and, when the honey yield begins, to supply sets of sections with these combs having cells deep enough for the bees to begin storing in as soon as any honey is collected. Earlier work in the sections is thus secured, and this, as is well known, is an important point in the prevention of swarming. Mr. Samuel Simmins, of England, has long contended for this use of partially drawn combs, and though it forms a feature of his system for the prevention of swarming it has been too often overlooked. Comb foundation is now manufactured with extra thin septum or base and with the beginnings of the cells marked out by somewhat thicker walls which the bees immediately thin down, using the extra wax in deepening the cells. This is not artificial comb, but a thin sheet of wax having the bases of the cells outlined on it. Complete artificial combs have never been used in a commercial way, although there exists a widespread belief to this effect, which is founded on extravagant claims that have appeared from time to time in newspaper articles. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Langstroth hive--super above holding 28 sections for comb honey.] [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Comb honey stored in pound section--size 4-1/4 by 4-1/4 inches.] If the brood apartment has been much contracted when the supers were added, the queen may go into the sections and deposit eggs unless prevented by the insertion of a queen excluder (fig. 13). This, merely a sheet of zinc with perforations which permit workers, but not the queen, to pass, is placed between the brood apartment and the supers. The great inconvenience of having brood in some of the sections is thereby prevented. When the honey in the sections has been nearly capped over, the super may be lifted up and another added between it and the brood apartment. Or, should the strength of the colony not be sufficient, or the harvest not abundant enough to warrant the giving of so much space, the sections which are completely finished may be removed and the partly finished ones used as "bait sections" to encourage work in another set of sections on this hive or in new supers elsewhere. The objections to the removal of sections one by one, and brushing the bees from them, are (1) the time it takes, and (2) the danger that the bees when disturbed, and especially if smoked, will bite open the capping and begin the removal of the honey, thus injuring the appearance of the completed sections. A recent valuable invention, the bee escape (fig. 3), the use of which is explained on pages 15 and 16, when placed between the super and the brood nest, permits the bees then above the escape to go down into the brood apartment, but does not permit their reentering the super. If inserted twelve to twenty-four hours before the sections are to be removed, the latter will be found free from bees at the time of removal, provided all brood has been kept out of the supers. =Grading and shipping comb honey.=--Before marketing the honey it should be carefully graded, and all propolis ("bee-glue"), if there be any, scraped from the edges of the sections. In grading for the city markets the following rules are, in the main, observed. They were adopted by the North American Bee-Keepers' Association at its twenty-third annual convention, held in Washington, D. C, in December, 1892, and are copied from the official report of that meeting: =Fancy.=--All sections to be well filled; combs straight, of even thickness, and firmly attached to all four sides; both wood and comb unsoiled by travel stain or otherwise; all cells sealed except the row of cells next to the wood. =No. 1.=--All sections well filled, but with combs crooked or uneven, detached at the bottom, or with but few cells unsealed; both wood and comb unsoiled by travel stain or otherwise. In addition to the above, honey is to be classified, according to color, into light, amber, and dark. For instance, there will be "fancy light," "fancy amber," and "fancy dark," "No. 1 light," "No. 1 amber," and "No. 1 dark." [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Perforated zinc queen excluder.] The sections, after grading and scraping, are to be placed in clean shipping cases having glass in one or both ends (fig. 14). Several of these may be placed in a single crate for shipment. To prevent breaking down of the combs it is best to put straw in the bottom of the crate for the shipping cases to rest on, and the crates should be so placed as to keep the combs in a perpendicular position. The crates are also likely to be kept right side up if convenient handles are attached to the sides--preferably strips with the ends projecting beyond the corners. Care in handling will generally be given if the glass in the shipping cases shows. [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Shipping cases for comb honey.] Owing to the appearance of statements of a sensational character to the effect that complete honey combs are manufactured by machinery and filled with sweets lower in price than honey (glucose, cane sugar, or mixtures of these), then sealed over and sold in the market as genuine honey, a strong suspicion exists regarding the comb honey commonly offered for sale. Wide circulation has been given to these wild stories by sensational newspaper writers, and even monthly periodicals, usually far more discriminating and accurate, have repeated them. Some writers have even tried to locate the "comb honey factories" in given cities, but investigation has always shown that the locations were mythical. The forfeit of $1,000 which a reputable firm has had standing for fifteen years past for a pound of manufactured comb honey of a nature to deceive the buyer still remains unclaimed. The National Bee-Keepers' Association, at its annual convention held in St. Louis in 1904, offered also a like forfeit of $1,000 for satisfactory proof of the existence of such a thing as manufactured comb honey. But no claimant has come forward, notwithstanding the $2,000 which awaits his proof. The fact is, there is no truth in the "yarn," and no one has thus far shown the thing possible. The comb honey in the markets is pure and wholesome--a healthful and nourishing sweet, easier to digest than cane sugar or any of the sirups so commonly sold. It is worth a place on the tables of all who can afford to use it. PRODUCTION OF WAX. No method has yet been brought forward which will enable one, at the present relative prices of honey and wax, to turn the whole working force of the bees, or even the greater part of it, into the production of wax instead of honey; in fact, the small amount of wax produced incidentally in apiaries managed for extracted or for section honey is usually turned into honey the following season; that is, it is made into comb foundation, which is then employed in the same hives to increase their yield of marketable honey. It is even the case that in most apiaries managed on approved modern methods more pounds of foundation are employed than wax produced; hence less progressive bee keepers--those who adhere to the use of box hives and who can not therefore utilize comb foundation--are called upon for their wax product. As each pound of wax represents several pounds of honey, all cappings removed when preparing combs for the extractor, all scrapings and trimmings and bits of drone comb, are to be saved and rendered into wax. This is best done in the solar wax-extractor (fig. 15), the essential parts of which are a metal tank with wire-cloth strainer and a glass cover, the latter generally made double. The bottom of the metal tank is strewn with pieces of comb, the glass cover adjusted, and the whole exposed to the direct rays of the sun. A superior quality of wax filters through the strainer. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Solar wax-extractor.] [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Steam wax-extractor.] Another method is to inclose the cappings or combs to be rendered in a coarse sack and weight this down in a tin boiler partly filled with rain water or soft spring water and boil slowly until little or no more wax can be pressed out of the material in the sack. Melting in an iron receptacle makes the wax dark colored. A special utensil made of tin, for use as a wax-extractor (fig. 16) over boiling water, can also be had. The bits of comb are placed in this, in an inside can having fine perforations, through which the steam from below enters and melts out the wax, which drips from a spout into another receptacle partly filled with water, from the surface of which the cake of wax may be removed when cold. THE WINTERING OF BEES. How to bring bees successfully through the winter in the colder portions of the United States is a problem which gives anxiety to all who are about to attempt it for the first time in those sections, and even many who have kept bees for years still find it their greatest difficulty. It may happen occasionally that a queen, apparently young and vigorous in the autumn, will die during the winter, when a young one can not be reared, and as a result the colony will dwindle away. Such losses are, however, rare, and, aside from the possible results of fire, flood, or violent storms, are about the only ones which can not be avoided by careful attention to right methods in wintering. Insufficient or poor winter stores, hives faulty in construction, lack of protection from cold and dampness, too much or too little ventilation, too great a proportion of old bees or too great a proportion of young ones, overmanipulation late in the season, etc., are the most important and most easily detected causes of loss in wintering bees. In some instances colonies supposed to have been placed in the same condition under which others have wintered well become diseased and die or dwindle away without prominent signs of disease. It is evident, however, that some condition existed in one case which was not present in the other, or that, in spite of some unfavorable condition, the favorable ones combined, in the first instance, to render the wintering successful. In the South wintering in the open air on the summer stands is the only method followed, while in the colder portions of the country, although with proper precautions bees may be wintered successfully in the open air, many prefer to house them in special repositories built with double walls, or to place them in darkened cellars, or in clamps. Indoor wintering should be confined to regions where there are several weeks, at least, of continued severe weather. When all conditions are right, consumption of honey will be less indoors and loss of bee life less than with the methods usually practiced in outdoor wintering. Under proper conditions, however, especially when abundant protection has been given, colonies out of doors will consume no more food nor meet with greater losses in numbers than those wintered under favorable conditions indoors. In wintering indoors certain essential conditions are, in a measure, beyond the control of the bee keeper, hence must be left to chance, and certain other conditions and emergencies liable to arise, though easily understood and met by the man of experience in this direction, are yet very likely to be overlooked by the novice or to be puzzling and disastrous to him. For these reasons it is safer for him to keep closer to the natural method at first and try outdoor wintering. In wintering out of doors the conditions within the control of the bee keeper are more readily perceived and easier to meet, and though the original work of preparation for good wintering out of doors is greater per colony, yet the work during the winter itself and the following spring is likely to be less; moreover, the feeling of greater security, as well as the greater certainty of finding the colonies in good condition to begin gathering in the spring, are points well worthy of consideration. In other words, indoor wintering should be left to such experienced bee keepers as may prefer it and are located in cold climates, while novices, wherever located, should first endeavor to meet the requirements of successful outdoor wintering; that is, to prepare the colonies so that Nature, whatever her mood as regards the weather, will bring her tiny charges safely through the perils and vicissitudes of the winter months. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Whatever method be followed in wintering, certain conditions regarding the colony itself are plainly essential: First, it should have a good queen; second, a fair-sized cluster of healthy bees, neither too old nor too young; third, a plentiful supply of good food. The first of these conditions may be counted as fulfilled if the queen at the head of the colony is not more than two years old, is still active, and has always kept her colony populous; yet a younger queen--even one of the current season's rearing, and thus but a few weeks or months old--is if raised under favorable conditions, much to be preferred. The second point is met if brood rearing has been continued without serious interruption during the latter part of the summer and the cluster of bees occupies, on a cool day in autumn, six to eight or more spaces between the combs, or forms a compact cluster 8 or 10 inches in diameter. Young bees, if not weir protected by older ones, succumb readily to the cold, while quite old bees die early in the spring, and others, which emerged late in the summer or autumn preceding, are needed to replace them. The third essential--good food--is secured if the hive is liberally supplied with well-ripened honey from any source whatever, or with fairly thick sirup, made from white cane sugar, which was fed early enough to enable the bees to seal it over before they ceased flying. The sirup is prepared by dissolving 3 pounds of granulated sugar in 1 quart of boiling water and adding to this 1 pound of pure extracted honey. Twenty to 26 pounds for outdoor wintering in the South, up to 30 or 40 pounds in the North, when wintered outside with but slight protection--or, if wintered indoors, about 20 pounds--may be considered a fair supply of winter food. A smaller amount should not be trusted except in case much greater protection be furnished against the effects of severe weather than is usually given. A greater amount of stores will do no harm if properly arranged over and about the center of the cluster, or, in case the combs are narrow, wholly above the cluster. In many instances it will be a benefit by equalizing in a measure the temperature in the hive, as well as by giving to the bees greater confidence in extending the brood nest in early spring. INDOOR WINTERING. A dry, dark cellar or special repository built in a sidehill or with double, filled walls, like those of an ice house, may be utilized for wintering bees in extremely cold climates. It should be so built that a temperature of 42° to 45° F. (the air being fairly dry in the cellar) can be maintained during the greater part of the winter. To this end it should be well drained, furnished with adjustable ventilators, and covered all over with earth, except the entrance, where close-fitting doors, preferably three of them, should open in succession, so as to separate the main room from the outside by a double entry way. The colonies, supplied with good queens, plenty of bees, 20 to 25 pounds of stores each, and with chaff cushions placed over the frames, are carried in shortly before snow and severe freezing weather come. Any repository which is damp or one whose temperature falls below freezing or remains long below 38° F. is not a suitable place in which to winter bees. When in repositories, the bees have no opportunity for a cleansing flight, nor do they, when the temperature rises outside, always warm up sufficiently to enable the cluster to move from combs from which the stores have been exhausted to full ones; hence in a cold repository they may possibly starve with plenty of food in the hive. As a rule, colonies would be better off out of doors on their summer stands than in such places. OUTDOOR WINTERING. Cold and dampness are the great winter enemies of bee life. A single bee can withstand very little cold, but a good cluster, if all other conditions are favorable, can defy the most rigorous winters of our coldest States. But if not thoroughly dry, even a moderate degree of cold is always injurious, if not absolutely fatal. Dampness in winter is therefore the most dangerous element with which the bee keeper has to contend. The matter would, of course, be quite simple if only that dampness which might come from the outside were to be considered, but when the air of the hive, somewhat warmed by the bees and more or less charged with the moisture of respiration, comes in contact with hive walls or comb surfaces made cold by outside air, condensation takes place, and the moisture trickles over the cold surfaces and cluster of bees, saturating the air about them or even drenching them, unless by forming a very compact cluster they are able to prevent it from penetrating, or by greater activity to raise the temperature sufficiently to evaporate the surplus moisture, or at least that portion near them. But this greater activity is, of course, at the expense of muscular power and requires the consumption of nitrogenous as well as carbonaceous food. Increased cold or its long continuance greatly aggravates conditions. Nature has provided that the accumulation of waste products in the body of the bee during its winter confinement should be small under normal conditions, but unusual consumption of food, especially of a highly nitrogenous nature like pollen, necessitates a cleansing flight, or diarrheal difficulties ensue, combs and hives are soiled, the air of the hive becomes polluted, and at last the individual bees become too weak to generate proper warmth or drive off the surplus moisture which then invades the cluster and brings death to the colony; or, what is more frequently the case, a cold snap destroys the last remnant of the colony, which has been reduced by constant loss of bees impelled by disease to leave the cluster or even to venture out for a cleansing flight when snows and great cold prevail. The problem then is: _To retain the warmth generated by the bees, which is necessary to their well-being, and at the same time to prevent the accumulation of moisture in the hive._ A simple opening at the top of the hive would permit much of the moisture to pass off, but of course heat would escape with it and a draft would be produced. Absorbent material about the cluster creates, without free ventilation, damp surroundings, and again the temperature is lowered. It is only necessary, however, to surround the bees with sufficient material to protect them fully against the greatest cold likely to occur, and to take care also that this enveloping material is of such a nature and so disposed as to permit the free passage of the moisture which would otherwise collect in the interior of the hive, and to permit the escape into the surrounding atmosphere of such moisture as enters this material from within. This packing should also be fully protected from outside moisture. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Double-walled hive adapted to outdoor wintering as well as summer use below 40° north latitude in the United States. Thickness of each wall, 3/8 inch, space between walls, 2 inches, packed with dry chaff or ground cork.] South of Virginia, Kentucky, and Kansas single-walled hives may be employed in most localities with good success in outdoor wintering. On the approach of the cool or the rainy season a close-fitting quilt should be laid over the frames and several folded newspapers pressed down on this, or a cushion filled with dry chaff or some other soft material may be used instead of paper. The cover or roof should be absolutely rain-proof, yet between this cover and the cushion or papers should be several inches of space with free circulation of air. In order to permit this ventilation above the top packing, the cover should not rest upon the cap or upper story all of the way around, or if it does, an auger hole in each end, protected by wire-cloth against the entrance of mice, should give free passage to the air. In the more northern portion of the section referred to some further protection is advisable (fig. 17), and is really necessary in the mountainous parts of the same territory if the best results are to be obtained. Farther north, and especially in the cold Northwest, much greater protection becomes an absolute necessity. Quilts with newspapers or thin packing above do not alone suffice. The side walls of the hive may be made of pressed straw (fig. 18). These, with top packing, if kept dry outside, are excellent for outdoor wintering, even in climates so cold that ordinary wooden hives do not afford sufficient protection. In the severest climates, however, still greater protection on all sides of the colony is needed, and packing with chaff or other soft material is decidedly the best plan. The thickness of this surrounding packing should be from 2 inches to 8 or 10 inches for single colonies, according to the severity of the climate, but if four or more colonies are grouped for the winter, so as to make the natural warmth generated mutually advantageous, somewhat less packing will be sufficient. A most important point is to have the soft warmth-retaining packing come in close contact with the edges of the combs, and above all _not to have a hive wall, either thick or thin, between this material and the bees_. A good plan is to construct an open framework or skeleton hive of laths, cover it with sacking, or, preferably, some less fuzzy cloth which the bees will not gnaw, and after placing it in an outer wooden case large enough every way to admit of the necessary packing about the colony, to fill in on all sides with some dry, porous material (fig. 19). If the frames are shallow, like the Langstroth, it is better to construct the inner case so as to place them on end, and thus give a deeper comb for the winter. Layers of newspapers may come next outside the cloth covering of the framework. Wheat chaff answers well to complete the packing. Wool is to be preferred, but is of course too expensive unless a waste product. Ground cork, waste flax, hemp, sawdust, etc., in fact, any fine porous material, if thoroughly dry, may be used. [Illustration: Fig. 18.--The American straw hive (Langstroth principle) of Hayek Brothers.] A board passageway 3 or 4 inches wide and three-eighths of an inch high should connect this inner apartment and the flight hole of the outer case, thus affording an exit for the bees whenever the weather may permit them to fly. When these preparations have been completed, the hive is ready for the combs, which, with adhering bees, are taken from the summer hive and inserted in the winter hive. A quilt is then laid on the frames and the top packing put on. This, for convenience, may be held in a cloth-bottomed tray. It is quite important, as already mentioned, that air be allowed to circulate freely above the packing. The outside case must be quite rain-proof or else wholly protected from the rain by a roof. All other necessary conditions having been complied with shortly after the gathering season closed, the combs may be lifted from the summer hives and placed in these specially arranged winter cases before cold weather wholly stops the bees from flying out. Thus prepared for the winter the colonies will need but slight attention from October until March, or, in the North, even later, and the losses will be limited to the small percentage of cases due to failure of apparently good queens. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Colony of bees with newspapers packed between inner and outer cases and brood frames on end for the winter.] THE RISK OF LOSS THROUGH DISEASE AND ENEMIES. Winter losses through disease superinduced by unfavorable surroundings which it is within the power of the bee keeper to avoid have already been considered. But one other very serious disease has been widespread. FOUL BROOD OR BACILLUS OF THE HIVE. This is a highly contagious affection which, as it mainly affects the developing brood in the cells, is commonly known as "foul brood." It is due to a microbe (_Bacillus alvei_) whose spores are easily transported from hive to hive by the bees themselves, by the operator, in honey, or in combs changed from one hive to another. Once established in an apiary, it usually spreads, unless speedily and energetically checked, until all of the colonies in the neighborhood are ruined and even exterminated. The most apparent symptoms are the turning black of larvæ in open cells, many sealed cells with sunken caps, frequently broken in and containing dead larvæ or pupæ in a putrid condition, brown or coffee-colored, jelly-like or ropy in consistency, and giving off an offensive odor. The disease, though known to exist in nearly all countries, can hardly be said to be common. The writer, in an experience of over thirty years in bee keeping in several States of the Union, as well as in a number of foreign countries, has met the disease but rarely, and has had but one experience with it in his own apiary, it having been in this instance brought in by a neighbor who purchased bees at a distance. It was easily cured, without great loss. Thus the beginner's risks of disaster in this direction are, if he be forewarned, comparatively small. He may, furthermore, gain assurance from the fact that, should the disease invade his apiary, prompt and intelligent action will prevent serious loss. The following is the treatment for a colony which still has sufficient strength of numbers to be worth saving: The bees are to be shaken from their combs just at nightfall into an empty box, which is to be removed at once to a cool, dark place. They are to be confined to the box, but it must be well ventilated through openings covered with wire cloth. During the first forty-eight hours no food should be given to them, and during the second forty-eight hours only a small amount of medicated sirup--a half pint daily for a small colony to a pint for a strong one. This food is prepared by adding one part of pure carbolic acid or phenol to 600 or 700 parts of sugar sirup or honey. At the end of the fourth day the bees are to be shaken into a clean hive supplied with starters of comb foundation. This hive is to be placed outside on a stand some distance from all other colonies, and moderate feeding with medicated sirup or honey should be continued for a few days thereafter. The combs of diseased colonies which contain brood may be assembled over a single one of these colonies, or, if the amount of brood be too great for one colony to care for, over several such diseased colonies, until the young bees have emerged. All of the honey is then to be extracted. While it is wholesome as food, it should not be offered for sale, lest some of it be used in feeding bees or be inadvertently exposed where foraging bees might find it and carry to their hives the germs of this disease, harmless to other creatures but so fatal to bee life. A good use for this honey is to employ it in making vinegar. One and one-third pounds added to each gallon of rain water or soft spring water and allowed to ferment for three months in a warm place makes a quality of vinegar quite equal to the best cider vinegar. Provision for the free circulation of air through the cask should be made. This is easily secured by placing the cask, not completely filled, on its side and boring an auger hole in each end near the upper side, the holes to be covered with cheese cloth or fine gauze, to keep out insects. If the honey containing the germs is to be used for feeding bees, it is to be diluted with half its own quantity, by measure, of water and kept at the boiling point for three hours in a water bath--a vessel within another containing water. The combs from which the honey has been extracted, as well as all of the pieces built by the bees during their four days' confinement, may be melted into wax, by thorough boiling in soft water. This wax should be kept liquid for 48 hours or longer, to allow all impurities to settle. These will include the foul brood spores, which may then be removed with, the impure wax by scraping or cutting away the bottom of the cake. These scrapings should be burned. The same disposition had better be made of the frames from which the combs containing germs were removed. In all of this work the utmost care should be exercised to avoid the dripping of honey about the apiary or the exposure of implements, receptacles, or combs smeared with or containing honey from the diseased colonies. It may even be better, in order to save time and possible risk, where but few combs and a comparatively small amount of honey are involved, to destroy all of these immediately after their removal from the hive. The old hive and all utensils used about the diseased colony should be disinfected by washing in a solution of corrosive sublimate--one-eighth ounce in one gallon of water--and should afterwards be exposed to the air and sun for some time. If healthy colonies are to be manipulated immediately after handling diseased ones the hands of the operator must also be disinfected by washing in the solution just mentioned. Those who care to try and save combs and brood should employ the remedial method developed by the late Professor Cheshire. This is explained in full in his work on bee keeping,[C] and a brief statement of it may also be found in "The Honey Bee," Bulletin No. 1, new series, of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. Notwithstanding these remedies, some will prefer, where healthy colonies of bees can be bought at moderate prices, to burn diseased bees, combs, and frames rather than spend time to effect a cure, and risk, as they fear they may, the further spread of the pest. To kill the bees thus is, however, neither profitable, humane, nor necessary, for if confined as described above and separated at once from the other colonies, this work being done at nightfall, when all of the bees are in their hives, the risk of spreading the disease will not thereby be increased, nor is the labor much greater than that involved in the removal of combs and bees for burning. And if it be found that the diseased colonies are weak in numbers and seem, therefore, individually hardly worth saving, this need not be taken as an excuse for the death sentence, as several colonies may be smoked and shaken together into the same box to make a single strong colony, the best queen of the lot having been selected and caged in the box in such a way that the workers can release her within a few hours by eating through candy. [C] "Bees and Bee keeping," by Frank K. Cheshire, F. L. S., F. E. M. S., London, 1888, Vol. II, pages 554-575. BEE PARALYSIS. Among other diseases of a bacterial nature paralysis is most noticeable, although not to be dreaded as foul brood. It affects the adult bees only, producing a paralyzed condition of their members and a swelling up of their bodies. The diseased bees, often set upon by other workers, lose the hairy covering of their bodies, and, black and shiny in appearance, may often be seen wriggling away from their hives to die. In such cases the working force of the affected colony frequently becomes so greatly reduced as to preclude any return in the form of honey or swarms during the given season. The source from which the bees obtain the original infection is unknown, but, once in the apiary, it is spread mainly by the entrance of affected workers into healthy colonies, and probably also by the visits which bees from healthy colonies make to the diseased ones, the latter often being so weakened in numbers as to be unable to protect their stores from healthy bees out on robbing expeditions. Ordinary paralysis may generally be cured by strewing powdered sulphur over the combs, bees, and along the top bars of the frames, the precaution first having been taken of removing all unsealed brood. This brood would be killed by the application of sulphur, but as there is no danger whatever of spreading the disease by the transfer of brood or honey from one hive to another, provided absolutely every one of the adult bees has first been shaken or brushed from the combs, the latter may be given to healthy colonies which need strengthening. Another simple plan for getting rid of the disease and yet utilizing the available strength of the affected colonies is to close their hives at night and move them a mile or more, locating them, if possible, outside of the range of other bees. As the brood in these colonies remains healthy all that is sealed or even well advanced in the larval stage may have the bees shaken from it and be distributed among the remaining colonies of the apiary. The bees of the diseased colonies thus become rapidly reduced in numbers, and several of the colonies themselves may soon be combined, the best queen being selected to continue egg deposition. Eventually the diseased apiary becomes, by the removal of the developing brood and the death of the old bees, reduced to nothing. None of the queens should be saved nor should any of the adult workers be returned to the healthy apiary. A combination of the sulphur cure with the last plan mentioned--that of getting rid of the disease through the removal of brood combs from affected colonies--is really, all in all, the best procedure. When a fairly strong colony has been made up by shaking the adult bees of two or more together and this removed to an isolated locality, the application of sulphur may be made before any brood has been started. It is well, also, to replace the queen with a vigorous one from stock entirely unrelated to the diseased bees. Should any signs of the disease reappear, constant removal of the brood should be followed, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph. Other bacterial diseases, though existing, have developed only very locally or have been too limited in the amount of injury inflicted to require special mention here. INSECT AND OTHER ENEMIES. The bee or wax-moth (_Galleria mellonella_ Linn.) is regarded by those unfamiliar with modern methods in bee keeping as a very serious enemy to success in this work. It was frequently such when only the common black bee was kept and the old way of managing, or rather of trusting to luck, was followed. But with the better races now introduced and with improved hives and methods, and especially with the care that is now given to have no colonies queenless long at a time, the wax-moth larvæ are no longer regarded with great concern. Some species of wasps take a little honey at times--more particularly when hives are opened--and they annoy the bees; others capture and eat workers, as do also the large ant-like "cow-killers" (Mutillidæ), and certain predaceous flies (Asilidæ), true bugs (Phymatidæ), and neuropterous and orthopterous insects (Libellulidæ and Mantidæ). The larvæ of certain beetles (Dermestidæ and Tenebrio) feed upon pollen and the cast-off skins of developing larvæ and pupæ, and certain of the Meloid larvæ attach themselves to the bodies of bees as parasites. Ants (Formicidæ) and cockroaches (Blattidæ), which gather above the quilts and between the quilts and the tops of the frames in order to be benefited by the warmth of the cluster of bees, sometimes help themselves to honey, and their presence annoys the bees more or less. Some of the insects here mentioned are only found locally, the predaceous ones being confined mainly to the South, while it may be said that the general welfare of strong colonies is not often materially affected nor the return noticeably reduced through the attacks of any of them. Spiders, toads, and lizards destroy, in addition to many injurious insects, also some bees, and should be tolerated in the vegetable garden rather than in the apiary. Swallows, kingbirds or bee martins, mice, skunks, and bears only occasionally commit depredations in the apiary. Properly constructed hives enable the bees to limit in a great measure the injury which these various enemies might inflict, and the avoidance of overswarming, with care to insure the constant presence of a prolific queen and a supply of food suited to the needs of the colony at the time, will keep it populous and therefore in shape to repel attacks or to make good most of the unavoidable losses. ROBBER BEES. Robbing is sometimes a more serious matter, although it very rarely happens that a little careful attention just at the right time on the part of the bee keeper would not avoid all serious trouble on this score. When bees find nothing to gather during weather when they can still fly out they are easily tempted to appropriate the stores of weaker colonies. Exposure of combs of honey at such times may even occasion a combined attack upon a good colony otherwise quite able to take care of itself. It is then that the greatest destruction ensues, for such a colony will defend itself vigorously, and a pitched battle, with perhaps fifty or sixty thousand Amazons on either side, leaves the ground literally strewn with dead and dying. If the invaders conquer, every drop of honey is taken from the few vanquished that are likely to be still alive; and in turn the despoilers invariably fight among themselves as to the possession of the booty. When the robbing takes place during the absence of the owner, the condition of the robbed colony may not attract immediate attention, and during warm weather moth larvæ gain full possession of the combs within a few days. When this condition is observed, the whole damage is very likely to be attributed to the moth larvæ. Colonies that have been left queenless for some time, and those weakened by disease or by overswarming, are especial marks for such attacks. Of course these defects should be remedied whenever observed, but meanwhile, if legitimate field work is likely to be interrupted, every colony should be assisted in protecting itself against assault by having its hive made secure and the entrance such a narrow pass as to enable a few workers to repel attack there. Should robbers get well started before being observed, the entrance of the hive should be narrowed at once, and wet grass or weeds may be thrown loosely over it, or a pane of glass may be stood against the front of the hive in a slanting manner to confuse the intruders. In extreme cases the attacked colonies may be removed to a cellar for a few days, plenty of ventilation being given during confinement, and a new location, apart from other colonies, selected, on which they are to be placed just at nightfall; or, instead of putting them in the cellar, they may be taken a mile or more away and returned only when the danger has passed. With these precautions, little loss is to be feared on this score. In general, the intelligent owner who gives careful attention to certain important points in bee management finds that he very rarely has disease to contend with, and that the reduction of profits through the depredations of bee enemies is not, in most parts of the Union, a serious discouragement. Altogether it seems to the writer that the risks in these directions are even less in bee keeping than those usually met in the keeping of other animals, which, like bees, are legitimately made to contribute to the wealth of the individual and of the nation. LEGISLATION AFFECTING APIARIAN INTERESTS. Many States have in recent years passed laws having for their purpose the eradication or suppression of contagious diseases among bees. State and county inspectors have been appointed under these laws, whose duty it is to go about and ascertain where diseased colonies of bees are located, and recommend the treatment to be given, or in some cases to carry out this treatment, even to the complete destruction of colonies or apiaries where the virulence of the attack seems to warrant it. Where these laws have been conscientiously and energetically executed, much has been accomplished toward freeing the apiaries of the given State from disease. Some States have passed laws making it a misdemeanor to spray fruit trees during the time of blossoming, since thereby bees are poisoned, and besides the injury to the apiarist the pollination of the fruit blossoms is seriously interfered with. Laws against the sale of adulterated goods as genuine, known commonly as pure-food laws, are in operation in some of the States, and where bee inspectors or bee keepers have taken the pains to have these laws applied to the marketing of honey, a check has been put upon the selling of adulterated honey in the liquid form, which has been practiced to a greater or less extent and still occurs in some of the city markets. In general, the rights of bee keepers to own and cultivate bees, either within the limits of cities or on farms adjoining those devoted to grazing and general stock raising, are becoming more clearly defined through decisions of supreme and county courts. In this connection the work of the National Bee-Keepers' Association should receive mention. This organization is in no sense a trades union, but has for its purpose the defense of its members against unjust attacks upon their legal rights, the suppression, in so far as possible, of the sale of adulterated honey, the securing of legislation for the protection of its members and favorable to the general advance of the industry, as well as the dissemination among its members of advanced ideas in bee management and information regarding the marketing of apiarian products. The membership fee of one dollar per annum entitles every honey producer to membership and participation in all of the benefits enumerated, as well as to the published report of the annual convention held by the association. The membership numbers nearly 2,000 at the present time, and the influence of this large body of intelligent beemasters is already being appreciably felt in the general advance of the industry in this country. JOURNALS TREATING OF APICULTURE. As a matter of general information, the following list of journals relating to apiculture is given. It comprises all those published in this country at the present time. The American Bee Journal, Chicago, Ill. Gleanings in Bee Culture, Medina, Ohio. The Bee Keepers' Review, Flint, Mich. The American Bee Keeper, Falconer, N. Y. The Progressive Bee Keeper, Higginsville, Mo. Western Bee Journal, Kingsburg, Cal. The Rural Bee Keeper, River Falls, Wis. FARMERS' BULLETINS. The following is a list of the Farmers' Bulletins available for distribution, showing the number and title of each. Copies will be sent to any address on application to any Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The missing numbers have been discontinued, being superseded by later bulletins: No. 16. Leguminous Plants. No. 22. The Feeding of Farm Animals. No. 24. Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. No. 25. Peanuts: Culture and Uses. No. 27. Flax for Seed and Fiber. No. 28. Weeds: And How to Kill Them. No. 29. Souring and Other Changes in Milk. No. 30. Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. No. 31. Alfalfa, or Lucern. No. 32. Silos and Silage. No. 33. Peach Growing for Market. No. 34. Moats: Composition and Cooking. No. 36. Potato Culture. No. 36. Cotton Seed and Its Products. No. 37. Kafir Com: Culture and Uses. No. 38. Spraying for Fruit Diseases. No. 39. Onion Culture. No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. No. 42. Facts About Milk. No. 43. Sewage Disposal on the Farm. No. 44. Commercial Fertilizers. No. 45. Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. No. 46. Irrigation in Humid Climates. No. 47. Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. No. 48. The Manuring of Cotton. No. 49. Sheep Feeding. No. 50. Sorghum as a Forage Crop. No. 51. Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 52. The Sugar Beet. No. 54. Some Common Birds. No. 55. The Dairy Herd. No. 56. Experiment Station Work--I. No. 67. Butter Making on the Farm. No. 68. The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. No. 69. Bee Keeping. No. 60. Methods of Curing Tobacco. No. 61. Asparagus Culture. No. 62. Marketing Farm Produce. No. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. No. 64. Ducks and Geese. No. 65. Experiment Station Work--II. No. 66. Meadows and Pastures. No. 68. The Black Rot of the Cabbage. No. 69. Experiment Station Work--III. No. 70. Insect Enemies of the Grape. No. 71. Essentials in Beef Production. No. 72. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. No. 73. Experiment Station Work--IV. No. 74. Milk as Food. No. 76. The Grain Smuts. No. 77. The Liming of Soils. No. 78. Experiment Station Work--V. No. 79. Experiment Station Work--VI. No. 80. The Peach Twig-borer. No. 81. Com Culture in the South. No. 82. The Culture of Tobacco. No. 83. Tobacco Soils. No. 84. Experiment Station Work--VII. No. 85. Fish as Food. No. 86. Thirty Poisonous Plants. No. 87. Experiment Station Work--VIII. No. 88. Alkali Lands. No. 89. Cowpeas. No. 91. Potato Diseases and Treatment. No. 92. Experiment Station Work--IX. No. 93. Sugar as Food. No. 94. The Vegetable Garden. No. 95. Good Roads for Farmers. No. 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. No. 97. Experiment Station Work--X. No. 98. Suggestions to Southern Farmers. No. 99. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. No. 100. Hog Raising in the South. No. 101. Millets. No. 102. Southern Forage Plants. No. 103. Experiment Station Work--XI. No. 104. Notes on Frost. No. 105. Experiment Station Work--XII. No. 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. No. 107. Experiment Station Work--XIII. No. 108. Saltbushes. No. 109. Farmers' Reading Courses. No. 110. Rice Culture in the United States. No. 111. Farmers' Interest in Good Seed. No. 112. Bread and Bread Making. No. 113. The Apple and How to Grow It. No. 114. Experiment Station Work--XIV. No. 115. Hop Culture in California. No. 110. Irrigation in Fruit Growing. No. 118. Grape Growing in the South. No. 119. Experiment Station Work--XV. No. 120. Insects Afflicting Tobacco. No. 121. Beans, Peas, and other Legumes as Food. No. 122. Experiment Station Work--XVI. No. 123. Red Clover Seed: Information for Purchasers. No. 124. Experiment Station Work--XVII. No. 125. Protection of Food Products from Injurious Temperatures. No. 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. No. 127. Important Insecticides. No. 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. No. 129. Sweet Potatoes. No. 131. Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter. No. 132. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. No. 133. Experiment Station Work--XVIII. No. 134. Tree Planting in Rural School Grounds. No. 135. Sorghum Sirup Manufacture. No. 136. Earth Roads. No. 137. The Angora Goat. No. 138. Irrigation in Field and Garden. No. 139. Emmer: A Grain for the Semiarid Regions. No. 140. Pineapple Growing. No. 141. Poultry Raising on the Farm. No. 142. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. No. 143. The Conformation of Beef and Dairy Cattle. No. 144. Experiment Station Work--XIX. No. 145. Carbon Bisulphid as an Insecticide. No. 146. Insecticides and Fungicides. No. 147. Winter Forage Crops for the South. No. 148. Celery Culture. No. 149. Experiment Station Work--XX. No. 160. Clearing New Land. No. 161. Dairying in the South. No. 152. Scabies in Cattle. No. 133. Orchard Enemies in the Pacific Northwest. No. 154. The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. No. 155. How Insects Affect Health in Rural Districts. No. 156. The Home Vineyard. No. 157. The Propagation of Plants. No. 168. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. No. 169. Scab in Sheep. No. 161. Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. No. 162. Experiment Station Work--XXI. No. 164. Rape as a Forage Crop. No. 166. Culture of the Silkworm. No. 166. Cheese Making on the Farm. No. 167. Cassava. No. 168. Pearl Millet. No. 169. Experiment Station Work--XXII. No. 170. Principles of Horse Feeding. No. 171. The Control of the Codling Moth. No. 172. Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. No. 173. Primer of Forestry. No. 174. Broom Com. No. 175. Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice. No. 176. Cranberry Culture. No. 177. Squab Raising. No. 178. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. No. 179. Horseshoeing. No. 181. Pruning. No. 182. Poultry as Food. No. 183. Meat on the Farm.--Butchering, Curing, etc. No. 184. Marketing Live Stock. No. 186. Beautifying the Home Grounds. No. 186. Experiment Station Work--XXIII. No. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. No. 188. Weeds Used in Medicine. No. 189. Information Concerning the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. No. 190. Experiment Station Work--XXIV. No. 191. The Cotton Bollworm--1903. No. 192. Barnyard Manure. No. 193. Experiment Station Work--XXV. No. 194. Alfalfa Seed. No. 195. Annual Flowering Plants. No. 196. Usefulness of the American Toad. No. 197. Importation of Game Birds and Eggs for Propagation. No. 198. Strawberries. No. 199. Corn Growing. No. 200. Turkeys. No. 201. Cream Separator on Western Farms. No. 202. Experiment Station Work--XXVI. No. 203. Canned Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. No. 204. The Cultivation of Mushrooms. No. 206. Pig Management. No. 206. Milk Fever and Its Treatment. No. 207. Game Laws for 1904. No. 208. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting. No. 209. Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. No. 210. Experiment Station Work--XXVII. No. 211. The Use of Paris Green in Controlling the Cotton Boll Weevil. No. 212. The Cotton Bollworm--1904. No. 213. Raspberries. No. 214. Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. No. 215. Alfalfa in the Eastern States. No. 216. Control of the Cotton Boll Weevil. No. 217. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton. No. 218. The School Garden. No. 219. Lessons Taught by the Grain Rust Epidemic of 1904. No, 220. Tomatoes. No. 221. Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. * * * * * Transcribers Note Illustrations moved so as not to split paragraphs. The listing of publications was reformatted to enhance readability. 
48547	----	at The Internet Archive (https://www.archive.org). Transcriber Notes Text emphasis shown as =Bold= and _Italics_. Whole and fractional parts of numbers displayed as 17-5/8. Issued May 23, 1911 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. =FARMERS' BULLETIN 447.= =BEES.= BY E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D., _In Charge of Bee Culture, Bureau of Entomology._ WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1911. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department or Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, _Washington. D. C., March 4, 1911._ Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript entitled "Bees," by E. F. Phillips, Ph. D., in charge of bee culture in this bureau. This paper will supersede Farmers' Bulletins 59 and 397, A few new illustrations which add greatly to the value of the paper and some minor alterations in the text are the only changes in this from Farmers' Bulletin 397; but since it is not now the policy of the department to issue revised editions, it is recommended that this bulletin be issued under a new serial number. In the preparation of this paper the aim has been to give briefly such information as is needed by persons engaged in the keeping of bees, and to answer inquiries such as are frequently received from correspondents of the department. No attempt has been made to include discussions of bee anatomy, honey plants, or the more special manipulations sometimes practiced, such as queen rearing. The discussion of apparatus is necessarily brief. Respectfully, L. O. Howard, _Entomologist and Chief of Bureau._ Hon, James Wilson, _Secretary of Agriculture._ CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 5 Location of the apiary 6 Equipment in apparatus 9 Workshop 9 Hives. 9 Hive stands 11 Other apparatus 11 Equipment in bees 12 Bee behavior 15 Directions for general manipulations 19 Transferring 22 Uniting 24 Preventing robbing in the apiary 25 Feeding 26 Spring management 26 Swarm management and increase 29 Artificial swarming 31 Prevention of swarming 32 Preparation for the harvest 33 The production of honey 33 Extracted honey 34 Comb honey 36 The production of wax 39 Preparations for wintering 40 Diseases and enemies 42 General information 44 Breeders of queens 44 Introducing queens 44 Dealers in bee keepers' supplies 45 Bee keepers' associations 45 Laws affecting beekeeping 45 Disease inspection 45 Laws against spraying fruit trees while in bloom 46 Laws against the adulteration of honey 46 When bees are a nuisance 46 Supposed injury of crops by bees 46 Journals and books on beekeeping 46 Publications of the Department of Agriculture on beekeeping 47 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Fig. 1. A well-arranged apiary 7 2. A ten-frame hive with comb honey super and perforated zinc queen excluder 10 3. Smoker 11 4. Bee veil with silk-tulle front 11 5 Hive tools 12 6. Drone and queen trap on hive entrance 12 7. Bee escape for removing bees from supers 13 8. Spring bee escape 13 9. Bee brush 14 10. Worker, queen, and drone 16 11. Comb architecture 17 12. Egg, larvæ, and pupa 18 13. Queen cells 18 14. Handling the frame: First position 21 15. Handling the frame: Second position 21 16. Handling the frame : Third position 22 17. Division-board feeder to be hung in hive in place of frame 27 18. Feeder set in collar under hive body 27 19. "Pepper-box" feeder for use on top of frames 28 20. Pan in super arranged for feeding 28 21. Knives for uncapping honey 34 22. Honey extractor 35 23. Perforated zinc queen excluder 38 24. Shipping cases for comb honey 38 25. Queen mailing cage 45 BEES. =INTRODUCTION.= Beekeeping for pleasure and profit is carried on by many thousands of people in all parts of the United States. As a rule, it is not the sole occupation. There are, however, many places where an experienced bee keeper can make a good living by devoting his entire time and attention to this line of work. It is usually unwise to undertake extensive beekeeping without considerable previous experience on a small scale, since there are so many minor details which go to make up success in the work. It is a good plan to begin on a small scale, make the bees pay for themselves and for all additional apparatus, as well as some profit, and gradually to increase as far as the local conditions or the desires of the individual permit. Bee culture is the means of obtaining for human use a natural product which is abundant in almost all parts of the country, and which would be lost to us were it not for the honey bee. The annual production of honey and wax in the United States makes apiculture a profitable minor industry of the country. From its very nature it can never become one of the leading agricultural pursuits, but that there is abundant opportunity for its growth can not be doubted. Not only is the honey bee valuable as a producer, but it is also one of the most beneficial of insects in cross-pollinating the flowers of various economic plants. Beekeeping is also extremely fascinating to the majority of people as a pastime, furnishing outdoor exercise as well as intimacy with an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing study from the earliest times. It has the advantage of being a recreation which pays its own way and often produces no mean profit. It is a mistake, however, to paint only the bright side of the picture and leave it to the new bee keeper to discover that there is often another side. Where any financial profit is derived, beekeeping requires hard work and work at just the proper time, otherwise the surplus of honey may be diminished or lost. Few lines of work require more study to insure success. In years when the available nectar is limited, surplus honey is secured only by judicious manipulations, and it is only through considerable experience and often by expensive reverses that the bee keeper is able to manipulate properly to save his crop. Anyone can produce honey in seasons of plenty, but these do not come every year in most locations, and it takes a good bee keeper to make the most of poor years. When, even with the best of manipulations, the crop is a failure through lack of nectar, the bees must be fed to keep them from starvation. The average annual honey yield per colony for the entire country, under good management, will probably be 25 to 30 pounds of comb honey or 40 to 50 pounds of extracted honey. The money return to be obtained from the crop depends entirely on the market and the method of selling the honey. If sold direct to the consumer, extracted honey brings from 10 to 20 cents per pound, and comb honey from 15 to 25 cents per section. If sold to dealers, the price varies from 6 to 10 cents for extracted honey and from 10 to 15 cents for comb honey. All of these estimates depend largely on the quality and neatness of the product. From the gross return must be deducted from 50 cents to $1 per colony for expenses other than labor, including foundation, sections, occasional new frames and hives, and other incidentals. This estimate of expense does not include the cost of new hives and other apparatus needed in providing for increase in the size of the apiary. Above all it should be emphasized that the only way to make beekeeping a profitable business is to produce only a first-class article. We can not control what the bees bring to the hive to any great extent, but by proper manipulations we can get them to produce fancy comb honey, or if extracted honey is produced it can be carefully cared for and neatly packed to appeal to the fancy trade. Too many bee keepers, in fact, the majority, pay too little attention to making their goods attractive. They should recognize the fact that of two jars of honey, one in an ordinary fruit jar or tin can with a poorly printed label, and the other in a neat glass jar of artistic design with a pleasing, attractive label, the latter will bring double or more the extra cost of the better package. It is perhaps unfortunate, but nevertheless a fact, that honey sells largely on appearance, and a progressive bee keeper will appeal as strongly as possible to the eye of his customer. =LOCATION OF THE APIARY.= In choosing a section in which to keep bees on an extensive scale it is essential that the resources of the country be known. Beekeeping is more or less profitable in almost all parts of the United States, but it is not profitable to practice extensive beekeeping in localities where the plants do not yield nectar in large quantities. A man who desires to make honey production his business may find that it does not pay to increase the apiaries in his present location. It may be better to move to another part of the country where nectar is more abundant. [Illustration: <sc>Fig. 1.</sc>--A well-arranged apiary.] The location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance. As a rule it is better for hives to face away from the prevailing wind and to be protected from high winds. In the North, a south slope is desirable. It is advisable for hives to be so placed that the sun will strike them early in the morning, so that the bees become active early in the day, and thus gain an advantage by getting the first supply of nectar. It is also advantageous to have the hives shaded during the hottest part of the day, so that the bees will not hang out in front of the hive instead of working. They should be so placed that the bees will not prove a nuisance to passers-by or disturb live stock. This latter precaution may save the bee keeper considerable trouble, for bees sometimes prove dangerous, especially to horses. Bees are also sometimes annoying in the early spring, for on their first flights they sometimes spot clothes hung out to dry. This may be remedied by having the apiary some distance from the clothes-drying yard, or by removing the bees from the cellars on days when no clothes are to be hung out. The plot on which the hives are placed should be kept free from weeds, especially in front of the entrances. The grass may be cut with a lawn mower, but it will often be found more convenient and as efficient to pasture one or more head of sheep in the apiary inclosure. The hives should be far enough apart to permit of free manipulation. If hives are too close together there is danger of bees entering the wrong hive on returning, especially in the spring. These conditions, which may be considered as ideal, need not all be followed. When necessary, bees may be kept on housetops, in the back part of city lots, in the woods, or in many other places where the ideal conditions are not found. As a matter of fact, few apiaries are perfectly located; nevertheless, the location should be carefully planned, especially when a large number of colonies are kept primarily for profit. As a rule, it is not considered best to keep more than 100 colonies in one apiary, and apiaries should be at least 2 miles apart. There are so many factors to be considered, however, that no general rule can be laid down. The only way to learn how many colonies any given locality will sustain is to study the honey flora and the record of that place until the bee keeper can decide for himself the best number to be kept and where they shall be placed. The experience of a relatively small number of good bee keepers in keeping unusually large apiaries indicates that the capabilities of the average locality are usually underestimated. The determination of the size of extensive apiaries is worthy of considerable study, for it is obviously desirable to keep bees in as few places as possible, to save time in going to them and also expense in duplicated apparatus. To the majority of bee keepers this problem is not important, for most persons keep but a small number of colonies. This is perhaps a misfortune to the industry as a whole, for with fewer apiaries of larger size under the management of careful, trained bee keepers the honev production of the country would be marvelously increased. For this reason, professional bee keepers are not favorably inclined to the making of thousands of amateurs, who often spoil the location for the honey producer and more often spoil his market by the injudicious selling of honey for less than it is worth or by putting an inferior article on the market. Out apiaries, or those located away from the main apiary, should be so located that transportation will be as easy as possible. The primary consideration, however, must be the available nectar supply and the number of colonies of bees already near enough to draw on the resources. The out apiary should also be near to some friendly person, so that it may be protected against depredation and so that the owner may be notified if anything goes wrong. It is especially desirable to have it in the partial care of some person who can hive swarms or do other similar things that may arise in an emergency. The terms under which the apiary is placed on land belonging to some one else is a matter for mutual agreement. There is no general usage in this regard. =EQUIPMENT IN APPARATUS.= It can not be insisted too strongly that the only profitable way to keep bees is in hives with movable frames. The bees build their combs in these frames, which can then be manipulated by the bee keeper as necessary. The keeping of bees in boxes, hollow logs, or straw '"skeps"' is not profitable, is often a menace to progressive bee keepers, and should be strongly condemned. Bees in box hives (plain boxes with no frames and with combs built at the will of the bees) are too often seen in all parts of the country. The owners may obtain from them a few pounds of inferior honey a year and carelessly continue in the antiquated practice. In some cases this type of beekeeping does little harm to others, but where diseases of the brood are present the box hive is a serious nuisance and should be abolished. =WORKSHOP.= It is desirable to have a workshop in the apiary where the crop may be cared for and supplies may be prepared. If the ground on which the hives are located is not level, it is usually better to have the shop on the lower side so that the heavier loads will be carried down grade. The windows and doors should be screened to prevent the entrance of bees. The wire-cloth should be placed on the outside of the window frames and should be extended about 6 inches above the opening. This upper border should be held away from the frame with narrow wooden strips one-fourth inch in thickness so as to provide exits for bees which accidentally get into the house. Bees do not enter at such openings, and any bees which are carried into the house fly at once to the windows and then crawl upward, soon clearing the house of all bees. The windows should be so arranged that the glass may be slid entirely away from the openings to prevent bees from being imprisoned. The equipment of benches and racks for tools and supplies can be arranged as is best suited to the house. It is a good plan to provide racks for surplus combs, the combs being hung from strips separated the distance of the inside length of the hive. =HIVES.= It is not the purpose of this bulletin to advocate the use of any particular make of hive or other apparatus. Some general statements may be made, however, which may help the beginner in his choice. The type of hive most generally used in this country (fig. 2) was invented by Langstroth in 1851. It consists of a plain wooden box holding frames hung from a rabbet at the top and not touching the sides, top, or bottom. Hives of this type are made to hold eight, ten, or more frames. The size of frame in general use, known as the Langstroth (or L) frame (9-1/8 by 17-5/8 inches), is more widely used than all others combined. One of the best features in hive manufacture developed by Langstroth is the making of the spaces between frames, side walls, and supers accurately, so that there is just room for the easy passage of bees. In a space of this size (called a "bee space") bees rarely build comb or deposit propolis. The number of frames used depends on the kind of honey produced (whether comb or extracted) and on the length of honey flow and other local factors. There are other hives used which have points of superiority. These will be found discussed in the various books on beekeeping and in the catalogues of dealers in bee keepers' supplies. Whatever hive is chosen, there are certain important points which should be insisted on. The material should be of the best; the parts must be accurately made, so that all frames or hives in the apiary are interchangeable. All hives should be of the same style and size; they should be as simple as it is possible to make them, to facilitate operation. Simple frames diminish the amount of propolis, which will interfere with manipulation. As a rule, it is better to buy hives and frames from a manufacturer of such goods rather than to try to make them, unless one is an expert woodworker. The choice of a hive, while important, is usually given undue prominence in books on bees. In actual practice experienced bee keepers with different sizes and makes of hives under similar conditions do not find as much difference in their honey crop as one would be led to believe from the various published accounts. [Illustration: <sc>Fig. 2.</sc>--A 10-frame hive with comb honey super and perforated zinc queen excluder.] Hives should be painted to protect them from the weather. It is usually desirable to use white paint to prevent excessive heat in the colony during hot weather. Other light colors are satisfactory, but it is best to avoid red or black. =HIVE STANDS.= Generally it is best to have each hive on a separate stand. The entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive. Stands of wood, bricks, tile (fig. 2), concrete blocks, or any other convenient material will answer the purpose. The hive should be raised above the ground, so that the bottom will not rot. It is usually not necessary to raise the hive more than a few inches. Where ants are a nuisance special hive stands are sometimes necessary. [Illustration: <sc>Fig. 3.</sc>--Smoker.] [Illustration: <sc>Fig. 4.</sc>--Bee veil with silk-tulle front.] =OTHER APPARATUS.= In addition to the hives in which the bees are kept some other apparatus is necessary. A good smoker to quiet the bees (fig. 3), consisting of a tin or copper receptacle to hold burning rotten wood or other material, with a bellows attached, is indispensable. A veil of black material, preferably with a black silk-tulle front (fig. 4), should be used. Black wire-cloth veils are also excellent. Even if a veil is not always used, it is desirable to have one at hand in case the bees become cross. Cloth or leather gloves are sometimes used to protect the hands, but they hinder most manipulations. Some sort of tool (fig. 5) to pry hive covers loose and frames apart is desirable. A screwdriver will answer, but any of the tools made especially for that purpose is perhaps better. Division boards drone traps (fig. 6), bee escapes (figs. 7 and 8), feeders (figs. 17, 18, 19, 20), foundation fasteners, wax extractors, bee brushes (fig. 9), queen-rearing outfits, and apparatus for producing comb or extracted honey (figs. 2, 21, 22) will be found described in catalogues of supplies: a full discussion of these implements would require too much space in this bulletin. A few of these things are illustrated, and their use will be evident to the bee keeper. It is best to have the frames filled with foundation to insure straight combs composed of worker cells only. Foundation is made from thin sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of the cells of the comb. On this as a guide the worker bees construct the combs. When sheets of foundation are inserted they should be supported by wires stretched across the frames. Frames purchased from supply dealers are usually pierced for wiring. It should be remembered that manipulation based on a knowledge of bee behavior is of far greater importance than any particular style of apparatus. In a short discussion like the present it is best to omit descriptions of appliances, since supply dealers will be glad to furnish whatever information is desired concerning apparatus. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Hive tools.] [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Drone and queen trap on hive entrance.] =EQUIPMENT IN BEES.= As stated previously, it is desirable to begin beekeeping with a small number of colonies. In purchasing these it is usually best to obtain them near at home rather than to send to a distance, for there is considerable liability of loss in shipment. Whenever possible it is better to get bees already domiciled in the particular hive chosen by the bee keeper, but if this is not practicable then bees in any hives or in box hives may be purchased and transferred. It is a matter of small importance what race of bees is purchased, for queens of any race may be obtained and introduced in place of the original queen, and in a short time the workers will all be of the same race as the introduced queen. This is due to the fact that during the honey season worker bees die rapidly, and after requeening they are replaced by the offspring of the new queen. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Bee escape for removing bees from supers.] A most important consideration in purchasing colonies of bees is to see to it that they are free from disease. In many States and counties there are inspectors of apiaries who can be consulted on this point, but if this is not possible even a novice can tell whether or not there is anything wrong with the brood, and it is always safest to refuse hives containing dead brood. The best time of the year to begin beekeeping is in the spring, for during the first few months of ownership the bee keeper can study the subject and learn what to do, so that he is not so likely to make a mistake which will end in loss of bees. It is usually best to buy good strong colonies with plenty of brood for that season of the year, but if this is not practicable, then smaller colonies, or nuclei, may be purchased and built up during the summer season. Of course, no surplus honey can be expected if all the honey gathered goes into the making of additional bees. It is desirable to get as little drone comb as possible and a good supply of honey in the colonies purchased. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Spring bee escape.] The question as to what race and strain of bees is to be kept is important. If poor stock has been purchased locally, the bee keeper should send to some reliable queen breeder for good queens as a foundation for his apiary. Queens may be purchased for $1 each for "untested" to several dollars each for "selected" breeding queens. Usually it will not pay beginners to buy "selected" breeding queens, for they are not yet prepared to make the best use of such stock. "Untested" or "tested" queens are usually as good a quality as are profitable for a year or so, and there is also less danger in mailing "untested" (young) queens. Various races of bees have been imported into the United States and among experienced bee keepers there are ardent advocates of almost all of them. The black or German race was the first imported, very early in the history of the country, and is found everywhere, but usually not entirely pure. As a rule this race is not desirable. No attention has been paid to breeding it for improvement in this country, and it is usually found in the hands of careless bee keepers. As a result it is inferior, although it often produces beautiful comb honey. The Italian bees, the next introduced, are the most popular race among the best bee keepers in this country, and with good reason. They are vigorous workers and good honey gatherers, defend their hives well, and above all have been more carefully selected by American breeders than any other race. Especially for the last reason it is usually desirable to keep this race. That almost any other race of bees known could be bred to as high a point as the Italians, and perhaps higher, can not be doubted, but the bee keeper now gets the benefit of what has been done for this race. It should not be understood from this that the efforts at breeding have been highly successful. On the contrary, bee breeding will compare very unfavorably with the improvement of other animals or plants which have been the subject of breeding investigations. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Bee brush.] Italian bees have been carefully selected for color by some breeders to increase the area of yellow on the abdomen, until we now have what are known as "five-banded" bees. These are very beautiful, but it can scarcely be claimed that they are improved as honey producers or in regard to gentleness. They are kept mostly by amateurs. Some breeders have claimed to select Italians for greater length of tongue, with the object of getting a bee which could obtain the abundance of nectar from red clover. If any gain is ever made in this respect, it is soon lost. The terms "red-clover bees" or "long-tongued bees" are somewhat misleading, but are ordinarily used as indicating good honey producers. Caucasian bees, formerly distributed throughout the country by this department, are the most gentle race of bees known. They are not stingless, however, as is often stated in newspapers and other periodicals. Many report them as good honey gatherers. They are more prolific than Italians and may possibly become popular. Their worst characteristic is that they gather great quantities of propolis and build burr and brace combs very freely. They are most desirable bees for the amateur or for experimental purposes. Carniolan and Banat bees have some advocates, and are desirable in that they are gentle. Little is known of Banats in this country, Carniolans swarm excessively unless in' large hives. Cyprians were formerly used somewhat, but are now rarely found pure, and are undesirable either pure or in crosses because of the fact that they sting with the least provocation and are not manageable with smoke. They are good honey gatherers, but their undesirable qualities have caused them to be discarded by American bee keepers. ''Holy-land," Egyptian, and Punic (Tunisian) bees have also been tried and have been universally abandoned. The Department of Agriculture does not now distribute or sell queen bees or colonies of bees of any race. =BEE BEHAVIOR.= The successful manipulation of bees depends entirely on a knowledge of their habits. This is not generally recognized, and most of the literature on practical beekeeping consists of sets of rules to guide manipulations. This is too true of the present paper, but is due to a desire to make the bulletin short and concise. While this method usually answers, it is nevertheless faulty, in that, without a knowledge of fundamental principles of behavior, the bee keeper is unable to recognize the seemingly abnormal phases of activity, and does not know what to do under such circumstances. Rules must, of course, be based on the usual behavior. By years of association the bee keeper almost unconsciously acquires a wide knowledge of bee behavior, and consequently is better able to solve the problems which constantly arise. However, it would save an infinite number of mistakes and would add greatly to the interest of the work if more time were expended on a study of behavior; then the knowledge gained could be applied to practical manipulation. A colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee (fig. 10, _b_), the mother of the colony, and thousands of sexually undeveloped females called workers (fig. 10, _a_), which normally lay no eggs, but build the comb, gather the stores, keep the hive clean, feed the young, and do the other work of the hive. During part of the year there are also present some hundreds of males (fig. 10, _c_) or drones (often removed or restricted in numbers by the bee keeper), whose only service is to mate with young queens. These three types are easily recognized, even by a novice. In nature the colony lives in a hollow tree or other cavity, but under manipulation thrives in the artificial hives provided. The combs which form their abode are composed of wax secreted by the workers. The hexagonal cells of the two vertical layers constituting each comb have interplaced ends on a common septum. In the cells of these combs are reared the developing bees, and honey and pollen for food are also stored here. The cells built naturally are not all of the same size, those used in rearing worker bees being about one-fifth of an inch across, and those used in rearing drones and in storing honey about one-fourth of an inch across (fig. 11). The upper cells in natural combs are more irregular, and generally curve upward at the outer end. They are used chiefly for the storage of honey. Under manipulation the size of the cells is controlled by the bee keeper by the use of comb foundation--sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the bases of cells and on which the bees build the side walls. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--The honey bee: _a_, Worker; _b_, queen; _c_, drone. Twice natural size.] In the North, when the activity of the spring begins, the normal colony consists of the queen and some thousands of workers. As the outside temperature raises, the queen begins to lay eggs (fig. 12, _a_) in the worker cells. These in time develop into white larvæ (fig. 12, _b_, _c_), which grow to fill the cells. They are then capped over and transform first into pupæ (fig. 12, _d_) and then into adult worker bees. As the weather grows warmer, and the colony increases in size by the emergence of the young bees, the quantity of brood is increased. The workers continue to bring in pollen, nectar to be made into honey, and water for brood rearing. When the hive is nearly filled with bees and stores, or when a heavy honey flow is on, the queen begins to lay eggs in the larger cells, and these develop into drones or males. Continued increase of the colony would result in the formation of enormous, colonies, and unless some division takes place no increase in the number of colonies will result. Finally, however, the workers begin to build queen cells (fig. 13). These are larger than any other cells In the hive and hang on the comb vertically. In size and shape they may be likened to a peanut, and are also rough on the outside. In preparing for swarming the queen sometimes lays eggs in partly constructed queen cells, but when a colony becomes queenless the cells are built around female larvæ. The larvæ in these cells receive special food, and when they have grown to full size they, too, are sealed up, and the colony is then ready for swarming. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Comb architecture: _a_, Vertical section at top of comb; _b_, vertical section showing transition from worker to drone cells; _c_, horizontal section at side of comb showing end bar of frame; _d_, horizontal section of worker brood cells; e, diagram showing transition cells. Natural size.] The issuing of the first swarm from a colony consists of the departure of the original queen with part of the workers. They leave behind the honev stores, except such as they can carry in their honey stomachs, the brood, some workers, drones, several queen cells, from which will later emerge young queens, but no adult queen. By this interesting process the original colony is divided into two. The swarm finds a new location in some place, such as a hollow tree, or, if cared for by the bee keeper, in a hive. The workers build new combs, the queen begins laying, and in a short time the swarm becomes a normal colony. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--The honey bee: _a_, Egg; _b_, young larva; _c_, old larva; _d_, pupa. Three times natural size.] The colony on the old stand (parent colony) is increased by the bees emerging from the brood. After a time (usually about seven or eight days) the queens in their cells are ready to emerge. If the colony is only moderately strong the first queen to emerge is allowed by the workers to tear down the other queen cells and kill the queens not yet emerged, but if a "second swarm" is to be given off the queen cells are protected. If the weather permits, when from 5 to 8 days old, the young queen flies from the hive to mate with a drone. Mating usually occurs but once during the life of the queen and always takes place on the wing. In mating she receives enough spermatozoa (male sex cells) to last throughout her life. She returns to the hive after mating, and in about two days begins egg laying. The queen never leaves the hive except at mating time or with a swarm, and her sole duty in the colony is to lay eggs to keep up the population. When the flowers which furnish most nectar are in bloom, the bees usually gather more honey than they need for their own use, and this the bee keeper can safely remove. They continue the collection of honey and other activities until cold weather comes on in the fall, when brood rearing ceases; they then become relatively quiet, remaining in the hive all winter, except for short flights on warm days. When the main honey flow is over, the drones are usually driven from the hive. By that time the virgin queens have been mated and drones are of no further use. They are not usually stung to death, but are merely carried or driven from the hive by the workers and starve. A colony of bees which for any reason is without a queen does not expel the drones. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Queen cells. Natural size.] Many abnormal conditions may arise in the activity of a colony, and it is therefore necessary for the bee keeper to understand most of these, so that when they occur he may overcome them. If a virgin queen is prevented from mating she generally dies, but occasionally begins to lay eggs after about four weeks. In this event, however, all of the eggs which develop become males. Such a queen is commonly called a "drone layer." If the virgin queen is lost while on her flight, or the colony at any other time is left queenless without means of rearing additional queens, it sometimes happens that some of the workers begin to lay eggs. These eggs also develop only into drones. It also happens at times that when a queen becomes old her supply of spermatozoa is exhausted, at which tune her eggs also develop only into drones. These facts are the basis of the theory that the drone of the bee is developed from an unfertilized egg or is partheno-genetic. A full discussion of this point is impossible in this place. The work of the hive is very nicely apportioned among the inmates, so that there is little lost effort. As has been stated, the rearing of young is accomplished by having one individual to lay eggs and numerous others (immature females or workers) to care for the larvæ. In like manner all work of the colony is apportioned. In general, it may be stated that all inside work--wax building, care of brood, and cleaning--is done by the younger workers, those less than 17 days old, while the outside work of collecting pollen and nectar to be made into honey is done by the older workers. This plan may be changed by special conditions. For example, if the colony has been queenless for a tune and a queen is then given, old workers may begin the inside work of feeding larvæ, and these may also secrete wax. Or, if the old workers are all removed, the younger bees may begin outside work. As a rule, however, the general plan of division of labor according to age is probably followed rather closely. =DIRECTIONS FOR GENERAL MANIPULATIONS.= Bees should be handled so that they will be little disturbed in their work. As much as possible, stings should be avoided during manipulation. This is true, not so much because they are painful to the operator, but because the odor of poison which gets into the air irritates the other bees and makes them more difficult to manage. For this reason it is most advisable to wear a black veil (fig. 4) over a wide-brimmed hat and to have a good smoker (fig. 3). Gloves, however, are usually more an inconvenience than otherwise. Gauntlets or rubber bands around the cuffs keep the bees from crawling up the sleeve. It is best to avoid black clothing, since that color seems to excite bees; a black felt hat is especially to be avoided. Superfluous quick movements tend to irritate the bees. The hive should not be jarred or disturbed any more than necessary. Rapid movements are objectionable, because with their peculiar eye structure bees probably perceive motion more readily than they do objects. Persons not accustomed to bees, on approaching a hive, often strike at bees which fly toward them or make some quick movement of the head or hand to avoid the sting which they fear is to follow. This should not be done, for the rapid movement, even if not toward the bee, is far more likely to be followed by a sting than remaining quiet. The best time to handle bees is during the middle of warm days, particularly during a honey flow. Never handle bees at night or on cold, wet days unless absolutely necessary. The work of a beginner may be made much easier and more pleasant by keeping gentle bees. Caucasians, Carniolans, Banats, and some strains of Italians ordinarily do not sting much unless unusually provoked or except in bad weather. Common black bees or crosses of blacks with other races are more irritable. It may be well worth while for the beginner to procure gentle bees while gaining experience in manipulation. Later on, this is less important, for the bee keeper learns to handle bees with little inconvenience to himself or to the bees. Various remedies for bee stings have been advocated, but they are all useless. The puncture made by the sting is so small that it closes when the sting is removed and liquids can not be expected to enter. The best thing to do when stung is to remove the sting as soon as possible without squeezing the poison sac, which is usually attached. This can be done by scraping it out with a knife or finger nail. After this is done the injured spot should be let alone and not rubbed with any liniment. The intense itching will soon disappear; any irritation only serves to increase the afterswelling. Before opening a hive the smoker should be lighted and the veil put on. A few puffs of smoke directed into the entrance will cause the bees to fill themselves with honey and will drive back the guards. The hive cover should be raised gently, if necessary being pried loose with a screwdriver or special hive tool. When slightly raised, a little more smoke should be blown in vigorously on the tops of the frames, or if a mat covering for the frames is used, the cover should be entirely removed and one corner of the mat lifted to admit smoke. It is not desirable to use any more smoke than just enough to subdue the bees and keep them down on the frames. If at any time during manipulation they become excited, more smoke may be necessary. Do not stand in front of the entrance, but at one side or the back. After the frames are exposed they may be loosened by prying gently with the hive tool and crowded together a little so as to give room for the removal of one frame. In cool weather the propolis (bee glue) may be brittle. Care should be exercised not to loosen this propolis with a jar. The first frame removed can be leaned against the hive, so that there will be more room inside for handling the others. During all manipulations bees must not be mashed or crowded, for it irritates the colony greatly and may make it necessary to discontinue operations. Undue crowding may also crush the queen. If bees crawl on the hands, they may be gently brushed off or thrown off. [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Handling the frame: First position.] In examining a frame hold it over the hive if possible, so that any bees or queen which fall may drop into it. Freshly gathered honey also often drops from the frame, and if it falls in the hive the bees can quickly clean it up, whereas if it drops outside it is untidy and may cause robbing. If a frame is temporarily leaned against the hive, it should be placed in a nearly upright position to prevent breakage and leaking of honey. The frame on which the queen is located should not be placed on the ground, for fear she may crawl away and be lost. It is best to lean the frame on the side of the hive away from the operator, so that bees will not crawl up his legs. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Handling the frame: Second position.] In hanging frames the comb should always be held in a vertical position, especially if it contains much honey. When a frame is lifted from the hive by the top bar, the comb is vertical with one side toward the operator (fig. 14). To examine the reverse side, raise one end of the top bar until it is perpendicular (fig. 15), turn the frame on the top bar as an axis until the reverse side is in view, and then lower to a horizontal position with the top bar below (fig. 16). In this way there is no extra strain on the comb and the bees are not irritated. This care is not so necessary with wired combs, but it is a good habit to form in handling frames. It is desirable to have combs composed entirely of worker cells in order to reduce the amount of drone brood. The use of full sheets of foundation will bring this about and is also of value in making the combs straight, so that bees are not mashed in removing the frame. It is extremely difficult to remove combs built crosswise in the hive, and this should never be allowed to occur. Such a hive is even worse than a plain box hive. Superfluous inside fixtures should be avoided, as they tend only to impede manipulation. The hive should also be placed so that the entrance is perfectly horizontal and a little lower than the back of the hive. The frames will then hang in a vertical position, and the outer ones will not be fastened by the bees to the hive body if properly spaced at the top. [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Handling the frame: Third position.] In placing frames in the hive great care should be exercised that they are properly spaced. Some frames are self-spacing, having projections on the side, so that when placed as close as possible they are the correct distance apart. These are good for beginners or persons who do not judge distances well and are preferred by many professional bee keepers. If unspaced frames are used, the brood frames should be 1-3/8 inches from center to center. A little practice will usually enable anyone to space quickly and accurately. Careful spacing is necessary to prevent the building of combs of irregular thickness and to retard the building of pieces of comb from one frame to another. A beginner in beekeeping should by all means, if possible, visit some experienced bee keeper to get suggestions in handling bees. More can be learned in a short visit than in a considerably longer time in reading directions, and numerous short cuts which are acquired by experience will well repay the trouble or expense of such a visit. Not all professional bee keepers manipulate in the very best way, but later personal experience will correct any erroneous information. Above all, personal experimentation and a study of bee activity are absolute necessities in the practical handling of bees. =TRANSFERRING.= In increasing the apiary it is sometimes best to buy colonies in box hives on account of their smaller cost and to transfer them to hives with movable frames. This should be done as soon as possible, for box hive colonies are of small value as producers. The best time to transfer is in the spring (during fruit bloom in the North) when the amount of honey and the population of the colony are at a minimum. Transferring should not be delayed until spring merely because that season is best for the work. It may be done at any time during the active season, but, whenever possible, during a honey flow, to prevent robbing. If necessary, it may be done in a tent such as is often used in manipulating colonies. By choosing a time of the day when the largest number of bees are in the field the work will be lessened. =Plan 1.=--The box hive should be moved a few feet from its stand and in its place should be put a hive with movable frames containing full sheets of foundation. The box hive should be turned upside down and a small, empty box inverted over it. By drumming continuously on the box hive with sticks for a considerable time the bees will be made to desert their combs and go to the upper box, and when most of them are clustered above, the bees may be dumped in front of the entrance of the hive which is to house them. The queen will usually be seen as the bees enter the hive, but, in case she has not left the old combs, more drumming will induce her to do so. It is necessary that the queen be in the hive before this manipulation is finished. The old box hive containing brood may now be placed right side up in a new location and in 21 days all of the worker brood will have emerged and probably some new queens will have been reared. These bees may then be drummed out and united with their former hive mates by vigorously smoking the colony and the drummed bees and allowing the latter to enter the hive through a perforated zinc to keep out the young queens. The comb in the box hive may then be melted up and any honey which it may contain used as the bee keeper sees fit. By this method good straight combs are obtained. If little honey is being gathered, the colony in the hive must be provided with food. =Plan 2.=--If, on the other hand, the operator desires to save the combs of the box hive, the bees may be drummed into a box and the brood combs and other fairly good combs cut to fit frames and tied in place or held with rubber bands, strings, or strips of wood until the bees can repair the damage and fill up the breaks. These frames can then be hung in a hive on the old stand and the bees allowed to go in. The cutting of combs containing brood with more or less bees on them is a disagreeable job, and, since the combs so obtained are usually of little value in an apiary, the first method is recommended. =Plan 3.=--Another good plan is to wait until the colony swarms and then move the box hive to one side. A movable frame hive is now placed in the former location of the box hive and the swarm is hived in it. In this way all returning field bees are forced to join the swarm. In 21 days all of the worker brood in the box hive will have emerged. These young bees may then be united with the bees in the frame hive and the box hive destroyed. Colonies often take up their abode in walls of houses and it is often necessary to remove them to prevent damage from melting combs. If the cavity in which the combs are built can be reached, the method of procedure is like that of transferring, except that drumming is impractical and the bees must simply be subdued with smoke and the combs cut out with the bees on them. Another method which is often better is to place a bee escape over the entrance to the cavity, so that the bees can come out, but can not return. A cone of wire cloth about 8 inches high with a hole at the apex just large enough for one bee to pass will serve as a bee escape, or regular bee escapes (fig. 8) such as are sold by dealers may be used. A hive which they can enter is then placed beside the entrance. The queen is not obtained in this way and, of course, goes right on laying eggs, but as the colony is rapidly reduced in size the amount of brood decreases. As brood emerges, the younger bees leave the cavity and join the bees in the hive, until finally the queen is left practically alone. A new queen should be given to the bees in the hive as soon as possible, and in a short time they are fully established in their new quarters. After about four weeks, when all or nearly all of the brood in the cavity has emerged, the bee escape should be removed and as large a hole made at the entrance of the cavity as possible. The bees will then go in and rob out the honey and carry it to the hive, leaving only empty combs. The empty combs will probably do no damage, as moths usually soon destroy them and they may be left in the cavity and the old entrance carefully closed to prevent another swarm from taking up quarters there. In transferring bees from a hollow tree the method will depend on the accessibility of the cavity. Usually it is difficult to drum out the bees and the combs can be cut out after subduing the colony with smoke. =UNITING.= Frequently colonies become queenless when it is not practicable to give them a new queen, and the best practice under such conditions is to unite the queenless bees to a normal colony. If any colonies are weak in the fall, even if they have a queen, safe wintering is better insured if two or more weak colonies are united, keeping the best queen. Under various other conditions which may arise the bee keeper may find it desirable to unite bees from different colonies. Some fundamental facts in bee behavior must be thoroughly understood to make this a success. Every colony of bees has a distinctive colony odor and by this means bees recognize the entering of their hive by bees from other colonies and usually resent it. If, however, a bee comes heavily laden from the field and flies directly into the wrong hive without hesitation it is rarely molested. In uniting colonies, the separate colony odors must be hidden, and this is done by smoking each colony vigorously. It may at times be desirable to use tobacco smoke, which not only covers the colony odor but stupefies the bees somewhat. Care should be taken not to use too much tobacco, as it will completely overcome the bees. The queen to be saved should be caged for a day or two to prevent the strange bees from killing her in the first excitement. Another fact which must be considered is that the bees of a colony carefully mark the location of their own hive and remember that location for some time after they are removed. If, therefore, two colonies in the apiary which are not close together are to be united, they should be moved gradually nearer, not more than a foot at a time, until they are side by side, so that the bees will not return to their original locations and be lost. As the hives are moved gradually the slight changes are noted and no such loss occurs. As a further precaution, a board should be placed in front of the entrance in a slanting position, or brush and weeds may be thrown down so that when the bees fly out they recognize the fact that there has been a change and accustom themselves to the new place. If uniting can be done during a honey flow, there is less danger of loss of bees by fighting, or if done in cool weather, when the bees are not actively rearing brood, the colony odors are diminished and the danger is reduced. It is an easy matter to unite two or more weak swarms to make one strong one, for during swarming the bees have lost their memory of the old location, are full of honey, and are easily placed wherever the bee keeper wishes. They may simply be thrown together in front of a hive. Swarms may also be given to a newly established colony with little difficulty. =PREVENTING ROBBING IN THE APIARY.= When there is no honey flow bees are inclined to rob other colonies, and every precaution must be taken to prevent this. Feeding often attracts other bees, and, if there are indications of robbing, the sirup or honey should be given late in the day. As soon as robbing begins, manipulation of colonies should be discontinued, the hives closed, and, if necessary, the entrances contracted as far as the weather will permit. If brush is thrown in front of the entrance, robbers are less likely to attempt entering. At all times honey which has been removed from the hives should be kept where no bees can get at it, so as not to incite robbing. =FEEDING.= During spring manipulations, in preparing bees for winter, and at other times it may be necessary to feed bees for stimulation or to provide stores. _Honey from an unknown source should never be used_, for fear of introducing disease, and sirup made of granulated sugar is cheapest and best for this purpose. The cheaper grades of sugar or molasses should never be used for winter stores. The proportion of sugar to water depends on the season and the purpose of the feeding. For stimulation a proportion of one-fourth to one-third sugar by volume is enough, and for fall feeding, especially if rather late, a solution containing as much sugar as it will hold when cold is best. There seems to be little advantage in boiling the sirup. Tartaric acid in small quantity may be added for the purpose of changing part of the cane sugar to invert sugar, thus retarding granulation. The medication of sirup as a preventive or cure of brood disease is often practiced, but it has not been shown that such a procedure is of any value. If honey is fed, it should be diluted somewhat, the amount of dilution depending on the season. If robbing is likely to occur, feeding should be done in the evening. Numerous feeders are on the market, adapted for different purposes and methods of manipulation (figs. 17, 18, 19). A simple feeder can be made of a tin pan filled with excelsior or shavings (fig. 20). This is filled with sirup and placed on top of the frames in a super or hive body. It is advisable to lean pieces of wood on the pan as runways for the bees, and to attract them first to the sirup, either by mixing in a little honey or by spilling a little sirup over the frames and sticks. It may be stated positively that it does not pay financially, or in any other way, to feed sugar sirup to be stored in sections and sold as comb honey. Of course, such things have been tried, but the consumption of sugar during the storing makes the cost greater than the value of pure floral honey. =SPRING MANAGEMENT.= The condition of a colony of bees in the early spring depends largely upon the care given the bees the preceding autumn and in the method of wintering. If the colony has wintered well and has a good prolific queen, preferably young, the chances are that it will become strong in time to store a good surplus when the honey flow comes. The bees which come through the winter, reared the previous autumn, are old and incapable of much work. As the season opens they go out to collect the early nectar and pollen, and also care for the brood. The amount of brood is at first small, and as the new workers emerge they assist in the brood rearing so that the extent of the brood can be gradually increased until it reaches its maximum about the beginning of the summer. The old bees die off rapidly. If brood rearing does not continue late in the fall, so that the colony goes into winter with a large percentage of young bees, the old bees may die off in the spring faster than they are replaced by emerging brood. This is known as "spring dwindling." A preventive remedy for this may be applied by feeding, if necessary, the autumn before, or keeping up brood rearing as late as possible by some other means. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Division-board feeder to be hung in hive in place of frame.] If spring dwindling begins, however, it can be diminished somewhat by keeping the colony warm and by stimulative feeding, so that all the energy of the old bees may be put to the best advantage in rearing brood to replace those drying off. The size of the brood chamber can also be reduced to conserve heat. [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Feeder set in collar under hive body.] It sometimes happens that when a hive is examined in the spring the hive body and combs are spotted with brownish yellow excrement. This is an evidence of what is commonly called "dysentery." The cause of this trouble is long-continued confinement with a poor quality of honey for food. Honeydew honey and some of the inferior floral honeys contain a relatively large percentage of material which bees can not digest, and, if they are not able to fly for some time, the intestines become clogged with fæcal matter and a diseased condition results. Worker bees never normally deposit their fæces in the hive. The obvious preventive for this is to provide the colony with good honey or sugar sirup the previous fall. "Dysentery" frequently entirely destroys colonies, but if the bees can pull through until warm days permit a cleansing flight they recover promptly. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--"Pepper-box" feeder for use on top of frames.] Bees should not be handled in the early spring any more than necessary, for to open a hive in cool weather wastes heat and may even kill the brood by chilling. The hive should be kept as warm as possible in early spring as an aid to brood rearing. It is a good practice to wrap hives in black tar paper in the spring, not only that it may aid in conserving the heat of the colony, but in holding the suns heat rays as a help to the warmth of the hive. This wrapping should be put on as soon as an early examination has shown the colony to be in good condition, and there need be no hurry in taking it off. A black wrapping during the winter is not desirable, as it might induce brood rearing too early and waste the strength of the bees. As a further stimulus to brood rearing, stimulative feeding of sugar sirup in early spring may be practiced. This produces much the same effect as a light honey flow does and the results are often good. Others prefer to give the bees such a large supply of stores in the fall that when spring comes they will have an abundance for brood rearing, and it will not be necessary to disturb them in cool weather. Both ideas are good, but judicious stimulative feeding usually more than pays for the labor. Colonies should be fed late in the day, so that the bees will not fly as a result of it, and so that robbing will not be started. When the weather is warmer and more settled the brood cluster may be artificially enlarged by spreading the frames so as to insert an empty comb in the middle. The bees will attempt to cover all the brood that they already had, and the queen will at once begin laying in the newly inserted comb, thus making a great increase in the brood. This practice is desirable when carefully done, but may lead to serious results if too much new brood is produced. A beginner had better leave the quantity of brood to the bees. [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Pan in super arranged for feeding.] It is desirable early in the season, before any preparations are made for swarming, to go through the apiary and clip one wing of each queen (see p. 30). This should be done before the hive becomes too populous. It is perhaps best to clip queens as they are introduced, but some colonies may rear new ones without the knowledge of the owner, and a spring examination will insure no escaping swarms. The beginner should perhaps be warned not to clip the wings of a virgin queen. Queens sometimes die during the winter and early spring, and since there is no brood from which the bees can replace them, the queenless colonies are "hopelessly queenless." Such colonies are usually restless and are not active in pollen gathering. If, on opening a colony, it is found to be without a queen and reduced in numbers, it should be united with another colony by smoking both vigorously and caging the queen in the queen-right colony for a day or two to prevent her being killed. A frame or two of brood may be added to a queenless colony, not only to increase its strength, but to provide young brood from which they can rear a queen Bee keepers in the North can frequently buy queens from southern breeders early in the spring and naturally this is better than leaving the colony without a queen until the bees can rear one, as it is important that there be no stoppage in brood rearing at this season. =SWARM MANAGEMENT AND INCREASE.= The excessive rearing of brood at the wrong season or increase in the number of colonies greatly reduces the surplus honey crop by consumption. The ideal to which all progressive bee keepers work, when operating simply for honey, is to stimulate brood rearing to prepare bees for gathering, to retard breeding when it is less desirable, and to prevent swarming. Formerly the measure of success in beekeeping was the amount of increase by swarming, but this is now recognized as being quite the contrary of success. The stimulation of brood rearing in the spring, however, makes it more likely that swarming will occur; so that the operator must counteract the tendency to swarm. This is especially true in comb honey production. Very few succeed in entirely preventing swarming, but by various methods the situation can be largely controlled. When a swarm issues, it usually first settles on a limb of a tree or bush near the apiary. It was formerly common to make a noise by beating pans or ringing bells in the belief that this causes the swarm to settle. There is no foundation for such action on the part of the bee keeper. If the bees alight on a small limb that can be spared it may simply be sawed off and the bees carried to the hive and thrown on a sheet or hive cover in front of the entrance. If the limb can not be cut, the swarm can be shaken off into a box or basket on a pole and hived. If the bees light on the trunk of a tree or in some inaccessible place they can first be attracted away by a comb, preferably containing unsealed brood. In these manipulations it is not necessary to get all the bees, but if the queen is not with those which are put into the hive the bees will go into the air again and join the cluster. If a queen is clipped as recommended under "Spring management" (p. 29) the swarm will issue just the same, but the queen, not being able to fly, will simply wander about on the ground in front of the hive, where she can be caught and caged. The parent colony can then be removed to a new stand and a new hive put in its place. The bees will soon return and the queen can be freed among them as they enter. The field bees on returning will enter the new hive with the swarm, thus decreasing still more the parent colony and making a second swarm less probable. To make sure of this, however, all queen cells except one good one can be removed soon after the swarm issues. Another method of preventing second swarms is to set the old hive beside the swarm and in a week move the old hive to another place. The field bees of the parent colony then join the swarm and the parent colony is so much reduced that a second swarm does not issue. To hold a swarm it is desirable to put one frame containing healthy unsealed brood in the new hive. The other frames may contain full sheets or starters of foundation. Usually comb honey supers or surplus bodies for extracting frames will have been put on before swarming occurs. These are given to the swarm on the old stand and separated from the brood chamber by queen-excluding perforated zinc. In three or four days the perforated zinc may be removed if desired. When clipping the queen's wing is not practiced, swarms may be prevented from leaving by the use of queen traps of perforated zinc (fig. 6). These allow the workers to pass out, but not drones or queens, which, on leaving the entrance, pass up to an upper compartment from which they can not return. These are also used for keeping undesirable drones from escaping, and the drones die of starvation. When a swarm issues from a hive provided with a queen trap, the queen goes to the upper compartment and remains there until released by the bee keeper. The workers soon return to the hive. When the operator discovers the queen outside, the colony may be artificially swarmed to prevent another attempt at natural swarming. A queen trap should not be kept on the hive all the time for fear the old queen may be superseded and the young queen prevented from flying out to mate. =ARTIFICIAL SWARMING= If increase is desired, it is better to practice some method of artificial swarming and to forestall natural swarming rather than be compelled to await the whims of the colonies. The situation should be under the control of the bee keeper as much as possible. The bees, combs, and brood may be divided into two nearly equal parts and a queen provided for the queenless portion; or small colonies, called nuclei, may be made from the parent colony, so reducing its strength that swarming is not attempted. These plans are not as satisfactory as shaken swarms, since divided colonies lack the vigor of swarms. A good method of artificially swarming a colony is to shake most of the bees from the combs into another hive on the old stand with starters (narrow strips) of foundation. The hive containing the brood with some bees still adhering is then moved to a new location. If receptacles for surplus honey have been put on previously, as they generally should be, they should now be put over the artificial swarm separated from the brood compartment by perforated zinc. This method of artificially swarming (usually called by bee keepers "shook" swarming) should not be practiced too early, since natural swarming may take place later. The colony should first have begun its preparations for swarming. The method is particularly useful in comb honey production. The bees may be prevented from leaving the hive by the use of a drone trap (fig. 6) or by putting in one frame containing unsealed brood. Some bee keepers prefer using full sheets of foundation or even drawn combs for the artificial swarm, but narrow strips of foundation have some advantages. By using narrow strips the queen has no cells in which to lay eggs for a time, thus reducing brood rearing, but, since by the time artificial swarming is practiced the profitable brood rearing is usually over, this is no loss but rather a gain. There are also in the brood compartment no cells in which the gathering workers can deposit fresh honey, and they consequently put it in the supers. Gradually the combs below are built out and brood rearing is increased. Later the colony is allowed to put honey in the brood combs for its winter supply. If no increase is desired, the bees which emerge from the removed brood combs may later be united with the artificial swarm and by that time there will usually be little danger of natural swarming. Artificial swarming can readily be combined with the shaking treatment for bee diseases, thus accomplishing two objects with one manipulation. If disease is present in the parent colony, only strips of foundation should be used and the colony should be confined to the hive until a queen and drone trap and not with a frame of brood. =PREVENTION OF SWARMING.= Unless increase is particularly desired, both natural and artificial swarming should be done away with as far as possible, so that the energy of the bees shall go into the gathering of honey. Since crowded and overheated hives are particularly conducive to swarming, this tendency may be largely overcome by giving plenty of ventilation and additional room in the hive. Shade is also a good preventive of swarming. Extra space in the hive may be furnished by adding more hive bodies and frames or by frequent extracting, so that there may be plenty of room for brood rearing and storage at all times. These manipulations are, of course, particularly applicable to extracted honey production. To curb the swarming impulse frequent examinations of the colonies (about every week or 10 days during the swarming season) for the purpose of cutting out queen cells is a help, but this requires considerable work, and since some cells may be overlooked, and particularly since it frequently fails in spite of the greatest care, it is not usually practiced. Requeening with young queens early in the season, when possible, generally prevents swarming. Swarming is largely due to crowded brood chambers, and since eggs laid immediately before and during the honey flow do not produce gatherers, several methods have been tried of reducing the brood. The queen may either be entirely removed or be caged in the hive to prevent her from laying. In either event the bees will usually build queen cells to replace her, and these must be kept cut out. These plans would answer the purpose very well were it not for the fact that queenless colonies often do not work vigorously. Under most circumstances these methods can not be recommended. A better method is to remove brood about swarming time and thus reduce the amount. There are generally colonies in the apiary to which frames of brood can be given to advantage. In addition to these methods various nonswarming devices have been invented, and later a nonswarming hive so constructed that there is no opportunity for the bees to form a dense cluster. The breeding of bees by selecting colonies with less tendency to swarm has been suggested. On the whole, the best methods are the giving of plenty of room, shade, and ventilation to colonies run for extracted honey; and ventilation, shade, and artificial swarming of colonies run for comb honey. Frequent requeening (about once in two years) is desirable for other reasons, and requeening before swarming time helps in the solution of that difficulty, =PREPARATION FOR THE HARVEST.= An essential in honey production is to have the hive overflowing with bees at the beginning of the honey flow, so that the field force will be large enough to gather more honey than the bees need for their own use. To accomplish this, the bee keeper must see to it that brood rearing is heavy some time before the harvest, and he must know accurately when the honey flows come, so that he may time his manipulations properly. Brood rearing during the honey flow usually produces bees which consume stores, while brood reared before the flow furnishes the surplus gatherers. The best methods of procedure may be illustrated by giving as an example the conditions in the white clover region. In the spring the bees gather pollen and nectar from various early flowers, and often a considerable quantity from fruit bloom and dandelions. During this time brood rearing is stimulated by the new honey, but afterwards there is usually a period of drought when brood rearing is normally diminished or not still more increased as it should be. This condition continues until the white clover flow comes on, usually with a rush, when brood rearing is again augmented. If such a condition exists, the bee keeper should keep brood rearing at a maximum by stimulative feeding during the drought. When white clover comes in bloom he may even find it desirable to prevent brood rearing to turn the attention of his bees to gathering. A worker bee emerges from its cell 21 days after the egg is laid, and it usually begins field work in from 14 to 17 days later. It is evident, therefore, that an egg must be laid five weeks before the honey flow to produce a gatherer. Since the flow continues for some time and since bees often go to the field earlier than 14 days, egg laying should be pushed up to within two or three weeks of the opening of the honey flow. In addition to stimulative feeding, the care of the colony described under the heading of "Spring management" (p. 26) will increase brood production. =THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.= The obtaining of honey from bees is generally the primary object of their culture. Bees gather nectar to make into honey for their own use as food, but generally store more than they need, and this surplus the bee keeper takes away. By managing colonies early in the spring as previously described the surplus may be considerably increased. The secret of maximum crops is to "Keep all colonies strong." Honey is gathered in the form of nectar secreted by various flowers, is transformed by the bees, and stored in the comb. Bees also often gather a sweet liquid called "honeydew," produced by various scale insects and plant-lice, but the honeydew honey made from it is quite unlike floral honey in flavor and composition and should not be sold for honey. It is usually unpalatable and should never be used as winter food for bees, since it usually causes dysentery (p. 40). When nectar or honeydew has been thickened by evaporation and otherwise changed, the honey is sealed in the cells with cappings of beeswax. It is not profitable to cultivate any plant solely for the nectar which it will produce, but various" plants, such as clovers, alfalfa, and buckwheat, are valuable for other purposes and are at the same time excellent honey plants; their cultivation is therefore a benefit to the bee keeper. It is often profitable to sow some plant on waste land; sweet clovers are often used in this way. The majority of honey-producing plants are wild, and the bee keeper must largely accept the locality as he finds it and manage his apiary so as to get the largest possible amount of the available nectar. Since bees often fly as far as 2 or 3 miles to obtain nectar, it is obvious that the bee keeper can rarely influence the nectar supply appreciably. Before deciding what kind of honey to produce the bee keeper should have a clear knowledge of the honey resources of his locality and of the demands of the market in which he will sell his crop. If the bulk of the honey is dark, or if the main honey flows are slow and protracted, it will not pay to produce comb honey, since the production of fancy comb honey depends on a rapid flow. The best localities for comb honey production are in the northern part of the United States east of the Mississippi River, where white clover is a rapid and abundant yielder. Other parts of the United States where similar conditions of rapidity of flow exist are also good. Unless these favorable conditions are present it is better to produce extracted honev. [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Knives for uncapping honey.] =EXTRACTED HONEY.=[1] [1] For farther discussion of the production and care of extracted honey, see Bulletin 75, Part I, Bureau of Entomology. Extracted honey is honey which has been removed by means of centrifugal force from the combs in which the bees stored it. While it is possible to adulterate extracted honey by the addition of cheap sirups, this is rarely done, perhaps largely on account of the possibility of detection. It may be said to the credit of bee keepers as a class that they have always opposed adulteration of honey. In providing combs for the storage of honey to be extracted the usual practice is to add to the top of the brood chamber one or more hive bodies just like the one in which brood is reared, and fill these with frames. If preferred, shallower frames with bodies of proper size may be used, but most honey extractors are made for full-size frames. The surplus bodies should be put on in plenty of time to prevent the crowding of the brood chamber, and also to act as a preventive of swarming. Honey for extracting should not be removed until it is well ripened and a large percentage of it capped. It is best, however, to remove the crop from each honey flow before another heavy producing plant comes into bloom, so that the different grades of honey may be kept separate. It is better to extract while honey is still coming in, so that the bees will not be apt to rob. The extracting should be done in a building, preferably one provided with wire-cloth at the windows (p. 9). [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Honey extractor.] The frames containing honey to be extracted are removed from the hive, the cappings cut off with a sharp, warm knife (fig. 21) made specially for this purpose, and the frames are then put into the baskets of the honey extractor (fig. 22) . By revolving these rapidly the honey is thrown out of one side. The basket is then reversed and the honey from the other side is removed. The combs can then be returned to the bees to be refilled, or if the honey flow is over, they can be returned to the bees to be cleaned and then removed and stored until needed again. This method is much to be preferred to mashing the comb and straining out the honey, as was formerly done. In large apiaries special boxes to receive cappings, capping melters to render the cappings directly into wax, and power-driven extractors are often used. These will be found listed in supply catalogues. The extracted honey is then strained and run into vessels. It is advisable not to put it in bottles at once, but to let it settle in open vessels for a time, so that it can be skimmed. Most honeys will granulate and become quite hard if exposed to changes of temperature, and to liquefy granulated extracted honey it should be heated in a water bath. Never heat honey directly over a stove or flame, as the flavor is thereby injured. The honey should never be heated higher than 160° F. unless it is necessary to sterilize it because of contamination by disease. Extracted honey is put up in bottles or small tin cans for the retail trade, and in 5-gallon square tin cans or barrels for the wholesale market. Great care must be exercised if barrels are used, as honey will absorb moisture from the wood, if any is present, and cause leakage. The tin package is much to be preferred in most cases. In bottling honey for retail trade, it will well repay the bee keeper or bottler to go to considerable expense and trouble to make an attractive package, as the increased price received will more than compensate for the increased labor and expense. Honey should be heated to 160° F. and kept there for a time before bottling, and the bottle should be filled as full as possible and sealed hermetically. =Granulated honey.=--Some honeys, such as alfalfa, granulate quickly after being extracted. Such honeys are sometimes allowed to granulate in large cans and the semisolid mass is then cut into 1-pound bricks like a butter print and wrapped in paraffin paper. It may be put into paraffined receptacles before granulation, if desired. There is always a ready market for granulated honey, since many people prefer it to the liquid honey. =COMB HONEY.= Comb honey is honey as stored in the comb by the bees, the size and shape being determined by the small wooden sections provided by the bee keeper. Instead of having comb in large frames in which to store surplus honey, the bees are compelled to build comb in the sections and to store honey there (fig. 2). A full section weighs about 1 pound; larger ones are rarely used. By the use of modern sections and foundation the comb honey now produced is a truly beautiful, very uniform product, so uniform in fact that it is often charged that it must be artificially manufactured. The purchaser of a section of comb honey may be absolutely certain, however, that he is obtaining a product of the bees, for never has anyone been able to imitate the bees' work successfully. To show their confidence in the purity of comb honey, the National Bee Keepers' Association offers $1,000 for a single pound of artificial comb filled with an artificially prepared sirup, which is at all difficult of detection. There are several different styles of sections now in use, the usual sizes being 4-1/4 inches square and 4 by 5 inches. There are also two methods of spacing, so that there will be room for the passage of bees from the brood chamber into the sections and from one super of sections to another. This is done either by cutting "bee ways" in the sections and using plain flat separators or by using "no bee-way" or plain sections and using "fences"--separators with cleats fastened on each side, to provide the bee space. To describe all the different "supers" or bodies for holding sections would be impossible in a bulletin of this size, and the reader must be referred to catalogues of dealers in beekeeping supplies. Instead of using regular comb honey supers, some bee keepers use wide frames to hold two tiers of sections. It is better, however, to have the supers smaller, so that the bees may be crowded more to produce full sections. To overcome this difficulty, shallow wide frames holding one tier of sections may be used. The majority of bee keepers find it advisable to use special comb honey supers. In producing comb honey it is even more necessary to know the plants which produce surplus honey, and just when they come in bloom, than it is in extracted honey production. The colony should be so manipulated that the maximum field force is ready for the beginning of the flow. This requires care in spring management, and, above all, the prevention of swarming. Supers should be put on just before the heavy flow begins. A good indication of the need of supers is the whitening of the brood combs at the top. If the bees are in two hive bodies they should generally be reduced to one, and the frames should be filled with brood and honey so that as the new crop comes in the bees will carry it immediately to the sections above. If large hives are used for the brood chamber it is often advisable to remove some of the frames and use a division board to crowd the bees above. To prevent the queen from going into the sections to lay, a sheet of perforated zinc (fig. 23) may be put between the brood chamber and the super (fig. 2). It is often difficult to get bees to begin work in the small sections, but this should be brought about as soon as possible to prevent loss of honey. If there are at hand some sections which have been partly drawn the previous year, these may be put in the super with the new sections as "bait." Another good plan is to put a shallow extracting frame on either side of the sections. If a few colonies in the apiary that are strong enough to go above refuse to do so, lift supers from some colonies that have started to work above and give them to the slow colonies. The super should generally be shaded somewhat to keep it from getting too hot. Artificial swarming will quickly force bees into the supers. To produce the finest quality of comb honey full sheets of foundation should be used in the sections. Some bee keepers use nearly a full sheet hung from the top of the section and a narrow bottom starter. The use of foundation of worker-cell size is much preferred. When one super becomes half full or more and there are indications that there will be honey enough to fill others, the first one should be raised and an empty one put on the hive under it. This tiering up can be continued as long as necessary, but it is advisable to remove filled sections as soon as possible after they are nicely capped, for they soon become discolored and less attractive. Honey removed immediately after capping finds a better market, but if left on the hive even until the end of the summer the quality of the honey is improved. A careful watch must be kept on the honey flow, so as to give the bees only enough sections to store the crop. If this is not done a lot of unfinished sections will be left at the end of the flow. Honeys from different sources should not be mixed in the sections, as it usually gives the comb a bad appearance [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Perforated zinc queen excluder.] To remove bees from sections, the super may be put over a bee escape so that the bees can pass down but can not return, or the supers may be removed and covered with a wire-cloth-cone bee escape. [Illustration: Fig. 24.--Shipping case for comb honey.] After sections are removed the wood should be scraped free of propolis (bee glue) and then packed in shipping cases (fig. 24) for the market. Shipping cases to hold 12, 24, or 48 sections, in which the various styles of sections fit exactly, are manufactured by dealers in supplies. In shipping these cases, several of them should be put in a box or crate packed in straw and paper and handles provided to reduce the chances of breakage. When loaded in a freight car the combs should be parallel with the length of the car. In preparing comb honey for market it should be carefully graded so that the sections in each shipping case are as uniform as possible. Nothing will more likely cause wholesale purchasers to cut the price than to find the first row of sections in a case fancy and those behind of inferior grade. Grading rules have been adopted by various bee keepers' associations or drawn up by honey dealers. The following sets of rules are in general use: Eastern Grading Rules for Comb Honey. _Fancy._--All sections -well filled; combs straight; firmly attached to all four sides; the combs unsoiled by travel, stain, or otherwise; all the cells sealed except an occasional one; the outside surface of the wood well scraped of propolis. _A No. 1._--All sections well filled except the row of cells next to the wood; combs straight; one-eighth part of comb surface soiled, or the entire surface slightly soiled; the outside surface of the wood well scraped of propolis. _No. 1._--All sections well filled except the row of cells next to the wood; combs comparatively even; one-eighth part of comb surface soiled, or the entire surface slightly soiled. _No. 2._--Three-fourths of the total surface must be filled and sealed. _No. 3._--Must weigh at least half as much as a full-weight section. In addition to this the honey is to be classified according to color, using the terms white, amber, and dark; that is, there will be "Fancy White," "No. 1 Dark," etc. New Comb Honey Grading Rules Adopted by the Colorado State Bee Keepers' Association. _No. 1 White._--Sections to be well filled and evenly capped, except the outside row, next to the wood ; honey white or slightly amber, comb and cappings white, and not projecting beyond the wood; wood to be well cleaned; cases of separatored honey to average 21 pounds net per case of 24 sections; no section in this grade to weigh less than 13-1/2 ounces. Cases of half-separatored honey to average not less than 22 pounds net per case of 24 sections. Cases of unseparatored honey to average not less than 23 pounds net per case of 24 sections. _No. 1 Light Amber._--Sections to be well filled and evenly capped, except the outside row next to the wood; honey white or light amber; comb and cappings from white to off color, but not dark; comb not projecting beyond the wood; wood to be well cleaned. Cases of separatored honey to average 21 pounds net per case of 24 sections; no section in this grade to weigh less than 13-1/2 ounces. Cases of half-separatored honey to average not less than 22 pounds net per case of 24 sections. Cases of unseparatored honey to average not less than 23 pounds net per case of 24 sections. _No. 2._--This includes all white honey, and amber honey not included in the above grades; sections to be fairly well filled and capped, no more than 25 uncapped cells, exclusive of outside row, permitted in this grade; wood to be well cleaned; no section in this grade to weigh less than 12 ounces. Cases of separatored honey to average not less than 19 pounds net. Cases of half-separatored honey to average not less than 20 pounds net per case of 24 sections. Cases of unseparatored honey to average not less than 21 pounds net per case of 24 sections. =THE PRODUCTION OF WAX.= Beeswax, which is secreted by the bees and used by them for building their combs, is an important commercial product. There are times in almost every apiary when there are combs to be melted up, and it pays to take care of even scraps of comb and the cappings taken off in extracting. A common method of taking out the wax is to melt the combs in a solar wax extractor. This is perhaps the most feasible method where little wax is produced, but considerable wax still remains in old brood combs after such heating. Various wax presses are on the market, or one can be made at home. If much wax is produced, the bee keeper should make a careful study of the methods of wax extraction, as there is usually much wax wasted even after pressing. =PREPARATIONS FOR WINTERING.= After the main honey flow is over the management must depend on what may be expected later in the season from minor honey flows. If no crop is to be expected, the colony may well be kept only moderately strong, so that there will not be so many consumers in the hive. In localities where winters are severe and breeding is suspended for several months great care should be taken that brood rearing is rather active during the late summer, so that the colony may go into winter with plenty of young bees. In case any queens show lack of vitality they should be replaced early, so that the bees will not become queenless during the winter. The important considerations in wintering are plenty of young bees, a good queen, plenty of stores of good quality, sound hives, and proper protection from cold and dampness. If, as cold weather approaches, the bees do not have stores enough, they must be fed. Every colony should have from 25 to 40 pounds, depending on the length of winter and the methods of wintering. It is better to have too much honey than not enough, for what is left is good next season. If feeding is practiced, honey may be used, but sirup made of granulated sugar is just as good and is perfectly safe. If honey is purchased for feeding, great care should be taken that it comes from a healthy apiary, otherwise the apiary may be ruined by disease. _Never feed honey bought on the open market._ The bees should be provided with stores early enough so that it will not be necessary to feed or to open the colonies after cold weather comes on. Honeydew honey should not be left in the hives, as it produces "dysentery." Some honeys are also not ideal for winter stores. Those which show a high percentage of gums (most tree honeys) are not so desirable, but will usually cause no trouble. In wintering out of doors the amount of protection depends on the severity of the winter. In the South no packing is necessary, and even in very cold climates good colonies with plenty of stores can often pass the winter with little protection, but packing and protection make it necessary for the bees to generate less heat, and consequently they consume less stores and their vitality is not reduced. Dampness is probably harder for bees to withstand than cold, and when it is considered that bees give off considerable moisture, precautions should be taken that as it condenses it does not get on the cluster. An opening at the top would allow the moisture to pass out, but it would also waste heat, so it is better to put a mat of burlap or other absorbent material on top of the frames. The hive may also be packed in chaff, leaves, or other similar dry material to diminish the loss of heat. Some hives are made with double walls, the space being filled with chaff; these are good for outdoor wintering. The hive entrance should be lower than any other part of the hive, so that any condensed moisture may run out. The hives should be sound and the covers tight and waterproof. Entrances should be contracted in cold weather not only to keep out cold wind, but to prevent mice from entering. There should always be enough room, however, for bees to pass in and out if warmer weather permits a flight. In the hands of experienced bee keepers cellar wintering is very successful, but this method requires careful study. The cellar must be dry and so protected that the temperature never varies more than from 40 to 45° F.; 43° F. seems to be the optimum temperature. The ventilation must be good or the bees become fretful. Light should not be admitted to the cellar, and consequently some means of indirect ventilation is necessary. Cellar wintering requires the consumption of less honey to maintain the proper temperature in the cluster and is therefore economical. Bees so wintered do not have an opportunity for a cleansing flight, often for several months, but the low consumption makes this less necessary. Some bee keepers advocate carrying the colonies out a few times on warm days, but it is not fully established whether this is entirely beneficial and it is usually not practiced. The time for putting colonies in the cellar is a point of dispute, and practice in this regard varies considerably. They should certainly be put in before the weather becomes severe and as soon as they have ceased brood rearing. The time chosen may be at night when they are all in the hive, or on some chilly day. The hives may be piled one on top of the other, the lower tier raised a little from the floor. The entrances should not be contracted unless the colony is comparatively weak. It is usually not considered good policy to close the entrances with ordinary wire cloth, as the dead bees which accumulate more or less on the bottom boards may cut off ventilation, and the entrance should be free so that these may be cleaned out. It is, however, good policy to cover the entrance with wire-cloth having three meshes to the inch to keep out mice. The time of removing bees from the cellar is less easily determined than that of putting them in. The colonies may be removed early and wrapped in _black_ tar paper or left until the weather is settled. If the weather is very warm and the bees become fretful, the cellar must either be cooled or the bees removed. Some bee keepers prefer to remove bees at night, so that they can recover from the excitement and fly from the hive normally in the morning. One of the chief difficulties is to prevent the bees from getting into the wrong hives after their first flights. They often "drift" badly with the wind, and sometimes an outside row will become abnormally strong, leaving other colonies weak. The night before the bees are removed from the cellar it is good practice to leave the cellar doors and windows wide open. =DISEASES AND ENEMIES.= There are two infectious diseases of the brood of bees which cause great losses to the beekeeping industry of the United States. These are known as American foul brood and European foul brood. Both of these diseases destroy colonies by killing the brood, so that there are not enough young bees emerging to take the place of the old adult bees as these die from natural causes. The adult bees are not attacked by either disease. In the hands of careful bee keepers both diseases may be controlled, and this requires careful study and constant watching. In view of the fact that these diseases are now widely distributed throughout the United States, every bee keeper should read the available literature on the subject, so that if disease enters his apiary he may be able to recognize it before it gets a start. The symptoms and the treatment recommended by this department are given in another publication which will be sent free on request.[2] [2] Farmers' Bulletin No. 442. "The Treatment of Bee Diseases." It is difficult for a bee keeper to keep his apiary free from disease if others about him have diseased colonies which are not properly treated. The only way to keep disease under control is for the bee keepers in the neighborhood to cooperate in doing everything possible to stamp out disease as soon as it appears in a single colony. The progressive bee keeper who learns of disease in his neighborhood should see to it that the other bee keepers around him are supplied with literature describing symptoms and treatment, and should also try to induce them to unite in eradicating the malady. Since it is so often impossible to get all of the bee keepers in a community to treat infected colonies properly and promptly, it is desirable that the States pass laws providing for the inspection of apiaries and granting to the inspector the power to compel negligent bee keepers to treat diseased colonies so that the property of others may not be endangered and destroyed. This has been done in a number of States, but there are still some where the need is great and in which no such provision has been made. When no inspection is provided, bee keepers should unite in asking for such protection, so that the danger to the industry may be lessened. In case there is an inspector for the State or county, he should be notified as soon as disease is suspected in the neighborhood. Some bee keepers hesitate to report disease through fear that the inspector will destroy their bees or because they feel that it is a disgrace to have disease in the apiary. There is no disgrace in having colonies become diseased; the discredit is in not treating them promptly. The inspectors are usually, if not universally, good practical bee keepers who from a wide experience are able to tell what should be done in individual cases to give the best results with the least cost in material and labor. They do not destroy colonies needlessly, and, in fact, they all advocate and teach treatment. The brood diseases are frequently introduced into a locality by the shipping in of diseased colonies; or, more often, the bees get honey from infected colonies which is fed to them, or which they rob, from discarded honey cans. It is decidedly dangerous to purchase honey on the market, with no knowledge of its source, to be used in feeding bees. Many outbreaks of disease can be traced to this practice (see "Feeding," p. 26). It is difficult to prevent bees from getting contaminated honey accidentally. If colonies are purchased, great care should be taken that there is no disease present. Whenever possible, colonies should be purchased near at home, unless disease is already present in the neighborhood. There are other diseased conditions of the brood, known to bee keepers as "pickle brood," but these can usually be distinguished from the two diseases previously mentioned. The so-called "pickle brood" is not contagious and no treatment is necessary. Bees also suffer from "dysentery," which is discussed in the earlier part of this bulletin, and from the so-called "paralysis," a disease of adult bees. No treatment for the latter disease can as yet be recommended as reliable. The sprinkling of powdered sulphur on the top bars of frames or at the entrance is sometimes claimed to be effective, but under what circumstances it is beneficial is unknown. A number of insects, birds, and mammals must be classed as enemies of bees, but of these the two wax moths, and ants, are the only ones of importance. There are two species of moth, the larger wax moth (_Galleria mellonella_ L.), and the lesser wax moth (_Achroia grisella_ Fab.), the larvæ of which destroy combs by burrowing through them.[3] Reports are frequently received in the department that the larvæ of these moths (usually the larger species) are destroying colonies of bees. It may be stated positively that moths do not destroy strong, healthy colonies in good hives, and if it is supposed that they are causing damage the bee keeper should carefully study his colonies to see what other trouble has weakened them enough for the moths to enter. Queenlessness, lack of stores, or some such trouble may be the condition favorable to the entrance of the pest, but a careful examination should be made of the brood to see whether there is any evidence of disease. This is the most frequent cause of the cases of moth depredation reported to this department. Black bees are less capable of driving moth larvæ out, but, even with these bees, strong colonies rarely allow them to remain. The observance of the golden rule of beekeeping, "Keep all colonies strong," will solve the moth question unless disease appears. [3] Bee keepers refer to these insects as "moths," "wax moths," "bee moths," "millers," "wax worms," "honey moths," "moth worms," "moth millers," and "grubs." The last six terms are not correct. Moth larvæ often destroy combs stored outside the hive. To prevent this the combs may be fumigated with sulphur fumes or bisulphid of carbon in tiers of hives or in tight rooms. If bisulphid of carbon is used, great care should be taken not to bring it near a flame, as it is highly inflammable. Combs should be stored in a dry, well-ventilated, light room. In the warmer parts of the country ants are often a serious pest. They may enter the hive for protection against changes of temperature, or to prey on the honey stores or the brood. The usual method of keeping them out is to put the hive on a stand, the legs of which rest in vessels containing water or creosote. Another method is to wrap a tape soaked in corrosive sublimate around the bottom board. =GENERAL INFORMATION.= For the purpose of answering numerous questions which are asked of this department the following brief topics are included. =BREEDERS OF QUEENS.= There are a large number of bee keepers who make a business of rearing queens of good stock for sale. The queens are usually sent by mail. If poor stock is all that can be obtained locally, it is recommended that such colonies be purchased and the queens removed and replaced with those obtained from a good breeder. This department can supply names of breeders, nearest the applicant, of any race raised in this country. =INTRODUCING QUEENS.= When queens are shipped by mail they usually come in cages (fig. 25) which can be used for introducing. If the colony to receive the new queen has one, she must be removed and the cage inserted between the frames. The small hole leading into the candy compartment is uncovered, and the bees gradually eat through and release the queen. If queens are reared at home, a similar cage may be used for introducing. In view of the fact that disease may be transmitted in mailing cages, it is always a wise precaution to remove the new queen and destroy the accompanying workers and the cage and its contents. The queen may then be put into a clean cage without worker bees, with candy known to be free from contamination (made from honey from healthy hives), and introduced in the regular way. Queens sold by breeders are always mated unless otherwise specified, and consequently the colony in which they are introduced has no effect on her offspring. During the active season the bees in the colony are all the offspring of the new queen in about nine weeks. Three weeks is required for the previous brood to emerge (if the colony has not been queenless). and in six weeks after all the old brood emerges most of the workers from it will have died. Queens are usually sold according to the following classification: "_Untested queen_"--one that has mated, but the race of the drone is not known. "_Tested queen_"--one that has mated and has been kept only long enough to show, from the markings of her progeny, that she mated with a drone of her own race. "_Breeding queen_"--a tested queen which has shown points of superiority, making her desirable for breeding purposes. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Queen mailing cage.] =DEALERS IN BEE KEEPERS' SUPPLIES.= There are several manufacturers of supplies in this country who can furnish almost anything desired by the bee keeper. Some of them have agents in various parts of the country from whom supplies may be purchased, thus saving considerable in freight. =BEE KEEPERS' ASSOCIATIONS.= There are a large number of associations of bee keepers in all parts of the country, formed for the betterment of the industry, and a few associations which are organized to aid the members in purchasing supplies and in selling the crops. Of these the National Bee Keepers" Association is the largest. It helps its members in obtaining their legal rights, and aids in securing legislation for the furtherance of the industry. The annual conventions are held in different parts of the country, and copies of the proceedings are sent to the members. There are also numerous State, county, and town associations, some of which publish proceedings. The names of officers of the nearest associations or of the National Bee Keepers' Association will be sent from this department on request. =LAWS AFFECTING BEEKEEPING.= =Disease inspection.=--Various States have passed laws providing for the State or county inspection of apiaries for bee-disease control, and every bee keeper should get in touch with an inspector when disease is suspected, if one is provided. The inspectors are practical bee keepers who fully understand how to control the diseases, and are of great help in giving directions in this matter. The name of the inspector of any locality can usually be furnished, and this department is glad to aid bee keepers in reaching the proper officers. =Laws against spraying fruit trees while in bloom.=--The spraying of fruit trees while in bloom is not now advised by economic entomologists, and to prevent the practice some States have passed laws making it a misdemeanor. Such spraying not only kills off honey bees, causing a loss to the bee keeper, but interferes with the proper pollination of the blossoms and is thus a detriment to the fruit grower. Bee keepers should do everything in their power to prevent the practice. =Laws against the adulteration of honey.=--The national food and drugs act of 1906, and various State pure food laws, are a great aid to the bee keeper in preventing the sale of adulterated extracted honey as pure honey. Bee keepers can often aid in this work by reporting to the proper officials infringements of these laws which come to their notice. =When bees are a nuisance.=--Some cities have passed ordinances prohibiting the keeping of bees in certain areas, but so far none has been able to enforce them. If bees are a nuisance in individual cases, the owner may be compelled to remove them. The National Bee Keepers' Association "will help any of its members in such cases, if they are in the right, as well as in cases where bees sting horses. Bee keepers should be careful not to locate bees where they can cause any trouble of this kind. =SUPPOSED INJURY OF CROPS BY BEES.= Bee keepers are often compelled to combat the idea that bees cause damage to fruit or other crops by sucking the nectar from the flower. This is not only untrue, but in many cases the bees are a great aid in the pollination of the flowers, making a good crop possible. A more frequent complaint is that bees puncture fruit and suck the juices. Bees never puncture sound fruit, but if the skin is broken by some other means bees will often suck the fruit dry. In doing it, however, they are sucking fruit which is already damaged. These and similar charges against the honey bee are prompted by a lack of information concerning their activities. Bees may, of course, become a nuisance to others through their stinging propensities, but bee keepers should not be criticized for things which their bees do not do. =JOURNALS AND BOOKS ON BEEKEEPING.= The progressive bee keeper will find it to his profit to subscribe for at least one journal devoted to beekeeping. Several of these are published in the United States. The names and addresses of such journals may usually be obtained from a subscription agent for periodicals, or from a supply dealer. It will also be advantageous to read and study books on beekeeping, of which several are published in this country. These are advertised in journals devoted to beekeeping, or may usually be obtained through the local book dealer or through dealers in bee keepers' supplies. =PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ON BEE KEEPING.=[4] [4] List revised to April 1, 1911. (VII.) There are several publications of this department which are of interest to bee keepers, and new ones are added from time to time in regard to the different lines of investigation. The following publications relating to bee culture, prepared in the Bureau of Entomology, are for free distribution and may be obtained by addressing the Secretary of Agriculture:[5] [5] Farmers' Bulletin No. 59, "Bee Keeping," and Farmers' Bulletin No. 397, "Bees," have been superseded by Farmers' Bulletin No. 447. Circular No. 79, "The Brood Diseases of Bees," has been superseded by Farmers' Bulletin No. 442. Bulletin No. 1, "The Honey Bee," has been discontinued. Farmers' Bulletin No. 447, "Bees." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1911. 48 pp., 25 figs. A general account of the management of bees. Farmers' Bulletin No. 442, "The Treatment of Bee Diseases." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1911. 22 pp., 7 figs. This publication gives briefly the symptoms of the various bee diseases, with directions for treatment. Circular No. 94, "The Cause of American Foul Brood." By G. F. White, Ph. D. 1907. 4 pp. This publication contains a brief account of the Investigations which demonstrated for the first time the cause of one of the brood diseases of bees, American foul brood. Circular No. 138. "The Occurrence of Bee Diseases in the United States. (Preliminary Report.)" By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1911. 25 pp. A record of the localities from which samples of diseased brood were received prior to March 1, 1911. Bulletin No. 55, "The Rearing of Queen Bees." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1905. 32 pp., 17 figs. A general account of the methods used in queen rearing. Several methods are given, so that the bee keeper may choose those best suited to his individual needs. Bulletin No. 70, "Report of the Meeting of Inspectors of Apiaries, San Antonio, Tex., November 12, 1906." 1907. 79 pp., 1 plate. Contains a brief history of bee-disease investigations, an account of the relationship of bacteria to bee diseases, and a discussion of treatment by various Inspectors of apiaries and other practical bee keepers who are familiar with diseases of bees. Bulletin No. 75, Part I, "Production and Care of Extracted Honey." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. "Methods of Honey Testing for Bee Keepers." By C. A. Browne, Ph. D. 1907. 18 pp. The methods of producing extracted honey, with special reference to the care of honey after it is taken from the bees, so that its value may not be decreased by improper handling. The second portion of the publication gives some simple tests for adulteration. Bulletin No. 75, Part II, "Wax Moths and American Foul Brood." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1907. Pp. 19-22, 3 plates. An account of the behavior of the two species of wax moths on combs containing American foul brood, showing that moths do not destroy the disease-carrying scales. Bulletin No. 75, Part III, "Bee Diseases in Massachusetts." By Burton N. Gates. 1908. Pp. 23-32, map. An account of the distribution of the brood diseases of bees in the State, with brief directions for controlling them. Bulletin No. 75, Part IV. "The Relation of the Etiologv (Cause) of Bee Diseases to the Treatment." By G. F. White, Ph. D. 1908. Pp: 33-42. The necessity for a knowledge of the cause of bee diseases before rational treatment is possible is pointed out. The present state of knowledge of the causes of disease is summarized. Bulletin No. 75, Part V, "A Brief Survey of Hawaiian Bee Keeping." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1909. Pp. 43-58, 6 plates. An account of the beekeeping methods used in a tropical country and a comparison with mainland conditions. Some new manipulations are recommended. Bulletin No 75, Part VI, "The Status of Apiculture in the United States." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D. 1909. Pp. 59-80. A survey of present-day beekeeping in the United States, with suggestions as to the work yet to be done before apiculture will have reached its fullest development. Bulletin No. 75, Part VII, "Bee Keeping in Massachusetts." By Burton N. Gates. 1909. Pp. 81-109, 2 figs. An account of a detailed study of the apicultural conditions in Massachusetts. The object of this paper is to point out the actual conditions and needs of beekeeping in New England. Bulletin No. 75, Contents and Index. 1911. Pp. vii+111-123. Bulletin No. 75, Parts I-VII, complete with Contents and Index. 1911. Pp. viii+123. Bulletin No. 98. "Historical Notes on the Causes of Bee Diseases." By E. F. Phillips, Ph. D., and G. F. White, Ph. D., M. D. (In press.) A summary of the various investigations concerning the etiology (Cause) of bee diseases. Technical Series, No. 14, "The Bacteria of the Apiary with Special Reference to Bee Diseases." By G. F. White, Ph. D. 1906. 50 pp. A study of the bacteria present in both the healthy and the diseased colony, with special reference to the diseases of bees. Technical Series No. 18, "The Anatomy of the Honey Bee." By R. E. Snodgrass. 1910. 162 pp., 57 figs. An account of the structure of the bee, with technical terms omitted so far as possible. Practically all of the illustrations are new, and the various parts are interpreted according to the best usage in comparative anatomy of insects. A brief discussion of the physiology of the various organs is included . BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. Bulletin No. 110, "Chemical Analysis and Composition of American Honeys." By C. A. Browne. Including "A Microscopical Study of Honey Pollen." By W. J. Young. 1908. 93 pp., 1 fig., 6 plates. A comprehensive study of the chemical composition of American honeys. This publication is technical in nature and will perhaps be little used by practical bee keepers, but it is an important contribution to apicultural literature. By means of this work the detection of honey adulteration is much aided. HAWAII AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTAL STATION. HONOLULU, HAWAII. Bulletin No. 17, "Hawaiian Honeys." By D. L. Van Dine and Alice R. Thompson. 1908. 21 pp., 1 plate. A study of the source and composition of the honeys of Hawaii. The peculiar conditions found on these islands are dealt with. Transcriber Note Illustrations were moved so as not to split paragraphs. 
5710	----	A DISSERTATION on HORSES Wherein it is demonstrated, by Matters of Fact, as well as from the Principles of Philosophy, that INNATE QUALITIES do not exist, and that the excellence of this Animal is altogether mechanical and not in the Blood. By William Osmer London: Printed for T. Waller, 1756 Summary: Osmer shows us, by what he argues against, the primitive state of horse-breeding in England where a superstitious belief in bloodline with no attention to conformation rules. This is difficult for the modern reader to even visualize, after the late 19th century development of conformation norms for all breeds of animal. Notable for a description of horse raising and use among the nomad Arabs, evidence of the survival of the ancient Nisaean breed in Turkey, and stories of the Godolphin Arabian. Transcriber's Note: I have retained most of the original spellings, as it may be valuable to see how such things have changed over the centuries. These odd spellings are marked with a double asterisk (**) not referencing any sort of note. The use of capitalization or all-caps is as in the original. A DISSERTATION ON HORSES Whoever supposes that Mess. Heber and Pond, or even Mr. John Cheney, were the first who published accounts of Horse-racing, will find himself much mistaken, for there lived others above a hundred years before them, who not only published accounts of Horse-racing, but acquainted us with the history of the wrestling, backsword-playing, boxing, and even foot-racing, that happened in their days; and from them we learn also who were the victors, and how the racers came in. Amongst these, lived a man whose name was Homer, a blind or obscure man (for they are synonimous** terms) who occasionally published his book of sports, and to him we are obliged also for the pedigree of many Horses that were esteemed the best in his time. This man was said to be poor, in little esteem, and to travel about the country to sell his books; but though his circumstances were very low, his understanding, it seems, was not, for he always took care to pay his court to the great personages wherever he came, and to flatter them in the blood of their Horses. But though he was little esteemed in his life-time, yet his book of pedigrees and genealogy of Horses was thought so useful, that he was greatly honoured for it after his death. And what is more strange, though the place of his nativity was unknown, and no country would receive him as a member of their community when living, yet when dead, many nations contended for the honour of it; but whatever arguments each country may produce for the support of its claim, nothing is more evident than that he was an Englishman; and there is great reason to believe he was born somewhere in the North, though I do not take upon me to say it absolutely was so. His partiality however, to that part of the kingdom, is manifest enough, for he pretended to say, that a good racer could be bred in no place but the North; whereas, late experience has proved that to be a very idle notion. But as the northern gentlemen were the first breeders of racing Horses, so it is very probably they were also the first subscribers to his book, and then we shall find his partiality might arise, either from his gratitude to these gentlemen, or from its being the place of his nativity, or perhaps from both. There was in the North in his time, a very famous Stallion called Boreas: Whether the present breeders have any of that blood left, I do not certainly know; but Homer, to flatter the owner, who was a subscriber to his book, and always gave him two half guineas instead of one, fabled that this same Boreas begot his colts as fleet as the wind. This to be sure will be looked upon as nothing more than a matter of polite partiality to his benefactor: But it is much to be feared, this partiality has not been confined to persons alone; for there is reason to believe, that in many cases, he has varied the true pedigree of his Horses, and (not unlike our modern breeders) has left out one cross that has been thought not good, and substituted another in its room held more fashionable. We have an account in one of his books, (I forget the year when it was published) of a very famous chariot-race, that was run over Newmarket between five noblemen; and though it was the custom at that time to run with a two-wheeled chaise and pair only, instead of four, we find all other customs nearly the same. The names of the Horses are given us, their pedigrees, and the names of the drivers; the course is marked out, judges appointed, betts** offered, but no crossing or jostling allowed; a plain proof they depended on winning from the excellence of their Horses alone. But though a curricle and pair was then the fashion, there lived at that time a strange mad kind of fellow, haughty and overbearing, determined that no body should do anything like himself, who always drove three; and though the recital of this circumstance may be considered as trivial, or little to the purpose, we shall find something in the story worth our attention, and with respect to Horses, a case very singular, such a one as no history, no tradition, nor our own experience has ever furnished us with a similar instance of. It seems these three Horses were so good that no Horses in the kingdom would match them. Homer, after having been very lavish in their praise, has given us their names, and the pedigree of two of them, which it seems were full brothers. He tells us, they were as swift as the wind, and in his bombast** way of writing, says they were immortal; which expression is exactly of the same style and meaning with our modern phrase high-bred, and could mean nothing else, because in the recital of the pedigree, he tells us, they were got by this same North-country Horse before mentioned, called Boreas, and out of a flying Mare called Podarge. But the singularity of this case is, that the third Horse, whom he calls Pedasus**, was absolutely a common Horse, and of no blood. Here I beg leave to make use of Mr. Pope's words, who, in his translation, speaking of those Horse, says thus: "Who like in strength, in swiftness, and in grace, "A mortal courser match'd th'immortal race." Now as nothing is more certain, than that no Horses but those of blood can race in our days, I have long been endeavouring to find the true reason of this singular instance, and cannot any way account for it, but by supposing this equality of strength and elegance might produce an equality of swiftness. This consideration naturally produced another, which is, that the blood of all Horses may be merely ideal; and if so, a word of no meaning. But before I advance any thing more on this hypothesis, and that I may not be guilty of treason against the received laws of jockey-ship, I do here lay it down as a certain truth, that no Horses but such as come from foreign countries, or which are of extraction totally foreign, can race. In this opinion every man will readily join me, and this opinion will be confirmed by every man's experience and observation. But in discussing this point, I shall beg leave, when speaking of these Horses, to change the word HIGH-BRED, and in its room substitute the word foreigner, or of foreign extraction. For perhaps it may appear, that the excellence we find in these Horses depends totally on the mechanism of their parts, and not in their blood; and that all the particular distinctions and fashions thereof, depend also on the whim and caprice of mankind. If we take a Horse bred for the cart, and such a one as we call a hunter, and a horse of foreign extraction, and set them together, the meanest judge will easily point out the best racer, from the texture, elegance, and symmetry of their parts, without making any appeal to blood. Allow but a difference in the texture, elegance, and symmetry of parts in different Horses, whose extraction is foreign, this principle will be clearly proved, and the word HIGH-BRED is of no use, but to puzzle and lead us astray: and every man's daily observation would teach him, if he was not lost in this imaginary error, particular blood, that, generally speaking, such Horses who have the finest texture, elegance of shape, and the most proportion, are the best racers, let their blood be of what kind it will, always supposing it to be totally foreign. If I was asked what beauty was, I should say proportion: if I was asked what strength was, I should say proportion also: but I would not be understood to mean, that this strength and beauty alone will constitute a racer, for we shall find a proper length also will be wanted for the sake of velocity; and that moreover the very constituent parts of foreign Horses differ as much from all others, as their performances. But this, however, will be found a truth; that in all Horses of every kind, whether designed to draw or ride, this principle of proportion will determine the principle of goodness; at least to that part of it which we call bottom. On the other hand, our daily observation will shew us, that no weak, loose, disproportioned Horse, let his blood be what it will, ever yet was a prime racer. If it be objected, that many a plain ugly Horse has been a good racer; I answer that all goodness is comparative; and that such Horses who have been winners of plates about the country, may be improperly called good racers, when compared to some others: but I can even allow a very plain Horse to be a prime racer, without giving up the least part of this system: for instance if we suppose a Horse (with a large head and long ears, like the Godolphin Arabian) a low mean forehand, slat sided, and goose rumped, this, I guess, will be allowed a plain ugly Horse; but yet if such a Horse be strong, and justly made in those parts which are immediately conducive to action; if his shoulders incline well backwards, his legs and joints in proportion, his carcase strong and deep, his thighs well let down, we shall find he may be a very good racer, even when tried by the principles of mechanics, without appealing to his blood for any part of his goodness. We are taught by this doctrine of mechanics, that the power applied to any body, must be adequate to the weight of that body, otherwise, such power will be deficient for the action we require; and there is no man but knows a cable or chord of three inches diameter is not equal in strength to a chord of four inches diameter. So that if it should be asked why a handsome coach Horse, with as much beauty, length, and proportion as a foreign Horse, will not act with the same velocity and perseverance, nothing will be more easily answered, without appealing to blood; because we shall find the powers of acting in a foreign Horse much more prevalent, and more equal to the weight of his body, than the powers of acting in a coach Horse: for whoever has been curious enough to examine the mechanism of different Horses by dissection, will find the tendon of the leg in a foreign Hose is much larger than in any other Horse, whose leg is of the same dimensions; and as the external texture of a foreign Horse is much finer than of any other, so the foreign Horse must necessarily have the greatest strength and perseverance in acting, because the muscular power of two Horses (whose dimensions are the same) will be the greatest in that Horse, whose texture is the finest. Let us next inquire what information we can gather from the science of Anatomy, concerning the laws of motion: it teaches us, that the force and power of a muscle consists in the number of fibres of which it is composed; and that the velocity and motion of a muscle consists in the length and extent of its fibres. Let us compare this doctrine with the language of the jockey: he tells us, if a Horse has not length, he will be slow; and if made to slender, he will not be able to bring his weight through. Does not the observation of the jockey exactly correspond with this doctrine? If we now inquire into the motion of Horses, we shall find the bones are the levers of the body, and the tendons and muscles (which are one and the same thing) are the powers of acting applied to these levers. Now when we consider a half-bred Horse running one mile or more, with the same velocity as a Horse of foreign extraction, we do not impute that equality of velocity to any innate quality in the half-bred Horse, because we can account for it by external causes: that is by an equality of the length, and extent of his levers and tendons. And when we consider a half-bred Horse running one mile, or more, with the same velocity as the other, and then giving it up, what shall we do? shall we say the foreigner beats him by his blood, or by the force and power of his tendons? or can we, without reproaching our own reason and understanding, impute that to be the effect of occult and hidden causes in the one of these instances and not in the other? both of which are demonstrated with certainty, and reduced to facts by the knowledge of anatomy and the principles of mechanics. How many instances have we of different Horses beating each other alternately over different sorts of ground! how often do we see short, close, compact Horses beating others of a more lengthened shape, over high and hilly coursed, as well as deep and slippery ground; in the latter of which, the blood is esteemed much better, and whose performances in general are much better! And how comes it to pass that Horses of a more lengthened shape, have a superiority over Horses of a shorter make, upon level and flat courses? Is this effected by the difference of their mechanical powers, or is it affected by the blood? if, by the latter, then this blood is not general, but partial only, which no reasoning man will be absurd enough to allow. But I much fear our distinctions of good and bad blood are determined with much partiality; for every jockey has his particular favourite blood, of which he judges from events, success, or prejudice: else, how comes it to pass, that we see the different opinions and fashions of blood varying daily! nay, we see the very same blood undergoing the very same fate; this year rejected, the next in the highest esteem; or this year in high repute, the next held at nothing. How many changes has the blood of Childers undergone! once the best, then the worst, now good again! Where are the descendants of Bay Bolton, that once were the terror of their antagonists! Did these prevail by the superiority of their blood, or because their power and their fabric was superior to the Horses of their time? If any one ask why Danby Cade was not as good a racer as any in the kingdom, the jockey could not impute this defect to his blood; but if it should be imputed to his want of proportion, surely it might be held for a true and satisfactory reason. How many revolutions of fame and credit, have all sportsmen observed in these HIGH-BRED families. Numberless are the examples of this kind which might be quoted, but to account for this, one says, The blood is wore out for want of a proper cross; another tells us, That after having been long in this climate, the blood degenerates; but these reasons cannot be true, because we see the off-spring of all crosses, and of the most antient** families, occasionally triumphant over the sons of the very latest comers, the error then will not be found in the blood, or in the proper crossing; but the defect will be produced by the erroneous judgment of mankind, in putting together the male and female with improper shapes; and while we are lost and blinded by an imaginary good, the laws of nature stand revealed; and we by paying a proper attention thereto, and employing our judgment therein, might wipe this ignis fatuus from the mind, and fix the truth on a sure foundation. Our observation shews us, that on the one hand, we may breed Horses of foreign extraction too delicate, and too slight for any labour; and on the other hand, so coarse and clumsy, as to be fitter for the cart than the race. Shall we then wonder these cannot race, or shall we doubt that degrees of imperfection in the mechanism, will produce degrees of imperfection in racing! and when we find such deficient, shall we ridiculously impute it to a degeneracy of that blood, which once was in the highest esteem, or to the want of judgment in him who did not properly adapt the shapes of their progenitors! Shall we confess this, or is the fault in nature? For though most philosophers agree, that innate principles do not exist, yet we know for certain, that in the brute creation, whose food is plain and simple, (unlike luxurious man) the laws of nature are, generally speaking, invariable and determined. If it should be asked why the sons of the Godolphin Arabian were superior to most Horses of their time; I answer, because he had a great power and symmetry of parts, (head excepted) and a propriety of length greatly superior to all other Horses of the same diameter, that have been lately seen in this kingdom; which I do not assert on my own judgment, but on the opinion of those who, I believe, understand Horses much better than I pretend to do: and 'tis very probable, this Horse, if he had not been confined to particular Mares, might have begot better racers than any he did. On the contrary, I have heard it urged in behalf of his blood, that he was a very mean Horse in figure, and that he was kept as a teizer** some years before he covered. What does this prove? I think nothing more, than that his first owner did not rightly understand this kind of Horse, and that different men differed in their opinions of this Horse's fabric. If any man who doubts this excellence to be in the blood, should ask how it came to pass that we often see two full brothers, one of which is a good racer, the other indifferent, or perhaps bad, I know of but two answers that can be given; we must either allow this excellence of the blood to be partial, or else we must say, that by putting together a Horse and a Mare, different in their shapes, a foetus may be produced of a happy form at one time, and at another the foetus partaking more or less of the shape of either, may not be so happily formed. Which shall we do? shall we impute this difference of goodness in the two brothers, to the difference of their mechanism? or shall we say this perfection of the blood is partial? If the latter, then we must own that blood is not to be relied on, but that the system of it, and whatever is built on that foundation, is precarious and uncertain, and therefore falls to the ground of its own accord. Whilst this continues to be the rule of breeding, I mean of putting male and female together, with no consideration but that of blood and a proper cross, it is no wonder so few good racers are produced, no wonder mankind are disappointed in their pleasures and expectations; for this prejudice does not only extend to blood, but even to the very names of the breeders, and the country where the Horses are bred, though it is beyond all doubt, that the North claims the preference of all other places in this kingdom; but that preference is allowed only from the multiplicity of Mares and Stallions in those parts, and from the number of racers there bred. I would not be thought in this to prefer my own opinion of shape and make to the known goodness of any Stallion, but would prefer the latter before the opinion of all mankind. What then? It is not every Horse that has been a good racer will get good colts; some have suffered too much in their constitution by hard and continual labour, whilst others have some natural infirmity that may probably be entailed on their generation. But the most material thing in breeding all animals, and to which we pay the least regard, either in the race of men or Horses, is the choice of the female, who not only joins in the production of the foetus, but in the formation of it also. And that the female has even the greatest share in the production of the foetus, will be proved by this instance: if you take a dunghill cock and put to a game hen, and also put a brother of that game hen to a sister of the dunghill cock, those chickens bred from the game hen will be found much superior to those chickens bred from the dunghill hen. And here I beg leave to be allowed (without the imputation of pedantry) one quotation from Virgil, who is supposed to have well understood the laws of nature. In his description of the choice of animals for procreation, in the third chapter of his Georgic's, and the 49th verse, you will find it thus written: "Seu quis Olympiacea mieratus praemia palme, "Pascit Equos, feu quis fortes ad aratra Juvencos, "Corpora praecipue matrum legat." But I should not escape the censure of the critics on this occasion, I expect the thanks of all the handsome well-made women in the kingdom, for this hint, who understand Latin; and where they do not, I hope their paramours will instill the meaning of it, as deeply as they can into them. But to return to the breeding of Horses. We pay little regard to the mechanism of the female, or of the Horse to which we put her, but generally choose some particular Horse for the sake of the cross, or because he is called an Arabian; whereas, in fact, every Stallion will not be suited to every Mare, but he who has a fine female, and judgment enough to adapt her shapes with propriety to a fine male, will always breed the best racer, let the sort of blood be what it will, always supposing it to be totally foreign. The truth of this will be confirmed by our observation, which shews us, that Horses do race, and do not race, of all families and all crosses. We find also, that affinity of blood in the brute creation, if not continued too long in the same channel, is no impediment to the perfection of the animal, for experience teaches us, it will hold good many years in the breed of game cocks. Besides, we know that Childers, which was perhaps the best racer ever bred in this kingdom, had in his veins a consanguinity of blood; his pedigree informing us, that his great grandam was got by Spanker, the dam of which Mare was also the dam of the said Spanker. If we inquire a little farther into the different species of the creation, we shall find this principle concerning perfection of shape still more verified. Amongst game cocks we shall find, that wheresoever power and propriety of shape prevails most, that side (condition alike) will generally prevail. We shall find also, that one cock perfectly made, will beat two or three of his own brothers imperfectly made. If any man should boast of the blood of his cocks, and say that the uncommon virtue of this animal, which we call game, is innate, I answer no, for that all principles, and all ideas arise from sensation and reflection, and are therefore acquired. We perceive this spirit of fighting in game chicken, which they exert occasionally from their infancy; even so it is amongst dunghill chickens, though not carried to that degree of perseverance. When arrived at maturity, we see these different birds will still continue to fight if they meet; if I should be asked why the perseverance of fighting in one does not continue to death, as in the other, I answer, that from a different texture of the organs of the body, different sensations will arise, and consequently different effects be produced; and this will be proved by instances from the best of those very cocks which are called game, who (it is well know) when they suffer a variation in their texture, or as cockers term it, become rotten, run away themselves, and their descendants also; which sensation of fear could not be produced by any alteration in the body, if this principle of game was innate. Amongst men, do we not perceive agility and strength stand forth confessed in the fabric of their bodies? do not even the passions and pleasures of mankind greatly depend on the organs of their bodies? Amongst dogs, we shall find the foxhound prevailing over all others in speed and in bottom; but if not in speed, in bottom at least I hope it will be allowed. To what shall we impute this perfection in him? Shall we impute it to his blood, or to that elegance of form in which is found no unnecessary weight to oppress the muscles, or detract from his ability of perseverance? if to blood, from whence shall we deduce it? or from what origin is it derived? Surely no man means more, when he talks of the blood of foxhounds, than to intimate that they are descended from such, whose ancestors have been eminent for their good qualifications, and have shone conspicuous in the front of the pack for many generations. But allowing this system of blood to exist in hounds and Horses, let us consider how inconsistently and differently we act with respect to each; with respect to hounds, if when arrived at maturity, we think them ill shaped and loosely made, we at once dispose of them without any trial, well knowing they will not answer our expectations: whereas, in Horses, let the shape be what it will, we are persuaded to train, because the jockey says thay are very HIGH-BRED. If we now compare the blood of Horses with that of dogs, shall not we find the case to be similar? will not the origin be as uncertain in Horses as in dogs? it is true, in some foreign countries they have long pedigrees of their Horses as well as we, but what proofs have they themselves of this excellence of the blood in one Horse more than another of the same country? I never heard they made any trial of their Horses in the racing way, but if they did, their decision would be as uncertain as ours with respect to the blood, because their decision must be determined by events alone, and therefore, by no means a proper foundation whereon to build a system, or establish a fact, which can be accounted for by causes. The jockeys have an expression which, if this system be true, is the most senseless imaginable: I have heard it often said, Such a Horse has speed enough if his heart do but lie in the right place. In answer to this, let us consider a Horse as a piece of animated machinery (for it is in reality no other); let us set this piece of machinery going, and strain the works of it; if the works are are** not analogous to each other, will not the weakest give way? and when that happens, will not the whole be out of tune? But if we suppose a piece of machinery, whose works bear a true proportion and analogy to each other, these will bear a greater stress, will act with greater force, more regularity and continuance of time. If it be objected, that foreign Horses seldom race themselves, and therefore it must be in the blood, I think nothing more easily answered; for we seldom see any of these Horses sent us from abroad, especially from Arabia, but what are more or less disproportioned, crooked, and deformed in some part or other; and when we see this deformity of shape, can we any longer wonder at their inability of racing: add to this, many of them are perhaps full-aged before they arrive in this kingdom; whereas, it is generally understood, that a proper training from his youth is necessary to form a good racer. But be this as it will, let us consider how it happens, that these awkward, cross-shaped, disproportioned Horses, seemingly contrary to the laws of nature, beget Horses of much finer shapes than themselves, as we daily see produced in this Kingdom. And here I acknowledge myself to have been long at a loss how to account for this seeming difficulty. I have been often conversant with travelers, concerning the nature and breed of these Horses; few of whom could give any account of the matter, from having had no taste therein, or any delight in that animal: but, at length, I became acquainted with a gentleman of undoubted veracity; whose word may be relied on, whose taste and judgment in Horses inferior to no man's. He says, that having spent a considerable part of his life at Scanderoon and Alleppo**, he frequently made excursions amongst the Arabs; excited by curiosity, as well as to gratify his pleasures. (The Arabs, here meant, are subjects of the grand seignior**, and receive a stipend from that court, to keep the wild Arabs in awe, who are a fierce banditti**, and live by plunder.) He says also, that these stipendiary Arabs are a very worthy set of people, exactly resembling another worthy set of people we have in England called Lawyers; for that they receive fees from both parties; and when they can do it with impunity, occasionally rob themselves. These Arabs encamp on the deserts together in large numbers, and with them moves all their houshold**; that these people keep numbers of greyhound, for the sake of coursing the game and procuring their subsistance: and that he has often been with parties for the sake of coursing amongst those people, and continued with them occasionally for a considerable space of time. That by them you are furnished with dogs and horses; for the use of which you give them a reward. He says they live all together; men, horses, dogs, colts, women, and children. That these colts, having no green herbage to feed upon when taken from the mare, are brought up by hand, and live as the children do; and that the older Horses have no other food, than straw and choped** barley, which these Arabs procure from the villages most adjacent to their encampments. The colts, he says, run about with their dams on all expeditions, till weaned; for that it is the custom of the Arabs to ride their mares, as thinking them the fleetest, and not their horses; from whence we may infer, that the mare colts are best fed and taken care of. That if you ask one of these banditti to sell his mare, his answer is, that on her speed depends his own head. He says also, the stone colts are so little regarded, that it is difficult to find a Horse of any tolerable size and shape amongst them. If this then is the case, shall we be any longer at a loss to account for the deformity of an animal, who, from his infancy, is neglected, starved, and dried up, for want of juices? or shall we wonder that his offspring, produced in a land of plenty, of whom the greatest care is taken, who is defended from the extremity of heat and cold, whose food is never limited, and whose vessels are filled with the juices of the sweetest herbage, shall we wonder, I say, that his offspring, so brought up, should acquire a more perfect shape and size than his progenitor? or if the Sire is not able to race, shall we wonder that the Son, whose shape is more perfect, should excel his Sire in all performances? But there is another reason why many of the very finest of these foreign Horses cannot race: our observations of them will shew us, that though their shoulders in general exceedingly incline backwards, yet their fore-legs stand very much under them; but in different Horses this position is more or less observable. This, (when I considered the laws of nature) appeared to me the greatest imperfection a Stallion could possibly have: but when this gentleman informed me it was the custom of the Turks always to keep each fore-leg of the Horse chained to the hinder one, of each side, when not in action, I no longer considered it as a natural, but an acquired imperfection. Shall we now wonder that such an one, though ever so well made in other respects, cannot race in spite of all his blood? But the custom of the Arabs in this respect, he says, his memory does not extend to. I well remember this to be the case of the Godolphin Arabian when I saw him, who stood bent at knees, and with his fore-legs trembling under him: such is the case of Mosco's grey Horse in some degree. In our country we frequently see Horses stand pawing their litter under them with their fore-feet; our custom to prevent it is to put hobbles on their fore-legs, and this will produce the same position in a greater or less degree, though not so conspicuous as in some of those foreign Horses, who have been habituated from their youth to this confined method of standing. His royal highness the duke of Cumberland has a very remarkable instance of this, in a Horse called Muley Ishmael, which is otherwise, the most elegant Horse I ever yet beheld. Whether this position is natural or acquired, will be best determined by his produce. Suppose now this Horse should be tried, and found no racer, shall he be condemned as a Stallion, and the fault imputed to his blood; or on the other hand, if his colts are strait** upon their legs, and found to be good racers, shall the perfection of such colt be imputed to the blood of the father, when we can account for speed in the one, and the want of it in the other, from the different attitude of each Horse? We are further acquainted, that the Horses we call Turks, are in reality Arabs; that the true Turkish Horse, is a large, heavy, majestic animal, of no speed, designed to ride on for state and grandeur; that it is the custom of the bashaws in Arabia occasionally to choose, from their provinces, such colts as they like, and send them to the grand seignior's stables which they do at their own price, and which the Arabs, who breed them, look upon as a very great hardship. These colts are again picked and culled, after having been some time in the grand seignior's stables, and the refuse disposed of at his pleasure, so that the fine Horses found in the possession of the Turks, are either some of these which are cast from the grand seignior's stables, or which the Turks buy from the Arabs whilst they are young. And he farther acquaints us with the reason why the Turks choose these Arabian Horses when young, because, if continued long in the hands of the Arabs, they are small, stunted, and deformed in shape; whereas, when brought into Turkey, a land of greater plenty than the deserts of Arabia, they acquire a greater perfection both of size and shape. Now, whether these Turks and Arabs are of the same or different extraction, may perhaps be very little to our purpose; but it is absurd to suppose that providence has bestowed a virtue on a part only of this species produced in any one country, (which species was undoubtedly designed for the use of man) and that mankind should not be able, in any age, to determine with precision this virtue, or fix any criterion, whereby to judge with any certainty. Seeing then, this is the case, how shall we account for the various perfection and imperfection in the breed of these foreign Horses; for we perceive it not determined to those of Turkey, Barbary, or Arabia, but from each of these countries some good, some bad Stallions are sent us? What shall we do? Shall we continue to impute it to the good old phrase of blood, the particular virtue of which, no man ever yet could ascertain, in any one particular instance, since Horses were first created? or shall we say that nature has given these foreign Horses a finer texture, a finer attitude, and more power than any other Horses we know of; and that these very Horses, and their descendants always did, and always will surpass each other in speed and bottom, according to their different degrees of power, shape, elegance, and proportion? But there is also a certain length determined to some particular parts of this animal, absolutely necessary to velocity, of the particularity and propriety of which length, all jockeys appear to be intirely** ignorant, from the latitude of their expression, which is that a racer must have length somewhere. If I might now be allowed to give my opinion of this propriety of length, I should say it consisted in the depth and declivity of the shoulders, and in the length of the quarters and thighs, and the insertion of the muscles thereof. The effect of the different position or attitude of the shoulders in all Horses, is very demonstrable: if we consider the motion of a shoulder, we shall find it limited to a certain degree by the ligamentous and the tendinous parts, which confine it to its proper sphere of acting; so that if the shoulder stand upright, the Horse will not be able to put his toes far before him, but will acquire only such a particular degree of space at each step or movement; but if the shoulders have a declivity in them, he cannot only put his toes farther before him, but a greater purchase of ground will be obtained at every stroke. The certainty of this effect in the declivity of the shoulders will be known by every man's observation; and it is also easily demonstrated by the principles of mechanics, by which we learn, that if a weight is applied to a pulley, in order to shut a door, and that weight be allowed to fall immediately and perpendicularly from the door, it will not pull it too with that velocity as it will do if an angle be acquired, and the weight pass over a wheel removed to a very little distance from the door. Nevertheless, there is no general rule without exception, for we now and then find a Horse to be a good racer, who has not this declivity in his shoulders, but from a length in his thighs and quarters has a sufficient share of speed. Add to this, there is another advantage obtained to the Horse besides velocity by this declivity of the shoulders, for his weight is removed farther back, and placed more in the center of his body, by which an equilibrium is acquired, and every muscle bears a more equal share of weight and action; so that the nearer the articulation of the quarters approach to the superior part of the shoulders, so much the shorter will the back be, and as much more expanded as the chest is, so much stronger will the animal be, and will also have a larger space for the organs of respiration to exert themselves. But I would not be understood to mean, that the shortness of the back, or capacity of the chest, will constitute a racer; far from it: but that in any given and proportioned length, from the bosom of the Horse to the setting on of the dock, the nearer the superior points of the shoulders approach to the quarters, so much better able will the carcase be to sustain and bring through the weight; and as much as the shoulders themselves prevail in depth, and the quarters and thighs in length, so much greater will be the velocity of the Horse, because a greater purchase of ground is hereby obtained at every stroke. It is by this property of length, strength of carcase, and the power of the muscles, that foreign Horse excel all others, and it is by the same advantages they excel each other also, and not by any innate virtue, or principle of the mind, which must be understood by the word blood, if any thing at all is intended to be understood by it; and this is a truth every man would be convinced of, if he would divest himself of partiality to particular blood, and confide in his own observation of Horses and their performances. Sedbury was an instance of this great power, in whom we find all the muscles rising very luxuriant, and with a remarkable prominence. The famous Childers was a like instance of it. These two Horses were remarkably good, but we have been absurd enough to condemn the blood of both at various times; in one, because he had bad feet, and entailed that defect on the generality of his offspring; in the other, because most people who bred from that lineage, were running mad after a proper cross, when they should have been employed in thinking only of propriety of shape. I am very far from desiring to be thought a superior judge of this animal, but I will be bold to say, that according to these principles of length and power, there never was a Horse (at least that I have seen) so well entitled to get racers as the Godolphin Arabian; for whoever has seen this Horse, must remember that his shoulders were deeper, and lay farther into his back, than any Horse's ever yet seen; behind the shoulders, there was but a very small space; before, the muscles of his loins rose excessively high, broad, and expanded, which were inserted into his quarters with greater strength and power than in any Horse I believe ever yet seen of his dimensions. If we now consider the plainness of his head and ears, the position of his fore-legs, and his stinted growth, occasioned by the want of food in the country where he was bred, it is not to be wondered at, that the excellence of this Horse's shape, which we see only in miniature, and therefore imperfectly, was not so manifest and apparent to the perception of some men as of others. It has been said, that the sons of the Godolphin Arabian had better wind than other Horses, and that this perfection of the wind was in the blood. But when we consider any Horse thus mechanically made, whose leavers acquire more purchase, and whose powers are stronger than his adversaries, such a Horse will be enabled by this superiority of mechanism, to act with greater facility, and therefore it is no wonder that the organs of respiration (if not confined or straitened more than his adversaries) should be less fatigued. Suppose now, we take ten mares of the same, or different blood, all which is held equally good, when the Mares are covered, and have been esteemed so long before, and put to this Godolphin Arabian, let us suppose some of the colts to be good racers, and others very inferior to them; shall we condemn the blood of these mares which produced the inferior Horses? If so, we shall never know what good blood is, or where it is to be found, or ever act with any certainty in the propagation of this species, and it is this ridiculous opinion alone of blood, that deceives mankind so much in the breed of racers. If we ask the jockey the cause of this difference in the performance of these brothers, he (willing to account some how for it) readily answers, that the blood did not nick; but will a wise and reasoning man, who seriously endeavours to account for this difference, be content with such a vague, unmeaning answer, when, by applying his attention to matters of fact, and his observation to the different mechanism of these brothers, the difference of their performance is not only rationally, but demonstratively accounted for? But if this excellence of the racer should really be in the blood, or what is called the proper nicking of it, I must say, it is a matter of great wonder to me, that the blood of the Godolphin Arabian, who was a confined Stallion, and had but few Mares, should nick so well as to produce so many excellent racers; and that the blood of his son Cade, who has had such a number of Mares, and those, perhaps, the very best in the kingdom, should not nick any better than it seems to have done; for I do not conceive the performances of the sons of Cade to have been equal in any respect to the sons of the Godolphin Arabian; though I do not pretend to determine this myself, but shall leave it to the opinion of mankind. The question then is, whether this excellence of Horses is in the blood or the mechanism; whoever is for blood, let him take two brothers of any sort or kind, and breed one up in plenty, the other upon a barren heath; I fancy he will find, that a different mechanism of the body will be acquired to the two brothers by the difference of their living, and that the blood of him brought up on the barren heath, will not be able to contend with the mechanism of the other, brought up in a land of plenty. Now if this difference of shape will make a difference in the performance of the animal, it will be just the same thing in its consequences, whether this imperfection of shape be produced by scarcity of foot, or entailed by the laws of nature; if so, does it signify whether the colt be got by Turk, Barb, or what kind of blood his dam be of? or where shall we find one certain proof of the efficacy of blood in any Horse produced in any age or any country, independent of the laws of mechanics. If it should be urged, that these foreign Horses get better colts than their descendants, that therefore the blood of foreign ones is best, I answer, no; for that according to the number of foreign Stallions we have had in this kingdom, there have been more reputed and really bad than good ones, which would not happen in the case of Horses, who come from the same country, and are of the same extraction, if this goodness was in the blood only. But the true reason why foreign Horses get better colts than their descendants, if they do get better, is that (mechanism alike) their descendants from which we breed, are generally such Horses as have been thoroughly tried, consequently much strained, and gone through strong labour and fatigue; whereas the foreign Horse has perhaps seldom or never known what labour was; for we find the Turk a sober grave person, always riding a foot pace, except on emergencies, and the Arab preferring his Mare to his Horse for use and service. As a proof of this truth, let us take two sister hound bitches, and ward them both with the same dog; let us suppose one bitch to have run in the pack, and the other by some accident not to have worked at all, it will be found that the offspring of her who has never worked, will be much superior to the offspring of her who has run in the pack. All I have now to ask of my brother jockeys is, that for the future, when speaking of these Horses, they will, instead of the phrase HIGH-BRED, say only well-bred, and that they will not even then be understood to mean any thing more by it, than that they are descended from a race of Horses, whose actions have established their goodness: and that I may have leave to prefer my opinion of the mechanical powers of a Horse, to all their opinions concerning blood, which is in reality no more than a vain chimera. If these things are so, have not we and our fore-fathers been hoodwinked all our days by the prevalence of a ridiculous custom, and the mistaken system, when by consulting our own reason and understanding, this mist of error had fled before it? If this mechanical power was considered as it ought to be, it would excite a proper emulation amongst all breeders: and when the excellence in the breed of Horses was found to be the effect of judgment, and not of chance, there would be more merit as well as more pleasure in having bred a superior Horse. Add to this, mankind by applying their attention to this mechanism of animals, would improve their judgment in the laws of nature, and it would not only produce a much better breed of racers than any we have yet seen, but the good of it would extend to all sorts of Horses throughout the kingdom of what kind soever. It is a cruel thing to say, but yet a very true one, that amongst the present breed of Horses in this nation, a man of any tolerable judgment can hardly find one in fifty fit for his purpose, whether designed to draw or ride; whereas if the purchasers would endeavour to make themselves masters of this mechanism, the breeders of every kind of Horses must consult it also, or keep their useless ones in their own hands, which I conceive would be a proper punishment for their ignorance. And now the author appeals not to the illiterate and unlearned (whose obstinacy is too great to receive instruction, and whose prejudices are too strong to be obliterated by any reasons) but to the candid and impartial inquiry of reasoning and unprejudiced men into these principles, and hopes this may be a means of exciting some more able pen, to vindicate a truth so many ages buried in darkness. If aught conducive to the pleasure or use of mankind shall accrue from these hints, he will think himself happy; on the other hand, if the principles here advanced should prove erroneous, and any man be kind enough to point out the fallacy of them, he will kiss the rod with chearfulness** and submission. FINIS. 
50420	----	HISTORY OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY IN ILLINOIS BY FRANK WEBSTER FARLEY THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE IN THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1915 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS May 22, 1915 THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY _Frank Webster Farley_ ENTITLED _History of the Beef Cattle Industry in Illinois_ ______________________________________________________________ IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF _Bachelor of Science in Agriculture_ ____________________________________________________ _~Henry P Rusk~_ Instructor in Charge APPROVED: _May 27, 1915_ ~Herbert W. Mumford~ HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Animal Husbandry INDEX I. Introduction Topography of the Land People Cattle and cattle feeding II. Cattle Feeding Industry The first silo in Illinois The Chicago market III. Cattle Barons and Pioneer Drovers John T. Alexander Jacob Strawn Benjamin Franklin Harris Tom Candy Ponting IV. The Range Industry Texas cattle V. The Pure Bred Industry T. L. Miller Thomas Clark VI. Cattle Plagues VII. The Feed Industry of the United States. HISTORY OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY IN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS I. INTRODUCTION _Topography of the Land_ "As a whole, the surface of the State of Illinois is nearly level. The prairie regions which cover a large part of the state are only slightly rolling, except in those places where streams have worn valleys. These are shallow in the eastern and the northern parts of the state, deepening gradually as the great rivers are approached. Nearly all the waters of Illinois find their way to the Mississippi river. Along this river, as also along the larger streams of the state, the lands are cut into abrupt bluffs or sharp spurs which, nearing the sources of the streams, gradually become softened into rounded hillocks, sinking at last into the low banks. Through such waterways as these form, flow streams usually gentle in current, often sluggish, and sometimes becoming even stagnant. Over a large part of the state, ponds and "sloughs", or marshes, formerly abounded. In these the water was renewed only by the rains that fell occasionally. Under hot suns these ponds, having neither inlet nor outlet, quickly became foul, particularly where stock resorted to them to drink and cool themselves, as they did almost universally throughout the state a few years ago, and do even now in some parts. "For years such ponds furnished the principal, almost the only, water supply for stock in large areas of this state. The constant use of such impure water greatly injured the quality of the milk and butter of cows, and doubtless had a baneful effect upon the health of the animals that drank the foul water and those who used the milk and butter. "With the drainage of the land and the introduction of a pure supply of water, came the disappearance of certain diseases of cattle and of human beings, particularly the so-called milk sickness and kindred maladies, and a marked improvement in the flavor and keeping qualities of milk and butter. Although the change thus far has been great, there are yet districts in which there has been little improvement in the conditions of the land, of the water supply, or of the people. Stock are still compelled to depend, for their water supply, upon streams and pools that almost invariably become stagnant in the warm and dry days of the latter part of summer each year."[1] Inquiries addressed to hundreds of intelligent and careful observers, nearly all of whom were practical stockmen, elicited information showing the following: Number of District Chief Source of Water Counties Supply 8 Northwest or Postal Streams and wells; District springs furnish a considerable part of it; few ponds used; three instances of tile drains. Central Northern Wells chief source; Counties springs, streams, and tiles used to a considerable extent. Northeast Counties Streams, wells, and springs used about equally. Eastern Counties Wells chiefly; streams next; ponds and tile drains follow in the order named; nine instances of springs. Central Counties Forty-nine districts report wells; forty report streams; thirty-five tile drains; twenty-five ponds; twenty-four springs. Western Counties Wells and tile drains equal; springs next; ponds in a few instances. 4 Southern Counties Ponds and streams equal; six report wells; five report springs; four tile drains. 21 Central S. Counties Ponds chiefly; streams next; wells next; springs and tiles in the order named. Southeast and Southwest Counties A like condition: ponds, streams, and springs. "From all parts of the state, correspondents wrote that the ponds and streams become stagnant in the warm months of summer, a few making exception of those years in which rainfall has been heavy during the summer months. Stagnant water is found more generally in the southern than in the northern part of Illinois; chiefly, perhaps, because the cultivation and drainage of the land has not become almost universal as it has in the northern districts." In several counties artesian wells afford a most copious supply of water of good quality. In Iroquois and other eastern counties, such wells have been bored to a depth of from 150 to 200 feet and obtained an unfailing flow of water impregnated with minerals. Stock show a strong liking for such water after becoming accustomed to its use, and it is the belief of those who have had opportunity for observing the effects of its continued use, that this mineral water serves to keep the animals free from disorders which formerly prevailed in that region. This seems to be especially apparent in regard to malarial disorders. _People_ About 1820, the State of Illinois was being rapidly settled by people from the eastern states. Prior to this time, very few white settlements had been made in the state. These early pioneers, drawn from the population of the eastern states, were composed of almost all nationalities. They pushed their way across the mountains of Pennsylvania and Virginia in crude wagons, drawn by oxen, bringing with them their household goods and a few milk cows. They came into Illinois, built new homes, and laid out new fields on the broad, unsettled prairies.[2] [Illustration] [Illustration] Beginning with the year of 1800, when there were only a few people in the state, the population has increased very rapidly, as is shown by the following statistics, taken from the United States Census Report (special supplement for the State of Illinois): Year Population 1790 1800 5,641 1810 24,520 1820 147,178 1830 343,031 1840 685,866 1850 851,470 1860 1,711,951 1870 2,539,891 1880 3,077,871 1890 3,826,352 1900 4,821,550 1910 5,638,591 _Cattle and Cattle Feeding_[3] When Illinois was first settled, almost the whole of the middle and the northern parts of the state were covered with a rank growth of native grasses, which furnished an ample supply and variety of forage of fair quality. "In the southern districts were heavy forests, but in the central and northern sections were but few groves or other timber growths to afford shelter to stock." The prairie grasses that grew in the central and northern districts were usually devastated by fire during the fall. However, the general fencing and cultivation of the land put a stop to the burning of these dead grasses of the prairies, and soon groves of oaks sprang up and covered many uncultivated spots. The leaves which stayed on these trees throughout the winter until spring, furnished valuable shelter to stock from the raw winter winds. At the beginning of the settlement of Illinois, very little attention was given to the cattle interest. The pioneer settlers, however, had brought a few milk cows with them from the eastern states, but these cows were kept for milk only, no thought being given to beef production. After a few years, a few pure bred cattle were brought in, at which time some attention was given to beef, as well as to milk production, not for the beef produced, however, but principally to give a ready market for their grain crops. The practice of raising beef cattle to market grain continued from then until near the end of the nineteenth century, when cattle feeding was no longer profitable as a grain market, and the question was: "How much beef can be produced from a bushel of corn?"[4] "Despite the seemingly adverse character of the climate, Illinois has been, for some time, little, if any, behind other leading states of the Union in stock growing. In 1850, this state stood sixth in milk cows, and seventh in work oxen and other cattle. In 1860, it was tenth in work oxen, fifth in milk cows, and second in other cattle. In 1870, it was twenty-sixth in work oxen, fourth in milk cows, and second in the supply of other cattle. In 1880, it stood thirty-sixth in work oxen, second in milk cows, and third in other cattle. Iowa then had 240,280 and Texas had 1,812,860 more cattle than Illinois. "The average value of milk cows in Illinois in 1884 was $35, and of oxen and other cattle, it was $28.04, while the average value of milk cows in Iowa was only $31.75, and of other cattle $26.00. The blood of the Shorthorns was used more largely than that of any other breed in the improvement of the cattle of the state. The first, and for some years, the only representatives of pure races of cattle in this state were Shorthorns, and to this date they exceed all other breeds in number." The growth of the cattle interest in the State of Illinois, from 1850 to 1884, inclusive, is shown by the following statistics, taken from the United States Census Reports. The first figures of close accuracy on the number of cattle in the state were those gotten in 1850. ----+--------------+-------------+----------------+----------------- | Milch Cows | Work Oxen | Other Cattle | Total Year|-------+------+------+------+---------+------+---------+------- | No. |Inc. %| No. |Inc. %| No. |Inc. %| No. | Inc. % ----+-------+------+------+------+---------+------+---------+------- 1850|294,671| |76,156| | 541,209| | 912,036| | | | | | | | | 1860|522,634| 77.3 |90,380| 18.6 | 970,799| 79.4|1,583,813| 73.6 | | | | | | | | 1870|640,321| 22.5 |19,766|-78.1 |1,055,499| 8.7|1,715,586| 8.3 | | | | | | | | 1880|865,913| 35.2 | 3,346|-83.0 |1,515,063| 43.5|2,384,322| 38.9 | | | | | | | | 1883|716,102|-17.3 | | |1,253,765| -17.2|1,969,867| -17.4 | | | | | | | | 1884|919,404| 17.7 | | |1,471,191| 17.3|2,390,595| 21.3 ----+-------+------+------+------+---------+------+---------+------- FOOTNOTES: [1] Report of the Bureau of Animal Industry, 1885, p. 362. [2] United States Census Report and interviews with old settlers. [3] Report of Bureau of Animal Industry, 1885, p. 365. [4] Bureau of Animal Industry, 1885, p. 365-66 II. CATTLE FEEDING INDUSTRY[5] "When the farms of Illinois were first put into cultivation, the attention of the farmers was almost entirely devoted to grain raising. Wheat was cash and was the only product of the farm that could be sold for ready money. The virgin soils of the state gave to the pioneer large crop yields, but constant cropping soon began to tell on the soil and each year the crop yield became lighter. This depletion of the fertility of the soil by continuous cropping, together with a need for a near market for the grain crops, soon gave stimulus to an idea that cattle feeding would help restore the fertility of the soil and, at the same time, market the grain at home." From this time on, the production of beef in this state has been one of the most important phases of agriculture. In the southern part of the state, however, which was settled largely by French, and where the predominating cattle continued to be the mongrel bred stock, little attention was given to cattle feeding. These people turned their cattle out on the luxuriant grass and relied upon the meat and milk produced in that way. "In the evolution or development of beef production that followed in Illinois and other corn-belt states, there has been two distinct stages, and it is now entering upon the third stage. The first stage was that in which cattle were fed to market corn, and also to increase the fertility of the soil, which was being depleted by the continuous cropping. The second stage was that in which the ranges had been broken up and the object was not to raise cattle to market corn but to raise corn to make beef." The third stage, or that upon which the industry is now entering, is that of baby beef making. [Illustration] Seventy or eighty years ago, and for several years afterward, cattle were bred and fed, not primarily for beef production, but to market corn. The farmers of those days were accustomed to say: "I'll make my corn walk to market," or "I'll condense my freight," or "I'll grow packages in which I can condense my corn and put in the hay and pastures as well." Statisticians figured that about six tons of corn could be put into one ton of pork, about ten tons into one ton of beef, and from twenty to twenty-five tons into one ton of butter. There were very few railroads in the state at that time and farmers were forced to haul their corn and wheat thirty and forty miles to reach a station. And while freight rates were extortionately high on corn and wheat in proportion to their cash value, railroads were racing with each other to get the livestock trade. They gave passes, rebates, and quick service, and many other things to get the patronage of the cattle feeders and shippers. The country roads in Illinois were bad, the bridges were few and poor, and the farmers, therefore, soon came to realize that their corn must walk to market if it gave them any profit. "The growing of the so-called packages in which to condense freight, and thereby sell corn to a better advantage, was an easy matter in those days. In the newer sections, away from the main lines of railroads, there was much open prairie land, which was covered with luxuriant grass. Cattle could be herded on this free grass on the prairies at a dollar a head from May to October, and then stalk fields could be had for ten cents an acre. Usually these stalk fields contained from twenty cents to thirty cents worth of corn per acre. The only expensive months for feeding were March and April, when either clover, timothy, or prairie hay had to be fed. The cost in the summer was only about twenty cents a month per head, in the winter about thirty-three cents. The total cost of growing a package was about $6.00." The cattle herders in those days made contracts with the large operators to graze so many cattle at so much per head during the grazing season. The usual price for the entire season was from $1.00 to $1.50 per head. These cattle ranged from three to seven years old by the time they were ready for market and sold for about $25.00 per head. An instance of the cattle herding industry, as it may be termed, is related by Mr. C. W. Yapp, now of Urbana, Illinois, who was one of the early herders in that country near Mahomet: About 1855, at 13 years of age, Mr. Yapp began herding cattle for the then large cattle feeders of that part of the country. In the early spring of 1860, he started from Mahomet with a bunch of 12 cattle, to meet a large drove that was coming up from the southern part of the state. These cattle were native stock which had been collected over the state. The entire bunch numbering around 900, were driven to Drummer's Grove, near Gibson City. There they were branded and herded on the open prairie during the spring and summer. In the fall, they were returned to the lots of the large feeders, where they were fed out during the winter. The feed during the winter consisted mostly of shocked corn. Some of the large cattle feeders bought their packages to be filled with corn, while others grew them. In either case, the primary aim was not to make beef, but to market the corn crop at a much better price than would be obtained if the winter was spent in hauling the corn to market at the nearest town. Naturally, these feeders fed corn with a lavish hand. They fed from twenty to thirty pounds to a steer per day, and if the steer became gorged and mussed over it, it was thrown out to the hogs. They kept corn before their cattle all the time. They argued that if you want solid beef, beef that will weigh like lead, give the cattle nothing but corn and water. They wanted big packages, nothing less than two-year-old steers past would do, and three and four-year-olds were preferable. They wanted steers that would be at least four years old when ready for market and that would weigh from 1500 to 1600 pounds. These steers were desirable because they would hold more corn than the smaller ones. Very little attention was given to the finish of the steers sent to market. They were all driven out together regardless of the degree of finish. It was not until some time in the eighties and nineties that much attention was given to the degree of finish in fat steers when sent to market. After the open prairies became settled up and there was no more free grass at home, the feeders of Illinois and the adjoining states could buy their packages on the ranges on the plains west of the Mississippi river, or at the range cattle markets. Corn was still cheap and so were packages in the shape of stockers and feeders. The reason for this was that the great corn fields of Kansas and Nebraska were being opened up and the great national pastures from Canada to the Texas Panhandle had not yet become spotted and rendered useless by the homesteader. Speculation in semi-arid land had not set in, and the term "dry farming" had not been invented. The great drouths caused the price of corn to fluctuate but the aggregate corn yield kept on increasing with increased acreage and usually the year following a drouth was one of superabundance of corn. Such was the year of 1895 following the drouth of 1894. The proportion of cattle per thousand population steadily increased. Meanwhile our cattle markets became centralized and were always full to overflowing. Everybody wondered where the cattle came from. In the year of 1895, this system reached its climax. The question confronting the farmer at this time was: "Why did he continue growing corn and feeding cattle?" He grew corn because he could do it cheaply and more certainly than anything else. The farmer had begun to realize that the limit of good land watered by the rains of heaven would soon be reached. He would, therefore, hold on to his land and gain back all that he had lost in fertility by growing corn in the increased price of land that was sure to come in the near future. He had been feeding cattle to sell his corn with the idea also that cattle feeding and cattle grazing were good for the land. The limit of good land was not reached, however, nearly so soon as he had expected and when it was reached, land advanced in price more rapidly than even the most optimistic had anticipated. The year of 1895 marks the end of the first stage of beef production in Illinois as well as in the other corn belt states. [Illustration: _The Summer That the Rain Came Not_] In the nineties (1896), cattle feeding in Illinois and the other corn belt states entered upon the second stage of its evolution or development. The purpose of feeding cattle during this stage was not to market corn but to make beef. The great corn crop of 1895 and 1896, following the drouth of 1894, gave very cheap corn. Cattle were cheap also. During the two years 1896-1897, business was on a standstill the whole country over, but the next year, 1898, business started in full blast; cattle began to advance in price, and the demand for feeders increased. As a consequence, the whole country was scoured for them, but it was found that the choicest ones had been sold off in 1894, and the early part of 1895. Cattle feeders, anxious to secure cattle to fill their feed lots, turned to other sources for their supply. They went into Mexico, Oregon, Colorado, and Tennessee, and bought their feeder cattle. When cattle went up in price, corn went up also, then labor began to gradually go up. At that point began the advance in the value of land. The government had no more choice corn land. The two acres necessary to keep a cow during the summer and two more acres, the hay from which would keep her during the winter, doubled in price within the next fifteen years, but it did not increase in actual value as determined by the amount of grass or grain it would produce. It was at that time the people were confronted first with dear land, stockers, feeders, corn, hay, and beef. This all led the cattle feeders and the corn growers to begin studying out a method or system by which they could profitably grow corn to make beef instead of growing beef to market corn. The prices of fat cattle were very tempting, something unheard of ever before, but when it came to buying feeders, the margin was very little greater than it had been in previous years, and besides, corn was higher than it had ever been. The problem then was, how to get the most beef out of a bushel of corn. Experiment stations had been doing work along that line for several years. They pointed out that the younger and smaller the animal is, the less will be the grain required to sustain the life-giving forces, or to run the machine, and a greater proportion will go to the building up of body tissue, hence the greater the profit in feeding young animals. Feeders began to drop out the two and three year old steers and replace them with baby beeves. Many feeders tried it but somehow or other they could not make it work according to the experimental evidence. They found no profit in feeding any kind of cattle. Many feed lots became empty and blue grass and clover pastures were plowed up and put into corn fields. If corn was worth more outside of the steer than it was in the steer, the farmer argued, why feed cattle? The landlord could get more rent from corn land than from grass land devoted to cattle grazing; therefore, he saw no profit in building expensive barns, sheds, and fences for cattle feeding. In the summer of 1907, business was flourishing and packers were in need of money. To meet their needs, they flooded the western banks with commercial paper. They bought so few cattle that the price fell off at least 30 per cent in three months' time. The loss accrued by such a rapid decline in the price of fat cattle was so great that it paid for the commercial paper that had been issued by the packers. Such conditions as these hastened the process of depleting the feed yards and decreasing the number of cattle on the market. "The cattle have left central Illinois and the grain elevator now distinguishes the landscape. The vast blue grass pastures of the ante-bellum period have disappeared, and corn tillage is the principal occupation of the agrarian population. Down in Morgan and Sangamon counties, even recollections of the cattle trade, as it existed in the days of John T. Alexander and Jacob Strawn, are being rapidly affected. A few cattle come in from the west to be fattened on corn, but summer grazing is the exception and the interest of the occupant of the land centers, not in the cattle market quotations, but in the price of corn.[6] "All the evidence seems to point toward the conclusions that another change in the corn belt system of beef production is imminent. "One of two things will happen or Illinois will quit the cattle business. Either some new breeding and rearing center must be developed, or Illinois feeders must return to breeding their own feeder steers. "I believe that Illinois will not quit the cattle business. There is too much at stake besides the mere success or failure of the cattle business alone. First of all, this country needs the beef. The greatest people of the earth have been meat eaters, and I believe that the American people will continue to eat meat and will pay the price necessary to make its production profitable. "Another consideration of vital importance, but too broad a subject for discussion in this connection, is the value of livestock as an aid to the maintenance of soil fertility. Then, too, for the sake of our economic stability, the livestock interest of the country must be preserved and encouraged. Professor Herbert W. Mumford is my authority for the statement that 80 % of the corn grown in the United States is fed to livestock. Picture, if you can, the effect upon corn belt land value and our economic situation generally if the country suddenly lost this market for 80 % of its corn crop. "Regarding the possibility of another breeding center being developed, it may be said that there are other sections that can produce feeders much more cheaply than Illinois. There are large areas of cheap lands in some of the Gulf states with which Illinois could not compete in the production of feeder steers. But these sections are not interested in the production of cattle, and it is doubtful if the south ever produces a surplus of feeder steers. Hence, it seems that the probable solution of the whole question will be brought about by producing our own feeders. "If Illinois does return to the cattle breeding business, it will not be on the old extensive scale that prevailed throughout the state a generation ago. Grass grown on these high priced lands is too expensive to be disposed of with so lavish a hand as it was thirty or forty years ago. "A return to cattle breeding in Illinois will be coincident with a more general adoption of supplement for pasture. The use of smaller proportions of permanent pasture, more extensive use of rotated or leguminous pastures, the passing of the aged steers in our feed lots, and the inauguration of what may be called intensive systems of baby beef production."[7] NUMBER OF BEEF CATTLE IN ILLINOIS BY YEARS FROM 1856 TO 1914. Year Number of Beef Cattle in Illinois 1856 1 169 855 1857 1 351 209 1858 1 422 249 1859 1 336 565 1860 1 425 978 1861 1 428 362 1862 1 603 946 1863 1 684 892 1864 1 370 783 1865 1 568 280 1866 1 435 769 1867 1 486 381 1868 1 520 963 1869 1 584 445 1870 1 578 015 1871 1 611 349 1872 1 684 029 1873 2 015 819 1874 2 042 327 1875 1 985 155 1876 1 857 301 1877 1 750 931 1878 1 775 401 1879 1 862 265 1880 1 998 788 1881 2 045 366 1882 2 012 902 1883 1 959 867 1884 1 997 927 1885 2 166 059 1886 2 337 074 1887 2 480 401 1888 2 465 288 1889 2 398 191 1890 2 095 595 1891 1 853 318 1892 1 615 405 1893 1 812 924 1894 1 798 417 1895 1 782 158 1896 1 626 171 1897 1 753 371 1898 1 802 061 1899 1 886 933 1900 2 009 598 1901 2 372 710 1902 2 409 772 1903 2 325 980 1904 2 535 954 1905 2 301 519 1906 2 203 108 1907 2 065 816 1908 1 892 118 1909 1 691 686 1910 1 512 055 1911 1 473 741 1912 1 258 293 1913 1 170 628 "In reviewing the cattle breeding and the cattle feeding situation in Illinois in 1894, Mr. J. G. Imboden stated that the outlook was not very encouraging. The question was, "Are the men who are feeding the grain and fodder crop of the farm any worse off than those grain farmers who are selling their grain on the market, or even the butcher, the grocer, the boot and shoe dealer, or the drygoods merchant?" They undoubtedly were not at that time. Competition was very close, profits small, and unless a business man was satisfied with a small profit, his competitor did the business. Such were the conditions that faced the cattle breeders and feeders at that time. "From 5 % to 10 % of the feeding value of the crops on Illinois farms were left in the field; straw-stacks stood in the field where the thresher left them; stover stood on the field after the corn was husked, while on these same farms were stock that were shrinking from exposure and lack of feed." The outlook for the feeder was very discouraging, but much more so for the breeder. There were no hopes for success for the breeder until the feeder had two or three years of success in order to make a market for the cattle that were bred. Strong efforts were being made to devise some methods of feeding the farm products more economically and in such a way as would mean more grain and better profits for the feeder. "The cattle feeders of Illinois presumed that the time was nearing when feeder cattle of the best grade for grazing and feeding purposes would be hard to secure. While at that time there were plenty of cattle west of the Mississippi river, in Illinois there was a scarcity of breeding cattle to supply the demand. It was harder to buy a bunch of fifty uniformly good steers, throughout central Illinois especially, than it had been for fifteen years past. This was probably due to the fact that feeders had quit raising their feeding cattle and the breeders had changed from one breed to another in hopes of finding a breed that would give them greater returns. Again, many breeders had become very careless of the merits of the cattle on their farm."[8] _The First Silo in Illinois_ "In 1881, Oatman Brothers, of Dundee, Illinois, built the first silo in the state. At the eighth annual meeting of the Illinois State Dairyman's Association, held at Dundee, Illinois, December 14-16, 1881, Mr. E. J. Oatman read an article on "Silos and Ensilage."" Mr. Oatman stated that some agricultural paper in Chicago had been agitating the building of silos in Illinois and had tried to induce him to build one. The stories that the paper told about the value of ensilage as a feed sounded too good to be true. The idea of cutting up green fodder, packing it away in a hole, and expecting to see it come out in first class condition, in the dead of winter, seemed to be impossible. A great many objections arose to such "cow kraut" as some called it. It would heat, ferment, and rot; therefore it was a very difficult matter to make people see its value as a feed. Mr. Oatman, however, visited the farm of Messrs. Whitman and Burrell at Little Falls, New York, on February 1, 1880, for the purpose of seeing their silo and the condition of their ensilage. He made a thorough investigation and thereupon became convinced that ensilage was a success. He returned home to his farm at Dundee and made preparations to build a silo. His first silo was 49 feet by 43 feet by 20 feet deep, dug out into the ground. It was divided into three parts, all of which were made of concrete. After the silo was finished, Mr. Oatman proceeded to fill it, which required thirteen days with a force of ten men, at a rate of about twenty-three tons per day. After it was filled, stone was placed on top, at the rate of about 150 pounds per square inch. Mr. Oatman met with many discouragements with his new silo; the community at large thought it was a very foolish idea. Some said that if it did keep, the cattle would not eat it, and others still more radical, even hoped that he would lose it all, and said that any man who would try such a thing was crazy. When the time came to open the silo, Mr. Oatman found that the silage was all fresh and nice with the exception of a few inches on top. His cattle took to it readily, and he found that it greatly increased the milk production of his dairy herd.[9] The use of ensilage as a feed for beef and milk production has become so general in Illinois since the first silo was built in 1881 that ensilage is now one of the staple feeds. While there are a few people who still think that the use of ensilage in the production of beef is a fad, practically every one agrees that it is economical in the production of milk. Ensilage is a roughage and not a concentrate, and its profitableness in a fattening ration depends not so much upon its nutritive value as upon its succulence and palatability, the steers' ability to consume large quantities of it, and the fact that it makes possible the utilization of all of the corn plant, a large proportion of which would be wasted. Every year sees a more general adoption of ensilage as a roughage, and with the inauguration of the present intensive system of baby beef production, and where the baby beeves are raised on the farm on which they are to be fed, ensilage is the most economical feed that can be used in maintaining the breeding herd. _The Chicago Market_ "The situation of Chicago in the great agricultural center of the United States brought it into prominence at an early day as the center of the live stock trade. This position it has never lost. However great may be the development of other sections of the country, Chicago can not fail to continue to be the leader in this class of business. Its location as a railroad center and its position as a distributing point is made secure by the steadiness of its growth and the magnitude of its present operations. There is greater competition in this market than in any other. The Chicago market is the purchasing point, not only for the local packers, large and small, the exporters, and the speculators, but also for a great number of smaller packing houses scattered over the country, and for the feeders and breeders of the most fertile and largest agricultural sections of the United States."[10] Prior to the year of 1833, Chicago had no provisions to export, and as late as 1836, an actual scarcity of food there created a panic among the inhabitants. The first shipment of cattle products from Chicago was made in 1841, by Newbury and Dale on the schooner, Napoleon, bound for Detroit, Michigan. This shipment consisted of 287 barrels of salted beef and 14 barrels of tallow. _Statistics of Chicago 1837._ Population: Whites 3989 Colored 160 Males 2579 Females 1570 ------ Total 4149 Buildings: Dwellings 398 Drygoods stores 29 Grocery stores 26 Hardware stores 5 Drug stores 3 Churches 5 There were two weekly papers published in Chicago at this time: The American, a whig paper, and the Democrat. The first market in the way of stock yards in Chicago was located on the north branch of the Chicago river. These yards were used chiefly for swine. In 1836, the first cattle yards were opened on a tract of land near twenty-ninth street and Cottage Grove avenue. A few pens had been erected here to accommodate the cattle trade. The first scales for weighing livestock ever used in that country were used in these yards.[11] In 1855, there were two regular stock yards in Chicago; one, called the Merrick Yard, is now known as the Sherman Yards, and the other was called the Bullshead Yard. A great many eastern people came to Chicago at this time to buy fat cattle to take back east. Most of the cattle they bought were driven over into Indiana to Michigan City, to be shipped on east. John L. Hancock was the only packer in Chicago at this time. Ice was not used, and packing was done during the cool seasons of the year. One element of the success of Chicago as a market was the fact that stock might be pastured without charge on the prairies near the city, while the owners awaited favorable market conditions in the eastern states. The cattle were herded on the open prairies just outside of the city, and the buyers of Chicago rode out each day and bought the cattle in such numbers as they needed. In 1865, the growth of the livestock traffic had increased so rapidly that the several railroad companies that centered in Chicago, together with the managers of the stock yards already existing, combined for the erection of the Union Stock Yards. These were opened for business on Christmas day, 1865.[12] "The meat industry of Chicago, from the purchase of the livestock to the shipment of the meat, in either the fresh or the cured condition, is carried on at the Union Stock Yards, which are located near the outskirts of the city. The yards cover exactly a square mile of ground. One-half of this area is covered with cattle pens, and the other half by huge establishments of the packing houses. The pens are surrounded by strong stockades, about shoulder high, and they are laid out in blocks with streets and alleys, in much the same fashion as an ordinary American town. The whole of this area, a half mile in width, and a mile in length, is paved with red brick; and here we see the first notable evidence of the effort to maintain the stock yards in a sanitary condition. "The brick paving makes it possible to thoroughly clean both pens and streets, and this is done at regular and frequent intervals."[13] "Whatever may have been the conditions in the past, it is a fact that today the greatest care is exercised in the shipment and handling of the stock from the time they leave the farms until they reach the packing houses. The price that the animals will bring in the pens depends upon the conditions they present under the eye of the buyer, who represents the packing houses, and it is to the interest of the farmers, the cattlemen, and the commission men, to whom the cattle are consigned at the yards, that they shall receive the best food and the most careful attention up to the very hour at which the sale is made. They are shipped in special stock cars, in which they are carried as expeditiously as possible to the stock yards, where they are unloaded and driven to the pens. Here they are at once fed and watered, each pen containing a feeding trough and a water trough, into which a stream of fresh water is kept running. "The cattlemen consign their stock to the various commission houses, and for receiving and selling the stock, there is a charge of, respectively, twenty-five cents and fifty cents a head. The purchase of the cattle is made by buyers, of whom each of the packing houses maintain a regular staff." "About 1845, a bold editor left Buffalo, New York, then the greatest lake part of the country, and bravely ventured as far into the rowdy west as Chicago. Possibly the people here received him with generous hospitality; perhaps they treated him with something even more warming to the inner man; or it may be that as they filled him with solid chuck and, perhaps, with less solid refreshments, they took occasion to remark, with that modest and restrained hopefulness for which Chicago people have justly received credit, that Chicago was destined to become a town of some importance. Be that as it may, when that editor luckily found himself once more safe within his sanctum, he gave vent to his joy and overflowing gratitude by writing wild, enthusiastic predictions concerning the future of the town, which was then aspiring to rise above the rushes and wild rice of the Chicago river. "Reckless of the opinion of the readers of his paper, perhaps trusting to their ignorance of the conditions of the out of the way place, this bold editor predicted that the day would come when Chicago would have an elevator capacious enough to hold 25,000 bushels of grain, and that in a single winter season, 10,000 cattle, and as many hogs, would be slaughtered and packed there. "Beef packing was the leading industry of Chicago at that time, but no trustworthy statistics relating to the cattle traffic previous to 1851 have been preserved, and from 1851 until 1856 no account of the receipts of cattle were kept. This was probably due to the fact that a large number of those cattle that were brought to Chicago were held on the open prairies until sold to butchers to supply the requirements for local consumption. No accurate count of cattle disposed of in that way could well be obtained." Statistics of the receipts of cattle at the Chicago Union Stock Yards from 1851 to 1913, inclusive, and the shipments from 1852 to 1884, inclusive: Year Receipts Shipments 1851 22 566[14] 1852 25 708[14] 77 1853 29 908[14] 2 657 1854 36 888[14] 11 221 1855 39 865[14] 8 253 1856 39 950 22 205 1857 48 524 25 502 1858 140 534 42 638 1859 111 694 37 584 1860 177 101 97 474 1861 204 579 124 146 1862 209 655 112 745 1863 300 622 187 048 1864 303 726 162 446 1865 333 362 301 637 1866 393 007 263 693 1867 329 188 203 580 1868 324 524 215 987 1869 403 102 294 717 1870 532 964 391 709 1871 543 050 401 927 1872 648 075 510 025 1873 761 428 574 181 1874 843 966 822 929 1875 920 843 696 534 1876 1 096 745 797 724 1877 1 033 151 703 402 1878 1 083 068 699 108 1879 1 215 732 726 903 1880 1 382 477 886 614 1881 1 498 550 938 712 1882 1 582 530 921 009 1883 1 878 944 966 758 1884 1 817 697 678 341 1885 1 905 518 1886 1 963 900 1887 2 382 008 1888 2 611 543 1889 3 023 281 1890 3 484 280 1891 3 250 359 1892 3 571 796 1893 3 133 406 1894 2 974 363 1895 2 588 558 1896 2 600 476 1897 2 554 924 1898 2 480 897 1899 2 514 446 1900 2 729 046 1901 3 031 396 1902 2 941 559 1903 3 432 486 1904 3 259 185 1905 3 410 469 1906 3 329 250 1907 3 305 314 1908 3 039 206 1909 2 929 805 1910 3 052 958 1911 2 931 831 1912 2 652 342 1913 2 513 074 1914 _St. Louis Stock Yards_ In April, 1869, a charter was granted by the state of Illinois to the East St. Louis Stock Yards Company. This company was authorized to issue stock to an amount not to exceed $200,000. The original charter of the company, which later operated the National Stock Yards, fixed the capital stock thereof at $1,000,000, which was, subsequently, raised, by a vote of the stock holders, to an amount of $250,000, to meet the requirements of the rapidly growing business. When the National Stock Yards were completed, they were more convenient than were any others of their kind in the country. FOOTNOTES: [5] Wallaces' Farmer, 1913, and thesis by Garver, "History of Dairy Industry in Illinois." [6] The Breeder's Gazette, July, 1913. [7] Lecture by Professor H. P. Rusk on "Beef Production." [8] The Breeder's Gazette, Feb. 1894. [9] Thesis "History of the Dairy Industry in Illinois" by Garner, 1911. [10] "Facts and Figures," by Wood Brothers, Live Stock Commission Merchants, Chicago, 1906, and Report of Bureau of An. Ind. 1884. [11] Prairie Farmer, 1887, p. 160. [12] Life of Tom C. Ponting. [13] Scientific American--The Meat Industry of America, 1909. [14] Estimated. III. CATTLE BARONS AND PIONEER DROVERS OF ILLINOIS Previous to the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, no droves of cattle were seen in the country west of Ohio. The first drove ever driven from Illinois was taken from Springfield, through Chicago, to Green Bay, Wisconsin, in 1825, by Colonel William S. Hamilton. Beginning with this date, the practice of collecting cattle into droves and driving them to market soon grew from a minor occupation into an industry within itself; beef cattle that were grown and fattened in Illinois were gathered together into large droves by men who made it a business, and were driven to the then great cattle markets on the sea board. Foremost among these early pioneer cattlemen were: Jacob Strawn, John T. Alexander, B. F. Harris, and Tom C. Ponting. In the scope of their operations, Jacob Strawn and John T. Alexander exceeded many of the conspicuous operators in the rise and fall of the range industry in this state. These men owned hundreds of acres of the prairie land of the state, on which they collected enormous droves of cattle. These cattle were grazed here throughout the spring and summer, then were fed during the winter. It was no uncommon occurrence for one of these operators to buy all the corn for sale during one season in three or four counties. The next spring these fat bullocks were trailed across the level country to the eastern mountain ranges, over which they climbed to reach Lancaster, Philadelphia, and New York. Cincinnati and Buffalo received a few of these cattle, but most of them were driven on through to the markets on the sea board, where better prices were obtained. These cities bore about the same relation to the livestock traffic of those days as Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, and St. Joseph bear to the cattle trade of today; they were the collecting points for the business and the slaughterers who bought them either salted the carcasses down in barrels and casks or sold them to local consumers. Other dealers, however, bought some of these cattle and drove them on to smaller towns nearer the coast. "In the census of 1850, it was recorded that Illinois alone sent 2,000 head of cattle each week to the New York market." While the cattle barons represented a large part of the beef cattle trade of Illinois, there were hundreds of smaller dealers who fed only a few cattle each year which added materially to the magnitude of the beef cattle industry of the state. A few of these smaller operators were found in almost every section of the state, especially in the central and northern part. Cattle trailing continued until lines of railroad connecting Illinois with the cities on the Atlantic coast were built. This made cattle trailing unnecessary and greatly stimulated the production of beef in the state by furnishing means for placing beef before the consumers of the east quickly and, at a much less cost than that of the old method. The long drives greatly decreased the weight of the animals, and, at the same time, the meat of carcasses was inferior to that of the cattle that were shipped by railroad, and slaughtered without having taken such a long drive.[15] _John T. Alexander_[16] [Illustration: JOHN T. ALEXANDER.] "Among the cattle operators of Illinois, John T. Alexander was probably the greatest by reason of the magnitude of his transactions, but he was antedated by Jacob Strawn, who located in Morgan County in 1827. Alexander has been regarded as America's greatest cattleman in a commercial sense. In the strict sense of the term, he was a pastoralist and a trader, not an agriculturalist. His parents were native of Ireland, who migrated to Virginia in 1818, and in 1824 joined the exodus to the Mississippi Valley, settling in Jefferson County, Ohio. John T. Alexander was the oldest of a family of eleven children. His education was on the farm. He was endowed with that faculty called cattle sense. At the age of fifteen, he was entrusted, by his father, with the entire charge of a drove of cattle sent to Philadelphia. He sold them to advantage, collected the money, and took it safely home. At the age of seventeen, he was purchasing cattle in Illinois to replenish his father's Ohio pastures. It is related that his search took him down into Sangamon county, where he was so struck with its natural advantages, from a cattle standpoint, that he determined to migrate." In 1840, the Alexanders settled in Morgan county, then a cattle range bounded only by the horizon. Mr. Alexander accumulated a herd of steers, pastured them on the public domain, and for half a decade prospered in a moderate way. As the country became settled, it soon became evident that he must own land or get out of the cattle business as far as that locality was concerned. In 1848, he purchased 3,000 acres of land at prices ranging from 87 cents to $3.00 per acre. This land was adjoining the half section that he had originally homesteaded. In 1855, he acquired another 1,000 acres at $30.00 per acre. This indicated how rapidly the price of land was advancing. In 1857, he bought 700 acres more at $50.00 per acre, and in 1859, he acquired 1500 acres of the Strawn estate at $30.00 per acre. In 1864, he secured 853 acres at $60.00 to $70.00 per acre, making him the owner of 7,233 acres of the choicest land in Illinois. In 1866, he purchased the stock farm of Michael Sullivan in Champaign county, Illinois, containing 26,000 acres at $11.00 to $12.00 per acre. It was during this period of purchase that John T. Alexander acquired the title of "cattle king." His transactions were on an enormous scale. His buyers searched every nook and cranny of the cattle producing region of the Mississippi valley, and Alexander, on the Wabash railroad in Morgan county, Illinois, was the largest cattle shipping station in the world. Entire trains of cattle, destined for eastern markets, were daily loaded there and almost the entire population was on the Alexander pay roll. Thousands of other cattle, for which he paid but never saw, were loaded at innumerable points for eastern markets. From a pastoralist, he had emerged into a speculator on probably the most gigantic scale the live stock industry has ever witnessed. He ruled the markets of the East and was the Napoleon of the cattle trade. His name was more familiar to the West than that of Vanderbilt or A. T. Stewart. His annual cattle shipment for many years exceeded 50,000 head, and in 1868, reached 75,000. For a lengthy period, his sales on eastern markets exceeded $4,000,000 annually, and it is related that prior to his Champaign county purchase, an inventory of his assets showed 7,233 acres of land, averaging $75.00 per acre in value, $100,000 in bank, 7,000 cattle on his Morgan county pastures, and not a dollar of debt. Such speculative operations, however, had the result of entailing financial embarrassment. In 1871, Alexander had to contract his business and part with his Champaign county property. This embarrassment was due to many causes, not the least serious of which was cattle mortality by splenetic fever, by which he lost $100,000. He also sustained heavy losses by shrinkage in cattle values, and the Champaign county investment proved disastrous. He also became involved in railroad complications. The railroads were keen competitors for the livestock traffic and in 1871, Alexander severed his relations with the Pennsylvania railroad, making a contract with the New York Central, by which that company gave him a low rate conditional to a specified tonnage. By way of resentment, the Pennsylvania railroad put merely nominal rates into effect, thereby glutting eastern markets and crippling Alexander's trade, which had become so colossal as to be unwieldy. To carry on such gigantic operations, he was compelled to trust to innumerable assistants, many of whom proved to be either incompetent or unfaithful. Confronted with liabilities aggregating $1,200,000, he was forced to make an assignment, but his estate was sufficient not only to pay off every creditor, but leave him a large sum for a fresh start in life. It was while energetically engaged in retrieving his fortune that he died, in 1876. Those survivors of John T. Alexander, who remember his activity as Illinois' greatest operator, describe him as being tall and commanding in appearance. Even at the time of his death, he was hale and youthful. He was of sanguine temperament, naturally impulsive, but quiet and non-assuming in manner, sparing in speech, and undoubtedly one of the great American captains of industry in his time, an outstanding figure in a trade that boasts many conspicuous men. The old Alexander mansion in Morgan county, the greatest house in the countryside half a decade ago, remains in a somewhat dilapidated condition, and the decaying out-buildings convey a mournful hint of vanished greatness. Here, during Alexander's time, Abraham Lincoln, Stephen A. Douglas, Richard Yates, and others, whose illustrious names adorn Illinois history, were the guests of America's greatest cattleman. _Jacob Strawn_ Jacob Strawn came from Ohio and settled in Morgan county in 1827, and a few years later was probably the most extensive cattle dealer in the world, but his operations were, to a large extent, local and his most distant shipping point, Saint Louis. His pastures in Morgan county embraced about 15,000 acres and his business reached its maximum about 1860. Survivors of that period recall Strawn's free handed methods. He purchased cattle by the thousands, fixing the price on mere verbal description as to quality and weight. Frequently, at delivery time, nobody was on hand to receive the cattle, but they were driven into the Strawn pastures and left with confidence that payment would be prompt. Both Strawn and his successor, Alexander, were always ready to buy cattle, in fact they were the market of that period. Strawn was at the height of his career when John T. Alexander came on the scene. Strawn produced beef as a feeder and grazier; Alexander contracted cattle to be delivered in the future.[17] Mr. T. C. Sterrett relates that in the summer of 1856 he came to Illinois and was informed that the largest cattle dealer in the state was Jacob Strawn, living near Jacksonville, in Morgan county. He visited Strawn's place and found a remarkably large brick house and was astonished at the amount of brick paving about the house. Mr. Strawn lived on a good farm at Orleans Station, east of Jacksonville. He owned a lot of good horses and Shorthorn cattle. Piloted by the foreman, Mr. Sterrett went out into a 1,200 acre pasture which was fenced with rails and stocked with a fine lot of cattle. He was very much struck with a hundred head of the finest general work horses that could be found anywhere. This band of horses and cattle, the good fences, and the general appearance of everything about the place, indicated the power and ability of the owner. Mr. Strawn was by far the greatest American cattleman of his time.[18] _Benjamin Franklin Harris_[19] December 15, 1811--May 7, 1905 [Illustration: B. F. HARRIS at 55] "Benjamin Franklin Harris was born December 15, 1811, on a farm in the Shenandoah Valley, near Winchester and Harper's Ferry, in Frederick county, Virginia. He was the second of ten children of William Hickman Harris and Elizabeth Payne (own cousin of Dolly Payne Madison from England). His grandfather, Benjamin Harris, with two brothers, came from England and settled on the eastern shore of Maryland in 1726. The family were of Scotch-English extraction and Quakers; in this country becoming fighting Quakers, then Methodists. He grew to manhood on his father's Virginia farm, attending the country schools until sixteen years of age. At that time, President Jackson's attitude toward the United States bank so seriously affected values that wheat declined from $1.50 to 50 cents and Virginia farm land to less than one-third of its former price. These declines so affected the father's obligations that Benjamin Franklin Harris and his brothers, each with a six horse team--in those days without railroads--went into the "wagoning" or freighting business, and for three years "wagoned" freight over that section and out through Pennsylvania and as far west as Zanesville, Ohio, in order to recoupe the father's losses." On March 20, 1833, the Virginia farm had been sold at 40 % of its original cost, and in a one-horse gig and a two-horse carryall, the Harris family set out for Ohio, arriving at Springfield on April 8, and nearby, purchased and settled upon their new farm. It was during this year that Benjamin Franklin Harris commenced business for himself, buying and driving cattle overland to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and there disposing of them to cattle feeders. In 1834, he started for Illinois via Danville, then through the present site of Sidney, and Urbana--where there was but one cabin--and on to what is now Monticello in Piatt county. During the ensuing years, he began to accumulate farming lands in Piatt and Champaign counties and to buy cattle throughout all this section as far south and west as Mt. Vernon, Vandalia, and Springfield. During several seasons, he bought for the purpose of feeding cattle, all the corn for sale in Macon, Sangamon, and Champaign counties. Each year, for nine years, he drove these cattle overland via Muncie, Indiana; Springfield, and Columbus, Ohio, into Pennsylvania, and some into New York and Boston, where they were sold. When B. F. Harris came into this state, no streams were bridged, and there were only eleven families on the Sangamon river from its source to the limits of Piatt county. Fifteen years later not a half dozen men had ventured their cabins a mile from the timber limits--the deer and the Indians were still at home here. In 1840, he visited Chicago, a town of 2000 people, on stilts in a swamp. Nineteen days were required for the trip and the corn and wheat he teamed there sold for 20 and 30 cents respectively. Fifteen years after he came, not 25 % of the land in these counties had passed from government ownership and the first railroad came twenty years later. The operations of B. F. Harris in connection with the early beef cattle industry of Illinois were conducted more largely along the feeding lines than were those of John T. Alexander or Jacob Strawn. He bought, fed, and sold, from 500 to 2000 head of cattle annually for nearly three-quarters of a century. The Pittsburgh Live Stock Journal, May 8, 1905, in speaking of his death, referred to him as "The grand old man of the live stock trade--the oldest and most successful cattle feeder in the world." Everything to which he put his hand flourished. His judgment was so trustworthy that he made but few business mistakes. He did business on a cash basis and was never in debt. Operating on this basis, he was a rich man long before his race was run, and he enjoyed a period of ease and entire freedom from anxiety much longer than falls to the lot of most men who are counted fortunate in the world. On May 23, 1856, his famous herd of one hundred cattle--the finest and heaviest cattle ever raised and fattened in one lot by one man--were weighed on his farm by Dr. Johns of Decatur, the president of the State Board of Agriculture. The average weight of each of the hundred head was 2,378 pounds. Visitors to the number of 500 came from Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and this state to see these cattle, whose weight can never again be equalled. The following year, February 22, 1857, twelve of these cattle which he had retained and fed were shipped to Chicago. This remarkable bunch averaged 2,786 pounds. Clayborn and Alley, the most famous butchers in Chicago at that time, paraded them about Chicago's downtown streets. Following is a copy of a pamphlet gotten out by Mr. Harris immediately after the sale of these cattle. (see next page) The New York Tribune of October, 1853, refers to his prize winning drove of cattle averaging 1,965 pounds, displayed at the New York World's Fair then in session. Every few years, he took cattle prizes or topped the market. Less than a year before his death, his 1,616 pound cattle topped the Chicago market for that season. Mr. Harris died May 7, 1905, in his ninety-fourth year, still in strong mental and physical vigor, although at the age of fifty-three, he had retired from extremely active business life. He came in the day of ox teams and lived to ride over his farm with his son, grandsons, and great grandsons in an automobile. He voted for nineteen presidents, beginning with Henry Clay, and saw five generations of his family settled in Champaign county. He established the First National Bank in Champaign in 1865--the oldest bank in the county, and was its president at the time of his death. In the issue of The Breeder's Gazette, May 24, 1905, is the following statement: "In literature, art, professional life, or politics, a man with a record of achievements equal to that of the late Benjamin Franklin Harris would deservedly have numerous biographers. Many a man has been made the subject of bulky biography who might not measure up to him on any score. This is not because the most inviting and interesting personalities are found outside the farmer's calling, but largely because until recent years agriculture as a vocation has not been adequately appreciated by the public. It has not been sufficiently dignified to become the source of life histories. Other professions have furnished the candidates for the Plutarchs, and contributed the heroes and heroines famous in fiction. Farming has been drawn on principally for Philistines. Its great men, its geniuses, its Harrises, have been overlooked by almost all writers worthy of putting their useful lives into books." (Cont. on page 47.) Record of the Best Hundred Head of Cattle Ever Fattened in One Lot in the United States. STOCKMEN, ATTENTION Who Can Beat This Record? Weight of 100 head of Cattle, fatted by B. F. Harris, of Champaign County, Illinois: No. Cattle Weight 2 4718 2 4782 2 4340 2 4580 2 4582 2 4730 2 4764 2 4738 2 4880 2 4756 2 5150 2 4624 2 4582 2 5364 2 4828 2 5378 2 4864 2 4640 2 4694 2 4610 2 4776 2 4488 2 4572 2 4988 2 4634 2 4458 2 4920 2 4828 2 4702 2 4852 2 4464 2 4900 2 4634 2 4764 1 2690 2 4650 2 4806 2 4505 1 2548 2 4830 2 4762 2 4706 2 4854 2 4746 2 4700 2 4546 1 2516 2 4648 2 4724 2 4720 2 4732 1 2646 Average price sale, 7 cents These cattle were weighed by Dr. Johns, President of State Agricultural Society. Twelve of the large cattle out of 100 head, weighed May 23d, 1856, which was during the time of fattening: Black 2424 Red 2340 Pied 2640 M. Red 2264 Ch. Roan 2522 B. Red 2574 S. Roan 2330 C. Red 2340 S. White 2360 P. Red 2486 Long White 2496 M. Red 2540 Same cattle weighed July 18, 1856: Black 2526 Red 2480 Pied 2730 M. Red 2424 Ch. Roan 2654 B. Red 2646 S. Roan 2470 C. Red 2490 S. White 2430 P. Red 2630 L. White 2600 M. Red 2564 Same cattle weighed February 12th, 1857: Black 2720 Red 2780 Pied 2990 M. Red 2640 Ch. Roan 2810 B. Red 2910 S. Roan 2680 C. Red 2770 S. White 2605 P. Red 2840 L. White 2810 M. Red 2880 Average, 2786¼ lbs. Average age, 4 years Weighed by B. F. Harris; sold for 8 cents per lb. Largest steer in Illinois, weight 3524, 7 years old, raised by John Rising, fed by H. H. Harris. Average weight of the 100 head, 2377 lbs. * * * * * The foregoing is a correct statement of a famous cattle sale which occurred in the City of Chicago, month of March, 1856. The herd comprised 100 head of the finest and heaviest cattle ever raised and fattened in one lot by one man in the State of Illinois, or in the United States of America, or elsewhere, so far as the records go to show. These cattle were raised from 1 and 2-year-old steers on my farm in Champaign County, Illinois, and fattened for the market in the years of 1855 and '56, their average age, at that time, being 4 years. They were weighed on my farm by Dr. Johns, of Decatur, Illinois, President State Agricultural Society. Said weights were witnessed by a large number of representative men from Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky and Illinois, to the number of five hundred, among whom were many professional cattle raisers and dealers, all of whom bore willing testimony to the average weight of the cattle, which was 2,377 lbs. per head. Out of this lot of 100 cattle, 12 head of the finest steers were selected and fed until the following February. They then showed an average weight of 2,786¼ lbs., and were sold to Messrs. Cliborn and Alby, of Chicago, at 8 cents per lb. The weight master kept a record of each draft as the cattle were weighed--one and two in a draft. A copy of said weights is herewith attached for the inspection of the general public; also copy of average gain at different periods. On the 22d of February, 1857, the 12 steers sold to Cliborn and Alby, appropriately decorated with tri-colored ribbon, preceded by a band of music, were led through the principal streets of Chicago, followed by 100 butchers, mounted and uniformed. After this unique procession, the cattle were slaughtered by said Cliborn, and Alby, for the city markets, some of the beef selling as high as 50 cents per lb. Small packages of it were sent to customers in various parts of the United States, and even Europe, and sold, in some cases, as high as $1.00 per lb. These orders were given by these parties simply that they might say they had eaten of this famous premium beef. B. F. Harris. _Tom Candy Ponting._ August 26, 1824- "Tom Candy Ponting was born at Heyden farm, Parish of Kilsmeredo, near Bath, Somersetshire, England, August 26, 1824. He was the son of John Ponting and Ruth Sherron Ponting. The Pontings came into England with William the Conqueror, so were descendants of Normandy. The Ponting family were breeders of cattle and Tom Ponting has followed cattle breeding all of his life, both in England and in this country." Tom Candy Ponting came to the United States in 1847, landing in New York City, and finally making his way to Etna, Ohio. Here he was employed by a Mr. Matthews, to sell mutton from a wagon in the market house in Columbus, where they attended twice a week. Mutton sold for 15 cents to 25 cents per quarter in those days, while beef sold for 2½ cents to 3 cents per pound. After a short time, Mr. Ponting quit his job selling mutton, went to Columbus, bought a horse and saddle, and went into the country to buy cattle. The first cattle that he ever bought in the United States were eight head which he purchased from a Mr. Bishop eight miles northeast of Columbus, Ohio. In the spring of 1848, Mr. Ponting, in company with a Mr. Vickery, another Englishman, visited Racine, Janesville, Watertown, Madison, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, looking for a location to start a butcher shop. Although there was plenty of need for butcher shops at these places, they did not locate because cattle were so scarce in the country. From Milwaukee, Mr. Ponting came to Chicago to study the situations there. He found no regular markets and only two places where they sold stock. While in Chicago, he met a Mr. Bradley, who had driven some cattle from McLean county, near Leroy. Mr. Bradley had sold all of his cattle except forty cows with calves. He sold these to Mr. Ponting, who drove them to Wisconsin and sold them to immigrants, a few at a time. He sold them for $15 to $25 per head and still made money. He returned to Chicago and again met Mr. Bradley, who had brought a boat load of sides of bacon up from Peoria. He had purchased this bacon from the farmers, hauled it to Peoria, and shipped it up the Illinois river to Chicago, where he sold it to grocery stores. This was the only means to dispose of the bacon put up by the farmers, as there was no hog packing done in Chicago at that time. Mr. Bradley wanted Mr. Ponting to go with him to McLean county, but as Illinois was known in those days as a very sickly state, Mr. Ponting was afraid to venture. While in Chicago at this time, he met a Mr. Lewis and Mr. Heyworth who had come up from Vermilion county with a drove of cattle. Mr. Heyworth was taken sick here and Mr. Ponting was employed to assist Mr. Lewis in taking the cattle on to Milwaukee. In the spring of 1849, Mr. Ponting went to Georgetown, Illinois, and there purchased about 300 head of cattle. He also bought a camping outfit, a yoke of oxen, employed a cook, and drove through with the cattle to Wisconsin. The cattle that got fat on the way were sold to the butchers, while those that were fit for milk cows were sold to the immigrants. During this same spring, when Mr. Ponting was in Vermilion county, he visited Mr. Lewis at Crabapple Grove, which is on the line of Vermilion and Edgar counties. This man and one of his neighbors had bought a drove of geese, drove them to Iowa, and traded them for steers. They drove the steers back to Vermilion county, fattened them, and the next spring built flat boats and shipped them to New Orleans. In the fall of this same year, he made several trips over the line into Illinois, in Stevenson county, buying fat sheep to drive to Milwaukee. There were no regular banks in Milwaukee, therefore all the money that was paid for stock was Mexican dollars and five franc pieces. Very little American silver money was seen at that time. The hotel rates in Milwaukee were very cheap; only $2.00 per week, with bitters before breakfast, free. Whiskey sold for 15 cents a gallon and was used liberally by stock drivers. In March, 1850, Mr. Ponting rode on horseback from Milwaukee to Leroy, in McLean county, where he met with some men who were buying cattle to take back to California. He went from here to Christian county, where he bought a drove of cattle which cost him from $6 to $11 per head. In the spring, he drove them to Milwaukee. There had been very heavy rains that spring and rivers were very high, which made cattle driving very difficult. In the spring of 1851, he purchased about 350 head of cattle, buying from Rochester, near Springfield, to the Wabash river. After gathering the cattle together, he pinned them up near the present site of Moweaqua. He bought these cattle very cheap and drove the entire herd to Milwaukee, where they were herded on the prairies near town until sold. He took a few in each week and sold them to the butchers. After finishing the season's work, he returned to Indiana to spend the winter. In the summer of 1852, the cattle business in Wisconsin was dull. Money matters were very much changed; gold began to come in from California, and get into circulation. Mr. Ponting and his partner decided to go to Texas and buy their feeder cattle. They rode through to Hopkins county, Texas. Here they visited a Mr. Hart, one of the large cattle men in that country. They bought several hundred cattle and drove them back to Illinois, reaching Moweaqua in July of the next year. He put these Texas cattle on pasture until winter, when they were fed out on shocked corn. Mr. Ponting's partner went to Indiana and bought several hundred hogs to follow these cattle. They bought shocked corn, paying about 50 cents a bushel for it. They would go into a piece of corn after it was dry enough and select two of the smallest shocks they could find. The owner would select two of the largest ones. These were shocked out and weighed, the average being taken as an average size shock. He bought about 40 acres from Mr. Dennison Sanders this way. The shocked corn was fed to the cattle in the same place each day, so that when it rained, the accumulation of stalks would keep the steers out of the mud. He drove this bunch of cattle to New York the next summer, where they were sold July 4, 1854. In the spring of 1855, Mr. Ponting purchased a large drove of cattle, which together with some he had bought a few months before, were driven through to Chicago. Illinois was pretty well settled by this time, and it was unnecessary to take a camping outfit along. He stopped this drove of cattle near Pullman, put them out on the grass and took only a few into Chicago at a time. There had been a great change made in the Chicago market since Mr. Ponting was there two years before. There were two regular stock yards; the Merrick Yards, now known as the Sherman Yards, and the Bullshed Yards. In the fall of this year, he bought another bunch of cattle and drove them to Chicago in October. This time he stopped the cattle near the present site of Kankakee, and rode on into Chicago to learn the prospects for a market. They were then taken on to Chicago and left just outside the city to graze until they could be sold to the cattle dealers. This was the last bunch of cattle Mr. Ponting ever drove over land to Chicago, and it is probable that they were the last bunch ever driven from central Illinois. From this time on, the cattle were sent to market by railroad. The next year, 1856, he shipped 110 head of cattle from Moweaqua, the first cattle ever shipped from that place. In the early part of 1857, the cattle business was very flourishing and the packers said there would be a big demand for them that fall. Mr. Ponting contracted for 1000 head of cattle and about 1500 hogs before the season was over, but before he got them on the market, a panic came on, money became almost worthless, and he suffered a heavy loss. In 1866, Mr. Ponting went to Abilene, Kansas, to buy some feeders. He purchased about 700, sold them the next spring, making a good profit. He repeated the Kansas purchase the next year with like success. In 1868, he took the cattle he had bought in Kansas to Albany. They numbered around 800. In 1870, he went back down into Texas and bought cattle as he had done in 1852. He found a herd of about 2500, out of which he bought all of the two and three year olds. These numbered about 850, for which he paid $16 per head. There had been a new railroad, just finished, from St. Louis through Missouri, close to the Indian Territory line to a place called Pierce City. The railroad officers had some agents trying to get a contract to carry these cattle, together with some other cattle belonging to Hall brothers, over the new road. They billed the cars, numbering 80 in all, with a contract to refund $50 per car. They did this to get the contract which made a big showing before some New York magnates, who were there at the time trying to buy stock in the new railroad. In 1876, Mr. Ponting visited a Shorthorn sale at Springfield and bought several head of cattle with which he started a Shorthorn herd. In the spring of 1880, he attended another Shorthorn sale at Chicago, where he bought a few more Shorthorns to add to his herd. Until his first purchase of Shorthorns, Mr. Ponting's operations had been entirely along the line of buying and feeding and although he did a small pure bred business from this time on, he continued his feeding operations as he had done in previous years, although probably not on as large a scale. Mr. Ponting had not been in the Shorthorn business very long until he became interested in Herefords. In the fall of 1880, he visited the fair at St. Louis, where he purchased four Herefords. In the spring of the next year, Mr. W. H. Sotham of Guelph, Canada, bought four more Herefords for him. In the fall of 1882, he sold out all of his Shorthorns, thereby severing his relations with this breed. In 1886, Mr. Ponting made a contract with the Wyoming Hereford Association to sell them 270 head of Hereford cattle, to be delivered in the spring of 1887. The firm paid for a part of them and Mr. Ponting took a note for a few more. About 60 were left on his hands and had to be sold for beef. As a result, he lost about $800 on the deal, which killed all of his profits. Mr. Ponting continued in the Hereford business until 1903, when he decided to retire from actual business. In the summer, a gentleman came from Iowa and bought his entire Hereford cattle trade. He had at this time about 3700 acres of land, 1500 acres of which were in Christian county. He decided to divide his property among his children, keeping a sufficient amount to support Mrs. Ponting and himself. He bought a home in Moweaqua, where he and Mrs. Ponting have lived happily ever since. When Mr. Ponting came to Chicago in 1848, there was only one cattle market west of the Allegheny mountains, and that was at St. Louis. At that time, there were a good many cattle sold for the New Orleans market during the spring and winter, but the principal markets were New York, Boston, Baltimore, and Philadelphia It took ninety days to make the trip to New York with cattle and the drovers had to wait until the roads settled in the spring before they started. At Fort Worth, Texas, there was nothing but a large fort and force of United States soldiers to subdue the Indians around there. The present six big western markets have all been started since that time. "While the magnitude of Mr. Ponting's operations was not as great as that of John T. Alexander, and although he probably never accumulated as much wealth as Benjamin F. Harris, he was successful and his operations extended over a greater period of time than any one of the early pioneer cattlemen of the state of Illinois. He operated throughout two of the stages of cattle feeding and has lived to see the beginning of the third."[20] FOOTNOTES: [15] Bureau of Animal Industry Report of 1885-86. [16] The Breeder's Gazette, July 16, 1913. His son, John T. Alexander, of Alexander, Ward & Co., commission men of Chicago, has been prominent in the cattle interests during the last 40 years. [17] The Breeder's Gazette, July 16, 1913. [18] The Breeder's Gazette. Aug. 6, 1913. [19] This information was given by his grandson, Mr. B. F. Harris. [20] Story of Tom Ponting's Life. IV. THE RANGE INDUSTRY "In the ante-bellum period, central Illinois was a vast blue grass pasture. The people were breeding many cattle, but not enough to supply the steady increasing demand for stockers and feeders. Cattle feeders made good the deficiency in the local production by heavy drafts on Missouri, Kansas, Texas, and other sections of the trans-Mississippi region. The subsequent reign of King Corn was then barely in the incubating stage. Grass was the beef maker's principal reliance. "Not until well along in the sixties did the cultivation of corn begin on an extensive scale and corn-fed steers become conspicuous on the markets. After the grazing period, corn speedily took possession of the whole of central Illinois, until now less than 15 per cent remains in pastures, whereas in the days of the "barons" an exactly reverse condition existed. At that time, fully 85 per cent of such counties as Sangamon, Morgan, and Logan, were in grass. "The cattle that were secured from Missouri, Iowa, and Kansas, were purchased during the fall months. By the early part of winter, central Illinois pastures would be fully stocked with three and four year old bullocks, which were allowed to graze all through the winter and the following spring and summer. About three acres of the rich blue grass was allowed to a steer and on this they fattened rapidly. "There are men now living in Missouri and Illinois who drove cattle from that vast breeding ground west of the Mississippi river, into central Illinois, for the cattle kings, Jacob Strawn and John T. Alexander. These herds, numbering about 300 to 400 head, grazed leisurely across the open country at about 15 miles or so a day. During the war, the trade was more or less interrupted, but the practice was continued until settlement and railroads rendered trailing both unnecessary and impossible. "The annexation of Texas to the United States, and the discovery of gold in California in 1849, resulted in an influx of population and capital that soon exerted a stimulating effect upon the production of cattle throughout the southwest, as well as beyond the Sierra Nevada Mountains in the west. "At a comparatively early date, there was a ready market for Illinois bred cattle to go to the states west of the Mississippi river to be used for breeding stock. The development of the range cattle industry created a strong demand for pure bred bulls, and cattle breeders of Illinois were called upon, perhaps to a greater extent than those of any other state in the Union, to supply this demand. The range cattle business also created a market for young cows and heifers to be used for breeding purposes. This demand steadily increased from year to year, until a very large part of the yearly product of pure bred cattle in Illinois was absorbed for that purpose."[21] "In 1880, the range cattle trade was yet in a transition stage, especially as to the destination of marketable cattle and the special use to which they were put. Before this time, the bulk of the range cattle trade was divided between the coming establishments of the west, slaughter for home consumption, for exportation as dressed carcasses to the eastern markets, and shipping on the hoof to eastern states as feeders. Large feeding stables had been established in Nebraska for the purpose of feeding out these large numbers of rangers, but they could not utilize all of them. The overflow of these grass fat rangers found their way to eastern feed lots to be finished on the grain of the corn belt. The numbers increased from year to year, and extended farther and father east as the numbers increased. "The fact that one of the large feeding plants of Nebraska could turn off as many as 2000 ripe range steers in one month, gives some indication of the immense capacity of the range cattle trade. "As the Indians were confined more closely from year to year, there were more grazing lands opened up to be devoted to the raising of these range cattle. Most people at this time, seeing the rapid increase of the range industry, thought there would never be a beef famine as the economists of the time predicted. They said such economists always look on the dark side of things."[22] "Not many had any adequate conception of the vastness of the cattle interest in the great pasture region lying on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains during the seventies and eighties. It was worth quite a journey to see a single thousand head of these cattle engaged in feeding together. To witness a drove of 4000 moving leisurely along at a convenient distance from each other, to allow the animals to graze as they traveled a mile or so an hour, would seem to an unaccustomed eye as if the herd must consist of tens of thousands. The appearance of such a drove as this might be recalled by a single transaction made by Dennis Sheedy of Colorado, who sold 27000 head of cattle to the Ogalla Cattle Company. This company was composed of A. H. Swan, of Cheyenne, Wyoming, William Paxton, of Omaha, Nebraska, and J. H. Bosler of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The cattle were put on a range on the north side of the north Platte Run in Nebraska and Wyoming. The lumping price was $30 per head, amounting to $810,000 for the entire lot."[23] _Texas Cattle_ "It will be no departure from the strictest truth to say that the oldest known race of cattle on this continent is the Texas or Spanish cattle. They have been very generally popular with the stockmen of the plains, because they turned the free grass of the plains into available cash for their owners. "The Texas cattle are truly the only animals except the bison that deserve the name of "Native" American cattle. All the other scrubs in the country are foreigners by blood, or are descendants of intruders from other lands. These long legged, big headed, thin fleshed brutes were in this country centuries ago. It is by no means certain that their ancestors did not roam the plains of the Brazos and the Rio Grande a thousand years or more before America was visited by the Spaniards. There is evidence that the real ancestors of the cattle of Texas were seen in Old Mexico and described about five hundred years after the Christian era, but this evidence has been considered unworthy of full confidence, because to admit its truth would be to confess that the honor of first discovering America belongs to the barbarians from the Orient. "In the carefully edited official records, known as the "Chinese Year Book", which was written some fourteen hundred years ago, a circumstantial account of a visit to Mexico by a party of Buddhist Priests is given. These priests saw in the country two breeds of cattle. One of these breeds was described as having very large horns which would hold ten measures. These were probably the earliest ancestors of the present race of Texas cattle, while the other breed with shorter horns was, it is likely, the ancestors of the bison that later roamed over the ranges of the western plains. Those ancient travelers were too well accustomed to seeing cattle and horses in their own country to be in even the slightest degree likely to mistake any other animal for kine. The generally accepted belief, however, is that the Texas cattle are descendants of cattle brought to America by the Spanish invaders, although no definite proof seems to have been brought forward to show that those roistering, plundering explorers ever imported any cattle to this continent, and turned them loose in such numbers as would have produced the vast horde that covered the Southwestern plains before the Civil War. "To western people, especially in those parts where Spanish or Texas fever has caused the destruction of stock, Texas cattle are so well known that a description of their peculiarities will appear unnecessary. There are many who do not know that the chief purpose of the Texas bullock, pure and simple, seems to be the lugging about of a prodigious pair of horns. To this end, a big head and coarse shoulders have been given him. Behind these are a flat ribbed, thin chested, light body, held up at the hinder end by a pair of cat hams on thin, deer-like legs. The whole outfit, unburdened by flesh or fat, is muscular, nervous, and active. Such of them as lived through alternate roasting, starving, and freezing during the early years of their lives, found their way to the northern markets to be fattened and slaughtered. These rangers fattened very readily in the northern feed lots and those that were not too old and tough made very good beef. Thousands of them were driven from Texas in the early forties and fifties to Illinois feed lots, where they were fattened and then re-driven to the markets on the seaboard. In later years, they were slaughtered in Illinois and shipped in refrigerator cars, in the form of dressed carcasses, to the Atlantic States. Choice parts, as steaks, roasts, and tenderloins, were sent to health resorts, watering places, and to hotels and restaurants. A vast quantity of their flesh found its way into tin cans, to feed hungry humanity, in the hut of the laborer, at the picnic of the aristocrat, in the camp of the miner, and in the forecastle of the sailor in every corner of the world. It will be seen that the mission of the Texas steer was to raise the standard of living, to add to the comfort, and preserve the health and strength of people the world over."[24] FOOTNOTES: [21] The Breeder's Gazette, July 16, 1913. [22] Farm Field and Stockmen. [23] The Prairie Farmer, July 18, 1885, p. 453. [24] The Prairie Farmer, 1885, p. 452. V. THE PURE BRED INDUSTRY The beginning of the pure bred cattle industry in the state of Illinois was antedated by the introduction of the mongrel bred cattle by a very narrow margin of time. While there were probably a few mongrel bred cattle in the state before 1830, those that were brought in after that date were the real foundation cattle. These cattle were brought from the eastern states, by the early pioneers, for milk cows, and it is their descendants which are referred to when the native cattle of the state are spoken of. The changes which have been made from the mongrel bred cattle that were brought into the state by the early settlers to the present day improved breeds have been marked. "For almost a century, attention has been given to the breeding of pure bred cattle in Illinois. As early as 1833, a man by the name of James Williams, brought some Shorthorn cattle of the Patten Stock, from Kentucky to Sangamon county. In 1834, J. D. Smith and J. N. Brown brought a number of Shorthorns from Kentucky to the central part of the state. In the spring of 1838, Colonel John Williams, a son of James Williams, brought a Shorthorn bull and a Shorthorn cow from Lexington, New York, into Sangamon county. These three importations of pure bred stock into Illinois were the earliest of which there are any records. Other importations of Shorthorns into the state were made at later dates, however, and they soon became the leading breed of cattle in the state for both beef and dairy purposes."[25] The rapid dissemination of Shorthorns throughout the state was probably due chiefly to the method by which the breed was advertised. The leading breeders held public auction sales annually on their farms, or at some convenient place, and people all over the state were invited to come to these sales and bring such pure bred animals as they had for sale. In view of apprehensions on the part of some of the breeders, that this method might tend to spread disease among the cattle, it became a rule to require that every contributor to a sale furnish a certificate from a veterinarian, showing his cattle to be in good health, and that they had not been exposed to any contagious disease. Shorthorns held full sway in the state until about 1865 or 1870, when the tide began to turn. Other breeds began to be introduced into various parts of the state. Some of these breeds gained popularity so rapidly that within a very few years the competition became very keen between them and the Shorthorns. At the shows, all breeds were shown in the same class. This created considerable excitement among the enthusiastic advocates of the various breeds and often resulted in fist and skull fights. "At the Chicago show in 1879, there was close competition among the breeds when it come to tying the ribbon for sweepstakes award. Mr. F. L. Miller, a Hereford man, wanted to put the breeds to a slaughter test. The other breeders refused to kill their pure bred cattle, but some grades were slaughtered instead; one Shorthorn, one Hereford, and one Devon." Herefords Shorthorns Devons Gross Weight 1963 1795 1614 Net Weight 1317 1179 1055 Offal 452 389 394 Dressing per cent 67.1 65.7 65.3 Fore Quarters 354 308 277 371 303 275 Hind Quarters 287 283 247 305 285 256 Tallow 178 155 145 Hide 106 90 99 Head 55 47 49 Neither of these steers had marbled flesh. One family who ate some of one of the steers was said to have been made sick, due to the excessive fatness. The feeders of this time gave very little or no attention to the marbling of meat. All they noted was whether an animal was getting fat or not. They didn't notice whether they were putting the fat on evenly.[26] From the very earliest improvement of cattle in Illinois, Shorthorn blood has been used more extensively than that of any other breed. They were the first pure bred cattle brought into the state and were the only pure bred cattle in the state for several years. They were more generally known by farmers throughout the state and at a very early date were found in almost every county. Hereford cattle have ranked next to Shorthorns, both in number and popularity. "About 1870, Herefords began to play an important part in beef production in this state, and it was only a few years after this time that they were taken into Sangamon county, where Shorthorns had first gotten their strong hold."[27] "The competition between the Herefords and the Shorthorns grew stronger each year. In February of 1885, the Shorthorn Breeders' Association, in session, decided to ask each member to contribute fifteen cents for each Shorthorn owned by him, to be used for the good of the Shorthorn interest. The rivalry between the different breeds of cattle was so sharply defined and closely pressed that they thought it indispensable to the protection and prosperity of the Shorthorn interest and thought the State Association of Shorthorn Breeders should be kept in an active and strong existence."[28] The following is a summary of reports gathered by the Bureau of Animal Industry in 1885, by sending out questionnaires to different parts of the state, showing the breed of cattle that has been used moot extensively in cattle improvement. _State as a Whole_ No. Reports Breed Used 240 Shorthorns 80 Herefords 28 Angus 17 Devons _State by Sections_ Northwest 27 Shorthorns Counties 9 Herefords 5 Angus Northern 34 Shorthorns Counties 13 Herefords 5 Angus 4 Devons 2 Galloways Western 32 Shorthorns Counties 8 Herefords 5 Angus 4 Devons 3 Galloways Central 55 Shorthorns Counties 20 Herefords 3 Angus 1 Red Polled Western 20 Shorthorns Counties 14 Herefords 7 Angus Southwest 9 Shorthorns Counties 1 Herefords 1 Angus Southern 44 Shorthorns Counties 6 Herefords 3 Devons 1 Dutch Belted Southeast 10 Shorthorns Counties 2 Herefords 2 Devons _T. L. Miller_ "Early in the "seventies," Mr. T. L. Miller, than a business man in Chicago, who owned a farm at Beecher, Will county, Illinois, became interested in Hereford cattle." Mr. Miller was born at Middletown, Connecticut, on April 7, 1817. In 1842, he went to Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, where he was in business until 1856, when he removed to Chicago, Illinois. Here he was in the fire insurance business until about 1870. He had bought the first 320 acres of his farm at Beecher and 207 acres three miles to the north. He commenced to improve the farm with buildings in 1862. His nearest railroad station then was Monee, on the Illinois Central. In 1870, the Chicago, Danville, and Vincennes Railroad, was built, and Mr. Miller bought about 340 acres of additional land to the west of that already acquired and laid out the village of Beecher. He closed out his business in Chicago and went to live on this "Highland Stock Farm" in March, 1870. A few years later, he laid the foundation for his herd of Hereford cattle. Mr. William Powell, an Englishman, who later on bred and handled Herefords extensively on his own account both in Illinois and Texas, was jointly interested with Mr. Miller in some of his earlier ventures in Herefords. An item in the "National Live Stock Journal" for February, 1872, reads as follows: "We learn that Messrs. Byers and Campbell, of Nevada, Ohio, have sold to Messrs. T. L. Miller and Wm. Powell of Highland Stock Farm, Beecher, Will county, Illinois, an individual half interest in three Hereford cows and two bulls, and thirty-six pure bred Cotswold sheep. Mr. Miller's farm soon afterward became the center of the greatest American activity in the Hereford trade."[29] _Thomas Clark_ "Thomas Clark was born in Herefordshire, England, near the Monmouth border, in 1842. His father was a cattle grower of local repute, who used pure bred Hereford bulls, but did not profess to be a handler of pedigreed strains. Thomas Clark came to the United States in the spring of 1866, and after working for a time on a farm near Pittsfield, Ohio, was employed by a Cleveland butcher having a large city trade. Thrifty and possessed of an inborn faith in the "white faces" of his native land, by dint of hard work and economy in the course of a few years, Clark found himself in a position to get into business in a small way on his own account. As foreman and cutter in Cleveland, he acquired a practical familiarity with what lies under a bullock's hide, that was of distinct advantage in his subsequent career as a breeder and feeder of good cattle. He had an interest in his brother-in-laws little butcher shop in Elyra, but his own fondness for the fields led him to give most of his time to the 80 acres he had under lease near town. He moved on this farm and began breeding Hereford cattle. He bought his first bull, Sir Arthur (705), as a calf, from F. W. Stone of Canada. "In 1877, when Mr. Clark's lease on the Ohio farm expired, seeing that the west was becoming a good market for Herefords, he decided to remove to Beecher, Illinois. He had shown every year at the Ohio fairs, and always won. He made one show at Erie, Pennsylvania, while breeding in Ohio, and another at Jackson, Michigan, in 1876, winning first prize on herd, in competition with seven Shorthorn and Devon herds. This was the first time Herefords had won that prize in Michigan, and the event caused a lot of controversy. Clark had, meantime, sold three calves to T. L. Miller and delivered them personally. He was impressed with the idea that Illinois would be a better location for his cattle business than Ohio. He bought 80 acres of land, about one and one-fourth miles from the village of Beecher. He afterward added forty acres to the home farm, and subsequently, bought twenty-six acres in addition. Mr. Clark always kept his own lands largely in grass, and leased fields for farming purposes. He brought his Ohio herd, numbering at that time about twenty-eight head, to Beecher. "In 1877, Mr. Clark showed a herd at the northern Ohio Fair at Cleveland, winning all prizes shown for."[30] (1857) "There is no question but what the native cattle of the state may be improved by successive generations of judicious breeding, but if in and in-breeding is followed, as at present, the effects will be negative. "The true comparison between native steers and improved steers is seen when they are put on the market. Shorthorn and Hereford steers at weaning time are worth about $15, while the native steers at weaning time are worth about $5. The Shorthorn and the Hereford steers could be made to go to the New York market weighing around 1800 to 2000 pounds gross, and sell for 12 cents to 15 cents per pound, while the native steers were sent to market at six or seven years of age, weighing from 900 to 1000 pounds, and sold for 10 to 12 cents per pound. * * * * * "The Illinois Cattle Importing Company received a shipment of 38 Shorthorn cattle from Europe."[31] "Messrs. Calef and Jacoby at Springfield, Illinois, sold at auction, March 23, fifteen head of cows and heifers, all Shorthorns. Two of the number were imported. They reached an average of $583. They also sold eight Shorthorn bulls which averaged $171.98 each."[32] "Messrs. H. E Gardner of Bradfordton, Illinois, and J. S. Highmore of Rochester, Illinois, sold 30 Shorthorn cows and heifers at the Sangamon County Fair Grounds. The total number brought $3,140. Average of the cows was $104.66. They also sold 14 bulls for $10.20. The highest price paid in the sale was $280 for a cow. The total sale for cows and bulls amounted to $4,160, an average of $95.54. L. C. Carlin of Edinburg, Illinois, bought a bull for $100. Philimon Stuart of Cotton Hill, Illinois, bought one for $100 also. "In the afternoon of the same day, D. W. Smith of Bates, Illinois, sold five cows and heifers for $770, an average of $154; also three bulls sold for $710, an average of $236.66. The total of the cows was $1,480. The highest cow sold to Lafayette Funk of Shirley, Illinois, for $2.30. The highest bull sold to George M. Caldwell, Williamsville, Illinois, for $300."[33] "Rossland Park Stock Farm at Ashkum, Illinois: The farm is 73 miles south of Chicago, on the Illinois Central Railroad, in Iroquois county. It is composed of 120 acres of deep, dark prairie soil. "This farm was first owned by Mrs. Ross of Chicago, who gave very little attention to it and allowed it to become badly run down. It was then purchased by G. W. Henry of Chicago, who at once set about to improve it. He put a new fence around the entire farm and prepared it to be kept as a grazing farm for cattle. "Mr. Henry was a Shorthorn enthusiast and bred Shorthorns until 1884, when he became interested in Herefords. High grade and pure bred Herefords had his attention then for two or three years, after which he decided to deal in none but pure-breds. He sold his entire lot of grades. R. W. Hollenbeak of Casey, Iowa, purchased 73 of the two year olds at $75 a head; 25 high grade one year old at $50 a head; one yearling grade bull at $75; and 49 young grade calves at $40 a head. "There were left on the farm about 150 pure bred Herefords which soon were increased enormously by using some valuable bulls as herd headers."[34] "The "Summit Farm", owned by Mr. Wentworth, comprises about 4000 acres, which is mostly prairie. He has on his farm 80 Shorthorns. He has some yearling heifers by the son of "Booth's Lancaster", which are very promising. He also owns the "Fifteenth Duke of Ardie" who still holds his place as one of the grandest Bates bulls in existence. "Mr. Wentworth feeds mangles in connection with hay."[35] "The Polled Aberdeen Angus herd, belonging to Messrs. Anderson and Findley, of Lake Forest, Illinois, is one of the oldest herds in the United States, and is probably the largest of any in the United States or Scotland."[36] "Our first importation was made in the summer of 1878, and consisted of the bull Nicolis 1102, and the five females: Jeannie Gordon 2914, Lazy 3rd 1100, Violet of Brucehill 1951, Diana 4th 3226, and Waterside Fancy 1854, and thus was established the first breeding herd of Aberdeen Angus cattle in the United States so far as we know. The cattle in this importation did so well with us that we were induced to make further importations, and the cattlemen of this country readily recognized the superiority of the breed, and with proverbial American go-aheadness, took hold of them at once. Such was the demand for animals of this breed in the early eighties that we found ready sale for them at prices almost beyond the reach of cattlemen of moderate means. We, together with other importers, drew upon the parent stock in Scotland to such an extent about this time that the straining point was soon reached and prices rapidly advanced in that country also. "The land at Lake Forest, Illinois, upon which for so many years we maintained our herd, was constantly appreciating in value, until it is now (1901) worth about four hundred per cent more than when we first established our herd there. We were, therefore, compelled to move our herd into cheaper lands, and this we began to do about 1894, and in 1897, practically all of our herd had been transferred to our Allendale Farm, in Allen county, Kansas. We purchased most of the land composing Allendale Farm in 1878, and have improved and added to it since until now, we have over 2000 acres, making as fine a place for the breeding of fine stock and the fattening of cattle as can be found in the country."[37] "The Illinois Cattle Breeders' Association was organized in 1895. The first annual meeting was held at Springfield, on January 13, 1896. Mr. J. Frank Prather presided at this meeting. Mr. J. H. Pickrell was the first secretary. A committee was appointed to draft by-laws. "The first paper on the program was "Home and Foreign Demand for Beef Cattle" by A. C. Howell, the editor of the Drover's Journal. The paper was read by the secretary, Mr. Pickrell. The main theme of the paper was on Baby Beef, in which he said that it was no longer a fad, but a profitable business." FOOTNOTES: [25] The Prairie Farmer, May 9, 1885, p. 292. [26] The Country Gentleman, Dec. 4, 1879. [27] Sanders' Hereford History, p. 348. [28] The Prairie Farmer, Feb. 1, 1885, p. 84. [29] Sanders' History of Hereford Cattle, p. 348. [30] Sander's History of Herefords, pp. 352, 357. [31] The Country Gentleman, July 30, 1857. [32] " " " 1858. [33] The Prairie Farmer, June 7, 1885, p. 372 [34] Rossland Park Stock Farm at Ashkum, Illinois. Prairie Farmer Nov. 14, 1885, p. 741. [35] Cultivator and Country Gentleman, 1875. [36] The Prairie Farmer, 1885. [37] Sale Catalog of Anderson and Findley, 1901. VI. CATTLE PLAGUES[38] "In 1882, Dr. Salmon of the Bureau of Animal Industry, became convinced, from the experimental evidence at his command, that certain disease germs produced a chemical substance during their growth and multiplication which, if injected into the tissues of an animal, would induce immunity from a disease that these germs cause. In other words, he thought that the liquid in which the bacteria were grown in the laboratory might be used after the bacteria had been killed or removed, to protect animals from the disease caused by these specific bacteria. "The first experiment made at that time with fowl cholera failed to confirm the theory. Later experiments with hog cholera bacillus gave unmistakable proof of its correctness. The results were first published in 1886 and additional evidence was published the following year. "Many cattlemen have been prejudiced against the tuberculin test and have objected to it, due to inaccurate or greatly exaggerated statements as to the damage it caused to the cattle on which it was used. Those who have had most experience with tuberculin have consequently failed to observe any injurious effects following its injection into healthy cattle. With cattle that are affected with tuberculosis, it produces a fever which lasts only a short time, and in the great majority of cases, the effects disappear within forty-eight hours after the administration of the tuberculin. The cases of abortion following the tuberculin test have not been numerous, even when cows were tested within a very short time before the normal time of calving. The few cases that have occurred may be explained by the fact that abortion in cattle is a very common occurrence and that it would have happened even though the test had not been applied and that it was a coincidence. "From the investigations and observations made, the following conclusions may be safely drawn: "1. The tuberculin test is an accurate method of determining the presence of tuberculosis in an animal. "2. By the use of tuberculin such animals as are affected with the disease may be detected and removed from the herd. "3. It has no injurious effects. "4. Comparatively small numbers of cattle which have aborted, suffered ill health, or fell off in flesh after the tuberculin test was made, were either diseased before the test was made or were affected by some other cause other than that of the tuberculin." "On the 15th day of July, 1884, Dr. Trumbower was requested to visit a cow at Sterling, Illinois, belonging to Mr. C. A. Keefer. He found one of Mr. Keefer's pure bred Jersey cows, aged about six years, with symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia." Mr. Keefer had bought this cow, Lass O' Lowrie, from Mr. W. C. Clark, of Geneva, Illinois, on June 6, of the same year. When Mr. Keefer visited Mr. Clark's farm on April 6, he saw Lass O' Lowrie with two other cows, Tama Warren, and Nutriena Tunlaw. All three of the cows had the appearance of unthriftiness, the hair was looking rough and dry, but this was attributed to a severe winter without proper care and, in the case of Lass O' Lowrie, to recent calving. Mr. Keefer bought her with the assurance that she was perfectly healthy. She was shipped June 8 and was on the road four hours. When she was driven from the car to Mr. Keefer's farm, she was noticed to cough occasionally. She had calved in March and was again pregnant. From the time Mr. Keefer bought her, she became poorer, weaker, and milk secretion became entirely suspended. She stood in the field away from the other cattle and ceased ruminating. Coughing increased in frequency and strings of mucus dropped from the nostrils. The case was thought to be one of tuberculosis and isolation was recommended, slaughter and burial to follow as soon as possible upon the necessity of the measure. On the morning of June 8, she was bled to death. On examination, the anterior lobe of the right lung was found filled with tubercles covering a space of four inches in diameter. They presented different stages of development; some containing a thick yellow inspissated pus, while others were undergoing a caseous degeneration or calcification, and still others appeared as small indurated brown or reddish circumscribed spots in the interlobular tissue. Beginning at the bifurcation of the trachea and extending downward and backward, was found a cavity about ten inches in length, which contained a pint of fluid of a grayish-black color and of very offensive odor, holding in suspension disintegrated lung tissue; also in this cavity was found a mass of inforcated lung tissue weighing two pounds. The part nearest the right lung was breaking down and liquifying. Another mass of dead lung, weighing four ounces, of a yellow, granular, or caseous appearance, indicating that it was much older than the larger mass, was found lying in and partially buried in a separate sack which communicated with the larger cavity. In the abdominal lymphatic glands these were masses of compact tuberculous matter encysted in strong fibrous capsules, one of which measured three inches in diameter. The cow had evidently been affected with tuberculosis, but the encysted mass of dead lung was a lesion which is not produced in this disease, but which is a frequent result of contagious pleuro-pneumonia. It seemed possible that this animal had both of the diseases at the same time, although the fact that pleuro-pneumonia was not known to exist in that part of the country made it appear very doubtful. Upon investigating the conditions of affairs at Mr. Clarke's farm, it was learned that his animals had suffered from a disease that had caused the death of several during the spring and summer. A cow which had been sold to C. P. Coggeshall and taken to the farm of Mr. John Boyd, of Elmhurst, was very sick, and a second cow bought by Mr. Boyd was also sick. Mr. Boyd's farm was visited on August 12. The cow called Cream Ecca, belonging to Mr. Coggeshall had died on July 20. The cow, Edith St. Hilaire, had improved very much during the two weeks previous to the visit and was then believed by her owner to be nearly well. An examination of the lungs of Cream Ecca showed them to be hepatized as in pleuro-pneumonia. These facts appeared sufficient to justify the diagnosis of contagious pleuro-pneumonia, but in the absence of any history beyond the Clarke herd, and considering the fact that the only cow of which a careful post-mortem examination had been made was certainly affected with tuberculosis, it seemed best to reserve a decision until more complete evidence had been obtained. On August 14, Mr. George B. Loring made a third visit to Elmherst Farm, and in the presence of Mr. J. H. Sanders, a member of the Treasury Cattle Commission, and Mr. Wadham, and Mr. Boyd, the two sick cows were slaughtered. An examination of the lungs of Edith St. Hilaire showed that she had every symptom of pleuro-pneumonia. The other cow, Dassie 4th, was likewise examined with the same indications of the disease. On August 15, Mr. Loring, the agricultural commissioner, went to Geneva, Illinois, and examined the conditions of the animals that were still on Mr. Clarke's farm. Mr. Clarke informed Mr. Loring that the first animal to show signs of the disease on his farm was the bull, Finis Lawrence, which became sick during the latter part of May and was killed in June. The cows, Ella Lawrence, Duchess of Broome County, Myrrhine, and Damask, all showed signs of sickness about the middle of June. Ella Lawrence was killed at the same time as the bull; Duchess of Broome County died; Myrrhine and Damask recovered and were on the farm at the time the examination was made. Tama Warren had also been killed, but Mr. Clarke insisted that this was because she was worthless as a breeder. Six animals in all had been killed or had died on Mr. Clarke's place since May. According to accounts received from other sources, it is probably that Tama Warren and Nutrina of Tunlaw were sick as early as April 6. Mr. Clarke had brought on his place since June 1, one animal from New Jersey, three which he had purchased at the Epler sale at Virginia, Illinois, one from C. A. Keefer, of Sterling, Illinois, and several from Wisconsin. It was impossible to judge, from any information that Mr. Clarke could give, in what manner the disease had been brought to his place. As Ella Lawrence had come from Peoria, and as there were rumors of the disease at that place, it was decided to make investigations there. On August 16, Mr. Loring visited Messrs. D. H. and S. S. Tripp, and Mr. O. J. Bailey at Peoria. These gentlemen admitted that they had lost animals from some disease, the nature of which they did not understand, and they freely placed at Mr. Loring's disposal all the information which they could obtain, bearing upon the matter. It was here that Mr. Loring gained a first insight into the history of the introduction of the disease into Illinois. The first cases of this disease occurred in the Tripp herd, and the only animals that had been brought upon their place for several months before this sickness were three cows purchased at the Virginia sale, which occurred February 21. These cows, Helena, Rex, Albert's Pansy, and Fancy LeBrocq, were taken to Mr. Tripp's stable in Peoria, and afterward Helen Rex was taken to his farm, which is situated about two miles from the city. It was said that Helen Rex was coughing at the time of the sale at Virginia, and that she did not appear to be in good health, but Mr. Tripp either did not notice this or was not impressed with the idea that she was affected at all seriously. The first cow that showed unmistakable evidence of the disease was Pomare, a cow kept for family use in the town stable. The earliest symptoms were noticed with her on April 1, and she died April 17. No other cases of the disease occurred until July 12, when the cow, Annos Orphan, presented the symptoms of inflammation of the lungs and died July 27. The next case occurred July 25, when a cow called Queenette showed that she was affected. She died August 4. No disease had been in Messrs. Tripp's herd nor in any other cattle in the vicinity previous to the purchase of the three animals at Mr. Epler's sale at Virginia. The first sickness in Mr. Bailey's herd occurred May 10. The first cow affected, Lady Florentia, had been in his stable in Peoria up to this time, when she was taken to his farm seven miles in the country. This cow had not been in actual contact with any of Mr. Tripp's cattle, and the only way in which the disease could be accounted for in her was that it had been carried by some person going from one stable to the other. This cow recovered from the disease but several others of the same herd died within a few days after taking the disease. On August 18, a cow was killed and examined in the presence of Dr. J. H. Rauch, Secretary of the State Board of Health, and Dr. N. H. Pooren, State Veterinarian, both of whom had been invited to be present in order that they might see the disease and be convinced of its nature. Mr. Epler's place at Virginia, Cass county, Illinois, was visited August 22. No animals were found showing symptoms of the disease, and Mr. Epler stated that he had lost none from his original herd since the sale, but a cow which he had bought at Beardstown, Illinois, and brought to his place in April or May, which died in June of an acute lung disease that evidently was pleuro-pneumonia. A cow sold to Porter Yates, of Springfield, Illinois, at Mr. Epler's sale, was attacked by the disease and died in April. Another cow sold to E. S. Hodson, of Springfield, soon after her arrival was treated for a similar disease. Another cow sold to Frank Gaston, of Normal, Illinois, became sick April 6, but recovered. As very many of the cattle sold at the Epler sale soon afterward became affected with pleuro-pneumonia, and as the mingling of the animals at the sale was the only means by which many of these herds could be connected, it became very certain that the disease in Illinois had been brought to the state with some animals that had been sent to Mr. Epler. The animals which he had collected for this sale had come from a number of different herds located at widely separated points. Upon investigation, it was found that only one of these herds had been affected with pleuro-pneumonia. That herd belonged to Mr. C. R. C. Dye, of Troy, Ohio. Mr. Epler had purchased five cows from Mr. Dye on December 28, 1883. These cows arrived at Mr. Epler's farm at Virginia, Illinois January 4, 1884. Two of the five cows purchased from Mr. Dye had been previously bought from the herd of James Lyman, of Downer's Grove, Illinois, in May, 1883. Mr. Dye had bought cattle from several farms in the east, but it was decided that the disease had been brought to his herd by some grade Jerseys which he bought in the vicinity of Baltimore, Maryland. One of these cows had, apparently, recovered from the disease, but was still able to communicate the disease which was afterwards determined. The steps taken to eradicate the dreadful disease were as follows: (1) Investigation to determine the existence of pleuro-pneumonia in any suspected locality in the country. (2) The immediate quarantine and isolation of any herd in which the disease was found. If any considerable amount of the disease was found in any section of the country so as to be dangerous of spreading to other districts, the immediate quarantine of that district was enforced, as well as the prohibition of the movement of any animals from one herd or premises to any other within the district, or of any cattle to be upon any highway or any enclosed land within such district; provided, however, that animals might be moved, upon a written permit, signed by an inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry. As soon as the quarantine order had been made, the immediate inspection, tagging, and numbering of every bovine animal in the district, and the keeping of a record of the same, and a record of all animals moved by permits was attended to so that the Bureau of Animal Industry might have complete control of the movements of all cattle within the quarantined districts. (3) The condemnation and slaughter of all animals found to be diseased or exposed to the disease within the quarantined districts, and the thorough disinfection of all premises where such animals had been, or on which contagious was suspected to exist. At the same time, inspection and post-mortem examinations were made of every animal slaughtered during the quarantine, whether purchased and slaughtered by order of the Bureau of Animal Industry or killed by butchers, or others for their own use. FOOTNOTES: [38] Report of Bureau of Animal Industry, 1886. VII. THE FEED INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED STATES "Sixty years ago (1853) there was no knowledge of scientific feeding in the United States. Sixty years ago there was no feed industry in the United States. Thirty years ago (1883) the teaching of scientific feeding in the United States began. Thirty years ago the feed industry in the United States began. When I say that sixty years ago there was no feed industry in the United States, I mean that there was no feed industry such as we of the present day apply to the term. At that time, the population of the United States was only one-fourth what it is today. The problem of feeding domestic animals, as well as human beings, was simplicity itself, in fact it was not a problem. We had more land than we knew what to do with. The owner of livestock raised more grain and more hay and had more pasturage than he had animals to consume or than he had a market for. Domestic animals were fed on the natural grains and hays, grown upon the same farms as themselves. The city or town owner of horses or livestock bought his feed stuffs mostly direct from the farmer who grew them. By-product materials of the greatest feeding value, while produced in far smaller quantities than at the present day, were not sufficiently appreciated nor sufficiently needed to cause the farmer to make the effort to haul them from the mill or factory to his farm, much less to buy them. Scientific feeding with a knowledge of the balanced ration had not as yet been taught in our state universities. The value of grinding the natural grains was only slightly understood and was practiced only in a very limited way by a few of the more progressive and thoughtful feeders. Flour mills experienced the greatest difficulty in finding a market for their bran and middlings. While these by-products were probably the first to be recognized as of great feeding value, yet hundreds of thousands of tons were sold for a few dollars a ton, or burned, or run into streams, for there was no market. Cottonseed meal as a feeding stuff was at that time unknown. Holes were dug into the ground at the cotton gins and the seed was buried as a means of getting rid of it. Distillers' and brewers' grains, starch factory by-products, molasses, oatmeal by-products, oat clippings, and many others were frequently piled up on vacant lots to decay or run into the streams, or given to such farmers as could be induced to haul them away, and the earliest practical use of them was by the manufacturers who fed cattle with them in their wet or underground state at the factories. No attempt was made to dry them or put them into form to be utilized commercially. Instead of being sources of great revenue to the manufacturer, they were, in many instances, the cause of great expense. Because of the waste and expense and the low prices realized, the cost of the main products--the food for human beings--was very greatly increased."[39] "Here is a fact worth careful noting, that in these days of close competition, every cent realized for a by-product is credited to the cost of producing the main product--the human food--and that in addition to itself being converted into additional food for man, that is, into meat, dairy products, poultry, eggs, etc., its sale operates directly in a very large way as a saving to the consumer upon the main product from which it is derived. In other words, there is only one profit figured, and that is upon the main product--the food for man--the by-product being figured solely as such, sold for what it will bring, and the returns credited to the cost in figuring cost prices for the main product. "The problem of feeding the world--much less the problem of feeding the people of the United States--had not as yet commenced to trouble the scientist, the statesman, or the business man of the day. No one expected that in the short space of sixty years, all of our available lands would be occupied and that our population would have increased from 31,000,000 to 91,000,000 people, and that the problem of the cost of living, the cost of food, would, during the lives of people then living, be the thought and problem uppermost in the minds of our people. That this is the thought uppermost in the minds of our population today is evidenced by the daily conversations of our friends, by what we read in the newspapers, and by the action of Congress and our National Government in providing a commission for investigation of its cause." The following data was taken from the Statistical Report of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture, December 1, 1913,--(Assessor's Reports) _Illinois Pasture Lands_ Year Acreage 1877 4,367,603 1878 3,983,450 1879 4,193,884 1880 4,257,054 1881 2,206,621 1882 4,697,966 1883 4,752,828 1884 5,085,817 1885 5,417,147 1886 5,537,873 1887 5,630,571 1888 5,796,935 1889 5,679,874 1890 5,083,438 1891 4,681,972 1892 4,338,899 1893 4,954,871 1894 5,052,952 1895 4,631,270 1896 4,389,666 1897 4,745,917 1898 4,669,270 1899 4,880,101 1900 4,857,961 1901 4,774,062 1902 4,569,905 1903 4,447,287 1904 4,377,486 1905 4,359,426 1906 4,243,030 1907 4,308,402 1908 4,022,598 1909 3,807,796 1910 3,970,302 1911 3,819,412 1912 3,593,523 1913 3,521,966 (United States Census, and Year Books of Agricultural Department) Year Acres of Av. Val. of F. and Av. Val. Acres of Imp. Land Build's. per acre Per Farm Far. Land 1850 5,039,545 $ 7.99 $ 1,663 12,037,412 1860 13,096,374 15.96 3,480 20,911,989 1870 19,329,952 28.45 4,358 25,882,861 1880 26,115,154 31.87 4,598 31,673,645 1890 25,669,060 41.41 6,140 30,498,277 1900 27,669,219 53.84 7,588 32,794,728 1910 28,048,323 108.32 15,505 32,522,937 Year Percent Percent Percent Percent Farm Land in Ill. Increase Increase of Land of Farm in Farms in Farm Area in Land Total Cultivated Land Farms Improved 1850 33.6 41.9 1860 88.1 73.7 58.3 62.6 1870 41.5 23.8 72.2 74.7 1880 26.1 22.4 88.3 82.5 35,867,520 32,522,937 1890 -5.9 -3.7 85.0 84.2 1900 9.8 7.5 91.4 84.5 1910 -4.6 -0.8 90.7 86.2 (United States Census Report) Year Population No. Farms Average Size of Farms 1790 1800 5,641 1810 24,520 1820 147,178 1830 343,031 1840 685,866 1850 851,470 76,208 158. acres 1860 1,711,951 143,310 145.9 " 1870 2,539,891 202,803 127.6 " 1880 3,077,871 255,741 123.8 " 1890 3,826,352 240,681 126.7 " 1900 4,821,550 264,151 124.2 " 1910 5,638,591 251,872 129.1 " Year No. B. C. No. B. C. No. B. C. Per Per Farm Per Capita Acre Farm Land (Population) 1850 7.1 .63 .0045 1860 9.9 .83 .0067 1870 7.7 .62 .0060 1880 7.8 .65 .0063 1890 7.1 .46 .0056 1900 7.07 .38 .0057 1910 4.9 .22 .0038 _The Corn Crop of Illinois for Fifty-four Years._ Year Acreage Yield Price 1860 3,839,159 30 42½ 1861 3,839,159 30 24 1862 3,458,903 40 23 1863 3,773,349 22 62 1864 4,192,610 33 75 1865 5,032,996 35 29½ 1866 4,931,783 32 43 1867 4,583,655 24 68 1868 3,928,742 34 48 1869 5,237,068 23 57 1870 5,720,965 35 35 1871 5,310,469 38 32 1872 5,468,040 40 24 1873 6,839,714 21 32 1874 7,421,055 18 56 1875 8,163,265 34 34 1876 8,920,000 25 31 1877 8,935,411 30 28 1878 8,672,088 29 22 1879 7,918,881 39 32 1880 7,754,545 33 33 1881 7,157,334 24 53 1882 7,371,950 24 42 1883 7,304,596 25 36 1884 6,898,819 33 29 1885 7,212,657 32 28 1886 7,153,289 25 30 1887 6,719,126 19 41 1888 7,047,813 39 28 1889 6,988,267 35 23 1890 6,114,226 27 45 1891 5,754,147 38 38 1892 5,188,432 26 35 1893 6,416,488 26 30 1894 6,705,476 31 39 1895 6,922,921 39 21 1896 6,881,400 42 17 1897 7,051,527 34 21 1898 6,943,992 31 26 1899 6,941,548 37 26 1900 8,050,550 38 31 1901 8,077,621 23 58 1902 8,199,031 39 35 1903 7,955,980 35 34 1904 7,875,471 36 39 1905 7,698,411 40 38 1906 7,621,562 37 36 1907 7,294,873 35 44 1908 6,780,507 31 57 1909 7,288,563 36 52 1910 6,889,721 41 37 1911 6,623,579 38 55 1912 6,878,797 39 40 1913 6,635,847 27 63 [Illustration: Showing the corn acreage, pasture acreage, number of beef cattle, and the population of the state of Illinois from 1850 to 1914 inclusive.] FOOTNOTES: [39] An address by George A. Chapman, President of the American Feed Manufacturers' Association, delivered at Washington, D. C., November 17, 1913. BIBLIOGRAPHY Topography of the Land. Report of Bu. of An. Ind. 1885. p. 362. People. The U.S. Census Report. Interviews with old settlers. Cattle and Cattle Feeding. Report of Bu. of An. Ind. 1885. p. 365. Cattle Feeding Industry. Wallace's Farmer. 1913. Thesis by Garver: "History of Dairy Industry in Illinois." The Breeder's Gazette. July. 1913; Feb. 1894. Lecture by Professor Rusk. Chicago Market. "Facts and Figures" by Wood Brothers, Live Stock Commission Merchants, Chicago. 1906. Report of Bu. of An. Ind. 1884. The Prairie Farmer. 1887. p. 160. Life of Tom C. Ponting. Scientific American. The Meat Industry of America. 1909. Bu. of An. Ind. Report. 1885-86. Cattle Barons and Pioneer Drovers. Bu. of An. Ind. Report. 1885. The Breeder's Gazette. July 16, Aug. 6, 1913. Story of Tom Ponting's Life. The Range Industry. The Breeder's Gazette. July 16, 1913. Farm, Field and Stockman. 1880. Texas Cattle. The Prairie Farmer. July 18, 1885. p. 452. The Pure Bred Industry. The Prairie Farmer. May 9, 1885. p. 292 Feb. 1, 1885. p. 84; Nov. 14, 1885. p. 741. 1895. The Country Gentleman. Dec. 4, 1879. Sanders' History of Herefords. p. 348. Bu. of An. Ind. Report. 1885. The Country Gentleman. July 30, 1857, 1858. The Cultivator and The Country Gentleman. 1857. Sale Catalog of Anderson and Findley--Angus Herd. 1901. Sanders' History of Herefords, p. 348; 352-357. Cattle Plagues. Bu. of An. Ind. Report. 1884. p. 16, 1886. The Feed Industry of the United States. An address by Geo. A. Chapman, President of the American Feed Manufacturers' Association. Delivered at Washington, D. C., Nov. 17, 1913. Statistics. U. S. Census Reports. U. S. Yearbooks of the Department of Agriculture. ACKNOWLEDGMENT I desire to acknowledge the personal assistance and supervision of Professor H. P. Rusk under whose direction the work was planned and carried on. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES Added opening quotation marks to all paragraphs where a quotation spans several paragraphs. Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. Enclosed underlined font in _underscores_. Enclosed signatures in ~tildes~. 
59502	----	by The Internet Archive. Transcriber Note Text emphasis denote by _Italics_. Whole and fractional parts of numbers as 35-5/8. [Illustration: The Preparation of BEES for OUTDOOR WINTERING] One of the most vital parts of the beekeeper's work is the preparation of bees for outdoor wintering. No other phase of beekeeping has so direct an influence on the honey crop of the following season. The apiary should be located in a protected place and the colonies should not be moved at the time of packing. Directions are given in this bulletin for the proper arrangement of the apiary to prevent confusion due to the shifting of hives. The amount and character of the packing materials and the most economical type of packing cases are discussed. A schedule of dates for packing and unpacking the hives is presented for all parts of the United States, and the amount and character of winter stores are indicated. It is important that none of the factors of good wintering be omitted, and several tests are given so that the beekeeper may determine whether his bees are wintering properly. Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. September, 1918 THE PREPARATION OF BEES FOR OUTDOOR WINTERING. E. F. Phillips, _Apiculturist_, and George S. Demuth, _Apicultural Assistant_. CONTENTS. Page. The essentials to success 3 Necessity for strong colonies in the fall 4 Arrangement of the apiary 4 Insulation of the hive 6 Arrangement within the hive 11 Winter schedule 14 Winter stores 18 All the factors of good wintering are needed 19 Measures of success in wintering 20 No problem confronting the beekeeper in most parts of the United States is of more importance than the proper wintering of bees, yet it is one which is sadly neglected. It is urged that before attempting to make packing cases for the wintering of bees the beekeeper study Department Bulletin 93, Temperature of the Honeybee Cluster in Winter, and Farmers' Bulletin 695, Outdoor Wintering of Bees. THE ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS. The essentials to success in caring for a normal colony of bees from the end of one season's honey-flow to the beginning of the next lie in providing three things in abundance: (1) Stores of good quality, (2) protection from wind and cold, and (3) room for the rearing of brood at appropriate times. These factors are all of the greatest importance, and an omission of any one of them may prevent completely the gathering of the honey crop of the following year, and if any of the factors are given in less degree the honey crop invariably is reduced. The importance of these essentials does not apply equally at all times from the end of one season to the beginning of the next, but at some time they are all vitally essential; and it is the purpose of this bulletin to show how all three may be given in the early fall, so that, without further handling, the colonies will come through the spring with the maximum population. If, for example, the room for breeding is not provided in the fall, it becomes necessary to handle the colony early in the spring, and this may be detrimental. Similarly, it is the practice of some beekeepers to add to the stores of the colony in the spring, rather than to leave enough in the fall to last until new honey comes in. This is dangerous for two reasons: Too often the stores are not given on time or in adequate quantity, and frequently they can not be given without exposing the colony too greatly. It is therefore the best practice by far to provide all of these factors in the fall, and no other methods are so safe and certain of success. By practicing the methods here given the enormous annual loss of colonies in winter may be almost entirely eliminated, and, what is more important, much stronger colonies may be obtained for the early sources of honey. NECESSITY FOR STRONG COLONIES IN THE FALL. A common cause of loss is through attempting to winter colonies that are too small. It is somewhat difficult to set a standard for colony strength at this season, but in general it may be stated that it is unwise to attempt to winter colonies that are not strong enough to have brood sufficient to fill three to four Langstroth frames two months before the packing is applied. If the colonies in the apiary are not of the proper strength it is wise to unite until the proper strength is reached. Any uniting should be done at least two weeks before packing. There is a tendency in some localities for colonies to weaken rapidly in early fall, due to the nature of the honey-flow from fall flowers. To some degree this may be offset by putting on the packing earlier than otherwise would be necessary. It is highly important that each colony have a vigorous queen in order that brood-rearing may continue in the fall and may proceed rapidly in the spring. With colonies such as are obtained by the methods here described it is not desirable to keep queens more than two years and it is preferable to requeen the entire apiary every season. To get the best results in requeening all young queens should be introduced so that they will begin laying two months before packing. It will be found that queens wear out more rapidly in the unusually strong colonies obtained by the methods of wintering here described, but every good beekeeper realizes that it is these enormous colonies which get the greatest crops. ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY. WIND PROTECTION. It is of the greatest importance that the apiary be located where the wind in winter is virtually eliminated. A grove of trees or an adjacent hill usually offers the best protection, or it is possible to make an artificial windbreak such as a high fence. A natural windbreak usually is better, for it is more extensive in most cases. It has been found by the authors that if a wind of 20 miles an hour blows on the winter packing cases for a few hours the temperature of the inside of the packed hive may be greatly reduced and may even fall as low as that of an unpacked hive. Too much reliance should not be placed in buildings as windbreaks, for they often serve simply to divert the wind slightly and may even make conditions worse. A fence made of close boards usually is unsatisfactory for it causes whirls that may destroy many colonies. A heavy blanket of snow serves to reduce the effect of the wind. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Colonies of bees in summer position in groups of four. This arrangement is advantageous whether or not the bees are wintered in four-colony packing cases.] ARRANGEMENT OF THE HIVES. In arranging the hives in an apiary it is necessary to take into account the method of wintering to be followed. If the bees are to be wintered in the four-colony cases to be described later the hives should be kept in groups of four all the season (fig. 1), for if colonies are moved more than a foot just before packing and then moved again as they are unpacked there is a considerable amount of "drifting"--that is, bees from some colonies join other colonies during flight, and the result is an actual reduction of the number of colonies and of bees in the apiary. A failure to keep the colonies properly arranged for their winter stands during the entire summer is a common cause of failure in using the four-colony cases. Whatever type of case is used for outdoor wintering, the bees should occupy the same place during the entire year. Since the outside of the winter case is quite different an appearance from the hives the bees often are somewhat confused. To prevent drifting from this cause it is a good plan to set a large stake between the two entrances on each end of the four-colony winter cases; this will serve to help the bees in orienting themselves during flights in winter and especially in spring. If it is possible to plant some shrubbery among the hives it is a good plan to have the plants arranged so that they will act as markers for the bees during these early flights (fig. 3). They will not be amiss during the summer, and, if properly placed, they need not interfere with movement through the apiary during the summer's work, while they add to its attractiveness. INSULATION OF THE HIVE. AMOUNT OF PACKING NEEDED. It is impossible to insulate bees too heavily during the winter. It is obvious, however, that the beekeeper will not want to put on more packing than is practically necessary. For a climate such as that of Washington, D. C., it is found desirable to provide 4 inches of packing underneath the hives, 6 inches on all sides, and 8 or more inches on top. In warmer climates less will be needed, but the beekeeper must not think that simply because he lives south of Washington he can be safe with less packing or none at all. There are many places farther south than Washington where more packing is needed, and there are, indeed, few places except along the Gulf or in southern California where less may be used if the best results are to be obtained. For more northern localities more protection is needed. The amount indicated for Washington has been used with success in places as cold as northern Ohio and even in Canada, but in these places the insulation during the coldest seasons is usually augmented by heavy snows. These are not at hand every winter, or may be lacking during the coldest part of the winter, and it is, therefore, wise to provide more packing, especially on the sides and top. For a climate such as that of New York or Wisconsin, 8 inches of good packing on the sides and 1 foot on the top probably will be enough for good wintering every year. The amounts recommended for the different zones of the United States are given in Table I (p. 15). A belief is current among many amateur beekeepers that good results may be obtained by using hives which have 2 inches of packing built in the sides and somewhat more on top. This amount is insufficient in winter in all parts of the country except the southern portions of the Gulf States. A common practice is to wrap some straw or corn fodder around the hives, but this may do more harm than good if the wind can blow directly through it. A covering of roofing paper with perhaps a little paper packing underneath is practically worthless in insulating value. TYPES OF PACKING MATERIAL. There is little difference in the insulating value of the various materials which may be obtained easily for the packing of hives in winter. Exaggerated claims have been made by some beekeepers for such materials as broken cork or certain commercial insulating materials, but it is safe to say that there is not 25 per cent difference between the poorest and the best of the available insulating materials, provided, of course, that obviously poor things such as corn fodder and straw be eliminated. Sawdust, fine planer shavings, forest leaves, chaff, broken cork, and such materials may be used, the choice depending chiefly on the availability of the materials. In general it may be stated that the smaller and the more numerous the dead air spaces confined in the packing, the greater will be its efficiency in insulation. If forest leaves are used they must be gathered the year before and stored, as the leaves fall some time after the bees should be packed. If sawdust is used it is best not to pack it down tight, but if forest leaves or planer shavings are employed it is essential that they be packed in closely and that the containers be completely filled. Broken cork, such as is used in the shipping of certain types of grapes, is good and has the advantage that it does not hold moisture as does sawdust. In all cases the packing should be placed in some sort of box which will be rain-proof and thus protect the insulation from rains and snow, for all insulating materials lose part of their efficiency when wet. BOTTOM PACKING. There has been considerable discussion among beekeepers as to the value of placing packing material below the bottom boards of the hives. This is usually provided by placing the hives on 2 by 4 inch supports or on racks of 4-inch material. Those who have opposed this have pointed out that "heat rises," overlooking the fact that while warm air attempts to rise, if this is impossible other avenues of escape of warm-air currents may be set up. Furthermore, and more important, they have overlooked the important fact that heat escapes from the hive not only by convection currents but by conduction and radiation as well. In an extensive series of experiments performed by the writers it was found that in hives packed at the top and sides most of the heat escapes through the bottom boards; in fact, this was so noticeable that the packing at the top and sides never served its full purpose so long as heat was escaping rapidly at the bottoms. It may be stated, therefore, that so long as the bottoms are unprotected there is little insulating value in materials piled on the top and sides beyond about 2 inches. This amount is insufficient for most parts of the United States, therefore bottom packing should be considered as absolutely essential wherever bees are packed. To get the value of bottom packing it is absolutely essential that the entrance be reduced, but it need not be closed. In a long series of temperature readings on hives packed for several winters, the authors were able to keep a temperature of 50° F. on the bottom boards of packed hives directly behind the entrance openings. Those who have condemned bottom packing have labored under the mistaken notion that it is impossible to prevent currents of cold air through the entrance. This is entirely possible if the entrances are adequately reduced. The conclusion to be drawn from the experiments performed is that unless the bottoms of hives are well packed, the beekeeper ought not to imagine that he has packed his hives at all well. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--The winter packing cases used in the Bureau of Entomology apiary: _a_, Detail of tunnel to hives. In the specifications given in this Bulletin (p. 9) provision is made for room for a third hive body to be added in the spring.] THE PACKING CASE. There is no virtue in any special type of case, but in all types there are a few points which must be observed. There must be provision for abundant packing on the top, bottom, and sides, the entrances must be small, the case must be rain-proof, and the construction of the case should be such that it may be taken apart and put together easily. The parts of various cases used in one series of apiaries should be interchangeable. The authors have refrained in the past from giving explicit directions for making a winter packing case for fear that some beekeepers might think that there may be peculiar virtue in the case used and recommended by the department (fig. 2). So many beekeepers, however, have written for exact dimensions for making the case used in the apiary of the Bureau of Entomology that it is considered best to give these in this bulletin. In order that protection adequate for bees in a climate such as that of Washington may be provided, 4 inches of packing below the bottom board, 6 inches on all sides, and at least 8 inches on top are desired. There is advantage in packing several colonies together, in order that they may warm each other and to reduce the cost of the case and the labor of putting it on. The bureau, therefore, has adopted the four-colony type of case which has been much used for years in all parts of the country. In this case, two colonies face east and two west. Provision is made for wintering all colonies in two full-depth hive bodies. In the following dimensions it is assumed that 13/16-inch tongued-and-grooved lumber is used, that the 10-frame Langstroth hive is in use, and that two hive bodies are employed for each colony, with adequate space above the hive so that, if needed, a third hive body may be put on before time for the removal of the packing. In this packing case the sides overlap the ends. For hives of other sizes the lumber must be cut so as to provide the packing specified in Table I (p. 15). For zones F and G (fig. 5) provision should be made for additional packing by increasing the length of all parts 4 inches, and for zone C a correspondingly smaller case may be made. Bottom of case 44 Inches (exact) by 52 Inches (exact). Sides of case 53-5/8 Inches (exact) by 35-5/8 Inches (minimum). Ends of case 44 Inches (exact) by 35-5/8 Inches (minimum). Telescope cover of case 48 Inches by 56 Inches (minimum). If 6-inch boards (laying 5-1/2 inches) are used, it is desirable to use 7 boards for the height of the case; if 8-inch boards (laying 7-1/2 inches) are used, 5 will be sufficient. In figure 2 only 6 boards, laying 5-1/2 inches, are shown, but in this case no allowance is made for a third hive body in the spring. For the telescoping part of the cover, 4-inch boards are used. As was pointed out earlier, the hives should rest throughout the summer on the floor of the winter case (fig. 1). The plan of putting them in groups of four, two facing east and two west, has much to commend it during the entire year. The bottom therefore should be made strong enough to stand the weight of four colonies without getting out of shape. Since this weight may be over 1,000 pounds in a good year, it is advised that the cleats on the bottom of the case be of 2 by 4 inch material. The supports of the bottom and the position of the cleats should be arranged so that the weight will not rest too largely on the boards, and the stones or bricks used should be directly under the center of the hives when they are in their summer position. Obviously the hives will be moved to the outer corners of the bottom during the summer to facilitate handling. The sides of the case should be so constructed that the cleats which hold the boards together will serve to support the overlapping sides on the bottom. This is clearly shown in figure 2. There should also be a central cleat on the sides to prevent warping, for the cases must be rain-proof. If cleats are properly placed as shown in the illustration, they make the equivalent of a halved joint at the corners. The sides may be held in place and together by nails or by any sort of special hook. The entrances for the colonies during winter should be in the ends of the case, as shown. These will be discussed later. The top of the case may be made to telescope over the sides, as shown in figure 2, or it may be made in any other way desired so that it is adequate to keep the packing absolutely dry throughout the winter. The telescope cover has much to commend it, especially in the case with which the covers may be stored in summer. The top of the wooden cover should be covered with a roofing paper of first quality in order that the protection will last for years. If the telescope type of cover is used, no cleats other than the sides and ends of the telescoping portion will be needed. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--An apiary packed for winter in four-colony cases such as are used in the Bureau of Entomology apiary.] A tunnel (fig. 2, a) is also needed through which the bees may pass on warm days and to permit ventilation. This is best made of two boards, one the width of the packing (e. g., 6 inches) and the other this width loss the extension of the bottom board. In most cases this extension is 2 inches, so the lower board will be 4 inches wide. These are held apart by strips three-eighths of an inch thick. This is the height of the usual hive entrance in winter, and the passage between the boards is therefore the same height as the hive entrance. In order that the tunnel may not get out of alignment, these strips are continued back, as shown in the figure, and these projections extend into the hive entrances at the corners. The arrangement for keeping alignment at the outer edge is discussed under "The entrance" (p. 13). SINGLE OR DOUBLE CASES. For those having only a few colonies, it is not always convenient to build cases for colonies in groups of four. It is not necessary to give dimensions in detail for those having a few colonies, however, for they will usually wish to use whatever they have at hand. It is often possible to arrange a heavy wooden box, such as those used for shipping dry goods (fig. 4), so as to make a winter case for one colony which will answer every purpose. It is, of course, necessary that the salient feature of a good winter case be preserved. If the arrangement of the apiary makes it inconvenient to have the colonies in groups of four throughout the year, it is quite possible to make good cases for two colonies. Anything other than the four-colony case, however, will probably cost more per colony, or if too many colonies are put into larger cases there may be trouble from other causes, as from drifting. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--An improvised winter case for one colony.] ARRANGEMENT WITHIN THE HIVE. CAPACITY OF THE WINTER HIVE. As has been pointed out, bees need room for breeding in the fall and again in the spring. During the winter season there is no brood-rearing in normal colonies which are adequately protected, and room for breeding therefore is not essential during the winter. If the bees are to have room for the proper development of colony strength, however, they should have two hive bodies each of 10-frame Langstroth size by about the beginning of April in most parts of the country, and earlier in the South. In order that it may be unnecessary to open colonies during a period of such unsettled weather as obtains at this season, it is advised that the room for breeding be provided in the fall and left with the bees all winter. To make this a safe procedure, it is necessary to provide more packing than would be necessary if the colony were provided with only enough room for the cluster and winter stores during the winter. It has been found desirable also to leave more stores with the bees than have been left by many beekeepers, and this is additional reason for the giving of more room during the winter. It is recommended, therefore, that in all parts of the United States colonies of full strength be wintered in two hive-bodies of 10-frame Langstroth size. They should, of course, be provided with abundant protection and the entrances should be reduced. SPACE ABOVE THE FRAMES. Formerly it was commonly recommended that corn cobs, or other objects designed for the purpose, be placed above the top bars of the frames, and then that quilts be placed over these. The purpose of these objects, was to lift the quilts so that the bees could pass over the tops of the frames. In former years it was advised that holes be bored through the combs to permit passage from one space to the other. Of late years these things have been abandoned, to a large degree, for it is known now that if bees are packed as they should be they may pass easily at all times to any part of the hive as need arises. It is often stated that bees die of starvation in the hives when there is abundant honey not many inches away from the cluster. This, of course, never happens in colonies that are well packed. In colonies that are adequately protected there is no better plan than simply to leave the regular wooden cover in place and sealed down by the bees. Quilts directly over the frames are a nuisance at any time, and during the winter they are of no value for upward ventilation in well packed colonies and should be used only as a poor makeshift for good packing. UPWARD VENTILATION. A common practice has been to remove the hive cover when the bees are packed for winter and to cover the frames with burlap or some such porous material, the object being to allow the escape of any moisture which may be generated within the hive during the winter. Moisture is being generated constantly as the bees consume the honey stores, but if the bees are adequately packed the amount of moisture will be reduced to the minimum. The chief dancer, of course, is from moisture which condenses, and in an adequately packed hive there is no condensation. The temperature never goes low enough for water vapor to condense. Therefore it is obvious that upward ventilation for the escape of moisture is never needed in hives that are packed as they should be. Any beekeeper who has had trouble in the past with condensed moisture in the hives, or with wet packing over the porous tops, may be sure that he has not provided enough packing material. Another thing is to be considered in connection with the subject of upward ventilation. The entrances to the hives must be greatly reduced in order that there may not be excessive loss of heat at that point. If upward ventilation is provided, there is opportunity for the wind to blow through even the small entrance, through the hive and out through the porous cover. This current of air will be slight but nevertheless it exists, and serves as an avenue for the escape of considerable heat. If insufficient packing is provided, upward ventilation becomes almost necessary, unless a large entrance is left. The beekeeper must see to it that he is providing adequate packing material before he gives up the upward ventilation, but he should not count his bees well packed for winter so long as he must provide for the escape of condensed moisture. THE ENTRANCE. As has been pointed out, the entrances of hives must be greatly reduced during the winter in order that the efficacy of the bottom packing may be preserved. It is desirable, however, that provision be made for larger entrances during the early fall and again in the spring. To provide conditions suitable at all times while the packing cases are on, the Bureau of Entomology has adopted a type of entrance which to some extent has been used previously in the North. Five 3/8-inch anger holes are bored in the ends of the packing case at a height that will allow for the thickness of the case floor, the bottom packing, and the thickness of the bottom of the hive. This usually is a little over 6 inches from the lower edge of the case ends. No alighting board should be placed at the outer entrance holes, as it is not needed and serves only to collect snow and ice. To prevent the tunnels from getting out of alignment at the outer edge, a peg of the diameter of the holes is inserted through the outer hole for each hive and into the tunnel (see fig. 2). This peg is usually about 2-1/2 inches long. This leaves four auger holes, each three-eighths of an inch in diameter, for the bees to use as an entrance during the fall and spring, and during the colder weather a piece of section material or a small board is tacked over three of the holes. (See fig. 3.) This gives in winter a single hole for an entrance, three-eighths of an inch in diameter. This provides a place for the bees to remove their dead, a place for flight on moderately warm days, and also provides adequate ventilation for the hive while the bees are confined without an opportunity for flight. However, the size of entrance should not be discussed without warning beekeepers that unless adequate packing is provided, such a small entrance may result in the death of the colony. Furthermore, a poorly packed colony will not be able to carry out the bees as they die, and the death rate will be higher; and these things combined may result in an accumulation of dead bees at the entrance, which will serve to suffocate the remaining bees. A colony that is well packed, however, is able to remove all dead bees as fast as they die, and there will never be an accumulation on the floor of the hive. Furthermore, a well-packed colony does not need so large an entrance for ventilation as does one that is not packed or which has not enough packing. If snow drifts over the small entrance here described, the beekeeper need have no anxiety, for the bees can still receive adequate ventilation. If a crust of ice closes the entrance it will be well to break it, but usually the escaping heat will melt this ice before any damage is done. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Map of the eastern United States indicating average date of first killing frost in autumn. On this the zones for winter packing are based. No packing is recommended in zones A and B.] WINTER SCHEDULE. Great confusion has existed among beekeepers as to the right time to pack the bees for winter, and especially as to the right time to remove the packing in the spring. It is quite possible to give definite directions for both procedures and to place the recommendations on a firm foundation by basing them on weather phenomena. The maps (figs. 5 and 6), showing the time of the first average killing frost in the fall, serve as a basis for the recommendations for each of the zones into which the map of the eastern United States is divided. Perhaps it will be a matter of surprise to beekeepers in parts of the South to see that, so far as the wintering of the bees is concerned, they are as far north as beekeepers who live many miles farther toward the pole. The lines on figure 5 indicate the average dates of the first killing frost in the fall, and these dates, given at the ends of the heavy lines, are of direct value to the beekeeper as giving the proper time for putting on the winter cases. The average dates of the last killing frost in the spring do not show exactly the same lines on the maps, but the differences are not sufficiently great to justify the use of a separate map for this purpose. The authors have chosen therefore to divide the country into the zones indicated, and the recommendations given below apply to each of the zones shown. On account of the variations in elevation, it is impossible to carry these lines into the Rocky Mountain region, but as packing is just as necessary in the West as in the East, figure 6 is inserted to indicate roughly the time for the putting on of the packing in the fall. The dates in this map are the average dates of the first killing frost. By consulting Table I the beekeeper of the West may learn the time advised for the removal of the packing, by placing his locality in its proper zone, on the basis of the first killing frost. Table I.--_Dates for the packing and unpacking of been in the various parts of the United States, board on data furnished by the Weather Bureau for the average dates of the first and last killing frosts. The amount of packing recommended for each zone is included._ ------+-------------+-----------+----------------+----------------- | Date for | Date for | Packing | Zone.| packing. | unpacking.| recommended.[1]| Remarks. ------+-------------+-----------+----------------+----------------- A | ..... | ..... | ..... | None needed. B | ..... | ..... | ..... | Do. C | November 25 | March 15 | 2-4- 6 | D | November 10 | April 10 | 4-6- 8 | E | October 25 | May 1 | 4-6- 8 | F | October 1 | May 20 | 4-8-12 | G | September 15| June 1 | 4-8-12 | Cellar wintering | | | | much safer. ------+-------------+-----------+----------------+----------------- [1] In this column the first figure represents in inches the amount of packing needed below the bottom boards, the second the amount of side packing, and the last the amount needed on top. TIME FOR PUTTING ON THE WINTER PACKING. Frequently great loss of colony strength is due to delay in putting on the packing. Perhaps this is the most common source of loss in outdoor wintering aside from that due to a failure to pack the bees at all. Packing should not be deferred after the flowers furnishing the last honey are killed by frost. In case the late fall flowers furnish honey that is to be removed, then it is necessary to wait until nectar is no longer coming in before applying the packing, but it is indeed rare that the last honey should be taken away, and it is good beekeeping to apply the packing even before there is any frost at all. The determining factor is the necessity for handling the bees. If more stores must be given them or if some of the late honey is to be removed in order that it may be replaced by better honey or by sugar sirup, then handling of the bees after frost may be needed, but after the last essential handling it is much the best plan to pack the bees. In pints of the country where bees are wintered outdoors it is quite customary to delay packing until Thanksgiving Day, but this is too late by far except in the extreme South (zone C). It is safe, therefore, for the beekeeper to use the dates shown in figures 5 and 6 and the data given in Table I as a guide to the time of packing. He may be assured that if he delays packing later than the dates shown therein the bees will suffer by a loss of colony strength and vitality at a season of the year when they can ill afford to be weakened by neglect. Under no circumstances should packing be delayed more, than two weeks after the date given for each zone. Further, if packing is delayed until after cold weather begins, the disturbance of the colony may induce the beginning of brood-rearing, find this in turn may result in the death of the colony. If by chance a colony has been left unpacked until after the bees have been confined by cold weather for three or four weeks, the packing may do more harm than good. TIME FOR THE REMOVAL OF PACKING. If bees are given the right amount of room, stores, and protection early in the fall, nothing that the beekeeper can do will benefit them until it is necessary to handle them because of preparations for swarming or because of the incoming nectar. Of course if bees are well packed they get so strong in the spring that if crowded they begin preparations for swarming earlier than do colonies which have been neglected during the winter. By following the methods here described the season for swarm control is advanced, so that usually it is entirely passed before the honey-flow begins. In the region of Washington it has been found best not to remove the packing until at least May 1. Further south or in warmer regions it may be well to remove the packing earlier, but in localities such as New York or Wisconsin (zone F) the packing should be left in place until at least May 20, and usually until June 1. Obviously this will be impossible unless two hive bodies are left on the bees all winter, or unless more room is given in the early spring, before unpacking. It has been found that if the bees are allowed to remain in the cases until the dates named they may then be taken out ready for whatever nectar may come. By that time they should have 12 frames of brood--far more than is found in the average colony throughout the country oven in the midst of the honey-flow. Such colonies are so strong that if cooler weather comes after they are unpacked, as it sometimes does, they are not injured by it. Of course the bees would be as well of even better off if the packing could be left on throughout the year, but as yet no practicable way has been devised for giving the bees enough packing during the winter and then leaving it on throughout the summer. The commercial double-walled hives which have been devised for this purpose are all too scant in packing material for good results, and none of them can be recommended. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Map of the western United States, showing variation in average date of first killing frost. For each locality the recommendations for packing and unpacking are the same as in corresponding zones in figure 5. The dryer atmosphere of most of the West does not diminish the need of packing. For localities where the first frost occurs after November 25 no packing is recommended.] The dates given for the removal of packing in the spring follow approximately the average dates of the last killing frost in the spring for each locality. In case local conditions make the removal of the packing unnecessary as early as the dates indicated, it is entirely safe to leave the packing on until some manipulation makes it desirable to handle the combs, as this can not well be done while the hives are heavily packed. WINTER STORES. In packing bees for winter two things require attention so far as stores are concerned, and one is as important as the other: (1) There must be plenty of honey in the hive to last until the spring honey-flow, and (2) the stores which will be used by the bees during the period of confinement in winter must be of the best quality and well ripened. It is, of course, possible to give the bees more honey or sugar sirup after spring opens, but this means that the colonies will need to be handled during this period, and this is not the best plan. It is commonly said among the best beekeepers that "the best time to do spring feeding is the fall before." The safest plan by all means is to allow each colony to have at least 45 pounds of honey at the time the bees are packed. They should then be allowed to keep any honey which may come in later, and it will be adequately ripened if the colony is well packed. This will be small in extent if they are packed at the right time, and the bees will also have their stores replenished by small amounts of honey which come in during the early spring before they are unpacked. This amount of stores for winter will seem large to many beekeepers who have been in the habit of leaving loss, but the object of the plans herein set forth is to have much stronger colonies than are found in the average apiary in the spring, and the amount of stores mentioned may be needed. The only places where beekeepers might have some reason to reduce the amount of stores are locations where the honey granulates quickly, in which event it can not be extracted later. Such honey, however, usually is as good for winter stores as if it were not granulated, and it may then be saved for stores the following winter. Forty-five pounds of honey on the hive is a better investment for the beekeeper than money in the bank, and more beekeepers make mistakes in this regard than anywhere else in the work of the year. Honey that is high in gums, as many of the honeys which come from various trees, is not good for winter stores. Honeydew honey is still less desirable. When either is present it is best to remove it and either to give frames of good honey to take its place or to feed about 10 pounds of good honey or sirup made of granulated sugar after all brood-rearing has ceased. Honey or sugar sirup which is fed late is stored in the place where the last brood emerged; it is therefore the first of the stores that the bees use. As long as they are having good honey or sugar stores for winter use the condition known as dysentery will be warded off. Then, later, when they have used up the good stores, the weather will permit frequent flights, and then the less satisfactory stores will do no harm. Honeydew honeys usually may be detected by their bad taste, accompanied ordinarily by a dark, muddy appearance. In case of doubt as to the stores it is always safe to give good honey or sugar sirup. Unfortunately it is true that many of the fall honeys are not of the best quality for winter use, and this, in part, accounts for the heavy losses of bees occurring regularly in some parts of the country. ALL THE FACTORS OF GOOD WINTERING ARE NEEDED. One frequently encounters beekeepers who condemn winter packing, stating that they have tried it without success. The writers have met many such beekeepers, and many of them are good beekeepers in other respects. On careful inquiry it is learned that in all cases they have omitted some vitally important factor. The most common fault in winter packing is to leave the entrances of the hives wide open. This, of course, nullifies the benefit of the packing to a large degree, and one need not be surprised that these men do not find virtue in packing heavily. Another common fault in packing is to omit the packing from the bottom. Snow acts as an excellent insulation, but one can not be sure that there will be snow at just the right times, and it is therefore necessary, to insure good wintering, that good packing be placed on the bottoms. It is also common to face the hives to the south and then leave the fronts without packing, under the erroneous impression that since the heat from the sun will enter more readily, the colonies will be benefited more than they would be if they were heavily packed in front. To combat this view it should be necessary only to point out that the sun shines only a small fraction of the hours during winter. Furthermore, any place through which heat may enter easily serves also as a place through which heat escapes. In certain well-known cases the other factors of good wintering, strong colonies and good stores, are so well provided that the loss from this lack of protection is not detected, yet it is certain that in any such method of wintering there is a great loss of bee vitality, and the bees are compelled to do more work in heat generation than would be the case were they well packed. It can not be stated too strongly that the right way to winter bees is to provide all the factors needed, and not to omit any of them simply because in most years the bees can get through without all dying when less help is given. The three things necessary for successful earing for bees from the time they are packed until they are unpacked in the late spring are (1) plenty of protection, (2) plenty of stores of good quality, and (3) plenty of room for the building up of the colony strength in the spring. None of these may be omitted without reducing the colony strength in the spring, and, as every good beekeeper knows, it is the strong colonies which get the maximum crop. MEASURES OF SUCCESS IN WINTERING. It is often difficult for a beekeeper to know whether he is wintering his bees as well as he should, for he may not have been able to learn from reading or visiting other apiaries how well colonies may be brought through the winter. The writers therefore have attempted to give here a few measures which the beekeeper may apply to his apiary, that he may be able to decide whether his methods of wintering should be improved. 1. When bees are adequately packed and protected from the wind, they are able to push out the dead bees as they die in winter. There should never be an accumulation of dead bees on the bottom board. 2. A colony of full strength will have 12 Langstroth frames filled with brood by the time that the bees should be unpacked. The bees should not be taken from their cases until it is necessary to handle them, and if two hive bodies have been given each colony, unpacking may be deferred until time for the control of swarming or until the new honey is coming in freely. Sometimes it even happens that colonies need a third hive as a swarm prevention measure before it is time to remove the packing, in which case it can be given and the packing replaced, at least around the sides of the third hive body. Space for this is indicated in the dimensions given on page 9. 3. A colony is not of proper strength for winter unless it has between three and four frames of brood two months before the time for putting on packing. Usually this will be six weeks before brood-rearing ceases. If there is less brood at that time it indicates either that the queen is not good or that the colony has been weakened from some other cause. If taken in time this condition may be remedied by adding brood or honey or by uniting. It is extravagant to attempt to winter weak colonies. 4. If a thermometer is inserted into the hive through the auger hole entrance at the time of the coldest weather in winter it should show a temperature above the freezing point. At no time should the temperature of any part of the hive go below freezing, and the point just within the entrance is the most convenient one at which to take the temperature readings. The lowest temperature obviously will be at this point. THE PRESIDENT TO THE FARMERS OF AMERICA. [Extracts from President Wilson's message to the Farmers' Conference at Urbana, Ill., January 31, 1918.] The forces that fight for freedom, the freedom of men all over the world as well as our own, depend upon us in an extraordinary and unexpected degree for sustenance, for the supply of the materials by which men are to live and to fight, and it will be our glory when the war is over that we have supplied those materials and supplied them abundantly, and it will be all the more glory because in supplying them we have made our supreme effort and sacrifice. In the field of agriculture we have agencies and instrumentalities, fortunately, such as no other Government in the world can show. The Department of Agriculture is undoubtedly the greatest practical and scientific agricultural organization in the world. Its total annual budget of $10,000,000 has been increased during the last four years more than 72 per cent. It has a staff of 18,000, including a large number of highly trained experts, and alongside of it stand the unique land-grant colleges, which are without example elsewhere, and the 69 State and Federal experiment stations. These colleges and experiment stations have a total endowment of plant and equipment of $172,000,000 and an income or more than $35,000,000 with 10,271 teachers, a resident student body of 125,000, and a vast additional number receiving instructions at their homes. County agents, joint officers of the Department of Agriculture and of the colleges, are everywhere cooperating with the farmers and assisting them. The number of extension workers under the Smith-Lever Act and under the recent emergency legislation has grown to 5,500 men and women working regularly in the various communities and taking to the farmer the latest scientific and practical information. Alongside these great public agencies stand the very effective voluntary organizations among the farmers themselves which are more and more learning the best methods of cooperation and the best methods of putting to practical use the assistance derived from governmental sources. The banking legislation of the last two or three years has given the farmers access to the great lendable capital of the country, and it has become the duly both of the men in charge of the Federal Reserve Banking System and of the Farm Loan Banking System to see to it that the farmers obtain the credit, both short term and long term, to which they are entitled not only, but which it is imperatively necessary should be extended to them if the present tasks of the country are to be adequately performed. Both by direct purchase of nitrates and by the establishment of plants to produce nitrates, the Government is doing its utmost to assist in the problem of fertilization. The Department of Agriculture and other agencies are actively assisting the farmers to locate, safeguard, and secure at cost an adequate supply of sound seed. The farmers of this country are as efficient as any other farmers in the world. They do not produce more per acre than the farmers in Europe. It is not necessary that they should do so. It would perhaps be bad economy for them to attempt it. But they do produce by two to three or four times more per man, per unit of labor and capital, than the farmers of any European country. They are more alert and use more labor-saving devices than any other farmers, in the world. And their response to the demands of the present emergency has been in every way remarkable. Last spring their planting exceeded by 12,000,000 acres the largest planting of any previous year, and the yields from the crops were record-breaking yields. In the fall of 1917 a wheat acreage of 42,170,000 was planted, which was 1,000,000 larger than for any preceding year, 3,000,000 greater than the next largest, and 7,000,000 greater than the preceding five-year average. But I ought to say to you that it is not only necessary that these achievements should be repeated, but that they should be exceeded. I know what this advice involves. It involves not only labor but sacrifice, the painstaking application of every hit of scientific knowledge and every tested practice that is available. It means the utmost economy, even to the point where the pinch comes. It means the kind of concentration and self-sacrifice which is involved in the field of battle itself, where the object always looms greater than the individual. And yet the Government will help and help in every way that it is possible. It was farmers from whom came the first shots at Lexington, that set aflame the Revolution that made America free. I hope and believe that the farmers of America will willingly and conspicuously stand by to win this war also. The toil, the intelligence, the energy, the foresight, the self-sacrifice and devotion of the farmers of America will, I believe, bring to a triumphant conclusion this great last war for the emancipation of men from the control of arbitrary government and the selfishness of class legislation and control, and then, when the end has come, we may look each other in the face and be glad that we are Americans and have had the privilege to play such a part. THE BUSINESS OF AGRICULTURE. [Extracts from addresses.] The next great factor to enlist for the betterment of Agriculture and rural life in this Nation is the business man of the town and the city. He has not always been alive to his obligations. He has contented himself, in too many instances, with plans to secure profit in agricultural trade, instead of sympathetically and eagerly planning constructive assistance. This duty, pressing in peace time, is of the most urgent and impelling character in this crisis; and I appeal to the bankers and business men to see that they omit no effort to familiarize themselves with the agencies serving to aid the farmers and to promote wise plans to secure the necessary results. D. F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. In the interest of our national development at all times and in the interest of war efficiency just now our agriculture must be well maintained. It should be remembered that the agricultural unit is a small unit. There are 6,000,000 farms in this country, each an individual unit. It is to the interest of persons who do not live on farms, even more than to the interest of those who do live on farms, that production shall be kept up. This means that all people, not farmers alone, but those who live in cities as well as the farmers, are interested in experimental and educational activities along agricultural lines as conducted by the Federal Government and the States. These efforts should be liberally supported. R. A. Pearson, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. In a time like this no man has a moral right, whatever his fortune may be, to employ another man to render any service, of mere comfort or convenience. When the finest young men of the United States are in France digging ditches, sawing lumber, laying rails, and playing with death, and when the finest young women of the United States are scrubbing floors in hospitals, it is a sin that almost approaches the unpardonable offense against civilization for any man or women in the United States to engage in a wasteful or unnecessary service. Clarence Ousley, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. BEEKEEPING IN WARTIMES. It is imperative that the sugar crop of the United States be increased, and every supply of supplemental sweet should be augmented to the greatest possible extent. Honey is one of the best of these and its production may be increased without great effort. The supply of nectar from which the bees make honey is bountiful and the only limitation to honey production is whether the price obtainable for the honey justifies the labor of the beekeeper. There is no question of this in wartimes. The recent demand for honey for export has been greater than ever before and the home demand has also greatly increased. Because of the shortage of sugar, all forms of supplemental sweets are being utilized and none of these appeals to the tastes of the consuming public more strongly than does honey. This increased demand has raised the price of honey and it is therefore a paying business to produce it to meet this need, in addition to the fact that the beekeeper may feel that he is materially assisting in the food crisis of the Nation. It is to be expected that even after the war is over this demand for honey will not cease, for many people are eating honey now who were not familiar with its delicious qualities, and they will not forget how good it is. In the production of honey, it is of the first importance that the colonies of bees be kept strong, especially that they be strong before the beginning of the main honey-flows of the early summer. To bring about this essential condition, the most important step is the proper wintering of the bees, and this bulletin has been prepared that beekeepers throughout the country may be able to get their bees through the winter without the great loss of colonies and reduction in strength of those which still live which have been so common in the past. The proper preparation of the bees for winter now becomes not only a patriotic duty, but it is good business. KEEP MORE BEES. KEEP BEES BETTER * * * * * Transcriber Notes Illustrations moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. 
49077	----	THE ART OF HORSE-SHOEING A Manual for Farriers, [Illustration] BY WILLIAM HUNTING, F.R.C.V.S. _Editor of The Veterinary Record._ _Veterinary Inspector for Westminster and Chelsea._ _Consulting Veterinary Surgeon to the London Road-Car Company._ _Member of the Committee for National Registration of Farriers._ With nearly one hundred Illustrations. London: H. & W. BROWN, 20 FULHAM ROAD, S.W. 1895. CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE. I.--INTRODUCTION II.--FORM AND ACTION OF THE FOOT 9 The hoof. The sensitive foot, growth and wear of hoof. The bones, cartilages, pads and vessels. Action of the foot, expansion and contraction, function of the frog. The natural bearing-surface. III.--PREPARATION OF HOOF FOR SHOEING 32 Bearing-surface for shoe. Proportions of foot, height of heel, length of toe, treatment of sole and frog. Faults to be avoided. IV.--THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES 48 Material, weight, thickness, width. The foot-surface of shoes. The ground-surfaces. Calkins, nails and nail-holes. Machine-made shoes. Prepared bar-iron. V.--SELECTION OF A SHOE 65 For varieties of horse and work. VI.--FITTING AND APPLICATION OF SHOES 67 Level or adjusted form. Outline fitting, surface fitting. Clips, hot and cold fitting. Tips. The Charlier system. VII.--ON ROUGHING 83 Necessity for, evils of. Frost-nails, ordinary "roughing." Movable steel sharps, steel screw sharps. VIII.--INJURIES RESULTING FROM SHOEING 90 From nails, from the clip, from the shoe. "Corns," "burnt sole." "Treads." "Cutting or Brushing." "Over-reaching." "Speedy-cut." "Forging or Clacking." IX.--SHOEING BAD FEET 100 Flat feet, convex soles, broken feet. X.--LEATHER AND RUBBER PADS 107 Plain leather, ring-leathers, frog-pads. The Pneumatic Pad, The Wedge-pad, The Bar-pad. XI.--SHOEING COMPETITIONS 112 PREFACE. This little book is written for three classes of readers--for horse-owners who may interest themselves in the subject, for farriers who are open to conviction, and for veterinary students who have to be examined. The method pursued has been, to first describe the form and action of the foot, next the preparation of the foot for shoeing. Then the form of a shoe is treated of and the details to be observed in making it. The selection of shoes for varieties of feet or for special kinds of work follows, and afterwards the fitting and nailing-on are considered. Other chapters are devoted to "roughing," shoeing defective feet, accidents, the use of leathers and pads. Throughout an endeavour has been made to be as simple and clear as possible in expression, to lay down correct general principles and to point out the technical details which are essential to good shoeing. On all these points authorities are not agreed, and I trust those who differ from me will pardon any too dogmatic expressions of opinion in these pages. The illustrations will be of assistance in making clear the text. Some of these are copied from books, some are drawn from models or preparations, and some are diagramatic. The books I am indebted to are, "Anatomy of the Domestic Animals," by Gamgee and Laws; "On the Horse's Foot," by Bracy Clark; Bouley's "Atlas of the Foot," and Goyau's "Maréchalerie." WILLIAM HUNTING. 16 Trafalgar Square, London, S.W. THE ART OF HORSE-SHOEING A MANUAL FOR FARRIERS. CHAPTER I. Farriery is the art of shoeing horses, and can only be properly learned by a long practical experience in the shoeing-forge. If the foot of the horse were not a living object perhaps the training obtained in the forge would be all that was necessary for efficient workmanship. As, however, the hoof is constantly growing it is constantly changing its form. The duty of a farrier therefore is not merely to fix a shoe upon the hoof but to reduce the hoof to proper proportions before doing so. Now as hoof is only the outer covering of a complex and sensitive foot, damage to the exterior surface may injure the structures within. Injury does frequently result, and not always from carelessness. Perhaps as much injury follows careful work, based upon wrong principles, as slovenly work carried out in perfect ignorance of any principle. The injury to feet resulting from shoeing may not be apparent at once. It may be, and often is, of a slow and gradual nature, and not credited to its true cause until the horse is rendered an incurable cripple. It seems evident then that to do justice to a horse a farrier should not only possess manipulative skill, but should have a correct idea of the structures and functions of the foot, as well as a thorough knowledge of the form and variations of the hoof. Few persons appreciate the importance of horse-shoeing, whilst a small number tell us it is unnecessary. Here and there an enthusiast has the courage of his convictions and is able, for a time, to exhibit animals doing work without shoes. In some countries horses are regularly ridden with no addition to their natural hoof, but in such places the surface over which the animals travel is grass land. In all civilised countries where good roads exist shoeing is practised. The gentleman with a fad who occasionally appears in England with unshod horses at work is an unconscious impostor. He sets his little experience against the common sense and universal practice of others. No man of business would pay for shoeing if he could do without it. The "shoeless" experiment has been tried over and over again, but always with the same result--a return to shoeing. In dry weather the hoof becomes hard, and it is wonderful how much wear it will then stand on the hardest of roads. In wet weather the hoof becomes soft, and then the friction on hard roads soon prohibits work without shoes. If work be persisted in, under such circumstances, the hoof rapidly wears away and lameness results. Persons trying to prove a pre-conceived theory meet this difficulty by resting the horse until the horn grows, but business men who keep horses for work in all weathers can afford no such luxury. Shoeing has been called "a necessary evil." The phrase is a misuse of words, for there is no necessary evil about it. Of course it is no more free from accident than other operations, but its evils are fairly described as accidents, whilst its benefits are fully apparent. Without shoes horses at work would be more often lame than with them; without shoes horses could not do half the work they do with them, and so we need not further discuss the necessity of shoeing. The value of horse-shoeing depends upon the manner in which it is done. Very seldom does the owner of horses appreciate the quality of the work. As a rule the price charged, or the distance from the forge to the stable, regulates the choice of a farrier. Not having any pecuniary interest in the trade, I may say that such matters should not be allowed to decide between one farrier and another. A bad workman may do an injury at one shoeing which will cost the owner of the horse more than would pay ten times over the difference between his charges and the higher prices of a better man. Many years ago I knew a firm who changed their farrier and system of shoeing for a cheaper plan. The cost for shoeing alone fell very considerably, but the cost of horse-flesh rose in one year more than £100. The old saw--"that for want of a nail the shoe was lost, for want of a shoe the horse was lost, and for want of a horse the man was lost," has been illustrated times without number. Few persons, however, are aware of the terrible consequences which have more than once attended neglect in the shoeing of horses. Napoleon's retreat from Moscow depended for most of its hardships and horrors upon the simple fact that his horses were not shod properly for travelling on snow and ice. The horses could not keep their feet, and were unable to drag the guns and waggons, which had to be abandoned. During the Franco-Prussian war, Bourbaki's retreat became a confused rout from a similar cause. In civil life no winter passes without injury and death to hundreds of horses from the same neglect. These are instances that anyone can see; but heavy losses due to bad shoeing are constant from other or less evident evils--from the adoption of wrong methods and the practice of erroneous theories. The farrier has not been fairly treated by the public. His practical knowledge has been ignored, he has been instructed by amateurs in all sorts of theories, and coerced into carrying out practices for the untoward results of which he has been blamed. The natural consequence of all this has been that the art of farriery degenerated, and the farrier was forced into a position destructive to the self-respect of any craftsman. In no other trade do persons entirely ignorant of the business presume to direct and dictate as to how the work should be done. No one presumes to instruct the watch-maker or bell-hanger as to the details of his craft, but the farrier has been compelled to take his instructions from all sorts and conditions of men. Only in recent years has the man who shoes horses been allowed to know something of his calling. Various causes have acted in putting an end to the state of discord, and the trade is now entering upon a brighter time. The Worshipful Company of Farriers--one of those ancient City Guilds which had survived their original vocation and usefulness--has wakened up, and is striving to resume its proper function as the head and director of the trade over which it ought to preside. Agricultural Societies have also taken the matter up, and fostered a healthy emulation amongst farriers by instituting practical competitions at their shows. Veterinary Surgeons have devoted considerable research to the elucidation of the anatomy and physiology of the foot, and many old errors have been corrected. School Boards have made the present generation of farriers able and willing to supplement their practice by a study of principles. We have, in fact, arrived at a time when everyone interested seems inclined to recognise the importance of the art and its technical difficulties, and when no one has a brand new infallible discovery which alone can save the horse and guide the farrier. My object in writing is not to suggest anything new but to point out the general principles upon which the art is based, and to indicate those details which are essential to success, and those which are to be avoided if soundness and duration of service are recognised as true economy in a stud of horses. CHAPTER II. THE FORM AND ACTION OF THE FOOT. The foot of a horse consists of a variety of living structures, differing in form and texture, and enclosed in a horny covering called the hoof. Although the farrier's work is applied only to the hoof it is necessary that he should know something of the whole foot, because it is but too easy to injure the structures within by alterations of the horny covering without. The simplest way to understand the foot is to study separately the different parts, and to apply that knowledge in obtaining a general idea of the relations of all the parts to each other. There is not then much difficulty in appreciating the functions of each part, and the uses and action of the whole organ. THE HOOF. Everyone is familiar with the general appearance of the hoof. It is not a regular geometrical figure. Each of the four feet of the horse shows some peculiarity in form, by which a farrier can at once identify a fore from a hind or a left from a right. The fore feet should be similar in size and shape. Disease may be suspected when any marked difference exists. But a healthy hoof which has been broken, or much rasped, does not retain its proper form and may thus confuse a novice. The hind feet should be proportionate in size to the fore, and then it is not of much practical consequence whether the whole are large or small. The front feet are rounder and less pointed at the toe than the hind; they are also more sloping in front. The two fore feet and the two hind should be in pairs. The right and left feet are distinguished from each other by the inner side being more upright or, if examined on the under surface, by the outer border being more prominent. Although to a casual observer the hoof appears as one continuous horny structure, it may easily be separated into three distinct parts by prolonged soaking in water. The division takes place so as to leave the sole, frog, and wall separate portions. These may now be considered. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--A Fore Foot.] [Illustration: Fig. 2.--A Hind Foot.] =The Wall= is that portion of the hoof seen whilst the foot rests upon the ground. It covers the front and sides of the foot. It extends from the coronet downwards and slightly outwards so that its lower circumference is greater than its upper. The front portion shows its greatest height and obliquity, diminishing in these respects as it passes backwards. At the heels the wall is turned in upon itself, and passes forward towards the centre of the foot until it becomes lost in the structure of the sole. These turned-in portions of the wall are called _the bars_, and serve two purposes; they increase the bearing surface of the wall, and by embracing a part of the sole on each side, they afford an increased solidity to the union of the wall with the rest of the hoof. If we detach the wall its inner surface is seen to consist of a number of thin horny projections running parallel to each other from above downwards and forwards. These are called the horny laminæ. They number from five to six hundred and correspond to similar processes on the sensitive foot. (Fig. 3). [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Half of a Hoof, showing the inside.] Round the upper circumference on the inside of the wall is a depression or groove presenting innumerable small pits or openings. This corresponds to a part of the sensitive foot called the coronary band, which will be noticed again. A section of wall enables us to see variations in its thickness. (Fig. 4). It is thickest at the toe, becoming gradually thinner towards the heels; thus affording strength and solidity to resist wear at one part, as well as pliancy at another to ward off concussion. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Transverse Section of Wall showing variation in thickness.] The structure of the wall is fibrous--the fibres running parallel to each other, and with the same obliquity as that presented by the front of the wall. Although the wall varies in thickness from before backwards, it does not from above downwards. It maintains the same thickness from the coronet to its lower circumference. The layers of the wall are hardest externally, becoming softer as they approach the inner surface--a condition due to the outer layers being exposed to friction and evaporation. This is a simple and valuable provision of nature which should not be interfered with. The hard outer layer is best adapted to withstand wear, and its density protects the deeper layers from evaporation. This maintains the whole wall at the degree of softness and toughness which best preserves elasticity and strength of horn. =The Sole= is that division of the hoof which forms the floor of the foot. It is situated within the lower border of the wall, and is slightly arched so that on a hard level surface its central part takes no bearing. (Fig. 5). Posteriorly the sole is divided by a triangular space into which the frog fits, and thus its continuation to the heels consists of two angular portions embraced between the bars and the wall. The unmutilated sole is throughout of nearly equal thickness, but a slight excess round the circumference gives firmer attachment to the wall. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--The Sole with Frog removed.] The inner surface presents a finely pitted appearance which is most marked at the toe and round its border. The part immediately related to the frog shows few pits, and we shall find that the whole surface corresponds to the sensitive parts to which it is attached. The structure of the sole is, like the wall, fibrous; but the fibres are smaller. They run downwards and forwards in the same direction as those of the wall. The outer layers are the hardest and protect the deeper from injury. =The Frog= is the smallest division of the hoof, and is a triangular shaped body filling up the space left between the bars. (Fig. 6). Its broad base is rounded and prominent, and is continued laterally by a thin layer which binds together the heels and envelopes the back of the foot. This thin layer is continuous with a horny band extending round the upper part of the wall at its junction with the hair, and sometimes prolonged downwards on the surface of the wall. (Fig. 7). It appears to be a continuation of the outer layer of the skin, analogous to the free border of skin at the root of the human nail. (Fig 8). It serves the useful purpose of covering and protecting the young horn of the wall at its source of growth. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--The Frog, detached from the Sole.] [Illustration: Fig. 7.--The Frog and frog-band.] [Illustration: Fig. 8.--The frog band detached from wall by a small wedge.] The point of the frog, much the harder part, extends forward to the centre of the sole. Though situated between the bars the frog is only attached to their upper border--the sides remaining free and separate. Thus on each side is formed a deep fissure which permits the frog to expand laterally when compressed, without such force being continued to the sides of the foot. The frog is elastic, and when pressed upon must expand slightly. If these spaces between frog and bars did not exist, the foot would be injured when the frog was compressed by the weight of the horse--either the sensitive parts within would be bruised or the heels would be forced apart. The centre of the frog presents a depression or "cleft" caused by the doubling in of the horn. Few shod feet exhibit it of natural appearance, and the term cleft, by implying a narrow deep fissure, keeps up the false notion. The cleft should be shallow and rounded. It serves two purposes--it increases the mobility of the frog, and by breaking the regularity of surface affords a secure foot-hold on level ground. The prominence of the frog might lead a superficial observer to consider it a thick solid mass; and I believe this mistake is the cause of its too frequent mutilation. It is merely a layer of horn following the outline of the structures within, which are similarly prominent and irregular in surface. (Figs. 9 and 10). The diagrams show a section through the point and through the cleft of the frog. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Section of Foot at cleft.] [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Section at point.] The frog is fibrous, though not to such a marked degree as the other portions of the hoof. Its chief qualities are elasticity and toughness. THE SECRETING STRUCTURES. If we macerate a dead foot in water for a week or two, the hoof may be removed entire without injuring the tissues within. In this way the sensitive foot or "quick" is exposed to view, and presents an exact counterpart of the inside of the hoof. The sensitive foot consists of a layer of fibrous tissue stretched over the bones and other structures which form the centre of the foot. It is plentifully supplied with blood-vessels and nerves necessary to its double function as the source of horn growth and as the tactile organ of the foot. Horn is, of course, not sensitive, although the slightest touch on a horse's hoof is recognised by the animal, and this feeling is due to the impression made upon the sensitive foot. In the living horse any injury to the "quick" causes the greatest pain, and although this sensitiveness is a serious disadvantage in disease it is a most valuable provision in health, enabling the horse, even through a thick layer of horn, to recognise the quality of the surface upon which he may be standing or moving. It is this sense of touch--this tactile function--which demands that the sensitive foot should be so bountifully supplied with nerves. Every farrier knows how profusely blood flows from any wound of the "quick"--evidence that the part is well supplied with blood-vessels. This full supply of blood is not merely for the ordinary waste and repair which takes place in every tissue; it is to meet a special demand--to supply the material for the production of horn. The sensitive foot is the secreting structure of the hoof, and the source of the constant growth and reproduction of horn. It corresponds with great exactness to the inside of the hoof, and as we have described the hoof in sections it may be convenient to follow that course with this structure, and to describe the _sensitive frog_, the _sensitive sole_, and the _sensitive laminæ_. We shall begin with the last. =The Sensitive Laminæ.= Corresponding to the horny leaves on the inside of the wall, the sensitive foot presents an arrangement of minute parallel folds which are called the sensitive laminæ. (Fig. 11). Between these the horny laminæ rest, so that there is a kind of interleaved attachment which affords the very firmest connection between the wall and the sensitive foot. If the laminæ be laid bare in a living horse by removal of the wall, it is found that they have the power to secrete a kind of horn, not a hard fibrous horn like that of the wall, but a softer variety. This function is not very active in health or we should find that the lower edge of the wall was thicker than the upper; but it exists, and is very evident in some cases of disease. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Foot with hoof removed showing at the upper part the Coronary band, and below the Sensitive Laminæ.] In laminitis the wall at the toe is often pushed forward out of position by a horny mass formed by the laminæ, and so we have the deformity of an excessive length of toe. In some cases of long continued sandcrack the irritation of the laminæ causes excessive secretion, and a horn tumour results. The sensitive laminæ, then, fulfil two functions; they offer a firm connecting medium for the wall, and they secrete horn. By the cruel experiment of removing the horny sole and frog of a living horse and then forcing him to stand on the maimed foot on a level surface, it has been shown that the laminæ are capable of alone supporting the weight of the animal. It has been argued from this that the laminæ always support the weight, and that the horse's foot may be described as being slung by the connecting laminæ. This is not true. The frog and sole help to support weight, and the hoof acts as one continuous whole, each part taking its direct and proportionate share of the weight placed upon the foot. The sensitive laminæ are not elastic, they are unyielding, and, therefore, allow no downward yielding which would impose excessive pressure on the sole. =The Coronary Band.= (See Fig. 11). The sensitive laminæ do not cover the whole of the upright portions of the sensitive foot. There is between their upper extremity and the line which separates the skin from the sensitive foot, a convex band which runs round the upper border of the foot, and is turned downwards and inwards at the heels. This is called the coronary band, and corresponds to the groove which we noticed on the inner side of the upper border of the wall. On its surface are innumerable small projections or papillæ which, in the living animal, fit into the openings on the groove of the wall. From each of these papillæ grows a horn fibre, and from the surface between them is formed a softer horny matter--the two products forming together the substance of the wall. The coronary band is, then, an important structure, being the source from whence the wall is produced. Upon the healthy condition of this band depends the soundness of the wall, and any interference with its integrity must lead to defects or deformities in the wall. =The Sensitive Sole= (Fig. 12) is that portion of the "quick" to which the sole is attached. Its surface is covered with papillæ, like those on the coronary band but much smaller, giving an appearance somewhat like the pile of velvet. From these the horn fibres of the sole are formed, and a firm means of connection is afforded for the floor of the hoof. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Under Surface of Foot showing Sensitive Frog and Sole.] =The Sensitive Frog= in structure resembles the sensitive sole, but its papillæ are very much smaller, and the surface therefore is smoother. The irregular prominent surface of the frog, with its cleft and the space at each side of it, is exactly reproduced on the sensitive frog, as might be expected, for the one is moulded on the other. There is one difference between the sensitive frog and the other portions of the sensitive foot which I may here mention. It is not attached to the bones of the foot except by its point, but is situated behind the bone, and has as a basis a mass of soft tissue which forms an important cushion or pad, to be referred to later. GROWTH OF HOOF. Like every other part of an animal body, the hoof is constantly changing. Wear and tear cause waste of the horn, which is replenished by growth. When wear exceeds growth the foot becomes denuded of horn, and lameness results. When growth exceeds wear the hoof becomes disproportionately long, and some parts suffer by the overgrowth of others--for instance, whenever the heels are unduly high the frog becomes small and weak. In a state of nature the horse's foot keeps itself of proportionate form. On hard ground the hoof is worn away as quickly as it grows. On soft ground it may, for a time, become overgrown, but this is rectified by the soft horn becoming fractured and broken off. In enclosed cultivated grounds the movements of the horse, even on grass land, are too limited to ensure a proportionate form of hoof. When horses are turned out without shoes the feet should not be left to take care of themselves, unless the pasture is of large area and the time at grass extends for several months. In a hoof which is overgrown--and all shod feet become overgrown in four or five weeks--there is apparently a greater excess of horn at the toe than elsewhere. This is due to the oblique direction of the wall at the toe, and to the fact that the horn fibres of the hoof do not grow down vertically, but obliquely forward. When the natural wear of the hoof is prevented, the effect of growth is to lengthen the toe and carry forward the bearing surface of the foot. Now this bearing surface has a proper relative position to the limb above it. Therefore a disproportionate foot must injuriously affect both the action and position of the whole limb. The rate at which the wall grows varies greatly in different horses, and is affected by external conditions. The good average wall grows nearly one inch in three months, and the whole hoof is replaced in from ten to fifteen months. The hoof grows more rapidly when a horse is actively exercised than when he is confined in a box. Febrile diseases check growth, and irregularities of the system cause the formation of ridges in the horn, each one commencing at the coronet and being carried down with the growing horn until the hoof is marked by a series of rings running transversely and parallel to each other. These rings are of themselves no detriment to a horse, but they mark irregularities of growth which may have been due to illness or lameness. The growth of horn on a shod foot is affected by the bearing it takes. When a part of the wall takes no bearing on the shoe it grows quicker than that which does. We see this when a shoe is so fitted that the heels take no direct pressure on the shoe, also when a portion of wall is broken at the quarters, and again when, for any reason, a portion of the edge of the wall has been rasped away to prevent bearing upon some special spot. In all these cases, after the shoe has been worn a month, it will be found that the horn has grown more rapidly at the part where bearing did not take place, and, when the shoe is removed, the horn which was relieved of pressure is found to have been in apposition with the shoe. The growth of horn cannot be accelerated by any application to its surface. If we desire to hasten growth of the wall we can do so by stimulating the part from which it is produced, _i.e._, the coronary band. A mild blister to the coronet causes considerable increase in the rapidity of growth, but no ointments applied to the surface of the wall affect its production in the least, though they may modify its condition and prevent dryness and brittleness. The sole grows in much the same way as the wall, but it wears quite differently. It never becomes overgrown to the extent seen in some instances of the wall. The hard firm structure of the wall, if not worn down by friction on roads or dry hard surfaces, may grow to a great length. As a rule, when much overgrown, it splits in the direction of its fibres and becomes detached in broken fragments. The sole, when overgrown, has a tendency to become detached in flakes, and never very much exceeds its normal thickness without becoming dry and brittle, when the movements of the horse cause it to break up and fall off. The frog when it takes a bearing on the ground wears off in shreds. A frog which takes no bearing dries up, and sometimes a large superficial layer is cast off. Though the softest of the horny divisions of the hoof, the frog is able to withstand wear and tear as well as any of the others. Being elastic and resting upon soft tissues, it is able to yield to any undue pressure and leave the firmer horn of the wall and bars to sustain the greater strain. The growth of the frog depends a great deal upon the form of the back parts of the wall. If the heels become overgrown, the frog is removed from bearing and consequently wastes. High heels have always between them a small frog. On the other hand low weak heels have always a large frog, and the explanation is that the increased bearing thrown on the frog causes greater development. =Properties of Horn.= Horn is light, hard, tough, and elastic, properties most essential to its usefulness as a protector of the foot. Horn is porous, and absorbs moisture. Too much moisture in horn weakens it, and therefore it must be remembered that the natural protection against this is the hard outer layer of the hoof. When this layer is rasped off moisture is more easily absorbed until the dry, hard surface is restored by exposure and friction. Horn is a bad conductor of heat, and thus an equally good protective against the effects of snow in some countries, and of hot dry sands in others. With a sound thick hoof the application of a red-hot shoe produces very little effect on the internal structures, provided, of course, it remain in contact only a reasonable time. With a foot protected by a thin layer of horn, fitting a red-hot shoe must be done quickly or it may damage the soft tissues. DISSECTION OF THE FOOT. So far we have only described the outer covering of the foot and the structure from which it grows and by which it is connected to the parts within. A little deeper examination is necessary to understand the mechanism of the whole organ. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Section of Foot.] If we divide into two lateral halves a foot cut off at the fetlock joint, we have a section which should show the whole of the deeper structures. In the centre we see the three lower bones of the limb--the pastern, coronet, and pedal. (Fig. 11). On the front surface of these bones we notice a tendon or sinew which comes from above the knee and is fixed to the upper part of the pedal bone. At the back of the bones two very large tendons run down and are fixed on the last two bones. These tendons are the structures through which the movements of the foot are made. They have in themselves no power of contraction but they are connected above the knee, and in the hind leg above the hock, to powerful muscles which possess the power of contraction. When these muscles contract the tendons are drawn up towards knee or hock, and so move the foot backwards or forwards. To permit movement of one bone upon another the ends of the bones are suitably shaped, and covered with a layer of gristle or cartilage. To limit the movement and to hold the bones together the ends of each bone are surrounded by ligaments, and thus we have joints formed. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Side view of Pedal Bone.] The pastern bone is altogether above the level of the foot, the coronet bone is partially within the hoof, and the joint between it and the pedal bone is quite within. The pedal, often called the coffin bone, (Fig. 12) is entirely within the hoof and fills the front part of the horny envelope completely. It is a peculiarly shaped bone, being continued backwards by two projections which follow the course of the wall to a little beyond the quarters of the foot. (Fig. 13). From this point to the extremity of the heels the wall is not supported by bone but by strong plates of gristle, which are called the lateral cartilages. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Under surface of Pedal Bone.] [Illustration: Fig. 14.--The Lateral Cartilage.] =The Lateral Cartilages= are situated one on either side of the foot partly within and partly without the hoof. They form the basis upon which the back part of the wall is moulded, and being elastic permit a certain amount of movement in the posterior parts of the foot. (Fig. 14). If the coffin bone filled the whole hoof, the foot would be too rigid. With bone at the front portion we have a firm surface for attachment, and with cartilage at the back we have an equally firm attachment, but one that will yield to blows or pressure and thus better protect the internal parts. These cartilages extend above the level of the hoof, and may be easily felt in the living horse at the back part of the coronet. (Fig. 15). Between them, and behind the body of the coffin bone is a large space which is filled up by a mass of soft tissue to which various names have been given, such as plantar-cushion, frog-pad, etc. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Coffin Bone and Lateral Cartilages seen from above.] =The Frog-Pad= is the name under which we shall notice it. It forms the bulbs of the heels and is the soft basis upon which is spread the sensitive frog. It extends from side to side of the foot between the two lateral cartilages, and fills up all the space within the hoof behind the body of the coffin bone. The structure of this pad may be described roughly as consisting of a network of fibrous bands, having the interstices filled up with elastic tissue. (Fig. 16). Down the centre of the pad runs a vertical partition of inelastic fibres; from this strong fibrous bands pass to each cartilage, and so the whole of the back part of the foot is tied together. The heels and quarters may be pressed together to some extent, but they are prevented from being forced asunder by the fibrous connections of the frog-pad. During progression the downward movement of the coronet bone is provided for by this soft pad, and so is an upward movement of the frog when excessive bearing is placed upon it. [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Section of foot showing the frog-pad and at each side the cut edge of the lateral cartilage.] The frog-pad serves other purposes besides those we have just referred to. It is essentially a cushion or pad to prevent jar or concussion, but it also plays an important part in the action of the foot, as we shall see later on. =The Coronary Cushion or Pad= is another mass of tissue of a similar nature to the frog-pad. It is situated just above the upper border of the hoof, and gives to the coronet its prominence and elasticity. At this part of the foot there is an enormous number of small blood-vessels and nerves, and the coronary pad forms not only a base for these to rest on but a necessary protection for them. If instead of this elastic bed they were placed merely between the skin and the hard bones and tendons of the part, they would be injured by every slight bruise. Even with this cushion, we have in practice very many serious conditions following bruise of the coronet. =Blood-vessels of the Foot.= It is not necessary to describe the course of these vessels. All we need remember is that every part of the tissues within the hoof is very plentifully supplied with blood, and that the flow of blood is most rapid when the foot is in action. In a dead foot from which the blood has escaped a certain amount of movement of the bones within the hoof is easily effected. In the living foot when every vessel is filled with blood no such movement takes place. The blood in the vessels forms a sort of waterbed which assists in preventing concussion and which distributes evenly over the whole organ the pressure applied when weight is thrown on the foot. In studying the dead foot with a view to understand its mechanism we must not lose sight of the difference which results from having in one case the blood-vessels empty, and in the other--the living animal--the blood-vessels full. THE FOOT AS A WHOLE. The details I have given of the structure and uses of each separate part of the foot will, I hope, be sufficient to enable us to understand the form and action of the organ as a whole. No one part of the foot is of greater importance than another, each is dependent for its highest development and soundest condition upon the integrity of neighbouring parts. A weak wall allows of the flattening and spreading of the sole, whilst a weak sole permits contraction of the wall. Overgrown heels cause wasting of the frog, but low weak heels are usually accompanied by excessive development of frog. The special function of the foot is to sustain the weight of the animal whilst standing or moving. The horse standing squarely on all four feet rests his weight chiefly on the lower circumference of the wall. On level ground the sole, on account of its arched form, takes no direct bearing, but if sole and wall be sound a proportion of all pressure applied to the wall is transmitted to the sole. So also must all weight imposed on the arch of the sole be transmitted, through its abutments or union with the wall, to the wall. If the sole be so thin that it yields to pressure then its proper action is destroyed, and instead of acting like an arch and supporting weight imposed on it, it yields and injury results. The arched form of the sole indicates that it was not intended to take a direct bearing on hard ground. On a soft surface the edge of the wall sinks and the whole under surface of the foot takes a direct bearing. Pressure of the sole on the soft surface does no harm because it is diffused evenly over the whole of the sole. We take advantage of this when the wall is diseased or injured, and we desire to throw on the sole a larger share of weight. We turn such animals out into a soft field or stable them on sand or saw-dust. Any system of shoeing founded upon the true form and action of the foot must recognise the arch, and not endeavour to force the sole to take a bearing for which it is not adapted. There is only one part of the sole which should act as a bearing surface, viz., that outer border which is firmly joined to the wall. This part--the abutment of the arch--is destined by nature to take a bearing and through it the whole of the sole supports its share of weight. The frog takes a bearing on the ground but it has a weight sustaining function quite secondary to the harder and firmer parts of the hoof. It is formed of a softer horn, and it has above it only soft tissues which permit yielding. The frog then, when weight is placed upon it by the standing horse, recedes from pressure, and leaves the heels (wall and bars) to sustain the primary weight. Wall, sole, and frog, each take their share in supporting weight, but this function is distributed over them in different degrees, and it is fulfilled by each in a varying manner. During progression the foot is repeatedly raised from and replaced on the ground. It has not only to support weight but to sustain the effects of contact with the ground at each step, and the effects of being the point of resistance when the body is carried forward and the foot is again raised from the ground. What part of the foot comes first to the ground? Many different answers have been given to this question. It has been said by some that the toe first touches the ground, by others that the foot is laid flat down, and by a few that the heel is the first part to come in contact with the ground. Fortunately it is not now necessary to argue this question on a purely theoretical basis. Instantaneous photography has shown that on level ground, at all paces, the horse touches the ground first with the heel. This fact gives significance to the structural differences we find between the front and back portions of the foot. At the back part of the foot we have the wall thinner than elsewhere, we have the moveable and elastic frog, the lateral cartilages, and the frog-pad. We have in fact a whole series of soft and elastic structures so arranged as to provide a mechanism best adapted to meet shock and to avoid concussion. Whilst drawing heavy loads, or ascending or descending hills, the horse may vary his action to suit the circumstances, and then we have the exception which proves the rule--then we have sometimes the heel, sometimes the toe brought first to the ground. At the time when the foot first touches the ground, the leg is extended forward and the pastern is in the same oblique position to the shank as when a horse is standing. This obliquity of the pastern is another safeguard against concussion, and it renders impossible the first contact with the ground at any point other than at the heel. As the leg becomes straightened, the weight of the body is imposed upon the foot, but the greatest strain arrives just before the toe leaves the ground, for then there is not only weight to sustain, but the friction to be borne which results from the toe being the fulcrum upon which falls the whole effect of the muscular effort necessary to raise and carry forward the body of the animal. The front part of the foot is structurally well adapted for its use. It presents the thickest and strongest part of the horny covering, and, as an inside basis, it has the unyielding coffin bone. Thus we have at the toe strength and rigidity--at the heels strength and elasticity. Another important point in the action of the foot is implied by the question--does it expand when weight is thrown on it? The principles of horse-shoeing require that this question should be answered. There are those who say that the foot does not alternately expand and retract as weight is placed upon or removed from it. There are others who assert that the expansion of the foot is an important natural function that must be provided for in any system of shoeing. It is agreed by most observers that at the upper border of the hoof, more particularly at the heels, expansion does occur. It is when we come to the lower border of the foot that the statements are most conflicting. Ordinary measurements taken at this part with calipers or by tracings on paper of the foot when raised from the ground and when resting upon it, show no variations in the width of the foot. These methods of measurement are not sufficiently delicate to be trustworthy. Experimentalists in Germany and in this country have recently used an apparatus by which the slightest variations are detected by electrical contact, and the results are very interesting. These experiments show that in a well-formed, healthy foot the hoof throughout its posterior two-thirds does expand to pressure, and perhaps that the arch of the sole is slightly flattened. This expansion is, however, comparatively slight--about equal to the thickness of a sheet of writing paper--and may practically be disregarded in considering the best methods of shoeing sound feet. One result of these experiments is to show what an important part the frog plays in the foot, and also how the action of one part depends upon the conditions of others. When the frog rests firmly on the ground and weight is placed upon the foot expansion occurs, especially at the upper or coronary border of the hoof. When the frog does not touch the ground and weight is imposed upon the foot, contraction occurs. The explanation of this difference seems to be as follows. When weight is placed upon a foot, the coronet bone is depressed upon the soft mass of the frog-pad. With a sound frog taking a bearing upon the ground, the frog-pad cannot descend, and the compression to which it is therefore submitted causes it to bulge laterally and so expand the back of the foot. When the frog does not reach the ground and weight is placed upon the frog-pad, there is nothing to prevent it yielding downwards, and in so doing the fibrous bands connecting together the two lateral cartilages of the foot are depressed and the cartilages drawn together--hence the contraction of the foot. No better illustration could be given of the unity of all parts of the foot, and how one or many parts may suffer if the structure or function of one be defective. There is one more movement of the hoof which is possible and which must be referred to, as it has been made the basis of a grave error in shoeing. I have said the back part of the foot is elastic and yielding. If you examine a shoe, so applied to a foot that an inch or more of its extremity has no contact with the hoof, you will find that when weight is rested on that foot the horn yields downwards and comes in contact with the shoe. This simply demonstrates that when there is nothing to support it the horn at the heels may be forced downwards. It is not a normal action, and in an unshod foot cannot occur on a level surface. The effect of this downward movement of the heels is to put a strain on the horn of the quarters. A shoe so fitted as to permit this evil is in common use, and no fault is more serious than thus forcing an unnatural action upon the hoof at every step. With unintentional irony this piece of bad work has been called "easing the heels." In concluding this chapter, I would just repeat that the natural bearing surface of the horse's foot is the lower edge of the wall and that portion of the sole immediately in union with it; that the arch of the sole should not be in contact with the ground; that the frog ought to have a bearing on the ground, but ought not to be so prominent as to unduly share in sustaining weight. This natural bearing surface is what we want to utilize in shoeing. We put on a shoe _merely to prevent excessive wear of the hoof_. If we can protect the wall the frog can take care of itself, and we have only so to apply our shoe that we do not damage any useful structure or interfere with any natural function. * * * * * NOTE.--No person is expected to learn the structure of a foot entirely from this description. He must obtain two feet cut off at the fetlock joint. One he should soak in water till the hoof can be pulled off. The sensitive foot is then visible and the inside of the hoof; with these before him, the drawings and descriptions in this chapter will be of great assistance. The second foot he should have sawn vertically down the middle through the point of the toe, and again across the quarters, so as to show the inside of the foot from two different points of view; this will afford a view of the relation of parts. CHAPTER III. PREPARATION OF THE FOOT. The cheap wisdom of the amateur is often expressed in the remark "the shoe should be fitted to the foot, not the foot to the shoe." Like many other dogmatic statements this is only the unqualified assertion of half a truth. Foot and shoe have to be fitted to each other. There are very few horses whose feet do not require considerable alteration before a shoe can be properly fitted to them. As a rule, when a horse arrives at the forge, the feet are overgrown and quite out of proportion. In a few cases--as when a shoe has been lost on a journey--the foot is worn or broken and irregularly deficient in horn. In either instance the farrier has to make alterations in the hoof to obtain the best bearing surface before he fits a new shoe. The claim often made for some novel inventions in horse shoes, "that they may be fitted and applied in the stable by a groom or stableman" is evidence of a sad misunderstanding of the art of horse-shoeing. If shod feet always remained of the same shape replacement of shoes would be a very easy matter--but they never do. The living foot is constantly changing, and therefore the man entrusted with fitting shoes to it, must know what its proper form should be. When he finds it disproportionately overgrown he must know how much horn to remove--where to take away and where to leave alone. He must not carry in his head a theoretical standard of a perfect foot and attempt to reduce all feet to that shape. He must make allowance for varieties of feet, and for many little differences of form that present themselves in practice. He has, in fact, to prepare the foot for a shoe, and it is just as important to do this properly as it is to prepare a shoe for the foot. To fit a shoe to a foot which has not been properly prepared may be even more injurious to the horse than "to fit the foot to the shoe." The general principle to be followed is--to remove superfluous horn, to obtain a good bearing surface for a shoe, to bring all parts of the hoof equally into proportion. A good foot so prepared, when the horse is standing on level ground should show, when looked at from the front, both sides of the wall of equal height; the transverse line of the coronet should be parallel with the line of the lower border of the hoof, and the perpendicular line of the leg should cut those lines at right angles. (Fig. 17). When looked at from the side the height of the heels and the toe should be proportionate. When looked at from behind the frog should be seen touching the ground. On lifting the foot a level bearing surface wider than the wall should be presented, extending from heel to toe all round the circumference of the hoof; within this level border, the sole should be concave, strong, and rough. [Illustration: Fig. 17.] In Fig. 17 is shown the foot on its ground surface and from the side. The parallel lines are quite arbitrary, but assist in explaining how the proportion of the foot is to be attained. Both sides of the foot are of the same height. The bearing surface just meets the middle line. All the lines at coronet, heel, and toe, are at right angles to the perpendicular line. The side view shows the proportionate height of heel and toe, and the slope of the wall in front. Compared with Figs. 22 and 23 deviations from proportion are seen. These conditions are not attainable with all feet, but the prudent farrier does the best he can under the circumstances. It is easy to make the frog touch the ground by over-lowering the heels, but this is only introducing one evil in attempting to avoid another. Some feet have naturally a long toe with an excessive slope of the front part of the wall. To hide this defect a farrier may "stump up" the toe and leave the heels too high, but he does so at the expense of the horse's foot. Each foot requires treating with full knowledge of the form best adapted to its natural formation, and most capable of carrying a shoe. =The Instruments= used to prepare a foot for shoeing are a rasp, a drawing knife, and a toeing knife. The rasp is the most indispensable. It should be sixteen inches long, proportionately broad, and one part of it should be a file-surface. The shorter, narrow rasps do not afford all the advantages a farrier should possess to enable him to do the best work. To strike an even all-round level bearing surface on a hoof a farrier requires a large rasp, just as a joiner must have a large plane to produce a level surface on wood. Harm may be done by the careless use of a rasp, and a bearing-surface spoiled by the over-reduction of horn at one place. This fault may be aggravated by attempts to mend it, if such attempt take the form of further reduction of the whole hoof on a foot where horn is deficient. The drawing knife is a comparatively modern instrument which replaced a tool called the buttress. A drawing knife is formed with great skill for the purpose of paring out the concave sole of the hoof, and has done infinite harm. In the days which have now almost passed away, when it was thought the proper thing to make the hoof look clean, smooth, and pretty, the drawing knife was the chief instrument in the preparation of the foot. Now, when nearly all men know that the stronger the sole and frog of the foot can be preserved the better for the horse, this knife is less used--and the less the better. The doorman, preparing a foot for the fireman to fit a shoe to, should not use a knife at all. The man who fits the shoe requires a knife to remove occasional little prominences of horn which are liable to cause uneven pressures or which are in the way of a properly fitted shoe--as, for instance, the edge of the wall to make way for a clip, or the angle of sole at the heel to prevent uneven pressure by the shoe. The toeing knife usually consists of about a foot of an old sword-blade. This knife is held and guided by one hand of the farrier, whilst with the other it is driven through overgrown horn by the hammer. Skilfully used it is unobjectionable, and for the large strong hoof of heavy draught horses it saves a great deal of time and labour. For the lighter class of horses it is unnecessary, and for weak feet with a thin horn covering it is dangerous. The toeing knife cannot leave a finished level bearing surface, and its work has to be completed by a few strokes of the rasp. A farrier should, therefore, never attempt to remove all the superfluous horn with the knife, he should leave some for the rasp so that in producing the final level surface no encroachment upon the necessary thickness of covering horn need be made. [Illustration: Fig. 18.] =The overgrown foot= such as we find on a healthy horse that has retained a set of shoes for some weeks, or that has been without shoes on a surface not hard enough to cause sufficient wear, is quite unfitted to receive a shoe. It must be reduced to proportions. In Fig. 18, I have attempted to show diagrammatically a side view of an overgrown hoof. The dotted lines at the base show two effects of lowering one part more than another, although both attain a level surface. In Fig. 21 we see the result of over-lowering the heels, and in Fig. 20 of leaving them too high. It may also be noticed that these conditions affect other parts of the foot; in fact not only other parts but the whole foot, and even the relative position of the foot to the leg. If we compare the proportionate foot, Fig. 19, with the diagram Fig. 21, it will be seen that by over-lowering the heels the slope of the front of the foot is increased, that the bearing surface from heel to toe is slightly increased in length, and that if the dotted perpendicular line be accepted as showing the direction through which the weight of the body passes, lowering the heels tends to put an increased proportion of weight on the back parts of the foot. If we compare Fig. 19 with Fig. 20 we see the effect of leaving the heels too high. The bearing surface from heel to toe is shortened, the slope of the wall at the toe is made less, and more weight is thrown upon the front parts of the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--A proportionate hoof.] [Illustration: Fig. 20.--A disproportionate hoof--heels too high.] [Illustration: Fig. 21.--A disproportionate hoof--heels too low.] Now these alterations in both cases affect not only the form of the foot but its relative position to the leg, and as the bones of the limb above are a series of levers connected by muscles and ligaments so placed as to be most efficient for movement, it is evident that alterations of the foot must affect the action of the limb. (Compare Figs. 19, 20 and 21) In the unshod horse roaming about there is a natural automatic return to proper relative position whenever it has been temporarily upset. A long toe is worn down and high heels are reduced to their proper level by friction. Not so a foot protected by an iron shoe. Wear is stopped, and a disproportionate hoof becomes more and more disproportionate. Temporary alterations of the position of the foot do little harm because they are permitted, within a margin, by the movement of joints and by the elasticity of muscles. When, however, an alteration of position is continued for many weeks it tends to become permanently fixed and may thus do a great deal of harm, which is not traced to its real cause because the effect is slow and gradual. It is important, therefore, to remember that the proportion of the hoof is to be maintained not only because it is necessary to the well-being of the foot; but because it affects the action of the whole limb. Too long a toe may cause a horse to stumble, and it must always increase the strain on the back tendons during progression. Heels too high prevent the frog from taking its proper bearing on the ground, and thus cause a loss of function in the back parts of the foot. An excessively high heel has a tendency to throw the knee forward and to straighten the pastern. [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Heels high--under surface and side view.] [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Heels low--toe long.] It is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule to guide a farrier in maintaining the proportions of heel and toe when reducing an overgrown hoof to proper form. Feet differ much in their natural formation, some are high-heeled and some low, some are straight in front some very much sloped, some are narrow and upright, others round and spreading. In Fig. 22 the heels are too high, and the bearing surface does not reach the transverse line at the heels. The side view shows the excessive height of heels and the slope of the wall in front too upright. Great assistance is afforded the farrier in judging whether he should remove more horn from heel or toe by the appearance of the under surface of the foot. When the heels are much above the level of the frog there is an indication for their lowering. When the wall and bars are about flush with the angle of sole between them, there is, as a rule, no more horn to spare at that part. The length of the toe may be usefully gauged by the condition of the junction between wall and sole. When the sole is sound and strong all the wall above its level--wall unsupported by sole and showing on its inner aspect marks of the horny laminæ--may be rasped down so that a firm bearing surface is obtained consisting of wall and sole. In Fig. 23 the bearing surface at the heels is below the line marking a proportionate foot. The toe is too long and projects beyond the transverse toe line. The side view shows the low heel and the corresponding excess in the slope of the wall in front. The lower transverse line in each figure does not represent the ground, but is added to make clear the height of heels and length of toe. Important as it is to maintain the relative proportions between the front and back parts of the foot, it is perhaps even more important to preserve the balance between the two sides of a foot. Both sides must be left of equal height. If one side be higher than the other a disproportionate amount of weight is thrown on the lower side, and more or less strain is put upon the ligaments of the joint above. In the Figs. 24 one limb is shown with both sides of the hoof even, and the straight line of the limb cuts squarely across the transverse line of the bearing surface of the foot. In the the other limb one side of the hoof is too high, and in the preparation for shoeing only that side will require attention. [Illustration: Fig. 24.] Through constant neglect of this point some feet become more or less permanently twisted--and the twist occurs at the coronet. The ground surface of a foot or a shoe always tends to remain at right angles to the direction of the limb, and when the sides of a hoof are allowed to remain of unequal height, the higher side presses the soft tissues of the coronet upwards. As the hoof grows from the coronet the side thus increased in height is not so noticeably uneven at the lower border of the wall as at its upper, and it cannot be restored to its proper form, except by months of careful attention and slight over-lowering at each shoeing. The diagrams (Figs. 25 and 26) represent vertical sections through a foot from side to side. One shows the wall uneven at the base, the other shows it uneven at the coronet. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Uneven at ground surface.] [Illustration: Fig. 26.--Uneven at coronet.] Peculiarities in the formation of a limb sometimes cause an apparent error in the relative position of the foot. Thus we have horses that turn their toes in, and those that turn their toes out. The cause of this twist takes place at the upper part of the limb, and it will be found that when the toes turn out the elbow turns in and _vice versâ_. The farrier can do no good to this formation, and attempts to alter it or disguise it by devices in shoeing are only injurious to the foot,--little deceptions worthy of a horse-coper. =A good bearing surface= is the primary object aimed at in preparing the foot for a shoe. The relative position of the limb to the foot and the proper proportions of every part of the foot are matters to be borne in mind whilst the farrier is directly forming the bearing surface for a shoe. A good bearing surface must be even, level, on sound horn, and as wide as can be obtained to give stability to the shoe. It should not be limited to the wall. If, without over-reduction, the use of the rasp leaves a firm portion of the sole as a level surface continuous with the lower edge of the wall, the best of bearing surfaces is obtained. (Fig. 27). The bearing surface should be level from heel to toe, and no part of it can be singled out either as unfit to bear weight or as specially capable of enduring undue pressure. No broken or diseased horn should be used as bearing surface for a shoe. The broken horn should be removed and the diseased horn must, if not entirely removed, have so much of its border cut or rasped off as will prevent contact with a shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 27.] After forming a level bearing surface with the rasp the sharp outer border of the wall is lightly removed with the file, so as to prevent splitting of the horn. The outer surface of the wall should not be rasped for it affords protection to the deeper layer of horn. The harder the outer layer of horn is kept the tougher and firmer is the whole thickness. =The Sole and Frog= require very little attention. No sensible farrier now puts himself to the unnecessary trouble of cutting away horn that is wanted for protection. It was not the practical farrier that introduced the stupid "paring and cutting" that ruined horses' feet for nearly a century. It was the theorists, who taught expansion of the wall and descent of the sole as primary necessities in the function of a foot, who must be credited with all the evils resulting from robbing the sole and frog of horn. When a horse is shod with an iron shoe the wall cannot wear, and therefore it has to be artificially reduced at each shoeing. But the shoe does not interfere with the wear of a frog, and the farrier may safely leave that organ entirely to take care of itself. To some extent the shoe does interfere with the natural wear of the sole, and, therefore, any flakes of horn which have been prevented by the shoe from detaching themselves from the sole may be removed. The best way to remove these is with the buffer. The sole should not be pared out. I mean not only that the horn should be left strong, it should not be pared with a drawing knife, even if only a harmless surface layer be removed. The effect of leaving the sole of a shod foot with a smooth, level, pared surface is to stop its natural method of throwing off more or less broken flakes, and to cause it to retain that which is half loose until it is removed in one great cake. A portion of the sole that requires a little special care in preparing for shoeing is the angle between the wall and the bars--the well-known seat of "corn." This must not be left so as to come in contact with the shoe. It is not to be "scooped" out, but it should be reduced distinctly below the level of the wall so that when the shoe has been in position for a week or two there is still no contact between the horn of the soles and the iron at that point. =Level or adjusted surface?= The bearing surface of a hoof must, of course, be exactly adapted to the surface of shoe intended to be applied. Presuming that the best surface for a shoe is one level from toe to heel, I have insisted upon the necessity of a level bearing surface on the foot. There are, however, exceptional cases in which a level shoe is not used, and then we must alter the foot accordingly. Horses that wear the toe of a shoe out of all proportion to the rest of the iron may be beneficially shod with a shoe turned up at the toe. To fit such a shoe the hoof surface must not be made level, it must be rasped away at the toe and rounded off to follow the line of the shoe. In the three diagrams (Fig. 28) is shown--(_a_) side view of a foot prepared to suit the turned-up shoe at the toe, (_b_) a level line to fit a level shoe and, (_c_) a form often adopted on the Continent to suit a shoe fitted with a slight curve throughout. This adjusted shoe is designed to imitate the shape of the worn surface of an old shoe or to some extent the worn surface of an unshod foot. Every farrier knows how many horses go better after a level shoe has been worn a few days than when first applied, and it is argued, with reason, that the greater ease is due to the shoe being worn to the form offering least resistance to the movement of the foot in locomotion. I have nothing to say against this form of shoe and the necessary form of foot surface for it, except that it is more difficult to make than the ordinary level one. When adopted the curve of the foot should not be obtained by over-lowering the toe and heels but by leaving the quarters higher. [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Three forms of bearing-surface.] FAULTS TO BE AVOIDED. Fig. 29 shows a hoof in which shortening of the toe has been effected not by reducing the ground surface of the wall, but by rasping away the wall in front of the toe. This should not be done with any good foot, but it may be adopted with feet having an unnaturally long toe and no superfluous horn on the under surface. A "stumped-up" toe is very ugly and it weakens the hoof in front. [Illustration: Fig. 29.--A "stumped-up" toe.] =Uneven bearing surfaces= are easily produced by a careless use of the rasp. One side of the wall may be made lower than the other, one heel may be reduced more than the rest of the foot, or one side of the toe may be unevenly reduced. In Fig. 30 the foot presents an uneven surface which not uncommonly results from careless work. The parts over-reduced are those most easily reached with a rasp. The near foot suffers at the outside heel and inside toe. The off foot at the inside heel and outside toe. A left handed farrier would injure the feet in just the opposite positions. [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Uneven surface.] Another fault results from holding the rasp untruly. If we suppose the inside heel of the near foot to be under preparation and the farrier inclines his rasp too much inwards, he leaves the wall at the heel lower than the sole within it. On such a foot a level shoe rests upon the sole instead of upon the wall, and a bruised heel soon follows. =Paring away the sole= to produce a deep concave appearance has another evil effect in addition to that before pointed out. It removes the horn just within the border of the wall, taking away the natural support, and leaving as bearing surface for a shoe a narrow ridge instead of a strong flat surface. Fig. 31 shows this fault, and it must be remembered that this ridge may be left as thin as a knife edge. Such a ridge cannot sustain the weight of the horse, and when it yields the shoe also yields, the clenches are raised and the shoe becomes loose. [Illustration: Fig. 31.--A Pared-out Sole.] =Excessive rasping of Wall.= The best farriers--those most proud of their work--have a great temptation to use a rasp too freely to the outer surface of the wall. The hoof gets rough, or it may be ridged, its appearance is improved by being made smooth, and it is only human to turn out work which is clean and neat. Owners and grooms are rather inclined to forget the claims of the horse when judging shoeing, and the result is that some harm is done by excessive rasping. A strong foot does not suffer much, but its strength is preserved by leaving the hard outer surface intact. Rasping off an outer layer of horn favours evaporation and hardening of the underneath layer, and the toughness so desirable is to some degree replaced by hardness and brittleness. Excessive rasping below the clenches is even more injurious than rasping above them. The wall, between its bearing surface and the clenches, has to withstand the contact of the shoe, and the perforation by nails. It should be the toughest and strongest part, and, therefore, should not be rasped more than is necessary to lay down the clenches and finish the fitting. Unfortunately the neatest work is done by fitting a shoe "close" and then rasping off any protruding horn. This is bad for the foot, as it weakens the wall and spoils the bearing surface at each shoeing. The worst offenders in this direction are dealers, who sacrifice everything to appearances and insist upon shoeing being neat at all hazards. =Opening the Heels= is one of the gravest faults a farrier can be guilty of. It consists in cutting away the extremity of the wall at the heel and generally a slice off the side of the frog at the same time. The effect is to produce an appearance of width at the back of the foot--to make what is called "a fine open foot." Fig. 31 shows a foot which has been injured in this way. The wedge shaped opening which results has many objections. It breaks the continuity of structures at the heels, it removes horn unnecessarily, it weakens the foot and, when the wall is interfered with, it shortens the bearing surface for a shoe. The bearing surface at the back of the foot is perhaps the most important of any afforded by the wall. The longer the bearing surface is at the heels the more the base for sustaining weight is brought under the leg, and the better the position for supporting the body. All removal of horn that shortens this surface is injurious. =Over-reduction of hoof= is always a fault. It is true a carefully fitted shoe on a foot so treated may do no harm for a time. Too much horn should be left rather than too little. A strong covering of horn is a protection against many mistakes in the fitting or form of a shoe applied to a foot. So long as a hoof is everywhere strong enough to sustain pressure and afford bearing, weight is evenly distributed throughout the whole foot. When the horn is thin it yields to any uneven pressure and damage is done to the foot, even if immediate lameness is not induced. CHAPTER IV. THE FORM AND MANUFACTURE OF SHOES. Horse-shoes are made either by hand or machinery. In this country most are hand-made--the front shoes from new bar-iron, and the hind from old shoes welded together and drawn out under heavy hammers. Probably no method of working iron gives such good results as this in producing a hard, tough shoe that will withstand wear. The custom of the trade is to keep a stock of shoes suitable for all the regular customers. From this stock are selected sizes and forms, which are then specially fitted for each foot. Various materials have been tried in the production of horse-shoes. Leather, compressed and hardened, has been tried, and failed. Vulcanite was experimented with unsuccessfully. Paper, or more correctly, a compressed _papier maché_, has also been tested but proved unsatisfactory. Steel has been pretty largely tried in many different forms, but it is difficult to temper. As nearly all shoes are applied immediately after being fitted they have to be rapidly cooled in water, and steel treated in this way is made so hard that, if the shoes do not break, they are dangerously slippery on most paved streets. As a material for shoes good malleable iron has no equal. It can be obtained in bars of various sizes to suit any form and weight of shoe, and the old shoes made from it may be worked up over and over again. The chief objects to be attained in any particular pattern or form of shoe are--that it be light, easily and safely retained by few nails, capable of wearing three weeks or a month, and that it afford good foot-hold to the horse. All shoes should be soundly worked and free from flaws. The first shoes were doubtless applied solely to protect the foot from wear. The simplest arrangement would then be either a thin plate of iron covering the ground surface of the foot, or a narrow rim fixed merely round the lower border of the wall. Experience teaches that these primitive forms can be modified with advantage, and that certain patterns are specially adapted to our artificial conditions. A good workman requires no directions as to how he should work, and it is doubtful if a bad one would be benefitted by any written rules, but it should be noted that a well-made shoe may be bad for a horse's foot, whilst a very rough, badly-made one may, when properly fitted, be a useful article. To make and apply horse-shoes a man must be more than a clever worker in iron--he must be a farrier, and that necessitates a knowledge of the horse's foot and the form of shoe best adapted to its wants. =Weight of Shoes.= The lighter a shoe can be made the better. Weight is a disadvantage we are obliged to put up with to obtain wear, for the frequent removal of shoes is only a little less injurious to the hoof than working with none at all. It is not to be understood that the heaviest shoe gives the most wear; on the contrary, a heavy shoe may have the iron so distributed as to increase the rapidity of wear, and a shoe of half the weight properly formed may last longer. It is no uncommon thing to find worn-out shoes still weighing more than a new shoe which will, on the same horse, give a longer period of wear. When a horse wears his shoes out very rapidly, the indication to the farrier is not simply to increase the weight, but to see if he can obtain more wear by altering the form and distributing the iron in a different way. A tired horse wears his shoes much more rapidly than a fresh and active one. Continued slipping wears away a shoe out of all proportion to the work done by a horse having a firm foot-hold. These two different conditions may be partially due to the shoes, for a heavy shoe tires the leg, and broad flat shoes favour slipping. Some horses wear one special part of the shoe excessively--as a rule, either at the toe or the heel--and this is better met by turning up the worn part out of the line of wear than by thickening it and so increasing weight. Besides, a heavy shoe requires a greater number or a larger size of nails to retain it securely in position, and this is a disadvantage. It has often been asserted that a horse "goes better" in a heavy shoe than a light one, and that this is due to the heavier shoe acting as a protection to the foot and warding off concussion. If the term "goes better" merely means that he lifts his foot higher and consequently bends his knee more, I do not deny the assertion. The reason of this is not that the horse feels less concussion and therefore goes freer. It is an exaggeration of the natural movements, due simply to the horse with weight imposed on his feet having to use the muscles of his arms more to lift that weight. The same thing can be brought about by tying bags of shot on to the hoof, which is done to cultivate "action." The healthy foot requires no artificial aids against concussion, but when a foot becomes tender from bad shoeing it may sometimes be relieved by adding to the substance and weight of a shoe. The following are about the average weights, per shoe, of horses standing 16 hands high: Race Horses 2 to 4 ounces. Hacks and Hunters 15 to 18 " Carriage Horses 20 to 30 " Omnibus " 3 to 3-1/2 lbs. Dray " 4 to 5 " =Thickness and Width of Shoes.= To obtain the necessary amount of wear from shoes they must be increased either in thickness or width, and it will assist us in estimating the relative value of these conditions if we shortly consider their advantages and disadvantages. I may say at once that no sound foot requires a wide shoe merely as "cover" or protection for the sole. Defective soles may sometimes require protection, but sound ones never, and we may therefore put aside entirely all claims made for width of shoe under pretence that it gives a valuable protection to the foot. A shoe should be as wide as the natural bearing surface of the foot, so that it may occupy the whole of the space offered by nature as useful for bearing. Even when it is wider no harm is done until the width is such as to afford a lodgement for stones, etc., between the concave sole and the web of the shoe. A thick shoe raises the foot from the ground and thus removes the frog from bearing--a very decided disadvantage. It also requires the larger sizes of nails to fill up the deep nail holes, and very often renders the direction of the nail holes a matter of some difficulty. The width of a shoe may beneficially vary. It should be widest at the toe to afford increased surface of iron where wear is greatest. It should be narrowest at the heels so as not to infringe upon the frog, nor yet to protrude greatly beyond the level of the wall. The thickness of a shoe should not vary unless, perhaps, it be reduced in the quarters. Heel and toe should be of the same thickness so as to preserve a level bearing. Excess of thickness at the toe puts a strain on the back tendons, whilst excess at the heels tends to straighten the pastern. =The surfaces of Shoes.= There are two surfaces of the shoe which claim attention, one which is applied to the foot, and another which rests on the ground. The form of these surfaces may be varied greatly, but of course the foot-surface presents much less necessity and less opportunity for alterations than the ground-surface. The foot-surface of a shoe must be formed in accordance with the requirements of the horse's foot, and no other consideration should be allowed to materially modify it. The ground-surface may be altered to suit the tastes and prejudices of the owner as well as the requirements of the horse and the peculiarity of roadways. [Illustration: Fig. 32.--A level, flat bearing-surface.] =The Foot-Surface.= It is quite obvious that the surface of the shoe upon which the hoof has to rest should be regular and even; that it should not consist of hills and holes or grooves and ridges. I should not have mentioned such a very evident matter but that in large towns, the cheaper and poorer classes of shoeing commonly possess this very fault. When shoes are made from thin, wide, old iron tyres they are "buckled" on one surface, and to hide this the farrier puts that side to the foot so that it is not noticed until it causes damage. There are three or four forms of foot-surface adopted by farriers, all of which have distinctive features, and some of which have very grave evils. There is the plain flat surface which is given to all narrow shoes, to hunting shoes, and to some heavier and wider shoes. So long as the sole is healthy and arched this is a very good form. All hind shoes have a flat foot-surface, and most fore shoes might have it with advantage. It utilises the whole of the natural bearing surface, and must of necessity afford a firmer basis for the foot to rest upon than a more limited surface. The fore feet are not so constantly arched in the sole as the hind. Sometimes they are flat and occasionally convex. If a shoe be intended for use on all feet--on feet with convex and flat soles as well as those properly formed--a wide flat foot surface would often cause injury by pressing unevenly upon the sole. To avoid this injury in less than five per cent of feet, and to save the trouble of keeping in stock shoes of different forms, the flat foot-surface of front shoes has been replaced by a bevelled or "seated" surface. (Fig. 33). [Illustration: Fig. 33.--A "seated" bearing surface.] This form is very widely used. It consists of a narrow flat surface next the outer circumference of the shoe, about equal in width to the border of the wall, and within that, of a bevelled surface, sloped off so as to avoid any pressure on a flat sole. This "seated" surface is not positively injurious but it limits the bearing to the wall, and neglects to utilise the additional bearing surface offered by the border of the sole. If shoes were to be made all alike no shoe is so generally useful and safe as one with a foot-surface of this form, but it is evident that when the sole of the foot is concave there is nothing gained by making half the foot-surface of the shoe also concave. There are two other forms of foot-surface on shoes. In one the surface slopes gradually from the outer to the inner edge of the shoe, like the side of a saucer. In the other the incline is reversed and runs from the inner edge downwards to the outer. This last form is not often used, and was invented with the object of spreading or widening the foot to which it was attached. The inventor seemed to think that contraction of a foot was an active condition to be overcome by force, and that expansion might be properly effected by a plan of constantly forcing apart the two sides of the foot. The usual result of wearing such a shoe is lameness, and it achieves no good which cannot be as well reached by simply letting the foot alone. [Illustration: Fig. 34.--Foot-surface sloped outwards.] [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Foot-surface sloped inwards.] The foot-surface which inclines downwards and inwards like a saucer acts in an exactly opposite way to the other. The wall cannot rest on the outer edge of the shoe, and consequently falls within it, the effect being that at every step the horse's foot is compressed by the saucer-shaped bearing. This form of surface (Fig. 35) is frequently seen, and is at all times bad and unnecessary. Even when making a shoe for the most convex sole it is possible to leave an outer bearing surface, narrow but level, which will sustain weight without squeezing the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 36.--Foot-surface level at Heels.] At the heels the foot-surface of all shoes should be flat--not seated--so that a firm bearing may be obtained on the wall and the extremity of the bar. No foot is convex at the heels, therefore there is no excuse for losing any bearing surface by seating the heels of a shoe to avoid uneven pressure. Fig. 36 rather exaggerates the "unseated" portion of shoe. =The Ground-Surface.= As I have said, this may vary indefinitely. Sometimes it is a plain flat surface, broken only by the holes made for nails or by the "fullering" which affords not only space for the nails but some grip on the ground. When a shoe is "fullered" the groove made should be deep, so as to let the nail-head well down, and wide so as to afford room for giving the nail a proper direction. If the fullering be continued round the toe of a shoe by a good workman neatness is given, but when a clip is drawn the iron is so reduced that some wear is sacrificed. If only an inch at the toe be unfullered, the solid iron affords more wear just where it is wanted. [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Concave ground-surface.] The concave shoe, often described as a hunting-shoe, presents a very different ground-surface from that just referred to. It rests upon two ridges with the fullering between, and on the inner side of these the iron is suddenly sloped off. This shoe is narrow and flat on the foot-surface, and is specially formed to give a good foot-hold and to be secure on the hoof. [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Double-grooved ground-surface.] A Rodway shoe has two longitudinal grooves and three ridges on its ground-surface. The outer groove carries the nails, and the inner groove lightens the shoe and increases the foot-hold. It is not the number of grooves or ridges that prevents slipping; it is the absence of a continuous flat surface of iron, and the existence of irregularities which become filled up with sand and grit. A four-grooved shoe has no more anti-slipping properties than a three-grooved, and a one-grooved shoe is as good as either, although it cannot stand the same amount of wear. Transverse ridges and notches have also been tried as ground-surfaces for shoes, but offer very little, if any, better grip than the longitudinal grooves. Their great disadvantage is that they cannot be made deep enough without weakening the shoe, whilst if shallow they are worn out before the shoe has been long in wear. [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Ground-surfaces, notches, projections, ridges.] =A Calkin= is the name given to the extremity of a shoe when turned down at the heels. Calkins are used on most hind shoes and, in some parts of the country, on fore shoes. They are supposed to be the most convenient and effective means of giving good foot-hold. This supposition is correct when a horse travels on soft ground or on streets so paved that a space is left between each course of stones. They are of very little use on asphalte or wood pavement, and not much more use on roller-made macadam. With light modern carriages and level modern roads calkins are quite unnecessary, and better means of giving foot-hold may be substituted. It is a fact that horses when shoes are new and calkins prominent do their work without slipping, and that when the calkins are worn down the horse moves with less confidence and security. This does not prove that calkins are necessary. It must be remembered that horses possess a power of adapting themselves to circumstances, but having learned to rely upon any artificial assistance they are the more helpless, for a time, on its withdrawal. Calkins assist the horse for a time, but after the calkin is worn down the horse is in a worse position than if he had never become accustomed to its assistance. Of course on soft ground, especially grass, calkins afford a firmer grip than any other contrivance. On the other hand, their constant use lifts the frog out of bearing and causes it to waste, thus spoiling the action of the natural provision against slipping. Level shoes on the hind feet promote sound, prominent frogs, and give firm foot-hold for all light horses. Even omnibus horses, now that the vehicles are supplied with effective foot-brakes, may advantageously be worked without calkins. On country roads, especially when the district is hilly or the load is heavy, calkins may be requisite, and must then be made to do as little harm as possible. [Illustration: Fig. 39.] The wear of a shoe is affected by the height of a calkin. The more the heel is raised the greater the amount of wear at the toe. Many shoes when worn out at the toe show very little effects of wear at other parts, and the question arises how best to increase the wear of the shoe without increasing its weight. In Fig. 39 three diagrams are presented in which dotted lines show the effect of wear. At (_a_) the shoe is of even thickness throughout--from heel to toe--and the line of wear shows that when the shoe is worn out a great amount of iron remains. At (_b_) the quarters of the shoe are made thinner and the toe is made thicker, so that with no increase of weight but by a better distribution of the iron, increased wear is provided for at the part where it is most required. At (_c_) is shown a shoe similar in form to that at (_b_) but differently fitted. The toe is turned slightly upwards, and the result is that a larger portion of iron is brought into wear. In the case of very hard-wearing horses that scrape out the toe of the ordinary shoe in ten or fourteen days this form of fitting adds considerably to the durability of the shoe, and so preserves the foot from the evil of too frequent removal of shoes, whilst avoiding any increase of weight. Without calkins wear is more evenly distributed, and the toe is not worn away disproportionately to the rest of the shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 40.--Two calkins--the low square one preferable.] A calkin throws the leg and foot, to some extent, out of their proper position. A very high calkin is not only objectionable, it is unnecessary. Not much prominence is required to afford a catch or stop. Excessive height is usually given to meet wear, and this can be obtained equally well by increasing the width and breadth. I, therefore, recommend that when calkins are used they should be low, square and broad. The further under a foot the calkin is placed, the greater is the raising of the heel, therefore calkins should always be accompanied by a long shoe. The further back a calkin be placed the less it interferes with the natural position of the foot. Calkins render a horse liable to tread the opposite foot, and the higher and sharper the calkin the greater the injury inflicted. To avoid this injury the inner heel of a shoe frequently has no calkin, but is made at the same level as the outer by narrowing and raising the iron at the heel, forming what is called a wedge heel. This is not an advisable form of shoe as it has on the inner heel a skate-shaped formation, most favourable to slipping, and on the outer a catch--an arrangement tending to twist the foot each time the catch takes hold of the ground. If calkins are used at all they should be of equal height and on both heels of the shoe. In Scotland, and in the North of England, heavy horses are shod, fore and hind, not only with calkins but also with toe-pieces, and the owners assert that the horses could not do the work without them. That horses do similar work in the South without calkins and toe-pieces rather shakes one's faith in the assertion, but it must be remembered that nearly all paved streets in the North have a division left between the rows of stones in which the toe-piece finds a firm resisting surface. I believe also that the average load drawn is greater in the North than in the South. One thing in favour of toe-pieces must be acknowledged--they, with the calkins, restore the natural position of the foot and preserve the level of the shoe. On the larger draught horses the toe-pieces permit a lighter shoe to be used, as the portion of iron between heels and toe need not be thick to resist wear. It only requires to be strong enough to support weight and much less iron is therefore used. The heavy dray horse of the North, shod with toe-pieces and calkins, is never worked at a trot. In London all horses are trotted--a proceeding which reflects discredit upon the intelligence of the managers. I must mention another objection to calkins. They increase the tendency to "cut," and many horses will cease "cutting" after calkins are removed and a level shoe has been adopted. =Nails and nail holes.= It is necessary to consider these together as they are dependent on each other. Shoes were first nailed to the feet by flat-headed nails, and probably it was a long time before the wedge-headed nail was thought of. When the nail head fits into the nail hole it may retain the shoe till it is worn as thin as a penny, but if only the shank of the nail enters the shoe, the head is soon worn off and the shoe becomes loose. Within the last 20 years the horse-shoe nail trade has been revolutionised by the introduction of machinery. Machine-made nails are now almost entirely used, and the three or four leading brands are as near perfection as were the very best hand-made. Practically there is no fault to find with them, and as they are ready-pointed for driving they save time and labour in the forge. They are made in various sizes, and numbered from 2 up to 16. Only the very best iron can be used to produce good nails. Nothing is dearer than bad nails which cause injury to the foot and loss of shoes. [Illustration: Fig. 41.] A good nail should present certain forms of head, neck and shank. The head should not be too broad at the top or it may become fixed in the nail-hole only by its upper edge, as shown in the middle diagram Fig. 41, and when the shoe has had a few days wear the nail loses its hold, and the shoe is loose. The neck should not be too thick, as it is then liable to press on the sensitive foot and to break the wall. The shank should not be too wide or too thick. The point should not be too long or too tapered as this leaves insufficient metal to form a good clinch. There are two methods of putting nail-holes into shoes--by "fullering" and by "stamping." A stamped shoe is one in which the nail holes are merely punched at certain distances, so as to leave four-sided tapered holes of the exact shape of a nail-head. A fullered shoe is one having a groove round the circumference through which the nail-holes are punched. Both processes, when well-done, admit of nails being driven into the hoof with equal safety and ease. Whether stamped or fullered, there are a few more important points to remember about the nail-holes. The wall is not of the same thickness throughout, but becomes thinner towards the heels. The inner side of the foot is also somewhat thinner and more upright than the outer. The safest position, then, for the nails is in the front half of the foot, but should this position not present sound horn they may be placed further back. The danger of placing nails near the heels is due entirely to the greater risk in driving them through the thin horn. There need be no fear of interfering with expansion. The distance of the nail-holes from the outer edge of the shoe should depend upon the thickness of the horn of the wall, and therefore be greater in large shoes than in smaller, and greater at the toe than at the heels of the same shoe. When the nail-holes are all near to the circumference of the shoe (Fig. 42 B.) they are described as "fine"; when they are all placed far from the edge (Fig. 42 A.) they are called "coarse." When the nail-holes are too "fine" a nail has to be driven high up in the wall to obtain a firm hold, and this is liable to split the horn. When nail-holes are too "coarse" the nail in driving goes dangerously near the sensitive foot. The evils of coarse and fine nailing depend a great deal upon the method of fitting the shoes. When shoes are fitted full to the foot (when the outer circumference of the shoe is greater than the circumference of the wall) "coarse" nail-holes are brought to about their best position. When shoes are fitted close (_i.e._, when their outer edge is brought within the border of the wall) "fine" nail-holes are brought to their best position in relation to the foot. It need hardly be added that the fit of a shoe ought not to be subject to the position of the nail-holes, but that these should be properly placed so that fitting be guided only by the requirements of the foot. [Illustration: Fig. 42.--Wrongly placed Nail-holes.] Each nail-hole when properly placed--neither too coarse nor too fine--should be punched straight through the shoe and not inclined either inwards or outwards, except at the toe where the slope of the wall is followed by slightly pitching in. When a fuller is used the groove made should be wide; then the farrier has more command over the direction of his nail. If the nail-hole be pitched in, the nail must take that direction and is liable to wound the foot. If the nail-hole be pitched out, the nail is prevented from taking sufficient hold of the horn. [Illustration: Fig. 43.--Nail-holes "pitched" in and out.] The position and direction of the nail-hole control the passage of a nail through a shoe and into the hoof. The man who drives a nail is usually blamed for laming a horse, but in most cases it would be more just to blame the man who made the nail-holes or fitted the shoe and so rendered safe driving difficult or impossible. Each nail-hole should be as far as possible from the other--say, from an inch to an inch and a half apart. When the two front or toe nail-holes are put too far back the whole are crowded, or the last are pushed back too near the heels. For small shoes four or five nail-holes are sufficient. Medium-sized shoes should have from five to seven, and the heavy shoes of big draught horses must have eight. The number of nail-holes need not always be increased in proportion to the size of the shoe, because as the weight of shoe is increased so is the size of the nail, and an extra strong nail may take the place of additional ones. The fewer nails in a foot the better, but as a properly-placed nail does no harm, and as the loss of a shoe may be very serious, it is better to have one too many than one too few. [Illustration: Fig. 44.--Machine-made Shoe--Fore-foot.] [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Machine-made Shoe--Hind-foot.] =Machine-made Shoes.= Horse-shoeing is distinctly an art requiring special skill for its proper performance. It is also one of the most laborious of all skilled trades. Anything which lightens mechanical toil tends to improve the mental and artistic qualities of the workman, and all applications of machinery which lessen the heavy manual labour of the farrier may therefore be looked upon as improvements. Machinery has lightened the labour of shoe-making in two ways--by supplying various patterns of grooved and bevelled iron in bars, which only require cutting into lengths and turning round to form a shoe, and also by making shoes all ready to be fitted to the foot. Machinery has not yet turned out a shoe as good and durable and well finished as the best workman can produce by hand, but it can produce many forms of shoes as good for all practical purposes, and it has this advantage--all are alike. Bad workmen make bad shoes, but a machine, once able to produce a good model, can repeat it exactly, therefore machine-made shoes of a proper pattern are superior to all but the very best hand-made shoes. Economy, of course, is on the side of the article produced by machinery, and all large firms keeping their own farriers find a great saving by buying the ready-made shoes. Under conditions when shoes must be fitted without a fire, as in coal mines, or in the case of armies during a campaign, the machine-made article has the advantages of regularity of form and a true level bearing surface. [Illustration: Fig. 46.--Sections of rolled bar iron.] In little shops where often only one man is at work, either machine-made shoes or prepared bar iron offer great conveniences. The prepared bars can be bought seated on the foot-surface and with a single or double groove on the ground-surface. Very narrow bars suitable for tips, "Charlier," or light hack shoes are now widely used, and a special bar--flat on the foot-surface, concave to the ground--can be obtained which only requires cutting into lengths and turning round to form a first-class hunting-shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 47.--Sections of light pattern bar iron.] Both prepared bars and machine-made shoes must be judged by their form and by the material used in their manufacture. Some are better than others, but all have to contend with a large amount of trade prejudice which has little basis except in the matter of the hind shoes--here machinery has not yet reached perfection. CHAPTER V. SELECTION OF SHOES. In practice, a farrier does not trouble much about the selection of suitable shoes. The rule is to apply whatever form of shoe the horse has been wearing, and only to venture an opinion as to alterations when asked by the owner. When the selection of a suitable shoe is left to the workman he takes into consideration the work required of the horse, the form of the feet, and the wear of the old shoes. The form of the old shoes indicates not only whether a horse is a light or hard wearer but what parts of the shoe are most worn, and thus enables provision to be made against excessive or irregular wear. The form of the feet indicates not only what size of shoe is requisite but also what special weakness or strength is to be encountered. It is also necessary to note the condition of the fetlocks and knees, which may show signs of "brushing" or "speedy cutting." According to all these appearances a shoe should be selected. For the different classes of horse there are well-known forms of shoe which present special advantages, thus:-- =The race horse= when in training, may be shod with a very light shoe, but on the turf he requires the lightest contrivance capable of protecting the hoof and affording good foot-hold. The ordinary racing plate answers these requirements. It is made in a "crease," or tool, or may be made from specially prepared bars which only need cutting into lengths and turning round. The plate is about one-third of an inch wide by one-eighth thick. The foot-surface is flat, and the ground-surface is fullered and concave. =Steeplechase= plates are made on the same pattern, but should be a little stronger so as to avoid even the possibility of becoming twisted on the foot. =Hunting shoes= should be light, very secure, and of a form to give good foot hold. The best are flat on the foot-surface, and fullered and concave on the ground-surface. The hind shoe should also be concave on the ground-surface, but to avoid the injury of over-reaching the inner circumference at the toe should be rounded and smooth. A small square calkin at each heel affords grip on grass, and especially in going down hill at a fast pace. =Hacks=, being used on hard roads, must have heavier shoes than hunters, but the form may be the same. =Carriage horses= require more substance in their shoes than hacks, and the narrow concave shoes suitable for hunters and hacks cannot give sufficient durability. The double-grooved shoe known as "Rodway's" is the best for this class. On ordinary roads the hind feet may be shod with a common two heeled shoe, but on wood and asphalte the heavier sizes of Rodway iron make a shoe that affords very good foot hold and dispenses with the necessity for calkins. =Omnibus and Van horses= require stronger shoes to meet the hard wear entailed by their work. The heavy Rodway iron makes very suitable front shoes, but the hind shoes must be solid with only a fullering for the nails or, as many prefer, each nail-hole separately stamped. As a rule the hind shoes of this class of horse have calkins on the outside heel. If the vehicle in which they run is provided with a foot-brake calkins are unnecessary, and the advantages of a level shoe should be made use of. The advantages are--better foot hold, longer wear and less danger from treads and "cutting." =Heavy draught horses.= In Scotland and in the North of England this class of horse is shod with a toe-piece and calkins on both fore and hind shoes. In London calkins are only put on the hind shoes, and toe-pieces are not used at all. On paved streets where a space exists between the rows of stones and especially if the road be hilly, I think toe-pieces are advisable, and of course when they are used calkins must be also made. Horses having become accustomed to toe-pieces, when shod with a level shoe, slip much more for a week or two than do horses which have never learned to rely upon the bar across the toe. Every thing considered, I incline to prefer a level shoe in front, and a shoe with two low square calkins behind for heavy draught horses. The enormous width of shoe often used in London is quite unnecessary, it is very heavy and it favours slipping. A narrower shoe must of course be a little thicker to meet the wear, but it is lighter and affords better foot hold, and as slipping and fatigue are both causes of excessive wear, a narrow shoe, weight for weight, will last longer than a broad flat one. CHAPTER VI. FITTING AND APPLICATION OF SHOES. Having selected shoes suitable for the feet and adapted to the special work of the horse, having also prepared the foot for shoeing, we arrive at another important part of the farriers' art--fitting the shoe. No matter what form of shoe be used or how the foot be prepared for it, unless the two are properly fitted the horse does not obtain all the advantages of good shoeing, and may be positively injured. The owner of horses seldom knows anything about the fitting of shoes, and therefore fails to appreciate how some of his directions concerning feet and shoes are quite impracticable. [Illustration: Fig. 48.] I have in a previous chapter attempted to show how a foot should be prepared for shoeing, and what bearing surface should be left for the shoe. I have also described what I consider the best forms of shoe. The object at all times should be to follow nature as closely as possible, but it often happens that we may, with benefit, depart from the exact indications given and still fulfil all essential requirements. If we examine the unshod foot which has been worn down to proper proportions we find the bearing surface is not level--it is worn more at the toe and heels than elsewhere. If we examine the ground surface of an old shoe the same thing is noticed--the surface is not level, the toe and heel show most wear. The question then arises, should we make the artificial bearing surface of the foot on the same plan and adjust the shoe to it, as in Fig. 48, or should we make the surface level and apply a level shoe as in Fig. 49? I believe that the ideal arrangement would be to follow the line suggested by a worn foot or a worn shoe, but it is difficult to carry out, and greater exactness of fit is more readily obtained by two level surfaces. The ground surface of a shoe may, if necessary, be altered to suit the outline of wear, whilst the level foot-surface is preserved, as in Fig. 50. [Illustration: Fig. 49.] [Illustration: Fig. 50.] Whatever form the farrier adopts, a shoe should rest equally throughout, and the contact of foot and shoe should be exact over the whole bearing surface. Assuming then that a properly prepared foot presents a level surface, the fitting of shoes becomes simple so long as the smith possesses manual dexterity and follows the indications of common sense. There are two conditions to be fulfilled, (1) to fit the shoe to the plain surface of the foot, (2) to fit the shoe to the circumference of the wall. Most amateurs judge shoeing by the way a shoe follows the outline of the hoof, but the practical man knows that it is equally difficult and important to fit the surface. =Outline fitting.= A shoe is first compared with the foot, it is then heated, and the heels cut off or turned down to the proper length. Each limb of the shoe is fitted to follow the outline of the wall, and it is necessary to warn the novice that the inside and outside borders of a foot are not alike. The outside is rounder and fuller, and the shoe should be shaped to follow exactly the direction of the wall. The outer border of a shoe should always be as prominent as the outer border of the hoof; it should never be within it. The inner border must not protrude beyond the wall lest the opposite leg be struck. A well fitted shoe must be fitted full to the foot. What is called "close" fitting, _i.e._, bringing the shoe rather within the circumference of the wall, is injurious, as it loses the best and strongest bearing of the wall, and permits the farrier to give an appearance of neatness by rasping away any horn which protrudes beyond the shoe. On a well-shaped foot the shoe should follow the outer line of the hoof from toe to heel, but where the heels of a foot are turned inwards there is an advantage in fitting the shoe wider at the heels, as by so doing the base of the foot is not constricted and a wider resting surface is afforded to the limb. When a shoe is fitted wide at the heels it is essential that the foot-surface of the shoe should be level at the heels. If it be inclined, as it often is in seated shoes, a very grave defect in the fitting results, for the heels have no level bearing-surface. A shoe fitted too wide is liable to be trodden off by the opposite foot, or it may cause the horse to hit the opposite fetlock joint. Provided the nail holes are properly placed, when the outside border of the shoe is fitted nicely to the circumference of the hoof, they are brought to their right position. When nail holes are placed too near, or too far, from the outer border of the shoe--_i.e._, when they are too "fine" or too "coarse"--it may be necessary to correct their position by fitting the shoe "closer" or "fuller," as the case may be. When a farrier fits shoes made by another man he may overlook this, as we are all slaves to habit. The man who in his daily practice combines "close" fitting with "fine" nailing has to alter his routine when fitting a shoe with coarse nail holes. The length of a shoe at the heels is a matter of more importance than is generally recognised. As a rule hunters are all shod too short, while most cart horses are shod too long. The objections to a long front shoe are that it is liable to be trodden off by the hind shoe, and that it may injure the elbow when the horse lies down. A long hind shoe is free from both these disadvantages, and as it usually has a calkin is the best form to adopt. In fitting the heels of front shoes, in all but galloping horses, the iron should generally extend slightly behind the extremity of the horn. (Fig. 48). Horses used for galloping should have the end of the shoe just within the termination of the horn, and should finish with an oblique extremity. (Fig. 49). There is nothing gained by greater shortening, if the iron be fitted exactly to the horn. Why shoes are often pulled off, when only just the length of the hoof, is because they are not fitted close enough, and very often because they are wilfully and ignorantly designed to leave a space between hoof and iron. This so-called "eased" heel is an unmitigated evil. [Illustration: Fig. 49.--Shoe fitted short at the heels.] =Surface-fitting.= It is simple to direct that the bearing-surface of a shoe should be exactly adapted to the bearing-surface of a foot. It is not so simple to carry out. When the horn on the lower surface of a foot is thin any uneven pressure--_i.e._, pressure applied directly to one spot--soon causes injury, pain, and lameness. When a good thick layer of horn exists, uneven pressures are less injurious, because the horn distributes them over a wide surface. Good workmanship is displayed by leaving no uneven pressure, and by so fitting a shoe that it shall do no harm. With a narrow shoe--one only the width of the wall--no uneven pressure can be applied to the sensitive foot, but such a shoe is seldom used as it is too light to afford sufficient wear. A wide shoe with a flat foot surface is easily fitted on all concave feet--_i.e._, on all hind and most fore feet. To make use of the whole bearing-surface a shoe must rest evenly from toe to heel--the flat surface of the shoe must take a level bearing on the whole flat bearing-surface of the foot. There are two places where injury from uneven pressure is most likely to happen--at the toe and at the heels. In preparing a foot the wall at the toe may, from want of care, be reduced a little below the level of the sole, or in making a shoe the inside border at the toe may be left higher than the outside. In each case uneven pressure is placed on the sole just where the back border of the shoe rests. In fitting a hot shoe, wherever the hoof is unduly marked warning is given that pressure at that point must be prevented by altering the surface either of the shoe or the foot. On a strong foot, the knife may be used to remove a little horn; on a weak foot the alteration must be on the shoe. At the the heel uneven pressure is most frequent on the angle of sole between the wall and bar, where it causes the so-called "corn"--a condition in the horse having no analogy to the affliction similarly named in the human subject. It is simply a bruise of the sensitive parts under the horn. A bruised heel--a corn--is most likely to arise from the use of a shoe too short, especially if fitted too close. It may arise from a properly-fitted shoe retained too long on the foot and shifted from its proper bearing on the wall to an improper bearing on the sole. A bruised heel may also result from the use of a well-made shoe if the preparation of the hoof has been faulty. Rule-of-thumb directions to "reduce the heels to a level by the use of the rasp, but on no account cut away any sole" may result in injury. In a strong foot with an overgrown sole it is easy to get a level surface and to fit on to it a level shoe, but the horn of the sole does not remain level. As it grows and flakes off the portion between the bar and wall is raised. If the weather be wet it swells, and then, bound down by the shoe, it acts simply as a stone might and bruises the sensitive parts within by its uneven pressure. It is always safe and it is never injurious to remove so much of the surface of this portion of sole with the drawing-knife as will ensure no uneven pressure on it by the shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 50.--An "eased" heel.] The more exactly the shoe fits the foot-surface the more easily it is retained in position by the nails, and the less likelihood there is of any part of it pressing distinctly on a limited portion of horn. Exact fitting allows all bearings and pressures to be distributed equally over the surface of the hoof, and thus permits the shoe most nearly to resemble a mere continuation of the hoof in iron--an arrangement to prevent wear, but not to interfere with natural functions. There is one departure from level fitting which requires special notice since it is made, not by accident or negligence, but by design. It consists in taking the bearing of an inch or an inch and a half of the extremity of a shoe off the foot. (Fig. 50). It has been called "easing the heels," and the space permits a knife-blade, sometimes even a pencil, to be placed between the shoe and the foot. It is one of the very worst practices that theory has forced into horse-shoeing. Men who do it say "the heels won't stand pressure." I reply they will stand all proper pressure, and a good deal more than the quarters. But the practice does not relieve the heels of pressure. If you examine a shoe fitted in this way, after it has done a month's service, you will find it sometimes polished bright, sometimes with a deep groove worn into it. You may also test its bearing by raising the foot from the ground and inserting between shoe and hoof a flat bit of wood, then on releasing the foot and raising the opposite one, you will find that the bearing is such that the bit of wood cannot be removed. The "eased heel" does not relieve the heels of pressure but, instead of constant normal bearing, it permits a downward movement of the back of the foot at each step--which is unnatural, and which cannot occur in an unshod foot on a level surface. The "eased heel" does more than this. It wastes a large extent of good bearing-surface, and it concentrates pressure at one point--where the shoe and foot meet--at the quarters. It loses good bearing-surface where it is important to have it, and unevenly throws extra weight on the quarters which are the weakest parts of the wall. An "eased heel" has not one single advantage, but it has every disadvantage which misplaced ingenuity could contrive. [Illustration: Fig. 51.--Section of a seated shoe.] For flat feet a wide shoe with a flat foot-surface is unsafe as there is liability to uneven pressure on the sole. For such feet the safer form of foot-surface is one presenting a level narrow bearing-surface round its outer border, from which an inclined or bevelled surface continues the shoe inwards. (Fig. 51) This form of shoe can be fitted to nearly any kind of foot. To escape injury to a flat sole "seating out" shoes is necessary, but the operation should always leave a level bearing-surface for the wall. When a shoe is seated from one side to the other so as to produce a saucer shaped surface harm is done to the foot. Such a shoe presents no level bearing-surface, and the weight of the horse pressing the wall on an inclined plane causes the foot to be pinched or compressed in a manner which soon causes lameness. (Fig. 52). A few years ago these shoes were too common, and to make them still more injurious, the foot was pared out from the centre to the circumference like a saucer, and the two spoiled articles were fitted together. Their surfaces of contact were two narrow ridges which even the most expert workman could not fit without injury to the horse. [Illustration: Fig. 52.--Section of a "saucer" shoe.] In Fig. 52 a shoe with an inclined surface is applied to a foot with a bearing-surface as wide as the wall but the only contact is at the edges. The horn at the edge will yield, and the hoof be pressed inwards as the weight of the animal forces the foot into the saucer-shaped shoe. When the bearing-surface of the foot, instead of being as wide as the wall, is only a ridge, the horn yields more rapidly, the clinches rise and the shoe becomes loose. In Fig. 53 is shown a section of another shoe with an inclined instead of a level surface, but the slope is from within outwards. The effect of this is exactly the opposite of the previous shoe. The wall is forced outwards, and if it does not as a whole yield to the pressure the portion in contact is broken. When this form of bearing-surface is adopted at the heels of a shoe the two sides of the hoof are violently forced apart, and it has even been recommended as a means of expanding the foot; but forcible expansion is both unnecessary and dangerous. Always regarding the shoe as an extension of the natural hoof in a harder and more durable material, it is evident that the most stability will be attained by the use of as wide a bearing-surface of foot and shoe as is compatible with ease and safety to the horse. In Fig. 54 is shown a section of a narrow shoe which takes a bearing over the whole extent of its foot-surface. [Illustration: Fig. 53.--Bearing-surface inclined outwards.] [Illustration: Fig. 54.--Narrow shoe with level bearing-surface.] In Fig. 55 is shown a shoe with as wide a bearing-surface as in Fig. 54, but which loses half its bearing because the foot-surface is too narrow to utilise it. [Illustration: Fig. 55.--Bearing-surface of foot too narrow.] [Illustration: Fig. 56.--A good bearing-surface.] In Fig. 56 we have a model bearing-surface on the foot, nearly twice the width of the wall, and we have a shoe with a flat foot-surface capable of using the whole bearing. Such is the fitting of all hind shoes, and it might well be adopted with advantage in all fore shoes on good feet. =Clips= are thin projections drawn up from the outer border of shoes for the purpose of giving greater security to their position on a foot. On heavy cart horses the clips are sometimes of great size and encourage the idea that the smith looks upon them as designed to assist the nails to retain the shoe on the foot. They should have no such purpose, their use being merely to prevent the shoe shifting to one side. A clip should not be narrow and high, it should be low and wide so that its bearing is taken against the lower edge of the wall. A high clip is a most serious danger when shoes get loose and are trodden on by the horse. The usual position for a clip is at the toe, but there are occasions when two clips--one at each side of the toe--are used. On some shoes a clip is placed at the outer quarter to prevent the shoe being displaced inwards; this is more often required on hind shoes. A clip at the toe affords some assistance in fitting a shoe exactly, and it also affords steadiness to the shoe during the driving of the first nails. In America clips are not used, and when American machine-made shoes were first introduced into London they were fitted without clips. I am bound to confess that these shoes did not shift on the feet to any noticeable extent, but they are now all fitted with clips so I suppose the workmen found they were an advantage. The greatest evil resulting from clips is seen in slovenly fitting, when the farrier with his knife carves out a great hole in the wall in which to imbed the clip. As a clip is flat it cannot be fitted to the rounded face of the wall, but all that is necessary is to reduce the round to a flat surface with the rasp, so that the clip may rest on it, care being taken that at the extreme edge the horn is not left so prominent as to be unduly pressed upon when the clip is driven close to the wall. It is easy to lame a horse by violently hammering up the clip, especially when the horn behind it has been so much cut away as to leave only a thin protecting layer. A clip should only be hammered up sufficiently to leave it firmly applied to the wall. A bad workman in making his clip may spoil the foot-surface of a shoe by causing a bridge on the bearing surface of the iron at the toe, and this, on thin or flat feet, may cause lameness. A very unsightly appearance and very defective work results from the fireman leaving his clip at right angles to the line of the shoe. It should be inclined backwards at about the same slope as the portion of wall against which it is to rest. The two diagrams (Fig. 57) illustrate what is meant. [Illustration: Fig. 57.--Toe Clips.] =Hot and Cold Fitting.= When an engineer or a carpenter has two surfaces to fit together with great exactness he employs some colouring material to show where they do come in contact and where they do not. When a farrier fits a shoe to a horse's foot he tests its adaptation by applying it at a dull red heat to the horn. This proceeding shows with precision the bearing surfaces, as the horn is charred in proportion to the contact. If the shoe be found not to fit exactly, it is taken back to the anvil and altered. It is then again for a few seconds applied to the horn and the surface of contact examined. This proceeding is repeated until sufficient exactness is arrived at and then the shoe is cooled ready for nailing on. As horn is a bad conductor of heat this process of "hot-fitting" does no harm to the sensitive structures within the hoof unless it be carried to an extreme. When the horn is very thin the heat of a shoe retained too long in contact with it does serious mischief, and the injury known as a burnt sole has often resulted from careless work. If a shoe, whilst being altered to fit a foot, were cooled each time it was laid on the hoof, it would have to be re-heated before the necessary alterations could be made and this would cause great waste of time. The abuse of hot-fitting may do harm without any direct burning of the sole. An ill-fitting hot shoe may be held on the hoof until it beds itself into the horn and thus a complete correspondence between the surface of the foot and the surface of the shoe be effected. Such a proceeding is well described as "fitting the foot to the shoe" and is not only destructive to the horn but damaging to the foot by permitting an uneven shoe to look as though it were properly fitting. When hot-fitting is used and not abused--when it is adopted merely to indicate how and where the shoe fits, and not to make it appear to fit--I consider it has many advantages over cold-fitting. With some feet and some shoes it is quite possible to produce a good fit without heating the shoe. When a shoe requires much alteration to bring it into exact correspondence with the foot, even the most expert farrier cannot do justice to his work with cold iron--he gets as near to a fit as he can and when the hoof is strong little harm is done. The best work is that which includes the greatest exactness of fit, and uneven pressure or loose shoes result from inferior work. A badly fitted shoe requires more nails to retain it in place, and experience has shown that hot-fitted shoes give a smaller average of loose or lost shoes than those cold-fitted. The slight charring of the end of the horn fibres which results from proper hot-fitting has never been found to do injury, and it apparently has some advantages. One is that the surface of the hoof less readily absorbs moisture than when not charred. Another is that the horn is softened for a time and expanded, allowing nails to be easily driven, and then contracting and retaining them more firmly. The objection to hot-fitting applies only to its abuse. The advantages are greater exactness of fit, greater security that the shoe will be firmly retained on the foot, and greater facility in the operation of shoeing. Perhaps I ought to add that when cold-fitting is inevitable machine-made shoes are the best, because they are more regular in form, and more often level on the foot-surface than hand-made shoes. Army studs on active service, and studs used in coal mines comprise, perhaps, the only animals upon which cold-fitting is unavoidable. [Illustration: Fig. 58.] =Tips= are short shoes protecting only the foremost half of the foot. Upon grass or soft roads tips are quite sufficient to prevent undue wear of the hoof. Even upon hard roads tips will protect the hoof in dry weather, but in wet seasons the horn becomes softened, and then that part coming in contact with hard road-surfaces wears rapidly and lameness may follow. Tips require more care in use than shoes because they protect from wear only the toe, and when retained on the foot too long a time cause the hoof to become very disproportionately long at the toe. In fitting a tip care must be taken to afford the horse a level surface to bear on. The unprotected horn at the back of the foot must take a bearing on the ground level with the ground-surface of the tip. If there is sufficient horn on the foot this can be easily effected by only removing the overgrown wall to just the length the tip extends and leaving the horn behind untouched. Where there is not sufficient superfluous horn this method cannot be used, and we apply a tip gradually thinned off towards its hinder extremities. If a little horn can be removed obliquely from the front half of the foot by a few strokes of the rasp this "thinned" tip is more easily fitted so as to get a level surface on the ground. When a horse has worn this form for a month it is generally possible to bring a tip, of even thickness throughout, into the same line of bearing as the horn at the heels. [Illustration: Fig. 59.--Foot prepared for a tip.] [Illustration: Fig. 60.--An ordinary and a "thinned" tip.] Tips do not give a good foot-hold on grass, but they afford greater security of tread on hard smooth roads and on ice than long shoes. The great advantages of tips are two-fold--they are light, and they permit the greatest freedom of movement and action in the posterior part of the foot. In some cases of chronic foot lameness the use of tips and regular work will effect soundness when every other method of treatment has failed. [Illustration: Fig. 61.--Groove for Charlier shoe formed by cutting away strip of wall.] [Illustration: Fig. 62.--Section of Charlier shoe on foot.] =The Charlier System= is a method of shoeing which a few years ago took a very prominent hold on the fancy of horse-owners. Like every other system it has advantages and disadvantages--it has prejudiced enemies and indiscreet friends. The principle or theory upon which it is based may be thus stated. The lower border of the wall is, it is said, the chief sustaining structure of the hoof, and as all that is required of a shoe is to prevent undue wear, therefore, remove a small strip of the lower border of the wall and substitute for it a similar sized strip of iron, and we shall protect from wear at the same time that we leave entirely to nature every other part of the hoof--sole, frog, and bars. This seems eminently simple and logical, but it is easy to show that it is more plausible than true. First, I would point out that the wall _only_ is not the natural sustaining structure of the hoof. The wall _and the sole at its connection with the wall is_. Next I deny that the Charlier system does "leave entirely to nature every other part of the hoof." In cutting away the wall from the sole to affix the shoe, the natural function of the sole is seriously interfered with, and the bearing on the wall which ought to be partially distributed over the arch of the sole is limited to the wall. It is claimed that when the foot has had time to grow the sole will be found on a level with the shoe, and thus directly sharing in the weight-sustaining function. I have examined many feet shod by Charlier specialists, and have never yet seen the sole of a hind foot level with the shoe three days after the shoeing. Only once have I seen the sole of the fore foot level with the shoe after a week's wear. I am often apologetically told, "Well, it is not quite in wear, but it is not an eight of an inch below the surface of the shoe." Quite so, it is _nearly_ in wear, but if not actually in wear what becomes of the principle? The sole is not directly in wear and bearing is confined to the wall. As to the frog, the Charlier affords no greater use to it than any other shoe of a similar thickness, unless instead of being placed on sound firm horn it be dangerously let down into the hoof so that its edge approaches very closely to the sensitive foot. It is sometimes difficult to arrive at the truth as to the significance of the phrase "embedding or letting down" the shoe of the Charlier system. At one time we are assured that "the shoe is not sunk, the sole is permitted to grow up." When this is so, very little positive objection to the system can be taken, because the shoe then rests at the same level on firm horn as does any other narrow shoe; but then the frog takes no better bearing than in other systems and the superfluous growth of horn on the sole is of no value. When the shoe is really "let down" of course the frog does receive increased pressure--it is forced to share with the wall the primary function of sustaining weight instead of, as in nature, taking only a secondary share of such action. It does this at the expense of a shoe placed so close to the "quick" that if the upper and inner border of iron be not bevelled off, immediate lameness results. When the Charlier shoe was first introduced it was applied the full length of the foot, but it was found that when thinned by wear the heels spread and led to injury of the opposite leg or to its being trodden off. Now the Charlier is only applied like a tip round the front portion of the surface of the foot, and it therefore partakes of some of the advantages I have credited to tips. It is a very light shoe and only requires small nails to fix it securely, but as the shoe is only the width of the wall the nails have to be driven solely in the wall, and their position is open to the objection applying to all too fine nailing. The disadvantages of the Charlier are its being "let down" too near the quick, its limited bearing, and its fine nail holes; the advantages are the lightness and the freedom given to the back of the foot, both of which are attainable with a narrow tip not let down. One very apparent effect resulting from the use of the Charlier system is the alteration in the action of the horse. All knee action is lost, and some horses go decidedly tender whilst others acquire a low shooting stride, which is certainly not in accordance with our notions of good free locomotion. [Illustration: Fig. 63.--Groove for modified or short Charlier.] [Illustration: Fig 64.--A Tip laid on, not let down.] CHAPTER VII. "ROUGHING." In winter, ice, snow, and frost, render roads slippery, and it is necessary to provide some arrangement whereby horses may have the greatest security of foot-hold. In countries such as Canada or Russia, where a regular winter sets in at a tolerably uniform date and continues without intermission for some months, it is easier to adopt a good system of "roughing" than in Great Britain. There, on a thick layer of ice or snow, sharp projections on the shoes cut into the surface and afford foot-hold. The edge of the projections is not soon blunted, and when once properly placed their duration is as long as the time desirable for retaining the shoe. Here, very different conditions obtain. Sometimes a week or two of frost and snow may prevail, but more frequently the spells of wintry weather are counted by days. Two or three days of frost and then two or three days of mud and slush, to be followed by either dry hard roads or a return of ice and snow, is our usual winter. We require during this time to provide for occasional days, or more rarely for weeks, of frost-bound roads. Our horses' shoes wear about a month and then require replacing by new ones. When roads are hard and dry we want no sharp ridges or points about our horses shoes, and yet we must always be able at twenty-four hours notice to supply some temporary arrangement which will ensure foot-hold. The necessity for "roughing" and the evil effects of continuing to work unroughed horses on slippery frost-bound roads is demonstrated in London every winter by a very significant fact. If after three days of ice and snow, anyone will visit a horse-slaughterers' yard, he will find the place full of dead horses which have fallen in the streets and suffered incurable or fatal injury. A sudden and severe attack of ice and snow half paralyses the horse traffic of a large town for a day or two, and many owners will sooner keep their horses in the stable than go to the expense of having them roughed. The loss in civil life from unpreparedness for ice and snow is very serious, but the loss which has fallen upon military movements from similar neglect is appalling. Napoleon's rout from Moscow in 1814, Bourbaki's flight into Switzerland in 1871, and the Danish retreat upon Koenigsgratz in 1865 are terrible instances of the frightful loss sustained when horses are unable to keep on their feet at a walk, let alone drag guns and wagons over an ice-covered surface. [Illustration: Fig. 65.--Frost-nails, various.] A well-managed stud of horses which is required to face all weather and to work every day through an English winter should, from December 1st to March 1st, be shod in such a manner as to be easily and speedily provided with mechanism which will afford secure foot-hold. This may be effected by the use of moveable steel "roughs" or "sharps." Of course the cost is the argument against them, but this should be considered in view of the probability or certainty of loss which will follow from neglect. If we allow common humanity to animals to enter into the consideration, economy will be served by adopting a well arranged system of roughing. Every good horseman appreciates the enormity of over-loading, but neglect of roughing causes just as much cruelty. A horse that on a good road can properly draw a ton would be considered over-loaded with two tons, and his struggles to progress would at once attract attention. The same animal with half a ton on an ice-covered surface would suffer more exhaustion, fatigue, and fright, and run more risk of fatal injury than in the case of the over-loading, but his owner who would indignantly repudiate the one condition will designedly incur the other. Probably this is only thoughtlessness, but it is a reflection on the prudence of a manager, and certainly not flattering to the feelings or intelligence of a man. There are many ways of providing foot-hold for a horse on ice and snow. The most simple and temporary proceeding is to use frost-nails. Fig. 65 shows various sizes and shapes of these articles. They are not driven through the hoof like ordinary nails, but through the shoe only, which is prepared for their reception at the time of fitting. A shoe to carry frost-nails is fitted a little wider than usual at the heels and has at its extremities, or more often at its outer extremities, countersunk holes stamped and directed outwards so that the frost-nail can be safely driven through by anyone and its shank turned down over the shoe. There is a difficulty in firmly securing them, they are apt to work loose and then become bent and useless. If used on the inside heel of a shoe they constitute a danger to the opposite leg should they bend and protrude from under the shoe. As a temporary provision against a sudden frost or fall of snow they are useful--but they are only a make-shift. The more permanent and effective system of "roughing" consists in removing the shoes and turning down a sharp chisel projection at the heels. In very bad weather a projecting edge is also laid across the toe of the shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 66.--Heels of Fore and Hind Shoes, sharped.] The diagrams show the method of "sharping" a front and hind shoe at the heels only. The hind shoe, having calkins, is not much altered. The smith simply converts the square calkin into a sharp-edged one. The fore shoe having no calkins is turned down at the heels to afford enough iron to form the 'sharp.' But this shortens the shoe, and if it be repeated two or three times, as it often is, the bearing surface is spoiled, and the slightest carelessness in fitting the shoe causes a bruised heel. 'Roughing' is generally done in a hurry. A dozen horses reach the farrier's shop at one time and all desire to return to work with as little delay as possible. The work is perforce hurried through, careful fitting cannot be done, and bad-footed horses suffer accordingly. The dotted lines in Fig. 66 show the original length of shoe, and the shortening which results from a second roughing. All horse-owners know how many lame horses result from the repeated roughings necessitated by a week or two of wintry weather. Some of this is inevitable from the rush and hurry which cannot be prevented. Valuable horses with weak feet should not be submitted to any such risk. They should be shod with removable sharps. The mere fact of removing a horse's shoes perhaps five or six times in a month must injure the hoof. Add to this the shortening of the shoe, the raising of the heel by the roughing, and the irregular bearing due to hurried fitting and we have conditions which only the very strongest feet can endure without serious injury. [Illustration: Fig. 67.--Toe Sharp.] For heavy draught horses, and for all where the roads are hilly, the toes as well as the heels must be 'sharped' when ice and snow are firm on the surface. Fig. 67 shows this arrangement at the toe. The removable steel "sharps," of which I have spoken, are certainly the least objectionable method of providing foot-hold in winter. They are made in various sizes to suit all kinds of shoes. They vary in shape somewhat, but their form is more a matter of fancy than utility. One in each heel of a shoe is the usual number used but if snow and ice are plentiful and the roads hilly two additional "sharps" may be placed at the toe of the shoe. [Illustration: Fig. 68.--Removable Steel Sharp.] [Illustration: Fig. 69.--Steel Sharps, screw.] At the time of fitting the shoes, holes are made by first punching a round hole through the heels--and through the toe if desired--then the hole is 'tapped' and a thread formed to fit it in the shank of the sharp which is to fill it. If the sharps are not immediately wanted the holes may be filled with corks to keep out the grit and dirt. When corks are used the wear of the shoe causes a burr to form round the edge of the hole, and before the sharp can be screwed in a "tap" must be worked into each hole to clear the thread. One great objection to this method is that as the shoe wears it becomes thinner, and if much worn the shank of the "sharp" may be too long, and when screwed home cause pressure upon the hoof and consequent lameness. To guard against this steel "blanks" are used to preserve the holes, and when a frost comes they are removed and the "sharps" put in. The blanks vary in height and of course those least in height are best for the horse's action, but they must not be allowed to get so worn that it is impossible to remove them. These blanks are shown below. [Illustration: Fig. 70.--Blanks, screwed.] [Illustration: Fig. 71.--Steel Sharps and Blank, Plug shanks.] The "tapping" and "screwing" of shoes is expensive, and in small shops must be done by hand. In large shops a gas engine and a machine would reduce the cost very greatly, and if the system came into general use this method of providing against frost-bound roads could be carried out at much less cost than now. With a view to economy and simplicity a sharp has been invented which requires no screw. The shank may be either round or square. A hole is punched in the heel of the shoe and carefully gauged to the size of the shank of the "sharp." The sharp is then put in and a tap of the hammer secures it. The difficulty is to get the hole in the shoe and the shank of the sharp of corresponding form and size. When this is done the sharp keeps its place and is not difficult to remove. Too often, however, they are not uniform, and then the sharp falls out or sometimes cannot be removed. When the holes are drilled instead of punched the fit is more exact, but this only applies to those with a round shank. A slight taper is given both to the hole and the shank of the "sharp." As with the screw sharps so with these, blanks are used to keep the holes open until the road-surface requires the sharp. [Illustration: Fig. 72.--Steel Taps for screwing shoes.] No sharps should be left in shoes when the horses are stabled at night, as serious injuries to the coronet may result from a tread by the opposite foot. The coachman or horse-keeper must be supplied with a spanner to remove the screws, and with a tap to clear the holes if blanks are not used. For roads not badly covered with snow and ice, sufficient security is afforded by some forms of india-rubber pads, which will be described in a future chapter. CHAPTER VIII. INJURIES FROM SHOEING. Even with the most careful farrier injury may occur during shoeing, or may arise as the result of the operation. Sometimes the foot, from its condition or form, renders an accident possible, and it may be so diseased, or defective, as to render shoeing with safety very improbable. Sometimes the shoe is to blame, and sometimes the nail or clip. A few words about each of the common injuries may be useful as helps to their avoidance or as guides to their remedying. =From nails= two kinds of injury may result. The most common arises from the nail being driven too near the sensitive parts, and is known as a _bind_. The nail does not really penetrate the sensitive foot, but is so near as to press unduly upon it. This condition causes lameness, which is generally not noticed till a day or two after the shoeing. It is readily detected by the farrier on removing the shoe and trying all the tracks of the nails in the hoof by pressure with pincers. When the lameness is slight removal of the nail and one or two days rest are all that is required. When the lameness is great it may be suspected that the injury has caused the formation of matter within the hoof. This must, of course, be allowed to escape, and the services of a veterinary surgeon are advisable. Any neglect in these cases, such as working the horse after lameness has appeared, or delay in removing the offending nail, may lead to very serious changes in the foot, or even to death of the horse. Another injury caused by nails is from a direct puncture of the sensitive foot. This may be slight, as in cases where the farrier in driving the nail misdirects it and so stabs the sensitive parts, but immediately withdraws the nail knowing what has happened. The lameness resulting from this is usually slight. Very much more serious is the lameness resulting from a nail which pierces the sensitive foot and is not recognised at once by the farrier. As a rule, lameness is immediate, and should the horse perform a journey before the nail is removed, serious damage is certain to follow. Want of skill in driving a nail is not always the chief cause of "binding" or "pricking" a horse. More often than not the form and position of the nail-holes is the primary cause, for if the nail-holes in the shoe are too "coarse" or badly pitched it is quite impossible to safely drive nails through them. Sometimes the nails are defective, and this was much more common when nails were all hand-made. Bad iron or bad workmanship led to nails splitting within the hoof, and whilst one half came out through the wall the other portion turned in and penetrated the sensitive foot causing a most dangerous injury. The best brands of machine-made nails, now generally used, are remarkably free from this defect. No lameness resulting from injury by a nail should be neglected. If detected and attended to at once few cases are serious. If neglected, the very simplest may end in permanent damage to the horse. By treating these accidents as unpardonable, horse-owners rather encourage farriers to disguise them or to not acknowledge them. If the workman would always be careful to search for injury and when he found it acknowledge the accident, many simple cases would cease to develop into serious ones. Frank acknowledgement is always best, but is less likely to take place when it is followed by unqualified blame than when treated as an accident which may have been accompanied by unavoidable difficulties. =From clips= lameness may arise. A badly drawn clip is not easily laid level and flat on the wall. When hammered down excessively it causes pressure on the sensitive foot, and lameness. When side clips are used--one each side of the foot--it is not difficult to cause lameness by driving them too tightly against the wall. They then hold the hoof as if in a vice. When shoes get loose or are partially torn off the horse may tread on the clip, and if it be high and sharp very dangerous wounds result. =From the shoe=, injury results from any uneven pressure, especially when the horny covering of the foot is weak and thin. The horn becomes broken and split, and the bearing for a shoe is more or less spoiled. Flat feet are liable to be bruised by the pressure of the inner circumference of the shoe at the toe. Lameness from this cause is easily detected by removing the shoe and testing the hoof with the pincers. If attended to at once, and the bearing of the shoe removed from the part little injury results. If neglected, inflammatory changes in the sensitive parts are sure to arise. =Corns= in horses are due to bruising of the angle of the sole by the heel of the shoe. A wide open foot with low heels is most likely to suffer, but any foot may be injured. The most common seat of injury is the inner heel of a fore-foot. Even a properly fitted shoe may cause a corn if retained too long upon a foot, as then, owing to the growth of the hoof, its extremity is carried forward from beneath the wall so as to press upon the sole. A short shoe, fitted too close on the inside, is the most common cause of corn. To guard against the shoe being trodden on by the opposite foot the inside is generally fitted close, and to guard against being trodden on by the hind foot it is often fitted short. Thus to prevent accidents of one kind methods are adopted which, being a little overdone, lead to injury of another. A not uncommon error in the preparation of the foot for shoeing may also lead to the production of the so-called corn. If the wall on the inside heel be lowered more than it should be the horn of the sole is left higher than the wall, and then a level shoe presses unevenly upon the higher part. A corn, be it remembered, is not a tumour or a growth, it is merely a bruise of the sensitive foot under the horn of the sole. It shows itself by staining the horn red, just as a bruise on the human body shows a staining of the skin above it. To "cut out a corn" with the idea of removing it is simply an ignorant proceeding. If a corn be slight all that is necessary is to take off the pressure of the shoe, and this is assisted by removing a thin slice or two of horn at the part. When the injury is very great matter may be formed under the horn, and of course must be let out by removal of the horn over it. Provided there is no reason to believe that matter has formed, a corn, _i.e._, the bruised and discoloured horn, should not be dug out in the ruthless manner so commonly adopted. Cutting away all the horn of the sole at the heels leaves the wall without any support. When the shoe rests upon the wall it is unable to sustain the weight without yielding, and thus an additional cause of irritation and soreness is manufactured. The excessive paring of corns is the chief reason of the difficulty of getting permanently rid of them. The simplest device for taking all pressure off a corn is to cut off an inch and a half of the inner heel of the shoe. With the three-quarter shoe (Fig. 73) a horse will soon go sound, and his foot will then resume its healthy state. The saying "once a corn, always a corn" is not true, but it is true that a bruised heel is tender and liable to bruise again, from very slight unevenness of pressure, for at least three months. All that is necessary is care in fitting and abstention from removal of too much horn at the part. Of course when the degree of lameness is such as to suggest that matter is formed the horn must be cut away so as to afford an exit for it, but the majority of corns are detected long before the stage of suppuration has resulted from a bruise. [Illustration: Fig. 73.--Three-quarter Shoe.] =A burnt Sole.= In fitting a hot shoe to a foot it sometimes happens that the sensitive parts under the sole at the toe are injured by heat. This is most likely to occur with a foot on which the horn is thin, especially if it also be flat or convex. Burning the sole is an injury which must be put down to negligence. It does not occur from the shoe being too hot but from its being too long retained, and may be expected when the fireman is seen holding a dull-red hot shoe on to a foot, with a doormen assisting to "bed it in" by pressing it to the foot with a rasp. When the heat of a shoe penetrates through the horn with sufficient intensity to blister the sensitive parts of the foot great pain and lameness result. In many cases separation of the sole from the "quick" takes place, and some weeks pass before the horse can resume work. =Treads= are injuries to the coronet caused by the shoe of the opposite foot, and are usually found on the front or inside of the hind feet. The injury may take the form of a bruise and the skin remain unbroken, it may appear as a superficial jagged wound, or it may take the form of a tolerably clean cut, in which case, although at first bleeding is very free, ultimate recovery is rapid. Bruises on the coronet--just where hair and hoof meet--are always to be looked upon as serious. The slighter cases, after a few days pain and lameness, pass away leaving only a little line showing where the hoof has separated from the skin. This separation is not serious unless a good deal of swelling has accompanied it, and even then only time is required to effect a cure. In more serious cases an extensive slough takes place, and the coronary band which secretes the wall may be damaged. The worst cases are those in which deep seated abscesses occur, as they often terminate in a "quittor." The farrier should always recognise a tread as possibly dangerous and obtain professional advice. It is a common custom to rasp away the horn of the wall immediately beneath any injury of the coronet, but it is a useless proceeding which weakens the hoof and does no good to the inflamed tissues above or beneath. Treads are most common in horses shod with heavy shoes and high calkins--a fact which suggests that a low square calkin and a shoe fitted not too wide at the heels is a possible preventive. "Cutting" or "Brushing." By these terms is meant the injury to the inside of the fetlock joint which results from bruising by the opposite foot. Possibly some small proportion of such injuries are traceable to the system of shoeing, to the form of shoe, or to the action of the horse. They are, with few exceptions, the direct result of want of condition in the horse and are almost confined to young horses, old weak horses, or animals that have been submitted to some excessively long and tiring journey. The first thing a horse-owner does when his horse "brushes" is to send him to the farrier to have his shoes altered. In half the cases there is nothing wrong with the shoes, and all that is required is a little patience till the horse gains hard condition. At the commencement of a coaching season half the horses "cut" their fetlocks, no matter how they are shod. At the end of the season none of them touch the opposite joint, with perhaps a few exceptions afflicted with defective formation of limb, or constitutions that baffle all attempts at getting hard condition. The same thing is seen in cab and omnibus stock. All the new horses "cut" their legs for a few weeks. The old ones, with a few exceptions, work in any form of shoe, but never touch their joints. They "cut" when they are out of condition--when their limbs soon tire; but they never "cut" when they are in condition--when they have firm control of the action of their limbs. There are, however, a few horses that are always a source of trouble, and there are conditions of shoeing which assist or prevent the injury. The hind legs are the most frequently affected and this because of the calkins. Many horses will cease "cutting" at once if the calkins of the shoes be removed and a level shoe adopted. There are certain forms of shoe which are supposed to be specially suitable as preventives. A great favourite is the "knocked-up-shoe"--_i.e._, a shoe with no nails on the inside except at the toe, and a skate-shaped inner branch. [Illustration: Fig. 74.--"Knocked-up" Shoes--with and without an inner Calkin.] These shoes are fitted not only close to the inner border of the wall but within it, and the horn at the toe is then rasped off level with the shoe. Whether they are of any use is a question, but there is no question of the harm they do to the foot. Some farriers are partial to a three-quarter-shoe--one from which a couple of inches of the inside heel has been removed. Some thicken the outside toe, some the inside toe. Some raise one heel, some the other, and some profess to have a principle of fitting the shoe based upon the formation of the horse's limb and the peculiarity of his action. If in practice success attended these methods I should advise their adoption, but my experience is that numerous farriers obtain a special name for shoeing horses that "cut," when their methods, applied to quite similar cases, are as antagonistic as the poles. A light shoe without calkins has at any rate negative properties--it will not assist the horse to injure himself. For all the other forms and shapes I have a profound contempt, but as people will have changes, and as the most marked departure from the ordinary seems to give the greatest satisfaction, it is perhaps "good business" to supply what is appreciated. The two great cures for "cutting" are--regular work and good old beans. When a man drives a horse forty miles in a day at a fast pace he, of course, blames the farrier for all damage to the fetlocks. He is merely illogical. [Illustration: Fig. 75.--Toe of Hind Shoe showing the edge which cuts the Front Foot.] Over-reaching. This is an injury to the heel--generally the inner--of a front foot. The heel is struck by the inner border of the toe of the hind shoe. Over-reach occurs at a gallop in this country, but is seen in America as the result of a mis-step in the fast trotters. An over-reach can only occur when the fore foot is raised from the ground and the hind foot reaches right into the hollow of the fore foot. When the fore and hind feet in this position separate the inner border of the toe of the hind shoe catches the heel of the fore foot and cuts off a slice. This cut portion often hangs as a flap, and when it does the attachment is always at the back, showing that the injury was not from behind forwards as it would be if caused by a direct blow, but from before backwards--in other words by a dragging action of the hind foot as it leaves the front one. An over-reach then may result either from the fore limb being insufficiently extended, or from the hind limb being over extended. The prevention of this injury is effected by rounding off the inside edge of the hind shoe as shown below. [Illustration: Fig. 76.--Toe of Hind Shoe showing rounded inside border.] Speedy-cut. This is an injury inflicted on the inner surface of the lower part of the knee joint by a blow from the toe of the shoe of the opposite foot. It occurs at a trot, and very seldom except when a horse is tired or over-paced. A horse that has once "speedy-cut" is apt to do so again and it may cause him to fall. Such horses should be shod "close" on the inside, and care should be taken that the heels of the foot which strikes should be kept low. In some cases a three-quarter shoe (see Fig. 73) on the offending foot prevents injury. "Forging" or "Clacking." This is not an injury but an annoyance. It is the noise made by the striking of the hind shoe against the front as the horse is trotting. Horses "forge" when young and green, when out of condition or tired. As a rule, a horse that makes this noise is a slovenly goer, and will cease to annoy when he gets strength and goes up to his bit. Shoeing makes a difference, and in some cases at once stops it. The part of the front shoe struck is the inner border round the toe. (Fig. 77). The part of the hind shoe that strikes is the outer border at the inside and outside toe. (Fig. 78). [Illustration: Fig. 77.--Toe of Fore Shoe. The arrows mark the place struck in "forging."] [Illustration: Fig. 78.--Toe of Hind Shoe showing the edge which strikes the Fore Shoe.] [Illustration: Fig. 79.--Toe of Fore Shoe with inner border bevelled off.] To alter the fore shoe, round off the inner border; or use a shoe with no inner border such as the concave hunting shoe To alter the toe of the hind shoe is useless, but by using a level shoe without calkins some advantage is gained. A so-called "diamond-toed" shoe has been recommended. It is not advisable as it does no good except by causing its point to strike the sole of the front foot. If by such a dodge the sound is got rid of it is only by running the risk of injuring the foot. CHAPTER IX. SHOEING BAD FEET. Any average farrier can shoe without immediate harm a good well-formed foot that has a thick covering of horn, but when the horn is deficient in quantity or quality injury soon takes place if a badly fitted shoe be applied. There are feet which from disease or accident or bad shoeing have become, more or less, permanently damaged. Some are seriously altered in shape. Some are protected only by an unhealthy horn, and some show definite changes which cause weakness at a special part. These are the feet which really test the art of the farrier, for he must know just what to do and what not to do, and must possess the skill to practice what he knows. =Flat Feet.= Some horses are born with flat feet, others acquire them as the result of disease. Too often the flat sole has another defect accompanying it--low weak heels. Such feet are best shod with a seated shoe so as to avoid any uneven pressure on the sole, and the shoes should always be fitted a little longer than the bearing-surface of the foot, so as to avoid any risk of producing a bruise at the heel--in other words, of causing a corn. The seated shoe is not advisable on a hunter. The concave shoe used for hunters has many distinct advantages and only one disadvantage for a flat foot, viz, that it has a wide flat foot-surface. It may cause an uneven pressure at the toe on a flat sole, but this is easily avoided by not making it too wide; perhaps the very worst thing to do with a flat foot is to try and make it look less flat by paring it down. The thinner the horn the greater the chance of injury to the sensitive parts under it, and every injury tends to make the sole weaker. Leaving the sole strong and thick, whilst fitting the shoe to avoid uneven pressure, is the principle of shoeing to be adopted with flat feet. =Convex Soles.= The sole of the foot should be concave, but as the result of disease many feet become convex. This bulging or "dropping" of the sole varies in degree from a little more than flat to an inch or so below the level of the wall. When the under-surface of a horse's foot resembles in form the outside of a saucer, fitting a shoe becomes a work of art. Very often the wall is brittle and broken away and it is most difficult to find sufficient bearing-surface on the foot for a shoe. Many of these feet may be safely shod with a narrow shoe that rests only on the wall and the intermediate horn between the wall and sole. Such a shoe may, according to the size of the foot, be five-eighths or even three-quarters of an inch wide. Its thickness is to be such as will prevent the sole taking any direct bearing on the ground, and sometimes a shoe of this form is much thicker than it is wide. The advantage of this shoe is that it is so narrow that any bearing on the sole is avoided. The disadvantage is that on rough roads the sole may be bruised by the flint or granite stones. When the horn of a "dropped" sole is very thin, or when the horse has to work on roads covered with sharp loose stones, some cover for the sole is necessary and the narrow shoe is not practicable. To provide cover for the sole, the web of the shoe has to be wide, and, therefore, the foot-surface of the shoe must be seated out so as to avoid contact with the sole. Too often the seating is continued from the inner to the outer border of a shoe, so that no level bearing-surface is provided for the wall to rest on. This kind of shoe is like the hollow of a saucer, and when applied to a foot is certain to cause lameness soon or later. Each time the horse rests his weight on it the hoof is compressed by the inclined surface of the shoe, which instead of providing a firm bearing-surface affords only an ingenious instrument of torture. [Illustration: Fig. 80. Improper bearing surface. A level bearing surface.] In even the worst of these deformed feet some good sound horn is to be found at the heels, where an inch or sometimes two can be utilised for level bearing. No matter how much seating is required at the toe and quarters, the heel of the shoe may always be made level. It cannot be too strongly urged that in the preparation of feet with bulging soles no horn is to be removed from the sole. The toe is to be shortened, the heels lowered proportionately, and the bearing-surface of the wall made level with a rasp. At no place must the shoe rest on the sole. In nearly every case the toe is left too long and the bearing taken upon it by the shoe only increases the deformity. In many feet a large slice might be sawn off the toe with advantage, as the sensitive foot is separated from the wall by a mass of diseased horn which presses the wall at the toe forward. (Fig. 81). [Illustration: Fig 81. Deformity resulting from Laminitis. Section showing how front of wall is separated from sensitive laminæ.] =Sandcracks.= This is the name given to cracks in the wall which commence at the coronet and extend downwards. From their position at the toe, or at the side of the hoof, they are sometimes called respectively "toe-cracks" and "quarter-cracks." The crack may be very slight and may exist without causing lameness. It may appear suddenly, accompanied by great lameness and by the issue of blood from between the edges of the divided wall. These are grave cases which require surgical attendance. Sandcracks are most commonly seen in dry brittle feet, and the horses most subject to them are those employed in heavy draught work. Railway shunt-horses and omnibus horses are very liable to be troubled with sandcracks in the toe of the hind feet. In shoeing for this defect there are two things to avoid, (_a_) not to place any direct pressure on the part; (_b_) not to fit a shoe which will tend to force the crack open. Following these lines it is well not to put a clip exactly over a crack. If at the toe place a clip each side of the crack, and never use calkins or high heels which throw the weight forward. If at the quarter avoid a spring-heeled shoe which permits the downward movement of the foot behind the crack and so forces it open. In all cases, after fitting the shoe level to the foot, remove a little more horn just below the crack so as to relieve the direct bearing on the part. (Fig. 82). [Illustration: Fig. 82. =A=--Horn removed to prevent pressure. Bearing relieved at wrong place by "springing" the heel.] In the case of crack extending the whole space of the wall some provision should always be made to keep it from opening, because every step of the horse, especially when drawing a load, causes an outward pressure at the coronet. This pressure forces the hoof apart and the injury caused does not cease with the pain and lameness which follow, and which may be temporary. Doubtless the original cause of a sandcrack is some morbid condition of the coronary band--the band from which the wall grows. The sensitive laminæ are at first not affected further than by the inflammation consequent upon the direct tearing which occurs when the crack takes place. The continued irritation, kept up by a persistent fissure in the horn covering the laminæ, soon causes other serious changes which tend to make the sandcrack a permanent disease. Thus even the smallest crack should be attended to and measures adopted to prevent its enlargement or, when extensive, to limit all opening and shutting movement of the hoof. [Illustration: Fig. 83.--French Clips in Position.] This is sometimes attempted by a simple leather strap tightly applied, or by binding the foot with string or tape. Tape is less liable to slip than string. When the hoof is sufficiently thick two nails may be driven in opposite directions transversely through the crack and clinched; or French sandcrack-clips (Fig. 83) may be used which are easily applied. The instruments necessary are shown below (Fig. 84). The iron (_b_) is made red-hot and pressed on the hoof over the crack so as to burn a groove each side of it. Into these grooves the clip (_a_) is put and the pincers (_c_) are then used to compress the clip firmly into its place. There is a strain upon the clips, and sometimes one breaks. It is therefore necessary always to use two, and for an extensive crack three may be employed. [Illustration: Fig. 84.] All these appliances tend to keep the lips of the crack from separating, but they do not prevent the edges of a deep wide crack from being forced together and thus pinching the sensitive parts. To provide against this injury a slip of hard wood may be fitted into the crack, and then the nails or clips may be more safely drawn tight without fear of injury, and with a better chance of preventing any movement in the edges of the crack. To insert the wood, the crack is converted into a groove nearly as deep as the wall, about three-eights of an inch wide, with straight sides, or better still, with a little greater width at the bottom than at the surface. Into such a groove a piece of wood formed to fit it is gently driven from below and rasped off to fit exactly. Or, softened gutta-percha may be pressed firmly into the space and levelled off when cold. To "cut out" a sandcrack except for the purpose of refilling it is bad practice as it favours movement and helps to make the defect permanent. To rasp away the horn so that only a thin layer is left is also injurious. No horn should be removed except for the fitting of a plug as above described or, under veterinary direction, for the purpose of giving vent to matter which has formed within the hoof. In many European countries a shoe is used for toe-cracks which has two clips drawn on the inside border of the shoe at the heels. These clips catch the bars of the hoof and prevent the heels of the foot closing in. The idea is that when the wall at the heels contracts, there is a tendency for the wall at the toe, if separated by a crack, to open. Fig. 85 shows the position of the clips which must be carefully fitted so as to rest on the inside of the bars. Mr. Willis, V.S., has tried these shoes and speaks well of their utility. [Illustration: Fig. 85.--Shoe with Heel Clips for Sandcrack.] When the crack is in the quarters of the foot, it is not the tendency to expansion of the hoof that has to be guarded against. It is the downward motion of the heels that forces open a crack in this position. The farrier provides against this by taking care to have a firm bearing of the shoe on the hoof behind the crack as shown in A figure 82. =Contracted Feet.= Some diseases of the foot lead to contraction of the hoof, which is most noticeable round the coronet and at the heels. Any long continued lameness which prevents the horse placing the usual weight on the foot may be accompanied by contraction. Constant cutting away of the bars and paring the frog so that it takes no contact with the ground also leads to shrinking in of the heels. By lowering the heels and letting the frog alone many feet will in time widen out to their proper size, but no system of shoeing is so good for contracted feet as the use of tips, which leave the whole back part of the hoof to take direct bearing on the ground. Many shoes have been invented for forcing open the heels of contracted feet. Some have had a hinge at the toe and a movable screw at the heel. Some have had the bearing-surface at the heels made with a slope outwards, (See Fig. 53, page 74) so that the weight of the horse should constantly tend to force the heels apart. There is no necessity for any of these contrivances. A properly fitted tip (See page 78) will permit the hoof gradually to expand to its healthy size and form. =Seedy-toe.= This is a condition of the wall usually found at the toe but not uncommon at the quarters. It is not common in hind feet but occurs sometimes. When the shoe is removed a separation is noticed between the sole and the wall, and this separation may extend up the wall nearly to the coronet. As a rule the space so formed is a narrow one, but it may be wide enough to admit three fingers of a man's hand. Probably all seedy toes result from some injury or disease of the coronary band from which the wall grows, and the first appearance is not a cavity but a changed and softened horn, which may be dry and crumbly, or moist and cheesy. The diseased horn may be scraped out and the cavity filled with tar and tow. The wall bounding the cavity should be relieved of all pressure on the shoe, and if a radical cure be desired all the unattached wall should be cut away. This, however, should be done under veterinary guidance. =Turning in of the Wall.= By this expression, I mean those cases of weak low-heels in which the border of the wall turns inward. Such a form of horn offers no suitable bearing for a shoe, and if submitted to pressure by a shoe gets worse. Too often this condition is treated by paring away the sole within, which increases the deformity. The sole should not be cut but be left as strong as possible. The curled-in border of the wall should be cut down and all bearing taken off the shoe. In one or two shoeings the wall will resume its proper form. When both heels are so affected, and the horse has to remain at work, only one heel must be treated at a time. The extreme point of the heel is never affected, and affords a point for bearing when the border of wall in front of it is cut away so as not to touch the shoe. CHAPTER X. LEATHER AND RUBBER PADS. In the days when farriers were driven by theoretical teachers to pare out the soles and otherwise rob the foot of its natural covering of horn, artificial protection had frequently to be given to the foot. A horse with a thin sole could not travel over rough roads, on which sharp loose stones were plentiful, without great risk of injury; consequently in those times plates of leather were often used to protect the foot. When a horse went "a little short" his owner not unnaturally concluded that he had bruised his foot and that the protection of a leather sole would be beneficial. In many cases the defective action was due to other cause than bruising, but still the leather was adopted, and it soon became an accepted theory that leather soles modified concussion and protected the foot from jar. This is more than doubtful, and I hold a very firm opinion that a plate of leather between the shoe and the foot has no such effect, whilst it interferes with the exactness of fit of the shoe. "Leathers" are useful on weak feet to protect a thin or defective sole from injury. When the under surface of a foot has been bruised, cut through, or when it is diseased, leather offers a useful protection, but when the sole is firm and sound it is quite unnecessary. To apply leather properly, a square piece fully the size of the shoe is taken. A portion is then cut out where the clip has to fit and all protruding parts cut away level with the border of the shoe. If applied without more precautions, an open space would be left between leather and sole into which mud and grit would find their way and the leather would soon be cut through by resting on the irregular surface of the frog. To prevent this mischief the under surface of the foot is made level before the shoe is applied. The leveling is managed by spreading a paste of tar and oatmeal over the sole, and filling up the space at the sides of the frog with tow. Then the shoe with the leather is nailed on in the usual manner. The belief in leather as an anti-concussive appliance has led to the use of what are called "ring-leathers." These are not plates covering the whole under surface of the foot but narrow bands fixed between shoe and hoof. They are absolutely useless, in fact their only possible effect is to spoil the fit of the shoe. Plates of india-rubber have been tried between the shoe and the foot as preventives of concussion. They invariably fail by reason of their effect upon the shoe. At each step when the weight of the horse comes on the foot the elastic rubber yields, the shoe is pressed closer to the foot, the nails are loosened, and when the foot is raised the rubber rebounds. The shoe soon becomes so loose that it is cast or torn off. Nothing elastic should be placed between shoe and foot. When an elastic or spring is applied it must be between the shoe and the ground. Various arrangements have been adopted to supply the horse's foot with some provision against concussion. Injured and diseased feet may no doubt be benefitted by some elastic appliance which secures them from the jar of contact on a hard road. They may be protected against direct bruise. The healthy foot requires no such protection. Nature has covered it with a thick layer of horn and has provided against concussion by quite other means--by the co-ordinate action of muscles, by the oblique position of the pastern and by the construction of the back part of the foot. Quite apart from any attempt to prevent concussion a valuable use has been found for india-rubber pads in connection with horse-shoeing. The improvement in modern road-surfaces has been accompanied by an increased facility for slipping, and it has been found that no material gives such security of foot-hold on smooth surfaces as india-rubber. The earliest of these contrivances with which I am acquainted was formed so as to leave the frog uncovered whilst a bearing of rubber was given all round the inner circumference of the shoe. This pad had a wide flat border which fitted under the shoe, with which it was nailed on to the foot. Its great objection was that it could not be nicely fitted on many feet without first cutting away the bars. Then we had rubber pads which were not nailed on with the shoe, but which fitted into the shoe and were removed at will. The objection to these was that they could only be used with a seated shoe and could not be applied with a narrow shoe or one possessing a flat foot-surface. The next form to appear was a leather sole on which an artificial frog was fixed. Great difficulty was at first experienced in fixing this frog so that it remained firm. The difficulty has not yet been surmounted by all makers, but Mr. G. Urquhart, of London, makes a most reliable article. These "frog-pads" certainly give a very good foot-hold on all kinds of paved streets. [Illustration: Fig. 86.--Frog-pad.] A pad of very elegant appearance is "Sheather's Pneumatic." It is not solid like the ordinary frog-pad but hollow and is compressed at each step but immediately resumes its prominent form on being relieved of pressure. [Illustration: Fig. 87.--Sheather's Pad.] One of the simplest anti-slipping pads is "Balls & Keep's Wedge-pad." It possesses one advantage in not covering up the whole under-surface of the foot. When properly fitted it is firmly retained and does its work, but a careless farrier may so apply it that it shifts on the foot. To fit it exactly the wall of the back part of the foot must be lowered more than that in front, so that shoe, foot and pad may all be closely adjusted. [Illustration: Fig. 88.--Wedge-Pad.] [Illustration: Fig. 89.--Pad with Shoe attached.] What is called the "Bar-pad" is a leather plate on which an india-rubber pad occupies the whole of the back portion and it is fixed to the foot with a short shoe. This pad is not only an anti-slipping agent, it is anti-concussive, and for some diseases and some injuries of the heels is a most valuable appliance. For long-standing "corns," for cases of chronic laminitis, and for horses that markedly "go on their heels" the bar-pad is without doubt the most efficient arrangement yet invented. The best are made by Mr. Urquhart. [Illustration: Fig. 90.--Bar-pad with Shoe.] [Illustration: Fig. 91.--Without Shoe.] All these pads increase the cost of shoeing but what they save, by preventing falls and injuries to the horse and fear and anxiety to the driver, far more than balances the account in their favour. The cost however is an item, and inventors have turned their attention to the production of some other methods of applying rubber in connection with the shoe for the prevention of slipping. Shoes have been manufactured into which cavities of different forms and sizes have been made. These are filled by correspondingly shaped pieces of rubber. The cavity must be so formed as to retain the rubber and this renders the manufacture very difficult except by the employment of malleable cast iron shoes. This is a great disadvantage. Another plan is to make from rolled bar iron, a hollow shoe, section of which would be U-shaped but level to the foot. Into the groove so formed a thick cord of rubber is placed after the shoe is nailed on the foot. This wears well and affords good foot-hold but it entails the serious objection that the nails are difficult to drive and far from being so safe as in the ordinary shoe. If rubber is ever to be available in a grooved shoe it should be designed so that the nails and nail holes are not interfered with. CHAPTER XI. SHOEING COMPETITIONS. The Agricultural Societies that have made Horse-shoeing Competitions a feature of their Annual Shows have distinctly done good to the art. In those districts which have had the benefit of these competitions for many years past, horse-shoeing is best done. In those districts where no competitions have been held shoeing is generally badly done. When the farrier takes a pride in his work he is more careful with details. Provided proper principles are adopted, no calling is more dependent upon care in details for the best results than that of the farrier. Competitions stimulate emulation amongst men. Public appreciation, as displayed by the prominence given to the art by the Show authorities and by the admiring crowd that generally assembles to see the men at work, encourages a feeling of responsibility and gratifies the natural and honest pride of the workman. Very few trades have suffered more from public neglect and indifference than that of the farrier. The success of a shoeing competition depends almost entirely upon the secretary of a show, unless that officer has amongst his stewards an energetic horseman who has grasped the importance of good shoeing and who possesses some organising powers. In this connection I may perhaps offer a word of acknowledgement for the work done by Mr. Clay, to whose energy and skill the Royal Agricultural Society has for many years been indebted for the success of its valuable annual shoeing competition. All the arrangements for the competition must be completed before the work is commenced, and upon their perfection depends the success of the whole thing. There should, if possible, be two classes--one for heavy horses and one for light horses. At large competitions there should also be a champion class. There are farriers who travel from show to show and generally appear in the prize list. This handicaps the local men, and is not encouraging to those who have not quite risen to front rank. The object of the competition is to improve the work of the district, and it is quite a question whether the rules should not exclude men who have taken, say, two first prizes at any large competition. The only argument in favour of letting the well known smith who has taken many prizes enter a competition is that his work may be seen, examined and imitated. By confining prize winners to the champion class this good would be attained; at the same time more encouragement would be given to local men. The necessities for a competition include anvils, fires, tools, iron and horses. For every five men there should be one anvil with its accompanying vice and forge. The anvil should be so placed that the sun is not full on the face of the workman. The exact relative position of anvil, vice and forge should be entrusted to a practical farrier, and the whole placed the night before they are wanted. Coal, nails and iron should also be provided. If competitors are allowed to bring their own iron or nails some poor man may be placed at a disadvantage, and the habitual competitor, versed in every detail, is given an advantage. Each man should bring all smaller tools he may want. In broken weather a canvas roof should be supplied both for horses and workmen. At all times a temporary wooden floor should be put down for the horses to stand upon. This should be a little longer than the line of anvils so that each man has his horse opposite his anvil. It should be at least twelve feet deep so that there is room enough behind and in front of the horses for men to pass. On the side farthest from the anvils a firm rail must be fixed to which the horses' halters may be tied, and outside of this--at least six feet distant--should be another line of post and rails to keep back spectators. Horses have to be borrowed or hired, and one horse is sufficient for two competitors. Care should be taken not to have any horse with unusually bad feet. The most suitable horses are those with overgrown hoofs. Under no circumstances should a vicious or very fidgety horse be selected. When time is not an object, the best test of a workman is to require him to make a fore and hind shoe and put them on the horse. At a one-day show, or at a competition when the entries are large, it is sufficient to require the making of a fore and hind shoe and the fitting and nailing on of the front one. A reasonable time should be fixed, and undue haste should be deprecated. There should always be two judges, who should be supplied with books in which each division of the operation of shoeing should be separately marked. There are only three important divisions of the subject: (1) Preparation of the Foot, (2) Making the Shoes, and (3) Fitting and nailing on. Sometimes these operations are marked separately for fore and hind feet. I consider this quite unnecessary. There is not sufficient difference either in principle or detail to require each foot to be specially marked. The judge of course notes every thing in his mind, and it is sufficient for him to estimate and mark the value of the work under the three different operations. The great fault I find with most competitions is that "the preparation" of the foot for the shoe is not more strictly defined. The competitors are permitted to mix up the "preparation" and the "fitting." Some of them do nothing to the foot until they commence to fit the shoe. This is wrong, and every foot should be properly prepared--the bearing-surface formed and the proportions of the hoof attended to--before the fitting is attempted. A rule to this effect should be added to the conditions in the schedule of the competition. Each judge may perhaps be permitted to fix his own standard of marking but a uniform system would be useful for comparison. If the maximum be indicated by too small a figure difficulty often arises in exactly determining the merits of men who have come out equal in the totals, and there is too often, in a large class, a number whose marks are about equal. The three operations--preparing the foot, making the shoe, fitting and nailing on--are about equal in value. A maximum of five points in each is too small a number to make distinctive marking easy, but there is nothing gained by adopting a higher maximum than ten. A marking sheet for the judges of a shoeing-competition may be something in this form: CLASS---- +-----------+-------------+--------+-------------+--------+---------+ |No. of | Preparation | Making | Fitting and | Total. | Remarks.| |Competitor.| of Foot. | Shoe. | Nailing on. | | | +-----------+-------------+--------+-------------+--------+---------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----------+-------------+--------+-------------+--------+---------+ The stewards should see that each competitor has a number, and that the same number is attached to the side of the horse on which he works. The steward also should take the time at which each batch of competitors commence and see that none exceed it. Excessive rasping of shoes should be prohibited, and the men should see the sizes and kinds of nails provided so that they may make their "fuller" and nail holes accordingly. Shoeing competitions are almost entirely confined to country districts. It is a great pity that they are not attempted in large towns. The only difficulty is the expense. It would well repay large horse-owners to subscribe and support this method of improving the art. In conclusion I must say that the best of all ways to improve the art is by giving practical instruction at the anvil. A few lessons from a competent practical teacher are worth more than all books or lectures, as the work has then to be done, errors are pointed out and corrected, and reasons given for each step as it is attempted. The Berkshire County Council has adopted a travelling forge--the suggestion of Mr. Albert Wheatley, V.S., of Reading--which is accompanied by an instructor and passes from town to town and village to village. In this way is supplied the tuition which used to be obtained by apprenticeship to a good workman. Other County Councils should adopt this method. _THE END._ INDEX. Action of the Foot, 28 Agricultural Societies and Shoeing, 112 Arrangements of Shoeing Competitions, 113 Balls & Keep's "Wedge-Pad", 110 Bar Iron, 64 Bar-Pad, 110 Bars of the Foot, 11 Bearing Surface of Hoof, 31 " " , 42 " at Heels, 54 " of Shoe, 51 " " , 53 Berkshire Shoeing-Van, 115 Bevelled Iron Bars, 64 "Binds", 90 Blood-Vessels, 26 Bones of Foot, 23 Bruises by Shoe, 91 "Brushing", 95 "Burnt-Sole", 93 Calkins, 56 " Effect of, 57 " Position of, 58 Cartilages of Foot, 24 Charlier Shoe, 79 " Theory, 80 "Clacking", 97 Clips, 75 "Close" Fitting, 69 Coarse Nail-holes, 61 Cold Fitting, 77 Concave Shoe, The, 55 Continental Sandcrack-Shoe, A, 105 Contracted Feet, 105 Coronary Band, 18 Coronary Cushion, 26 Corns, 92 "Cover", 50 "Cutting", 94 Defective Bearing-Surface, 46 Disproportionate Hoof, 35 Distance between Nails, 61 Double-grooved Shoe, 55 Drawing Knife, 34 "Dropped" Sole, 100 "Easing" the Heels, 71 Effect of Charlier Shoeing, 82 " Calkins, 57 " Frog Pressure, 30 Evils of Roughing, 86 Excessive Rasping, 46 Expansion of Foot, 29 "Fine" Nail-holes, 61 Fitting of Shoes, 67 " Tips, 78 " the Foot to the Shoe, 32 Flat Bearing-surface of Shoe, 51 Foot-surface of Shoes, 51 "Forging", 97 French Sandcrack Instruments, 104 Frog, The, 13 " Pads, 109 " Pad, The, 25 " Band, The, 14 Frost Nails, 84 Fullering, 54 Functions of Foot, 27 Good Bearing-surface, A, 33 Grooved Bars, 64 Ground-surface of Shoes, 54 Growth of Hoof, 20 Height of Calkins, 58 " foot at heels, 36 Hoof, The, 9 " Growth of, 20 " Wear of, 21 Horny Laminæ, 11 Horse-shoeing Competitions, 112 Hot Fitting, 76 Hunting Shoe, 55 Importance of Horse-shoeing, 5 " of Roughing, 83 Injury by Clips, 91 " Nails, 90 " Shoe, 92 "Interfering", 94 Iron and Rubber Combinations, 111 Judging Horse-shoeing, 114 "Knocked-up" Shoes, 95 Laminæ, The Horny, 11 " The Sensitive, 17 Lateral Cartilages, The, 24 Lateral Proportions of Foot, 40 Leather Soles, Use of, 107 Length of Toe, 36 Level Bearing-Surface, 43 Long and Short Heels of Shoe, 69 Machine-made shoes, 63 Material for Horse-shoes, 48 Modified Charlier Shoe, 81 Nails, 59 Nail-holes, 60 " Portions of, 61 " Pitch of, 62 " Number and Position, 62 Natural bearing-surface of Foot, 31 Notches on Shoes, 56 Omnibus-horse Shoes, 66 One-sided Hoof, 40 Opening the Heels, 47 Outline Fitting, 68 Overgrown foot, 35 Over-lowered Heels, 39 "Over-reaching", 96 Over-reduction of Hoof, 47 Paring the Sole, 43 " ", 46 " Frog, 43 Pitch of Nail-holes, 62 Plantar Cushion, 25 Pneumatic Pad, The, 109 Position of Calkins, 58 " Nails, 61 Preparation of Foot for Shoeing, 32 "Pricks", 91 Properly Prepared Foot, 33 Properties of Hoof, 21 Proportions of Heel and Toe, 38 Rasps, 34 Rasping the Wall, 46 Relation of Foot to Leg, 36 Removable "Sharps", 87 Results of Neglect, 7 Ridged Shoes, 56 "Ring leathers", 108 Rodway's Shoe, 55 Roughing, 83 "Rough" Nails, 84 Rubber Pads, 108 Sandcrack, 102 "Saucer" Shoe, The, 73 Screw Frost Sharps, 87 Screwing Taps, 89 Seated Shoes, 52 ", 72 Section of Foot, 22 "Seedy-toe", 106 Selection of Shoes, 65 Sensitive Frog, 19 " Laminæ, 17 " Sole, 18 Sharping, 83 Sharps without Screw, 88 Sheather's Pad, 109 Shoe for Sandcrack, 102 " Forging, 98 " Cutting, 95 Shoeless Horses, 6 Shoeing Flat Feet, 100 " Convex Soles, 101 Sole, The, 12 "Speedy Cut", 97 Steel Sharps, 87 "Stumped-up" Toe, 45 Surface Fitting, 70 The Hoof, 9 The "Quick", 16 Thickness of Shoes, 50 Three-quarter Shoe, 93 Tips, 77 Toeing Knife, 35 Toe-pieces, 59 Toe Sharps, 86 Treads, 93 Turned-in Wall, 106 Twisted Feet, 41 Uneven Bearing-surface, 45 " Ground-surface, 41 Urquhart's Bar-pad, 110 Various bearings of Shoes, 74 Wall, The, 11 Wear of Hoof, 21 Wedge-pad, The, 110 Weight of Shoes, 49 Width of ", 50 * * * * * [Illustration: GRIP (Regd.)] [Illustration: FROG] [Illustration: PATENT BAR] [Illustration: RING.] URQUHART'S Patent Horse-Shoe Pads Prevent Slipping, Cure Corns, Contracted and Diseased Feet. Economise the wear and tear of legs through absence of concussion. Developes the healthy functions of the feet. Cure Bent Legs, Sprained Tendons--a great saving in horse flesh. SIZES--FROG AND BAR 0 to 6; GRIP AND RING 1 to 5. _Hind Shoe Pads kept in stock to order._ _Pads made to any size required at shortest notice._ "India-rubber pads on leather enable many horses, whose feet are not sound, to work free from lameness; they also tend to prevent slipping. This is especially the case with Urquhart's 'bar pads,' respecting which my veterinary friends at Manchester, where they are largely used, inform me that they prevent slipping quite as much if not more, than the Charlier plan of shoeing horses."--Mr. T. D. BROAD, F.R.C.V.S., of Bath. _G. URQUHART,_ _6 Derby Street, Mayfair._ THE BRITISH & COLONIAL Horse-Shoe & Machine COMPANY Ltd. _Works Address--_ GLOBE IRON WORKS, WALSALL, STAFFORDSHIRE. RICHARDSON'S [Illustration] B & C _Office Address--_ 3 BILLITER BUILDINGS, BILLITER STREET, LONDON, E.C. All kinds and sizes of Fullered and Stamped Shoes kept in Stock. Nails, Rasps, Pads, and all other Farriery requisites =at lowest prices=. OUR GOODS ARE UNEQUALLED FOR DURABILITY AND NEATNESS. PROMPT DESPATCH GIVEN TO ALL ORDERS. =N.B.--To prevent mistakes when ordering note the following=:-- =A= Width of Shoe across the widest part. =B= Width of Iron required at Toe. =C= Thickness of Iron required at Toe. EXAMPLE 5-1/2-in. × 7/8-in. × 1/2-in. =A= =B= =C= Each size should vary 1/4-in. =EXAMPLE= 5-in. 5-1/4-in. 5-1/2-in. 5-3/4-in. 6-in. and so on. Capewell Horse Nails "THE BEST IN THE WORLD" Highest Award Chicago Exhibition, 1893. [Illustration: TRADE MARK] Gold Medal Mid-Winter Exhibition, San Francisco, 1894. The Capewell Nails are:-- "The Best Driving Nails," "The Best Nails to Hold," and "The Safest Nails to Use." They never split in driving, They never buckle in the hardest hoof. They are flexible to clinch, and the clinch holds against any strain in service. Their perfect points make a clean cut hole in the most brittle hoof. They are absolutely uniform in length, breadth, and thickness. =They are manufactured in London from the best Swedish Iron=, the quality of which is improved in compactness, tenacity, and uniformity of temper by the "Capewell Process." As demonstrated by actual mechanical tests at Chicago, the tensile strength of the Capewell is greater than that of any other nail made. Thus it is that the Capewell nails never break under the heads but hold the shoe until it is worn out. On Sale by all Iron Merchants, Ironmongers, and Dealers. SAMPLES ON APPLICATION TO The CAPEWELL HORSE NAIL Co. Limited. _Offices & Factory_--=GLENGALL ROAD, MILLWALL, LONDON, E.= THE UNITED HORSE SHOE & NAIL COM^{PY.} LIMITED. =General Offices and Works:= CUBITT TOWN, LONDON, E. [Illustration: SHOE Coat of Arms NAIL TRADE MARK TRADE MARK] Manufacturers of Horse Shoes and Nails to the =BRITISH ARMY=. Manufacturers of PATENT STEAM-HAMMERED HORSE, MULE and PONY SHOES, which may be advantageously APPLIED COLD. Also of the ROWLEY PATENT HORSE SHOES and IRON. THE PATENT BRIGHT READY-POINTED "GLOBE" HORSE-SHOE NAIL. Contractors to all the Chief Tramway and Omnibus Companies in the United Kingdom. SEVERAL GOLD MEDALS. AWARDS WHEREVER EXHIBITED. PRICE LISTS AND TERMS ON APPLICATION. R. F. BLOSS, Secretary. H. & W. BROWN, PRINTERS, 20 FULHAM ROAD, LONDON, S.W. Transcriber's Note: Italics are indicated by _underscores_. Bolds and underlined are indicated by =equal signs=. Small capitals have been rendered in full capitals. A number of minor spelling errors have been corrected without note. There are some doubled Fig. number. 
45377	----	ALL ABOUT DOGS _A Book for Doggy People_ BY CHARLES HENRY LANE _Breeder, Exhibitor, Judge_ [Illustration: _Pellissier & Allen, Ph. Sc._ Chas. H. Lane] ALL ABOUT DOGS A BOOK FOR DOGGY PEOPLE By CHARLES HENRY LANE Breeder, Exhibitor, Judge WITH EIGHTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE MOST CELEBRATED CHAMPIONS OF OUR TIME DRAWN FROM LIFE By R. H. MOORE [Illustration: A variety of dogs.] JOHN LANE LONDON AND NEW YORK 1901 Copyright by JOHN LANE 1900 RIGGS PRINTING CO. ALBANY, N.Y., U.S.A. _To his fellow lovers and admirers of Dogs throughout the World, THIS LITTLE BOOK is respectfully Dedicated by the Author, in the earnest hope that it may be the means of stimulating and increasing their appreciation of the most faithful, devoted and reliable FRIEND of the Human Race._ ILLUSTRATIONS FRONTISPIECE. PHOTOGRAVURE OF THE AUTHOR. -----------------+---------------------+---------------------+------- VARIETY. | NAME OF ANIMAL. | NAME OF OWNER. | Page. -----------------+---------------------+---------------------+------- Staghound |Ruby |H. M. Queen Victoria | 7-8 Foxhound |Marksman |Pytchley Hunt | 11-12 Harrier |Traveller |Aldenham Kennels | 17-18 Beagle (large) |Ch. Ringwood |F. Warde | 21-22 Beagle (pocket) |Little 'Un |F. B. Lord | 21-22 Bloodhound |Ch. Nestor |Mark Beaufoy, M. P. | 25-26 Otterhound |Ch. Safety |Dumfries. Otter Hunt | 29-30 Great Dane |Ch. Hannibal of |Mrs. H. L. Horsfall | 37-38 | Redgrave | | Pointer |Ch. Devonshire Dan |Miss Reston | 41-42 Setter (Eng.) |Ch. Rock |James Fletcher | 47-48 Setter (Gor.) |Ch. Marquis |Thomas Jacobs | 51-52 Setter (Ir.) |Ch. Garryowen |J. J. Giltrap | 55-56 Retriever |Ch. Right Away |S. E. Shirley | 59-60 (flat ct.) | | | Retriever |Ch. Tiverton Best |Saml. Darbey | 63-64 (curly ct.) | Lad | | Spaniel (Ir. W.) |Ch. Shaun |Col. the Hon. W. le | 67-68 | | Poer Trench | Spaniel |Sandringham Bustler |H. R. H. the Prince | 71-72 (Clumber) | | of Wales, K. G. | Spaniel (Sussex) |Ch. Bridford Giddie |Moses Woolland | 73-74 Spaniel (Black) |Ch. Bridford Brill't |Moses Woolland | 77-78 Spaniel (Cocker) |Ch. Ted Obo |J. Farrow | 83-84 Basset (smooth) |Ch. Louis le Beau |Mrs. M. Tottie | 85-86 Basset (rough) |Beauty |H. R. H. Prince of | 89-90 | | Wales, K. G. | Dachshund |Ch. Wiseacre |E. S. Woodiwiss | 91-92 Greyhound |Ch. Real Jam |S. Woodiwiss | 97-98 Deerhound |Ch. Selwood Dhouran |Robt. Hood Wright |101-102 Wolfhound (Ir.) |Ch. Sheelah |Capt. Graham |103-104 Borzois |Ch. Alex |H. R. H. the |107-108 | | Princess of Wales | Whippet |Ch. Enterprise |H. Vickers |111-112 Fox Ter |Belgrave Joe |Luke Turner |115-116 (sm old type) | | | Fox Ter |Ch. Claude Duval |George Raper |119-120 (sm mod type) | | | Fox Ter |Ch. Lory |Author |121-122 (wr old type) | | | Fox Ter |Ch. Roper's |Sir H. de Trafford, |123-124 (wr mod type) | Nut-crack | Bt. | Dandie |Ch. Blacket-House |Mrs. Rayner |127-128 | Yet | | Skye |Ch. Ballochmy le |Sir C. Alexander, |131-132 (drop eared) | Bashful | Bt. | Skye |Ch. of Ch. Duchess |Mrs. W. J. Hughes |135-136 (prick eared) | | | Scottish Ter |Ch. Killdee. |H. J. Ludlow |137-138 St. Bernard |Ch. Sir Bedivere |Samuel Smith |145-146 (rough) | | | St. Bernard |Ch. Guide |J. F. Smith |149-150 (smooth) | | | Newfoundland |Ch. Wolf of Badenoch |Mrs. Ingleton |151-152 (black) | | | Newfoundland |Ch. Kettering Wonder |Lady Tollemache |153-154 (black and | | | white) | | | Mastiff |Ch. Beaufort |W. K. Taunton |157-158 Dalmatian |Ch. Berolina |E. T. Parker |159-160 (blk. sptd) | | | Dalmatian |Ch. Fauntleroy |W. B. Herman |163-164 (liv. sptd) | | | Collie (rough) |Lochiel |H. R. H. the |167-168 | | Princess of Wales | Collie (smooth) |Ch. Lady Nellie |Author |171-172 Old Eng. Shp. Dog|Ch. Cupid's Dart |F. W. Wilmot |175-176 Bull Dog (large) |Ch. Blackberry |Saml. Woodiwiss |181-182 Bull Dog (medium)|Ch. Barney Barnato |G. R. Sims |185-186 Bull Dog (small) |Ch. Lady Rozelle |Author |189-190 Bull Terrier |Ch. Sherbourne Q'n |W. J. Pegg |191-192 Boston Terrier |Turpin |Miss J. Tozier |195-196 Irish Terrier |Ch. Ted Malone |Mrs. Butcher |197-198 Airedale Terrier |Ch. Dumbarton Lass |A. E. Jennings |201-202 Bedlington |Ch. Clyde Boy |R. H. Smith |203-204 Terrier | | | Welsh Terrier |Ch. Brynhir Burner |W. S. Glynn |207-208 Black & Tan |Ch. Starkie Ben |Lt.-Col. C. S. Dean |209-210 Terrier | | | White Eng. |Ch. Eclipse |J. Walsh |213-214 Terrier | | | Poodle (corded) |Ch. Model |Mad'me Dagois |221-222 Poodle (curly) |Ch. Rufus |Mrs. Robt. Long |223-224 Pomeranian |Ch. Koenig of |Miss Hamilton |227-228 (large) | Rozelle | | Pomeranian |Marco |H. M. Queen Victoria |229-230 (med) | | | Pomeranian |Ch. Brilliant |Jno. Duckworth |233-234 (sm med) | | | Pomeranian (toy) |Ch. of Ch. & Pr. |Miss Ada de Pass |237-238 | Tina | | Pug (fawn) |Ch. York |Mrs. Grelliche |239-240 Pug (black) |Ch. & Pr. Duke Beira |Miss C. F. A. |243-244 | | Jenkinson | Schipperke |Ch. Zwarte Piot. |I. N. Woodiwiss |247-248 King Charles |Ch. Laureate |Hon. Mrs. McL. |249-250 Spaniel | | Morrison | Blenheim Spaniel |Ch. Rollo |Mrs. Forder |253-254 Prince Charles |Ch. Victor Wild |H. Taylor |255-256 Spanl | | | Ruby Spaniel |Ch. Jasper |Mrs. Woodgate |259-260 Japanese Spaniel |Ch. of Ch. Dai Butzu |Mrs. Addis |261-262 Sm. Toy Terrier |Ch. Mascotte Model |Mrs. Monk |265-266 Yorksh. Toy |Ch. Ashton Queen |Mdes Walton & Beard |267-268 Terrier | | | Maltese Terrier |Ch. Pixie |John Jacobs |271-272 Griffon |Marquis de Carabas |Count H. de Bylandt |273-274 Bruxelles | | | Toy Bull Dog |Rabot de Beaubourg |Monsieur Petit |277-278 Toy Bull Terrier |Lily |Author |279-280 Italian |Ch. Larkfield |P. Turner |281-282 Greyhound | Leveret | | Norwegian |Jaeger |Lady Cathcart |287-288 Elkhound | | | Afghan Greyhound |Shahzada |J. Whitbread |289-290 Thibet Sheep Dog |Siring |H. R. H. the Prince |293-294 | | of Wales, K. G. | Esquimaux |Ch. Arctic King |Mrs. H. C. Brooke |295-296 Chow Chow |Ch. Chow 8th |Mrs. Faber |299-300 Dingo |Ch. Myall |Mrs. H. C. Brooke |301-302 Chinese Crested |Chinese Emperor |W. K. Taunton |305-306 Dog | | | Lapland Sledge |Perla |H. R. H. Prince |309-310 Dog | | of Wales, K. G. | Dogue de |Ch. Sans Peur |Mrs. H. C. Brooke | ... Bordeaux | | | -----------------+---------------------+---------------------+------- CONTENTS PART I CHAP. PAGE Preface iii Introduction v I. A Few Words About Dogs in General 1 DOGS USED IN SPORT II. Staghounds, Foxhounds, Harriers, Beagles 9 III. Bloodhounds, Otterhounds, Great Danes 27 IV. Pointers, Setters, Retrievers 43 V. Sporting Spaniels, Basset Hounds, Dachshunds 69 VI. Greyhounds, Scottish Deerhounds, Irish Wolfhounds, Borzois, Whippets 99 TERRIERS USED IN SPORT VII. Fox, Dandie Dinmonts, Skyes, Scottish 117 PART II DOGS USED IN WORK VIII. St. Bernards, Newfoundlands, Mastiffs, Dalmatians 147 IX. Sheep Dogs:--Rough Collies, Smooth Collies, Old English 169 X. Bull Dogs, Bull Terriers, Boston Terriers 179 XI. Terriers,--Irish, Airedale, Bedlington, Black and Tan, Old English 199 PART III PERFORMING AND TOY BREEDS XII. Poodles, Pomeranians, Pugs, Schipperkes 219 XIII. Toy Spaniels,--King Charles, Prince Charles, Ruby, Blenheim, Japanese 245 XIV. Terriers,--Toy, Smooth Black and Tan, Yorkshire, Maltese, Griffons Bruxelles 263 XV. Toy Bull Dogs, Toy Bull Terriers, Italian Greyhounds 275 PART IV XVI. Something About Foreign Dogs 291 XVII. Humours and Vagaries of the Show Rings 311 XVIII. } to } Anecdotes About Dogs, Personal and Selected 322 XXIII. } XXIV. A Few Words About General Management and Some Simple Maladies, to Which Dogs are Subject and Their Treatment 389 Part I CONTENTS PART I CHAP. PAGE Preface iii Introduction v I. A Few Words About Dogs in General 1 DOGS USED IN SPORT II. Staghounds, Foxhounds, Harriers, Beagles 9 III. Bloodhounds, Otterhounds, Great Danes 27 IV. Pointers, Setters, Retrievers 43 V. Sporting Spaniels, Basset Hounds, Dachshunds 69 VI. Greyhounds, Scottish Deerhounds, Irish Wolfhounds, Borzois, Whippets 99 TERRIERS USED IN SPORT VII. Fox, Dandie Dinmonts, Skyes, Scottish 117 PREFACE I am told, it is indispensable there should be a Preface to this little work; but I am quite at a loss what to put in it. What I had to say on the subject upon which it treats, I have said in the book, and I am not aware of any thing I wish to add or withdraw. I can only hope the perusal of the book may afford as much pleasure to my readers as the writing it has given me, in recalling pleasant memories of many friends, both two and four-footed, some of whom have long since "joined the majority." As recording the impressions of one who has had considerable practical experience with many varieties of the canine race, and been brought into constant contact with the best specimens, I think my book is somewhat out of the usual run of doggy books. While in no wise seeking to produce a scientific treatise, nor yet a natural history, in the ordinary acceptation of the term, my wish has been so to write on the subject as to stir up in the minds of any of my readers, unacquainted with the many charms possessed by dogs, a desire to adopt some kind of dog as a companion and friend, and to confirm the affection and regard of my multitudinous dog-loving friends, so that they may be disposed to extend the borders of their fancy, and possibly be interested and amused by some of the humours and vagaries of the Show Rings or the Doggy Anecdotes. These, when they are not within my personal knowledge, I have endeavoured to verify, so as to avoid the "Fairy Tales" we sometimes read under the title of "Doggy Stories." Before closing these remarks, I must express my deep gratitude, to my friend Mr. R. H. Moore, who has given my book the inestimable advantage of his talented pencil, in portraying so many excellent, and truthful portraits of the "Lights of the Canine World," including more than sixty "Champions," of their respective varieties. I am not aware that such a number of Canine Celebrities has ever before been gathered together in one volume, and they represent some of the best pictures of dogs I have ever seen, even of Mr. Moore's, and, I think most dog lovers will acknowledge that he is particularly happy in hitting off the expressions, and catching the actual likeness of his subjects, most kindly taking up the matter for me, when very much pressed with other commissions, not only giving me the benefit of his valuable advice in the selection of the most distinguished, and typical, specimens for the different varieties procurable, but entered into the work with the utmost ardour, and zeal; I feel therefore more indebted to him than I can express, for enabling me to present to the Public such an interesting and, I hope, instructive Picture Gallery of Dogs of the present day. With these few words I commend my little book to the troublous waters of public favour. INTRODUCTION I suppose, if we take the whole of the Animal Kingdom, in any way associated with man, either as companion, or helper, there is none to compare, in popularity, with the subject of these notes; but yet I have often found in conversation, even with lovers of animals, very mistaken notions about dogs, their varieties, characteristics and peculiarities. I think there are more known and acknowledged varieties of dog, than of any other of the animals, we are at all familiar with, and the ways, sizes, appearance and characteristics differ so greatly that it is hardly possible, one would imagine, to find any person to whom _some_ kind of a dog would not appeal. I wish, if possible, to say something to stir up in the minds of some not hitherto keeping a dog, the desire to do so, and whether merely as a guard or companion or with a view to trying to breed some good specimens, and, occasionally, to send to some of the Exhibitions of Dogs, which have so increased in number and quality during the last twenty years, that I have frequently heard it stated, that taking out Saturdays and Sundays, there is a Dog Show being held somewhere or other on every ordinary day in the year! I would strongly advise the obtaining a _well-bred_ dog, of whatever variety is selected, as, not only is it more satisfactory to have about you the best procurable type of any breed you may fancy, whether dogs or anything else, but if you want to part with either the originals, or any of their progeny, it is usually much easier to find purchasers and at much better prices for what is called "pedigree stock," that is of which the parentage for one or more generations is known, than when no particulars or references can be given. There are fashions in dogs, the same as in other things, and I can remember a great many "crazes" for different breeds of dog. Fox Terriers, which are smart, lively, game little fellows, well able to adapt themselves to almost any circumstances, have had a long term of favour, and are still largely kept, perhaps as largely as any breed of their size; another element in their favour, is their not having much coat, and so not bringing in much mud upon them, even in dirty weather, if kept in the house. This, of course, has been rather against Skye Terriers, which are otherwise capital dogs for the house, full of life and spirit, but, to be kept in any order, they must be occasionally brushed, or their coats, which should be hard and straight, somewhat of the texture and straightness of a horse's tail, will get matted, and be a disfigurement, instead of an ornament. A great movement has existed, for sometime, in favour of the Irish Terrier, who should be almost unbroken in reddish-brown colour, I mean with little or no shading, what is called self colour. This is a "good all round" breed, able to follow a horse, a trap, be a good guard or companion, take care of himself in his "walks abroad," or have a turn at anything which comes in his way in the vermin line. Two more breeds I can strongly recommend to any in doubt as to a suitable dog to take up as household guard or companion. These are the Scottish Terrier, often called the Die-hard, or Aberdeen-Terrier, a rather cobby, short legged breed, with a pointed head, ears standing straight up, short back, and gaily carried tail, colour generally, nearly black, grizzled, or brindled. I believe I brought, in 1868, the first of the breed ever seen in England (at any rate I had not seen one before), from a place called Uig, in the island of Skye, and quite a character he was, and I could give many instances of his great sagacity, and very quaint ways, during the many years he lived with me. I regret to say he has long gone to the "happy hunting grounds." I shall say something more of him amongst the "Anecdotes of Dogs," further on. The other breed I referred to is the Dandie Dinmont Terrier, immortalized by Sir Walter Scott. For intelligence, pluck, faithfulness, and general adaptability to the ways, and wishes, of his owner, I do not know any breed to surpass it. In many cases, I have known a strain of Dandies kept up for generations, in families, and the affection between the dogs, and their owners, is so great, that no money would bring about a parting, and I have often seen pedigrees and genealogical trees of well known strains of Dandies, taking them back a dozen generations, and prized very highly by their owners or breeders. Whatever the decision come to by an intending keeper of a dog, if it is to be an inmate of the house, and is one of the smaller breeds, a box or basket should be provided in some place free from draughts, and after sprinkling either a little sawdust impregnated with disinfectant, or the disinfectant itself, put in some straw for a bed, this is better and less likely to harbour insect life, than hay, or any kind of rug, or mat. But if the dog is to be kept out of doors, obtain one of the improved kennels, with the entrance at the side, which affords a shelter from the wind, rain, and snow, and have a chain constructed with two or, preferably, three swivels in it, that it cannot become twisted up. Many a dog has been injured and even killed by neglect of these little matters. Of course, if convenience can be found, it is much better _not_ to tie up a dog at all. No dog of mine, (and I have had hundreds during the last twenty-five years, of almost every known breed) ever catches sight of a collar or chain, except at a show, and, contrary to the popular idea which I have often heard expressed by sympathisers with the dogs on the show benches, dogs accustomed to exhibition work _delight in it_, and the sight of a dog's travelling box or basket, or the rattle of a chain, with the show label on it, is sufficient to cause the wildest excitement amongst my dogs at any time, each dog hoping it may be his good fortune to go to the show, which they look upon as great entertainment. I will undertake to say, that, if a dozen boxes or baskets are placed in the yard, with the lids open, and as many dogs let out of their kennels, you shall find an occupant in every box, within five minutes, and that each shall choose the box he usually travels in! It is far better to enclose your dog, or dogs, in one of the many forms of loose boxes, or kennels, now procurable of so many firms who cater for dogs' requirements, something in the way of a kennel, or sleeping box, with railed in run attached. One of the neatest and best, at anything like the price, (ninety shillings, if my memory serves me,) I have seen, is made by Mr. William Calway, Sharpness, Gloucestershire, who has made quite a leading article in his trade, of this kind of work. Another matter to be attended to is, to give the dog plenty of exercise, unless the weather positively prevents it. Many people seem to fancy, if a dog is taken into the air, _in_ a carriage, or other conveyance, that this is sufficient, but, _it is not so_, and the generality of dogs are all the better, for at least two hours' walking exercise every day, during which time, they will nearly, or quite, double the distance traversed by their master or mistress, and perhaps get a drink, pick up some grass, or otherwise amuse themselves! As regards water, dogs do not drink so much as many people suppose, and it is better to keep a supply, of course frequently changed, in the yard outside the kennel, or sleeping box. Dogs, as a rule, like a drink when going out or returning from exercise, more than they do in their own quarters, and if it be kept there, particularly when two or more inmates are together, it is almost sure to be upset, and make the place look bad, besides being uncomfortable. A very important matter is the feeding of the dogs. In these days, when so many firms are producing biscuits, on purpose to cater for the wants of the vast doggy community, there is no difficulty in getting some of them, but, I have found, in a long experience with dogs, that, although almost all breeds will eat dog biscuits--some even take them when given whole, and chop them up like bones, _even dry_--it is better, in most cases, to break them up, about the size of walnuts, and soak them the day previously to use, in hot water, or broth, or even cold water. If boiled vegetables, potatoes, cabbage, or some such, be mixed with them afterwards, it is not only more palatable, but better for the dogs, than the biscuit alone, and occasionally, say once in a week or ten days, a little flour of brimstone, in the proportion of about a teaspoonful for a fair-sized dog, should be mixed with the food. We know, ourselves, that whatever our food, the most tempting that money could buy, we should tire of it, if always the same, and it is precisely the same with animals, so that, the more it is varied, the better, even if the change is slight, and all who have had much to do with dogs, will know that some dogs, and even some breeds of dogs, are very fanciful and capricious in their appetites, and not always disposed to do well. When dogs are "off their feed," a sheep's head, boiled, and then broken up, and the bones, meat, and broth mixed with their ordinary food, will generally "fetch" the most dainty feeder; other dogs are very keen on oatmeal porridge, made as for human beings, but, of course, _with no sugar_, which I may say should _never_ be given, _in any form_, to dogs, as it is an unnatural and injurious food for them, although they are usually quite willing to eat a lump of sugar at almost any time, but they are _much better without it_. Milk (unskimmed, otherwise it is likely to upset their stomachs), is also a capital thing for dogs in low condition, or out of sorts. It is best given cold, or lukewarm, _after being boiled_, as in its natural state it is thought liable to cause worms, but, of course, this is not always the case. I have also found "bovril" useful as a "pick-me-up," or appetizer, for animals on the sick list or those who are "bad doers." ALL ABOUT DOGS CHAPTER I A FEW WORDS ABOUT DOGS IN GENERAL In these days of progress, when the tendency of everyone, and everything, seems to be to go ahead and try to outdo all that has been done by everyone else, in fact, as we so often see it termed, "to beat the record," I think I am stating only the actual fact, that, in the history of the world, dogs were never so highly thought of as they are now, nor were they ever so catered for, in a variety of ways, nor so generally popular. And when we consider the many varieties of the species, differing as much as is possible in the members of one family, and the appearance, habits, dispositions, uses and characteristics, just as various, it is not to be wondered at that they enjoy such an amount of public favour, as it must be a strangely constituted human being to whom _no breed_ of dog is acceptable! The numerous packs of stag and foxhounds, harriers, beagles, and other hounds, kept throughout the United Kingdom, not only are the means of providing an immense amount of sport for our countrymen, but are, also, directly and indirectly the cause of the great improvements which have been effected in the breed of our horses, particularly those suited for hunters and cover hacks, and, therefore, the cause, also, of the circulation of a vast amount of money in our own country every year, especially amongst farmers, millers, saddlers, hay and corn dealers, trainers, keepers, kennelmen, grooms, helpers and a large number of others, more or less connected with hunting and its surroundings. To take another branch of the same subject, just consider what a large body of men are interested and employed in the breeding, rearing, and training of the vast number of high class greyhounds, which are kept in some parts of the country, not only for the competitions in the important national events, but, even for private owners, who make a hobby of an occasional trial with their dogs. Then again, the great army of keepers, kennelmen, and gillies, kept throughout the kingdom, to look after and, in some cases, to breed, and break, the deerhounds, pointers, setters, retrievers, and spaniels, which add so much to the pleasure of a true sportsman's daily work amongst game of all kinds, from deer-stalking to shooting black-cock, grouse, partridges, pheasants, etc. (although many persons now-a-days seem to go on the principle of getting a big total of the days, or weeks' "shoot," and care little for the real pleasure of seeing the dogs "work," and do credit, or otherwise, to care and attention devoted to their training), obtain employment, and I have found them, as a rule, a highly respectable class of men, often generations of the same family being in the service of one family, and most jealous of the reputation of the master, his dogs, and covers. To take some of our other utility dogs, those of my readers who have visited the cattle market of any large sized town or city, cannot have failed to notice the dogs which attend the professional drovers there, many of them rough looking enough, in all conscience, but, as for intelligence, why, they are brimful of it, and willing and able to do wonders with the cattle and sheep in the open, or on the road afterwards, understanding the few words said to them, and eager to carry out their orders, and although sometimes erring through _excess_ of zeal, the reverse is seldom the case, and I am pleased to say (as I have known and conversed with many of the men who are acquainted with my love for animals, and know what numbers I have bred and owned), that the greater part of them value their dogs, and appreciate their services, so much so, that what might be considered really big offers, have frequently been refused by them. One of them said to me, "What good, sir, for me to take a ten pound note for 'Bess,' I couldn't do nothing without she, and 'twould take me a doose of a time to make another larn to do like she can, with the beasts, and that, let alone her being such a 'pal,' and my missus, she _do_ think a deal of Bess, to be sure sir." I have no doubt, that a great many varieties of dog have been pressed into the service of the many and some highly accomplished troupes of performing dogs, which the great increase of music halls throughout the kingdom as well as the continent have brought forward. I have at different times seen Great Danes, Scotch Deer Hounds, Dalmatians, Poodles, and many members of some of the Terrier and Spaniel families and hosts of undoubted mongrels taking part in these entertainments, as well as occasionally Greyhounds and Collies, but these were, I think, exclusively engaged in jumping competitions, when a sort of steeplechase was arranged. These come under the category of "utility dogs," as they assist their owners in gaining a living, and the same may be said of the blind men's dogs, which are a great multitude, and enjoy freedom from taxation, on the ground of their value to their helpless owners. Another interesting class of utility dogs are those we see at so many of our railway stations and other public places with a small box hanging under their chins, in which may be placed any donations the charitable are disposed to give to the "Railway Servants' Benevolent Association," or some other charitable object, and from the way the animals run up to passengers, to be noticed, and wait, patiently, while a coin is found, and placed in their boxes, gives one the idea they know what is going on, and that the credit of a "good haul" at the end of the day, will be in some measure reflected on the carrier of the collecting box! I have often been surprised to see mentioned, in the newspapers, the large sums a single dog has been the means of gathering, in this way, for some good object, and, for aught I know, there may have been dogs hard at work, during 1898-9, for "The Prince of Wales's Hospital Fund," or other charitable objects! One use to which dogs were formerly put, as "Turnspits," and another as beasts of burden, I am pleased to say are no longer allowed by law. I have often, when a child, seen them employed in the latter capacity in the West of England, drawing small, usually two-wheeled carts, with not only the usual market stock and trade utensils, but sometimes the owner, in shape of a burly man or woman seated on the top, and not unfrequently racing along country roads with the owners of similar vehicles, often with two or three dogs to each, harnessed in tandem fashion, the noise and excitement of the cavalcade being very great, and announcing their approach long before their coming in sight. I am very pleased that both these abuses of dogs have been abolished here, although as beasts of burden they are still extensively employed on the continent of Europe, and, I am bound to say, I have not seen them ill treated, badly fed, or seeming neglected. Of course, we know that in the Arctic regions dogs, as carriers, are actual necessaries, and that locomotion, difficult and dangerous enough there under any circumstances, would be simply impossible without the aid of the Esquimaux dogs, of which I have seen a good deal, and handled many. They have a dense double coat, are very wolf-like in expression and shape of head, with small, pointed ears, oblique, sly-looking eyes, rather long, arched necks, and tails with characteristic curl and carriage. I do not consider them very sociable, but they would, I dare say, be all right with persons they knew well. I fancy they are a breed that has never been "made much of," (particularly in their native lands,) by their owners, but usually get what is popularly known as "more kicks than halfpence," and when "off duty," have often to go on short commons, or do a little cadging on their own account, and being thrown on their own resources, we know (on the authority of the late immortal "Mr. Weller, Senr." evidenced in the case of his well known son "Sam!") has a great tendency to sharpen the wits, and it is the same with the Esquimaux dogs, who always struck me as very suspicious of attentions from strangers, however well intentioned they may be. CHAPTER II DOGS USED IN SPORT STAGHOUNDS--FOXHOUNDS--HARRIERS--BEAGLES [Illustration: STAGHOUND "RUBY" ROYAL KENNEL ASCOT. HER MAJESTY QUEEN VICTORIA OWNER.] _The Staghound._--This is not a hound that will require a long dissertation from me. There are but few packs in England which hunt the deer at all, and still less that hunt the _wild_ deer; these are commonly supposed to be the same as were formerly called "Southern Hounds," and as the large tracts of land formerly waste and forest have been gradually brought under cultivation, the places most available for stag hunting have disappeared. They were celebrated for "tongue," and made plenty of music as they followed the windings of the deer, but they were not even moderately fast hounds, and it is a fact, that no very fleet hounds can be musical. Devon, which has always been a great country for sport, has, for many years, kept up a pack of Staghounds, besides others, as we find "Nimrod" states "although the going in that county is about the worst in the world, more hounds are kept in Devon than in any three counties in England. In 1849, Devon possessed eight established packs of Foxhounds, three of other hounds, the Staghounds, and many a 'Parish Pack' kept by subscription." The general run of Staghounds appear, both in shape, style and colour, like large Foxhounds, and are commonly supposed to be formed from drafts from the Foxhounds too large for those packs. The modern Staghound is about twenty-four inches high, or more; they are seldom so level in colour, shape, or kennel likeness, as you see in first-class packs of Foxhounds and Harriers. The Royal Buckhounds are an exception; they are kept in sound condition, and the best matching pack in the kingdom, of the prevailing hound colours, including every marking, except the blue mottle, thought to be indicative of the "Harrier cross." The various colours need not be set out here, nor is it necessary, in a breed so seldom shown, to give the points of excellence more fully than to say that great muscular strength, plenty of bone, courage, excellent scenting powers, and speed, are indispensable, as the quarry hunted is usually in as fine condition as a race-horse, and nearly as fast, often has been out before on a similar occasion, knows the country well, and means giving his pursuers what is vulgarly termed "a run for their money!" Still, it must be admitted, unlike the packs of all nations in the middle ages, the Staghounds of our times are well disciplined and steady, and the stag is more fairly hunted than he was, even in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, so often described, (although I am bound to say I am not included amongst her admirers) as "Good Queen Bess!" [Illustration: FOXHOUND "MARKSMAN" PYTCHLEY HUNT.] _The Foxhound._--I do not propose to go very deeply into the history of this well-known and highly popular breed, or enter into its supposed origin, about which there is so much difference of opinion. When one remembers the great number of packs of Foxhounds in the United Kingdom, supported either by private enterprise (like that of the late lamented Duke of Beaufort, K. G., who, for such a number of years, bore the burden of providing sport, over a large area, in the West of England, four and five days a week throughout the hunting seasons; in later years so ably seconded in his efforts by his son, the present Duke,) or by subscription, we cannot fail to recognise the fact, that this breed of dog has done much to keep sportsmen in touch with each other in our land, been the means of circulating a vast amount of money in a great many directions, and had a very important influence on the breeding of Hunters and Coverhacks, for which the United Kingdom holds such a high reputation. Beckford, who has been considered one of the highest authorities on hunting, says:--"Without taking upon me to describe what requisites may be necessary to form a good Prime Minister, I will describe some of those which are essentially necessary towards making a perfect Huntsman; qualities which, I will venture to say, would not disgrace more brilliant situations, such as clear head, nice observation, quick apprehension, undaunted courage, strength of constitution, activity of body, a good ear, and a melodious voice." In speaking of the Foxhound, he goes on to say, "If he is not of perfect symmetry, he will neither run fast, or bear much work," and describes him as follows:--"Let his legs be straight as arrows, his feet round, and not too large; his chest deep, and back broad; his head small, his neck thin; his tail thick and brushy; if he carries it well, so much the better. Such young hounds, as are out at the elbow, or weak from the knee to the foot, should never be taken into the pack. I find that I have mentioned a "small head" as one of the necessary points about a hound, you will please to understand it, as relative to beauty only, for as to goodness, I believe large headed hounds are in no way inferior. As to colour, there is much diversity of taste; very often the head and ears are of a brilliant red, or fallow, with a white mouth and lips, and a streak of white, technically known as a "blaze," down the head, a white collar and chest, more or less black markings in blotches, or a saddle on the body, and part of tail, white legs and belly. The rich colour on head has a pleasing effect, and if the cheeks are tan-marked, and there is the white "blaze" before mentioned, it gives a light character to the head, or, if orange is mixed with, and under, the black markings, such would form "almost a perfect combination of true hound colouring." I may, fitly, conclude my few remarks on this interesting breed with the following description of the desired points: The head should be light, airy, sensible, and, at the same time, full of dignity; it should have a certain amount of chops, and the forehead slightly wrinkled. The neck should be long and clean; the least looseness, or throatiness, is fatal to appearance. Where it joins the head, it should be fine, gradually widening to the shoulders. A long neck is most important, in the breed, as helping the scent, whereas, a short neck, not only would impede action, but _pace_, also. The ears should be close to the sides of the head and be set on low. The shoulders, long, and sloping gracefully. Chest deep, and not too narrow. The elbows well let down, in a line with the body. The forelegs well clothed with muscle, "straight as darts," strong in bone from elbows to feet. The ankles, or pasterns, must neither turn in, or out, nor stand back and should be strong and large. The least tendency in the feet "turning out," is most destructive to endurance and pace, if any deviation from the straight line, they should rather _turn in_. In shape, they should be round, not flat, or fleshy. The divisions, between the toes, should be apparent. The soles, firm, hard, and very enduring. The back must be straight, wide, and muscular. The loins strong, square and wide, with deep, not flat, back-ribs. The hindquarters, very strong and muscular, with wide appearance from behind, long as well as large. Straight hocks, rather out than in, with strong, short bone from hock to heel. The stern should be gaily carried, should end in a fine point, little feathered, but not actually smooth, strong at root, gradually tapering to tips. Black, white and hound-tan, is perhaps the best colour. When the black is very prominent, and the tanned markings slight, the hounds are said to be "black and white." When the colours are mixed, they are said to be "pied." Hare, badger, red, tan, and yellow-pies, are the best, in that order of merit. The coat should be dense, although smooth and glossy. The well-shaped foxhound seems, owing to his well-proportioned frame, much smaller than he really is. When thoroughly and closely examined, his beauty and fitness for the work he has to perform, and the immense amount of speed, strength, courage, and endurance, he so often requires, will be fully appreciated by the observant spectator, even if he cannot be strictly classed amongst "Sportsmen." [Illustration: HARRIER "TRAVELLER" ALDENHAM KENNELS.] _The Harrier._--While I am writing these lines, I have not the statistics before me, but I am certainly under the impression there are not so many packs of Harriers in the country as there formerly were. The name of "Heirers," or Harriers is known to have been given to hounds used for hare hunting in the time of King Henry V., but they were also, occasionally used for hunting deer! Before this, the same hound was known as the Brachetis, or Bercelettus, the diminutive from the word "Brache." The breed, in a more or less coarse form, has, undoubtedly existed for "ages," and it is thought by many, that it is more likely Foxhounds were derived from it, than that it was the other way about. The same colours are found amongst Harriers as with his larger and more numerous comrades, but usually, for some reason, not disclosed, more of the "pied," (particularly the hare-pied, yellow and white, shaded with black or grey on the back or saddle) and the sort of dapple, or freckle, generally termed "blue mottle," is thought to be peculiar to Harrier blood, and that, when it makes its appearance amongst any _other_ of the hounds, it shows a cross of "Harrier blood," somewhere in the strain! This colour is often accompanied with hound-tan markings on head, and black patches on body, although the latter do not conduce to the beauty of the specimen. Some of the packs of Welsh Harriers, which for scenting and working qualities, are very hard to beat, are so versatile, that it is said they will "hunt anything with a hairy skin," unless they are broken from it when young, and I have heard of a pack, in the Principality, which regularly hunts hares, until Fox hunting begins, when the "Green Coats" are exchanged for "Pink," and they take up the pursuit of Reynard, as to the manner born! The height of the Harrier is a matter of taste. "Stonehenge" puts it at under twenty inches; probably the average is about eighteen inches. A well-known sportsman in Dorsetshire, in 1871, speaks of the pack belonging to the late Mr. T. B. Evans, of Chettle, near Blandford, which he considered _the best he had ever seen_, and consisted of bitches fifteen and a half inches, combining the blood of the packs of Messrs. Wicksted, Hurrell, Boughley, and Sir Vincent Corbet. He goes on to say, "The education of this pack is marvellous; rabbits are frequently left to feed in the kennel, and occasionally, I am told, coupled to any reprobates of the pack, to shame them from molesting them! I have hunted with these hounds, and have had the very great pleasure of seeing them handled by that supreme master of his art. I have seen these hounds pass by rabbits, as Pointers would go through a poultry yard. I have watched them as they spread, like a fan, when they were picking out a cold scent, the worthy master sitting quietly on his cob, and when they recovered it, seen them stream away, with voices "like a Peal of Bells," and as close together as a flock of pigeons! I have observed how they followed all the hare's doublings, and with the true Harrier instinct, cast back, when in perplexity, never "babbling," skirting, or puzzling over other stains, but, carrying on the line, until they pulled down their game, sometimes even, after a forty-five minutes burst. Many sportsmen complain in the present day that Harriers are becoming too fast to do their work properly, and that, this has arisen from crosses with Foxhounds, the original variety, being thought to date back to the old "Southern Hound," more remarkable for their great powers of scent, and hunting quality, than for pace. [Illustration: BEAGLE (LARGE) CH. "RINGWOOD" F. WARDE OWNER. BEAGLE (POCKET) "LITTLE 'UN" F. B. LORD OWNER.] _Beagles._--This is another breed which is yearly gaining in popularity and is really a miniature hound, of which there are two varieties, rough and smooth, differing only in texture of coat, and these are subdivided again into different heights, ranging from under sixteen and over twelve inches to under twelve and over ten inches, which latter are often called "Pocket Beagles." The skull should be fairly long and wide, slightly domed, with well defined "stop;" short and tapering muzzle; open nostrils and largish nose; thin long ears hanging folded; soft large eyes. No dewlap, but muscular neck, rather long, deep chest, for size; muscular thighs; well boned and straight forelegs; round, cat-like feet; stern carried gaily. Regular colours of Foxhounds, whom they resemble in many ways, coat flat, dense, and close. These are quite picturesque little creatures, and I have known them kept as pets and companions, but, of course, they are supposed to be used for their work as Sporting Dogs only, great numbers of them being kept in different parts of the country, and hunted as packs, most of their followers being on foot, and often accompanied by some of the sportswomen of their districts, as their pace is not so impetuous as that of their larger brethren. Frequently they call forth a considerable following in the parts they travel over, and many cricketers and others ("Dr. W. G." amongst others), who desire to keep "in condition" during the "off season," habitually attend the nearest meets of Beagles as an agreeable form of "training." CHAPTER III DOGS USED IN SPORT (_Continued_) BLOODHOUNDS--OTTER HOUNDS--GREAT DANES [Illustration: BLOODHOUND, CH. "NESTOR" MARK BEAUFOY M. P. OWNER.] I have adopted the above title, instead of the more usual term of "Sporting Dogs," so as to be able to include breeds about which there is a difference of opinion as to whether they are strictly "Sporting Dogs" or not, and propose in this chapter to say a few words about Bloodhounds, Otter Hounds and Great Danes, taking them in that order. Many of my readers, as well as I, can remember the time, within the last thirty years, when _Bloodhounds_ were few and far between, and the entries of this handsome and aristocratic-looking breed were at a low ebb, even at the best shows. This is no longer the case, thanks to the enterprise and zeal of a few well-known breeders, of whom stands in the very front rank, my friend Mr. Edwin Brough, of Scarborough, who gained some of his knowledge and experience at the feet of my old friend, Mr. Edwin Nichols, of West Kensington, who, as a breeder as well as exhibitor of Bloodhounds, Mastiffs and Newfoundlands, was the most successful I have ever known and, in my opinion, quite unsurpassed as a judge of those breeds and one of the most entertaining companions I have ever met. Seldom when I came across him at any Dog Show, which was very often in the days I was an extensive exhibitor, but that he kept up the company to a late hour with his entertaining stories of men and dogs! I much regret that, owing to advancing years, he has discontinued his attendance at the gatherings, at which he had such troops of friends and where he, under the title of "Papa-Nichols," was so universally popular. It is a tradition that the Bloodhound is identical with the Sleuth, or Slouth, Hound (from the word "Slouth" probably meaning "scent,") and that he is of a very ancient breed in these Islands, used for tracking "Moss Troopers" and other wrong doers in the olden days; the earliest record of them occurs in King Henry III.'s time, when they were used in tracking offenders. The most usual colours are shades of rich tan with more or less dark markings on body and head, which latter is long, lean and "peaked," the face thin and narrow, the skin loose and puckered; long folded and pendulous ears; broad nose, expanded nostrils; long thin, flabby and pendulous flews; deep and voluminous dewlap; sunken, bloodshot eyes, and flexible, active stern, thick at root, tapering to a point. The Hound strikes you as not over large, but with great character, quality and much dignity, well knit; plenty of bone; symmetrical, straight legs; wide across the back, full in body, and back ribs; and game in temperament; with fine, deep sloping shoulders, and enormously powerful hind quarters. The points associated with the Bloodhound, are as follows:--Skull, long, narrow and very much peaked, square, deep muzzle; ears, thin, long, set on rather low, hanging in shapely folds close against the face; eyes, deep set, dark colour and lustrous, lids, triangular shaped, showing the red haw; flews, long, thin, and pendulous, the upper overhanging the lower lips; neck, rather long and slightly arched towards base of skull, plenty of dewlaps; wrinkled skin of face, very loose and abundant; short, close lying coat, thin skin; sloping and deep shoulders, broad, muscular loins, well let down brisket, powerful thighs and second thighs; strong, straight legs; feet round, with well bent hocks, stern tapering and carried gaily. Colours: black and tan, tawny and red and tan. General appearance that of a high class, aristocratic and very dignified animal, who looks as if he considered himself fit company for an emperor, and would not care to associate with any but those belonging to the "upper circles." [Illustration: OTTERHOUND CH. "SAFETY." DUMFRIESSHIRE OTTER HUNT.] _Otter Hounds._--I should like just to say a few words about this picturesque breed, made familiar to us by the paintings of Landseer, Ansdell, Noble, and Frederick Tayler, and of which I had some beautiful specimens before me at the National Dog Show at Birmingham, in November 1898. The colours are, usually, dark and light browns and tans, mixed with grizzle, the general appearance somewhat like rough-coated Bloodhounds, with just a dash of an overgrown Dandie about them; very rugged and unsophisticated they look, but _quite charming_ to an artistic eye, and convey the idea that, when they know what they are wanted to do, they will not hesitate to do it, whatever it may be. Any animals that have to contend with such a wily, active, and resourceful foe as the Otter, either on land, or where he is still more "at home," _in water_, have to be pretty "spry" if they would give a good account of him. Of course, these hounds are usually kept in packs, and do not, as a rule, enjoy much human company, except connected with their training for their work, and the exercise of it, but would be an ornament to _any_ establishment, and, if I mistake not, were prime favourites of his Royal Highness, the lamented Prince Consort, whose ability as a sportsman, and taste as a connoisseur of all relating to art and things beautiful, are well known to his many admirers. I remember seeing the engraving of a beautiful picture, I presume in the possession of H. M. the Queen, either by Richard Ansdell, R. A., or the late Frederick Tayler, R. W. S., showing his Royal Highness in a rough, wide bottomed boat, crossing a Highland loch, with a pack of these beautiful hounds, some in the boat, some on the bank, and some in the water, either just starting for, or just returning from, an Otter hunt, and it impressed me very much. I may say, that it is very usual to have some Dandies, Skyes, or other Scottish terriers, associated with a pack of Otter Hounds, to assist in dislodging the quarry, when it takes refuge amongst the boulders and rocks, so often met in the haunts of the graceful Otter. The packs of these dogs are chiefly in Dumfrieshire, Cumberland, Devon, and some parts of Wales, both North and South. I have come across such a detailed account of the Otter, and rules for hunting it, in a book _more than_ _three hundred years old_, but which show the writer to be well informed on the subject, and a man of such keen observation, that I venture to quote it in the quaint, original language, hoping it may be interesting to some of the "sportsmen" amongst my readers:--"The Otter is a beast well-knowne--she feedeth on fishe, and lyeth neareunto Ryvers, Brookes, Pooles, and Fishpondes, or Weares. Hir lying in, commonly, is under the roots of trees, and, sometymes, I have seene them lying in a hollowe Tree, foure, or five, foote, above the grounde. Even as a Foxe, Polcat, Wylde Cat, or Badgerd, will destroye a Warren, so wyll the Otter destroye all the Fishe in your Pondes, if she once have founde the waye to them. She dyveth, and hunteth, under the water, after a wonderfull mannere, so that, no Fishe can escape hir, unlesse they be verie great, and swyfte. A lytter of Otteres, will destroye you, all the Fishe, in a Ryver, in two myles lengthe. There is great cunninge, in the Hunting of them, as shalle be saide in the next Chaptere; and also, it is possible, to take them, under the Water, and by the Ryver's syde, both in trappes, and in snares, as you may take a Hare, with hare-pypes, or such lyke gynnes. Theye byte sore, and venomouslye, and defende themselves stoutlye. I wyll not speake much more of their nature, but, onely, that they are footed lyke a Goose. I meane, they have a webbe betweene theyr clawes, and have no heeles, but, onely, a rounde balle, under theyr soale, of theyr foote, and theyr tracke is called the 'Marke' of an Otter, as we saye the 'Slot' of an Harte. An Otter, abydeth not muche, nor longe, in one place, but, if she be befrayde, or finde any faulte (as they are verie perfectlye of smellinge, and hearinge,) they wyll forsake theyr couche, and shifte a myle, or two, up, or doune, a Ryver. The lyke, wyll she do, if she have once destroyed the store of Fishe, and finde no plentie of feedinge. From a Ponde-Garden, or goode store of Fish-Pondes, she wyl not, lytely, be removed, as long as there is store of fishe in them; for therein, fishes are takene, with more ease, than in the Ryveres, or greatere wateres, but, inough of theyr natures. When, a Huntsman, woulde hunt the Otter, he shoulde, first, sende foure Servantes, or Varlets, with Bloodehoundes, or suche Houndes as wyl drawe in the game, and lette hym sende them, two up the Ryver, and two doune the Ryver, the one couple of them, on that one syde, and the other on that other syde of the water. And so, you shalle be sure to finde, if there be an Otter in the quarter, for, an Otter, cannot longe abide in the water, but muste come forthe, in the nyghte, to feede on grasse, and herbes, by the waters syde. If, any of theyr Houndes, finde of an Otter, lette the Huntsman looke, in the softe groundes, and moyst places, to see, which way he bente the heade, up, or doune, the Ryver. And, if he finde not the Otter, quicklye, he may then judge, that he is gonne to couche, somewhere, further offe from the water; for an Otter, wyl, sometymes, seeke hys feede, a myle, or lyttle lesse, from hys couche, and place of reste. Commonlye, he will rather go up the Ryver, than doune, for, goyng up the Streame, the Streame bryngeth him sente of the Fishes, that are above hym, and bearynge hys nose into the wynde, he shall the soonere finde any faulte, that is above hym. Also, you shoulde make an Assemblye, for the Otter, as you do for the Harte, and it is a note, to be observed, that all such chaces, as you drawe after, before you finde them, lodge them, or harbor them, you shoulde make a solemne Assemblye, to heare all reportes, before you undertake to hunte them, and then, he whyche have founde of an Otter, or so drawen towardes hys couche, that he can undertake to brynge you unto hym, shall cause hys Houndes to be uncouplede, a bowshotte, or twyane, before he come to the place, where, he thynketh, that the Otter lyeth. Because, they may caste aboute a whyle, until they have cooled theyr baulinge and hainsicke-toyes, which all Houndes do, lykely, use at the fyrst uncouplinge. Then, the Varlets of the Kennell, shall seeke, by the Ryversyde, and beate the bankes, with theyr Houndes, untill some of them chance upon the Otter. Remember, alwayes, to set out, some upwardes, and some doune, the Streames, and everye man hys Otter Speare, or forked staffe, in hys hande, and, if they misse, them, shall they runne up, or doune, the Streame, as they see the Otter bende, until they may, at laste, give hym a blowe. For, if the Houndes, be good Otter-Houndes, and perfectlye enterede, they wyl come chauntinge, and traylinge, alongst by the Ryversyde, and will beate, every tree-roote, every holme, every osier-bedde, and tufte of bullrushes; yea, sometymes, also, they wyl take the Ryver, and beate it, lyke a Water-Spaniell, so that, it shalle not be possible for the Otter to escape, but that eyther, the Houndes shall lyte upon hym, or els, some of the Hunts men shalle stryke hym, and, thusse, you maye have excellente sporte, and pastyme, in hunting of the Otter, if the Houndes be goode and that the Ryveres be not over greate. Where the Ryveres be greate, some use to have a lyne, thrwen overthwart the Ryvere, the whyche, two of the Huntsmen shalle holde, by eche ende, one on the one syde of the Ryvere, and the othere, on that othere. And, lette them holde the lyne so slacke, that it may, alwayes, be underneathe the watere. And, if the Otter come dyvynge, under the watere, he shalle, of necesstie, touche theyr lyne, and so, they shall feele, and knowe, whyche waye he is passed, the whyche shalle make hym be taken the soonere. An Otter's Skynne, is very good furre, and his grease, wyll make a medycyne, to make fishes turn uppe theyr bellies, as if they weare deade. A goode Otter Hounde may prove an excellente good Bucke Hounde, if he be not olde, before he be enterred." Another writer, of about twenty-five years since, in speaking of the Otterhound, says: "He is bred to stand wet or rheumatism, to hunt by eye, as well as scent, to mark the 'bubbles' when his quarry is 'down,' and join in the chase, in the Otter's element. Failing that, he has to stoop to the scent again. He must be undistracted by whoops and halloos of the attending multitude, observing the huntsman only, and answering his horn and cheer. With many a blank day and disappointment, he must resolutely hunt and face a '_water demon_.' The points of the breed are laid down as follows:--The head should, in shape, be something between that of the Bloodhound and Fox-hound. It should show much of the gravity, and dignity of the former, but rather flatter and harder in character; forehead long and narrow; eyes rather sunken, shewing the 'haw,' but large and dark in colour; nostrils large and roomy, nose itself, black, and a good size, with rough-haired muzzle and full, hanging lips; ears coated with coarse hair, without feathering at edges, but very large, thin, and pendulous; neck fairly throaty, muscular, and of a good length; chest more deep than wide; rather loose back ribs, but strong, deep, long and straight; feet large, not close, and well webbed between toes; muscular thighs; powerful sloping shoulders, with elbows well let down; tail carried in a sloping position, fairly coated with hair, decreasing towards the end; coat not short, but dense, hard and wiry, very weather resisting in character; colours may be black, dull white and creamy tan, or black and tan, black and white, grizzled pied, buff, or shades of brown, or brownish tan." [Illustration: GREAT DANE CH. "HANNIBAL OF REDGRAVE" Mrs H. L. HORSFALL OWNER.] _Great Danes._--I suppose, at the present time, it will be generally admitted that the largest, and best, kennel of this breed is in the hands of one of the handsomest, and most graceful, of the many enthusiastic ladies interested in the kennel-world, and that one of the most charming sights at many of our largest shows is to see a team of these beautiful dogs, accompanied by their fair owner, and from the crowds of the public I have noticed outside the rings, on such occasions, I have no doubt they were appreciative spectators. The points of the breed, as stated by a well known breeder and exhibitor, are:--The head, which should be carried high, rather long, and not too broad; muzzle broad, strong, and blunt; eyes small, with sharp expression; neck long and arched, free from any dewlaps; chest moderately broad; brisket deep, loin slightly arched; shoulders sloping, elbows well under; belly well tucked up; legs straight, and muscular, second thighs, long and strong; feet rather large, well arched and close; ears dropped at the tips and carried as in Black and Tan Terriers, small as possible in proportion to size of animal; coat hard, short, and dense; tail strong at base ending in fine tapering point, carried rather low, not much below curve of hindquarters. General appearance, that of an upstanding, determined animal, with whom it would be best to avoid a difference of opinion if possible, but one who would, doubtless, be all right, when you knew him, and he knew you! CHAPTER IV DOGS USED IN SPORT (_Continued_) POINTERS--SETTERS--RETRIEVERS [Illustration: POINTER. CH. "DEVONSHIRE DAN" MISS RESTON. OWNER.] _The Pointer._--Although this variety of dog has not, in the general way, enjoyed the advantage of constant human society, to anything like the extent possessed by some others, there is little doubt numbers of the family have developed considerable intelligence, particularly in connection with their work. The late Mr. Forster of Manchester, relates that a Pointer belonging to him, when out with his master, would, if he missed a bird, go up to him, seize hold of and shake his gaiter, as if to remonstrate with him for not making better use of the game he had found for him. And the late Revd. T. Pearce, no mean authority on most breeds of "sporting dogs," said in speaking of Pointers, "I have no prejudice for the Setter, over the Pointer, although I have had ten Setters to one Pointer. If the ground I shoot over suits the Pointer, the Pointer suits me, but I do not think he is quite so well adapted for the gun as the Setter, provided the Setter is of equal talent and adequately broken. But, it would be hard to find anything more perfect than some Pointers I have shot over myself, or more thoroughly intelligent, industrious and sensible. One of them, 'old Jesse' a chance dog I had of Mr. Meir, for Snipe shooting, was a fine example indeed. As his pedigree was not ascertained, he was not used for breeding purposes, but was a fine specimen of some Yorkshire strain, large size, and liver and white in colour. If I missed him in driving off to my Snipe grounds, he would track my pony and gig like a sleuth hound, and many a time have I found him close behind my wheels, when I have, for miles, looked back for him in vain. One bright winter morning I sat on a gate waiting for one Capt. Hull, my companion, and looking up a long stretch of road, I observed 'old Jesse' coming along with a young dog of mine which he had evidently invited to join in the fun, and so I let the young dog work on Snipe, a game he was never on before. It was a sight to see how 'old Jesse' tried to teach him the trade. I had two pieces of Snipe bog two miles apart, and one bad scenting day he missed my track and went to the wrong place, so that it was past one o'clock when I reached the place to which he had gone. On getting there, which I generally shot first, I saw 'old Jesse' standing stiffly on a Snipe. How long he had been 'pointing' I cannot say. Frequently, as I walked up to his point, I have flushed Snipe, and shot them, before I reached him, but this made no difference to him, nor did it in the least interfere with his steadiness. Once, on the occasion I have mentioned of his being accompanied by the young dog, he snarled at the youngster for flushing a Jack Snipe, and when he repeated the fault, went up and worried him severely. As two of us shot together, he got into the habit of coming to my room in the morning, to see if I was dressed for shooting, and if I was not, he would go to my companion's chamber and accompany him, or track him through the streets, if he had gone on, and I do not remember that he ever failed to find him. 'Julie,' a liver and white Pointer bitch, was another of my Pointers which showed great sagacity and firmness. We have frequently lost her, for a considerable time, in a high cover on a celebrated piece of ground called Keysworth, in Dorsetshire, belonging to my friend, Mr. Drax, and at last we have seen the 'sting' of her fine stern above the rushes, for she always held it higher than her head. She was one of the most intelligent dogs I ever possessed, and would retrieve any game alive. Though only in her second season, she was the animal always sent out with young hands, and if they ran to pick up their game, she would bark at them reproachfully. I never had a Pointer before, that seemed to enter so keenly into the sport, or to appreciate, as she did, the real and proper style of beating for game." The points of this well known sportsman (Pointer) are:--Skull rather wide between the ears, with a pronounced drop at the "stop," the occipital protuberance being also well defined, the muzzle being long and bent at the nose, which is rather dark liver, or else flesh coloured, eyes dark or light according to colours of markings, ears rather fine, set on low and hanging flat to the sides of the head; neck gracefully arched and quite free from overlaps, shoulders sloping, chest moderately wide, and extremely deep, body powerful and well ribbed up at the loin, forelegs dead straight, set well in under the dog, heavy in bone, the feet being round and compact, hind quarters powerful, the stifle being a little turned out and the hocks well let down, tail rather short and tapering to the tip, coat moderately fine. Colours: liver and white, lemon and white, black, or black and liver ticked. SETTERS [Illustration: ENGLISH SETTER. CH. "ROCK". J. FLETCHER. OWNER.] _The English Setter._--The elegant family known by the above title, are divided into three branches, called respectively English, Gordon and Irish; each have their body of supporters, and many very beautiful specimens of them all are to be seen at our best shows. Perhaps Birmingham lays itself out most for the sporting dog classes, but now, when there are so many large exhibitions held in various parts of the United Kingdom, the same dogs are more often seen at the various places. The following descriptions of each of the three branches of the family, are taken from notes communicated by a well known gentleman in the doggy world, to a work on dogs published some seventy-five years since. "The head of the English Setter should not be so heavy as the Pointer's, nor so wide across the ears. There should be at least four inches from the inner corner of the eye to the point of the nose. In many first class dogs, there is half an inch more. The nasal bone should be rather depressed in the centre and slightly raised at the nostrils. The nose and nostrils large, the nose dark liver coloured or black, moist and shining. The jaws should be level and the teeth exactly level in front, as nothing detracts more from appearance than the 'snipe nose.' There should not be that fullness of lip, allowable in the Pointer, but, at the angles of the mouth, the lips should be rather pendulous. The ears, which are usually about six inches in length, should be set low on the head, larger where they are attached, than at the tips, which should be round, not pointed. They should never be pricked, or carried forward, even when the dog points. The eyes should be large and sparkling, not protruding, as in the King Charles Spaniel, but well set and full of intelligence. The neck, long, thin, slightly arched at crest, and clean cut where it joins the head, this last a most important point. The shoulders should be well set back, the blades long, the muscles well-developed throughout. Ribs not so widely sprung as the Pointer's. The back ribs deep and fairly near to the hip bone. The chest deep and moderately wide. The loins broad and arched slightly and the hips wide. The hind quarters square, strongly made and the stifles well bent. Cat-like feet are preferable to the 'hare' or 'spoon' foot. The round foot, with toes well arched, distributes the power of the toes more evenly, and is best suited for every description of shooting ground, in fact, the Foxhound foot, and leg with it. The feet should be straight, neither turned in or out. The toes should be well furnished with hair, which, in the best breeds, forms a tuft between the toes and protects the sole, being replenished as fast as it wears away. The pasterns should be nearly upright and large, knees large, forelegs upright, and in a standing position, the legs should be like good forelegs in a Horse, the feet slightly in advance of straight, the hocks strong, set a little in, if any deviation from a straight line. The stern of a Setter, like that of a Spaniel, should be carried as much as possible in a line with the backbone. The undulating sweep upwards, if exaggerated, would become a serious fault. A Setter's stern cannot well be too straight, and it should never be too long or it cannot be carried handsomely. The stern looks better when the 'feather' commences near the root of the tail and goes off gradually to nothing at the tip. A tail blunt, or clubbed, is very objectionable. The coat should be of the finest silky texture, moderately waved, but devoid of curl. There may be an inclination in the coat to part down the back. Colours in order of merit: 1. Blue mottle, or Belton greys, which stand work and are better than; 2. Orange and white and lemon and white; 3. black and white; 4. pure white; 5. pure black; 6. fawn or yellow; 7. liver colour or liver and white, which last too often indicates a cross with the Pointer or Water Spaniel. [Illustration: GORDON-SETTER. CH. "MARQUIS". T. JACOBS. OWNER.] "_The Gordon Setter._--The points of excellence in the Gordon, closely resemble those of the English Setter, but, I may observe, that the great features of true Gordon blood are, that they can go much longer without water than the generality of Setters, and that they show more variety in their attitude on 'the point.' The length of their shoulders, their large bone, and their development of muscle, enable them to race, and to keep it up. The colour of the Gordon is a great point. The black should be _raven_ black, with a blue, or plum bloom, on the bright lights. The tan a rich red, of burnt sienna, colour. It should be, by no means, yellow or tabby, or mixed with black or fawn, but rich, deep, a sort of bright new mahogany. The cheeks, lips, throat, feet, back of the forelegs to the elbow, front of the hind legs up to the hips, belly, inside of thighs, vent, underside of flag, inside of ears, should all be brilliant red, and there should be a large brilliant spot of tan over each eye. There is no objection to a white short frill, although the absence of all white is a good thing. White toes behind, are less objectionable than white toes in front, and several of the very best Gordons have even had a white foot, or feet, but this is not to be desired if it can be avoided. The origin of the breed is not well known. The late Duke of Gordon, at any rate, brought it up to its present excellence. There is a suspicion it came originally from Ireland, and the fact that nearly all the best Gordon bitches have had in every litter, one or more deep red, or orange, whelps, leads one to believe there has been an Irish cross. The Gordon Setter's stern is shorter than that of the English Setter, but 'sting like.' Failing this, breeders find they have that greatest trouble to the Gordon breeder, the 'teapot tail,' or a long stern with a curl at the end, badly carried in action. He is a long, low, Setter, his gallop noiseless, and he is remarkably quick in his turn, from the power of his shoulders and loins, length of his neck and general muscular development, a trifle heavier in his head, shorter in his stern, rather deeper in his 'brisket,' more bony and muscular than the English Setter, with a remarkably gay temperament. 'Always busy,' he is quite the beau ideal of a sportsman's favourite, but he has his failings. He is more frequently 'gunshy,' more often the victim of distemper, than the English, and, occasionally, so headstrong as to be totally irreclaimable, these may be the faults of education, and generally are so, but undeniably they are more often the results of inbreeding or injudicious crossing. [Illustration: IRISH-SETTER. CH. "GARRYOWEN". J. J. GILTRAP, OWNER.] "_The Irish Setter._--The head of the Irish Setter should be long, narrow, yet wide in the forehead, arched or peaked cranium behind. A short, bullet head, a wide flat one, or one running to a point at the snout, are very common, and very bad. The lips should be deep or moderately so. The ears should be long, reaching at the end of the hair, to the nose, pendulous and as if lying in a fold, set well back and low on the head; they should never be set high, short in length, or half diamond shaped, their feather should be moderate. The eyes of rich hazel or rich brown, well set, full, kind, sensible and loving, the iris mahogany colour, should never be gooseberry, black, or prominent and staring. The nose mahogany, dark flesh, or blackish mahogany, never black or pink. Even dark flesh is not so much admired, though it may be with a good clear hazel eye. The whiskers should be red. The forelegs straight, moderately feathered, the feet close and small, not round like a hounds, or splayed. The hams straight, flat and muscular, and feathered well with buff coloured hair, the hind quarters, altogether square and active in make. The chest should be wide when the dog is sitting on his haunches, and the head held back and full; too wide a chest is apt to give a waddling and slow gait. The chest ribs cannot be too deep. The loins, for speed, should be long, moderately wide, and the belly well tucked up. The tail should be well covered with coarse hair, curling along the tops, and hanging moderately, though bushy, from beneath; carried on a horizontal line with the back, not cocked or curled. In the field, or excitement, carried low, stiff and beating the hind legs. The coat should be rather coarse, smooth or wavy, not curly, hair of moderate length, on the upper parts of the body, the root half tawny, the tip half deep sienna, a sort of blood red, but never showing black on the ears, back, head, or tail. The legs and under parts deep or pale tawny. White should not appear anywhere except in the centre of the forehead and the centre of the breast." It maybe interesting to some of my readers (amongst whom I hope will be included fanciers of every breed, as well as some who have been hitherto fanciers of no breed at all), if I set out here the show points of Setters, taking them in their usual order, as "English," "Gordon," and "Irish." _The English Setter._--The head should be long and rather narrow, the skull slightly domed and not very broad at base, muzzle long, square and clean, not too pointed at end; nose moderately large, with wide nostrils, ears fine, set on low and lying close to sides of head; eyes, soft, bright and intelligent, not light in colour. Neck very muscular and of fair length; shoulders clean and sloping, chest not wide but deep; back strong and muscular; ribs well sprung and deep; powerful, broad loin; thighs fairly long and muscular; stifles well let down and bent; forelegs well feathered and straight, pasterns short, straight and firm; stern medium length, well set on, almost in line with back, not carried gaily or curled; feet close and compact, slightly feathered between toes. Coat free from any curl, soft, wavy and silky. Colours: blue and white ticked, white with black markings and white with liver markings most favoured, but almost any others allowed except red, and black and tan. _The Gordon or Black and Tan Setters_ are supposed to have been so called from their original connection with Gordon Castle Kennels. There are, however, said to be many good specimens not in any way related to that particular strain, the colour of which was tricolour, black, tan and white. This variety is heavier than their English or Irish brethren, and shows more of the Hound and less of the Spaniel. The head is stronger, with deeper and broader muzzle and heavier lips, the ears are also somewhat longer, and the eyes often show the haw; the black should be as jet and absolutely free from white. The tan on cheeks and over eyes and on feet and pasterns should be rich and bright and clearly defined, and the feathering on forelegs and thighs should also be tan. _The Irish Setters_ are higher on the leg than their English cousins, although, in most respects, the conformation of body is precisely the same in both breeds. Head long and narrow, muzzle square, lips moderately deep, ears fine, set low and lying well back, giving a domed appearance to the skull; "stop" well defined, eyes rich hazel or dark brown, soft and expressive. Chest deep and ribs well sprung; shoulders clean and sloping; loin somewhat arched, broad and muscular. _Coat_, lustrous and rather plentiful, rich, dark red, with a golden tinge, no white allowable, except a star on head or chest. [Illustration: FLAT-COATED RETRIEVER CH. "RIGHT AWAY" S. E. SHIRLEY OWNER.] _The Retriever._--This breed is practically divided into two varieties, one called The Flat, Smooth, or Wavy-coated, and the other the Curly; both, as a rule, are black, but as far as my experience of them goes, more specimens "other than black" are seen amongst "the Curlies" than the others, but I think, undoubtedly, blacks, of either variety, are the handsomest. Both breeds have been brought to a great point of perfection. _In the Flat-coated_, Mr. S. E. Shirley and Colonel Cornwall-Legh, and _in the Curly-coated_, Earl Melville and Mr. S. Darbey, can show teams to make a sportsman "tear his hair;" often and often, one of these varieties has taken the coveted prize for the "best sporting dog in the show," and they are remarkable amongst the many charming breeds of sporting dogs bred and established in this country, for their very "matching character," so that, a high bred lot of either variety have a wonderful family likeness, and on the many occasions when I have had to take part in making the awards for the sporting and non-sporting teams, it has been a great pleasure to me to see grouped together, in different parts of an immense ring, teams of the various breeds, often containing the best known specimens of them, quite priceless, and which no money could buy, but most interesting to the lovers of beautiful, and in many cases, perfect specimens of animals. _Show Points of Wavy, Flat, or Smooth Retrievers._--_Head_ long and skull fairly wide; ears small and lying close to head; eyes brown or hazel and showing great intelligence; jaws long, and sufficiently strong to carry a Hare; muzzle fairly large, with full open nostrils; teeth level and sound; neck fairly long; chest deep and somewhat narrow; shoulders clean and strong, set obliquely; ribs deep, and well sprung; body long, with muscular loins; forelegs straight and strong; quarters muscular; stifles fairly bent; feet sound, and well arched; coat long, and straight, and of good quality; black, without any trace of white, is the fashionable colour, but classes for "other than black," are sometimes well filled. White and liver coloured specimens are sometimes met with, but seldom shown. _General appearance_ is that of a strong, upstanding, intelligent dog, of a decidedly sporting character, but quite prepared to take on any class of work required of him as a "general utility dog." [Illustration: CURLY RETRIEVER CH. "TIVERTON BEST LAD" S. DARBEY OWNER.] _The Curly-coated Retriever._--There has been much discussion as to the origin of this variety, which, like that of its "Flatcoated" comrade, does not go back, it is thought, before the commencement of this century. Some think the old "water dog" we see depicted in the sporting pictures of our ancestors (and which looked like a cross of indifferent Poodle, with an inferior old English sheep dog, without much of the good points of either variety!), others claim the Irish Water Spaniel, and others again, the Poodle, to have been one of its parents in a cross with the Labrador dog, in the same way as its flat-coated cousin is supposed to have been produced by a cross between a Setter and a Labrador dog. I do not propose to enter into this controversy at all, personally I have had more to do with the Irish Water Spaniels (of which my brothers and I have had a great many amongst us since we were lads), and Poodles, of which I have had a good many and handled and judged hundreds, and I think I can see traces of the Irish Water Spaniel _and_ the Poodle in the modern Curly-coated Retriever, but more of the former than the latter. I think, undoubtedly, the Curlies are the hardest to breed approaching perfection, but they are wonderfully "fetching," when up to the mark. The absence of curl, too much hair on face, and the openness of coat, are the faults I most often notice, and some fail in the tail not being as it should be, covered from root to end with small, tight curls, as on body. The sort of curls on the body may be described as like those on a nigger's head. _The Points for Show of the Curly Retriever_ are not much at variance with those for the Flat-coated. But the latter is often the larger dog. The head, should be not so wide, with strong jaws, and muzzle more inclined to be snipey; the coat, a perfect mass of short, tight curls on the body, legs and tail, but only short, smooth hair on the face--the stern, quite straight and carried without any curve in it, substantial at root, lessening in size by degrees to its point. CHAPTER V DOGS USED IN SPORT (_Continued_) SPORTING SPANIELS--BASSET HOUNDS--DACHSHOUNDS A good many I have known, make much and think highly of some of the breeds of Spaniels. These are noted for their affectionate disposition and docility. The least often seen, and therefore not much known, are the _Irish and the English Water Spaniels_. The former should be dark liver coloured, covered with curls, except on the tail, which should be nearly bare of hair, and on the head a considerable tuft of hair, called the top-knot, hanging down over the eyes and face, so as to almost hide the former. There is something very comical, and quite "Hibernian," about the look of this breed, and they always appear to be open for any amount of fun, but they are also grand workers, and for duck-shooting, and retrieving in general, they are above the average in achievements, as they are above most of their fellows in size. _The English Variety_ is also a capital all-round useful dog, generally roan or dark coloured in ground, with sometimes spots or markings on head and body, also covered with curls, and looks best with tail moderately docked. He gives you the idea of a "business dog," and is very lively and ready for work of almost any sporting kind, and can stand a deal of it. Another of the family I am very partial to and have sometimes met with and kept as a companion, is the Clumber. I think this is the most aristocratic-looking of the sporting varieties of the breed, and should be a creamy white, with patches of lemon or light orange-tan, about the head and body. Either the tactics of the sportsmen of the present day are too rapid, or for some other cause, but there certainly are not so many of the breed to be seen now as there were some fifteen or twenty years since, but I am glad to see the present Duke of Newcastle is keeping up the breed at Clumber, where it is supposed to have been originally produced, and that there are still a few kennels in the country, where they are breeding some of these beautiful dogs, for I contend that a Clumber, in good form and well-groomed (when his coat will have quite a bloom on it), is one of the handsomest dogs a sportsman can wish to accompany him, and although his build and formation are not suited for a high rate of speed, he can get over a good deal of ground in the course of the day, and render some useful service to his owner and his friends. In that celebrated book, "The Master of the Game," preserved in the British Museum, and attributed to a royal author, being supposed to be written by a son of King Edward III. (who died in 1402), the Spaniel is spoken of as "Saynolfe," no doubt a term intended for "Spaynolfe," and is described as one of the hounds used for hawking, and called a Spaynel, "because the nature of him cometh from Spain, notwithstanding they are to be found in other countries," and such hounds, the author declares, have many good customs and evil. He insists that a good hound for hawking should have a large head and body, and that he should be of a "fair hewe," white or tawne, and not too "jough," that is, hairy or rough, but, his tail should be "rough," or feathered; he goes on to describe the proper temperament, as a sportsman of the present age would speak of a modern Clumber, leaving out one of its greatest merits, its _silence_, or muteness, in work, however excited, so much to be desired. A great deal of sport may be had over a brace of Clumbers, which are as much as a sportsman can do with, particularly with a Retriever to look after the "killed and wounded." I have also, occasionally, seen a specimen of the Sussex Spaniel, which are rare dogs for work, made a house pet of. They should be rich copper colour, and are very showy and distinguished looking in appearance, strong and muscular in build, more active than you would give them credit for, by their looks, and possessed of much intelligence and affection for their friends, good guards, and well able to take their own parts in any row, seldom coming off worst, even with larger antagonists. They have been brought to great perfection of late years. I should say there are some as good as any ever seen, to be met with at the present day, and especially at the well known Bridford Kennels in Devon. I think they are rather growing in public favour, to the reverse being the case; I often see what I may call "the _Field Spaniel_ proper," the old glossy black, kept as a companion; the very long backed, and short-legged type, now in favour, don't strike one as being able to stand so much hard work, in the covers, as the more old fashioned sort, but they are, many of them, very beautiful dogs, and of high quality, and, what is also of importance to breeders, they command very high prices. I heard of an instance, not very long since, when a buyer was found for five or six specimens of the Black Field Spaniel, at £1,100, and another gave £400 for a single dog. I know all the three parties, that is, the seller and the two buyers, in these transactions, and believe them to be _bonâ fide_ and true, in substance and fact, so that Spaniel breeding evidently _can_ be made to pay. Although I sometimes see some of the old liver and white, roan, blue and black Spaniels about, I certainly think they are not so popular as they were some years since. As a rule they are tractable, good tempered, "born sportsmen," particularly fond of a ramble amongst country lanes and hedgerows, and capital companions for all, attaching themselves readily to ladies and children, and making themselves "at home" as members of the household, though always ready for their own proper work, outside, when called upon. [Illustration: CLUMBER-SPANIEL, "SANDRINGHAM-BUSTLER". H. R. H. PRINCE of WALES. OWNER.] _Sporting Spaniel Points._--I will here give the show points of the several Sporting Spaniels, commencing with the _Clumber_. The points of this breed are as follows:--He should be long, low, and heavy, weight varies, but averages about forty to forty-five pounds. Colour, white, of a creamy shade, with orange or lemon markings; actual liver colour, or the very pale lemon, once made a point of, are now objected to by some breeders of the present day. Height should not be over eighteen or twenty inches. Legs, both short and strong, in fact, so much so that, with his deep, well-coated body, he shows little "daylight" below him, as he stands or walks. Head, large, long, coloured to a line under the eyes, and showing a "blaze" up the face. Eyes, rather small for size of head, sunken, pensive, and thoughtful. Nose, dark flesh, or liver, coloured. Ears, large and much feathered, below, where the fleshy part of the ear ends. Neck, long, strong, and muscular. Back, straight and long. Chest, wide, also the shoulders, and substantial, likewise the forearm, which is very heavy for his size. Hocks, and hind quarters, large, bony, and very muscular. Loins, not arched, but straight. Ribs, round and prominent, back-ribs, in particular, very deep. Stern, set on low, looks best "docked," as is usually the case, with a little hair hanging at the fag end. Coat should be not too full in quantity, but very straight, silky, shining, and soft, in texture. The appearance and general character being that of a high class, dignified specimen of the sporting dog, well able to do all that can be reasonably required of him, but with no idea of being dictated to, hurried, or "put out of the way," by any one. [Illustration: IRISH WATER SPANIEL. CH. "SHAUN". COL. THE HON. W. LE POER TRENCH. OWNER.] _The Irish Water Spaniel._--The head of the Irish Water Spaniel is rather large, forehead prominent, face perfectly smooth from eyes down, ears from twenty-four to twenty-six inches long from end to end; head should be crowned with a well-defined top-knot, not straggling across, like the common Water Dog, but coming down in a peak on the forehead. The body should be covered with small, crisp curls, which often become draggled in the moulting season; the tail, should be round and "rat-like," without feather, rather short than the reverse, and as stiff as a ramrod. Colour, pure puce-shaded liver, without any white. Height, about from twenty-two to twenty-two and a half inches, seldom more when pure bred. _English Water Spaniel._--The following description of this breed, which is a very great favourite of mine, and I regret to say seems to be growing more scarce, year by year, is from the pen of my old friend, Mr. A. W. Langdale, who was counted an authority on Spaniels generally:--"Young breeders and judges should have before them this fact, that _Colour_ should be a secondary matter with the English Water Spaniel, and the latter should never pass over a liver and white dog, in favour of a whole coloured liver, provided the liver and white is a well-made specimen of his breed. The weight, again, should not exceed forty pounds, and his height nineteen inches, his ears may be fairly long, and covered all over with curl; also the body, not the close curl of his Irish brother, but one somewhat looser, and more straggly; his head is broad and long, with piercing eyes, his legs are well feathered behind, as well as in front, and there is no doubt that the feather, which in a ticked dog, comes out from each and every liver spot in front of the forelegs, has much to do with his power of endurance in water. They may be called 'natural retrievers,' as no dog is easier taught." [Illustration: SUSSEX-SPANIEL CH. "BRIDFORD GIDDIE". MOSES WOOLLAND, OWNER.] _The Sussex Spaniel._--He should be of a deep golden liver colour, and should weigh about thirty-four pounds. His head should be long and heavy, his eye large, and languishing, his forehead projecting over the eye, the muzzle square, the lips rather pendulous, his mouth large, and his underjaw rather recedes from the upper jaw. His ears should be large and well furnished with silky hair, they should be small, or narrow, where they spring from the head, and large, or lobe shaped, at the base; they should be set low down, and hang close to the cheeks. The nostrils should be large, the nose large and liver-coloured. The neck should be strong and muscular, with the crest a little arched. The chest, should be wide, the shoulders well thrown back, the body, long, and round. The legs should be short and strong, well flewed to the foot, before and behind. The feet, which are nearly always good in a Spaniel, should be round, well arched, and abundantly furnished with feather. The loin should be very strong, the back ribs very deep and round; the tail, docked to about nine inches, and well-feathered, should be set low, and have a downward action. The proper carriage of the tail marks the Spaniel's purity, as much as anything. The coat should be waved, not curled, and as already said, of a golden liver colour. [Illustration: BLACK-SPANIEL. CH. "BRIDFORD-BRILLIANT". M. WOOLLAND. OWNER.] _The Black Spaniel._--The following description of the points required in this popular variety, are laid down by my friend, Mr. T. Jacobs, of Newton Abbot, who is, as far as I know, about the most successful breeder and exhibitor of them, during the last twenty-five years, he says:--"My standard is as follows: Pleasing temper I always look to first, never breed from a bad tempered sporting dog, every sportsman knows what a nuisance they are. A long body, short legs, with plenty of bone and feather, a perfectly smooth, satin-like coat, with no inclination to wave, or curl, moderately long. Ears, covered with long, silky hair, not ringlets, well set, low down, and hung close to the cheeks, small, or narrow, where they spring from the head, and large and lobe shaped, at the base, well furnished with hair on the inside leather. A long head, not 'snipey,' or heavy, like the Clumber; dark, pleasing eye, a yellow eye indicates bad temper, and should be avoided. Level mouth, not 'pig-jawed,' or under hung, but I prefer the former fault to the latter, which prevails, I am sorry to see, in some of our present show dogs. Breeders should avoid them as stock dogs. A long neck, slightly arched, well clothed with muscle. Strong across the loins. Ribs well sprung, and barrel-shaped. Belly, well clothed with long hair and not tucked up, like the Greyhound, a common fault. Broad chest, well clothed with muscle and feather. Feet, round and cat-like, with a plentiful supply of hair between the toes. Many have argued with me, that mating black with liver colour, would throw the black puppies rusty, or bad black, but, being a pigeon breeder for many years, and knowing that by mating duns and blacks, you procure a better black than by breeding two blacks together, I thought if this held good with Pigeons, why should it not do with dogs? I therefore mated my Spaniels, as before described, the result is, I have never seen one bad black, and have bred more than a dozen litters in that way." [Illustration: COCKER SPANIEL CH. "TED OBO" J. FARROW OWNER.] _Some Other Sporting Spaniels._--The heads of small Spaniels should resemble those of small Setters, and have no tuft on them. The ears should be moderately long, and lie close to the cheek. Very short ears indicate a cross. The legs should be strong, well feathered and short; the feet round; and each toe should be protected with hair, a plentiful supply of which on, and between the toes, is important. The chest should be rather broad. The elbows, not so oblique as in the Setter. The body, should be long, and somewhat round, and barrel-like, with less depth of the fore rib than in the Setter. The tail, should come out on a line with the backbone. The colours may be almost anything, black, black and white, liver, liver and white, lemon, lemon and white, roan, blue, or grey mottled. [Illustration: SMOOTH BASSET HOUND CH. "LOUIS LE BEAU" Mrs M. TOTTIE OWNER.] _Bassets._--Amongst those breeds which have been taken up a good deal as pets and companions in comparatively recent years, have been _the Bassets_, both _Smooth_ and _Rough-coated_. This breed, which has been in fewer hands than most, also enjoys the advantage of royal patronage, both their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales, being successful breeders and exhibitors of them. They are heavy looking, usually hound marked, in colour, that is, white with black and light brown, and hound-tanned markings on body, which is very long shaped on short, strong legs, large, pendulous ears and head, and in expression much like what we used to see in pictures of the "old English Hound." They have a high-class and distinguished look about them, and give you the impression of character and breeding. They have not been used extensively for sporting purposes in this country, to my knowledge. [Illustration: DACHSHUND CH. "WISEACRE". E. S. WOODIWISS, OWNER.] _Dachshunds._--Another of the breeds I have seen kept as pets, is the _Dachshund_, or Badger Dog, as the name implies. I think they are rarely, or ever, used for Badgers in this country, and for the safety of the greater part of those I have seen here, I think it is much better that is so, as any one familiar with the Badger, or the "old Gentleman in Grey," as he is frequently called, will know that he is a formidable opponent to tackle, muscular, active, low to the ground, with a very tough, harsh coat, and long, powerful jaws, and weighing from over twenty to over thirty pounds, so that it requires activity, strength and indomitable pluck for a small dog to attempt to overcome such an animal, possessing so many natural advantages. I think Dachshunds are not so generally kept as pets as they were some years since, but my experience of them is favourable, having found them amiable and docile in disposition, cleanly in habits, and bright and lively in temperament. They are very long, and low, in build, head and ears hound shaped, forelegs curved with an outward turn, to facilitate digging operations, tail carried rather gaily, coat fine in texture, skin loose, colours most in favour, rich chestnut red, black and tan, chocolate, and other shades of brown, and of late, what is called "dappled," which seems to be a ground of one shade of brown, splashed with irregular blotches of another darker shade of same colour. Of course there are constantly springing up new patrons and patronesses for all kinds of dogs, but I have noticed that almost every one of the persons who were the most enthusiastic supporters, and breeders of Dachshunds, when they were first brought forward, many years since, have now ceased to keep them, although they nearly all keep some other breeds, so that, as in my own case, I think it is not one of the varieties which takes a lasting hold on its votaries, whether from the fact that it is essentially one of the foreign made breeds, and the effect of the strong preference, which now prevails for the encouragement of everything of British and Colonial origin and manufacture, I do not know, but I can call to mind at least ten of the largest breeders of Dachshunds in this country, who, I believe, have not at present one specimen amongst the lot. [Illustration: ROUGH BASSET. "BEAUTY" H. R. H. PRINCE of WALES, OWNER.] _Points of the Basset Hound._--The following description of the points desired in this breed by my friend, the late lamented Sir Everett Millais, Bart., who was quite an enthusiast in his support of it, may be interesting to those of my readers who admire (and who, that has seen them, can fail to do so?) these very beautiful dogs:--"The Basset, for its size, has perhaps more bone than nearly any other dog. The skull, should be peaked, like that of the Bloodhound, with the same dignity, and expression; nose, black, and well flewed. For the size of the Hound, I think the teeth are extremely small. However, as they are not intended to destroy life, perhaps this is the reason. The ears, should hang, like the Bloodhounds, and are like the softest velvet. The eyes are deep brown, and brimful of affection and intelligence. They are pretty deeply set, and should show a considerable 'haw.' A Basset, is one of those Hounds, incapable of having a 'wicked eye.' The neck, is long, but of great power, and in the Basset à jambes torses, the flews extend very nearly down to the chest. The chest, is more expansive in the Basset, than even in the Bull Dog, and should, in the Basset à jambes torses, be not more than two inches from the ground. In the case of the Basset à jambes demi-torses, and jambes droites, being generally lighter, their chests do not of course come so low. The shoulders, are of great power and terminate in the crooked feet of the Basset, which appear to be a mass of joints. The back and ribs, are strong, and the former of great length, the stern, is gaily carried, like that of Hounds in general, and when the Hound is on the scent of game, this portion of his body gets extremely animated, and tells me, in my own Hounds, when they have struck a fresh, or cold, scent, and I even know when the foremost Hound will give tongue! The hindquarters, are very strong and muscular, the muscles standing rigidly out, down to the hocks. The skin, is soft in the smooth haired dogs, and like that of any other Hound, but in the rough variety, it is identical with that of the Otter Hound. Colour, of course, is a matter of fancy, although I infinitely prefer the 'tricolour,' which has a tan head, and black and white body." _Points of the Dachshund._--The following are set down by my friend, Mr. A. O. Mudie, so well-known as a successful breeder, exhibitor and judge of this quaint-looking breed, and who has had a long experience amongst them:--Head, long and narrow, peak well developed. Jaw, strong, and level. Ears, set on low, long, broad, and soft. Chest, deep, and narrow; breastbone prominent. Forelegs, very short, and strong in bone, well-crooked, but standing equally on all parts of the foot. Skin, thick, and supple. Coat, short and strong. Loins, well arched, strong and muscular. Any colour. Long, low, and graceful, and not cloddy." CHAPTER VI DOGS USED IN SPORT (_Continued_) GREYHOUNDS--SCOTTISH DEERHOUNDS--IRISH WOLFHOUNDS--BORZOIS--WHIPPETS [Illustration: WHIPPET GREYHOUND CH. "REAL JAM." S. WOODIWISS OWNER.] _Greyhounds._--This is certainly, whether quite in his present form and appearance or not, one of the most ancient breeds, and believed to have been kept by our forefathers in the earliest part of the Christian era. It is said to have been introduced into this country in the days of Elfric, Duke of Mercia, and manuscript paintings exist of a Saxon chief, his huntsman and a brace of Greyhounds in the ninth century. Although not generally credited with much more intelligence than to view a hare and run after it until he catches it, or it gets away, I mention later on in this book, some tales of his sagacity which I believe are well authenticated, and will now give a detailed description of the breed:-- _Points of the Greyhound._--Head, narrow and fine, with sufficient muscle; nose should be straight (not curved, many, otherwise good, are spoiled by "Roman noses"); nasal sinuses not developed; eyes full and bright, full of life; semi-erect, small, well shaped ears; neck long, slightly curved; chest capacious, plenty of "lung power," deep rather than wide; shoulders deep, narrow at top, like racehorses' shoulders in their position; forelegs straight, well set on, well muscled; forearms, long, strong and muscular; feet compact, and not too long; well arched ribs; wide, large and muscular hips; long, strong, slightly arched back; hocks and knees placed low; coat glossy as satin (many good "performers" however, have been the reverse of this); Colours: white, red, brindle, blue and white, fawn, black, red and fawn, etc., quite a matter of taste. It is thought, by some people, that more great winners have been produced from the blacks, and black and whites, than from any other colours. As far as show winners are concerned, and I have had scores of the breed before me, I am inclined to think brindles, blacks and fawns have been the most often the winning colours. [Illustration: DEERHOUND, CH. "SELWOOD DHOURAN". R. HOOD WRIGHT, OWNER.] _The Scotch Deerhound._--Although I have often seen these graceful animals (as we know was the case with Sir Walter Scott), made inmates of the house, there is a rugged, moorland, and, withal, business-like look about them which gives you the idea they would be more at home in the open air, on the heather, or the mountain side, for choice, than in the most luxurious house dwelling. It is some time since I had any of them, but I was very partial to the breed, and used to exhibit for some time, and well remember the grace and activity often displayed by some of my specimens. I always go and have a look at them at the shows. I am not quite convinced they are making much progress, just now, although undoubtedly there are good specimens. There are so many new breeds being brought out and "pushed" forward, some of the older ones are apt to be neglected. _The Points of Scotch Deerhound._--The points of this breed are stated by a well known breeder and exhibitor as follows:--Head, long and narrow, tapering gradually from the ears, knee flat; nose, black, occasionally a blue black, and pointed, lips level, ears small, set on high and carried in a fold, soft, silky, and free from long hairs; neck long but strong, nape very prominent, shoulders sloping, toes close and arched, chest deep, body long, but well ribbed up; loins arched with great breadth across hips, stifle well bent, thighs long; tail set on low, curved but not coated, coat rough and harsh on body, mane on neck and slight fringe on inside of legs, thighs, and tail. Colours: all shades from dark blue or black brindled, to light grey brindled, fallow, fawn, dun and drab. White markings often seen on chest and feet, but most objectionable. [Illustration: IRISH WOLFHOUND CH. "SHEELAH" CAPN GRAHAM OWNER.] _The Irish Wolf Hound._--I think nearly all persons who take any interest in this grand old breed, stated to have been well known to and greatly prized by "the Romans," in old times, are aware that no one of the present generation has devoted more time and trouble, in diving into the history of the breed in the past, and doing his utmost, both by experimental breeding, and stirring up a similar ardour in others, to revive at least some of the past glories of the breed, in the present and future, than Captain George Graham, of Dursley, and I venture to make some quotations from an excellent and interesting article of his on the subject, as being the highest authority procurable: "_The form_ of the old Irish Wolfhound should be that of a tall, heavy Scotch Deerhound, much more massive, and very majestic looking, active and fast, perhaps less so than our present breed of Deerhounds; neck thick in comparison to his form, and very muscular, body and frame lengthy. _Head_, long but narrow, coming to a comparative point towards the nose, which is rather large; and head gradually getting broader from the same _evenly_ up to the back of the skull, not sharp up to the eyes and then suddenly broad and humpy. _Coat_, rough, hard and long all over the body, head, legs and tail. Hair on head, long, but rather softer than on body, standing out boldly over eyes, beard under jaws, very marked and wiry. Colours: black, grey, brindle, red, and fawn, though _white_ dogs were esteemed in former times. _Ears_, small in proportion to size of head, and erect, as in Smooth Greyhounds. If dark in colour, to be preferred. _The tail_, should be carried with an upward curve only, and not be curled as is the case with many Greyhounds. _Size._ We may safely deduce that the height of these dogs varied from thirty-two to thirty-four inches, and even thirty-five in the dogs, and from twenty-nine to thirty-one in the bitches. The other dimensions would naturally be about as follows for well shaped and true formed dogs. _Girth of chest._ Dogs thirty-eight to forty-four inches; bitches thirty-two to thirty-four inches. _Weight._ Dogs one-hundred and fifteen to one hundred and forty pounds; bitches ninety to one hundred and fifteen pounds. _Girth of forearm._ Dogs ten to twelve inches; bitches eight and one-half to ten inches. _Length of head._ Dogs twelve and one-half to fourteen inches; bitches eleven to twelve inches. Most modern authors, and all practical lovers of the canine race whom the writer has consulted, are agreed that the foregoing is the correct type of dog beyond question." _Show Points of the Irish Wolf Hound._--Skull, long but rather narrow in proportion to the animal's height and weight, very gradually tapering to the nose, which should be large; ears small; eyes dark hazel; neck of fair length and very muscular; shoulders sloping, chest rather wide and very deep; body long and very powerful, though free from any suspicion of clumsiness; forelegs, straight, and heavy in bone; feet, compact, and of a good size and well padded; hindquarters, very muscular, with bent stifles and hocks; tail carried rather upward in similar form; coat, profuse, hard, and weather resisting; brindle, black, or fawn are the most usual colours, though whites _are_ known. Size, as tall as possible. [Illustration: BORZOI, CH. "ALEX" H. R. H. PRINCESS OF WALES, OWNER.] _The Borzois._--I will next deal with the Borzois, the name of the Russian Wolf Hounds, which have become so much more numerous of late years, and are being patronised not only by many of the nobility and gentry, but even by H. R. H. the Princess of Wales. The portrait of a champion from H. R. H. kennels illustrates this variety. I remember H. R. H. the Prince of Wales exhibited some specimens of this breed a good many years ago, at Warwick, on one of the many occasions of my judging there, and if I remember rightly Lady Charles Innes Ker was also an exhibitor of the breed at the same show, but those shown by the latter, although what would at the present day, be considered small and weedy specimens, were more, in colour, coat and type, like those now imported from Russia, while those then shown by H. R. H. the Prince (although, I think, stated to be a present to him from the then Emperor of Russia,) were pale cream, or freestone, colour, with harsher coats, and more altogether on the style of very light coloured Scotch Deerhounds. I may say, however, that for elegance, elasticity, beauty of form, and movement, there is no breed to surpass the Borzois and I have no doubt they will continue to increase in popularity. The points most sought after in the breed are:--narrow, domed, and long skulls, long, powerful jaws, with rather arched noses, soft and intelligent expression; very powerful, slightly arched and longish sides, on sloping shoulders, deep but rather narrow chests; backs rising in a gradual curve at loins, very muscular, but appearance of being rather "tucked up;" forelegs straight, strong and well under body; feet close and well padded; hindquarters immensely muscular and powerful, backs well let down, tail carried low, in a graceful curve; coat profuse and silky looking, colours usually white with lemon, grey or red markings, but self-coloured specimens are often seen; the general appearance is that of a high bred, distinguished looking, graceful animal, something the shape and size of a Scotch Deerhound, but differing from it in many respects. As I judged this breed long before there was any club or classes provided for it, I have always taken much interest in it, and been pleased to see how rapidly it has come into public favour. [Illustration: WHIPPET CH. "ENTERPRISE" H. VICKERS, OWNER.] _The Whippet._--Although their size and elegance of shape would make them eligible, I think, the Whippet, or "Running Dog," as he is sometimes called, is not often kept strictly as a pet or companion, but more often as a means of a little speculation on its fleetness of foot. No doubt most of my readers will be aware, it is a small sized Greyhound, rather long in head, wide between the eyes, flat at top, jaw powerful but clean, level teeth, bright eyes, small rose ears, long, arched neck, no throatiness, muscular, oblique shoulders, deep chest, strong loins, arched back, rather long and broad. Legs straight, short and muscular thighs, feet round and well split up, tail tapering and long, with good carriage. Coat fine and close, colours, white, brindle, fawn, blue, red, black, and mixtures of each. Of late years there has been greatly revived interest taken in these dogs, and considerable prizes have been offered for their competition. I have noticed also a marked increase in the entries at shows providing classes for them, and on several occasions, at the larger shows, I have had good classes containing many beautiful specimens of this breed, which is so largely kept by colliers and others of the working classes in the "Black Country." CHAPTER VII TERRIERS USED IN SPORT FOX--DANDIE DINMONTS--SKYES--SCOTTISH [Illustration: (OLD TYPE.) SMOOTH FOX TERRIER "BELGRAVE JOE" L. TURNER, OWNER] [Illustration: (NEW TYPE) SMOOTH FOX TERRIER CH. "CLAUD DUVAL" G. RAPER OWNER.] _Fox Terriers._--As this breed is associated with my first prize, when a schoolboy, now, some years since, but when dog shows were much rarer than "Black Swans," were supposed to be, I have always taken much interest in it, and have had many good specimens of both the Smooth, and Wirehaired, varieties into which the breed is divided. They are both very good and both have hosts of admirers. Some of the fanciers now exhibiting, will remember, with me, the time when no classes were provided for the "Wirehairs," and you had (as I have often done) to show them as "Broken-haired Terriers," and often meet in your class nearly all the members of that heterogeneous family, such as Dandies, Skyes, Bedlingtons, Scottish (Airedales did not exist then), Irish, and old English, enough to try the temper of judge and exhibitors, and making the decision quite a matter of the specimen best shower and shown. But since those days, Fox Terriers have enjoyed a long term of popularity, and so far from the "Wirehaired" section being ignored, I have seen at some shows more entries in it than that of their Smooth brethren, and the figures given for high class specimens, are certainly not far behind, even if they are not before, them. Of course, hundreds, in fact the great majority of the Fox Terriers in the country, have never seen a Fox, and probably never will, in the course of their natural life, and (as I said of many of the Dachshunds we see about, and the "Badgers," so I say of very many of the Fox Terriers to be met with everywhere) so much the better _for them_, as a Fox, _in his earth_, which is where a Terrier is wanted to deal with him, is not a "milk and water" animal to tackle, as a rule, and it requires strength, perseverance, pluck and ability on the part of his assailants. I think the following description of the necessary points required, as expressed by my friend Mr. Francis Redmond, well known to many of my readers as a very successful breeder, exhibitor, and judge of the breed, will fitly conclude my brief notice:--"The points of greatest importance in the Fox Terrier are: Head, ears, legs and feet, neck, and shoulders, back, loin and hindquarters, smartness, activity, size, and 'Terrier character.' _Head._ The skull should be flat and moderately narrow, broader between the ears and gradually tapering to the eyes, free from wrinkle. But little slope, or indentation, should be visible, except in profile. The jaw should be clean cut, rather long, powerful and muscular, with little or any fullness or bulging out at the cheeks. There is a very slight falling away below the eyes, but this must be very gradual, and not to such an extent as to give a snipey, or wedgy, appearance. _The lips_ should be fairly tight, without any superfluous skin. _The nose_ must be quite black. _The eyes_ should be small, not set too wide apart, neither too much sunk, or protruding, dark-rimmed, full of life, and intelligence. _The teeth_, strong, and level, incisors just closing over the under ones. _The ears_, to which great importance is attached, V shaped, rather small, fairly thick and carried forward, flat, and close to the cheek. _The neck_ should be of fair length, clean and muscular, well set, with shoulders tapering gradually to head. _The shoulders_, fine at the points, long and sloping, chest deep, narrow rather than broad. Shoulders and chest have of late received much attention by judges; heavy shoulders and broad chests are no good for these dogs' work. _Back and loin._ Back should be straight and strong, the ribs well sprung, loin strong, wide and square, back ribs deep. Loin may be slightly arched, but with no approach to 'wheel back.' _Hindquarters_ must be very strong, wide seen from behind, thighs with plenty of muscle, long as well as large, stifles slightly bent, hocks straight. Bone, short and strong from hock to heel. _Stern_ set on rather high, carried gaily, not carried above a 'right angle' with back; if anything, a trifle coarse. _Legs and feet._ Point of extreme value, to which greatest attention should be given. Elbows well let down, in straight line with body. Forelegs, however viewed, 'straight as gun barrels,' with upright, powerful, pasterns; strong in bone, clothed with muscle from elbow to foot, giving a most solid, unbroken appearance; feet, round, and cat-like, very compact, toes short and only moderately arched, soles hard as adamant; foot should neither turn in or out, if any deviation, should turn in; no dew-claws behind. _The Coat_ should be smooth, harsh in texture, very close and abundant, a jacket to protect wearer from all weathers. Colours: white should predominate. Brindle, fallow, liver, or red, markings are objectionable. _Size._ The Fox Terrier must neither be leggy or too near the ground, neither must he be cloddy, but should have plenty of 'liberty,' and galloping power, with good bone and substance; fair speed and endurance being essentially requisite for his legitimate calling. Seventeen pounds in hard working condition is a fair average weight, but this may vary a pound or so either way. Make, shape, good shoulders and chest, being far better criterions, in this respect, than actual weight.--" [Illustration: (OLD TYPE) WIREHAIRED FOXTERRIER CH. "LORY" C. H. LANE OWNER.] [Illustration: (NEW TYPE) WIREHAIRED FOXTERRIER CH. "ROPER'S NUT-CRACK". SIR H. DE TRAFFORD BT. OWNER.] The above applies to "Smooth," but is also an excellent standard for "Wirehaired Fox Terriers," which are judged on same lines, _except_ coat, which in the latter, should be about two inches long, and very dense, and wiry, not shaggy, or woolly, on any account. [Illustration: DANDY-DINMONT. CH. "BLACKET-HOUSE YET" MRS. RAYNER, OWNER.] _Dandies._--A very sterling and genuine breed is _the Dandie Dinmont Terrier_, which was, I think, first brought to public notice by the writings of Sir Walter Scott, and as I have bred, owned, exhibited and judged more of them than most people, I may be allowed to say they are highly intelligent (according to my experience, much more so than any breed of Terrier, and I believe I have kept most of them), devoted to their owners "born sportsmen," being always open for anything in the way of "sport" on land or in water, full of dash and spirit, have a quaint and picturesque appearance, and make ideal companions for either sex. Of course they are Scottish by birth and origin, but, the more they are seen and known, the better they will be liked, and they have been so much introduced into England, and good specimens bought up, that, at one time, even if not now, there were more good ones in England than could be met with in any part of Scotland. There are only supposed to be two colours allowed in Dandies, "_Pepper_," which is a sort of pepper and salt, composed of light and dark bluish greys, with topknots of silvery white, and "_Mustard_," which is a kind of pale yellowish fawn, darker on the neck and back than below, and also with a light silvery topknot. A Dandie of high class, of either colour, shown in good coat and form, is a very beautiful little dog, and fit company for the highest in the land, and, as I said of the last breed I mentioned, may be seen in the possession of all classes. I am not quite certain whether Her Majesty the Queen continues to keep the breed. I do not remember seeing any at Windsor, but I know that in the lifetime of the late lamented Prince Consort, there were Dandies and Skyes amongst the royal pets. Where a person desires to keep but one dog, and wishes to make a friend and companion of it, I do not think that they could improve upon a Dandie, as they make incomparable house dogs. I am speaking from a long and intimate experience of them, as I have bred, owned, shown and judged hundreds of them, and I have rarely found any, who have kept them, but speak in the highest terms of their many charming qualities, and continue to take an interest in the breed, perhaps, long after they have any specimens of it left, and in many cases, several generations of the same families have kept them on. In build they are low to the ground, with long bodies, short legs, possessed of great strength and endurance, and certainly one of the most muscular breeds of its size with which I am acquainted, their quaint, dignified bearing, and deep bark are marked characteristics. The following are the points of the breed, as set out by me for publication, very many years since, and I am not aware they have ever been altered:--Head apparently large in proportion to size, skull fairly wide and covered with top-knot of silky, light hair, muzzle deep and moderately broad, jaws of great strength, teeth level, ears not thick or wide, and feathered to a point, eyes dark hazel, very lustrous and intelligent (dark markings round the eyes very desirable in Pepper Dandies), chest deep, forelegs as straight as compatible with lowness, and, as well as in loins and hindquarters, showing great bone and muscle, tail carried rather gaily, weight under twenty-four pounds, bitches under twenty-two pounds. Colours, pepper or mustard. [Illustration: DROPEARED SKYE CH. "BALLOCHMY LE BASHFUL" SIR CLAUDE ALEXANDER BART OWNER.] _Skyes._--Perhaps it will be in order here to mention their fellow countrymen, _the Skyes_, also admirably adapted as companions and house dogs, the main advantages Dandies can claim over them being, in carrying less coat, and being rather more active. Although blacks, and fawns with black points, are occasionally seen, the predominant colours of Skyes are, undoubtedly, various shades of grey, from light silver to dark iron and steel. The breed is divided into two varieties, principally distinguished by the carriage of their ears, and known as "Dropeared" and "Prickeared;" in the former, the ears being rather large and pendulous to the sides of the head, and in the latter, the ears are carried as by the Pomeranians; each variety has its admirers, and some, as I have done, keep both sorts, but I think there are many more prick-eared to be seen, than drop-eared. These dogs are more active, intelligent and courageous than would be supposed from their appearance, and form strong attachments to their owners. Owing to the unsatisfactory management of one, and the dissolution of the other, of the clubs, founded many years since in Scotland, and England, for the encouragement of this breed (which is another of those either still, or formerly, favoured by royal patronage, both at Windsor and Sandringham), things have not been going on swimmingly, for some years past, in the Skye world, but I know there are a few zealous breeders still "pegging away" with their kennels, and I am in hopes the interests and fortunes of the breed will be again revived, and some more specimens brought forward, as good, or better, than any seen in the past. The greatest fault I find with nearly all the best specimens brought out of late years, is their size, as in my opinion, and I have probably seen all the best brought out during the last twenty-five years, their weight should not exceed twenty-five pounds, even with dogs, and with bitches two or three pounds less, with preference for small, good ones, long, low, hard in coat, strong in bone, and muzzle, and not toys. With proper care and attention, a Skye may be made a most beautiful animal, as is proved by one of the inmates of a well known kennel, on one occasion, actually pulling off, and on another, getting placed "Reserve," for the highest possible honour at a first class London show, where all the competitors were champions of their several varieties. [Illustration: PRICK-EARED SKYE CH. of CH. "DUCHESS" Mrs W. J. HUGHES OWNER.] The points in Skyes are usually considered to be as follows: Head long with powerful jaws and level teeth. Skull wide in front, narrowing between ears and tapering gradually towards muzzle, with little falling in between or behind the eyes. Eyes, close set, medium size, dark hazel. Muzzle always black. Ears pendant, or pricked, in the former full and well feathered, lying close to face in front, and in the latter standing bolt upright, with a little feathering at the tip, standing towards each other at inner edges from peak to skull. Body, preeminently long and low, shoulders broad, chest deep, ribs oval shaped, and well sprung, giving flattish appearance to sides. Hindquarters and flanks full and well developed. Level back. Neck long and slightly crested; tail, when raised, a prolongation of the incline of the back, gracefully feathered on lower side, and not rising higher or curling over back. Legs, short, straight and muscular, without dew claws. Feet rather large and pointing forward. Under coat, short, close, soft and woolly. Over coat, hard, straight, flat and crisp, averaging five and one-half inches long. Hair on head shorter, softer, and veiling forehead and eyes; on ears, overhanging, inside falling down and mingling with side locks, not heavily, but surrounding the ear like a fringe, and allowing the shape to appear. Colours: dark or light blue, grey, or steel, or fawn with black points. Weight _not_ exceeding twenty-four pounds, a few pounds less, better than any higher, as so many good specimens are spoilt by being coarse, at least, this is my opinion, after considerable practical experience of the breed, and being one of its staunchest admirers. [Illustration: HARD-HAIRED SCOTCH TERRIER CH. "KILLDEE" H. J. LUDLOW Owner.] _Scottish Terriers._--One of the misfortunes of being a "general lover of animals," is that you can never tell which sort you like best, there are so many breeds, I have bred and exhibited, and I think all breeds I have judged, and I am identified with so many, which are presumed to be my "prime favourites," but, it is a positive fact, although I have never before mentioned it, that, some of the breeds, in which, I have had the largest entries, for years and years, were taken up by me, so warmly, because, I thought them in "low water," and in danger of extinction without they were encouraged, that they were not at all favourites of mine. But I do not intend to disclose preference for any particular variety, beyond what my friends may know, or others may gather from the contents of this book, but this I will say of the _Scottish Terrier_, that if I was not the first, as mentioned hereafter in my "Doggy Anecdotes," in this work, to introduce him into this country, more than twenty-five years since, I must have been _one_ of the earliest, as I never saw one here until long after arrival of my "_Fraochen_" (whose life-like picture, coming through the underwood with a Rabbit in his mouth, hangs by me while I pen these lines!). As I said of the Dandie, and might say of the Irish Terrier, that where a man, _or woman_, for that matter, as they are capital specimens for either sex, wants to keep only one dog, _they cannot better_ one of those three breeds. They are as true as steel, devoted as "pals," and faithful _as dogs_! The great uniformity of type, and character, now seen in the large classes of these game and picturesque-looking little fellows, at the larger shows, proves the amount of care and attention which has been devoted to them by breeders, _within_ the last quarter of a century. The usual colours are, shades of black, dark grey and grizzle, and sometimes stone colour. My friend, the late Capt. Keen, made an effort to introduce whites, but I do not think it came to much. Although, I am glad to say, the enthusiasm for the breed in "North-Britain," has not abated, not a few good specimens, and to my certain knowledge (for I have the pleasure of numbering them amongst my friends), not a few keen fanciers of "Scottish Terriers," exist on _this_ side of "the border," and it is always my wish, with them, when they meet, as with every other kind of "stock," in rivalry, "may the best win, and the loser do his best to turn the tables next time." With these few remarks on a breed on which much more could be said, if space and time permitted, I will give: _The Points of the Scottish Terrier_.--Skull of good length, rather inclined to be curved in shape, covered with short hair, and showing a drop between the eyes; muzzle, very powerful, and not too pointed; nose, large and black; teeth, extremely large; eyes, dark, small, piercing in expression, and very bright; ears, very small, sharp at the corners, and carried erect; neck, short, and powerful; chest, rather wide, and very deep; body, only moderately long, and very powerful at the loins; forelegs, straight, short, and heavy in bone, with small, compact feet, well padded with hair between the toes; hindquarters very muscular and the hocks well bent; tail of fair length and carried rather gaily; coat, very harsh, and weather resisting; colours, dark grey, black, brindle, red or wheaten. Much white marking being very objectionable. Part II CONTENTS PART II DOGS USED IN WORK CHAP. PAGE VIII. St. Bernards, Newfoundlands, Mastiffs, Dalmatians 147 IX. Sheep Dogs:--Rough Collies, Smooth Collies, Old English 169 X. Bull Dogs, Bull Terriers, Boston Terriers 179 XI. Terriers,--Irish, Airedale, Bedlington, Black and Tan, Old English 199 CHAPTER VIII DOGS USED IN WORK ST. BERNARDS--NEWFOUNDLANDS--MASTIFFS--DALMATIANS [Illustration: ROUGH ST BERNARD CH. "SIR BEDIVERE" S. SMITH OWNER.] [Illustration: SMOOTH ST BERNARD CH. "GUIDE" J. F. SMITH OWNER.] _St. Bernards._--Although apparently so much removed from the breeds, I have been deeply associated with for the last twenty-five years, I am bound to say I have always been a great admirer of St. Bernards, and can well remember many years ago, at a show held at Laycock's Dairy Yard, Islington, being struck with admiration at the team shown there by Mr. Cumming Macdona (at that time, and for some years later, "a name to conjure with" in the St. Bernard world), and afterwards I was a great admirer of my friend Mr. Gresham's Hector and Abbess (two of the best I had seen in possession of one owner) and many more, too numerous to mention. I am inclined to think the breed is not quite as popular as it was some years since, and that the entries at most of our best shows are neither as large, nor as good, as they were. The points desired are as follows:--The head very massive and large, showing great depth from eye to lower jaw; the face rather short; muzzle wide, deep, and cut off square; the lips should hang down well and be rather loose; the "stop" well defined, but not too abrupt; the skull massive and well rounded, eyes dark in colour, of medium size, rather deeply set, the lower eyelid drooping slightly, so as to show a little of the red haw; ears rather small, lying well to the cheek, and very slightly feathered in the Rough variety; nose black in colour, wide and deep; legs very straight, with great bone and muscle, hocks and stifle well bent; feet large and compact; body rather long, broad, straight and ribs well rounded. The coat of the Smooth or Short-coated variety, should be very close, thick and slightly brokenhaired. In the Rough variety the coat should be dense and flat, of medium length, not woolly, rather longer on the neck, thighs and tail. Colour and markings: orange, orange and tawny, and all shades of brindle, and red; the markings should be as follows:--White muzzle, white blaze up face, the white being shaded with black, also black shadings on the ears, white collar round neck, white chest, legs and tip of tail. The body may be white with patches of any of above colours. [Illustration: Bk NEWFOUNDLAND. CH. "WOLF OF BADENOCH". Mrs INGLETON OWNER.] [Illustration: LANDSEER-NEWFOUNDLAND. CH. "KETTERING WONDER". LADY TOLLEMACHE OWNER.] _Newfoundlands._--There are few of the non-sporting breeds which have received more notice in the newspapers than the Newfoundland dog, being so often associated with saving of life on the sea coasts, or on the banks of some of our rivers, and I think there are few, if any, dogs so really and naturally fond of the water, and being possessed of strength and courage, they are often able to render valuable aid. At one time I feared they were becoming almost extinct, and I think the many and very beautiful specimens we now see at our shows, are mainly due to my old friend, Mr. Edwin Nichols, of Kensington, who took up the breed very warmly some years ago, and became one of the most shining lights in the Newfoundland world. I remember, his ideas of the points to be sought after were as follows:--Head to be broad and massive, with a flat skull and somewhat square muzzle; ears small, in proportion to size of the animal, and lying close to the head; coat straight, dense and capable of resisting water; tail carried gaily, but not curled over the back. Colours: black, black and white, or bronze. Average weights, one hundred pounds for dogs and eighty-five pounds for bitches. General appearance that of a dignified, thoughtful, and thoroughly reliable guard, companion, or friend, with a great deal of character. [Illustration: MASTIFF CH. "BEAUFORT" W. K. TAUNTON OWNER.] _The Mastiff._--This, which is usually considered one of the National breeds of this kingdom, is a splendid fellow, stylish and imperious in manner and bearing, and fit to be the associate of the very highest in the land. I don't think I can do better than quote the opinion of Mr. M. B. Wynn, whom I well remember as a frequent exhibitor, breeder and judge of this variety, some years ago. He says:--"What I consider a true type of the British Mastiff. Head, this is the most important feature, it should be broad between ears, and broad between the eyes. The "stop" should extend up the face to a considerable length; forehead wrinkled and flat; cheeks very prominent; muzzle broad, blunt and heavy, and as deep as possible; profile square, and the under jaw, if any thing, to be undershot; eyes small and to be deeply set, with a deal of loose skin down the sides of the face; ears small and either half erect, or wholly pendant, and thin to the touch. Body: Chest deep and thick through, broad between forelegs; loin, broad, flat, heavy; body long. Stern: Many good breeders prefer a long one, but I do not care for it to reach much below the hock. Legs, broad, round, massive, straight. Height: this is a much disputed point. The taller the better, provided the weight corresponds in proportion. A dog standing twenty-eight inches high, ought to weigh in good condition one hundred and twenty-five pounds, and for every inch in height above that (_i. e._, twenty-eight inches) the weight ought to increase from eight to ten pounds. But over thirty inches, a still greater increase, in proportion. Many good dogs are only twenty-eight and twenty-nine inches high, but from thirty-one to thirty-three are to be desired. Height should ever be accompanied with massive build and length, and should proceed from the shoulder to the elbow, rather than from the elbow to the foot. I mean the height of the dog should be derived from the depth of the chest, rather than from "over-legginess," as this must tend to develop the weight, more or less, of the whole animal. Colour, after all, is the last requisite, since you may breed in a few generations, any colour you please. The purest fawns have descended from the most decided brindles, and from time to time, the white face, especially, has and will occur, and generally in the finest specimens, and those which most closely resemble the paintings of their progenitors. I am an advocate for fineness of coat, but not at the expense of other more characteristic features. _Points of the Mastiff._--The show points of this breed have been set out as follows:--Head large and massive, skull flatly rounded, muzzle square, broad and deep, teeth level, eyes dark brown or hazel coloured and wide apart in setting; front legs straight, muscular and with great bone; chest deep; loins strong and wide. Size of secondary importance, so long as symmetry is retained. Colours: brindled, or apricot fawn, in both cases noses, muzzles and ears black. General appearance that of a massive, dignified and fine looking animal, well suited as a guard or reliable companion. [Illustration: THE BLACK SPOTTED DALMATIAN BITCH CH. "BEROLINA" E. T. PARKER OWNER.] _The Dalmatian._--This is a breed I have bred and kept for many years and I have had the pleasure of judging some of the largest classes of them ever seen, if I remember rightly, having nearly sixty entries on one occasion, at the Crystal Palace, and large classes at the Royal Agricultural Hall, Earl's Court, Birmingham and other places. At one time they got down to a very low ebb, in numbers, but I think they are now coming forward again, as I had a very good lot before me at the last show of the Kennel Club. I think they have more of the Pointer type than that of any other breed about them although I have used them entirely as companions and guards, and there is no doubt they have a natural talent as carriage dogs, and are very fond of horses; I know they are exclusively used in Italy and other parts of the Continent of Europe for sporting purposes, and they are often included in troupes of performing dogs, in some of which I have seen very accomplished specimens, seeming to adapt themselves to the work, particularly of a humorous character, with much spirit and to be easily trained. Of course, as show dogs, their markings are of great importance. I have for some time been trying to bring forward more specimens of the liver, as well as the black, spotted variety, which is now so seldom seen. Prince 4th, and his handsome son, Champion Fauntleroy, a capital portrait of whom illustrates this variety, and the bitch Doncaster Beauty, are the three best of that colour, I have seen for many years, while Fawdry's Captain and Leaho, my Lurth and Leah, and Wilson's Acrobat and Parker's Coming Still, and Champion Berolina (formerly Wilson's), as well as Hartley's Treasure, are the best of the black spotted variety seen for a very long time. I have found them very docile and affectionate as well as more intelligent than many people suppose, from seeing them running behind a carriage. [Illustration: LIVER SPOTTED DALMATIAN CH. "FONTLEROY." W. B. HERMAN OWNER.] _Points of the Show Dalmatian._--The points of this breed are, longish head, flat skull, with moderate stop; long and powerful muzzle; medium sized eyes, dark for black spotted, and light for the liver spotted variety; ears rather small, white with black or liver markings, carried close to head; nose black or liver, according to markings on body; neck arched and fairly long, without throatiness; very deep but not wide chest; powerful back and well ribbed body; muscular loins and straight legs, compact, well padded feet; slightly curved, tapering tail, with markings on it same colour as on body, carried rather gaily with an upward curve; coat dense, harsh and short. Ground colour, white, pure, with spots on body, ears and tail, size of a shilling or larger, clear and distinct, not mixed or blurred, colour of spots to be rather intense black, or a rich liver. Weight from fifty to fifty-five pounds. General appearance to be that of a showy, stylish, powerful and upstanding dog (too many of even the good specimens shown, are too small, in my opinion), much of the Pointer type, but higher on leg and altogether larger. They should have a close, fine coat, which if kept in proper order, should have almost such a shiny appearance as you see on a well groomed horse, they are very lively, cleanly, affectionate, and much more intelligent animals, than is generally supposed, and as they are exceedingly active, and fond of exercise, to those persons who like a cheerful comrade, willing and able, besides being an excellent guard, to accompany them on their journeys on foot, on horseback, or when driving, or even on bicycle, when the travelling is at a moderate pace, I think a Dalmatian would be suitable. CHAPTER IX DOGS USED IN WORK (_Continued_) SHEEP-DOGS--ROUGH COLLIES--SMOOTH COLLIES--OLD ENGLISH SHEEP-DOGS [Illustration: ROUGH COLLIE "LOCHIEL". H. R. H. PRINCESS OF WALES, OWNER.] _The Rough-coated Collie_ is a very beautiful and interesting breed, of a highly nervous temperament, very intelligent, and capable of much training for the performance of his natural work with the flocks. Those who have seen him, at the Sheepdog trials, which are frequently held in various parts of the country, but more particularly in Wales, can testify to the patience, care, judgment and discretion, shown by many of the competitors, who, in these cases, have usually three strange sheep to conduct a long distance, over a course marked out by flags on small posts stuck in the ground at intervals, and put them into a small pen, usually made of three hurdles, at the end of the course, no one being allowed to accompany the dogs during the trial, but merely to give directions from a distance, by voice or gestures. I am inclined to think the Scotch Collie is, at the present time, nearly the most popular breed of dog in the United Kingdom, and a really first class specimen, good in head, ears, eyes, shape, size, coat, colour and brush, is very valuable. This is another breed favoured in high places, Her Majesty The Queen, the Princess of Wales (one of whose specimens illustrates this variety), the Countess of Warwick, and many more distinguished persons too numerous to particularize, being amongst those who have extended their patronage to this favourite breed of dog. The points to be desired in this breed, are as follows:--Long head, skull not too wide or round, obliquely set eyes, dark and expressive, small ears, set rather far back and high, raised semi-erect, technically known as half-pricked, when excited, with points slightly forward and hanging down; frame sinewy, active and well knit; deep but wide in chest; straight forelegs, feathered at back, with well bent hocks, strong compact feet; dense undercoat of warm, woolly hair, with coat of hard hair over, intensely full over the shoulders, neck and chest, tail carried in a graceful curve and not over back, profusely feathered on lower side, colours usually shades of black, sable grey, blue and red, with or without white; size from forty-five to sixty-five for dogs, and for bitches something less. The general appearance of a strong, active and very intelligent dog, eager and ready to obey his master's orders. [Illustration: SMOOTH COLLIE CH. "LADY NELLIE" C. H. LANE OWNER.] I must not omit to mention the _Smooth Collie_, another variety. I have long bred and kept it. It also is distinguished for its great activity. I remember, in particular, one merle bitch of this breed I had who would run up a rough stone wall ten feet high, like a cat, and jump down the other side, and I have frequently seen her take a run and go over the large wooden doors leading into my stable yard; _she_ was a marvel, but I have had many others, who have surprised me by their athletic performances. Some of the most intelligent work of any breed of sheep dog has been done by Smooth Collies. A black and light brown bitch, of what I may call Bloodhound colour, which I had some years since (her portrait illustrates this variety), had again and again beaten all competitors and taken gold and silver medals at Sheep Dog trials in England and Wales, and was superior in intelligence to most "two-legged animals" of any variety. If in charge of a flock of sheep, on a narrow road, or lane, and they got jammed, she would either jump the wall or hedge, at side, and run down to head them, or run over their backs to the front, and drive them back to clear the course, and she knew what was said to her almost before it was uttered. The appearance of this breed is much like that of the Rough, or Scotch Collie, except that the coat is short and sleek, ears pricked and without feathering on them or the legs; and the tail, with only a slight fringe of hair on its lower side. The favoured colours are merle (which is a sort of mottled grey, black and blue), black and white, tricolour, and what I have before mentioned as Bloodhound colour, being black on the back, and light tan-coloured brown all the rest of the body, and it is considered an advantage, rather than otherwise, for one or both of the eyes to be "wall," or china, coloured. Having used them for work, as companions, guards, and as house pets, I can speak very highly of Smooth Collies, which, I think, are more kept in the north of England and in Wales, particularly the South, than in any other parts of the country, but I also think that if they were more known, they would be more kept, as they have many advantages in their favour, and, like other short-coated breeds, their change of coat is hardly perceptible, whereas we know how very unsightly is any long-coated breed of dog when "out of coat." The points of this breed are the same as in the Rough-coated variety, except in coat. _Bobtail Sheep Dogs._--Another very favourite breed with many is the _Old English_, also called the Short-tailed, more commonly known as "_Bobtailed_" _Sheep Dogs_, and, except for being rather large, and carrying a heavy coat, both of which are objections in a house, they are very agreeable companions, as they are very warm, in fact devoted, in their affections, capital guards, quick to learn and carry out their owner's wishes, well able to take care of themselves in any difference with _any other breed_ of dogs, and so marvellously active, and muscular, that I have seen a "Bobtail" win prizes in open jumping competition with _all_ other breeds. To look at them no one would have the slightest idea of their lively and active character. I have had a great deal to do with them, having kept and bred them for many years, and almost my earliest remembrance of any kind of dog, is connected with a shaggy old customer of this breed called "Billie," belonging to a very old friend of mine, at a Somersetshire farm, with whom I was on the closest terms of friendship, and whose companionship used to impart a strong "doggy" odour to my garments on the occasions of my visiting him. I am very pleased to say, that this breed, which had been much neglected on account of the influx of Scotch Collies, and was even in danger of becoming almost extinct, has been very much taken up the last few years, and even in London you now often see very decent specimens accompanying fashionable ladies and carriages. It may not be generally known, but I have proved it by actual practice with a great many of my own specimens, that a "Bobtail" is a capital dog to follow carriage, trap, or a rider on horseback. I have come many miles, on the darkest nights, across country roads and lanes, with a couple following me, and never knew an instance where they missed me, or failed to turn up at the end of the journey, and the same in the crowded streets of a large city I often visit. It is supposed to be one of the oldest breeds of dog we have, and in one of Shakespeare's old English comedies, which was lately mounted in unusually first class style, and with many novel realistic effects, by a popular and well known manager at a West End theatre, a quaint old shepherd appeared on the stage accompanied by a rugged Bobtail, who made herself quite at home in her novel surroundings, and gave a great finish to the scene. The Bobtail in question was lent by me, and is the sister of a well known "Champion" belonging to one of the most successful exhibitors and spirited buyers of Sheep dogs in the United Kingdom. The points of this breed, as show specimens, are:--Head square and large, eyes rather small and dark, but wall or marble eyes are considered an advantage when obtainable, particularly in light coloured specimens, body should be large and powerful, without coarseness, sloping rather to front; legs straight, very strong and muscular, well covered with hair down to toes, hindquarters high and heavy, ears small for size of animal, neatly set on side of head, densely coated with a harsh, straight and broken coat, of weather-resisting character, colours very various, but shades of blue, particularly that known as pigeon blue, mixed with white, especially on head, chest and forelegs, most desired, weight forty-five to fifty-five pounds. _Champion Cupid's Dart_, whose portrait is here given, is one of the best of the breed at present before the public. [Illustration: OLD ENGLISH SHEEP-DOG. CH. "CUPID'S DART" F. WILMOT. OWNER.] CHAPTER X DOGS USED IN WORK (_Continued_) BULL DOGS--BULL TERRIERS--BOSTON TERRIERS [Illustration: BULLDOG CH. "BLACKBERRY" S. WOODIWISS OWNER. (LARGE)] [Illustration: BULLDOG "BARNEY BARNATO" G. R. SIMS OWNER. (MEDIUM)] Amongst the most popular breeds of late years, has been one that would not be generally expected to be found in that capacity, although it is a very old and national breed. Perhaps I should say that, in reference to all the companionable breeds I have mentioned in these articles, I mean more especially kept by ladies, as when one speaks of such dogs, one naturally thinks of animals not chained to a dog box, or shut up in a kennel outside, but brought into the house, and, literally "treated as one of the family." I refer to the _Bull Dog_, and having owned and had to do with a great many of these, I can testify to their usual good temper and placidity of disposition, in spite of the many unfavourable comments we frequently hear about them. Indeed, it is a rare thing to meet with a bad tempered Bull dog, and the majority of them will submit to great liberties being taken, even by smaller dogs, rather than attempt to take their own part, and have little idea of fighting in the style practised by some other breeds. But if they once make up their minds to go for any person, or animal, they are difficult to dislodge when they have taken hold. The sizes are very various, the dogs running from under forty pounds to over fifty-five pounds, and the bitches from under thirty-five to under fifty pounds, and of late years a class of "Toy Bull dogs" have been brought out, which I mention elsewhere. The head large, small ears, rather prominent eyes, very short nose, chin rather turned up and generally pugilistic look of the face, with the body rather heavy in front, swung between legs placed widely apart, back short and curved, technically called "roached," with mean hindquarters and a short tail, with a downward turn in it if not "screwed," are familiar features of the breed to most people knowing anything of it, and the colours are white, white and brindle, white and Hound tan, white and black, brindle, brindle and white, brindle and fallow, fawn with black muzzle, fawn and white, red, red and white, red and black, black, and black and white. Of course the brindles, reds, and fawns run into different shades of each, but I think the foregoing contain nearly all the colours allowed by the Bull Dog Clubs. It is a fascinating breed, and when once it has been taken up, is seldom altogether dropped, and I have known several generations of the same family keeping up the strain. I should say the mortality amongst Bull Dogs is as great as, or probably greater than, in _any other breed_ of dog, particularly before they are a year old. Whether their being so much inbred, to preserve certain characteristics, or being so short faced as to interfere with their organs of respiration, are the causes, I will not pretend to say, but if you ask any breeder, he will tell you what considerable losses he suffers every year. Another difficulty which would not be suspected, is that many of them are such bad "doers," that is, do not seem to have any appetite for their food. I remember congratulating an enthusiast of the breed on the condition of his favourite, a large brindle and white, at least fifty pounds weight. "Yes," he said, "he is looking well, but for the last fortnight he has been living entirely on veal cutlets." I thought he would be an expensive boarder on such fare, but from my experience of the breed and its owners, I doubt very much if _any other kind of dog_ is so much pampered. They are naturally slow and lazy in their movements, do not, as a rule, take much exercise, or go much into the open air, so have not much healthy appetite, but as a _thin_ Bull Dog is an abomination, their "condition" _must_ be kept up. [Illustration: BULLDOG, CH. "LADY ROZELLE" C. H. LANE OWNER. (SMALL)] [Illustration: BULLTERRIER CH. "SHERBOURNE QUEEN" W. J. PEGG OWNER.] _Bull Terrier._--The Bull Terrier, formerly so much used in combats with others of the same variety, (now happily things of the past, except "on the quiet" at some of the less reputable public houses in out of the way spots), has always been a prime favourite with the younger members of the sporting fraternity, on account of his undaunted courage, activity, lively disposition, and neat "business-like" appearance. He has been much affected by the stoppage of "cropping the ears," and they are only now beginning to produce specimens with small, well-carried, drop ears, which take off much of the fierce expression they formerly wore, and make them more presentable to the general public. For my own part, and I have had many good specimens in my time, I do not care for them being too big. I think twenty-five pounds quite heavy enough, even for a dog, but I have often seen them at shows nearly or quite double that weight, when to my mind, they become coarse and unwieldy, whereas such a breed should be active, bright and lively, as well as shapely and stylish in appearance. In colour he should be pure white, although I have seen and owned many otherwise nearly perfect specimens, with markings, usually lemon or brindled, on some part of head or body. The following are the points laid down by Mr. S. E. Shirley, President of the Kennel Club, who used to own some grand specimens:--The head should be long; the forehead flat, the eyes small, round, keen, and as dark as possible, any approach to a light or hazel coloured eye, being very objectionable; the jaws should be quite level, strong and muscular; the muzzle fine and tapering from the eyes; the nose quite black; the neck, long and well set into strong, sloping shoulders; the chest wide and deep; the legs very straight, strong and powerful; the feet small and round; the back strong and short; the tail, which is or should be a great point in the Bull Terrier, should be moderately fine, at the root, gradually tapering to the point, it should be set on rather low, and carried in a gay, jaunty manner, neither high nor low, not "hooped," or with the slightest inclination to twist or "screw." [Illustration: BOSTON-TERRIER "TURPIN". MISS J. TOZIER, OWNER.] _The Boston Terrier._--By the kindness of a correspondent on the "other side of the water," who has taken the trouble to supply some authentic details of this breed of which so little is known amongst Englishmen, but which are sure to be of much interest to the many fanciers and admirers of the variety, I have much pleasure in giving the actual words of my correspondent in the following description and standard of show points of the Boston Terrier. "_Concerning the earlier dogs of the breed._--How did the breed originate? It resulted from a cross between the English Bull dog and the English Terrier, and these two have been considerably inbred. Accidental peculiarities of the first dogs used as sires are partly responsible for the present type. About 30 years ago Mr. Robert C. Hooper, of Boston, Mass., U. S. A., came into possession of a dog named Judge who was imported from England. This dog known as Hooper's Judge was destined to be the ancestor of the true modern Boston Terrier. He was a cross between an English Bull dog and an English Terrier, leaning in type rather more toward the Bull dog. Judge was bred to Gyp, or Kate, a white bitch, owned by Ed. Burnett, of Southboro, Mass. She weighed twenty pounds, had a fine three-quarter tail low stationed, stocky-build, showing strength in her make-up, good head, being short and blocky. From Judge and Gyp descended Well's Eph. Eph was mated to Tobin's Kate, weighing twenty pounds, short head, golden brindle in colour, and straight three-quarter tail. From Well's Eph and Tobin's Kate came Barnard's Tom, the _first_ dog with a screw tail. This dog Tom was a great improvement over his sire and grandsire, beside being the _first_ to show the fine quality that is present in a good specimen of the modern Boston Terrier--Tom was the best Boston Terrier of his day, so, of course, was much used in stud. The above gives very briefly the main facts concerning the older dogs of this breed. To correct an idea that has become somewhat prevalent, it can here be stated that the dog is in no sense a fighting dog. While he is plucky as might be expected from his ancestry, he is not quarrelsome or aggressive--is very loyal to his master, obedient, affectionate and of sweet nature, quick in motion and very intelligent." Show points and standard of the Boston Terrier, furnished by an enthusiastic American fancier of the breed. _General Appearance._--The general appearance of the Boston Terrier is that of a smooth, short-coated, compactly built dog of medium stature. The head should indicate a high degree of intelligence, and should be in proportion to the dog's size, the body rather short and well knit, the limbs strong and finely turned, no feature being so prominent that the dog appears badly proportioned. The dog conveys an idea of determination, strength and activity--style of a high order, carriage easy and graceful. Skull--Broad and flat without prominent cheeks, and forehead free from wrinkles. Stop--Well defined but indenture not too deep. Eyes--Wide apart, large and round, neither sunken nor too prominent, dark in colour and soft--the outside corner on a line with the cheeks as viewed from the front. Ears--Small and thin, as near corners of the skull as possible. Muzzle--Short, square, wide and deep, without wrinkles; nose black and wide, with a well defined straight line between nostrils. The jaws broad and square with short, regular teeth; the chops wide and deep, not pendulous, completely covering the teeth when the mouth is closed. Neck--Of fair length, without throatiness, and slightly arched. Body--Deep and broad at chest, well ribbed up. Back short, not roached. Loins and quarters strong. Elbows--Standing neither in nor out. Fore legs--Wide apart, straight and well muscled. Hind legs--Straight, quite long from stifle to hock, which should turn neither in nor out, short and straight from hock to pastern, thighs well muscled, hocks not too prominent. Feet--Small, turned neither in nor out. Toes compact and arched. Tail--Set on low, fine tapering or screw--devoid of fringe or coarse hair, _not_ carried above the horizontal. Colour--Any colour, brindle, evenly marked with white, strongly preferred. Markings--White muzzle, blaze on face, collar, chest and feet. Coat--Fine in texture, short and bright and not hard. Weight--Light-weight class, under twenty-three pounds, but not less than thirteen pounds. Heavy-weight class, twenty-three to thirty pounds, inclusive. _Disqualifications_--Cocked tail or any artificial means to deceive the judge. SCORE OF POINTS. Skull, 12; ears, 2; eyes, 5; stop, 2; muzzle, 12; neck, 5; body, 15; elbows, 2; forelegs, 4; hindlegs, 4; feet, 2; tail, 10; colour, 8; markings, 4; coat, 3; general appearance, style, 10. Total, 100. CHAPTER XI DOGS USED IN WORK (_Continued_) TERRIERS--IRISH--AIREDALE--BEDLINGTON--BLACK AND TAN--SMOOTH ENGLISH [Illustration: IRISH TERRIER CH. "TED MALONE" Mrs BUTCHER OWNER] _The Irish Terrier._--There is scarcely any breed of any of the many varieties of the Terrier, which has grown more in popularity during the last twenty years, than this. And I believe it has done so strictly on its merits; of course, somewhat helped by the ardour and zeal of his excitable and genial fellow-countrymen, who have done all in their power to help on one of their "national breeds." From the points hereafter given, my readers will get a good description of the breed. I may say that my experience of it, _personally_, was chiefly in some I bought of my friend, Mr. W. Graham, of Belfast, (so much known and liked in English as well as Irish doggy circles, and the breeder and exhibitor of some of the best specimens of the breed ever seen). The only reason we "parted company," was their talent for "boxing." If I had a dozen or more dogs out peaceably enjoying themselves in a paddock, the moment "the Irishmen" were let out, there were "ructions," and they could not content themselves with just a friendly bout amongst themselves, or with some of the Dandies, Skyes, or others, near their own size and weight, but must needs go and pick a quarrel with some of the Collies, Bobtails or other larger dogs, and I feared they would be killed, so got rid of them, though they were all right with all of us, and indeed great favourites. The following description of the breed is by my friend, Mr. L. I. Barnett, so well known as Secretary of the English Section of the Irish Terrier Club, and a frequent judge:-- _Points of the Irish Terrier._--"Head long, rather narrow; punishing jaw; eyes, small and dark; ears fairly small, not set on too high; legs straight, and strong; feet, round, and thick, with good heels; chest narrow, with good depth of brisket; back strong, and straight, with tail set on rather high; loins strong; neck, strong, and muscular; coat very hard, and straight, shorter on head; colour yellow-red, darker on ears; expression, 'wicked,' but intelligent." [Illustration: AIREDALE TERRIER CH. "DUMBARTON LASS" A. E. JENNINGS OWNER.] _Airedales._--Another breed I see occasionally kept is the _Airedale Terrier_, which are seldom less than forty pounds weight, and often much more. As guards, or companions, they are admirable, and follow a trap well, and can look after their own welfare, but although they have been immensely improved since they were first brought out, in the North of England, as "The Waterside Terrier," there is, to my mind, a coarse and common look about them, that seems to keep them more associated with a breed suitable to accompany his master's trap or cart, or to mount guard over premises liable to be attacked by burglars, and its size always seems to me much to its disadvantage, in doing any of the work which usually falls to the members of the different varieties of "Terriers." The long shaped head, small ears, dark hazel eyes, strong, well-knit body, with docked tail, and the colour grizzled black above, and light tan below, will be familiar to most readers of these words. I have known many beautiful Airedales, some of them (except in size) nearly perfect in their Terrier character, and on the occasions I have judged the breed I have had excellent entries of good quality, and I know now many who keep them, and prefer them to any other breed of dog. I am bound, however, to say I have never been very much taken up with them, as I object to their size as being too big to be classed amongst Terriers for the work of that variety. [Illustration: BEDLINGTON-TERRIER. CH. "CLYDE-BOY" R.H. SMITH. OWNER.] _The Bedlington._--This breed, which first appeared at Darlington Dog show in 1866, had existed in the extreme north of England, for nearly or quite fifty years before that, and has always been more bred and kept in the north than in any other part of the country, although I have occasionally seen good specimens elsewhere. The following extract from a letter published in "The Field" in March, 1869, from a staunch supporter of the breed, will be of interest to some of my readers. "The Bedlington Terrier is fast, and whether on land, or in water, is equally at home; in appetite, these dogs are dainty, and they seldom fatten; but experience has shown them to be wiry, enduring, and, in courage, equal to the bull dog. They will face almost anything, and I know of a dog which will extinguish a candle or lighted paper at his master's bidding! To these other good qualities may be added, their marked intelligence, and hostility to vermin of all kinds. They will encounter the otter, fox, badger, with the greatest determination. The points of the Bedlington Terrier, which is a very lively member, as a rule, are as follows: Skull narrow and domed, and adorned with a silky top-knot; jaws very strong and punishing and lips tight; nose large and either black or liver-coloured, according to shade of the coat, eyes small and rather deeply sunk, their colour following that of body, ears fine, filbert shaped, tipped with soft silky hair and carried flat against the sides of the head, neck long and shoulders sloping, body rather narrow at the chest, but deep at this point, ribs flat, slightly arched at the loins, which should be powerful, legs straight, feet of fair size, hindquarters graceful looking and not too heavy, tail tapering almost all the way from base, carried in a curve like a Turkish Sword; coat much as a Dandie's, linty, composed of a mixture of hard and soft hair. Colours blue liver or sandy, or mixtures of above with tanned markings, pure self colours preferred and any white objectionable. General appearance that of a particularly alert and active dog of immense energy and courage, and quite prepared to take his own part, with any dog of any breed. [Illustration: WELSH TERRIER CH. "BRYNHIR BURNER" W. S. GLYNN. OWNER.] _The Welsh Terrier._--Another handy sized breed for pet or companion and a smart guard is the Welsh Terrier, which is practically a wire-haired black and tan terrier, not over twenty pounds, and often less, in weight, head flat and wider at base, eyes set rather wide, muzzle longish, and a bit stronger than usually seen in Fox Terriers, ears small, with forward carriage, neck clean and not short, muscular thighs and well-boned, straight, fore-legs, coat (black, or grizzle and tan, in colour) wiry, hard and dense, should have no white spots, or markings. They are very smart, showy dogs and usually very keen on anything in the vermin, or sporting line, and are being bred very true to type by some of their patrons, many of whom are very enthusiastic in their praise. _The Old English Terrier._--A breed closely resembling these are the _Old English Terriers_, usually rather larger and more grizzled in colour than their Welsh brethren, and very suitable, being something like a small Airedale in appearance, as companions or house guards. The considerable interest taken in Airedales and Welsh Terriers, (both of which have one or more specialist clubs to look after their interests and push them forward) has been rather prejudicial to the Old English Terriers, which have been somewhat neglected, but I should like to see someone take them up, as there is much of "general utility" about them, and they should not be allowed to die out. [Illustration: BLACK & TAN TERRIER CH. STARKIE BEN LT. COL. C. S. DEAN. OWNER.] _The Black and Tan Terrier._--Another well-known breed is the Manchester or Black and Tan Terrier, which, some years since, enjoyed considerable popularity, and I think the main cause of its decline, was its getting into the hands of some unscrupulous members of the community, who dyed, faked, and "rang the changes," as it was called, with them, to such an extent, that respectable people were afraid to have anything to do with them. I have no doubt that the cropping edict has also been against them, as formerly, if a dog had large, or ugly ears, their appearance was often improved in the cropping, but now, unless the ears are naturally small, good specimens have little chance in the keen competition of these dogs. I need hardly describe them as fine-coated, rather snake-headed dogs with bright eyes of dark colour, and marked with tan, which should be clear in shade on the legs, thighs, feet, and other parts. They are well adapted as pets and companions, being smart, lively and intelligent in their manners and cleanly and vigilant in their habits. The points of the Manchester or Black and Tan Terrier are rather elaborate and run as follows: Head long and narrow, flat from the back to the nose and with no humps at sides or cheek, muzzle long and tapering, but not weak, eyes small and oval shaped, black and bright. The correct carriage of the ears is a debatable point since cropping has been abolished, but probably the drop ear is correct; neck light and graceful, shoulders sloping, chest rather narrow but deep and the body slightly arched with good back ribs; forelegs quite straight with well arched toes and jet black toenails, powerful hindquarters with hocks well let down, tail very fine and carried almost straight, coat short, yet close. Colour: Lustrous blue black, with rich mahogany tan markings along the jaws, under the throat, over the eyes, on the cheeks, inside the ears, on each side of breast, on the inside of the hind legs, under the vent and on the forelegs up to above the pastern joint. The toes, however, have black lines called "pencilling," running up them and there is a black spot called the thumb mark just along the pastern joint in front of the limb. The general appearance is that of a high class and well-bred, smart and neat-looking dog well suited for any work, coming into the sphere of a terrier, and a fit companion or guard for either sex, or any rank of life. He can adapt himself to the cottage, or the palace, and look well in either. [Illustration: WHITE ENGLISH TERRIER. CH. ECLIPSE J. WALSH. OWNER.] _The White English Terrier_--I may here mention what is doubtless a branch of the same variety or closely allied to it, the White English Terrier, which, but for its colour, being all pure white, is just built on the same lines, and is suitable for the same purposes, as his black and tan cousin. Some years since when the lighter weights of bull terriers were more popular than at present, I think they were largely crossed with White English, so as to get down their size, and some I have had, and many I have seen, have undoubtedly had some of the Bull Terrier blood in them, which could be traced in their skulls, showing rather more fullness than the breed should indicate, and their dispositions being rather more warlike than was always convenient to their owners, or agreeable to their kennel companions. I contend that a thoroughbred White English Terrier is quite a superior dog and fit company for anyone. I know some of the best at the present time are owned by ladies. Part III CONTENTS PART III PERFORMING AND TOY BREEDS CHAP. PAGE XII. Poodles, Pomeranians, Pugs, Schipperkes 219 XIII. Toy Spaniels,--King Charles, Prince Charles, Ruby, Blenheim, Japanese 245 XIV. Terriers,--Toy, Smooth Black and Tan, Yorkshire, Maltese, Griffons Bruxelles 263 XV. Toy Bull Dogs, Toy Bull Terriers, Italian Greyhounds 275 CHAPTER XII PERFORMING AND TOY BREEDS POODLES--POMERANIANS--PUGS--SCHIPPERKES [Illustration: CORDED POODLE CH. "MODEL". MAD^{ME} DAGOIS OWNER.] [Illustration: CURLY POODLE CH. "RUFUS" MRS R. LONG OWNER.] _Poodles._--One of the most intelligent breeds in existence, that of the Poodle, lends itself especially to becoming a pet or companion, soon becoming warmly attached to its owner, very quick at learning what is required of it, and very smart and vigilant as a guard. Although, in ordinary life, we principally see the curly variety, at all the leading shows, we see specimens of the "corded variety" both white and black in colour, and with coats quite fearful and wonderful to behold, hanging in festoons of cords or tags, in some cases of such length as to sweep the ground as they walk along, which must be a considerable inconvenience to the dogs, as well as their owners. There has been much correspondence and discussion on the subject, but I think, after a lengthened acquaintance with the breed, and having seen and handled nearly all the best specimens brought forward during the last twenty-five years, there is no doubt there are two varieties, corded and curly, and although they have been sometimes interbred, there are corded specimens which would be corded under any circumstances, and there are curly ones that could not be turned into corded, however long their coats were left alone. I speak from my own experience, as I have had Poodles which were never anything else but curly, whether clipped or unclipped, and others with coats that would soon become corded if not attended to. I know this is not a general opinion, but it is my impression of the breed. It used to be supposed there were only two colours for Poodles, black and white, but of late years we have seen some very beautiful specimens black and white, red, brown, slate colour, and grey, and different shades of those colours, and so many new breeders and exhibitors of these dogs have appeared in this country and abroad, that I think they may be said to be in more favour than ever, and at most of the larger shows command large entries and attract a great deal of attention from the public, I am told. I had the record entry of eighty specimens at the Ladies' KA Show at Ranelagh Park, 1896. Of course, any breed which requires exceptional care in its preparation, and which so soon gives evidence of any neglect (as in the case of an unshaven and untrimmed Poodle), will always have a limited number of active adherents, but irrespective of their value for sporting purposes (in the same way as the English and Irish Water Spaniels and the Retrievers), all who have kept any of them will know they are full of merit, good tempered as a rule, born humourists, fond of children, grand swimmers, excellent guards, and very affectionate and faithful to their owners and friends. A very high authority, both as a breeder, exhibitor and judge, has set out the points of a correct Poodle as follows:--head long, straight and fine; skull rather narrow and peaked at back, very slight "stop;" long, strong and fine jaw, not full in cheek; teeth white and level; lips black and rather tight fitting; gums and roof of mouth black; nose sharp and black; eyes very dark brown, full of fire and intelligence, nearly almond shaped, leather of ears long and wide, hanging close to face; well proportioned neck of fair length and strength; strong muscular shoulders, sloping well to back; deep and moderately wide chest; short, strong, slightly curved back; broad muscular loins; ribs well sprung and braced up; small round feet, toes well arched, pads thick and hard; well set, straight legs, with plenty of bone and muscle; hind legs very muscular and well bent, hocks well let down; tail not curled over back, but carried rather gaily and set on high; coat profuse and of good texture, not silky; if corded, hanging in tight, even cords; if curled, in strong, thick curls, of even length, without knots or cords. Colours should be self, whites and blacks seem to be the most popular. The general appearance is that of a very active, intelligent and elegant looking dog, stepping out well and carrying himself proudly. [Illustration: WHITE POMERANIAN CH. "K�NIG of ROZELLE" MISS HAMILTON OWNER.] _Pomeranians._--Another breed, which has made gigantic strides in public favour of late years, is the Pomeranian, which may be best described, as a miniature copy of the Rough-coated Collie, as it resembles it in nearly every respect, except the carriage of ears and tail, the former being pricked and carried bolt upright, and the latter curled over the side and back of the body. The colours are very varied, starting with white, black, brown, blue, almost every shade of those colours can be met with, besides parti-colours, and the sizes run from nearly thirty pounds to three pounds in weight. Other things being equal, the smaller the size, the more valuable they are, and high class specimens frequently change hands at prices ranging from £10 to £200, so that it has lately been one of the most profitable breeds to produce, as good specimens have been commanding fair prices, and plenty of buyers were found for anything out of the common at almost any price. Browns have been greatly in favour, latterly even more so than blacks, and next to them come whites, but hitherto, there has been a difficulty in obtaining very small whites, and if this is overcome (and many of the leading breeders are doing their best), I think the toy whites will be greatly sought after; some of the little blacks and browns are very beautiful, and I have known very long figures, £100 and over, refused for them by their owners! Being very lively, cheerful and affectionate, and exceedingly sharp and active as guards, this breed is admirably adapted as a pet or companion, and they make very sharp house dogs. It is not desirable to chain them up, as the rubbing of the collar and chain is almost certain to interfere with the set of the crest and frill which in this breed (as in Collies), form such attractive features in their appearance. Pomeranians are seemingly popular with all classes, from Royalty downward. Her Majesty the Queen has a large kennel of them at Windsor, which I had the honour of an invitation to inspect, and can testify to the great interest taken in the breed, and the number of specimens kept, with every care and consideration shown for their happiness and comfort. Her Majesty's collection, when I saw them, some time since, consisted almost entirely of what I should call "off colours" that is, not white, black, brown or blue, but shades and mixtures of those and other colours, some exceedingly pretty, and although somewhat larger in size, being mostly "small-medium," and not so fine in head as many of the dogs now shown, are so good in other respects, that they have often successfully competed with well-known specimens, when Her Majesty has entered any at the Royal Agricultural Hall and Crystal Palace Shows. A great many are also kept by persons in the higher, middle and lower ranks of life, both in this country and the continent of Europe (where, no doubt, the breed originated), and it is a common occurrence, when a popular judge is officiating at one of the larger shows, to see over fifty entries of Pomeranians in the various classes. I have frequently had one hundred, and sometimes even more entries to judge, at the larger shows, and a puzzling job to undertake, on a dull day, in a failing light, is to tackle a class of from twenty to twenty-five black specimens, and try to find out the respective merits of each when there are probably ten or a dozen really good ones amongst the lot, though, to an outsider, they all look much alike. Small, good specimens fetch very long prices, and the breed is exceedingly popular. [Illustration: POMERANIAN "MARCO" H. M. QUEEN VICTORIA OWNER.] The illustrations of this variety are Miss Hamilton's White Dog, the most successful winner of his colour ever shown, H. M., the Queen's Red Dog, a beautiful specimen of the colour and the constant companion of Her Gracious Majesty; Mr. J. Duckworth's Fawn Dog, one of the best headed and coated specimens shown for some time; Miss A. de Pass's Toy Brown, a most perfect and charming specimen, who has taken more prizes than any of her size and colour. [Illustration: FAWN POMERANIAN CH. "BRILLIANT" J. DUCKWORTH OWNER.] The points are as follows: In general build, and coat more especially, the Pomeranians should somewhat resemble the Rough-coated Collie, with the difference that his head should be shorter, ears smaller and carried perfectly erect; and his tail curled up from the root tightly over his back, or lying flat on his back. He must be a compact little dog, well proportioned in build, standing on straight limbs, and possessing a profuse coat of long and perfectly straight silky or glossy hair all over his body, forming a mane, round his neck, of longer hair, with the forelegs feathered, and the thighs more heavily feathered. He must be sharp and intelligent in expression, and exhibit great activity and buoyancy of disposition, and should not exceed twenty pounds in weight, the smaller specimens being preferable. At the larger shows they are generally divided into over eight pounds and under eight pounds. Colours, white, black, brown, blue and sable, and any combination of those colours. At the present time there is a feeling rather in favour of the shades of brown, but there are many very beautiful specimens of all the colours mentioned above. [Illustration: SMALL POMERANIAN CHAMPION of CHAMPIONS AND PRIMIER "TINA" MISS ADA DE PASS OWNER.] [Illustration: FAWN PUG CH. "YORK". Mrs GRELICHE OWNER.] _Pugs._--One of the really old-fashioned pets and companions is the Pug, of which I have for the last thirty years generally had some specimens about my house, and usually, when I have judged the breed, have been favoured with record entries. I remember on one occasion, when I had a very heavy day at an important London show, and had taken an immense amount of trouble, in the open, on a broiling day in June or July, when the whole of my exhibitors were of the fair sex, and ranged from the highest in the kennel-world, Her Royal Highness, the Princess of Wales, to those who would not be ashamed to be included amongst "the working classes," I thought, "I shall catch it pretty warmly over this job." I hardly supposed it within the bounds of possibility for any living "mere man," to give satisfaction to such a large number of the other sex, especially when their own particular pets were concerned, so that I was certainly gratified to have a letter, some weeks after, from the Hon. Secretary of the show (whose daughter was an exhibitor and by no means a novice in Pugs either), stating that I had "achieved the unique feat of pleasing every one, as not a single complaint or grumble had been heard or received by the committee from the large body of Pug exhibitors." I mention this, not for the purpose of self-glorification, but to show that, although generally judges are supposed to meet with obloquy and abuse, often not deserved, they do, sometimes, receive kindly recognition of their endeavours, to pick out the best specimens brought under their notice! A good Pug should have a large skull, in proportion to size, well-defined stop, with high forehead, square face, wide-apart eyes, dark and large, round and rather prominent; thin, small ears, carried well forward, a desideratum is a black thumb mark in middle of skull, the mask and ears should be black. Heavy wrinkles about head and face; muscular, thick neck, with skin loose; square, thick, cobby body; deep loins; well rounded ribs; dark trace down back very desirable; also a dark mole on each cheek; muscular hindquarters; firm thighs; strong, short, straight fore legs; well arched, firm, round feet, with black toe nails if possible; tail tightly curled on hips, double turn much desired; coat, except on tail, where it is longer and harsher, should be glossy, soft and short. A very smart, showy and active dog, _often an arrant coward_, but with a great appearance of dignity, and even ferocity, which is not without its impression on the public. My experience of the breed is that they are, as a rule, very affectionate, and devoted to their owners, "good-doers" and nearly always ready for anything in the way of eating and drinking, great lovers of comfort, and very jealous of any other members of the doggy community being made as much of as themselves. They are very lively, bustling companions, and very popular with those who have kept them. I omitted to say, that the colours are silver fawn and apricot fawn, and of late years, there is also a black variety, the points of which are really the same as in the fawns, but partly concealed by the colour. I think, as a rule, the blacks run more leggy, and many of them heavier than the fawns, but I have had some beautiful specimens of both colours before me many times, and I like a good one, of _any size_, although, if you _can_ get true Pug qualities, in a small one, it is all the better. Two of the best-known illustrate this variety. [Illustration: BLACK PUG CH. & PREMIER "DUKE BEIRA". MISS C. F. A. JENKINSON OWNER.] [Illustration: SCHIPPERCHE CH. "ZWARTE PIOT" I. N. WOODIWISS OWNER.] _Schipperkes._--The Schipperke is rather a new breed in this country, and much kept as a pet and companion by its supporters. It was, I think, imported originally from Belgium, where, I understand, though I do not remember seeing many there, it has long been used by the Bargees as a protection on board their boats for their persons and property on their long journeys through the canals. In appearance it is something like a medium or rather small-sized black Pomeranian, out of coat and without any tail, the texture of the coat dense and harsh, soft on the ears, smooth on the head, front of hocks and forelegs, but forming a mane or frill, round neck and shoulders; size should not exceed twenty pounds, and all the better if it is less; eyes small, slightly oval, and dark brown in colour; they make very sharp little watch dogs, are always on the move, and anxious to know the ins and outs of what comes in their way, very excitable and lively in temperament, the former being expressed by raising their mane referred to, barking sharply and running and jumping about; they are good and game vermin killers, as a general rule. CHAPTER XIII PERFORMING AND TOY BREEDS (_Continued_) TOY SPANIELS--KING CHARLES--PRINCE CHARLES--BLENHEIM--RUBY--JAPANESE [Illustration: KING CHARLES SPANIEL CH. "LAUREATE" MRS MCLAREN MORRISON, OWNER.] I now come to another group of undoubted pets and companions, I mean the Toy Spaniels, and a charming lot they are. I will briefly notice them in their usually accepted order, taking our old friend, the King Charles, first. I am afraid I shall be thought "laudator temporis acti," and old-fashioned, but hardened "all-round dog lover" as I am, and have been, ever since I knew one end of a dog from another, I must say, I dearly love a good "King Charles," and, as I always go through the classes for them, at all the big shows, even when I have nothing, judicially, to do with them, I am grieved to see such small entries of these beautiful dogs, and so few good enough to "fill the eye" of a critical fancier. It is not so much of the size, or colours I complain, as the coats, which are so, very often, curly, a bad fault, in my opinion, and many of them are "smutty" and dark in their tan. Of course there are notable exceptions, but I greatly fear that other dog breeds, which have been warmly "pushed" of late years, in every possible way, and, generally, by interested parties, have disheartened the breeders of some of the Toy Spaniels, or, we should see more good ones coming out! The points of the breed to be desired are large round skull, with well defined "stop," large, lustrous eyes, short, turned-up muzzle, long pendulous ears, well-feathered; fairly long neck, short and compact back, short straight fore-legs, feet large, soft, profuse coat, quite straight, without tendency to curl, colour glossy, unbroken black, and rich mahogany tan. Weight not to exceed twelve pounds, as much less as possible, with quality. [Illustration: BLENHEIM SPANIEL. CH. "ROLLO" MRS. FORDER, OWNER.] _The Blenheim Spaniel._--The next of this charming group to be considered, is the Blenheim Spaniel, with which, its having been the favourite breed of my dear mother, and her mother, I have been more associated than with some of the others; the points of a perfect specimen are almost entirely the same as in the King Charles, except that the colours are red and white, with more of the latter than the former, and it is very desirable to have a distinct mark of red about the size of a shilling or florin, on the upper part of the skull, which is termed "the spot" and is a recognised peculiarity of this variety. [Illustration: PRINCE CHARLES SPANIEL CH. "VICTOR WILD" H. TAYLOR OWNER.] _The Prince Charles Spaniel._--Another variety is known as the Prince Charles, and the points of this again are the same as of the King Charles, except in colour, which is white with a good deal of black and tan markings. When evenly marked, and well formed in other ways, they are very attractive little fellows. I have noticed a tendency, particularly with these, to get specimens too large; in my opinion, they should be under the maximum weight allowed (twelve pounds) as the intention is, they should be not too heavy for a lady to pick up, and carry her little companion, when out with it, if so disposed. So that, from six to ten pounds would be a more suitable weight, and such as you may see in numbers of Yorkshire Terriers, Griffons, Pomeranians and Japanese Spaniels, some of the keenest rivals of the native Toy Spaniels. In fact many of all those varieties can be obtained well under five pounds weight, or even less if desired. [Illustration: RUBY SPANIEL. CH. "JASPER" MRS. WOODGATE OWNER.] _The Ruby Toy Spaniel._--Another very beautiful variety, is the Ruby Spaniel, something the colour of its larger cousin, the Sussex Spaniel, but richer, and brighter in tone. I am afraid these are not being so much bred as they were some years since, but all true dog lovers, would regret their becoming extinct, on account of their great beauty and aristocratic appearance; to be correct, the colour should be quite free from white, as rich and bright as possible, and the points same as King Charles and without legginess, which seems to affect these more than the other varieties; I suppose, there is little doubt the native breeds of Toy Spaniels have been much interbred, and I have been told by breeders they have had in one litter a specimen of all four breeds. I cannot vouch for the truth of this, as it has not happened within my own experience, but if true, it confirms the idea of how much they have been interbred. [Illustration: JAPANESE SPANIEL CH. "DAI BUTZU" MRS. ADDIS OWNER.] _The Japanese Spaniel._--The last of the Toy Spaniel family to be noticed is the Japanese Spaniel, and, at the present time, I think, it enjoys the most popularity, and is kept by ladies of high rank, as well as by their humbler fellow-creatures. In point of colour, they most resemble the Prince Charlies, and they are sometimes, but not often, seen almost the colours of a Blenheim. They are not so high, or domed in skull, but much wider, both in head and face, with very short nose, fairly large, pendulous ears, large, dark, full eyes, rather short on legs, cobby in body, and with tail curled over back, something in the way of the Maltese Terrier. They have a very quaint, old-fashioned look about them, even when puppies, and, unless they have been bred in this country, or, until they get acclimatized, are certainly delicate, and the mortality amongst the imported specimens has been very great. It is now sometime since I had any of the breed, and, at that time, larger specimens were in vogue than now appear at our shows; but no doubt, as ladies' pets, they are better, not exceeding eight or nine pounds. I may mention, to prove how these pretty little creatures have come forward of late years, I was present at a large London show, where a Japanese Spaniel, belonging to a friend of mine, a well-known lady-exhibitor, was awarded the first prize (a seventy-guinea silver cup in which the winner might have been hidden!) as the "Champion of champions," in a class composed of all the specimens of all kinds of dogs, that had been awarded a championship at that show, and the gratified owner had the honour of receiving the splendid prize from H. R. H. the Princess of Wales, who was also an exhibitor at the show, and is, we all know, a keen admirer of dogs in general. The portrait of this beautiful specimen illustrates this variety. CHAPTER XIV PERFORMING AND TOY BREEDS (_Continued_) TOY TERRIERS--SMOOTH BLACK AND TAN--YORKSHIRE--MALTESE--GRIFFONS BRUXELLES [Illustration: TOY TERRIER. CH. "MASCOTTE MODEL" Mrs MONK OWNER.] To take these in the above order, I propose to say a few words about each. I regret to say that, really first-rate specimens of the Toy Black and Tans are few and far between, there are many of the right size, and colour, but, so many fail in head, which should be like that of a true terrier of the "Manchester" type, in miniature, but the majority are too round and short in skull, and the other "points" of the breeds are the same. I need not say that a good specimen is a beautiful little creature and a charming pet for a lady, and very smart and showy. I have little doubt that the edict against cropping has had a prejudicial effect on them, as well as their larger brethren, and that having to wear such ears, as they have been born with, gives no chance for the skill of the "cropper" to improve their appearance, and, a great many of the breed appear to have what are known as "Bat," or "Tulip," ears, which look out of proportion to their size. I am in hopes that breeders may succeed (as has been done with the "Manchesters") in breeding more specimens with small drop ears, of the orthodox type, when, no doubt, a revival of interest will be taken in this somewhat neglected variety. One of the best seen for years illustrates this variety. Occasionally more or less good specimens of the White English Smooth Terrier, in miniature, are seen, and when correct in points, they are very pretty. [Illustration: YORKSHIRE TERRIER. CH. "ASHTON QUEEN" Mdes WALTON & BEARD OWNERS]. _Yorkshire Toy Terrier._--I will now speak of another very beautiful breed of dogs, well suited as ladies' pets. Yorkshire Terriers, sometimes not exceeding three pounds in weight, colour slate blue on back and sides, also part of head, the rest a golden tan; when in form, the coat sweeps the ground, and is soft and bright in texture, and colour; of course, such a breed cannot be kept "up to the mark" without some care, and trouble, but a good specimen, turned out in correct form, is "quite a picture," and provokes any amount of admiration particularly amongst the fair sex, and I have known any sum from £5 to £250 to be paid for really tip-toppers, to be kept as companions, for which they are well suited, and I can, from my own experience, testify to their affectionate and engaging qualities. Of course their coats must be kept to a reasonable length, often brushed out, and they would not be suitable inmates for a kennel, being essentially a breed for indoors. The best specimen living illustrates this variety. [Illustration: MALTESE TERRIER. CH. "PIXIE". J. JACOBS OWNER.] _Maltese Terriers._--Another of the Pet Dogs, proper, is the lovely little Maltese Terrier, whose praises I have been singing for years, and I am delighted to see they are slowly coming back into favour. Those of my readers who remember the Team shown, many years since, by the late Lady Giffard, will, I think, confirm my opinion, that a more beautiful lot of ladies' pet dogs could not be seen. To those not acquainted with the breed, I may say, they resemble very small drop-eared Skye Terriers, with pure white long coats, often sweeping the ground, and almost like floss silk in texture, with short backs and tails curled over them, dark, piercing eyes and black noses. They are very smart, corky little fellows. I admire them greatly, and have done my best for some years past to revive interest in them, and am glad to see better entries at shows which provide classes and judges to suit them. This is thought to be one of the oldest of the Toy breeds, having been highly prized by the ladies of ancient Greece, and other nations of that historic period. Head should be much like that of a drop-eared Skye in miniature. Coat long, straight and silky, often sweeping the ground, quite free from curl, or wooliness. Nose and roof of mouth black, ears moderately long, well feathered, with hair mingling on neck. Tail short, well feathered, and curled tightly over back. Colour, pure white, without markings, or even tints of any other colour. Weight five to six pounds, the smaller the better, other points being equal. By the kindness of my old friend, Mr. J. Jacobs, the best known breeder of Maltese, I have been able to give a portrait of his beautiful little champion. [Illustration: GRIFFON BRUXELLES "MARQUIS DE CARABAS" COUNT DE BYLANDT OWNER.] _Griffons Bruxelles._--One of the most recent of all the breeds suitable as pets and companions and which has been very much "boomed" the last few years, is the above named, somewhere about the size, and a little the shape of a Yorkshire Toy Terrier, if you can imagine one with a short harsh coat instead of a long silky one, and with a chin prominent as possible, without showing the teeth, in fact, "under-jawed;" round nearly black eyes; lashes, and lids dark, short black nose, with hair around it and the eyes; prick ears carried straight up as darts, feet longish; tail docked rather short; head round and covered with harsh hair, not woolly or silky; longer round eyes, nose, lips (which should have a "moustache" over them,) and cheeks; colour preferred, chestnut red, wiry rough, and plentiful coat, but not long. Weight for the larger variety nine pounds maximum; for the smaller five pounds maximum. These are cobby in build, active, intelligent, hardy little fellows, very quaint, comical, and self-important in their ways, which makes them attractive, even to persons not taking much interest in dogs in general; they are now being pushed forward very much and have a club of their own, so they seem likely to, what is called "catch on!" I have secured the portrait of a grand little specimen of this variety belonging to the well known judge, Count H. de Bylandt. CHAPTER XV PERFORMING AND TOY BREEDS (_Continued_) TOY BULL DOGS--TOY BULL TERRIERS--ITALIAN GREYHOUNDS [Illustration: TOY BULLDOG "RABOT DE BEAUBOURG" M. PETIT OWNER.] _Toy Bull Dogs._--Have been much taken up of late, and strange though it may seem, for an offshoot, or miniature variety of an old English breed, the larger number of the best that have appeared at the shows, so far, have come from France! I have seen many specimens with good heads and bodies, but comparatively few with the correct type of ear, the majority having what I described in speaking of Smooth Toy Terriers, as "Bat or Tulip" ears, which give rather a silly, vacant, expression to the face. However, the breed is being so eagerly patronised by people in the higher ranks, and good specimens easily command such high prices, that there is little reason to doubt, breeders will succeed in producing more specimens, with the correct type of ear, when we shall see a great improvement in the number and quality of the entries at all those shows which provide classes for these quaint little animals, which should be kept down to a twenty-pound limit at most, if they are to retain their title to be classified amongst the "Toys." [Illustration: TOY BULL TERRIER "LILY" C. H. LANE OWNER.] _Toy Bull Terriers._--The Toy Bull Terriers which have been a good deal encouraged of late years, should be counterparts of the larger breed, but too many of them fail in head properties, and are both too short in face and too round in skull, very often, they have a small patch of brindle or other colour on some part of their head or body, although they are preferred pure white, if possible. For many years I kept some of these, and bred them as small as two and a half pounds, but even at that weight their courage did not seem less, and the smallest I ever had was killed by her reckless attack on an antagonist far beyond her powers. I have known several others without the slightest consideration of their size and weight, rush upon foes that could actually have swallowed them, without the least hesitation, or any show of fear. [Illustration: ITALIAN GREYHOUND CH. "LARKFIELD LEVERET" P. TURNER, OWNER.] _Italian Greyhounds._--Another very graceful and elegant breed is the Italian Greyhound, which some years ago was much more kept as a pet than of late; it is more slightly built and shorter in head than the Whippet, and the colours most often seen are golden fawns and creams, but I have had some before me, and well shaped ones too, red, red and white, and blue fawn, the last named being the best of the "off colours." The coat should be very fine, soft and glossy, the best size is not exceeding eight or eight and a half pounds, in weight. They are exceedingly graceful, elegant little creatures, but rightly or wrongly (as this is one of the few breeds of dogs, I have not bred or kept,) give me the impression of being delicate and requiring care and attention. The breed seems mostly in the hands of three or four persons, but I am pleased to say, there are still some excellent specimens of both sexes to be seen, so that I am in hopes there is no immediate fear of its extinction, as this is one of the breeds that would not look out of place in company with the highest in the land. The portrait of a good and typical specimen, from Mrs. P. Turner's well-known kennel, illustrates this variety. Part IV CONTENTS PART IV CHAP. PAGE XVI. Something About Foreign Dogs 291 XVII. Humours and Vagaries of the Show Rings 311 XVIII. } to } Anecdotes About Dogs, Personal and Selected 322 XXIII. } XXIV. A Few Words About General Management and Some Simple Maladies, to Which Dogs are Subject and Their Treatment 389 CHAPTER XVI SOMETHING ABOUT FOREIGN DOGS I think, perhaps, it will be best for me to say something about these, although my friend, Mr. Edwin Brough, was wont to call them by the generic term of "Wild Beasts," particularly those belonging to our mutual friend, Mr. W. K. Taunton, who for very many years had one of the best collections of rare breeds of foreign dogs, I should say, to be met with in Europe, comprising specimens from the Arctic Regions, China, Australia, India, Africa and other distant parts of the world. I have often had specimens of his before me at different shows, particularly those held in the London District, and remember paying a visit, by invitation, some years since to his kennels in Essex and being very much interested in the many typical specimens I saw there. I should consider Mr. Taunton not only a first-rate judge of bloodhounds and mastiffs, but (although one of the most unassuming men I know) far and away, the ablest and best judge of "Foreign Dogs" in this country, or probably in any other. He has bred and owned more than most other judges have even seen! [Illustration: NORWEGIAN ELKHOUND "JAEGER" LADY CATHCART OWNER.] _The Norwegian Elk-Hound._--One of the kinds most often kept is the Norwegian Elk-Hound, which much resembles the Esquimaux, but differs in character of coat, ears and tail. He should be active in build, though strongly made, particularly in the shoulders; fairly long wedge-shaped head; rather strong and blunt shaped jaws; thick coat, with plenty of undercoat, in varying shades of dark and light grey, back parts being darker and under parts lighter and sometimes slightly tanned; good round feet, with legs strong, firm and straight, ears much larger and differently carried from the Esquimaux, both upright and pointed; tail profusely covered with hair, and carried with a double twist to the side, rather inclined to be wolf-like in expression, with dark brown eyes. [Illustration: AFGHAN GREYHOUND "SHAHZADA" J. WHITBREAD OWNER.] _The Persian Greyhound_ is another of the "Foreigners" sometimes met with, and is a very elegant creature if shown in good form, about the size of a medium-sized greyhound, with soft feathery fringe on head and ears, thighs, tail and elsewhere, which gives a very unique appearance to it, the colours most often seen are shades of fawn, or drab, and from the extra hair upon it they seem to be shorter and stronger in head than the British greyhounds. There is a variety called the Afghan Greyhounds, which greatly resemble the Persians even in colours, except that all the specimens I have had before me of the latter have been considerably less, more like large Whippets in size. I am not prepared to say whether there is any, or if so what, connection between the two breeds. _The African Sand Dog_ is another breed occasionally seen; it is remarkable for being almost entirely without hair, usually a sort of blue black in colour, and sometimes having a tuft of coarse bristle-like hair on the top of the head, and a similar tuft of the same colour and character at the end of the tail. In shape and appearance they slightly resemble a fat, and rather coarse, both in head and body, black and tan terrier; they, no doubt, have their admirers, or they would not continue to be imported and kept, but they are essentially one of the breeds that may be described as "not everybody's money." [Illustration: THIBET SHEEP DOG "SIRING" H. R. H. PRINCE of WALES OWNER.] _Thibet Sheep Dogs._--A breed I have not often seen, but which is really a handsome and noble looking one is the Great Thibet Sheep Dog, of which I remember H. R. H. the Prince of Wales had a good specimen at Sandringham some years since, which I can only describe as having a Collie-like body with a thick under and over coat, but not so profuse as with our collies, and a head combining the expression of Newfoundland, Mastiff and Bloodhound, large, pendulous ears, heavy lips and jaws, and great dignity, and even ferocity in appearance. From the rough life they live, with very rough people, I have heard from those who have travelled in Thibet, these dogs are very awkward customers to tackle, and often make things very unpleasant for travellers and strangers, but I have no doubt they would make excellent guards, and have a very distinguished appearance as companions. _Afghan Sheep Dog._--Another eastern breed is the Afghan Sheep Dog, which, in the specimens I have seen greatly resembles our own breed of English Short-tailed Sheep Dog, and like him, is covered all over with a dense, shaggy coat. It seemed to me, they were somewhat more woolly in texture and corded in character than the coats of our dogs, and also they were leggier and more tucked up, so that, although they stand as high, or higher, I should say they would weigh considerably less on the average than our own "Bobtails." Their colours appear to be usually white, with brown or black markings, more or less profusely scattered over the bodies. [Illustration: ESQUIMAUX CH. "ARCTIC KING" Mrs H. C. BROOKE OWNER.] _Esquimaux._--The Esquimaux is another of the foreign breeds occasionally seen here, rather larger and heavier than the Chow, and longer in head and neck, generally some shade of grey or black and white in colour with a harsh outer, but dense warm under coat, rather long and arched in neck, eyes obliquely set, small for size of dog, and very sly and wolf-like in expression, with pricked ears carried rather forward and tail curled over back. In the general way, they are not very fascinating to strangers, and may be spoken of in the same terms as the hero of a popular comic song who was said to be "all right, when you know him, but you've got to know him, _first_!" No doubt, the number of expeditions to the Arctic regions of late years, and the keen public interest taken in all their details, has had the effect of bringing these dogs, so important to all Arctic explorers, more to the front. There is a quaint, independent air about them I rather like. I have very frequently had to judge them in classes of "foreign dogs from the Arctic and Northern regions," and should not describe them as very genial, or sociable, in manner, although somewhat unique and interesting in appearance. [Illustration: CHOW CHOW. CH. "CHOW VIII". Mrs FABER OWNER.] _Chow._--Another breed which is not without its supporters, many of whom are amongst the ranks of the aristocracy, is the Chow, which, as the name implies, is a native of China, and much resembles a large, coarse Pomeranian, with a short thick head and rather blunt prick ears, the colours are almost invariably shades of red, black, or slate blue, though I have seen some variations on these. Chows often are as large as small collies, and possess very warm dense coats, somewhat in the Esquimaux style, and carry their tails much the same way, and are remarkable for having nearly inky black tongues. Like many of these foreign breeds, they are hardly yet naturalised in this country, but they are handsome, distinguished-looking dogs and not unlikely to become more popular, as they become more understood. At present they are in very few hands, and are more often met with at shows in the "any other variety" or "Foreign, any variety," classes, than in a class or classes to themselves, but at some of the larger shows, I have frequently had good entries of them, containing many beautiful specimens of the breed. SHOW POINTS OF CHOWS The points of Chows are as follows: Skull flat and wide, muzzle substantial under the eyes, of fair length and rather blunt at the nose, tongue and lips black, eyes dark and small, ears very small, pointed, carried erect and forward; neck powerful and slightly arched, shoulders muscular and nicely sloped, chest wide and deep, body short and powerful with strong loins; fore-legs strong and straight with small round feet, hindquarters rather square with hindquarters well let down, tail tightly curled over back, coat very profuse, flat and rather coarse in texture. Colours most usually black or red; yellow, blue and white, if strictly self colours, are correct. Weight, dogs forty to fifty pounds; bitches a little less. [Illustration: AUSTRALIAN DINGO CH. "MYALL" Mrs H. C. BROOKE OWNER.] _The Dingo._--Another colonial breed, the Dingo or Wild Dog of Australia, many of us have heard of but few seen. As I happen to have a brother, a clergyman, in that country, whose parish is forty miles square, taking him the best part of each week to visit his parishioners on horseback or in buggy, also three nephews, sons of another brother, likewise a clergyman in England, all situated in different parts of the same colony, I have heard a great deal of the doings of the "Dingoes." They are very particular in their attentions to the poultry, lambs, and sometimes sheep, so that they do not bear a good name in that country! They are a good deal like jackals, but rather larger in size, and coats sleeker, and tails less feathered, less mane on shoulders, and perhaps somewhat finer in head, quite a sly, wolf-like expression, not often very safe to handle; colours usually shades of yellow, or sandy, but I have seen them shades of brown, and grey mixed, rather fox-like in bark; they are usually kept as curiosities of the canine race, frequently muzzled or "caged," but as they get more used to civilised life, they may develop more interesting qualities than they have yet been credited with. [Illustration: CHINESE CRESTED DOG "CHINESE EMPEROR" W. K. TAUNTON OWNER.] _The Chinese Crested Dog._--I think I will bring this brief notice of some of the "outlandish" breeds to a close, with a mention of what I think is rather a rare sort, the Chinese Crested Dog, as, although I have judged Foreign Dogs at all the leading shows during a great many years, I have had very few true specimens of this scarce breed brought before me. I am pleased to have been able to secure a good portrait of the best I have ever seen, by the courtesy of its owner. I have generally found them with a smooth mottled skin quite devoid of hair, except a crest, or tuft of stiffish hair on the forehead or above it, usually nearly white or whitey brown in colour, and a tuft of similar colour and character at the end of the tail. Round skull, well defined "stop," and rather short, mean face, in shape and style of body something like a coarse strong Italian greyhound, and nearly always giving you the idea of being pinched with the cold. From what little I have seen of them, I should consider them, rather delicate, and unsuited for our climate, except under favourable circumstances. I imagine they are merely kept as companions and pets, as I never heard of any of them being turned to account for any useful purpose. I am aware there are several other breeds I might have included in this chapter, such as the Samoyede Sledge dogs, (a capital portrait of this breed is here given) the Pyrenean Sheep Dog; the Leonberg Dog, _The Dogue de Bordeaux_, a capital portrait of a very fine specimen of which is also given, and which has a great deal the character of a high-class Bull Mastiff about it, and has been largely used on the Continent in fighting the bear and other large game; and others, but I think I have said enough to comply with its title of "Something About Foreign Dogs!" [Illustration: LAPLAND-SLEDGE-DOG "PERLA". H. R. H. PRINCE OF WALES. OWNER.] [Illustration: DOGUE DE BORDEAUX. CH. "SANS-PEUR". (Late) Mrs H. C. BROOKE OWNER.] CHAPTER XVII HUMOURS AND VAGARIES OF THE SHOW-RINGS I remember meeting a friend, many years since, whose wife was rather a fine woman, who had _been_ younger and better looking, but still "fancied herself" a good deal, and had a decent Pug, which she made a point of taking to any shows held in their neighbourhood, and as I knew he had entered the Pug in two or three classes at a local show where a reverend gentleman, at that time very well known as an "all round judge," at many shows throughout the kingdom, was officiating, I said, "Well, old fellow, and how did your wife get on with her Pug?" "Oh, very badly," said he, "there was a smart looking girl, with pink roses in her hat, had a dog in the ring, and the judge couldn't look at anything else, although our Pug was ever so much better!" As I happened to hear, casually, that another reverend judge, who had been not only a very successful breeder and exhibitor, but one of our ablest judges, particularly of the non-sporting breeds, was about to decline further judging, I considered, especially at that time, when there were few judges of ability and standing, that he could be ill spared, so I wrote to ask him, if I obtained a strong expression of opinion from some of the leading exhibitors in his section, whether he would reconsider the matter, and he wrote me a very courteous letter, agreeing to do so. I then had a fac-simile letter, of my writing, prepared, and sent a copy to all the leading breeders and exhibitors of non-sporting dogs, and I do not think I had one refusal. I doubt if any judge ever had such a requisition, and the result was, that for many years, the public had the benefit of his valuable services, until, I regret to say, ill health compelled him to give up all such matters, but he retained his popularity to the last, and his retirement was universally regretted. I have often met him since as a looker on at shows, and we have occasionally corresponded. As I have mentioned in the earlier pages of this work, for many years I was a very keen breeder and exhibitor of Dandies, and kept a great many of them at one time, perhaps the strongest kennel of the breed in the kingdom, and won scores of prizes, etc. I remember, on one occasion, when I had a team of dogs at a show in Gloucestershire, I had one of my best Dandies entered either in a "Rough Terrier Class," or a class composed of "Winners of so many Prizes" (in those days, all sorts of peculiar classes and conditions were introduced into the schedules), and there were two judges to officiate, neither of whom, I very much expect, had ever had a Dandie before him previously. I was, at first, much amused to see how they were puzzled over him, and I could see them taking counsel together (I may say, they were men of the highest class, as straight as gun barrels, and both deservedly respected and esteemed by the whole kennel world, one amongst sporting, the other among non-sporting classes, but as I hope and believe they are both still living I will not mention their names, although I have told the tale to one of them to his intense amusement and delight). But afterwards, I began to fear they would, from not being sure what manner of animal I had in tow, pass me over, or worse still, give some inferior notice to my dog, who was a noted champion, and about the best specimen of the breed _at that time_. After a while they came back to me and made a more detailed examination of my dog, asked me his number, and awarded him First Prize and Special, to my great relief, as I had been thinking what a fool I had been to enter a "Champion," to have such a chance of a "knock-back" at a county show! Sometime after that, I was taking a short exhibiting tour, with a team of my dogs, following three or four shows, held close together, and not more than one or two days each in duration. Amongst others I had an excellent Dandie Bitch with me, who had never been "out of the money," and was in excellent form at the time. I showed her at one place (Reading, I fancy,) and took first under the Rev. W. I. Mellor. The next show was, I think, Swindon; there I met almost the same lot of Dandies, this time under the late Mr. W. Lort, who, after he had looked through the class, came up to me and said, "I am sorry to say, Mr. Lane, I cannot give you more than 'Very Highly Commended,' for your Bitch." I replied, "In that case, sir, I shall be greatly obliged by your passing her over altogether; she took first prize yesterday in the same company under Mr. Mellor, who is reckoned one of our leading Dandie judges, and I am going to show her under him to-morrow at Henley (I think it was) where I have every hope she will _do the same_, so that I should not like her to take 'V. H. C.' _for the first time in her life_ in between." So the bitch was passed over and duly won another first prize the next day. The first time I had the honor of judging any dogs belonging to members of the Royal Family was many years since at Warwick, where, I believe, H. R. H. the Prince of Wales exhibited, for the first time, Skyes, and foreign dogs. He may have shown others, also, but those were the classes with which I was concerned. I remember the Committee and Chairman of the show were, quite properly, much impressed with the honour of the Royal patronage to their show at that time, nearly or quite the best held out of London and admirably managed by a well organised and most capable and courteous committee of "real workers," whom it was always a pleasure to meet. As I judged, or showed, at all their shows, I can speak from experience; and I may further say that I consider it a _positive calamity_ for the kennel world when these shows came to an end. For, not only were they most delightful gatherings, of the "Flower of the Fancy," both dogs, and people, but, held in well adapted buildings and premises, near the quaint old Midland Town, almost under the shadow of the historic castle and under the active patronage of the late Earl of Warwick, and the present Earl, then Lord Brooke (both able and devoted "Dog Fanciers") and his beautiful wife, who always used to grace the shows by her presence, and took a keen interest in many of the animals shown, besides being an exhibitor in some of the classes. The Chairman intimated to me that the inmates of the Royal Kennel should stand well in the Prize List. I told him "every dog entered would be judged by me strictly on its merits, and if it was afterwards found the Royal Dogs were amongst the Prize Winners, none would be more pleased than I should, but I could not say or do more than that, and I was sure H. R. H. would wish his dogs to stand, or fall, on their merits alone!" Since then I have very often had the honour of judging dogs from the Royal Kennels, both Sandringham and Windsor. I remember it so happened that the first time Her Majesty the Queen exhibited any dogs, nearly all Her Majesty's entries came into my classes at a Great London show. Soon after my entering the building I went to have a look at my classes, and shortly afterwards, the secretary came up to me and said, "Do you know you have the great honour of being the first man to judge any dogs from Her Majesty's kennels?" I said, "I have heard so." He then said, "Well, I am most anxious they should all be in the prize list, as I consider it a high honour that Her Majesty has allowed them to be entered." I said, "That is all right enough, but although I will not admit Her Majesty has a more loyal or devoted subject than myself, I am here in a public capacity as a judge, and if Her Majesty's dogs are entered, in competition with Her Majesty's subjects' dogs, they can only be judged 'on their merits,' and from what I can see on the benches as the Royal dogs have been pointed out to me by your keepers I don't think many of them will be 'in the money,' as the classes are very large and good." He said, "That will never do; what can be done?" I said, "Will you leave it to me?" He said, "Yes, entirely." I said, "Then I will have all the dogs of the same colour and type as those from the Royal kennels, formed into a separate class," (which luckily, was feasible,) "and judged together." This was done and I hope caused general satisfaction, which would not have been the case had any partiality been shown, nor would such have been approved by Her Majesty, I am perfectly sure, if the circumstances came to be known at the palace. On one occasion when I had been judging a number of classes at a large London show, after I had done, one of the fair exhibitors came up to me and said, "You don't seem to like my dogs." I said, "If you will tell me the numbers of your dogs I will refer to my judging book, and see what notes I made of them." She gave the numbers, and I read out the notes on each. But this did not satisfy her, and she said, "Ah! I am only a poor widow, if I were only a rich heiress, like ----, I suppose it would be different, she can win any number of prizes with her dogs." I replied, "You have no right to speak in that way to me, neither you nor any other exhibitor can say I have ever made any distinction between rich and poor. I have always sought to judge the dogs alone, irrespective of their owners; if the dogs of the person you mention have won it is because they were, in my opinion, the best." She said no more, nor did I, but I presume she thought I spoke the truth, as I have often noticed her as an exhibitor in my classes, at various shows since, and it is not reasonable to suppose she would continue to show under me, if she thought I favoured any one! Indeed, there are so many "lookers-on" round every ring, nowadays who understand the various breeds, and are prepared to criticise the awards, that judges are "put upon their mettle," particularly with some of the popular breeds, where the competition is often very keen, and the entries large. Some years since, at a large show in Wales I had a large and good class of Bedlington Terriers, but there was one dog that stood out, head and shoulders above the rest; it chanced that I began my examination of each specimen in the class, which I always endeavour to make, and a short note of the result in my book, at the dog standing next to him in the ring, and therefore he was the last to be looked at, and merely going over him enough to see that his coat, condition, topknot, legs, eyes, teeth and ears, were satisfactory, I sent them for a run round, marked my book and dismissed the class; while I was waiting for the next lot of dogs a very melancholy-looking man crept up to me and said, "Would you kindly tell me, sir, what you gave my dog?" I asked his number, and when he told me, said, "First and special for best in the show;" he threw his hat up in the air, and roared out, "Well, I'm blessed, I knowed he knowed 'em, he didn't hardly want to look at my dog, he didn't, he could see he were the best with half an eye, he could," and, from being a solemn and sad-looking person, he became the most jovial-looking fellow you could wish to see. I did not know his name, and do not know it now, but he amused me very much at the time! I do not remember _where_ it occurred, but I was judging rather a good class of Scottish Terriers somewhere in the provinces, and a keeper brought in a dog I liked the look of, and after going over the classes I marked him first, and told the keeper to take him away and bench him, which I suppose he did. You can imagine my surprise when shortly after, the same dog made his appearance in the ring again, this time led by a man I knew well as rather an extensive exhibitor, at that time, and he began "making the most of his dog" before me. But as I had quite done with him, and had still some of my awards in the class to make, I did not want that, so I said, "I should take away that dog, and bench him if I were you, as he has been judged and sent out sometime since." The exhibitor in question, whom his worst enemy would not describe as either shy or timid, was unusually rapid in his departure from that ring, and I have since heard the story from others, to whom I suppose he told it, but I have never told it until now! I have had such a long and varied experience of judging, that although I have often and often had classes large enough and strong enough to make one "pull one's self together," I never remember being really "nonplussed," but _once_, and that was when I was judging some years ago at the People's Palace, situated in the East End of London. I presume, the "drawers up" of the schedule had not been previously experienced in such work, as amongst others, they had provided a "Variety Class for London Exhibitors," and, if obtaining entries is a criterion of success, it was very successful, as they obtained no less than 145 entries. I do not know, but I should think, it was the largest class ever seen at any show! And when I saw the tens and scores of dogs pouring into my ring, I wondered what was to become of them, as it was a good walk merely to go round them, and they formed a small dog show by themselves, and I noticed about five or six well-known "Champions" amongst them, as it included most of the known breeds of dogs. After referring to my judging book, many pages in which were of course taken up, I found I had three prizes to divide amongst this crowd, so I went to the committee, and explained the matter to them. They behaved very well indeed, they said, "We will leave the matter entirely to you, do whatever you please in it." I went back, divided the class into over thirty pounds and under thirty pounds, cleared out all that was no good, and weeded down the remainder, and eventually gave two equal firsts, two equal seconds, and two equal thirds in each division, making twelve prizes and two "reserves" in all, which was a lot better than attempting to award three prizes amongst close on 150 dogs. I think the exhibitors were pleased, and felt I had done the best in my power to get them and myself out of an awkward position. Many of my readers will remember Mr. George Helliwell, better known to his intimates as "Yorkshire George," and his long connection with the late Mr. Fletcher's successful kennel of sporting dogs. It was always a safe "draw" to touch on the merits of the Fox Terrier "Rattler," who won many of his numerous honours, when in George's care, and he was never tired, and would be nearly moved to tears in recounting his virtues and triumphs. I remember one occasion, when he was officiating as a judge, in which capacity he was in great request, and highly qualified. After he had judged a class, one of the exhibitors, who was not satisfied with what he had awarded to his dog, went up and asked him why he had not given him more, saying his dog "had a wonderful pedigree," and thought he ought to have beaten all there. George said, in his own peculiar way, slapping his inquirer gently on the back, "If tha' tak my advice, lad, the next toime ther' goes to show, thou'll tak thy dog's pedigree wi thee, and leave dog at 'oom!" I fear my writing of the matter does not properly convey the intense humour of the incident, and the "broad Yorkshire dialect" in which the advice was given! But "George's" many friends will picture it for themselves. I saw in the papers lately the death of Mr. Frank Adcock, and it brought to my mind not only his craze for Giant Bull Dogs, which is well known to "the Fancy" of his day, but also his Great Dane "Satan," most appropriately named, as he rightly or wrongly enjoyed the reputation of being the most savage member of the canine race ever benched at shows. I remember him as a very large, I think, dark Harlequin-coloured specimen of the breed, always muzzled, even on the bench, and it usually required two, and sometimes four, keepers to deal with him, and on one occasion, I think it was a show at Bristol Drill Hall, many years since, when he was being removed from the benches to be sent back to his owner, he, although still muzzled, overpowered his attendants, and worried and tore most of the clothes from one of them, well known to exhibitors as "Teddy Morgan," who gave me a blood-curdling account of his experiences of the affair. He said he fully thought "Satan" would have killed him then and there, and spoke of the nonchalant and airy manner in which his owner treated the matter, when he, afterwards recounted his perils and troubles to him, with all the embellishments of which he was capable, adding, "Mr. Adcock, he guv me a 'quid' (20 _s._) sir, and said he were glad it were me, and not some raw cove what didn't understand dogs!" CHAPTER XVIII ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS, PERSONAL AND SELECTED I have generally found persons, whether doggy or not, interested in anecdotes about dogs, particularly those displaying their intelligence, fidelity and courage. Some of the following are within my own knowledge, all are related as being believed to be true. I have selected those I fancied might be interesting out of a great many I have collected, but some of them may have appeared elsewhere. We were telling of the extraordinary ways dogs will find their way home, alone, when a farmer in my district named Churchill said, "Yes, you see that Sheep dog," pointing to a large merle, rather old-fashioned type of Collie, called by his master "Ben." "Well," he said, "I was down at my daughter's in the lower part of Somersetshire, and had taken Ben there with me, by rail, and while we were all in the garden in the evening, I went into the house for something or other, and Ben missed me. He at once jumped the fence and set off on the return journey just as darkness was coming on, but he could not have wasted much time about it, as my servants told me he was back at my farm, more than forty miles distant, very early the next morning, and they kept looking out for me, as we were generally not far away from each other. I had that dog from a puppy, and I knew he had never seen that road before, it was dark soon after he started, yet he must have travelled at the rate of five or six miles an hour all the way, and at a time when there would be few people or conveyances about to help him." I had a very similar experience with a dog of another breed. I had been travelling in the island of Skye, and bought from a game-keeper at a romantic looking village called Uig, a young dog, which he called a Short-Haired Skye Terrier, but which was, really, what is now known as a Scottish, or Aberdeen Terrier, called by the Gaelic name of "Fraochen," which I believe means heather, and was very appropriate in his case, for he was just that sort of brindle grizzled colour, that if he was in the heather (as I noticed many times while he was with me,) you could hardly distinguish him from it. After going about with us to various places, I brought him to my mother's house at Clifton in Gloucestershire, where I was making a short stay, and the following day I went out for a drive over the Durdham Downs, through Westbury, Henbury, etc., to a village, about ten or twelve miles from Clifton, and (as I have since thought very foolishly,) I allowed, "Fraochen," to follow the trap, and several times during the journey, there I noticed him running by the side, or in front, but when we had accomplished the journey and were about to return by a different route, I missed him, and it then struck me, what a fool I had been, to take out a young dog, not only along a strange road, but in a country which he had never before seen, and quite a contrast to his native home in Skye. I of course gave him up as lost, which I much regretted, as his cool, independent manner and quaint, jaunty air had greatly endeared him to me, during the time we had been acquainted. However, when I returned to Clifton, I had to pass one place, near where some of the houses of the Clifton college masters now stand, where four roads meet, by one of which I must come to reach my mother's house. On the space in the centre, and commanding a view of these four, sat "Fraochen," waiting our approach. How he managed to get over the ten or twelve miles of quite unknown country, (as I found that he, like ourselves, came back by a different route from the one we went by,) I do not know, but I asked several travellers we met, if they had noticed a dog coming towards them along the road, and most of them answered they did, and that he was "running like steam," or he "wasn't wasting much time about it," etc. He lived with me until his death from old age, many years afterwards but was quite a character in many ways. One of his peculiarities was, if he was out with my wife, with whom he was a prime favourite, without me, he considered her under his special protection, no matter how many or how large any of the other dogs out at same time might be, and if he was on, ever so far in front, and he met any rough-looking or suspicious character of the tramp species, he would immediately return and walk close to my wife's side, so as to come between her and the objectionable person, and continue that position so long as he was anywhere near. We were talking of the speed of Greyhounds, which has been said to be equal to that of the fleetest horse, and a singular circumstance which occurred at Doncaster, in Yorkshire, sometime since, proved that it was not much inferior. A mare cantering over the Doncaster course, her competitor having been withdrawn, was joined by a Greyhound bitch, when she had proceeded about a mile, she seemed determined to race with the mare, which the jockey on the latter humoured, and gradually increased his pace, until at the distance, they put themselves at their full speed. The mare beat her antagonist only by a short head. The race horse is perhaps from his superior strength and length of stride, generally able to outrun the Greyhound on level ground, but the latter would have the pull over him in a hilly country, or over ground at all rough or uneven. The Greyhound is said to be deficient in attachment to his master and in general intelligence. There is some truth in the imputation, but he has, in fact, far less even than the hound, the opportunity of forming individual attachments and no other exercise of the mind is required of him, than to follow the game which starts up before him and catch it, if he can. If, however, he is closely watched, he will be found to have all the intellect his situation requires. In illustration of this, I remember reading in a very old doggy book, an account of two greyhounds said to be as arrant thieves as ever lived. They would now and then steal into the cooking house, belonging to the kennels, lift up the boiler lid with their noses or paws, and if any portion of the joints or pieces of meat rose above the water, suddenly seize them and before there was time for them to suffer much from the heat, fling it out on the stone floor and eat it at their leisure, when it had grown cold. In order to prevent this, the top of the boiler was secured by an iron rod, passing under its handle and tied to the handle of the boiler on each side; and not many days passed before they found out they could gnaw the cords around it, displace the rod and fish out the meat as before. Small chains were then substituted for the cords and the meat was cooked in safety for nearly a week, when they found that by rearing on their hind legs and applying their united strength towards the upper part of the boiler, they could lift it off the fire and roll it on the floor, so getting at the soup or broth, although the meat was not in their reach. The keeper who looked after them expressed himself heartily glad when they were gone, for he said he was often afraid to go into the kennel, wondering what they would be up to next, and felt sure they were demons, and not dogs at all. A singular story is told of King Richard II. of England, and a dog of this breed. It is given in the quaint language of Froissart. "A Greyhound called Mithe, who always wayted upon ye Kynge, and wolde know no man els. For when so ever ye Kynge did ryde, he that kept ye Greyhounde dyd lette hym lose, and he wolde streyht runne to ye Kynge and faun uppon hym and leape with his fore fete upon ye shoulders of ye Kynge. It came to passe that onne daye as ye Kynge and ye Erle of Darbye talked togyther in ye yarde of ye Courte ye Greyhounde who was wonte to leape uppon ye Kynge, left ye Kynge and came to ye Erle of Darbye, Duke of Lancastre, and made to hym the same friendlye continuance, and chere as he was wonte to do to ye Kynge. The Duke, who knew not ye dogge, nor whence he came, demanded of ye Kynge what ye Greyhounde wolde do. Cousin, quoth ye Kynge, it is a great good token to you, but an evyl and a gruesome signe to me. How know ye that, quod ye Duke. I know it fulle wele, quod ye Kynge. Ye Greyhounde acknowledgethe and acceptethe you, here this daye as ye ryteful Kynge of Englande, as ye shal be, without doubte, and I shal be streyghtwaye deposed; the Greyhounde hathe thys knowledge, naturally, there fore take hym to you, he wil followe you and forsake me. Ye Duke wel understoode those wordes and cheryshed ye Greyhounde, who wolde never after followe Kynge Richarde, but continued to follow at all tymes ye Duke of Lancastre." The owner of the dog an English Water Spaniel, tells the following anecdote, which is stated to be absolutely true: "I was once on the seacoast, when a small, ill-made and leaky fishing boat was cast on shore, on a dangerous reef of rocks. Three men and a boy of ten years, constituted the crew, the men swam to land, but were so bruised and knocked about against the rocks that they were unable to render any assistance to the poor boy, and no one was found to venture out to help him. I heard the noise and went to the spot with my dog, I spoke to him and in he went, more like a seal or other marine animal, than a dog, and after several vain attempts succeeded in mounting the wreck and laid hold of the boy's clothes, who screamed and clung to the ropes, etc., being much frightened at being thus dragged into the water, as the waves were dashing over the rocks. In the excitement and anxiety of the moment I thought the dog had missed his hold, and stripped off most of my clothes to render what assistance I could. I was just in the act of springing in, having selected the time when the receding waves gave the best chance, when I caught sight of old Bagsman, as my dog was called, with the struggling boy, whose head was uppermost. I rushed to where they must land and received both as they reached the shore. Some time after I was out with the same dog, wild fowl shooting. We had both been hard at work and I left him behind me, while I went to a neighbouring town to get a supply of gunpowder. A man in a drunken frolic had pushed off in a boat with a girl in it, the tide running out, carried the boat quickly away, and the man being unable to swim, became frightened and jumped overboard. Bagsman was near the spot, heard the splash, jumped in, swam to the man, caught hold of him and brought him twenty or thirty yards towards shore, when the drunken fellow clasped the dog tightly round the body, and they both went down together. The girl was saved by a boat going to her assistance. The body of the man was recovered about an hour afterward with that of the dog, tightly clasped in his arms, thus dragging both to the bottom." The sagacity of the Poodle is well known, and their aptitude to learn tricks. Mr. Wilkie, of Ladiethorn, in Northumberland, had one he had instructed to go through all the apparent agonies of death. He would fall on his side, stretch himself out and move his hind legs as if he were in great pain; he would next simulate the convulsive throbs of departing life, and then stretch out his limbs, and thus seem as if he had expired; in this position he would remain motionless, until he heard his master's command to rise. Jesse, in his "Gleanings in Natural History," gives another illustration of the intelligence of this breed. A friend of his had one that was not always under proper command. To keep him in better order he purchased a small whip, with which he, once or twice, corrected him during a walk. On his return the whip was put on a table in the hall, but the next morning it was missing. Soon afterwards it was found concealed in an outhouse, and again used in correcting the dog. Once more it would have been lost, but on a strict watch being kept upon the suspected dog, he was seen to take it away from the hall table in order to once more hide it away. There are endless stories told of the life saving qualities of Newfoundland dogs. I will here mention two of them. A German was travelling one evening on foot through the Dyke country in Holland, accompanied by a large specimen of this breed, walking on a high bank which formed one side of a dyke, his foot slipped and he was precipitated into the water, and being unable to swim soon lost his senses. When he recovered consciousness, he found himself in a cottage on the other side of the dyke, surrounded by peasants, who had been using the means for the recovery of drowned persons. The account given him by one of them was, that returning home from work he observed, some distance off, a large dog in the water, swimming and dragging, and sometimes pushing along something that he seemed to have great difficulty in supporting, but which he at length succeeded in getting into a small creek on the opposite side. When the animal had pulled what he had hitherto supported, as far out of the water as he was able, the peasant was able to discover that it was the body of a man, whose face and hands the dog was industriously licking. He hastened to a bridge across the dyke, and having obtained assistance, the body was conveyed to a neighbouring house, where proper means soon restored the drowning man to life. Two very considerable bruises, with the marks of teeth, appeared one on his shoulder and the other on his poll, hence it was presumed the faithful beast had first seized his master by the shoulder and swam with him in this manner for sometime, but that his sagacity had prompted him to quit this hold and to shift it to the nape of the neck, by which he had been enabled to support the head out of the water and in this way he had conveyed him, nearly a quarter of a mile, before he had brought him to the creek where the banks were low and accessible. Another story runs as follows: A vessel was driven on the beach at Lydd in Kent. The surf was rolling furiously. Eight poor fellows were crying for help, but no boat could be got off for their assistance. At length a gentleman came down to the beach accompanied by a fine Newfoundland dog, he directed the attention of the animal to the vessel and put a short stick into his mouth. The intelligent and courageous fellow at once understood his meaning, sprang into the sea, and fought his way through the waves. He could not, however, on account of the high seas running, get close enough to the vessel to deliver that with which he was charged, but the crew understood what was meant, made fast a rope to another piece of wood and threw it towards him. The noble beast dropped his own piece of wood, and seized that which had been cast to him, and then, with a degree of strength and determination scarcely credible, for he was again and again lost sight of in the roaring sea, he dragged it through the surge and delivered it to his master. A line of communication was thus formed, and every man on board was rescued. Referring to some of the breeds peculiar to northern climes the following is told: A man named Chabert had a beautiful Siberian dog, who would draw him in a light carriage twenty miles a day. He asked £200 for him, and sold him for nearly that amount, for he was a most beautiful specimen of his breed, and as docile as he was beautiful. Between the sale and the delivery, the dog had an accident and broke his leg. Chabert, to whom the money was an object of immense importance, was in despair. He took the dog at night to a leading veterinary surgeon. He formally introduced them to each other, he talked to the dog, pointed to his leg, limped round the room, then requested the surgeon to apply some bandages, etc., round the leg and then seemed to walk sound and well, he patted the dog on the head, who was looking alternately at him and the surgeon, desired the surgeon to pat him and offer him his hand to lick, and then holding up his finger to the dog and gently shaking his head, quitted the room and the house. The dog immediately laid himself down, and submitted to a reduction of the fracture and the bandaging of the limb, without a motion, except once or twice, licking the hand of the operator. He was quite docile, and remained in a manner motionless, day after day, until at the expiration of a month, the limb was sound. Not a trace of the fracture was to be detected and the purchaser knew nothing of it. Many years ago, the following scene took place in a street adjoining Hanover Square. It was an exhibition of a highly interesting character, worthy to be recorded. The then editor of the "Lancet" having heard that a French gentleman, Mr. Leonard, who had for some time been engaged in instructing two dogs in various performances, that required the exercise, not merely of the natural instincts of the animals and the power of imitation, but of a higher intellect and degrees of reflection and judgment far greater than is commonly developed in dogs, was then residing in London, obtained an introduction, and was obligingly favoured by Mr. Leonard, with an appointment to witness the performance of his extraordinary pupils, and he thus describes the interview: Two fine dogs of the Spanish breed were introduced by Mr. Leonard, with the customary French politeness, the largest by the name of Philax, the other as Brac (or Spot), the former had been in training three, the latter two years. They were in vigourous health, and having bowed gracefully, took their seats on the hearth rug side by side. Mr. Leonard then gave a lively description of the means he had employed to develop the brain power of these animals, how from being fond of the chase and anxious to possess the best trained dogs, he had employed the usual course of training, how the conviction had been impressed on his mind, that by gentle usage and steady perseverance in making the animal repeat over and over again, what was wanted, not only would he be capable of performing the act required, but the part of the brain which was brought into mental activity by the effort, would become more fully developed and a permanent increase of power obtained. After this introduction, Mr. Leonard spoke to his dogs in French in his usual tone, ordering one to walk, the other to lie down, to run, gallop, halt, crouch, etc., which they did as promptly and correctly as the most docile children. Then he put them through the usual exercises of the circus rings, which they performed as well as the best trained ponies at any high class circus. He then placed six cards of different colours on the floor, and sitting with his back to the dogs, directed one to pick up the blue card, and the other the white one, etc., etc., varying his orders rapidly, and speaking in such a manner that unless the dogs had a perfect knowledge of the words used, they could not have carried out his commands. For example, he said, "Philax, take the red card and give it to Brac," and "Brac, take the white card and give it to Philax." The dogs instantly did this and exchanged cards with each other. He then said, "Philax, put your card on the green," and "Brac, put yours on the blue," and this was immediately done. Pieces of bread and meat were placed on the floor, also figured cards and varied directions and instructions were given to the dogs, so as severely to test their memories, obedience and intelligence. They brought the bread, meat, or cards, as commanded, but did not attempt to eat any of the two former, unless ordered to do so. Philax was then desired to fetch a piece of meat and give it to Brac, and then Brac was told to give it back to Philax, who was to return it to its place. Philax was next told he might bring a piece of bread and eat it, but before he had time to swallow it, his master forbade him and desired him to show he had obeyed orders, and the dog instantly protruded the crust between his lips. While some of these feats were being performed, Mr. Leonard loudly cracked a whip occasionally, to prove that the animals were so completely under discipline that they would give no heed to any noises or interruptions. After many other performances Mr. Leonard invited Mr. Blanc, a gentleman present, to play a game of dominoes with one of his dogs, which he consented to do. The younger dog, Brac, seated himself on a chair at the table and Messrs. Leonard and Blanc seated themselves opposite. Six dominoes were placed on their edges, in the usual way, before the dog and the same number before Mr. Blanc. The dog having amongst its numbers a double number, took it up in its mouth and dropped it in the centre of the table, Mr. Blanc added a single number to one side of it, the dog at once played another correctly, and so on, till all the pieces were used up. A fresh lot of six dominoes were then served out to each competitor and Mr. Blanc (just to test the dog) intentionally put a wrong number in the course of the game. The dog looked surprised and excited, stared hard at Mr. Blanc, growled, and finally barked loudly. Finding no notice taken of his remonstrances, he then pushed away the wrong domino, with his nose, and put a right number, from amongst his own, in its place. Mr. Blanc afterwards continued the play correctly and the game was won by the dog. Not the slightest hint or information appeared to be given by Mr. Leonard to the dog. This method of playing a game of dominoes must have been entirely the result of his individual observation and judgment. The performance was strictly private throughout, the owner of the dogs was a gentleman of independent fortune, and had taken up the instruction of his dogs merely as a curious and amusing investigation as to the cultivated intelligence of animals. Plutarch relates that, at the Theatre of Marcellus, a dog was exhibited before the Emperor Vespasian so well taught, as to perform the figures and steps of every (then) known kind of dance. He afterwards feigned illness in a most singular manner, so as to strike the spectators with astonishment. He first exhibited various symptoms of pain, then fell down as if dead, afterwards seemed to revive, gradually, as if waking from a profound sleep and then frisked and sported about, giving meanwhile various demonstrations of joy and delight. It is surprising the antipathy which sometimes exists between inmates of the same kennels, I have had several instances of it in the course of a long experience with most breeds. I remember some years ago I had a Skye Terrier bitch, called "Wasp," and a Pepper Dandie bitch, known as "Hornet," which we generally characterised as "The Insects," and very stinging insects they were, if they happened to meet. One day when I was driving in the dog cart to the railway station, at that time about a six-mile drive to the nearest town to where I was living, and as we were going along, I thought I heard a humming sound, and said to my kennelman who was with me, "Jump down, Hale, I believe those Insects are at it!" and I was right. They had eaten through the sides of their baskets, and got at each other, through the holes, and were fairly enjoying themselves on the journey. We managed to keep them apart the rest of the way to the show they were bound for. I cannot recall what the place was, but I well remember that "Hornet," who although quite a little creature, was a perfect demon with others of her own race, though sweet tempered, and most engaging with human beings, broke three chains I bought there, two of them new ones, in order to get again at "Wasp," before they left the show to return home. Their portraits appear in one of my pictures with pony, my children and dogs, and are very like them. CHAPTER XIX ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS (_Continued_) In these days, when so much has been attempted and done, in connection with expeditions to the Arctic regions, the following account by the late Captain Parry, R. N. in the Journal of his second voyage, may be interesting as giving a lively and accurate description of the manner in which Esquimaux Dogs are managed in the sleighing operations in those inclement climes. "When drawing a sledge," says he, "the dogs have a simple harness of reindeer or seal skin, going round the neck of one bight and another for each of the fore legs, with a single thong leading over the back, and attached to the sledge, as a trace. "Though they appear, at first sight, to be huddled together without any regard to regularity, there is, in fact, considerable attention paid to their arrangement, particularly in the selection of a dog of peculiar spirit and sagacity, who is allowed by a longer trace, to precede all the rest, as Leader, and to whom, in turning to the right or left, the driver usually addresses himself. "This choice is made without regard to age or sex, and the rest of the dogs take precedency according to their training or sagacity, the least effective being put nearest the sledge. "The leader is, usually, from eighteen to twenty feet from the fore part of the sledge and the hindmost dog about half that distance, so that, when ten or twelve are running together several are nearly abreast of each other. "The driver sits quite low on the front part of the sledge, with his feet overhanging the snow on one side, and having in his hand a whip, of which the handle is plaited a little way down to stiffen it, and give it a spring, on which much of its use depends, and that which composes the lash is chewed by the women to make it flexible in frosty weather. "The men acquire, from their youth, considerable expertness in the use of this whip. The lash is left to trail along the ground by the side of the sledge, and with it they can inflict a very severe blow upon any one of the dogs at pleasure. "Though the dogs are kept in training solely and entirely by the fear of the whip, and, indeed without it would soon have their own way, its immediate effect is always detrimental to the draught of the sledge, for not only does the individual that is struck draw back and slacken his pace, but generally turns upon his next neighbour, and this passing on to the next occasions a general divergency, accompanied by the usual yelping and showing of teeth. The dogs then come together again by degrees, and the pace of the sledge is quickened; but even at the best of times, by this rude mode of draught, (and be it remembered the _only one_, in these inclement parts of the world,) the traces of one-third of the dogs form an angle of thirty or forty degrees on each side of the direction in which the sledge is advancing. "Another great inconvenience attending the Esquimaux method of putting dogs to, besides that of not employing their strength to the best advantage, is the constant entanglement of the traces by the dogs repeatedly doubling under from side to side to avoid the whip, so that, after running a few miles, the traces always require to be taken off and cleared. "In directing the sledge, the whip plays no very essential part, the driver for this purpose using certain words, as the carters do with us, to make the dogs turn more to the right or left. To these, a good leader attends with admirable precision, especially if his own name be repeated, at the same time looking behind over his shoulder with great earnestness, as if listening to the directions of the driver. "On a beaten track, or where even a single foot, or sledge mark is visible, or occasionally discernible, there is not the slightest trouble in guiding the dogs; for even in the darkest night, and in the heaviest snow drifts, there is little or no danger of them losing their road, the leader keeping his nose near the ground, and directing the rest with wonderful sagacity. "Where, however, there is no beaten track, the best driver amongst them, makes a terribly circuitous course, as all the Esquimaux roads plainly show; these generally occupying an extent of six miles, when with a horse and sledge the journey would scarcely have amounted to five! "On rough ground, as on hummocks of ice, the sledge would be frequently overturned, or altogether stopped, if the driver did not repeatedly get off and by lifting or drawing it on one side, steer clear of those accidents. At all times, indeed, except on a smooth and well made road, he is pretty constantly employed, thus, with his feet, which, together with his never ceasing vociferations and frequent use of the whip, renders the driving of one of these vehicles by no means an easy or a pleasant task. "When the driver wishes to stop the sledge, he calls out 'Wo, woa,' exactly as our carters do, but the attention paid to this command depends altogether on his ability to enforce it. If the weight is small and the journey homeward, the dogs are not to be thus delayed, the driver is obliged therefore to dig his heels into the snow, to obstruct their progress, and having thus succeeded in stopping them, he stands up with one leg before the foremost cross-piece of the sledge, till by means of gently laying his whip over each dog's head, he has made them all lie down. Even then, he takes care not to quit his position; so that, should the dogs set off, he is thrown upon the sledge instead of being left behind by them. "With heavy loads, the dogs draw best with one of their own people, especially a woman, walking a little way ahead, and in this case they are sometimes enticed to mend their pace by holding a mitten to the mouth and then making the motion of cutting it with a knife and throwing it on the snow, when the dogs, mistaking it for meat, hasten forward to pick it up. The women also entice them from the huts in a similar manner. The rate at which they travel depends of course on the weight they have to draw and the roads on which the journey is performed. "When the latter is level and very hard and smooth constituting in other parts of North America what is called 'good sleighing,' six or seven dogs will draw from eight to ten hundredweight at the rate of seven or eight miles an hour, for several hours together, and will easily, under these circumstances, perform a journey of from fifty to sixty miles a day. On untrodden snow, five and twenty, or thirty miles would be a good journey in a day. "The same number of well-fed dogs with five or six hundredweight behind them, that of the sledge included, are almost unmanageable, and will, on a smooth road, run any way they please at the rate of ten miles an hour. The work performed, however, by a greater number of dogs is, by no means, in proportion to this, owing to the imperfect mode already described of utilising the strength of these sturdy creatures and to the more frequent snarling and fighting occasioned by the increase in numbers of the draught team or teams." I have no doubt all owners of kennels have noticed the sudden antipathies taken by dogs sometimes to their own comrades and companions. I remember several instances, amongst my dogs; one was between two remarkably quiet and unassuming Bull Bitches, Louisa and Lucretia, who lived together in a roomy kennel for a long time, but one night there was such a great noise amongst all the dogs that I felt sure there must be something serious going on, so I got up and dressed sufficiently to go down, and found that although the barking and yelling was being done by the Sheep Dogs, Terriers, etc., the "business" lay entirely between the two ladies mentioned, who were simply locked together, and I had a nasty job to get and keep them apart, as it really wants two persons to deal with two determined "boxers," but at last, I got one outside, and the other inside the loose box, and then managed all right. Another case I had was the two well-known champions, Rob Roy and Laird, two of the best Dandies going at the time they were about. Neither of them had any idea what fear was, but each hated the other with the most deadly hatred, and even to hear the bark of the one, would set the other screaming to get at him, and yet they were both docile with people, and mostly with other dogs, but Laird had a particular dislike to any dog, running in front of a vehicle and barking at the horse, and this aversion was the cause of his sudden death. Cedar Lodge, Downend, Glo., where I then lived, was the corner of one of four roads, with a large lawn on the two front sides of it, and it was Laird's delight to sit on the top of a low wall, there, and watch the passers by; one morning, early, he was thus engaged, when a crank axle cart came rumbling along, accompanied by a good-sized dog, barking in front of the horse; this was too much for Laird, who sprang from the wall into the road and pinned the dog, and before the man could pull up his horse, the wheels of the cart had gone over the fighting dogs in the road with fatal effects on one of the combatants, as Laird, without a whimper, though he must have been seriously injured, walked slowly into the house, lay down in his own box, and died then and there! Another case of sudden antipathy I remember was between two Skye Bitches of mine, Laura and Lucy (winners of some fifty prizes at all the best shows, while they were about), I bought, on the dispersal of Mrs. Jacobson's kennel, after her lamented death. She was a genuine fancier, and sportswoman, and all her dogs were sure to be "workers," and thoroughly game. One of them was drop-eared, and the other prick-eared, and for a long time they were the best of friends, and not only lived together in one kennel, but used to go to shows often considerable distances, such as Edinburgh, Darlington, and other places in a long low wicker basket, which just suited them without any partition or division in it. But one day they had some difference of opinion, the cause of which I do not know, but there were "ructions," and they never could be trusted together again without the certainty of "war to the knife." James Hogg, well known as the Ettrick shepherd, declares in his "Shepherd's Calendar" that dogs know what is said on subjects in which they are interested. A farmer had a dog that for three or four years in the latter part of his life, met him at the foot of his farm, about a mile and a half from his house, on his way home. If he was away half a day, a week, or a fortnight, it was all the same, she met him at that spot, there was never an instance known of her going to meet him, on a wrong day, and she could only know when he was coming back, by hearing it mentioned in the family. I have had many dogs who knew Sunday perfectly well, whether by hearing the church bells, or other indications of the day, I do not know, but although wild to go if they saw me going out at any other time, on that day, they would take no notice nor make any attempt to follow me. In the same way I have had many thin-coated dogs such as Bull and English Terriers, Smooth Toys and Pugs, who would not go out willingly in wet weather, but Sheep Dogs, Dalmatians, Deerhounds, Dandies, Scottish, Skyes and Wirehaired Fox Terriers, take no notice of it, beyond occasionally shaking themselves, to get rid of some of the water. Another of Hogg's tales is as follows: "One of my Sheep dogs, named Hector, was very keen in picking up what was said before him." One day Hogg said to his mother, "I am going to Bowerhope to-morrow for a fortnight, but I will not take Hector with me, for he is constantly quarrelling with the rest of the dogs." Hector was present and must have overheard the conversation, as next morning he was missing, and when Hogg reached Bowerhope, Hector was sitting on a hillock, waiting his arrival, he had swum across a flooded river to reach the spot. Retrievers have the reputation, either rightly or wrongly, of being quarrelsome with other dogs, and so are more often kept as guards or for sporting work, than as companions or pets, but the following are recorded of their sagacity. The inmates of a house in High street in a well-known city were aroused by the loud barking of a dog on the premises. He was a large Black Retriever, Jack, much attached to his master and family. The cause of alarm was soon seen to be a fire raging furiously next door, the smoke from which had aroused the dog. In a short time the house was emptied, all the inmates escaping before it caught fire, which appeared inevitable. Jack was often used to be left in charge of the house when the family were temporarily absent, and although not tied up, no persuasion or even coaxing would induce him to desert his post, so much so that it was four hours after he had given the first alarm of fire, that he allowed one of the family to persuade him to leave the building, which was then almost "gutted." In a marvellous manner, he had escaped injury from the fire, or falling walls, rafters, etc., but the shock to the system from the inhalation of smoke, etc., was so severe, that it caused inflammation of the lungs, and he died the next day, after suffering with coughing, etc., really a martyr to what he looked upon as his duty, and though occasionally taking a little water, refusing all food. CHAPTER XX ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS (_Continued_) Another instance of sagacity occurred at Bristol, when a nursemaid wheeling a perambulator with a baby in it, down Spring Hill, which those of my readers who know the locality, will remember, is one of the steepest in that hilly part of the country, was seized with a fit, and loosened her hold. In an instant the little vehicle, with its living occupant, was darting down towards a flight of steps in the hill and apparently to certain destruction. Just before its arrival at the steps, the leathern apron of the perambulator was seized by a Retriever dog, who happened to witness the occurrence, and saw the danger of it, the vehicle was stopped and the child saved from an untimely death. The natural love of fun and inclination for being taught almost anything of the Irish Water Spaniel is well known, so that I think the following account by Mr. Lindhoe, R.E., at one time a keen fancier and exhibitor, of his Rake and Blaeney, may be interesting to my readers. He writes: "Rake is a very clever dog and can be taught almost any trick. He is very tender-mouthed and can dive and bring up an egg, unbroken, from a depth of twelve feet or more. It is very amusing also to see him take sixpence out of a bucket of water, as he sometimes has his head under nearly two minutes before picking it up. I taught him a very clever trick which used to cause much amusement at the shows. Whenever he was disturbed by any one poking at him with a stick to make him rouse up and show himself, he would rise gently, put his fore paws on the shoulders of the disturber of his rest, and before it was guessed what idea he had in view, seize and take off the man's hat and deposit it in the pan of water, or on the straw in his pen. Blaeney also is wonderfully clever, and a splendid hand at sport on land or in water. After a game of croquet is finished, she invariably brings in the hoops, mallets, balls, etc., and places them in their proper box in the hall. Once when I was engaged in separating four large Mastiffs who were fighting, she came to my rescue, and considering the best way of rendering assistance, seized the most stubborn of the combatants by the tail and held on till the fight was stopped. She would retrieve very long distances and often surprised people by seizing some stick or other article, which had been put down on purpose for her to fetch, and they had unknowingly picked up. I have frequently known both these dogs jump into the water from a distance of nearly thirty feet." I remember, on a recent occasion, when I had promised to judge at one of our largest London shows, having the impression the show opened on the Tuesday, I went up on the Monday, and did not discover my mistake until I got to the hotel I usually patronised for any show in that part of the metropolis, but as I have always any amount of places and people to see, I own I did not trouble about the matter, and had nearly forgotten it until at the show I met a gentleman also hailing from the same part of England and a well-known light in the Beagle world, who said: "I did an unusual thing this time, came up a day too soon, and I shall get a pretty 'roasting' over it." I replied: "I also did the same for the first time, in a long experience of Dog shows, but do not expect any 'roasting.'" He said, "Oh, but my wife will know it, if no one else does, and she will never forget it." I answered, "Neither my wife, nor any one else, will know it, from me, as I don't believe (any more than the late Mr. Sam Weller) in telling matters against myself." But as I see the gentleman referred to has followed the example of the late Mr. Silas Wegg (in Our Mutual Friend) and "dropped into poetry," in the pages of a well known fancier's paper, it may amuse some of our mutual friends if I quote the lines here: TOO PREVIOUS PUNCTUALITY. Two L's went up, a Lordly Lane. To visit Cruft, his Show And scorning both the wind, and rain, Were early, "on the go." They both hail from the Sunny West, And, both, their locks, are grey, But spite of this, may I be blessed, They, both, mistook the day! The one, a Judge, of well-known fame, But not, a Judge, of days, The other, but, a Judge of Game, In all its gamey ways. So eager were they for the fray, To be in time, for Sport, They both arrived, upon the day, The day, before, they ought! Many of the older exhibitors will remember the late Mr. I. H. Murchison, F. R. G. S., whose large and successful kennel of St. Bernards, Dandies, and Fox Terriers, was for so many years in the front rank at all the leading shows? As I was much mixed up in the two last named varieties, I used constantly to be in his company, and that of his son, also a keen and capable fancier. I remember on one occasion meeting him at a show, I forget where it was, now, I think in the London district, but amongst the dogs he had there was a young and very promising Fox Terrier, called "Cracknel," with which he had carried all before him, and he showed me a letter he had received from a gentleman then, as now, in the front rank of Fox Terrier breeders, and exhibitors, offering him £270 for the dog, and he said, since receipt of the letter, the writer had offered to make it "even money" (£300), at that time, quite a fancy price for a specimen of that breed. He said, "What would you advise me to do about it?" I said, "Why take it, without hesitation, it is a tempting price, the life of all dogs is uncertain, and show dogs, especially, and it will do your kennel more good to have sold a dog from it, at such a figure, than anything you can gain, in any other way." However, he refused the offer, and Cracknel not long afterwards rushed into a hayfield after a rabbit, or rat, and so cut himself with a scythe hidden in the long grass that he had to be sewn up and was long in the veterinary surgeon's care and was never in the front rank again! I have known many such cases of good offers being refused to the prejudice of the dog's owners. I remember a well-known lady exhibitor coming up to me at a show with a telegram she had just received from America, offering her £150 for a prize winning pug she had, and asking my advice. I strongly advised her to take it, as it was far more than the market value of the dog, but, in the end, she sent back a refusal. Other dogs came forward, and put her dog into the rear rank, and she afterwards sold it for, I think, about £20. Mr. Edwin Nichols, of whom I have spoken in relation to several large breeds, was one of the first men to get large prices for his dogs, as it must be quite twenty years or more since he received so he told me, £900 for two dogs, one of them being the well known Mastiff, "Turk," one of the grandest specimens of his day, and the other a high class Bloodhound. And to show what a fine judge he was as to the strains to breed, I remember an instance he gave me from his extensive experience. He met a friend one day to whom he had sold a Bloodhound bitch puppy, who said, "Mr. Nichols, I wish you would take back that puppy I had from you, it is always doing mischief in the garden, etc., and I wish to get rid of it." Mr. Nichols said, "I really don't want it, I have a lot of dogs of all ages, and I am more a seller than a buyer at present." To make a long story short, he eventually took back the young bitch for £10, afterward mating her to one of his best dogs, and he told me that he sold that litter, which produced two if not three champions, for over one thousand pounds. I say, that a man who could do such a thing, proved himself a consummate judge, and I have not the slightest doubt of the truth of the story, and, when he named the dogs in the litter to me, I knew what grand specimens of the breed they were. CHAPTER XXI ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS (_Continued_) I have mentioned the "Warwick Shows" of days gone by, and what charming re-unions they were. I think the incident which follows must have been at the first of them, for although I had known Mr. Nichols by sight and name, I did not think I was known to him. I remember I had reached Warwick in the afternoon, engaged a bed at the Globe Hotel (where they told me mine was a double bedded room, and I stipulated that the other bed should not be occupied without my consent), and went to the show, and meeting with many friends there, it was late when I got back. I then found Mr. Nichols waiting to see who I was, as it seemed the other bed in my room was the only one unoccupied in the town. I had not left my name, and the hotel people's description did not enlighten him, but he said, "Whoever it is, if he knows anything about dogs, or doggy men, he will know me!" and so it proved. We had, as always afterwards whenever we met, a long talk on subjects congenial to us both, and he secured the "last bed of Warwick!" Amongst the many weaknesses to which I plead guilty, is a devoted admiration of the works of the late Charles Dickens, some of which came out in their green coloured numbers, while I was a schoolboy, and it was the delight of my brothers and self, to sit and listen to them being read out to us by our dear mother, who had a gift in that direction. I hope my readers will pardon my giving here, a very short doggy story, from Pickwick Papers, in the pithy, disjointed sentences of "Mr. Alfred Jingle," as I wish to give something, however slight, about nearly every breed, and the anecdotes about Pointers are not very numerous. "Ah! you should keep dogs, fine animals, sagacious creatures. Dog of my own once, Pointer, surprising instinct, out shooting one day, entering enclosure, whistled, dog stopped, whistled again, Ponto! no go; stock still, called him, 'Ponto, Ponto,' no go, stock still, wouldn't move, dog transfixed, staring at a board, looked up, saw an inscription, 'Gamekeeper has orders to shoot all dogs found in this enclosure,' wouldn't pass it, wonderful dog, valuable dog that, very. 'Singular circumstance that,' said Mr. Pickwick, 'Will you allow me to make a note of it?' 'Certainly, sir, certainly, hundred more anecdotes of the same animal.'" At the risk of its being considered "a chestnut," I will here recount the story of the dogs of Oldacre, so well told by the late William Howitt, in his "Boys' Country Book" (one of the prime favourites of my boyhood). "This story brings to my recollection, those two noble dogs at Oldacre, two grand Setters that Squire Mills used always to have at his heels, whether it was shooting season or not, just one the picture of the other, as like as pin to pin or pear to pear! Well, Squire Mills had an estate in Oxfordshire, a hundred miles off at least; and there he used to go twice a year to receive his rents, and he never went, while he had those dogs, without taking one of them with him. When the dog was tired he let him go up into his chaise and ride, and when he was tired of riding, the dog leaped out and jogged along again till he was tired again. Squire Mills always stopped at the Mitre Inn at Oxford, and it so happened, on one occasion, that as his Setter followed him up the stable yard, a great mastiff, which was chained to a kennel, suddenly rushed out, seized on the Setter, and before he could be beaten off, had very severely worried him. Squire Mills was very angry, and the innkeeper made many apologies, but that did not cure the dog's wounds, and the Squire, who said he would rather have given five pounds than the dog had been so used, set off homeward in no very good humour. The dog, which seemed very much hurt, lay whining and appearing very uneasy, in the bottom of the chaise, all the way home, and when they got there the keeper was ordered to pay every attention to him, and do all that he could for him. But the dog lay in his kennel for more than a week, and seemed in a very poor way, indeed. He would not eat, and the keeper was very doubtful what would be the upshot of it, when, one morning he was very much surprised to find, both he and his fellow dog missing. All inquiries were made, but nothing could be heard of them and it was concluded they were stolen. The squire immediately offered five and twenty guineas for the discovery of the thief; but no thief was heard of, or the dogs either, till a week afterwards, when they again entered the yard, but two such poor jaded, worn-down creatures as never were seen. They were, apparently, starved to the very point of death, covered with dust, and in fact, in such a condition that notwithstanding all that could be done, they both died in the course of a few days. On examining them after death, they appeared to have been shot at, various shot-corns being found in their skins. Nothing, however, came to light about it; and on the next rent day the Squire made his journey into Oxfordshire without either of his favourite dogs. As he passed the kennel of the Mastiff in the Inn Yard, at Oxford, he could not help looking, with resentment, towards it, when to his surprise, instead of the Mastiff, which had been there many years, he saw quite another dog. "And so you have parted with that savage brute of a Mastiff that worried my setter the last time I was here," he said to the Ostler. "Ay," replied the Ostler, "there's a curious thing about that, sir, the dog was worried, dead on the spot, at the door of his own kennel, and if I am not mistaken, your setter helped to do it too." "My setter," said the Squire, "what do you mean?" "I mean, sir," said the man, "that about a week or so after you was here last, when your dog got so towsled by old Sampson, the Mastiff, we heard all of a sudden a terrible noise of dogs fighting in the yard, and on running out, saw two great dogs fiercely at work with old Sampson. They had got him down, and seemed tearing him into very atoms. Our master made no more to do, but in he ran, snatched down the gun, and fired at the dogs, but it was too late, they were just going over the yard wall together, and I dare say, got off without the peppering master meant for them. But there, however, was old Sampson, as dead as the stones he lay upon!" "And you thought," said the Squire, "that one of the dogs resembled my setter?" "Nay," said the Ostler, "both of them. One was the very picture of the other, and if they were not your setters, they were no dogs at all!" "It is very wonderful," said the Squire, "but I have not a doubt but that you are quite right in your belief, and this accounts for what, till this moment, has very much puzzled me. My dog was so resentful of the injury and insult that he received from your Mastiff, that he without doubt communicated his grievances to his brother dog, and prevailed on him to set out on a pilgrimage of revenge. The dogs disappeared for a week or more together, they came back wounded, and in that miserable plight, that they never recovered it. The dogs, let me tell you, are both dead, and I would not have taken a hundred pounds for them." The Ostler and all the people about the inn were wonderfully surprised at the story, and a wonderful circumstance it was, to be sure. My grandfather, who told the story, added, "It is just as true as you sit there, I had it word for word, nay, I have had it, word for word, twenty times, from Squire Mills himself." Of course in a long career of dog showing and judging I have come into contact with all classes of exhibitors, and I am bound to say, as a general rule, have met with the greatest courtesy and had many a kind turn done me at different times, nor was I ever, but once, the subject of any of the practical jokes which used to be, more than they are now, so very frequent, and sometimes very rough, and unpleasant in their nature. The one exception was when I was stopping at Sydenham, on the occasion of a Crystal Palace show, and when I rose in the morning to go up and see my dogs before breakfast, my boots could nowhere be found, but as I knew there was a very lively team stopping at the same hotel, I felt certain it was their doing, and resolved to checkmate them by going to see the dogs all the same and saying nothing about it, so as I always carried in my bag a pair of Indian leather moccasins, I put them on, and went over to the Palace, where I presently met one of the squad I suspected of "lifting my boots," he said, "What funny shoes you have on, Mr. Lane." I said, "Yes, they are a little out of the common, but, the fact is, some of the jokers at my hotel, have taken a fancy to my boots and probably supposed I should be kept a prisoner in the hotel all day, and so I put on these," he said, "You don't mean to say, _your_ boots were taken. They've taken the wrong man's; no one had the slightest idea of playing any prank on you," and when I returned, I found my boots in my room. I came across, in an old French work, the following curious, if true, method of fishing, in which the services of a Poodle, or Terrier were called into action. The enthusiastic sportsman who fears neither storms nor sunstroke (_coup de soleil_) makes his appearance at the Riverside without either fishing rod, lines, worms, flies or bait, of any description, but having under his left arm a double-barrelled gun, in his right hand, a large cabbage and following at his heels a clever Poodle or Terrier dog. The fisherman, or huntsman, I scarcely know which to call him, now duly reconnoitres the river, fixes upon some tree, the large and lower branches of which hang out over the water, ascends with his gun and cabbage, and having taken up his position upon one of the large projecting branches, closely examines the surface of the stream beneath him. He has, usually, not been long on his perch, before he perceives a stately pike, or other member of the finny tribe, paddling up the river, he instantly breaks a leaf off the cabbage, and when the fish has approached sufficiently near, throws it into the water, the frightened fish immediately disappears, but shortly after rises, and grateful to the kind and unknown friend who has provided this admirable parasol, swims towards it, and after pushing it about for a while with his nose, finally places himself comfortably under its protecting and congenial shade. The sportsman in the tree, watching the animated movements of the cabbage leaf, immediately fires, when the dog, whose sagacity is quite equal to that of his master, plunges into the water, and if the fish is either dead or severely wounded, seldom fails to bring the scaly morsel to land; thus as long as the heavens are bright and blue, the water keeps warm on the surface and the larger fish prefer to swim in the sun, the sport continues so long as the climbing and staying powers of the sportsman hold out. Sometimes the dog and fish have a very sharp struggle, and then the fun is great indeed unless, by chance, the sportsman should unfortunately miss his footing in the tree, in the midst of his amusement and drop head foremost into the water with his double-barrelled gun and what is left of his cabbage. I think it may be interesting here to quote the eulogistic terms in which Mr. Burchell, the well-known African traveller, wrote of his dogs, as he had a considerable experience of the breed in the course of his long and perilous journeys in that (at the time he was there) almost unknown country. "Our pack of dogs," says he, "consisted of five and twenty, of various sorts and sizes. This great variety, though not altogether intentional, as I was obliged to take any that could be procured and were at all likely to answer my purposes, was often of the greater service to me, as I observed, some gave notice of danger, or their suspicions of it, in one way, and others in quite a different manner. Some were more disposed to keep watch against men, others against wild beasts of prey, and others for animals and birds of sport; some discovered an enemy by their quickness of hearing, others by that of scent; some were useful for speed in pursuing game, some for their vigilance and barking, and others for their courage in holding ferocious animals at bay. So large a pack indeed was not maintained without adding greatly to our care and trouble, in supplying them with meat and water, for it was sometimes difficult to procure for them enough of the latter; but, their services were invaluable, often contributing to our safety, and always to our ease, by their constant vigilance, as we felt confident that no danger could approach us at night without its being announced by their barking. "No circumstances could render the value and fidelity of these animals so conspicuous and sensible as a journey through regions which abounding in wild beasts of almost every class, gave us continual opportunities of witnessing the strong contrast between the ferocious beasts of prey, many of which fly at the approach of man and these kind, but not always duly appreciated, companions of the human race. Many times when we have been travelling over plains where the wild creatures of all kinds have fled directly we appeared in sight, have I turned my eyes towards my dogs, in admiration of their devotion and attachment and have felt a grateful affection towards them for preferring our society to the wild liberty of other quadrupeds. "Often in the middle of the night when all my people have been fast asleep round the fire, have I stood to contemplate these faithful animals lying by their side, and have learned to esteem them for their social inclination to mankind. When wandering over pathless deserts, oppressed with vexation and distress at the conduct of my own men I have turned to them, as my only friends and felt how much inferior to them was man when actuated only by selfish views. "The familiarity which exists between these animals and our own race, is so common to almost every country of the globe, that any remark upon it must seem superfluous, but I cannot avoid believing that it is the universality of the fact which prevents the greater part of mankind from duly reflecting on the subject. While almost every other quadruped fears man as its most formidable enemy, here is one which regards him as a friend. "We must not mistake the nature of the case, it is not because we train him to our use and have made choice of him in preference to other animals, but because this particular species feels a natural desire to be useful to man and from spontaneous impulse attaches itself to him. Were it not so we should see in various countries an equal familiarity with various other quadrupeds according to the habits, tastes, or caprices of different nations. But, everywhere, it is the dog only takes delight in associating with us, in sharing our abodes, and is even jealous that our attention should be bestowed on him alone, it is he who knows us personally, watches for us, and warns us of danger. "It is impossible for the naturalist, when taking a survey of the whole animal creation not to feel a conviction that this friendship between two creatures so different from each other, must be the result of the laws of nature; nor can the humane and feeling mind avoid the belief that kindness to those animals, from which he derives continued and essential assistance is part of his moral duty." These words of such an experienced naturalist as Mr. Burchell, are as true to-day as when they were written by him more than fifty years ago, but I am bound to say I think dogs are more valuable, and more thought of now, than ever they were since the world began. Mr. Bell tells a short story of the intelligence displayed by a Bloodhound belonging to a friend of his, a Mr. Boyle. He says, "To make trial whether a young hound was well instructed, Mr. Boyle desired one of his servants to walk to a town four miles off, and then to a market town three miles from thence. The dog, without seeing the man he was to pursue, followed him by the scent to the above mentioned places, notwithstanding the multitude of market people that went along the same road and of travellers that had occasion to come, and when the Bloodhound came to the market town he passed through the streets, without taking notice of any of the people there, and ceased not till he had gone to the house, where the man he sought rested himself and where he found him in an upper room to the wonder of those who had accompanied him in this pursuit." In the face of the Bloodhound trials last year, and again this spring, in which my friend Mr. Brough has been so much interested, I thought some of my readers might like to see this short account of the doings of a young hound, more than half a century ago. To illustrate the occasional trials of exhibitors, I recollect starting off early with a team of dogs for one of the first general shows held at Oxford, I think all my dogs were in boxes or baskets but one, a tricolour Collie, whose name I forget, and he was on the chain, and put by the railway people into one of those vile receptacles they call dog boxes, narrow, dark, low and often dirty. On arrival at Didcot (which I had before connected in my mind with Banbury cakes, and was quite surprised to find a "one-eyed" sort of straggling village of contemptible size,) a porter opened one end of the dog den and called the Collie, he, however, showed no intention of responding to the call, and retreated to the other end of the den and growled at the porter, and one of the other porters went around to the further side of the coach and opened the other door of the den, and the dog, taking advantage of this chance of freedom, bolted out, crossed the line, went through a hedge and found himself at once in the open country. I had taken no part in the affair, and declined all responsibility, but told the officials I should sue the company for the value of the dog, lost through their carelessness. They begged me to accompany some of their men in search of the dog, as he might be easier caught if he saw someone he knew amongst those after him. Soon after it began to rain, and from soon after eleven a. m. till after six p. m. we tramped the country in search of the wandering dog, whom we afterwards saw in the distance, but in that district the fields are very large, and often as we laboriously got into a field through a hedge or over hurdles, etc., we had the mortification of seeing the dog disappear through or over the hedge on the opposite side, and very wearisome work it was. At length I decided to go on to Oxford, with the rest of my dogs, and left the matter of the lost dog with the railway company, who, I was informed, offered a reward for his recovery, and about a month afterwards I had a letter asking me to call at one of their stations where they thought a dog lately found answered the description of mine. This turned out to be correct and I took home the dog, making a small claim for expenses I had been put to in the matter. The dog was not in bad condition, and still wore the collar and chain on him when lost, but it is strange how that dog managed to live for a month in such a sparsely inhabited district as that round about Didcot, at any rate at that time, which is about fifteen years ago. CHAPTER XXII ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS (_Continued_) I have been asked to reproduce a humourous "skit," which appeared in "The Daily Mail" 9th of July, 1897, from the pen of a well-known contributor to that paper. It was headed "A Ladies' Dog Show," and ran as follows: "Seven gentle ladies were yesterday to be observed walking gravely in a circle in Regents Park. They each led a Black Pug by a chain. They walked round and round a ruddy old gentleman with keen blue eyes, a shepherd's smock, and a slouched straw hat. Three partridge feathers stuck out jauntily from the side of the hat. The ladies cast appealing looks at the shepherd, who stared hard at the insignificant little wretches of dogs, one of whom barked all the while, but he did not heed it. The march became quicker; the ladies looked more appealing than ever. A crowd gathered around and observed the strange proceedings with wonder. What was it? they asked. A new system of Pantheistic worship? or a side show from a menagerie? The shepherd put up his hand and the ladies stopped, dead. He threw down his glittering pencil to attract the notice of one of the glossy little Pugs. The Pug snapped. He caught it by the head, and stared hard in its ridiculous little face. The dog chastened by the keen blue eyes, ceased to yelp. The proud proprietor at the other end of the chain, looked as anxious as a criminal in the dock. The other ladies made the most of this moment of respite. They patted their dogs and kissed them, and told them to be good little duckies of doggies, and mamma would be so pleased! One tempted her charge with a biscuit, another with half a crown. The coin was held up above the dog's nose. Doggie jumped, and scrambled and yelped just like any of its human acquaintances. The shepherd looked at each dog in turn, and wrote something in a book, and then seven ladies and seven dogs left the ring. One lady looked pleased, another fairly satisfied and the rest as if somebody had blundered. The Pugs were all indifferent. But the secret was out, there were no mysterious rites of an Esoteric creed. It was a dog show, that of the 'Ladies' Kennel Association.' They have survived their internecine troubles, and have more members than they had before that dramatic split at the Holborn restaurant and boast of more entries at this show than ever they had before. Between seven hundred and eight hundred dogs are staged. At a Ladies' Show it is to be expected that some of the conventionalities will be overthrown. There are, for instance, no men prowling about, with cloth caps, buckskin leggings, and wisps of straw, telling you that their Terrier killed fifty rats in thirty seconds or that 'the Brindled Bull was own sister to the best dawg that was ever bred.' The exhibitors are ladies, elegantly dressed, who sit and listen to the band with their Pugs and Spaniels, on their knees. It is the same with the dogs, there are no sporting dogs, to speak of, though the number is increasing year by year and not half a score of Bull Dogs. Such as there are, a little aristocracy of bone and jowl lie at rest in a distant corner of the tent not deigning to notice the Poodles around. Near them are a few Airedale Terriers. One of them, which would be in its element in a rattling street fight, stretched to the top of its pen, looked over at the 'curled darlings' on the other side, deliberately yawned and turned over again to sleep. There is a whole tent full of Toy Spaniels and other exquisites in upholstered pens. They have ribbons round their necks, and bells and go about two to the pound. The Poodles are curled and shaven and shorn, and decked out with top-knots of coloured ribbons. One which lay asleep was described as a 'Rag and a Bone, and a Hank of Worsted,' Two Poodle puppies, not yet shorn, looked refreshingly unkempt by the side of these ultra-respectable Uncles and Aunts. A litter of Dachshunds resembled lion cubs asleep. The foreign class which is both strong and varied, provided an amusing contrast. In one pen was a huge shaggy 'Balu,' in the next a shivering little 'Mousie Chihuahua,' whatever that may be! 'Balu' could have taken 'Mousie' among his hors d'oeuvres before dinner. Chows with big heads and wee twinkling eyes. Borzois trying to twist their legs into geometrical figures; an Esquimo asleep; a vicious Dingo in a cage. St. Bernards which made the tent quiver, when they barked and Bloodhounds sleeping serenely, there being no murderers about, these were the Giants of the show. If not as numerous, certainly they were a more weighty section than the Toy Spaniels. The Princess of Wales was among the exhibitors. If anyone wants to see a good collection of 'Japs' and 'Poms' and 'Skyes' and 'Dachs' and 'Charlies,' so the ladies tenderly call them, at Regents Park, he will find them." The following related by the late Hon. Grantley Berkeley, strongly illustrative of the sagacity and thinking powers of dogs, may be interesting to some of my readers: "I had a dog called 'Wolf,' at Teffont Mane House, in Wiltshire, and when I fed my tame pheasants and partridges I always took him with me. This dog had seen my caution when I approached the birds and always obeyed my signal to lie down by the gun till I had done feeding them. When the game began to get to an age to stray, a considerable number used to come upon the lawn in front of the windows. "One afternoon the lawn being, to all appearances, clear of birds, I sent Wolf to hunt a rabbit out of a circular flower bed, for me to shoot. The dog obeyed the sign, but no sooner had he entered the laurels, than he made a sort of snap with his jaws, a thing he always did when he was not pleased, and returned to my heels with rather a sheepish look. The sign to hunt having been repeated the same thing occurred and on his returning to me with a peculiar expression in his face, I went to the laurels to ascertain what hindered his obedience. "To my great pleasure I found about a dozen young pheasants, into whose presence he was fearful of intruding, so I lay down on the lawn close to the pheasants, and letting him see how pleased I was, caressed him for full five minutes, and then when I retired, did so in a most marked and stealthy manner, which he, close at my heels, immediately adopted. Now suppose some thoughtless or inconsiderate master with such a dog as this had upon his refusal to hunt, beaten or kicked him for disobedience, which would really have deserved the punishment, the sensible dog, or the silly man? "On taking up my residence at Beacon Lodge, and, for years after, Wolf was still in or out of the house, my constant companion and closely observant of all I did or desired. When first the wild white rabbits began to appear at Beacon, I never shot them, but very frequently killed the brown ones by their side. In hunting any outlying place, if by chance there was a white rabbit, I used to stop Wolf from hunting it up to my gun, and by observation the dog convinced himself that a rabbit so coloured was on no account to be molested. When the whites had become more common, one evening I went out to kill some rabbits for the table, or to give away, and seeing a very fine young white one, I shot it. The rabbit lay dead on the contrary side of a fence, and Wolf had not seen it killed, but at a sign from me, flew over to pick up whatever might be there. The rabbit lay kicking with its hinder legs, and Wolf seeing the motion in the grass, dashed up, but instantly made the snap with his jaws, dropped his stern and came back with a sheepish look, as if to tell me I had done wrong. I praised and made much of him, and taking him with me up to the rabbit encouraged him to pick it up and to give it to me, and ever after he would pick up any coloured rabbit that might be killed. "Wolf's dinner hour was at my dessert time, the last thing the retiring servants had to do was to place his plate upon the hearthrug. Occasionally they neglected to do this, and then he had seen me ring the bell, to rectify the omission. For some years before his death, when his dinner was due, and had not been brought in, after looking at me with a wistful expression of countenance, he would go up and kiss the bell handle, and then come to me, look up in my face, and push my arm with his nose. Of course, up came his dinner, with a ring from the bell, denoting double quick time." More than forty years since, there was a London street dog which took a great fancy to following the fire engines. Whenever there was a fire there would the dog be seen running in and out among the throng apparently making himself as busy as possible. This strange conduct of the animal, of course, attracted the attention of the firemen, and after a time they used to feed and take notice of him, occasionally giving him a ride on the engine. At last, so well was the dog known that he came to be called the Fireman's Dog. He owned no master, but stopped a day or two with any of the firemen he took a fancy to. He was always on the alert, directly the fire alarm was given, and used frequently to run by the side of the horses for miles together. At last the dog on one of the journeys, was run over and killed, when the firemen had his body stuffed and set up in a glass case in the principal office of the Metropolitan fire brigade, Watling street, London. There it remained for some years, and numbers of people called to see him in his glass case. In 1853 the Superintendent of the Fire Station, Chandos street, Covent Garden, was for some neglect of duty degraded to the rank of an ordinary fireman. This disgrace so preyed on the poor fellow's mind, that one winter's night he threw himself over Waterloo Bridge and was drowned. He left a widow and children totally unprovided for, and in order to procure a sum for their relief, the glass case containing the stuffed figure of the Fireman's Dog was disposed of by way of lottery. A raffle took place at a tavern in Chandos street, when upwards of a hundred pounds was realised. The dog was won by the tavern-keeper, and in his parlour it may still be seen. Thus you see that long after death the dog has been found useful to his masters in time of need. The following account of a dog, for many years known as "The Brighton Coach Dog," is cut from an old newspaper of the time. "For a long period a dog invariably accompanied the only coach which in 1851 ran between London and Brighton. On the 24th June, in that year, he was placed on the back of the coach to prevent his barking at the horses, when he jumped off at Henfield and fell between the wheels, one of which, passing over his back, killed him. The animal belonged to an ostler at the Newcastle Place stables, Edgeware Road, London; he went to the yard when a puppy and the man took care of him. "Being brought up amongst horses, he was never happy unless with them at home, or travelling about. His chief delight was to travel up and down with the Brighton coach. He had been known to travel, during the last spring of his life, for eight successive days to and from Brighton, Sundays intervening. "The distance from London to Brighton by way of Leatherhead, Dorking, Horsham and Henfield, the road which the stage coach traversed is seventy-four miles. It was with great difficulty he could be kept on the coach, always preferring to run by the side of it and it was his being placed on the top of the coach, from feelings of humanity on the part of Clarke, the coachman, which cost him his life. "On one occasion the guard placed him inside the coach, when there were no passengers, but in a few minutes he was surprised to see him running beside the coach, having jumped clean through the glass window. "During the early part of the summer he went with a strange coach to Tunbridge Wells, not liking his berth he did not return to London by the same conveyance, but found his way across the country from Tunbridge Wells to Brighton and went up to London with his favourite team. "He was well known by many on the road from London to Brighton, and in some places on the journey met with hospitable treatment. At the time of his death he was about five years old. Clarke informed us that he would kill a goose on his travels by the roadside, throw it over his back like a fox, and run for miles, and he offered to lay a wager that the dog would accompany the coach between Brighton and London daily for a month, Sundays excepted, and kill a goose by the roadside each day of his travels, provided birds were put within his reach. His skin was preserved, and has been stuffed. The 'Brighton Coach Dog' may be seen in the attitude of life in the bar parlour of a tavern in the Edgeware Road." I do not think I mentioned, when speaking of my kennels, and dogs, that for many years, an old Great Western Railway coach formed part of them, it was composed of a first-class, second-class, third-class compartments, and a luggage van, as a general rule, we had a pair of dogs, male and female, in each division, and used the luggage van for biscuits. As some of my readers may like to try the same experiment, I may say that there is no difficulty in the way, there are usually railway coaches of different sizes (I believe, you can also purchase horse boxes and trucks, which often serve the purpose of cow and poultry and cart and trap sheds) for sale at Swindon, where I bought mine for five pounds. Of course, it was merely the body, without any of the iron under part, but with the windows, doors, seats, ventilators, etc., no cushions or upholstery of any kind, but the only expense I had to incur was to get the village smith to fix some small iron bars on the outside of each window frame, to enable us to open the windows to give plenty of air, without the fear of the inmates getting out. The company delivered free to their nearest station, which in my case was within two miles from my place, and I there had a trolly and pair of horses, and the coach run on to it and lashed firmly to the trolly and it was brought without much difficulty as the weight was only about thirty-five hundredweight, although it looked a heavy affair. There was more time and trouble in fixing it in its place in my yard, than in the journey there. And some years afterwards when I changed my residence, I got the village smith to fix an axle and a couple of low strong wheels at each end of the coach, and one of the neighbouring farmers easily took it along the road to my new dwelling place, with a couple of his cart horses, to the great amusement and delight of the rural population, who insisted that each of the divisions was filled with some of my dogs, which were well known in the district as being frequent prize winners. The following is related on the authority of an old newspaper called the "Boston Traveller," published in the United States of America: A gentleman stopping at an hotel in Boston, privately hid his pocket handkerchief behind the sofa cushion in the coffee room and left the hotel accompanied by his dog, after walking for some distance, he suddenly stopped and said to his dog, "I have left my handkerchief at the hotel, go back and fetch it for me," giving no particular directions about it. The dog immediately returned at full speed, and entered the room his master had just left. He went directly to the sofa, but the handkerchief was gone. He jumped upon tables and counters, but it was nowhere to be seen. It turned out that a friend of his master's had discovered it and supposing it had been left by mistake, had taken care of it for the owner. But "Tiger" was not to be foiled. He flew about the room, apparently much excited, in quest of the "lost or stolen." Soon, however, he was upon the track, he scented it to the gentleman's coat pocket. What was to be done? The dog had no means of asking for it, by word of mouth, and was not accustomed to picking pockets, and besides the gentleman was ignorant of his business with him. But Tiger's sagacity did not suffer him to remain long in suspense. He seized the skirt containing the prize and furiously tearing it from the coat, hastily made off with it, much to the surprise of the owner. Tiger then overtook his master, and restored the lost property. Both the owner of the dog and the gentleman who had lost the tail of his coat, applauded the dog for his sagacity. In the southeast window of St. Mary's church, Lambeth, there is the full length figure of a pedlar with his pack, his staff and dog. This is the portrait of the unknown man who gave "Pedlar's Acre" to the parish of Lambeth. The story is worth telling. In the year 1504, a poor pedlar passing over a piece of waste ground near the river sat down to rest on the trunk of a tree. While seated here, he noticed that his dog acted very strangely, busying himself with scratching the earth with his feet and barking, and smelling about, every now and then running up to his master and looking him earnestly in the face and trying to drag him from his seat. The pedlar did not at first pay much attention to the dog, but its repeated barking and running to and fro compelled him, at last, to see what the animal wanted. Going to where the dog had been scratching he was surprised to find something shining below. Digging on the spot he discovered a large sum of money with part of which he purchased the land originally known as Pedlar's Acre, but now called the Belvidere Road, in Lambeth. Maitland, the historian of London, (1739 edition, page 791) tells the story as I have given it with the addition that the pedlar left the piece of land to the parish on condition that his portrait and that of his dog should be perpetually preserved in painted glass in one of the windows of the church. I cannot say whether this be true or not, but such is the legend, and there is the painted window with the portrait of the man and dog, as evidence still remaining. The following story about a Mastiff appeared in the Glasgow Chronicle: Early one Sunday morning some thieves attempted to enter the premises of Messrs. McLeod and Pollock, Argyle street, Glasgow, jewellers, by breaking through the sky-light. The building was one story high and it was comparatively easy to get on to the roof. About two o'clock a. m. Mr. McLeod, who resided in the back of the premises, was awakened by the action of his watch dog. The animal did not bark, but jumped upon the bed and continued scratching with his forepaws until his master rose up. The dog then uttered a low growl and looked towards the roof, as if anxious to draw his master's attention to that particular quarter. Immediately afterwards a small piece of glass fell on the floor, and on Mr. McLeod looking up he could see a man furtively moving on the roof; the police were informed and effected an arrest of the intruding burglar, through the warning given by the dog and before he had time to conceal himself or make good his retreat. CHAPTER XXIII ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS (_Continued_) In Mr. St. John's "Highland Sports," there is the following characteristic anecdote of a shepherd's dog: "A shepherd, a neighbour of mine, to prove the quickness of his dog, who was lying before the fire in the farmhouse kitchen where we were talking, one day, said to me in the middle of a conversation about quite a different matter, 'I'm thinking, sir, the cow's got into the potatoes,' though he purposely laid no stress on these words, and said them in a quiet, unconcerned tone of voice, the dog, who appeared to be asleep, immediately jumped up, leaped through the open window and scrambled up the turf roof of the house, from which he could see the potato field. Not seeing her there, he then ran into the farm yard, and finding her there, all right, came back to the house. After a time the shepherd said the same words again, and the dog repeated his look out, but on the false alarm being given a third time, the dog got up and wagging his tail, looked his master full in the face with such a comical expression of inquiry, that we could not refrain from laughing heartily, on which with a slight growl he laid himself down again to sleep in his accustomed place on the hearth rug, with an offended air, as if determined not to be made a fool of again." Most people who know anything about dogs, or doggy people, know Mr. George Raper, one of the most popular and capable all-round judges we have, but they do not all know what a very lively and active man he is. In my long experience as an exhibitor, I have often found myself in his company in different parts of the country, and usually he has had some good story to tell, or amusing thing to do. I remember, on one occasion, when we and a number more were staying at an hotel in South Wales, I forget now whether it was Haverfordwest, Pembroke or Tenby, but I think it was one of those three, how he astonished an old gentleman (not the least doggy or sporting in his appearance), by his agility. We were talking in the bar parlour of the hotel about vaulting, and in the room there was the ordinary high and wide pewter covered counter, or bar. I said, "I suppose you would not attempt to negotiate such an article as that?" Mr. Raper said, "I should have a good try at it," and without saying more, he stepped back, placed his hand on the centre of the counter, vaulted over, and then vaulted back again; the old gentleman, who was sitting down quietly having some refreshment, jumped up and said, "Bless my heart and soul, sir, I never saw such a thing done in my life!" which made us all laugh heartily. Captain Brown, in his "Popular Natural History," tells the following story of those formerly much to be pitied animals, the dogs utilized as "Turnspits." "The Duke de Leancourt had for the work in his kitchen two Turnspits, which took their turns, regularly, every other day in the wheel (something after the style of the revolving cages for squirrels and mice). One of them not liking his employment, hid himself on the day it was his turn to work, when they tried to force his companion to mount the wheel in his stead, he cried, and wagging his tail, intimated to those in authority to follow him. He at once conducted them to an upstairs lumber room, where he dislodged the idle dog, and gave him a good thrashing on the spot." In Mr. Baker's "Rifle and Hound in Ceylon," he says: "I was once shooting at Illepecadewè, which is a lonely, miserable spot, when I met with a very sagacious and independent sportsman in a most unexpected manner. I was shooting with a friend and we had separated for a few hundred paces. Presently I came upon a lot of Pea fowl and killed one of them with my rifle. The shot was no sooner fired than I heard another shot in the jungle, in the direction taken by my friend. My rifle was still unloaded when a spotted doe bounded out of the jungle, followed by a white Pariah dog in full chase. Who would have dreamt of meeting with a dog at a distance of more than three or four miles from any houses! I whistled to the dog, and to my surprise he came to me, the deer having, meanwhile, run clean out of sight in an incredibly short space of time. He was a knowing looking brute, and evidently out hunting on his own account. Just at this moment, my friend called out to me that he had wounded a buck, and had found the blood-stained track. I picked a blade of grass from the spot, which was tinged with blood, and holding it to the dog's nose, he eagerly followed me to the track, upon which I dropped it. "He went off in a moment, but running mute I was obliged to follow, and after a run of over half a mile, I lost sight of him. In following the track of the wounded buck I heard the distant barking of a dog, by which I knew he had brought him to bay, and I was soon at the spot. The buck had taken up a position in a small glade, and was charging furiously at the dog, but he was a great deal too knowing to court the danger and kept well out of the way. I shot the buck, and tying a piece of jungle rope to the dog's neck, gave him to a gunbearer to lead as I hoped he might be again useful in hunting up a wounded deer. I had not proceeded more than half a mile when we arrived at the edge of a small sluggish stream, covered in most places with rushes and waterlilies. "We waded through this about up to our hips, but the gunbearer, who had the dog with him, could not prevail upon our mute companion to follow; he pulled violently back and shrank and showed every sign of terror as he approached the water. I had now got over and was on the opposite bank, but as nothing could induce the dog to voluntarily come near the river, I told the gunbearer to drag him across by force. This he accordingly did, and the dog swam with frantic exertions across the river and managed to slip his head out of the jungle rope by which he was held. The moment he arrived on terra firma, he rushed up a steep bank and looked attentively down into the water beneath. We now gave him credit for his sagacity in refusing to cross the dangerous passage. "The reeds bowed down to the right and left as a huge crocodile of about eighteen feet in length moved slowly from his shallow bed into a deep hole. The dog turned to the right about and ran off as fast as his legs would carry him. No calling or whistling would induce him to return and I never saw him again. How he knew that a large crocodile lay concealed in the river I do not know, he probably had a previous unpleasant experience of those creatures, and seemed determined to profit by the lesson he had learnt. Making use of the experience I had gained in wild sports in the country, I came out well armed, according to my ideas of weapons for the chase. I had four double-barrelled rifles made specially to my order and my own pattern, my hunting knives and boar spear heads were also made to my own design and I arrived in Ceylon with a fine pack of Foxhounds, and 'Bran,' a favourite greyhound of wonderful speed and strength. The usual drawbacks and discomforts attending upon a new settlement having been overcome, Newera Ellia formed a pleasant place of residence. I soon, however, discovered that Foxhounds were not at all adapted to a country so enclosed by forest, some of the hounds were lost, others I parted with, and their progeny, crossed with Pointers, Bloodhounds and other breeds, have proved a useful stamp for Elk hunting. "It is difficult to form a pack for this sport which shall be perfect in all respects. Sometimes a splendid hound in character may be more like a butcher's dog in appearance, but the pack cannot afford to part with him if he has really proved his value in work. The casualties from Leopards, Wild Boars, Elks and lost dogs are so great that the pack is with extreme difficulty kept up by breeding. "It must be borne in mind that the place of a lost dog cannot be easily supplied in Ceylon! Newera Ellia is one of the few places in the island where the climate is suited to the constitution of a dog. In the low and hot climates they lead a short and miserable life, which is soon ended by the inevitable liver complaint; thus, if a supply for the pack cannot be kept up by breeding, hounds must be procured from England from time to time, and this, it is needless to say, is attended with much risk and great expense." On one of the last occasions I exhibited my dogs at Maidstone show, in Kent, I was rather amused by a conversation I had with the secretary there. He said, "whenever I see you, sir, I think of your Dog." I asked what dog he referred to? He said, "one of your Dandies, I think he was a champion, (I forget whether it was Champion Rob Roy, or Champion Laird, but think it must have been the former). You had to leave before the end of the show, which was very unusual with you, sir, and you asked me to see your dogs packed; I was out in the building where all the boxes and baskets were, when I heard a crackling noise, and, looking towards the place, saw a dog's head, and directly afterwards his body, come out of one of the hampers, and saw the dog walk across the building, and search amongst the packages, when he had found the one he wanted, he lifted up the lid with his nose, jumped in and lay down; I at once went over to see what name and number was on the package, and found that one of your dogs had been put, by an oversight, into a wrong basket, and as he found out it was not the proper one, he ate his way out, searched for and found his correct travelling basket, and lay down in it, ready to be sent home. I thought this was so smart and intelligent of the dog that I have never forgotten it, and have often mentioned it to my friends, who are interested in dogs." The following about the dog, which appeared in the "Arcana of Science" in 1829, just seventy years ago, may be interesting to some of my readers at the present day: "The dog is the only animal that dreams, he and the elephant the only animals that understand looks and expressions; the elephant is the only four-footed animal that feels ennui; the dog the only quadruped which has been brought to speak. Professor Leibnitz, in Saxony, bore witness to a hound, he had heard speak thirty words distinctly." I am inclined to doubt the speaking faculty of the dog, though I have certainly seen many animals that could do almost everything, _but_ speak. Buffon, the eminent French naturalist, says of the dog, "More docile than man, more obedient than any other animal, he is not only instructed in a short time, but also conforms to the manners and dispositions of those who have authority over him. He takes his tone from the house he inhabits, like the rest of the domestic staff, he is disdainful among the great and churlish among the clowns. Always assiduous in serving his master, and only friendly to his friends; he is indifferent to all others and declares himself openly against such as are dependent like himself. He knows a beggar by his voice, by his clothes or his gestures and challenges his approach. When, at night, or other occasions, the protection of the house is entrusted to his care, he seems proud of the charge, he continues a vigilant sentinel, he goes his rounds, scents strangers at a distance and gives them warning he is upon duty. If they attempt to break in upon his territory, he becomes more fierce, flies at them, threatens, fights, and either conquers alone or alarms those who have most at interest in coming to his assistance, however, when he has conquered, he quickly reposes, and abstains from what he has prevented others from abusing, giving thus, at once, a lesson of courage, temperance and fidelity." I think it was in May, 1881, I sustained one of my severest losses in connection with dogs. I was at that time owner of a very well-known and high class, all white, medium-sized Bull Bitch, which I called "Lady Rozelle" (her portrait appears in one of the illustrations to this book, as well as that of my Smooth Collie Bitch, "Lady Nellie," even more celebrated in her own line) and had taken a great number of prizes at all the leading shows. I was anxious to take just one more, the gold medal of the Bull Dog Club. She had already taken both the bronze and silver medals, and I then intended her to rest on her laurels, as I have always endeavoured to let any of my great prize winners end their days in peace and comfort, free from the fatigue and excitement of shows and never like to see animals which have done good service for their owners, hacked about in Variety and Selling classes, all over the country. The weather when I travelled to Aldridge's, St. Martin's Lane, where the Bull Dog Club's show was to be held, was very warm and sultry, and on arrival at Paddington, I had her box put on the roof of a cab and run over to the show, but on its being opened there, as it happened, by my old friend, Mr. J. W. Berrie, then, as now, the president of the Bull Dog Club, I think everyone present was horrified to find my beautiful bitch actually stone dead, and from the appearance of the body, should think the heat must have brought on an apoplectic seizure and death must have been very sudden. Of course, as is usual in such cases, I had someone at the time anxious to purchase her at, what was then thought, a very long price, £250. Dogs have played important parts in the superstitions of ages now happily passed away. When the dog howled at the gate, it used to be alleged that one of the family was to die. Old women suspected of being witches because they were infirm and stricken with poverty were supposed to always have either a cat or dog, said to be their "Familiar" and through whom they could be enabled to commune with the Spirit of Darkness. To meet a black dog on a dark or stormy night was deemed a very unlucky sign; dogs were said to be possessed by evil spirits, and to haunt the wicked and in more than one story the evil one himself has been stated to have taken the form of the faithful friend and companion of man. I will conclude these anecdotes about dogs with the following excellent advice given by the late well-known sportsman, the Hon. Grantley Berkeley, in the pages of "The Field," more than forty years since: "Before you chastise a dog, be not only sure that he is in fault, but also ascertain that he himself understands in what respect he has done wrong. Take care not to punish him so severely that terror and pain combined obliterate the why and the wherefore from the sufferer's recollection, if you do, you cowe the dog, without amending his manners. To teach tricks to dogs, (in the general way, and, unless they are dogs belonging to those whose living is to be earned by the employment of performing dogs,) either with cards, numbers, or letters, is infinitely beneath a sportsman, as well as insulting to the useful and thinking capabilities of the canine race!" CHAPTER XXIV A FEW WORDS ABOUT GENERAL MANAGEMENT AND SOME SIMPLE MALADIES, TO WHICH DOGS ARE SUBJECT, AND THEIR TREATMENT These few practical directions and suggestions are not intended to take the place of the veterinary surgeon, whose skill and experience are often of the greatest value in dealing with cases of a serious nature, but just to give inexperienced persons some idea what to do, in case of emergency; as, in all cases of illness or accidents to animals, immediate treatment is often most important. I may say that a "bond of sympathy" should exist between an owner or keeper, and his dogs, and when this is the case, it will be much easier to deal with them, either in health or sickness, but _particularly_ the latter. I believe more trouble is caused by mismanagement than any other cause, and that if only proper attention be paid to the three cardinal points of "cleanliness, food and exercise," there will not be much the matter with the inmates of the kennel. I have, for a great number of years, kept a small lot of dogs, varying in number from fifteen to fifty, but although _accidents_ will be constantly occurring with live stock of all kinds, I have had wonderfully little illness, amongst my dogs, except the ordinary ailments so generally expected, and I attribute this mainly to endeavouring to enforce cleanliness and plenty of exercise, and providing food varying in character and quantity to suit the appetites of the inmates. I may say, while on the subject of food, that although in winter, or very cold weather, it is well it should be given "with the chill off," it is better not to let it be warm, in a general way, as it is thought unnatural for dogs, and tends to weaken their digestive powers. Also except in cases of packs of hounds, where it is unavoidable, (but they are generally accompanied by some of the kennel men, and attendants to avoid undue "differences of opinion,") it is best, _not_ to feed two or more dogs together, as often the stronger member will overpower the weaker, and perhaps consume more than his or her share; you will notice this, even amongst puppies. An owner, or keeper will soon get to know the right amount to give each, and give just as much as will be finished _at the time_, when the pan should be removed, or washed out, and filled with water, if benched alone, not otherwise, or it may be upset in the course of play, etc. Except in cases of bitches with families or puppies by themselves when two or more meals may be given, it is usual to feed once a day either morning or evening as most convenient, giving each as much as they will eat, with appetite, the oftener varied the better, as I said in the "Introduction." Unless any difficulty occurs, at the birth of the puppies, when skilled assistance should be obtained, the less the bitch is disturbed the better, but a few days afterwards it is well to examine the litter, and destroy any deformed or faulty ones, and if she has more than she can reasonably bring up, to put some of them under a "foster mother," which are frequently advertised in the papers dealing with dogs and doggy matters, if not procurable in your own district, in such case, it is best not to take away all the foster litter at once, but introduce the new-comers (in the absence of the "Foster,") amongst her remaining puppies, and mix them up, together, so that they will _smell alike_, and gradually weed out those not desired to be kept. After three weeks old, the puppies should be given bread and milk, which will help the mothers in their nursing, and about this time if a breed which requires their tails to be shortened, a part may be taken off, with a strong pair of scissors, not too sharp, feeling for a joint, before making the cut, and if carefully done, it causes but momentary pain, and soon heals up. At six weeks old, they may be removed from the mother, altogether, and if she seems at all troubled with milk, occasionally squeeze out any milk, with the finger and thumb, and dress the teats with vinegar and water, which generally prevents swelling or inflammation, and helps to dry off the milk. I need not say that the stories sometimes heard about dogs having a "worm under the tongue," which must be taken out, are _all humbug_, and should not be credited. Sometimes dogs' claws, when not sufficiently exercised, grow too long and require to be shortened, but this is easily done with a sharp pair of "nippers." Putting a piece of stone sulphur in the water is _no good_, as being a mineral, it does not dissolve, and you might just as well put a lump of coal in! But, as I said before, a little "Flowers of Brimstone," according to the size of the animal, either mixed in milk, or with its food, is beneficial and has a cooling effect, and I sometimes add a small quantity of magnesia, with the same object. Above everything, see that the place where the dog lives is dry, warm in winter and free from draughts. I think dogs kept in a house as pets are more liable to disease, than those kept in kennels, from often having no regular meals or rules, but constantly being fed by many people, and so getting more than they require of food, but much less of exercise. Chicken and game bones are not desirable for dogs, as they break into sharp splinters which when swallowed may cause injury to the intestines, but other bones are occasionally very good for dogs, and much enjoyed by them; and when at liberty they will take grass, which, as with cats, is very useful for their digestion. Most dogs are troubled with fleas, and some with ticks and other small insects, particularly in the summer. I have found an occasional washing, with a weak solution of "Jeye's Purifier," (procurable of any chemist, or stores, with full directions on the bottles), makes a great improvement in this respect, and if the breed of the animal is small, or it is one kept indoors, it may have an occasional combing with a small tooth comb, having a basin of boiling water at hand, to put the "results" in. In all treatment of a sick dog, _remember_ you are dealing with a highly sensitive and nervous patient, be very gentle, avoid roughness, or anything likely to alarm him; in giving any liquid medicine, _do not open his mouth_, but placing him between your knees with his face looking in same direction as your own, gently raise his jaw, and pulling his lips away from his teeth, on one side of his mouth, to form a cup, or funnel, very slowly pour from bottle or spoon, the quantity he is to have, into it. Keep his head raised for a minute or two, and if he does not swallow the dose, insert a spoon between his front teeth, this will have the effect of drawing off his attention from the medicine, and he will, usually, swallow at once. If the dose is a pill, bolus, or anything solid, hold his head the same way as before mentioned, but with the left hand under lower jaw, press firmly on each side with thumb and finger at the junction of upper and lower jaws. This will usually cause him to open his mouth, when the dose should be put into the mouth, as far back as possible, _over the tongue_ (or he will spit it out) and close the jaws somewhat sharply, and in most cases the deed is done. If any trouble arises with the action of his front paws, this may be got over by wrapping him round with a shawl, or coarse apron. When once you have got into the way of it, you will be surprised how simple it is. I am quite sure a practised owner or kennelsman, would dose a dozen dogs, while a novice was making a bungle over one! _Distemper_ carries off scores of dogs every year, but it is quite a mistake to suppose all dogs _must_ have it. I have had, probably, more without than with it, the worst of it is that it varies so in different cases, so that the same treatment does not do for all; sometimes the brain, at others, the stomach, at others, the lungs, are most affected; it is of an inflammatory and very debilitating character, and frequently accompanied by severe convulsions and fits, which are very alarming and distressing. Generally, there is discharge from nose and eyes, but _not_ invariably. I am doubtful if there is any positive and unfailing cure for the complaint, although so many claim to be, so much depends on the form the disease takes, the treatment given, and the constitution of the patient. The symptoms comprise great depression, debility, want of life and appetite, and great languor; as medicine, two or three grains of calomel in milk may be given; if possible, get the patient to drink it which he sometimes will, being feverish from the nature of the disease; sometimes a small dose of "James's Powders," administered in same way, has a good effect. For food, anything light and nourishing, such as thickish gruel, or good broth, or bovril, may be given. The old adage, that prevention is better than cure holds good here, and young dogs not fed too highly, and occasionally dosed with Epsom salts or jalap, when their bowels are out of order, or their eyes look unnatural, not given much meat while young, and kept from going into the water at too early an age, will often ward off this scourge of the race. Dogs are sometimes troubled with _Skin affections_ such as mange and eczema, both are thought to have their origin in errors in feeding and particularly in the former, from want of due attention to cleanliness. I have found the following, which we have always kept ready for use, to apply a little if required, a certain cure, if persevered with. Equal quantities of train oil and paraffin and a tablespoonful of black sulphur to each quart of the mixture applied freely to the affected parts, every other day with a piece of sponge. If the attack is very slight, a little sulphur ointment made by mixing sufficient Flowers of Sulphur, with hog's lard, to make a fairly firm ointment, and rub on this two or three times a week, where the cause arises. A small dose of Epsom salts will be beneficial. _Canker in the ear_ is troublesome, particularly with the breeds having large ears, a little alum and water is advised as a wash for the ears, into which it should be poured, and the flaps closed over and rubbed gently; but I have personally found a little "Hippacea" (procurable at most chemists), which is a rather moist ointment, rubbed inside the affected parts, give much relief. _Fits_ are often caused, either by distemper or worms, they are always alarming, particularly when they take place away from the kennels or home, in such case I either borrow from someone at hand, or send for, a hamper, or box, and get the patient home as soon as possible; as perfect quiet and repose are very important, merely sprinkling a little cold water on his face and placing him in some place, with plenty of straw, or shavings, where he cannot hurt himself by falling about, as he is quite unconscious for the time being and not accountable for his actions. When able to take medicine, give such treatment as the cause of the fits require, they are usually those I mentioned, but when caused by extreme debility, as with an overtaxed nursing mother, they are very serious. In any case of fits, where good professional advice can be obtained and the patient is a pet, or valuable, it is better not to attempt to deal with it without. _Asthma_ is supposed to arise from errors in feeding, but it is certain some breeds of dogs are more liable to it than others. Light nourishing diet, very moderate exercise, and a little opening medicine will certainly have a good effect, but it is a difficult complaint to get rid of when once it makes its appearance. _Diarrhoea_ sometimes occurs with dogs from inattention to dietary matters, but they more often suffer from the other extreme. A little Epsom salts in water, or thin gruel, will often work the desired end, but if the dog seems still in pain, ten or fifteen drops of tincture of opium may be given in water. _Eye affections_ are not uncommon with some breeds, but the eye is such a tender and delicate organ to meddle with that I prefer to advise any of my readers, who may have a patient suffering in that way, to call in the best advice they can procure, than to give them any directions. _Wounds_, whether incised or contused, are rather awkward for a novice to deal with, and if he does so, he had better muzzle the patient, both to prevent being bitten and to keep the bandage, plaster or poultice from being torn off; of course in the former case, the affected part must be gently washed with cold water, and the blood staunched with lint or otherwise, and if possible tightly bandaged, and closing the edges of the wound keep them together with sticking plaster, binding all round with lint. In _contused wounds_ apply and frequently change a bread poultice, large enough to take in all the injured parts and keep the patient as quiet as possible, and maintain his strength with light nourishing diet, of a more hearty character. This is not a "Kennel Guide" (although I hope it may teach some of my readers something they did not know in a rough and ready way) and there are, in almost every district in the kingdom, as I know from actual experience, having met scores of them in the course of my doggy travels, highly qualified gentlemen, practising as veterinary surgeons, who have made a lifelong study of the diseases, and calamities, to which dogs, as well as their owners, are liable. I think I have now said a little about all the many breeds suitable, or likely to be kept as companions or pets, and sufficient for my book to form a _vade-mecum_, or guide, to anyone in doubt, as to what sort of dog to choose for the purpose, and this was the original idea which prompted the commencement of the work. The illustrations herein are from life, the subjects being mostly typical specimens, and are introduced to show good types of some of the least common, or every day breeds. From the remarks often overheard at exhibitions and elsewhere, it has greatly surprised me how many persons have only a vague idea of all but the most ordinary varieties. Thinking over matters and things even to compile a work of this kind, has brought back to mind many forgotten incidents concerning both people and animals, and I have derived much pleasure in the course of it. I am in hopes, if the book falls into the hands of any, who have hitherto known, or cared nothing for dogs of any kind, they may be sufficiently interested in my recital, of the charming qualities of so many different varieties, to take up one or more of them, and test the truth of my statements, which I may say are founded on fact, and a very lengthened and practical experience as a breeder, exhibitor and now for many years as a judge, during which time I believe I have kept most, and adjudicated on all, known varieties of dogs, and on most of the breeds very often indeed. And considering the many thousands of dogs, which have come under my notice, I am bound to say, on the whole, I have not had much to complain of, in my treatment by the exhibitors, which have often included Her Majesty the Queen, a well-known lover of animals, and other members of the Royal Family, as well as leading members of the nobility and gentry, and very many of the middle, lower and working classes. And, I hope, the reason has been that as far as lay in my power, I have tried to serve all alike, that is, to regard the dogs, and not their owners or leaders, as the sole matter to be dealt with, and where exhibitors recognise this in a judge, as a rule, his classes are well filled. I think, I have said enough, in this chapter, to justify its title, and, I hope, to form a fitting "wind-up," for my little work, as "All about Dogs." THE END. Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON &. CO. Edinburgh & London TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES The following changes have been made to the original: Illustrations have been moved from their original positions in the book to fall in line with corresponding text. Page i a full stop after "Rough collies" has been replaced with a comma 20 the "t" of "the" in "the skull should be" has been capitalised 46 "out" has been replaced with "our" in "seen at our best shows." 85 a full stop has been added after "smooth basset hound." 95 quotation marks have been added before "Head, long and narrow," 97 a second "S" was added to "WOODIWISS" to conform with other instances 99 "senis" has been replaced with "semi-" in "semi-erect, small, well shaped ears;" 100 a hyphen was added to "business-like" in "business-like look about them" 123 missing quotation mark was added before "ROPER" 133 hyphens were added to "prick-eared" and "drop-eared" in "more prick-eared to be seen, than drop-eared" 178 An apostrophe was added to "Cupid's" in "champion Cupid's Dart, whose portrait" 223 closing quotation marks were added to "RUFUS" 219 "varities" was replaced with "varieties" in "there is no doubt there are two varieties" 283 a second "l" was added to "illustrates" in "Mrs. P. Turner's well-known kennel, illustrates" 308 "Pyrenneean" was replaced by "Pyrenean" in "the Pyrenean Sheep Dog" 322 a comma was replaced by a full stop after "called by his master Ben" 353 "XX" replaced with "XXI" in "CHAPTER XXI" 353 the lines "ANECDOTES ABOUT DOGS" and "(_Continued_) and CHAPTER XXI" were switched for consistency 394 a full stop was replaced by a comma in "cure holds good here," For consistency all instances of "Ch." in the illustration titles were replaced by "CH." For consistency full stops were added after section headers where they were missing, e.g. 205 full stop added after "Bedlington" in "Bedlington.--This breed," The following inconsistencies in the text were not changed: There are a number of opening quotation marks which are not closed in the original. It is not clear where the quotation ends so closing quotation marks have not been added: 13 "Let his legs be straight as arrows 19 "The education of this pack is marvellous; 50 "The Gordon Setter.-- 54 "The Irish Setter.-- 155 "What I consider a true type 205 "The Bedlington Terrier is fast, 354 "This story brings to my recollection Inconsistency in spelling has been retained where it was unclear as to which spelling was correct or both spellings are valid. The following have been identified and checked with the original: borzoi/borzois Claude/CLAUD dachshounds/dachshunds Dumfrieshire/DUMFRIESSHIRE Fauntleroy/Fontleroy fox terrier/foxterrier Grelliche/GRELICHE Koenig/K�NIG SCHIPPERCHE/shipperke Many words have variable hyphenation in the original. They have not been standardised. The following have been identified and checked: Bridford-brilliant/Bridford brilliant dew claws/dew-claws Elk-hound/elkhound flatcoated/flat-coated forelegs/fore-legs now-a-days/nowadays Otterhounds/Otter hounds sheepdog/sheep-dog/sheep dog top-knot/top knot 
42888	----	Transcriber's Note: Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and bold text by =equal signs=. Page 034: "are built par-to keep out the rain". A line of text might be missing. FUR FARMING FOR PROFIT With Especial Reference to Skunk Raising [Illustration: Skunk] Price $1.00 The LAYMON FUR FARM CO., Spencer, Ind. LIVE MINK WANTED ALSO MINK PELTS GINSENG YELLOWROOT ETC. Highest market price paid for A1 Live Mink and Mink fur. Write your dealer for quotations, then write us. We pay express charges and remit same day goods are received. WILLIAM WEDDLE SPENCER, IND. FUR FARMING FOR PROFIT With Especial Reference to Skunk Raising By H. B. Laymon Proprietor of the Laymon Skunk Farm 1913 The Laymon Fur Farm Co. Spencer, Indiana Copyrighted 1913 By H. B. LAYMON PRESS OF THE EPITOMIST PUB. CO. SPENCER, INDIANA CONTENTS. page Introduction 5 Frontispiece 8 Chapter I 9 General Character of the Skunk--Skunk a Clean Animal-- Grading. Chapter II 19 Fur Farming--Supply and Demand--Opinions--A Bright Future for Fur Farmers. Chapter III 26 Enclosures--Dens--Food--Care--Breeding. Chapter IV 39 Trapping--Skinning--Shipping--How to Handle Skunk without Being Scented. Chapter V 51 Habits of the Skunk--Breeding--Size of Litters--Ideas of Trappers and Farmers. Chapter VI 58 Miscellaneous Information--Removing the Scent Sacs-- Laws Relating to Skunk Raising--Dye Markings--How to Ship Live Skunk. Chapter VII 72 Questions and Answers on Many Subjects. [Illustration: Breeding Range, Constructed of Galvanized Iron.] INTRODUCTION. "I came from a family of hunters and farmers." This reminds me of a quaint saying I heard when I was a boy. We were talking about hogs at the time. A young girl overhearing our conversation, remonstrated with us because we appeared to have some of the habits of hogs wrong. We asked her how she knew we were wrong in our diagnosis of the hog? And she answered: "Well, I guess I ought to know, I was brought up among hogs, lived among them all my life!" This is my case exactly, I have been brought up among skunk. I have made a study of skunk, and I think I know skunk. I know this much well: Years ago the thought struck me that there ought to be money in raising skunk for fur and breeding purposes. To prove the right or wrong of this, I started to raise skunk. I captured a female and her litter, later got a star buck, and with this beginning I have succeeded in establishing one of the largest and most successful skunk farms in America, and I am proud of it. I do not mean to imply by this that I think I know "it all" about skunk. Far be it from that. But what I know has been learned by diligent study and the best of all "practical experience." My farm was not a success from the start. It took a few years for me to learn the "how of things," but I am glad to say that things are looking bright for yours truly. I firmly believe a few years more will see me independently rich, and from an old piece of land which would be practically worthless for any other use. My motive for writing this book is to benefit my fellow man. Hundreds of people have written me for information about skunk. It would be impossible for me to courteously answer one-tenth the mail I get in a personal way. It struck me, inasmuch as there was no book on the market devoted to the skunk that by compiling this information in readable form I would be accomplishing a certain amount of good. I feel this, too, if I had had the help in the first place--the information contained in this book--I would be worth twice as much more and saved myself years of trouble and much financial loss. I was the pioneer, and was blazing the way for others to make success. To all those who are desirous of trying the raising of fur-bearers for profit we say: read this book carefully--study it,--and then if you feel that you can make it a paying business, make a small enclosure and try a half dozen animals. By the end of a year or two, you will know whether you are going to like it; whether you can make a success of it or not, and will have acquired a lot of very necessary knowledge regarding the animals, that could not have been obtained in any other way. You will know then whether to go ahead or not, and if the former, you will also know how. While the U. S. Government is actively engaged in raising elk, buffalo, deer and other animals including fur-bearers, few bulletins are issued which give any direct valuable information on skunk. Government officials (the kid-glove kind) stick up their nose at the lowly skunk, and without reason. The skunk is a clean animal, easily domesticated, and known to be one of the most valuable animals to have around the farm. Only recently has this been thoroughly demonstrated. Such information as could be obtained from government sources has been incorporated in this book. I have had no hesitancy in utilizing the information from other sources also. Chief among them has been the Hunter-Trader-Trapper Magazine published by A. R. Harding Pub. Co., of Columbus, Ohio, also his book on "Fur Farming" and such catalogues and guides as Andersch Bros. and others fur firms issue to their trade. I differ with them when experience has taught me that my way of raising skunk is easier or more profitable, and I agree with them on many general principles. I have incorporated in this book also the experience of many other farmers and trappers. I have found many helpful hints in their letters which have been very valuable to me. And for what knowledge I have gained from them, I hereby acknowledge my indebtedness. "May they live long and prosper." H. B. LAYMON. Spencer, Ind., July 10, 1913. [Illustration: Laymon Handling an "Unaltered" Skunk.] CHAPTER I. General Character of The Skunk. The skunk is a little understood animal. By this we mean, that ordinary people, other than naturalists or scientists, little understand the habits and value of skunk. By some the skunk is classed as a reptile or varmint, and on account of its odor, is detested. Other animals throw scent, notably the mink and muskrat, of course not to the extent that the skunk does. It is on account of this scent, that skunks are detested. We have animals on our farm which have never thrown a grain. And are yet in their wild state. They do not easily become frightened, hence have no use for their means of protection. That's the only time they use it, and seldom when fighting among themselves. To make a success out of anything, it is admitted one must know the thing. To be a successful farmer one must know what to raise and how. So with raising of skunk, one must understand skunk, just as one understands horses, cows, sheep or poultry. And skunk, when properly understood can be raised in captivity at a great profit. 500,000 skins were shipped to London last year, besides the skins which were used here in domestic manufacture. It is surprising to note the change in conditions, due largely to the enlightenment of the rural population to the benefits of the skunk, also to the rapid increase and value of their pelts. Many skunk farms are in existence, the owners making a business of raising these animals for their pelts. While this may be a queer business, nevertheless it is perfectly legitimate, and as far as known, profitable. A ready sale of the pelts is to be had, and the skins from these domesticated animals generally bring higher average prices, being well handled and killed at a time when the fur is at its best. The domestic animal like cultivated fruits, are larger and in every way more valuable than the wild animal. The skunk is found in nearly all the states and territories of the Union and climate and geographical conditions are responsible for the great variation in size and color of its pelage. There are very few fur-bearing animals as plentiful, and especially in the civilized sections, that bring such a handsome income to the farmer as does the skunk. As noted, the chief difference in character, besides the size of the animal itself, lies in the color of its fur. The body is 16 to 22 inches long, its tail from root to farthest point of fur, 12 to 16 inches, the latter being covered with hair, the color of which varies, depending upon the color of the fur on the body. For instance, the fur on the tail of a black or short striped skunk is black or nearly all black, (first grade) while that of the broad or narrow striped skunk is interspersed with black and white hairs. While the skin of the animal is very valuable, the tail is rarely used, though manufacturers of late years have consumed the hair in the manufacture of brushes and similar purposes. The legs are short and close to the body, the paw is naked and the five toes on each foot are closely grown together like that of the badger. The foot is well adapted to digging, but they dig very little in the tame state. The toes are not webbed; the head is small, with short, rounded ears and rather long, projecting nose, with two small piercing eyes. The Skunk a Clean Animal. The skunk in general appearance is always neat and clean, and in walking seemingly takes special pride, like the peacock, as when promenading, its tail is erect and its back peculiarly curved. Very few animals are as harmless as this creature and were it not for the peculiar odor which it distributes when in danger, it would be more hunted and probably eradicated in sections. Its principal weapon, as heretofore noted, is a peculiar secretion and fluid possessing a very disagreeable odor. This fluid is of a pale yellow color and is discharged by the animal when in danger, in thin-like streams and with such accuracy and aim as to strike any object within 6 to 12 feet. The fluid is secreted in two annal glands from which by the contraction of the sub-caudal muscles and by uplifting of the tail it is discharged in the form as stated above. These sacs are now removed with very little trouble by farmers, and without endangering the fur or breeding qualities of the animal, or ill-effect to the operator. The removal of the scent sac has a tendency to increase the size of the animal ultimately. We believe, too, that it requires less food to sustain life, consequently it is considered a profitable operation to perform. It is certain that the altered animal becomes more easily domesticated. Learn to remove the scent sacs and thus avoid all complaints of neighbors and any personal inconvenience. If you learn to do this you can sell your striped skunks for pets or curiosities and in this way get good prices though the skins would be of small value. The animal is carnivorous, nocturnal, not entirely terrestrial, as occasionally he is known to climb trees, perhaps not of choice but rather compulsion, being forced to this fancied secure position by the hunter or his dog. Consequently his arboreal, like his amphibious habits, are rather undeserved credentials. The theory that the animal climbs the trees in search of food and birds, is discredited. The animal is beneficial in many ways to the farmer, and his eradication from any farming community should be prevented, and laws prohibiting the wanton destruction encouraged. The contrast in size of the animal and the important variation in the color of its pelage, due to climatic and geographical differences, cannot be denied. The breeding and inter-breeding of the different colored furred species is the principal explanation why the young of a litter are so much unlike in color. The color usually dominates to the black. It is proven that 50% of the young of a white female will breed blacks if the male is black. To breed stars, the male and female should be all black, if possible. 90% of such young will be black, and it is possible to raise to maturity 90% of such litters. It is our experience that the female at rutting time will cohabit with more than one male like a dog or rather like a cat which it more generally resembles. The predominating color of the fur of all species is black and white with the exception of the Texas skunk, which due to a peculiar soil, is of reddish cast. Some of the animals have a clear coat of fur, others are all black excepting a small white star, but the majority have two stripes, some terminating at the center of body, on others the stripe continuing from the forehead over the body, terminating at the tail. This carnivorous and nocturnal animal is unlike most every other animal possessing these habits. He can be seen in the early morning returning to his haunts, and once in a while in the middle of the day; at no time is he in a hurry, or will he discommode himself by getting out of your sight or especially away from your path. His mode of locomotion is slow, and rarely will he be found away from his haunt a greater distance than one or two miles. His abode is usually in a hollow log, under some old barn or granary, or in a hole on the sunny side of some hill. He enjoys a sun bath, probably more than does the bear or the badger. His meal is made up by free consumption of worms, bugs, grasshoppers, mice, birds and eggs. In some sections he is known to be quite a vegetarian, consuming as he does, roots, berries, vegetables, and fruits. Occasionally frequents the hen-roost, not only for eggs, but for the hen as well. The young like bread and milk, while we feed the old hominy hearts mixed with water and milk. The animal passes the winter season in a state of incomplete hibernation, and at regular intervals he will arise, come out of his abode and expose his body to the sun, and judging from the effluvium, empty its distended pouches, but the stench thus caused, soon ceases, which is not the case when it is spurted under irritation or in self-defense. Dr. Coues states "that the animal uses this secretion in the relation of its perpetuation of the species, though overshadowed by its exaggeration into a powerfully effective means of preservation of the individual, is evidently the same as in other species of Mustelidae, each one of which has its own emanation to bring the sexes together, not only by simply indicating their whereabouts, but by serving as a positive attraction." In the case of the skunk, it would seem that the strong scent has actually tended to result in a more gregarious mode of life than is usual in this family of mammals; and it is certain, at any rate, that the occupancy by one animal of a permanent winter abode serves to attract others to the same retreat. Burrows are sometimes found to contain as many as a dozen individuals, not members of one family, but various adult animals drawn together. One other effect of the possession of such unique powers is seen not so much in mode of life as in the actual disposition of the creature. Its heedless familarity, its temerity in pushing into places which other animals instinctively avoid as dangerous, and its indisposition to seek safety by hasty retreat, are evident results of its confidence in the extraordinary means of defense with which it is provided. In the domesticated state they do not use the scent only under extreme agitation. Dogs create this excitement, man seldom, even when handling them. When held by the tail, they are really unable to throw the scent. The White Skunk. The animal that has a clear, white-furred pelt is very sparingly found, in fact so seldom, that many consider it a freak of nature and not a distinct species. Personally we do not find it pays to raise white skunk, save as pets, or the females for breeding purposes. We dispose of them before they have become an expense to us. It is the wise man who can judge when to kill and when to keep. The Black Skunk. The animal that has a black coat of fur is found in many states, those of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Eastern Canada, are better furred, and in consequence command better prices than those coming from the central states. The black skunk is also found in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina, in fact in every locality excepting in the northwestern states, also northwestern parts of Canada. The animal cohabits with the other species, and there is no apparent rule governing the breeding and inter-breeding and the probable coloration of the offspring. Somewhat disregarding the color of the parents, the litter contains black, white, short, narrow and broad striped youngsters. But 90% will "take after" full black parents. If you use Star bucks you can reasonably expect Star stock. The fur of the black skunk, especially the eastern variety, is soft, wavy, and of a deep lustrous black. Those animals that have only a small white furred star at the forehead are commercially called "black skunk." Great care should be taken in selecting the male breeders to avoid in-breeding. A skunk matures, or its fur becomes prime and salable in six months. The female brings forth young in a year. The life of a skunk is from five to seven years. Short Striped Skunk. This animal inhabits the same section as the black skunk, the only difference between them is that the small white star of the former develops into prongs or two distinct white-furred stripes, starting at the forehead and terminating at or about the shoulders or center of body. Quite often the forehead is entirely covered with white fur, and immediately beginning at the top of head the white hair continues in two prongs, each varying in width from three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch. Should the white stripes continue clear across the body and terminate at the nail, such skins cannot be classed as short striped but are known as long, narrow or broad stripe. Short striped skins are second in value, the price being about one-third less than that of the black skins. The white stripes are of no value to the manufacturer, and for that reason the skin that has the greatest amount of black fur is worth more and the value lessened by the increase of the white stripe. The fur of the tail is black with intermingled white hairs. The disagreeable odor is removed by the dresser (tanner) and by the time the skin reaches the manufacturer, it is cleansed from all impurities and ready to be made into garments. Narrow Striped Skunk. This animal inhabits nearly every state and territory of the Union and greater part of Canada, and is the true American skunk. His coat of fur is black, excepting two white stripes beginning at the forehead and terminating at the tail. The width of these stripes varies somewhat, depending upon the size of the animal, usually three-eighths to three-fourths of an inch. There is always a goodly portion of black fur between these stripes. The white stripes are narrow and close together, but widen apart at center of back, and again narrowing when close to the root of tail. The largest animals of the skunk family come under the long or narrow striped species. Broad Striped Skunk. This animal is found in common with the previous species, and its difference is only in the width of the white stripe which is wider, and the quantity of black fur on the skin is lessened, thereby diminishing the value of the skin. There is no apparent iron-clad rule, or a dividing line between, or just where and when a skin should be called broad stripe and not a narrow striped skin. This naturally must be left largely to the judgment and discretion of the buyer or the manufacturer, who, in grading, seeks an average more than any particular dividing line. The tail is covered with hairs with occasionally interspersed black hairs. One Striped Skunk. This animal has a long, horizontal white stripe extending from forehead, continuing over the body, terminating at root of the tail; the latter is covered with white fur and is probably more bushy in proportion to its size, than the other northwestern species. The skin is of no great value. The fur is rather coarse and the skins undesirable. From the above description it will be noted that the value of the pelt lies principally in the quantity of black fur; diminishing by the increase of white and increasing by the lessening of the white fur. It may be of interest to note that skunk fur after it is manufactured is not sold as "skunk," but is a good substitute for many different kinds of fur which has a higher value placed upon it. Of late years the white stripes that are cut out of the skins are being used in the manufacture of spurious tails which are dyed to imitate the natural tail of mink, marten, etc. At other times these white pieces are sold in connection with other fur scraps or cuttings to hat manufacturers. Only those skins that are prime in leather and full furred, command good prices. CHAPTER II. Fur Farming--Supply and Demand. From the dawn of history in this country the fur trade has been an important branch of commerce and had much to do with the rapid advance of discovery and exploration in the early days. But the extensive trapping operations since that time have sadly depleted the ranks of all species of fur-bearing animals and some of the most valuable are rapidly nearing extinction. This is especially true of the central and eastern portions of the United States, and the time is approaching when the ever increasing demand for furs must be met by some way other than trapping the wild animals--but how? Fur farming appears to offer the only solution to the problem. The raising of fur-bearing animals is still in its infancy, but many experiments have been tried out from time to time, and it is a proven fact that if it is undertaken and carried out in an intelligent manner, the industry is bound to be successful; and why not? All of our domestic animals and fowls were wild creatures at one time. There are practically no new and unexplored regions to trap and even in faraway Siberia, which we are taught to believe a land of wilderness and a fine fur-producing country, reports say that fur-bearers are becoming scarcer each year. The regions which have not yet been explored by the white men, have for many years been trapped by the savage inhabitants. Fur traders push into all accessible districts, and the trappers also, sometimes bring their goods hundreds of miles in order to trade with the white people. South America produces some furs, but the catch is not heavy, perhaps because there is not much trapping done there. But the furs from the more distant regions are, as a rule, of the more valuable kinds, and cannot supply the demand of the great middle class of people, the largest consumers. Such furs cannot take the place of those of the muskrat, skunk, raccoon and oppossum, for these furs are usually made up to imitate the more expensive kinds. But as the supply decreases the demand increases at an equal rate. The skunk, mink and muskrat do well in settled sections. There is always a cash market for raw furs and since the discovery of America, raw furs have been an important article of commerce. An industry paying the hunter and trapper probably $15,000,000 yearly is one that should receive attention. The demand for furs is increasing as the population of the world is becoming more and more. Again furs are being put to more uses than ever. While the demand for furs is increasing, what of the supply? The day, perhaps is not far in the distance when the demand will call for two or three times as many furs as today. Where are they to come from, if not from fur farming? A well known fur dealer in Minneapolis sizes up the situation in a nut-shell: "Under proper conditions, with intelligent care, raising fur animals can be made to pay. The raiser starting on a small scale and increasing as their knowledge increases. Most all successful business is built up by starting small." Conda J. Ham, in the Hunter-Trader-Trapper Magazine, says: "Did you ever stop to seriously think where your furs and your fur coats would come from twenty or thirty years from now? At the rate fur-bearing animals are being killed off at the present time, there would not be fur enough thirty years from now to properly clothe the nobility of the old world, to say nothing of our American women who must have their new furs each season, and the others who must have at least one or two sets during a lifetime. The fur industry is admittedly fast dying a violent death. Some other remedy than those already prescribed must be discovered. We still have sections of the country where the same wild state of nature exists that could have been found three hundred years ago. We still have plenty of fur-bearing animals to keep alive their species if proper conditions prevailed. Therefore, it would seem that the problem to solve is, how can these conditions be best secured. "Mr. Norman A. Wood, expert taxidermist in the University of Michigan's museum, the man most familiar with the animal life within the state and one of the greatest authorities on animal life in the whole Northwest, declares the fur industry can be saved only through the medium of great fur farms. His study of the situation has convinced him that the commercial growing of fur is coming to be one of the great industries of America. "In various parts of the country such farms are to be found, and the profit derived from them has been sufficient to prove the success of the venture. Skunk farms have been started in various parts of the United States within the past few years and are proving paying enterprises. "It is no vague dream that prompts one to speak of fur farming. The signs of the times point that way, indisputably. Every year the price of raw furs bounds up to hitherto unknown levels, the demand is constantly increasing almost as fast as the supply diminishes, and with it having been demonstrated that fur-bearing animals can be raised, men are not going to let such chances slip by." A. R. Harding, editorially in the same magazine says, speaking of fur farming: "The business surely looks like a "gold mine" at present prices of fur and breeding stock. Even should prices be reduced by one-half or more the business bids to continue very profitable. "While scores, perhaps hundreds, will make good with the more valuable foxes--black-silver, cross--thousands will find that profits may not be so great (neither is the expense to get started) with the common red fox, skunk, mink, marten, coon, oppossum and muskrat, yet the raising of these animals is not apt to influence values. The world needs millions of these skins each year, and the market is not so limited as with the high priced furs. Looks like a great future for the raiser of these animals. There is no denying the fact that the supply of wild fur bearers is gradually becoming less, not only in America, but throughout the entire world, while the demand for furs is constantly increasing." Here is a bright future to "Fur Farming." The person who knows something of the habits of the animal or animals that they expect to raise, will be the successful one. The same applies to fur farming. The farmer who has given attention to fur-bearing animals are the ones most apt to be successful. A good many attempts were made at raising skunks, a number of years ago, most of which were failures. Some entered the business on a large scale, knowing nothing of the animals, and of course failed; others "penned up" a few skunks and as they were not properly cared for, failure was the result. The advanced price for skunk skins in recent years, has caused a revival in their raising. This time, an entirely different class of people are taking up the work, and they are going to succeed. Why? Because they know something of the animal and are going at the business in a calm and business-like way. [Illustration: One of Laymon's Stars.] People are not investing their all in a business without realizing the possibility of success or failure. More is known of the Skunk today. It is not the feared animal that it was yesterday. The day is not far distant when it will take its rightful place among fur-bearers and its hides sold for what they really are. There is hardly a more finer fur than skunk and it should not be necessary to hide its identity under a substitute name. The fur farmer, should the market be low for certain animals, can keep over. Nine times in ten, this is the time to raise as many as possible, for by another season, that particular article is likely to be in demand. To illustrate: In the winter of 1908-09, No. 1 skunks from northern and eastern sections were worth $2.00, while the following winter the same skins were bringing just twice this figure. If the skunk raisers who sold off their stock at low prices because the prospect was not bright, had gone ahead they would have had a heavy crop of fur to market at high prices by January, 1910. Some reports from those who have experimented in a small way at raising fur animals is to the effect that they do not fur properly. This is true in regard to skunk, when kept in a box or a small enclosure for weeks and fed largely on meat. They must have contact with earth and be allowed to forage for food. Skunk breed only once a year, unless the first litter are killed or die, when another is sometimes born, and it might be said, such is frequently the case. One thing is important, and that is, get the animals accustomed to their keeper as soon as possible. The old will be wild for some time, but the young soon become tame. Skunk are easily tamed, even children have safely handled them. A man who has been in the fur farming industry for years, in response to the inquiry, "Will the business pay?" says: "Yes, it will pay the right man big dividends on the capital invested." The right man is one who has natural aptitude for this sort of work, and who is "cut out" for fur farming. If he has a liking for this sort of work, he will study the nature and requirements of the animals and attend carefully to their every want. Fur farming as an industry is only in its infancy, in fact, not begun. The future looks bright to those who engage in the business in a business way. To those who expect to make a fortune at the business in a year or two, we predict failure, but to all who are willing to go at the industry intelligently, building a substantial enclosure, paying the same careful attention to the feed and care of their fur animals that they would to other "stock," to get the best results, far more than ordinary profits should result. Under ordinary circumstances skunk can be raised to maturity at a cost of about 25c. The cheapest skin on the market will bring at least a dollar, from that to live skunk at $15. Average profit will be over 400%. CHAPTER III. Enclosures, Dens, Food and Care. The enclosure for a fur farm is one of the most important things for a beginner to consider, for if it is not properly constructed, his labor is in vain. We have heard of parties going to a great expense to procure the animals and construct a fence to hold them, and because the fence was not built on right lines, the animals escaped. This was unnecessary had the netting or galvanized iron fencing extended about 18 inches below the surface. Skunk seldom dig over a foot into the ground. The proper size of an enclosure depends on the number and kinds of animals you intend to start with. For 10 skunks or less and their offspring the first year we suggest an enclosure measuring 3 rods wide by 4 rods long or 12 square rods. This will even answer for a much larger number, but we do not believe in crowding. For 20 skunks and the first year's young the enclosure should measure about 4 rods in width by 5 in length. You can successfully raise a hundred skunk on a single acre of ground. After you have decided on this business the first thing is to find the proper location and make a suitable enclosure. There should be a spring on, or a small stream crossing the ground to be inclosed, but at the same time the ground must not be wet; in fact, it should be of rather dry nature, so that there will not be too much dampness in the dens. That is the picture of an ideal skunkery. But running water is not absolutely necessary so long as the animals are furnished clear water for drinking purposes. There should be banks of earth for the animals to den in and the ground should have a gradual slope so that it will drain readily. If it is of a sandy nature it will be all the better. Some who have tried skunk farming have located the yards on a shore of a small lake or pond and have included a portion of the pond in the enclosure. This is a good idea and it will not be necessary to extend the fence very deep into the water, as the skunk is not a water animal and will not dive under; however, where the fence crosses a stream of running water the fence should reach to the bed of the stream as the water will fall considerably during dry weather. Where running water is not to be had a basin of water should be provided for bathing purposes. They bathe about once a week. This is a habit little known by the amateur fur farmer. The enclosures should be large as possible. When the animals are inclosed in small yards or pens they become infested with fleas, ticks, etc., and they do not do well. By sprinkling the animals with poultry powder usually used to destroy lice, and allowing the animal to den in soft soil these parasites can be easily eradicated. Such small enclosures will answer for a short time but as soon as possible they should be placed in a large roomy yard. To enclose a certain amount of ground with the smallest number of rods of fencing possible, the plat or ground to be enclosed should be in a square. While the cost of enclosing an oblong piece of ground would be a few dollars more than if square, this should not stand in the way if the oblong piece of ground would make a better home for your fur-bearing animals. If one only desires to experiment with a few animals and has the material on hand, he may make a fence of boards, but it should not be depended on for long. Where stones are set up edgewise or cement used, it is rather expensive and as galvanized wire lasts well either in the ground, where not exposed to the air, or being galvanized, it stands the elements well, it seems to meet the requirements of the fur farmer for fencing or enclosure purposes. There should be some trees, or at least shade, no matter what animals you are experimenting with. For fencing material, galvanized wire netting of one-inch mesh is generally used for the breeding yards, and 1½-inch for the outside fence, as the young animals will escape through a two-inch mesh. The outside fence should be seven feet in height. Under ordinary conditions the skunk would not escape over a four-foot fence, but there is danger in winter from drifting snow, and dogs and other animals must be kept out at all times; therefore, the fence should be of the height mentioned and it must be turned in at the top or a sheet of tin placed along the edge to prevent the animals from climbing out. Some skunk raisers simply place flat stones on top of the ground at the foot of the fence to prevent the animals from digging out, and some say that one of the most satisfactory ways is to place small mesh wire netting flat on the ground at the foot of the fence, inside, of course, and cover lightly with dirt. They claim that this is a very good way to prevent skunks from escaping by digging, but on the whole we think that the method of sinking the netting or galvanized iron about 18 inches below the surface is best. [Illustration: Fence of poultry netting, covered with sheet tin, showing foundation.] The persons who expect to make "fur farming" a business, can begin in a small way and same need not interfere with other work to a great extent. Year after year, as they learn more of the business, they can enlarge the grounds. Farmers and others who from experience know much of the animals, will no doubt be the most successful from the start. The ox, horse and sheep were wild at one time, but they have become domesticated. Why not the same with the fur-bearers? This is exactly what should be done. Skunks especially, are very easily domesticated. When the raiser learns this and furnishes an enclosure with dens and food similar to that which they get when in their wild state, they will be on the road to success. [Illustration: Fence of Netting, Showing Support and turned in top.] On the Laymon farm we have been experimenting with galvanized iron or tin fencing, and we prefer it to wire netting. The animals appear more contented when they cannot see other and wider fields. This is especially true during the breeding season. This fencing is a better protection against dogs and prowling animals also on the outside. In the case of galvanized iron fencing, we find that the fence need not be over five feet, with 3 or 4 strands of barbed wire to keep out dogs and prowling animals. The animals do not see out, nor prowlers in and hence the skunk are less liable to become excitable. The interior of the enclosure should be divided into compartments, using netting or galvanized tin for the fences but they need not be so high. The largest compartment would be for the females and there should be a smaller one for the males, also one for the young animals after they have become large enough to take care of themselves. Some also make small yards in which to place the females, two or three together, after the young animals are born. The most of those who have tried skunk breeding, however, have not found this necessary, but there should always be a separate enclosure for the males. When the number of animals increases it will be necessary to have a few small breeding yards, large enough for ten or twelve animals. One need not, however, make such an elaborate enclosure in the start but can enlarge it as needed, adding more compartments. [Illustration: Breeding Range Constructed of Galvanized Iron.] In each compartment a number of dens should be made by digging a trench and covering afterwards. While the animals will dig dens if necessary, they prefer even while in a wild state to use dens already made. Boxes, barrels or pens with board floors should not be used. Some of the successful ones claim that this has a tendency to cause a thick pelt and thin fur and say that it is absolutely necessary that they have natural dens in the ground. The dens should be made quite deep so that there will be no danger from frost in winter and in all cases there should be plenty of straw or leaves for bedding purposes. Where the land is flat it seems wise to throw up a few mounds of earth so that the animal may dig into the soil. A hole can be started in a bank with a post-hole auger and the animal will finish it, seldom burrowing more than a foot further into the earth. No matter what style of den is used it should be so constructed that there is no danger of it getting damp. Banks of earth of a kind which do not absorb and retain water make good places in which to dig dens, and it is easy to incline the entrance so that water from rain or melting snow cannot drain into the passage. The entrance should be made large enough so that the animals can pass in and out easily, for if the passage is small there is danger that the fur will be injured. There should also be plenty of dens, so that if one becomes damp or infested with vermin, the occupants can take up their quarters elsewhere. On the Laymon farm we have several different kinds. The breeding pens are built par-to keep out the rain. After we have once ascertained that the young have arrived we do not disturb the female for several days, save to see that she has plenty to eat and drink. Females are quite devoted to her young. The entrance is of wood and in some cases tiling. The opening should be large to avoid rubbing the fur. The summer dens are of natural earth formed or dug into earth, built around straw or wood, with tile entrance. The winter dens are large, built like a well with a cave-like entrance. These things are necessary only where skunk are raised on a large scale. As far as possible, we do not allow the fur of the animal to come in contact with rough surfaces other than earth. We only allow one female in a brood pen at one time, and use galvanized iron fencing between the pens. Females will steal one another's young when given the chance causing the young animals to starve to death, and we don't give them the chance. The skunks are perfectly cleanly about the dens and always deposit their droppings in one corner, or outside. They seldom discharge their scent and unless he were to see it, one might pass close by a skunk "ranch" and never know it. Feeding. Skunks should have plenty of food especially during the summer and they should be fed at regular intervals, giving just enough for a meal each time. It is advisable to give a mixed diet, partly animal and partly vegetable. They will eat almost all kinds of flesh and fish, table scraps, fruits, especially if very ripe, melons, sweet potatoes, berries, etc. One of the most satisfactory foods is bread and milk, but it is considered too expensive by some people. However, it should be given occasionally. They will eat carrion, but such food should not be given, for it is likely to cause disease. In the fall especially, when they are laying on fat for winter, they should have plenty of food. In winter they do not require so much. It is a lack of meat food that causes them to eat their young and one should feed well during the spring and autumn. Skunks feed largely on insects, grubs, etc., and if they have range enough will supply themselves with the greater portion. They are fond of eggs, either fresh or spoiled, and should be given a feed of this kind occasionally if possible. They also have a fondness for poultry. The matter of providing sufficient food is not as difficult as it would appear at first glance. If the farm is located near a large town, butchers, hotel and restaurant keepers will generally save table scraps, stale bread, etc., on request, if one will make a regular habit of calling for it. This is why it seems desirable to establish a skunkery close to or in a city. Even in the country the neighbors will help out. The farmers will be only too glad to have you take the dead stock, poultry, etc., thus saving them the time and labor of otherwise disposing of it. As before stated, the Laymon Skunkery is an ideal farm. We have a large range of gully land through which runs a natural spring, and is covered with a dense underbrush. The skunk run wild here, male and female breeders after the regular rutting season is over. We feed them only once a day, at evening, and that mostly hominy hearts mixed with water and milk. Just now, June 23rd, they are as fat as prime porkers and in excellent condition. We are experimenting on cutting out all meat for at least five days each week. We maintain that 25c will cover the expense of raising a skunk to maturity. They are wild for mulberries and "roasting ears." Enjoy ripe apples and roots. Relish clover, and like cats get crazy over fish, and there is no doubt about them liking "cat meat," and the flesh of rabbits, fresh or tainted. Breeding. The mating season comes late in February and in March and the young animals make their appearance in May, the period of gestation being about nine weeks. The young are born hairless or furless, and remain blind from 4 to 5 weeks. The mother will wean her young at from 7 to 9 weeks of age. Care should be taken to note the symptoms, as when the young refuse to be weaned, the mother is likely to injure them. They are fully matured in six months, and their hides become prime and ready for market. They breed when a year old and live about 7 years. After weaning the young should be allowed to run wild in a pen where there are other young animals. But not with the old males until such a time as they are able to protect themselves. One male animal will easily serve eight or ten females and he should be left in their company a number of days. After that he should be removed and to make certain, another male should be installed for a few days. Two males should never be allowed in an inclosed pen with the females at one time or they will fight and one or both may be seriously injured. They seem to know enough to keep out of each other's way on the range. We believe, however, that to allow the males and females to run wild (if the range is large enough) has a tendency to create larger litters. We believe that the females cohabit with more than one male at rutting time and that additional young are created at each service. We know that our litters are larger in number than is ordinarily supposed, ranging from six to ten, whereas when served by one as above, the litters averaged from four to eight. Great care should be exercised in the selection of the males for breeding stock. Only the large and healthy animals of good color should be used and all others should be killed and their skins marketed, or the live altered animals sold for pets, while they are in good condition. Never allow a breeder to die of old age. Sell the pelts early and use young stock for the purpose. While the animals do not always breed strictly true to color, the white markings may be greatly reduced and the general stock improved by selected breeding. One should, each year secure fresh breeding stock from other localities and related animals should not be allowed to breed together or in a few years the result will be disastrous. One can not be too careful in this respect for it is very important. After the mating season the female should be separated, placed in small enclosures and they should be well fed or otherwise they may kill and eat the young. They should be allowed to remain in these small enclosures until the young animals are large enough to take care of themselves, when they should be separated and the females may again be placed in the large enclosure. From the commencement of the breeding season until late in the fall the animals require a larger amount of food than during the winter and especially during the breeding season and while the mother is still nursing the young they will require plenty of nourishing food. They require fresh drinking water at all times and the enclosures should be so arranged that each compartment will be supplied. As before stated one should use care in selecting animals for breeding purposes as it is in this way that the quality of the fur will be improved and the business made to be a profitable one. If you wish to increase the number of animals do not be tempted for the sake of the higher prices realized for the finer skins to kill off animals that should be kept for breeding. On the whole, one should study the habits of the animals on every opportunity and attend to their wants. If one will give the proper attention to the animals and take an interest in them there is no reason why he should not succeed. CHAPTER IV. Trapping, Skinning, Shipping. The skunk belongs to the weasel family, and is nocturnal in its habits, but unlike other fur-bearing animals of the weasel family, lacks alertness. It is exceedingly slow in locomotion compared with other animals, and naturally falls an easy prey to the average hunter or trapper. The only drawback and reason why this animal was not extensively hunted or trapped and the skin marketed twenty or thirty years ago, was the danger of being sprayed with their peculiar essence. The fur is fine and eagerly sought after, especially the black furred skins, which bring high prices. As many as 500,000 skunk skins are marketed in a year. The skins are generally divided into four or five distinct grades, and each grade is then assorted accordingly to quality and size. Skunks should not be killed for the pelt out of season, but this is true of all animals, where the furred skin has a market value. The open season for Minnesota, Dakotas, Iowa, Wisconsin, Montana and northern sections, is from November 1st to February 15th, varying somewhat upon the weather. South or middle states the season opens somewhat earlier, and naturally closes on approach of warm weather. The fur of the skunk is the first of all fur bearing animals to become prime, and is also first to suffer the loss of its lustre and primeness. How to Kill Without Being Scented. There are many ways and methods in common use for capturing and killing this animal, but probably the best is the use of steel traps, though a long stick is equally as good, providing the one who holds it comprehends his business and uses same advantageously. The author has known two lads to kill and skin forty skunks in a day. Of course, great care must be exercised to kill the animal without receiving a discharge of the perfume. A six to eight foot long stick, one and a half to two inches in diameter is the proper weapon and instrument to use in killing skunks. A smart blow on the back about one to two inches beyond the tail will readily fell the animal. This blow will paralyze and benumb the muscles and nerves employed by the animal to distribute its obnoxious fluid. An additional blow is necessary, and the latter should be given on top of the head. Steel Traps. Steel traps are used with good effect. They should be set just before the hole and be covered with loose bits of dirt, leaves or other vegetation. Some prefer to use bait, the latter can be a beef head, a chicken, or, in fact, any chunk of old meat or carcass. Drag same in various ways and drop in a conspicuous place or in center of a nest of traps. The trap should be attached to a clog, or loose bushes, never attach two traps to the same article. Skunks often spring traps set for mink, wolf and other animals, but seldom devour or even touch a victim should they come upon same while making their nocturnal visits. A Box Trap. [Illustration: Box Trap for Catching small Animals Alive.] The usual bait for skunk is birds, bits of meat, pieces of chicken and rabbit, whether old or fresh. A good method and trap is to bury a large dry-good box; see that the top is even with the surface of the earth, place light brushes, hay or straw across the opening, upon which sprinkle a little loose earth. Some prefer to make an artificial opening in top of box after same is buried, into which the skunk will descend, rather fall in, but cannot get out. Some strong smelling bait should be placed in the box, which is to attract the animal from a distance. As many as eight skunks have been caught during one night by the use of this style of box trap. This seems to prove that skunk do not make a noise when caught. A Barrel Trap. [Illustration: Barrel Trap. If Set on the Slope of a Hill, Will Capture More Than one Animal.] Another method is the so-called barrel trap. A sugar, vinegar or whisky barrel will answer. Remove the head and securely fasten the bait on inside of bottom of barrel. Place the barrel in a slanting position, open part toward the earth, and arrange by balancing the barrel in such a way that when the skunk enters by crawling up in a barrel, being attracted there by the bait, the barrel with the skunk will tip over and Mr. Skunk fall on his nose inside of the barrel and be a captive. This is a good and cheap trap and the victim cannot get out, though only one animal can be caught at one time. Some trappers dig the skunk out, others dig until they reach the cavity in which they usually have their nests and are found huddled up together in a bunch. If found in such a position it is an easy matter to suffocate them, thus obliterating all possible chances of the animals distributing their obnoxious perfume. All that is necessary after one sees the animals is to cover them up with soft dirt, which should be lightly tamped every two inches of filling and continued until about fifteen to eighteen inches is securely tamped. In about fifteen to twenty minutes the trapper can uncover the den by removing the earth, and he will find the animals suffocated. After all, it is poor policy to suffocate whole dens of skunk. They should be caught alive. It is unnecessary, but we recommend for the trapper, (new beginners) or hunters, to remove the perfume containers (glands) before skinning as one is likely to cut into the bags and distribute the perfume, but if removed all danger of coming in contact with the liquid weapon is of the past. Skunks, when located in holes, can be smoked out or suffocated, either with common smoke or vapors arising from burning sulphur. To locate the distance of digging, insert a long switch or telegraph wire into the hole. The author has personally seen trappers dig down for a short distance and then reach after the animals with their hands, and sure enough they succeed in bringing the animals, one by one, from their den. Strange as it seems no perfume was discharged. This is probably due to the fact that the other trapper assisted by knocking them senseless immediately after their heads appeared through the hole. A piece of ¾-inch round iron, about twelve inches in length, was used. Trappers relate and claim that it is a positive fact that the skunk will refrain from biting or discharging perfume while in their holes. [Illustration: A Battery of Brooding Dens on the Laymon Farm.] Deadfalls, figure four and other home-made traps can be employed, though the animal must be skinned promptly, and often the fur becomes damaged from the instrument itself or by long delay and exposure to the weather. There are many other methods and ways to capture and kill this animal, but by the foregoing any one contemplating to trap or hunt will have the essential knowledge. The rifle can be used whenever possible, but the use of the shotgun is detrimental to the skin, and its use should be prevented when the question of its fur is taken into consideration. The animal should not be entirely eradicated from any particular locality, as the skunk is more beneficial than harmful to the farms, and again, the killing of skunks out of season is entirely absurd and uncalled for, the animal being harmless. The meat while not generally consumed, can be used, though when fried, it is dry and tough, resembling bull meat in that respect. The fat is used for medicinal purposes. Skunk oil is highly recommended for sore throat, croup, etc. Killing, Skinning and Stretching. When "killing time" comes, care should be taken to not frighten the animals left for breeding purposes more than is absolutely necessary. All animals that are tame enough should be driven into a separate enclosure and out of sight of the others before being killed. Perhaps as good a method of killing as any is to use a good club, striking on the hips just over the region of the scent sac. Skunk should be killed without the enclosure becoming strongly scented. A pole several feet long with a strong loop on the end can be slipped over their tails. The animal can now be lifted clear off the ground and carried wherever the killing is desired. Drowning is not recommended, as it takes the fur hours to dry and is therefore extra work. Some even claim that the water spoils the luster of the fur to a certain extent. Skunk do not leave their dens during severe weather, so that it is advisable to begin selecting those that are to be killed days and even weeks in advance of the time decided upon. These should be placed in an enclosure or pen by themselves so that the remaining ones will not be disturbed. Animals selected need not be operated upon, though the scent sac should be removed before skinning. The animals that are to be kept for breeding purposes need not be fed so heavily during the winter months or after those that were intended for market have been killed. Of course in the spring after the females have young, they must be fed heavily. Some raisers as soon as the young are weaned, select those that are to be killed the coming winter, keeping them separate from the breeding stock so that they can be fed properly. That is a great saving of food, as those for market should be fed much more than the breeders at this season--say during the months of September, October and November. Two Methods of Skinning. There are two distinct methods of skinning fur-bearing animals, and skins are known as "cased" or "open" skins, according to the method of removing the pelt. Open skins are those removed by ripping the skin down the belly and are stretched out flat. Cased skins are those drawn off the body from the tail to the head, by ripping the skin on the backs of the hind legs. The skunk skins should be cased. Cut off the front feet with a knife or hatchet, cut around the hind feet and rip down the back of the hind legs, using care when cutting and skinning around the scent glands. Split the tail about one-third of its length on the under side, and skin it that far by using the knife; then strip it from the bone by means of a split stick. Grasp the stick with your right hand, palm up, and with the tail between the second and third fingers, tail pointing up; hold the carcass by placing the left hand on the hind quarters; close your right hand and give a steady pull upwards and the skin will be stripped from the tail quickly and easily. Now draw the skin downward, off the body, to the shoulders. Here two thin muscles will insist on hanging fast to the skin; put your finger under them and tear them loose. You can now get hold of the front legs, and strip the skin from them. Strip the skin on down to the head, then feel for the base of the ears and cut them off close to the head. Skin on to the eyes; here you must use the knife again, but use care not to enlarge the eye aperture. Cut the skin loose about the mouth and the end of the nose, but don't cut the nose off the skin. The pelt now resembles a small, narrow sack, with fur side in. Before you lay it down, turn it with the fur side out and thus keep the skin clean until you are ready to flesh and stretch it. Skins Should be Fleshed. The skin of any animal should be fleshed and stretched as soon as possible after it is removed from the carcass. If the weather is somewhat warm and the skin remains uncleaned and unstretched a day or two, it may start to taint. For fleshing cased skins I use two boards, one about three inches wide and three feet long for small skins, and the other five inches wide and four feet long for larger ones. These fleshing boards must be perfectly smooth and flat. They should not be beveled towards the edge like a stretching board, but should have the edges slightly rounded. Before fleshing a cased skin be sure that there are no burrs or other foreign substances in the fur, for such would cause you to cut the skin, then draw the pelt on the board, fur side in. Now with the base of the board resting on the floor and the nose against your chest, shove the fat and flesh from the skin with the knife or hatchet, from the head to the tail. The instrument should be held at an angle of about 40 degrees. Don't try to flesh on the edge of the board or you will injure the skin. Turn the skin occasionally until you are all the way around and the pelt is perfectly clean of flesh and fat. The thin sheet of muscle found on the back of the skunk should not be removed, but the loose rolls behind the shoulders should be removed down to a point where it appears to be firmly attached to the skin. Don't scrape away at a skin of any kind until nothing remains but the scarf skin and the fur. There is such a thing as overdoing it, and one should remember that he is only to remove the loose parts, which are not a part of the skin. Skunk, oppossum, and muskrats are the skins which are the most likely to be overdone, and the skunk in particular. Stretching Important. After the skins are fleshed they are ready for stretching. I advise the use of the three-piece board. To use the three-piece board, turn the skin with the flesh side out and insert the two main pieces of the board, the flat edges together; draw the skin down to its full extent and fasten the hind legs with two nails to each. Be sure that the skin is on the board squarely, the back on one side, and the belly on the other, then insert the wedge between the two pieces of the board. Put the wedge in firmly, but don't drive it in with a hammer, for there is such a thing as over-stretching a skin. Then draw the back down and fasten it with two nails near the root of the tail. Then turn the board over, and stretch the other side, fastening it also with two nails. Now fasten all the edges by placing the nails 1½ or 2 inches apart, keeping the legs one-half on each side of the board. See that the nose of the skin does not slip over the end of the board and fasten the skin of the lower jaw with two nails. The tail of the skunk must be stretched out flat as far as it is split. Now take your jackknife and make a little incision in the tip of the tail of all animals except the otter. This is to allow the air to circulate and let the moisture drain out. If the weather is very warm, put a little salt in the tail to keep it from tainting. The loss of the tail will detract heavily from the value of the skin, and in case the bone has broken off, as happens sometimes, the tail should be opened on the under side and the bone removed. After the tail is attended to, loop a string around the nails in the lower jaw and hang the pelt in a cool, dry, airy place to cure. Be sure that it swings free, and does not rest against the other skins. A few remarks about packing furs for shipment may not come amiss. Never ship furs until they are perfectly dry for they may taint in shipping. It is not necessary, however, for the tails to be perfectly dry. Make the skins up into a nice, neat package and sew it in a burlap. Don't roll skins; pack them flat. It is best to wrap them in paper before placing them in the package. Always put a card, bearing your name and address, inside of the package to help identify them, in case the outside tag gets torn off. Put two shipping tags on each package and fill them out with your name and address in the place reserved for it. When you give them into the hands of the express company, give their true value, as near as you can, and be sure that the agent marks the valuation on the receipt. Then in case they are lost, you can hold the express company responsible. CHAPTER V. Habits of The Skunk. Skunks are found in all parts of the United States, with the exception of the mountainous district of the West. They occur again to the west of the mountain ranges and also are found in most parts of Southern Canada. They are found in the prairie country and in the hilly and mountainous districts of the East, and are at home in the "wilds" as well as in the thickly settled districts, however, they seem to thrive best in the farming sections and especially if the country is of a hilly nature. Their dens are located along the gravelly hillsides, quite often under the roots of trees and stumps but in the prairie they den along the washouts and creek banks. In thickly settled sections they frequently make their home under houses and outbuildings, showing practically no fear of man and often appropriate the den of the woodchuck. They are nocturnal animals and as a rule do not wander far from the den but in the fall they travel farther, looking for a good den in which to spend the winter. Again, in early spring during the mating season, the males travel considerably. While they are not a hibernating animal, they stay in their dens during cold weather, also when the snow is loose and deep, but are sure to be out on the first nice night. The mating season of this animal is in February and early March and the young are born mostly in May, although some will be born in April. There are usually from four to ten young in a litter but occasionally there will be a larger number. The value of a skunk skin depends mainly on its size and markings, they being graded by the buyers entirely by the amount of black fur, providing, of course, that the skin is prime and well handled. Being slow moving animals, they can not catch the more active animals and birds as do the other members of the weasel family and their food consists mainly of mice, insects and grubs, also of the eggs and young of such birds as nest on the ground. They are very fond of poultry and frequently visit the poultry houses, killing the young birds. They also feed on carrion. When they can get it they will eat almost any kind of animal food. Even in the wild state the skunk is not, strictly speaking, a carnivorous animal as they will eat and in fact are fond of sweet corn when in a milky state, also sweet potatoes, melons and wild fruits. It appears that if the male skunk is not separated from the female at breeding time, the female will kill the male, presumably to protect her young. And on the other hand the male will kill and eat the young if given the chance. Robert B. Phillips relates the following in H-T-T: "I wish to relate an experience with the lowly skunk. I found some skunk signs near an old cave large enough for a small boy to creep in. I set one trap near the main entrance and another one about fifteen feet away both fastened to clogs. (I wish to state before I go farther that the cave has a sickening sulphur smell and in the winter time, no matter how deep the snow is elsewhere, you will not find any for about three feet around the mouth of the cave.) Well I visited the traps the next morning and upon arriving at the cave I saw two skunks about twenty feet from the hole. One was eating at the hind quarters of the other. Of course I thought they were both in my traps, but when about forty feet away the victorious skunk saw me and started climbing an embankment below the cave and I noticed he did not have a toe pincher clinging to him. The skunk was only two feet from his dwelling when I made a quick shot with a twenty two rifle. Of course I missed so I knew he was gone for the time being. I went to the other one and found him breathing his last. He had his entire tail, scent glands and the meat all eaten off the bones at the junction of the hind legs and the base of the backbone. In fact the hole in the body was so large that a full sized baseball could be put into the abdomen and the skunk still had a little life in him yet. Neither of them had thrown their scent. "Two days later I caught the other one, the largest male skunk I ever caught. When I went there he was leisurely eating a rabbit he had evidently caught. This happened in the beginning of December and both were male skunks. "I know of another case where skunks turned Cannibalistic. This happened to some young trappers who were in the habit of catching the skunks in September and early October and keeping them until they were prime. They had eight or nine in an old spring wagon. One morning he went out to see them and found they had killed and eaten one of their own number. There are a few of those fellows around here. They are afraid another fellow might catch one or two of them. "One time I caught a skunk and I got quite near it kept on digging in the leaves and every once in a while it would unearth a bug or insect which it would promptly devour. Some people have an idea that a skunk does nothing but steal chickens. This he does sometimes, but he makes up for that by catching cut worms and other insects which spoil thousands of dollars worth of crops annually. I have opened their stomachs already and found centipedes and angle worms and lots of beetles in them. Skunk also loves mice." Breeding. Earl Williamson says: "I see in the H-T-T where persons have found skunk dens with nearly all female skunks. My experience has been that in every den there is one male and two or more females; twenty-two being the highest I have ever heard of being taken from one den. The females and male den up early while the rest travel around in nice weather and stay in any hole in bad weather." Says a Nebraska trapper: "I have seen from 2 to 12 skunk in one den, but never more than 1 male with a den of females. The males of a litter seem to be forced to leave, only one remaining. The males so treated den themselves individually at a distance from the herd of females, returning in the spring. I have never known them to use their odor in a fight among themselves, neither have I known them to make a noise other than patting on the ground with their front feet." J. M. Bray writes of Skunk Handling: "Norris Johnson, John K. Hallman and myself went into the ring and started the performance by taking a pair each of live skunks by the tails and holding them while the pictures were taken. Some of the onlookers thought that was wonderful the way we handled those skunks. Now, right here is where I want to say that you can do it just as well as I can, if it is necessary for you to handle them. Go to them with a quiet, but firm step; take a good hold on their tails and you can carry them anywhere you want to. I have had a number of inquiries whether my skunks were odorless. I will say they are not and it is not necessary to make them odorless. If you use them gently you can have them around for a year and no one would know that you had them. Some ask, will black skunks breed all black, or will some breed back into lower grades? It is a known fact that all animals will breed back sometimes, but by having black you will breed black. But I find by having black bucks and by having short stripe females (and no threes or fours) your breed will be from fifty to seventy-five per cent black, or No. 1. "Some have asked me what to feed them. Skunks will eat anything that a cat or dog will eat, also various fruits, such as apples, pears, persimmons, sweet corn or field corn (so long as the grains are soft). Where you have a number you will have to figure on the feed. Skim milk and stale bread, butchers' scraps, meat from dead animals, dead chickens or anything of that nature, but it will be necessary to vary their feed occasionally. "If you start with a pair or so for an experiment you do not need such a large enclosure, but if you want to make a business of it, then I would advise you not to be afraid to spend a few dollars on your pen and the larger the lot the larger the pen. Don't crowd them or you will be the loser." Skunk have no means of defense other than their scent, but this is sufficient in many cases and the majority of people will give them a wide berth. This scent is only used when alarmed or frightened and in captivity there is no trouble whatever from this source as they soon learn that there is no occasion for alarm and become quite tame. CULLED FROM CORRESPONDENCE. "While trapping this last season I caught a skunk each night for three nights in succession at the same den and the three brought $12.00 which I thought was pretty good for three skunks out of the same den. I have caught as high as eight skunks in one day."--Lee Guthrie. "Skunks can be raised as easily as house cats, providing you have an enclosure where they cannot dig out or climb over. For every hundred old skunks, you should have an acre of ground enclosed. "I experimented for three years on a small scale. The first year I had one male and three females. They brought forth fifteen young. One died, plus four old ones, leaving eighteen--eleven females and seven males. Five of the young graded as No. 2, balance star black. "The second year I started with twelve females and two males, bringing forth forty-three young, plus fourteen old ones, total fifty-seven, less three, which died, leaving a balance of fifty-four. I took out seventeen males and five No. 2 females, leaving a balance of thirty-two black ones."--I. M. Bray. "When cold weather comes the female dens up and with very few exceptions does not stir until mating season which is in February. Trappers will tell you that fully 90 per cent of the November, December and January catch are males. After February 10, when the running season is on the catch is largely females. At this season a skunk tracked to its den and dug out has often resulted in as many as eight or ten. These are mostly females."--H-T-T. "In regard to the habits of skunk in the Elkhorn River District, Nebraska, will say they usually den in old badger holes, cleaning them out in the fall, sometimes making a cavity in them 2x3 feet by 18 inches high, preferring hilltops, bluffs and slough banks as situations. Sometimes they dig dens themselves, seldom going over 1 foot below the surface. The cavity is bedded 6 inches deep and the hole about half filled with dry grass."--Nebraskan. "Farm readers, please don't kill the skunk during the summer when his hide is worthless, because he got a chicken or two, but wait and take his hide in the winter. It will more than pay for the chicken if you really must rid your back woods of him, why not take him with box traps and start a fur farm?"--Peerless Bum. "John M. McCrary asks if we have ever heard a skunk make a noise. I can answer that by saying positively yes. I have two male skunks together in a pen and we have been awakened every night about 10 o'clock by their hideous squeals. They seem to be very congenial during the daytime," says Harold Pugh. Probably the sound you think so hideous is sweet music to the skunks. However, it may be their war cry. If you would watch them and study their habits, especially at night, you might make some valuable contributions to our knowledge of skunk habits. "Why don't all of you fellows start a fur farm? It will be the most paying business in the country pretty soon."--Albert C. Hancock. "The natural habits of the skunk is to live in holes in the ground, rocks, trees, stumps, etc. Their food consists of mice, birds, bugs, crickets, grasshoppers, bees, wasps, yellow jackets, angle worms, seeds, berries, ground roots and barks."--Bureau of Agriculture. Beyond all doubt the skunk has been given more consideration by raisers of fur-bearers than any other animal, with the exception of the fox. There are many who have tried raising these animals with more or less success and where the experimenters have used good judgment and have given the subject all of the attention it deserves, they have been reasonably successful. Most of these people have started in on a small scale, having perhaps only a dozen or two of skunks to start with; in fact nowhere has the business been carried on as extensively as some newspaper articles would lead one to believe; the majority of these parties having at the most only two or three hundred animals. It is the smaller experimenters, in other words those who have begun on a small scale, who have been most successful. They are for the most part farmers who had even before venturing into the business a fair knowledge of the nature and habits of the skunk and therefore were more qualified for making the business a successful one. Farmers naturally take an interest in all nature and are most likely to give the proper amount of attention to the animals, also learn their habits readily and act accordingly and these qualities are absolutely necessary for the successful raising of all fur-bearing animals. CHAPTER VI. Miscellaneous Information. The most successful stock breeders are those who make a special study of their animals and take a great interest in them and those who do not are almost certain to fail and really deserve failure. If so much care is necessary in breeding domestic animals, how much more important the care in handling the wild creatures, knowing so little of them as the average man does. But even handicapped by lack of knowledge the experimenters have been fairly successful from the start if they were right men for the business. Without exception they all report that the animals breed well in captivity and are easily kept; in a short time becoming quite tame and losing their fear of man. The skunk is an animal which is despised and feared by many people because of its readiness to make use of its powerful scent, the only means of defense with which nature has provided it, but it is only when frightened that it uses this scent and once they have become tame and learn that they will not be harmed they are practically harmless. We will say, however, to those who are afraid of the scent, do not attempt to raise skunks, but devote your time to some other calling for which you are more fitted. But if you want to make clean money, raise skunk. Removing the Scent Sacs. It is true that the scent glands may be removed from the young animals and we can see no reason why this should have any effect on their breeding. The operation is easily performed and if done when the skunks are very young, about the time they first open their eyes, they are seldom harmed by it. The operator should provide himself with an old bag, and seated on a low bench with the bag between his knees should place the animal in the bag, leaving only the hind quarters uncovered. With a small, sharp knife make a ¼ or 3/8-inch incision over the gland, and with an awl lift up on the gland, which at that age will be about the size of a cranberry, at the same time pressing down gently on the surrounding tissue with the flat side of the knife. The gland will lift up readily. Then holding it with the awl, cut it through the center, allowing the remaining half to return to place. The reason the entire gland is not removed is that it is firmly united to the rectum and the animal is likely to be seriously injured if one attempts to remove the entire gland. All of the scent, and only half of the gland is necessary. Following is a more detail description of the operation of removing the scent sac: Description of The Scent Glands of The Skunk. The annal glands which are possessed also by other members of the weasel family are developed in the skunk to such a wonderful degree as to constitute an effective means of defense. They are not related in any way to the genito-urinary system either in location or function. They are the same in both sexes. [Illustration: Laymon and Assistant Removing the Scent Sac.] The scent fluid which is the special secretion of these glands is contained in two sacs located beneath the skin, one on each side of the vent. Each sac is embedded in a powerful, gizzard-like, muscular envelope the contraction of which discharges the scent fluid. Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 show general location and form. Within the rectum just beyond the sphincter muscle which ordinarily keeps the vent closed are two papillae from which the scent is discharged. Each papilla is connected with one of the scent sacs by a discharge duct. Ordinarily the discharge papillae are not visible but when the skunk discharges the scent fluid the tail is raised and doubled close along the back, the vent is relaxed and turned outward to such an extent that the pappillae becomes external and from them the scent is discharged and directed with remarkable accuracy. The skunk takes great care not to get any of the scent on its tail or fur and the slightly skunky odor which fur garments sometimes have is usually the result of carelessness in killing or skinning the animal. To kill without scent the backbone should be broken by a quick blow or the skunk should be drowned. When held by the tail with head hanging down and with tail and backbone in a straight line the skunk cannot control the muscles which evolve the rectum and discharge the scent. Care must be taken that the skunk does not twist or climb upward. It should be held low to keep its interest centered on the ground which it will strive to reach. Directions for Removing the Scent Sacs From Live Skunks Without the Escape of Any of the Scent Fluid. [Illustration: FIG. 1, X-RAY OF SCENT SYSTEM.] This operation is simple and may be readily learned by anyone who will follow these instructions carefully. No anaesthetic is needed. 1. The beginner should dress in old clothes or overalls and as a precaution should wear goggles to protect the eyes in case of accident. An old hat or a paper sack worn as a cap will protect the hair. With these safeguards the learner feels perfectly at ease and therefore the chance of accident is much lessened while acquiring proficiency. 2. A heavy plank supported on two wooden buckets makes a good operating table. Straddling this plank the operator and his assistant sit facing each other. 3. The proper instruments are as follows: 1 nickel plated scalpel (knife). 1 nickel plated tenaculum (hook). 1 nickel plated sound probe (probe). 1 pair nickel plated special extracting forceps. 1 pair nickel plated automatic clamping forceps. 2 pair goggles (worn only by beginners as safeguard). 4. Several pieces of clean white cloth about three inches square should be provided. 5. The instruments should be boiled about ten minutes in clear water to insure cleanliness. During the operation they should be kept in a saucer containing a five per cent solution of carbolic acid which may be placed on a box within easy reach of the operator's right hand. 6. The operator first takes his seat and spreads a gunny-sack or burlap across the plank just in front of him. 7. The assistant then brings the skunk carrying it by the tail with his right hand. His left hand should grasp the nape of the neck to help keep the head down for the back-bone and tail must at all times be kept in a straight line. 8. The assistant now, by means of his hold on the nape of the neck brings the skunk into a horizontal position (keeping the backbone and tail in a straight line) and lays it belly downward on the gunny-sack with head toward the operator. [Illustration: FIG. 2, SECTIONAL VIEW OF SCENT SYSTEM. A--Scent Sac H--Original Incision B--Muscular Envelope I--Rectum C--Discharge Duct K--Sphincter Muscle Encircling Vent D--Discharge Papilla L--Scent Sac Pushing Through Incision E--Vent F--Wall of Rectum G--Cut to Sever Duct] 9. The operator wraps the gunny-sack snugly about the skunk while the assistant releases his hold on the nape of the neck. 10. The assistant now immediately places the forefinger of his left hand with light pressure over the vent, while the operator proceeds to turn the skunk on its back keeping the gunny-sack wrapped firmly about the animal. 11. Now only the tail and butt of the skunk are exposed to view. The gunny-sack covers all four feet and head so there can be no scratching or biting. 12. The operator brings his knees together over the plank and thereby holds the skunk. This enables him to have both hands free. 13. The operator now relieves the assistant by placing the fore-finger of his own left hand over the vent. With the thumb of the same hand he locates the scent gland just to the right of the vent. The gland is easily recognized as feeling hard and round like a marble beneath the skin abreast of the vent, neither forward nor backward from the vent. 14. Having the thumb and fore-finger about an inch and a quarter apart the operator now squeezes the gland tight enough to draw the skin firmly over it. His right hand is free. 15. With a piece of cloth dipped in the carbolic solution he moistens the fur and skin held between his thumb and finger. 16. With the scalpel, starting at least three-eights of an inch from the vent so as not to injure the sphincter muscle which encircles the vent, the operator makes an incision through the skin about five-eighths of an inch long directly over the center of the scent gland and in a straight line with the vent, as shown at H in Fig. 1. 17. The incision is now carefully deepened until the firm, gizzard-like envelope in which the sac lies is reached. The beginner is likely to mistake this firm, muscular envelope for the sac itself because the envelope is lighter in color than the tissues previously cut. 18. He now proceeds more gradually to cut through the muscular envelope as shown at H in Fig. 2, taking light strokes with the scalpel and cutting only a slight depth each time. 19. If the muscular envelope cannot be held firmly enough by the pressure of thumb and finger so the knife will cut well the muscle may be hooked with the tenaculum and thus held by the assistant while the operator cuts. 20. Soon a small white bead appears in the bottom of the incision as shown at L in Fig. 2. There is no mistaking this as it is the white sac itself pushing through a very small opening which has been made through the envelope. 21. This opening is now carefully increased by turning the dull side of the scalpel toward the protruding sac and cutting away from it, first on one side and then on the other. 22. The sac keeps pushing outward more and more until it is about the size of a pea. The cutting is then stopped. 23. Now by means of the extracting forceps the sac is gradually lifted by raising it a little on one side and then on the other. The object is to work the sac through the small opening without tearing it by too violent a pull and without lacerating it by gripping too hard with the forceps. The proper way is to grasp lightly and pull gently here and there at its base. 24. When half the sac has been worked through the opening the sac suddenly pops up out of the gizzard-like envelope. 25. The sac is now lifted carefully by the extracting forceps to see that it is all clear and attached only by the discharge duct. 26. If any slight muscular tissue is found clinging to the sac it may be torn away with the sound or tenaculum or carefully cut with the scalpel. 27. The duct, which alone holds the sac, is now clamped in the automatic forceps as near the sac as feasible as shown in Fig. 3. 28. The assistant now holds these forceps and thus supports the sac so the operator can see the duct clearly. 29. The operator then carefully examines the duct preparatory to cutting it. He must be very sure not to cut it too close to the rectum or he will cut a round hole in the rectal wall because even a slight pull on the duct draws the discharge papilla outward and brings with it the wall of the rectum wrapped about the papilla so as to look like a continuation of the duct. See C, Figs 1, 2, 3. 30. By feeling carefully with the sound or the dull side of the scalpel the end of the papilla nearest the sac is readily discerned by its firmness or hardness. 31. The duct is now severed with the scalpel at a point a little way from the papilla as shown at G in Fig. 3. 32. The sac is now held free in the clamping forceps and not a particle of the scent fluid has escaped. 33. The operator then proceeds in the same manner to locate and remove the second sac. [Illustration: FIG. 3. SAC COMPLETELY WITHDRAWN. A--Scent sac F--Wall of Rectum B--Muscular Envelope G--Cut to Sever Duct C--Discharge Duct H--Incision to Expose Sac D--Discharge Papilla I--Rectum E--Vent (Rectum) J--Tail] 34. The incisions should be wiped out with a piece of cloth with carbolic solution and never need any further attention. In a few days not even the scars can be found. 35. The operation is performed most easily when the animal is not too old or fat. Any time from one-third to two-thirds growth is a good age for this work. 36. With a little practice the complete operation of removing both scent sacs should not take over five minutes or skunks may be handled at rate of ten or twelve per hour. The removing of the scent sac has increased the value of No. Four skunk. Many are sold as pets, and others used for advertising purposes. We do not go to the trouble of removing the sac on animals we know we are going to kill soon. There is no danger of scenting when the skunk is carried suspended by the tail. Those who have failed in skunk raising were for the most part people who knew nothing regarding the habits of the animal and its care when in captivity. They were men with capital, who began on a large scale expecting to make a fortune in a short time, but in this they were mistaken, for many of them lost all that they invested. These parties have had trouble from the older animals killing and eating the young, also depradations of owls, but mainly from the first reason. It is our opinion that this cannibalistic tendency is caused by improper feeding, as those parties who have used care in that respect have had no trouble =whatever=. To those who are thinking of embarking in the business of skunk farming, we would say--start on a small scale with only a small number of animals, say two dozen females and six males. Give them every possible attention and study them under all conditions. Do not expect to make a fortune in a short time. Laws Affecting Fur Farming. One of the most frequent questions that we are called upon to answer is "Will the laws of this state allow of keeping fur-bearing animals in captivity?" This question has caused considerable trouble, for in states where fur-bearers are protected a part of the year, it is usually considered unlawful to have the live animals in possession during closed season, but not always so. Only one state, namely New York, has laws making it a misdemeanor to have protected fur-bearing animals in possession during closed season. In that state it surely would be unlawful to raise skunks, for the law, after giving the open season on these animals says: "They shall not be possessed or killed at any other time." It is our opinion that the fur-farmer would not get into any trouble with the law, in any state other than New York, if he would kill the captive animals only during the open season for the said animals, since the game laws of no other state say that you may not have the animals in possession. Still there are fur farms in the state of New York. You are obliged to comply with rules and regulations of the Conservation Commission of New York. You should write to this commission at Albany, New York, and get their instructions and permission. Fur farming laws and game laws covering this subject are confused and unsatisfactory. Fur farmers are likely to find that much depends on the disposition of local game protectors, and should get in touch with them and with the state authorities, especially a state like New York. Dye Markings to Denote Sex--Toe Clipping to Denote Age. We have installed what we consider a very handy system of skunk labeling on our farm. For instance we mark the male skunk with a red mark perpendicularly across the white markings in the head. If he is "altered," this mark becomes a cross. With the female it is blue mark--if "altered," the mark becomes a cross. To denote the age we simply clip a claw each year at a certain time. The unclipped animal is less than a year old. We seldom keep them over five years as breeders. Usually sell the pelts during the fourth year. The system seems to work out very satisfactory. A Simple Fur Press. Take a box with a bottom the size you wish the bottom of your bale of furs to be and turn it bottom side up on the floor near the wall. Then spread a piece of burlap over it large enough to hang over the edges a little all the way around. Then lay on a piece of heavy brown paper about the size of the burlap. Then lay on your furs in a flat, square pile, the same shape as the top of the box. It is a good plan to brush the hair all out straight and smooth as you lay them on. Lay them on until you have them thick enough so that when pressed down they will be as thick as you want your bale. Then lay on another piece of paper and burlap about the size of the ones on the bottom. Then lay some short pieces of board crosswise under your lever. Then nail a cleat to the wall the same distance from the floor that the top of your bale will be when pressed. Then take a piece of good solid board or anything handy that may be used as a lever and lay across the top of the bale, catching one end under the cleat on the wall and pry it down and weight it or have some one hold it for you while you fold the edges of the paper together smoothly and the burlap in the same way, folding the corners in neatly. Now you can sew these edges together with some good stout cord and release your lever, tie on your shipping tags and you will have a neat secure bundle, all ready for shipment. The bundle may be strengthened by putting a good stout cord around it lengthwise and crosswise twice. This makes something to get hold of when handling it.--L. Dewey. Live Skunks Can be Shipped by Express. Skunk skins or live skunk will not be carried by parcels post. Live skunk in the past have been transported by the express companies usually at regular merchandise rates, and the occasional shipment of these animals when well caged and protected did not arouse any great comment. Owing to damage incurred, on April 1, 1913, the express companies took concerted action and passed a joint and official amendment with the concurrence of the Interstate Commerce Commission, reading as follows: "SKUNKS--Refuse." This made it impossible to ship live skunks by express after that date. There was naturally a protest to the express companies by skunk breeders, and by those accustomed to shipping live skunks. The express companies finally agreed, however, to accept for shipment skunks from which the oval glands had been removed. The ruling on skunks was therefore with the approval of the Interstate Commerce Commission changed to read, effective May 20, 1913, as follows: "Skunks--Refuse, unless scent sacs are removed." All the express companies concur in this ruling, even the Canadian Companies. This means that shipments can be made between all points in the United States or Canada. The removal of the scent sacs is easiest at the age of five weeks, although it can be done at any time. It does not seem to injure the skunks in any way or to interfere with their breeding. In shipping skunks from the United States to Canada there is no duty, but, in shipping from Canada to the United States the duty is 20% of the invoice price. At the time of shipment, write a letter to the fur company, that you are shipping to, advising them of the shipment, and telling how you are sending the furs, and just how many and what kind of furs you are sending. If you follow these instructions, you will seldom have any cause for complaint. CHAPTER VII. Questions and Answers. As we are asked certain questions so often we are pleased to give below answers to those most frequently received: "=What is The Best Way For Me to Start Raising Skunks for Fur?=" Start with a few and increase the number as you can care for them. Dig out or capture a couple of litters this spring. Mate the males of one litter with the females of the other litter. There are usually eight to ten young in a litter. The old skunks mate about March 1st and the young are born about May 1st. Never inbreed; that is, do not mate related animals. Furs are becoming scarcer and prices are continually advancing. Those who start early in this industry will make the most money. "=How Can I Breed For Black Skunks?=" Each year save your largest and blackest skunks to breed from. Market the skins of all the rest when prime. Be always on the lookout for blacker specimens, especially males. You can mate one black male to four or five females and even if the females are not entirely black there will be a good percentage of black among the young. "=What Should I Feed Skunks?=" Skunks in confinement will eat meat of any kind, bread, milk, whether sweet or sour, many sweet fruits, green corn and some other vegetables. Table leavings from hotels, waste from slaughter-houses, dead farm stock or dead chickens are all eaten readily and take the place of the beetles, grubs and mice which the skunk lives on when free. Do not give decayed food. Supply fresh water regularly. "=I Live in Town; Can I keep Skunks Without The Scent Disturbing My Neighbors?=" Yes. You can remove the scent sacs from your animals. This is very easy to do and the skunks do not mind it at all. They do not lose a meal. After the scent sacs are removed they can never scent again. Your neighbors will not know you are raising skunks unless you tell them. "=How Long Does it Take to Remove The Scent Sacs?=" With a little practice you can remove the scent sacs and make a skunk forever scentless in four or five minutes, or at the rate of 75 to 100 skunks per day. "=Does Any of The Scent Fluid Escape When Removing The Scent Sacs?=" Not with our method. With proper instruments you can remove the scent sacs completely without spilling a drop of the scent fluid. "=How Can a Skunk Be Tamed?=" The skunk is naturally gentle and not much afraid of people. When the scent sacs have been removed from a young skunk it will be found at once quite tame and may be carried about in your arms like a kitten. If it is handled frequently it will grow up very tame, will come when called and will eat from the hand. "=Are The Scent Sacs The Same in Both Sexes?=" Yes, they are the same in both sexes. They open into the rectum and are not related in any way to the reproductive or urinary systems. The scent fluid is not the urine as many people imagine. "=What Do You Pay For Black Skunks?=" We pay from $5 to $15 each for grade AAA according to time of year, locality and size. The scent sacs must be removed. We pay express charges on all skunks which we buy. If you have any choice specimens you wish to sell write us full description and we will gladly make you quotation. We want 500 skunk now. "=What is The Best Age For Removing The Scent Sacs?=" This work can be done at any age easily unless the skunk is very fat. We strongly recommend that you begin on young skunks in the spring, any time after the eyes are open. The young skunks are easily weaned. They readily take milk or bread and milk and do not need the mother. Do not let them run with old skunk. "=What Kind of Fencing Do I Need For Skunks?=" Poultry netting 2 to 3 feet in the ground and 6 feet above ground makes the cheapest fence. To prevent climbing out make at the top an over-hang of netting 12 or 18 inches wide or place a strip of tin about 18 inches wide on the inside of the fence near the top to make it smooth and slippery. The netting should be 1½-inch mesh for the main yard (for adults) and 1-inch mesh for the breeding pens. The best fencing is made from galvanized tin or galvanized iron, in our opinion. Read chapter on "Enclosures." "=How do you grade Skunk?=" Personally I think the eastern assortment best; which is as follows: "Eastern Assortment. The average size, ordinary color of fur, prime or unprime pelt is considered, then graded to No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 or No. 4 grade. On skunk for illustration: the short shoulder stripe is graded as No. 1 when prime and full size, the object of this assortment is as few grades as possible, prices quoted will not permit of as high quotations as firms quoting Western Assortment, but will figure equally as much if not more, in dollars and cents." The Western Assortment is as follows: "Western Assortment. Each pelt is graded to its individual value, first color, then size, primeness, etc., as high as thirty grades are used; skunk for instance is graded for black, short narrow and broad, then as to size and shade and color, etc., each commanding a different value. A firm using this assortment can quote most any price if they desire and have their goods just as cheap, if not cheaper, than those using eastern assortment only." "=Where can I sell skunk grease and what does it sell at?=" There is a small demand for animal oils and grease, but the markets shift from point to point. You will have to get in touch with these markets through drug stores and doctors who know addresses of chemists and dealers in drugs. There are many by-products of the trap line which trappers should study, to see if they could not work them into commercial lines. Animal oils are one of these by-products. I think that skunk oil, under a fancy name, scented with a little musk or perfume, would find ready sale for chapped hands, sunburn, etc. These oils are usually wasted now. There is an opening for a dealer in animal oils if he knows the users. "=When is the best time to trap Skunk?=" In cold weather, when fur-bearers den up and hibernate, trappers smoke out more animals in one day than they can take in traps in a month; besides, they get prime fur worth the most money. Still we do not advocate this method. They should be captured alive for breeding purposes. "=What do you consider a good scent for skunk?=" Anise oil, as a rule, is best for skunks. Apples are good skunk bait and meats also are good. "=Can you tell me the best method of removing skunks from their dens?=" It depends on the den. Dig 'em outs, who use shovels, or dynamite, or crowbars, destroy the dens. There are bellows and smoke blowers for smoking out the occupants of dens, and the makers would tell you the best ways. However, as a sporting and financial proposition, you would better get your skunks by straight trapping or snaring, instead of killing off whole families as you would do raiding dens. When you track a skunk to its hole, use the smoker, but don't hog the fur. Leave breeding stock for another year. "=Is it advisable to flesh and scrape skunk hides down to white skin before hanging up to dry? Can you tell me why dealers do not want fur hides salted, say, salted slightly, and if any, what detriment it is to them?=" The clean skin is best. All fat and flesh should be removed, care being taken not to break into the skin, nor should the skin be "worked" or drawn too much, in the process. Of course, skins may be cleaned on the boards. The salt dries the skin and hardens it, making it brittle and likely to crack. Its action on the skin is not neutralized, as in the tanning processes by other chemicals. Even a little salt changes the skin, absorbing the moisture and changing the chemical constituents of the hide. The best way to preserve fur skins--salt is simply to prevent decay--is to clean the skins carefully and stretch on frames or boards, and hang them in a cool, dry, sheltered place where rodents and insects cannot get them. Of course, pelts should not be left too long on the stretchers--a few days--and too much care cannot be taken of them. "=Does it spoil fur keeping it through the summer if kept moth proof and in a cool place?=" Not if it is properly dried and protected from moths. Some of my friends keep their late catches of fur in perfectly tight paper bags, with tobacco, holding them over for the early winter or before-the-London-sales prices. A big slump in the fur market is often met this way on certain kinds of fur by trappers, but the fur must be properly dried and carefully stored away from insects, mice, etc. "=Will it do to breed to the same male continually?=" We do not advise it. Young stock from foreign pens should be constantly added to improve the grade. In breeding should be avoided. "=How can live Skunks be shipped?=" If the scent sacs have been removed you can ship a skunk by express in a box with wire netting over the opening. If the distance is great, supply plenty of dog biscuit or dry bread and a dish for milk. Mark on box, "Please give milk and water." If the weather is cold make a nest of straw in one end of box. "=Can I make any money by removing the scent sacs from Skunks?=" Yes, you should be able to sell the first skunk you operate on, even if striped, for at least $5 to someone who would like it as a pet or as a curiosity. A tame skunk will draw big crowds when placed in a store window for advertising purposes. Amusement Parks are glad to get them. Money can be made by selling tame skunks or by operating for other people. "=What diseases are common to the skunk?=" They are practically a diseaseless animal. True they are troubled with lice when kept too closely confined and fed too much spoiled meat. Any common poultry powder which will destroy poultry lice will destroy skunk lice. Change dens and allow the animal to burrow in gravelly earth. Meat diet sometimes causes scurvy. This can be avoided by feeding a variety of foods. "=How do you prevent infection after removing the scent sac?=" First wash the parts with a weak carbolic solution taking care not to allow the solution to enter the rectum, or better still paint the glands with iodine before operating. Rub over the incision a composition of turpentine and lard. This will repel flies. "=What do you do with the young after weaning?=" We allow the female to range, and also the young, but in separate pens. Do not make the mistake of allowing the young ones to range with aged males until they are able to protect themselves from injury. INSTRUMENTS WITH WHICH TO REMOVE SCENT SACS So many persons have written us to know if we handle instruments suitable to perform the operation of removing the scent sac, that we have consented to make a selection. The proper instruments are as follows: 1 nickel plated scalpel (knife). 1 nickel plated tenaculum (hook). 1 nickel plated sound probe (probe). 1 pair nickel plated special extracting forceps. 1 pair nickel plated automatic clamping forceps. 2 pair goggles (worn only by beginners as safeguard against scent fluid unexpectedly entering the eyes). These tools are of a high grade of steel and nickel plated to guard against rust. A very handy and desirable set of instruments. One set (as above) packed securely in box, sent by prepaid parcels post for only $3.00. The most satisfactory set of instruments on the market. Your order solicited. =References: Exchange Bank of Spencer.= THE LAYMON FUR FARM CO. SPENCER INDIANA [Illustration: PEN OF WHITE RUNNERS AS BRED AND RAISED BY JOHN F. CRANE, SPENCER, INDIANA. If you want to start right, with foundation stock, or eggs from as good as there is in the country, write me--same prices at all times for stock and eggs--134 acres devoted to raising poultry, fruit and ponies--Breeder of White Indian Runners, Fawn and White Runners-- White Wyandottes and Barred Rocks. Write me. JOHN F. CRANE, Box A1, SPENCER, IND.] WANTED 500 Live Skunk We are in the market for 500 AAA skunk, males and females for breeding purposes. We pay as high as $15.00 for altered, unmaimed stars. Write us what you have. We also handle skunk pelts, Eastern grading, and highest prices paid for prime stock. Let your dealer quote, then you will understand how much better we can do for you. Write first. We pay express charges. Reference: Exchange Bank of Spencer. The Laymon Fur Farm Co. SPENCER INDIANA What a big Money King says about OPPORTUNITY "It isn't the want of opportunities, nowadays, for making a man wealthy, but it is his =recognizing= an opportunity when he meets it in the middle of the road in the middle of the day." He is right. Paste =that= fact on your memory now. I know from experience. And if you are a business or professional man or woman, or working on a salary and desire to increase your earning power with the least outlay of capital and with the least effort, look this skunk proposition squarely in the face. And look at it from the viewpoint of good common business sense. It is a clean, legitimate proposition--a real money-making opportunity right "in the middle of the road in the middle of the day." Why Not Start a Skunk Farm? WE WOULD BE GLAD TO HELP YOU 
62685	----	Transcriber Note Text emphasis is dentoed as _Italic_ and =Bold=. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 64. DUCKS AND GEESE: STANDARD BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT. BY GEORGE E. HOWARD, _Secretary of National Poultry and Pigeon Association_. [Illustration] WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1897. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, _Washington, D. C., September 24, 1897_. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith, for publication as a Farmers' Bulletin, an article on Ducks and Geese, prepared by Mr George E. Howard, secretary of the National Poultry and Pigeon Association. It comprises an enumeration of the standard breeds of ducks and geese, and contains suggestions for their management. The practical information contained in this bulletin will undoubtedly prove of value to persons engaged in raising ducks and geese, and its publication and widespread distribution are respectfully recommended. The illustrations were drawn by the author from original sketches and photographs, with the exception of three of the cross-bred geese, which are after the illustrations published by the Rhode Island Experiment Station, and the wild goose, which is after the illustration in Wright's Book of Poultry. The author has received generous assistance in treating of the practical details from James Rankin, A. J. Hallock, George H. Pollard, and others who are largely engaged an the raising of water fowls for market. Respectfully, D. E. Salmon, _Chief of Bureau_. Hon. James Wilson, _Secretary_. CONTENTS. DUCKS. Page. Standard breeds of ducks 3 White Pekin ducks (illustrated) 4 White Aylesbury ducks (illustrated) 5 Colored Rouen ducks (illustrated) 8 Black Cayuga ducks (illustrated) 10 Colored and White Muscovy ducks (illustrated) 12 Gray and White Call ducks (illustrated) 14 Black East Indian ducks 15 Crested White ducks (illustrated) 17 Management of ducks 18 Starting a plant (illustrated) 19 Buildings for breeding ducks (illustrated) 20 Brooding houses (illustrated) 22 Supplying water (illustrated) 29 Feeding 30 Mixing feed 32 How much to feed 32 Oyster shells and grit 33 Killing and dressing for market (illustrated) 33 Development of the duckling in the egg 34 Natural incubation 36 Artificial incubation 36 Geese Standard breeds of geese 38 Gray Toulouse geese (illustrated) 38 White Embden geese (illustrated) 39 Gray African geese (illustrated) 40 Brown and White Chinese geese (illustrated) 41 Gray Wild geese (illustrated) 43 Colored Egyptian geese (illustrated) 43 Management of geese 44 Mating and setting 45 Feeding and dressing for market 47 Cross breeding (illustrated) 48 DUCKS AND GEESE. DUCKS. STANDARD BREEDS OF DUCKS. =Introduction.=--There are ten standard breeds of ducks raised in this country, as follows: The White Pekin, White Aylesbury, Colored Rouen, Black Cayuga, Colored Muscovy, White Muscovy, Gray Call, White Call, Black East Indian, and the Crested White. Of these breeds, the first six are considered profitable to raise; the two breeds of Calls and the Black East Indian are bantams, and are bred more for the showroom; the Crested White may be considered as almost purely ornamental. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--White Pekin duck.] WHITE PEKIN DUCKS. =History.=--Of all ducks for farm and practical purposes none stand higher in popular esteem than the White Pekin (fig. 1). It is valuable for raising on a large scale, and is the most easily raised of any. It is a very timid bird and must be handled quite carefully. It was imported from China in the early seventies, and has steadily grown in popularity since its introduction into this country. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Group of White Pekin ducks.] =Description.=--The Pekin duck has a distinct type of its own, and differs from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. By some it is credited with having a shape much like an Indian canoe, owing to the full growth of feathers under the rump and the singular turned-up carriage of the tail. The legs are set far back, which causes the bird to walk in an upright position. In size these ducks are very large, some reaching as high as 20 pounds to the pair. Their flesh is very delicate and free from grossness, and they are considered among the best of table fowls. They are excellent layers, averaging from 100 to 130 eggs each in a season. They are nonsetters, hardy, easily raised, and the earliest in maturing of any ducks. The method given in this bulletin for raising ducks is based on the Pekin as a standard, and the treatment, food, housing, etc., is given as used by the largest and most successful raisers of Pekins. Other ducks are judged for practical qualities by the Pekin. Fig. 2 shows a group of White Pekin ducks. The standard-bred Pekin has a long finely formed head, a bill of medium size, of a deep yellow color, that is perfectly free from any mark or color other than yellow. The color of the bill is very important for exhibition birds, and it is not infrequent that one of the best ducks in a showroom is disqualified for having a faint tracing of black in the bill. The eyes are of deep leaden-blue color. The neck of a Pekin should be neatly curved; in the drake it should be large and rather long, while that of the duck is of medium length. The back is long and broad; breast is round, full, and very prominent. The body is long and deep, and the standard gives for adult birds a body approaching the outlines of a parallelogram. The wings are short, carried closely and smoothly against the body. The birds can not sustain flight, a 2-foot fencing being ample to restrain them in an inclosure. The tail is erect, more so than in any other specimen. The curled feathers in the tail of the drake are hard and stiff. The thighs are short and large; shanks short and strong, and in color are a reddish orange; toes straight, connected by a web, and reddish orange in color. The plumage is downy, and of a faint creamy white throughout. Recently it has been noticed that preference in the showroom is being given to birds of whiter plumage. The breeders are selecting as their show birds those that have the snow-white plumage instead of the creamy white, as given in the standard. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult drake is 8 pounds; adult duck, 7 pounds; young drake, 7 pounds, and young duck, 6 pounds. WHITE AYLESBURY DUCKS. =History.=--The White Aylesbury ducks (fig. 3.) are second to the popular Pekins for market purposes, and are bred in large numbers in England and Europe. In this country they are not so extensively bred as the Pekin, neither have they been found so good as the latter. These ducks receive their name from Aylesbury, the county town of Buckinghamshire, England. They are of large size, pairs occasionally reaching the weight of 18 pounds, the male birds weighing 9 or 10 pounds, and the female 7 or 8. Birds weighing 15 to 16 pounds to the pair are the average. =Description.=--The head of the Aylesbury duck is long and neatly formed; the eyes of a deep leaden-blue color; the long, wide bill is of a pale flesh color or pinkish hue, and should be free from dark spots, bills marked with black being a disqualification; the neck is slender, long, and gracefully curved; the body is long and oval; the breast is full and round; the strong shanks are of brilliant light-orange color; the wings are strong and nicely folded; the back is both long and broad, and the tail formed of stiff, hard feathers. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Group of White Aylesbury ducks.] The soft white plumage is one of the chief attractions of the Aylesbury breed, and like most white plumage has a tendency to assume a yellow hue if exposed to the sun. The beak will also lose its delicate pink hue and become yellow if exposed to too much sunlight in summer. The bill of the Pekin should be yellow, but the bill of the Aylesbury should be a delicate pink or flesh color, and birds intended for exhibition must possess this quality or they will suffer at the hands of the judge. Birds raised for exhibition purposes must be guarded against too much exposure to the sunlight in the summer. Of course, these delicate points are of no consequence to the market poulterer other than to show the true type of the breed. For farm purposes the Aylesbury is to be recommended, second only to the Pekin; it possesses the many good qualities of the Pekin, and can be bred with almost the same success. The advantages claimed for Aylesbury are the ease with which it is acclimated, thriving in every country and climate; its early maturity; its great hardiness; its large size; its great prolificacy, and the real beauty which it possesses. Raisers recommend for raising exhibition birds one drake to two ducks, or two drakes to five ducks, all being allowed to run together. Duck raisers who raise large numbers for market breed them as they do Pekins, using from four to eight females to one male, according to the season of the year. Fresh blood is introduced every year to keep up the size, and breeding stock is seldom kept longer than the second or third year. The Aylesbury being an English duck, it will be of interest to note the methods employed in their native place for raising them, as given by an English writer in the following statements: In and about the town of Aylesbury very many of the cottagers maintain, each of them, a set of ducks, about 4 ducks to a drake. These they keep in any outbuilding attached to their dwellings and, failing such a place, in the cottage itself. From them the "duckers" (dealers peculiar to the trade) collect the eggs, and generally bargain with the owners for their whole supply at a given rate for the season. They begin their collection in October, and the contract is often made for the whole produce up to June. The breeding stock of a "ducker" who does an average trade consists of six drakes and twenty ducks; these all run together, and the brooks and ponds are looked upon almost as common property. They are separated at night, driven up to their respective homes, well fed and warmly housed. The eggs which were laid during the nighttime are set, as soon as possible, under large and attentive hens, for which purpose good Dorkings and Cochins are considered best. The ducks themselves are never allowed to sit, though they may desire to do so, as the result would be almost certain failure. Thirteen eggs comprise a setting, and these are easily covered by a large hen. Hens are set either in fish pads, small hampers, or, in what we have found most serviceable, the round boxes in which cheeses are packed. In the bottom of these is placed some lime or wood ashes, and then a nest of hay or some soft straw; there the hens must be kept as quiet as possible. Special care must be taken to guard against the intrusion of rats or other vermin by which the hen mother may be disturbed and, as is often the case, the whole setting be destroyed thereby. The period of incubation is twenty-eight days, and during the last week of that time care must be taken to sprinkle the eggs daily with lukewarm water, which softens the shells, so that when the time comes for the duckling to make its appearance it has not much difficulty in breaking through its covering. When the young are hatched they should be left with the hen until well nestled, well dried, and strong enough to stand. Many scores of ducklings are lost by inexperienced persons through their impatience to remove them from the nest. The little duckling is at first clad with soft, yellow down, which gradually disappears as the feathers grow. After a few days, three or four broods are put together with one hen, which is quite able to take care of them all. For market purposes the treatment of the ducklings is as follows: They are not allowed to go into any water, but are kept in hovels or the rooms of cottages, each lot of thirty or forty separated by low boards. It is no uncommon thing to see 2,000 or 3,000, all in one establishment. They are kept very clean and dry on barley straw; their food consists of hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine and mixed with boiled rice and bullock's liver, cut Tip small. This is given to them several times in the day for about a fortnight or more. When they are capable of consuming more they are fed on barley meal and tallow greaves (cracklings), mixed together with the water in which the greaves previously have been boiled. Some poultrymen also use horseflesh to mix with their other food. The above constitutes all that is necessary to produce early ducklings for the table. In plumage the Aylesburys are a pure, spotless white, and feathers of any other color will disqualify them. Drake and duck vary only in the ordinary respect of the male bird, showing a very handsome curled feather in the tail and being of a larger size than his mate. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult drake is 9 pounds; adult duck, 8 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young duck, 7 pounds. COLORED ROUEN DUCKS. =History.=--The Colored Rouen duck (fig. 4) is deservedly popular throughout this country, and is considered one of the most profitable breeds to keep. These ducks are said to have come originally from the city of Rouen, in Normandy. It is known that large quantities of poultry are raised in Normandy, and while there may be no positive proof that these ducks came originally from that city, large numbers of birds closely resembling them are to be found in the market places there. Some writers contend that the name should be "Roan," owing to their color, but the color itself does not support this contention. The correct name is Rouen, and "Roan" is undoubtedly a corruption. =Description.=--The Rouen duck is a fine market bird, but does not mature as early as does the Pekin or the Aylesbury. The flesh is considered very delicate, and the breed is acknowledged to be superior for table purposes, being easily fattened. The Rouen will be found a profitable bird to raise on the farm, being hardy, prolific, quiet in disposition, and of beautiful plumage. Their eggs are not as large as those of the Pekin, and are diverse in color. The Rouen is undoubtedly closely related to the Mallard duck; its plumage alone would make good this belief. But the shape of the domestic Rouen duck has been greatly modified from that of the wild Mallard; the body is grown longer and heavier, with a tendency to drop down in the rear; the wings have lost the power of flight which the wild ancestor possessed. The plumage, however, remains almost the same. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Trio of Colored Rouen ducks.] The standard-bred Rouen drake has a long, finely-formed head, with rich, lustrous green plumage; bill long and broad, wider at the extremity, of greenish-yellow color, with a black bead at the tip; the neck is long, slender, and neatly curved, covered with the same lustrous green plumage as the head, which is interrupted by a distinct white ring, not quite complete behind, on the lower part of neck. The back is long, the upper part being ashy gray, mixed with green, and running into a rich, lustrous green on the lower part and rump; the shoulder coverts are gray, striped with fine, wavy lines of brown. The breast is broad and deep and purplish brown or claret color, perfectly free from gray feathers; the claret color should extend down as far as possible toward the legs. The body is long, deep, and broad, the under part and sides being a beautiful gray, which grows lighter near the vent, ending in solid black just beneath the tail. The wings are short and carried closely and smoothly against the sides; in color the wings are of a brownish gray, interspersed with green, and marked with a band of rich purple, with metallic reflections of green and blue lights, and edged with distinct white bands; the primary feathers are of a dark, dusky brown. The tail feathers are hard and stiff, and of a dark ashy-brown color; the outer edge in old birds is edged with white; the curled feathers are well curled and hard. The thighs are short and stout and of ashy-gray plumage; the shanks are short and strong, and in color orange with brownish tinge; the toes and webs are of the same color as the shanks. The head of the Rouen duck, like that of the drake, is long and finely formed, but with a deep-brown plumage and two stripes of lighter brown extending from the beak to behind the eyes; bill, long, broad, and somewhat flat, brownish orange in color, blotched with darker shade upon the upper part and ending in a black beam at the tip. The neck is neatly curved, long and slender, light brown in plumage, penciled with a darker shade of the same color; unlike the drake, there is no white ring on the neck. The back is long, of a light-brown color richly marked with green; breast, full and round and of dark-brown plumage, penciled with lighter brown; body, long, deep, and broad, the under part and sides of plumage being grayish brown, each feather penciled with rich dark brown to the point of the tail. The wings are short for the size of the bird and are carried closely against the sides; the color of the plumage is grayish brown, intermingled with green, with bars of purple edged with white, the colors being distinct; primaries are brown. The tail feathers are stiff and of a light-brown color, distinctly marked with pencilings of dark greenish brown; tail coverts are brown, penciled with the same dark brown, or greenish brown, as the tail. The thighs are dark brown, penciled; and shanks, toes, and webs are orange or orange brown. Both the Rouen drake and duck, clothed in plumage attractive and pleasing to the eye, are as much fanciers' fowls as any of the varieties of chickens, yet they are of much value as market birds. The only objection to them, aside from their slow maturing qualities, is that of the dark pinfeathers. This should not stand against them any more than it does against the many valuable varieties of chickens that have dark plumage and dark pinfeathers. To the farmer who intends raising ducks for market purposes they are to be recommended. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult drake is 9 pounds; adult duck, 8 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young duck, 7 pounds. BLACK CAYUGA DUCKS. =History.=--The black Cayuga (fig. 5) is distinctly an American duck, having been bred so long in this country that all trace of its origin is lost. It is said that it was first found in the central part of New York, on Cayuga Lake. It was sometimes called the "Big Black duck," and again the "Lake duck," but is now known only as the Black Cayuga duck. By some it is supposed to have originally come from the wild Black duck, and another story has it that it was first found in Dutchess County, in the State of New York, where a miller was raising a flock of thirty, which, he said, were bred from a pair he had captured several years previous in a mill pond. They were kept in the poultry yard, easily tamed, and built their nests on the edges of the pond and raised large broods. For many years the Cayuga has been raised in this country and has been considered by those who have bred it to be a profitable duck to keep. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Pair of Black Cayuga ducks.] =Description.=--By some raisers the Cayuga is considered to be as good as the Pekin for early markets, and the claim is made that it can be grown as cheaply. This assertion is not verified by any practical demonstration, as these ducks are rarely, if ever, seen on any farm where ducks are raised exclusively. Though raisers generally speak of their merits as making them profitable, and place them next to the Pekin for early markets, they prefer the latter for exclusive duck raising where early maturity and plump carcasses are wanted. Their black plumage is against them also, and many assign this as the reason why they are not more extensively bred. The farmer who desires a good, practical duck to raise on his farm in conjunction with other poultry will find this a valuable bird to keep. More time can be spent in dressing it for market than is generally given to the dressing of the white-plumage birds, and the profits will be proportionately as great. Duck raisers, like broiler raisers, are partial to white feathers for market fowls, but those who do not look with this partiality on the white varieties will find an excellent choice in the Cayuga duck. Cayugas are splendid birds for a restricted range and breed well in confinement; they are quiet, docile, and form a strong attachment for their home, evincing no inclination or desire to stray far away from the place where they were bred. They are hardy and prolific, producing from 80 to 90 eggs in the spring, and sometimes they also lay again in the autumn. They are easily kept in good condition, but if fed too liberally they will fatten too quickly and will become too heavy behind. The ducklings are hardy and easy to raise, and attain good size and weight at an early age. The head of the Cayuga is small, with glossy black plumage; bill rather short and broad, of dark color, black being preferred; the eyes dark hazel. The neck is medium, gracefully curved, clad in black feathers with a greenish luster; the back is broad, and the body long, well rounded, and very plump, the feathers being of a glossy black hue. The wings are long and are carried smoothly against the body, and are black in color, excepting those of the duck, which are sometimes of a dark brown. The coverts of the drake are a very lustrous green black; the tail feathers are black, as are the thighs. Black shanks, toes, and webs are preferred, though dark slate color is permissible according to the standard requirements. The color of the plumage must be lustrous black throughout, and feathers of any other color will disqualify a bird in the showroom. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult drake is 8 pounds; adult duck, 7 pounds; young drake, 7 pounds, and young duck, 6 pounds. COLORED AND WHITE MUSCOVY DUCKS. =History.=--Muscovy ducks (fig. 6) form a distinct genus, having several peculiarities or characteristics which make them different from others. They are sometimes called the Musk duck, owing to the odor of musk which pervades the skin, but which is not noticeable when cooked. These ducks are found wild in the warmer regions of South America. In Brazil they are extensively domesticated and are prized very highly for eating. In this country and Europe, particularly in Germany, they are bred in large numbers. Wild Muscovies are easily frightened and very good flyers; they fly into trees when alarmed and remain there for long periods of time before leaving their place of concealment. They sometimes build their nests in branches of trees, and also in hollows near water. =Description.=--Muscovy ducks are very unsatisfactory birds to keep on the farm with other poultry, owing to their quarrelsome and pugnacious natures. In the wild state, before pairing, the males tight desperately, doing great harm to each other; and this fighting, quarrelsome disposition is inherited by the domestic duck. The temper of the drake is spoken of as abominable; his persecution of other poultry is never ceasing, and he is credited with having attacked even children when his "dander was up." The flesh of the Muscovy is considered very good when eaten young, and compares favorably with that of any other duck. They do not lay nearly so many eggs as the common kinds. When bred they must be kept in yards by themselves, and their wings must be clipped to keep them from flying. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Pair of White Muscovy ducks.] The head of the Muscovy duck is rather long, and in the drake it is large, the top being covered with long crest-like feathers, which rise and fall when the bird is alarmed. The bill is of medium length and very stout. The face is the most distinctive part of these ducks, the cheeks being naked, with a scarlet, fleshy space around the eyes, and the base of the bill carunculated also with scarlet folds. This large, red face gives them a savage appearance, and to some it is hideous. The neck is well curved and of medium length; back broad and flat, breast full and broad, and body long and broad. The wings are very long and stout, and the tail is rather long, with abundance of stiff feathering. The drake does not have the curled feathers in the tail, as do other ducks. There are two varieties of Muscovy ducks, the colored and the white. The head of the Colored Muscovy is glossy black and white; the bill is dark horn in color; eyes, brown; the back in color of plumage is lustrous blue black, which is sometimes broken with white; the color of the breast and body is the same as that of the back. The wing coverts are rich, lustrous green black, and the tail feathers may be either black or white, the latter being preferred. The thighs, like the tail feathers, may be either black or white, white being preferred; the shanks, toes, and webs vary in color from yellow to dark lead or black. The White Muscovy in color of plumage is pure white throughout; feathers of any other color will disqualify the bird for show purposes. The eyes in the white variety are of a leaden-blue or gray color, while those of the colored are brown. The shanks, toes, and webs are of a pale-orange or yellow color. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult drake is 10 pounds; adult duck, 8 pounds; young drake, 8 pounds, and young duck, 7 pounds. GRAY AND WHITE CALL DUCKS. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Pair of White Call ducks.] =History.=--Call ducks are bantams, and are bred more for the fancy than for the profit there is in them for market. There are two kinds of Call ducks, the Gray Call and the White Call (fig. 7), and it is only a choice of plumage as to which is the better of the two. They are both of one character as to size, shape, and habits, and differ only as regards color. The Gray Call is very similar in color of plumage to the Rouen, and is indeed called by many the Bantam Rouen, and the White is generally called the Bantam Pekin. Their uses are only for the showroom, or as decoy ducks for wild-duck shooting. For the latter purpose they are sometimes crossed with the common "puddle duck" or with the wild Mallard. This latter cross is considered excellent, the progeny being distinguished for tameness and domesticity. =Description.=--When breeding Call ducks, smallness of size is the first consideration; the smaller they are bred the better. The arts of skillful breeding for the showroom are being used in keeping down the size of these ducks. Inbreeding has been resorted to, while late hatching, scanty feeding, and nonbone-making food have been the means that have retarded their natural development. The head of the Call duck is full and round; bill, short and broad; neck of medium length, and back comparatively short; the breast is round and full, and body short, round, and compact, with medium-sized wings; the thighs are short and stout, and shanks short. The Gray Call drake is a beautiful little bird, with a rich, lustrous green head, dark-hazel or brown eyes, lustrous green neck, with a white ring on the lower part of neck, as in the Rouen. The back is of ashy-gray plumage mixed with green on the upper part, while the lower part and rump are a rich, lustrous green. The under part of the body on the sides is a beautiful gray, which grows lighter toward the vent, and ends in solid black under the tail. The wings are grayish brown, mixed with green, and have the broad ribbon-like mark of rich purple with metallic reflections of green and blue, distinctly edged with white. The primaries are a dark, dusky brown. The tail feathers are of a dark, ashy brown, the outer web in old birds being edged with white; the tail coverts are black, with very rich purple reflections. The bill is greenish yellow in color, while the shanks, toes, and webs are orange, with a brownish tinge. The duck's head is deep brown, and has two pale-brown stripes on each side, like the head of the Rouen duck, running from the bill to a point behind the eyes. Her bill is of a brownish-orange color, and her eyes are dark hazel or brown. The neck is light brown, penciled with darker brown; breast, dark brown, penciled with lighter brown; back, light brown, marked with green, and the under parts and sides of body are grayish brown, each feather distinctly penciled with rich dark brown. The plumage of wing is grayish brown, mixed with green, and is crossed by a broad bar of rich purple edged with white; the primaries are brown. The tail feathers are of a light-brown color, with distinct, broad, wavy penciling of dark greenish brown; tail coverts are brown, with broad penciling of dark brown or greenish brown; thighs are dark brown; shanks, toes, and webs are orange brown. The White Gall is pure white in plumage throughout, and feathers of any other color will disqualify it. It is in every respect like the Gray Call except in plumage, in the color of the eyes, which are a gray or blue, and the color of the shanks, which are a bright orange. =Weight.=--No standard weight is given for Call ducks. BLACK EAST INDIAN DUCKS. =History.=--Another standard breed of ducks which is hardly considered a rival of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Cayuga, or Rouen, is the Black East Indian. This duck bears the same relation to those just named as does the bantam to the larger varieties of chickens. The Black East Indian and the Call ducks are the bantam breeds of ducks, being bred more for their smallness of size than for their profitableness. The same devices are resorted to in breeding them as were mentioned for breeding the Call ducks. =Description.=--The East Indian duck is hardy, and would, if carefully bred from the largest and best specimens, grow to a fairly good size, and be profitable to keep. In weight they seldom grow larger than 2 to 2½, pounds each. The close inbreeding to which they have been subjected has been detrimental to their egg production, while those strains which have not been so closely bred have proved very prolific. It may be said in favor of these ducks, that if allowed to increase in size, which they will readily do under favorable circumstances, they would prove very profitable to those who prefer keeping small-sized birds to the larger ones. The East Indian duck is very shy in its habits, and is given to long flights, but if attention is shown them in feeding they become attached to their home surroundings. They can not be successfully bred in confinement; their natures are roaming and they like freedom of life. The first eggs of a litter laid by these ducks are sooty or nearly black in color, but they gradually grow lighter until they assume the color common to the eggs of most varieties. They are splendid sitters, and will invariably steal their nests if permitted to do so, but the duck and brood when hatched should be confined for a couple of weeks, that the young may not be exposed until they have gained some strength and size. The head of the black East Indian duck is short and small; eyes dark hazel; bill rather short. The head of the drake is of a dark yellowish green, free from all spots or blemishes, and the duck's head is very dark, almost black. The exact coloring of the bill of the drake is considered of the utmost importance. It is described by an enthusiast as being a sort of pale yellow, washed over with blackish green, the color being laid on thinly, as it were, so as to give an almost transparent effect, and shaded off at the tip into a kind of slate color. By another raiser the color of the bill is described as an olive green. The neck is neatly curved and short; back, of good length and medium width. The breast is full, round, and plump. The body is long and comparatively small; wings of medium length and nicely folded; tail short, and in the drake has the curled feathers. The thighs are short and stout, and shanks are short and rather small. The plumage is a rich black, with a brilliant greenish tint throughout. The color of the plumage is of much worth to the beauty of these ducks; it must be intensely black, rich in greenish' reflections, and perfectly free from white. The plumage upon the neck, back, and shoulder coverts will show more of the green than will the underparts, the coloring of the drake surpassing that of the duck. It is seemingly a difficult matter to breed specimens of the required color of plumage; more especially is it so with the duck, whose plumage is likely to be of a brownish tint. These ducks are quite likely to show more or less white in plumage. The white feathers usually appear about the eyes and also upon the breast. Birds that have been free from white as ducklings have been known to molt almost pure white. The ducklings when first hatched are black, with a shade of yellow on the breast, and with jet-black feet, shanks, and bill. When breeding these ducks use two females to one male, and the eggs will prove very fertile. The young will be very hardy after five or six weeks of age, and there should be no trouble in rearing them after that time. Give the youngsters free range and they will find nearly their whole living in grasses, insects, etc. =Weight.=--There is no standard weight given for Black East Indians; the smaller their size the higher they rank for exhibition purposes. CRESTED WHITE DUCKS. _History._--The Crested White duck (fig. 8) is what may be called an ornamental duck, much the same as Polish chickens. They are not bred to any great extent in this country, and they are very seldom seen in the showrooms. They have no especial value to the farmer, as better and more easily-bred birds are to be found in the Pekin and Aylesbury. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Pair of Crested White ducks.] =Description.=--These ducks have a medium-sized head; medium-sized bill; a large, well-balanced crest upon the crown of the head; a rather long neck; a medium-length back; breast, round and full; body, round and of medium length; medium-length wings that smoothly fold; hard, stiff tail feathers, with well-curled feathers in the tail of drake; and short and stout thighs and shanks. Their eyes are large and bright and of a deep leaden blue or gray color. The shanks, toes, and webs are of a light-orange color. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult drake is 7 pounds; adult duck, 6 pounds; young drake, 6 pounds, and young duck, 5 pounds. MANAGEMENT OF DUCKS. Duck raising has been developed within the last ten years into a flourishing industry. Prior to that time the duck was not considered a profitable fowl to raise; its flesh was never prized very highly by the masses. Ducks were raised without constraint in waterways, feeding mostly on fish and water insects. This food gave the flesh a strong fishy flavor; hence it was not particularly sought after, save by the few who were partial to that class of diet. The duck centers of Long Island and New England were then producing a limited number each season, and it was with difficulty that these were sold with any profit. In fact, one of the most prominent duck raisers may be quoted as saying that he was obliged to visit the city markets personally and tease the dealers to purchase his birds, in order to secure anything like satisfactory prices. Artificial incubation and brooding, combined with judicious feeding, have been instrumental in the development of the industry. Machinery has enabled the duck raiser to accomplish his ambition of having his stock in the markets when prices are the best, and also of raising large numbers of birds in a limited space of time. The season for raising ducks is about six months--from February to July. The methods employed by the most successful raisers will be given in this bulletin, and the most approved buildings, appliances, feeding, and care will be treated in detail. Duck raising is to be recommended to farmers as a profitable source of revenue; and by careful attention to the work, as knowledge increases, the scope of the industry may be extended. There are numbers of farms in this country to-day that are devoted exclusively to raising ducks, averaging from 5,000 to 20,000 ducks as an annual output. An idea of the proportions of the business may be had from the fact that as high as three tons of feed are used daily by a single raiser during the busy season. The profits are the very best, and good incomes may be made when once the business is thoroughly mastered. But the reader should not jump imprudently to the conclusion that these results can be easily obtained. Duck raising is an arduous task; one that requires an apprenticeship and absolute knowledge of the business before success is reached. Those who have been successful in raising ducks have learned the business much as one does any other vocation. The beginner should start modestly, and increase his plant as his knowledge of the work increases. The average farmer has all the facilities for raising a goodly number of ducks, and may with a little outlay add considerably to his income. It is not at all necessary that ducks should have access to water to be raised successfully; they grow and thrive as readily without. There are successful plants where thousands of ducks are raised that have no water, save that which is given them as drink. It has been a matter of much dispute which is the better way. Some duck raisers use water and allow their breeders the freedom of it; some allow their growing stock intended for market free access to water until they are eight weeks old, when they are penned and fattened for market. On the other hand, there are raisers who have no water on their farms, excepting wells, who are just as successful and raise as many birds as those who have the water. The only noticeable difference between "upland" and "water" ducks is that the latter are of prettier and cleaner plumage than the former. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Plans for a duck plant.] STARTING A PLANT. A duck plant should be located on a line of railroad in direct communication with the city markets, and not too far from the station. Almost any location will do for the plant, and worn-out land, that can be had cheap, will do as well as the richer and more fertile land costing several times as much. Sandy sod is to be preferred. The buildings should be arranged to secure good drainage and be convenient to each other, that labor may be reduced to a minimum. The labor attached to raising poultry is an item that is overlooked by many, and the cost of it often reduces very notably the earnings of the plant. Every department of the plant should be so located as to economize the time of the attendants. The incubator cellar should be convenient to the brooder house, the brooder house to the growing house and pens, and these to the killing house. The feed house should be located conveniently to the brooder and growing houses and the breeding pens. The task of feeding the growing stock four times a day and the breeding stock twice a day is no small one. Watering is also to be thought about. The exact arrangement of a plant suited to all locations can not be given, as each locality differs from others in some respect, and what may be suitable for one will hardly do for the other. The plans of no two of the largest plants are alike. They differ in location of the buildings to suit the lay of the land; but they all have the same general idea of the convenience of each building to the others. Illustration of this will be seen in fig. 9. When laying out a plant, make provisions for future enlargement; allow plenty of room on all sides to extend the buildings without rendering inconvenient the work that will be necessary to attend to the additional stock. BUILDINGS FOR BREEDING DUCKS. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--House for breeding ducks.] Houses for ducks are single affairs. They are built plain and comfortable, and have no furnishings whatever. A duck is differently constituted from a hen, and must be cared for under different conditions. The hen needs warmer houses and drier surroundings than does the duck. A duck does not mind the cold, if she can keep her feet warm; cold feet will affect a duck as a frozen comb does a hen, retarding laying and inducing ailments. The feathers of a duck are almost impenetrable and will withstand almost any degree of cold. Again, a duck can not stand the amount of confinement in a house that a hen can; she is more restless in disposition and is given to exercise in a greater degree than is a hen. Indigestion is not so prevalent with ducks as with chickens; the duck's ceaseless motion aids the digestive organs and keeps her generally in good health. In fig. 10 is shown a simple house that may be built at small expense. It is plain and has a shed roof. Such a house should be built of rough boards, 12 inches by 1 inch, and joints covered by 3-inch by 1-inch strips. The roof should be made water-tight and covered with tarred paper, shingles, or tin. The outside should be well drained around the bottom, that it may not be damp. Some advocate board floors, raised from 6 to 8 inches from the ground and covered from 4 to 6 inches with dry earth, straw, or leaves. The writer favors the using of board floors in all houses for chickens, but thinks it not essential for ducks. If the house is well drained on the outside and the earth floor is covered with hay, straw, or leaves, it will be perfectly satisfactory. There must not be dampness in the house, as the birds will not do so well; while they are given to water on the outside they must have comfortable quarters in which to "warm up," or "dry out." The building shown in fig. 10 may be constructed of any dimensions desired, according to the size of flock to be kept. A house 12 by 14 feet will accommodate nicely a flock of a dozen. There are no interior arrangements whatever, simply the floor surface of the building. It is better not to use nests. Some raisers use a plain nest, as shown in fig. 11. These nests are made of 1-inch boards, 12 inches high and 16 inches long, set 14 inches apart, and held together in front with a 3-inch strip. The nests are nailed to the back of the house. But more than half the eggs are laid on the floor of the house or in the yard, and, if permitted, a duck will build herself a nest to her liking. Again, a duck is liable to injure herself by falling over the strips in front of nests or other obstructions that may be in the house. In fig. 12 is shown the nest of a wild duck. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Nests for ducks.] [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Nest of wild duck.] When two or more breeding pens are to be kept, the plan of the house shown in fig. 10 may be extended to any length desired, as shown in fig. 13. In figs. 14 and 15 are shown two more designs of duck houses, which are practical and cheap, and may be built singly or in rows for a number of pens. Either of these houses, and also that shown in fig. 10, make excellent breeding houses for the farmer to keep ducks in. An inclosure should be given the breeding ducks, as they do better confined than when at liberty. Give plenty of room and inclose the run with 2-inch wire mesh 2 feet wide. If water is accessible, it should be inclosed by the mesh-wire fencing of the same width as for the run. In fig. 16 is shown a duck house with water runs, and also the arrangement of wire runs in the water. This is an admirable plan for farmers who have running water on their farms. BROODING HOUSES. The general construction of a brooder house is similar to that of the breeding house, and differs only in interior arrangements. The latter has no interior arrangements whatever, while the former has the system of heating and covers necessary for giving warmth to the young stock. In fig. 17 is shown a design of single-brooder house and ground plan that is generally used by duck raisers. This house should be built upon a good foundation and be entirely proof against rats. A good plan is to sink half-inch wire mesh about 2 feet in the ground and around the entire inside of the building; this will make it perfectly secure against rats and mice. The accepted plan of a brooder house makes it 15 feet wide and as long as desired. The building is 4 feet high in front and 5 feet in rear. GROUND PLAN. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Plan and ground plan of five-pen breeding house for ducks.] It is divided into pens 12 feet long and 6 feet wide, and has a 3 foot passageway extending the entire length of the building. The ground plan (fig. 17) shows the general arrangement of the interior and location of the brooders. The brooder box is next to the passageway, or walk, and runs the entire length of the building. This box is 30 inches wide and 8 inches high; the sides are 7 inches high and nailed securely; the top of the cover is nailed across with cleats to make it substantial, and the cover has an inch strip nailed underneath in front and back to keep it in position. These strips rest against the 7-inch sides and make the brooder snug and tight when closed. The heating pipes are directly beneath the cover and are 2-inch pipes, flow and return. Some prefer 1-inch pipes, using two flows and two returns. When three pipes are used they should be about 8 inches apart from center to center. These pipes rest on the partition boards of the pens. The front of the brooder, leading into the pens, is cut out in the center about 4 inches deep and 4 feet long (fig. 18, _A_), while the ends and the other side are solid, being 7 inches high. The construction of the brooder is clearly shown in fig. 18, _B_, with cover removed, while fig. 18, _C_, shows cover. The heater is located at the end of building. [Illustration: Fig. 14.--House for breeding ducks.] Another plan of brooder house is that shown in fig. 19. This house is known as a double brooder house, with walk in the center and pens on either side, and with heater at the end. Many prefer this plan to the single brooder house, as the care and attention required for the youngsters is much less and the cost of heating is reduced, one heater being sufficient for both lines of pipes. Then, again, this latter plan shortens the length of the building by one-half and makes the work more concentrated. The arrangement of the interior is the same as that of the single brooder house. [Illustration: Fig. 15.--House for breeding and growing ducks.] The plans of brooder houses, as given above, are for ducklings from the time they are taken from the machines until they are ready for the cold brooder, or growing house. The young ducklings, when taken from the nest or incubator, are very delicate and susceptible to the changes of the atmosphere; they must be kept very warm and free from chilling. The first three weeks of a duckling's life is the most critical period, and after that time the liabilities of loss are reduced to a very low rate--hardly five to the hundred. The front of brooders for young ducklings should be hung with strips of woolen cloth to keep in the warmth of the brooder. The greatest care should be given them at this period; the duck raisers really consider it the most important part of their work, and after a bird has passed the "critical age" they may be counted on for the market. [Illustration: Fig. 16.--House for breeding ducks, showing water runs.] Usually the care of the ducklings at this age is given to the women. They are more careful of the wants of the youngsters and attend to the detail work religiously. A case is known of a single attendant living, as it were, in the brooder house with the ducklings. She began her work with the morning feed at 6 a. m., and until sundown, when the night's meal was given, she was with her charges. The cleanliness of the brooder and pen was carefully attended to and everything was done to promote the health and comfort of the youngsters. At night they were all in their brooders and as snug as it was possible for them to be. A single neglect in the starting of a duckling will result in loss to the raisers. System is the key to the situation, and there should be no deviation from it whatever. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Single brooder houses and ground plan.] The duckling goes from the warm brooder house to the cold brooder house. The latter house is planned in a way similar to the former, with the exception of the 30-inch brooders. When the birds are taken from the warm brooder house they are three weeks old and of sufficient age to withstand a cooler temperature. They do not need the extra heat of the warm house, and in it would not grow nearly so well. The size of pens in the growing house is larger, and the ducklings are not crowded so many in a pen. If the birds are to be raised in colonies of one hundred each, the accommodations should be ample for them. It has never been proved to be good policy to crowd the growing stock; it retards their growth and encourages disease. The cold brooder house should have a system of heating if birds are to be raised for an early market. The same system of pipes used in the warm brooders should be run around the sides of the building, about 2 or 3 feet from the floor. This will give sufficient heat for the house and keep the birds comfortable. These pipes may be connected with the same heater used for running the warm brooder pipes. In the Northern States, in extremely cold weather, raisers also use the heating pipes in the warm brooder house in addition to the cold brooder pipes. [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Plans of brooder.] An excellent plan is shown in fig. 20 for the arrangement of the heater for connecting the pipes in the warm and cold double brooder house. It will be seen that the heater is placed in the center of the building; the warm brooder house is shown on the right and the cold brooder house with runs attached is shown on the left, and pipes, indicated by dotted lines, run in both directions. This is the most economical house to build and lessens the work in attending the stock. The room in the center of the building will be found very useful and is generally used as the feed room. The heater is in the cellar beneath this room. This plan is used by one of the largest and most successful raisers of ducks on Long Island, and it has his highest indorsement. The building may be of any size, the plan being as successfully carried out on a large scale as on a small one. If a small building is used at first, it may be enlarged on either end to suit the growing business, and extended upward of 100 feet in either direction, thus making the building more than 200 feet in length. The heater must be considered, when put in, with this object in view. A heater capable of heating the 200-foot house can easily be regulated to heat one of 50 feet, but a heater that will heat properly only a 50-foot or 100-foot house would be insufficient to heat the larger one. Another difference between the cold brooder house and the warm brooder house is that the former has outside runs attached. These runs are used for feeding and watering when the weather permits, instead of the feeding troughs inside the house. The ducks should be allowed the freedom of the outside runs as soon as the weather is suitable. Ducks like a life in the outer world, and they will grow more rapidly there than when they are confined to the house. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Plans of a double brooder house.] [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Plan of a double brooder house, showing arrangement of beating pipes.] Ducklings are kept in the cold brooder house until they are six or seven weeks old, when they are transferred to large quarters known as growing houses. It is here that they are pushed for the market until they are 10 weeks old, when they are salable. There is no heat in the growing houses, which are used only as a means of shelter during the early spring months. When the weather is well advanced, the ducks seldom take to the houses at night; they prefer the outside and spend their nights on the ground. The growing houses should be abundantly ventilated, as too close an atmosphere will do more harm in a single night than if they had not been housed at all. [Illustration: Fig. 21.--House for growing Ducks.] [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Two-pen house for growing ducks.] [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Three-pen house for growing ducks.] A Pekin duck at 10 weeks is quite large, weighing close to 4 pounds. It is quite as large as a full-grown duck of some of the other breeds. In the space of two or three weeks from the time the ducklings are placed in the growing houses they will be marketed at the weight of 4 to 5½ pounds each. This weight is easily obtained, and when reached the profitable time to sell has arrived, as they then command the best prices. Often a bird kept after this time loses in weight and becomes unprofitable. The growing houses are built after the plan of the breeding houses, only much smaller. They need not be more than 4 or 5 feet high in rear and 1 or 2 feet high in front. Such a house is shown in fig. 21. This and other houses shown in figs. 22 and 23 may be built singly or in rows, with 12-inch boards separating the runs. SUPPLYING WATER. [Illustration: Fig. 24.--Gutter water trough.] As has been previously stated, water for bathing is not at all necessary for growing ducks, but a liberal supply for drinking is absolutely essential to their growth. The food of the duck is such as to require drink when eating, as it is comparatively dry and can not be eaten hurriedly as grain is. When feeding, always replenish the water troughs or fountains with pure, fresh water. A duck when feeding will eat a small quantity and go to the water troughs, for drink, repeating this performance several times during the meal. Conveniences for supplying drinking water to breeding and growing ducks are varied, and almost any contrivance will answer the purpose. When small numbers of ducks are kept, the simplest method of supplying water is in wooden troughs. These may be built V-shape or with square bottoms. They are shown in figs. 24 and 25. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Flat water trough.] For smaller ducks, those kept in the warm brooder house, the fountain plan is to be preferred, as the youngsters can not get into the water and become wet or chilled. These fountains may be made of air-tight cans for the reservoir and a tin plate 2 inches larger in diameter than the can. A tomato can and an ordinary tin pie plate make an excellent fountain. Remove the top of the can and punch a small hole in the side about a quarter of an inch from the free top edge; fill the can with water and place it inverted on the plate. The water will run out until it reaches in the plate the level of the hole in the can. The plate will not overflow and water will be supplied automatically. [Illustration: Fig. 26.--Plan for supplying water by pipes.] Some raisers use a pan--a pie plate, for instance--and place a stone several inches smaller in diameter than the pan in the center, leaving a margin for water around the edge. When large numbers of birds are kept, it is of course necessary that a system for watering be adopted for saving labor. A practical system in use is where the water is supplied by 1-inch pipes and having a cock in each pen directly over the water trough. Fig. 26 shows a diagram drawing of this plan. The flow of the cocks is regulated by having the one in the first pen run very slowly and gradually increasing the flow of the water in each pen. Thus all the troughs will be full at the same time. The pipe should rest on top of the fencing about 2 feet high which divides the runs. This plan of watering can also be used in brooder houses to good advantage. FEEDING. The food of the duck is both vegetable and animal in nature. In the wild state it gathers its food from brooks and marshes, consisting of flag, grasses, small fishes, water insects, etc. When the birds are raised in confinement this diet must, in a measure, be imitated to get the most satisfactory results. The duck has no crop, the food passing directly from the throat to the gizzard, and as a consequence the food must be in a soft mushy state. Too much hard food, such as grain, does not agree with these birds and they can not thrive on it. While some raisers use a small allowance of grain others do not, and it has not been proved to be of any advantage to feed it. Soft food is their natural diet, together with grasses, vegetables, and animal food. The proper selection of the food is extremely important to secure the rapid growth of the duck, and the ingredients of the food must be such as will afford a well-balanced and substantial ration. As a whole, it may be said that the rations used by the largest duck raisers are essentially the same, differing only in the quantities used in the mixing. Investigations show the real values of the food to be the same for producing rapid growth and early development. The duckling grows twice as rapidly and is a much heavier eater than the chick, and to produce the best results its food must be such as will be easily assimilated. The various methods of feeding given in this bulletin are recommended for raising ducks successfully. It costs from 6 to 12 cents a pound to raise a duck for market at ten weeks of age. The cost of feed is from 4½ to 5 cents a pound, and that of labor, etc., is from 4 to 8 cents a pound. It costs from $1.75 to $2.50 each to keep breeding ducks a year. The three different methods of feeding ducks are as follows: (1) Feeding ducks for market (ten weeks old); (2) feeding young ducks to be kept as breeders; (3) feeding old ducks. The first method, for the sake of convenience and to explain more fully the composition of the rations, is subdivided into four parts, as follows. (1) From time of hatching to five days old provide the following mixture: Cracker or bread crumbs and corn meal, equal parts by measure; hard boiled eggs, 15 per cent of the total bulk of crackers and meal; sand, 5 per cent of the total of crackers and meal. Mix with water or milk, and feed four times a day. (2) From five to twenty days old, the following mixture: Wheat bran, two parts by measure; corn meal, one part; rolled oats, 50 per cent of this bulk; beef scraps, 5 per cent; sand, 5 per cent; green food, 10 per cent. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. (3) From twenty to forty-two days old, the following mixture: Wheat bran, two parts by measure; corn meal, one part; beef scraps, 5 per cent of this bulk; sand, 5 per cent; green food, 10 per cent. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. (4) From forty-two to seventy days old, the following mixture: Corn meal, two parts by measure; wheat bran, one part; beef scraps, 10 per cent of this bulk; coarse sand or grit, 5 per cent; green food, 10 per cent. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. The hours for feeding are 6 a. m., 10 a. m., 2 p. m., and 6 p. m. Below is given another system of feeding ducks for marketing at ten weeks of age. This system is practically the same as the one given above, differing only in the ingredients used for the first two parts or until the duckling is twenty days old. The method given below is used successfully by one of the largest duck raisers on Long Island. It is divided into three parts, as follows: (1) From time of hatching to seven days old, feed equal parts by measure, corn meal, wheat bran, and No. 2 grade flour, and 10 per cent of this bulk coarse sand. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. (2) From seven to fifty-six days old, feed equal parts by measure, corn meal, wheat bran, and No. 2 grade flour; 10 per cent of this bulk beef scraps; 10 per cent coarse sand, and 12½ per cent green foods (green rye, oats, clover, etc.). Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed four times a day. (3) From fifty-six to seventy days old, feed two parts by measure. Corn meal; one part wheat bran; one part No. 2 grade flour; 12½ per cent of this bulk beef scraps; 10 per cent coarse sand; 12½ percent green food. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed three times a day--morning, noon, and night. Give last feed an hour before sundown. When ducks are raised for breeders they are fed differently from those intended for market. They are not forced so much as are the latter, and less fattening food is given them. The corn meal and beef scraps are reduced to one-half the quantity used in the above rations. The following is an excellent ration: Equal parts corn meal, wheat bran, green food, 5 per cent beef scraps, and 5 per cent coarse sand or grit. A ration for breeding (laying) ducks is recommended as follows: Fifty per cent, by measure, corn meal; 15 per cent wheat bran; 15 per cent green foods (cooked vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, etc.); 12 per cent beef scraps, and 8 per cent coarse sand or grit. Mix with water to a dry crumbly state and feed twice a day, morning and night. After the breeding season is over and the ducks have stopped laying they are changed from this to the equal-parts ration, as given above for ducklings from seven to fifty-six days old. MIXING FEED. The feeding stuffs should be mixed in a trough sufficiently large to hold the quantity without wasting over the edges. First mix the corn meal and bran together while dry; after these have mixed thoroughly, making an evenly colored mixture, it should be moistened with water and mixed to a dry, crumbly state. It should not be too wet or sloppy, as it is then not so good for the fowls, neither can it be handled and fed properly. Warm water should be used when the weather is excessively cold. In a second trough place the green foods, such as cut rye, oats, etc., and dampen with water; then mix the allowance of the No. 2 grade flour with it. Thoroughly mix, so that the flour will completely cover the green stuff. After this has been done mix the flour and green mixture with the corn meal and bran mixture and add the allowance of beef scraps and sand. When vegetables are used, they should be well cooked before mixing in the rations. The duck raisers on Long Island use large quantities of fish for their breeding stock. This is known as the "fish diet," and is considered as being very valuable to induce egg production. Where fish are cheap they form an excellent substitute for beef scraps in the rations for breeding ducks or ducks not intended for market, but under no circumstances should fish be fed to stock that will be marketed. Fish makes the flavor of the flesh strong and ducks fed on fish will not have ready sales in the market. The fish are cooked by boiling in iron camp kettles until well done, and then mixed, bones and all, in the rations as given above for breeding ducks. When fish is used the beef scraps are omitted. HOW MUCH TO FEED. The amount of feed needed each day for young ducks varies as much as does their growth. Their growth averages a half pound a week, and to make this increase of weight each week requires an additional quantity of food over the preceding one. The rule is, feed each meal what they will eat up clean with a relish, and do not allow them to linger over the feed trough. It is better they should have not enough than too much, as they will be in a much better condition to relish the next meal. One thing is considered to be of as much importance as the feed, and that is removing the feed left over and thoroughly cleaning the troughs after each meal. This is scrupulously attended to by successful duck raisers. One raiser gives, as a generous allowance for one day's ration for one hundred laying ducks, the following: For the morning meal, 35 quarts of the mash, and for the evening meal 40 quarts, making a total of 75 quarts for the day's portion, or three-fourths of a quart to each duck a day. Another raiser allows 400 quarts, fed in halves, twice a day, to six hundred breeding or laying ducks, averaging two-thirds of a quart to each duck a day. There are many patterns of feed troughs in use, hardly any two being alike. They are simple affairs, the simpler the better, as they are more easily kept clean. The designs given for water troughs are equally as good for feed troughs and answer the purpose very well. Each pen of birds should have two troughs, one for water and the other for feed, built proportionately to suit the age and size of the birds they are intended for. Make them of sufficient length to avoid crowding, so that all the birds in each pen will have ample room to eat at the same time. OYSTER SHELLS AND GRIT. Grit in some form is essential to ducks and should be kept before them at all times. Many overlook this fact and do not seem to understand that it is of as much value to them as it is to chickens. The sand used in the mashes tends to supply a certain amount of grinding material or grit to them, but does not fully satisfy them for digesting their food. On a farm where more than ten thousand birds are raised annually, and where disease is practically unknown, it was noted that in every pen there was a box of grit and a box of crushed oyster shells. This raiser states that he considers grit and oyster shells an absolute necessity for ducks, and he attributes the healthy appearance of his stock to it. His birds eat it freely and the supply is never allowed to run out. KILLING AND DRESSING FOR MARKET. There are two methods of dressing ducks for market, by dry picking and by scalding. Both of these methods are good and are being successfully employed by the largest raisers. Some have a preference for dry picking and others for scalding, and it becomes only a matter of taste which method is used. When birds are dressed by scalding they should be dipped several times, or until the feathers come out easily. The back should be dipped in the water first. After scalding, wipe them as dry as possible with a sponge and pick the breast feathers first. A bird when dressed for market has left on it the feathers on the wing, the tail feathers, and the feathers on head and neck, as shown in fig. 27. The legs are left on, and the birds are not drawn. The process of dry picking is considered the simpler of the two methods, and one who is accustomed to the work can readily dress 3 dozen birds in a day. The picker's outfit consists of a chair, a box for the feathers, and a couple of knives, one knife being dull and the other being sharp pointed and double edged, for bleeding. The bird is taken between the knees, the bill held open with the left hand, and a cut made across the roof of the mouth just below the eyes. The bird is then stunned by striking its head against a post or some hard substance. The picker seats himself in the chair with the bird in his lap (fig. 28), its head held firmly between one knee and the box. The feathers arc carefully sorted while picking; the pins are thrown away and the body feathers with the down are thrown into the box. Care should be taken about this, as the feathers from each bird will weigh about 2 ounces, and will quite pay for the picking. [Illustration: Fig. 27.--Pair dressed ducks (10 weeks old).] The dull knife and the thumb are used to remove the long pinfeathers, and this should be done without tearing the skin. The down can usually be rubbed off by slightly moistening the hand and holding the skin tight. Often some of the pins can not be taken out without tearing and disfiguring the skin; when such is the case they should be shaved off. Seven or eight minutes is all the time necessary to dress a bird. After the birds are picked they should be carefully washed, and plumped by placing in a tank or barrel of ice water. They are hardened in this ice water and given a rounded and full appearance. They are then packed in barrels or boxes and shipped to market. The first or bottom layer is packed with backs down; a layer of ice is then placed over them, and all other layers are packed with the breasts down, a layer of ice being between each layer of ducks. The top of the box or barrel is then rounded off with ice and covered with burlaps. A flour barrel will hold about three dozen birds. Some raisers use boxes for shipping and have the empties returned free. DEVELOPMENT OF THE DUCKLING IN THE EGG. Eggs to hatch must have good, strong germs and must be laid by healthy stock. Debilitated, degenerated stock will not produce healthy and vigorous young. The health of the breeding stock must be promoted and everything done that will assist to increase the fertility of the egg. Comfortable houses, cleanliness, pure water, and above all wholesome and nutritious food, are the best promoters of health. The best stock to be had is none too good, and it is erroneous to send the earliest and best stock to market for the small increase in price, and save the later and inferior stock for breeding purposes. A continuation of this practice for a few years means degenerate stock, infertile eggs, weak germs, and large mortality among the newly-hatched birds. [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Duck picker.] After an egg has been under incubation for thirty six hours, it will, if fertile, when held to the light, show a small dark spot a trifle larger than a pin's head. This little spot is the life germ and shows the egg to be fertile. From this time the development of the germ into the duckling can be plainly seen if the egg be held to a strong light. On the sixth or seventh day the first testing of the eggs should be made and all infertile ones taken out. The germ is very distinct at this time, and there has been a gradual change going on in the interior of the egg. The little spot has been constantly enlarging and becoming more dense, and little veins are seen running in divers directions. This is the appearance of an egg with a strong, live germ, which under favorable circumstances will produce a duck. An egg that is not fertile on the sixth or seventh day will be perfectly clear and transparent; all such should be removed at once, as it is useless to allow them to remain. Another kind of egg often seen is a weak or imperfectly fertilized egg, and shows an irregularly-shaped blood vessel, which had started but lacked vitality enough to continue. Such an egg will not hatch and should also be removed from the nest or incubator. Frequently the germ in an egg will show life when tested on the seventh day, but lacks the vitality to carry it through, and when tested later will show dark, irregular blotches over the surface of the egg. These will not hatch, and should be taken out when noticed. On the fourteenth day the little creature inside the egg begins to assume shape and show considerable life. It has increased many times in size since it was seen on the seventh day; the red veins have become more numerous and have spread over the entire surface, while the yolk is scarcely distinguishable from the other portions. The pupil of the eye has now become distinct, and the projection of the wings is clearly perceived. The absorption of the yolk has also commenced, and this will continue until the twenty-fourth day, when it will be nearly completed. The egg from this time on will rapidly grow opaque, and at the eighteenth or twentieth day is entirely so. On the twenty-fourth day the duckling is ready to make its way out of the shell, and in forty-eight hours after pipping the shell it will be entirely out. NATURAL INCUBATION. Hatching under the sitting hen (generally used for hatching ducks) is what is termed the natural process of incubation. The hatching of eggs by this means has always been followed, and no special skill is needed for success, provided the eggs are well fertilized with healthy germs. Many who raise ducks in large numbers, however, use almost exclusively artificial means; some use both the natural and the artificial, while others use the natural entirely. Of the natural method we shall treat first: Hens of medium size of the American class, barred Plymouth Rocks and Wyandottes, are considered the best for sitting. Nine duck eggs are about the right number to place under a hen in early spring weather, but when the season is far advanced as many as thirteen are used. The hens should be provided with large, roomy nests, and slatted fronts that can be removed and replaced easily when the hens are fed and watered. The nesting material should be of hay or straw, and the nest should be slightly concaved; in the bottom place a little finely cut hay. Before the hen is put on the eggs she should be thoroughly dusted with insecticides; the nest also should have a good dusting of the same. Both hen and nest should undergo a thorough dusting several times during the process of hatching as a safeguard against lice. When the ducklings are hatched they should also have their share of the insecticides before they are given to the hen. When a large number of sitting hens are used for hatching, as many as possible should be set at one time, and the ducklings raised in brooders. Hatching with hens may be done on a large scale and the young brooded artificially. As many as five hundred sitting hens are used on some farms for hatching ducks. They are set in small houses or rooms with the nests around the sides in tiers, each nest having its own lattice door. Each day, in the morning, the hens are taken from their nests and fed and watered on the floor of the room. They are taken down in limited numbers, sections, as it were, at a time, and after they have had the food, drink, and a little exercise they are placed back on the nests and another section is fed and watered. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. The subject of artificial incubation has engaged the attention of the civilized world for generations past; the method has done wonders for the poultry industry and has opened up the pathways to fortunes that might otherwise never have been made. The science of incubation and brooding has been developed wonderfully in this country during the last quarter of a century, and what seemed almost an impossibility then has indeed become a certainty now. There are many thousands of chicks and ducklings hatched by artificial means each year, and the numbers of good machines now being manufactured in this country at low prices make poultry raising a business that almost anyone with a limited capital may profitably engage in. The mission of an incubator is to supplant the sitting hen, and make it possible to hatch a large number of chicks at a minimum amount of cost and labor. That this can be done is proved each day. For artificial incubation, have a room with a temperature as nearly uniform as possible. Balance the beat in the machines, or in other words, see that the heat is uniform at both ends, and, in fact, all over them. See that each is running steadily before placing the eggs in it, as there is a great deal in starting right. The machines should be run at a temperature of 102° for the first three weeks, and 103° the last week. The eggs should be turned twice each day at regular periods. Introduce a pan of water from the fifteenth to the twenty-second day, no matter what the location of the machine, whether in a damp cellar or in a dry room overhead, in a moist atmosphere near the seashore or in a dry one at an altitude in the country. The temperature may go as high as 101° just previous to and while hatching without injury. Place the glass on a live egg after the animal heat rises, which will be when the circulation begins. This will be perceptible in good eggs the fourteenth and fifteenth days. Considerable weight has been put upon the ventilation question in incubators by manufacturers and operators, but it has been found that when the egg chamber is roomy, and the eggs are taken out and cooled twice each day, it is not of so much consequence. There is no doubt but that there must be some ventilation in the egg chamber, but from the experience and observation of the writer the value of the subject has been overestimated by many. Some machines have top ventilation, some bottom, and others both top and bottom, and there is seemingly no marked difference in the hatching. When the ducklings are hatching, the broken egg shells should be removed once in every six or eight hours, so that they will not slip over the pipped eggs, as it would be sure death to the imprisoned ones. Occasionally a little bird is unable to free itself from the shell and needs help; the expert can readily detect when this is necessary. The one point to note in this connection is this: The egg just before hatching radiates a great deal of heat, while the duckling, when first out, being not unlike a little sponge, absorbs it, or in other words, the rapid evaporation which takes place generates cold; so that when the ducklings are out the machine should be gauged one degree higher. When the ducklings are all out and dried off, the machine will run at least two degrees lower than when they were in the egg. Plenty of ventilation is needed in the machines while hatching. Keep the ducklings in the machine at least twenty-four hours after hatching, when they will be strong enough to be removed to the brooder. The heat in the brooder should be started twenty-four hours previous to use, so that it will be perfectly heated and ready for the ducklings when they are taken from the machine. GEESE. STANDARD BREEDS OF GEESE. =Introduction.=--There are seven standard breeds of geese, as follows: Gray Toulouse, White Embden, Gray African, Brown Chinese, White Chinese, Gray Wild, and Colored Egyptian. GRAY TOULOUSE GEESE. =History.=--Gray Toulouse geese (fig. 29) are named for the city in France of that name, where they are extensively bred. In this country they are bred in large numbers by farmers and are fairly well thought of for market purposes. Their flesh is a trifle too coarse and flabby, when compared with some other geese, to be prized very highly for table purposes. They are termed a Christmas goose, as being later in maturing than the others they are just about right at the holiday time. They are fairly good layers, averaging about 40 eggs in a season. [Illustration: Fig. 29.--Pair of Gray Toulouse geese.] =Description.=--Toulouse geese are more compact in shape than other geese, and are preferred by many for this reason. The head is rather large and short, and they have a comparatively short bill that is stout at the base; the neck is carried well up and is of medium length. They have a broad back of moderate length, which curves slightly from the neck to the tail; their breasts are broad and deep. The body of the Toulouse goose is moderate in length, broad, and very deep and compact, the more compact the better; and in birds in good condition the belly almost touches the ground. Their wings are large, strong, and fold nicely against the sides, and they have comparatively short tails, and stout thighs and shanks. In color of plumage they are a dull gray, without penciling. The head is dark gray and the neck of the same color, which shades to a lighter gray as it approaches the back; the back is of dark gray, while the breast is light gray. The body plumage is light gray, which grows lighter and becomes white on the belly; the white extends back .to and around the tail, covering the fluffy parts. The primaries of the wings are dark gray or brown; the secondaries are a shade darker than the primaries and the coverts are dark gray. The tail feathers are gray and white, the ends tipped with white. Their eyes are dark brown or hazel in color; their bills, shanks, toes, and webs are of deep reddish-orange color. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult gander is 20 pounds; adult goose, 20 pounds; young gander, 18 pounds, and young goose, 15 pounds. WHITE EMBDEN GEESE. =History.=--White Embden geese (fig. 30) are considered very practical birds for farmers, and pay well for their keeping. They are nice looking, of large size, tall and erect carriage,, and snow-white plumage. They originally came from Embden, in Westphalia, and have been bred in this country for many years. =Description.=--The Embdens are not so prolific as the Brown Chinese or Toulouse, 20 eggs in a season being a good average for them. Their eggs are very large, white, and have a very thick, rough shell. In carriage they are very tall and erect, and have fine square bodies. They have rather large heads, medium-sized bill, and a long neck that is carried upright. Their backs are of medium length, and arch slightly from the neck to the tail; the breast is round and full, and the body is large, square, and very deep, and, like the Toulouse, almost touches the ground The wings are large and strong; tail short; thighs and shanks short and stout. Their eyes are bright blue; bills flesh color; and their shanks, toes, and webs are deep orange. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult gander is 20 pounds; adult goose, 18 pounds; young gander, 18 pounds, and young goose 10 pounds. GRAY AFRICAN GEESE. =History.=--Gray African geese (fig. 31) are by many raisers considered the most profitable of all geese to keep. They grow the heaviest in the shortest space of time, and are ready for market in ten weeks, weighing at that age between 8 and 10 pounds. They are very much like the Pekin duck in this respect, and as compared with other geese give the most satisfactory returns for the least labor and time spent in growing them. They are, according to standard weights, as heavy as the Toulouse and Embden, but specimens are not uncommon that exceed these weights by several pounds. They are first-class layers and average about 40 eggs in a season. This is considered as a low estimate for their egg production. For table purposes they are esteemed very highly, their flesh being fine and nicely flavored. [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Pair of White Embden geese.] =Description.=--These geese have a large head, with a large knob, and a heavy dewlap under the throat. These and the Chinese geese are different from the others in the head, and are the only two breeds that have the knob on the head. The bill of the African is rather large and stout at the base, and their necks are long. Their backs are long and flat, breasts round and moderately full, and they have large, long, and upright bodies. The wings are large and strong, and are folded well against the body; the thighs are short and stout, and shanks of medium length. The knob is black and the dewlap of a gray color, while the plumage of the neck is light gray with a dark stripe running from the head to the body. The back is dark gray, the plumage of the breast is gray, and the underpart of body is light gray. The wings and tail are dark gray, and the thighs are light gray. The eyes are hazel or brown; bill, black; shanks, toes, and web are of dark-orange color. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult gander is 20 pounds; adult goose, 18 pounds; young gander, 10 pounds, and young goose, 14 pounds. [Illustration: Fig. 31.--Pair of Gray African geese.] BROWN AND WHITE CHINESE GEESE. =History.=--The smallest of the breeds of geese are the Chinese, averaging in weight from 6 to 7 pounds lighter than those previously named. Apparently their want of size has prevented them from becoming favorites with those who raise large numbers annually, but with those who keep a limited number they are found to be very practical. What they lack in size they gain in egg production, being the most prolific of all breeds of geese, averaging from 50 to 60 eggs a year. In size, aptitude to fatten, and ease of management they appear in no respect inferior to other geese, while the quality of flesh is decidedly superior. =Description.=--They are exceedingly graceful in appearance, quite hardy, and the young mature early. There are two varieties of Chinese geese--the Brown (fig. 32) and the White. They have large heads, with large knob at base of a medium-length bill, and long, gracefully arched necks. The backs are medium in length, and the breast is round and full; body of medium size, round and plump; wings, large and strong; thighs, short and stout, and shanks of medium length. [Illustration: Fig. 32.--Pair of Brown Chinese geese (young).] The color of head of the Brown Chinese geese is brown; knob dark brown or black; neck light brown or grayish brown, with a dark stripe from the head down to the body. The body is dark brown, breast grayish brown, and the under parts are a shade lighter in color. The wings and tail are brown, and the thighs are grayish brown. The eyes are hazel or brown; bill dark brown or black; and shanks, toes, and webs are a dusky orange color. The color of plumage of the White Chinese geese is pure white throughout, perfectly free from feathers of any other color. The knob and bill are orange color, as are also the shanks, toes, and web. The eyes are a deep leaden blue. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult gander is 14 pounds; adult goose, 12 pounds; young gander, 10 pounds, and young goose, 8 pounds. GRAY WILD GEESE. =History.=--Gray Wild geese (fig. 33) are among the best known of domestic geese, and are very generally bred throughout the entire country. They are among the most valuable and practical birds for goose raising, and are prized very highly for table purposes, besides being good layers, hardy, and easy to rear. [Illustration: Fig. 33.--Gray wild goose.] =Description.=--These geese have a rather small head, small bill, sharp at the point, and long, slender neck, snaky in appearance. The back is long and rather narrow, and is arched from neck to tail; breast, full and deep, and body long and somewhat slender. The wings are long, large, and powerful, and the thighs are rather short. The head of the Wild goose is black, with a white stripe nearly covering the side of the face; bill, black; neck, black; and back, dark gray. The breast is light gray, which grows darker as it approaches the legs; the plumage of the underparts of the body from the legs to the tail is white. The wings are dark gray; primaries dusky black, showing only a dark-gray color when the wing is folded; secondaries are brown, but of a lighter shade than the primaries. The tail feathers are glossy black, and the thighs are gray. The shanks, toes, and webs are black. The eyes are black. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult gander is 16 pounds; adult goose, 14 pounds; young gander, 12 pounds, and young goose, 10 pounds. COLORED EGYPTIAN GEESE. =History.=--The most beautiful of the breeds of geese are the colored Egyptians (fig. 34); they are purely ornamental, not having been bred in this country for any other purpose than the showroom. They are sometimes called the Nile Goose. This goose is tall and somewhat slender, which gives it an elegance of appearance not possessed by any other breed. It can generally be bred in confinement, but is of a most quarrelsome nature, and the male will fight to the death other males of the same species. The males must each be given a separate pen, and mated with the females; it is seldom that any two males can be kept in the same pen. =Description.=--These geese have a medium-sized and rather long head, a bill of medium length, and a rather small neck. The back is narrow and slightly arched from the neck to the tail; breast, round; body, long, but somewhat small and slender. Their wings are large, and have instead of the ordinary hard knobs horny spurs about five-eighths of an inch long; the thighs are of medium length, and the shanks rather long. The color of the head is black and gray; the bill is purple or bluish red, and the eyes orange. [Illustration: Fig. 34.--Pair of Colored Egyptian geese.] The neck and back are gray and black; the center of the breast is chestnut, and the balance is gray. The upper parts of the plumage of the body are gray and black, and the under parts are a pale yellow, penciled with black. The shoulders of the wings are white, with a narrow black stripe or bar. The tail feathers are glossy black; thighs, pale buff; shanks, toes, and webs, reddish yellow. The eyes are orange. =Weight.=--The standard weight of the adult gander is 15 pounds; adult goose, 12 pounds; young gander, 12 pounds, and young goose, 9 pounds. MANAGEMENT OF GEESE. Goose raising is not so extensively engaged in as duck raising, the conditions under which they can be successfully raised being almost entirely different from those necessary for successful duck raising. The duck, being smaller, can be raised in a more limited space than can the goose, the latter needing free range and water, while the former has been proved to do equally as well without water. While the goose can not profitably be raised in as large numbers as the duck, still it can not justly be termed unprofitable. There are many places on a farm that are worthless for cultivation that could be utilized with excellent results for goose raising. Fields that have streams, branches, or unused springs on them could be turned to good advantage by making them into goose pastures. Many farmers are profiting by this and adding to their incomes annually. The care and attention necessary for raising geese are very small when compared with the returns, and the cost of food is also proportionately small in comparison with the cost of food used for other birds bred for market. A goose on range will gather the largest portion of its food, consisting of grasses, insects, and other animal and vegetable matter to be found in the fields and brooks. The simplest kinds of houses are used for shelter; these should be built after the plans of those given for ducks, but should be proportionately of larger size to accommodate comfortably the number of birds to be kept. Geese are long-lived birds, some having been known to attain the age of 40 years, while birds of 15 and 20 years of age are not uncommon. They retain their laying and hatching qualities through life. Ganders should not be kept for breeding after 3 years of age; young ganders are more active and insure greater fertility of the eggs than old ones do; besides, ganders become more quarrelsome as age advances. The feathers of geese are an important source of revenue and find a ready sale in the markets. A goose will average about 1 pound of feathers a year. The feathers should be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the quills; this can be readily ascertained, as they will then leave the flesh without hard pulling. Almost all breeds of geese are good sitters and attentive mothers, and if left to themselves will make their nests, much as when wild, and hatch a large percentage of their eggs. But hens are now more frequently used for hatching goose eggs; as by taking the eggs from the goose when laid and giving them to hens to hatch, the goose will lay a greater number of eggs than if she were permitted to sit. All breeds of geese, except perhaps the Egyptian, are to be recommended to farmers who keep a limited number in addition to other poultry and allow them the freedom of the farm, but when goose raising is to be more extensively engaged in, the African goose is to be especially commended. It is the quickest to mature, most prolific, and the easiest to handle of any of the varieties. MATING AND SETTING. In breeding African geese, mate two geese to one gander, and it will be still better if pairs are used to secure better fertility of the eggs. Those who contemplate raising geese should secure their stock in the fall, so that the birds may become accustomed to the place before the breeding season begins. The breeding stock should be at least 2 years old, and fully matured birds. When stock is purchased in the fall they should be turned out in a pasture, and no other food than what they gather themselves will be needed until the grass goes down. Their rations should then consist of equal parts by measure, bran, middlings, and corn meal, with 5 per cent of this bulk of beef scraps. They should be given a light feed of this ration in the morning, and at night they should be fed cracked corn. Ten per cent of the bulk of the daily ration should be green foods, steamed clover, and cooked vegetables. [Illustration: Fig. 35.--Wild and African cross.] [Illustration: Fig. 36.--Embden and Toulouse cross.] The breeding season begins about February 1, though some geese will begin laying as early as December, then stop, and begin again the first of February. They make their own nests from the straw and litter on the floor of their houses, and will lay from 12 to 20 eggs before becoming broody. As soon as the goose shows an inclination to sit, remove her and place her in a dark box or small coop, and keep her there for two or three days with water for drink, but no food. Then she may be placed back in the yards and she will begin another laying of eggs. The first and second layings of eggs should be set under hens. After the goose lays the second laying she should be confined again, when she will lay a third laying. When she has laid the third laying she should be permitted to sit on them, instead of giving them to hens. A goose will lay from 10 to 15 eggs in each of the second and third layings. It is recommended that after the eggs have been sat upon for twenty-five days, that they be taken from the nest and placed for about one minute in water heated to a temperature of 104°. Thirty days are required for incubation. After the eggs have hatched leave the hen and goslings in the nest for twenty-four hours; after the young have become thoroughly dry remove hen and brood and pen them in a large, roomy coop for four or five days. When the goslings have reached this age--four or five days--they are perfectly able to take care of themselves. The hen should then be taken from the goslings, which should be allowed freedom to roam at will, but they should always be cooped up at night. FEEDING AND DRESSING FOR MARKET. [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Embden and African cross.] The first feed for goslings is grass, fed on sod; a small allowance of corn meal, slightly moistened, is also given them. Sand and charcoal are sometimes mixed with the corn meal. They are fed on the above food three times a day for a couple of days, when they are given a ration composed of equal parts by measure, bran, middlings, and steamed cut clover or cooked vegetables. This feed is given them morning, noon, and night, until they are 8 weeks old, when they are penned to be fattened for market at 10 weeks old. To fatten young geese, place them in a pen, not too large, so that they will not exercise too much, and feed three times a day all they will eat up clean of the following: Corn meal mixed to a dry crumbly state, and beef scraps amounting to 20 per cent of the bulk of the corn meal. While fattening young geese they should be kept as quiet as possible; no excitement whatever should disturb them. When feeding approach them quietly, and do not irritate them in the least or they will not fatten, but will "throw out" or grow another crop of feathers. At 10 weeks of age, or when the tips of the wings reach the tail, they are ready for market and should weigh between 8 and 10 pounds. When young goslings are to be dressed for market they are killed by cutting them in the roof of the mouth, severing the artery, or by stunning them by hitting them a sharp, quick blow on the head. The picker uses a box in front of him about the height of the knees, holding the bird with the left hand and clasping the feet and wings together; he places the head of the bird against the box and holds it in place with the knee. Pick the feathers from the body of the bird, then dampen the right hand and brush the body to remove the down. Leave about 2 inches of feathers on the neck, and also leave feathers on the wings at the first joint. Lay the wings against the body of the birds and tie a string around to hold in position. I lace the birds, when picked, in cold water for an hour or so to plump them; if they are in the water too long they are liable to bleach and become water-soaked. They are then iced up in barrels already to ship to market. Young geese should be marketed in October. It is best to market all possible before cold weather sets in. It is much harder to dress a gosling in cold weather. The feathers set tighter, and in picking them the flesh is torn. CROSS BREEDING. The most satisfactory results are to be had by breeding pure standard-bred stock without crossing. But to those who are partial to crosses the following are considered the best to make: (1) Wild gander on African goose (fig. 35); (2) Embden gander on Toulouse goose (fig. 36); (3) Embden gander on African goose (fig. 37), and (4) Embden gander on White China goose. These crosses will give good growth and the young birds will dress well for market. Crosses should only be made for market purposes, and should always be bred from original stock. * * * * * FARMERS' BULLETINS. These bulletins are sent free of charge to any address upon application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Only the following are available: No. 15.--Some Destructive Potato Diseases: What They Are and How to Prevent Them. No. 16.--Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding. No. 18.--Forage Plants for the South. No. 19.--Important Insecticides: Directions for their Preparation and Use. No. 21.--Barnyard Manure. No. 22.--Feeding Farm Animals. No. 23.--Foods: Nutritive Value and Cost. No. 24.--Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. No. 25.--Peanuts: Culture and Uses. No. 26.--Sweet Potatoes: Culture and Uses. No. 27.--Flax for Seed and Fiber. No. 28.--Weeds; and How to Kill Them. No. 29.--Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products. No. 30.--Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. No. 31.--Alfalfa, or Lucern. No. 32.--Silos and Silage. No. 33.--Peach Growing for Market. No. 34.--Meats: Composition and Cooking. No. 35.--Potato Culture. No. 36.--Cotton Seed and Its Products. No. 37.--Kafir Corn: Characteristics, Culture, and Uses. No. 38.--Spraying for Fruit Diseases. No. 39.--Onion Culture. No. 40.--Farm Drainage. No. 41.--Fowls: Care and Feeding. No. 42.--Facts About Milk. No. 43.--Sewage Disposal on the Farm. No. 44.--Commercial Fertilizers. No. 45.--Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. No. 46.--Irrigation in Humid Climates. No. 47.--Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant. No. 48.--The Manuring of Cotton. No. 49.--Sheep Feeding. No. 50.--Sorghum as a Forage Crop. No. 51.--Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 52.--The Sugar Beet. No. 53.--How to Grow Mushrooms. No. 54.--Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agriculture. No. 55.--The Dairy Herd: Its Formation and Management. No. 56.--Experiment Station Work--I. No. 57.--Butter Making on the Farm. No. 58.--The Soy Bean as a Forage Crop. No. 59.--Bee Keeping. No. 60.--Methods of Curing Tobacco. No. 61.--Asparagus Culture. No. 62.--Marketing Farm Produce. No. 63.--Care of Milk on the Farm. No. 64.--Ducks and Geese. No. 65.--Experiment Station Work--II. No. 66.--Meadows and Pastures. No. 67.--Forestry for Farmers. No. 68.--The Black Rot of the Cabbage. No. 69.--Experiment Station Work--III. No. 70.--The Principal Insect Enemies of the Grape. No. 71.--Some Essentials of Beef Production. No. 72.--Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. No. 73.--Experiment Station Work--IV. No. 74.--Milk as Food. No. 75.--The Grain Smuts. No. 76.--Tomato Growing. No. 77.--The Liming of Soils. No. 78.--Experiment Station Work--V. No. 79.--Experiment Station Work--VI. No. 80.--The Peach Twig-borer--an Important Enemy of Stone Fruits. No. 81.--Corn Culture in the South. No. 82.--The Culture of Tobacco. No. 83.--Tobacco Soils. No. 84.--Experiment Station Work--VII. No. 85.--Fish as Food. No. 86.--Thirty Poisonous Plants. No. 87.--Experiment Station Work--VIII. No. 88.--Alkali Lands. No. 89.--Cowpeas. * * * * * Transcriber Note Minor typos may have been corrected. Illustrations were repositioned to avoid splitting paragraphs. 
59485	----	by The Internet Archive. WINTERING BEES IN CELLARS E. F. PHILLIPS, Apiculturist and GEORGE S. DEMUTH, Apicultural Assistant Bureau of Entomology [Illustration] FARMERS' BULLETIN 1014 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD. Chief Washington, D. C. September, 1918 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1918 RESULTS from wintering bees in a cellar are excellent when conditions in the cellar are such as to keep the bees from wearing themselves out by excessive activity. Cellar wintering is practicable where the average outdoor temperature during the winter months is as low as 25° F. A map is given (p. 3) so that the beekeeper may know whether this method is advisable in his locality. The cellar should be arranged so that the ceiling is below the frost line, and so that the ceiling and side walls are thoroughly protected at all points. The cellar should be kept so that the lowest temperature within the hives is at least 52° F. At this temperature there will be little need of special ventilating arrangements. There should be no condensation of moisture within the hives, and the cellar should be well drained. Bees should be put into the cellar after a good flight in late November, or earlier in the more northern localities. They should be removed when fresh pollen and nectar are available, usually about the last of March. Soon after the hives are placed on their summer stands, each colony should be given additional stores and room for the development of a large quantity of brood. It is important that none of the factors of good wintering be omitted. Several tests are given in this bulletin so that the beekeeper may determine whether his cellar is a satisfactory place for wintering bees. WINTERING BEES IN CELLARS. CONTENTS. Page. Cellar wintering versus outdoor wintering 3 Where is cellar wintering advisable 4 Essentials to success 5 Necessity of strong colonies in the fall 5 Winter stores 6 Arrangement of the apiary 7 The bee cellar 7 Putting the bees into the cellar 12 Maintenance of the cellar during the winter 13 Removal of the bees from the cellar 17 Providing breeding room and stores in the spring 19 Measures of success in cellar wintering 20 CELLAR WINTERING VERSUS OUTDOOR WINTERING. Bees in the more northern parts of the United States for many years have been placed by some of the best beekeepers in cellars or special repositories during the coldest parts of the winter. There has been a growing feeling, however, that if outdoor wintering is practicable, in most cases it gives better results, and there has been a decided change from cellar wintering to outdoor wintering within the past decade. The difficulty seems to be that the methods of cellar wintering practiced have not been satisfactory and it seems probable that if as much attention had been given, to the perfection of the methods of cellar wintering as has been given to an improvement of the methods of outdoor wintering, there would not have been as great a change to the outdoor methods as has taken place. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Map of the United States showing regions where cellar wintering is practicable, based on the average temperature of January. From data furnished by the United States Weather Bureau.] The placing of bees in a cellar is only another way of putting insulation about the hives, the only difference being that in the cellar all of the hives are protected alike and the protection is placed about the apiary instead of around hives in groups or singly. It follows that the principles which apply to successful outdoor wintering apply equally to the protection of the bees in the cellar. It is urged, therefore, that before attempting to winter bees in the cellar, the beekeeper study the bulletins[1] of the department in which these principles are set forth. [1] Department Bulletin 93, The Temperature of the Honeybee Cluster In Winter. Farmers' Bulletin 695, Outdoor Wintering of Bees. WHERE IS CELLAR WINTERING ADVISABLE? Before deciding whether or not the bees are to be wintered in a cellar, several factors should be considered, the chief of these being (1) the winter climate, (2) the kind of winter stores, and (3) the location of the apiary as regards wind protection. WINTER CLIMATE. In any locality where the average temperature of the winter months falls below 25° F. (zone 1) cellar wintering may be practiced with profit, and in localities where the average temperature of these months falls as low as 15° F. (zone 2) cellar wintering is much to be preferred. Figure 1 shows the boundaries of these zones for the United States for the month of January, which may be taken as typical of the winter months. It will be noted that these zones do not follow parallels of latitude. As was pointed out in the bulletin of the department on outdoor wintering,[2] it is quite possible to protect bees in zone 1 sufficiently to winter them outdoors, but if a proper cellar is provided, if conditions within the cellar are correct, and if the stores are good and the colonies are strong, just as good results may be obtained from cellar wintering. [2] Farmers' Bulletin 1012, Preparation of Bees for Outdoor Wintering. In zone 1 the average temperature of the outside air during the mouth of January is 25° F., or lower in the more northern parts of the zone. This means that in colonies wintered outdoors the bees are compelled to overcome this degree of cold at all times during the coldest part of the winter. If they are so well packed that the heat which they generate is lost slowly, they are able to generate sufficient heat to make the interior of the hive warm enough to allow them to break their cluster as is necessary. In zone 2, however, the bees will be compelled to generate heat sufficient to overcome the more severe cold of that zone, and this calls for the expenditure by the bees of so much more food and vitality that it is more economical to put them in a good cellar during the months of the most severe cold, and cellar wintering is therefore preferable. CHARACTER OF WINTER STORES. In localities where the stores for the bees gathered during the latter part of the summer are not of the first quality, it is safer to winter the bees outdoors. This is a large factor in the placing of the zones shown in figure 1, for it is quite common in the region south of zone 1 for the full honey to be of inferior quality. It is extremely fortunate that in both of the zones shown the stores available in winter are usually of the finest quality. As will be shown later, it is highly important that the beekeeper pay special attention to the character of the stores in the hive at the beginning of the winter, and if they are not as good as they should be, this deficiency should be corrected. LOCATION AS REGARDS WIND PROTECTION. In zone 1, if the apiary is so badly located that the winter winds are severe, the beekeeper will do well to winter in a cellar, although, as will be shown later, it is not best to choose such a site for the apiary even during the rest of the year. ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS. As in the case of outdoor wintering, the essentials to success in caring for a normal colony of bees from the end of one season's honey-flow to the beginning of the next lie in providing three things in abundance: (1) Stores of good quality, (2) protection from wind and cold, and (3) room for the rearing of brood at appropriate times. These factors must not be lacking at the right times, and if any one is omitted it may prevent the bees from gathering the crop of the following season. These three factors do not apply equally throughout the period of relative inactivity, but as certainly as any one of them is decreased, just so certainly will the crop of the following year be reduced. In practicing cellar wintering it is unnecessary to leave so much honey with the bees during the time that they are in the cellar, and it is not necessary during that period to leave room for the rearing of brood. During the coldest part of the winter the bees need especially protection from cold and wind, although enough good stores must be in the hive to keep them through that period in good condition. Probably a large part of the failure of beekeepers in practicing cellar wintering comes from the fact that before and after the bees are in the cellar the important factors of stores and breeding room have not been adequately supplied. Before the bees are put into the cellar they must have room for breeding and stores in abundance, and after they are taken out these two factors must be present in greatly increased abundance. NECESSITY OF STRONG COLONIES IN THE FALL. As in the case of wintering outdoors, it is wasteful to attempt to winter weak colonies. It is difficult to set standards of colony strength at this season, but it is unwise to attempt to winter colonies that are not strong enough to have brood sufficient to fill three or four Langstroth frames two months before the first killing frost. If the colonies in the apiary are not of the proper strength, it is wise to unite until the proper strength is reached. Any uniting should be done before the close of brood-rearing. It is of the greatest importance that every colony have a good queen in order that brood-rearing may continue in the fall and may then again proceed rapidly in the spring. Usually it is best to requeen at least every two years, but if good wintering is practiced the colonies will come out of winter quarters so strong and will build up so rapidly in the spring that the queens will soon wear out, making it safer to requeen every year. To get the best results from requeening, all young queens should be introduced so that they begin to lay about two months before the first killing frost. WINTER STORES. The stores given to the bees from the end of one season to the beginning of the next are of the first importance. It is necessary to consider both the quality and the quantity of these stores. QUALITY OF STORES. As has been stated, it is fortunate that in both of the zones where cellar wintering is or might be practiced the natural stores usually are good. Honeys such as those from white and alsike clovers, sweet clover, alfalfa, wild raspberry, buckwheat, and willowherb are fine stores for winter, while honeys from basswood, heartsease (smart-weed), asters, goldenrod, and most of the other fall flowers are less desirable. It is especially important during the period when the bees are in the cellar that the stores shall be of the very finest quality, and it is therefore the practice of many good beekeepers to feed each colony 5 pounds or more of sirup made of granulated sugar Into in the fall, after all brood-rearing has ceased. This insures that the bees will have for their use, during the period of confinement in the cellar, stores which will not bring about the condition known as dysentery. In general it may be stated that honeys from mixed sources and dark honeys, except buckwheat, are to be avoided. Honeydew honeys are highly injurious and in all cases where such stores are present granulated sugar sirup should be fed. QUANTITY OF STORES. From the end of one honey season to the beginning of the next a good colony of bees will need fully 45 pounds of honey. When the bees are wintered in the cellar, it is usual not to have all of this honey in the one hive body in which they are wintered. It is a good practice to have at least 20 pounds within this hive, although 15 pounds will be safe. It is absolutely imperative, however, that the remainder of the 45 pounds shall be available to be given to the bees soon after, they are taken from the cellar. The most common cause of poor colonies in the spring is poverty, directly due to neglect on the part of the beekeeper. A good beekeeper sees to it that at no time when brood is being reared do his bees have less than 15 pounds of stores in the hive, and the full amount of 45 pounds often will all be used, and is always needed if the colonies are to come to full strength on time for the gathering of the full crop. This amount is always augmented by honey from spring flowers, for 45 pounds of honey is not enough to bring a colony to full strength in time for the main honey-flow. ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY. Where bees are wintered in cellars the particular arrangement of the hives in the apiary is not so important a problem as where they are wintered on their summer stands, yet there are certain important considerations in the arrangement of the entire apiary which should be kept in mind. WIND PROTECTION. It is important that a place be chosen where the bees will be protected from cold winds in the spring after they are taken from the cellar and again in the fall before they are taken to the cellar. A grove of trees or an adjacent hill usually offers the best protection, or it is possible to make an artificial windbreak such as a high fence. A natural windbreak usually is better, for it is more extensive in most cases. Too much reliance should not be placed in buildings, for often they merely divert the wind slightly and may make conditions worse. A fence made of close boards usually is unsatisfactory, for it causes whirls. DISTANCE OF THE APIARY FROM THE CELLAR. To carry colonies of bees a long distance from the apiary to the cellar is not an easy task, even though the hives be light at that time of the year. It is best, therefore, that the apiary be located not more than 50 yards from the cellar, and even this distance is objectionable. If a special cellar is built for the bees, the apiary should be so located that the cellar may be built immediately adjacent. If the bees are to be wintered in the cellar under the beekeeper's residence, the apiary should be located as near as possible to the cellar door. THE BEE CELLAR. In order that the beekeeper may have reason to expect success in cellar wintering, it is imperative that he give careful consideration to the construction of the bee cellar. There has been a tendency among beekeepers greatly to overestimate the value of their own cellars, and especially to assume that the conditions which they are able to get in their cellars are exactly correct. CELLAR UNDER THE RESIDENCE. Some of the best bee cellars are those under the residences of beekeepers, and in general such a cellar is better than one built especially for cellar wintering. This is because the temperature of such a cellar usually is quite a little higher than that in a specially constructed repository. The best results in cellar wintering have been obtained in cellars under residences which are heated by furnaces, thus having a higher cellar temperature. In such a cellar provision must be made for partitioning off a space where the bees will be located so that there is no light or other disturbing factor during the time of their confinement. Since a cellar temperature about 50° F. is desirable, it is well to choose a part of the cellar through which some of the furnace pipes run, and if this results in too high a temperature these pipes may be insulated somewhat. It is best to choose a part of the cellar where there are no windows and where the outside walls are thoroughly protected to the top, either by a bank of soil or in some other fashion. This will result in a more equable temperature than is possible in a cellar exposed to sudden changes of temperature on the outside walls, for even a stone wall 18 inches thick will allow a considerable amount of heat to escape. In a cellar under a residence there will be abundant ventilation without any special provision being made for this. A test of the value of such a cellar is the even temperature which may be obtained, as will be discussed later. SPECIAL WINTER REPOSITORY. If properly constructed and protected, a special cellar or cave for the bees gives the best possible results in wintering, yet few such cellars have been built, for the reason that most beekeepers have omitted some vitally important factors. The usual fault is in having too great a variation in temperature and in giving excessive ventilation, which in turn causes fluctuations in temperature. SOIL AND CONTOUR OF THE SURFACE OF THE GROUND. To provide good drainage and adequate ventilation for the bee cellar without making any special ventilators, it is desirable to build it in a sandy hillside. If it is possible to choose a place for the cellar where the snow drifts deeply, this will afford a valuable addition to the insulation of the cellar. If the cellar is on level ground, drifting of snow may be increased by the proper building of open fences, such as are used to prevent drifting over railway tracks. If it is impossible to utilize a sandy hillside, it will be necessary to build walls and a floor for the cellar and to make adequate provision for the drainage of the cellar. The hillside cellar has, the great advantage of having easy drainage. CAPACITY OF THE CELLAR. If the bees are kept in apiaries of perhaps 100 colonies and if a cellar is built for each apiary, then it is possible to build a cellar of just the right capacity. If a central cellar is built for all the apiaries and the bees in outapiaries are brought into the home apiary for winter, the beekeeper will wish to build the cellar sufficiently large for future expansion of his business, and beekeepers are finding out, that they can keep many more colonies of bees than they formerly thought possible. Perhaps the better plan is to have a cellar in each apiary. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Interior of bee cellar with hives In piles of four. Insulation above the ceiling is not shown.] The usual practice is to allow 1-1/2 to 2 square feet of floor surface for each colony, on the assumption that the colonies will be placed in piles of four (fig. 2). It is not desirable to pile hives higher than this, if the cellar roof is 6-1/2 feet high in the clear, and it is difficult to lift heavy hives any higher than the number specified. For an apiary of 100 colonies, it will be found desirable to have a cellar 10 feet wide and from 15 to 20 feet long, clear of the inner walls. If one is just getting a start in beekeeping he should build his cellar on the assumption that later he will increase the number of his colonies, and should allow for this, for it is better to have the cellar too large than too small. WALLS AND FLOOR. It has been claimed by many beekeepers that concrete walls and floor are not desirable, yet if the cellar is properly insulated there is no better material. If the cellar is built in a hillside of sandy soil, wooden sides will be satisfactory and no floor other than the soil need be provided. In such soil the drainage is good and the only function of the side walls is to hold the sides up to prevent caving in. In a moist soil a concrete floor and walls should be built, and the concrete should be waterproof. Under no circumstances should any of the side walls below the ceiling be exposed above ground. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Diagram of bee cellar. Clearance 6-1/2 feet, ceiling 2-1/2 feet below ground level, packed with about 11 feet of sawdust.] ROOF. The ceiling of the cellar should be below ground level sufficiently to bring it below the level of frost. For the regions where bees should be wintered in cellars this usually will be at least 2-1/2 feet below the level of the ground (fig. 3). The ceiling should be 6-1/2 feet above the floor, just sufficiently high to permit a tall man to work with comfort. If the ceiling is higher it will result usually in too low a temperature at the floor. The ceiling then should be covered completely on top with some insulating material, such as sawdust, and if sawdust is used it should be piled on about 1-1/2 feet thick. Unless about this amount of protection is given on the ceiling it will be impossible to get the right cellar temperature during the coldest part of the winter. If the cellar is built in a sandy soil, it is possible to use the soil as a cover for the ceiling, in which event about 3 feet of soil should be placed over the inner roof of the cellar. The entire insulating material, of whatever kind used, should then be protected from rain and snow by having a roof over it. This roof should project at least 2 feet, preferably more, beyond the outside of the cellar wall, and provision should be made for currying off the water from the roof. In case the beekeeper desires to build an apiary house over the bee, cellar, as is done frequently, he must provide a floor for this house at least at ground level, and he can not successfully use the ceiling of the cellar as the floor of the upper house. There is no objection to building a house above the cellar if adequate protection is given the cellar, but it must not be assumed that the house offers any material insulation to the cellar, for in most cases these houses are not heated in the winter. The relation of the house floor to the ceiling of the cellar is shown in figure 3. ENTRANCE TO THE CELLAR. Frequently the entrance is a weak spot in the insulation of the cellar, and it is useless to protect the roof and sides unless care is used in the building of the entrance. If the entrance is at the end or one side of the cellar, it will be necessary to build a sort of vestibule with double doors so that the heat of the cellar will not be lost rapidly. The heavier and thicker these doors, the better for the bees. The best type of vestibule is a long, narrow passage lending into the hillside, and it should be closed by doors at both the inside and outside ends. If possible the vestibule should be built and protected so that the temperature within the vestibule will never fall below freezing. In the building of the vestibule, also, the beekeeper should consider the ease with which the bees may be carried in and out of the cellar. DRAINAGE. As has been mentioned previously, the cellar must be well drained, either by natural or by artificial means. No stagnant water should be allowed to remain in the cellar, although at the higher temperatures of the best cellars this does less harm than it does in cellars that are too cold. Some beekeepers have advocated having a stream of water flowing through the cellar, and this will do no harm in warm cellars, and it may serve to assist somewhat in maintaining an even temperature. VENTILATION. One of the most serious faults of bee cellars is in providing for too much ventilation, resulting in great fluctuations in temperature. In a cellar which maintains a temperature of 50° F. or more there is little need for ventilation, for the Was then need little oxygen and only a small amount of carbon dioxide is given off. Other things being equal, the colder the cellar, the greater the need of ventilation. If poor stores are in the hives, the bees will need more ventilation than will be desirable when good stores are used. In a warm cellar in a sandy hillside no ventilating shaft need be built. In any event, one shaft 6 inches square running through the ceiling of the cellar to the outside will be sufficient for any cellar that is fit for the wintering of bees. During the coldest part of the winter the interchange of air between the inside of the cellar and the outside will be materially increased by the great difference in temperature and this one ventilator may be entirely or nearly closed. During the milder weather of the fall and spring this amount of ventilation will do no harm. The top of the ventilating shaft, which should extend at least 6 feet above the outer roof, may be painted black in order to induce greater movement of air when the sun shines. The shaft should be so arranged that it does not admit light to the cellar. PUTTING THE BEES INTO THE CELLAR. Before the bees are carried into the cellar it should be well aired and cleaned, and it will be well to keep it open for several days beforehand. No debris or refuse should be left in the cellar when the bees are taken in. TIME. For zone 1 (fig. 1) it is usually desirable to wait until about the middle of November before putting the bees into winter quarters. If one could know exactly when the bees would have the last opportunity for a cleansing flight, they would be put into the cellar just after that, but we can not always be sure that there will be suitable weather for such flight in late November, and there is, therefore, considerable doubt every year as to just the right time to put the bees away. Frequently it happens that the weather is suitable for a flight about November 20, and it is best to wait until then before attempting to put the bees in the cellar. The flight of only a few bees from the hive should not be construed as a cleansing flight. In this connection it is highly desirable that the beekeeper keep a careful watch of the weather maps daily, so that he may know at all times about what weather may be expected for a few days in advance. For the beekeeper's purpose the daily forecasts published in newspapers are scarcely enough; and if no daily weather maps are convenient near by, it will repay the beekeeper well to subscribe for them. They are valuable not only at the time of putting the bees into the cellar but at many other times of the year. Soon after a period when the barometric pressure has been low, bringing high temperatures suitable for flights (at least 60° F.), there usually will be a period when the barometric pressure is high, bringing lower, temperatures. At the shifting from low to high barometric pressure there is frequently a time when it is cloudy. This is a fine time to put the bees into the cellar. These periods of high and low barometric pressure follow each other with rather marked regularity in the fall, and it is rather safe to assume that just at the end of the well-defined low pressure which next follows after November 15 is the best time to put the bees into the cellar. It is better to put the bees in the cellar a week or so before the last opportunity for flight than to put them in after exposure to cold which is not followed by a cleansing flight. For zone 2 it will be desirable to put the bees away a little earlier, although the oncoming of winter is not so much earlier in the North as one might imagine. HOW TO CARRY THE BEES. When one person carries the bees into the cellar the best method is to stand at the back of the hive and grasp the bottom of the hive with both hands. The hive is then lifted and the cover brought up against the chest firmly, permitting the operator to walk without interference and with a minimum of stooping. If there are cleats on the ends of the hive bodies, those may be rested on the forearms, although with this method there is some danger that the bottoms will drop off unless they are stapled. If the temperature is sufficiently low (slightly above freezing), there will be no need of closing the entrances when the bees are being carried in. Every care should be taken not to jar the hives more than is absolutely necessary from the time that they are lifted until they are in their final place in the cellar. If more than one person is engaged in carrying in the hives, the hives may be placed carefully on carriers with handles, and two or more of them may be carried at one time. HOW TO STACK THE HIVES. The bottom hive in a pile should rest on an empty hive body or some other such support of about that size (figs. 2 and 3). The hives then should be placed one on top of the other until they are four high. It is best by far to put each pile of four hives about 6 inches from adjacent piles, so that in handling the hives on one pile there is no disturbance of bees in other piles. Allowance is made for this space between the piles of hives in the estimate of the floor space needed for each colony (p. 9). MAINTENANCE OF THE CELLAR DURING THE WINTER. If the cellar is properly constructed it will need little if any care during the time that the bees are inside. It is only the poor bee cellar which requires constant attention to prevent changes in temperature. TEMPERATURE OF THE CELLAR. There has been much discussion as to the best temperature of the cellar during the winter. Commonly it is stated that a temperature of 40° to 45° F. is best, but this is colder than usually is best for the finest results. A temperature below 40° F. is invariably bad for the bees, and a cellar in which the temperature goes as low as freezing is not a fit place for bees. It has been found by the authors that bees do the least amount of work when the temperature of the air immediately surrounding them (inside the hive) stands at 57° F. This is, therefore, the temperature which the beekeeper should bear in mind, rather than to lay too much stress on the temperature of the cellar itself. The place for a thermometer in the bee cellar is inside the entrance of a good colony where it may be read easily by simply pulling it out. A chemical thermometer is best for this purpose, and it should register 52° F. or more inside the hive entrance. In order to have the right temperature within the hive it usually will be best to have the temperature of the cellar at about 50° F. or slightly higher. As will be shown later, however, it is quite possible to have the right temperature within the hive when the temperature of the cellar is a few degrees lower than that stated. If the beekeeper will pay attention to the temperature of the interior of the hive he will find that in colder cellars it is desirable to give the hives some insulation to conserve the heat generated by the bees in much the same way that this heat is conserved when bees are packed outdoors, although the amount of protection will be much less. In a cellar where the temperature falls to 45° F. it will be found best to have the covers of the hives sealed on tightly and the entrances reduced to 3/8 inch by 2 inches. In a cellar with a temperature of 50° F. or more the entrances may be left open the full width of the hive. If there is a tendency for the temperature to fall to 45° F. or less, the tops of the hives may be protected by cushions of chaff or other materials placed at least on the top of the uppermost hives, for each of the lower three hives is protected somewhat by the one above it. It will be impossible to maintain the temperatures recommended unless the cellar is built in the way described, or in some other way by which the cellar is equally well insulated. It is impossible to maintain an equable and high temperature in a cellar the walls and ceiling of which are exposed to the outside air. VENTILATION OF THE CELLAR. If the proper temperature is maintained in the cellar there will be little need of ventilation, for in almost all cases there will be sufficient interchange of air to keep the bees in good condition. If the temperature is as low as 45° F., a little ventilation will be needed, although most of the bee cellars that have been built have had too much ventilation, and as a result it has been impossible to maintain a correct temperature within them. In cold weather the tendency toward an interchange of air is greatest, and at such times the ventilators may be entirely closed. In mild weather it makes no difference if large ventilators are open, unless this results in too great a rise in temperature. In a well-insulated cellar it should not be necessary to ventilate at night at the approach of spring to cool the air inside, for the bees will not get so warm from their own activity as will bees in a cellar that is or has been too cold. The greatest problem in most cellars is to maintain the right temperature during the spring just before the bees are to be removed. The trouble is that in most cellars--those which are too cold in winter--the bees generate heat constantly during the winter and as a result have an accumulation of feces in the intestines, resulting in a condition known as dysentery. For this reason they become excited easily, and beekeepers have thought it necessary to ventilate the cellar at night freely in order to remedy this trouble. The proper method, of course, is to prevent it by keeping the temperature higher during the winter, but if the temperature has fallen too low during the winter ventilation at night seems to help somewhat. It is safe, however, to say that a cellar in which this happens is not satisfactory as a place to keep bees during the winter, and steps should be taken to insulate it more completely before bees are put into it again. If the bees are wintering on stores that are not of the best quality the tendency to accumulate feces will be far greater, even with the right temperatures inside the hives, and if there is dysentery it may be relieved somewhat by ventilation, although this is simply reducing a symptom and is not removing the cause of the trouble. VENTILATION OF THE HIVE. Since bees in a good cellar require little ventilation, practically no attention need be paid to this subject if the cellar has been built in the way advised. If the temperature of the cellar tends to fall too low, it is advisable to reduce the entrances of the hives, for with a greater difference between the temperatures within and outside the hive the tendency for interchange of air will be correspondingly greater. In any cellar fit for the wintering of bees it will be neither necessary nor desirable to ventilate the hives at the top, as sometimes has been recommended. The ventilation of the hive within the cellar is not so much for the elimination of foul air as for the escape of moisture, and therefore the amount of ventilation needed for the hive depends upon the humidity of the air within the cellar. If the temperature of the cellar is kept high enough there will be no condensation of moisture within the hive, and if water is ever observed on the covers of the hives it is conclusive proof that the cellar is too cold for the bees. In a cellar so cold that condensed moisture shows on the bottoms of the hives stops should be taken at once to raise the temperature. Various attempts have been made in the past to provide for the cellar fresh air which has been warmed somewhat before entry. The most common method is to have the air pass through tiles under ground for perhaps 100 feet before it enters the cellar. In general, it may be said that none of these devices has been worth the trouble and expense involved and none of them has served the purpose for which it was intended. It has been proposed also to ventilate the bee cellar by wind pressure. The devices which have been made for such ventilation will function only when there is considerable wind and then only when the wind is in the right quarter; therefore they are not at all to be recommended. By far the best plan is simply to build the bee cellar correctly, for, then little ventilation will be needed. CLEANING THE CELLAR. In even the best of cellars there will be some dead bees on the floor, and those may be cleaned up once or twice during the winter. In a cellar with proper temperature there will be few dead bees until after the middle of the winter, but the death rate increases toward the close of the winter. If the cellar is cleaned, it should be done with as little disturbance as possible. No bright light should be admitted at this time, although a moderate amount seems to do little harm until after the bees have an accumulation of feces in the intestines. REMOVING THE BEES FOR FLIGHT DURING THE WINTER. Some beekeepers have advocated removing the colonies toward the end of the winter for a flight on some warm day and then replacing them, on the supposition that the flight would enable the bees to stand a longer period of confinement. It is found, however, that if bees are disturbed, as by carrying them out, they begin brood-rearing almost invariably, and this does more harm than the flight does good. DISTURBANCE DURING THE WINTER. Work in or about the bee cellar while the bees are confined should be done with the least possible disturbance of the bees, for often a little handling or jarring of the hive causes sufficient excitement to increase the temperature of the cluster to the point where brood-rearing begins. This is true especially in late winter. It is by far the wisest plan, therefore, to stay out of the cellar during the winter, except on the few occasions when a little work, such as cleaning out, makes a visit seem needed. Care should be taken not to jar the hives or to allow light to strike the entrance. Of course, if bees are being wintered in a cellar which has the right temperature, a little disturbance does little or no harm, but there is no reason why bees should be disturbed in winter and the beekeeper should not run any risk of starting brood-rearing. REMOVAL OF THE BEES FROM THE CELLAR. TIME. The old rule of many beekeepers is to take the bees from the cellar when the soft maples are in bloom. This is an excellent rule in localities where there are trees of this species. In general, in zone 1 the right time to take the bees out of the cellar is about the time of the spring equinox (March 21). In choosing a time for the removal of the bees, the beekeeper again should watch the weather maps closely. He should choose a time when a high-pressure area is just passing and at the approach of a well-defined low-pressure area. At such a time the weather will be cool, not permitting the bees to fly, but at the time of the low-pressure area the weather will become warmer, allowing the good flights, which are then badly needed. If the bees are taken out at a time when they can fly at once--and some beekeepers prefer this--they should be taken out in the early morning, so that they can have a good flight before night. Bees should not be taken from the cellar at a time when they can fly only a little, but they should either be taken out when they can not fly at all or at a time when they can fly freely almost at once. Bees in good condition rarely fly freely unless the outside temperature is as high as 60° F. PREVENTION OF DRIFTING. When the bees are taken from the cellar and placed on their summer positions they sometimes tend to leave the weaker, colonies and on their return to collect in those with greater populations. This is known as "drifting." In general, the bees tend to drift toward the windward side of the apiary. Most frequently they join the hives that were first set out and which have established a strong flight by the time the neighboring colonies have first taken wing. The tendencies, therefore, are to join flying colonies, stronger colonies, and the end colonies in a row. The condition of the bees plays a large part in drifting, for if the bees are badly in need of a flight because of dysentery they go at once into the air without properly marking the location of their hive, and therefore are not able to find it when they return. To prevent drifting, it is best to set the bees out when it is too cold for them to fly, so that as the weather warms, permitting flight, this will take place more naturally. It is also well to reduce the entrances so that as the bees leave the hive their tendency to orient themselves will be greater. It is claimed by some beekeepers that if the cellar is well aired the night before the bees are to be removed, they will be in better condition and will drift less, but it is not clear what difference this can make unless the clusters are made tighter because of lower temperatures. Beekeepers have discussed the question whether, after removal, the bees should be placed on the same stands occupied by them the fall before. If the bees could remember their old location so that they would return to it, even after an interval of four months, it would be necessary, or at least desirable, to place each colony on the same stand which it occupied previously. There is no evidence, however, that the memory of the bees is so good, and it is usually the ease that the bees of a colony will lose the memory of location within a week; therefore no attention need be paid to this feature. PROTECTION OF THE HIVES IN THE SPRING. The greatest objection to wintering bees in cellars is that after they are removed they are exposed to low temperatures. The ideal practice would be to pack the bees after taking them out in much the same way that bees are packed for outdoor wintering, but the work involved makes this impracticable. There can be no doubt that protection at this time would be beneficial. As has been pointed out, the apiary site should be one in which the hives are well protected from wind, and it is advantageous if the apiary grounds slope toward the south in order that the bees may have the fullest advantage of heat from the sun. If the bees have been wintered in the cellar in double-walled hives they will have the advantage of some protection when they are taken from the cellar. The beekeeper may feel safe in giving the bees all the protection possible at the time that they are taken from the cellar, knowing that it is impossible at this time or any other to insulate the hive too well. In deciding whether the hives should be packed in the spring the beekeeper should be governed largely by the condition of the bees. If they have wintered well they will be able to stand greater extremes of temperature in the spring without loss, but if they have been wintered in a cold cellar they will be greatly injured by cold weather after they have been set out. Of course, the need of protection is determined chiefly by the kind of weather prevailing during the first few weeks after the bees have been taken from the cellar. In some seasons the weather is so fine that the bees would be little benefited by packing or other protection, but the beekeeper can not influence the weather, and the only safe plan is so to place the bees that if the weather does turn cold they will still be safe. Here, as everywhere else in beekeeping, it pays to be on the safe side, so far as protecting the bees is concerned. PROVIDING BREEDING ROOM AND STORES IN THE SPRING. After the main honey-flow is past it is usually desirable that each colony be kept in two hive bodies of full depth. Most producers of extracted honey do this, but too many producers of comb-honey are not adequately supplied with hive bodies and do not give the second body. These two hive bodies should be left with the bees at least until brood-rearing ceases, and at this time one of them should be removed if the bees are to be wintered in the cellar. As has been pointed out in other bulletins of the department, if the bees are wintered outdoors they will do better in the two hive bodies throughout the winter. In the upper hive body will be found a considerable amount of the honey to be used by the bees up to the time of the next honey-flow. Usually there will be enough in the lower hive body for the bees while they are in the cellar, especially where comb-honey is produced, but if the lower hive body is not adequately supplied with winter stores (perhaps 15 to 20 pounds) the beekeeper should move some of the stores. It is also a good practice to winter the bees in the cellar in a hive containing the full stores, except that this makes it necessary to carry in hives weighing perhaps 80 pounds. After the second hive bodies have been removed, if they contain honey they should be stored in a warm, dry place, where the honey will not be injured. If it is possible to place such hive bodies in the furnace room of the residence, this will be found to be ideal. If no such place is available, the beekeeper may keep these in a dry cellar or other location where the honey will not be exposed to rapid changes in temperature. For this purpose a place suitable for the storage of comb-honey is desirable. It should be pointed out that the honey in these combs should not be extracted. It will be needed for the building up of the colonies the next spring, and to remove it is simply to reduce the crop of the next season. Some time within two weeks after the bees have been taken from the cellar, depending on the weather, each colony should be provided with its second hive body. Preferably, this should be placed underneath the hive body in which the bees were wintered in order that the propolis at the top of the hive may not be broken. At this time an examination of the colonies may be made from below to see whether any of them are queenless or require immediate attention for other reasons, but at this season there is little that the beekeeper can do that will help the bees other than to provide them with room for the brood and with adequate supplies of stores. Queens should not be clipped at this time, and usually not until settled weather has arrived. Further spring manipulation is not necessary and the bees are better off if the beekeeper lets them alone. If the bees have been requeened at the proper time and if the total amount of stores is given as indicated, it will not be worth while to go through the bees to look for queenless colonies. The beekeeper should see to it that at least 45 pounds of honey are provided for each colony from the time of the last honey-flow in the fall to the beginning of the first main honey-flow of the following season. If this is not given in full, the beekeeper may be sure that the crop of the following year will be reduced. This amount of honey left for the use of the bees is a better investment for the beekeeper than money in the bank. It should be pointed out that the giving of a second hive body in the spring is not simply a means of supplying additional stores, but more than one hive body will be needed for the development of the brood. A single 10-frame Langstroth hive is not large enough for the development of a good colony of bees, which, before the beginning of the main honey flow, should have brood to fill at least 12 frames. As was stated earlier in this bulletin, a colony of bees from one season to the next needs three things in abundance--room for the development of the brood, stores of good quality, and protection from wind and cold. In cellar wintering the protection is given by putting the bees in the cellar; the room and stores must be supplied later or the population of the colony will be reduced at the critical time of the honey-flow. If the early sources of honey are abundant, the amount of honey advised will not be consumed. The wise beekeeper, however, does not gamble on the early honey-flows, but invests this honey as life insurance for his bees. MEASURES OF SUCCESS IN CELLAR WINTERING. It is often difficult for the beekeeper to know whether his bee cellar is giving the best results, for he may not have been able to determine from reading or the observation of other cellars whether it is satisfactory. The writers, therefore, have attempted below to give a few measures which the beekeeper may apply to his apiary and his cellar, so that he may be able to decide whether his methods of cellar wintering should be improved. (1) During the winter a thermometer inserted in the entrance of the hive should show a temperature of at least 52° F. (2) There should never be any condensed moisture on the covers of the hives, and certainly never any on the bottoms. (3) While, the cellar should be kept dark at all times, if a candle is held at the entrance of a hive at the end of January it should be several seconds before any of the bees break cluster. Frequently the cellar doors may be opened in March without disturbing the bees. (4) There should never be many dead bees on the bottom of the hives. The live bees should be able to push them out as they die during the winter. The bees thus carried out will be found on the cellar floor just below the entrances. If there are bees all over the floor, it shows that these bees have flown from the hives--an indication of poor wintering. (5) The bees should be quiet during the late winter. Noise at this time indicates that the bees are disturbed by an accumulation of feces, caused by low temperatures or poor food. (6) If the bees were in good condition in the fall and have been wintered well, the loss during the winter will never be more than one-sixth of the total population of the hive. Such a loss is excessive, however, and in a well-wintered colony it may be as low as a hundred bees. This probably depends to a large extent on the age of the bees which go into winter, and if the temperature is right and the stores good there will be almost no loss of vigorous bees. (7) The bees should not leave the hive while they are being carried from the cellar. If they do, it indicates that they are excited by an accumulation of feces. (8) Before removal from the cellar there should be no spotting of the hives from dysentery. There may be a little spotting after the bees have had a free flight outside, but if this is small in amount it does not indicate a serious condition. (9) When the bees are taken from the cellar there should be no moldy combs, for the cellar at the right temperature will be too dry for the growth of molds. (10) There should be no brood when the colonies are taken from the cellar. Brood-rearing in the cellar is proof that the cellar is too cold or that the food used by the bees is inferior. (11) Enough brood should be in each colony at the opening of the main honey-flow to fill completely 12 Langstroth frames. (12) The population of the hive should not decrease appreciably after the bees are removed from the cellar. Such a condition, known as spring dwindling, is an indication of poor wintering. For three weeks after the hives are set out no new bees will be emerging, but the loss of bees during this time should be so small as not to be noticeable. THE PRESIDENT TO THE FARMERS OF AMERICA. [Extracts from President Wilson's message to the Farmers' Conference at Urbana, Ill., January 31, 1918.] The forces that fight for freedom, the freedom of men all over the world as well as our own, depend upon us in an extraordinary and unexpected degree for sustenance, for the supply of the materials by which men are to live and to fight, and it will be our glory when the war is over that we have supplied those materials and supplied them abundantly, and it will be all the more glory because in supplying them we have made our supreme effort and sacrifice. In the field of agriculture we have agencies and instrumentalities, fortunately, such as no other government in the world can show. The Department of Agriculture is undoubtedly the greatest practical and scientific agricultural organization in the world. Its total annual budget of $46,000,000 has been increased during the last four years more than 72 per cent. It has a staff of 18,000, including a large number, of highly trained experts, and alongside of it stands the unique land grant colleges, which are without example elsewhere, and the 69 State and Federal experiment stations. These colleges and experiment stations have a total endowment of plant and equipment of $172,000,000 and an income of more than $35,000,000 with 10,271 teachers, a resident student body of 125,000, and a vast additional number receiving instructions at their homes. County agents, joint officers of the Department of Agriculture and of the colleges, are everywhere cooperating with the farmers and assisting them. The number of extension workers under the Smith-Lever Act and under the recent emergency legislation has grown to 5,500 men and women working regularly in the various communities and taking to the farmer the latest scientific and practical information. Alongside these great public agencies stand the very effective voluntary organizations among the farmers themselves which are more and more learning the best methods of cooperation and the best methods of putting to practical use the assistance derived from governmental sources. The banking legislation of the last two or three years has given the farmers access to the great lendable capital of the country, and it has become the duty both of the men in charge of the Federal Reserve Banking System and of the Farm Loan Banking System to see to it that the farmers obtain the credit, both short term and long term, to which they are entitled not only, but which it is imperatively necessary should be extended to them if the present tasks of the country are to be adequately performed. Both by direct purchase of nitrates and by the establishment of plants to produce nitrates, the Government is doing its utmost to assist in the problem of fertilization. The Department of Agriculture and other agencies are actively assisting the farmers to locate, safeguard, and secure at cost an adequate supply of sound seed. The farmers of this country are as efficient as any other farmers in the world. They do not produce more per acre than the farmers in Europe. It is not necessary that they should do so. It would perhaps be bad economy for them to attempt it. But they do produce by two to three or four times more per man, per unit of labor and capital, than the farmers of any European country. They are more alert and use more labor-saving devices than any other farmers in the world. And their response to the demands of the present emergency has been in every way remarkable. Last spring their planting exceeded by 12,000,000 acres the largest planting of any previous year, and the yields from the crops were record-breaking yields. In the fall of 1917 a wheat acreage of 42,170,000 was planted, which was 1,000,000 larger than for any preceding year, 3,000,000 greater than the next largest, and 7,000,000 greater than the preceding five-year average. But I ought to say to you that it is not only necessary that these achievements should be repeated, but that they should be exceeded. I know what this advice involves. It involves not only labor but sacrifice, the painstaking application of every bit of scientific knowledge and every tested practice that is available. It means the utmost economy, even to the point where the pinch comes. It means the kind of concentration and self-sacrifice which is involved in the field of battle itself, where the object always looms greater than the individual. And yet the Government will help and help in every way that it is possible. It was farmers from whom came the first shots at Lexington, that set aflame the Revolution that made America free. I hope and believe that the farmers of America will willingly and conspicuously stand by to win this war also. The toil, the intelligence, the energy, the foresight, the self-sacrifice, and devotion of the farmers of America will, I believe, bring to a triumphant conclusion this great last war for the emancipation of men from the control of arbitrary government and the selfishness of class legislation and control, and then, when the end has come, we may look each other in the face and be glad that we are Americans and have had the privilege to play such a part. THE BUSINESS OF AGRICULTURE. [Extracts from addresses.] The next great factor to enlist for the betterment of Agriculture and rural life in this Nation is the business man of the town and the city. He has not always been alive to his obligations. He has contented himself, in too many instances, with plans to secure profit in agricultural trade, instead of sympathetically and eagerly planning constructive assistance. This duty, pressing in peace time, is of the most urgent and impelling character in this crisis; and I appeal to the bankers and business men to see that they omit no effort to familiarize themselves with the agencies serving to aid the farmers and to promote wise plans to secure the necessary results. D. F. Houston, Secretary of Agriculture. In the interest of our national development at all times and in the interest of war efficiency just now our agriculture must be well maintained. It should be remembered that the agricultural unit is a small unit. There are 6,000,000 farms in this country, each an individual unit. It is to the interest of persons who do not live on farms, even more than to the interest of those who do live on farms, that production shall be kept up. This means that all people, not farmers alone, but those who live in cities as well as the farmers, are interested in experimental and educational activities along agricultural lines as conducted by the Federal Government and the States. These efforts should be liberally supported. R. A. Pearson, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. In a time like this no man has a moral right, whatever his fortune may he, to employ another man to render any service of mere comfort or convenience. When the finest young men of the United States are in France digging ditches, sawing lumber, laying rails, and playing with death, and when the finest young women of the United States are scrubbing floors in hospitals, it is a sin that almost approaches the unpardonable offense against civilization for any man or women in the United States to engage in a wasteful or unnecessary service. Clarence Ousley, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. * * * * * Transcriber Note 
59546	----	by The Internet Archive. Transcriber Note Text emphasis denoted as _Italics_ and =Bold=. Whole numbers and fractional parts denoted as 12-3/4. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | U. S. DEPARTMENT OF | | AGRICULTURE | | | | FARMERS' BULLETIN No. 1409 | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | TURKEY RAISING | | | | | | [Illustration] | | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ Turkey raising is usually carried on as a side line on general farms, though in some parts of the United States it constitutes the chief source of revenue from farming. The number of turkeys in this country decreased for a time after the 1890 census, but during recent years the industry has been growing, largely because of improved methods of controlling turkey diseases and better methods of management. This bulletin has been prepared primarily to inform those interested in turkey raising on modern methods of management. Most of the recommendations are adaptable to both small and large scale production. Washington, D. C. Issued April 1924 Slightly revised February 1939 TURKEY RAISING _By Stanley J. Marsden and Alfred R. Lee_, _associate poultry husbandmen, Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry_[1] [1] This publication is a revision of former editions prepared by M. A. Jull, senior poultry husbandman, and A. R. Lee. CONTENTS Page The turkey industry of the United States 1 Varieties 2 The Bronze 3 The White Holland 4 The Bourbon Red 4 The Narragansett 4 The Black 5 The Slate 6 Standard weights of turkeys 6 Selecting breeding stock 6 Managing breeding stock 8 Breeding pens or enclosures 8 Mating 9 Egg production 10 Care of hatching eggs 11 Feeding 12 Combating diseases and pests 14 Incubating turkey eggs 16 Natural incubation 17 Artificial incubation 17 Raising poults 18 Brooding 19 Sanitation 21 Litter 22 Early development 23 Marking 23 Feeding growing turkeys 23 Feed consumption and cost of growing 28 Equipment for raising turkeys 30 Containers for feed and water 30 Houses and fences 33 Protection against dogs 36 Devices that prevent tail-feather picking 36 Range management of growing turkeys 37 Fattening turkeys for market 38 Marketing turkeys 39 When to market 39 Selecting birds for market 40 Withholding feed before slaughter 40 Killing and picking 40 Cooling 42 Packing 43 Dressed-turkey grades 43 THE TURKEY INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED STATES TURKEY RAISING has long been an important enterprise in the United States because great quantities of turkey meat are required annually and its use throughout the year is becoming more popular. Producers should endeavor to make turkey raising more profitable by overcoming heavy losses from diseases that heretofore have been a serious handicap. The enterprise is very adaptable, extending to practically all parts of the United States. The more important areas of production are the Middle Western, Northwestern, and Southwestern States, where large numbers of small flocks are raised annually on farms and ranches and where there are also many large commercial flocks. The number of turkeys in this country began to decrease about 1890, but by 1910 interest in turkey raising revived, and in recent years the industry has been growing, largely because of increased knowledge of blackhead disease and its control. According to the census there were 3,688,000 turkeys on farms in the United States in 1910 and about the same number in 1920. The 1930 census showed 16,794,000 turkeys, but this was the number raised to market age instead of the number of breeding turkeys kept. This new census figure provides a much better measure of the industry's actual size. The 1930 figure indicates a moderate increase between 1920 and 1930 in the number of breeding turkeys kept. The nine States leading in turkey production, as shown by the 1930 census, are Texas, North Dakota, Minnesota, California, Oklahoma, Oregon, Colorado, Virginia, and Idaho. Where conditions are suitable and proper methods of management are followed turkeys can be raised successfully with very simple equipment; therefore the capital outlay in the enterprise may be quite small. Except during the growing season managing the flock is fairly simple. Of course, constitutional vigor must be maintained in the breeding stock; the flock must be kept relatively free from disease; and the soil, especially where the poults are fed, must be kept sanitary. Moreover, turkeys, even when veil fed, will make good use of at least a limited range and in doing so will destroy many injurious insects, eat great quantities of succulent green feed, and pick up much waste grain, weed seeds, and other sources of nutriment. This fact reduces the cost of production and increases the profits. [Illustration: Figure 1.--Bronze turkey, male.] VARIETIES All domestic varieties of turkeys have descended from the North American wild stock, comprising the eastern wild turkey, which ranged over the eastern part of the United States from Maine to Florida; the Florida wild turkey, which ranged over southern Florida; the Rio Grande wild turkey, which ranged over southern Texas and northwestern Mexico; and the Mexican wild turkey, which ranged over Arizona, western New Mexico, southern Colorado, and Mexico. It is probable, however, that these four wild turkeys were of common origin and that most of our domesticated varieties, especially the Bronze, have descended from the Mexican wild turkey. Six standard varieties of domestic turkeys are recognized by the American Poultry Association, an organization having as its primary function the promotion of standard qualities in all breeds and varieties of poultry in North America. The association publishes the Standard of Perfection, which contains concise descriptions of breeds and varieties of poultry, with illustrations of the most important ones. The following is a brief description of each of the six varieties, namely, the Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Narragansett, Black, and Slate. [Illustration: Figure 2.--Bronze turkey, female.] THE BRONZE The Bronze, often called the Mammoth Bronze, is the heaviest and also the most popular variety. The male (fig. 1) is distinguished by (1) the rich, iridescent, red-green sheen of the plumage on the neck, wing bows, wing fronts, wing coverts, breast, front half of the back, and lower thighs; and (2) the lighter, brilliant, copper-colored bronzing of the rear half of the back, tail coverts, tail itself, and body. The bronzing in the tail, tail coverts, and body is bordered by a distinct narrow black band, which in turn is bordered by a wide edging of pure white. The rear portion of the back has the broad bronze bar with the narrow edging of black but does not have the white tips. The plumage of the female (fig. 2) is similar to that of the male, except for an edging of white on the black bars on the back, wing bows, wing coverts, breast, and body. This white edging is narrow in the front of the body and gradually widens toward the rear. Both sexes have the same color pattern in the large wing feathers and in the main tail feathers and coverts. The main tail feathers and coverts have brown penciling (narrow bars) on a dull black background; the large wing feathers are evenly barred with black and white, the bars of the secondaries becoming indistinct as the back is approached. Creaminess, yellow, or yellowish brown in the pure white edging of the main tail feathers and coverts of the Bronze indicates an admixture of wild-turkey blood and is a serious defect in the standardbred Bronze. Lack of the copper-colored bronzing or a tendency for it to be greenish is also a serious color defect. THE WHITE HOLLAND The White Holland (fig. 3) probably originated as a "sport" from the Bronze or the wild turkey. Its plumage should be pure white in color and free in all sections from black flecking or ticking. The shanks and toes in this variety should be pinkish white. THE BOURBON RED The Bourbon Red male (fig. 4) is of a rich, deep brownish-red color in all sections except the wings, tail, and breast. The primaries and secondaries of the wings are pure white, and the main tail feathers are pure white except for an indistinct bar of red crossing each feather near the end. The breast feathers are red with a very narrow edging of black. The color of the female is similar to that of the male, but there is a very narrow edging of white on the tips of the breast feathers. More than one-third of any other color except white showing in the large feathers of the wing or tail constitutes a standard disqualification in this variety. The rich reddish color, without some black, is rather difficult to obtain and this black ticking or flecking is a rather common fault. A faded red, approaching buff, is also undesirable. [Illustration: Figure 3.--White Holland turkey, male.] THE NARRAGANSETT The Narragansett (fig. 5) generally resembles the Bronze in color pattern, but has no iridescent red-green sheen and no bronzing. The Narragansett colors are metallic black with light steel-gray edging and barring bordered, in certain sections, by a narrow black band on the end of the feathers. The plumage, as a whole, has a dark background of metallic black with a broad, light steel-gray edging, showing more of the light color in this edging as the body is approached. In the male, the colors of the wing fronts, wing bows, and wing coverts are the reverse of the colors found elsewhere, being light steel gray, ending in a narrow band of black. The wing coverts form a broad silvery bar across the folded wings. The neck and saddle are black, ending in a broad steel-gray band. The back is rich metallic black, free from bronzing. The breast, body, and fluff are black, the feathers ending in a broad silvery-gray band edged with black. The large wing and tail feathers and the primary coverts are barred with black and white similarly to those of the Bronze, the barring of the upper secondaries becoming indistinct as the back is approached. The plumage of the female is similar to that of the male in this variety, except that an extra edging of silvery gray is added to the ends of the feathers on the back, wing bows, wing coverts, breast, and body. The light edging should be narrow toward the front of the bird and broader toward the rear. The female in general presents a lighter appearance than the male. There should be a rich metallic black but no bronze barring in either sex. The offspring of a Narragansett mating sometimes have a bronze color, but such birds should not be kept for breeders. [Illustration: Figure 4.--Bourbon Red turkey, male.] THE BLACK The Black (fig. 6), known in England as the Norfolk turkey, is lustrous greenish black in all sections of the plumage. Objectionable white tipping in the feathers of young turkeys of this variety often disappears after the first molt. Any variation from the solid black color should be carefully avoided in breeding this variety. The shanks and toes should be pink in mature birds and almost black in young birds. THE SLATE The Slate (fig. 7) has an ashy-blue or slate-colored plumage, sometimes dotted with tiny black spots, which are undesirable. Feathers of any other color, such as white, buff, or red, constitute a standard disqualification. This variety does not breed true to color, and many of the offspring have both solid white and solid black as well as black-and-white ticking and splashing. The shanks and toes should be pink. STANDARD WEIGHTS OF TURKEYS The standard weights of the different varieties of turkeys as given in the Standard of Perfection are given in table 1. Table 1.--Standard weights of turkeys at various ages ---------------+-----------+----------+-----------+---------+---------- | | Yearling | | | | Adult | cock (1 | Cockerel | Hen | Pullet Variety | cock (2 | year old | (less | (1 year | (less | years old | and less | than 1 | old or | than 1 | or over) | than 2) | year old) | over) | year old) ---------------+-----------+----------+-----------+---------+---------- | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ |_Pounds_ | _Pounds_ Bronze | 36 | 33 | 25 | 20 | 16 White Holland | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 Bourbon Red | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 Narragansett | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 Black | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 Slate | 33 | 30 | 23 | 18 | 14 ---------------+-----------+----------+-----------+---------+---------- [Illustration: Figure 5.--Narragansett turkey, female.] SELECTING BREEDING STOCK The breeding stock is the foundation of the turkey industry, and the greatest care must be used in selecting both male and female breeders. Failure in this respect has undoubtedly been one of the principal reasons why satisfactory results have not been obtained on many farms and commercial plants. One of the first steps in improving conditions, therefore, is more careful selection of the breeding stock. The most satisfactory time of the year to select breeding stock is in November or December, especially before large numbers of turkeys are sold for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Selecting birds early in the season makes possible a choice from a larger number and, what is more important, saves the best-developed and most vigorous birds for breeding instead of marketing them. New blood may be introduced into the flock or a beginning with turkeys may be made by obtaining hatching eggs, day-old poults, or breeding stock, but the purchase of eggs or poults is recommended. New breeding stock should be treated for worms and lice and should be quarantined for 2 or 3 weeks to detect any disease. [Illustration: Figure 6.--Black turkey, male.] Turkeys are raised for meat rather than for egg production. The breeders, therefore, should have compact, meaty bodies. The breastbone should be straight, the back broad, especially at the shoulders, and the breadth carried well back toward the tail. The body should be deep, with the breast so broad, full, and well rounded that the breastbone does not protrude prominently. Other important points are full, bright eyes, a broad head, and stout legs set well apart and rather short. Above all else, the birds should be vigorous. When, pedigrees and performance records of the birds' ancestors are available, selection should be based on fertility, hatchability, livability, early maturity, and other desirable factors, as well as on the physical points mentioned above. It is wise to select or build up a flock of purebred turkeys. It costs no more to raise purebred stock than mongrels and the purebreds are usually heavier and command higher market prices. Also, if good standard qualities of shape and color are maintained, some of the birds can be sold for breeding purposes at increased prices. MANAGING BREEDING STOCK Results in turkey raising depend to a large extent on the kind of breeding stock used each year and the manner in which it is managed. BREEDING PENS OR ENCLOSURES Until a few years ago breeding flocks were ordinarily allowed free range throughout the breeding and laying season (fig. 8). This practice often gives unsatisfactory results because the nests cannot be found readily and therefore the eggs cannot be gathered daily. Many breeding flocks are now kept in good-sized breeding pens or enclosures with nests conveniently located inside or outside the roosting shed (fig. 9). For a pen of 12 to 18 birds a yard of 10 to 15 square rods is large enough. Frequently an orchard is very satisfactory. A hog-proof fence about 6 feet high will confine the turkeys; they are not likely to fly over the fence, because they cannot rest on the top wire. Fences should be tightly stretched and should be dog-proof, because dogs and coyotes are very destructive in turkey flocks. Solid-top fences, gates, and buildings less than 9 feet high should be topped with strips of poultry fence 3 feet wide to prevent turkeys from perching on them. If turkey hens persist in flying over the fence the flight feathers of one wing may be cut, but the wing of a breeding male should never be clipped, as the clipping may interfere with mating. Sanitation in the breeding yards must not be neglected. Either the fences and shelters should be made portable and moved each year to clean ground, or double yards should be constructed for use only in the breeding season, during which time one yard is occupied for 2 successive weeks and then the other, which in the meantime has been kept free of all poultry. [Illustration: Figure 7.--Slate turkey, male.] If two or more breeding pens are maintained, they must be isolated from each other. This can be done with double fences, 12 feet or more apart, or with single fences built solid for about 3 feet above the ground, so that the turkeys cannot see those in other pens. MATING Best results in mating are obtained when from 10 to 15 females are mated to 1 male, although as many as 18 hens can be mated to 1 young tom under favorable conditions. As a rule good fertility will result when several toms are kept with a flock of hens. However, if the toms are quarrelsome and mating is seriously interfered with the males must be alternated, 1 tom being allowed to run with the hens 1 day and another tom the next day. Surplus toms should be penned out of sight of the breeding birds. [Illustration: Figure 8.--Breeding flock of Bronze turkeys on free range.] The soundest breeding program is one of using yearlings and 2-year-old hens which have been selected as breeders alter they have passed through one full breeding season successfully. However, if pedigreeing can be done, it is practicable to use well-matured pullets selected from parents that lived through their first breeding season and showed good production, fertility, hatchability, and poult livability. The breeding males may be young or old but, in general, well-matured young toms give better results. Proved sires, of course, are valuable and can well be used so long as they will breed. Reserve breeding toms should always be kept, especially when older toms are used, as the latter are sometimes sterile. The spurs of a yearling or older tom should be trimmed smooth, as should the toe-nails of all breeding males, regardless of age, to avoid needless tearing of the backs of the females. All breeding hens and toms that are not to be used for another breeding season should be marketed about June 1. If older hens are used in breeding, it is advisable to replace 3-year-old females with young birds, since egg production decreases rapidly after that age. Immature stock should never be used but, as mentioned before, well-matured young toms and pullets make good breeders especially if trap nesting and pedigreeing can be carried on, thus enabling the breeder to cull properly and sell as market birds the offspring of all hens that die during their first laying season. It is not advisable for the average producer to inbreed turkeys, as this practice has been found to lower the vitality of the stock. When only one breeding pen or flock is kept, it is advisable to obtain new blood every season from a reliable outside source. EGG PRODUCTION The time of year at which turkeys naturally lay depends largely on the climate of the region in which they are raised, being earliest in the South. However, climate need not be permitted to hold back egg production as artificial light can be used to obtain early eggs, as with chickens. Soon after mating begins, the female looks for a nesting place, and about 10 days after the first mating she begins to lay. One nest should be provided for every 3 or 4 hens. The number of eggs produced per bird depends on the breeding of the stock as well as on management. Under ordinary circumstances in the Northern States, young turkey hens should average 35 to 40 eggs and yearling hens 25 to 30 eggs each during the normal breeding season if they are broken up whenever broodiness occurs. By normal breeding season is meant the time between the date the first egg is laid (late in the winter or early in the spring) and June 1. If artificial lights are used, starting about February 5, the breeders should average 50 to 55 eggs each, or an increase of about 15 eggs by June 1, due to the lighting. A few turkey raisers have used lights in December or January, thereby securing very early hatched turkeys and further increasing turkey-egg production. Turkeys are not extensively trap-nested, but the practice is carried on by producers who wish to pedigree the poults and carry on selective breeding. One trap nest is needed for each two hens. The hens should have free access to the trap nests before they start to lay, and they should be carefully watched to see that they do not lay their eggs anywhere except in the trap nests. Secluded places in the house or yard should be eliminated. A simple form of trap nest is illustrated in figure 9. The turkey enters at the front, through the trap door, which closes automatically when the turkey is inside. The door at the top of the coop is opened to release the bird from the nest. When incubators or chicken hens are used to hatch the eggs, the turkey hens may be broken of their broodiness so that they will continue laying. Breaking the hens of broodiness by confining them to a wire-floored coop is very desirable because it permits the hatching of a relatively large number of early turkeys and a larger number from each hen. The birds hatched no later than June are the ones that grow and mature most satisfactorily and therefore attain the best size for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Early hatched birds should be marketed at Thanksgiving or before, and those of later hatches can be used to supply the Christmas and New Year demand. There is some demand for freshly dressed turkeys at all times of the year. To meet this demand turkeys may be hatched from eggs laid during summer and fall. By the use of artificial light and proper feeds, hatchable eggs can be produced in the winter and early in the spring. It is natural for turkey hens to seek secluded places to lay their eggs. Yards that have comparatively short vegetation and are free from bushes or other places of concealment are best, because such conditions discourage the birds from laying outside the nests provided for them. A lookout for hidden nests must be maintained, otherwise eggs may not be collected regularly and may be frozen, partly incubated, or destroyed by animals. Sometimes the hidden nests can be found by watching the turkey hens carefully as they make their way to them, but an easier and quicker method is to confine the hens early some morning soon after they come from the roosts and then let them out about 2 p. m.; the laying hens will make straight for their nests in order to lay the eggs they have been holding. Nests are easily made of boxes or barrels placed inside the shelter or outside in the yards. Some turkey growers prefer to build nesting batteries with nests about 12 by 24 inches. [Illustration: Figure 9.--Turkey trap nests. The dimensions of this nest are as follows: Width, 14 inches; depth, 24 inches; height in front, 19 inches; and height in hack, 45 Inches. The trap-nest fronts may be home-made, or commercial fronts may be used.] CARE OF HATCHING EGGS Hatchability can be seriously damaged by holding eggs at temperatures above 65° or below 35° F. It is most important to hold eggs in a room that can be kept below 65°, preferably between 50° and 60°. Eggs should be collected several times daily and held on their sides or on the small end. It is best to turn eggs gently once daily while they are being held for hatching, but this is probably not necessary unless they are to be kept longer than a week. For best results they should not be held longer than 10 days but if they are held at a suitable temperature and are turned once a day, fair hatchability will be retained for as long as 3 weeks. FEEDING Feeding young breeding turkeys is a matter of supplying a growing ration in the fall and early in the winter, a laying ration late in the winter and in the spring, and a maintenance ration during the summer. Unless breeders are to be kept over for another year, they should be marketed, if possible, about June 1 in order to reduce feed costs and to aid in preventing the spread of blackhead and other diseases that may affect adult turkeys during the summer. If breeders are to be held over for the next season or until fall and if a good summer and fall range is available well away from the growing stock, the breeders are best carried through the summer on a daily feeding of whole grain such as a mixture of equal parts of corn, oats, and wheat. This mixture should be fed at the rate of one-fifth pound per hen daily as a supplement to feed obtained from the range. The toms, if ranged with the hens, should have access to grain in a feeder too high for the hens to reach. A better method is to pen the toms in a separate range lot and give them each one-half pound of grain daily in troughs. Breeding stock so managed during the summer respond economically to a fattening diet offered in the fall. Beginning about 4 weeks before they are to be marketed, usually early in October, the birds may be offered all they will eat daily of the grain mixture. Within 4 weeks they will acquire a fine finish and make a gain in weight of 2-1/2 pounds or more per hen and 4 pounds or more per tom. About 5-3/4 pounds of grain per pound of gain is required for the 4-week fattening period. A little better finish is acquired in 6 weeks; but the grade is not improved, and the gains are more expensive. Breeding stock that are to be kept over should be held in the range lots as long as possible and should also be fed liberally in the fall, in order to put them in good condition for the winter. Later in the fall and through the winter the rations for breeders, especially young breeders, may be the same as the growing rations normally fed to young stock. Scratch grain and a simple mash, such as that suggested for growing poults, make a good feed for carrying the breeders through the winter, since they meet the demands of the birds for continued growth or for maintenance. If the climate is such that green feed and sunshine are not available, as in the Northern States, add 5 percent of alfalfa-leaf meal and 1 percent of cod-liver oil to the mash. The birds should have all the mash and scratch they will eat during the fall and winter. Breeders will not become too fat if fed in accordance with this method. They will be fat, but this is desirable if heavy egg production is expected. For the production of large numbers of hatchable eggs turkeys require a ration containing the various nutrients and vitamins. Good results can be obtained with a simple laying ration, such as laying mixture No. 1, if the birds get an abundance of fresh green feed and have range. When ground oats or ground barley is included in any mixture it should be finely ground. Alfalfa leaf meal should be bright green in color. The cod-liver oil should be a standard good-quality product, or the equivalent in fortified cod-liver oil may be used if thoroughly mixed. _Laying Mixture No. 1_ MASH _Parts by | SCRATCH weight_ | | Yellow corn or barley (ground) 20 | Mixture of equal parts of Wheat middlings or ground wheat 15 | yellow corn, wheat, and Oats or barley (ground) 20 | heavy oats. (Grain sorghum Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent | may be used in place of the protein) 10 | corn.) Fish meal (60- to 70-percent protein) 10 | Wheat bran 12 | Ground oystershell or limestone 7 | Dried milk 5 | Salt (fine, sifted) 1 | --- | Total 100 | Laying mash should be kept before the birds at all times beginning about a month before eggs are expected. Scratch mixture should be fed in troughs, at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per day per bird, so that the consumption during laying will be about equal parts of the mash and scratch. The birds must have access to growing green feed, direct sunshine, and water. If the birds cannot obtain fresh succulent green feed and direct sunshine in abundance, as in the case of those kept in confinement or in cold climates, the ration must be more inclusive. Such a ration may be compounded as follows: _Laying Mixture No. 2_ MASH _Parts by | SCRATCH _Parts by weight_ | weight_ | Yellow corn or barley (ground) 26 | Yellow corn or grain Wheat middlings or ground wheat 20 | sorghum 40 Wheat bran 12 | Heavy oats 37-1/2 Alfalfa leaf meal 10 | Wheat 20 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent | Cod-liver oil 2-1/2 protein) 8 | ------- Dried milk 8 | Total 100 Fish meal (60- to 70-percent | protein) 8 | Ground oystershell or limestone 7 | Salt (fine, sifted) 1 | --- | Total 100 | As with the simpler ration, the mash should be kept before the birds at all times, and the scratch can be hand-fed in troughs at the rate of one-fifth of a pound per bird per day. Clean water should be provided at all times. The same ingredients can be mixed and fed as an all-mash ration with good results. The all-mash formula is as follows: _Laying Mixture No. 3 (All-mash feed)_ _Parts by | _Parts by weight_ | weight_ | Yellow corn (coarsely ground) 30 | Dried milk 5 Oats (finely ground) 20 | Fish meal (60- to Wheat middlings (standard or brown) 21 | 70-percent protein) 3 Wheat bran 6 | Ground oystershell or Alfalfa leaf meal 5 | limestone 4 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent | Cod-liver oil 1-1/4 protein) 4 | Salt (fine, sifted) 3/4 | ------- | Total 100 This all-mash mixture is kept before the breeders at all times. Just enough to carry the birds through each day should be given. In this way its freshness is assured, an important consideration in all-mash feeding. If desired, the oyster shell or limestone may be fed separately in hoppers, but mixing it in the mash saves labor and prevents excessive consumption. Gravel or granite grit should be provided to furnish grinding material. Clean water, placed in contamination-proof vessels, should be provided at all times. Alfalfa hay probably cannot be depended upon to supply adequate amounts of green-feed substitute for hatching-egg production. Only by fresh green feed or green-feed substitutes and fish oils can those requirements be met. The oil should be freshly mixed in the feed every week or two. All feed should be fed in feeders, never on the ground or in the litter. Feeders should be constructed so as to prevent waste and contamination with droppings. Turkey hens consume a little less than one-half pound of mash and scratch grain per day when practically all of their feed is furnished. Toms consume about 0.7 pound daily; eating mostly scratch grains. COMBATING DISEASES AND PESTS Turkey raisers, to be permanently successful, must follow some system of sanitation. Many growers have prevented disease and the attacks of parasites in their flocks by providing range on clean soil; that is, soil on which no poultry manure has been spread; feeding their birds from feeders that cannot be contaminated by droppings; and keeping the quarters sanitary at all times. _Separation of the turkeys from chickens and other poultry at all times is essential._ Diseases and parasites of turkeys are discussed in detail in Farmers' Bulletin 1652, Diseases and Parasites of Poultry. Coccidiosis often causes heavy losses in young turkeys. It is best combated by carefully cleaning the brooder house and changing the litter once a week during the brooding period, keeping the litter dry, and using wire-covered feeding platforms. Turkeys are subject also to the attacks of various species of worms, but treatment for worms should not be undertaken until the presence of worms has been determined by examining the droppings or by post-mortem examination. BLACKHEAD Although other infectious diseases sometimes affect turkeys, blackhead is by far the most destructive ailment. It is caused by one of the Protozoa and is primarily a disease of the caeca (the blind pouches of the intestines) and the liver, but the fact that the head of the affected bird often becomes discolored has given the disease its common name, blackhead. It attacks turkeys most frequently, but chicks are often affected by it without showing symptoms; thus the chickens carry and spread the infection to turkeys when allowed to range with them. A combination of spotted liver and ulcerated caeca indicates that the birds have blackhead infection. Although blackhead affects adult turkeys, it occurs principally among poults between the ages of 6 weeks and 6 months. It is found to a greater or lesser extent throughout the United States. The turkeys affected by blackhead, like all birds having infectious diseases, should be removed immediately from the flock to prevent the spread of the disease. The best procedure is to kill the sick birds and burn or bury the bodies, as no treatment has been found satisfactory. Move the flock to clean ground, if possible; but if this cannot be done, clean out and disinfect the roosting place, plow the ground in the yards, and install a system of yard sanitation. Keep chickens and all other poultry away from turkey yards at all times in order to prevent infection from this source. The organisms which cause the disease may be carried by flies, blown with dust, conveyed in contaminated soil on the feet of the caretaker, or spread for considerable distances in other ways. Several measures for preventing blackhead are practiced, the chief of which are: (1) Obtaining eggs or stock from flocks known to be healthy; (2) quarantining and worming all new stock; (3) cleaning and changing the litter at least weekly during the brooding period; (4) keeping both young and mature turkeys on clean ground at a considerable distance from chickens; (5) excluding, so far as possible, pigeons, sparrows, and persons from the turkey houses and yards; (6) frequently cleaning and occasionally disinfecting growing houses, feed troughs, and all other equipment; (7) feeding only in clean feeders, never on the ground; (8) immediately killing and deeply burying or completely burning all diseased birds; and (9) eliminating all stagnant water pools where the turkeys range. Clean range, clean quarters, clean feed, and clean water are most important. LICE AND MITES Lice may cause high mortality among young poults, those badly infested gradually becoming weaker until they die. Head lice are the most troublesome and are found close to the skin near the top of the head, above and in front of the eyes, and under the throat. Applying an insect powder, preferably sodium fluoride, when the hen is set, is an easy method of preventing lice from getting a start among poults. Apply the sodium fluoride among the leathers, working it well down next to the skin, 1 pinch on the head, 1 on the neck, 2 on the back, 1 on the breast, 1 below the vent, 1 at the base of the tail, 1 on each thigh, and 1 scattered on the underside of each wing when spread. If this treatment is not applied, hen-hatched poults are almost certain to have lice. If the hen has been treated in this manner before being set and the poults are not exposed to infested stock or premises, they will remain free from lice indefinitely. It is well, however, to examine the poults occasionally and, if lice are found, to apply sodium fluoride sparingly. It should not be applied until the poults are at least a week old, and then only two very small pinches should be used. Distribute one of these on the neck, the top of the head, and the throat, and the other on the back and below the vent. After the poults are old enough to roost, control lice by applying nicotine sulphate solution in a thin line on the top surface of the roosts. Repeat as often as necessary to keep down the lice and be sure that each bird is exposed to the treatment. Sodium fluoride applied as directed for delousing setting hens or as a dip will completely eliminate all species of lice from mature stock. The dipping method consists in immersing mature fowls in a large tub of solution made by mixing 1 ounce or sodium fluoride to each gallon of tepid water. Immerse the birds for only a few seconds, raising the feathers at the same time to allow the dip to penetrate to the skin. Dip the birds on a warm day, preferably in the morning, so as to give them time to dry before night. Destroy red mites in the roosting quarters by painting the under side of the roosts and the roost supports with anthracene oil, crude oil, crank-case oil, or any coal-tar disinfectant. Make the application light but thorough, and do it preferably in the morning. The fowl tick or blue bug is one of the worst pests of turkeys in the Southwest. It can be controlled by the methods advised for controlling red mites. PROTECTION FROM COLD, DAMPNESS, AND ENEMIES Protection from adverse weather conditions and enemies is required if turkeys are to be raised successfully. An open-front shed with a reasonably tight roof and dry floor, so arranged that the north, west, and east sides can be closed against storms, will give ample protection for full-grown turkeys. Boosts may be made from good-sized poles or 2 by 4's nailed flat to supports which should be slightly higher at the rear than at the front, where they should be about 2-1/2 feet above the floor. The space between the roosts should be about 2 feet and the space underneath enclosed with poultry wire. In the southern part of the United States there is little need for well-built turkey houses, but during damp, cold, or stormy weather the turkeys should have protection of some kind. They should not be exposed to dampness, but they can stand a considerable amount of dry cold. In many localities protection from dogs must be provided in some way. High roosts or well-built shelters provide this at night. Keeping the birds confined to high roosts or in dog-proof shelters at night and during the early morning hours gives a good protection. An attendant or a good watchdog is needed to protect the turkeys when they are off their roosts or out of their shelters. INCUBATING TURKEY EGGS The vigor of the breeding stock, the manner in which it has been fed and managed, and the care given the eggs will determine to a high degree the hatchability of the eggs. An important measure of success in turkey raising is the number of fully matured turkeys raised in proportion to the number of hens in the breeding flock. An average of 25 mature birds raised per hen is considered very good in well-managed turkey flocks, whereas in most general-farm flocks 10 to 15 mature birds per hen would be a good average. The period of incubation of turkey eggs is 28 days, and the method is much the same as that used with chicken eggs. Turkey eggs can be successfully hatched by turkey hens or chicken hens, or in incubators. Hatching in incubators is best and is coming into more general use, especially on farms and ranches where turkeys are raised in large numbers. Turkeys hatched and reared by hens, especially chicken hens, are likely to contract disease and become infested with parasites at an early age. Sitting turkey hens can cover from 15 to 18 eggs; chicken hens, from 7 to 10 eggs. NATURAL INCUBATION Hatching the eggs under turkey hens is widely practiced and is often the most practical method. When the turkey hen becomes broody and has remained consistently on the nest for 2 or 3 days, she should be given her eggs. If several turkey hens are sitting at the same time, care should be taken that each gets back into her own nest. Nests are most conveniently arranged on the ground, in boxes about 2 feet square or in barrels. If rats are a menace, the nest should furnish protection against them and should always be made proof against larger animals so that the turkey hens will not be disturbed or the eggs destroyed. The nests should be flat and shallow, as deep nests may result in crushed eggs or crushed baby poults. Nests with damp sod bottoms and only a little straw to keep the eggs from rolling into the corners are generally satisfactory. Nesting batteries in which each hen is provided with a small individual run so that she can get off and on the nest at will are very good. With this method the only care necessary is to see that feed and water are always before the hens and that each one remains broody. If individual runs are not provided, the hens should be taken off daily, allowed to exercise and eat, and then returned to their own nests. Plenty of water to drink and clean, wholesome grain feed, such as a mixture of wheat, oats, and corn, should be provided, and fresh green feed or good alfalfa hay should be made available. Turkey or chicken hens, before being set on turkey eggs, should be treated with sodium fluoride, as previously directed. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION Correct incubator temperatures are much the same for turkey eggs as for chicken eggs, but the greater size of the turkey eggs may necessitate some adjustment of the apparatus used in measuring the temperature. This is true in nearly all kinds of incubators except those of the forced-draft type. The relative position of the thermometer in the egg chamber is important in the accuracy with which it records the temperature. For hatching turkey eggs the proper position of the thermometer is usually indicated in the directions that are furnished by the manufacturer of the incubator. As a general rule, with the bottom of the bulb 1-7/8 inches above the egg tray, the thermometer should read 100.5° F. for the first week, 101.5° the second, 102.5° the third, and 103° the last week. Forced-draft incubators are usually run at about 99.5°. Temperature can best be regulated, however, by using the thermometer that goes with the machine, placing it in the position recommended by the manufacturer, and then following the manufacturer's instructions for hatching turkey eggs, making sure that the egg trays do not sag. Turkey eggs lose about 3.5 percent less moisture during incubation than do chicken eggs, notwithstanding the fact that turkey eggs require about 7 days longer to hatch. Excellent hatches have been obtained when the loss of moisture based on the weight of the eggs just before they were set, ranged within the following limits: After 6 days of incubation, 2 to 8 percent; after 12 days of incubation. 4.1 to 6 percent; after 18 days of incubation, 6.2 to 9 percent; and after 24 days of incubation, 9 to 12 percent. On this basis, a dozen turkey eggs of normal size should lose about 1 ounce for every 6 days of incubation. The air cells of turkey eggs are smaller in proportion to the size of the eggs than are those of chicken eggs because normal evaporation in turkey eggs during incubation is considerably less than that in chicken eggs. When more moisture is needed in the incubator it can be provided by putting in water pans, or by placing burlap wicks in the pans. When less moisture is needed the water pans may be removed or the ventilation increased. As a rule the eggs should be turned at least 3 and preferably 4 to 6 times daily. Four times daily, every 6 hours, day and night, is an excellent plan. They should be tested preferably on the eighth or ninth and again on the twentieth to twenty-second days, and all infertile eggs and those having dead germs should be removed. Cooling the eggs once or twice a day until they feel slightly cool to the face may be of value in small incubators. Turning and cooling should be discontinued about the twenty-third day, and the incubator door should be darkened and kept closed until hatching is completed. The poults may then be left in the incubators for about 24 hours or else put in the brooder and fed as soon as hatching is completed and the poults thoroughly dried off. Poults held in the incubator should be kept at about 95° F. and should have a rough surface such as 1/4-inch-mesh hardware cloth to stand on. Keeping the incubator dark helps to keep the poults quiet and tends to prevent spraddle legs. There is no good reason for withholding feed longer than 24 hours. If feed is withheld for a much longer period when the poults are in the brooder, they may eat the litter. Therefore, poults should be fed when they are put in the brooder house. Shipping day-old poults in specially built strawboard boxes has been found to be satisfactory. The container is larger than that ordinarily used for baby chicks, 60 poults commonly being placed in each box. RAISING POULTS There are few turkey-raising problems so important as brooding and rearing the poults, because the greatest losses in turkey raising usually occur in the first few weeks of the birds' lives. Heavy mortality among the poults may indicate that the breeding stock used was low in vitality or was poorly managed, but it more often indicates poor feeding or management of the poults. The importance of keeping both the poults and the breeding turkeys on ground free from infection and away from chickens cannot be overemphasized. Improper brooding methods cause great losses, because turkey poults are very susceptible to cold, dampness, overcrowding, overheating, unsuitable feeds, and unsuitable litter, and they succumb readily to attacks of diseases and parasites. BROODING The poults may be brooded naturally by turkey hens or artificially by brooders. Brooding by turkey hens provides a never-failing source of heat, allows the poults to be raised in small flocks, and permits taking advantage of free-range conditions. Its disadvantages are that the young turkeys may contract disease or become infected with parasites from the hens and they may wander too far and be killed by storms or predatory animals. Artificial brooding makes it easier to maintain proper sanitation, keeps down costs, puts the poults more directly under the control of the operator, and is more adaptable to large-scale production. NATURAL BROODING Brooding poults by turkey hens is not difficult, although several details should receive careful attention. As soon as the hatch is completed and the poults begin to run out from under the sitting hen, transfer the hen and her brood to a coop. A coop of simple design, such as the =A=-shaped type (fig. 10), large enough to accommodate a turkey hen comfortably, and well built to protect the brood from rains and natural enemies, is all that is required. It should be about 5 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high, with a raised, rat-proof floor. Provide good-sized screened openings for ventilation in hot weather. These openings should be so fixed that rain will not beat into the coop. Have a separate coop for each hen, and if there are several broods, place the coops some distance apart on well-drained soil where the grass is fairly short. [Illustration: Figure 10.--A well-built brood coop which can be used either for setting a turkey hen or for raising a brood of poults.] For the first day or so it is well to confine the poults in the coop with the mother hen. Then make a small yard, using boards or wire around the front of the coop, and allow the poults to run in and out at will. However, they should not be allowed to run in long, wet grass, and during heavy rains they should be confined to the coop. Move the coop and yard to fresh ground every few days, clean it once a week or more frequently, and disinfect it occasionally. When the poults are about a week old the mother hen may be allowed to roam with her brood, but care should be taken to see that the entire brood returns in the evening and is protected at night from predatory animals. Good results may be obtained by keeping the mother hens confined and allowing the poults to range, but the brood should be properly sheltered during rainstorms or damp weather, which are likely to cause high mortality. The poults may be kept with the mother hen for 3 months or more, but better results are usually obtained by moving them to a separate rearing field on clean ground when they are from 8 to 10 weeks old. If they have shelter and will roost, they are better off without the hens after that age. A turkey hen will raise up to 20 poults successfully, but more than 20 can sometimes be placed with a hen in warm weather. ARTIFICIAL BROODING The practice of brooding poults artificially is becoming more popular and is usually more successful than brooding with turkey hens. The methods used in artificial brooding are very similar to those used in raising chicks, which are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 1538, Incubation and Brooding of Chickens. However, one point of great importance in brooding poults artificially is to make sure that they do not crowd together while in the brooder house. This can be avoided by frequent attention, by providing an even temperature, and by having good ventilation in the brooder house. A colony house or permanent brooder house that is suitable for brooding chicks is equally suitable for turkeys, but fewer birds should be put in the house, as turkey poults are larger than chicks. Between 75 and 125 poults should be placed under one 52-inch hover in the average colony brooder House. Larger hovers and larger brooding rooms will accommodate 225 poults or more, but only an experienced operator should attempt; to raise groups larger than 150. The prevailing custom is to use brooder stoves in portable colony houses or permanent brooding quarters. The colony houses may be moved several times each season, thereby giving the poults plenty of free range on clean soil. Since blackhead is closely associated with insanitary conditions, special effort must be made to keep the houses, runs, and yards clean. If permanent brooder houses are used, a floor of concrete from 12 to 14 feet wide or a small gravel or cinder-floored yard is often used in front of the house. A skeleton framework covered with to 1-inch-mesh wire may also be used to floor the outside run either with the permanent brooder houses or with the colony houses (fig. 11). Poults are regularly confined to this small yard for the first 8 weeks and in some cases have been successfully reared to market age in it. However, a clean yard containing growing green feed is an advantage in brooding. If it is used only for about 8 weeks each year, there seems little danger of contamination. The brooder and brooder house should be operated to keep the young turkeys comfortable. A dim light under or above the hover at night has a quieting effect on the poults. The temperature should be high enough to keep the poults comfortable but not high enough to be detrimental to their health. When the poults are first put into the colony house with the brooder stove, the temperature 3 inches above the floor under the hover should be from, 95° to 110° F. This temperature should be lowered gradually as the poults get larger until they are 6 or 8 weeks old, when they require little or no heat, especially in the daytime. It is a common practice in cold weather to keep the general room temperature at the floor rather high, about 75°, to prevent crowding. The exact temperature, however, is of minor importance provided the poults are kept comfortable and good ventilation is maintained. The poults, if comfortable, will be active and contented. This is the real test of temperature. All warm points and surfaces except those at the brooder itself should be eliminated. Free access from all parts of the brooder room to the hover must be provided. All corners in the brooding room, especially back of the hover, should be rounded, preferably by using 1/2-inch-mesh poultry wire. A fence of the same material should be set up around the hover for the first 2 or 3 days until the poults become accustomed to their surroundings and learn to return to the source of heat. Flat roosts 2 to 2-1/2 inches wide and slightly tilted up at the rear may be placed at graduated levels in the brooder house when the poults are from 2 to 3 weeks old, to encourage them to begin roosting at an early age. This provision lessens the danger of night crowding. The front roost should be 6 inches above the floor and each of the others a few inches higher than the one in front of it and about 8-1/2 inches apart, center to center. [Illustration: Figure 11.--Young turkeys in a colony house equipped with wire-floored sun porch.] SANITATION The brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and the litter changed once every 7 days, or oftener if disease occurs, regardless of the type of litter used. This cleaning schedule must be adhered to rigidly if blackhead, coccidiosis, and other diseases are to be prevented. Thoroughly clean and disinfect brooder houses and equipment used for turkeys at the end of each brooding season or oftener if disease occurs. First clean the house thoroughly and burn all litter and droppings or haul them to land that is not to be used for poultry and from which there will be no drainage into the turkey range. Then scrub the floor and sides of the house, if it is of board construction, with boiling hot lye solution (one-third of a can to a pail of water) and allow them to dry out. Next, thoroughly spray the entire inside of the building with a 3- or 4-percent solution of cresol compound or any other approved disinfectant. Give the same treatment once a year to the quarters occupied by the breeding stock. The "fire gun", a large kerosene torch which involves the blow-torch principle, has proved to be valuable in disinfecting, if it is properly used and the house has been thoroughly cleaned. LITTER Sand or gravel is recommended for litter for the first 2 or 3 weeks; after that, clean wheat straw is advised as a means of saving labor. Gravel or sand makes the best litter; but with large flocks, using it for more than 2 or 3 weeks may require too much labor. Straw or hay, if used during the first 2 weeks, may cause a stunting of growth and a high mortality. Many growers have been successful in using, as a substitute for litter, 1/2-inch wire mesh stretched tightly a few inches above the floor of the house, but it requires much labor to clean this, and it seems to have no advantage over clean litter. A wire-floored sun porch makes a good substitute, for an outside yard during the brooding period although, as previously stated, a clean yard in grass is preferable. EARLY DEVELOPMENT The poults, when first hatched, are covered with soft down. When they are about 10 days old, feathers begin to appear where the wings join the body, and in about 3 weeks the tail feathers begin to appear. From then on feather growth is rapid, and when the poults are 2 months old they are well feathered. About the fifth week fleshy protuberances called caruncles begin to appear, and by the seventh week they begin to extend down the neck. The appearance of caruncles in the poults is termed "shooting the red." On the top of the head of both males and females a fleshy protuberance develops into what is called the "dew bill" or "snood"; on males it is larger and more elastic than on females. The sex of young turkeys can be distinguished by the appearance of a tuft of hairs on the breast of males between 3 and 4 months old. The tuft usually does not appear on the breasts of the females until they are much older, and the hairs of the tuft are shorter and finer than those on males. The hock joints on the males are much broader and heavier than on the females. The sex of well-grown Bronze turkey poults can be distinguished by examining the mature breast feathers which appear at 12 to 14 weeks. Those of the males are bronze black with no white, whereas the tip of those of the females have a narrow white edge. Day-old poults may be sexed as is done with baby chicks by examining that part of the sex organs that can be seen at the vent. MARKING When large numbers of turkeys are raised it is advisable to adopt some system of marking the poults that enables the grower to keep a record of the age and breeding of the different broods, as this is of assistance in selecting early hatched birds for breeding and slaughter purposes. Such a system also makes it possible to separate the poults out of special matings from the rest of the flock or from neighboring flocks. The poults may be marked by punching holes in the webs between the toes or slitting these webs. Different webs may be punched or slit for different broods, and thus provide a record of all turkeys raised. Heavy, aluminum, clinch pigeon-wing bands are well adapted for marking young turkeys. The bands can be applied in two ways: According to the first, the band is first made round and clinched, then slipped over the baby poult's toes and flattened so that it will not come off but at the same time will allow for some growth of the leg. When the poult is about 4 weeks old the band is transferred to the wing by unclinching and inserting it in a hole made in the middle of the web between the first and second joints of the wing and about one-fourth inch from the edge. The band is again clinched and made round so that it is not easily flattened and its lettering can be read easily. According to the second method of application the band is put directly into the wing at hatching time, a thin knife blade being used to make the hole for the band, near the edge of the web and midway between the joints of the wing. Turkey poults, when good sized, may be tattooed on the wing for identification. When the breeding turkeys are selected as they approach maturity, heavy wing bands or heavy permanent leg bands may be used if the birds were not marked at an earlier age. FEEDING GROWING TURKEYS Success in turkey raising depends mainly upon the combination of feeds given the young poults. Poor-quality feeds, lack of vitamins, and shortage of proteins, especially if the poults are closely confined, are the more common causes or failures. Some difficulty may be experienced in getting artificially brooded poults to eat, as a young poult is much less active than a chick; but if several small troughs are provided there should be no serious trouble from this cause. Dipping the beaks of backward poults in milk or water, or feeding oatmeal flakes may induce them to eat. Poults brooded with hens, of course, do not need this special attention. After the poults are from 6 to 8 weeks old they may get some of their living from a good range, but the use of additional feed, preferably a balanced ration of mash and scratch grain, will give better growth and result in early maturity and greater returns above feed cost. In natural brooding the turkey hen, while confined to the coop, should be fed mash and given some tender green feed. Water and gravel or grit should, of course, be kept before her all the time. In feeding the hen and her brood it is advisable to feed the poults outside the coop and the hen inside in order to prevent the hen from wasting the feed intended for the poults. For the first 24 to 72 hours after hatching, poults can live without feed, the yolk of the egg which they absorb before hatching being sufficient to maintain them for that length of time. As soon as they are put into the brooder house or with the hen they should be fed. If they are not fed for the first day or two they should be kept in a darkened coop or incubator. However, leaving the poults in a darkened incubator for only 12 to 24 hours and feeding them as soon as they are removed to the brooder seems to be better and is now becoming a general practice. [Illustration: Figure 12.--Cross section of trough feeders for turkey poults of various ages; _A_, Lath feeder for first week; _B_, feeder for second to fourth weeks; _C_, feeder for fifth to twelfth weeks. Feeder _C_ will give better results if equipped with a reel, at the top, similar to that shown in figure 14.] The first feed may be a mixture of finely chopped, tender green feed, and dry starting mash. Hard-boiled eggs, ground or crumbled, may also be added if desired. This feed should be placed on clean boards or in little feeders made of laths as illustrated in figure 12. It is a good plan to keep the feed before the poults at all times from the very beginning so that the backward poults will learn to eat and their growth rate will not be retarded. Milk, if not too high priced, may be kept before them in easily cleaned crockery, tin, wooden, or graniteware receptacles which the poults cannot get into or contaminate. After the first few days the green feed, unless it is available in the yards, may be spread on top of the mash in the feeders. Turkey poults appear to be easily harmed by eating large quantities of tough, fibrous litter or green feed; hence the selection of a tender green feed is most important. FEEDING DURING THE FIRST 6 TO 8 WEEKS The use of a well-balanced, all-mash ration is the simplest and most practical method of feeding poults during the first few weeks of their lives. Many commercial starting mashes are available or good home-mixed mashes may be used with excellent success. The protein, mineral, and vitamin contents are the main points to be considered. Milk in some form is very desirable, dried milk being preferable. Liquid milk is a fair feed, but the dried form is preferable at least for starting rations. The following starting mashes are recommended for feeding turkey poults during the first 6 to 8 weeks. Mash No. 1, fed without liquid milk, is preferable. STARTING MASH NO. 1 _Parts by weight_ Yellow corn (ground) 17 Whole oats (pulverized) 15 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 12 Wheat bran 12 Wheat middlings or shorts 12 Dried milk 10 Alfalfa leaf meal 10 Fish meal (60-percent protein) 10 Cod-liver oil 1-1/2 Salt (fine, sifted) 1/2 ------- Total (crude protein 25 percent; crude fiber 6 percent) 100 STARTING MASH NO. 2 _Parts by weight_ Yellow corn (ground) 33 Wheat middlings or shorts 20 Wheat bran 10 Whole oats (pulverized) 10 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 10 Alfalfa leaf meal 10 Fish meal (60-percent protein) 5 Cod-liver oil 1-1/2 Salt (fine, sifted) 1/2 ------- Total (crude protein 19 percent; crude fiber 6 percent) 100 Starting mash No. 2 is advised for feeding when liquid skim milk or buttermilk is kept before the poults at all times. Some water is furnished, allowing one dish of water to several of milk. These starting mashes are fed without scratch grain; but water, green feed, and hard grit such as fine gravel, coarse sand, or commercial granite grit should be supplied. The green feed should be chopped fine and scattered on top of the mash in the feeders once or twice daily, allowing all the poults will consume in about half an hour. Tender alfalfa tops, onion tops, lettuce, and tender, short lawn clippings, preferably those containing clover, are all good feeds. Tough green feed should be avoided as it may cause impaction. Green feed as picked by the birds from the yards is most desirable. In that case hand feeding is not necessary. The mash in dry form should be kept before the poults at all times, but only enough mash to last for a day or two should be supplied at one time. About 1 inch of feeder space per poult (including both sides of the feeders) is desirable. This should be increased to 2 or 3 inches after about 2 or 3 weeks. Plans for feeders are shown in figure 12. FEEDING FROM 6 TO 8 WEEKS TO MARKETING TIME Rations for growing the poults after the age of 6 to 8 weeks may include mash and whole grain or liquid milk and whole grain. Many turkeys are grown and fattened on grain supplemented with whatever insects and green feed can be obtained from the range. A better plan is to provide sufficient protein and minerals to give normal growth. The minimum feeding advised is to allow each day one liberal feeding of a 20-percent protein mash, or to furnish all the milk the birds will drink with a feeding of whole grain. Either the mash or the liquid milk should be used with liberal feedings of whole grain for fattening in the fall. Good growing mashes suitable for different conditions may be made as follows: GROWING MASH NO. 1 _Parts by weight_ Yellow corn or barley (ground) 25 Oats or grain sorghum (ground) 25 Wheat middlings or shorts 20 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 19 Wheat bran 10 Salt (fine, sifted) 1 ------- Total (crude protein 19 to 21 percent) 100 GROWING MASH NO. 2 _Parts by weight_ Yellow corn or barley (ground) 32 Soybean oil meal 26 Wheat middlings or shorts 15 Wheat bran 10 Oats or grain sorghum (ground) 10 Steamed bonemeal 4 Ground oystershell or limestone 2 Salt (fine, sifted) 1 ------- Total (crude protein 19-1/2 percent) 100 GROWING MASH NO. 3 _Parts by weight_ Yellow corn (ground) 35 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 15 Wheat bran 10 Wheat middlings or shorts 10 Oats or barley (ground) 10 Alfalfa leaf meal 10 Dried milk 9 Salt (fine, sifted) 1 ------- Total (crude protein 20 to 21 percent) 100 GROWING MASH NO. 4 _Parts by weight_ Yellow corn (ground) 20 Wheat middlings (standard or brown) 15 Oats (finely ground) 15 Wheat bran 10 Alfalfa leaf meal 10 Yellow corn gluten meal 10 Dried milk 10 Meat scrap (50- to 55-percent protein) 5 Steamed bonemeal 2 Ground oystershell or limestone 2 Salt (fine, sifted) 1 ------- Total (crude protein 20 percent; crude fiber 6 percent) 100 These growing mashes are all fed with scratch grains consisting of such grains as corn, wheat, barley, and oats. Corn, wheat, or barley may be used as the only scratch grain except with growing mash No. 4, which should contain from 50 to 75 percent of oats. A good grain mixture may be made of 40 parts of corn, 40 parts of wheat, and 20 parts of oats. Mashes 1 and 2 are for flocks having access to a good green range. In mash No. 2 soybean oil meal, which has proved to be a good source of protein and is also good for fattening, is substituted for meat scrap. Mash No. 3 is a more complete ration and is advised for all conditions where the turkeys do not have an abundance of growing green feed. Other combinations of grains and byproducts may be used successfully, the exact selection depending largely on availability and cost of feeds. It is best to use at least two grains, and preferably three or four, in the ration. Corn is the grain most commonly used in feeding turkeys. Not more than 60 percent of the entire growing ration should consist of oats or barley or a combination of the two. Yellow corn tends to produce a deep-yellow skin color while white corn, barley, and wheat produce turkeys with light-colored skins. If the birds have all the milk they will drink along with whole grains, they will consume enough milk to make good growth, if no water is fed. A mixture of 30 percent of corn, 30 percent of oats, 20 percent of wheat, and 20 percent of barley is satisfactory; so is a free choice of several grains. However, the whole-grain and liquid-milk method works well only when the birds are on a good, green range and is practical to use only when milk products are cheap. Some loss from pendulous crops is to be expected when liquid milk is consumed liberally and this is one of the chief objections to its use. The milk receptacles should be set on a wire screen and covered to protect them from the weather and from contamination with droppings. Sanitation is especially important when milk is used. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR FEEDING Feed should be kept before the birds constantly from hatching to market age. During the first 6 weeks feed starting mash. During the seventh and eighth weeks feed a mixture of equal parts of the starting and growing mashes. From 9 to 12 weeks feed the growing mash. From 13 weeks to marketing feed growing mash and scratch grain. No scratch grain is fed during the first 12 weeks. If a change is made from mash to the whole-grain and liquid-milk method, cut down the mash gradually until the poults learn to drink the milk and to eat the whole grain freely. Cod-liver oil is necessary in starting rations, but as a rule it is not necessary in a growing ration unless the birds are confined. In that case, about 1 percent should be added to the mash. A good grade of plain cod-liver oil is advised for use in turkey feeds. Fish meal, though an excellent feed, may impart an undesirable flavor to turkey meat. Fish meal and cod-liver oil should be omitted from the fattening ration during the last 8 weeks before the birds are marketed. Birds should not be moved, or feeding arrangements radically changed in the last 6 weeks before marketing. Feeding the growing mash wet is a common practice in some localities. Like the dry-mash and scratch-grain system, it produces fine-quality turkeys although the labor in feeding may be greater. With this method the turkeys are fed all they will eat of a moist, crumbly mash placed in troughs with sufficient trough space provided to accommodate all the flock at one time. Only as much mash as the birds will clean up in 30 to 60 minutes is fed twice daily. Tail picking seldom occurs during moist-mash feeding if the ration is complete. Grit may be furnished in the form of commercial granite grit or coarse sand for little poults and fine gravel for the larger birds. Limestone grit does not serve well as grinding material and is unnecessary with the rations as listed. The poults may be put on the rearing ground when they are from 8 to 12 weeks old. An alfalfa field is an ideal rearing ground and may be used as a permanent, fenced, rearing range divided into 2 or 3 sections. When the rearing range is divided into 2 sections, 1 may be used for 2 seasons in succession while the other is rested for 2 seasons. A better plan is to divide it into 3 parts, allowing 1 season's use followed by 2 seasons' rest for each of the 3 sections. With portable houses and fences a method known as the "Minnesota plan" (p. 37) permits the turkey poults to be moved to a new section once a week and to an entirely new plot each year. Land on which no poultry of any kind have run for 2 years and on which no poultry manure has been spread, may be considered clean ground. The feed should not be put on the ground but in hoppers or troughs which should be moved frequently or set on wire-covered framework to prevent contamination with droppings. It is very important that the drinking water be fresh and clean and that the growing turkeys should not have access to stagnant water pools. Watering dishes should be placed on wire-covered platforms with a device to prevent contamination from the birds' perching on the top or sides. The limited-range method with full feeding, as described, is recommended in preference to free range with limited feeding. However, conditions sometimes demand that free range be permitted, and limited feeding practiced. In such cases, when natural feed is abundant, good results can be obtained by feeding the poults, after they are from 8 to 10 weeks old, only once daily, as previously suggested. Any of the growing mashes previously listed should make a good supplement to range feeds. This extra feed will tend to keep the birds nearer home and keep them growing at a reasonably good rate. Scratch grains should also be fed and as marketing time approaches, will be eaten more liberally by the birds. For turkeys on free range, plenty of water in convenient locations should be provided. Water helps to maintain good health and may help to prevent the condition known as "crop bound." Turkeys which are well fed should make increases in weight comparable to those given in table 2, which gives the average weights, at various ages, ox Bronze turkeys raised in an experiment conducted at the United States Range Livestock Experiment Station at Miles City, Mont. These birds were fed starting and growing mashes containing about 22 percent of protein. Table 2.--_Average weights of Bronze turkey poults from hatching time to market age_ ---------------+--------------------- | Average live weight +----------+---------- Age | Males | Females ---------------+----------+---------- | _Pounds_ | _Pounds_ Newly hatched | 0.13 | 0.13 2 weeks | 0.33 | 0.30 4 weeks | 0.86 | 0.75 8 weeks | 3.13 | 2.68 12 weeks | 6.64 | 5.28 16 weeks | 10.35 | 7.67 20 weeks | 14.47 | 9.67 24 weeks | 18.23 | 11.15 26 weeks | 20.18 | 12.04 28 weeks | 21.35 | 12.48 ---------------+----------+---------- FEED CONSUMPTION AND COST OF GROWING The quantity and cost of feed used in raising a flock of 156 Bronze turkeys in Montana in 1934 are shown in tables 3 and 4. These poults (70 males and 86 females) had well-balanced dry mashes (containing 22 percent of protein) before them at all times and scratch grain beginning with the second week. The birds were allowed to range on 2-acre nonirrigated lots after they were 8 weeks of age. The costs were based on local feed prices in Miles City, Mont., in 1934. By using the data in tables 2 and 3, the feed consumption and cost for an average turkey can be estimated for any period of growth. Table 3.--Average feed consumption and cost per pound of gain in 4-week periods for 70 male and 86 female Bronze turkeys in 1934 at Miles City, Mont. ---------------+----------------------------+--------------- | | Cost of feed | Feed consumed per pound | for each | of gain in live weight | pound of Age +--------+---------+---------+ gain in | Mash | Scratch | Total | live weight | | grain | | ---------------+--------+---------+---------+--------------- |_Pounds_|_Pounds_ |_Pounds_ | _Cents_ 1 to 4 weeks | 2.44 | 0.21 | 2.65 | 5.9 5 to 8 weeks | 2.41 | 0.16 | 2.57 | 5.7 9 to 12 weeks | 2.42 | 0.43 | 2.85 | 6.1 13 to 16 weeks | 3.47 | 0.42 | 3.90 | 8.8 17 to 20 weeks | 3.05 | 1.52 | 4.57 | 9.8 21 to 24 weeks | 3.09 | 3.45 | 6.54 | 13.5 25 to 28 weeks | 2.46 | 5.64 | 8.10 | 16.1 ---------------+--------+---------+---------+--------------- Table 4.--Average feed consumption per bird in periods for 70 male and 86 female Bronze turkeys in 1934 at Miles City, Mont. ---------------+--------+---------+---------- Age | Mash | Scratch | Total | | grain | ---------------+--------+---------+---------- |_Pounds_| _Pounds_| _Pounds_ 1 to 4 weeks | 1.39 | 0.12 | 1.51 5 to 8 weeks | 4.45 | 0.29 | 4.74 9 to 12 weeks | 6.67 | 1.19 | 7.86 13 to 16 weeks | 9.96 | 1.21 | 11.17 17 to 20 weeks | 9.05 | 4.52 | 13.57 21 to 24 weeks | 7.64 | 8.53 | 16.17 25 to 28 weeks | 5.19 | 11.89 | 17.08 ---------------+--------+---------+---------- Using the data contained in tables 2 and 3, it will be found that it took approximately 96 pounds of mash and scratch feed to raise a 21-pound tom to 28 weeks of age, and about 57-1/2 pounds of mash and grain to raise a 12-1/2-pound hen to that age, or about 4.6 pounds of feed for each pound of live weight, when practically all feed was furnished. It took about 4 pounds of feed for each pound of live weight up to 24 weeks of age. The birds had access to a moderate sized range lot containing native grasses, but very little feed was obtained from it during the 1934 season. DEFORMED BREASTBONES Crooked and dented breastbones in turkeys are common and sometimes cause a considerable loss to growers when the birds are marketed, since a severely crooked or very deeply dented breastbone causes the carcass to be graded as no. 2. It is generally believed that faulty nutrition causes most of the deformed breastbones, although level roosts narrower than 2-1/2 inches have been known to cause deformities of this kind. If turkeys are supplied with green feed, fed liberally on one of the rations suggested, provided with tilted 2 by 4 roosts or medium-sized poles (see page 35), and have plenty of direct sunlight, there will be few crooked breastbones among them. A small number (from 1 to 2 percent) is to be expected as it seems to be impossible to eliminate them entirely. The addition to the ration of steamed bone meal and limestone grit or oyster shell as a mineral reinforcement is recommended by some poultrymen. However, the various rations, as listed, supply adequate quantities of the bone-building ingredients. Further additions are unnecessary and may even be harmful. [Illustration: Figure 13.--Mash hopper for feeding young turkeys 12 weeks old or older. The end plan of the same hopper is shown in figure 14.] EQUIPMENT FOR RAISING TURKEYS CONTAINERS FOR FEED AND WATER During the first 3 or 4 weeks after the poults hatch, two-piece crockery fountains are excellent milk containers. For water, galvanized metal containers are more convenient. When the poults are from 4 to 10 weeks old, water pails, metal troughs, or shallow tin or graniteware pans provided with wire or wooden guards are more satisfactory than fountains. A good method is to place the water or milk outside the wall of the brooder room so that the poults can drink it through a wire screen. From the age of 9 weeks until market age, a supply of running water is preferable, although ordinary water pails set inside the range house on the wire floor or nails or tubs set outside the fence, with openings in the wire for the birds' heads, are satisfactory. Changing the position of the watering devices every few days or setting them on wire-covered platforms will aid in providing sanitary conditions near the watering places where filth is likely to accumulate rapidly. A watertight barrel provided with a drip faucet and a trough also makes a good watering device. Shade should be provided to prevent the drinking water from getting hot. Suitable equipment for feeding mash and scratch feed is shown in figure 12. [Illustration: Figure 14.--Diagram of end of mash hopper for feeding young turkeys. Side view of same hopper shown in figure 13.] [Illustration: Figure 15.--A waste-proof, portable, outdoor shelter for feeder. The wire floor helps to prevent contamination from the soil and the roof provides shelter when the birds are eating.] [Illustration: Figure 16.--Large range house for turkeys. This type is equipped with a wire-floored alleyway, as shown in figures 17 and 18. The antiflies on the roof prevent turkeys from roosting there.] Small trough feeders made of lath (fig. 12, _A_) may be used from the first day in the brooder and until the poults are a week old. Such feeders are made with 1 lath for the bottom, 2 for the sides, small sections for end pieces, and another lath for a guard to keep poults out of the trough. For poults from 8 days to 4 weeks old it is better to use large trough feeders made of 1/2- by 2-1/4-inch boards for the sides with a top guard consisting of a free-turning reel. Baling wire stretched inside the troughs (fig. 12, _C_) aid in preventing waste of feed and also serve as beak cleaners for the birds. To prevent waste, it is better not to fill most trough feeders more than two-thirds full. In the brooder house it is important to place feeders on a wire platform made of 1-inch mesh, 16-gage wire, and 1- by 4- or 1- by 6-inch boards. Poults 5 to 12 weeks old should have trough feeders made of 1/2- by 5-inch boards for the sides, with a free-turning reel at the top. For poults from 12 weeks old to market age the feeders should be even larger, as illustrated in figures 13 and 14. [Illustration: Figure 17.--End elevation of turkey range house with alleyway.] [Illustration: Figure 18.--Floor plan of turkey range house with alleyway.] After the age of about 12 weeks, and when feeding is done under shelter, use a flat-bottomed trough from 12 to 18 feet long or several short feeders made with a 1- by 10-inch board as a bottom, 1- by 8-inch boards as sides, and with a guard of 1- by 4-inch center piece topped with a free-turning roller or reel (fig. 14). For outside feeding a similar trough is advisable. It should be divided into two sections each 6 to 9 feet long, set on 2- by 8- or 2- by 10-inch skids covered with 1-inch hexagonal mesh, 16-gage wire or heavy gage 1-inch-mesh hardware cloth, and provided with a gable roof and side boards to protect the feed and the birds from sun, wind, and rain (fig. 15). The troughs can be removed to be used as inside feeders and for replenishing the feed. Two 9-foot feeders are sufficient for 150 to 175 birds. Inside feeding is preferred whenever possible to provide it. [Illustration: Figure 19.--Interior of 10- by 25-foot ran so house showing wire floor and wire under roosts. Figure 17 shows the wire nailed on the underside of the roost supports.] [Illustration: Figure 20.--This shed-roof range house will accommodate from 130 to 150 growing turkeys to market age. The plan of this house is shown in figure 21.] HOUSES AND FENCES A verminproof, weatherproof roosting shelter for growing poults is an important piece of equipment. A square or rectangular structure with a shed or gable roof makes a satisfactory range house. A shed roof is more easily constructed. The use of wire guards called "antiflies" will keep turkeys off the roof. Allowing for a 5-foot wire-floored alleyway to hold the feeders and waterers, a house about 10 feet wide and 25 feet long (figs. 16, 17, 18, and 19) will accommodate 150 to 175 growing turkeys to market age; a similar house about 16 by 18 feet is large enough for 100 birds. Feeding and watering can be done inside. For a permanent house, a height of 5 or 5-1/2 feet at the caves and about 8 feet at the front (or the peak, if gable-roofed) is sufficient. If no alleyway is used, a house 9 by 26 feet containing roosts only should care for 130 to 150 turkeys to market age (figs. 20 and 21). [Illustration: Figure 21.--End elevation of range shelter for turkeys. This type is built without an alleyway and measures 9 by 20 feet.] With the latter type of house, feeding and watering must be done outside, preferably with a covered feeder, as shown in figure 15. A cheaper portable coop, not so high and with framework of lighter material, is shown in figure 22. This coop is built on 4- by 10-inch skids and is equipped with raised wire floor and with roosts. [Illustration: Figure 22.--Portable turkey range houses equipped with wire floors and antiflies. The house on the left is 16 by 20 feet and has a feed storage room at one end.] A permanent house should face south or in a southerly direction so that the front is not exposed to storms. Board sides on the north and west are desirable. Practically open-air conditions, combined with good protection, may be obtained by leaving wire-covered openings about 2 or 2-1/2 feet wide across the north, west, and east sides at about the level of the roosts. These Openings should be made closable by shiplap doors that may be partly opened in warm weather and closed during cold weather and storms. The south side may be left entirely open except for 1-inch hexagonal mesh of 16- or 18-gage wire and enough boards to give strength to the building and protect the birds from rainstorms. As mentioned on page 29, desirable roosts may be made of 2 by 4's with edges beveled and laid flatwise but slightly titled up at about the angle of a quarter-pitch roof in the direction toward which the birds are likely to face. Roosts made of 2 by 4's or other sawed lumber may cause dents in the breastbones if they are laid perfectly flat. Smooth poles 2-1/2 to 5 inches in diameter also make good roosts. Material less than 2-1/2 inches wide is not recommended for turkeys half grown or older. Roosts should be placed preferably 20 to 24 inches apart (center to center), about 14 inches from the wall and lengthwise or the building. Those nearest the back wall of the shelter should be the highest, and each of the others should be about 6 inches lower than the one back of it. This arrangement insures an even distribution of the birds on the roosts without crowding. Allow about 1 foot of roost space per bird as they require as much space as this when approaching market age. The space beneath the roosts should be fenced off and covered with 1-1/2-inch, 18-gage wire mesh to prevent the birds from getting at the droppings. This wire should be placed either on the under side of the roost supports (fig. 17) or on special wire supports (fig. 21), and it should be 6 to 12 inches below the top of the roosts. When a wire-floored alleyway is used, removable vertical panels made of 1- by 4-inch boards covered with the 1-1/2-inch hexagonal, 18-gage wire mesh should be placed directly under the roosts which border the alleyways in such a way as to close the opening underneath the roosts (fig. 19). In very dry regions, it the space underneath the roosts and wire floors is entirely enclosed, the droppings may be allowed to accumulate throughout the entire growing season to save labor. In damp climates, however, the droppings should be removed frequently. Wire floors may be used, as described, in the alleyways of roosting shelters to provide a place for inside feeding and watering and may also be used in the outside yards when close-confinement rearing is practiced. A practical method of construction is to make the floor in removable sections, each about 5 feet square. The framework should be made of 2 by 4's placed on edge, with the top edge beveled to present about three-fourths inch of surface; the center supports may be of 1 by 4's, also placed on edge, spaced 12 to 16 inches apart, and laid lengthwise of the alleyway (fig. 19). This frame should be covered with 1-inch hexagonal, 16-gage wire mesh or chain-link fabric wire. Hardware cloth in a 1-inch mesh made of 14-gage wire is perhaps more satisfactory and will last longer, but the first cost would be greater. The wire may be fastened with eight-penny nails and 1-inch staples alternated, one for each strand of wire, but fastened only to the top or sides of the 2- by 4-inch framework, not to the center supports. The sections should be set loosely in the alleyway and held 1 inch apart by nails driven into the sides of the framework. Supports made of either 2 by 4 or 2 by 6 inch material should be placed on both sides of the alleyway, directly under the outer framework of the floor panels, and blocked up so as to hold the floor frames 1 foot above the ground. Since hen turkeys fly well, it is sometimes difficult to keep them in their runways. Clipping the large outer feathers (called primaries) of one wing will do much to prevent the turkeys from flying, but it is usually necessary to put a 3- or 4-foot guard made of 1 by 4 or 2 by 2 inch material and lightweight poultry wire around the edge of the roof of the roosting shelters, on gates, and on the fences themselves for 2 or 3 rods out from the buildings. Whenever practicable, these "antiflies" should be slanted in toward the yard (figs. 16 and 20). Clipping the wings of the toms is undesirable and is usually unnecessary when antiflies are properly constructed. A 5-foot fence is usually high enough to confine turkeys, except near buildings and over gates, where the fence should be 8 or 9 feet high. Even a 4-foot fence has been reported as satisfactory by some growers. Steel posts and square-mesh poultry fencing of full standard weight make good turkey fences. PROTECTION AGAINST DOGS Dogs cause heavy losses among turkeys in many localities. Turkey houses must be well constructed to exclude dogs. Wire of 16-gage to 18-gage weight is necessary, and it must be very tightly nailed. The 16-gage weight should be used for the outside of buildings where it comes close to the ground. Confining the turkeys to their shelters all night and through the early morning hours is frequently a necessary precaution unless an attendant is present or protection is afforded by a good watchdog. Fences for confining poultry are not always entirely dog-proof. High roosts, provided by some growers, give protection at night, but in the early morning hours when the turkeys are off the roosts, an attendant should be in the vicinity. Feeding the flock inside the shelter is advantageous when turkeys must be confined during the early morning hours as this greatly increases the feeding period. DEVICES THAT PREVENT TAIL-FEATHER PICKING Tail-feather picking seems to begin by the birds' using each others' tail feathers to clean their beaks of mash. Although it does not ordinarily damage the birds for market, the habit ruins their appearance and decreases their salability as breeding stock. It is not always possible to prevent tail-feather picking entirely, especially in flocks raised in confinement or in small range lots, but it may be prevented partially by providing tightly stretched wire in or over the mash feeders. Baling wire stretched tightly or strips of ordinary light-weight poultry wire may be used. Feeding the mash moist will also aid in preventing tail-feather picking. The kind of mash may also be a factor. A rather coarse mash containing considerable ground corn, some bran, and some coarsely ground oats or barley, including the hulls, seems to be more palatable than a fine mash and is not so likely to clog the beaks of the birds. RANGE MANAGEMENT OF GROWING TURKEYS In Minnesota a successful system of moving poults around the colony brooder house has been devised and is giving excellent results. The house is built with a small opening in each side, and a portable frame is so placed that the ground on each side of the house can be used as a small outside run. The birds are allowed to range to the south for from 5 to 10 days; then the house is thoroughly cleaned and the range changed to the west; and so on until the land on all four sides of the house has been utilized. The house is then moved to a clean spot, and the rotation is repeated. After the birds are from 8 to 12 weeks old the house is again moved to a clean place. Turkeys may be raised successfully on a small acreage if they are moved to a clean area each week or two and to an entirely different, clean area each year. Other systems of yarding have been devised, but the value of most of them has not been proved experimentally. Some system of rotation is necessary on a farm where turkeys are raised regularly. For fenced ranges where the semiconfinement method is to be used, the Minnesota plan is entirely satisfactory for small flocks. For large flocks the use of large yards in the double or triple yarding system has given good results. Under this system, after 8 or 10 weeks of brooding, the poults are put on range, which may be divided into 2 or 3 equal parts. The range used is changed yearly or biennially either by moving the equipment or by having permanent equipment for each range. In the absence of fences, turkeys may be herded so that they are protected from enemies and kept within the clean area allotted to them each season. The use of portable fences and portable roosting shelters enables the grower to move the entire flock to clean range each season or several times each season. This method is practical where large areas of suitable range are available, so that the birds can be reared each season on land that has not been used, or on which no droppings have been spread, for the preceding 2 years. In wet climates it is probably safer to allow a rest of 3 or 4 years. Enough range should be provided so that plenty of growing green feed is available in each yard at all times during the season. When the same ground is used for a whole season, and rainfall or irrigation is adequate, an acre of grass pasture should provide range and green feed for about 100 growing turkeys. An acre of alfalfa or clover would probably provide feed for 150 birds, under favorable conditions. In arid or semiarid sections, during very dry seasons, it may be advisable to provide fresh, green feed, or legume hay in abundance to discourage the turkeys from eating undesirable green feed on the range. A complete ration must be provided for such conditions. Where the range is limited to small areas of fenced land, the use of a number of permanent range houses set in a row, preferably 200 feet or more apart, in the middle of the range and along the dividing fence is a practical method of range utilization. The dividing fence should be double so as to provide a neutral area between the two ranges. Under this plan the birds can use one-half of the range for 2 years in succession and the other half for 2 years without the buildings being moved. If individual range lots are desired for each flock of birds, permanent range shelters arranged on either side of a service lane, each with double or triple yards, are a solution to the clean-range problem. If double yards are used for each house or if the range as a whole is divided into 2 sections, a rotation of 2 seasons of use, followed by 2 seasons of rest may be the best plan. Where 3 yards for each house can be arranged or where the whole range is divided into 3 large yards, each yard can be used for 1 season and allowed 2 seasons of rest. Under any system of permanent yards, certain sanitary precautions are essential. Among these are the following: (1) Select such a location or modify the one available in such a way that there is as little drainage as possible from the yards that are being used to those that are being rested; (2) each season, or several times each season, remove the accumulations of droppings from the ground around the houses, feeders, and water vessels; (3) grade up around each house with fresh earth each season or whenever it is necessary, to prevent water from standing near the buildings; (4) fill in or drain all depressions so that water does not stand for any length of time anywhere on the range; (5) use antiflies and, if necessary, clip one wing of each bird to keep it from flying into and contaminating the yards that are being rested; (6) prevent birds or persons from going in and out of yards that are being rested; (7) move feeders and water vessels frequently, feed and water the birds inside the range shelters on the wire floors, or place the feeders and water vessels outside on roofed wire platforms so that the droppings that accumulate near them will not become sources of infection; (8) use contamination-proof feeders and water vessels; (9) see that flies do not breed extensively in or near the houses and feeders; (10) place wide boards set into the ground, an inch or two at the bottom of the fences and extending for about 10 yards out from the buildings to prevent refuse spreading to the adjoining yards. When birds are herded on free range some growers move the roosts, feeders, and water vessels to clean ground several times each season, whereas others use permanent roosting and feeding quarters and bring the birds back each night. In either case excessive contamination at any one point should be prevented so far as possible. FATTENING TURKEYS FOR MARKET In general, the best method of raising turkeys is to keep them growing at a normal rate so that at the age of about 6 months they are in prime market condition, no special fattening period being necessary. Such a method calls for liberal feeding of balanced rations throughout the growing period. A good range will supply a large quantity of feed at a very reasonable cost, but not even the best range will furnish enough of the right kinds of feed to produce large numbers of prime turkeys without supplementary feeding. In many instances, however, turkey growers believe that it is more profitable to force the birds to forage for most of their livelihood until a few weeks before marketing time. A good plan for fattening these range-grown birds is to begin early in the fall to feed the birds mash and scratch, allowing them all they will eat of both. As they approach maturity they will eat mostly scratch grain. The mash may be fed moist or dry. Milk is an excellent fattening feed, and if plenty of liquid milk is available it may be fed with scratch grain only and no mash. Some turkey raisers feed equal parts of corn, wheat, and oats during the first part of the fattening season and gradually change to all corn as the weather becomes cooler. This system is satisfactory if plenty of milk can be fed in addition. Without milk or some other high-protein feed, the results are likely to be unsatisfactory. If too heavy feeding of corn alone is begun before the range turkeys become accustomed to it, the disease known as scours often results, especially if new corn is used. Old corn is a much better feed than new corn, but the new crop is safe after it is well matured and dry. As a general rule, turkeys that have been raised on free range cannot be successfully fattened in close confinement. They may be successfully fattened, however, if they are confined to moderate-sized yards containing growing alfalfa or other green crops or stacks of alfalfa or clover hay. There is no advantage in confining turkeys which have been raised in semiconfinement to smaller quarters for fattening. MARKETING TURKEYS The marketing season for the bulk of the turkey crop is usually comparatively short, extending from the middle of November to the latter part of December. There is an increasing demand in the fall and winter and even in late summer for young turkeys. Many turkey raisers sell their birds alive to poultry dealers, who either dress them or ship them alive to city dealers. In sections where turkeys are grown in large numbers, as in Texas, dressing plants have been built by cooperative associations and poultry dealers who collect the live birds and dress them for the various city markets. As soon as possible after reaching the dressing plant, the turkeys are killed, dry-picked, cooled, and packed in barrels or boxes for shipment. Farmers near the city markets often dress their turkeys and sell them direct either to the consumer or to the city dealer. In territory adjacent to large cities marketing both live and dressed birds at roadside stands has become common. WHEN TO MARKET Experiments with Bronze turkeys have indicated that well-fed, young birds of this popular variety are marketed to best advantage at from 24 to 28 weeks of age, if they are in good flesh and reasonably free from short pinfeathers. If they are kept longer than 28 weeks, the cost of maintenance and gains and the extra labor of their care cause the costs of production to rise rapidly. Under ordinary conditions 26 to 28 weeks is the best age for marketing full-fed Bronze turkey toms. For turkeys fed for rapid growth 24 weeks is a more profitable age if the birds are ready for market then, as is often the case with young hens which mature more quickly than the toms. Data obtained on more than 600 birds at the United States Range Livestock Experiment Station at Miles City, Mont., show that at 24 weeks of age the feed cost of producing live turkeys was 1 cent per pound lower than at 26 weeks of age, and 2.5 cents per pound lower than at 28 weeks. These figures, of course, will vary in different years, depending on the price of feeds. Besides this cost for feed the extra labor in caring for the birds, often during unfavorable weather, must be considered. With the expansion of the turkey industry, the chain stores have become one of the large wholesale buyers of turkeys. They desire various sizes, according to the nature of the patronage in different localities, and as a result create a considerable market demand for hens and small toms. This is particularly true of their Thanksgiving and Christmas trade. Other channels of trade, such as restaurants, hotels, steamships, and railroad lines, prefer large toms. As turkeys become more generally used throughout the year an increase in the trade for small birds may be expected. SELECTING BIRDS FOR MARKET Practically all turkeys that are full fed are ready for market at from 26 to 28 weeks of age, and in many cases at 24 weeks, depending on sex, breeding, feeding, and weather. However, with range birds on limited feed, the grower can probably afford to hold his turkeys longer than 26 or 28 weeks, if necessary, because the feed costs were low during the growing period. It is, of course, very important to market only turkeys that are fat and free from small pinfeathers. Sufficient protein and minerals in the feed during the fall months are essential to proper growth and economical gains as well as to proper feather development. A prime turkey, especially a young one, is not expected to be excessively fat, but it must have an even covering of fat so that the skin appears white or yellowish white rather than dark or bluish. The breast must be meaty and the whole body free from small pinfeathers, bruises, and abrasions. Great care should be taken, therefore, not to allow the birds to bruise themselves by flying or running against obstructions; they should be handled gently and not frightened. WITHHOLDING FEED BEFORE SLAUGHTER Birds with feed in their crops are usually graded as no. 2 and sold at a lower price because feed in the crop spoils readily, and also detracts from the appearance of the carcass. Mash feed passes out of the crop quickly so that crops will be empty if the mash is removed at dusk on the day before slaughter and no scratch grain fed on that day. If the birds are kept without feed for more than 18 or 24 hours they may eat soil, litter, droppings, or feathers, and thus defeat the main purpose of withholding feed. This applies especially to old hens. If the birds are not to be killed until late afternoon or evening, give them a light feed of mash early in the morning. Scratch grain should be fed only until about 18 hours before slaughter. Feeding should always be planned so that feed is not withheld more than 24 hours. All birds being held for slaughter should have free access to water up to killing time. KILLING AND PICKING When the bird is to be killed, hang it up by the feet, holding its head in one hand and taking care not to compress the veins in the neck. Open the mouth and cut the jugular vein far back in the throat, just below the base of the skull. For this purpose use the point of a sharp, narrow-bladed knife. As soon as profuse bleeding begins, thrust the knife up through the groove in the roof of the mouth and into the rear lobe of the brain at the back of the skull so as to render the bird unconscious. When the correct "stick" is obtained, the bird usually gives a peculiar squawk, the tail feathers spread, and all the feathers are loosened by a quivering of the muscles. After sticking, continue to hold the bird's head and attach a blood cup to the lower jaw. The bird's wings should never be locked, as this often results in their being broken, which usually reduces the bird to a low grade. Likewise, no attempt should be made to hold the bird's wings tightly. Blood cups weighing 5 pounds are needed for large birds, whereas cups weighing 3 to 4 pounds are best for small and medium-sized birds. In dry picking it is essential that the feathers be plucked immediately after the bird is killed. If the bird has been properly stuck, they come out very easily. First remove the tail and large wing feathers and then the body feathers, leaving the small wing feathers and neck and upper breast feathers until last. Pull out all feathers a few at a time, but do not rub them off as this injures the skin and often lowers the grade. Dry picking can be learned best by personal instructions. The semiscald method of picking turkeys is used in some sections at commercial dressing plants, but nearly all home-dressed turkeys are dry-picked.[2] [2] Detailed information on killing, grading, and marketing turkeys is given in Farmers' Bulletins 1694. Dressing and Packing Turkeys, and 1815, Grading Dressed Turkeys. Clean-picked turkeys are now preferred, but a single row of short fan feathers on the last joint of each wing may be left. Leave no feathers on any other part of the body. Remove all pinfeathers, especially from the breast, but do not attempt to dig out pinfeathers too short to be pulled. After picking, snap the blood from the bird's mouth with a quick motion and squeeze the vent to remove any droppings that may be there. The feet, if dirty, should be washed and dried. These methods make for clean carcasses, good grades, and good keeping quality. After picking and chilling the birds, cover the heads with head wraps made of heavy waxed paper, to prevent blood soaking through and smearing the carcasses. Whenever the skin is torn, sew it neatly with white thread. When birds have been killed with feed in their crops, remove the entire crop. Through a 2- or 3-inch slit in the neck, beginning where the neck joins the body, the crop can be completely loosened and withdrawn, the gullet being cut well below the crop. Then sew the opening with No. 36 white thread. Turn in the edges of the skin so as to make a neat job that will not be noticeable when the bird is put on the market. According to data on Bronze turkeys, killing and picking after the birds had been starved overnight resulted in a loss of about 9 percent of weight for large birds and 10 percent for small birds. The turkeys were weighed both before and after they were killed and picked and again after they had cooled overnight. The larger birds had the lower percentages of loss in weight and therefore the higher dressing percentages. The weight loss of dressed turkeys while chilling overnight is very small, only about one-sixth of 1 percent. Therefore, practically all the loss in weight that occurs during picking and chilling results from the loss of blood and feathers. The weight loss of turkeys overnight just before slaughter when they received no feed was about 3 percent, on an average, making the total loss from their normal weight, due to withholding feed, picking, and chilling, about 13 percent. When dressed turkeys are drawn, with head and feet removed and giblets replaced, there is a further loss of about 15 percent of the dressed weight. [Illustration: Figure 23.--Single-layer box of 10 turkey hens.] COOLING Hanging the birds indoors by the legs for 24 hours or more, or laying them on their backs on a clean surface where the temperature of the air ranges from 30° to 36° F. will properly chill the carcasses. They should be thoroughly chilled but not frozen, since frozen birds sweat and, because of their rigid condition, cannot be packed without great waste of space. In mild weather it is often impossible to cool the carcasses properly without the use of refrigeration or ice water. Cooling in water spoils the appearance of dry-picked carcasses and should be done only as a last resort. A suitable thermometer is an indispensable part of the chilling equipment. PACKING Boxes and barrels are generally used for packing dressed turkeys. Packing in clean barrels, while easier and slightly cheaper, is not so satisfactory as box packing, although barrels are often more readily available. Boxes are greatly preferred by the trade and by organized pools. In box packing, the single-layer pack of 6 to 14 birds, depending on their size, is preferred. The boxes are usually large enough to hold from 10 to 12 medium-sized birds (fig. 23). When barrels are used, a large size is necessary for large toms. Smaller barrels are suitable for hens and small toms. Line the barrel with white wrapping paper or common white parchment paper. Lay the birds with their backs against the sides of the barrel, and if it is necessary to pack larger birds in the same barrel, place them in the center. When the barrel is full, turn down the paper, take off the top hoop, place a piece of clean burlap over the top, and replace and renail the hoop over the burlap. Boxes, barrels, or any other containers used should be free from objectionable odor, as the turkey meat may absorb it. There is considerable risk for the producer who does not have access to proper refrigerating facilities in shipping dressed turkeys during mild weather. If the birds are to be sold in mild weather, it is safest to market them alive or else sell them dressed to local purchasers as losses from improper cooling of dressed turkeys and from exposure to warm weather during transit are likely to occur. When turkeys are to be shipped only a short distance it may be feasible to chill the dressed birds in ice water and then to pack them in barrels with cracked ice between layers and at each end of the barrel. A top layer of ice placed between two layers of burlap tacked securely over the top of the barrel is desirable. The internal temperature of the turkeys should be reduced to 34° F. before they are shipped. DRESSED-TURKEY GRADES Grading systems for dressed turkeys differ somewhat in different markets but, in general, are similar. Greatest uniformity is provided where the United States grades are used. The United States grading system is more comprehensive than other systems and is intended to satisfy the demands of the consumers more fully and to promote more uniform grading. The United States Government grading system was developed and is sponsored by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. Under this system as now used there are four grades: U. S. Special or U. S. grade AA; U. S. Prime or U. S. grade A; U. S. Choice or U. S. grade B; and U. S. Commercial or U. S. grade C. Each grade is subdivided into four classes according to the age and sex of the birds. These classes are: Young hen, young tom, old hen, and old tom. The quality specifications for individual birds apply to each class with due allowance for fleshing condition characteristic of its sex and age. Detailed descriptions are provided for each grade. For the U. S. Special grade it is required that turkeys have broad, full-fleshed breasts and that the carcasses be fully covered with fat. The birds must also have been well bled, carefully dry-picked or semiscalded, and must be free from bruises, skin tears, and broken joints. The breastbone must be straight or only slightly dented (not more than one-fourth inch in depth). For the U. 3. Prime grade it is required that birds be well fleshed, well fattened, and well bled, but they may have slight imperfections such as scattered pinfeathers, slight flesh or skin abrasions, and one disjointed but not broken wing or leg. Slightly curved and slightly dented breastbones, not to exceed one-half inch in depth, are permitted. To grade U. S. Choice, turkeys must have fairly well-fleshed breasts and carcasses fairly well covered with fat. These birds need be only fairly well bled and dressed and may have slight flesh or skin bruises, small skin tears, or larger sewn-up tears, and one broken leg or wing. Turkeys not meeting these grade requirements, including birds poorly fleshed, poorly bled, or slightly deformed, but suitable for food, make up the lowest or U. S. Commercial grade. Another system of grading in common use in buying dressed turkeys is to make only 2 or 3 grades, except that sometimes the birds within the top grades are divided into classes based on weight and sex. The no. 1 grade usually consists of young toms weighing 12 pounds or more and young and old hens weighing 8 pounds or more, dressed. For this grade the birds must be well finished and free from serious tears, bruises, and severely crooked breastbones. The crops must be empty and the carcasses reasonably free from pinfeathers and reasonably well bled. The no. 2 grade includes all old toms and such young toms, young hens, and old hens as are too light for the no. 1 grade. The no. 2 grade also includes turkeys with severely crooked breastbones, broken wings, bad blemishes, bad tears, bad abrasions, feed in crops, numerous pinfeathers, and birds that have been poorly bled or poorly fleshed. The no. 3 grade includes birds not good enough for the no. 2 grade but still fit for food. These are culls that never should have been marketed. The no. 3 grade is not always used, since turkeys of this kind are often rejected by the buyers. On some markets a medium grade of birds--between the no. 1 and the no. 2 grades--is used. When graded and packed for market turkeys are further graded as to size, birds of similar weight being placed in the same container, which is labeled according to the grade. * * * * * ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WHEN THIS PUBLICATION WAS LAST PRINTED _Secretary of Agriculture_ Henry A. Wallace. _Undersecretary_ M. L. Wilson. _Assistant Secretary_ Harry L. Brown. Coordinator of Land Use Planning and M. S. Eisenhower. Director of Information. _Director of Extension Work_ C. W. Warburton. _Director of Finance_ W. A. Jump. _Director of Personnel_ Roy F. Hendrickson. _Director of Research_ James T. Jardine. _Solicitor_ Mastin G. White. _Agricultural Adjustment H. R. Tolley, _Administrator_. Administration_ _Bureau of Agricultural Economics_ A. G. Black, _Chief_. _Bureau of Agricultural Engineering_ S. H. McCrory, _Chief_. _Bureau of Animal Industry_ John R. Mohler, _Chief_. _Bureau of Biological Survey_ Ira N. Gabrielson, _Chief_. _Bureau of Chemistry and Soils_ Henry G. Knight, _Chief_. _Commodity Exchange Administration_ J. W. T. Duvel, _Chief_. _Bureau of Dairy Industry_ O. E. Reed, _Chief_. _Bureau of Entomology and Plant Lee A. Strong, _Chief_. Quarantine_ _Office of Experiment Stations_ James T. Jardine, _Chief_. _Farm Security Administration_ W. W. Alexander, _Administrator_. _Food and Drug Administration_ Walter G. Campbell, _Chief_. _Forest Service_ Ferdinand A. Silcox, _Chief_. _Bureau of Home Economics_ Louise Stanley, _Chief_. _Library_ Claribel R. Barnett, _Librarian_. _Bureau of Plant Industry_ E. C. Auchter, _Chief_. _Bureau of Public Roads_ Thomas H. MacDonald, _Chief_. _Soil Conservation Service_ H. H. Bennett, _Chief_. _Weather Bureau_ Francis W. Reichelderfer, _Chief_. U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1939 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 5 cents * * * * * Transcriber Note Illustrations were moved to avoid splitting paragraphs. Display of numbers was standardized in the tables to show leading zeros. 
58229	----	Transcriber Note Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_. Whole and fractional parts of numbers as 123-4/5. [Illustration: Principio sedes Apibus statioque petenda, ---- Virgil.] HUMANITY TO HONEY-BEES: OR, _PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS_ FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF HONEY-BEES UPON AN IMPROVED AND HUMANE PLAN, BY WHICH THE LIVES OF BEES MAY BE PRESERVED, AND ABUNDANCE OF HONEY OF A SUPERIOR QUALITY MAY BE OBTAINED, BY THOMAS NUTT. ---- Vos non vobis mellificatis Apes: Sic --------------------------------- Virgil. SECOND EDITION. WISBECH: PRINTED BY H. AND J. LEACH, FOR THE AUTHOR, OF WHOM IT MAY BE HAD AT MOULTON-CHAPEL, OR AT 131, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON. SOLD ALSO BY LONGMAN AND CO. PATERNOSTER-ROW, LONDON. _Price Ten Shillings,_ 1834. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL. Also may be had on application to my agent, Mr. G. Neighbour, 131, High Holborn, near Southampton Street, London, honey taken on the principles here specified, with hives stocked with bees, or unstocked. All letters must be post paid to the author. DEDICATION, BY PERMISSION, TO HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY, QUEEN ADELAIDE MAY IT PLEASE YOUR MAJESTY, To pen a dedication skilfully is generally the most difficult part of an Author's task; but a dedication to ROYALTY is so delicate a matter, that I almost tremble for the success of my undertaking--tremble lest I should fail to express myself dutifully, gratefully, properly; though I am not without hope that your Majesty's goodness will graciously extend to the Author that degree of indulgence of which he is sensible he stands so much in need, especially as nothing unbecoming a dutiful subject to write, or improper for a gracious Sovereign to read, is intended to be here expressed. As, however, every colony of Bees, wherever domiciled, whether in a box, or in a cottage-hive, in the roof of a house, or in the trunk of a hollow-tree, is under an admirable government, the presiding head and Sovereign of which is a QUEEN,--as no colony of Bees, deprived of its QUEEN, ever prospers, or long survives such loss,--as this insect government, or government of insects, exhibits to man the most perfect pattern of devoted attachment, and of true allegiance on the part of the subject Bees to their Sovereign, and of industry, ingenuity, prosperity, and apparently of general happiness in their well-ordered state,--and as these most curious and valuable little creatures have hitherto been most cruelly treated--have been, and still are, annually sacrificed by millions, for the sake of their sweet treasure; I do feel a pleasure, and think there is a sort of analogical propriety, in dedicating to your Gracious Majesty this work, the leading feature of which is--Humanity to Honey-Bees. Under your Majesty's fostering and influential Patronage, I cannot but anticipate that this object will be essentially promoted, and that the management of Bees, in this country at least, will not hereafter reflect disgrace upon their owners. In this pleasing hope, I humbly beg to subscribe myself, YOUR MAJESTY'S most dutiful and most grateful Subject and Servant, THOMAS NUTT. Moulton-Chapel, Lincolnshire, Nov. 27th, 1832. PREFACE. Could I disarm criticism as easily as I can deprive Bees of their power to sting, this would be the proper place to do so; though I am doubtful whether it would be well-judged in me, or to my advantage, to stay the critics' pen. But, possessing no such talismanic power, I shall adventure my little book into the world, without any attempt to conciliate the critics' good-will, or to provoke their animosity, conscious that from _fair_ criticism I have nothing to fear. That I shall be attacked by those apiarians who are wedded to their own theories and systems, however faulty, is no more than I expect: of them, I trust, I have nowhere spoken disparagingly; towards none of them do I entertain unkindly feelings--far otherwise. Their number, I am led to believe, is not formidable; and as gentlemen, and fellow-labourers in the same work of humanity, their more extensive learning will hardly be brought to bear against me with rancour and violence. Should any one of them, or of any other class of writers, so far degrade himself, I shall have the advantage of the following preliminary observation, viz. that one set of my collateral-boxes, placed in a favourable situation, and _duly and properly attended to_, for one season only, will outweigh all the learning and arguments that can be adduced against my Bee-practice,--will be proof positive, visible, tangible, that there is in my pretensions something more than empty boast. Luckily for me, there are plenty of those proofs to be met with in the country, and there are some--several, not far from town; they are at Blackheath, at Kensington, at Clapham, and at other places. As hundreds of the Nobility and Gentry of this country will recollect, there was one of these incontrovertible proofs of the truth of what I am stating, exhibited for several weeks at the National Repository last autumn, where it was seen, examined, admired, and, I may without any exaggeration add, _universally approved_. Practice, which has resulted from more than ten years' experience in the management of an apiary, and from innumerable experiments, carried on, and a hundred times repeated, during that period, is what I ground the utility of my discoveries upon. To theory I lay no claim. Born and brought up in the fens of Lincolnshire, where I have spent the greater part of my life amidst difficulties, misfortunes, and hardships, of which I will not here complain, though I am still smarting under the effects of some of them, my pretensions to learning are but small: for, though sent to the respectable Grammar School at Horncastle in my boyhood, my education was not extended beyond writing, arithmetic, and merchants' accompts. As soon as it was thought that I had acquired a competent knowledge of these useful branches of education, it was my lot to be bound apprentice to learn the trades and mysteries of grocer, draper, and tallow-chandler. Whilst endeavouring to gain an honest livelihood as a grocer and draper, at Moulton-Chapel, in 1822, I was afflicted with a severe illness, which, after long-protracted suffering, left me as helpless as a child, the natural use and strength of my limbs being gone; and, though supported by and tottering between my crutches, it was a long time before I was able to crawl into my garden. Fatigued and exhausted with the exercise of journeying the length of a garden-walk of no great extent, it was my custom to rest my wearied limbs upon a bench placed near my Bees. Seated on that bench, I used to while away the lingering hours as best I could, ruminating now on this subject, now on that, just as my fancy chanced to fix. Among other things my Bees one day caught my attention: I watched their busy movements,--their activity pleased me,--their humming noise long-listened to became music to my ears, and I often fancied that I heard it afterwards when I was away from them. In short, I became fond of them and of their company, and visited them as often as the weather and my feebleness would permit. When kept from them a day or two, I felt uneasy, and less comfortable than when I could get to them. The swarming season arrived; and with it ideas took possession of my mind which had not until then possessed it:--I conceived that swarming was an act more of necessity than of choice,--that as such it was an evil; but how to provide a remedy for it--how to prevent it--was a problem that then puzzled me. I studied it for a long time, and to very little purpose. The old-fashioned method of eking did not by any means satisfy my mind; it might answer the purpose for one season, but how to proceed the next did not appear. Then the time for taking honey was approaching: to get at that treasure without destroying my little friends that had collected it, and that had, moreover, so often soothed me in my sorrow and my sufferings, was another problem that long engaged my mind. After some years' unremitted attention to my Bees, for I had formed a sort of attachment to them during the first stage of my convalescence, which never left me, an accident aided my studies by directing my attention to the effects of ventilation, as will be found related in the body of this work, and I began to make experiments, which being repeated, varied, improved, and then gone through again, have gradually led to the development of my improved mode of Bee-management, attempted to be explained in the following pages. At the time I have been speaking of, I had not read one single book on Bees; nor had I then one in my possession. Whatever my practice may be, it has resulted from my own unaided experience and discoveries. To books I am not indebted for any part of it: nay, had I begun to attempt to improve the system of Bee-management by books, I verily believe, I never should have improved it at all, nor have made one useful discovery. _The Bees themselves have been my instructors._ After I had so far succeeded as to have from my apiary glasses and boxes of honey of a superior quality, to exhibit at the National Repository, where, with grateful thanks to the Managers of that Institution for their kindness to me, I was encouraged to persevere, Bee-books in profusion were presented to me, some of them by friends with names, some by friends whose names I have yet to learn. I have read them all: but nowhere find, in any of them, clear, practical directions, how honey of the very purest quality, and in more considerable quantity than by any of the plans heretofore proposed, may be taken from Bees, without recourse to any suffocation whatever, or any other violent means;--how all the Bees may be preserved uninjured;--and how swarming may be prevented. These are the grand features in my plan; and minute directions for the accomplishment of these most desirable objects are laid down in this book. I by no means maintain that my system of Bee-management is incapable of improvement; but I do think that the principles upon which it is founded _are right_,--that the foundation is here properly laid,--and that every apiarian, who may hereafter conform to, or improve upon, my practice, will be instrumental in contributing a part towards raising the superstructure--namely--an asylum or sanctuary for Honey-Bees. I cannot close this preface without acknowledging myself to be under the greatest obligations to the Rev. T. Clark, of Gedney-Hill. But for his assistance the following work would not have made its appearance in its present form; if indeed it had appeared at all. He has revised, corrected, connected, and arranged the materials of which it is composed; and he has, moreover, gratuitously added much that is original and valuable from his own rich stores of knowledge. To him I am indebted for the selection of the Latin mottos. As an apiarian he is one of my most improved and skilful pupils, and bids fair to become an ornament to the science of Bee-management. As a mechanic he is ingenious enough to make his own Bee-boxes, and has actually made some of the very best I have yet seen. To his knowledge of mechanics it is owing that the description and explanation of each of the different boxes, of all the other parts of my Bee-machinery, and of my observatory-hive, in particular, are more detailed, clearer, and more intelligible than they would have been in my hands. As a scholar there are passages in the following work that afford no mean specimen of his abilities. I have only to regret that the reward for the pains he has taken with it must be my thanks--that it is not in my power to remunerate him for his kind labours more substantially than by this public acknowledgement of the obligations I am under, and of my sense of the debt of gratitude that is due to him. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. "Out of print," though a somewhat laconic, might be a not inappropriate preface to this second edition, and of itself a quaint apology for its appearance. _Out of print_ is certainly exhilarating news to the author anxious for the success of a work inculcating a new system of Bee-management, in which not only is his reputation as an apiarian involved and evolved, but, it may be, the very means of his subsistence are _bound up_ in it; the oftener therefore he hears the bibliopolist expression--_out of print_--the more animating and welcome it becomes; because its reiteration can hardly fail to be considered by him an indication that the demand for his book continues.--that his system is progressing,--or, at any rate, that either curiosity respecting it, or some higher and more laudable motive, is still existent in the public mind. Thus cheered on, thus, as it were, _encored_, it has become his duty to the public no less than to himself to proceed forthwith to the publication of a new edition. Previously, however, to stating what alterations, emendations, &c. have been introduced in order to render the work, as far as I am yet able to render it, worthy a continuance of public patronage, I consider it to be my duty to record my grateful thanks for the success and encouragement I have already received. To the scientific and literary press, and to the several gentlemen of scientific attainments connected therewith, who, by their influence and kind professional assistance, and promptitude in the furtherance of my interest, have greatly contributed to my success, my best thanks are due, _and are hereby respectfully tendered:_ amongst these I have sincere pleasure in particularizing Dr. BIRKBECK--the talented President of the London Mechanics' Institution,--Dr. HANCOCK--Fellow of the Medico-Botanical Society--a veteran of high and esteemed attainments,--and Mr. BOOTH--the popular Lecturer on Chemistry--a young man of first-rate abilities. To J. C. London--the erudite editor of the Gardeners' Magazine,--to E. J. Robertson, Esq.--the able and ingenious editor of the Mechanics' Magazine,--to Richard Newcomb--the editor and publisher of the Stamford Mercury,--and to the several editors of the Metropolitan and Provincial Press, who have made favourable mention of my labours, my public thanks are justly due,--and particularly to the editor of the Cambridge Quarterly Review, for a highly commendatory notice of my work, evidently written by a practical apiarian, and with competent knowledge of his subject, which appeared in No. 3 of that Review, published in March 1834. Also to my long-tried, worthy _Friend_--George Neighbour--it is gratifying to me to have this opportunity of offering my sincere thanks for his valuable services in my behalf;--and to the conductors of those excellent and useful institutions--the National Gallery of Practical Science, Adelaide Street,--and the Museum of National Manufactures, Leicester Square, London, I gratefully acknowledge myself to be under no slight obligations for the advantageous opportunities which I have there possessed of extending the knowledge of my system, and of exhibiting, year after year, to thousands of visitors, the products of my apiary. With the view of making "The Humane Management of Honey-Bees" more interesting, the dialogue, which formed the introductory chapter in the first edition, has been withdrawn, and in its place have been substituted some valuable remarks of Dr. Birkbeck, Dr. Hancock, and Mr. Booth, respecting Bees, honey, wax, &c. of course _the first chapter is new_; as is chapter X. giving an account of the apiary of the Most Noble the Marquess of Blandford, at Delabere Park, which can hardly fail of being interesting to every reader: it is principally from the able pen of Mr. Booth. Chapter XVIII. on Apiarian Societies, is new also. And, besides these three entire chapters, not short paragraphs merely, but whole pages of new matter have been introduced interspersedly by my most respected friend--the Rev. T. Clark, of Gedney-Hill, who has revised, corrected, and re-arranged the whole; and who has not only bestowed much time and pains upon the improvement of my work, but in the kindest and most disinterested manner has, in superintending this and the former edition through the press, actually travelled upwards of _eight hundred_ miles. The friendly performer of services so generous, so laborious, and so perseveringly attended to, without any stipulation for fee or reward, merits from me, and has from me, every expression of my gratitude, and, were it in my power, should have _one expression more_. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter Page I. _Introductory Matters_ 1 II. _Bee-Boxes and Management of Bees in them_ 14 III. _Ventilation_ 49 IV. _Thermometer_ 58 V. _On Driving Bees_ 90 VI. _Inverted-Hive_ 96 VII. _Observatory-Hive_ 107 ---- _Mode of Stocking an Observatory-Hive_ 119 VIII. _Fumigation_ 121 IX. _Objections against Piling Boxes_ 135 X. _Apiary at Delabere Park_ 149 XI. _Honey-Bees_ 156 ---- _For the Sting of a Bee_ 171 XII. _Impregnation of the Queen-Bee_ 175 XIII. _Supernumerary Queens_ 181 XIV. _Bee-Feeding_ 190 ---- _Bee-Food_ 200 XV. _Catalogue of Bee-Flowers, &c._ 206 XVI. _Honey-Comb_ 211 ---- _Bees' Wax_ 232 XVII. _Winter Situation for Bees_ 237 XVIII. _Apiarian Societies_ 246 XIX. _Miscellaneous Directions_ 253 INDEX TO THE ENGRAVINGS. Frontispiece, to face title. Page Octagonal-Cover for the Pavilion 16 Collateral-Boxes apart 17 Ditto closed. 29 Inverted-Hive 100 Observatory-Hive 109 Ditto with additions 118 Fumigator 123 Tower at Delabere to face 149 The Three Bees 157 Honey-Comb 213 MANAGEMENT OF BEES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY MATTERS. The object of the generality of persons who keep Bees, is--profit: and that profit might be indefinitely augmented were Bees properly managed, and their lives preserved--were the still extensively-practised, cruel, and destructive system superseded by a conservative one. Some few there may be in the higher ranks of life, who cultivate bees from motives of curiosity--for the gratification of witnessing and examining the formation and progress of their ingenious and most beautiful works, and with a view to study the instinct, habits, propensities, peculiarities, or, in one word, the nature, of these wonderful, little insects, in order to improve their condition, and to gain additional knowledge respecting their natural history, hitherto, it must be confessed, enveloped in much uncertainty, and very imperfectly understood. To this class of Bee-masters and _Bee-friends_ the system of management to be explained in the following pages, will, it is hoped, unfold discoveries and impart facilities and improvements hitherto unknown in apiarian science. And they, whose sole object in keeping Bees is _profit_, may derive incalculable advantage from conforming to the mode of management, and strictly attending to the _practical directions_ hereinafter to be detailed: because as their profits are expected to arise principally from honey and wax, it evidently must be for their interest to know how to obtain those valuable Bee-productions in their purest state and in the greatest quantity. The quantity obtained in a good honey-year (viz. 1826) from a well-stocked and exceedingly prosperous colony--still in existence, and still flourishing, (i. e. in 1834) was so considerable, and so far beyond anything ever realized from a common straw-hive colony, that my statements respecting it have been doubted by some, and totally discredited by others, unacquainted with my (I trust I may say) _improved_ system of Bee-management. With respect to the purity of the honey taken according to my plan, and the general properties and medical virtues, and, of course, _value of honey when pure_, I have much pleasure in being enabled to submit to the reader the opinions of my scientific friends--Dr. Birkbeck, Mr. Abraham Booth, Lecturer on Chemistry, and Dr. Hancock; because their opinions may safely be considered as unimpeachable authority on this subject, viz. the uses and medical virtues of _pure honey_. In some observations on the effect of the temperature of Bee-hives on the quality of honey, published in a scientific journal, Mr. Booth observes--"notwithstanding the adequate justice which has been done to Mr. Nutt's improved and admirable system of Bee-management, there is one point which does not appear to have elicited much attention--the superiority in quality both of the honey and the wax. It does not appear to me that the whole of this superiority consists in freedom from extraneous animal or vegetable matters, a point of very great importance, however, as its dietetic purposes are concerned; but that it greatly depends upon the modified degree of temperature at which the Bees effect their labours, and which is insufficient to produce any chemical changes in the constitution of these substances; whereas under the old system, the continued high temperature of the hive is sufficient to induce those changes which impart the colour that so materially deteriorates the quality as well as the value of the products. _From Mr. Nutt's hives we obtain pure honey, as it is actually secreted by the Bee_, which cannot be ensured by any other mode of management." To my very intelligent friend and patron, Dr. Birkbeck, whose uniform liberality and kindness, from the infancy of my pursuits, I have reason to appreciate, I am indebted for introducing this subject in a Lecture[A] at the London Institution, Moorfields, on the application of the oxy-hydrogen light to illustrate the economy and structure of the insect world. In the course of his observations, on referring to the tongue of the Bee, the learned Doctor made copious allusions to my system, and the advantages which would in his view result from its general extension. He observed that "so small is the supply that we derive from the labours of Bees in this country, that the production of wax does not even more than equal its consumption in the simple article of lip-salve. Under this improved system, we may however hope that the advantages of Bee-management may be more generally diffused throughout the kingdom,--that Bee-hives will be multiplied, and that the choicest flowers of the field and forest will no longer 'waste their sweetness in the desert air.' In a dietetic point of view, it is of great importance that a saccharine, secreted by one of the most beautiful processes of nature, should be substituted for one produced by the most imperfect and complicated process of art, whilst the more salutary properties of the former would recommend it as far more eligible for use. He could not but hope that, in this view the system would soon receive that extension in practice to which its merits fitted it."[B] [Footnote A: Delivered April 23d 1334.] [Footnote B: Dr. Birkbeck related the following instance of the power of recognition possessed by Bees to myself and Mr. Booth, which I cannot suffer to pass unnoticed. When a boy, he was accustomed to cover his hand with honey, and go to the front of one of the hives in his father's garden. His hand was soon covered by the Bees, banquetting on the proffered sweets, and the whole of it was speedily removed. The Bees appeared to recognize the learned Doctor ever afterwards when he appeared in the garden, his hand being always surrounded by them in expectation of there finding their accustomed boon.] Some very important observations on honey, in a medical point of view, are those which were contained in a paper written by my very learned and valued friend, Dr. Hancock, and read before the Medico-Botanical Society at their sitting November 26th 1833.[C] [Footnote C: For a copy of the first edition of this work, with specimens of honey, &c. the author received the thanks of the Society; and he has since been honoured with a diploma, which constitutes him a corresponding member thereof.] An abstract of this important paper[D] I shall communicate for the information of my readers. [Footnote D: An abstract of the paper was published in the Lancet and several other journals.] "The great objects which recommend Mr. Nutt's plan, consist in the great improvement in quality and augmentation of honey produced, and that without destroying the Bees--a discovery equally creditable to Mr. Nutt, as a man of benevolent mind, and to his industry and indefatigable research. "The cultivation of Honey-bees is of remote antiquity. The Bee was regarded as the emblem of royalty with the ancient Egyptians, and Bees have been held in the highest esteem by all nations, whether barbarous or civilized; yet the united experience of ancients and moderns has never hitherto led to the happy results, which, by a connected series of experiments, patient research, and logical induction, have in twelve years been achieved by Mr. Nutt. In the course of his observation he saw, not only that the destruction of the Bees was barbarous in the extreme, but that this cruelty was equally subversive of the crops of honey; his inquiries were hence directed to find how this destructive system could be exchanged for a conservative one. In this he has completely succeeded, and by preserving the Bees has been enabled to increase their produce many-fold, and that too, in a far more salutary and improved quality. It is equal even to the samples usually obtained from young hives called virgin honey, which is scarce, dear, and seldom to be had genuine. "Owing to the want of knowledge on the subject, the consequent impurities, and the great price of foreign honey, together with the adulterations practised, the use of this valuable article has been nearly abandoned in this country, whether as an article of the materia medica or of domestic economy; and for the reasons just stated, the preparations of honey have even been expunged from the Edinburgh Pharmacopeia. From the recent improvement, however, by the gentleman just mentioned, we have reason to hope its use will be restored in a condition vastly improved, and that at a great reduction in price, the facilities of production being greatly enhanced, and such as to render it in time available to all classes of society. "Pure honey was justly considered by the ancients to possess the most valuable balsamic and pectoral properties--as a lenitive, ecoprotic, and detergent; and it is well-known to dissolve viscid phlegm and promote expectoration. As a medium for other remedies, it is in its pure state far superior to sirups, as being less liable to run into the acetous fermentation. It appears that honey procured on Mr. Nutt's plan is not excelled by the finest and most costly samples from the continent, as that of Minorca, Narbonne, or Montpelier. The various impurities and extraneous matter usually contained in honey, cause it in many cases to produce griping pains, or uneasy sensations in the stomach and bowels; this however has no such effect, unless it be taken to an imprudent extent. "Pure honey, though in its ultimate elements similar to refined sugar, yet differs considerably in its physiological effects on the body, being a _lenitive_, _aperient_ or gentle laxative, and hence incomparably more beneficial in costive habits. It has in a dietetic or medicinal point of view been recommended in gravel or calculous complaints; of this however I have no knowledge, but its utility in asthma I have experienced in my own person as well as in others;--as also as an efficacious remedy in hooping cough, taken with antimonial wine, camphor, arid opium. For sedentary persons and those troubled with constipation of the bowels, there is no dietetic or medicinal substance so useful as pure honey, whether taken in drink or with bread and butter, &c. It is well-known as a detergent of foul sores, and I have often found it to succeed in healing deep-seated sinuous or fistulous ulcers, and thus to obviate the necessity of surgical operations. "In South America and amongst the Spaniards, honey is considered as one of the best detergents for sloughing sores and foul ulcerations; so it was formerly in Europe. Its uses in a surgical point of view have in this country long been lost sight of. Its detergent power is such, that it was formerly denominated a _vegetable soap_, as we may see in the older writers. It is still made the basis of _cosmetics_, and this empirical practice goes to prove its efficacy--to those at least who have experienced its effects in cleansing and healing sinuous ulcers, its stimulating property producing withal the sanitary adhesive inflammation. A species of wine made from honey, called metheglin and mead--the _mulsum_ of the ancients--was formerly much in use in this country, and most deservedly so from its pleasant taste and salutary properties. By the perfection of honey, this may now be obtained no doubt of equal excellence here, and a rich mellifluous species of wine of the most wholesome kind will be acquired, and open a new source of national industry. "It has been said, that where the air is clear and hot, honey is better than where it is variable and cold, and this seems to have served as an apology for the inferiority of much of the honey contained in this country. It is a position, which I am persuaded is not well founded; for the honey in hot climates, notwithstanding the fragrance of the flowers, is mostly inferior to the commonest samples produced here. This inferiority, however, may be entirely owing to the difference in the Bees--for I speak here of the wild or native honey--and it is probable that the _apis mellifica_ might, in South America, on Mr. Nutt's plan, produce the best of honey, and in very great abundance, because it would there work all the year, and the product therefore would be greatly increased. "I have seen honey taken in the forests of South America from several different species of Bees; they were always destitute of a sting, although entomologists consider it as one of the generic characters of _apis_. It is also singular that their wax is always _black_, or dark brown, although the pollen of the flowers, which is said to give colour, is equally yellow as in this country. Bees obtain honey from most kinds of flowers, but appear in general to prefer the labiati or lip flowers, as those of sage, marjoram, mint, thyme, lavender, &c. "Mr. Nutt, in the course of his observation, has noticed the curious fact, that the nectar or honey obtained from different plants is carefully deposited by the Bees in separate cells, or at least that the nectar from different _genera_ of plants is kept distinct. It appears indeed, that the produce of the flowers is classed by them, and arranged with a precision not inferior to that of the most accurate botanist. What but a hand Divine could guide these little insects thus to mock the boasted power of human reason! This consideration too, coupled with our own interests, should operate as a powerful argument in favour of Mr. Nutt's new conservative system of management, and against the reckless destruction of the Bees. Mr. Nutt has already been patronised by the Royal Family and several of the nobility, and no doubt his plan will be adopted by all persons of intelligence, who engage in this pursuit, whether for profit or the most rational amusement." When I first entered into my apiarian pursuits, I felt convinced of the great and profitable extent to which they might be carried; and of this I have been all along since confirmed as success has crowned my efforts. If I could demonstrate--and I have repeatedly demonstrated--how much honey might be increased in quantity, its superior quality also struck me as a point of no less importance; and in this I am now most satisfactorily confirmed by the sanction of those scientific friends whose valuable opinions have been above quoted. With alacrity and pleasure I will therefore proceed, without further introduction, to give a description of my Bee-boxes, and other hives, and of all my Bee-machinery,--and directions for the proper construction of them,--and also for the proper ordering and management of Bees in them. CHAPTER II. BEE-BOXES AND MANAGEMENT OF BEES IN THEM. The schemes and contrivances, and ways and means, to which apiarians have had recourse, in order to deprive Bees of their honey, without at the same time destroying their lives, have been various, and some of them ingenious; but hitherto not one of them has been crowned with the desired success. The leaf-hives of Dunbar and of Huber--Huish's hive with cross-bars,--the piling of hive upon hive, or box upon box, (called storifying), and several other contrivances, have all had this great object in view,--have all had their patrons and admirers,--have all had fair trials,--but have, notwithstanding, all failed of fully accomplishing it. Whether my inventions may merit and may meet with a similar or with a better fate, it is not for me to predict,--time will show. I feel warranted, however, in asserting of my COLLATERAL-BOX-HIVE, which I am now about to explain,--of my INVERTED-HIVE, and of my OBSERVATORY-HIVE, of which in their proper places minute descriptions will be given,--I feel, I say, warranted in asserting that these--my inventions--possess such conveniences and accommodations both for Bees and Bee-masters, that the pure treasure stored in them by those industrious, little insects may at any time be abstracted from them, not only without destroying the Bees, but without injuring them in the least, or even incommoding their labours by the operation;--that they afford accommodations to the Bees which greatly accelerate the progress of their labours in the summer-season;--and that the Bees never leave them in disgust, as it were, as they not unfrequently _do leave_ other hives, after being deprived of their stores; but, as if nothing had happened to them, continue day by day to accumulate fresh treasures, the quantity of which has astonished the beholders, and not only the quantity, but the quality also. That my boxes do not, admit of improvement is more than I assert; but having worked them most successfully for many years, and knowing that several other persons, following my directions, have succeeded with them as well as myself, and far beyond their most sanguine expectations, I do flatter myself that the principle of managing Bees after my plan is right. [Illustration] [Illustration] The plates here presented to my readers exhibit a set of my collateral Bee-boxes open, and every compartment exposed to view, especially to the view and for the examination of experienced workmen. I make use of the word _experienced_, because the better the boxes are made, the more certain will the apiarian be of success in the management of his Bees in them. There has been some difference of opinion as to the most suitable dimensions for Bee-boxes. I approve of and recommend those which are from eleven to twelve inches square inside, and nine or ten inches deep in the clear. The best wood for them is by some said to be red cedar; the chief grounds of preference of which wood are--its effects in keeping moths out of the boxes, and its being a bad conductor of heat. But of whatever kind of wood Bee-boxes are made, it should be well seasoned, perfectly sound, and free from what carpenters term _shakes_. Good, sound, red deal answers the purpose very well, and is the sort of wood of which most of my boxes have been made hitherto. The sides of the boxes, particularly the front sides, should be at the least an inch and a half in thickness; for the ends, top, and back-part, good deal one inch thick is sufficiently substantial; the ends, that form the interior divisions and openings, must be of half-inch stuff, well dressed off, so that, when the boxes and the dividing-tins are closed, that is, when they are all placed together, the two adjoining ends should not exceed five-eighths of an inch in thickness. These communication-ends, the bars of which should be exactly parallel with each other, form a communication, or a division, as the case may require, which is very important to the Bees, and by which the said boxes can be immediately divided without injuring any part of the combs, or deluging the Bees with the liquid honey, which so frequently annoys them, by extracting their sweets from the piled or storified boxes. This is not the only advantage my boxes possess: the receptacles or frame-work for the ventilators, which appear upon each of the end-boxes,--the one with the cover off, the other with it on--must be four inches square, with a perforated, flat tin of nearly the same size, and in the middle of that tin must be a round hole, to correspond with the hole through the top of the box, and in the centre of the frame-work just mentioned, an inch in diameter, to admit the perforated, cylinder, tin ventilator, nine inches long. This flat tin must have a smooth piece of wood well-made to fit it closely, and to cover the frame-work just mentioned, so as to carry the wet off it, then placing this cover over the square, perforated tin, your box will be secure from the action of wind and rain. The perforated cylinder serves both for a ventilator, and also for a secure and convenient receptacle for a thermometer, at any time when it is necessary to ascertain the temperature of the box into which the cylinder is inserted. Within this frame-work, and so that the perforated, flat tin already described may completely cover them, at each corner make a hole with a three-eighths centre-bit through the top of the box. These four small holes materially assist the ventilation, and are, in fact, an essential part of it. We next come to the long floor, on which the three square Bee-boxes, (A. C. C.), which constitute _a set_, stand collaterally. This floor is the strong top of a long, shallow box, made for the express purpose of supporting the three Bee-boxes, and must, of course, be superficially of such dimensions as those boxes, when placed collaterally, require; or, if the Bee-boxes project the eighth part of an inch over the ends and back of this floor-box, so much the better; because in that case the rain or wet, that may at any time fall upon them, will drain off completely. For ornament, as much as for use, this floor is made to project about two inches in front; but this projection must be sloped, or made an inclined plane, so as to carry off the wet from the front of the boxes. To the centre of this projecting front, and on a plane with the edge of the part cut away for the entrance of the Bees into the pavilion, is attached the alighting-board, which consists of a piece of planed board, six inches by three, having the two outward corners rounded off a little. The passage from this alighting-board into the pavilion, (not seen in the plate, it being at the centre of the side not shown) is cut, not out of the edge of the box, _but out of the floor-board_, and should be not less than four inches in length, and about half an inch in depth; or so as to make a clear half-inch-way under the edge of the box for the Bee-passage. I recommend this as preferable to a cut in the edge of the box,--because, being upon an inclined plane, if at any time the wet should be driven into the pavilion by a stormy wind, it would soon drain out, and the floor become dry; whereas, if the entrance-passage be cut out of the box, the rain that may, and at times will, be drifted in, will be kept in, and the floor be wet for days, and perhaps for weeks, and be very detrimental to the Bees. In depth the floor-box, measured from outside to outside, should be four inches, so that, if made of three-fourths inch-deal, there may be left for the depth of the box-part full two inches and a half. Internally it is divided into three equal compartments, being one for each Bee-box: admission to these compartments, or under-boxes, is by the drawer and drawer-fronts, or blocks, which will be described presently. The bottom, or open edge of each of the boxes, (A. C. C.) should be well planed, and made so even and square that they will sit closely and firmly upon the aforesaid floor, and be as air-tight as a good workman can make them, or, technically expressed, _be a dead fit_ all round. In the floor-board are made three small openings, i. e. one near the back of each box. These openings are of a semi-lunar shape, (though any other shape would do as well) the straight side of which should not exceed three inches in length, and will be most convenient if made parallel with the back-edge of the box, and about an inch from it. They are covered by perforated, or by close tin-slides, as the circumstances of your apiary may require. The drawer (G.) the front of which appears under the middle-box, is of great importance, because it affords one of the greatest accommodations to the Bees in the boxes. In this drawer is placed, if necessity require it, a tin made to fit it, and in that tin, another thin frame covered with book-muslin, or other fine strainer, which floats on the liquid deposited for the sustenance of the Bees. Here, then, you have a feeder, containing the prepared sweet, in the immediate vicinity of the mother-hive, and without admitting the cold or the robbers to annoy the Bees. When you close the drawer thus prepared with Bee-food, you must draw out the tin placed over the semi-lunar aperture, which will open to the Bees a way to their food in the drawer beneath. The heat of the hive follows the Bees into the feeding apartment, which soon becomes the temperature of their native-hive. Here the Bees banquet on the proffered boon in the utmost security, and in the temperature of their native domicile. Under such favourable circumstances it is an idle excuse, not to say--a want of humanity, to suffer your Bees to die for want of attention to proper feeding. I now come to notice the use of the block-fronts on each side of the feeding-drawer, marked G. These two block-fronts answer many good purposes, and furnish the apiarian with several practical advantages: first, in the facility they afford of adding numbers to the establishment, as occasion may require, which is done without the least inconvenience or trouble to the apiarian, and without the least resentment from the native Bees; second, in affording to the Bees a place of egress when you are about to take from them one of the end-boxes; third, in the effectual and beautiful guard they furnish against robbers: for instead of the solid block, seen in the plate, a safety-block (of which a description will be given presently) may be substituted, which is so contrived that ten thousand Bees can with ease leave their prison and their sweets in the possession of the humane apiarian, without the possible chance of a single intruder forcing its entrance to rob the magazine or to annoy the apiarian. Perhaps this is the most pleasing part, and the most happy convenience attached to the boxes. Its origin was this: Whilst explaining to some scientific gentlemen at the National Repository the method to be pursued in the management of Bees in a set of collateral-boxes,--and, in particular, the manner of taking off a box of honey, it was objected--that, on removing the block-front and withdrawing the tin that opens a communication into the box above, though a passage would thereby be opened for the imprisoned Bees to get away, it would at the same time afford an opening and an opportunity--nay, be a sort of invitation for the Bees of other hives,--for strange Bees and robbers to get in, annoy, and destroy the native Bees, then subdued by having been imprisoned, and to plunder and carry away their treasures. This objection, to persons unskilled in Bee-matters, may, I grant, appear to be plausible--nay, reasonable: but every _practical apiarian_, who has taken off two or three end-boxes of honey, knows very well that there is not the least danger to be apprehended from robbers or marauders during the short time that the liberated, native Bees are hurrying away as fast as they can get. I have never witnessed any thing like an attempt to besiege and rob a box so situated. Were, however, the communication to be left open for any considerable time after the Bees have departed, I have no doubt that, if not discovered by Bees belonging to other hives, it (the vacated box) would be re-entered by its own Bees, and by them be soon entirely emptied of its honey. Nothing, however, but down-right carelessness on the part of the operator will ever subject a box of honey to a visitation of this description. But, notwithstanding the conviction in _my_ mind that the above-stated objection is _in fact_ groundless, I set my wits to work to answer it in a way more satisfactory to the highly respectable persons who raised it, and, if by any means I could, to obviate it entirely. It did not cost me much mental labour to invent--_a safety-block_,--nor does it require much manual labour to make one. A safety-block must be made to fit the place of the common block, and may be cut out of a piece of half-inch deal board, having one side planed off so as to leave the bottom-edge less than one-fourth of an inch in thickness; then with a three-eighths-inch centre-bit cut as near the lower, that is--the thin edge, as you can, a row of holes. Ten holes in a length of six inches will allow a convenient space between each hole. Next, over each of these small holes, suspend a piece of talc, cut of a proper size for the purpose, by a thread of silk, and make that thread fast round a tiny brass nail above. The talc, which is a mineral substance as transparent as glass, and much lighter, and on that account much better than glass, thus suspended over each hole, is easily lifted and passed by Bees from within, but is heavy enough to fall again as soon as a Bee has made its exit, and forms an effectual bar or block against the entrance of Bees from the outside. A block of this description may be had for a trifling expense, and is recommended to all such inexperienced and timid--timid because inexperienced---apiarians, as are apprehensive of being annoyed by intruders when they are taking off a box of honey. Though this safety-block rather impedes the escape of the Bees, it has nevertheless a pretty appearance when it is neatly made,--and it is amusing enough to see the beautiful, little creatures pushing open first one little trap-door and then another, popping out their heads, and then winging their flight to the entrance of the pavilion. After all, though it certainly is a complete _safety-block_, and was invented to obviate a groundless objection, it is more an article of curiosity than of real usefulness. Lastly, I have to notice the security which the under-box or frame gives to the stability of the three upper boxes,--the firmness with which it supports them,--and the dry and comfortable way in which the Bees by it are enabled to discharge their dead, and other superfluities of the colony, without their being exposed to the cold atmosphere of an autumn or a spring morning. The octagon-box, marked H, is a covering for the bell-glass, marked B, which is placed on the middle-box, or seat of nature. It matters not of what shape this covering is, because any covering over the glass will answer the same purpose, provided the under-board of it is wide enough to cover the divisional openings, and to throw off the wet. I choose an octagon because of the neatness of its appearance. In endeavouring to recommend these Bee-boxes as worthy of general adoption, in order to succeed in my object, it is undoubtedly necessary that the parts and construction of them, and of every thing pertaining to them, be fully explained and clearly understood: I therefore proceed to give another view of them. In the former plate they are exhibited as open, or detached and apart from each other: in the following one they are represented as closed and standing together, as when stocked with Bees, and in full operation in an apiary: in both it is the back of the boxes that is presented. With the exception of the alighting-board, the front is quite plain, being without window-shutters in the boxes, and without drawer and block-fronts in the under-board. [Illustration] In this plate the engraver has made the floor-box to extend beyond the ends of the C. C. boxes; but, as has already been observed, and for the reason before given, it is better that the floor-box be made so that those (C. C.) boxes project a little over the ends and also over the back of the floor. EXPLANATION OF THE REFERENCES TO THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF A SET OF COLLATERAL-BOXES. A. is the pavilion, or middle-box, which may be most easily stocked by a swarm of Bees, just as a cottage-hive is stocked. B. is the bell-glass in the first plate,--in the second, it only points to the place where the glass stands. C. C. are the collateral, or two end-boxes. D. D. are neat mouldings, about three inches wide, made of three-fourths-inch deal, and are so fastened to the middle-box in front, (i. e. the side not here shown) as well as at the back, that an inch and a half of each may project beyond each corner of that box, and form a cover and protection for the edges of the dividing-tins, and also for the four seams, or joints, necessarily made by placing the end-boxes against the middle one. E. E. are the frame-work and covers of the ventilation and thermometer. F. F. are the block-fronts } G. is the feeding-drawer } already described. H. is the octagon-cover } I. I. I. are the window-shutters, five inches by four, or larger or smaller, as fancy may direct: these shutters open as so many little doors by means of small brass-joints, and are kept fast, when closed, by a brass-button set on the box. 1, 2, 3, 4, are so many tin-slides, to cut off, or to open, as the case may require, the communications between the pavilion and the bell-glass, between the pavilion and the feeding-drawer, and between the end-boxes and their under-boxes. For a Bee-passage between the pavilion and the bell-glass, is cut, in the centre of the top of the pavilion, a circular hole, an inch in diameter, and from the edge of that circular hole are cut four or six passages, just wide enough to allow the Bees space to pass and re-pass. These lineal cuts must of course terminate within the circumference of the circle formed by the edge of the bell-glass that is placed over them. Perhaps it may be said,--in fact, it has been said--that these boxes are in reality nothing more than a common cottage-hive. Be it so: but it is an _improved_ cottage-hive, made convenient by being divisible, and by having its parts well arranged. The middle-box, or department, marked A, is, however, square, and not round, like the common straw-hive. But beyond this one box the comparison cannot easily be carried; the common straw-hive possesses no such conveniences and accommodations as those afforded both to Bees and Bee-masters by the end-boxes of my hive. In the middle-box the Bees are to be first placed: in it first they skilfully construct their beautiful combs,--and, under the prerogative of one sovereign--the mother of the hive--carry on their curious works, and display their astonishing, architectural ingenuity. In this box the regina of the colony, surrounded by her industrious, happy, humming subjects, carries on the propagation of her species,--deposits in the cells prepared for the purpose by the other Bees, thousands upon thousands of her eggs, though she deposits no more than one egg in a cell at one time: these eggs are hatched and nursed up into a numerous progeny by the other inhabitants of the hive. It is at this time, viz. when hundreds of young Bees are daily coming into existence, that my collateral-boxes are of the utmost importance to the Bees domiciled in them: for when the young larvæ are perfected upon the cottage plan, a swarm is the necessary consequence. The Queen, with thousands of her Bee-subjects, leaves the colony, and seeks another place in which to carry on her astonishing labours. But as swarming may, by proper precaution and attention to my mode of management, generally be prevented, it is manifestly a good thing to do so; for the time necessarily required to establish another colony, even supposing the cottager succeeds in saving the swarm, would otherwise be employed in collecting the pure sweets, and in enriching the old hive. Here, then, is one of the advantages of my plan, viz. _the prevention of swarming_. When symptoms of swarming begin to present themselves, and which may be known by an unusual noise in the hive or box (for it is of Bees in boxes that I am now treating), and by the appearance of more than common activity among the Bees; when these symptoms are apparent, then the Bee-master may conclude that more space is required. At this period, therefore, he should draw out the sliding-tin, marked 1, from under the bell-glass, which simple operation will immediately open to the Bees a new room--a palace--which they will adorn, and fill with their sweets as pure as the crystal stream. But if by mistake the manager should draw up either of the collateral-slides, which divide the end-boxes from the pavilion, the Bees in that case will refuse to go up into the glass, and will commence their works in the collateral-box opened to them, in preference to the elevated glass; so well aware are these matchless insects of the inconvenience attending the carrying of their treasures into an upper room, when a more convenient store-house is to be had in a lower one. The natural movements of Bees have demonstrated to me this fact by more than a thousand trials: year after year I have made this experiment to my entire satisfaction. The natural movements of the Bees also suggested to me the idea of the utility of ventilation, and that by its influence their works might be both divided and purified; and that a place of safety might still be preserved for the Queen in the pavilion. She wants a certain situation in which to carry on the work of propagating her species. Like the fowls of the air, she will not, if she can avoid it, propagate her young whilst under the observation and influence of man: she, therefore, prefers the middle-box for her work of propagation; as well on account of its privacy, as because the ventilation of the end-boxes so cools their temperature, that they are not the situation nature requires to bring the young larvæ to perfection; yet they can be kept at such a temperature as to make them desirable store-rooms for the Bees' treasures. By this mode of management we prevent the necessity of swarming; and behold the grandest chemists in the world, and stores after stores of their pure treasure, unadulterated by the necessary gathering of immense quantities of farina for the young larvæ, which we see in the piling system, as well as in the common cottage-hive; but this is all carried into the immediate vicinity of the seat of nature, the place where it is wanted. When the glass is nearly filled, which in a good season will be in a very short space of time, the Bees will again want accommodation. Previously, however, to drawing up the tin-slide to enlarge their crowded house, the manager should take off the empty end-box he intends to open to them, and smear or dress the inside of it with a little liquid honey. Thus prepared, he must return the box to its proper situation, and then withdraw the sliding-tin between it and the pavilion, or middle-box, and thereby enlarge the Bees' dominion, by opening an end-box to them, which will produce the greatest harmony in the hive. The Bees will immediately commence their operations in this new apartment. This simple operation, _done at a proper time_, effectually prevents swarming; and by it the Queen gains a vast addition to her dominions, and consequently additional space for the population of her enlarged domicile. There is now no want of store-house room, nor of employment, for our indefatigable labourers. And while the subjects are employed in collecting, and manufacturing (if I may so say) their various materials, the regina is engaged in carrying on the great, first principle of nature--the propagation of her species. This she does in the department (A.) re-filling with her eggs the cells which have been vacated by the young larvæ. When, however, her next new progeny are about to be brought into life, the Bee-master must draw out the other tin-slide, and thereby open a communication to the other empty apartment, and so make a further addition to the Queen's realm; which the new, and even veteran labourers, will presently occupy, and set about improving and enriching their again enlarged commonwealth. No sooner have the Bees finished their operations in the several compartments of their box-hive, which may be ascertained by looking through the little windows at the back and ends of the boxes, than the Bee-master gently puts in the tin-slide (1.) lifts up the lid of the octagon-box or cover (H.) and takes off the bell-glass, filled with the purest and most perfect honey. Before, however, he endeavours to take away the glass, it is necessary that he should cut through between the bell-glass and the box, with a fine wire, in order that the tin may the more easily slide under the full glass of honey; when this is done, he may take off the full glass and replace it with an empty one. He must then draw out the tin-slide (1.) and so on for even The operation of taking off a glass, or a box, of honey, may be best performed in the middle of a fine, sunny day; and in taking off a glass, the operator, having put in the tin-slide (1.) as already directed, should wait a few minutes, to see whether the Bees made prisoners in the glass manifest any symptoms of uneasiness; because, if they do not, it may be concluded that the Queen-bee is amongst them; and in that case it is advisable to withdraw the slide (1.) and to re-commence the operation another day. But if, as it generally happens, the prisoners in the glass should run about in confusion and restlessness, and manifest signs of great uneasiness, _then_ the operator may conclude that all is right, and, having taken off the octagon-cover, may envelope the glass in a silk handkerchief, or dark cloth, so as to exclude the light, remove it with a steady hand, and place it on one side, or so that the Bees may have egress from it, in some shady place, ten or fifteen yards from the boxes, and the Bees that were imprisoned in it will in a few minutes effect their escape, and return with eagerness to the pavilion and their comrades. And what may be done with B, may also be done with either of the C. C. boxes, as occasion requires. It may not, however, be amiss to be more explanatory of the mode of taking away the treasures of the Bees in the side-boxes. It will be necessary to examine minutely the state of your boxes, particularly when the whole of your colony is full of the Bees' works. When the tin is put down to divide an end-box from the mother-hive, you, no doubt, make many prisoners; to prevent which, the night before separating an end-box from a middle one, lay open the ventilator, which will not only lower the heat of the box, but will admit the atmospheric air, which naturally causes the Bees to leave that apartment, and to draw themselves into the middle-box--their native climate; when this is done, you may put down the tin-slide (D.) as already directed, and let your Bees remain fifteen or twenty minutes in total darkness: then open the windows of the box you are about to take off, and if the Queen-bee is not within that box, the Bees that are in it will show a great desire to be liberated from their disagreeable confinement, by running about in the most hurried, agitated, and restless manner. But should the Queen-bee be there, you will then find the Bees show no desire to leave her;--the commotion will appear in the middle-box. Under such circumstances, which sometimes happen, you must act with caution; for were you to open the egress from the box, that is, the block (F.) and tin-slide (2. or 4. as the case may be) to permit their departure, very shortly would the whole of the working Bees join their sovereign in the box you intended to take; and this would be a great disappointment and complete puzzle to the Bee-master, not thoroughly acquainted with the moves of, or proper mode of managing, his valuable hive. To me such an occurrence would be a repetition only of a demonstration of facts--of pleasures unspeakable, in beholding the grand works of nature, the noble influence of her majesty--the Queen of the Bees. When, however, you do find the Queen in the box you are about to take off, is it not easy to draw the tin-slide up again? Certainly it is easy to draw up the dividing-tin. Do so, then, and that done, the Queen-bee will readily embrace the opportunity of leaving the place of her confinement; and then, having put down the dividing-tin, you will presently be in a situation to accomplish your object. You will soon see the Bees running to and fro upon the windows in the box you are about to take off, and when you thus find them anxious to leave your box of honey, close the windows, and you have then only to open an egress by withdrawing the tin, No. 2. or 4. as your box may require; the Bees finding an aperture, with light to direct their departure, will immediately embrace the opportunity of regaining their liberty, will fly away from their prison, and join their fellow-labourers at the entrance of the mother-hive. In a few minutes you will be in possession of a box of honey, and all your Bees will be in safety and harmonizing with their beloved parent--the Queen of the hive. Take from them the box your humanity entitles you to, minding that the tin-slide is safe to the middle-box. You will then empty the full box, and return it empty to its former place; then draw up your tin, and you again enlarge their domicil, having gained a rich reward for your operation, at the expense of their labour. A child of twelve years of age may be taught to do this without the least danger; there need no Bee-dresses,--there needs no fumigation of any sort. It is a natural movement for the welfare of these worthies, that prevents their swarming, and at once secures to the sovereign Queen of Bees her rightful throne. Reader, this declaration is founded on facts,--on the practical experience of many years. And that you may adopt this principle and mode of managing Honey-Bees, that is, of taking from them their superabundance of treasure, and preserving your Bees uninjured, and, if you can contrive it, improve upon the instructions here given you, and upon the example here set you, is my hearty wish, for my country's welfare, and for the welfare of my admired, nay, my _beloved_ BEES. Should it, however, so happen, as it sometimes may, owing to a variety of causes, such, for instance, as the negligence, or unskilfulness, or unavoidable absence of the Bee-master at a critical time, or from any other cause, should it, I say, so happen that the pavilion, or middle-box, should swarm, take such swarm into one of the end-boxes, prepared for such an event, by merely making an entrance to it, at or as near as possible to the corner farthest from the entrance into the middle-box; and before this new entrance fix a small alighting board. The swarm will thus become a family of itself, and as much a stock pro tempore, as if it were placed on a separate stand, provided the dividing-tin, which separates the middle-box from that in which the swarm is put, be carefully adjusted, and made perfectly tight and secure, so that a Bee cannot pass from one box to the other. To this material point the apiarian will necessarily attend when he first removes the end-box in order to put the swarm into it. In the evening place the box containing the swarm on its floor, just where and as it was before it was taken off. Let the Bees thus managed work two or three weeks, or as the nature of the season may require,--I mean--until the end-box appears to be pretty well filled with combs. Then close up the exterior entrance of the collateral-box containing the swarm of Bees, and draw out the sliding-tin which hitherto has separated the two families or colonies, and the Bees will unite, and become one family. The apiarian will likewise witness with pleasure the effect of ventilation in the hive; for as soon as the Bees have deposed one of the Queens, and the end-box has been cooled by means of the cylinder-ventilator, he will discover that the combs will be presently emptied of every material necessary for the support of the young larvæ; so that the combs, that had been so recently constructed for a seat of nature, soon become receptacles for pure honey, and the numerous Bees become the subjects of one sovereign in the middle-box. This is a neat method of re-uniting a swarm to its parent-stock; and the operation is so easy that the most unpractised apiarian may perform it without subjecting himself to the slightest danger of being stung by the Bees. It can however only be practised with Bees in boxes. Another and a more prompt method of returning a swarm to its parent-stock, and which is practicable with swarms from cottage-hives, as well as with those from boxes, is the following. After the swarm has been taken in the usual way into an empty box, or into a straw-hive, and suffered to settle and cluster therein for an hour or two, gently and with a steady hand take the box or hive, and, having a tub of clean water placed ready and conveniently for the purpose, with a sudden jerk dislodge the Bees from the box or hive and immerse them in the water. Let them remain therein two or three minutes: then drain it off through a sieve, or other strainer, and spread the now harmless Bees--harmless, because apparently half-drowned, upon a dry towel or table-cloth, and search for and _secure the Queen_. This done, and which may very easily be done, place a board or two in a slanting direction from the entrance of the parent-hive to the ground; upon this lay the cloth on which are your immersed Bees, and spread them thinly over it, in order that they may the sooner become dry; and, as they become dry, you will with pleasure see them return to their native-hive, which they will be permitted to enter without the slightest opposition from the Bees already therein. By this operation not only are the immersed Bees cooled, but their re-union with those already in the hive cools them also, and considerably lowers the temperature of the whole stock. With a late swarm from any sort of hive, as well as with an accidental swarm from boxes, this is a good method to be adopted; and, if the apiarian possess sufficient coolness and dexterity to perform it cleverly, it is a practice I would recommend whenever it is advisable to return a swarm to its native-hive. When a swarm has thus been returned to a cottage-hive an eke should be added forthwith. Before I further explain the nature of my collateral Bee-boxes, I shall briefly express my desire that my readers will attend particularly to the discovery of the effects of ventilation. I have been asked--"Of what use is ventilation in the domicil of Bees?" I answer--one of its uses has already been described, and much more of its use, I may say, of its necessity, in the humane management of Bees will be told presently. Many treatises on the management of these valuable insects have appeared, but in none of them do I find any allusion to this important point--important in my practice at least, and essentially necessary in it. Therefore-- To works of Nature join the works of man, To show, by art improved, what Nature can. Nature's great efforts can no further tend, Here fix'd her pillars, all her labours end. Dryden. Perhaps the divided labour of the Honey-Bees was anticipated by the author of these lines: but, be that as it might, I, in my turn, will ask--How can we preserve the Bees uninjured, divide their works, and take away their superabundant treasure, without the influence of ventilation? I think it is impossible. A lesson, a true lesson from nature, has demonstrated this fact to me, and twelve years' constant labour and attention to this important subject have put into operation my plans for the welfare of that wonderful insect--the sovereign Queen of Bees. Well might Dr. Bevan say-- First of the throng, and foremost of the whole, One stands confess'd the sovereign and the soul. Curious facts respecting this extraordinary creature are before me, which have been ascertained and proved by means of my observatory-hive. This hive is unknown in any work hitherto published on the interesting subject of Bee-management: and with reference to it I may observe--that when a new principle is discovered by studying nature, such principle will seldom fail to produce effects beneficial in proportion to its being understood and skilfully applied. So simple and so rational (if I may so say) is my observatory-hive, that it cannot but be approved, when it is once understood, by the followers of my apiarian practice. Be my humble theory what it may, it hath truth for its foundation; and by perseverance and industry I flatter myself I shall materially improve, if not bring to perfection, the cultivation and management of Honey-Bees, merely by pointing out _how_ the produce of their labour may be divided, _how_ a part thereof may be taken away, a sufficiency be left for the sustenance of the stock, and _how_ their lives may be preserved notwithstanding. Much has been said against the probable results of this practice: but facts are stubborn things; and luckily for me and my mode of Bee-management, I have an abundance of the most incontrovertible facts to adduce, which will, I think and hope, convince all those who have heretofore entertained doubts upon the subject. The first movement in my apiarian practice commences with the pavilion of nature. This pavilion, which is equivalent to a cottage-hive, is the subject of my present observations and explanation. I say, then,---disturb not this hive--this pavilion of nature: weaken not its population; but support its influence, and extend to it those accommodations which no practice, except my own, has yet put into operation, or made any adequate provision for. This humane practice partakes not of the driving, nor of the fumigating, nor of the robbing system. It is a liberal principle of Bee-cultivation founded on humanity. And it is by such practice that we must succeed, if we hope to be benefited by the culture of Honey-Bees. CHAPTER III. VENTILATION. To ascertain the degree of heat in a colony of Bees, and to regulate it by means of ventilation, as circumstances may require, recourse must be had to the use of the thermometer, as will be explained presently. But here I would ask my worthy Bee-keepers, whether, in the course of their experience, they have at any time beheld a honey-comb suspended beneath the pedestal of any of their hives--a circumstance that not unfrequently occurs under old stools? The beautiful appearance of a comb suspended in such a situation is, as it were, the very finger of Providence, pointing out the effects of ventilation, and teaching us by an example the necessity there is for it in a crowded, busy hive. Behold the purity of such a comb; examine the cause of that purity, and you will find that it is owing--solely and undoubtedly owing--to the powerful influence of VENTILATION. An occurrence of this description, I mean--the discovery of a beautiful comb suspended, as just described, having excited my curiosity and my admiration, led me to inquire into the cause of it, and to study to discover, if by any means I could, why my skilful, little Bees should have constructed their combs in such a situation. My observations soon satisfied me that one of these two causes, viz. either a want of room in the hive,--or a disagreeable and oppressive heat in it,--or most probably, a combination of these two causes, had rendered it necessary for them, if they continued working at all, to carry on their work in that singular manner. My next step was to endeavour to prove the truth of my reasonings and conclusions, in which, I flatter myself, I have fully succeeded, after no inconsiderable labour, and many contrivances to accommodate the Bees with additional room, as they have had occasion for it, and after repeated experiments to keep such room, when added, at a temperature agreeable to them by means of ventilation. In short, my COLLATERAL-BOXES and VENTILATION are the results of my studies and experiments on this point of apiarian science. There are few persons, who are managers of Honey-Bees under the old hive system, who, if they have not seen a comb constructed and suspended in the manner just described, have not, however, beheld these little creatures, when oppressed with the internal heat of their crowded domicil, and straitened for want of room in it, unhappily clustering and hanging at the door, or from and under the floor-board of their hive, in a ball frequently as large as a man's head, and sometimes covering all the front part of it, for sixteen or twenty days together; and this, be it remarked, at the season of the year which is the most profitable for their labours in the fields and among the flowers. During this distress of the Bees in, or belonging to, such a hive, their labours are of necessity suspended,--their gathering of honey ceases,--ceases too at the very time that that saccharine substance is most plentifully secreted by the vegetable world. And---why? Because they want an enlargement of their domicil,--an extension of the dominion, or (if it may be so termed) of the territory of the Queen; by which enlargement swarming is superseded, and the Royal Insect relieved from the necessity of abdicating her throne, retains it, continues and extends the propagation of her species, and of course increases the busy labours of her innumerable subjects. _This accommodation is provided for Bees in my collateral-boxes._ Ancient as well as modern Bee-keepers have frequently adopted the plan of eking, that is--placing three or four rounds of a straw-hive (called an eke) under their hives. This method of enlarging a hive does in many instances prevent swarming during that one season. Notwithstanding, from all that I can see in it, it tends only to put off the evil day, and to accumulate greater numbers of Bees for destruction the following year. This is certain, because on minute examination of the pavilion of nature, we find an increase of wealth, as well as an increase of numbers in the state; but there is no provision or contrivance in the common hive for dividing the wealthy produce of the labours of those numbers: eking will not do it,--eking enlarges the hive, and that is all it does; consequently to get at their honey, the necessity for destroying the Bees follows, and the suffocating fumes of brimstone at length bring these worthies to the ground--to the deadly pit in which they are first suffocated, then buried, and are, alas, no more! a few minutes close the existence of thousands that had laboured for their ungrateful masters; and their once happy domicil becomes a scene of murder, of plunder, and of devastation, which is a disgrace to Bee-masters, and ought by all means to be discountenanced and discontinued. Assuredly Bees are given to us by the gracious Giver of all good things for a better purpose than that of being destroyed by thousands and by millions. Are we not instructed by the sacred writings to go to the Bee and to the ant, and learn wisdom? We are not told, neither are we warranted, by this language, to go and destroy them and their works,---to disobey the commands of their, no less than of our Maker, who has given Bees to us for our edification and comfort, and not wantonly to commit a species of murder, in order to procure their delicious treasure. Nor is there the slightest necessity for destroying Bees in this cruel manner, when an act of humanity will obtain for us their purest honey, and secure to us their lives for future and profitable labour. Surely, then, an act of humanity to Bees cannot be displeasing to any one, especially when we are taught by the beneficial results of our experience, that their lives _may be preserved_, and their labours for us thereby continued. Apiarian reader, take this subject into thy serious consideration: in the busy hive behold the curious works of God's creatures--the Bees; misuse riot, then, the works of his hands; but improve upon this lesson from nature: and for a moment pause before thou lightest the deadly match,--before thou appliest it with murderous intent to the congregated thousands in thy hive. It's he who feels no rev'rence for God's sacred name, That lights the sulphur up to cause the dreadful flame: Alas! I think, viewing the monster's busy hand Taking the dreadful match, I see a murderer stand. These insects' indefatigable labours alone should humanize our feelings for them, and induce us to spare their lives, for the rich treasures which they first collect, and then unresistingly yield up to us when operated upon by the healthy influence of ventilation. Why should we lay the axe to the root of the tree that produces such good fruit? Rather let us gather from its pure branches, and let the root live. Examine the nature and effects of my Bee-machinery, and you will discover its utility and its value in the management of Bees. By the proper application of that machinery you may instantaneously divide the treasures of the Bees, even in the most vigorous part of their gathering season, without the least danger to the operator, and frequently without the destruction of a single Bee. Is not this, then, a rational and humane practice? I trust it wants only to be properly understood in order to be universally adopted. Again: Does not she that is a kind mother know the wants and desires of her children? Take the lovely offspring from its mother's care and protection, and imprison it before her eyes, and will she not impatiently cry aloud for its release and restoration to liberty? and will not the child's screams show its affection for its fond parent? and when its liberty is restored, does not consolation quickly follow? The lost child being once more under its mother's care, both mother and child are happy. Similar facts are exemplified by the mother of the hive, who loves her multitudinous offspring, and lives in harmony and affection with them. She evidently dislikes a separation from her subjects, who seem to be, and doubtless are, most devotedly attached to her. And when, on taking off a glass or a box, they are divided only for a few minutes, we witness their sorrow, and hear their lamentations in the hive,--the Queen-mother calling for her children, anxious on their part to be released; and as soon as an opportunity is afforded them of effecting their escape, they embrace it,--the moment they feel their liberty, they gladly take advantage of it, and return to the pavilion in multitudes, so that in a short time tranquillity is restored, and peace and happiness are again enjoyed by the previously unhappy mother of the hive,--her subjects crowd round her, and the place that had lately been their prison soon becomes their palace, and a magazine for future treasure, which the humane apiarian will again be entitled to. Much has been said on the piling or storifying mode of managing Bees; and I admit that there are advantages in it which we do not meet with in the cottage-hive system. It is, notwithstanding, imperfect in the design,--it is founded in error,--in practice it is liable to many difficulties,--and it is particularly disadvantageous to the labours of these valuable insects, as will be more fully shown when I come to state my objections to it. We have only to study the nature and habits of Bees, and to watch particularly the desires of these indefatigable creatures. They alone will teach us the lesson. But follow them through their movements during a summer's day, and you will behold them, as it were, pitifully asking for the assistance of man, according to the varying state of the thermometer. CHAPTER IV. THERMOMETER. As I have been frequently asked to explain the utility of ventilation in a hive or colony of Bees, so have I as frequently been asked, sometimes with civility and politeness, sometimes jeeringly and in contempt,--"What has the thermometer to do with Bees?" I answer--We shall see presently; and I trust, see enough to convince the veriest sceptic on the subject, that the thermometer is an instrument that is indispensably necessary in the management of Bees according to my plan. Such inquirers might as reasonably ask what the mainspring of a watch has to do with the movements of that machine? Without the mainspring the watch would not work at all; and without the thermometer we cannot ascertain with any degree of accuracy the interior temperature of the hive; the knowledge of which temperature is of the utmost consequence in the humane management of Honey-Bees. The thermometer is the safest, if not the sole guide to a scientific knowledge of their state and works. To ventilate an apiary or colony of Bees, when their interior temperature is under 60 degrees, would be ruinous to them,--because contrary to the prosperous progress of their natural labours. From upwards of fifteen hundred observations in the summer of 1825, I am fully satisfied on this point. Their nature is to keep up at least that, and sometimes a much higher, degree of temperature by their indefatigable labours; and as the temperature of the hive rises, so does it invigorate and encourage an increase of population, as well as an increase of their treasured sweets. As the hive fills, so will the thermometer rise to 120 and even to 130 degrees, before these worthies will by over-heat be forced to leave their wealthy home. When the thermometer is at the above height, these wealthy colonists will have arrived at the highest state of perfection,--wealthy indeed, every store-house being filled nearly to suffocation with their abundant treasures, and they, as it were, petitioning the observer of their too-limited store-house for a fresh room. Thus circumstanced then give them a fresh room,--accommodate them with such a store-house as either of my collateral-boxes will and is intended to afford them. _Force them not to warm:_ an emigration from a prosperous colony of half its population cannot fail of being very disadvantageous, both to those that emigrate, who must necessarily be poor, and to those that remain, be they ever so industrious, or ever so wealthy. When you discover your thermometer rising rapidly, and, instead of standing, as it generally does in a well-stocked colony, at about 80 degrees, rising in a few hours to 90, and perhaps to 96, or even to 100, you may conclude that ventilation is _then_ highly necessary. The more you ventilate, when their temperature gets to this oppressive and dangerous height, the more you benefit the Bees labouring under it; for when they find a comfortable temperature within, they enjoy it, and will proceed to fill every vacant comb. Nature has provided the Queen of Bees with the power of multiplying her species, and of providing against any casualty which in so numerous a state may frequently happen. That all-seeing eye that neither slumbers nor sleeps, but constantly superintends alike the affairs of insects and of men, has, doubtless, long beheld the shameful neglect of man, which is the main cause of the distress of the hive, and which _forces_ it to swarm. Let man, then, remedy the distress and mischief which he occasions, by _preventing it_. It is the Queen-Bee that emigrates; were she not to lead, none would lead; nor would any follow were another than the Queen to lead, to seek and to settle in some place more congenial to them than an over-heated, over-stocked, though rich hive. She well knows she cannot live in a state subjected to a suffocating heat, amidst an overgrown population. So she leaves the royal cradle, impregnated with the royal larva, and withdraws from the hive, reluctantly, one may suppose, though accompanied by thousands of her subjects. The Queen-Bee leads the swarm to seek a place of comfort, and to establish another home, where not one cell nor drop of honey exists. To establish the truth of these assertions, and to prove the utility of ventilation and of the thermometer, in regulating the degree of ventilation in the management of Bees, I will now give my reader an account of some interesting experiments that I made in 1826, and then add a few extracts from my thermometrical journal of that summer; which in fact guided me in those experiments, for without the assistance of my thermometer I could not have made them; from which, taken together, it will, I think, be sufficiently evident that ventilation and the thermometer are highly necessary,--are alike important,--in short, are _indispensable_ in the humane management of Honey-bees. On the 26th of June 1826, I suffered a colony of Bees to swarm, in order to prove the truth of the foregoing statements. It was a very fine colony: the thermometer had been standing at 110 for six days previously, in one of the collateral end-boxes; on the eighth day it rose suddenly to 120. I was then forcing my Bees to leave their home; I could have lowered their temperature, and by so doing, I could have retained my worthies in their native boxes: but I was then about to prove a fact of the greatest moment to apiarians. On the ninth day, at half-past twelve o'clock, the finest swarm I ever beheld towered above my head, and literally darkened the atmosphere in the front of my apiary. After remaining about five minutes in the open air, the Queen perched herself upon a tree in my garden, where she was exposed to the rays of a scorching sun; but her loyal subjects quickly surrounded her, and screened her from its influence. I immediately did what I could to assist my grand prize, by hanging a sheet before it, to ward off the intense heat of the sun. I allowed the Bees to hang in this situation until the evening. During the absence of the swarm from the colony, my full employment was to watch the parent-stock, in order that I might, in the evening, return the Bees of this beautiful swarm to their native-hive, which they had been forced to leave. Curiosity and a desire to solve a doubtful problem, for the good of future apiarians, led me to act as already related, at the expense of much inconvenience to the Bees. The remaining Honey-Bees continued labouring during the remainder of the day; and in the evening of that same day, the thermometer was standing at 90 degrees in the old stock; so that the absence of the swarm had lowered the temperature of the pavilion 30 degrees, and I was quite sure I could reduce it in the collateral end-box to that of the exterior atmosphere, which, after the sun had gone down, was only 65. To effect this, I resolved at once to take off a fine top-glass filled with honey. I did so: its weight was fourteen pounds. This operation reduced the interior heat of the colony to 75. But looking at my grand swarm, and intent as I was upon re-uniting it to the parent-stock, I thought it impossible for the vacant space conveniently to hold all the Bees. I had one, and only one, alternative left,--and that was to take from my colony a collateral-box. I therefore took it; and a most beautiful box it was: its weight was fifty pounds. I immediately placed an empty box in the situation the full one had occupied. I then drew from the side of the pavilion the dividing tin-slide, and the whole of the colony was shortly at the desired temperature of 65, that being the exterior heat of the evening. I was now fully convinced of the propriety of returning the swarm. I commenced operations for accomplishing that object at ten o'clock in the evening, by constructing a temporary stage near the mouth of the parent-stock. I then procured a white sheet, and laid it upon the table or temporary stage, and in a moment struck the swarm from the hive into which the Bees had been taken from the bough in the evening. My next difficulty was to imprison the sovereign of the swarm: but with a little labour I succeeded in discovering her, and made her my captive. No sooner was she my prisoner than the Bees seemed to be acquainted with her absence. But so near were they placed to the mouth of the parent-stock that they soon caught the odour of the hive, and in the space of about fifteen minutes the whole swarm, save only her majesty, were under the roof of their parent-home. The following morning increased my anxiety about the welfare of my stock. Fearful lest my carious anticipations should meet with a disappointment, at sun-rise in the morning I released from her imprisonment the captive Queen. I placed her on the front-board, near the entrance of her hive, to ascertain, if possible, whether there was within the state one greater than herself. But no visible sign of such being the case presented itself. The influence of the cheery sun soon caused her to move her majestic body to the entrance of her native domicil, where she was met, surrounded, and no doubt welcomed, by thousands of her subjects, who soon conducted her into the hive, and, it may be presumed, re-instated her on the throne, which a few hours before she had been compelled to abdicate. The Bees afterwards sallied forthwith extraordinary alacrity and regularity, and, beyond my most sanguine expectations, filled a large glass with honey in the short space of six days. That glass of honey was exhibited at the National Repository, with a model of my apiary, and was much admired by many of the members and visitors of that noble institution. I have now to remark, that during the nine days after the swarm had been returned to the parent-stock, the thermometer continued rising until it reached the temperature of 90 within the collateral-box; and on the tenth day, at five o'clock in the morning, I witnessed the grand secret,--I viewed with unutterable delight the extraordinary fact I had been endeavouring to ascertain,--viz.--_two royal nymphs laid prostrate on the alighting-board_, near the exterior entrance of the hive. This circumstance alone convinced me that no more swarming was necessary. I have further to notice, that on the third day afterwards the Bees commenced their destruction of the drones,--which was a satisfactory proof that I had gained my point. That colony has never swarmed since the period I thus first satisfactorily established the utility of ventilation. And on minutely attending to the extraordinary movements of this my favourite colony, it was not uncommon to notice the most infant appearance of the royal brood lying upon the front-board of the pavilion. So that I am well satisfied that the royal larva is always in existence in the hive, independently of the reigning Queen. Let me not be misunderstood; I do not mean by this expression to assert--that the royal larva exists in the hive without the instrumentality or agency of the reigning Queen;--far from it; for no common Bees can make a sovereign Bee without the egg from the royal body: what I do mean is--that the royal larva is always in existence in a colony of Bees, notwithstanding the existence and presence of a reigning Queen--that the Queen is there, and that the royal larva is there at the same time. In this the wisdom of Providence is manifest; for Nature has _thus_ provided that the royal cradle should contain the royal brood, that in case any accident, misfortune, casualty, or necessity, should occasion the absence of the reigning Queen, another may be brought forth. This larva in reserve, as it were, is protected and reared by the inhabitants with the utmost care, nay, in the absence of the Queen, it is almost worshipped, until it becomes sufficiently matured to take the office and fulfil the duties of its royal predecessor; of course it then reigns supreme,--it is then Queen absolute. On this point I not only coincide in opinion with Thorley, but have seen enough in the course of my experience among Bees to confirm the truth of what I have now stated. As, however, the further discussion of this nice point belongs to the natural history of the Bee rather than to the explanation and inculcation of my practical mode of Bee-management, I refrain from saying more upon it, lest by so doing I should inadvertently excite criticism and controversy. I therefore proceed with my proper subject. The following thermometrical observations are from the journal before mentioned. The first column gives the day of the month,--the second shows the hour of the day when the thermometer was examined,--and the third is its height at those several times in the colony of Bees upon which my experiments were so successfully made. 1826. At this state of the Thermometer April Hour Ther. it is highly necessary to remove your Bees to their 1 8 38 summer stand. A great decrease -- 12 46 of wealth in the hive will appear 2 8 38 daily under this temperature; -- 12 43 and feeding should be resorted 3 8 32 to until it rise to 50: and if -- 12 37 _moderate feeding_ be continued 4 12 37 until the interior temperature 5 37 reach 55, it will materially 6 37 strengthen and invigorate your 7 37 Bees. And as the thermometer 8 8 40 continues to rise, you will find -- 12 45 your hive improve. It will soon 9 8 46 be in a good state for the spring. 10 12 58 Considerable improvements in 11 6 46 the combs, and immense gathering -- 10 58 of farina, appear to occupy 12 9 52 the Bees at this time. -- 1 64 13 12 64 The enemies of Bees are 14 64 numerous and active in this 15 64 month. As much as possible 16 64 guard against their attacks, and 17 64 be careful to defend your Bees 18 8 54 against them. At all times keep 19 12 60 their floor-boards clean; and 20 56 now withdraw the dead Bees, if 21 12 58 there should appear to be any 22 50 lying on the floor-boards or 23 52 other stands. This will save 24 60 the live Bees much labour, and 25 65 may be done very easily. 26 70 27 74 28 68 29 74 30 70 May Hour Ther. Swarming may be expected in 1 5 42 this month if the hives be rich -- 9 58 and the season favourable. To -- 12 70 prevent which enlarge your 2 5 41 hives, by adding three or four -- 8 48 rounds, i. e. an eke, to the -- 12 60 bottom of each of them. 3 5 43 -- 12 56 If you have the collateral-box 4 7 51 hives, you need only draw up 5 7 52 the tin-slides, or one of them, -- 4 52 as occasion may require. By 6 7 46 this means you enlarge the Bees' -- 1 63 domicil, without admitting the 7 5 42 atmospheric air. This move 8 12 60 so pleases these indefatigable 9 1 78 creatures, that you will behold 10 12 58 at once the utility and humanity 11 12 54 of this mode of management. 12 12 62 13 12 72 14 12 70 -- 1 75 15 5 43 -- 12 70 -- 2 74 16 12 70 Should the weather be seasonable, 17 12 68 the boxes will now be filled 18 8 58 rapidly, and the thermometer 19 8 50 will rise quickly. At this period -- 12 70 ventilation will demonstrate 20 8 58 what has hitherto been a secret -- 12 60 of nature;--viz. many young 21 8 54 sovereigns in various states of -- 12 62 perfection will be seen daily cast -- 2 58 out of the hives: and the waxen 22 8 54 cells will be extended to the -- 12 62 remotest corners of their domicil. -- 2 58 23 7 50 Riches are now rapidly accumulated: -- 12 62 and the glasses filled -- 2 70 with the purest sweets. Small 24 7 50 glasses may be taken off from -- 12 68 the inverted-hives, if the weather -- 2 72 prove fine. 25 5 60 -- 8 62 Mem.--A glass of honey, weighing -- 11 64 12 lbs. and a collateral-box, -- 12 70 weighing 42 lbs. taken. -- 3 71 26 7 58 After taking the above treasure -- 10 74 from the collateral-hive, -- 1 80 and placing an empty glass and -- 4 73 an empty box in the places of 27 6 61 those taken off, the interior -- 10 74 temperature was reduced to 60 -- 12 84 degrees, while the atmosphere -- 2 82 was 56 at twelve o'clock at -- 4 80 night. -- 5 70 28 6 60 -- 12 68 The pure honey taken was -- 2 68 about one-fourth of the weight -- 3 70 of the hive, and it will be -- 8 61 observed that the heat shows a 29 5 60 decrease in the temperature of -- 10 64 one fourth. -- 1 76 -- 7 66 -- 9 64 30 6 60 -- 8 64 -- 9 74 -- 12 78 31 6 61 -- 12 74 -- 2 78 -- 4 76 June Hour Ther. 1 7 62 -- 12 76 2 6 62 -- 12 78 -- 5 76 3 6 60 Mem.--A collateral-box of -- 12 76 honey, weighing 56 lbs. and a -- 5 74 glass on the 10th, weighing 14-1/2 4 6 60 lbs. taken. -- 12 74 -- 3 78 5 6 54 -- 12 68 6 6 58 -- 12 66 -- 3 62 7 6 54 -- 2 62 -- 4 64 8 6 52 -- 12 56 -- 4 52 9 7 54 -- 12 74 -- 2 80 10 6 60 -- 12 74 -- 3 72 11 6 60 -- 12 70 -- 3 76 -- 4 78 -- 9 70 12 6 64 Mem.--A collateral-box, -- 12 74 weighing 60 lbs. and -- 2 82 another, weighing 52 lbs. 13 6 60 taken. -- 10 82 -- 12 90 14 6 64 -- 12 84 -- 2 88 -------------------------- -- 4 86 15 7 66 -- 10 70 -- 3 88 -- 6 80 24 7 66 17 12 70 -- 8 82 -- 3 88 -- 3 90 -- 9 68 25 6 70 18 6 66 -- 10 90 -- 12 70 -- 12 94 -- 2 76 26 7 86 19 6 60 -- 11 94 -- 12 70 -- 5 91 -- 5 66 -- 9 86 20 8 60 27 7 84 -- 12 70 -- 9 90 -- 3 76 -- 1 96 21 7 60 28 6 88 -- 12 70 -- 12 94 -- 3 72 -- 11 90 22 9 70 29 6 86 -- 12 70 -- 12 94 -- 3 65 -- 2 96 23 6 70 -- 7 91 -- 12 75 30 5 90 -- 3 82 -- 12 96 -- 6 76 -- 4 84 July Hour Ther. 1 6 94 If the pasturage for Bees begin -- 12 96 to fail in your neighbourhood -- 4 94 at this time, it is advisable, if -- 7 94 it be practicable, to remove your 2 6 94 colonies to a better and a more -- 12 96 profitable situation. You will be -- 6 94 richly rewarded for this attention -- 10 94 to the prosperity of your apiary. 3 6 94 -- 12 96 -- 6 94 -- 10 90 -------------------------------- 4 6 92 -- 12 94 July Hour Ther. -- 6 90 14 6 76 5 6 90 -- 12 78 -- 12 92 -- 6 76 -- 6 90 15 6 74 7 6 90 -- 12 76 -- 12 92 -- 6 78 -- 6 92 16 6 78 -- 10 92 -- 12 86 8 7 92 -- 6 86 -- 12 92 -- 10 80 -- 6 90 17 6 78 -- 11 90 -- 10 78 9 6 88 -- 12 80 -- 12 92 18 6 76 -- 3 82 -- 12 80 -- 10 80 -- 6 78 10 6 78 -- 10 76 -- 12 80 19 6 76 -- 6 82 -- 12 80 11 6 80 -- 6 74 -- 12 84 -- 10 74 -- 6 86 20 6 68 -- 10 90 -- 12 70 12 6 86 -- 6 70 -- 12 80 -- 10 70 -- 6 76 21 6 66 -- 10 74 -- 12 68 13 6 74 -- 4 64 -- 12 76 -- 6 76 Summary of memorandums of the several deprivations or takings of honey from one set of boxes this season: May 27. Glass and box 54 lbs. June 9. Box 56 .. ---- 10. Glass 14-1/2 .. ---- 12. Box 60 .. ---- 13. Ditto 52 .. Collateral-box 60 .. -------- 296-1/2 lbs. Did I deem it necessary, I could, from the letters of a variety of highly respectable correspondents, show that the mode of managing Bees in the way, and upon the principles, now explained, has been adopted, and _has succeeded_ even beyond the most sanguine expectations of many of my worthy friends and patrons; but I will content myself at present with giving the two following letters, which I have just received from a gentleman in this neighbourhood, whose very name, to all who have any knowledge of or acquaintance with him, will be a sufficient guarantee that his statements are facts. Besides, his letters are a condensed, and I must say--clever epitome of my practical directions for the management of Bees in my boxes, and may be useful on that account; and moreover, I have, as will be seen presently, his unsolicited authority to make them public, and therefore run no risk of being called to order for so doing. "Gedney-Hill, 13th July, 1832. "Dear Sir, "You will, I am persuaded, excuse me for troubling you with the information that I yesterday took off a fine glass of honey from one of my Bee-colonies. I went to work secundum artem, that is, in one word, _scientifically_, or in four words, _according to your directions_; and I have the satisfaction, nay more,--I have the pleasure to add that I succeeded--I had almost said _completely_, but I must qualify that expression by saying, that _I succeeded all but completely_; for one luckless Bee had the misfortune to be caught between the edges of the dividing-tin and the glass, and to be crushed to death in consequence. Excepting that accident, I believe that not one Bee was injured, nor lost. They left the glass, as soon as I gave them the opportunity of leaving it, in the most peaceable manner; in a subdued and plaintive tone they hummed round me,--settled upon me,--crept over me in all directions,--but not one of them stung me; in short, they returned to their home without manifesting the slightest symptoms of resentment, and in less than half an hour from the commencement of the operation, _there was not a single Bee left in the glass_. In my eye it is a very handsome glass of honey; it weighs exactly 13 lbs, and it has not one brood-cell in it. I intend to close it up,--to label it,--and to keep it, at least until I get another as handsome. It is a _rich_ curiosity to exhibit to one's friends, especially to those who have never seen such a thing. "On the other side, I send you a fortnight's register of the heights and variations of a thermometer, placed in the colony from which I have taken the glass, and also, of one placed in the shade, and apart from all Bees; from which register you will know, in a moment, whether I have managed my Bees properly. I am willing to flatter myself that I have, and that you will say I have been very attentive indeed. Ther. Ther. Ther. Ther. 1832. in the in the 1832. in the in the July Hour Colony Shade July Hour Colony Shade -------------------------------- ------------------------------- 1 11 86 66 5 9 88 64 .. 6 88 66 6 8 88 64 2 6 90 65 .. 2 88 65 .. 1 92 66 .. 9 88 64 .. 1 92 66 7 8 89 64 .. 9 86 65 .. 9 88 64 3 8 88 65 8 9 86 64 .. 1 87 65 .. 9 86 64 .. 3 89 65 9 7 90 64 .. 5 87 64 .. 2 89 65 .. 9 88 64 .. 8 88 66 4 4 88 64 10 8 88 66 .. 10 83 64 .. 2 89 66 .. 12 86 65 11 9 88 66 .. 5 90 65 .. 2 89 66 .. 9 86 64 12 9 90 65 5 7 89 64 .. 1 94 66 .. 10 88 64 .. 9 89 68 .. 1 90 65 13 8 89 66 .. 5 89 65 .. 5 90 66 "In addition to this I could, time and space permitting, tell you from what point the wind blew on each of these days, when it came full in front of my boxes, and when it came upon them in any other direction, when it was high, and when it was otherwise, on what days the Bees were able to get abroad, and also when they were kept at home by rain, or by any other cause. From these observations of the wind and weather, and particularly from the manner in which the wind is directed towards, or into the ventilators in the boxes, in conjunction with the movements of the Bees, I think I can account pretty satisfactorily for what may appear, at first sight, to be a little contradictory, viz. for the rising of the thermometer in the boxes sometimes when it was falling in the shade; and vice versa, for its sometimes rising in the shade when it was falling in the boxes. But instead of writing you a dissertation on these subjects, or on any of them, I choose rather to put you into possession of the whole of my Bee-practice, by submitting to your notice a copy, or as nearly as I can make it a copy, of a letter I took the liberty of addressing to the Editor of 'The Voice of Humanity,' in October last, after the appearance in No. V. of that publication, of a representation and _imperfect_ explanation of your boxes. I was encouraged to write that letter by the following announcement in an article in that No.--'A due regard of rational humanity towards the Bee, though but an insect, we shall feel a pleasure in promoting in the future as well as the present pages of our publication. This subject has, moreover, a very strong claim, inasmuch as it also exemplifies the grand principle upon which The Voice of Humanity is founded--the true _prevention of cruelty_ to animals, by substituting a practical, an _improved system_, in the place of one which is defective; this, in reference to the present subject, &c, _is true prevention of cruelty_, not only to units, but to thousands and tens of thousands of animals.' Notwithstanding this very _rational_ announcement, and the prompt acknowledgment of the receipt of my letter, it did not appear in either of the next two numbers, nor am I aware that it is in the last, but I have not yet seen the last No. of that publication, therefore must not be positive. But this is not all: in No. 6, the conductors of that work express i sincere pleasure' in inserting an article which, they say, c forms an admirable addition to that on Mr. Nutt's Bee-hive;' and that 'the plan which it developes, in addition to its humanity, has the recommendation of being more simple and practicable than even the excellent improvements of Mr. Nutt.' Now what do you suppose this _admirable_ addition to your Bee-hive,---this plan recommended on account of its _humanity_, as well as on other accounts--is? It is no other than that most cruel and destructive one of depriving Bees of their honey _and of every thing else_, by 'driving them out of a full hive into an empty one, so early in the season as to afford the Bees sufficient time to provide themselves with another stock of winter food before the bad weather begins.' Very considerate this, certainly! but who can tell how soon the bad weather may begin? Of all the methods ever resorted to of getting their honey from Bees, this, in my humble opinion, is the most cruel and _inhuman_: suffocating the Bees and destroying them at once is far preferable to this (I had hoped) exploded mode of robbing them. If practised, it will, however, soon cure itself: but is it not a strange practice for 'The Voice of Humanity' to revive? Either the utterers of that sweet Voice are unacquainted with the humane management of Bees upon your plan, or they are unaware of the mischievous and destructive consequences attendant on the driving mode of deprivation, or they have little claim to the title they bear on the score of their humanity to Bees. I believe the former to be the case with them: and therefore, in addition to the reason already given for troubling you herewith, and in order to set them right on this _vital_ subject, I give you full power to do what you please with these letters. If they will be of any use to you in your projected publication, give them a place in it, and welcome: only do not garble them, _give them entire, if you give them at all_. I am decidedly opposed to the driving scheme; and I as decidedly approve of yours, which is, if properly attended to, at once simple, practicable, profitable, admirable, and truly humane. Accept me, Dear Sir, Yours very truly, Thomas Clark." "Mr. Editor, "Since the publication of the last No. of 'The Voice of Humanity,' in which you treated your readers with some interesting particulars explanatory of the construction and different parts of Mr. Nutt's Bee-boxes, and also of the mode of managing the Bees in them, so far at least as regards the taking away a box when stored with the delicious sweet (i. e. with honey), it has been suggested to me, that a plain, simple history of a colony of Bees in my possession, and managed according to Mr. Nutt's excellent plan, may not be altogether unacceptable to the general readers and friends of 'The Voice of Humanity' and may be even _a treat_ to amateur apiarians, who may be unacquainted with the merits of Mr. Nutt's plan; or who, if partially acquainted therewith, may have their doubts as to its practicability, or, at least, as to its advantages, i. e. superiority over other plans. As far, then, as 6 The Voice of Humanity' can make them (the merits of Mr. Nutt's plan) known, I trust it will be as music to that Voice to publish the following facts. "Having had a complete set of Mr. Nutt's boxes presented to me, I, though comparatively a novice in apiarian science, and not at that time particularly attached to it, could not, in compliment to the donor, do less than endeavour to work them, that was--get them stocked. That was done with a swarm on the 18th of May 1830; and the middle-box, or pavilion of nature, as Mr. Nutt calls it, into which the said swarm was taken just in the same way it would have been if put into a common straw-hive, was conveyed a distance of nearly four miles and placed in my garden in the evening of the same day. The next day being fine, I observed that the Bees were very busy constructing comb, and had, within twenty-four hours of their being domiciled in their new abode, actually made a progress in that most curious work that astonished me: they were passing and re-passing, and literally all alive; many were visibly loaded with materials for their ingenious work. My curiosity was excited, and so much was I pleased with my multitudinous labourers that I visited them daily, and many times in the course of each day, when the weather was favourable for their getting abroad. Their combs were rapidly advanced; but to my great mortification they very soon obstructed my view of their interior works, by bringing a fine comb quite over the only little window at the back of the pavilion, at the distance of about half an inch from the glass. I was not, however, without the means of ascertaining that they were filling the pavilion with their treasures, and consequently that they would soon be in want of more room. I, therefore, at the end of a fortnight admitted them into the large bell-glass by withdrawing the slide, which, when closed, cuts oft' the communication between the pavilion and the said glass. They (the Bees) immediately reconnoitred it, as it were, and examined it round and round, and presently took possession of it in great numbers; and in the course of the second day afterwards I could perceive that they began to continue their work upwards from and upon the combs in the box. Here I was again inexpressibly gratified by daily observing the progress of their beautiful work, and by the busy thousands in perpetual motion. When they had about half-filled the glass, and before I was aware that there was any occasion for their admission into either of the collateral-boxes, they suddenly threw off a swarm. That event I attribute partly to my own inexperience in apiarian matters, and partly--principally to the want of a thermometer by which to ascertain and regulate the temperature of the crowded pavilion, so as to keep the Bees _at the working, and below the swarming point of heat_. Mr. Nutt assures me that a barn would not contain a colony of Bees if its temperature were raised above a certain degree. What that precise degree of heat is I leave to Mr. Nutt to determine and explain: at present it is enough to state that I am convinced it is possible, nay, quite easy, to keep Bees at work, and to prevent their swarming, by giving them plenty of room, and by proper ventilation. After my Bees had thrown off the swarm, as above mentioned, the work in the glass progressed but slowly, indeed it was for some time almost deserted, owing, I presume, to the room made in the pavilion by the absence of the thousands that had left it: for, whenever the weather was such that they could get abroad, they were always busy. The season, however, it is well-known, was so wet as to be very unfavourable for Bees:--the summer of 1830 was not by any means what is called a Bee-year; and early in the autumn I could see that, instead of adding to their store, they were under the necessity of living upon it. They were, however, abundantly provided for the winter, and lived through it almost to a Bee. In the spring of this year (1831) they appeared to be strong and in excellent condition. As early as the middle of May they had replenished the emptied combs in the glass, and, it may be presumed, in the pavilion too. In the first week of June, the glass was completely filled in the most beautiful manner. I therefore opened the communication to one of the end or collateral-boxes, and two or three days afterwards, viz. on the 10th of June, I took off the glass and replaced it with another. So rapidly did those industrious little insects proceed with their work, that in about six weeks they completely filled the end-box. I then opened the way to the empty box at the other end of the pavilion: and a few days afterwards had the full box taken off by Mr. Nutt himself (who happened to call upon me, and who handsomely volunteered his services on the occasion), without any stifling of any sort--without the destruction, or the loss, of--scarcely a Bee,--as nearly in the manner described in your last No. as circumstances would permit; for the Queen-Bee being in the box taken off made it necessary for Mr. Nutt to vary the operation a little;--not a person was stung, though ladies, very timid ladies, and children too, were among the admiring lookers on; only, in returning the Queen-Bee, found in the box, to the pavilion, I myself was stung, owing to my over-anxiety to see how she would be received by the Bees in the pavilion. Her majesty's presence in that box (the box taken off) at that time might probably have puzzled me; but to Mr. Nutt it presented no difficulty; and to witness his operation was to me a most instructive lesson, and would have delighted any friend of humanity. It was performed in the middle of a fine day. That box contained, as nearly as we could estimate, about 35 lbs. of honey, incomparably purer and finer than any I ever saw, except from Mr. Nutt's boxes. The glass beforementioned contained 12 lbs.--so that I have this year taken _forty-seven pounds_ of the very finest honey from one stock of Bees;--I have all my Bees alive--and they are at this time abundantly provided for the ensuing winter; nay, without impoverishing them, I believe, I might take 6 or 8 lbs. more; but I have already had enough; and, if my Bees have more than enough for their winter's consumption, they will not waste it;--it will be found next year. "The preservation of the Bees unhurt, uninjured, very many of them undisturbed at all,--the quantity of honey that may be had,--and the very superior quality of that honey, are advantages of Mr. Nutt's mode of Bee-management, over the barbarous, stifling system, that cannot fail to recommend it to the adoption of every friend of humanity,--to every lover of the delicious sweet,--and to every apiarian who has nothing beyond self-interest in view. "One word more, and I have done. There are, I observe with pleasure, persons of considerable influence among your subscribers, and probably there may be persons of still greater influence among your readers. To such I would most respectfully suggest the propriety of doing something to reward Mr. Nutt for the services he has already rendered the Honey-Bee and the cause of humanity. I--an obscure, country clergyman, know not how to set about procuring it; but a _premium was never more richly deserved_. "Though longer than I intended, when I sat down to write, I hope you will find no difficulty in giving the foregoing communication a place in your pages; and, in this hope, I beg to subscribe myself, Your humble servant, Thomas Clark. "Gedney-Hill, near Wisbech, October 20th, 1831." CHAPTER V. ON DRIVING BEES. As my reverend correspondent has introduced the subject of _driving_ Bees from their full hive into an empty one, in order that they may be deprived of their honey and wax, and has animadverted upon that practice with some severity, I will take the opportunity of here stating my objections to it. Mr. Huish, in his treatise on Bees, has twice described the manner in which "_driving a hive_" may be performed; but nowhere, that I can find, has he once recommended it. In a note (in page 24) he says---that "by _driving a hive_ may be understood the act of obliging the Bees to leave their own domicil, and take refuge in another. This is performed by placing the full hive under an empty one, (or he might have said, by placing an empty hive upon the full one inverted) and by gently tapping the lower hive the Bees will ascend into the upper, and the lower one then remains vacant for experiments, or the purpose of deprivation." He afterwards (in page 252) gives a more detailed account of the manner of performing this operation; and having done so, he presently observes that "by the driving of the Bees a number is unavoidably killed." I do not find that Mr. Huish himself practises it further than for the purpose of making experiments; and that, having made those experiments, he returns the driven Bees to their hives and to their treasures in them. In short, he describes it to his readers because they may wish to be acquainted with it, and not because he approves of it. I mention this because I consider Mr. Huish to be respectable authority on such a subject. Now, were there nothing in a hive but Bees and honey, driving them into an empty hive (were it as easy in practice as it seems to be upon paper, though I presume it is not) in order to rob them of their all, would be a most arbitrary and unjust method of treating them: but, besides Bees and honey, there are other substances in a prosperous hive which ought not to be disturbed. There are the future inhabitants of the colony in every stage of existence, from the egg to the perfect Bee, and these in a driven hive are all totally destroyed--eggs, larvæ, nymphs, in one word, _the brood_, in whatever state, is all destroyed, when the Bees are driven from it and not suffered to return. And is it not an unnatural operation that thus destroys many thousands of lives in embryo, over and above the "_number unavoidably killed_" thereby? as painful must it be for the Queen--the mother of the colony, and to all the other Bees, to be _forcibly expelled_ from a hive and home of plenty and prosperity, as it is for an industrious man and his thriving family to be rudely ejected from a comfortable house and home, without the least notice of, or preparation for, so calamitous an event, and forced by lawless marauders to take shelter in an empty house, and left there destitute, to subsist as best they can, or to starve, as probably they may, their spirits being cast down by the violent deprivations and desperate robbery they have experienced, and it may be, the winds, and the weather, and the elements of heaven, are warring, as it were, against them at the same time. And, comparatively speaking, is it not so with _driven_ Bees? They are turned topsy-turvy, and in that strange, unnatural position their fears are operated upon, or excited, by unusual, and to them, no doubt, terrible sounds made by even "gently tapping" their inverted-hive--their house turned upside down. Though no advocate for suffocating Bees, but the contrary--a decided opponent to it, I agree in opinion with my correspondent that suffocation at once is preferable to the very reprehensible practice of "driving a hive," inasmuch as an instantaneous death is preferable to a lingering and unnatural one by starvation, which, whatever may befal the driven Bees, is the hard, untimely fate of the brood and young larvæ of a hive when the Queen and commoners are driven from them into a new and empty domicil. They leave, because they are forced to leave behind them, and to perish, thousands of the young brood in a state of helplessness. Their mother and their nurses are driven into banishment and pauperism, while her offspring are doomed to perish for the want of their aid and support. If driving be practised early in the season, that is in June or July, all the brood then in the driven hive must inevitably perish; if later, it is hardly to be expected that the surviving Bees will or can prosper. Can the Bee-master for a moment think that when Bees are so driven from their old hive, they will work in their new one, as if they had swarmed voluntarily and then been put into it: it is some considerable time before Bees thus treated will work vigorously; and during that time of lingering and irresolution the honey-season fast declines,--the Bees' difficulties multiply,--and they become paupers at a time they should be rich. Nine times out of ten the hive so treated perishes by famine, and like the young brood, dies the worst of deaths,--the whole hive becomes a melancholy wreck, and is absolutely sacrificed to the mistaken notions of the speculating, or experiment-making proprietor. It is a practice of which _I disapprove altogether_: and I am surprised that any one could so far misunderstand the principles and nature of my practice as to recommend the driving of Bees out of a full hive into an empty one as an admirable addition to my Bee-hive--that is--to my Bee-boxes. I have the satisfaction, however, to state that in the management of Bees in my boxes _no driving is necessary, nor even possible_: by them _driving_ and _suffocation_ are both superseded, and rendered as useless to operators as they have long been destructive to Bees,--and, I cannot but say--disgraceful to apiarians. What I have already said (in page 48) I will here repeat with as much emphasis as I am able, because that passage comprehends the very essence of my directions relative to the management of Bees in the middle-box,--and because those directions are utterly incompatible with _driving_. "I say, then, DISTURB NOT THIS HIVE--THIS PAVILION OF NATURE: WEAKEN NOT ITS POPULATION; RUT SUPPORT ITS INFLUENCE, AND EXTEND TO IT THOSE ACCOMMODATIONS WHICH NO PRACTICE, EXCEPT MY OWN, HAS YET PUT INTO OPERATION, OR MADE ANY ADEQUATE PROVISION FOR. "This humane practice partakes not of the _driving_, nor of the _fumigating_, nor of the _robbing_ system. It is a _liberal principle_ of Bee-cultivation, founded on _humanity_. And it is by such practice that we must succeed, if we hope to be benefited in the culture of Honey-Bees." CHAPTER VI. INVERTED-HIVE. Many useful discoveries have been made by accident;--and to some of the greatest and grandest of those discoveries even philosophers and men of science have been led by accidents apparently the most trifling and insignificant. To the playful tricks of some little children that astonishing and most scientific instrument--the telescope, it is said, owes its origin; and it is said also that that great and good man--Sir Isaac Newton was led to investigate the laws of gravitation by accidentally observing an apple topple to the ground from the twig that had borne it. One of the sweetest of our poets, however, informs us--that All Nature is but Art, unknown to thee, All Chance, Direction, which thou canst not see. If, therefore, a beautifully delicate honey-comb suspended from the stool of a hive first led me to discover the utility of ventilation in a colony of Bees, though there may be nothing very surprising, there is, I trust,--nay, I am convinced, and therefore I assert--there is something very useful in it: and if an accident of another description induced me to endeavour to turn it to advantage, there is nothing to be greatly wondered at. So, however, it happened; and here follows the account of it. On rising early one morning in July 1827, and walking into my apiary, as my custom then was, and still is, I discovered that some malicious wretch had been there before me, and had overturned a fine colony of Bees. The reader may judge how much my indignation was aroused by that dastardly act of outrage against my unoffending Bees. My feelings of vexation soon, however, subsided into those of pity for my poor Bees; and fortunately for them, no less than for me, their overturned domicil, which consisted of a hive eked or enlarged by a square box upon which I had placed it some weeks previously, was so shaded from or towards the east by a thick fence, that the rays of the sun had not reached it;--this compound-hive, and the countless thousands that were clustering around it, were prostrate in the shade. I viewed my distressed Bees for a considerable time, and studied and planned what I might best do to relieve them, and, if possibly I could, rescue them from the deplorable situation into which they had been thrown. At length I determined to reverse the whole, which I effected by first carefully drawing the box as closely as I was able to the edge of the hive, and then placing the hive upon its crown, so that, in fact, the whole domicil was inverted. I shaded, protected, shored-up, and supported the Bees, their exposed works, and their hive, in the best way I could, and afterwards reluctantly left them for the day, being under the necessity of going from home a distance of almost twenty miles, viz. to Wisbech. On my return in the evening I could discern evident proofs of the willingness of the Bees to repair the sore injury they had sustained; and on the third day afterwards I was highly pleased to witness the progress their united efforts had made to rescue their dilapidated habitation from the ruin that had threatened it and them too, and which, I confess, I had anticipated. I was particularly attentive to their movements. I assisted them by every means I could devise. They gradually surmounted all the difficulties to which they had been exposed. In short, they prospered; and from that malicious trick of some miscreant or other I first caught the idea of an _inverted-hive_, which I have since studied and greatly improved. Every Bee-master will have had opportunities of observing--that this curious, I may say--intelligent, little insect--the Bee, is ever alive to the most ready methods of extricating itself from difficulties, and of bettering the condition of the state, whenever accident or misfortune has placed it in jeopardy: and, I will add--that the timely assistance of the Bee-master will frequently save a stock from that ruin, or at least from that trouble and inconvenience, which apparently trivial circumstances, such for instance as uncleanliness, excessive heat in summer, intense severity of winter, too contracted an entrance at one season, a too extended and open one at another, or wet lodged on and retained by the floor-board, may, and very often do occasion. The subjoined cut is a representation of an INVERTED-HIVE fixed in its frame, trellised, roofed, completely fitted up, and just as it appears when placed in an apiary and stocked with Bees. [Illustration] EXPLANATION OF AN INVERTED-HIVE. A. is a stout octagon-box, in which is to be placed an _inverted cottage-hive_ containing the Bees. Its diameter within the wood, I mean its _clear diameter_, is seventeen inches, and its depth, or rather its height, is fifteen or sixteen inches, or just sufficient to reach to, and be level with, the edge of the inverted cottage-hive, when placed within it: in fact, the octagon-box (A.) is a strong case or cover for the inverted-hive; and, if made an inch or two deeper than the hive to be placed in it, it is an easy matter to pack the bottom, so that the edge of the hive and the top-edge of the octagon-box (A.) may be exactly on a level. Fitted and fastened to this is a top or floor, made of three-fourths-inch deal, which top should sit closely upon the edge of the hive all round. The centre of this top is cut out circularly to within an inch and a half of the inner circumference or edge of the hive upon and over which it is placed. Upon this floor is a box, made of inch or inch-and-quarter deal, seventeen inches square within, and four inches deep. This I call the ventilation-box, because through two of its opposite sides are introduced horizontally two cylinder ventilating-tubes, made of tin, thickly perforated, and in all respects similar to those described in page 20. The top of this box is the floor upon which nine glasses are placed for the reception of honey, namely--a large bell-glass in the centre, and eight smaller ones around it. By a _large_ bell-glass I mean--one capable of containing twelve or fourteen pounds of honey, and by _smaller_ ones--such as will hold about four pounds. The Bees of an inverted-hive in a good situation will work well in glasses of these sizes, and soon fill some or all of them: but, if in an unfavourable situation, lesser glasses, down to one-half the abovementioned sizes, will be more suitable. Situation, season, and strength of the stock,--strength, I mean, as respects the number of Bees, must, after all, guide the apiarian in this matter. The floor abovementioned should be made of three-fourths-inch deal. Of course proper apertures must be cut through this floor under each of the glasses to admit the Bees into them from the box beneath. Around and over the glasses is placed another neat box or case, made like the ventilation-box, upon which it rests or stands. The lid of this box is made to open and shut. It is represented in the foregoing cut as opened at B. an inch or two, and may be so retained at pleasure by a proper weight attached to a cord passed over a pulley fixed in the inside of the roof (C.) and fastened to the edge of the lid above B. The depth of the box or cover for the glasses must of course be regulated according to their different sizes. The alighting-board is on the front-side, directly opposite to the latticed doors, and on a level with the upper-side of the first floor; so that the entrance for the Bees must be cut through the lower edge of the ventilation-box; and is made there most conveniently for them to pass either into the inverted pavilion below, or into the glasses above such entrance, as their inclinations may direct. The octagon-cover placed upon the pavilion-hive, as represented in the view of the closed boxes (in page 29) if _inverted_, would be a tolerably good model of part A. of the inverted-hive. I advise that every part be well-made--the floors and the boxes particularly so; and that the whole exterior be well painted too, previously to being exposed to the sun and to the weather. This advice has reference to all my boxes and hives, collateral as well as inverted. The stocking of this hive may be effected in the following manner. Having made choice of a good, healthy, well-stocked, cottage-hive, you may, at any time between the beginning of March and the end of October, _carefully invert and place it in the octagon below the ventilation-box_, that is, in the apartment (A.) then fasten the floor with four short screws to the top of the octagon, taking especial care that this floor sits upon the edge of the inverted-hive all round. It will be necessary to keep the Bees from annoying you whilst adjusting this floor and the other parts of the hive, by putting a sheet of tin over the open circular space in the floor; by which tin every Bee may be kept in the hive below. When the boxes, ventilators, glasses, and all things, are duly adjusted, the dividing-tin may be withdrawn; and the operation of stocking will be then completed. Another method of accomplishing the same object, i. e. of stocking an inverted-hive, is this: Take the floor that is to rest upon, and be fastened to, the top of the octagon A. and that is to rest also upon the hive when inverted, and with a sheet of tin cover and securely close the circular space made by cutting out its centre: then invert it, that is--let the tinned side be undermost, and place upon this floor, thus prepared, the hive you intend to be inverted. Return it to, and suffer it to occupy, its usual place in your apiary; and _there_ for two or three weeks let it work in which time the Bees will have fastened the hive to their new board with propolis. Then, early in the morning, or late in the evening, when all the Bees are in the hive, make up the entrance, and, having two doors made in opposite panels or sides of the octagon (A.) ten inches by six, or sufficiently commodious for the admission of your hands, _steadily invert_ your hive and prepared board upon which it has been standing, and, without sundering from the hive the board that will now be at its top, _carefully_ place them in the octagon; which, with the help of an assistant, and by the facility afforded by the two little doors in the panels of the octagon for staying and properly supporting and adjusting the hive and its attached floor, may be performed without the escape of a single Bee. As soon as this, which is properly the inversion of the hive, is completed, proceed with the ventilation-box, glasses, &c. as before directed; and, lastly, be careful to liberate the Bees by withdrawing the tin that has kept them prisoners since the entrance was closed. In inverting a hive by this method an expert apiarian need not confine the Bees five minutes. The Bees will commence their labour by filling the square box between the pavilion and the glasses; they will then extend their beautiful combs into the glasses above. The appearance of their most curious works in this stage of their labour is highly interesting--nay, gratifying, to the apiarian observer; and, moreover, proves the extraordinary influence and utility of ventilation in the domicil, or, rather let me say, in the store-house apartment of Bees; for in the pavilion, or breeding and nursing apartment, it is seldom wanted. The method of taking off the glasses, whether large ones or small ones, when stored with honey, is in every respect the same as that of which a particular account has been already given, (in pages 37 and 38): to that account, therefore, I beg to refer the reader, instead of here repeating it. CHAPTER VII. OBSERVATORY-HIVE. Having now given such a description and explanation of my _collateral box-hives_, and of my _inverted-hive_, as will, by referring to the plates or cuts that accompany them, make both of those hives, and every thing pertaining to them, to be clearly understood; I proceed to explain, in the next place, my OBSERVATORY-HIVE. With the help of the subjoined representative figures or cuts, I hope to succeed in my endeavour to make the reader thoroughly acquainted with every part of it, novel, though it be, and, as far as I know, unlike any hive hitherto invented. At first sight it may probably appear to be a piece of complicate machinery, but upon examination it will be found to be otherwise--I may say--simple and easy. A little curiosity and a little patient attention are all the requisites that I entreat my apiarian friends to bring with them to the studying of this _grand hive_. I call it _grand_, not because it is my own invention, but because it is admirably adapted for advancing, and perhaps for perfecting, our knowledge of the habits and economy of Honey-Bees. With the variation of one short word, the following passage from Evans' delightful poem on Bees is so applicable to my observatory-hive that I am tempted to adopt it as a motto. By this bless'd hive our ravish'd eyes behold The singing masons build their roofs of gold; And mingling multitudes perplex the view, Yet all in order apt their tasks pursue; Still happier they, whose favour'd ken hath seen Pace slow and silent round, the state's fair Queen. [Illustration] The observatory-hive, as here exhibited in Fig. 1, consists of two apartments--an upper one and a lower one. The upper one, (marked a. b. c. d. e. e.) is properly the observatory-hive, and may be called the summer-pavilion; the lower one, (marked g.) may be termed the winter-pavilion. Of this winter-pavilion but little need be said, except that it is an octagonal box, in size, in substance, and in every respect, similar to the octagon-part of the _inverted-hive_ described in the last chapter; save only that its top must not be cut away, as is there directed to be done. At present let us suppose this top to be a perfect plane--an entire surface, without any aperture of any sort to form a passage for the Bees from and through it down into the pavilion below; farther let us suppose an alighting-board of the usual size to be fixed in front, and on a level with this floor or top; then the quære will be--how, from the same front-entrance, the Bees are to have a passage both into the observatory-hive above, and into the winter-pavilion below? The difficulty is--to get a convenient passage into the summer-pavilion, because the whole of that pavilion is made to turn round on the shoulder of an upright shaft, through which shaft the passage for the Bees must of necessity be made, and which does not admit of a bore of above an inch in diameter. As, however, this narrow, perpendicular passage is of no great length, (it need not be more than three inches) many thousands of Bees will, in the course of a few minutes, if necessary, make their egress and regress through it without incommoding one another. That this rather intricate part--the construction of this passage-work--may be fully comprehended, I will endeavour to illustrate it by references to a well-known article, now standing on the table, on which I am writing. It is a telescopic candlestick, the pedestal of which covers a square space upon my table, each side of which superficial square is three inches. Now suppose this candlestick was screwed or glued to the centre of the plain, tabular top of the octagon (g.) having one of its sides parallel to that side of the floor to which the alighting-board is attached. Next, suppose _that_ side of the candlestick to be cut away so as to form an entrance into the interior of the pedestal, two inches in front and half an inch in height; and let there be a covered-way of this height, from the opened side of the pedestal to the front-entrance of the hive: then, if the front-entrance be six inches wide, the Bees on coming in will enter this covered-way, which from six inches narrows to three at the part where they enter the pedestal, and begin to ascend the perpendicular passage which leads through it and through the upright shaft of the candlestick into the--at present--_supposed_ apartment above. The top-part of a telescopic candlestick may be turned round at pleasure; consequently, if the pedestal be fixed and made immoveable, the top, and whatever may be upon that top and fastened to it, may be moved round notwithstanding: this is what we particularly want in the construction of an observatory-hive, and must, therefore, be particularly attended to. A piece of clean, close-grained wood--beech, elder, mahogany, or any other firm wood--made much in the shape of our telescopic candlestick, but of not more than two inches and a half in height, with a bore through it of an inch in diameter, and turned, that is, wrought in a lathe, so that an inch of the top-part may enter into, and neatly fit, the cap fixed round the inch bore at the centre of the bottom-frame of the upper pavilion (Fig 2), and which cap is represented by the moveable top of the candlestick, is, as well as I can describe it, the pedestal to support the observatory-hive,--is, with the cap just mentioned, the compound, or double-hinge upon which that hive is turned round,--and is also the Bee-way into that hive. The way into the winter-pavilion, or octagon (g.) is made by cutting a circular hole through the very centre of the plane top, an inch in diameter, directly under the upward passage; so that the Bees, whether their way be into the summer-pavilion above, or into the winter-pavilion below, lies through the pedestal, and the only difference is, that one passage leads upwards and the other downwards. The covered-way which has been so often mentioned, may easily be made by taking out of the under-side of the bottom-board of the paneled and roofed box, made to secure the observatory-hive, and which is placed upon the top of the winter-pavilion, just as much as will allow a sufficient space for that way. Having completed the passages, my next business is--to describe the novel apartment into which the passage through the pedestal leads--that is, the real observatory-hive. Figure 2 shows the upper glass-frame of this hive with two small circular openings through the top of each arm, over which openings are placed small glasses, (at e. e.) in both Figures, for receptacles for honey, and are intended to answer the same purpose as those do which are placed upon the inverted-hive. A line drawn from one extremity of any one of these arms or wings, to the extremity of the arm or wing directly opposite to it, is twenty-three inches; and the distance between the dotted lines, which are intended to mark the glass-way, or, in joiners' phrase, the _rebate_ to receive the edges of the glass, is exactly one inch and three-fourths. The lower glass-frame, which (in Fig. 1) is placed upon f. the shaft of the pedestal already described, is the exact counterpart of the upper frame, with the exception of its not having any perforations for honey-glasses: the only perforation in this frame is that at its centre; which must be made to correspond with that of the shaft, and be a continuation of the Bee-passage into the hive. These two frames are connected and made one by four upright pieces, or ends, (marked a. b. c. d. in Fig. 1,) these upright, end-pieces must be rebated, or channeled, to receive the ends of the glass-plates. Eight squares of glass, each ten inches and a half by ten inches, fastened with putty into this frame-work,--that is, two squares into each wing, will complete the glass-hive; which, when placed upon the top of the pedestal, and made steady by an axis fixed at the central point of the upper frame, and turning in a socket under the ball, constitutes _an observatory-hive_. Confined as is the space between the glass-plates in each wing, they being but an inch and three-fourths apart, there is, nevertheless, room enough for the construction of one comb; and space for more than one comb would spoil it as an observatory-hive: and, though each wing may appear to be but small, there are upwards of 760 cubic inches of clear space in the hive. It is so constructed that plenty of light and the utmost transparency are afforded for observing and minutely examining the Bees and the works of the Bees in all their stages. Indeed the grand object of this contrivance is--to expose to view the labours of the Bees in the inside of their hive; and as the machine may be moved round at pleasure, not a Bee can enter it, without being observed, nor can a single cell be constructed in secret. I will only add--that the appearance of the Bees in this hive is beautiful, and excites admiration and surprise,--nay, is capable of enlivening the drooping spirits of the most desponding apiarian; for who can view the Queen of the hive constantly laying her eggs, and, by so doing, constantly propagating her species, and her thousands of loyal subjects, whose indefatigable labour in all its parts is so conspicuous, without experiencing sensations of the purest pleasure,--nay, more of gratitude to God for his goodness to man! It has been suggested to me by some ingenious friends--that a couple of magnifying glasses set in the doors, and some mechanical contrivance to open a part of the roof by simply pulling a cord, and to throw a proper light upon the four wings of the hive, would be a great improvement; because, by these means, or by some such means as these, the opening and shutting of the doors would be rendered unnecessary,--and, because the Bees and their curious works would be more interesting by being viewed through magnifying glasses,--and because the exterior appearance of the whole concern would be more handsome. Without the slightest hesitation I admit--that, to those persons to whom expense is no object, the mode of examining the observatory-hive would be improved by some such arrangements as those just mentioned; but _the hive itself would not be improved in the least_,--it would remain just as it was before these costly additions, whether ornamental, or useful, or both, were made to its covering only--_not to the hive_. The following cut will, in some degree, represent and tacitly explain an observatory-hive, fitted up in this way. [Illustration] THE MODE OF STOCKING AN OBSERVATORY-HIVE. This operation may be performed in various ways, and almost at any time during the summer months, by an experienced apiarian. I will content myself with describing _how_ it may be done most easily, if not most scientifically, by any person possessed of courage enough to operate at all among Bees. It is as follows: When your Bees swarm from a cottage-hive, take it (the swarm) into a common hive in the usual way 7 place it in a cool, shaded situation, and let it remain there until the evening; and even then attempt no further operation, unless the Bees be all settled and quite still. When they are all within their hive, peaceable, and retired, as it were, for the night, you may suddenly strike them from their hive upon a clean, white sheet, spread over a table prepared and ready for the purpose, and within the space occupied, or rather--enclosed, by four bricks placed edgewise. Upon these bricks place your glass-hive as expeditiously as possible with its entrance just over the Bees. Then envelope your hive with a cloth so as to darken its interior, and, lastly, throw the corners of the sheet over the whole. This done, the Bees will presently ascend into the wings of the hive. When they are all safely lodged in it, you may carefully remove the sheet and the other coverings; and, having securely made up the entrance into the winter-pavilion, then place the stocked hive upon its pedestal, and the Bees will be ready to commence their labour the next day. At the latter end of August invert the parent-hive from which the swarm issued, and place it in the octagon-box (g.) below the summer-pavilion. Take out the plug that is between the two hives, that is--open the passage into the winter-hive, and you will have accomplished the union of the two families: they will join or unite, and thenceforward continue to labour as one family. By this movement you give to your Bees a winter-residence, secure from all enemies, which are numerous at this season. And so well-stocked will the winter-hive be, that an early swarm from it, for the observatory-hive, the following season may reasonably be expected. The honey may be taken from the e. e. glasses, placed upon the arms of the summer-pavilion so easily, by turning round the loose boards under the glasses, that further explanation is unnecessary. The machine itself will point out to the perfect stranger the proper method of doing it. CHAPTER VIII. FUMIGATION. Fumigation is a rather portentous word; but, as soon as I shall have explained for what purposes, and in what manner, I occasionally make use of it, it will be totally divested of all deadly signification. In my practice it is not a Bee-destroyer, but a Bee-preserver;--when resorted to by me it is never carried, nor intended to be carried, to suffocation: but, in the operation of uniting weak swarms or poor stocks with more wealthy and prosperous ones--which I consider to be a meritorious and most humane practice,--when it is necessary to examine the state and condition of even a populous colony, should unfavourable symptoms as to its healthiness or its prosperity manifest themselves,--when it is known, or but suspected, that there are wax-moths, mice, spiders, or other Bee-enemies lodged in a hive, which the Bees of themselves cannot dislodge nor get rid of; and which, if not got rid of by man's assistance, would soon destroy almost any colony,--when Bees and their works (for I never transfer the former without transferring an ample sufficiency of the latter at the same time) are to be taken out of a decayed straw-hive, in order to be put into a more substantial one, or into collateral-boxes, which I hold to be the best of all hives,--and on innumerable other occasions, it is absolutely necessary _to subdue Bees_ so far as to render them incapable of using that formidable, venomous, little weapon, with which Providence has armed them, and which generally dreaded little weapon they can use so dexterously, before we can operate upon them for their own good. By means of a very simple apparatus, which may be called _a fumigator_, and which is a contrivance as novel and as useful in the management of Bees, as any of my hives or other inventions, _Bees may be totally subdued without being injured in the slightest degree, and dealt with as if they had neither stings nor wings_. I beg, however, to re-state distinctly--that, in taking off a box or a glass of honey, _no fumigation whatever is necessary_, or ever practised by me. It is only in cases such as those just enumerated that I have recourse to it; but in no case for the destruction of Bees. Fumigation, therefore, in my practice, is not suffocation. The following figure is a representation of a fumigator, which a brief explanation will render intelligible. [Illustration] This useful article consists of a square top-board upon which is placed a straw-hive (E.) so as to show an open, circular space under the hive and through the square board into the bag below. I need hardly observe--that the straw-hive is no part of the fumigator, but is here represented as standing upon it in order to exemplify its use. The top-board is of inch-deal, and is nineteen or twenty inches square. A round piece is cut out of its centre of not more than thirteen inches in diameter--that being something near to, or perhaps rather more than, the inside diameter of a common hive--so that a hive will stand upon the wooden circumference of the part left, without there being any ledge inside, that is--any part so enclosed by the hive as to catch and detain the falling Bees. From the upper-edge of this circle is suspended a bag, a yard in length, made of glazed calico, the bottom-part of which draws round the rim of a shallow, funnel-shaped, tin Bee-receiver, which Bee-receiver is about ten inches across at the top, and its lower part, or neck (D. or F.) is three inches and a half in length, and its throat (if I may so term it) is nearly three inches in width. To fit this neck, which is thickly perforated for the purpose of admitting fresh air, when fresh air may be required, is a close lid, just like that of a common, tin canister, to hold up the fumigated Bees, and also to stop the ventilation when not wanted. C. is the fumigating-lamp with a perforated top through which the fume ascends, and is made conical, so that a fumigated Bee in its fall cannot rest upon it and be thereby scorched or injured, as would inevitably be the case were this top flat. The tie (B.) closes the bag and keeps every Bee above until the lamp and every thing below be adjusted, and it is _then_ to be untied. The fumigator is here represented as standing upon three legs made fast to the top-board by small bolts, as at A.; but it is quite as convenient in practice, and more portable, if, instead of these legs, it be made like a common scale with a cord from each corner, which may be gathered into a small iron-hook, and thereby suspended from the branch of a tree, or from any other convenient place, when used. The lower part of the bag is represented as being transparent, but that is done purposely to show how the lamp is placed inside when prepared for operation. By persons inexperienced in such matters it may be thought to be an extraordinary feat to unite the Bees of one hive with those of another---to bind, as it were, the legs and wings, and pro tempore, to render useless the sting of every individual Bee, until such union be effected. Nothing, however, is more easy; nor is any part of apiarian practice attended with more pleasing consequences to the operator, or with more important and beneficial ones to the Bees themselves. When in a state of temporary intoxication from the fume made to ascend through the perforated tin (C.) into their hive, these beautiful insects are perfectly manageable,--perfectly harmless. This intoxicating fume is caused by introducing into the fumigating-lamp a piece of ignited vegetable substance, called puck, puckball, or frog-cheese, or, most commonly, _fuzzball_. It is a species of fungus, or mushroom, and is plentiful enough in the autumn in rank pastures and in rich edishes. Shepherds, milk-maids, or country-school boys are well acquainted with them,--know very well where to find them,--and for a mere trifle will easily pick up as many of them as will supply the demands of twenty apiarians. They are frequently as large as a man's head, or larger. In 1826 I had an unripe, white puckball, which weighed ten pounds. When ripe they are internally of a brown colour, and turning spongy and powdery become exceedingly light, and are then properly _fuzzballs_. For the substance of the following directions respecting the preparation of fuzzballs for Bee-fumigation, and for its application to that occasionally necessary purpose, I have no hesitation in acknowledging myself to be indebted to Thorley's treatise on Bees--no mean authority on such a subject. When you have procured one of these pucks, put it into a large piece of stout paper,--press it down therein to two-thirds, or, if you can, to one-half, of its original size, and then tie it up closely,--and, lastly, put it into an oven sometime after the household bread has been drawn, that is, when the oven is nearly cool, and let it remain there all night, or, until it will hold fire and smother away like touch-wood, i. e. burn without kindling into flame. In this state it is fit for the fumigating-lamp, and may be used in the manner following, when the union of two stocks is the apiarian's object. Take a piece of this prepared fungus, as large as a hen's egg, (it is better to have too much of it than too little to begin with) ignite one end of it with a candle, and then put it into the fumigating-lamp,--next fix the lamp in its socket over the Bee-receiver, and place the whole inside the bag, as shown in the plate, and untie B--the fastening round the middle. In a very short space of time the Bees in the hive placed upon the top-board (which is necessarily the first thing to be attended to in every operation of this kind) will be totally under your control. The operator should be particularly careful to close every vacancy, however small, that there may happen to be between the top-board and the edge of the hive, by tying a cloth round it--the hive--as soon as ever it is placed upon the board. This precaution will prevent the escape of any of the fume, and will also prevent the Bees from annoying the operator during the time he is making the arrangements necessary previously to every fumigating process. In the course of a minute or very little more you will hear the Bees dropping like hail into their receiver, at the bottom of the fumigating apparatus. When the major part of them are down, and you hear but few fall, gently beat the top of the hive with your hands, in order to get as many down as you can. Then, having loosened the cloth, lift the hive off and set it upon a table, or upon a broad board, prepared for the purpose, and knocking the hive against it several times, many more Bees will fall down, and perhaps the Queen amongst the rest; for, as she generally lodges near the crown of the hive, or is driven thither by the fume, and surrounded and protected there by the other Bees to the very last, and as long ever they have the power loyally to cling round her, she often falls one of the last. If the Queen is not among the Bees on the table, search for her among the main body in the Bee-receiver; first, however, putting them upon the table, if you discover her not before lying among the uppermost Bees therein. During this search for the Queen, or with as little delay as possible, you, or some one for you, should be proceeding in a similar manner with the Bees in the other hive, with which those already fumigated are to be united. As soon as the Bees of the hive last fumigated are all composed and quiet, and you have found and secured one of the Queens, you may put the Bees of both hives together into an empty one, for the purpose of mingling them thoroughly together, and of sprinkling them at the same time with a little ale and sugar; this done, put them and _one only_ of the two Queens among the combs of the hive you intend them to inhabit, and gently shake them down into it. When you have thus got all the Bees of your two hives into one, cover it with a cloth and closely bind the corners of that cloth about it, and let them stand during that night and the next day, shut or closed up in this manner, so that a Bee may not get out; but not so close as to smother them for want of air. In the evening of the following day, having previously removed the hive, containing your united-stock, to its proper stand, viz. that which it had occupied before the operation, loose the corners of the cloth and remove it from the mouth of the hive, and the Bees will, with a great noise, immediately sally forth; but being too late to take wing, they will presently go in again; and remain satisfied in and with their new abode--new at least, to one-half of them, and new to the other half also when transferred into a fresh hive, or into boxes. But in taking away the cloth discretion and caution must be used, because the Bees will for some time resent the affront put upon them by such to them, no doubt, offensive treatment. The best time of the year for unions of weak stocks with strong ones is in autumn, after the young brood are all out--in the latter part of August, or any time during September: but for removals of stocks from straw-hives into boxes, the best time is early in the spring before the eggs of the Queen have changed and quickened into larvæ,--I will say--in the month of March; and if the weather is cold, it is advisable to perform the operation in a room where the temperature is about 60 degrees. For if Bees are displaced, that is--taken from their hive, in a cold atmosphere, it is but rarely that they recover from the effects of the fume so as to marshal themselves into working order in a box or new hive. But this they can do, and will do most effectually, under this agreeable temperature. As twelve hours are sufficient for the Bees to regain their former independency in their new domicil, you may place them at the end of that period on their summer stool, and they will work, as soon as the weather will permit them, as if they had never been removed from their former hive, nor in any way disturbed. The great number of operations of this kind, which I have performed before hundreds of admiring and gratified spectators, chiefly of the higher ranks of society, renders it almost unnecessary for me to observe--that once being present at and witnessing it, will convey a more perfect idea of the whole performance than any written description of it can give. If, however, any gentleman, or other apiarian friend, who has not yet seen the performance of this operation, should be desirous of witnessing it, the author will freely undertake that, or any other Bee-service in his power, by which he can oblige, assist, or instruct him. The same degree of precaution is not necessary on the removing of the Bees of a cottage-hive on my principle; it is only requisite in the particular case of joining or uniting two or more hives together, that such nice management need be observed. And certainly the more expeditiously the whole is performed, the more pleasing will be the result of the operation, and the more certain of success. I will conclude this subject with an anecdote:--In the year 1828, I was engaged by the Honourable Lady Gifford, of Roehampton, to unite the Bees of two hives; and as the operation was novel to the spectators, who on that occasion consisted principally of the branches of that worthy family,--when I had drawn the Bees from the cottage-hive and they were all spread on a white cloth, and every eye was anxiously intent upon discovering the Queen-Bee, there was some trouble in finding that particular Bee; even I myself--an old practitioner--had overlooked her; and having occasion to leave the table and my fumigated Bees surrounded by my young Lord and Lady Gifford, and by the rest of her Ladyship's family, her infant son, in the arms of his nurse, eagerly called out--"Mamma, mamma, what is that?" Hearing the child's animated expression, I returned to the table, and instantly beheld and caught the Queen of the Bees,--and her actually pointed out by an infant not three years of age. Is there any excuse then for not knowing the Queen-Bee? And, as a true description of this Bee and of the office she fulfils in the hive, will be given in the course of this work, accompanied with a plate of her and also of the other Bees, I trust my Bee-friends will not hereafter allow a child of only three years of age (although that child was the son of a late Attorney-General,) to excel them in this particular point of apiarian knowledge, which is not only highly interesting, but very useful to the operator, when uniting stocks, or transferring Bees from one domicil to another. Never shall I forget the look of satisfaction that beamed on the countenance of the affectionate mother. To see each of her eight amiable children around the table with her Ladyship, minutely searching every little cluster of Bees, in order to give the first information of the Queen, was a lovely sight; but to hear her infant son proclaim, as it were, the Queen of the Bees, by pointing his little, delicate finger to the object of his curiosity, and exclaim--"Mamma, mamma, what is that?" was most gratifying even to me. Well might the little naturalist inquire--"what is that?" when he was in the presence of royalty, and pointing to one of the most extraordinary monarchs in the world, while I myself--an old practitioner, had not previously observed her. Be it so, I acknowledge my oversight in this instance, and feel it incumbent on me to give the merit of the discovery to him, to whom on that occasion it was so justly due. CHAPTER IX. OBJECTIONS AGAINST PILING BOXES. Having gone through the explanation of my different hives, and of all my Bee-machinery, I will, previously to entering upon other matters, here state my objections to the piling of Bee-boxes one upon another, which is sometimes, and not improperly, called--_storifying_. It is also termed super-hiving, nadir-hiving, or centre-hiving, according to the place occupied by the added box: if an empty box be placed upon a stocked one, it is _super-hiving_;--if put _under_ such box, it is _nadir-hiving_;--and if introduced _between_ two boxes, it is _centre-hiving_. But with whatever term dignified--not to say--mystified, it amounts to, and in effect is--_storifying_. From an old book in my possession I find--that in 1675 a patent was granted to John Gedde, to secure to him for a term of fourteen years the advantages of his invention of boxes for storifying; so that it is at least of a hundred and sixty years' standing. After Gedde it was successively adopted and encouraged by Rusden, Warder, and Thorley, and has been the fashionable or fancy practice down to the present day; for it is a mode of managing Bees that has been recommended by some modern authors,--principally, if I mistake not, by Dr. Bevan; and it is practised by some Bee-masters, who, I am told, consider it to be the most humane mode, and the only humane mode of managing Honey-Bees. I have no wish to depreciate the inventions and labours of others, nor to offend any man, and particularly that man who has exerted himself so much to better the condition of the Honey-Bee. If he has been mistaken in the means to be employed to gain so desirable an end, and in my humble opinion he certainly has been mistaken, every praise is due to him for his good intentions. My first objection to the piling system is--because it occasions a great deal of extra trouble, labour, and inconvenience to the Bees, and consequently prevents their collecting so great a quantity of honey and wax as they will do where they are not subjected to these drawbacks. And where, I would fain know, is the humanity in increasing and obstructing the labours of these indefatigable, little insects? Is it not inhumanity to force them to deposit their treasures in a garret, two or three stories high, when a far more convenient store-room may be provided for them on the first floor? Let not, then, the piling advocate of the present day any longer recommend this faulty practice, nor erroneously contend that the elevating of boxes one upon another, is the best and only way of ensuring an abundance of honey and wax. But fairly to get at the merits--not to say--demerits of this practice, I will examine it a little in detail. First, then, the piling practitioner puts a swarm of Bees into a box, which I will call box A. This box, if prosperous, of course soon becomes a pavilion of nature,--that is, it soon contains quantities of brood-comb, young brood, larvæ, and embryo Bees in various stages of existence. It is allowed to stand alone until it be filled, or nearly filled, with the Bees' works. It requires no great skill to know that the contents of box A. at this period are as just described. When nearly full it is placed upon another box (B.) to prevent what is called the maiden-swarm. This box, like box A. is quickly filled with combs: the Queen too follows her labourers and progressively lays her eggs even to the lowest edges of the combs. Of course box B, like box A. soon contains quantities of brood. The second box (B.) gets full just as the first did, and as a cottage-hive does--not with pure honey, but with brood, pollen or farina, and other substances, as well as with honey; in short, there is no provision for, nor means of, dividing the works of the working Bees from the works of the Queen-Bee; consequently they become, as _of necessity_ they must become--one promiscuous mass. The brood continues to increase and occupies that part of the box which should be of pure honey and wax. This goes on until more room is wanted; and _then_ it is that the two full boxes (A. and B.) are exalted and placed upon the third and last box (C.) This, however, does not mend the matter; but, as will be seen presently, it does occasion a great deal of additional labour and inconvenience to the Bees. In the meantime they carry on their works of nature and of art--they construct new combs and store some of the cells with honey, and the Queen lays her eggs in others, just as in the other boxes. The fact is--the three boxes soon become as one: they soon become and continue to be of one temperature,--the same compound of the old hive,--the brood-cells are intermixed with those containing honey,--wreaths of pollen are: in every pile,--and animated nature is everywhere peeping from the waxen cells, in which nothing but pure honey should have been deposited. But this is not all, nor the worst part; though bad enough, if _purity of honey_ be any consideration. It is a fact known by me and by every one at all experienced in the management of an apiary, that no sooner are the combs in box CL got into a state of forwardness--it would be saying rather too much to say--completed, than numbers of working Bees are, as it were, struck off their work there, and set about removing all superfluities and nuisances from the combs lately filled with young brood in the uppermost box A. Every cell in those combs that has been the nest and nursery of a young Bee they cleanse thoroughly and repair, where repairs are needed, preparatory to its being made a receptacle for honey, or for the other treasures brought from the field. At this time, that is--as soon as the combs are free from the first brood, the uppermost box is nearly empty, instead of being full: it contains _empty combs and Bees, but little or no honey_. Here then the Bees are subjected to that extra labour and inconvenience which form my first objection to the piling-plan. From the entrance into box C. through box B. and up into box A. the way, to a loaded Bee, is neither short nor pleasant; it is a labyrinth beset with difficulties and obstructions, in surmounting which much of that time is occupied which would otherwise be more profitably, and we may suppose--far more agreeably employed, in passing from flower to flower, and in culling their various sweets. Any person, it may be presumed, would rather set down a heavy load on the ground-floor than have to tug it up two or three long flights of stairs, and through intricate, winding passages, and be jostled and impeded and pushed about, and perhaps backward every now and then, by countless crowds of busy men, unceasingly hurrying up and down and passing and re-passing the burdened man in every direction. And is it not comparatively the same with Bees going through boxes C. and B. up into box A.? I maintain that it is so,--and that Bees in piled-boxes lose much time in performing the unnecessary, climbing labour, imposed upon them by their unskilful masters. The natural consequence of this--I repeat--_unnecessary_ waste of their time, must not be placed to the account, or laid to the instinct of the Bees; for of all creatures in the world, Bees perhaps work with the most extraordinary celerity. The beautiful piles of honey, and _when unobstructed_, the regular movements of these wonderful insects, are admirably scientific and correct. The consequence, namely, a deficiency in the quantity of honey and wax, is chargeable solely to the account of the unskilful manager. At length the time arrives when the three piled-boxes are, or are supposed to be, well stored,--and when a part of the Bees' treasure is to be taken as a remuneration for the _care_ and trouble of the proprietor. Let him then put on his grotesque Bee-dress, and booted up to the middle and gloved to the very elbows, let him proceed to take the uppermost box. He divides it from that on which it stands, that is--from box B. by a slide or a divider of some sort prepared for such an operation, or in any way he pleases, for that I leave to him. Well, he succeeds in getting off his prize; not, however, without the destruction of a considerable number of Bees: for _to presume_ that he is acquainted with my easy mode of taking away a box, would be to presume too much; I therefore allow him a Bee-dress at once, and have accoutered him in the best way I can for his arduous undertaking. The box, then, is off. He turns it up and examines it, and to his great disappointment, he finds that the combs are discoloured, that each pile of the expected treasure contains parts of the young larvæ, and that there is much pollen commingled with the other substances in the box; in short, he finds that the whole is dirty and filthy in appearance; and that he has destroyed a part of the most valuable brood for another year. And, if instead of box A. he take box B. he will fare little, if any better; nay, he will in all probability destroy a greater quantity of brood: and in box C. he cannot expect to find more than half-filled cells, or empty combs. Such are the fruits and profits of the piling system of Bee-management. There are Bee-masters resident within twenty miles of the good town of Spalding, and in many other places that might be mentioned, who know that the foregoing account is true, _lamentably true_: but, until such practitioners are sensible of the faultiness of their system of Bee-management, it would be folly in me to appeal more directly to any of them for a confirmation of what _I know_ to be the truth. How, I would ask, can the Bees' sweet treasures be divided from their other work, if there be no means of varying and regulating the temperature in their hive? Without the aid of ventilation it is, in my opinion, impossible; but with it, it is perfectly easy, perfectly safe, and not at all distressing nor even unpleasant to the Bees. Before I take my leave of the piling or storifying practitioner, whom I consider, as perhaps he may consider me, to be very, very imperfect in the management of Bees, I feel it to be my duty to my readers, and of course to the piling Bee-master, if he should vouchsafe to me a reading, to record a few other facts that bear strongly against the piling practice--facts derived from long and attentive observation of the nature and habits of Honey-Bees. Twelve years' steady practice and constant attention to the movements of these ingenious insects are the foundations I have to build upon. Besides I have proofs, well-authenticated, indisputable proofs, of the abundant produce of honey having been taken from collateral-boxes, and that of very superior quality too; which honey I take from the Bees as being a superabundant store, and not as a part, the taking away of which has any tendency to weaken, or in any way to injure, the prosperity of the colony from which it is taken. But what do we behold when a box is taken from a storied pile?--what that in the least deserves to be termed humanity? Do not a thousand murders stare us in the face? Why should the operator be veiled and muffled up and made sting-proof, if no conflict was expected--if no deeds of violence were anticipated? But violence is anticipated, and practised too, to such an extent that it is no uncommon occurrence for the Bees that escape destruction to desert the other boxes altogether. This ends one part of the business. And these objections against the practice of storifying boxes will, I trust, induce the reflecting, ingenuous reader to turn his attention to the importance of ventilation in collateral-boxes. By regulating the interior temperature of the hive, suitable and generative heat is confined to the pavilion, that is--to the mother-hive, which heat causes the Queen to propagate her young in the pavilion--this being the middle-box, and near the entrance, a great advantage is thereby afforded to all the Bees passing in and out, that fully demonstrates the necessity of their labours being assisted in the breeding-season, _and not obstructed_. It is the heat which causes the working-Bees to deposit their pollen in the immediate vicinity of the seat of nature. This pollen, which is called by some writers Bee-bread, is gathered and deposited for the special purpose of supporting the young larvæ, while helpless insects, or babies, as it were, in the hive. Combined with heat, it is this material which discolours the much admired works of the Bees; it is this which also makes the wax and honey yellow: besides where this pollen is deposited by the Bees, there, or in that part of the hive, will the Queen lay her eggs,--and there of course propagate her species. And as animal nature advances to perfection, so rises the interior temperature of the hive, until an almost suffocating heat obliges the Bees to leave their home. This heat extends itself to the most remote parts of their domicil; and were it not for the influence of ventilation in the end-boxes, a discolouration of their beautiful works would also be extended through the hive, and the Queen would lay her eggs promiscuously as she does in the cottage-hive. But this mischief is corrected by ventilation: can then any reasonable man deny its powerful and useful effects in the management of Bees? The Queen-Bee is but seldom seen by the most acute observer; she loves to propagate her young in secrecy, at the regular temperature of the hive at her own birth. If she can possibly avoid it, she will not lay her eggs where man can overlook and examine her movements; consequently the ventilation in the side-boxes prevents her extending her works of nature beyond the limits of her native hive. As soon as she feels a cooling change of temperature, she immediately withdraws to her native clime, and leaves her working subjects to store the beautifully white combs with the purest crystal sweet. Bat, were the Queen permitted, as she is in the piling system, as well as in the cottage-hive, to follow her subjects through the whole hive, with one and the same temperature throughout, she would most certainly propagate her young just as she does in the piled-boxes. In that case there would be no advantage derivable from the purity of the honey. Again, on my plan, the middle-box is so situated that the Queen in it is placed conveniently to superintend her labourers; her eye can behold them in the throngest of their labour, being so near the well fortified entrance of her pavilion. In such a favourable situation, she can view the movements of her subjects, and not a moment need be lost, because all their streets and passages are short. The direct ascent to the top of one of my boxes is not quite eleven inches, and with a middle-sized bell-glass superadded, it does not exceed eighteen inches; so that in one day, when the honey-dew is plentiful, ten thousand Bees will gather more treasure than three times that number on the piling system, in which the Bees are compelled to mount up to the Babylonian height of Thorley's fourth box. These (partly repetitions of what has been stated before, I am aware,) are conveniences which collateral-boxes possess, and which _do not belong to piled-boxes_. In piled-boxes Bees are subjected to unnecessary labour, which is so far a waste of time. From piled-boxes not nearly the quantity of honey and wax is procured, that may be procured from collateral-boxes,--nor is that deficient quantity of a quality at all comparable with the other. In managing piled-boxes many Bees are destroyed. These are my objections to that system of Bee-management; and I put it to every person who has practised storifying to say whether they are not well-founded. [Illustration: L. Bennett and Co. Typ. 10, Guilford Place, Spa-Fields, London. THE APIARY At the most noble the MARQUIS of BLANDFORD'S, DELABERE PARK, PANGBOURN, (near READING,) BERKSHIRE. ] CHAPTER X. APIARY AT DELABERE PARK. Having stated (in page 144) that "I have well-authenticated, indisputable proofs of the abundant produce of honey having been taken from collateral-boxes, and that of very superior quality too," I could, in support of this statement refer the reader to a great number of my apiarian friends, a bare catalogue of whose names would fill several pages of this book. But as the best proofs of the merits, advantages, and practicability of anew system, are in its established success, I will select one instance, and have great pleasure in referring to that of the apiary established on my principles, at the seat of my noble patron--the Marquess of Blandford, at Delabere Park, near Reading. Situated in a part of the country most abundantly favoured by nature,--effete with every variety of Bee-herbage, and with every local advantage combined in its favour, the noble Marquess has prosecuted his apiarian pursuits with a spirit of liberality and enterprize redounding to his credit, and well meriting the success which has equalled my own as it has his most sanguine expectations. I do not consider that I can introduce this better to the notice of my readers, than by transcribing the account of a visit, that was paid to it by my intelligent friend Mr. Booth, the Lecturer on Chemistry, and which appeared in the _Stamford Mercury_ of July 26th, 1833. It is as follows:-- "To the Editor of the Mercury. "Sir, "From the interest you appear to take in whatever relates to the extension of Mr. Nutt's invaluable system of Bee-management, and the prompt attention you have given to former communications on the subject, I am induced to detail the successful results of that system in the hands of the Marquess of Blandford, who has gone most extensively into the subject, and with an ardour and enthusiasm second only to that of the intelligent inventor. As I had the permission of the noble Marquess to make my observations, so I am enabled to make reference to his Lordship for the accuracy of my statements, and I am only fulfilling' the wishes of the noble Lord, in making these details as extensively public as possible, for the information of those who are interested in this most important, though long neglected branch of rural economy. "His Lordship's park is most pleasantly situated near the beautiful and romantic village of Pangbourn, in Berkshire, and the choice of situation for the apiary is most excellent. It is at the top of a tower[E] forty-six feet high, situated in the midst of a wood, and commanding a most extensive view of the surrounding country, including Hampshire, Berkshire, Wiltshire, and Oxfordshire, the face of nature being clad in an almost endless variety of fertility, and old Father Thames gently meandering through the valley, formed by the distant hills which bound the scene, affording but few prospective traces of the immense physical developments of his powers, which render him, truly, the monarch of rivers. At the top of this tower his Lordship possesses four colonies in collateral-hives, and one inverted-hive, all of which have been started since April 1833. In the collateral-hives the labours of the Bees have been highly successful. From one colony has already been taken a box containing thirty pounds of honey; whilst another box and three small glasses, which cannot together contain less than forty pounds, are quite ready for taking, and which will afford the sum of seventy pounds, and this without infringing on the quantity necessary for the winter support of the Bees. The thermometer in the collateral-boxes did not exceed 70 degrees, whilst in the air it was at 64. A most remarkable contrast was afforded by the superior quality of the honey in the end-box and that of the 'pavilion of nature:' the superiority of the former was most evident. Mr. Smith, the keeper, who quite follows in the steps of Mr. Nutt, informed me that the average quantity of honey produced from a cottage-hive, upon the old principles, does not exceed from thirty to forty pounds; whilst, but in one case, did he ever obtain from a hive, enlarged by eking, the amount of fifty pounds. It is extremely satisfactory and fortunate, that, for the sake of reference, Mr. Nutt's system has fallen into such good hands, as both his lordship and the keeper appear as devoted to the subject, as they have been happy in their results. For young beginners the results reflect great credit. [Footnote E: Vide, plate at the head of this chapter.] "I am not able to speak much regarding the progress of the inverted-hives, of which his lordship possesses two; the one being at the top of the tower and the other situate on the lawn, at the back of the house; the former containing twenty-three glasses and the latter thirty-three. The latter is really a magnificent construction--an ornamental appendage such as the gardens of few noblemen can boast. The Bees had, in each, filled all the intermediate parts betwixt the hive and the glasses, and were just then commencing their labours in the latter. Next summer his lordship will, I anticipate, reap a glorious harvest both from these, and his collateral-hives, which are getting into prime condition for the winter. "I have troubled you with these details because they relate to facts, and a publication of such facts is all that is required to introduce this admirable system of Bee-management into universal practice. To what extension it may be brought, it is impossible to state, but these results most strongly impress upon others of the nobility to 'Go and do likewise.' The mantle of the warrior has indeed fallen upon the philanthropist in the person of the heir to the title and fortunes of a Marlborough; and let the example but be extended, and the practice inculcated amongst our rural population, and, whilst it will greatly conduce to their advantage, we need no longer look to France or Italy for a supply of treasures, which our own country and peasantry can so efficiently produce. Nothing could possibly more advance these objects, than the formation of an Apiarian Society, which should offer premiums and prizes to the most successful competitors; and I do hope that for the sake of humanity as well as philanthropy, and when I see the long and noble list of names which dignify Mr. Nutt's patronage, I shall not be deceived in my anticipations of the speedy formation of a society, established for such laudable purposes. Yours, &c. Abraham Booth, Lecturer on Chemistry. "Reading, July 22d, 1833." To the above very able and explicit description, and which is to me the more interesting because not written by a _practical_ apiarian, I have nothing to add, but that it has met the cordial approbation of his Lordship, whose still more recent and continuous success has confirmed him in the practicability and value of my system. The sketch which precedes this account was taken for the purpose by his amiable Countess, whose kind solicitude for the welfare of the industrious and valuable little insects, to which so much of my attention has been devoted, and approbation of my exertions, have not been amongst the least valued of my rewards and consolations. CHAPTER XI. HONEY-BEES. That branch of natural history which treats of INSECTS is called entomology. And Linnæus, the celebrated naturalist and botanist, and the father of the classification of animated and vegetable nature, has divided insects into seven orders; the fifth of which is termed hymenoptera, and includes all those insects that have four membranous, gauze-like wings, and that are furnished with a sting, or with a process resembling one. To this class the Honey-Bee belongs. It has, however, been so repeatedly described by naturalists and by apiarian authors, that it would be difficult to say any thing respecting it as an insect merely that has not been said before. It is, moreover, so universally known, that it may seem to be a superfluous undertaking to attempt to describe it at all. As, however, my little work might be deemed to be imperfect without some account of it, I will present to my readers the substance of what appears to me to be a condensed, well-written article on the Bee. It is from Watkins' Cyclopædia. There are, he says, and I believe it, fifty-five species of Bees. The general characteristics of the Bee are these:--its mouth has two jaws and a proboscis enfolded in a double sheath; its wings are four, the lower or under pair of which is smaller than the upper pair; in the anus of the female and working Bees is a concealed sting. Of the fifty-five species the HONEY-BEE--classically, or at any rate entomologically--apis mellifica, is the most interesting and important, and that with which I am directly concerned. Of this Bee there are three kinds--the Queen, the drone, and the working Bee; it is no more than justice to the draughtsman and to the engraver to say, the following are beautiful representations, except the head of the working Bee, which is too round. [Illustration] Fig. 1. represents a Drone. -- 2. ---------- a working Bee. -- 3. ---------- a Queen Bee. The _Drones_ are larger than the others; their heads are round, eyes foil, and their tongues short; they are also much darker and differ in the form of the belly; they have no sting, and they make a greater noise in flying than the common Bees. Generally speaking, they are found in hives from the beginning of May to the middle or latter end of July: sometimes they may be seen earlier, especially in good stocks; and sometimes their destruction does not take place till the middle of August, or even later. They neither collect honey nor wax. It has been supposed that their office is to impregnate the eggs of the Queen _after_ they are deposited in the cells; but according to Mr. Bonner this _supposition_ is a mistake. In this I agree with him, and beg to remark--that in no case is a supposition a proof. Bonner says that the Queen lays eggs which produce young Bees without any communication with the drones. He supports this position by the statement of several very exact experiments. In this opinion he is supported by the respectable evidence of Schirach. On the mysterious subject of the Queen's impregnation I am inclined to coincide in opinion with Huber, whose multiplied observations, and various and curious experiments, do render it highly probable that the Queen is impregnated by the drone, not whilst in the hive, but whilst flying in the air: but of this debatable subject more by and by. The QUEEN-BEE is easily distinguished from other Bees by the form, size, and colour of her body. She is larger, longer at least, and her wings are shorter in proportion to her size than those of other Bees. The wings of drones and of common working Bees cover their bodies, but those of the Queen scarcely reach beyond the middle. Her hinder part tapers more than the corresponding part of other Bees, and is admirably adapted for the purpose of being introduced into the cells to deposit her eggs, which she does without being incommoded by her wings, as she no doubt would be, were they long in proportion to the length of her body. Considering then the office she has to perform, the shortness of her wings and the length and tapering of her body are alike conveniences to her; her belly and legs are yellower, and her upper parts darker than those of other Bees. Though furnished with a sting, she very rarely uses it, and will bear being handled without being provoked. A young Queen is smaller than a full grown one. When three or four days old she is quick in her motions; but when impregnated she becomes heavy. The common or working Bees have the faculty or instinctive power of raising a Queen-Bee, when they are in want of one, from an egg in a common cell. To do this, they choose a common cell in which is an egg, and inject a thick, white, liquid matter from their proboscis, they then build on the edges of that particular cell and enlarge it; on the fifth day the royal maggot appears in the form of a semicircle, in which form it swims in the midst of the matter in the cell; and on the seventh day it is sealed up. During which period the embryo Queen undergoes various metamorphoses. On the fourteenth or fifteenth day afterwards it comes forth a perfect Queen-Bee. Schirach has discovered a method of multiplying Queen-Bees to almost any extent, and consequently of making artificial stocks. This can only be successfully accomplished when there are in a hive eggs, nymphs, and little maggots two or three days out of the cell, that is, when there is in a hive young brood in these three different stages of existence. When a Queen dies and the Bees are left without the means of raising another, that is--when there are no eggs nor young brood of a proper age in the hive, the Bees cease working, consume the honey, fly about at random, and if not supplied with another Queen, soon dwindle away; but if supplied with a new Queen, they revive, and exercise their labour with new and increased activity. The Queen is, as it were, the very soul of the hive. It has been computed that the ovary of the Queen contains above 5000 eggs at once, and that in the space of two months she may produce 10 or 12,000 Bees. I am inclined to think that this computation is too-limited: from what I have witnessed in my observatory-hive this summer (1832), I am led to conclude that a fertile Queen is capable of laying far more than the beforementioned number of eggs in the space of two months. The _working Bees_ are considerably smaller than either the drones or the Queen. They, like the others, have four wings, which enable them to fly with heavy loads. They have six legs, of which the two foremost are the shortest, and with these they discharge themselves of their loads. The two last or hindmost are the largest, and on the outside of the middle joint of these is a cavity in which the Bees collect the materials for wax, which materials they carry home to their hives; this hollow is peculiar to the working Bee. Each foot terminates in two hooks. The honey-bladder is of the size of a small pea, and very transparent. The sting is horny and hollow, through which the poison is ejected. The wound inflicted by it is mortal to many insects; and instances are not wanting of horses and cows having been stung to death by Bees. When the sting is left in the wound, and being barbed it commonly is left there, the Bee that loses it dies in consequence. With regard to the age of Bees, the drones have a short life, being destroyed annually by the working Bees; these--the workers--are supposed by some to live but one year, but others are of opinion that they live several years: those of them that escape a premature death will live, if I mistake not, three or four years, or even longer. I once clipped one of the wings of a Queen so that I could identify her, in case I should ever meet with her again: I then returned her to her hive, and had the good fortune to see her several times afterwards during three successive years. Of course she lived more than three years. What became of her at last I do not know; nor whether she may not still survive I do not know. If, however, working Bees be as long-lived as Queen-Bees, and I think it will be difficult to assign a good reason why they should not, they may live to be three or four years of age, and perhaps more than that. The ample provision they make for life seems to me to be a _natural_ indication that they expect at least to live to have occasion for it. Sometimes fierce, destructive battles take place between the Bees of different hives in an apiary, and when the Queen of one hive is killed, the war ceases, and the surviving Bees of the two hives unite and become one peaceable stock. Some apiarians have obtained an extraordinary command over Bees, particularly Mr. Wildman, who could entice a whole swarm to settle just where he pleased--on his chin, on his head, on his hand, or on any particular branch of a tree; but these feats, so surprising to the beholders, he effected, as any other dexterous person may, by getting possession of the Queen-Bee, and placing her where he intended the Bees should settle; for it is a well-ascertained fact, that such is the attachment of Bees to their Queen, that they will congregate around her, and, as far as they can, protect her in whatever situation they find her. Were the attachment and _allegiance_ of all subjects to their legitimate sovereigns thus true and powerful, it would, as Sterne says, be something! In working the Bees are said by some, whose sayings are perhaps more fanciful than correct, in the following instance at least;--it has, however, been _said_--that in working the Bees form themselves into four companies, one of which roves the fields in search of materials for the hive, another is employed in laying out the bottoms and partitions of the cells, the third in smoothing the inside from the corners and angles, and the fourth in bringing food for the rest. According to this account some are labourers, others are builders, others finishers, and others purveyors. As there is no difference in the formation of the workers, I see no reason for assigning them any particular task or sort of work, nor do I think the allotment of labour just mentioned rests upon any other foundation than that of vague conjecture. Their diligence, however, and activity, are so great, that in a favourable day they will make cells which lie on each other, sufficient to contain some thousands of Bees. To keep their habitations--their hives, close and tight, they make use of a resinous gum, which the ancients called, and which is still called--_propolis_. This substance is at first soft and pliable, but becomes firmer every day; when it has acquired its proper consistency, it is harder than wax and is an excellent cement. They guard against the entrance of ants and other inimical insects into their hive, by gluing or filling up with this propolis the smallest inlets; and with it they fasten the edge of their hive to its floor in a very secure manner. Some Bees stand as sentinels, and mount guard, as it were, to prevent the intrusion of strangers and enemies. But if a snail, or other reptile, or any large insect, forces its way into the hive, they first kill it, and then coat it over with propolis, to prevent being annoyed by the noisome smell, or by the maggots which might proceed from its putrefaction, if left to putrefy. Bees can perceive the approach of bad weather; for when black clouds are in the sky indicating rain, they immediately hurry home with the greatest speed; and when to the eye of man there is no visible token of a sudden shower or other immediate change from fine weather to foul, Bees are aware of it, and by their sudden, hurried return to their hives, are the first to prognosticate a change as near; nor, often as I have observed them, have I ever found them wrong in this respect. The manner in which Bees rest when they settle, after having swarmed, and frequently in the hive also, is by collecting themselves into a cluster and hanging to each other by the hooks of their feet. When the weather has been warm I have frequently seen them, presently after being admitted into an end-box, hang in catkins or ropes: this they no doubt do to cool themselves the more. To view the Bees suspended from one another in these single ropes is a natural curiosity well worth attention. The flight of Bees when swarming is singularly rapid and most extraordinary: during some minutes after having risen into the air, they dart across each other in every conceivable direction, wheel round and shoot through the merry crowd again, again wheel round and again dart through; and notwithstanding the very limited space within which they confine their gambols on these occasions, they never seem to come in contact or to clash with each other; though animated and excited to a degree of apparently frantic ovation, I never have observed one Bee fall foul of another, and this it is that strikes me as being wonderful. The balls attached to the legs of Bees returning to the hives, consist of a powder gathered from the stamina of flowers, not yet brought to the state of wax. The Bee, when it enters the cup of the flower, rolls itself till its whole body is covered with the yellow farina that is therein. It then brushes off this powdery farina with its hind legs, and kneads it into two balls or small pellets, loaded with which it returns to the hive. Bees powdered all over with farina may frequently be seen entering their hive: the Bees thus covered carry their loads upon their whole bodies, without the labour of packing them upon their thighs. Probably when farina is collected in the immediate vicinity of their hives, Bees may have the wisdom (I know not what else it can be properly called) to save themselves the labour of brushing and making it into pellets. Some authors hold that this substance is eaten by degrees, and being digested in the body of the Bee, that it becomes wax,--or that by some peculiar process it certainly is converted into wax,--and that when there is a superfluous quantity of this undigested, or unmanufactured matter, it is laid up in store, and is called _Bee-bread_. For my part I am of opinion that farina is stored up purely as Bee-bread and food for the young brood, and that _it enters not into the composition of wax_. The material of which wax is formed I take to be quite distinct from farina--a material of a different nature. The following account of a working Bee appeared in the Farmers' Journal some time ago, I subjoin it, because, in some respects, it is more particular than that just given; but in one thing it is deficient--it makes no mention of the eyes--the two luminaries or lights of the body. The eyes of Bees are of an oblong figure, black like jet, transparent and immoveable. BEE, says the Farmers' Journal, a small and well-known insect, famous for its industry. This useful and laborious insect is divided by two ligaments into three parts or portions,--the head, the breast, and the belly. The head is armed with two jaws and a trunk, the former of which play like two jaws, opening and shutting to the right and left; the trunk is long and tapering, and at the same time extremely pliant and flexible, being destined by nature for the insect to probe to the bottom of the flowers, through all the impediments of their chives and foliage, and drain them of their treasured sweets: but were this trunk to be always extended, it would prove incommodious, and be liable to be injured by a thousand accidents; it is therefore of such a structure, that after the performance of its necessary functions, it may be contracted, or rather folded up; and besides this, it is fortified against all injuries by four strong scales, two of which closely sheath it, and the two others, whose cavities and dimensions are larger, encompass the whole. From the middle-part or breast of the Bee grow the legs, which are six in number; and at the extremity of the paws are two little hooks, discernible by the microscope, which appear like sickles, with their points opposite to each other. The wings are four, two greater and two smaller, which not only serve to transport them through the air, but, by the noise they make, to give notice of their departure and arrival, and to animate them mutually to their labours. The hairs, with which the whole body is covered, are of singular use in retaining the small dust that falls from the chives of the flowers. The belly of the Bee consists of six rings, which slide over one another, and may therefore be lengthened or contracted at pleasure; and the inside of this part of the body contains the intestines,--the bag of honey,--the bag of poison,--and the sting. The office of the intestines is the same as in other animals. The bag of honey is transparent as crystal, containing the sweet juices extracted from the flowers, which the Bee discharges into the cells of the magazine for the support of the community in w inter. The bag of poison hangs at the root of the sting, through the cavity of which, as through a pipe, the Bee ejects some drops of this venomous liquor into the wound made by the sting, and so renders the pain more excessive. The mechanism of the sting is admirable, being composed of two darts, inclosed within a sheath that tapers into a fine point, near which is an opening to let out the poison; the two darts are ejected through another aperture, which being armed with several sharp beards, like those of fish-hooks, are not easily drawn back again by the Bee; and indeed she never disengages them if the wounded party happens to start and put her in confusion; but if, when stung, one can have patience to continue calm and unmoved, the stinging Bee clinches those lateral points round the shaft of the dart, by which means she recovers her weapon, and gives less pain to the person stung. FOR THE STING OF A BEE. The poisonous liquor which the stinging Bee infuses into the wound causes a fermentation, attended with a swelling, which continues sometimes several days; but that may be prevented by immediately pulling out the sting, and enlarging the puncture, to let the venomous matter have room to escape. Many nostrums have been recommended as cures--_infallible cures_, of course--for the sting of a Bee, a few of which I will just mention; premising, however, that I myself never make use of any of them; for, if by chance a Bee happens to sting me, which is very rarely indeed the case, though I never so much as cover my face, nor even put on a pair of gloves, when operating among thousands and tens of thousands of Bees, I extract the sting instanter, and never afterwards experience the least pain, nor suffer the slightest inconvenience. But, if the sting be suffered to remain in the flesh, during a few seconds only, it is not very easy to stop the inflammation and to allay the pain. An onion cut horizontally into thin slices, and pressed closely to the wounded part, and renewed at short intervals, has been accounted a good application. If the part stung be first well-rubbed with one of those slices, that would perhaps have a soothing effect. The juice of the plantain is also said to be a specific; olive oil is another; so is common salt; so is laudanum; so is spirits of hartshorn; so is a solution of sal ammoniac; and so is chalk or whitening. The DOCTOR (and who so likely to prescribe properly for the case as the Doctor?) says[F] "common whitening proves an effectual remedy against the effects of the sting of a Bee or wasp. The whitening is to be moistened with cold water, and immediately applied. It may be washed off in a few minutes, when neither pain nor swelling will ensue." [Footnote F: See "The Doctor," page 15.] In "The Apiarian's Guide, by J. H. Payne," published since the first edition of this work, I find the following novel mode of treatment recommended as "almost a perfect cure," and which is said to be "as immediate as it is effectual." "The method I (J. H. Payne, Esq.) have of late adopted, by which the pain is instantly removed, and both the swelling and inflammation prevented, is to pull out the sting as soon as possible, and take a piece of iron and heat it in the fire, or for want of that, take a live coal, (if of wood the better, because it lasts longer) and hold it as near to the place as I can possibly endure it, for five minutes; if from this application a sensation of heart (quere heat) should be occasioned, a little oil of turpentine or goulard cerate must be applied. "I have found the quicker the application, the more effectual the cure."[G] [Footnote G: See the Apiarian's Guide, pp. 58, 59.] Pressure with the hollowed end of a small key, or with a pencil-case, is practised by some unfortunates, and is said to check the circulation of the poison. This last mode of treatment--i. e. pressure with a small key, or pencil-case--the smaller the better--is the simplest, and, if _immediately_ adopted, is I believe the very best: but its efficacy depends upon the instant application of the key or pencil-case to the part stung, by which the poisonous matter is not only prevented from being absorbed into the system, but the puncture is laid open, and the virus thereby expressed and entirely got rid of more readily than by any other means. Accidents may sometimes happen, and the most cautious and humane apiarian may occasionally receive a sting; but gentle treatment does not irritate Bees; and when not irritated they have no disposition to use their stings. CHAPTER XII. IMPREGNATION OF THE QUEEN-BEE. Notwithstanding the most persevering attention of Huber and of other ingenious apiarians, and notwithstanding the experiments and expedients had recourse to, to discover the secret, it is still doubtful--it is still undiscovered, in what precise way the Queen-Bee becomes impregnated. No one has ever yet witnessed the fact of her copulation with a drone, either in the hive or elsewhere,--in all probability no one ever will be witness to it; consequently the contradictory conclusions apiarians have come to on this subject are unsatisfactory, because unsupported by sufficient and convincing proofs. Huber, after having made a variety of observations and tried numberless experiments to get at the fact, gives it as his opinion--that the impregnation of the Queen is accomplished by her intercourse with the drone during a flight in the open atmosphere; but modestly states that he never witnessed the act of copulation. On this last point I entirely coincide with him, and firmly believe that no man ever yet has been present to confirm the supposed fact; neither can any person deny the possibility--not to say--the probability of such an union. On the other hand, Mr. Huish is an advocate for the drones in another way, stating them to be the male Bees, and that they fecundate--_not the Queen_, but all the eggs of the Queen, produced by her, the year in which the drones are brought into existence. But Mr. Huish has nowhere stated, in his much admired treatise on Bees, what fecundates those eggs of the Queen which are produced by her in the absence of the drones. It is well-known that those eggs do well and come to perfection, long after the drones have ceased to exist in the hive. _Eggs are laid and matured into Bees when there is not one drone in the hive._ This, therefore, is an argument in favour of Mr. Huber's opinion--namely--that the Queen once impregnated remains so during her life,--and that, as the Queen lives some years, the drones are called into being to fecundate the young Queens, brought into existence for purposes that will be noticed in the next chapter. Neither should we overlook the singular services of the short-lived drones in other circumstances of the colony; for most essential is their presence in the hive during the months of May, June, and July. Do we not in those months behold the extraordinary rapidity with which the working Bees leave their hive in search of materials for their various works? So indefatigable are these admired insects, after enriching their commonwealth, that in the time of honey-dews, scarcely a mechanical labourer is left in the hive. Now, were it not for the drones--those large bodied Bees--what would become of the young larvæ then in existence? It would undoubtedly perish. No sooner, however, is this busy season at an end, than the total destruction of the drones takes place; but not until the animal heat which the drones impart to the hive has accelerated the production of the young Bees, and added thousands of them to the mother hive. It is not possible that the drones can influence the impregnation of the Queen's eggs, particularly those eggs which are produced after the total destruction of the drones, which generally takes place in August, and sometimes in the latter end of July. These later eggs are hatched, and brought to a state of perfection by the crowded population of the hive at that period: for a sufficient number of common Bees, that is--a well-populated hive, will always bring to perfection the Queen's eggs that have been deposited in the cells, after the total destruction of the drones. This seems to prove, that there is some probable truth in Huber's opinion respecting the agency of the drones in the procreation of Bees, by their sexual union with the Queen. Though I was once inclined to differ in opinion with Huber on this subject, and even went so far as to venture to say with Huish, and in Huish's own words--that the Queen knows not coition, and that she is both virgin and mother,[H] from what I have seen in my observatory-hive this summer (1832) I am led to doubt the accuracy of that remark, and am disposed to lean to Huber's doctrine, and to think, that there _may be_ more truth in his experiments than has hitherto been awarded to them: in short, I see no objection to Huber's theory, although there is no direct proof of the copulation of the Queens with the drones. All apiarians allow that there are male and female in a hive or stock of Bees;--all admit--indeed, it is impossible to deny---that Bees _do increase and multiply_ at a prodigious rate, and so fulfil the Divine injunction; the only question to be solved is this--_How_ is the Queen-Bee impregnated? This secret in nature--if those matters, or natural operations which we cannot clearly explain, which, though in themselves sensible and gross, may, nevertheless, be too subtile, too refined, for our obtuse understandings to comprehend, and for our dull faculties to investigate,--if these may be called secrets in nature, there is a secret of this description respecting the sexual union of Queen and drone Bees, or, at any rate, respecting the manner of the impregnation of the Queen-Bee. I condemn no man who differs from me on this nice subject, as I have no direct proof, either that Huber is right, or that Huish is wrong, in their surmises relative to this disputable matter. Individually they are men deserving the highest respect; their labours and perseverance to throw light upon this mystic branch of apiarian science deserve the utmost praise; as also do the labours of the learned and ingenious Dr. Bevan, whose treatise on Bees I have read with much pleasure; and have occasionally referred to, and shall again make use of it, in this my humble attempt. We have all exerted our best abilities to become the favourites of our patrons and friends. How much each of us deserves the honours conferred on us, is best known to those who have been most benefited by our unceasing endeavours to improve and extend apiarian science. My great object is--not to dispute with the naturalist, the philosopher, or with the apiarian, _how_ the Queen-Bee becomes impregnated: because, be that as it may, it is, no doubt, consistent with the law of nature,--it is, no doubt, a part of that all-prevailing law; and though hitherto undiscovered,--hitherto "one of nature's gambols with the human mind," I do cherish strong hopes that the observatory-hive I have constructed, will on some auspicious, future day, disclose such facts as will set the matter at rest for ever: my great object at present is--to endeavour to improve the culture of Honey-Bees, and to lay before my readers _practical_ instructions for the more humane, and more profitable management of those interesting, little insects. [Footnote H: See Huish on Bees, page 13.] CHAPTER XIII. SUPERNUMERARY QUEENS. In the last chapter we were at sea without a compass by which to steer our course aright,--with two pilots on board, 'tis true; one of them a foreigner, _experienced_ beyond most other men, though aged, and infirm, and defective in his eyesight, but willing, nevertheless, nay--anxious to conduct us to our wished-for haven; the other, though not inexperienced, less practised, it is thought, in voyages of discovery, and more venturesome than his senior in the office, contending that the respectable, old gentleman had put us on a wrong tack,--that we were in a wrong latitude,--that our reckoning was incorrect, and even making merry with the old man's infirmities. Perplexed, and doubting in whom it is most reasonable and safest to confide, we seize the helm ourselves and make to the nearest shore, and luckily land on terra firma--terra cognita, and are now approaching a _field_ with every corner of which we are thoroughly acquainted. But metaphor apart, lest we should not properly sustain it. There is but one reigning Queen in a colony of Bees at one time: but previously to swarming, royal-cells are constructed, and provision made, for ensuring a successor to the Queen that leads the swarm and emigrates, when the too-crowded population, and over-heated temperature of the hive, render such emigration necessary. That it is the old Queen that leaves the hive with a swarm I am well convinced, notwithstanding what some apiarians assert to the contrary. To satisfy myself on this point, I have sometimes in the evening of the day on which a hive has swarmed, at other times on the second, and at others on the third day after that event, put the parent-stock under, or rather, I may say--_over_ fumigation, dissected and examined the combs and Queen-cells minutely, and the Bees also, and whenever I did find a Queen, she was invariably a young one; but, instead of a Queen, I have more frequently found a royal-cell just ready to give birth, as it were, to a successor to that that had left the hive; and in general there are several of these royal-cells containing embryo Queens, in different states of forwardness: so that it seems, Bees have an instinctive foresight which leads them to provide against casualties, for they are generally provided with the means of bringing forth _supernumerary Queens_, that in case the first that comes forth should prove steril, should be defective, or in any way unfortunate, or unfitted to assume the sovereignty of the hive, there may be others ready to burst into being, and remedy the misfortune that would ensue, were there but one chance of a successor, and were that one chance to prove abortive. But no sooner is a young Queen enthroned, as it were, and established in the government of the hive than the supernumerary ones, in whatever stage of existence, are all discarded, and cast out of the colony, Mr. Porter, of Cowbit, has this year (1832) picked up eight of those discarded, virgin Queens, together with the old Queen, which last was sorely mutilated, _but not killed_--she alone was cast out alive, the others had been killed: these nine supernumerary Queens were all cast out of one fine colony of Bees in the course of two successive days. That colony is a remarkably prosperous one, _and has not swarmed_. I myself have observed no fewer than twenty-four supernumerary, virgin Queens that were cast out of one of my stocks; and that stock is flourishing, and _has not swarmed:_ and my respected friend, Mr. Salmon, of Stokeferry, informs me that he once collected upwards of thirty of these young Queens; whether his stock swarmed or not I am unable to state positively, but presume it did not; for, generally speaking, when supernumerary, virgin Queens are cast out of a colony, it may be considered as an indication that that colony is not only prosperous, but that swarming is not contemplated--in fact, is abandoned for that season. The question then is--how are Bees to be managed, in order that they may be induced to rid themselves of these supernumeraries? The relation of the following practical lesson will both answer the question, and exemplify and confirm the foregoing remarks. It has already been related (in pages 62-66) that in 1826 I forced a colony of Bees to swarm,--that I returned that swarm to its parent-stock, and managed so as to prevent its swarming in future,--and that two royal nymphs were cast out on that occasion. To prove whether I could not accomplish the same object, and prevent swarming altogether, I had recourse to the following experiment. On the 26th of June, 1827, at one o'clock p.m. the thermometer, in one of my colonies of Bees, suddenly rose to 96. The progressive rise and constantly high temperature in that colony, during the evening and night, together with the extraordinary weight of the hive, induced me to suspect that swarming, if not prevented, would shortly take place. Not, however, perceiving any of the symptoms that usually precede the immediate act of swarming, I suffered matters to go on until the 6th of July, on which day the thermometer stood at 102. The drones came out and sung their merry tune; and during the whole night the temperature of the colony continued to increase. On the next day unequivocal symptoms of swarming presented themselves. These urged me to push my experiment to the highest pitch of proof; I therefore went on narrowly watching and ventilating this stock, until the 10th of July, when, in spite of my endeavours to keep down the temperature by _merely ventilating_ the thermometer was standing at 112, consequently I concluded that it was high time to lay this prosperous colony under contribution; and in the evening of that day, I took from it a beautifully finished glass of honey, as pure as the crystal stream; its weight was sixteen pounds. I continued ventilating the side-boxes, and placed an empty bell-glass upon the middle one, from which I had just before taken the full one, I then withdrew the dividing-slide, and the Bees immediately entered the glass, and began their works in it, and in four days filled it with comb, and partly filled the cells with honey. On the sixth day after those operations had been performed, a continuance of the former temperature demonstrated to me the necessity of taking away a side-box. I did so, and found its weight to be no less than sixty-five pounds. On removing the box of honey, I replaced it with an empty one; and on drawing up the tin-slide, in order to admit the Bees into the empty box, to my great gratification I found the thermometer standing at 82 in that box, and in the space of five minutes the other collateral-box was under the same agreeable temperature. By this continued ventilation, within the short space of twenty-four hours afterwards, I ascertained the following important fact,--viz.--that no sooner did the Queen-Bee feel the agreeable change that had taken place in the interior of her domicil, than the royal nymph was dislodged from its cell, and by the Bees brought out of the pavilion, and laid lifeless on the front-board. This fact taught me by experiment, that the reigning Queen would very soon, from real necessity, have been compelled to leave the now discarded nymph to take possession of the hive. The Queen, owing to the excessive and daily increasing heat of the hive, would have left her wealthy colony--would have been compelled to leave it--had not the ventilation, and the enlargement of her domicil, prevented the painful necessity of her so doing. This, I think, proves the truth of the observation--that it is the old Queen which leaves, when Bees are compelled to swarm; but, if not, the following experimental operations have demonstrated the fact. I have united many swarms, and every sovereign Bee I have been under the necessity of making a captive, has invariably been an old one. On the 25th of June, 1828, I took up a parent-stock, four days after it had thrown off a swarm, and there found only the royal nymph within its cradle--_there was no Queen left in that stock, save the one in embryo_--the old Queen had gone with the swarm. This lesson caused me to carry my experiments farther. Having taken up the parent-stock, as just stated, I united all the working Bees of that stock to those of the swarm already mentioned, and I also put the young larvæ found in the parent-stock, to the now united-stock; I then placed the intended royal species--the nymph already mentioned--with the remainder of the young brood, in one of the collateral-boxes, and immediately let the odour of the stock through the communicating slide. To my great satisfaction I discovered the willingness of the old Bees to bring to perfection the young they had been compelled to leave in their former domicil. The royal nymph, however, was an exception; she alone was instantly dragged from her cell, and cast out of the hive. This confirmed the proof of the important fact gained the preceding year,--namely--that ventilation and the means of dividing the treasures of the Bees, by taking off a glass or a box of honey,--or, if necessary, by taking off both a glass and a box, set aside the necessity for swarming. On all occasions, under this practice, a proper temperature may be supported in a colony; and in all critical points, by a just observation of the state of the thermometer, Bees may be relieved and assisted, and all the mischiefs attending the old mode of management may be guarded against and prevented. For when adequately relieved and properly assisted, they proceed to rid the colony of all embryo Queens, which would only become so many supernumeraries in a hive where the reigning Queen is fertile, and the necessity for emigration is superseded. But, unless Bees could be made to understand that accommodation will be extended to them at the proper time, they, guided by _their_ sense of their situation--not by ours--naturally and wisely provide _their own means_ of relieving themselves; and in so doing frequently bring forth what afterwards become supernumerary Queens, which are invariably destroyed and cast out of the colony, as soon as the Bees are sensible that they have no occasion for them. And, whenever a royal nymph or a virgin Queen is thus cast out, swarming need not be apprehended. CHAPTER XIV. BEE-FEEDING. Neglected generally, as is the management of Bees by their cottage possessors, there is no part of it less attended to, nor more slovenly performed, when performed at all, than that of feeding. The cottager commonly takes up, as he terms it, his best hives for the sake of the treasures they contain, or are supposed to contain. This is destroying Bees because they are rich! He also takes up the lightest and poorest--of course the late swarms--and those that are the least likely to live through the winter; because if he get from one of these but two or three pounds of honey, though he seldom gets so much, and a few ounces of wax, he thinks that that is all clear gain: and, if he get neither honey nor wax, he, at any rate, gets rid of the _expense_ and _trouble_ of feeding _his good-for-nothing swarms_, which, in his opinion, however fed, would never come to any good. A pennyworth of brimstone will do the job at once, and is more easily paid for than a pound of sugar, and after that another, and perhaps another. Such is the reasoning, and calculation, and cruel practice of the generality of cottage Bee-keepers! Such is the destruction annually dealt out to hundreds of poor swarms, and thousands and millions of _poor_ Bees!! I do from my heart pity and deplore the untimely fate of these suffocated, innocent, valuable insects. To destroy Bees because they are rich is a _barbarous_ practice, and ought by all means to be discountenanced and discontinued;--to destroy Bees because they are poor and may need support, is cruel---is inhuman--is shocking, however little may be thought of it by those who still adhere to this practice. Even with the common straw-hives, this terrible havoc among poor stocks and late swarms might be prevented, if they, who happen to have them, would so far improve themselves in the practical management of an apiary, as to be able to fumigate, and to take such Bees out of the hives containing them, and to join them to their richer stock-hives, in the latter end of August, or any time in September. This is by far the best plan that can be adopted with poor hives; and there really is no difficulty in the operation. This strengthens the population of rich stocks, and causes them to swarm early in the ensuing spring, _it preserves the Bees_, which is of itself, independently of the advantages accruing from it afterwards, a consideration that never should be lost sight of,--it leaves the contents of the fumigated hive, as absolutely in the possession of the Bee-owner, as if the Bees had been suffocated and destroyed,--and in most cases it entirely does away with the necessity of feeding. I confess I should rejoice greatly, and flatter myself that every friend of humanity would rejoice with me, to see this mode of disposing of weak hives universally adopted; because, it may be presumed, that the next step in the way of improvement would be to take away the superabundant treasure of the Bees and _still preserve them_. Notwithstanding, under certain circumstances it will always be necessary, and judicious in Bee-masters, to have recourse to _feeding_. If, for instance, after an early swarm is put into a hive, or into a box, two or three or more cold, ungenial days should follow, and more particularly if those days should happen to be rainy also, by feeding such a swarm you will assist your impoverished labourers, not only with _necessary food_, but with materials and treasure, which, unfortunately for them, they cannot at such an unfavourable juncture get abroad to collect elsewhere. Different apiarians have adopted and recommended different ways of feeding Bees, none of which, in my opinion, possess any great merit; in order, therefore, to improve this part of Bee-management, my endeavours have been directed to the contrivance and construction of a feeding department; which is attached to my collateral-hives in so convenient a manner, that I can feed my Bees, at any time when feeding is required--in spring, in autumn, or in winter, without disturbing the position of the hive, and without changing its interior temperature; which temperature cannot be kept equable and comfortable, where a hive is frequently lifted up from its stand, and its interior is suddenly exposed to the action of perhaps an extremely cold atmosphere. Besides, a hive cannot be lifted up without breaking the propolis by which it has been cemented all round and made fast to its stool. In sharp, cold weather, disruption of the hive from its stool is a serious mischief done to the Bees; because, however carefully it maybe set down again, there will have been made many vents and crevices between the edge of the hive and the stool, which will occasion various currents of air, cold, frosty, or other--proper or improper--to be continually passing through the lower part of the hive. And should Bees be tempted by food, or urged by hunger, to descend into these currents in sharp, frosty weather, but few of them will get away alive; the keen air acting upon them whilst feeding, paralyzes and kills them. I am an advocate for keeping Bees cool in winter--yes, _cool and still also:_ let them not be disturbed nor disunited,--let them not be forced nor tempted to (if I may so say) uncluster themselves. I have no objection to a current of air passing through the lower part of a hive in winter, _provided the Bees be not disturbed--be not exposed singly to its nipping influence;_ but I strongly object to the feeding of Bees in such currents, because, in that case, feeding is prejudicial to them. The cottager seldom protects his hives in winter with any other covering than that which a pot, called a pancheon, whelmed over each hive, forms; capped with this unsightly piece of earthenware, his hives are exposed to all weathers; consequently the less he disturbs them the better. He therefore should give his weak stocks _a copious feeding_, in September at the latest,--not molest them during the severity of winter,--but in the spring, as soon as the Bees begin to make their appearance at the mouth of his hives, introduce his wooden trough furnished with a _little_ Bee-sirup, and then close up the entrance,--withdraw the trough in the morning, and return it replenished every evening, as long as feeding is necessary. Tearing off a hive at Christmas, and scattering a few ounces of brown sugar upon the stand, and then setting down the hive again, deserves not the name of feeding; though it is all the bounty that is bestowed on some stocks; and is even more than others are treated with. It need not then be wondered at that so many stocks of Bees perish in the winter, and in the spring of every year. _By judicious feeding, at proper seasons, almost any stock of Bees may be preserved: by injudicious feeding_, at an improper season, even good stocks--stocks that would survive, if not fed at all, nor molested, during the depth and severity of winter, may be seriously injured--may be totally destroyed. The peasant Bee-keeper, however, does not often subject himself to the charge _complimental_ of being accessary to the death of his Bees _through mistaken kindness_. The sum and substance of my directions, as respects Bee-feeding, are these:-- 1. In spring feed _sparingly_. 2. In autumn feed _plentifully_. 3. In winter _do not feed at all_. 4. Feed swarms, if unseasonable weather immediately follow the act of swarming. 5. Preserve the Bees of weak stocks, and prevent a great deal of the necessity for feeding, by adding them to those that are rich and able to support them. This last is the best and cheapest, nay--it is even a _profitable_ method of feeding Bees. Early swarming, where swarming is necessary as in the straw-hive colonies, is of great advantage to the watchful apiarian, but not to the inattentive and slothful manager. I have seen in a cottager's garden a swarm of Bees on the 10th of May, which was considerably weaker in the month of August, than was a swarm on the 10th of July, and that solely on account of not being fed and properly attended to. If early swarms are judiciously fed, and supported by a natural heat within, they will be greatly benefitted thereby, and eventually prosper. But, notwithstanding what has been already said, the cottager may probably ask--"how can I feed my Bees without lifting up their hive?" I again and again request him to examine my collateral box-hive; and he will perceive that he may easily feed the Bees in his cottage-hive in the same easy manner, if he have but ingenuity enough to attach a proper feeder to the stool or floor of his hive. Mr. Huish advises apiarians to make choice of a fine and warm day in which to feed Bees, he says, the danger to be apprehended from the change of the temperature in the hive will thereby be obviated. This, I grant, is rational and humane, and in some degree a confirmation of my already expressed opinion, respecting the mischiefs resulting from the inconsiderate practice of exposing the interior of a hive to sudden and extreme alternations of temperature. But it matters not what sort of weather it may be, if my mode of feeding be adopted. I feed my Bees in their native temperature, without disturbing them or exposing their food to the temptation of robbers, which feeding in the ordinary way so frequently encourages, during the spring and autumnal seasons; and it is at these times that Bees stand in most need of assistance. In the year 1828, I purchased a cottage-hive of a neighbour, it was a large hive, and well-stocked with Bees, but extremely light; I was fearful for the safety of its inmates, and, therefore, placed it over one of my feeders; in order to give them support by feeding, I placed the sirup intended for their food beneath the hive; but to my great surprise the Bees refused to take the proffered bounty. I persevered in my endeavours to induce them to feed for four days, but they would not touch the well-intended boon: I therefore resolved to ascertain the cause of their refusal, and on turning up the hive I discovered that thousands of the Bees were in a dying state, I had the curiosity to take the whole of them out singly. After several hours' particular attention and patient search, I found the Queen was dead. I then united the weak, enfeebled Bees to a rich stock, and they nearly all recovered their strength. Their numbers greatly assisted in the labour of the hive to which they were joined. Certain it is, that if any accident befal their Queen in winter, it is total _ruin_ to that stock of Bees: where such a death is discovered, feeding will avail nothing, the Bees dwindle away and perish. Mr. Huish says--and he is perfectly correct in saying--that there are some persons who defer the feeding of their Bees until the moment they suppose that they may be in actual want. This is a most reprehensible plan; for should feeding be too long delayed, the Bees will become so weak and debilitated, that they will be unable to convey the food into their cells: the food ought to be administered to poor stocks, three weeks or a month before they may be supposed to be in actual want; it will then be conveyed with the greatest despatch into the cells, and the hive will be saved from a death of famine. He then goes on to observe--that some apiarians conceive that the feeding of Bees in the spring renders them lazy and inactive. On what this opinion is grounded he is at a loss to conjecture, as must be every practical apiarian; for it is in direct contradiction, not only to Mr. Huish's experience, but also to that of many other apiarians. A little food granted to a populous, and even well-provisioned box or hive in the spring, is attended with very beneficial consequences. It diffuses animation and vigour throughout the whole community;--it accelerates the breeding of the Queen--and consequently conduces to the production of early swarms, where room is not previously given in order to prevent swarming altogether. BEE-FOOD. Artificial food proper for Bees may be made by mixing _coarse_, raw sugar, and good, sound ale, in the following proportions:-- To a quart of ale add a pound and a half of sugar, gently boil them, in a sweet, well-tinned saucepan, over a fire clear from smoke, for five or six minutes, or until the sugar be dissolved and thoroughly incorporated with the ale; and, during the process of boiling, skim off the dross that rises to the surface. Some persons boil these ingredients much longer, and until they become, when cool, a thick, clammy sirup; this not only diminishes the quantity of the mixture, but renders it rather disadvantageous, to weak Bees in particular, by clogging and plaguing them, if, as they are almost sure to do, they get their legs or wings daubed with it. I prefer sirup in a more liquid state. For spring feeding, I advise--that not more than a pound of sugar be put to a quart of ale, or sweet wort, if it can be obtained, and that a small quantity of common salt be added. By a _small quantity_ I mean--a drachm or two at the most to a quart of the sirup. Salt, it has been said, is conducive to the health of Bees, and the most efficacious remedy for the dysentery, which sometimes affects Bees in the spring; therefore, it may not be amiss to put a little salt into their food, by way of preventive, rather than to have recourse to it afterwards as a remedy. Speaking of the substances which are proper for the feeding of Bees, Mr. Huish says[I]--"he is perfectly convinced that honey alone is very injurious to Bees, as it in general gives them the dysentery." Whether by this _extraordinary passage_ Mr. Huish has, or has not, subjected himself to the lash of his own ridicule, it would be hypercritical and unbecoming in me to determine. As an apiarian I respect him; in no other character am I acquainted with him. His work on the management of Bees I have read, and have derived information and occasionally assistance from some of its pages. There are in it, nevertheless, several untenable positions, of which I consider the above-quoted passage to be one: and, if what he has remarked somewhat sarcastically, in a note at the foot of page 31, be read in conjunction with this passage, it will be for the candid reader, apiarian, or other, to decide whether Mr. Huish in propriâ personâ does not, oddly enough, exemplify his own remark. It is there said--that "there is no wonder in nature which an apiarian has not seen." Professedly an apiarian himself, he must have seen some, at least, of _the wonders in nature_, otherwise he never could have been "_perfectly convinced_"--that honey--"_honey alone_"--the very substance which Bees, guided by the instinct of their nature, collect with so much industry, and store up with so much care, for their subsistence, should be "very injurious to them, and in general give them the dysentery." From this it seems that the substance, which is the natural food for one stock of Bees, is physic for another, if not poison!! I cannot but express my astonishment that a gentleman, so acute and experienced as Mr. Huish undoubtedly is, should have asserted in the most unqualified manner--that "honey alone is very injurious to Bees." Were this the fact, rich stocks, and all stocks that subsist upon "honey alone" during winter, would "in general" be affected with dysentery in the spring, which certainly is not the case. "In general" rich stocks are healthy and strong in the spring. Poverty is the predisposing cause of dysentery among Bees: a regular supply of their natural--their peculiar food, does not induce dysentery or disease of any sort. Had Mr. Huish analyzed the honey given to Bees as food, and which induced dysentery, he would, I suspect, have discovered that it was not "honey alone," but--_medicated honey_--_honey and brimstone_, or honey strongly tinctured either with brimstone or tobacco. That honey, tinctured with the pernicious qualities of those substances, should have a laxative effect upon impoverished, debilitated Bees, is no more than might be expected: but then it is not the honey that has the "injurious" effect, but the essence of the brimstone or of the tobacco that is administered along with it. What effect honey, that has not been stoved and saturated with brimstone or with tobacco, may have upon _weak_ Bees, when given to them for _spring food_, I pretend not to determine, because I have never tried the experiment. But I do say that before the arrival of spring, honey, that has been drained or expressed from the comb, undergoes fermentation, and that fermentation may, for aught I know, impart to it physical properties, which in its pure, liquid, unchanged state, in the warm hive, it does not possess. I am not chemist enough to venture to assert that it is so, but I think it highly probable that fermentation may alter the properties of honey, and perhaps may render it unwholesome to Bees. But fresh, unfermented honey, even that in the blackest and oldest combs--the very refuse, and all such as the cottage-housewife makes into common mead, if spread upon large dishes and placed in an apiary, will be banqueted upon by the Bees in the most eager manner, and is apparently much enjoyed by them. They soon carry into their hives what they do not consume on the spot, and suffer no inconvenience whatever from the treat. I have feasted my Bees in this way scores of times, and esteem it the very best mode of autumnal feeding, and the most profitable way of disposing of broken combs and refuse honey. "Honey alone" is the natural food of Bees, and if given to them pure and untainted, in its primitive, limpid state, so far from being injurious, it is highly beneficial to them; of this I have not the shadow of a doubt. For autumnal feeding, I prefer honey to all other substances, and recommend it as the most proper food that can be given to them. [Footnote I: Huish on Bees, page 272.] CHAPTER XV. CATALOGUE OF BEE-FLOWERS, &C. From the account of the mode of supplying Bees with artificial food, to the enumeration of such trees, plants, and flowers as are most frequented by Bees, for the purpose of culling from them the various substances, which their necessities, their nature, or their instinct (which is a part of their nature) urge them to seek for, the transition is so easy and natural--is so akin to the subject of Bee-feeding, as to be rather a continuation thereof than a transition to a fresh one; I therefore proceed to give a catalogue of those trees and plants which afford pabulum for Bees. It is furnished principally from my own ocular observation, and is partly collected from the observation of others, whose curiosity has led them to pay attention to the subject, and to make remarks upon it. * * * * * Alder-tree Celery Almond-tree Cherry-tree Althea frutex Chesnut-tree Alyssum Chickweed Amaranthus Clover Apple-tree Cole or coleseed Apricot-tree Coltsfoot Arbutus (alpine) Coriander Ash-tree Crocus Asparagus Crowfoot Aspin Crown-imperial Cucumber Balm Currants Bean Cypress-tree Beech-tree Betony Daffodil Blackberry Dandelion Black-currant-tree Dogberry-tree Borage Box-tree Elder-tree Bramble Elm-tree Broom Endive Bugloss (viper's) Buckwheat Fennel Burnet Furze Cabbage Goldenrod Cauliflower Gooseberry-tree Gourd * * * * * Hawthorn Mallow (marsh) Hazel-tree Marigold (French) Heath Marigold (single) Holly Maple-tree Holly-hock (trumpet) Marjoram (sweet) Honey-suckle Melilot Honey-wort (cerinthe) Melon-tree Hyacinth Mezereon Hysop Mignionette Mustard Ivy Nasturtium Jonquil Nectarine-tree Nettle (white) Kidney-bean Oak-tree Laurel Onion Laurustinus Orange-tree Lavender Ozier Leek Lemon-tree Parsley Lily (water) Parsnip Lily (white) Pea Lime-tree Peach-tree Liquidamber Pear-tree Liriodendrum, or Peppermint Tulip-tree Plane-tree Lucerne Plum-tree Poplar-tree Poppy Primrose Privet * * * * * Radish Tacamahac Ragweed Tansy (wild) Rasberry Tare Rosemary (wild) Teasel Roses (single) Thistle (common) Rudbechiæ Thistle (sow) Thyme (lemon) Saffron Thyme (wild) Sage Trefoil Saintfoin Turnip St. John's wort Savory (winter) Vetch Snowdrop Snowberry-tree Violet (single) Stock (single) Strawberry Wallflower (single) Sunflower Willow-herb Sycamore-tree Willow-tree Woad Yellow weasel-snout * * * * * Of these some are valuable for the supply of pabulum they afford Bees early in spring; as _the white alyssum, broom, crocus, furze, hazel, laurustinus, mezereon, ozier, plane-tree, poplar-tree, snowdrop, sycamore-tree, the willow-tree, &c._ Others again are valuable on account of the lateness of the season that Bees derive assistance from them; as _the golden-rod, heath, ivy, laurustinus, mignionette, ragweed, &c._ Some abound with honey; as _borage, buckwheat, burnet, coleseed, currant and gooseberry-trees, heath, leek, mignionette, mustard, onion, thyme, the blossoms of apple, apricot, cherry, nectarine, pear, and plum-trees, and the leaves of those trees remarkable for what is called honey-dew, as the aspin, blackberry, laurel, laurustinus, lime, maple, oak, plane, poplar, and sycamore-tree._ Among those that are rich in pollen, may be classed--_the arbutus, ash, blackberry, box, chesnut, cypress, elder, laurel, marsh-mallow, turnip, &c._ The cultivation of some of the most valuable of these is too-limited to be particularly advantageous to Bees, as _alyssum, borage, burnet, golden-rod, laurustinus, mezereon, mignionette, &c._ The most extensive and lasting Bee-pasturage in this country is _clover, heath_, and in my own immediate neighbourhood _mustard_. In short, every one of the flowers, &c. mentioned in the foregoing catalogue, and others innumerable, are in their turns resorted to by Bees, and of course are more or less advantageous to them. CHAPTER XVI. HONEY-COMB. To excite our admiration of the industry and ingenuity of Bees, we need only take into our hands a piece of _honey-comb_, and examine it attentively. Its neatness, its beauty, its construction, the similarity and exact proportion of its double web of cells, for a honey-comb is, in fact, a web of cell-work on both sides, are most admirable, and calculated to lead the contemplative mind from nature's work up to nature's God. When a swarm of Bees is put into a hive, or into a box, they immediately set about constructing combs in it, and proceed in their building work with a rapidity that is truly astonishing. The cells that are opposite to each other are advanced alike: the work on one side is just as forward and in the same state as that on the other side. In the cells first finished the Queen begins to deposit her eggs. In an incredibly short space of time, an immense number of cells is completed, and the Bees store pollen, farina, or Bee-bread, (which are so many names for the same substance) in some of those not already occupied by eggs, and in others honey soon becomes visible: all is activity, industry, and apparently happiness. But, to come to particulars:-- As Dr. Bevan, in the course of his _masterly_ chapter "On the Architecture of Bees," has given an engraved representation of a piece of honey-comb,--and as Mr. Huish also has given a somewhat similar representation, but better than Dr. Bevan's, inasmuch as it is more varied, and shows the royal-cells in their different stages to more advantage, and the drone-cells likewise;--I cannot, perhaps, do the _honey-comb_ so much justice in any way, as by presenting to my reader a copy of Mr. Huish's piece of comb, which has been _greatly improved_ by the skilful hand of my engraver, and by giving along with it Dr. Bevan's able description. Though after all, a piece of _real comb_, to look at and examine, is more beautiful and far better than any engraving possibly can be, however cleverly it may be executed: and therefore, notwithstanding the plate, I would recommend it to my reader to procure a piece of real honey-comb, and with it in his hand read the following account, which is chiefly from Dr. Bevan's pen. [Illustration] Royal-cells in different states of forwardness, common-cells, and drone-cells, are intended to be severally represented in this plate. The ranges forming the upper half, and marked--a. are intended to represent common brood-cells and honey-cells--most of them in an empty state. The lower ranges, marked--b. are drone-cells, and are represented as closed up, and as they appear when full of brood. Drone-cells, when filled with brood and sealed up, present a fuller and more convex surface than the cells containing common brood--these, that is--the cells containing the brood that becomes working Bees, are sometimes flat and even, and sometimes rather concave. The four large cells, attached perpendicularly to the edge of the comb, and marked--c. d. e. f. are royal-cells in different states of forwardness; that marked--c. is similar in size and shape to an acorn-cup, and is supposed to be quite empty; that marked--d. is in a more advanced state, and is supposed to contain a royal embryo, in its _larva_ state: the royal-cell, marked--e. is considerably lengthened, narrowed, and nearly closed, because the larva it is supposed to contain is about to be transformed into a royal nymph, in which stage of its existence, as it does not require the assistance of nurses or common Bees, it is closed up entirely, as in the royal-cell, marked--f. In this closed cell it progresses from nymph to Bee, and in due time--that is, in about sixteen days from its being deposited as an egg, it emerges a virgin Queen. When the temperature of a hive, or pavilion of nature, is at a proper height--namely, between 70 and 80 degrees, sixteen days is the period nature requires for the production of a Queen-Bee,--twenty-one for the perfection of a working Bee,--and twenty-six for a drone Bee. But, as Dr. Bevan very justly remarks, "the development of each species proceeds more slowly when the colonies are weak, or the air cool,--and that when the weather is very cold it is entirely suspended." But to return from this short, though it is hoped, not uninteresting digression, into which the explanation of the Queen-cells has led us. "The combs of the Bee-hive comprise a congeries of hexagonal cells, formed by the Bees, as receptacles for honey or for embryo Bees. A honey-comb is allowed to be one of the most striking achievements of insect industry, and an admirable specimen of insect architecture. It has attracted the admiration of the contemplative philosopher in all ages, and awakened speculation, not only in the naturalist, but also in the mathematician: so regular, so perfect, is the structure of the cells, that it satisfies every condition of a refined problem in geometry. Still a review of their proceedings will lead to the conclusion, as Huber has observed, that, "the geometrical relations, which apparently embellish the productions of Bees, are rather the necessary result of their mode of proceeding, than the principle by which their labour is guided." "We must therefore conclude, that Bees, although they act geometrically, understand neither the rules nor the principles of the arts which they practise so skilfully, and that the geometry is not in the Bee, but in the great Geometrician who made the Bee, and made all things in number, weight, and measure. "Before the time of Huber, no naturalist had seen the commencement of the comb, nor traced the several steps of its progress. After many attempts, he at length succeeded in attaining the desired object; by preventing the Bees from forming their usual impenetrable curtain by suspending themselves from the top of the hive; in short, he obliged them to build upwards, and was thereby enabled, by means of a glass window, to watch every variation and progressive step in the construction of a comb. "_Each comb in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells, backed against each other: these cells_, looking at them as a whole, may be said to _have one common base_, though no one cell is opposed directly to another. This base or partition, between the double row of cells, is so disposed as to form a pyramidal cavity at the bottom of each, as will be explained presently. _The mouths of the cells_, thus ranged on each side of a comb, _open into two parallel streets_ (there being a continued series of combs in every well filled hive). These streets are sufficiently contracted, to avoid waste of room, and to preserve a proper warmth, yet _wide enough to allow the passage of two Bees abreast_. Apertures through different parts of the combs are reserved to form near roads, for crossing from street to street, whereby much time is saved to the Bees. These in firm phalanx ply their twinkling feet, Stretch out the ductile mass, and form the street, With many a cross-way path and postern gate, That shorten to their range the spreading state. Evans. "_Bees_, as has been already observed, _build their cells of an hexangular form, having six equal sides_, with the exception of the first or uppermost row, the shape of which is an irregular pentagon, the roof of the hive forming one of the members of the pentagon. "There are only three possible figures of the cells," says Dr. Reid, "which can make them all equal and similar, without any useless interstices. These are--the equilateral triangle, the square and the regular hexagon. It is well-known to mathematicians, that there is not a fourth way possible, in which a plane may be cut into little spaces, that shall be equal, similar, and regular, without having any interstices." Of these three geometrical figures, the hexagon most completely unites the prime requisites for insect architecture. The truth of this proposition was perceived by Pappus, an eminent Greek philosopher and mathematician, who lived at Alexandria, in the reign of Theodosius the Great, and its adoption by Bees, in the construction of honey-comb, was noticed by that ancient geometrician. These requisites are:-- "First, Oeconomy of materials. There are no useless partitions in a honey-comb, each of the six lateral panels of one cell forms also one of the panels of an adjoining cell; and of the three rhombs which form the pyramidal base of a cell, each contributes one third towards the formation of the bases of three opposing cells, the bottom or centre of every cell resting against the point of union of the panels that are at the back of it. "Secondly, Oeconomy of room; no interstices being left between adjoining cells. "Thirdly, the greatest possible capacity or internal space, consistent with the two former desiderata. "Fourthly, Oeconomy of materials and economy of room produce economy of labour. And in addition to these advantages, the cells are constructed in the strongest manner possible, considering the quantity of materials employed. Both the sides and bases are so exquisitely thin, that three or four placed on each other are not thicker than a leaf of common writing paper; each cell, separately weak, is strengthened by its coincidence with other cells, and _the entrance is fortified with an additional ledge or border of wax_, to prevent its bursting from the struggles of the Bee-nymph, or from the ingress and _egress_ of the labourers. This entrance border is _at least three times as thick as the sides of the cell_, and thicker at the angles than elsewhere, which prevents the mouth of the cell from being regularly hexagonal, though the interior is perfectly so. On books deep poring, ye pale sons of toil, Who waste in studious trance the midnight oil, Say, can you emulate with all your rules, Drawn, or from Grecian or from Gothic schools, This artless frame? Instinct her simple guide, A heaven-taught insect baffles all your pride. Not all your marshall'd orbs that ride so high, Proclaim more loud a present Deity, Than the nice symmetry of these small cells, Where on each angle genuine science dwells, And joys to mark, through wide creation's reign, How close the lessening links of her continued chain. Evans. "Having just adverted to the ingenuity of Bees in thickening, and thereby strengthening the mouths of the cells, it may here be observed--that _additional strength is also derived from the Bees covering the whole surface of the combs, but more particularly the edge of the cells, with a peculiar kind of varnish_, which they collect for the purpose. At first the combs are delicately white, semi-transparent, and exceedingly fragile, smooth but unpolished: in a short time their surfaces become stronger, and assume more or less of a yellow tint. The deepening of the colour of honey-combs has been supposed, by some, to be the effect of age; and in part it may be: but it is principally owing to the coat of varnish, with which the Bees cover them. This varnish strongly resembles propolis, appearing to differ from it only in containing the colouring material which imparts to wax its yellow hue. The source of this colouring matter has not been discovered: it is insoluble in alcohol, but the manufacture of white-wax shows that it is destructible by light. But to return to the construction of the cell-work. "_The pyramidal basis of a cell is formed by the junction of three rhomboidal or lozenge-shaped portions of wax:_ the apex of the pyramid being situated where the three obtuse angles of the lozenges meet. To the exterior edges and angles are attached the six panels or sides of each cell. The apex of each pyramidal bottom, on one side of a comb, forms the angles of the bases of three cells on the opposite side, the three lozenges respectively concurring in the formation of the bases of the same cells. This will, I hope, explain what is meant by "each cell separately weak, being strengthened by coincidence with others." The bottom of each cell rests upon three partitions of opposite cells, from which it receives a great accession of strength. "As it is desirable that the reader should thoroughly comprehend this subject, I will re-state it in other words. The partition which separates the two opposing rows of cells, and which occupies, of course, the middle distance between their two surfaces, is not a plane but a collection of rhombs, there being three at the bottom of each cell: the three together form in shape, a flattened pyramid, the basis of which is turned towards the mouth of the cell; each cell is in form, therefore, a hexagonal prism, terminated by a flattened trihedral pyramid, the three sides of which pyramid are rhombs, that meet at the apex by their obtuse angles. "The union of the lozenges in one point, in addition to the support which it is the means of affording to the three partitions between opposing cells, is also admirably adapted to receive the little egg and to concentrate the heat necessary for its incubation. "Each obtuse angle of the lozenges or rhombs forms an angle of about 110 degrees, and each acute one, an angle of about 70 degrees. Mr. Maraldi found by mensuration that the angles of these rhombs, which compose the base of a cell, amounted to 109 degrees and 28 seconds, and 70 degrees and 32 seconds: and the famous mathematician Koenig, pupil of the celebrated Bernoulli, having been employed for that purpose by M. Reaumur, has clearly shown, by the method of infinitesimals, that the quantity of these angles, using the least possible wax, in the cell of the same capacity, should contain 109 degrees and 26 seconds, and 70 degrees and 34 seconds. This was confirmed by the celebrated Mr. Mac Laurin, who very justly observes, that Bees do truly construct their cells of the best figure, and with the utmost mathematical exactness. "The construction of several combs is generally going on at the same time. No sooner is the foundation of one laid, with a few rows of cells attached to it, than a second and a third are founded on each side, parallel to the first, and so on, (if the season give encouragement to the operations of the Bees,) till the hive is filled with their works; the first constructed comb or combs being always in the most advanced state, and therefore the first to be completed. "_The design of every comb is sketched out, and the first rudiments are laid by one single Bee._ This founder-Bee forms a block, out of a rough mass of wax, drawn partly from its own resources, but principally from those of other Bees, which furnish materials, in quick succession, from the receptacles under their bellies, taking out the plates of wax with their hind feet, and carrying them to their mouths with their fore feet, where the wax is moistened and masticated, till it becomes soft and ductile. Thus filter'd through yon flutterer's folded mail, Clings the cool'd wax, and hardens to a scale; Swift, at the well-known call, the ready train (For not a buz boon nature breathes in vain) Spring to each falling flake, and bear along Their glossy burdens to the builder throng. Evans. "The architect-in-chief, who lays, as it were, the first stone of this and each successive edifice, determines the relative position of the combs, and their distances from each other: these foundations serve as guides for the ulterior labours of the wax-working Bees, and of those which sculpture the cells, giving them the advantage of the margin and angles already formed. "The expedients resorted to by that ingenious naturalist, Huber, unfolded the whole process. He saw each Bee extract with its hind feet one of the plates of wax from under the scales where they were lodged, and carrying it to the mouth in a vertical position, turn it round, so that every part of its border was made to pass in succession, under the cutting edge of the jaws; it was thus soon divided into very small fragments; and a frothy liquor was poured upon it from the tongue, so as to form a perfectly plastic mass. This liquor gave the wax a whiteness and opacity which it did not possess originally, and at the same time renders it tenacious and ductile. The issuing of this masticated mass from the mouth was, no doubt, what misled Reaumur, and caused him to regard wax as nothing more than digested pollen. "The mass of wax, prepared by the assistants, is applied by the architect-Bee to the roof or bottom of the hive, as the case may be; and thus a block is raised of a semi-lenticular shape, thick at top and tapering towards the edges. When of a sufficient size, a cell is sculptured on one side of it, by the wax-working Bees, who relieve one another in succession, sometimes to the number of twenty, before the cell is completely fashioned. At the back and on each side of this first cell, two others are sketched out and excavated. By this proceeding the foundations of two cells are laid, the line betwixt them corresponding with the centre of the opposite cell. As the combs extend, the first excavations are rendered deeper and broader; and when a pyramidal base is finished, the Bees build up walls from its edges, so as to complete what may be called the prismatic part of the cell. Every succeeding row of cells is formed by precisely similar steps, until there is a sufficient scope for the simultaneous employment of many workers. These, with sharp sickle, or with sharper tooth, Pare each excrescence and each angle smooth, Till now, in finish'd pride, two radiant rows Of snow-white cells, one mutual base disclose. Six shining panels gird each polish'd round, The door's fine rim, with waxen fillet hound, While walls so thin, with sister-walls comhin'd, Weak in themselves, a sure dependence find. Evans. "The pyramidal bases and lateral plates are successively formed, with surprising rapidity; the latter are lengthened as the comb proceeds, for the original semi-lenticular form is preserved till towards the last, when, if the hive or box be filled, the sides of all the cells receive such additions as give them equal depth. "_The cells intended for the drones_ are considerably larger, and more substantial, than those for the working Bees, and, being later formed, usually appear near the bottom of the combs. Last of all, are built the _royal-cells_, the cradles of the infant Queens: of these there are usually three or four, and sometimes ten or twelve, in a hive, attached commonly to the central part, but not unfrequently to the edge or side of the comb. Mr. Hunter says that he has seen as many as thirteen royal-cells in a hive, and that they have very little wax in their composition, not one third, the rest he conceives to be farina. Such is the genuine loyalty of Bees, that the wax which they employ with so much geometric economy, in the construction of hexagonal cells, is profusely expended on the mansion of the royal Bee-nymph, one of these exceeding in weight a hundred of the former. They are not interwoven with them, but suspended perpendicularly, their sides being nearly parallel to the mouths of the common-cells, several of which are sacrificed to support them. No more with wary thriftiness imprest, They grace with lavish pomp their royal guest, Nor heed the wasted wax, nor rifled cell, To bid, with fretted round, th' imperial palace swell. Evans. "The form of these royal-cells is an oblong spheroid, tapering gradually downwards, and having the exterior full of holes, somewhat resembling the _rustic_ work of stone buildings. The mouth of the cell, which is always at its bottom, remains open till the maggot is ready for transformation, and is then closed as the others are. "Immediately on the emergence of a ripened Queen, the lodge which she inhabited is destroyed, and its place is supplied by a range of common cells. The site of this range may always be traced, by that part of the comb being thicker than the rest, and forming a kind of knot; sometimes the upper portion of the cell itself remains, like an inverted acorn-cup, suspended by its short peduncle. Yet no fond dupes to slavish zeal resign'd, They link with industry the loyal mind, Flown is each vagrant chief. They raze the dome, That bent oppressive o'er the fretted comb, And on its knotted base fresh garners raise, Where toil secure her well earn'd treasure lays. Evans. "In this mutilated state only, and not in the breeding-season, could Mr. Hunter have seen this cradle of royalty; for he describes it as the half of an oval, too wide and shallow to receive its supposed tenant. "I have spoken of the perfect regularity in the cell-work of a honey-comb;--particular circumstances, however, induce a departure from this exactness: for instance, where Bees have commenced a comb with small cell-work, and afterwards wish to attach to it a set of large cells, as in the case of drone-cells being required to be appended to workers'-cells. These deviations from the usual regularity renew our admiration of Bee-ingenuity, though Reaumur and Bonnet have regarded them as examples of imperfection. They effect their object by interposing three or four series of, what may be called, _cells of transition_, the bottom or bases of which are composed of two rhombs and two hexagons, instead of three rhombs; the rhombs and hexagons gradually varying in form and relative proportion, till the requisite size, namely, that of the cells which they are approaching, has been attained. "The same gradation is observed when returning to smaller cells. Every apparent irregularity is therefore determined by a sufficient motive, and forms no impeachment of the sagacity of the Bee. "The common breeding-cells of drones or workers are occasionally (after being cleaned) made the depositories of honey; but the cells are never made so clean, as to preserve the honey undeteriorated. The finest honey is stored in new cells, constructed for the purpose of receiving it, their configuration resembling precisely the common breeding-cells: these _honey-cells vary in size_, being made more or less capacious, _according to the productiveness of the sources from which the Bees are collecting, and according to the season of the year:_ the cells formed in July and August vary in their dimensions from those that are formed earlier; being intended for honey only, they are larger and deeper, the texture of their walls is thinner, and they have more dip or inclination; this dip diminishes the risk of the honey's running out, which, from the heat of the weather, and the consequent thinness of the honey, at this season of the year, it might otherwise be liable to do. _When the cells_, intended for holding the winter's provision, _are filled, they are always closed with waxen lids_, and never re-opened till the whole of the honey in the unfilled cells has been expended. The waxen lids are thus formed;--the first Bees construct a ring of wax within the verge of the cell, to which other rings are successively added, till the aperture of the cell is finally closed with a lid composed of concentric circles. "The brood-cells, when their tenants have attained a certain age, are also covered with waxen lids, like the honey-cells; the lids differ a little, the latter being somewhat concave, the former convex. _The depth of the brood-cells_ of drones and working Bees is about half an inch; _their diameter_ is more exact, that of the drone-cells being three lines[J] and one third, that of the workers two lines and three fifths. These, says Reaumur, are the invariable dimensions of all the cells, that ever were, or ever will be made. [Footnote J: A line is the twelfth part of an inch.] "From this uniform, unvarying diameter of the brood-cells, when completed, their use has been suggested, as an universal standard of measure, which would be understood, in all countries, to the end of time." While heav'n-born instinct bound their measured view, From age to age, from Zembla to Peru, Their snow-white cells, the order'd artists frame, In size, in form, in symmetry, the same. Evans. BEES' WAX. BEES' WAX, in its strictest sense, _is a secretion from the body of the Honey-Bee_, and is that peculiar substance or material with which Bees principally construct their combs;--I say--_principally_, because the foundation of every comb is _propolis:_ it is by this tenacious substance (propolis) that combs are securely attached to, and suspended from, the roof of a hive or a box,--and it is by this that they are firmly glued to the sides, wherever they are made to touch them. BEES' WAX, however, in the common acceptation of the term, is that well-known, valuable article, obtained from honey-comb by the following process:-- Having _drained_ all the honey from the combs, put them into a clean pot, together with as much rain-water as will make them float; then simmer over a clear fire until the combs be completely dissolved; and the wax and the dross mixed with it will swim at the top of the water. Pour the whole into a strong and tolerably fine canvas bag, made wide at the top and tapering downwards to a point, in the form of a jelly bag. Hold this over a tub or large vessel in which is a quantity of cold water. The boiling water will, of course, soon drain through, and leave in the bag the greater part of the liquefied wax commingled with dross. Have ready then a piece of smooth board of such a length that, when one end of it is placed in the tub of cold water, the other end may be conveniently rested against, and securely stayed by your breast. Upon this inclined plane lay your dripping, reeking strainer, and keep it from slipping into the cold water by bringing its upper part over the top of the board so as to be held firmly between it and your breast. If the strainer be made with a broad hem round its top, a piece of strong tape or cord passed through such hem will draw it close, and should be long enough to form a stirrup for the foot, by which an additional power will be gained of keeping the scalding-hot strainer in its proper place on the board: then by compressing the bag, or rather its contents, with any convenient roller, the wax will ooze through and run down the board into the cold water, on the surface of which it will set in thin flakes. When this part of the operation is finished, collect the wax, put it into a clean saucepan, in which is a little water to keep the wax from being burnt to the bottom; melt it _carefully_ (for, should it be neglected and suffered to boil over, serious mischief might ensue, liquid wax being of a very inflammable nature) therefore melt it _carefully over a slow fire_, and skim off the dross as it rises to the top; then pour it into such moulds or shapes as your fancy may direct, having first well rinsed them, in order that you may be able to get the wax, when cold and solid, out of them without breaking either the moulds or the wax: place them, covered over with cloths or with pieces of board, where the wax will cool slowly; because the more slowly it cools the more solid it will be and free from flaws and cracks. You will thus have your wax in cakes, which may be rendered still more pure by a second melting and moulding. If run into very thin cakes, and afterwards exposed to the influence of the sun and the air, frequently turned, and occasionally wetted, it will lose its yellowness, and become beautifully white. This last process is called _bleaching_; and, though more simple and practicable than that pursued in establishments where large quantities of wax are bleached--where bleaching wax is of itself a regular business--it may probably be sufficient to answer all the purposes for which _white-wax_ is wanted in private families. I have by me wax of my own bleaching that is equal in whiteness and delicacy to any I have ever met with. Good wax is a heavy, solid substance, of a deep yellow colour, has an agreeable, balsamic odour, and possesses several medicinal and other valuable qualities. Combs that have never been filled, and those that have been filled with honey only, afford the best wax. Of the former kind but very little need ever be taken from Bees in collateral-boxes; and when any such combs are taken, they may be far more advantageously disposed of than by being melted down for the wax they contain. Instead of crushing and melting all the combs of three or four hives together, as is mostly done by cottage Bee-keepers, the fine, clean parts should be separated from those that are discoloured, less pure, and inferior, by reason of their age,--of having been brood combs,--or of containing pollen, and should be melted first. By this very easy mode of manipulation, the quantity of wax would not be lessened, and the superior quality of the fine would command a price that would be an ample remuneration for the additional trouble attending the management of it in this way. Should the preceding directions be thought to be tediously or unnecessarily minute, my apology for making them so is--an anxious wish on my part to render every thing relating to Bees clearly understood--understood so as to be set about and properly managed by persons who never before bestowed one thought upon the subject. CHAPTER XVI I. WINTER SITUATION FOR BEES. There is no part of Bee-management more utterly disregarded by cottage-hive Bee-keepers than that which relates to a proper situation for store-hives during winter. From whatever cause this inattention may proceed,--whether from custom, ignorance, or prejudice, it is much to be regretted; because nothing is so essentially conducive to the future prosperity, and often to the very preservation, of a colony, as due attention to its winter situation. Left, as stock-hives commonly are, in their summer aspect, and to stand upon the very spot they have occupied ever since the day of their existence as stocks,--with their entrances wide open, just as they were in summer,--exposed alike to every change of weather and to every attack of prowling enemies; or, if covered at all, it is mostly with a rude coat of straw, or reed, or such material as affords to mice, vermine, and various sorts of Bee-enemies, shelter and concealment, and, in fact, encouragement to attack and destroy the hives. Thus, neglected and unheeded, it is no wonder that so many stocks of Bees perish in the winter and spring of every year; the wonder rather is that any should escape. Some apiarian authors are opposed to the confinement of Bees in their hives, except when snow is on the ground: _then_, and _then only_, they recommend the confinement of Bees as necessary for their safety. Now, I would respectfully ask--if, in the North of England and in Scotland, snow does not lie on the ground for weeks, and in some years for months together? and I would ask further--if Bees can bear this confinement with snow on the ground, why they cannot bear it when there is no snow? They argue, however, in the face of this admission, that confinement is injurious to Bees, and that a flight in the open air on a fine day, if there should happen to be a fine day, in the depth of winter, is beneficial to Bees, otherwise, they say, the Bees would not take it. A mild, open winter, every body knows, renders unconfined Bees poor--and when kept in a state of perpetual agitation and alarm by the restless enemies that surround them and nestle in their straw covering, and tempted by the faint, wintery sun-beams that gleam upon their floor-board through the unclosed entrance of their hives, they will, no doubt, sometimes sally forth. But what is the consequence? Hundreds and thousands of them become paralyzed[K] and never return; and those that do get home again have occasion for food: of course, the oftener these winter flights take place, the more the population of the hives they issue from is diminished, and the more pauperized that diminished population becomes in consequence of such flights: whereas, if Bees were confined, kept in darkness, or, at any rate, out of the influence of the sun, kept dry, cool, still, and undisturbed, no such disastrous consequences would ensue. [Footnote K: In the 15th page of his "Apiarian's Guide," J. H. Payne, Esq. says--"a Bee becomes torpid at a temperature of thirty-two degrees"--Payne is an experienced apiarian. What credit then is due to the anonymous critic, who in one of the weekly periodicals[L] has told us that "Bees in a glass hive, exposed in the open air, when its temperature was twenty degrees below freezing, instead of being in a state of of torpor, continued very lively?!!"--Before yielding implicit credence to this statement, it would be exceedingly satisfactory to be informed _how long_ the Bees so exposed continued very lively.] [Footnote L: _Mechanics' Magazine_, No. 564, p. 155.] The following detail will show my readers the results of some experiments, relative to the aspect and situation of Bee-hives during winter; and whilst in some degree they corroborate the foregoing observations, they may perhaps induce those, who are anxious for the prosperity of their Bees, to submit to be taught a useful lesson respecting the winter management of them. In 1824 I had six cottage-hives, which had prospered well with me during the summer of that year. In the autumn of the same year I resolved to weigh those six hives, and to place three of them on the north side of my house, and to let the other three remain in their summer situation. The separate weights of my hives, in November of the year 1824, were as under, viz. No. 1. 35 lbs. No. 4. 42 lbs. 2. 38 -- 5. 32 -- 3. 40 -- 6. 37 -- --- --- 113 111 --- --- The first three of these Nos. viz. 1, 2, and 3, weighing together 113 lbs. remained during the winter in their summer situation: Nos. 4, 5, and 6, weighing together 111 lbs. were removed to a cold dry place, on the north side of my house. On the 26th of March, 1825, I again weighed those six hives, and found their respective weights to be as follows, viz. No. 1. 15 lbs. No. 4. 37 lbs. 2. 16 -- 5. 27 -- 3. 19 -- 6. 32 -- -- -- 50 96 -- -- So that the three hives, remaining in their summer quarters during the winter, had decreased in weight just 63 lbs. being on an average 21 lbs. each; while the three which had wintered on the north side of my house had decreased only 15 lbs. being on an average only 5 lbs. each. This gives an average difference of 16 lbs. a hive, between a proper and an improper winter situation and aspect for Bees. It is lamentable to think how many people lose their Bees, either from ignorance, prejudice, or want of attention to this particular point--_a proper winter situation_. I need scarcely relate to my readers, that the Bees which were placed fronting, or open to the north, were the first that swarmed the next spring. They swarmed in the month of May; while those hives that had remained fronting, or open to the south, did not swarm until July; and one hive (No. 2.) never swarmed at all during the season. At the latter end of October, 1825, I again weighed my hives, and found them to be as under:-- No. 1. 28 lbs. Swarm from ditto 10 lbs. 2. 22 -- 3. 30 -- Swarm from ditto 14 -- -- -- 80 24 -- -- No. 4. 44 lbs. Swarm from ditto 32 lbs. 5. 43 -- Swarm from ditto 28 -- 6. 41 -- Swarm from ditto 30 -- --- -- 128 90 --- -- Hence it appears that the three hives (Nos. 1, 2, and 3) that had never been removed from their summer stands, were 33 lbs. lighter than when I first weighed them, that is, on an average, 11 lbs. a hive; and even with the weight of their two swarms added to them, there was a falling off in the year of 9 lbs. or, on an average, of 3 lbs, a hive: whilst Nos. 4, 5, and 6, had gained 17 lbs. or, on an average, nearly 6 lbs. each; and with the weight of their swarms added to them, they had gained 107 lbs. or, on an average, nearly 36 lbs. a hive in the year. I could carry this subject much further in my explanations, as I did in my experiments, but it requires no facts in addition to those just stated to explain the difference of aspect in the winter-season to Bees. Every cottager must know that the richer his Bees are in spring, the sooner they will swarm. Then, to make them rich, he must not neglect to place his hives out of the influence of the sun during winter,--_in a dry, cold, and quiet situation_. He will find by this practice, that not more than five or six pounds of honey will be consumed by a good stock; but if he suffer his Bees to remain fronting the south, they will in a mild winter, if they survive it at all, become paupers before spring. Now what is proper during the winter for stocks in common hives, is equally proper for stocks in collateral-boxes, of which the middle-box is the winter-pavilion or stock-hive. Long before winter all the Bees of the most populous stock will draw into the middle-box and cluster round their Queen; and when that is the case, the dividing-tins should be put down, in order that all the Bees may be securely kept in the pavilion; and previously to removing them from their summer situation, the entrance should be carefully closed with a piece of wire-cloth, or perforated tin; which, whilst it admits fresh air into the box, will keep the Bees within and all their enemies without. It is hardly possible for the smallest enemy to make its way into a box thus secured. A perforated tin may also be put over the way down into the drawer. Towards spring this last may be withdrawn, and the Bees, when they begin to revive, will soon rid themselves of those that may have died in the winter, by carrying them down into the drawer. Having made every necessary preparation, remove your stocks to such a situation as that herein before recommended, and there in quietude let them pass the dreary months of winter. I do not advise that they be taken too early to, nor that they remain too long in, their hibernacula: generally speaking, they may be removed towards the latter end of November, and again in the third or fourth week of February; but the Bees themselves, if duly observed, will be the best directors. This is _my_ practice, and it is also the practice of my apiarian friend at Gedney-Hill, than whose, no stocks in this neighbourhood are more healthy or much more prosperous. CHAPTER XVIII. APIARIAN SOCIETIES. The encouragement of any internal branch of industry, which will supersede the necessity for the employment of British capital in speculative adventures where no equivalent is returned, is in the mind of every patriot a subject worthy of consideration. And that the prosecution and encouragement of my system of Bee-management, undertaken by those who are qualified by their means, abilities, and powers of patronage, to set the example, and thereby influence others, will effect this to a considerable extent, as far as the production of honey and wax is concerned, will, I think, be sufficiently obvious to those who have witnessed, or who hereafter may witness, the successful results--the almost incredible quantity of these productions from my apiary alone; or, leaving my apiary entirely out of the account, I will venture modestly to assert, _that from any one set of collateral-boxes, well-stocked and well-managed, the quantity and quality of honey that may be annually taken, without either destroying or impoverishing the Bees, must be seen to be believed; and being seen, will not be disputed_. The exact amount annually paid to other countries for these two commodities--honey and wax--I have not the means of ascertaining with accuracy, but it is probable that it exceeds £350,000.--a sum lost to this country, because, not only have we in the vegetable world a profusion of these productions, that "waste their sweetness on the desert air," but we have, or might have, if we would but encourage them, the labourers necessary to collect them, and this too without the deterioration of any other department of rural economy. Were Bee-colonies multiplied to any thing like the number that the Bee-pasturage of this country would support; were there, for instance, but one set of well-stocked collateral-boxes on every square mile of England, Wales, and Scotland,--or, to compute moderately, on every square mile of every rural district of Great Britain, that is fertile in Bee-pasturage,--and were the price of the finest box-honey reduced to a shilling a pound, the annual _surplus_ produce of these colonies would realize a sum far exceeding £350,000. which would be put into the pockets of, generally speaking, an industrious and deserving part of the community--the rural population, and a profitable remuneration given to them for their indulgence and perseverance in a most rational pursuit, requiring but trifling, and this only incidental attention. I know of no time more proper for throwing out these hints than the present, when the subject of _rural allotments_ excites, and that justly, almost universal attention amongst those desirous of securing an industrious, prosperous, and virtuous peasantry. I do not presume to imagine that, antiquated as are the practices hitherto so generally adopted, and so pertinaciously adhered to in Bee-management in this country, and characterized as are these practices by so many superstitious and irrational usages--I do not presume to imagine that my system will, at once, up-root prejudices, dispel superstitions, and be immediately and heartily adopted by the cottager. The generality of apiarians have yet to be taught that _Bee-management is a system;_--that it is something more than merely stocking a hive or box with a swarm of Bees, and then leaving it to chance alone to prosper or to perish; and, if to prosper, it is only until the time for its final doom--the reckless destruction of every Bee--arrives. They have yet to learn that the whole, or at least, the greater part of the contingencies, to which Bee-colonies are subject, may be averted; that the casualties of Bees are analogous to those of other descriptions of stock; and that, if they would ensure success, or expect to derive profit from them, it must be by attention to their domicils, to their protection from the variations of climate and atmosphere, and from external enemies,--in short, by proper management. If in many instances, the success of my hives has been so unqualified and extensive, it has been because the necessity for careful management has been impressed and adhered to, and because Bees, in whose welfare their owners had been previously uninterested, have been looked upon with some degree of attention, and their labours facilitated and requited by timely administering to their wants and comforts. In the same way, I believe, that by attention to the observations contained in these pages, the cottagers' labours may be more amply repaid, and that more honey may be obtained, even by their rough practices; whilst this will be preparing them for the adoption of my improved plans and gradually pave the way for its general introduction. For this I more particularly refer to the preceding chapter, and to that on Bee-feeding, i. e. chapters XIV. and XVII. It has often been suggested to me, to point out _how_ the culture of Honey-Bees might be more generally extended in this country, and rendered more advantageous to the cottager than it has been hitherto. As regards the extension of Bee-cultivation, I would observe, that if those gentlemen, especially those gentlemen resident in the country, who possess affluence, influence, and leisure, would undertake to promote it--would set the example and keep Bees, their example alone would go far to induce the cottager to keep them; and that, as other countries boast, and that so usefully, their apiarian societies, the formation of such a society, or societies, could not fail to be attended with beneficial effects. Some feeble attempts, it is true, to establish such a society have been made, but have proved abortive, whilst premiums on the subject have been offered by other societies,[M] injudiciously, as they have tended to perpetuate mistaken views, and to retard the progress of more correct ones. I am not insensible of the extreme benefit which has resulted to the different branches of industry, and to agriculture and horticulture in particular, by well-regulated scales of premiums, emulating to superiority and necessarily promoting a beneficial stimulus in the different branches with which they are connected. And, in my opinion, nothing would more easily tend to the inculcation of sounder views of practice, than, if gentlemen, pursuing my principles, would interest themselves in connecting with the objects of such associations more generally, graduated scales of prizes, regulated by the quantity of honey obtained from stocks, the prosperity of the hives afterwards, and the state of the apiary generally, &c. Were they also to countenance the plan of placing colonies under the care of labouring cottagers, giving them premiums as an inducement to careful management, they could not fail of conferring a benefit, by initiating them into the plans of the system, as well as by more advantageously dividing the pasture of the district among the different hives, and thereby rendering the labour of their collecting the stores considerably less to the Bees. This would, undoubtedly, effect much, but I know of no means so decidedly calculated to foster and encourage the culture of Honey-Bees among all classes, and more particularly among the population of rural districts, as apiarian societies, formed for the express purpose of extending and improving the cultivation and management of Honey-Bees. [Footnote M: A premium was last year (1833) awarded by the Cambridgeshire Horticultural Society, to a Mr. Widnal, for his exhibition of a glass of honey. But whether the encouragement of Bee-culture be an object of that very respectable society,--or whether the reward given to Mr. Widnal on that occasion was a sort of bye-premium, bestowed for the gratification of seeing a curiosity, it did not appear.] CHAPTER XIX. MISCELLANEOUS DIRECTIONS. In undertaking this work, as I originally did, at the pressing solicitations of several of those Noblemen and Gentlemen, whose names graced the list of the subscribers for the first edition, I had two main objects in view; of which a full and particular explanation of the mode of managing Honey-Bees, in my boxes and upon my principles, was one,--and the other, which I do ardently hope will result from the adoption and encouragement of my long-tried plan, is--the prospective improvement, not only of the culture and condition of those ingenious, admired, and most interesting little creatures, but also of honey and wax--the two valuable articles which Bees, and Bees alone, afford us. To prepare the way for the accomplishment of the latter of these objects, I have exerted my best endeavours--I have spared neither pains nor expense, to give minute, and, I trust, intelligible descriptions of all my boxes and hives, of my Bee-machinery, and of every thing thereto pertaining; which descriptions have been accompanied with such practical directions and relations of experiments, as will, _if duly attended to_, enable my Bee-friends to put their apiaries upon my _humane and profitable system of management_. Therefore I do not think it is incumbent upon me to proceed farther at present. I might easily double the size of my book, by entering into and giving lengthy details of several matters relative to Bees, which are not here so much as hinted at; such, for instance, as the distance that they sometimes fly from their hives in quest of honey, and the experiments that have been made to determine that distance;--the nature of honey-dew, and how it is occasioned,--why it abounds on some trees and plants, whilst others are entirely destitute of it,--whether it be a natural exudation of the plants that afford it,--or whether it be produced by the leaf-lice, called aphides;--why, if the impregnation of a Virgin-Queen be retarded beyond a certain number of days after her coming into existence, all the eggs she lays during her whole life, should invariably produce _drones;_--the language of Bees, for Bees, it has been held, have their peculiar language, though I profess not to understand it, nor even to have studied it, my business being with their _habits;_--the various diseases or maladies with which skilful men assure us they are occasionally affected;--their senses, their anatomy, and their instinct;--their affinity to the wasp;--exotic Bees from those of Lapland to those of China; and from those of Siberia to those of the Cape of Good Hope;--the stingless Bees of South America, mentioned by Dr. Hancock, that from the luxuriant ever-blooming, tropical plants and flowers, produce black wax;[N] what Aristotle hath remarked on one subject,--what Pliny hath said on another,--what classic Virgil hath so delightfully sung of the nature, economy, and management of Bees in Italy,--what Gelieu in modest prose hath said of Bees in Switzerland,--Huber and Reaumur in France, and a host of writers in Germany, and in our own native England; what opposite opinions have been entertained respecting honey; whether plants and flowers secrete pure honey, or whether the saccharine matter culled from them undergoes any percolating, rectifying, chemical process in the stomach of the Bee.--I might observe, that the illustrious Hunter was of opinion that it undergoes no change; although the no less illustrious naturalist Reaumur, and the entomologists Kirby and Spence, imagine that some change does take place before the honey is stored in the cells,--that, as the nectarious exudation of plants is not of the same consistence as honey from the hives, it is reasonable to suppose that it undergoes some change _in transitu_ whilst in the body of the Bee; that, as far as my experience has enabled me to make observations on this subject, I am disposed to lean to the opinion of Reaumur, Kirby, and Spence, and to ascribe the difference between honey in the nectarium of a flower or on the leaf of a tree, and honey in the cells of a comb, to the absorption of the volatile parts of the saccharine of the plants and flowers whilst in the honey-bag; which absorption is aided and accelerated by the natural heat of the Bee, and by which process honey is rendered of uniform consistence, in the graphic language of my chemical friend--Mr. Booth--I might exclaim, "How necessarily do the least valued products in the economy of nature, eliminated in the most miniature laboratory of her operations, confirm us in the belief of the existence, wisdom, and power of nature's God--the Great Chemist--who has not only imbued matter to act upon its fellow matter in the infinity of space, to produce an infinite diversity of changes in the material world; but, within the small compass of a Bee, has provided apparatus for certain changes to take place, which are more elaborate, important, and complicated, than are produced in the largest apparatus of the manufacturer! In this little insect are performed all those chemical processes of life, by which nature is kept in the equanimity and beauty of existence--here composition and decomposition, solution and precipitation, sublimation, volatilization, distillation, and absorption, through the agency of heat and attraction, take place on the minutest matters, secreted by the plants and collected by the Bees; and in the hive, by the concentration of their individual efforts, is elaborated that immense quantity of those important products, which constitute such useful commodities in the arts and economy of life." [Footnote N: See page 11, antea.] The discussion of some of these topics, and dissertations on others, might be made amusing, perhaps interesting, and would, at all events, swell the size of my book; but whether I should thereby enhance its intrinsic merits (if intrinsic merit it possess) is more than I dare venture to affirm. In short, these topics come not within my plan,--they are foreign to it, and I gladly leave them to be treated of by others, whose learning is mare able to cope with them, and whose taste may direct them to such subjects. _I have withheld nothing that I deem to be essentially necessary to the thorough understanding of my mode of Bee-management;_ consequently, I anticipate that my two main objects will eventually be attained--that Bee-culture will become a pleasing and a profitable study--a source of instructive amusement and of profit too,--and that our country will, at no great distance of time, be everywhere studded and ornamented with neat, well-ordered apiaries. I will, therefore, now close my present labours with a few miscellaneous directions, chiefly recapitulatory, which, on account of their importance, every apiarian should constantly bear in mind. Have your Bee-boxes _well-made_, and _of good substantial materials_. Strength and durability are of greater consequence than neatness, though that need not be neglected--neatness and strength are not incompatible--they may be combined. Paint your boxes annually, when they are in their winter situation. Make a clear ground or floor-way from the pavilion into each of the end-boxes, by cutting away about two inches from the lower edge of each of the corresponding ends, to the depth of half an inch; and make this way or passage as near the front-entrance as it conveniently may be. This convenience has been suggested to me _since_ the directions for making collateral-boxes were printed, and I therefore mention it here as an improvement, because such a way on the floor, and _without any climbing_, will afford an additional accommodation to Bees on many occasions. Boxes will not work Bees, neither will Bees work boxes to advantage, unless due attention be paid to them--i. e. both to boxes and to Bees. Situation is of prime importance: for summer it should be clear and open in front of your boxes, and sheltered at their back by a north-wall or by a thick hedge. In summer let their aspect be south-east:--early in spring, and again in autumn, due south is the best point to be in front: therefore, as spring advances turn the front of your boxes eastward, and as summer declines move them back again to their spring aspect; or, in other words, when there is not more than twelve hours' sun, let the front of your boxes be due south; and during the time that the sun is more than twelve hours above the horizon, let it be south-east. Always have the cheerful rays of the morning sun fall upon your boxes: but contrive to throw a shade upon their front for a few hours in the middle of the day, when the weather is very hot. Such a shade will be grateful to your Bees. Elevate your boxes twenty inches or two feet above the ground: and always keep the grass or ground, under and near them, neat and clean, and entirely free from all nuisances. A constant supply of water in the immediate vicinity of your apiary is highly desirable; if therefore you have not a natural supply of that element, _so necessary for Bees_, contrive to let them have it by artificial means--by placing it in or near your apiary, in large, shallow dishes, or in wooden troughs, partially covering the surface with reed or moss, and be careful to replenish them, so that your Bees may always find it there. Suffer not ants to burrow near your Bees. Ants are enemies to Bees, and will annoy them, if they get among them. Spiders also are Bee-destroyers; therefore, brush away their entangling webs, whenever and wherever you find them about your boxes. Fowls should not be permitted in an apiary. Early in spring let the entrance be not more than an inch, and increase it gradually to its full extent, as you find occasion: contract it again towards the fall of the year; and, if the moths be troublesome in summer evenings, nearly close it every evening; but take care to open it again either early next morning, or as soon as the evening flight of the moths is over. This attention is more particularly due to weak stocks, and affords them great protection against the attacks of moths, which are among the boldest, the most persevering, and, when once they have got into a hive, most destructive enemies to Bees. Destroy wasps and wasps' nests wherever you find them in the vicinity of your apiary. The destruction of queen-wasps in spring is the most effectual method of diminishing the number of these formidable Bee-enemies; because the destruction of a queen-wasp in spring is tantamount to the destruction of a whole nest afterwards. Light in the domicil of Bees, if not actually prejudicial to them, is, at any rate, displeasing to them; therefore, be careful never to expose your Bees unnecessarily to its glare: never leave the window-doors open, nor suffer careless visitors to do so. My ingenious friend, the Rev. T. Clark, of Gedney-Hill, suggests the propriety of recommending that the window-doors be _self-shutting doors_. This, he says, may be done by fixing upon each door a light, easy spring, similar to those made use of to shut doors in good houses; or by a cord attached to each door, and passed through an eye, and over a small pulley fixed to the side of each box; from the end of which cord a weight of two or three ounces must be suspended. This weight, acting upon the cord, will draw the little doors to the windows, that is, it will shut them. The cords, eyes, and pulleys, he further says, may be so arranged, that one small weight will keep all the hive doors, in a set of collateral-boxes, closed and safe, and may be made to hang under the floor. I have no hesitation in recommending his suggestion as ingenious, practicable, and useful. The best security, however, after all, is that afforded by lock and key, the key being in the constant possession of the owner. Ventilate your collateral-boxes and bell-glasses, when the interior temperature is at, or above, 70 degrees. Never irritate your Bees, nor offer any sort of violence or opposition to them; and should an angry Bee or two at any time attack you, walk quietly away, and leave them to settle into peace again. On no account drive your Bees; it is a ruinous practice. With boxes, however, I trust, it is impracticable, and totally superseded. Never disturb, nor in any way interfere with, the middle-box. _On no account destroy any of your Bees:_ independently of its cruelty, it is an impolitic practice: it is like cutting down a tree to get at its fruit, which may easily be gathered by less laborious and indestructive means. Encourage your Bees,--accommodate them,--support them,--and _by all means preserve them_; and, when seasons are favourable, they will _richly_ reward you for your attention to them. Always keep a cottage-hive, or single box or two, in your apiary, for the purpose of having swarms from them, with which to stock empty boxes, or to strengthen such stocks as may stand in need of additional numbers; and proceed with such supplementary swarms as directed in pages 42-45. Never impoverish your Bees by taking from them more honey than they have to spare. Always suffer them to be in possession of a plentiful store. Over-deprivation distresses them, and is no gain to the proprietor. Among other reasons this is one for my repeated directions--not to touch the middle-box. Honey of the very finest quality may commonly be obtained from collateral-boxes, as early in the season as the months of May and June, without injuring the parent-stock in the slightest degree. The enlargement of their domicil by returning an empty glass, or an empty box, to the place from which a full one has been taken, is at this busy period of their labour an accommodation to Bees, and is one great means of preventing the necessity for their swarming, as it enables them to continue their work at the time that there is the greatest abundance of treasure for them in the fields, and when Bees in cottage-hives cannot profit by it, owing to their want, not of inclination to gather it, but of room in their hive to store it; they therefore swarm once, twice, perhaps three times. What then can be afterwards expected from such exhausted stocks but weakness and poverty? The more numerous the working Bees are in any colony, the more honey they will collect, _provided they have room wherein to store it_. Accommodate them, then, with convenient store-room, and the more workers you have in your boxes the better. Up to the middle of August you may, with safety, that is, without injury to the Bees, take off glasses and boxes, as they become ready. _After that time_ it is advisable to have, and to leave, in every colony, honey sufficient for the subsistence of the Bees until next spring; and should you take off a full box, later in the season than the middle of August, instead of emptying it of all its treasure, be content with a part of it,--take a part, and _return a part--share it with your Bees, and let their share be a liberal one_. As has been already enjoined--_on no account impoverish them by over-deprivation_, at that precarious season especially. They possibly may collect much honey after that time; if so, share with them again; if not, have them rich from your first bounty. When a box, well-stored with honey, is taken off, it is not an easy matter to extract the first comb or two, without breaking them and spoiling their beauty, besides shedding more or less of the honey; therefore, be prepared with proper knives. Any common knife that has a blade long enough, may serve to sever the combs from the sides of a box: but, to cut them from the top, it is advisable to have an instrument, which may be called a Bee-knife, of the following construction:--a two-edged, lancet-shaped blade, two inches long and three-eighths of an inch broad, having the hole, through which the rivet would pass to fix it in a haft, drilled large enough to admit the end of a steel rod, upon which it is to be well brazed or riveted: the other end of this rod may be finished with a neat handle, leaving its clear length between the contrate blade and the handle eleven inches--that being rather more than the depth of my Bee-boxes. A knife of this description may easily be passed between the combs, and is very convenient for cutting them from the top of a box. Whenever you have occasion to perform any operation among your Bees, be provided with every requisite material, implement, &c. Have not any thing to seek for, much less to get made, at the moment it is wanted: _that moment may perhaps be a critical one_. In September unite the Bees of poor stocks to rich ones; and now, or in March, transfer stocks from straw-hives into boxes. Previously to withdrawing the tin-divider, for the purpose of opening the communication into an end-box, take off the end-box and dress its inside with a little liquid honey; this will bring the Bees into it, when, but for the honey, they would perhaps refuse to enter it; and at that time close the ventilation. It is wrong to ventilate empty boxes, because it drives the Bees into the pavilion: and it is a fact, that they will swarm from the pavilion, rather than take possession of an empty end-box, if its temperature be, and be kept, disagreeably cold, by having the ventilation open at the very time it should be carefully closed. This will both explain and remedy the difficulty, that some apiarians complain of having experienced, in getting their Bees to take possession of an empty box; it will also account for swarms sometimes leaving the pavilion when there is no want of room: the fact is--that the temperature of _that room_ is not agreeable to them: but it is owing to the mismanagement of the apiator that it is otherwise than agreeable. Whenever a box is taken off, be careful to open the perforations in the cylinder-ventilator, many of which will be found sealed up with propolis. These perforations may be cleared at any time, by introducing a piece of wire with a sharpened point, turned so as to pick out the propolis; but they are most effectually opened when a box is off. Towards the latter end of November, or earlier, if the weather be inclement and severe, remove your Bee-boxes to their winter situation: this should be _dry, quiet, cool_, and _dark_, and place your boxes in it so that they may front towards the north or north-east. Guard and close the entrance with a piece of fine wire-cloth, of Lariviere's patent tin, or of perforated zinc, (which is the best, on account of its not corroding) made fast to the box, either of which will confine the Bees within their domicil, admit plenty of fresh air, and keep out inimical intruders. Thus prepared for winter, having every tin and block in its proper place, _disturb your Bees as little as possible_, and, come winter as it may, they will pass it in that state of semi-insensibility, or torpor, which nature, or with reverence let me rather say--nature's God has appointed for them. Towards the end of February, or as soon as vegetation begins to make its appearance, take your boxes from their winter to their summer stands, and commence another course of attentions, observations, and humane management, similar to that herein directed and explained. And, though cases may arise, and difficulties occur in the course of your practice, for the remedying of which no specific directions are, or can be, here given, your own experience and progressive improvement in the pleasing science of Bee-management, will lead you to adopt the proper mode of treating the former, and the proper means for surmounting the latter. THE END. H. AND J. LEACH, PRINTERS, WISBECH. * * * * * Transcriber Note Minor typographical errors have been corrected. Hyphenation standardized to most utilized form herein. 
39610	----	RIDING FOR LADIES. BY W. A. KERR, V.C., FORMERLY SECOND IN COMMAND OF THE 2ND REGIMENT SOUTHERN MAHARATTA HORSE. _ILLUSTRATED._ NEW YORK: FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY, MDCCCXCI. PREFACE. This work should be taken as following on, and in conjunction with, its predecessor on "Riding." In that publication will be found various chapters on Action, The Aids, Bits and Bitting, Leaping, Vice, and on other cognate subjects which, without undue repetition, cannot be reintroduced here. These subjects are of importance to and should be studied by all, of either sex, who aim at perfection in the accomplishment of Equitation, and who seek to control and manage the saddle-horse. W. A. K. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTORY 1 II. THE LADY'S HORSE 6 III. PRACTICAL HINTS: HOW TO MOUNT, 14--THE SEAT, 22--THE WALK, 27--THE TROT, 33--THE CANTER, 39--THE HAND-GALLOP AND GALLOP, 44--LEAPING, 46--DISMOUNTING, 51 IV. THE SIDE SADDLE 52 V. HINTS UPON COSTUME 63 VI. À LA CAVALIÈRE 73 VII. APPENDIX I.--THE TRAINING OF PONIES FOR CHILDREN 81 APPENDIX II.--EXTENSION AND BALANCE MOTIONS 89 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE PREPARING TO MOUNT 17 MOUNTING--SECOND POSITION 19 MOUNTED--NEAR SIDE 22 RIGHT AND WRONG ELBOW ACTION 26 RIGHT AND WRONG MOUNT 28 TURNING IN THE WALK--RIGHT AND WRONG WAY 31 RIGHT AND WRONG RISING 34 THE TROT 38 FREE BUT NOT EASY 43 THE LEAP 48 THE SIDE SADDLE, OLD STYLE 53 THE SAFETY SADDLE 54 SADDLES 55-62 THE "ZENITH" HABIT--JACKET BODY 65 COSTUMES 78 RIDING FOR LADIES. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. What I have said on the excellence of horse-exercise for boys and men, applies equally to girls and women, if, indeed, it does not recommend itself more especially in the case of the latter. For the most part the pursuits of women are so quiet and sedentary that the body is rarely called into that complete activity of all the muscles which is essential to their perfect development, and which produces the strength and freedom of movement so indispensable to perfect grace of carriage. The woman who has been early accustomed to horse-exercise gains a courage and nerve which it would be difficult to acquire in a more pleasant and healthful manner. She also gains morally in learning to feel a sympathy with the noble animal to whom she is indebted for so much enjoyment, and whose strength and endurance are too often cruelly abused by man. Numerous instances have occurred in my experience of the singular influence obtained by ladies over their horses by simple kindness, and I am tempted to introduce here an account of what gentle treatment can effect with the Arab. The lady who told the tale did not lay claim to being a first-rate horsewoman. Her veracity was undoubted, for her whole life was that of a ministering angel. She wrote thus: "I had a horse provided for me of rare beauty and grace, but a perfect Bucephalus in her way. She was only two generations removed from a splendid Arabian, given by the good old king to the Duke of Kent when H.R.H. went out in command to Nova Scotia. The creature was not three years old, and to all appearance unbroken. Her manners were those of a kid rather than of a horse; she was of a lovely dappled gray, with mane and tail of silver, the latter almost sweeping the ground; and in her frolicsome gambols she turned it over her back like a Newfoundland dog. Her slow step was a bound, her swift motion unlike that of any other animal I ever rode, so fleet, so smooth, so unruffled. I know nothing to which I can compare it. Well, I made this lovely creature so fond of me by constant petting, to which, I suppose, her Arab character made her peculiarly sensitive, that my voice had equal power over her, as over my faithful docile dog. No other person could in the slightest degree control her. Our corps, the 73rd Batt. of the 60th Rifles, was composed wholly of the _élite_ of Napoleon's soldiers, taken in the Peninsula, and preferring the British service to a prison. They were, principally, conscripts, and many were evidently of a higher class in society than those usually found in the ranks. Among them were several Chasseurs and Polish Lancers, very fine equestrians, and as my husband had a field-officer's command on detachment, and allowances, our horses were well looked after. His groom was a Chasseur, mine a Pole, but neither could ride "Fairy" unless she happened to be in a very gracious mood. Lord Dalhousie's English coachman afterwards tried his hand at taming her, but all in vain. In an easy quiet manner she either sent her rider over her head or, by a laughable manoeuvre, sitting down like a dog on her haunches, slipped him off the other way. Her drollery made the poor men so fond of her that she was rarely chastised, and such a wilful, intractable wild Arab it would be hard to find. Upon her I was daily mounted. Inexperienced in riding, untaught, unassisted, and wholly unable to lay any check upon so powerful an animal, with an awkward country saddle, which, by some fatality, was never well fixed, bit and bridle to match, and the mare's natural fire increased by high feed, behold me bound for the wildest paths in the wildest regions of that wild country. But you must explore the roads about Annapolis, and the romantic spot called the "General's Bridge," to imagine either the enjoyment or the perils of my happiest hour. Reckless to the last degree of desperation, I threw myself entirely on the fond attachment of the noble creature; and when I saw her measuring with her eye some rugged fence or wild chasm, such as it was her common sport to leap over in her play, the soft word of remonstrance that checked her was uttered more from regard to her safety than my own. The least whisper, a pat on the neck, or a stroke down the beautiful face that she used to throw up towards mine, would control her; and never for a moment did she endanger me. This was little short of a daily miracle, when we consider the nature of the country, her character, and my unskilfulness. It can only be accounted for on the ground of that wondrous power which, having willed me to work for a time in the vineyard of the Lord, rendered me immortal till the work should be done. Rather, I should say, in the words of Cooper, which I have ventured to slightly vary-- "'Tis plain the creature whom He chose to invest With _queen_-ship and dominion o'er the rest, Received _her_ nobler nature, and was made Fit for the power in which she stands arrayed." Strongly as I advocate early tuition, if a girl has not mounted a horse up to her thirteenth year, my advice is to postpone the attempt, unless thoroughly strong, for a couple of years at least. I cannot here enter the reason why, but it is good and sufficient. Weakly girls of all ages, especially those who are growing rapidly, are apt to suffer from pain in the spine. "The Invigorator" corset I have recommended under the head of "Ladies' Costume" will, to some extent, counteract this physical weakness; but the only certain cures are either total cessation from horse exercise, or the adoption of the cross, or Duchess de Berri, seat--in plain words, to ride _à la cavalière_ astride in a man's saddle. In spite of preconceived prejudices, I think that if ladies will kindly peruse my short chapter on this common sense method, they will come to the conclusion that Anne of Luxembourg, who introduced the side-saddle, did not confer an unmixed benefit on the subjects of Richard the Second, and that riding astride is no more indelicate than the modern short habit in the hunting field. We are too apt to prostrate ourselves before the Juggernaut of fashion, and to hug our own conservative ideas. Though the present straight-seat side-saddle, as manufactured by Messrs. Champion and Wilton, modifies, if it does not actually do away with, any fear of curvature of the spine; still, it is of importance that girls should be taught to ride on the off-side as well as the near, and, if possible, on the cross-saddle also. Undoubtedly, a growing girl, whose figure and pliant limbs may, like a sapling, be trained in almost any direction, does, by always being seated in one direction, contract a tendency to hang over to one side or the other, and acquire a stiff, crooked, or ungainly seat. Perfect ease and squareness are only to be acquired, during tuition and after dismissal from school, by riding one day on the near and the next on the off-side. This change will ease the horse, and, by bringing opposite sets of muscles into play, will impart strength to the rider and keep the shoulders level. Whichever side the rider sits, the reins are held, mainly, in the left hand--the left hand is known as the "bridle-hand." Attempts have frequently been made to build a saddle with two flaps and movable third pommel, but the result has been far from satisfactory. A glance at a side-saddle tree will at once demonstrate the difficulty the saddler has to meet, add to this a heavy and ungainly appearance. The only way in which the shift can be obtained is by having two saddles. [Illustration: NAOMI (A HIGH-CASTE ARABIAN MARE).] CHAPTER II. THE LADY'S HORSE. There is no more difficult animal to find on the face of the earth than a perfect lady's horse. It is not every one that can indulge in the luxury of a two-hundred-and-fifty to three-hundred-guinea hack, and yet looks, action, and manners will always command that figure, and more. Some people say, what can carry a man can carry a woman. What says Mrs. Power O'Donoghue to this: "A heavy horse is never in any way suitable to a lady. It _looks_ amiss. The trot is invariably laboured, and if the animal should chance to fall, he gives his rider what we know in the hunting-field as 'a mighty crusher.' It is indeed, a rare thing to meet a perfect 'lady's horse.' In all my wide experience I have met but two. Breeding is necessary for stability and speed--two things most essential to a hunter; but good light action is, for a roadster, positively indispensable, and a horse who does not possess it is a burden to his rider, and is, moreover, exceedingly unsafe, as he is apt to stumble at every rut and stone." Barry Cornwall must have had something akin to perfection in his mind's eye when penning the following lines:-- "Full of fire, and full of bone, All his line of fathers known; Fine his nose, his nostrils thin, But blown abroad by the pride within! His mane a stormy river flowing, And his eyes like embers glowing In the darkness of the night, And his pace as swift as light. Look, around his straining throat Grace and shifting beauty float! Sinewy strength is in his reins, And the red blood gallops through his veins." How often do we hear it remarked of a neat blood-looking nag, "Yes, very pretty and blood-like, but there's nothing of him; only fit to carry a woman." No greater mistake can be made, for if we consider the matter in all its bearings, we shall see that the lady should be rather over than under mounted. The average weight of English ladies is said to be nine stone; to that must be added another stone for saddle and bridle (I don't know if the habit and other habiliments be included in the nine stone), and we must give them another stone in hand; or eleven stone in all. A blood, or at furthest, two crosses of blood on a good foundation, horse will carry this weight as well as it can be carried. It is a fault among thoroughbreds that they do not bend the knee sufficiently; but there are exceptions to this rule. I know of two Stud Book sires, by Lowlander, that can trot against the highest stepping hackney or roadster in the kingdom, and, if trained, could put the dust in the eyes of nine out of ten of the much-vaunted standard American trotters. Their bold, elegant, and elastic paces come up to the ideal poetry of action, carrying themselves majestically, all their movements like clockwork, for truth and regularity. The award of a first prize as a hunter sire to one of these horses establishes his claim to symmetry, but, being full sixteen hands and built on weight-carrying lines, he is just one or two inches too tall for carrying any _equestrienne_ short of a daughter of Anak. Though too often faulty in formation of shoulders, thoroughbreds, as their name implies, are generally full of quality and, under good treatment, generous horses. I do not chime in with those who maintain that a horse can do no wrong, but do assert that he comes into the world poisoned by a considerably less dose of original sin than we, who hold dominion over him, are cursed with. Two-year-olds that have been tried and found lacking that keen edge of speed so necessary in these degenerate days of "sprinting," many of them cast in "beauty's mould," are turned out of training and are to be picked up at very reasonable prices. Never having known a bit more severe than that of the colt-breaker and the snaffle, the bars of their mouths are not yet callous, and being rescued from the clutches of the riding lads of the training-stable, before they are spoiled as to temper, they may, in many instances, under good tuition, be converted into admirable ladies' horses--hacks or hunters. They would not be saleable till four years old, but seven shillings a week would give them a run at grass and a couple of feeds of oats till such time as they be thoroughly taken in hand, conditioned, and taught their business. The margin for profit on well bought animals of this description, and their selling price as perfect lady's horses, are very considerable. In my opinion no horse can be too good or too perfectly trained for a lady. Some Amazons can ride anything, play cricket, polo, golf, lawn-tennis, fence, scale the Alps, etc., and I have known one or two go tiger-shooting. But all are not manly women, despite fashion, trending in that unnatural, unlovable direction. One of their own sex describes them as "gentle, kindly, and _cowardly_." That all are not heroines, I admit, but no one who witnessed or even read of their devoted courage during the dark days of the Indian mutiny, can question their ability to face terrible danger with superlative valour. The heroism of Mrs. Grimwood at Manipur is fresh in our memory. What the majority are wanting in is nerve. I have seen a few women go to hounds as well and as straight as the ordinary run of first-flight men. That I do not consider the lady's seat less secure than that of the cross-seated sterner sex, may be inferred from the sketch of the rough-rider in my companion volume for masculine readers, demonstrating "the last resource," and giving practical exemplification of the proverb, "He that can quietly endure overcometh." What women lack, in dealing with an awkward, badly broken, unruly horse, is muscular force, dogged determination, and the ability to struggle and persevere. Good nerve and good temper are essentials. Having given Barry Cornwall's poetic ideal of a horse, I now venture on a further rhyming sketch of what may fairly be termed "a good sort":-- "With intelligent head, lean, and deep at the jowl, Shoulder sloping well back, with a skin like a mole, Round-barrelled, broad-loined, and a tail carried free, Long and muscular arms, short and flat from the knee, Great thighs full of power, hocks both broad and low down, With fetlocks elastic, feet sound and well grown; A horse like unto this, with blood dam and blood sire, To Park or for field may to honours aspire; It's the sort I'm in want of--do you know such a thing? 'Tis the mount for a sportswoman, and fit for a queen!" My unhesitating advice to ladies is _Never buy for yourself_. Having described what you want to some well-known judge who is acquainted with your style of riding, and who knows the kind of animal most likely to suit your temperament, tell him to go to a certain price, and, if he be a gentleman you will not be disappointed. You won't get perfection, for that never existed outside the garden of Eden, but you will be well carried and get your money's worth. Ladies are not fit to cope with dealers, unless the latter be top-sawyers of the trade, have a character to lose, and can be trusted. There has been a certain moral obliquity attached to dealing in horses ever since, and probably before, they of the House of Togarmah traded in Tyrian fairs with horses, horsemen, and mules. Should your friend after all his trouble purchase something that does not to the full realize your fondest expectation, take the will for the deed, and bear in mind "oft expectation fails, and most oft there where most it promises." With nineteen ladies out of every score, the looks of a horse are a matter of paramount importance: he must be "a pretty creature, with beautiful deer-like legs, and a lovely head." Their inclinations lead them to admire what is beautiful in preference to what is true of build, useful, and safe. If a lady flattered me with a commission to buy her a horse, having decided upon the colour, I should look out for something after this pattern: one that would prove an invaluable hack, and mayhap carry her safely and well across country. Height fifteen two, or fifteen three at the outside; age between six and eight, as thoroughbred as Eclipse or nearly so. The courage of the lion yet gentle withal. Ears medium size, well set on, alert; the erect and quick "pricking" motion indicates activity and spirit. I would not reject a horse, if otherwise coming up to the mark, for a somewhat large ear or for one slightly inclined to be lopped, for in blood this is a pretty certain indication of the Melbourne strain, one to which we are much indebted. The characteristics of the Melbournes are, for the most part, desirable ones: docility, good temper, vigorous constitution, plenty of size, with unusually large bone, soundness of joints and abundance of muscle. But these racial peculiarities are recommendations for the coverside rather than for the Park. The eye moderately prominent, soft, expressive, "the eye of a listening deer." The ears and the eyes are the interpreters of disposition. Forehead broad and flat. A "dish face," that is, slightly concave or indented, is a heir-loom from the desert, and belongs to Nejd. The jaws deep, wide apart, with plenty of space for the wind-pipe when the head is reined in to the chest. Nostrils long, wide, and elastic, exhibiting a healthy pink membrane. We hear a good deal of large, old-fashioned heads, and see a good many of the fiddle and Roman-nosed type, but, in my opinion, these cumbersome heads, unless very thin and fleshless, are indicative of plebeian blood. The setting on of the head is a very important point. The game-cock throttle is the right formation, giving elasticity and the power to bend in obedience to the rider's hand. What the dealers term a _fine topped horse_, generally one with exuberance of carcase and light of limbs, is by no means "the sealed pattern" for a lady; on the contrary, the neck should be light, finely arched--that peculiarly graceful curve imported from the East,--growing into shoulders not conspicuous for too high withers. "Long riding shoulders" is an expression in almost every horseman's mouth, but very high and large-shouldered animals are apt to ride heavy in hand and to be high actioned. Well-laid-back shoulders, rather low, fine at the points, not set too far apart, and well-muscled will be found to give pace with easy action. He should stand low on the legs, which means depth of fore-rib, so essential in securing the lady's saddle, as well as ensuring the power and endurance to sustain and carry the rider's weight in its proper place. Fore-legs set well forward, with long, muscular arms, and room to place the flat of the hand between the elbows and the ribs. The chest can hardly be too deep, but it can be too wide, or have too great breadth between the fore-legs. The back only long enough to find room for the saddle is the rule, though, in case of a lady's horse, a trifle more length unaccompanied by the faintest sign of weakness, will do no harm. For speed, a horse must have length somewhere, and I prefer to see it below, between the point of the elbow and the stifle joint. Ormonde, "the horse of the century," was nearly a square, _i.e._ the height from the top of the wither to the ground almost equalled the length of his body from the point of the shoulder to the extremity of the buttock. Horses with short backs and short bodies are generally _buck-leapers_, and difficult to sit on when fencing. The couplings or loins cannot be too strong or the ribs too well sprung; the back ribs well hooped. This formation is a sign of a good constitution. The quarters must needs be full, high set on, with straight crupper, well rounded muscular buttocks, a clean channel, with big stifles and thighs to carry them. Knees and hocks clean, broad, and large, back sinews and ligaments standing well away from the bone, flat and hard as bands of steel; short well-defined smooth cannons; pasterns nicely sloped, neither too long nor too short, but full of spring; medium sized feet, hard as the nether millstone. If possible, I should select one endowed with the characteristic spring of the Arab's tail from the crupper. Such a horse would, in the words of Kingsley, possess "the beauty of Theseus, light but massive, and light, not in spite of its masses, but on account of the perfect disposition of them." There is no need for the judge to run the rule, or the tape either, over the horse. His practised eye, almost in a glance, will take in the general contour of the animal; it will tell him whether the various salient and important points balance, and will instantly detect any serious flaw. When selecting for a lady who, he knows, will appreciate sterling worth rather than mere beauty, he may feel disposed to gloss over a certain decidedness of points and dispense with a trifle of the comely shapeliness of truthfully moulded form. Having satisfied myself that the framework is all right, I would order the horse to be sauntered away from me with a loose rein, and, still with his head at perfect liberty, walked back again. I would then see him smartly trotted backwards and forwards. Satisfied with his natural dismounted action, I should require to see him ridden in all his paces, and might be disposed to get into the saddle myself. Having acquitted himself to my satisfaction, he would then have to exhibit himself in the Park or in a field, ridden in the hands of some proficient lady-rider. A few turns under her pilotage would suffice to decide his claims to be what I am looking for. If he came up to my ideas of action, or nearly so, I should not hesitate--subject to veterinary certificate of soundness--to purchase. Finally, the gentleman to examine the horse as to his soundness would be one of my own selection. Certain of the London dealers insist upon examinations being made by their own "Vets," and "there's a method in their madness." When such a stipulation is made, I invariably play the return match by insisting upon having the certificate of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, where the investigation is complete and rigorous. The very name of "the College" is gall and wormwood to many of these "gentlemen concerned about horses." CHAPTER III. PRACTICAL HINTS. HOW TO MOUNT. Previous to mounting, the lady should make a practice of critically looking the horse over, in order to satisfy herself that he is properly saddled and bridled. Particular attention should be paid to the girthing. Though ladies are not supposed to girth their own horses, occasion may arise, in the Colonies especially, when they may be called upon to perform that office. Information on this essential and too oft-neglected point may not be out of place. Odd as it may sound, few grooms know how to girth a horse properly, and to explain myself I must, for a few lines, quit the side-saddle for the cross-saddle. Men often wonder how it is that, on mounting, the near stirrup is almost invariably a hole or more the longer of the two. The reason is this: the groom places the saddle right in the centre of the horse's back and then proceeds to tighten the girths from the near or left side. The tension on the girth-holder, all from one side, cants the saddle over to the left, to which it is still further drawn by the weight of the rider in mounting and the strain put upon it by the act of springing into the saddle. This list to port can easily be obviated by the groom placing the heel of his left hand against the near side of the pommel, guiding the first or under-girth with the right hand till the girth-holder passes through the buckle and is moderately tight, then, with both hands, bracing it so that room remains for one finger to be passed between it and the horse. The same must be done in the case of the outer girth. In a modified degree the side-saddle is displaced by the common mode of girthing. The surcingle should lie neatly over the girths, and have an equal bearing with them. When the "Fitzwilliam girth" is used--and its general use is to be advocated, not only on account of its safety and the firmness of the broad web, but for its freedom from rubbing the skin behind the elbow--the leather surcingle of the saddle will take the place of the usual leather outside strap supplied with this girth. For inspection the horse should be brought up to the lady, off side on. She should note that the throat-lash falls easily, but not dangling, on the commencement of the curve of the cheek-bone, and that it is not buckled tight round the throttle, like a hangman's "hempen-tow." The bridoon should hang easily in the mouth, clear of the corners or angles, and not wrinkling them; the curb an inch or so above the tusk, or, in the case of a mare, where that tooth might be supposed to be placed. She will see that the curb-chain is not too tight, that the lip-strap is carried through the small ring on the chain, also that the chain lies smooth and even. In fixing the curb, if the chain be turned to the right, the links will unfold themselves. It is taken for granted that by frequent personal visits to the stable, or by trusty deputy, she is satisfied that the horse's back and withers are not galled or wrung. A groom withholding information on this point should, after one warning, get his _congé_. That the bits and stirrup be burnished as bright as a Life Guardsman's cuirasse, the saddle and bridle perfectly clean, and the horse thoroughly well groomed, goes without saying. All the appointments being found in a condition fit for Queen's escort duty, we now proceed to put the lady _in_, not _into_, her saddle. She should approach the horse from the front, and not from behind. After a kind word or two and a little "gentling," she, with her whip, hunting crop, or riding cane in her right hand, picks up the bridoon rein with her left, draws it through the right smoothly and evenly, feeling the horse's mouth very lightly, until it reaches the crutch, which she takes hold of. In passing the rein through the hand, care must be taken that it is not allowed to slacken so that touch of the mouth is lost. Attention to this will keep the horse in his position whilst being mounted; for should he move backward or forward or away as the lady is in the act of springing into the saddle, he not only makes the vaulting exceedingly awkward, but dangerous. Many horses sidle away as the lady is balanced on one foot and holding on to the pommel with the right hand, in which case she must at once quit her hold or a fall will follow. Having adjusted the rein of the bridoon to an equal length, the whip point down with the end of the rein on the off side, she stands looking in the direction the horse is standing--_i.e._, to her proper front, her right shoulder and arm in contact with the flap of the saddle near side. The mounter advances facing her, and, close to the horse's shoulder, can perform his office in three different ways. Stooping down, he places his right hand, knuckles downwards, on his right knee, and of it the lady makes a sort of mounting block, whence, springing from the left foot, she reaches her saddle. When she springs she has the aid of her grip on the crutch, supplemented by the raising power of her left hand resting on the man's shoulder. Or the groom aids the spring by the uplifting of both the hand and the knee. The third method is, for the mounter--his left arm, as before, touching the horse's shoulder--to stoop down till his left shoulder comes within easy reach of the lady's left hand, which she lays on it. He at the same time advances his left foot till it interposes between her and the horse and makes a cradle of his hands, into which she places her left foot. Her grip is still on the crutch, and she still feels the horse's mouth. One, two, three! she springs like feathered Mercury, and he, straightening himself, accentuates the light bound, and straightway she finds herself in the saddle. [Illustration: PREPARING TO MOUNT.] It is dangerous to face the mounter in such a position that the spring is made with the rider's back to her horse's side, for in the event of his starting suddenly or "taking ground to her right," an awkward full-length back-fall may result. The foot must be placed firmly in the mounter's hand; during the lift it must not be advanced, but kept under her, and he must not attempt to raise her till her right foot be clear of the ground. The best plan that can be adopted with a horse in the habit of moving away to one side is to stand him against a low wall or paling, or alongside another horse. A quiet, well-trained horse may stand as firm as one of the British squares at Waterloo, or "the thin red line" at Balaclava, for times without number, but from some unforeseen alarm may suddenly start aside. The spring and lift must go together, or the lady may, like Mahomet's coffin, find herself hanging midway. Practice alone can teach the art of mounting lightly and gracefully, and to an active person there is no difficulty. There is yet another method of mounting which requires considerably more practice--doing away with the services of a mounter,--and that is for the lady to mount herself. In these days, when so many ladies practise gymnastics and athletic exercises generally, there ought to be no difficulty in acquiring this useful habit. The stirrup is let out till it reaches to about a foot from the ground, the pommel is grasped with the right hand, and with a spring the rider is in her seat. The stirrup is then adjusted to its proper length. Unless the horse be very quiet the groom must stand at his head during this process of mounting. Mounting from a chair or a pair of steps is certainly not an accomplishment I should recommend ladies to indulge in; still, there are occasions when the friendly aid of a low wall, a stile, the bar of a gate, or even a wheelbarrow, comes handy. In such a predicament, take the bridoon across the palm of the left hand, and drawing the bit rein through on each side of the little or third finger till the horse's mouth be felt, place the right foot in the stirrup, grasp the leaping-head with the left and the upright pommel with the right hand, and spring into the saddle, turning round, left about, in so doing. When in the saddle, disengage the right foot from the stirrup and throw the right leg over the upright head. [Illustration: MOUNTING--SECOND POSITION.] When the lady is in the saddle, that is, seated on it, not in riding position but before throwing her right leg over the crutch, the groom, without releasing the hold of her foot altogether, adjusts the folds of the habit, care being taken that there is no crease or fold between the right knee and the saddle. This, in the case of a Zenith, is a matter speedily arranged, and, the adjustment being to her satisfaction, she at once pivots on the centre, and raises her right leg into its place over the crutch. The foot is then placed in the stirrup. When a good seat has been acquired, and the rider does not encumber herself with needless underclothing, this arrangement of habit had best be deferred till the horse is in motion; she can then raise herself in the saddle by straightening the left knee, and, drawing herself forward by grasping the pommel with the right hand, arrange the folds to her entire satisfaction with the left. Attention must be paid to the length of the stirrup, for on it depends greatly the steadiness of the seat. Many ladies are seen riding with a short stirrup; but this is an error, for it destroys the balance, without which there can be no elegance, invariably causes actual cramp and gives a cramped appearance, forces the rider out of the centre of the saddle, so that the weight on the horse's back is unevenly distributed, and displays too much daylight when rising in the trot. On the other hand, too long a stirrup is equally objectionable, as it causes the body to lean unduly over to the near side in order to retain hold of it, depresses and throws back the left shoulder, and destroys the squareness of position. The length of stirrup should be just sufficient that the rider, by leaning her right hand on the pommel, can, without any strain on the instep, raise herself clear of the saddle; this implies that the knee will be only bent sufficiently to maintain the upward pressure of the knee against the concave leaping-head. The stirrup is intended as a support to the foot, not as an _appui_ to ride from; it is not intended to sustain the full weight of the body, and when so misapplied is certain to establish a sore back. I am strongly of opinion that to be in all respects perfect in the equestrian art, a lady should learn, in the first instance, to ride without a stirrup, so as, under any circumstances that may arise, to be able to do without this appendage. Those who aspire to honours in the hunting-field certainly should accustom themselves to dispense with the stirrup, as by so doing they will acquire a closer and firmer seat; moreover, its absence teaches the beginner, better than any other method, to ride from balance, which is the easiest and best form of equitation for both horse and rider. Many horsewomen are under the impression that it is impossible to rise without the aid of the stirrup, but that such is not the case a course of stirrupless training will soon prove. I do not suggest that riding thus should be made a habit, but only strenuously advocate its practice. A very general fault, and an extremely ugly one among lady riders, is the habit of sticking out the right foot in front of the saddle. It is not only unsightly, but loosens the hold, for if the toe be stuck out under the habit like a flying jib-boom, the leg becomes the bowsprit, and it is impossible for a straightened leg to grip the crutch. Bend the knee well, keep the toe slightly down, and this ugly habit is beyond the pale of possibility. This ungraceful posture may be caused by the pommels being placed so near together that there is not sufficient room for the leg to lie and bend easily, but this excuse will not hold good in the case of the straight-seat-safety-side-saddle, for it has only one pommel or crutch and one leaping-head. Having got the lady into her saddle, we next attempt so to instruct her that it may be remarked-- "The rider sat erect and fair."--SCOTT. THE SEAT. Hitherto, during the process of mounting and settling herself comfortably, the reins have been in the rider's right hand. Now that women can sit square and look straight out and over their horses' ears, much more latitude is permitted in the hold of the reins. It is no longer essential to hold them only in the left hand, for as often as not--always in hunting or at a hand-gallop--both hands are on the bridle. But, as a rule, the left should be the bridle hand, for if the reins be held in the right, and the horse, as horses often will, gets his head down or bores, the right shoulder is drawn forward, and the left knee, as a matter of course, being drawn back from under, loses its upward pressure against the leaping-head, and the safety of the seat is jeopardized. Were the rein to give way the rider would probably fall backwards off the horse over his off-quarter. On the other hand, when the reins are all gathered into the left hand, the harder the horse may take the bit in his teeth, and the lower he may carry his head, the firmer must be the grip of the crutch and the greater the pressure against the leaping-head. [Illustration: MOUNTED--NEAR SIDE.] As the reins must not be gathered up all in a bunch, I give the following directions for placing them in the hand. If riding with a snaffle, as always should be the case with beginners, the reins ought to be separated, passing into the hands between the third and fourth fingers, and out over the fore or index-finger, where they are held by the thumb. In the case of bit and bridoon (the bridoon rein has generally a buckle where it joins, whereas that of the bit is stitched), take up the bridoon rein across the inside of the hand, and draw the bit rein through the hand on each side of the little or third finger until the mouth of the horse be gently felt; turn the remainder of the rein along the inside of the hand, and let it fall over the forefinger on to the off-side; place the bridoon rein upon those of the bit, and close the thumb upon them all. A second plan equally good is, when the horse is to be ridden mainly on the bridoon: the bridoon rein is taken up by the right hand and drawn flatly through on each side of the second finger of the bridle-hand, till the horse's mouth can be felt, when it is turned over the first joint of the forefinger on to the off-side. The bit rein is next taken up and drawn through on each side of the little finger of the bridle-hand, till there is an equal, or nearly equal, length and feeling with the bridoon, and then laid smoothly over the bridoon rein, with the thumb firmly placed as a stopper upon both, to keep them from slipping. A slight pressure of the little finger will bring the bit into play. Thirdly, when the control is to be entirely from the bit or curb; the bit rein is taken up by the stitching by the right hand _within_ the bridoon rein, and drawn through on each side of the little finger of the left or bridle-hand, until there is a light and even feel on the horse's mouth; it is then turned over the first joint of the forefinger on the off-side. The bridoon rein is next taken up by the buckle, under the left hand, and laid smoothly over the left bit rein, leaving it sufficiently loose to hang over each side of the horse's neck. The thumb is then placed firmly on both reins, as above. These different manipulations of the reins may be conveniently practised at home with reins attached to an elastic band, the spring of the band answering to the "feel" on the horse's mouth. But, in addition to these various systems of taking up the reins, much has to be learnt in the direction of separating, shortening, shifting, and so forth. With novices the reins constantly and imperceptibly slip, in which case, the ends of the reins hanging over the forefinger of the bridle-hand are taken altogether into the right, the right hand feels the horse's head, while the loosened fingers of the bridle-hand are run up or down the reins, as required, till they are again adjusted to the proper length, when the fingers once more close on them. In shifting reins to the right hand, to relieve cramp of the fingers, and so forth, the right hand must always pass over the left, and in replacing them the left hand must be placed over the right. In order to shorten any one rein, the right hand is used to pull on that part which hangs beyond the thumb and forefinger. When a horse refuses obedience to the bridle-hand, it must be reinforced by the right. The three first fingers of the right are placed over the bridoon rein, so that the rein passes between the little and third fingers, the end is then turned over the forefinger and, as usual, the thumb is placed upon it. Expertness in these "permutations and combinations" is only to be arrived at by constant practice. They must be performed without stopping the horse, altering his pace, or even glancing at the hands. The reins must not be held too loose, but tight enough to keep touch of the horse's mouth; and, on the other hand, there must be no attempt to hold on by the bridle, or what is termed to "ride in the horse's mouth." A short rein is objectionable; there must be no "extension motions," no reaching out for a short hold. The proper position for the bridle-hand is immediately opposite the centre of the waist, and about three or four inches from it, that is, on a level with the elbow, and about three or four inches away from the body. The elbow must neither be squeezed or trussed too tightly to the side, nor thrust out too far, but carried easily, inclining a little from the body. According to strict _manège_ canons, the thumb should be uppermost, and the lower part of the hand nearer the waist than the upper, the wrist a little rounded, and the little finger in a line with the elbow. A wholesome laxity in conforming to these hard-and-fast rules will be found to add to the grace of the rider. _Chaque pays chaque guise_, and no two horses are alike in the carriage of the head, the sensitiveness of the mouth, and in action. Like ourselves, they all have their own peculiarities. [Illustration: THE RIGHT AND WRONG ELBOW ACTION.] THE WALK. The rider is now seated on what--in the case of a beginner--should be an absolutely quiet, good-tempered, and perfectly trained horse. Before schooling her as to seat, we will ask her to move forward at the walk. At first it is better to have the horse led by a leading rein till the _débutante_ is accustomed to the motion and acquires some stock of confidence. She must banish from her mind all thoughts of tumbling off. We do not instruct after this fashion:--Lady (after having taken several lessons at two guineas a dozen) _loq._: "Well, Mr. Pummell, have I made any good progress?" "Well, I can't say, ma'am," replies the instructor, "as 'ow you rides werry well as yet, but you falls off, ma'am, a deal more gracefuller as wot you did at first." We do not say that falls must not be expected, but in mere hack and park riding they certainly ought to be few and far between. At a steady and even fast walk the merest tyro cannot, unless bent on experiencing the sensation of a tumble, possibly come to the ground. Doubtless the motion is passing strange at first, and the beginner may be tempted to clutch nervously at the pommel of her saddle, a very bad and unsightly habit, and one that, if not checked from the very first, grows apace and remains. It is during the walk that the seat is formed, and the rider makes herself practically acquainted with the rules laid down on the handling of the reins. A press of the left leg, a light touch of the whip on the off-side, and a "klk" will promptly put the horse in motion. He may toss his head, and for a pace or two become somewhat unsteady; this is not vice but mere freshness, and he will almost immediately settle down into a quick, sprightly step, measuring each pace exactly, and marking regular cadence, the knee moderately bent, the leg, in the case of what Paddy terms "a flippant shtepper," being sharply caught up, appearing suspended in the air for a second, and the foot brought smartly and firmly, without jar, to the ground. This is the perfection of a walking pace. By degrees any nervousness wears off, the rigid trussed appearance gives place to one of pliancy and comparative security, the body loses its constrained stiffness, and begins to conform to and sway with the movements of the horse. The rider, sitting perfectly straight and erect, approaches the correct position, and lays the foundation of that ease and bearing which are absolutely indispensable. [Illustration: RIGHT MOUNT. WRONG MOUNT.] After a lesson or two, if not of the too-timid order, the lady will find herself sitting just so far forward in the saddle as is consistent with perfect ease and comfort, and with the full power to grasp the upright crutch firmly with her right knee; she will be aware of the friendly grip of the leaping-head over her left leg; the weight of her body will fall exactly on the centre of the saddle; her head, though erect, will be perfectly free from constraint, the shoulders well squared, and the hollow of the back gracefully bent in, as in waltzing. This graceful pose of the figure may be readily acquired, throughout the preliminary lessons, and indeed on all occasions when under tuition, by passing the right arm behind the waist, back of the hand to the body, and riding with it in that position. Another good plan, which can only be practised in the riding-school or in some out-of-the-way quiet corner, and then only on a very steady horse, is for the beginner, without relaxing her grip on the crutch and the pressure on the leaping-head, as she sits, to lean or recline back so that her two shoulder-blades touch the hip-bones of the horse, recovering herself and regaining her upright position without the aid of the reins. The oftener this gymnastic exercise is performed the better. At intervals during the lessons she should also, having dropped her bridle, assiduously practise the extension motions performed by recruits in our military-riding schools. [_See Appendix._] The excellent effects of this physical training will soon be appreciated. But, irrespective of the accuracy of seat, suppleness and strength of limb, confidence and readiness these athletic exercises beget, they may, when least expected, save the rider's life. Some of those for whose instruction I have the honour to write, may find themselves placed in a critical situation, when the ability to lie back or "duck" may save them from a fractured skull. Inclining the body forward is, from the notion that it tends towards security, a fault very general with timid riders. Nothing, however, in the direction of safety, is further from the fact. Should the horse, after a visit to the farrier and the usual senseless free use of the smith's drawing and paring-knife, tread upon a rolling stone and "peck," the lady, leaning forward, is suddenly thrown still further forward, her whole weight is cast upon his shoulders, so he "of the tender foot" comes down and sends his rider flying over his head. A stoop in the figure is wanting in smartness, and is unattractive. [Illustration: TURNING IN THE WALK--RIGHT AND WRONG WAY.] It is no uncommon thing to see ladies sitting on their horses in the form of the letter S, and the effect can hardly be described as charming. This inelegant position, assumed by the lady in the distance, is caused by being placed too much over to the right in the saddle, owing to a too short stirrup. In attempting to preserve the balance, the body from the waist upwards has a strong twisted lean-over to the left, the neck, to counteract this lateral contortion of the spine, being bent over to the right, the whole pose conveying the impression that the rider must be a cripple braced up in surgeon's irons and other appliances. Not less hideous, and equally prevalent, is the habit of sitting too much to the left, and leaning over in that direction several degrees out of the perpendicular. A novice is apt to contract this leaning-seat from the apprehension, existing in the mind of timid riders, that they must fall off from the off rather than from the near side, so they incline away from the supposed danger. Too long a stirrup is sometimes answerable for this crab-like posture. In both of these awkward postures, the seat becomes insecure, and the due exercise of the "aids" impossible. What is understood by "aids" in the language of the schools are the motions and proper application of the bridle-hand, leg, and heel to control and direct the turnings and paces of the horse. The expression "riding by balance" has been frequently used, and as it is the essence of good horsemanship, I describe it in the words of an expert as consisting in "a foreknowledge of what direction any given motion of the horse would throw the body, and a ready adaptation of the whole frame to the proper position, before the horse has completed his change of attitude or action; it is that disposition of the person, in accordance with the movements of the horse, which preserves it from an improper inclination to one side or the other, which even the ordinary paces of the horse in the trot or gallop will occasion." In brief, it is the automatic inclination of the person of the rider to the body of the horse by which the equilibrium is maintained. The rider having to some extent perfected herself in walking straight forward, inclining and turning to the right and to the right about, and in executing the same movements to the left, on all of which I shall have a few words to say later, and when she can halt, rein back, and is generally handy with her horse at the walk, she may attempt a slow TROT, and here her sorrows may be said to begin. THE TROT. In this useful but trying pace the lady must sit well down on her saddle, rising and falling in unison with the action of the horse, springing lightly but not too highly by the action of the horse coupled with the flexibility of the instep and the knee. As the horse breaks from the walk into the faster pace, it is best not to attempt to rise from the saddle till he has fairly settled down to his trot--better for a few paces to sit back, somewhat loosely, and bump the saddle. The rise from the saddle is to be made as perpendicularly as possible, though a slight forward inclination of the body from the loins, but not with roached-back, may be permitted, and only just so high as to prevent the jar that ensues from the movements of the rider with the horse not being in unison. The return of the body to the saddle must be quiet, light, and unlaboured. Here it is that the practice without a stirrup will stand the novice in good stead. This pace is the most difficult of all to ladies, and few there be that attain the art of sitting square and gracefully at this gait, and who rise and fall in the saddle seemingly without an effort and without riding too much in the horse's mouth. Most women raise themselves by holding on to the bridle. Instead of rising to the right, so that they can glance down the horse's shoulder, and descending to left, and thus regain the centre of the saddle, they persist in rising over the horse's left shoulder, and come back on to the saddle in the direction of his off-quarter. This twist of the body to the left destroys the purchase of the foot and knee, and unsteadies the position and hands. Though I have sanctioned a slight leaning forward as the horse breaks into his trot, it must not be overdone, for should he suddenly throw up his head his poll may come in violent contact with the rider's face and forehead, causing a blow that may spoil her beauty, if not knock her senseless. [Illustration: RIGHT AND WRONG RISING.] Till the rider can hit off the secret of rising, she will be severely shaken up--"churned" as a well-known horsewoman describes the jiggiddy-joggoddy motion,--the teeth feel as if they would be shaken out of their sockets, and stitch-in-the-side puts in its unwelcome appearance. Certes, the preliminary lessons are very trying ones, the disarrangement of "the get-up" too awful, the fatigue dreadful, the alarm no trifle. Nothing seems easier, and yet nothing in the art equestrian is so difficult--not to men with their two stirrups, but to women with one only available. What is more grotesque, ridiculous, and disagreeable than a rider rising and falling in the saddle at a greater and lesser speed than that of her horse? And yet, fair reader, if you will have a little patience, a good deal of perseverance, some determination, and will attend to the hints I give, you shall, in due course, be mistress over the difficulty, and rise and fall with perfect ease and exquisite grace, free from all _embarras_ or undue fatigue. First of all, we must put you on a very smooth, easy, and sedate trotter; by-and-by we may transfer your saddle to something more sharp and lively, perhaps even indulge you with a mount on a regular "bone-setter." To commence with, the lessons, or rather trotting bouts, shall be short, there shall be frequent halts, and during these halts I shall make you drop your reins and put you through extension and balance motions, endeavour to correct your position on the saddle, catechize you closely on the "aids," and introduce as much variety as possible. Before urging your steed into his wild six or seven-mile-an-hour career, please bear in mind that you must not rise suddenly, or with a jerk, but quietly and smoothly, letting the impetus come from the motion of the horse. The rise from the saddle must not be initiated by a long pull and strong pull at his mouth, a spasmodic grip of your right leg on the crutch, or a violent attempt to raise yourself in the air from your stirrup. The horse will not accommodate his action to yours, you must "take him on the hop," as the saying is. If horse and rider go disjointly, or you do not harmonize your movements with his, then it is something as unpleasant as dancing a waltz with a partner who won't keep time, or rowing "spoonful about." Falling in with the trot of a horse is at first very difficult. In order to facilitate matters as much as possible, you shall, for a few days, substitute the old-fashioned slipper for the stirrup, as then the spring will come from the toes and not from the hollow of the foot; this will lessen the exertion and be easier. If nature has happened to fashion you somewhat short from the hip to the knee, and you will attend to instruction and practice frequently, the chances are strong in your favour of conquering the irksome "cross-jolt." Separate your reins, taking one in each hand, feeling the mouth equally with both reins, sit well down on your saddle, keep your left foot pointed straight to the front, don't attempt to move till the horse has steadied into his trot, which, in case of a well trained animal, will be in a stride or two, then endeavour, obeying the impulse of his movement, to time the rise. A really perfectly broken horse, "supplied on both hands," as it is termed, leads, in the trot as in the canter, equally well with either leg, but, in both paces, a very large majority have a favourite leading leg. By glancing over the right shoulder the time for the rise may be taken. Do not be disheartened by repeated failures to "catch on;" persevere, and suddenly you will hit it off. When the least fatigued, pull up into a walk, and when rested have another try. At the risk of repetition, I again impress on you the necessity of keeping the toe of the left foot pointed to the front, the foot itself back, and with the heel depressed. Your descent into the saddle should be such that any one you may be riding straight at, shall see a part of your right shoulder and hip as they rise and fall, his line of vision being directed along the off-side of the horse's neck. When these two portions of your body are so visible then the weight is in its proper place, and there is no fear of the saddle being dragged over the horse's near shoulder. For a few strides there is no objection to your taking a light hold of the pommel with the right hand, in order to time the rise, but the moment the "cross-jolt" ceases, and you find yourself moving in unison with the horse, the hold must be relaxed. Some difficulty will be found in remaining long enough out of the saddle at each rise to avoid descending too soon, and thus receive a double cross-jolt; but this will be overcome after a few attempts. Keep the hands well down and the elbows in. [Illustration: THE TROT.] Varying the speed in the trot will be found excellent practice for the hands; the faster a horse goes, generally speaking, the easier he goes. He must be kept going "well within himself," that is he must not be urged to trot at a greater speed than he can compass with true and equal action. Some very fast trotters, "daisy cutters," go with so little upward jerk that it is almost impossible to rise on them at all. Any attempt at half-cantering with his hind legs must be at once checked by pulling him together, and, by slowing him down, getting him back into collected form. Should he "break" badly, from being over-paced, into a canter or hard-gallop, then rein him in, pulling up, if need be, into a walk, chiding him at the same time. When he again brings his head in and begins to step clean, light, and evenly, then let him resume his trot. If not going up to his bit and hanging heavy on the hand, move the bit in his mouth, let him feel the leg, and talk to him. Like ourselves, horses are not up to the mark every day, and though they do not go to heated theatres and crowded ball-rooms, or indulge as some of their masters and mistresses are said to do, they too often spend twenty hours or more out of the twenty-four in the vitiated atmosphere of a hot, badly ventilated stable, and their insides are converted into apothecaries' shops by ignorant doctoring grooms. When a free horse does not face his bit, he is either fatigued or something is amiss. THE CANTER. Properly speaking, this being, _par excellence_, the lady's pace, the instruction should precede that of the trot. The comparative ease of the canter, and the readiness with which the average pupil takes to it, induces the beginner to at once indulge in it. It is, on a thoroughly trained horse, so agreeable that the uninitiated at once acquire confidence on horseback. Moreover, it is _the_ pace at which a fine figure and elegant lady-like bearing is most conspicuously displayed, and for this, if for no other reason, the pupil applies herself earnestly--shall I say lovingly?--to perfect herself in this delightful feature of the art. On a light-actioned horse, one moving as it were on springs, going well on his haunches, and well up to this bit, the motion is as easy as that of a rocking-chair. All the rider has to do is to sit back, keep the body quite flexible and in the centre of the saddle, preserve the balance, and, with pressure from the left leg and heel, and a touch of the whip, keep him up to his bit. She will imperceptibly leave the saddle at every stride, which, in a slow measured canter, will be reduced to a sort of rubbing motion, just sufficient to ease the slight jolt caused by the action of the haunches and hind legs. Many park-horses and ladies' hacks are trained to spring at once, without breaking into a run or trot, into the canter. All the rider has to do is to raise the hand ever so little, press him with the leg, touch him with the whip, and give him the unspellable signal "klk." The movement or sway of the body should follow that of the horse. As soon as he is in his stride, the rider throws back her body a little, and places her hand in a suitable position. If the horse carries his head well, the hand ought to be about three inches from the pommel, and at an equal distance from the body. For "star-gazers" it should be lower; and for borers it should be raised higher. Once properly under way the lady will study that almost imperceptible willow-like bend of the back, her shoulders will be thrown back gracefully, the mere suspicion of a swing accommodating itself to the motion of the horse will come from the pliant waist, and she will yield herself just a little to the opposite side from that the horse's leading leg is on. If he leads with the off-foot, he inclines a trifle to the left, and the rider's body and hands must turn but a little to the left also, and _vice versâ_. It is the rider's province to direct which foot the horse shall lead with. To canter with the left fore leg leading, the extra bearing will be upon the left rein, the little finger turned up towards the right shoulder, the hint from the whip--a mere touch should suffice--being on the right shoulder or flank. It is essential that the bearing upon the mouth, a light playing touch, should be preserved throughout the whole pace. If the horse should, within a short distance--say a mile or so,--flag, then he must be reminded by gentle application of the whip. He cannot canter truly and bear himself handsomely unless going up to his bit. The rider must feel the cadence of every pace, and be able to extend or shorten the stride at will. It is an excellent plan to change the leading leg frequently, so that upon any disturbance of pace, going "false," or change of direction, the rider may be equal to the occasion. The lady must be careful that the bridle-arm does not acquire the ugly habit of leaving the body and the elbow of being stuck out of it akimbo. All the movements of the hand should proceed from the wrist, the bearings and play on the horse's mouth being kept up by the little finger. Ladies will find that most horses are trained to lead entirely with the off leg, and that when, from any disturbance of pace, they are forced to "change step" and lead with the near leg, their action becomes very awkward and uneven. Hence they are prone to regard cantering with the near leg as disagreeable. But when they come to use their own horses, they will find it good economy to teach them to change the leading leg constantly, both during the canter and at the commencement of the pace. To make a horse change foot in his canter, if he cannot be got readily to do so by hand, leg, and heel, turn him to the right, as if to circle, and he will lead with the off foreleg, and by repeating the same make-believe manoeuvre to the left, the near fore will be in front. The beginner, however, had better pull up into the walk before attempting this change. When pulling up from the canter, it is best and safest to let the horse drop into a trot for a few paces and so resume the walk. There is no better course of tuition by which to acquire balance than the various inclinations to the right and left, the turns to the right and left and to the right and left-about at the canter, all of which, with the exception of the full turns, should be performed on the move without halting. In the turn-about, it is necessary to bring the horse to a momentary halt before the turn be commenced, and so soon as he has gone about and the turn is fully completed, a lift of the hand and a touch of the leg and heel should instanter compel him to move forward at the canter in the opposite direction; he must no sooner be round than off. When no Riding-school is available, one constructed of hurdles closely laced with gorse, on the sheep-lambing principle, will answer all purposes. Should the horse be at all awkward or unsteady, the hurdles, placed one on the top of the other and tied to uprights driven into the ground, closely interlaced with the gorse so that he cannot see through or over the barrier, will form a perfect, retired exercise ground. A plentiful surface dressing of golden-peat-moss-litter will save his legs and feet. In a quiet open impromptu school of this description, away from "the madding crowd," I have schooled young horses so that they would canter almost on their own ground, circling round a bamboo lance shaft, the point in the ground and the butt in my right hand, without changing legs or altering pace, and they would describe the figure eight with almost mathematical precision, changing leg at every turn without any "aid" from me, a mere inclination of the body bringing them round the curves. A horse very handy with his legs can readily change them at the corners when making the full right-angle turn, but there is always at first the danger of one not so clever attempting to execute the turn by crossing the leading leg over the supporting one, when the rider will be lucky to get off with an awkward stumble--a "cropper" will most likely follow. When at this private practice, "make much of your horse"--that is, caress and speak kindly to him, when he does well; in fact, the more he is spoken to throughout the lesson, the better for both parties. So good and discriminating is a horse's ear that he soon learns to appreciate the difference between kindly approval and stern censure. A sympathy between horse and rider is soon established, and such freemasonry is delightful. [Illustration: FREE BUT NOT EASY.] Never canter on the high road, and see that your groom does not indulge himself by so doing. On elastic springy turf the pace, which in reality is a series of short bounds, if not continued too long at a time, does no great harm, but one mile on a hard, unyielding surface causes more wear-and-tear of joints, shoulders, and frame generally, than a long day's work of alternating walk and trot which, on the Queen's highway, are the proper paces. There is no objection to a canter when a bit of turf is found on the road-side; and the little drains cut to lead the water off the turnpike into the ditch serve to make young horses handy with their legs. THE HAND-GALLOP AND GALLOP. The rider should not attempt either of these accelerated paces till quite confident that she has the horse under complete control. As the hand-gallop is only another and quickened form of the canter, in which the stride is both lengthened and hastened, or, more correctly speaking, in which the bounds are longer and faster, the same rules are applicable to both. Many horses, especially those through whose veins strong hot blood is pulsing, fairly revel in the gallop, and if allowed to gain upon the hand, will soon extend the hand-gallop to full-gallop, and that rapid pace into a runaway. The rider must, therefore, always keep her horse well in hand, so as to be able to slacken speed should he get up too much steam. Some, impatient of restraint, will shake their heads, snatch at their bits, and yaw about, "fighting for their heads," as it is termed, and will endeavour to bore and get their heads down. A well-trained horse, one such as a beginner should ride, will not play these pranks and will not take a dead pull at the rider's hands; on the contrary, he will stride along quite collectedly, keeping his head in its proper place, and taking just sufficient hold to make things pleasant. But horses with perfect mouths and manners are, like angels' visits, few and far between, and are eagerly sought after by those fortunate beings to whom money is no object. To be on the safe side, the rider should always be on the alert and prepared to at once apply the brake. When fairly in his stride and going comfortably, the rider, leaning slightly forward, should, with both hands on the bridle, give and take with each stroke, playing the while with the curb; she should talk cheerily to him, but the least effort on his part to gain upon the hand must be at once checked. The play of the little fingers on the curb keeps his mouth alive, prevents his hanging or boring, and makes it sensible to the rider's hand. "Keeping a horse in hand" means that there is such a system of communication established between the rider and the quadruped that the former is mistress of the situation, and knows, almost before the horse has made up his mind what to do, what is coming. This keeping in hand is one of the secrets of fine horsemanship, and it especially suits the light-hearted mercurial sort of goer, one that is always more or less off the ground or in the air, one of those that "treads so light he scarcely prints the plain." My impression is, despite the numerous bits devised and advertised to stop runaways, that nothing short of a long and steep hill, a steam-cultivated, stiff clay fallow, or the Bog of Allen, will stop the determined bolt of a self-willed, callous-mouthed horse. There is no use pulling at him, for the more you pull the harder he hardens his heart and his mouth. The only plan, if there be plenty of elbow room, is to let him have his wicked way a bit, then, with one mighty concentrated effort to give a sudden snatch at the bit, followed by instantly and rapidly drawing, "sawing," of the bridoon through his mouth. Above all, keep your presence of mind, and if by any good luck you can so pilot the brute as to make him face an ascent, drive him up it--if it be as steep as the roof of a house, so much the better,--plying whip and spur, till he be completely "pumped out" and dead beat. Failing a steep hill, perhaps a ploughed field may present itself, through and round which he should be ridden, in the very fullest sense of the word, till he stands still. Such a horse is utterly unfit to carry a lady, and, should she come safe and sound out of the uncomfortable ride, he had better be consigned to Tattersall's or "The Lane," to be sold "absolutely without reserve." Worse still than the runaway professional bolter is the panic-stricken flight of a suddenly scared horse, in which abject terror reigns supreme, launching him at the top of his speed in full flight from some imaginary foe. Nature has taught him to seek safety in flight, and the frightened animal, with desperate and exhausting energy, will gallop till he drops. Professor Galvayne's system claims to be effective with runaway and nervous bolters. At Ayr that distinguished horse-tamer cured, in the space of one hour, an inveterate performer in that objectionable line, and a pair he now drives were, at one time, given to like malpractices. Do not urge your horse suddenly from a canter into a full gallop; let him settle down to his pace gradually--steady him. Being jumped off, like a racehorse with a flying start at the fall of the flag, is very apt to make a hot, high-couraged horse run away or attempt to do so. Some horses, however, allow great liberties to be taken with them, and others none. All depends on temperament, and whether the nervous, fibrous, sanguine, or lymphatic element preponderates. And here let me remark that the fibrous temperament is the one to struggle and endure, to last the longest, and to give the maximum of ease, comfort, and satisfaction to owner and rider. LEAPING. "Throw the broad ditch behind you; o'er the hedge High bound, resistless; nor the deep morass refuse." THOMPSON. Though the "pleasures of the chase" are purposely excluded from this volume, the horsewoman's preliminary course of instruction would hardly be complete without a few remarks on jumping. In clearing an obstacle, a horse must to all intents and purposes go through all the motions inherent to the vices of rearing, plunging, and kicking, yet the three, when in rapid combination, are by no means difficult to accommodate one's self to. It is best to commence on a clever, steady horse--"a safe conveyance" that will go quietly at his fences, jump them without an effort, landing light as a cork, and one that will never dream of refusing. As beginners, no matter what instructors may say and protest, will invariably, for the first few leaps, till they acquire confidence, grip, and balance, ride to some extent "in the horse's mouth," they should be placed on an animal with not too sensitive a mouth, one that can go pleasantly in a plain snaffle. Begin with something low, simple, and easy--say a three feet high gorsed hurdle, so thickly laced with the whin that daylight cannot be seen through, with a low white-painted rail some little distance from it on the take-off side. If there be a ditch between the rail and the fence, so much the better, for the more the horse spreads himself the easier it will be to the rider, the jerk or prop on landing the less severe. Some horses sail over the largest obstacle, land, and are away again without their appearing to call upon themselves for any extra exertion; they clear it in their stride. Hunters that know their business can be trotted up to five-barred gates and stiff timber, which they will clear with consummate ease; but height and width require distinct efforts, and the rear and kick in this mode of negotiating a fence are so pronounced and so sudden that they would be certain to unseat the novice. [Illustration: THE LEAP.] It is easiest to sit a leap if the horse is ridden at it in a canter or, at most, in a well-collected, slow hand-gallop. The reins being held in both hands with a firm, steady hold, the horse should be ridden straight at the spot you have selected to jump. Sit straight, or, if anything out of the perpendicular, lean a little back. The run at the fence need only be a few yards. As he nears it, the forward prick of his alert ears and a certain measuring of his distance will indicate that he means "to have it," and is gathering himself for the effort. The rider should then, if she can persuade herself so to do, give him full liberty of head. Certain instructors, and horsemen in general, will prate glibly of "lifting" a horse over his fence. I have read of steeplechase riders "throwing" their horses over almost unnegotiable obstacles, but it is about as easy to upend an elephant by the tail and throw him over the garden wall as it is for any rider to "lift" his horse. Although the horse must be made to feel, as he approaches the fence, that it is utterly impossible for him to swerve from it, yet the instant he is about to rise the reins should be slacked off, to be almost immediately brought to bear again as he descends. Irish horses are the best jumpers we have, and their excellence may justly be ascribed to the fact that, for the most part, they are ridden in the snaffle bridle. If the horse be held too light by the head he will "buck over" the obstacle, a form of jumping well calculated to jerk the beginner out of her saddle. After topping the hurdle, the horse's forehand, in his descent, will be lower than his hind quarters. Had the rider leant forward as he rose on his hind legs, the violent effort or kick of his haunches would have thrown her still further over his neck, whereas, having left the ground with a slight inclination towards the croup, the forward spring of the horse will add to that backward tendency and place her in the best possible position in which to counteract the shock received upon his forefeet reaching the ground. If the rider does not slacken the reins as the horse makes his spring, they must either be drawn through her hands or she will land right out on his neck. I have referred to the "buck-over" system of jumping, which is very common with Irish horses. A mare of mine, well-known in days of yore at Fermoy as "Up-she-rises," would have puzzled even Mrs. Power O'Donoghue. She would come full gallop, when hounds were running, at a stone wall, pull up and crouch close under it, then, with one mighty effort, throw herself over, her hind legs landing on the other side little more than the thickness of the wall from where her forefeet had taken off. It was not a "buck," but a straight up-on-end rear, followed by a frantic kick that threatened to hurl saddle and rider half across the field. "Scrutator," in "Horses and Hounds," makes mention of an Irish horse, which would take most extraordinary leaps over gates and walls, and if going ever so fast would always check himself and take his leaps after his own fashion. "Not thinking him," writes this fine sportsman, "up to my weight, he was handed over to the second whipper-in, and treated Jack at first acquaintance to a rattling fall or two. He rode him, as he had done his other horses, pretty fast at a stiff gate, which came in his way the first day. Some of the field, not fancying it, persuaded Jack to try first, calculating upon his knocking it open, or breaking the top bar. The horse, before taking off, stopped quite short, and jerked him out of the saddle over to the other side; then raising himself on his hind legs, vaulted over upon Jack, who was lying on his back. Not being damaged, Jack picked himself up, and grinning at his friends, who were on the wrong side laughing at his fall, said, 'Never mind, gentlemen, 'tis a rum way of doing things that horse has; but no matter, we are both on the right side, and that's where you won't be just yet.'" The standing jump is much more difficult, till the necessary balance be acquired, than the flying leap. The lower and longer the curve described, the easier to sit; but in this description of leaping, the horse, though he clears height, cannot cover much ground. His motion is like that of the Whip's horse described above, and the rider will find the effort, as he springs from his haunches, much more accentuated than in the case of the flying leap, and therefore the more difficult to sit. As, however, leaping, properly speaking, belongs to the hunting-field, I propose to deal more fully with the subject in another volume. DISMOUNTING. When the novice dismounts there should, at first, be two persons to aid--one to hold the horse's head, the other to lift her from the saddle. After a very few lessons, if the lady be active and her hack a steady one, the services of the former may be dispensed with. Of course the horse is brought to full stop. Transfer the whip to the left hand, throw the right leg over to the near side of the crutch and disengage the foot from the stirrup. Let the reins fall on the neck, see that the habit skirt is quite clear of the leaping-head, turn in the saddle, place the left hand upon the right arm of the cavalier or squire, the right on the leaping-head, and half spring half glide to the ground, lighting on the balls of the feet, dropping a slight curtsey to break the jar on the frame. Retain hold of the leaping-head till safely landed. Very few men understand the proper manner in which to exercise the duties of the _cavalier servant_ in mounting and dismounting ladies. Many ladies not unreasonably object to be lifted off their horses almost into grooms' arms. A correspondent of the _Sporting and Dramatic News_ mentions a contretemps to a somewhat portly lady in the Crimea, whose husband, in hoisting her up on to her saddle with more vigour than skill, sent his better half right over the horse's back sprawling on the ground. It is by no means an uncommon thing to see ladies, owing to want of lift on the part of the lifter and general clumsiness, failing to reach the saddle and slipping down again. Having dismounted, "make much" of your horse, and give him a bit of carrot, sugar, apple, or some tid-bit. Horses are particularly fond of apples. CHAPTER IV. THE SIDE SADDLE. It is of first-class importance that a lady's saddle should be made by a respectable and thoroughly competent saddler. Seeing the number of years a well-built and properly kept side-saddle will last, it is but penny wise to grudge the necessary outlay in the first instance. Those constructed on the cheap machine-made system never give satisfaction to the rider, are constantly in need of repair (grooms, if permitted, are everlastingly in and out of the saddler's shop), and are a prolific cause of sore backs. [Illustration: THE OLD STYLE.] With all saddles the chief cause, the source and origin, of evil is badly constructed and badly fitting trees that take an undue bearing on different parts of the back. At a critical moment, when just a little extra exertion would perhaps keep the horse on his legs, a somewhat tender muscle or portion of "scalded" skin comes in painful contact with some part of an ill-fitting saddle, the agony causing him to wince, checks the impulse to extend the "spare leg," and he comes down. It does not matter how hard or heavy the rider may be, how tender the skin, a sore back can be prevented by a proper system of measurement and a good pannel. Mrs. Power O'Donoghue, in her very interesting letters upon "Ladies on Horseback," unsparingly condemns the elaborate embroidery which adorned (?) the near flap of every old-fashioned saddle, pointing out that as it is always concealed by the rider's right leg, the work is a needless expense. "There might be some sense," that brilliant and bold horsewoman says, "although very little, in decorating the off-side and imparting to it somewhat of an ornamental appearance; but in my opinion there cannot be too much simplicity about anything connected with riding appointments. Let your saddle, like your personal attire, be remarkable only for perfect freedom from ornament or display. Have it made to suit yourself--neither too weighty nor yet too small,--and if you want to ride with grace and comfort, desire that it be constructed without one particle of the objectionable _dip_." [Illustration: THE SAFETY SADDLE.] The foregoing two sketches, "The Old Style" and "The Straight-Seated Safety," contrast the wide difference between the old and fast disappearing form of side-saddle and that designed and manufactured by Messrs. Champion and Wilton. The disadvantages of the old style are so painfully obvious that it is marvellous they should not have been remedied years ago. On, or rather _in_, one of these, the lady sat in a dip or kind of basin, and unless her limbs were of unusual length--thereby pushing her right knee towards the off-side--she necessarily faced half-left, _both_, not her horse's ears, but his near shoulder; or, in order to attain any squareness of front, she was called upon to twist her body from the hips, and to maintain a most fatiguing, forced position during her whole ride (even through a long day's hunting), or else sit altogether on the near side of her saddle. This twist was the cause of the pains in the spine so frequently complained of. More than this, the height upon which her pommels were raised caused her to sit, as it were, uphill, or at best (in the attempt on the part of the saddler to rectify this, by stuffing up the seat of her saddle) to find herself perched far above her horse's back. The natural expedient of carrying the upper or middle pommel nearer the centre of the horse's withers, so as to bring the knee about in a line with his mane, was impracticable with the old-style of saddle tree, which gave the pommels a lofty, arched base above the apex of his shoulders. The result was, in all cases, (1) great inconvenience and often curvature of the spine to the rider, (2) constant liability to sore back on the part of the horse, through the cross friction produced by the lady's one-sided position. To meet and entirely remove the difficulty, Messrs. Champion and Wilton pruned away all the forepart of the saddle-tree, and, in place of the raised wood and metal base, upon which the lady's right leg formerly rested, substituted merely a stout leather flap or cushion. As will be seen from the foregoing illustration, they were by this arrangement able to place the upper pommel in whatever exact position the form of the rider may require, to enable her to sit straight to her proper front, riding the whole upon a level seat, and distributing her weight fairly upon her horse's back. The importance of being in a position to face her work and to hold her horse at his, needs no comment. The small holster attached to the saddle is an exceedingly ingenious air and water-tight detachable receptacle for a reliable watch with a very clearly marked dial. The rider thus always has the time before her eyes, and is saved the great inconvenience--in the hunting-field especially--of unbuttoning the habit to get out a watch. This invention, though not a necessity, is a very handy adjunct. [Illustration: FIG 1] This superlatively good saddle is fitted with a PATENT SAFETY-STIRRUP BAR, which, while it renders it impossible for the rider to be hung up or dragged when thrown, cannot possibly become detached so long as she remains in the saddle. The action of this perfect safeguard is explained by the accompanying diagrams. [Illustration: FIG 1 FIG 2 FIG 3] The back of the bar is fixed to the tree in the ordinary way. There are only two moving parts, viz. the hinged hook-piece, marked A, Figs. 1, 2, and 3, upon which the loop of the stirrup-leather is hung, and the locking bar, B, upon which the skirt and the rider's legs rest. It will be noticed that the front of the hook-piece, marked A, Fig. 1, is cut off diagonally front and back, and that there is upon the back-plate a cone, marked C, which projects through the back of the hook-piece. The locking action may be thus described: The skirt, with lever, B, Fig. 2, is lifted, the hook, A, pulled forward, and the loop of the stirrup-leather hooked upon it; it springs back again (spring not shown) and the locking lever, B, falls down over it, as at Fig 3. While in the saddle, one of the rider's legs rests at all times upon the skirt and lever, which therefore cannot rise; but upon the rider being thrown and dragged, the stirrup-leather is tilted diagonally against the cone, C, in passing which the hook is thrust outwards, lifting the locking lever and skirt, as shown, Fig. 2, and thus reaching the releasing point, is free. There is another case more rare, that in which the rider is thrown over the horse's head, and also over a gate or fence when the horse refuses and backs; and here we have just the reverse action to that of the ordinary dragging, but in this case the bar acts equally well. When the rider is thrown and dragged on the off or reverse side, the stirrup-leather lifts the skirt and locking lever, Fig. 2, and there remains nothing to retain the loop to the bar. The above sketch of the side-saddle will aid in making the foregoing clear. Here A is the skirt, and locking lever, B, shown raised, in order to fit the loop of the stirrup-leather to the hook C below the cone D. A balance strap is usually supplied with a side-saddle, and is a very desirable adjunct. Ds also, to which the cover-coat is attached, should be fitted on. Quilted or plain doeskin seat and pommels are matters of taste. These extras add to the cost of the saddle. A waterproof or leather cover is an essential. Hogskin caps and straps, to prevent the habit catching on the pommels, should be provided when the new patent safety-bar stirrup is not used. When practicable a lady should invariably be measured for her saddle. It is almost impossible to find a lady's horse that at some time or another has not suffered from sore back, and it is imperative that the saddle should fit _both_ and that perfectly. We bipeds cannot walk or run in tight ill-fitting boots, neither can a horse act under a badly fitting saddle. I have read somewhere that the Empress of Austria rode in an 8-lb. saddle, a statement I take leave to doubt. Her Imperial Highness is far too fine and experienced a horsewoman to have been seen outside any such toy. In the present day there is a senseless rage for light side-saddles, much to be deprecated, as the lightness is gained at the expense of the tree, and light flimsy leather is used in their manufacture. Possibly when alum comes into general use we may see lighter and even strong trees. A lady weighing 9 stone 7 lbs. requires a saddle about 17 inches long, measured, as in the sketch, from A to B, the seat from C to D, 13-1/4 inches wide, the upright pommel 5-1/2 inches high, and the leaping-head 8 inches long. Such a saddle, brand new, will weigh about 14 lbs., and at the end of a season will pull the scale down at 18 to 20 lbs. A saddle made of the proper weight and strength in the first instance--the extra weight being in the tree, where the strength is required--will be lighter in appearance. Light saddles always require a lot of extra stuffing, which soon mounts up the weight and detracts from the looks; moreover it is very inconvenient to be constantly sending one's saddle to be restuffed. Most ladies, from lack of proper supervision and want of thought, are neglectful of the make and condition of their saddles, and so some ribald cynic has hazarded the remark that although "a good man is merciful to his beast, a good woman is rarely so." A first class firm keeps an experienced man for the purpose of measuring horses, who is sent out any distance required at a fixed scale of charges. When a lady cannot conveniently attend to be measured, she should endeavour to get the measurements, as indicated in the sketch, from some saddle in which she can ride with comfort. Though careful fitting and adjustment of the saddle will reduce friction to a minimum, and will, in the majority of cases, do away with its baneful effects, still with some very highly bred horses the skin of the back is so easily irritated, that during a long day's work, in hot climates especially, it becomes chafed, and injury is inflicted either at the withers or underneath the seat. Nothing is more difficult to deal with and heal than a sore back. In a prolonged and arduous campaign, I have seen regiments seriously reduced below their fighting strength by obstinate sore backs. A very great _desideratum_, in my opinion, is the new "Humanity" sponge-lined numnah, another of Messrs. Champion and Wilton's sensible inventions. This excellent preventative and curative Saddle-cloth keeps the most tender-skinned horse in a position to walk in comfort. It is an adaptation of the finer kind of Turkey sponge, the soft nature of which suggested itself to the inventors as an agent for counteracting saddle friction. It is made in two varieties: (1) of bridle leather, lined at the withers with this fine, natural sponge, thus interposing a soft pad between the saddle and the withers (a point where the chief strain of a lady's seat is brought to bear during the action of the trot); (2) of a fine white felt, lined at the back as well as at the withers with the same quality of sponge, and intended for such horses as are apt to become troubled under the seat of the saddle as well as at the withers. The sponge has to be damped, preferably in warm water, but pressed or wrung out before using, and the leather part kept soft with vaseline, which is an excellent preservative and softener of leather. _Each time after use, the sweat should be thoroughly washed out of the sponge; to ensure best results, attention to scrupulous cleanliness is absolutely essential._ The following are representations of this numnah. [Illustration: INSIDE SURFACE.] With the safety-bar and the Zenith habit it matters not what form of stirrup a lady uses, for these have done away with the necessity for the so-called safety patterns, of which there are several. The slipper has been objected to, as it, from being so comfortable, encourages ladies to lean their whole weight on it and thus throw themselves out of balance; moreover, it is out of fashion. Mrs. Power O'Donoghue advocates the plain iron racing stirrup, with the foot well home, as by its means the rise or purchase is from the instep, as it ought to be, and not from the toes. The Prussian side-pieces at the bottom take sharp pressure off the sides of the foot. The Victoria and French pad inside the stirrup, except when the safety bar and habit are adopted, are fraught with danger; with these precautions they are a great comfort, and guard the instep at the trot when the foot is thrust well home. The size of the stirrup should be proportionate to the foot. CHAPTER V. HINTS UPON COSTUME. "She wore what was then somewhat universal--a coat, vest, and hat resembling those of a man; which fashion has since called a RIDING-HABIT."--_Diana Vernon_, SCOTT. Under no circumstances does a lady, possessed of good figure and carriage, appear to such great advantage, or is she so fascinating, as when with mien and bearing haught and high, with perfect, well-balanced seat, and light hands, faultlessly appointed, firmly, gently, and with seeming carelessness she controls some spirited high-bred horse, some noble steed of stainless purity of breed, whose rounded symmetry of form, characteristic spring of the tail, and pride of port, proclaim his descent from "The Silver Arab with his purple veins, The true blood royal of his race." At no time are the beauties of the female form divine displayed with such witching grace, the faultless flowing lines so attractively posed, the _tout ensemble_ so thoroughly patrician. But if there be one blot in the fair picture the whole charm at once vanishes. The incomparable dignity, the well-turned-out steeds--the best that money could buy or critical judgment select--the perfect figure of that superb horsewoman the Empress of Austria, of whom it may justly be said "All the pride of all her race in herself reflected lives," were it possible for Her Imperial Majesty to err in such a matter, would have been of little effect, but for a faultlessly cut and fitting habit. "Fine feathers make fine birds," and though in riding costume the plumage, save in the hunting-field, must be of sombre tint, it must be unruffled and lie perfectly flat. There are Habit-makers and Habit-makers; a very few as perfect as need be, more médiocre, most arrant bunglers. Of late years legions of so-called ladies'-tailors have sprung into being, not one in a hundred possessing the faintest idea of what is wanted. A Habit-maker is a genius not often met with, and when come across should be made a note of. A perfect fitting habit, though not quite "a joy for ever," is a very useful, long-wearing, and altogether desirable garment. Particular attention must be given to the cutting of the back of the neck to secure plenty of play, and to prevent that disagreeable tightness so often experienced, which completely mars the easy and graceful movement of the head. While giving absolute freedom to the figure, the well shaped body will fit like a glove. A tight habit gives a stiff, inelegant appearance to the whole figure, and produces a feeling of being "cribbed, cabined, and confined," tantamount to semi-suffocation. A too long waist is certain to ride-up and wrinkle. For winter wear there is nothing like the double-breasted body. The choice to select from is a wide one. [Illustration: THE "ZENITH" HABIT--JACKET BODY.] To my mind and eye no one understands the whole art of habit-making so well as Mr. W. Shingleton, 60, New Bond Street, London, the inventor of the patent "Zenith" skirt, an ingenious arrangement which should be universally patronized for its absolute safety, if for no less weighty reason. Any lady wearing this clever and smart combination of skirt and trousers, seated on one of Messrs. Champion and Wilton's safety side-saddles, may set her mind completely at rest as to the possibility of being "hung up" on the pommel, or dragged by it or the stirrup. Perfect freedom in the saddle is secured to the rider, that portion of the skirt which in the ordinary habit fits over the pommel, always a source of danger, being entirely dispensed with. The "Zenith" is made in two breadths or portions, instead of three, as heretofore, and on one side this skirt is attached to the trousers at the "side seam" of the right leg, or leg which passes over the pommel. The skirt is then carried across or over both legs of the trousers in front, and, on the other side, is brought round and attached to the "leg seam" of the left leg and to the "seat seam," both the trousers and the skirt being then secured to the waistband. Thus the rider, as stated above, has the pommel leg free to be readily disengaged from the pommel without the skirt catching thereon, the right leg at the back being left uncovered by the skirt. An opening formed on the left side of the skirt allows of the garment being readily put on. The front draping of the skirt remains unaltered from the usual skirt, but when seen from behind it presents the appearance of one leg covered, the other uncovered. When walking, the back of the right trousers leg, which is uncovered, can be draped somewhat by the front of the skirt being lifted and brought round by the right hand. There is nothing whatever in this invention to offend the most sensitive _equestrienne_, nothing to hurt the proper feelings of the most modest. If preferred, the skirt may be provided on each side with a slit, extending down from the knees, so as to enable the wearer to readily use the skirt when wearing breeches or riding boots. That such an enterprising firm as Messrs. Redfern, of Paris, should have secured the patent rights for France, speaks volumes in favour of Mr. Shingleton's really admirable invention. Except for summer wear in early morning or in the country, and in the case of young girls, when grey is permissible, the habit should be made of some dark cloth. In the hunting-field, on which subject I am not touching in this volume, some ladies who "go" don pink, those patronising the Duke of Beaufort's wearing the becoming livery of the Badminton Hunt, than which nothing is more becoming. Diagonal ribbed cloths are much in vogue for skirts. Stout figures tone down the appearance of too great solidity and rotundity by wearing an adaptation of the military tunic. The long jacket-body, depicted in Mr. Shingleton's sketch of the "Zenith," is well suited to full figures. Waistcoats are all the rage,--blue bird's-eye, plush-leather with pearl buttons, kersey, corduroy, nankeen, etc., in endless variety, and are very much in evidence, as are shirt fronts, high collars, silk ties with sporting-pin _à la cavalière_. Braiding or ornamentation is bad form; no frilling, no streamers are admissible; everything, to be in good taste, ought to be of the very best, without one inch of superfluous material,--severely simple. In the Park, except for young ladies just entering on their teens, or children, the tall silk hat is _de rigueur_. The present prevailing "chimney-pot" or "stove-pipe" model, shaped something like the tompion of a gun, is an unbecoming atrocity. Let us hope that fashion will soon revert to the broad curled brim bell-shaped Hardwicke. Nothing is cheap that's bad, and nothing detracts more from the general effect of a "get-up" than a bad hat. So if my lady reader wants to be thoroughly well hatted, let her go to Ye Hatterie, 105, Oxford Street, and be measured for one of Mr. Heath's best. It will last out two or three of other makers, and having done duty one season in Rotten Row, will look well later on in the wear-and-tear of the hunting field, preserving its bright glossy brilliancy, no matter what the weather be. Order a quilted silk lining in preference to a plain leather one, and, when being measured, let the _chevelure_ be compact and suited for riding. A low-crowned hat is the best. For young girls, and out of the season, riding melon-shaped or pot-hats of felt are useful and by no means unbecoming. Mr. Heath makes a speciality of these, and has scores of different, and more or less becoming, styles to select from. Hats made to the shape of the head require no elastics to hold them on, and are not the fruitful source of headache which ready-made misfits invariably are. There is no objection to a grey felt with grey gauze veil in the summer, but black with a black veil is in better taste. Anything in the way of colour, other than grey, or, perhaps brown, is inadmissible. I am not sufficient of a Monsieur Mantalini to advise very minutely on such important points as the ladies' toilette, as to what veils may or may not be worn, but a visit to the Park any morning or forenoon, when London is in Town, will best decide. For dusty roads gauze is essential. Of all abominations and sources of equestrian discomfort a badly built pair of riding-breeches are the worst. No breeches, pants, or trousers can possibly sit well and give absolute comfort in the saddle without flexible hips and belt-band riding-drawers. The best material, and preferable to all silk, is a blend of silk and cashmere, which wears well, is warm, elastic, of permanent elasticity, can be worn with great comfort by the most sensitive, and is not too expensive. A habit should fit like a glove over the hips, and the flexible-hip make of riding-drawers which I advocate, aids in securing this moulding. The fit of the breeches or pants, especially that of the right leg, at the inside of the knee, should be particularly insisted upon. First-class ladies' tailors generally have a model horse on which their customers can mount when trying on. At Messrs. E. Tautz and Sons' establishment, where the rider can be accoutred to perfection, ladies will find a competent assistant of their own sex,--a trained fitter--who will by careful measurement and subsequent "trying on" secure them against the galling miseries of badly cut and ill-fitting breeches. Materials of every description are available; but if the fair reader will be advised by me, she will select brown undressed deer-skin, which is soft, pliable, and durable. The waistbands and continuations are of strong twilled silk. Leggings are generally and preferably worn with the breeches, and can be had in all shades of cloth to go with the habit. For the colonies and India a new material, known as Dr. Lahmann's cotton-wool underclothing, cannot be too highly commended. In "the gorgeous East," of which abode of the sun I have had some experience, between March and the latter days of October, the thinnest animal-wool is unbearably warm, and, when prickly-heat is about, absolutely unbearable, the irritation produced by the two being, I should imagine, akin to that endured by the four-footed friend of man when suffering acutely from the mange. Moreover, in the clutches of the Indian _dhobie_ (washerman), woollen materials rapidly shrink by degrees and become beautifully less, when not knocked into holes, and are converted into a species of felt. This fabric is a new departure in the manufacture of cotton. From first to last it is treated as wool, is spun as wool, and woven as wool, and in my opinion is the best possible material for under wear in the tropics. It is cool, wears well, washes well, is warranted not to shrink, does not irritate the most sensitive skin, and, being woven on circular knitting looms, is peculiarly adapted for close-fitting riding-drawers and under-clothing generally. It has the additional merits of having the appearance and colour of silk--a soft cream colour,--is entirely free from dressing, and is moderate in price. As this fabric (porous, knitted, woven, ribbed, or double-ribbed) is sold by the yard as well as made up into seamless pants, jersies, etc., it is admirably suited to the make of flexible-hip and belt-band drawers referred to above. I feel that in directing attention to this "baumwoll" (tree wool) clothing, I am conferring a benefit on all Europeans whose avocations keep them within the tropics, and on those of them especially who are obliged to take constant and prolonged horse exercise. It is to be obtained at the Lahmann Agency, 15, Fore Street, London, E.C. The question of corsage is an all-important one, as the fit of a garment depends largely on the shape of the corset. For growing girls, and especially for such as are at all delicate and outgrowing their strength, the _Invigorator_ corset is the least objectionable I have yet seen. That it has the approval of the faculty is in its favour. It may be described as a corset in combination with a chest-expanding brace, and as such corrects the habit of stooping, and by expanding the chest flattens the back and keeps the shoulder-blades in their right place. Speaking as an ex-adjutant, who has had a good deal of experience in "setting-up-drills," it in my opinion possesses for young people merits far superior to anything of the kind yet brought out. It gives support where most wanted without impeding the freedom of the movements of the body; its elasticity is such that respiration and circulation are not interfered with; the chest is thrown out, the back straightened, preserving an erect figure--the body being kept erect by the cross-straps at the back; it is comfortable to the wearer, and there is no undue pressure anywhere. A riding-stay to be perfect should be as light as possible, consistent with due support, boned throughout with real whalebone, so as to be capable of being bent and twisted without fear of "broken busks," and should fit the figure--not the figure fit it--with glove-like accuracy. Such supple corsets give perfect ease with freedom. The best special maker of riding-corsets for ladies is Madame Festa, 13, Carlos Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W. This artiste's productions combine all that is necessary in material and workmanship, with perfect fit, ease, and grace. A combination of silk elastic and coutil is said to be the ideal material from which really comfortable corsets are made. For winter work they should be lined with a pure natural woollen stuff as soft as a Chuddah shawl. For tropical climates Grass-cloth or Nettle-cloth is strongly recommended. In this humid, uncertain climate of ours the rider will generally find some sort of light and short waterproof a great comfort. It should be sufficiently long to clear the saddle, and of a material such as will permit of its being rolled up into a small compass for attachment to the Ds of the saddle. Messrs. Lewin and Co., 28, Cockspur Street, S.W. (successors to the old established firm Bax and Co.), makers of the Selby driving-coat, turn out some very neat waterproof tweed or drab garments, which are appropriate and serviceable. Their designs are good, and the material thoroughly to be relied upon. Well fitting, or in other words, tight gloves, of course, look very well, but horsewomen must preserve free use of their hands. Lightness of hand is an essential, but a certain amount of physical strength cannot be dispensed with, and a tight glove, even of the best quality of kid, means a cramped contraction of the hand and fingers with consequent loss of power. The material, so long as it be stout enough, may be of real buck-skin, stout Suède, dog's-skin, so called, or Cape. The best real buck-skin hunting, driving, and walking-gloves, for either ladies or gentlemen, I have ever come across, are those manufactured by T. P. Lee and Co., 24, Duke Street, Bloomsbury. They are of first-class soft material, well cut, hand-sewn with waxed brown thread, and very durable; in fact, everlasting, and most comfortable wear. A neat, light hunting-crop, riding-cane, or whip _without a tassel_, are indispensable. The following is a comfortable and serviceable riding-dress for long country rides, picnics, etc., recommended by a lady who can boast of considerable experience in the saddle both at home and in the colonies--one of a riding family. "Habit--a short hunting-skirt, short enough to walk in with comfort, with jacket (_Norfolk?_) of the same material, made loose enough to admit of jersey being worn under it, if required; a wide leather belt for the waist, fastening with a buckle. This belt will be found a great comfort and support when on horseback for many hours. Hat of soft felt, or melon-shaped hat. Pantaloons of chamois leather, buttoning close to the ankles. Hussar or Wellington boots made of Peel leather, with moderate-sized heels, tipped with brass, and soles strong but not thick. A leather stud should be sewn on the left boot, about two and a half inches above the heel, on which stud the spur should rest, and thus be kept in its place without tight buckling. The spur found to be the most useful after a trial of many is a rowel spur of plated steel (the flat tapered-side, elastic, five-pointed hunting), about two to two and a half inches long, strong and light, hunting shape, and fastened with a strap and buckle, the foot-strap of plated steel chain. This chain foot-strap looks neater than a leather one, and does not become cut or worn out when on foot on rough, rocky ground. The rowel pin is a screw-pin; thus the rowel can be changed at pleasure, and a sharp or blunt one fitted as required by the horse one rides." [_In lieu of chamois leather I would suggest undressed deer-skin, as supplied by Messrs. E. Tautz and Sons, 485, Oxford Street, London, which is as soft as velvet, and needs no additional lining, so apt to crease. And instead of the boots I recommend waterproofed Russia leather or brown hide, such as men use for polo, as manufactured by Faulkner, 52, South Molton Street, London, W., with low, flat heels tipped with mild steel._] The lady's idea, except with regard to the interchangeable rowel, the pin of which must work loose, is good. This brings me to the much-vexed subject of the Spur, its use and abuse. Ladies should not be mounted on horses requiring severe punishment; but there are occasions, oft and many, when "a reminder" from a sharp-pointed rowel will prove of service. I do not say that lady riders should always wear a persuader; on a free-going, generous horse it would be out of place, irritating, and annoying; but on a lymphatic slug, or in the case of a display of temper, the armed heel is most necessary. We must bear in mind that almost all of the highest priced ladies' horses have been broken in to carry a lady by professional lady-riders, one and all of whom wear spurs. Many a horse, in the canter especially, will not go up to his bit without an occasional slight prick. Women are by nature supposed to be gentle and kindly, and yet I know some who are everlastingly "rugging" at their horse's mouths and digging in the spur. They would use the whip also as severely as the Latchfords but for the exhibition it would entail. When punishment must be inflicted, the spur as a corrective is far more effective than the whip; it acts instantaneously, without warning, and the horse cannot see it coming and swerve from it. Though more dreaded it inflicts the lesser pain of the two. The deepest dig from the rowel will not leave behind it the smart of the weal from a cutting whip. The best spur for ladies is the one mentioned above, with fine-pointed rowel; it does not tear the habit, and the points are long enough and sharp enough to penetrate through the cloth should it intervene between the heel and the horse's side. No lady should venture to wear a spur till she has acquired firmness of seat, to keep her left leg steady in the stirrup and her heel from constantly niggling the animal's ribs. I do not like the spring-sheath one-point spur, as it is uncertain in its action. CHAPTER VI. À LA CAVALIÈRE. Much of late has been said and written against and in favour of cross-saddle riding for girls and women. A lady at my elbow has just given her emphatic opinion that it is neither graceful nor modest, and she predicts that the system will never come into vogue or meet the approval of the finer sense of women. The riding-masters are against it to a man, and so are the saddlers, who argue that the change would somewhat militate against their business. We are very conservative in our ideas, and perhaps it is asking too much of women, who have ridden and hunted in a habit on a side-saddle for years, to all at once, or at all, accept and patronize the innovation. Travellers notice the fact that women never ride sideways, as with us, but astride, like men. It has generally been supposed that the custom now prevailing in Europe and North America dates back only to the Middle Ages. As a fact, the side-saddle was first introduced here by Anne of Luxembourg, Richard II.'s queen, and so far back as 1341, according to Knighton, it had become general among ladies of first rank at tournaments and in public. But the system must have prevailed to some extent in far earlier times, for Rawlinson discovered a picture of two Assyrian women riding sideways on a mule, and on Etruscan vases, older than the founding of Rome, are several representations of women so seated. There were no horses in Mexico prior to the advent of the Spaniards; indeed, from the progeny of one Andalusian horse and mare, shipped to Paraguay in 1535, were bred those countless mobs which have since spread over the whole southern part of the new Western world, and, passing the Isthmus of Darien or Panama, have wandered into North America. In the great plains of South America, where the inhabitants, all more or less with Spanish blood pulsing through their veins, may be said to live on horseback, it is strange that, without some good cause, the side-saddle should have been discarded for the "Pisana" fashion--the lady riding in front of her cavalier. In Edward I.'s time our fair dames jogged behind their lords, or behind somebody else's lords, in the conventional pillion: then "This riding double was no crime In the first good Edward's time; No brave man thought himself disgraced By two fair arms around his waist; Nor did the lady blush vermillion Dancing on the lady's pillion." The attitude of the "Pisana" fashion, though in some cases vastly agreeable, is not highly picturesque, so there must have been some valid reason why the side-saddle, then in general use in Spain, fell out of favour. In long rides, it, as at that time constructed, tired the rider, and caused severe pain in the spine. Nowadays in Mexico and on the Plate River there are magnificent horsewomen who can ride almost anything short of an Australian buckjumper, and who never tire in the saddle, but then they one and all patronize the cross-saddle, riding _à la cavalière_ or _à la_ Duchesse de Berri. Their riding garb, and a very becoming one it is, consists of a loose kind of Norfolk jacket or tunic secured at the waist by a belt, loose Turkish pyjamas thrust into riding boots of soft yellow leather, a huge pair of Mexican spurs, and the ladies' "sombrero." Their favourite and, in fact, only pace is a continuous hand-gallop. Some thirty years ago I remember seeing the ex-Queen of Naples superbly mounted, riding _à la cavalière_. Her Majesty was then even more beautiful than her Imperial sister the Empress of Austria, and quite as finished a horsewoman. She wore a high and pointed-crowned felt hat, a long white cloak, something like the Algerian bournouse, patent-leather jack-boots, and gilt spurs. Her seat was perfect, as was her management of her fiery Arab or Barb, the effect charming, and there was nothing to raise the faintest suspicion of a blush on the cheeks of the most modest. There is no doubt that the Duchess de Berri mode of sitting on a horse is much less fatiguing to the rider, gives her more power over the half-broken animals that in foreign countries do duty for ladies' horses, and, in a very great measure, does away with the chance of establishing a raw on the back. In support of the claims of this, to us, novel manner of placing the rider on her horse's back, I quote from Miss Isabella Bird's "Hawaiian Archipelago." Describing her visit to the Anuenue Falls, that lady writes: "The ride was spoiled by my insecure seat in my saddle, and the increased pain in my side which riding produced. Once, in crossing a stream, the horses had to make a sort of downward jump from a rock, and I slipped round my horse's neck; indeed, on the way back I felt that, on the ground of health, I must give up the volcano, as I would never consent to be carried to it, like Lady Franklin, in a litter. When we returned, Mr. Severance suggested that it would be much better for me to follow the Hawaiian fashion, and ride astride, and put his saddle on the horse. It was only my strong desire to see the volcano which made me consent to a mode of riding against which I have a strong prejudice; but the result of the experiment is that I shall visit Kilauea thus or not at all. The native women all ride astride on ordinary occasions in the full sacks, or kolukus, and on gala days in the pan--the gay winged dress which I described in writing from Honolulu. A great many of the foreign ladies in Hawaii have adopted the Mexican saddle also for greater security to themselves and ease to their horses on the steep and perilous bridle-tracks, but they wear full Turkish trousers and jauntily made dresses reaching to the ankles." Writing later from the Colorado district of the Rockies, Miss Bird adds: "I rode sidewise till I was well out of the town, long enough to produce a severe pain in my spine, which was not relieved for some time till after I had changed my position." Mrs. Power O'Donoghue runs a tilt with all her might against the idea of any of her sex riding like men. But there are so many manly maidens about now who excel in all open-air pastimes requiring pluck, energy, physical activity, and strength, and who attire themselves suitably in a sort of semi-masculine style, that is not asking too much of them to try the virtues of the cross-saddle. Their costumes are not so much _negligé_ as studiedly, so far as is possible without exactly "wearing the breeches" in public, of the man, manly. One of our Princesses has the credit of being an adept with the foils; our cricket and golf fields are invaded by petticoats of various lengths; we see polo played by ladies on clever blood ponies; they take kindly to billiards and lawn-tennis; and it is whispered of a few that they can put on the "mittens" and take and give punishment. It is not so much the prudery about sitting like men that excites the wrathful indignation of the opponents of cross-saddle riding as the apparent difficulty of deciding upon the thoroughly neat and workwoman-like costume. [Illustration: No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.] The three different costumes represented in these sketches do not differ very greatly in propriety. Shorten No. 3, the Eilitto Muddy-Weather costume--who says there's nothing in a name?--just a trifle and encase the wearer's lower limbs in a pair of Messes E. Tautz and Son's gaiters or leggings, and we have the costume sported the winter before last by a well known lady. It certainly looked, on a wearer of advanced years, a trifle eccentric, but any pretty girl, in her _première jeunesse_, blessed with a good figure and gait, would have been the admired of all admirers. This costume with the funny name is much patronized by lawn-tennis players, golfers, and skaters. Nos. 1 and 2 are as like as "two Dromios," and in no very material degree differ from the short-skirted walking-dress. They have been brought out with an eye to riding _à la cavalière_, and being strong and yet neat are intended for prairie-riding in the far West, for the rough-and-ready work of the Australian or New Zealand bush, and for scouring over the veldt of South Africa, or for the hundred and one out-of-the-way places of the earth, whither our English girls venture, from necessity, for adventure, or some more potent attraction. Of the two I prefer No. 1, which is the smarter. It is nothing more or less than a short habit made in the shape of a frock-coat, and is buttoned the whole way down to the knees. The long boots, which, by the way, show off a pretty well-turned ankle and foot to perfection, are certainly a trifle more in evidence than is the case when the lady wears the regular habit and is desirous of showing as little "leg" as possible--a desire, when the foot is threes or narrow fours, and the instep well sprung, not too often indulged. No 2 has a divided skirt. I do not ask ladies of mature age, or even those whose seat is formed, to don one or other of these costumes, though, after the experience of Miss Bird and others, they might, under similar circumstances, adopt both the costume, and the cross-saddle with advantage. In the backwoods and jungles a wide latitude in dress may be permitted without assailing the strictest modesty. The fashion of riding in the cross-saddle, if it is to be introduced, as it ought to be, must emanate from the rising generation. The luxury of having both feet in the stirrups, of being able to vary the length of the leather, of having a leg down either side of the horse, and a distribution of the bearing equally on each foot, is surely worthy of consideration when many hours have to be spent in the saddle and long weary distances travelled. If agreeable to the rider, how much more so to the horse? We men know what a relief it is on a long journey to vary the monotonous walk or the wearying trot with an occasioned hard gallop "up in the stirrups," or how it eases one to draw the feet out of the stirrups and let the legs hang free. I have already hazarded the opinion that a lady's seat on a side-saddle is a very firm one, but when she is called upon to ride half-broken horses and to be on their backs for hours at a time, traversing all sorts of country, she undoubtedly is heavily handicapped as compared with a man. Mrs. O'Donoghue, much to the damage of her own contention, so clearly demonstrates my views that I venture to quote _verbatim_ from one of that lady's published letters. "My companion was in ease while I was in torture. Because he had a leg on either side of his mount, his weight equally distributed, and an equal support upon both sides; in fact he had, as all male riders have, the advantage of a double support in the rise; consequently, at the moment his weight was removed from the saddle, it was thrown upon both sides, and this equal distribution enabled him to accomplish without fatigue that slow rise and fall which is so tiring to a lady whose weight, when she is out of the saddle, is thrown entirely upon one delicate limb, thus inducing her to fall again as soon as possible." As for mere grip--the upright and leaping-heads _versus_ both knees--the security in either case is about the same, but the woman's position in the side-saddle is the more tiring and cramping of the two, and in complete control over the horse, the man's position on the horse has a very decided advantage. APPENDIX I. THE TRAINING OF PONIES FOR CHILDREN. We will take it for granted that the colt, say a three or four year old, is well accustomed to the restraint of the common halter, and is obedient to the cavesson on both sides, also that he leads quietly and bears a fair amount of handling. Were I permitted to explain the Galvayne system, I could, in a very few pages, save the breaker and the colt much time, trouble, and many trials of temper and patience. I have not the professor's permission to make the tempting disclosures. Without trenching on his domain, I may lay down the following rough-and-ready _modus operandi_, which, however, I am free to confess would be considerably facilitated by a set of his breaking tackle, especially of a particular rope, not made of any vegetable fibre, which, in some cases, exercises a potential control. We must just "gang our ain gait" as my countrymen say. Having fitted the colt with a soft-lined head-collar-bridle, of the Australian bush pattern, with strong hooks or straps by which to attach the bit, I proceed to bit him. The bit should be on the flexible principle, the mouth-piece being either of chain or a series of ball and socket sections, covered over with white and tasteless rubber, or other soft and yielding material. It should be no thicker than a man's little finger. Inside the cheek and leg of this snaffle I have a large flat disc of sole leather, rounded at the edges, stitched as a guard to prevent the possibility of the bit being drawn through the mouth, of pinching the cheeks against the teeth or in any way injuring the mouth. Every bit, no matter how merciful, will, more or less, make the bars of the mouth tender, but this least of all. If any suffering is evident, or any inflammation set up, then the use of the bit must, till all appearance of undue redness has disappeared, be discontinued. A little tincture of myrrh with eau-de-cologne applied with the fore finger will soon allay the irritation and remove the tenderness. The best way to insert the bit is, having fixed the near ring to the spring hook or strap on the near side of the head-collar, then coming round to the off side of the head, gentling the pony's head all the time and soothing him, to quietly work the two fore fingers of the left hand into his mouth, and on an opportunity offering, to slip the bit quickly into the mouth. This must be done deftly, without alarming the pony, for if the first attempt result in failure he is certain to throw up his head, run back, and otherwise thwart subsequent endeavours. A little treacle smeared on the bit will make it more palatable and inviting. The first time the bit is in the colt's mouth it should not be allowed to remain more than an hour, and his head must be entirely without restraint. On removing it examine the mouth to see that it has not been injured or bruised, and give him a carrot, or apple. It is immaterial whether these bitting lessons be given in a roomy loose-box, barn, covered-yard, or small paddock. After becoming reconciled to the bit, strap on a roller or surcingle, having two side and one top ring stitched on to it, the side rings being placed horizontally about where the rider's knees would come, that on the top fore-and-aft. Through these three rings a strong cord should be run forming a sort of running rein, tie the cord to the off-ring of the snaffle, bring it back through the off-side ring, up and through the top ring on the back, down through that on the near side, and so on forward to the near ring of the bit to which it is fastened with a slip knot, taking care that though a slight bearing be upon the bars of the mouth, the colt's head is not tightly reined in and an irksome continuous strain kept on a certain set of muscles of the neck. This running-rein arrangement admits of lateral play of the head, and minimizes the possibility of creating a one-sided mouth. After a few short lessons in lounging on both sides with his head thus restrained, he may be made to stand in stall with his hindquarters to the manger, the reins being fastened to the post on either side. If the stall, as probably will be the case, be too wide, narrow it by placing sheep hurdles laced with straw on either side of him, so narrowing his standing room that he must preserve a fair "fore and aft" position. The reins must be, if the pillars are too high, fastened to the three rings on the surcingle as explained above. In addition to the single reins there must also be driving reins or cords, carefully adjusted as to length, so as to preserve an even pressure on either side of the mouth, attached to the rings on the manger, so that any attempt to advance is immediately curbed by the strain on the bit. These lessons should not extend over more than an hour at a time, and during them the trainer should occasionally, by taking the bit in both hands on either side facing him, or by laying hold of the long reins, cause him, exercising only gentle pressure, to rein back, saying at the same time in a tone of quiet command, "back." There will be plenty of room for this in a full-sized stall. He may also be taught to bend his head to the right when the off-rein is pulled upon or even twitched, and so on with the left. The instructor's aim must be to instil into his mind the firm conviction that it is as impossible to resist the pressure of the bit on either side of the mouth as it is to advance against it. Extreme kindness and gentleness must be exercised in this initial training, each compliance with the teacher's hand and voice being at once met with some encouragement or reward, in shape of a word or two of soothing approval, gentling his head, and a few oats or pieces of carrot or apple--in the tropics sugar-cane or carrot--the bit being removed from the mouth for the purpose. Horses of all sorts are very quick in their likes and dislikes. From the start never let the colt take a dead pull at the reins, let all the pressures be exerted in a light feeling manner with the fingers not the hands. On becoming fairly proficient at his indoor lesson, we will now, with his Australian bush pattern head-collar-bridle on, a pair of long reins run from the snaffle through the side rings of the surcingle back into the trainer's hands, who will walk behind him, and led by a leading rein attached to the near side of the head-collar but wholly unconnected with the bit, take him into a quiet yard or paddock. He has now to be taught to stop, back, and turn to his bit. The control exercised by the assistant holding the leading rein just suffices to prevent the colt rushing about, or under sudden alarm running back; he will also, though giving him a perfectly free rein, be sufficiently close to his head to aid him in obeying the mandates of the trainer. After walking about as quietly as possible for some time, teaching him how to incline and turn, the feel on the mouth with a moderately tight rein being carefully preserved, he will be on the word "Whoa!" brought to a stand still, and made to stand still and motionless as a well-trained charger on parade. In the lessons on turning, he may if needful be touched with the whip, _only if needful_, and then the lash should fall as lightly as the fly from some expert fisherman's rod, the touch of the silk or whip-cord coming simultaneously with the touch on the bars of the mouth. For instance, he is required to turn to the right and hangs a bit on the rein without answering the helm, then a slight touch on the near shoulder will send him up to his bit, give him an inclination to turn smartly in the direction wished for, and the movement may be hastened by the point of the whip being pressed against the off buttock, or upper thigh on the outside. The pull must not be a jerk but a decided lively pull. Always let him go forward as much as space will permit of before making another turn; he must not be confused and so provoked to be stubborn or fight. Let all the turns be to one hand for the first few minutes then turn him in the reverse direction. Should he get his head down and endeavour to establish a steady dead pull, do not indulge him, but step in closer to his quarters so that the strain is at once off the reins, and the moment that he once more feels his bit instantly make him come to a full halt with the word "Whoa." To make a horse stand after being halted, the Arabs throw the bridle over his head and let the rein drag on the ground. When the colt is being broken the bridle is thus left hanging down between his fore legs, and a slave gives it a sharp jerk whenever a step in advance is taken. By this means the horse is duped into the delusion that the pain inflicted on his mouth or nose is caused by his moving while the rein is in this pendant position. What is taught in the desert may be taught in the paddock. The slightest attempt to move forward without the "click" must at once be stopped. The "backing" lesson is, as a rule, a very simple one, though there are some horses which decline to adopt this retrograde motion. To rein back, the trainer, standing immediately behind the colt, either exerts an even and smart pressure on both reins, drawing them, if need be, through the mouth, when the horse will first bend himself getting his head in handsomely and then begin to step back. At first he will be perhaps, a little awkward, but will soon learn to use his hocks and to adopt this strange gait. If there be any difficulty about getting his head in--it must not be up and out with the bit in the angles of the mouth--the assistant should place the flat of his hand on the animal's face pressing its heel firmly on the cartilage of the nose. The backward movement must cease on the word "Whoa!" and the relaxation of the rein. A horse must not be taught to run back, some acquire the bad habit too readily to a dangerous extent. I may here say that when a horse is given to this vice the best plan is to turn him at once and sharply in the direction he wants to go. In tuition what we want to arrive at is a sort of military "two paces step back, march!" In these introductory lessons the main use of the assistant with his loose yet ready leading rein is to prevent the colt from turning suddenly round and facing the trainer, a _contretemps_ with a Galvayne's tackle next to impossible. Reins should not, however, be tried at all till the lessons in the loose box and in the stall are so well learnt that there is little or no fear of sudden fright, ebullitions of temper, or other causes of disarrangement and entanglement of the long driving reins. When the habit of yielding to the indication of the rein has once been acquired and well established, it becomes a sort of second nature, which under no circumstances, save those of panic or confirmed bolting, is ever forgotten. A few lessons carefully, firmly, patiently, and completely given will cause the colt to answer the almost imperceptible touch of the rein or the distinct word of command. Once perfected in answering the various signals at the walk, he is then put through precisely the same movements at a trot, and to be an effective teacher, the breaker must not only be a good runner, but in good wind, he must be active enough to show such a horse as "Beau Lyons" at the Hackney Show at Islington. A pony such as is "Norfolk Model," one a hand higher and of a very different stamp, it is true, from what I commend for children, would make a crack "sprinter" put forth his best pace. During the time the pony is acquiring the A B C or rudiments of his education, he must be frequently and carefully handled. Every effort should be made to gain his confidence. Like all beasts of the field the speediest and surest way to his affection is down his throat; he is imbued with a large share of "cupboard love," so the trainer should always have some tit-bit in his pocket wherewith to reward good behaviour and progress made; moreover, the pupil should be aware of the existence and whereabouts of this store-room. The handling must be general. Rub the head well over with the hands, always working with, and never against the run of the hair. Pull his ears gently (never pull the long hair out from the inside) rub the roots, the eyes and muzzle, work back from the ears down the neck and fore legs, between the fore legs, at the back of the elbows, and along the back, talking to him all the while. Before going to the flanks and hind quarters make him lift both fore feet. If there be any disinclination to obey, a strap should be wound round the fetlock joint, the trainer then taking a firm hold of the ends in his right hand says in a loud voice "Hold up!" at the same time with the palm of the left hand, throwing a portion of his weight on to the near shoulder; this, by throwing the animal's weight over on to the offside, enables the foot to be easily held up. This lesson imparted, it is extended to the off fore foot. Should the colt, by laying back his ears, showing the whites of his eyes, hugging his tail, and other demonstrations of wickedness, evince his objections to being handled behind the girth, one of the fore feet must be held up and strapped, the buckle of the strap being on the outside of the arm, the foot brought so close to the point of the elbow that no play is left to the knee joint. Then commence to wisp him all over commencing with the head, but, if he is not very restive, do not keep the weight on three legs more than ten minutes at a time, though he, if not overburdened with fat, could easily stand very much longer, or travel a mile or so on three legs. The object, unless vice be displayed, is merely to prevent serious resistance and to convince him that the operation causes no pain. The wisp, the assistant all the time standing at his head speaking in low reassuring tone, patting and caressing him, in the hands of the operator should be at first very gently then briskly applied to the flanks, over the loins, down the quarters and along the channel running between the buttocks, inside the flanks, stifles and haunches, over the sheath, down inside the hocks, in fact anywhere and everywhere known to be tender and "kittle." Having succeeded with the near fore foot up, release it, let him rest awhile and find his way to the store-room dainties. Go through precisely the same lesson with the right foot up, on this occasion giving special attention to those parts which he most strongly objects to being handled. Dwell over his hocks and the inside of his stifles, handle his tail, freely sponging his dock out, running the sponge down through the channel over the sheath, the inside of the thighs and hocks. Release the fore foot, and if he will stand a repetition of all these liberties quietly, he has learnt one important part of his education. Elsewhere I have endeavoured to describe the unsophisticated antics displayed by the fresh-caught Australian buck-jumper and the inveterate plunger in endeavouring to dislocate their riders. In the one case it is the untaught, unpractised effort of an animal in a paroxysm of fear; in the other the vice of the artful, tricky, practitioner. In either case the horseman may be, very often is, "slung" handsomely, wondering, as he picks himself up, dazed and bewildered with an incoherent idea as to what had befallen him, and how he got there. If a wild horse suddenly finds a panther or a tiger on his back, he at once, in terror, endeavours by a succession of flings to get rid of the incubus. So it is with the unbroken colt bred in captivity, and especially so with the pony fresh from his native hills or pastures. What must be his astonishment when, for the first time he feels a saddle tightly girthed to his back, and the weight of some one in it? His first and only feeling is that of fear, so, being prevented by the bit and bridle from rushing off at the verge of his speed, he by bucks, plunges, and kicks, sets to work to throw the rider. In mounting the colt the first attempts at making him quite quiet during the process should be in the direction of eliminating every sense of fear. As saddles, especially if badly stuffed and cold, are the cause of many back troubles, I prefer to have him, in the first instance, ridden in a rug or sheepskin, the wool next his hair, kept in its place by a broad web surcingle. Hold the rug or skin to his nose, and let him smell and feel it, rub it over his head, down his neck, in fact all over him, not neatly folded up but loose; toss it about, drag it over him, round him, between his fore legs, under his belly, and out between his thighs. When he takes no heed of it, fold it up on his back and girth it on with the surcingle. Then lead him out for half an hour or so occasionally, pulling up to lean a good bit of weight on his back. On returning to the loose box, covered yard, or paddock, the first lesson in mounting will be commenced. Having secured the services of some active smart lad who can ride and vault, the lighter the better, make him stand on a mounting block, an inverted empty wine chest will do, placed near his fore leg. If the pony be nervous at this block, let him examine it, smell it, touch it, and even eat a few carrots off it. Standing on this coign of advantage, the lad must loll over him, patting him, reaching down well on the off side, leaning at first a portion, and then his whole weight on him. If he makes no objection to this treatment, the lad should seat himself on his back, mounting and dismounting repeatedly, slowly but neatly, being careful not to descend on his back with a jerk. So long as the colt shows no fear, this gymnastic practice may be varied with advantage to almost any extent, the contact of the gymnast's body with that of the pony being as close as possible. He should not only vault all over him and straddle him, but should crawl and creep all over him and under him, winding up by vaulting on his back, over his head, and over his quarters. I have frequently taught Arabs to put their heads between my legs and by the sudden throw-up of their necks to send me into the saddle face to the tail. On no account hurry this mounting practice, do not let him be flustered or fatigued, and see that the rider's foot deftly clears him without once touching or kicking him; much depends on the clean manner in which the various mountings and dismountings are performed. The mounting block will be dispensed with so soon as the rider is permitted to throw his right leg over his back and to straddle him without starting. It is essential that he should stand stock still and that he should not move forward without the usual "klick." When quite patient and steady in being mounted with the rug or fleece, a nice light 5 lb. polo or racing saddle with a "Humane" numnah under it should be substituted, and if the pony's shoulders are low and upright a crupper will be necessary. Care must be taken that the crupper strap is not too tight, also that the crupper itself does not produce a scald under the dock of the tail; a strip of lamb-skin, the wool next the dock, will ensure that. After being led about in the saddle for a time, he is brought into the box or yard and there mounted by the lad, the trainer having hold of the leading rein, the rider of the bridle. Now a word as to the said lad. All he has to do is to preserve the lightest possible touch of the mouth, and to sit firm and sit quiet. I would rather prefer that he did not hail from a racing stable, for these imps--the most mischievous of their race--are up to all sorts of tricks and are accustomed to ride trusting almost entirely to the support gained from their knotted bridle and the steady pressure against the stirrup somewhat after the principle of the coachman and his foot-board. He must be forced to keep his heels and his ashplant quiet. I am averse to much lounging and am confident it is overdone. On carrying the lad quietly led by hand, the following lessons should be in company with some staid old stager. Markedly gregarious in his habits, the horse never feels so happy or contended as when in company; in the society of a well-behaved tractable member of his family he will do all that is required of him. Soon the leading rein will be superfluous and the pony and his rider will be able to go anywhere at any pace. It is especially advisable that when his first rides lie away from home he should be ridden in company with some other horse, or he may turn restive. Be very careful not to attempt anything with him that may lead up to a fight in which he may remain master. Any disposition on his part to "reest" or to break out into rebellion is proof of his not having learnt his first lessons properly. Far better to lead him away from home for a mile or two and then to mount him, than to hazard any difference of opinion. The example of a well-broken, well-ridden, well-mannered horse is very important. One act of successful disobedience may undo the careful labour of weeks and necessitate very stringent measures, such as those described in my previous volume, in the case of confirmed vice. Weeks of careful riding always under the trainer's eye, will be required before the lessons are complete, and the pupil sobered down so as to be a safe and comfortable conveyance for children beginners. APPENDIX II. EXTENSION AND BALANCE MOTIONS. The following are adapted as closely as possible from the carefully thought-out system of Military Equitation practised in the British Army, and may be executed as follows:-- _Prepare for Extension and Balance Motions._--On this caution each rider will turn his horse facing the Instructor, drop the reins on the horse's neck, and let both arms hang down easily from the shoulders, with the palms of the hands to the front. This is the position of _Attention_. CAUTION.--_First Practice._ {On the word "One" bring the hands, at the full { extent of the arms, to the front, close to the body, { knuckles downwards till the fingers meet at the "ONE" { points; then raise in a circular direction over { the head, the ends of the fingers still touching { and pointing downwards so as to touch the forehead, { thumbs pointing to the rear, elbows pressed { back, shoulders kept well down. {On the word "Two," throw the hands up, extending { the arms smartly upwards, palms of the hands { inwards; then force them obliquely back, and "TWO" { gradually let them fall to the position of _Attention_, { the first position, elevating the neck and { chest as much as possible. N.B.--The foregoing motions are to be done slowly, so that the muscles may be fully exerted throughout. No stirrup is to be used. CAUTION.--_Second Practice._ {On the word "One" raise the hands in front of the "ONE" { body, at the full extent of the arms, and in a line { with the mouth, palms meeting, but without noise, { thumbs close to the forefingers. {On the word "Two," separate the hands smartly, "TWO" { throwing them well back, slanting downwards, { palms turned slightly upward. {On the word "One," resume the first position above "ONE" { described, and so on, sitting down on the saddle "TWO" { without any attempt, in resuming the first position, { to rise. "THREE" {On the word "Three," smartly resume the position { of _Attention_. In this practice the second motion may be continued without repeating the words "One," "Two," by giving the order "Continue the Motion:" on the word "Steady," the second position is at once resumed, the rider remaining in that position, head well up, chin in, and chest thrown out, on the word "Three," resuming the position of _Attention_. CAUTION.--_Third Practice._ {On the word "One," raise the hands, with the fists "ONE" { clenched, in front of the body, at the full extent { of the arms, and in line with the mouth, thumbs { upwards, fingers touching. {On the word "Two," separate the hands smartly, "TWO" { throwing the arms back in line with the shoulders, { back of the hands downwards. "THREE" {On the word "Three," swing the arms round as { quickly as possible from front to rear. "STEADY" On the word "Steady," resume the second position. "FOUR" {On the word "Four," let the arms fall smartly to { the position of _Attention_. CAUTION.--_Fourth Practice._ {On the word "One," lean back until the back of "ONE" { the head touches the horse's quarter, but moving { the legs as little as possible. "TWO" On the word "Two," resume the original position. CAUTION.--_Fifth Practice._ {On the word "One," lean down to the left side and "ONE" { touch the left foot with the left hand without, { however, drawing up the foot to meet the hand. "TWO" On the word "Two," resume the original position. The same practice should also be done to the right reaching down as far as possible, but without drawing the left heel up and back. The following practice can only be performed in the cross-saddle, by pupils learning to ride à la cavalière, and suitably dressed. CAUTION.--_Sixth Practice._ {On the word "One," pass the right leg over the { horse's neck, and, turning on the seat, sit facing "ONE" { the proper left, keeping the body upright, and the { hands resting on the knees. The leg must not { be bent in passing over the horse's neck. {On the word "Two," pass the left leg over the "TWO" { horse's quarter, and turning in the seat, sit facing { to the rear, assuming, as much as possible, the { proper mounted position, the arms hanging { behind the thighs. {On the word "Three," pass the right leg over the "THREE" { horse's quarter, and, turning in the seat, sit facing { to the proper right, the body upright, and the { hands resting on the knees. {On the word "Four," pass the left leg over the "FOUR" { horse's neck, and, turning in the seat, resume the { proper mounted position. Each of the above motions may be performed by command of the instructor without repeating the words "One," "Two," "Three," etc. Transcriber's Note: Inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, and hyphenation have been retained as printed. 
40872	----	[Illustration] [Illustration: Painted by F. Winterhalter.] H.M.G. Majesty, Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, IN THE ROBES OF THE MOST NOBLE ORDER OF THE GARTER. DAGUERREOTYPED BY THOMPSON, From the Portrait in possession of Geo. P. Burnham; PRESENTED TO HIM BY HER MAJESTY, THE QUEEN, IN 1853 [See Letter, page 130.] THE HISTORY OF THE HEN FEVER. A Humorous Record. BY GEO. P. BURNHAM. [Illustration] In one Volume.--Illustrated BOSTON: JAMES FRENCH AND COMPANY. NEW YORK: J.C. DERBY. PHILADELPHIA: T.B. PETERSON. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by GEORGE P. BURNHAM, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. STEREOTYPED BY HOBART & ROBBINS, New England Type and Stereotype Foundery, BOSTON. GEO. C. RAND, PRINTER, 3 CORNHILL. TO THE Amateurs, Fanciers, and Breeders OF POULTRY, THE SUCCESSFUL AND UNFORTUNATE DEALERS, THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES; AND THE VICTIMS OF MISPLACED CONFIDENCE IN THE HEN TRADE, GENERALLY, I DEDICATE This Volume. PREFACE. In preparing the following pages, I have had the opportunity to inform myself pretty accurately regarding the ramifications of the subject upon which I have written herein; and I have endeavored to avoid setting down "aught in malice" in this "_History of the_ HEN FEVER" in the United States. I have followed this extraordinary _mania_ from its incipient stages to its final death, or its _cure_, as the reader may elect to term its conclusion. The first symptoms of the fever were exhibited in my own house at Roxbury, Mass., early in the summer of 1849. From that time down to the opening of 1855 (or rather to the winter of 1854), I have been rather intimately connected with the movement, if common report speaks correctly; and I believe I have seen as much of the tricks of this trade as one usually meets with in the course of a single natural life. Now that the most serious effects of this (for six years) alarming epidemic have passed away from among us, and when "the people" who have been called upon to pay the cost of its support, and for the burial of its victims, can look back upon the scenes that have in that period transpired with a disposition cooled by experience, I have thought that a volume like this might prove acceptable to the hundreds and thousands of those who once "took an interest in the hen trade,"--who _may_ have been mortally wounded, or haply who have escaped with only a broken wing; and who will not object to learn how the thing has been done, and "who threw the bricks"! If my readers shall be edified and amused with the perusal of this work as much as I have been in recalling these past scenes while writing it, I am content that I have not thrown the powder away. I have written it in perfect good-nature, with the design to gratify its readers, and to offend no man living. And trusting that _all_ will be pleased who may devote an hour to its pages, while at the same time I indulge the hope that _none_ will feel aggrieved by its tone, or its text, I submit this book to the public. Respectfully, GEO. P. BURNHAM. RUSSET HOUSE, _Melrose_, 1855. CONTENTS. Chapter Page I. PREMONITORY SYMPTOMS OF THE DISEASE, 9 II. THE "COCHIN-CHINAS." BUBBLE NUMBER ONE, 14 III. THE FIRST FOWL SHOW IN BOSTON, 21 IV. HOW "POULTRY-BOOKS" ARE MADE, 26 V. THREATENING INDICATIONS, 32 VI. THE EPIDEMIC SPREADING, 37 VII. ALARMING DEMONSTRATIONS, 41 VIII. THE FEVER WORKING, 47 IX. THE SECOND POULTRY SHOW IN BOSTON, 52 X. THE MUTUAL ADMIRATION SOCIETY'S SECOND SHOW, 58 XI. PROGRESS OF THE MALADY, 65 XII. MY CORRESPONDENCE, 70 XIII. THE OTHER SIDE OF THE QUESTION, 85 XIV. "BOTHER'EM POOTRUMS." BUBBLE NUMBER TWO, 90 XV. ADVERTISING EXTRAORDINARY, 98 XVI. HEIGHT OF THE FEVER, 104 XVII. RUNNING IT INTO THE GROUND, 111 XVIII. ONE OF THE FINAL KICKS, 119 XIX. THE FOURTH FOWL SHOW IN BOSTON, 124 XX. PRESENT TO QUEEN VICTORIA, 129 XXI. EXPERIMENTS OF AMATEURS, 137 XXII. TRUE HISTORY OF "FANNY FERN," 147 XXIII. CONVALESCENCE, 155 XXIV. AN EXPENSIVE BUSINESS, 160 XXV. THE GREAT PAGODA HEN, 165 XXVI. "POLICY THE BEST HONESTY," 176 XXVII. A GENUINE HUMBUG, 182 XXVIII. BARNUM IN THE FIELD, 190 XXIX. FIRST "NATIONAL" POULTRY SHOW IN NEW YORK, 198 XXX. BARNUM'S INNATE DIFFIDENCE, 204 XXXI. A SUPPRESSED SPEECH, 213 XXXII. A "CONFIDENCE" MAN, 220 XXXIII. THE ESSENCE OF HUMBUG, 224 XXXIV. A TRUMP CARD, 229 XXXV. "HOLD YOUR HORSES," 237 XXXVI. TRICKS OF THE TRADE, 243 XXXVII. FINAL DEATH-THROES, 252 XXXVIII. THE PORTE-MONNAIE I OWE 'EM COMPANY, 259 XXXIX. A SATISFACTORY PEDIGREE, 263 XL. DOING THE GENTEEL THING, 273 XLI. THE FATE OF THE "MODEL" SHANGHAES, 279 XLII. AN EMPHATIC CLINCHER, 288 XLIII. "STAND FROM UNDER," 294 XLIV. BURSTING OF THE BUBBLE, 302 XLV. THE DEAD AND WOUNDED, 307 XLVI. A MOURNFUL PROCESSION, 312 XLVII. MY SHANGHAE DINNER, 318 THE HISTORY OF THE HEN FEVER. CHAPTER I. PREMONITORY SYMPTOMS OF THE DISEASE. I was sitting, one afternoon, in the summer of 1849, in my little parlor, at Roxbury, conversing with a friend, leisurely, when he suddenly rose, and passing to the rear window of the room, remarked to me, with considerable enthusiasm, "What a splendid lot of fowls you have, B----! Upon my word, those are very fine indeed,--do you know it?" I had then been breeding poultry (for my own amusement) many years; and the specimens I chanced at that time to possess were rather even in color, and of good size; but were only such as any one might have had--bred from the common stock of the country--who had taken the same pains that I did with mine. There were perhaps a dozen birds, at the time, in the rear yard, and my friend (_then_, but who subsequently passed to a competitor, and eventually turned into a sharp but harmless enemy) was greatly delighted with them, as I saw from his enthusiastic conversation, and his laudation of their merits. I am not very fast, perhaps, to appreciate the drift of a man's motives in casual conversation,--and then, again, it may be that I am "not so slow" to comprehend certain matters as I might be! At all events, I have sometimes flattered myself that, on occasions like this, I can "see as far into a millstone as can he who picks it;" and so I listened to my friend, heard all he had to say, and made up my mind accordingly, before he left me. "I tell you, B----, those are handsome chickens," he insisted. "I've got a fine lot, myself. You keep but one variety, I notice. I've got 'em _all_." "All what?" I inquired. "O, all kinds--all kinds. The Chinese, and the Malays, and the Gypsies, and the Chittaprats, and the Wang Hongs, and the Yankee Games, and Bengallers, and Cropple-crowns, and Creepers, and Top-knots, and Gold Pheasants, and Buff Dorkings, and English Games, and Black Spanish and Bantams,--and I've several _new breeds_ too, I have made myself, by crossing and mixing, _in the last year_, which beat the world for beauty and size, and excellence of quality." "Indeed!" I exclaimed. "So you have made several new _breeds_ during _one_ year's crossing, eh? That _is_ remarkable, doctor, certainly. I have never been able yet to accomplish so extraordinary a feat, myself," I added. "Well, _I_ have," said the doctor,--and probably, as he was a practising physician of several years' experience, he knew how this reversion of nature's law could be accomplished. I didn't. "Yes," he continued; "I have made a breed I call the 'Plymouth Rocks,'--superb birds, and great layers. The--a--'Yankee Games,'--regular knock-'em-downs,--rather fight than eat, any time; and never flinch from the puncture of steel. Indeed, _so_ plucky are these fowls, that I think they rather _like_ to be cut up than otherwise,--alive, I mean. Then, I've another breed I've made--the 'Bengal Mountain Games.' These _are_ smashers--never yield, and are magnificent in color. Then I have the '_Fawn-colored Dorkings_,' too; and several other fancy breeds, that I've fixed up; and fancy poultry is going to sell well in the next three years, you may be sure. Come and see my stock, B----, won't you? And I'll send you anything you want from it, with pleasure." I was then the editor of a weekly paper in Boston. I accepted my friend's kind invitation, and travelled forty miles and back to examine his poultry. It looked well--_very_ well; the arrangement of his houses, &c., was good, and I was gratified with the show of stock, and with his politeness. But he was an enthusiast; and I saw this at the outset. And though I heard all he had to say, I could not, for the life of me, comprehend how it was that he could have decided upon the astounding merits of all these different _breeds_ of fowls in so short a space of time--to wit, by the crossings in a single year! But that was his affair, not mine. He was getting his fancy poultry ready for the market; and he repeated, "It will _sell_, by and by." And I believe it did, too! The doctor was right in _this_ particular. He informed me that he intended to exhibit several specimens of his fowls, shortly, in Boston; and soon afterwards I met with an advertisement in one of the agricultural weeklies, signed by my friend the doctor, the substance of which was as follows: NOTICE.--I will exhibit, at _Quincy Market_, Boston, in a few days, sample pairs of my fowls, of the following pure breeds; namely, Cochin-China, Yellow Shanghae, Black Spanish, Fawn-colored Dorkings, Plymouth Rocks, White Dorkings, Wild Indian, Malays, Golden Hamburgs, Black Polands, Games, &c. &c; and I shall be happy to see the stock of other fanciers, at the above place, to compare notes, etc. etc. The above was the substance of the "notice" referred to; and the doctor, coming to Boston shortly after, called upon me. I showed him the impropriety of this movement at once, and suggested that some spot other than Quincy Market should be chosen for the proposed exhibition,--in which I would join, provided an appropriate place should be selected. After talking the matter over again, application was made to an agricultural warehouse in Ann-street, or Blackstone-street, I believe; the keepers of which saw the advantages that must accrue to themselves by such a show (which would necessarily draw together a great many strangers, out of whom they might subsequently make customers); but, at my suggestion, this very stupid plan was abandoned--even after the advertisements were circulated that such an exhibition would come off there. Upon final consideration it was determined that the first Exhibition of Fancy Poultry in the United States of America should take place in November, 1849, at the _Public Garden_, Boston. CHAPTER II. THE "COCHIN-CHINAS." BUBBLE NUMBER ONE. A public meeting was soon called at the legislative hall of the Statehouse, in Boston, which had the effect of drawing together a very goodly company of savans, honest farmers, amateurs, poulterers, doctors, lawyers, flats, fanciers and _humbugs_ of one kind or another. _I_ never attended one of the meetings; and only know, from subsequent public and private "reports," what occurred there. On this _first_ occasion, however, after a great deal of bosh and stuff, from the lips of old men and young men, who possessed not the slightest possible shadow of practical knowledge of the subject proposed to be discussed, it was finally resolved that the name for the (now defunct) association then and there formed, should be "_The New England Society for the Improvement of Domestic Poultry_"!!! Now, the only objection I ever raised to this title was that it was not sufficiently _lengthy_! When applied to for my own views on the subject, _I_ recommended that it should be called the "Mutual Admiration Society." But, though I was thought a great deal of by its members,--especially when the concern was short of funds,--in _this_ case they thought my proposed title was altogether too applicable; and the original name, above quoted, was adhered to. I was honored with the office of vice-president of the society, for Massachusetts; to which place I was reëlected annually, I believe, until the period of its death. For which honor I was not ungrateful, and in consideration of which, "as in duty bound, I have ever prayed" for the association's prosperity and weal. The first name that was placed upon the list of subscribers to the constitution of this society was that of His Excellency Geo. N. Briggs, formerly Governor of this commonwealth. He was followed by a long list of "mourners," most of whom probably ascertained, within five years from the hour when they subscribed to this roll, that causing the cock's spur _to grow between his eyes_ was not quite so easy a thing to accomplish as one "experienced poultry-breeder" at this meeting coolly asserted it to be! How many attempted this experiment (as well as numerous others there suggested as feasible), I am not advised. But I am inclined to think that those who did try it found it to be "all in their eye." While these gentlemen were arranging the details of the new "society," and were deciding upon what the duties of the officers and committees should be, I quietly wrote out to England for information regarding the somewhat notorious "_Cochin-China_" fowl, then creating considerable stir among fanciers in Great Britain; and soon learned that I could procure them, in their purity, from a gentleman in Dublin, whose stock had been obtained, through Lord Heytsbury (then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland), direct from Queen Victoria's samples. I ordered six of them,--two cocks and four hens,--and in December, 1849, I received them through Adams & Co.'s Transatlantic Express. At this period there was no telegraph established from Boston to Halifax, I believe. Some of the reporters for the daily city papers usually visited the steamers, upon their arrival here, to obtain their foreign files of exchanges; and here my birds were first seen by those gentlemen who have made or broken the prospects of more than one enterprise of far greater consequence than this "importation of fancy fowls" could seem to be. But on the day succeeding the coming of those birds, several very handsome notices of the arrival of these august Chinamen appeared in the Boston papers, and a vast amount of credit was accorded to the "enterprising importer" of the outlandish brutes, that were described in almost celestial language! After considerable trouble and swearing (custom-house swearing, I mean), the officers on board permitted my team to take the cage out of the steamer, and it was conveyed to my residence in Roxbury, where it arrived two hours after dark. I had long been looking for the coming of these Celestial strangers, and the "fever," which I had originally taken in a very kindly way, had by this time affected me rather seriously. I imagined I had a fortune on board that steamer. I looked forward with excited ideas to beholding something that this part of the world had never yet seen, and which would surely astound "the people," when I could have the opportunity to show up my rare prize,--all the way from the yards or walks of royalty itself! I waited and watched, with anxious solicitude,--and, at last, the box arrived at my house. It was a curiously-built box--the fashion of it was unique, and substantial, and foreign in its exterior. I supposed, naturally, that its contents must be similar in character. That box contained my "Cochin-Chinas,"--bred from the Queen's stock,--about which, for many weeks, I had been so seriously disturbed. [Illustration: PORTRAIT OF THE "COCHIN-CHINA" FOWL!] I am _now_ well satisfied that the "Cochin-China" variety of fowl is a gross fable. If such a breed exist, in reality, we have never had them in this country. Anything (and everything) has been _called_ by this name among us, in the last five years; but the engraving on the following page, in my estimation (and I have been there!), is the nearest thing possible to a likeness of this _long_ petted bird; and will be recognized, I think, by more than one victim, as an accurate and faithful portrait of this lauded "magnificent" and "superb" bird! I was anxious to examine my celestial friends at once. I caused the box to be taken into a shed, at the rear of the house, and I tore from its front a piece of canvas that concealed them from view, to behold a----well! _n'importe_--they were _Cochin-China_ fowls! But, since God made me, I never beheld six _such_ birds before, or since! They resembled _giraffes_ much more nearly than they did any other thing, carnivorous, omnivorous,--fish, flesh, or fowl. I let them out upon the floor, and one of the cocks seized lustily upon my India-rubber over-shoe, and would have swallowed it (and myself), for aught I know, had not a friend who stood by seized him, and absolutely choked him off! This is truth, strange as it may seem; but I presume they had scarcely been fed at all upon their fortnight's voyage from Dublin, and I never saw any animals so miserably low in flesh, in my life, before. What with their long necks, and longer legs, and their wretchedly starved condition, I never wondered that the friendly reporters spoke of their appearance as being "extraordinary, and strikingly peculiar." These were the original "Cochin-China" fowls of America. And they probably never had the first drop of Chinese blood in their veins, any more than had the man who bred them, and who knew this fact much better than I did--who knew it well enough. I housed my "prize" forthwith, however, and provided them with everything for their convenience and comfort. The six fowls cost me ninety dollars. They _were_ beauties, to be sure! When I informed a neighbor of their cost, he ventured upon the expressive rejoinder that I "was a bigger d----d fool than he had ever taken me for." To which I responded nothing, for I rather agreed with him myself! Nine months afterwards, however, I sold him a cock and three pullets, four months old, raised from those very fowls, for sixty-five dollars; and I didn't retort upon him even _then_, but took his money. The chickens I sold him were "dog-cheap," at that! [Illustration] CHAPTER III. THE FIRST FOWL-SHOW IN BOSTON. Never in the history of modern "bubbles," probably, did _any_ mania exceed in ridiculousness or ludicrousness, or in the number of its victims surpass this inexplicable humbug, the "hen fever." Kings and queens and nobility, senators and governors, mayors and councilmen, ministers, doctors and lawyers, merchants and tradesmen, the aristocrat and the humble, farmers and mechanics, gentlemen and commoners, old men and young men, women and children, rich and poor, white, black and grey,--_everybody_ was more or less seriously affected by this curious epidemic. The press of the country, far and near, was alive with accounts of "extraordinary pullets," "enormous eggs" (laid on the tables of the editors), "astounding prices" obtained for individual specimens of rare poultry; and all sorts of people, of every trade and profession and calling in life, were on the _qui vive_, and joined in the hue-and-cry, regarding the suddenly and newly ascertained fact that hens laid eggs----_sometimes_; or, that somebody's crower was heavier, larger, or higher on the legs (and consequently higher in value), than somebody else's crower. And the first exhibition of the society with the long name came off duly, at last, as agreed upon by the people, _and_ myself. "The _people_"! By this term is ordinarily meant the body-politic, the multitude, the citizens at large, the voters, the--the--a--the masses; the----well, no matter! At the period of which I am now writing, the term signified the "hen-men." This covered the whole ground, at that time. Everybody was included, and thus nobody was left outside! At this first show, the committee "flattered themselves" (and who ever heard of, or from, a committee that didn't do this!) that never, within the memory of the oldest inhabitant,--who, by the way, was then living, but has since departed to that bourn from which even defunct hen-men do not return,--never had such a display been witnessed; never had the feathered race before appeared in such pristine beauty; never had any such exhibition been seen or read of, since the world begun! And, to say truth, it wasn't a very bad sight,--that same first hen-show in Boston. Thousands upon thousands visited it, the newspapers appropriated column after column to its laudation, and all sorts of people flocked to the Public Garden to behold the "rare and curious and inexpressibly-beautiful samples" of poultry caged up there, every individual specimen of which had, up to that hour, been straggling and starving in the yards of "the people" about Boston (they and their progeny) for years and years before, unknown, unhonored and unsung. Gilded complimentary cards, in beautifully-embossed envelopes, were duly forwarded by the "committee" to all "our first men," who came on foot or in carriages, with their lovely wives and pretty children, to see the extraordinary sight. The city fathers, the public functionaries, governors, senators, representatives, all responded to the invitation, and everybody was there. The cocks crowed lustily, the hens cackled musically, the ducks quacked sweetly, the geese hissed beautifully, the chickens peeped delightfully, the gentlemen talked gravely, the ladies smiled beneficently, the children laughed joyfully, the uninitiated gaped marvellously, the crowd conversed wisely, the few knowing ones chuckled quietly,--everybody enjoyed the thing immensely,--and suddenly, prominent among the throng of admirers present, loomed up the stalwart form and noble head of Daniel Webster, who came, like the rest, to _see_ what he had only "read of" for the six months previously. The committee saw him, and they instantly lighted on him for a speech; but he declined. "Only a few words!" prayed one of them. "One word, _one_ word!" insisted the chairman. "I can't!" said Daniel. But they were importunate and unyielding, that enthusiastic committee. "Gentlemen!" said the honorable senator, at last, amid the din. "Ladies and gentlemen!" he continued, as a monster upon feathered stilts, at his elbow, shrieked out an unearthly crow, that drowned the sound of his voice instanter,--"Ladies and gentlemen, really--I--would--but the noise and confusion is so great, that I cannot be heard!"--and a roar followed this capital hit, that drowned, for the moment, at least, even the rattling, crashing, bellowing, squeaking _music_ of the feathered bipeds around him. The exhibition lasted three days. Unheard-of prices were asked, and readily paid, for all sorts of fowls; most of those sold being mongrels, however. As high as thirteen dollars was paid by one man (who soon afterwards became an inmate of a lunatic asylum) for a single pair of domestic fowls. It was monstrous, ridiculous, outrageous, exclaimed every one, when this fact--the absolute paying down of thirteen round dollars, then the price of two barrels of good wheat flour--was announced as having been squandered for a single pair of chickens. I _sold_ some fowls at that show. I didn't _buy_ any there, I believe. The receipts at the gates paid the expenses of the exhibition, and left a small surplus in the hands of somebody,--I never knew who,--but who took good care of the money, I have not a doubt; as most of the officers at _that_ time were, like myself, "poor, but honest." By the time this fair closed, the pulse of the "dear people" had come to be rather rapid in its throbs, and the fever was evidently on the increase. Fowls were in demand. Not _good_ ones, because nothing was then said by the anxious would-be purchasers about _quality_. Nobody had got so far as that, then. They wanted _fowls_ only,--hens and cocks,--to which they themselves gave a name. Some fancied one breed, or variety, and some another; but anything that sported feathers,--from the diminutive Bantam to the stork-shaped Chinaman,--everything was being sought after by "amateurs" and "fanciers" with a zest, and a readiness to pay for, that did honor to the zeal of the youthful buyers, and a world of good to the hearts of the quiet breeders and sellers, who began _first_ to get posted up, and inured to the disease. _I_ was an humble and modest member of this latter class. _I_ kept and raised only _pure_ breeds of fowls. CHAPTER IV. HOW "POULTRY-BOOKS" ARE MADE. Soon after this, I learned that one Asa Rugg, of Pennsylvania (a _nom de guerre_), was in the possession of a breed of fowls that challenged all comparison for size and weight. They were called the _Chittagong_ fowl, and were thus described in the poultry-books published in 1850: "The fowl thus alluded to has been imported, within the last two or three years, into Pennsylvania, and ranks at the head of the list, in that region, for all the good qualities desirable in a domestic bird. The color is a _streaked grey_, rather than otherwise, and the portraits below" (my birds) "are fine samples of this great stock. They are designated as the GREY CHITTAGONGS." "Asa Rugg," in his letter to me, described this stock as being at the head of the races of poultry, having "the _largest_ blood in them of any variety of fowl with which he was acquainted." The pair he first sent me were light-grey and streaked, and "at less than seven months old weighed over _nineteen_ pounds." He said, in that insinuating and delicate manner so peculiar to the habits of gentlemen who possess what another wishes to buy of them,--"I did not intend, my dear Mr. B----, to part with these magnificent specimens at _any_ figure whatever. I assure you I had much rather retain them; for they are _very_ fine, as you would say, could you see them. If, however, you are disposed to pay my price, I shall let you have them. I really shall regret their absence from my yard, however. Try and make up your mind to be satisfied with something else--won't you? _These_ fowls I must keep, if possible," &c. &c. Now, Asa _knew_ very well, if he had charged me two hundred (instead of twenty) dollars for those grey fowls, I should have taken them from him. Of course I sent for them at once; and, within ten days, they were in my poultry-house, a new wonder for the hundreds who called to see my "superb" and "extraordinary" fowls. A competitor turned up, a few months after this, a notorious breeder in P----, who, though a respectable man, otherwise, never knew a hen from a stove-pipe, but who had more money at that time than I had, and who, in the hen-trade, possessed the impudence of the devil, without the accompanying graces to carry out his object. This man chanced, while in Pennsylvania, to hear Asa speak of _me_, and at once he stepped in to "head me" in that quarter. He bought all the "_Grey_ Chittagongs" that Rugg had left (most of which, when they reached P----, happened to be dark _red_ and _brown_), and forthwith set up an establishment in _opposition_ to me; for what purpose I never knew. I did not know him from a side of sole-leather, I had never spoken to or of him, and I could not comprehend why this person should render himself, as he did, my future "death's head" in the fowl-trade. If he went into the traffic for the purpose of making money out of it, he has found, by this time, I have no doubt, that he would have been, at the very least calculation, five thousand dollars better off had he never thrust himself into a business of which he did not know the first rudiments. If he embarked in it to interfere with or to injure me, personally, he has now ascertained, I imagine, that it required a faster horse than _he_ was in the habit of driving to keep in sight of _my_ team. If his purpose was the gratification of his own petty spite or ambition only, he has had to pay for the enjoyment of it,--ay, to his dear cost!--and he is welcome to all he ever made out of his contemptible, niggardly huckstering. Soon after the first exhibition, it was announced by the publishers in Boston that Dr. Bennett's new Treatise would be immediately issued by them. The doctor had originally applied to the establishment in which I was then a partner, to issue this work; but I recommended him to the others, because our own facilities for getting it out were not so good as I thought were theirs. I furnished a considerable amount of the matter for that book, and had already obtained, at my own individual expense, several of the engravings which appear in the work spoken of. After the original cuts were placed in the publishers' hands, they were reduced in size, and injured (for my purposes), as I conceived, when they finally appeared in print. The doctor's book on poultry had been announced again and again; but it did not make its appearance in the market, in consequence of his tardiness. Week after week, and month after month, passed by, but still no Dr. Bennett's book could be found. I saw some of the proof-sheets finally, observed the fate of the illustrations of _my_ fowls, and made up my mind what I would do. The book was at last announced positively to appear in three weeks. I immediately called at a stereotype foundery, and asked how much time it would require to stereotype a work of one hundred and fifty pages for me. I was told that it would occupy three to four weeks to complete it. "Can't it be done in _one_ week?" I inquired. The proprietor smiled, and said that this was impossible. I replied, "Well, sir, to-day is Tuesday. I have engaged to deliver in New York city, on the morning of a week from next Saturday, three thousand copies of a book _which I am about to write_. Is there _no_ way that you can help me out?" The gentleman looked at me incredulously. I added, "Mr. ----, I have been in the newspaper business a good many years, and I have had the message of the President of the United States--a document occupying a dozen columns of solid brevier and minion--set up and put to press within forty-two minutes from the time it reached our office. _Anything_ can be accomplished, now-a-days, if we but will it." "But, you say you _are about_ to write it. When will the 'copy' be ready?" said the stereotyper. "I have thought of this," I replied, "but a few hours. The _title_, even, is not yet decided upon. I will give you fifty pages of manuscript to-morrow morning, the next day I will add another fifty, and you shall have the whole in hand by Friday morning." He kindly undertook to aid me. I engaged three engravers, who worked day and night upon the drawings and transfers of the fowls for my illustrations; the paper was wet down on Monday and Tuesday; I read the final revised proof of my work on Wednesday night; the book went to press on Thursday; the binders were ready for it as it came up, the covers were put on on Friday morning, and I sent to the New York house (who had bespoken them), by Harnden's Express, on Friday evening, three thousand five hundred copies of the "NEW ENGLAND POULTRY-BREEDER," _illustrated with twenty-five correct engravings_ of _my_ choice, magnificent, superb, unapproachable, pure-bred fowls. This book had an extraordinary sale,--far beyond my own calculations, certainly. I got it out for the purpose of "doing justice" to my own stock, and calculated that it would prove a good advertising medium for me,--which it _did_, by the way. But the demand for the "New England Poultry-Breeder" was immense. And _thirteen_ different editions (varying from three thousand five hundred to one thousand copies each) were issued within as many weeks, and were sold, every copy of them. This is the true history of the "New England Poultry-Breeder." By and by Dr. Bennett's book appeared. The market was now glutted with this kind of thing, and this work, though a good one, generally, dragged on the hands of its originators. I doubt if a thousand copies of this book ever found their way into the market, the author being too deeply engrossed with his then thriving trade, to trouble himself about urging the sale of his book, or of thinking about the interests of his publishers. CHAPTER V. THREATENING INDICATIONS. Another meeting was now called at the Statehouse, which was even more fully attended than the first, and at which much more serious indications of enthusiasm were apparent. Old men, and middle-aged farmers, and florists, and agriculturists, and live-stock breeders, from all parts of this and the neighboring states, congregated together on this eventful occasion, and entered into the debate with an earnestness worthy of so important and "glorious" a cause. Some of the speakers had by this time got to be so elated and so ardent that they rehearsed all they knew, and some of them told of a great deal more than themselves or anybody else had ever dreamed of, bearing upon the subject of poultry-raising. But, really, the subject was an exciting one, and the talkers were excusable; they couldn't help it! Shades of morus multicaulis victims! Shadows of defunct tulip-growers! Spirits of departed Merino sheep speculators! Ghosts of dead Berkshire pig fanciers! Where were ye all on that eventful night, when six hundred sober, "respectable" representatives of "the people" were assembled within the walls of our time-honored state edifice upon Beacon Hill, in serious and animated conclave, to decide the momentous question that "hens _was_ hens," notwithstanding, nevertheless! "Mr. President," exclaimed one of these gentlemen (whose speech was not publicly reported, I think), "Mr. President, the times is propishus. We're a-enterin' on a new ery. The _people_ is a-movin' in this 'ere great, and wonderful, and extraordinary--I may say, Mr. President, this 'ere soul-stirrin' and 'lectrefyin--branch of interestin' rural erconomy." (Applause, during which the speaker advanced a step or two nearer to the presiding officer's desk, wiped his nose fiercely upon a fiery-red bandanna handkerchief, and proceeded.) "The world, Mr. President," he continued, "is a-growin' wiser ev'ry day,--I may say ev'ry hour, Mr. President! Ay, sir, ev'ry minute." (Loud applause, amid which one old gentleman in a bob-wig was particularly vociferous.) "I say, Mr. President, the people is a-growin' wiser continu'lly; and by that expression, sir, I mean to convey the idee that they are a-gettin' to know more, sir! Who will gainsay this position? Whar's the man--whar's the er--individooal, sir--that'll stan' up 'ere to-night, in this hallowed hall, under the shadder of this doom above our heads, sir, in view of the great American eagle yender,--that 'bird of promise,' sir,--and dispute the assertion that I now make, Mr. President, as an American citizen, without fear and without reproach!" (Deafening shouts of "Nobody! nobody _can_ dispute it!") "No, _sir_! I think not, I wot not, I ventur' not, I cal'k'late _not_! I say, Mr. President, it is no use for nun of us to contend agin the mighty ingine of progress; 'nless we'd like to get our crowns mashed in for our pains, sir. That's the way it 'pears to _me_; and I've no doubt that this 'nlitened ordinance now present, sir, will agree with me on _this_ p'int, and admit the truth that present indications, sir, p'int, with strikin' force, to the proberble likelihood that the deeds begun here to-night must be forever perpetooated hereafter, and that--a--they will--er--go down, sir, to our children, and our children's children, _a posteriori_, in the futur, forever!" ("Yes, yes!" and thundering applause.) "But, sir, the p'int at issoo seems to me to be clear as the broad-faced sun on a cloudy day. I'm no speaker, sir. I am not the man, sir, that goes about to proclaim on tops of houses! I'm a quiet citizen, and calls myself one o' 'the people,' sir. But w'en the questions comes up of _this_ natur',--w'en it 'pears to me to be so clear and so transparent,--w'en the people goes abroad, sir, in their might, and--er--and can't stay ter home,--w'en _such_ things occurs, sir, then _I'm round_!" (Shouts of "Good! good! good!" the respectable old gentleman in the bob-wig creating a cloud of dust about him with his stamping and excited gestures.) "Mr. President, I have a'most done----" ("No, no! Go on, go on!" from all parts of the house.) "No, sir; as I've said afore, I'm no speaker, an' I make no pretenshuns to oraterry. I'm a plain man, sir; but I feel deeply interested in this subject." (Nobody had yet ascertained what the "subject" was, because the gentleman hadn't alluded to any.) "And, sir, I feel that I should be unjust to myself and to this ordinance ef I did not say what I have, sir. I go in for the poultry-breedin', sir, all over! Sir, I love 'em, I love 'em,--an' who shall _dar'_ To chide me for lovin' and praisin' them _'are_? "I love 'em, sir,--chickens or poultry,--dead or alive. My father afore me loved 'em, sir; and I'm rejoiced to see the feelin's that's exhibited here to-night. And, 'less anybody should suspect that I have ventured upon these few remarks with mercenary motives, Mr. President (though _perhaps_ no such suppersishun would animate no man's bosom), I will state, sir, that I have no fowls to sell, sir,--none whatever. _No_, sir! not a fowl! I'm a buyer, sir,--I want to _buy_," shouted the excited man,--and he sat down amid the deafening plaudits of his associates at this meeting, who fully appreciated his speech and his palpable disinterestedness. (_Item._--I found this gentleman the next day, and informed him that I had heard of his destitution. I had understood that he had no poultry, but was in search of _pure-blooded_ stock. Before night I had fully supplied him with _genuine_ samples, at thirty dollars a pair, and no "discount for cash.") Before this meeting concluded, the prices of fowls, and eggs, and feathers, were duly discussed, the details of which I will defer to the next chapter. But all the indications at this convention were really of a threatening character; and it would have required the strength of several stout men to have held certain of the speakers as they got warmed up, and rattled away, for dear life, upon the advantages that must accrue to the nation, in a thousand ways, from the encouragement of this epidemic, and the certain, inevitable losses that must be sustained by "the people" if they didn't go into this thing with a rush. Most of these speakers, however, had fowls _for sale_! CHAPTER VI. THE EPIDEMIC SPREADING. While all this was transpiring, my "splendid" Cochin-China fowls had arrived from England, and I had had a nice house arranged, in which to keep and exhibit them to visitors. The pullets began to lay in January, 1850, and immediately afterwards my trade commenced in earnest, which continued, without interruption, up to the close of the year 1854. Among the "monstrosities" presented at the second meeting at the Boston Statehouse were several propositions that were suggested by gentlemen-amateurs and farmers in regard to the price that should be fixed on, by members of the Society with the elongated title, for _eggs_ sold for incubation. One man thought that _two_ dollars a dozen for most of the fancy kinds would pay well. This gentleman (I do not remember who he was) probably calculated to furnish fancy eggs as a certain agricultural concern had been doing for some months: that is, by first purchasing them at a shilling a dozen from the eastern packets, or in Quincy Market. The next man thought that _three_ dollars per dozen would be fair. Another member believed that _one_ dollar was enough for twelve eggs, "but he didn't know much about it," he acknowledged; which was pretty evident from his remarks. At any rate, he had never fed a "laying hen" long enough on good corn to ascertain how much she would devour while she was furnishing him with the said twelve eggs, I imagine! One gentleman, more liberally disposed, probably, ventured to express his willingness to pay _five_ dollars a dozen for what he wanted. I understood he got home safely after the meeting, though it was feared he would be mobbed for his temerity in making this ridiculous offer! I had already fixed _my_ price for the eggs that were to be dropped by my "extraordinary and superb" Cochin-China fowls, which by this time had got to be "the admiration of the State" (so the newspapers said). I had the _best_ fowls in this world, or in any other; this being conceded by every one who saw them, there was no necessity of "talking the subject up" to anybody. I charged _twelve_ dollars a dozen for my eggs--and never winked at it! And why shouldn't I have the highest price? Were not my fowls the "choicest specimens" ever seen in America? Didn't everybody so declare? Didn't the press and the poultry-books concede this, without an exception? Well, they did! And so, for months, I obtained one dollar each for my Cochin-China fowls' eggs; and I received order after order, and remittance after remittance, for eggs (at this figure), which I could not _begin_ to supply. And I didn't laugh, either! I had no leisure to laugh. I filled the orders as they came,--"first come, first served,"--and for several months I found my list of promises six or eight weeks in advance of my ability to meet them with _genuine_ eggs. I was not so well informed, then, as I was afterwards. I think all the eggs that were then wanted _might_ have been had. But, as the boy said, when asked where all the stolen peaches he had eaten were gone, "I donno!" Will it be credited that, during the summer of 1850, I had dozens of full-grown men--gentlemen--but enthusiastic hen-fanciers (who had contracted the fever suddenly), who came to my residence for Cochin-China eggs, at one dollar each, and who, upon being informed that I hadn't one in the house, would quietly sit down in my parlor and wait two, three, or four hours at a time, _for the hens to lay them a few_, that they might take them away with them? Such is the fact, however it may be doubted. I subsequently sold the eggs at ten dollars a dozen; then at six dollars; and finally, the third and fourth years, at five dollars. This paid me, because I sent off a great many. But they didn't hatch well after having been transported away and shaken over in the hands of careless and ignorant or reckless express agents. Thus the buyers came again. Many of the early fanciers tried this experiment over and over again, but with similar ill-success; and when they had expended ten, twenty, or thirty dollars, perhaps, for eggs, they would begin at the _beginning_ aright, and purchase a few chickens to rear, from which they could finally procure their own eggs, and go forward more successfully. But all this took time to bring it about. And meanwhile _somebody_ (I don't say who) was "feathering a certain nest" as rapidly as a course of high-minded and honorable dealing with his fellow-men would permit. CHAPTER VII. ALARMING DEMONSTRATIONS. My premises were literally besieged with visitors, and my family attendants were worn out with answering the door-bell summons, from morning till night. "Is Mr. B---- at home? Can we see his Cochin-Chinas? Can we look at Mr. B----'s fowls? Might we take a look at the chickens?" were the questions from sun to sun again, almost; and I was absolutely compelled, in self-defence, to send the fowls away from home, for a while, for the sake of relief from the continual annoyances to which, in consequence of having them in my yard, I was subjected. Fifteen, twenty, often forty callers in a single day, would come to see my "magnificent" Cochin-China fowls. But I sent them off, and then "the people" cried for them! "Who's dead?" queried a stranger, passing my door one day, and observing the carriages and vehicles standing in a line along the front of my garden-fence. "Nobody, I guess," said another; "that's where the _Cochin-Chinas_ are kept." "The what?" "The Cochin-Chinas." "What's them?" "Don't you know?" "No; never heard of 'em, afore." "Never heard of Burnham's Cochin-Chinas?" "Never! What are they?" "Well, I reckon you ha'n't lived in these 'ere parts long, my friend," continued the other; "and you'd better step in and look at 'em." In came the stranger, and after examining the fowls he returned. "How do you like 'em?" asked the man who had already seen them, and was waiting for his friend outside. "They're _ronchers_, that's a fact!" exclaimed the gratified stranger. And this was the universal opinion. Nobody had ever seen such fowls (_I_ had seen a good many better ones!)--nobody had ever beheld any so large, so heavy, so fine. And every one who came to look at them purchased or engaged either eggs or chickens from these "extraordinary" and "never-to-be-too-much-lauded" royal Cochin-China fowls! For my first broods of chickens (at three and four months old) I readily obtained twenty-five dollars a pair; and every one of them went off "like hot cakes" at this figure. It was too low for them, altogether; and I had occasion to regret, subsequently, that I did not charge fifty dollars a pair;--a price which I might just as easily then have obtained as if I had charged but one dollar a pair, as events proved to my satisfaction. But everything connected with this fever could not well be learned at once. I was not a very dull scholar, and I progressed gradually. One year after the receipt of my Cochins, I got my own price for them, ask what I might. I sold a good many pairs at one hundred dollars the couple; and, oftentimes, I received this sum for a trio of them. Things begun to look up with me. I had got a very handsome-looking stock on hand, at last; and when my numerous customers came to see me, they were surprised (and so was _I_) to meet with such "noble" samples of domestic fowls. "Magnificent!" "Astonishing!" cried everybody. A splendid open carriage halted before my door, one day, and there alighted from it a fine, portly-looking man, whom I had never seen before, and whose name I did not then learn; who, leaving an elegantly-dressed lady behind in the vehicle, called for me. I saw and recognized the _carriage_, however, as one of Niles'; and I was satisfied that it came from the Tremont House. As soon as the gentleman spoke, I was also satisfied, from his manner of speech, that he was a Southerner. He was polite and frank, apparently. I invited him in, and he went to look at my fowls; that being the object, he said, of his visit. He examined them all, and said, quietly: "I'd like to get half a dozen of these, if they didn't come too high; but I understand you fanciers have got the price up. I used to buy these chickens for a dollar apiece. _Now_, they say, you're asking five dollars each for them." I showed him my stock,--the "_pure_-bred" ones,--and informed him at once that I had not sold any of _my_ chickens, latterly, at less than _forty_ dollars a pair. He was astounded. He didn't want any--much: that is, he wasn't particular. He could buy them for five dollars; shouldn't pay that, _no_how; wanted them for his boy; would come again, and see about it, &c. &c. A five-year-old stag mounted the low fence at this moment, and sent forth an electrifying crow, such as would (at that period) have taken a novice "right out of his boots;" and a beautiful eight-pound pullet showed herself beside him at the same time. The stranger turned round, and said: "There! What is your price for such a pair as that, for instance?" "Not for sale, sir." "But you _will_ sell them, I s'pose?" "No, sir. I have younger ones to dispose of; but _that_ pair are my models. I can't sell _them_." The gentleman's eye was exactly filled with this pair of chickens. "What will you _take_ for those two fowls?" "One hundred dollars, sir," I replied. "I guess you will--when you can get it," he added.--"Name your lowest price, now, for those two. I want _good_ ones, if any." "I prefer to keep them, rather than to part with them at _any_ price," I insisted. "If, however, a gentleman like yourself, who evidently knows what good fowls are, desires to procure the choicest specimens in the country, why, I confess to you that those are the persons into whose hands I prefer that my best stock should fall. But I will show you some at a lower figure," I continued, driving this pair from the fence. "Don't you! Don't drive 'em away!" said the gentleman;--"let's see. That's the cock?" "Yes, sir." "And this is the hen?" "Yes." "One _hundred_ dollars! You don't _mean_ this, of course," he persisted. "No, I mean that I would rather keep them, sir." "Well--I'll----_take them_," said the stranger. "It's cruel. But, I'll take them;" and he paid me five twenty-dollar gold pieces down on the spot, for two ten-months-old chickens, from my "splendid" Royal Cochin-China fowls. He had a tender spot _somewhere_, that I had hit, during the conversation, I presume. He took the two chickens into his carriage, and I have never seen or heard from him from that day to this. I trust, however, if "these few lines" should ever meet his eye, that his poultry turned out well, and that he himself is in good health and spirits! I called this gallant young cock "Frank Pierce," in honor of my valiant friend now of the White House, at Washington. It will be seen that I thus sold Frank for fifty dollars; a sum which the majority of the people of this country have since most emphatically determined was _a good deal more than he ever was worth_! CHAPTER VIII. THE FEVER WORKING. About this time an ex-member of Congress, formerly from Pennsylvania, was invited to deliver the address before one of the county agricultural societies of that state (where the fever had now begun to spread with alarming rapidity), who, in the course of his speech on that occasion, delivered himself of the following pointed and forcible remark. Speaking of poultry and the rare qualities of certain domestic fowls, he said, "Ladies and gentlemen, next to a beautiful woman, and an honest farmer, I deem a Shanghae cock the noblest work of God!" Now, this expression might be looked upon, by some persons, as savoring of demagogism, or, at the least, as an approach to "running this thing into the ground" (or into the air); but the honorable gentleman no doubt felt just what he said. I have seen many sensible men who felt worse than this--a good deal--on this self-same subject; and who expressed themselves much more warmly in regard to the characteristics and beauties of domestic poultry; but, to be sure, it was _after_ they had "gone through the mill," and had come out at the _small_ end of the funnel. In New England, especially, prior to the _second_ show of poultry in Boston, the fever had got well up to "concert pitch;" and in New York State "the people" were getting to be very comfortably interested in the subject--where _my_ stock, by this time, had come to be pretty extensively known. The expenses attendant upon this part of the business, to wit, the process of furnishing the requisite amount of information for "the people" (on a subject of such manifestly great importance), the _quantum sufficit_ in the way of drawings, pictures, advertisements, puffings, etc., through the medium of the press, can be _imagined_, not described. The cost of the drawings and engravings which I had executed for the press, from time to time, during the years 1850, '51, '52, and '53, exceeded over eight hundred dollars; but this, with the descriptions of my "rare" stock (which I usually furnished the papers, accompanying the cuts), was _my_ chosen mode of advertising. And I take this method publicly to acknowledge my indebtedness to the press for the kindness with which I was almost uniformly treated, while I was thus seriously affected by the epidemic which destroyed so many older and graver men than myself; though few who survived the attack "suffered" more seriously than I did, during the course of the fever. For instance, the large picture of the fowls which I had the pleasure of sending to Her Majesty Queen Victoria (in 1852), and which appeared in _Gleason's Pictorial_, the _New York Spirit of the Times_, _New England Cultivator_, &c., cost me, for the original drawing, engraving, electrotyping, and duplicating, _eighty-three dollars_. All these expenses were cheerfully paid, however, because I found my reward in the consciousness that I performed the duty I owed to my fellow-men, by thus aiding (in my humble way) in disseminating the information which "the people" were at that time so ravenously in search of, namely, as to the person of whom they could obtain (without regard to price) the _best_ fowls in the country. This was what "the people" wanted; and thus the malady extended far and wide, and when the fall of 1850 arrived, buyers had got to be as plenty as blackberries in August, whilst sellers "of reputation" were, like the visits of angels, few and far between. _I_ was, by this time, considered "one of 'em." I strove, however, to carry my honors with Christian meekness and forbearance, and with that becoming consideration for the wants and the wishes of my fellow-men that rendered myself and my "purely-bred stock" so universally popular. Ah! when I look back on the past,--when I reflect upon the noble generosity and disinterestedness that characterized all my transactions at that flush period,--when I think of what I did for "the cause," and how liberally I was rewarded for my candor, my honesty of purpose, and my disingenuousness,--tears of gratitude and wonder rush to my eyes, and my overcharged heart only finds its solace by turning to my ledger and reading over, again and again, the list of prices that were then paid me by "the people," week after week, and month after month, for my "magnificent samples" of "pure-bred" Cochin-China chickens, the original of which I had imported, and which were _said_ to have been bred from the stock of the Queen of Great Britain. But, the Mutual Admiration----I mean, the "Society" whose name was like "Lengthened sweetness, long drawn out," was about to hold its second annual exhibition; and, as the number of its members had largely increased, and as each and all of those who pulled the wires of this concern (while at the same time they were pulling the wool over the eyes of "the people") had plans of their own in reference to details, I made up my mind, although I felt big enough to stand up even in this huge hornet's nest of competition, to have things to suit _my_ "notions." I _now_ had fowls to sell! I had raised a large quantity of chickens; winter was approaching, corn was high, they required shelter, the _roup_ had destroyed scores of fowls for my neighbors, and I didn't care to winter over three or four hundred of these "splendid" and "mammoth" specimens of ornithology, each one of which could very cleverly dispose of more grain, in the same number of months, than would serve to keep one of my heifers in tolerable trim. Such restrictions were proposed by the officers of the Society with the lengthened cognomen, that my naturally democratic disposition revolted against the arbitrary measures talked of, and I resolved to get up an exhibition of my own, where this matter could be talked over at leisure, and which I did not doubt would "turn an honest penny" into my own pocket; where, though I had done _well_ thus far, there was still room, as there was in hungry Oliver Twist's belly, for "more." [Illustration] CHAPTER IX. THE SECOND POULTRY-SHOW IN BOSTON. On the 2d, 3d, and 4th days of October, in the year of our Lord 1850, the "grand exhibition" (so the _Report_ termed it), for that year, came off at the large hall over the Fitchburg Railroad Dépôt, in Boston, "which proved a most extensive and inviting one" (so continued the Report), "far exceeding, both in _numbers_ and in the _quality_ of specimens offered, anything of its kind ever got up in America. "The birds looked remarkably fine in every respect, and the undertaking was very successful. A magnificent show of the feathered tribe greeted the thousands of visitors who called at the hall, and all parties expressed their satisfaction at the proceedings. "The Committee awarded to George P. Burnham, of Melrose, the _first_ premiums for fowls and chickens. The prize birds were the '_Royal Cochin-Chinas_' and their progeny, which have been bred with care from his imported stock; and which were generally acknowledged at the head of the list of specimens." The prices obtained at this exhibition ranged very high, and "full houses" were constantly in attendance, day and evening, to examine and select and purchase from the "pure-bred" stock there. "Mr. Burnham, of Melrose" (continued the Report), "declined an offer of $120 for his twelve premium Cochin-China chickens, and subsequently refused $20 for the choice of the pullets." "The show was much larger than the first one, and the character of the birds exhibited was altogether finer, though the old fowls were, for the most part, moulting. A deep interest was manifested in this enterprise, and it went off with satisfaction to all concerned," added the Report. In order that the details of this experiment (which _I_ projected and carried through, myself) may be appreciated and understood, I extract from the "official" Report the following items regarding this show, the expenses, the prize-takers, &c. The "Committee of Judges," consisting of myself, G.P. Burnham, Esq., and a gentleman of Melrose, made the following statements and "observations," in the _Report_ above referred to: "The Exhibition was visited by full ten thousand persons, during the three days mentioned. The amount of money received for tickets was four hundred and seventy-three dollars and thirty-eight cents; and the following disbursements were made: Cash paid for rent of hall, $175.00 " " amount of premiums and gratuities, 135.00 " " for lumber and use of tables, 17.60 " " for lighting hall, advertising, etc., 70.40 " " tickets, cards and handbills, 18.21 " " carpenters and attendants, 27.50 " " police and door-keepers, 15.00 " " grain, seed, buckets, pans, etc., 25.56 " " coops, cartage and sundries, 7.37 ------ Total expenses, $491.64 Amount received, as stated, 473.38 ------ Deficit, $18.26" When the state of the funds was subsequently more particularly inquired into, however, it was found that the amount of money actually received at the door was a little rising _nine_ hundred and seventy dollars, instead of "_four_ hundred and seventy-three," as above quoted. But this was a trifling matter; since the "Committee of Judges" spoken of above accounted for this sum, duly, in the final settlement. The "Committee" aforesaid awarded the following premiums at this show, after attending to the examination confided to them--namely: "_First_ premium, for the best six fowls contributed, to _George P. Burnham_, of Melrose, Mass., $10. "For the three best Cochin-China Fowls (Royal), to _George P. Burnham_, Melrose, Mass., $5. "For the twelve best chickens, of this year's growth (Royal Cochin-China), to _George P. Burnham_, Melrose, $5." And there were some _other_ premiums awarded, I believe, there, but by which I was not particularly benefited; and so I pass by this matter without further remark, entertaining no doubt whatever that all the gentlemen who were awarded premiums (and who obtained the amount of the awards) exhibited at the Fitchburg Hall Show _pure_-bred fowls. After making these awards, the "Committee of Judges" (consisting, as aforesaid, of myself, Mr. Burnham, and a fancier from Melrose) state that "they find great pleasure"--(mark this!)--"they find great pleasure in alluding again to the splendid contributions" of some of the gentlemen who had fowls in this show,--and then the Report continues as follows: "The magnificent samples of _Cochin-China_ fowls, contributed by G.P. Burnham, of Melrose, were the theme of much comment and deserved praise. These birds include his imported fowls and their progeny--of which he exhibited nineteen splendid specimens. To this stock the Committee unanimously awarded the _first_ premiums for fowls and chickens; and finer samples of domestic birds will rarely be found in this country. They are bred from the Queen's variety, obtained by Mr. Burnham last winter, at heavy cost, through J. Joseph Nolan, Esq., of Dublin, and are unquestionably, at this time, the finest thorough-bred Cochin-Chinas in America." My early hen-friend the "Doctor"--alluded to in the opening chapter of this book--exhibited a fowl which the "Committee" thus described in their report: "The rare and beautiful imported _Wild India Game_ hen, contributed by Mr. B.F. Griggs, Columbus, Geo., was a curiosity much admired. This fowl (lately sold by Dr. J.C. Bennett, of Plymouth, to Mr. Griggs, for $120) is thorough game, without doubt; and her progeny, exhibited by Dr. Bennett, were very beautiful specimens. To this bird, and the '_Yankee Games_' of Dr. Bennett, the Committee awarded a gratuity of $5." So miserable a _hum_ as this was, I never met with, in all my long _Shanghae_ experience. It out-bothered the Doctor's famous "Bother'ems," and really out-_Cochined_ even my noted Cochin-Chinas! But I was content, _I_ was one of the "Committee of Judges." I had forgot! This Committee's Report was thus closed: "It has been the aim of the Committee to do _justice_ to all who have taken an interest in the late Fowl Exhibition, and they congratulate the gentlemen who have sustained this enterprise upon its success." They did _ample_ justice to this Wild Bengal Injun Hen, that is certain. The Cochin-China trade received an impulse (after this show concluded) that astonished even _me_, and I am not easily disturbed in this traffic. And I have no doubt that the people who paid their money to witness this never-to-be-forgotten (by me) exhibition, were also satisfied. The experiment was perfectly successful, however, throughout. I forwarded to all my patrons and friends copies of this Report, beautifully illustrated; and the orders for "_pure_-bred chickens from the _premium_ stock" rushed in upon me, for the next four or five months, with renewed vigor and spirit. This first exhibition at the Fitchburg Dépôt Hall proved to me a satisfactorily profitable advertisement, as I carried away all the premiums there that were of any value to anybody. But then it will be observed that the "Committee of Judges" of this show were my "friends." And, at that time, the competition had got to be such that all the dealers acted upon the general democratic principle of going "for the greatest good of the greatest number." In my case, I considered the "greatest number" Number _One_! CHAPTER X. THE MUTUAL ADMIRATION SOCIETY'S SECOND SHOW. In the month following, to wit, on the 12th, 13th and 14th of November, 1850, the second annual exhibition of the Simon Pure Society with the extended title was held at the Public Garden, in Boston. No premiums were offered by the society this year, and there wasn't much to labor for. I was a contributor, and I believe I was elected a member of the Committee of Judges that year. How, I did not know. At any rate, I wrote the published _Report_ upon the exhibition. A Mr. Sanford Howard was chairman of this committee, if I remember rightly; and though undoubtedly a very respectable and well-meaning man (if he had not been so, he wouldn't have been placed on a Committee of Judges with _me_, I imagine), this Mr. Howard knew positively _nothing_ whatever in regard to the merits or faults of poultry generally. He had acquired some vague notions about what he was pleased to term "crested" fowls, and five-toed, white-legged, white-plumed, white-billed, white-bellied Dorkings,--of which he conversed technically and learnedly; but as to his knowledge of the different varieties and breeds of domestic poultry then current, and their characteristics, it was evidently warped and very limited. But Mr. Howard had been connected for some months with a small monthly publication in New York State, and, like myself, I presume, among the board (God knows who they were, but _I_ don't, and never did!) who originally chose this "Committee," he had "a friend at court," and was made _chairman_ of the committee too,--_how_, I never knew, either. In their Report, the Committee observe, again, that "_never_ in this country, if in the world, was there collected together so large a number of domestic fowls and birds as were sent to this exhibition, probably; and, though the most liberal arrangements were made in advance, it was found that the accommodations, calculated for _ten thousand specimens_, were entirely insufficient. The Committee merely allude to this fact to show the actual extent of this enterprise, and the importance which the undertaking has assumed, in a single year from the birth of the Association. "According to the records of the Secretary, there were contributed to the Society's exhibition of 1850 some four hundred and eighty coops and cages. There were in all over three hundred and fifty contributors; in addition to which about forty coops, containing some six hundred fowls, were sent to the Garden and received on exhibition upon the two last days of the Show; and which could not be recorded agreeably with the regulations made originally. "The palpable improvement in the appearance of the fowls exhibited in 1850, as compared with the samples shown in 1849, offers ample encouragement to breeders for _further and more extended efforts_; and your Committee would urge it upon those who have already shown themselves competent to do so much, _to go on and effect still greater progress_ in the improvement of the poultry of New England." This Report (the second of the series) did _my_ stock ample justice, I have not a doubt. I wrote it myself, and intended that it should do so. The text was in nowise changed when printed, and a reference to the document (for that year) will convince the skeptical--if any exist--whether I was or was not acquainted with adjectives in the superlative degree! A very singular occurrence took place about this time, the _basis_ of which I did not then, and have never since, been able to comprehend, upon any principles of philosophy, economy, business, benevolence, or even of sanity. But I am not very clear-headed. In the _addenda_ to my Report (above named) there appeared the annexed statement, by somebody: "The Trustees refer to the following with mixed pride and pleasure; the munificence and motive of the gift are most creditable. A voluntary kindness such as that of Mr. Smith is a very gratifying proof that the labors of the Society are not regarded by enlightened men as vain: "_Boston, 12th February, 1851._ "G.W. SMITH, ESQ. "SIR: A meeting of the Trustees of the 'New England Society for the Improvement of Domestic Poultry' was held last evening, Col. Samuel Jaques, President of the Society, in the chair, and a full quorum being present, when the Treasurer announced the receipt of your very handsome _donation of one hundred and fifty dollars_ in aid of the Society's funds; whereupon it was moved, and unanimously agreed, that the most grateful thanks of the Society were justly due to you for such a munificent testimony of your desire for its prosperity; that the Secretary communicate to you the assurance of the high appreciation with which the donation was received; and that its receipt, and also a thankful expression of gratitude towards you, should be placed on the records of the Society. "I can only reiterate the sentiments contained in my instructions, in which I fully and gratefully concur; and, with best wishes for your long-continued welfare, "I am, sir, very truly yours, "JOHN C. MOORE, _Rec. Secretary_." Now, it will be observed that this was not _John_ Smith who presented this sum, but another gentleman, and a different sort of individual altogether. He gave it (one hundred and fifty dollars in hard cash) the full value of a nice pair of my _best_ "pure-bred" Cochin-Chinas, without flinching, without any fuss, outright, freely, "in aid of the Society's funds." Liberal, generous, benevolent, charitable, kindly Mr. Smith! You did yourself honor! _You_ were one of the kind of men that I should very much liked to have had for a customer, about those days. But, after due inquiry, I ascertained that you did not keep, or breed, poultry. You were only a "friend" to the Society with the elongated name,--the _only_ friend, by the way, it ever had! Heaven will reward you, Mr. Smith, sooner or later, for your disinterestedness, but the Society never can. Be patient, however, and console yourself with the reflection that he who giveth to the poor, lendeth, &c. &c. The Society with the long-winded title was _poor_ enough, and you cannot have forgotten that he who casteth his bread (or money) upon the waters will find it, after many days. You will find yours again, I have no doubt; but it will be emphatically "after _many_ days." The second show closed, the expenses of which reached the sum of one thousand and twenty-seven dollars eighteen cents, and the receipts at which amounted to one thousand and seventy-nine dollars eighty-four cents, exclusive of the above-named donation. The Society had now a balance of two hundred and two dollars sixty-six cents in hand, and it went on its way rejoicing. COL. JAQUES (the first President) now "resigned his commission," and MOSES KIMBALL, Esq., was chosen in his stead. I found myself once more among the Vice Presidents, John C. Moore was elected Secretary, Dr. Eben Wight was made Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and H.L. Devereux became Treasurer for the succeeding year. These officers were all "honorable men" who were thus placed in position _to watch each other_! The delightful consequences can readily be fancied. What my own duties were (as Vice-President) I never knew. I supposed, however, that, as "one of 'em" thus elevated in official rank, I was expected to do my uttermost to keep the bubble floating, and to aid, in my humble way, to maintain the inflation. And I acted accordingly; performing my duty "as I understood it"! [Illustration] CHAPTER XI. PROGRESS OF THE MALADY. Immediately after this second exhibition, the sales of poultry largely increased. Everybody had now got fairly under weigh in the hen-trade; and in every town, at every corner, the pedestrian tumbled over either a fowl-raiser or some huge specimen of unnameable monster in chicken shape. I had been busy, and had added largely to my "superior" stock of "pure-blooded" birds, by importations from Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Canton and Shanghae, direct. In two instances I sent out for them expressly, and in two or three other instances I had obtained them directly from on shipboard, as vessels arrived into Boston and New York harbors. I was then an officer in the Boston Custom-house,--a democrat under a whig collector,--otherwise, a live skinned eel in a hot frying-pan. But I found that my business had got to be such that I could not fulfil my duty to Uncle Sam and attend appropriately to what had now got to be of very much greater importance to me; and so I resigned my situation as Permit Clerk at the public stores, very much to the regret of everybody in and out of the Custom-house, and especially those who were applicants for my place! I had purchased a pretty estate in Melrose, and now I enlarged my premises, added to my stock, and raised (during the summer and fall of 1851) over a thousand fowls, upon my premises. This did not begin to supply the demands of my customers, however, or even approach it. And, to give an idea of my trade at that period, I will here quote a letter from one of my new patrons. It came from the interior of Louisiana, in the fall of 1851. "GEO. P. BURNHAM, ESQ., BOSTON. "I am about to embark in the raising of poultry, and I hear of yourself as an extensive breeder in this line. Do me the favor to inform me, by return mail, what you can send me _one hundred pairs_ of Chinese fowls for, of the yellow, red, white, brown and black varieties; the cocks to be not less than eight to ten months old, and pullets ready to lay; say twenty pairs of each color. And also state how I shall remit you, in case your price suits me, &c. "---- ----." I informed this gentleman that I had just what he wanted (of course), and that if he would remit me a draft by mail for fifteen hundred dollars--though this price was really too low for them--I would forward him one hundred pairs of fowls "that would astonish him and his neighbors." Within three weeks from the date of my reply to him, I received a sight draft from the Bank of Louisiana upon the Merchants' Bank, Boston, for fifteen hundred dollars. I sent him such an invoice of fowls as pleased him, and I have no doubt he was (as he seemed to be) perfectly satisfied that he had thus made the best trade he ever consummated in the whole course of his life. During the next spring I bred largely again, and supplied all the best fanciers in New England and New York State with stock, from which _they_ bred continually during that and the succeeding year. In the spring of 1852 the Mutual Admiration Society of hen-men got up their _third_ show, at the Fitchburg Dépôt (in _May_, I think), where a goodly exhibition came off, and where there were now fowls _for sale_ of every conceivable color and description, good, bad, and indifferent. I contributed as usual, and, as usual, carried away the palm for the _best_ samples shown. And here was evinced some of the shifts to which certain hucksters resorted, to make "the people" believe that white was black, that they originally brought this subject before the public eye, and that _they_ only possessed the pure stock then in the country. Reverends, and doctors, and deacons, and laymen,--all were there, in force. Every man cried down every other man's fowls, while he as strenuously cried up his own. Upon one cage appeared a card vouching for the fact that a certain _original_ Shanghae crower within it, all the way from the land of the Celestials, weighed fourteen pounds and three ounces, and that a hen, with him, drew nine pounds six ounces (almost twenty-four pounds). When the birds were weighed, the first drew ten and a half pounds, and the other eight and a quarter only. This memorandum appeared upon the box of a _clergyman_ contributor, who had understood that size and great weight only were to be the criterion of merit and value thenceforward. Another contributor boldly declared himself to be the original holder of the only good stock in America. A third claimed to be the father of the current movement, and had a gilded vane upon his boxes which he asserted he had had upon his poultry-house for five years previously. Another stated that all my fowls (there shown) were bred from _his_ stock. And still another proclaimed that the identical birds which I contributed were purchased directly of him; he knew every one of them. Finally, one competitor impudently hinted that my birds actually then belonged to _him_, and had only been _loaned_ to me (for a consideration) for exhibition on this occasion! When the fair closed, however, the matter was all set right, as may be gathered from the following extract from the official Report of the third show, of the Committee of Judges, of which I was _not_ a member: "At this third Boston Show," says the Committee, "the best and most faultless descriptions of Red and Buff Shanghaes were shown by G.P. Burnham, Esq., and others. And of the Cochin-Chinas, the specimens of Geo. P. Burnham, etc., were each and all notable, and worthy of public appreciation." This was satisfactory to me, and I made the most of this "werry fav'rable opinion" of the august Committee,--who added the following, in their Report, in reference to the action of Southern purchasers: "It seems, from reliable information received by members of the Committee, that fowls raised in New England, and exported South, attain to a much larger size, and are vastly more prolific, than in our colder climate. This is specially so in reference to the produce of stocks recently imported from the East, namely, the Shanghaes, Cochin-China fowls, and others of larger varieties. _So sensible have some of the most eminent Southern breeders become that such is the case, that they are annually in the habit of buying their young stock from the Northern States, and they find the system profitable._ In this way, New England bids fair to become the supply-market, in a great measure, for the South and West." This was beautiful! "_Annually_ in the habit." I liked _that_ portion of it. And Southern buyers seemed to like it, too, judging from the manner in which orders poured in upon us, after this gentle hint from _such_ authority! I believe that the Chinese fowls really did better in the South than they did with us, this way. At least, I _hope_ they did! CHAPTER XII. MY CORRESPONDENCE. By this time my correspondence with gentlemen in all parts of America and Great Britain had got to be rather extended. I took from the post-office from ten to twenty-five or thirty letters, daily; and amongst them were some curious samples of orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. I offer the annexed specimens--of course without names or dates--merely to show how the young aspirants for fame (in the poultry-trade) felt, about those days; and, also, to give some idea of the progress of the fever among us, as time passed by, etc. etc. No. 1. SIR--MR. BURNHAM; i red in Nu england poultry breeder that yu kep fouls an aigs for sail. i want one duzen aigs if tha doant cum tu tu mutch. ime a poor mann an carnt pa a gret pris. wot can yu cend me a duzen of yure best aigs for. ansur by male and direck yure leter tu me tu mi dress. Yr Respec'y, &c. ---- ----. No. 2. MY DEAR SIR: I am a poor clergyman, and I have some leisure, which I can devote to raising a few good fowls. If your price is not too high for the rather limited contents of my purse, please inform me, by return of mail, what you can furnish me with _pure_ Cochin-China eggs for. I am desirous to procure a few; and I prefer that you would select for me,--in a half-dozen, say two _male_ and four _female_ eggs. I suggest this, because I am informed that your long experience in this interesting branch of rural economy has enabled you to decide (upon examining them) whether eggs will produce cocks or pullets. Your early answer will confer a favor on, Sir, yours, truly, ---- -- ----. No. 3. MR. BURMAN: I close you ten dolls. Cend me a doz. of your Cotchen Chiny eggs rite away--cause I hav a hen thats been a setting on some stones I put under her now most a week. You rote me that you would hav them about this time, you know. Cend them by ----'s Express, and tell the man who fetches them not to turn the box over, at all. I want half and half--that is to say, half cock eggs, and half hen eggs. You know what I mean by this. Them that has the sharp ends on to one side--them's the cocks, and them that's round and smooth at both ends--them's the hens. Forwud immediately, and mark _with care glass this side up--don't shake this with speed_. Yours, &c. ---- ----. No. 4. G.P. BURNHAM, ESQ. DEAR SIR: I saw your beautiful Cochin-China fowls last week, in the paper, and am desirous to obtain a few eggs from them, if possible. Will they hatch under our common hens? Or, must we have the _pure_ bloods to sit upon them? I am a novice, somewhat, in this business. I enclose you twelve dollars (the price for a dozen, I believe), which please forward, at your early convenience, by express, and oblige Yours, &c. ---- -- ----. No. 5. FRIEND BURNHAM: Enclosed please find ten dollars for another dozen of your _pure_ Cochin-China eggs. The first ones you sent me (from some cause) did not hatch. I have kept a hen (a very good sitter, too) upon that first lot, _constantly_, for four weeks, now--and I don't believe I shall get a chick, you see! So, please forward these now, _right away_--because my hen will get tired of waiting, you know, if I don't keep her right along, steady. The $10 you will find within. Yours, resp'y, ---- ----. P.S. Can you inform me what is good for _lice_ on fowls? I find that my hen is covered with a million of them, now. Don't forget this, please.[1] No. 6. SUR--wen i cum to boston nex weak i want to see yure poltry i am a ole hand at the bizness myself an I like to see good kinds of poltry every ware. i see yurn in the paper an i like them verry much can yu sel a hen without a cock, i have sevral cocks now of the _black dawkin_ pure bred and fine an i would change one of them with yu for a cochon chiner hen if yu say so. answer by fust male. Yure in haist ---- ----. Mr. P.G. Barnum,} boston.} No. 7. DEAR SIR: Yours duly received. I did not suppose that the price of the "Cochins" was so high--but I must have a trio of them, at _any_ figure. I enclose you fifty dollars for them, agreeably with your proposal, relying upon your known good taste in selections, and upon your proverbial reputation as regards the keeping only of _pure_ stock. Send them by Adams & Co.'s Express, in a roomy cage. If they are prime, my neighbors will very shortly order from you, I am sure. Yours, resp'y, ---- -- ----. No. 8. MR. BARNAM: Them two fowls I bought of you, by seeing the pictur in the newspaper, and which I paid you $35 cash down on the nail for, aint what they're cracked up to be--not by a long short, sir. Now, what I want you to do is to sen me back my munney, or I'll prosecute you and put you in prizon for cheating people by false pertences. I was so mad when I took them out of the box that I'd a good mine to kill an eat em both on the spot.[2] I aint no _hen_-man, I'd have you to understan, an you can't come none of this kine of nonsense over _me_. Sen me back my munney, or I'll complain of you in tu days before a Justis of the Peas--a friend of mine, that'll give you _fits_ if you _air_ a big man. I don't keer for that. I want my munney. The fowls is both sick, too. Answer this tu once, or els sen me back my munney.[3] ---- -- ----. No. 9. G.P. BURNHAM; ESQ.: I saw a cage of superb Cochin-China fowls from your yard, yesterday, _en route_ to Mobile. Can you duplicate them? If so, at what price? I had understood that a Mr. ---- kept choice fowls. I visited his place, but saw none there that seemed worth the taking away. If you can send me such a trio as I saw at Adams & Co.'s, let me know it immediately, and your price for them. How shall I remit you? Yours, &c. ---- ----. No. 10. MR. BURNHAM: I enclose you one hundred dollars, by check on Shoe and Leather Dealers' Bank, Boston (No. 417), to your order, for the fine fowls you describe in yours received this day. They should be _good_ ones, as I have no doubt they are. Forward, at once, And believe me, Yours, ---- -- ----. No. 11. G.B. BURNHAM, BOSTON. SIR: When I paid you $25 (twenty-five dolls.) for a pair of _Cochin-China_ chickens, according to your own terms, I did not suppose you would dare to send to _me_ (whom you must know to be a judge of all kinds of poultry) a pair of _Shanghaes_, instead of those I ordered![4] I want none but _pure_-bred fowls in my collection, nor will I have them there, either. I have now a plenty of the Shanghaes, and I ordered a pair of Cochin-Chinas of you. Now, I want to know what you will do in this matter. Will you send me a pair of _Cochins_, or not? That is all I want to know at present. From Yours, truly, ---- ----. P.S. I am a lawyer by profession; and I submit to no imposition of this sort, you may be sure. No. 12. G.P. BURNHAM. MY DEAR SIR: The magnificent "Cochin-China" birds you forwarded me last are the admiration of every one who beholds them; and I am greatly your debtor for this superb lot of fowls. My neighbor, Hon. Mr. M----, desires me to request you to forward him four as nearly like mine as possible, and your draft on me, at sight, for the cost, will be duly honored. He can afford (and is willing) to pay liberally for them.[5] Charge him accordingly; but be careful that you do not send him finer samples than _mine_ are,--which, by the way, I do not think possible. I enclose you draft for $120, on Merchants' Bank, Boston, for your bill. And am Yours, truly, ---- ----. No. 13. SIR--I hav alwas heerd yu was a scamp, and now I _know_ yu are.[6] Them egs yu sent me was smasht all up, an they was runnin' down the sides of the box. What am I to do with them, sir--do yu think? Do yu spose I've gut money so plenty as to throw it way in this manner? Yu didn't put in _harf_ meal anuf, and the hole of them was spilte, besides being roten I hav no manner of dout. Now if yu send me back the six dolls. that the postmaster see me put into my fust letter to yu, all's well an good. And ef yu don't, see if I don't publis yu and yure caracter tu the hole wurld yu infermus cheet yu. Yu'd aughter be ashamed tu send a man egs that wa, anny how. So no more at present tell I heer from yu. ---- ----. No. 14. FRIEND BURNHAM: I have heard creditable accounts of thy poultry (of the Cochin-China variety), and I am induced from common rumor to believe thee a man who dealeth justly and honorably. I desire to procure a few of these choice fowls, if not too expensive; and will thank thee to inform me what thy price is for such, at ages varying from four to eight months old. Thy early reply will oblige thy friend and well-wisher, ---- ---- ----. No. 15. G.P. BURNHAM, ESQ.--DEAR SIR: Send me ten trios more of the Cochin-China chickens, _immediately_. If you can put them down to $35 the trio, now, it will leave me a better margin. All the others are sold, at $60 the trio. Enclosed is draft on Bank of Commerce, Boston, for $400. In haste, yours, ---- ----. No. 16. SIR-- I want tu get sum coshin chiney aggs, them as will hatch out chickns with fethers onto the leggs an no mistaik. if you got them kind yu can cend me wun dusen an i will cen yu bak the munny wen the chickns is hached with fethers onto there leggs not otherwise. If yu dont like tu cend them on this turms yu can keepe 'em yureself. I bort too duzsen eg in bostun an their wasn't none of em had no fethers on the leg, i mene the chick'ns, wen tha was hached. an I dont expek i shall be fuled no mor by no such humbugg by a good dele. i pade my munny for genwine aigs and I donte see no reesun wy peeple isn't onnest. How could i tell wether their was chickns in the egs or not? of course i cou'dn't. and i doant consider sech bissiness no bettern than cheetin rite out. i bort em _twict_ this wa, an i sharnt be fuled agin arter waitin as I did both times over three weeks. ef yu will plese to sen me the pure aigs abuv menciond and wate tell tha hach fether leggs chickns, well an good, ive no dout yu air a onnest man, cos all the noospapers pufs yu. But sum of the hen traiders aint no better than thaid oughter be--that's _my_ pinion.[7] Yours &c. etc. ---- ----. No. 17. MR. P.B. BURNUM; Sur, If you hav enny of them big Cokin Shiney fowl, that eat off tops of flour barils, I want sum. I gut a big nufoulan dogg that ways hard onto 140 pouns, and I want tu cell him, an git sum of them Cokin Shinys. This dogg is a gud dogg and dont eat much. I feed him on fish and hoggs hasslits and it dont cost much to keep him. He bitt a pedler's arm most off yisterday, but he woudnt be much trubble to you, if you kep him chaind _all the time_ sose he couldnt bite nobody. If you will rite me what you ask for yure fowls, I will inform you what I ask for my dog. I dont want none nless thay can eat off tops of flour barrils, of course. Them's the kind for me.[8] Anser by return mail. Yours Resp'y, ---- ----. [Illustration: THE SHANGHAE REFERRED TO IN LETTER NO. 17.--(See page 80.)] No. 18. G.P. BURNHAM, ESQ.: I have got a Shanghae cock weighing 15-1/2 pounds, and I want a few hens to match him. Can you supply me? My crower stands three feet four inches high, and his middle toe measures 7-1/2 inches in length. What do you think of that? I want six twelve-pound hens. Dr. Bennett can supply me, I presume; but I want _pure_-bred stock. I have no doubt my crower will weigh eighteen or nineteen pounds, at two years old; he is now only eight months old! Let me hear from you. Resp'y, ---- -- ----. No. 19. MR. BURNHAM: I always took you to be a man of honor, and I supposed _you_ knew (if anybody did) what a Cochin-China fowl was, because you imported your stock. Now, those you sent me, and for which I willingly paid you $40 for the three, are feathered on the legs; this should _not_ be, of course. How is this? They are fine, but I am certain they can be nothing but mere Shanghae fowls. Let me know about this, will you? Yours, &c. ---- -- ----. No. 20. MY DEAR SIR: I hardly know what to write you about the stock I had of you, six months ago, for "Cochin-Chinas." That they are _not_ Cochins I feel positive, however; for one half the chickens came smooth-legged, and the rest are heavily-feathered on the legs!! I consider them only _Shanghaes_, and now I want to know if you can send me a trio of _pure_ bloods, that you _know_ to be Cochins. If so, I care nothing about price. I want _blood_. "Blood tells," you know. Let me hear from you, and state your own views in this matter. I will be governed by your advice. Enclosed is ten dollars for a dozen of your "Cochin" eggs--_pure_, you know. In haste, Yours truly, ---- ----. No. 21. MR. BURNHAM. SIR: Do you call yourself a man of honor? I bought one doz. Cochin-China eggs of you, for which I paid you six dollars, cash. I set them, and I got but _ten_ chickens out of them (two eggs I found rotten, in the nest). Every one of these chicks are cocks, sir--_cocks_! Now, what the devil can _I_ do, do you imagine, with ten cocks? I want to breed fowls. That is what I bought the eggs for; to begin _right_. You must have _known_ better than this. Anybody could have seen that these were all male eggs. _I_ saw it, at once (I remember), but I _hoped_ I was mistaken. What do you propose to do about this? Let me know, _at once_, without fail. In haste, ---- -- ----. No. 22. SIR: You may think well of the Cochin-China fowls,--I _don't_. Those you sent me are long-legged, and there are no feathers on their legs, or feet, as there _ought_ to be. _I_ know what a Cochin-China fowl is, too well to be deceived in this way. I will keep them. _You are a humbug._ You are welcome to the thirty dollars I paid you. I don't ask you to return it. I don't want it. I can get along very well without it. You need it. Keep it. Much good may it do you! In haste, ---- ----. P.S. Don't you wish you may get another $30 out of me, that way? O, yes--I guess you will--ha! ha! No. 23. MR. BARMAN. Dear Sir: I see in the Poultry Books that the Cotchin-China fowls lays two eggs every day,[9] and sometimes three a-day. I have hens that lays two eggs a-day, frequenly, but I want to get the breed that will lay _three_ eggs a-day, reglar. If you have got anny of the Cotchins that you _know_ lays three eggs a-day, I would like to get a few, at a fair price. I don't pay no fancy prices for 'em, though. The hen fever won't larst forever, I don't believe; and then when its busted up, what's the fowls good for, even if they _do_ lay three eggs a-day? Let me hear from you,--but don't send any fowls unless you are _sure_ they lay three eggs every day! Yours, &c., ---- ----. No. 24. MR. BURNHAM.--SIR: I am a gentleman, and I have no disposition to be fractious. I sent you twelve dollars, in a letter, for a dozen "Cotchin" eggs, and I set them. After waiting twenty-three days, I found two grizzled-colored chickens in the nest yesterday, both of them with huge _top-knots_ on their polls! What does this mean? Am I to be swindled out of my money thus? By return of mail if you do not refund my money, if I live I will prosecute you, if it costs me a thousand dollars. You may rely on this. I am not a man to be trifled with, and I refer you to Messrs. ---- & ----, who know me; you evidently do _not_! In haste, ---- ----. [I did not reply to this spicy favor, because, if the gentleman really was not a "fractious" man, I imagined he would like his pure-bred chickens better as they grew up; and, besides, I could afford to wait for "a gentleman" to cool off. I never heard from him, afterwards; and concluded that he didn't _live_ to carry out his laudable intention of expending a thousand dollars in prosecuting me! I trust that, before he departed, he became hopefully pious. Peace to his manes!] No. 25. SIR: Them fouls you sent me, got the sore-hed. I gin em tuppentyn and unyuns and brandy, but it want no use. The poletry books sed so, and I follered the direction, and _it killed 'em both deader'n thunder, in one night_! Now you've gut my mony, and I haint narry fowls. What'll I do? Don't you think this a pooty impersition? Send me another pear, to once--if you don't want _fits_. In haist, ---- ----. [I sent this man "another _pear_,"--only I didn't!] [1] After a hen had set over four weeks on her nest, I should suppose she _might_ have been thus affected! [2] O, the cannibal! [3] I never heard from this customer again, and should now be glad to know if he ever got his "munney"! [4] _Here_ was a "lawyer," who knew the difference between a Cochin-China and a Shanghae! [5] This was the kind of gentleman I loved to fall in with. [6] _Some_ persons would consider this personal! [7] I would liked to have seen the dealer that could "fule" this customer more than "twict." [8] I informed this purchaser that I could send him a pair which, if they "couldn't eat off the tops" of his flour-barrels, I'd warrant would eat up the _contents_ of one as quickly as he could desire! [9] "This gigantic bird," says Richardson, a noted English writer, "is very prolific, _frequently laying two, and occasionally three eggs on the same day_!" And, in support of this monstrous assertion, he subsequently refers, as his authority for this statement (which was called in question), to the "Rt. Hon. Mr. Shaw, Recorder of Dublin, to Mr. Walters, Her Majesty's poultry-keeper, and to J. Joseph Nolan, Esq., of Dublin." This was, in _my_ opinion, one of the hums of the time, and I never had occasion to change that opinion. I do not believe the hen that _really_ laid two eggs in one day ever lived to do it a second time! I have _heard_ of this thing, however. But I never knew of the instance, myself. CHAPTER XIII. THE OTHER SIDE OF THE QUESTION. The foregoing are only a very few samples of hundreds upon hundreds of similar letters I constantly received, for nearly five years. All the blame occasioned by careless express-men, of false blood imposed upon me originally, of tardy hens, of the hatching or non-hatching of eggs transported hundreds of miles, of feathered legs upon chickens, or the absence of them, of every species of mishap that could by any possibility befall the fancier and amateur, through his own ignorance or errors,--every kind of mistake was charged to _me_! But, with a Christian meekness, I bore it all. I was threatened with civil prosecutions, with the House of Correction, the State Prison, the Penitentiary, and all sorts of other punishments, for my remissness; but I submitted with a quiet resignation, because "the people" were so deeply engaged in this pursuit, and everybody now had the fever so shockingly, that I sympathized with all mankind, and attributed these trifling ebullitions of ill-will, or raving, to the spasms caused by the prevalence and the severity of the epidemic. On the other hand, I was so often cheered on in my labors of love by the kind consideration of a very different sort of patrons, that I did not sink under the persecution of those who would gladly have floored me, could the thing have been readily accomplished. I pocketed the money of my customers, however, bred good fowls, followed up the trade sharply, and found myself sailing easily along, in spite of the contemptible and small-fry opposition of which I was continually the object. As an agreeable offset to the complaints and murmurings in certain quarters, the following few letters will tell their own story: From Hon. Henry Clay. _Ashland, 1851._ GEO. P. BURNHAM, ESQ., BOSTON. MY DEAR SIR: I duly received your obliging letter, informing me that you had sent by the Express of Messrs. Adams & Co. a cage containing four fowls for me, and I postponed acknowledging it until the fate of the fowls should be ascertained. I have now the satisfaction to advise you that they all reached here safely. They have been greatly admired, not only for their enormous size, but for their fine proportions and beautiful plumage. I thank you, my dear sir, most cordially, for this very acceptable present. It has been my aim, for many years, to collect at this place the best improved breeds of the horse, the cow, the sheep, swine and the ass--though the last, not the least valuable, in this mule-raising state. To my stock on hand your splendid Cochin-China fowls will be a congenial and valuable addition; and, if we succeed with them, I will take care not to monopolize the benefit of them. I am greatly obliged to you, and, With high respect, I am Your obd't servant, H. CLAY. From Gov. Geo. N. Briggs. _Pittsfield, 1851._ MY DEAR SIR: The cage of Cochin-China chickens you were kind enough to send, reached me in safety; and I am much obliged to you for this favor. They are, beyond comparison, the finest domestic fowls I have ever seen, and I shall breed them with such care that I hope to be able to give you a good account of them in the future. They are very much liked by all who have seen them, and you will please accept my thanks for your attention. I am, resp'y, yours, GEO. N. BRIGGS. From Hon. Daniel Webster. _Marshfield, 1851._ G.P. BURNHAM, ESQ. DEAR SIR: The coop of chickens arrived safely, and are noble specimens of the Chinese fowl. You will rarely meet with samples apparently so well bred, and they will do any one credit. I thank you for the consignment, and consider them a most valuable addition to my stock of poultry. Accept my best wishes, and believe me, dear sir, Yours, very truly, DANIEL WEBSTER. From Hon. Col. Phipps, H.R.M. Secretary. _Windsor Castle, Eng., 1853._ DEAR SIR: The cage of Grey Shanghae fowls intended as a present from you to Her Majesty the Queen has this day been received from Mr. Mitchell, of the Zoological Gardens, and they have been highly admired by Her Majesty. I have received Her Majesty's commands to assure Mr. Burnham of her high appreciation of his attention; and to add that it affords another addition to the many marks of good will from the citizens of the United States which the Queen has received, and to which Her Majesty attaches so high a value. I have the honor to be Your ob't and humble ser't, C.B. PHIPPS. Similar documents were often received by me, from friends and customers who knew how to appreciate good stock; and I have now hundreds of letters on file, of the most flattering character,--from _every_ State in the Union, from England, Ireland, France, Bavaria, etc., where my stock was sent, and was roundly paid for,--all of which letters (with their enclosures, from time to time) served amply to "balance accounts" against the few received of an opposite character, and aided materially, also, to keep "the subscriber" from caving in! Among the most friendly customers I ever had, and those who bought the most liberally,--while they were the most kindly in all their intercourse with me,--I must mention my patrons of the South generally, but especially the buyers in New Orleans and its vicinity. I never met with a trickster amongst them, and they paid me thousands upon thousands of dollars, without a word of cavil or complaint, from first to last. These fanciers had long purses, and are live _men_, with hearts "as big as a barn," so far as my experience goes. CHAPTER XIV. "BOTHER'EM POOTRUMS." BUBBLE NUMBER TWO. There was something tangible, and _real_, in the "Cochin-China" fowl,--something that could be seen and realized (precious little, to be sure!), but still there was _something_. The Cochin-China hens would lay eggs (occasionally), and when they didn't breed their chickens with feathers upon the legs, they came without them. If the legs were not black or green skinned, they were either yellow or some _other_ color. Their plumage was either spotted and speckled, or it wasn't. And thus the true article, the _pure_-bred Cochins, could always be designated and identified,--by the knowing ones,--I _presume_. I studied them pretty carefully, however, for five years; but _I_ never knew what a "Cochin-China" fowl really was, yet! But when, in 1850 and '51, the "_Bother'ems_" begun to be brought into notice, I saw at once that, although this was bubble number two, it ought to have been number _one_, decidedly. Never was a grosser hum promulgated than this was, from beginning to end, even in the notorious hum of the hen-trade. There was absolutely nothing whatever in it, about it, or connected with it, that possessed the first shade of substance to recommend it, saving its _name_. And this could not have saved it, but from the fact that nobody (not even the originator of the unpronounceable cognomen himself) was ever able to write or spell it twice in the same manner. The variety of fowl itself was the _Grey Chittagong_, to which allusion has already been made, and the _first_ samples of which I obtained from "Asa Rugg" (Dr. Kerr), of Philadelphia, in 1850. Of this no one now entertains a doubt. They were the identical fowl, all over,--size, plumage and characteristics. But my friend the Doctor wanted to put forth something that would take better than his "Plymouth Rocks;" and so he consulted me as to a name for a brace of _grey_ fowls I saw in his yard. I always objected to the multiplying of titles; but he insisted, and finally entered them at our Fitchburg Dépôt Show as "_Burrampooters_," all the way from India. These three fowls were bred from Asa Rugg's Grey Chittagong cock, with a yellow Shanghae hen, in Plymouth, Mass. They were an evident cross, all three of them having a _top-knot_! But, _n'importe_. They were then "Burrampooters." Subsequently, these fowls came to be called "Buram-pootras," "Burram Putras," "Brama-pooters," "Brahmas," "Brama Puters," "Brama Poutras," and at last "Brahma Pootras." In the mean time, they were advertised to be exhibited at various fairs in different parts of the country under the above changes of title, varied in certain instances as follows: "Burma Porters," "Bahama Paduas," "Bohemia Prudas," "Bahama Pudras." And, for these three _last_ named, prizes were actually offered at a Maryland fair, in 1851! The following capital sketch (which appeared originally in the Boston _Carpet-Bag_) is from the pen of the late Secretary of the Mutual Admiration Society,--a gentleman, and a very happy writer in his way. It gives a faithful and accurate description of what many of these monsters really were, and will be read with gusto by all who have now come to be "posted up" in the secrets of the hen-trade. The editor of the above-named journal remarks that "as our _Carpet-Bag_ contains something connected with everything under the sun, we have abstracted therefrom a chapter on chicken-craft, which embraces a very important detail of that most abstruse science. When our readers scan the beautiful proportions of the stately fowl that _roosts_ at the head of this article, they will acknowledge that we have some right to _cackle_ because of the good fortune we have had in securing such an un_eggs_ceptionable picture, exhibiting the very perfection of cockadoodledom. Isn't he a beauty, this BOTHER'EM POOTRUM? [Illustration] "Examine his altitude! Observe the bold courage that stands forth in his every lineament! There is no dunghill bravery there! See what symmetry floats round every detail of his noble proportions! What kingly grace associates with the comb that adorns his head as it were a crown! What fire there is in his eye! With what proud bearing does he not wear his abbreviated posterior appendage! Looking at the latter, we, and every one knowing in hen-craft, will readily exclaim, 'Gerenau de Montbeillard! you must have been a most unmitigated muff to designate _that_ beautiful fowl the _gallus ecaudatus_, or tailless rooster.' For ourselves, our indignity teaches us to say, 'Mons. M.! your Essai sur Historie Nat. des Gallinacæ Fran. tom. ii., pp. 550 et 656, is a humbug!' We know that the universal world will sympathize in our sentiment on this point." Peter Snooks, Esq. (a correspondent of this journal), it appears, had the honor to be the fortunate possessor of this invaluable variety of fancy poultry, in its unadulterated purity of blood. He furnished from his own yard samples of this rare and desirable stock for His Royal Highness Prince Albert, and also sent samples to several other noted potentates, whose taste was acknowledged to be unquestionable, including the King of Roratonga, the Rajah of Gabble-squash, His Majesty of the Cannibal Islands, and the Mosquito King. Peter supplies the annexed description of the superior properties of this variety of fowls: "The _Bother'em Pootrums_ are generally hatched from eggs. The original pair were not; they were sent from India, by way of Nantucket, in a whale-ship. "They are a singularly _pictur-squee_ fowl from the very shell. Imagine a crate-full of lean, plucked chickens, taking leg-bail for their liberty, and persevering around Faneuil Hall at the rate of five miles an hour, and you have an idea of their extremely ornamental appearance. "They are remarkable for producing bone, and as remarkable for producing offal. I have had one analyzed lately by a celebrated chemist, with the following result: Feathers and offal, 39.00 Bony substances, 50.00 Very tough muscle and sinew, 09.00 Miscellaneous residuum, 02.00 ------ 100.00" A peculiarly well-developed faculty in this extraordinary fine breed of domestic fowls is that of _eating_. "A tolerably well-fed Bother'em will dispose of as much corn as a common horse," insists Mr. S----. This goes beyond _me_; for I have found that they could be kept on the allowance, ordinarily, that I appropriated daily to the same number of good-sized store hogs. As to affording them _all_ they would eat, I never did that. O, no! I am pretty well off, pecuniarily, but not rich enough to attempt any such fool-hardy experiment as that! But Snooks is correct about one thing. They are not fastidious or "particular about _what_ they eat." Whatever is portable to them is adapted to their taste for devouring. Old hats, India-rubbers, boots and shoes, or stray socks, are not out-of-the-way fare with them. They are amazingly fond of corn, especially _a good deal of it_. They _will_ eat wheaten bread, rather than want. They are very inquisitive in their nature. Their habit of stalking around the dwelling-house, and popping their heads into the garret-windows, is evidence of this peculiar trait. Their flesh is firm and compact, and requires a great deal of eating to do it justice. Like Barney Bradley's leather "O-no-we-never-mention-'ems," when cut up and stewed for tripe, "a fellow could eat a whole bushel of potatoes to the plateful." It is of the color of a stale red herring, and very much like that edible in taste. Its scarcity constitutes its value. This _rara avis in terris_ grows to a height somewhere between .00 feet .16 inches and 25 feet. Its weight somewhat between .06 pounds and 1 cwt. It never lays, except when it rolls itself in the sand. The female fowls sometimes do that duty, though amazingly seldom. Mr. Snooks says he will back his Bother'em, for a chicken-feast, to outcrow any three asthmatical steam-whistles that any railroad company can scare up; and adds, "I am ashamed of the prejudice which makes my fellow-men unjust. The Fowl Society--the New England organization, I mean--repudiate the special merits of my _Bother'em Pootrums_, and tell me that their ideas of improvement go entirely contrary to the propriety of tolerating my noble breed of fowls. _Disgustibus non disputandum_, as Shakspeare, or somebody for him, emphatically says,--which means, 'Every one to his taste, as the old lady said when she kissed the cow.' One thing it will not be hard to prove, I think; that is, simply the probability of something like envy operating among the members of the Hen Society, on account of the exclusive attention paid my _Bother'ems_ at the late Fowl Fairs in Boston,"--where the 'squire's contributions _did_ rather "astonish the boys" who were not thoroughly acquainted with the excellent qualities of these birds. Verily, Snooks' "Bother'ems" did bother 'em exceedingly! CHAPTER XV. ADVERTISING EXTRAORDINARY. From the outset of my experience in the final attack of the hen fever, I took advantage of every possible opportunity to disseminate the now world-wide known fact that nobody else but myself possessed any "pure-bred" poultry! I could have proved this by the affidavits of more than a thousand "disinterested witnesses," at any time after April and May, 1851, had I been called upon so to do. But as no one _doubted_ this, there was then no controversy. But, as time wore along, competition became rife, and the foremost chicken-raisers began to look about them for the readiest means obtainable with which to cut each other's throats; not "with a feather," by any means, because that would have "smelt of the shop;" but whenever, wherever, or however, their neighbors could be traduced, maligned, vilified, or injured (in this pursuit), they embraced the opportunity, and followed it up, without stint, especially towards my humble self, until most of them, fortunately, broke their own backs, and were compelled to retire from the field, while "the people" grinned, and comforted them with the friendly assurance that it "sarved 'em right." At the Fitchburg Dépôt Show, in 1850, my original "Grey Chittagongs" (already described) were in the possession of G.W. George, Esq., of Haverhill, to whom they had been sold by the party to whom I had previously sold them. Nobody thought well of them; but they took a first prize there, and the "Chittagongs" (so entered at the same time) of Mr. Hatch, of Connecticut, also took a prize. My friend the Doctor then insisted that these were _also_ "Burrampooters;" but, as nobody but himself could pronounce this jaw-cracking name, it was taken little notice of at that time. Mr. Hatch had a large quantity of the Greys at this show, which sold readily at $12 to $20 the pair; and immediately after this exhibition the demand for "Grey Chittagongs" was very active. I watched the current of the stream, and I beheld with earnest sympathy the now alarming symptoms of the fever. "The people" had suffered a relapse in the disease, and the ravages now promised to become frightful--for a time! An ambitious sea-captain arrived at New York from Shanghae, bringing with him about a hundred China fowls, of all colors, grades, and proportions. Out of this lot I selected a few _grey_ birds, that were very large, and (consequently) "very fine," of course. I bred these, with other grey stock I had, at once, and soon had a fine lot of birds to dispose of--to which I gave what I have always deemed their only true and appropriate title (as they came from Shanghae), to wit, _Grey Shanghaes_. In 1851 and '52 I had a most excellent "run of luck" with these birds. I distributed them all over the country, and obtained very fair prices for them; and, finally, the idea occurred to me that a present of a few of the choicest of these birds to the Queen of England wouldn't prove a very bad advertisement for me in this line. I had already reaped the full benefit accruing from this sort of "disinterested generosity" on my part, toward certain _American_ notables (whose letters have already been read in these pages), and I put my newly-conceived plan into execution forthwith. I then had on hand a fine lot of fowls, bred from my "imported" stock, which had been so much admired, and I selected from my best "Grey Shanghae" chickens nine beautiful birds. They were placed in a very handsome black-walnut-framed cage, and after having been duly lauded by several first-rate notices in the Boston and New York papers, they were duly shipped, through Edwards, Sanford & Co.'s Transatlantic Express, across the big pond, addressed in purple and gold as follows: +-----------------------------------------------+ | TO H.M.G. MAJESTY, | | Victoria, | | QUEEN OF GREAT BRITAIN. | | | | _To be Delivered at Zoological Gardens_, | | LONDON, ENG. | | | | FROM GEO. P. BURNHAM, BOSTON, MASS., U.S.A. | +-----------------------------------------------+ The fowls left me in December, 1852. The _London Illustrated News_ of January 22d, 1853, contained the following article in reference to this consignment: "By the last steamer from the United States, a cage of very choice domestic fowls was brought to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, a present from George P. Burnham, Esq., of Boston, Mass. The consignment embraced nine beautiful birds--two males and seven pullets, bred from stock imported by Mr. Burnham direct from China. The fowls are seven and eight months old, but are of mammoth proportions and exquisite plumage--light silvery-grey bodies, approaching white, delicately traced and pencilled with black upon the neck-hackles and tips of the wings and tails. The parent stock of these extraordinary fowls weigh at maturity upwards of twenty-three pounds per pair; while their form, notwithstanding this great weight, is unexceptionable. They possess all the rotundity and beauty of the Dorking fowl; and, at the same age, nearly double the weight of the latter. They are denominated Grey Shanghaes (in contradistinction to the Red or Yellow Shanghaes), and are considered in America the finest of all the great Chinese varieties. _That they are a distinct race, is evident from the accuracy with which they breed, and the very close similarity that is shown amongst them; the whole of these birds being almost precisely alike, in form, plumage and general characteristics._ They are said to be the most prolific of all the Chinese fowls. At the time of their shipment, these birds weighed about twenty pounds the pair." This was a very good _beginning_. In another place (see page 88) I have given a copy of the letter from Hon. Col. Phipps, her Majesty's Secretary of the Privy Purse, acknowledging the receipt of this present. A few weeks afterward, the _London News_ contained a spirited original picture of seven of the nine Grey Shanghae fowls which I had the honor to forward to Queen Victoria. The drawing was made by permission of the Queen, at the royal poultry-house, from life, by the celebrated _Weir_, and the engraving was admirably executed by _Smythe_, of London. The effect in the picture was capital, and the likenesses very truthful. In reference to these birds, the _News_ has the following: "GREY SHANGHAE FOWLS FOR HER MAJESTY.--In the _London Illustrated News_ for January 22d, we described a cage of very choice domestic fowls, bred from stock imported by Mr. George P. Burnham, of Boston, Mass., direct from China, and presented by him to Her Majesty. We now engrave, by permission, these beautiful birds. They very closely resemble the breed of _Cochin-Chinas_ already introduced into this country, the head and neck being the same; the legs are yellow and feathered; the carriage very similar, but the tail being more upright than in the generality of Cochins. The color is creamy white, slightly splashed with light straw-color, with the exception of the tail, which is black, and the hackles, which are pencilled with black. The egg is the same color and form as that of the Cochins hitherto naturalized in this country. These fowls are very good layers, and have been supplying the royal table since their reception at the poultry-house, at Windsor." All this "helped the cause along" amazingly. It proved a most excellent mode of advertising my "superb," "magnificent," "splendid," "unsurpassable," "inapproachable" GREY SHANGHAES. The above articles found their way (somehow or other) into the papers of this country immediately; and, within sixty days afterwards, the price of "Bother'ems" went up from $12 and $15 to $50, $75, $100, and $150, the pair!! "Cochin-Chinas" were now _no_whar! But _I_ was so as to be about yet. CHAPTER XVI. HEIGHT OF THE FEVER. While this cage of Grey Shanghaes stood for an hour or two in the express-office of Adams & Co., in Boston, a servant came from the Revere House to inform me that "a gentleman desired to see me there, about some poultry." As I never had had occasion to run round much after my customers, and, moreover, as I felt that the dignity of the business--(the _dignity_ of the hen-trade!)--might possibly be compromised by my responding in person to this summons, I directed the servant to "say to the gentleman, if he wished to see me, that I should be at my office, No. 26 Washington-street, for a couple of hours,--after that, at my residence in Melrose." The man retired, and half an hour afterwards a carriage stopped before my office-door. The gentleman was inside. He invited me to ride with him--(I could afford to _ride_ with him)--to Adams & Co.'s office. He had seen the "Grey Shanghaes" intended for the Queen there. "I want that cage of fowls," he said. "My dear sir," I replied, "they are going to England." "I _want_ them. What will you take for them?" "I can't sell them, sir." "You can send others, you know." "No, sir. I can't dispose of _these_, surely." "Can you duplicate this lot?" "Pretty nearly--perhaps not quite." "I see," he continued. "I will give you two hundred dollars for them." "No, sir." "Three hundred--come!" "I can't sell them." "Will you take _four_ hundred dollars for the nine chickens, sir?" he asked, drawing his pocket-book in presence of a dozen witnesses. I declined, of course. I couldn't sell these identical fowls; for I had an object in view, in sending them abroad, which appeared to me of more consequence than the amount offered--a good deal. "Will you _name_ a price for them?" insisted the stranger. I said, "No, sir--excuse me. I would not take a thousand dollars for these birds, I assure you. Their equals in quality and number do not live, I think, to-day, in America!" "I won't give a--a--thousand dollars, for them," he said, slowly. "No, I won't give _that_!" and we parted. Yet, I have no doubt, had I encouraged him with a prospect of his obtaining them at all, he _would_ have given me a thousand dollars for that very cage of fowls! To _this_ extent did the hen fever rage at that moment. I subsequently sent this gentleman two trios of my grey chickens, for which he paid me $200. And now the Grey Shanghae trade commenced in _earnest_. Immediately after the announcements were made (which I have quoted) orders poured in upon me furiously from all quarters of this country, and from Great Britain. Not a steamer left America for England, for months and months, on board of which I did not send more or less of the "Grey Shanghaes." From every State in the Union, my orders were large and numerous; and letters like the following were received by me almost every day, for months: "G.P. BURNHAM. "SIR: I have just seen the pair of superb Grey Shanghae fowls which you sent to Mr. ---- ----, of this city, and I want a pair like them. If you can send me _better_ ones, I am willing to pay higher for them. He informs me that your price per pair is forty dollars. I enclose you _fifty_ dollars; do the best you can for me, but forward them _at once_,--don't delay. "Yours, &c., "---- ---- ----." I almost always had "_better_ ones." That was the kind I always kept behind, or for my own use. I rarely sent away these better ones until they cried for 'em! I always had a great _many_ of the "best" ones, too; which were even better than those "better" ones for which the demand had come to be so great! Strange to say, everybody got to want _better_ ones, at last; and, finally, I had none upon my premises but this very class of birds--to wit, the "better ones." To be sure, I reserved a very _few_ pairs of the _best_ ones, which could be obtained at a fair price; but these were the ones that would "take down" the fanciers, occasionally, who wanted to beat _me_ with them at the first show that came off. But I didn't sleep much over this business. I always had one cock and three or four hens that the boys didn't _see_--until we got upon the show-ground. Ha, ha! A stranger called at my house, one Sunday morning, just as I was ready with my family for church. He apologized for coming on that day, but couldn't get away during the week. He had never seen the Grey Shanghaes--didn't know what a Chinese fowl was--had no idea about them at all. He wanted a few eggs--heard I had them--wouldn't stop but a moment--saw that I was just going out, &c. &c. He sat down--was sorry to trouble me--wouldn't do so again--would like just to take a peep at the fowls--when, suddenly, as he sat with his back close to the open window, my old crower sent forth one of those thundering, unearthly, rolling, guttural shrieks, that, once heard, can never be forgotten! The stranger leaped from his chair, and sprang over his hat, as he yelled, "Good God! what's _that_?" His face was as white as his shirt-bosom. "That's one of the Grey Shanghaes, crowing," I replied. "_Crow!_ I beg your pardon," he said; "I don't want any eggs--no! I'll leave it to another time. I--a--I couldn't take 'em now; won't detain you--good-morning, sir," he continued; and, rushing out of my front door, he disappeared on "a dead run," as fast as his legs could carry him. And I don't know but he is running yet. He was desperately alarmed, surely! [Illustration: "I DON'T WANT ANY EGGS--NO!"--(See page 109.)] I was so amused at this incident, that I was in a precious poor mood to attend church that morning. And when my friend the minister arose at length, and announced for his text that "the wicked flee when no man pursueth," those words capped the climax for me. I jammed my handkerchief into my mouth, until I was nearly suffocated, as I thought of that wicked fellow who had just been so frightened while in the act of attempting to bargain for fancy hen's eggs on the Sabbath! A Western paper, in alluding to the fever, about this period, observed that "this modern epidemic has shown itself in our vicinity within a short time, and is characterized by all the peculiarities which have marked its ravages elsewhere. Some of our most valuable citizens are now suffering from its attacks, and there is no little anxiety felt for their recovery. The morning slumbers of our neighbors are interrupted by the sonorous and deep-toned notes of our Shanghae Chanticleer, and various have been the inquiries as to how he took '_cold_,' and what we gave him for it. 'Chittagongs' and 'Burma Porters' are now as learnedly discussed as 'Fancy Stocks' on change. The N.Y. _Scientific American_ stated, at this time, that the "Cochin-China fowl fever was then as strong in England as in some parts of New England,--in fact, stronger. One pair exhibited there was valued at $700. What a sum for a hen and rooster! The common price of a pair is $100," added this journal; and still the trade continued excellent with me. [Illustration] CHAPTER XVII. RUNNING IT INTO THE GROUND. There now seemed to be no limit whatever to the _prices_ that fanciers would pay for what were deemed the best samples of fowls. For my own part, from the very commencement I had been considerate and merciful in _my_ charges. True, I had been taken down handsomely by a Briton (in my original purchase of Cochin-Chinas), but I did not retaliate. I was content with a fair remuneration; _my_ object, principally, was to disseminate good stock among "the people," for I was a democrat, and loved the dear people. So I charged lightly for my "magnificent" samples, while other persons were selling second and third rate stock for five or even six and eight dollars a pair. The "Grey Shanghaes" had got to be a "fixed fact" in England, as well as in this country, and still I was flooded with orders continually. I obtained $25, $50, $100 a pair, for mine; and one gentleman, who ordered four greys, soon after the Queen's stock reached England, paid me _sixty guineas_ for them--$150 a pair. But these were of the _better_ class of birds to which I have alluded. In 1852 a Boston agricultural journal stated that "within three months extra samples of two-year-old fowls, of the large Chinese varieties, have been sold in Massachusetts at $100 the pair. Several pairs, within our own knowledge, have commanded $50 a pair, within the past six months. Last week we saw a trio of White Shanghaes sold in Boston for $45. And the best specimens of Shanghaes and Cochin-China fowls now bring $20 to $25 a pair, readily, to purchasers at the South and West." Now, these prices may be looked upon by the uninitiated as extraordinary. So they were for this country. But at a Birmingham (Eng.) show, in the fall of 1852, a single pair of "Seabright Bantams," very small and finely plumed, sold for $125; a fine "Cochin-China" cock and two hens, for $75; and a brace of "White Dorkings," at $40. An English breeder went to London, from over a hundred miles distant, for the sole purpose of procuring a setting of Black Spanish eggs, and paid one dollar for each egg. Another farmer there sent a long distance for the best Cochin-China eggs, and paid one dollar and fifty cents _each_ for them, at this time! This was keeping up the rates with a vengeance, and beat us Yankees, out and out. But later accounts from across the water showed that this was only a beginning, even. In the winter of 1852 the _Cottage Gardener_ stated that "within the last few weeks a gentleman near London sold a pair of Cochin-China fowls for 30 guineas ($150), and another pair for 32 guineas ($160). He has been offered £20 for a single hen; has sold numerous eggs at 1 guinea ($5) each, and has been paid down for chickens just hatched 12 guineas ($60) the half-dozen, to be delivered at a month old. One amateur alone had paid upwards of £100 for stock birds." To this paragraph in the _Gardener_ the _Bury and Norwich Post_ added the following: "In our own neighborhood, during the past week, we happen to know that a cock and two hens (Cochin-Chinas) have been sold for 32 guineas, or $160. The fact is, choice birds, well bred, of good size and handsome plumage, are now bringing very high prices, everywhere; and the demand (in our own experience) has never been so great as at the present time." In this way the fever raved and raged for a long year or more. Shows were being held all over this country, as well as in every principal city and town in England. Everybody bought fowls, and everybody had to pay for them, too, in 1852 and 1853! In a notice of one of the English shows in that year (1853), a paper says: "There is a pen of three geese weighing forty-eight pounds; and among the _Cochin-China_ birds are to be found hens which, in the period that forms the usual boundary of chicken life, have attained a weight of seven or eight pounds. Of the value of these birds it is difficult to speak without calling forth expressions of incredulity. It is evident that there is a desperate _mania_ in bird-fancying, as in other things. Thus, for example, there is a single fowl to which is affixed the enormous money value of 30 _guineas_; two Cochin-China birds are estimated at 25 _guineas_; and four other birds, of the same breed, a cock and three hens, are rated in the aggregate at 60 _guineas_,--a price which the owner confidently expects them to realize at the auction-sale on Thursday. A further illustration of this ornithological enthusiasm is to be found in the fact that, at a sale on Wednesday last, one hundred and two lots, comprising one hundred and ten Cochin-China birds, all belonging to one lady, realized £369. 4s. 6d.; the highest price realized for a single one being 20 guineas." Another British journal stated, a short time previously, that "a circumstance occurred which proves that the Cochin-China mania has by no means diminished in intensity. The last annual sale of the stock of Mr. Sturgeon, of Greys, has taken place at the Baker-street Bazaar. The two hundred birds there disposed of could not have realized a less sum than nearly £700 (or $3500), some of the single specimens being knocked down at more than £12, and very many producing £4, £5, and £6 each." The attention, at this sale, devoted to the pedigree of the birds, was amusing to a mere observer; one fowl would be described as a cockerel by _Patriarch_, another as a pullet by _Jerry_, whilst a third was recommended as being the off-spring of _Sam_. Had the sale been one of horses, more care could hardly have been taken in describing their pedigrees or their qualifications. Many were praised by the auctioneer as being particularly _clever_ birds, although in what their cleverness consisted did not appear. The fancy had evidently extended to _all_ ranks in society. The peerage sent its representatives, who bought what they wanted, regardless of price. Nor was the lower house without its delegates; a well-known metropolitan ex-member seems to have changed his constituency of voters for one of Cochins; and we can only hope that it may not be his duty to hold an inquest on any that perish by a violent or unnatural death. The sums obtained for these birds depended on their being in strict accordance with the then taste of the fancy. They were magnificent in size, docile in behavior, intelligent in expression, and most of them were very finely bred. And while the hen fever was thus at its height, almost, in England, we were following close upon the footsteps of John Bull in the United States. At the Boston Fowl Show in 1852, three Cochin-Chinas were sold at $100; a pair of Grey Chittagongs, at $50; two Canton Chinese fowls, at $80; three Grey Shanghae chicks, at $75; three White Shanghaes, at $65; six White Shanghae chickens, $40 to $45, etc.; and these prices, for similar samples, could have been obtained again and again. At this time there was found an ambitious individual, occasionally, who got "ahead of his time," and whose laudable efforts to outstrip his neighbors were only checked by the natural results of his own superior "progressive" notions. A case in point: "Way down in Lou'siana," for instance, a correspondent of mine stated that there lived one of these go-ahead fellows, who had been afflicted with a serious attack of hen fever, and who was not content with the ordinary speed and prolificness in breeding of the noted Shanghae fowls. He desired to possess himself of the biggest kind of a pile of chickens for the rapidly augmenting trade; and so he had constructed an Incubator, of moderate dimensions, into which he carefully stowed only three hundred nice fresh eggs, from his fancy fowls. The secret of his plan to "astonish the boys" was limited to the knowledge of only two or three friends; and--thermometer in hand--he commenced operations. With close assiduity and Job-like patience, our amateur applied himself to his three weeks' task, by day and night, and at the end of fifteen days, one egg was broken, and Mr. Shanghae was _thar_,--alive and kicking, but as yet immature. The neighborhood was in the greatest excitement at this prospect of success. Our friend commenced to crow (slightly), and, to hasten matters, put on, a _leetle_ more steam at a venture. The twenty-second day arrived, and the "boys" assembled to witness the _entrée_ of three hundred steam-hatched Shanghaes into this breathing world. Our amateur was full of expectation and "fever." One egg was broken; another, and then another; when, upon inspection, the entire mass was found to have been _thoroughly boiled_! A desperate guffaw was heard as our amateur friend disappeared, and his only query since has been to ascertain what actual time is required to boil a certain quantity of eggs at a given heat, and the smallest probable cost thereof! As far as heard from, the reply has been, say six gallons of good alcohol, at one dollar per gallon, for three hundred eggs; time (night and day), twenty-two days and seven hours; and the product it is generally thought would make capital fodder for young turkeys,--provided said eggs are not boiled _too hard_! On the subject of the _diseases_ of poultry many learned and sapient dissertations appeared about these days. In one agricultural journal we remember to have met with the following scientific prescription. The learned writer is talking about _roup_ in fowls, and says: "This is probably a chronic condition, the result of frequent colds. Give the following medicines: _Aconite_, if there is fever, _hepar-suliphuris third trituration_, or mercury, _third trituration_, for a day or two, once in three or four hours; then _pulsatilla tincture_ for the eyes; _antimonium_, third trituration or _arsenic_, or _nux vomica_, for the crop." Isn't this _clear_, reader? How many poultry-raisers in the United States are there who would be likely to comprehend one line of this stuff? We advise this writer to try again; the above is an "elegant extract," verily! We now come down to the fourth and last exhibition in Boston of the Mutual Admiration Society, _alias_ the Association with the long-winded cognomen, which took place in September, 1852. CHAPTER XVIII. ONE OF THE FINAL KICKS. I was chosen by somebody (who will here permit me to present them my thanks for the honor) as one of the judges to decide upon the merits of the birds then to be exhibited: and my colleagues on this Committee were Dr. J.C. Bennett, and Messrs. Andrews, Balch and Fussell. On the morning of the opening of this show the names of the judges were first announced to the contributors. Immediately there followed a "hullabaloo" that would have done credit to any bedlam, ancient or modern, ever heard or dreamed of. The lead in this burst of rebellion amongst the hitherto "faithful" was taken by one prominent member, who announced publicly, then and there, that the selection of the judges was an infamous imposition. They were incompetent, dishonest, prejudiced, calculating, speculative, ambitious competitors. Moreover, that it had all been "contrived by that damned Burnham, who would rob a church-yard, or steal the cents off the eyes of his dead uncle, any time, for the price of a hen." These were the gentleman's own expressive words. He added that he could stand anything in the hen-trade but _this_. This, however, he would _not_ submit to. Burnham should be kicked out of that Committee, or he would kick himself out of his boots, and the Society's traces also;--a threat which did not seem to alarm or disturb anybody, "as I knows on," except this same tall, stout, athletic, brave, honorable, honest, truthful, smart, gentlemanly member of this Mutual Admiration Society! Now, it was very well known, at this time, that the Committee of Judges had been chosen entirely without their own knowledge. So far as I was myself concerned, I should greatly have preferred at that time to have remained an outsider, because it would have then been quite as well for me to have contributed to the exhibition, where, with the "splendid specimens" I then possessed of the Cochin-China and Shanghae varieties of fowl, I could have knocked all the others "higher than a fence" in _that_ show, as I had done in all the previous exhibitions where I had ever competed with the boys. But the same power which had formed the Committee of Judges also provided that they must not be competitors. Thus, three or four of those persons who had at the previous exhibitions of this Society been the most extensive contributors,--men who had bred by far the largest assortments and quantities of good fowls up to this period, and who had till now paid ten or twenty dollars for one (compared with any other of the members) toward the good of the association, and in the furtherance of its objects,--_these_ men were made the judges, and were cut off as contributors. I was satisfied, however, because I saw that the framing of the _Report_ of this show would fall to my lot again; and I had no doubt that, under these circumstances, I could afford to be "persecuted" for the time being. It is not in my nature to harm anybody; and those who are personally acquainted with me, know that I am _constitutionally_ of a calm, retiring, meek, religious turn of mind. My aim in life is to "do unto others as I would have others do unto me." I "love my neighbor" (if he doesn't permit his hens to get into my garden) "as myself." And, "if a man smite me upon one cheek, I turn to him the other also," immediately, if not sooner. I never retaliate upon an enemy or an opponent--until I make _sure that I have him where the hair is short_. I once knew of an extraordinary instance of patience that taught me a powerful lesson in submissiveness. It occurred in a Western court, where the judge (a most exemplary man, I remember) sat for two mortal days quietly listening to the arguments of a couple of contending lawyers in reference to the construction they desired him to assume in regard to a certain act of the Legislature of that State. When the two legal gentlemen had "thrown themselves," in this long and wearying debate, for forty-eight hours, his Honor cut off the controversy by remarking, very quietly, "Gentlemen, this law that you have been speaking of _has been repealed_!" I thought of this circumstance, and I permitted the hen-men to gas, to their hearts' content. When they got through with their anathemas, their spleen, and their stupidity, I informed them that the "Committee" had unanimously left to _my_ charge _the writing of the Report of that Exhibition_. From that moment, up to the hour when the Report was published, I never suspected (before) that I had so many _friends_ in this world! The fear that seemed to pervade every mind present was, that _I_ should probably do precisely what _they_ would have done under similar circumstances,--to wit, take care of myself. I had no fowls in this exhibition; but there were present numerous specimens bred from my stock, that were very choice (so every one said), and which commanded the highest prices during the show. There were several _Southern_ gentlemen present, who bought (and paid roundly for them, too) some of the best fancy-birds on sale. It was astonishing how much some of those buyers did know about the different breeds of Chinese fowls there! Yes, it certainly was astounding! I think I _never_ saw before so much real, downright _bona fide_ knowledge of henology displayed as was shown by one or two Southern gentlemen, then and there;--never, in the whole course of my experience! By reference to the next chapter, it will be seen how shamefully I neglected my own interests, and how self-sacrificing I was in the report of the Society's last kick, which, as I have already hinted, the Committee left to _my_ charge to prepare. I had no disposition (in the preparation of this document) to underrate the stock of any one else, _provided_ it did not interfere with me! And, after carefully noting down whatever seemed of importance to my well-being there, I sat myself down to oblige the Committee by writing the "Report" of this show, which an ill-natured competitor subsequently declared was "only in favor of Burnham and his stock, all over, underneath, in the middle, outside, overhead, on top, on all sides, and at both ends!" And _I believe he was right_! CHAPTER XIX. THE FOURTH FOWL-SHOW IN BOSTON. This show (in September, 1852) was the fifth exhibition held in Boston, but the _fourth_ only of the Society with the long name. The Report commences with a congratulation (as usual) that the association still lives, and has a being; and, after alluding to the general state of the affairs of the concern,--without touching upon its financial condition,--it thus proceeds: "Your Committee would call your attention to the fact that among the numerous fowls exhibited this season,--as upon former occasions,--a very unnecessary practice seems to have obtained, in the mis-_naming_ of varieties. Crossbred fowls have been called by original cognomens, unknown to practical breeders; and a host of birds well known to the Committee, as well as to poulterers generally, have been denominated by any other than their _real_ and universally conceded ornithological titles. This savors of bad taste; it leads to ridicule among strangers who visit our shows from abroad; and should not be sanctioned by your Society. Errors may creep in among your transactions, in this particular, and many honest, careful breeders may be deceived; but the multiplying of _unpronounceable and meaningless names_ for domestic fowls is entirely uncalled for; and your committee recommend a close adherence, hereafter, to recognized titles only. "In this connection, it may be proper to allude to a case in point. The largest and unquestionably one of the finest varieties of domestic fowls ever shown among us was entered by the breeders of this variety as the 'Chittagong;' other coops of the same stock were labelled 'Grey Chittagongs;' others were called 'Bramah Pootras;' and others, 'Grey Shanghae' and 'Malays.' "Your Committee are divided in opinion as to what these birds ought, rightfully, to be called,--though the majority of the Committee have no idea that 'Bramah Pootra' is their correct title. That they are not 'Malays' is also quite as clear. Several of the specimens are positively known to have come direct from Shanghae; and _none_ are known to have come originally from anywhere else. Nevertheless, it has been thought proper to leave this question open, for the present; and the Committee, believing that this fowl originates in and hails directly from the East, are content to accept for them the title of 'Grey Shanghae,' 'Chittagong,' or 'Bramah Pootra,' as different breeders may elect,--admitting, at the same time, that they are really a very superior bird, and believing that if carefully bred they may be found decidedly the most valuable among all the large _Chinese_ breeds, of which they are clearly a good variety." * * * * * "A large sum of money was expended at this exhibition, by visitors, amateurs and breeders,--one gentleman investing upwards of $700 in choice fowls; another, from the South, purchasing to the amount of $350 for extra samples; another bought $200 worth, etc. The highest figures ever yet paid on this side of the Atlantic (for individual purchases) were realized at this show. "Samples of the China stock originally imported from Shanghae were very plentiful on this occasion, and the high reputation of this blood was fully sustained in the specimens exhibited. Very superior fowls, bred from G.P. Burnham's importations of Cochin-Chinas, were also numerous, and were sold, in four or five instances, at the very _highest_ prices paid for any samples that were disposed of." Among the premiums awarded to the _Chinese_ fowls by this "Committee," were the following: "CHINA FOWLS.--To H.H. Williams, best cock and two hens (of Burnham's _Canton_ importation), $5. To C. Sampson, West Roxbury, best cock and single hen (Burnham's _Canton_ importation), $3. To H.H. Williams, third prize, for same stock, $2. To C.C. Plaisted, Great Falls, N.H., the Committee awarded a first prize, $5, for what he called '_Hong-Kong_' fowls; these were of Burnham's _Canton_ stock, also. To A. White, E. Randolph, for six best chickens (Burnham's importation), $2. "COCHIN-CHINA.--To H.H. Williams, West Roxbury, best cock and two hens (splendid samples, of extraordinary size and beauty), first prize, $5. To A. White, E. Randolph, best cock and single hen (of Burnham's importation), $3. To A. White, for six best chickens (Burnham's importation), $2." * * * * * The Committee then allude to the _prices_ which were paid there for fowls, "_not because they advocate the propriety of keeping them up_" (O, no!), "but rather to show that the welfare of the Association is by no means derogating. "The three prize _Cochin-China_ fowls were sold for $100. The two prize _Grey Shanghaes_, or 'Bramah Pootras,' were sold for $50. Three chickens of the same, at $50. A pair of Burnham's importation of _Cochins_, at $80; another pair, at $40; another trio (chickens), at $40. Six Black Spanish chickens (Child's), at $50. Six _White Shanghae_ chickens (Wight's), at $45. Three hens, of same stock, at $50--and several pairs and trios of other varieties, at from $25 each, to $25 and $30 to $40 the lot." * * * * * At a subsequent meeting of the Trustees, Mr. George P. Burnham, on the part of the Judges at the late exhibition of the Society, presented their _Report_, whereupon it was "_Voted_, That the Report of the Judges on the recent show of poultry in the Public Garden be accepted." And this was the end of _that_ ball of worsted! I rather have the impression, now,--as nearly as I can recollect (though my memory is somewhat treacherous in these matters), but I _think_ I sold a few fowls, just after that fair. "I may be mistaken,--but that is my opinion!" The Report was duly accepted, in form, and I had the satisfaction of seeing my "extraordinary" and "superb" stock again lauded to the very echo, at the expense of the old-fogyism of the "Mutual Admiration Society." The consequence was a renewed activity in my sales, which continued delightfully lively and correspondingly remunerative for several months after _this_ exhibition, also, where I did not enter the first fowl! CHAPTER XX. PRESENT TO QUEEN VICTORIA. I have already alluded to the fine Grey Shanghaes which I forwarded to Her Majesty the Queen. In relation to this circumstance the Boston papers contained the following announcement, in the month of April, 1853; a circumstance which did not greatly retard the prospects of my business either on this or on the other side of the water! The compliment thus paid me by Royalty was duly appreciated, and its delicacy will be apparent to the reader. This picture is the only one of its _kind_ ever sent to an American citizen. "A COMPLIMENT FROM VICTORIA.--Some weeks ago, Mr. George P. Burnham, of Boston, forwarded to Her Majesty Queen Victoria a present of some _Grey Shanghae_ fowls, which have been greatly admired in England. By the last steamer Mr. Burnham received the following letter from Her Majesty's Secretary of the Privy Purse, accompanying a fine portrait of the Queen, sent over to Mr. B.: THE QUEEN'S LETTER. { "Buckingham Palace, { March 15, 1853. "Dear Sir: I have received the commands of Her Majesty the Queen, to assure you of Her Majesty's high appreciation for the kind motives which prompted you to forward for her acceptance the magnificent 'Grey Shanghae' fowls which have been so much admired at Her Majesty's aviary at Windsor. "Her Majesty has accepted, with great pleasure, such a mark of respect and regard, from a citizen of the United States. "I have, by Her Majesty's command, shipped in the 'George Carl,' to your address, a case containing a portrait of Her Majesty,[10] of which the Queen has directed me to request your acceptance. "I have the honor to be, "Sir, your ob't and humble servant, "C.B. Phipps. "To Geo. P. Burnham, Esq., Boston, U.S.A." I caused a copy to be taken from this portrait of the Queen, and have had it engraved for this book; it appears as the frontispiece. Immediately after this paragraph appeared, a new zest appeared to have been given to the Grey Shanghae trade. Orders came from Canada and from Nova Scotia to a very considerable amount; and during this season my sales were again very large. During the year 1853, I started and raised over sixteen hundred chickens of all kinds; but this did not supply my orders. I bought largely, and paid high prices, too, generally. But few persons were now doing any business in the fowl-trade, except myself, however. The _N.Y. Spirit of the Times_ published portraits of the birds sent to the Queen, and remarked that "the engraving represented six of the nine beautiful _Grey Shanghae_ fowls lately presented to Her Majesty _Victoria_, Queen of Great Britain, by _George P. Burnham_, Esq., of Boston, Mass. "These birds were forwarded by one of the last month's Collins steamers, in charge of Adams & Co.'s Express, and passed through this city on the 24th ult. Their extraordinary size and fine plumage were the admiration of all who examined them. The picture is from life, engraved by Brown, and is a faithful representation of the birds, which are very closely bred. "The color of this variety of the China fowl is a light silver-grey, approximating to white; the body is a light downy white, sparsely spotted and pencilled with metallic black in the tail and wing tips; the legs are feathered to the toes, and the form is unexceptionable for a large fowl; this variety having proved the biggest of all the 'Shanghaes' yet imported into this State. "The two cocks above delineated weighed between ten and eleven pounds each at six months old; the pullets drew seven and a half to nine pounds each at seven to eight months old; the original imported pair of _old_ ones now weigh upwards of twenty-three pounds, together. In the existing rage for weighty birds, this variety will naturally satisfy the ambition of those who go for the 'biggest kind' of fowls! "The group represents this variety with accuracy, and are, without doubt, for their kind, rare specimens of the genuine _gallus giganteus_ of modern ornithologists. As Her Majesty has long been known among the foremost patrons of that agreeable branch of rural pursuits, poultry-raising, we do not doubt but that this splendid present from Mr. Burnham will prove highly gratifying to her tastes in this particular." Portraits of these fowls appeared in _Gleason's Pictorial_ for January, 1853, and the editor spoke as follows of them: "The Grey Shanghae Fowls lately presented to Her Majesty Queen Victoria, of Great Britain, by George P. Burnham, Esq., of Boston, were extraordinary specimens of domestic poultry, and were bred the past season by Mr. Burnham from stock imported by him direct from China. They were universally admitted, by the thousands who saw them before they left, to be the largest and choicest-bred lot of chickens ever seen together in this vicinity. These fowls were from the same broods as those lately sent to Northby, of Aldborough, by Mr. Burnham, who is, perhaps, the most successful poultry-raiser in America; and while these beautiful birds are creditable to him as a breeder, they are a present really 'fit for a queen.'" The New York journals alluded to them in flattering terms, during their transit through that city on the way to their destination; and the numerous orders that crowded in upon me was the best evidence of the estimation in which this variety of domestic fowls was then held, as well as of the determined disposition of "the people" to be supplied from my "_pure_-bred stock." By one of the British steamers, in the summer of 1853, the express of Edwards, Sanford & Co., took out to Europe from my stock, for Messrs. Bakers, of Chelsea, Baily, of London, Floyd, of Huddersfield, Deming, of Brighton, Simons, of Birmingham, and Miss Watts, Hampstead, six cages of these "extraordinary" birds. The best of the hens weighed nine to nine and a half pounds each, and three of the cocks drew over twelve pounds each! There were forty-two birds in all, which, together, could not be equalled, probably, at that time, in America or England, for size, beauty and uniformity of color. The sum paid me for this lot of Greys was eight hundred and seventy dollars. Of the three fowls sent to Mr. John Baily (above mentioned), and which he exhibited in the fall of that year in England, the following account reached me, subsequently: "Mr. Geo. P. Burnham, of Melrose, sent out to England, last fall, to Mr. John Baily, of London, a cage of his fine 'Grey Shanghaes,' which were exhibited at the late Birmingham Show. The London _Field_ of Dec. 24th says that '_one pair_ of these fowls, from Mr. Burnham, of the United States, the property of Mr. Baily, of Mount-street, were shown among the extra stock, and were purchased from him, during the exhibition, by Mr. Taylor, of Shepherd's Bush, at one hundred guineas' ($500)!" This was the biggest figure ever paid for _two_ fowls, I imagine! Mr. Baily paid me twenty pounds sterling for the trio, and I thought that fair pay, I remember. The following brief account of my trade for the year of our Lord 1853, I published on the last day of December of that year, for the gratification of my numerous friends, and for the information of "the people" who felt an interest in this still exciting and (to me) very agreeable subject: "EDS. BOSTON DAILY TIMES: In a late number of your journal you were pleased to allude to the sales of live-stock made by me latterly. At the close of the present year, I find upon my books the following aggregate of sales for 1853, which--to show how much has been done by _one_ dealer--may be interesting to some of your readers who 'love pigs and chickens.' "I have sent into the Southern and Western States, through Adams & Co.'s Express alone, from Jan. 1st to Dec. 27th, 1853, a little rising $17,000 worth of Chinese fowls and fancy pigs. By Edwards, Sanford & Co.'s Transatlantic Express, in the same period, I have sent to England and the continent about $2000 worth of my 'Grey Shanghaes.' By Thompson and Co. and the American Western Express Co., I have sent west and south-west, in the same time, over $1200 worth; and my minor cash sales (directly at my yards in Melrose) have been over $1000; making the entire sales from my establishment for the past year nearly or quite _twenty-two thousand dollars_ in value. Of this amount, $7300 worth has been sold since the 10th of Sept last. "By the first steamer that leaves New York in January, '54, I shall send to New Orleans (to a single customer) between five and six hundred dollars' worth, ordered a few days since. I have also now in hand three large orders to fill for Liverpool and London, immediately; and the present prospect is that the poultry-trade will be considerably better next year than we have ever yet known it in New England. Wishing you and my competitors in the trade a 'Happy New Year,' I am theirs and yours, truly, "GEO. P. BURNHAM. "_Melrose, Dec. 30, 1853._" I have offered these statistics and facts to give some idea of the amount of trade that must have been current, in the _aggregate_, when these isolated instances are considered, and for the purpose of affording the reader an opportunity to judge measurably to what an extent this _fever_ really raged. Thousands and tens of thousands of "the people" were now (or had been) engaged in this extraordinary excitement, who were continuously humbugging themselves and each other, at round cost. And when these thousands are multiplied by the fives or tens, twenties or fifties, one hundreds or five hundreds of dollars, that they invested in this mania, the "prime cost" of this hum can be fancied, though it can never be known with accuracy. [10] See Frontispiece. CHAPTER XXI. EXPERIMENTS OF AMATEURS. The newspapers of the day were now occupied with speculative and actual statistics, of various kinds, relating to the utility and value of poultry and its produce, and every one seemed to join, in his or her way, to magnify the vastness of this enterprise; and statements like the following, in respectable public journals, had the effect to increase and keep up to fever-heat the state of the hen malady: "By reference to the agricultural statistics of the United States, published from reliable sources in 1850, it may be seen that the actual value of poultry, in New York State alone, was two millions three hundred and seventy-three thousand and twenty-nine dollars! Which was more than the value of _all the swine_ in the same state; nearly equal to _one half the value of its sheep_, the _entire_ value of its _neat cattle_, and nearly _five times_ the value of its _horses and mules_!" The amount of sales of live and dead _poultry_ in Quincy Market, Boston, for the year 1848, said another paper, was six hundred seventy-four thousand four hundred and twenty-three dollars: the average sales of one dealer alone amounting to twelve hundred dollars per week for the whole year. The amount of sales for the whole city of Boston, for the same year, was over one million of dollars. The amount of sales of _eggs_ in and around the Quincy Market for 1848 was one million one hundred and twenty-nine thousand seven hundred and thirty-five dozen, which, at eighteen cents per dozen, makes the amount paid for eggs to be two hundred three thousand three hundred and fifty-two dollars and thirty cents; while the amount of sales of eggs for the whole city of Boston, for the same year, was a fraction short of one million of dollars; the daily consumption of eggs at one of its hotels being seventy-five dozen daily, and on Saturday one hundred and fifty dozen. At this time, a single dealer in the egg-trade, at Philadelphia, sent to the New York market, daily, one hundred barrels of eggs; while the value of eggs shipped from Dublin to Liverpool and London was more than five millions of dollars for the year 1848. In addition to these facts, frequent allusions were made to the enormous quantities required for other markets, in the interior, to supply which the number of laying hens must be kept good, and increased, as the demand for the eggs was constantly augmenting, and the business, "if skilfully and judiciously managed" (said the agricultural papers), _must_ prove immensely profitable to those who engage in it. If "skilfully and judiciously managed"! This was good advice. But no one could inform "the people" how this management was to be effected. In the mean time, every sort of experiment was resorted to, by amateurs and fanciers and humbugs (who had been humbugged), to "improve" the breeds of poultry, and to produce new fowls that would lay two or three or four eggs for one, as compared with the old-fashioned birds. We knew one beginner who had purchased a pretty little place a few miles from the city, who contracted the fever, and "suffered" badly, but who was cured by the following curious result of his early experiments. Eggs were scarce (genuine ones), and, after considerable searching, he finally procured of some one in Boston a clutch of "fancy" eggs, for which he paid big figures, but which did not _turn out_ exactly what he anticipated; and so _he_ concluded, after a time, that the hen fever was a rascally hum. (He didn't procure these eggs of _me_, be it understood. _I_ never had any but _genuine_ ones!) He purchased what he was assured were pure "Cochin-China" eggs. (Perhaps they were--who knows?) And after waiting patiently for six long weeks for the "curious" eggs to hatch, he found six young _ducks_ in his coop, one morning!--So much for his knowledge of eggs! But this was not so bad as was the case of one of his neighbors, however, who paid a round price for half a dozen choice eggs, queer-looking speckled eggs--small, round, "outlandish" eggs--which he felt certain would produce _rare_ chicks, and which he was very cautious in setting under his very best hen. At the end of a few days he was startled, at the breakfast-table, to hear his favorite hen screaming "bloody murder" from within the coop! He rushed to the rescue, raised the box-lid, and found her still on the nest, but in a frightful perturbation--struggling, yelling and cackling, most vociferously. He spoke to her kindly and softly; he would fain, appease and quiet her; for there was great danger lest, in her excitement and struggles, she would destroy the favorite eggs--those rare eggs, which had cost him so much money and trouble. But soft words were vain. His "best" hen continued to scream lustily, and he raised her from the nest to look into the cause of the trouble more critically. His astonishment was instantaneous, but immense; and his surprise found vent in the brief but expressive exclamation, "_Turkles--by thunder_!" Such was the fact. This poor, innocent poultry-"fancier" was the victim of misplaced confidence. The party who sold him _them_ eggs had sold the buyer shockingly! And instead of a brood of pure Cochin-Chinas, he found that his favorite hen had hatched half a dozen pure _mud-turtles_, all of which, upon breaking from the shells, seized upon the flesh of the poor fowl, and had well-nigh taken her life before they could be "choked off." He has given up the chicken-trade, and has since gone into the dwarf-pear business. Poor devil! A youthful lawyer of my acquaintance, away Down East, who was proverbial for his "sharp practice" at the bar, met with a young doctor, who was a great bird-fancier, and with whom he subsequently formed an intimate acquaintance. Our medicinal friend owned a pretty little estate; distant a few miles from the city of P----, where he kept up a very neat establishment, which was thoroughly appointed. Among his out-of-door appurtenances, he maintained a modern bee-house, a choice dove-cot, and a well-selected aviary; in the latter he had some choice poultry, and into this the doctor invited his legal associate, one day, to examine his specimens of cacklers and crowers. There was a super-excellent "Bother'em" fowl among this collection,--a rare hen, the many good qualities of which the doctor dilated on (as he always did before his visitors), and the lawyer took a fancy to the beauty, instanter; but this fowl was a great favorite, and the doctor would neither sell, lend, or give her away; and then the visitor begged some of her eggs, as a last favor. But the doctor was selfish in regard to this particular bird--he wanted the breed exclusively to himself. It was of no avail, however, and his friend promised to embrace the first opportunity to steal the hen, and all the eggs he could find, if his request were not complied with; whereupon the doctor at length reluctantly promised to send him a dozen within a week, provided he said nothing about it. He would do it for _him_, as a particular favor--and so he was as good as his word. The young lawyer had his poultry-yard, also; and, selecting a fine hen, he quickly set her upon the choice Bother'em eggs, resolved to have as good a show as his neighbor. But three weeks passed--four, and upwards--but no chickens appeared! He broke up the nest, at last, and then called upon the doctor at once. "What luck, Tom?" "Not a chick!" "No!" "Not a _one_. The eggs weren't good." "No? That is queer," continued the doctor, "when I took so much extra pains with 'em." "Extra pains--how?" "Why, _I boiled every one of 'em_, the last thing before I sent 'em down to you!" And so he did. Tom grinned, squirmed, and went home,--but that wasn't the last of this joke. Six months afterwards, the keen-witted doctor visited the lawyer's little place, where he saw a magnificent large Bucks County rooster stalking about in the latter's yard. "By Jove, Tom! That's a rouser," exclaimed the doctor, enthusiastically, "'pon my word! Where d'you get him?" "Pennsylvania--Buxton's; a fine fellow that. Only eight months old." "Will you sell him?" "Yes--no; I reckon not, on the whole." "I'll give you an X for him." "Well, take him. He's worth twenty dollars; but you shall have him for ten dollars, being an old friend." The doctor placed the huge crower in his gig immediately, went home, killed off two of the finest Dorking roosters in the county, and put the new comer into his nice poultry-house; congratulating himself upon having at last secured a "tip-top breeder," and nothing else. At the end of the season, however, he complained to his friend the lawyer that he had had but very few eggs latterly; he could raise no chickens from them--not a _one_; and he didn't think much of the ten-dollar bird he purchased of him, any way. "He's a rouser, Bill, surely," said the lawyer, with a knowing smirk, repeating the doctor's exclamation on first beholding the rooster. "Well, yes--large, large--but--" "And a finer _capon_ I never sold to anybody in my life!" "A _what_!" screamed the doctor, springing towards his horse, which stood near by. "What's the price of _b'iled eggs_, Bill?" roared the lawyer, in reply. "Ten dollars a dozen, by thunder!" was the answer, as the doctor drove his rowels into the sides of his nag, and dashed away from his friend's gate a _wiser_ if not a better man. Many amateur poultry-raisers resorted to the most ridiculous and injurious shifts for remedies against the ills that hen-flesh is heir to. I have known certain friends who passed two or three hours every morning in running about their fowl-premises with pill-box and pepper-cup in hand, zealously dosing their drooping chickens, to their certain destruction. And some of the "doctors" went into _jalap_, in cases of colds, fevers, &c., in their fowls. We should as soon think of using arsenic, or any other poison, under such circumstances. The internal formation of a hen is scarcely believed to resemble that of a human being, surely; and why such medicinal applications, pray? This reminds us of a private joke, by the way, that was "let out" by a young fancier (out West) a little while ago. He had a bad cold himself, and had mixed "summat hot" to swallow, one evening. His servant informed him that his favorite Cochin-China crower had been ill for a day or two; and he ordered twenty grains of jalap to be prepared for his fine bird. By some mistake his toddy was given to the crower, and he swallowed the hen-medicine himself, and retired to bed. He slept soundly for a time, but was visited with shocking dreams. He fancied himself to be a huge rooster--one of the biggest kind; that he had taken all the premiums at all the shows, and that he had finally been set to hatch over a bushel of Shanghae eggs. It was the twentieth day, at last, and the chickens commenced to come forth from their shells beneath him. He dare not move,--his fowl-cure was at work,--and his critical position, for the time being, can be better imagined than portrayed. With a desperate effort, and a shrieking crow, he at length sprang from his couch, dashed out of doors, and, since the day afterwards, has resolved to eschew the use of jalap among his poultry,--a determination which, in all candor, we recommend earnestly to the hen-Galens who imagine that a hen is "a human." It had now become an every-day occurrence to hear of black chickens emerging from what were "warranted" pure white fowls' eggs; top-knot birds peeped forth from the eggs of pure-bred anti-crested hens; and all colors and shapes and varieties of chickens, except those that they were purchased for, made their appearance about the time of hatching the eggs so bought. All the old-fashioned fowls were utterly discarded. Cochin-Chinaism, Shanghae-ism, Bother'em Pootrumism, was rampant. The fancy egg-trade had begun to fall off sensibly. "The people" had had enough of _this_ part of the enterprise, which was destined to prove so "immensely profitable," if "judiciously and skilfully managed;" and the price was reduced to the miserable sum of three to five dollars a dozen, only, as customers chanced to turn up. From the commencement of the trade, in 1849, down to the month of August, 1853, I had a continued and certain sale, however, for every egg deposited upon my premises, at _my_ price. But this, though an exception, was not to be wondered at. _I_ kept and raised only the "genuine" article. [Illustration] CHAPTER XXII. TRUE HISTORY OF "FANNY FERN." I was riding through Brookline, Mass., one fine afternoon, on my round-about way home from a fowl-hunting excursion in Norfolk County, when my attention was suddenly attracted by the appearance and carriage of the most extraordinary-looking bird I ever met with in the whole course of my poultry experience. I drew up my horse, and watched this curiosity for a few minutes, with a fowl-admirer's wonder. It was evidently a _hen_, though the variety was new to me, and its deportment was very remarkable. Her plumage was a shiny coal-black, and she loitered upon a bright-green bank in the sunshine, at the southerly side of a pretty house that stood a few yards back from the road. She was rather long-legged, and "spindle-shanked," but she moved about skippingly and briskly, as if she were treading upon thin egg-shells. Her feet were very delicate and very narrow, and her body was thin and trim; but her plumage--that glossy, jet-black, brilliant feathery habit--was "too much" for my then excited "fancy" for beautiful birds; and I thought I had never seen a tip-top fowl before. As I gazed and wondered, this bird observed me coquettishly, and, raising herself slightly a tip-toe, she flapped her bright wings ludicrously, opened her pretty mouth, and sent forth a _crow_ so clear and sharp, and so utterly defiant and plucky, that I laughed outright in her face. I did. I couldn't help it. She noticed my merriment, and instantly flap went those glittering wings again, and another shout--a very shriek of a crow, a termagant yell of a crow--rang forth piercingly from the lungs of my sable but beautiful inamorata. This second crow was full of fire, and daring, and challenge, and percussion. It seemed to say, as plainly as words could have uttered it, "Who are _you_? What you after? Wouldn't you like to cage _me_ up--_s-a-y_?" I laughed again, wondered more, stared, and shouted "Bravo! Milady, you _are_ a rum 'un, to be sure!" And again she hopped up and crowed bravely, sharply, maliciously, wildly, marvellously. I was puzzled. I had heard of such animals before. I had read in the newspapers about Woman's Rights conventions. I had seen it stated that hens occasionally were found that "crowed like a cock." But I had never seen one before. This _was_ an extraordinary bird, evidently. There it went again! That same shrill; crashing, challenging crow, from the gullet of the ebon beauty before me. O, _what_ a crow was that, my countrymen! I resolved to possess this bird, at any cost. And I was soon in communication with the gentleman who then had her. "Is this _your_ hen, sir?" I inquired. And I think the gentleman suspected me, instanter. "Yes," he answered. "That is, I support her." "Will you sell her?" "No--no, sir." "I will give you ten dollars for her." Crack! Crash! Whew! went that crow, again. I was electrified. "I'll give you fifteen----" "No, sir." "Twenty dollars, then." "No." "What will you take for her?" "Hark!" he replied. "Isn't that music? Isn't that heavenly?" "What _is_ that?" I asked, eagerly. "My hen." "What is she doing?" "Singing," said the gentleman. "Beautiful!" I responded. "I will give you forty dollars for her." "Take her," replied her keeper. "She is yours." "What breed is it?" I inquired. "Spanker," said the gentleman, "but rare. It is one of Ellett's importation--genuine." "Remarkable pullet!" I ventured. "Hen, sir, _hen_," insisted the stranger. I paid him forty dollars down, and seized my prize, though she proved hard to catch. "She's much like the Frenchman's flea, sir," said her previous possessor. "Put your finger on her, and she's never there. Feed her well, however, keep her in good quarters, let her do as she pleases, and she'll always crow--always, sir. Hear _that_? You can't stop her, unless you stop her breath. She always crows and sings. There it is again! Isn't that a crow, for a hen--eh?" It was, indeed. "Good-day," said the Brookline gentleman, quietly pocketing his money. "Fanny will please you, I've no doubt." "Fanny?" I queried. "Yes; I call her '_Fanny Fern_,'" said the stranger to me, as I entered my wagon; and, half an hour afterwards, my forty-dollar cock-hen, "Fanny Fern," was crowing again furiously, lustily, magnificently, on the bright-green lawn beneath my own parlor-windows. "Fanny" proved a thorough trump. Bantams, Games, Cochins, Dorkings, Shanghaes, Bother'ems, were _no_where when "Fanny" was round. She could outcrow the lustiest feathered orchestra ever collected together in Christendom. She was a wonder, that redoubtable but frisky, flashy, sprightly, sputtery, spunky "Fanny Fern." And didn't the boys run after her? Well, they did! And didn't they want to buy her? Didn't they bid high for her, at last? Didn't everybody flock to see her, and to hear "Fanny" crow? And _didn't_ she continue to crow, too? Ah! it was heaven, indeed (and sometimes the other thing), to listen to "Fanny's" voice. When "Fanny" opened her mouth, everybody held their breath and listened. "Fanny" crowed to some purpose, verily! She crowed lustily against oppression, and vice, and wrong, and injustice; and she crowed aloud (with her best strength) in behalf of injured innocence, and virtue, and merit, exalted or humble. And, finally, "Fanny" hatched a brace of chickens; and _didn't_ she crow for and over _them_? She now cackled and scratched, and crowed harder and louder and shriller than ever. The people stopped in the street to listen to her; old men heard her; young men sought after her; all the women began to "swear" by her; the children thronged to see her; the newspapers all talked about her; and thousands of books were printed about my charming, astonishing, remarkable, crowing "Fanny Fern." I sent her to the fowl-shows, where she "took 'em all down" clean, and invariably carried away the first premium in her class. Never was such a hen seen, before or since. I was offered a hundred, two hundred, five hundred dollars for her. I was poor; but didn't I own this hen "Fanny,"--the extraordinary, wonderful, magnificent, coal-black, blustering, but inapproachable and world-defying "Fanny"? "I will give you _eight_ hundred dollars for her," said a publisher to me, one day. "I want to put her in a book. She's a wonder! a star of the first magnitude! a diamond without blemish! a God-send to the world in 1854!" At this moment "Fanny" crowed. "Will you take eight hundred?" screamed the publisher, jumping nearly to the ceiling. "No, sir." "A thousand?" "No." "Two thousand?" "No, sir." "_Five_ thousand?" "No! I will keep her." And I did. What was five thousand dollars to me? _Bah!_ I had the hen-cock "Fanny Fern." I didn't want money. My pocket-book was full to bursting, and so was my head with the excitement of the hen fever. And "Fanny" crowed again. Ah! _what_ a crow was Fanny's! "Fanny" couldn't be bought, and so my competitors clanned together to destroy her. The old fogies didn't like this breed, and they resolved to annihilate all chance of its perpetuation. I placed her in better quarters, where she would be more secure from intrusion or surprise. I told her of my fears,--and _didn't_ she crow? She flapped her bright black wings, and crowed all over. "Cock-a-doodle-_doo--oo--oo_!" shouted "Fanny," while her sharp eyes twinkled, her fair throat trembled, and the exhilarating tone of defiance seemed to reach to the very tips of her shining toe-nails. "Cock-a-too--_roo--oo_!" she shrieked; "let 'em come, too! See what they'll _do--oo_! I'll take care of _you--oo_! Don't get in a _stoo--oo_! Pooh--pooh--poo--_poo_!" Maybe "Fanny" didn't crow! And _I_ learned to crow. It was beautiful! She crowed, and I crowed. We crowed together. She in her way,--I in mine. The duet was mellifluous, cheering, soul-stirring, life-invigorating, _profitable_. "Fanny" went into New York State, crowing when she left, crowing as she went, and continuing to crow until she crowed the community there clear through the next fourth o' July, out into the fabled millennium. She crowed Messrs. Derby & Miller into a handsome fortune, and Mason & Brothers into ditto. She crowed one Hyacinth into the shreds of a cocked hat and battered knee-buckles. She crowed the Hall breed of old hens so far out of sight that the "search for Sir John Franklin" would be a fool to the journey requisite to overtake that family. And still she _crowed_. The more they bade her stop, the more she wouldn't. "Cock-a-tootle--_too_!" "I-know-what-_I_-shall--_doo_!" "What-do-I-care-for--_yoo_?" "This-world-is-all--foo--_foo_." "Leave-_me_-and-I'll-leave--_you_." "If-not-I'll-lamm--_you_--TOO--OO!" And "Fanny" crowed herself at last into the good graces of two _long brothers_ in Gotham, where she is now crowing with all her might and main. Let her crow! She was a remarkable "bird," that rollicking, joyous, inexplicable, flirting, funny, furious "Fanny Fern." I hear her now again! "COCK-A-DOODLE--DOO--OO!" "Young 'Un,--you-will-do!!" "_Et--tu--Brute--o-o-o!!!_" CHAPTER XXIII. CONVALESCENCE. One striking feature that exhibited itself in the midst of this mania, was the fact that prominent among the leading dealers in fancy poultry, constantly appeared the names of clergymen, doctors, and other "liberally-educated" gentlemen. In Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and most of the Eastern States, this circumstance was especially noticeable; and more particularly in England. Whether this class of the community had the most money to throw away, or whether their leisure afforded them the better opportunity to indulge in this fancy, I cannot say; but one thing is certain,--among my own patrons and correspondents, for the past five or six years, I find the names of this class of "the people" by far the most conspicuous and frequent. There came into my office, one morning late in 1853, a Boston physician (whom I had never seen before), who introduced himself civilly, and invited me to ride a short distance with him up town. I was busy; but he insisted, and his manner was peculiarly urgent and determined. "My carriage is at the door," he said; "and I will bring you back here in twenty minutes. I have some pure-blood stock I desire to dispose of." "What _is_ it, doctor?" I asked. "Chickens, chickens!" replied the doctor, briefly. I assured the gentleman that I had near a thousand fowls on hand at this time, and had no possible wish to increase the number. "They are pure-bred--cost me high," he continued; "are very fine, but I must part with them--come!" I joined him, and we rode a mile or more, when he halted before a fine, large house; his servant in waiting took his horse, and he ushered me into his well-appointed poultry-house, at the rear of his dwelling. The buildings were glazed in front and upon the roofs; the yards were spacious and cleanly, and appropriately divided; the laying and hatching rooms were roomy and convenient; the roosting-house was airy and pleasant, and everything was, seemingly, in excellent order, and arranged with good taste throughout. "That cock cost me twenty dollars," said the doctor, calmly. "Those two hens I paid eighteen dollars for. That bird, yonder, twelve dollars. These five pullets stand me in about forty-five dollars. I have never yet been able to hatch but one brood of chickens. The rats carried _them_ off by the third morning after they came into this world. The hens sometimes lay, I believe; at least, my man says so. I have never _seen_ any eggs from them myself, however. I have no doubt this species of fowls (these Changays) _do_ lay eggs, though. There are twenty-two of them. Buy them, Mr. B----," continued the doctor, urgently. I said no; I really did not want them. "I _had_ nigh forty of them," continued the doctor, "two months ago. But they have disappeared. Disease, roup, vermin, night-thieves, sir. Will you buy them? John----drive them out!" The fowls were driven into the main yard. There were but sixteen in all. "Where are the rest, John?" inquired the doctor, anxiously. "There were twenty-two here yesterday." "I dunno, sir," said John. "Drive 'em back, and box them up, John. Mr. B----, will you make an offer for the remainder? To-morrow I shall probably have none to sell! Will you give anything for them?" I declined to buy. "Will you permit me to send them to you as a present, sir?" he continued. I did not want them, any way. I had a full supply. "What will you charge me, Mr. B----, to allow them to be sent to you?" continued the fancier, desperately, and resolutely, at last. I saw he was determined, and I took his fowls (fifteen of them), and gave him ten dollars. He smiled. "I have had the hen fever," he added, "_badly_--but I am better of it. I am convalescent, now," said the doctor. "You see what I have here for houses; cost me over seven hundred dollars; my birds over four hundred more; grain and care for a year, a hundred more. I am _satisfied_! Your money, here, is the first dollar I ever received in return for my investment. You see what I have left out of my venture of twelve or thirteen hundred dollars; the manure, and--and--the lice!" Such were the exact facts! His stock was selected from the Marsh and Forbes importations, and the birds were good; but, by the time he got ready to believe that it wasn't _all_ gold that glittered, the sale of _this_ variety of fowl had passed by. A chance purchaser happened to come along soon after, however, who "hadn't read the papers" so attentively as some of us had, and who wanted these very fowls. I sold them to him, "cheap as a broom," because the fever for this kind of bird was rapidly declining. He paid me only $150 for this lot; which _was_ a bargain, of a truth. The buyer was satisfied, however, and so was _I_. These were but isolated instances. Scores and hundreds of gentlemen and amateur fanciers found themselves in a similar predicament, at the end of one or two or three years. Without possessing a single particle of knowledge requisite to the successful accomplishment of their purpose,--utterly ignorant of the first rudiments of the business,--they jumped into it, without reason, forgetting the wholesome advice contained in the musty adage, "look before you leap." And, after sinking tens and hundreds or (in some cases) _thousands_ of dollars in experiments, they woke up to find that they had _had_ the fever badly, but, fortunately, were at last convalescent! I was busy, all this time, in supplying my friends with "pure-bred" stock, however, and had very little leisure to tarry to sympathize with these "poor creeturs." The demand for _my_ stock continued, and the best year's business I ever enjoyed, was from the spring of 1853 to May and June, 1854; when it commenced to fall off very sensibly, and the prospect became dubious, for future operations, even with _me_. CHAPTER XXIV. AN EXPENSIVE BUSINESS. During the past six years I have expended, outright, for breeding stock, and for appropriate buildings for my fowls, over four thousand dollars, in round numbers--without taking into the account the expenses of their care, and the cost of feeding. Few breeders have spent anything like this sum, for this purpose, _strictly_. In the mean time, the aggregate of my receipts has reached (up to January, 1855) upwards of seventy thousand dollars. I have raised thousands upon thousands of the Chinese varieties of fowls, and my purchases to fill orders which came to hand during this term--in addition to what I was able to fill from those I myself raised--have been very large. And, while I have been thus engaged, hundreds and hundreds of amateurs and fanciers have sprung up in various directions, all of whom have had their share, too, in this trade. To the fanciers--those who purchased, as many did at first, simply for their amusement, or for the mere satisfaction of having good, or, perhaps, the best birds--this fever proved an expensive matter. I have known amateurs who willingly paid twenty, fifty, or a hundred dollars, and even more, for a pair, or a trio, of what were considered very choice Shanghaes. These fowls, after the first few weeks or months of the purchaser's excitement had passed by, could be bought of him for five or ten dollars a pair! Yet, his next-door neighbor, who would not now take these identical birds for a gift, scarcely, would pay to a stranger a similarly extravagant amount to that which had a hundred times been paid by others before him, for something, perhaps, inferior in quality, but which chanced to be called by the most popular name current at the moment. Thus, for a time, bubble number one, the _Cochin-Chinas_, prevailed. The eggs of these fowls sold at a dollar each, for a long period. Then came the _Shanghaes_, of different colors,--as the yellow, the white, the buff, or the black,--and took their turn. Many thousands of these were disposed of, at round rates. The smooth-legged birds at first commanded the best price; then the feathered-legged. And, finally, came the Grey Shanghaes, or "Chittagongs," or "Brahmas," as they were differently termed; and this proved bubble number two, in earnest. Everybody wanted them, and everybody had to pay for them, too! They were large, heavy fowls, of China blood, plainly, but, with some few exceptions, were indifferent birds. They were _leggy_, however, and stood up showy and tall, and, to _look at_, appeared advantageously to the fancy, at this period. In the maw of this bubble, thousands of good dollars were thrown; and no race of poultry ever had the run that did these Greys, under various names, both in this country and in England. A most excellent Southern trade had sprung up, and large shipments of fowls went forward to the West, from Massachusetts, and to Charleston, Augusta, Mobile, New Orleans, etc., where the fever broke out furiously, and continued, without abatement, for three years or more. No buyers were so liberal, generally, and no men in the world, known to Northern breeders, bought so extensively, as did these fanciers in New Orleans and vicinity. They purchased largely, from the very start; and the trade was kept up with a singular vigor and enterprise, from the beginning to the end. Orders, varying in value from $500 to $1200 and $1500, were of almost weekly occurrence from that region; and in one instance, I sent forward to a gentleman in Louisiana, a single shipment for which he paid me $2230! This occurred in September, 1853. In this same year, I sent, from January to December, to another gentleman (at New Orleans), over _ten thousand_ dollars' worth of stock. The prices for chickens ranged from $12 or $15 a pair, to $25 or $30, and often $40 to $50, a pair. These rates were always willingly and freely paid, and the stock was, after a while, disseminated throughout the entire valley of the Mississippi; where the China fowls always did better than in our own climate. It proved an expensive business to some of these gentlemen, most emphatically. But they always paid cheerfully, promptly, and liberally; and _knew_ the Yankees they were dealing with, a good deal better than many of the sharpers supposed they did. For myself, I shall not permit this opportunity to pass without expressing my thanks to my numerous and generous Southern patrons, to whom I sent a great many hundred pairs of what were deemed "good birds," and to whom I am indebted, largely, for the trade I enjoyed for upwards of five years. I sincerely hope they made more money out of all this than I did; and I trust that their substance, as well as "their shadows, may never be less." During this year, and far into 1854, the current of trade turned towards Great Britain; and John Bull was not very slow to appreciate the rare qualities of my "magnificent" and "extraordinary" birds; "the like of which," said a London journal, when the Queen's fowls first arrived, "was never before seen in England." For upwards of a year, I had all _this_ trade in my own way. Subsequently, some of the smaller dealers sent out a few pairs to London, but "the people" there could never be brought to believe those fowls were anything but mongrels; and, while these interlopers contrived to murder the trade there, they at the same time "cut off their own noses," for the future, with those who knew what poultry was, upon the other side of the Atlantic. I had _my_ shy at the Britons, seasonably! But, a few months afterwards (as I shall show in a future chapter), through the mismanagement of an ambitious dealer in other fancy live-stock, the trade with England, from this side of the water, was completely ruined. Over two hundred American fowls were thrown suddenly upon the London market, and were finally sold there, at auction, for a very small sum; and we were subsequently unable (with all our chicken-eloquence) to make John Bull believe that even the _Grey Shanghaes_ were any longer "scarce" with us, here! CHAPTER XXV. THE GREAT PAGODA HEN. The most ridiculous and fulsome advertisements now occupied the columns of certain so-called agricultural papers in this country, particularly one or two of these sheets in New York State. Stories were related by correspondents (and endorsed by the nominal editors), regarding the proportions and weights and beauties of certain of the "Bother'em" class of fowls, that rivalled Munchausen, out and out. Fourteen and fifteen pound cocks, and ten or eleven pound hens, were as common as the liars who told the stories of these impossibilities. And one day the following capital hit, by Durivage, appeared in a Boston journal. He called it "The Great Pagoda Hen." There is as much truth in this as there was in many of the more seriously-intended articles of that time. It ran as follows: "Mr. Sap Green retired from business, and took possession of his country 'villa,' just about the time the 'hen fever' was at its height; and he soon gave evidence of having that malignant disorder in its most aggravated form. He tolerated no birds in his yard that weighed less than ten pounds at six months, and he allowed no eggs upon his table that were not of a dark mahogany color, and of the flavor of pine shavings. He supplied his own table with poultry, and the said poultry consisted of elongated drum-sticks, attached by gutta-percha muscles and catgut sinews to ponderous breast-bones. He frequently purchased a 'crower' for a figure that could have bought a good Morgan horse; but then, as the said crower consumed as much grain as a Morgan horse, he could not help being perfectly satisfied with the bargain. His wife complained that he was 'making ducks and drakes' of his property; but, as that involved a high compliment to his ornithological tastes, he attempted no retort. He satisfied himself that it 'would pay in the end.' His calculations of profits were 'clear as mud.' He would have a thousand hens. The improved breeds were warranted to lay five eggs apiece a week; and eggs were worth--that is, _he was paying_--six dollars a dozen. His thousand hens would lay twenty thousand eight hundred and thirty-three dozen eggs per annum, which, at six dollars per dozen, would amount to the sum of one hundred and twenty-four thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight dollars. Even deducting therefrom the original cost of the hens and their keep,--say thirty-six thousand dollars,--the very pretty trifle of eighty-eight thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight was the remainder--clear profit. Eggs--even dark mahogany eggs--_went down to a shilling a dozen_! But we will not anticipate. "To facilitate the multiplication of the feathered species; Mr. Green imported a French Eccaleobion, or egg-hatching machine, that worked by steam, and was warranted to throw off a thousand chicks a month. "One day an 'ancient mariner' arrived at the villa, with a small basket on his arm, and inquired for the master of the house. Sap was just then engaged in important business,--teaching a young chicken to crow,--but he left his occupation, and received the stranger. "'Want to buy an egg?' asked the mariner. "'One egg? Why, where did it come from?' asked the hen-fancier. "'E Stingies,' replied the mariner. "'Domestic fowl's egg?' "'Domestic.' "'Let's see it.' "The sailor produced an enormous egg, weighing about a pound. Sap 'hefted' it carefully. "'Did you ever see the birds that lay such eggs?' he asked. "'Lots on 'em,' replied the sailor. 'They're big as all out-doors. They calls 'em the Gigantic Pagoda Hen. I'm afeared to tell you how big they are; you won't believe me. But jest you hatch out that 'ere, and you'll see wot'll come of it.' "'But they must eat a great deal?' said Sap. "'Scarcely anything,' replied the mariner; 'that's the beauty on 'em. Don't eat as much as Bantams.' "'Are they good layers?' "'You can't help 'em laying,' replied the seaman, enthusiastically. 'They lay one egg every week-day, and two Sundays.' "'But when do they set?' queried Green. "'They don't set at all. They lays their eggs in damp, hot places, and natur' does the rest. The chicks take keer of themselves as soon as they're out of the shell.' "'Damp, hot place!' said Sap. 'My Eccaleobion is the very thing, and my artificial sheep-skin mother will bring 'em up to a charm. My friend, what will you take for your egg?' "'Cap'n,' said the mariner, solemnly, 'if I was going to stay ashore, I wouldn't take a hundred dollars for it; but, as I've shipped ag'in, and sail directly, you shall have it for forty.' "The forty dollars were instantly paid, and the hen-fancier retired with his prize, his conscience smiting him for having robbed a poor, hard-working sailor. "O, how he watched the egg-hatching machine while that extraordinary egg was undergoing the steaming process! He begrudged the time exacted by eating and sleeping; but his vigils were rewarded by the appearance, in due time, of a stout young chick, with the long legs that are a proof of Eastern blood. The bird grew apace; indeed, almost as rapidly as Jack's bean-stalk, or the prophet's gourd. But the sailor was mistaken in one thing; it ate voraciously. Moreover, as it increased in size and strength, the Pagoda exhibited extraordinary pugnacity. It kicked a dozen comrades to death in one night. It even bit the hand of the feeder. Soon it was necessary to confine it in a separate apartment. Its head soon touched the ceiling. What a pity it had no mate! Sap wrote to a correspondent at Calcutta to ship him two pairs of the Great Pagoda birds, without regard to cost. Meanwhile he watched the enormous growth of his single specimen. He kept its existence a profound secret. It was under lock and key, in a separate apartment, lighted by a large window in the roof. Sap's man-of-all-work wheeled daily two bushels of corn and a barrel of water to the door of the apartment, and Green fed them out when no one was looking. Even this supply was scanty; but, out of justice to his family, Sap was compelled to put the monster bird on allowance. "'Poor thing!' he would say, when he saw the creature devouring broken glass, and even bolting stray nails and gravel-stones, 'it cuts me to the soul to see it reduced to such extremity. But it's eating me out of house and home. Decidedly, that sailor-man must have been deceived about their being moderate feeders.' "When the bird had attained to the enormous altitude of six feet, the proud proprietor sent for the celebrated Dr. Ludwig Hydrarchos, of Cambridge, to inspect him, and furnish him with a scientific description, wherewith he might astonish his brethren of the Poultry Association. The doctor came, and was carefully admitted by Green to the presence of the Great Pagoda Hen. The bird was not accustomed to the sight of strangers, and began to manifest uneasiness and displeasure at seeing the man of science. It lifted first one foot and then the other, as if it were treading on hot plates. "'Hi! hi!' said Green, soothingly. 'Pagy! Pagy! come, now, be quiet!--will you?' "'Let me out!' cried Hydrarchos, in great alarm. The huge bird was polking up to him. 'Let me out, I say!' "'I never knew it to act so before,' said Green, fumbling at the lock. "A whirr, a rush, a whizzing of the wings, and the bird was down on the doctor, treading on his heels, and pecking at the nape of his neck. "'Pagy! Pagy!' supplicated the owner. "But the angry bird would not listen to reason, and Sap received a thump on the head for his pains. And now both rushed for the opening door, stumbling and falling prostrate in their eagerness to escape. The monster bird danced a moment on their prostrate bodies, and then darted forth from its late prison-house. "It rushed through a couple of grape-houses, carrying destruction in its progress. It scoured through the flower-beds, ruining the bright parterres. Mrs. Green, who was walking in the garden with her child, saw the horrid apparition, and stood paralyzed with terror. In an instant she was thrown down and trampled under foot, shrieking and clasping her infant in her arms. "Mr. Green beheld this last atrocity, and his conjugal affection overcame his love of birds. He caught up his fowling-piece and fired at the ungrateful monster; the shot ripped up some of its tail-feathers, but failed to inflict a mortal wound,--nothing short of a field-piece could produce an impression on that living mass. Away sped the fowl to the railroad-track, down which it rushed with headlong speed. But its career was brief; an express train, coming up in an opposite direction, struck it full in front, and rushed on, scattering feathers, wings and drum-sticks, wildly in the air. "'Tell me, doctor,' gasped Green, 'what do you think of my Great Pagoda?' "'Great Pagoda!' said the professor, in indignant disdain. 'That was a Struthio,--Greek, _Strothous_,--in other words, an ostrich. If you hadn't belonged to the genus _Asinus_, you'd have known that, without asking me. Good-morning, Mr. Green.' "'Where is the monster?' cried Mrs. Green. 'I believe the poor child is killed. O, Sap, I didn't expect this of you!' "'Be quiet, my dear,' said Green; 'it was only an experiment.' "'An experiment, Mr. Green!' retorted the lady, sharply; 'your wife and child nearly killed, and you call it an experiment! Nurturing ostriches to devour your off-spring! I wonder you don't take to raising elephants.' "'No danger of that, Maria,' replied her husband, meekly. 'I have "seen the elephant." And to-morrow I shall send my entire stock to the auction-room,--Shanghaes, Chittagongs, Brahma Pootras, Cochins, Warhens and Warhoos. They're nice birds, great layers, small eaters, but they--_don't pay_.'" * * * * * Mr. Green was cured, of course; and though his anticipations were great, yet he had his predecessors and his successors in the hen traffic, who were almost as sanguine as he, and who not only "paid through the nose" for their experience, but who came off, in the end, really, with quite as little success. Mr. Green was but one of many. Mr. Green was one of "the people." It will be remembered that my correspondents allude to the fowls they "_see in the noospapers_." _I_ had seen these birds, in the same way, before _they_ did. And a London dealer wrote me that he could send me a lot of Egleton's "famous" stock, "which took the three first premiums at a metropolitan show, and two descendants of which, at the close of the late exhibition, were sold _at auction_ for forty-eight guineas ($262)." I immediately sent out for a few of these monsters. They were described to me as being of enormous size, and _feathered upon the legs_; and I was now somewhat surprised to note that several of the English societies decided that the _true_ "Cochin-China" fowl (as _they_ term this variety) come only with feathered legs. The very stock above alluded to, however, came direct from the city of _Shanghae_; and duplicate birds of the same blood were delineated in the _London Illustrated News_. The metropolitan associations required that all Cochin-China fowls put in competition for premiums _must_ be feathered-legged. This was a new decision, as it is well known that every importation of domestic fowl yet brought out from China direct come more or less _clean_-legged; and that fully one half of their progeny are so, with the most careful breeding, both in England and in this country. This was immaterial, however; and I repeated the story to my correspondents in good faith, and sent them copies of the portraits of these new, "extraordinary," "splendid" and "astonishing" hens, precisely as their history and pictures came to _me_. The result can be fancied. Here is the "original" portrait of one of 'em. [Illustration: ONE OF 'EM.] This was the kind of thing that "took down" the outsiders. Orders for this strain of pure blood poured in upon me, and I supplied them. I trust the purchasers were always satisfied. In _my_ case, it might answer; but I would not recommend the practice _generally_ of purchasing chickens out of the newspapers. Such a portrait as the above _might_ chance to be a little fanciful; or, _perhaps_, it might be a trifling exaggeration, you see. Yet this was the breed that were always "put in the _newspapers_." You very rarely found them in your coops, though! CHAPTER XXVI. "POLICY THE BEST HONESTY." This reversion of the old saying that "honesty's the best policy" seemed to have finally attained among many hen-men, and the ambition to dispose of their now large surplus stock, at the best possible prices, had become very general, while the means to accomplish it came to be immaterial, so that they got rid of their fancy poultry at fancy figures. Nothing that could be said against me and my stock was neglected, or omitted to be said. But, as long as fowls would sell at all, I had my full share of the trade, notwithstanding this. The following veritable letter, received from a noted "breeder," in 1853, will explain itself; and it exhibits the disposition of more than _one_ huckster still left around us. It will be observed that this gentleman called me his "friend"! "FRIEND B----: What has become of all the trade? I haven't sold twenty dollars' worth of chickens, in a month! I've now got over three hundred of these curses on hand--and they're eating me up, alive. What'll we do with them? Do you want them? Will you buy them--_any_how? And give what you like for them. "They are a better lot than you ever owned,--everybody says so,--Greys, Cochins (_pure_) and Shanghaes. D--n the business! I'm sick of it. My fowls and fixin's cost me over twelve hundred dollars. What do you think of an auction? Has the bottom fallen out, entirely? Could I get back two or three dollars apiece for this lot, do you think, at public sale? "B---- is stuck with about five hundred of the gormandisers. I'm glad of it--glad--_glad_! An't you? He always lammed you, as well as me; and though I think _you_ can swinge the green 'uns as cutely as 'most any of 'em, _he_ has been an eye-sore for three years that ought to be put down. He got his stock of you, he says,--but (no offence to you, friend B----), it an't worth a cuss. All of it's sick and lousy, and he shan't sell no more fowls, if I can help it. "Have you seen W----'s stock, lately? Isn't _he_ a beauty! I told him, last week, he'd ought to be ashamed of himself ever to gone into this trade, at all. He's well enough off, without stealing the bread out of the mouths of them that's a long way honester than he ever was. I'll have a lick at _him_, yet. "Come and see my stock,--and buy it. I don't want it. I must give it up. I'm too busy about something else. Come--will you? I don't say anything against your fowls, outside; but you know, as well as I do, that you haven't got the _real thing_. Bennett says you haven't, and everybody else says so. As to your 'importations,' you never had a fowl that was imported from any further off than Cape Cod, and you know it! But that is neither here nor there. _I_ don't care a fig how much you gouge 'em. All I want is to get rid of _mine_. If you don't buy them, I shall sell them,--somehow,--or give them away, sure. They shan't eat me up, nohow. "They don't eat nothing--these fowls don't! O, what an infernal humbug this is! I never got much out of it, though. I tell everybody what all the rest of you do,--of course. But _I_ had rather keep the same number of Suffolk pigs, anyhow, so far as that's concerned. I an't afraid of your showing this letter to nobody--ha! ha! So I don't mark it 'private.' But of all the owdacious humbugs that ever this country saw, _this_ thing is the steepest,--and you know it! "Write me and say what you'll give me for my lot. I won't peach on you. You can buy 'em on your own terms. I want to get out of it. And you may say just what you've a mind about 'em. I'll back you, of course. Couldn't you take them, and get up another fresh guy on a 'new importation'?? That's it. Come, now, friend B----, help me out. And answer immediately. All I want is to get out of it, and catch _me_ there again if you can! "Yours, &c., "---- ----. "P.S. If you don't buy them, I shall kill the brutes, and send 'em to market; though they are too _poor_ for that, I think." This complimentary epistle from a brother-fancier was rather cool, but it didn't equal the following. I had more than one of this sort, too,--of which I had no occasion, for the time being, to take the slightest notice, for I had "other fish to fry," decidedly! "MR. BURNHAM.--SIR: How is it that you have the impudence to try to palm off on the public those fowls of yours for genuine '_imported_ ones,' when it is known that you bought them all of me, and A----, and B----? How can you sleep nights? Don't you feel a squirming in your conscience? Or is it made of ingy-rubber, or gutter-perchy? You have made hundreds, and I don't know but thousands of dollars, by your impudence and bare-faced deceit. They are _not_ genuine fowls. I say this _bolely_. I wish there was a noospaper that would show the inderpendence to print an article that I could rite for it, on this subject of poletry. If I wouldn't make you stare, and shet your eyes up, too, then I aint no judge of swindling! "Why don't you act like a man? _Carnt_ you? Havn't you got the pluck to own up that other people have done for you what you never had the gumption to do for yourself? Why don't you act fair,--and tell where the genuine fowls can be got, and of who? You're a doing the poultry business more hurt than all the rest of the men in the country is doing, or ever did, or ever will, sir. "I don't mind a man's being sharp, and looking out for himself. _I_ do that. But I carn't humbug people as you are doing,--and I won't, neither. You're sticking it into the people nicely,--don't you think you are? And they _believe_ it, too! The people believes what you tell them, and sucks it all down, and wants more of it. And you keep a giving it to them, too! How long do you suppose such infamous things as these can last? I hope this letter will do you good. I havn't no ends to answer. I keep but a few fowls, and I have never charged over twenty-five dollars a pair for the best of them,--as you know. _You_ get fifty or a hundred dollars a pair. So the noospapers say, but I believe you lie when they say so. You carn't come this over _me_! You don't pull none of that wool over _my_ eyes! No, sir! "If you want to get an honest living,--get it! I don't say nothin against that; you've a rite to. But don't cheat the people out of their eye-teeth, by telling these stories that you carn't prove.[11] You've no right to. You sell fowls, by this means, but you don't get no clear conscience by it. It's wrong, Mr. Burnum, and you know it. While you do this, nobody can sell no fowls except _you_. Give other people a chance, say I. I wouldn't do this, nohow, to sell my fowls at your expense; and I go for having everybody do unto others as _I_ would do to _them_. This is moral and Christian-like, and you'd better adopt it. That's my advice, and I don't charge nothing for it. So, no more at present--from "Your, resp'y, "---- ---- ----." These missives never disturbed me. Why should they? These very men would have sold, from that very stock,--_had_ done so, repeatedly, before,--whatever a buyer sought to purchase. I never knew either of them to permit the chance of a sale to pass by him, on account of the _variety_ of bird sought! They invariably possessed whatever was wanted. With them, "_policy_ was the best _honesty_." I did not complain. I was a "hen-man," but no Mentor. [11] I never found, in my limited experience in this business, any particular necessity for attempting to prove anything. "The people" wanted FOWLS--not _proofs_! CHAPTER XXVII. A GENUINE HUMBUG. [Illustration: A GENUINE HUMBUG.] It was now getting pretty clear to the vision of most of the initiated that the hen fever was in the midst of its height. Buyers with long purses were about, but they were not so ravenous as formerly. They talked knowingly and cautiously, and chose their fowls with more care than formerly; but still a great many samples were being circulated, and at very handsomely remunerating prices. A gentlemanly-_looking_ man called upon me, one day, about this time, in Boston, and introduced himself, in his own felicitous manner, something in this wise: "How are you? Mr. Burnum, I suppose. My name is T----. I'm from Phil'delphy." "Happy to see you, Mr. T----," I replied. "Take a seat, sir?" "I want to _look_ at your fowls, Burnum," he continued, in a rather bluff manner. "I know what poultry is, I _think_. I've been at it, now, over thirty year; and I'd oughter know what fowls is. You're a humbug, Burnum! There's no doubt about _that_; and you're all a set of hums, together--you hen-men! I haven't got the fever. I'm never disturbed by no such stupid nonsense. These China fowls are an old story with _me_. I had 'em twenty years ago,--brought into Phil'delphy straight from Shanghae by a friend of mine." [This gentleman had forgotten, or didn't know (or thought _I_ didn't), that the port of Shanghae had been open to communication with this country only a dozen years or less; and so I permitted him to proceed in his remarks without offering any opposition to his assumption.] "These big fowls never lay no eggs, Burnum. You know it as well as anybody. _Do_ they?" "None to hurt," I answered. "No, no--I reck'n not," continued my visitor. "_I_ know 'em, like a book. Can't fool _me_ with them. They an't worth a curse to nobody. I'll go out and _see_ yours, though, 'cause you're a good deal fairer than I expected to find you. I thought you'd try to hum _me_, same as I s'pose you do the rest." "O, no!" I replied, meekly. "When I meet with gentlemen who are posted up, as _you_ are, sir, I conceive it to be useless to attempt to urge them to possess themselves of this stock; because I am always satisfied, at first sight, what my customer is. And I govern myself accordingly. I will take you out to my place, directly. My carriage is in town, and we'll ride out together. You can see it,--but you say you don't want to purchase any?" "No, no--that's not my object, at all. Still, I like to look at the humbugs, any way." I was as well satisfied that this man knew very little of what he thus boldly talked of, as I also was that he had come all the way from Philadelphia _purposely_ to buy some Chinese fowls. But I gave him no hint of this suspicion; and we arrived, an hour afterwards, at my residence in Melrose. He examined my fowls carefully; went through all the coops and houses, and finally we entered the "green-house" where the _selected_ animals were kept. As soon as he saw these birds, _I_ saw that he was "a goner." He denounced the whole race as he passed along; but when we entered this well-appointed place, he stopped. These were very respectable, and he wouldn't mind having a few of _these_, he said. "What do you get for such as these?" he inquired. "Twenty-five dollars each," I replied, "when I sell them. But they're all alike. _You_ know it as well as I do. They're worth no such money. These fowls are well-grown, and are in good condition; but five or six shillings each is their full _real_ value. Still, you know when 'the children cry for them,' why, we get a little more for them." "Yes; but twenty-five dollars is a thundering hum, anyhow, Burnum! I can't go _that_! You mustn't think of getting no such price as that out of _me_, you see; 'cause you know that _I_ know what all this bosh means. I'd like that cock and those three big hens," he added, pointing to four of my "best" birds. "That is," he continued, "if I could have them at anything like a fair rate." "My dear sir," I responded; "_you_ don't want any such hum as this imposed upon _you_. You know, evidently, what all this kind of thing signifies. But, at the same time, you see I can get this price, and do get it every day in the week, out of the 'flats' that you have been speaking of. I don't sell any of these things to gentlemen, who know, as _you_ do, what they are, you see." "Yes, yes!" continued the stranger; "I know; I see. I comprehend you, exactly--precisely. But I should like them four fowls. What's the _lowest_ price you'll name for them?" "I never have but one price, sir," I replied. "_These_ fowls I keep here for show-birds. They are my 'sign,' you perceive--my models. The younger stock, that you have seen outside, are bred _from_ these; and thus I am enabled to show gentlemen, when they come here, what the others will be"--(_perhaps_, I might have added; but I didn't). This gentleman remained half an hour at my house, and we talked the whole subject over, at our leisure. I agreed with him in every proposition that he advanced, and he finally left me with the assurance that I had been traduced villanously. He really expected to meet with a regular sharper when he encountered me; but he was satisfied, if there was a gentleman and an honest poultry-breeder in New England, _I_ was that fortunate individual! I did not dispute even this assurance on his part. And when he left, _I_ had one hundred dollars of his money, and _he_ took away with him four of my "splendid" pure-bred Grey Shanghaes, which I sent to the cars with him when he bade me good-day. This was but a single sample of the _real_ humbugs that presented themselves to us, from time to time, _all_ of whom were certain to inform us that they were "thoroughly acquainted" with the entire details of the business; all of whom had been through the routine, and "knew every rope in the ship;" none of whom were affected with the "fever" (so they always declared), and not one of whom believed, while they were thus striving to pull wool over the eyes of others, that they were all the time being "shaken down" without mercy! _This_ was the very class of men who, in the later days of the malady, assisted most to keep up the delusion, and to aid in carrying on the hum of the trade. To be sure, the keepers of agricultural warehouses talked, and told big stories to their poor customers, who would buy eggs and chickens of them, for a while, at round prices; true, most of the agricultural papers strove from week to week to keep up the deceit, after the editors or proprietors found their yards over-stocked with this species of property, for which they had originally paid me (or somebody else) roundly, and which they "couldn't afford to lose," though they _knew_ it to be valueless! True, the hen-men themselves kept their advertising and the big stories of their success constantly before "the people," whom they gulled from day to day. But no portion of the community did more to "help the cause along" than did this self-sufficient, learned, know-nothing, thin-skinned class of "wise-acres," who never chanced to make much more than a considerable out of the writer of this paragraph--I _think_! Among this well-informed (?) set of men there was a "John Bull" who was connected in some way with a Boston weekly, which was nominally called an agricultural sheet, but which for several years was filled with articles upon the subject of "the equality of the sexes." His name was Pudder, or Pucker, or Padder, as nearly as I remember. From the commencement of this fever he was sorely affected, and his articles upon the merits of the different breeds of fowls he raised were very learned and instructive! He sold eggs for three, four, or five dollars a dozen, for a few weeks; but, as they didn't hatch, his game was soon blocked. Still, he stuck to this hum with the obstinacy of a "bluenose;" and his readers were indebted to his advice for possessing themselves of the most worthless mass of trash (in the shape of poultry) that ever cursed the premises of amateur. His lauded "Plymouth Rocks," his "Fawn-colored Dorkings," his "Italians," his "Drab Shanghaes," etc., sold, however; and the poor devils who read the paper, and who purchased this stuff, lived (like a good many others) to realize, to their hearts' content, after paying this fellow for being thus humbugged, the truth of the old adage that "the fool and his money is soon parted." Still, Podder was useful--in his way--in the hen-trade. The operations of such ignorant and wilful hucksters had the effect of opening the eyes of those who desired to obtain _good_ stock, and who were willing to pay for it. And after they had been thus fleeced, they became cautious, and procured their poultry only of "honorable" and responsible breeders (like myself), who imported and bred nothing but known _pure_ stock. As late as in January, 1855, a western agricultural sheet alludes to the flaming advertisement of an old hand in this traffic, and says: "It is known to all who know anything about poultry that Mr. G---- has been an amateur breeder for about forty years, and is undoubtedly better 'posted,' in reference to domestic and fancy fowls, than any other man in America; and, beside this, he is an honest man, and has no 'axe to grind.' He has raised fowls, heretofore, _solely for his own amusement_; but _now_ he proposes to accommodate the public by disposing of some of them." This man is my "fat friend" in Connecticut,--who has bred and bought and sold as much _trash_, in the past ten years, as the best (or the worst) of us. Friend Brown, we could tell you a story worth two of yours, on this point! But--we forbear. CHAPTER XXVIII. BARNUM IN THE FIELD. The prince of showmen was suddenly developed as a "hen-man"! Mr. Barnum was seized, one morning, with violent spasms, and, upon finding himself safely within the friendly shelter of "Iranistan," his physicians were duly consulted, who examined his case critically, and reported that the disease lay chiefly in the head of their patient--who, it was subsequently ascertained, was suffering from a severe attack of hen fever. Such was the violence of the demonstrations in this gentleman's case, however, and so fearful were the indications with him, even during the incipient stages of the affection, that his friends feared that Phineas T. had really contracted his "never-get-over." But, upon being informed (as I was, soon afterwards) of this case, and questioned as to his probable eventual recovery, I unhesitatingly gave it as my opinion that his friends might rest assured the humbug that could kill _him_ was yet to be discovered; and that, so far as he was personally concerned, I entertained no sort of doubt that "he would feel much better when it was done aching." (A prediction which, I have no question, has been accurately fulfilled, ere this.) The man who could succeed, as he had, with no-haired horses, gutta-percha mermaids, fat babies, etc., and who had gone into and out of fire-annihilators, prepared mastodons, illustrated newspapers, copper mines, defunct crystal palaces, and the like, unscathed, would scarcely be jeopardized by an attack of the prevailing malady of the day, however violently it might exhibit itself in his case. And so there was hope for Phineas, though his symptoms were really alarming. My friend took the very best possible means for alleviating the virulence of his attack; and, looking about him for the largest-_sized_ humbug known in the trade, he alighted upon a two-hundred-and-forty-pound Connecticut joker, who quickly offered to inform him how he could find relief. "How shall I do it, John?" exclaimed Phineas, as his fat friend made his appearance. "Heesiest thing in life," responded John; "hall you 'ave to do is to put yer 'and in yer pocket." "_So?_" said Phineas, putting his fist gently out of sight. "No--you aren't deep enough down yet," replied John. "Go down deeper. That's better,--that'll do." "How much'll it cost?" queried Phineas. "Carn't say," responded John. "You're pooty bad. There's nuth'n' in _this_ country that'll cure you. Hi'll go hout to Hingland, if you say so, and hi can git somethin' there that'll 'elp you. It ar'n't to be 'ad in Ameriky, though." "Sho!" exclaimed Barnum; "you don't say so! Do you think, John, that we could find something in England that would knock 'em, here?" "Nothing else," replied John. "_Hi_ know where they keep 'em." (John was raised in Great Britain.) "But, John," persisted Phineas, "there's _Burnham_, you know, of Boston. They say _he_ has the best poultry in the world; and I've no doubt of it, between you and I." "Fudge!" exclaimed John; "Burn'am's a very clever fellow, hi've no manner o' doubt, and hi won't say nuth'n' ag'inst 'im; but 'ee's the wust 'umbug you _ever_ see, since you 'ad breath. 'Ee don't know the dif'rence 'tween a Shanghi and a Cochin-Chiny--an' never did. 'Ee's a _hum_, 'is Burn'am. Don't go near _'im_, unless you want the skin shaved hoff o' yer knuckles, clean." "Well, John," said the show-man, "something must be done. I've got the fever, bad, I'm afraid, as you suggest; and it must be fed. What can you do for me?" John thought the matter over, and it was finally agreed, as there were no good fowls in America (according to John's notions), that _he_ should be deputized by Phineas to proceed to "Hingland," and procure some genuine (that is, _pure_) stock, for the coops at Iranistan, at the liberal show-man's expense! A capital recipe, this, for Barnum's disease, as well as for John's own benefit. But Phineas isn't taken down easy, though they do occasionally "fetch him." And so he hesitated. He thought the matter over a while, and finally said to his friend, one day, "John, I've got it!" "'Ave you?" says John. "Yes, I've got it. You know I've something in my head besides grey hairs, John." "Hi've no manner o' doubt o' _that_," replied John. "Well, I have thought this thing over, and I have determined to see, first, what there is in America, before I send you out to Europe." "It'll take you a long time to do that," said John, "and you'd 'ave to travel a great w'ile to see all the poultry we've 'ere." "I won't travel at all," said Phineas. "No? As 'ow, then?" inquired John. "I'll get up a show--a poultry exhibition--on a grand scale, and it shall come off at my Museum, at New York. Everybody'll come, of course; and we can see what there is, buy what I want from the best of 'em, and make our selections as we may fancy; you shall go out afterwards to England, and obtain for me what I can't get here, you see." "Capital!--hexellent!" responded John. "And I'll call it the--the--_what_?" said Barnum, stopping for an appropriate title to this anticipated exhibition. "I donno," said John, puzzled. "Well--then--the _National Show_," continued Phineas. "How'll that do? The first exhibition of the 'National Poultry Society.' I think that's good. You see that includes all quarters of the country; and we shall know no north, no south, no east, no west! A quarter admission--Museum included--capital!" "Yes--just _the_ thing!" chimed in his friend. And shortly afterwards advertisements and circulars found their way into the hands of all the hen-men in the country, who were thus invited to visit New York, in February, 1854, to contribute to the grand show of the "National Poultry Society," of which P.T. Barnum, Esq., was _President_. A long string of names was attached to this call, and the list of "Managers" embraced one or more representatives from every State in the Union--my own humble name appearing among the Vice-presidents for Massachusetts. The whole thing was clearly one of Barnum's _dodges_ to fill his Museum for a few days; and probably not a single individual except himself had any knowledge of the formation or existence of any such _society_ as this, of which he thus nominally appeared to be the presiding officer. At any rate, after diligent inquiry, I could never ascertain that anybody knew anything about any such an association, except himself. However, this was a matter of no sort of consequence, of course. The Fitchburg Dépôt Show, in Boston, was a similar affair; and I now joined in this exhibition without asking unnecessary questions,--because I saw that there was fun ahead, and that _I_ could make an honest penny out of it, whether Barnum did or not. Every one now put his best foot foremost; and, as this fair approached, Shanghaes were converted into Cochin-Chinas (by the knowing ones), by the removal of the feathers from the legs; the mongrels were made feathered-legged Bother'ems, by the free use of gum-tragacanth and down; the long-tailed fowls were deprived of all superfluous plumes, through the aid of the pincers; and what this last process did not satisfactorily effect, the application of the _shears_ completed (see engraving!); until, at last, the unlucky bipeds, whom nature had originally supplied with decent caudal appendages, were reduced to that requisite state of brevity, astern, which the _mode_ or the taste of the day demanded. And, at length, all was ready for the great "National Show" in New York city. [Illustration: PREPARING FOR THE FOWL SHOW.--(See page 195.)] As it turned out, the whole thing (though an utter _sham_ as regarded its being a _society_ matter) proved to have been well conceived, and, from beginning to end, was admirably well carried out. Mr. Barnum did his part most creditably at this first show in New York, and the experiment was eminently successful. The birds were afforded excellent care, and an immense quantity of good specimens found their way to the Museum at the appointed time. For a week, notwithstanding the very dull weather, the great rooms of the American Museum on Broadway were thronged with visitors; and Barnum was in high glee at the entire success of his undertaking. Not content with one week's show of the fowls, Barnum proposed that it should be continued for six days longer; and the crowd continued to visit this exhibition for another week, and to pour in with their friends, their wives, their children, and their quarters, to the great edification and satisfaction of the proprietor of the show, and the "President" of the "National Poultry Society." I was there, with a goodly quantity of my "rare" and "unexceptionable" and "pure-bred" fowls, which were greatly admired by the thousands of lookers-on, who flocked to this extraordinary exhibition. It was really astonishing (to _me_, at least) what very fine birds I had at this show. And, "may be," fowls didn't _sell_ there! If I remember rightly, "the people" were round, on that occasion. And so was _I_! CHAPTER XXIX. FIRST "NATIONAL" POULTRY-SHOW IN NEW YORK. Whether it was because Barnum had taken this enterprise in hand, whether it was because it was known that my "superior" stock was to be seen at the Museum, or whether it was because the intrepid "Fanny Fern" had promised to visit the show, I cannot say; but one thing was certain,--such a gathering of "the people" was seldom witnessed, even in busy, driving, sight-seeing New York, as that which crowded the great rooms of Barnum's establishment on the occasion of the first exhibition of the so-called "National Poultry Society." "All the world" was there, with his wife and babies, and nieces and nephews. The belle and the beau, the merchant and the mechanic, the lawyer and the parson, the rich and the poor, old and young, grave and gay,--all were in attendance upon this extraordinary display of cockadoodledom; and Barnum--the indefatigable, the enterprising, the determined, the incomparable Barnum--was in his glory, as the quarters were piled up at the counter of the ticket-office, and "the people" wedged their way up the crowded stairs and aisles of his Museum. The great show-man was as busy as His Satanic Majesty is vulgarly supposed to be in a snow-storm! Now here, now there; up stairs, down stairs; in the halls, in the lobbies; busy with John, button-holing the "committees," from morning till night. All smiles, all good-nature, all exertion to please the throngs of visitors who constantly jammed their way about the building. And, to say that everything about this undertaking (so far as he was personally concerned) was not managed with tact and good judgment, as well as complete propriety and liberality, would be to state what was untrue. Mr. Barnum rarely does anything by halves; and to him, in this instance, belongs the credit of getting up, and carrying through successfully, the very best show of poultry ever seen in America,--beyond all comparison. In due season I selected from my then somewhat reduced stock sixty specimens of the Shanghae tribe of fowls, which, with some twenty samples of choice Madagascar Rabbits, I forwarded (in charge of my own agent) to this long-talked-of show. The person whom I employed to look after my stock--(for I had long since got to be "a gentleman," and couldn't attend to such trifling matters, personally)--the man who went with it to this exhibition was thoroughly posted up in his "profession," and knew a hawk from a handsaw, as well as a Shanghae from a Cochin-China. And when he started for New York with my contributions, I enjoined it upon him to bear in mind, under _all_ circumstances, that the gentleman he represented had the only _pure_-bred poultry in America, any way. To which he replied, briefly, "Is _that_ all? I knew that before." I said, "John, you're a brick. A faced-brick. A _hard_-faced-brick. You'll _do_." John winked, and left me, with the understanding that, as soon as he should have time to look around the show, he would telegraph me at Boston what the prospect was, comparatively. I felt quite _sure_ that my fowls would take all the premiums, for they always had done so before; and my "pure-bred" stock grew better and better every year! I did not go to the show for a day or two after my agent left; and, on the morning succeeding the opening, I received from him the following brief but expressive telegraphic dispatch: "G.P. BURNHAM, BOSTON. "Arrived safe; thought we'd got 'em, _sure_. We have--_over the left_. You are nowhar! "B." Here was a precious fix, to be sure! For five years, I had carried away the palm at every exhibition where my "splendid" and deservedly "unrivalled" samples had been put in competition with the stock of others. And now, at the first great _national_ exhibition, where everybody would of course be present (and where the first cages that would be looked for, or looked into, must be those of Mr. Burnham, the breeder of the only original "pure"-blooded poultry in the country), according to my agent's dispatch I was _no_whar! This dispatch reached me at noon, and on the following morning I was in New York. I looked about the several apartments in the Museum, and satisfied myself who had the best fowls there, very quickly. As it happened, they were not inside of _my_ cages, by a long mark! Yet "the people" crowded around my showy coops, for which my agent had secured an advantageous position, and in displaying them (if I remember aright) he lost no opportunity in saying just _enough_ (and no more) to the throng who passed and admired their beautiful proportions, their great size, and splendid colors. There were not a few choice birds scattered about the rooms,--under the benches, or in the far-off corners,--which my eye fell upon, which my agent subsequently purchased at very modest prices, and which found their way, somehow, into my coops. "The people" now stared with more earnestness than ever. By the evening of the second day, my "pure-bred" stock _did_ look remarkably well! And when the "committee" came round, at last, I found myself the recipient of several of the leading premiums, for my "magnificent," "superb" and "extraordinary" contributions, again. And now commenced the fun, once more, in earnest. Everything that I sent to New York was quickly bought up at enormous prices. Fifty, eighty, a hundred, a hundred and twenty-five dollars per trio, was willingly paid my agent for the rare and incomparable fowls I exhibited there. "The people" were literally mad on the subject; and I hadn't half enough to supply my customers with, at figures that astonished even _my_ ideas of prices,--which, by the way, were not easily disturbed! During this exhibition, Mr. Barnum announced that a "conversational" gathering would be held, one day, in the lecture-room of his Museum; whither the throng were invited to repair, at last, to talk over matters pertaining to the welfare of the trade generally, and the hen-humbug more particularly. A rush was directly made for this hall, which was quickly filled up by the multitude, who now stood or sat, with gaping mouths and staring eyes, in readiness to be further bamboozled by the managers of this _National_ "Society," who duly paraded themselves upon the platform, and commenced to show themselves up for the edification of the uninitiated, and to the great amusement of those who had "been there" before them. Mr. Barnum presided, but with that grace and modesty and extreme diffidence for which he is so noted. The enthusiasm of the occasion soon reached concert-pitch, however, and everybody on the stage, in the parquette, and around the gallery, desired to relieve themselves of the pent-up patriotism that rioted in their bosoms; and all desired to be heard at the same time. Cries of "Barnum! Barnum!" "Where's Bennett?" "Speech from Burnham!" "Down in front!" "Give 'em a chance!" "Hear the president!--there he is!" "Hurra for the Bother'ems!" &c. &c., rang from the lungs of the crowd. And finally order was restored, and Mr. Barnum approached the front of the stage, to deliver himself of "feelings that could be fancied, not described," amid the cheers and shouts of that crazy multitude. CHAPTER XXX. BARNUM'S INNATE DIFFIDENCE. As soon as the vociferous cheering had subsided, Mr. Barnum reached the foot-lights, and smiled beneficently upon the crowd before him. "LADIES AND GENTLEMEN," said the show-man, modestly, "unaccustomed as I am to public speaking, you will pardon me, _imprimis_, for hinting at the extreme diffidence with which I now rise to address you; and I am sure that, notwithstanding the commendable zeal that now animates this enlightened audience, you will sympathize with me in the midst of the embarrassments under which you must readily perceive _I_ am laboring, and extend to the speaker your lenity (all unused, as you are aware he is, to this sort of scene), while he ventures upon a few very brief remarks on the interesting and laudably-exciting topic that has brought us together here, on this happy occasion." This modest appeal brought down the house, of course; and the bashful Mr. B., after clearing his throat, was requested by the crowd to "Go on, Barnum! Proceed--put 'er through!" "The hen fever," continued Mr. B----, "is but just _begun_ to be realized, ladies and gentlemen, among us." (Barnum had been attacked by the malady only a few weeks previously, and hadn't "heard from the back counties" then!) "This first exhibition of the National Poultry Society, my friends, is ample evidence in support of this statement. Was there ever such a show seen, or heard of, ladies and gentlemen, as this which you are now the witnesses of? Never! Yet, I repeat it, this is but the commencement. The enthusiasm which has attended upon this exhibition, the feelings that have been stirred up by this before unheard-of display, the people of every grade in society that come forward here in its support, the zeal which animates the bosoms of the thousands upon thousands who have attended it, and the names of the men connected with its origin and present patronage, afford ample evidence in support of my assertions, that the fire has but just begun--just _begun_ to burn, fairly, ladies and gentlemen!" ("That's a fact," was the ready response of a young gentleman who had just paid my agent over three hundred dollars for a few samples of my "choice" chickens; the first he ever owned!) "_I_ want to say a few words," remarked a stranger, under the gallery, at this point. But he was requested by the chairman to "_hold in!_" until Mr. Barnum concluded. After considerable urging, this anxious man was prevailed upon to sit down; though he was evidently "full to bursting," with his enthusiastic emotions. "We have a good deal to learn yet, gentlemen," continued Barnum (and that was truthful, at any rate!) "We have much to learn; but we know enough to spur us on to acquire more. More knowledge, more experience, more fowls. We haven't enough--we don't know enough, yet. I am greatly rejoiced at the prospects, to-day, and with the entire success of this enterprise, here!" (And well he might be.) "I have freely given my time and humble talents to its consummation, and we have triumphed! We, _the people_, the men who have the heart and the pluck to undertake and carry through this sort of thing. There's no hum in _this_, gentlemen! None, whatever. How _can_ there be? We see this thing before our very eyes. It is a tangible, living, breathing, walking, crowing" (and he might have added _eating_!) "reality, ladies and gentlemen. There can be no humbug in anything of this sort; because we can take hold upon it, handle it, view it with our eyes open. A humbug is but an unexplained or half-concluded _fact_. This is a self-evident, clearly-defined fact-- 'A thing that _is_--and to be blessed!' And when you, or I, can take a crower in our hands that will weigh twelve or fourteen or fifteen pounds,--when we can see and feel him,--can there, by any possibility, be humbug in it?" "No--no--no!" shouted the crowd; the ladies kindly joining in the decisive negative given to this forcible appeal. "Then, I repeat it, we are but just in the beginning of the commencement of this new and promising era. The fire has just begun to burn, and to illumine the world; and, as I said before (or intended to say), it is not to be subdued! It is a mighty conflagration, which assails everybody at this moment, and is now enveloping all classes of the community, from the highest to the lowest! This land is in a blaze! In a threatening, exciting, violent, whirling, astounding blaze, gentlemen--and no opposition or invention can put it out!" ("Fetch on your fire-'nihilators, then!" shouted a vicious wag, from the gallery.) "We don't want to put it out," continued Mr. Barnum, growing warmer as the fire of his zeal in this cause continued to glow within him; "we have no wish to put it out. Let it burn! Let it come! Let it conflagrate! We love it--_you_ love it--_I_ love it--it's one of the things we admire to think of, and speak of, and read of, and pay for, and help to keep alive here, and everywhere, and elsewhere! Our country is big enough; we have millions of broad acres, miles on miles of fertile fields, and cords of maize and grain that cannot be used or disposed of, unless it be devoted to the uses and benefits of these beautiful birds, sometimes so cavalierly spoken of by their enemies, but the value of which _I_ know, and most of _you_, gentlemen, know how to appreciate!" (Applause, and cries of "Go it, old hoss! You'll be a capital customer for some of the hen-men to pick up! Go it, Barnum!") "I did not rise, gentlemen," continued the speaker, "with any idea of telling you anything new. I am but an humble coadjutor with you in this pleasing and innocent undertaking. I can see, as you can, also, the importance of this subject" (he didn't say _what_ "subject"), "and I trust that we may go on, and increase, and multiply domestic fowls and customers, in a ratio commensurate with the rapidly increasing throbs of the public pulse--which is now beating only at 2.40, and which must soon reach a 2.10 pace, if nothing breaks!" ("Hurra! Hurra!" yelled the boys; "that's a good 'un!") And the President sat down, blushing, amid the uproarious applause that followed his remarks. As soon as order was comparatively restored, other gentlemen, whom the President introduced as "honorable," and "talented," and "professional," and "influential," took the rostrum, and "followed suit" upon Barnum's lead. A vote of thanks was finally passed to Mr. Barnum for his services, and the _sacrifices_ he had made in behalf of the "Society;" another to the "orator" of the day (whose name I have now forgotten), formerly a member of Congress, I believe; another similar vote to the Secretary, to whom, also, a plated jug was subsequently presented; a vote to Mr. Burnham, of Boston, for his speech and his "magnificent" contributions of _pure_-bred stock; a vote condemning everybody who had or should thenceforward nickname fowls; a vote of condolence and sympathy with John Giles, because none of his _pure_ Black Spanish fowls were in the exhibition; a vote to Porter, of the New York _Spirit of the Times_, for his disinterested notices of the show; another to Greeley, of the _Tribune_, who hadn't time to visit it; another to pay the bills of the "Committees" at the Astor House (_minus_ the champagne charges!); another to Dr. Bennett, for not being present at this show; another endorsing the claims of patent pill-venders and cross-grained bee-hive makers; another to Frank Pierce, for the allusions in his inaugural to the "march of progress" in our land, which of course included Shanghae-ism; another to Caleb Cushing (an honorary member), who was lauded as the most thoroughly graceless humbug known to the "national" society; another endorsing the collector and postmaster of Boston as disinterested democrats; another that my "Grey Shanghaes" were evidently the only full-blooded fowls exhibited at the American Museum on this occasion; and numerous other resolves were duly "voted," of which no note was taken at the time. While this bosh was transpiring, I sent to Boston for some fifty pairs more of my "superb" specimens of Shanghaes and Cochins, all of which were disposed of during the second week of this show, at curiously "ruinous" rates. And at the close of the exhibition my agent had taken very nearly _three thousand dollars_ for the "pure" Shanghaes, and Cochins, and Greys, he had sold there for my account! I trust that every one was as well satisfied with the results of this first exhibition of the "National Poultry Society" as I was. It is the last show _I_ shall ever attend. And having invariably taken the lead, from the beginning up to this trial, I retired, content with the self-assurance that I had made all I could make out of this sort of thing, and that the field now legitimately belonged to my juniors in the profession. May success attend them! At the close of the exhibition, my friend Barnum congratulated me. "They tell me you've done _well_, Burnham," said my friend, cheerfully. "I'm glad of it. And, since you've made it so handsomely, suppose you leave me a couple of your best Fancy Rabbits, yonder; I'll add them to the 'Happy Family.'" "Certainly," I replied. "With great pleasure, B----. And, since _you_ have done so capitally with this show, you shall give me a quarter of your profits on the tickets sold. Here--take the rabbits!" "A-_hem_!" said Barnum. "No--no. It's no matter. You needn't--no--we won't say anything about it. It's all right. You'll do. You can run alone, I guess. _I believe I don't spell my name right!_ Good-by--good-by." I haven't seen friend Barnum since. At this exhibition of poultry I managed to show a pair of my pure-bred Suffolk pigs, too, which did not set me back any. I took numerous orders for these animals, and I have given on page 174 what passes for a likeness of a fancy "Shanghae" fowl, such as we "read of in the newspapers," and which everybody, during the last five years, imagined he was buying, when he ordered "such," after seeing the "pictur'." In this class of illustration, there was quite as much deceit and chicanery practised, commonly, as in any part of the general system of the humbug. The uninitiated saw the well-rounded forms of the huge fowls or hogs he sought, in his weekly agricultural journal, from time to time; and, through the same channel, he met with "portraits," represented to have had originals at some time or other, and which were said to be in the possession of this or that breeder, who "had been induced, after earnest solicitation, to part with a very few choice samples," out of such imaginary stock. With the _swine_, the thicker the ham, the smaller the feet, the shorter the nose, and the thinner the hair, the better and the _purer_ blooded pig you got, for instance! The following is a sample of this kind of guy, which has had its run in the past three years, and upon which tens of thousands of dollars have been squandered by enthusiastic admirers of these bloated bladders of lard. This is _supposed_ to be a likeness of the "genuine" Suffolk pig. [Illustration: SUFFOLK PIG.] The good old lady replied, when asked if she loved the Lord, "I donno much about him, but I hain't nothin' agin him!" So I affirm in reference to this hog. But one thing I may be permitted to remark in this connection; to wit, that the more pure Suffolk _pigs_ there are, the less _corn_ you find round. That's all! CHAPTER XXXI. A SUPPRESSED SPEECH. The following remarks, on the occasion referred to, were neither published at the time, nor would the "Committee on Printing" admit them into the official report of the proceedings of this _national_ show. For what reason, I am utterly unable to determine. These were the author's sentiments, and I give the speech a place _here_, because I have no idea of being thus "headed" by my colleagues in that enterprise. This speech was delivered by the Young 'Un "with emphasis and discretion;" but the managers suppressed it. I now submit it, in the hope that it will be duly appreciated. When called upon, I said, as modestly and as gracefully as I knew how: "MR. PRESIDENT: _Vox populi, vox Dei!_ The people assembled within the classic and well-painted walls of your American Museum call upon me for a few words of encouragement; and, while I assure you I find myself totally unprepared to speak (though my present address has been written some four weeks), I cheerfully respond to the flattering demonstration that greets me on this electrifying occasion." (Applause, and waving of hats and handkerchiefs.) "I am but an humble disciple in this profession, Mr. President, and know very little of the deceit and chicanery that _some_ persons charge others with practising in the ramifications of the hen-trade; and, although it has been said that 'what I don't know about this part of the business wouldn't be worth much to anybody,' yet I here solemnly disclaim any superhuman or supernatural knowledge of the tricks of this laudable and highly respectable calling." (Cries of "Good, good! You're an injured man! Go on!") "For six years, Mr. President, I have carefully watched the progress of this disease, and it really warms the recesses of my heart to find myself surrounded, as I do to-day, by the highly honorable and respectable throng of gentlemen who now grace this rostrum,--yourself, Mr. President, prominent among this galaxy of talent, education, genius, morality, and thrift!" (Immense applause, during which the speaker removed his outside coat.) "The day is auspicious, Mr. Barnum,--I beg pardon--Mr. _President_. The spirit of liberty,--of American liberty,--sir, is abroad! To be sure, our valued friends who pretend to Know Nothing (and whose pretensions none of here, I think, will gainsay) have commenced an onslaught upon almost everything of foreign extraction; but they kindly permit us to import Chinese _fowls_, and allow us to breed them--for the present, at least--without interruption; for which I trust they may receive a unanimous vote of thanks from this American _National_ Poultry Society." ("Yes, yes!" followed this allusion, with hearty cheers.) "I repeat it, sir,--the times are auspicious. Money is a drug in the market, plainly. The patronage bestowed upon this show (in which, Mr. President, I am sure your native modesty and national patriotism cannot suffer you to feel the slightest _personal_ interest) is evidence of this fact. The prices paid here, in 1854, for domestic fowls--though so clearly below their actual value!--supports this assertion: and your own entire lack of backwardness in coming forward to assume the risk and responsibility of the expenses of this exhibition is the crowning proof that _l'argent_ is plenty--somewhere, at least. I have no disposition, Mr. President,--far be it from me--Heaven forbid that I should attempt--to offer one word of flattery, that you might, by any possibility, appropriate personally. No, sir,--I am no such man! But, if ever there was an individual whose pure-bred disinterestedness, whose incomparable generosity, whose astonishing sacrifice of self, stuck out like a sore thumb, these attributes have now been evinced, beyond the shadow of a shade of question, on this exhilarating occasion, through the astounding liberality of a gentleman, the initials of whose name are Finnyous Tee Barman!" (Immense applause, during which the Young 'Un laid aside his dress-coat, and took off his cravat,--while the President, with both hands over his face, sat overpowered with his emotions.) "Mr. President, I am no clap-trap orator. I shall say what I have to say, sir, to-day, without any hope or aim towards future reward. To be sure, I have the originals of the finest-blooded fowls in the land, and nobody disputes it; and I have now a fine lot here to dispose of; but this is not the time or place to allude to this matter; and I will only say that I do not charge so much for them as many breeders do, while, at the same time, mine are very much finer and purer than anybody else's, as can readily be seen upon examining the contents of my cages, in the first room below this hall, on the right-hand side as you enter the building. The people, sir, are in search of information on this interesting subject; and I will only add, gentlemen,--call as you pass out, and judge for yourselves." (Loud cries of "We will!--we will!" "That's true!" "That's a fact!" "Your fame is firmly established!") "Mr. President, I have been too long a resident of these United States--I am too old a citizen of this enlightened country--to be ignorant of the true character of the American people. I am a Yankee, sir! My father was a Yankee, and my grandfather (if I ever had one, sir), before him. 'The people' know what they are about. You cannot deceive _them_, sir, as you and I well know. When they undertake a thing, it must go forward. There's no stopping them, sir. They enter into any enterprise that promises so much of universal success to the whole country as does this business of poultry-raising, with a rush, sir! And they carry out their objects,--_nil disperandum hic jacit est glorii mundi morning_, sir,--as the poet remarks." (Hurra! Hurra! "Three cheers for Burnham," suggested the President, which were given with a will; and during which the speaker removed his vest and braces,--carefully securing his watch, however, at the same time.) "We are not here to be humbugged, sir, nor do we aspire to humbug anybody, at this exhibition;--a performance which would be rather difficult to effect, in my humble judgment, even if we did! We come here to show the people what has been done, what is now doing, and what may be done again, sir, by our friends here, all of them and any of them, who choose to undertake the pleasing and delightful task of rearing _pure_-bred fowls. And, should there now be within the sound of my voice any lady or gentleman who has never seen the tiny Shanghae chick as it emerged from its delicate prison-shell and leaped forth into liberty and the glorious sunlight,--should any one of my listeners never have enjoyed the dulcet tone of that chicken's tender 'peep,'--if any of you are strangers to the habits and beauties and innocence of these rare but graceful birds,--if you have never listened to the melody of their musical crow, from youth to green old age,--I will only say, procure some of the genuine specimens, and there is much of joy and happiness yet in store for yourselves, your wives, your children, or your friends,--if you chance to have any." (Applause, and marked sensation.) "Mr. President, I am no speech-maker. Had I, for one moment, supposed that _I_ should have been thought of, by this talented and well-informed audience, I should not have been present here, I assure you. But, sir, my fame preceded me here. I'm a poor but honest man; and modesty, sir, that native modesty which so preeminently characterizes your own composition, Mr. President (had I suspected that I should have been called upon), would have prompted me to have left to others the pleasing task of speaking of me and mine. Still, if my friends '_will_ buckle fortune on my back, whether I will or no,' I can only say that I feel impressed that the duty and moral obligations I owe to society compel me to submit to the burthen, with the best possible grace at my humble command." (Deep sensation among the audience; the ladies, for the most part, in tears.) "But, sir, the future is before us! The brilliant star of fortune still shines in the distance, for the encouragement of those who have not yet availed themselves of the splendid promise that awaits the men who are yet to come after us, to do as _we_ have done! And, to those who are now about to undertake the commendable occupation of attempting to breed 'fancy poultry,' I will only say, 'Go on, gentlemen! Forward, in your delightfully pleasing and profit-promising ambition! Purchase none but the best stock, without regard to price; and _breed_ it (if you can!). Everybody wants to buy,--everybody _will_ buy,--and the hens that lay the golden eggs are still for sale, within the sound of my voice (unless they have all been bought up since I entered this hall). But there are still a few more left, I have no doubt, gentlemen; and, I charge you, seize them while you may!'" A general stampede followed my speech. I secured my clothes, and, for three hours afterwards, I found it impossible to get within fifty feet of my show-cages, in consequence of the throng of purchasers that crowded around them! There must have been some charm about those magical coops of mine. They were filled and refilled, twenty times over; but they were as often emptied, and at singularly gratifying prices, both to buyer and seller. CHAPTER XXXII. A "CONFIDENCE" MAN. Towards the close of this show in New York, a somewhat noted cattle-breeder (who was then absent in England) wrote home to an agent in this country, directing him to secure all the Grey Shanghaes obtainable, and further to contract for the raising of hundreds or thousands more, to be delivered during the following season. At this late day, such an undertaking appeared (to the initiated) to exhibit a most extraordinary confidence in the reality of the hen-trade; but, to those who "had been there," it was very amusing to witness the new-born zeal of this curiously verdant purchaser, who invested so large an amount of money, in 1854, in this hum! The most extravagant prices were paid by this person for Grey fowls, and large orders were given by the agent, to different breeders, in New England, for future supplies. Several hundred birds were then purchased, at rates varying from four or five dollars to fifty dollars _each_; and finally some twenty cages were filled, and consigned to London, to be disposed of (as it was supposed) at enormous figures. This speculation was a total failure. The fowls were inferior, and sick, and worthless. An auction sale followed quickly upon their arrival in England, the proceeds of which failed to pay even their freight and expenses out from this country; and the "confidential" proprietor of the stock, who had not the slightest conception of the details of the trade, was the loser of hundreds of dollars by this foolish and reckless undertaking. But his contracts with home breeders, who had raised for him one hundred, three hundred, or five hundred pairs of chickens, each, were yet in _statu quo_! Two or three thousand Grey chickens were awaiting this confident gentleman's orders, and in the mean time were devouring huge quantities of corn and meal, then ranging at from a dollar to a dollar and ten cents a bushel! Sales were merely nominal; buyers of fancy fowls were _no_whar; grain continued on the rise; the chickens grew longer in the legs and necks, and devoured more corn than ever; cold weather approached, and the breeders had no conveniences for housing these thousands of monsters; and finally the victims became importunate. The contractor didn't want the fowls. Of course he didn't. He had "put his foot into it" with a vengeance! But the parties who had raised these birds "to order" insisted upon the fulfilment of the contractor's promise to take them, at four, six and eight months old. But the confident gentleman, who, in the spring of 1854, had made up his mind that the "hen fever had but just then made its appearance, in fact," _now_ discovered that the bottom had been shaky for a twelvemonth, at the least, and had at length fallen out altogether! The folly of this enterprise was apparent to every fowl-raiser in New England, from the outset. But this man knew what he was about,--so he declared,--and he scouted the advice of those who, from long experience, were able to instruct and advise him better. It was but a single instance of its kind, however, and it served, for the time being, to aid in keeping up the excitement of the humbug which had cost so many men before him large sums of money, and months of labor and care, without the slightest subsequent compensation. By the fall of 1854, the price of this "fancy stock" began to approximate towards its intrinsic level, somewhat, in consequence of its being thus overdone; and very fair birds were offered for five to seven dollars the pair, with but few purchasers. In England, the fever had subsided. During the spring and summer, my own sales for that market had been continuously, and without any abatement, extremely liberal; but the prospect suddenly became clouded--the demand fell off--and I saw that the gate was about to be shut down. The jig was nearly up, evidently, in December, 1854. In all the suburban towns of this state, and more especially throughout the entire length and breadth of Rhode Island and Connecticut, immense numbers of the Chinese varieties of fowls were being bred; and I saw, months before, that the market must of necessity be glutted, to the full, in the winter that was then approaching. Many of the experienced fanciers still clung to the hope that the trade would rally again, however,--but I was satisfied that the engine-bell had rung for the last time, and that the train was already now on the move. [Illustration: A "PURE-BRED" SPECIMEN, IMPORTED FROM BRIGHTON.] CHAPTER XXXIII. THE ESSENCE OF HUMBUG. During this and the previous years, some of the older fanciers and breeders had resorted to the most fulsome and nonsensical style of advertisements, to push off their stock upon the unguarded. No quality of superlative goodness, known or unknown, that could be described in the English language (either by means of "communications" through the public prints, or by ordinary forms of advertising), was omitted to be proclaimed by the owners of fancy stock, in order to force off upon the credulous or the uninitiated their "newly-imported" stuff, and its progeny. High-sounding but most ridiculous titles were given, by the nominal "importers," to their live stock; and the public were asked to purchase "Hong-Kong" fowls, "Bengal Eagle" chickens, "Wild Indian Mountain" hens, "Whang-tongs," "Quittaquongs," "Hoang-Hos," "Paduas," etc.; and the following advertisement appeared, finally, to cap the climax of this inexpressibly stupid nonsense. It was printed in an agricultural monthly, issued somewhere in western New York, and it ran as follows: "MORMANN & HUMM, Importers and Exporters of, and Dealers in, all breeds and varieties of Blooded Live Stock, Big Falls, N.S. Messrs. Mormann and Humm are now perfecting their arrangements for _importing_ from Europe and Asia all the best breeds of Horses, Cattle, Hogs, Dogs, Sheep, Rabbits, Goats, Fowls, &c. &c., and for _exporting_ Buffalo, Elk, Deer, Moose, Badgers, Bears, Foxes, Swifts, Eagles, Swans, Pelicans, Cranes, Loons, &c. &c. They will keep on hand, as near as may be, all the best Blooded Animals and Fowls--gallinaceous and aquatic--fancy and substantial--which they will furnish to their numerous patrons in Europe and America at reasonable rates. All orders should be directed to Big Falls, N.S., until otherwise notified. "Also, they have imported the finest and only PTARMAGINS ever introduced into the United States. These surprisingly beautiful fowls are direct from the original stock. The Ptarmagins--white in winter and ash-colored in summer--booted and tufted--are the most unique of domestic fowls. They will supply orders for Ptarmagin chickens; also, Hoang-Hos, Imperials, Falcon-hocked Cochins, (!) and a large variety of Improved Suffolks and other fine hogs, from the choice stocks of His Royal Highness Prince Albert, His Grace the Duke of Beaufort, Lord Wenlock, the Earl of Radnor, late Earl of Ducie, Rev. Mr. Thursby, Mr. Garbanati, &c. &c. Also some choice Chinese Mandarin and Siamese hogs, &c. &c. &c." In this same pamphlet, appeared the annexed communication (in the form of a letter to the nominal publisher), which will explain itself, probably, to those who are acquainted with its hifalutin author. It was a rich "card," in the estimation of the "boys," at the time of its first appearance, though nobody ever saw this extraordinary beast or its progeny, I imagine: Chinese Mandarin Hogs. "_----, Nov. 7, 1854._ "FRIEND M----: "We have just purchased the lot of _Chinese Mandarin Swine_, imported, &c. &c. &c.... "This is the best breed of China hogs, and are great favorites with the inhabitants, _the meat being remarkably tender and fine-flavored_. At maturity they weigh from fifteen to eighteen score, and are very prolific. "The head and face of these animals very closely resemble an elephant, both as to the appearance of the skin and ears, and the number and depth of facial fissures; perfectly unique, and strikingly oriental in capital aspect. "The neck is longer than that of anything of the hog race, imparting a most singular appearance to the proportions of the whole animal. "These Chinese hogs are entirely different from anything of the sort ever imported into this country before, and are the most prolific of the swine race. The imported sow and each of the sow-pigs have _eighteen_ well-developed dugs. The number of well-defined dugs is always the best _prima facie_ evidence of prolificness in any animal. "The bodies of these hogs are shaped like the _white_ Berkshire breed of England. They take on fat with remarkable rapidity, and, in color, though not so spotted as the leopard, these hogs are beautifully striated, the body spotted like polished alabaster and ebony, checkered and rounded most exquisitely. "We shall have an engraving of these animals for the northern agricultural papers, and one of the great English periodicals. "Yours, truly, "---- & ----." The editor adds, cautiously, "The importers are gentlemen of strict probity and honor, so far as our knowledge extends; but, in these hurrying times, when the public excitement is up on any kind of stock, a man _may_ import and sell worthless animals, to a great extent, before a reaction can take place." Now, this sort of mush and moonshine very soon nauseated upon the stomachs of "the people," even; who ordinarily can (and will) patiently submit to a vast deal of mummery. But when such palpable bosh as this is placed before them, they are apt to dodge all association with it and its clearly-expressed humbuggery; and so the tide now very quickly began to turn against the trade. "Brahmas," and "Quittaquong" fowls, and "Mandarin" pigs, proved too threatening a dose for the masses! They hadn't time to spell out the names of such stock--to say nothing of purchasing it, at round figures, and attempting to _breed_ it afterwards. What those men imagined they could possibly effect by this sort of ridiculous nonsense, I am unable to conceive of. Yet it was put forth in sober earnest; and scores of similar advertisements filled the papers, from time to time--each having for its object the continuous gulling of the "dear people," each in its own peculiar way. And for years--up to this period--the star-gazing, wonder-loving, humbug-seeking portion of the community,--the mass who fill every corner of the land, and who watch for something continuously "new under the sun," out of which money can be made,--I say, for years, this portion of the public believed what they saw and read of, and responded to this sort of thing with a gusto equalled only by the zest with which, in years before, they had encouraged and supported the score of other "hums" that had been current around them. But the delusions of morus multicaulis, and Merino sheep, and patent bee-keeping, and Berkshire pigs, and tulip-growing, had passed away; and the hen fever, at last, subsided, too. Unpronounceable names and long-winded advertisements wouldn't do! "The people" had ascertained that there was an end even to Shanghae and Brahma-ism! And this flimsiest of _all_ bubbles was now inflated fully to bursting. CHAPTER XXXIV. A TRUMP CARD. Not to be beaten by this sort of thing (since the columns of certain friendly journals were still open to me), I adopted the style of advertising then current; and soon after the articles noted in the last chapter made their appearance in the "agricultural" paper alluded to, the following letter from the Young 'Un was published in the New York _Spirit of the Times_, upon the subject of live stock generally, and what _I_ had for sale particularly. "UNCLE PORTER: "During the last few years, I have turned my attention to trafficking in stock (as you may _possibly_ already be aware). Not copper stock, or Reading, or Hoosac Tunnel, or similar 'bores,'--but in _live_ stock; to wit, living stock. As is usual in this great and free country, other people have got to doing the same kind of business, since it has been now found to 'pay;' and who's a better right? "_I_ desire, at the commencement of the new year, through the _Spirit_, to call the attention of such of _your_ friends (as you cannot supply readily) to my present assortment of _ominus_, omnivorous, carnivorous, graminivorous and bipederous specimens--which I have imported from Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceanica, South America, and _other_ places; and consisting, _in part_, of the following, namely: "All the best and choicest breeds and varieties of horses, cattle, swine, dogs, cats, sheep, rabbits, goats, fowls, pigeons, rats, catamounts, hyenas, alligators, cormorants, kangaroos, grizzly bears, antelopes, envelopes, llamas, lam'ems, jaguars, fox and geese, kinkajous, petrel, periwinkles, long-tailed rabbits, Nubian fennecs, red eagles, condors, hooded ducks and hood-winked drakes, swifts, sloes (intended for 'fast' men and old 'fogies'), chamois, armadilloes, wingless emus, beadles, crabs, cranes, coons (bred from 'that same old 'un'), white zebras, macaws, catspaws, cantelopes, carbuncles and shuttle-sewing machines. "I also have, for _exporting_, a splendid assortment of buffalo, elk, deer, moose, bears, cranes, owls, badgers, woodchucks, swans, pelicans, gulls (genuine), rattle-snakes (domesticated), fighting hen-turkeys (from Iowa), larks (from Nauvoo), and a superior assortment of _fishes_, of every conceivable size, color and variety, which are warranted to live out of the water, in any climate. In short, I will keep on hand all the best 'blooded' animals, fowls, quadrupeds, fishes, reptiles, insects and birds,--be they gallinaceous, aquatic, aërial, fancy, substantial, good, bad or indifferent, that may be had; which I will furnish to my numerous friends, patrons, and the rest of mankind, in Europe, Asia, Africa or America, at all hours of the day or night (Sundays excepted); and at prices so reasonable that Christendom shall 'vote me' a philanthropist, or no sale. "Among my most recently received samples, I beg especially to call the attention of fanciers, amateurs and breeders, to a 'vaggin-load of monkeys, vith their tails burned off,' which I warrant will not frighten the most skittish of horses. A crate of she-basilisks, of most virtuous exteriors, and with eyes as large as saucers. Eleven pet elephants (intended to have been offered to Mr. Barnum, but who informs me that he has done breeding them, on account of the high price of provender). One pair of red ostriches,--supposed to be the original progenitors of the famous 'Cochin-China' race of poultry. (The male has a 'horse-shoe mark' upon his breast, described by certain modern authors on poultry. Unluckily for this theory, however, I happen to know that this individual was kicked by a mare of mine, while the beauty was skulking behind her, and attempting to rob her of the corn she was eating from her crib.) I have a trio of very healthy walruses, from Norway, that will eat snowballs from your hand. Also, a brace of young mastodons, very docile, and as easily kept, _almost_, as a trio of 'Brahma Pootras.' Three _green_ swans (delightfully green), that never seek for or approach the water; supposed not yet to have learned to swim. I have also in my collection a family of very curious chameleons (believed to be), but none of which are supplied with the usual caudal extremity yclept _a tail_. "My friend Durivage--who, as you are aware, is now in the Boston Custom-house, and whose opinion, consequently, isn't worth much--examined this family, and at once pronounced them hop-toads! But I don't mind _his_ jokes. _You_ must see them. They are beautiful creatures, and '_do_ live on air,' I assure you; I have seen them do it frequently, without changing color. Dr. Bennett, of Fort des Moines, has recently sent me a fine male porcupine,--a nice little fellow to handle, so long as you rub his feathers the right way,--which I purpose to cross upon my Chinese Mandarin sow, at a future day, for experiment. In addition to all these, I have, of _fowls_, the Mum-chums, Hong-Kongs, Whamphoas, Quittaquongs, Hoanghos, Brama-pooters, Damphules, Rocky-mountain-Indian-wharhoops, Nincompoops, etc., and an endless variety of white blackbirds, sleeping weasels, very fine mules (for breeding), fan-tail tumblers and tumbling fantails, no-woolled sheep, etc. etc., and so forth. "The principal object of this communication, however, is _not_ to particularize my stock, but rather to call attention to my new breed of Hogs, which I have lately imported; and of which I send you a striking likeness herewith. I call it the Chinese Mandarin Hog. [Illustration: THE CHINESE MANDARIN HOG.--(See page 234.)] "The drawing of this very faithful and life-like picture--copies of which I have already forwarded to _Punch_, the Paris _Charivari_, etc.--was executed by Phizz; the engraving is by Quizz; the portraits are perfect. "This breed of hogs is most extraordinary; and has been pronounced of great value for their beautiful model (see portrait), and easy fattening qualities. Their meat is also remarkably tender and fine-flavored, as can be proved by several gentlemen in this country, although this is the _first_ hog of the kind ever brought here, and she is now alive! As you will note in the drawing, the head and face of these hogs (supposing it possible that another could be found on God's footstool of the same kind) very closely resemble an elephant; perfectly unique, and strikingly oriental in capital aspect. (Which, if you do not understand, I can only say is plain English, and I must again refer you to the picture.) There is another singular feature, you will probably have observed (allowing that you are somewhat acquainted with the _ordinary_ formation of animals), and that is, that the trunk of this animal is upon the wrong extremity; but it answers, apparently, a very good purpose for a tail, as will be noted. True, the neck is longer than that of any hogs ever seen here, imparting a singular appearance; but it is a long lane that has no turn in it, and so _n'importe_ on this point. "This is the most _prolific_ of the whole swine race. There never was one in America before, but this point is settled. She has eighteen dugs (see portrait), and learned doctors inform us that the number of dugs (teats) is always evidence of prolificness. The bodies of these hogs are like the _white_ 'Berkshires' of England (admitting that the white and the black Berkshires have different-shaped _bodies_). In color, though not so spotted as the leopard, these hogs are beautifully striated, like polished alabaster and ebony, checkered and rounded (see drawing) most exquisitely, like a slice of mouldy sage cheese. "P.S. Although I am now short--or shall be, in the spring--full eleven thousand pairs of pigs, from this sow (to fill present orders), yet I will undertake to furnish a few more to gentlemen who may fancy them, at the advanced price,--seven-and-sixpence per pair. (I have no _boar_ of this breed, but that is immaterial.) "N.B. I have frequently been asked to account for the singular facial appearance of this sow; but I can only do so, satisfactorily to myself, upon the theory of my friend Jacob, of old; that, _at some time or other_, her mother must have 'seen the elephant'! "***The other figures in the accompanying drawing are likenesses, also from life, of my harmless and beautiful 'Bramerpootrers.' They are very fond of little children (see picture) and I send to my uncle William Porter, herewith, as a New Year's Gift to our mutual friend, Solon Robinson, a very fine sample, with the gentle hint that if he keeps his 'Hot Corn' as far out of this fellow's reach as it has thus far been out of mine, it will be perfectly safe. "==>All orders for my famous 'Bramerpootrers,' or my imported 'Chinese Mandarin Hogs,' etc., must be put in water-proof condition, post-paid, endorsed by the collector of this port, and sent, by Adams & Co.'s Express, to Niagara Falls, until I conclude to remove to Salt Lake, Nebraska, or 'elsewhere,' of which due notice will be given (provided I don't decide to 'step out' between two days). _Adios!_ "Yours, "_The_ YOUNG 'UN. "_Boston, Jan., 1854._" Now, the above letter explains itself fairly, upon its face; yet--would it be believed?--I actually received four or five sober (I _presume_ the writers were sober) letters of inquiry, relating to the "curious and remarkable Chinese Mandarin Hog in my possession," immediately after the above article appeared in the _Spirit_! Such are the knowledge and acquirements of "the people," in certain quarters, upon the subject of live stock! CHAPTER XXXV. "HOLD YOUR HORSES." My competitors in the hen-trade, by this time, had got to be exceedingly active and zealous, though they rarely indulged in personalities towards me, at all. Generous, disinterested, liberal, kind-hearted, valiant men! Providence will reward you all, I have no doubt, _some day or other_! The following article, which appeared in a "respectable" agricultural sheet (which, though I was solicited so to do, I neither subscribed for nor advertised in), I offer here as a sample of the puffs that were extended to me for five years, by the small-fry humbugs whom I rarely condescended to notice. This "elegant extract" appeared in a northern _Farmer_: "We did suppose that the strait-jacket we fitted to this fellow (Burnham) would be worn by him, but it appears that, on reading our article relative to his movements in England in regard to Grey Shanghae fowls, he cast it off, and made an attempt to put us _hors du combat_, in his usual style. "But we must say that his pretensions to being an '_importer_' of these fowls, to having the '_original_' stock, to being the importer of the fowls he sent to England, is the greatest deception that ever came under our observation. But this is only in character with the general transactions of the man. In his dealings generally he seems to have had no other object in view but to _get all he could for his fowls_, with no regard to their _merits_. This is shown by a letter of his, which we have in our possession, written in 1852 to Dr. Bennett, in which he uses the following language, in regard to fowls: 'Anything that will _sell_,--bah!' "We will take the liberty to digress a moment, to make a few remarks on his penchant for the use of the expression '_bah!_' which is his common habit in correspondence. When Burnham was a loafer at large, previous to his _foul_ speculations, it is said that he was very fond of _mutton_; and as many a fat lamb was missed in the vicinity where he resided, it was more than suspected that he knew what became of them. Whether this be so or not, it seems that '_bah_' is ever escaping from his lips, a judgment, as it were, for the alleged iniquity of disturbing the nocturnal peace of that quiet animal.... "Now, friend Burnham, do be civil and _honest_. Your having sold 'premium' Cochins all over the country, with the _real_ 'premium' fowls in your own yard, will soon be forgotten, and you may yet be considered a clever, honest fellow; but you _must_ stop pretending to be an 'importer' of fowls." I was thus charged with putting my "friend" _hors du combat_, with lying generally, with sheep-stealing, with selling "premium" fowls over and over again, as well as with striving _to get all I could for my poultry_,--this _last_ offence being the most heinous of all! But, as I lived (as I supposed I should) to see this cub and his allies on their knees to me (as I could show, if I desired to do so, now), I did not mind these first-rate notices. They were most decidedly of _miner_ consideration in my esteem, when I thought how "the people" crowded around me to obtain eggs or samples of my famed "imported," "superior," "magnificent" and "never-to-be-too-much-lauded" pure-bred fowls! In the official Report upon the first New York show, the Committee of Judges there state that, "though they have been governed by the nomenclature of the list, they by no means assent to it as a proper classification. _Shanghae_ and _Cochin-China_ are convertible terms, and Brahma Pootra is a name for a sub-variety of Shanghaes, of great size and beauty. White _Calcuttas_ and _Hong-Kongs_ were not on exhibition. Believing them to be inferior specimens of White and Black Shanghaes, it is likely that we would not have awarded them premiums, if found. In lieu thereof, we have assigned several additional second premiums for _Brahma Shanghaes_. "For the sake of simplicity, we would recommend that _all_ thorough-bred large Asiatic fowls be classed under the name of _Shanghae_, to be further designated by their color; and, inasmuch as these shows are intended not solely for the aggrandizement of breeders, but for the purpose of converting 'Henology' into a science, we would earnestly suggest that all ridiculous, unmeaning _aliases_ be abandoned, and a simple, intelligible and truthful classification strictly observed." After quoting this, the writer above alluded to objects to the recommendation to call _all_ Asiatic fowls _Shanghaes_, notwithstanding the action of the Committees of the National Society. He insists: "This is a ridiculous affair, and we call on fowl-breeders to _veto_ this nonsense at the outset. Just imagine what a ridiculous figure breeders would cut in calling their fowls '_Brahma_ Shanghaes,' '_Chittagong_ Shanghaes,' &c.! Why this desire to overturn _established_ names? It arises from a _prejudice_ against the _name_ 'Brahma Pootra,' and a desire to _put down_ that popular breed. Again: _Who_ are the gentlemen who recommend such a course? Why don't they give their _names_? These 'recommendations' and 'resolutions' are no more the act of the _National Poultry Society_ than of the Emperor of Russia! Where were the _forty_ MANAGERS when the above 'resolution' was passed? _We_, as _one_, were not there; and we learn that not over _three_ out of the entire number were present, and that the resolution was passed by _outsiders_, and, perhaps, influenced to do so by G.P. Burnham, of '_Grey Shanghae_' notoriety." This clown even "regrets that he did not attend this show;" as if it would have made a difference in the result! Well, well!--the impudence and ignorance of some people really astound us, at times! He says "some of the best Brahma Pootra fowls were entered 'Chittagongs.' Now, we declare emphatically that the desire on the part of certain breeders to class the _Brahmas_ as identical with the _Chittagong_ fowl is absurd; and we assert that no man can produce any evidence that the Brahmas are identical with Chittagongs, beyond the fact that many breeders have produced mongrels, by crossing Brahmas with Chittagongs, and now seek to amalgamate the two breeds." Who ever wished to "produce any evidence" on this subject, pray? "The people" wanted _fowls_; they never sought for "evidence," man! The breeder who could "produce" fowls was the man to succeed in the hen-trade. As you never did this, and only bought and sold wretched mongrels, with long names, you never succeeded. And "the people" said, "Served you right!" This sapient editor then declares that he "doubts the ability of any _Poultry_ Society to maintain its existence _permanently_, for the reason that such societies will, sooner or later, degenerate into mere _speculating_ cliques, and the premiums will become a matter of _barter_, or a matter of _favor_ to particular men, like the operations of our government." Is it possible! When did you discover this extraordinary and singular fact, my dear sir? Not until the close of the year 1854! After the cars had long since passed by, and the fun was over, effectually and forever, in this country. Your warning was valuable, indeed! The colt had left the stable, and you _now_ come to fasten the door! O, chief of prophets in Henology! how much "the people" owe you for your advice and foresight in this hum! This writer finally thus wriggles over the action of the "National" Society at New York, which knocked his "Bother'ems" on the head so effectually, substituting their true name (the "Grey Shanghaes") for this ridiculously assumed cognomen. He continues: "The most absurd thing which came under our observation at the fair was the _classification_ of certain fowls. There were the beautiful white Brahmas, with pencilled neck hackles, placed by the side of fowls of an owl or hawk color, and both classed '_Grey Shanghaes_!' How long will a few old fogies thus stultify themselves? Many exhibitors were highly displeased with this absurdity. They who think that the name of Brahma fowls can be changed to 'Grey Shanghaes' have entirely mistaken their ability to make such an innovation. What did all the nonsense in the resolutions passed at the National Poultry Show in New York about the nomenclature of fowls effect? Just nothing at all." Indeed! Didn't it? Is it possible? You don't say so! My dear friend, you have a great deal to learn yet; and I here advise you, affectionately and lovingly, and with an ardent desire for your present and future good, to--"hold your horses!" CHAPTER XXXVI. TRICKS OF THE TRADE. Poultry exhibitions had been or were now being held all over the country. In the New England States, in New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland and Virginia, numerous fairs had come off, at which the customary competition among breeders of fancy poultry had been duly shown; and for a time, yet, out of Massachusetts, the fever still raged, though with comparative abatement. It was now a common thing, and certain men were in the habit of visiting the express offices, and examining coops of fowls, and taking the names of the persons to whom they were directed, and then writing them that they would furnish such fowls at a much cheaper rate. This occurred, generally, while the stock was _en route_ to its destination; but it never disturbed _me_. Among the Rhode Islanders (who, by the way, generally speaking, have raised the best of all the Chinese varieties of fowls, for five years past) a feeling of desperate rivalry had grown up. At the Providence shows, many of the choicest specimens ever seen among us were exhibited and disposed of at high rates. But the management of the fairs there was not satisfactory to certain breeders, who, unfortunately, and naturally, drove rather "too slow coaches" to keep pace with a few of the leaders in the traffic there, as will be seen by the following _exposé_, which I find in the shape of an advertisement in the _Woonsocket Patriot_: In a report published subsequently to this State Fair in Rhode Island, the Committee on Poultry at the exhibition held there in the fall of 1854 awarded their first premium to the _chairman_ of the committee. The second premium was awarded to another man, who had just as good fowls, probably, but who wasn't smart enough to "keep up" with his competitor. The person who came out thus second-best, only, at once charged, through the public prints, that an attempt had been made by the chairman thus "to hoodwink the public" in their future purchases (which was very likely, because it was a very common matter). The injured party says, in his published "card,"-- "No doubt Mr. C---- was ready to grasp at the appointment as the committee, and he was progressing in the examination, when I remonstrated, and had two other men added to the committee with him, supposing that justice would then be administered to the parties concerned. But Mr. C---- was determined to have the sole arrangement of the report, contending with the other two upwards of five hours, aggrandizing to himself the first premium, and then affixing to the committee's report the name of Mr. A----, instead of his own, to deceive the public, that he was not interested. Mr. C---- intended that justice should not be done his competitor, by withholding his right as to the first premium; and I challenge him to an impartial exhibition of the poultry (although some of his number were borrowed), for the sum of one hundred dollars, to be decided by three disinterested men." Another member of this committee then states that, "being one of the Committee on Poultry at the late State Fair, held in Providence, R.I., and having seen the report of the same, I feel it my duty to say that such was _not_ the decision of the committee. Two were in favor of giving to ---- the _first_ premium; as we could not agree, we decided to award a premium of _twelve dollars_ to ----, also the same to Mr. C----, provided each were represented equal in the report." Now, this was a very trifling affair to trouble the public with, yet it shows "how the thing was done." Mr. C---- had a happy way of "laying 'em all out," when _I_ was not in the field. If the advertisements "to the public" were paid for duly (and I presume they were), I have no doubt the public are satisfied; and Mr. ----, the injured party, must keep his eyes open tight, if he trains in company with experienced hen-men. This is but "a part of the system," man! Now, as this sort of thing was of very common occurrence among the hucksters who kept the hen-trade alive, for years, this was in nowise a matter of astonishment to the "hard heads" in the business. The only wonder was that the man who performed _this_ trifling trick did not carry out the dodge more effectually, and bear away _all_ the premiums in a similar manner, as had been done by some of his smarter predecessors! The editor of a New York journal undertook as follows to "inform the public" (in 1854) of a little performance in kind, which had been common for several years at these fairs where "premiums" were awarded, and which proved a very profitable mode of operation, almost from the very beginning of fowl-shows in the United States. In an article upon a recent exhibition, under the caption "_How the Cards are Played_," he says: "A fowl-breeder, by extraordinary means, raises a _few_ specimens of fowls of great size, which he takes to the exhibition; and, on the appearance and character of those _few_ specimens, he contracts to furnish fowls and eggs of the 'same stock.' He goes home with his pockets full of orders, and with not a _single fowl, for sale_, in his possession at the time, and hastens to purchase of A, B and C, such fowls as he can find, say at $3, $5 to $10 a pair, which he sends to fill his orders at $20 to $50 a pair, and no nearer in value to the stock that appeared on exhibition than a turkey is to a turkey _buzzard_! The same of _eggs_. Now, there are exceptions to this allegation, but we KNOW that such things are done, and we think that the public should be put on their guard." There is no question about the accuracy of this statement. The writer says he "_knows_ that such things were done;" and I feel sure that no man in New York State ever knew the details of this dodge so well as _he_ did. It was a very common thing everywhere, however, among the hucksters. I had no occasion to resort to this plan; for the game _we_ played was a deeper one, altogether. There was a "live Yankee," all the way from Rhode Island, who attended the New York show, who took the boys down there after the following style, as appears from another advertisement, which I recently met with, and which feat is thus described by one of the sufferers. In a "card" published soon after that exhibition, this victim of misplaced confidence says, with a show of seeming injured innocence: "Justice to the public, as well as myself, demands a slight explanation of a few facts connected with the recent National Poultry Show, in New York City. "Mr. C----, of Woonsocket, R.I., accompanied me to New York for the purpose of attending the fair. On the fourth day of the exhibition it was announced that the judges were about to commence their labors. Mr. C----, seeing that his chance for a premium of _any_ kind on Asiatic fowls was very slim, came to me and requested, nay, even _insisted_, on grounds of mutual friendship, that I should put my two best hens with a cock of his, for the purpose of taking the first premium. I finally consented, with the express understanding, _and no other_, that we should each share the honors and proceeds equally. On Friday it was announced, in the lecture-room, that _he_ had taken the first premium on the best pair of Asiatic fowls, of whatever sub-variety. I went to him, at once, and expressed my dissatisfaction, and reminded him of his agreement. He then agreed to see the secretary and all the reporters, and publish, or cause to be published, a card, stating that I was equally entitled to the premium with himself, as the hens were raised by me; and he furthermore agreed that his name should not be mentioned or published, in relation to the premium, except in connection with my own. How was that agreement fulfilled? On taking up one of the New York dailies the next morning, I was surprised to see a puff laudatory of Mr. C----, while _my_ name was not alluded to,--which puff, report says, was paid for with a rooster. On my return home, a few days afterwards, I found that he had volunteered to make the following assertions: 'Well, I have laid 'em all out. I took the first premium on everything, best pair and all, and I can beat the world.' When asked how it was done, he said, 'I will tell you, _some time_, how I played my card.'" But Mr. C----, with that reserve and indifference peculiar to gentlemen in the hen-trade who have accomplished a "neat operation," did not see fit to explain the process, and hesitated to inform his "friend" how he played his card. And so the aggrieved party resorted to the newspaper, and come the "power of the press" upon Mr. C----, as follows: "Mr. C---- stated that my stock was 'mongrel,' and inferior. Whether it be so or not, is for the thousands and tens of thousands who saw them, while on exhibition, to judge. After selecting two of my best hens for Mr. C----'s especial benefit (as it appears), the committee _even then_ saw fit to award me a premium, while his two coops of '_pure, full-blooded_ Asiatic fowls,' which he had cracked up so loud and extensively, did not receive, as I can learn, even a passing notice, _except the old cock_, which was put in the coop with my 'mongrel hens,' as he is pleased to call them. Perhaps the public would also be gratified to learn the manner in which he obtained the first premium at the recent Agricultural Fair in Providence, R.I. Was it not done by entering several coops of fowls, belonging to another person, in his own name, without that person's knowledge and consent, and pointing out those fowls to one or more of the judges, representing them as his own? No doubt the books of the society, and those of the railroad corporation which conveyed Mr. C----'s poultry to and from the fair, if compared, will throw some light upon the subject. Is not this the manner in which he has frequently played his card; or, in other words, 'laid 'em all out'? As I have always treated him as a gentleman, a neighbor and friend, to what cause can I impute this low, mean contemptible and underhand manner of exalting himself at my expense? I would advise him, in conclusion, to peruse Æsop's moral and instructive fable of the ambitious Jackdaw, and learn from that, that however well a course of deception and duplicity may at first prosper, the day of exposure and disgrace will come, and the ungainly Jackdaw, stripped of his ill-gotten plumage, will stand forth in all his native blackness and deformity." Now, I have no doubt, that this Mr. C----, when he read the above "card" (which must have cost its author considerable time and money), felt very badly about it, the more especially as the show-prizes had been duly announced, and he had the premium-money safely in his own pocket! And it certainly must have been a very gratifying circumstance, to the man who had been thus duped, to see his advertisement thus in print, too. Had _I_ been similarly situated, however, after losing my premium and the credit that belonged to my having had the best fowls on exhibition, also (only by thus joining issue with another to gull the "dear people"), I rather think I should not have _published_ the facts, to show myself up a fool as well as a knave. But this is merely a matter of taste. Mr. B----, who signs this "card," will scarcely be caught in this way again. We "live to learn." Mr. B---- had not become apprised of the fact that, from the very commencement, the hen-trade was a huge gull, possessing an unconscionable maw, and most inconceivable powers of digestion. Older heads and wiser men than he had been duped or swallowed by this monster, that stalked about the earth for six long years, seeking whom he might devour. If this is the worst treatment he ever experienced at the hands of those who helped to feed the vampire, Mr. B---- is, indeed, a fortunate man. There _be_ those who would gladly exchange places with this gentleman, and give him large odds. C---- was _smart_. I have known him for several years. He is one of the few "hen-men" whom I would trust alone with my purse. And whether he raised them, or purchased them, it matters nothing; he has _sold_ some of the best fowls in America. In all human probability, the author of the "card" last quoted will live long enough (unless he shall have already stepped out) to know that "the people" went into the hen-trade blindfolded, and that the bandages have now dropped from their eyes. He will have ascertained, too, I think, that a resort to the newspapers for redress against such of his "friends" as may get ahead of his time in this way is precious poor consolation, when he reflects that advertisements cost money, and that the anathemas of an over-reached chicken-man have never yet been known to harm anybody--as far as heard from! _Selah!_ CHAPTER XXXVII. FINAL DEATH-THROES. The officers and the judges at the poultry-fairs (most of whom are self-constituted), as will be seen, usually carried away all the first prizes. At a late show of the New York _State_ Society, the president thereof received about _one third_ of all the premiums awarded, and yet his fowls were nearly all _second_ and _third_ rate, and not one of them, it was stated, was _bred_ by him. He may have bred a few specimens during last season, but not _one_ on exhibition was bred by him. The people and certain greenhorns were astonished to see the way in which the premiums were awarded to him. One of the judges there seemed determined to award to him every premium that his influence could secure, right or wrong; and, from what was learned from exhibitors, it did look very much like an existing understanding between the parties in regard to the premiums. For the above statement we have the authority of a huckster in New York, who did _not_ obtain any premiums, and who says of the management of the state show there, that this sort of partiality shown in favor of the wire-pullers "is the rock on which the 'New England Poultry Society' foundered; and our state society is treading in the footsteps of its 'illustrious predecessor.'" This writer contends that the president of the New York society, who thus received about all the premiums at one of their late shows, was a man of too much discernment not to see that such a _farce_ as some of the judges played would redound to his discredit. They went _too far_--overdid the matter; hence the universal indignation of exhibitors. And then concludes that "poultry-societies generally merge into mere _speculating_ gatherings, a _few_ receiving most of the premiums, while the uninitiated exhibitor is made a tool to swell the income of those who pull the wires. Many breeders exhibit solely for the sake of the _notoriety_ that their fowls will receive,--a sort of _gratuitous_ advertising,"--and it is now got to be "notorious that an order sent to one who receives the _first_ premium for fowls is no more likely, in many cases, to be filled with any better fowls than if sent to one who took no premium at all; as the _prize_ fowls are not often for sale, and very inferior specimens are sent when orders are received." This information would have answered very well, had it been afforded years ago. Now that the fever has disappeared almost entirely, and now that everybody has been gulled, and gouged, and _gorged_, with the fulsome and glowing accounts of the asserted reality of this thing, from the pen of this very man among the rest, it comes rather late in the day for such an one to "warn the people," and in such a manner! But, soon after the exhibition above referred to had closed, the president of the society issued a most astounding "card," _declining_ to receive the premiums awarded him, and in which appears the following sentence: "In connection with the report of the Judges of the late State Poultry Show, allow me to make a statement. As appears from the report, my birds have been unusually successful in the contest for premiums, sixteen out of twenty distinct varieties exhibited being so honored. This was more than I expected, and more than I honestly think they deserved. And I am strongly of opinion that, had they had more time, they would have come to a different conclusion, in two or three cases." I was prepared for almost anything in the hen-trade, up to this time; but this performance really astonished _me_! The man actually refused to take the premiums awarded him! He even went so far as to show the "judges" who _ought_ to have had the prizes, rather than himself. And he actually sent back to the committee the money they forwarded to him after the exhibition was over!! Now, if this were not sufficient to astonish "the people," I am very much in error regarding the ordinary strength of their nerves. It was an almost immaculate performance; and the "New York State Poultry Society" should positively insist that this extraordinary man (if he can be proved to be sane) should at once accept from them one of the largest-sized leather medals, to be worn next to his gizzard, for this unexampled disinterestedness, and extraordinary sacrifice of self. O, but _that_ gentleman must be "a brick," indeed! A journal that alluded to this singular circumstance, at the time, asserted that this procedure on the part of the president "was highly commendable in the author, if his statements were made through _principle_, rather than through fear to encounter _public opinion_. He stands high in the estimation of the public, and we have ever considered him as strictly honorable in all his business transactions; but we cannot help thinking that 'a screw was loose' somewhere in the matter. His statements are not very flattering to the judgment of the judges, and show that some of them, at least, were not competent to discharge their duties properly," etc.; while, in _my_ opinion, than this, a more bare-faced piece of _mush_ was never yet perpetrated, in the details even of the hen-trade. This was emphatically among the "death-throes" of the _mania_. And cards like the following found their way into the newspapers, about this time, in further proof that the valve of this huge balloon had slipped out. An ambitious Western man says: "I have long been expecting to hear of the swindling operations of a certain dealer, who makes a great display of _pretending_ to have _every_ breed known or bred in this country; and, to my _certain_ knowledge, buys all, or nearly all, of his fowls, as wanted, and as many on _credit_ as he can, but does not _pay_, nor can the _law reach_ him to make him pay. I believe, also, that the papers that advertise for him are doing it for _nothing_--that is, that they are not, and never will be paid for it. "Such a course, in my opinion, is no better than highway robbery; and I hereby give said person fair warning to act honestly hereafter, or I will point him out in a way that shall not be misunderstood, as I cannot see such rascality perpetrated, and remain silent. "A man who deals in high-priced fowls, in receiving pay in _advance_, has his customers completely at his mercy, especially when he is not _responsible_ for a copper; and at the rates that fowls sell for--say, from ten dollars to one hundred dollars a pair--purchasers should receive what is promised them,--good specimens of the _pure_ breeds. So far as _weight_ is concerned, a pair of fowls will fall off _a few pounds_ in a journey of a week or less, in a cramped condition, and perhaps without food for a portion of the time; but in other respects justice should be done to the confiding purchaser." Beautiful!--poetical!--musical! This advertiser, I have no doubt, keeps only _pure_ stock. I do not know who he is; but, if I wanted to buy (which I don't), I should certainly apply to such an honest and justice-loving person, because I should feel assured, after reading such an advertisement, that _that_ man was a professor of religion; and, even if he had the chance, would never fleece me--_over the left_! Other fanciers, in their utter desperation (as the fever so positively and now rapidly begun to decline), resorted to the printing of the _pedigrees_ of their stock; and the following advertisements made their appearance late in 1854: "By the influence of Mr. Ellibeth Watch (editor of the _London Polkem Chronicler_, and uncle to the Turkish Bashaw with three long tails), I have just procured a few of Prince Albert's famous breed of 'Windsor fowls.' In a letter to me of the 32d day of April, Mr. Watch observes: 'I have positively ordered a trio of _Windsor_ Fowls of Prince Albert, for you. It is THE BEST BREED IN ENGLAND, and they are much run after, and cannot be had without giving previous notice; but you are safe to have yours. I have engaged a friend to choose yours for you; and I consider it _a great thing_ to get them direct from the Prince, for you must be aware that persons generally cannot exactly _pick and choose_ FROM THE PRINCE'S OWN STOCK. I shall employ an efficient person to have them shipped, etc.'" In due time this remarkable stock arrived in America, and their pedigrees were duly published; the advertiser being "thus particular," because (as he asserted) "there had been so much imposition upon the public by irresponsible persons _claiming to have made importations_"! Now I never entertained the slightest objections to this sort of advertisement,--not _I_, i'faith! On the contrary, I deem all this kind of thing very excellent, in its way, to be sure. The more the merrier. "The people" want it, and let them have it, say I. But, at the same time, though the "Porte-Monnaie I owe 'ems" declare that their unrivalled stock comes from Prince Albert's yards, I feel very well assured that all this is a mere guy, it being very well known that His Royal Highness is not engaged in the hen-trade particularly, and of course has something else to do besides supplying even the "Porte-Monnaie Company" with his pigs and chickens. It was a rare undertaking, this importing live stock (with any expectation of selling it) in the fall of 1854! But we shall soon see who were the final victims of the "fever." CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE PORTE-MONNAIE I OWE 'EM COMPANY. It has been said, with much of truth, that "two of a calling rarely agree;" and this applies with force to those engaged in the "hen-trade." Messrs. Mormann and Humm, whom I have before spoken of, couldn't long agree together, and their "dissolution" soon appeared; and, from the ashes of the professional part of this firm, there suddenly arose an entirely new dodge, under the big-sounding title of "THE PORTE-MONNAIE I OWE 'EM COMPANY." The presiding genius of this concern was one Doctor Bangit,--an old friend of mine, who had been through wars enough to have killed a regiment of ghouls, who was among the earliest advocates and supporters of the "New England Mutual Admiration Society," who was one of the very first physicians employed in prescribing for the hen fever in this country, and who, I _supposed_, had had sufficient experience not to embark (at this late day) in such a ridiculous enterprise as this so clearly seemed to be. But the doctor saw his victims in prospective, probably; and, though he had run the hummery of the fowl-fever so far into the ground that, in his case, it would surely never know a day of resurrection, still he was ambitious and hopeful; and he flattered himself (and some others) that the _last man_ who bought live stock had _not_ yet turned up! And so the doctor pushed on, once more. The "BLOOD STOCK" of the "_Porte-Monnaie I owe 'em Company_"[12] was thus advertised, also: "IN ADDITION to the genuine, unadulterated Prince Albert fowls, the 'Porte-Monnaie I owe 'ems' offer pigs, with tails on, of the Winsor, Unproved Essex, Proved Suffolks, Yorkshire, Wild Indian, Bramerpouter, Siam, Hong-Kongo, Emperor Napoleons, and Shanghae Breeds; most of them of new styles, and warranted to hold their colors in any climate. "Also, Welsh Rarebits--bred from their Merino buck 'Champum,' of England (that _didn't_ take the first prize at the National Show, because Mr. Burnham's 'Knockum' did!), whose ears are each thirty-three feet longer than those of our best pure-bred jackasses, and wider than five snow-shovels, by actual measurement. "Also, A-quack-it fowls; as Swans (_Porte-Monnaie I owe 'em_ strain), Two-lice, Hong-gong, Brumagem and other Geese. Ruin and Ailsburied Ducks, and Pharmigan Pigeons (blue-billed). "Also, every breed of Gallinaceous fowls,--Games and other bloods already noted,--together with every species of pure and select blood-stock, which has been secured in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Arctic Ocean, with reference to QUALITY, without regard to _price_. "==>We can furnish pedigrees to all buyers who desire them, which will be endorsed by the faculty of Riply College, Iowa. "N.B. The 'Winsor' breed of pigs imported by us is a great addition to the already fine hog stock of the United States, and is fully _equal_, if not _superior_, to any other breed. They are the very choicest of the royal stock which is so much admired in England. We are in possession of the shipping papers of these splendid pigs. The freight and incidental expenses on them, alone, amount to about six hundred dollars. They ought to be fine pigs. Three hundred dollars a _pair_ for the pigs from this splendid stock would be _low_, taking their great value into consideration. We have often heard of Prince Albert's stock of pigs, but until G.P. Burnham, Esq., of Russet House, Melrose, first imported this superb stock into this country, no American was ever honored with a shy at this extraordinary breed of swine. The company, at great expense and trouble, prevailed upon Mr. Burnham to part with a few of his second-rate samples; and they have now no doubt that they will be able to 'beat him all to rags,' in a few months, since they have been lucky enough to get them from him _pure_ly bred (probably!). "P.S. Of these pigs, which gained the first prize and gold and silver medal at London in December, 1863, and the first prize and gold and silver medal in Birmingham, were from Tibby, by Wun-eyed Jack. Old Pulgubbin's pigs gained a prize at Mutton-head in 1729, and one at London in 1873." Still, notwithstanding all this extra flourish of trumpets, the "Porte Monnaie I owe 'em Company" is well-nigh defunct. It was started, unfortunately, about five years and eight months "too late in the season." Yet, as I honor talent and enterprise, wherever they may be shown, I trust that this association may be galvanized into successful operation--as, _perhaps_, it will! [12] I trust that this association may not be confounded with the "_Fort Des Moines Iowa Company_." The difference will plainly be seen, of course. CHAPTER XXXIX. A SATISFACTORY PEDIGREE. In the course of my live-stock experience, and especially during the excitement that prevailed amidst the routine of the hen-trade, I found myself constantly the recipient of scores and hundreds of the most ridiculously unreasonable and meaningless letters, from the fever-struck (and innocent) but uninitiated victims of this epidemic. In England, amongst other nonsense bearing upon this subject, the more cunning poultry-keepers resorted to the furnishing of _pedigrees_ for the birds they sold. This trick worked to admiration in Great Britain for a time, and the highest-sounding names were given to certain favorite fowls, the progeny of which ("with pedigree attached") commanded the most extravagant and ruinous prices, in the English "fancy" market. For instance, I noticed in the London papers, in 1852, an account given of the sale of "two splendid cinnamon-colored chickens, out of the famous cock 'Jerry,' by the noted hen 'Beauty,' sired by 'Napoleon,' upon the well-known 'Queen Dowager,' grandsire 'Prince Albert,' on 'Victoria First,'" &c. &c., which brought the handsome sum of one hundred and sixty pounds (or about eight hundred dollars). And, soon afterwards, the same dodge was adopted on this side of the Atlantic. The "Porte-Monnaie I owe 'em Company" have _now_ an advertisement in several New York and Western papers, concluding thus: "To all who desire it, we will furnish authentic pedigrees of our stock of _all_ descriptions, which may be relied on for their accuracy." This sort of thing was rather too much for my naturally republican turn of mind; and, though I could endure _almost_ anything in the humbug of this bubble, I couldn't swallow _this_. I received from New York State, one day, the following spicy epistle: "MR. BURNHAM. "SIR: I have been a live-stock breeder for some years in this and the old country, and I was desirous to obtain only _pure_-blooded fowls when I ordered the 'Cochins' of you last month. I asked you for their _pedigree_. You have sent none. What does this mean? I paid you your price--seventy-five dollars--for three chickens. What have you sent me? Am I dealing with a gentleman? Or are you a mere shambles-huckster? What are these fowls bred from? Perhaps I may find myself called upon to speak more plainly, sir. I hope not. Who _are you_? I sent for a pedigree, and I want it. _I must have it_, sir. You will comprehend this, I presume. If you do not, I can enlighten you further. "In haste, "---- -- ----." I smiled at the earnestness of this letter, the more particularly when I reflected that this gentleman always supplied to his patrons a thing he called a pedigree, for all the animals he sold--so intricate, conglomerated and lengthy, that no one would ever venture to dispute the authenticity and reliability of the document he sent them. I re-read his sharp communication, and I found the sentence again, "Who _are you_? I sent for a pedigree, and I must have it." And I sat down, at once, and wrote him as follows: "_Melrose, Mass., 1853._ "MY DEAR SIR: "Your peppery favor came duly to hand. You say you 'want a pedigree,' and that you 'must have it;' and you inquire who _I_ am? I cannot furnish any such history for my _fowls_, for I haven't the slightest idea what they are, except that they are bred from my superb imported 'Cochin-Chinas,' which have so long been pronounced the 'admiration of the world.' "But, since you must have a pedigree, you say, and as you seem anxious to know who _I_ am, I enclose you the following, as an accurate account of my _own_ pedigree, which I furnished to a legal gentleman in New York city, some years since,[13] and which, I presume, will answer your purpose as well as any other would; as I observe, by your polite favor now before me, that you 'want A pedigree.' Please read this carefully, and then inform me (as you promise to do) if you 'can enlighten _me_ further'! "Very profoundly yours, "G.P.B." It will be necessary, in order that my readers may the better appreciate the pedigree that follows (and which I enclosed to my correspondent, as above stated), to inform them that some fifteen years ago, or more, there was a person named _Burnham_, who died in England, leaving no will behind him; but who was possessed, at the time of his decease, of an immense fortune, said to amount to several millions of pounds sterling in value. As soon as the intelligence reached this country, the Burnhams were greatly elated with their prospects, and meetings of the imaginative "heirs" to this estate were held, who, each and all, believed that a windfall was now in certain prospect before them. The excitement ended as all this sort of thing does. No one among the Burnhams could identify himself, or substantiate the fact of his ever having had a grandfather; and the bubble was soon exploded. Among the parties who were addressed on the subject of this supposed "Burnham fortune," was my humble self; the ambitious lawyer who undertook to unravel the mystery, and to recover the money for us, informing me by mail that "it would be of material pecuniary advantage to me to establish my pedigree." I wrote _him_ as follows: "MY DEAR SIR: "Your favor, under date 4th instant, came duly to hand, and I improve my earliest moment of leisure (after the unavoidable delays attendant upon procuring the information you seek) to reply. You are desirous of being made acquainted with my 'pedigree.' "I have to inform you that I have taken some days to examine into this matter, and, after a careful investigation of the 'records,' find that I am a descendant, in the direct line, from a gentleman, very well remembered in these parts, by the name of ADAM. The old man had two sons. 'Cain' and 'Abel' they were called. The latter, by the other's hands, went dead one day; but as no coroner had then been appointed in the county where they resided, 'verdict was postponed.' A third son was born, whom they called 'Seth.' _Cain_ Adam had a son named Enoch, who had a son (in the fourth generation) by the name of Malech. Malech had a son whom he called NOAH, from whom I trace directly my own being. "Noah had three sons, 'Shem,' '_Ham_' and 'Japheth.' The eldest and youngest--Shem and Japheth--were a couple of the 'b'hoys;' and Ham was a very well-disposed young gentleman, who slept at home o' nights. But his two brothers, unfortunately, were not so well inclined. _Ham_ was a sort of 'jethro'--the butt of his two brothers, who had done him 'brown' so many times, that they called him 'burnt.' For many years he was known, therefore, as 'Burnt-Ham.' Before his death he applied to the Legislature in his diggings for a change of name. He dropped the _t_, a bill was passed entitling him to the name of BURN-HAM, and hence the _sur_name of your humble servant. So much for the _name_. "In several of the newspapers of that period I find allusions made to _a very severe rain-storm_ which occurred 'just about this time;' and the public prints (of all parties) agree that 'this storm was tremendous,' and that 'an immense amount of damage was done to the shipping and commercial interest.' As this took place some six thousand years back, however, you will not, I presume, expect me to quote the particular details of this circumstance, except in so far as refers directly to my own relatives. I may here add, however, that subsequent accounts inform me that everything of any particular value was totally destroyed. A private letter from Ham, dated at the time, declares that 'there wasn't a peg left to hang his hat on.' "Old Noah found it was 'gittin' werry wet under foot' (to use a familiar expression of his), and he wisely built a canal-boat (of very generous dimensions) for the safety of himself and family. Finding that the rain continued, he enlarged his boat, so that he could carry a very considerable amount of luggage, in case of accident. This foresight in the old gentleman proved most fortunate, and only confirms the established opinion, that the family is 'smart;' for the 'storm continued unabated for forty days and forty nights' (so say the accounts), until every species of animal and vegetable matter had been 'used up,' always excepting the old gentleman's canal-boat _and_ cargo. "Now, Noah was a great lover of animals. 'Of every kind, a male and female,' did he take into his boat with him, and 'a nice time' they must have had of it for six weeks! Notwithstanding the fact (which I find recorded in one of the journals of the day), that 'a gentleman, who was swimming about, and who requested the old man to let him in, upon being refused, declared that he might go to grass with his old canoe, for he didn't think it would be much of a shower, anyhow,'--I say, notwithstanding this opinion of the gentleman, who is represented as having been a 'very expert swimmer,' everything was destroyed. "Ham was one of 'em--_he_ was! He 'knew sufficient to get out of the rain,' albeit he wasn't thought _very_ witty. He took passage with the rest, however, and thus did away with the necessity of a life-preserver. From _Ham_ I trace my pedigree directly down through all the grades, to King Solomon, without any difficulty, who, by the way, was reported to have been a little loose in his habits, and was very fond of the ladies and Manzanilla Sherry. He used to sing songs, too, of which 'the least said the soonest mended.' But, on the whole, Sol was a very clever, jolly-good fellow, and on several occasions gave evidence of possessing his share of the cunning natural to our family. Some thought him 'wise;' but, although I have no disposition to abuse any of my ancestors, I think the Queen of Sheba (a very nice young woman she was, too) rather 'come it' over the old fellow! "By a continuous chain, I trace my relationship thence through a rather tortuous line, from generation to generation, down to Mr. Matthew,--not the comedian, but to Matthew, the Collector (of Galilee, I think), who 'sat at the receipt of customs.' To _this_ connection I was, undoubtedly, indebted for an appointment in the Boston Custom-house. Matthew lived in the good old 'high tariff' times, when something in the shape of duties was coming in. But, as nothing is said of his _finale_, I rather think he absquatulated with the funds of the government. But I will come to the information you desire, without further ado. "You know the 'OLD 'UN,' undoubtedly. (If you don't, there is very little doubt but you will know his _namesake_ hereafter, if you don't cease to squander your time in looking after the plunder of the Burnham family!) Well, the 'Old 'Un' is in the 'direct line,' to which I have now endeavored to turn your attention; and I have been called, of late years, the 'YOUNG 'UN,' for reasons that will not interest you. To my honored senior (whom I set down in the category as my legitimate 'dad') I would refer you for further particulars. He is tenacious of the character of his progeny, and loves me; I would commend you to him, for it will warm the cockles of his old heart to learn that the 'YOUNG 'UN' _is in luck_. "If you chance to live long enough to get as far down in my letter as _this_ paragraph, allow me to add that, should you happen to receive any very considerable amount as _my_ share of the 'property' for the Burnham family, please not overlook the fact that I am I 'one of 'em,' and that I have taken pains to tell you 'whar I cum from.' Please forward my dividend by Adams & Co.'s Express (if their crates should be big enough to convey it), and if it should prove too bulky, turn it into American gold, and charter a steamer to come round for the purpose; I shan't mind the expense. "In conclusion, I can only intimate the high consideration I entertain towards yourself for having prepaid the postage upon your communication; a very unusual transaction with legal gentlemen. My sensations, upon closing this hasty scrawl, are, I fancy, very nearly akin to those of the Hibernian who '_liked_ to have found a sovereign once,'--but you will allow me to assure you that it will afford me the greatest pleasure to meet you hereafter, and I shall be happy to give you any further information in my power touching _that_ 'putty' in prospective. "I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, "GEO. P. BURNHAM, _alias the_ 'YOUNG 'UN.'" I presume this pedigree was perfectly satisfactory to my correspondent; and I am quite certain that it was of as much account as this kind of thing usually is. At any rate, I heard nothing more from him, in any way; and I made up my mind, therefore, that, after reading this, he concluded that he couldn't "enlighten me further," as he had so pertly suggested in his communication, quoted in the beginning of this chapter. He is a very nice man, I have no manner of doubt. [13] This article was originally published in the New York _Spirit of the Times_, substantially, and was afterwards issued in an edition of my fugitive literary productions, by Getz & Buck, of Philadelphia, in a volume entitled "_Stray Subjects_." CHAPTER XL. "DOING THE GENTEEL THING." "There is one thing you should always bear in mind," said a notorious shark to me, one day, while we conversed upon the subject of breeding live-stock successfully--"there is one thing you should always remember; and that is, under no circumstances ever permit a fowl or a pig to pass out of your hands to a purchaser, unless you _know_ him to be of _pure blood_." This is a pretty theory, and, I have no doubt, such a course would work to admiration, if faithfully carried out (as _I_ always intended to do, by the way); but in this country this was easier to talk about than to accomplish. I have now a letter before me, received some years since, upon this point, and which will give the reader some idea how far this thing extended in certain quarters, and what came of it. "SIR: I have been informed by my friends, and I have seen it stated in the poultry-books generally, that _you_ are a breeder of fowls who can be relied on. I wish I could say as much of some other parties with whom I have dealt, during the past year or two. "I have been striving, for a long time, to get possession of some _pure_-bred domestic fowls, and a strain of thorough-bred Suffolk swine. I am satisfied _you_ have got them. Now, I beg you will understand that I am fortunately pecuniarily able to _pay_ for what I seek. I care nothing for _prices_;[14] but I do desire, and stipulate for, purity of blood. Can you supply me? What are your strains? When did you import it, and how has it been bred? "If you can send me half a dozen Chinese fowls, all _pure_ bloods, of each of the different varieties, do so, and charge me whatever you please,--only let them be fine, and such as will produce their like. "I have read much on this subject of poultry, and I want to _begin_ right, you perceive. I have made up my mind that there are not so many _varieties_ of fowls extant as many breeders describe. I am satisfied that these domestic birds hail originally from China, and that _all_ of them are of one blood. What is your opinion? "Write me your views, please, and let me know if you can furnish me what I seek, upon honor; bearing in mind that I am ready to pay your price, whatever it may be; but that I want only pure-blooded stock. "Yours, respectfully, "---- ----." I immediately forwarded to this customer (as I usually did to my newly-found patrons) copies of the _portraits_ of my "genuine Suffolk" pigs, and of my "pure-bred" and "imported" Chinese-fowls. These "pictures," samples of which appear in this work upon pages 174 and 212, had the desired effect. I rarely forwarded to these beginners one of these nicely-got-up circulars that didn't "knock 'em" at first sight. These gentlemen stared at the engravings, exclaimed, "_Can_ it be?" thrust their hands to the very bottom of their long purses, and ordered the stock by return of mail. In this last-mentioned case, I informed my correspondent that I agreed with him in the ideas he had advanced precisely (I usually did agree with such gentlemen), and I entertained no doubt that he was entirely correct in his views as to the origin of domestic fowls, of which he evidently knew so much. (This helped me, amazingly.) I pointed out to him the distinction that existed (without a difference) between a "Shanghae" and a "Cochin-China," and finally concluded my learned and _un_selfish appeal by hinting (barely _hinting_) to him that I felt certain _he_ was the best judge of the facts in the case, and I would only _suggest_ that, so far as my experience went, there were, in reality, but _ten_ varieties of _pure_-bred fowls known to ornithologists (I was one of this latter class), and that these ten varieties were the Cochins, the White, Grey, Dominique, Buff, Yellow, Red, Brown, Bronze and Black _Shanghaes_--and these were the only kinds _I_ ever bred. As to their purity of blood, I could only say, that I imported the original stock myself, and "enclosed" he had their _portraits_; to which I referred with pride and confidence and pleasure, &c. &c. &c. Of their probable merits I must leave it entirely to his own good judgment to decide. I had this stock _for sale_, and it did not become me (mind this!) didn't _become me_ to praise it, of course (O no!). And I would say no more, but simply refer him to the public prints for my character as a breeder of blooded stock, etc. etc. etc. Did this take him down? Well, it did; _vide_ the following reply from him, two weeks subsequently. "MY DEAR SIR: "I never entertained a doubt that you were _all_ you had been represented; and your reputation is, indeed, an enviable one, in the midst of these times, when so much deceit and trickery is being practised among this community. I am flattered with the tone of your kind letter, just received, and I am greatly pleased that you thus readily coincide with me in regard to my opinions touching the fowl race. "I had come to the conclusion that there were but _eight_ real varieties of genuine fowls; but I observe that, in your last favor, you describe _ten_ strains of pure-bloods, that you know to be such. The portraits of your stock are beautiful. You allude to the 'Bronze' and the 'Dominique' colored Shanghaes. These must be very fine, I have no doubt; and I gladly embrace the opportunity to enclose you a draft on Merchants' Bank, Boston, for six hundred dollars, in payment for six of each of your splendid varieties of this pure China stock, the like of which (on paper, at least) I have never yet been so fortunate as to meet with. "Please forward them, as per schedule, in care of Adams & Co.'s Express; whose agents, I am assured, will feed and water them regularly _three times a day_[15] on the route, and who are universally proverbial for their attention to the birds thus directed and intrusted to their care. I shall order the 'Suffolks' shortly. "Yours, truly, "---- ----." I sent this anxious purchaser sixty chickens, at ten dollars each (cheap enough, to be sure), in accordance with his directions, and he was delighted with them. I do not _now_ entertain a shadow of doubt that every _one_ of those ten "different varieties" were bred from white hens and a black cock, of the ordinary "Shanghae" tribe. [14] This was the kind of customer I met with occasionally, and whom I always took at his word. The gentleman who "didn't care about price" was always the man after my own heart. [15] Certainly--of course. The express agents had nothing else to do but to "feed and water" fowls "_three times a day_" on the way! CHAPTER XLI. THE FATE OF THE "MODEL" SHANGHAES. Napoleon, the great, found himself compelled to succumb to adverse fate, at the end of a long and brilliantly triumphant career. "It was destiny," he said; and he bowed to the fiat; which at last he was unable successfully to dodge. I was the fortunate owner of a pair of fine Shanghae fowls, that were universally acknowledged to be "at the head of the crowd,"--so far as there was any beauty or attractive qualities, whatever, in this species of animal,--and I thought they were not bad-looking birds, really. I caused a likeness to be taken of them from life, accurately, and it was placed, some years since, at the head of the circulars which I always enclosed back to my correspondents, in reply to their favors and inquiries regarding my views as to what was the _best_ kind of domestic bird for breeding. The cock was very handsomely formed, and when in full feather was exceedingly showy, and graceful, and noble in his carriage. His hen companions were fine, too; but there was one in particular, that, in company with this bird, I showed at several fairs, where they invariably carried away the first premium, without any question or cavil as to comparative beauty and merit. I named them "Napoleon" and the "Empress." Their joint weight, when in the best condition, was about twenty-two pounds; and as the "fancy" then raged, they were really unexceptionable. I "donno" how many chickens I have sold by means of the _pictures_ of these birds, but I _do_ know that, unfortunately, this particular hen never laid an egg while I owned her, which was some two years. Still, she was very handsome, as was also her husband; and I certainly raised a great many fine chickens while they were in my yards. I called them my very best,--and they were, indeed, to look at,--_a model pair of Shanghaes_, as will be seen by a glance at their portraits on the next page. [Illustration: THE "MODEL" SHANGHAES.----(See page 280.)] But they were singled out for a curious fate. At two or three of our early fairs they had taken the first prizes; and at one of the exhibitions, finally, there chanced to come along a gentleman who fancied them exceedingly, and who was bound to possess himself of the best that could be had. He had a long purse (though, at the time _he_ bought, prices were not up to the mark they reached subsequently, by a long margin); and when he offered forty dollars for this "model" pair, it was thought, by most of the outsiders, to be a fabulous transaction altogether, made up between us to aid in gulling "the people." However, he paid his money for them, sent them off, and the following account of their subsequent fate is thus touchingly furnished by my friend "Acorn," who chanced to be "in at the death": "The gentleman who became the fortunate purchaser of these fine fowls had come to the city in the morning for the purpose of posting himself up generally, and to procure a pair of these then very desirable birds, though he did not imagine that he would be called upon to come down so 'werry han'some' for a single pair. He saw these, however, and visions of brilliant promise loomed up before him, if he could contrive to obtain them, however high a figure this 'magnificent' twain might be held at. As soon as he secured them, he felt that his fortune was made. "He calculated to remain in town until evening, and, sitting down, he hastily wrote a note to the keeper of a fashionable hotel in T---- street, informing him that he would dine with him, and that the bearer would deliver him a pair of nice chickens, which he desired him to take charge of. He also directed the boy (to whom he gave this note and the coop) to say that he would take dinner with his friend at four P.M.; and, sending up the fowls, he turned to other matters, for the day. "Arriving at the hotel, the youngster found the landlord, and said, "'Here's a pair of rousing big chickens Mr. M----s has sent up; and he says he'll be here to dine with you at four o'clock,' "The landlord supposed that his friend knew a hawk from a handsaw, as well as a canvass-back from a broiled owl; and believed that he had 'sent up' something a little extra for the proposed dinner. He therefore ordered the two birds to be placed in the hands of the cook, and gave directions also to have these 'model Shanghaes' killed and dressed at once, for the proposed dinner, to come off at four o'clock P.M.! "This order was promptly obeyed; and at the hour appointed the chicken-fancier made his appearance, in company with a few of the 'boys,' and the dinner was served up with due accompaniments. After indulging in sundry wine bitters, as a sharpener to their appetites, the snug party sat down to table, and the liberal owner of the forty-dollar Shanghaes was politely invited to carve. While in the act of dissecting those enormous 'members of the late hen convention,' the amateur remarked, "''Pon my word, Major, you've a noble pair of chickens here, to be sure.' "'Yes, yes,' responded the Major. 'I think they _are_ an indifferently good-sized pair of birds. They were sent up to me, to-day, by a mutual friend of ours. I think we shall find them choice.' "'A present, eh?' said the owner, unwittingly. 'A very clever fellow our friend must be, Major. Capital,--really!' And as he finally commenced to enjoy the feast, he added, 'I declare they are very fine, and of the most delicious flavor I ever tasted. Juicy, too,--juicy as a canvass-back.' "Thus continued the victim, praising the rich excellence of the birds, until at last he had bagged a bottle or more of sparkling Schreider. While chatting over their Sherry, at last, and enjoying the rich aroma of their regalias, the now unlucky owner of the model Shanghaes suddenly said, "'By the way, Major, speaking of fowls, what do you think of my hen-purchase, this morning? Aren't they good 'uns?' "'Well, Bill,' rejoined his friend, 'I think they were delicious. And I won't mind if you dine with me every day in the week, provided you can send me up such chickens as those!' "'_Such_ chickens!' exclaimed Bill, astounded, as the thought for the first time flashed upon him that he might possibly now have been dining upon his 'model Shanghaes.' 'Why, Major, what the deuce do you mean?' "'Mean?' replied the Major; 'nothing,--only to say--without any intention of disturbing your nerves,--that we have just finished a most capital dinner upon those nice Shanghaes that you sent up to me, this morning.' "'_What!_' yelled Bill, jumping wildly up from the table; 'what do you say, Major?' "'Those Shanghaes--' "Bill groaned, rammed his hands clean up to the elbows into his breeches-pockets, and, after striding fiercely across the room some half a dozen times, without uttering another word, but with his eyes all this time 'in a fine frenzy rolling,' he stopped short, and, turning to the Major, he exclaimed, with no little gesticulation, "'Good God, Major, you don't mean to say you're serious, now?' "'Nothing else, Bill. What's the matter?' "'Why, _I paid forty dollars for that pair of chickens, this morning, at the hen-show_!' "'You did!' "'Yes. Didn't that stupid boy give you my note, when he left the chickens?' "'Not a note; not even a due-bill,' said the Major, provokingly. "'I mean my letter,' continued Bill. "'No,' said the Major, 'he gave me no letter; he simply delivered the fowls, and informed me that you would dine with me at four P.M. I thought, of course, you would like them thus, and so I had 'em roasted.' "Bill didn't stop for further explanations, but rushed for his horse and wagon, and wasn't seen in the city but once afterwards, for a long time. He was then closely muffled up, and had both his ears stopped up with cotton-batting, lest he might possibly hear some one say _Shanghae_! "A few weeks afterwards, while passing near his residence, I halted, and dropped in upon him for an hour; and, after a while, I ventured to touch upon the merits and beauties of the different breeds of poultry;--but I discovered, at once, that there was a wildness about Bill's eyes, and therefore ceased to allude to this usually interesting 'rural' subject, as Bill exclaimed, imploringly, "'Don't hit me, old boy, now I'm down! _That chicken dinner has never yet digested!_'" Thus "passed away" one of the handsomest pairs of domestic fowls ever seen in this part of the country, and which were well known, by all the fanciers around me, as tip-top specimens of the then lauded race of Shanghaes. This result proved rather an expensive dinner for Mr. M----s; but, while it served for an excellent lesson to him (as well as to many of his friends who chanced to hear of what the Major called "this capital joke"), he had the satisfaction, subsequently, of ascertaining that he got off at a remarkably low figure. _His_ hen fever was very quickly, and fortunately, cured. But for this sudden and happy turn in his case, the disease _might_ have cost him far more dearly. The fowls he thus lost were what were then deemed "tall specimens;" but they did not, in this respect, equal those of a neighbor, who declared that a young Shanghae cock of his grew so high on the leg, that he got to be afraid of him; and, instead of eating him, one day while the rooster was in a meditative mood, he contrived to place a twenty-feet ladder beside him, and, mounting it, managed to blow out the monster's brains, greatly to the owner's relief. [Illustration] CHAPTER XLII. AN EMPHATIC CLINCHER. One of the last specimen _letters_ that I will offer I received late in the year of our Lord 1854, which afforded me as much amusement (considering the circumstances of the case) as any one I ever yet received, of the thousands that found their way to "Geo. P. Burnham, Esq.; Boston, Mass." Here it is, word for word: "GEORG BURNAM: "More'n a yeer aggo i cent yu twenty six dollers in a leter for 3 coshin chiner Chickns, an yu sed tha wus perfeck pure bludds an yu lade yerseff lyble tu a Sute of prosekushn fer letin such dam stuf go intu yure yard or out of it, eether. "i bred them orl by themselfs an never had no uther cockrill on my plase. an i _no_ yu cheeted me like the devl, an yu no it 2. the fust lot of chickns i gut was awl _wite_ as snobawls. but i didnt sa nothin, cause wy? Wat did I Want tu let fokes no ide bin fuled an suckt in by a Corntemtible yanky, fer! i sed nothin an kep shaidy, an stuk to it that i gut em to _breed_ wite fouls out on--caus i Ment peeple shudent larf at me, no how! "Wel, the nex lot of chickns i gut wus _black_ as thunder! _black_, Geo Burnam--bred out of yur Patent yaller impoted preemum stock, that yu an the lyin Noospappers ced wus pure bludds. i chocked Every wun on em quicker 'n _scatt_--wen i found um, an ef Yude a bin thare then i guess you Wuddent razed not more'n ten thowsen more fouls to cheet Peeple with after ide a gut a holt on yure desaitful gullet. "never yu mind now, yuve gut my monny an yu can maik the most of it. aint yu a Pooty kine of mann? dont yu think yu ort tu hav yure Naim put in the nuspapper an let em say more'n fifty times a Munth that yu breed onny pure Impoted stock? dont yu feel nice wen Yu heer about the luck that peeple has with the stuf you impose on em in this shaimfull maner? Yu muss be a Nise kine of a sort of mann, i _dont_ think. "i tell yu wot i think on yu. i think if yu Shud taik to sum onnest imploiment, sech as drivin a express Waggin or sorring wood, yude be Considurd a gentle mann Compaired with wat yu now be. everyboddy nose how yu ar cheetin and Gougin and bleadin the publick, an yur naim stinks wuss'n a ole Hen-cupe enny how. i spose tho ef yu _shud_ taik to enny kine of onness sort of way tu git a livin it ud kill yu dam quik cos yu aint uste tu it, an that wud serv yu rite, yu Cheetin lyin onprinsipled nave. ide orter taikn bennits an Minur's advise, an then i Shudent bin suckt by yu. _tha_ air Gentle mann to yu, an tha aint no better then tha shud be Neyther--_no_ how! "i dont mine the Eckspence, it aint no cornsidable matter of konsekens Tu me, i 'shure yu. i can _stan_ it, yu needn't be Afeered of that. i can aford tu be suckt wunce. But ide like yu tu tell me how Blak chickns an wite chickns an sum of em _orl_ Cullers tu, can cum out of pure bludded Aigs, or pure bludded fouls? tha _carnt_, an yu kno it. an yu kno'de it afore, an yure Welcom tu orl yule evver maik More out of _me_, bait yure life on that, georg Burnam! "go ahed. suc em as long as Yu can. tha wunt fine yu out fer a wile, an yu can maik sum cornsidable mor Monny out of the flatts, yit. yu thort yude suckt _me_ I spoze. well i own up. yu _did_. yu gut twenty six dollers of my monny an i spose yu chukled about it, same's yu did Wen yu stuk them roten aigs onto bill turner. Yude beter cum here, this wa, sum fine da an See the stock here thats bred out of yure preemum fouls. praps Yude git hoam agin without a saw hed. i think yu wood. haddn't yu Better try it on--_hay_? "dont yu wish ide pade the postige on this leter? Yule git a wus wun nex time. ile rite yu agin, wunct a weak, cee ef i dont. ile Meat yu sum day at sum of the _fares_ an then cee if i dont Rake yu down with a corse comb. i haint harf dun with yu yit, by a dam site. so wate. "In haist, "B---- F---- L----. "_Poss Skrip._--P.S. i seen in boston _Times_ yisterday that yu 'Lade six aigs on The editurs table, 8 inchis long an 4 inchis Round.' This was put in that paper i Spose sose yu cud cell Aigs. yu ma pool wull over thair ies But yu dont fule _Me_. i doant bleeve yu ever Lade a aig in yur life--yu Hombugg. go tu the devl gorge Burnam!" A German friend of mine once temporarily left the profession to which he had been educated thoroughly, and, with a few hundred dollars in hand, purchased a small place, a dozen miles out from the city, which was called by the seller of it "a farm." Mynheer went to work lustily at his new vocation, slaving and sweating and puffing away over his lately acquired grounds, every moment of time that he could borrow or steal from his legitimate duties, and expending upon his "farm" every dollar he could rake and scrape together. In the fall of his first year as a "practical agriculturist," I met him casually, and I said, "A----, how does the farming succeed with you? How have you made it?" "By gar," he replied, "I 'av try vera hard all de time, I 'av plant potato an quash an corn an all dat, I 'av hire all my neighbors to 'elp, I buy all de manoor in town, I 'av spent all my monish--an wot you tink, now, Burnham--wot you tink I get--eh? Well, I git one dam big watermel'n, dass all;--but _he never git ripe, by gar_!" When I had read the letter which I have just quoted above, I thought of my friend A----, and I said that my correspondent (like a good many before him), as did Mynheer A----, had undertaken a business which was entirely beyond his comprehension. His letter was complimentary, (!) to say the least of it. But the young man was easily excited, I think. He did pay me some twenty-six dollars for four chickens, and from some cause (unknown to this individual) he got only white or black progeny from the _yellow_ fowls I sent him! Was that any business of _mine_? He should have thanked, rather than have abused me, surely,--for didn't he thus obtain a _variety_ of "pure" stock, from one and the same source? Such fortune as this was by no means uncommon. The yellow stock was crossed in China, oftentimes, long before we ever saw it here; and there was only one means of redress that I could ever recommend to these unlucky wights, conscientiously, and that was to buy _more_, and try it again. _Sometimes_ "like would breed its like" in poultry; not often, however, within _my_ humble experience! The amateurs were continually trying experiments, and grumbling, and constantly dodging from one "fancy" kind of fowl to another, in search of the _right_ thing; and I endeavored to aid them in their pursuit; though they did not always attain their object, even when they purchased of _me_. [Illustration] CHAPTER XLIII. "STAND FROM UNDER!" I have asserted, in another place, that, in all probability, in _no_ bubble, short of the famous "South Sea Expedition," has there ever been so great an amount of money squandered, from first to last, as in the chicken-trade; and, surely, into the meshes of no humbug known to us of the present day have there been so many persons inveigled, as could now be counted among the victims of this inexplicable mania. A copy of the _Liverpool Express_ in January, 1854, now lies before me, from which I notice that the great metropolitan show in London, just then closed, surpassed all its predecessors; and that the excitement in England, at that time, was at its height. The editor asserts that "it was not an easy thing to exhaust the merits of the three thousand specimens of the feathered tribe there shown. No one," continues the writer, "who is at all conversant with natural history, can fail to find abundance of material for an hour's instruction and amusement. The general character of the exhibition has been already indicated; but this is one of those cases in which _no_ description, however elaborate, can supply the place of personal inspection." The British correspondent of the _Boston Post_, but a short time previously, writes that "the fowl fever, which has raged with so much violence in _New England_ during the last three years, has extended to this country. There was a great crowing among the cocks at the late Smithfield cattle-show, and there seems to have been a still louder one at the Birmingham fair. "The mania for the purchase of fine fowls," continues this writer, "was as furious there as if each of them had been the hen in the fable that found the jewel in the dunghill. Some pairs brought as high as forty pounds (two hundred dollars). One very fine pair of Cochin-Chinas sold for fifty pounds (two hundred and fifty dollars). In the catalogue some were marked at one hundred pounds, the _valuation_ prices of owners who did not wish to sell. With you, in America, the rage for fowl-raising is simply one of fancy and profit,[16] but here it is the result--and a very beneficial one, too--of free trade. The price of eggs and poultry, owing to the great demand, does not fall; the price of grain, owing to free importation, does fall; and hence the great profit which is realized from keeping fowls. The Dorkings are great favorites, less difficult to raise than with you; and, though not abundant layers, still command, from the greater whiteness and superior delicacy of their flesh, a high price in the market. But the new Cochin-China varieties are in the greatest demand; the display of them at Birmingham exceeded all others, and they are now much sought after here." Such accounts as these continually occupied the papers; and the fever had been kept furiously alive, by this means, until far into the year 1854. The most glowing accounts of the poultry-shows, at home and abroad, were kept up, too; but, in the mean time, Shanghae chickens multiplied rapidly, and grew up, and filled the barns and yards of "the people,"--and at the same time they did not forget how to eat corn, when they could get it. And, in spite of the best endeavors of interested parties to galvanize the hum into a continued existence, it was now evident to those who watched its progress, as _I_ had done, that the death-rattle was clearly in its throat. At this juncture I was reminded of the details of the mulberry-tree bubble, the tulip fever, and the Merino sheep speculation; and I had taken care not to become involved in the final ruin of the hen-trade (as I knew many had been, and more were destined to be), in the eventual winding-up of this affair, which was now close at hand. A brief account of the famous sheep mania (so like the hen fever in its workings) will not be uninteresting at this point; and its record here, perhaps, will have the effect of opening the eyes of some chance reader, haply, who is, even now, half inclined to _try_ his hand in the chicken-trade. This sheep bubble originated in the year 1815 or 1816, immediately after the treaty of Ghent, and at a period when thousands of the American people were actually "wool-mad" in reference to the huge profits that were then apparent, prospectively, in manufacturing enterprises. In the summer of the last-named year (as nearly as can be fixed upon), a gentleman in Boston first imported some half-dozen sheep from one of the southern provinces of Spain, whose fleeces were of the finest texture, as it was said; and such, undoubtedly, was the fact, though the sheep were so thoroughly and completely imbedded in tar, and every other offensive article, upon their arrival in America, that it would have been very difficult to have proved this statement. But the very offensive appearance of the sheep seemed to imbue them with a mysterious value, that rendered them doubly attractive. It was contended that the introduction of these sheep into the United States would enable our manufactories, then in their infancy, to produce broadcloths, and other woollen fabrics, of a texture that would compete with England and Europe. Even Mr. Clay was consulted in reference to the sheep; and he at once decided that they were exactly the animals that were wanted; and some of them subsequently found their way to Ashland. The first Merino sheep sold, if I recollect right, for fifty dollars the head. They cost just _one dollar each_ in Andalusia! The speculation was too profitable to stop here; and, before a long period had elapsed, a small fleet sailed on a sheep speculation to the Mediterranean. By the end of the year 1816 there probably were one thousand Merino sheep in the Union, and they had advanced in price to _twelve hundred_ dollars the head. Before the winter of that year had passed away, they sold for fifteen hundred dollars the head; and a lusty and good-looking buck would command two thousand dollars at sight. Of course, the natural Yankee spirit of enterprise, and the love which New Englanders bore to the "almighty dollar," were equal to such an emergency as this, and hundreds of Merino sheep soon accumulated in the Eastern States. But, in the course of the year 1817, the speculation, in consequence of the surplus importation, began to decline; yet it steadily and rapidly advanced throughout the Western country, while Kentucky, in consequence of the influence of Mr. Clay's opinions, was especially benefited. In the fall of 1817, what was then deemed a very fine Merino buck and ewe were sold to a gentleman in the Western country for the sum of eight _thousand_ dollars; and even that was deemed a very small price for the animals! They were purchased by a Mr. Samuel Long, a house builder and contractor, who fancied he had by the transaction secured an immense fortune. Now, Mr. Long had acquired the sheep fever precisely as thousands of others (in later days) have taken the hen fever. And, in this case, the victim was really _rabid_ with the Merino mania. In proof of this, the following authentic anecdote will be amply sufficient and convincing. There resided, at this time, in Lexington, Ky., and but a short distance from Mr. Clay's villa of _Ashland_, a wealthy gentleman, named Samuel Trotter, who was, in fact, the money-king of Kentucky, and who, to a very great extent, at that time, controlled the branch of the Bank of the United States. He had two sheep,--a buck and an ewe,--and Mr. Long was very anxious to possess them. Mr. Long repeatedly bantered and importuned Mr. Trotter to obtain this pair of sheep from him, but without success; but, one day, the latter said to the former, "If you will build me such a house, on a certain lot of land, as I shall describe, you shall have the Merinos." "Draw your plans for the buildings," replied Long, instantly, "and let me see them; I will then decide." The plans were soon after submitted to him, and Long eagerly accepted the proposal, and forthwith engaged in the enterprise. He built for Trotter a four-story brick house, about fifty feet by seventy, on the middle of an acre of land; he finished it in the most approved modern style, and enclosed it with a costly fence; and, finally, handed it over to Trotter, for the _two Merino sheep_. The establishment must have cost, at the very least, fifteen thousand dollars. But, alas! A long while before this beautiful and costly estate was fully completed, the price of Merinos declined gradually; and six months had not passed away before they would not command twenty dollars each, even in Kentucky. Mr. Long was subsequently a wiser but a _poorer_ man. He held on to this pair till their price reached the par value only of any other sheep; and then he absolutely killed this buck and ewe, made a princely barbecue, called all his friends to the feast, and whilst the "goblet went its giddy rounds," like the ruined Venetian, he thanked God that, at that moment, he was not worth a ducat! This is absolute, sober _fact_. Mr. Long was completely and irretrievably ruined in his pecuniary affairs; and very soon after this "sumptuous dinner," he took sick, and actually died of a broken heart. Along in the summer and fall of 1854, having watched the course that matters were taking in the chicken-trade, I became cautious; for I thought I heard in the far-off distance something indefinite, and almost undistinguishable, yet pointed and emphatic in its general tone. I listened; and, as nearly as I could make the warning out, it sounded like "TAKE CARE!" And so I waited for the _dénouement_ that was yet to come. In the mean time, I had a friend who for five long years had been religiously seeking for that incomprehensible and never-yet-come-at-able _ignis fatuus_, a genuine "Cochin-China" fowl of undoubted purity! I had not heard of or from him for some weeks; until, one morning, about this time, a near relative of his sent to my house all that remained of this indefatigable searcher after truth; an accurate drawing of which I instantly caused to be made--and here it is! [Illustration] [16] _We_ have found it a very comfortable "rage," thank you! CHAPTER XLIV. BURSTING OF THE BUBBLE. My friend John Giles, of Woodstock, Conn., has somewhere said, of late, "I often hear that the 'fowl' fever is dying out. If by this is meant the unhealthy excitement which we have had for a few years past, for one, I say the sooner that it dies out the better. But as to the enthusiasm of _true_ lovers of the feathered tribe dying out, it never will, as long as man exists. It is part of God's creation. The thinking man loves and admires his Maker's work; always did; always will. And I have not the least doubt that any enterprising young man, with a suitable place and fancier's eye, would find it to his advantage to embark in the enterprise of fowl-raising for market." Now, I don't know but John is honest in this assertion,--that is, I can imagine that he believes in this theory! But how he can ever have arrived at such a conclusion (with the results of his own experience before him), is more than I _can_ comprehend. Laying aside all badinage, for the moment, I think it may be presumed that I have had some share of experience in this business, _practically_, and I think I can speak advisedly on this subject. As far back as during the years 1839, '40 and '41, I erected, in Roxbury, a poultry establishment on a large scale, upon a good location, where I had the advantages of ample space, twenty separate hen-houses, running water and a fine pond on the premises, glass-houses (cold, and artificially heated, for winter use), and every appurtenance, needful or ornamental, was at my command. I purchased and bred all kinds of domestic fowls there, and they were attended with care from year's end to year's end. But there was _no_ profit whatever resulting from the undertaking,--and why? The very week that a _mass_ of poultry--say three to five hundred fowls--is put together _upon one spot_, they begin to suffer, and fail, and retrograde, and die. No amount of care, cleanliness or watching, can evade this result. _In a body_ (over a dozen to twenty together), they cannot thrive; nor can the owner coax or force them to lay eggs, by any known process.[17] To succeed with the breeding of poultry, the stock must be _colonized_ (if a large number of fowls be kept), or else only a few must find shelter in any one place, about the farm or country residence. And my experience has taught me that five hens together will yield more eggs than fifty-five together will in the same number of months. I honestly assert, to-day, that of all the humbug that exists, or which has been made to exist, on this subject, no part of it is more glaringly deceptive, in my estimation, than that which contends for the _profit_ that is to be gained _by breeding poultry_--_as a business by itself_--_for market consumption_. The idea is preposterous and ridiculous, and no man can accomplish it,--I care not _what_ his facilities may be,--to any great extent, _upon a single estate_. The thing is impossible; and I state this, candidly, after many years of practical experience among poultry, on a liberal scale, and in the possession of rare advantages for repeated experiment. I do not say that certain persons who have kept a _few_ fowls (from twenty-five to a hundred, perhaps), and who have looked after them carefully, may not have realized a profit upon them, in connection with the farm. But, to make it a business _by itself_, I repeat it, a _mass_ of domestic and aquatic fowls cannot be kept together to any advantage whatever, their produce to be disposed of at ordinary market value. The fever for the "fancy" stock broke out at a time when money was plenty, and when there was no other speculation rife in which every one, almost, could easily participate. The prices for fowls increased with astonishing rapidity. The whole community rushed into the breeding of poultry, without the slightest consideration, and the mania was by no means confined to any particular class of individuals--though there was not a little shyness among certain circles who were attacked at first; but this feeling soon gave way, and our first men, at home and abroad, were soon deeply and riotously engaged in the subject of henology. Meantime, in England they were doing up the matter somewhat more earnestly than with us on this side of the water. To show how even the nobility never "put their hand to the plough and look back" when anything in this line is to come off, and the better to prove how fully the poultry interests were looked after in England, I would point to the names of those who, from 1849 to 1855, patronized the London and Birmingham associations for the improvement of domestic poultry. The Great Annual Show, at Bingley Hall, was got up under the sanction of His Royal Highness Prince Albert, the Duchess of Sutherland, Lady Charlotte Gough, the Countess of Bradford, Rt. Hon. Countess of Littlefield, Lady Chetwynd, Hon. Viscountess Hill, Lady Littleton, Hon. Mrs. Percy, Lady Scott, and a host of other noble and royal lords and ladies, whose names are well known among the lines of English aristocracy. But, as time advanced, the star of Shanghae-ism began to wane. The nobility tired of the excitement, and the people of England and of the United States began to ascertain that there was absolutely nothing in this "hum," save what the "importers and breeders" had made, through the influence of the newspapers; and while a few of the _last men_ were examining the thickness of the shell, cautiously and warily, the long-inflated bubble burst! and, as the fragments descended upon the devoted heads of the unlucky star-gazers, a cry was faintly heard, from beneath the ruins--"_Stand from under_!" I had been watching for this climax for several months; and when the explosion occurred, as nearly as I can "cal-'late," _I_ wasn't _thar_! [17] Since this was written, I find in the _Country Gentleman_ a communication from L.F. Allen, Esq., on this very subject, in which he says that "A correspondent desires to know how to build a chicken-house for 'about one thousand fowls.' If my poor opinion is worth anything, _he will not build it at all_. Fowls, in any large number, will not thrive. Although I have seen it tried, I never knew a large collection of several hundred fowls succeed _in a confined place_. I have known sundry of these enterprises tried; but I never knew one _permanently_ successful. They were all, in turn, abandoned." The thing is entirely impracticable. CHAPTER XLV. THE DEAD AND WOUNDED. I have never yet been able to ascertain, authentically, all the exact particulars of the final catastrophe; but, basing an opinion upon the numerous "dispatches" I received from November, 1854, to February, 1855, the number of dead and wounded must have been considerable, if not more. I received scores of letters, during this last period mentioned, of which the annexed is a fair sample: "G.P. BURNHAM, ESQ. "DEAR SIR: I'm afraid the jig is up! There's a big hole in the bottom somewhere, or I am mistaken. I _think_ the dance is concluded; and if it isn't time to 'blow out the lights' and shut down the gate, just let us know,--will you? Where's Bennett, and Harry Williams, and Dr. Eben, and Childs, and Ad. White, and Brackett, and Johnny Giles, and Uncle Alden, and Buckminster, and Chickering, and Coffin, and Fussell, and Chenery, and Gilman, and Hatch, and Jaques, and Barnum, and Southwick, and Packard, and Balch, and Morton, and Plarsted, and Geo. White, _et id omne genus_? Where are they all? _S-a-y!_ "What has become of Platt, and Miner, and Newell, and Hudson, and Heffron, and Taggard, and Hill, and Swett, and M'Clintock, and Dr. Kerr, and Devereux, and Thacher, and Haines, and Hildreth; and Brown, and Smith, and Green, and _their_ allies? Are they dead, or only 'kilt'? Let me know, if you can, I beseech you! "'O, where, tell me where,' is my bonnie friend John Moore, and mine ancient _frère_ Morse, and my loved chum Howard, and the wily Butters? And where's Pedder--the immaculate Pedder? And Charley Belcher, too, and bragging Cornish, and Billy Everett, and our good neighbors Parkinson, and George, and Sol. Jewett, and President Kimball, and know-nothing King, and the reverend Marsh, and Pendletonian Pendleton of Pendleton Hill, and their satellites? Have all departed, and left no _wreck_ behind? I reckon not! "Seriously, friend B----, what does all this mean? Has the fever passed by? Can't we offer another single prescription? Has the _last_ man been heard from? Has there been found 'a balm in Gilead' to heal the wounds of the afflicted sufferers? Is the thing finished? Are they all cured? Did you say _all_? Dunder and blixen! Is anybody hurt? What are we to do? '_Speak_, or die!' "Where are the 'Committee,' and the 'Judges,' and the 'Trustees,' and the 'Managers'? Where is the 'Society' whose name, 'like linked sweetness long drawn out,' I haven't time to write? Where is _that_ balance in the _Treasurer's_ hands,'--and where is that functionary himself? Did he ever exist at all? What has become of the premiums that were _awarded_ at the last show in Boston? And when, in the language of the enthusiastic Mr. Snooks (at the Statehouse in 1850), will that Association begin 'to be forever perpetuated,'--eh? "I have got on hand three hundred of the Shanghae devils! What can I do with them? There is a neighbor of mine (a police-officer), who has got stuck with a lot of 'Cochin' chickens, which he swears he won't support this winter; and he has at last advertised them as _stolen property_, in the faint hope, I suppose, that some 'green 'un' will come forward and claim them. You can't get rid of these birds! It is useless to try to sell them; _you can't give them away_; nobody will take them. You can't starve them, for they are fierce and dangerous when aggravated, and will kick down the strongest store-closet door; and you can't kill them, for they are tough as rhinoceroses, and tenacious of life as cats. Ah! Burnham, I have never forgiven the man who made me a present of my first lot! Do you want what I've got left? Will you take them? How much shall I pay you to receive them? Help me out, if you can. "I am not aware that I ever committed any offence, that this judgment should be thus visited upon _my_ poor head! I never sold fowls for what they were _not_; I never cheated anybody, that I know of; I do not remember ever having done any unjust act that should bring down upon me this terrible vengeance. Yet I am now the owner of nearly three hundred of these infernal, cursed, miserable ghosts in 'feathered mail,' which I cannot get rid of! Tell me what I shall do, and answer promptly. "Yours, in distress, "---- -- ----." I have smiled over this document, so full of feeling and earnestness, so lively and touching in its recollections of the days when we went _chicken_-ing, long time ago! But I have never been able to reply fully to my ardent friend's numerous inquiries. I don't want those "three hundred Shanghae devils," though. I have now on hand _nine_ of them (only, thank Heaven!) myself; and that is quite enough for one farm, at the present current price of grain. What has become of all the friends about whom my correspondent so carefully inquires, I don't know. Not _five_ of them are now _in_ the hen-trade, however; and there are not ten of them who got _out_ of the business with a whole skin, from the commencement. The engine has collapsed its boiler. There was altogether too much steam crowded on, and the managers were not all "up to snuff." The dead and wounded and dying are now scattered throughout New England and New York State chiefly, and their moans can occasionally be heard, though their groans of repentance come too late to help them. They recklessly invested their twenties, or fifties, or hundreds, and, in some instances, their thousands of dollars, in this hum, without any knowledge of the business, and without any consideration whatever, except the single aim to keep the bubble floating aloft until they could realize anticipated fortunes, on a larger or smaller scale, as the case might be. But the "cars have gone by," and they may now wait for another train. _Perhaps_ it will come! Poor fellows! Poor, deluded, crazy, reckless dupes! You have had your fun, many of you, and you will now have the opportunity to reflect over the ruins that are piled up around you; while, for the time being, you may well exclaim, with the sulky and flunkey Moor, "_Othello's occupation's_ GONE!" CHAPTER XLVI. A MOURNFUL PROCESSION. I was sitting before my comfortable library fire in midwinter, 1854, and had been reflecting upon the mutability of human affairs generally, and the uncertainty of Shanghae-ism more particularly, when I finally dropped into a gentle slumber in my easy-chair, where I dozed away an hour, and dreamed. My thoughts took a very curious turn. I fancied myself sitting before a large window that opened into a broad public street, in which I suddenly discovered a multitude of people moving actively about; and I thought it was some gala-day in the city, for the throng appeared to be excited and anxious. "The people" were evidently abroad; and the crowds finally packed themselves along the sidewalks, leaving the wide street open and clear; and I could overhear the words "They're coming!" "Here they are!" I looked out, and beheld an immense gathering of human beings approaching in a line that stretched away as far as the eye could reach,--a dense mass of moving mortality, that soon arrived, and passed the window, beneath me. I was alone in the room, and could ask no questions. I could only see what occurred before me; and I noted down, as they passed by, this motley PROCESSION, which moved in the following =Order of March.= ESCORT OF INDESCRIBABLES. Hatless Aid. [Chief Marshal in Black.] Bootless Aid. Police. TWO EX-MORMONS IN WHITE TUNICS. Police. Calathumpian Band. Whig {The "_Know Nothing Guards_," with guns} Democrat Office-holders. { enough for all useful purposes. } Expectants. THE "INS." [COLLECTOR AND POSTMASTER.] THE "OUTS." U.S. {The "National" Democracy, two deep,} U.S. Dist. Marshal. { in one section. } Att'y. BANNER. Motto--"_We know of_ BURNS _that Russia Salve can't cure_." "Aids to the Revenue." [MARSHAL.] Drawbacks on the Revenue. _Kaleb Krushing._ [THE MAN WHO FAINTED IN MEXICO.] Jorge ah! Poll. "_Fanny Fern_," Flanked by a company of disappointed Publishers, twenty-four deep, in twelve sections. BANNER. Motto.--"_She's a brick!_" Aids. [MARSHAL.] Aids. President of the "N.E. Mutual Admiration" Hen Society. Fat Marshal. [THE GREAT SHOW MAN.] Lean Marshal. BAND, playing the "Rogue's March." Marshal. GHOST OF JOICE HETH. Marshal. Aids, {A Fejee Mermaid, astride} Aids, of Quaking Shakers. { the Woolly Horse. } The Happy Family. Aids, { _Invited Guests._ } and Their readers { _The Three Historians_, } "admirers." { BURNHAM, PRESCOT, and BANCRAFT. } Escort in the rear, with charged bayonets. Police. { A _genuine_ "COCHIN-CHINA" Rooster, } Police. {succeeded by the man who _knew_ him to be such!} Marshal. {The entire United States American National } Marshal. Pea Wilder. {Agricultural Society, in a one-horse buggy.} w. ESS king. [The _good_ this association had accomplished was borne along by a stout "practical farmer," in a small thimble; the _records_ of its doings were inscribed on a huge roll of paper, 16,000 yards long, carried upon a truck drawn by twelve yoke of "pure" Devon oxen.] BANNER.--Motto: "_Ourselves and those who vote for us._" Aid, {An ex-U.S. Navy Agent who left that office } Aid, Naval store {without having made money out of his place!} U.S. Keeper. { BANNER.--Motto: "_Poor, but honest._" }Sub-Treasurer. { The Mass. Hort. Improvement Society, } One hundred and {_en masse_, with several full bands of} Twenty-five twenty-five {music, on "seedling" accompaniments, } hundred and Marshals. {etc. } one gold-medal { BANNER. } seekers { Motto: "_Cuss the Concord Grape._" } No { The man who voluntarily gave up his office under the } No Aids. { National government, _solus_, on horseback, with } friends. { BANNER.--Motto: "_Few die, and none resign._" } { "THE YOUNG 'UN," } The defunct { in his own barouche, drawn by four "superb } His New England { dapple-grey Shanghaes." } vanquished Hen Society. { BANNER.--Motto: }MUSIC.{ BANNER.--Motto: }Competitors. {"_Who's afraid?_"} {"_Not this child!_"} Police. { HEN MEN WHO HAD MISTAKEN THEIR CALLING, } Police. {twenty-eight deep, in four hundred sections.} Aids, { GRAIN MEN, _with their bills_, } Aids, 24 Constables { in seventy sections, } All in a row. { sixty-four deep. } BAND, playing "_Hope told a flattering tale._" { The great-grandson of the man who set } Tree-venders { out an orchard of dwarf Pear-trees } with thumbs and { (in a barouche). He was 102 years } on their Horticulturists, { old, and believed he should see fruit } noses. { on those same trees "next season"! } Pall Bearers. [ HIS COFFIN, BEHIND. ] Heirs to his estate. Aids, { BELIEVERS THAT COCHITUATE WATER IS } Aids, 12 Respectable { WHOLESOME (in a chaise) } Board of Physicians. { } Commissioners. 15 { Chicken Fanciers who _didn't_ buy their eggs } 15 Marshals. { of me, and who _expected they would hatch_! } Marshals. { (Four thousand strong.) } Aids, { A body of Express Agents, who never shook up } Aids, the { the eggs intrusted to them (though they } the Conductors. { occasionally shook down their employers). } Brakemen. BAND.--Air: "_O, I never will deceive you!_" Flanked by { "_My friend_ THE PRESIDENT," } and the the Subscribers { In the carriage presented to him } "mourners" who for _that_ { by "the people," drawn by that } _didn't_ obtain "Double Harness," { "_superb_ pair of $1500 horses" } fat offices. { which we read of in the papers. } Motto: { } Motto: "_I'll see you in the Fall._" { BANNERS. } "_Save me from my friends!_" Full Band. { The Hatch Grey Shanghae Express Co., } Aid, { with the latest news from Nantucket } Aid, BRASS & CO. { and "Marm Hackett's Garden." } THE "COLONEL." { _Motto_: "IMPORTANT, IF TRUE!" } Aid, { Holders of _Second_ Mortgage R.R. Bonds, } Aid, Two { 24 deep, in 2400 sections. } One Presidents. { BANNER. } Treasurer. { Motto: "_There's a good time coming._" } Aids, { The owner of the first "Brahma Pootra" } Aids, 5 Regular { fowls in America, with a map of India } Faculty of Doctors. { on the seat of his pantaloons. } Ripum College. Aid { The original members of the } Aid, Lucy Brick { "WOMEN'S RIGHTS CONVENTION." } Abby Fulsome. { BAND.--Air: "_Why don't the men propose?_" } Aids, { The "wreck of Burnham's character" } Aids, The First { caused by the _powerful_ newspaper } The "Porte-Monnaie Premium Fowls { assaults of one } I owe 'em { THE BEE MINUR, A.SS. } Company." BANNER.--Motto: "_Don't_ he feel bad!" No { The Poultry Fancier who had found out the exact } Too far aid for { difference between a "Cochin-China" and a } gone! him! { "Shanghae." } Unpaid { Delinquent subscribers to northern } Disappointed Compositors. { _Farmers_, twelve deep, and three } "Press Gang." { miles long! } Marshal. { The "editor," suffering } Marshal. { from a severe attack of _roup_. } { Dr. Bangit, } DAVID. { with the unsold copies of his Poultry-Book, } GOLIAH. { in a huge baggage-wagon, drawn by 14 horses. } { A battalion of victims to the Hen Fever, who } Aids, Aids, { had bought eggs that "didn't hatch" and who } 15 friends 15 Sisters { were waiting patiently to have their money } to the of Charity. { returned! } Insane { } Poor. Marshal { My _legal_ friend (on a mule) who promised } Jail Keeper and { to spend a thousand dollars in prosecuting } and 4 Deputy { me for selling him _Shanghae_ eggs for } Constables. Sheriff. { _Cochin-Chinas_! } Aid, { Fat Johnny Jiles, with the head of a _pure_ } Aid, Barnam. { "Black Spanish" crower on a salver. } Burnum. { The men who _didn't_ take the first premiums } Marshals. { (when I was round) at the Poultry-Shows } Marshals. { (in deep mourning). } Aids, A { The political remains of Frank Pierce, } Aids, "Cabinet" of { in a toy wheelbarrow, with BANNER, } His own Curiosities. { on a "sharp stick." Motto: "_Veto._" } Opinions! Aid, { Victims who purchased Minor's } Aid, Editor of the { "Patent Cross-grained Collateral } GEN. BANGIT, _Northum { Beehives," with Motto: } of the "Nauvoo Farmer_. { "_Burned child dreads the fire._" } Legion." Aids, { _Customers for_ "_Ozier Willow_," } Aids, The Sellers. { in two sections, _one man deep_. } The Victims. { BANNER.--Motto: "_I rather guess not!_" } Marshals { A huge concourse of "Copper Stock" and } Marshals. { "Agewuth Land" owners, in deep sables. } FULL BAND.--Air: _Dead March._ BANNER.--Motto: "_You're sure to win--if you don't lose!_" ==> A smooth-skinned _pure_ "Suffolk" Pig, _imported_. <== Twenty-four Sewing Machines, "_warranted_." Aid, { President of the "PORTE-MONNAIE I OWE 'EM } Aid, Secretary. { COMPANY," as Richard III. on horseback. } Treasurer. Nine "Bother'em Pootrums," rampant. The few { The identical lot of "pure-bred" fowls that } The unlucky { Bangit, Plarsterd, Minor, Humm & Co., } Believers Buyers. { _imported_ (over the left) "for the Southern } in this { market," in 1853! } story! The Hen that lays two eggs a day! Treasurer of the "Mut. Adm'n Society." Defunct Hucksters, in a tip-cart. Four empty Hen-Coops, on wheels. ==> Breeders of _pure_ Alderney cattle! <== who furnish Pedigrees with long tails. An effigy of the LAST MAN that will buy Shanghae chickens (in a strait-jacket). Police { Purchasers of Live Stock who bought of my competitors; } Sheriff and { with BANNER. } and Aids. { Motto: "_We got more than we bargained for!_" } posse. The Hen-Men who "pity Poor Burnham." MY OWN CASH CUSTOMERS, 10,000 _strong_! CAVALCADE. "THE PEOPLE," MUSIC, And the rest of Mankind, etc. The scene was closing! That immense concourse of humbugs and humbugged had passed on, and I was alone once more. But, a moment afterwards, I saw the head and face of a comical and good-humored looking Yankee (just beneath the window), who was in the act of puffing into the air a huge budget of bubbles, that danced and floated in the atmosphere for a brief moment, and which, bursting, suddenly awoke me. Here is a sketch of the _finale_. [Illustration] CHAPTER XLVII. MY SHANGHAE DINNER. I saw by the papers, one day, late in the year 1854, an account of the return from England of my fat friend Giles, who brought with him the poultry purchased abroad for Mr. Barnum, and which proved to be a lot of _pure_ stock, of a remarkable character, as I supposed it would be. But, while John was absent in Great Britain, the knowing ones there shook him down, beautifully! His theory, when he left America, four months previously, was that "hall 'at was wanted 'ere was to get hover from Hingland pure-bred fowls, and such would _sell_." John brought over "such," and they _did_ sell; but Barnum was sold by far the worst! An auction was immediately got up at the American Museum, in New York; and after a vast deal of drumming, puffing and advertising this magnificent, just-imported, pure-bred poultry, the sale came off, to a sorry company, indeed! And the gross amount of the sales of the fowls thus disposed of, really, was insufficient to pay the _freight_ bills for bringing them across the Atlantic, to say nothing of their original high cost abroad. The show-man has since left the hen-business, I learn, "a wiser if not a better man;" while John retired with the simple exclamation, "Most extr'ornerry result I hever 'eer'd of in hall my life!" Soon after this little episode occurred, the second show of the "National Poultry Society" (in January, 1855) came off at Barnum's Museum, in New York; which, notwithstanding the best endeavors of the "President," was a failure. The "Committee" shut out of their premium list the Grey Shanghaes, altogether; and the result of this last exhibition was just what I had anticipated. But Mr. Barnum can well afford to foot the bills; and, as he is perfectly willing to do this, no objection will be raised to his choice, I presume. This final exhibition at New York, I have no doubt, closed up the business, for the present. As soon as this last fair had closed, and when the lucky and unlucky contributors returned to Boston, I invited a party of my former _confrères_ to my residence, to dinner. I had been preparing for this little event for several days; and the following was the actual "bill of fare" to which we all sat down, at RUSSET HOUSE, _Melrose_, on the fifth day of February, 1855: +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | Dinner. | | | | SOUP--_A la_ SHANGHAE. | | | | FRESH FISH--WITH CHINA SAUCE. | | | | BOILED FOWL--_To wit, the identical Grey Shanghae cock (two years | | old) which took the premium at the_ FIRST _National Poultry Show, | | in New York, in 1854; then valued at $100_. | | | | ROAST--Shanghae Cock, nine months old, weighing, dressed, 10-3/4 | | pounds. Do. Shanghae Pullets, same age, drawing, dressed, 7-1/2 | | pounds each. Do. Spring Shanghae Chickens in variety. | | | | BAKED--Pure "Suffolk" Pig, with genu-wine "Mandarin" Sauce. | | | | | | ENTREMENTS. | | | | BROILED Shanghae Chicks. | FRIED Shanghae Pullets. | | STEWED Shanghae Chickens. | CODDLED Shanghae Stags. | | CURRIED Shanghae Fowls. | FRICASSEED Shanghaes. | | SHANGHAES TRUFFLED, | | and | | MORE SHANGHAES, IF WANTED! | | | | | | DESSERT. | | | | Shanghae Chicken Pie. | Pudding _a la_ Shanghae. | | Shanghae Omelets. | Candied Cocks' Spurs. | | Shanghae Custards. | Crystallized Pullets' Combs. | | Chinese Pudding. | Shanghae Wattles, in Syrup. | | | | | | SHANGHAE-QUILL TOOTH-PICKS, | | and | | MORE SHANGHAES IN THE YARD! | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ To this repast, with thankful hearts, a company of five-and-twenty sat down, and, as nearly as my recollection now serves me, the friends did ample justice to my Shanghae dinner. After two hours over the _varied_ dishes (varied in size and style of cooking only), the cloth was removed, and the intellectual treat commenced with a song, written "expressly for this occasion," by the Young 'Un, which was delivered with admirable effect by "one who had been there," and in the chorus of which the guests unitedly joined, with surprising harmony and unison. The following toasts were then submitted: _By the Man in the Black Coat._--The Memory of the defunct Rooster we have this day devoured: Peace to his manes! (Drank standing, in silence.) _By a Successful Breeder._--The health, long life, and prosperity, of our absent cash customers,--at home and abroad. _By an Amateur._--Honor to the discoverer of the exact difference between a "Shanghae" and a "Cochin-China" fowl, if he shall ever turn up! _By the "Confidence" Man._--The Continuity of the beautifully-elongated Chinese fowls: May their shadows never be less! _By a Victim._--The Bother'em Wot-yer-call-'ems: Dammum! (Nine cheers for Doctors Bennett and Miner.) _By a Disappointed "Fancier."_--Barn-yard fowls and white-shelled eggs, for _my_ money. (Three cheers for the old-style biddies.) _By the Youth in a White Vest._--"Fanny Fern": The hen that lays the golden eggs. (Six cheers for Fanny, and the fair sex generally.) _By a Repentant._--The whole Shanghae Tribe: Curse 'em; the more _fowls_ you see of this race, the less _eggs_ there are about! (This was deemed slightly _personal_, but it was permitted to pass; the gentleman spoke with unusual feeling; he had been only three years in the trade, and had expended some sixteen hundred dollars in experimenting with a view to establish a _breed_ that would lay _two_ eggs daily.) _By One of my "Friends."_--The Young 'Un: The only hen-man who has put the knife in up to the handle with a decent grace! (Nine cheers followed, for the importer of the only pure-bred poultry in America.) This last sentiment called me to my feet, naturally enough; and, as nearly as I remember, I thus addressed my guests, amidst the most marked and respectful attention: "GENTLEMEN: I think I have seen it written somewhere, or I have heard it said, 'It is a long lane that has no turn in it.' I believe, however, that, although the lane we have most of us been travelling for the last six years has proved somewhat tortuous as well as lengthy, we have now passed the _turn_ in it, and have arrived very nearly at the end of the road. "Few of you, gentlemen, have met with so many thorns, _en route_, as I have; none of you, perhaps, have gathered so many roses. I am content, and I trust that everybody is as well satisfied with the results of this journey as _I_ am. _The Shanghae trade is done_, gentlemen! We have this day eaten up what, four years ago, would have been the nucleus, at least, of a small fortune to any one of us who at that time might have chanced to have possessed it. But the fever is over; the demand for giraffe cocks and chaise-top hens is passed; the 'poor remains of beauty once admired, in my premium fowls,' now lie scattered about the dishes that have just left this table; and 'Brahma-pootra-ism' is now no longer rampant. "Perhaps, gentlemen, as you entertain opinions of your own upon this delightfully pleasing subject of poultry-raising generally, and of the propagation of Shanghae fowls in particular, you would care to hear nothing of my views regarding this point. Yet, I pray you, indulge me for a single moment--in all seriousness--and permit me to say (without the slightest intention of being personal), that we have proved ourselves a clan of short-sighted mortals, at the best, during the last half-dozen years, in our crazy devotion to what we have deemed an honorable and laudable 'profession,' but which has been, in reality, the most shallow, heartless, unreasonable, silly and bottomless humbug that grown-up men have ever been cajoled with, since the hour when Adam was fooled by the accomplished and coquetting Eve!" (Cries of "You're more'n half right!" "That's a fact!" "Exactly--just so!") "There is now living in Melrose, Mass., gentlemen, a breeder who begun at the beginning of this excitement, who has since followed up the details of this hum with a zeal worthy of a better cause; and who has accumulated a handsome competency in this traffic, by attending strictly to his own affairs, while he has uniformly acted upon the principle that this world is sufficiently capacious to accommodate all God's creatures, without jostling. If you should chance to meet this now retired fowl-fancier, he will tell you that he has had, and believes he still has, many personal friends; but the very _best_ 'friend' he has ever known is the enjoyment of his present income of eight per cent. interest, per annum, upon thirty thousand dollars. But this is a digression, and I beg pardon for the allusion. "I look back with no regrets at the past, gentlemen. We have seen a great many merry days, and, in the midst of the competition and humbuggery in which we enlisted, we have often differed in sentiment. But _here_,--at the close of the route on which we have so long been journeying,--let us remember only the good traits that we any of us possess, while from this point we forget the errors that ourselves and our companions may have committed, forever." (Three times three, "and one more," were here given for the speaker, his friends, and all the rest of mankind.) "I will say no more, gentlemen. My stomach is too full for further convenient utterance; and I will conclude with a sentiment to which, I am sure, you will all respond. I will give you-- "'The Hen Fever!'"-- "Don't, _don't_!" shrieked the crowd. "We've had that disease once, and that is quite sufficient." "Indulge me, gentlemen, one moment, and I will propose, then-- "'THE HEN TRADE: Though a _fowl_ calling, it puts _fair_ money in the purse, when "judiciously" managed. May none of you ever do worse, pecuniarily, in this humble "profession," than has your friend--the subscriber.'" Another round of hearty cheers succeeded this sentiment, a parting bumper was enjoyed, and the circle separated, to meet again at Philippi,--or elsewhere,--where the author hopes to encounter only friendly faces, whatever may have been his business relations with his acquaintances in the days that are now passed away. The mania is over. I have frankly repeated to you the humble history of this curious fever, and we have reached THE END. [Illustration] LIST OF BOOKS PUBLISHED BY JAMES FRENCH & CO., 78 Washington Street, Boston. SCHOOL BOOKS. FOSTER'S BOOK-KEEPING, BY DOUBLE AND SINGLE ENTRY, both in single and copartnership business, exemplified in three sets of books. Twelfth Edition. 8vo. Cloth, extra. 1 00 FOSTER'S BOOK-KEEPING, BY SINGLE ENTRY, exemplified in two sets of books. Boards. 38 FRENCH'S SYSTEM OF PRACTICAL PENMANSHIP, founded on scientific movements; combining the principles on which the method of teaching is based.--Illustrated by engraved copies, for the use of Teachers and Learners. Twenty-seventh Edition. 25 This little treatise seems well fitted to teach everything which can be taught of the theory of Penmanship. The style proposed is very simple. The copperplate fac-similes of Mr. French's writing are as neat as anything of the kind we ever saw.--_Post._ Mr. French has illustrated his theory with some of the most elegant specimens of execution, which prove him master of his science.--_Courier._ This work is of a useful character, evidently illustrating an excellent system. We have already spoken of it in terms of approbation.--_Journal._ This little work of his is one of the best and most useful publications of the kind that we have seen.--_Transcript._ BEAUTIES OF WRITING, containing twenty large specimens of Ornamental Penmanship, Pen Drawing, and off-hand Flourishing. 75 BOSTON COPY-BOOK, comprising nearly two hundred engraved copies, for the use of Schools and Academies. 42 LADIES' COPY-BOOK, containing many beautiful engraved copies, which are a perfect imitation of the natural hand writing; also including German Text and Old English. 17 BOSTON ELEMENTARY COPY-BOOK, comprising large and small Text Hand, for Schools. 12-1/2 COOK'S MERCANTILE SYSTEM OF PENMANSHIP. Fourth Revised Edition. 37-1/2 THE ART of PEN-DRAWING, containing examples of the usual styles, adorned with a variety of Figures and Flourishes, executed by command of hand. Also a variety of Ornamental Penmanship. 75 MISCELLANEOUS AND JUVENILE. TURKEY AND THE TURKS, by Dr. J.V.C. Smith, Mayor of Boston. 320 pages. 12mo. Cloth. 75 It is a most excellent work. It will have a large sale, for it embraces more real information about real Turks and their strange peculiarities than anything we have yet read.--_Post._ THE MASSACHUSETTS STATE RECORD, for the years 1847, 1848, 1849, 1850 and 1851; one of the most valuable American Statistical Works. 5 vols. 12mo. Cloth. 5 00 THE NEW HAMPSHIRE FESTIVAL. A graphic account of the Assemblage of the "Sons of New Hampshire" at Boston, Hon. Daniel Webster presiding. Illustrated with portraits of Webster, Woodbury and Wilder. 8vo. Cloth, gilt. 2 00 THE SAME, Gilt Edges and Sides. 3 00 SECOND FESTIVAL of the "Sons of New Hampshire." Illustrated with portraits of Webster, Wilder, Appleton and Chickering. 8vo. Cloth, gilt. 2 00 THE SAME, Gilt Edges and Sides. 3 00 FESTIVAL. 2 vols. in one. 8vo. Cloth, gilt. 2 50 ELEANOR: or, Life without Love. 12mo. Cloth. 75 LIFE IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA. Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth. 75 THE VACATION: OR, MRS. STANLEY AND HER CHILDREN. By Mrs. J. Thayer. Illustrated. 18mo. Cloth. Third Edition. 50 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 75 SUNSHINE AND SHADE: OR, THE DENHAM FAMILY. By Sarah Maria. Fourth Edition. 18mo. Cloth. 37-1/2 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 56 THE DREAM FULFILLED: OR, THE TRIALS AND TRIUMPHS OF THE MORELAND FAMILY. 18mo. Cloth. 42 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. Fifth Edition. 62-1/2 THE COOPER'S SON: OR, THE PRIZE OF VIRTUE. A Tale of the Revolution. Written for the Young. 18mo. Cloth. Sixth Edition. (In press.) 37-1/2 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 56 THE SOCIABLE STORY TELLER. Being a Selection of new Anecdotes, humorous Tales, amusing Stories and Witticisms; calculated to entertain and enliven the Social Circle. Third Edition. 18mo. Cloth. 42 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 62-1/2 TALMUDIC MAXIMS. Translated from the Hebrew; together with other sayings, compiled from various authors. By L.S. D'Israel. 18mo. Cloth. 50 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 75 LECTURES TO YOUTH. Containing instructions preparatory to their entrance upon the active duties of life. By Rev. R.F. Lawrence. 18mo. Cloth. 50 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 75 THE SABBATH MADE FOR MAN: or, INSTITUTED BY DIVINE AUTHORITY. By Rev. Dr. Cornell. 18mo. Cloth. 33-1/2 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 50 CONSUMPTION FORESTALLED AND PREVENTED. By. W.M. Cornell, A.M., M.D., member of the Mass. Medical Society. 18mo. Cloth. Fourth Edition. 37-1/2 THE SAME, Gilt Edges. 56 PASSION AND OTHER TALES. By Mrs. J. Thayer, Author of "Floral Gems," &c. &c. 16mo. Cloth. 62-1/2 TURNOVER. A Tale of New Hampshire. Paper. 25 THE HISTORY OF THE HEN FEVER; A HUMOROUS RECORD. By Geo. P. Burnham. With twenty Illustrations. 12mo. Cloth. 1 25 The work is written in a happy but ludicrous style, and this reliable history of the fowl _mania_ in America, will create an immense sensation.--_Courier._ NEW MINIATURE VOLUMES. THE ART OF CONVERSING. 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"Poetry--Poetry;--Gray--Gray!" [Daniel Webster, the night before his death, Oct. 24, 1852.]. 31 THE SAME, Gilt Edges and Sides. 50 The following Writing Books are offered on Liberal Terms. FRENCH'S NEW WRITING BOOK, with a fine engraved copy on each page. Just published, in Four Numbers, on a highly-improved plan. No. 1 Contains the First Principles, &c. 10 No. 2 A fine Copy Hand. 10 No. 3 A bold Business Hand Writing. 10 No. 4 Beautiful Epistolary Writing for the Lady. 10 James French & Co., No. 78 Washington street, have just published a new series of Writing Books for the use of Schools and Academies. They are arranged upon a new and improved plan, with a copy on each page, and ample instructions for learners. We commend them to the attention of teachers and parents.--_Transcript._ They commence with those simple forms which the learner needs first to make, and they conduct him, by natural and appropriate steps, to those styles of the art which indicate the chirography not only of the finished penman, but which are adapted to the wants of those who wish to become accomplished accountants.--_Courier._ A new and original system of Writing Books, which cannot fail to meet with favor. They consist of a series, and at the top of each page is a finely-executed copy. We cordially recommend the work.--_Bee._ It is easily acquired, practical and beautiful.--_Fitchburg Sentinel._ We have no hesitation in pronouncing them superior to anything of the kind ever issued.--_Star Spangled Banner._ FRENCH'S PRACTICAL WRITING BOOK, for the use of Schools and Academies; in Three Numbers, with a copy for each page. No. 1, Commencing with the First Principles. 10 No. 2, Running-hand copies for Business Purposes. 10 No. 3, Very fine copies, together with German Text and Old English. 10 BOSTON SCHOOL WRITING BOOK, for the use of Public and Private Schools; in Six Numbers, with copies to assist the Teacher and aid the Learner. No. 1 Contains the Elementary Principles, together with the Large Text Hand. 10 No. 2 Contains the Principles and First Exercises for a Small Hand. 10 No. 3 Consists of the Capital Letters, and continuation of Small Letters. 10 No. 4 Contains Business-hand Copies, beautifully executed. 10 No. 5 Consists of a continuation of Business Writing, also an Alphabet of Roman Print. 10 No. 6 Contains many beautiful specimens of Epistolary Writing, also an Alphabet of Old English and German Text. 10 LADIES' WRITING BOOK, for the use of Teachers and Learners, with three engraved copies on each page, and the manner of holding the pen, sitting at the table, &c., explained. 13 GENTLEMEN'S WRITING BOOK, for the use of Teachers and Learners, with three engraved copies on each page, and the manner of holding the pen, sitting at the table, &c., explained. 13 YANKEE PENMAN, Containing 48 pages, with engraved copies. 33 FRENCH'S EAGLE COVER WRITING BOOKS, made of fine blue paper, without copies. 7 Transcriber's Note Punctuation and formatting markup have been normalized. Apparent printer's errors have been retained, unless stated below. Page numbers cited in illustration captions refer to their discussion in the text. Illustrations have been moved near their mention in the text. The symbols, ==> and <==, replace the character of a pointing hand that appeared in the text. Page 21, "gray" changed to "grey" for consistency. (...rich and poor, white, black and grey,--_everybody_ was more or less seriously affected by this curious epidemic.) Page 60, "anexed" changed to "annexed". (In the _addenda_ to my Report (above named) there appeared the annexed statement, by somebody:) Page 88, "H.B.M." changed to "H.R.M." (Her Royal Majesty) for consistency. (From Hon. Col. Phipps, H.R.M. Secretary.) Page 116, "oustrip" changed to "outstrip". (At this time there was found an ambitious individual, occasionally, who got "ahead of his time," and whose laudable efforts to outstrip his neighbors were only checked by the natural results of his own superior "progressive" notions) Page 153, "millenium" changed to "millennium". ("Fanny" went into New York State, crowing when she left, crowing as she went, and continuing to crow until she crowed the community there clear through the next fourth o' July, out into the fabled millennium.) Page 162, "@" changed to "or". (The prices for chickens ranged from $12 _or_ $15 a pair, to $25 or $30, and often $40 to $50, a pair.) On Page 235, *** represents the symbol used in the text which resembles an inverted asterism. 
8502	----	COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. Craig, D.V.M. [Illustration: Frontispiece--INSANITARY DAIRY STABLE AND YARDS. DISEASE AND FINANCIAL LOSS ARE TO BE EXPECTED WHEN FARM ANIMALS ARE KEPT IN FILTHY, INSANITARY QUARTERS] PREFACE In preparing the material for this book, the author has endeavored to arrange and discuss the subject matter in a way to be of the greatest service and help to the agricultural student and stockman, and place at their disposal a text and reference book. The general discussions at the beginning of the different sections and chapters, and the discussions of the different diseases are naturally brief. An effort has been made to conveniently arrange the topics for both practical and class-room work. The chapters have been grouped under the necessary heads, with review questions at the end of each chapter, and the book divided into seven parts. The chapters on diseases of the locomotory organs, the teeth, surgical diseases and castration, although not commonly discussed in books of this class, the writer believes will be of value for reference and instructional work. When used as a text-book, it will be well for the instructor to supplement the text with class-room discussions. The writer has given special emphasis to the cause and prevention of disease, and not so much to the medicinal treatment. Stockmen are not expected to practise the medicinal treatment, but rather the preventive treatment of disease. For this reason it is not deemed advisable to give a large number of formulas for the preparation of medicinal mixtures to be used for the treatment of disease, but such treatment is suggested in the most necessary cases. R. A. CRAIG. PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LaFayette, Ind. August, 1915. CONTENTS PART I.--INTRODUCTORY. I. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DISEASE II. DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE III. TREATMENT PART II.--NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES. IV. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM V. DISEASES OF THE LIVER VI. DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS VII. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS VIII. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS IX. DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS X. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM XI. DISEASES OF THE SKIN XII. DISEASES OF THE EYE XIII. GENERAL DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTORY APPARATUS XIV. STRUCTURE OF THE LIMBS OF THE HORSE XV. UNSOUNDNESSES AND BLEMISHES XVI. DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB XVII. DISEASES OF THE FOOT XVIII. DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB PART III.--THE TEETH. XIX. DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS XX. IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH PART IV.--SURGICAL DISEASES. XXI. INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS XXII. FRACTURES AND HARNESS INJURIES XXIII. COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS PART V.--PARASITIC DISEASES. XXIV. PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES XXV. ANIMAL PARASITES PART VI.--INFECTIOUS DISEASES. XXVI. HOG-CHOLERA XXVII. TUBERCULOSIS XXVIII. INFECTIOUS DISEASES COMMON TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS XXIX. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE HORSE XXX. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE XXXI. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY REFERENCE BOOKS ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. (Frontispiece) Insanitary dairy stable and yards. 1. Side and posterior view of bull showing conformation favorable to the development of disease. 2. Insanitary yards. 3. Showing where pulse of horse is taken. 4. Auscultation of the lungs. 5. Fever thermometer. 6. Dose syringe. 7. Hypodermic syringes. 8. Photograph of model of horse's stomach. 9. Photograph of model of stomach of ruminant. 10. Oesophageal groove. 11. Dilated stomach of horse. 12. Rupture of stomach of horse. 13. Showing the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with trocar and cannula in "bloat". 14. Photograph of model of digestive tract of horse. 15. Photograph of model of digestive tract of ruminant. 16. A yearling colt that died of aneurism colic. 17. Photograph of model of udder of cow. 18. Photograph of model of uterus of cow containing foetus. 19. Placenta of cow. 20. A case of milk-fever. 21. Milk-fever apparatus. 22. A case of catarrhal cold. 23. Photograph of model of horse's heart. 24. Elephantiasis in horse. 25. Photograph of model of horse's brain. 26. Unilateral facial paralysis. 27. Bilateral facial paralysis. 28. Skeleton of horse. 29. Photograph of model of stifle joint. 30. Atrophy of the muscles of the thigh. 31. Shoulder lameness. 32. Shoe-boil. 33. Sprung knees. 34. Splints. 35. Bones of digit. 36. Photograph of a model of the foot. 37. Foot showing neglect in trimming wall. 38. A very large side bone. 39. A case of navicular disease. 40. An improperly shod foot. 41. Toe-cracks. 42. Quarter-crack caused by barb-wire cut. 43. Changes occurring in chronic laminitis. 44. Atrophy of the muscles of the quarter. 45. String-halt. 46. A large bone spavin. 47. Normal cannon bone and cannon bone showing bony enlargement. 48. Bog spavins. 49. Thorough pin. 50. Curbs. 51. Head of young horse showing position and size of teeth. 52. Longitudinal section of incisor tooth. 53. Cross-section of head of young horse, showing replacement of molar tooth. 54. Transverse section of incisor tooth 55. Transverse sections of incisor tooth showing changes at different ages. 56. Teeth showing uneven wear occurring in old horses. 57. Fistula of jaw. 58. A large hock caused by a punctured wound of the joint. 59. A large inflammatory growth following injury. 60. Fistula of the withers. 61. Shoulder abscess caused by loose-fitting harness. 62. A piece of the wall of the horse's stomach showing bot-fly larvae attached. 63. Biting louse. 64. Sucking louse. 65. Nits attached to hair. 66. Sheep-tick. 67. Sheep scab mite. 68. Sheep scab. 69. A severe case of mange. 70. Liver flukes. 71. Tapeworm larvae in liver. 72. Tapeworms. 73. Tapeworm larvae in the peritoneum. 74. Thorn-headed worms. 75. Large round-worm in intestine of hog. 76. Lamb affected with stomach worm disease. 77. Whip-worms attached to wall of intestine. 78. Pin-worms in intestine. 79. A hog yard where disease-producing germs may be carried over from year to year. 80. Carcass of a cholera hog. 81. Kidneys from hog that died of acute hog-cholera. 82. Lungs from hog that died of acute hog-cholera. 83. A piece of intestine showing intestinal ulcers. 84. Cleaning up a hog lot. 85. Hyperimmune hogs used for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum. 86. Preparing the hog for vaccination. 87. Vaccinating a hog. 88. Koch's _Bacillus tuberculosis_. 89. A tubercular cow. 90. Tubercular spleens. 91. The carcass of a tubercular cow. 92. A section of the chest wall of a tubercular cow. 93. A very large tubercular gland. 94. A tubercular gland that is split open. 95. Caul showing tuberculosis. 96. Foot of hog showing tuberculosis of joint. 97. _Staphylococcus pyogenes_. 98. _Streptococcus pyogenes_. 99. Bacillus of malignant oedema, showing spores. 100. Bacillus of malignant oedema. 101. _Bacillus bovisepticus_. 102. A yearling steer affected with septicaemia haemorrhagica. 103. _Bacillus anthracis_. 104. _Bacillus necrophorus_. 105. Negri bodies in nerve-tissue. 106. A cow affected with foot-and-mouth disease. 107. Slaughtering a herd of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease. 108. Disinfecting boots and coats before leaving a farm where cattle have been inspected for foot-and-mouth disease. 109. Cleaning up and disinfecting premises. 110. _Bacillus tetani_. 111. Head of horse affected with tetanus. 112. A subacute case of tetanus. 113. Streptococcus of strangles. 114. _Bacillus mallei_. 115. Nasal septum showing nodules and ulcers. 116. _Streptococcus pyogenes equi_. 117. A case of "lumpy jaw". 118. The ray fungus. 119. Bacillus of emphysematous anthrax. 120. Cattle tick (male). 121. Cattle tick (female). 122. Blood-cells with _Piroplasma bigeminum_ in them. 123. _Bacillus avisepticus_. PART I.--INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER I GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DISEASE Disease is the general term for any deviation from the normal or healthy condition of the body. The morbid processes that result in either slight or marked modifications of the normal condition are recognized by the injurious changes in the structure or function of the organ, or group of body organs involved. The increase in the secretion of urine noticeable in horses in the late fall and winter is caused by the cool weather and the decrease in the perspiration. If, however, the increase in the quantity of urine secreted occurs independently of any normal cause and is accompanied by an unthrifty and weakened condition of the animal, it would then characterize disease. Tissues may undergo changes in order to adapt themselves to different environments, or as a means of protecting themselves against injuries. The coat of a horse becomes heavy and appears rough if the animal is exposed to severe cold. A rough, staring coat is very common in horses affected by disease. The outer layer of the skin becomes thickened when subject to pressure or friction from the harness. This change in structure is purely protective and normal. In disease the deviation from normal must be more permanent in character than it is in the examples mentioned above, and in some way prove injurious to the body functions. CLASSIFICATION.--We may divide diseases into three classes: _non-specific, specific_ and _parasitic_. _Non-specific diseases_ have no constant cause. A variety of causes may produce the same disease. For example, acute indigestion may be caused by a change of diet, watering the animal after feeding grain, by exhaustion and intestinal worms. Usually, but one of the animals in the stable or herd is affected. If several are affected, it is because all have been subject to the same condition, and not because the disease has spread from one animal to another. _Specific Diseases._--The terms infectious and contagious are used in speaking of specific diseases. Much confusion exists in the popular use of these terms. A _contagious_ disease is one that may be transmitted by personal contact, as, for example, influenza, glanders and hog-cholera. As these diseases may be produced by indirect contact with the diseased animal as well as by direct, they are also _infectious_. There are a few germ diseases that are not spread by the healthy animals coming in direct contact with the diseased animal, as, for example, black leg and southern cattle fever. These are purely infectious diseases. Infection is a more comprehensive term than contagion, as it may be used in alluding to all germ diseases, while the use of the term contagion is rightly limited to such diseases as are produced principally through individual contact. _Parasitic diseases_ are very common among domestic animals. This class of disease is caused by insects and worms, as for example, lice, mites, ticks, flies, and round and flat worms that live at the expense of their hosts. They may invade any of the organs of the body, but most commonly inhabit the digestive tract and skin. Some of the parasitic insects, mosquitoes, flies and ticks, act as secondary hosts for certain animal microorganisms that they transmit to healthy individuals through the punctures or the bites that they are capable of producing in the skin. CAUSES.--For convenience we may divide the causes of disease into the predisposing or indirect, and the exciting or direct. _The predisposing causes_ are such factors as tend to render the body more susceptible to disease or favor the presence of the exciting cause. For example, an animal that is narrow chested and lacking in the development of the vital organs lodged in the thoracic cavity, when exposed to the same condition as the other members of the herd, may contract disease while the animals having better conformation do not (Fig. 1). Hogs confined in well-drained yards and pastures that are free from filth, and fed in pens and on feeding floors that are clean, do not become hosts for large numbers of parasites. Hogs confined in filthy pens are frequently so badly infested with lice and intestinal worms that their health and thriftiness are seriously interfered with. In the first case mentioned the predisposition to disease is in the individual, and in the second case it is in the surroundings (Fig. 2). [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side and posterior view of bull showing conformation favorable to the development of disease.] _The exciting causes_ are the immediate causes of the particular disease. Exciting causes usually operate through the environment. With the exception of the special disease-producing germs, the most common exciting causes are faulty food and faulty methods of feeding. The following predisposing causes of disease may be mentioned: _Age_ is an important factor in the production of disease. Young and immature animals are more prone to attacks of infectious diseases than are old and mature animals. Hog-cholera usually affects the young hogs in the herd first, while scours, suppurative joint disease and infectious sore mouth are diseases that occur during the first few days or few weeks of the animal's life. Lung and intestinal parasites are more commonly found in the young, growing animals. Old animals are prone to fractures of bones and degenerative changes of the body tissues. As a general rule, the young are more subject to acute diseases and the old to chronic diseases. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Insanitary yards.] _The surroundings or environments_ are important predisposing factors. A dark, crowded, poorly ventilated stable lowers the animal's vitality, and renders it more susceptible to the disease. A few rods difference in the location of stables and yards may make a marked difference in the health of the herd. A dry, protected site is always preferable to one in the open or on low, poorly drained soil. The majority of domestic animals need but little shelter, but they do need dry, comfortable quarters during wet, cold weather. _Faulty feed and faulty methods of feeding_ are very common causes of diseases of the digestive tract and the nervous system. A change from dry feed to a green, succulent ration is a common cause of acute indigestion in both horses and cattle. The feeding of a heavy ration of grain to horses that are accustomed to exercise, during enforced rest may cause liver and kidney disorders. The feeding of spoiled, decomposed feeds may cause serious nervous and intestinal disorders. _One attack of a certain disease_ may influence the development of subsequent attacks of the same, or a different disease. An individual may suffer from an attack of pneumonia that so weakens the disease-resisting powers of the lungs as to result in a tubercular infection of these organs. In the horse, one attack of azoturia predisposes it to a second attack. One attack of an infectious disease usually confers immunity against that particular disease. _Heredity_ does not play as important a part in the development of diseases in domestic animals as in the human race. A certain family may inherit a predisposition to disease through the faulty or insufficient development of an organ or group of organs. The different species of animals are affected by diseases peculiar to that particular species. The horse is the only species that is affected with azoturia. Glanders affects solipeds, while black leg is a disease peculiar to cattle. QUESTIONS 1. What is disease? 2. How are diseases classified? Give an example of the different classes. 3. What is a predisposing cause? Exciting cause? 4. Name the different predisposing and exciting causes of disease. CHAPTER II DIAGNOSIS AND SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE The importance of recognizing or diagnosing the seat and nature of the morbid change occurring in an organ or group of organs cannot be overestimated. Laymen do not comprehend the difficulty or importance of correctly grouping the signs or symptoms of disease in such a way as to enable them to recognize the nature of the disease. In order to be able to understand the meaning of the many symptoms or signs of disease, we must possess knowledge of the structure and physiological functions of the different organs of the body. We must be familiar with the animal when it is in good health in order to be able to recognize any deviation from the normal due to disease, and we must learn from personal observation the different symptoms that characterize the different diseases. Stockmen should be able to tell when any of the animals in their care are sick as soon as the first symptom of disease manifests itself, by changes in the general appearance and behavior. But in order to ascertain the exact condition a general and systematic examination is necessary. The examiner, whether he be a layman or a veterinarian, must observe the animal carefully, noting the behavior, appearance, surroundings, and general and local symptoms. Before making a _general examination_ of the animal it is well, if the examiner is not already acquainted with the history of the case (care, feed and surroundings), to learn as much about this from the attendant as is possible. Inquiry should be made as to the feeding, the conditions under which the animal has been kept, the length of time it has been sick, its actions, or any other information that may be of assistance in forming the diagnosis and outlining the treatment. The _general symptoms_ inform us regarding the condition of the different groups of body organs. A careful study of this group of symptoms enables us correctly to diagnose disease and inform ourselves as to the progress of long, severe affections. These symptoms occur in connection with the pulse, respirations, body temperature, skin and coat, visible mucous membranes, secretions and excretions, and behavior of the animal. _The local symptoms_ are confined to a definite part or organ. Swelling, pain, tenderness and loss of function are common local symptoms. A _direct_ symptom may also be considered under this head because of its direct relation to the seat of disease. It aids greatly in forming the diagnosis. Other terms used in describing symptoms of disease are _objective_, which includes all that can be recognized by the person making the examination; _indirect_, which are observed at a distance from the seat of the disease; and _premonitory_, which precede the direct, or characteristic symptoms. The _subjective_ symptoms include such as are felt and described by the patient. These symptoms are available from the human patient only. Pulse.--The character of the intermittent expansion of the arteries, called the pulse, informs us as to the condition of the heart and blood-vessels. The frequency of the pulse beat varies in the different species of animals. The smaller the animal the more frequent the pulse. In young animals the number of beats per minute is greater than in adults. Excitement or fear, especially if the animal possesses a nervous temperament, increases the frequency of the pulse. During, and for a short time after, feeding and exercise, the pulse rate is higher than when the animal is standing at rest. The following table gives the normal rate of the pulse beats per minute: Horse 36 to 40 per minute Ox 45 to 50 per minute Sheep 70 to 80 per minute Pig 70 to 80 per minute Dog 90 to 100 per minute In sickness the pulse is instantly responsive. It is of the greatest aid in diagnosing and in noting the progress of the disease. The following varieties of pulse may be mentioned: _frequent, infrequent, quick, slow, large, small, hard, soft_ and _intermittent_. The terms frequent and infrequent refer to the number of pulse beats in a given time; quick and slow to the length of time required for the pulse wave to pass beneath the finger; large and small to the volume of the wave; hard and soft to its compressibility; and intermittent to the occasional missing of a beat. A pulse beat that is small and quick, or large and soft, is frequently met with in diseases of a serious character. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--The X on the lower border of the jaw indicates the place where the pulse is taken.] _The horse's pulse_ is taken from the submaxillary artery at a point anterior to, or below the angle of the jaw and along its inferior border (Fig. 3). It is here that the artery winds around the inferior border of the jaw in an upward direction, and, because of its location immediately beneath the skin, it can be readily located by pressing lightly over the region with the fingers. _Cattle's pulse_ is taken from the same artery as in the horse. The artery is most superficial a little above the border of the jaw. It is more difficult to find the pulse wave in cattle than it is in horses, because of the larger amount of connective tissue just beneath the skin and the heavier muscles of the jaw. A very satisfactory pulse may be found in the small arteries located along the inferior part of the lateral region of the tail and near its base. _The sheep's pulse_ may be taken directly from the femoral artery by placing the fingers over the inner region of the thigh. By pressing with the hand over the region of the heart we may determine its condition. _The hog's pulse_ can easily be taken from the femoral artery on the internal region of the thigh. The artery crosses this region obliquely and is quite superficial toward its anterior and lower portion. _The dog's_ pulse is usually taken from the brachial artery. The pulse wave can be readily felt by resting the fingers over the inner region of the arm and just above the elbow. The character of the heart beats in dogs may be determined by resting the hand on the chest wall. RESPIRATION.--The frequency of the respirations varies with the species. The following table gives the frequency of the respirations in domestic animals: Horse 8 to 10 per minute Ox 12 to 15 per minute Sheep 12 to 20 per minute Dog 15 to 20 per minute Pig 10 to 15 per minute The ratio of the heart beats to the respirations is about 1:4 or 1:5. This ratio is not constant in ruminants. Rumination, muscular exertion and excitement increase the frequency and cause the respirations to become irregular. In disease the ratio between the heart beats and respirations is greatly disturbed, and the character of the respiratory sounds and movements may be greatly changed (Fig. 4). [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Auscultation of the lungs can be practised to an advantage over the outlined portion of the chest wall, only.] Severe exercise and diseased conditions of the lungs cause the animal to breathe rapidly and bring into use all of the respiratory muscles. Such forced or labored breathing is a common symptom in serious lung diseases, "bloat" in cattle, or any condition that may cause dyspnoea. Horses affected with "heaves" show a double contraction of the muscles in the region of the flank during expiration. In spasm of the diaphragm or "thumps" the expiration appears to be a short, jerking movement of the flank. In the abdominal form of respiration the movements of the walls of the chest are limited. This occurs in pleurisy. In the thoracic form of respiration the abdominal wall is held rigid and the movement of the chest walls make up for the deficiency. This latter condition occurs in peritonitis. _A cough_ is caused by irritation of the membrane lining the air passages. The character of the cough may vary according to the nature of the disease. We may speak of a moist cough when the secretions in the air passages are more or less abundant. A dry cough occurs when the lining membrane of the air passages is dry and inflamed. This may occur in the early stage of the inflammation, or as a result of irritation from dust or irritating gases. Chronic cough occurs when the disease is of long duration or chronic. In pleurisy the cough may be short and painful, and in broken wind, deep and suppressed. In parasitic diseases of the air passages and lungs, the paroxysm of coughing may be severe and "husky" in character. The odor of the expired air, the character of the discharge and the respiratory sounds found on making a careful examination are important aids in arriving at a correct diagnosis, and in studying the progress of the disease. [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Fever thermometer.] Body Temperature.--The body temperature of an animal is taken by inserting the fever thermometer into the rectum. In large animals a five-inch, and in small animals a four-inch fever thermometer is used. It should be inserted full length and left in position from one and one-half to three minutes, depending on the rapidity with which it registers (Fig. 5). The average normal body temperatures of domestic animals are as follows: Horses 100.5\260 F. Cattle 101.4\260 F. Sheep 104.0\260 F. Swine 103.0\260 F. Dog 101.4\260 F. There is a wide variation in the body temperatures of domestic animals. This is especially true of cattle, sheep and hogs. In order to determine the normal temperature of an animal, it may be necessary to take two or more readings at different times, and compare them with the body temperatures of other animals in the herd that are known to be healthy. Exercise, feeding, rumination, excitement, warm, close stables, exposure to cold and drinking ice cold water are common causes of variations in the body temperatures of domestic animals. Visible Mucous Membranes.--The visible mucous membranes, as they are termed, are the lining membranes of the eyelids, nostrils and nasal cavities, and mouth. In health they are usually a pale red, excepting when the animal is exercised or excited, when they appear a brighter red and somewhat vascular. In disease the following changes in color and appearance may be noted: When inflamed, as in cold in the head, a deep red; in impoverished or bloodless conditions of the body and in internal haemorrhage, pale; in diseases of the liver, sometimes yellowish, or dark red; in diseases of the digestive tract (buccal mucous membrane), coated; if inflamed, dry at first, later excessively moist; and in certain germ diseases a mottled red, or showing nodules, ulcers and scars. Surface of the Body.--When a horse is in a good condition and well cared for, the coat is short, fine, glossy and smooth and the skin pliable and elastic. Healthy cattle have a smooth, glossy coat and the skin feels mellow and elastic. The fleece of sheep should appear smooth and have plenty of yolk, the skin pliable and light pink in color. When the coat loses its lustre and gloss and the skin becomes hard, rigid, thickened and dirty, it indicates a lack of nutrition and an unhealthy condition of the body. In sheep, during sickness, the wool may become dry and brittle and the skin pale and rigid. When affected with external parasites, the hair or wool becomes dirty and rough, a part of the skin may be denuded of hair, and it appears thickened, leathery and scabby, or shows pimples, vesicles and sores. During fever, the temperature of the surface of the body is very unequal. In serious diseases or diseases that are about to terminate fatally, the skin feels cold and the hair is wet with sweat. When animals are allowed to "rough it" during the cold weather, the coat of hair becomes heavy and rough. This is a provision of nature and enables them, as long as the coat is dry, to withstand severe cold. Horses that are in a low physical condition, or when accustomed to hard work, if then kept in a stall for a few days without exercise, commonly show a filling of the cannon regions of the posterior extremities. This condition also commonly occurs in disease and in mares that have reached the latter period of pregnancy. Sheep that are unthrifty and in a poor physical condition, especially if this is due to internal parasites, frequently develop dropsical swellings in the region of the jaw, or neck. Body Excretions.--The character of the body excretions, faeces and urine may become greatly changed in certain diseases. It is important that the stockman or veterinarian observe these changes, and in certain diseases make an analysis of the urine. This may be necessary in order properly to diagnose the case. Behavior of the Animal.--When the body temperature is high, the animal may appear greatly depressed. If suffering severe pain, it may be restless. In diseases of the nervous system, the behavior of the animal may be greatly changed. Spasms, convulsions, general local paralysis, stupid condition and unconsciousness may occur as symptoms of this class of disease. QUESTIONS 1. What information is necessary in order to be able to recognize or diagnose disease? 2. What are the general symptoms of disease? 3. What are the subjective symptoms of disease? 4. Describe method of taking the pulse beat in the different animals and its character in health and disease. 5. Give the ratio of the heart beats to the respirations in the different species of animals. 6. What are the normal body temperatures in the different domestic animals? 7. What are the visible mucous membranes? 8. Is the condition of the coat and skin any help in the recognition of disease? CHAPTER III TREATMENT Preventive Treatment.--The subject of preventive medicine becomes more important as our knowledge of the cause of disease advances. A knowledge of feeds, methods of feeding, care, sanitation and the use of such biological products as bacterins, vaccines and protective serums is of the greatest importance to the farmer and veterinarian. We are beginning to realize that one of the most important secrets of profitable and successful stock raising is the prevention of disease; that the agricultural colleges are doing a great work in helping to teach farmers that there are right and wrong methods of feeding and caring for animals; that the practice of sanitation in caring for animals is the cheapest method of treating disease; and that it is advisable to practise radical methods of control, when necessary, in order to rid the herd of an infectious disease. _The ration fed_ and the method of feeding are not only important in considering the causes of diseases of the digestive tract, but diseases of other organs as well. The feeding of an excessive, or insufficient quantity of feed, or a ration that is too concentrated, bulky and innutritious, poor in quality, or spoiled may produce disease. _An impure water supply_ is a common cause of disease. A deep well that is closed in properly and does not permit of contamination from filth, does not insure a clean water supply if the trough or tank is not kept clean. _Farm Buildings_.--If stockmen would make a more careful study of the kind of farm buildings most suitable to their needs, the selection of the location, the proportions, the arrangement of the interior and the lighting and ventilation, there would be a great saving in losses from disease, and the cost of building in many cases would be lessened. Your neighbor's building that you have taken for your model may not be suitable for your needs. It may be more expensive than your financial condition permits. It may be poorly lighted and ventilated and not suited to the site that you have selected. _Biological Products_.--There are a number of biological products that may be used in the prevention and control of disease. Some of these products, such as tuberculin and malein, enable the owner to rid his herds of tubercular cows and glandered horses before these diseases have become far enough advanced to be recognized by the visible symptoms alone. Black leg, anthrax and hog-cholera vaccines are valuable agents in the control of disease. In the treatment of fistula and infectious abortion, bacterins may be used. There are many other germ diseases and infections for which vaccines and bacterins may be used. However, we must not depend wholly on these agents in the control of disease. We must possess a knowledge of the manner in which the infection is spread, for without this knowledge we would be unable to prevent its dissemination over a wide area. Medicinal Treatment.--The average stockman or veterinarian is more familiar with the treatment of disease with drugs than he is with the preventive measures just described. This statement does not imply that a knowledge of medicinal therapeutics is not of the greatest importance in the treatment of disease. The ultimate object of all drugs is both to prevent and cure disease, but the injudicious use of a drug does neither. A discussion of this subject cannot be entered into here, and because of its largeness it is not advisable to discuss it further than a brief summary of the methods of administering drugs. Administration of Drugs.--Drugs may be administered by the following channels: by way of the mouth, in the feed or as a drench; by injecting into the tissues beneath the skin or hypodermically; by rubbing into the skin; by the air passages and the lungs; and by injecting into the rectum. If the animal is not too sick to eat and the drug does not possess an unpleasant taste, it may be given with the feed. If soluble, it may be given with the drinking water, or in any case, it may be mixed with ground feed if this method is to be preferred. In all cases the medicine must be well mixed with the feed. This is especially important if there are a number of animals to be treated, as there is more certainty of each animal getting the proper dose and the danger of overdosing is avoided. If the young animal is nursing the mother, we can take advantage of certain drugs being eliminated in the mother's milk and administer the drug to the mother. [Illustration: FIG. 6.--A good kind of a dose syringe.] DRENCHES.--In the larger animals a bulky drench is sometimes difficult to administer, and we should, in all cases, count on a portion being wasted. _Horses_ are sometimes difficult to drench, and it may be advisable to confine the horse in some way. Small drenches can readily be given with a syringe (Fig. 6) or a small bottle. In giving bulky drenches it is most convenient to use a long-necked, heavy glass bottle. The horse should be backed into a narrow stall and the head elevated by placing a loop in the end of a small rope over the upper jaw, passing the rope back of the nose piece on the halter and throwing it over a beam, and raising the head until the mouth is slightly higher than the throat. If the horse refuses to swallow, a tablespoonful of clean water may be dropped into the nostril. This forces it to swallow. A drench should never be given through the nose, as it may pass into the air passages and cause a fatal inflammation of the lungs. _Cattle_ can be easily drenched by taking hold of the nostrils with the fingers, or snapping a bull ring into the partition between the nostrils and elevating the head. _Sheep_ may be drenched either in the standing position, or when thrown on the haunches and held between the knees. Care should be exercised in giving irritating drenches to sheep, especially if the drench be bulky. _A herd of hogs_ may be quickly and easily drenched if they are confined in a small pen, and the loop of a small rope placed around the snout, well back toward the corners of the mouth. A small metal dose syringe should be used. If the drench is bulky and the hog difficult to hold, it may be necessary to elevate the head and raise the forefeet from the ground. The drench should not be given until the hog is quiet and well under control, as there is some danger of the medicine passing into the air passages and doing harm. It may be necessary to mark the hogs that have been drenched with a daub of paint, or in some other manner in order to be able to distinguish them from the untreated animals. The administration of drugs enclosed in a gelatin capsule, or mixing them with syrup, honey or linseed oil, and rolling the mass into the form of a cylinder is commonly practised. The _capsule_ or _ball_ may then be shot into the pharynx with a balling gun. A ball may also be given to the larger animals by carrying it into the back part of the mouth with the hand, and placing it on the back part of the tongue. In the horse this method of administration requires some practice. The tongue must be pulled well forward, the head held up, and the tongue released as soon as the ball is placed on the tongue, so that it may pass back into the pharynx. The administration of drugs by _injecting beneath the skin_ (Fig. 7) is suitable when the drug is non-irritating and the dose is small. Drugs administered in this way act promptly and energetically. The alkaloid or active principle of the drug is commonly used. A fold of the skin is picked up with the fingers and the needle is quickly introduced, care being taken not to prick or scratch the muscular tissue, as this causes some pain and makes the animal restless. In order to avoid abscess formation at the point of injection, the skin should be cleansed with a disinfectant and the syringe and needle sterilized before using. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hypodermic syringes.] Drugs are not absorbed through the unbroken skin, but when applied with friction, or when the outer layer is removed by blistering, absorption may take place. Liniments, blisters and _poultices_ are the preparations used. _Volatile drugs_, such as chloroform and ether, are absorbed quickly by the enormous vascular surface of the lungs. This class of drugs is administered for the purpose of producing general anaesthesia. _Anaesthetics_ are indispensable in many surgical operations. The administration of a drug in the form of _medicated steam_ is quite useful in combating some respiratory diseases. In steaming large animals a pail about half full of boiling-hot water to which has been added about an ounce of coal-tar disinfectant, or whatever drug is required, is held within about one foot of the animal's nostrils. It is usually advisable to throw a light cover over the head and pail in order to direct the steam toward the nostrils. Dogs can be placed on a cane-seated chair and a pail or pan of boiling-hot water placed under it, and a sheet thrown over all. Drugs are administered by way of the rectum when the animal can not be drenched, or the drug can not be given in any other way and when a local action is desired. An _enema_ or _clyster_ is a fluid injection into the rectum and is employed for the following purposes: to accelerate the action of a purgative; to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the intestines; to kill intestinal parasites; to reduce body temperature; to administer medicine; and to supply the animal with food. An enema may be administered by allowing water to gravitate into the rectum from a height of two or three feet or by using an injection pump. In the larger animals several feet of heavy walled rubber tubing carrying a straight nozzle at one end should be used. In administering an enema, the rectum should be emptied out with the hand and the nozzle of the syringe carried as far forward as possible. The operator should be careful not to irritate or tear the wall of the rectum. Size of the Dose.--The doses recommended in the treatment of the different diseases, unless otherwise stated, are for mature animals. The dose for a colt one year of age is about one-third the quantity given the adult, two years of age one-half, and three years of age two-thirds. In well-matured colts a larger dose may be given. In cattle, the doses recommended are about the same. In the smaller animals the size of the dose may be based on the development and age of the animal. When the drug is administered at short intervals or repeated, the size of the dose should be reduced. The physiological action of some drugs may be changed by varying the size of the dose. QUESTIONS 1. Give a general description of preventive treatment. 2. By what channels may drugs be administered? 3. How are drenches administered? 4. How are solid drugs administered? 5. What kind of drugs are administered hypodermically? 6. What is an enema? 7. What proportion of the dose of a drug recommended for the adult may be given to immature animals? PART II.--NON-SPECIFIC OR GENERAL DISEASES CHAPTER IV DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The organs that form the digestive tract are the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestines and the annexed glands, viz.: the salivary, liver, and pancreas. The development of these organs differs in the different species of animals. For example, solipeds possess a small, simple stomach and capacious, complicated intestines. Just the opposite is true of ruminants. The different species of ruminants possess a large, complicated stomach, and comparatively simple intestines. In swine we meet with a more highly developed stomach than that of solipeds and a more simple intestinal tract. Of all domestic animals the most simple digestive tract occurs in the dog. These variations in the development of the different organs of digestion, together with the difference in the character of the feed and method of feeding, cause a variation in the kind of diseases met with in the different species. The complicated stomach of ruminants predispose them to diseases of this portion of the digestive tract. Because of their complicated intestinal tract solipeds are prone to intestinal disease. DISEASES OF THE MOUTH GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The mouth is the first division of the digestive tract. It is formed by the lips, cheeks, palate, soft palate, tongue and teeth. Here the feed is acted on mechanically. It is broken up by the teeth and moved about until mixed with the saliva and put into condition to pass through the pharynx and along the oesophagus to the stomach. The mechanical change that the feed is subject to is very imperfect in dogs. In the horse it is a slow, thorough process, although greedy feeders are not uncommon. The first mastication in the ox is three times quicker than in horses, but the process of rumination is slow and thorough. STOMATITIS.--Simple inflammation of the mouth is frequently met with in horses. Ulcerative or infectious inflammation commonly occurs in young, and occasionally in old, debilitated animals. This form of sore mouth will be discussed along with other infectious diseases, and the following discussion will be confined to the non-infectious form of the disease. _The causes_ are irritation from the bit, sharp teeth, irritating drenches, roughage that contains beards or awns of grasses and grains, and burrs that wound the lining membrane of the mouth. Febrile, or digestive disorders, or any condition that may interfere with feeding, may cause this disorder. In the latter cases the mucous membrane of the mouth is not cleansed by the saliva. Particles of feed may decompose and irritating organisms set up an inflammation. Putrid or decomposed slops, hot feeds, irritating drenches and drinking from filthy wallows are common causes of inflammation of the mouth in hogs. _The symptoms_ vary in the different cases and species. Slight or localized inflammation of the mouth is usually overlooked by the attendant. Lampas of horses may be considered a local inflammation involving the palate. Lacerations of the cheek or tongue by the teeth, or irritating feed, usually result in a slight interference with prehension and mastication and more or less salivation. Salivation from this cause should not be confused with salivation resulting from feeding on white clover. In generalized inflammation of the mucous membrane, the first symptom usually noticed is the inability to eat. On examining the mouth we find the mucous membrane inflamed, hot and dry. A part may appear coated. In a short time the odor from the mouth is fetid. Following this dry stage of the inflammation is the period of salivation. Saliva dribbles from the mouth, and in severe cases it is mixed with white, stringy shreds of epithelium and tinged with blood. In less acute forms of the disease, we may notice little blisters or vesicles scattered over the lining membrane of the lips, cheeks and tongue. The acute form of stomatitis runs a short course, usually a few days, and responds readily to treatment. Localized inflammation caused by irritation from teeth, or feeding irritating feeds, does not respond so readily to treatment. _The treatment_ is largely preventive and consists largely in removing the cause. When the mouth is inflamed, roughage should be fed rather sparingly, and soft feeds such as slops, mashes, or gruels given in place of the regular diet. Plenty of clean drinking water should be provided. In the way of medicinal treatment antiseptic and astringent washes are indicated. A four per cent water solution of boric acid may be used, or a one-half per cent water solution of a high grade coal-tar disinfectant. The mouth should be thoroughly irrigated twice daily until the mucous surfaces appear normal. DEPRAVED APPETITE A depraved appetite is met with in all species of farm animals, but it is especially common in ruminants. It should not be classed as a disease, but more correctly as a bad habit, or symptom of innutrition or indigestion. The animals affected seem to have an irresistible desire to lick, chew and swallow indigestible and disgusting objects. _The common cause_ of depraved appetite is the feeding of a ration deficient in certain food elements. A ration deficient in protein or in salts is said to cause this disorder. Lack of exercise, or confinement, innutrition, and a depraved sense of taste may favor the development of this disease. For example, when sheep are housed closely they may contract the habit of chewing one another's fleeces. Lambs are especially apt to contract this habit when suckling ewes that have on their udders long wool soiled with urine and faeces. _The first symptom_ is the desire to chew, lick or eat indigestible or filthy substances. Horses and cattle may stand and lick a board for an hour or more; cattle may chew the long hair from the tails of horses; sheep may nibble wool; sows may within a short time after giving birth to their pigs, kill and eat them; chickens may pick and eat feathers. Innutrition may accompany the abnormal appetite, as very frequently the affected animal shows a disposition to leave its feed in order to eat these injurious and innutritions substances. In ruminants, the wool or hair may form balls and obstruct the opening into the third compartment, causing chronic indigestion and death. _The treatment_ consists in the removal of the cause. Feeding a ration that meets the needs of the system, clean quarters and plenty of exercise are the most important preventive lines of treatment. In such cases medicinal treatment (saline and bitter tonics) may be indicated. It is usually advisable to remove the affected animals from the herd or flock in order to prevent others from imitating them. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH There is a remarkable difference in the development of the stomachs of solipeds and ruminants. The horse's stomach (Fig. 8) is simple and has a capacity of three or four gallons. The left portion is lined with a cuticular mucous membrane, and the right portion with a glandular mucous membrane that has in it the glands that secrete the gastric juice. The most important digestive change in the feed is the action of the gastric juice on the proteids and their conversion into the simpler products, proteoses and peptones. [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Photograph of model of horse's stomach: left portion, oesophagus, right portion, and intestine.] [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Photograph of model of stomach of ruminant: rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.] [Illustration: FIG. 10.--A section of the wall of the rumen and reticulum, showing the oesophageal groove: lips of groove; opening from oesophagus; and opening into omasum.] RUMINANTS have a compound stomach (Figs. 9 and 10). The capacity of the stomach of the ox is between twenty and thirty gallons. The four compartments into which it is divided are the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum or true stomach. The rumen is the largest compartment, with a capacity of more than twenty gallons. The reticulum is the smallest, with a capacity of about one-half gallon. After a brief mastication, the food passes directly to the _rumen_. Here it is subjected to a churning movement that mixes and presses the contents of the rumen forward in the direction of the oesophageal opening, where it is ready for regurgitation. It is then carried back to the mouth, remasticated and returned to the rumen. This is termed rumination. All food material that is sufficiently broken up is directed toward the opening into the third compartment by the oesophageal grove (Fig. 10), a demi-canal that connects this with the oesophageal opening. The third compartment, the _omasum_, communicates anteriorly with the second and first, and posteriorly with the fourth compartment or true stomach. The interior arrangement of this compartment is most singular. It is divided by a number of large folds of the lining membrane between which are smaller folds. It is between these folds that the contents pass. The first three compartments possess no glands capable of secreting a digestive juice. However, important digestive changes occur. The carbohydrates are digested by means of enzymes contained in the feed. The most important function of the rumen and omasum is the maceration of the fibrous substances, and the digestion of the cellulose. Between sixty and seventy per cent of the cellulose is digested in the rumen. _The abomasum_ is lined by a gastric mucous membrane. The gastric juice secreted converts the protein into peptones. In the young a milk curdling ferment is also secreted by the glands of this compartment. THE STOMACH OF THE HOG is a type between the carnivora and ruminant. The digestive changes may be divided into four stages. The first period is one of starch conversion; the second period is the same, only more pronounced; the third period, both starch and protein conversion occurs; and the fourth period is taken up mostly with protein digestion. ACUTE INDIGESTION OF THE STOMACH OF SOLIPEDS.--Diseases of the stomach are less common in solipeds than in ruminants. The simple stomach of the horse and the comparatively unimportant place that it occupies in the digestion of the feed renders it less subject to disease. Only under the most unfavorable conditions for digestion of the feed does this class of disorders occur. Acute indigestion in the form of overloading and fermentation occurs in the stomach (Fig. 11). _The predisposing causes_ that have to do with the development of these disorders, are the small capacity of the stomach and the location and smallness of the openings leading from the oesophagus and into the small intestines. Greedy eaters are more prone to indigestion than animals that eat slowly and are fed intelligently. [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Dilated stomach of horse.] _The following exciting causes_ may be mentioned: Sudden changes in ration; feeding too much green feed or grain; feeding frozen or decomposed feeds; drinking ice-cold water; and violent exercise or work that the animal is not accustomed to, immediately after feeding are the common disease-producing factors. _The symptoms_ may vary from impaired appetite and slight restlessness to violent, colicky pains. In the large majority of cases the attendant is unable to differentiate between this and other forms of acute indigestion. The characteristic symptoms are attempts at regurgitation and vomiting, assuming a dog-sitting position and finally such nervous symptoms as champing of the jaws, staggering movement and extreme dulness. The violent form of gastric indigestion frequently ends in death. Rupture of the stomach is not an uncommon complication (Fig. 12). [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Rupture of stomach of horse.] _The treatment_ is both preventive and medicinal. This digestive disorder can be prevented. The feeding of the right kind of a ration and in the right way, and avoiding conditions that may interfere with the digestion of the feed, are the general lines of preventive treatment indicated. Such measures are of special importance in the handling of animals that possess an individual predisposition toward this class of disease. In mild attacks the animal should be subjected to a rigid or careful diet during the attack and for a few days later. It is advisable to place the animal in a comfortable stall that is well bedded with straw and plenty large for it to move about in. If a roomy sick-stall can not be provided, a grass lot or barn floor may be used. If the weather is chilly or cold, the body should be covered with a blanket and roller bandages applied to the limbs. Bulky drenches should not be given. Stimulants and drugs capable of retarding fermentation are indicated. Sometimes the administration of a sedative is indicated. Treatment should be prompt, as in many cases fermentation of the contents of the stomach occurs and gases form rapidly. From two to four ounces of oil of turpentine may be given in from six to eight ounces of linseed oil. ACUTE INDIGESTION OF THE STOMACH OF RUMINANTS.--The different forms of acute indigestion are bloating, overloading of the rumen and impaction of the omasum. TYMPANITES, "BLOATING."--This disorder is usually caused by animals feeding on green feeds, such as clover, alfalfa and green corn, that ferment readily. Stormy, rainy weather seems to favor bloating. The consumption of spoiled feeds such as potatoes and beets may cause it. The drinking of a large quantity of water, especially if cold, chills the wall of the rumen and interferes with its movement. Frozen feeds may act in the same way. Sudden changes in the feed, inflammation of the rumen, and a weak peristaltic movement of the paunch resulting from disease or insufficient nourishment are frequent causes. It may occur in chronic disease. In tuberculosis, bloating sometimes occurs. _The symptoms_ are as follows: The paunch or rumen occupies the left side of the abdominal cavity, hence the distention of the abdominal wall by the collecting of gas in the rumen occurs principally on that side. The gas forms quickly and the distended wall is highly elastic and resonant. The animal stops eating and ruminating, the back may be arched and the ears droop. In the more severe cases the wall of the abdomen is distended on both sides, the respirations are quickened and labored, the pulse small and quick, the eyes are prominent and the mucous membrane congested. Death results from asphyxia brought on by the distended paunch pushing forward and interfering with the movement of the lungs and the absorption of the poisonous gases. _The treatment_ is both preventive and medicinal. This form of acute indigestion can be largely prevented by practising the following preventive measures: All changes in the feed should be made gradually, especially if the ration fed is heavy, or the new ration consists largely of green, succulent feed. Cattle pasturing on clover should be kept under close observation. It is not advisable to pasture cattle on rank growths of clover that are wet with dew or a light rain. Bloating can be quickly relieved by puncturing the wall of the paunch with the trocar and cannula. The operation is quite simple and is not followed by bad results. The instrument is plunged through the walls of the abdomen and rumen in the most prominent portion of the flank, midway between the border of the last rib and the point of the haunch (Fig. 13). The trocar is then withdrawn from the cannula. After the gas has escaped through the cannula, the trocar is replaced and the instrument withdrawn. After using the trocar and cannula, the instrument should be cleaned by placing it in boiling hot water. It is advisable to wash the skin at the seat of the operation with a disinfectant before operating. In chronic tympanitis, it is sometimes advisable to leave the cannula in position by tying a tape to the flange, passing it around the body and tying. As a cathartic for cattle, we may give one quart of linseed and from two to four ounces of turpentine, or one to two pounds of Epsom or Glauber's salts, dissolved in plenty of water. Sheep may be given about one-fourth the dose recommended for cattle. [Illustration: FIG. 13.--The X indicates the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with trocar and cannula in "bloat."] OVERLOADING THE RUMEN.--This form of indigestion occurs when ruminants have access to feeds that they are not accustomed to. As a result, they eat greedily and the mass of feed in the rumen becomes so heavy that the walls of the organ can not move it about, and digestion is interfered with. This is especially true of succulent feeds. A diseased condition of the animal predisposes it to this disorder. If after eating an excessive amount of dry, innutritions fodder, the animal drinks freely of cold water, acute symptoms of overloading are manifested. _The general symptoms_ occurring in overloading resembles those seen in bloating. The symptoms may be mild and extend over a period of several days, or it may take on a highly acute form, terminating fatally within a few hours. The acuteness of the attack depends on the character and quantity of feed eaten. If a large quantity of green feed is eaten, fermentation occurs and the animal may die within a few hours. The swelling on the left side has a doughy feel. It is not as elastic and resonant as in bloat, even when complicated by some gas formation. The animal may stop ruminating, refuse to eat, and act dull. In the more severe cases the respirations are hurried and labored, the pulse small and quick and the expression of the face indicates pain. Colicky pains sometimes occur. Death may occur from shock or asphyxia. _The treatment_ is both preventive and curative. This disease can be prevented by using the necessary precautions to prevent animals from overeating. If gas forms, the trocar and cannula should be used. A drench of from one to two pounds of Epsom or Glauber's salts should be given. Sheep may be given from four to six ounces of Epsom or Glauber's salts. We should endeavor to stimulate the movement of the paunch by pressure on the flank with the hand, throwing cold water on the wall of the abdomen and by hypodermic injections of strychnine. Rumenotomy should be performed when necessary. This operation consists in opening the walls of the abdomen and rumen, and removing a part of the contents of the rumen. This is not a dangerous operation when properly performed, and should not be postponed until the animal is too weak to make a recovery. IMPACTION OF THE OMASUM.--This disease may occur as a complication of other forms of acute indigestion and diseases accompanied by an abnormal body temperature. Feeds that are dry and innutritions commonly cause it. Other causes are an excessive quantity of feed, sudden changes in the diet and drinking an insufficient quantity of water. As in other diseases of the stomach, the appetite is diminished, rumination ceases or occurs at irregular intervals, and the animal is more or less feverish. Bloating and constipation may occur. The animal may lose flesh, is weak, walks stiffly and grunts as though in pain when it moves about in the stall and at each respiration. In the acute form, marked symptoms are sometimes manifested. At first the animal acts drowsy; later violent nervous symptoms may develop. _The course_ of this disease varies from a few days to several weeks. Death frequently occurs. Frequently a diarrhoea accompanies recovery, a portion of the faeces appearing black with polished surfaces, as though they had been baked. _The preventive treatment_ consists in practising the necessary precautions against the development of this disease by avoiding sudden changes in the feed, the feeding of dry, innutritions feeds in too large amounts, allowing animals plenty of water and providing them with salt. The best purgative to give is Glauber's or Epsom salts in from one- to two-pound doses, dissolved in at least one gallon of water. This physic may be repeated in from twelve to eighteen hours if necessary. Two drachms of tincture of nux vomica and one ounce of alcohol may be given in a drench three times daily. Hypodermic injections of strychnine, eserine, or pilocarpine are useful in the treatment of this disease. When recovery begins, the animal should be allowed moderate exercise and be fed food of a laxative nature. FOREIGN BODIES IN THE STOMACH OF RUMINANTS.--Foreign bodies such as hair balls and wire are very commonly found in the reticulum. This is because of the habits of this class of animals. Cattle eat their feed hastily and do not pick it over as carefully as does the horse. Smooth, round objects do no appreciable harm unless they block the opening into the third compartment of the stomach. This frequently occurs in wool-eating lambs. Sharp-pointed objects may penetrate the surrounding tissues or such organs as the spleen, diaphragm, and pericardial sack. If these organs are injured by the foreign body serious symptoms develop. The _general symptoms_ are pain, fever, weakness and marked emaciation. It is very difficult to form a correct diagnosis, as the disease comes on without any apparent cause. Sometimes a swelling is noticed in the right and inferior abdominal region. If the heart becomes injured, symptoms of pericarditis are manifested. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. Special care should be used to avoid getting foreign substances into the feed given to cattle. The feed troughs should be kept clean; we should avoid dropping nails and staples into the feed when repairing the silo or grain bin; and pieces of baling wire should be removed from straw or hay. Feeds known to be dirty should be run through a fanning mill before feeding. INFLAMMATION OF THE STOMACH OF SWINE.--Overloading and feeding spoiled feed are _common causes_ of inflammation of the stomach. Swill-fed hogs are most commonly affected with this disorder. Overloading more often results in an inflammation of the stomach if the overloading follows the feeding of a light ration, and the weather is extremely warm. Hogs that are accustomed to eating salt may eat too much of it when fed to them after it is withheld for a week or longer, and a large quantity of water is taken soon afterwards. Slop containing alkaline washing powders and soaps irritate the stomach and intestines and cause a serious inflammation. _The symptoms_ are loss of appetite, restlessness and sometimes colicky pains. The hog usually wanders off by itself, acts dull, grunts, lies down in a quiet place or stands with the back arched and the abdomen held tense. Vomiting commonly occurs. Sometimes the animal has a diarrhoea. The body temperature may be above normal. _The treatment_ consists in avoiding irritating feeds and sudden changes in the kind or quantity of feed fed. Drenching with hot water, or with about one ounce of ipecacuan may be practised. From one to three ounces of castor oil, depending on the size of the hog, may be given. After recovery the hogs should be confined in a comfortable pen and fed an easily digested ration. DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The intestinal tract of solipeds is the best developed of any of the domestic animals (Fig. 14). It is divided into two portions, _small_ and _large_. The _small intestine_ is a little over seventy feet in length and about one and one-half inches in diameter. The mucous membrane lining presents a large absorbing surface and is well supplied with absorbing vessels that take up the sugars, proteids and fats, which are finally distributed to the body cells by the blood capillaries. In addition to these absorbing vessels the mucous membrane contains intestinal glands that secrete the intestinal juice. Other digestive secretions from the pancreatic gland and the liver are poured into the small intestine near its origin. These digestive juices act on the proteids, sugars, starches and fats, changing them into substances that are capable of being absorbed. [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Photograph of model of digestive tract of horse: oesophagus; stomach; liver; small intestine; large intestine; spleen.] After disengaging itself from the mass of loops lodged in the region of the left flank, the small intestine crosses to the region of the right flank, where it terminates in the first division of the large intestine. _The large intestine_ is formed by the following divisions: caecum, double colon, floating colon and rectum. The caecum is a large blind pouch that has a capacity of about seven gallons. The double colon is the largest division of the intestines. It is about twelve feet in length and has a capacity of about eighteen gallons. This portion of the intestine terminates in the region of the left flank in the floating colon. The latter is about ten feet in length and about twice the diameter of the small intestine, from which it can readily be distinguished by its sacculated walls. The rectum is the terminal portion of the intestinal tract. It is about one and one-half feet in length and possesses heavy, elastic walls. Fermentation and cellulose digestion occur in the caecum and double colon. It is in the floating colon that the faeces are moulded into balls. The faeces are retained in the rectum until defecation takes place. The _intestinal tract of cattle_ is longer than that of solipeds and the different divisions are not as well defined as in the horse's intestine and about one-half its diameter. The large intestine is about thirty-five feet in length and its capacity six or seven gallons (Fig. 15). ACUTE INTESTINAL INDIGESTION OF SOLIPEDS.--Acute indigestion is more common in horses and mules than it is in any of the other domestic animals. Because of the difference in the causes and symptoms manifested, we may divide it into the following forms: spasmodic, flatulent and obstruction colic. _The predisposing causes_ are general and digestive debility resulting from the feeding of an insufficient or unsuitable ration, and general and parasitic diseases of the intestine. Nervous, well-bred horses are most susceptible to nervous or spasmodic colic. _The direct causes_ are improper methods of feeding and watering; giving the animal severe or unusual exercise immediately before or after feeding; the feeding of spoiled or green feeds and new grains; chilling of the body; imperfect mastication of feed because of defective teeth; obstruction of the intestine by worms. The feeding of grain at a time when the animal is not in fit condition to digest it results in imperfect digestion in both the stomach and intestine. This leads to irritation of the intestine and abnormal fermentation of its contents. The drinking of a large quantity of water immediately after feeding grain flushes at least a part of the undigested grain from the stomach through the small intestine and into the caecum. New grains, such as new oats, are hurried along the small intestine and reach the large intestine practically undigested. The two latter conditions are common causes of _flatulent_ or _wind colic_. Sudden change in the ration, especially to a green feed, may result in intestinal irritation and flatulence. [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Photograph of model of digestive tract of ruminant: oesophagus; rumen; reticulum; omasum; abomasum; small intestine; and large intestine.] Horses that are greedy feeders and have sharp, uneven, smooth or diseased teeth are unable to masticate the feed properly. This results in unthriftiness caused by imperfect digestion and assimilation of the feed. Such animals usually suffer from a catarrhal or chronic inflammation of the intestine, and may have periodic attacks of acute indigestion or colic. _Obstruction colic_ is very often caused by the feeding of too much roughage in the form of straw, shredded fodder, or hay. Debility often contributes to this form of indigestion, and the double colon may become badly impacted with alimentary matter. Worms may irritate the intestinal mucous membrane and interfere with digestion, obstruct the intestine and cause debility and circulatory disturbances. The large round worm may form a tangled mass and completely fill a portion of the double colon. [Illustration: FIG. 16.--A yearling colt that died of aneurism colic.] Some species attach themselves to the intestinal wall, suck the blood of the host and cause anaemia and debility. Colic resulting from _circulatory disturbances_ is not common. The female of a certain species of _strongulus_ deposits eggs in the mucous membrane. On hatching, the larvae may enter a blood capillary, drift along in the blood stream and finally come to rest in a large blood-vessel that supplies a certain portion of the intestines with blood. Here the parasite develops. The wall of the vessel becomes irritated and inflamed, pieces of fibrin flake off and drift along the blood stream until finally a vessel too small for the floating particle to pass through is reached and the vessel becomes plugged. The loop of intestine supplied by it receives no blood. A temporary paralysis of the loop occurs, which persists until a second vessel is able to take over the function of the one that is plugged. This form of colic is most common in old horses (Fig. 16). Such complications of acute indigestion as _twisting, infolding_ and _displacement of the intestine_ may occur. It is not uncommon for a stallion to suffer from strangulated hernia, due to a rather large internal inguinal ring and a loop of the intestine passing through it and into the inguinal canal or scrotum. Such displacements are usually accompanied by severe colicky pains. _The symptoms_ vary in the different cases. In the mild form, the colicky pains are not prominent, but in the acute form, the animal is restless, getting up and down in the stall and rolling over. These movements are especially marked when the abdominal pain is severe. _In the spasmodic form_ the attack comes on suddenly, the colicky pains are severe, and the peristaltic movement of the intestine is marked and accompanied by loud intestinal sounds. In most cases of indigestion characterized by fermentation and collections of gas in the intestine there is gastric tympany as well. Acute indigestion characterized by _impaction_ of the large intestine pursues a longer course than the forms just mentioned, and the abdominal pain is not severe. _Congestion and inflammation_ of the intestine may result from the irritation produced by the feed. When this occurs, the abdominal pain is less violent. The animal usually acts dull, the walk is slow and unsteady, and the respirations and pulse beats may be quickened. A large percentage of the cases of acute indigestion terminate fatally. The course of the disease varies from a few hours to several days. _The treatment_ is both _preventive_ and _curative_. The preventive treatment is by far the most important. This consists in observing right methods of feeding and caring for horses. The attendant should note the condition of the animal before feeding grain, feed regularly and avoid sudden changes in feed. If a horse has received unusual exercise, it is proper to feed hay first, and when the animal is cooled out, water and feed grain. Drinking a small quantity of water when tired or following a meal is not injurious, but a large quantity of water taken at such times is injurious and dangerous to the health of the animal. The feeding of spoiled or mouldy feeds to horses is highly injurious. The horse should be given a roomy, comfortable stall that is well bedded, or a clean grass lot. If the attack appears when the animal is in harness, we should stop working it and remove the harness immediately. Work or exercise usually aggravates the case and may cause congestion and inflammation of important body organs. In cold weather the animal should be protected by blankets. If the pain is violent, sedatives may be given. The gaseous disturbances should be relieved by puncturing the wall of the intestine with the trocar and cannula. Rectal injections of cold water may be resorted to. Fluid extract of cannabis indica in quarter ounce doses and repeated in one hour may be given in linseed oil. In all cases it is advisable to drench the animal with one pint of raw linseed oil and two ounces of turpentine. Strychnine, eserine and pilocarpine are the drugs commonly used by the veterinarians in the treatment of acute indigestion. Small and repeated doses of the above drugs are preferred to large doses. This is one of the diseases that requires prompt and skilled attention. Sharp, uneven or diseased teeth should receive the necessary attention. In old horses, chopped hay or ground feeds should be fed when necessary. Debility resulting from hard work, wrong methods of feeding and intestinal disorders must be corrected before the periodic attacks of indigestion can be relieved. If the presence of intestinal worms is suspected, the necessary treatment for ridding the animal of these parasites should be resorted to. Bitter or saline tonics should be administered in the feed when necessary. The following formula is useful as a digestive tonic: Sodium bicarbonate and sodium sulfate, one pound of each, powdered gentian one-half pound, and oil meal five pounds. A small handful of this mixture may be given with the feed two or three times daily. INFLAMMATION OF THE INTESTINES.--The same causes mentioned in inflammation of the stomach and acute indigestion may cause this disease. It is most frequent at times when there are great variations in the temperature. Sudden cold or any influence that chills the surface of the body, or internal cold caused by drinking ice water or eating frozen feed, may cause it. The infectious forms of enteritis are caused by germs and ptomaines in the feed. Drinking filthy water or eating spoiled, mouldy feeds are common causes. In cattle pasturing in low, marshy places, enteritis may be common. The toxic form is caused by irritating poisons, such as caustic acids, alkalies and meat brine. _In the mild form of enteritis_ the appetite is irregular, the animal acts dull and stupid and may be noticed lying down more than common. Slight abdominal pains occur, especially following a meal. An elevation in the body temperature may be noted and the animal may drink more water than usual. Constipation or a slight diarrhoea may be present. The feces may be soft and foul smelling, coated with mucus, and slightly discolored with blood. _In the severe form of enteritis_ pressure on the abdomen may cause pain, the respiration and pulse beats are quickened and the body temperature is elevated. The abdominal pain may be severe and the animal is greatly depressed or acts dull. The movement of the intestines is suppressed at first and constipation occurs. Fermentation and the formation of gas may take place. Later the intestinal peristalsis increases and a foul-smelling diarrhoea sets in that is often mixed with blood. In the toxic form there may be marked nervous symptoms. Spasms, convulsions, stupefaction and coma may be manifested. In the mild form recovery usually occurs within a few days. The more serious forms of the disease do not terminate so favorably. In the toxic form death usually occurs within a few days. The large majority of cases of enteritis can be prevented by practising the necessary _preventive measures_. It is very necessary that animals exposed to cold be provided with dry sleeping quarters that are free from draughts. Where a number of animals are fed a heavy grain ration, or fed from the same trough, they should be kept under close observation. This is necessary in order to detect cases of indigestion or overfeeding early, and resort to the necessary lines of treatment, so as to prevent further irritation to the intestinal tract. Live stock should not be forced to drink water that is ice-cold. Low, poorly-drained land is not a safe pasture for cattle and horses. Spoiled roots, grains and silage, mouldy, dirty roughage and decomposed slops should not be fed to live stock. _The treatment_ consists in withholding all feed and giving the animal comfortable, quiet quarters--warm quarters and protection from the cold, providing the animal with a heavy straw bed, or with blankets if necessary, if the weather is cold. From five to forty grains of calomel may be given, depending upon the size of the animal and the frequency of the dose, two or three times a day. In case the animal is suffering severe pain, morphine given hypodermically may be indicated. In the mild form and at the very beginning of the attack, linseed oil may be administered to the larger animals. The dose is about one quart. The smaller animals may be given castor oil in from one- to four-ounce doses. When convalescence is reached the animal should be fed very carefully, as the digestive tract is not in condition to digest heavy rations or feeds that ferment readily. DIARRHOEA.--Diarrhoea occurs as a symptom of irritation and inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane. Sudden changes in the feed, the feeding of a succulent green ration, severe exercise when the animal is not in condition for it, and chronic indigestion may cause diarrhoea in the absence of an intestinal inflammation. _The following symptoms_ may be noted: Animals affected by a diarrhoea act dull and weak; thirst is increased and the animal may show evidence of fever; the intestinal evacuations are soft, thin, and sometimes have an offensive odor. If the diarrhoea continues for several days, the animal loses flesh rapidly and the appetite is irregular. In such cases weakness is a prominent symptom. Recovery usually occurs when the animal is dieted and rested. _The treatment_ consists in giving a physic of linseed or castor oil. Horses and cattle may be given from one-half to one quart of linseed oil; sheep and hogs from one to four ounces of castor oil. Feed should be withheld. Morphine may be given hypodermically to the large animals after a period of six to eight hours following the administration of the physic. The following formula is quite useful in checking diarrhoea: salol one-half ounce, bismuth subnitrate one ounce, and bicarbonate of soda two ounces. The dose of this mixture is from one to four drachms, depending on the size of the animal, three or four times a day. WHITE SCOURS OR DIARRHOEA IN YOUNG ANIMALS.--Young animals, when nursing the mother or fed by hand, frequently develop congestion and inflammation of the stomach and intestines. This disorder is characterized by a diarrhoea. _The causes_ may be grouped under two heads: wrong methods of feeding and care, and specific infection. The first milk of the mother is a natural laxative and aids in ridding the intestine of the young of such waste material (meconium) as collects during fetal life. If this milk is withheld, the intestine becomes irritated, constipation occurs, followed by a diarrhoea or serious symptoms of a nervous character, caused by the poisonous effect of the toxic substances absorbed from the intestine on the nervous system. Changes in the ration fed the mother, excitement, unusual exercise and disease change the composition of the mother's milk. Such milk is irritating to the stomach and intestines of the young. This irritation does not always develop into a diarrhoea, but may result in a congestion of the stomach. When the young are raised artificially or by hand, and fed milk from different mothers of the same or different species, or changed from whole to skim milk, acute and chronic digestive disorders that are accompanied by a diarrhoea are common. Feeding calves from filthy pails, allowing them to drink too rapidly and giving them fermented milk are common causes of scours. White scours caused by irritating germs is a highly infectious disease. The disease-producing germs gain entrance to the body by way of the digestive tract and the umbilical cord. Insanitary conditions, such as dark, cold, damp, filthy quarters, lower the vitality of young animals, and predispose them to digestive disorders as well as other diseases. _The symptoms_ are as follows: Constipation accompanied by a feverish condition precedes the diarrhoea; colicky pains are sometimes manifested; the diarrhoea is usually accompanied by depression, falling off in appetite and weakness. At first the intestinal discharges are not very foul smelling; later the odor is very disagreeable. The faeces may be made up largely of undigested, decomposed milk that adheres to the tail and hind parts. If the diarrhoea is severe, the animal refuses to suckle or drink from the pail, and loses flesh rapidly. It is usually found lying down. The ears droop and the depression is marked. The body temperature may vary from several degrees above to below the average normal. _The infectious form_ of white scours may be diagnosed by the history of the outbreak. In this form of the disease, a large percentage of the young are affected and the death-rate is very high. Calves and lambs frequently die of an acute congestion of the fourth stomach. In this disease, the symptoms appear shortly after feeding. It is characterized by colicky pains, convulsions and coma. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. Young animals should be provided with dry, clean, well-ventilated quarters and allowed plenty of exercise. Colts thrive best if allowed to run in a blue grass pasture with the mother. If the mother is worked, suitable provisions in the way of quarters and frequent nursing should be provided. Calves, lambs and pigs are the most frequent sufferers from insanitary quarters. In breeding, we should always strive to get strong, vigorous, healthy young. The care given the mother in the way of exercise and feeding is an important factor here. The first milk of the mother should not be withheld from the young, especially if the animal is raised by hand. We must also feed it regularly and not too much at any one time. Any change in the milk should be made gradually, and it is usually advisable to reduce the ration slightly when such a change is made, so as not to overwork the digestive organs. Pails and bottles from which the animal feeds should be kept clean. Colts raised on cow's milk must be fed and cared for carefully. The milk must be sweet and made more digestible by diluting it with one-third water. A little sugar may be added. It is very advisable to add from one-half to one ounce of lime water to each pint of milk fed. Frequent feeding is very necessary at first, and we must not underestimate the quantity of milk necessary to keep the colt in good condition. It should be taught to eat grain as soon as possible. Because of the irritated condition of the stomach and intestine, the animal suffering from diarrhoea is unable to digest its feed. For this reason it is very important to withhold all feed for at least twelve hours. Water should be provided. The alimentary tract is relieved of the irritating material by giving the animal a physic of castor or linseed oil. The dose varies from one-quarter to one-half ounce for the lamb and from one to four ounces for the colt or calf. It is advisable in most cases to follow this with the following mixture: bicarbonate of soda one ounce, bismuth subnitrate one-half ounce, and salol one-quarter ounce. The dose for the colt and calf is one teaspoonful three times a day. Lambs and pigs may be given from one-fourth to one-half the above dose. It is usually advisable to give ewes and sows a physic if their young develop a diarrhoea. Mothers that are heavy milkers may be given a physic the second or third day following birth. The ration should be reduced as well during the first week. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF POULTRY GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The digestive tract of poultry is composed of the following organs: mouth, gullet, crop, stomach, gizzard and intestines, with the two large glands, the liver and pancreas. The digestion of the feed begins in the crop. Here the feed is held for a short time, mixed with certain fluids and softened. On reaching the stomach it becomes mixed with the digestive fluid secreted by the gastric glands. This second digestive action consists in thoroughly soaking the feed in the gastric juice, making it soft and preparing it for maceration by the heavily muscled gizzard. Following maceration it passes into the intestine. It is here that the digestive action is completed and absorption occurs. Under the conditions of domestication, poultry are subject to a great variety of intestinal disorders. DISEASES OF THE CROP.--Impaction and inflammation are the two common diseases of the crop. _Large, impacted crops_ are usually caused by the feeding of too much dry feed, fermentation of the contents of the crop and foreign bodies that obstruct the opening from the organ. _Inflammation of the crop_ is caused by excessive use of condiments in the feed, putrid or spoiled feeds and eating caustic drugs, such as lime and rat poison. _The symptoms_ are dulness, an indisposition to move about, drooping wings and efforts to eject gases and liquids. The crop is found greatly distended and either hard or soft, depending on the quantity of feed present and the cause of the distention. If fermentation is present the crop usually feels soft. _The preventive treatment_ consists in practising proper methods of feeding. The _curative treatment_ of a recent case consists in manipulating the mass of feed, breaking it up and forcing it upwards toward the mouth. If difficulty in breaking up the mass is experienced, it is advisable to administer a tablespoonful of castor oil to the bird. If the above manipulations are unsuccessful, an operation is necessary. This consists in making an opening through the skin and the wall of the crop and removing the contents with tweezers. The opening must be closed with sutures. The proper aseptic precautions must be observed. In inflammation of the crop, the bird should be dieted for at least one day, and one teaspoonful of castor oil given as a laxative. ACUTE AND CHRONIC INDIGESTION.--The recognition of special forms of indigestion in poultry is difficult. A flock of poultry that is subject to careless and indifferent care may not thrive and a number of the birds develop digestive disorders. This may be indicated by an abnormal or depraved appetite and emaciated condition. Constipation or diarrhoea may occur. In the more severe cases the bird acts dull, the feathers are ruffled and it moves about very little. _The treatment_ consists in removing the cause, and giving the flock a tonic mixture in the feed. The following mixture may be used: powdered gentian and powdered ginger, eight ounces of each, Glauber's salts four ounces, and sulfate of iron two ounces. One ounce of the above mixture may be given in ten pounds of feed. WHITE DIARRHOEA OF YOUNG CHICKENS.--White diarrhoea is of the greatest economic importance to the poultryman. The loss of chicks from this disease is greater than the combined loss resulting from all other diseases. It is stated by some authors that not less than fifty per cent of the chickens hatched die from white diarrhoea. Such a heavy death-rate as is attributed to this disease can not result from improper methods of handling and insanitary conditions. Before it was proven that white diarrhoea was caused by specific germs, a great deal of emphasis was placed on such causes as debilitated breeding stock, improper incubation, poorly ventilated, overcrowded brooders, too high or too low temperatures and filth. Such conditions are important predisposing factors, and may, in isolated cases, result in serious intestinal disorders. _The microorganisms causing_ this disease belong to both the plant and animal kingdoms. Infection usually occurs within a day or two following hatching. Chicks two or three weeks of age seldom develop the acute form of the disease. Incubator chicks are the most susceptible to the disorder. _The following symptoms occur_: The chicks present a droopy, sleepy appearance; the eyes are closed, and the chicks huddle together and peep much of the time; the whitish intestinal discharge is noticed adhering to the fluff near the margins of the vent, and the young bird is very weak; death may occur within the first few days. After the first two weeks the disease becomes less acute. In the highly acute form the chicks die without showing the usual train of symptoms. It is very easy to differentiate between the infectious and the non-infectious diarrhoea. In the latter, the percentage of chicks affected is small and the disease responds to treatment more readily than does the infectious form. The death-rate in the latter form is about eighty per cent. _The treatment_ of diarrhoea in chicks from any cause is preventive. This consists in removing the cause. No person can successfully handle poultry if he does not give the necessary attention to sanitation. Poultry houses, runs, watering fountains and feeding places must be constantly cleaned and disinfected. The degree of attention necessary depends on the surroundings, the crowded condition of the poultry houses and runs, and the presence of disease in the flock. If disease is present, we can not clean and disinfect the quarters too often. The attendant can not overlook details in handling the incubator or brooder and feeding the chicks and be uniformly successful. If the disease is known to be present in the flock, the incubators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected by fumigating them with formaldehyde gas. If dirty, they should first be washed with a water solution of a good disinfectant. For a period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after hatching, the chicks should receive no feed. Dr. Kaupp recommends as an intestinal antiseptic, sulfocarbolate thirty grains, bichloride of mercury six grains, and citric acid three grains, dissolved in one gallon of water. This solution should be kept in front of the chicks all the time. A water solution of powdered copper sulfate (about one-half teaspoonful dissolved in one gallon of water) may be used. QUESTIONS 1. Name the organs that form the digestive apparatus. 2. What digestive action on the feed occurs in the mouth? 3. Describe the causes and symptoms of inflammation of the mouth; describe the treatment. 4. Give the causes for depraved appetite; describe the symptoms and treatment. 5. Give the capacity of the horse's stomach. 6. Name the different compartments of the ruminant's stomach. 7. Give the capacity of the stomach of ruminants. 8. Name the different stages of digestion occurring in the stomach of the hog. 9. What forms of acute indigestion involve the stomach of solipeds? Give causes and treatment. 10. Give the causes of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants. 11. Give the treatment for the different forms of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants. 12. Name the divisions of small and large intestines of solipeds and ruminants. 13. What is the capacity and length of large intestine of solipeds and ruminants? 14. What are the different forms of acute indigestion of the horses, and causes? 15. Give a general line of treatment for acute indigestion of the horse. 16. Give the causes of white diarrhoea in the young chicks; give a line of treatment. 17. Name the organs of the digestive apparatus of poultry. 18. Name the common diseases of the digestive apparatus of poultry, and give the causes. CHAPTER V DISEASES OF THE LIVER GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The liver is one of the most important glands of the body, as well as the largest. Because of its physiological influence over the functions of the kidneys, intestines, and body in general and the varied functions that it possesses, it is frequently affected by functional disorders. All of the blood that comes directly from the intestine is received by the liver. It secretes the bile, neutralizes many of the poisonous substances and end products of digestion that are taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestine, and acts as a storehouse for the glycogen. It can be readily understood from this brief statement of the nature of the liver functions, that any functional disorder of the liver may be far reaching in its effect. In many of the diseases that involve other organs, the liver may be primarily affected. It is difficult to diagnose functional disorders of the liver that are responsible for a diseased condition of some other body organ. A knowledge of the physiology and pathology of the liver is of the greatest importance in the diagnosis of this class of disorders. In the larger domestic animals, symptoms of liver diseases are more obscure than in the small animals. In certain parasitic diseases and in mixed and specific infectious diseases, the liver may show marked pathological changes. COMMON CAUSES OF LIVER DISORDERS.--Domestic animals commonly live under very unnatural conditions. Ill results do not follow unless these conditions are so extreme as to violate practically all of the health laws. Pampered animals are especially prone to liver disorders. The feeding of too heavy and too concentrated a ration together with insufficient exercise is one of the most common causes of disorders of the liver. The feeding of a ration that is unsuitable for that particular species is a common source of disease in animals. For example, the feeding to carnivora of a ration made up largely of starchy feed, and the feeding of a ration containing an excessive quantity of protein to herbivorous animals may result in intestinal, liver and nervous disorders. Spoiled feed may prove highly injurious. Catarrhal inflammation of the intestine and intestinal parasites may obstruct the bile duct, and interfere seriously with the functions of the liver. _Symptoms_.--In diseases of the liver the appetite is irregular or the animal refuses to eat, is constipated, or has diarrhoea. The faeces may be grayish colored or foul smelling. Colicky pains are sometimes manifested. Usually the animal acts dull and weak. A raise in body temperature may be noted. The visible mucous membranes may appear yellowish- or brownish-red in color. _Treatment_.--Animals grazing over well drained pastures that are free from injurious weeds and provided with plenty of drinking water, seldom develop diseases of the liver. Exercise, a natural diet and plenty of clean water, as well as preventing liver disorders, may be classed among the most important of all curative agents. Laxatives or cathartics, such as oils, salts, aloes, and calomel, in small doses may be given. We prefer the administration of oil or aloes to horses, Glauber's or Epsom salts to ruminants, and calomel to dogs. The administration of minimum doses of these drugs, and repeating the dose after a short interval, is preferable to large doses. Alkaline tonics are also indicated. The following mixture may be given: bicarbonate of soda, sulfate of soda and common salt, eight ounces of each, and powdered gentian and sulfate of iron, four ounces of each. Large animals may be given a small tablespoonful of this mixture with the feed three times a day. The dose for sheep and hogs is one teaspoonful. A very light, easily digested ration should be fed. QUESTIONS 1. What can be said of the importance of the liver? 2. Tell something of its duties as a gland. 3. In what animals are liver troubles most conspicuous when present? 4. Give causes of liver disorders. 5. What are the symptoms? 6. What are the most important natural cures? 7. What rule may be given for adapting suitable laxatives to different classes of animals? CHAPTER VI DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The urinary apparatus is composed of two glands, the kidneys and an excretory apparatus that carries the excretion of the kidneys to the outside. The kidneys are situated in the superior region of the abdominal cavity (sublumbar) above the peritoneum, and to the right and left of the median line. They are highly vascular glands, somewhat bean-shaped and of a deep red color. These glands are capable of removing from the blood a fluid that is essentially different in composition and which, if retained in the blood, would be harmful or poisonous to the body tissues. The kidney excretions are carried from the pelvis of the kidneys by the right and left ureters. These canals terminate in the bladder, an oval-shaped reservoir for the urine. This organ is situated in the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity and at the entrance to the pelvic cavity. Posteriorly, it forms a constricted portion or neck. It is here that the urethra originates. This canal represents the last division of the excretory apparatus. In the female, the urethra is short and terminates in the vulva. In the male it is long and is supported by the penis. The urine secreted by the kidneys is a body excretion, and consists of water, organic matter and salts. The nitrogenous end-products, aromatic compounds, coloring matter, and mucin form the organic matter. The nitrogenous end-products and aromatic compounds are urea, uric and hippuric acids, benzoic acid and ethereal sulfates of phenol and cresol. The salts are sulfates, phosphates and chlorides of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. The organic and inorganic matter varies with the ration. The quantity of urine secreted within a given time varies in the different species and at different times in the same individual. In the horse the quantity secreted in twenty-four hours varies from twelve to fifteen pints; in cattle from ten to forty pints; in sheep from one-half to one and three-quarter pints. The normal color of the urine varies. In the horse it is yellow or yellowish-red; in cattle and sheep yellowish; and in the dog a straw yellow. The specific gravity varies with the quantity secreted and the ration fed. When the quantity of urine secreted is above the average, the specific gravity is usually low. THE NECESSITY OF EXAMINING THE URINE.--In diseases of the urinary apparatus, a careful examination of the urine is very necessary in order to be able to form a correct diagnosis. In domestic animals it is impractical to attempt to determine the exact amount of urine passed within a certain time, but we can make a general estimate of the quantity passed by carefully observing the animal and noting the condition of the bedding in the stall. The sample of urine to be examined is best taken from urine collected at different periods during the day. We should note its color and consistency. The different substances in the urine can be determined only by determining the specific gravity, testing with certain chemical reagents and by making a microscopic examination of the sediment. Normal urine from the horse may be turbid or cloudy and more or less slimy, because of the presence of mucin. This is less true of other species. In disease the color of the urine may be changed to a pale yellow, red or brown. For example, in congestion of the kidneys the urine is light in color and rather transparent; in southern cattle fever it may be red; and in azoturia it may be brown. EXCESSIVE URINATION.--The horse is the most common sufferer from excessive secretion of urine. The most common _causes_ are musty feeds, such as hay, grain and shipped feeds. New oats, succulent feeds and acrid plants may sometimes cause it. In the fall of the year, when the season is changing from warm to cool weather and the horse eliminates less water from the body by way of the skin, the kidneys may become more active and the quantity of urine secreted be greatly increased. This, however, is a normal physiological condition and should not be confused with this disease. The first _symptom_ noted is the frequent passing of a large quantity of urine. The animal drinks more water than usual and the appetite is poor. Dulness and a weak, emaciated condition are prominent symptoms. Death occurs unless the cause of the disease is removed. If the poisonous substance has been acting for some time, it is difficult to cure the animal. This disease can be _prevented_ by eliminating spoiled feeds from the ration fed to animals in our care. Early in the attack the necessary attention to the ration and the feeding of a clean, nourishing ration is sufficient to correct the disease. The quantity of water drunk by the animal should be limited. Complete rest is indicated. Laxatives, stimulants and tonics should be given if necessary. NEPHRITIS.--Congestion and inflammation of the kidneys commonly occur in mixed and specific infectious diseases, such as septicaemia, pyaemia and influenza. The toxic effect of spoiled feeds, impure drinking water, and irritating drugs like cantharides and turpentine may so irritate the kidneys as to cause them to become inflamed. Chilling of the skin and nervousness or extreme fear may sometimes cause a congestion of these organs. Inflammation of the kidneys is a common complication of azoturia. Irritation from parasites should be included among the causes of this disease. The _symptoms_ vary in the different stages of the disease. During the period of active congestion the quantity of urine secreted is increased. The scant secretion of urine, dark in color and thick or turbid, is suggestive of an inflammation of the kidneys. The animal moves stiffly, the back may be arched, urination is painful and the urine is passed in very small amounts. The appetite is irregular or suppressed, the pulse strong at first but later small and weak, and the body temperature is elevated. On making a rectal examination we find the bladder empty and the kidneys enlarged and sensitive. When the kidneys become so badly diseased that they can no longer perform their function of separating from the blood the nitrogenous end-products of digestion, uraemic poisoning occurs. In this later stage of the disease the animal staggers about if moved, and finally goes down in the stall and is unable to get up. Death is usually preceded by convulsions and coma. _The prognosis_ is very unfavorable, death occurring in the majority of cases. In azoturia of horses and in infectious diseases, the inflammation is nearly always acute. The color of the urine, its high specific gravity and the small quantity passed are valuable symptoms to consider in the recognition of this disease. Chronic inflammation generally develops slowly and may not give rise to any very prominent symptoms at first. _The preventive treatment_ of nephritis consists in careful nursing of animals affected with acute infectious diseases, a clean water supply and avoiding the feeding of spoiled feeds. The _curative treatment_ is largely careful nursing. The animal should be given comfortable, well-ventilated quarters and complete rest. Chilling of the skin should be especially guarded against by protecting the body with heavy blankets and applying roller bandages to the limbs when necessary. The diet must be of such a nature as not to increase the work of the kidneys. For the first few days the animal should receive very little feed or water. Later a sloppy diet of sweet milk, green feed and mashes should be fed. Such purgatives as aloes and Glauber's salts are indicated at a very early stage in the disease. We must encourage the elimination of waste products by way of the skin in the larger animals by vigorous rubbing, blanketing and the administration of such drugs as pilocarpine. If the animal becomes weak, general and heart tonics may be given. CYSTITIS.--Inflammation of the bladder is not an uncommon disease of horses. It is commonly _caused_ by retention of the urine, calculi in the bladder and chilling of the body. Irritating drugs that are eliminated from the body in the urine, and infection of the bladder by germs may cause it. _The symptoms_ are usually marked. The inflammation is characterized by more or less pain, depending on the degree of the inflammation, and frequent passing of urine. Only a small amount of urine is passed at each attempt, and in severe inflammation it may contain pus or blood. Colicky pains sometimes occur. The pain is usually manifested by a stiff, straddling gait and tenderness when pressure on the bladder is made by introducing the hand into the rectum or vagina, and pressing over the region of the bladder. General symptoms, such as elevation in body temperature and irregular appetite, may be manifested. _The treatment_ should be first directed at removing the cause. If a cystic calculus is present in the bladder it should be removed. If the retention of the urine is caused by some local condition, and this is very often the case in nervous, well-bred animals, this must first be corrected. It is best to feed green and soft feeds, such as bran mash and chopped hay, and, if the animal will take them, gruels. A physic of castor or linseed oil should be given occasionally. It is very necessary that the animal be kept quiet. Comfortable, clean quarters and a good bed should be provided. Whenever necessary the animal should be blanketed. The medicinal treatment consists in irrigating the bladder with antiseptic solutions, and administering drugs that when eliminated by way of the urine may change its composition and render it less irritating. The following mixture may be given: potassium chlorate two ounces, salol one-half ounce, and powdered nux vomica one ounce. This mixture may be divided into sixteen powders. One of the powders should be given with each feed. RETENTION OF THE URINE.--This may be due to a variety of _causes_. In the ox and ram, small calculi collect in the S-shaped curvature of the urethra, or at its terminal extremity. In the horse, cystic calculi are more common than urethral. In cattle and hogs, fatty secretions from the inflamed lining membrane of the sheath of the male may accumulate, and obstruct the flow of urine from the anterior opening. The giving of feed rich in salts, concentrated urine resulting from feeding of too dry a ration, insufficient exercise and inflammation of the bladder are the direct causes of calculi. Compression of the urethra by growths or tumors, strictures of the urethra, distended bladder, spasm of the neck of the bladder in nervous animals, paralysis of the bladder and injuries to the penis are common causes of retention of the urine. _The early symptoms in ruminants_ are not usually recognized until a day or two after retention of the urine has occurred. The symptoms are then quite marked. The animal acts dull, refuses to eat, rumination is stopped, and there is a constant effort to urinate, as indicated by the raising of the tail and rhythmical contractions of the urinary muscles just below the anus. Urine may dribble from the sheath or the flow may be completely suppressed. The odor of urine may be marked. _Horses show symptoms_ of abdominal pain. The animal may move about the stall, lie down and get up again, or make unsuccessful attempts to urinate. On examination the bladder is found to be greatly distended with urine. In the horse the retention is recognized at an earlier period than in ruminants, because of the prompt, decided symptom of pain. Retention of the urine commonly terminates in rupture of the bladder in ruminants. When this occurs, the symptoms of pain are less evident. Death occurs from uraemic poisoning and peritonitis. The outcome is less favorable in ruminants than in solipeds. _Inflammation of the sheath_ can be readily recognized because of the local swelling. _The following lines of treatment_ are recommended: A ration or feed that favors the formation of calculi should not be fed to animals; inflammation of the sheath should receive prompt treatment--this consists in irrigating the part with warm, soapy or alkaline water, followed by an antiseptic wash; we may attempt to work the urethral calculi forward and out of the S-curve in the urethra; if this is unsuccessful, urethrotomy for their removal may be attempted. The retention of the urine in horses, because of spasm or paralysis of certain muscles, may be treated by passing the catheter. Sometimes spreading litter under the horse and keeping it quiet may induce it to urinate. Hot packs over the region of the back may be used. The treatment for calculi is entirely surgical. The operation for the removal of cystic calculi in the horse, although difficult, is followed by good results. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the urinary apparatus. 2. Give the composition of the urine and quantity secreted in the different animals. 3. State method of determining quantity and composition of urine secreted by different domestic animals. 4. Give the causes and treatment of excessive urination. 5. Give the causes and treatment of congestion and inflammation of the kidneys. 6. Give the causes of cystitis; symptoms; treatment. 7. Give the causes and treatment of retention of the urine. CHAPTER VII DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The study of the organs concerned with the reproduction of the species is essential in order to acquire a knowledge of their several functions. It is only through an understanding of these functions that we can prepare ourselves to correctly recognize, and successfully treat, or prevent, such diseases as may involve the organs of generation. A knowledge of the structure and function of the generative organs of the female is of greater importance from the standpoint of disease, than is a similar knowledge of the generative organs of the male. The female is concerned with the complete reproductive process, which may be divided into four stages. These are _copulation_, _fecundation_, _gestation_ and _parturition_. The male is concerned only with _copulation_ and _fertilization_ of the ovum by the spermatozoa, while the female must protect and nourish the embryo and foetus until it has become sufficiently developed to live independently of the protection and nourishment afforded it within the womb. When the final stage of gestation is reached, birth or the act of parturition occurs. GENITAL ORGANS OF THE FEMALE.--The female generative organs are the ovaries, fallopian tubules, uterus, vagina, vulva and mammary glands. _The ovaries_ are analogous to the testicles of the male. Their function is to secrete ova. This pair of glands is suspended from the superior region (sublumbar) of the abdominal cavity by folds of the lining membrane. Leading from the ovaries, but connected with the surface of these glands only during the period of oestrum or heat, are the fallopian tubules. Their function is to carry the ovum from the ovaries to the uterus. _The uterus or womb_ is a membranous sack situated in the sublumbar region and at the inlet to the pelvic cavity. It is held in position by numerous folds of the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity. We may divide the womb into three divisions, cornua, body and cervix. The cornua or horns are long and cylindrical in shape. This portion of the womb is greatly developed in animals, like the sow and bitch, that give birth to several young. In the impregnated animal the wall of the cornua that contains one or several foetuses, and the body as well, becomes greatly thickened and the lining membrane more vascular. The body is short in all domestic animals and connects the horns with the cervix or neck. The latter is represented by a narrow portion that projects backward into the vagina. In the cow the cervix is less prominent than in the mare and the tissue that forms it, quite firm. In the cow the opening in the cervix, the os, is very small. _The vagina_ is a musculo-membranous canal that leads from the womb. In the mare and cow it is about one foot in length. Its function is to take part in copulation and parturition. _The vulva_ is the external opening of the maternal passages. It shows a vertical slit enclosed by lips, and interiorly it forms a passage that is continuous with the vagina. This passage is about six inches long in the larger animals. The different features that should be noted are the clitoris, a small erectile organ located at the inferior portion of the opening, the meatus urinaris, the external opening of the urethra, situated in a depression in the floor of the vulva, and the hymen, an incomplete membranous partition that may be found separating the vulva from the vagina. _The mammary glands or udders_ secrete the milk that nourishes the young. The glands vary in number. The mare has two, the cow four (Fig. 17), the ewe two and animals that give birth to several young, eight or more. Each gland is surmounted by a teat or nipple. The glandular tissue consists of caecal vesicles that form grape-like clusters around the milk tubules. The milk tubules from the different portions of the gland converge and form larger tubules that finally empty into small sinuses or reservoirs at the base of the teat. Leading from these sinuses are one or several milk ducts that open at the summit of the teat. GENITAL ORGANS OF THE MALE.--The genital organs of the male are the testicles, the ducts or canals leading from the testicles, the seminal vesicles, the glands lying along the urethra, and the penis. [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Photograph of model of udder of cow: milk duct; milk sinuses; and glandular tissue.] _The testicles_ are the glandular organs that secrete the spermatozoa, the essential elements of the seminal fluid. These glands are lodged in the scrotal sack, situated between the two thighs. Lying along the superior border of the testicle is a mass of ducts, the _epididymis_. The _vas deferens_ is the canal or duct that passes from the epididymis to the region of the bladder and terminates near its neck by emptying into the seminal vesicles. _The seminal vesicles_ are two membranous pouches situated just above the bladder. They act as receptacles for the seminal fluid. Two short ducts, the _ejaculatory_, carry the seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles to the urethra. _The prostate gland_ is situated near the origin of the urethra. _Cowper's glands_ lie along the course of the urethra and near the origin of the penis. These glands empty their secretions into the urethra and dilute the seminal fluid. _The penis_ is the male organ of copulation. It originates at the arch of the ischium and extends forward between the thighs. It may be divided into fixed and free portions. The free portion is lodged in the prepuce or sheath, but at the time of erection protrudes from it. STERILITY, IMPOTENCY.--Fecundation does not always follow intercourse of the male and female. Impotency in the male and sterility in the female frequently occur. _The causes_ are quite varied. A normal copulation may be impossible because of injuries to, and deformities of, the parts and tumor growths. Deformed genital organs and obstructions of the os by growths and scar tissue are causes of sterility in the female. Failure to breed is commonly caused by faulty methods of feeding and care. Over-feeding and insufficient exercise may result in the body tissues becoming loaded with fat. This may cause a temporary sterility, but if persisted in, as is frequently the case in show animals, the sterility becomes permanent because of the genital glands failing to secrete ova and spermatozoa, or the lack of vitality of the male and female elements. Old age and debility from disease or poor care may induce loss of sexual desire and an absence of, or weakened spermatozoa in, the seminal fluid. The refusal of the male to serve certain females is sometimes noted. Tuberculosis may affect the ovaries and cause permanent sterility. In inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb and vagina, the secretions are abnormal and may collect in the womb and the passages leading to it. These secretions destroy the vitality of the spermatozoa, and this condition may be considered a common cause of sterility in the larger animals. Many vigorous young males are made impotent by excessive copulation. The excessive use of the male at any time may result in failure to impregnate a large percentage of the females that he serves. Barren females do not become pregnant after frequent intercourse with the male. Young sterile females may not come in heat. Sometimes unnatural periods of heat are manifested, the animal coming in heat frequently or remaining in heat for a longer period than usual. This sometimes occurs in tuberculosis of the ovaries. In chronic inflammation of the maternal passage there is more or less discharge from the vulva. Both sexes may be overly fat or weakened and debilitated by disease. Deformity of the generative organs and growths may be found on making an examination. Absence of, or lack of vitality of the spermatozoa may be determined by microscopic examination of the seminal fluid. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. It is very important that breeding animals be kept in proper physical condition by avoiding the feeding of too heavy or too light a ration, and allowing them sufficient exercise. The male is more often affected by the latter cause than the female. This is because the average stockman does not consider exercise given under the right conditions an important factor in maintaining the vigor of the male. Young males should not be given excessive intercourse with the female. Such practice is certain to seriously affect the potency of the animal. The excessive use of the stallion can be avoided by practising artificial impregnation of a part of the mares that he is called to serve. Sterility caused by growths and closure of the os may be corrected by an operation. Chronic inflammation of the maternal passages should be treated by irrigating the parts with a one per cent warm water solution of lysol, or liquor cresolis compound. The parts should be irrigated daily for as long a period as necessary. Fat animals should be subjected to a rigid diet and given plenty of exercise. Following this treatment a stimulating ration may be fed for the purpose of encouraging the sexual desire. In weak and debilitated animals, the cause should first be removed and a proper ration fed. Cantharides and strychnine are the drugs most highly recommended for increasing the sexual desire. SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.--The signs which characterize pregnancy are numerous and varied. For convenience we may classify the many signs of pregnancy under two heads, probable and positive. Under the head of probable signs, we may group the following symptoms of pregnancy: cessation of heat; changes in the animal's disposition; increase in the volume of the abdomen and tendency to put on fat. The positive signs are the change in the volume of the udder; the secretion of milk; the movement of the foetus and presence of the foetus in the womb, as determined by rectal examination or by the feel of the abdomen. _The probable signs_ are not reliable, and should be considered only in connection with some positive sign. Persons who base their opinion of the condition of an animal that is supposed to be pregnant on probable signs, are frequently mistaken. It has frequently happened that animals whose condition was not at all certain have given birth to young, without giving rise to what may be termed characteristic probable signs. The earliest probable symptom is the cessation of heat. In the large pregnant animals, irregular heat periods may occur, but in the majority of cases we may safely consider the animal impregnated if several heat periods are passed over. It has been generally observed that the disposition of the pregnant animal is changed. They become more quiet and less nervous and irritable. The tendency of pregnant animals to put on fat is frequently taken advantage of by the stockman, who may allow the boar to run with the herd during the latter period of fattening. The increase in the volume of the abdomen may be considered a _positive_ sign of pregnancy in the small animals, but in the mare and cow it can not be depended on. Animals that are pregnant for the first time, do not show as great an increase in the volume of the abdomen as do animals that have gone through successive pregnant periods. The volume of the abdomen may vary greatly in the different individuals, and can not be depended on as a positive indication of pregnancy during the first two-thirds of the period of pregnancy in the larger domestic animals. Comparatively early in pregnancy, the presence of a foetus can be determined by feeling the uterus through the wall of the rectum. In the small domestic animals the feeling of the abdomen gives the best results. In the cow this method of diagnosis is practised during the latter periods of pregnancy. The examiner stands with his back toward the animal's head, and on the right side of the cow and the left side of the mare. The palm of the hand is applied against the abdominal wall, about eight or ten inches in front of the stifle and just below the flank. Moderate pressure is used, and if a hard, voluminous mass is felt, or if the foetus moves, it is a sure sign that the animal is pregnant. It is not uncommon for the foetus to show some movement in the morning, or after the animal drinks freely of cold water. The increase in the volume of the udder occurs at a comparatively early period in animals that are pregnant for the first time. The secretion of milk and the dropping of the muscles of the quarters indicate that parturition is near. The Abderhalden test for determining whether or not an animal is pregnant is now practised. HYGIENE OF PREGNANT ANIMALS.--Pregnant animals that are confined in a pasture that is free from injurious weeds and not too rough or hilly, and where the animals have access to clean water and the necessary shelter, seldom suffer from an abnormal birth. Here they live under the most favorable conditions for taking exercise, securing a suitable diet and avoiding injury. It may not be possible in managing breeding animals to provide such surroundings at all times, but we should observe every possible hygienic precaution, especially if the animal has reached the later periods of pregnancy. All pregnant animals are inclined to be lazy, but, if permitted, will take the necessary exercise. Pregnant mares are usually worked. Such exercise does no harm, providing the work is not hard or of an unusual character. Cows are usually subject to more natural conditions than other domestic animals. Protecting pregnant animals against injuries resulting from crowding, slipping and fighting is an important part of their care. Injuries from crowding together in the sleeping quarters and about feeding-troughs, or through doors and climbing over low partitions are common causes of injury in pregnant sows. Crowding together in the stable or yard, or through doorways, fighting, and slipping on floors, or icy places sometimes results in injury. It is rare, however, for cows to abort from an injury, but parturition may not be completely free from disagreeable complications. Under the conditions mentioned retention of the fetal membranes is common. Ewes frequently suffer from too close confinement during late winter. Sows are often subject to the most unhygienic conditions. This is shown in the heavy death-rate in sows and pigs. During the late winter and early spring the conditions may be such as not to permit of exercise. Stormy, snowy, muddy weather is common at this season of the year. Persons caring for ewes and sows should see that they take sufficient exercise. It may be necessary to drive them about for a short time each day. At such times it may be advisable to give them a laxative dose of oil, or give a laxative with the feed. When there is any indication of constipation, this should be practised. Pregnant animals should be fed carefully. We may feed animals that are not in this condition in a careless fashion, but if pregnant, over-feeding, the feeding of a fattening ration, or spoiled feed, and sudden changes in the feed can not be practised with any degree of safety. A bulky ration of dry feed and drinking impure, or too little, water may cause constipation, acute indigestion and abortion. The ration fed should contain the necessary inorganic and organic elements for the building up of the body tissues of the foetus. At the end of the parturition period, separate quarters should be provided. The mare or cow should be given a comfortable clean stall away from the other animals. The ewe should be provided with a warm room if the weather is cold. It is always best to give the sow a separate pen that is dry and clean, and away from the other animals. All danger from injury to the mother and young should be guarded against. ABORTION.--The expulsion of the foetus at any time during the period of gestation, when it is not sufficiently developed to live independently of the mother, is termed abortion. Abortion may be either _accidental_ or _infectious_. Accidental abortion is more commonly met with in the mare and sow than the infectious form. In ruminants the opposite holds true. _The causes of accidental abortion_ are faulty methods of feeding and care. Injuries, acute indigestion, mouldy, spoiled feeds, chilling resulting from exposure and drinking ice-cold water, nervousness brought on by fright, or excitement and general diseases are the common causes of abortion. _Infectious abortion_ is most common in cows. Other domestic animals that may be affected are the mare, sow and ewe. _It is caused_ by a specific germ. The _Bacillus abortus_ of Bang is the cause of abortion in cows, but the specific germ that produces abortion in other species of animals has not been proven. In this country, Keer, Good, Giltner and others have proven that the Bang bacillus of abortion is infectious for other species of animals, and outbreaks of this disease have been said to occur among breeding ewes pastured and fed on infected premises. Its infectiousness for the females of other species has never been proven in natural outbreaks. The disease-producing germs are present in the body of the foetus, the fetal membranes, the discharge from the maternal passages, the faeces and milk of aborting animals. The male may carry the infection in the sheath, urethra and on the penis. The natural avenues of infection are the maternal passages and digestive tract. It is very seldom that abortion is carried from one herd to another by means other than through the breeding of animals free from abortion to animals affected by this disease. The purchase of a bull or cow from an infected herd and breeding them to animals that are free from disease, is a common method of spreading the disease. After serving the diseased animal, the male may carry the bacillus of abortion into the maternal passages of the next cow he serves. There are numerous cases on record where the bull was a permanent carrier of the Bacillus abortus and infected nearly every animal served. The distribution of the disease in the herd following the introduction of a cow, sow, or ewe that has aborted before or after being purchased, takes place through contact of the other animals with the virus that may be present on the floor, or in the manure, or by taking the virus into the digestive tract along with the feed and drinking water. Experimental evidence indicates the latter avenue of infection. The stallion is the most common source of infectious abortion in mares. An infected stallion may distribute the disease to a large percentage of the mares that he serves. For this reason nearly all of the mares in a certain locality may abort. In case the infection occurs at the time of service, the abortion usually takes place during the first half of the period of pregnancy. Cows that become pregnant without recovering from the inflammation of the lining membrane of the genital tract, may abort at a very early period. McFadyean and Stockman from the artificially inoculated cases of infectious abortion in cows, showed that the period of incubation averaged 126 days. _The symptoms of accidental abortion_ are extremely variable. Animals that abort during the early periods of pregnancy may show so little disturbance, that the animal can be treated as if nothing had happened. During the latter half of pregnancy, and especially when the accident is caused by an injury, the symptoms are more serious. Loss of appetite, dulness, restlessness, abdominal pain and haemorrhage are the symptoms commonly noted. If the foetus is dead, it may be necessary to assist the animal in expelling it. In the latter case, death of the mother may occur. A slight falling of the flanks, swelling of the lips of the vulva and a retention of the fetal membranes, or discharge from the vulva may be the only symptoms noted at the time abortion occurs. _The symptoms of infectious abortion_ vary in the different periods of pregnancy. At an early period, the foetus may be passed with so little evidence of labor that the animal pays little attention to it. The recurrence of heat may be the first intimation of the abortion. All cases of abortion are followed by more or less discharge from the vulva. This is especially true if the fetal membranes are retained. In such cases, the discharge has a very disagreeable odor. In most cases the foetus is dead. When born alive, it is weak and puny, and usually dies or is destroyed within a few days. When the attendant fails to give the animal the necessary attention, or is careless in his manipulation of the parts, inflammation of the womb, caused by the decomposition of the retained membranes, or the introduction of irritating germs on the ropes, instruments and hands, may occur. Death commonly follows this complication. It is very important that the infectious form be diagnosed early in the outbreak. For all practical purposes we are justified in diagnosing infectious abortion, if several animals in the herd abort, especially if it follows the introduction of new animals. Methods of serum diagnosis, the agglutination and complement-fixation tests, are now used in the diagnosis of this disease. _The preventive treatment_ of the accidental form consists in avoiding conditions that may result in this accident. Pregnant animals should not be exposed to injuries from other animals or from the surroundings. Animals which show a predisposition to abort should not be bred. We should see that all animals receive the necessary exercise and a proper ration. If the animal indicates by her actions that abortion may take place, we should give her comfortable, quiet quarters. It is very necessary to keep her quiet, and if restless, morphine may be given. A very light diet should be fed and constipation prevented by administering a laxative. The necessary attention should be given in case abortion occurs. The enforcement of _preventive_ or _quarantine measures_ is very important in the control of infectious abortion. This is especially true of breeding herds and dairy cows. Breeders do not recognize the importance of keeping their herds clean or free from disease. It is a well-known fact among stockmen that abortion and other infectious diseases have been frequently introduced into the herd through the purchase of one or more breeding animals. Because of the prevalence of infectious abortion among cows, it is advisable to subject newly purchased breeding animals, or a cow that has been bred outside of the herd, to a short quarantine period before allowing them to mix with the herd. The breeding of cows from neighboring herds to the herd bull is not a safe practice. In communities where there are outbreaks of this disease, animals that abort, or show indications of aborting, should be quarantined for a period of from two to three months. The separation from the herd should be so complete as to eliminate any danger of carrying the disease to the healthy animals on the clothing and farm tools. If this method of control were practised at the very beginning of the outbreaks, the disease could be checked in the large majority of herds. The foetus and membranes should be destroyed by burning. In case the animal does not pass the fetal membranes, they should be completely removed. In the cow, it is advisable to wait twenty-four hours before doing this. The animal's stall should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. It is very advisable to give the entire stable a thorough disinfecting. For this purpose a three or four per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound may be used. It is advisable to apply it with a spray pump. The floor and feed troughs should be sprinkled daily with the disinfectant. All manure should be removed to a place where the animals can not come in contact with it. It is not advisable to confine the cows to a small yard. The more range they have the easier it is to control the disease. _Individual treatment_ is very necessary. In infectious abortion the mucous lining of the womb and the passages leading to it become inflamed. This should be treated by irrigating the parts with a warm water solution of a disinfectant that is non-irritating. This treatment should be repeated daily for a period of from two to four weeks. We must be very careful not to irritate the parts. A one-half per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound may be used. Animals that abort should not be bred until they have completely recovered. Small animals that have no special value as breeding animals should be marketed. Cows and mares should not be bred for a period of at least three months. Infected males should not be used for service. The male should receive the necessary attention in the way of irrigating the sheath before and after each service. PHYSIOLOGY OF PARTURITION.--Parturition or birth, when occurring in the mare, is designated as foaling; in the cow, calving; in the sheep, lambing; and in the sow, farrowing. A normal or natural birth occurs when no complications are present and the mother needs no assistance. When the act is complicated and prolonged, it is termed abnormal birth. The length of time required for different individuals of the same species to give birth to their young varies widely. It may require but a few minutes, or be prolonged for a day or more. The cause of this variation in the length of time required for different animals to bring forth their young, can be better understood if we study the anatomy of the parts and their functions. Throughout the pregnant period the _expulsion of the foetus_ is being prepared for. As the foetus develops there is a corresponding development of the muscular wall of the womb. The last period of pregnancy is characterized by the relaxation of the muscles and ligaments that form the pelvic walls, and a relaxation and dilation of the maternal passages. In addition, degenerative changes occur in the structures that attach the foetus to the womb, the normal structures being gradually destroyed by a fatty degeneration. This results in a separation between the fetal and maternal placenta. The contents of the womb begin to affect the organ in the same manner as a foreign body, irritating the nerve endings and producing contractions of the muscles. These contractions of the muscles help greatly in breaking down the attachments until finally the labor pains begin in earnest, and the foetus is gradually forced out of the womb, through the dilated os and into the vagina and vulva. _A normal birth_ is possible, only when the expelling power of the womb is able to overcome the resistance offered by the foetus and its membranes, the pelvic walls and the vagina and vulva. [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Photograph of model of uterus of cow containing a foetus: foetus; umbilical cord; placenta; horn containing foetus; and opposite horn. Note the difference in the development of the two horns.] The relative size of the foetus to the inlet of the pelvic cavity and its position are the most important factors for the veterinarian and stockman to consider (Fig. 18). On leaving the womb, the foetus passes into the vagina and vulva. This portion of the maternal passages is situated in the pelvic cavity which continues the abdominal cavity posteriorly. The pelvic walls are formed by bones and ligaments that are covered by heavy muscles. As previously mentioned, the ligaments and muscles relax toward the end of pregnancy in order to prepare the way for the passage of the foetus. Before entering the pelvis it is necessary for the foetus to be forced through the inlet to this cavity. This is the most difficult part of the birth, as the bones that form the framework of the pelvis completely enclose the entrance to it. It is only in the young mother that the pelvic bones give way slightly to the pressure on them by the foetus. It can be readily understood, that when the young is large in proportion to the diameter of the pelvic inlet, it is difficult for it to pass through. This occurs when mothers belonging to a small breed, are impregnated by a sire belonging to a large breed of animals. It may also occur if the mother is fed too fattening a ration and not permitted sufficient exercise. The part of the foetus that presents itself for entrance into the pelvic cavity and its position are of the greatest importance in giving birth to the young. Either end of the foetus, or its middle portion may be presented for entrance. The _anterior_ and _posterior presentations_ may be modified by the position that the foetus assumes. It may be in a position that places the back or vertebrae opposite the upper portion of the inlet, or the floor or sides of the pelvic cavity. These positions may be modified by the position of one or both limbs, or the head and neck being directed forwards instead of backwards. In the _transverse presentations_, the back, or the feet and abdomen of the foetus may present themselves for entrance to the pelvic cavity. These presentations may show three positions each. The head may be opposite the upper walls of the inlet, the foetus assuming a dog-sitting position, or it may lie on either side. In order to overcome the friction between the foetus and the wall of the maternal passages, these parts are lubricated by the fluids that escape from the "water bags." If birth is prolonged and the passages become dry, birth is retarded. The hair offers some resistance in a posterior presentation. Young mares that become hysterical have abnormal labor pains that seem to hold the foetus in the womb instead of expelling it. CARE OF THE MOTHER AND YOUNG.--Although birth is generally easy in the different domestic animals, it may be difficult and complicated, and it is of the greatest economic importance that special attention be given the mother at this time. It is very necessary for her to be free if confined in a stall. If running in a pasture or lot, the necessary shelter from storms, cold or extreme heat should be provided. Other farm animals, such as hogs, horses and cattle, should not be allowed to run in the same lot or pasture. When parturition commences, the mother should be kept under close observation. If the labor is difficult and prolonged, we may then examine the parts and determine the cause of the abnormal birth. Unnecessary meddling is not advisable. Before attempting this examination, the hands should be cleaned and disinfected, and the finger nails shortened if necessary. The different conditions to be determined are the nature of the labor pains, the condition of the maternal passages, and the position and presentation of the foetus. In the smaller animals this examination may be difficult. In prolonged labor the parts may be found dry and the labor pains violent and irregular, or weak. The foetus may be jammed tightly into the pelvic inlet, it may be well forward in the womb, the head and fore or hind limbs may be directed backwards, or one or more of these parts may be directed forward in such a position as to prevent the entrance of the foetus into the pelvic inlet. Sometimes the foetus is in a transverse position. The parts that present themselves at the pelvic inlet should be carefully examined and their position determined. The necessary assistance should then be given. Any delay in assisting in the birth may result in the death of the young or mother, or both. On the other hand, unintelligent meddling may aggravate the case and render treatment difficult or impossible. There is no line of veterinary work that requires the attention of a skilled veterinarian more than assisting an irregular or abnormal birth. The attendant must guard against infecting the parts with irritating germs, or irritating and injuring them in any way. The hands, instruments, and cords must be freed from germs by washing with a disinfectant, or sterilization with heat. The quarters must be clean in order to prevent contamination of the instruments and clothing of the attendant by filth. Extreme force is injurious. For illustration, we may take a case of difficult birth caused by an unusually large foetus. Both presentation and position are normal, the forefeet and head having entered the pelvic cavity, but the shoulders and chest are jammed tightly in the inlet, and the progress of the foetus along the maternal passages is retarded. By using sufficient force, we may succeed in delivering the young, but by pulling on one limb until the shoulder has entered the pelvis, and repeating this with the opposite limb we are able to deliver the young without exposing the mother to injury. It may be necessary to change an abnormal presentation, or position, to a normal presentation, or as nearly normal as possible. This should be done before any attempt is made to remove the foetus. Following birth the mother should not be unnecessarily disturbed. The quarters should be clean, well bedded and ventilated, but free from draughts. If the parturition has been normal, a small quantity of easily digested feed may be fed. If weak and feverish, feed should be withheld for at least twelve hours. The mare should be rested for a few weeks. The young needs no special attention if it is strong and vigorous, but if weak, it may be necessary to support it while nursing, or milk the mother and feed it by hand. If the mother is nervous and irritable, it may be necessary to remove the young temporarily to a place where she can hear and see it, until a time when she can be induced to care for it. The principal attention required for young pigs is protection against being crushed by the mother. The cutting off and ligation of the umbilical cord at a point a few inches from the abdomen, and applying tincture of iodine or any reliable disinfectant is very advisable in the colt and calf. RETENTION OF THE FETAL MEMBRANES.--The foetus is enveloped by several layers of membranes. The _external envelope, the chorion_, is exactly adapted to the uterus. The _innermost envelope, the amnion_, encloses the foetus. Covering the external face of the amnion and lining the inner face of the chorion is a double membrane, _the allantois_. The envelopes mentioned are not the only protection that the foetus has against injury. It is enveloped in fluids as well. Immediately surrounding it is the _liquor amnii_, and within allantois is the _allantoic fluid._ [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Placenta of cow.] _The placenta_ is a highly vascular structure spread out or scattered over the surface of the chorion and the mucous membrane of the uterus, that attaches the foetus and its envelopes to the womb (Fig. 19). It is by means of this vascular apparatus that the foetus is furnished with nourishment. The fetal and maternal placentas are made up of vascular villi and depressions that are separated only by the thin walls of capillaries, and a layer of epithelial cells. This permits a change of material between the fetal and maternal circulation. The arrangement of the placenta differs in the different species. In the mare and sow, the villi are diffused. In ruminants, the villi are grouped at certain points. These vascular masses are termed cotyledons. The maternal cotyledons or "buttons" form appendages or thickened points that become greatly enlarged in the pregnant animal. Toward the end of the pregnant period, the attachments between the fetal and maternal placentulae undergo a fatty degeneration and finally separate. This results in contractions of the muscular wall of the uterus, and the expulsion of the foetus and its envelopes. In the mare, it is not uncommon for the colt to be born with the covering intact. This does not occur in the cow. Usually the envelopes are not expelled until a short time after birth in all animals, and it is not uncommon for them to be retained. This complication is most commonly met with in the cow. In the mare the _retention of the fetal envelopes_ or "afterbirth" is commonly due to the muscles of the womb not contracting properly following birth. Abortion, especially the infectious form, is commonly complicated by a retention of the fetal membranes. Any condition that may produce an inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb may result in retention of the "after-birth." Injuries to the uterus resulting from the animal slipping, fighting and becoming crowded are, no doubt, common causes of failure to "clean" in cows. _The symptoms_ are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made. A portion of the membranes is usually seen hanging from the vulva, and the tail and hind parts may be more or less soiled. The latter symptom is especially prominent if the membranes have been retained for several days, and decomposition has begun. In such case, the discharge from the vulva is dark in color, contains small pieces of the decomposed membrane and has a very disagreeable odor. In the mare, acute inflammation of the womb may result if the removal of the "after-birth" is neglected. Loss of appetite, abnormal body temperature, weakness and diarrhoea may follow. Such cases usually terminate in death. Retention of the fetal membranes is a very common cause of leucorrhoea. _The treatment_ consists in removing the fetal envelopes before there is any opportunity for them to undergo decomposition. In the mare, this should be practised within a few hours after birth has occurred, and in other animals, from one to forty-eight hours. In warm stables and during the warm weather, treatment should not be postponed later than twenty-four hours. The only successful method of treatment is to introduce the hand and arm into the uterus, and break down the attachments with the fingers. In the larger animals, the use of the arm must not be interfered with by clothing. Every possible precaution should be taken to prevent infection of the genital organs with irritating germs. It is advisable in most cases to flush out the womb with a one per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound after the removal of the fetal envelopes. LEUCORRHOEA.--This is a chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the genital tract, that is associated with more or less of a discharge from the vulva. It is common in animals that abort, or retain the "after-birth." The discharge may be white, sticky, albuminous, and without odor, or it may be chocolate colored and foul smelling. The tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it. In chronic inflammation of the womb the discharge is intermittent. In mild cases the health of the animal is in no way impaired. Sterility is common. Loss of appetite and unthriftiness occur in severe cases. _Treatment_.--Mild cases readily yield to treatment. This consists in irrigating the maternal passages with a one-half per cent warm water solution of liquor cresolis compound. This treatment should be repeated daily and continued for as long a time as necessary. MAMMITIS.--Inflammation of the mammary gland or udder is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals. In all animals it is most frequently met with during the first few weeks after birth. _A predisposing cause_ in the development of mammitis is a high development of the mammary glands. The following _direct causes_ may be mentioned: incomplete milking, or milking at irregular intervals; injury to the udder by stepping on the teat; blows from the horns and pressure caused by lying on a rough, uneven surface; chilling of the udder by draughts and lying on frozen ground; and infection of the glandular tissue by _irritating germs_. The latter cause produces the most serious, and, sometimes, a very extensive inflammation. This form of inflammation may spread from one cow to another, causing the milk to be unfit for food, and bringing about the loss of one or more quarters of the udder. _The symptoms_ occurring in the different forms of mammitis differ. The inflammation may involve one or more of the glands, and may affect either the glandular or the connective tissue. In some cases the gland may appear congested for a few days before the inflammatory changes occur. The part becomes hot, swollen, tender and reddened. It may feel doughy or hard. If the connective tissue is involved (interstitial form), there is apt to be a high body temperature, the udder may be much larger than normal, is tender and pits on pressure. Loss of appetite usually accompanies this form of mammitis. Very little or no milk is secreted. Sometimes, the milk is greatly changed in appearance, is foul smelling and contains pus. In congestion of the udder and rupture of the capillary vessels, the milk may contain blood. Mild inflammation of the udder responds readily to treatment. The interstitial form may terminate in abscesses and gangrene. The replacement of the glandular tissue by fibrous tissue in one or more quarters is not uncommon. Death seldom occurs. _The preventive treatment_ consists in avoiding conditions that may favor or cause an inflammation of the gland. Animals that have highly developed mammary glands should be fed a light diet just before and following parturition. Following parturition, a dose of Epsom or Glauber's salts may be given. If the young does not take all the milk, the udder should be milked out as clean as possible. Massaging the udder by kneading or stroking may be practised. The following _treatment_ is recommended: The application of a thick coating of antiphlogistin once or twice daily is a useful remedy. If the udder becomes badly swollen, it should be supported with a bandage. Extensive inflammation may be treated by the application of cold in the form of packs of cracked ice. Irrigating the gland with a four per cent water solution of boric acid is an important treatment for certain forms of mammitis. Abscess formation or suppuration should be promptly treated by opening and treating the abscesses. If gangrene occurs, it may be necessary to remove a part, or the whole of the udder. The giving of milk discolored with blood may be treated by applying camphorated ointment twice daily. SORE AND WARTY TEATS.--Irritation to the teats by filth, cold, moisture and injuries cause the skin to become inflamed, sore and scabby. _Preventive treatment_ is the most satisfactory. Sore teats may be treated by applying the following ointment after each milking: vaseline ten parts and oxide of zinc one part. Pendulous warts may be clipped off with a sharp pair of scissors. Castor oil applied to the wart daily by rubbing may be used for the removal of flat warts. "MILK-FEVER" OR POST-PARTUM PARALYSIS.--This is a disease peculiar to cows, especially heavy milkers that are in good condition. It most commonly occurs after the third, fourth and fifth calving. The disease usually appears within the first two or three days after calving, but it has been known to occur before, and as late as several weeks after calving. The cause is not certainly known. The Schmidt theory is that certain toxins are formed in the udder, owing to the over activity of the cells of the glandular tissue. [Illustration: FIG. 20.--A case of milk-fever.] _The symptoms_ are characteristic of the disease. At the very beginning of the attack the cow stops eating and ruminating, becomes uneasy, switches the tail, stamps the feet, trembles, staggers when forced to walk and finally falls and is unable to get up. At first she may lie in a natural position; later, as the paralytic symptoms become more pronounced, the head is laid against the side of the body and the animal seems to be in a deep sleep (Fig. 20). In the more severe form the cow lies on her side, consciousness is lost and the paralysis of the muscles is marked. The different body functions are interfered with; the urine is retained, bloating occurs, respirations are slow, pulse weak and temperature subnormal or normal. _Preventive treatment_, such as feeding a spare diet during the latter period of pregnancy, is not always advisable. Heavy milkers should be given one-half pound of Glauber's salts a day or two before calving, and the dose repeated when the cow becomes fresh. Cows affected with milk-fever seldom die if treated promptly. The _treatment_ consists in emptying the udder by milking and injecting air or oxygen gas into the gland until it is completely distended (Fig. 21). The milk-fever apparatus should be clean, and the air injected filtered. Before introducing the milking tube into the milk duct, the udder should first be washed with a disinfectant, and a clean towel laid on the floor for the gland to rest on. After injecting the quarter, strips of muslin or tape should be tied around the ends of the teats to prevent the escape of the air. If the cow does not show indications of recovery in from four to five hours, the treatment should be repeated. [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Milk-fever apparatus: pump; filter; rubber tubing; and milk tube.] It is very necessary to give the cow a comfortable stall and protect her from any kind of exposure. No bulky drenches should be administered. If she lies stretched out, the fore parts should be raised by packing straw under her. This is necessary in order to prevent pneumonia, caused by regurgitated feed entering the air passages and lungs. It is very advisable to give her the following mixture for a few days after the attack: tincture of nux vomica two ounces, and alcohol six ounces. One ounce of this mixture may be given four times daily in a little water. QUESTIONS 1. Name the generative organs of the female. 2. Name the generative organs of the male. 3. Give the causes of sterility or impotency in the male and female. 4. Give the treatment of impotency in the male and female. 5. Describe the probable signs of pregnancy; positive signs of pregnancy. 6. Describe the hygienic care of the pregnant female in a general way. 7. Name the different forms of abortion; give the causes. 8. Describe the preventive treatment of infectious abortion. 9. Give a general discussion of the physiology of parturition. 10. What are the common causes of difficult birth? 11. What parts of the foetus may present themselves at the inlet of the pelvic cavity? What are the different positions of the foetus? 12. What attention should be given the mother at the time of parturition? 13. What attention should be given the young immediately after birth? 14. Give the causes of retention of the fetal membranes; state the method of removing them. 15. Give the causes and treatment of inflammation of the udder. 16. Give the cause of milk-fever; give the treatment. CHAPTER VIII DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY APPARATUS GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The respiratory apparatus may be divided into two groups of organs, anterior and posterior. The anterior group, the _nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx_ and _trachea_, is situated in the region of the head and neck. The posterior group, the _bronchial tubes_ and _lungs_, is situated in the chest or thoracic cavity. _The nostrils_ are the anterior openings of the air passages. The nasal cavities are situated in the anterior region of the head, and extend the entire length of the face. Each cavity is divided into three long, narrow passages by the two pairs of turbinated bones. The lining membrane is the nasal mucous membrane, the lower two-thirds or respiratory portion differing from the upper one-third, in that the latter possesses the nerve endings of the olfactory nerve and is the seat of smell. The five pairs of head sinuses communicate with the nasal cavities. Posteriorly and near the superior extremity of the nasal passages, are two large openings, the guttural, that open into the pharyngeal cavity. _The pharynx_ is a somewhat funnel-shaped cavity. The walls are thin and formed by muscles and mucous membrane. This is the cross-road between the digestive and respiratory passages. In the posterior portion of the cavity there are two openings. The inferior opening leads to the larynx and the superior one to the oesophagus. All feed on its way to the stomach must pass over the opening into the larynx. It is impossible, however, for the feed to enter this opening, unless accidentally when the animal coughs. The cartilage closing this opening is pressed shut by the base of the tongue when the bolus of feed is passed back and into the oesophageal opening. _The larynx_ may be compared to a box open at both ends. The several cartilages that form it are united by ligaments. It is lined by a mucous membrane. The posterior extremity is united to the first cartilaginous ring of the trachea. The anterior opening is closed by the epiglottis. Just within is a V-shaped opening that is limited laterally by the folds of the laryngeal mucous membrane, the vocal chords. _The trachea_ is a cylindrical tube originating at the posterior extremity of the larynx, and terminating within the chest cavity at a point just above the heart in the right and left bronchial tubes. It is formed by a series of cartilaginous rings joined together at their borders by ligaments and lined by a mucous membrane. _The bronchial tubes_ resemble the trachea in structure. They enter the lungs a short distance from their origin, where they subdivide into branches and sub-branches, gradually decreasing in calibre and losing the cartilaginous rings, ligaments and muscular layer until only the thin mucous membrane is left. They become capillary in diameter, and finally open into the infundibula of the air cells of the lungs. _The lungs_ take up all of the space in the thoracic cavity not occupied by the heart, blood-vessels and oesophagus. This cavity resembles a cone in shape that is cut obliquely downwards and forward at its base. The base is formed by the diaphragm which is pushed forward at its middle. It is lined by the pleura, a serous membrane, that is inflected from the wall over the different organs within the cavity. The median folds of the pleura divide the cavity into right and left portions. A second method of describing the arrangement of the pleura is to state that it forms two sacks, right and left, that enclose the lungs. The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. The tissue that forms them is light, will float in water, is elastic and somewhat rose-colored. Each lung is divided into lobes, and each lobe into a great number of lobules by the supporting connective tissue. The lobule is the smallest division of the lung and is formed by capillary bronchial tubes, air cells and blood-vessels. It is here that the external respiration or the exchange of gases between the capillaries and the air cells occurs. VENTILATION.--It is agreed by all persons who have investigated the subject, that unventilated stable air is injurious to animals. At one time it was believed that the injurious effects resulting from the breathing of air charged with gases and moisture from the expired air and the animal's surroundings, were due to a deficiency in oxygen. It is now believed that the ill-effects are mainly due to the stagnation of air, the humid atmosphere, and the irritating gases emanating from the body excretions. The common impurities found in _stable air_ are carbonic and ammonia gas, moisture charged with injurious matter and dust from the floor and bodies of the animals. As a rule, the more crowded and filthy the stable, the more impurities there are in the air. If any of the animals are affected with an infectious disease, such as tuberculosis or glanders, the moisture and dust may act as carriers of the disease-producing germs. Infectious diseases spread rapidly in crowded, poorly ventilated stables. The two factors responsible for this rapid spread of disease are the lowered vitality of the animal, due to breathing the vitiated air, and the greater opportunity for infection, because of the comparatively large number of bacteria present in the air. _The purpose of stable ventilation_ is to replace the stable air with purer air. The frequency with which the air in the stable should be changed depends on the cubic feet of air space provided for each animal, and the sanitary conditions present. The principal factor in stable ventilation is the force of the wind. In cold weather it is very difficult to properly ventilate a crowded stable without too much loss of animal heat and creating draughts. For practical purposes, the _need of ventilation_ in a stable can be determined by the odor of the air, the amount of moisture present and the temperature. It is impossible to keep the air within the stable as pure as the atmosphere outside. All dangers from injury by breathing impure air, or by draughts can be eliminated by proper stable construction, attention to the ventilation and keeping the quarters clean. [Illustration: FIG. 22.--A case of catarrhal cold.] CATARRH (COLD IN THE HEAD).--Catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities that usually extends to the membrane lining of the sinuses of the head. It may be acute or chronic. The inflammation very often extends to the pharynx and larynx. Cold in the head is more common in the horse than in any of the other animals (Fig. 22). _The most common causes_ of "colds" are standing or lying in a draught, becoming wet, and exposure to the cold. "Colds" are common during cold, changeable weather. Horses that are accustomed to warm stables, are very apt to take "cold" if changed to a cold stable and not protected with a blanket. Most animals are not affected by the cold weather if given dry quarters and a dry bed. Irritation to the mucous membrane by dust, gases and germs is a common cause. Influenza and colt distemper are characterized by an inflammation of the respiratory mucous membranes. In the horse, chronic catarrh is commonly caused by diseased teeth, and injuries to the wall of the maxillary sinus. In sheep, the larvae of the bot-fly may cause catarrh. _The early symptoms_ usually pass unnoticed by the attendant. The lining membrane of the nostrils is at first dry and red. During this stage sneezing is common. In a few days a discharge appears. This is watery at first, but may become catarrhal, heavy, mucous-like and turbid. In severe cases it resembles pus. The lining membrane of the eyelids appears red and tears may flow from the eye. Sometimes the animal acts dull and feverish, but this symptom does not last longer than one or two days unless complicated by sore throat. _Inflammation of the throat_ is a common complication of "colds." It is characterized by difficulty in swallowing and partial, or complete loss of appetite. Drinking or exercising causes the animal to cough. If the larynx as well as the pharynx is inflamed, distressed and noisy breathing may occur. Pressure over the region of the throat causes the animal pain. Common "cold" terminates favorably within a week. Chronic catarrh may persist until the cause is removed and the necessary local treatment applied. Inflammation of the pharynx and larynx may persist for several weeks unless properly treated. Abscesses may form in the region of the throat. Horses frequently become thick winded as a result of severe attacks of sore throat. _The treatment_ is both preventive and curative. "Colds" and sore throat can be largely prevented by good care, exercise and properly ventilated stables. Mild cases require a light diet, comfortable quarters and a dry bed. Allowing the animal to inhale steam three or four times daily is useful in relieving the inflammation. Easily digested feeds, and in case the animal has difficulty in swallowing, soft feeds and gruels, should be given. The throat may be kept covered with a layer of antiphlogistin and bandaged. Glycoheroin may be given in from teaspoonful to tablespoonful doses, depending on the size of the animal. Chlorate of potassium may be given in the drinking water. If the animal becomes run down in flesh, as sometimes occurs in chronic catarrh, bitter tonics should be given. In the latter disease, it is sometimes necessary to trephine and wash out the sinus or sinuses affected with an antiseptic solution. It may be necessary to continue this treatment for several weeks. BRONCHITIS.--Inflammation of the bronchial tubes may be either acute or chronic. Acute bronchitis is especially common in the horse, while the chronic form is more often met with in the smaller animals, especially hogs. This disease is most common among horses during the changeable seasons of the years. It is _caused_ by warm, close stables or stalls, and irritating gases emanating from the floor, or manure in the stall. In general, the causes are about the same as in cold in the head. In young animals and hogs, the inhalation of dust, and bronchial and lung worms commonly cause it. Verminous bronchitis usually becomes chronic. _In the acute form_ of the disease the _symptoms_ come on very quickly, the fever is high and the pulse beats and respirations are rapid. Chilling of the body occurs, and the animal may appear dull and refuse to eat. The animal coughs frequently. Recovery occurs within a few days, unless complicated by sore throat and pneumonia. In the horse, bronchitis is not a serious disease, but in other animals recovery is delayed and complications are more common. _In chronic bronchitis_ in the horse, the animal coughs frequently, there is more or less discharge from the nostrils and the respirations may become labored when exercised. The animal is usually weak, in poor flesh and unfit for work. In other cases, symptoms of broken wind are noticed. Severe coughing spells on getting up from the bed, or on moving about are characteristic of bronchitis in hogs. Verminous bronchitis in calves and lambs is characterized by severe spells of coughing, difficult and labored breathing and a weak, emaciated condition. _The preventive treatment_ is the same as for "colds." In the acute form the treatment consists largely in careful nursing. Properly ventilated, clean quarters that are free from dust should be provided. The animal should be covered with a light or heavy blanket, depending on the temperature of the stable, and the limbs bandaged. A light diet should be fed for a few days. It is advisable to give the animal a physic of oil. The inhalation of steam every few hours during the first few days should be practised. Glycoheroin may be given three or four times a day. Animals affected with chronic bronchitis should not be exercised or worked. We should guard against their taking cold, give nourishing feeds, and a tonic if necessary. CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS.--Pulmonary congestion is generally due to overexertion and exposure to extreme heat or cold. It may occur if the animal is exercised when sick or exhausted. Hogs that are heated from exercise and allowed access to cold water, may suffer from a congestion or engorgement of the lungs. It may be present at the beginning of an attack of pneumonia or pleurisy. _The symptoms_ are difficult breathing and the animal fights for its breath. The body temperature may be several degrees above the normal. In the mild form, the above symptoms are not so marked. The onset and course of the disease are rapid, recovery, pneumonia, or death often occurring within twenty-four hours. _Pulmonary haemorrhage_ is not uncommon. The discharge from the nostrils may be slightly tinged with blood, or there may be an intermittent discharge of blood from the nostrils or mouth. The mucous membranes are pale, the animal trembles and shows marked dyspnoea. _The preventive treatment_ consists in using the proper judgment in caring for, and in working or exercising animals. This is especially true if the animal is affected with acute or chronic disease. At the very beginning, bleeding should be practised. Hot blankets renewed frequently and bandages to the limbs is a very necessary part of the treatment. In case of severe pulmonary haemorrhage, treatment is of little use. PNEUMONIA.--Inflammation of the lungs is more common in horses than in any of the other domestic animals. The croupous form is the most common. The inflammation may affect one or both lungs, one or more lobes, or scattered lobules of lung tissue. The inflammation may be acute, subacute or chronic. _The causes_ are very much the same as in other respiratory diseases. Exposure to cold and wet, stable draughts, becoming chilled after perspiring freely and washing the animal with cold water are the common causes of pneumonia. Inflammation of the lungs is especially apt to occur if the animal is not accustomed to such exposure. Animals affected with other respiratory diseases are predisposed to pneumonia. Drenching animals by way of the nostril and irritating drenches, or regurgitated feed passing into the air passages and lungs are the traumatic causes of pneumonia. _The symptoms_ vary in the different forms of pneumonia. In case pneumonia occurs secondarily, the earliest symptoms are confounded with those of the primary disease. The first symptoms noticed may be a high body temperature, as indicated by chills, and refusing to eat. The visible mucous membranes are red and congested, the nostrils dilated, the respirations quickened and difficult, the expired air hot and the pulse beats accelerated. The animal coughs, and in the horse, a rusty discharge may be noticed adhering to the margins of the nostrils. The horse refuses to lie down if both lungs are inflamed. In severe cases the expression of the face indicates pain, the respirations are labored, the general symptoms aggravated, and the animal stands with the front feet spread apart. Cattle are inclined to lie down, unless the lungs are seriously affected. Hogs like to burrow under the litter. _The course of croupous pneumonia_ is typical, and unless it terminates fatally in the first stage, the periods of congestion, hepatization and resolution follow each other in regular manner. Auscultation of the lungs is of great value in diagnosing and watching the progress of the disease. It is more difficult to determine the character of the lung sounds in the horse and cow than it is in the small animals. This is especially difficult if the animal is fat. During the period of _congestion_ which lasts about a day, one can hear both healthy and crepitating sounds. The period of _hepatization_ is characterized by an absence of sound over the diseased area. The inflammatory exudates become organized at the beginning of this stage, and the air can not enter the air cells. This period lasts several days. _Resolution_ marks the beginning of recovery or convalescence. Toward the end of the second period, the inflammatory exudate in the air cells has begun to degenerate. In the last stage, these exudates undergo liquefaction and are absorbed, or expelled by coughing, in from seven days to two weeks, depending on the extent of the inflammation and the general condition of the animal. _In the subacute form_ the symptoms are mild and may subside within a week. Sometimes _abscesses_ form in the lung. _Gangrenous inflammation_ of the lung can be recognized by the odor of the expired air and the severity of the symptoms. This form of pneumonia terminates fatally. If the larger portion of the lung tissue is inflamed, death from asphyxia may occur in the second stage. The success in the _treatment_ of pneumonia depends largely on the care. Properly ventilated, clean, comfortable quarters and careful nursing are highly important. Large animals should be given a roomy box stall. Cold does not aggravate pneumonia, providing the animal's body is well protected with blankets and the limbs bandaged. Wet, damp quarters and draughts are injurious. Hogs should be given plenty of bedding to burrow in. A light, easily digested diet should be fed. Very little roughage should be fed. If the animal does not eat well, it may be given eggs and milk. Weak pulse beats should be treated by giving digitalis and strychnine. Counterirritation to the chest wall is indicated. During convalescence, bitter tonics may be given. Constipation should be treated by giving the animal castor or linseed oil. PLEURISY.--Inflammation of the pleura is most common in horses. It occurs in all farm animals and is frequently unilateral. There are two forms of pleurisy, acute and chronic. Pleuropneumonia is common when the cause is a specific germ. This occurs in tuberculosis, pleuropneumonia of horses and pneumococcus infection. _The common causes_ are exposure to cold, chilling winds, draughty, damp quarters, and drinking cold water when perspiring. Injuries to the costal pleura by fractured ribs and punctured wounds may cause it to become inflamed. The early symptoms of acute pleurisy are chills, rise in body temperature, pain and abdominal breathing. The most characteristic symptom is the ridge extending along the lower extremities of the ribs (pleuritic ridge). The animal does not stand still as in pneumonia, but changes its position occasionally, its movements in many cases being accompanied by a grunt. Pressure on the wall of the chest causes the animal to flinch and show evidence of severe pain. Large animals rarely lie down. The cough is short and painful. On placing the ear against the wall of the chest and listening to the respirations, we are able to hear friction sounds. After a few days effusion occurs in the pleural cavity. Although the animal may have refused to eat up to this time, it now appears greatly relieved and may offer to eat its feed. This relief may be only temporary. If the fluid exudate forms in sufficient quantity to cause pressure on the heart and lungs and interfere with their movement, the pulse beat is weak, the respirations quick and labored, the elbows are turned out and the feet are spread apart. All of the respiratory muscles may be used. The expression of the face may indicate threatened asphyxia. We may determine the extent of the pleural exudate by auscultation. There is no evidence of respiratory sounds in that portion of the chest below the surface of the fluid. Dropsical swellings may occur on the under surface of the breast and abdomen. _In subacute cases_ evidence of recovery is noted in from four to ten days. _Acute pleurisy_ very often terminates fatally. Under the most favorable conditions, recovery takes place very slowly, sometimes extending over a period of several months. It is not uncommon for the horse to continue having "defective wind." _The treatment_ consists in good care, well ventilated quarters and careful nursing, the same as recommended in the treatment of pneumonia. At the very beginning, the pain may be relieved by the administration of small doses of morphine. If the conditions in the stable permit, a hot blanket that has been dipped in hot water and wrung out as dry as possible, may be applied to the chest wall and covered with a rubber blanket. This treatment should be continued during the first few days of the inflammation. These applications may be reinforced by occasionally applying mustard paste to the sides of the chest. The animal should be allowed to drink but a limited amount of water. The feed must be highly nutritious. Milk and eggs should be given if necessary. A laxative dose of oil should be given. Calomel, aloes, and digitalis are recommended when the effusion period approaches in order to increase the elimination of fluid, and lessen its entrance into the body cavity. If the amount of effusion is large, puncture of the thoracic cavity with a trocar and cannula may be practised. This operation should be performed carefully, and all possible precautions used against infection of the wound. During the later period of the disease iodide of potassium, iron and bitter tonics should be given. BROKEN-WIND, HEAVES.--The terms broken-wind and heaves are used in a way to include a number of different diseases of the respiratory organs of the horse. The term heaves is applied almost wholly to an emphysematous condition of the lungs. Broken-wind may include the following diseased conditions: obstruction of the nasal passages by bony enlargements and tumors; tumors in the pharynx; enlarged neck glands; collection of pus in the guttural pouches and paralysis of the left, or both recurrent nerves (roaring). _The common causes_ of heaves are pre-existing diseases of the respiratory organs, severe exercise when the animal is not in condition and wrong methods of feeding. Heaves is more common in horses that are fed heavily on dusty timothy and clover hay and allowed to drink large quantities of water after feeding, than in horses that are fed green feeds, graze on pastures or receive prairie hay for roughage. Chronic indigestion seems to aggravate the disease. Over-distention of the stomach and intestines due to feeding too much roughage and grain interferes with respiration. Severe exercise when in this condition may result in over-distention, dilation and rupture of the air cells. This is the most common structural change met with in the lungs of horses affected with heaves. It is termed emphysema. _The common symptoms_ noted are the double contraction of the muscles of the flank with each expiration, a short, dry cough and the dilated nostrils. The frequent passage of gas is a prominent symptom in well-established cases of heaves. Chronic indigestion is commonly present in heavy horses that are not well cared for, or are given hard work. This condition aggravates the distressed breathing. Heaves is a permanent disorder, but it may be relieved by climatic changes and careful attention to the animal's diet. The following _preventive treatment_ is recommended: Dusty hay should not be fed to horses. Clover hay is not a safe feed for horses that are worked hard. When starting on a drive after feeding, the horse should not be driven fast, but allowed to go slowly for a few miles. The symptoms can be greatly relieved by careful attention to the diet. A limited quantity of roughage should be fed, and this should be good in quality and fed in the evening. During the warm weather, the animal should be watered frequently. After quitting work in the evening the animal may be allowed to drink as much water as it wants. Plenty of grain, soft feed and roots may be fed. A small handful of flaxseed meal given with the feed helps in keeping down constipation. Fowler's solution of arsenic may be given twice daily with the feed, in half-ounce doses for a period of ten days or two weeks. Chronic indigestion should be combated by digestive tonics. QUESTIONS 1. Name the organs that form the anterior and posterior air passages. 2. To what conditions are the injurious effects of keeping animals in a poorly ventilated stable due? 3. State the purpose of ventilation. How can the need of ventilation be determined in a stable? 4. State the causes of "cold" in the head; give the treatment. 5. State the cause of bronchitis; give the treatment. 6. What are the causes of pneumonia? Describe the symptoms and treatment. 7. What symptoms are characteristic of pleurisy? Give the treatment for pleurisy. 8. Give the causes and treatment of "heaves." CHAPTER IX DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The circulatory organs are the heart, arteries, veins and lymphatics. The _heart_ is the central organ of the circulatory system (Fig. 23). Its function is to force the blood through the blood-vessels. It is situated in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, and enclosed by a special fold of the pleura, the pericardial sack. There are two kinds of blood-vessels, arteries and veins. The _arteries_ leave the heart and carry the blood to the many different organs of the body. The _veins_ return to the heart and carry the blood from the body tissues. The _capillaries_ are small blood-vessels, microscopic in size, that connect the arteries with the veins. The arteries carry the pure blood. The opposite is true, however, of the lesser or pulmonary system. The pulmonary artery carries the impure blood to the lungs, and the pulmonary veins carry the pure blood back from the lungs. The _lymphatic vessels_ carry a transparent or slightly colored fluid and chyle from the tissues and alimentary canal. This system of vessels empties into the venous system. [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Photograph of model of horse's heart: auricle; ventricle; pulmonary artery; pulmonary veins; posterior aorta; and anterior aorta.] _The functions of the blood_ are to nourish the body tissues; furnish material for the purpose of the body secretions; supply the cells of the body with oxygen; convey from the tissues injurious substances produced by the cellular activity; and destroy organisms that may have entered the body tissues. The cellular and fluid portions of the blood are not always destructive to disease-producing organisms. In certain infectious diseases, the fluid portion of the blood may contain innumerable organisms, and destruction of the blood cells occurs. _In inflammation_ of tissue the circulation of the blood in the inflamed part undergoes certain characteristic changes. At the beginning there is an increase in the blood going to the part. This is followed by a slowing of the blood stream in the small vessels, and the collecting of the blood cells in the capillaries and veins. These circulatory changes are followed by the migration of the blood cells, and the escape of the fluid portion of the blood into the surrounding tissue. The character of the above circulatory changes depends on the extent of the injury to the tissue. PALPITATION.--This disturbance in domestic animals seems to be purely functional. It may occur independent of any organic heart disease. A highly nervous condition, excitement, over-exertion, debility from disease and the feeding of an improper ration are the common causes. The heart beats are so violent and tumultuous as to shake the body, and be noticed when standing near the animal. The heart sounds are louder than normal and the pulse beats small and irregular. It may be differentiated from spasm of the diaphragm by determining the relationship of the heart beats to the abrupt shocks observed in the costal and flank regions. _The treatment_ consists in keeping the animal quiet and avoiding any excitement. A quiet stall away from the other animals is best. The treatment of palpitation resulting from some organic heart disease must be directed largely at the original disease. Morphine is commonly used for the treatment of this disorder. Weak, anaemic animals should receive blood and bitter tonics. If we have reason to believe that the disturbance is caused by improper feeding, the animal should receive a spare diet for a few days. In such cases it is advisable to administer a physic. PERICARDITIS.--Inflammation of the pericardial sack is usually a secondary disease. It is frequently met with in influenza, contagious pleuropneumonia, hog-cholera and rheumatism. Cattle may suffer from traumatic pericarditis caused by sharp, pointed, foreign bodies passing through the wall of the reticulum and penetrating the pericardial sack. The jagged ends of fractured ribs may cause extensive injury to neighboring parts, and the inflammation spreads to the pericardial sack. _The symptoms_ of pericarditis may not be recognized at the very beginning when the disease occurs as a complication of influenza, or infectious pleuropneumonia. The manifestation of pain by moving about in the stall, refusing to eat and the anxious expression of the face are the first symptoms that the attendant may notice. The body temperature is higher than normal, and the pulse rapid and irregular. On auscultation, friction sounds that correspond to the tumultuous beats of the heart are heard. When fluid collects within the pericardial sack, the heart beats become feeble and the pulse weak. Labored breathing and bluish discoloration of the lips follow. The disease usually runs a very acute course. The prognosis is unfavorable. _The treatment_ recommended in pneumonia is indicated in this disease. Absolute rest and the feeding of an easily digested, laxative diet is a very essential part of the treatment. At the very beginning morphine may be given to quiet the tumultuous beats of the heart. Cold applications to the chest wall in the form of ice packs should be used. Heart tonics and stimulants such as digitalis, strychnine and alcohol should be administered when the pulse beats weaken. To promote absorption of the exudate, iodide of sodium may be given. Mustard paste, or a cantharides blister applied over the region of the heart is useful in easing the pain and overcoming the inflammation. If fluid collects in sufficient quantity to seriously interfere with the heart action, the sack may be punctured with the trocar and cannula and the fluid withdrawn. Great care must be used to avoid injury to the heart and infection of the part. [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Elephantiasis in horse.] ACUTE LYMPHANGITIS.--This is an inflammation of the lymphatic vessels of one or both hind limbs. The attack comes on suddenly and usually occurs in connection with rest, and in horses that are of slow, quiet temperament. The _exciting cause_ is an infection of the part with bacteria, the infection probably occurring through some abrasion or small wound in the skin. _The local symptoms_ are swelling, tenderness and lameness in the affected limb. The animal may refuse to support its weight on the affected limb. The lymphatic glands in the region are swollen, and the swelling of the limb pits on pressure. In the chronic form of the disease, the regions of the cannon and foot remain permanently enlarged, and the swelling is more firm than it is in the acute form (Fig. 24). _The general symptoms_ are high body temperature, rapid pulse and the partial or complete loss of appetite. _The following treatment_ is recommended: Exercise is indicated in cases that are not sufficiently advanced to cause severe lameness, or inability to use the limb; rest and the application of woollen bandages wrung out of a hot water solution of liquor cresolis compound are recommended; Epsom salts in one-half pound doses may be given and repeated in two or three days; a very light diet of soft feed should be given; liniments should _not_ be applied until the soreness in the limb has subsided; iodide of potassium may be given twice daily with the feed. QUESTIONS 1. What are the functions of the blood and lymph? 2. State the changes occurring in the circulation in inflamed tissue. 3. What is palpitation? Give the causes and treatment. 4. What are the common causes of pericarditis? 5. Give the causes and treatment of acute lymphangitis. CHAPTER X DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The nervous system may be divided into central and peripheral portions. The _central portion_ comprises the brain or encephalon and the spinal cord. These organs are lodged in the cranial cavity and spinal canal. The nerves and ganglia comprise the _peripheral portion_. The nerves form white cords that are made up of nerve fibres. The ganglia are grayish enlargements formed by nerve cells and supporting tissue, situated at the origin of the nerve trunk or along its course. _The brain_ is an oval mass of nerve tissue elongated from before to behind, and slightly depressed from above to below. It terminates posteriorly in the spinal cord. It is divided into three portions: _cerebrum, isthmus_ and _cerebellum_ (Fig. 25). _The cerebrum_ forms the anterior portion. It is divided into two lateral lobes or hemispheres by a deep longitudinal fissure. The surface of the cerebral hemispheres is gray and roughened by pleats or folds separated by grooves or fissures. The gray or cortical layer is distinct from the white or connecting structure. The cortical layer is made up of nerve cells or areas which control the voluntary muscles of the body. It is connected with the special senses of touch, temperature and muscle-sense. The gray layer is connected with the posterior portion of the brain, the isthmus or medulla oblongata, by the white nerve tissue. _The isthmus_ or _medulla oblongata_ is elongated from before to behind and connects the cerebral hemispheres with the spinal cord, anteriorly and posteriorly. It is divided into several different portions, and is made up largely of white connecting fibres with nuclei of gray matter scattered through them. The isthmus is hollowed out by a system of small ventricles that extend from the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord, where they terminate in a small, central canal. The isthmus is the highway between the spinal cord and the higher nerve centres. It has in it certain cell centres that give origin to six of the cranial nerves. [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Photograph of model of horse's brain: longitudinal section; lateral view; cerebrum; cerebellum; and isthmus.] The third division of the brain is the _cerebellum_. This is a single mass supported by the isthmus. It is situated posterior to the cerebrum, from which it is separated by a transverse fold of the membranes covering the brain. This mass of nerve tissue is much smaller than the cerebrum. The white nerve tissue forms central nuclei which send out branches that ramify in every direction. The centre of the muscular sense is said to be located in this division of the brain. A second function is the maintenance of body equilibrium through its connection with the nerve of the middle ear. _The spinal cord_ commences at the posterior opening (occipital foramen) of the cranial cavity, and terminates posteriorly in the lumbar region at the upper third of that portion of the spinal canal belonging to the sacrum. It is thick, white in color, irregularly cylindrical in shape, slightly flattened above and below and reaches its largest diameter in the lower cervical and lumbar regions. The spinal canal is lined by the outer membrane that envelops the cord, which aids in fixing this organ to the wall of the canal. The spinal cord is formed by white and gray nerve tissue. The gray tissue is situated within the white, and it is arranged in the form of two lateral comma-shaped columns connected by a narrow commissure of gray matter. The extremities of the lateral gray columns mark the origin of the superior and inferior roots of the spinal nerves. The white tissue of the cord is also divided into lateral portions by superior and median fissures. The inferior fissure does not extend as far as the gray commissure, leaving the lateral inferior columns connected by a white commissure. There are certain centres in the spinal cord that are capable of carrying on certain reflex actions independent of the chief centre in the brain. The white matter of the cord is made up of paths over which impulses to and from the brain are transmitted. _There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves_. Two pairs belong exclusively to the special senses, smell and sight. Altogether there are ten pairs that are devoted to functions connected with the head, either as nerves of the special senses or in a motor or sensory capacity (Figs. 26 and 27). There are two pairs distributed to other regions. These are the tenth and eleventh pairs. The tenth pair or pneumogastric is distributed to the vital organs lodged within the body cavities. There are forty-two or forty-three pairs of spinal nerves given off from the spinal cord. The spinal nerves have two roots, superior and inferior. The superior is the sensory root and the inferior is the motor root, both uniting to form a mixed nerve trunk. The sensory root possesses a ganglion from which it originates. Generally speaking, the cerebrospinal system deals with the special senses, movement of skeletal or voluntary muscles and cutaneous and muscular sensations. In addition to the above there is a distinct system termed the sympathetic. The _sympathetic system_ consists of a long cord, studded with ganglia, extending from the base of the neck to the sacrum. The ganglia are connected with the inferior roots of the spinal nerves. This cord is connected with groups of ganglia and nerve fibres in the abdominal region, and this in turn is connected with terminal ganglia in distant tissues. This system of nerves is distributed to the vital organs of the body. [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Unilateral facial paralysis caused by injury to seventh cranial nerve; note position of lip.] [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Bilateral facial paralysis. This colt was affected with facial paralysis when born.] CONGESTION AND ANAEMIA OF THE BRAIN.--In congestion of the brain, the blood-vessels distributed to the nerve tissue become engorged with blood. It may be either active or passive. _The cause of anaemia_ of the brain is an insufficient blood supply. This may be due to an abundant haemorrhage and cardiac weakness caused by shock or organic heart disease. _The causes of congestion_ of the brain are faulty methods of care and feeding. It sometimes occurs when horses are shipped in poorly ventilated cars, or kept in close stables. Climatic changes, or changing the stable and feed, may cause it. Extremely fat animals and animals that are rapidly putting on fat are predisposed to this disorder. Improper methods of feeding, lack of exercise, constipation and excitement are the most common causes. Passive congestion may result from pressure on the jugular vein by obstructing the flow of blood from the brain, and raising blood pressure in the blood-vessels of the brain. It is sometimes caused by organic heart trouble. _The symptoms_ come on very suddenly in congestion of the brain. The disease may manifest itself as soon as the animal is moved out of the stall or bed, or it may come on while it is feeding. In slight cases, the animal appears excited and restless, the eyes are bright, the pupils are dilated, and the pulse beats and respirations quickened. If the animal is moving about, it may stop suddenly and show marked symptoms of a nervous disorder, such as turning around, running straight ahead and falling down. The period of excitement is usually brief and may be followed by marked depression. The mucous membranes of the head are a deep, red color. _The symptoms_ in anaemic conditions of the brain are loss of consciousness, stumbling, falling to the ground and sometimes convulsions. The pig and dog may vomit. Favorable cases return to the normal within a few hours. Acute inflammatory diseases of the brain and its coverings are associated with cerebral hyperaemia or congestion. _The treatment_ of mild cases is to give the animal quiet, well-ventilated quarters, where it can not injure itself. The animal should be first subjected to a severe diet and later given easily-digested feed. If it appears greatly excited, bleeding should be practised. Cold applications to the head should be used in all cases in the small animals. For internal treatment, purgatives are indicated. In cases of anaemia, stimulants, vigorous massage, artificial respiration and injection of physiological salt solution are indicated. SUNSTROKE AND HEATSTROKE.--Most writers make no distinction between heatstroke and sunstroke. The latter is caused by the direct rays of the sun falling on the animal, and the former from a high temperature and poor circulation of air in the surroundings. Under such conditions, the physical condition of the animal and exertion play an important part in the production of the nervous disturbance. _The first symptoms_ usually noted are rapid, labored breathing, depression and an anxious expression on the face. The horse usually stops sweating. The body temperature is extremely high, the pulse beats weak, the animal trembles, falls to the ground and dies in a convulsion. Unless measures directed toward relief of the animal are taken early in the attack, death commonly occurs. Overheating is rather common in horses that are worked hard during the extremely warm weather. Horses that have been once overheated are afterwards unable to stand severe work during the hot months of the year. Horses in this condition become unthrifty, do not sweat freely and pant if the work is hard and the weather is warm. _The preventive measures_ consist in not exposing animals that are fat, or out of condition to severe exercise if the day is close and hot, especially if they are not accustomed to it. When handling or working animals during hot weather all possible precautions to prevent overheating should be practised. _The treatment_ consists in placing the animal in a cool, shady place and fomenting the body with cold water. The cold packs or cold fomentations should be applied to the head and forepart of the body only. Small doses of stimulants may be given. MENINGO-CEREBRITIS.--The discussion of inflammation of the brain and its coverings can be combined conveniently, as the causes, symptoms and treatment vary but little. This disorder is met with in all species of domestic animals, but it is most common in horses and mules. Some writers state that meningo-cerebritis is more common during the warm season than it is in the winter. However, this does not hold true in all sections. In the middle west, this disease is more common in late fall and winter. _It is commonly caused_ by taking into the body with the feed and water certain organisms and toxins that are capable of producing an inflammation of the brain. The infectious organism or toxins are taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestines. The secondary form of the disease usually occurs in connection with other diseases such as influenza, tuberculosis and acute pharyngitis, or as a result of wound infection. Unhygienic conditions, as unsanitary and poorly ventilated stables and filthy drinking places, play a very important part in the production of the simple or acute form of meningitis. Sudden changes in the feed and the feeding of rotten, mouldy feeds may cause it. In the fall and winter it may follow the feeding of too heavy a ration of shredded fodder or any other dry feed. Other exciting causes are overexertion, changes in climate, excitement, injuries to the head and the feeding of too heavy and concentrated a ration. _The symptoms_ vary in the different individuals, but in general they are the same. At first the animal is dull, or extremely nervous and sensitive to sounds. The pupils of the eye are unevenly contracted at first, later dilated. The eyes may appear staring, or they are rolled about, so that the white portion is prominent. The unusual excitement is manifested in different ways by the different species. During the dull period the animal is indifferent to its surroundings. When it is excited, the pulse beats and respirations are accelerated. The body temperature is often elevated early in the disease. There is a partial or complete loss of appetite. Paralysis may be the most prominent symptom. The animal lies in a natural position, or stretched out and lifting the head occasionally and moving the limbs, but it is unable to rise. Loss of sensibility may gradually progress until the animal becomes semiconscious, or comatose. In case the inflammation is acute and involves the greater portion of the brain and its coverings, death occurs within a few days. Occasionally the animal survives several weeks. There are few permanent or complete recoveries. _The principal lines of treatment_ are preventive measures and careful nursing. This is one of the diseases that can be largely prevented by observing all possible sanitary precautions in caring for animals. It is admitted by writers that the greater majority of cases of inflammation of the brain and its coverings are caused by infection. Proper stable construction, ventilation and disposal of the manure, an occasional disinfection of the stable, cleaning and disinfecting the drinking places and water tanks, and the necessary attention to the ration greatly reduce the loss from this disease. The animal should be gotten into a dark, quiet, roomy stall that is well bedded. A swing may be placed under a large animal if it is able to support any of its weight, and there is no evidence of nervous excitement. We should do nothing to disturb it. If possible, the position of the animal that is unable to get up should be changed, and the bed kept clean and dry. Cold in the form of wet or ice packs should be applied to the head during the acute stage. Symptoms of excitement must be overcome by large doses of sedatives. Iodide of potassium and strychnine may help in overcoming the paralysis. The bowels should be emptied by giving an occasional physic. A very light, easily digested diet should be fed. PARTIAL OR COMPLETE PARALYSIS OF THE POSTERIOR PORTION OF THE BODY.--This disorder is especially common in the small animals. The hog is most frequently affected. _The following causes_ may be mentioned: Inflammation of the spinal cord commonly occurs in influenza, strangles and mixed infections; constipation brought on by improper feeding and insufficient exercise is a predisposing cause; injuries such as strains and blows in the region of the back may also cause it; compression of the spinal cord by the vertebrae is no doubt a very common cause; dislocation, enlargement of the disks between the vertebrae, bony enlargements resulting from strains and injuries, rickets, tuberculosis and actinomycosis and tumors commonly cause compression of the cord. It is rarely caused by parasites. Young, fat animals are especially prone to injuries in the region of the back. Such animals may suffer from malnutrition of the bones, and complete fractures of the thigh bones may occur. Extreme heat from the sun's rays and close, hot quarters are probable causes. _The symptom_ that is most prominent is the partial or complete loss of control over the movements of the hind parts. The appetite may be little interfered with. The animal may sit on the haunches, with the limbs projecting forward, or swing the hind quarters from side to side in walking or trotting. Irregularity in the animal's movements is especially noticeable when turning or backing. In case the animal suffers pain, the spine is held rigid or arched, and when forced to move, marked evidence of pain occurs. There may be a decrease or increase in the sensibility of the part. The increase in sensibility is noticed on striking the muscles with the hand or rubbing the hair the wrong way. Spasmodic twitching or contractions in the muscles sometimes occur. There is frequent elevation of temperature. The animal is unable to pass urine or faeces, or there may be an involuntary passage of the body excretions. The outcome of this disease is unfavorable. Acute inflammation of the covering of the cord may subside within a few days. Cases that do not recover within a few weeks should be destroyed. Paralysis of the hind parts should not be confused with rheumatism, azoturia and other disorders that may interfere with the movements of the posterior portion of the body. _The treatment_ is largely along preventive lines. A predisposition toward rickets, and injuries, may be prevented by feeding a proper ration, and permitting the animal to take exercise. The quarters and the attendant are frequently responsible for injuries. If this is the case, the rough handling of the animals should be immediately corrected, and any condition of the quarters that favors the crowding or piling up of animals should be changed. Large animals may be placed in swings if they are able to support a part of their weight on the hind limbs. This is especially indicated at the very beginning of the disorder. Small animals should be given a good bed. A very light, easily digested ration should be fed. An occasional physic should be administered. Strychnine and iodide of potassium may be given. Cold applications to the back are indicated. QUESTIONS 1. What organs comprise the central portion of the nervous system? Peripheral portion? 2. Give a general description of the brain. 3. Give a general description of the spinal cord. 4. What is the sympathetic system? 5. Describe the causes and symptoms of congestion of the brain. 6. What is heatstroke? Give the treatment. 7. Give the preventive and curative treatment of inflammation of the brain. 8. State the causes, and give the proper treatment of paralysis of the posterior portion of the body. CHAPTER XI DISEASES OF THE SKIN GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The two layers that form the skin are the _epidermis_ and the _derma_. The cells of the outer layer or epidermis are of two kinds. The superficial portion is formed by horny, flattened cells and the deeper by softer cells. This layer of the skin varies greatly in thickness in the different species. The derma is composed of some muscular fibres interwoven with the connective-tissue fibres. It contains the roots of the hair follicles, sweat and oil glands. The external face which is covered by the epidermis shows a multitude of little elevations. These are the vascular and nervous papillae. In addition, it shows openings through which the hairs and the skin glands pass. The inner surface is united more or less closely to the muscular or underlying tissue by a layer of fibro-fatty tissue. _The appendages of the skin_ are the hairs and horny productions. The horny productions comprise the horns, chestnuts, ergots, claws and hoofs. _The hair varies_ in length, thickness and coarseness in the different species, and the different regions of the body. In addition, breeding, care, heat and cold may cause marked variations in the thickness of the coat. Exposure to cold causes the coat to thicken. High temperatures cause the short hairs to drop out and the coat to become thin. Diseases of the skin may be _classified as parasitic_ and _non-parasitic_. Parasitic skin diseases are caused by animal and vegetable parasites. Non-parasitic skin diseases are caused by irritation to the skin and internal causes. Irritation to the skin may be either chemical, thermic or mechanical. The internal causes may be due to an individual predisposition together with digestive disturbances and the eating of feeds too rich in protein. In this chapter parasitic skin diseases produced by insects will not be discussed. FALLING OUT OF THE HAIR AND FEATHERS.--Falling out of the hair and feathers frequently occurs independent of parasitic diseases. This condition does not occur as an independent disorder, but as a secondary affection. It is due to faulty nutrition, and irritation to the skin. Intestinal diseases, insufficient feed and feed of bad quality are common causes. Animals that are fed a heavy ration, or that lie on dirty, wet bedding frequently lose large patches of hair. Sheep that are dipped in late fall and early winter, or exposed to wet, cold weather may lose a part of their fleece. It is not uncommon for animals toward the latter period of pregnancy, or that sweat freely, to lose patches of hair. Falling out of the hair heals of itself within a few weeks. _The preventive measures_ are of special importance in sheep and horses. This consists in avoiding conditions that may lead to alopecia and in correcting the diet. In horses the regions of the mane and tail should be washed with soap, or rubbed with alcohol and spirits of camphor, equal parts. Treatment should be persisted in for a long period if necessary. URTICARIA, "NETTLERASH."--Urticaria is characterized by roundish elevations that appear quickly and become scattered over a part or the whole surface of the skin. They are caused by an inflammatory infiltration of the deeper layers of the skin. Horses and hogs are most frequently affected. _The causes_ of urticaria are irritating juices of certain plants, secretions of flies, ants and some caterpillars, irritating drugs, scratching, sweating and the action of cold on a warm skin. It has been observed in connection with the feeding of certain leguminous feeds and digestive disturbances. Horses that are fat, or putting on flesh rapidly, seem to be predisposed to this disorder. Urticaria may occur in certain infectious diseases. _The characteristic symptom_ is the formation on the skin of roundish elevations or "hives." There may be an elevation of body temperature and partial loss of appetite. Small animals may act restless and show evidence of itching or pain. This symptom is very common in hogs. The eruption may last only a few hours or a few days, or, because of the animal's scratching or rubbing the part, the skin may become scabby and small pustules form. An important _preventive measure_ is to avoid the use of agents capable of irritating the skin and producing urticaria when treating parasitic skin diseases. It is very advisable to give the animal a saline cathartic (Epsom or Glauber's salts). The skin may be washed with cold water, or a weak water solution of permanganate of potassium. ACNE, "SUMMER RASH."--In this skin disease the oil glands and hair follicles are inflamed and sometimes infected with pus germs. This results in skin eruptions varying in size from the point of a pin to about a quarter of an inch in diameter. This inflammation is most prominent during the warm weather. _The causes_ are local irritation to the skin from lying on filthy floors, sweating and irritation from the harness. According to some writers, pus germs are the only cause, the mechanical agents merely aiding in the production of the infection. The face, side of the neck, shoulders, back and sides of the trunk and quarters are the usual seats of disease. The pimples or nodules may disappear within a few weeks, or persist throughout the warm season. The eruption may disappear without leaving scars, or suppuration occurs and small bald spots result. _The treatment_ consists in removing the cause of the disease and cleaning the skin with antiseptic washes. The surroundings of the animal must be kept clean and a good bed provided. If possible, the horse should be laid off from work as soon as the condition is noted. Washing the part with a weak water solution of permanganate of potassium may be practised daily. Fowler's solution of arsenic may be given. This may be given with the feed. ECZEMA.--This is an inflammation of the vascular capillary bodies and the superficial layer of the skin. There may be marked inflammatory exudate, causing the surface of the skin to become excessively moist and more or less itching. Redness, vesicles and pustules may characterize the inflammation. In the chronic form the skin may become thickened and greatly changed in structure. Eczematous inflammation of the skin may occur in all domestic animals, but it is most common in the dog. In the horse local eczema (scratches) is common. The most frequent _cause_ is external irritation. Accumulations of filth on the skin and continual wetting of the part are common causes. Mechanical causes are rubbing, pressure, the action of the sun's rays and chemical irritants. Internal causes, such as catarrhal diseases of the stomach and weakness and emaciation from disease, may act as direct or predisposing causes. Tender-skinned animals seem to be predisposed to the disease. _The symptoms_ vary in the different species of animals. In the horse the thin skin posterior to the fetlock and knee, in front of the hock and on the under side of the body is most commonly inflamed. Moisture and dirt seem to be the most common causes. Eczema may involve the skin covered by the mane and tail in animals that are not properly groomed and inclined to rub or scratch. Cattle may suffer from eczematous inflammations in the region of the forehead, back of neck and base of tail. A very common form of the disease involves the space between the toes. Sheep frequently suffer from inflammation of the skin over the fetlock region. The skin of animals having long fleeces, or heavy coats of hair that become wet at a time when there is no opportunity to dry out quickly, may become inflamed. Dogs are commonly affected by the acute and chronic forms of eczema. Eczema of swine is limited mostly to young hogs. It is rather rare, excepting in hogs that are pasturing on certain kinds of clover and rape, or on muck lands. The inflammation is accompanied by a marked tenderness and itching, and the animal licks and scratches the part. This increases the extent of the skin lesions. The skin appears moist, later dirty, scabby and thickened. Cracks and pustules may form. Gangrene and sloughing of the skin may occur. _The treatment_ is both preventive and curative. Cases of eczema caused by filth and wetness can be prevented by giving the necessary attention to keeping the skin clean and not allowing animals access to muddy, filthy places. Keeping the bed clean and regulating the diet are important preventive measures. Before the inflammation can be successfully treated the cause must be removed. In acute eczema it is advisable to protect the part against water, filth and air. Powders and ointments may be used during the early stages of the inflammation. Two parts boric acid, four parts flour, and one part tannic acid may be dusted over the moist surface. One part zinc oxide and twelve parts vaseline is a useful ointment. Scratching the part should be controlled in every case by muzzles, collars and bandages. Dirt and scales may be removed from the skin by washing with cotton soaked in lime water or linseed oil. The animal should receive laxative doses of Glauber's salts or oil every few days. A simple, easily digested ration should be fed. The following mixture may be applied in obstinate cases: oil of tar and soft soap, two parts each, and alcohol one part. COMMON FEED RASHES.--This title includes inflammation of the skin caused by pasturing on buckwheat, certain clovers and rape, together with moisture and sunlight. Green, flowering buckwheat is more dangerous as a feed for stock than is the grain or straw. Clovers and rape are not as dangerous a feed. The actual cause of the skin becoming inflamed is not known. The skin in the regions of the face, ears, neck, lower surface of the body and limbs becomes red and covered with vesicles. Later, scabs and pus may form. _The treatment_ consists in changing the ration and keeping the animals out of the sun, or long grass and weeds for a few days. This is all the treatment required in most cases. It may be advisable to administer a physic. If pus and scabs form, the part should be cleansed daily with a one per cent water solution of permanganate of potassium. HERPES (FUNGOUS SKIN DISEASE).--This is a contagious disease of the skin caused by thread fungi, _Tricophyton tonsurans_ and _epilans_, which develop in the skin in localized areas, causing vesicles, scabs or scales to appear, and the loss of the hair over the part. This skin disease occurs in all domestic animals, but it is most commonly met with in cattle. It usually affects young cattle. It most commonly occurs in the region of the face and neck. Thick, bran-like crusts form over the scattered areas of the skin and the hair drops out or breaks off. The animals frequently rub the infected area. _Prompt treatment_ may prevent the spread of this disease in the herd. It may be checked by quarantining the infected animals and scrubbing the stalls, stanchions and walls with a disinfecting solution. Grooming the infected animal should be discontinued. This skin disease responds most readily to ointments. Flowers of sulfur one part and lard ten parts is commonly used by stockmen. Sulfur-iodide ointment, or tincture of iodine may be applied. QUESTIONS 1. Give a general description of the skin. 2. Give the causes and treatment of falling of the hair. 3. What is urticaria? Give the treatment. 4. What is summer rash? Give the treatment. 5. What is "scratches"? Give the treatment. 6. What feeds produce rashes of the skin? 7. What fungus produces an inflammation of the skin in cattle? Give the treatment. CHAPTER XII DISEASES OF THE EYE GENERAL DISCUSSION.--_The eye_ is situated in the orbital cavity, to which it is attached by muscles that rotate it in different directions. The _orbit_ is lined by fibro-fatty tissues that form a cushion for the eye. Anteriorly it is protected by the _eyelids_, and in birds by a third eyelid that corresponds to the membrana nictitans of quadrupeds. The _lachrymal gland_ which secretes the tears keeps the above parts moist. _The eye_ is the essential organ of vision. It is formed by a spherical shell which encloses fluid or semisolid parts. The shell is anteriorly made up of a transparent convex membrane, the cornea, while the remainder of its wall is formed by three opaque layers or tunics. The external tunic is the _sclerotic_. It is a white, solid membrane, forming about four-fifths of the external shell. Its external face is related to the muscles and fatty cushion. It receives posteriorly, a little lower than its middle portion, the insertion of the _optic nerve_, which passes through the shell and spreads out to form a very thin membrane, the retina or internal coat. _The retina_ lines about two-thirds of the posterior portion of the shell of the eye. It is made up of seven layers. The essential layer is named from its appearance, rods and cones. The middle coat is the _choroid_. This is a dark, pigmented, vascular and muscular membrane. The posterior portion is in contact with the retina. Anteriorly it forms the ciliary processes and the iris. _The media_ of the eye are the crystalline lens, vitreous and aqueous humors. The _crystalline lens_ is a transparent, biconvex body sustained by the ciliary processes. The _vitreous humor_ is a transparent jelly-like substance that fills all the cavity of the eye posterior to the lens. The _aqueous humor_ is a liquid, contained in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye in front of the lens. This fluid separates the iris from the front of the lens. EXAMINATION OF THE EYE.--In examining and treating the eye we should avoid rough and hasty manipulation. The animal should be approached slowly. It is best for the attendant who is familiar with the animal to hold it for the examiner. It is advisable on approaching the animal to stroke its face, and in the horse to brush its foretop away. The hand should be carried slowly to the front of the eye, and the lids separated with the fingers and thumb if we wish to obtain a better view of the cornea. In cattle the best view of these parts can be obtained by taking hold of the nose and lifting the head. It is impossible to make a satisfactory examination of the eye outside of the stable where the light is coming from all directions. The most satisfactory conditions under which a general examination can be made is to stand the animal facing a transom, window or open door. We may then look directly into the eye and note the condition of the different refracting media. The lens should appear transparent and free from scars. The aqueous humor free from any cloudiness or precipitate. Both pupillary openings should be the same size, and not too small or too large in the bright light. As we look through the pupillary openings, both the lens and the vitreous humor should refract the light properly and not appear white or greenish-white in color. The color of the iris should be noted. If it lacks lustre or appears dull, this may indicate an inflammation. In periodic ophthalmia in horses the iris loses its lustre and becomes a rusty-brown color. It is very important to note this change in the appearance of the iris. We should note, in addition, the expression of the animal's face, the position of the ears and eyelids and manner of the walk. Horses that have defective sight may show a deep wrinkle in the upper eyelid when startled or looking directly at an object. Animals that are blind hold the ears in a characteristic position, and may stumble and walk over, or run into objects unless stopped. The ophthalmoscope is a very useful instrument for determining the condition of the different structures of the eyes, when in the hands of persons who are trained in its use. CONJUNCTIVITIS.--This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the eyelids and covering the eyeball. The two forms of conjunctivitis common in domestic animals are the _catarrhal_ and _purulent_. _The symptoms differ_ in the two forms of conjunctivitis. They may be distinguished from each other by the difference in the character of the inflammatory discharge. In the catarrhal form, there is a discharge of tears and the lids are held more or less closed. The mucous membrane is usually brick red in color and swollen. A little later the discharge becomes heavier and adheres more to the margins of the lids. The lids continue tender and the inflammation painful. The surface of the cornea may appear white and the blood-vessels prominent, but it is only in the severe cases that inflammation of this portion of the eye occurs. In such cases an elevation in body temperature may occur. This is especially true of purulent conjunctivitis when primarily caused by an infectious agent. In the purulent form the discharge is heavy and pus-like. _The treatment_ is both preventive and curative. The first object must be to remove the cause. Irritating gases resulting from stable filth should be remedied by correcting the unsanitary conditions in the stable. Conditions favoring injury to the eye from foreign bodies, such as chaff and a careless attendant, should be corrected. Animals suffering from the infectious or purulent form of inflammation should be separated from the other animals. Foreign bodies should be removed promptly before they have had an opportunity to set up a serious inflammation. It is necessary to confine the animal in some way before attempting to do this. Horses should be twitched, cattle held by the nose, and the head of a small animal held firmly with the hands. It may be necessary to cocainize the eye before the operator can remove the foreign object with absorbent cotton or with forceps. In case of injuries and irritation to the lids by foreign bodies, the eye may be flooded with a three per cent water solution of boric acid twice daily, or as often as necessary. Such washes or lotions may be applied with a small piece of absorbent cotton, using a fresh piece each time the eye is dressed. A medicine dropper may also be used. A lotion containing silver nitrate two to four grains and distilled water one ounce, is useful in combating the inflammation. This may be applied twice daily. Irritating lotions should be avoided, if possible, in the treatment of eye diseases of horses, because of the danger of making the animal disagreeable to handle. Boric acid may be dusted over the ball of the eye of cattle with a powder blower. PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA, "MOONBLINDNESS."--This is a periodic inflammation of one or both eyes of the horse. The internal structures of the eye are involved by the inflammation, but it may appear as a conjunctivitis. _The cause_ of this disease is not well understood. Certain local conditions seem to favor its development. Undrained land, a humid climate, the feeding of a one-sided ration or one that does not maintain the vitality of the animal, and severe work seem to produce it. Heredity must be accepted as a prominent accessory cause. A number of different bacteria have been mentioned as causative factors for this disease. _The symptoms_ at the very beginning indicate a general inflammation of the eye. The eyelids are swollen, there is an abundant secretion of tears, the eyeball is retracted and the lids are held more or less closed. As the inflammation progresses, the cornea becomes milky in appearance and the aqueous humor may show a precipitate toward the bottom of the anterior chamber. The pupil is usually contracted and dilates slowly when the animal is moved into the light. The acute inflammation gradually subsides, and about the tenth to the fourteenth day the lids and cornea may appear normal. The periods between these acute attacks of ophthalmia may vary from a few weeks to several months. Severe work, debility and the character of the ration influence their frequency. It is not uncommon for animals that have been given a rest to suffer from a second attack on being put to work. The attendant may observe a hazy or whitish condition of the margin of the cornea. The upper lid may show an abrupt bend of its margin and a deep wrinkle. The color of the iris appears to have lost its lustre, and the aqueous humor and lens may be cloudy. After a variable number of attacks glaucoma or cataract develops. _The history_ of the case will enable the attendant to recognize this form of ophthalmia. _Treatment_ is unsatisfactory. Preventive measures consist in avoiding conditions favorable to the production of the disease. This should be practised so far as possible. At the time the attack occurs, the animal should be given a cathartic. One pound of Glauber's salts in a drench is to be preferred. Rest in a darkened stall is indicated. An eye lotion containing three grains of silver nitrate in one ounce of distilled water should be applied to the eye three times daily. A water solution of atropine or eserine should be used for the purpose of relieving the symptoms of iritis or glaucoma. A very light diet should be fed. INFECTIOUS OPHTHALMIA OF RUMINANTS.--This occurs as an acute inflammation of the eyelids and cornea. The disease is highly infectious, affecting all of the susceptible animals in the herd. It commonly occurs during the late summer and fall. _The symptoms appear_ suddenly. The animal is feverish, the eyes closed and the cheeks are wet with tears. The cornea becomes clouded, white and opaque. In severe cases, the blood-vessels around the margin of the cornea become prominent, and ulcers form on its surface. The animal's appetite is impaired or lost. There is loss of flesh and temporary blindness. The blindness in one or both eyes may persist for a period of from two weeks to several months. Permanent blindness is comparatively rare. _The preventive treatment_ consists in practising the necessary precautions against the introduction of the disease into the herd, and in carefully quarantining the first cases of the disease that appear. The affected animal should be given a darkened stall, and fed a very light ration until the acute inflammation has subsided. From one to one and one-half pounds of Glauber's salts should be given. The _local treatment_ consists in the application of antiseptic lotions or powders to the eye. Equal parts of boric acid and calomel, dusted into the eye twice daily with a powder blower, is a very effective treatment. QUESTIONS 1. Name the different structures that form the shell of the eye; name and describe the different media of the eye. 2. Give the general method of examining the eyes of horses. 3. What is conjunctivitis? Give causes and treatment. 4. What is "moonblindness"? Give the symptoms. 5. Describe the symptoms of infectious ophthalmia of ruminants and the treatment. CHAPTER XIII GENERAL DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTORY APPARATUS GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The movements of the different parts of the animal body depend on the union of the bones that form the skeleton (Fig. 28), and mode of insertion of the muscles. The bones meet and form _joints_ or _articulations_. These are divided into three classes: _movable_, _mixed_ and _immovable_. Nearly all of the articulations in the extremities belong to the movable class. The articulations between the bodies of the vertebrae belong to the mixed, and those between the flat bones of the head to the immovable class. [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Skeleton of horse.] The bony surfaces that meet and form the different types of articulations are held together by ligaments (Fig. 29). Sometimes the ligament is placed between the bony surfaces, but usually it is attached to the margins of the articular surfaces that it unites. The _immovable class_ possesses fibrous-like ligaments that are placed between the margins of the flat bones that form the articulation. The _mixed articulations_ are united by a fibro-cartilaginous pad that is firmly attached to the articular faces of the bones, and by peripheral ligaments that may be flat or formed by scattered fibres. All _movable articulations_ are formed by bony surfaces encrusted with a thin cartilaginous layer that makes them perfectly smooth, ligaments and complimentary cartilages. Sometimes the bony surfaces do not fit each other, and we find between them _fibro-cartilages_ that complete the articulation by adapting the articular surfaces to each other. _Round_ or _flat ligaments_ may extend from one articular surface to the other, and attached to the margins of the articulation are _membranous, flat_ or _round ligaments_. Muscles and tendons that cross the articulations should be included among the structures binding them together. [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Photograph of model of stifle joint, showing: ligaments; complementary cartilages; femur; and tibia.] Movable joints possess a _synovial membrane_. This membrane lines the structures that enclose the articulation and secretes a fluid, _the synovia_, that lubricates the surfaces. _The muscles_ are the contractile organs that move the body. The movement of the different parts of the body is rendered possible through the manner in which the skeletal muscles are inserted into the long bones, by which the lever motion is possible. A muscle originating on one bone and terminating on another either moves both bones toward each other or, if one attachment is fixed, the movable is drawn toward the fixed part. We may class muscles as _striated_ or _voluntary_ and _unstriated_ or _involuntary._ A third class, _mixed,_ is represented by the heart muscle. The striated is represented by the skeletal muscles, and the unstriated by the thin muscular layers that form part of the wall of the stomach, intestines, bladder and other hollow organs. RHEUMATISM.--This is an inflammation of the tissues that form the locomotory apparatus. The effect of cold on the muscles and tendons is an important factor in its production. It differs from other inflammations by shifting from one part to another. It is termed _muscular rheumatism_ when it affects the muscles, tendons and fascia, and _articular rheumatism_ when it involves the articulations. A second classification, _acute_ and _chronic,_ depends on the character of the inflammation. The muscular form is common in horses, dogs and hogs, while the articular form more commonly affects cattle. _The following causes_ may be considered. Animals that are exposed to cold, wet, changeable weather, or kept in cold, damp, draughty quarters frequently suffer from rheumatism. Under such conditions it is very probable that imperfect metabolism of body tissue occurs, and certain toxic products that are capable of irritating the muscles and articulations form. Clinical symptoms, and the presence of bacteria in the inflamed tissue indicate that bacteria and their toxins play an important part in the development of articular rheumatism. Heredity is said to be an important predisposing factor. One attack always predisposes the animal to a second. _The symptoms vary_ according to the severity of the attack. Local rheumatism is not accompanied by serious symptoms. The regions most commonly involved in local, muscular rheumatism are the shoulder, neck and back. The joints affected in the articular form are the knee, fetlock, hip, elbow and shoulder. The attack is usually sudden and accompanied by fever, more or less loss of appetite and soreness. Loss of control over the movement of the hind parts or walking on the knees may occur in the smaller animals. The larger animals show a slight or severe lameness. The affected muscle or articulation may be swollen, hot and tender. Pressing on the part with the hand or forcing the animal to move about may cause severe pain. Weakness and emaciation may occur in generalized and articular rheumatism, especially if suppuration takes place in the affected joint. _The prognosis_ is more favorable in muscular rheumatism than in the articular form. Both forms may become chronic. It is frequently advisable to destroy animals suffering from the articular form because of their emaciated, weakened condition and the deformed condition of the joints. _The preventive treatment_ consists in avoiding conditions favorable to the production of rheumatism. In ventilating the stable we should avoid draughts. Practical experience indicates that allowing a horse to stand in a draught after it has been warmed up by exercise is a very common source of muscular rheumatism and is especially to be avoided. Young hogs and sows that are thin are very prone to rheumatism when given wet, draughty sleeping quarters. Houses having dirt or loose board floors are very often draughty. Concrete floors when wet and not properly bedded with straw are objectionable. Although we do not fully understand the causative factors, we can take advantage of the knowledge we have gained from practical experience, and avoid keeping animals under conditions that are favorable for the production of the disease. It is almost useless to treat rheumatism unless the conditions under which it occurred are corrected. _The treatment_ is both local and internal. The local treatment consists in applying a mild liniment to the part, together with massage. If the part is tender and painful, hot applications may be used. Spirits of camphor ten parts and turpentine two parts, applied daily, are useful in relieving the soreness of rheumatic muscles. Salicylate of soda two ounces, fluid extract of gentian one ounce, and sufficient water to make an eight-ounce mixture may be given internally three times daily after feeding. Of the above mixture horses and cattle may be given one-half ounce and sheep and swine from one to two drachms. The treatment should be continued for a period of from eight to ten days or longer. It may be repeated in from one to two weeks. [Illustration: FIG. 30.--Atrophy of the muscles of the thigh resulting from an attack of azoturia.] Iodide of potassium is very useful in the treatment of chronic articular rheumatism. A very light diet should be fed and the animal given as complete rest as possible. An occasional physic should be given. AZOTURIA, HAEMOGLOBINURIA.--This is a disease of solipeds affecting the muscles of the quarters. The affected muscles become swollen, hard and paralyzed. The disease follows a short rest, and rarely occurs when the animal is running in pasture or idle for a long period. Animals that are fat or rapidly putting on fat are predisposed to it. Animals that have had one attack are predisposed to a second. _The cause_ of this disease is not positively known. The German veterinarians attribute it to irritation of the muscles by cold, and classify azoturia as a rheumatic disorder. The conditions preceding the attack are not in favor of this theory, and cold can not be considered an important causative factor. The most acceptable is the auto-poisoning theory advanced by Dr. Law. Azoturia is common in the country where feed is abundant and wrong methods of feeding horses are commonly practised. It is a very common practice to feed horses accustomed to hard work the same ration when idle for a few days as when working. The blood of horses cared for in this way may become abnormally rich in albuminoids. The suddenness of the attack, occurring shortly after the animal is given exercise, indicates auto-poisoning. This may be due to the blood in the portal vessels and the liver capillaries, charged with nutritious and waste products from the overfed animal's intestines, being suddenly thrown into the general circulation by a more active circulation of the blood brought on by exercise. _The symptoms_ of disease are manifested shortly after the animal is moved out of the stall and given exercise. When the animal is first exercised it is usually in high spirits. After travelling a short distance it is noticed to sweat more freely than ordinarily, breathe rapidly, lag and go lame, usually in the hind limbs. It trembles, shows evidence of suffering severe pain by turning its head and looking around toward the flanks, knuckles over in the hind pasterns, and may fall down and be unable to get up. The affected muscles appear to be swollen and feel unusually firm when pressed upon with the hand. If the horse does not go down recovery may occur within a few hours, and we are able to move the horse to the stable. Dark brown urine may be passed. At other times, the animal lies in a natural position, possesses a good appetite, but can not stand. In the severe form, it is restless and shows marked nervous symptoms. _The prognosis_ is unfavorable in the severe form. When nervous symptoms are absent recovery usually occurs in from two to ten days. Complications are common. More or less atrophy of the muscles of the quarters may result (Fig. 30). _The preventive treatment_ consists in avoiding conditions that may favor the production of the disease. More attention should be given the feeding and care of work animals. If it is not possible to permit horses that are worked to exercise in a lot or pasture when idle, the ration should be reduced and roots, chopped, or soft feed given. Careful nursing is an important part of the _treatment_. As soon as the horse shows evidence of an attack, it should be stopped and allowed to stand until sufficiently recovered to be moved. If paralysis occurs, we should make it as comfortable as possible and arrange to move it to a comfortable, warm, well-bedded stall. It may be advisable to place the animal in slings. This is not advisable in the serious form of the disease because of the extent of the paralysis and the nervous symptoms. A very light diet, bran mashes, chopped hay or green feed, should be fed during the convalescent period and for several days after complete recovery has occurred. The following lines of _medicinal treatment_ may be recommended. We should endeavor to stimulate the elimination of the waste products from the body by way of the kidneys, intestines and skin. This may be accomplished by administering saline cathartics, covering the body with blankets, encouraging the animal to drink plenty of water and feeding soft feeds. Glauber's salts may be given as a drench, or eserine may be given hypodermically. Sedatives such as chloral hydrate may be used to quiet the animal. QUESTIONS 1. Give a general description of the locomotory apparatus. 2. Give the causes of rheumatism; describe the treatment. 3. What is azoturia? Give the cause of this disease. CHAPTER XIV STRUCTURE OF THE LIMBS OF THE HORSE GENERAL DISCUSSION.--Each limb is formed by a column of bones that rest upon one another, forming more or less open angles. The bones of the column meet and form articulations that are held together by ligaments, and attached to their faces, borders and extremities are muscles and tendons. In the superior portion of the limb the muscles are heavy, tapering inferiorly, and terminating in the region of the foot in long tendons. Each limb is divided into four regions. The regions of the _fore-limb_ are the shoulder, arm, forearm and forefoot. In the _hind limb_ are the regions of the pelvis, haunch, thigh, leg and hind-foot. The feet in turn are divided into three sub-regions each. The _forefoot_ is formed by the knee, cannon and toe, and the _hindfoot_ by the hock, cannon and toe. THE SHOULDER BONE OR SCAPULA is flat and triangular in shape. It is attached to the trunk by heavy muscles, one of which, together with its fellow on the opposite side, may be compared to a great, muscular sling that supports about two-thirds of the body weight. Attached to the internal and external faces of the scapula are heavy muscles that pass over the shoulder-joint, and become attached to the arm bone through the insertion of their muscular fibres or by a short tendon. THE ARMBONE OR HUMERUS belongs to the class of long bones. Its superior extremity forms a flattened head that fits rather imperfectly into a shallow cavity in the humeral angle of the scapula. The inferior extremity resembles a portion of a cylinder in shape, and fits into shallow depressions in the superior extremity of the principal bone of the forearm. The muscles here are divided into two regions, anterior and posterior brachial. The most of these muscles originate on the posterior border and inferior extremity of the shoulder bone, and terminate inferiorly on the superior extremities of the principal and second or rudimentary bone of the forearm. The posterior brachial muscles are heavy and powerful. They are sometimes termed elbow muscles, because they are attached to the point of the elbow. THE REGION OF THE FOREARM is formed by two bones, the _radius_ and _ulna_. The radius is the principal bone and is classed among the long bones. The ulna is an elongated flat bone. It is attached to the external portion of the posterior face of the radius and extends above the superior extremity of this bone to form the point of the elbow. The radius articulates with the upper row of knee bones. The muscles of this region, the antibrachial, are divided into two sub-regions, anterior and posterior. They originate superiorly from the lower extremity of the arm bone and the superior extremities of the bones of the forearm, and terminate toward the lower extremity of the region in tendons that become attached to the bones of the knee, cannon and digit. THE KNEE OR CARPAL region is formed by seven short bones that are arranged in two rows. They form a series of articulations. These are the articulations between the two rows, between the bones of each row, and between the upper and lower rows and the neighboring regions. Nearly all the motion takes place in the articulation between the upper row and the principal bone of the forearm. THE CANNON OR METACARPAL region is formed by three bones. These are the principal metacarpal or cannon bone, and the rudimentary metacarpal or splint bones. The latter are attached to the margins of the posterior face of the cannon bone. The superior extremities of these bones articulate with the lower row of carpal bones. The convex extremity of the cannon bone meets shallow depressions in the superior extremity of the first digital bone. This is termed the fetlock joint. The anterior and posterior faces of this region are travelled by the long tendons belonging to the extensor and flexor muscles of the digit. THE DIGIT OR TOE is formed by six bones, three of which are termed accessory or sesamoids. The digital bones may be given numerical names. THE APPROXIMAL OR THIRD DIGITAL BONE is the shortest long bone in the body. The two shallow articular cavities belonging to the superior extremity are completed posteriorly by the two sesamoid bones. The inferior extremity is smaller than the superior and resembles the inferior extremity of the cannon bone in shape, excepting that it shows a middle groove. The anterior and posterior faces are travelled by the tendons of the digital muscles. THE MIDDLE OR SECOND DIGITAL BONE is quite short. It articulates superiorly with the first, and inferiorly with the third bone of the digit. The superior face shows two shallow cavities, and the inferior two convex surfaces separated by a median groove. The latter face articulates with the third and navicular bones. The popular name for this articulation is the coffin joint. THE THIRD OR DISTAL DIGITAL BONE may be compared to a cone that has been cut away posteriorly, obliquely downwards and backwards. The superior face shows two shallow cavities that are completed posteriorly by the superior face of the coffin or navicular bone. The anterior face is convex and cribbled by openings, and the inferior face is concave, forming the sole. Tendons belonging to the digital muscles terminate on the summit and inferior face of this bone. THE PELVIS OR HAUNCH is formed by a single bone, the _coxa_ that in the foetus may be divided into three bones. These are the _ilium, pubis_ and _ischium_. It belongs to the class of flat bones. Anteriorly it is flattened from before to behind and directed inward and upward. The external angle is rugged and is generally termed the angle of the haunch. The internal face of the opposite angle articulates with the sacrum, to which it is firmly attached by ligaments. The middle portion is constricted and forms a neck. The inferior or posterior portion is flattened from above to below, and directed inward to meet the border of the opposite bone. Just below the neck and externally, there is a cup-shaped cavity into which the head of the thigh bone fits. The two coxa, together with the sacral ligaments (sacrum) and the muscles of the quarter, enclose the pelvic cavity. THE REGION OF THE THIGH is formed by the _femur_, the largest long bone in the body. The superior extremity is formed by a rugged eminence, to which the heavy muscles of the quarter are attached, and by an articular head. The inferior extremity is formed by two convex articular surfaces that are separated by a deep notch, and a third pulley-like articular surface, with which the patella or knee-cap articulates. The pair of condyles articulates with the superior extremity of the leg bone. The thigh or femoral region is heavily muscled. THE LEG is formed by three bones. The patella, a short bone, has already been mentioned as articulating with the thigh bone. The tibia and fibula are the other two bones in the region. THE TIBIA belongs to the class of long bones and the fibula is quite rudimentary, being represented by a stylet-shaped bone that lies posterior to, and along the outer border of the tibia. The superior extremity of the tibia shows a central spine margined laterally by rather plain articular faces. It articulates with the thigh bone. The muscles of this region are divided into two sub-regions, _anterior_ and _posterior_ tibial. The muscles originate from the lower extremity of the femur and the two bones in this region, and terminate inferiorly in tendons that are attached to the bones of the hock, cannon and digit. THE HOCK OR TARSAL region is formed by six bones. They are described as forming two rows. In the upper row there are two bones and in the lower four. They form a series of articulations, the same as the bones of the knee. Practically all of the movement occurs in the articulation between one of the large bones in the upper row and the lower extremity of the tibia. It may be mentioned here that this is the most perfect hinge-joint in the body. A very large tendon is attached to the summit of the hock. Other tendons cross and become attached to the hock bones. The regions of the _hind cannon_ and digit are practically the same as the corresponding regions of the forefoot. QUESTIONS 1. Name the different bones of the fore-limb; hind limb. 2. Describe the regions of the shoulder, arm and forearm. 3. Describe the region of the forefoot. 4. Describe the regions of the haunch, thigh and leg. 5. Describe the region of the hindfoot. CHAPTER XV UNSOUNDNESSES AND BLEMISHES GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The value of a horse depends largely on the condition of the limbs and their ability to do the work for which they are intended. This fact is frequently overlooked by experienced horsemen, who give attention to general conformation and action rather than to soundness of limb. Diseases affecting the limbs may be classed as _unsoundnesses_ and _blemishes_. This classification is based on the degree to which the disease interferes or may interfere with the work that the animal is called on to perform. Unsoundnesses interfere with the use of the part or the use of the animal for a certain work; blemishes do not. Such a basis for the classification of diseases does not enable us to place certain diseased conditions of the limbs in the unsound, or the blemish class at all times. A curb may, if it produces lameness, be classed as an unsoundness. If it does not cause the animal to go lame, and the enlargement on the posterior border of the hock is small, it is classed as a blemish. A high splint may place the animal in the unsound class, but usually a low splint is not considered a serious blemish. This classification is based to a certain extent on the relative economic importance of the disease, or the influence that the disease may have on the value of the animal, as well as any interference with the animal's ability to work. RECOGNITION OF THE DISEASE.--The seat of the disease may be in a muscle, tendon, bone or ligament. The general symptom manifested is lameness or pain. The local symptoms are heat, pain, swelling and bony enlargements. The degree of lameness and the character of the local lesions vary greatly in the different cases. When the animal shows a slight lameness and there is little evidence of any local symptom, it requires the services of a skilled and experienced person to locate the diseased part. When the part shows local lesions of disease and the lameness is characteristic, diagnosis is not difficult. THE EXAMINATION should be made while the animal is at rest; while standing in the stall and on level ground; when moved at a walk, or a slow trot on soft ground, or a hard roadway; and when moved out after resting a few hours. While examining the animal under the different conditions mentioned, the examiner must be careful and not pass over any part of a limb without determining whether it is normal or not. He should note any abnormal position that the animal may take while standing at rest. Every movement should be watched closely, as the manner of favoring the part may characterize the lameness. Negative symptoms of lameness in a part may at times prove as valuable in forming a diagnosis as positive symptoms. The resting of either of the front feet, when the horse is standing at ease, indicates that there is some soreness in the rested limb. _Pointing_ or placing one or both feet well in front of the line of support, when the animal is standing, usually indicates a diseased condition of the feet. It is natural for a horse that is standing in a stall to rest the hindfeet alternately. When the hindfoot is rested because of a soreness in some portion of the limb, it may be flexed or extended, the weight rested on the toe, and the foot flexed and bearing practically no weight. In serious inflammation of the front feet, both feet may be placed well in front of the normal position, and the hindfeet well under the body. WHEN EXAMINING A HORSE, the blanket or harness should be removed. The horse should have on an open bridle or halter, and the attendant should give it as much freedom of the head as possible. The examiner should examine each limb carefully and note any symptom of disease that may be present. The attendant should walk the animal straight away from the person making the examination, toward, and past him, so that the animal's movements can be observed from both sides, from behind and in front. This examination should be repeated with the horse at a slow trot. The character of the lameness may enable us to locate the seat of the disease. We must first determine in which limb the animal is lame. This part of the diagnosis is not difficult. The pain suffered every time weight is thrown on the diseased limb causes the horse to step quickly and shift as much of the body weight as possible on the well foot. The foot of the lame limb is jerked up rather quickly after weight is thrown on it. This favoring of the part varies in the different diseases. When the foot of the sound limb comes to the ground, more weight than common is placed on it. If the seat of the lameness is in a front limb, there is a decided nodding or movement of the head downward when the weight is placed on the well foot. If both forefeet are diseased, the animal steps shorter and more quickly than common. Lameness in a hind limb is characterized by more or less dropping of the quarter of the well limb when weight is thrown on it, and sometimes by a "hitch" or elevation of the quarter of the diseased limb when it is carried forward. Unless there are _local symptoms of disease_ present, it may be quite difficult to locate the seat of lameness. Sometimes local symptoms are misleading. After the lameness has been located in a certain limb, its movement must be carefully noted in order to detect the part favored. If the lameness is not characteristic enough to enable the examiner to locate the seat of it, it is then necessary to put the animal through some movement that may emphasize the soreness in the part. The animal may show a certain reluctance to throw weight on the limb when turned to the right or left. Moving the horse in a small circle with the lame limb on the outside may cause the animal to use the muscles of the shoulder more freely, and emphasize any soreness that may be present. If the lame limb is on the inside, soreness anywhere in the foot may be increased, because of the extra weight thrown on this portion of the limb. Moving the animal over a hard driveway may increase the pain resulting from an inflammation of the feet. Causing the animal to trot on soft ground, step over high objects, flexing, extending, abducting and adducting the part may enable the examiner to locate the exact group of shoulder or arm muscles involved by the disease. IN EXAMINING THE FEET it may be necessary to remove the shoes and practise percussion and pressure over the region of the sole. In some forms of lameness it may be necessary to destroy the sensation in the foot by injecting cocaine along the course of the nerves that supply the foot before arriving at a definite diagnosis. QUESTIONS 1. Define the term unsoundness and give an example. 2. Define the term blemish and give an example. 3. Give the general method of examining a horse for soundness. CHAPTER XVI DISEASES OF THE FORE-LIMB SPRAINS AND INJURIES IN THE REGION OF THE SHOULDER.--Sprains and injuries of the structures in the shoulder region are more common in horses that are called on to do heavy work than among driving horses. The following _causes_ may be mentioned: Ill-fitting collars, pulling heavy loads over uneven streets or soft ground, where the footing is not secure, and slipping are common causes. Young horses that do not know how to pull, or horses that are tired out by hard work, are predisposed to muscular strain, and are apt to suffer injury if forced to do heavy work. Sore shoulders, or an ignorant driver, may cause the animal to pull awkwardly and throw more strain on certain groups of muscles than they can stand. Rheumatism frequently causes shoulder lameness. The muscle usually affected by rheumatism is the large muscle extending from the region of the point of the shoulder to the summit of the head. [Illustration: FIG. 31.--Shoulder lameness.] _The symptoms_ of shoulder lameness vary in the different cases. The horse may walk without going lame, but when made to trot lameness is quite noticeable. The animal may point with the foot of the diseased limb, holding it forward, but squarely on the floor. In severe strain, little weight is thrown on the limb and the lameness is marked (Fig. 31). In "shoulder slip" the head of the arm bone pushes outward every time the animal throws weight on the limb. This luxation can be noticed best when standing in front of the animal. Marked atrophy of the external shoulder muscles may occur. Such atrophy may appear and disappear quickly, and may result from an injury to the nerve supply of the muscle as well as from favoring the part. Atrophy of the shoulder may occur if the animal is lame in other regions of the limb, especially the feet. The outcome of shoulder lameness is favorable if the disease causing it is given prompt treatment. _Rest_ is a very important part of the _treatment_. It may be advisable to restrict the horse's movements by placing it in a single stall, and tying the animal so that it can not lie down. This should be continued for at least one week. If the horse is restless, it should be given a box-stall or turned out in a small lot alone. It should be watered and fed in the quarters where confined. The _local treatment_ consists in applying mild liniments or blisters to the shoulder. It is not advisable, however, to apply a blister if the muscles feel hot and tender. CAPPED ELBOW, "SHOE-BOIL."--Capped elbow is an inflammation of the bursa at the posterior surface of the elbow (Fig. 32). The swelling that results is usually sharply defined. It may feel abnormally warm and doughy, and it may be painful. Later, the enlargement may be well defined and hard. Sometimes the skin is indurated and lies in folds, or the shoe-boil shows abrasions on its surface and fistulous openings leading from abscess centres. The cystic or soft tumor is a common form. Such an enlargement fluctuates on pressure, and when opened, a blood-stained fluid escapes. All forms of capped elbow tend to become chronic. _The treatment_ is both preventive and local. As capped elbow is caused by bruising the part with the hoof or heel of the shoe, the preventive treatment consists in hindering the animal from taking a position that may favor injury to the part. Confining the animal in a small stall and tying it with too short a halter strap favors a sternal position when lying down. A roomy stall that permits the animal to stretch or change position is an important preventive measure. Shoes that project beyond the quarters should be avoided. The elbow may be protected by placing a thick pad over the heels when the animal is in the stable. [Illustration: FIG. 32.--Shoe-boil.] _Local treatment_ varies according to the character of the enlargement. Soft, doughy swellings may be treated by application of cold, iodine and blisters. The cystic form of tumor must be opened, the fluid removed and the lining membrane destroyed by the injection of tincture of iodine. Hard, indurated shoe-boils may be treated by completely removing the diseased tissue. The surgical treatment of capped elbow requires the service of an experienced veterinarian. His efforts may prove a complete failure, unless the irritation to the part by the shoe or hoof is prevented. INJURIES TO THE KNEE (BROKEN KNEE).--Horses frequently fall and bruise or lacerate the knee when moving at trot or canter. The injury varies according to the force of the fall, and the character of the road that the animal is travelling over. Some individuals are more liable to suffer from this class of injuries than others. Horses that are weak-kneed because of poor conformation, or knee-sprung, are inclined to stumble. Careless driving, especially if the animal is tired, predisposes it to this class of injury. Because of the predisposition toward stumbling on the part of some horses, scars on the front of the knee are termed broken knee, and the animal is considered unsound. _The symptoms_ vary with the extent of the injury. Slight bruises or abrasions result in local swelling and soreness that disappear within a few days. Laceration of skin interferes with the movement of the knee and the animal may be quite lame. The part becomes swollen and painful. In injuries involving the sheaths of the tendons and the synovial membrane, the pain is severe and the accompanying inflammation may take on a serious form. _The preventive treatment_ should not be overlooked. Horses should be trained to carry the head at a proper height when moving. The driver should handle the reins properly and keep his attention on the horse or horses that he is driving. Superficial bruises require no special treatment other than rest. Laceration of the skin and underlying tissue requires complete rest and careful removal of any particles, of dirt and gravel that may be present in the wound. Shreds of tissue that may take no part in the healing should be cut away. The hair in the region of the wound should be trimmed short. Careful and repeated dressings with antiseptics are necessary until the inflammation has largely disappeared and healing is rapidly taking place. It may be advisable to tie the horse in the stall so that it can not lie down. DISTENDED SYNOVIAL SACS, JOINT SHEATHS AND BURSAE, "GALLS."--Soft enlargements may occur in the region of the knee and fetlock. They are commonly termed "galls," "wind-galls," or "road-puffs." They are usually due to the sheaths surrounding the tendons becoming distended with synovia. "Galls" are caused by strains, direct injury to the part and severe, continuous work. Certain individuals may develop this class of blemishes without being subject to any unusual conditions. This condition is seldom accompanied by lameness. _The treatment_ may vary in the different cases. If the distended sheath, or bursal enlargement, is caused by a direct injury or strain, cold bandages should be applied and the part given as complete rest as possible. "Wind-galls" may be removed by a surgical operation. It is not advisable to attempt the removal of "road-puffs." Rest, stimulating leg washes and bandages may temporarily remove the latter. SPRUNG KNEES (BUCK KNEES).--This condition of the knee is characterized by the partly flexed condition of the region. It is best observed by standing to one side of the horse (Fig. 33). Instead of the forearm and cannon regions appearing perpendicular or in line, they are directed forward. This condition may exist in varying degrees. Some individuals show it to a slight degree, the condition being accompanied by a weakness or shakiness of the knee when standing at rest. Sometimes, but one knee is involved. _The causes_ of this unsoundness are hereditary and accidental. Weak knees due to faulty conformation seldom escape becoming sprung in animals that are given hard work. Severe and continuous driving is a common factor in the production of this condition. Strains of the flexor muscles of the region may cause it. The retraction of the flexor muscles and their tendons and the aponeurosis of the antibrachial region occurs in this disorder and prevents the animal from extending the knee. The region is greatly weakened by this condition and the animal may be unfitted for active work. For this reason the value of the animal is greatly diminished. _Treatment_ is unsatisfactory. The preventive treatment consists in not breeding animals that have poorly conformed knees and using the proper judgment in working young horses and when driving or riding horses. Certain cases may be greatly benefited by sectioning the tendons of the external and middle flexors of the metacarpi. To insure a successful outcome in any case that is operated on, a long period of rest is required. [Illustration: FIG. 33.--Sprung knees.] [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Splints.] SPLINTS.--A splint is a bony enlargement situated along the line of articulation between the splint and cannon bones (Fig. 34). This blemish is due to an inflammation of the periosteum. It is a very common blemish and is generally located along the splint bones of the forefeet, especially the internal ones. _Splints are caused_ by strains and rupture of the ligament that binds the splint bone to the cannon bone. The result is an inflammation of the periosteum. Slipping, or an unbalanced condition of the foot, may cause this injury by distributing the weight unequally on the splint bones. Faulty action and bad shoeing may cause the horse to strike and bruise the region. _Symptoms of lameness_ are not always present. A high splint involving the articulation between the lower row of carpal, splint and cannon bones may be considered an unsoundness, because of the persistent character of the lameness. The animal may show little or no lameness when walked, but if moved at a trot, especially over a hard roadway, it may show marked lameness. The local inflammation is characterized by a small swelling lying along the splint bone, that feels hot and may pit on pressure. After a time the inflammation disappears and is replaced by a hard, bony enlargement. When this occurs the lameness disappears. _The preventive treatment_ consists in keeping the feet of young horses in proper balance by frequent trimming and proper shoeing. This attention is very necessary in young colts that are running in pasture. It is very advisable to rest the animal during the period of inflammation. Cold bandages should be applied. As soon as the inflammation has subsided mild counterirritants and absorbents may be used. In. case the lameness persists, more severe counterirritation is indicated. INFLAMMATION OF THE FLEXOR TENDONS OF THE DIGIT.--The large tendons posterior to the foot and the suspensory ligament that separates them from the cannon bone frequently become inflamed. Sometimes complete rupture of one or more of these structures occurs. The lighter breeds of horses are the most frequent sufferers. Because of the greater strain thrown on the tendons of the forefeet, inflammation of these tendons is far more common than it is in the hindfoot. Diseased conditions of the hind tendons are usually due to other causes than strain. The following _predisposing_ and _accidental causes_ should be considered: Weak flexor tendons and heavy bodies predispose animals to inflammation of the tendons and suspensory ligament; quality, not size, is the factor to consider when judging the strength of a tendon; long, slender pasterns increase the strain on these structures, and this mechanical strain is further increased by low heels and long toes; the character of the work and the condition of the road that the animal travels over are important factors to consider; trotting and running horses more often suffer from injuries to tendons and ligaments than draft horses; travelling at a high rate of speed over an uneven road, slipping and catching the foot in a rut or car track, are common causes; bruises and wounds may result in the tendons becoming inflamed; inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons as well sometimes occurs in influenza. _Lameness_ is a prominent _symptom._ The pastern is held in a more upright position than normal. When the animal is standing, the foot is rested on the toe, and it may take advantage of any uneven place on which to rest the heel. In severe strains the local symptoms are quite prominent. The tendons may be hot and swollen. Pressure may cause the animal pain. In chronic tendinitis the tendon may be thickened and rough or knotty. Pain is not a prominent symptom in this class of cases. Shortening of the inflamed tendon may occur, causing the animal to knuckle over. Rupture of one or more of the tendons and the suspensory ligament can be recognized by the abnormal extension of the pastern. If the ruptured tendon heals, it always results in a thickening at the point of the rupture that gives the tendons a bowed appearance. This is termed bowed-tendon. The lameness resulting from an inflammation of tendons resembles that resulting from strains and injuries to the fetlock joint, especially in the region of the sesamoid bones. INFLAMMATION OF THE SESAMOID BONES differs slightly from the former. Pressure over the posterior region of the fetlock may cause the animal pain. The lameness shows a tendency to disappear with rest and reappear when the animal is again worked. Lameness is most prominent in some cases when the animal is first moved out. There may be a lack of local symptoms, such as heat and swelling. It is not uncommon for a bony enlargement to form on the sesamoid bone after a few months or a year. The following _treatment_ is recommended. Horses that have a poor quality of tendon and weak fetlocks and pasterns should not be used for breeding purposes. Careful driving would prevent a large percentage of injuries to tendons. The most important treatment for all injuries due to strains is rest. In all cases of severe strain to the structures in this region, it is very advisable to apply a plaster bandage. This should be left on for at least two weeks. When the acute inflammation has subsided, counterirritants may be applied. Either cold or hot applications are recommended. Cold applications are to be preferred at the beginning of the inflammation. Covering the tendons with a cold bandage, or with a heavy layer of antiphlogistin, is recommended. The horse should not be worked until after the tendons have had an opportunity to completely recover from the inflammation. CONTRACTED TENDONS, KNUCKLING-OVER.--New-born foals are sometimes unable to stand on their front feet because of the excessive knuckling-over. The colt may walk on the front of the pastern and fetlock. This sometimes results in severe injury to the skin and the underlying tissues. Knuckling-over in the mature horse is not always due to contracted tendons. It may occur as a symptom of inflammation of the flexor tendons, ligaments of the fetlock joint and the articulation as well. It may be noticed in animals that have ring-bone, or coffin-joint lameness. The most _common cause_ for this unsoundness is inflammation of the muscles and tendons of the flexors of the digit. As a result of long standing or severe inflammation, shortening of these structures occurs in consequence of the contraction of the inflammatory or cicatricial tissue. Knuckling-over in the newborn colt is commonly caused by a weakness or lack of innervation of the extensor muscle of the digit. Judging from the quick recovery that usually occurs, other causes for this condition are seldom present. _The treatment_ recommended for the new-born colt is supporting the fetlock with a light plaster bandage. This should be applied very soon after birth in order to prevent bruising of the fetlock. A light cheese-cloth bandage should be applied to the limb from the hoof to the knee. The colt is laid on its side, the toe extended as much as possible, and the plaster bandage applied. This should be removed in about one week and fresh bandages applied. In about two weeks the young animal is usually able to walk on the toe. As soon as it is able to do this a bandage is unnecessary. It is not advisable to turn the colt outside if there is any chance for the bandages to become wet. Knuckling-over due to faulty conformation is difficult to correct. Light work and careful shoeing are the most valuable preventive measures in young horses. Sprains and injuries to the region of the fetlock should receive the necessary treatment. The treatment for contracted tendon is largely surgical and consists in sectioning it. INJURIES CAUSED BY INTERFERING.--Horses that have faulty action may strike the opposite fetlock with the moving foot, the inside of the opposite limb in the region of the knee, and the quarters of the front foot with the shoe of the hindfoot. It is very common for horses to "brush" the inside of the hind fetlock with the opposite foot when trotting, especially if tired. Interfering in the front feet is less common. Striking the inside of the region of the knee with the opposite foot or "_speedy cutting_" occurs in driving and speed horses. Both of the latter forms of interfering may be considered unsoundnesses. The most _common cause_ of interfering is faulty conformation, such as narrowness of the chest or pelvis, faulty conformation of the limbs and irregularity in the action of the joints. Shoeing and the condition of the feet are also important factors. Animals that have a narrow chest or pelvis interfere because the legs are placed too closely together. Turning in of the knees or "knock-kneed," winging in or out of the feet, or any other defective conformation of the limbs that tends to prevent the animal from moving the feet in line, lead to serious interfering. A wide-spreading hoof, an unbalanced condition of the foot and improper fitting of the shoes are common causes for interfering in horses that would otherwise move the feet in line. Debility from disease and overwork may cause the animal to interfere temporarily. An unbalanced gait and shortness of the body are the common causes for injuries to the quarters. All degrees of injury to the part struck by the shoe or wall of the foot may be noted. Horses that interfere lightly, wear the hair off and produce slight abrasions of the skin on the inside of the fetlock. Sometimes the skin is bruised, inflamed or scarred. Injuries to the inside of the knee and quarter are the most serious. Lameness, inflammation of the periosteum and bony enlargement may result from "speedy cutting." Deep wounds in the region of the heel or quarter may occur when a horse strikes this part with the shoe of the hindfoot in moving at a high rate of speed. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. No doubt many cases of interfering could be prevented by careful training and balancing of the foot when the animal is growing and developing. The feet of colts should be trimmed every three or four weeks. Interfering in the hindfeet may be stopped by noting the character of the animal's gait and the portion of the wall that strikes the part, and by practising intelligent methods of shoeing. Slight injuries should be treated by the application of antiseptic powders. The treatment for injuries to the periosteum is the same as that recommended for splints. As a last resort boots and button rings may be used for the purpose of preventing serious injury to that part which is struck by the foot. RING-BONE.--Chronic inflammation of the articulation between the first and second bones of the digit is termed ring-bone (Fig. 35). Not all ring-bones involve the articular surfaces. The periarticular, or false ring-bone, is a chronic inflammation of the bone near the articular surface. The bony enlargement varies in size. It may form a ring encircling the part, or it may be limited to the lateral surface of the joint. The bony enlargement may be so small as to be detected only by a careful examination. Ring-bone may occur on any of the feet, but it is said to be more common in the front feet. [Illustration: FIG. 35.--Bones of digit, showing side bones and ring-bones, and normal bones of digit.] _The predisposing cause_ of ring-bone is faulty conformation. Long, weak pasterns that are predisposed to strains, upright pasterns, especially if small, and exposed to concussion and jarring, and crooked feet that distribute the weight on the part irregularly are important factors in the production of ring-bones. The _external causes_ are sprains or any injury to the region. _Lameness_ is nearly always present. The degree of lameness varies, and does not depend altogether on the size of the bony enlargement. Large ring-bones interfere with the movement of the tendon. Lameness is most pronounced when weight is thrown on one foot, the later phase of the step being shortened and the pastern more upright. Some cases improve with rest, but the lameness returns when the animal is given hard work. _The preventive treatment_ consists in giving the necessary attention to the feet of young animals, by trimming the wall frequently and keeping the feet in balance and the careful selection of breeding stock. Resting the animal, keeping the foot that has the ring-bone on it in proper balance and counterirritation by means of blisters and cautery (searing) are important lines of treatment. Shortening the toe and raising the heel, if necessary, greatly relieves the lameness in some cases. Sectioning the sensory nerves that go to the part should not be practised, unless in exceptional cases. QUESTIONS 1. Give the causes of shoulder lameness; give the treatment. 2. Describe capped elbow; give the treatment. 3. What is "broken knee"? 4. What are "wind-galls" and "road-puffs"? 5. Give the cause and treatment of sprung-knee. 6. Give the cause and treatment of splints. 7. What class of horses most commonly have strained tendons? Give the causes and treatment of this form of lameness. 8. Give the treatment of contracted tendons in the new-born colt. 9. Give the causes for interfering. 10. What are the different forms of ring-bone? Give the causes and treatment of ring-bone. CHAPTER XVII DISEASES OF THE FOOT GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The foot of the horse as generally spoken of, includes the hoof and the structures that are enclosed by it (Fig. 36). It may be divided into three parts, the insensitive and sensitive structures and the bony core. The _insensitive foot_ or _hoof_ is divided into wall, sole, frog and bars. The _sensitive foot_ is divided into vascular tissue and elastic apparatus. The vascular tissue is in turn divided into coronary cushion, laminae and velvety tissue. The elastic apparatus is divided into plantar cushion and fibro-cartilages. The _bony core_ is formed by the navicular and third digital bones. The hoof and vascular tissue in turn enclose the elastic apparatus and bony core. [Illustration: FIG. 36.--Photograph of a model of the foot: wall; sensitive tissue; plantar cushion, inferior dark portion, sole and frog; lateral cartilage; and pedal bone.] THE WALL forms that portion of the hoof seen when the foot rests on the ground (Fig. 37). It is covered by a thin layer of horny tissue, the _peripole,_ that coats over the wall and assists in preventing its drying out. On lifting the foot and examining its inferior surface, it is noticed that the wall at the heels is inflected under the foot and in a forward direction. This portion of the wall is termed the _bars._ Within the bearing margin of the wall and in front of the bars is a thick, concave, horny plate that forms the _sole._ At the heels and between the bars is a wedge-shaped mass of rather soft horny tissue that projects forward into the sole. This is the _foot pad_ or _horny frog._ It is divided into two lateral portions by a medium cleft. THE CORONARY CUSHION projects into the upper border of the wall. It is covered with vascular papillae which secrete the horny fibres that form the wall. The _vascular laminae_ are leaf-like projections, the sides of which are covered by secondary leaves. _Horny laminae_, arranged the same as vascular laminae, line the wall. These two structures are so firmly united that it is impossible to tear them apart without destroying the tissue. The _velvety tissue_ covers all of the inferior surface of the foot, with the exception of the bars. As the name indicates, its surface is covered by vascular papillae that resemble the ply on velvet. It is firmly united to the horny sole which it secretes. [Illustration: FIG. 37.--Foot showing neglect in trimming wall.] The lateral cartilages are attached to the posterior angles of the pedal bone. They are flattened from side to side, and the portion that projects above the coronary cushion may be felt by pressing on the skin that covers it. The _plantar cushion_ is a wedge-shaped piece of tissue formed by interlacing connective-tissue fibres and fat. It is limited on each side by the lateral cartilages. Its inferior face is moulded to the frog. THE BONY CORE formed by the last bone of the digit and the coffin bone was described briefly with the other foot bones. A very important bursa, because it is so frequently inflamed in coffin-joint lameness, facilitates the gliding of the flexor tendon over the navicular bone before it becomes attached to the inferior face of the pedal or digital bone. SIDE-BONES.--This is a chronic inflammation of the lateral cartilages of the foot that results in their ossification (Fig. 38). This unsoundness is common in heavy horses, especially if worked on city streets. The inflammation affects the cartilages of the front feet, rarely those of the hindfeet. _The hereditary tendency_ toward the development of side-bones is an important predisposing factor. It is not uncommon to meet with this unsoundness in young horses that have never been worked. Low, weak heels, flat, spreading feet, or any other faulty conformation of the foot are predisposing factors. [Illustration: FIG. 38.--A very large side bone.] The character of the work is an important _exciting cause._ Continuous work over paved streets, especially if the horse is shod with high-heeled shoes, increases the shock received by the elastic apparatus of the foot. This produces more or less irritation to the lateral cartilages, which may result in their complete ossification. Punctured wounds in the regions of the cartilage may cause it to become inflamed and changed to bone. The following _symptoms_ may be noted. Farm horses that have side-bones seldom show lameness. This is because they are worked on soft ground and not on a hard street or road. Driving and dray horses may step short with the front feet, or show a stilty action. This may disappear with exercise. The lameness is sometimes marked. The local diseased changes are the greatest help in the recognition of side-bones. Horses should not be passed as sound without making a careful examination of the lateral cartilages. This examination is made by pressure over the region of the cartilage with the thumb or fingers. This is for the purpose of testing its elasticity. If it feels rigid and rough, the cartilaginous tissue has been replaced by bony tissue, and the animal should be classed as unsound. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. Horses with side-bones should not be bred. It is not advisable to use horses with side-bones on the road or city streets. Shoeing with rubber pads may help in overcoming the concussion and relieve the lameness. Sectioning the sensory nerves going to this portion of the foot is advisable in driving horses. Rest and counterirritation relieve the lameness for a short time. NAVICULAR DISEASE.--In navicular disease the bursa, flexor tendon, and navicular bone may become chronically inflamed. Because of the seat of the lameness, it is commonly known as "coffin-joint" lameness. This disease affects standard and thoroughbred horses more often than it does the coarser breeds. One or both front feet may be affected (Fig. 39). _Hereditary causes_ are largely responsible for navicular disease. The tendency toward this disease probably depends on such peculiarities of conformation as narrow, weak, high heels, long pasterns and too long a toe. The character of the work is an important factor. Hurried, rapid movements throw considerable strain on the navicular region, increasing the danger from injury. This is, no doubt, one reason for "coffin-joint" lameness being more common in driving and speed horses than in slow-going work animals. Rheumatic inflammation, bad shoeing and punctured wounds in the region of the bursa many cause it. [Illustration: FIG. 39.--A case of navicular disease involving one front foot. The diseased foot is the smaller.] The _first symptom_ usually noted is a tendency to stumble. When standing in the stable, the animal "points" or rests the diseased foot. Sometimes it rests the heel of the lame foot on the wall of the opposite foot. If both feet are affected, the animal may rest them alternately, or take a position with both feet well in front of the normal position. The inflamed structures are so covered by other tissues that it is difficult to detect the local inflammation, or cause the animal to flinch by applying pressure over the region. As the disease becomes more advanced, the lameness becomes permanent. The limb is carried forward stiffly and rapidly and the animal stumbles when travelling over rough ground. In time, because of the little weight thrown on the posterior portion of the foot, the quarters may become higher, contracted and more upright and the frog smaller. If one foot is diseased, it becomes smaller than the opposite foot. The following _preventive measures_ may be recommended. We should not use animals having faulty conformation of the feet for breeding, because the offspring of such individuals have an inherent tendency toward navicular and other foot diseases. Animals that have "coffin-joint" lameness should be allowed to run in pasture as much as possible, because natural conditions help to keep down the inflammation and soreness and promote a more healthy condition of the foot. In shoeing the horse it is best to shorten the toe and raise the heel. It is advisable in the more favorable cases to cut the sensory nerves of the foot. This operation destroys the sensation in the foot, and should not be performed on feet with weak heels, or that are wide or spreading. [Illustration: FIG. 40.--An improperly shod foot; note the manner in which the wall is cut away at the toe.] CONTRACTED QUARTERS.--This condition of the feet is characterized by the foot becoming narrow in its posterior portion. One or both of the quarters may be affected. It is principally observed in the forefeet. The _causes_ of contraction of the foot may be classed as _predisposing_, _secondary_ and _exciting_. It may accompany chronic diseases of the foot, such as navicular disease and side-bones. Weak heels is the principal predisposing factor. Any condition that tends to prevent the hoof from taking up moisture, or causes it to lose moisture, may cause the horn to lose flexibility and contract. This is one of the reasons why horses that are worked continuously in cities, or used for driving, frequently develop contracted feet. Ill-fitting shoes, excessive rasping of the wall and bars, and allowing the shoes to stay on the foot for too long a time are responsible to a very large degree for this disorder of the foot (Fig. 40). The following _local symptoms_ may occur: The wall of the foot at the quarters may appear drawn in at its superior or inferior portion. Sometimes one or both quarters are perpendicular, or nearly so. The foot then appears too narrow at the heel, too elongated and less rounded than normal. The changes in the appearance of the inferior surface of the hoof vary. The changes here may be so slight that they are not noticed. In well advanced and neglected cases the arch of the sole is increased, the frog is narrow and atrophied and the bars high and perpendicular. Corns may accompany the contraction. The foot may feel feverish. The animal may manifest the pain in the feet when standing at rest by pointing and changing their position. When lameness is present, it may resemble that occurring in inflammation of lateral cartilages and navicular disease. _Preventive treatment_ is of the greatest importance. This consists in giving the feet an opportunity to take up moisture when they are exposed to abnormal conditions and become feverish. Under such conditions, it is advisable to occasionally remove the shoes and turn the animal into a pasture or lot. It is best to do this in the fall or winter when the ground is wet. If this can not be practised, the shoes should be removed and a poultice of ground flaxseed and bran, equal parts, applied to the feet for a period of eight or ten hours, daily for a week or two. A plank trough six inches deep, two feet wide and as long as the stall is wide may be filled with a stiff clay, and the horse made to stand with its front feet in the clay bath for ten or twelve hours daily. When grooming the horse, the foot should be cleaned with a foot-hook and washed with clean water. Hoof ointments should be avoided so far as possible. The importance of fitting the shoe to the foot, avoiding the too free use of the rasp and hoof knife and resetting or changing the shoe when necessary can not be overestimated. Shoeing the animal with a special shoe is sometimes necessary. It is not advisable to attempt the forcible expansion of the quarters. Lowering the heels by careful trimming of the wall and sole and permitting frog pressure may be all the special attention required. SAND-CRACK.--A fissure in the wall of the foot running in the same direction as the horny fibres, or a seam in the wall resulting from the healing of the fissure is termed sand-crack. The position and extent of the fissure or seam vary. It may involve the wall of the _toe_ (toe-crack) (Fig. 41) or _quarter_ (quarter-crack) (Fig. 42). It is _superficial_ or _deep_, according to the thickness of the wall involved; _complete_ or _incomplete_, depending on whether it extends from the bearing margin of the wall to the coronary band or only a portion of the distance; _simple_, when the horny tissue only is involved; and _complicated_, when the sensitive tissue beneath becomes injured and inflamed. Cracks of long standing usually have thick, rough margins. _The causes_ of this unsoundness are poor quality of horn, improper care and injuries. Sand-cracks commonly occur in hoofs that are dry and brittle and have thin walls. In young horses incomplete cracks due to the wall becoming long and breaking off in large pieces are common. Unequal distribution of weight, the result of unskilled shoeing, or any other condition that may cause the foot to become unbalanced, using the foot rasp too freely, and such diseases as quittor, corns and contracted quarters subject the animal to this form of unsoundness. Any injury to the coronary cushion that secretes the fibres of the horny wall may result in either toe- or quarter-crack. Treads and barb-wire cuts are common injuries to the region of the coronet. _The preventive treatment_ consists in preserving a healthy condition of the horn by giving the foot the necessary care and attention in the way of proper trimming and shoeing, and providing it with the necessary moisture by means of foot-baths, wet clay and poultices. Quarter-cracks respond to treatment more quickly than toe-cracks. The treatment is practically the same for both. This consists in preventing motion in the margins of the fissure so far as possible. [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Toe-cracks.] [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Quarter-crack caused by barb-wire cut.] _The treatment for fissures_ in the region of the toe and quarter is as follows: The wall should be cut away along the margins of the crack until it is quite thin; and extra nail holes should be made in the shoe, and a nail driven into the bearing margin of the wall a little to each side of the fissure. The wall at the toe should be shortened and the toe of the shoe rolled if the animal's work permits the use of this kind of a shoe. The margins of a quarter-crack and the wall just posterior and below it should be cut away until quite thin. The bearing margin should then be trimmed so that it does not rest on the shoe. A bar shoe that does not press on the frog may be used. Light blisters to the region of the coronet help in stimulating the growth of the horn. Rest is advisable. CORNS.--This term is applied to injuries to the foot caused by bruises or continuous pressure to the posterior portion of the sole. This condition is common in the forefeet. _The predisposing causes_ are faulty conformation that favors pressure from the shoe on the sole between the bars and wall and weak heels. Corns are commonly met with in feet having contracted quarters. The principal _external causes_ are wrong methods of shoeing and allowing the shoes to remain on the feet for too long a period. _A common symptom_ of corns is lameness. In order to relieve the pressure over the inflamed part, the animal stands with the foot slightly flexed at the fetlock. The lameness is not characteristic. It is only by a local examination of the foot, made by pressing on the sole or cutting away the horn, that we are able to form a positive diagnosis. We describe the _diseased changes_ by using the terms _dry_, _moist_ and _suppurative corns_. In the _dry corn_ we find the horn stained and infiltrated with blood. In the _moist corn_ the hoof may be colored the same as in the former, but in addition there is a space between the vascular and horny tissue that is filled with a serous-like fluid. If this collection of fluid becomes infected with pus organisms and is changed to pus, it is then termed a _suppurative corn_. Sometimes the pus pushes its way upward and backward between the sensitive laminae and the wall, and makes its appearance at the margin of the coronary band in the region of the quarters or heels. This usually occurs when the tissues beneath the horny frog become bruised or the sensitive tissue pricked by a nail. It is commonly termed "gravelled." Pus rarely breaks through the thick horny tissue, but follows the wall and breaks through the skin where it meets with the least resistance. Corns may be considered a serious unsoundness in driving horses. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. Trimming the foot and fitting the shoe properly are important preventive measures. The practice of cutting away the bars and sole or "opening up the heels," as it is commonly termed, should be condemned. This method of trimming the foot instead of preventing corns is a very common factor in producing them. The shoe should not be too short or too narrow. It should follow the outline of the wall and rest evenly on its bearing margin. If this is practised, weakening the wall by cutting off that portion allowed to project beyond the shoe is unnecessary. Feet that have low heels and large, prominent frogs should be shod with shoes thick at the heels. The best line of treatment for a horse that is subject to corns is to remove the shoes and allow the animal to run in a pasture. If this is impossible, poulticing the feet or standing the animal in moist clay will help in relieving the soreness. Excessive cutting away of the horny sole is contra-indicated. Suppurative corns should be given proper drainage and treatment. LAMINITIS, "FOUNDER."--This is an inflammation of the sensitive or vascular stricture of the foot. The inflammation may be acute, subacute or chronic. Stockmen frequently use a classification for laminitis based on the causes. Feed, road and water founder are common terms used in speaking of this disease. The inflammation is usually limited to the front feet. _The causes_ of laminitis are overfeeding, sudden changes in the feed, drinking a large quantity of water when the animal is overheated, overexertion, exhaustion and chilling of the body by standing the animal in a cold draft. It may be associated with such diseases as rheumatism, influenza and colic. _The symptoms_ vary in the different forms of the disease. Pain is the most characteristic symptom. The sensitive or vascular structure of the foot has an abundant supply of sensory nerves, and, as it is situated between the hoof and the bony core, the pressure and pain resulting from the inflammation are severe. In the _acute form_ general symptoms are manifested. The appetite is impaired, the body temperature elevated and the pulse beats and respirations quickened. If the inflammation is severe, the animal prefers to lie down. This is especially true if all four feet are inflamed. In most cases the horse stands with the forefeet well forward and the hind feet in front of their normal position and under the body. The affected feet are feverish and very sensitive to jarring or pressure. Moving about increases the pain in the feet, and it may be very difficult to make the animal step about the stall. In the _subacute form_ the symptoms are less severe. The irregularity in the gait is especially noticeable when the animal is turned quickly. The local symptoms are less marked than in the acute form and the general symptoms may be absent. _The chronic form_ is characterized by changes in the shape and appearance of the hoofs (Fig. 43). The wall shows prominent ridges or rings, the toe may be concave, thick and long and the sole less arched than usual, or convex. The degree of lameness varies. It is more noticeable when the horse is moved over a hard roadway than if moved over soft ground. One attack of laminitis may predispose the animal to a second attack. _The prognosis_ depends on the character of the inflammation and the promptness and thoroughness of the treatment. Acute laminitis may respond to prompt, careful treatment in from ten to fourteen days. Subacute laminitis responds readily to treatment. The prognosis is least favorable in the chronic form. _The preventive treatment_ is very important. Dietetic causes are responsible for a large percentage of the cases of this disease. Horses that are accustomed to being fed and watered at irregular periods and after severe or unusual exercise seem to be able to stand this treatment better than animals that are more carefully cared for, but even this class of animals do not always escape injury. Stockmen should realize the danger of producing an inflammation of the feet by feeding grain and giving cold water to horses immediately after severe exercise. Overfeeding should also be avoided. Careful nursing may prevent the occurrence of laminitis as a complication of other diseases. [Illustration: FIG. 43.--This foot shows the changes in shape and appearance of wall and sole occurring in chronic laminitis.] _The treatment_ of the inflammation is as follows: The removal of the shoes and the necessary trimming of the foot should be practised early in the inflammation; the horse should be placed in a roomy box-stall that is well bedded with cut straw; during the cool weather it may be necessary to blanket the animal; if the weather is hot and the flies annoy the patient, the stall should be darkened; in serious cases, and when the animal is heavy, it may be advisable to use a sling; hot water fomentations are to be preferred; the patient may be stood in a tub of hot water or heavy woollen bandages that have been dipped in hot water and wrung, out as dry as possible may be applied to the feet; the temperature of the water should be no hotter than can be comfortably borne with the hands; the results of this treatment depend on the faithfulness with which it is carried out; a poultice of ground flaxseed should be applied to the foot at night, or during the interval between the foot-baths. This treatment may be continued until the acute inflammation has subsided. If the animal is inclined to eat, it should be fed very little roughness and grain. Soft feeds are to be preferred, and one quart of linseed oil given as a physic. After a period of from ten days to three weeks, depending on the tenderness of the feet, the wall at the toe should be shortened, the sole trimmed if necessary, flat shoes rolled at the toe placed on the feet, and the animal allowed to exercise a short time each day in a lot or pasture. As the hoof grows rapidly, it is necessary to trim it carefully every three or four weeks and replace the shoes. The wall at the toe should be kept short, but excessive thinning of the sole should be avoided. The same line of treatment as recommended for the horse may be used for laminitis in cattle. If marked diseased changes occur in the feet, it is not advisable to attempt the treatment of chronic laminitis, unless it is in valuable breeding animals. QUESTIONS 1. Give a general description of the foot. 2. State the nature and causes of side-bones. 3. What are the causes of navicular disease? Give symptoms and treatment 4. What are corns? Give the treatment. 5. Give the nature and treatment of quarter- and toe-cracks. 6. Give the symptoms and causes of laminitis. 7. Give lines of treatment to be followed in the different forms of laminitis. 8. How may laminitis be prevented? CHAPTER XVIII DISEASES OF THE HIND LIMB FRACTURE OF THE ILEUM, "Hipped."--Fracture of the angle and neck of the ileum may be classed among the common fractures in horses and cattle. Fractures involving other parts of the pelvic bones are less common. Such fractures are due to accidental causes, as striking the point of the haunch on the door frame when hurrying through a narrow doorway and falling on frozen ground. Fractures of the _external angle_ of the ileum or point of haunch are usually followed by displacement of the fractured portion. The same is true of fractures of the _neck of the ileum_. The result is a deformity of the quarter. In making an _examination_ of these parts the examiner should see that the horse is standing squarely on its feet, and then compare the conformation of the two quarters. Fractures of either the external angle or the neck of the ileum cause the quarter to appear narrow and low. A close examination may enable the examiner to differentiate between the two fractures. Fractures of the neck of the ileum can be recognized by manipulating the part through the walls of the rectum or vagina. The degree of lameness may vary. In some cases there may be no lameness when the animal walks, but a slight degree of lameness may be noticed when it trots. For several weeks after the injury the horse may be unable to use the limb, but it may eventually make nearly a complete recovery. Atrophy of the muscles of the hip or quarter (Fig. 44) should not be mistaken for fractures of the ileum. This condition involves the heavy gluteal muscles and may occur as a complication of azoturia, or a lameness of the hind limb that is usually due to a spavin. It is very seldom necessary to give fractures of the ileum any special care. If the animal is very lame, it should be given a narrow stall, and placed in a sling until it can support its weight on the limb. The same treatment is indicated in cattle. It is not advisable to breed a mare that has had the ileum fractured. The bony enlargement that results from the union of the broken ends of the bone may interfere with the passage of the foetus through the pelvic cavity and cause difficult parturition. [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Atrophy of the muscles of the quarter.] LUXATION OF THE PATELLA, "Stifle Out."--This is a common accident in horses and mules. Young, immature animals are more prone to displacement of the patella than when mature. The displacement is usually upward or outward. Outward displacement is comparatively rare. _The causes_ of "stifle out" may be described as follows: The patella or knee-cap rests on a pulley-like articular surface belonging to the inferior extremity of the thigh-bone. The external lip of this articular surface is smaller than the internal lip. The patella is held in place from above by the heavy muscles of the anterior region of the thigh, and from below, by straight ligaments that attach it to the leg-bone. If the retaining structures mentioned become relaxed, the patella may, when the limb is extended, become so displaced as to rest on the superior portion of the external lip. Laxness of the muscles and ligaments in young animals is a predisposing factor. Hard work that tires the muscles and causes them to become relaxed, strains, unusual movements, as kicking in the stable and slipping, may cause this accident. Congenital displacement results from imperfect development of the external lip of the trochlea. Such a deformity subjects the animal to frequent luxations. _The symptoms may vary_. The displacement may be first noticed when the horse is backed out of the stall or turned quickly. A slight "hitch" in the movement of the limb is noted, that is followed by more noticeable flexion of the hock than normal. In case the luxation is more permanent, the horse stands quietly with the affected leg held stiffly and extended backward. When made to move forward, it hops on the well leg and carries the affected one, or drags it on the toe. If both limbs are affected, the animal is unable to move. The inability to move the limb is due to the patella resting on the external lip of the pulley surface, and a locking of the stifle- and hock-joint. This accident is annoying, and in case the horse is subject to it should be considered an unsoundness. The following _treatment_ may be recommended: The luxation may be reduced in the large majority of cases by backing or turning the animal. If this does not reduce the displacement, a collar should be placed on the animal, and a hobble strap fastened to the pastern of the involved limb. One end of a long rope is tied to the collar, passed backward between the front limbs, through a ring in the hobble and back over the outside of the shoulder and under the collar. While an attendant pulls the limb a little forward with the rope, the operator takes hold of the foot and attempts to flex the limb, at the same time pushing inward on the patella. After reducing the luxation it is advisable to tie the rope to the collar, so that the limb is carried forward. This prevents the animal from throwing weight on the foot. It may be advisable to tie the animal so that it can not lie down, if the foot is to be left hobbled for a few days. A fly blister should be applied to the front and outside of the stifle and the application repeated in two or three weeks. STRING-HALT.--This term is applied to a peculiar involuntary movement of one or both hind limbs that is characterized by a sudden, purposeless flexion of the hock-joint (Fig. 45). Horses that are slightly affected may show this movement of the hind limbs when first exercised. Other horses may be "string-halted" when backed, turned, walked, or trotted, and fail to drive out of it. The cause of true "string-halt" is not known. _The treatment recommended is surgical._ This consists in cutting the tendon of the peroneus muscle. The seat of the operation is a little below the hock and on the external face of the cannon. [Illustration: FIG. 45.--String-halt.] SPAVIN.--A spavin is a chronic inflammation of the articular faces of the hock bones, ligaments and synovial membranes. The inflammation may result in the formation of a bony enlargement on the inner surface of the region, and a union between the small bones forming the lower portion of the hock, and the upper extremities of cannon and lower hock bones (Figs. 46 and 47). [Illustration: FIG. 46.--A large bone spavin.] The _predisposing causes_ are of the greatest importance. A spavin is one of the unsoundnesses of horses that may be transmitted to the offspring. Young colts that have heavy bodies and are fed a fattening ration are predisposed to it. Crooked hind limbs, small hocks and quarters that are heavily muscled are predisposing factors. The _external causes_ are strains caused by slipping, turning quickly, rearing, pulling heavy loads and kicks. Horses three or four years of age if given work that favors hock strain, such as excavating cellars, may develop a spavin. [Illustration: FIG. 47.--Normal cannon bone and cannon bone showing bony enlargement and lower hock bones united to superior extremity; this occurs in bone spavin.] _The symptoms_ or lameness are more characteristic than in most diseases of the limb. At the very beginning of the inflammation, and sometimes for several months afterward, the lameness is intermittent and disappears with exercise. After a time it is permanent. It is characterized by a stiffness of the hock. The extension of the hock is incomplete, the step is short and quick, the animal "goes on its toe" and the wall or shoe at the toe shows considerable wear. Because of the stiffness in the hock the animal raises the quarter when the limb is carried forward. Turning toward the well side may increase the lameness. The _spavin test_ may be of value in diagnosing lameness. This consists in picking up the foot and holding the hock in a flexed position for a few minutes. The foot is then dropped to the ground and the animal moved off at a brisk trot. If the lameness is more marked, it indicates that the seat is in the region of the hock. This test is of greatest value in young animals. The bony enlargement can usually be seen best if the examiner stands in front and to one side of the animal. The hock should be observed from directly behind as well. The hocks of both limbs should be compared, and the general conformations of the other joints as well. This may prevent the examiner from mistaking rough hocks for spavin enlargements or "a pair" of spavins for rough hocks. A bony enlargement does not always accompany the lameness, and a spavin may be present without the horse going noticeably lame. [Illustration: FIG. 48.--Bog spavins.] _The prognosis_ is always uncertain and should be guided somewhat by the conformation of the limb, character of the work required of the animal, position of the bony enlargement and the degree of lameness. The size of the enlargement is changed very little by the treatment. Veterinarians report recoveries in from fifty to sixty per cent of the cases treated. _The object of the treatment_ is to destroy the inflammation and bring about a union between the bones. The treatment recommended is counterirritation and rest. The most satisfactory method of counterirritation is firing followed by blistering. Following this treatment, the horse should be placed in a stall and given no exercise for a period of five or six weeks. It is sometimes advisable to repeat the counterirritation if the results of the first firing are unsatisfactory. BOG SPAVIN.--Bog spavin is an extensive distention of the capular ligament of the hock-joint by synovia (Fig. 48). It is generally due to chronic inflammation of the synovial membrane. This blemish or unsoundness is most common in young horses. Thorough pin (Fig. 49) involves the sheath of the large tendon only. (Compare Figs. 48 and 49.) [Illustration: FIG. 49.--Thorough pin. Note the relation of the enlargement to the tendon, and the freedom of the hocks from bog spavin.] Certain conformations of the hock favor the development of bog spavin. This is especially true of upright and "fleshy" hocks. Hard work may cause the hocks to "fill" when followed by a brief period of rest. The common cause is a sprain due to slipping and pulling heavy loads. The _following symptoms_ may be noted: Lameness is not a common symptom of bog spavin. If there is inflammation present or the articulation is injured, lameness occurs. The soft swelling that characterizes the bog spavin is most prominent toward the inside and front of the region. In the upper portion or hollow of the hock, and on the inside and outside, there may be a second enlargement. Smaller enlargements may be present in other regions. All of the swellings feel soft, and pressure on any one of them moves the fluid present in the others. _The treatment_ is directed at the removal of the lameness. Acute inflammation resulting from spavin may be relieved by cold applications and rest. Chronic lameness should be given the same treatment as recommended for bone spavin. The enlargement can be successfully removed in growing colts by the repeated application of mild blisters. It may be necessary to continue the treatment for several months. The removal of the enlargement in adult horses by an operation is recommended. The _greatest caution_ is required in performing this operation. CAPPED HOCK.--All swellings on the point of the hock are termed "capped hock." The swellings may be due to an injury to the skin and the subcutaneous tissue, or more important structures may be involved, as the subcutaneous bursa, the tendon, or the synovial bursa or sack. Capped hock is _caused_ by the animal kicking in the stall or in harness, shipping in freight cars and lack of bedding in the stall. Unless the deeper structures are bruised and inflamed the animal shows no lameness. _The character_ of the enlargement varies. When the injury is superficial, the swelling feels firm, or pits on pressure. Later it may become more firm and feel like a loose, thickened, fibrous cap for the hock. Soft, fluctuating swellings are due to an inflammation of the bursa. Recent injuries feel hot. _The preventive treatment_ consists in hobbling the hind limbs of a horse that kicks in the stable. This is usually necessary only at night. It may be advisable to pad certain parts of the stall. Horses that are transported in cars should be protected against injuries during transit by the use of proper care and such arrangement of the animals in the car as may expose them to the least injury. Recent injuries should be treated by the application of cold and rest. After the inflammation has subsided tincture of iodine or blisters may be applied. The treatment of bursal enlargements is surgical. This consists in opening the bursa, destroying the lining membrane of the cavity and treating the part daily until healed. The operation must be performed carefully, as there is danger of infection with irritating organisms. The animal should be given complete rest until the part is healed. Tincture of iodine may be applied to the enlargement that may remain after healing has occurred. This should be continued daily until the skin becomes noticeably irritated. The treatment may be repeated, if necessary, after an interval of two weeks. [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Curbs.] CURB.--This term is applied to all swellings on the posterior border of the hock (Fig. 50). Thickenings or enlargements in this region may involve a variety of structures. Thickening of the skin, tendons and sheath may occur. The large ligament that extends from the posterior border of the bone that forms the summit of the hock to the external splint bone, and acts as a stay for the point of the hock, is the structure usually involved in curb. Faulty conformation is a _predisposing cause_. A narrow base weakens the hock at this point, and the extreme length of the bone that forms its summit gives the powerful muscles attached to it greater leverage than in a well-conformed hock. This results in strain to the ligament at the posterior portion of the region. _The exciting causes_ are strains resulting from jumping, slipping, rearing, heavy pulling and bruising of the part. _In examining the hock_ for curb it is necessary to stand to the side and note the profile of the posterior border. Excessive development of the head of the external splint bone should not be mistaken for curb. As viewed from the side, the posterior border of the hock should appear straight. The curb appears as a swelling on this straight line. It varies in size. A recent curb is usually hot and firm, or may feel soft if enlargement is formed by fluid, hard if formed by bone. Lameness seldom occurs, but if present, resembles spavin lameness. _The preventive treatment_ consists in selecting for breeding, animals that have strong, straight hocks, and using the necessary care in handling and working horses. It is not uncommon for young horses at the time they are broken to harness to develop a curb. This may be prevented to a large degree by careful handling. At the beginning of the inflammation the application of cold and hand rubbing is indicated. After the inflammation has subsided tincture of iodine or blisters should be applied. Rest is a necessary part of the treatment early in the inflammation. If the lameness does not respond to the above treatment, it should be treated the same as for bone spavin. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the different fractures of the ileum and give treatment. 2. Describe string-halt lameness and give treatment. 3. What is bone spavin? Describe spavin lameness. 4. Give the causes and treatment of bog spavin. 5. Give the causes and treatment of capped hock. 6. Give the causes and treatment of curb. PART III.--THE TEETH CHAPTER XIX DETERMINING THE AGE OF ANIMALS [Illustration: FIG. 51.--Head of young horse with bone cut away, and showing position and size of teeth.] GENERAL DISCUSSION.--The teeth are the passive organs of digestion. They are hard organs, implanted in the superior and inferior jaws in the form of a long and narrow arch that is open posteriorly. The free portions of the teeth project into the mouth, and present sharp or roughened table surfaces for the crushing and tearing of food. In solipeds and ruminants the arch is interrupted on each side by the inter-dental space or bars (Fig. 51). The teeth that form the middle and anterior portion of the arch are termed incisors (Fig. 52). Posterior to the incisors are the canines or tusks, and forming the arms of the arch are the molar teeth. Animals have two sets of teeth, temporary and permanent. The following table gives the number of the different kinds of temporary and permanent teeth. Temporary Teeth Permanent Teeth Incisors Canines Molars Incisors Canines Molars Solipeds 12 12 12 4 24 Ox 8 12 8 0 24 Sheep 8 12 8 0 24 Hog 12 12 12 4 24 The tusks or canine teeth are not always present in the female. Ruminants do not have upper incisor teeth. The temporary teeth are erupted either before or within a few days to a few months after birth. The eruption of the permanent teeth and the replacement of the temporary teeth occur at different periods up to the age of four and one-half years (Fig. 53). It is well to keep the following table of dentition in mind when examining the mouths of animals for the purpose of determining their age.[1] Horses Cattle Hogs Teeth Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent Incisors: yrs. mos. yrs. mos. mos. Centrals At birth 2 6 At birth 1 8 At birth, 12 or 3-4 weeks First 4-6 wks. 3 6 At birth 2 9 8-12 wks. 18 laterals Second 5-12 days 3 6 laterals Corners 6-9 mos. 4 6 12-18 days 4 6 At birth 9 Molars: First At birth 2 6 At birth 2 6 7 weeks 5 Second At birth 2 6 At birth 1 6 8-28 days 14 Third At birth 3 6 At birth 3 8-28 days 13 Fourth 10-12 1 6 13 Fifth 2 2 5 Sixth 4-5 2 6 9 Seventh 18 Canines or 4-5 9 tusks IN DETERMINING THE AGE of the different domestic animals by the development and appearance of the teeth, most of the attention is given to the lower incisor teeth. Up to the fifth year, the age of the horse or ox can be easily determined by the eruption and replacement of the incisors. At _one year_ of age the colt has a fully developed set of temporary incisors. The ruminant's incisors at this age all show wear. _The two-year-old colt_ shows a well-worn set of incisor teeth, and the ruminant at this age has replaced the nippers or centrals. _The third_, _fourth_ and _fifth years_ are indicated by the replacement of the temporary nippers, dividers and corners in the horse, and the first and second dividers and corner teeth in ruminants. [Illustration: FIG. 52.--Longitudinal section of incisor tooth: cup; cement; enamel; ivory; and pulp cavity.] In the horse the permanent nippers are full grown and in wear at _three years_ of age; the permanent dividers are full grown and in wear at _four years_ of age; and the permanent corners are full grown and in wear at _five years_ of age. The table surfaces of the incisor teeth of a five-year-old horse show different degrees of wear. At this period in the animal's age, the nippers have been in wear two years, the dividers one year, and the corners are beginning to show wear. In ruminants, all of the chisel-shaped table surfaces of the incisors show considerable wear when the animal is five years old. After the animal has a full set of permanent teeth, we judge the age by the degree of wear or the appearance of the table surfaces of the incisors, their shape, the angle with which they meet and the general appearance of the head. [Illustration: FIG. 53.--Cross-section of head of young horse showing replacement of molar tooth.] There are several different factors that may cause the wear on the teeth, and the appearance of their table surfaces to vary in the different individuals. The two factors that are of the most importance are the quality of the teeth and the character of feed. Soft teeth wear more quickly than hard teeth, and the teeth of horses that feed over closely cropped and sandy pastures wear rapidly because of the dirt and grit present on the short grass. This variation in the wear is of little importance to the person who must judge the age of a horse that he expects to purchase by the condition of the teeth. In reality, a horse is just as old as the wear on the teeth and his general appearance indicate. In order to stand severe work the animal must be able to masticate the feed, and prepare it for digestion in the stomach and intestines. The degree of wear on the molar teeth may be indicated by the wear on the incisors. The general condition of the horse and his ability to stand hard work depend very largely on the condition of the table surfaces of the molars. It is very difficult to judge the age of horses that have deformed mouths or that are in the habit of crib-biting, because of the irregularity in the wear of the incisors. When examining the teeth for the purpose of determining the horse's age, the shape of the incisors, the angle with which they meet and the appearance of their table surfaces should be observed. The teeth of young horses show more or less yellowish cement. At about seven years of age the anterior faces of the teeth are usually white, later a yellowish color. The teeth of middle-aged horses may be long, and in aged animals, narrow and short. The incisors meet at a more acute angle in old than young horses. _The free portion of the incisor_ tooth is flattened from before to behind. At the level of the gums its two diameters are about the same, but the portion of the tooth imbedded in the jaw bone is flattened from side to side. As the tooth becomes worn off, the length of the free portion is maintained by a pushing out of the tooth, and a corresponding shortening of the portion that is fixed or imbedded in the jaw. _The table surface of the unworn incisor_ tooth is covered with enamel, and in the middle portion the enamel forms a deep cup. After the tooth has become worn the margin of the table portion is then limited by a ring of enamel. This is termed the encircling enamel ring. The central portion of the table shows a second ring, the central enamel ring, that limits the cup margin (Fig. 54). [Illustration: FIG. 54.--Transverse section of incisor tooth: peripheral cement; peripheral enamel; ivory; central enamel; and central cement.] _As the table surface_ represents a cross section of the tooth, its appearance and shape will then depend on the portion of the tooth that it represents. From year to year, there is a gradual shortening in the lateral diameter, and an apparent increase in the diameter from before to behind. These changes in shape are from a long, narrow table surface to an oval, from oval to circular and from circular to triangular (Fig. 55). As the original free portion of the tooth wears off, the cup becomes shallow and smaller until the remnant is represented by a mere dot of enamel that finally disappears from the posterior portion of the table. After the cup has moved from the central portion of the crown and occupies a more posterior position, the dental star, which represents a cross section of the pulp cavity, puts in its appearance. It first takes the form of a brown or dark streak, and later a circular dark spot which gradually increases in size with the wear on the tooth and the age of the animal. [Illustration: FIG. 55.--Table surfaces of nippers at different ages: four years; six years; nine years, and fifteen years of age.] The following changes in the shape and appearance of the incisor teeth of the average horse occur in the different years. Unless otherwise mentioned, the statements made regarding the appearance and wear on the table surfaces apply to the lower incisor teeth. SIX YEARS.--The table surfaces form the most accurate guide. The cups of the nippers tend to an oval form. The corner teeth have been in wear one year at this time. The cup is deep and the posterior margin may show little wear. It is not uncommon to meet with corners that possess irregularly developed tables, and have cups with posterior margins that are thin and do not come into wear until later. For this reason, it is not best to depend on the appearance of the corner teeth alone. SEVEN YEARS.--The teeth are usually whiter than the previous year. The profile of the upper corner teeth shows a notch in the posterior portion of the table surface. This is due to the superior corners overhanging the inferior corner teeth posteriorly, resulting in this portion not wearing away. This notch is sometimes slightly in evidence the previous year. The cups in the corners are smaller and the worn surface larger than at six. The nippers show oval table surfaces and the dividers are beginning to take on this shape. The shifting of the cups toward the posterior portion of the tables of the nippers and dividers is noticeable. EIGHT YEARS.--As viewed from the side, the profile of the teeth shows a very noticeable increase in the obliquity with which they meet. The posterior borders of the corners show considerable wear. The notch in the superior corners is still present, but as the teeth come more nearly in apposition it may begin to disappear. All of the inferior tables are level. The nippers and dividers are oval in shape, and the cups have become decidedly narrow. The nippers show a well-defined dark streak just in front of the cups. This is the beginning of the dental star. NINE YEARS.--The appearance of the table surface is more characteristic at this time than the previous year. The cups are less prominent and the plainness or smoothness of the inferior table is more noticeable. The nippers are round, the cups triangular and the dark streak narrower and more distinct than the previous year. The dividers are becoming round and the corner teeth are oval. TEN YEARS.--The teeth are more oblique than in the eight-year-old and nine-year-old mouth. The table surfaces of the inferior nippers are decidedly rounded, the cups are small, triangular and situated well toward the posterior borders. The dark brown streak or dental star is situated in the central portion of the nippers and dividers. The tables of the dividers are round. ELEVEN YEARS.--The tables of the corner teeth are rounded. The dark streak or dental star is present in all of the teeth, and the remnants of the cups appear as small rings or spots of enamel near to the posterior borders of the tables. The notch in the superior corners may reappear at this time. TWELVE YEARS.--The profile of the teeth when viewed from the side is quite oblique. The table surfaces of all the incisors are round. But a trace of the cup remains in the inferior incisors. The head of the animal is beginning to show age. The inferior border of the jaw bone appears narrower, or sharper than in the young horse. THIRTEEN YEARS.--All of the specks of enamel or the remnants of the cups are gone from the lower incisors. A larger notch may be present in the upper corner teeth than at twelve. The tables of the inferior nippers are becoming triangular and show a small, dark spot or dental star. FOURTEEN YEARS.--The tables of the inferior nippers are triangular, and the dental star appears as a dark round spot in both the nippers and dividers. FIFTEEN YEARS.--The angle with which the teeth meet is greater than at twelve, the teeth are smaller and dental stars are represented by dark round spots in all of the inferior incisors. The tables of the nippers and dividers are triangular. SEVENTEEN YEARS.--All of the tables of the lower incisor teeth are triangular. The teeth are narrower and smaller than at fifteen. The profile of the incisors, viewed from the side, is quite angular. The dental stars are prominent. NINETEEN YEARS.--All of the signs of the seventeen-year-old mouth are more prominent. The cups have usually disappeared from the upper incisors. [Footnote 1: This table is from dentition tables given in "Age of the Domestic Animals," by Huidekoper.] QUESTIONS 1. Name the different kinds of teeth; state the arrangement and number. 2. How is the age of an animal determined? 3. Give the time of replacement of the temporary incisor teeth. 4. How is the age of the animal determined between the fifth and ninth years? 5. What changes in the appearance of the table surfaces occur between ten and fifteen years of age? CHAPTER XX IRREGULARITIES OF THE TEETH Parrot-mouth, Lantern-jaw and Scissor-mouth.--The common deformities of the jaw and teeth are the overshot or parrot-mouth, the undershot or lantern-jaw, and the scissor-mouth. These different deformities result in unequal wear on the table surfaces of the incisors and molars. In both the overshot and undershot jaws, the incisor teeth become abnormally long. In the _parrot-mouth_, the wear occurs on the posterior face of the superior and the anterior face of the inferior incisors, the teeth becoming worn to rather a sharp edge, depending on the degree of the deformity. In the _lantern-jaw_, the wear occurs on the posterior face of the lower and the anterior face of the superior row of incisors, the teeth taking on somewhat the same shape as the parrot-mouth. The greater the deformity and the older the horse becomes, the more difficult it is for the animal to feed or graze on pasture. In all horses, the two rows of molar teeth are wider apart in the superior than in the inferior jaw. This results in the external border of the tables of the superior row of molars becoming longer, or projecting further downward than the internal border. The wear on the table surfaces of the inferior row of molars is just the opposite of the superior row. In the _scissor-mouth_ the wear takes place largely on the internal face of the superior and the external face of the inferior row of molars. The teeth become worn to more or less of a blunt cutting edge, and after a time the molars come together somewhat like the jaws of a pair of scissors. A horse with a badly deformed scissor-mouth is unable to grind the feed, and unless given special care, suffers severely from innutrition. _The treatment_ of deformed mouths consists in removing the irregular or unworn portion of the teeth by means of the tooth float and cutters. This attention should be given early before the free portion of the tooth has become excessively long and irregular. This should be followed by dressing the teeth every six or twelve months. SHARP LATERAL BORDERS ON THE MOLAR TEETH.--This is a very common condition in horses. The external border of the superior and the internal border of the inferior row of molars wear away slowly, and sometimes become quite sharp. This is objectionable because the sharp points lacerate the mucous membrane of the cheek and tongue, and the mastication of the feed is seriously interfered with. This condition is _caused_ by an excessive difference in the width of the jaws, unusually prominent ridges of enamel on the external face of the superior molars, and any conditions that may limit the movements of the jaw. The following _symptoms_ may be noted. The animal has difficulty in masticating the feed because of injury to the cheeks or tongue by the sharp points of enamel. This condition may be indicated by holding the head to one side. Salivation is usually present. Acute indigestion and innutrition may occur. By examining the teeth, their condition can be determined. The sharp borders may be removed by dressing or floating the teeth. It is advisable in the majority of horses to float the teeth at least once in every twelve months. IRREGULARITIES IN THE TABLE SURFACE OF THE MOLAR TEETH.--Horses eight years of age or older frequently have irregular molars (Fig. 56). This is due very largely to the difference in the quality of the teeth. The harder molars do not wear off as rapidly as the softer ones. This results in the table surfaces of the rows of molars becoming wavy or step-like in outline. Sometimes the first or sixth molar overhangs or projects beyond the corresponding tooth of the opposite jaw. When this occurs, the over-hanging portion may become long and sharp. A molar tooth becomes excessively long if the opposite one is decayed or removed. _The symptoms_ are very much the same as when the borders of the molars are sharp. [Illustration: FIG. 56.--Teeth showing uneven wear occurring in old horses.] _The treatment_ consists in levelling the tables as frequently as necessary by cutting off the longer projections, and removing the sharp edges with a tooth float. SMOOTH MOUTH.--In old age the tables of the molar teeth may become so smooth that the horse cannot grind or masticate the feed. When all of the molars are in this condition, a rubbing sound may be noted when the animal is masticating hay. After attempting to chew the hay, it may be dropped from the mouth. Innutrition always occurs. _The treatment_ consists in feeding chops and soft feeds. DENTAL DISEASES.--Inflammation of the alveolar periosteum is a common dental disease in domestic animals. This is an inflammation of the alveolar dental membrane that fixes the tooth in the tooth cavity. Injuries to the gums and cracks or fissures in the tooth are the _common causes_. Caries or tooth decay is not uncommon. The predisposing factor is a poor quality of enamel and dentine. The process of decay is assisted by microorganisms. The _early symptoms_ may escape notice. Slobbering, masticating on one side, holding the head to one side, retained masses of food in the mouth and a disagreeable odor frequently occur. Caries may be indicated at first by a dark spot on the table of the tooth, later by a cavity. In horses, inflammation of the alveolar membrane results in a bony enlargement on the side of the face if the superior molar is involved. A swelling of the jaw and fistula may result if a lower molar is involved (Fig. 57). [Illustration: FIG. 57.--Fistula of jaw. This condition was the result of neglected treatment of decayed teeth.] _The treatment_ consists in the prompt removal of the tooth. This is more difficult in young animals than it is in the middle-aged or old. Unless the tooth is already loosened it may be necessary to remove it by trephining. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the appearance of the teeth in an overshot or undershot jaw. 2. Describe the appearance of sharp molar teeth; a scissor-mouth. 3. What are the causes of decayed teeth? PART IV.--SURGICAL DISEASES CHAPTER XXI INFLAMMATION AND WOUNDS Inflammation is a pathological condition of a tissue, characterized by altered function, disturbance of circulation, and destructive and constructive changes in the irritated part. Heat, redness, swelling, pain and disturbed function are the symptoms which characterize inflammation. _The changes in the circulation_ occurring in inflammation are as follows: (1) An increase in the rate of the blood-flow through the blood-vessels of the part and their dilation; (2) diminished velocity followed by the blood-flow becoming entirely suspended; (3) following the retardation or suspension of the blood stream, white blood-corpuscles accumulate along the walls of the small veins and capillaries; (4) white and red blood-corpuscles migrate from the vessels into the neighboring tissue, and blood-serum transudes through the walls of the vessels, forming the inflammatory swellings. The red blood-cells do not escape from the blood-vessels in any numbers unless the walls of the blood-vessels become injured or badly diseased. _The causes of inflammation_ may be grouped under the following heads: mechanical, chemical, thermic and infectious. The _mechanical_ or _traumatic causes_ commonly produce inflammation in domestic animals. These are kicks, strains of tendons, ligaments or muscles and wounds. Inflammation originating from injuries very frequently changes to an infectious form, through the infection of the part by bacteria. Bruised tissue may become infected with pus-producing organisms, and an abscess or local swelling form. All accidental wounds in domestic animals become more or less infected by irritating microorganisms. The following _symptoms_ occur in local inflammation. Increased heat in the part is an important symptom. It is due to the increased blood-flow to the part. Because of the pigmented, hairy skin of domestic animals, redness is of little value in locating superficial inflammation. Swelling is a valuable local symptom. It is produced by the inflammatory exudates. Pain results from the pressure on the sensory nerves by the inflammatory swelling. For example, the laminae of the foot are imprisoned between the horny wall and the pedal bone. This structure is well supplied with sensory nerves, and when it becomes inflamed and swollen, the tissues are subject to severe pressure and the pain is severe. Inflammation of a tendon results in lameness; of the udder, in suspension of milk secretions; and of the stomach by interference with digestion of the feed. Such symptoms may be grouped under the head of disturbed functions. _The character of an inflammation_ is largely modified by the nature of the tissue in which it occurs. A serous inflammation is characterized by serous, watery exudates. This form occurs in the serous membranes, mucous membranes and skin. Blisters on the skin and inflammation of bursae (capped hock and shoe boil) are examples of this type. Sero-fibrinous inflammations, such as occur in pleurisy and peritonitis, are common. Chronic inflammation commonly results in new formations of tissue, and it is named according to the character of the new tissue formed, as ossifying, adhesive, and fibrous inflammation. Pus-forming bacteria produce suppurative inflammation. Such diseases as tuberculosis, glanders and hog-cholera are specific inflammations. Specific infectious diseases may be classed as generalized inflammation, as they usually involve the entire body. Inflammation terminates in resolution when the serum is reabsorbed by the blood-vessels and lymphatics, the living blood-cells find their way back into the circulation and the dead cells disintegrate and are taken up by the vessels. The time required for the tissues to return to the normal varies from a few hours to several weeks. An acute inflammation may end in the chronic form. This may then terminate in new formations, such as adhesions, fibrous thickenings and bony enlargements. Severe inflammation, especially if localized and superficial, may result in death of the part or gangrene. The following _treatment_ is recommended: The cause of the irritation to the tissue must be removed. It is very essential that the part be rested. The necessary rest may be obtained in different ways. Inflamed tendons, ligaments, and muscles may be rested by placing the animal in a sling, standing it in a stall, or fixing the part with bandages. Rest of the stomach or intestinal tract may be obtained by feeding a light diet, or withholding all feed. Comfortable quarters, special care and dieting the animal are important factors in the treatment of inflammation. The agents used in the treatment of superficial and localized inflammation are _heat, cold, massage_ and _counterirritation_. _Heat_ is indicated in all inflammations, excepting when of bacterial origin. It stimulates the circulation and reabsorption of the inflammatory exudates, and by relaxing the tissues helps greatly in relieving pain. _Cold_ is more effective in the highly acute and septic (suppurative) inflammation. Its action consists principally in the contraction of the dilated blood-vessels. Continuous irrigation of the part with cold water is the most satisfactory method of applying cold. _Massage_ is a very important method of treating superficial inflammation. Mild, stimulating liniments are usually used in connection with hand-rubbing or friction. Chronic inflammation is usually treated with _counterirritants._ Blistering and firing are the most important methods of treatment. Such counterirritation makes possible the absorption of the inflammatory exudates by changing the chronic inflammation to the acute form. WOUNDS.--A wound, in the restricted sense that the term is commonly used, includes only such injuries that are accompanied by breaks or divisions of the skin and mucous membrane. It is usually an open, hemorrhagic injury. If the tissues are severed by a sharp instrument and the edges of the wound are smooth, it is classed as an _incised_ or _clean-cut wound_. This class is not commonly met with in domestic animals outside of operative wounds. When the tissues are torn irregularly, the injury is classed as a _lacerated wound_. A barb-wire cut is the best example of this class. A _contused wound_ is an injury caused by a blunt object. Such injuries may be divided into superficial and deep. Superficial-contused wounds may be an abrasion to the skin or mucous surface. Deep-contused wounds may be followed by loss of tissue or sloughing, and may present irregular, swollen margins. Such injuries are commonly caused by kicks. _Punctured wounds_ are many times deeper than the width of the opening or break in the skin or mucous membrane. This class is produced by sharp objects, such as nails, splinters of wood, and forks. Sometimes, wounds are given special names, as gun-shot, poisoned, and open joint, depending on the nature of the cause and region involved. Bleeding or hemorrhage is the most constant symptom. The degree of hemorrhage depends on the kind, number and size of the blood-vessels severed. In arterial hemorrhage, the blood is bright red and spurts from the mouth of the cut vessel. In venous hemorrhage, the blood is darker and flows in a continuous stream. In abrasions and superficial wounds capillary hemorrhage occurs. Death may follow severe hemorrhage. Weak pulse, general weakness, vertigo, loss of consciousness and death may result if one-third of the total quantity of blood is lost. Unthriftiness and general debility may follow the loss of a less quantity of blood. The following _symptoms_ may be noted in the different kinds of wounds: The sensitiveness to the pain resulting from accidental or operative wounds varies in the different individuals and species, and in the kind of tissue injured. Injuries to the foot, periosteum, skin and mucous membrane are more painful than are injuries to cartilages and tendons. The appearance of the wound varies in the different regions and the different tissues. If the tissues are badly torn or bruised, swelling and sloughing may occur. If the wound is transverse to the muscular fibres, it gaps more than when parallel to the muscle. When infected by irritating organisms, open and punctured wounds (Fig. 58) become badly swollen, discharge pus freely and heal slowly with excessive granulations. Wounds involving tendons, bursae and closed articulations become swollen and discharge synovia. Wounds involving muscles, tendons and bursae usually cause lameness, and when involving a special organ, interfere with, or destroy, its function. Extensive or serious wounds may be followed by loss of appetite. An abnormal body temperature and other symptoms characteristic of the different forms of blood poisoning may follow infection of the injured tissues by certain germs. [Illustration: FIG. 58.--A large hock caused by a punctured wound of the joint.] The rapidity with which wounds heal depends upon the kind of tissue injured and the amount to be replaced, the degree of motion in the part, the kind and degree of infection and irritation and the general condition of the animal. In general, skin and muscles heal rapidly, tendons slowly, cartilages unsatisfactorily and nerve tissue very slowly. Healing is greatly interfered with by movement of the part (Fig. 59). The more nearly the part can be fixed or rested, the more quickly and satisfactorily does healing occur. Irritation by biting, nibbling, licking, bandaging, wrong methods of treatment and filth retard healing and may result in serious wound complications. An animal in poor physical condition, or one kept under unfavorable conditions for healing, cannot recover from the injury rapidly or satisfactorily. [Illustration: FIG. 59.--A large inflammatory growth following an injury to the front of the hock.] WOUND HEALING.--The following forms of healing commonly occur in wounds: First and second intention; under a scab, and by abnormal granulation. _Healing by first intention_ occurs when the wound is clean cut and there is very little destruction of tissue, and when there is no suppuration or pus formation. The blood and wound secretions cause the edges of the wound to adhere. After a few days or a week the union becomes firm. Very little scar tissue is necessary in this form of healing. _Healing by second intention_ is characterized by pus formation and granulation tissue. After the first day, the surface of the wound may be more or less covered by red, granular-like tissue. Later this granular appearance is modified by an accumulation of creamy pus and swelling of the part, and finally scab formation and contraction of the new scar tissue. Abrasions and superficial wounds usually _heal under a scab_. The scab is formed by the blood and wound secretions. This protects the surface of the wound until finally the destroyed tissue is replaced by the granulations, and the skin surface is restored. _Abnormal granulation_ is not an uncommon form of healing in domestic animals. Mechanical and bacterial irritation causes the injured tissue to become swollen and inflamed. In such a wound, excessive and rapid granulation occurs, the new tissue piling up over the cut surfaces and appearing red and uneven. This is termed excessive granulation or "proud flesh." This tissue may refuse to "heal over," or the scar may be large, prominent and painful. Abnormal tissue (horny or tumor-like) may sometimes form. WOUND TREATMENT.--Wounds in domestic animals are frequently allowed to heal without special care or treatment. This is unfortunate. The careful and intelligent treatment of wounds would greatly decrease the loss resulting from this class of injuries. The method of treatment varies in the different kinds of wounds. _The first step_ in the treatment is to _check the haemorrhage_. Heat, ligation, pressure and torsion are the different methods recommended. Bathing the wound with hot water (115\260-120\260 F.) is a satisfactory method of controlling haemorrhage from small blood-vessels. Ligation and torsion of the cut end of large blood-vessels should be practised. Pressure over the surface of the wound is the most convenient method of Controlling haemorrhage in most cases. Whenever possible, the part should be bandaged heavily with clean cheese cloth or muslin. Before applying the bandage, it is advisable to cover the wound with a piece of sterile absorbent cotton that is well dusted with boric acid. Hemorrhage from wounds that cannot be bandaged may be temporarily stopped by pressure with the hand, or, better, by packing the wound with absorbent cotton and holding this in place with sutures. This should be left in place for a period of twelve or thirty-six hours, depending on the extent of the haemorrhage and character of the wound. The next step is the _preparation of the wound for healing._ The injured tissues should be carefully examined for foreign bodies such as hair, dirt, gravel, slivers of wood and nails. The hair along the margins of the wound should be trimmed, and all tissue that is so torn and detached as to interfere with healing cut away. Drainage for the wound secretions and pus should be provided. The advisability of suturing the wound depends on its character and location. A contused-lacerated wound should not be closed with sutures unless it is clean and shows no evidence of sloughing. A badly infected wound should be left open unless satisfactory drainage for the pus and wound secretions can be provided. Wounds across the muscle and in parts that are quite movable should not be sutured. _The after-treatment_ consists in keeping the animal quiet, if the wound is in a part that is quite movable, and preventing it from biting, licking or nibbling the injury. Wounds in the region of the foot become irritated with dirt and by rubbing against weeds and grass. This makes it advisable to keep the animal in a clean stall until healing is well advanced. Local treatment consists in keeping the wound clean by washing the part daily, or twice daily, with a one per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant. Liquor cresolis compositus may be used. It is sometimes advisable to protect the granulating surface against irritation by dusting it over with a non-irritating antiseptic powder, or applying a mixture of carbolic acid one part and glycerine twelve parts. After the wound shows healthy granulations longer intervals should lapse between treatments. In poorly cared for, and badly infected wounds, the part may become badly swollen, the granulations pile up and the wound refuse to "heal over." It may be advisable in such cases to cut away the excessive granulations and stop the haemorrhage by cauterization with a red-hot iron, or by compression. Unhealthy granulations may be kept down by applying caustic occasionally. ABSCESS.--This is an accumulation of pus in the tissues. It may be due to a severe bruise or contusion that is followed by the infection of the part with some of the pus-producing bacteria. Abscesses occur in certain infectious diseases. In strangles, the disease-producing organism may be carried to different regions of the body by the circulatory vessels. This may result in a number of abscesses forming in the different body tissues. The following _forms of abscess_ are recognized: hot and cold, superficial and deep, simple and multiple. The hot is the acute, and the cold the chronic abscess. The terms superficial and deep allude to the relative position of the abscess, and simple and multiple to the number present. An abscess may first appear as a hot, painful swelling. If superficial, the skin feels tense and the contents fluctuate when pressed on. Later the fever subsides and no pain may occur when the abscess is pressed upon. Deep abscess may not fluctuate. _The treatment_ consists in converting the abscess into an open wound whenever possible. The incision should extend to the lowest part of the wall, so as to insure complete drainage. A cold abscess in the shoulder region may become lined by a layer of tissue that retards healing. In order to hasten the healing process, it may be necessary to remove this. Until granulation is well advanced, the abscess cavity should be irrigated daily with a one per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus, or a one to two thousand water solution of corrosive sublimate. The surface of the skin in the region of the abscess should be kept clean. [Illustration: FIG. 60.--Fistula of the withers, showing the effect of using caustics carelessly.] FISTULOUS WITHERS AND POLL EVIL.--These terms are applied to swellings, blood tumors, abscesses and pus fistulae that may be present in the region of the poll and withers (Fig. 60). Pus fistula is the characteristic lesion present, and it is the result of a suppurative inflammation of the tissues in the region. The abscess cavity or cavities are usually deep, and may involve the ligaments and vertebrae. Bruises or contusions are the most _common causes_. The prominence of these regions predisposes them to injury in the stable, or when rolling on rough or stony ground. Bites and bruises to the withers resulting from other horses taking hold of the region with the teeth, or striking the part against a hard surface, are frequent causes. _The treatment_ is both preventive and surgical. All possible causes should be investigated. This is of special importance on premises where several horses develop fistulous withers and poll evil. If the cause then becomes known, it should be removed. _The surgical treatment_ consists in opening up the different abscess cavities, providing complete drainage for the pus and destroying the tissue that lines the walls of the cavities. Horses that are prone to rub the region should be prevented from doing this, as such irritation retards healing. Autogenous bacterins should be used in addition to the surgical treatment. A pus fistula should heal from the bottom, and if the opening becomes closed, drainage should be re-established. The daily treatment is the same as recommended for abscesses. Excessive cutting and destruction of the tissues with caustic preparations result in scarring and deformity of the part. Such radical lines of treatment should be discouraged. We should not delay the surgical treatment of abscesses in the regions of the poll and withers. QUESTIONS 1. Name and describe the different forms of inflammation. 2. Give the causes and treatment of inflammation. 3. Name and describe the different methods by which wounds heal. 4. Describe the treatment of wounds. 5. What are the causes of an abscess? Give the treatment. 6. What are the causes of fistula and poll evil? Give the treatment. CHAPTER XXII FRACTURES AND HARNESS INJURIES FRACTURES.--Broken bones or fractures are not uncommon in domestic animals. In the horse, the bones of the leg, forearm, foot, and spine are the most commonly broken. In the dog the largest percentage of fractures occurs in the superior regions of the limbs. Fractures may be classified as _simple_ and _compound, complete_ and _incomplete, comminuted_ or _splinter_. In the simple fracture the skin over the region escapes injury, but in the compound fracture the skin is broken and the ends of the broken bone may protrude through it. The terms complete and incomplete are used in describing fractures in which the ends of the bones are not attached to each other, or partially so. In the comminuted fracture the bone is broken into a number of pieces. There are a number of other terms that may be used in designating the different kinds of fractures, such as double, when both bones in the region are broken, and oblique, transverse and longitudinal, depending on the direction of the break. _The causes_ of fractures may be divided into external or mechanical, and internal. Fractures may result from kicks, blows, muscular strain and contusions. Abnormal fragility due to disease, extreme youth and old age are the internal predisposing factors. _The symptoms_ are crepitation, abnormal movement and deformity of the part. Abnormal movement of the part and inability to support weight occur in fractures of the bones of the limbs. Crepitation or a grinding, rubbing sound due to the movement of the ends of the broken bones on one another occurs when the part is moved or manipulated with the hands. Pain, swelling and injury to the skin are other local symptoms. The new tissue or bone callus is formed by the bone-forming cells in the deeper layer of the periosteum and bone-marrow. _The prognosis is unfavorable._ The larger percentage of fractures in domestic animals are incurable, or make an unsatisfactory recovery. This is due to careless treatment, the character of the fracture and the inability to fix the ends of the broken bone. Fractures in young and small animals usually heal quickly. Individuals that are healthy and vigorous usually make a speedy recovery. Fractures heal very slowly in the aged. Compound and comminuted fractures are impossible to treat in the larger percentage of cases. _The treatment_ consists in fixing the broken bone or bones in a normal position by means of bandages and splints. If this is not practised, the surrounding tissues become injured by the broken ends of the bone, and the fracture may become so complicated as to render treatment useless. Motion retards or prevents the repair of the break. However, fractures of the ribs, pelvic bones and sometimes long bones that are well covered by heavy muscles heal naturally or in the absence of any means of retention. _Bandaging_.--The attendant must use good judgment in devising means of fixing the broken bone, and in holding it in its natural position. Whenever possible, a plaster bandage should be used. This must not be made too heavy, and it is very necessary to adjust it properly, so that it will stay in place and not become too tight or too loose. When applied to the limb, the bandage should extend as far down as the hoof, and some distance above the break. This is necessary in order to keep it from slipping down and becoming too loose. A soft bandage should be applied first in order to equalize the pressure from the plaster cast and protect the skin. Wooden splints are not very satisfactory agents for the treatment of fractures. Thick leather that has been made soft by soaking in warm water and then shaping it to the part makes a more satisfactory splint. In all cases a soft bandage should be applied under the splint. The adjustment of the plaster bandage or splint should be noticed daily, and whenever necessary it should be removed and readjusted. Injuries to the skin must be carefully cleaned, disinfected and bandaged before applying the plaster bandage. If evidence of wound infection occurs later, the bandage must be removed and the wound treated. Large animals suffering with a fracture of any of the bones of the limb should be placed in slings. Incomplete fracture should receive the same treatment as simple fracture. If this is practised, the danger of its becoming complete is avoided. [Illustration: FIG. 61.--Shoulder abscess caused by loose-fitting harness.] HARNESS INJURIES.--This class of injuries is common in horses that are given steady, hard work, or that are not accustomed to work. Young horses, when first put to hard work, are especially prone to injuries from the collar. A large proportion of these injuries are due to an ill-fitting harness or saddle. When the harness is not adjusted or fitted properly, there is severe pressure on certain parts. This is the common cause of shoulder abscesses (Fig. 61), sore necks and sit-fasts. Rough, uneven surfaces on the faces of the collar and saddle are the common causes of galling. The character of the work is an important factor. Work that requires the animal to support weight on the top surface of the neck is productive of sore neck. Heavy work over rough, uneven ground frequently causes shoulder abscesses and strained muscles. The simplest and most common harness injuries are galling, sore shoulders and sore neck. Harness galls first appear as flat, painful swellings. On raising the collar from the skin the inflamed area appears dry and the surrounding hair is wet with sweat. Later, the skin becomes hard and its outer layer, and sometimes the deeper layer as well, slough, or is rubbed off by friction of the harness. The surface then appears red and moist. Fluctuating swellings due to small collections of blood and lymph sometimes form. Sometimes, small areas on the face of the shoulder and that portion of the back pressed on by the saddle become swollen, indurated and hard and give the shoulder a rough appearance. Continuous irritation from the collar may cause an inflammatory thickening of the subcutaneous tissue in the shoulder region, and the skin appears loose and somewhat folded. This uneven surface is productive of chronic collar galls. _A sit-fast_ is characterized by a large swelling at the top of the neck, followed by a deep sloughing of the tissues. A slightly swollen, wrinkled condition of the skin over the top of the neck is sometimes present in horses that resist the attendant, when he attempts to handle the part or harness the animal. This form of sore neck is evidently very painful, although little evidence of inflammation is present. Strain of shoulder muscles and shoulder abscesses have been discussed under their separate heads. _The treatment is very largely preventive_. Too little attention is given to the proper fitting of the harness and saddle. A well-fitted collar that properly distributes the weight on the shoulder, and is neither too small or too large at the top of the neck, is the best preventive for shoulder and neck injuries. Old, ill-fitting, lumpy collars should not be used. Neither should the same collar be used for different horses. Farmers should avoid using sweat pads that are lumpy or soaked with sweat. If soft and dry, such pads are useful in preventing galling. The surfaces of the collar or saddle that come in contact with the skin should be kept smooth and clean. In the spring of the year, it is advisable to bathe the shoulders of work horses with cold water twice a day. Bathing the shoulders with the following preparation is a useful preventive measure: lead acetate four ounces, zinc sulfate three ounces and water one gallon. Smooth leather pads for the top of the collar and saddle are useful preventive and curative agents. _Galls are lest treated by rest_. Ointments or "gall cures" are usually applied. The following dry dressing dusted over the red, moist, abraded surfaces is quite healing: tannic acid one ounce, boric acid four ounces, and calomel two ounces. This may be dusted over the part two or three times daily. Dry, abraded surfaces may be treated by applying a mixture of glycerine four ounces, tannic acid one-half ounce and carbolic acid one dram. In operating for the removal of fibrous enlargements, thickened skin and abscesses on the front of the shoulder, it is advisable to make the incision in the skin well to the side of the face of the shoulder in order to avoid scarring the surface that comes in contact with the collar. QUESTIONS 1. Name and describe the different kinds of fractures. 2. What are the symptoms of fracture? 3. Describe the treatment of fractures. 4. What are the causes of harness injuries? 5. Describe the treatment of the different harness injuries. CHAPTER XXIII COMMON SURGICAL OPERATIONS DEHORNING CATTLE.--It is very often necessary to remove the horns of cattle in order to prevent their injuring or worrying certain individuals in the herd. This operation is of greatest economic importance in dairy and feeding cattle. When first practised, the dehorning of mature cattle was condemned by some persons who deemed it an inhuman and unnecessary operation. It is surely a humane act to remove the horns of cattle that are confined in small yards and pastures, and prevent them from painfully, or seriously, injuring one another. In most localities there are men who are well equipped to dehorn cattle, and able to perform this operation for a very moderate fee. It is not advisable to attempt to dehorn a number of adult cattle if the operator is not well equipped for the work. Unless a well-constructed dehorning rack is available for confining the animals, there is danger of injuring them and it is very difficult to saw off the horn quickly and satisfactorily. This increases the pain that the animal suffers, and horn stubs soon develop. Good equipment, such as a chute, saw or clippers, is necessary. A dehorning chute should be built of plank with a good frame well bolted together, with stanchion and nose block for confining the head. Most operators prefer a meat saw for cutting off the horns. It is preferable to dehorning shears, as there is danger of fracturing the frontal bone when removing the horns of mature cattle. The best form of dehorning shears have a wide V in the cutting edge. _The operation is very simple_. The horn should be cut off at a point from one-quarter to one-half an inch below the hair line or skin. If this is not practised, an irregular horn growth or stub of horn develops. It is usually unnecessary to apply anything to the wound. If the animal does not strike or rub the part, the clot that forms closes the blood-vessels and the haemorrhage stops. In case of haemorrhage of a serious nature, a small piece of absorbent cotton may be spread over the surface of the wound, and pushed in to the opening in order to keep it in place. Pine tar may be smeared over this dressing. Some operators prefer cauterizing the wound with a red-hot iron for the purpose of preventing haemorrhage. During warm weather, the wound should be washed daily with a two per cent water solution of a coal tar disinfectant, until healing is well advanced. A very necessary after-treatment is the washing of the part after two or three days for the purpose of removing the dried blood. The opening at the base of the horn communicates directly with the frontal sinus, a large cavity situated between the two plates of the frontal bone. Sometimes the bone is slivered, or the wound becomes infected and inflamed. This may be due to a dirty dehorning saw, or getting dirt into the wound. The inflammation may extend to the sinus and a heavy discharge from the cavity occur. This complication may be prevented by placing the saw or cutters in a disinfectant when not in use, and cleaning and disinfecting the wound very carefully for a few days after the operation. _The horn buttons of calves_ from a few days to one week of age can be destroyed, and the growth of the horn prevented by applying caustic soda or potash to them. The method of procedure is as follows: Clip away the hair from around the base of the horn tissue and apply a little vaseline to the skin near, but not close to, the base of the horn; moisten the horn button and rub it two or three times with the end of the stick of caustic; do not allow the calf to go out in the rain for a few days after applying the caustic. The horns of calves a few weeks of age may be removed with a sharp knife or calf dehorner. CHOKING.--This is a common accident in cattle and horses. The object that causes the choke may be lodged in the pharynx or oesophagus. Certain individuals are more prone to choke while feeding than others. This is because of their habit of eating greedily, and swallowing hastily without properly mixing the bolus with the saliva. For this reason, choking occurs when the animal is eating dry feed. Cattle frequently become choked on pieces of such food as roots and apples that are too large to readily pass down the oesophagus. Sharp objects taken in with the food sometimes become lodged in the oesophagus or pharynx. _The symptoms_ differ in complete and partial choke. In the latter, the symptoms are not very characteristic. The animal may stop feeding, but shows very little evidence of suffering pain. It may be able to swallow a little water. On attempting to drink, a part of the water may be returned through the nose, the same as in complete choke. Ineffectual efforts to swallow, salivation, coughing, hurried respiration, and an anxious expression of the face occur in complete choke. Bloating may complicate this accident in ruminants. After partial choke has persisted for a day or two, the animal appears dejected or distressed. Pressure on the trachea by hard objects may cause difficult respiration. Mechanical pneumonia sometimes occurs. This is due to the food and water that the animal may attempt to swallow, being returned to the pharynx and passed into the air passages and lungs. _The treatment_ is as follows: Animals that have choked should not be given access to feed of any kind. Any attempt to take food or drink water may result in pneumonia. It may be necessary to drench the animal with a very small quantity of water for the purpose of diagnosis. The most common form of choke in horses is that due to accumulation of dry food in the oesophagus. The administration of a drug that stimulates the secretion of saliva is a very successful method of relieving this form of choke. Pilocarpine is the drug commonly used. Cheap whips should not be introduced into the oesophagus for the purpose of dislodging the foreign body. There is always danger of the whip becoming broken off, and the broken part lodging in the oesophagus. Neither should such rigid objects as a broom or rake handle be introduced, because of the danger from serious injury to the walls of the pharynx and oesophagus. The flexible probang, which is usually made of spiral wire covered with leather, is a very useful instrument to relieve choke when in the hands of an experienced operator. If the object causing the choke is situated in the neck portion of the oesophagus, it may sometimes be moved forward, or toward the stomach by pressure with the fingers. CASTRATION.--The castration of the male is a common operation in domestic animals. The purpose of the operation is to render the animal more useful for work or meat production. _The age_ at which the operation is performed varies in the different species. The colt is usually castrated when he is one year old, and the calf, pig and lamb when a few weeks or a few months of age. It is not advisable to castrate the young at weaning time. The operation and the weaning together may temporarily check the growth of the animal. Colts that are undeveloped and in poor flesh, or affected with colt distemper, should be allowed to recover before they are operated on. In all animals, it is advisable to wait until after they have recovered from disease and become thrifty and strong. The spring, early summer and fall are the most suitable seasons for castrating the young. It may be practised during the hot or cold months of the year with little danger from wound infection or other complications, providing the necessary after-attention can be given. _The preparation of the animal_ for the operation by withholding all feed for about twelve hours is very advisable. If this is practised, the stomach and intestines are not distended with feed, and the young are cleaner, easier to handle and suffer less from castration. Clean quarters and surroundings are very necessary to the success of the operation. _The instruments required_ are sharp knives, preferably a heavy scalpel and a probe-pointed bistoury, an emasculator for large and mature animals, and surgeon's needles and suture material. Ropes and casting harness are frequently used for confining and casting the large and mature animals. Two clean pans or pails filled with a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus, or an equally reliable disinfectant, should be provided for cleaning the scrotum and neighboring parts and the instruments. Pieces of absorbent cotton or oakum may be used in washing and cleaning the scrotum. The instruments should be sterilized in boiling water before using. _If a number of pigs or lambs_ are to be castrated, it is best to confine them in a small, clean, well-bedded pen. This enables the attendant to catch them quickly and without unnecessary excitement or exercise. They should be taken to an adjoining pen to be castrated. The scrotum should be washed with the disinfectant, and the testicles pressed tightly against the scrotal wall. An incision parallel with the middle line or raphe and a little to one side is made through the skin and the coverings of the testicle, and the testicle pressed out through the incision. The testicle and cords are then pulled well out and the cord broken off with a quick jerk and twist, or scraped off with a knife. The latter method is to be preferred in large lambs if the operator does not have an emasculator. The incision in the scrotum should be extended from its base to the lowest part, in order to secure perfect drainage. _Young calves_ may be castrated in the standing position or when cast and held on the side. The method of operating is the same as recommended for pigs and lambs. _The castration of the colt_ may be performed in either the standing position or when cast. The method of operating is the same as practised in the smaller animals with the exception of cutting off the cord. The emasculator is used here. This instrument crushes the stump of the cord and prevents haemorrhage from the cut ends of the blood-vessels. Careful aseptic precautions must be observed in operating on colts, as they are very susceptible to wound infection and peritonitis. The blood-vessels of the testicular cord are larger in the adult animals, and the danger from haemorrhage is greater than in the young. For this reason, it is advisable to use an emasculator in castrating all mature animals. Complications Following Castration.--The _haemorrhage_ from the wound and stump of cord is usually unimportant in the young animals. Serious haemorrhage from the vessels of the cord sometimes occur in the adult, and a persistent haemorrhage results when a subcutaneous vein is cut in making the incision in the scrotum. This complication is not usually serious, and can be prevented and controlled by observing proper precautions in cutting off the cord, or by picking up the cut ends of the vessel and ligating it. Packing the scrotal sack with sterile gauze or absorbent cotton, and closing the incision with sutures may be practised for the purpose of stopping this form of haemorrhage. The packing should be removed in about twelve hours. _The infection of the wound_ always follows castration. If the incision is small and the operation is followed by swelling of the neighboring tissues, the clotted blood, wound secretions and pus become penned up in the scrotal sack. Local blood poisoning or peritonitis follows. This is not an uncommon complication. It can be prevented by aseptic precautions in operating, and insuring good drainage by extending the incision to the lowest part of the scrotal sac. The scrotal sac always contracts down and becomes more or less swollen within a day or two following castration. We must keep this in mind when enlarging the opening, and be sure and make it plenty large to permit the escape of the infectious matter. In castrating sheep, all wool in the region of the scrotal sac should be clipped off, as this interferes with drainage from the wound. _Exercise following castration_ is almost as essential as clean quarters. Lack of exercise leads to _oedematous swelling_ in the region of the scrotum, and the lips of the incision may become adhered if the animal is at rest. Colts and all mature animals that are confined in close quarters should be examined within forty-eight hours following the operation, and the condition of the wound noted. If closed, the hands should be cleaned and disinfected, and the adhesion broken down with the fingers. It is best to exercise horses daily. It is unsafe to expose castrated animals to cold, damp, chilly weather. The shock and soreness resulting from the operation render the animal highly susceptible to pleurisy and pneumonia. This is especially true of young colts. _Inguinal hernia_ or "_rupture_" may complicate the operation. This form of hernia is quite frequently met with in pigs, and only occasionally in the other animals. This complication is usually overcome by practising what is commonly termed the covered operation. The pig is usually held or hung up by the hind legs. A larger animal is placed on its back. The hernia is reduced by manipulating the mass of intestines with the fingers, so that they drop back into the abdominal cavity. The part is carefully cleaned and disinfected and an incision made through the scrotal wall, and the thin covering or serous sac in which the testicle is lodged is exposed. The testicle with the cord and covering is drawn well out of the scrotum and held by an attendant. The operator then passes a needle carrying a strong silk thread through the cord and covering, below the point where he intends severing it. The needle is removed and the cord and covering ligated at this point. The cord is then cut off about one-half an inch from the ligature, and the incision in the scrotum made plenty large in order to insure drainage. It is very essential to the success of this operation that the animal be dieted for twelve or eighteen hours before attempting to operate. The after-treatment consists in giving the animal separate quarters and feeding a light diet. _Enlarged or scirrhous cords_ follow infection of the wound, usually with spores of a certain fungus (_Botryomyces_). This complication more often follows castration of cattle and pigs than of colts. Wrong methods of operating, such as leaving the stump of the cord too long and insufficient drainage for the pus and wound secretions, are the factors that favor this complication. Scirrhous cords or fibrous tumors should be dissected out and removed before they have become large and begun breaking down. CASTRATION OF RIDGELING OR CRYPTORCHID ANIMALS.--In the ridgeling animal one or both of the testicles have not descended into the scrotal sac, and are usually lodged in the inguinal canal or abdominal cavity. If the testicle is lodged in the inguinal canal the animal is termed a "flanker." In yearling colts the testicular cord is sometimes short, and the testicle is situated high up in the scrotum and inguinal canal. In examining a supposed cryptorchid colt, he should be twitched. This may cause the testicle to descend into the scrotum. The castration of a true cryptorchid requires a special operation. When properly performed and the animal given special after-care, the operation is not followed by any serious complications. An abnormally large, diseased testicle is sometimes met with that cannot be removed in the usual way, and which complicates and increases the difficulty of operating. CAPONIZING.--The castration or caponizing of the male chicken is commonly practised in certain localities. This operation changes the disposition of the cockerel. He becomes more quiet and sluggish, never crows, the head is small, the comb and wattles cease growing and the hackle and saddle feathers become well developed. A capon always develops more uniformly and is larger than the cockerel. _The best time to caponize the cockerel_ is when he weighs between two or three pounds. If older and heavier, the testicle becomes so large that it is very difficult to remove, and the danger from tearing the spermatic artery and a fatal haemorrhage resulting is greater. There are several kinds of _caponizing instruments_. They may be purchased in sets. Each set should contain an instrument for removing the testicle; a knife for making the incision through the abdominal wall; a sharp hook for tearing through the thin membrane; spring spreader for holding the lips of the incision apart; a blunt probe for keeping the intestines out of the way of the operator; and a pair of tweezers for removing clots of blood. The different instruments for removing the testicles are a spoon-like scoop, spoon forceps and cannula. The spoon-like scoop is preferred by most operators. _The cockerel_ is confined for the operation by passing a strong noose of cord around both legs, and a second noose around the wings close to the body, that have weights fastened to them. The cords pass through holes or loops in a barrel or board that is used for an operating table. This holds the cockerel firmly and prevents his struggling. _The bird should be prepared_ for the operation by withholding all feed and water for a period of twenty-four hours or longer, for the purpose of emptying out the intestine. The operator must have a strong light, in order to work quickly and safely. Direct sunlight or electric light should be used. The instruments should be placed in a two per cent water solution of carbolic acid. A second vessel containing a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound for cleaning the skin is necessary. Absorbent cotton should be used for washing the wound. _The general method of operating_ is as follows: The incision is made between the last two ribs and in front of the thigh. The feathers over this region should be removed, and the skin pulled to one side before making the incision. An incision about one and one-half inches in length is made through the skin and muscles, and the spreader inserted. The sharp hook is then inserted and the thin serous membrane over the intestine is torn through. The testicles are situated in the superior portion of the abdominal cavity or under the back. On pushing the intestines to one side, both testicles, which are about the size of a bean and yellowish in color, can be seen. The lower one should be removed first. After removing both testicles, blood clots, feathers, or any foreign body that may have gotten into the wound should be picked up with the tweezers before removing the spreaders and allowing the wound to close. No special after-treatment is required. _The most common complication_ is rupture of the spermatic artery. This occurs at the time the testicle is torn loose and may be due to careless methods, or operating on cockerels that are too large. If all of the testicle is not removed from the abdominal cavity, the bird is termed a "slip." Sometimes air puffs form after the operation. These should be punctured with a sharp knife. OVARIOTOMY, "SPAYING."--The removal of the ovaries, or ovariotomy, is practised for the purpose of rendering the female more useful for meat production, prolonging the period of lactation, overcoming vicious habits and preventing oestrum or heat. The operation is commonly performed in the heifer and bitch, occasionally in the mare, and at present rarely in the sow. _Heifers_ are usually spayed between the ages of eight and twelve months; the _bitch_ and _sow_ when a few months old, or before the periods of heat have begun. The _mare_ is spayed when mature. It is possible to spay the female at any age, but the ages mentioned are the most convenient. Pregnant animals should not be operated on. The season of the year makes little difference in the results, providing the animal can be kept under close observation and given the necessary care and treatment. The spring of the year, just before turning the herd on pasture, is the best season to spay heifers. _All animals should be prepared_ for the operation by withholding all feed for at least twenty-four hours before they are operated on, and it may be advisable to give them a physic. It is easier to operate when the intestinal tract is comparatively empty, and the death rate is lower than when the animal is not properly prepared for the operation. _The method of operating_ is not the same in the different species. In young heifers and sows, the flank operation is preferred, and in mares and cows, the vaginal operation. The median line operation is practised in bitches. A spaying emasculator, or ecraseur, are the special instruments need for removing the ovaries. The animal must be properly confined for the operation. Heifers are usually held in the standing position by fastening the head securely, and crowding the left side of the animal against a solid board partition, or side of a chute. If the vaginal operation is performed, the mare or cow may be confined in stocks. The bitch is usually anesthetized and placed on her back on a table that is inclined, so that the hind parts are elevated. Ovariotomy cannot be successfully performed by an untrained and inexperienced operator. The necessary precautions against the infection of the part must be observed, in order to promote the healing of the wound and prevent peritonitis. The seat of the operation should be carefully cleaned and disinfected. _Following the operation_ the animal should be fed a spare diet for a few days. This is a very necessary part of the care of the bitch. The general condition of the animal should be noted daily until there is no further danger from wound infection. Healing is usually completed in from seven to twelve days. The sutures should then be removed, and if stitch abscesses occur, the part should be washed with a disinfectant. QUESTIONS 1. What is the purpose of dehorning cattle? Give different methods of removing the horns. 2. Give the causes and treatment of choking. 3. What is the purpose of castration and ovariotomy? 4. At what age is it best to practise castration and ovariotomy? 5. In what way should an animal be prepared for castration? Give a description of the method of castration in the different animals. 6. What special care should be given following castration? 7. What are some of the complications that may follow castration? PART V.--PARASITIC DISEASES CHAPTER XXIV PARASITIC INSECTS AND MITES Parasitic insects are common causes of skin diseases in domestic animals. The diseased conditions of the skin, and the irritation that they may cause the animal, depend on the life history and habits of the parasite. Species that are unable to live independently of a host and are permanent parasites are usually the most injurious to the animal. This is especially true of parasites that are capable of puncturing the skin or burrowing into it. Temporary parasites may cause fatal forms of disease. This is true of the larva? of the sheep bot-fly, which develop in the sinuses of the head, causing severe inflammation of these parts, nervous symptoms and death. The character of the symptoms of a parasitic disease depends on the habits of the parasite, and the tissue or organ, that it may attack. The parasitic flies belong to the order _Diptera_, and the families _Muscidae_ and _OEstridae_. Fleas belong to the sub-order _Pulicidae_. The order _Hemiptera_ includes the lice, and the most important families are _Pediculidae_ and _Ricinidae_. Mites and ticks belong to the order _Acarina_. The most important parasites belonging to this order are the _Sarcoptidae_ and _Ixodidae_. OESTRIDAE.--The three common bot-flies are the _Gastrophilus equi_, _Hypoderma lineata_ and _OEstrus ovis_. These flies are important because of the parasitic habits of their larva. They inhabit the stomach and intestines of horses (Fig. 62); the subcutaneous tissue and skin of cattle; and the sinuses of the head and nasal cavities of sheep. _The common bot-fly of the horse_ (_G. equi_) has a heavy, hairy body. Its color is brown, with dark and yellowish spots. The female fly can be seen during the warm weather, hovering around the horse, and darting toward the animal for the purpose of depositing the egg. The color of the egg is yellow, and it adheres firmly to the hair. It hatches in from two to four weeks, and the larva reaches the mouth through the animal licking the part. From the mouth, it passes to the stomach, where it attaches itself to the gastric mucous membrane (Fig. 62). Here it remains until fully developed, when it becomes detached and is passed out with the fasces. The third stage is passed in the ground. This takes place in the spring and early summer and lasts for several weeks, when it finally emerges a mature fly. [Illustration: FIG. 62.--A piece of the wall of the horse's stomach showing the bot-fly larvae attached.] _The bot-fly of the ox_ (_H. lineata_) is dark in color and about the size of a honey-bee. On warm days, the female may be seen depositing eggs on the body of the animal, especially in the region of the heels. This seems to greatly annoy the animal, and it is not uncommon for cattle to become stampeded. The egg reaches the mouth through the animal licking the part. The saliva dissolves the shell of the egg and the larva is freed. It then migrates from the gullet, wanders about in the tissue until finally it may reach a point beneath the skin of the back. Here the larva matures and forms the well-known swelling or warble. In the spring of the year it works out through the skin. The next stage is spent in the ground. The pupa state lasts several weeks, when the mature fly issues forth. _The bot-fly of sheep_ (_O. ovis_) resembles an overgrown house-fly. Its general color is brown, and it is apparently lazy, flying about very little. This bot-fly makes its appearance when the warm weather begins, and deposits live larvae in the nostrils of sheep. This act is greatly feared by the animals, as shown by their crowding together and holding the head down. The larva works up the nasal cavities and reaches the sinuses of the head, where it becomes attached to the lining mucous membrane. In the spring, when fully developed, it passes out through the nasal cavities and nostrils, drops to the ground, buries itself, and in from four to six weeks develops into the mature fly. SYMPTOMS OF BOT-FLY DISEASES.--The larvae of the bot-fly of the horse do not cause characteristic symptoms of disease. Work horses that are groomed daily are not hosts for a large number of "bots," but young and old horses that are kept in a pasture or lot and seldom groomed may become unthrifty and "pot bellied," or show symptoms of indigestion. Cattle suffer much pain from the development of the larva of the _H. lineata_. During the spring of the year, the pain resulting from the presence of the larvae beneath the skin and the penetration of the skin is manifested by excitement and running about. Besides the loss in milk and beef production, there is a heavy yearly loss from the damage to hides. The parasitic life of the bot-fly of sheep results in a severe catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the sinuses of the head, and a discharge of a heavy, pus-like material from the nostrils. The irritation produced by the larvae may be so serious at times as to result in nervous symptoms and death. TREATMENT OF BOT-FLY DISEASES.--The treatment of the different bot-fly diseases is largely preventive. This consists in either the destruction of the eggs or the larvae. The different methods of destroying the eggs of the bot-fly of the horse are clipping the hair from the part, scraping off the eggs with a sharp knife, or destroying them by washing the part infested with eggs with a two or three per cent water solution of carbolic acid. This should be practised every two weeks during the period when the female deposits the eggs. Housing the cattle, or applying water solutions of certain preparations to the skin that may keep the female from depositing eggs, may be practised for the prevention of the ox-warble. The most practical method of ridding cattle of this pest is to destroy the larvae. This can be done by examining each animal and locating the swelling or warble and injecting a few drops of kerosene into the opening in the skin. A better method is to enlarge the opening in the skin with a sharp knife, squeeze out the grub and destroy it. This should be practised in late winter and early spring. The application of pine tar to the nostrils of sheep is the most practical method of preventing "grub in the head." This should be practised every few days during the summer months. A very good preventive measure is plenty of shade for the flock. Valuable animals may be treated by trephining into the head sinus and removing the "grub." LICE.--The sucking lice belong to the genus _Hoematopinus_, and the biting lice of mammals belong to the genus _Trichodectes_. Different species of sucking and biting lice occur on the different species of farm animals. Poultry act as hosts for many different species of biting lice belonging to the following genuses: _Lipiurus, Goniodes, Goniocotes_ and _Menopon_. _The common sucking lice_ occurring on animals are the large-headed horse louse, _H. macrocephalus_; the long-nosed ox louse, _H. tenuirostris_; the large-bellied ox louse, _H. curysternus_; the _H. stenopses_ of sheep; _H. suis_ of swine; and the _H. piliferus_ of the dog. The _common biting lice_ (Fig. 63) that are found on domestic animals are the _T. pilosus_ and _T. pubescens_ of solipeds, _T. scalaris_ of the ox, _T. spoerocephalus_ of sheep and goats, _T. latus_ and _T. subrostratus_ of the dog and cat. _Menopon palidum, Lipiurus variabilis_ and _Gonoides dissimilis_ are the common lice found on poultry. [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Biting louse.] SYMPTOMS OF LICE.--The symptoms of lousiness depend on the variety of lice present, the degree to which the animal is infested with them, its physical condition and the care that it receives. Lice multiply more rapidly and cause greater loss during the winter months than they do in the summer, when the animals are not housed and the opportunity for infection from the surroundings is not so great. The sucking louse (Fig. 64) is the most injurious and irritating. The irritation and loss of blood that the animal may suffer when badly infested by this parasite may result in marked unthriftiness. Young and old animals that are not well cared for suffer most. The biting louse may bite through the superficial layer of the skin, and cause the animal to bite and rub the part. This irritation to the skin prevents the animal from becoming rested, and after a time seriously interferes with its thriftiness. _Horses and mules_ show a staring, dirty, rough coat. The mane and tail may become broken and matted. The animal rubs against the stall, fences and trees, and bites the skin in its efforts to relieve the irritation. On examining the coat, nits are found adhering to the hair (Fig. 65). We should examine the parts of the skin covered by the long hair for the sucking lice; and the withers, abdomen and limbs for the biting lice. [Illustration: FIG. 64.--Sucking louse (much enlarged).] [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Nits attached to hair (much enlarged).] _The symptoms of lousiness in cattle_ are about the same as occur in horses. Licking and rubbing the skin are prominent symptoms in cattle, and the coat becomes dirty and rough. The licked part is matted and curled. The lice may be discovered by parting the hair along the back and rump. _The biting louse of sheep_ causes the fleece to become matted and tufts of wool are pulled out. This is brought about by the sheep rubbing and nibbling the fleece, and the lice cutting through the wool. The loss due to the damage to the fleece is usually greater than that resulting from unthriftiness. _The hog-louse_ is the largest specie known. As well as the largest, it is the most common of all lice found on domestic animals. The favorite points of attack are the under surface of the body, the neck and the inside of the thighs. The irritation and itching are severe, and the hog rubs and scratches the skin. Young hogs suffer most from this parasite, and their thriftiness is greatly interfered with. The long-haired breeds of _dogs_ suffer more from lice than the short-haired breeds. The almost constant scratching and biting of the skin result in its becoming badly irritated and scabby. The symptoms differ little from irritation to the skin caused by fleas, but the presence of biting or sucking lice enables the person making the examination to determine the cause of the irritation. Lice are the most common parasites of _poultry_. It is uncommon to meet with a flock of fowls that are not hosts for one or more of the many different varieties of bird lice. Restlessness, picking, scratching, flapping the wings, abandoning the nest and loss of condition are common symptoms. Young birds suffer most from lice. This is especially true of young chickens, death frequently resulting. Old fowls may show little inconvenience unless badly infested. The finding of the lice with the head imbedded in the skin or on the feathers enables the person making the examination to positively diagnose the case. The head, back, region of the vent and beneath the wings are the parts that should be carefully examined for lice. TREATMENT OF LOUSINESS.--The preventive treatment is very important. This consists in carefully examining all animals or birds that have been purchased recently, and if found to harbor lice, excluding them from the herd or flock until after they have been properly treated. It is impossible to rid animals of lice if the quarters are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. This is necessary in order to destroy lice that have become scattered about by the lousy animals, and prevent the reinfection of the treated animals. The best method to use in cleaning the quarters is to remove all litter and manure from the stable or houses and their immediate surroundings. It should be burned, or hauled to a field or lot where other animals cannot come in contact with it for a few months. The walls, floors and partitions should be sprayed with a three per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus. Lime may be scattered about the buildings, yards and runs. The most satisfactory method of destroying lice on the bodies of animals is by washing or dipping in a water solution or mixture of some reliable disinfectant or oil. _Running hogs through a dipping tank_ that contains a one or two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus, or a coal tar disinfectant, or that has from three-fourths to one and one-half inches of oil on top of the water, is the most satisfactory method of destroying the hog louse. Because of the thinness of the hog's coat and the danger from irritating the skin when strong solutions of a disinfectant are used, most swine breeders prefer crude oil as a remedy for lousiness in hogs. Crude oil may be applied to the bodies of hogs with a swab. If this method is practised instead of dipping, it is advisable to crowd the hogs into a small pen, and apply the oil in front and between the thighs and back of the arms. This may be practised during the cold weather when it is impossible to dip the animals. _Horses_ may be washed with a one or two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus, or a coal tar disinfectant. If the weather is cold, it is advisable to pick a sunny day, and blanket the animal after rubbing it as dry as possible in order to prevent chilling and catching cold. _Cattle_ may be treated in the same manner as horses. Mercurial ointment rubbed in small amounts on the skin back of the horns and ears, where the animal cannot lick it, is a common remedy. The absorption of a small amount of this drug does the animal no harm, but a larger quantity may salivate it. _Sheep_ are treated by dipping in a water solution of a reliable coal tar disinfectant. This should not be practised during cold weather, as the fleece does not dry out. Insect powder may be dusted into the fleece when it is impossible to dip the animal. A very satisfactory treatment for lousiness in _dogs_ and _cats_ is to wash them with carbolized soap. We should wait a few minutes before rinsing off the soapy lather and drying the coat. A number of different remedies are used for the treatment of lousiness in _poultry_. Dust baths and insect powder are recommended. Ointments are commonly used. One part sulfur and four parts vaseline, or lard, may be made into an ointment and applied to the head, neck, under the wings and around the vent. Mercurial ointment may be applied to the margin of the vent. Neither of them should be used for destroying lice on young chicks. Mercurial ointment should be used very carefully because of its poisonous effect. Lard may be used for destroying lice on young chicks. Crude petroleum may be sprayed among the feathers by a hand-sprayer, while the fowls are suspended by the feet. [Illustration: FIG. 66--Sheep-tick.] None of the disinfectants and oils recommended for dipping and washing lousy animals destroy the nits. This makes it necessary to re-treat the animal in from eight to ten days after the first treatment. THE SHEEP-TICK.--This is not a true tick. It resembles a fly more than it does a tick, and its right name is _Melophagus ovinus_ (Fig. 66). Louse-fly is a better name for this parasite than tick, as its entire life is spent on the body of a sheep. The general color of the body is brown. The legs are stout, covered with hair and armed with hooks at their extremities. The mouth parts consist of a tubular, toothed proboscis with which the parasite punctures the skin and sucks the blood. Within a few hours after birth, the larvae develop into pupae, which are hard, dark brown in color and firmly glued to the wool. The young louse-fly emerges from the pupa in from three to four weeks. The sheep-tick is a very common external parasite. The adult parasites and the pupae are large and easily found. When badly infested with ticks, a sheep will rub, dig and scratch the skin and fleece. This results in pieces of wool becoming pulled out and the fleece appears ragged. After clipping the ticks migrate from the ewes to the lambs, which may become unthrifty and weak. _The treatment_ consists in dipping the flock in a one or two per cent water solution of a coal-tar dip. Dips containing arsenic are most effective in ridding sheep of ticks. [Illustration: FIG. 67.--Sheep scab mite, ventral view. (From Farmers' Bulletin No. 159, United States Department of Agriculture.)] SCABIES.--This parasitic disease is one of the oldest and most prevalent diseases of the skin. It is commonly known as scab or mange. The animals most commonly affected are sheep, horses and cattle. _The disease is caused_ by _small mites_ or _acari_ that are naturally divided into the _Sarcoptes_, which burrow under the epidermis, forming galleries; the _Psoroptes_, which live on the surface of the skin where they are sheltered by scabs and scurf; and the _Symbiotes_, which also live on the surface of the skin, but prefer the regions of the hind feet and legs. Acari multiply rapidly and live their entire life on the body of the host. A new generation is produced in about fifteen days. Gerlach has estimated the natural increase in three months at 1,000,000 females and 500,000 males. Scab and mange are exceedingly contagious diseases. [Illustration: FIG. 68.--Sheep scab.] _Common sheep scab_ is caused by that specie of mites known as the _Psoroptes communis var. ovis_ (Fig. 67). Any part of the body may become affected. The bites of the mites greatly irritate the skin, and the animal scratches, bites and rubs the part in its effort to relieve the intense itching. The skin becomes inflamed and scabby, the wool is pulled and rubbed out, and the fleece becomes ragged (Fig. 68). By pulling wool out of the newly infested area, or collecting skin scrapings and placing this material on black paper in a sunny, warm place, the mites may be seen crawling over the paper. This method of diagnosis should be resorted to in all suspicious cases of skin disease, and before the disease has developed to any great extent. The mite that most commonly causes _mange in cattle_ is the _Psoroptes communis var. bovis_. It may invade the skin in the different regions of the body, but it is in the regions of the tail and thighs that the first evidence of the mange is noticed. The animal rubs, scratches, and licks the part. The itching is intense. The hair over the part is lost and the skin appears inflamed, thickened, moist, or covered with white crusts. Cracks and sores may form in the skin. The examination of scrapings from the inflamed skin should be practised in order to confirm the diagnosis. _Mange in horses_ may be caused by either psoroptic or sarcoptic mites. _Psoroptes communis var. equi_ seems to be the more common parasite. The itching is intense. The inflamed areas are small at first and scattered over the regions of the rump, back and neck (Fig. 69). After a time the small areas come together and form large patches, and further spreading of the inflammation results from grooming, scratching and biting the skin. Scattered, elevated eruptions on the skin from which the hair has dropped out are first noticed. These parts may show yellowish scabs. Later the skin is thickened, smooth, wrinkled, cracked, or covered with sores. Scrapings made from the inflamed areas of the skin may show the psoroptic mites. _Mange in hogs_ is comparatively rare. It is caused by one of the sarcoptic mites. The thin portions of the skin are usually first invaded. There are violent itching and rubbing, and small, red elevations occur on the skin in the region of the ears, eyelids or inner surface of the thighs, depending on the part first invaded. The skin becomes greatly thickened and covered with crusts and scabs. Pus formation and ulceration may occur. TREATMENT OF SCAB AND MANGE.--A careful inspection of recently purchased animals that pass through stockyards, or are shipped from sections where scab and mange are common skin diseases, is an important preventive measure. Infected animals should be completely isolated from the herd, and kept apart from other animals until after they have been treated. Hogs that are slightly infected should be quarantined and treated. If badly affected, they should be killed, and the carcass disposed of by burning or burying. [Illustration: FIG. 69.--A severe case of mange.] _The different remedies used_ in the treatment of the disease may be applied by dipping, hand dressing or washing, pouring, smearing and spotting. The first method is the most satisfactory. The last method may be used when a small area of the skin is involved, and during the cold weather. Washing or dipping the animal with a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus is an effective remedy for the psoroptic forms of scab and mange. Tobacco, lime and sulfur, and arsenical dips are recommended in the treatment of sheep and cattle. Ointments are recommended for animals that are slightly affected with mange. Lime and sulfur dips are recommended by the Bureau of Animal Industry. Small infected areas of the skin may be treated by applying sulfur-iodide ointment. The following ointment is commonly recommended: potassium sulfide ten parts, potassium carbonate two parts, and lard three hundred parts. Sheep cannot be safely dipped for scab during the cold weather. If thickened and scabby, the skin should be scrubbed with the dip, or the animal prepared for dipping or washing by first clipping the hair or wool and scrubbing the skin with water and a good soap. In order to prevent reinfection, it is necessary to remove the animal to new quarters, or thoroughly clean and disinfect the old. It is necessary to wash or spray the fences, floors, walls, brushes and curry-combs with a disinfecting solution. Manure and other litter should be removed to a place where there is no danger from its distributing the infection. DISEASES OF POULTRY CAUSED BY MITES.--Mites or acarina that cause diseases of poultry may live on the feathers, beneath the skin, and within the body of the fowl. _The small, red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae)_ remains on the surface of the body only when feeding, and spends the rest of the time under collections of filth and in cracks in the roosts and walls of the house. This parasite causes the birds to become restless, emaciated and droopy. _A very small mite (Sarcoptes mutans)_ is the cause of scaly leg. It lives under the skin. The joints of the feet appear affected, and the foot and leg become enlarged, roughened and scaly. _Depluming scabies_ is caused by _Sarcoptes laevis var. gallinae_. This mite causes the feathers to break off at the surface of the skin. Masses of epidermic scales may form around the broken ends of the feathers. The diagnosis can be confirmed by examining the skin lesions and finding the mite. _The air sac mite_ (_Cytodites nudus_) may cause sufficient irritation to the mucous membrane lining the air sacs to seriously obstruct the air passages with mucus, or produce death from exhaustion. A post-mortem examination of a fowl that has died of this disease shows the mites on the surface of the lining membrane of the air-sacs. They appear as a white or yellow dust. TREATMENT OF POULTRY DISEASES CAUSED BY MITES.--Diseases of poultry caused by mites may be prevented by quarantining all recently purchased birds for a period of from two to four weeks, and by keeping the poultry houses clean. Birds that are found infested with parasites should be destroyed or returned. In case the bird is valuable and suffering from external parasites only, it should be given the necessary treatment. _Red mites may be destroyed_ by thoroughly cleaning the poultry house, and spraying the roosts, nests, walls and floor with a three per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus. This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. _Scaly-leg may be treated_ by applying a penetrating oil to the feet and lower part of the leg. It is advisable to first remove the scales by scrubbing the part with soap and warm water. Dipping the feet in a mixture of kerosene one part and linseed oil two parts is recommended. This should be repeated as often as necessary. QUESTIONS 1. Describe the different bot-flies. 2. Give the life history of the bot-fly of the horse; of the ox; of sheep. 3. Give the symptoms of bot-fly diseases. 4. Give the symptoms of lousiness. 5. Give treatment for lousiness of different farm animals. 6. What is the damage from the sheep-tick? Give treatment. 7. Describe the injury from scabies and mange. 8. Give treatments for these diseases. 9. Mention the several poultry mites and tell how to treat them. CHAPTER XXV ANIMAL PARASITES The common parasitic diseases of domestic animals are caused by the following groups of worms: _Flukes_ or _trematoides_; _tapeworms_ or _Cestoides_; _thorn-headed worms_ or _Acanthocephales_; and _round-worms_ or _Nematoids_. Flat worms, such as tapeworms and flukes, require secondary hosts. The immature and mature forms of tapeworms are parasites of vertebrate animals, but an invertebrate host is necessary for the completion of the life cycle of the fluke. The hog is the only specie of domestic animals that becomes a host for the thorn-headed worm. The round-worm is a very common parasite. There are many species belonging to this class. [Illustration: FIG. 70.--Liver flukes.] DISTOMA HEPATICUM (COMMON LIVER FLUKE).--Sheep are the most common hosts for this parasite. It is present in the gall ducts and livers, and causes a disease of the liver known as liver rot. The liver fluke is flat or leaf-like and from thirteen to fifteen mm. long (Fig. 70). The head portion is conical. It has an oval and ventral sucker, and the body is covered with scaly spines. The eggs are oval and brownish in color. _The life history_, in brief, is as follows: Each adult is capable of producing an immense number of eggs which are carried down the bile ducts with the bile to the intestine, and are passed off with the faeces. Under favorable conditions for incubation, such as warm, moist surroundings, the ova or eggs hatch and the _ciliated embryos_ become freed. The embryo next penetrates into the body of certain snails and encysts. The _sporocyst_, as it is now called, develops into a third generation known as _redia_ which escape from the cyst. The _daughter redia_ or _cercaria_, as they are now termed, leave the body of the snail and finally become encysted on the stems of grass, cresses and weeds. When taken into the digestive tract of the animal grazing over infested ground, the immature flukes are freed by the digestive juices. They then pass from the intestine into the bile ducts. The period of development varies from ten to twenty weeks; each sporocyst may give rise to from five to eight _redia_ and each redia to from twelve to twenty _cercaria_. Fluke diseases occur among animals pastured on low, wet, undrained land. Drying ponds and lakes are the homes of the fresh water snails, and in such places there are plenty of hosts for the immature flukes. Wet seasons favor the development of this parasite. Cattle and sheep that pasture on river bottom land in certain sections of the southern portion of the United States are frequently affected with fluke diseases. _The symptoms of liver rot of sheep_ may be divided into two stages. The first stage is marked by increase in weight and improved condition. In the second stage of the disease, the animal shows a pale skin and mucous membrane, dropsical swellings, loss of flesh and weakness. The character of the symptoms of the disease depends on the age of the animals and the care that they receive. Young, poorly cared for animals suffer severely from the disease, and the death rate is usually heavy. The finding of fluke ova in the faeces is conclusive evidence of the nature of the disease. It may be advisable to kill one of the sick animals, and determine the nature of the disease by a post-mortem examination. [Illustration: FIG. 71.--Tapeworm larvae in liver (_Echinococcus polymorphus_).] [Illustration: FIG. 72.--Tapeworms.] _The treatment is preventive_. Drainage water from a pasture infested with snails harboring immature flukes is a source of infection, and should not be used as a water supply for cattle and sheep. In sections where the disease is prevalent, sheep should not be pastured on low, poorly-drained land. Such land should be used for pasturing horses and cattle, but if possible, it should be first drained and cultivated. Careful feeding and good care may help the affected animals to recover. [Illustration: FIG. 73.--Tapeworm larvae in the peritoneum (_Cysticercus cellulosa_).] TAPEWORMS OR CESTOIDES.--Tapeworms are formed by a chain of segments, joined together at their ends, and are flat or ribbon-shaped (Fig. 71). The head segment is small, and possesses either hooks or suckers. It is by these that the worm attaches itself to the lining membrane of the intestine. The anterior segments are smaller and less mature than the posterior segments. Each segment is sexually complete, possessing both the male and female organs, and when mature, one or more of them break off and are passed out with the faeces. The mature or ripe segments are filled with ova. On reaching the digestive tract of a proper host, usually with the drinking water or fodder, the embryo is freed from the egg. The _armed embryo_ uses its hooklets in boring its way through the wall of the intestine. It then wanders through the tissues of its host until it finally reaches a suitable place for development (Figs. 71 and 73). On coming to rest, it develops into the larva or bladder-worm, which when eaten by a proper host gives rise to the mature tapeworm. The following tables give the most important tapeworms: ADULT FORMS Name Host Organ Taenia expansa Sheep and ox Intestine Taenia fimbriata Sheep Liver Taenia denticulata Cattle Intestine Taenia alba Cattle Intestine Taenia perfoliata Solipeds Intestine Taenia mamillana Solipeds Intestine Taenia echinococcus Dog Intestine LARVAL FORMS Name Host Cysticercus bovis Cattle Cysticercus cellulosa Swine and man Cysticercus tennicollis Cattle, sheep and swine Coenurus cerebralis Cattle and sheep Echinococcus polymorphus Cattle, sheep, swine and man The adult tapeworms _Taeniae saginata_ and _soleum_, of which the _Cysticerci bovis_ and _cellulosa_ are the larvae forms, occur in man. The larvae are present in meat and pork, and this form of parasitism is termed beef measles in cattle and pork measles in hogs. Man becomes host for these two forms of tapeworms through eating measly pork or beef that is not properly cooked. The dog is the host for _Taeniae marginala_, _coenurus_ and _echinococcus_. The larvae forms of these _taeniae_ are the _Cysticercus tennicollis_, _Coenurus cerebralis_ and _Echinococcus polymorphus_. _C. tennicollis_ is a parasite of the serous or lining membranes of the body cavities. It is not of great economic importance. _C. cerebralis_ is a parasite of the brain of sheep, and may cause a heavy death rate in flocks that are infested with it. _E. polymorphus_ is a parasite of the liver, but it may occur in other organs. THE THORN-HEADED WORM OR ACANTHOCEPHALE.--This parasite requires a secondary host. In this case a particular species of the May-beetle larva or white grub that is commonly found about manure piles and in clover pastures is the host. The hog eats a white grub that is host for the larval form. The digestive juices free the larva, it then becomes attached to the intestinal mucous membrane and develops into the adult thorn-headed worm (Fig. 74). This parasite is characterized by a hooked proboscis or thorn at its anterior extremity, and the absence of a distinct digestive tract. The male is much smaller than the female. The eggs are passed out of the intestine with the faeces. [Illustration: FIG. 74.--Thorn-headed worms.] THE ROUND-WORMS OR NEMATOIDS.--Round-worms are very common parasites of domestic animals (Fig. 75). This group of worms is characterized by their cylindrical form, the presence of a true digestive canal and the separation into two sexes, male and female. The life history is more simple than in the flat worms. Intermediate hosts are not required for the development of the common forms. The eggs and embryos are deposited by the female in the intestinal tract, air passages, or excretory ducts of the kidneys of the host. Development may be completed here, or the eggs and embryos are passed off with the body excretions. They may live for a short time outside the animal body, or undergo certain development and again infest a host of the same species from which they came, through the water, grass and fodder that the animal may take into its digestive tract. [Illustration: FIG. 75.--Large round-worm in intestine of hog.] The following species of nematoids are common parasites of domestic animals: SOLIPEDS Species Organ Ascaris megalocephala Intestines Sclerostoma equinum Large intestine and blood-vessels Sclerostoma tetracanthum Large intestine Oxyrus curvula Large intestine Oxyrus mastigodes Large intestine CATTLE Species Organ Strongylus convolutus Abomasum Ascaris vituli Small intestine (calves) Strongylus ventricosus Small intestine Oesophagostomum inflatum Large intestine Trichocephalus affins Large intestine Strongylus micrurus Bronchi Strongylus pulmonaris Bronchi SHEEP Species Organ Haemonchus contortus Abomasum Ascaris ovis Small intestine Strongylus filicollis Small intestine Oesophagostomum columbianum Intestines Uncinaria cernua Small intestine Trichocephalus affins Large intestine Strongylus filaria Bronchi Strongylus rufescens Bronchi and air follicles SWINE Species Organ Ascaris suis Intestines Oesophagostomum dentatum Large intestine Trichocephalus crenatus Large intestine Trichina spiralis Muscles and intestines Strongylus paradoxus Trachea and bronchi Sclerostoma pingencola Renal fat and kidney POULTRY Species Organ Ascaris inflexa Intestine Spiroptera hamulosa Gizzard Heterakis papillosa Caecum Syngamus trachealis Trachea and bronchi INTESTINAL WORMS OF SOLIPEDS.--The large round-worms or ascarides and the sclerostomes are the most injurious intestinal parasites of solipeds. The _A. megalocephala_ or large round-worm is from 5 to 15 inches (12 to 35 cm.) long. It may be present in the double colon in such large numbers as to form an entangled mass that completely fills a portion of the loop in which it is lodged. It may interfere with digestion by obstructing the passage of alimentary matter, and irritating the intestine. The _S. equinum_ and _S. tetracanthum_ are small worms. The former sclerostoma is from 0.6 to 1.5 inches (18 to 35 mm.) long, and the latter is from 0.5 to 0.6 inch (8 to 17 mm.) long. Both sclerostomes attach themselves to the lining membrane of the intestine by their mouth parts, and suck blood. The young _S. equinum_ may live in tumor-like cysts that they cause to form in the lining membrane of the intestine. The young worm may penetrate the wall of a small blood-vessel as well, and drift into a large vessel, where it may become lodged and undergo partial development. The irritation to the blood-vessel results in an inflammation and dilation of the vessel wall. This is termed verminous aneurism. A portion of the fibrin-like lining of the aneurism may flake off and drift along in the blood stream, until finally a vessel that is too small for the floating particle or embolus to pass through is reached. The vessel is then plugged or a thrombus is formed. If the vessel involved by the thrombus happens to be a mesenteric vessel, then a loop of intestine has its blood supply cut off, and colicky pains result. Such colics are dangerous, and may terminate fatally. Intestinal obstruction, thrombo-embolic colics, unthriftiness and a weakened, anaemic condition may be caused by intestinal worms. _The treatment_ is both preventive and medicinal. The preventive treatment consists in giving young, growing animals the best care possible. Cleanliness about the stable, giving the colt plenty of range when running in a pasture, and feeding a ration that is sufficient to keep the colt in good physical condition are the important preventive measures. Tartar emetic in one-half to one dram doses may be given with the feed daily until five or six doses are given. Turpentine may be given in one to three ounce doses in a pint of linseed oil. This may be repeated daily for two or three days. Worms located in the posterior bowel may be removed by rectal injections of a weak water infusion of quassia chips. The rectum should be first emptied with the hand, and the nozzle of the syringe carried as far forward with the hand as possible. The injections should be repeated daily for several days. INTESTINAL WORMS OF CATTLE.--Intestinal worms seldom cause serious losses from unthriftiness or death in cattle. It is in calves only that we are called on to treat this class of disease. The symptoms resulting from the invasion of the intestinal tract by the different worms vary in severity according to the number, habits of the parasite and care that the animal receives. The usual symptoms are unthriftiness, indigestion, diarrhoea and a stunted, anaemic condition. Stiles reported extreme anaemia, unthriftiness and many deaths among cattle in a certain section of Texas, due to extensive infection with the _Uncinaria radialus_. _The treatment_ is largely preventive. Calves and yearlings should be provided with plenty of feed at all seasons of the year. Good care and careful feeding will keep them in a thrifty, healthy condition and enable them to throw off invasions of intestinal worms. Turpentine is the vermifuge usually administered to calves. The dose is from two to four drams given in a milk or raw linseed oil emulsion. STOMACH WORM OF SHEEP.--The twisted stomach worm, _Haemonchus contortus_, is the most injurious internal parasite of sheep. It is a very small, hair-like worm from 0.4 to 1 inch (9 to 25 mm.) in length. In the adult form it attaches itself to the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach or abomasum, and lives by sucking blood. The blood present in the digestive tract of the worm gives it a brown color, and the white oviducts which are wound around the digestive canal cause the body to appear twisted. When the twisted stomach worm is present in large numbers, the worms become mixed with the contents of the stomach and can be readily found on making a post-mortem examination. _Symptoms of stomach worms_ are first manifest in the lambs (Fig. 76). It is not until early summer that the disease appears in the flock. The symptoms are not characteristic unless we consider an unthrifty, anaemic, weak, emaciated condition accompanied by diarrhoea, during the summer months characteristic of stomach-worm disease. The sick animals are unable to keep up with the flock, and they like to stand about in the shade. They move slowly, the back is arched, the appetite poor, the mucous membranes and skin are pale and the hind parts soiled by the diarrhoeal discharge. More acute symptoms than the above sometimes occur. The disease may last from a few days to several weeks. A large percentage of the affected animals die. [Illustration: FIG. 76.--Lamb affected with stomach worm disease.] The _treatment_ is largely preventive. Frequent changing of pastures and dry lot feeding are common preventive measures. Permanent sheep pastures lead to heavy losses from stomach worm disease. A very effective preventive measure, as we may term it, is the practice of administering a vermifuge to the ewes in the late summer and again in early winter. This may be given in a drench, or with the feed. This prevents the reinfection of the pastures every spring, and the young lambs are not exposed to this form of infection. The most effective treatment that the writer has ever used is the following formula recommended by Dr. Law: Arsenous acid one dram, sulfate of iron five drams, powdered areca nut two ounces, common salt four ounces. This is sufficient for one dose for thirty sheep. It may be given with the salt, or in ground feed. If the flock is apparently healthy, four doses given at intervals of three days is sufficient. If symptoms of stomach worms are manifested the animals should be dosed daily until they have received from five to ten doses, depending on the condition of the animal. INTESTINAL WORMS OF SHEEP.--The most widely distributed and seemingly most injurious intestinal worm of sheep is the _OEsopliagostomum columbianum_. It is a small worm from 0.5 to 0.75 inch (12 to 18 mm.) long. It penetrates the lining membrane of the intestines and encysts in the intestinal wall. A tumor, varying in size from that of a millet seed to a hazelnut, then forms in the wall of the intestine. These tumors undergo a cheesy degeneration, and when mature, may appear as greenish, cheesy-like masses, covering a large portion of the lining membrane of the intestine. Diarrhoea and emaciation may result. These symptoms are most evident during the winter months. _The treatment_ recommended for ridding sheep of this intestinal worm is largely preventive. Very little can be done with the medicinal treatment of a sheep whose intestinal tract is badly infested with this parasite. Good care and the feeding of a proper ration are the only curative measures that are effective in such cases. The occasional administration of a vermifuge for the purpose of ridding the digestive tract of worms, together with the frequent changing of pastures during the spring and summer, are the most effective preventive lines of treatment. The same treatment recommended for stomach worms may be used for this disease. INTESTINAL PARASITES OF HOGS.--The _Ascaris suis_ or _common round_ worm is very commonly found in the small intestine. It is quite frequently found in large numbers, almost filling the lumen of the intestine of an unthrifty pig (Fig. 75). It may also work its way into the bile duct. Sometimes, after a hog has died, this parasite migrates forward into the stomach and gullet. The _A. suis_ is from 4 to 10 inches (10 to 26 cm.) long. _The Echinorhynchus gigas_ or _thorn-headed_ worm is the most dangerous of all intestinal worms (Fig. 74). It is usually found with its proboscis or thorn imbedded in the wall of the small intestine. The Echinorhynchus is not as common a parasite as the Ascaride, and it is not usually present in large numbers. Usually, not more than a half-dozen of these worms are found in the intestine of a hog, but in some localities and in hogs that are allowed to root around manure piles and in clover pastures the herd may become badly infected with them and serious losses occur. The average length of the male is about 3 inches (8 cm.) and the female 10 inches (26 cm.). [Illustration: FIG. 77.--Whip-worms attached to wall of intestine.] [Illustration: FIG. 78.--Pin-worms in intestine.] The _Trichocephalus crenatus_ or _whip worm_ (Fig. 77) is slender or hair-like in its anterior two-thirds and thick posteriorly. It is from 1.5 to 2 inches (40 to 45 mm.) long. It is found in the caecum attached to the wall by the hair-like portion. The _OEsophagostomum dentatum_ or _pin worm_ is from 0.3 to 0.6 inch (8 to 15 mm.) long. It is found in the large intestine (Fig. 78). The _symptoms_ of intestinal worms are not very evident in the average drove of hogs. None of the other farm animals are such common hosts for intestinal worms as hogs. But it is only in extreme cases of infection by intestinal worms, and in stunted and poorly-cared-for hogs, that very noticeable symptoms of disease are manifested. We must not take from the above statement that it is unnecessary to resort to treatment unless in exceptional cases. Intestinal worms interfere with the growth of young hogs, and may irritate and inflame the intestine, causing chronic indigestion, nervous symptoms, and in some cases death. This irritated and inflamed condition of the intestine is best noted in the abattoir by the ease with which the wall of the intestine that contains large numbers of worms tears when handling it. _The treatment_ of intestinal worms in hogs is both preventive and medicinal. If the conditions in the pens and houses are such as to enable the eggs and embryos to live for a long time, or the surroundings are favorable for infection of the animals through their feed and water supply, the herd may become badly infested with intestinal parasites. The preventive treatment consists in keeping hogs in clean, well-drained yards or pastures, and feeding them from clean troughs and concrete feeding floors that can be washed, when necessary, in order to keep them clean. Turpentine, given in a milk emulsion, is a common remedy for intestinal worms in hogs. The dose is one teaspoonful for every eighty pounds weight. This dose should be repeated daily for three days. The following vermifuge can be recommended: Santonin three to five grains, calomel five to eight grains. This is sufficient for one hundred pounds weight. If the pigs are small and it requires two or three to weigh one hundred pounds, the large dose should be given. If the hogs weigh one hundred pounds or more, they should receive the small dose. The drove should be divided into lots of ten or fifteen hogs each. The drugs should be mixed and divided into the same number of powders as there are lots of hogs. Ground feed is placed in the trough, dampened with milk, or water and the powder sprinkled evenly over it. The hogs are then allowed to eat the feed. It is best to dose them in the morning after they have been off feed for ten or twelve hours. VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS IN CALVES.--The lung worms of cattle, _Strongylus micrurus_ and _Strongylus pulmonaris_, may cause heavy losses in calves and yearlings. Older cattle may harbor these parasites, but they do not seem to be inconvenienced by them. The _S. micrurus_ is from 1 to 3 inches (25 to 75 mm.) long. The _S. pulmonaris_ is smaller. It is from 0.4 to 1.3 inches (10 to 35 mm.) long. They are found in the trachea and small bronchial tubes, where they are mixed with mucous secretions from the inflamed lining membrane of the bronchial tubes. Wet seasons and low, wet pastures are said to favor the development of lung worms. Their life history is not fully understood. They do not persist generation after generation in the air passages of an animal, but the eggs and embryos are expelled and live for a time outside of the animal, when they may again become parasites of another or the same host. _The symptoms_ are the same as occur in bronchitis and pneumonia. Calves and yearlings are the only animals in the herd that may show symptoms of the disease. The air passages become irritated and inflamed, and the calf shows a slight cough. As the inflammation increases and the worms and mucous secretions plug up the small bronchial tubes, the coughing spells become more severe and rattling, wheezing sounds may be heard on auscultating the lungs. The calf finally loses its appetite, becomes emaciated and weak, and wanders off alone. It is usually found lying down and shows labored breathing that is occasionally interrupted by paroxysmal coughing. The death rate in poorly-cared-for herds is heavy. VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS AND PNEUMONIA OF SHEEP.--The two lung worms of sheep are the _Strongylus filaria_ and Strongylus_ rufescens_. The former is from 1.3 to 3 inches (33 to 80 mm.) long, and the latter from 0.6 to 1 inch (16 to 25 mm.) long. The _S. filaria_ is thread-like and the _S. refuscens_ hair-like in appearance. For this reason they are termed thread and hair lung-worms. The thread-worm is found in the trachea and the larger bronchial tubes, and the hair-worm in the most minute as well as the larger bronchioli. This disease is most common in wet seasons. Undrained pastures and ponds are said to favor the spread of the disease. Permanent pastures favor the reinfection of the flock from year to year. The eggs and embryos are expelled in coughing, and live for a time in the pastures, pens and houses. The sheep become infected through the dust, drinking water or feed. _The symptoms of verminous bronchitis_ and pneumonia are quite characteristic. Lambs suffer most from these diseases. A number of animals in the flock are affected. Coughing, rapid and labored breathing, loss of appetite, emaciation and weakness are the usual symptoms noticed. When a paroxysm of coughing occurs, considerable mucus is expelled. An examination of the expectorations may result in finding a few lung worms. In poorly-cared-for flocks, and when complicated by stomach and intestinal worms, the death rate is usually heavy. _The treatment_ of lung-worm diseases in lambs and calves is largely preventive. We should use every possible precaution against introducing the infection into the herd or flock. It is not advisable to bring animals from an infected herd onto the premises, without subjecting them to a careful examination and a long quarantine before allowing them to stable or pasture with the other animals. Calves or lambs that show marked symptoms of disease should be given comfortable quarters, and special care and feeding. The entire herd or flock must be given the best care and ration possible. This is the only satisfactory method of treatment. Changing the pasture or lot frequently may help in ridding the premises of the infection. VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS IN HOGS.--The lung worm, _Strongylus paradoxus_, is a common parasite of young hogs. It is from 0.6 to 1.6 inches (16 to 40 mm.) long. When the infection is light, the worms are found mostly in the bronchial tubes of the margin and apex of the lung. Infection with this parasite does not depend on the humidity of the soil, or low, wet pastures containing ponds. Probably dusty quarters are responsible in large degree for this disease. _The symptoms are most evident_ in pigs weighing from forty to eighty pounds. The first symptom is a cough, occurring on leaving the bed, after exercise and after eating. In badly infected cases the paroxysm of coughing is quite severe. The appetite usually remains good and the thriftiness of the pig is not seriously interfered with. The feeding of a suitable ration, and the good care that is usually given young hogs, are responsible for the mildness of the disease. The treatment that is of most importance is clean quarters, and the feeding of a ration that will keep the pig growing and healthy. The sleeping quarters should be kept free from dust. Disinfectants should be used freely about the quarters. THE KIDNEY WORM OF HOGS.--_Sclerostoma pinguicola_ is the kidney worm of hogs. It is from 1 to 1.5 inches (25 to 27 mm.) long, and when seen against the kidney fat it appears dark or mottled. It is usually found in the fat in the region of the pelvis of the kidney. Although the kidney worm is capable of causing inflammatory changes in the tissues surrounding the kidney and the pelvis of this organ, the disease cannot be determined by any noticeable symptom. Paralysis of the posterior portion of the body is attributed to the presence of kidney worms by stockmen. There are no data by which we may prove that the kidney worm is responsible for this disorder. _The treatment_ is preventive. Clean feed, pens, watering troughs and feeding floors are the preventive measures indicated here. It is useless to attempt treatment with drugs, as the worms are out of reach of any drug that may be administered. WORMS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF POULTRY.--Poultry are often seriously infested with worms. A small number of the less injurious worms may not cause any appreciable symptoms of disease; but the fowl that harbors them is a source of infection to the other fowls. The infectious nature of parasitic disease caused by worms should be recognized more fully than at present by poultrymen. The different species of poultry are hosts for many different species of round-worms, thorn-headed worms and tapeworms. Dr. Kaupp states that _Acaris inflexa_ or large round-worm, _Heterakis pipilosa_ or small round-worm, and the _Spiroptera hamulosa_ or gizzard-worm are frequently found in fowls. The common round-worm may be found in the first portion of the intestine, and the small round-worm in the caecum. Neither of the species are dangerous unless present in large numbers. They may then obstruct the intestine, and irritate the intestinal mucous membrane. This may cause constipation, catarrhal inflammation of the intestine and diarrhoea. The gizzard-worm is the most dangerous of the parasites mentioned. The gizzard has an important digestive function, and any condition that may weaken its muscular walls may cause serious digestive disorders. This parasite may encyst in the wall of the gizzard. _The treatment_ of intestinal worms in poultry is both preventive and curative. The preventive measures consist in keeping the houses and runs clean. Air-slaked lime should be scattered over the runs every few weeks. The drinking places should be cleaned and disinfected daily. All possible precautions should be taken in order to prevent filth from getting into the drinking water. Epsom salts, powdered areca nut and santonin are the remedies commonly recommended for the treatment of intestinal worms. From twenty to forty grains of Epsom salts may be given. Powdered areca nut is recommended in from three to ten grain doses. Santonin may be given in from one to two grain doses. Both the areca nut and santonin may be given with the feed. THE GAPES IN BIRDS.--The gape-worm, _Syngamus trachealis_, is from 0.2 to 0.8 inch (5 to 20 mm.) long. The male and female are permanently united. The male is about one-third as long as the female, and when attached to the anterior third of the female, gives the pair a forked appearance. Fowls become infested with the gape-worm by eating the adult parasite that has been expectorated, or an earth worm that is host for the immature parasite. The embryo gape-worm is freed in the intestine, and from here they are supposed to migrate into the abdominal air sacs and to the trachea and bronchi. _The symptom_ are most severe in very young fowls. The affected bird opens its mouth and appears to gasp for breath, sneeze and attempt to swallow. In the severe cases the appetite is interfered with, mucus accumulates in the mouth and the bird is dull and listless. The death rate is quite high in young-chickens and turkeys. _The treatment_ is both preventive and curative. If the gape-worm is known to be present in the runs, the ground should be covered with lime, and the fowls moved to fresh runs if possible. The young birds should not be exposed to the infection until they are well feathered out. Antiseptics may be given with the drinking water. Disinfectants should be used freely about the poultry houses, and the quarters kept clean. The worms may be snared by inserting a stiff horse hair that has been twisted and forms a loop into the trachea. This may be dipped into camphorated oil or turpentine. This treatment should be repeated until the bird has been relieved. QUESTIONS 1. Name the different groups of internal parasites; give examples of each. 2. What conditions favor liver rot? Give the life history of the liver fluke. 3. Name three common tapeworms; give the life history of the beef and pork tapeworms. 4. Name the common intestinal worms of horses and give the treatment. 5. Give the symptoms and treatment of stomach-worm disease of sheep. 6. Name the common intestinal worms of hogs and give treatment. 7. What species of domestic animals suffer most of verminous bronchitis? Give the treatment. 8. Name the common internal parasites of poultry and give treatment. PART VI.--INFECTIOUS DISEASES CHAPTER XXVI HOG-CHOLERA HOG-CHOLERA is a highly infectious disease of swine. It is characterized by an inflammation, of the lymphatic glands, kidneys, intestines, lungs and skin. The inflammation is hemorrhagic in character, the inflamed organs usually showing deep red spots or blotches. Hog-cholera is especially prevalent in the corn-raising States which possess a denser hog population than any other section of the United States. In this country the loss from hog-cholera in 1913 amounted to more than $60,000,000, and it may be considered of greater economic importance than any of the other animal diseases. SPECIFIC CAUSE.--The specific cause of hog-cholera is an _ultra-visible organism_ that is present in the excretions, secretions and tissues of a cholera hog. De Schweinitz and Dorset in 1903 produced typical hog-cholera by inoculating hogs with cholera-blood filtrates that were free from any organism that could be demonstrated by microscopical examination or any cultural method. The term ultra-visible virus is applied to the virus of hog-cholera. _The ultra-visible virus_ is eliminated from the body of the cholera hog with the body secretions and excretions. Healthy hogs contract the disease by eating feed or drinking water that is infected with the virus. There are other methods of infection, but field and experimental data show that hog-cholera is commonly produced by taking the germs into the body with food and drinking water. ACCESSORY CAUSES.--The usual method of introducing hog-cholera into a neighborhood is through the importation of feeding or breeding hogs that were infected with the disease before they were purchased, or became infected through exposure to the disease in the public stock-yards and stock-cars. The shipping of feeding hogs from one section of the country to another, and from public stock-yards, has always been productive of hog-cholera. Dr. Dorset states that more than fifty-seven per cent of the hog-cholera outbreaks are caused by visiting, exchanging work, exposure on adjoining farms and harboring the infection from year to year (Fig. 79), and more than twenty-three per cent to purchasing hogs and shipping in infected cars, birds and contaminated streams. [Illustration: FIG. 79.--A hog yard where the disease-producing germs may be carried over from year to year.] In neighborhoods where outbreaks of hog-cholera occur necessary precautions against the spread of the disease are not taken. The _exchange of help_ at threshing and shredding time in neighborhoods where there is an outbreak of hog-cholera is the most common method of spreading the disease. _Visiting farms_ where hogs are dying of cholera; walking or driving a team and wagon through the cholera-infected yards; stock buyers, stock-food and cholera-remedy venders that visit the different farms in a neighborhood may distribute the hog-cholera virus through the infected filth that may adhere to the shoes, horses' feet and wagon wheels. _Cholera hogs_ may carry the disease directly to a healthy herd when allowed to run at large. _Streams_ that are polluted with the drainage from cholera-infected yards are common sources of disease. _Pigeons, dogs, cows_ and _buzzards_ that travel about the neighborhood and feed in hog yards and on the carcasses of cholera hogs may distribute the disease. Because of the active part that dogs, birds and surface drainage take in the distribution of hog-cholera, the practice of allowing the carcasses of dead hogs to lie on the ground and decompose is responsible for a large percentage of the hog-cholera outbreaks. _Age_ is an important predisposing factor. Young hogs are most susceptible to cholera, and this susceptibility can be greatly increased by giving them crowded, filthy quarters. Infection with lice, lung and intestinal worms, the feeding of an improper ration and sudden changes in the ration lower the natural resistance of a hog against disease. Pampered hogs usually develop acute cholera when exposed to this disease. Hog-cholera is more virulent or acute during the summer and fall months than it is during the winter and spring months. After the disease sweeps over a section of country, it becomes less virulent and takes on a subacute or chronic form. Outbreaks of hog-cholera usually last two or three years in a neighborhood. This depends largely on the number of susceptible hogs that were not exposed to the infection the first season, and the preventive precautions observed by the owners. PERIOD OF INCUBATION.--The length of time elapsing between the exposure of the hog to the cholera virus, and the development of noticeable symptoms of hog-cholera, varies from a few days to two or three weeks. The length of this incubation period depends on the susceptibility of the animal, the virulence of the virus and the method of exposure. An acute form of hog-cholera indicates a short period of incubation, and a chronic form, a long period. SYMPTOMS.--The symptoms of hog-cholera may differ widely in the different outbreaks of the disease. The symptoms may be classified under the following forms: Acute, subacute and chronic. The acute form of hog-cholera is the most common. The early symptoms are tremors, fever, depressed appearance, marked weakness, staggering gait, constipation and diarrhoea, labored breathing and convulsions. Death may occur within a few hours or a few days. Recovery seldom occurs. In the subacute form, the symptoms are mild and develop slowly. Recovery may take place within a few days, or after extending over a week or ten days it may assume the chronic form. Very often in outbreaks of subacute cholera a large majority of the herd does not show visible symptoms of the disease. In the chronic form, marked symptoms of pleuropneumonia and chronic inflammation of the intestine are common. Ulcers and sores form on the skin and the hair may come off. Large portions of the skin may become gangrenous and slough. Young hogs are usually stunted and emaciated. _The first symptom_ of disease is an elevation of body temperature. At the beginning of any outbreak of hog-cholera the _body temperatures_ of the apparently healthy animals may vary from 105\260 to 108\260 F. After a few days, animals that are fatally sick or recovering from the disease may show normal or subnormal body temperature. _Loss of appetite_ is the first symptom of disease usually noted by the person in charge of the herd. The hog may show a disposition to eat dirt. The sick hog is usually found lying in its bed, or off by itself in a quiet place. It presents a rather _characteristic appearance_. The back is arched, the hind feet are held close together, or crossed, the abdomen is tucked up and the hog appears weak in its hind parts. _Diarrhoea_ or _constipation_ may be present. The color of the diarrhoeal discharges varies according to the character of the feed, and it may be more or less tinged with blood and have a disagreeable odor. The urine is highly colored. _The respirations and pulse beats_ are quickened and abnormal in character. Thumps sometimes occur. When the mucous membranes lining the throat and anterior air passages are thickened, the respirations are noisy and difficult. The animal may cough on getting up from its bed and moving about. There is at times a noticeable discharge from the nostrils. When the _lungs_ are inflamed the respirations are quickened and labored. In case the pleural membrane is inflamed, the respiratory symptoms are more severe, and the hog shows evidence of pain when the walls of the chest are pressed on. The _pericardium_ may be inflamed. In such cases the hog staggers and falls when forced to walk. _The central nervous system_ may be involved by the inflammation. The usual symptoms occurring in inflammation of the brain and its coverings are then present. A sleepy, comatose condition may end in death, or the animal dies in a convulsion. _The secretions of the skin_ and mucous membranes are abnormal. The skin in the regions of the ears, inside of the thighs and under surface of the body is moist, dirty or discolored red. Just before death the skin over the under surface of the body becomes a purplish red. In the chronic form, a dirty, thickened, wrinkled skin is commonly observed. At first the secretion from the eyes is thin and watery, but it becomes thick, heavy and pus-like, causing the margins of the lids to adhere to each other. The death rate in hog-cholera varies in the different forms of the disease. The average death rate is about fifty per cent. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS.--The diagnosis of hog-cholera in the field must depend on the clinical symptoms, post-mortem lesions and history of the outbreak. The history should be that of a highly infectious disease. [Illustration: FIG. 80.--Carcass of a cholera hog showing different groups of lymphatic glands; kidneys; and ulcer on caecum.] _Abnormal body temperatures_ of a large percentage of the herd indicate the presence of an acute infectious disease. We should then destroy one of the sick hogs and make a careful post-mortem examination (Fig. 80). An early diagnosis of the disease is necessary, as this enables us to use curative treatment when it will do some good, and take the necessary steps toward preventing the spread of the disease to neighboring herds. _Intestinal and lung worms_ are common in young hogs. The presence of these worms does not always indicate that they are the cause of the sickness and death of the animal. Such parasites are injurious and may cause disease, but it is only in rare cases that they cause death. "_Pig typhoid_" is sometimes spoken of as a highly infectious disease involving the intestines. A disease of hogs that may be termed typhus-fever sometimes affects a large number of the hogs in the herd. This disease occurs among hogs kept in small yards and houses that are crowded, unsanitary and in continuous use, or when the hogs drink from wallows, ponds and creeks. The term swine-plague should not be used in speaking of outbreaks of hog-cholera, as it is now considered a form of hog-cholera involving especially the lungs. [Illustration: FIG. 81.--Kidneys from hog that died of acute hog-cholera.] [Illustration: FIG. 82.--Lungs from hog that died of acute hog-cholera.] LESIONS.--In _acute hog-cholera_ the inflammation is hemorrhagic in character. Small, red spots and blotches occur in different organs and tissues. In the _chronic form_ of the disease ulceration of the intestinal and gastric mucous membrane, inflammation of the lungs and pleura and sloughing of the skin are common lesions. _The skin_ over the under side of the neck, body and inside of the thighs may appear red or purplish-red in color. The different groups of _lymphatic glands_ are enlarged and softened. They may vary in color from a grayish-red to a deep red, depending on the degree of engorgement with blood. The pleura and pericardium may show small red spots and blotches. The _kidneys_ are usually lighter colored than normal, and marked with red spots and blotches (Fig. 81). The _spleen_ may show no evidence of disease. It may be large and soft, or even smaller than normal. The _liver_ may be enlarged and dark, or mottled and light colored. The _stomach_ and _intestines_ may show hemorrhagic spots and blotches. Sometimes the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane is a brick red. Ulceration of the mucous membrane is common (Fig. 83). [Illustration: FIG. 83.--A piece of intestine from a hog that died of chronic hog-cholera, showing appearance of intestinal ulcers.] Small, red spots may be present on the surface of the _lungs_ (Fig. 82). Scattered lung lobules or a large portion of the lungs may be inflamed. In chronic hog-cholera, pleural exudation, adhesions and abscesses in the lung tissue may occur. Inflammations of the pericardium and heart muscle are less common lesions. PREVENTIVE MEASURES.--Hog-cholera is the most widespread infectious disease of hogs, and all possible precautions against its distribution to healthy herds should be practised. Hogs coming from other herds and stock shows should be excluded from the home herd until they are positively shown to be free from disease. They should be quarantined in yards set off for this purpose. The hogs should be cleaned by dipping or washing them with a disinfectant. The quarantine period should be longer than the average period of incubation. Three weeks is sufficient. _The possible introduction of the disease_ into the pens by people, dogs, birds and other carriers of the disease should be guarded against, especially if cholera is present in the neighborhood. The exchange of help at threshing and shredding time with a neighbor who has hog-cholera on his farm is a common method of distributing the infection. It is not advisable to allow a stranger to enter your hog-houses and yards, unless his shoes are first disinfected. Whenever it is necessary for a person to enter yards where the disease is present, the shoes should be cleaned and disinfected on leaving. The wheels of wagons, and the feet of horses that are driven through cholera yards, should be washed with a disinfectant. The feet of feeding cattle that are shipped from stock-yards should be treated in the same manner. Persons taking care of cholera hogs should observe the necessary precautions against the distribution of the disease, and see that others practise like precautions. Hog-yards should be well drained and all wallow holes filled. Pens and pastures through which the drainage from the swine enclosures higher up flows should not be used for hogs. CARE OF A DISEASED HERD.--When an outbreak of hog-cholera occurs on a farm the farm should be quarantined. The herd should be moved away from running streams, public roads and line fences, so that neighboring herds are not unnecessarily exposed to the disease. During the hot weather shade and an opportunity to range over a grass lot or pasture are highly necessary. A recently mowed meadow, or a blue grass pasture and a low shed, open on all sides and amply large for the herd to lie under, give the animals clean range and comfortable, cool quarters. Roomy, dry, well-ventilated sleeping-quarters that are free from drafts and can be cleaned and disinfected are best when the weather is cold and wet. In the subacute, and in the early part of an acute outbreak of hog-cholera, it is advisable to separate the sick from the well hogs. The fatally sick animals should be destroyed. [Illustration: FIG. 84.--Cleaning up a hog lot.] A very light ration should be fed and an intestinal antiseptic given with the feed. A thin slop of shorts is usually preferred. Four ounces of pulverized copper sulfate may be dissolved in one gallon of hot water, and one quart of this solution may be added to every ten gallons of drinking water and slop. Water and slop should not be left in the troughs for the hogs to wallow in. The troughs should be disinfected and turned bottom side up as soon as the hogs have finished feeding and drinking. Kitchen slop and sour milk should not be fed. The care and treatment of the herd require work and close attention on the part of the attendant. Indifferent, careless treatment is of no use in this disease. A disinfectant should be sprayed or sprinkled about the feed troughs, floors, pens and sleeping quarters daily. DISPOSING OF DEAD HOGS.--The carcasses of the dead hogs should be burned. Before placing the carcass on the fire, it should be cut open and several long incisions made through the skin. A crematory may be made by digging two cross trenches that are about one foot deep at the point where they cross, and shallow at the ends. Iron bars or pipe may be laid over the trenches where they cross for the carcass to rest upon, or woven wire fencing securely fastened with stakes may be used in the place of the iron bars. If the carcass is disposed of by burying, it should be buried at least four feet deep and covered with quicklime. DISINFECTING THE YARDS AND HOUSES.--If the sick hogs are moved to new quarters at the beginning of the outbreak, the hog houses and yards should be cleaned and disinfected (Fig. 84). The manure and all other litter should be hauled away to a field where there is no danger from this infectious material becoming scattered about the premises, leaving a centre of infection in the neighborhood and causing outbreaks of cholera among neighboring herds. It may be advisable to burn the corn-cobs and other litter that have accumulated about the yards. Loose board floors should be torn up and the manure from beneath removed. Portable houses should be removed. The floors, walls of the house and fences should be first cleaned by scraping off the filth, and then sprayed with a three per cent water solution of a cresol or coal tar disinfectant to which sufficient lime has been added to make a thin whitewash. Three or four months of warm, sunny weather are sufficient to destroy the cholera infection in well-cleaned yards. ANTI-HOG-CHOLERA SERUM.--The credit of developing the first and at present the only reliable anti-hog-cholera serum and method of vaccination belongs to Drs. Dorset and Niles. Anti-hog-cholera serum came into general use in 1908, and all of the swine-producing States have established State laboratories for the production of this serum. Anti-hog-cholera serum is produced by injecting directly, or indirectly, into the blood-vessels of an immune hog a large quantity of cholera virus, secured by bleeding a hog that is fatally sick with acute cholera, and bleeding the injected animal after it has completely recovered from the injection. The injection of the cholera blood is for the purpose of stimulating the production of antibodies by the body tissues, and raising the protective properties of the immune hog's blood. An animal so treated is called a hyperimmune (Fig. 85). The blood from the hyperimmunes is defibrinated and a preservative added, and after it has been tested for potency and freedom from contaminating organisms, it is ready for use. [Illustration: FIG. 85.--Hyperimmune hogs used for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum.] THE VACCINATION OF HOGS WITH ANTI-HOG-CHOLERA SERUM.--The vaccination of a hog by the single method consists in injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum. The immunity conferred may not last longer than three or four weeks. The vaccination of a hog by the _double method_ consists in injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum and hog-cholera blood. _The vaccination or treatment_ of a cholera hog showing noticeable symptoms, or a high body temperature, consists in injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum (Fig. 87). [Illustration: FIG. 86.--Preparing the hog for vaccination by washing the part where the serum is injected with a disinfectant.] [Illustration: FIG. 87.--Vaccinating a hog.] _The region_ into which the serum and cholera blood may be injected are the inside of the thigh, within the arm, flank and side of the neck (Fig. 86). Two hypodermic syringes, holding about twenty cubic centimetres and six cubic centimetres, and having short, heavy, seventeen or eighteen-gauge slip-on needles, should be used. The small syringe is used for injecting the virulent or cholera blood which is injected into a different part than the serum. The quantity of serum and virus injected varies with the size and condition of the animal. _Young hogs_ should receive one-half cubic centimetre of serum for each pound of body weight, and _cholera hogs_ should be given one-half more to twice the dose that is recommended for healthy animals. The dose of virus recommended varies from one to two cubic centimetres for each hog. In vaccinating _small pigs_ not more than five, and in large hogs not more than twenty, cubic centimetres should be injected at any one point. The _body temperature_ of each animal should be taken. A body temperature of 103.5\260 F. in a mature hog and a body temperature of 104\260 F. in a young hog may indicate hog-cholera. Exercise, feeding and close confinement in a warm place may raise the body temperature above the normal. Hogs that are to be vaccinated or treated should not be given feed for at least twelve hours before handling them. If possible they should be confined in a roomy, clean, well-bedded pen. If this is practised, they are cleaner and easier to handle and their body temperatures are less apt to vary. After the treatment or vaccination the hogs should be fed a light diet for a period of at least ten days, and the ration increased gradually in order to avoid causing acute indigestion. This is necessary because of the elevation in body temperature resulting from the inability of the animal to digest heavy feeds, kitchen slops and sour milk. If poor judgment is used in caring for the vaccinated hogs, and the person who vaccinates them uses careless methods, heavy losses from acute indigestion, blood poisoning, or hog-cholera may occur. QUESTIONS 1. What is the specific cause of hog-cholera? Give and describe the different methods of spreading the disease. 2. What are the symptoms of hog-cholera? 3. Give the preventive and curative treatment of hog-cholera. 4. What is anti-hog-cholera serum? Give the different methods of vaccination and treatment. CHAPTER XXVII TUBERCULOSIS [Illustration: FIG. 88.--Koch's _Bacillus tuberculosis._] Tuberculosis is a contagious an and domestic animals, affecting any the lymphatic glands and lungs, change in the tissues is the formation tubercle or nodule. HISTORY.--Tuberculosis is one of the oldest of known diseases of domestic animals and man. Its contagious character was proven by Villemin in 1865, who by experential infection transmitted tuberculosis from man to animals and from animal to animal. It was in 1882 that Dr. Robert Koch discovered and proved by inoculation experiments that the disease was caused by a specific germ (Fig. 88). Prior to the experiments by Villemin and Koch, the belief was that tuberculosis was due to heredity, unsanitary conditions and inbreeding. Following discovery of the specific germ and conditions favoring its development and spread, numerous scientifically conducted experiments were made. These resulted in practical methods of control and elimination of tuberculosis from herds having this disease. By carefully conducted experiments and other forms of educational work the infectious character of tuberculosis and the economic importance of preventative measures have been demonstrated. The average stockman is well informed regarding the character and economic importance of this disease, but there is no general application of this knowledge, and tuberculosis is increasing in dairy and breeding herds. The slow development of tuberculosis, and the absence of visible symptoms during the early stage of the disease, are responsible for this condition and the extensive infection of dairy and breeding herds. PREVALENCE OF THE DISEASE.--Tuberculosis is very prevalent among cattle and swine in all countries where intensive agriculture is practised. It is a rare disease among cattle of the steppes of eastern Europe and the cattle ranges of the western portion of the United States. In countries where dairying is an important industry, tuberculosis is a common disease of cattle and hogs. The abattoir reports of Europe and the United States show that tuberculosis is on the increase among domestic animals. The Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture reports that out of 400,008 cattle tested with tuberculin 9.25 per cent reacted. Melvin states that the annual loss from tuberculosis in the United States is about $23,000,000. In dairy herds in which the disease has existed for several years, it is not uncommon to find from 25 to 75 per cent tubercular. THE DIRECT CAUSE.--The direct cause of tuberculosis is Koch's _Bacillus tuberculosis_. This is a slender, rod-shaped microorganisms (Fig. 88) occurring in the diseased tissues, feces and milk of a tubercular animal. It belongs to that small group known as acid-fast bacteria. The tubercle bacillus is not really destroyed by external influences, and it may retain its virulence for several months in dried sputum if protected from the light. Its vitality enables it to resist high temperatures, changes in temperature, drying and putrefaction to a, greater degree than most non-spore-producing germs. Direct sunlight destroys the germ within a few hours, but it may live in poorly lighted, filthy stables for months. A temperature of 65\260 C. destroys it in a few minutes. Animals that, have advanced or open tuberculosis may disseminate the germ of the disease in the discharge from the mouth, nostrils, genital organs, in the intestinal excreta and milk. The germs discharged from the mouth and nostrils are coughed up from the lungs and may infect the feed. Milk is a common source of infection for calves and hogs. Allowing hogs to run after cattle is sure to result in infection of a large percentage of them, if there are any open cases of tuberculosis in the herd. PREDISPOSING CAUSES.--Any condition that may lessen the resistance of the body or enable the tubercle bacillus to survive the exposure outside the body favors the development of the disease and the infection of the healthy animals. Crowded, poorly ventilated, filthy stables lower the disease-resisting power of the animal, and favor the entrance of the germs into the body. Under such unsanitary conditions, tuberculosis spreads quickly among dairy cattle, and a large percentage of the animals develop the generalized form of the disease. Sanitary stables and yards do not prevent the spread of the disease among animals that live in close contact with one another. Fresh air and sanitary surroundings only check the spread and retard its progress. INTRODUCTION OF TUBERCULOSIS INTO THE HERD.--The common method of introducing tuberculosis into the herd is through the purchase of animals having the disease. Such animals may be in apparent good health at the time of purchase, and be affected with generalized or open tuberculosis. _A source of infection_ is by unknowingly buying cows that have reacted to the tuberculin test. The indiscriminate use and sale of tuberculin are largely responsible for the large number of reacting animals that have been placed on the open market. This dishonest practice has resulted in the rapid spread of the disease in certain localities. For years a large percentage of the breeding herds have been infected, and the writer has met with several herds of dairy and beef cattle that became tubercular through the purchase of tubercular breeding animals. SYMPTOMS.--There is no one symptom by which we may recognize tuberculosis in cattle and hogs. None of the symptoms shown by a tubercular animal are characteristic, unless it is in the late stage of the disease. In a well-cared-for animal, the lymphatic glands in the different regions of the body, the lungs, liver and other organs, may be full of tubercles without causing noticeable symptoms of disease (Fig. 89). [Illustration: FIG. 89.--A tubercular cow. This cow was, to all appearances, in good health, but showed generalized tuberculosis on post-mortem examination.] _Tuberculosis may attack any organ of the body_, and in the different cases of the disease the symptoms may vary. Enlargement of the glands in the region of the throat, and noisy, difficult breathing are sometimes present. The udder frequently shows hard lumps scattered through the gland. Bloating may occur if a diseased gland in the chest cavity presses on the oesophagus and prevents the usual passage of gas from the paunch. Chronic diarrhoea may occur. If the disease involves the digestive tract, the animal is unthrifty and loses flesh rapidly. Coughing is not a characteristic symptom, and we should not place too much emphasis on it. If the lungs become tubercular the animal usually has a slight, harsh cough. The cough is first noticed when the cattle get up after lying down, when the stable is first opened in the morning and when the animals are driven. If the chest walls are thin, soreness from pressure on the ribs may be noted. By applying the ear to the chest wall and listening to the lung sounds, absence of respiratory murmurs and abnormal sounds may be distinguished, due to consolidation of the lung tissue, abscess cavities and pleural adhesions. In a well-advanced case the hair is rough, the skin becomes tight and the neck thin and lean. The animal may breathe through the mouth when it is exercised. Weakness may be a prominent symptom. [Illustration: FIG. 90.--Tubercular spleens.] Breeding animals that are well fed and cared for may live for several years before showing noticeable symptoms of tuberculosis. The disease progresses more rapidly in milch cows, especially if given poor care. Calves allowed to nurse a tubercular mother that is giving off tubercle bacilli frequently develop enlarged throat glands and the intestinal form of the disease. Hogs develop a generalized form of tuberculosis more quickly than cattle, but an unthrifty, emaciated condition is seldom noted in hogs under ten months old. POST-MORTEM LESIONS.--The effect of the tubercle bacillus on the body is to irritate and destroy the tissues. Lumps or tubercles form in the lymphatic glands, liver, lungs, spleen (Fig. 90), serous membranes, kidneys and other body organs (Figs. 91 and 92). The tubercles may be very small at first, but as the disease progresses they continue to enlarge until finally a tubercular mass the size of a base-ball, or larger, is formed (Figs. 93, 94, 95 and 96). Lymphatic glands may become several times larger than normal and the liver and lungs greatly enlarged. The pleura and peritoneum may be thickened and covered with tubercles about the size of a millet seed, or larger. Pleural and peritoneal adhesions to the organs within the body cavities are common. [Illustration: FIG. 91.--The carcass of a tubercular cow. Note the condition of the carcass, and the tubercular nodules on the chest wall, showing that the disease was well advanced.] [Illustration: FIG. 92.--A section of the chest wall of a tubercular cow showing a better view of the diseased tissue.] The tubercle usually undergoes a cheesy degeneration. Old tubercles may become hard and calcareous. Sometimes the capsule of the tubercle is filled with pus. A yellowish, cheesy material within the capsule of the tubercular nodule or mass is typical of the disease. THE TUBERCULIN TEST.--The only certain method of recognizing tuberculosis is by this test. There is no other method of recognizing this disease that is more accurate than the above test. The substance used in testing animals for tuberculosis is a laboratory product. It is a germ-free fluid prepared by growing the tubercle bacillus in culture medium (bouillon) until charged with the toxic products of their growth. The culture medium is then heated to a boiling temperature in order to destroy the germs. It is then passed through a porcelain filter that removes the dead germs. The remaining fluid is tuberculin. [Illustration: FIG. 93.--A very large tubercular gland that had broken down in the central portion.] _There are two methods of applying_ the tuberculin test. The subcutaneous test consists in injecting a certain quantity of tuberculin beneath the skin, and keeping a record of the body temperature of the animal between the eighth and eighteenth hours following the injection. Tubercular animals show an elevation in temperature that comes on about the eighth or twelfth hour of the test. In the _intradermal test_, a small quantity of a special tuberculin is injected into the deeper layer of the skin. The seat of the injection in cattle is a fold of the skin on the under side of the base of the tail. In tubercular animals the injection is followed by a characteristic local swelling. [Illustration: FIG. 94.--A tubercular gland that is split open.] [Illustration: FIG. 95.--Caul showing tuberculosis.] [Illustration: FIG. 96.--Foot of hog showing tuberculosis of joint.] The control of tuberculosis is largely in the hands of the breeder and dairyman. This is a disease that requires the cooperation of stockmen and sanitary officers in the application of control measures. If there are several open cases of tuberculosis in a herd of cattle, the application of the tuberculin test, removal of the reacting animals and disinfection of the premises are not sufficient to eradicate the disease. It is necessary to repeat the tuberculin test within six months, and later at twelve-months intervals, until none of the animals that remain in the herd react. The most practical method of disposing of dairy cows that react to the tuberculin test is to slaughter them. Unless a large percentage of the herd is tubercular, it is not advisable to practise segregation and quarantine. This may be advisable if the reactor is a valuable breeding animal, unless visible symptoms are shown. The milk from reacting cows may be used if it is boiled or sterilized. Whenever a calf is born of a reactor, it should be separated from the mother and fed milk from a healthy cow. The separation of the tubercular from the healthy cows must be complete. Separate buildings, yards and pastures that do not join the quarters where the healthy animals are kept should be provided. The person attending the reactors should not attend the healthy animals, and separate forks, shovels, pails and other utensils should be provided for the two herds. The best method of controlling tuberculosis in hogs is to slaughter all reactors, disinfect yards and houses and move the herd. If the old quarters are free from filth and carefully disinfected, the hogs may be returned without danger of infection after six months. A retest of the herd should be made before returning them to the permanent quarters and the reactors slaughtered. QUESTIONS 1. Give the history of the early experimental work in tuberculosis; give the common methods of spreading the disease. 2. What are the symptoms and post-mortem lesions in tuberculosis? 3. Give the method of controlling tuberculosis. CHAPTER XXVIII INFECTIOUS DISEASES COMMON TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS SEPTICAEMIA AND PYAEMIA.--The term commonly used in speaking of simple septicaemia and pyaemia is blood poisoning. These infectious diseases are _caused_ by several different species of bacteria that gain entrance to the tissues by way of wounds. The bacteria that cause pyaemia are transferred by the blood stream to different organs and produce multiple abscesses. In septicaemia, the bacteria may occur in immense numbers in the blood and produce a general infection of the tissues, causing a parboiled appearance of the liver, heart, voluntary muscles and kidneys, and enlargement of the spleen. The two forms of infection are often present at the same time. [Illustration: FIG. 97.--_Staphylococcus pyogenes_.] [Illustration: FIG. 98.--_Streptococcus pyogenes_.] _The forms of bacteria_ that may cause blood poisoning are the _Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ and _albus_ (Fig. 97), _Streptococcus pyogenes_ (Fig. 98), _Bacillus pyocyaneus_, _Bacillus coli communis_, and the bacillus of malignant oedema (Figs. 99 and 100). The latter is included with the bacteria that produce blood poisoning because it is a frequent cause of wound septicaemia. Subcutaneous, punctured, lacerated, contused and deep wounds without suitable drainage are the most suitable for the development of and infection of the tissues with the above germs. Wound infection is most common during hot weather. _The symptoms are both general and local_. The tissues in the region of the wound become swollen and painful. In malignant oedema the swelling pits on pressure, and if the wound is open, the surface becomes soft and may slough. The body temperature may be several degrees above the normal, the appetite is impaired or the animal stops eating and acts sleepy. A small amount of highly-colored urine may be passed. Nervous symptoms, such as muscular twitching, excited condition, delirium and paralysis, may be noted. [Illustration: FIG. 99.--Bacillus of malignant oedema, showing spores.] [Illustration: FIG. 100.--Bacillus of malignant oedema.] _The prognosis is unfavorable_. In pyaemia the animal may live from a few days to several months. Septicaemia usually terminates fatally in from two to ten days. _The treatment is largely preventive_. Wounds should be given prompt attention. They should be freed from all foreign substances and washed with a disinfecting solution. A contused-lacerated wound should not be sutured if this interferes with the cleansing of it, and the escape of the wound secretions. All punctured wounds should be enlarged so as to permit of treatment and drainage. HEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA.--An acute infectious disease of ruminants and swine, characterized by hemorrhages in the different body tissues that appear as small red spots or blotches. _The specific cause of this disease_ is the _Bacillus bovisepticus_ (Fig. 101). This bacillus probably enters the body tissues by way of the lining membrane of the intestinal and respiratory tracts. In the northern States, cattle pasturing on marsh lands and swampy pastures are more often affected with the disease in the late summer and fall than at other seasons of the year. The drinking of contaminated surface water that collects in muddy pools and ponds may cause the disease. Cattle pasturing in stalk fields sometimes become infected in this way. Dusty sleeping quarters and small, crowded, muddy yards seem to favor the development of the disease in hogs. Exposure, insufficient exercise and careless feeding are the predisposing factors. [Illustration: FIG. 101.--_Bacillus bovisepticus_.] _The symptoms_ vary according to the animal and organ, or organs of the body affected and the violence of the attack. The disease may be acute or subacute. The brain and its membranes, lungs and air-passages and intestines may become affected. The symptoms may be classed under the head of nervous, respiratory and intestinal (Fig. 102), and they may be very unsatisfactory from the standpoint of diagnosis. The history and post-mortem lesions are of most value in the recognition of this disease. The local conditions, the loss of several animals in the herd and the finding of hemorrhagic lesions in the different body tissues may enable the examiner to correctly diagnose the disease. It is very advisable in order to confirm the diagnosis to make a bacteriological examination of the tissues. The acute form of the disease is very fatal. Animals that have the subacute form usually recover. The death-rate is between five and fifteen per cent of the herd. The mortality is heavier than this unless prompt preventive measures are taken. _Preventive treatment_ is of the greatest importance. Cattle that become affected when running on pasture should be moved, or in case a part of the pasture is swampy, we may prevent further loss by fencing off this portion. Drinking places that are convenient and free from filth should be provided. Watering troughs and drinking fountains should be cleaned and disinfected every few weeks. For this purpose, use a three per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant, or a ten per cent water solution of sulfate of iron. Dusty quarters should be cleaned and disinfected. Dirt floors may be sprinkled with crude oil. [Illustration: FIG. 102.--A yearling steer affected with septicaemia haemorrhagica, intestinal form.] When an outbreak of septicaemia haemorrhagica occurs in a herd, both the well and sick animals should be given a physic. Cattle may be given one-half pound of Epsom salts, repeated in three or four days; sheep and hogs from one to four ounces of raw linseed oil. Animals that have the subacute form of the disease may be given stimulants, and iron and bitter tonics. ANTHRAX, CHARBON.--This is an acute infectious disease affecting many different species of animals. Anthrax is one of the oldest animal diseases, and early in the history of the race it existed as a plague in Egypt. It most commonly affects cattle, sheep and horses. Man contracts the disease by handling wool and hides from animals that have died of anthrax, and by accidental inoculation in examining the carcass of animals that have died of the disease. _Cause_.--Anthrax is caused by a rod-shaped, spore-producing microorganism, _Bacillus anthracis_ (Fig. 103). It gains entrance to the body by way of the intestinal tract, lungs and air-passages and the skin. The bites of insects play an important part in the distribution of the disease in some localities, but the most common method of infection is by way of the digestive tract, through eating and drinking food and water contaminated with the anthrax germs. The spores of the _B. anthracis_ are very resistant to changes in temperature and drying. They may live for years in rich, moist inundated soils. River-bottom and swampy lands that have become infected with discharges from the bodies of animals sick with anthrax, and by burying the carcasses of animals that have died of this disease, retain the infection for many years. Anthrax is very widely distributed. It is the most prevalent in the southern portion of the United States, especially the lower portion of the Mississippi Valley. [Illustration: FIG. 103.--_Bacillus anthracis_.] _The symptoms vary in different cases_, depending on the organs affected, and the virulence and amount of virus introduced. The _apoplectic form_ is very acute. The disease sets in suddenly; the animal trembles, staggers, falls and dies in a convulsion. Blood may be discharged from the nose and with the urine and faeces. In the _abdominal form_, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, prolapse of the rectum, bloating and doughy swellings in the region of the abdomen occur. In the _thoracic form_, the symptoms are bloody discharge from the nostrils, salivation, rapid, difficult breathing and swelling in the region of the throat. Local or skin lesions may occur in conjunction with, or independent of, the above forms of disease. These are carbuncles one or two inches in diameter that are hot and tender at first, but later become gangrenous, diffused swellings. On post-mortem examination the blood is found tarry and dark, and bloody exudates may be found in the abdominal and thoracic cavities. The spleen is soft and two or three times larger than normal. The diagnosis should be confirmed by finding the _B. anthracis_ in the blood and tissues. The death-rate is very high, usually about seventy-five per cent. _The treatment is preventive._ Animals should be kept away from lots and pastures where deaths from anthrax have been known to occur, unless immunized against the disease. Marshy, swampy land that is infected with the germs of anthrax should be drained and cultivated. When an outbreak of the disease occurs, all of the animals should be vaccinated. The carcasses of the animals that die should be cremated at or near the place where they die. If hauled or dragged, the necessary precautions should be taken against scattering the infectious material from the carcass, and plenty of disinfectants used. Persons attending the animals should be warned against opening or handling the carcass without protecting the hands with rubber gloves. _Anthrax vaccine_ should not be used by incompetent persons. ULCERATIVE STOMATITIS. (ULCERATIVE SORE MOUTH.)--This is an infectious disease of young animals. Pigs from a few days to a few weeks of age are the most commonly affected. _The specific cause_ of ulcerative sore mouths is the _Bacillus necrophorus_ (Fig. 104). The infectious agent is distributed by the udder of the mother becoming soiled with filth from the stable floor and yards, and by affected pigs nursing mothers of healthy litters. Filth, sharp teeth and irritation to the gums from the eruption of the teeth are important predisposing factors. _The symptoms_ are, at first, an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the lips and cheeks and covering the gums. The inflamed parts are first swollen and a deep red color; later, white patches form and the part sloughs, leaving a deep ulcer. As ulceration progresses, difficulty in nursing increases until finally the young animal is unable to suckle. If ulceration of the mouth is extensive, the animal may be feverish, dull and lose flesh rapidly. Portions of the lips, gums and snout may slough off. The death-rate in pigs is very high. [Illustration: FIG. 104.--_Bacillus necrophorus_.] _The preventive treatment_ consists in keeping the quarters and yards in a sanitary condition, and using all possible precautions against the introduction of the disease into the herd. The diseased young and mother should be separated from the herd and the quarters disinfected daily. The mouths of all the young should be examined daily and the diseased animals treated. The ulcers should be scraped or curetted and cauterized with lunar caustic, and the mouth washed daily with a two per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant. Dipping pigs headforemost into a water solution of permanganate of potassium (one-half teaspoonful dissolved in a gallon of water), twice daily, may be practised if the herd is large. It is usually most economical to kill the badly diseased animals, as they usually die or become badly stunted. RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA.--Rabies is an infectious disease affecting the nervous system, that is transmitted by the bite of a rabid animal and the inoculation of the wound with the virus present in the saliva. It is commonly considered a disease of dogs, but because of the disposition of rabid dogs to bite other animals, rabies is common in domestic animals and man. Rabies is widely distributed, being most prevalent in the temperate zone, and where the population is most dense. It has been excluded from Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand by a rigid inspection and quarantine of all imported dogs. _The specific cause of rabies_ is probably a protozoan parasite (the Negri bodies present in nerve-cells, Fig. 105). The germ spreads from the wounds through the nerves and central nervous system. The disease-producing organisms are present in great numbers in the nerve-tissue and saliva. _The period of incubation_ varies from a few days to several months. It is usually from ten to seventy days. _The symptoms_ differ in the different species. There are two forms of the disease: the _furious_ and the _dumb_. The former is more common. [Illustration: FIG. 105.--Negri bodies in nerve-tissue.] _In the dog, the symptoms may be divided into three stages_. The first, or _melancholy stage_, usually lasts from twelve to forty-eight hours. The animal's behavior is altered and it becomes sullen, irritable and nervous. Sometimes it is friendly and inclined to lick the hand of its master. An inclination to gnaw or swallow indigestible objects is sometimes noted. Frequently a certain part of the skin is rubbed or licked. The second, or _furious stage_, may last several days. Violent nervous or rabid symptoms are manifested, and the dog may leave home and travel long distances. The animal usually shows a strong inclination to bite. It may move about snapping at imaginary objects in its delirium, and may bite any person or animal with which it comes in contact. The bark is peculiar, the appetite is lost and the animal becomes weak and emaciated. In the third, or _paralytic stage_, the dog may present an emaciated, dirty, ragged appearance. The lower jaw may drop, the tongue hangs from the lips and the eyes appear sunken and glassy. Paralysis of the hind parts may be present. _In the dumb form_, the paralytic symptoms predominate and the disease pursues a short course. Rabies terminates in death in from four to ten days. _Furious rabies_ is more common in the _horse_. The animal is very nervous, restless and alert. It may attack other animals in a vicious manner, kicking and biting them. The animal does not seem to care to eat or drink, and usually shows violent nervous symptoms, such as biting the manger, rearing and kicking when confined in the stable. _Cattle_ butt with the horns and show a tendency to lick other animals. They bellow more than common and the sexual desire is increased. Paralytic symptoms are manifested early in the disease, and the animal may fall when moving about. They soon present a gaunt, emaciated appearance. In dogs the diagnosis is confirmed by a _microscopical examination_ of the vagus ganglia and that portion of the brain known as Amnion's horn, and the finding of Negri bodies in the nerve-cells. In case a person is bitten by a dog, the animal should be confined until the disease is well advanced and killed or allowed to die. The head should then be removed and forwarded to the State laboratory, or wherever such examinations are made. _The treatment_ is preventive. Wherever an outbreak of rabies occurs all dogs should be confined on the owner's premises or muzzled. All dogs running at large without muzzles should be promptly killed. A heavy tax on dogs, and the killing of all dogs not wearing a license tag, would prevent the heavy financial loss resulting from rabies, and the ravages of wandering dogs in the United States. In countries where the muzzling of dogs is enforced during the entire year, rabies is a rare disease. FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.--This is a highly contagious and infectious disease of cattle, sheep, goats and swine. It is characterized by the eruption of vesicles on the mucous membrane lining the mouth, the lips, between and above the claws and in the region of the udder and perineum. Man may contract the disease by caring for sick animals; or by drinking raw milk from a sick cow. Babies are most susceptible to infection from milk. Foot-and-mouth disease was introduced into eastern Europe from the steppes of Prussia and Asia near the end of the eighteenth century. It was introduced into England about 1839, and in 1870 into Canada through the importation of cattle from England. From Canada the disease spread to the United States. Very few animals were infected during the 1870 outbreak, and the disease was quickly stamped out in both countries. Europe has been unable to eradicate foot-and-mouth disease. The different outbreaks that occur from time to time cause enormous financial loss. In the United States outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the following years: 1870, 1884, 1902-'03, 1908 and 1914-'15. In the first two outbreaks very few cattle contracted the disease, and the infection was quickly stamped out. The third and fourth outbreaks were more extensive, and it was necessary to slaughter several thousand cattle and hogs in order to eradicate the disease. The first four outbreaks occurred in the eastern States, and the disease was prevented from spreading to the principal live-stock centers of the country, and the leading stock-raising States by slaughtering the diseased and exposed animals and by county and State quarantines. Early in the 1914-'15 outbreak, the disease spread to the Chicago Stock Yards, and from there, through shipments of cattle, to the principal live-stock sections of the country. The financial loss resulting from this outbreak has amounted to several million dollars. The Federal and State authorities have always been successful in stamping out the disease in the United States. _The specific cause_ of foot-and-mouth disease is a filterable virus that is present in the serum from the vesicles, the saliva, milk, and various body secretions and excretions from the sick animal. In the early stage of the disease it is present in the blood. None of the many investigators have been able to discover the microorganism that produces the disease. Two of the outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in the United States originated from an infected vaccine used for the inoculation of vaccine heifers. The origin of the 1914-'15 outbreak has not been discovered. When introduced into a country, the disease spreads rapidly, through the movement of live-stock affected by the disease. Animals recently recovered may infect other animals. Dogs, birds, people, vehicles, milk, roughage, grains and other material from an infected farm may spread the disease. _The period of incubation is short_. Symptoms of disease may be manifested in from one to six days following exposure. [Illustration: FIG. 106.--A cow affected with foot-and-mouth disease. Note the accumulation of saliva about the lips. (From report of the Bureau of Animal Industry.)] _The first symptoms_ are fever, dulness, trembling and loss of appetite. This is followed by vesicles or blisters forming on the mucous membrane of the mouth, lips, between and above the claws and the region of the udder. The inflammation of the mouth and feet may be very painful. Long strings of saliva may dribble from the mouth and collect about the lips (Fig. 106). A smacking or "clucking" sound is produced when the animal moves its jaws and lips. The severe pain resulting from the inflammation of the mouth and feet, and the difficulty in moving about and eating and drinking, cause the animal to lose flesh and become emaciated. Milk cows may go dry. _The death-rate is not heavy_. Some writers place it as low as two or three per cent. Because of the erosions and sloughing of the tissues of the mouth, feet and udder it becomes necessary to kill many of the animals. Young animals frequently die of inflammation of the digestive tract. The immunity conferred by an attack of the disease is not permanent. [Illustration: FIG. 107.--Slaughtering a herd of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease. (Photographed by S. J. Craig, County Agricultural Agent, Crown Point, Indiana.)] The most economical measures of _prevention and control_ are to buy and slaughter all diseased and exposed animals, bury the carcasses in quicklime, disinfect the premises (Figs. 107, 108 and 109) and enforce a district, county and State quarantine, until after the infection has died out. This statement may not hold true of methods of control in countries where foot-and-mouth disease is widely distributed. TETANUS. LOCKJAW.--This is an acute infectious disease that is characterized by spasmodic contractions of voluntary muscles. The specific germ remains at the point of infection, and produces toxins that cause tetanic contractions of the muscles. It commonly affects horses, mules, cattle, sheep and swine. The disease is most common in warm, temperate climates. [Illustration: FIG. 108.--Disinfecting boots and coats before leaving a farm where cattle have been inspected for foot-and-mouth disease. (Photographed by S. J. Craig, County Agricultural Agent, Crown Point, Indiana.)] [Illustration: FIG. 109.--Cleaning up and disinfecting premises where an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease has occurred.] The _specific cause_ is a pin-shaped germ, the _Bacillus tetani_ (Fig. 110), that is present in the soil, especially those that are rich and well manured. The germ enters the body by way of a wound, especially punctured wounds. Infection may take place through some wound in the mucous membrane lining the mouth, or other parts of the digestive tract. Infection may follow a surgical operation, such as castration. In any case, the germ requires an absence of air (oxygen) for its development. _The period of incubation_ varies from one to two weeks, the length of time depending on the nearness of the wound to a large nerve trunk or brain. [Illustration: FIG. 110.--_Bacillus tetani_.] The first _symptom_ observed is a stiffness of the muscles, especially those nearest the point of inoculation or wound. The muscles of the head, neck, back and loins are often affected first, and when pressed upon with the fingers feel hard and rigid. The disease rapidly extends, producing spasms of other muscles of the body. In breathing, the ribs show less movement than normal, the head is held in one position and higher than usual, the ears are stiff or pricked, the nostrils dilated, the lips rigid or drawn back and the eyes retracted, causing the "third eyelid" to protrude over a portion of the eye (Fig. 111). In most cases the muscles of mastication and swallowing are affected. The animal may be unable to open its mouth and swallows with difficulty. When standing, the limbs are spread out so as to increase the base of support, and in acute cases about to terminate fatally, the pulse is quick and small and the respiration shallow, rapid and labored. The animal sweats profusely, falls down and struggles violently, but remains conscious to the end. [Illustration: FIG. 111.--Head of horse affected with tetanus, showing "third eyelid" protruding over the eye.] In the _subacute form_ (Fig. 112) the symptoms are mild, and the animal may be able to move about, eat and drink without very great effort. [Illustration: FIG. 112.--A subacute case of tetanus.] _Treatment_ is largely preventive. All wounds should be carefully disinfected. This is especially advisable in punctured wounds of the foot. In communities, or on premises where tetanus is a common disease, animals that have punctured or open wounds should be given a protective dose of tetanus antitoxin. _The curative treatment_ is largely good care. If a wound is present, it should be thoroughly disinfected. The animal may be supported by placing it in a sling. A comfortable box-stall, where the animal is not annoyed by noises or worried by other animals, is to be preferred. A fresh pail of water should be given the animal several times daily. _The course_ of the disease varies. Death may occur within a few days, or the disease may last two or three weeks. Animals that recover from tetanus may show symptoms of the disease for several weeks. The death-rate is highest in hot climates and during the summer months. If the animal can eat, it is not advisable to feed a heavy ration of roughage or grain. A very light diet of soft food, such as chops and bran-mash, prevents constipation and encourages recovery. Drugs that have a relaxing effect on the muscles may be given. Tetanus antitoxin may be given in large doses. QUESTIONS 1. What is septicaemia and pyaemia? 2. What is haemorrhagic septicaemia? Give methods of spreading and controlling this disease. 3. Give the cause of anthrax and symptoms. 4. What control measures are recommended in anthrax? 5. What is ulcerative sore mouth? Give the treatment. 6. Describe the symptoms occurring in rabies, and state the control measures recommended. 7. Name the species of animals affected by foot-and-mouth disease, and the countries where the disease is prevalent. 8. Give the methods of distribution and control of foot-and-mouth disease. 9. What is the specific cause and method of infection in tetanus? Give the treatment. CHAPTER XXIX INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF THE HORSE STRANGLES. DISTEMPER.--This is an acute infectious disease associated with a catarrhal condition of the air-passages and suppuration of the lymphatic glands in the region of the throat. Colts are the most susceptible to the disease. One attack renders the animal immune against a second attack of the disease, but the immunity is not always permanent. _The specific cause_, _Streptococcus equi_ (Fig. 113), was discovered by Schutz in 1888. Strangles is commonly spread by exposing susceptible animals to diseased animals, either by direct contact, or by exposing them to the infection in the stable and allowing them to drink or eat food from watering and feeding troughs on premises where the disease exists. The predisposing causes are cold and sudden changes in the weather. For this reason the disease is most prevalent during the late winter and early spring. [Illustration: FIG. 113.--Streptococcus of strangles.] _The period of incubation varies_, usually from four to eight days. _The symptoms_ at the beginning of the attack are a feverish condition and partial loss of appetite. The visible mucous membranes are red and dry. This is followed by watery nasal secretions that become heavy and purulent within a few days. The inflammation may extend to the larynx and pharynx. The glands in the region of the jaw become hot, swollen and painful, and the animal may be unable to eat or drink. The swelling and inflammation of the throat, and the heavy, pus-like secretions that accumulate in the nasal cavities, cause difficult respirations. After a few days the abscesses usually break, and the symptoms are less severe. If the abscesses break on the inside of the throat, the discharge from the nostrils is increased. The disease may be accompanied by an eruption of nodules, or vesicles on the skin, or nasal mucous membrane. In severe and chronic cases multiple abscesses may form. This complication is indicated by emaciation and weakness. Such cases usually terminate in death. Severe inflammation and swelling in the region of the throat may terminate in strangulation and death. The death-rate is from one to three per cent. _The preventive treatment_ consists in using all possible precautions to prevent the exposure of susceptible animals and practising the immunization of exposed animals. The curative treatment is principally careful nursing. Rest, a comfortable stall, nourishing feed and good care constitute the necessary treatment for the average case of distemper. When the abscesses become mature, they should be opened and washed with a disinfectant. Steaming the animal several times daily relieves difficult breathing and the irritated condition of the mucous membranes. In case the abscesses do not form promptly and the throat is badly swollen, a blistering ointment or liniment may be applied. Bitter and saline tonics, the same as recommended in the treatment of indigestion, may be given with the feed. INFLUENZA (CATARRHAL OR SHIPPING FEVER).--This is a well-known acute infectious disease of solipeds. It is characterized by depression, high body temperature and catarrhal inflammation of the respiratory and other mucous membranes. Several epidemics of influenza have occurred in the United States. The most serious epidemic occurred in the latter part of the '70's, and the last one in 1900-'01. Influenza is present in the principal horse centers in a somewhat attenuated form. _The specific cause_ of the disease has never been determined. The virus is present in the expired air, nasal secretions and excreta. Close proximity to a diseased animal is not necessary in order to contract the disease. Stables may harbor the infection, and it may be distributed by such disease carriers as blankets, harness, clothing of the attendant and dust. _The predisposing causes_ are cold, exposure and changes in climate. When the disease appears in a country, it is first present in the large cities, and from there it is scattered to the outlying districts. The _period of incubation_ is usually from four to seven days. _The early symptoms_ of the disease are a high fever, marked depression and partial or entire loss of appetite. The horse usually stands in the stall with the head down and appears sleepy. The visible and respiratory mucous membranes are inflamed, the respirations are quickened and the animal may cough. The eyes are frequently affected, the lids and cornea showing more or less inflammation. The digestive tract may be affected. At the beginning, colicky pains may be present and later constipation and diarrhoea. Symptoms of a serious nervous disturbance are sometimes manifested. The limbs usually become swollen or filled. This disappears as the animal begins to improve. Pregnant mares may abort. The death-rate is low. _The treatment required for the sick animals_ is largely rest, a light diet and a comfortable, clean, well-ventilated stall, free from draughts. Windows in the stall should be darkened. If the stable is cold, the body of the animal should be covered with a blanket and the limbs bandaged. Two ounces of alcohol and one drachm of quinine may be given three or four times daily. Small doses of raw linseed oil may be given if necessary. Horses that are exposed to cold, wet weather or worked after becoming sick, frequently suffer from pneumonia, pericarditis, gastro-enteritis and other diseases. Such complications should be given prompt treatment. It is very advisable to give a protective serum to horses that are shipped or transported long distances, and exposed to the disease in sale or transfer stables. GLANDERS, FARCY.--This is a contagious and infectious disease of solipeds that is characterized by the formation of nodules and ulcers on the skin, nasal mucous membrane and lungs. Although glanders is one of the oldest of animal diseases, it was not until 1868 that its contagious character was demonstrated. The disease is widely distributed. It became more prevalent in the United States after the Civil War. The vigorous control measures practised by the State and Federal health officers have greatly decreased the percentage of animals affected with glanders. At the present time the disease is more often met with in the large cities than in the agricultural sections of the country. [Illustration: FIG. 114.--_Bacillus mallei_.] _The specific cause of glanders is the Bacillus mallei_ (Fig. 114). This microorganism was discovered in 1882. It is present in the discharges from the nasal mucous membrane and the ulcers. These discharges may become deposited upon the feed troughs, mangers, stalls, harness, buckets, watering troughs, drinking fountains and attendants' hands and clothing. Healthy horses living in the same stable with the glandered animals may escape infection for months. It is usually the diseased animal's mate, or the one standing in an adjoining stall, that is first affected. Catarrhal diseases predispose animals to glanders, as the normal resistance of the mucous membranes is thereby reduced. The most common routes by which the germ enters the body are by way of the digestive and respiratory tracts. It may enter the body through the uninjured mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and genital organs, or through wounds of the skin. _The period of incubation_ may be from a few to many days. _The symptoms_ may be _acute_ or _chronic_ in nature. The _acute form_ pursues a rapid course. It is frequently seen in mules and asses, and it may develop from the subacute or chronic form in horses. When the disease is acute, the animal has a fever, is stupid, does not eat, and may have a diarrhoea. In this form the lymphatic glands suppurate, the animal loses flesh rapidly and dies in from one to two weeks. [Illustration: FIG. 115.--Nasal septum showing nodules and ulcers.] The _chronic form_ is the most common. It develops slowly and lasts for years. The early symptoms of the disease (chilling and fever) usually escape notice. The first visible symptom is a nasal discharge of a dirty white color from one or both nostrils. This is usually scanty at first, and intermittent, but later becomes quite abundant. The discharge is very sticky, and adheres to the hair and skin. The most frequent seat of the disease is in the respiratory organs, lymph glands and skin. Nodules and ulcers appear on the nasal mucous membrane (Fig. 115), but they may be so high up as to escape notice. The ulcers are very characteristic of the disease. They are angry looking, with ragged, raised margins, and when they heal leave a puckered scar. The submaxillary glands may be enlarged, and at first more or less hard and painful, but later they become nodular and adhere to the jaw or skin. Nodules and ulcers may form on the skin over the inferior wall of the abdomen and the inside of the hind limbs and are known as "farcy buds." Lymphatic vessels near these buds become swollen and hard. The animal loses flesh rapidly, does not withstand hard work, and the limbs usually swell. It is sometimes difficult to diagnose the disease. The ulcers on the nasal mucous membranes and elsewhere are very characteristic, and when present enable the examiner to form a diagnosis. In cases of doubt, a bacteriological examination of the nasal discharge may be made, or we may resort to one or several of the various diagnostic tests. The Mallein test is quite commonly used. The sterilized products of a culture of the _B. mallei_ are injected beneath the skin of the suspected animal. This causes a rise in body temperature and a hot, characteristic swelling at the point of injection in glandered animals. [Illustration: FIG. 116.--_Streptococcus pyogenes equi_.] _Treatment is not recommended_ at the present time. Nearly all of the States have laws which aim to stamp out the disease wherever found by killing all affected animals, and thoroughly disinfecting the stables, harness and everything which has been near the animal. Diseased animals should be carefully isolated until slaughtered, and all animals exposed to them should be subsequently tested for glanders. CONTAGIOUS PLEUROPNEUMONIA (STABLE PNEUMONIA).--This is an infectious disease of solipeds that usually results in a fatal inflammation of the lungs and pleural membrane. Many writers have described this disease as associated with influenza, but it is frequently seen as a separate disease, usually involving only the lungs and pleurae. It is prevalent in several parts of the United States, more particularly the horse centers or large markets, where it appears in the form of epidemics. In several of these localities it is known as western or stable fever. _The specific cause is not definitely known_. The _Streptococcus pyogenes equi_ (Fig. 116) is very commonly present. This germ grows in the diseased tissues. The disease is spread by direct or indirect contact, as when well or susceptible animals are placed in the same stable with an animal affected with the disease, or in stalls which have recently held diseased animals. _The period of incubation_ is from four to ten days following exposure. _The symptoms_ are those commonly seen at the beginning of an attack of simple pneumonia and pleurisy. They consist of chills, high fever, cough, depression, difficult and labored breathing and loss of appetite. The disease usually runs a course of from one to three weeks. The death-rate is thirty per cent or more. _The treatment_ is mainly preventive. Stables where horses having pleuropneumonia have been kept should be cleaned and disinfected by spraying the floors, stalls and walls with a four per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant. It is advisable to subject all newly-purchased animals to a short quarantine period before allowing them to mix with the other animals in the stable. Exposed animals may be given a protective serum. _The curative treatment_ is the same as recommended for the treatment of simple pneumonia and pleurisy. QUESTIONS 1. What is the specific cause of distemper? Give the symptoms and treatment. 2. What are the different methods of spreading influenza? Give the symptoms and treatment. 3. Give the cause and methods of controlling glanders. 4. Give the cause and treatment of contagious pleuropneumonia. CHAPTER XXX INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF CATTLE [Illustration: FIG. 117.--A case of "lumpy jaw."] ACTINOMYCOSIS, "LUMPY JAW."--This is an infectious disease that is characterized by the formation of tumors and abscesses (Fig. 117), and the destruction of the infected tissues. The disease is common in cattle and usually affects the bones and soft parts of the head. In the United States, where the disease is known as "lumpy jaw" the jawbone is commonly affected. In European countries the disease frequently involves the tongue, and the term "wooden tongue" is applied to it. The disease may affect regions of the body other than the head. Actinomycosis of the lungs sometimes occurs. Swine and horses may be affected by this disease. _The specific cause_ of actinomycosis is commonly known as the ray fungus (Fig. 118). This fungus grows on certain plants, and the animal usually contracts the disease by eating plants or roughage that have the fungus on them. Grasses having awns that are capable of wounding the mucous membrane of the mouth and penetrating the gums are most apt to produce the disease. Young cattle that are replacing and erupting their teeth are most prone to "lumpy jaw." Conditions that favor bruising of the jaw and external wounds favor the development of actinomycosis. The fungus grows in the tissues, causing an inflammatory reaction and destruction of the tissue. The ray fungus can be seen in the diseased tissue or the pus as yellowish, spherical bodies about the size of a grain of sand. Each of these bodies is formed by a large number of club-like bodies arranged about a central mass of filaments. [Illustration: FIG. 118.--The ray fungus.] _The local symptoms_ are characteristic (Fig. 117). The tumor may involve the soft tissues of the head. If the jawbone is affected the tumor feels hard and cannot be moved about. Sometimes it is soft and filled with pus. Tumors of long standing may possess uneven, nodular surfaces and fistulous openings. When the tongue is affected, it is swollen and painful, and prehension and mastication of the food may be impossible. When the pharynx is the seat of disease, breathing and swallowing are difficult and painful. Actinomycosis of the lungs may present the appearance of a chronic pulmonary affection. If the disease involves the head and lungs, the animal may become unthrifty and emaciated. In doubtful cases a microscopic examination of a piece of the tumor, or some of the pus, may be necessary. _The treatment is surgical and medicinal_. Small, external tumors may be removed by an operation. Sometimes an incision is made into the diseased tissue and a caustic preparation introduced. The most desirable method of treatment is the administration of large doses of iodide of potassium in a drench, or in the drinking water. The dose is from one to three drachms daily for a period of seven to fourteen days. The size of the dose depends on the size of the animal and its susceptibility to iodism. An animal weighing 1000 pounds may be given two drachms. The treatment is kept up until the symptoms of iodism develop. The condition is indicated by a loss of appetite and a catarrhal discharge from the eyes and nostrils. When this occurs, the treatment should be stopped, and the animal drenched with one-half pound of Epsom salts, and the dose repeated after three or four days. After an interval of two weeks, the iodide of potassium treatment should be repeated if the growth of the tumor is not checked. EMPHYSEMATOUS ANTHRAX, "BLACK LEG."--"Black leg" is an acute infectious disease of cattle that is characterized by lameness and superficial swellings in the region of the shoulder, quarter or neck. The swellings are hot and painful and usually contain gas. _The specific cause_ of "black leg" is a rod-shaped, spore-producing germ, the bacillus of emphysematous anthrax (Fig. 119). This germ possesses great vitality, and may live indefinitely in the soil. It has been known to live for years in clay and undrained soils. Young animals that are in high condition are predisposed to the disease. The germ enters the body through abrasions in the skin and mucous membrane of the mouth and intestines. "Black leg" is a common disease of young cattle in all sections of the country where cattle-raising is engaged in extensively. Outbreaks of the disease are most prevalent in the early spring after the snow has melted, and in the late summer in localities where cattle graze over the dried-up ponds and swampy places in the pasture. The germs of black leg may be carried from a farm where the disease is prevalent to non-infected premises by surface water. The opening up of drainage ditches through stock-raising communities may be followed by outbreaks of the disease. [Illustration: FIG. 119.--Bacillus of emphysematous anthrax.] _The symptoms_ of black leg develop quickly and may terminate fatally in a few hours. These are general dulness, stiffness, prostration and loss of appetite. Lameness is a prominent symptom. The animal may show a swelling in the regions of the shoulder and hindquarters or on other parts of the body. The swelling is very hot and painful at first, but if the animal lives for a time, it becomes less tender, crackles when pressed on and the skin may feel cold and leathery. Fever is a constant symptom. In the highly acute form of the disease nervous symptoms, such as convulsions and coma, occur. _The tissue changes_ in the region of the swelling are characteristic. An incision into the swelling shows a bloody, dark exudate and the surface of the muscular tissue is dark. Frothy, bloody liquid escapes from the mouth, nose and anus. _The preventive treatment_ consists in thoroughly draining pastures and yards where cattle run. This measure does not insure cattle against the disease. Cattle that die of "black leg" should be cremated. This should be done at the spot where the animal dies. If the carcass is moved or opened, the ground should be thoroughly wet with a four per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant and covered with lime. _Vaccination_ of the exposed or susceptible animals should be practised. On farms where the disease exists it may be necessary to vaccinate the young animals (less than two years of age) once or twice every year in order to prevent the disease. Medicinal treatment is unsatisfactory. TEXAS OR TICK FEVER.--Tick fever is an infectious disease of cattle. It is caused by an animal organism that is present in the blood, and is conveyed from the animal that is host for the tick fever parasite to the non-infected animal by a tick (Figs. 120 and 121). [Illustration: FIG. 120.--Cattle tick (male).] [Illustration: FIG. 121.--Cattle tick (female).] Tick fever was introduced into the southern portion of the United States through importation of cattle by the Spaniards. Previous to the establishing of a definite quarantine line between the permanently infected and the non-infected sections, heavy losses among northern cattle resulted through driving and shipping southern cattle through the northern States. The specific cause and the part taken by the tick in its distribution were not discovered until 1889-'90. Smith recognized and discovered the specific cause of the disease, and Kilborn and Salmon proved by a series of experiments that the cattle tick was responsible for the transmission of the disease from animal to animal. _The specific cause_ of tick fever is a protozoan parasite, _Piroplasma bigeminum_ (Fig. 122). It is present in the blood of cattle that are affected with this disease. The natural method of entrance into the body is through the bite of the cattle tick. The disease may be transmitted by inoculating blood containing the parasite into a susceptible animal. There are two forms of the disease, the _acute_ and _chronic_. _The symptoms of the acute form_ of the disease are a high fever, depression, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, dark or bloody urine, staggering gait and delirium. Death may occur within a few days from the time the first symptoms are manifested. _The symptoms of the chronic form_ of the disease resemble the acute form, but are more mild. The animal is unthrifty and loses flesh rapidly. The bloodless condition of the body is manifested by the pale, visible mucous membrane. Death seldom occurs. [Illustration: FIG. 122.--Blood-cells with _Piroplasma bigeminum_ in them.] The most characteristic _diseased changes_ found on post-mortem examination occur in the liver and spleen. The liver is enlarged, and a yellowish, mahogany-brown color. The gallbladder is filled with a very thick bile. The spleen may be several times the normal size and dark colored. When it is cut into, the pulpy tissue may resemble thick, dark blood. The kidneys are pale and the bladder may contain dark or reddish-colored urine. In the northern States and outside of the quarantined area, the direct or indirect exposure of the affected cattle to southern cattle, and the presence of the cattle tick, _Margarophus annulatus_, are sufficient evidence to confirm the diagnosis of this disease. _The prevention and control_ depend on destruction of the cattle tick. In the early history of the disease, shipping and driving of southern cattle into and through the northern States caused outbreaks of tick fever and heavy losses among northern cattle. This finally resulted in the locating of the infected district, and the establishment of the Texas-fever quarantine line in 1891 by Dr. D. E. Salmon. Previous to this time Kilborne and Salmon proved that the cattle tick was essential to the spread and production of the disease. A further study of the life history of the tick resulted in the discovery that it could not mature unless it became a parasite of horses, mules, or cattle. This has led to the eradication of the tick in certain sections of the South, by not allowing cattle access to a pasture or lot for a certain period, and by freeing the animals from ticks by hand-picking, dipping and smearing. The immunization of cattle that are shipped into an infected district for breeding purposes is often practised. Immunity is obtained by introducing the P. bigeminun into the blood, either by placing a few virulent young ticks upon the animal, or by repeated inoculation with a very small quantity of virulent blood. QUESTIONS 1. Give the cause and treatment of actinomycosis. 2. Give the cause and treatment of emphysematous anthrax. 3. Give the cause of tick fever; distribution of the disease and methods of control. CHAPTER XXXI INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY FOWL CHOLERA.--This is a highly infectious disease of all species of poultry, that is characterized by weakness, depression and yellowish colored excrement. The _specific cause_ of fowl cholera is the _Bacillus avisepticus_ (Fig. 123). This microorganism is transmitted to the healthy birds by the feed, or water becoming contaminated with the discharges from the diseased birds. According to Salmon, the period of incubating varies from four to twenty days. _The early symptoms_ are a falling off in appetite, high fever, dulness, diarrhoea and weakness. The affected bird becomes drowsy, the head is drawn toward the body, and it may remain asleep for long periods at a time. Salmon states that the general outline of the sick bird becomes spherical or ball-shaped. [Illustration: FIG. 123.--_Bacillus avisepticus_.] The disease is usually highly fatal. In the acute form the larger portion of the flock may die off within a week. In the subacute and chronic forms, the birds become greatly emaciated, and a few die off weekly through a period of a month or longer. _The tissue changes_ occurring in the disease are inflammation of all or a few of the internal organs. Ward states that the most characteristic lesion of fowl cholera is the severe inflammation of that portion of the small intestine nearest to the gizzard. Small hemorrhagic spots may be found on the heart and other organs. _The treatment is both preventive and curative_. The preventive treatment consists in quarantining newly purchased birds until we are satisfied that they are free from disease. The occasional disinfection of the poultry houses and runs is highly important. Cleaning the poultry house by removing the floor, roosts, or any part of the house for the purpose of removing all filth, and spraying the interior with a three per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant, should be practised. Lime should be scattered over the runs, or the yards immediately about the house. The above preventive measures form an important part of the care and management of the flock. The carcasses of the dead birds should be burned. It is advisable to kill all birds that are fatally sick. All of the flock should be given antiseptics with the feed and water. Four ounces of a water solution of copper sulfate, made by dissolving one-quarter pound of this drug in one gallon of hot water, may be added to each gallon of drinking water. Frequent disinfection of the drinking fountains, feeding places and houses should be practised. DISEASES RESEMBLING FOWL CHOLERA.--There are a few diseases, such as septicaemia, limber neck and infectious enteritis, that are sometimes mistaken for fowl cholera. These diseases are caused by different microorganisms that may be found in the digestive tract and air-passages of healthy birds, insanitary conditions and decomposed feed, especially meat. It seems that under certain conditions, such as insanitary quarters and birds that are low in constitutional vigor and weakened from other causes, certain germs may become disease-producers. The death rate from mixed infections is very heavy in poultry. _The symptoms_ vary in the different cases. The disease may be highly acute, as in limber neck, or chronic, extending over a period of a week or more. Diarrhoea is not a prominent symptom in the majority of cases. The post-mortem lesions vary from a hemorrhagic to a chronic inflammation of the different body organs and serous membranes. _The treatment_ is preventive. A frequent cleaning and disinfecting of the poultry house and surroundings, avoiding the feeding of spoiled feed, or allowing the drinking fountains and feeding places to become filthy, are effective preventive measures. Sick birds should be either isolated and quarantined, or destroyed. Antiseptics may be given with the feed and drinking water. AVIAN DIPHTHERIA (ROUP).--This infectious disease of poultry is especially common in chickens. It is characterized by a catarrhal and diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membranes of the head. _The specific cause of roup_ has not been determined. The disease-producing germs are present in the discharges from the nostrils, eyes and mouth, and the body excretions of sick birds. Birds having a mild form of roup, or that have recently recovered from it, are common carriers of the disease. The disease is usually introduced into the flock by allowing birds exposed at poultry shows, or recently purchased breeding stock from an infected flock, to mix with the healthy birds. _The predisposing causes_ are very important factors in the development of roup. Cold, damp, draughty, poorly ventilated poultry houses cause the disease to spread rapidly and become highly acute. _The symptoms_ differ in character in the different outbreaks of the disease. Usually the first symptoms noticed are sneezing, dulness, diminished appetite and a watery discharge from the nostrils and eyes. Later the eyelids may become swollen and the nostrils plugged by the discharge from the inflamed membranes. If the mouth is examined at this time, an accumulation of mucus and patches of diphtheritic or false membranes are found. In the acute form of roup the false membranes and yellowish, cheesy-like material accumulate on the different mucous membranes, and interfere with vision, breathing and digestion. The affected bird becomes thin and weak. The death rate is very high in this form of the disease. _The preventive treatment_ consists in quarantining birds that have been purchased from other flocks, and that have been exhibited, for a period of three weeks. A careful examination of the mouth should be made. If a catarrhal discharge from the nostrils and false membranes is present, prompt treatment should be used. A sick bird should be held in quarantine for several weeks after it has recovered, and receive a thorough washing in a two per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant before allowing it to mix with the healthy birds. The medicinal treatment consists in removing the discharges from the nostrils and eyes with pledgets of absorbent cotton that are soaked with a four per cent water solution of boric acid. Among the common treatments mentioned are boric acid and calomel, equal parts by weight, blown into the nostrils and eyes with a powder blower. Water solutions of boric acid, potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide are recommended. Liquid preparations are applied with pledgets of cotton, oil cans, or atomizers. Many recoveries can be obtained with careful treatment. It is usually most economical to kill the severely affected birds. Many poultrymen dispose of the entire flock as soon as the disease makes its appearance, and clean and disinfect the premises before restocking. CHICKENPOX.--In some sections the disease appears in another form, known as _chickenpox_ (contagious epithelioma), in which nodules form on the skin along the base of the comb and other parts of the head, or both forms may be met with in the same flock. The nodules should be treated with vaseline, or glycerine ointments containing two per cent of any of the common antiseptics or disinfectants. ENTERO-HEPATITIS. "BLACKHEAD."--This is a very fatal disease of young turkeys. Grown turkeys and other fowls are not so susceptible to the disease. It is characterized by an inflammation of the liver and intestines, especially the caeca. _The specific cause_ is a protozoan microorganism, _Amoeba meleagridis_. Adult fowls and turkeys may act as carriers of the germ, and the young turkeys become infected at an early period. _The symptoms_ are diminished or lost appetite, dulness, drooped wings, diarrhoea, weakness and death. When the disease becomes well advanced, the head and comb become dark. _The course of the disease_ is from a few weeks to three months. Very few of the young turkeys survive. _The treatment_ is almost entirely preventive. The same precautionary measures for the prevention of the introduction of disease into the flock, recommended in other infectious diseases, should be practised. Turkeys that survive should be disposed of. As chickens may harbor the disease-producing germs, we should not attempt to raise turkeys in the same quarters with them. Eggs should be obtained from disease-free flocks. Wiping the eggs with a cloth wet with fifty per cent alcohol may be practised. The same recommendations regarding the cleaning and disinfecting of the quarters described in the treatment of fowl cholera should be practised. If an outbreak of the disease occurs in the flock all of the sick birds should be killed, and their carcasses cremated. Moving the flock to fresh runs and the administration of intestinal antiseptics are the only effective lines of treatment. AVIAN TUBERCULOSIS.--Tuberculosis of poultry is a serious disease in some countries. Poultry usually contract tuberculosis by contact with a tubercular bird, and not from other domestic animals and man. _The symptoms_ are of a general character, such as emaciation, weakness, wasting of muscles and lameness. Tubercular growths may appear on the surface of the body. If we suspect the presence of the disease, it is advisable to kill one of the sick birds and make a careful examination. The finding of yellowish, white, cheesy nodules or masses in the liver, spleen, intestines and mesenteries is strong evidence of tuberculosis. A bacteriological examination of the tissues may be necessary in order to confirm the diagnosis. The same _methods of treatment_ as recommended in tuberculosis of other domestic animals may be used in eliminating the disease from the premises and flock. This consists in killing and cremating all birds showing visible symptoms, moving the apparently healthy portion of the flock to new quarters and wiping the eggs with alcohol. The old quarters should be cleaned, disinfected, and then allowed to stand empty for several months, when we should again spray with a disinfectant, and scatter lime over the runs. If the cleaning and disinfecting have been thorough, we may safely turn young or healthy birds into the old quarters. All possible precautions against carrying the infection to the healthy flock must be observed. QUESTIONS 1. Give the cause and treatment for fowl cholera. 2. What diseases resemble fowl cholera? Give the treatment. 3. Give the symptoms and treatment for roup. 4. Give the treatment for "blackhead." 5. Give the treatment for Avian tuberculosis. REFERENCE BOOKS Pathology and Therapeutics of the Diseases of Domestic Animals, Vol. I-II, Hutyra and Marek. Veterinary Medicine, Vol. I-V, Law. General Therapeutics for Veterinarians, Frohner. Prevention and Treatment of the Diseases of Domestic Animals, Winslow. Age of the Domestic Animals, Huidekoper. Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Winslow. Veterinary Anatomy, Sisson. Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy of Domestic Animals. Manual of Veterinary Physiology, Smith. Annual Reports of Bureau of Animal Industry, from 1902 to 1911. 
9478	----	[Illustration: THE SOUTHERN HOUND.] THE DOG, BY WILLIAM YOUATT. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS [Illustration: HEAD OF BLOODHOUND] EDITED, WITH ADDITIONS, BY E. J. LEWIS, M.D. Member of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia; of the Philadelphia Medical Society; of the Parisian Medical Society, &c. &c. 1852. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by LEA AND BLANCHARD, in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. * * * * * LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. THE SOUTHERN HOUND HEAD OF BLOODHOUND ANCIENT SCULPTURE OF GREYHOUNDS THE THIBET DOG THE DINGO, OR NEW HOLLAND DOG THE HARE INDIAN DOG THE DANISH, OR DALMATIAN DOG THE GREYHOUND THE GRECIAN GREYHOUND BLENHEIMS AND COCKERS THE WATER SPANIEL THE POODLE THE ALPINE SPANIEL, OR BERNARDINE DOG THE NEWFOUNDLAND DOG THE ESQUIMAUX DOG THE ENGLISH SHEEP DOG THE SCOTCH SHEEP DOG THE BEAGLE THE HARRIER THE FOX HOUND PLAN OF GOODWOOD KENNEL THE SETTER THE POINTER THE BULL-DOG THE MASTIFF THE SCOTCH TERRIER SKELETON OF THE DOG DOG'S HEAD CONFINED FOR AN OPERATION DOG'S EYE PREPARED FOR AN OPERATION TEETH OF THE DOG AT SEVEN DIFFERENT AGES * * * * * PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. The Editor, having been called upon by the American publishers of the present volume to see it through the press, and add such matter as he deemed likely to increase its value to the sportsman and the lover of dogs in this country, the more readily consented to undertake the task, as he had previously, during the intervals of leisure left by professional avocations, paid much attention to the diseases, breeding, rearing, and peculiarities of the canine race, with a view to the preparation of a volume on the subject. His design, however, being in a great measure superseded by the enlarged and valuable treatise of Mr. Youatt, whose name is a full guarantee as to the value of whatever he may give to the world, he found that not much remained to be added. Such points, however, as he thought might be improved, and such matter as appeared necessary to adapt the volume more especially to the wants of this country, he has introduced in the course of its pages. These additions, amounting to about sixty pages, will be found between brackets, with the initial of the Editor appended. He trusts they will not detract from the interest of the volume, while he hopes that its usefulness may be thereby somewhat increased. With this explanation of his connexion with the work, he leaves it in the hope that it may prove of value to the sportsman from its immediate relation to his stirring pursuits; to the general reader, from the large amount of curious information collected in its pages, which is almost inaccessible in any other form; and to the medical student, from the light it sheds on the pathology and diseases of the dog, by which he will be surprised to learn how many ills that animal shares in common with the human race. The editor will be satisfied with his agency in the publication of this volume, if it should be productive of a more extended love for this brave, devoted, and sagacious animal, and be the means of improving his lot of faithful servitude. It is with these views that the editor has occasionally turned from more immediate engagements to investigate his character, and seek the means of ameliorating his condition. PHILADELPHIA, October, 1846. * * * * * TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter I. The Early History and Zoological Classification of the Dog II. The Varieties of the Dog.--First Division III. The Varieties of the Dog.--Second Division IV. The Varieties of the Dog.--Third Division V. The Good Qualities of the Dog; the Sense of Smell; Intelligence; Moral Qualities; Dog-carts; Cropping; Tailing; Breaking-in; Dog-pits; Dog-stealing VI. Description of the Skeleton. Diseases of the Nervous System: Fits; Turnside; Epilepsy; Chorea; Rheumatism and Palsy VII. Rabies VIII. The Eye and its Diseases IX. The Ear and its Diseases X. Anatomy of the Nose and Mouth; and Diseases of the Nose and other parts of the Face. The Sense of Smell; the Tongue; the Lips; the Teeth; the Larynx; Bronchocele; Phlegmonous Tumour XI. Anatomy and Diseases of the Chest: the Diaphragm; the Pericardium; the Heart; Pleurisy; Pneumonia; Spasmodic Cough XII. Anatomy of the Gullet, Stomach, and Intestines: Tetanus; Enteritis; Peritonitis; Colic; Calculus in the Intestines; Intussusception; Diarrhoea; Dysentery; Costiveness; Dropsy; the Liver; Jaundice; the Spleen and Pancreas; Inflammation of the Kidney; Calculus; Inflammation of the Bladder; Rupture of the Bladder; Worms; Fistula in the Anus XIII. Bleeding; Torsion; Castration; Parturition; and some Diseases Connected with the Organs of Generation XIV. The Distemper XV. Small-pox; Mange; Warts; Cancer; Fungus Hæmotodes; Sore Feet XVI. Fractures XVII. Medicines used in the Treatment of the Diseases of the Dog Appendix. New Laws of Coursing Index. * * * * * THE DOG. CHAPTER I. THE EARLY HISTORY AND ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE DOG. The Dog, next to the human being, ranks highest in the scale of intelligence, and was evidently designed to be the companion and the friend of man. We exact the services of other animals, and, the task being performed, we dismiss them to their accustomed food and rest; but several of the varieties of the dog follow us to our home; they are connected with many of our pleasures and wants, and guard our sleeping hours. The first animal of the domestication of which we have any account, was the sheep. "Abel was a keeper of sheep." [1] It is difficult to believe that any long time would pass before the dog--who now, in every country of the world, is the companion of the shepherd, and the director or guardian of the sheep--would be enlisted in the service of man. From the earliest known history he was the protector of the habitation of the human being. At the feet of the 'lares', those household deities who were supposed to protect the abodes of men, the figure of a barking dog was often placed. In every age, and almost in every part of the globe, he has played a principal part in the labours, the dangers, and the pleasures of the chase. In process of time, man began to surround himself with many servants from among the lower animals, but among them all he had only one friend--the dog; one animal only whose service was voluntary, and who was susceptible of disinterested affection and gratitude. In every country, and in every time, there has existed between man and the dog a connection different from that which is observed between him and any other animal. The ox and the sheep submit to our control, but their affections are principally, if not solely, confined to themselves. They submit to us, but they can rarely be said to love, or even to recognise us, except as connected with the supply of their wants. The horse will share some of our pleasures. He enjoys the chase as much as does his rider; and, when contending for victory on the course, he feels the full influence of emulation. Remembering the pleasure he has experienced with his master, or the daily supply of food from the hand of the groom, he often exhibits evident tokens of recognition; but that is founded on a selfish principle--he neighs that he may be fed, and his affections are easily transferred. The dog is the only animal that is capable of disinterested affection. He is the only one that regards the human being as his companion, and follows him as his friend; the only one that seems to possess a natural desire to be useful to him, or from a spontaneous impulse attaches himself to man. We take the bridle from the mouth of the horse, and turn him free into the pasture, and he testifies his joy in his partially recovered liberty. We exact from the dog the service that is required of him, and he still follows us. He solicits to be continued as our companion and our friend. Many an expressive action tells us how much he is pleased and thankful. He shares in our abundance, and he is content with the scantiest and most humble fare. He loves us while living, and has been known to pine away on the grave of his master. [It is stated that the favourite lap-dog of Mary, Queen of Scots, that accompanied her to the scaffold, continued to caress the body after the head was cut off, and refused to relinquish his post till forcibly withdrawn, and afterwards died with grief in the course of a day or two. The following account is also an authentic instance of the inconsolable grief displayed by a small cur-dog at the death of his master:--A poor tailor in the parish of St. Olave, having died, was attended to the grave by his dog, who had expressed every token of sorrow from the instant of his master's death, and seemed unwilling to quit the corpse even for a moment. After the funeral had dispersed, the faithful animal took his station upon the grave, and was with great difficulty driven by the sexton from the church ground; on the following day he was again observed lying on the grave of his master, and was a second time expelled from the premises. Notwithstanding the harsh treatment received on several succeeding days by the hands of the sexton, this little creature would persist in occupying this position, and overcame every difficulty to gain access to the spot where all he held most dear was deposited. The minister of the parish, learning the circumstances of the case, ordered the dog to be carried to his house, where he was confined and fed for several days, in hopes of weaning him by kind treatment to forget his sorrow occasioned by the loss of his master. But all his benevolent efforts were of no utility, as the dog availed himself of the first opportunity to escape, and immediately repaired to his chosen spot over the grave. This worthy clergyman now allowed him to follow the bent of his own inclinations; and, as a recompense for true friendship and unfeigned sorrow, had a house built for him over this hallowed spot, and daily supplied him with food and water for the space of two years, during which time he never wandered from his post, but, as a faithful guardian, kept his lonely watch day and night, till death at last put an end to his sufferings, and laid him by the side of his long-expected master.--L.] As an animal of draught the dog is highly useful in some countries. What would become of the inhabitants of the northern regions, if the dog were not harnessed to the sledge, and the Laplander, and the Greenlander, and the Kamtschatkan drawn, and not unfrequently at the rate of nearly a hundred miles a day, over the snowy wastes? In Newfoundland, the timber, one of the most important articles of commerce, is drawn to the water-side by the docile but ill-used dog; and we need only to cross the British Channel in order to see how useful, and, generally speaking, how happy a beast of draught the dog can be. [Large mongrel dogs are very extensively used on the Continent in pulling small vehicles adapted to various purposes. In fact, most of the carts and wagons that enter Paris, or are employed in the city, have one of these animals attached to them by a short strap hanging from the axle-tree. This arrangement answers the double purpose of keeping off all intruders in the temporary absence of the master, and, by pushing himself forward in his collar, materially assists the horse in propelling a heavy load up-hill, or of carrying one speedily over a plain surface. It is quite astonishing to see how well broken to this work these dogs are, and at the same time to witness with what vigour and perseverance they labour in pushing before them, in that way, enormous weights.--L.] Though, in our country, and to its great disgrace, this employment of the dog has been accompanied by such wanton and shameful cruelty, that the Legislature--somewhat hastily confounding the abuse of a thing with its legitimate purpose--forbade the appearance of the dog-cart in the metropolitan districts, and were inclined to extend this prohibition through the whole kingdom, it is much to be desired that a kindlier and better feeling may gradually prevail, and that this animal, humanely treated, may return to the discharge of the services of which nature has rendered him capable, and which prove the greatest source of happiness to him while discharging them to the best of his power. In another and very important particular,--as the preserver of human life,--the history of the dog will be most interesting. The writer of this work has seen a Newfoundland dog who, on five distinct occasions, preserved the life of a human being; and it is said of the noble quadruped whose remains constitute one of the most interesting specimens in the museum of Berne, that forty persons were rescued by him from impending destruction. When this friend and servant of man dies, he does not or may not cease to be useful; for in many countries, and to a far greater extent than is generally imagined, his skin is useful for gloves, or leggings, or mats, or hammercloths; and, while even the Romans occasionally fattened him for the table, and esteemed his flesh a dainty, many thousands of people in Asia, Africa, and America, now breed him expressly for food. If the publication of the present work should throw some additional light on the good qualities of this noble animal; if it should enable us to derive more advantage from the services that he can render--to train him more expeditiously and fully for the discharge of those services--to protect him from the abuses to which he is exposed, and to mitigate or remove some of the diseases which his connection with man has entailed upon him; if any of these purposes be accomplished, we shall derive considerable "useful knowledge" as well as pleasure from the perusal of the present volume. Some controversy has arisen with regard to the origin of the dog. Professor Thomas Bell, to whom we are indebted for a truly valuable history of the British quadrupeds, traces him to the wolf. He says, and it is perfectly true, that the osteology of the wolf does not differ materially from that of the dog more than that of the different kinds of dogs differs; that the cranium is similar, and they agree in nearly all the other essential points; that the dog and wolf will readily breed with each other, and that their progeny, thus obtained, will again mingle with the dog. [The relative length of the intestines is a strong distinctive mark both as to the habits and species of animals; those of a purely carnivorous nature are much shorter than others who resort entirely to an herbaceous diet, or combine the two modes of sustenance according to circumstances. The dog and wolf have the intestines of the same length. (See Sir Everard Home on Comparative Anatomy.)--L.] There is one circumstance, however, which seems to mark a decided difference between the two animals; the eye of the dog of every country and species has a circular pupil, but the position or form of the pupil is oblique in the wolf. Professor Bell gives an ingenious but not admissible reason for this. He attributes the forward direction of the eyes in the dog to the constant habit, "for many successive generations, of looking towards their master, and obeying his voice:" but no habit of this kind could by possibility produce any such effect. It should also be remembered that, in every part of the globe in which the wolf is found this form of the pupil, and a peculiar setting on of the curve of the tail, and a singularity in the voice, cannot fail of being observed; to which may be added, that the dog exists in every latitude and in every climate, while the habitation of the wolf is confined to certain parts of the globe. There is also a marked difference in the temper and habits of the two. The dog is, generally speaking, easily manageable, but nothing will, in the majority of cases, render the wolf moderately tractable. There are, however, exceptions to this. The author remembers a bitch wolf at the Zoological Gardens that would always come to the front bars of her den to be caressed as soon as any one that she knew approached. She had puppies while there, and she brought her little ones in her mouth to be noticed by the spectators; so eager, indeed, was she that they should share with her in the notice of her friends, that she killed them all in succession against the bars of her den as she brought them forcibly forward to be fondled. M.F. Cuvier gives an account of a young wolf who followed his master everywhere, and showed a degree of affection and submission scarcely inferior to the domesticated dog. His master being unavoidably absent, he was sent to the menagerie, where he pined for his loss, and would scarcely take any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he attached himself to his keepers, and appeared to have forgotten his former associate. At the expiration of eighteen months his master returned, and, the moment his voice was heard, the wolf recognised him, and lavished on his old friend the most affectionate caresses. A second separation followed, which lasted three years, and again the long-remembered voice was recognised, and replied to with impatient cries; after which, rushing on his master, he licked his face with every mark of joy, menacing his keepers, towards whom he had just before been exhibiting fondness. A third separation occurred, and he became gloomy and melancholy. He suffered the caresses of none but his keepers, and towards them he often manifested the original ferocity of his species. These stories, however, go only a little way to prove that the dog and the wolf have one common origin. [There are some naturalists that even go so far as to state that the different varieties of dogs are sprung from, or compounded of, various animals, as the hyaena, jackal, wolf, and fox. The philosophic John Hunter commenced a series of experiments upon this interesting subject, and was forced to acknowledge that "the dog may be the wolf tamed, and the jackal may probably be the dog returned to his wild state." The ancient Cynegetical writers were not only acquainted with the cross between the wolf and dog, but also boasted the possession of breeds of animals, supposed to have been derived from a connection with the lion and tiger. The Hyrcanian dog, although savage and powerful beast, was rendered much more formidable in battle, or in conflict with other animals, by his fabled cross with the tiger. In corroboration of this singular, but not less fabulous belief, Pliny states that the inhabitants of India take pleasure in having dog bitches lined by the wild tigers, and to facilitate this union, they are in the habit of tieing them when in heat out in the woods, so that the male tigers may visit them. (See L. 8, c. xl.) There is, however, but little doubt that the wolf and dog are varieties of the same family, as they can he bred together, and their offspring continuing the cross thus formed, will produce a race quite distinct from the original. French writers do not hesitate at all upon this point, but even assert that it is very difficult to take a she-wolf with male dogs during the period of oestrum, parceque la veulent saillir et covrir comme une chienne. Baudrillart, in the "dictionaire des chasses," further remarks that the mongrels produced by this connection are very viciously disposed and inclined to bite. The period of utero-gestation, and the particular mode of copulation in the wolf, is the same as that of the canine family, which two circumstances are certainly very strong presumptive evidences of the similarity of the species. The dogs used by our northern Indians resemble very much, in their general appearance, the wolves of that region, and do not seem very far removed from that race of animals, notwithstanding they have been in a state of captivity, or domestication, beyond the traditionary chronicles of this rude people. Another strong circumstance in favour of the common origin of these two quadrupeds, is the existence in our own country of the Canis Latrans, or prairie wolf, who whines and barks in a manner so similar to the smaller varieties of dogs, that it is almost impossible to distinguish his notes from those of the terrier. Major Long remarks that "this animal which does not seem to be known to naturalists, unless it should prove to be the Mexicanus, is most probably the original of the domestic dog, so common in the villages of the Indians of this region, some of the varieties of which still remain much of the habit and manners of this species." (Vol. i, page 174.) If further proof be necessary to establish the identity of the dog and wolf, the circumstances related by Captain Parry in his first voyage of discovery, ought to be sufficient to convince every mind that the wolf, even in its wild state, will seek to form an alliance or connection with one of our domestic dogs. "About this time it had been remarked that a white setter dog, belonging to Mr. Beverly, had left the Griper for several nights past at the same time, and had regularly returned after some hours absence. As the daylight increased we had frequent opportunities of seeing him in company with a she-wolf, with whom he kept up an almost daily intercourse for several weeks, till at length he returned no more to the ships; having either lost his way by rambling to too great a distance, or what is more likely, perhaps, been destroyed by the male wolves. Some time after a large dog of mine, which was also getting into the habit of occasionally remaining absent for some time, returned on board a good deal lacerated and covered with blood, having, no doubt, maintained a severe encounter with a male wolf, whom we traced to a considerable distance by the tracks on the snow. An old dog, of the Newfoundland breed, that we had on board the Hecla, was also in the habit of remaining out with the wolves for a day or two together, and we frequently watched them keeping company on the most friendly terms." (Page 136, 1st voyage.) [In volume 1st, page 111, of the Menageries, it is stated that Mr. Wombwell exhibited in October, 1828, two animals from a cross between the wolf and the domestic dog, which had been bred in that country. They were confined in the same den with a female setter, and were likely again to multiply the species. Mr. Daniel remarks that Mr. Brook, famous for his menagerie, turned a wolf to a Pomeranian bitch at heat; the congress was immediate, and, as usual between the dog and bitch, ten puppies were the produce. These animals strongly resembled their sire both in appearance and disposition, and one of them being let loose at a deer, instantly caught at the animal's throat and killed it. (See Daniel's Rural Sports, vol. i, page 14.)--L.] It may appear singular that in both the Old Testament and the New the dog was spoken of almost with abhorrence. He ranked among the unclean beasts. The traffic in him and the price of him were considered as an abomination, and were forbidden to be offered in the sanctuary in the discharge of any vow. [2] One grand object in the institution of the Jewish ritual was to preserve the Israelites from the idolatry which at that time prevailed among every other people. Dogs were held in considerable veneration by the Egyptians, from whose tyranny the Israelites had just escaped. Figures of them appeared on the friezes of most of the temples, [3] and they were regarded as emblems of the Divine Being. Herodotus, speaking of the sanctity in which some animals were held by the Egyptians, says that the people of every family in which a dog died, shaved themselves--their expression of mourning--and he adds, that "this was a custom existing in his own time." [4] The cause of this attachment to and veneration for the dog is, however, explained in a far more probable and pleasing way than many of the fables of ancient mythology. The prosperity of Lower Egypt, and almost the very subsistence of its inhabitants, depended on the annual overflowing of the Nile; and they looked for it with the utmost anxiety. Its approach was announced by the appearance of a certain star--SIRIUS. As soon as that star was seen above the horizon, they hastened to remove their flocks to the higher ground, and abandoned the lower pastures to the fertilizing influence of the stream. They hailed it as their guard and protector; and, associating with its apparent watchfulness the well-known fidelity of the dog, they called it the "dog-star," and they worshipped it. It was in far later periods and in other countries that the appearance of the dog-star was regarded as the signal of insufferable heat or prevalent disease. One of the Egyptian deities--Anubis--is described as having the form and body of a man, but with a dog's head. These were types of sagacity and fidelity. ["Who knows not that infatuate Egypt finds Gods to adore in brutes of basest kinds? This at the crocodile's resentment quakes, While that adores the ibis, gorged with snakes! And where the radiant beam of morning rings On shattered Memnon's still harmonious strings; And Thebes to ruin all her gates resigns, Of huge baboon the golden image shines! To _mongrel curs_ infatuate cities bow, And cats and fishes share the frequent vow!" Juvenal, 'Sat. xv'.--Badham's Trans.--L.] In Ethiopia, not only was great veneration paid to the dog, but the inhabitants used to elect a dog as their king. He was kept in great state, and surrounded by a numerous train of officers and guards. When he fawned upon them, he was supposed to be pleased with their proceedings: when he growled, he disapproved of the manner in which their government was conducted. These indications of his will were implicitly obeyed, or rather, perhaps, dictated. [Among the many strange and wonderful things mentioned by Pliny as being discovered in Africa, is a people called Ptoembati or Ptremphanae, whose principal city is Aruspi, where they elect a dog for their king and obey him most religiously, being governed entirely by the different motions of his body, which they interpret according to certain signs. (See Pliny, lib. vi, c. xxx.)--L.] Even a thousand years after this period the dog was highly esteemed in Egypt for its sagacity and other excellent qualities; for, when Pythagoras, after his return from Egypt, founded a new sect in Greece, and at Croton, in southern Italy, he taught, with the Egyptian philosophers, that, at the death of the body, the soul entered into that of different animals. He used, after the decease of any of his favourite disciples, to cause a dog to be held to the mouth of the dying man, in order to receive his departing spirit; saying, that there was no animal that could perpetuate his virtues better than that quadruped. It was in order to present the Israelites from errors and follies like these, and to prevent the possibility of this species of idolatry being established, that the dog was afterward regarded with utter abhorrence among the Jews. [5] This feeling prevailed during the continuance of the Israelites in Palestine. Even in the New Testament the Apostle warns those to whom he wrote to "beware of dogs and evil-workers;" [6] and it is said in The Revelations that "without are dogs and sorcerers," &c. [7] Dogs were, however, employed even by the Jews. Job says, "Now they that are younger than I have me in derision, whose fathers I would have disdained to have set with the dogs of my flock." [8] Dogs were employed either to guide the sheep or to protect them from wild beasts; and some prowled about the streets at night, contending with each other for the offal that was thrown away. To a certain degree this dislike of the dog continues to the present day; for, with few exceptions, the dog is seldom the chosen companion of the Jew, or even the inmate of his house. Nor was it originally confined to Palestine. Wherever a knowledge of the Jewish religion spread, or any of its traditions were believed, there arose an abhorrence of the dog. The Mohammedans have always regarded him as an unclean animal, that should never be cherished in any human habitation--belonging to no particular owner, but protecting the street [9] and the district rather than the house of a master. The Hindoos regard him likewise as unclean, and submit to various purifications if they accidentally come in contact with him, believing that every dog was animated by a wicked and malignant spirit, condemned to do penance in that form for crimes committed in a previous state of existence. If by chance a dog passed between a teacher and his pupil during the period of instruction, it was supposed that the best lesson would be completely poisoned, and it was deemed prudent to suspend the tuition for at least a day and a night. Even in Egypt, dogs are now as much avoided as they were venerated. In every Mohammedan and Hindoo country, the most scurrilous epithet bestowed on a European or a Christian is--"a dog!" [10] This accounts for the singular fact that in the whole of the Jewish history there is not a single allusion to hunting with dogs. Mention is made of nets and snares, but the dog seems to have been never used in the pursuit of game. In the early periods of the history of other countries this seems to have been the case even where the dog was esteemed and valued, and had become the companion, the friend, and the defender of man and his home. So late as the second century of the Christian era, the fair hunting of the present day needed the eloquent defence of Arrian, who says that "there is as much difference between a fair trial of speed in a good run, and ensnaring a poor animal without an effort, as between the secret piratical assaults of robbers at sea, and the victorious naval engagements of the Athenians at Artemisium and at Salamis." [11] The first hint of the employment of the dog in the pursuit of other animals is given by Oppian in his Cynegeticus, who attributes it to Pollux, about 200 years after the promulgation of the Levitical law. Of the precise species of dog that prevailed or was cultivated in Greece at this early period, little can with certainty be affirmed. One beautiful piece of sculpture has been preserved, and is now in the possession of Lord Feversham at Duncombe Hall. It is said to represent the favourite dog of Alcibiades, and to have been the production of Myson, one of the most skillful artists of ancient times. It differs but little from the Newfoundland dog of the present day. He is represented as sitting on his haunches, and earnestly looking at his master. Any one would vouch for the sagacity and fidelity of that animal. The British Museum contains a group of greyhound puppies of more recent date, from the ruins of the villa of Antoninus, near Rome. One is fondling the other; and the attitude of both, and the characteristic puppy-clumsiness of their limbs, which indicate, nevertheless, the beautiful proportions that will soon be developed, are an admirable specimen of ancient art. [Illustration of ancient sculpture of greyhounds] The Greeks, in the earlier periods of their history, depended too much on their nets; and it was not until later times that they pursued their prey with dogs, and then not with dogs that ran by sight, or succeeded by their swiftness of foot, but by beagles very little superior to those of modern days [12]. Of the stronger and more ferocious dogs there is, however, occasional mention. The bull-dog of modern date does not excel the one (possibly of nearly the same race) that was presented to Alexander the Great, and that boldly seized a ferocious lion, or another that would not quit his hold, although one leg and then another was cut off. It would be difficult and foreign to the object of this work fully to trace the early history of the dog. Both in Greece and in Rome he was highly estimated. Alexander built a city in honour of a dog; and the Emperor Hadrian decreed the most solemn rites of sepulture to another on account of his sagacity and fidelity. The translator of Arrian imagines that the use of the 'pugnaces' (fighting) and the 'sagaces' (intelligent)--the more ferocious dogs, and those who artfully circumvented and caught their prey--was known in the earlier periods of Greek and Roman history, but that the 'celeres', the dogs of speed, the greyhounds of every kind, were peculiar to the British islands, or to the western and northern continents of Europe, the interior and the produce of which were in those days unknown to the Greeks and Romans. By most authors who have inquired into the origin of these varieties of the dog, the 'sagaces' have been generally assigned to Greece--the 'pugnaces' to Asia--and the 'celeres' to the Celtic nations. [The vertragi, 'canes celeres', or dogs that hunted by sight alone, were not known to the ancients previous to the time of the younger Xenophon, who then describes them as novelties just introduced into Greece: "But the swift-footed Celtic hounds are called in the Celtic tongue [Greek: ouéztragoi]; not deriving their name from any particular nation, like the Cretan, Carian, or Spartan dogs, but, as some of the Cretans are named [Greek: diaponoi] from working hard, [Greek: itamai] from their keenness, and mongrels from their being compounded of both, so these Celts are named from their swiftness. In figure, the most high-bred are a prodigy of beauty; their eyes, their hair, their colour, and bodily shape throughout. Such brilliancy of gloss is there about the spottiness of the parti-coloured, and in those of uniform colour, such glistening over the sameness of tint, as to afford a most delightful spectacle to an amateur of coursing." It is probable these dogs were carried, about this time, into the southern parts of Europe by the various tribes of Celts who over-ran the continent, and also occupied Ireland, Britain, and the other western islands, and ultimately took possession of Gaul.--L.] Of the aboriginal country of the latter there can be little doubt; but the accounts that are given of the English mastiff at the invasion of Britain by the Romans, and the early history of the English hound, which was once peculiar to this country, and at the present day degenerates in every other, would go far to prove that these breeds also are indigenous to our island. Oppian thus describes the hunting dog as he finds him in Britain: "There is, besides, an excellent kind of scenting dogs, though small, yet worthy of estimation. They are fed by the fierce nation of painted Britons, who call them 'agasoei'. In size they resemble worthless greedy house-dogs that gape under tables. They are crooked, lean, coarse-haired, and heavy-eyed, but armed with powerful claws and deadly teeth. The 'agasoeus' is of good nose and most excellent in following scent [13]." Among the savage dogs of ancient times were the Hyrcanian, said, on account of their extreme ferocity, to have been crossed with the tiger [14],--the Locrian, chiefly employed in hunting the boar,--the Pannonian, used in war as well as in the chase, and by whom the first charge on the enemy was always made,--and the Molossian, of Epirus, likewise trained to war as well as to the honours of the amphitheatre and the dangers of the chase. This last breed had one redeeming quality--an inviolable attachment to their owners. This attachment was reciprocal; for it is said that the Molossi used to weep over their faithful quadruped companions slain in war. [Of all the dogs of the ancients, those bred on the continent of Epirus were the most esteemed, and more particularly those from a southern district called Molossia, from which they received their name. These animals are described as being of enormous size, great courage and powerful make, and were considered worthy not only to encounter the wolf, bear, and boar, but often overcame the panther, tiger, and lion, both in the chase and amphitheatre. They also, being trained to war, proved themselves most useful auxiliaries to this martial people. The learned translator of Arrian states that "the fabled origin of this breed is consistent with its high repute; for, on the authority of Nicander, we are told by Julius Pollux, that the Epirote was descended from the brazen dog which Vulcan wrought for Jupiter, and animated with all the functions of canine life." These were not the only dogs fashioned by the skilful hands of the Olympic artist, as we find Alcinous, king of the Phaeacians, possessing golden dogs also wrought at the celestial forge. Pliny states that a dog of enormous magnitude was sent as a present by the king of Albania to Alexander the Great when on his march to India; and "that this monarch being delighted at the sight of so huge and fair a dog, let loose unto him first bears, then wild boars, and lastly fallow deer, all of which animals he took no notice of, but remained perfectly unconcerned. This great warrior being a man of high spirit and wonderful courage, was greatly displeased at the apparent cowardice and want of energy in so powerful an animal, and ordered him to be slain. This news was speedily carried to the king of Albania, who thereupon sent unto him a second dog, stating that he should not make trial of his courage with such insignificant animals, but rather with a lion or elephant, and if he destroyed this one also, he need not expect to obtain any other of this breed, as these two were all he possessed. Tanta: suis petiere ultra fera semina sylvis, Dat Venus accessus, et blando foedere jungit. Tunc et mansuetis tuto ferus erat adulter In stabulis, ultroque gravis succedere tigrim Ausa canis, majore tulit de sanguine foetum. 'Gratii Falisci Cyneget.,' liv. 1. v. 160. Alexander being much surprised, made immediate preparations for a trial, and soon saw the lion prostrate, with his back broken, and his body torn in pieces by the noble dog. Then he ordered an elephant to be produced; and in no fight did he take more pleasure than in this. For the dog, with his long, rough, shaggy hair, that covered his whole body, rushed with open mouth, barking terribly, and thundering, as it were, upon the elephant. Soon after he leaps and flies upon him, advancing and retreating, now on one side, now on the other, maintaining an ingenious combat; at one time assailing him with all vigour, at another shunning him. So actively did he continue this artificial warfare, causing the huge beast to turn around so frequently on every side to avoid his attacks, that he ultimately came down with a crash that "made the earth tremble with his fall". Book viii. chap. 40. The Molossian dogs were at a later period much esteemed by the Romans as watch dogs, not only of their dwellings, but also to guard their flocks against the incursions of wild animals. Horace, in the following lines, passes a just tribute to the worth of this animal, when referring to his watchfulness, and the ardour with which he pursues those wild animals, even 'per altas nives,' that threaten the flocks entrusted to his care. "Quid immerentes, hospites vexas canis, Ignarus adversum lupos? Quin huc inanes, si potes, vertis minas, Et me remorsurum petis? Nam, qualis aut Molossus, aut fulvus Lacon, Amica vis pastoribus, Agam per altas aure sublatâ nives, Quaecunpue praecedet fera." 'Epode' vi.--L.] Ælian relates that one of them, and his owner, so much distinguished themselves at the battle of Marathon, that the effigy of the dog was placed on the same tablet with that of his master. Soon after Britain was discovered, the 'pugnaces' of Epirus were pitted against those of our island, and, according to the testimony of Gratius, completely beaten. A variety of this class, but as large and as ferocious, was employed to guard the sheep and cattle, or to watch at the door of the house, or to follow the owner on any excursion of business or of pleasure. Gratius says of these dogs, that they have no pretensions to the deceitful commendation of form; but, at the time of need, when courage is required of them, most excellent mastiffs are not to be preferred to them. The account of the British 'pugnaces' of former times, and also of the 'sagaces' and 'celeres', will be best given when treating of their present state and comparative value. In describing the different breeds of dogs, some anecdotes will be related of their sagacity and fidelity; a few previous remarks, however, may be admissible. A young man lost his life by falling from one of the precipices of the Helvellyn mountains. Three months afterwards his remains were discovered at the bottom of a ravine, and his faithful dog, almost a skeleton, still guarding them. Sir Walter Scott beautifully describes the scene: Dark-green was the spot, 'mid the brown mountain heather, Where the pilgrim of nature lay stretched in decay; Like the corpse of an outcast, abandoned to weather, Till the mountain winds wasted the tenantless clay; Nor yet quite deserted, though lonely extended, For, faithful in death, his mute favourite attended, The much loved remains of her master defended, And chased the hill-fox and the raven away. How long didst thou think that his silence was slumber? When the wind waved his garments, how oft didst thou start? How many long days and long weeks didst thou number Ere he faded before thee, the friend of thy heart? Burchell, in his Travels in Africa, places the connexion between man and the dog, and the good qualities of this animal, in an interesting point of view. A pack of dogs of various descriptions formed a necessary part of his caravan, occasionally to provide him with food, but oftener to defend him from wild beasts or robbers. "While almost every other quadruped fears man as his most formidable enemy," says this interesting traveller, "there is one who regards him as his companion, and follows him as his friend. We must not mistake the nature of the case. It is not because we train him to our use, and have made choice of him in preference to other animals, but because this particular species of animal feels a natural desire to be useful to man, and, from spontaneous impulse, attaches himself to him. Were it not so, we should see in various countries an equal familiarity with other quadrupeds, according to their habits, and the taste or caprices of different nations; but, everywhere, it is the dog only that takes delight in associating with us, and in sharing our abode. It is he who knows us personally, watches over us, and warns us of danger. It is impossible for the naturalist not to feel a conviction that this friendship between creatures so different from each other must be the result of the laws of nature; nor can the humane and feeling mind avoid the belief that kindness to those animals, from which he derives continued and essential assistance, is part of the moral duty of man. "Often in the silence of the night, when all my people have been fast asleep around the fire, have I stood to contemplate these faithful animals watching by their side, and have learned to esteem them for their social inclination towards mankind. When, wandering over pathless deserts, oppressed with vexation and distress at the conduct of my own men, I have turned to these as my only friends, and felt how much inferior to them was man when actuated only by selfish views." Of the stanchness and incorruptible fidelity of the dog, and his disregard of personal inconvenience and want, when employed in our service, it is impossible to entertain a doubt. We have sometimes thought that the attachment of the dog to its master was increased, or, at least, the exhibition of it, by the penury of the owner. At all events one fact is plain enough, that, while poverty drives away from us many a companion of our happier hours, it was never known to diminish the love of our quadruped friend. The early history of the dog has been described, and the abomination in which he was held by the Israelites. At no great distance of time, however, we find him, almost in the neighbourhood of Palestine, in one of the islands of the Ionian Sea, the companion and the friend of princes, and deserving their regard. The reader will forgive a somewhat abbreviated account of the last meeting of Ulysses and his dog. Twenty years had passed since Argus, the favourite dog of Ulysses, had been parted from his master. The monarch at length wended his way homewards, and, disguised as a beggar, for his life would have been sacrificed had he been known, stood at the entrance of his palace-door. There he met with an old dependant, who had formerly served him with fidelity and who was yet faithful to his memory; but age and hardship and care, and the disguise which he now wore, had so altered the wanderer that the good Eumaeus had not the most distant suspicion with whom he was conversing; but: Near to the gates, conferring as they drew, Argus the dog his ancient master knew, And, not unconscious of the voice and tread Lifts to the sound his ears, and rears his head. He knew the lord, he knew, and strove to meet; In vain he strove to crawl and kiss his feet; Yet, all he could, his tail, his ears, his eyes Salute his master, and confess his joys. [15] [Lord Byron, who had much experience and acquaintance with the canine family, was rather sceptical as regards the memory of this animal, having been, on one occasion, entirely forgotten by a favourite dog from whom he was separated some considerable time, and in fact was most savagely assailed by him, when on his return he attempted to caress him as he was wont to do in former times. This unkind reception at Newstead Abbey, on the part of his pampered pet, may have given rise to the poet's feelings as embodied in the following misanthropic lines:-- "And now I'm in the world alone, Upon the wide, wide sea: But why should I for others groan, When none will sigh for me? Perchance my dog will whine in vain, Till fed by stranger hands; But long ere I come back again, He'd tear me where he stands."--L.] In Daniel's Rural Sports, the account of a nobleman and his dog is given. The nobleman had been absent two years on foreign service. On his return this faithful creature was the first to recognise him, as he came through the court-yard, and he flew to welcome his old master and friend. He sprung upon him; his agitation and his joy knew not any bounds; and at length, in the fulness of his transport, he fell at his master's feet and expired. [An interesting circumstance, strongly exhibiting canine fidelity and attachment in a large mastiff, came under the Editor's own eye during his childhood, and which, from its striking character, deserves to be recorded on the page of history as another testimony to the high moral worth of these useful animals. A gentleman of Baltimore, with his family, lived during a portion of the year a short distance in the country, and was in the habit of returning to the city late in the fall to pass the winter. On his estate there was a fine young mastiff, who though extremely cross to strangers, exhibited at all times a great degree of tenderness and affection for the younger branches of the family;--more particularly for the younger son, his most constant companion, and who would often steal secretly away to share his daily meal with this affectionate participator in his childish sports: or, when fatigued with romping together, would retire to the well-kept kennel, and recruit his limbs in a refreshing sleep, while reclining upon the body of the faithful dog. If the little truant should now be missed by those having him in charge, the most natural question to ask was, "Where is Rolla?" knowing full well that wherever this honest brute was, there might his young master be found also. On such occasions, however, this trusty guardian would refuse all solicitations to abandon his post, and express great dissatisfaction at any attempt to arouse or carry off his young charge, whom he continued to watch over till he awoke, refreshed from his slumber and eager again to resume their frolics. The period of returning to the city at last arrived, and the dog exhibited marked signs of uneasiness, while the bustling preparations for this end were going on, as if conscious of the separation that was about to take place between his young master and himself, as also the other children, who had been his constant companions for so many joyful months. Everything being completed, the childish group bid an affectionate adieu to the downcast Rolla, whom they left standing on the hill-top, watching the carriage as it disappeared in the wood. A few days after their departure, and when this poor animal was forgotten in the new scenes around them, a communication was received from the overseer of the farm, in which he stated that the favourite dog appeared much grieved since the family had left for the city, and was fearful that he might die if he continued in the same condition. Little attention, however, was given to these remarks, all imagining that the dog's melancholy was only the result of temporary distress, owing to his secluded life, so different from that which he had led when surrounded by the various members of a large family. Little did any one suppose that this poor neglected brute was suffering the acutest pangs of mental distress, even sufficient to produce death. Two weeks had now elapsed since the separation from Rolla, when another message came from the overseer, stating that the dog would surely die with grief, if not removed to the city, as he had refused all sustenance for several days, and did nothing but wander about from place to place, formerly frequented by the children, howling and moaning in the most piteous manner. Orders were now given, much to the children's delight, for the conveyance of the favourite to the city; but, alas! this arrangement came too late, as the poor creature sank from exhaustion, while in the wagon on his way to join those beloved companions whose short absence had broken his heart and grieved him even unto death.--L.] We will not further pursue this part of our subject at present. We shall have other opportunities of speaking of the disinterested and devoted affection which this noble animal is capable of displaying when he occupies his proper situation, and discharges those offices for which nature designed him. It may, however, be added that this power of tracing back the dog to the very earliest periods of history, and the fact that he then seemed to be as sagacious, as faithful, and as valuable as at the present day, strongly favour the opinion that he descended from no inferior and comparatively worthless animal,--that he was not the progeny of the wolf, the jackal, or the fox, but he was originally created, somewhat as we now find him, the associate and the friend of man. If, within the first thousand years after the Deluge, we observe that divine honours were paid to him, we can scarcely be brought to believe his wolfish genealogy. The must savage animals are capable of affection for those to whom they have been accustomed, and by whom they have been well treated, and therefore we give full credit to several accounts of this sort related of the wolf, the lion, and even the cat and the reptile: but in no other animal--in no other, even in the genus 'Canis'--do we find the qualities of the domestic dog, or the slightest approach to them. "To his master he flies with alacrity," says the eloquent Buffon, "and submissively lays at his feet all his courage, strength, and talent. A glance of the eye is sufficient; for he understands the smallest indications of his will. He has all the ardour of friendship, and fidelity and constancy in his affections, which man can have. Neither interest nor desire of revenge can corrupt him, and he has no fear but that of displeasing. He is all zeal and obedience. He speedily forgets ill-usage, or only recollects it to make returning attachment the stronger. He licks the hand which causes him pain, and subdues his anger by submission. The training of the dog seems to have been the first art invented by man, and the fruit of that art was the conquest and peaceable possession of the earth." "Man," says Burns, "is the God of the dog; he knows no other; and see how he worships him. With what reverence he crouches at his feet--with what reverence he looks up to him--with what delight he fawns upon him, and with what cheerful alacrity he obeys him!" If any of the lower animals bear about them the impress of the Divine hand, it is found in the dog: many others are plainly and decidedly more or less connected with the welfare of the human being; but this connexion and its effects are limited to a few points, or often to one alone. The dog, different, yet the same, in every region, seems to be formed expressly to administer to our comforts and to our pleasure. He displays a versatility, and yet a perfect unity of power and character, which mark him as our destined servant, and, still more, as our companion and friend. Other animals may be brought to a certain degree of familiarity, and may display much affection and gratitude. There was scarcely an animal in the menagerie of the Zoological Society that did not acknowledge the superintendent as his friend; but it was only a casual intercourse, and might be dissolved by a word or look. At the hour of feeding, the brute principle reigned supreme, and the companion of other hours would be sacrificed if he dared to interfere; but the connexion between man and the dog, no lapse of time, no change of circumstances, no infliction of evil can dissolve. We must, therefore, look far beyond the wolf for the prototype of the dog. Cuvier eloquently states that the dog exhibits the most complete and the most useful conquest that man has made. Each individual is entirely devoted to his master, adopts his manners, distinguishes and defends his property, and remains attached to him even unto death; and all this springing not from mere necessity, or from constrain, but simply from gratitude and true friendship. The swiftness, the strength, and the highly developed power of smelling of the dog, have made him a powerful ally of man against the other animals; and, perhaps, these qualities in the dog were necessary to the establishment of society. It is the only animal that has followed the human being all over the earth. There is occasionally a friendship existing between dogs resembling that which is found in the human being. The author pledges himself as to the accuracy of the following little anecdote. Two dogs, the property of a gentleman at Shrewsbury, had been companions for many years, until one of them died of old age. The survivor immediately began to manifest an extraordinary degree of restless anxiety, searching for his old associate in all his former haunts, and refusing every kind of food. He gradually wasted away, and, at the expiration of the tenth day, he died, the victim of an attachment that would have done honour to man. The Dog, belongs to the division of animals termed VERTEBRATED, (see 'The Horse', 2d edition, page 106), because it has a cranium or skull, and a spine or range of VERTEBRAE proceeding from it. It ranks under the 'class' MAMMALIA, because it has teats, by which the female suckles her young; the 'tribe' UNGUICULATA, because its extremities are armed with nails; the 'order' DIGITIGRADES, because it walks principally on its toes. The 'genus' CANIS has two tubercular teeth behind the large carnivorous tooth in upper jaw; and the 'sub-genus familiaris', the DOG, has the pupils of the eye circular, while those of the wolf are oblique, and those of the fox upright and long. There has been some dispute whether the various species of dogs are of different origin, or sprung from one common source. When we consider the change that climate and breeding effect in the same species of dog, and contrast the rough Irish or Highland greyhound with the smoother one of the southern parts of Britain, or the more delicate one of Greece, or the diminutive but beautifully formed one of Italy, or the hairless one of Africa or Brazil--or the small Blenheim spaniel with the magnificent Newfoundland; if also we observe many of them varied by accident, and that accidental variety diligently cultivated into a new species, altogether different in form or use, we shall find no difficulty in believing that they might be derived from one common origin. One of the most striking proofs of the influence of climate on the form and character of this animal, occurs in the bull-dog. When transported to India he becomes, in a few years, greatly altered in form, loses all his former courage and ferocity, and becomes a perfect coward. It is probable that all dogs sprang from one common source, but climate, food, and cross-breeding caused variations of form, which suggested particular uses; and these being either designedly or accidentally perpetuated, the various breeds of dogs thus arose, and they have become numerous in proportion to the progress of civilization. Among the ruder, or savage tribes, they possess but one form; but the ingenuity of man has devised many inventions to increase his comforts: he has varied and multiplied the characters and kinds of domestic animals for the same purpose, and hence the various breeds of horses, and cattle, and dogs. The parent stock it is now impossible to trace; but the wild dog, wherever found on the continent of Asia, or Northern Europe, has nearly the same character, and bears no inconsiderable resemblance to the British fox-dog, while many of those from the Southern Ocean can scarcely be distinguished from the English lurcher. There is, however, no more difficulty in this respect with regard to the dog, than any other of our domesticated animals. Climate, or chance, produced a change in certain individuals, and the sagacity of man, or, perhaps, mere chance, founded on these accidental varieties numerous breeds possessed of certain distinct characteristic properties. The degeneracy of the dog, also, in different countries, cannot for a moment be disputed. The most natural arrangement of all the varieties of the dog is according to the development of the frontal sinus and the cerebral cavity, or, in other words, the power of scent, and the degree of intelligence. This classification originated with M.F. Cuvier, and has been adopted by most naturalists. He reckoned three divisions of the dog: I. Those having the head more or less elongated, and the parietal bones of the skull widest at the base, and gradually approaching towards each other as they ascend, the condyls of the lower jaw being on the same line with the upper molar teeth. The _Greyhound_ and all its varieties belong to this class. II. The head moderately elongated, and the parietals diverging from each other for a certain space as they rise upon the side of the head, enlarging the cerebral cavity and the frontal sinus. To this class belong our most valuable dogs,--the _Spaniel_, _Setter_, _Pointer_, _Hound_, and the _Sheep-dog_. III. The muzzle more or less shortened, the frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated, and diminished in capacity. To this class belong some of the _Terriers_, and a great many dogs that might very well be spared. This division of the different species of the dog is adopted here as being the most simple, intelligible, and satisfactory. [Footnote 1: Gen. iv. 2.] [Footnote 2: Deut. xxiii. 18.] [Footnote 3: In some of Belzoni's beautiful sketches of the frieze-work of the old Egyptian temples, the dog appears, with his long ears and broad muzzle, not unlike the old Talbot hound.] [Footnote 4: Herodotus, lib. ii. c. 66.] [Footnote 5: No dog was suffered to come within the precincts of the Temple at Jerusalem. [Greek: Ex_o kunes] was a prevalent expression among the Jews. Byrant's 'Mythology', vol. ii. p. 42.] [Footnote 6: Phil. iii. 2.] [Footnote 7: Rev. xxii. 15.] [Footnote 8: Job xxx. 1. See also Isaiah lvi, 10, 11.] [Footnote 9: Psalm lix. 6.] [Footnote 10: Carpenter's 'Scripture Natural History', p.109. It is a remarkable fact that from this faithful animal, the companion of man, and the guardian of his person and property, should originate as many terms of reproach as "dog," "cur," "hound," "puppy," "dog-cheap," "a dog's trick," "dog sick," "dog-weary," "to lead the life of a dog," "to use like a dog." All this probably originated in the East, where the dog was held in abhorrence as the common scavenger of the streets.] [Footnote 11: Arrian's 'Cynegeticus', cap 26.] [Footnote 12: ''New Sporting Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 97.] [Footnote 13: Oppian's 'Cynegeticus', lib. i. v. 468-480.] [Footnote 14: ["At contrà faciles, magnique Lycaones armis. Sed non Hyrcanæ satis est vehementia genti."]] [Footnote 15: Pope's 'Odyssey', xvii.] * * * * * CHAPTER II. THE VARIETIES OF THE DOG. FIRST DIVISION. The head more or less elongated, the parietal bones widest at the base and gradually approaching to each other as they ascend, and the condyls of the lover jaw being on the same line with the upper molar teeth. To this division belong the greater number of the WILD DOGS. The wild dog, as existing in considerable numbers or communities, seems to be nearly extirpated in the southern parts of Europe; but there are several cases on record, of dogs having assumed native independence. A black greyhound bitch, belonging to a gentleman in Scarisbrick, in Lancashire, though she had apparently been well broken in, and always well used, ran away from the habitation of her master, and betook herself to the woods. She killed a great number of hares and made free with the sheep, and became an intolerable nuisance to the neighbourhood. She was occasionally seen, and the depredations that were committed were brought home to her. Many were the attempts made to entrap or destroy her, but in vain: for more than six months she eluded the vigilance of her pursuers. At length she was observed to creep into a hole in an old barn. She was caught as she came out, and the barn being searched three whelps were found, which, very foolishly, were destroyed. The bitch evinced the utmost ferocity, and, although well secured, attempted to seize every one who approached her. She was, however, dragged home and treated with kindness. By degrees her ferocity abated. In the course of two months, she became perfectly reconciled to her original abode, and, a twelve-month afterwards (1822), she ran successfully several courses. There was still a degree of wildness in her appearance; but, although at perfect liberty, she seemed to be altogether reconciled to a domestic life. In 1784 a dog was left by a smuggling vessel on the coast of Northumberland. He soon began to worry the sheep for his subsistence, and did so much mischief that he caused very considerable alarm. He was frequently pursued by hounds and greyhounds; but when the dogs came up he lay upon his back as if supplicating for mercy, and in that position they would never hurt him. He therefore lay quietly until the hunters approached, when he made off without being followed by the hounds until they were again excited to the pursuit. He one day led them 30 miles in this way. It was more than three months before he was caught and was then shot [1]. A dog with every character of the wild one has occasionally been seen in some of the forests of Germany, and among the Pyrenean mountains; but he has rarely been found gregarious there. In the country on the eastern side of the Gulf of Venice wild dogs are more frequent. They increase in the Austrian and Turkish dominions, and are found on almost every part of the coast of the Black Sea, but even there they rarely gather in flocks: they do not howl in concert, as the wolf; nor are they the precursors of other and larger beasts, like the jackal. Most of these dogs have the muzzle and head elongated, the ears erect, triangular, and small, the body and neck large and muscular, and the tail short, but with a brush of crisped hair. In many parts of Arabia the wild dog--or 'dakhun'--is occasionally found. In Persia, they are most decidedly congregated together, and still more so in almost every part of India [2]. Mr. Hodgson has favoured the Zoological Society with an account of THE WILD DOG OF NEPAL, the 'búánsú', and, finding it more or less prevailing through the whole of Northern India, and even southward of the coast of Coromandel, he thought that he had discovered the primitive race of the dog. This is a point that can never be decided. "These dogs hunt their prey by night, as well as by day, in packs of from six to ten individuals, maintaining the chase more by the scent than by the eye, and generally succeeding by dint of strength and perseverance. While hunting, they bark like the hound, yet the bark is peculiar, and equally unlike that of the cultivated breeds of dogs, and the cries of the jackal and the fox." Bishop Heber gives the following account of them. "They are larger and stronger than a fox, which in the circumstances of form and fur they much resemble. They hunt, however, in packs, give tongue like dogs, and possess an exquisite scent. They make of course tremendous havoc among the game in these hills; but that mischief they are said amply to repay by destroying wild beasts, and even tigers." [3] Wild dogs are susceptible of certain social combinations. In Egypt, Constantinople, and throughout the whole of the East, there are in every village troops of wandering dogs who belong to no particular person. Each troop has its own quarter of the place; and if any wander into a quarter which does not belong to him, its inhabitants unite together and chase him out. At the Cape of Good Hope there are many dogs half-starved. On going from home the natives induce two or more of these animals to accompany them, warn them of the approach of any ferocious animal, and if any of the jackals approach the walls during the night, they utter the most piercing cries, and at this signal every dog sallies out, and, uniting together, put the jackals to speedy flight. [4] The wild Nepal dogs caught when at an adult age make no approach towards domestification; but a young one, which Mr. Hodgson obtained when it was not more than a month old, became sensible to caresses, and manifested as much intelligence as any sporting dog of the same age. [5] Captain T. Williamson gives an interesting account of the ferocious character of some of these wild dogs. "They have considerable resemblance to the jackal in form. They are remarkably savage, and frequently will approach none but their 'doonahs' or keepers, not allowing their own masters to come near them. Some of them are very fleet; but they are not to be depended upon in coursing; for they are apt suddenly to give up the chase when it is a severe one, and, indeed, they will too often prefer a sheep or a goat to a hare. In hog-hunting they are more valuable. It seems to suit their temper, and they appear to enjoy the snapping and the snarling, incident to that species of sports." He says that many persons affect to treat the idea of degeneration in quadrupeds with ridicule; but all who have been any considerable time resident in India must be satisfied that dogs of European breed become, after every successive generation, more and more similar to the pariah, or indigenous dog of that country. The hounds are the most rapid in their decline, and, except in the form of their ears, they are very much like many of the village curs. Greyhounds and pointers also rapidly decline, although with occasional exceptions. Spaniels and terriers deteriorate less, and spaniels of eight or nine generations, and without a cross from Europe, are not only as good as, but far more beautiful than, their ancestors. The climate is too severe for mastiffs, and they do not possess sufficient stamina; but, crossed by the East Indian greyhound, they are invaluable in hunting the hog [6]. Colonel Sykes, at one of the meetings of the Zoological Society, produced a specimen of THE WILD DOG OF DAKHUN or Deccan, a part of India far to the south of Nepâl, and gave the following description of this supposed primitive dog: "Its head is compressed and elongated, but its muzzle not very sharp. The eyes are oblique, the pupils round, and the 'irides' light-brown. The expression of the countenance is that of a coarse ill-natured Persian greyhound, without any resemblance to the jackal, the fox, or the wolf. The ears are long, erect, and somewhat rounded at the top. The limbs remarkably large and strong in relation to the bulk of the animal. The size is intermediate between the wolf and the jackal. The neck long, the body elongated, and the entire dog of a red-brown colour. None of the domesticated dogs of Dakhun are common in Europe, but those of Dakhun and Nepâl are very similar in all their characters. There is also a dog in Dakhun with hair so short as to make him appear naked. It is called the 'polugar' dog." THE WILD DOG OF THE MAHRATTAS possesses a similar conformation; and the fact is, that the East Indian wild dog is essentially the same in every part of that immense extent of country. There is no more reason, however, for concluding that it was the primitive dog, than for conferring on the Indian cattle the same honour among the ruminants. The truth of the matter is that we have no guide what was the original breed in any country. The lapse of 4000 years would effect strange alterations in the breeds. The common name of this dog, in the track lying between South Bahar and the Mahratta frontier towards Maghore, is DHOLE, the 'Chryseus Scylex' of Hamilton Smith. Captain Williamson, in his Oriental Field Sports, gives the following account of the Dholes: "They are to be found chiefly, or only, in the country from Midnapore to Chamu, and even there are not often to be met with. They are of the size of a small greyhound. Their countenance is enlivened by unusually brilliant eyes. Their body, which is slender and deep-chested, is thinly covered by a coat of hair of a reddish-brown or bay colour. The tail is dark towards its extremity. The limbs are light, compact, and strong, and equally calculated for speed and power. They resemble many of the common pariah dogs in form, but the singularity of their colour and marks at once demonstrates an evident distinction. "These dogs are said to be perfectly harmless if unmolested. They do not willingly approach persons; but, if they chance to meet any in their course, they do not show any particular anxiety to escape. They view the human race rather objects of curiosity, than either of apprehension or enmity. The natives who reside near the Ranochitty and Katcunsandy passes, in which vicinity the 'dholes' may frequently be seen, describe them as confining their attacks entirely to wild animals, and assert that they will not prey on sheep, goats, &c.; but others, in the country extending southward from Jelinah and Mechungunge, maintain that cattle are frequently lost by their depredations. I am inclined to believe that the 'dhole' is not particularly ceremonious, but will, when opportunity offers, and a meal is wanting, obtain it at the expense of the neighbouring village. "The peasants likewise state that the 'dhole' is eager in proportion to the size and powers of the animal he hunts, preferring the elk to every other kind of deer, and particularly seeking the royal tiger. It is probable that the 'dhole' is the principal check on the multiplication of the tiger; and, although incapable individually, or perhaps in small numbers, to effect the destruction of so large and ferocious an animal, may, from their custom of hunting in packs, easily overcome any smaller beast found in the wilds of India. "They run mute, except that they sometimes utter a whimpering kind of note, similar to that sometimes expressed by dogs when approaching their prey. This may be expressive of their own gratification, or anxiety, or may serve as a guide to other 'dholes' to join in the chase. The speed of the 'dhole' is so strongly marked in his form as to render it probable no animal in the catalogue of game could escape him for any distance. Many of the 'dholes' are destroyed in these contests; for the tiger, the elk, and the boar, and even many of the smaller classes of game are capable of making a most obstinate defence. Hence the breed of the 'dholes' is much circumscribed." THE THIBET DOG. Mr. Bennett, in his scientific and amusing description of the Zoological Gardens, gave the best account we have of this noble dog, and our portrait is a most faithful likeness of him. He is bred in the table-land of the Himalaya mountains bordering on Thibet. The Bhoteas, by whom many of them are carefully reared, come down to the low countries at certain seasons of the year to sell their borax and musk. The women remain at home, and they and the flocks are most sedulously guarded by these dogs. They are the defenders of almost every considerable mansion in Thibet. In an account of an embassy to the court of the Teshoo Llama in Thibet, the author says, that he had to pass by a row of wooden cages containing a number of large dogs, fierce, strong, and noisy. They were natives of Thibet, and, whether savage by nature or soured by confinement, they were so impetuously furious that it was unsafe even to approach their dens. Every writer who describes these dogs, speaks of their noble size, and their ferocity, and antipathy to strangers. It is said, however, that the Thibet dog rapidly degenerates when removed from its native country, and certainly the specimens which have reached the Zoological Gardens exhibited nothing of ferocity. The one that was in that menagerie had a noble and commanding appearance; but he never attempted to do any injury. The colour of the Thibet dog is of a deep black, slightly clouded on the sides, his feet alone and a spot over each eye being of a full tawny or bright brown hue. He has the broad short truncated muzzle of the mastiff, and the lips are still more deeply pendulous. There is also a singular general looseness of the skin on every part of him. THE PARIAH. There are several varieties of this dog. There is a wild breed very numerous in the jungles and in some of the lower ranges of the Himalaya mountains. They usually hunt in packs, and it is not often that their prey escapes them. They generally are very thin, and of a reddish-brown colour, with sharp-pointed ears, deep chest, and tucked-up flanks. Many persons hunt with these dogs singly, and they are very useful. They bring the hog to bay, or indicate the course that he has taken, or distract his attention when the sportsman is at hand. There is also in every inhabited part of the country the poor desolate pariah,--unowned by any one,--daring to enter into no house, but wandering about, and picking up a living in any way that he can. He is, however, of a superior race to the wild dog, and belongs to the second class of the dog, although mentioned here in order that we may altogether quit the dog of India. They are neglected by the Hindoos; but the Mohammedans of India, and other strangers, consider it an act of charity to throw out occasionally a morsel of food to them. They are most of them mongrels; but the benevolent Bishop Heber does them no more than justice when he says that he "was forcibly struck at finding the same dog-like and amiable qualities in these neglected animals as in their more fortunate brethren in Europe." Colonel Sykes says of these outcasts that among the pariahs is frequently found the turnspit-dog. There is also a small petted variety of the pariah, usually of a white colour, and with long silky hair. This animal is taught to carry flambeaux and lanterns. According to Captain Williamson, in some of the ditches of the Carnatic forts, alligators are purposely kept, and all the pariah dogs found in the forts are thrown into the ditches as provision for these monsters. Some persons who have kept tigers in cages have adopted the same means of supply for their royal captives, putting the poor pariah through an aperture made for the purpose in the cage; and they justify themselves by asserting that they thus get rid of a troublesome breed of curs, most of which are unappropriated, and which being numerous are very troublesome to passengers, often wantonly biting them, and raising a yelling noise at night, that sets all attempts to rest at defiance. It did not always happen that the tiger killed the pariah put into his cage. "I knew an instance," says Captain Williamson, "of one that was destined for the tiger's daily meal, standing on the defensive in a manner that completely astonished both the tiger and the spectator. He crept into a corner, and whenever the tiger approached seized him by the lip or the neck, making him roar most piteously. The tiger, however, impelled by hunger,--for all supply of food was purposely withheld,--would renew the attack. The result was ever the same. At length the tiger began to treat the dog with more deference, and not only allowed him to partake of the mess of rice and milk furnished daily for his subsistence, but even refrained from any attempt lo disturb him. The two animals at length became reconciled to each other, and a strong attachment was formed between them. The dog was then allowed ingress and egress through the aperture; and, considering the cage as his own, he left it and returned to it just as he thought proper. When the tiger died he moaned the loss of his companion for a considerable period." A wild variety exists in Sumatra. It is described by Cuvier as "possessing the countenance of a fox, the eyes oblique, the ears rounded and hairy, the muzzle of a foxy-brown colour, the tail bushy and pendulous, very lively, running with the head lifted high, and the ears straight." This animal can scarcely be rendered tractable, and even when he is apparently tamed can rarely be depended upon. As we proceed through the Indian Archipelago, towards Australasia, we skirt the coast of Java. Every Javanese of rank has large packs of dogs with which he hunts the muntjak, the deer of that country. The dogs are led in strings by the attendants until they scent the prey: they are then unloosed, while the sportsmen follow, but not at the speed which would distinguish the British sportsman. The animal is generally found at bay. The male muntjak usually exhibits considerable courage, and probably several of the dogs have been wounded by his tusks. As soon as they come up every gun is discharged, and the animal almost immediately drops. At other times the mounted sportsmen attack them with a spear or sword. Generally, the muntjak does not go off like the stag in any direct track, but takes a circular course, and soon returns to the spot whence it was started. It perhaps makes several of these circles, and at length entangles itself in a thicket, where it is secured. These dogs are the indigenous breed of the island, the body lank, the ears erect, ferocious in their disposition, and with very little attachment to their masters. Such is the account given of them by Dr. Horsfield. THE DINGO, AUSTRALASIAN, OR NEW HOLLAND DOG. The newly discovered southern continent was, and some of it still continues to be, overrun by the native wild dogs. Dampier describes them, at the close of the last century, as "beasts like the hungry wolves, lean like so many skeletons, and being nothing but skin and bone." It was not until the publication of Governor Phillip's voyage to Botany Bay, that any accurate description or figure of this dog could be obtained. He approaches in appearance to the largest kind of shepherd's dog. The head is elongated, the forehead flat, and the ears short and erect, or with a slight direction forwards. The body is thickly covered with hair of two kinds--the one woolly and gray, the other silky and of a deep yellow or fawn colour. The limbs are muscular, and, were it not for the suspicious yet ferocious glare of the eye, he might pass for a handsome dog. The Australasian dog, according to M. Desmarest, resembles in form and in the proportion of his limbs the common shepherd's dog. He is very active and courageous, covered in some parts with thick hair woolly and gray, in other parts becoming of a yellowish-red colour, and under the belly having a whitish hue. When he is running, the head is lifted more than usual in dogs, and the tail is carried horizontally. He seldom barks. Mr. Bennett observes that "dogs in a state of nature never bark. They simply whine, howl, or growl. The explosive noise of the bark is only found among those that are domesticated." Sonini speaks of the shepherds' dogs in the wilds of Egypt as not having this faculty; and Columbus found the dogs which he had previously carried to America, almost to have lost their propensity to bark. He does, however, occasionally bark, and has the same kind of snarling voice which the larger dogs generally have. The Australasian dogs that have been brought to Europe have usually been of a savage and untractable disposition. There are several of the Australasian dogs in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London. One of them has been an inmate of that establishment nine years, others more than five years; but not an individual has acquired the bark of the other dogs by which they are surrounded. When a stranger makes his appearance, or when the hour of feeding arrives, the howl of the Australasian is the first sound that is heard, and it is louder than all the rest. If some of them have thrown off a portion of their native ferocity, others retain it undiminished. A bitch and two of her whelps, nearly half grown--a male and female--had inhabited the same cage from the time that the young ones were born. Some cause of quarrel occurred on a certain night, and the two bitches fell upon the dog and perfectly destroyed him. There was not a limb left whole. A stronger instance of the innate ferocity of this breed could scarcely be given. Even in their native country all attempts perfectly to domesticate them have failed; for they never lose an opportunity to devour the poultry or attack the sheep. Every domesticated dog coming within their reach was immediately destroyed. One that was brought to England broke his chain--scoured the surrounding country--and, before dawn, had destroyed several sheep; and another attacked, and would have destroyed, an ass, if he had not been prevented. Mr. Oxley, Surveyor-General of New South Wales, however, gives an interesting account of the mutual attachment between two of the native and wild New Holland dingos. "About a week ago we killed a native dog, and threw his body on a small bush. On returning past the same spot to-day, we found the body removed three or four yards from the bush, and the female in a dying-state lying close beside it: she had apparently been there from the day the dog was killed. Being now so weakened and emaciated as to be unable to move on our approach, it was deemed a mercy to despatch her." When Van Diemen Land began to be colonized by Europeans, the losses sustained by the settlers by the ravages of the wild dogs were almost incredible. The districts infested by these animals were principally those appropriated to sheep, and there was scarcely a flock that did not suffer. It was in vain to double the number of shepherds, to watch by night and by day, or to have fires at every quarter of the fold; for these animals would accomplish their object by stratagem or by force. One colony lost no fewer than 1200 sheep and lambs in three months; another colony lost 700. The ravagers were either the native wild dogs of the island, or those that had escaped from their owners. They seemed to have apportioned the country into different districts, each troop having its allotted range. At length the evil became so great that a general meeting of the colonists was convened. The concluding sentences of the speech of Lieutenant Hill forcibly express the extent of the evil. "The country is free from bush-rangers: we are no longer surrounded and threatened by the natives. We have only one enemy left in the field; but that enemy strikes at the very root of our welfare, and through him the stream of our prosperity is tainted at its very source." The colonists were then few, but they cordially united in the endeavour to extirpate this formidable enemy; and, although the wild dog is still found in the interior of the island, he is comparatively seldom seen, and his ravages have nearly ceased. THE CANIS AUSTRALIS--KARÁRAHÉ, NEW ZEALAND DOG. A tradition exists in New Zealand of this dog having been given to the natives two or three centuries ago by a number of divinities who made their descent on these shores, probably Juan Fernandez and his companions. The sagacious animal has, however, dwindled down to the lowest rank of his family, but ill usage has not altogether destroyed his worth. In New Zealand he is the safeguard of every village. Should the slightest alarm exist, he is the first to ascertain the cause of it, and many families have saved themselves by flight, or have taken arms in self-defence against the incursions of predatory bands. The New Zealanders are therefore kind in their treatment of the dog, except that they occasionally destroy him for his hide. The name formerly given to the New Zealand dog was 'pero', which in some measure substantiates the supposition of Juan Fernandez having visited the country--'perro', in the Spanish language, being the name of a dog. We will now turn to the northern parts of America. The races of wild dogs are there considerably limited, both in number and the districts which they occupy. In the elevated sandy country north of the source of the Missouri, inhabited by the "Stone" and the "Black Foot" Indians, is a doubtful species of dogs--wolves they used to be called--who hunt in large packs and are exceedingly swift; whose bark is similar to that of the domestic dog, but who burrow in the ground, and eagerly run to their holes, when the gun of the hunter is heard. [Our author evidently, in the above remarks, confounds the Louisiana marmot, Arctomys Ludovicianus or Prairie dog, with the Canis Latrans of Say, as he certainly would not make us believe that such harmless animals as the marmot should associate themselves in packs to hunt the deer or other quadrupeds; neither would he tell us that so different an animal as the Canis Latrans could burrow in the ground and retreat to their holes when surprised by the hunter. The Louisiana Marmot, improperly called Prairie dog, is about sixteen inches long, and lives in extended villages or excavations surmounted by mounds. These communities often comprise several thousand inhabitants, whose sole food consists in the scanty herbage surrounding the settlement, as they seldom extend their excursions beyond a half-mile from their burrows for fear of the wolves, and many other enemies. The Canis Latrans, on the other hand, is quite a large and savage animal, and frequently unites in bands to run down deer or buffalo calves, but as for living under ground in burrows, it is quite out of reason to suppose such a thing possible with this quadruped, who secretes himself in the depths of the forest, and appears on the open plain only when in pursuit of game.--L.] The habit of selecting large, open, sandy plains, and burrowing there, extends to the greater part of the American wild dogs. [We have been credibly informed by several gentlemen, familiar with the country of Mexico, that there is a diminutive species of dog running wild, and burrowing in the ground as rabbits, in the neighbourhood of Santa Fe and Chihuahua. A gentleman who has seen these animals, states that there is no doubt as to their identity, having met with them in a state of domestication, when they exhibited all the actions and manners of a French lap dog, such as come from Cuba or other West India Islands. They are of every variety of hue, and resort to their burrows whenever disturbed in their natural haunts. What they subsist on it is difficult to say, as they are too harmless and insignificant to attack any other animal beyond a mouse or a snail. They are represented as being very difficult to tame, but when domesticated show no disposition to return to their former mode of life. The lady of the Mexican Minister, when in this city, had one of these dogs as a boudoir pet; it was lively and barked quite fiercely. We have not been able to ascertain whether they bark in their natural state. The breed of dog cultivated in China for food alone, are fed entirely upon rice meal and other farinaceous articles, having no relish whatever for flesh or other strong aliment.--L.] In some parts of North America whole troops of horses are guarded and kept together by dogs. If any of the troop attempt to steal away, the dog will immediately fly after the horse, head him, and bring him back to his companions. [To show the necessity of having dogs for this purpose, as well as to guard the flocks of sheep, we need only mention that it is no uncommon thing for a Mexican to own several thousand horses, besides an immense number of cattle. Mr. Kendall, in his Santa Fé expedition, states that the proprietress of one hacienda, a widow, and comparatively poor when the wonderful wealth of her ancestors is considered, now owns fifty thousand horses and mules, beside herds of cattle and sheep, and that the pasture ground extended for fifty miles on either side of the road. One of the former owners of this immense estate, a short time previous to the revolution, sent as a present to a Spanish colonel, just arrived with his regiment of dragoons, a thousand white horses, nearly all of the same age, and every one raised on this prolific hacienda.--L.] The wild dogs abound in many parts of South America. In some of the forests on the banks of the Oronoko they multiply to an annoying degree. The Cayotte of Mexico, described by some as a wolf, and bearing no slight resemblance to that animal, belongs to the South American wild dogs, as do also the Aguara dogs of every kind. These wanderers of the woods are, however, diminished in numbers in every part of that continent, and are replaced by other kinds, many of which have been imported from Europe and domesticated. [There is no country in the world more cursed with worthless curs than that of Mexico and the other southern republics; the cities and villages actually swarm with these animals, and produce no little vexation to travellers, who speak of their eternal yelping and barking in the most indignant terms. Mr. Kendall, on entering San Antonio, says, "From every house some half dozen Mexican curs would jump forth and greet us with a chorus of yelps and barks, and before we had fairly entered the town the canine hue and cry was general. Those who have for the first time entered a Mexican town or city must have been struck with the unusual number of dogs, and annoyed by their incessant barking; but the stranger soon learns that they spend all their courage in barks--they seldom bite."--L.] Many of the Indian tribes have succeeded in reclaiming the dog of the woods, and have made him a useful although not a perfectly attached servant. The dogs of the Falkland Islands, and the Indian North American dogs generally, are brown or gray-coloured varieties of the wild dog; but as they are nearly exterminated, will occupy little space. It has already been stated that in Egypt and in Nubia we have the first records of the dog. Many superstitious notions were connected with him, and divine honours were paid to him. Those times are passed away, and he is regarded with aversion by the Moslem of the present day. He is an outcast. He obtains a scanty living by the offal which he gathers in the towns, or he is become a perfect wild dog, and scours the country for his prey. His modern name is the 'deab'. He is of considerable size, with a round muzzle, large head, small erect ears, and long and hairy tail, spotted with black, white, and yellow, and having a fierce wolfish aspect. These dogs are not, however, numerous; but the mischief which they do is often great, whether in pairs they burrow in the earth, or associate with others and hunt in troops. [7] In Nubia is a smaller dog of the same kind, which never burrows. It lives on small animals and birds, and rarely enters any of the towns. A similar dog, according to Colonel Hamilton Smith, inhabits the neighbourhood of the Cape, and particularly the Karroo or Wilderness. It is smaller than either of the others, and lives among bushes or under prominent rocks. Others, although not identified with the jackal, yet associating with him, inhabit the Uplands of Gambia and Senegal. On the Gold Coast, the dog is used and prized as an article of food. He is fattened and driven to market as the European drives his sheep and hogs. The dog is even more valued than the sheep for human subsistence, and is deemed the greatest luxury that can be placed even on the royal table. In Loango, or Lower Guinea, is a town from which the African wild dogs derive their name--the 'dingo'. They hunt in large packs. They fearlessly attack even the elephant, and generally destroy him. In the neighbourhood of the Cape, the country is nearly cleared of wild beasts; but in Cape Town there are a great number of lean and miserable dogs, who howl about the streets at night, quitting their dens and lurking-places, in quest of offal. No great while ago, the wolves and hyaenas used to descend and dispute the spoil with the dogs, while the town resounded with their hideous howlings all the night long. This will be a proper place to refer to the numerous accounts that are given both in ancient and modern times of the immolation of dogs, and of their being used for food. They were sacrificed at certain periods by the Greeks and Romans to almost all their deities, and particularly to Mars, Pluto, and Pan, to Minerva, Proserpine, and Lucina, and also to the moon, because the dog by his barking disturbed all charms and spells, and frightened away all spectres and apparitions. The Greeks immolated many dogs in honour of Hecate, because by their baying the phantoms of the lower world were disturbed. A great number of dogs were also destroyed in Samothrace in honour of the same goddess. Dogs were periodically sacrificed in February, and also in April and in May; also to the goddess Rubigo, who presided over the corn, and the Bona Dea, whose mysterious rites were performed on Mount Aventine. The dog Cerberus was supposed to be watching at the feet of Pluto, and a dog and a youth were periodically sacrificed to that deity. The night when the Capitol had nearly been destroyed was annually celebrated by the cruel scourging of a dog in the principal public places, even to the death of the animal. [As on a certain occasion, the dogs who had the Capitol in custody, did not bark and give warning when the Gauls attempted to scale the wails, there is a custom annually observed at Rome, to transfix certain dogs to forks, and thus crucified, hang them on an elder tree as examples of justice. (Book 29, chap. IV. Pliny.)-L.] Many of the Greek and Roman epicures were strangely fond of the flesh of the dog, and those who ought to have known much better encouraged the use of this food. Galen speaks of it in the strongest terms of praise. Hippocrates says that the meat of old dogs is of a warm and dry quality, giving strength to the eater. Ananias, the poet, speaks of dog's flesh served up with that of the hare and fox. Virgil recommends that the fatted dog should be served up with whey or butter; and Dioscorides, the physician, says that they should be fed on the whey that remains after the making of cheese. [Independent of the many useful and interesting qualities that necessarily endeared this animal to the ancients, he had yet stronger claims upon them, in the prophylactic properties of different portions of his body. Pliny, Hippocrates, Aristotle and others, speak of various preparations made of his flesh, for the cure of many distempers. The first-mentioned writer observes, that the ashes of burnt dogs, made into a liniment, with oil, will make an excellent application to the eye-brows, to turn them black. We doubt not that an analogous compound, if proved to be really efficacious, might he introduced to the notice of the belles of our own time, or meet with extensive sale for dyeing the pagoties and mustachios of the modern dandy. This quaint philosopher also recommends the same substance as a healing salve, for malignant wounds, and the internal use of the same article as a preventive or cure of hydrophobia and other distempers. (Book 28, chap, XI. and X.)--L.] Before Christianity was established among the Danes, on every ninth year at the winter solstice, a monstrous sacrifice of 99 dogs was effected. In Sweden the sacrifice was still worse. On each of 9 successive days, 99 dogs were destroyed. This sacrifice of the dog, however, gave way to one as numerous and as horrible. On every 9th year, 99 human victims were immolated, and the sons of the reigning tyrant among the rest, in order that the life of the monarch might be prolonged. [8] On the other hand, the dog was frequently the executioner; and, from an early period, whether in the course of war or the mock administration of justice, thousands of poor wretches were torn to pieces by animals trained to that horrible purpose. Many of the Indians of North America, and almost of the present day, are fond of the flesh of the dog. Captain Carver, in his Travels in North America in 1766, 1767, and 1768, describes the admission of an Indian into one of the horrible societies of that country. "The dishes being brought near to me," says he, "I perceived that they consisted of dog's flesh, and I was informed that at all their grand feasts they never made use of any other food. The new candidate provides fat dogs for the festival, if they can be procured at any price. They ate the flesh; but the head and the tongue were left sticking on a pole with the front towards the east. When any noxious disease appeared among them, a dog was killed, the intestines were wound between two poles, and every man was compelled to pass between them." The Nandowepia Indians also eat dog's flesh as an article of luxury, and not from any want or scarcity of other animal food; for they have the bear, buffalo, elk, deer, beaver, and racoon. Professor Keating, in his interesting work on the expedition to Peter's River, states that he and a party of American officers were regaled in a large pavilion on buffalo meat, and 'tepsia', a vegetable boiled in buffalo grease, and the flesh of three dogs kept for the occasion, and without any salt. They partook of the flesh of the dogs with a mixture of curiosity and reluctance, and found it to be remarkably fat, sweet, and palatable, divested of any strong taste, and resembling the finest Welsh mutton, but of a darker colour. So strongly rooted, however, are the prejudices of education, that few of them could be induced to eat much of it. The feast being over, great care was taken to replace the bones in their proper places in the dish, after which they were carefully washed and buried, as a token of respect to the animals generally, and because there was the belief among them that at some future time they would return again to life. Well-fattened puppies are frequently sold; and an invitation to a feast of dog's meat is the greatest distinction that can be offered to a stranger by any of the Indian nations east of the Rocky Mountains. [Notwithstanding the Indians occasionally eat their dogs either through necessity or when they wish to pay a marked tribute of respect to their gods, or prepare a feast of friendship with strangers, they value them very highly, and do not by any means consider their flesh superior to that of the buffaloes or other animals of the chase. Mr. Catlin remarks, that "the dog, amongst all Indian tribes, is more esteemed and more valued than amongst any part of the civilized world: the Indian, who has more time to devote to his company, and whose untutored mind more nearly assimilates to that of his faithful domestic, keeps him closer company and draws him nearer his heart: they hunt together and are equal sharers in the chase--their bed is one; and on the rocks and on their coats of arms they carve his image as the symbol of fidelity." (Vol. I., p. 230.) On visiting the Sioux, they prepared for this gentleman as a token of regard a dog feast, previous to partaking of which they addressed him in a manner that plainly exhibits the veneration in which they held these faithful animals, at the same time forcibly demonstrating the peculiar circumstances under which they alone are willing to destroy them: "My father, I hope you will have pity upon us; we are very poor. We offer you to-day not the best we have got; for we have a plenty of good buffalo hump and marrow; but we give you our hearts in this feast, we have killed our faithful dogs to feed you, and the Great Spirit will seal our friendship. I have no more to say." (Vol. I., p. 229.)--L.] As a counterpart to much of this, the ancient Hyrcanians may be mentioned, who lived near the Caspian Sea, and who deemed it one of the strongest expressions of respect to leave the corpse of their deceased friends to be torn and devoured by dogs. Every man was provided with a certain number of these animals, as a living tomb for himself at some future period, and these dogs were remarkable for their fierceness. [Not only the Hyrcanians but most of the people dwelling on or near the Caspian sea, preserved this race or a similarly formidable one, more particularly to devour their dead; it being considered more propitiatory to the Gods, and more flattering to the spirits of the deceased, to make this disposition of the corpse, than consigning it to the gloomy grave or funeral pile. This custom is noticed by Theodoret as being pursued by the inhabitants of those parts, and was not abolished till after their adherence to Christianity.--L.] DOMESTICATED DOGS OF THE FIRST DIVISION Some of the readers of this work may possibly recollect three beautiful dogs of this species in the gardens of the Zoological Society of London, which afforded a perfect illustration of the elongated head of the dogs belonging to Cuvier's first section. Mr. Bennett, the Secretary of the Society, gave an interesting account of them in 1835, derived from the observation of Sir John Franklin and Dr. Richardson. The elongation and sharpness of the muzzle, and the small capacity of the skull, first attract attention. The dog was doubtless fitted for its situation, where its duty is to hunt by sight after the moose or rein-deer, but would have been comparatively worthless if he was to be guided by the scent. Its erect ears, widened at the base and pointed at the top, gave it an appearance of vivacity and spirit. Its depth of chest, and tucked-up flank, and muscular quarters, marked it as a dog of speed, while its light frame, and the length of the toes, and wideness of web between them, seem to depict the kind of surface over which it was to bound. It is not designed to seize and to hold any animal of considerable bulk; it bounds over the snow without sinking, if the slightest crust is formed upon it, and eagerly overtakes and keeps at bay the moose or the rein-deer until the hunters arrive. This animal furnishes a beautiful illustration of adaptation for a particular purpose. The hair of these dogs is white, with patches of grayish-black and brown. They are known only in the neighbourhood of the Mackenzie River and of the Great Bear Lake in North America They appear to be good-tempered and easily manageable, and soon become familiar even with strangers. They are most valuable to the Indians, who live almost entirely on the produce of the chase. In their native country they never bark, but utter a whine and howl resembling that of the Esquimaux dog; yet one of the three, who was born a few days after its parents arrived at the gardens, while it whined and howled occasionally with its parents, at other times uttered the perfect bark of its companions of various breeds around it. [It is the general belief among the Indians and others who are familiar with this dog, that his origin is connected, in some way, with the Arctic Fox, Canis Lagopus, as he so much resembles this animal in his general appearance and habits. This fox when taken is easily tamed, a few days of captivity being often sufficient to render him quite docile, and ample opportunities have thus been afforded for studying his peculiarities. Although the cross between the wolf and dog may be considered established beyond controversy, the testimony is not so very conclusive as regards the fox. The most authentic instances on record are perhaps those mentioned by Mr. Daniel, who states that Mr. Tattersall had a terrier bitch, who bred by a fox, and the produce again had whelps by dogs, also that the woodman of Mongewell manor had a bitch, the offspring of a tame dog-fox, by a shepherd's cur, and she again had puppies by a dog; he does not state, however, that he knew these facts personally; but concludes from these two instances, that the fox species may be fairly added to the other supposed original stocks of dogs. (Daniel's Rural Sports, vol. 1. p. 15.) Mr. Collinson also states, that it is certain that the Siberian dog not only copulates with the wolf, but with the fox also. Notwithstanding this assertion, he is not able to cite a single instance, but on the other hand is forced to acknowledge, that he never met with any person who had seen the coupling of these two animals. The peasants of that country have a small dog, which, from their foxy appearance, they term fox-dogs. Our Indian dogs, also, resemble somewhat the wolves and foxes, the original inhabitants of this continent, while the canine family throughout the east is strongly marked with the jackal, the wild aborigines of that portion of the world. These dogs, when fighting, do not shake their antagonists, like the perfectly domesticated dog; their teeth are extremely sharp, and when snarling, the skin is drawn from the mouth; their bite is more severe, and they show but little disposition to attack the wolves, although quite eager in the pursuit of all other game. The Indians had no dogs previous to the coming of the whites, but depended in a great measure, when hunting, upon the presence of the wolves, who, by their howlings, indicated the position of the herds of buffalo or deer, knowing full well that after the general carnage, they would come in for a full share of the garbage of these animals. Harlan, in his Fauna Americana, says, "we have very little doubt that the various species of domestic dogs are mere varieties of prolific hybrids, produced by the union of the wolf with the fox or jackal. A prolific hybrid of this kind once produced, the progeny would more readily unite with the congeners of either parent, and with each other, and in this manner give rise to the innumerable varieties which at the present day are found scattered over the face of the earth." (Page 77.) It is somewhat strange, that no naturalist has, as yet, succeeded in causing a union between the fox and dog, if the thing be possible. We ourselves are cognizant of an instance, where every effort was made to produce an offspring from such a connexion, but to no purpose, although the terrier bitch was thrice in heat while confined with the fox, and lived on the most amicable terms with him. We agree with Doct. Godman, that if a litter has ever been generated by these two animals, they were hybrids, as nothing to the contrary of an authentic character has been brought forward, whereas it is well known that the fox always exhibits a great antipathy and instinctive repugnance to such an union. It is also reasonable to suppose that if prolific hybrids had at any time been produced, the breed, from its singular character, would have been propagated by the fortunate possessor, either from curiosity or utility. The intestines of the fox are shorter than those of the dog or wolf--L.] THE ALBANIAN DOG can be traced to a very remote period of history. Some of the old authors speak of it as the dog which in the times of ancient mythology Diana presented to Procris. Pliny describes in enthusiastic terms the combat of one of them with a lion, and afterwards with an elephant. A dog very much resembling the ancient stories is yet found in Albania, and most of the districts of Greece. He is almost as large as a mastiff, with long and silky hair, the legs being shorter and stronger than those of the greyhound. He is gentle and tractable with those whom he knows, and when there is no point of duty at stake; but no bribe can seduce him from his post when any trust is committed to him. [This dog, it is very probable, was highly impregnated with molossian blood, and like that animal, was trained both for war and the chase. It is rather doubtful, whether the dogs presented to Alexander the Great by the king of Albania, were those of his own country or some that he had obtained from other parts. We are inclined to believe that they were imported dogs, for Pliny distinctly states, that these two were all that the generous monarch possessed, and if destroyed could not be replaced. From this circumstance it is natural to suppose that, if these dogs had been native Albanians, the king would have been able to supply any reasonable quantity of them, and, therefore, not necessitated to send this message to Alexander. On the other hand, if these dogs had been of the pure molossian type, such as were raised in Epirus, it is probable that their huge dimensions would not have surprised this monarch so much, as it is reasonable to believe that Alexander would certainly have seen, if not heard, of dogs so remarkable, belonging to a kingdom in immediate contiguity with his own. We are, therefore, forced to look to some other source, from whence came these proud dogs, who alone deigned to contend with the lion and elephant, and must yield to Strabo, who states that these animals were of the Indian breed.--L. 15.] THE GREAT DANISH DOG, CALLED ALSO THE DALMATIAN OR SPOTTED DOG. The difference between these two breeds consists principally in the size, the Dalmatian being much smaller than the Danish. The body is generally white, marked with numerous small round black or reddish-brown spots. The Dalmatian is said to be used in his native country for the chase, to be easily broken, and stanch to his work. He has never been thus employed in England, but is chiefly distinguished by his fondness for horses, and as being the frequent attendant on the carriages of the wealthy. To that its office seems to be confined; for it rarely develops sufficient sense or sagacity to be useful in any of the ordinary offices of the dog. [This dog is, perhaps, the tallest of the canine species in existence; the smaller Dane, or "le braque de Bengal," of the French writers, is perhaps a cross of this animal with the pointer or hound, or the original dog degenerated by removal from his native soil. Although these dogs generally display little or no intelligence, and are, in fact, denounced by many writers as being incapable of acquiring sufficient knowledge to make them in any way serviceable for hunting, still we are led to believe that these latent qualities might be developed in this breed as well as any other of his particular physical construction. We had a little Dane in our possession, whom we instructed, with little trouble, in a variety of tricks; although at first surly and stupid, he soon exhibited great aptness and pleasure in repeating the various lessons which we taught him. If he had been younger we might have given him an opportunity of displaying himself in the field, as we are confident, from his tractable disposition, that he might have been tutored, with perseverance, even sufficiently well to stand upon game. The dogs of Epirus were supposed to have been spotted like the Dalmatian, if not of the same breed. These dogs may also be the "spotted hounds" given by Pan to Diana. Let the little Dane's intellectual abilities be what they may, long habit and association have so intimately connected him with the stable and its occupants that he seems no longer fit for any other purpose than that of following in the wake of the carriages of the wealthy. This he does with peculiar fondness and singular ingenuity; for, although constantly by the side or at the heels of the horses, or under the tongue of the vehicle, his sure retreat when attacked by other dogs, who seem to have an antipathy for these pampered and fancy attendants on the affluent, he seldom or never is trod upon, or otherwise injured. The little Dane is often a good ratter; and a gentleman of this city informs me that his dogs not only exhibit an attachment to horses in general, but that one of them has a particular partiality for an old carriage-horse, with whom he has been intimately associated for many years, and always greets his return to the stable with every demonstration of delight, by jumping up and kissing him, &c.--L.] THE FRENCH MATIN. ('Canis laniarius'). There is considerable difficulty in describing this variety. The French consider it as the progenitor of all the breeds of dogs that resemble and yet cannot be perfectly classed with the greyhound. It should rather be considered as a species in which are included a variety of dogs,--the Albanian, the Danish, the Irish greyhound, and almost the pure British greyhound. The head is elongated and the forehead flat, the ears pendulous towards the tips, and the colour of a yellowish fawn. This is the usual sheep-dog in France, in which country he is also employed as a house-dog. He discharges his duty most faithfully; and, notwithstanding his flat forehead, shows himself to possess a very high degree of intelligence. [The French matin we have seen of every variety of colour, being mostly patched with brown, yellow, grey, black, or white. He is employed both in France and Germany in hunting the boar and wolf; which savage animals he fearlessly attacks with courage equal to any dog they possess.--L.] THE GREYHOUND. We find no mention of this dog in the early Grecian records. The 'pugnaces' and the 'sagaces' are mentioned; but the 'celeres'--the swift-footed--are not spoken of as a peculiar breed. The Celtic nations, the inhabitants of the northern continent of Europe and the Western Islands, were then scarcely known, and the swift-footed dogs were peculiar to those tribes. They were not, however, introduced into the more southern parts of Europe until after the dissolution of the Roman commonwealth. The dog is, however, mentioned by Ovid; and his description of coursing the hare is so accurate that we cannot refrain from inserting it. We select a translation of it from Golding. "I gat me to the knap Of this same hill, and there behelde of this strange course the hap, In which the beaste seemes one while caught, and ere a man would thinke Doth quickly give the grewnd [9] the slip, and from his biting shrinke; And, like a wilie fox, he runs not forth directly out, Nor makes a winlas over all the champion fields about, But, doubling and indenting, still avoydes his enemie's lips, An turning short, as swift about as spinning-wheele he wips, To disappoint the snatch. The grewnd, pursuing at an inch, Doth cote [10] him, never loosing. Continually he snatches In vaine, but nothing in his mouth, save only hair, he catches." There is another sketch by the same poet: "As when th' impatient greyhound, slipped from far, Bounds o'er the glade to course the fearful hare, She in her speed does all her safety lay, And he with double speed pursues the prey; O'erruns her at the sitting turn, but licks His chaps in vain, yet blows upon the flix; She seeks the shelter, which the neighbouring covert gives, And, gaining it, she doubts if yet she lives." [11] The English, Scotch, and Irish greyhounds were all of Celtic derivation, And their cultivation and character correspond with the civilization of the different Celtic tribes. The dogs that were exported from Britain to Rome were probably of this kind. Mr. Blaine gives an account of the progress of these dogs, which seems to be evidently founded on truth. "Scotland, a northern locality, has long been celebrated for its greyhounds, which are known to be large and wiry-coated. They are probably types of the early Celtic greyhounds, which, yielding to the influences of a colder climate than that they came from, became coated with a thick and wiry hair. In Ireland, as being milder in its climate, the frame expanded in bulk, and the coat, although not altogether, was yet less crisped and wiry. In both localities, there being at that time boars, wolves, and even bears, powerful dogs were required. In England these wild beasts were more early exterminated, and consequently the same kind of dog was not retained, but, on the contrary, was by culture made finer in coat, and of greater beauty in form." [The canis leporarius, or greyhound of the present day, is quite an inferior animal in point of size, when compared with his forefathers, who alone were occupied in the chase of the boar, wolf, bear, deer, and other animals both powerful and savage. As these wild animals gradually disappeared under the hand of civilization, these hardy dogs were less wanted; and thus, by slow degrees, have degenerated into the less powerful, but more beautiful and symmetrical proportions that we now see. This change, however, has better adapted him for speed, and the coursing of such quadrupeds as depend upon nimbleness and activity of motion, to secure their escape. Owing, in some measure, to the climate, but more particularly to the inactive life that they lead in this country, so much at variance with that of England, we can lay claim to but few dogs that would be considered above mediocrity among British sportsmen. We have seen several of these dogs which, living in a state of idle luxury, have degenerated considerably even in the third generation; and we cannot now recall but one dog, in the possession of a young lady in Philadelphia, that would at all come up to the English standard of perfection; and this one is a descendant from a fine imported stock in the second generation. The ancient Greeks were much devoted to coursing, but previous to the time of Arrian, their hounds were not a sufficient match, in point of speed, for the hare, and it was seldom that their sports were attended with success in the actual capture of this fleet animal by the dogs alone. If taken at all, it was generally by running them down in a long chase, or driving them into nets, toils, and other similar contrivances, as forcibly described in the following lines of the ancient poet, when extolling the pleasures of a country life. "Aut trudit acres hinc et hinc multâ cane Apros in obstante plagas, Aut amite levi rara leiidit retia, Turdis edacibus dolos; Pavidumve leporem, et advenam laqueo gruem, Jucunda captat præmia." (Horace, 'Epode ii.', v. 31.) Even after the introduction of the Celtic hound, who, as before stated, was far inferior as regards speed to the present race, it was no easy matter to take the hare, it being necessary to carry several couples of dogs into the field, and let them slip at certain intervals in the chase, so that the fresh dogs might, in this way, overtake the little animal, already frightened and fatigued by previous exertion. In reference to this mode of coursing, the younger Xenophon particularly enjoins that to prevent confusion in the field, naturally arising from the hunters letting their dogs loose at improper intervals, from eagerness to see them run, "that a steward should be appointed over the sport, should match the dogs, and give orders to the field:--if the hare start on this side, you and you are to slip, and nobody else; but if on that side, you and you: and let strict attention be paid to the orders given." (Arrian, chap. xx.) Alciphron, in his familiar epistles descriptive of the domestic manners of the Greeks, gives a lively description of a course not very different from those of the present day, as will be seen in the following extract: "In trying whether the young dogs were fit for the chase, I started a hare from a little bush; my sons loosed the dogs from the slips. They frightened her confoundedly, and were very near taking the game. The hare, in her flight, climbed a steep place, and found a retreat in some burrow. One of the more spirited of the dogs, pressing close upon her, gasping, and expecting to take her in his gripe, went down with her into the hole. In endeavouring to pull out the hare, he broke one of his fore-legs. I lifted up my good dog, with his lame leg, and found the hare half devoured: thus, when I hoped to get something, I encountered a serious loss." (Letter ix.) We will close our remarks upon this subject by introducing a few descriptive lines, selected from one of the very rare English authors who have attempted a versification of this exciting sport. "Yet if for silvan sport thy bosom glow, Let thy fleet greyhound urge his flying foe. With what delight the rapid course I view! How does my eye the circling race pursue! He snaps deceitful air with empty jaws; The suttle hare darts swift beneath his paws; She flys, he stretches, now with nimble bound Eager he presses on, but overshoots his ground: Then tears with goary mouth the screaming prey." ('Gay's Poems', vol i.--'Rural Sports', v. 290),--L.] Mr. Richardson, in his History of the Greyhound, gives a different derivation of the name of this dog. He says that the 'greyhound' was of Grecian origin--'cannis Græcus',--that 'Græcus' was not unfrequently written 'Græius', and thence was derived the term 'greyhound'. This derivation, however, is somewhat too far-fetched. Mention occurs of the greyhound in a very early period of the British history. He was an inmate of the Anglo-Saxon kennels in the time of Elfric, king of Mercia. There are paintings of him that can be satisfactorily traced to the ninth century. In the time of Canute he was reckoned first in degree of rank among the canine species, and no one under the degree of a gentleman, 'liberalis', or more properly, perhaps a 'freeholder', was allowed by the forest laws to keep them. Even he could not keep them within two miles of a royal forest, unless two of the toes were cut off and for every mile that an uncut dog was found within this distance a fine of a shilling was levied on the owner. The nobleman was rarely seen abroad without his hawk upon his fist, and his greyhound at his side. Henry II was passionately fond of them. John spared no expense to procure good horses and swift hounds, and appears frequently to have received greyhounds in lieu of money on the issue or removal of grants. For the renewal of a grant in the year 1203 he received five hundred marks, ten horses, and ten leashes of greyhounds, and for another, in 1210, one swift running horse and six greyhounds. The Isle of Dogs, now devoted to purposes of commerce, received its name from its having been, at this period, the receptacle of the greyhounds and spaniels of this monarch. It was selected on account of its contiguity to Waltham and the other royal forests where coursing was a frequent amusement. For the same purpose he often took up his abode at Greenwich. [12] Blount's Ancient Tenures abound with instances of the high repute in which this dog has ever been held in Great Britain. The holders of land in the manor of Setene in Kent were compelled, as the condition of their tenure to Edward I and II, to lend their greyhounds, when this king went into Gascony, "so long as a pair of shoes of 4d price would last." Edward III was partial to greyhounds; for when he was engaged in war with France he took with him sixty couples of them, besides other large hunting dogs. Charles I was as fond of the greyhound as his son Charles II was of the spaniel. Sir Philip Warwick thus writes of that unfortunate monarch; "Methinks, because it shows his dislike of a common court vice, it is not unworthy the relating of him, that one evening, his dog scratching at his door, he commanded me to let in Gipsy; whereupon I took, the boldness to say, Sir, I perceive you love a greyhound better than you do a spaniel. Yes, says he, for they equally love their masters, and yet do not flatter them so much." On most of the old tombs in the sculpture of which the dog is introduced, the greyhound is represented lying at the feet of his master; and an old Welsh proverb says that a gentleman may be known by his hawk, his horse, and his greyhound. The following poetical record of the fidelity, prowess, and ill-fate of Gêlert, the favourite greyhound of Llewellyn Prince of Wales, and son-in-law to King John, will he read with interest: The spearman heard the bugle sound And cheerly smiled the morn, And many a brach and many a hound Obeyed Llewellyn's horn. And still as blew a lowder blast, And gave a louder cheer, "Come, Gêlert! why art thou the last Llewellyn's horn to hear?" "Oh, where does faithful Gêlert roam? The flower of all his race! So true, so brave; a lamb at home, A lion in the chase?" 'Twas only at Lewellyn's board The faithful Gêlert fed, He watched, he served, he cheered his lord, And sentinel'd his bed. In sooth he was a peerless hound, The gift of royal John; But now no Gêlert could be found, And all the chase rode on. And now as over rocks and dells The gallant chidings rise, All Snowdon's craggy chaos yells With many mingled cries. That day llewellyn little loved The chase of hart or hare; And scan and small the booty proved, For Gêlert was not there. Unpleased Llewellyn homeward hied, When near the portal seat His truant Gêlert he espied, Bounding his lord to greet. But when he gained the castle-door, Aghast the chieftan stood; The hound was smeared with gouts of gore-- His lips and fangs ran blood. Llewellyn gazed with wild surprise: Unused such looks to meet, His favourite check'd his joyful guise And crouched and licked his feet. Onward in haste Llewellyn pass'd, And on went Gélert too; And still where'er his eyes he cast, Fresh blood-gouts shocked his view. O'erturned his infant's bed he found, The blood-stained covert rent; And all around the walls and ground, With recent blood besprent. He called his child--no voice replied-- He searched with terror wild: Blood! blood! he found on every side, But nowhere found the child. 'Hellhound! by thee my child's devoured!' The frantic father cried; And to the hilt his vengeful sword He plunged in Gélert's side. His suppliant, as to earth he fell, No pity could impart; But still his Gélert's dying yell Passed heavy o'er his heart. Aroused by Gélert's dying yell, Some slumberer wakened nigh: What words the parent's joy can tell To hear his infant cry! Concealed beneath a mangled heap His hurried search had missed, All glowing from his rosy sleep, His cherub boy he kissed. Nor scratch had he, nor harm, nor dread, But the same couch beneath, Lay a great wolf, all torn and dead, Tremendous still in death. Ah, what was then Llewellyn's pain! For now the truth was clear: The gallant hound the wolf had slain, To save Llewellyn's heir. Vain, vain was all Llewellyn's wo: "Best of thy kind, adieu! The frantic deed which laid thee low, This heart shall ever rue." And now a gallant tomb they raise, With costly sculpture decked; And marbles, storied with his praise, Poor Gélert's bones protect. Here never could the spearman pass, Or forester, unmoved; Here oft the tear-besprinkled grass Llewellyn's sorrow proved. And here he hung his horn and spear; And oft, as evening fell, In fancy's piercing sounds would hear Poor Gêlert's dying yell! It will be evident, however, from the story of the noble hound whose history is just related, that the greyhounds of the time were very different from those which are used at the present day. There are no Gêlerts now to combat successfully with the wolf, if these ferocious animals were yet to be met with in our forests. The greyhound of this early period must have resembled the Irish wolf-dog of the present day, a larger, stronger, fiercer dog than we are accustomed to see. The owner of Gêlert lived in the time of John, in the early part of the thirteenth century; but, at the latter part of the fifteenth century, the following singular description is given of the greyhound of that period. It is extracted from a very curious work entitled "The Treatise perteynynge to Hawkynge, Huntynge, &c., emprynted at Westmestre, by Wynkyn de Werde, 1496." A greyhounde should be headed lyke a snake, And neckyd lyke a drake, Fotyd lyke a cat Tayled lyke a ratte, Syded like a teme And chyned like a bream. The fyrste yere he must lerne to fede, The seconde yere to feld him lede. The thyrde yere he is felow lyke. The fourth yere there is non syke. The fifth yere he is good ynough. The syxth yere he shall hold the plough, The seventh yere he will avaylle Grete bytches for assayle. But when he is come to the ninth yere Have him then to the tannere; For the best hounde that ever bytch had At the ninth yere is full bad. As to the destiny of the poor animal in his ninth year, we differ from the author; but it cannot be denied that few dogs retain their speed beyond the eighth or ninth year. There can scarcely be a better description of the greyhound of the present day; but it would not do for the antagonist of the wolf. The breed had probably begun to degenerate, and that process would seem to have slowly progressed. Towards the close of the last century, Lord Orford, a nobleman enthusiastically devoted to coursing, imagined, and rightly, that the greyhound of his day was deficient in courage and perseverance. He bethought himself how this could best be rectified, and he adopted a plan which brought upon him much ridicule at the time, but ultimately redounded to his credit. He selected a bull-dog, one of the smooth rat-tailed species, and he crossed one of his greyhound bitches with him. He kept the female whelps and crossed them with some of his fleetest dogs, and the consequence was, that, after the sixth or seventh generation, there was not a vestige left of the form of the bulldog; but his courage and his indomitable perseverance remained, and, having once started after his game, he did not relinquish chase until he fell exhausted or perhaps died. This cross is now almost universally adopted. It is one of the secrets in the breeding of the greyhound. Of the stanchness of the well-bred greyhound, the following is a satisfactory example. A hare was started before a brace of greyhounds, and ran by them for several miles. When they were found, both the dogs and the hare lay dead within a few yards of each other. A labouring man had seen them turn her several times; but it did not appear that either of them had caught her, for there was no wound upon her. A favourite bitch of this breed was Czarina, bred by Lord Orford, and purchased at his decease by Colonel Thornton: she won every match for which she started, and they were no fewer than forty-seven. Lord Orford had matched her for a stake of considerable magnitude; but, before the appointed day arrived, he became seriously ill and was confined to his chamber. On the morning of the course he eluded the watchfulness of his attendant, saddled his favourite piebald pony, and, at the moment of starting, appeared on the course. No one had power to restrain him, and all entreaties were in vain. He peremptorily insisted on the dogs being started, and he would ride after them. His favourite bitch displayed her superiority at every stroke; she won the stakes: but at the moment of highest exultation he fell from his pony, and, pitching on his head, almost immediately expired. With all his eccentricities, he was a kind, benevolent, and honourable man. In the thirteenth year of her age, and in defiance of the strange verses just now quoted, Czarina began to breed, and two of her progeny, Claret and young Czarina, challenged the whole kingdom and won their matches. Major, and Snowball, without a white spot about him, inherited all the excellence of their dam. The former was rather the fleeter of the two, but the stanchness of Snowball nothing could exceed. A Scotch greyhound, who had beaten every opponent in his own country, was at this time brought to England, and challenged every dog in the kingdom. The challenge was accepted by Snowball, who beat him in a two-mile course. Snowball won the Mailton cup on four successive years, was never beaten, and some of his blood is now to be traced in almost every good dog in every part of the kingdom, at least in all those that are accustomed to hunt in an open country. The last match run by Snowball was against Mr. Plumber's celebrated greyhound Speed; and, so severely contested was it, that Speed died soon afterwards. A son of the old dog, called Young Snowball, who almost equalled his father, was sold for one hundred guineas. The speed of the greyhound has been said to be equal to that of the fleetest horse. A singular circumstance, which occurred at Doncaster, proved that it was not much inferior. A mare cantering over the Doncaster course, her competitor having been withdrawn, was joined by a greyhound bitch when she had proceeded about a mile. She seemed determined to race with the mare, which the jockey humoured, and gradually increased his pace, until at the distance they put themselves at their full speed. The mare beat her antagonist only by a head. The race-horse is, perhaps, generally superior to the greyhound on level ground, but the greyhound would have the advantage in a hilly country. Lord Rivers succeeded to Major Topham and Colonel Thornton, the owners of Major and Snowball, as the leading man on the course. His kennels at Strathfieldsaye were the pride of the neighbouring country. At first he bore away almost every prize, but breeding too much in and in, and for speed more than for stoutness, the reputation of his kennel considerably declined before his death. In 1797 a brace of greyhounds coursed a hare over the edge of a chalk-pit at Offham, in Sussex. The hare and both the dogs were found dead at the bottom of the pit. On another occasion a hare was chased by a brace of greyhounds: she was killed at the distance of seven miles from the place at which they started. Both of the dogs were so exhausted, that every possible assistance being given, they were with difficulty recovered. The English greyhound hunts by sight alone; not because he is altogether devoid of scent, but because he has been taught to depend upon his speed, and that degree of speed which is utterly incompatible with the searching out of the scent. It is like a pack of hounds, running breast high, with the game in view. They are then running by sight, and not by scent, almost doubling their usual pace, and sometimes, from an unexpected turning of the fox or hare, thrown out for a little while. The hound soon recovers the track by his exquisite sense of smell. The English greyhound is never taught to scent his game, but, on the contrary, is called off the moment he has lost sight of the hare, the re-starting of which is left to the spaniel. The English greyhound is distinguished by its peculiarly long and attenuated head and face, terminating in a singular sharpness of the nose, and length of the muzzle or month. There are two results from this: the length of the mouth gives a longer grasp and secures the prey, but, as the nasal cavities and the cavity of the skull are proportionately diminished, there is not so much room for the expansion of the membrane of the nose, there is less power of scent, and less space for the development of the brain. There is little want of extraordinary acute hearing, and the ears of the greyhound are small compared with his bulk. Markham recommends the ears to be close, sharp, and drooping, neither protruding by their bulk, nor tiring by their weight. The power of the eye is but of little consequence, for the game is rarely distant from the dog, and therefore, easily seen. The neck is an important portion of the frame. It should be long, in order to correspond with the length of the legs, and thus enable the dog to seize and lift the game, as he rapidly pursues his course, without throwing any undue or dangerous weight on the fore extremities. In the act of seizing the hare the short-necked dog may lose the centre of gravity and fall. The chest is a very important part of the greyhound, as well as of every other animal of speed. It must be capacious: this capacity must be obtained by depth rather than by width, in order that the shoulders may not be thrown so far apart as to impede progression. The form and situation of the shoulders are of material consequence; for on them depends the extent of the action which the animal is capable of exerting. The shoulders should be broad and deep, and obliquely placed. They are so in the horse, and the action of the dog depends entirely on this conformation. The fore legs should be set on square at the shoulder: bulging out at the elbow not only gives a clumsy appearance, but makes the dog slow. The legs should have plenty of bone, and be straight, and well set on the feet, and the toes neither turned out nor in. The fore arm, or that portion of the leg which is between the elbow and the knee, should be long, straight and muscular. These are circumstances that cannot be dispensed with. The length of the fore arm, and the low placing of the pastern, are of essential importance. With regard to the form of the back and sides of the greyhound, Mr. Thacker says, with much truth, that "It is the strength of the back which is brought into requisition, in particular, in running over hilly ground. Here may be said to rest the distinction between long and short backs, supposing both to be good and strong. The more lengthy the back, and proportionately strong, the more the greyhound is calculated to beat the shorter-backed dog on the flat; but on hilly ground one with a shorter back will have the advantage." [13] The ribs should also be well arched. We would perhaps avoid him with sides too decidedly outswelling, but still more would we avoid the direct flat-sided dog. Without really good haunches and muscular thighs, it has been well remarked that the odds are against any dog, be his other points whatever they may. It is by the propulsatory efforts of the muscles of the loins and thighs that the race is won. The thighs should be large, and muscularly indented; the hocks broad, and, like the knee, low placed. These are very important points; for, as Mr. Blaine has properly remarked, "on the extent of the angles formed between these several portions of the hinder limbs, depends the extent of the space passed over at each bound." The colour of the greyhound varies exceedingly. Some are perfectly black and glossy. In strength and endurance, the brindled dog, or the brown or fawn-coloured one, is the best. The white greyhound, although a beautiful animal and swift, is not, perhaps, quite so much to be depended on. The greyhound is said to be deficient in attachment to his master and in general intelligence. There is some truth in the imputation; but, in fact, the greyhound has, far less than even the hound, the opportunity of forming individual attachments, and no other exercise of the mind is required of him than to follow the game which starts up before him, and to catch it if he can. If, however, he is closely watched he will be found to have all the intellect that his situation requires. [14] As to the individual attachment which the greyhound may form, he has not always or often the opportunity to acquire or to exhibit it. The keeper exercises over him a tyrannical power, and the owner seldom notices him in the manner which excites affection, or scarcely recognition; but, as a plea for the seeming want of fondness, which, compared with other breeds, he exhibits, it will be sufficient to quote the testimony of the younger Xenophon, who had made the greyhound his companion and his friend. "I have myself bred up," says he, "a swift, hard-working, courageous, sound-footed dog. He is most gentle and kindly affectioned, and never before had I any such a dog for myself, or my friend, or my fellow-sportsman. When he is not actually engaged in coursing, he is never away from me. On his return he runs before me, often looking back to see whether I had turned out of the road, and as soon as he again catches sight of me, showing symptoms of joy, and once more trotting away before me. If a short time only has passed since he has seen me or my friend, he jumps up repeatedly by way of salutation, and barks with joy as a greeting to us. He has also many different tones of speech, and such as I never heard from any other dog. Now really I do not think that I ought to be ashamed to chronicle the name of this dog, or to let posterity know that Xenophon the Athenian had a greyhound, called Hormé, possessed of the greatest speed, and intelligence, and fidelity, and excellent in every point." [The Greek sportsmen held their dogs in peculiar estimation; they were not only their attendants in the field, but their constant companions in their houses, were fed from their tables, and even shared their beds. It is with some degree of pleasure that the patrons of this noble animal will witness, in the following remarks, the tender solicitude with which this people watched over their dogs. "There is nothing like a soft and warm bed for greyhounds, but it is best for them to sleep with men, as they become thereby affectionately attached, pleased with the contact of the human body, and as fond of their bed-fellow as of their feeder. If any ailing affect the dog the man will perceive it, and will relieve him in the night, when thirsty, or urged by any call of nature. He will also know how the dog has rested. For if he has passed a sleepless night, or groaned frequently in his sleep, or thrown up any of his food, it will not be safe to take him out coursing. All these things the dog's bed-fellow will be acquainted with." (Arrian, chap. ix. Trans.) It was also not an unusual circumstance for the most polished Greeks, when sending notes of invitation to their friends, requesting their presence in celebration of some festive occasion, to extend the same civilities to their favourite dogs, by desiring them to be brought along, as will be seen by the following paragraph selected from a letter of this kind addressed by one friend to another. "I am about to celebrate the birth-day of my son, and I invite you, my Pithacion, to the feast. But come not alone; bring with you your wife, children, and your brother. If you will bring also your bitch, who is a good guard, and by the loudness of her voice drives away the enemies of your flocks, she will not, I warrant, disdain to be partaker of our feast, &c." (Letter xviii., Alciphron's Epistles.)--L.] The greyhound has within the last fifty years assumed a somewhat different character from that which he once possessed. He is distinguished by a beautiful symmetry of form, of which he once could not boast, and he has even superior speed to that which he formerly exhibited. He is no longer used to struggle with the deer, but he contends with his fellow over a shorter and speedier course. The rules for breeding and breaking-in of greyhounds are very simple. The utmost attention should be paid to the qualities of the parents; for it is as certain in these dogs as in the horse that all depends upon the breeding. The bitch should be healthy and of good size; the dog muscular, stanch, and speedy, and somewhat larger than the bitch. Both should have arrived at their full vigour, and with none of their powers beginning to fail. Those as much as possible should be selected whose peculiar appearance bids fair to increase the good qualities and diminish the bad ones on either side. The best blood and the best form should be diligently sought. Breeding from young dogs on either side should, generally speaking, be avoided. With regard to older dogs, whether male or female, there may be less care. Many greyhounds, both male and female, eight, nine, and ten years of age, have been the progenitors of dogs possessing every stanch and good quality. On no consideration, however, should the bitch be put to the dog before she is two years old. Little can be done to regulate the period of oestrum; but the most valuable breed will be almost invariably that which is produced during the spring, because at that time there will often be opportunity for that systematic exercise on which the growth and powers of the dog so materially depend. A litter of puppies in the beginning or even the middle of winter will often be scarcely worth the trouble or expense of rearing. The age of the greyhound is now taken from the first day in the year; but the conditions of entry are fixed at different periods. It seems, however, to be agreed that no dog or bitch can qualify for a puppy cup after two years of ago. One principle to be ever kept in mind is a warm and comfortable situation, and a plentiful supply of nourishment for the mother and for the puppies from the moment of their birth. The dog that is stinted in his early growth will never do its owner credit. The bitch should be abundantly supplied with milk, and the young ones with milk and bread, and oatmeal, and small portions of flesh as soon as they are disposed to eat it; great care, however, being taken that they are not over-gorged. Regular and proper feeding, with occasional exercise, will constitute the best preparation for the actual training. If a foster-mother be required for the puppies, it should, if possible, be a greyhound; for it is not at all impossible that the bad qualities of the nurse may to a greater or less degree be communicated to the whelps. Bringing up by hand is far preferable to the introduction of any foster-mother. A glass or Indian-rubber bottle may be used for a little while, if not until the weaning. Milk at first, and afterwards milk and sop alternately, may be used. There is a difference of opinion whether the whelp should be kept in the kennel and subjected to its regular discipline, or placed at walk in some farm-house. In consequence of the liberty he will enjoy at the latter, his growth will probably be more rapid; but, running with the farmers' dogs, and probably coursing many hares, he will acquire, to a certain degree, a habit of wildness. It is useless to deny this; but, on the other hand, nothing will contribute so much to the development of every power as a state of almost unlimited freedom when the dogs are young. The wildness that will be exhibited can soon be afterwards restrained so far as is necessary, and the dog who has been permitted to exert his powers when young will manifest his superiority in more advanced age, and in nothing more than his dexterity at the turn. When the training actually commences, it should be preceded by a couple of doses of physic, with an interval of five or six days, and, probably, a moderate bleeding between them; for, if the dog begins to work overloaded with flesh and fat, he will suffer so severely from it that possibly he will never afterwards prove a game dog. In the course of his training he should be allowed every advantage and experience every encouragement. His courses should be twice or thrice a-week, according to their severity, and as often as it can be effected be should be rewarded with some mark of kindness. In the 'Sportsman' for April, 1840, is an interesting account of the chase of the hare. It is said that, in general, a good greyhound will reach a hare if she runs straight. He pursues her eagerly, and the moment he is about to strike at her she turns short, and the dog, unable to stop himself, is thrown from ten to twenty yards from her. These jerking turns soon begin to tell upon a dog, and an old well-practised hare will seldom fail to make her escape. When, however, pursued by a couple of dogs, the hare has a more difficult game to play, as it frequently happens that when she is turned by the leading dog she has great difficulty in avoiding the stroke of the second. It is highly interesting to witness the game of an old hare. She has generally some brake or thicket in view, under the cover of which she means to escape from her pursuers. On moving from her seat she makes directly for the hiding-place, but, unable to reach it, has recourse to turning, and, 'wrenched' by one or the other of her pursuers, she seems every moment almost in the jaws of one of them, and yet in a most dexterous manner she accomplishes her object. A greyhound, when he perceives a hare about to enter a thicket, is sure to strike at her if within any reasonable distance. The hare shortens her stride as she approaches the thicket, and at the critical moment she makes so sudden, dexterous, and effectual a spring, that the dogs are flung to a considerable distance, and she has reached the cover and escaped. The isle of Cyprus has for many years been celebrated for its breed of the greyhound. On grand days, or when the governor is present, the sport is conducted in a curious manner. When the hare is ready to become the prey of its enemies, the governor rushes forwards, and, throwing before the greyhounds a stick which he carries, they all instantaneously stop. The hare now runs a little distance; but one of the swiftest greyhounds is then let loose. He pursues the hare, and, having come up with it, carries it back, and, springing on the neck of the governor's horse, places it before him. The governor delivers it to one of his officers, who sends it to the park, where he maintains many prisoners of the same kind; for he will not destroy the animal that has contributed to his amusement. [15] The following, according to Mr. Blaine, an ardent courser in his youth, is the best mode of feeding greyhounds at regular work: "The dogs had a full flesh meal every afternoon or evening, as more nutriment is derived from night-feeding than by day, and when sleeping than when waking. In the morning they were let out, and either followed the keeper about the paddock, or the groom in his horse exercise, and then had a trifling meat of mixed food, as a quieting portion, until the evening full meal. Such was our practice on the days when no coursing was contemplated, and, with the exception of lowering the quantity and quality of the evening meal, the same plan was pursued throughout the year. On the day previous to coursing, if we intended anything like an exhibition of our dogs before company engaged to meet us on the marshes, we gave a plentiful meal early the previous day, some exercise also in the afternoon, and a light supper at night, of meal with either broth or milk, with a man on horseback going a gentle trot of six or seven miles an hour." [16] Mr. Thacker orders the greyhounds out on the fore part of every day; but, instead of being loose and at liberty, they would be much better two and two; then, when he meets with a proper field to loose them in, to give them a good gallop. This will be a greater novelty than if they had been loose on the road, and they will gallop with more eagerness. Four days in a week will be enough for this exercise. On one day there should he a gallop of one or two miles, or even a course for each brace of dogs. The young dog has usually an older and more experienced one to start with him. That which is of most importance is, that his leader should be a thoroughly stout and high-mettled dog. If he shrinks or shies at any impediment, however formidable, the young one will be sure to imitate him, and to become an uncertain dog, if not a rank coward. Early in November is the time when these initiatory trials are to be made. It is of consequence that the young one should witness a death as soon as possible. Some imagine that two old dogs should accompany the young one at its first commencement. After the death of the leveret, the young dog must be coaxed and fondled, but never suffered to taste the blood. In kennels in which the training is regularly conducted, the dog should be brushed all over twice every day. Few things contribute so much to health as general cleanliness, and friction applied to the skin. Warmth is as necessary for greyhounds as for horses, and should not be forgotten in cold weather. Body-clothing is a custom of considerable antiquity, and should not be abandoned. The breeder of greyhounds for the purpose of coursing must reckon upon incurring considerable expense; but, if he loves the sport, ho will be amply remunerated by the speed and stoutness of his dogs. A question has arisen whether, on the morning of the coursing, any stimulant should be given to the dog. The author of this work would unhesitatingly approve of this practice. He has had abundant experience of the good effect of it; but the stimulus must be that which, while it produces the desired effect, leaves no exhaustion behind. [17] THE SCOTCH GREYHOUND has the same sharpness of muzzle, length of head, lightness of ear, and depth of chest, as the English dog; but the general frame is stronger and more muscular, the hind quarters more prominent, there is evident increase of size and roughness of coat, and there is also some diminution of speed. If it were not for these points, these dogs might occasionally be taken for each other. In coursing the hare, no north-country dog will stand against the lighter southern, although the southern would be unequal to the labour often required from the Highlander. The Scotch greyhound is said--perhaps wrongly--to be oftenest used by those who look more to the quantity of game than to the fairness and openness of the sport, and in some parts of the country this dog is not permitted to be entered for a sweepstakes, because, instead of depending on his speed alone, as does the English greyhound, he has recourse to occasional artifices in order to intercept the hare. In sporting language he runs sly, and, therefore, is sometimes excluded. THE HIGHLAND GREYHOUND, OR DEER-HOUND is a larger, stronger, and fiercer dog, and may be readily distinguished from the Lowland Scotch greyhound by its pendulous, and, generally, darker ears, and by the length of hair which almost covers his face. Many accounts have been given of the perfection of its scent, and it is said to have followed a wounded deer during two successive days. He is usually two inches taller than the Scotch greyhound. The head is carried particularly high, and gives to the animal a noble appearance. His limbs are exceedingly muscular, his back beautifully arched. The tail is long and curved, but assumes the form of an almost straight line when he is much excited. The only fault which these dogs have is their occasional ill-temper, or even ferocity; but this does not extend to the owner and his family. It appears singular that the English greyhound exhibits so little power of scent; but this is simply because he has never been taught to use it, or has been cruelly corrected when he has attempted to exercise it. Holinshed relates the mischief that followed the stealing of one of these dogs: "Divers of the young Pictesh nobilitye repaired unto Craithlint, King of the Scots, for to hunt and make merie with him; but, when they should depart homewards, perceiving that the Scotish dogs did far excel theirs, both in fairnesse, swiftnesse, and hardinesse, and also in long standing up and holding out, they got diverse both dogs and bitches of the best kind for breed, to be given them by the Scotish Lords: and yet not so contented, they stole one belonging to the King from his keeper, being more esteemed of him than all the others which he had about him. The maister of the leash, being informed hereof pursued after them that had stolen the dog, thinking, indeed, to have taken him from them: but they not being to part with him fell at altercation, and at the end chanced to strike the maister of the leash through with their horse spears, so that he did die presently. Whereupon noise and crie being raised in the country by his servantes, divers of the Scots, as they were going home from hunting, returned, and falling upon the Picts to revenge the death of their fellow, there ensued a shrewed bickering betwixt them; so that of the Scots there died three score gentlemen, besides a great number of the commons, not one of them understanding what the matter meant. Of the Picts there were about 100 slaine." Mr. H.D. Richardson describes a cross between the greyhound and British bloodhound: "It is a tall muscular raw-boned dog, the ears far larger, and more pendulous, than those of the greyhound or deer-hound. The colour is generally black, or black and tan; his muzzle and the tips of the ears usually dark. He is exceedingly swift and fierce; can pull down a stag single-handed; runs chiefly by sight, but will also occasionally take up the scent. In point of scent, however, he is inferior to the true deer-hound. This dog cannot take a turn readily, but often fails at the double." [18] THE IRISH GREYHOUND. This dog differs from the Scotch, in having shorter and finer hair, of a pale fawn colour, and pendent ears. It is, compared with the Scotch dog, gentle and harmless, perhaps indolent, until roused. It is a larger dog than the Scottish dog, some of them being full four feet in length, and proportionately muscular. On this account, and also on account of their determined spirit when roused, they were carefully preserved by some Irish gentlemen. They were formerly used in hunting the wolf when that animal infested the forests of Ireland. Mr. Bell says that the last person who kept the pure breed was Lord Altamont, who in 1780 "had eight of them." [19] THE GASEHOUND, the 'agasaeus' of former times, was probably allied to, or connected with, the Irish greyhound. It hunted entirely by sight, and, if its prey was lost for a time, it could recover it by a singular distinguishing faculty. Should the deer rejoin the herd, the dog would unerringly select him again from all his companions: "Seest thou the gasehound how with glance severe From the close herd he marks the destined deer?" [20] There is no dog possessed of this quality at present known in Europe; but the translator of Arrian thinks that it might be produced between the Irish greyhound and the bloodhound. THE IRISH WOLF-DOG This animal is nearly extinct, or only to be met with at the mansions of one or two persons by whom he is kept more for show than use, the wild animals which he seemed powerful enough to conquer having long disappeared from the kingdom. The beauty of his appearance and the antiquity of his race are his only claims, as he disdains the chase of stag, fox, or hare, although he is ever ready to protect the person and the property of his master. His size is various, some having attained the height of four feet, and Dr. Goldsmith stales that he saw one as large as a yearling calf. He is shaped like a greyhound, but stouter; and the only dog which the writer from whom this account is taken ever saw approaching to his graceful figure, combining beauty with strength, is the large Spanish wolf-dog: concerning which he adds, that, showing one of these Spanish dogs to some friends, he leaped through a window into a cow-house, where a valuable calf was lying, and seizing the terrified animal, killed it in an instant; some sheep having in the same way disappeared, he was given away. The same writer says that his grandfather had an Irish wolf-dog which saved his mother's life from a wolf as she was paying a visit attended by this faithful follower. He rushed on his foe just when he was about to make his spring, and after a fierce struggle laid him dead at his mistress's feet. His name was Bran. [21] THE RUSSIAN GREYHOUND is principally distinguished by its dark-brown or iron-grey colour--its short semi-erect ears--its thin lanky body--long but muscular legs--soft thick hair, and the hair of its tail forming a spiral twist, or fan, (thence called the fan-tailed dog,) and as he runs having a very pleasing appearance. He hunts by scent as well as by sight, and, therefore, small packs of this kind are sometimes kept, against which the wolf, or even the bear, would stand little chance. He is principally used for the chase of the deer or the wolf, but occasionally follows the hare. The deer is the principal object of pursuit, and for this he is far better adapted than to contend with the ferocious wolf. His principal faults are want of activity and dexterity. He is met with in most parts of Russia, where his breed is carefully preserved by the nobility, with whom coursing is a favourite diversion. Some dogs of this breed were not long ago introduced into Ireland. THE GRECIAN GREYHOUND The author is glad that he is enabled to present his readers with the portrait of one now in the menagerie of the Zoological Society of London. It is the dog whose image is occasionally sculptured on the friezes of some of the ancient Grecian temples, and was doubtless a faithful portrait of one of the dogs which Xenophon the Athenian valued, and was the companion of the heroes of Greece in her ancient glory. The principal difference between the Grecian and the English greyhound is, that the former is not so large, the muzzle is not so pointed, and the limbs are not so finely framed. THE TURKISH GREYHOUND is a small-sized hairless dog, or with only a few hairs on his tail. He is never used in the field, and bred only as a spoiled pet, yet not always spoiled, for anecdotes are related of his inviolable attachment to his owner. One of them belonged to a Turkish Pacha who was destroyed by the bowstring. He would not forsake the corpse, but laid himself down by the body of his murdered master, and presently expired. THE PERSIAN GREYHOUND is a beautiful animal. He is more delicately framed than the English breed; the ears are also more pendulous, and feathered almost as much as those of a King Charles's spaniel. Notwithstanding, however, his apparent slenderness and delicacy, he yields not in courage, and scarcely in strength, to the British dog. There are few kennels in which he is found in which he is not the master. In his native country, he is not only used for hunting the hare, but the antelope, the wild ass, and even the boar. The antelope is speedier than the greyhound: therefore the hawk is given to him as an ally. The antelope is no sooner started than the hawk is cast off, who, fluttering before the head of the deer, and sometimes darting his talons into his head, disconcerts him, and enables the greyhound speedily to overtake and master him. The chase, however, in which the Persians chiefly delight, and for which these greyhounds are mostly valued, is that of the 'ghoo-khan', or wild ass. This animal inhabits the mountainous districts of Persia. He is swift, ferocious, and of great endurance, which, together with the nature of the ground, renders this sport exceedingly dangerous. The hunter scarcely gives the animal a fair chance, for relays of greyhounds are placed at various distances in the surrounding country; so that, when those by which the animal is first started are tired, there are others to continue the chase. Such, however, is the speed and endurance of the ghoo-khan, that it is seldom fairly run down by the greyhounds, its death being usually achieved by the rifle of some horseman. The Persians evince great skill and courage in this dangerous sport, galloping at full speed, rifle in hand, up and down the most precipitous hills, and across ravines and mountain streams, that might well daunt the boldest rider. [22] The Persian greyhound, carried to Hindoostan, is not always to be depended upon; but, it is said, is apt to console itself by hunting its own master, or any one else, when the game proves too fleet or escapes into the cover. THE ITALIAN GREYHOUND possesses all the symmetry of the English or Persian one, on a small scale. So far as beauty can recommend it, and, generally speaking, good nature, it is deservedly a favourite in the drawingroom; but, like the large greyhound, it is inferior in intelligence. It has no strong individual attachment, but changes it with singular facility. It is not, however, seen to advantage in its petted and degraded state, but has occasionally proved a not unsuccessful courser of the rabbit and the hare, and exhibited no small share of speed and perseverance. In a country, however, the greater part of which is infested with wolves, it cannot be of much service, but exposed to unnecessary danger. It is bred along the coasts of Italy, principally for the purpose of sale to foreigners. In order to acquire more perfect beauty of form, and more activity also, the English greyhound has received one cross from the Italian, and with decided advantage. The speed and the beauty have been evidently increased, and the courage and stoutness have not been diminished. It has been said that Frederick the Great of Prussia was very fond of a small Italian greyhound, and used to carry it about with him under his cloak. During the seven years' war, he was pursued by a party of Austrian dragoons, and compelled to take shelter, with his favourite, under the dry arch of a bridge. Had the little animal, that was naturally ill-tempered and noisy, once barked, the monarch would have been taken prisoner, and the fate of the campaign and of Prussia decided; but it lay perfectly still, and clung close to its master, as if conscious of their mutual danger. When it died, it was buried in the gardens of the palace at Berlin, and a suitable inscription placed over its grave. [Footnote 1: 'Annals of Sporting', vol. vi. p. 99.] [Footnote 2: The superstition of the Arabians and Turks with regard to dogs is somewhat singular: neither have they much affection for these animals, or suffer them to be in or near the camp, except to guard it in the night. They have, however, some charity for the females that have whelps. As for other dogs, they feed them well, and give them good words, but never touch them nor go near them, because dogs are regarded as unclean animals. They particularly drive them away in wet weather; for, if one drop of water from a dog should fall on their raiment, their devotion would be interrupted and useless. They who are fond of hunting make their religion subservient to their pleasure, and say that greyhounds and setters are excepted from the general rule, because when not running these dogs are tied up where nothing unclean can reach them, and they are never suffered to eat any thing unclean. Their opinion is the same with regard to small dogs, which are kept with great care, and no one willingly injures a dog, or, if he should injure purposely, or destroy one of them, the law would punish him. Chevalier Darvieux's 'Travels in Arabia Deserta', 1718, p. 155.] [Footnote 3: 'Heber's Narrative', p. 500.] [Footnote 4: 'Histoire du Chien', par Elzear Blaze, p. 54.] [Footnote 5: 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society', Part I. 833.] [Footnote 6: Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports'] [Footnote 7: Poiret, in his 'Travels in Barbary' asserts that "the dog loses in the East a great part of those good qualities that make him the friend of man. He is no longer a faithful domesticated animal, faithfully attached to his master, and ever ready to defend him even at the expense of his own life. He is cruel and blood-thirsty, his look is savage, and his appearance revolting; carrion, filth, anything is good enough for him if he can but appease his hunger. They seldom bite one another, but they unite against a stranger who approaches the Arab tents, and would tear him to pieces if he did not seek his safety in flight." Vol. i. p. 353. Denon, when in the city of Alexandria, in Egypt, says, "I have no longer recognised the dog, that friend of man, the attached and faithful companion--the lively and honest courtier. He is here a gloomy egotist, and cut off from all human intercourse without being the less a slave. He does not know him whose house he protects, and devours his corpse without repugnance." Travels in Lower Egypt, p. 32.] [Footnote 8: 'Histoire du Chien', p. 200. The Voyage of Dumont d'Urville, vol. ii. p.474.] [Footnote 9: Greyhound.] [Footnote 10: Overcast, or overrun.] [Footnote 11: Ovid, 'Metamorph.', lib. i. v. 353.] [Footnote 12: A singular story is told of Richard II, and one of these dogs. It is given in the language of Froissart. "A grayhounde called Mithe, who always wayted upon the kynge, and would knowe no man els. For when so ever the kynge did ryde, he that kept the grayhounde dyd lette him lose, and he wolde streyght runne to the kynge and faune uppon hym, and leape with his fore fete uppon the kynge's shoulders. And, as the kynge and the Erle of Derby talked togyder in the courte, the grayhounde who was wonte to leape uppon the kynge, left the kynge and came to the Erle of Derby, Duke of Lancastre; and made to him the same friendly continuance and chere as he was wonte to do to the kynge. The duke, who knewe not the grayhounde, demanded of the kynge what the grayhounde wolde do? 'Cousin,' qoud the kynge, 'it is a greate goode token to you, and an evyl signe to me.' 'How knowe you that?' quod the duke. 'I knowe it well,' quod the kynge. 'The grayhounde acknowledgeth you here this daye as Kynge of England, as ye shall be, and I shal be deposed; the grayhounde hath this knowledge naturally: therefore take hyme to you, he wyll followe you and forsake me.' The duke understood well those words, and cheryshed the grayhounde, who would never after followe kynge Richarde, but followed the duke of Lancastre."] [Footnote 13: 'Thacker on Sporting'.] [Footnote 14: The writer of this work had a brace of greyhounds as arrant thieves as ever lived. They would now and then steal into the cooking-room belonging to the kennel, lift the lid from the boiler, and, if any portion of the joint or piece of meat projected above the water, suddenly seize it, and before there was time for them to feel much of its heat, contrive to whirl it on the floor, and eat it at their leisure as it got cold. In order to prevent this, the top of the boiler was secured by an iron rod passing under its handle of the boiler on each side; but not many days passed ere they discovered that they could gnaw the cords asunder, and displace the rod, and fish out the meat as before. Small chains were then substituted for the cords, and the meat was cooked in safety for nearly a week, when they found that, by rearing themselves on their hind legs, and applying their united strength towards the top of the boiler they could lift it out of its bed and roll it along the floor, and so get at the broth, although the meat was out of their reach. The man who looked after them expressed himself heartily glad when they were gone; for, he said, he was often afraid to go into the kennel, and was sure they were devils, and not dogs.] [Footnote 15: Scott's 'Sportsman's Repository', p. 97.] [Footnote 16: Blaine's 'Encyclopedia of Sporting'.] [Footnote 17: For a set of laws for Coursing Matches. see Appendix.] [Footnote 18: 'Sportsman', vol. xi. p. 314] [Footnote 19: Bell's 'British Quadrupeds', p. 241.] [Footnote 20: Tickell's 'Miscellanies'] [Footnote 21: 'Sporting Mag.' 1837, p. 156.] [Footnote 22: 'New Sports. Mag.' xiii. 124.] * * * * * CHAPTER III. THE VARIETIES OF THE DOG. SECOND DIVISION. The head moderately elongated, the parietals not approaching from their insertion, but rather diverging, so as to enlarge the cerebral cavities and the frontal sinuses; consequently giving to these dogs greater power of scent and intelligence. They constitute the most pleasing and valuable division of the Dog. The Spaniel is evidently the parent of the Newfoundland dog and the setter; while the retriever, the poodle, the Bernardine, the Esquimaux, the Siberian, and the Greenland dogs, the shepherd and drover's dog, and every variety distinguished for intelligence and fidelity, have more or less of his blood in them. THE SPANIEL is probably of Spanish origin, and thence his name. The ears are large and pendent, the tail elevated, the fur of a different length in different parts of the body, but longest about the ears, under the neck, behind the thighs and on the tail, varying in colour, but most commonly white with brown or black patches. There are many varieties of the spaniel. The smallest of the 'land' spaniels is THE COCKER. It is chiefly used in flushing woodcocks and pheasants in thickets and copses into which the setter, and even the springer, can scarcely enter. "But, if the shady woods my cares employ, In quest of feathered game my spaniels beat, Puzzling the entangled copse, and from the brake Push forth the whirring pheasant." The cocker is here very useful, although he is occasionally an exceedingly impatient animal. He is apt to whimper and babble as soon as he comes upon the scent of game, and often raises the bird before the sportsman is within reach: but when he is sufficiently broken in not to give tongue until the game rises, he is exceedingly valuable. There can scarcely be a prettier object than this little creature, full of activity, and bustling in every direction, with his tail erect; and, the moment he scents the bird, expressing his delight by the quivering of every limb, and the low eager whimpering which the best breaking cannot always subdue. Presently the bird springs, and then he shrieks out his ecstasy, startling even the sportsman with his sharp, shrill, and strangely expressive bark. The most serious objection to the use of the cocker is the difficulty of teaching him to distinguish his game, and confine himself within bounds; for he will too often flush everything that comes within his reach. It is often the practice to attach bells to his collar, that the sportsman may know where he is; but there is an inconvenience connected with this, that the noise of the bells will often disturb and spring the game before the dog comes fairly upon it. Patience and perseverance, with a due mixture of kindness and correction, will, however, accomplish a great deal in the tuition of the well-bred spaniel. He may at first hunt about after every bird that presents itself, or chase the interdicted game; but, if he is immediately called in and rated, or perhaps corrected, but not too severely, he will learn his proper lesson, and will recognise the game, to which alone his attention must be directed. The grand secret in breaking in these dogs is mildness, mingled with perseverance, the lessons being enforced, and practically illustrated by the example of an old and steady dog. These spaniels will sometimes vie with almost every other species of dog in intelligence, and will not yield to one of them in fidelity. A gentleman in Sussex had an old cocker, that was his constant companion, both in the house and the field. If the morning was rainy, the dog was perfectly quiet; if it was fine, he became restless, and, at the usual time for his master to go out, he would take him by the flap of his coat, and gently pull at it. If the door was opened, he ran immediately to the keeper's lodge, which was at a considerable distance from the house. This was a signal for the other dogs to be brought up, and then he trotted back to announce their approach. [This beautiful and interesting dog, so called from his peculiar suitableness for woodcock shooting, is but little known among us except as a boudoir companion for our ladies. He is, nevertheless, extensively used in England by sportsmen for finding and flushing this bird, as also the pheasant; and no doubt, if introduced into our country, would prove equally, if not more serviceable, in putting up game concealed in the thickets and marshy hollows of our uncleared grounds. Having extremely fine scenting powers, they are also employed in greyhound coursing, to give warning of the proximity of a hare, which they seldom fail to accomplish. This active little animal hunts with great spirit, and soon becomes attached to the sport; in fact the only difficulty to be overcome in breaking him, is the effort it requires to make him suppress his natural ardour and withhold his exclamations of delight till the bird is actually on the wing. The tutelage of the cocker intended for the field should commence as early as possible, and is not, as many suppose, attended with great difficulty. His first lessons should be confined to the art of bringing and carrying, which he soon, in common with all the other members of the spaniel tribe, learns. The next thing to be inculcated is implicit obedience to our wishes; then, at the age of four months or so, he may be carried to the field, where his natural fondness for hunting will soon be developed by his chasing every bird within his reach. When this impulse is fully exhibited, and the dog expresses gratification in the amusement, he should be then instructed to give chase, or not, at his master's pleasure. When this desirable end has been accomplished, he may be introduced to the particular kinds of game which it is proposed to hunt him on, and by slow degrees teach him to confine his attentions to those varieties alone. It is absolutely necessary that the dog be forced to hunt as near to the sportsman as possible, otherwise the game will be flushed at such a distance that it will be impossible to get at it. The cocker spaniel is much smaller than the springer; his ears are long, pendulous, and silky; his body round and compact; his legs short and tufted; his coat variable; his nose black; tail bushy and feathered, and, when hunting, is kept in constant motion. Some are black and white, others liver colour and yellow; the latter variety we have most usually seen in this country, and some of them have been represented to us as well-broken and serviceable dogs.--L.] THE KING CHARLES'S SPANIEL, so called from the fondness of Charles II for it--who usually had some of them following him, wherever he went--belongs likewise to the cockers. Its form and character are well preserved in one of the paintings of the unfortunate parent of that monarch and his family. The ears deeply fringed and sweeping the ground, the rounder form of the forehead, the larger and moister eye, the longer and silken coat, and the clearness of the tan, and white and black colour, sufficiently distinguish this variety. His beauty and diminutive size have consigned him to the drawing-room or parlour. Charles the First had a breed of spaniels, very small, with the hair black and curly. The spaniel of the second Charles was of the black and tan breed. The King Charles's breed of the present day is materially altered for the worse. The muzzle is almost as short, and the forehead as ugly and prominent, as the veriest bull-dog. The eye is increased to double its former size, and has an expression of stupidity with which the character of the dog too accurately corresponds. Still there is the long ear, and the silky coat, and the beautiful colour of the hair, and for these the dealers do not scruple to ask twenty, thirty, and even fifty guineas. [This breed of dog was cultivated with such jealous care by the late Duke of Norfolk, that no solicitation or entreaty could induce this nobleman to part with one of these favourites, except under certain peculiar stipulations and injunctions, as detailed in the following interview of Mr. Blain with the late Duchess of York. "On one occasion, when we were accompanying Her Royal Highness to her menagerie, with almost a kennel of canine favourites behind her, after drawing our attention to a jet black pug pup she had just received from Germany, she remarked that she was going to show me what she considered a present of much greater rarity, which was a true King Charles's breed sent to her by the Duke of Norfolk. 'But,' she observed, 'would you believe he could be so ungallant as to write word that he must have a positive promise not from myself, but from the Duke of York, that I should not breed from it in the direct line?'" Notwithstanding these selfish restrictions on the part of this noble patron of the spaniel, this breed of dog has become quite common in England, and not a few have found their way to this country.--L.] THE SPRINGER This dog is slower and steadier in its range than the cocker; but it is a much safer dog for the shooter, and can better stand a hard day's work. The largest and best breed of springers is said to be in Sussex, and is much esteemed in the Wealds of that county. From a cross with the terrier a black and tan variety was procured, which was cultivated by the late Duke of Norfolk, and thence called the Norfolk Spaniel. It is larger than the common springer, and stancher, and stouter. It often forms a strong individual attachment, and is unhappy and pines away when separated from its master. It is more ill-tempered than the common springer, and, if not well broken in, is often exceedingly obstinate. [Mr. Skinner informs us that this breed, in its greatest purity, may be found in the Carrollton family, as also in the possession of Mr. Keyworth of Washington city.--L.] THE BLACK AND TAN SPANIEL, the cross of the terrier being nearly or quite got rid of, is often a beautiful animal, and is much valued, although it is frequently considered a somewhat stupid animal. The cocker and the springer are sometimes used as finders in coursing. THE BLENHEIM SPANIEL, a breed cultivated by one of the Dukes of Marlborough, belongs to this division. From its beauty, and occasional gaiety, it is oftener an inhabitant of the drawing-room than the field; but it occasionally breaks out, and shows what nature designed it for. Some of these carpeted pets acquit themselves nobly in the covert. There they ought oftener to be; for they have not much individuality of attachment to recommend them, and, like other spoiled animals, both quadruped and biped, misbehave. The breed has degenerated of late, and is not always to be had pure, even in the neighbourhood of Blenheim. This spaniel may he distinguished by the length and silkiness of the coat, the deep fringe about the ear, the arch and deep-feathering of the tail, the full and moist eye, and the blackness of the palate. THE WATER-SPANIEL. Of this breed there are two varieties, a larger and smaller, both useful according to the degree of range or the work required; the smaller, however, being ordinarily preferable. Whatever be his general size, strength and compactness of form are requisite. His head is long, his face smooth, and his limbs, more developed than those of the springer, should be muscular, his carcase round, and his hair long and closely curled. Good breaking is more necessary here than even with the land-spaniel, and, fortunately, it is more easily accomplished; for, the water-spaniel, although a stouter, is a more docile animal than the land one. Docility and affection are stamped on his countenance, and he rivals every other breed in his attachment to his master. His work is double; first to find, when ordered so to do, and to back behind the sportsman when the game will be more advantageously trodden up. In both he must be taught to be perfectly obedient to the voice, that he may be kept within range, and not unnecessarily disturb the birds. A more important part of his duty, however, is to find and bring the game that has dropped. To teach him to find is easy enough, for a young water-spaniel will as readily take to the water as a pointer puppy will stop; but to bring his game without tearing is a more difficult lesson, and the most difficult of all is to make him suspend the pursuit of the wounded game while the sportsman re-loads. The water-spaniel was originally from Spain; but the pure breed has been lost, and the present dog is probably descended from the large water-dog and the English setter. The water and land spaniels differ materially from each other. The water-spaniel, although when at his work being all that his master can desire, is, when unemployed, comparatively a slow and inactive dog; but under this sobriety of demeanor is concealed a strength and fidelity of attachment to which the more lively land-spaniel cannot always lay just claim. The writer of this work once saved a young water-spaniel from the persecution of a crowd of people who had driven it into a passage, and were pelting it with stones. The animal had the character of being, contrary to what his species usually are, exceedingly savage; and he suffered himself to be taken up by me and carried from his foes with a kind of sullenness; but when, being out of the reach of danger, he was put down, he gazed on his deliverer, and then crouched at his feet. From that moment he attached himself to his new master with an intensity of affection scarcely conceivable--never expressed by any boisterous caresses, but by endeavouring to be in some manner in contact with him; resting his head upon his foot; lying upon some portion of his apparel, his eye intently fixed upon him; endeavouring to understand every expression of his countenance. He would follow one gentleman, and one only, to the river-side, and behave gallantly and nobly there; but the moment he was dismissed he would scamper home, gaze upon his master, and lay himself down at his feet. In one of these excursions he was shot. He crawled home, reached his master's feet, and expired in the act of licking his hand. Perhaps the author may be permitted to relate one story more of the water-spaniel: he pledges himself for its perfect truth. The owner of the dog is telling this tale. "I was once on the sea-coast, when a small, badly-formed, and leaky fishing-boat was cast on shore, on a fearful reef of rocks. Three men and a boy of ten years old constituted the crew. The men swam on shore, but they were so bruised against the rocks, that they could not render any assistance to the poor boy, and no person could be found to venture out in any way. I heard the noise and went to the spot with my dog. I spoke to him, and in he went, more like a seal than a dog, and after several fruitless attempts to mount the wreck he succeeded, and laid hold of the boy, who clung to the ropes, screaming in the most fearful way at being thus dragged into the water. The waves dashed frightfully on the rocks. In the anxiety and responsibility of the moment I thought that the dog had missed him, and I stripped off my clothes, resolved to render what assistance I could. I was just in the act of springing from the shore, having selected the moment when the receding waves gave me the best chance of rendering any assistance, when I saw old 'Bagsman,' for that was the name of my dog, with the struggling boy in his mouth, and the head uppermost. I rushed to the place where he must land, and the waves bore the boy and the dog into my arms. "Some time after that I was shooting wild-fowl. I and my dog had been working hard, and I left him behind me while I went to a neighbouring town to purchase gunpowder. A man, in a drunken frolic, had pushed off in a boat with a girl in it; the tide going out carried the boat quickly away, and the man becoming frightened, and unable to swim, jumped overboard. Bagsman, who was on the spot, hearing the splash, jumped in, swam out to the man, caught hold of him, and brought him twenty yards towards the shore, when the drunken fellow clasped the dog tight round the body, and they both went down together. The girl was saved by a boat going to her assistance. The body of the man was recovered about an hour afterwards, with that of the dog clasped tight in his arms, thus dragging him to the bottom. 'Poor Bagsman! thy worth deserves to be thus chronicled.'" THE POODLE. The particular cross from which this dog descended is unknown, but the variety produced has been carefully preserved. It is, probably, of continental origin, and is known by its thick curly hair concealing almost every part of the face, and giving it the appearance of a short, thick, unintelligent head. When, however, that hair is removed, there is still the large head; but there is also the cerebral cavity more capacious than in any other dog, and the frontal sinuses fully developed, and exhibiting every indication of the intellectual class to which it belongs. It was originally a water-dog, as its long and curly hair, and its propensities in its domesticated state, prove; but, from its peculiar sagacity, it is capable of being trained to almost any useful purpose, and its strong individual attachment renders it more the companion of man than a mere sporting dog: indeed, its qualities as a sporting dog are seldom recognised by its owner. These dogs have far more courage than the water-spaniel, all the sagacity of the Newfoundland, more general talent, if the expression may be used, and more individual attachment than either of them, and without the fawning of the one, or the submissiveness of the other. The poodle seems conscious of his worth, and there is often a quiet dignity accompanying his demonstrations of friendship. This dog, however, possesses a very peculiar kind of intelligence. It will almost perform the common offices of a servant: it will ring the bell and open the door. Mr. Wilkie, of Ladythorn in Northumberland, had a poodle which he had instructed to go through all the apparent agonies of dying. He would fall on one side, stretch himself out, and move his hind legs as if he were in great pain; he would next simulate the convulsive throbs of departing life, and then stretch out his limbs and thus seem as if he had expired. In this situation he would remain motionless, until he had his master's command to rise. The portrait of Sancho, a poodle, that was with difficulty forced from the grave of his master, after the battle of Salamanca, is familiar to many of our readers. Enticed from his post he could not be, nor was he at length taken away until weakened by grief and starvation. He by degrees attached himself to his new master, the Marquis of Worcester, but not with the natural ardour of a poodle. He was attentive to every command, and could perform many little domestic offices. Sometimes he would exhibit considerable buoyancy of spirit; but there oftener seemed to be about him the recollection of older and closer friendship. Another poodle occupies an interesting place in the history of the Peninsular war. He too belonged to a French officer, who was killed at the battle of Castella. The French were compelled to retreat before they could bury their dead, and the soldiers wished to carry with them their regimental favourite; but he would not be forced from the corpse of his master. Some soldiers afterwards traversing the field of battle, one of them discovered the cross of the Legion of Honour on the breast of the fallen officer, and stooped to take it away, when the dog flew savagely at him, and would not quit his hold, until the bayonet of another soldier laid him lifeless. A veterinary surgeon, who, before any other animal than the horse was acknowledged to be the legitimate object of medical care, did not disdain to attend to the diseases of the dog, used to say that there were two breeds which he never wished to see in his infirmary, namely, the poodle and the Norfolk spaniel; for, although not always difficult to manage, he could never attach them to him, but they annoyed him by their pitiful and imploring gaze during the day, and their mournful howling at night. Custom has determined that the natural coat of this animal shall be taken from him. It may be a relief to the poodle for a part of his coat to be stripped off in hot weather, and the curly hair which is left on his chest, contrasted with his smooth and well-rounded loins and quarters, may make it look pretty enough; but it should he remembered that he was not designed by nature to be thus exposed to the cold of winter, and that there are no dogs so liable to rheumatism, and that rheumatism degenerating into palsy, as the well-trimmed poodle. THE BARBET is a small poodle, the production of some unknown and disadvantageous cross with the true poodle. It has all the sagacity of the poodle, and will perform even more than his tricks. It is always in action; always fidgety; generally incapable of much affection, but inheriting much self-love and occasional ill temper; unmanageable by any one but its owner; eaten up with red mange; and frequently a nuisance to its master and a torment to every one else. We must not, however, do it injustice; it is very intelligent, and truly attached to its owner. The barbet possesses more sagacity than most other dogs, but it is sagacity of a particular kind, and frequently connected with various amusing tricks. Mr. Jesse, in his Gleanings in Natural History, gives a singular illustration of this. A friend of his had a barbet that was not always under proper command. In order to keep him in better order, he purchased a small whip, with which he corrected him once or twice during a walk. On his return the whip was put on a table in the hall, but on the next morning it was missing. It was soon afterwards found concealed in an out-building, and again made use of in correcting the dog. Once more it would have been lost, but, on watching the dog, who was suspected of having stolen it, he was seen to take it from the hall table in order to hide it once more. THE MALTESE DOG can be traced back to an early period. Strabo says that "there is a town in Sicily called Melita, whence are exported many beautiful dogs called 'Canes Melitæi'. They were the peculiar favourites of the women; but now (A.D. 25) there is less account made of these animals, which are not bigger than common ferrets or weasels, yet they are not small in understanding nor unstable in their love." They are also found in Malta and in other islands of the Mediterranean, and they maintain the same character of being devotedly affectionate to their owners, while, it is added,--and they are not loved the less for that,--they are ill-tempered to strangers. THE LION DOG is a diminutive likeness of the noble animal whose name it bears. Its head, neck, shoulders, and fore-legs down to the very feet, are covered with long, wavy, silky hairs. On the other parts of the dog it is so short as scarcely to be grasped, except that on the tail there is a small bush of hair. The origin of this breed is not known; it is, perhaps, an intermediate one between the Maltese and the Turkish dog. THE TURKISH DOG, as it is improperly called, is a native of hot climates. The supposition of Buffon is not an improbable one, that, being taken from some temperate country to one considerable hotter, the European dog probably acquired some cutaneous disease. This is no uncommon occurrence in Guinea, the East Indies, and South America. Some of these animals afterwards found their way into Europe, and, from their singularity, care was taken to multiply the breed. Aldrovandus states that the first two of them made their appearance in Europe in his time, but the breed was not continued, on account, as it was supposed, of the climate being too cold for them. The few that are occasionally seen in England bear about them every mark of a degenerated race. They have no activity, and they show little intelligence or affection. One singular circumstance appertains to all that the author of this work has had the opportunity of seeing,--their teeth become very early diseased, and drop from the gums. That eminent zoologist, Mr. Yarrell, examining, with the author of this work, one that had died, certainly not more than five years old, found that it had neither incisors nor canine teeth, and that the molars were reduced to one on each side, the large tubercular tooth being the only one that was remaining. At the scientific meeting of the Zoological Society, the same gentleman stated, that he had examined the mouths of two individuals of the same variety, then alive at the gardens, in both of which the teeth were remarkably deficient. In neither of them were there any false molars, and the incisors in both were deficient in number. Before the age of four years the tongue is usually disgustingly hanging from the mouths of these animals. THE ALPINE SPANIEL, OR BERNARDINE DOG, is a breed almost peculiar to the Alps, and to the district between Switzerland and Savoy. The passes over these mountains are exceedingly dangerous from their steepness and narrowness. A precipice of many hundred feet is often found on one side, and perpendicular rocks on the other, while the path is glazed with frozen snow or ice. In many places the path is overhung with huge masses of frozen snow, which occasionally loosen and fall, when the dreadful storms peculiar to these regions suddenly come on, and form an insurmountable barrier, or sweep away or bury the unfortunate traveller. Should he escape these dangers, the path is now become trackless, and he wanders amid the dreary solitudes until night overtakes him; and then, when he pauses from fatigue or uncertainty with regard to the path he should pursue, his limbs are speedily benumbed. Fatal slumbers, which he cannot shake off, steal upon him, and he crouches under some ledge and sleeps, to wake no more. The snow drifts on. It is almost continually falling, and he is soon concealed from all human help. On the top of Mount St. Bernard, and near one of the most dangerous of these passes, is a convent, in which is preserved a breed of large dogs trained to search for the benighted and frozen wanderer. Every night, and particularly when the wind blows tempestuously, some of these dogs are sent out. They traverse every path about the mountains, and their scent is so exquisite that they can discover the traveller, although he may lie many feet deep in the snow. Having found him, they set to work and endeavour to scrape away the snow, uttering a deep bark that reverberates from rock to rock, and tells those who are watching in the convent that some poor wretch is in peril. Generally, a little flask of spirits is tied round the neck of the animal, by drinking which the benighted traveller may recruit his strength, until more effectual rescue arrive. The monks hasten in the direction of the sound, and often succeed in rekindling the vital spark before it is quite extinguished. Very many travellers have been thus rescued from death by these benevolent men and their intelligent and interesting quadruped servants. One of these Bernardine dogs, named Barry, had a medal tied round his neck as a badge of honourable distinction, for he had saved the lives of forty persons. He at length died nobly in his vocation. A Piedmontese courier arrived at St. Bernard on a very stormy day, labouring to make his way to the little village of St. Pierre, in the valley beneath the mountain, where his wife and children lived. It was in vain that the monks attempted to check his resolution to reach his family. They at last gave him two guides, each of whom was accompanied by a dog, one of which was the remarkable creature whose service had been so valuable. Descending from the convent, they were overwhelmed by two avalanches or heaps of falling snow, and the same destruction awaited the family of the poor courier, who were travelling up the mountain in the hope of obtaining some news of the husband and father. A beautiful engraving has been made of this noble dog. It represents him as saving a child which he had found in the Glacier of Balsore, and cherished, and warmed, and induced to climb on his shoulders, and thus preserved from, otherwise, certain destruction. THE NEWFOUNDLAND DOG. The Newfoundland is a spaniel of large size. He is a native of the island of which he bears the name; but his history is disgraceful to the owners of so valuable an animal. The employment of the lower classes of the inhabitants of St. John, in Newfoundland, is divided between the cutting of wood, and the drawing of it and other merchandise in the winter, and fishing in the summer. The carts used in the winter work are drawn by these dogs, who are almost invariably urged and goaded on beyond their strength, fed only with putrid salt-fish, and an inadequate quantity even of that. A great many of them are worn out and die before the winter is over; and, when the summer approaches, and the fishing season commences, many of them are quite abandoned, and, uniting with their companions, prowl about preying on the neighbouring flocks, or absolutely starving. Mr. Macgregor, however, states that "in almost every other part of British America they are valuable and useful. They are remarkably docile and obedient to their masters, serviceable in all the fishing countries, and yoked in pairs to draw the winter's fuel home. They are faithful, good-natured, and ever friendly to man. They will defend their master and their master's property, and suffer no person to injure either the one or the other; and, however extreme may be the danger, they will not leave them for a minute. They seem only to want the faculty of speech, in order to make their good wishes and feelings understood, and they are capable of being trained for all the purposes for which every other variety of the canine species is used".[1] That which most recommends the Newfoundland dog is his fearlessness of water, and particularly as connected with the preservation of human life. The writer of the present work knows one of these animals that has preserved from drowning four human beings. [This breed of dog, though much esteemed both in England and other portions of the world, as well for his majestic appearance as for many useful and winning traits of character, has but few sportsmen as patrons with us. He is not only used in England as a water-dog for the pursuit of wild fowl, but has been trained by many sportsmen to hunt on partridges, woodcocks, and pheasants, and is represented by Captain Hawker and others as surpassing all others of the canine race, in finding wounded game of every description. Mr. Blain remarks that, "as a retriever, the Newfoundland dog is easily brought to do almost anything that is required of him, and he is so tractable, likewise, that, with the least possible trouble, he may be safely taken among pointers to the field, with whose province he will not interfere, but will be overjoyed to be allowed to look up the wounded game, which he will do with a perseverance that no speed and no distance can slacken, nor any hedge-row baulk. In cover he is very useful; some, indeed, shoot woodcocks to a Newfoundland, and he never shines more than when he is returning with a woodcock, pheasant, or hare, in his mouth, which he yields up, or even puts into your hand unmutilated." Notwithstanding the high commendations of these gentlemen, we cannot look upon the Newfoundland in any other light than that of a dog, whose powers of sagacity are destined for display in the water. In contending with this element, either in the preservation of human life, or in search of wounded fowl, he has no equal, and volumes might be filled with accounts of his various daring achievements in this particular branch, not only in England, but on the rivers of our own country. Mr. Blain mentions two varieties of these dogs as being common in England, the Labrador and St. John. The former is very large, rough-haired, and carries his tail very high; the latter is smaller, more docile, and sagacious in the extreme, and withal much more manageable. We were not aware of these varieties, and more particularly as regards the difference in docility and sagacity, but are convinced, from subsequent observations, that such is the case even in our own country, for we have often noticed a great dissimilarity in the size and appearance of these dogs and attributed it to the effects of the climate and cross breeding with inferior animals. We are indebted to Mr. Skinner for bringing before the public a faithful and minute account of two of these animals imported into this country by Mr. Law, of Baltimore, and may be pardoned for giving again publicity to this gentleman's letter in relation to these two sagacious brutes. BALTIMORE, MARYLAND, January 7th, 1845. "MY DEAR SIR:--In the fall of 1807 I was on board of the ship Canton, belonging to my uncle, the late Hugh Thompson, of Baltimore, when we fell in, at sea, near the termination of a very heavy equinoctial gale, with an English brig in a sinking condition, and took off the crew. The brig was loaded with codfish, and was bound to Poole, in England, from Newfoundland. I boarded her, in command of a boat from the Canton, which was sent to take off the English crew, the brig's own boats having been all swept away, and her crew in a state of intoxication. I found on board of her two Newfoundland pups, male and female, which I saved, and, subsequently, on our landing the English crew at Norfolk, our own destination being Baltimore, I purchased these two pups of the English captain for a guinea a-piece. Being bound again to sea, I gave the dog-pup, which was called Sailor, to Mr. John Mercer, of West River; and the slut-pup, which was called Canton, to Doctor James Stewart, of Sparrow's Point. The history which the English captain gave me of these pups was, that the owner of his brig was extensively engaged in the Newfoundland trade, and had directed his correspondent to select and send him a pair of pups of the most approved Newfoundland breed, but of different families, and that the pair I purchased of him were selected under this order. The dog was of a dingy red colour, and the slut black. They were not large; their hair was short, but very thick coated; they had dew claws. Both attained great reputation as water-dogs. They were most sagacious in everything, particularly so in all duties connected with duck-shooting. Governor Lloyd exchanged a Mexican ram for the dog at the time of the merino fever, when such rams were selling for many hundred dollars, and took him over to his estate on the eastern shore of Maryland, where his progeny were well known for many years after, and may still he known there, and on the western shore, as the Sailor breed. The slut remained at Sparrow's Point till her death, and her progeny were, and are still, well known through Patapsco Neck, on the Gunpowder, and up the bay, amongst the duck-shooters, as unsurpassed for their purposes. I have heard both Doctor Stewart and Mr. Mercer relate most extraordinary instances of the sagacity and performances of both dog and slut, and would refer you to their friends for such particulars as I am unable, at this distance of time, to recollect with sufficient accuracy to repeat. Yours, in haste, GEORGE LAW." These dogs are represented as being of fine carriage, broad-chested, compact figure, and in every respect built for strength and activity. Their patience and endurance were very great when pursuing wounded ducks through the floating ice, and when fatigued from extraordinary exertions were known to rest themselves upon broken portions of ice till sufficiently recovered again to commence the chase. We have seen some of the descendants of these sagacious animals on the Chesapeake, engaged, not only in bringing the ducks from the water when shot, but also toling them into shore within range of the murderous batteries concealed behind the blind. This may not be an inappropriate place to speak of this wonderful mode of decoying ducks, termed toling, so extensively practised upon the Chesapeake bay and its tributaries, where the canvass-back and red-heads resort in such numerous quantities every fall. A species of mongrel water-dog, or often any common cur, is taught to run backwards and forwards after stones, sticks, or other missiles thrown from one side to the other. In his activity and industry in this simple branch of education, within the comprehension of any dog, consists the almost incredible art of toling the canvass-back. With a dog of this character, the shooting party, consisting of several persons all prepared with heavy double-barrelled duck-guns, ensconce themselves at break of day behind some one of the numerous blinds temporarily erected along the shore contiguous to the feeding-grounds of these ducks. Everything being arranged, and the morning mists cleared off, the ducks will be seen securely feeding on the shallows not less than several hundreds of yards from the shore. The dog is now put in motion by throwing stones from one side of the blind to the other. This will soon be perceived by the ducks, who, stimulated by an extreme degree of curiosity, and feeling anxious to inform themselves as to this sudden and singular phenomenon, raise their heads high in the water and commence swimming for the shore. The dog being kept in motion, the ducks will not arrest their progress until within a few feet of the water's edge, and oftentimes will stand on the shore staring, as it were, in mute and silly astonishment at the playful motions of the dog. If well trained the dog takes no notice whatever of the duck, but continues his fascination until the quick report of the battery announces to him that his services are now wanted in another quarter, and he immediately rushes into the water to arrest the flight of the maimed and wounded, who, struggling on every side, dye the water with their rich blood. The discovery of this mode of decoying ducks was quite an accident, being attributed to a circumstance noticed by a sportsman, who, concealed behind a blind patiently awaiting the near approach of the canvass-back, observed that they suddenly lifted up their heads and moved towards the shore. Wondering at this singular and unusual procedure on the part of this wray bird, he naturally looked round to discover the cause, and observed a young fox sporting upon the river bank, and the ducks, all eagerness to gaze upon him, were steering their course directly for the shore. These ducks will not only be decoyed by the dog, but will often come in by waving a fancy coloured handkerchief attached to the ramrod. We have seen a dog fail to attract their attention till bound around the loins with a white handkerchief, and then succeed perfectly well. The toling season continues about three weeks from the first appearance of the ducks, often a much shorter time, as these birds become more cautious, and are no longer deceived in this way. The canvass-back toles better than any other duck; in fact, it is asserted by many sportsmen, that this particular variety alone can be decoyed in this mode. There are always numbers of other ducks feeding with the canvass-back, particularly the red-heads and black-necks, who partake of the top of the grass that the canvas-back discards after eating off the root, which is a kind of celery. These ducks, though they come in with the canvass-back when toled, do not seem to take any notice whatever of the dog, but continue to swim along, carelessly feeding, as if entrusting themselves entirely to the guidance of the other ducks. As far as we have been able to judge, we are inclined to this opinion also, and do not recollect ever having succeeded in toling any other species of duck, unaccompanied by the canvass-back, although we have made the effort many times. These ducks are a very singular bird, and although very cunning under ordinary circumstances, seem perfectly bewildered upon this subject, as we were one of a party several years since, who actually succeeded in decoying the same batch of ducks three successive times in the course of an hour, and slaying at each fire a large number, as we counted out over forty at the conclusion of the sport. Although the toling of ducks is so simple in its process, there are few dogs that have sufficient industry and perseverance to arrive at any degree of perfection in the art. The dog, if not possessed of some sagacity and considerable training, is very apt to tire and stop running when the ducks have got near to the shore, but too far to be reached by the guns, which spoils all, as the birds are very apt to swim or fly off if the motion of the animal is arrested for a few moments.--L.] A native of Germany was travelling one evening on foot through Holland, accompanied by a large dog. Walking on a high bank which formed one side of a dyke, his foot slipped, and he was precipitated into the water; and, being unable to swim, soon became senseless. When he recovered his recollection, he found himself in a cottage on the contrary side of the dyke, surrounded by peasants, who had been using the means for the recovery of drowned persons. The account given by one of them was, that, returning home from his labour, he observed at a considerable distance a large dog in the water, swimming and dragging, and sometimes pushing along something that he seemed to have great difficulty in supporting, but which he at length succeeded in getting into a small creek on the opposite side. When the animal had pulled what he had hitherto supported as far out of the water as he was able, the peasant discovered that it was the body of a man, whose face and hands the dog was industriously licking. The peasant hastened to a bridge across the dyke, and, having obtained assistance, the body was conveyed to a neighbouring house, where proper means soon restored the drowned man to life. Two very considerable bruises, with the marks of teeth, appeared, one on his shoulder and the other on his poll; hence it was presumed that the faithful beast had first seized his master by the shoulder, and swam with him in this manner for some time, but that his sagacity had prompted him to quit this hold, and to shift it to the nape of the neck, by which he had been enabled to support the head out of water; and in this way he had conveyed him nearly a quarter of a mile before he had brought him to the creek, where the banks were low and accessible. Dr. Beattie relates an instance of a gentleman attempting to cross the river Dee, then frozen over, near Aberdeen. The ice gave way about the middle of the river; but, having a gun in his hand, he supported himself by placing it across the opening. His dog then ran to a neighbouring village, where, with the most significant gestures, he pulled a man by the coat, and prevailed on him to follow him. They arrived at the spot just in time to save the drowning man's life. Of the noble disposition of the Newfoundland dog, Dr. Abel, in one of his lectures on Phrenology, relates a singular instance. "When this dog left his master's house, he was often assailed by a number of little noisy dogs in the street. He usually passed them with apparent unconcern, as if they were beneath his notice; but one little cur was particularly troublesome, and at length carried his impudence so far as to bite the Newfoundland dog in the leg. This was a degree of wanton insult beyond what he could patiently endure; and he instantly turned round, ran after the offender, and seized him by the skin of the back. In this way he carried him in his mouth to the quay, and, holding him some time over the water, at length dropped him into it. He did not, however, seem to design that the culprit should be punished capitally. He waited a little while, until the poor animal, who was unused to that element, was not only well ducked, but nearly sinking, and then plunged in, and brought him safe to land." "It would be difficult," says Dr. Hancock, in his Essay on Instinct, "to conceive any punishment more aptly contrived or more completely in character. Indeed, if it were fully analyzed, an ample commentary might be written in order to show what a variety of comparisons and motives and generous feelings entered into the composition of this act." No one ever drew more legitimate consequence from certain existing premises. One other story should not be omitted of this noble breed of water-dogs. A vessel was driven on the beach of Lydd, in Kent. The surf was rolling furiously. Eight poor fellows were crying for help, but not a boat could be got off to their assistance. At length a gentleman came on the beach accompanied by his Newfoundland dog: he directed the attention of the animal to the vessel, and put a short stick into his mouth. The intelligent and courageous fellow at once understood his meaning, sprung into the sea, and fought his way through the waves. He could not, however, get close enough to the vessel to deliver that with which he was charged; but the crew understood what was meant, and they made fast a rope to another piece of wood, and threw it towards him. The noble beast dropped his own piece of wood and immediately seized that which had been cast to him, and then, with a degree of strength and determination scarcely credible,--for he was again and again lost under the waves,--he dragged it through the surge and delivered it to his master. A line of communication was thus formed, and every man on board was rescued. There is, however, a more remarkable fact recorded in the Penny Magazine. "During a heavy gale a ship had struck on a rock near the land. The only chance of escape for the shipwrecked was to get a rope ashore; for it was impossible for any boat to live in the sea as it was then running. There were two Newfoundland dogs and a bull-dog on board. One of the Newfoundland dogs was thrown overboard, with a rope thrown round him, and perished in the waves. The second shared a similar fate: but the bull-dog fought his way through that terrible sea, and, arriving safe onshore, rope and all, became the saviour of the crew." Some of the true Newfoundland dogs have been brought to Europe and have been used as retrievers. They are principally valuable for the fearless manner in which they will penetrate the thickest cover. They are comparatively small, but muscular, strong, and generally black. A larger variety has been bred, and is now perfectly established. He is seldom used as a sporting dog, or for draught, but is admired on account of his stature and beauty, and the different colours with which he is often marked. Perhaps he is not quite so good-natured and manageable as the smaller variety, and yet it is not often that much fault can be found with him on this account. A noble animal of this kind was presented to the Zoological Society by His Royal Highness Prince Albert. He is a great ornament to the gardens; but he had been somewhat unmanageable, and had done some mischief before he was sent thither. A portion of Lord Byron's beautiful epitaph on the death of his Newfoundland dog will properly close our account of this animal: "The poor dog! In life the firmest friend, The first to welcome, foremost to defend; Whose honest heart is still his master's own; Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone." [Notwithstanding the many excellent qualities so conspicuous in this noble breed of dog, he is said to possess one most ungenerous trait of character, "a peculiar antipathy to sheep," and if not early trained to endure their presence, will take every opportunity to destroy these innocent animals.] THE ESQUIMAUX DOG is a beast of burden and of draught, usefully employed by the inhabitants of the extreme parts of North America and the neighbouring islands. When the Esquimaux Indian goes in pursuit of the seal, the rein-deer, or the bear, his dogs carry the materials of his temporary hut, and the few necessaries of his simple life; or, yoked to the sledge, often draw him and his family full sixty miles a-day over the frozen plains of these inhospitable regions. At other times they assist in the chase, and run down and destroy the bear and the rein-deer on land, and the seal on the coast. These dogs are very early trained to the work which they are destined to follow, and even at the tender age of four or five months are harnessed together or in company with older animals, and are compelled, either by persuasion or brutal chastisement, to draw heavy weights, and thus soon become accustomed to the trammels of the rude gearing, and familiar with the service that they afterwards perform with so much sagacity and alacrity. Capt. Lyon states that they are very similar in appearance to the shepherd dog of England, but more muscular and broad chested, owing to severe work; ears pointed, of a savage appearance; the finer dogs are equal to the Newfoundland breed in point of height and general symmetry. It is also somewhat curious to be informed that these dogs have no particular season of oestrum, but bear young indiscriminately at all times of the year, cold or warm, having very little or no effect upon their reproductive powers, being often seen in heat during the month of December when the thermometer was forty degrees below zero. Their journeys are often without any certain object; but, if the dogs scent the deer or the bear, they gallop away in that direction until their prey is within reach of the driver, or they are enabled to assist in destroying their foe. Captain Parry, in his Journal of a 'Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage', gives an amusing account of these expeditions. "A number of dogs, varying from six to twelve, are attached to each sledge by means of a single trace, but with no reins. An old and tried dog is placed as the leader, who, in their simple journeys, and when the chase is the object, steadily obeys the voice of the driver sitting in front of the sledge, with a whip long enough to reach the leader. This whip, however, is used as seldom as possible; for these dogs, although tractable, are ferocious, and will endure little correction. When the whip is applied with severity on one, he falls upon and worries his neighbour, and he, in his turn, attacks a third, and there is a scene of universal confusion, or the dogs double from side to side to avoid the whip, and the traces become entangled, and the safety of the sledge endangered. The carriage must then be stopped, each dog put into his proper place, and the traces re-adjusted. This frequently happens several times in the course of the day. The driver therefore depends principally on the docility of the leader, who, with admirable precision, quickens or slackens his pace, and starts off or stops, or turns to the right or left, at the summons of his master. When they are journeying homeward, or travelling to some spot to which the leader has been accustomed to go, he is generally suffered to pursue his own course; for, although every trace of the road is lost in the drifting snow, he scents it out, and follows it with undeviating accuracy. Even the leader, however, is not always under the control of his master. If the journey lies homeward, he will go his own pace, and that is usually at the top of his speed; or, if any game starts, or he scents it at a distance, no command of his driver will restrain him. Neither the dog nor his master is half civilized or subdued." Each of these dogs will draw a weight of 120 lb. over the snow, at the rate of seven or eight miles an hour. [It is extraordinary to consider the powers and wonderful speed of these animals, almost equalling that of many horses. Captain Lyon informs us that three dogs drew a sledge weighing 100 lbs. and himself, one mile in six minutes; his leader dog, which is generally more powerful than the others, drew 196 lb. the same distance in eight minutes; seven dogs ran one mile in four minutes and thirty seconds, with a heavy sledge full of men attached to them; ten dogs ran one mile in five minutes; nine dogs drew 1611 lb. the same distance in nine minutes.--'Lyon's Journal', p. 243.--L.] In summer, many of these dogs are used as beasts of burden, and each carries from thirty to fifty pounds. They are then much better kept than in the winter; for they have the remains of the whale and sea-calf, which their masters disdain to eat. The majority, however, are sent adrift in the summer, and they live on the produce of the chase or of their constant thievery. The exactness with which, the summer being past, each returns to his master, is an admirable proof of sagacity, and frequently of attachment. In some parts of Siberia, on the borders of the Oby, there are established relays of dogs, like the post-horses in other countries. Four of these are attached to a very light vehicle; but, when much haste is required, or any very heavy goods are to be conveyed, more than treble or quadruple that number are harnessed to the vehicle. M. de Lesseps [2] gives an almost incredible account of this. He is speaking of the voracity of these poor beasts, in the midst of the snowy desert, with little or no food. "We had unharnessed our dogs, in order to bring them closer together, in the ordinary way; but, the moment they were brought up to the pole, they seized their harness, constructed of the thickest and toughest leather, and tore it to pieces, and devoured it. It was in vain that we attempted every means of restraint. A great number of them escaped into the wilds around, others wandered here and there, and seized everything that came within their reach, and which their teeth could destroy. Almost every minute some one of them fell exhausted, and immediately became the prey of the others. Every one that could get within reach struggled for his share. Every limb was disputed, and torn away by a troop of rivals, who attacked all within their reach. As soon as one fell by exhaustion or accident, he was seized by a dozen others, and destroyed in the space of a few minutes. In order to defend ourselves from this crowd of famished beasts, we were compelled to have recourse to our bludgeons and our swords. To this horrible scene of mutual destruction succeeded, on the following day, the sad appearance of those that surrounded the sledge, to which we had retreated for safety and for warmth. They were thin, and starved, and miserable; they could scarcely move; their plaintive and continual howlings seemed to claim our succour; but there was no possibility of relieving them in the slightest degree, except that some of them crept to the opening in our carriage through which the smoke escapes; and the more they felt the warmth closer they crept, and then, through mere feebleness, losing their equilibrium, they rolled into the fire before our eyes." These dogs are not so high as the common pointer, but much larger and stouter, although their thick hair, three or four inches long in the winter, gives them an appearance of more stoutness than they possess. Under this hair is a coating of fine close soft wool, which begins to grow in the early part of winter, and drops off in the spring. Their muzzles are sharp and generally black, and their ears erect. The Greenland, and Siberian, and Kamtschatdale are varieties of the Esquimaux or Arctic dogs, but enlarged in form, and better subdued. The docility of some of these is equal to that of any European breed. A person of the name of Chabert, who was afterwards better known by the title of "Fire King," had a beautiful Siberian dog, who would draw him in a light carriage 20 miles a day. He asked £200 for him, and sold him for a considerable portion of that sum; for he was a most beautiful animal of his kind, and as docile as he was beautiful. Between the sale and the delivery, the dog fell and broke his leg. Chabert, to whom the price agreed on was of immense consequence, was in despair. He took the dog at night to a veterinary surgeon. He formally introduced them to each other. He talked to the dog, pointed to his leg, limped around the room, then requested the surgeon to apply some bandages around the leg, and he seemed to walk sound and well. He patted the dog on the head, who was looking alternately at him and the surgeon, desired the surgeon to pat him, and to offer him his hand to lick, and then, holding up his finger to the dog, and gently shaking his head, quitted the room and the house. The dog immediately laid himself down, and submitted to a reduction of the fracture, and the bandaging of the limb, without a motion, except once or twice licking the hand of the operator. He was quite submissive, and in a manner motionless, day after day, until, at the expiration of a month, the limb was sound. Not a trace of the fracture was to be detected, and the purchaser, who is now living, knew nothing about it. The employment of the Esquimaux dogs is nearly the same as those from Newfoundland, and most valuable they are to the traveller who has to find his way over the wild and trackless regions of the north. The manner, however, in which they are generally treated seems ill calculated to cause any strong or lasting attachment. During their period of labour, they, like their brethren in Newfoundland, are fed sparingly on putrid fish, and in summer they are turned loose to shift for themselves until the return of the severe season renders it necessary to their masters' interest that they should again be sought for, and once more reduced to their state of toil and slavery. They have been known for several successive days to travel more than 60 miles. They seldom miss their road, although they may be driven over one untrodden snowy plain, where they are occasionally unable to reach any place of shelter. When, however, night comes, they partake with their master of the scanty fare which the sledge will afford, and, crowding round, keep him warm and defend him from danger. If any of them fall victims to the hardships to which they are exposed, their master or their companions frequently feed on their remains, and their skins are converted into warm and comfortable dresses. THE LAPLAND DOG. Captain Clarke thus describes the Lapland dog: "We had a valuable companion in a dog belonging to one of the boatmen. It was of the true Lapland breed, and in all respects similar to a wolf, excepting the tail, which was bushy and curled like those of the Pomeranian race. This dog, swimming after the boat, if his master merely waved his hand, would cross the lake as often as he pleased, carrying half his body and the whole of his head and tail out of the water. Wherever he landed, he scoured all the long grass by the side of the lake in search of wild-fowl, and came back to us, bringing wild-ducks in his mouth to the boat, and then, having delivered his prey to his master, he would instantly set off again in search of more." [3] But we pass on to another and more valuable species of the dog: THE SHEEP-DOG. The origin of the sheep-dog is somewhat various; but the predominant breed is that of the intelligent and docile spaniel. Although it is now found in every civilized country in which the sheep is cultivated, ii is not coeval with the domestication of that animal. When the pastures were in a manner open to the first occupant, and every shepherd had a common property in them, it was not so necessary to restrain the wandering of the sheep, and the voice of the shepherd was usually sufficient to collect and to guide them. He preceded the flock, and they "followed him whithersoever he went." In process of time, however, man availed himself of the sagacity of the dog to diminish his own labour and fatigue, and this useful servitor became the guide and defender of the flock. The sheep-dog possesses much of the same form and character in every country. The muzzle is sharp, the ears are short and erect, and the animal is covered, particularly about the neck, with thick and shaggy hair. He has usually two dew claws on each of the hind legs; not, however, as in the one claw of other dogs, having a jointed attachment to the limb, but merely connected by the skin and some slight cellular substance. These excrescences should be cut off when the dog is young. The tail is slightly turned upwards and long, and almost as bushy as that of a fox, even in that variety whose coat is almost smooth. He is of a black colour or black prevails, mixed with gray or brown. Professor Grognier gives the following account of this dog as he is found in France: "The shepherd's dog, the least removed from the natural type of the dog, is of a middle size; his ears short and straight; the hair long, principally on the tail, and of a dark colour; the tail is carried horizontally or a little elevated. He is very indifferent to caresses. possessed of much intelligence and activity to discharge the duties for which he was designed. In one or other of its varieties it is found in every part of France. Sometimes there is but a single breed, in others there are several varieties. It lives and maintains its proper characteristics, while other races often degenerate. Everywhere it preserves its proper distinguishing type. It is the servant of man, while other breeds vary with a thousand circumstances. It has one appropriate mission, and that it discharges in the most admirable way: there is evidently a kind and wise design in this." This account of the French sheep-dog, or of the sheep-dog everywhere, is as true as it is beautiful. One age succeeds to another, we pass from one climate to another, and everything varies and changes, but the shepherd's dog is what he ever was--the guardian of our flocks. There are, however, two or more species of this dog; the one which Professor Grognier has described, and which guards and guides the sheep in the open and level country, where wolves seldom intrude; another crossed with the mastiff, or little removed from that dog, used in the woody and mountainous countries, their guard more than their guide. [4] In Great Britain, where he has principally to guide and not to guard the flock, he is comparatively a small dog. He is so in the northern and open parts of the country, where activity is principally wanted; but, in the more enclosed districts, and where strength is often needed to turn an obstinate sheep, he is crossed with some larger dog, as the rough terrier, or sometimes the pointer, or now and then the bull-dog: in fact, almost any variety that has strength and stoutness may be employed. Thus we obtain the larger sheep-dog and the drover's dog. The sagacity, forbearance, and kindness of the sheep-dog are generally retained, but from these crosses there is occasionally a degree of ferocity from which the sheep often suffer. In other countries, where the flock is exposed to the attack of the wolf, the sheep-dog is larger than the British drover's dog, and not far inferior in size to the mastiff. The strength and ferocity which qualify him to combat with the wolf, would occasionally be injurious or fatal to those who somewhat obstinately opposed his direction; therefore, in Denmark and in Spain, the dog is rarely employed to drive the flock. It is the office of the shepherd, to know every individual under his charge, to, as in olden times, "call them all by their names," and have always some docile and tamed wether who will take the lead, almost as subservient to his voice as is the dog himself, and whom the flock will immediately follow. In whatever country the dog is used, partly or principally to protect the flock from the ravages of the wolf, he is as gentle as a lamb, except when opposed to his natural enemy; and it is only in England that the guardian of the sheep occasionally injures and worries them, and that many can be found bearing the mark of the tooth. This may he somewhat excusable (although it is often carried to a barbarous extent) in the drover's dog; but it will admit of no apology in the shepherd's dog. It is the result of the idleness of the boy, or the mingled brutality and idleness of the shepherd, who is attempting to make the dog do his own work and that of his master too. We have admired the Prussian sheep-dog in the discharge of his duty, and have seen him pick out the marked sheep, or stop and turn the flock, as cleverly as any Highland colley, but he never bit them. He is a shorter, stronger, and more compact dog than ours. He pushes against them and forces them along. If they rebel against this mild treatment, the shepherd is at hand to enforce obedience; and the flock is as easily and perfectly managed as any English or Highland one, and a great deal more so than the majority that we have seen. Mr. Trimmer, in his work on the Merinos, speaking of the Spanish flocks, says: "There is no driving of the flock; that is a practice entirely unknown; but the shepherd, when he wishes to remove his sheep, calls to him a tame wether accustomed to feed from his hands. The favourite, however distant, obeys his call, and the rest follow. One or more of the dogs, with large collars armed with spikes, in order to protect them from the wolves, precede the flock, others skirt it on each side, and some bring up the rear. If a sheep be ill or lame, or lag behind unobserved by the shepherds, they stay with it and defend it until some one return in search of it. With us, dogs are too often used for other and worse purposes. In open, unenclosed districts, they are indispensable; but in others I wish them, I confess, either managed, or encouraged less. If a sheep commits a fault in the sight of an intemperate shepherd, or accidentally offends him, it is 'dogged' into obedience: the signal is given, the dog obeys the mandate, and the poor sheep flies round the field to escape from the fangs of him who should be his protector, until it becomes half dead with fright and exhaustion, while the trembling flock crowd together dreading the same fate, and the churl exults in this cowardly victory over a weak and defenceless animal." [5] If the farmer will seriously calculate the number of ewes that have yeaned before their time, and of the lambs that he has lost, and the accidents that have occurred from the sheep pressing upon one another in order to escape from the dog, and if he will also take into account the continual disturbance of the sheep while grazing, by the approach of the dog, and the consequent interference with the cropping and the digestion of the food, he will attach more importance to the good temper of the dog and of the shepherd than he has been accustomed to do. There would be no injustice, or rather a great deal of propriety, in inflicting a fine for every tooth-mark that could be detected. When the sheep, instead of collecting round the dog, and placing themselves under his protection on any sudden alarm, uniformly fly from him with terror, the farmer may he assured there is something radically wrong in the management of the flock. Instinct and education combine to fit this dog for our service. The pointer will act without any great degree of instruction, and the setter will crouch; and most certainly the sheep-dog, and especially if he has the example of an older and expert one, will, almost without the teaching of the master, become everything that can be wished, obedient to every order, even to the slightest motion of the hand. There is a natural predisposition for the office he has to discharge, which it requires little trouble or skill to develop and perfect. It is no unpleasing employment to study the degree in which the several breeds of dogs are not only highly intelligent, but fitted by nature for the particular duty they have to perform. The pointer, the setter, the hound, the greyhound, the terrier, the spaniel, and even the bull-dog, were made, and almost perfected, by nature chiefly for one office alone, although they maybe useful in many other ways. This is well illustrated in the sheep-dog. If he be but with his master, he lies content, indifferent to every surrounding object, seemingly half asleep and half awake, rarely mingling with his kind, rarely courting, and generally shrinking from, the notice of a stranger; but the moment duty calls, his sleepy, listless eye, becomes brightened; he eagerly gazes on his master, inquires and comprehends all he is to do, and, springing up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty with a sagacity, and fidelity, and devotion, too rarely equalled even by man himself. Mr. James Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd, living in his early days among the sheep and their quadruped attendants, and an accurate observer of nature, as well an exquisite poet, gives some anecdotes of the colley, (the Highland term for sheep-dog), with which the reader will not be displeased. "My dog Sirrah," says he, in a letter to the Editor of 'Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine', "was, beyond all comparison, the best dog I ever saw. He had a somewhat surly and unsocial temper, disdaining all flattery, and refusing to be caressed, but his attention to my commands and interest will never again be equalled by any of the canine race. When I first saw him, a drover was leading him with a rope. He was both lean and hungry, and far from being a beautiful animal; for he was almost black, and had a grim face, striped with dark brown. I thought I perceived a sort of sullen intelligence in his countenance, notwithstanding his dejected and forlorn appearance, and I bought him. He was scarcely a year old, and knew so little of herding that he had never turned a sheep in his life; but, as soon as he discovered that it was his duty to do so, and that it obliged me, I can never forget with what anxiety and eagerness he learned his different evolutions; and when I once made him understand a direction, he never forgot or mistook it." On one night, a large flock of lambs that were under the Ettrick Shepherd's care, frightened by something, scampered away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of all that he could do to keep them together. "Sirrah," said the shepherd, "they're a' awa!" It was too dark for the dog and his master to see each other at any considerable distance, but Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The night passed on, and Hogg and his assistant traversed every neighbouring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs; but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he was returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he had lost all his lambs. "On our way home, however," says he, "we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ravine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the indefatigable Sirrah standing in front of them, looking round for some relief, but still true to his charge. We concluded that it was one of the divisions which Sirrah had been unable to manage, until he came to that commanding situation. But what was our astonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock was missing! How he had got all the divisions collected in the dark, is beyond my comprehension. The charge was left entirely to himself from midnight until the rising sun; and, if all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted him, they could not have effected it with greater promptitude. All that I can say is, that I never felt so grateful to any creature under the sun us I did to my honest Sirrah that morning." A shepherd, in one of his excursions over the Grampian Hills to collect his scattered flock, took with him (as is a frequent practice, to initiate them in their future business) one of his children about four years old. After traversing his pastures for a while, attended by his dog, he was compelled to ascend a summit at some distance. As the ascent was too great for the child, he left him at the bottom, with strict injunctions not to move from the place. Scarcely, however, had he gained the height, when one of the Scotch mists, of frequent occurrence, suddenly came on, and almost changed the day to night. He returned to seek his child, but was unable to find him, and concluded a long and fruitless search by coming distracted to his cottage. His poor dog also was missing in the general confusion. On the next morning by daylight he renewed his search, but again he came back without his child. He found, however, that during his absence his dog had been home, and, on receiving his allowance of food, instantly departed. For four successive days the shepherd continued his search with the same bad fortune, the dog as readily coming for his meal and departing. Struck by this singular circumstance, he determined to follow the dog, who departed as usual with his piece of cake. The animal led the way to a cataract at some distance from the spot where the child had been left. It was a rugged and almost perpendicular descent which the dog took, and he disappeared in a cave, the mouth of which was almost on a level with the torrent. The shepherd with difficulty followed; but, on entering the cavern, what were his emotions when he beheld the infant eating the cake which the dog had just brought to him, while the faithful animal stood by, eyeing his young charge with the utmost complacency! From the situation in which the child was found, it appeared that he had wandered to the brink of the precipice, and then either fallen or scrambled down, the torrent preventing his re-ascent. The dog by means of his scent had traced him to the spot, and afterwards prevented him from starving by giving up a part, or, perhaps, the whole of his own daily allowance. He appears never to have quitted the child night or day, except for food, as he was seen running at full speed to and from the cottage. [6] Mr. Hogg says, and very truly, that a single shepherd and his dog will accomplish more in gathering a flock of sheep from a Highland farm than twenty shepherds could do without dogs; in fact, that without this docile animal, the pastoral life would be a mere blank. It would require more hands to manage a flock of sheep, gather them from the hills, force them into houses and folds, and drive them to markets, than the profits of the whole flock would be capable of maintaining. Well may the shepherd feel an interest in his dog; he it is indeed that earns the family bread, of which he is himself content with the smallest morsel: always grateful, and always ready to exert his utmost abilities in his master's interests. Neither hunger, fatigue, nor the worst treatment will drive him from his side, and he will follow him through every hardship without murmur or repining. If one of them is obliged to change masters, it is sometimes long before he will acknowledge the new owner, or condescend to work for him with the willingness that he did for his former lord; but, if he once acknowledges him, he continues attached to him until death. [7] We will add another story of the colley, and proceed. It illustrates the memory of the dog. A shepherd was employed in bringing up some mountain sheep from Westmoreland, and took with him a young sheep-dog who had never made the journey before. From his assistant being ignorant of the ground, he experienced great difficulty in having the flock stopped at the various roads and lanes he passed in their way to the neighbourhood of London. In the next year the same shepherd, accompanied by the same dog, brought up another flock for the gentlemen who had had the former one. On being questioned how he had got on, he said much better than the year before, as his dog now knew the road, and had kept the sheep from going up any of the lanes or turnings that had given the shepherd so much trouble on his former journey. The distance could not have been less than 400 miles. [8] Buffon gives an eloquent and faithful account of the sheep-dog: "This animal, faithful to man, will always preserve a portion of his empire and a degree of superiority over other beings. He reigns at the head of his flock, and makes himself better understood than the voice of the shepherd. Safety, order, and discipline are the fruits of his vigilance and activity. They are a people submitted to his management, whom he conducts and protects, and against whom he never employs force but for the preservation of good order." "If we consider that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness and his wild and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others; that he has a decided character in which education has comparatively little share; that he is the only animal born perfectly trained for the service of others; that, guided by natural powers alone, he applies himself to the care of our flocks, a duty which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidelity; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence which is a part and portion of himself; that his sagacity astonishes at the same time that it gives repose to his master, while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to which they are destined: if we reflect on these facts we shall be confirmed in the opinion that the shepherd's dog is the true dog of nature, the stock and model of the whole species." [9] [After reading the above history of this truly valuable dog, it is almost superfluous for us to attempt to add anything more on this head; however, we must pause for a few moments, to call the attention of our agriculturists and others engaged in raising sheep, to the immense advantages to be derived from the introduction of this sagacious animal throughout our own country. The increased vigour that is now given for the cultivation of sheep, to supply the necessary demands of the numerous woollen factories springing up in every quarter, renders the services of this faithful creature absolutely indispensable, not only as a guardian of the flocks, but as a mere expedient of economy. Many portions of our country, now lying idle, particularly the mountainous ranges, are peculiarly adapted for the grazing of sheep, and we are destined not only to supply the world with cotton, but may hope ere long to add to our national wealth the other equally valuable staple commodity, that of wool. In the care of sheep, each dog not only supplies the place of two or three men, but, as is seen in the foregoing pages, renders such assistance as cannot be obtained from any other source. The shepherds of Mexico lead a life not unlike the patriarchs of old, shifting about from day to day, watching their immense flocks, attended only by a few dogs, who have the entire control of the sheep, keeping them from straying away, and not only defending them from the blood-thirsty wolf, but even attacking, if necessary, the skulking savage. These dogs of Mexico are represented as being much larger than the English variety, and no doubt are the descendants of the Spanish shepherd dog, so highly prized in protecting the Merino flocks from the wolves that infest the mountainous parts of Spain, most frequented by the herds during the summer season. These dogs are the same breed as those engaged by the philanthropic monks of St. Bernard in hunting up the benumbed traveller when sinking from exhaustion, or already overwhelmed by the sudden rushing of an avalanche into some one of the mountain passes. The original Spanish shepherd dog is a very powerful animal, and even those of Mexico, when armed with spiked collars, are a sufficient match for the largest wolves. Mr. Kendall mentions having met on the grand prairie with a flock of sheep numbering seventeen thousand, which immense herd was guarded by a very few men, assisted by a large number of noble dogs, which appeared gifted with the faculty of keeping them together. "There was no running about, no barking or biting in their system of tactics; on the contrary, they were continually walking up and down, like faithful sentinels, on the outer side of the flock, and should any sheep chance to stray from his fellows, the dog on duty at that particular post would walk gently up, take him carefully by the ear, and lead him back to the fold. Not the least fear did the sheep manifest at the approach of these dogs, and there was no occasion for it." Vol. I. p. 268. This account coincides with the remarks of Mr. Trinner upon this dog in old Spain; and Mr. Skinner very justly remarks, that the Mexican sheep-dog has not his equal in any part of the world, except, perhaps, in his native country, and that the Scotch or English dog sinks into insignificance when compared with him. A flock of a thousand sheep in Spain requires the attendance of two men and an equal number of dogs, who never for a moment quit their charge, watching them without intermission day and night. The great inferiority of the English dogs, may be attributed, perhaps, to their want of care in training and bringing up, which is considered the most essential, and actually the foundation of all their future usefulness with the Mexicans. The pups when first born, are taken from the bitch, and put to a sucking ewe, already deprived of her own lamb. For several days the ewe is confined with the pups in the shepherd's hut, and either from force, or an instinctive desire to be relieved of the contents of the udder, she soon allows the little strangers to suck, and in the course of a few days more, becomes quite reconciled to the change, and exhibits a great degree of affection for her foster children, who, knowing no other parentage, becomes thus early engrafted into the general community, and returns their early kindness by every mark of affection and fidelity hereafter; never being willing for a moment to quit their society, but remains with them night and day, expressing a peculiar attachment to this particular flock, and seeming able to distinguish each member of it from all other intruders. In the third volume of the 'American Agriculturist' will be found an interesting article connected with this subject, and from which we might extract much useful information, if our limits would allow of its insertion in the present volume. Mr. Skinner states, that in 1832 he had two of these dogs, a male and female, both trained, but unfortunately lost the latter before obtaining any pups from her; he also remarks, that they can be imported via Havana and Santander, at an expense of not less than $70 or $80. We see no reason why the same dogs might not be obtained at a much less cost by the Santa Fé traders, who, no doubt, would be glad to bring them into the country as companions de voyages, provided there was any demand for them.--L.] THE DROVER'S DOG bears considerable resemblance to the sheep-dog, and has usually the same prevailing black or brown colour. He possesses all the docility of the sheep-dog, with more courage, and sometimes a degree of ferocity, exercised without just cause upon his charge, while he is in his turn cruelly used by a brutal master. There is a valuable cross between the colley and the drover's dog in Westmoreland, and a larger and stronger breed is cultivated in Lincolnshire; indeed it is necessary there, where oxen as well as sheep are usually consigned to the dog's care. A good drover's dog is worth a considerable sum; but the breed is too frequently and injudiciously crossed at the fancy of the owner. Some drovers' dogs are as much like setters, lurchers, and hounds, as they are to the original breed. Stories are told of the docility and sagacity of the drover's dog even more surprising than any that are related of the sheep-dog. The Ettrick Shepherd says, that a Mr. Steel, butcher in Peebles, had such implicit dependence on the attention of his dog to his orders, that whenever he put a lot of sheep before her, he took a pride in leaving them entirely to her, and either remained to take a glass with the farmer of whom he had made the purchase, or travelled another road to look after bargains or business. At one time, however, he chanced to commit a drove to her charge, at a place called Willenslee, without attending to her condition, which he certainly ought to have done. This farm is about five miles from Peebles, over wild hills, and there is no regularly defined path to it. Whether Mr. Steel chose another road is uncertain; but, on coming home late in the evening, he was surprised to hear that his faithful animal had not made her appearance with her flock. He and his son instantly prepared to set out by different paths in search of her; but, on going into the street, there was she with the flock, and not one of the sheep missing; she, however, was carrying a young pup in her mouth. She had been taken in travail on those hills; and how the poor beast had contrived to manage the sheep in her state of suffering is beyond human calculation, for her road lay through sheep-pastures the whole way. Her master's heart smote him when he saw what she had suffered and effected; but she was nothing daunted; and, having deposited her young one in a place of safety, she again set out at full speed to the hills, and brought another and another little one, until she had removed her whole litter one by one; the last, however, was dead. Mr. Blaine relates as extraordinary an instance of intelligence, but not mingled, like the former, with natural affection. A butcher and cattle-dealer, who resided about nine miles from Alston, in Cumberland, bought a dog of a drover. The butcher was accustomed to purchase sheep and kine in the vicinity, which, when fattened, he drove to Alston market and sold. In these excursions he was frequently astonished at the peculiar sagacity of his dog, and at the more than common readiness and dexterity with which he managed the cattle; until at length he troubled himself very little about the matter, but, riding carelessly along, used to amuse himself with observing how adroitly the dog acquitted himself of his charge. At length, so convinced was he of his sagacity, as well as fidelity, that he laid a wager that he would intrust the dog with a number of sheep and oxen, and let him drive them alone and unattended to Alston market. It was stipulated that no one should be within sight or hearing who had the least control over the dog, nor was any spectator to interfere. This extraordinary animal, however, proceeded with his business in the most steady and dexterous manner; and, although he had frequently to drive his charge through other herds that were grazing, he did not lose one; but, conducting them to the very yard to which he was used to drive them when with his master, he significantly delivered them up to the person appointed to receive them by barking at his door. When the path which he travelled lay through grounds in which others were grazing, he would run forward, stop his own drove, and then, chasing the others away, collect his scattered charge, and proceed. THE ITALIAN OR POMERANIAN WOLF-DOG. The wolf-dog is no longer a native of Great Britain, because his services are not required there, but he is useful in various parts of the Continent, in the protection of the sheep from the attacks of the wolf. A pair of these dogs was brought to the Zoological Society of London in 1833, and there long remained, an ornament to the Gardens. They appeared to possess a considerable degree of strength, but to be too gentle to contend with so powerful and ferocious an animal as the wolf. They were mostly covered with white or gray, or occasionally black hair, short on the head, ears and feet, but long and silky on the body and tail. The forehead is elevated, and the muzzle lengthened and clothed with short hair. The attachment of this dog to his master and the flock is very great, and he has not lost a particle of his sagacity, but, where wolves are common, is still used as a sheep-dog. THE CUR is the sheep-dog crossed with the terrier. He has long and somewhat deservedly obtained a very bad name, as a bully and a coward; and certainly his habit of barking at everything that passes, and flying at the heels of the horse, renders him often a very dangerous nuisance: he is, however, in a manner necessary to the cottager; he is a faithful defender of his humble dwelling; no bribe can seduce him from his duty; and he is likewise a useful and an effectual guard over the clothes and scanty provisions of the labourer, who may be working in some distant part of the field. All day long he will lie upon his master's clothes seemingly asleep, but giving immediate warning of the approach of a supposed marauder. He has a propensity, when at home, to fly at every horse and every strange dog; and of young game of every kind there is not a more ruthless destroyer than the village cur. Mr. Hogg draws the following curious parallel between the sheep-dog and the cur: "An exceedingly good sheep-dog attends to nothing but the particular branch of business to which he is bred. His whole capacity is exerted and exhausted in it; and he is of little avail in miscellaneous matters; whereas a very indifferent cur bred about the house, and accustomed to assist in everything will often put the more noble breed to disgrace in these little services. If some one calls out that the cows are in the corn or the hens in the garden, the house colley needs no other hint, but runs and turns them out. The shepherd's dog knows not what is astir, and, if he is called out in a hurry for such work, all that he will do is to run to the hill, or rear himself on his haunches to see that no sheep are running away. A well-bred sheep-dog, if coming hungry from the hills, and getting into a milk-house, would likely think of nothing else than filling his belly with the cream. Not so his initiated brother: he is bred at home to far higher principles of honour. I have known such lie night and day among from ten to twenty pails full of milk, and never once break the cream of one of them with the tip of his tongue, nor would he suffer cat, rat, or any other creature to touch it. While, therefore, the cur is a nuisance, he is very useful in his way, and we would further plead for him, that he possesses a great deal of the sagacity and all the fidelity of the choicest breed of dogs." The dog who, according to the well-known and authentic story, watched the remains of his master for two years in the churchyard of St. Olave's, in Southwark, was a cur. The following story is strictly authentic: "Not long ago a young man, an acquaintance of the coachman, was walking, as he had often done, in Lord Fife's stables at Banff. Taking an opportunity, when the servants were not regarding him, he put a bridle into his pocket. A Highland cur that was generally about the stables saw him, and immediately began to bark at him, and when he got to the stable-door would not let him pass, but bit him by the leg in order to prevent him. As the servants had never seen the dog act thus before, and the same young man had been often with them, they could not imagine what could be the reason of the dog's conduct. However, when they saw the end of a valuable bridle peeping out of the young man's pocket, they were able to account for it, and, on his giving it up, the dog left the stable-door, where he had stood, and allowed him to pass." [10] THE LURCHER. This dog was originally a cross between the greyhound and the shepherd's dog, retaining all the speed and fondness for the chase belonging to the one, and the superior intelligence and readiness for any kind of work which the latter possessed. This breed has been crossed again with the spaniel, combining the disposition to quest for game which distinguishes the spaniel with the muteness and swiftness of the greyhound. Sometimes the greyhound is crossed with the hound. Whatever be the cross, the greyhound must predominate; but his form, although still to be traced, has lost all its beauty. The lurcher is a dog seldom found in the possession of the honourable sportsman. The farmer may breed him for his general usefulness, for driving his cattle, and guarding his premises, and occasionally coursing the hare; but other dogs will answer the former purposes much better, while the latter qualification may render him suspected by his landlord, and sometimes be productive of serious injury. In a rabbit-warren this dog is peculiarly destructive. His scent enables him to follow them silently and swiftly. He darts unexpectedly upon them, and, being trained to bring his prey to his master, one of these dogs will often in one night supply the poacher with rabbits and other game worth more money than he could earn by two days' hard labour. Mr. H. Faull, of Helstone, in Cornwall, lost no fewer than fifteen fine sheep, and some of them store sheep, killed by lurchers in January, 1824. [11] We now proceed to the different species of dog belonging to the second division of Cuvier, which are classed under the name of Hound; and, first we take THE BEAGLE. The origin of this diminutive hound is somewhat obscure. There is evidently much of the harrier and of the old southern, connected with a considerable decrease of size and speed, the possession of an exceedingly musical voice, and very great power of scent. Beagles are rarely more than ten or twelve inches in height, and were generally so nearly of the same size and power of speed, that it was commonly said they might be covered with a sheet. This close running is, however, considered as a mark of excellence in hounds of every kind. There are many pleasurable recollections of the period when "the good old English gentleman" used to keep his pack of beagles or little harriers, slow but sure, occasionally carried to the field in a pair of panniers on a horse's back; often an object of ridicule at an early period of the chase, but rarely failing to accomplish their object ere the day closed, "the puzzling pack unravelling wile by wile, maze within maze." It was often the work of two or three hours to accomplish this; but is was seldom, in spite of her speed, her shifts, and her doublings, that the hare did not fall a victim to her pursuers. The slowness of their pace gradually caused them to be almost totally discontinued, until very lately, and especially in the royal park at Windsor, they have been again introduced. Generally speaking, they have all the strength and endurance which is necessary to ensure their killing their game, and are much fleeter than their diminutive size would indicate. Formerly, considerable fancy and even judgment used to be exercised in the breeding of these dogs. They were curiously distinguished by the names of "deep-flewed," or "shallow-flewed," in proportion as they had the depending upper lip of the southern, or the sharper muzzle and more contracted lip of the northern dogs. The shallow-flewed were the swiftest, and the deep-flewed the stoutest and the surest, and their music the most pleasant. The wire-haired beagle was considered as the stouter and better dog. The form of the head in beagles has been much misunderstood. They have, or should have, large heads, decidedly round, and thick rather than long; there will then be room for the expansion of the nasal membrane, that of smell, and for the reverberation of the sound, so peculiarly pleasant in this dog. The beagle runs very low to the ground, and therefore has a stronger impression of the scent than taller dogs. This is especially the case when the scent is more than usually low. Among the advocates for beagles, several years ago, was Colonel Hardy. He used to send his dogs in panniers, and they had a little barn for their kennel. The door was one night broken open, and every hound, panniers and all, stolen. The thief was never discovered, not even suspected. The use of beagles was soon afterwards nearly abandoned by the introduction of the harrier, and by his yielding in his turn to the fox-hound; but the beagles of Colonel Thornton and Colonel Molyneux will not be soon forgotten. [12] There is, however, a practice which fair sportsmen will never resort to--the use of a beagle to start a hare in order to be run down by a brace of greyhounds, or perhaps by a lurcher. The hare is not fairly matched in this way of proceeding. THE HARRIER occupies an intermediate station between the beagle and the fox-hound. It is the fox-hound bred down to a diminished size, and suited to the animal he is to pursue. He retains, or did for a while retain, the long body, deep chest, large bones, somewhat heavy head, sweeping ears, and mellow voice, which the sportsman of old so enthusiastically described, with the certainty of killing, and the pleasing prolongation of the chase. With this the farmer used to be content: it did not require expensive cattle, was not attended with much hazard of neck, and did not take him far from home. Almost every country squire used in former days to keep his little pack of harriers or beagles. He was mounted on his stout cob-horse, that served him alike for the road and the chase; and his huntsman probably had a still smaller and rougher beast, or sometimes ran afoot. He could then follow the sport, almost without going off his own land, and the farmer's boys, knowing the country and the usual doublings of the hare, could see the greater part of the chase, and were almost able to keep up with the hounds, so that they were rarely absent at the death: indeed, they saw and enjoyed far more of it than the fox-hunter or the stag-hunter now does, mounted on his fleetest horse. The harrier was not more than 18 or 19 inches high. He was crossed with the fox-hound if he was getting too diminutive, or with the beagle if he was becoming too tall. The principal objects the sportsman endeavoured to accomplish were to preserve stoutness, scent, and musical voice, with speed to follow the hare sufficiently close, yet not enough to run her down too quickly, or without some of those perplexities, and faults, and uncertainties which give the principal zest to the chase. The character and speed of the hound much depend on the nature of the country. The smaller harrier will best suit a deeply enclosed country; but where there is little cover, and less doubling greater size and fleetness are requisite. The harrier, nevertheless, let him be as tall and as speedy as he may, should never he used for the fox; but every dog should be strictly confined to his own game. Mr. Beckford, in his 'Thoughts upon Hunting', gives an account, unrivalled, of the chase of the hare and fox. Many sporting writers have endeavoured to tread in his steps; but they have failed in giving that graphic account of the pleasures of the field which Mr. Beckford's essay contains. He says that the sportsman should never have more than 20 couple in the field, because it would he exceedingly difficult to get a greater number to run together, and a pack of harriers cannot be complete if they do not. A hound that runs too fast for the rest, or that lags behind them, should be immediately discarded. His hounds were between the large slow-hunting harrier and the fox-beagle. He endeavoured to get as much bone and strength in as little compass as possible. He acknowledges that this was a difficult undertaking; but he had, at last, the pleasure to see them handsome, small, yet bony, running well together, and fast enough, with all the alacrity that could be desired, and hunting the coldest scent. He anticipates the present improvement of the chase when he lays it down as a rule never to be departed from, that hounds of every kind should be kept to their own game. They should have one scent, and one style of hunting. Harriers will run a fox in so different a style from the pursuit of a hare, that they will not readily, and often will not at all, return to their proper work. The difference in the scent, and the eagerness of pursuit, and the noise that accompanies fox-hunting, all contribute to spoil a harrier. Mr. Beckford pleasingly expresses a sportsman's consideration for the poor animal which he is hunting to death. "A hare," he says, "is a timorous little animal that we cannot help feeling some compassion for at the time that we are pursuing her destruction. We should give scope to all her little tricks, nor kill her foully nor overmatched. Instinct instructs her to make a good defence when not unfairly treated, and I will venture to say that, as far as her own safety is concerned, she has more cunning than the fox, and makes shifts to save her life far beyond all his artifice." [13] THE FOX HOUND is of a middle size, between the harrier and the stag-hound; it is the old English hound, sufficiently crossed with the greyhound to give him lightness and speed without impairing his scent; and he has now been bred to a degree of speed sufficient to satisfy the man who holds his neck at the least possible price, and with which few, except thorough-bred horses, and not all of them, can live to the end of the chase. The fox-hound is lighter, or as it is now called, more highly bred, or he retains a greater portion of his original size and heaviness, according to the nature of the country and the fancy of the master of the pack: therefore it is difficult to give an accurate description of the best variety of this dog; but there are guiding points which can never be forgotten without serious injury. He derives from the greyhound a head somewhat smaller and longer in proportion to his size than either the stag-hound or the harrier. But considerable caution is requisite here. The beauty of the head and face, although usually accompanied by speed, must never be sacrificed to stoutness and power of scent. The object of the sportsman is to amalgamate them, or rather to possess them all in the greatest possible degree. This will generally be brought to a great degree of perfection if the sportsman regards the general excellence of the dog rather than the perfection of any particular point. The ears should not, comparatively speaking, be so large as those of the stag-hound or the harrier; but the neck should be longer and lighter, the chest deep and capacious, the fore legs straight as arrows, and the hind ones well bent at the hock. Some extraordinary accounts have been given of the speed of the fox-hound. A match that was run over the Beacon Course at Newmarket is the best illustration of his fleetness. The distance is 4 miles 1 furlong and 132 yards. The winning dog performed it in 8 minutes and a few seconds; but of the sixty horses that started with the hounds, only twelve were able to run in with them. Flying Childers had run the same course in 7 minutes and 30 seconds. "The size, or, as we should rather say, the height of a fox-hound, is a point on which there has been much difference of opinion. Mr. Chule's pack was three inches below the standard of Mr. Villebois', and four inches below that of Mr. Warde's. The advocates of the former assert, that they get better across a deep and strongly fenced country, while the admirers of the latter insist on their being better climbers of hills and more active in cover. As to uniformity in size, it is by no means essential to the well-doing of hounds in the field, and has been disregarded by some of our best sportsmen: Mr. Meynell never drafted a good hound on account of his being over or under sized. The proper standard of height in fox-hounds is from 21 to 22 inches for bitches, and from 23 to 24 for dog-hounds. Mr. Warde's bitches, the best of the kind that our country contained, were rather more than 23 inches. A few of his dogs were 25 inches high. The amount of hounds annually bred will depend upon the strength of the kennel. From sixty to eighty couples is the complement for a four days a-week pack, which will require the breeding of a hundred couples of puppies every year, allowing for accidents and distemper." [14] Nimrod very properly observes, that "Mr. Beckford has omitted a point much thought of by the modern sportsmen, namely, 'the back-ribs', which should also be deep, as in a strong-bodied horse, of which we say, when so formed, that he has a good 'spur place;' a point highly esteemed in him. Nor is he sufficiently descriptive of the hinder legs of the hound; for there is a length of thigh discernible in first-rate hounds which, like the well-let-down hock of the horse, gives them much superiority of speed, and is also a great security against their laming themselves in leaping fences, which they are more apt to do when they become blown and consequently weak. The fore legs, 'straight as arrows,' is an admirable illustration of perfection in those parts by Beckford; for, as in a bow or bandy legged man, nothing is so disfiguring to a hound as having his elbows projecting, and which is likewise a great check to speed." [15] Mr. Daniel gives a curious account of the prejudices of sportsmen on the subject of colour. The white dogs were curious hunters, and had a capital scent; the black, with some white spots, were obedient, good hunters, and with good constitutions; the gray-coloured had no very acute scent, but were obstinate, and indefatigable in their quest; the yellow dogs were impatient and obstinate, and taught with difficulty. [16] The dog exhibits no criteria of age after the first two years. That period having elapsed, the whiteness and evenness of the teeth soon pass away, and the 'old' dog can scarcely be mistaken. Nimrod scarcely speaks too positively when he says that an old hound cannot be mistaken, if only looked in the face. At all events, few are found in a kennel after the eighth year, and very few after the ninth. Mr. Beckford advises the sportsman carefully to consider the size, shape, colour, constitution, and natural disposition of the dog from which he breeds, and also the fineness of the nose, the evident strength of the limb, and the good temper and devotion to his master which he displays. The faults or imperfections in one breed may be rectified in another; and, if this is properly attended to, there is no reason why improvements may not continually be made. The separation of the sexes in the kennel and in the field is one of the latest innovations in the hunting world, and generally considered to be a good one. The eye is pleased to see a pack of hounds, nearly or quite of a size. The character of the animal is more uniformly displayed when confined to one sex. In consequence of the separation of the two, the dogs are less inclined to quarrel; and the bitches are more at their ease than when undergoing the importunate solicitations of the male. As to their performances in the field, opinions vary, and each sex has its advocates. The bitch, with a good fox before her, is decidedly more off-hand at her work; but she is less patient, and sometimes overruns the scent. Sir Bellingharn Graham has been frequently heard to say, that if his kennels would have afforded it, he would never have taken a dog-hound into the field. That in the canine race the female has more of elegance and symmetry of form, consequently more of speed, than the male, is evident to a common observer; but there is nothing to lead to the conclusion that, in the natural endowments of the senses, any superiority exists. [17] The bitch should not be allowed to engage in any long and severe chase after she has been lined. She should be kept as quiet as may be practicable, and well but not too abundantly fed; each having a kennel or place of retreat for herself. She should be carefully watched, and especially when the ninth week approaches. The huntsman and the keeper without any apparent or unnecessary intrusion, should be on the alert. The time of pupping having arrived, as little noise or disturbance should be made as possible; but a keeper should be always at hand in case of abortion or difficult parturition. Should there be a probability of either of these occurring, he should not be in a hurry; for, as much should be left to nature as can, without evident danger, be done, and the keeper should rarely intrude unless his assistance is indispensable. The pupping being accomplished, the mother should be carefully attended to. She should be liberally fed, and particularly should have her share of animal food, and an increased quantity of milk. The bitch should not have whelps until she has hunted two seasons; for, before that time it will be scarcely possible to ascertain her excellences or defects. If there are any considerable faults, she should be immediately rejected. When the time approaches for her to produce her puppies, she should be allowed a certain degree of liberty, and should choose her couch and run about a little more than usual; but, when the young ones are born, the less they are handled the better. The constitution and appearance of the mother will indicate how many should be kept. If two litters are born at or about the same time, or within two or three days of each other, we may interchange one or two of the whelps of each of them, and perhaps increase the value of both. When the whelps are able to crawl to a certain distance, it will be time to mark them, according to their respective litters, some on the ear and others on the lip. The dew-claws should be removed, and, usually, a small tip from the tail. Their names also should be recorded. The whelps will begin to lap very soon after they can look about them, and should remain with the mother until they are fully able to take care of themselves. They may then be prepared to go to quarters. Two or three doses of physic should be given to the mother, with intervals of four or five days between each: this will prepare her to return to the kennel. There is often considerable difficulty in disposing of the whelps until they get old and stout enough to be brought into the kennel. They are mostly sent to some of the neighbouring cottages, in order to be taken care of; but they are often neglected and half starved there. In consequence of this, distemper soon appears, and many of them are lost. Whelps 'walked', or taken care of at butchers' houses, soon grow to a considerable size; but they are apt to be heavy-shouldered and throaty, and perhaps otherwise deformed. There is some doubt whether it might not be better for the sportsman to take the management of them himself, and to have a kennel built purposely for them. It may, perhaps, be feared that the distemper will get among them: they would, however, be well fed, and far more comfortable than they now are; and, as to the distemper, it is a disease that they must have some time or other. From twenty to thirty couples are quite as many as can be easily managed; and the principal consideration is, whether they are steady, and as nearly as possible equal of speed. When the packs are very large, the hounds are seldom sufficiently hunted to be good. Few persons choose to hunt every day, or, if they did, it is not likely that the weather would permit them. The sportsman would, therefore, be compelled to take an inconvenient number into the field, and too many must be left behind. In the first place, too many hounds in the field would frequently spoil the sport; and, on the other hand, the hounds that remained would get out of wind, or become riotous, or both. Hounds, to be useful and good, should be constantly hunted; but a great fault in many packs is their having too many old dogs among them. Young hounds, when first taken to the kennel, should be kept separate from the rest of the pack, otherwise there will be frequent and dangerous quarrels. When these do occur, the feeder hears, and sometimes, but not so frequently as he ought, endeavours to discover the cause of the disturbance, and visits the culprits with deserved punishment; too often, however, he does not give himself time for this, but rushes among them, and flogs every hound that he can get at, guilty or not guilty. This is a shameful method of procedure. It is the cause of much undeserved punishment: it spoils the temper of the dog, and makes him careless and indifferent as long as he lives. Mr. Beckford very properly remarks, that "Young hounds are, and must be awkward at first, and should be taken out, a few at a time, with couples not too loose. They are thus accustomed to the usual occurrences of the road, and this is most easily accomplished when a young and an old dog are coupled together." A sheep-field is the next object, and the young hound, properly watched, soon becomes reconciled, and goes quietly along with the companion of the preceding day. A few days afterwards the dogs are uncoupled in the field, and perhaps, at first, are not a little disposed to attack the sheep; but the cry of "Ware sheep!" in a stern tone of voice, arrests them, and often, without the aid of the whip; it being taken as a principle that this instrument should be used as seldom as possible. If, indeed, the dog is self-willed, the whip must be had recourse to, and perhaps with some severity; for, if he is once suffered to taste the blood of the sheep, it may be difficult to restrain him afterwards. A nobleman was told that it was possible to break his dogs of the habit of attacking his sheep, by introducing a large and fearless ram among them; one was accordingly procured and turned into the kennel. The men with their whips and voices, and the ram with his horns, soon threw the whole kennel into confusion. The hounds and the ram were left together. Meeting a friend soon afterwards, "Come," said he, "to the kennel, and see what rare sport the ram is making among the hounds." His friend asked whether he was not afraid that some of them might be spoiled. "No," said he; "they deserve it, and let them suffer." They proceeded to the kennel; all was quiet. The kennel-door was thrown open, and the remains of the ram were found scattered about: the hounds, having filled their bellies, had retired to rest. The time of entering young hounds must vary in different countries. In a corn country, it should not be until the wheat is carried; in grass countries, somewhat sooner; and, in woodlands, as soon as we please. Frequent hallooing may be of use with young hounds; it makes them more eager; but, generally speaking, there is a time when it may be of use, a time when it does harm, and a time when it is perfectly indifferent. The following remarks of Mr. Beckford are worthy of their author: "Hounds at their first entering cannot be encouraged too much. When they begin to know what is right, it will be soon enough to chastise them for doing wrong, and, in such case, one rather severe beating will save a great deal of trouble. The voice should be used as well as the whip; and the smack of the whip will often be of as much avail as the lash to him who has felt it." Flogging hounds in the kennel, the frequent practice of too many huntsmen, should be held in utter abhorrence, and, if carried to a considerable excess, is a disgrace to humanity. Generally speaking, none but the sportsman can form an adequate conception of the perfect obedience of the hound both in the kennel and the field. At feeding-time, each dog, although hungry enough, will go through the gate in the precise order in which he is called by the feeder; and, in a well-broken pack, to chop at, or to follow a hare, or to give tongue on a false scent, or even to break cover alone, although the fox is in view, are faults that are rarely witnessed. Let not this obedience, however, be purchased by the infliction of a degree of cruelty that disgraces both the master and the menial. A young fox-hound may, possibly, mistake the scent of a hare for that of a fox, and give tongue. In too many hunts he will be unmercifully flogged for this, and some have almost died under the lash. Mercy is a word totally unknown to a great proportion of whippers-in, and even to many who call themselves gentlemen. There can be no occasion or excuse for barbarity: a little trouble, and moderate punishment, and the example of his fellows, will gradually teach the wildest hound his duty. That the huntsman, and not the hound, may occasionally be in fault, the following anecdote will furnish sufficient proof. In drawing a strong cover, a young bitch gave tongue very freely, while none of the other hounds challenged. The whipper-in railed to no purpose; the huntsman insisted that she was wrong, and the whip was applied with great severity. In doing this, the lash accidentally struck one of her eyes out of its socket. Notwithstanding the dreadful pain that must have ensued, she again took up the scent, and proved herself right; for the fox had stolen away, and she had broken cover after him, unheeded and alone. After much delay and cold hunting, the pack hit off the same scent. At some distance a farmer informed the sportsmen, that they were a long way behind the fox, for he had seen a single hound, very bloody about the head, running breast-high, so that there was but little chance of their getting up with her. The pack, from her coming to a check, did at last overtake her. The same bitch once more hit off the scent, and the fox was killed, after a long and severe run. The eye of the poor animal, that had hung pendent through the chase, was then taken off with a pair of scissors. THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SEASON. During the beginning of autumn, the hounds should be daily exercised when the weather will permit. They should often be called over in the kennel to habituate them to their names, and walked out among the sheep and deer, in order that they may he accustomed perfectly to disregard them. A few stout hounds being added to the young ones, some young foxes may occasionally be turned out. If they hunt improper game, they must be sternly checked. Implicit obedience is required until they have been sufficiently taught as to the game which they are to pursue. No obstinate deviation from it must ever be pardoned. The hounds should be, as much as possible, taken out into the country which they are afterwards to hunt, and some young foxes are probably turned out for them to pursue. At length they are suffered to hunt their game in thorough earnest, and to taste of its blood. After this they are sent to more distant covers, and more old hounds are added, and so they continue until they are taken into the pack, which usually happens in September. The young hounds continue to be added, two or three couple at a time, until all have hunted. They are then divided into two packs, to be taken out alternate days. Properly speaking, the sport cannot be said to begin until October, but the two preceding months are important and busy ones. [18] "It would appear, then," says Nimrod, "that the breeding of a pack of fox-hounds, bordering on perfection, is a task of no ordinary difficulty. The best proof of it is to be found in the few sportsmen that have succeeded in it. Not only is every good quality obtained if possible, but every imperfection or fault is avoided. The highest virtue in a fox-hound is his being true to the line his game has gone, and a stout runner at the end of the chase. He must also be a patient hunter when there is a cold scent and the pack is at fault." While there is no country in the world that can produce a breed of horses to equal the English thorough-bred in his present improved state, there are no dogs like the English fox-hound for speed, scent, and continuance. It would seem as if there were something in the climate favourable and necessary to the perfection of the hound. Packs of them have been sent to other countries, neighbouring and remote; but they have usually become more or less valueless. As regards the employment of the voice and the horn when out with hounds, too much caution cannot be used. A hound should never be cheered unless we are perfectly convinced that he is right, nor rated unless we are sure that he is wrong. When we are not sure of what is going on we should sit still and be silent. A few moments will possibly put us in possession of all that we wish to know. [19] The horn should only be used on particular occasions, and a huntsman should speak by his horn as much as by his voice. Particular notes should mean certain things, and the hounds and the field should understand the language. We have heard some persons blowing the horn all the day long, and the hounds have become so careless as to render it of no use. When a hound first speaks in cover to a fox, you may, if you think it necessary, use 'one single' and prolonged note to get the pack together. The same note will do at any time to call up a lost or loitering hound; but, when the fox breaks cover, then let your horn be marked in its notes: let it sound as if you said through it, "Gone away! gone away! gone away! away! away! away!" dwelling with full emphasis on the last syllable. Every hound will fly from the cover the moment he hears this, and the sportsmen and the field will know that the fox is away. It is the perfection of the horse, and the perfection of the hound, and the disregard of trifling expense, that has given to Englishmen a partiality for field-sports, unequalled in any other country. Mr. Ware's pack of fox-hounds cost 2000 guineas, and the late Lord Middleton gave the same to Mr. Osbaldeston for ten couples of his hounds. HUNTING-KENNELS. It is time, however, to speak of the kennel, whether we regard the sporting architecture of Mr.G. Tattersall, or the scientific inquiries of Mr. Vyner, or a sketch of the noble buildings at Goodwood. The lodging-rooms should be ceiled, but not plastered, with ventilators above and a large airy window on either side. The floors should be laid with flags or paved with bricks. Cement may be used instead of mortar, and the kennels will then be found wholesome and dry. The doorways of the lodging-houses will generally be four feet and a half wide, in the clear. The posts are rounded, to prevent the hounds from being injured when they rush out. The benches may be made of cast-iron or wood; those composed of iron being most durable, but the hounds are more frequently lamed in getting to them. The wooden benches must be bound with iron, or the hounds will gnaw or destroy them. A question has arisen, whether the benches should be placed round the kennel, or be in the centre of it, allowing a free passage by the side. There is least danger of the latter being affected by the damp. The walls should be wainscoted to the height of three feet at least. This will tend very considerably to their comfort. The floors of all the courts should be arranged in nearly the same way; the partition walls being closed at the bottom, but with some iron work above. The doorways should also be so contrived, that the huntsman may be able to enter whenever he pleases. The boiling-house should be at as great a distance from the hunting-kennel as can be managed, continuing to give warmth to the infirmary for distempered puppies, and at the same time being out of the way of the other courts. Mr. Vyner gives an interesting account of the young hounds' kennel: "This building," he says, "should be as far from the other lodging-rooms as the arrangements of the structure will allow. There is also an additional court, or grass-yard, an indispensable requisite in the puppies' kennel. The size must be regulated according to the waste land at the end of the building; but the longer it is, the better. At the farther end of the grass-court is a hospital for such young hounds as are distempered, so contrived as to be remote from the other kennels, and, at the same time, within an easy distance of the boiling-house, whence it is apparently approached by an outside door, through which the feeder can constantly pass to attend to the sick hounds without disturbing the healthy lots. Although this lodging room is warmed by the chimney of the boiling-house, it must be well ventilated by two windows, to which shutters must be attached; ventilation and good air being quite as necessary to the cure of distemper as warmth." KENNEL LAMENESS. We now proceed to a most important and ill-understood subject--the nature and treatment of 'kennel lameness'. It is a subject that nearly concerns the sportsman, and on which there are several and the most contrary opinions. This is a kind of lameness connected with, or attributable to, the kennel. According to the early opinion of Mr. Asheton Smith, who is a good authority, it was referable to some peculiarity in the breed or management of the hounds; but, agreeably to a later opinion, it is dependent on situation and subsoil, and may be aggravated or increased by circumstances over which we have no control. Some kennels are in low and damp situations, yet the hounds are free from all complaint: and others, with the stanchest dogs and under the best management, are continually sinking under kennel lameness. Mr. R. T. Vyner was one of the first who scientifically treated on this point, and taught us that 'clay is not by any means an objectionable soil to build a kennel upon', although so many pseudo-sportsmen are frightened by the very name of it. He enters at once into his subject. "I am thoroughly convinced," says he, "from my own experience, and, I may add, my own suffering, that the disease of kennel lameness arises only from one cause, and that is an injudicious and unfortunate selection of the spot for building. The kennel is generally built on a sand-bed, or on a sandstone rock, while the healthiest grounds in England are on a stiff clay, and they are the healthiest because they are the least porous. Although this may be contrary to the opinion and prejudice of the majority of sportsmen, it is a fact that cannot be contradicted. "Through a light and friable soil, such as sand and sandstone, a vapour, more or less dense, is continually exhaling and causing a perpetual damp, which produces that fearful rheumatism which goes by the name of kennel lameness, while the kennels that are built on a clay soil, a soil of an impervious nature, are invariably healthy. "I could," he adds, "enumerate twenty kennels to prove the effect--the invariable effect--of the existence of the disease on the one part, and of the healthiness of the situation on the other. I turn particularly to her Majesty's kennel at Ascot, the arches of which were laid under the very foundation strain, and yet little at no amendment has ever taken place in the healthiness and comfort of the dogs. It is necessary to select a sound and healthy situation when about to erect a kennel, and that sound and healthy situation can be met with alone on a strong impervious clay soil. We must have no fluid oozing through the walls or the floor of the kennel, and producing damp and unhealthy vapours, such as we find in the sandbed." With regard to this there can be no error. Nimrod, in his excellent treatise on 'Kennel Lameness', asks, whether it does not appear that this disease is on the increase. He asks, "How is it that neither Beckford nor Somerville says one word that clearly applies to the disease; and no one, however learned he might be in canine pathology, has been able clearly to define the disease, much less to discover a remedy for it?" All that Mr. Blaine says on the matter amounts only to this: "The healthiness of the situation on which any kennel is to be built, is an important consideration. It is essential that it should be both dry and airy, and it should also be warm. A damp kennel produces rheumatism in dogs, which shows itself sometimes by weakness in the loins, but more frequently by lameness in the shoulders, known under the name of kennel lameness." Mr. Blaine illustrates this by reference to his own experience. "There is no disease, with the exception of distemper and mange, to which dogs are so liable as to a rheumatic affection of some part of the body. It presents almost as many varieties in the dog as it does in man; and it has some peculiarities observable in the dog only. Rheumatism never exists in a dog without affecting the bowels. There will be inflammation or painful torpor through the whole of the intestinal canal. It is only in some peculiar districts that this occurs; it pervades certain kennels only; and but until lately there has been little or almost no explanation of the cause of the evil." [20] Nimrod took a most important view of the matter, and to him the sporting world is much indebted. "How is it," he asks, "that, in our younger days, we never heard of kennel lameness, or, indeed, of hounds being lame at all, unless from accident, or becoming shaken and infirm from not having been composed of that iron-bound material which the labours of a greyhound or a hound require? How is it, that, in our younger days, masters of hounds began the season with 50 or 60 couples, and, bating the casualties, left off at the end of it equally strong in their kennels, and able, perhaps, to make a valuable draft; whereas we now hear of one-half of the dogs in certain localities being disabled by disease, and some masters of hounds compelled to be stopped in their work until their kennels are replenished." Washing hounds when they come home after work must be injurious to them, although it has almost become the fashion of modern times. If they are not washed at all, and we believe it to be unnecessary, yet the kennels in which lameness has appeared should be strictly avoided. It should be on the day following and not in the evening of a hunting-day that washing should take place. Mr. Hodgson told Nimrod, that the Quorn Pack never had a case of kennel lameness until his late huntsman took to washing his hounds after hunting, and then he often had four or five couples ill from this cause. He deprecated even their access to water in the evening after hunting, and we believe that he was quite right in so doing. The tongue of the dog, with the aid of clean straw, is his best and safest instrument in cleansing his person; and, if he can be brought to his kennel with tolerably clean feet, as Mr. Foljambe enables him to be brought, he will never be long before he is comfortable in his bed, after his belly is filled. There is another mode, as a preventive of kennel lameness, which we have the best authority for saying deserves particular attention, and that is, the frequently turning hounds off their benches during the day, even if it were to the extent of every two hours throughout the entire day. We do not mean to deny the existence of a disease, which, being produced in the kennel, is properly termed kennel lameness. Some kennels are, no doubt, more unhealthy and prone to engender rheumatic affections than others; but, by proper management, and avoiding as much as possible all exciting causes, their effects may, at least, be very much lessened, if not entirely obviated. LORD FITZHARDINGE'S MANAGEMENT. Lord Fitzhardinge's opinion of the situation of the kennel and the management of the hounds, as given in the 'New Sporting Magazine', is somewhat different from that which has been just given. The following is the substance of it: [21] He states that the kennel should be built on a dry and warm situation. Of this there can be no doubt: the comfort and almost the existence of the dog depend upon it. To this he adds that it must not be placed on a gravelly or porous soil, over which vapours more or less dense are frequently or continually travelling, and thus causing a destructive exhalation over the whole of the building. There must be no fluid oozing through the walls or the floor of the kennel, and producing damp and unhealthy vapours. When we have not a deep supersoil of clay, one or two layers of bricks or of stone may line the floor, and then, not even the most subtile vapour can penetrate through the floor. A clean bed of straw should be allowed every second day, or oftener when the weather is wet. The lodging-houses should be ceiled, and there should be shutters to the windows. A thatched roof is preferable to tiles, being warmer in winter and cooler in summer. Stoves in the kennels are not necessary: probably they are best avoided; for, if dogs are accustomed to any considerable degree of artificial heat, they are more easily chilled by a long exposure to cold. Their teeth and the setting-up of their backs will confirm this. Hounds, when they feel cold, naturally seek each other for warmth, and they may be seen lying upon the straw and licking each other; and that is by far the most wholesome way of procuring comfort and warmth. On returning from hunting, their feet should be washed with some warm fluid, and especially the eyes should be examined, and their food got ready for them as soon as possible. The feeding in the morning should be an hour, or an hour and a half, before they start for the field. It is truly observed by the noble writer to whom we have referred, that there is no part of an establishment of this kind that merits more attention than the boiling and feeding house. The hounds cannot perform their work well unless judiciously fed. Each hound requires particular and constitutional care. No more than five of them should be let in to feed together, and often not more than one or two. The feeder should have each hound under his immediate observation, or they may get too much or too little of the food. Some hounds cannot run if they carry much flesh; others are all the better for having plenty about them. The boilers should be of iron, two in number,--one for meal and the smaller one for flesh. The large boiler should render it necessary to be used not more than once in four days or a week. The food should be stirred for two hours, then transferred to flat coolers, until sufficiently gelatinous to be cut with a kind of spade. By the admixture of some portion of soups it may be brought to any thickness requisite. The flesh to be mixed with it should be cut very small, that the greedy hounds may not be able to obtain more than their share. Four bushels and a half of genuine old oatmeal should be boiled with a hundred gallons of water. The flesh should he boiled every second or third day. Too great a proportion of soup would render the mixture of a heating nature. Mr. Delmé Radcliffe very truly observes that the feeding of hounds, as regards their condition, is one of the most essential proofs of a huntsman's skill in the management of the kennel. To preserve that even state of condition throughout the pack which is so desirable, he must be well acquainted with the appetite of every hound; for some will feed with a voracity scarcely credible, and others will require every kind of enticement to induce them to feed. Mr. Meynell found that the use of dry unboiled oatmeal succeeded better than any other thing he had tried with delicate hounds. When once induced to take it, they would eat it greedily, and it seemed to be far more heartening than most kinds of aliment. Other hounds of delicate constitution might be tempted with a little additional flesh, and with the thickest and best of the trough, but they required to be watched, and often to be coaxed to eat. The dog possesses the power of struggling against want of food for an almost incredible period. One of these animals, six years old, was missing three-and-twenty days; at length some children wandering in a distant wood thought that they frequently heard the baying of a dog. The master was told of it, and at the bottom of an old quarry, sixty feet deep, and the mouth of which he had almost closed by his vain attempts to escape, the voice of the poor fellow was recognised. With much difficulty he was extricated, and found in a state of emaciation; his body cold as ice and his thirst inextinguishable, and he scarcely able to move. They gave him at intervals small portions of bread soaked in milk and water. Two days afterwards he was able to follow his master a short distance. This occurrence is mentioned by M. Pinguin as a proof that neither hunger nor thirst could produce rabies. Messrs. Majendie and F. Cousins have carried their observations to the extent of forty days--a disgraceful period. [22] MANAGEMENT OF THE PACK. Sixty-five couple of hounds in full work will consume the carcases of three horses in one week, or five in a fortnight. The annual consumption of meal will be somewhat more than two tons per month. In feeding, the light eaters should be let in first, and a little extra flesh distributed on the surface of the food, in order to coax those that are most shy. Some hounds cannot be kept to their work unless fed two or three times a day; while others must not be allowed more than six or seven laps, or they would get too much. In summer an extra cow or two will be of advantage in the dairy; for the milk, after it has been skimmed, may be used instead of flesh. There must always be a little flesh in hand for the sick, for bitches with their whelps, and for the entry of young hounds.[23] About Christmas is the time to arrange the breeding establishment. The number of puppies produced is usually from five to eight or nine; but, in one strange case, eighteen of them made their appearance. The constitution and other appearances in the dam, will decide the number to be preserved. When the whelps are sufficiently grown to run about, they should be placed in a warm situation, with plenty of fresh grass, and a sufficient quantity of clean, but not too stimulating, food. They should then be marked according to their respective letters, that they may be always recognised. When the time comes, the ears of the dog should be rounded; the size of the ear and of the head guiding the rounding-iron. This being passed, the master of the pack takes care that his treatment shall be joyous and playful; encouragement is always with him the word. The dog should be taught the nature of the fault before he is corrected: no animal is more grateful for kindness than a hound; the peculiarities of his temper will soon be learned, and when he begins to love his master, he will mind, from his natural and acquired affection, a word or a frown from him more than the blows of all the whips that were ever put into the hands of the keepers. The distemper having passed, and the young hounds being in good health, they should be walked out every day, and taught to follow the horse, with a keeper who is selected as a kind and quiet person, and will bear their occasionally entangling themselves in their couples. They are then taken to the public roads, and there exercised, and checked from riot, but with as little severity as possible; a frequent and free use of the whip never being allowed. No animals take their character from their master so much as the hounds do from theirs. If he is wild, or noisy, or nervous, so will his hounds be; if he is steady and quick, the pack will be the same. The whip should never be applied but for some immediate and decided fault. A rate given at an improper time does more harm than good: it disgusts the honest hound, it shies and prevents from hunting the timid one, and it is treated with contempt by those of another character who may at some future time deserve it. It formerly was the custom, and still is too much so, when a hound 'has hung on a hare', to catch him when he comes up, and flog him. The consequence of this is, that he takes good care the next time he indulges in a fault not to come out of cover at all. We will conclude this part of our subject by a short account of the splendid kennel at Goodwood, for which we are indebted to Lord W. Lennox, with the kind permission of the Duke of Richmond. It is described as one of the most complete establishments of the kind in England. The original establishment of this building, although a little faulty, possesses considerable interest from its errors being corrected by the third Duke of Richmond, a man who is acknowledged to have been one of the most popular public characters of the day, and who in more private life extended his patronage to all that was truly honourable. It was to the Duke's support of native talent that we may trace the origin of the present Royal Academy. In 1758, the Duke of Richmond displayed, at his residence in Whitehall, a large collection of original plaster casts, taken from the finest statues and busts of the ancient sculptors. Every artist was freely admitted to this exhibition and, for the further encouragement of talent, he bestowed two medals annually on such as had exhibited the best models. We have thus digressed in order to give a slight sketch of the nobleman by whom this kennel was built, and we do not think that we can do better than lay before our readers the original account of it. Early in life the Duke built what was not then common, a tennis-court, and what was more uncommon, a dog-kennel, which cost him above £6000. The Duke was his own architect, assisted by, and under the guidance of, Mr. Wyatt; he dug his own flints, burnt his own lime, and conducted the wood-work in his own shops. The result of his labours was the noble building of which a plan is here given. The dog-kennel is a grand object when viewed from Goodwood. The front is handsome, the ground well raised about it, and the general effect good; the open court in the centre adds materially to the noble appearance of the building. The entrance to the kennel is delineated in the centre with a flight of stairs leading above. The huntsman's rooms, four in number first present themselves, and are marked in the plan before us by the letter C; each of them is fifteen feet four inches, by fourteen feet six inches. At each end of the side towards the court is one of the feeding-rooms, twenty-nine feet by fourteen feet four inches, and nobly constructed rooms they are; they are designated by the letters B. At the back of the feeding-rooms, are one set of the lodging-rooms, from thirty-five feet six inches, to fourteen feet four inches, and marked by the letters A, and at either extremity is another lodging-room, thirty-two feet six inches in length, and fourteen feet six inches in width: this is also marked by the letter A. Coming into the court we find the store-room twenty-four feet by fourteen and a half, marked by the letter D, and the stable, of the same dimensions, by the letter E. At the top of the buildings are openings for the admission of cold air, and stoves to warm the air when too cold. There are plentiful supplies of water from tanks holding 10,000 gallons; so that there is no inconvenience from the smell, and the whole can at any time be drained, and not be rendered altogether useless. Round the whole building is a pavement five feet wide; airy yards and places for breeding, &c., making part of each wing. For the huntsman and whipper-in there are sleeping-rooms, and a neat parlour or kitchen. Soon after the kennel was erected, it would contain two packs of hounds. THE STAG-HOUND. The largest of the English hounds that has been lately used, is devoted, as his name implies, to the chase of the deer. He is taller than the fox-hound, and with far more delicate scent, but he is not so speedy. He answers better than any other to the description given of the old English hound, so much valued when the country, less enclosed, and the forests, numerous and extensive, were the harbours of the wild deer. The deer-hound and the harrier were for many centuries the only hunting-dogs. The fox-hound has been much more recently bred. The most tyrannic and cruel laws were enforced for the preservation of this species of game, and the life of the deer, except when sacrificed in the chase, and by those who were privileged to join in it, was guarded with even more strictness than the life of the human being. When, however, the country became more generally cultivated, and the stag was confined to enclosed parks, and was seldom sought in his lair, but brought into the field, and turned out before the dogs, so much interest was taken from the affair, that this species of hunting grew out of fashion, and was confined to the neighbourhood of the scattered forests that remained, and enjoyed only by royalty and a few noblemen, of whose establishment a kennel of deer-hounds had, from time immemorial, formed a part. Since the death of George III, who was much attached to this sport, stag-hunting has rapidly declined, and the principal pleasure seems now to consist in the concourse of people brought together to an appointed place and hour, to witness the turning out of the deer. There is still maintained a royal establishment for the continuance of this noble sport, but, unless better supported than it has of late years been, it will gradually decline. The stag-hounds are now a part of the regular Crown establishment. The royal kennel is situated upon Ascot Heath, about six miles from Windsor. At the distance of a mile from the kennel is Swinley Lodge, the official residence of the Master of the Stag-hounds. The stag-hound is a beautiful animal. He is distinguished from the fox-hound by the apparent broadness and shortness of his head, his longer cheek, his straighter hock, his wider thigh and deeper chest, and better feathered and more beautifully arched tail. His appearance indicates strength and stoutness, in which indeed he is unequalled, and he has sufficient speed to render it difficult for the best horses long to keep pace with him; while, as is necessary, when the distance between the footmarks of the deer is considered, his scent is most exquisite. He is far seldomer at fault than any other hound except the blood-hound, and rarely fails of running down his game. Of the stoutness of this dog, the following anecdotes will be a sufficient illustration. A deer, in the spring of 1822, was turned out before the Earl of Derby's hounds in Hayes Common. The chase was continued nearly four hours without a check, when, being almost run down, the animal took refuge in some outhouses near Speldhurst in Kent, more than forty miles across the country, and having actually run more than fifty miles. Nearly twenty horses died in the field, or in consequence of the severity of the chase. A stag was turned out at Wingfield Park, in Northumberland. The whole pack, with the exception of two hounds, was, after a long run, thrown out. The stag returned to his accustomed haunt, and, as his last effort, leaped the wall of the park, and lay down and died. One of the hounds, unable to clear the wall, fell and expired, and the other was found dead at a little distance. They had run about forty miles. "When the stag first hears the cry of the hounds, he runs with the swiftness of the wind, and continues to run as long as any sound of his pursuers can be distinguished. That having ceased, he pauses and looks carefully around him; but before he can determine what course to pursue, the cry of the pack again forces itself upon his attention. Once more he darts away, and after a while again pauses. His strength perhaps begins to fail, and he has recourse to stratagem in order to escape. He practises the doubling and the crossing of the fox or the hare. This being useless, he attempts to escape by plunging into some lake or river that happens to lie in his way, and when, at last, every attempt to escape proves abortive, he boldly faces his pursuers, and attacks the first dog or man who approaches him." [24] SOUTHERN HOUND. There used to be in the south of Devon a pack or cry of the genuine old English or southern hounds. There is some reason to believe that this was the original stock of the island, or of this part of the island, and that this hound was used by the ancient Britons in the chase of the larger kinds of game with which the country formerly abounded. Its distinguishing characters are its size and general heavy appearance; its great length of body, deep chest, and ears remarkably large and pendulous. The tones of its voice were peculiarly deep. It answered the description of Shakspeare: "So flewed, so sanded; and their heads are hung With ears that sweep away the morning dew; Crook-knee'd, and dew-lapp'd, like Thessalian bulls; Slow in pursuit, but match'd in mouth like bells, Each under each." It was the slowness of the breed which occasioned its disuse. Several of them, however, remained not long ago at a village called Aveton Gifford, in Devonshire, in the neighbourhood of which some of the most opulent of the farmers used to keep two or three dogs each. When fox-hunting had assumed somewhat of its modern form, the chase was followed by a slow heavy hound, whose excellent olfactory organs enabled him to carry on the scent a considerable time after the fox-hound passed, and also over grassy fallows, and hard roads, and other places, where the modern high-bred fox-hound would not be able to recognise it. Hence the chase continued for double the duration which it does at present, and hence may be seen the reason why the old English hunter, so celebrated in former days and so great a favourite among sportsmen of the old school, was enabled to perform those feats which were exultingly bruited in his praise. The fact is, that the hounds and the horse were well matched. If the latter possessed not the speed of the Meltonian hunter, the hounds were equally slow and stanch. THE BLOOD-HOUND. This dog does not materially differ in appearance from the old deer-hound of a larger size, trained to hunt the human being instead of the quadruped. If once put on the track of a supposed robber, he would unerringly follow him to his retreat, although at the distance of many a mile. Such a breed was necessary when neither the private individual nor the government had other means to detect the offender. Generally speaking, however, the blood-hound of former days would not injure the culprit that did not attempt to escape, but would lie down quietly and give notice by a loud and peculiar howl what kind of prey he had found. Some, however, of a savage disposition, or trained to unnatural ferocity, would tear to pieces the hunted wretch, if timely rescue did not arrive. Hounds of every kind, both great and small, may be broken in to follow any particular scent, and especially when they are feelingly convinced that they are not to hunt any other. This is the case with the blood-hound. He is destined to one particular object of pursuit, and a total stranger with regard to every other. In the border country between England and Scotland, and until the union of the two kingdoms, these dogs were absolutely necessary for the preservation of property, and the detection of robbery and murder. A tax was levied on the inhabitants for the maintenance of a certain number of blood-hounds. When, however, the civic government had sufficient power to detect and punish crime, this dangerous breed of hounds fell into disuse and was systematically discouraged. It, nevertheless, at the present day, is often bred by the rangers in large forests or parks to track the deer-stealer, but oftener to find the wounded deer. The blood-hound is taller and better formed than the deer-hound. It has large and deep ears, the forehead broad and the muzzle narrow. The expression of the countenance is mild and pleasing, when the dog is not excited; but, when he is following the robber, his ferocity becomes truly alarming. The Thrapstone Association lately trained a blood-hound for the detection of sheepstealers. In order to prove the utility of this dog, a person whom he had not seen was ordered to run as far and as fast as his strength would permit. An hour afterwards the hound was brought out. He was placed on the spot whence the man had started. He almost immediately detected the scent and broke away, and, after a chase of an hour and a half, found him concealed in a tree, fifteen miles distant. Mr. John Lawrence says, that a servant, discharged by a sporting country gentleman, broke into his stables by night, and cut off the ears and tail of a favourite hunter. As soon as it was discovered, a blood-hound was brought into the stable, who at once detected the scent of the miscreant, and traced it more than twenty miles. He then stopped at a door, whence no power could move him. Being at length admitted, he ran to the top of the house, and, bursting open the door of a garret, found the object that he sought in bed, and would have torn him to pieces, had not the huntsman, who had followed him on a fleet horse, rushed up after him. Somerville thus describes the use to which he was generally put, in pursuit of the robber: "Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail Flourished in air, low bending, plies around His busy nose, the steaming vapour snuffs Inquisitive, nor leaves one turf untried, Till, conscious of the recent stains, his heart Beats quick. His snuffing nose, his active tail, Attest his joy. Then, with deep opening mouth, That makes the welkin tremble, he proclaims Th' audacious felon. Foot by foot he marks His winding way. Over the watery ford, Dry sandy heaths, and stony barren hills, Unerring he pursues, till at the cot Arrived, and seizing by his guilty throat The caitiff vile, redeems the captive prey." THE SETTER is evidently the large spaniel improved to his peculiar size and beauty, and taught another way of marking his game, viz., by 'setting' or crouching. If the form of the dog were not sufficiently satisfactory on this point, we might have recourse to history for information on it. Mr. Daniel, in his 'Rural Sports', has preserved a document, dated in the year 1685, in which a yeoman binds himself for the sum of ten shillings, fully and effectually to teach a spaniel to 'sit' partridges and pheasants. [As this old document may prove interesting to the curious, we take the liberty of inserting it, knowing full well, that Mr. Daniel's work is quite rare in this country, and copies of it are not easily obtained even in England. Ribbesford, Oct. 7, 1685, "I, John Harris, of Willdon, in the parish of Hastlebury, in the county of Worcester, yeoman, for and in consideration of ten shillings of lawful English money this day received of Henry Herbert of Ribbesford, in the said county, Esqr., and of thirty shillings more of like money by him promised to be hereafter pay'd me, do hereby covenant and promise to and with the said Henry Herbert, his exôrs and admôrs, that I will, from the day of the date hereof, untill the first day of March next, well and sufficiently mayntayne and keepe a Spanile Bitch named Quand, this day delivered into my custody by the said Henry Herbert, and will, before the first day of March next, fully and effectually traine up and teach the said Bitch to sitt Partridges, Pheasants, and other game, as well and exactly as the best sitting Doggers usually sett the same. And the said bitch, so trayned and taught, shall and will delivere to the said Henry Herbert, or whom he shall appoint to receive her, att his house in Ribbesford aforesaid, on the first day of March next. And if at anytime after the said Bitch shall, for want of use or practice, or orwise, forgett to sett Game as aforesaid, I will, at my costes and charges, maynetayne her for a month, or longer, as often as need shall require, to trayne up and teach her to sett Game as aforesaid, and shall and will, fully and effectually, teach her to sett Game as well and exactly as is above mentyon'd. Witness my hand and seal the day and year first above written, John Harris, his X mark. Sealed and delivered in presence of H. Payne, his X mark." L.] The first person, however, who systematically broke-in setting dogs is supposed to have been Dudley Duke of Northumberland in 1335. A singular dog-cause was tried in Westminster, in July, 1822. At a previous trial it was determined that the mere possession of a dog, generally used for destroying game, was sufficient proof of its being actually so used. Mr. Justice Best, however, determined that a man might be a breeder of such dogs without using them as game-dogs; and Mr. Justice Bailey thought that if a game-dog was kept in a yard, chained up by day, and let loose at night, and, being so trained as to guard the preimises, he was to be considered as a yard-dog, and not as a game-dog. The setter is used for the same purpose as the pointer, and there is great difference of opinion with regard to their relative value as sporting-dogs. Setters are not so numerous; and they are dearer, and with great difficulty obtained pure. It was long the fashion to cross and mix them with the pointer, by which no benefit was obtained, but the beauty of the dog materially impaired; many Irish sportsmen, however, were exceedingly careful to preserve the breed pure. Nothing of the pointer can be traced in them, and they are useful and beautiful dogs, altogether different in appearance from either the English or Scotch setter. The Irish sportsmen are, perhaps, a little too much prejudiced with regard to particular colours. Their dogs ate either very red, or red and white, or lemon-coloured, or white, patched with deep chestnut; and it was necessary for them to have a black nose, and a black roof to the mouth. This peculiar dye is supposed to be as necessary to a good and genuine Irish setter as is the palate of a Blenheim spaniel to the purity of his breed. A true Irish setter will obtain a higher price than either an English or Scotch one. Fifty guineas constituted no unusual price for a brace of them, and even two hundred guineas have been given. It is nevertheless, doubtful whether they do in reality so much exceed the other breeds, and whether, although stout and hard-working dogs, and with excellent scent, they are not somewhat too headstrong and unruly. The setter is more active than the pointer. He has greater spirit and strength. He will better stand continued hard work. He will generally take the water when necessary, and, retaining the character of the breed, is more companionable and attached. He loves his master for himself, and not, like the pointer, merely for the pleasure he shares with him. His somewhat inferior scent, however, makes him a little too apt to run into his game, and he occasionally has a will of his own. He requires good breaking, and plenty of work; but that breaking must be of a peculiar character: it must not partake of the severity which too often accompanies, and unnecessarily so, the tuition of the pointer. He has more animal spirit than the pointer, but he has not so much patient courage; and the chastisement, sometimes unnecessary and cruel, but leaving the pointer perfect in his work, and eager for it too, would make the setter disgusted with it, and leave him a mere 'blinker'. It is difficult, however, always to decide the claim of superiority between these dogs. He that has a good one of either breed may be content, but the lineage of that dog must be pure. The setter, with much of the pointer in him, loses something in activity and endurance; and the pointer, crossed with the setter, may have a degree of wildness and obstinacy, not a little annoying to his owner. The setter may be preferable when the ground is hard and rough; for he does not soon become foot-sore. He may even answer the purpose of a springer for pheasants and woodcocks, and may be valuable in recovering a wounded bird. His scent may frequently be superior to that of the pointer, and sufficiently accurate to distinguish, better than the pointer, when the game is sprung; but the steadiness and obedience of the pointer will generally give him the preference, especially in a fair and tolerably smooth country. At the beginning of a season, and until the weather is hot, the pointer will have a decided advantage. [We beg leave to finish this history of the setter by referring to our essay on this dog, published in vol. xv, No. 47, of the "New York Spirit of the Times", or as lately transferred to the pages of an interesting and valuable sporting work, about being published by our esteemed friend, Wm. A. Porter, and from which we now abstract our remarks upon THE MERITS OF THE SETTER COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE POINTER. It cannot for a moment be doubted that the setter has superior advantages to the pointer, for hunting over our uncleared country, although the pointer has many qualities that recommend him to the sportsman, that the setter does not possess. In the first place, the extreme hardiness and swiftness of foot, natural to the setter, enables him to get over much more ground than the pointer, in the same space of time. Their feet also, being more hard and firm, are not so liable to become sore from contact with our frozen ground. The ball pads being well protected by the spaniel toe-tufts, are less likely to be wounded by the thorns and burs with which our woods are crowded during the winter season. His natural enthusiasm for hunting, coupled with his superior physical powers, enables him to stand much more work than the pointer, and oftentimes he appears quite fresh upon a long continued hunt, when the other will be found drooping and inattentive. The long, thick fur of the setter, enables him to wend his way through briary thickets without injury to himself, when a similar attempt on the part of a pointer, would result in his ears, tail, and body being lacerated and streaming with blood. On the other hand, the pointer is superior to the setter in retaining his acquired powers for hunting, and not being naturally enthusiastic in pursuit of game, he is more easily broken and kept in proper subjection. The setter frequently requires a partial rebreaking at the commencement of each season, in his younger days, owing to the natural eagerness with which he resumes the sport. The necessity of this, however, diminishes with age, as the character and habits of the dog become more settled, and then we may take them into the field, with a perfect assurance of their behaving quite as well on the first hunt of the season, as the stanchest pointer would. The extreme caution, and mechanical powers of the pointer in the field, is a barrier to his flushing the birds, as is often witnessed in the precipitate running of the setter, who winds the game and frequently overruns it in his great anxiety to come up with it. But this occasional fault on the part of the setter, may be counterbalanced by the larger quantity of game that he usually finds in a day's hunt, owing to his enthusiasm and swiftness of foot. Setters require much more water while hunting than the pointer, owing to their thick covering of fur, encouraging a greater amount of insensible perspiration to fly off than the thin and short dress of the pointer. Consequently they are better calculated to hunt in the coldest seasons than early in our falls, which are frequently quite dry and warm. A striking instance of this fact came under our own immediate observation this fall, when shooting in a range of country thinly settled and uncommonly dry. The day being warm and the birds scarce, the dogs suffered greatly from thirst, in so much that a very fine setter of uncommon bottom, was forced to give up entirely, completely prostrated, foaming at the mouth in the most alarming manner, breathing heavily, and vomiting from time to time a thick frothy mucus. His prostration of both muscular and nervous powers was so great, that he could neither smell nor take the slightest notice of a bird, although placed at his nose. He could barely manage to drag one leg after the other, stopping to rest every few moments, and we were fearful that we should be obliged to shoulder and carry him to a farm-house, a considerable distance off. However, he succeeded, with much difficulty, in reaching the well, where he greedily drank several pints of water administered to him with caution. He recovered almost immediately, gave me a look of thanks, and was off to the fields in a few moments, where he soon found a fine covey of birds. The pointer, his associate in the day's work, and a much less hardy dog, stood the hunt remarkably well, and seemed to suffer little or no inconvenience from the want of water. The setter has natural claims upon the sportsman and man generally, in his affectionate disposition and attachment to his master, and the many winning manners he exhibits towards those by whom he is caressed. The pointer displays but little fondness for those by whom he is surrounded, and hunts equally as well for a stranger as his master.--L.] Of the difference between the old English setter and the setters of the present day, we confess that we are ignorant, except that the first was the pure spaniel improved, and the latter the spaniel crossed too frequently with the pointer. It must be acknowledged, that of companionableness, and disinterested attachment and gratitude, the pointer knows comparatively little. If he is a docile and obedient servant in the field, it is all we want. The setter is unquestionably his superior in every amiable quality. Mr. Blaine says, that a large setter, ill with the distemper, had been nursed by a lady more than three weeks. At length he became so ill as to be placed in a bed, where he remained a couple of days in a dying state. After a short absence, the lady, re-entering the room, observed him to fix his eyes attentively on her, and make an effort to crawl across the bed towards her. This he accomplished, evidently for the sole purpose of licking her hand, after which he immediately expired. [Daniel Lambert celebrated for his enormous magnitude, weighing seven hundred and thirty-nine pounds, had a very superior breed of sellers, which were publicly sold, at the following prices; after his death, which forcibly illustrates the immense value placed on this dog in England; whereas, many American sportsmen considers it a great hardship to be obliged to give thirty or forty dollars for a well-bred setter in this country. Guineas Peg, a black Setter Bitch..........................41 Punch, a Setter Dog..................................26 Brush, do ..........................................17 Bob, do............................................30 Bell, do........................................... 32 Bounce, do............................................22 Sam, do............................................26 Charlotte, a Pointer Bitch...............................22 Lucy, do............................................12 ------ 218 --L.] The pointer is evidently descended from the hound. [We beg leave to make the following extracts from our essay on this subject, published in No. 1, vol. xvi, of the "Spirit of the Times": The origin of the pointer, like that of the setter, is involved in much obscurity; he is of mixed blood, and no doubt largely indebted to both hound and spaniel for his distinct existence. Many sportsmen are under the erroneous idea that the pointer is contemporary with, if not older than, the Setter. Such, however, is not the case; and we are led to believe that the Pointer is of quite modern origin; at all events, the production of a much later date than the spaniel. Strut, in his "Sports and Pastimes", chap. 1, sects. xv. and xvi., mentions a MS. in the Cotton Library, originally written by William Twici, or Twety, Grand Huntsman to Edward II, who ascended the throne in 1307. This manuscript contains the earliest treatise on hunting that the English possess, and enumerates the various kinds of game and different species of dogs then in existence, as also the modes of taking the former and using the latter. After describing, in the usual minute manner, the specific employment of each dog, he finishes by stating: "The spaniel was for use in hawking, hys crafte is for the perdrich or partridge, and the quail; and when taught to couch, he is very serviceable to the fowler, who takes these birds with nets." No mention is made in this treatise of the pointer, and we naturally infer that he did not exist, or he would have been noticed in connexion with the spaniel, who, it appears, even at this early period, was taught to 'couch' on and point out game to those employed in netting it. In the early portion of the sixteenth century, we have another enumeration of dogs, 'then' in use, in a book entitled--"A Jewel for Gentrie;" which, besides the dogs already descanted upon by Twici, we find added to the list, "bastards and mongrels, lemors, kenets, terrours, butchers' hounds, dung-hill dogs, trindel-tailed dogs, prychercard curs, and ladies' puppies." (Chap. 1st., Sec. XVI.--Strut.) The pointer being the offspring of the fox-hound and spaniel, is consequently sprung from the two ancient races known as 'Sagaces' and 'Pugnaces' or 'Bellicosi'. He certainly evinces a larger share of the 'Bellicosi' blood than the setter, being ever ready for fight when assailed, while the latter generally exhibits a conciliatory disposition under the most trying circumstances.--L.] It is the fox-hound searching for game by the scent, but more perfectly under the control of the sportsman, repressing his cry of joy when he finds his game, and his momentary pause, and gathering himself up in order to spring upon it artificially, converted into a steady and deliberate point. There still remains a strong resemblance, in countenance and in form, between the pointer and the fox-hound, except that the muzzle is shorter, and the ears smaller, and partly pendulous. Seventy or eighty years ago, the breed of pointers was nearly white, or varied with liver-coloured spots; some, however, belonging to the Duke of Kingston, were perfectly black. This peculiarity of colour was supposed to be connected with exquisite perfection of scent. That is not the case with the present black pointers, who are not superior to any others. Mr. Daniel relates an anecdote of one of his pointers. He had a dog that would always go round close to the hedges of a field before he would quarter his ground. He seemed to have observed that he most frequently found his game in the course of this circuit. [25] Mr. Johnson gives the following characteristic sketches of the different breeds of pointer: THE SPANISH POINTER, originally a native of Spain, was once considered to be a valuable dog. He stood higher on his legs, but was too large and heavy in his limbs, and had widely spread, ugly feet, exposing him to frequent lameness. His muzzle and head were large, corresponding with the acuteness of his smell. His ears were large and pendent, and his body ill-formed. He was naturally an ill-tempered dog, growling at the hand that would caress him, even although it were his master's. He stood steadily to his birds; but it was difficult to break him of chasing the hare. He was deficient in speed. His redeeming quality was his excellent scent, unequalled in any other kind of dog. [To convince our readers of the value of this particular breed, we may mention the very singular sale of Colonel Thornton's dog Dash, who was purchased by Sir Richard Symons for one hundred and sixty pounds worth of champagne and burgundy, a hogshead of of claret, and an elegant gun and another pointer, with a stipulation that if any accident befell the dog, he was to be returned to his former owner for fifty guineas. Dash unfortunately broke his leg, and in accordance with the agreement of sale was returned to the Colonel, who considered him a fortunate acquisition as a stallion to breed from. (See Blain or Daniel).--L.] THE PORTUGESE POINTER, although with a slighter form than the Spanish one, is defective in the feet, often crooked in the legs, and of a quarrelsome disposition. He soon tires, and is much inclined to chase the hare. The tail is larger than that of the spaniel, and fully fringed. THE FRENCH POINTER is distinguished by a furrow between his nostrils, which materially interferes with the acuteness of smell. He is better formed and more active than either the Spanish or Portugese dog, and capable of longer continued exertion; but he is apt to be quarrelsome, and is too fond of chasing the hare. [We will close this account of the Pointer by transferring from the pages of the "Spirit of the Times" our remarks upon this particular breed. The French variety, as described by English authors, is much smaller than either of the above breeds; and although possessed of great beauty, acute scent, and other qualifications that would render him valuable in their eyes, still is considered much inferior, not being able to cope with their dogs in hunting, owing to a want of physical power of endurance. Youatt states, that he is distinguished by a furrow in his nose, which materially interferes with his acuteness of smell. These accounts do not agree with the French writers, to whom, it is very true, the English should not look for any particular information respecting hunting or shooting. Nevertheless, all must admit that they are quite as capable of describing their particular breeds of animals as other nations; and, in fact, we might go farther, and say that they are much more competent to the task than English writers, judging from their extensive knowledge in comparative anatomy, and their long array of celebrated writers on natural history--the Cuviers, Buffon, &c. 'Baudrillart', in his 'Dictionnaire des Chases', describes the French Pointer as having endurance and great industry, and of their being used oftentimes solely for 'la grande chasse'. In the atlas of plates accompanying this interesting work, will be found two distinct and extremely correct drawings of the English Pointer, and also an engraving of the French variety, which latter, certainly, is represented as being equally, if not more muscular and and hardy, than the English. As for the furrow in the nose, as mentioned by Youatt, no reference is made to it in connection with this species, and in the engraving the nose is square. But in describing another variety, known in France as coming from Spain, 'Baudrillart' states, that they are vulgarly called "à deux nez, parceque ce chien a les narines separées par une gouttiere." As for Mr. Youatt's declaration in reference to the furrow in the nose "materially interfering with the acuteness of smell," I cannot understand how, or on what principle of reasoning, this slight deviation from nature should affect the properties of the olfactory apparatus. That these furrow-nosed dogs are inferior to the English in scenting powers, as stated by Mr. Youatt, we do not question; but that their deficiency depends upon this furrow, remains to be proved. This furrow in the nose is merely a deformity, and like many others in various breeds of animals, was solely the result of accident in the first place; and as we often see, even in the human species, the deformities and infirmities of our ancestors entailed upon their progeny, so has this 'cut in the nose' been so extensively inherited by succeeding generations, that it has now become a distinctive mark of a whole class of dogs. The French Pointer, as known in this country, is a beautiful, well-shaped, compact, square-nosed dog; not so long or high as the English, but extremely well built, full-chested, large head, pendent ears, projecting eyes, large feet, and thickish tail. His colour, seldom white, but generally intermingled with small spots of brown or chocolate over the body, and more particularly over the head and ears. Such a dog is in the possession of the writer, who knows nothing of his ancestry; but is convinced from those he saw in France, that they must have been imported from that country. The English Pointer will now claim more particularly our attention. It is quite useless to go into a general description of an animal of whom we have already said much, and with whom we are all familiar; but we will endeavour to mention the most striking points of the species, which marks can be referred to as guides in the purchase of a dog. It is a difficult matter to put on paper, in a manner satisfactory either to the reader or writer, the peculiarities of any animal, whereby he may be judged pure or mixed. However, there are, generally, some few points in each species, that can be selected as proofs of their genuineness and ability to perform certain actions peculiar to the race. But, after all, more reliance must be placed upon the good faith of the seller, or the previous knowledge of the strain from which the purchaser selects--and what is better than either, from actual observation in the field; all of which precautions may, nevertheless, prove abortive, and our dog be worthless. As regards the size of the English Pointer, we may say, that he averages in length about 3 feet from the tip of the muzzle to the base of the tail, and from 22 to 26 inches high. His head not bulky nor too narrow, the frontal sinuses largely developed. The muzzle long and rather tapering, the nostrils large and well open, the ear slightly erect, not over long, and the tip triangular; if too pendent, large and rounded at the tip, there is too much of the hound present. The eyes lively, but not too prominent; the neck rather long and not over thick, the chest broad, the limbs large and muscular; the paws strong, hard and wide. The body and loins thin, rather than bulky, the hind quarters broad, and the limbs in the same proportion with the fore members; the tail long and tapering.--L.] THE RUSSIAN POINTER is a rough, ill-tempered animal, with too much tendency to stupidity, and often annoyed by vermin. He runs awkwardly, with his nose near the ground, and frequently springs his game. He also has the cloven or divided nose. THE EARLY TRAINING OF THE DOG. The education of these dogs should commence at an early period, whether conducted by the breeder or the sportsman; and the first lesson--that on which the value of the animal, and the pleasure of its owner, will much depend--is a habit of subjection on the part of the dog, and kindness on the part of the master. This is a 'sine quâ non'. The dog must recognise in his owner a friend and a benefactor. This will soon establish in the mind of the quadruped a feeling of gratitude, and a desire to please. All this is natural to the dog, if he is encouraged by the master, and then the process of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. No long time probably passes ere the dog commits some little fault. He is careless, or obstinate, or cross. The owner puts on a serious countenance, he holds up his finger, or shakes his head, or produces the whip, and threatens to use it. Perhaps the infliction of a blow, that breaks no bones, occasionally follows. In the majority of cases nothing more is required. The dog succumbs; he asks to be forgiven; or, if he has been self-willed, he may be speedily corrected without any serious punishment. A writer, under the signature of "Soho," in The New Sporting Magazine for 1833, gives an interesting account of the schooling of the pointer or setter, thus commenced. A short abstract from it may not be unacceptable: "The first lesson inculcated is that of passive obedience, and this enforced by the infliction of severity as little as the case will admit. We will suppose the dog to be a setter. He is taken into the garden or into a field, and a strong cord, about eighteen or twenty yards long, is tied to his collar. The sportsman calls the dog to him, looks earnestly at him, gently presses him to the ground, and several times, with a loud, but not an angry voice, says, 'Down!' or 'Down charge!' The dog knows not the meaning of this, and struggles to get up; but, as often as he struggles, the cry of 'Down charge!' is repeated, and the pressure is continued or increased. "This is repeated a longer or shorter time, until the dog, finding that no harm is meant, quietly submits. He is then permitted to rise; he is patted and caressed, and some food is given to him. The command to rise is also introduced by the terms 'Hie up!' A little afterwards the same process is repeated, and he struggles less, or perhaps ceases altogether to struggle. "The person whose circumstances permit him occasionally to shoot over his little demesne, may very readily educate his dog without having recourse to keepers or professional breakers, among whom he would often be subject to imposition. Generally speaking, no dog is half so well broken as the one whose owner has taken the trouble of training him. The first and grand thing is to obtain the attachment of the dog, by frequently feeding and caressing him, and giving him little hours of liberty under his own inspection; but, every now and then, inculcating a lesson of obedience, teaching him that every gambol must be under the control of his master; frequently checking him in the midst of his riot with the order of 'Down charge!' patting him when he is instantly obedient; and rating, or castigating him, but not too severely, when there is any reluctance to obey. 'Passive obedience is the first principle, and from which no deviation should be allowed.' [26] "Much kindness and gentleness are certainly requisite when breaking-in the puppy, whether it be a pointer or a setter. There is heedlessness in the young dog which is not readily got rid of until age has given him experience. He must not, however, be too severely corrected, or he may be spoiled for life. If considerable correction is sometimes necessary, it should be followed, at a little distance of time, by some kind usage. The memory of the suffering will remain; but the feeling of attachment to the master will also remain, or rather be increased. The temper of a young dog must be almost as carefully studied as that of a human being. Timidity may be encouraged, and eagerness may be restrained, but affection must be the tie that binds him to his master, and renders him subservient to his will. "The next portion of the lesson is more difficult to learn. He is no longer held by his master, but suffered to run over the field, seemingly at his pleasure, when, suddenly, comes the warning 'Down!' He perhaps pays no attention to it, but gambols along until seized by his master, forced on the ground, and the order of 'Down!' somewhat sternly uttered. "After a while he is suffered again to get up. He soon forgets what has occurred, and gallops away with as much glee as ever. Again the 'Down!' is heard, and again little or no attention is paid to it. His master once more lays hold of him and forces him on the ground, and perhaps inflicts a slight blow or two, and this process continues until the dog finds that he must obey the command of 'Down charge!' "The owner will now probably walk from him a little way backward with his hand lifted up. If the dog makes the slightest motion, he must be sharply spoken to, and the order peremptorily enforced. "He must then be taught to 'back,' that is, to come behind his master when called. When he seems to understand all this, he is called by his master in a kindly tone, and patted and caressed. It is almost incredible how soon he will afterwards understand what he is ordered to do, and perform it. "It will be seen by this that no one should attempt to break-in a dog who is not possessed of patience and perseverance. The sportsman must not expect to see a great deal of improvement from the early lessons. The dog will often forget that which was inculcated upon him a few hours before; but perseverance and kindness will effect much: the first lessons over, the dog, beginning to perceive a little what is meant, will cheerfully and joyfully do his duty. "When there is much difficulty in teaching the dog his lesson, the fault lies as often with the master as with him; or they are, generally speaking, both in fault. Some dogs cannot be mastered but by means of frequent correction. The less the sportsman has to do with them the better. Others will not endure the least correction, but become either ferocious or sulky. They should be disposed of as soon as possible. The majority of dogs are exceedingly sagacious. They possess strong reasoning powers; they understand, by intuition, almost every want and wish of their master, and they deserve the kindest and best usage. "The scholar being thus prepared, should be taken into the field, either alone, or, what is considerably better, with a well-trained, steady dog. When the old dog makes a point, the master calls out, 'Down!' or 'Soho!' and holds up his hand, and approaches steadily to the birds; and, if the young one runs in or prepares to do so, as probably he will at first, he again raises his hand and calls out, 'Soho!' If the youngster pays no attention to this, the whip must be used, and in a short time he will be steady enough at the first intimation of game. "If he springs any birds without taking notice of them, he should be dragged to the spot from which they rose, and, 'Soho!' being cried, one or two sharp strokes with the whip should be inflicted. If he is too eager, he should be warned to 'take heed.' If he 'rakes' or runs with his nose near the ground, he should be admonished to 'hold up', and, if he still persists, the 'muzzle-peg' may be resorted to. Some persons fire over the dog for running at hares: but this is wrong; for, besides the danger of wounding or even killing the animal, he will for some time afterwards he frightened at the sound, or even at the very sight of a gun. The best plan to accustom dogs to the gun, is occasionally to fire one off when they are being fed. "Some persons let their dog fetch the dead birds. This is very wrong. Except the sportsman has a double-barrelled gun, the dog should not be suffered to move until the piece is again charged. The young one, until he is thoroughly broken of it, is too apt to run in whether the bird is killed or not, and which may create much mischief by disturbing the game. "Although excessive punishment should not be administered, yet no fault, however small, should pass without reproof: on the other hand, he should be rewarded, but not too lavishly, for every instance of good conduct. "When the dog is grown tolerably steady, and taught to come at the call, he should also learn to range and quarter his ground. Let some clear morning, and some place where the sportsman is likely to meet with game, be selected. Station him where the wind will blow in his face; wave your hand and cry, 'Heigh on, good dog!' Then let him go off to the right, about seventy or eighty yards. After this, call him in by another wave of the hand, and let him go the same distance to the left. Walk straight forward with your eye always upon him; then, let him continue to cross from right to left, calling him in at the limit of each range. "This is at first a somewhat difficult lesson, and requires careful teaching. The same ground is never to be twice passed over. The sportsman watches every motion, and the dog is never trusted out of sight, or allowed to break fence. When this lesson is tolerably learned, and on some good scenting morning early in the season, he may take the field, and perhaps find. Probably he will be too eager, and spring his game. Make him 'down' immediately, and take him to the place where the birds rose. Chide him with 'Steady!' 'How dare you!' Use no whip; but scold him well, and be assured that he will be more cautious. If possible, kill on the next chance. The moment the bird is down, he will probably rush in and seize it. He must be met with the same rebuff, 'Down charge!' If he does not obey, he deserves to have, and will have, a stroke with the whip. The gun being again charged, the bird is sought for, and the dog is suffered to see it and play with it for a minute before it is put into the bag. "He will now become thoroughly fond of the sport, and his fondness will increase with each bird that is killed. At every time, however, whether he kills or misses, the sportsman should make the dog 'Down charge.' and never allow him to rise until he has loaded. "If a hare should be wounded, there will, occasionally, be considerable difficulty in preventing him from chasing her. The best broken and steadiest dog cannot always be restrained from running hares. He must be checked with 'Ware chase,' and, if he does not attend, the sportsman must wait patiently. He will by-and-by come slinking along with his tail between his legs, conscious of his fault. It is one, however, that admits of no pardon. He must be secured, and, while the field echoes with the cry of 'Ware chase,' he must be punished to a certain but not too great extent. The castigation must be repeated as often as he offends; or, if there is much difficulty in breaking him of the habit, he must be got rid of." The breaking-in or subjugation of pointers and setters is a very important, and occasionally a difficult affair; the pleasure of the sportsman, however, depends on it. The owner of any considerable property will naturally look to his keeper to furnish him with dogs on which he may depend, and he ought not to be disappointed; for those which belong to other persons, or are brought at the beginning of the season, whatever account the breaker or the keeper of them may give, will too often be found deficient. THE OTTER HOUND used to be of a mingled breed, between the southern hound and the rough terrier, and in size between the harrier and the fox-hound. The head should be large and broad, the shoulders and quarters thick, and the hair strong, wiry, and rough. They used to be kept in small packs, for the express purpose of hunting the otter. Two hundred and fifty years ago, otter-hunting was a favourite amusement in several parts of Great Britain. Many of our streams then abounded with this destructive animal; but, since the population are more numerous, and many contrivances are adopted to ensnare and destroy otters, few are now to be found. THE TURNSPIT This dog was once a valuable auxiliary in the kitchen, by turning the spit before jacks were invented. It had a peculiar length of body, with short crooked legs, the tail curled, its ears long and pendent, and the head large in proportion to the body. It is still used in the kitchen on various parts of the Continent. There are some curious stories of the artfulness with which he often attempted to avoid the task imposed upon him. There is a variety of this dog; the crooked-legged turnspit. [Footnote 1: 'Historical and Descriptive Sketches of British America', by J. Macgregor] [Footnote 2: 'Journal Historique du Voyage de M. de Lesseps', Paris, 1790. 2 vols.--tome 1.] [Footnote 3: Clarke's 'Scandinavia', vol. i. p. 432.] [Footnote 4: The migratory sheep, in some parts of the south of France almost as numerous as in Spain, are attended by a GOAT, as a guide; and the intelligence and apparent pride which he displays are remarkable.] [Footnote 5: 'Trimmer on the Merinos', p. 50. See also the Society's work on Sheep.] [Footnote 6: 'Annals of Sporting', vol. viii. p. 83.] [Footnote 7: "The Ettrick Shepherd has probably spoken somewhat too enthusiastically of his dog; but accounts of the sagacity and almost superhuman fidelity of this dog crowd so rapidly upon us that we are compelled to admire and to love him." 'Hogg's Shepherd's Calendar', vol. ii. p. 308.] [Footnote 8: 'Jesse's Gleanings', vol. i. p. 93]. [Footnote 9: 'Buffon's Natural History', vol. v. p. 314.] [Footnote 10: 'Travels in Scotland', by the Rev. J. Hall, vol. ii. p. 395.] [Footnote 11: 'Annals of Sporting', vol. v. p. 137.] [Footnote 12: Mr Beckford at one time determined to try how he should like the use of beagles, and, having heard of a small pack of them, he sent his coachman, the person he could best spare, to fetch them. It was a long journey, and, although he had some assistance, yet not being used to hounds, he had some trouble in getting them along, especially as they had not been out of the kennel for several weeks before. They were consequently so riotous that they ran after everything they saw, sheep, cur dogs, birds of all sorts, as well as hares and deer. However, he lost but one hound; and, when Mr. Beckford asked him what he thought of them, he said that they could not fail of being good hounds, for they would hunt everything.] [Footnote 13: 'Beckford on Hunting', p. 150.] [Footnote 14: 'The Horse and the Hound', by Nimrod, p. 340.] [Footnote 15: 'The Horse and the Hound', by Nimrod, p, 332.] [Footnote 16: 'Daniel's Foxhound', p. 205.] [Footnote 17: 'The Horse and the Hound', by Nimrod, p. 355.] [Footnote 18: 'Beckford's Thoughts on Hunting', p. 95.] [Footnote 19: Mr. Beckford gives the following excellent account of what a huntsman should be: "A huntsman should be attached to the sport, and indefatigable, young, strong, active, bold, and enterprising in the pursuit of it. He should be sensible, good-tempered, sober, exact, and cleanly--a good groom and an excellent horseman. His voice should be strong and clear, with an eye so quick as to perceive which of his hounds carries the scent when all are running, and an ear so excellent as to distinguish the leading hounds when he does not see them. He should be quiet, patient, and without conceit. Such are the qualities which constitute perfection in a huntsman. He should not, however, be too fond of displaying them until called forth by necessity; it being a peculiar and distinguishing trait in his character to let his hounds alone while they thus hunt, and have genius to assist them when they cannot." 'Beckford on Hunting', Letter ix.] [Footnote 20: 'Blaine on the Diseases of the Dog', p. 140.] [Footnote 21: See 'Hints to Young Masters of Fox-Hounds'--'New Sport. Mag.', vol. viii. p. 174-290.] [Footnote 22: 'Traité de la Folie dex Animaux', tom. ii. 39.] [Footnote 23: Mr. D. Radcliffe.] [Footnote 24: The late Lord Oxford reduced four stags to so perfect a degree of submission that, in his short excursions, he used to drive them in a phaeton made for the purpose. He was one day exercising his singular and beautiful steeds in the neighbourhood of Newmarket, when their ears were saluted with the unwelcome cry of a pack of hounds, which, crossing the road in their rear, had caught the scent, and leaving their original object of pursuit, were now in rapid chase of the frightened stags. In vain his grooms exerted themselves to the utmost, the terrified animals bounded away with the swiftness of lightning, and entered Newmarket at full speed. They made immediately for the Ram Inn, to which his lordship was in the habit of driving, and, having fortunately entered the yard without any accident, the stable-keepers huddled his lordship, the phaeton, and the deer into a large barn, just in time to save them from the hounds, who came into the yard in full cry a few seconds afterwards. ('Annals of Sporting', vol. iii. 1833.)] [Footnote 25: The author of the 'Field Book' says that he saw an extremely small pointer, whose length, from the tip of the nose to the point of the tail, was only two feet and half an inch, the length of the head being six inches, and round the chest one foot and three inches. He was an exquisite miniature of the English pointer, being in all respects similar to him, except in his size. His colour was white, with dark liver-coloured patches on each side of the head, extending half down the neck. The ears, with some patches on the back, were also of the same colour, and numerous small dark-brown spots appeared over his whole body and legs. This beautiful little animal had an exquisite sense of smell. Some of the same breed, and being the property of the Earl of Lauderdale, were broken-in and made excellent pointers, although, from their minute size, it could not be expected that they would be able to do much work. When intent upon any object, the dog assumed the same attitude as other pointers, holding up one of his feet. ('The Field Book', p. 399.)] [Footnote 26: Another writer in the same volume gives also an interesting account of the management of the setter.] * * * * * CHAPTER IV. THE VARIETIES OF THE DOG. THIRD DIVISION. 'The muzzle more or less shortened, the frontal sinus enlarged, and the cranium elevated and diminished in capacity.' At the head of this inferior or brutal division of dogs stands THE BULL-DOG. The round, thick head, turned-up nose, and thick and pendulous lips of this dog are familiar to all, while his ferocity makes him in the highest degree dangerous. In general he makes a silent although ferocious attack, and the persisting powers of his teeth and jaws enable him to keep his hold against any but the greatest efforts, so that the utmost mischief is likely to ensue as well to the innocent visitor of his domicile as the ferocious intruder. The bull-dog is scarcely capable of any education, and is fitted for nothing but ferocity and combat. The name of this dog is derived from his being too often employed, until a few years ago, in baiting the bull. It was practised by the low and dissolute in many parts of the country. Dogs were bred and trained for the purpose; and, while many of them were injured or destroyed, the head of the bull was lacerated in the most barbarous manner. Nothing can exceed the fury with which the bull-dog rushed on his foe, and the obstinacy with which he maintained his hold. He fastened upon the lip, the muzzle, or the eye, and there he hung in spite of every effort of the bull to free himself from his antagonist. Bull-dogs are not so numerous as they were a few years ago; and every kind-hearted person will rejoice to hear that bull-baiting is now put down by legal authority in every part of the kingdom. THE BULL TERRIER. This dog is a cross between the bull-dog and the terrier, and is generally superior, both in appearance and value, to either of its progenitors. A second cross considerably lessens the underhanging of the lower jaw, and a third entirely removes it, retaining the spirit and determination of the animal. It forms a steadier friendship than either of them, and the principal objection to it is its love of wanton mischief, and the dangerous irascibility which it occasionally exhibits. Sir Walter Scott, a warm friend of dogs, and whose veracity cannot be impeached, gives an interesting account of a favourite one belonging to him. "The cleverest dog I ever had was what is called a bull-dog terrier. I taught him to understand a great many words, insomuch that I am positive the communication between the canine species and ourselves might be greatly enlarged. Camp, the name of my dog, once bit the baker when bringing bread to the family. I beat him, and explained the enormity of the offence; after which, to the last moment of his life, he never heard the least allusion to the story without creeping into the darkest corner of the room. Towards the end of his life when he was unable to attend me while I was on horseback, he generally watched for my return, and, when the servant used to tell him, his master was coming down the hill, or through the moor, although he did not use any gesture to explain his meaning, Camp was never known to mistake him, but either went out at the front to go up the hill, or at the back to get down to the moor-side." THE MASTIFF The head considerably resembles that of the bull-dog, but with the ears dependent. The upper lip falls over the lower jaw. The end of the tail is turned up, and frequently the fifth toe of the hind feet is more or less developed. The nostrils are separated one from another by a deep furrow. He has a grave and somewhat sullen countenance, and his deep-toned bark is often heard during the night. The mastiff is taller than the bull-dog, but not so deep in the chest, and his head is large compared with his general form. It is probable that the mastiff is an original breed peculiar to the British islands. He seems to be fully aware of the impression which his large size makes on every stranger; and, in the night especially, he watches the abode of his master with the completest vigilance; in fact, nothing would tempt him to betray the confidence which is reposed in him. Captain Brown states that, "notwithstanding his commanding appearance and the strictness with which he guards the property of his master, he is possessed of the greatest mildness of conduct, and is as grateful for any favours bestowed upon him as is the most diminutive of the canine tribe. There is a remarkable and peculiar warmth in his attachments. He is aware of all the duties required of him, and he punctually discharges them. In the course of the night he several times examines every thing with which he is intrusted with the most scrupulous care, and, by repeated barkings, warns the household or the depredator that he is at the post of duty." [1] The mastiff from Cuba requires some mention, and will call up some of the most painful recollections in the history of the human race. He was not a native of Cuba, but imported into the country. The Spaniards had possessed themselves of several of the South American islands. They found them peopled with Indians, and those of a sensual, brutish, and barbarous class--continually making war with their neighbours, indulging in an irreconcilable hatred of the Spaniards, and determined to expel and destroy them. In self-defence, they were driven to some means of averting the destruction with which they were threatened. They procured some of these mastiffs, by whose assistance they penetrated into every part of the country, and destroyed the greater portion of the former inhabitants. Las Casas, a Catholic priest, and whose life was employed in endeavouring to mitigate the sufferings of the original inhabitants, says that "it was resolved to march against the Indians, who had fled to the mountains, and they were chased like wild beasts, with the assistance of bloodhounds, who had been trained to a thirst for human blood, so that before I had left the island it had become almost entirely a desert." THE ICELAND DOG. The head is rounder than that of the northern dogs; the ears partly erect and partly pendent; and the fur soft and long, especially behind the fore legs and on the tail. It much resembles the Turkish dog removed to a colder climate. This dog is exceedingly useful to the Icelanders while travelling over the snowy deserts of the north. By a kind of intuition he rarely fails in choosing the shortest and the safest course. He also is more aware than his master of the approach of the snow storms; and is a most valuable ally against the attack of the Polar bear, who, drifted on masses of ice from the neighbouring continent, often commits depredations among the cattle, and even attacks human beings. When the dog is first aware of the neighbourhood of the bear, he sets up a fearful howl, and men and dogs hasten to hunt down and destroy the depredator. The travelling in Iceland is sometimes exceedingly dangerous at the beginning of the winter. A thin layer of snow covers and conceals some of the chasms with which that region abounds. Should the traveller fall into one of them, the dog proves a most useful animal; for he runs immediately across the snowy waste, and, by his howling, induces the traveller's friends to hasten to his rescue. THE TERRIER The forehead is convex; the eye prominent; the muzzle pointed; the tail thin and arched; the fur short; the ears of moderate size, half erect, and usually of a deep-black colour, with a yellow spot over the eyes. It is an exceedingly useful animal; but not so indispensable an accompaniment to a pack of fox-hounds as it used to be accounted. Foxes are not so often unearthed as they formerly were, yet many a day's sport would be lost without the terrier. Some sportsmen used to have two terriers accompanying in the pack, one being smaller than the other. This was a very proper provision; a large terrier might be incapable of penetrating into the earth, and a small one might permit the escape of the prey. Many terriers have lost their lives by scratching up the earth behind them, and thus depriving themselves of all means of retreat. The coat of the terrier may be either smooth or rough; the smooth-haired ones are more delicate in appearance, and are somewhat more exposed to injury or accident; but in courage, sagacity, and strength, there is very little difference if the dogs are equally well bred. The rough terrier possibly obtained his shaggy coat from the cur, and the smooth terrier may derive his from the hound. The terrier is seldom of much service until he is twelve months old; and then, incited by natural propensity, or the example of the older ones, or urged on by the huntsman, he begins to discharge his supposed duty. An old terrier is brought to the mouth of the earth in which a vixen fox--a fox with her young ones--has taken up her abode, and is sent in to worry and drive her out. Some young terriers are brought to the mouth of the hover, to listen to the process that is going forward within, and to be excited to the utmost extent of which they are capable. The vixen is at length driven out, and caught at the mouth of the hole; and the young ones are suffered to rush in, and worry or destroy their first prey. They want no after-tuition to prepare them for the discharge of their duty. This may be pardoned. It is the most ready way of training the young dog to his future business; but it is hoped that no reader of this work will be guilty of the atrocities that are often practised. An old fox, or badger, is caught, his under jaw is sawn off, and the lower teeth are forcibly extracted, or broken. A hole is then dug in the earth, or a barrel is placed large and deep enough to permit a terrier, or perhaps two of them, to enter. Into this cavity the fox or badger is thrust, and a terrier rushes after him, and drags him out again. The question to be ascertained is, how many times in a given period the dog will draw this poor tortured animal out of the barrel--an exhibition of cruelly which no one should be able to lay to the charge of any human being. It is a principle not to be departed from, that wanton and useless barbarity should never be permitted. The government, to a certain extent, has interfered, and a noble society has been established to limit, or, if possible, to prevent the infliction of useless pain. The terrier is, however, a valuable dog, in the house and the farm. The stoat, the pole-cat, and the weazel, commit great depredations in the fields, the barn, and granary; and to a certain extent, the terrier is employed in chasing them; but it is not often that he has a fair chance to attack them. He is more frequently used in combating the rat. The mischief effected by rats is almost incredible. It has been said that, in some cases, in the article of corn, these animals consume a quantity of food equal in value to the rent of the farm. Here the dog is usefully employed, and in his very element, especially if there is a cross of the bull-dog about him. There are some extraordinary accounts of the dexterity, as well as courage, of the terrier in destroying rats. The feats of a dog called "Billy" will he long remembered. He was matched to destroy one hundred large rats in eight and a half minutes. The rats were brought into the ring in bags, and, as soon as the number was complete, he was put over the railing. In six minutes and thirty-five seconds they were all destroyed. In another match he destroyed the same number in six minutes and thirteen seconds. At length, when he was getting old, and had but two teeth and one eye left, a wager was laid of thirty sovereigns, by the owner of a Berkshire bitch, that she would kill fifty rats in less time than Billy. The old dog killed his fifty in five minutes and six seconds. The pit was then cleared, and the bitch let in. When she had killed thirty rats, she was completely exhausted, fell into a fit, and lay barking and yelping, utterly incapable of completing her task. The speed of the terrier is very great. One has been known to run six miles in thirty-two minutes. He needs to be a fleet dog if, with his comparatively little bulk, he can keep up with the foxhound. A small breed of 'wry-legged' terriers was once in repute, and, to a certain degree, is retained for the purpose of hunting rabbits. It probably originated in some rickety specimens, remarkable for the slow development of their frame, except in the head, the belly, and the joints, which enlarge at the expense of the other parts. THE SCOTCH TERRIER There is reason to believe that this dog is far older than the English terrier. There are three varieties: first the common Scotch terrier, twelve or thirteen inches high; his body muscular and compact-- considerable breadth across the loins--the legs shorter and stouter than those of the English terriers. The head large in proportion to the size of the body--the muzzle small and pointed--strong marks of intelligence in the countenance--warm attachment to his master, and the evident devotion of every power to the fulfilment of his wishes. The hair is long and tough, and extending over the whole of the frame. In colour, they are black or fawn: the white, yellow, or pied are always deficient in purity of blood. Another species has nearly the same conformation, but is covered with longer, more curly, and stouter hair; the legs being apparently, but not actually, shorter. This kind of dog prevails in the greater part of the Western Islands of Scotland, and some of them, where the hair has obtained its full development, are much admired. Her Majesty had one from Islay, a faithful and affectionate creature, yet with all the spirit and determination that belongs to his breed. The writer of this account had occasion to operate on this poor fellow, who had been bitten under somewhat suspicious circumstances. He submitted without a cry or a struggle, and seemed to be perfectly aware that we should not put him to pain without having some good purpose in view. A third species of terrier is of a considerably larger bulk, and three or four inches taller than either of the others. Its hair is shorter than that of the other breeds, and is hard and wiry. THE SHOCK-DOG is traced by Buffon, but somewhat erroneously, to a mixture of the small Danish dog and the pug. The head is round, the eyes large, but somewhat concealed by its long and curly hair, the tail curved and bent forward. The muzzle resembles that of the pug. It is of small size, and is used in this country and on the Continent as a lap-dog. It is very properly described by the author of "The Field Book" as a useless little animal, seeming to possess no other quality than that of a faithful attachment to his mistress. THE ARTOIS DOG with his short, flat muzzle, is a produce of the shock-dog and the pug. He has nothing peculiar to recommend him. THE ANDALUSIAN, OR ALICANT DOG, has the short muzzle of the pug with the long hair of the spaniel. THE EGYPTIAN AND BARBARY DOG, according to Cuvier, has a very thick and round head, the ears erect at the base, large and movable, and carried horizontally, the skin nearly naked, and black or dark flesh-colour, with large patches of brown. A sub-variety has a kind of mane behind the head, formed of long stiff hairs. Buffon imagines that the shepherd's dog--transported to different climates, and acquiring different habits--was the ancestor of the various species with which almost every country abounds; but whence they originally came it is impossible to say. They vary in their size, their colour, their attitude, their usual exterior, and their strangely different interior construction. Transported into various climates, they are necessarily submitted to the influence of heat and cold, and of food more or less abundant and more or less suitable to their natural organization; but the reason or the derivation of these differences of structure it is not always easy to explain. [Footnote 1: Brown's 'Biographical Sketches', p. 425.] * * * * * CHAPTER V. THE GOOD QUALITIES OF THE DOG; THE SENSE OF SMELL; INTELLIGENCE; MORAL QUALITIES; DOG-CARTS; CROPPING; TAILING; BREAKING-IN; DOG-PITS; DOG-STEALING. In our history of the different breeds of the dog we have seen enough to induce us to admire and love him. His courage, his fidelity, and the degree in which he often devotes every power that he possesses to our service, are circumstances that we can never forget nor overlook. His very foibles occasionally attach him to us. We may select a pointer for the pureness of his blood and the perfection of his education. He transgresses in the field. We call him to us; we scold him well; perchance, we chastise him. He lies motionless and dumb at our feet. The punishment being over, he gets up, and, by some significant gesture, acknowledges his consciousness of deserving what he has suffered. The writer operated on a pointer bitch for an enlarged cancerous tumour, accompanied by much inflammation and pain in the surrounding parts. A word or two of kindness and of caution were all that were necessary, although, in order to prevent accidents, she had been bound securely. The flesh quivered as the knife pursued its course--a moan or two escaped her, but yet she did not struggle; and her first act, after all was over, was to lick the operator's hand. From the combination of various causes, the history of no animal is more interesting than that of the dog. First, his intimate association with man, not only as a valuable protector, but as a constant and faithful companion throughout all the vicissitudes of life. Secondly, from his natural endowments, not consisting in the exquisite delicacy of one individual sense--not merely combining memory with reflection--but possessing qualities of the mind that stagger us in the contemplation of them, and which we can alone account for in the gradation existing in that wonderful system which, by different links of one vast chain, extends from the first to the last of all things, until it forms a perfect whole on the wonderful confines of the spiritual and material world. We here quote the beautiful account of Sir Walter Scott and his dogs, as described by Henry Hallam: "But looking towards the grassy mound Where calm the Douglass chieftains lie, Who, living, quiet never found, I straightway learnt a lesson high; For there an old man sat serene, And well I knew that thoughtful mien Of him whose early lyre had thrown O'er mouldering walls the magic of its tone. It was a comfort, too, to see Those dogs that from him ne'er would rove, And always eyed him reverently, With glances of depending love. They know not of the eminence Which marks him to my reasoning sense, They know but that he is a man, And still to them is kind, and glads them all he can And hence their quiet looks confiding; Hence grateful instincts seated deep By whose strong bond, were ill betiding, They'd lose their own, his life to keep. What joy to watch in lower creature Such dawning of a moral nature, And how (the rule all things obey) They look to a higher mind to be their law and stay!" The subject of the intellectual and moral qualities of the inferior animals is one highly interesting and somewhat misunderstood--urged perhaps to a ridiculous extent by some persons, yet altogether neglected by others who have no feeling for any but themselves. Anatomists have compared the relative bulk of the brain in different animals, and the result is not a little interesting. In man the weight of the brain amounts on the average to 1-30th part of the body. In the Newfoundland dog it does not amount to 1-60th part, or to 1-100th part in the poodle and barbet, and not to more than 1-300th part in the ferocious and stupid bull-dog. When the brain is cut, it is found to be composed of two substances, essentially different in construction and function--the cortical and the medullary. The first is small in quantity, and principally concerned in the food and reproduction of the animal, and the cineritious in a great measure the register of the mind. Brute strength seems to be the character of the former, and superior intelligence of the latter. There is, comparing bulk with bulk, less of the medullary substance in the horse than in the ox--and in the dog than in the horse--and they are characterized as the sluggish ox, the intelligent horse, and the intellectual and companionable dog. From the medullary substance proceed certain cords or prolongations, termed 'nerves', by which the animal is enabled to receive impressions from surrounding objects and to connect himself with them, and also to possess many pleasurable or painful sensations. One of them is spread over the membrane of the nose, and gives the sense of smell; another expands on the back of the eye, and the faculty of sight is gained; a third goes to the internal structure of the ear and the animal is conscious of sound. Other nerves, proceeding to different parts, give the faculty of motion, while an equally important one bestows the power of feeling. One division, springing from a prolongation of the brain, and yet within the skull, wanders to different parts of the frame, for important purposes connected with respiration or breathing. The act of breathing is essential to life, and were it to cease, the animal would die. There are other nerves--the sympathetic--so called from their union and sympathy with all the others, and identified with life itself. They proceed from a small ganglion or enlargement in the upper part of the neck, or from a collection of minute ganglia within the abdomen. They go to the heart, and it beats; and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a net-work round each vessel, and the frame is nourished and built up. They are destitute of sensation, and they are perfectly beyond the control of the will. We have been accustomed, and properly, to regard the nervous system, or that portion of it which is connected with animal life--that which renders us conscious of surrounding objects and susceptible of pleasure and of pain--as the source of intellectual power and moral feeling. It is so with ourselves. All our knowledge is derived from our perception of things around as. A certain impression is made on the outward fibres of a sensitive nerve. That impression, in some mysterious way, is conveyed to the brain; and there it is received--registered--stored--and compared; there its connections are traced and its consequences appreciated; and thence a variety of interesting impressions are conveyed, and due use is made of them. THE SENSE OF SMELL Our subject--the intellectual and moral feelings of brutes, and the mechanism on which they depend--may be divided into two parts, the portion that receives and conveys, and that which stores up and compares and uses the impression. The portion that receives and conveys is far more developed in the brute than in the human being. Whatever sense we take, we clearly perceive the triumph of animal power. The olfactory nerve in the horse, the dog, the ox, and the swine, is the largest of all the cerebral nerves, and has much greater comparative bulk in the quadruped than in the human being. The sense of smell, bearing proportion to the nerve on which it depends, is yet more acute. In man it is connected with pleasure--in the inferior animals with life. The relative size of the nerve bears an invariable proportion to the necessity of an acute sense of smell in the various animals--large in the horse compared with the olfactory nerve in the human being--larger in the ox, who is often sent into the fields to shift for himself--larger still in the swine, whose food is buried under the soil, or deeply immersed in the filth or refuse,--and still larger in the dog, the acuteness of whose scent is so connected with our pleasure. [The disposition to hunt by scent is not peculiar to the setter or pointer, but in fact is common to all animals; developing itself in different proportions according to their various physical constructions and modes of life. The method of finding and pointing at game, now peculiar to these dogs, and engendered in their progeny through successive generations, is not the result of any special instinct, that usually governs the actions of the brute creation--but rather the effect of individual education and force of habit upon their several ancestors. This habit of life, engrafted through progressive generations into these breeds, has become a second nature, and so entirely the property of the species, that all its members, with but little care on the part of man, will perform these same actions in the same way, and will ever continue to exhibit these propensities for hunting, provided opportunities be offered for indulging them. Nevertheless, as these peculiar predilections for "'setting or pointing'," as before said, are the effect of education and habit, the artificial impulse would very soon be entirely obliterated, if not encouraged in the young dogs of each generation. This circumstance alone, proves to us the importance of getting dogs from a well-known good strain, whose ancestors have been remarkable for their exploits in the field. This necessary precaution will insure a favourable issue to our troubles, and lessen materially our labours. In fact young puppies have been frequently known to exhibit this propensity the first time they have been taken to the field. Some of these dogs have come under the notice of the writer, who at a few months old exhibited all the peculiarities of their race; in fact were "self-broke." These dogs were the progeny of a well-known imported stock, in the possession of a gentleman who selected them in England. Although other dogs, and other animals even, have been with great difficulty and perseverance taught to find and point game, still these two breeds seem especially adapted by nature, both in their physical and intellectual construction, for the performance of this particular duty to man. The sense of smell is differently developed in different animals; the olfactory nerve of the dog is larger than any other in the cerebrum, which peculiarity will at once account for their wonderful powers of scent. 'Swine', also, have these nerves largely developed; and necessarily so, as both in a state of nature or half-civilization, the greater portion of their food is buried under the earth or mingled with the filth and mire of their sties, and would pass unheeded, if not for the acuteness of their nasal organs. In Daniels' "Rural Sports," will be found an interesting account of a sow having been taught to find and point game of various kinds, and often having been known to stand on partridges at a distance of forty yards, which is more than can reasonably be expected of every first-rate dog. She was not only broke to find and stand game, but hunted with the dogs, and backed successfully when on a point. This extraordinary animal evinced great aptness for learning, and afterwards great enthusiasm in the sport; showing symptoms of pleasure at the sight of a gun, or when called upon to accompany a party to the field. Her hunting was not confined to any particular game, but stood equally well on partridges, pheasants, snipes, rabbits, &c. (See Blaine, part vii, chap, iii, page 792.) Most of animals instinctively employ the organ of scent to seek out food, or avert personal danger, in preference to that of sight; but some depend more upon the latter than the former, either from instinct or the force of education. For instance, the greyhound, though equally gifted with the sense of smell, as that of sight, has been taught to depend upon the one organ to the entire exclusion of the other, which is quite the reverse of the setter and pointer; but the wonderful speed of these dogs renders it quite unnecessary that he should employ the olfactory nerves, as no animal, however swift, can hope to escape from him in a fair race, when once near enough to be seen; though there are some that may elude his grasp by a "'ruse de guerre'" when too hardly pressed. ('Extracted from our essay in No. 1, vol. xvi, of the "Spirit of the Times.'")--L.] INTELLIGENCE We find little mention of insanity in the domesticated animals in any of our modern authors, whether treating on agriculture, horsemanship, or veterinary medicine, and yet there are some singular and very interesting cases of aberration of intellect. The inferior animals are, to a certain extent, endowed with the same faculties as ourselves. They are even susceptible of the same moral qualities. Hatred, love, fear, hope, joy, distress, courage, timidity, jealousy, and many varied passions influence and agitate them, as they do the human being. The dog is an illustration of this---the most susceptible to every impression--approaching the nearest to man in his instincts, and in many actions that surprise the philosopher, who justly appreciates it. What eagerness to bite is often displayed by the dog when labouring under enteritis, and especially by him who has imbibed the poison of rabies! How singular is the less dangerous malady which induces the horse and the dog to press unconsciously forward under the influence of vertigo!--the eagerness with which, when labouring under phrenitis, he strikes at everything with his foot, or rushes upon it to seize it with his teeth! A kind of nostalgia is often recognised in that depression which nothing can dissipate, and the invincible aversion to food, by means of which many animals perish, who are prevented from returning to the place where they once lived, and the localities to which they had been accustomed. These are circumstances proving that the dog is endowed with intelligence and with affections like ours; and, if they do not equal ours, they are of the same character. With regard to the foundation of intellectual power, viz.: attention, memory, association, and imagination, the difference between man and animals is in degree, and not in kind. Thus stands the account,--with the quadruped as well as the biped,--the impression is made on the mind; attention fixes it there; memory recurs to it; imagination combines it, rightly or erroneously, with many other impressions; judgment determines the value of it, and the conclusions that are to be drawn from it, if not with logical precision, yet with sufficient accuracy for every practical purpose. A bitch, naturally ill-tempered, and that would not suffer a stranger to touch her, had scirrhous enlargement on one of her teats. As she lay in the lap of her mistress, an attempt was repeatedly made to examine the tumour, in spite of many desperate attempts on her part to bite. All at once, however, something seemed to strike her mind. She whined, wagged her tail, and sprung from the lap of her mistress to the ground. It was to crouch at the feet of the surgeon, and to lay herself down and expose the tumour to his inspection. She submitted to a somewhat painful examination of it, and to a far more serious operation afterwards. Some years passed away, and whenever she saw the operator, she testified her joy and her gratitude in the most expressive and endearing manner. A short time since, the following scene took place in a street adjoining Hanover-square. It was an exhibition of a highly interesting character, and worthy to be placed upon record. The editor of the Lancet having heard that a French gentleman (M. Léonard), who had for some time been engaged in instructing two dogs in various performances that required the exercise, not merely of the natural instincts of the animal and the power of imitation, but of a higher intellect, and a degree of reflection and judgment far greater than is commonly developed in the dog; was residing in London, obtained an introduction, and was obligingly favoured by M. Leonard with permission to hold a 'conversazione' with his extraordinary pupils. He thus describes the interview: Two fine dogs, of the Spanish breed, were introduced by M. Leonard, with the customary French politesse, the largest by the name of M. Philax, the other as M. Brac (or spot); the former had been in training three, the latter two, years. They were in vigorous health, and, having bowed very gracefully, seated themselves on the hearth-rug side by side. M. Léonard then gave a lively description of the means he had employed to develop the cerebral system in these animals--how, from having been fond of the chase, and ambitious of possessing the best-trained dogs, he had employed the usual course of training--how the conviction had been impressed on his mind, that by gentle usage, and steady perseverance in inducing the animal to repeat again and again what was required, not only would the dog be capable of performing that specific act, but that part of the brain which was brought into activity by the mental effort would become more largely developed, and hence a permanent increase of mental power be obtained. This reasoning is in accordance with the known laws of the physiology of the nervous system, and is fraught with the most important results. We may refer the reader interested in the subject to the masterly little work of Dr. Verity, "Changes produced in the Nervous System by Civilization." After this introduction, M. Léonard spoke to his dogs in French, in his usual tone, and ordered one of them to walk, the other to lie down, to run, to gallop, halt, crouch, &c., which they performed as promptly and correctly as the most docile children. Then he directed them to go through the usual exercises of the 'manége', which they performed as well as the best-trained ponies at Astley's. He next placed six cards of different colours on the floor, and, sitting with his back to the dogs, directed one to pick up the blue card, and the other the white, &c., varying his orders rapidly, and speaking in such a manner that it was impossible the dogs could have executed his commands if they had not had a perfect knowledge of the words. For instance, M. Léonard said, "Philax, take the red card and give it to Brac; and, Brac, take the white card and give it to Philax;" the dags instantly did this, and exchanged cards with each other. He then said, "Philax, put your card on the green, and Brac, put yours on the blue;" and this was instantly performed. Pieces of bread and meat were placed on the floor, with figured cards, and a variety of directions were given to the dogs, so as to put their intelligence and obedience to a severe test. They brought the meat, bread, or cards, as commanded, but did not attempt to eat or to touch unless ordered. Philax was then ordered to bring a piece of meat and give it to Brac, and then Brac was told to give it back to Philax, who was to return it to its place. Philax was next told he might bring a piece of bread and eat it; but, before he had time to swallow it, his master forbade him, and directed him to show that he had not disobeyed, and the dog instantly protruded the crust between his lips. While many of these feats were being performed, M. Léonard snapped a whip violently, to prove that the animals were so completely under discipline, that they would not heed any interruption. After many other performances, M. Léonard invited a gentleman to play a game of dominos with one of them. The younger and slighter dog then seated himself on a chair at the table, and the writer and M. Léonard seated themselves opposite. Six dominos were placed on their edges in the usual manner before the dog, and a like number before the writer. The dog having a double number, took one up in his mouth, and put it in the middle of the table; the writer placed a corresponding piece on one side; the dog immediately played another correctly, and so on until all the pieces were engaged. Other six dominos were then given to each, and the writer intentionally placed a wrong number. The dog looked surprised, stared very earnestly at the writer, growled, and finally barked angrily. Finding that no notice was taken of his remonstrances, he pushed away the wrong domino with his nose, and took up a suitable one from his own pieces, and placed it in its stead. The writer then played correctly; the dog followed, and won the game. Not the slightest intimation could have been given by M. Léonard to the dog. This mode of play must have been entirely the result of his own observation and judgment. It should be added that the performances were strictly private. The owner of the dogs was a gentleman of independent fortune, and the instruction of his dogs had been taken up merely as a curious and amusing investigation. [1] Another strange attainment of the dog is the learning to speak. The French Academicians mention one of these animals that could call in an intelligible manner for tea, coffee, chocolate, &c. The account is given by the celebrated Leibnitz, who communicated it to the Royal Academy of France. This dog was of a middling size, and was the property of a peasant in Saxony. A little boy, a peasant's son, imagined that he perceived in the dog's voice an indistinct resemblance to certain words, and therefore took it into his head to teach him to speak. For this purpose he spared neither time nor pains with his pupil, who was about three years old when his learned education commenced, and in process of time he was able to articulate no fewer than thirty distinct words. He was, however, somewhat of a truant, and did not very willingly exert his talent, and was rather pressed than otherwise into the service of literature. It was necessary that the words should be pronounced to him each time, and then he repeated them after his preceptor. Leibnitz attests that he heard the animal talk in this way, and the French Academicians add, that unless they had received the testimony of so celebrated a person they would scarcely have dared to report the circumstance. It took place in Misnia, in Saxony. THE MORAL QUALITIES OF THE DOG. We pass on to another division of our subject, 'the moral qualities of the dog', strongly developed and beautifully displayed, and often putting the biped to shame. It is truly said of the dog that he possesses "Many a good And useful quality, and virtue too, Attachment never to be weaned or changed By any change of fortune; proof alike Against unkindness, absence, and neglect; Fidelity, that neither bribe nor threat Can move or warp; and gratitude, for small And trivial favours, lasting as the life, And glistening even in the dying eye." It may here be noticed that, among the inferior animals with large nerves and more medullary substance, there are acuter senses; but man, excelling them in the general bulk of his brain, and more particularly in the cortical portion of it, has far superior powers of mind. These are circumstances that deserve the deepest consideration. In their wild state the brutes have no concern--no idea beyond their food and their reproduction. In their domesticated state, they are doomed to be the servants of man. Their power of mind is sufficient to qualify them for this service: but were proportionate intellectual capacity added to this--were they made conscious of their strength, and of the objects that could be effected by it--they would burst their bonds, and man would in his turn be the victim and the slave. There is an important faculty, termed 'attention'. It is that which distinguishes the promising pupil from him of whom no good hope could be formed, and the scientific man from the superficial and ignorant one. The power of keeping the mind steadily bent upon one purpose, is the great secret of individual and moral improvement. We see the habit of attention carried in the dog to a very considerable extent. The terrier eagerly watching for vermin--the sporting dog standing staunch to his point, however he may be annoyed by the blunders of his companion or the unskilfulness of his master--the foxhound, insensible to a thousand scents, and deaf to every other sound, while he anxiously and perseveringly searches out the track of his prey--these are striking illustrations of the power of attention. Then, the impression having been received, and the mind having been employed in its examination, it is treasured up in the storehouse of the mind for future use. This is the faculty of memory; and a most important one it is. Of the 'memory' of the 'dog', and the recollection of kindness received, there are a thousand stories, from the return of Ulysses to the present day, and we have seen enough of that faithful animal to believe most of them. An officer was abroad with his regiment, during the American war. He had a fine Newfoundland dog, his constant companion, whom he left with his family. After the lapse of several years he returned. His dog met him at the door, leaped upon his neck, licked his face, and died. Of the accuracy and retentiveness of memory in the dog, as respects the instruction he has received from his master, we have abundant proof in the pointer and the hound, and it may perhaps be with some of them, as with men, that the lesson must sometimes be repeated, and even impressed on the memory in a way not altogether pleasant. [We know an imported Irish setter, formerly in possession of a gentleman of this city, who on many occasions, while hunting, displayed an extraordinary instinct, even sufficiently remarkable to make us believe that he possessed not only the most acute powers of observation, but that he also enjoyed the faculty of "inductive reasoning," independent of any mechanical training, many of his performances being entirely voluntary, and the result of causes dependent upon accidental circumstances alone: for instance, when lost from observation, he would noiselessly withdraw from his point, hunt up his master, and induce him, by peculiar signs, to follow him to the spot where he had previously observed the birds. In his old days, "Smoke" was much opposed to hunting with an indifferent shot, and would leave the field perfectly disgusted, after a succession of bad shooting; seeming to argue that he no longer sought after game for amusement, but that he expected his efforts to be repaid by the death of the birds. This dog was of a morose and dignified disposition, surly with strangers, and inclined to quarrel with any one who carried a stick or whip in their hands; never forgetting an injury, and growling whenever any person who had offended him made their appearance. He was also particularly irritable and tenacious of his rights when hunting, shunning all puppies or heedless dogs, and exhibiting a very irascible disposition if superseded in a point by another dog; and on one occasion attacked a young pointer in the field, who, in opposition to all his growling and show of irony, would persist in crawling before him, when on a point.--L] DOG-CARTS. These were, and still are, in the country, connected with many an act of atrocious cruelty. We do not object to the dog as a beast of draught. He is so in the northern regions, and he is as happy as any other animal in those cold and inhospitable countries. He is so in Holland, and he is as comfortable there as any other beast that wears the collar. He is not so in Newfoundland: there he is shamefully treated. It is to the abuse of the thing, the poor and half-starved condition of the animal, the scandalous weight that he is made to draw, and the infamous usage to which he is exposed, that we object. We would put him precisely on the same footing with the horse, and then we should be able, perhaps, to afford him, not all the protection we could wish, but nearly as much as we have obtained for the horse. We would have every cart licensed, not for the sake of adding to the revenue, but of getting at the owner; and therefore the taxing need not be any great sum. We would have the cart licensed for the carrying of goods only; or a separate license taken out if it carried or drew a human being. It is here that the cruelty principally exists. Before the dog-carts were put down in the metropolis, we then saw a man and a woman in one of these carts, drawn by a single dog, and going at full trot. Every passenger execrated them, and the trot was increased to a gallop, in order more speedily to escape the just reproaches that proceeded from every mouth. We would have the name and address of the owner, and the number of the cart, painted on some conspicuous part of the vehicle, and in letters and figures as large as on the common carts. Every passenger who witnessed any flagrant act of cruelty would then be enabled to take the number of the cart, and summon the owner; and the police should have the same power of interference which they have with regard to other vehicles. After a plan like this had been working a little while, the nuisance would be materially abated; and, indeed, the consciousness of the ease with which the offender might be summoned, would go far to get rid of it. CROPPING. This is an infliction of too much torture for the gratification of a nonsensical fancy; and, after all, in the opinion of many, and of those, too, who are fondest of dogs, the animal looks far better in his natural state than when we have exercised all our cruel art upon him. Besides, the effects of this absurd amputation do not cease with the healing of the ear. The intense inflammation that we have set up, materially injures the internal structure of this organ. Deafness is occasionally produced by it in some dogs, and constantly in others. The frequent deafness of the pug is solely attributable to the outrageous as well as absurd rounding of his ears. The almost invariable deafness of the white wire-haired terrier is to be traced to this cause. [Among the many tastes and fancies that the Americans have inherited from their ancestors, the English, may be enumerated the absurd practice of fashioning the ears of different breeds of dogs to a certain standard of beauty. Mr. Blain very justly remarks that it must be a false taste which has taught us to prefer a curtailed organ to a perfect one, without gaining any convenience by the operation. The dogs upon which this species of barbecuing are more particularly practised in this country, are the bull-dogs and terriers. We imagine that many of our readers will be surprised when they learn that this operation, although so simple in itself, and performed by every reckless stable-boy, is attended with great suffering to the puppy, and not unfrequently with total deafness. Severe inflammation, extending to the interior of the ear, often follows this operation, more especially when awkwardly performed, as is frequently the case, by the aid of the miserable instruments within the reach of our hostlers; to say nothing of the savage fashion of using the teeth for this purpose, as is often done by ignorant fellows, who even take credit to themselves for the clever style in which they perform this outlandish operation. Mr. Blain states, that it is a barbarous custom to twist the ears off, by swinging the dog around; and we are satisfied that every sensible person will respond to this humane sentiment. We have never had the misfortune to see this latter method put into practice, and trust that such an operation is unknown among us, although, from the manner in which this gentleman condemns it, we are led to suppose that this mode is not uncommon in the old country. As custom has sanctioned the cropping of dogs, in spite of all that can be said upon the subject, it should be done in such a manner as to cause the least possible pain to the animal. The fourth or fifth week is the proper age for this operation; if done sooner, the flap is apt to sprout and become deformed: if later, the cartilage has grown more thick and sensitive. The imaginary beauty of a terrier crop consists in the foxy appearance of the ears, which is easily produced by the clean cut of a sharp, strong pair of scissors. The first cut should commence at the posterior base of the ear, near to the head, and be carried to the extremity of the flap, taking off about the eighth of an inch or more in width. The second cut should extend from the base of the ear in front, somewhat obliquely, to intersect the other cut within a few lines of the point of the flap. These two cuts will shape the ear in such a style as to please the most fastidious eye, and will require no further trimming. The pieces taken from the first ear will answer as guides in cutting the other. The mother should not be allowed to lick the ears of the puppies, as is generally done, under the supposition that she assists in the healing process, when, in fact, she irritates them, and occasions increased inflammation. If the wounds are tardy at healing, or become mangy, they may be bathed gently with a weak solution of alum. We regret to find that Mr. Skinner, so well known to the sporting world as the able extoller and defender of the rights of our canine friends, should recommend the cropping of terriers. We are convinced that he would change his feelings upon this subject, if he placed any confidence in the opinions of Blain, Youatt, Scott, or Daniel, all of whom condemn the practice as barbarous, and as often occasioning great suffering, and even total deafness, throughout the progeny of successive generations, as witnessed in the white wire-haired terrier and pug above mentioned. Wo have had the good fortune to persuade some of our friends to desist from thus mutilating their terrier pups, all of whom, consequently, grew up with beautiful full ears and long tails, which were much admired; and to the eyes of many, the dogs seemed more sprightly and knowing with their long flaps, than when deprived of those natural appendages.--L.] TAILING. Then 'the tail' of the dog does not suit the fancy of the owner. It must be shortened in some of these animals, and taken off altogether in others. If the sharp, strong scissors, with a ligature, were used, the operation, although still indefensible, would not be a very cruel one, for the tail may be removed almost in a moment, and the wound soon heals; but for the beastly gnawing off of the part, and the drawing out of the tendons and nerves--these are the acts of a cannibal; and he who orders or perpetrates a barbarity so nearly approaching to cannibalism, deserves to be scouted from all society. [As a matter of necessity, we cannot sanction the too frequent and cruel practice of cutting or otherwise barbecuing different portions of the bodies of our domestic animals, and more particularly the often absurd fancy or cropping and sterning dogs. Nevertheless, we must admit the propriety of, and, in fact, recommend, the taking off a small portion of the pointer's tail, not to increase his beauty, but to save him some after suffering. A long tail is frequently lacerated in close thickets, and thus rendered sore and mangy: this is prevented by the operation, as it becomes better protected by the body, as also more thickly covered by the feather which generally forms over it. When the pups are a month or six weeks old, this operation can be performed with little pain to the animal, by means of sharp scissors or a knife; but never allow any one to bite the tail off, as is often done by some dirty and unfeeling stable-men. Although a long tail is inconvenient, a too short one is more unsightly; care should therefore be taken not to remove too much. The quantity should be regulated by the size of the breed: for a medium breed, an inch is sufficient to be cut off at this age. Some sportsmen in England, Mr. Blain also informs us, draw out the lower tendons of the tail, which present themselves after amputation, with a pair of forceps, with a view of causing the tail to be carried higher, which adds to the style and appearance of the dog, when in the field. This practice, we agree with Mr. Youatt, is cannibal-like, and very painful; and, to say the least of it, of very doubtful propriety, as it is but seldom we find a good breed of dog carrying, while hunting, a slovenly tail. If there should be any appearance of hemorrhage after this operation, a small piece of tape or twine may be tied around the tail, which will immediately arrest the bleeding. This ligature should not remain on longer than a few hours, as the parts included in it will be apt to slough and make a mangy ulcer, difficult to heal.--L.] DEW-CLAWS Next comes the depriving the dog of his 'dew-claws'--the supplementary toes a little above the foot. They are supposed to interfere with hunting by becoming entangled with the grass or underwood. This rarely happens. The truth of the matter is, they are simply illustrations of the uniformity of structure which prevails in all animals, so far as is consistent with their destiny. The 'dew-claws' only make up the number of toes in other animals. If they are attached, as they are in some dogs, simply by a portion of skin, they may be removed without any very great pain, yet the man of good feeling would not meddle with them. He would not unnecessarily inflict any pain that he can avoid; and here, in several of the breeds, the toe is united by an actual joint; and if they are dissected because they are a little in the way, it is a barbarous operation, and nothing can justify it. [Notwithstanding our author's condemnation of this practice, there are many sportsmen who think it very necessary to remove this supernumerary toe, fearing that it may interfere with the dog while hunting, as above stated. Mr. Blain, both a practical sportsman and scientific gentleman, to whose opinions we must at all times show a due regard, considers the removal of these false appendages very necessary, stating that they often become troublesome, not only in the field, but that they frequently turn in and wound the flesh with their nails. We have never seen any particular inconvenience arising from the presence of these dew-claws, and are not in the habit of taking them off; but, as the operation is a trifling one, and attended with little or no pain, we are disposed to recommend its general adoption, as it improves the appearance of the legs; and their presence may sometimes prove inconvenient to the animal, as stated by Mr. Blain. These claws most commonly have a ligamentous attachment only to the leg, which may be divided, a few days after birth, by a pair of sharp scissors or a knife; and if a bony union exists, it is generally of such a trifling nature that it can be severed in the same way.--L.] The cruelties that are perpetrated on puppies during the course of their education or 'breaking-in', are sometimes infamous. Young dogs, like young people, must be to a certain degree coerced; but these animals receive from nature so great an aptitude for learning, and practising that which we require of them, and their own pleasure is so much connected with what they learn, that there is no occasion for one-tenth part of the correction that is occasionally inflicted; and the frequent consequence of the cruelty to which they are subjected, is cowardice or ferocity during life. Not many years ago, as the author was going over one of the commons in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, now enclosed, he heard the loud sounds of the lash and the screams of a dog. He hurried on, and found two men, one holding a greyhound while another was unmercifully flogging him. He had inflicted many lashes, and was continuing the correction. The author indignantly interfered, and the dog was liberated, but with a great deal of abuse from the men; and a gentleman galloping up, and who was the owner of the dog, and a Middlesex magistrate to boot, seemed disposed to support his people in no very measured terms On being addressed, however, by name, and recognising the speaker, and his attention being directed to the 'whaled' and even bloody state of the dog, he offered the best excuse that he could. We met again some months afterwards. "That hiding," said he, "that offended you so much did Carlo good, for he has not been touched since." "No," was the reply; "you were a little ashamed of your fellows, and have altered your system, and find that your dogs do not want this unmerciful negro-whipping." Stories are told of the 'kennel-hare'--a hare kept on purpose, and which is sometimes shown to the fox or stag-hounds. The moment that any of them open, they are tied up to the whipping-post, and flogged, while the keepers at every stroke call out "Ware hare!" A sheep has also been shown to them, or still is, after which another unmerciful flogging is administered, amidst cries of "Ware sheep!" If this is not sufficient, some of the wool is dipped in train oil, and put into the dog's mouth, which is sewed up for many hours in order to cure him of sheep-biting. There was an almost similar punishment for killing poultry; and there was the 'puzzle' and the 'check-collar', cruelly employed, for killing other dogs. There is a great deal of truth, and there may occasionally be some exaggeration, in these accounts; but the sportsman who is indebted for the pleasures of the field to the intelligence and exertions of his horses and his dogs, is bound, by every principle that can influence an honourable mind, to defend them from all wanton and useless cruelty. There is a dog, and a faithful and valuable one, that powerfully demands the assistance of the humane--the yard or watch-dog. He is not only for the most part deprived of his liberty, but too often neglected and made unnecessarily to suffer. How seldom do we see him in the enjoyment of a good bed of straw, or, rather, how frequently is everything about his kennel in a most filthy and disgusting state! The following hint not only relates to him, but to every dog that is tied up out of doors. "Their cribs or their kennels, as they are called, should be constructed so as to turn, in order to prevent their inmates from being exposed to the cutting blasts of winter. Where they have no other refuge, all animals seek shelter from the weather by turning their backs to the wind; but, as the dog thus confined cannot do so, his kennel should be capable of turning, or at least should be placed so as not to face the weather more than is necessary. The premises would be in quite as great security, for the dog depends as much upon his ear and sense of smell as upon his eye, and would equally detect a stranger's presence if he were deprived of sight." In the Zoological Gardens, an old blind dog used to be placed at the door of the dissecting-house. Few had any business there, and every one of them he, after a while, used to recognise and welcome full ton yards off, by wagging his tail; at the same distance, he would begin to growl at a stranger unless accompanied by a friend. From the author's long habit of noticing him, he used to recognise his step before it would seem possible for its sound to be heard. He followed him with his sightless eyes in whatever direction he moved, and was not satisfied until he had patted and fondled him. DOG-PITS. Of the demoniacal use of the dog in the 'fighting-pits', and the atrocities that were committed there, I will not now speak. These places were frequented by few others than the lowest of the low. Cruelties were there inflicted that seemed to be a libel on human nature; and such was the baneful influence of the scene, that it appeared to be scarcely possible for any one to enter these pits without experiencing a greater or less degree of moral degradation. The public dog-pits have now been put down; but the system of dog-fighting, with most of its attendant atrocities, still continues. There are many more low public-houses than there used to be pits, that have roomy places behind, and out of sight, where there are regular meetings for this purpose. Those among the neighbours who cannot fail of being annoyed and disgusted by the frequent uproar, might give a clue to these dens of infamy; and the depriving of a few of the landlords of their license would go a great way towards the effectual suppression of the practice. Would it be thought possible that certain of our young aristocracy keep fighting-dogs at the repositories of various dealers in the outskirts of the metropolis; and that these animals remain there, as it were, at livery, the owners coming at their pleasure, and making and devising what matches they think proper? However disgraceful it may be, it is actually the fact. Here is a field for "the suppression of cruelty!" DOG-STEALING. The practice of stealing dogs is both directly and indirectly connected with a great deal of cruelty. There are more than twenty miscreants who are well known to subsist by picking up dogs in the street. There are generally two of them together with aprons rolled round their waists. The dog is caught up at the corner of one of the streets, concealed in a moment in the apron, and the thieves are far away before the owner suspects the loss. These dogs, that have been used to every kind of luxury, are crowded into dark and filthy cellars, where they become infected by various diseases. The young ones have distemper, and the old ones mange, and all become filled with vermin. There they remain until a sufficient reward is offered for their recovery, or they are sent far into the country, or shipped for France or some other foreign market. Little or nothing is done by punishing the inferior rogues in this traffic. The blow must be struck at those of a superior class. I will not assert that every dog-dealer is in league with, and profits by, the lower thieves; but it is true of a great many of them, and it is the principal and most lucrative part of their trade. They are likewise intimately connected with the dog-fights, and encourage them, for the sake of their trade as dealers. An attempt should be made to bring the matter home to these scoundrels. [2] [Dog-stealing, we are more particularly informed by Col. Hawker, is reduced to a perfect system in London, and carried on by a set of fellows who, by their cunning and peculiar knack, are enabled to avoid all detection in their nefarious traffic, and thus, by extortion of rewards or sales of stolen dogs, reap a rich harvest for the whole fraternity from the well-stored pockets of the numerous dog-fanciers of the English capital. The villains engaged in this business are known among themselves under the too often abused sobriquet of "the Fancy," and assuming the garb of different mechanics, prowl about the streets, oftentimes with the proper tools in their hands, carelessly watching the movements of every dog that passes by, ready to grab him up the first fitting opportunity. The dog is then concealed till a suitable reward is offered for him, when, through the intervention of a third person, a trusty agent of the society, he is delivered over to his rightful owner, the actual rogue never appearing in the whole transaction. If no reward, or an insufficient one, is offered for the recovery of the dog, he is either sent off to the country, or, perhaps, cautiously exposed for sale in some distant quarter of the city, or perhaps killed for his skin alone. These gentry, however, prefer returning dogs to their owners for a moderate compensation, as they thus know at what rate the animal is valued, and cherish the hope of soon being able to steal him again, and thus obtaining another reward. There have been instances of a lady paying, in successive rewards, a sum not less than fifteen guineas for a miserable little lap-dog not worth as many shillings. If anything is said about the law, or threats of prosecution held out in the notice offering a reward for a "lost or stolen dog," the death of the kidnapped animal is inevitable, as the "Fancy" prefer sacrificing an occasional prize rather than run the risk of detection by some enthusiastic or stubborn dog owner. These fellows, as well as thieves generally, are said to have a method of quieting the fiercest watch-dogs by throwing them a narcotic ball, which they call "puddening the animal." The following account, extracted from Hawker's work, will give the American reader a 'perfect' insight into the maneuvering of these sharpers. "In the month of May, 1830, Mr. Lang lost a favourite setter. He posted handbills offering two guineas reward; on hearing of which a man came and told him the reward was not enough, but that if he would make it four guineas he could find his dog, and the amount must be deposited in the hands of a landlord who would procure him a ticket-card. He should then be met to his appointment in some private field, where he would receive his dog on condition that no questions should be asked. Mr. Lang sent his shopman, about half-past ten at night, to White Conduit Fields to meet the parties, who, on receiving the ticket, delivered up the dog. But there was great hesitation in transacting this affair, in consequence of the dog having on a lock to a steel chain collar with Mr. Lang's name, and which, therefore, induced them to proceed with extreme caution, through fear, as they supposed, of detection for felony. The whole amount paid for recovering this setter was £4 17s., £2 10s. of which went to the men who had him. The rest was divided among others of the "Fancy". The same person who gave Mr. Lang the information, said that if ever he lost a dog, and applied to him, he could undertake to get him back again within thirty-six hours, provided he would make it worth his while to do so; because all dogs taken by the "Fancy" are brought to their office and regularly booked by the secretary." ('Hawker on Shooting', p. 592.)--L.] [Footnote 1: Plutarch relates that, at the theatre of Marcellus, a dog was exhibited before the emperor Vespasian, so well instructed as to exercise in every kind of dance. He afterwards feigned illness in a most singular manner, so as to strike the spectators with astonishment. He first exhibited various symptoms of pain; he then fell down as if dead, and, afterwards seeming to revive, as if waking from a profound sleep, and then sported about and showed various demonstrations of joy.] [Footnote 2: Mr. Bishop, of Bond-street, has assured the public, that he is able to prove that money has recently been extorted from the owners of dogs by dog-stealers and their confederates, to the amount of more than a thousand pounds. Surely this calls for the decided interposition of the legislature. A strange case of atrocity and cruelty was related by a gentleman to Mr. Bishop. "A young dog of mine," says he, "was lost in London, and, being aware that if a noise was made about it, a great price would be asked for it, I gave out that I wanted to purchase one: I was shown my own dog. I seized it; but there were several scoundrels present who professed to belong to it, and threatened to kill the dog if I did not pay for it. I proceeded to describe it as my own, stating that it had 'bad back or double teeth'. Judge of my surprise when, after great difficulty, and the dog crying greatly, its mouth was opened, and all the back teeth had been taken out! I paid two pounds for it before they would let me take it away; but, in consequence of the injuries it had received, it died a few days afterward."] * * * * * INTRODUCTION TO CANINE PATHOLOGY. BY THE EDITOR. PREDISPOSITION TO, AND CAUSES OF, DISEASES IN DOGS.--THE CLAIMS OF DOGS UPON US. "Unnumbered accidents and various ills Attend thy pack, hang hovering o'er their heads, And point the way that leads to death's dark cave. Short is their span, few at the date arrive Of ancient Argus, in old Homer's song So highly honour'd." The dog from early youth, in fact oftentimes at the very period of birth, is exposed to many dangerous and troublesome affections, the result of causes not less complex and multifarious than those that exert an influence over the human organization. Many diseases are the consequence of their domesticity and the hereditary defects of their progenitors, others are dependent upon accidental circumstances, bad treatment, and improper nourishment. Not a few, however, of their most mortal maladies are the production of contagion, infection, and other like causes, all exercising a general tendency to disease difficult to define and impossible to avoid. Although every species of dog is more or less subject to certain diseases peculiar to their race, those breeds of most value and more particularly subservient to the will of man are liable to a greater number of ills and casualties than other dogs, for the reason that they are more frequently exposed to unnatural fatigue, extremes of heat and cold, as also to the various dangers dependent upon the chase of wild animals. Those diseases resulting from specific causes, either natural to the race or artificially produced by the animal itself in a state of morbid derangement, are most frequent and fatal, as witnessed in distemper, rabies, mange, &c. The intimate connexion existing between the diseases of our canine friends and those of the human race, as also the strong similarity in the action of many drugs over the two systems, render the study of one branch almost synonymous with that of the other. A little attention, therefore, on the part of the physician will render him quite familiar with and competent to relieve the many sufferings of these our most faithful and grateful of companions, and at the same time create an interest in a study that cannot fail to be productive of pleasure as well as information. This subject, though claiming the attention of many skilful and intelligent persons in England and other countries, has scarce been thought of among us, and the mere mention of an infirmary or hospital for the accommodation of invalid dogs, would involuntarily create a smile of incredulity or contempt upon the face of most of our countrymen. Notwithstanding this display of ignorance and positive want of humane feeling for animal suffering, or a just appreciation of canine worth, we must beg leave to inform these unbelievers that such institutions are quite numerous in many large cities of the old world; and they must also learn that these institutions are conducted by gentlemen of science upon a system not less regular and useful in this particular branch, than similar establishments appropriated for the relief of suffering humanity. To these hospitals hundreds of valuable sick dogs are annually sent, where they receive every attention, and are often snatched from the very jaws of death, or prevented, when attacked by rabies or other frightful affections, from doing mischief or propagating infection. Medicines the most potent are administered to these interesting patients with the utmost care, either as assuagers of temporary pain, or as remedial agents in the cure of disease. Operations the most complex are performed with the greatest skill, and every attention is bestowed upon these invalids in their different wards, and no trouble is considered too great to save the life and secure the services of a valuable and faithful dog. As we have no such establishments in this country, and but a few persons upon whom we can rely for assistance in case of need, it behooves every lover of the dog to make himself familiar with, and the mode of treating the most prominent affections of these companions of our sports, and at the same time acquire a knowledge of the operations of certain medicines upon the system in a state of health or disease, so that our trusty followers may not be left to the tender mercies and physicking propensities of ignorant stablemen, or the officious intermeddling of the "pill-directing horse doctor." The necessity of resorting to the assistance of either one or the other of these worthies is equally unfortunate, as the former will most generally kill the patient by slow degrees in forcibly and largely administering the two modern specifics for all canine affections, viz.: "soap pills and flowers of sulphur." While the latter, more bold but not less ignorant than the former, and his practice is perhaps the preferable of the two evils, will murder the dog out-right by the free exhibition of calomel, nux vomica and other deleterious substances, of the operation of which he has but little knowledge or conception. This latter system, as before said, is the most preferable, as its adoption secures for our favourite a speedy termination of his sufferings, and also relieves our own minds from a state of suspense that illustrates too forcibly the remark, "Hope deferred maketh the heart sick." REMEDIAL MEANS FOR THE CURE OF DISEASES. There are but few remedies useful for the cure of diseases in the human race that might not he employed by a skilful practitioner in overcoming the same or different ailments in the dog. There are, however, several drugs that cannot be used in the same proportions for the one as for the other, without danger of producing fatal consequences, as instanced in calomel, a medicine so often abused by those who pretend to a knowledge of its administration in the maladies of dogs. This article, though given with impunity to mankind in doses varying from five grains to twenty grains, as also oftentimes administered to horses in quantities three or four times as great, without any appreciable effect, will not unfrequently, in minute doses of three grains to four grains, produce the most violent symptoms in the strongest dogs. We have seen severe vomiting and purging occasioned by these small doses, and we once salivated a large mastiff by the administration of two blue pills. It is thus that both the regular physician, and even the veterinary surgeon, unacquainted with this remarkable peculiarity, will make fatal mistakes; and how much oftener must such blunders take place when we intrust our canine friends to the care of stable-boys, or a "routine horse-doctor!" Nux vomica, another medicine much used, and most important in the treatment of all nervous affections, is particularly noxious to dogs even in small quantities; a dose sufficient for a human subject under some circumstances, would almost inevitably destroy the animal under the same or analogous conditions. A drachm of the powdered nux vomica is sufficient to destroy the largest and most powerful dog, while a few grains will sometimes produce death in a few minutes if administered to smaller animals. We prescribed forty grains in a roll of butter for a worthless cur a short time since, which, as expected, produced great anxiety, difficulty of respiration, severe vomiting, tremors, spasmodic twitchings of the muscles, convulsions, and ultimate death in the course of half an hour. This powerful drug acts by causing a spasmodic stricture of the muscles engaged in respiration, as no signs of inflammation are observable in the stomach and other organs after death. Spirits of turpentine, another remedy both simple and innocent in its operations upon the human economy, and so frequently prescribed for the expulsion of worms from the bowels, is a dangerous medicine for a dog, and will often in very small quantities prove fatal. Aloes, a medicine more extensively used in canine pathology than any other in the materia medica, is also very peculiar in its operations upon these animals, they being able to bear immense doses of it, in fact quite sufficient to produce death if given to a hearty man. Thus we might continue to enumerate other drugs which we have ascertained, from practical observation as well as the experiments of other, to exercise a peculiar action on the vital functions of the whole canine race, quite at variance with that common to both man and the other domestic animals. In combating with the diseases of animals, the veterinary surgeon has more to contend with than the regular physician, and, in fact, should possess a knowledge and habit of observation even superior to the former; although the responsibility of his calling, in a moral sense, is much inferior to that of the other, as the importance of animal existence, under no circumstances, can be placed in comparison with that of human life: still acuteness of observation alone can direct him to the main cause of suffering in the brute creation, as the animal, though groaning under the most severe pains, cannot by any word of explanation point out to us the seat, the probable cause, or peculiar characteristics of such pain. We see that our dog is ill, he refuses his food, retires gloomily to his house, looks sullen, breathes heavy, is no longer delighted at our call. We cannot question him as to his feelings, or ask him to point out the particular region of his sufferings; we watch his motions, study his actions, and rely for our diagnosis upon general symptoms deduced from close observation. Besides these external ocular evidences of morbid action, we have, as in the human subject, guides to direct us in forming a just opinion as to the nature of a dog's indisposition. The state of the circulation is the first thing that should command our particular attention. The pulse of dogs in health varies from one hundred to one hundred and twenty strokes per minute, according to the size and peculiar temperament of the animal, being more frequent in the small breeds. The standard of the setter, pointer, hound, &c., may be stated at one hundred and five. The action of the heart may be felt by placing the hand immediately over that organ, or applying the fingers to several points in the body and limbs where the large arteries are somewhat superficial, as on the inside of the fore-knee and the thigh of the hind-leg. If the pulse in a state of rest exceeds the average standard in frequency, regularity, and softness, and a general feeling of uneasiness be present, together with reddened eyes, warm nose, and coated tongue, we know at once that there is an unnatural derangement of the vital functions, and that fever in some form is present. The next question to determine is, upon what does this fever depend? whether it be idiopathic, arising from morbific causes difficult to define, or whether it be sympathetic, with some organic affection yet to be discovered. The appearance of the tongue in canine diseases will often materially assist us in forming a correct diagnosis; this organ in simple fever loses its rose-colour and becomes pale and coated, the gums and fæces also participate in this change. If, however, the tongue be much furred, with a bright inflammatory appearance around the edges, with high arterial excitement, and disgust of food, with general anxiety and craving for water in small but frequent quantities, inflammation of the stomach or bowels may be suspected. If, on the other hand, the tongue remains brown and streaked, with less action of the pulse, variable appetite and diminution of pain, derangement of the liver may be apprehended. If, in connection with some or all of the above symptoms, the breathing be laboured and painful, with a disposition to remain in the erect or sitting position, with great anxiety and general distress, we must look to the pulmonic viscera as the seat of the disease. Thus, by examining each and every individual symptom of disease, the intelligent sportsman will soon be able to arrive at the proximate cause of all this unnatural state of things, and then he will be competent to administer such remedies as may seem most likely to afford relief. Without these precautions, however, he would often be groping in the dark, and, consequently, not unfrequently, apply those remedies more calculated to aggravate than cure the malady. * * * * * CHAPTER VI. DESCRIPTION OF THE SKELETON. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:--FITS; TURNSIDE, OR GIDDINESS, EPILEPSY; CHOREA; RHEUMATISM AND PALSY. [As with all the illustrations in this text, the canine skeleton and legend to the diagram are displayed fully in the html version.] DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. FITS 24th Feb. 1814.--A pug was accustomed to howl frequently when his young master played on the flute. If the higher notes were sounded, he would leap on his master's lap, look in his face, and howl vehemently. To-day the young man purposely blew the shrillest sound that he could. The dog, after howling three or four times, began to run round the room, and over the tables and chairs, barking incessantly. This he continued more than an hour. When I saw him all consciousness of surrounding objects was gone. He was still running feebly, but barking might and main. I dashed a basin of cold water in his face, and he dropped as if he had been shot. He lay motionless nearly a minute, and then began to struggle and to bark; another cup of water was dashed in his face, and he lay quite motionless during two minutes or more. In the mean time I had got a grain each of calomel and tartar emetic, which I put on his tongue, and washed it down with a little water. He began to recover, and again began to yelp, although much softer; but, in about a quarter of an hour, sickness commenced, and he ceased his noise. He vomited three or four times, and lay frightened and quiet. A physic-ball was given him in the evening, and on the following morning. On the next day the young man put open the door, and sat himself down, and began to prepare the flute; the dog was out in a moment, and did not return during a couple of hours. On the following day he made his escape again, and so the matter went on; but before the expiration of the week, his master might play the flute if he pleased. TURNSIDE, OR GIDDINESS. This is a singular disease prevalent among cattle, but only occasionally seen in the dog. He becomes listless, dull, off his food, and scarcely recognises any surrounding object. He has no fit, but he wanders about the room fur several hours at a time, generally or almost invariably in the same direction, and with his head on one side. At first he carefully avoids the objects that are in his way; but by degrees his mental faculties become impaired; his sense of vision is confused or lost, and he blunders against everything: in fact, if uninterrupted, he would continue his strange perambulation incessantly, until he was fairly worn out and died in convulsions. I used to consider the complaint to be uniformly fatal. I have resorted to every remedial measure that the case could suggest. I have bled, and physicked and setoned, and blistered, and used the moxa; but all without avail, for not in a single case did I save my patient. No opportunity of 'post-mortem' examination was lost. In some cases I have found spicula projecting from the inner plate of the skull, and pressing upon or even penetrating the dura mater. I know not why the dog should be more subject to these irregularities of cranial surface than any of our other patients; but decidedly he is so, and where they have pressed upon the brain, there has been injection of the membranes, and sometimes effusion between them. In some cases I have found effusion without this external pressure, and, in some cases, but comparatively few, there has not been any perceptible lesion. Hydatids have been found in the different passages leading to the cranium, but they have not penetrated. I used to recommend that the dog should be destroyed; but I met with two or three favourable cases, and, after that, I determined to try every measure that could possibly be serviceable. I bled, and physicked, and inserted setons, and tried to prevent the utter exhaustion of the animal. When he was unable longer to perform his circumvolutions, and found that he was foiled, he laid himself down, and by degrees resumed his former habits. He was sadly impatient and noisy; but in a few cases he was cured. [We have seen but two or three cases of this disease in dogs, are led to believe that it is quite uncommon with our domestic animals. One case in a valuable setter came on suddenly, and without any apparent cause (except perhaps over-feeding), and terminated fatally in the course of a few days.--L.] EPILEPSY in the dog assumes a most fatal character. It is an accompaniment, or a consequence, of almost every other disease. When the puppy is undergoing the process of dentition, the irritation produced by the pressure of the tooth, as it penetrates the gum, leads on to epilepsy. When he is going through the stages of distemper, with a very little bad treatment, or in spite of the best, fits occur. The degree of intestinal irritation which is caused by worms, is marked by an attack of epilepsy. If the usual exercise be neglected for a few days, and the dog is taken out, and suffered to range as he likes, the accumulation of excitability is expended in a fit. The dog is, without doubt, the most intellectual animal. He is the companion and the friend of man: he exhibits, and is debased by some of his vices; but, to a greater degree than many will allow, he exhibits all the intelligence and the virtues of the biped. In proportion to his bulk, the weight of his brain far exceeds that of any other quadruped--the very smallest animals alone being excepted, in whom there must be a certain accumulation of medullary matter in order to give origin to the nerves of every system, as numerous in the minutest as in him of greatest bulk. As it has been said of the human being that great power and exertion of the mental faculties are sometimes connected with a tendency to epilepsy, and, as violent emotions of joy or of grief have been known to be followed by it, I can readily account for its occurrence in the young dog, when frightened at the chiding of his master, or by the dread of a punishment which he was conscious that he had deserved. Then, too, I can understand that, when breaking loose from long confinement, he ranges in all the exuberance of joy; and especially when he flushes almost his first covey, and the game falls dead before him, his mental powers are quite overcome, and he falls into an epileptic fit. The treatment of epilepsy in the dog is simple, yet often misunderstood. It is connected with distemper in its early stage. It is the produce of inflammation of the mucous passages generally, which an emetic and a purgative will probably, by their direct medicinal effect, relieve, and free the digestive passages from some source of irritation, and by their mechanical action unburthen the respiratory ones. When it is symptomatic of a weak state of the constitution, or connected with the after stages of distemper, the emeto-purgative must be succeeded by an anodyne, or, at least, by that which will strengthen, but not irritate the patient. A seton is an admirable auxiliary in epilepsy connected with distemper; it is a counter-irritant and a derivative, and its effects are a salutary discharge, under the influence of which inflammation elsewhere will gradually abate. I should, however, be cautious of bleeding in distemper fits. I should be fearful of it even in an early stage, because I well know that the acute form of that general mucous inflammation soon passes over, and is succeeded by a debility, from the depression of which I cannot always rouse my patient. When the fits proceed from dentition, I lance the jaws, and give an emetic, and follow it up with cooling purgative medicine. When they are caused by irregular and excessive exercise, I open the bowels and make my exercise more regular and equable. When they arise from excitation, I expose my patient more cautiously to the influence of those things which make so much impression on his little but susceptible mind. If the fit has resisted other means, bleeding should be resorted to. A fit in other animals is generally connected with dangerous determination of blood to the head, and bleeding is imperative. A fit in the dog may be the consequence of sudden surprise and irritation. If I had the means I should see whether I could not break the charm; whether I could not get rid of the disturbance, by suddenly affecting the nervous system, and the system generally, in another way. I would seize him by the nape of the neck, and, with all my force, dash a little cold water in his face. The shock of this has often dispersed the epileptic agency, as it were by magic. I would give an emeto-purgative; a grain or a grain and a half of calomel and the same quantity of tartar emetic: I would soothe and coax the poor animal. Then,--and if I saw it at the beginning, I would do it early,--if the fit was more dependent upon, or was beginning to be connected with, determination of blood to the head, and not on any temporary cause of excitation or irritation, I would bleed freely from the jugular. The following singular case of epilepsy is narrated by M.W. Leblanc: A dog of small size, three years old, was very subject to those epileptic fits that are so frequent among dogs. After a considerable period, the fits would cease, and the animal recover the appearance of perfect health; but the more he advanced in age the more frequent were the fits, which is contrary to that which usually happens. The last fit was a very strong one, and was followed by peculiar symptoms. The animal became dispirited. The eyes lost their usual lively appearance, and the eyelids were often closed. The dog was very drowsy, and, during sleep, there were observed, from time to time, spasmodic movements, principally of the head and chest. 'He always lay down on the left side'. When he walked, he had a marked propensity to turn to the left. M. Leblanc employed purgatives, a seton to the back part of the neck, and the application of the cautery to the left side of the forehead; but nothing would stop the progress of the disease, and he died in the course of two months after the last fit. The nearer he approached his end the smaller were the circles that he took; and, in the latter part of his existence, he did little more than turn as if he were on a pivot, and, when the time arrived that he could walk no more, he used to lay himself down on the right side. On the 'post-mortem' examination, a remarkable thickness of the meninges was found on almost the whole of the left lobe of the brain. The dura mater, the two leaves of the arachnoid membrane, and the pia mater did not constitute more than one membrane of the usual thickness, and presented a somewhat yellow colouring. The cerebral substance of the left lobe appeared to be a little firmer than that of the right lobe. The fissures of the cerebral devolutions were much less deep than those of the other side The red vessels which ran in the fissures were of smaller size, and in some places could scarcely be discovered. [Confinement, over-feeding, blows on the head or spine, drying up of old ulcers, repelling of cutaneous affections, or, in fact, anything that is liable to derange the general health of the animal, will produce epileptic fits. We formerly had a beagle hound of very active temperament, which we were necessarily obliged to keep much confined while in the city; and to restrain her from running too wildly when taken into the streets, we were in the habit of coupling her with a greyhound of much milder disposition. Not being willing to submit lamely to this unpleasant check upon her liberty, she was ever making fruitless attempts to escape, either by thrusting herself forwards, or obstinately pulling backwards. These efforts resulted on several occasions in fits, produced by congestion of the brain, owing to the pressure of the collar on the neck, thereby interrupting the circulation, and inducing an influx of blood to those parts. We were ultimately obliged to abandon this method of restraint, which nearly proved fatal to our much-admired beagle: she being suddenly seized with one of these fits on a hot summer's day in one of our principal thoroughfares, the crowd of ignorant bystanders concluded it to be a case of rabies, and nothing but my taking her up in my arms, and carrying her from the scene of action, saved her from falling a victim to their ignorance. If the disease appears dependent upon plethora the result of confinement and gross living, the animal must be reduced by bleeding and purging, low diet, and exercise. If, however, the malady proceeds from weakness, as is sometimes the case in bitches while suckling a large litter, it will be necessary to relieve her of some of the pups, and supply her with the most nutritious diet, as also administer tonic balls; the following will answer. [Symbol: Rx]: Extract of Gentian, Quassia, ââ (each) grs. V, made into two pills, and one or two given morning and evening; or, [Symbol: Rx]: Powdered Columbo. Carbonate of Iron, ââ, grs. V, made into two pills, and one given morning and evening, or more frequently if desirable. A seton placed in the poll will often prevent these attacks, particularly when depending upon slight cerebral irritation, accompanying distemper and mange. Blisters and frictions to the spine are also serviceable.--L.] CHOREA. This is an irregular reception or distribution of nervous power--a convulsive involuntary twitching of some muscle or set of muscles. It is an occasional consequence of distemper that has been unusually severe or imperfectly treated, and sometimes it is seen even after that disease has existed in its mildest form. [This nervous affection, more commonly known as St. Vitus' dance, is not a rare disease, and we doubt not that examples of it have been seen by most of our readers, more particularly in young dogs affected with distemper. This malady is characterized by sudden involuntary twitchings of the different muscles of the body, the disease being sometimes confined to one limb, sometimes to two, and frequently pervades the whole system, giving the dog a distressing and painful appearance. These involuntary motions, it is very true, are generally restricted during sleep, although in old chronic cases of long standing they often continue in full activity without any remission whatever. The disease is not attended with fever, and all the functions generally remain for a considerable time unimpaired.--L.] It first appears in one leg or shoulder, and is long, or perhaps entirely, confined to that limb. There is a singular spasmodic jerking action of the limb. It looks like a series of pulsations, and averages from forty to sixty in a minute. Oftener, perhaps, than otherwise, both legs are similarly affected. When the animal is lying down, the legs are convulsed in the way that I have described, and when he stands there is a pulsating depressing or sinking of the head and neck. In some cases, the muscles of the neck are the principal seat of the disease, or some muscle of the face; the temporal muscle beating like an artery; the masseter opening and closing the mouth, the muscles of the eyelid, and, in a few cases, those of the eye itself being affected. These convulsive movements generally, yet not uniformly, cease during sleep, but that sleep is often very much disturbed. If the case is neglected, and the dog is in a debilitated state, this spasmodic action steals over the whole frame, and he lies extended with every limb in constant and spasmodic action. In the majority of cases, such an expenditure of nervous and muscular power slowly destroys the strength of the animal, and he dies a mere skeleton; or the disease assumes the character of epilepsy, or it quiets down into true palsy. In the most favourable cases, no curative means having been used, the dog regains his flesh and general strength; but the chorea continues, the spasmodic action, however, being much lessened. At other times, it seems to have disappeared; but it is ready to return when the animal is excited or attacked by other disease. In a variety of instances, there is the irritable temper which accompanies chorea in the human being, and most certainly when the disease has been extensive and confirmed. Chorea, neglected or improperly treated, or too frequently pursuing its natural course, degenerates into paralysis agitans. There is a tremulous or violent motion of almost every limb. The spasms are not relaxed, but are even increased during sleep, and when the animal awakes, he rises with agitation and alarm. There is not a limb under the perfect control of the will; there is not a moment's respite; the constitution soon sinks, and the animal dies. No person should be induced to undertake the cure of such a case: the owner should be persuaded to permit a speedy termination to a life which no skill can render comfortable. Chorea is oftenest observed in young dogs, and especially after distemper; and it seems to depend on a certain degree of primary or sympathetic inflammatory affection of the brain. Chorea is often very plainly a consequence of debility: either the distribution of nervous power is irregular, or the muscles have lost their power of being readily acted upon, or have acquired a state of morbid irritability. The latter is the most frequent state. Their action is irregular and spasmodic, and it resembles the struggles of expiring nature far more than the great and uniform action of health. It is not the chorea that used to be described, in which there was an irresistible impulse to excessive action, and which was best combated by complete muscular exhaustion; but the foundation of this disease is palpable debility. [Rickets, bad feeding, cold and damp housing, worms in the alimentary canal, mange, and other chronic affections, are all forerunners of this malady.--L.] In the treatment of chorea there must be no bleeding, no excessive purgation, but aperients or alteratives, merely sufficient to keep the fæces in a pultaceous state, so as to carry off any source of irritation to the intestinal canal, and particularly some species of worms, too frequent sources of irritation there. To these should be added nutritious food, gentle exercise, tonic medicines, and general comforts. Counter-irritants may be applied--such as blisters over the head, and setons, extending from poll to poll--the application of turpentine, or the tincture of cantharides; but all of these will frequently be of no effect, and occasionally a rapid and fearful increase of irritability will ensue: antispasmodics are in this case of no use, and narcotics are altogether powerless. As for tonics, iron and gentian have been serviceable to a certain extent, but they have never cured the complaint. The nitrate of silver will be the sheet-anchor of the practitioner, and if early used will seldom deceive him. It should be combined with ginger, and given morning and night, in doses varying from one-sixth to one-third of a grain, according to the size of the dog. The condition and strength of the dog, and the season of the year, will be our best guides. If the patient has not lost much flesh, and is not losing it at the time that we have to do with him, and has few symptoms of general debility, and spring or summer are approaching we may with tolerable confidence predict a cure; but, if he has been rapidly losing ground, and is doing so still, and staggers about and falls, there is no medicine that will restore him. 5th October, 1840.--A pointer, eighteen months old, had had the distemper, but not severely, and was apparently recovering when he suddenly lost all voluntary power over his limbs. He was unable to get up, and his legs were in constant, rapid, and violent motion. This continued three days, during which he had refused all food, when, the dog being in the country, my advice was asked. I ordered a strong emetic to be given to him, and after that a dose of Epsom salts, the insertion of a seton, and, in addition to this, our usual tonic was to be given twice every day. His food to consist chiefly of good strong soup, which was to be forced upon him in a sufficient quantity. In two days he was able to get up and stagger about, although frequently falling. His appetite returned. He continued to improve, and most rapidly gained strength and especially flesh. A very peculiar, high-lifting, clambering, and uncertain motion of the legs remained, with an apparent defect of sight, for he ran against almost everything. In six weeks the seton was removed, and the dog remained in the same state until the 7th of December. The uncertain clambering motion was now increasing, and likewise the defect of sight. He ran against almost every person and every thing. The cornea was transparent, the iris contracted, there was no opacity of the lens, or pink tint of the retina, but a peculiar glassy appearance, as unconscious of everything around it. An emetic was given, and, after that, an ounce of sulphate of magnesia. 8th. He was dreadfully ill after taking the salts; perhaps they were not genuine. For two days he panted sadly, refused his food, and vomited that which was forced upon him. His muzzle was hot; he could scarcely stand; he lost flesh very rapidly. An emetic was given immediately, and a distemper-ball daily. 16th. He soon began rapidly to recover, until he was in nearly the same state as before, except that the sight was apparently more deficient. The sulphate of magnesia was given every fourth day, and another seton inserted. 21st. He continued the medicine, and evidently improved, the sight returning, and the spasms being considerably less. The distemper-ball was continued. 4th January, 1841.--The spasms were better; but the vision did not improve. In the afternoon he fell into a momentary fit. He almost immediately rose again, and proceeded as if nothing had happened. An ounce of Epson salts was given, and then the tonic balls as before. 22d. The spasms were lessened, the clambering gait nearly ceased, but the vision was not improved. The seton was removed, and only an additional dose of salts given. 27th. The spasms suddenly and very considerably increased. The left side appeared now to be particularly affected. The left leg before and behind were most spasmed, the right scarcely at all so. The vision of the left eye was quite gone. The dog had been taken to Mr. Alexander's, the oculist, who attributed the affection of the eye and the general spasmodic disease to some pressure on the brain, and recommended the trial of copious and repeated bleeding. 28th. The dog was dull; the spasms appeared to have somewhat increased and decidedly to affect the left side. Fever-balls were ordered to be given. 29th. Considerable change took place. At three o'clock this morning I was disturbed by a noise in the hospital. The poor fellow was in a violent fit. Water was dashed in his face, and a strong emetic given; but it was not until seven o'clock that the fit had ceased; he lay until eleven o'clock, when the involuntary spasms were almost suspended. When he was placed on his feet, he immediately fell; he then gradually revived and staggered about. His master brought a physician to see him, who adopted Mr. Alexander's idea and urged bleeding. Ten ounces of blood were immediately taken; the dog refused to eat. 1st February.--The strength of the animal was not impaired, but the spasms were more violent, and he lay or wandered about stupid and almost unconscious. I subtracted eight ounces more of blood. 2d. The spasms were fully as violent, and no amendment in the vision. Eight ounces more of blood were subtracted without benefit. A fever-ball was ordered to be given. 3d. No amendment; but the bleeding having been carried to its full extent, I again resorted to the tonic balls, which were given morning and night. The dog was well fed and the seton replaced. 5th. A very considerable amendment is evident. 9th. The spasms rapidly subsided and almost disappeared. Vision was not perfectly restored; but the dog evidently saw with his left eye. He was taken away, and tonic balls sent with him and ordered to be continued. 6th March.--The dog had improved in strength and no spasmodic affection remained; he likewise evidently saw with his left eye. The tonic-balls had been discontinued for a week, and his master hoped that all would turn out well, when suddenly, while at home, he was seized with a fit that lasted ten minutes. A strong emetic was given, which brought up a vast quantity of undigested food. A strong purging-ball was given to him in the evening. 13th. The dog had lain slightly spasmed for two or three days, when they all at once ceased, and the animal appeared as well as before. Suddenly he was taken with another fit, and again a vast quantity of food was vomited. These spasms remained two days, but on the 21st the fit returned with the same discharge of food. Courses of purgatives were then determined on. A strong dose of sulphate of magnesia was given every third day. After four doses had been given, it was impossible to force any more upon him. The syrup of buckthorn was tried, but the fourth dose of that it was impossible to give. The dog was then sent into the country; no fit occurred, but there were occasional spasms. 23d September.--He was brought back to town, and I saw him. During the last month he had had many fits. His owner at length consented that the actual cautery should be applied to his head. The searing-iron for doctoring was used, and applied red-hot to the centre of the head. It was exceedingly difficult so to confine the dog as to make the application effectual, without destroying the skin. Under the influence of the sudden violent pain, he wandered about for more than two hours, and then the spasms returned with greater force than usual. He refused all food. We determined to try the cautery to its full extent. We chained him up in the morning, and penetrated through the skin with the budding-iron. The spasms were dreadfully violent, and he was scarcely able to walk or to stand. This gradually subsided, and then he began to run round and round, and that increased to an extraordinary velocity: he would then lie for a while with every limb in action. The owner then yielded to all our wishes, and he was destroyed with prussic acid. No morbid appearance presented itself in the brain; but, on the inner plate of the right parietal bone, near the sagittal suture, were two projections, one-sixth of an inch in length, and armed with numerous minute spicula. There was no peculiar inflammation or vascularity of any other part of the brain. [We once cured a case quite accidentally, by throwing a pup into a cold stream of water, and making him swim ashore; we do not recommend the plan, although we should be willing to try it again with one of our own dogs. The animal should be forced to swim till nearly exhausted, and wrapped up in blankets on coming out of the water. The intense alarm created in the pup, together with the violent struggle and coldness of the water, all act as revulsives to the disease, which, if purely nervous, may be overcome by these powerful agents. If the dog be weak, and the stomach deranged, the following tonic balls will answer a good purpose: [Symbol: Rx]: Carbonate of Iron. Ground Ginger, ââ, grs. X, made into two pills, one given morning and evening, or more frequently according to the age or size of the animal.--L.] RHEUMATISM AND PALSY. I do not know any animal so subject to 'rheumatism' as the dog, nor any one in which, if it is early and properly treated, it is so manageable. [We agree with our author, that the canine family are exceedingly liable to inflammation of the fibrous and muscular structures of the body, and there is no disease from which they suffer more, both in their youth and old age, than rheumatism. No particular species of dogs are more subject to its attacks than others, all being alike victims to its ravages. Mr. Blaine remarks, that the bowels always sympathize with other parts of the body suffering under this disease, and that inflammation will always be found existing in the abdominal viscera, if rheumatism be present, and the lower bowels will be attended with a painful torpor, which he designates as rheumatic colic. We ourselves noticed, that old setters particularly, when suffering from this disease, are frequently attacked with an acute diarrhoea, or suffer from obstinate constipation attended by griping pains, but did not know that this state of things was so uniform an accompaniment to the other affection. There are two varieties of rheumatism, the 'acute' and 'chronic', both of which are attended with either general fever or local inflammation. The attacks usually come on rather suddenly, the joints swell, the pulse becomes full and tense, the parts tender, and the eyes blood-shot, the stomach deranged, and the bowels costive. Severe lancinating pain runs through the articulation, and along the course of the larger muscles, the tongue is coated, the muzzle hot and dry, and the poor animal howls with agony. The breathing becomes laboured, all food is rejected, and if you attempt to move the sufferer he sends forth piteous cries of distress. 'The causes' of this serious affection are very numerous; among the most usual and active agents may be enumerated, exposure to atmospherical vicissitudes, remaining wet and idle after coming from the water, damp kennels, suppressed perspiration, metastasis of eruptive diseases, luxurious living, laziness and over-feeding. These and many other causes are all busy in the production of this disease. Duck dogs on the Chesapeake, we have noticed as often suffering from this affection, owing no doubt to the great exposure they are obliged to endure; but few of them arrive at old age without being martyrs to the chronic form. 'Chronic rheumatism', generally the result of the other form of disease, is most usually met with in old dogs: it is attended with little fever, although the local inflammation and swelling is sometimes considerable. The pain is often stationary in one shoulder or loin, at other times shifts about suddenly to other portions of the body. The muscles are tender and the joints stiff, the animal seems lame till he becomes healed, and limber when all appearance of the disease vanishes. In old cases the limbs become so much enlarged, and the joints so swollen, that the dog is rendered perfectly useless, and consequently increases his sufferings by idleness. 'This form of the disease is known as gout.' Treatment of 'acute rheumatism'--bleeding largely is very important in this affection, and if followed up with two or three purges of aloes, gamboge, colocynth and calomel will arrest the progress of this disease. Rx. Extract of Colocynth 3 [Symbol: scruple] i. Calomel grs. x. Powdered Gamboge grs. ii. Socet. Aloes grs. x. Made into four pills, two to be given at night, and the other the following morning. If these medicines should not be handy, give a large purging ball of aloes, to be followed by a full dose of salts. When the inflammatory action is not sufficiently high to demand depletion, warm bathing, friction and keeping the dog wrapped up in blankets before a fire will generally afford relief. If the pain appear very severe, it will be necessary to repeat the baths at short intervals: great attention must be paid to the state of the bowels: if a diarrhoea supervenes, it must not he checked too suddenly, by the use of astringent medicines, but rather corrected by small doses of oil and magnesia. If constipation attended with colic be the character of the affection, small quantities of oil and turpentine in connexion with warm enemata will be the proper remedies. If paralysis should occur, it will be found very difficult to overcome, but must be treated, after the reduction of inflammation, upon principles laid down under the head of this latter affection. Blisters to the spine, setons, electricity, acupuncturation, &c. 'Treatment of chronic rheumatism'--warm baths are useful, and warm housing absolutely necessary, attention to diet, and an occasional purge of blue mass and aloes, together with electricity, acupuncture, rubefacient applications to the spine, &c.--L.] A warm bath--perchance a bleeding--a dose or two of the castor-oil mixture, and an embrocation composed of spirit of turpentine, hartshorn, camphorated spirit, and laudanum, will usually remove it in two or three days, unless it is complicated with muscular sprains, or other lesions, such as the 'chest-founder' of kennels. This chest-founder is a singular complaint, and often a pest in kennels that are built in low situations, and where bad management prevails. Where the huntsman or whippers-in are too often in a hurry to get home, and turn their dogs into the kennel panting and hot; where the beds are not far enough from the floor, or the building, if it should be in a sufficiently elevated situation, has yet a northern aspect and is unsheltered from the blast, chest-founder prevails; and I have known half the pack affected by it after a severe run, the scent breast-high, and the morning unusually cold. It even occasionally passes on into palsy. The veterinary surgeon will be sometimes consulted respecting this provoking muscular affection. His advice will comprise--dryness, attention to the bowels, attention to the exercise-ground, and perhaps, occasionally, setons--not where the huntsman generally places them, on the withers above, but on the brisket below, and defended from the teeth of the dog by a roller of a very simple construction, passing round the chest between the fore legs and over the front of the shoulders on either side. The pointer, somewhat too heavy before, and hardly worked, becomes what is called chest-foundered. From his very make it is evident that, in long-continued and considerable exertion, the subscapular muscles will be liable to sprain and inflammation. There will be inflammation of the fasciæ, induration, loss of power, loss of nervous influence and palsy. Cattle, driven far and fast to the market, suffer from the same causes. [By palsy, we mean a partial or complete loss of the powers of motion or sensation in some portion of the muscular system: this affection is very common to the canine race, and very few of them reach an advanced age without having at some time in their life experienced an attack of this malady. The loins and hind legs suffer oftener than other parts, in fact we do not recollect ever meeting with paralysis of the fore limbs alone. Although the limbs become perfectly powerless, and are only dragged after the animal by the combined efforts of the fore legs and back, it is seldom that they lose their sensibility.--L.] Palsy is frequent, as in the dog. However easy it may be to subdue a rheumatic affection, in its early stage, by prompt attention, yet if it is neglected, it very soon simulates, or becomes essentially connected with, or converted into, palsy. No animal presents a more striking illustration of the connexion between intestinal irritation and palsy than the dog. He rarely or never has enteritis, even in its mildest form, without some loss of power over the hinder extremities. This may at first arise from the participation of the lumbar muscles with the intestinal irritation; but, if the disease of the bowels continues long, it will be evident enough that it is not pain alone that produces the constrained and incomplete action of the muscles of the hind extremities, but that there is an actual loss of nervous power. A dog is often brought to the veterinary surgeon, with no apparent disease about him except a staggering walk from weakness of the hind limbs. He eats well and is cheerful, and his muzzle is moist and cool; but his belly is tucked up, and there are two longitudinal cords, running parallel to each other, which will scarcely yield to pressure. The surgeon orders the castor-oil mixture twice or thrice daily, until the bowels are well acted upon, and, as soon as that is accomplished, the dog is as strong and as well as ever. Perhaps his hind limbs are dragged behind him; a warm bath is ordered, he is dosed well with the castor-oil mixture, and, if it is a recent case, the animal is well in a few days. In more confirmed palsy, the charge, or plaster on the loins, is added to the action of the aperient on the bowels. The process may be somewhat slow, but it is seldom that the dog does not ultimately and perfectly recover. It is easy to explain this connexion, although we should have scarcely supposed that it would have been so intimate, had not frequent experience forced it on our observation. The rectum passes through the pelvis. Whatever may be said of that intestine, considering its vertical position in the human being, it is always charged with fæces in the quadruped. It therefore shares more in the effect, whatever that may be, which is produced by the retention of fæces in the intestinal canal, and it shares also in the inflammatory affection of other parts of the canal. Almost in contact with this viscus, or at least passing through the pelvis, are the crural nerves from the lumbar vertebræ, the obtusator running round the rim of the pelvis, the glutal nerve occupying its back, and the sciatic hastening to escape from it. It is not difficult to imagine that these, to a certain degree, will sympathize with the healthy and also the morbid state of the rectum; and that, when it is inert, or asleep, or diseased, they also may be powerless too. Here is something like fact to establish a very important theory, and which should be deeply considered by the sportsman and the surgeon. [Loss of the contractile power of the sphincters of the bladder and rectum, sometimes attends this disease, and involuntary evacuations are constantly taking place, or costiveness and retention are the consequences.--L.] Mr. Dupuy has given a valuable account of the knowledge we possess of the diseases of the spinal marrow in our domestic quadrupeds. He has proved: 1. That in our domestic animals the spinal marrow is scarcely ever affected through the whole of its course. 2. That the dorsal and lumbar regions are the parts oftenest affected. 3. That inflammation of the spinal marrow of these regions always produces palsy, more or less complete, of the abdominal members. 4. That, in some cases, this inflammation is limited to the inferior or superior parts of the spinal marrow, and that there is loss only of feeling or of motion. 5. That sometimes animals die of palsy without any organic lesion. [Blows on the head, producing effusion on the brain, poisoning by lead, inflammation of the spinal marrow, affections of the nerves, caries of the spine, costiveness and affections of the bowels, are all productive of palsy. If the disease proceeds from rheumatism, or other inflammatory affections, independent of any organic lesion, the disease, if taken early, is not difficult to overcome in the young subject. Warm baths, bleeding, purging, and stimulating applications to the parts and along the spine, will answer. Castor oil and turpentine is a good purge: where the malady depends upon costiveness, purges of aloes should be administered in connexion with warm enemata, stimulating frictions along the spine, and hot baths. Croton oil dropped on the tongue will also be of great benefit: if there should be effusion or compression from fracture of the bones of the cranium, nothing but trephining will be of any service, as we can hardly hope for the absorption of the matter, and the removal of the spicula of bone can alone afford relief to the patient. Paralysis arising from poisoning should be treated as described under the head of mineral poisons. Chronic cases of paralysis arising from want of tone of the nerves and spinal marrow, repeated blistering, introduction of the seton along the spine, electricity, &c., have all been tried with some success. Strychnia, from its peculiar effects upon the animal economy, and its almost exclusive direction to the nerves of motion, makes it a medicine particularly applicable to the treatment of this disease. It may be given in all stages of the malady, but is most serviceable after the reduction of inflammatory action, and when we are convinced that the disease depends upon want of tone in the motor muscles. Great care should be had in its administration, as it is a powerful poison in too large doses, to a large dog; commence with a quarter of a grain in pill, three times daily, and gradually increase to a half grain or more if the animal seems to bear it well. But it should be discontinued immediately on the appearance of any constitutional symptoms, such as spasmodic twitchings of the eyelids or muzzle.--L.] PALSY--MANGE 11th February, 1835.--A Persian bitch, at the Zoological Gardens, who was well yesterday, now staggers as she walks, and has nearly lost the use of her hind legs. Gave a good dose of the castor-oil mixture. 18th. She is materially worse and drags her hind legs after her. I would fain put on a charge, but the keeper does not like that her beautiful coat should be spoiled, and wishes to try what gentle exercise will do. She certainly, after she has been coaxed a great deal, will get on her legs and stagger on fifty yards or more. Gave the castor-oil mixture daily. 19th. She is a little stronger, and walks a little better. Continue the mixture. Embrocate well with the rheumatic mixture--sp. tereb., sp. camph., liq. ammon., et tinct. opii--and give gentle exercise. 2d March.--She does improve, although slowly; the charge is therefore postponed. Continue treatment. 30th. She is considerably better. Continue the mixture, and use the embrocation every second day. 10th April--She has mange in the bend of her arm, and on her chest. Use the sulphur ointment and alterative balls, and omit the embrocation and mixture. In less than a week she nearly recovered from her lameness, and ran about almost as well as ever. 30th. She runs about very fairly, but the mange has assumed that character of scurvy which I do not know how to grapple with. Continue the alterative balls, and the ointment. 18th May.--The mange has disappeared, but the palsy is returning; she staggers slightly, and droops behind. Give the castor-oil mixture and use the embrocation. 14th June.--Mange quite gone, but palsy continues to a very considerable degree. I want to use the plaster; but the keeper pleads for a little delay. Continue the treatment. 1st July.--I have at length determined to have recourse to the charge. A piece of thick sheep's leather was fitted lo her loins and haunches. 18th. She appears to be improving, but it is very slowly. 31st. Very little change. The plaster keeps on well: she has no power over her hind limbs; but she eats and drinks as well as ever. 23d August.--No change. Give her half a grain of strychnia, morning and night. 26th That singular secretion of milk, to which the bitch is subject nine weeks after oestrum, is now appearing. Her mammæ are enlarged, and I can squeeze a considerable quantity of milk out of the teats. Give an aloetic pill, and continue the strychnia. 31st. The secretion of milk continues. There is slight enlargement and some heat of the mammæ; but she feeds as well as ever. Increase the dose of strychnia to three-quarters of a grain. On the following day she was found dead. In making the usual longitudinal incision through the integuments of the abdomen a considerable quantity of milky fluid, mingled with blood, followed the knife. There was very slight enlargement of the teats, but intense inflammation of the whole of the mammary substance. The omentum, and particularly the portion opposite to the external disease, was also inflamed. Besides this there was not a vestige of disease. This is an interesting case and deserves record. I fear that justice was not done to the animal at the commencement of the paralytic affection. In nineteen cases out of twenty in the dog, the constant but mild stimulus of a charge over the lumbar and sacral regions removes the deeper-seated inflammation of the spinal cord or its membranes, when the palsy is confined to the hind extremities, and has not been sufficiently long established to produce serious change of structure. The charge should have been applied at first. The almost total disappearance of the palsy during the cutaneous disease, which was attended with more than usual inflammation of the integument, is an instructive illustration of the power of counter-irritation, and of what might possibly have been effected in the first case; for much time was lost before the application of the charge, and when at length it was applied, it and the strychnia were powerless. I consider the following case as exceedingly valuable, at least with reference to the power of strychnia in removing palsy:-- 19th August, 1836.--A fine Alpine dog was suddenly attacked with a strange nervous affection. He was continually staggering about and falling. His head was forcibly bent backward and a little on one side, almost to his shoulder. A pound of blood was abstracted, a seton inserted from ear to ear, and eight grains of calomel administered. 21st. He has perfectly lost the use of every limb. He has also amaurosis. perfect blindness, which had not appeared the day before. He hears perfectly, and he eats, and with appetite, when the food is put into his mouth. Gave him two large spoonfuls of the castor-oil mixture daily; this consists of three parts of castor-oil, two of syrup of buck-thorn, and one of syrup of white poppies. 23d. A little better; can lift his head and throw it upon his side, and will still eat when fed. Continue the mixture, and give half a grain of strychnia daily. 24th. Little change. 27th. No change, except that he is rapidly losing flesh. Continue the treatment. 31th. The strychnia increased to three-fourths of a grain morning and night. The castor-oil mixture continued in its full quantity. He was fed well, but there was a sunken, vacant expression of countenance. 2d September.--He can move his head a little, and has some slight motion in his limbs. 4th. He can almost get up. He recognises me for the first time. His appetite, which was never much impaired, has returned: this is to be attributed to strychnia, or the seton, or the daily aperient mixture. They have all, perhaps, been serviceable, but I attribute most to the strychnia; for I have rarely, indeed, seen any dog recover from such an attack. Continue the treatment. 6th. Fast recovering. Medicine as before. 14th. Improving, but not so fast as before. Still continue the treatment. 28th. Going on slowly, but satisfactorily. Remove the seton, but continue the other treatment. 13th October.--Quite well. * * * * * CHAPTER VII. RABIES. We are now arrived at one of the most important subjects in veterinary pathology. In other cases the comfort and the existence of our quadruped patients are alone or chiefly involved, but here the lives of our employers, and our own too, are at stake, and may be easily, and too often are, compromised. Here also, however other portions of the chain may be overlooked or denied, we have the link which most of all connects the veterinary surgeon with the practitioner of human medicine; or, rather, here is the circumscribed but valued spot where the veterinary surgeon has the vantage-ground. In describing the nature, and cause and treatment of rabies, it will be most natural to take the animal in which it oftenest appears, by which it is most frequently propagated; the time at which the danger commences, and the usual period before the death of the patient. Some years ago a dog, naturally ferocious, bit a child at Lisson Grove. The child, to all appearance previously well, died on the third day, and an inquest was to be held on the body in the evening. The Coroner ordered the dog to be sent to me for examination The animal was, contrary to his usual habit, perfectly tractable. This will appear to be of some importance hereafter. I examined him carefully. No suspicious circumstance could be found about him. There was no appearance of rabies. In the mean time the inquest took place, and the corpse of the child was carefully examined. One medical gentleman thought that there were some suspicious appearances about the stomach, and another believed that there was congestion of the brain. The owner of the dog begged that the animal might not be taken from him, but might accompany him home. He took him home and destroyed him that no experiments might be made. With great difficulty we procured the carcass, and from some inflammatory appearances about the tongue and the stomach, and the presence of a small portion of indigestible matter in the stomach, we were unanimously of opinion that the dog was rabid. I do not mean to say that the child died hydrophobous, or that its death was accelerated by the nascent disease existing in the dog. There was probably some nervous affection that hastened the death of the infant, and the dog bit the child at the very period when the malady first began to develop itself. On the following day there were morbid lesions enough to prove beyond doubt that he was rabid. This case is introduced because I used afterwards to accompany every examination of supposed or doubtful rabies with greater caution than I probably had previously used. It is occasionally very difficult to detect the existence of rabies in its nascent state. In the year 1813, a child attempted to rob a dog of its morning food, and the animal resisting the theft, the child was slightly scratched by its teeth. No one dreamed of danger. Eight days afterwards symptoms of rabies appeared in the dog, the malady ran its course, and the animal died. A few days afterwards the child sickened--undoubted characteristics of rabies were observed--they ran their course and the infant was lost. There are other cases--fortunately not numerous--in the records of human surgery, resembling this. A person has been bitten by a dog, he has paid little or no attention to it, and no application of the caustic has been made. Some weeks, or even months, have passed, he has nearly or quite forgotten the affair, when he becomes languid and feverish, and full of fearful apprehensions, and this appearing perhaps during several days, or more than a week. The empoisonment has then ceased to be a local affair, the virus has entered into the circulation, and its impression is made on the constitution generally. Fortunately the disposition to bite rarely develops itself until the full establishment of the disease, otherwise we might sometimes inquire whether it were not our duty to exterminate the whole race of dogs. The following case deserves to be recorded. On the 21st of October, 1813, a dog was brought to me for examination. He had vomited a considerable quantity of coagulated blood. I happened to be particularly busy at the moment, and not observing anything peculiar in his countenance or manner, I ordered some astringent sedative medicine, and said that I would see him again in the afternoon. In the course of the afternoon he was again brought. The vomiting had quite ceased. His mouth seemed to be swollen, and, on examining him, I found that some of his incisor teeth, both in the upper and lower jaw, had been torn out. This somewhat alarmed me; and, on inquiring of the servant, I was told that he suspected that they had had thieves about the house on the preceding night, for the dog had torn away the side of his kennel in attempting to get at them. I scolded him for not having told me of this in the morning; and then, talking of various things, in order to prolong the time and to be able closely to watch my patient, I saw, or thought I saw, but in a very slight degree, that the animal was tracing the fancied path of some imaginary object. I was then truly alarmed, and more especially since I had discovered that in the giving of the physic in the morning the man's hand had been scratched; a youth had suffered the dog to lick his sore finger, and the animal had also been observed to lick the sore ear of an infant. He was a remarkably affectionate dog, and was accustomed to this abominable and inexcusable nonsense. I insisted on detaining the dog, and gave the man a letter to the surgeon, telling him all my fears. He promptly acted on the hint, and before evening, the proper means were taken with regard to all three. I watched this dog day after day. He would not eat, but he drank a great deal more water than I liked. The surgeon was evidently beginning to doubt whether I was not wrong, but he could not dispute the occasional wandering of the eye, and the frequent spume upon the water. On the 26th of October, however, the sixth day after his arrival, we both of us heard the rabid howl burst from him: he did not, however, die until the 30th. I mention this as another instance of the great difficulty there is to determine the real nature of the case in an early stage of the disease. M. Perquin relates an interesting case. A lady had a greyhound, nine years old, that was accustomed to lie upon her bed at night, and cover himself with the bed-clothes. She remarked, one morning, that he had torn the covering of his bed, and, although he ate but little, drank oftener, and in larger quantity, than he was accustomed to do. She led him to a veterinary surgeon, who assured her that there was nothing serious the matter. On the following day, he bit her fore-finger near the nail, as she was giving him something to eat. She led him again to the veterinary surgeon, who assured her that she needed not to be under the least alarm, and as for the little wound on her finger, it was of no consequence. On the following day, the 27th of December, the dog died. He had not ceased to drink most abundantly to the very last. On the 4th of February, as the lady was dining with her husband, she found some difficulty in deglutition. She wished to take some wine, but was unable to swallow it. On the 5th, she consulted a surgeon. He wished her to swallow a little soup in his presence. She attempted to do it, but could not accomplish her object after many an effort. She then fell into a state of violent agitation, with constriction of the pharynx, and the discharge of a viscid fluid from the mouth. On the 7th, she died, four days after the first attack of the disease, and in a state of excessive loss of flesh. There can be no doubt that both the dog and his mistress died rabid, the former having communicated the disease to the latter; but there is no satisfactory account of the manner in which the dog became diseased. [1] Joseph Delmaire, of Looberghe, twenty-nine years old, was, on the 6th of October, 1836, bitten in the hand by a dog that he met with in the forest, and that was evidently rabid. On the following morning, he went to a medical man of some repute in the country, who washed the wound, and scarified it, and terminated the operation by tracing a bloody cross on the forehead of the patient. He returned home, but he was far from being satisfied. The image of the dog that had attacked him was always before him, and his sleep was troubled with the most frightful dreams. So passed four-and-twenty days, when Delmaire, rising from his bed, felt the most dreadful trepidation; he panted violently; it seemed as if an enormous weight oppressed his chest, and from time to time there was profound sighing and sobbing. He complained every moment that he was smothered. He attempted to drink, but it was with great difficulty that a few drops of barley-water were swallowed. His mouth was dry, his throat burning, his thirst excessive, and all that he attempted to swallow was rejected with horror. At nine o'clock at night he was largely bled. His respiration was more free, but the dread of every fluid remained. After an hour's repose, he started and felt the most fearful pain in every limb--his whole body was agitated with violent convulsions. The former place of bleeding was reopened, and a great quantity of blood escaped. The pulse became small and accelerated. The countenance was dreadful--the eyes were starting from their sockets--he continually sprung from his seat and uttered the most fearful howling. A quantity of foam filled his mouth, and compelled a continued expectoration. In his violent fits, the strength of six men was not sufficient to keep him on his bed. In the midst of a sudden recess of fury he would disengage himself from all that were attempting to hold him, and dash himself on the floor; there, freed from all control, he rolled about, beat himself, and tore everything that he could reach. In the short intervals that separated these crises, he regained possession of his reasoning powers: he begged his old father to pardon him, he talked to him and to those around with the most intense affection, and it was only when he felt that a new attack was at hand, that he prayed them to leave him. At length his mental excitation began to subside; his strength was worn out, and he suffered himself to be placed on his bed. The horrible convulsions from time to time returned, but the dread of liquors had ceased. He demanded something to drink. They gave him a little white wine, but he was unable to swallow it; it was returned through his nostrils. The poor fellow then endeavoured to sleep; but it was soon perceived that he had ceased to live. The early symptoms of rabies in the dog are occasionally very obscure. In the greater number of cases, these are sullenness, fidgetiness, and continual shifting of posture. Where I have had opportunity, I have generally found these circumstances in regular succession. For several consecutive hours perhaps he retreats to his basket or his bed. He shows no disposition to bite, and he answers the call upon him laggardly. He is curled up and his face is buried between his paws and his breast. At length he begins to be fidgety. He searches out new resting-places; but he very soon changes them for others. He takes again to his own bed; but he is continually shifting his posture. He begins to gaze strangely about him as he lies on his bed. His countenance is clouded and suspicious. He comes to one and another of the family and he fixes on them a steadfast gaze as if he would read their very thoughts. "I feel strangely ill," he seems to say: "have you anything to do with it? or you? or you?" Has not a dog mind enough for this? If we have observed a rabid dog at the commencement of the disease, we have seen this to the very life. There is a species of dog--the small French poodle--the essence of whose character and constitution is fidgetiness or perpetual motion. If this dog has been bitten, and rabies is about to establish itself, he is the most irritative restless being that can be conceived of; starting convulsively at the slightest sound; disposing of his bed in every direction, seeking out one retreat after another in order to rest his wearied frame, but quiet only for a moment in any one, and the motion of his limbs frequently stimulating chorea and even epilepsy. A peculiar delirium is an early symptom, and one that will never deceive. A young man had been bitten by one of his dogs; I was requested to meet a medical gentleman on the subject: I was a little behind my time; as I entered the room I found the dog eagerly devouring a pan of sopped bread. "There is no madness here," said the gentleman. He had scarcely spoken, when in a moment the dog quitted the sop, and, with a furious bark sprung against the wall as if he would seize some imaginary object that he fancied was there. "Did you see that?" was my reply. "What do you think of it?" "I see nothing in it," was his retort: "the dog heard some noise on the other side of the wall." At my serious urging, however, he consented to excise the part. I procured a poor worthless cur, and got him bitten by this dog, and carried the disease from this dog to the third victim: they all became rabid one after the other, and there my experiment ended. The serious matter under consideration, perhaps, justified me in going so far as I did. This kind of delirium is of frequent occurrence in the human patient. The account given by Dr. Bardsley of one of his patients is very appropriate to on profit purpose: "I observed that he frequently fixed his eyes with horror and affright on some ideal object, and then, with a sudden and violent emotion, buried his head beneath the bed-clothes. The next time I saw him repeat this action, I was induced to inquire into the cause of his terror. He asked whether I had not heard howlings and scratchings. On being answered in the negative, he suddenly threw himself on his knees, extending his arms in a defensive posture, and forcibly threw back his head and body. The muscles of the face were agitated by various spasmodic contractions; his eye-balls glazed, and seemed ready to start from their sockets; and, at the moment, when crying out in an agonizing tone, 'Do you not see that black dog?' his countenance and attitude exhibited the most dreadful picture of complicated horror, distress, and rage that words can describe or imagination paint." I have again and again seen the rabid dog start up after a momentary quietude, with unmingled ferocity depicted on his countenance, and plunge with a savage howl to the end of his chain. At other times he would stop and watch the nails in the partition of the stable in which he was confined, and fancying them to move he would dart at them, and occasionally sadly bruise and injure himself from being no longer able to measure the distance of the object. In one of his sudden fits of violence a rabid dog strangled the Cardinal Crescence, the Legate of the Pope, at the Council of Trent in 1532. M. Magendie has often injected into the veins of an hydrophobous dog as much as five grains of opium without producing any effect; while a single grain given to the healthy dog would suffice to send him almost to sleep. One of Mr. Babington's patients thought that there was a cloud of flies about him. "Why do you not kill those flies!" he would cry; and then he would strike at them with his hand, and shrink under the bed-clothes, in the most dreadful fear. There is also in the human being a peculiarity in this delirium which seems to distinguish it from every other kind of mental aberration. "The patient," in Mr. Lawrence's language, "is pursued by a thousand phantoms that intrude themselves upon his mind; he holds conversation with imaginary persons; he fancies himself surrounded with difficulties, and in the greatest distress. These thoughts seem to pass through his mind with wonderful rapidity, and to keep him in a state of the greatest distress, unless he is quickly spoken to or addressed by his name, and, then, in a moment the charm is broken; every phantom of imagination disappears, and at once he begins to talk as calmly and as connectedly as in perfect health." So it is with the dog, whether he is watching the motes that are floating in the air, or the insects that are annoying him on the walls, or the foes that he fancies are threatening him on every side--one word recalls him in a moment. Dispersed by the magic influence of his master's voice, every object of terror disappears, and he crawls towards him with the same peculiar expression of attachment that used to characterize him. Then comes a moment's pause--a moment of actual vacuity--the eye slowly closes, the head droops, and he seems as if his fore feet were giving way, and he would fall: but he springs up again, every object of terror once more surrounds him--he gazes wildly around--he snaps--he barks, and he rushes to the extent of his chain, prepared to meet his imaginary foe. The expression of the countenance of the dog undergoes a considerable change, principally dependent on the previous disposition of the animal. If he was naturally of an affectionate disposition, there will be an anxious, inquiring countenance, eloquent, beyond the power of resisting its influence. It is made up of strange suppositions as to the nature of the depression of mind under which he labours, mingled with some passing doubts, and they are but passing, as to the concern which the master has in the affair; but, most of all, there is an affectionate and confiding appeal for relief. At the same time we observe some strange fancy, evidently passing through his mind, unalloyed, however, by the slightest portion of ferocity. In the countenance of the naturally savage brute, or him that has been trained to be savage, there is indeed a fearful change; sometimes the conjunctiva is highly injected; at other times it is scarcely affected, hut the eyes have an unusually bright and dazzling appearance. They are like two balls of fire, and there is a peculiar transparency of the hyaloid membrane, or injection of that of the retina. A very early symptom of rabies in the dog, is an extreme degree of restlessness. Frequently, he is almost invariably wandering about, shifting from corner to corner, or continually rising up and lying down, changing his posture in every possible way, disposing of his bed with his paws, shaking it with his mouth, bringing it to a heap, on which he carefully lays his chest, or rather the pit of his stomach, and then rising up and bundling every portion of it out of the kennel. If he is put into a closed basket, he will not be still for an instant, but turn round and round without ceasing. If he is at liberty, he will seem to imagine that something is lost, and he will eagerly search round the room, and particularly every corner of it, with strange violence and indecision. In a very great portion of cases of hydrophobia in the human being, there is, as a precursory symptom, uneasiness, pain, or itching of the bitten part. A red line may also be traced up the limb, in the direction of the lymphatics. In a few cases the wound opens afresh. The poison is now beginning fatally to act on the tissue, on which it had previously lain harmless. When the conversation has turned on this subject, long after the bitten part has been excised, pain has darted along the limb. I have been bitten much oftener than I liked, by dogs decidedly rabid, but, proper means being taken, I have escaped; and yet often, when I have been over-fatigued, or a little out of temper, some of the old sores have itched and throbbed, and actually become red and swollen. The dog appears to suffer a great deal of pain in the ear in common canker. He will be almost incessantly scratching it, crying piteously while thus employed. The ear is, oftener than any other part, bitten by the rabid dog, and, when a wound in the ear, inflicted by a rabid dog, begins to become painful, the agony appears to be of the intensest kind. The dog rubs his ear against every projecting body, he scratches it might and main, and tumbles over and over while he is thus employed. The young practitioner should be on his guard there. Is this dreadful itching a thing of yesterday, or, has the dog been subject to canker, increasing for a considerable period. Canker both internal and external is a disease of slow growth, and must have been long neglected before it will torment the patient in the manner that I have described. The question as to the length of time that an animal has thus suffered will usually be a sufficient guide. The mode in which he expresses his torture will serve as another direction. He will often scratch violently enough when he has canker, but he will not roll over and over like a football except he is rabid. If there is very considerable inflammation of the lining membrane of the ear, and engorgement and ulceration of it, this is the effect of canker; but if there is only a slight redness of the membrane, or no redness at all, and yet the dog is incessantly and violently scratching himself, it is too likely that rabies is at hand. In the early stage of rabies, the attachment of the dog towards his owner seems to be rapidly increased, and the expression of that feeling. He is employed, almost without ceasing, licking the hands, or face, or any part he can get at. Females, and men too, are occasionally apt to permit the dog, when in health, to indulge this filthy and very dangerous habit with regard to them. The virus, generated under the influence of rabies, is occasionally deposited on a wounded or abraded surface, and in process of time produces a similar disease in the person that has been so inoculated by it. Therefore it is that the surgeon so anxiously inquires of the person that has been bitten, and of all those to whom the dog has had access, "Has he been accustomed to lick you? have you any sore places about you that can by possibility have been licked by him?" If there are, the person is in fully as much danger as if he had been bitten, and it is quite as necessary to destroy the part with which the virus may have come in contact. A lady once lost her life by suffering her dog to lick a pimple on her chin. There is a beautiful species of dog, often the inhabitant of the gentleman's stable--the Dalmatian or coach dog. He has, perhaps, less affection for the human species than any other dog, except the greyhound and the bull-dog; he has less sagacity than most others, and certainly less courage. He is attached to the stable; he is the friend of the horse; they live under the same roof; they share the same bed; and, when the horse is summoned to his work, the dog accompanies every step. They are certainly beautiful dogs, and it is pleasing to see the thousand expressions of friendship between them and the horse; but, in their continual excursions through the streets, they are exposed to some danger, and particularly to that of being bitten by rabid dogs. It is a fearful business when this takes place. The coachman probably did not see the affray; no suspicion has been excited. The horse rubs his muzzle to the dog, and the dog licks the face of the horse, and in a great number of cases the disease is communicated from the one to the other. The dog in process of time dies, the horse does not long survive, and, frequently too, the coachman shares their fate. I have known at least twenty horses destroyed in this way. A depraved appetite is a frequent attendant on rabies in the dog. He refuses his usual food; he frequently turns from it with an evident expression of disgust; at other times, he seizes it with greater or less avidity, and then drops it, sometimes from disgust, at other times because he is unable to complete the mastication of it. This palsy of the organs of mastication, and dropping of the food, after it has been partly chewed, is a symptom on which implicit confidence may be placed. Some dogs vomit once or twice in the early period of the disease: when this happens, they never return to the natural food of the dog, but are eager for everything that is filthy and horrible. The natural appetite generally fails entirely, and to it succeeds a strangely depraved one. The dog usually occupies himself with gathering every little bit of thread, and it is curious to observe with what eagerness and method he sets to work, and how completely he effects his object. He then attacks every kind of dirt and filth, horse-dung, his own dung, and human excrement. Some breeds of spaniels are very filthy feeders without its being connected with disease, but the rabid dog eagerly selects the excrement of the horse, and his own. Some considerable care, however, must be exercised here. At the period of dentition, and likewise at the commencement of the sexual affection, the stomach of the dog, and particularly that of the bitch, sympathises with, or shares in, the irritability of the gums, and of the constitution generally, and there is a considerably perverted appetite. The dog also feels the same propensity that influences the child, that of taking hard substances into the mouth, and seemingly trying to masticate them. Their pressure on the gums facilitates the passage of the new teeth. A young dog will, therefore, be observed gathering up hard substances, and, if he should chance to die, a not inconsiderable collection of them is sometimes found in the stomach. They are, however, of a peculiar character; they consist of small pieces of bone, slick, and coal. The contents of the stomach of the rabid dog, are often, or generally, of a most filthy description. Some hair or straw is usually found, but the greater part is composed of horse-dung, or of his own dung, and it may be received as a certainly, that if he is found deliberately devouring it, he is rabid. Some very important conclusions may be drawn from the appearance and character of the urine. The dog, and at particular times when he is more than usually salacious, may, and does diligently search the urining places; he may even, at those periods, be seen to lick the spot which another has just wetted; but, if a peculiar eagerness accompanies this strange employment, if, in the parlour, which is rarely disgraced by this evacuation, every corner is perseveringly examined, and licked with unwearied and unceasing industry, that dog cannot be too carefully watched, there is great danger about him; he may, without any other symptom, be pronounced to be decidedly rabid. I never knew a single mistake about this. Much has been said of the profuse discharge of saliva from the mouth of the rabid dog. It is an undoubted fact that, in this disease, all the glands concerned in the secretion of saliva, become increased in bulk and vascularity. The sublingual glands wear an evident character of inflammation; but it never equals the increased discharge that accompanies epilepsy, or nausea. The frothy spume at the corners of the mouth, is not for a moment to be compared with that which is evident enough in both of these affections. It is a symptom of short duration, and seldom lasts longer than twelve hours. The stories that are told of the mad dog covered with froth, are altogether fabulous. The dog recovering from, or attacked by a fit, may be seen in this state; but not the rabid dog. Fits are often mistaken for rabies, and hence the delusion. The increased secretion of saliva soon passes away. It lessens in quantity; it becomes thicker, viscid, adhesive, and glutinous. It clings to the corners of the mouth, and probably more annoyingly so to the membrane of the fauces. The human being is sadly distressed by it, he forces it out with the greatest violence, or utters the falsely supposed bark of a dog, in his attempts to force it from his mouth. This symptom occurs in the human being, when the disease is fully established, or at a late period of it. The dog furiously attempts to detach it with his paws. It is an early symptom in the dog, and it can scarcely be mistaken in him. When he is fighting with his paws at the corners of his mouth, let no one suppose that a bone is sticking between the poor fellow's teeth; nor should any useless and dangerous effort be made to relieve him. If all this uneasiness arose from a bone in the mouth, the mouth would continue permanently open instead of closing when the animal for a moment discontinues his efforts. If after a while he loses his balance and tumbles over, there can be no longer any mistake. It is the saliva becoming more and more glutinous, irritating the fauces and threatening suffocation. To this naturally and rapidly succeeds an insatiable thirst. The dog that still has full power over the muscles of his jaws continues lo lap. He knows not when to cease, while the poor fellow labouring under the dumb madness, presently to be described, and whose jaw and tongue are paralysed, plunges his muzzle into the water-dish to his very eyes, in order that he may get one drop of water into the back part of his mouth to moisten and to cool his dry and parched fauces. Hence, instead of this disease being always characterised by the dread of water in the dog, it is marked by a thirst often perfectly unquenchable. Twenty years ago, this assertion would have been peremptorily denied. Even at the present day we occasionally meet with those who ought to know better, and who will not believe that the dog which fairly, or perhaps eagerly, drinks, can be rabid. January 22d, 1815.--A Newfoundland dog belonging to a gentleman in Piccadilly was supposed to have swallowed a penny-piece on the 20th. On the evening of that day he was dull, refused his food, and would not follow his master. 21st. He became restless and pouting, and continually shifting his position. He would not eat nor would he drink water, but followed his mistress into her bed-room, which he had never done before, and eagerly lapped the urine from her chamber-pot. He was afterwards seen lapping his own urine. His restlessness and panting increased, He would neither eat nor drink, and made two or three attempts to vomit. 22d. He was brought to me this evening. His eyes were wild, the conjunctiva considerably inflamed, and he panted quickly and violently. There was a considerable flow of saliva from the corners of his mouth. He was extremely restless and did not remain in one position half a minute. There was an occasional convulsive nodding motion of the head. The eyes were wandering, and evidently following some imaginary object; but he was quickly recalled from his delirium by my voice or that of his master. In a few moments, however, he was wandering again. He had previously been under my care, and immediately recognised me and offered me his paw. His bark was changed and had a slight mixture of the howl, and there was a husky choking noise in the throat. I immediately declared that he was rabid, and with some reluctance on the part of his master, he was left with me. 23d, 8 A. M. The breathing was less quick and laborious. The spasm of the head was no longer visible. The flow of saliva had stopped and there was less delirium. The jaw began to be dependent: the rattling, choking noise in his throat louder. He carried straw about in his mouth. He picked up some pieces of old leather that lay within his reach and carefully concealed them under his bed. Two minutes afterwards he would take them out again, and look at them, and once more hide them. He frequently voided his urine in small quantities, but no longer lapped it. A little dog was lowered into the den, but he took no notice of it. 10 P. M. Every symptom of fever returned with increased violence. He panted very much, and did not remain in the same posture two seconds. He was continually running to the end of his chain and attempting to bite. He was eagerly and wildly watching some imaginary object. His voice was hoarser--more of the howl mixing with it. The lips were distorted, and the tongue very black. He was evidently getting weaker. After two or three attempts to escape, he would sit down for a second, and then rise and plunge to the end of his chain. He drank frequently, yet but little at a time, and that without difficulty or spasm. 12 P. M. The thirst strangely increased. He had drunk or spilled full three quarts of water. There was a peculiar eagerness in his manner. He plunged his nose to the very bottom of his pan, and then snapped at the bubbles which he raised. No spasm followed the drinking. He took two or three pieces from my hand, but immediately dropped them from want of power to hold them. Yet he was able for a moment suddenly to close his jaws. When not drinking he was barking with a harsh sound, and frequently started suddenly, watching, and catching at some imaginary object. 24th, A. M. He was more furious, yet weaker. The thirst was insatiable. He was otherwise diligently employed in shattering and tearing everything within his reach. He died about three o'clock. It is impossible to say what was the origin of this disease in him. It is not connected with any degree or variation of temperature, or any particular state of the atmosphere. It is certainly more frequent in the summer or the beginning of autumn than in the winter or spring, because it is a highly nervous and febrile disease, and the degree of fever, and irritability, and ferocity, and consequent mischief are augmented by increase of temperature. In the great majority of cases, the inoculation can be distinctly proved. In very few can the possibility be denied. The injury is inflicted in an instant. There is no contest, and before the injured party can prepare to retaliate, the rabid dog is far away. It can easily be believed that when a favourite dog has, but for a moment, lagged behind, he may be bitten without the owner's knowledge or suspicion. A spaniel belonging to a lady became rabid. The dog was her companion in her grounds at her country residence, and it was rarely out of her sight except for a few minutes in the morning, when the servant took it out. She was not conscious of its having been bitten, and the servant stoutly denied it. The animal died. A few weeks afterwards the footman was taken ill. He was hydrophobous. In one of his intervals of comparative quietude he confessed that, one morning, his charge had been attacked and rolled over by another dog; that there was no appearance of its having been bitten, but that it had been made sadly dirty, and he had washed it before he suffered it again to go into the drawing-room. The dog that attacked it must have been rabid, and some of his saliva must have remained about the coat of the spaniel, by which the servant was fatally inoculated. Another case of this fearful disease must not be passed over. A dog that had been docile and attached to his master and mistress, was missing one morning, and came home in the evening almost covered with dirt. He slunk to his basket, and would pay no attention to any one. His owners thought it rather strange, and I was sent for in the morning. He was lying on the lap of his mistress, but was frequently shifting his posture, and every now and then he started, as if he heard some strange sound. I immediately told them what was the matter, and besought them to place him in another and secure room. He had been licking both their hands. I was compelled to tell them at once what was the nature of the case, and besought them to send at once for their surgeon. They were perfectly angry at my nonsense, as they called it, and I took my leave, but went immediately to their medical man, and told him what was the real state of the case. He called, as it were accidentally, a little while afterwards, and I was not far behind him. The surgeon did his duty, and they escaped. In May, 1820, I attended on a bitch at Pimlico. She had snapped at the owner, bitten the man-servant and several dogs, was eagerly watching imaginary objects, and had the peculiar rabid howl. I offered her water. She started back with a strange expression of horror, and fell into violent convulsions that lasted about a minute. This was repeated a little while afterwards, and with the same result. She was destroyed. The horrible spasms of the human being at the sight of, or the attempt to swallow, fluids occur sufficiently often to prove the identity of the disease in the biped and the quadruped; but not in one in fifty cases is there, in the dog, the slightest reluctance to liquids, or difficulty in swallowing them. In almost every case in which the dog utters any sound during the disease, there is a manifest change of voice. In the dog labouring under ferocious madness, it is perfectly characteristic. There is no other sound that it resembles. The animal is generally standing, or occasionally sitting, when the singular sound is heard. The muzzle is always elevated. The commencement is that of a perfect bark, ending abruptly and very singularly, in a howl, a fifth, sixth, or eighth higher than at the commencement. Dogs are often enough heard howling, but in this case it is the perfect bark, and the perfect howl rapidly succeeding to the bark. Every sound uttered by the rabid dog is more or less changed. The huntsman, who knows the voice of every dog in his pack, occasionally hears a strange challenge. He immediately finds out that dog, and puts him, as quickly as possible, under confinement. Two or three days may pass over, and there is not another suspicious circumstance about the animal; still he keeps him under quarantine, for long experience has taught him to listen to that warning. At length the disease is manifest in its most fearful form. There is another partial change of voice, to which the ear of the practitioner will, by degrees, become habituated, and which will indicate a change in the state of the animal quite as dangerous as the dismal howl; I mean when there is a hoarse inward bark, with a slight but characteristic elevation of the tone. In other cases, after two or three distinct barks, will come the peculiar one mingled with the howl. Both of them will terminate fatally, and in both of them the rabid howl cannot possibly be mistaken. There is a singular brightness in the eye of the rabid dog, but it does not last more than two or three days. It then becomes dull and wasted; a cloudiness steals over the conjunctiva, which changes to a yellow tinge, and then to a dark green, indicative of ulceration deeply seated within the eye. In eight and forty hours from the first clouding of the eye, it becomes one disorganised mass. There is in the rabid dog a strange embarrassment of general sensibility--a seemingly total loss of feeling. Absence of pain in the bitten part is an almost invariable accompaniment of rabies. I have known a dog set to work, and gnaw and tear the flesh completely away from his legs and feet. At other times the penis is perfectly demolished from the very base. Ellis in his "Shepherd's Sure Guide," asserts, that, however severely a mad dog is beaten, a cry is never forced from him. I am certain of the truth of this, for I have again and again failed in extracting that cry. Ellis tells that at the kennel at Goddesden, some of the grooms heated a poker red hot, and holding it near the mad hound's mouth, he most greedily seized it, and kept it until the mouth was most dreadfully burned. In the great majority of cases of furious madness, and in almost every case of dumb madness, there is evident affection of the lumbar portion of the spinal cord. There is a staggering gait, not indicative of general weakness, but referable to the hind quarters alone, and indicating an affection of the lumbar motor nerve. In a few cases it approaches more to a general paralytic affection. In the very earliest period of rabies, the person accustomed to dogs will detect the existence of the disease. The animal follows the flight, as has been already stated, of various imaginary objects. I have often watched the changing countenance of the rabid dog when he has been lost to every surrounding object. I have seen the brightening countenance and the wagging tail as some pleasing vision has passed before him; but, oftener has the countenance indicated the mingled dislike and fear with which the intruder was regarded. As soon as the phantom came within the proper distance he darted on it with true rabid violence. A spaniel, seemingly at play, snapped, in the morning, at the feet of several persons. In the evening he bit his master, his master's friend, and another dog. The old habits of obedience and affection then returned. His master, most strangely, did not suspect the truth, and brought the animal to me to be examined. The animal was, as I had often seen him, perfectly docile and eager to be caressed. At my suggestion, or rather entreaty, he was left with me. On the following morning the disease was plain enough, and on the following day he died. A post-mortem examination took place, and proved that he was unequivocally rabid. A lady would nurse her dog, after I had declared it to be rabid, and when he was dangerous to every one but herself, and even to her from the saliva which he plentifully scattered about. At length he darted at every one that entered the room, until a footman keeping the animal at bay with the poker, the husband of the lady dragged her from the room. The noise that the dog made was then terrific, and he almost gnawed his way through the door. At midnight his violence nearly ceased, and the door was partially opened. He was staggering and falling about, with every limb violently agitated. At the entreaty of the lady, a servant ventured in to make a kind of bed for him. The dog suddenly darted at him, and dropped and died. A terrier, ten years old, had been ill, and refused all food for three days. On the fourth day he bit a cat of which he had been unusually fond, and he likewise bit three dogs. I was requested to see him. I found him loose in the kitchen, and at first refused to go in, but, after observing him for a minute or two, I thought that I might venture. He had a peculiarly wild and eager look, and turned sharply round at the least noise. He often watched the flight of some imaginary object, and pursued with the utmost fury every fly that he saw. He searchingly sniffed about the room, and examined my legs with an eagerness that made me absolutely tremble. His quarrel with the cat had been made up, and when he was not otherwise employed he was eagerly licking her and her kittens. In the excess or derangement of his fondness, he fairly rolled them from one end of the kitchen to another. With difficulty I induced his master to permit me to destroy him. It is not every dog, that in the most aggravated state of the disease shows a disposition to bite. The finest Newfoundland dog that I ever saw became rabid. He had been bitten by a cur, and was supposed to have been thoroughly examined in the country. No wound, however, was found: the circumstance was almost forgotten, and he came up to the metropolis with his master. He became dull, disinclined to play, and refused all food. He was continually watching imaginary objects, but he did not snap at them. There was no howl, nor any disposition to bite. He offered himself to be caressed, and he was not satisfied except he was shaken by the paw. On the second day I saw him. He watched every passing object with peculiar anxiety, and followed with deep attention the motions of a horse, his old acquaintance; but he made no effort to escape, nor evinced any disposition to do mischief. I went to him, and patted and coaxed him, and he told me as plainly as looks and actions, and a somewhat deepened whine could express it, how much he was gratified. I saw him on the third day. He was evidently dying. He could not crawl even to the door of his temporary kennel; but he pushed forward his paw a little way, and, as I shook it, I felt the tetanic muscular action which accompanies the departure of life. On the other hand there are rabid dogs whose ferocity knows no bounds. If they are threatened with a stick, they fly at, and seize it, and furiously shake it. They are incessantly employed in darting to the end of their chain, and attempting to crush it with their teeth, and tearing to pieces their kennel, or the wood work that is within their reach. They are regardless of pain. The canine teeth, the incisor teeth are torn away; yet, unwearied and insensible to suffering, they continue their efforts to escape. A dog was chained near a kitchen fire. He was incessant in his endeavours to escape, and, when he found that he could not effect it, he seized, in his impotent rage, the burning coals as they fell, and crushed them with his teeth. If by chance a dog in this state effects his escape, he wanders over the country bent on destruction. He attacks both the quadruped and the biped. He seeks the village street, or the more crowded one of the town, and he suffers no dog to escape him. The horse is his frequent prey, and the human being is not always safe from his attack. A rabid dog running down Park-lane, in 1825, bit no fewer than five horses, and fully as many dogs. He was seen to steal treacherously upon some of his victims, and inflict the fatal wound. Sometimes he seeks the more distant pasturage. He gets among the sheep, and more than forty have been fatally inoculated in one night. A rabid dog attacked a herd of cows, and five-and-twenty of them fell victims. In July, 1813, a mad dog broke into the menagerie of the Duchess of York, at Oatlands, and although the palisades that divided the different compartments of the menagerie were full six feet in height, and difficult, or apparently almost impossible to climb, he was found asleep in one of them, and it was clearly ascertained that he had bitten at least ten of the dogs. At length the rabid dog becomes completely exhausted, and slowly reels along the road with his tail depressed, seemingly half unconscious of surrounding objects. His open mouth, and protruding and blackened tongue, and rolling gait sufficiently characterise him. He creeps into some sheltered place and then he sleeps twelve hours or more. It is dangerous to disturb his slumbers, for his desire to do mischief immediately returns, and the slightest touch, or attempt to caress him, is repaid by a fatal wound. This should be a caution never to meddle with a sleeping dog in a way-side house, and, indeed, never to disturb him anywhere. In an early period of the disease in some dogs, and in others when the strength of the animal is nearly worn away, a peculiar paralysis of the muscles of the tongue and jaws is seen. The mouth is partially open, and the tongue protruding. In some cases the dog is able to close his mouth by a sudden and violent effort, and is as ferocious and as dangerous as one the muscles of whose face are unaffected. At other times the palsy is complete, and the animal is unable to close his mouth or retract his tongue. These latter cases, however, are rare. A dog must not be immediately condemned because he has this open mouth and fixed jaw. Bones constitute a frequent and a considerable portion of the food of dogs. In the eagerness with which these bones are crushed, spicula or large pieces of them become wedged between the molar teeth, and form an inseparable obstacle to the closing of the teeth. The tongue partially protrudes. There is a constant discharge of saliva from the mouth, far greater than when the true paralysis exists. The dog is continually fighting at the corners of his mouth, and the countenance is expressive of intense anxiety, although not of the same irritable character as in rabies. I was once requested to meet a medical gentleman in consultation respecting a supposed case of rabies. There was protrusion and discoloration of the tongue, and fighting at the corners of the mouth, and intense anxiety of countenance. He had been in this state for four-and-twenty hours. This was a case in which I should possibly have been deceived had it been the first dog that I had seen with dumb madness. After having tested a little the ferocity or manageableness of the animal, I passed my hand along the outside of the jaws, and felt a bone wedged between two of the grinders. The forceps soon set all right with him. It is time to inquire more strictly into the post-mortem appearances of rabies in the dog. In dumb madness the unfailing accompaniment is, to a greater or less degree, paralysis of the muscles of the lower jaw, and the tongue is discoloured and swollen, and hanging from the mouth; more blood than usual also is deposited in the anterior and inferior portion of it. Its colour varies from a dark red to a dingy purple, or almost black. In ferocious madness it is usually torn and bruised, or it is discoloured by the dirt and filth with which it has been brought into contact, and, not unfrequently, its anterior portion is coated with some disgusting matter. The papillae, or small projections on the back of the tongue, are elongated and widened, and their mucous covering evidently reddened. The orifices of the glands of the tongue are frequently enlarged, particularly as they run their course along the froenum of the tongue. The fauces, situated at the posterior part of the mouth, generally exhibit traces of inflammation. They appear in the majority of cases of ferocious madness, and they are never deficient after dumb madness. They are usually most intense either towards the palatine arch or the larynx. Sometimes an inflammatory character is diffused through its whole extent, but occasionally it is more or less intense towards one or both of the terminations of the fauces, while the intermediate portion retains nearly its healthy hue. There is one circumstance of not unfrequent occurrence, which will at once decide the case--the presence of indigestible matter, probably small in quantity, in the back part of the mouth. This speaks volumes as to the depraved appetite of the patient, and the loss of power in the muscles of the pharynx. Little will depend on the tonsils of the throat. They occasionally enlarge to more than double their usual size; but this is more in quiet than in ferocious madness. The insatiable thirst of the rabid dog is perhaps connected with this condition of them. The epiglottis should be very carefully observed. It is more or less injected in every case of rabies. Numerous vessels increase in size and multiply round its edge, and there is considerable injection and thickening. Inflammation of the edges of the glottis, and particularly of the membrane which covers its margin, is often seen, and accounts for the harsh guttural breathing which frequently accompanies dumb madness. The inflammatory blush of the larynx, though often existing in a very slight degree, deserves considerable attention. The appearances in the trachea are very uncertain. There is occasionally the greatest intensity of inflammation through the whole of it; at other times there is not the slightest appearance of it. There is the same uncertainty with regard to the bronchial tubes and the lungs; but there is no characteristic symptom or lesion in the lungs. Great stress has been laid on the appearance of the heart; but, generally speaking, in nine cases out of ten, the heart of the rabid dog will exhibit no other symptoms of disease than an increased yet variable deepness of colour in the lining membrane of the ventricles. No dependence can be placed on any of the appearances of the oesophagus; and, when they are at the worst, the inflammation occupies only a portion of that tube. With regard to the interior of the stomach, if the dog has been dead only a few hours the true inflammatory blush will remain. If four-and-twenty hours have elapsed, the bright red colour will have changed to a darker red, or a violet or a brownish hue. In a few hours after this, a process of corrosion will generally commence, and the mucous membrane will be softened and rendered thinner, and, to a certain extent, eaten through. The examiner, however, must not attribute that to disease which is the natural process of the cession of life. Much attention should be paid to the appearance of the stomach and its contents. If it contains a strange mingled mass of hair, and hay, and straw, and horse-dung, and earth, or portions of the bed on which the dog had lain, we should seldom err if we affirmed that he died rabid; for it is only under the influence of the depraved appetite of rabies that such substances are devoured. It is not the presence of every kind of extraneous substance that will be satisfactory: pieces of coal, or wood, or even the filthiest matter, will not justify us in pronouncing the animal to be rabid; it is that peculiarly mingled mass of straw, and hair, and filth of various kinds, that must indicate the existence of rabies. When there are no solid indigesta, but a fluid composed principally of vitiated bile or extravasated blood, there will be a strong indication of the presence of rabies. When, also, there are in the duodenum and jejunum small portions of indigesta, the detection of the least quantity will be decisive. The remainder has been ejected by vomit; and inquiry should be made of the nature of the matter that has been discharged. The inflammation of rabies is of a peculiar character in the stomach. It is generally confined to the summits of the folds of the stomach, or it is most intense there. On the summits of the rugae there are effusions of bloody matter, or spots of ecchymosis, presenting an appearance almost like crushed black currants. There may be only a few of them; but they are indications of the evil that has been effected. From appearances that present themselves in the intestines, the bladder, the blood-vessels, or the brain, no conclusion can be drawn; they are simply indications of inflammation. We now rapidly, and for a little while, retrace our steps. What is the cause of this fatal disease, that has so long occupied our attention? It is the saliva of a rabid animal received into a wound, or on an abraded surface. In horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and the human being, it is caused by inoculation alone; but, according to some persons, it is produced spontaneously in other animals. I will suppose that a wound by a rabid dog is inflicted. The virus is deposited on or near its surface, and there it remains for a certain indefinite period of time. The wound generally heals up kindly; in fact, it differs in no respect from a similar wound inflicted by the teeth of an animal in perfect health. Weeks and months, in some cases, pass on, and there is nothing to indicate danger, until a degree of itching in the cicatrix of the wound is felt. From its long-continued presence as a foreign body, it may have rendered the tissue, or nervous fibre connected with it, irritable and susceptible of impression, or it may have attracted and assimilated to itself certain elements, and rabies is produced. The virus does not appear to have the same effect on every animal. Of four dogs bitten by, or inoculated from, one that is rabid, three, perhaps, would display every symptom of the disease. Of four human beings, not more than one would become rabid. John Hunter used to say not more than one in twenty; but that is probably erroneous. Cattle appear to have a greater chance of escape, and sheep a still greater chance. The time of incubation is different in different animals. With regard to the human being, there are various strange and contradictory stories. Some have asserted that it has appeared on the very day on which the bite was inflicted, or within two or three days of that time. Dr. Bardsley, on the other hand, relates a case in which twelve years elapsed between the bite and the disease. If the virus may lurk so long as this in the constitution, it is a most lamentable affair. According to one account, more than thirty years intervened. The usual time extends from three weeks to six or seven months. In the dog I have never seen a case in which plain and palpable rabies occurred in less than fourteen days after the bite. The average time I should calculate at five or six weeks. In three months I should consider the animal as tolerably safe. I am, however, relating my own experience, and have known but two instances in which the period much exceeded three months. In one of these five months elapsed, and the other did not become affected until after the expiration of the seventh month. The quality and the quantity of the virus may have something to do with this, and so may the predisposition in the bitten animal to be affected by the poison. If it is connected with oestrum, the bitch will probably become a disgusting, as well as dangerous animal; if with parturition, there is a strange perversion of maternal affection--she is incessantly and violently licking her young, continually shifting them from place to place; and, in less than four-and-twenty hours, they will be destroyed by the reckless manner in which they are treated. In both cases the development of the disease seems to wait on the completion of her time of pregnancy. It appears in the space of two months after the bite, if her parturition is near at hand, or it is delayed for double that time, if the period of labour is so far distant. The duration of the disease is different in different animals. In man it has run its course in twenty-four hours, and rarely exceeds seventy-two. In the horse from three to four days; in the sheep and ox from five to seven; and in the dog from four to six. Of the real nature of the rabid virus, we know but little. It has never been analysed, and it would be a difficult process to analyse it. It is not diffused by the air, nor communicated by the breath, nor even by actual contact, if the skin is sound. It must be received into a wound. It must come in contact with some tissue or nervous fibre, and lie dormant there for a considerable, but uncertain period. The absorbents remove everything around; whatever else is useless, or would he injurious, is taken away, but this strange substance is unchanged. It does not enter into the circulation, for there it would undergo some modification and change, or would be rejected. It lies for a time absolutely dormant, and far longer than any other known poison; but, at length, the tissue on which it has lain begins to render it somewhat sensible, and assimilates to itself certain elements. The cicatrix begins to be painful, and inflammation spreads around. The absorbents are called into more powerful action; they begin to attack the virus itself, and a portion of it is taken up, and carried into the circulation, and acquires the property of assimilating other secretions to its own nature, or it is determined to one of the secretions only; it alters the character of that secretion, envenoms it, and gives it the power of propagating the disease. Something like this is the history of many animal poisons. In variola and the vaccine disease the poison is determined to the skin, in glanders to the Schneiderian membrane, and in farcy to the superficial absorbents. Each in its turn becomes the depot of the poison. So it is with the salivary glands of the rabid animal; in them it is formed, or to them it is determined, and from them, and them alone, it is communicated to other animals. Professor Dick, in his valuable Manual of Veterinary Science, states some peculiar views, and those highly interesting, respecting the disease of rabies. He holds it to be essentially an inflammatory affection, attacking peculiarly the mucous membrane of the nose, and extending thence through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bones to the interior part of the brain, and so giving rise to a derangement of the nervous system as a necessary consequence. This train of symptoms constitutes mainly, if not wholly, the essence of an occasional epidemic not unlike some forms of influenza or epizootic disease, and the bite of a rabid animal is not always, to an animal so bitten, the exciting cause of the disease, but merely an accidental concomitant in the prevailing disorder. Also the disease hydrophobia, produced in man, is not always the result of any poison introduced into his system, but merely the melancholy, and often fatal result of panic fear, and of the disordered slate of the imagination. Those who are acquainted with the effects of sympathy, and imitation, and panic, in the production of nervous disorders, will readily apprehend the meaning of the Professor. Some of these diseases speedily run their course and exhaust themselves. Cowpox and farcy, in many instances, have this character. Perhaps, to a certain degree, this may be affirmed of all of them. I have seen cases, which I could not mistake, in which the symptoms of rabies were one after another developed. The dog was plainly and undeniably rabid, and I had given him up as lost; but, after a certain period, the symptoms began to be less distinct; they gradually disappeared, and the animal returned to perfect health. This may have formed one ground of belief in the power of certain medicines, and most assuredly it gives encouragement to perseverance in the use of remedial measures. It has then been proved, and I hope demonstratively, that rabies is propagated by inoculation. It has also been established that although every animal labouring under this disease is capable of communicating it, yet, with very few exceptions, it can be traced to the bite of the dog. It has still further been shown that the malady, generally appears at some period between the third and seventh month from the time of inoculation. At the expiration of the eighth month, the animal may be considered to be safe; for there is only one acknowledged case on record, in which the disease appeared in the dog after the seventh month from the bite had passed. Then it would appear that if a species of quarantine could be established, and every dog confined separately for eight months, the disease would be annihilated in our country, or could only reappear in consequence of the importation of some infected animal. Such a course of proceeding, however, could never be enforced either in the sporting world or among the peasantry. Other measures, however, might be resorted to in order to lessen the devastations of this malady; and that which first presents itself to the mind as a powerful cause of rabies is the number of useless and dangerous dogs that are kept in the country for the most nefarious and, in the neighbourhood of considerable towns, the most brutal purposes; without the slightest hesitation, I will affirm that rabies is propagated, nineteen times out of twenty, by the cur and the lurcher in the country, and the fighting-dog in towns. A tax should be laid on every useless dog, and doubly or trebly heavier than on the sporting-dog. No dog except the shepherd's should be exempt from this tax, unless, perhaps, it is the truck-dog, and his owner should be compelled to take out a license; to have his name in large letters on his cart; and he should be heavily fined if the animal is found loose in the streets, or if he is used for fighting. The disease is rarely propagated by petted and house-dogs They are little exposed to the danger of inoculation; yet, we pity, or almost detest, the folly of those by whom their favourites are indulged, and spoiled even more than their children. We will now suppose that a person has had the misfortune to be bitten by a rabid dog: what course is he to pursue? What preventive means are to be adopted? Some persons, and of no mean standing in the medical world, have recommended a ligature. The reply would be, that this ligature must be worn during a very inconvenient and dangerous period of time. The virus lies in the wound inert during many successive weeks and months. Dr. Haygarth first suggested that a long-continued stream of warm water should be poured upon the wound from the mouth of a kettle. He says that the poison exists in a fluid form, and therefore we should suppose that water would be its natural solvent. Dr. Massey adds to this, that if the wound is small, it should be dilated, in order that the stream may descend on the part on which the poison is deposited. We are far, however, from being certain that this falling of water on the part, may not by possibility force a portion of the virus farther into the texture, or cause it to be entangled with other parts of the wound. [2] There is a similar or stronger objection to the cupping-glass of Dr. Barry. The virus, forced from the texture with which it lies in contact by the rush of blood from the substance beneath, is too likely to inoculate, or become entangled with, other parts of the wound. There is great objection to suction of the wound; for, in addition to this possible entanglement, the lips, or the mouth, may have been abraded, and thus the danger considerably aggravated. There also remains the undecided question as to the absorption of the virus through the medium of a mucous surface. Excision of the part is the mode of prevention usually adopted by the human surgeon, and to a certain extent it is a judicious practice. If the virus is not received into the circulation, but lies dormant in the wound for a considerable time, the disease cannot supervene if the inoculated part is destroyed. This operation, however, demands greater skill and tact than is generally supposed. It requires a determination fully to accomplish the desired object; for every portion of the wound with which the tooth could possibly have come into contact, must be removed. This is often exceedingly difficult to accomplish, on account of the situation and direction of the wound. The knife must not enter the wound, or it will be likely to be itself empoisoned, and then the mischief and the danger will be increased instead of removed. Dr. Massey was convinced of the impropriety of this when he advised that, "should the knife by chance enter the wound that had been made by the dog's tooth, the operation should be recommenced with a clean knife, otherwise the sound parts will become inoculated." If the incision is made freely and properly round the wound, and does not penetrate into it, yet the blood will follow the knife, and a portion of it will enter into the wound caused by the dog, and will come in contact with the virus, and will probably be contaminated, and will then overflow the original wound, and will be received into the new incision, and will carry with it the seeds of disease and death: therefore it is, that scarcely a year passes without some lamentable instances of the failure of incisions. It has occurred in the practice of the most eminent surgeons, and seems scarcely or not all to impeach the skill of the operator. Aware of this, there are very few human practitioners who do not use the caustic after the knife. Every portion of the new wound is submitted to its influence. They do not consider the patient to be safe without this second operation. But has the question never occurred to them, that if the caustic is necessary to give security to the operation by incision, the knife might have been spared, and the caustic alone used? The veterinary surgeon, when operating on the horse, or cattle, or the dog, frequently has recourse to the actual cautery. I could, perhaps, excuse this practice, although I would not adopt it, in superficial wounds; but I do not know the instrument that could be safely used in deeper ones. If it were sufficiently small to adapt itself to the tortuous course of little wounds, it would be cooled and inert before it could have destroyed the lower portions of them. If it were of sufficient substance long to retain the heat, it would make a large and fearful chasm, and probably interfere with the future usefulness of the animal. The result of the cases in which the cautery has been used proves that in too many instances it is an inefficient protection. The rabid dog in Park Lane has already been mentioned. He bit several horses before he could be destroyed. Caustic was applied to one of them, and the hot iron to the others. The first was saved, almost all the others were lost. A similar case occurred last spring; the caustic was an efficacious preventive; the cautery was perfectly useless. What caustic then should be applied? Certainly not that to which the surgeon usually has recourse--a liquid one. Certainly not one that speedily deliquesces; for they are both unmanageable, and, what is a more important consideration, they may hold in solution, and not decompose the poison, and thus inoculate the whole of the wound. The application which promises to be successful, is that of the 'lunar caustic'. It is perfectly manageable, and, being sharpened to a point, may be applied with certainty to every recess and sinuosity of the wound. Potash and nitric acid form a caustic which will destroy the substances with which they come in contact, but the combination of this caustic and the animal fibre will be a soft or semi-fluid mass. In this the virus is suspended, and with this it lies or may be precipitated upon the living fibre beneath. Then there is danger of re-inoculation; and it would seem that this fatal process is often accomplished. The eschar formed by the lunar caustic is dry, hard, and insoluble. If the whole of the wound has been fairly exposed to its action, an insoluble compound of animal fibre and the metallic salt is produced, in which the virus is wrapped up, and from which it cannot be separated. In a short time the dead matter sloughs away, and the virus is thrown off with it. Previous to applying the caustic it will sometimes be necessary to enlarge the wound, in order that every part may be fairly got at; and the eschar having sloughed off, it will always be prudent to apply the caustic a second time, but more slightly, in order to destroy any part that may not have received the full influence of the first operation, or that, by possibility, might have been inoculated during the operation. Mr. Smerdon, in the Medical and Physical Journal, March 1820, thus reasons: "All the morbid poisons that require to lie dormant a certain time before their effects are manifested, pass into the system through the medium of the absorbents," (we somewhat differ from Mr. Smerdon here, but his reasoning is equally applicable to the nervous system,) "and if the absorbents are excited, their action is increased. I am satisfied that even in a venereal sore the application of a caustic, instead of destroying the disease, causes its rapid extension. Then," asks he, "if the virus on a small venereal sore is rendered more active by the caustic, is it not highly probable that the same law holds good with respect to the poison of rabies?" The sooner the caustic is applied the better; but I should not hesitate to have recourse to it even after the constitution has become affected. It is related in the Medico-Chirurgical Annals of Altenburg (Sept. 1821), that two men were bitten by a rabid dog. One became hydrophobous and died; the other had evident symptoms of hydrophobia a few days afterwards. A surgeon excised the bitten part, and the disease disappeared. After a period of six days the symptoms returned. The wound was examined; considerable fungus was found sprouting from its bottom. This was extirpated. The hydrophobia symptoms were again removed, and the man did well. This is a most instructive case. In the Journal Pratique de Médecine Vétérinaire, M. Damalix gives an interesting account of the effect of a bite of a rabid dog on a horse. On the 8th of July, 1828, a fowl-merchant, proceeding to the market of Colmar, was attacked by a dog, who, after some fruitless efforts to get into the cart, bit the horse on the left side of the face, and fled precipitately. A veterinary surgeon was sent for, who applied the cautery to the horse, gave him some populeum ointment, and bled him. Everything appeared to go on well, and on the 16th the wounds were healed. On the 25th a great alteration took place. The horse was careless and slow; he sometimes refused to go at all, and would not attend in the least to the whip, which had never occurred before. In the evening the wounds opened spontaneously, an ichorous and infectious pus run from them; there was salivation and utter loss of appetite: strange fancies seemed to possess him; he showed a desire to bite his master. The veterinary surgeon might approach him with safety; but the moment his owner or the children appeared, he darted at them, and would have torn them in pieces. The disease now took on the appearance of acute glanders; livid and fungous wounds broke out; the stable was saturated with an infectious smell, the horse refused his food, or was unable to eat. The mayor at last interfered, and the animal was destroyed. In the Treatises on The Horse, Cattle, and Sheep, in former volumes, accounts are fully given of this dreadful malady in these animals. It may not be uninteresting to give a hasty sketch of it in some of the inferior classes. 'Rabies in the Rabbit.'--I very much regret that I never instituted a course of experiments on the production and treatment of rabies in this animal. It would have been attended with little expense or danger, and some important discoveries might have been made. Mr. Earle, in a case in which he was much interested, inoculated two rabbits with the saliva of a dog that had died rabid. They were punctured at the root of the ears. One of the rabbits speedily became inflamed about the ears, and the ears were paralysed in both rabbits. The head swelled very much, and extensive inflammation took place around the part where the virus was inserted. One of them died without exhibiting any of the usual symptoms of the disease; the other, after a long convalescence, survived, and eventually recovered the use of his ears. Mr. Earle very properly doubted whether this was a case of rabies. Dr. Capello describes, but in not so satisfactory a manner as could be wished, a case of supposed rabies in one of these animals. A rabbit and a dog lived together in a family. They were strange associates; but such friendships are not unfrequent among animals. The dog became rabid, and died. A man bitten by that dog became hydrophobous, and died. No one dreamed of the rabbit being in danger, and he ran about the house as usual; but, one day, he found his way to the chamber of the mistress of the house, with a great deal of viscid saliva running from his mouth, furiously attacked her, and left the marks of his violence on her leg. He then ran into a neighbouring stable, and bit the hind-legs of a horse several times. Finally, he retreated to a corner of the stable, and was there found dead. Neither the lady nor the horse eventually suffered. 'Rabies in the Guinea-pig'.--A man suspected of being hydrophobous was taken to the Middlesex Hospital. He was examined before several of the medical students; one of whom, in order to make more sure of the affair, inoculated a guinea-pig with the saliva taken from the man's mouth. The guinea-pig had been usually very playful, and fond of being noticed; but, on the eleventh day after this inoculation, he began to be dull and sullen, retiring into his house, and hiding himself as much as he could in a corner. On the following day he became out of temper, and even ferocious in his way; he bit at everything that was presented to him, gnawed his cage, and made the most determined efforts to escape. Once or twice his violence induced convulsions of his whole frame; and they might be produced at pleasure by dashing a little water at him. In the course of the night following he died. 'Rabies in the Cat'.--Fortunately for us, this does not often occur; for a mad cat is a truly ferocious animal. I have seen two cases, one of them to my cost; yet, I am unable to give any satisfactory account of the progress of the disease. The first stage seems to be one of sullenness, and which would probably last to death; but from that sullenness it is dangerous to rouse the animal. It probably would not, except in the paroxysm of rage, attack any one; but during that paroxysm it knows no fear, nor has its ferocity any bounds. A cat, that had been the inhabitant of a nursery, and the playmate of the children, had all at once become sullen and ill-tempered. It had taken refuge in an upper room, and could not be coaxed from the corner in which it had crouched. It was nearly dark when I went. I saw the horrible glare of her eyes, but I could not see so much of her as I wished, and I said that I would call again in the morning. I found the patient, on the following day, precisely in the same situation and the same attitude, crouched up in a corner, and ready to spring. I was very much interested in the case; and as I wanted to study the countenance of this demon, for she looked like one, I was foolishly, inexcusably imprudent. I went on my hands and knees, and brought my face nearly on a level with hers, and gazed on those glaring eyes, and that horrible countenance, until I seemed to feel the deathly influence of a spell stealing over me. I was not afraid, but every mental and bodily power was in a manner suspended. My countenance, perhaps, alarmed her, for she sprang on me, fastened herself on my face, and bit through both my lips. She then darted down stairs, and, I believe, was never seen again. I always have nitrate of silver in my pocket, even now I am never without it; I washed myself, and applied the caustic with some severity to the wound; and my medical adviser and valued friend, Mr. Millington, punished me still more after I got home. My object was attained, although at somewhat too much cost, for the expression of that brute's countenance will never be forgotten. The later symptoms of rabies in this animal, no one, perhaps, has had the opportunity of observing: we witness only the sullenness and the ferocity. 'Rabies in the Fowl'.--Dr. Ashburner and Mr. King inoculated a hen with the saliva from a rabid cow. They made two incisions through the integument, under the wings, and then well rubbed into these cuts the foam taken from the cow's mouth. She was after this let loose among other fowls in the poultry-yard. The incisions soon healed, and their places could with difficulty be discovered. Ten weeks passed over, when she was observed to refuse her food, and to run at the other fowls. She had a strange wild appearance, and her eyes were blood-shot. Early on the following morning her legs became contracted, so that she very soon lost the power of standing upright. She remained sitting a long time, with the legs rigid, refusing food and water, and appearing very irritable when touched. She died in the evening, immediately after drinking a large quantity of water which had been offered to her. 'Rabies in the Badger'.--Hufeland, in his valuable Journal of Practical Medicine, relates a case of a rabid female badger attacking two boys. She bit them both, but she fastened on the thigh of one of them, and was destroyed in the act of sucking his blood. The poor fellow died hydrophobous, but the other escaped. This fact, certainly, gives us no idea of the general character of the disease in this animal; but it speaks volumes as to its ferocity. 'Rabies in the Wolf'.--Rabies is ushered in by nearly the same symptoms, and pursues the same course in the wolf us in the dog, with this difference, which would be readily expected, that his ferocity and the mischief which he accomplishes are much greater. The dog hunts out his own species, and his fury is principally directed against them; although, if he meets with a flock of sheep, or a herd of cattle, he readily attacks them, and, perhaps, bites the greater part of them. The dog, however, frequently turns out of his way to avoid the human being, and seldom attacks him without provocation. The wolf, on the contrary, although he commits fearful ravages among the sheep and cattle, searches out the human being as his favorite prey. He conceals himself near the entrance to the village, and steals upon and wounds every passenger that he can get at. There are several accounts of more than twenty persons having been bitten by one wolf; and there is a fearful history of sixteen persons perishing from the bite of one of these animals. This is in perfect agreement with the account which I have given of the connexion between the previous temper and habits of the rabid dog, and the mischief that he effects under the influence of this malady. The wolf, as he wanders in the forest, regards the human being as his persecutor and foe; and, in the paroxysm of rabid fury, he is most eager to avenge himself on his natural enemy. Strange stories are told of the arts to which he has recourse in order to accomplish his purpose. In the great majority of cases he steals unawares upon his victim, and the mischief is effected before the wood-cutter or the villager is conscious of his danger. The following observations and experiments respecting rabies, by Dr. Hertwich, Professor at the Veterinary School at Berlin, are well worthy of attention. 1. Out of fifty dogs that had been inoculated with virus taken from a rabid animal of the same species, fourteen only were infected. 2. In the cases where inoculation had been practised without effect, no reason could be assigned why the disease should not have taken place. This consequently proves that the malady is similar to others of a contagious nature, and that there must exist a predisposition in the individual to receive the disease before it can occur. In one experiment, a mastiff dog, aged four years, was inoculated without exhibiting any symptoms of the malady, while seven others, who had been inoculated at the same time and place, soon became rabid. Several of these animals had been inoculated several times before any symptoms showed themselves, while in others, on the contrary, once was sufficient. 3. It appears that in a state of doubtful rabies, one or two accidental or artificial inoculations are not sufficient to create a negative proof of its existence. 4. This disease has never ben communicated to an individual from one infected by means of the perspirable matter; this, therefore, is a proof that the contagious part of the disease is not of a volatile nature. 5. It does not only exist in the saliva and the mucus of the mouth, but likewise in the blood and the parenchyma of the salivary glands; but not in the pulpy substance of the nerves. 6. The power of communicating infection is found to exist in all stages of the confirmed disease, even twenty-four hours after the decease of the rabid animal. 7. The morbid virus, when administered internally, appears to be incapable of communicating this disease; inasmuch as of twenty dogs to whom was given a certain quantity, not one exhibited the least symptom of rabies. 8. The application of the saliva upon recent wounds appears to have been as often succeeded by confirmed rabies as when the dog had been bitten by a rabid animal. 9. It cannot now be doubled that the disease is produced by the wound itself, as was supposed by M. Girard of Lyons, not by the fright of the individual, according to the opinion of others, but only from the absorption of the morbid virus from its surface. 10. Several experiments have proved to me the little reliance there is to be placed on the opinions of Baden and Capello, who believe that, in those dogs who become rabid after the bite of an animal previously attacked with this disease, the contagious properties of the saliva is not continued, but only exists in those primarily bitten. 11. During the period of incubation of the virus there are no morbid, local, or general alterations of structure or function to be seen in the infected animal; neither are there any vesicles to be perceived on the inferior surface of the tongue, nor any previous symptoms which are found in other contagious diseases. 12. This disease is generally at its height at the end of fifty days after either artificial or accidental inoculation; and the author has never known it to manifest itself at a later period. 13. It is quite an erroneous idea to suppose that dogs in a state of health are enabled to distinguish, at first sight, a rabid animal, inasmuch as they never refuse their food when mixed with the secretions of those infected. [3] The following singular trial respecting the death of a child by hydrophobia is worth quoting: 'Jones v. Parry.'--The plaintiff is a labourer, who gets only fourteen shillings a week to support himself and his family. The defendant is his neighbour, and keeps a public-house. This was an action brought by the plaintiff to recover damages against the defendant for the loss of his son, who was bitten by the defendant's dog, and afterwards became affected with rabies, of which disease he died. It appeared in the evidence that the defendant's dog had, some time ago, been bitten by another dog; in consequence of which this dog was tied in the cellar, but the length of the rope which was allowed him enabled him to go to a considerable distance. The plaintiff's child knew the dog, having often played with him when he was at large. Some time ago the child crossed the street, near to the place where the dog was fastened, who rushed out of the place in which he was confined to where the child stood, sprung upon him, and bit him sadly in the face, and afterwards violently shook him. The child being thus wounded, a surgeon was sent for, who, after having dressed him, and attended him for a certain time, gave directions that he should be taken to the sea-side, and bathed in the salt water. This having been continued for some time, the child was brought home, and, at the expiration of a month from the day on which he was bitten, became evidently and strangely ill. The surgeon proved beyond all shadow of doubt thai the child laboured under rabies; that he had the never-failing symptoms of that dreadful affliction; and that a little while before he expired, he even barked like a dog. The surgeon's charge to the father for his attendance was'£1. 6s. 6d.', which, together with the charge of the undertaker for the funeral of the child, amounted to between six and seven pounds. Application was made to the defendant to defray this expense, which at first he expressed a willingness to comply with, but afterwards refused; upon which this action was brought. After some time the defendant offered to pay the plaintiff the sum of '£6. 3s. 6d.', and the expense of the funeral and the surgeon, provided the plaintiff would bear the expenses of the lawsuit, which he was not in a condition to do, as probably it would amount to more than that money. On this account, therefore, the action was now brought into court. There was no proof that the defendant knew or suspected his dog to be mad, previously to his attacking the boy; but an animal known to have been bitten by a mad dog, ought either to have been at once destroyed, or so secured that it was impossible for him to do mischief. Lord Kenyon observed to the jury, that this was one of those causes which came home to the feelings of all, yet must not be carried farther than justice demanded. A cause like this never, perhaps, before occurred in a court of justice; but there had been many resembling it in point of principle. If a dog, known to be ill-tempered and vicious, did any person an injury without provocation, there could be no question that the owner of the dog was answerable, in a court of justice, for the injury inflicted. Here was a worse case. The dog by whom the child was bitten had been attacked by another that was undeniably rabid. His master was aware of this, and placed him in a state of partial confinement--a confinement so lax, and so inefficient, that this poor child had broken through it, and was bitten and died. What other people would have done in such a situation he could not tell; but, if he were asked what he would do, he answered, he certainly would kill the dog, however much of a favourite he had been, because no atonement was within the reach of his fortune to make to the injured party for such a dreadful visitation of Providence as this. It was not enough for the owner of such a dog to say, he took precaution to prevent mischief: he ought to have made it impossible that mischief could happen; and, therefore, as soon as there was any reasonable suspicion that the dog was rabid, he ought to have destroyed him. But, if the owner wished to save the animal, until he was satisfied of the actual state of the case, he ought to have secured him, so that every individual might be safe. Whether the defendant thought he had done all that was necessary, his lordship did not know; but this he knew, that the dog was not perfectly secured, otherwise this misfortune could not have happened. The care which the defendant took in this case was not enough, and, therefore, he had no doubt that this action was maintainable. The jury would judge what damages they ought to give. He would refer this to their feelings. They could not avoid commiserating the distress of the family of this poor man. He should, however, observe to the jury, that they must not give vindictive damages; but still he did not think that damages merely to the amount of '£6'. or '£7'., which was stated to be the expense of the funeral, &c., would at all meet the justice of the case. He was inclined to advise them to go beyond that, although he did not plead vindictive damages. There would be costs to be defrayed by the plaintiff, well known in the profession under the head of "extra costs," even although he had a verdict. If the verdict had been at his disposal, he would have taken care that these costs should have been borne by the party that had been the cause of the injury. That appeared to him to be the justice of the case. He trusted that none who heard him would doubt his sincerity, when he said, he lamented the misfortune which had given birth to this action; and, with that qualification of the case, he must say that he was not sorry that this action had been brought. He thanked the plaintiff for bringing it; for it might be of public benefit. It would teach a lesson that would not soon be forgotten, "That a person, who knowingly keeps a vicious, dangerous animal, should be considered to be answerable for all the acts of that animal." There were instances in which very large damages had been given to repair such injuries. He did not say that the present case called for large damages; but, if other cases of the same kind should be brought into court after this had been made public, he hoped the jury would go beyond the ordinary limits, and give verdicts which might operate 'in terrorem' on the offending parties. Verdict for the plaintiff--damages £36. [4] A child was bitten by a rabid dog at York, and became hydrophobous. All possibility of relief having vanished, the parents, desirous of putting an end to the agony of their child, or fearful of its doing mischief, smothered it between two pillows. They were tried for murder, and found guilty. They were afterwards pardoned; but the intention of the prosecutor was that of deterring others from a similar practice, in a like unfortunate situation [5]. In 1821, a physician, at Poissy, was sentenced to pay 8000 francs (£320) to a poor widow whose husband died of hydrophobia, in consequence of a bite from the physician's dog, he knowing that the dog had been bitten, yet not confining him. [Our author having written so extensively upon the subject of rabies, it would seem superfluous in us to attempt to add anything more upon a subject so ably and practically handled by one having so great opportunities to make personal observations. However, to allay the feelings of many of our dogkilling citizens, we will not hesitate to assert that we do not place as much credence in the frequency of rabies as is generally done; but, on the other hand, are strongly led to believe that the accounts of this much-dreaded malady are greatly exaggerated both in this country and in England. That there may be a few cases of rabies in our country in the course of a year, we do not doubt; but, at the same time, we are satisfied that the affection in its genuine form is quite rare, and that the great hue and cry made every season about mad dogs, is more the result of ignorance and fright than of reality. Our limits in this publication would not allow us sufficient space to enlarge upon the many pathological questions naturally arising from a minute examination of this subject, more particularly as our views are somewhat at variance with the generally received opinion, and which, of course, we would be forced to express with considerable diffidence, owing to the impossibility of collecting such evidence as might seem necessary to substantiate any peculiar doctrine. That tetanus, hysteria, and other spasmodic affections have often been mistaken for rabies, there is no doubt, and we can easily imagine the mental effect produced upon an individual of a highly nervous temperament, by the knowledge of his being bitten by an animal known to be hydrophobic; and we can, without difficulty, reconcile with our best judgment the belief 'that the workings of such an individual's imagination, occasioned by the never-ceasing dread of the horrid malady to which he is now exposed, might be sufficient to produce a train of symptoms somewhat resembling the actual state of rabies.' For the benefit of these nervous unfortunates, we might say to them, that the statistics of this affection show a very considerable ratio in favour of escape from inoculation when bitten, or of entire recovery even after the development of the disease, and that there are many other ills in the catalogue of medicine that they should take equal pains to provide against as lyssa canina. We doubt not that the minds of many will be relieved, when informed that John Hunter mentions an instance, in which, out of twenty persons bitten by a rabid dog, only one suffered from the malady; and that of fifty-nine dogs inoculated by Professor Hertwick at the veterinary school of Berlin, only fourteen were affected; and of eleven patients entrusted to the care of M. Blaise of Cluny, seven recovered after exhibiting greater or less degrees of spasmodic symptoms. It may prove interesting to our readers, to insert in these pages an account of the first two cases of rabies known in Philadelphia, and as related to us by a venerable and much-esteemed citizen, who is well known in the scientific world as a gentleman of deep research, and we agree with him in opinion, that this much-dreaded disease is most frequently the result of like causes, or rather that like symptoms often induce the belief of the presence of this malady, when, in fact, no such disease does exist. Towards the close of the last century, there lived a tailor in Front street, near Market, in the midst of the most respectable people of that period; among the number was our esteemed friend Mr. Hembel, as also Judge Tilghman. This tailor possessed an ill-tempered little spaniel, who, lounging about the street-door, attacked every one that passed by, snapping and snarling in the most worrisome manner, more particularly at every little urchin that invaded his "right of pavement," and not unfrequently biting them or tearing their clothes from their back. The owner of the dog was appealed to on many occasions by the neighbours, begging that the quarrelsome brute should either be disposed of or kept within doors. To all these solicitations and warnings the little tailor paid no heed, but continued stitching his breeches and cribbing his customers' goods, while the ugly little spaniel, without interruption, amused himself by snapping at and biting the heels of the passers-by. The nuisance at last became insufferable, and Judge Tilghman applied to Mr. Hembel to assist him in getting rid of this troublesome brute; the latter gentleman advised the administration of a small quantity of strychnia, concealed in a portion of meat, which proposition was agreed upon and immediately carried into execution. A short time after the administering of this dose the spaniel sickened, and retired from his post to the kitchen, which was in the basement, and where an Irish domestic was engaged in washing; the dog appeared uneasy for a time, and suddenly, being taken with the involuntary muscular convulsions that so frequently follow the administration of this powerful drug, ran around the kitchen yelping and howling at a most terrible rate, and ultimately, to the no small discomfiture and amazement of the maid, sprang up into the wash-tub, at which unceremonious caper, on the part of the dog, the woman became greatly alarmed and ran out into the street, followed by the whole household, crying mad dog, which soon produced an uproar in the neighbourhood, no one daring to satisfy himself as to the correctness of the report, and all, perhaps, too ignorant of the subject to discern the real cause of the animal's singular behaviour. The tailor, still bearing a strong attachment to his unfortunate favourite, and being somewhat more daring than his neighbours, ventured, at length, to peep into the kitchen to see the state of affairs, and seeing the dog still convulsed and foaming at the mouth, was more than ever confirmed in the belief of hydrophobia, and knowing full well the biting propensities of the animal, independent of rabies, concluded, much to the relief of every one, to shoot him. The next step in the programme was the dragging out and consigning of the patient to a watery grave, which was accomplished by placing, with a pair of tongs, a noose over the head of the animal, and thus hauling him out of the basement window amid the cheers of the assembled populace who soon cast him into the Delaware. The second case of rabies as related to us by Mr. Hembel was as follows:--In 1793 the barbers of the city were in the habit of going around to the various boarding-houses for the purpose of shaving the visitors in their apartments, instead of accommodating them, as at the present time, in their own establishments. One of these knights of the razor, living also in Front street, when going to and from a fashionable boarding-house in the vicinity, was not unfrequently assailed by a small cur who often took him by the heels when hurrying along. To get rid of this annoying little animal as speedily and secretly as possible, he had recourse to the powers of strychnia, which produced in a very short time similar effects upon the poor victim, and the result was another great hue and cry about mad dogs. These authentic and remarkable cases of hydrophobia were heralded in all the papers of the day, which, from that time forward, were filled with notes of caution to all dog-owners. Of the 'treatment' of rabies we will make but a few remarks, as of the immense number of specifics proposed for this disease, amounting in all to several hundred, few or none can be relied on to the exclusion of the others; but those medicines, perhaps, known as opiates or anti-spasmodics, claim a larger share of attention than any others in combating the disease after its development. In looking over the very original works of Jacques Du Fouilloux, a worthy cynegetical writer of the sixteenth century, we find a prescription that was supposed by many to be an infallible specific for this disease, and as it appears to us quite as certain in its effects on the animal economy as many others of the inert substances that have been lauded to the skies both in our country and in other parts of the world as antidotes, we take the liberty of transcribing it, as also of adding a translation of his quaint French. 'Autre recepte par mots preservants la rage.' 'Ay appris vne recepte d'vn Gentil-homme, en Bretaigne, lequel faisoit de petits escriteaux, où n'y auoit seulement que deux lignes, lesquels il mettoit en vne omellette d'oeufs, puis les faisoit aualer aux chiens qui auorient esté mords de chiens enragez, et auoit dedans l'escriteau, 'Y Ran Quiran Cafram Cafratrem, Cafratrosque'. Lesquels mots disoit estre singuliers pour empescher les chiens de la rage, mais quant à moi ie n'y adiouste pas foy. I have learned a recipe from a nobleman of Brittany, which is composed of a written charm, in which there are only two lines; these he put in an omelet of eggs, he then made the dogs that had been bitten by a rabid animal swallow them. There was on the paper "'Y Ran Quiran Cafram Cafratrem, Cafratrosque'". These words were said to be singularly efficacious in preventing madness in dogs, but for my part I do not credit it. Although our quaint author considered the above charm even too marvellous for his belief, we give below his own prescription in which he placed implicit confidence, but, no doubt, on trial it would prove '"as singularly efficacious" as the other'. Baing pour lauer, les chiens, quand ils ont esté mords des chiens enragez, de peur qu'ils enragent. Quand les chiens sont mords ou desbrayez de chiens enragez, il faut incontinent emplir vne pippe d'eau, puis prendre quatre boisseaux de sel et les ietter dedans, en meslaut fort le sel auec vn baston pour le faire fondre soudainement: et quand il sera fondu, faut mettre le chien dedans, et le plonger tout, sans qu'il paroisse rien, par neuf fois: puis quand il sera bien laué, faut le laisser aller, celà l'empeschera d'enrager. When a dog has been bitten or scratched by another affected with madness, we must immediately take a tub of water and throw into it four bushels of salt, stirring it briskly with a stick to make it dissolve quickly. When the salt shall be dissolved, put the dog into the bath, and plunge him well nine times, so that the bath shall cover him each time; now that he is well washed you may let him go, as this will prevent his becoming rabid. Having given publicity to the two preceding valuable receipts, we must be pardoned for adding our own views upon this point, as a caution to those who may not feel sufficient faith in the remedies above mentioned. The wound should be thoroughly washed and cleansed as soon as possible after the bite is inflicted: no sucking of the parts, as is advised by many, for the purpose of extracting the poison, as the presence of a small abrasion of the lips or interior of the mouth would most assuredly subject the parts to inoculation. If the wound be ragged, the edges may be taken off with a pair of sharp scissors; the wound must then be thoroughly cauterized with nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), being sure to introduce the caustic into the very depths of the wound, so that it will reach every particle of poison that may have insinuated itself into the flesh. If the wound is too small to admit of the stick of caustic, it may be enlarged by the knife, taking care, however, not to carry the poison into the fresh cut, which can be avoided by wiping the knife at each incision. Should the wound be made on any of the limbs, a bandage may be placed around it during the application of these remedies, the more effectually to prevent the absorption of the virus. Nitrate of silver is a most powerful neutralizer of specific poisons, and the affected parts will soon come away with the slough, no dressings being necessary, except perhaps olive oil, if there should be much inflammation of the parts. If the above plan be pursued, the patient need be under no apprehension as to the result, but make his mind perfectly easy on the point. This is the course generally pursued by the veterinary surgeons of Europe, and there are but few of them who have not, some time in their practice, been bitten and often severely lacerated by rabid animals; nevertheless, we never hear of their having suffered any bad effects from such accidents. If caustic be not at hand, the wound may be seared over with red-hot iron, which will answer as good a purpose, although much more painful in its operation. Mr. Blaine, in closing his able and scientific article on this subject, very justly remarks, "Would I could instil into such minds the 'uncertainty' of the disease appearing at all; that is, even when no means have been used; and the 'perfect security' they may feel who have submitted to the preventive treatment detailed. I have been bitten several times, Mr. Youatt several also; yet in neither of us was any dread occasioned: our experience taught us the 'absolute certainty' of the 'preventive' means; and such I take on me to pronounce they always prove, when performed with dexterity and judgment." We acknowledge ourselves a convert to this gentleman's doctrine; and feel satisfied that if the above course be adopted, there need be no fear whatever of the development of this frightful affection.--L.] [Footnote 1: 'La Folie des Animaux', by M. Perquin.] [Footnote 2: The physician Apollonius, having been bitten by a rabid dog, induced another dog to lick the wound, "ut idem medicus esset qui vulneris auctor fuit."] [Footnote 3: 'Journal Pratique de Méd. Vét.'] [Footnote 4: 'Sporting Magazine', vol. xviii. p. 186.] [Footnote 5: Daniel's 'Rural Sports', vol. i. p. 220.] * * * * * CHAPTER VIII. THE EYE AND ITS DISEASES. The diseases that attack the same organ are essentially different, in different animals, in their symptoms, intensity, progress, and mode of treatment. In periodic ophthalmia--that pest of the equine race and opprobrium of the veterinary profession--the cornea becomes suddenly opaque, the iris pale, the aqueous humour turbid, the capsule of the lens cloudy, and blindness is the result. After a time, however, the cornea clears up, and becomes as bright as ever; but the lens continues impervious to light, and vision is lost. Ophthalmia in the dog presents us with symptoms altogether different. The conjunctiva is red; that portion of it which spreads over the sclerotica is highly injected, and the cornea is opaque. As the disease proceeds, and even at a very early period of its progress, an ulcer appears on the centre; at first superficial, but enlarging and deepening until it has penetrated the cornea, and the aqueous humour has escaped. Granulations then spring from the edges of the ulcer, rapidly enlarge, and protrude through the lids. Under proper treatment, however, or by a process of nature, these granulations cease to sprout; they begin to disappear; the ulcer diminishes; it heals; scarcely a trace of it can be seen; the cornea recovers its perfect transparency, and vision is not in the slightest degree impaired. There is a state of the orbit which requires some consideration. It is connected with the muscles employed in mastication. Generally speaking, the food of the dog requires no extraordinary degree of mastication, nor is there usually any great time employed in this operation. That muscle which is most employed in the comminution of the food, namely, the temporal muscle, has its action very much limited by the position of the bony socket of the eye; yet sufficient room is left for all the force that can be required. In some dogs, either for purposes of offence or defence, or the more effectual grasping of the prey, a sudden violent exertion of muscular power, and a consequent contraction of the temporal muscle, are requisite, but for which the imperfect socket of the orbit does not seem to afford sufficient scope and room. There is an admirable provision for this in the removal of a certain portion of the orbital process of the frontal bone on the outer and upper part of the external ridge, and the substitution of an elastic cartilage. This cartilage momentarily yields to the swelling of the muscles; and then, by its inherent elasticity, the external ridge of the orbit resumes its pristine form. The orbit of the dog, the pig, and the cat, exhibits this singular mechanism. The horse is, to a certain extent, also an illustration of this. He requires an extended field of vision to warn him of the approach of his enemies in his wild state, and a direction of the orbits somewhat forward to enable him to pursue with safety the headlong course to which we sometimes urge him; and for this purpose his eyes are placed more forward than those of cattle, sheep, or swine. That which Mr. Percivall states of the horse is true of our other domesticated animals: "The eyeball is placed within the anterior or more capacious part of the orbit, nearer to the frontal than to the temporal side, with a degree of prominence peculiar to the individual, and, within certain limits, variable at his will." In many of the carnivorous animals the orbit encroaches on the bones of the face. A singular effect is also produced on the countenance, both when the animal is growling over his prey and when he is devouring it. The temporal muscle is violently acted upon; it presses upon the cartilage that forms part of the external ridge; that again forces itself upon and protrudes the eye, and hence the peculiar ferocity of expression which is observed at that time. The victims of these carnivorous animals are also somewhat provided against danger by the acuteness of sight with which they are gifted. Adipose matter also exists in a considerable quantity in the orbit of the eye, which enables it to revolve by the slightest contraction of the muscles. We should scarcely expect to meet with cases of fracture of the orbital arch in the dog, because, in that animal, cartilage, or a cartilago-ligamentous substance, occupies a very considerable part of that arch; but I have again and again, among the cruelties that are practised on the inferior creation, seen the cartilage partly, or even entirely, torn asunder. I have never been able satisfactorily to ascertain the existence of this during life; but I have found it on those whom I have recommended to be destroyed on account of the brutal usage which they had experienced. Blows somewhat higher, or on the thick temporal muscle of this animal, will very rarely produce a fracture. A few cases of disease in the eye may be interesting and useful. 'Case' I.--The eyes of a favourite spaniel were found inflamed and impatient of light. Nothing wrong had been perceived on the preceding day. No ulceration could be observed on the cornea, and there was but a slight mucous discharge. An infusion of digitalis, with twenty times the quantity of tepid water, was employed as a collyrium, and an aloetic ball administered. On the following day the eyes were more inflamed, The collyrium and the aloes were employed as before, and a seton inserted in the poll. Three or four days afterwards the redness was much diminished, the discharge from the eye considerably lessened, and the dog was sent home. The seton, however, was continued, with an aloetic ball on every third or fourth day. Two or three days after this the eyes were perfectly cured and the seton removed. 'Case' II.--The eye is much inflamed and the brow considerably protruded. This was supposed to be caused by a bite. I vainly endeavoured to bring the lid over the swelling. I scarified the lid freely, and ordered the bleeding to be encouraged by the constant application of warm water, and physic-ball to be given. On the following day the brow was found to be scarcely or at all reduced, and the eye could not be closed. I drew out the haw with a crooked needle, and cut it off closely with sharp scissors. The excised portion was as large as a small-kidney-bean. The fomentation was continued five days afterwards, and the patient then dismissed cured. 'Case' III.--A pointer was brought in a sad state of mange. Redness, scurf, and eruptions were on almost every part. Apply the mange ointment and the alterative and physic balls. On the following day there was an ulcer on the centre of the cornea, with much appearance of pain and impatience of light. Apply an infusion of digitalis, with the liquor plumbi diacetatis. He was taken away on the twelfth day, the mange apparently cured, and the inflammation of the eye considerably lessened. A fortnight afterwards this also appeared to be cured. 'Case' IV.--A spaniel had been bitten by a large dog. There was no wound of the lids, but the eye was protruded from the socket. I first tried whether it could be reduced by gentle pressure, but I could not accomplish it. I then introduced the blunt end of a curved needle between the eye and the lid; and thus drawing up the lid with the right hand, while I pressed gently on the eye with the left hand, I accomplished my object. I then subtracted three ounces of blood and gave a physic-ball. On the following day the eye was hot and red, with some tumefaction. The pupil was moderately contracted, but was scarcely affected by any change of light. The dog was sent home, with some extract of goulard, and a fortnight afterwards was quite well. 'Case' V.--A dog received a violent blow on the right eye. Immediate blindness occurred, or the dog could apparently just discern the difference between light and darkness, but could not distinguish particular objects. The pupil was expanded and immovable. A pink-coloured hue could be perceived on looking earnestly into the eye. A seton was introduced into the poll, kept there nearly a month, and often stimulated rather sharply. General remedies of almost every kind were tried: depletion was carried to its full extent, the electric fluid was had recourse to; but at the expiration of nine weeks the case was abandoned and the dog destroyed. Permission to examine him was refused. I have, in two or three instances, witnessed decided cases of dropsy of the eye, accumulation of fluid taking place in both the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye; there was also effusion of blood in the chambers, but in one case only was there the slightest benefit produced by the treatment adopted, and in that there was gradual absorption of the effused fluid. About the same time there was another similar case. A pointer had suddenly considerable opacity of one eye, without any known cause: the other eye was not in the least degree affected. The dog had not been out of the garden for more than a week. The eye was ordered to be fomented with warm water. On the following day the inflammation had increased, and the adipose matter was protruded at both the inner and outer canthus. The eye was bathed frequently with a goulard lotion. On the fourth day the eyeball was still more inflamed, and the projections at both canthi were increased. A curved needle was passed through both eyes, and there was considerable bleeding. On the following day the inflammation began to subside. At the expiration of a week scarcely any disease remained, and the eye became as transparent as ever. A curious ease of congenital blindness was brought to my infirmary. A female pointer puppy, eight weeks old, had both her eyes of their natural size and formation, but the inner edge of the iris was strangely diseased. The pupil was curiously four-cornered, and very small. There hung out of the pupil a grayish-white fibrous matter, which appeared to be the remainder of the pupillary membrane. Six months afterwards we examined her again, and found that the pupil was considerably enlarged, and properly shaped, and the white skin had vanished. In the back-ground of the eye there was a faint yellow-green light, and the dog not only showed sensibility to light, but some perception of external objects. At this period we lost sight of her. A very considerable improvement has taken place with regard to the treatment of the enlarged or protruded ball of the eye. A dog may get into a skirmish, and have his eye forced from the socket. If there is little or no bleeding, the case will probably be easily and successfully treated. The eye must, first, be thoroughly washed, and not a particle of grit must be left. A little oil, a crooked needle, and a small piece of soft rag should be procured. The blunt end of the needle should he dipped into the oil, and run round the inside of the lid, first above and then below. The operator will next--his fingers being oiled--press upon the protruded eye gently, yet somewhat firmly, changing the pressure from one part of the eye to the other, in order to force it back into the socket. If, after a couple of minutes' trial, he does not succeed, let him again oil the eye on the inside and the out, and once more introduce the blunt end of the needle, attempting to carry it upwards under the lid with two or three fingers pressing on the eye, and the points of pressure being frequently changed. In by far the greater number of cases, the eye will be saved. If it is impracticable to cause the eye to retract, a needle with a thread attached must be passed through it, the eye being then drawn as forward as possible and cut off close to the lids. The bleeding will soon cease and the lids perfectly close. 'Ophthalmia' is a disease to which the dog is often liable. It is the result of exposure either to heat or to cold, or violent exertion; it is remedied by bleeding, purging, and the application of sedative medicine, as the acetate of lead or the tincture of opium. When the eye is considerably inflamed, in addition to the application of tepid or cold water, either the inside of the lids or the white of the eye may be lightly touched with the lancet. From exposure to cold, or accident or violence, inflammation often spreads on the eye to a considerable degree, the pupil is clouded, and small streaks of blood spread over the opaque cornea. The mode of treatment just described must be pursued. The crystalline lens occasionally becomes opaque. There is cataract. It may be the result of external injury or of internal predisposition. Old dogs are particularly subject to cataract. That which arises from accident, or occasionally disease, may, although seldom, be reinstated, especially in the young dog, and both eyes may become sound; but, in the old, the slow-growing opacity will, almost to a certainty, terminate in cataract. There is occasionally an enlargement of the eye, or rather an accumulation of fluid within the eye, to a very considerable extent. No external application seems to have the slightest effect in reducing the bulk of the eye. If it is punctured, much inflammation ensues, and the eye gradually wastes away. In 'amaurosis', the eye is beautifully clear, and, for a little while, this clearness imposes upon the casual observer; but there is a peculiar pellucid appearance about the eye--a preternatural and unchanging brightness. In the horse, the sight occasionally returns, but I have never seen this in the dog. The occasional glittering of the eyes of the dog has been often observed. The cat, the wolf, some carnivora, and also sheep, cows, and horses, occasionally exhibit the same glittering. Pallas imagined that the light of these animals emanated from the nervous membrane of the eye, and considered it to be an electrical phenomenon. It is found, however, in every animal that possesses a 'tapetum lucidum'. The shining, however, never takes place in complete darkness. It is neither produced voluntarily, nor in consequence of any moral emotion, but solely from the reflection that falls on the eye. [The eye and its diseases being so concisely treated by Mr. Youatt, we are emboldened to add a more full and particular treatise on this interesting subject, couched in language the most simple, and we trust sufficiently plain to be understood by the most unscientific patron of the canine race. THE EYE AND ITS DISEASES. THE NICTITATING MEMBRANE. It is somewhat astonishing that an organ, so delicate and so much exposed as the eye of the hunting dog necessarily is, should not more frequently be attacked with disease, or suffer from the thorns, poisonous briars, and bushes that so constantly oppose their progress while in search of game. Nature, ever wise in her undertakings, while endowing this organ with extreme sensibility, also furnished it with the means of protecting itself in some measure against the many evils that so constantly threaten its destruction. The plica semilunaris, haw or nictitating membrane, though not as largely developed in the dog as in some other animals, is, nevertheless, of sufficient size to afford considerable protection to the ball of the eye, and assists materially in preventing the accumulation of seeds and other minute particles within the conjunctiva. This delicate membrane is found at the inner canthus of the eye, and can be drawn at pleasure over a portion of the globe, so as to free its surface from any foreign substances that might be upon it. Although the eye of the dog is attacked by many diseases, almost as numerous as those of the human being, still they are much less frequent and far more tractable. OPTHAMALIA--SIMPLE INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. In its mild form this disease is frequently met with, and easily yields to the administration of the proper remedies, but when it appears as an epidemic, in a kennel, it proves more stubborn. The discharge in epidemic ophthalmia, when carried from one dog to the eyes of another, no doubt is contagious, and, therefore, it is necessary to separate dogs as much from each other as possible during any prevalent epidemic of this nature. The disease announces itself by slight redness of the conjunctiva, tenderness to light, and increased flow of the secretions. The eyeball appears retracted in its socket, and more moist and transparent than usual. The infected vessels of the conjunctiva form a species of net-work, and can be moved about with this membrane, showing that the inflammation is entirely superficial, and not penetrating the other coverings of the eye. Extravasation of blood within the conjunctiva, (bloodshot,) is also not an uncommon appearance, but is frequently the first symptom that draws our attention to the malady. As the disease progresses, the conjunctiva becomes more vascular, the photophobia intolerable, the cornea itself becomes opaque, and sometimes exhibits a vascular appearance. There is considerable itching of the ball, as evinced by the disposition of the dog to close the eye. If the disease progresses in its course, unchecked by any remediate means, the cornea may lose its vitality, ulceration commence, and the sight be for ever destroyed by the bursting and discharge of the contents of the eye. 'Causes.'--Simple canine opthalmia proceeds from many causes, distinct in their character, but all requiring pretty much the same treatment. Bad feeding, bad lodging, want of exercise, extremes of heat, and cold, are the most active agents in producing this affection. 'Treatment.'--The disease in its mild form is very tractable, and requires but little attention; soothing applications, in connexion with confinement to an obscure apartment and low diet, will generally correct the affection in its forming stage. In all inflammations of the eye, tepid applications we consider preferable to cold, the latter producing a temporary reaction, but no permanent good, while the former exerts a soothing and relaxing influence over the tissues and parts to which they are applied. Weak vinegar and water, with a small proportion of laudanum, we have frequently seen used with advantage as a wash in this complaint. When there is fever, it will be necessary to bleed, and purge. Scarifying the conjunctiva with the point of a lancet, has been resorted to by some veterinary surgeons with success. CHRONIC OPHTHALMIA. When the disease assumes this form, the discharge from the eyes is lessened, and becomes more thick, the conjunctiva is not of such a bright arterial red, but more of a brick-dust colour, and the inner side of the lids when exposed will present small prominences and ulcerations. 'Treatment.'--More stimulating collyria will now be necessary, as solutions of sulphate of zinc, copper, acetate of lead, &c. See No. 1, 2, 3, of the Collyria. The direct application of sulphate of copper, or nitrate of silver, will often be of great benefit in changing the action of the parts. The lids should be turned down and brushed over two or three times with the above articles in substance, and the dog restrained for a few moments to prevent him from scratching during the temporary pain inflicted upon him by the application. Laudanum dropped in the eye will also prove very beneficial, allaying the itching and pain, at the same time stimulating the organs to renewed action. If the disease does not succumb under this treatment, a seton placed in the pole will generally conquer it. TRAUMATIC OPHTHALMIA is produced by wounds of poisoned briars, stings of insects, bites of other dogs, the scratching of cats, or the actual presence of foreign bodies in the eye itself, which latter cause frequently occurs, and is often overlooked by the sportsman. 'Treatment'.--This species of ophthalmia is best subdued by the application of emollient poultices, depletion, purgation and cooling washes. If a seed, small briar, or other substance has got in under the lids, or inserted itself in the globe of the eye, the dog keeps the eye closed, it waters freely, and in a short time becomes red and inflamed. The removal of the article alone, will generally produce a cure; sometimes it is necessary to use a cooling wash and administer a purge or two. Great care should he had for the extraction of extraneous substances from the eyes of dogs, as their presence often causes great suffering to the animal even while diligently employed in the field. The writer has seen dogs more than once rendered useless while hunting, by grass, cloverseeds, or other small particles burying themselves under the lids. 'Ophthalmia of Distemper'.--This species of inflammation will be spoken of when treating of this latter affection. SYMPATHETIC OPHTHALMIA arises from the presence of some other disease located in another portion of the body, as derangement of the stomach, mange, surfeit, &c. The presence of one of these affections will indicate the cause of the other. 'Treatment'.--Soothing applications to the organ itself, and remedies for the removal of the primary affection. HYDROPHTHALMIA though not a common affection in the canine race, is occasionally met with; several cases have come under the observation of the writer, and no doubt there are but few dog-fanciers who have not seen the eyeballs of some dog suffering with this malady, ready to start from their sockets. This affection depends upon a superabundance of the humours of the eye, occasioned by over-secretion, or a want of power in the absorbent vessels to carry off the natural secretions of the parts. Old dogs are more apt to suffer from this disease than young dogs: nevertheless, the latter are not by any means exempt; we once saw a pup, a few days old, with the globe of the eye greatly extended by this affection. As the disease progresses, the eye becomes more hard and tender, the sight is greatly impaired, and ultimately, if not arrested, the eye bursts, discharges its contents, and total blindness ensues, greatly to the relief of the poor animal. 'Treatment'.--This disease is very intractable, and is to be combated by saline purges, bleeding, and stimulating application to the organ itself. Mercurial ointment, rubbed over the eyebrow, will assist in stimulating the absorbents. When the disease has progressed for a long time, and the pain, as is often the case, seems intense, it will save the animal great suffering, by opening the ball and allowing the humours to escape. This may be done by puncturing the cornea or the sclerotic coat with a needle. Setons introduced along the spine would have a good effect. CONGENITAL BLINDNESS occasionally occurs throughout a whole litter, no doubt being entailed upon the progeny of those dogs who have defective vision, or who are old and infirm at the time of copulation. The best and only remedy is speedy drowning. CATARACT consists in the partial or complete opacity of the crystalline lens; it results from numerous causes, and is more frequent in the old than the young subject. In old dogs both eyes are usually attacked, producing absolute blindness, while in young animals one eye alone is generally attacked. 'Causes.'--Old age, hard work, and bad feeding, are the agents most active in the production of this affection; it generally comes on slowly, but sometimes very quickly. When the disease occurs in young dogs, it is generally the result of wounds or blows over the head, convulsions and falls. 'Treatment.'--Little can be accomplished towards curing this disease either in the old or young dog, as the disease, in spite of all our efforts, will run its course, and terminate in total opacity of the lens. Mild purging, blistering on the neck, introduction of the seton, and blowing slightly stimulating powders into the eye, will sometimes arrest the progress of the disease in the young dog. ULCERATIONS ON THE CORNEA are sometimes very troublesome, and if not put a stop to, will often cause opacity and blindness, if not total destruction of the eye. Slightly stimulating washes and purges are useful; the careful application of nitrate of silver will often induce the ulcer to heal; it must be put on very nicely and gently. SPOTS ON THE CORNEA are the result of ulcers and inflammation. If they do not materially interfere with vision, they had better be left alone. Powdered sugar and a small quantity of alum blown into the eye daily through a quill, we have seen used with much success. AMAUROSIS--GUTTA SERENA OR GLASS EYE, A partial or complete paralysis of the optic nerves of either side is not a frequent disease. It usually comes on gradually, but sometimes may appear in the course of a few hours from the effects of wounds or convulsions. When the paralysis is complete, total blindness of course ensues. The intimate connection, or sympathy, existing between the nerves of either eye, is so peculiar that disease of one is quickly followed by a corresponding disease in the other. Amaurosis, therefore, ordinarily ends in total blindness. The disease is characterized by a dilated stage of the pupil, which seldom contracts under the effect of any degree of light thrown upon it. The coats and humours of the eye are perfectly transparent, in fact appear to be more pellucid than natural. 'Causes.'--This affection is produced in many different ways; among the most common causes may be mentioned wounds on the head, or of the parts surrounding the nerve, strains, falls, disease of the bone, convulsions, and epileptic fits. We have seen a case produced by a tumour, which occupied the posterior portion of the orbit, and caused the organ to be somewhat protruded from its proper position, giving the eye the appearance of hydrophthalmia, for which it was taken, the existence of the tumour never for a moment being suspected. In this case there was partial amaurosis in both sides, although nothing of disease could be discovered in the left eye. Amaurosis is a very deceptive disease, the nerves alone being affected; the humours and coverings of the eye remaining perfectly transparent and natural, imposes upon the inexperienced observer, but is easily detected by those who have witnessed the disease in others. There is a singular watery appearance and vacant stare about the eye of the dog that cannot be mistaken. This peculiarity is owing, no doubt, to the enlargement of the pupil, as before observed. 'Treatment'.--When proceeding from blows, convulsions, or inflammation of the nerve itself, bleeding will be serviceable, as also purging and blistering. If the disease should appear without any symptom, or other cause, to lead us to believe that there is any local affection, the antiphlogistic course should be laid aside, and resort be had to local and constitutional tonic applications, and revulsive frictions to the nape of the neck and spine. A seton may also be applied; and electricity has been recommended in such cases, no doubt arising from want of tone in the general system. This affection, in spite of every effort, is very unmanageable, and but seldom yields to any course of treatment. Strychnia has been used lately, both internally and externally, in the cure of this complaint; it may be sprinkled over a blistered surface immediately above the eye, in the proportion of a grain morning and evening; it may also be administered inwardly at the same time, in doses from the half a grain to a grain twice a day. EXTIRPATION OF THE EYE. It sometimes becomes necessary, from the diseased state of this organ, that it should be taken completely from its socket. This operation, though frightful, perhaps, to consider, is very simple in its application, and may be performed without difficulty by any one accustomed to the use of the knife. The animal is to be held firmly, as before directed, and an assistant to keep the lids widely extended. If the lids cannot be drawn well over the eye, owing to enlargement of the ball caused by disease, they may be separated by an incision at the external angle. A curved needle armed with a thread is now to be passed entirely through the eye, being careful to include sufficient of the sound parts within its grasp to prevent its tearing out. This finished, the needle may be detached, and the ends of the thread being united, the movements of the eye can be governed by means of this ligature: then proceed as follows: 1st. The assistant keeping the lids well separated, the operator draws the eye upward and outward, and then inserting the scalpel at the inner and lower angle of the eye, with a gentle sweep separates the ball from the lids, extending the incisions through to the external canthus. 2d. The ball is now to be drawn inwardly and downward, while the scalpel, continuing the circular movement as far as the internal canthus, separates the upper lid. 3d. The muscles and optic nerves still bind this organ to the orbit, which attachments can easily be destroyed by the scalpel, by pulling the eye forward sufficiently to reach them. If the eye has been extirpated on account of any malignant disease, it is necessary to remove every particle of muscle from the orbit; and when the disease has extended itself to the lids, it will also be proper to remove that portion of them included in the affection. The hemorrhage from the operation is trifling, and may generally be arrested by the pressure of the fingers, or the insertion of a conical ball of lint within the socket, which may be allowed to remain two or three days if necessary. If there is nothing to apprehend from hemorrhage, it is only necessary to draw the lids together, and unite that portion which has been separated by a suture, and place a hood over the whole. We do not recommend the stuffing of the orbit with lint, except in case of hemorrhage, as its presence will sometimes produce violent inflammation, which may extend to the brain. The cavity of the eye will, in a measure, be filled up by newly formed matter. The dog must be restricted to a low cooling diet, and have administered two or three saline purges. ULCERATIONS OF THE EYELIDS are often met with in old mangy, ill-fed animals, and are difficult to overcome, except by curing the the primary affection, which is often no easy task. The lids become enlarged, puffy, and tender, the lashes fall out, and the edges present an angry reddish appearance. 'Treatment'--Must be directed, in the first place, to the curing of the old affection, by which, in connection with blisters, purging, stimulating washes, &c., a cure may be effected. When the swelling of the lids is considerable, scarifying them with the point of a lancet will often be of much service. Ointment of nitrate of silver may also be smeared on the edges. WARTS ON THE EYELIDS sometimes make their appearance; they may be lifted up with the forceps, and excised with a knife or scissors, and the wound touched with nitrate of silver. The same treatment will answer for those warts, or little excrescences, that sometimes come on the inside of the lids. ENTROPIUM--INVERSION OF THE EYELIDS. This disease we do not find mentioned by any of the writers on canine pathology: nevertheless, we are led to believe that it is not an uncommon form of ophthalmia; and we must express our surprise that it should have escaped the attention of such close observers as Blain and Youatt. The acute form of the disease resulting from, or attending, simple ophthalmia, we have often witnessed, but the chronic form, of which we more particularly speak, is more rare. We have seen three cases of the latter, and, no doubt, might have found many more if our opportunities of studying canine pathology were equal to those of the English writers. The inversion of the eyelids upon the globe is accompanied with pain and irritation, swelling and inflammation, both of the lids and eye, which ultimately renders the dog almost useless, if not entirely blind. 'Causes'.--Neglected chronic ophthalmia was, no doubt, the cause of the disease in two cases, a setter and a pointer, while the other, in a hound, was the result of an acute attack of ophthalmia brought on by scalding with hot pitch thrown upon the animal. Some of this substance entered the eye, while a large portion adhered to the muzzle and lids. The eye, as well as the lids, became inflamed; the latter, being puffed up and contracted on their edges, were necessarily drawn inwards from the tension of the parts, and double entropium was thus produced. The inflammation and tumefaction of the parts continued for a considerable time, and when ultimately reduced by the application of tepid fomentations, the skin appeared greatly relaxed; and the muscular fibres having lost their power of support or contractility, owing to their long quiescence, seemed no longer able to keep their lids in their proper situation; the edges therefore remained in the abnormous position previously assumed. By this strange condition of the parts, the eyeball continued greatly irritated by the constant friction of the lashes; water was continually flowing over the lids, and from its irritating character produced considerable excoriation of the face and muzzle. The conjunctiva remained inflamed, the cornea in due course became ulcerous, and the eye was ultimately destroyed by the discharge of its contents. This was the course and final termination of the disease in the case of the hound above referred to, all of which disastrous results might have been prevented by proper management. 'Treatment.'--When in England, we sent to the United States a fine bred pointer dog, designed as a present for one of our sporting friends. This animal travelled from Leeds to Liverpool, chained on top of the railroad cars; the journey occupied several hours, daring which the weather was cold and boisterous, and we noticed on his arrival at the latter place that his eyes were watering and somewhat inflamed. On examining them more particularly, we were enabled to extract several pieces of cinder from under the lids, which seemed to relieve him somewhat. He went to sea, in the care of the steward, on the following day; and remained on deck exposed to the inclemency of the weather during a long voyage. When he arrived in Philadelphia, the inflammation, we were informed, was very considerable, occasioned by the presence of some other small particles of cinder that may have escaped our attention before shipping him. The presence of these foreign substances in the eye, in connection with the salt spray and irritating atmosphere, greatly aggravated the ophthalmia, and resolved it into a chronic affection, which ultimately resulted in entropium. "Fop" was hunted during the same autumn, which no doubt increased the malady to a considerable extent; and before the hunting season was over, the dog was rendered almost useless: the lids becoming so much swollen and the irritation so considerable, that it was deemed cruel to allow him to go into the field. When we saw him some time in the course of the same winter, the lower lids of both eyes were completely inverted on their globes, and the conjunctival inflammation and flow of tears considerable. The eyes seemed contracted within their sockets, and at times were nearly hidden from view, the corneas were somewhat opaque, the photophobia intolerable, and the animal showed evident signs of extreme pain, by his restless anxiety and constant efforts at scratching and rubbing the eyes. Under the judicious application of cooling astringent collyria, and other remediate means, the irritation and pain of the parts were relieved, and the lids somewhat retracted. "Fop" remained in this condition till the following autumn, suffering at times considerably from the increased inflammation and tumefaction of the lids, which continued obstinately to persist, insomuch that when turned out by the pressure of the fingers on them, they immediately contracted, and were forced inwards on the ball when freed from the fingers. Finding that no external application was of any permanent benefit, we resolved to have resort to the same operation we saw practised in the Parisian hospitals for the cure of a similar malformation in the human subject. To insure quiet we enclosed the body of the dog in a case, made stationary and sufficiently small to prevent struggling, with the head firmly fixed by a sliding door, as represented in the accompanying drawing. The mouth was kept closed by a small strap passed around the muzzle. This method of fixing a strong dog, we consider the best ever adopted for all nice operations on the face. The first step in the operation was to pinch up a portion of the lax skin of the diseased lid and pass three needles, armed with silk ligatures, successively through the base of the upraised integuments. One needle approximating the external canthus, another the internal, and a third midway between these two points, as represented in the annexed drawing. The next step was lo raise up the integuments included in the ligature, and, by means of a pair of sharp scissors, cut off the super-abundant skin as near to the ligatures as possible; having care however to leave sufficient substance included in the ligatures, to prevent their sloughing out before adhesion has taken place. The next and last step of the operation was, to draw the edges of the wound together by tying each ligature, which procedure immediately secured the lid and held it firmly in its natural position. The ligatures were now cut short, and a large wire muzzle, covered over with some dark substance on the operated eye, being put on him, and his legs hobbled with a piece of strong twine, more effectually to prevent his scratching the head, "Fop" was then set at liberty, and soon became reconciled to this eye-shade. The hemorrhage was trifling, the wound healed up by the first intention and the ligatures were drawn away in a few days, when a perfect cure was effected--the conjunctiva having lost its inflammatory appearance, and the cornea having again become quite transparent. The other eye was operated on in the same way and with like success. In the first operation we cut away the loose flaccid integuments only; whereas, in the second, we snipped small longitudinal fibres from the cartilage itself, and the operation consequently was more perfect, if possible, than in the first instance. The eyes were now perfectly restored, and remained well during the whole of the shooting season, after which we lost sight of our patient, he having accompanied one of our friends as a "compagnon de voyage" on a commercial expedition to Santa Fe, and, when on his return, had the misfortune to lose "Fop," who was carried off into captivity by some prowling Camanches, who no doubt have long since sacrificed him to the Great Spirit in celebrating the buffalo or wolf dance. PROTRUSION OF THE EYE The eye may be forced from its orbit by wounds or the bites of other animals. If not materially injured, the ball should be cleaned with a little tepid water, or by wiping off with a fine silk or cambric handkerchief, and immediately replaced within its socket; otherwise the inflammation and swelling of the lids will soon prevent its easy admission. When handling the protruded eye, the fingers should be dipped in olive oil or warm water. When sufficient time has elapsed from the occurrence of the accident to prevent the ball being replaced, owing to the swelling and contraction of the lids, an incision may be made at the external angle of the eye, so as to divide the lids, which will then admit the eye into its natural position. If not, the lid itself can be raised up and slit far enough to allow its being drawn over the globe. As considerable inflammation generally follows this accident, it will be prudent to bleed the animal and confine him. We have seen eyes replaced, that have been out of their sockets for several hours, perfectly recover their strength and brilliancy. WEAK EYES. Some dogs, particularly several breeds of spaniels, have naturally weak eyes, attended by an over-secretion and constant flow of tears, more particularly when exposed to the sun. When there is no disease of the lachrymal duct, the secretion may be diminished and the eyes strengthened by the daily application of some slightly tonic wash, as No. 1, 2, 3, &c. FISTULA LACHRYMALIS. The lachrymal duct is a small canal, leading from the internal angle of the eye to the nostrils, and is the passage through which the tears escape from the eye. This duct may become closed by inflammation of the lining membrane of the nose, caries of the bone, ulcers, fungous growths, or by the presence of some extraneous substance impacted in it. The tears, no longer having a natural outlet, are necessarily forced over the lids, accompanied, not unfrequently, by a good deal of purulent matter. This canal, when thus obstructed from some one of the above causes, often forms an ulcerous opening at its upper extremity, just below the internal canthus, for the escape of the pus that usually collects in a sac at that point. This perforation is called "Fistula Lachrymalis." The tears, entering the canal at its punctum, are carried along till they pass out at the fistulous opening. Treatment'.--This is a very troublesome affection, and has been pronounced incurable by some writers. However, we would not hesitate making an attempt at relieving a favourite or valuable dog of this disagreeable deformity. We should first endeavour to clear out the nasal canal, either by means of a minute flexible probe, or by directing a stream of water from a suitable syringe through its course. A small silver or copper style may then be placed in the canal to keep it open, as also to direct the tears through the natural route. This being done, and the dog confined in such a way as not to be able to scratch or rub the eye, the fistulous opening might close up in a short time. However, it might be necessary to wear the style for many months. In such a case, we see no reason why a wire muzzle, such as used by us after the operation for Entropium, might not be worn for an indefinite period, without any inconvenience to the animal. CARUNCULA LACHRYMALIS AND PLICA SEMILUNARIS, OR HAW. The caruncula lachrymalis is a small glandular body situated at the internal commissure of each eye. This little gland often becomes greatly enlarged from inflammation or fungous growths--old dogs are much more subject to the disease than young ones. 'Treatment'.--The application of cooling collyria and a weak solution of nitrate of silver, will generally suppress the further growth of this gland. If, however, it continues much swollen and runs on to suppuration, it may be punctured with a lancet and poultices applied. If the affection be of a malignant character, the gland may be drawn out by passing a ligature through its base, and then excised. The haw is most frequently concerned in the disease, and may also be removed. Collyria: No. I. [Symbol: Rx] Vinegar [Symbol: ounce] i. Laudanum [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] vii. Mix.--The eyes to be frequently bathed with the mixture. No. 2. [Symbol: Rx] Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. M.--To be used as above. No. 3. [Symbol: Rx] Sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. M.--To be used as above. No. 4. [Symbol: Rx] Acetate of lead (sugar of lead) [Symbol: scruple] ii. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. M.--To be used as above. No. 5. [Symbol: Rx] Argenti nitrat. (nitrate of silver) [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. M.--To be dropped in the eye 2 or 3 times daily. No. 6. [Symbol: Rx] Sub-muriate of mercury (corrosive sublimate) grs. x. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. M.--To be used as the preceding. No. 7. [Symbol: Rx] Argenti nitrat (nitrate of silver) grs. v. Fresh butter or lard [Symbol: ounce] i. No. 8. [Symbol: Rx] Powdered alum grs. xv. Calomel grs. vii. M.--Blown in the eye, will often have a most excellent effect, more particularly in old chronic ophthalmia. No. 9. Infusions of slippery elm bark, sassafras or elder pith, infusions of green tea, flaxseed, &c., are all excellent emollient applications--L.] * * * * * CHAPTER IX. THE EAR AND ITS DISEASES. 'Canker in the Ear.' All water-dogs, and some others, are subject to a disease designated by this name, and which, in fact, is inflammation of the integumental lining of the inside of the ear. When the whole of the body, except the head and ears, is surrounded by cold water, there will be an unusual determination of blood to those parts, and consequent distension of the vessels and a predisposition to inflammation. A Newfoundland dog, or setter, or poodle, that has been subject to canker, is often freed from a return of the disease by being kept from the water. The earliest symptom of the approach of canker is frequent shaking of the head, or holding of the head on one side, or violent scratching of one or both ears. Redness of the integument may then be observed, and particularly of that portion of it which lines the annular cartilage. This is usually accompanied by some enlargement of the folds of the skin. As soon as any of these symptoms are observed, the ear should be gently but well washed, two or three times in the day, with lukewarm water, and after that a weak solution of the extract of lead should be applied, and a dose or two of physic administered. If the case is neglected, the pain will rapidly increase; the ear will become of an intenser red; the folds of the integument will enlarge, and there will be a deposition of red or black matter in the hollow of the ear. The case is now more serious, and should be immediately attended to. This black or bloody deposit should be gently but carefully washed away with warm water and soap; and the extract of lead, in the proportion of a scruple to an ounce of water, should be frequently applied, until the redness and heat are abated. A solution of alum, in about the same quantity of alum and water as the foregoing lotion, should then be used. Some attention should be paid to the method of applying these lotions. Two persons will be required in order to accomplish the operation. The surgeon must hold the muzzle of the dog with one hand, and have the root of the ear in the hollow of the other, and between the first finger and the thumb. The assistant must then pour the liquid into the ear; half a tea-spoonful will usually be sufficient. The surgeon, without quitting the dog, will then close the ear, and mould it gently until the liquid has insinuated itself as deeply as possible into the passages of the ear. Should not the inflammation abate in the course of a few days, a seton should be inserted in the poll, between the integument and the muscles of the occiput, reaching from ear to ear. The excitement of a new inflammation, so near to the part previously diseased, will materially abate the original affection. Physic is now indispensable. From half a drachm to a drachm of aloes, with from one to two grains of calomel, should be given every third day. Should the complaint have been much neglected, or the inflammation so great as to bid defiance to these means, ulceration will too often speedily follow. It will be found lodged deep in the passage, and can only be detected by moulding the ear; the effused pus will occasionally occupy the inside of the ear to its very tip. However extensive and annoying the inflammation may be, and occasionally causing so much thickening of the integument as perfectly to close the ear, it is always superficial. It will generally yield to proper treatment, and the cartilage of the ear may not be in the slightest degree affected. Still, however, the animal may suffer extreme pain; the discharge from the ulcer may produce extensive excoriation of the cheek; and, in a few cases, the system may sympathise with the excessive local application, and the animal may be lost. The treatment must vary with circumstances. If the ulceration is deep in the ear, and there is not a very great degree of apparent inflammation, recourse may be had at once to a stimulating and astringent application, such as alum or the sulphate of zinc, and in the proportion of six grains of either to an ounce of water. If, however, the ulceration occupies the greater part of the hollow of the ear, and is accompanied by much thickening of the integument, and apparent filling up of the entrance to the ear, some portion of the inflammation must be first subdued. The only chance of getting rid of the disease is to confine the ear. A piece of strong calico must be procured, six or eight inches in width, and sufficiently long to reach round the head and meet under the jaw. Along each side of it must be a running piece of tape, and a shorter piece sewed at the centre of each of the ends. By means of these the cap may be drawn tightly over the head, above the eyes, and likewise round the neck behind the ears, so as perfectly to confine them. After all, no mild ointment will dispose such an ulcer to heal, and recourse must be had at once to a caustic application. A scruple of the nitrate of silver must be rubbed down with an ounce of lard, and a little of it applied twice every day, and rubbed tolerably hard into the sore until it assumes a healthy appearance; it may then be dressed with the common calamine ointment. If the discharge should return, the practitioner must again have recourse to the caustic ointment. The cartilage will never close, but the integument will gradually cover the exposed edges, and the wound will be healed. The ear will, however, long continue tender, and, if it should be much beaten, by the shaking of the head, the ulcer will reappear. This must be obviated by occasionally confining the ears, and not overfeeding the dog. Some sportsmen are accustomed to 'round' the ears, that is to cut off the diseased part. In very few instances, however, will a permanent cure be effected, while the dog is often sadly disfigured. A fresh ulcer frequently appears on the new edge, and is more difficult to heal than the original one. Nine times out of ten the disease reappears. The Newfoundland dog is very subject to this disease, to remedy which recourse must be had to the nitrate of silver. Spaniels have often a mangy inflammation of the edges of the ear. It seldom runs on to canker; but the hair comes off round the edges of the ear, accompanied by much heat and scurfiness of the skin. The common sulphur ointment, with an eighth part of mercurial ointment, will usually remove the disease. From the irritation produced by canker in or on the ear, and the constant flapping and beating of the ear, there is sometimes a considerable effusion of fluid between the integument and the cartilage occupying the whole of the inside of the flap of the ear. The only remedy is to open the enlarged part from end to end, carefully to take out the gossamer lining of the cyst, and then to insert some bits of lint on each side of the incision, in order to prevent its closing too soon. In a few days, the parietes of the cyst will begin to adhere, and a perfect cure will be accomplished If the tumour is simply punctured, the incision will speedily close, and the cyst will fill again in the space of four-and-twenty hours. A seton may be used, but it is more painful to the dog, and slower in its operation. The ear should be frequently fomented with a decoction of white poppies, and to this should follow the Goulard lotion; and, after that, if necessary, a solution of alum should be applied. To the soreness or scabby eruption, which extends higher up the ear, olive oil or spermaceti ointment may be applied. In some cases, portions of the thickened skin, projecting and excoriated, and pressing on each other, unite, and the opening into the ear is then mechanically filled. I know not of any remedy for this. It is useless to perforate the adventitious substance, for the orifice will soon close; and, more than once, when I have made a crucial incision, and cut out the unnatural mass that closed the passage, I have found it impossible to keep down the fungous granulations or to prevent total deafness. The following is a singular case of this disease:--1st July, 1820 a dog was sent with a tumour, evidently containing a fluid, in the flap of the ear. A seton had been introduced, but had been sadly neglected. The hair had become matted round the seton, and the discharge had thus been stopped. Inflammation and considerable pain had evidently followed, and the dog had nearly torn the seton out. I removed it, washed the ear well, and applied the tincture of myrrh and aloes. The wound soon healed. On the 14th the ear began again to fill. On the 17th the tumour was ripe for the seton, which was again introduced, and worn until the 9th of August, when the sides of the abscess appeared again to have adhered, and it was withdrawn. Canker had continued in the ear during the whole time; and, in defiance of a cold lotion daily applied, the ear was perceived again to be disposed to fill. The seton was once more inserted, and the cyst apparently closed. The seton was continued a fortnight after the sinus was obliterated, and then removed. Six weeks afterwards the swelling had disappeared, and the canker was quite removed. This anecdote is an encouragement to persevere under the most disheartening circumstances. All dogs that are foolishly suffered to become gross and fat are subject to canker. It seems to be a natural outlet for excess of nutriment or gross humour; and, when a dog has once laboured under the disease, he is very subject to a return of it. The fatal power of habit is in few cases more evident than in this disease. When a dog has symptoms of mange, the redness or eruption of the skin, generally, will not unfrequently disappear, and bad canker speedily follow. The habit, however, may be subdued, or at least may be kept at bay, by physic and the use of Goulard lotion or alum. Sportsmen are often annoyed by another species of canker Pointers and hounds are particularly subject to it. This species of canker commences with a scurfy eruption and thickening of the edges of the ear, apparently attended by considerable itching or pain. The dog is continually flapping his ear, and beating it violently against his head. The inflammation is thus increased, and the tip of the ear becomes exceedingly sore. This causes him to shake his head still more violently, and the ulcer spreads and is indisposed to heal, and at length a fissure or crack appears on the tip of the cartilage, and extends to a greater or less distance down the ear. The narration of one or two cases may be useful, as showing the inveteracy of the disease. 8th Feb. 1832.--A Newfoundland dog, very fat, had dreadful canker in both ears, and considerable discharge of purulent matter. He was continually shaking his ears, lying and moaning. Apply the canker lotion, and give the alterative balls. 13th. The discharge considerably lessened from one ear, but that from the other has increased. Continue the lotion and apply a seton. 22d. The dog, probably neglected at home, was sent to me. Both ears were as bad as ever. 25th. The dog is perfectly unmanageable when the lotion is poured into the ear, but submits when an ointment is applied. Use ung. sambuci, [Symbol: ounce] j. cerus, acet. [Symbol: ounce] j., mix well together. Continue the alteratives. 30th. Slowly amending; the whining has ceased, and the animal seldom scratches. Continue the lotion, alteratives, and purgatives. 10th Oct.--Slowly improving. Continue the treatment. 17th. One ear well, the other nearly so. 24th. Both ears were apparently well. Omit the lotion. 28th. One ear was again ulcerated. Applied the aerugo aeris. 31st. This has been too stimulating, and the ulceration is almost as great as at first. Return to the ung. sambuci and cerusa acetata. From this time to the 24th February, 1833, we continued occasionally taking out the seton, but returning to it every two or three days; applying the canker lotion until we were driven from it, mixing with it variable quantities of tinctura opii, having recourse to mercurial ointment, and trying a solution of the sulphate of copper. With two or three applications we could keep the disease at bay; but with none could we fairly remove the evil. The sulphate of zinc, the acetate of lead, decoctions of oak bark, a very mild injection of the nitrate of silver,--all would do good at times; but at other times we were set at complete defiance. Another gentleman brought his dog about the same time. This was also a Newfoundland dog. He had always been subject to mangy eruptions, and had now mange in the feet, the inside of the ear covered with scaly eruptions, the skin red underneath, considerable thickening of the ear, and a slight discharge from its base. A seton was inserted and a physic-ball given every second day. The canker lotion had little good effect. Some calamine ointment, with a small portion of calomel, was then had recourse to. In ten days the dog had ceased to scratch himself or shake his head, and the ear was clean and cool. The seton was removed; but the animal being confined, a little redness again appeared in the ear, which the lotion soon removed. At the expiration of a month he was dismissed apparently cured; but he afterwards had a return of his old mangy complaints, which bade defiance to every mode of treatment. Herr Maassen, V. S., Wümemburg, has lately introduced, and with much success, the use of creosote for the cure of canker in the ear. The first experiment was on a setter with canker in his ear. The owner of the dog had ordered it to be hanged, as all remedies had failed in producing a cure. Herr Maassen prescribed creosoti 3ss. et spirit, vini rectificat. 3ij. This mixture was applied once in every day to the diseased part. In a few weeks the dog was completely cured, and has since had no return of the complaint. In a terrier, and also in three spaniels, the effect of this application was equally satisfactory. In some cases, where the disease showed itself in a less degree, the creosote was dissolved in water, instead of spirit of wine. It is always necessary to take away the collar while the dog is under treatment, in order that the flap of the ear may not be injured by striking against it. VEGETATING EXCRESCENCES IN THE EAR. (By F. J. J. Rigot.) Productions of this kind, which he had the opportunity of observing only once, are sometimes united in masses, and completely close the auditive canal. The surface is granulated and black, and there escapes from it an unctuous fetid discharge. On both sides the animal is exceedingly susceptible of pain, and the excrescences bleed if the slightest pressure is brought to bear upon them. He thought it right to cut away these excrescences bodily, which he found to be composed of a strong dense tissue, permitting much blood to escape through an innumerable quantity of vascular openings. They were reproduced with extreme promptitude after they had been cut off or cauterized. Some of them appeared no more after being destroyed by the nitrate of mercury. Sometimes, however, twenty-four hours after a simple incision, not followed by cauterization, these productions acquire an almost incredible size. It seemed, in M. Rigot's case, to be impossible to conquer the evil, and the patient was destroyed. ERUPTIONS IN THE EAR. A Newfoundland dog had long been subject to mangy eruptions on the back and in the feet. They had suddenly disappeared, and the whole of the inside of the ear became covered with scaly eruptions. The skin was red; there was considerable thickening of the ear, and a discharge from the base of it. The canker-lotion was used, a physic-ball given every second day, and a seton inserted in the poll reaching from ear to ear. No apparent benefit resulted. A little calamine ointment, to which was added one-eighth part of mercurial ointment, was then tried, and considerable benefit immediately experienced. The dog no longer continued to scratch himself or to shake his head, and the ear became clean and cool. The seton was removed, and nothing remained but a little occasional redness, which the lotion very soon dispersed. The owner, however, became ultimately tired of all this doctoring, and the animal was destroyed. A poodle had had exceedingly bad ears during several months. There was considerable discharge, apparently giving much pain. The dog was continually shaking his head and crying. A seton was introduced, the canker-lotion was resorted to, and alterative and purgative medicines exhibited. On the 29th of December the discharge from the ear ceased; but, owing to the neglect of the servant, it soon broke out again, and there was not only much excoriation under the ear, but, from the matting of the hair, deep ulcers formed on either side, the edges of the wound were ragged, and the skin was detached from the muscular parts beneath. Probes were introduced on each side, which passed down the neck and nearly met. The smell was intolerably offensive, and the dog was reduced almost to a skeleton. I was, for the second time, sent for to see the case. I immediately recommended that the animal should be destroyed; but this was not permitted. I then ordered that it should daily be carefully washed, and diluted tincture of myrrh be applied to the wounds. They showed no disposition to heal, and the dog gradually sunk under the continued discharge and died. VIOLENT AFFECTION OF THE EAR. 20th May, 1928.--A spaniel screamed violently, even when it was not touched, and held its head permanently on one side, as if the muscles were contracted. The glands beneath the ear were enlarged, but the bowels were regular; the nose was not hot; there was no cough. A warm bath was ordered, with aperient medicine. On the 22d she was no better. I examined the case more carefully. The left ear was exceedingly hot and tender: she would scarcely bear me to touch it. I continued the aperient medicine, and ordered a warm lotion to be applied, consisting of the liquor plumbi acetatis and infusion of digitalis. She improved from the first application of it, and in a few days was quite well. A fortnight afterwards the pain returned. The lotion was employed, but not with the same success. A seton was then applied. She wore it only four days, when the pain completely disappeared. I have an account in my records of the conduct of a coward, who, coming from such a breed, was not worthy of the trouble we took with him. He was a Newfoundland dog, two years old, with considerable enlargement, redness, and some discharge from both ears. He was sent to our hospital for treatment. When no one was near him, he shook his head and scratched his ears, and howled dreadfully. Many times in the course of the day he cried as if we were murdering him. We sent him home thoroughly well, and glad we were to get rid of him. CROPPING OF THE EARS. I had some doubt, whether I ought not to omit the mention of this cruel practice. Mr. Blaine very properly says, that "it is one that does not honour the inventor, for nature gives nothing in vain. Beauty and utility appear in all when properly examined, but in unequal degrees. In some, beauty is pre-eminent; while, in others, utility appears to have been the principal consideration. That must, therefore, be a false taste, that has taught us to prefer a 'curtailed' organ to a perfect one, without gaining any convenience by the operation." He adds, and it is my only excuse saying one word about the matter, that "custom being now fixed, directions are proper for its performance." The owner of the dog commences with maiming him while a puppy. He finds fault with the ears that nature has given him, and they are rounded or cut into various shapes, according to his whim or caprice. It is a cruel operation. A great deal of pain is inflicted by it, and it is often a long time before the edge of the wound will heal: a fortnight or three weeks at least will elapse ere the animal is free from pain. It has been pleaded, and I would be one of the last to oppose the plea, that the ears of many dogs are rounded on account of the ulcers which attack and rend the conch; because animals with short ears defend themselves most readily from the attacks of others: because, in their combats with each other, they generally endeavour to lay hold of the neck or the ears; and, therefore, when their ears are shortened, they have considerable advantage over their adversary. There is some truth in this plea; but, otherwise, the operation of cropping is dependent on caprice or fashion. If the ears of dogs must be cropped, it should not be done too early. Four, five, or six weeks should first pass; otherwise, they will grow again, and the second cropping will not produce a good appearance. The scissors are the proper instruments for accomplishing the removal of the ear; the tearing of the cartilages out by main force is an act of cruelty that none but a brute in human shape would practise; and, if he attempts it, it is ten to one that he does not obtain a good crop. If the conch is torn out, there is nothing remaining to retain the skin round the auricular opening: it may be torn within the auditory canal, and as that is otherwise very extensible in the dog, it is prolonged above the opening, which may then probably be closed by a cicatrix. The animal will in this case always remain deaf, at least in one ear. In the mean time, the mucous membrane that lines the 'meatus auditorias' subsists, the secretion of the wax continues; it accumulates and acquires an irritating quality; the irritation which it causes produces an augmentation of the secretion, and soon the whole of the subcutaneous passage becomes filled, and seems to assume the form of a cord; and it finishes by the dog continuing to worry himself, shaking his head, and becoming subject to fits. Mr. Blaine very naturally observes, that, "it is not a little surprising that this cruel custom is so frequently, or almost invariably, practised on pug-dogs, whose ears, if left alone to nature, are particularly handsome and hang very gracefully. It is hardly to be conceived how the pug's head--which is not naturally beautiful except in the eye of perverted taste--is improved by suffering his ears to remain." If the cropping is to be practised, the mother should have been previously removed. It is quite erroneous, that her licking the wounded edges will be serviceable. On the contrary, it only increases their pain, and deprives the young ones of the best balsam that can be applied--the blood that flows from their wounds. POLYPI IN THE EARS. Dr. Mercer, in The Veterinarian, of July, 1844, gives an interesting account of the production of polypi in the meatus of the ear. He considers that there are two kinds of polypi--first, the soft, vascular and bleeding polypus, usually produced from the fibro-cartilaginous structure of the outer half of the tube; and, secondly, the hard and cartilaginous polypus or excrescence produced from the lining membrane of its inner half. The first is termed the hæmatoid polypus, and the other the chondromatous. The dog suffering under either generally has a dull, heavy, and rather watery eye. He moans or whines at intervals. If his master is present he feels a relief in pressing and rubbing his aching ear against him. At other times he presses and rubs his ear against the ground, in order to obtain a slight relief, flapping his ears and shaking his head; the mouth being opened and the tongue protruded, and the affected ear pointing to the ground. Then comes a sudden, and often a profuse, discharge of fetid pus. The local discharge of pus and blood becomes daily more and more fetid, and the poor animal becomes an object of disgust. In the first variety of polypus, where it is practicable, the soft and vascular excrescence should be excised with a pair of scissors or a small knife, or it may be noosed by a ligature of silk or of silver wire, or twisted off with a pair of forceps. Immediately after its removal, the base of the tumour should be carefully destroyed by the nitrate of silver, and this should be repeated as long as there is any appearance of renewed growth. Any ulcer or carious condition of the meatus should be immediately removed. In order to protect the diseased parts, a soft cap should be used, and within the ear a little cotton wadding may defend the ear from injury. Dr. Mercer very properly remarks that, in the second or chondromatous variety of polypus of the meatus, the treatment must depend upon the concomitant circumstances. If the tumour is seated close to the membrana tympani, and has a broad and sessile base, then it cannot be excised or noosed with any degree of success. It must therefore be treated by the daily application of the solid nitrate of silver, applied exactly to its surface; and, in the intervals of application, the use of any collyria may be had recourse to. If the substance of the growth be firm and solid, and possess little sensibility, then a very speedy mode of getting rid of it is to divide its substance with a small knife; and afterwards, by applying the solid nitrate of silver, the tumour will soon be sloughed away. The dog is liable to polypi in the nasal cavity, in the anus, and in the vagina, which it will not be out of place to mention here. The polypi of the nasal and of the anal cavities often show themselves under the form of rounded bodies, projecting from the nose or anus. Their size and consistence are variable--sometimes soft, tearing with the greatest facility, and bleeding at the slightest touch; at other times, solid and covered with pituitary membrane. They are generally the result of ulcerations, wounds, fractures, perforations of the turbinated bones, sinuses,&c. These polypous productions obstruct the passage of the air, and more or less impede the breathing. They are best extirpated by means of a ligature, or circular compression, on the pedicle of the polypus, and tightened every second day. We may discover the presence of a tumour of this nature in one of the nasal passages, when, on putting our hand to the orifice of the nostril, there issues little or no air; or when we sound the nostril with the finger or a probe, or examine it on a bright day. The methods of destroying polypi in the nasal cavity vary with the texture, size, form, and position of these excrescences. Excision with the bistoury, or with scissors, may be tried when the polypus is near the orifice of the nostril, and particularly when it is not large at the base. Excision should be followed by cauterization with the red-hot iron, by which a portion of the base of the tumour is destroyed, and which could not be reached by a sharp instrument. To succeed in these operations, it is frequently necessary to cut through the false nostril. The edges of the wound may afterwards be united by a suture. The ligature, or circular compression, excised immediately on the pedicle of the polypus, by means of a wire or waxed string, and directed into the nasal cavity by means of a proper instrument, may he tried when the polypus is deeply situated, and particularly when its base is narrow. But, for this operation, which is difficult to perform, and which may be followed by a new polypous production, when the base is not perfectly destroyed, we may substitute the forcible detachment, especially when we have to act on vascular and soft excrescences. The Italian greyhound is strangely subject to these polypi in the matrix or vagina. The reason for it is difficult to explain. A bitch, ten years old, was brought to the author on the 20th December, 1843, with an oval substance, as large as a thrush's egg, occasionally protruding from the vagina. I advised that it should be removed by means of a ligature; but the owner was afraid, and a fortnight was suffered to pass before she was brought again. The tumour had rapidly increased; it was as large as a pigeon's egg, considerably excoriated, and the pedicle being almost as large as the tumour itself. The operation was now consented to. I passed a ligature as firmly round the pedicle and as high up as I could. The bitch scarcely seemed to suffer any pain. 3d Jan.--The circulation is evidently cut off, and the tumour is assuming a thoroughly black hue, but it appears to cause no inconvenience to the dog. I tightened the ligature. 4th. The tumour is now completely black, considerably protruded, and apparently destitute of feeling. I again tightened the ligature. 5th. The tumour not appearing disposed to separate, and the uterus seeming to be drawn back by its weight, I cut off the tumour close to the ligature. Not the slightest pain seemed to be given, and the tumour was hard and black. There was, however, a very little oozing of bloody fluid, which continuing to the 8th, I injected a slight solution of alum into the vagina, and three days afterwards the discharge was perfectly stopped. [Although our author has given us several interesting and practical pages upon the diseases of the ear and its appendages, it seems to us that the arrangement of the matter is rather objectionable, and not sufficiently explicit to be easily comprehended by sportsmen, not before familiar with the subject; we therefore add a concise resumé or epitome of these troublesome affections, which we trust will be found of practical utility to the reader. SIMPLE OTORRHÆA, or running from the ear, produced by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the external auditory canal, is of frequent occurrence. The dog should be purged with salts, and the ear washed with castile soap and tepid water. The following solution may be introduced several times a day: [Symbol: Rx] Sulphate of zinc [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. or, [Symbol: Rx] Sugar of lead [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] i. If the discharge be fetid, the following may be applied often: [Symbol: Rx] Chloride of lime [Symbol: drachm] i. Water 1 pint. This affection in old dogs is very troublesome, and in most cases impossible to cure. Alum, zinc, copper, lead, and other astringent applications may be used in powder, as a local application in these cases. A seton and blisters will also be serviceable. TUMORS OF THE FLAP. A tumour, particularly in old dogs, is often seen extending from the tip of the flap even to the base of the ear. It progresses slowly but surely, if not interfered with in its career, and will become eventually enormously large and very painful. These tumours are most common in old setters, Newfoundlands, and hounds. Treatment'.--The tumour, at its commencement, may be discussed by the application of astringent washes, as warm vinegar, water, and laudanum, or sugar of lead. When, however, it has become more extensive, the only remedy is opening it through its whole extent, and pressing out its purulent content. A poultice may then be applied, and tepid fomentations used for several days. It is often extremely difficult to heal up the abscess, or arrest the fetid discharge that is constantly collecting: a seton placed in the poll, in connexion with washes of a stimulating character, will, however, effect a cure, if patiently persevered in. Either of the following will answer this purpose: [Symbol: Rx] Chloride of lime [Symbol: drachm] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. Mix. or, [Symbol: Rx] Sulphate of zinc [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] jii. Mix. We used on one occasion tincture of iodine with perfect success in an old and obstinate case. CANKER IN THE EAR. This is a rather indefinite term, as applied to the diseased ear of a dog; in fact, any malignant corroding sore may be called a canker, no matter where situated. Some writers describe, under the head of canker, a violent chronic otitis, attended by a purulent sanguinoid discharge. Others understand by canker a species of erysipelatous inflammation, that makes its appearance on the inside of the flap, and extends itself to the interior of the ear. What we understand by canker, is an acute inflammation of the lining membrane of the ear, destroying the tympanum or drum, and producing total deafness. The secretion is often considerable, and if not removed, will soon fill up the cavity of the ear with a dark reddish deposit, which greatly increases the irritation and inflammation of the parts. Mr. Blaine states that he has seen this disease take a very malignant character, and extend its ravages over the face, destroying the soft parts, and even penetrating through the bone into the interior of the head. 'Causes'.--This disease may he excited by any of those causes that produce a general or local inflammatory action; exposure to cold, the presence of malignant diseases on other portions of the body, high living, heat, confinement, or extraneous substances lodged in the organ itself. Water-dogs are most subject to this affection, owing, no doubt, to the frequent afflux of blood to these parts, while the remainder of the body is immersed in the water. A tendency to this peculiar inflammation may also be produced in these animals by the action of the water upon the delicate membranes of the ear, which occasions a violent shaking of the head and beating of the flaps, which not unfrequently bruises them considerably. Dogs that seldom or never go into the water are not, however, by any means exempt from the disease; as we have often seen it developed in terriers, mastiffs, and every species of mongrel. 'Treatment'.--When the disease appears in its acute form, and without any apparent cause beyond luxurious living and confinement, bleeding, purging, low diet, and regular exercise, together with tepid and soothing washes, will generally relieve the inflammatory action of the parts. The ear should be carefully and tenderly washed out with castile soap, and a small quantity of the following solution poured into it two or three times daily, and the ear worked about gently in the hand to secure the percolation of the fluid through its structure. [Symbol: Rx] Goulard's extract [Symbol: ounce] sj. Water 1 pint. Mix. or, [Symbol: Rx] Sugar of lead [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. or, [Symbol: Rx] Powdered alum [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. The above mixtures should be warmed before using, otherwise the dog may resist their introduction. When the disease from bad treatment or neglect has subsided into the chronic form, and ulceration and suppuration have commenced, it will be necessary to pursue a somewhat different treatment, and remain more patient, awaiting the result. At this time the auditory passage is filled with a dark purulent secretion, which forms a thick and irritating crust. This deposit should first be removed by washing with castile soap and tepid water, and the daily application of a hop poultice. If there be much inflammatory action of the parts, the dog may be bled, and alterative or purgative balls administered. The following wash must be used two or three times daily. [Symbol: Rx] Sugar of lead [Symbol: scruple] i. Laudanum gtt.--20 (drops.) Water [Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. As the discharge is usually very offensive, the following solution will correct its fetor, and should be injected or poured in the ear. [Symbol: Rx] Chloride of lime [Symbol: drachm] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] vi. Mix. If granulations have sprung up, touch them with a camel's hair brush, dipped in the following mixture: [Symbol: Rx] Sulphate of copper [Symbol: scruple] i. Water [Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. If, however, the excrescences continue to sprout from the cartilage, and the discharge continues unabated and offensive, they may be excised and the parts brushed over with nitrate of silver in substance. After this operation the flap often becomes extremely tender and much swollen; poultices of poppy-heads or hops will often afford much relief. Setons are of much value in the treatment of obstinate cases, and should be placed in the poll, and kept open till a cure is effected, or the case abandoned. All greasy applications to the parts should be discarded; the only one we consider allowable would be a very nice preparation of fresh butter, alum, and laudanum, smeared over the surface of the ulcers when very indolent and painful. The following wash will be found very soothing in the same case: [Symbol: Rx] Opium gtt. 20. Gum arabic iss-- Lime water [Symbol: ounce] iv. If the disease has progressed far enough to destroy a considerable portion of the cartilages, and perforate the tympanum, more care is necessary in using the above washes, as the fluid will enter the internal ear through this opening, and cause much uneasiness to the animal, if not fatal consequences. WOUNDS OF THE EAR. Wounds of the flap are often occasioned by the tearing of poisonous briars, while hunting in close cover, or in conflict with other dogs. The former will generally heal up without much trouble, but the latter, when extensive, sometimes two or three inches in length, by requiring uniting by one or more sutures, to prevent deformity. WARTS. When these little excrescences appear on the external or internal portions of the flap, they may be taken off with the knife, and caustic applied to the wound, to induce them to heal, and keep down further granulations. CANKER OF THE EDGE OF THE FLAP. When a corroding sore of this nature attacks the edges of the ear, and refuses to yield to the application of a few stimulating washes, such as sulphate of copper, alum, borax, nitrate of silver, &c., the diseased edges may be paired off, and the actual cautery applied to the parts. This will frequently arrest its further progress. POLYPUS OF THE EAR Polypi often spring up from the interior of the ear; they may be cut off with the scissors, or by the application of a fine wire, or horse-hair ligature. The wound should be touched with caustic, tincture of iodine, or the actual cautery. DISEASES OF THE EAR--MANGY EDGES This affection generally accompanies the same disease in other portions of the body, but may occasionally make its appearance independent of this cause. The edges of the flap become rough, thickened, and furrowed, the itching intolerable; and the dog perpetually shaking and scratching the head, occasions a constant oozing of blood from the wound. Smooth-baited dogs are most subject to this disease, such as pointers, hounds, and terriers. 'Treatment'--Slightly stimulating washes, such as castile soap, alum-water, or infusion of oak-bark, will, in the majority of cases, induce these sores to heal up. If these do not answer, it will be necessary to use the mange ointment, keeping the animal hobbled to prevent him from scratching. Old inveterate cases are best cured by trimming off the affected parts.--L.] CHAPTER X--ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NOSE AND MOUTH ETC. THE ETHMOID BONES. There is some difficulty in describing the ethmoid bones; but we shall not, however, deviate far from the truth if we give the following account: A great number of small hollow pedicles proceed from and form around the cribriform plate; as they move downwards, they project into distinct vesicles or cavities, smaller and more numerous behind, fewer in number and larger in front; and each of them not a simple cavity, but more or less convoluted, while the long walls of those cells are of gossamer thinness, and as porous as gauze. They even communicate, and are lined, and externally wrapped together, by the same membrane; the whole assuming a pear-like form, attached by its base or greater extremity, and decreasing in size as it proceeds downwards; the cells becoming fewer, and terminating at length in a kind of apex, which passes under the superior turbinated bone, and forms a valve between the nasal cavity and the maxillary sinuses. If to this is added, that the olfactory or first pair of nerves abut on these cribriform plates, and pass through their minute openings, and spread themselves over every one of these cells, we have a tolerably correct picture of this portion of the ethmoid bones. This nerve has different degrees of development in different animals, in proportion to their acuteness of smell. There is comparatively but little necessity for acuteness in the horse. The ox has occasion for somewhat more, especially in the early part of the spring, when the plants are young, and have not acquired their peculiar scent. In the sheep it is larger, and fills the superior portion of the nasal cavity; but in the dog it seems to occupy that cavity almost to the exclusion of the turbinated bones. It is also much more fragile in the dog than in the ox, and the plates have a considerably thinner structure. The ethmoid bone of the horse or the ox may be removed from its situation with little injury; but that of the dog can scarcely be meddled with without fracture. Below it are the two turbinated bones; but they are reduced to insignificance by the bulk of the ethmoid bone. The inferior turbinated bone in the dog is very small, but it is curiously complicated. The 'meatus' contains three distinct channels; and the air, loitering, as it were, in it, and being longer in contact with the sensitive membrane by which it is lined, contributes to the acuter sense of smell. The larger cavity is along the floor of the nasal duct. It is the proper air-passage; and because it has this important function to discharge, it is out of the way of violence or injury. The 'lachrymal duct' is the channel through which the superfluous tears are conveyed to the lower parts of the nostril. A long canal here commences, and runs down and along the maxillary bone. It is very small, and terminates in the cuticle, in order that the highly sensitive membrane of the nose may not be excoriated by the tears occasionally rendered acrimonious in inflammation of the eye. The oval termination of this duct is easily brought into view by lifting the nostril. From some occasional acrimony of the tears, the lining of this duct may be inflamed and thickened, or some foreign body, or some unctuous matter from the ciliary glands, may insinuate itself into the duct, and the fluid accumulates in the sac and distends it, and it bursts; or the ulcer eats through the integument, and there is a small fistulous opening beneath the inner canthus of the eye, or there is a constant discharge from it. It is this constant discharge that prevents the wound from healing. In some cases the lachrymal bone is involved in the ulcerative process and becomes carious. In the dog, and particularly in the smaller spaniel, the watery eye, 'fistula lachrymalis', is of no unusual occurrence. The fistula will be recognised by a constant, although perhaps slight, discharge of pus. The structure and office of the 'velum palati', or veil of the palate, is in the horse a perfect interposed section between the cavity of the mouth and the nose, and cutting off all communication between them. In the dog, who breathes almost entirely through the mouth, the velum palati is smaller; the tensor muscle, so beautifully described by Mr. Percivall, is weak, but the circumflex one is stronger and more developed. When 'coryza' in the dog runs on to catarrh, and the membrane of the pharynx partakes of the inflammation, the velum palati becomes inflamed and thickened, but will not act as a perfect communication between the mouth and the nose. When there is a defluxion from the nose, tinged by the colour of the food, and particles of food mingle with it, we have one of the worst symptoms that can present itself, because it proves the extent and violence of the inflammation. In inflammatory affections of the membrane of the nose in the dog, we often observe him snorting in a very peculiar way, with his head protruding, and the inspiration as forcible as the expiration. An emetic will usually afford relief, or grain doses of the sulphate of copper. THE NASAL BONES. The nasal bones of the dog (see fig. 2, in the head of the dog, page 181) are very small, as they are in all carnivorous animals. Instead of constituting the roof, and part of the outer wall of the cavity, as in other animals, the nasal bones form only a portion, and a small one, of the roof. The 'superior maxillaries' here swell into importance, and constitute the whole of the outer wall, and, sometimes, a part of the roof. The jaws are the weapons of offence and defence; and as much space as possible is devoted to the insertion of those muscles that will enable the animal to seize and to hold his prey. One of the most powerful of them, the 'masseter', rises from the superior maxillary bone, and spreads over its whole extent: therefore, that bone is developed, while the nasal bone is compressed into a very small space. The substitution of a portion of cartilage, instead of bone, at the posterior part of the orbital ring, in order to give more play for the coracoid process of the posterior maxillary, round which the temporal bone is wrapped, is a contrivance of the same nature. The scent of the dog is not sacrificed or impaired by the apparent diminution of the nasals; for the cavity enlarges considerably upward, and is occupied chiefly by the 'ethmoid bone', which, having the greater portion of nervous pulp spread on it, seems to have most to do with the sense of smell. The nasal bones of the dog are essentially different from those of the horse, cattle, and sheep. They commence, indeed, as high up in the face as those of the horse, their superior extremities being opposite to the lachrymal gland; but that commencement is an apex or point varying materially in different breeds. They form, altogether, one sharp projection, and are received within breeds these processes extend nearly one-third of the length of the nasals. The superior maxillary (3.3.) takes the situation of the nasal (2.), pushes the lachrymal bone (4.) out of its place, and almost annihilates it, reaches the frontal bone (7.) and expands upon it, and forms with it the same denticulated suture which is to be seen in the nasal. The action of the muscle between these bones, and for the development of which all this sacrifice is made, is exceedingly powerful. The strength of this muscle in a large dog is almost incredible: the sutures between these bones must possess corresponding strength; and so strong is the union between them, that, in many old dogs, the suture between the superior maxillary and frontal bones is nearly obliterated, and that between the nasal and frontal maxillary quite effaced. As the nasal bones proceed downward they become somewhat wider. They unite with a long process of the anterior maxillary for the purpose of strength, and then terminate in a singular way. They have their apexes or points on the outer edge of the bone; and these apexes or points are so contrived, that, lying upon, and seemingly losing themselves, on the processes of the anterior maxillary, they complete, superiorly and posteriorly, that elliptical bony opening into the nose which was commenced by the maxillary anteriorly and inferiorly. The nasal cavity of the dog, therefore, and of all carnivorous animals, terminates by a somewhat circular opening, more or less in the form of an ellipse. This bony aperture varies in size in different dogs, and, as we should expect from what we have seen of the adaptation of structure to the situation and wants of the animal, it is largest in those on whom we are most dependent for speed and stoutness. The 'olfactory', or first pair of nerves, have a double origin, namely, from the 'corpus striatum' and the base of the 'corpus callosum'. They are prolongations of the medullary substance of the central portion of the brain. They are the largest of the cerebral nerves. Their course is exceedingly short; and they have not a single anastomosis, in order that the impression made on them may be conveyed undisturbed and perfect to the brain. The olfactory nerve is a prolongation of the substance of the brain, and it abuts upon the cribriform bone, of which mention has been made. I will not speak of the singular cavities which it contains, nor of their function; this belongs to the sensorial system: but its pulpy matter has already been traced to the base of the ethmoid bone, and the under part of the septum, and the superior turbinated bone. Although we soon lose it in the mucous membrane of the nose, there is little doubt that in a more filmy form it is spread over the whole of the cavity, and probably over all the sinuses of the face and head. It is, however, so mingled with the mucous membrane, that no power of the lens has enabled us to follow it so far. It is like the 'portio mollis of the seventh pair, eluding the eye, but existing in sufficient substances for the performance of its important functions. We have frequent cases of 'Ozæna' in old dogs, and sometimes in those that are younger. The discharge from the nostril is abundant and constant, and sometimes fetid. The Schneiderian membrane, of more than usual sensibility in this animal, is exposed to many causes of irritation, and debilitated and worn out before its time. Pugs are particularly subject to Ozæna. I scarcely ever knew a very old pug that had it not to a greater or less degree. The peculiar depression between the nasal and frontal bones in this breed of dogs, while it almost totally obliterates the frontal sinuses, may narrow the air-passage at that spot, and cause greater irritation there from the unusual rush of the air, and especially if the membrane becomes inflamed or any foreign body insinuates itself. Little can be done in these cases, except to encourage cleanliness about the face and nostrils. It is, in the majority of these cases, a disease of old age, and must take its course. A terrier uttered a continual loud stertorous sound in breathing, which could be plainly heard in our parlour when the dog was in the hospital. The animal was evidently much oppressed and in considerable pain. He made continual, and generally ineffectual, efforts to sneeze. When he did succeed, a very small quantity of pus-like fluid was discharged; the dog was then considerably relieved, but a quarter of an hour afterwards he was as bad as ever. I ordered a slight emetic every third day. There was some relief for seven or eight hours, and then he was as bad as ever. I could neither feel nor see any cause of obstruction. The owner became tired, and the dog was taken away; but we could not learn what became of it. Another terrier was occasionally brought for consultation. The dog breathed with considerable difficulty, and occasionally snorted with the greatest violence, and bloody purulent matter was discharged; after which he was somewhat relieved; but, in the course of a few days, the obstruction was as great as ever. I am not aware of a single instances of this affection of the pug being completely removed. The discharge from the nostrils of the bull-dog is often considerable, and, once being thoroughly established, is almost as obstinate as in the pug. OZÆNA. Ozæna, or fetid discharge from the nose, is, perhaps, the most troublesome and frequent affection that this organ is subject to; it is attended, at first, with slight fever, swelling of the parts, and a fetid discharge from the nostrils, which, if not corrected in the early stage of the disease, subsides into a chronic purulent secretion, that not only weakens the dog, but renders him peculiarly offensive. Caries and destruction of the bones of the nose will ultimately take place. 'Causes'.--Inflammation of the lining membrane of the nose, either idiopathic, or arising from distemper, or other morbid disturbance of the system. It may also be a symptom, or the produce, of polypi in this organ. 'Treatment'.--In commencing the treatment of this disease, it will be necessary first to prescribe some alterative medicines, as balls of aloes and rhubarb, and protect the animal from all severe atmospherical vicissitudes. This precaution, in connexion with mild astringent injections into the seat of the disorder, will generally effect a cure. 'Injections for Ozæna'. No. 1. [Symbol: Rx] Sulphate of Zinc.........................grs. v to x. Water..............................[Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. No. 2. [Symbol: Rx] Alum.............................[Symbol: scruple] ii. Water..............................[Symbol: ounce] i. Mix No. 3. [Symbol: Rx] Chloride of Soda........................grs. v. to x. Water..............................[Symbol: ounce] i. Mix. No. 4. [Symbol: Rx] Teneriffe, Madeira or Sherry wine..[Symbol: ounce] i. Extract of Tannin.............................grs. iv. Mix. [Any of the above injections will answer a good purpose. No. 3 is particularly useful to correct the fetidness of the discharge. When the disease is an old chronic affection, it should not be arrested too suddenly by astringent injections; in such cases it will be better to insert a seton in the poll, and thus keep up a drain from the system after the suppression of the other.--L.] THE SENSE OF SMELL. In the dog we trace the triumph of 'olfactory power'. How indistinct must be that scent which is communicated to, and lingers on, the ground by the momentary contact of the foot of the hare, the fox, or the deer; yet the hound, of various breeds, recognises it for hours, and some sportsmen have said for more than a day. He also can not only distinguish the scent of one species of animal from another, but that of different animals of the same species. The fox-hound, well broken-in, will rarely challenge at the scent of the hare, nor will he be imposed upon when the crafty animal that he pursues has taken refuge in the earth, and thrusts out a new victim before the pack. The sense of smelling is, to a certain degree, acute in all dogs. It is a provision wisely and kindly made, in order to guide them to their proper food, or to fit them for our service. It may possibly be the medium through which much evil is communicated. Certain particles of a deleterious nature may be, and doubtless are, arrested by the mucous membrane of the nose, and there absorbed, and the constitution, to a considerable degree, becomes affected. Hence appears the necessity for attention to ventilation, and especially to prevent the membrane of the nose from being habitually stimulated and debilitated by the effluvia generated in a close and hot kennel. M. Majendie instituted some curious experiments on the sense of smelling, and he was led to believe that it depended more on the fifth pair of nerves than on the olfactory nerve. He divided the fifth pair, and from that moment no odour, no puncture, produced the slightest apparent impression on the membrane of the nose. In another dog he destroyed the two olfactory nerves, and placed some strong odours beneath the nostrils of the animal. The dog conducted himself as he would have done in his ordinary state. Hence he concluded it probable that the olfactory nerve was not that of smelling. The simple fact, however, is, that there are two species of nerves here concerned--those of common and of peculiar sensation. The olfactory nerve is the nerve of smelling, the fifth pair is that of common sensation. They are to a certain degree necessary to each other. 'Scent'.--This leads us to the consideration of the term "scent." It expresses the odour or effluvium which is constantly issuing from every animal, and especially when that animal is in more than usual exercise. In a state of heat or excitement, the pores of the skin appear relaxed, and a fluid or aqueous vapour is secreted, which escapes in small or large quantities, adheres to the persona or substances on which it falls, and is, particularly, received on the olfactory organs. The hound, at almost the earliest period, begins to comprehend the work which he has to perform. The peculiar scent which his nostrils imbibe urges him eagerly to pursue but the moment he ceases to be conscious of the presence of the effluvium, he is at a perfect loss. Mr. Daniel, in his work on the Chase, very properly observes, that "the scent most favourable to the hound is when the effluvium, constantly perspired from the game as it runs, is kept by the gravity of the air at the height of his breast. It is then neither above his reach nor does he need to stoop for it. This is what is meant when the scent is said to be breast-high." When the leaves begin to fall, the scent does not lie well in the cover. It frequently alters materially in the same day. This depends principally on the condition of the ground and the temperature of the air, which should be moist but not wet. When the ground is hard and the air dry, there will seldom be much scent. The scent rarely lies with a north or east wind. A southerly wind without rain is the best. Sudden storms are sure to destroy the scent. A fine sunshiny day is not good; but a warm day without sun is always a good one. If, as the morning advances, the drops begin to hang on the bushes, the scent will not lie. During a white frost the scent lies high, and also when the frost is quite gone; but at the time of its going off the scent never lies. In a hard rain, if the air is mild, the scent will sometimes be very good. A wet night often produces the best chases. In heathy countries, where the game brushes the grass or the boughs as it goes along, the scent seldom fails. It lies best on the richest soils; but the countries that are favourable to horses are not always so to hounds. The morning usually affords the best scent, and the game is then least able to escape. The want of rest, added perhaps to a full belly, gives the hounds a decided superiority over an early-found fox; and the condition of the ground and the temperature of the air are circumstances of much importance. Such are the results of the best observations on scent; but, after all, we have much to learn concerning it. Many a day that predicated to be a good one for scent has turned out a very bad one, and 'vice versa'. An old or experienced sportsman, knowing this, will never presume to make sure of his scent. We shall be forgiven if we pursue this subject a little at length. There is not only a constant appropriation of new matter to repair the losses that animals are continually sustaining, but there is a constant elaboration of gaseous or fluid matter maintaining the balance of the different systems, and essential to the continuance of life. This effluvium, as the animal moves from place to place, is attracted and detained for a while by the substances with which it comes into contact, or it remains floating in the atmosphere. There is a peculiar smell or scent belonging to each individual, either generally or under peculiar circumstances. The sportsman takes advantage of this; and, as most species of dogs possess great acuteness of olfactory power, they can distinguish, or are readily taught to distinguish, not only the scent of the hare from that of the fox, but that of the hare or fox which they are pursuing from that of half a dozen others that may be started during the chase. The dogs that are selected for this purpose are those the conformation of whose face and head gives ample room for the development of the olfactory apparatus, and these are the different species of hounds; but a systematic education, and too often a great deal of unnecessary cruelty, is resorted to, in order to make them perfect in their work. The distinction between the scent of the fox and that of the hare is soon learned by the respective packs; and, when it is considered that the hunted hare is perspiring at every pore, and her strength being almost exhausted, she is straining every limb to escape from her pursuers, the increasing quantity of vapour which exudes from her will prevent every other newly started animal from being mistaken for her. It has been well observed that when the atmosphere is loaded with moisture, and rain is at hand, the gas is speedily dissolved and mingles with the surrounding air. A storm dissipates it at once, while the cessation of the rain is preceded by the return and increased power of scent. A cold, dry easterly wind condenses and absorbs it, and this is even more speedily and irretrievably done by superabundant moisture. On fallows and beaten roads the scent rarely lies well, for there is nothing to detain it, and it is swept away in a moment; while over a luxuriant pasture, or by the hedge-row, or on the coppice, it lingers, clinging to the grass or the bushes. In a sunshiny day the scent is seldom strong; for too much of it is evaporated by the heat. The most favourable period is a soft southerly wind without rain, the scent being of the same temperature and gravity with the atmosphere. Although it spreads over the level, it rises not far above the ground, and, being 'breast high', enables the hound, keeping his muzzle in the midst of it, to run at his greatest speed. The different manners or attitudes in which the dog runs afford pleasing and satisfactory illustrations of the nature of the scent. Sometimes they will be seen galloping with their noses in the air, as if their game had flown away, and, an hour or two afterwards, every one of them will have his muzzle on the ground. The specific gravity of the atmosphere has changed, and the scent has risen of fallen in proportion. A westerly wind stands next to a southerly one, for a hunting morning. This is all simple enough, and needs not the mystification with which it has been surrounded. A valuable account of this may be found in Johnson's Shooting Companion, a work that is justly and highly approved. Mr. Delmé Radcliffe has also, in his splendid work on "the noble science," some interesting remarks on the scent of hounds. He says that there is an idiosyncracy, a peculiarity, in their several dispositions. Some young hounds seem to enter on their work instinctively. From their first to their last appearance in the field they do no wrong. Others, equally good, will take no notice of anything; they will not stoop to any scent during the first season, and are still slack at entering even at the second; but are ultimately distinguished at the head of the pack; and such usually last some seasons longer than the more precocious of the same litter. THE TONGUE. The manner of drinking is different in the different animals. The horse, the ox, and the sheep do not plunge their muzzles into the water, but bring their lips into contact with it and sip it gradually. The dog, whose tongue is longer, plunges it a little way into the fluid, and, curving its tip and its edges, laps, in the language of Johnson, with a "quick reciprocation of the tongue." The horse sucks the water that is placed before him, the dog laps it; and both of them are subject to inflammation of the tongue, to enlargement of that organ, and to a considerable or constant flow of saliva over it. Extending from the base to the tip of the tongue there is on either side a succession of tendons, which help to retain the tongue in the mouth, and to curve the edge of it, so as to convey the food or the water to the posterior part of the mouth. These all spring from one central cord, and ramify over the membrane of the tongue. On opening the mouth, and keeping it open by means of two pieces of tape, one behind the upper canine teeth, and the other behind the lower ones, and drawing the tongue from the mouth and exposing its under surface, a cuticular fold or ridge will present itself, occupying a middle line from the base of the tongue to its very point. If this is opened with a lancet, a minute fibrous cord will be exposed through its whole extent. It is the cord which governs the motions of the tongue. This cord is, sometimes, foolishly and uselessly detached from its adhesions, so far as we can effect it, and drawn forward with a tenaculum and divided. There is one abominable course pursued in effecting this. The violence used in stripping down the tendon is so great, and the lacerated fibrous substance is put so much on the stress, and its natural elasticity is so considerable, that it recoils and assumes the appearance of a dying worm, and the dog is said to have been wormed. For the sake of humanity, as well as to avoid the charge of ignorance, it is to be hoped that this practice will speedily cease. THE BLAIN. The blain is a vesicular enlargement on the lateral and under part of the tongue in horses, oxen, and dogs, which, although not of unfrequent occurrence, or peculiarly fatal result, has not been sufficiently noticed by veterinary authors. In the horse and the dog it is often unaccompanied by any previous indisposition, or by other disease; but suddenly there is a copious discharge of saliva, at first limpid and without smell, but soon becoming purulent, bloody, and exceedingly fetid. On examination, the tongue is found apparently enlarged. It is elevated from its base between the maxillary bones, and on the side and towards the base of it are seen large vesicles, pellucid, red, livid, or purple; and, if the discharge is fetid, having near their bases ulcers, irregular, unhealthy, and gangrenous. In the horse and the dog the progress of the disease is slow, and seldom extends beyond the sides of the tongue. The vesicles are not of such magnitude as to interfere with respiration, and the ulcers are neither many nor foul. In cattle it is sadly different. The vesicles attain an enormous size. They quickly break and form deep ulcerations, which are immediately succeeded by other vesicles still larger. The whole membrane of the mouth becomes affected; the inflammation and swelling extend to the cellular substance of the neighbouring parts, and the head and neck are considerably, and sometimes enormously, enlarged; the respiratory passages are obstructed; the animal breathes with the greatest difficulty, and is, in some cases, literally suffocated. The primary seat of blain, is the cellular substance beneath the integument of the part. As the sublingual glands stretch along the under part of the tongue, and their ducts open on the side of the frænum, it is possible that this disease may proceed from, or be connected with, obstruction or inflammation of these ducts. Dissection, however, has not proved this; and the seat of the disease, when the swellings are first discovered, is chiefly the cellular tissue between the integument and the lateral parts of the tongue, and also that between the membrane of the mouth and the sublingual glands. 'Post-mortem' examination shows intense disease: the small intestines are highly inflamed with red and black patches, which are also found in the c¾cum, colon, and rectum. The blain is more frequent in spring and summer than at other seasons of the year. These are the times when the animal is debilitated by the process of moulting, and is then more than usually disposed to inflammatory complaints. It is usually an epidemic disease. Many cases of it occur about the same time in certain districts, and over a great extent of country. When it appears in towns, the country is rarely exempt from it. I am not prepared lo say that it is contagious either in the horse or the dog. I have not seen any instance of it. At all events, it is not so virulent in these animals as it is in cattle. The vesicles should be freely lanced from end to end. There will not, perhaps, be much immediate discharge; for the vesicle will be distended by a substance imperfectly organised, or of such a glassy or inspissated nature as not readily to escape. It will, however, soon disappear; and in four-and-twenty hours, in the majority of cases, the only vestige of the disease will be an incision, not, perhaps, looking very healthy, but that will soon become so and heal. If there have been any previous ulcerations, or the slightest fetor, the mouth should he frequently washed with a diluted solution of the chloride of lime; one part of the saturated solution, and eleven of water. This will act as a powerful and useful stimulus to the foul and indolent ulcer. When all unpleasant smell is removed, the mouth should be bathed with a lotion composed of equal parts of tincture of myrrh and water, or half an ounce of alum dissolved in a quart of water, and two ounces of the tincture of catechu added to the solution. I do not recollect a case in the horse or dog, in which these medicines were not employed with advantage. In cattle, before there has been fetor attending the discharge, or the constitution has been materially affected, these simple means will perfectly succeed. If the practitioner is consulted somewhat too late, when the constitution has become affected, and typhoid fever has ensued, he should still lance the tumours, and apply the chloride of lime and the tincture of myrrh, and give a gentle aperient. He should endeavour to rouse and support the system by tonic medicines, as gentian and colomba with ginger, adding to two drachms of the first two, and one drachm of the last, half an ounce of nitre; but he should place most dependence on nourishing food. Until the mouth is tolerably sound, it is probable that the animal will not be induced to eat; but it will occasionally sip a little fluid, and, therefore, gruel should be always within its reach. More should occasionally be given, as thick as it will flow, with a spoon or small horn. [INFLAMMATION OF THE TONGUE. Glossitis or inflammation of the tongue is not an unfrequent disease, but is occasionally met with in its simple form or in connexion with inflammatory affections of the throat. Under all and any circumstances this affection must be considered a dangerous malady, as it not unfrequently proves fatal in the course of a few hours from suffocation, occasioned by the swelling of the organ itself and other portions of the throat. The disease comes on suddenly with fever, heat, swelling and redness of the tongue. The tongue protrudes from the mouth and exhibits a dry, hot, inflammatory appearance, the respiration is hurried, and the animal expresses great uneasiness, and constant desire to lap water, which he can with difficulty accomplish. If not arrested, the inflammation may terminate in suppuration, by which process the swelling is relieved, and a cure often effected. 'Causes'.--Independent of the natural agents before referred to in the production of inflammatory affections, there are some few causes to which we can especially attribute this disease. Direct injuries done to the member itself, either by wounds or stings of insects, the taking of poisonous or irritating substances into the mouth, want of water while hunting in hot weather, &c. Several years ago we witnessed the death of a very valuable pointer, suffering from this disease produced by poison maliciously administered. He was affected so suddenly and violently with inflammation of the throat and tongue that his owner, Mr. F--, was lead to believe that a bone had lodged in the throat, which was the occasion of all the trouble. After proper examination and considerable delay, he was forced to abandon this erroneous idea, but not in time to save the poor animal, who soon died from strangulation or congestion of the lungs. This valuable dog might have been saved if promptly and energetically treated. The stings of wasps or bees may also produce this affection. 'Treatment'.--Nothing can be done with this malady without the use of the lancet, by which six or eight ounces of blood should be drawn at the commencement of the disease. If the tongue is much swollen and very tender, longitudinal incisions should be made in it, extending as far back as possible, and their bleeding assisted by sponging the mouth out with tepid water. Astringent applications may then be used as washes, such as alum water, strong vinegar, infusions of oak bark or solutions of nitrate of silver, four or six grains to the ounce, to be applied once or twice a day. A large blister may also be placed under the throat, and when the inflammation is sufficiently reduced to allow the introduction of articles into the stomach, a powerful purge of aloes should be given. Nothing, however, can be done without copious bleeding.--L.] THE LIPS of the dog discharge, with somewhat less efficiency, the same office as in the horse, cattle, and sheep; and are usefully employed in gathering together the food, and conveying it to the mouth. The lips also secrete the saliva, a fluid that is indispensably necessary for the proper comminution of the food. Swellings on the inside of the cheek or upper lip, and extending nearly to the angle of the lip, are of frequent occurrence. A superficial sore spreads over it, slightly covered by a yellowish, mattery pellicle; and on the teeth, and extending down the gums, there is a deposition of hardened tartarous matter, which is scaled off with a greater or less degree of difficulty. It must be removed, or the sore will rapidly spread over the cheek. A lotion of equal parts of tincture of myrrh and water, with a few drops of the tincture of cantharides, will be usually sufficient to cause the swelling to subside, and the pellicle to be detached. The lip, however, will generally remain slightly thickened. A little soreness will sometimes return, but be easily reduced. THE TEETH next claim attention. According to the dentition of the dog by M. Girard and Linnæus, the following is the acknowledged formula: Incisors, 5/6; Canines, (1-1)/(1-1); Molars, (6-6)/(7-7),=42. The following cuts exhibit the front teeth of the dog in various stages of growth and decay: [Seven illustrations, shown in full in the html version of this text.] The full-grown dog has usually 20 teeth in the upper, and 22 in the lower jaw, with two small supernumerary molars. All of them, with the exception of the tushes, are provided with a bony neck covered by the gums, and separating the body of the tooth from the root. The projecting portion of the teeth is more or less pointed, and disposed so as to tear and crush the food on which the dog lives. They are of a moderate size when compared with those of other animals, and are subject to little loss of substance compared with the teeth of the horse. In most of them, however, there is some alteration of form and substance, both in the incisors and the tushes; but this depends so much on the kind of food on which the animal lives, and the consequent use of the teeth, that the indication of the age, by the altered appearance of the mouth, is not to be depended upon after the animal is four or five years old. The incisor teeth are six in number in each jaw, and are placed opposite to each other. In the lower jaw, the pincers, or central teeth, are the largest and the strongest; the middle teeth are somewhat less; and the corner teeth the smallest and the weakest. In the upper jaw, however, the corner teeth are much larger than the middle ones; they are farther apart from their neighbours, and they terminate in a conical point curved somewhat inwards and backwards. As long as the teeth of the full-grown dog are whole, and not injured by use, they have a healthy appearance, and their colour is beautifully white. The surface of the incisors presents, as in the ruminants, an interior and cutting edge, and a hollow or depression within. This edge or border is divided into three lobes, the largest and most projecting forming the summit or point of the tooth. The two lateral lobes have the appearance of notches cut on either side of the principal lobe; and the union of the three resembles the 'fleur de lis', which, however, is in the process of time effaced by the wearing out of the teeth. (Figs. 3 and 4.) While the incisor teeth are young, they are flattened on their sides, and bent somewhat backwards, and there is a decided cavity, in which a pulpy substance is enclosed. This, however, is gradually contracted as the age of the dog increases. M. F. Cuvier speaks of certain supernumerary teeth occasionally developed in each of the jaws. There is much irregularity accompanying them; and they have even been supposed to have extended to seven or eight in number. THE INDICATIONS OF AGE. The dog displays natural indications of age. The hair turns gray to a certain extent as in the human being. This commences about the eyes, and extends over the face, and weakens the sight; and, at ten years old, or earlier, in the majority of dogs, this can scarcely be mistaken. At fifteen or sixteen years the animal is becoming a nuisance, yet he has been known to linger on until he has reached his two-and-twentieth year. Among the diseases from which the dog suffers, there are few of more frequent occurrence than decayed teeth, especially in towns, or in the habitations of the higher classes of society: the carious teeth, in almost every case, becoming insufferably fetid, or so loose as to prevent mastication; or an immense accumulation of tartar growing round them. The course which the veterinary surgeon pursues is an exceedingly simple one. If any of the teeth are considerably loose, they must be removed. If there is any deposit of tartaric acid, it must be got rid of by means of the proper instruments, not very different from those which the human surgeon employs. The teeth must be perfectly cleaned, and every loose one taken away. Without this the dog will be an almost insufferable nuisance. The decayed and loose teeth being removed, chlorinated lime diluted with 15 or 20 times its bulk of water should be applied to the gums. By the use of this the ulcers will quickly heal; the fetor will be removed, and the deposition of the tartar prevented. Mr. Blaine first introduced the chlorinated lime for the accomplishment of these purposes. Two little histories out of a great number will sufficiently illustrate these cases. A terrier had scarcely eaten during more than a week. He dropped his meat after attempting to chew it, and the breath was very offensive. Several of the teeth were loose, and the rest were thickly encrusted with tartar. The gums had receded from the teeth, and were red, sore, and ulcerated. I removed all the loose teeth; for experience had taught me that they rarely or never became again fixed. I next, with the forceps and knife, cleaned the others, and ordered the diluted chlorinated lime to be alternated with tincture of myrrh and water. The extraction of the loose teeth, and the removal of the tartar from those that were sound, occupied a full hour; for the dog resisted with all his might. He, however, soon began to eat; the lotions were continued; and five months afterwards, the mouth of the dog was not in the slightest degree offensive. An old dog should not be quite abandoned. A pug had only four teeth remaining beside the canines. They were all thickly covered with tartar, and two of them were very loose. The gums and lips were in a dreadfully cankerous state, and the dog was unable to eat. All that he could do was to lap a little milk or broth. I extracted the two loose teeth, cleaned the others, and ordered a lotion of equal parts of tincture of myrrh and water to be applied. '13th August', 1842.--A very considerable discharge of pus was observed, with blood from the mouth, apparently proceeding from the cavity whence one of the teeth had been extracted. The dog is exceedingly thirsty, and walks round and round the water-dish, but is afraid to lap. He has not eaten for two days. Use the lotion as before, and force him with strong soup. '15th.' The dog has not voluntarily eaten, but is still forced with soup. He is very costive. Give two grains of calomel and an equal quantity of antimonial powder. '18th.' He has eaten a very little, but gets thinner and weaker. Continue the lotion. '27th.' The ulcers are nearly healed, and the discharge of pus has ceased. '31st.' The mouth is clean, the gums are healed, and there is no longer anything offensive about the dog. THE LARYNX is placed at the top of the windpipe, the exit from the lungs, and is also connected with the Schneiderian membrane. At its upper part is the epiglottis, the main guard against the passage of the food into the respiratory tubes, and, at the same time, of the instrument of the voice. It consists of five cartilages united together by a ligamentous substance, and, by distinct and perfect articulations, adapting itself to every change of the respiratory process and the production of the voice. At the base is the 'cricoid cartilage,' the support and bond of union of the rest. Above are the 'arytenoid cartilages,' resting on the 'chorda vocales' and influencing their action. The 'epiglottis' is placed at the extremity of the opening into the windpipe, with its back opposed to the pharynx, so that when a pellet of food passes from the pharynx in its way to the oesophagus, the epiglottis is applied over the glottis, and by this means closes the aperture of the larynx, and prevents any portion of the food from passing into it. The food having passed over the epiglottis, that cartilage, from its elastic power, again rises and resumes its former situation. The 'thyroid cartilage' envelopes and protects all the rest, and particularly the lining membrane of the larynx, which vibrates from the impulse of the air that passes. The vibrations spread in every direction until they reach the delicate membrane of the tympanum of the ear. That membrane responds to the motion without, and the vibration is carried on to the pulp of the auditory nerve, deep in the recesses of the ear. The loudness of the tone--its acuteness or graveness--depends on the force of the expired air and the shortening or lengthening of the chord. Hence it is, that the tone of the bark of the dog, or the neighing of the horse, depends so much on the age or size of the animal. Thus we compare the shrill bark of the puppy with the hoarse one of the adult dog; the high-toned but sweet music of the beagle with the fuller and lower cry of the fox-hound, and the deep but melodious baying of the mastiff. I may, perhaps, be permitted to add to these, the whinnying of the colt and the neighing of the horse. Each animal has his peculiar and intelligible language. He who has long lived among them will recognise the tone of delight at meeting, rising into and terminating in a sharper sound; the strong and elevated tone when they are calling to or challenging each other at a distance; the short expression of anger--the longer, deeper, hoarser tone of fear; the murmur almost as deep, but softer, of habitual attachment, and the elevated yet melodious token of sudden recognition. I could carry on a conversation with a dog that I once possessed for several minutes, and one perfectly intelligible to both. Inflammation of the larynx is a frequent and dangerous complaint. It usually commences with, and can scarcely be distinguished from, catarrh, except that it is attended by cough more violent and painful, and the dog expectorates considerably. Acute laryngitis is not so frequent an occurrence; but there is much danger attending it. Blood must be abstracted to as great an extent as the pulse will bear, or until it becomes evidently affected. To this must follow digitalis, nitre, tartar emetic, and aloes, and to these must be added a powerful blister. A considerable quantity is effused and organized, the membrane is thickened, perhaps permanently so, and the whole of the submucous cellular tissue becomes oedematous. The dog is subject to sudden attacks of 'angina'. It has been imagined, from the appearances that are manifested, that some strange body is arrested in the windpipe or the throat. There is no dread of water or of the usual fluids; the dog will lap once or twice from that fluid which is placed before him, and turns slowly away from it; and this circumstance gives rise to what is called dumb madness. The dog barks in a particular manner, or rather howls like a rabid dog: he is out of spirits, has a strange, anxious, altered countenance, and is alternately cold and hot. Frequently added to this is redness of the buccal and nasal membranes. He refuses all solid food, and either will not drink or finds it difficult to swallow anything. His mouth is generally open, and contains a spumy matter exhaling an offensive smell. His tongue, charged with a great quantity of saliva, protrudes from his mouth, and the submaxillary glands are enlarged. To these appearances are added a yellow tint of the eyes, constipation, and a small quantity of urine, surcharged with a deep yellow colour. At this period the disease has generally reached a considerable degree of virulence. Often the inflammation extends to the back part of the mouth and larynx; and in this last case the respiration is attended by a hoarse, hissing kind of sound. The progress of the disease is rapid, and, in a few days, it reaches its highest degree of intensity. It is always fatal when it is intense; and, when its influence is widely spread, it is a very dangerous complaint. Somewhat rarely the subjects of it recover. After death we find great redness and injection in all the affected nervous surfaces, and indications of abscesses in which suppuration was not fully established. FOREIGN ARTICLES IN THE THROAT When a substance, such as a bone, has become impacted in the throat, the better plan is to attempt to push it downwards into the stomach, as there is but little hope of extracting it. [A portion of sponge may be securely tied on the end of a piece of ratan, whalebone, or other flexible material, and inserted in the mouth, may be carried over the tongue down the throat against the foreign article, which may then be gently pushed before it. If this should not succeed, and the substance appears firmly imbedded in the throat, an incision may be made in the oesophagus and the bone extracted.--L.] BRONCHOCELE OR GOITRE in the dog is almost daily forced upon our notice. If a spaniel or pug-puppy is mangy, pot-bellied, rickety, or deformed, he seldom fails to have some enlargement of the thyroid gland. The spaniel and the pug are most subject to this disease. The jugular vein passes over the thyroid gland; and, as that substance increases, the vein is sometimes brought into sight, and appears between the gland and the integuement, fearfully enlarged, varicose, and almost appearing as if it were bursting. The trachea is pressed upon on either side, and the oesophagus by the left gland, and there is difficulty of swallowing. The poor animal pants distressingly after the least exertion, and I have known absolute suffocation ensue. In a few cases ulceration has followed, and the sloughing has been dreadful, yet the gland has still preserved its characteristic structure. Although numerous abscesses have been formed in the lower part of it, and there has been considerable discharge, viscid or purulent, the upper part has remained as hard and almost as scirrhous as before. 'Cause of Goitre'.--In many cases, this enlargement of the thyroid glands is plainly connected with a debilitated state of the constitution generally, and more particularly with a disposition to rickets. I have rarely seen a puppy that had had mange badly, and especially if mange was closely followed by distemper, that did not soon exhibit goitre. Puppies half-starved, and especially if dirtily kept, are thus affected; and it is generally found connected with a loose skin, flabby muscles, enlarged belly, and great stupidity. On the other hand, I have seen hundreds of dogs, to all appearance otherwise healthy, in whom the glands of the neck have suddenly and frightfully enlarged. I have never been able to trace this disease to any particular food, whether solid or liquid; although it is certainly the frequent result of want of nutriment. Some friends, of whom I particularly inquired, assured me, that it is not to any great extent prevalent in those parts of Derbyshire where goitre is oftenest seen in the human being. It is periodical in the dog. I have seen it under medical treatment, and without medical treatment, perfectly disappear for a while, and soon afterwards, without any assignable cause, return. There is a breed of the Blenheim spaniel, in which this periodical goitre is very remarkable; the slightest cold is accompanied by enlargement of the thyroid gland, but the swelling altogether disappears in the course of a fortnight. I am quite assured that it is hereditary; no one that is accustomed to dogs can doubt this for a moment. 'Treatment'.--I am almost ashamed to confess how many inefficient and cruel methods of treatment I many years ago adopted. I used mercurial friction, external stimulants, and blisters; I have been absurd enough to pass setons through the tumours, and even to extirpate them with the knife. The mercury salivated without any advantage, the stimulants and the blisters aggravated the evil; the setons did so in a tenfold degree, so that many dogs were lost in the irritative fever tint was produced; and, although the gland, when directed out, could not be reproduced, yet I have been puzzled with the complication of vessels around it, and in one case lost my patient by hemorrhage, which I could not arrest. When the power of iodine in the dispersion of glandular tumours was first spoken of, I eagerly tried it for this disease, and was soon satisfied that it was almost a specific. I scarcely recollect a case in which the glands have not very materially diminished; and, in the decided majority of cases, they have been gradually reduced to their natural size. I first tried an ointment composed of the iodine of potassium and lard, with some, but not a satisfactory result. Next I used the tincture of iodine, in doses of from five to ten drops, and with or without any external local application; but I found, at length, that the simple iodine, made into pills with powdered gum and syrup, effected almost all that I could wish. It is best to commence with the eighth of a grain for a small dog, and rapidly increase it to half a grain, morning and night. A larger dog may take from a quarter of a grain to a grain. In a few instances, loss of appetite and slight emaciation have been produced; but then, the medicine being suspended for a few days, no permanent ill effect has ever followed the exhibition of iodine. PHLEGMONOUS TUMOUR. A phlegmonous tumour under the throat, and accompanied by constitutional disturbance, with the exception of there being little or no cough, often appears in the dog. Comparing the size of the animals, these tumours are much larger than in either the horse or ox; but they are situated higher up the face, and do not press so much upon the windpipe, nor is there any apparent danger of suffocation from them. The whole head, however, is sometimes enlarged to a frightful degree, and the eyes are completely closed. More than a pint of fluid has sometimes escaped from a middle-sized dog at the first puncture of the tumour. The mode of treatment is, to stimulate the part, in order to expedite the suppuration of the tumour, and to lance it freely and deeply, as soon as matter is evidently formed. The wound should be dressed with tincture of aloes, and a thick bandage placed round the neck, to prevent the dog from scratching the part, which often causes dreadful laceration. These tumours in the throat of the dog are not always of a phlegmonous character. They are cysts, sometimes rapidly formed, and of considerable size, and filled with a serous or gelatinous fluid. * * * * * CHAPTER XI. ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE CHEST; THE DIAPHRAGM; THE PERICARDIUM; THE HEART; PLEURISY; PNEUMONIA; SPASMODIC COUGH The chest is the superior, or in quadrupeds the anterior, cavity of the trunk of the body: it is divided into two cavities by a membranous partition, termed 'mediastinum;' and separated from the abdomen, or cavity which contains the liver, spleen, pancreas, and other abdominal viscera, by the 'diaphragm,' which is of a musculo-membranous nature. This membrane may be described, as it is divided, into the main circular muscle, with its central tendinous expansion forming the lower part, and two appendices, or 'crura,' as they are termed from their peculiar shape, constituting its superior portion. We trace the fleshy origin of the grand muscle, laterally and inferiorly, commencing from the cartilage of the eighth rib anteriorly, and following somewhat closely, as we proceed backward, the union of the posterior ribs with their cartilages, excepting, however, the two last. The attachment is peculiarly strong. It is denticulated: it encloses the whole of the latter and inferior part of the chest as far as the sternum, where it is connected with the ensiform cartilage. The diaphragm is the main agent, both in ordinary and extraordinary respiration. In its quiescent state it presents its convex surface towards the thorax, and its concave one towards the abdomen. The anterior convexity abuts upon the lungs; the posterior concavity is occupied by some of the abdominal viscera. Thus far we have described the diaphragm as found in the horse, ox, and sheep. There is some difference with regard to the dog. The muscular part of the diaphragm is thick and strong in every species of dog, while the aponeurotic expansion is comparatively smaller. From the smaller expanse of the thorax of the dog, and the consequent little expansion of the diaphragm, the action, although occasionally rapid and violent--for he is an animal of speed--is not so extensive, and more muscle and less tendon may be given to him, not only without detriment, but with evident advantage. Therefore, although we have occasional rupture of the heart of the dog, oftener perhaps than in the horse, there is no case of rupture of the diaphragm on record. The cavity of the thorax is lined by a membrane, termed pleura, which covers the surface of the lungs. The lungs on either side are enclosed in a separate and perfect bag, anil each lung has a distinct pleura. The heart lies under the left lung; and, more perfectly to cut off all injurious connexion or communication of disease between the lungs and the heart, the heart is enclosed in a distinct pleura or bag, termed the 'pericardium'. This membrane closely invests the heart, supports it in its situation, prevents too great dilatation when it is gorged with blood, and too violent action when it is sometimes unduly stimulated. Notwithstanding the confinement of the pericardium, the heart, when under circumstances of unusual excitation, beats violently against the ribs, and, were it not thus tied down, would often bruise and injure itself, and cause inflammation in the neighbouring parts. The 'heart' is composed of four cavities; two above, called 'auricles', from their shape, and two below, termed 'ventricles', occupying the bulk of the heart. In point of fact, there are two hearts--the one on the left side propelling the blood through the frame, and the other on the right side conveying it through the pulmonary system; but, united in the manner in which they are, their junction contributes to their mutual strength, and both circulations are carried on at the same time. The beating of the heart in the dog is best examined behind the elbow on the left side. The hand, applied flat against the ribs, will give the number and character of the pulsations. The pericardium, or outer investing membrane of the heart, is frequently liable to inflammation, milked by a quickened and irregular respiration, and an action of the heart, bounding at an early period of the disease, but becoming scarcely recognisable as the fluid increases. The patient is then beginning gradually to sink. A thickening of the substance of the heart is occasionally suspected, and, on the other hand, an increased capacity of the cavities of the heart; the parietes being considerably thinner, and the frame of the animal emaciated. The pulse of the greater part of our domestic animals has been calculated by Mr. Vatel, in his excellent work on Veterinary Pathology, to be nearly as follows: In the horse, from 32 to 38 pulsations in a minute. " ox or cow, " 35 " 49 " " ass, " 48 " 54 " " sheep, " 70 " 79 " " goat, from 72 to 76 pulsations in a minute. " dog, " 90 " 100 " " cat, " 110 " 120 " " rabbit, . . 120 " " guinea-pig, . . 140 " " crow, . . 136 " " duck, . . 136 " " hen, . . 140 " " heron, . . 200 " The pulse of the dog may be easily ascertained by feeling at the heart or the inside of the knee, and it varies materially, according to the breed, as well as the size of the animal. This is very strikingly the case with some of the sporting dogs, with whom the force as well as the rapidity of the pulse vary materially according to the character and breed of the dog. There is, occasionally, in the dog as in the human being, an alteration of the quantity, as well as of the quality, of the blood. 'Anæmia' is the term used to designate a deficiency in quantity; 'plethora' is the opposite state of it. M. D'Arbor relates a very curious account of the former: Two dogs were sent into the hospital of the veterinary school at Lyons. They did not appear to suffer any considerable pain. Their skin and mucous membranes that were visible had a peculiar appearance. They had also comparatively little power over their limbs; so little, indeed, that they rested continually on one side, without the ability to shift their posture. When they were placed on their feet, their limbs gave way, and they fell the moment they were quitted. In despite of the care that was taken of them, they died on the second day. Incisions were made through the skin, but in opening them no blood flowed. The venæ cavæ themselves did not contain any--there were only two clots of blood in the cavities of their hearts. One of them, of the size of a small nutmeg, occupied the left ventricle; the other, which was still smaller, was found at the base of the right ventricle. The chest of one of them enclosed a small quantity of serosity; a similar fluid was between the dura mater and the arachnoid membrane, and the same was the case in the larger ventricles of the encephalon. The other viscera did not offer anything remarkable, except the paleness and flaccidity of their tissue. The great fatigues of the chase, and the immersion of these animals in water at the time that they were very much heated, appeared to have been the causes of this singular disease. In the report of the labours of the School of Alfort, in the year 1825, the same anæmia was remarked in two dogs that died there; one of them had lately undergone a considerable hemorrhage, and in the other anæmia had developed itself spontaneously. It is in fact among dogs that this extreme anæmia has been principally observed, and is ordinarily fatal. It has been remarked by M. Crusal in a bullock attacked with gastro-enteritis. This disease, according to M. Vatel, is generally the symptom of a chronic malady, or the instantaneous effect of an excessive hemorrhage. It is rarely primary. The extreme discoloration of the tissues, and of the mucous membrane more particularly, the disappearance of the subcutaneous blood-vessels, and the extreme feebleness of the animal, are the principal symptoms. There also often exists considerable swelling of the limbs. The following singular case of a wound penetrating into the chest and pericardium of a dog, is recorded by Professor Delafond: A mastiff dog fighting with another was stabbed in the chest by the master of his antagonist. Five hours after the accident, the Professor was sent for. On the exterior of the sternum was a laceration an inch and a half in length, covered by a spumy fluid, from the centre of which was heard a gurgling noise, showing that a wound had penetrated into the sac of the pleura. The respiration was quick, and evidently painful; the beating of the heart was also strong and precipitate. The finger being introduced into the wound, penetrated between the fourth and fifth rib on the left side. "Having arrived at the pleuritic sac," says the Professor, "I gently tapped the surface of the lung, in order to assure myself that it was not injured; my finger penetrated into the pericardium, and the point of the heart beat against it." He bathed the wound with a little diluted wine, and brought the edges of it as near together as he could, and confined them with a suture, administering a mild aperient. On the following day, the animal walked slowly about, seeking for something to eat; he gave him some milk. On changing the dressing, he tried whether he could again introduce any sound into the wound; but it would only penetrate a very little way; indeed, re-union by adhesion had already taken place. On the fifth day, the animal was in good spirits; the wound had a healthy red appearance, and all tended to a speedy cure. On the eighth day he was sent home to his master, a distance of two leagues from his house. He saw the dog eighteen months afterwards, and he was as eager as ever after his game. The following is a case of rupture of the heart:--A black pointer, of the Scotch breed, had every appearance of good health, except that she frequently fell into a fit after having run a little way, and sometimes even after playing in the yard. She was several times bled during and after these fits. When I examined her, I could plainly perceive considerable and violent spasmodic motion of the heart, and the sounds of the beating of the heart were irregular and convulsive. She was sent to the infirmary, in order to be cured of an attack of mange; but during her stay in the hospital she had these fits several times: the attack almost always followed after she had been playing with other dogs. She appeared as if struck by lightning, and remained motionless for several minutes, her gums losing their natural appearance and assuming a bluish hue. After the lapse of a few minutes, she again arose as if nothing had been the matter. She was bled twice in eight days, and several doses of foxglove were administered to her. The fits appeared to become less frequent; but, playing one day with another dog, she fell and expired immediately. The 'post mortem' examination was made two hours after death. The cavity of the pericardium contained a red clot of blood, which enveloped the whole of the heart; it was thicker in the parts that corresponded with the valve of the heart; and on the left ventricle, and near the base of the left valve of the heart, and on the external part of that viscus, was an irregular rent two inches long. It crossed the wall of the valve of the heart, which was very thin in this place. The size of the heart was very small, considering the height and bulk of the dog. The walls of the ventricles, and particularly of the left ventricle, were very thick. The cavity of the left ventricle was very small; there was evidently a concentric hypertrophy of these ventricles; the left valve of the heart was of great size. The immediate cause of the rupture of the valve of the heart had evidently been an increase of circulation, brought on by an increase of exercise; but the remote cause consisted in the remarkable thinness of the walls of the valve of the heart. This case is remarkable in more than one respect; first, because examples of rupture of the valve of the heart are very rare; and, secondly, because this rupture had its seat in the left valve of the heart, while, usually, in both the human being and the quadruped, it takes place in the right; and this, without doubt, because the walls and the valves of the right side are thinner. Diseases of the investing membrane of the lungs, and the pleura of the thoracic cavity, and of the substance of the lungs, are more frequent than those of the heart. PLEURISY, or inflammation of the membrane of the chest and the lungs of the dog, is not unfrequent. There are few instances of inflammation of the lungs, or pneumonia, that do not ultimately become connected with or terminate in pleurisy. The tenderness of the sides, the curious twitching that is observed, the obstinate sitting up, and the presence of a short, suppressed, painful cough, which the dog bears with strange impatience, are the symptoms that principally distinguish it from pneumonia. The exploration of the chest by auscultation gives a true picture of it in pleurisy; and, by placing the dog alternately on his chest, his back, or his side, we can readily ascertain the extent to which effusion exists in the thoracic cavity; and, if we think proper, we can get rid of the fluid. It is not a dangerous thing to attempt, although it is very problematical whether much advantage would accrue from the operation. With a favourite dog it may, however, be tried; and, to prevent all accidents, a veterinary surgeon should be entrusted with the case. PNEUMONIA, or inflammation of the substance of the lungs, is a complaint of frequent occurrence in the dog, and is singularly marked. The extended head, the protruded tongue, the anxious, bloodshot eye, the painful heaving of the hot breath, the obstinacy with which the animal sits up hour after hour until his feet slip from under him, and the eye closes, and the head droops, through extreme fatigue, yet in a moment being roused again by the feeling of instant suffocation, are symptoms that cannot be mistaken. Here, from the comparative thinness of the integument and the parietes, we have the progress of the disease brought completely under our view. The exploration of the chest of the dog by auscultation is a beautiful as well as wonderful thing. It at least exhibits to us the actual state of the lungs, if it does not always enable us to arrest the impending evil. Mr. Blaine and myself used cordially to agree with regard to the treatment of pneumonia, materially different from the opinions of the majority of sportsmen. Epidemic pneumonia was generally fatal, if it was not speedily arrested in its course. The cure was commenced by bleeding, and that to a considerable extent, when not more than four-and-twenty or six-and thirty hours had passed; for, after that, the progress of the disease could seldom be arrested. Blistering the chest was sometimes resorted to with advantage; and the cantharides ointment and the oil of turpentine formed one of the most convenient as well as one of the most efficacious blisters. A purgative was administered, composed of mutton broth with Epsom salts or castor oil; to which followed the administration of the best sedatives that we have in those cases, namely, nitre, powdered foxglove, and antimonial powder, in the proportion of a scruple of the first, four grains of the second, and two grains of the third. Congestion of the lungs is a frequent termination of pneumonia; and in that congestion the air-cells are easily ruptured and filled with blood. That blood assumes a black pulpy appearance, commonly indicated by the term of 'rottenness', an indication or consequence of the violence of the disease, and the hopelessness of the case. A different consequence of inflammation of the lungs is the formation of tubercles, and, after that, of suppuration and abscess, when, generally speaking, the case is hopeless. A full account of this is given in the work on the Horse. Two cases of pneumonia will be useful: Oct. 22d, 1820. A black pointer bitch that had been used lo a warm kennel, was made to sleep on flat stones without straw. A violent cough followed, under which she had been getting worse and worse for a fortnight. Yesterday I saw her. The breathing was laborious. The bitch was constantly shifting her position, and, whether she lay down or sat up, was endeavouring to elevate her head. Her usual posture was sitting, and she only lay down for a minute. The eyes were surrounded, and the nose nearly stopped with mucus. V. S. [Symbol: ounce] viij. Emet. Fever-ball twice in the day. 23d. Breathing not quite so laborious. Will not eat. Medicine as before. Apply a blister on the chest. 24th. Nearly the same. V. S. [Symbol: ounce] vj. Bol. utheri. 26th. Decided amendment. She breathes with much less difficulty. Less discharge both from eyes and nose. Bol. utheri. Nov. 7th. Sent home well. A singular and not uninstructive case came before me. A lady in the country wrote to me to say, that her terrier was thin, dull, husking, and perpetually trying to get something from the throat; that her coat stared, and she frequently panted, I replied, that I apprehended she had caught cold; and recommended bleeding to the extent of four ounces, a grain each of calomel and emetic tartar to be given every fourth morning, and a fever-ball, composed of digitalis, nitre, and tartrate of antimony, on each intermediate day. A few days after this I received another letter from her, saying, that the dog was bled as ordered, and died on the following Thursday. That another veterinary surgeon had been called in, who said that the first one had punctured the 'vena cava' in the operation, and that the dog had bled to death internally; and she wished to know my opinion. I replied, that the charge proceeded from ignorance or malice, or both. That in one sense he was right--the jugular, which the other had probably opened, runs into the vena cava, and may, with some latitude, be considered a superior branch of it; therefore, thus far the first man had punctured the vena cava, which I had done many hundred times; but that the point of union of the four principal veins that form the vena cava was too securely seated in the upper part of the thorax for any lancet to reach it. That the rupture of some small arterial vessel might have caused this lingering death, but that the puncture of a vein would either have been speedily fatal, or of no consequence; and that, probably, the animal died of the disease which she had described. SPASMODIC COUGH is a troublesome disease to manage. Dogs, and especially those considerably petted, are subject to frequent cough, requiring a material difference in the treatment. Sometimes there is a husky cough, not to so great a degree as in distemper, but followed by the same apparent effort to get something from the throat, the same attempt to vomit, and the ejection of mucus, frothy or adhesive, and occasionally discoloured with bile. It proceeds from irritability or obstruction in some of the air-passages, and oftenest of the superior ones. An emetic will clear the fauces, or at least force out a portion of the adhesive matter which is clogging the bronchial tubes. A cough of this kind, and attended in its early stages by little fever, seldom requires anything more for its cure than the exhibition of a few gentle emetics, consisting of equal portions of calomel and emetic tartar, given in doses varying from half a grain to one grain and a half of each. A harsh hollow cough is attended by more inflammatory action. The depletive system must be adopted here. A loud and harsh cough will yield only to the lancet and to purgatives, assisted by sedative medicines composed of nitre, antimonial powder, and digitalis, or small doses of syrup of poppies, or more minute doses of the hydrocyanic acid; this last medicine, however, should be carefully watched, and only given under surgical advice. 28th October, 1842. A spaniel was apparently well yesterday, but towards evening a violent cough suddenly came on. It was harsh and hollow, and terminated in retching. There was a discharge of water from the eyes; but the nose was cool and moist. Give an emetic, and then two grains of the James's powder. 29th The animal coughed almost the whole of the night. There was more watery discharge from the eyes, which appeared to be red and impatient of light; the nose continued cool, and the dog did not refuse his food. An aperient ball was given; and twice afterwards in the day, the nitre, antimonial powder, and digitalis. 30th. The cough is as frequent, but not very loud. Give a mixture of syrup of poppies and prussic acid morning and night, and the ball as yesterday. 31st. Nearly in the same state as yesterday, except that he is not so thirsty, and does not eat so well. Give the mixture three times daily. Nov. 1st. He had an emetic in the morning, which produced a large quantity of phlegm, but the cough is no better. No evacuation during the two last days. Give an aperient ball, and the mixture as before in the evening. The prussic acid has been fairly tried; it has not in the least mitigated the cough, but begins to make the dog sick, and altogether to destroy his appetite. Give three times in the day a mixture consisting of two-thirds of a drachm of syrup of poppies, and one-third of syrup of buckthorn. The sickness ceased, and the cough remained as before, I then gave twice in the day half a grain of calomel, the same of opium, two each of pulvis antimonialis and digitalis, and four grains of nitre, morning and noon, with six grains of the Dover's powder at night. This was continued on the 3d, 4th and 5th of November, when there were longer intervals of rest, and the dog did not cough so harshly when the fit was on him. On the 6th, however, no medicine was given; but towards evening the dog coughed as much as ever, and a decided mucous discharge commenced from the nose and the eyes, with considerable snorting. An emetic was given, and the balls resorted to as before. '7th.' He appeared to be much relieved by the emetic. The cough was better, the dog ate well, and had regained his usual spirits. The ball as before. '9th'. Slight tenesmus now appeared. It quickly became frequent and violent. The dog strained very much; but the discharge was small in quantity, and consisted of adhesive mucus. Give two drachms of castor oil, and the fever ball with opium. The cough is worse, and the dog still continues to strain, no blood, however, appearing. '11th'. The opium and oil have had their desired effect, and the cough is better. '12th', Except the animal is kept under the influence of opium, the cough is dreadfully troublesome. I have, however, obtained one point. I have been permitted to subtract four ounces of blood; but blood had been mingling with the expectorated mucus before I was permitted to have recourse to the lancet. '13th'. The dog is better, and we again have recourse to the fever mixture, to which, on the '14th', I added a very small portion of the carbonate of iron, for the dog was evidently getting weak. The sickness has returned, and the cough is decidedly worse. '16th'. Rub a small quantity of rheumatic embrocation, and tincture of cantharides. '17th.' The first application of the blister had not much effect; but this morning it began to act. The dog ran about the house as cross as he could be for more than an hour; there was considerable redness on the throat and chest. The cough, however, was decidedly better. '18th'. The cough is better. Again apply the embrocation. '19th.' The cough and huskiness have returned. Employ an emetic, and continue the embrocation. '20th'. The cough is decidedly worse. Continue the embrocation, and give the fever mixture. '23d'. The embrocation and medicine have been daily used; but the cough is as bad as ever. Balls of assafoetida, squills, and opium were had recourse to. 25th. The second ball produced the most distressing sickness, but the cough was evidently relieved. The assafoetida was discontinued. '28th'. The cough, during the last two days, has been gradually getting worse. It is more laborious and longer, and the intervals between it are shorter. Give another emetic and continue the other medicine. 30th'. The effect of the emetic was temporary, and the cough is again worse. 'Dec'. 2d'. Very little change. 5th'. The cough appears to be stationary. Again have recourse to the antimony, digitalis, and nitre. 8th'. The cough is certainly better. Try once more the assafoetida. It again produced sickness, but of a very mild character. 12th'. The assafoetida was again used used morning and night. The cough continues evidently to abate. 14th'. The dog coughs very little, not more than half-a-dozen times in the day. Notwithstanding the quantity of medicine that has been taken, the appetite is excellent, and the spirits good. 16th'. The cough is still less frequent, but when it occurs it is attended with retching. 19th'. The cough is daily getting better, and is not heard more than three or four times in the four-and-twenty hours, and then very slight. 30th'. At length I can say that the cough has ceased. It is seldom that so much trouble would have been taken with a dog. It is the neglect of the medical attendance which is often the cause of death. Professor Delafond, of Alfort, gives a most interesting and complete table of the usual diagnostic symptoms of pleurisy and pneumonia. PLEURISY. 'Commencement of the Inflammation'. Shivering, usually accompanied by slight colicky pains, and followed by general or partial sweating. Inspiration always short, unequal, and interrupted; expiration full; air expired of the natural temperature. Cough unfrequent, faint, short, and without expectoration. Artery full. Pulse quick, small, and wiry. 'Auscultation'. A respiratory murmur, feeble, or accompanied by a slight rubbing through the whole extent of the chest, or in some parts only. 'Percussion'. Slight, dead, grating sound. Distinct resonance through the whole of the chest, and pain expressed when the sides are tapped or compressed. 'Terminations' Delitescence. Cessation of pain; moderate temperature of the skin; sometimes profuse general perspiration. Respiration less accelerated; inspiration easier and deeper. Pulse fuller and softer. Breath of the natural temperature. Return of the natural respiratory murmur and resonance. The walls of the chest cease to exhibit increased sensibility. 'Effusion, false Membranes'. Inspiration more and more full. 'Auscultation and Percussion. Complete absence of the respiratory murmur, with the crepitating wheezing always at the bottom of the chest; sometimes a gurgling noise. Vesicular respiration very strong in the upper region of the chest, or in the sac opposite to the effusion. 'Continuance of the Effusion'. Absence of the respiratory murmur gains the middle region of the chest, following the level of the fluid. These symptoms may be found on only one side; a circumstance of frequent occurrence in the dog, but rare in other animals. The respiratory murmur increases in the superior region of the chest, or on the side opposite to the effusion. Inspiration becomes more and more prolonged. Breath always cold. Cough not existing, or rarely, and always suppressed and interrupted. Exercise producing much difficulty of respiration. 'Resolution or Re-absorption of the effused fluid, and Organization of false Membrane, the consequence of Pleurisy'. Slow but progressive reappearance of the respiratory murmur, and disappearance of the sounds produced by the fluid. Diminution of the force of the respiratory murmur in the superior part of the chest, or of the lung opposite to the sac in which the effusion exists. Gradual return of the respiratory murmur to the inferior part of the chest. Inspiration less deep, and returning to its natural state. 'Chronic Pleurisy, with Hydrothorax'. Inspiration short. Cough dry, sometimes with expectoration; frequent or capricious; always absence of complete respiratory murmur in the inferior portion of the chest. Sometimes the gurgling noise during inspiration and expiration. Strong respiratory murmur in the superior portion. In dogs these symptoms sometimes have existence only on one side of the chest. The mucous membranes are infiltrated; serous infiltration on the lower part of the chest and belly; sometimes of the scrotum or the inferior extremities; generally of the fore legs. The animal lies down frequently, and dies of suffocation. PNEUMONIA. 'Commencement of the Inflammation'. General shivering, rarely accompanied by colicky pains, followed by partial sweats at the flanks and the inside of the thighs. Inspiration full, expiration short. Air expired hot. Cough frequently followed by slight discharge of red-coloured mucus. Artery full. Pulse accelerated, strong, full, and soft. 'Auscultation'. Absence of respiratory murmur in places where the lung is congested; feebleness of that sound in the inflamed parts, with humid crepitating wheezing. The respiratory murmur increased in the sound parts. 'Percussion'. The dead grating sound confined to the inflamed parts. Distinct resonance at the sound parts; increased sensibility of the walls of the chest slight, or not existing at all. 'Terminations'. Resolution. Temperature of the skin moderate. Sometimes profuse partial sweats. Laborious respiration subsiding; inspiration less deep. Artery less full. Pulse yielding. Breath less hot. Gradual and progressive disappearance of the crepitating 'râle'. Slow return of the resonance. 'Red Hepatization'. Respiration irregular and interrupted. 'Auscultation and Percussion. Circumscribed absence of the respiratory murmur, in one point, or in many distinct parts of the lung. The respiratory murmur increased in one or more of the sound parts of the lung, or in the sound lung if one is inflamed. 'Passage to a State of Gray Induration'. The absence of respiratory murmur indicates extensive hepatization of one lung; a circumstance, however, of rare occurrence. When the induration is of both lungs, and equally so, the respiratory murmur and the inspiration remain the same, except that they become irregular. The cough dry or humid, frequent, and sometimes varying. Exercise accompanied by difficulty of respiration, without dyspnoea. 'Resolution or Re-absorption of the Products of Inflammation of the Parenchymatous Substance of the Lungs'. Diminution of the force of the respiratory murmur in the sound parts. Cessation of the crepitating wheezing. Slow return of the respiratory murmur where it had ceased. Respiration ceases to be irregular or interrupted, and returns slowly to its natural state, or it remains interrupted. This indicates the passage from red to gray induration. 'Chronic Pneumonia--(Gray Induration.)' Inspiration or expiration interrupted, cough unfrequent; suppressed; rarely with expectoration; always interrupted. Complete absence of respiratory murmur. 'Softening of the Induration, Ulcerations, Vomicæ, &c.' Mucous and wheezing; mucous râle in the bronchia; discharge from the nostrils of purulent matter, white, gray, or black, and sometimes fetid. Paleness of the mucous membranes. The animal seldom lies down, and never long at a time. Death by suffocation, when the matter proceeding from the vomicæ, or abscesses, obstructs the bronchial passages, or by the development of an acute inflammation engrafted upon the chronic one. CHAPTER XII. ANATOMY OF THE GULLET, STOMACH, AND INTESTINES: TETANUS; ENTERITIS; PERITONITIS; COLIC; CALCULUS IN THE INTESTINES: INTUSSUSCEPTION; DIARRHOEA; DYSENTERY; COSTIVENESS; DROPSY; THE LIVER; JAUNDICE; THE SPLEEN AND PANCREAS; INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEY; CALCULUS; INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER; RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER; WORMS: FISTULA IN THE ANUS. The 'oesophagus', or gullet, of the dog, is constructed in nearly the same manner as that of the horse. It consists of a similar muscular tube passing down the neck and through the chest, and terminating in the stomach, in which the process of digestion is commenced. The orifice by which the gullet enters the stomach is termed the 'cardia', probably on account of its neighbourhood to the heart or its sympathy with it. It is constantly closed, except when the food is passing through it into the stomach. The 'stomach' has three coats: the outermost, which is the common covering of all the intestines, called the peritoneum; the second or muscular coat, consisting of two layers of fibres, by which a constant motion is communicated to the stomach, mingling the food, and preparing it for digestion; and the mucous or villous, where the work of digestion properly commences, the mouths of numerous little vessels opening upon it, which exude the gastric juice, to mix with the food already softened, and to convert it into a fluid called the chyme. It is a simpler apparatus than in the horse or in cattle. It is occasionally the primary seat of inflammation: and it almost invariably sympathises with the affections of the other intestines. The successive contractions of each portion of the stomach, expose by turns every portion of the alimentary mass to the influence of the gastric juice, and each is gradually discharged into the alimentary canal. As the chyme is formed, it passes out of the other orifice of the stomach, and enters the first intestine or 'duodenum'. It may be naturally supposed that this process will occasionally be interrupted by a variety of circumstances. Inflammation of the stomach of the dog is very difficult to deal with. It is produced by numerous different causes. There is great and long-continued sickness; even the most harmless medicine is not retained on the stomach. The thirst is excessive; there are evident indications of excessive pain, expressed by the countenance and by groans: there is a singular disposition in the animal to hide himself from all observation; an indication that should never be neglected, nor the frequent change from heat to cold, and from cold to heat. The mode of treatment is simple, although too often inefficient. The lancet must be immediately resorted to, and the bleeding continued until the animal seems about to fall; and to this should quickly succeed repeated injections. Two or three drops of the croton oil should be injected twice or thrice in the day, until the bowels are thoroughly opened. The animal will be considerably better, or the disease cured, in the course of a couple of days. There is a singular aptitude in the stomach of the dog to eject a portion of its contents; but, almost immediately afterwards, the food, or a portion if not the whole of it, is swallowed again. This is a matter of daily occurrence. There is a coarse rough grass, the 'cynosurus cristatus', or crested dog's-tail. It is inferior for the purposes of hay, but is admirably suited for permanent pastures. It remains green after most other grasses are burnt by a continuance of dry weather. The dog, if it be in his power, has frequent recourse to it, especially if he lives mostly in a town. The dry and stimulating food, which generally falls to his share, produces an irritation of his stomach, from which lie is glad to free himself; and for this purpose he has recourse to the sharp leaves of the cynosurus. They irritate the lining membrane of the stomach and intestines, and cause a portion of the food to be occasionally evacuated; acting either as an emetic or a purgative, or both. They seem to be designed by nature to be substituted for the calomel and tartar emetic, and other drugs, which are far too often introduced. An interesting case of the retention of a sharp instrument in the stomach is related by Mr. Kent of Bristol. On the 23d of February, Mr. Harford, residing in Bristol, when feeding a pointer-dog, happened to let the fork tumble with the flesh, and the dog swallowed them both. On the following morning, Mr. Kent was desired to see the animal; and, although he could feel the projection of the fork outwardly, which convinced him that the dog had in reality swallowed it, yet, as he appeared well, and exhibited no particular symptoms of pain or fever, Mr. Kent gave it as his opinion that there was a possibility that he might survive the danger, and the animal was sent to him, in order to be more immediately under his care. The treatment he adopted was, to feed him on cow's liver, with a view to keep the stomach distended and the bowels open; and he gave him three times a day half a pint of water, with sufficient sulphuric acid to make it rather strongly sour to the human tongue, with the intention of assisting the stomach in dissolving the iron. On the following Sunday, the skin, at the projecting point, began to exhibit some indication of ulceration; and on Monday a prong of the fork might be touched with the point of the finger, when pressed on the ulcer. Mr. Kent then determined on making an effort to extract the fork on the following morning, which he accordingly did, and with but little difficulty, assisted by a medical friend of the owner. The dog was still fed on cow's liver; his appetite remained good, and with very little medical treatment the external wound healed. The animal improved rapidly in flesh during the whole time. He left the infirmary in perfect health, and remained so, with one inconvenience only, a very bad cough, and his being obliged to lie at length, being unable to coil himself up in his usual way. The fork was a three-pronged one, six and a half inches long. The handle, which was of ivory, was digested: it was quite gone; and either the gastric fluid or the acid, or both conjointly, had made a very apparent impression on the iron. Dogs occasionally swallow various strange and unnatural substances. Considerable quantities of hair are sometimes accumulated in the stomach. Half-masticated pieces of straw are ejected. Straw mingled with dung is a too convincing proof of rabies. Dog-grass is found irritating the stomach, or in too great quantities to be ejected, while collections of earth and dung sometimes threaten suffocation. Pieces of money are occasionally found, and lead, and sponge. Various species of polypus irritate the coats of the stomach. Portions of chalk, or stone, or condensed matters, adhere to each other, and masses of strange consistence and form are collected. The size which they assume increases more and more. M. Galy relates an extraordinary account of a dog. It was about three years old when a tumour began to be perceived in the flank. Some sharp-pointed substance was felt; the veterinary surgeon cut down upon it, and a piece of iron, six inches in length, was drawn out. The following fact was more extraordinary: it is related by M. Noiret. A hound swallowed a bone, which rested in the superior part of the oesophagus, behind the pharynx, and caused the most violent efforts to get rid of it. The only means by which it could be made to descend into the stomach was by pushing it with the handle of a fork, which, escaping from the hand of the operator, followed the bone into the stomach. Two months afterwards, on examining the stomach, the fork was plainly felt lying in a longitudinal direction, parallel with the position of the body; the owner of the dog wishing mechanically to accelerate the expulsion of this body, endeavoured to push it backwards with his hands. When it was drawn as far back as possible, he inserted two fingers into the anus, and succeeded in getting hold of the handle, which he drew out nearly an inch; but, in order to be enabled fully to effect his object, it was necessary to make an incision into the rectum, and free the substance from every obstacle that could retain it. This he did not venture to do, and he was therefore compelled to allow the fork to pass back into its former position. About three months after the accident, M. Noiret made an incision, three inches from above to below, and the same from the front backwards. He also made an incision through the muscular tissue. Having arrived at the peritoneum, he made another incision, through which he drew from the abdomen a part of the floating portion of the large intestines, and introduced his fingers into the abdominal cavity. He seized the handle of the fork, which was among the viscera, and free about half-way down, and drew it carefully towards the opening made in the flank. The other half of the fork was found to be closely enveloped by the origin of the mesocolon, which was red, hard, and inflamed. The operator freed it by cutting through the tissues which held the fork, and then drew it easily out. The animal was submitted to a proper course of treatment, and in three weeks afterwards was perfectly cured. The food, having been converted into chyme by the digestive power of the stomach, soon undergoes another and very important change. It, or a portion of it, is converted into chyle. It is mixed with the bile and a secretion from the pancreas in the duodenum. The white thick liquid is separated, and contains the nutritive part of the food, and a yellow pulpy substance is gradually changed into excrement. As these substances pass on, the separation between them becomes more and more complete. The chyle is gradually taken up by the lacteals, and the excrement alone remains. The next of the small intestines is the 'jejunum', so called from its being generally empty. It is smaller in bulk than the duodenum, and the chyme passes rapidly through it. Next in the list is the 'ileum'; but it is difficult to say where the jejunum terminates and the ileum commences, except that the latter is usually one-fifth longer than the former. At the termination of the ileum the 'cæcum' makes its appearance, with a kind of valvular opening into it, of such a nature that everything that passes along it having reached the blind or closed end, must return in order to escape; or rather the office of the cæcum is to permit certain alimentary matters and all fluids to pass from the ileum, but to oppose their return. The 'colon' is an intestine of very large size, being one of the most capacious, as well as one of the longest, of the large intestines. It commences at the cæsum caput coli, and soon expands into a cavity of greater dimensions than even that of the stomach itself. Having attained this singular bulk, it begins to contract, and continues to do so during its course round the cæcum, until it has completed its second flexure, where it grows so small as scarcely to exceed in calibre one of the small intestines; and though, from about the middle of this turn, it again swells out by degrees, it never afterwards acquires its former capaciousness; indeed, previously to its junction with the rectum, it once more materially differs in size. At the upper part of the margin of the pelvis the colon terminates in the 'rectum', which differs from the cæcum and colon by possessing only a partial peritoneal covering, and being destitute of bands and cells. It enlarges towards its posterior extremity, and is furnished with a circular muscle, the sphincter ani, adapted to preserve the anus closed, and to retain the fæculent matter until so much of it is accumulated in the rectum as to excite a desire to discharge it. TETANUS, a disease of great fatality, often depends upon the condition of the stomach; but it is not frequent in dogs. Why the dog is so little subject to 'tetanus', or lock-jaw, I am unable to explain. Sportsmen say that it sometimes attacks him when, being heated in the chase, he plunges into the water after the stag. The French give it the name of 'mal de cerf', from stags being supposed to be attacked in a similar way, and from the same cause. In the course of nearly forty years' practice, I have seen but four cases of it. The first arose from a wound in the foot. The cause of the second I could not learn. In both the spasmodic action was dreadful as well as universal. The dogs lay on their sides, the neck and legs stretched out, and the upper legs kept some inches from the ground by the intensity of the spasm. They might be taken up by either leg, and not a portion of the frame change its direction. At the same time, in their countenances, and by their hoarse cries, they indicated the torture which they endured. In the third case, which occurred 12th June, 1822, the head was drawn permanently on one side, and the whole body formed a kind of bow, the dog walking curiously sideways, often falling as it walked, and frequently screaming violently. I ordered him to be well rubbed with an ammoniacal liniment, and balls of tonic and purging medicine to be given twice in the day. The dog gradually recovered, and was dismissed cured on the 20th. On the 16th November, in the same year, a bull-terrier had a similar complaint. He had been tried in the pit a fortnight before, and severely injured, and the pain and stiffness of his joints were increasing. The head was now permanently drawn on one side. The dog was unable to stand even for a moment, and the eyes were in a state of spasmodic motion. He was a most savage brute; but I attempted to manage him, and, by the assistance of the owner, contrived lo bleed him, and to give him a physic-ball. At the same time I advised that he should be destroyed. His master would not consent to this; and, as the dog occasionally ate a little, we contrived to give a grain each of calomel and opium every sixth hour. In the course of three days he was materially recovered. He could stand, but was exceedingly weak, I ordered the calomel lo be omitted, but the opium to be continued. Three days afterwards he was sent into the country, and, as I heard, perfectly recovered. The following is a very interesting case of tetanus, detailed by M. Debeaux, of the Royal French Chasseurs: A favourite dog was missing. Four days had passed, and no intelligence could be obtained with regard to him until he returned home, fatigued and half-starved. He had probably been stolen. In the excess of their joy, the owners crammed him with meat until he became strangely ill. His throat was filled with froth, the pupils of his eyes were dilated, the conjunctiva was strongly injected, his neck was spasmodically contracted, and the spine of the back was bowed, and most highly sensible to the touch. M. Debeaux was sent for; it was an hour before he could attend. The dog was lying on his belly; the four limbs were extended and stiff. He uttered the most dreadful and prolonged howling every two or three minutes. The surgeon ordered the application of a dozen leeches to the chest and belly; laxative medicines were given, and embrocations applied to the spine and back. Three days passed, and the symptoms evidently augmented. The excrement was dark and fetid, and the conjunctiva had a strong yellow tint. Leeches were again employed; emollient lotions and aperient medicines were resorted to. The sensibility of the spine and back was worse than ever; the animal lay on his belly, stretching out his four limbs, his neck fixed, his jaws immovable, his voice hoarse, and he was utterly unable to move. The bathings, lotions, and aperients were continued, with very few intermissions, until the 14th day, when the muscles began to be a little relaxed; but he cried whenever he was touched. On the 15th, for the first time, he began to eat a little, and his natural voice returned; still, however, the spasms occasionally appeared, but very much mitigated, and on the 20th the pain had entirely ceased. On the 5th of the next month he travelled two leagues with his master. It was cold, and the snow fell. On his reaching home, all the horrible spasms returned, and it was eleven days before he was completely cured. [1] Mr. Blaine gives the following account of his experience of this disease: "It is remarkable, that although dogs are subject to various spasmodic affections, yet they are so little subject to lock-jaw that I never met with more than three cases of it among many thousands of diseased dogs. Two of these cases were 'idiopathic'; one being apparently occasioned by exposure to cold air all night; the other the cause was obscure. The third was of that kind called 'sympathetic', and arose from extreme injury done to one of the feet. In each of these cases the convulsive spasm was extreme, and the rigidity universal but not intense. In one case the jaw was only partially locked. Both warm and cold bathings were tried. Large doses of opium and camphor were given by the mouth, and also thrown up in clysters. The spine of one was blistered. Stimulating frictions were applied to all, but in neither case with any salutary effect." [2] ENTERITIS. 'Enteritis', or inflammation of the intestine, is a disease to which dogs are very liable. It may be produced by the action of several causes. The intestines of the dog are peculiarly irritable, and subject to take on inflammatory action, and this tendency is often much increased by the artificial life which they lead. It is a very frequent complaint among those dogs that are much petted. A cold temperature is also a common cause of disease in these dogs. I was consulted with regard to a dog who was hiding himself in a cold, dark corner, paved with stone. Every now and then he lifted his head and uttered a howl closely resembling that of a rabid dog. He fixed his gaze intently upon me, with a peculiarity of expression which many would have mistaken for rabid. They, however, who have had the opportunity of seeing many of these cases, will readily perceive the difference. The conjunctiva is not so red, the pupil is not so dilated, and the dog appears to implore pity and not to menace evil. In this state, if the dog is approached, he will not permit himself to be touched until he he convinced that no harm is intended. A peculiar slowness attends each motion; his cries are frequent and piteous; his belly hot and tender; two cords, in many cases, seem to run longitudinally from the chest to the pubis, and on these he cannot bear the slightest pressure. He abhors all food; but his thirst for water, and particularly cold water, is extreme; he frequently looks round at his flanks, and the lingering gaze is terminated by a cry or groan. In the majority of cases there is considerable costiveness; but, in others, the bowels are freely opened from the beginning. The peritoneal inflammation is sometimes pure, but oftener involves the muscular coat of the intestines. Its prevailing cause is exposure to cold, especially after fatigue, of lying on the wet stones or grass. Now and then it is the result of neglected rheumatism, especially in old and petted dogs. The treatment is simple. Bleed until the pulse falters, put the animal in a warm bath, and let the belly be gently rubbed while the dog is in the water, and well fomented afterwards; the drink should consist of warm broth, or warm milk and water. The bleeding should be repeated, if little or unsatisfactory relief is obtained; and the examination of the rectum with the finger, and the removal of any hardened fæces that may have accumulated there, and the cautious use of enemata, neither too stimulating nor too forcibly injected, should be resorted to. No medicine should be employed until the most urgent symptoms are abated. Castor oil, the mildest of our purgatives--syrup of buckthorn assisting the purgative property of the oil, and containing in its composition as much stimulating power as is safe--and the spirit of while poppies--the most convenient anodyne to mingle with the other medicines--will generally be successful in allaying the irritation already existing, and preventing the development of more. Even this must not be given in too large quantities, and the effect must be assisted by a repetition of the enemata every fifth or sixth hour. On examination after death the nature of the disease is sufficiently evident: the peritoneum, or portions of it, is highly injected with blood, the veins are turgid, the muscular membrane corrugated and hardened, while often the mucous membrane displays not a trace of disease. In violent cases, however, the whole of the intestines exhibit evidence of inflammation. I was much gratified a few years ago in witnessing the decided manner in which Professor Spooner expressed himself with regard to the treatment of enteritis in the dog. "I should deem it advisable," said he, "to administer a purgative; but of what would that consist? Calomel? Certainly not. I was surprised to hear one gentleman assert that he should administer it to the extent of from five to ten grains, and another to say that he should not hesitate to exhibit a scruple of calomel to a dog, and to all carnivorous animals. I should never think of exhibiting it as a cathartic. I should only administer it in small doses, and for the purpose of producing its specific effect on the liver, which is the peculiar property of this drug. Given in larger doses it would not be retained, and if it got into the intestines it would act as a powerful drastic purgative." [3] In our treatment of the horse we have got rid of a great proportion of the destructive urine-balls and drastic purgatives of the farrier. The cow is no longer drenched with half-a-dozen deleterious stimulants. A most desirable change has been effected in the medical treatment of these animals. Let us not, with regard to the dog, continue to pursue the destructive course of the keeper or the huntsman. The following case of enteritis, with rupture of the colon, may be useful: On March 15, 1840, I was requested to attend a large dog of the bull breed, three years old, who had not appeared to be well during the last four or five days. I had scarcely arrived ere I recognised it to be a case of enteritis. He had a dreadful shivering fit, to which succeeded heat of the skin and restlessness. The muzzle was dry and hot, as also was the tongue. The eyes were sunken and redder than usual; the breathing was accelerated, but not very laborious; the extremities were cold, while the surface of the body was hot and painful to the touch. The bowels were constipated, and had been so during the last week; some dung however was evacuated, but it was hard and dry, and in small quantities. The pulse was quick, but full; and there was a slight pain and considerable irritation in the rectum. I took from him [Symbol: ounce] x. of blood before the desired effect was produced, and then gave him tinct. opii gr. xiv., et spt. ether, nit. gutt. viij., cum ol. ricini [Symbol: ounce] iij., and an opiate enema to allay the irritation of the rectum. This was about 8 o'clock, A.M. 11 A.M.--The bowels have not been moved, and the pain is more intense; his countenance expresses great anxiety; he frequently lies on his stomach, and the pulse is small but quick. I gave him a little broth, and ordered the abdomen to be fomented with hot flannels. 2 P.M.--He has had distressing sickness, and is extremely anxious for water. I introduced my finger into the rectum, but could not discover any hardened fæces. Enemata, composed of mag. sulphas and warm water, were frequently thrown into the intestines; as soon as one came away another was thrown up. 4 P.M.--No better: gave him pulv. aloes [Symbol: ounce] j.; calomel, gr. vj. et pulv. opii gr. viij. The fomentations to be continued, and the abdomen rubbed with a lin. terebinthinæ. 5 P.M.--A great change has taken place within the last hour; the hind extremities are paralysed; the mouth and ears are cold; the pulse is more hurried and irregular, and almost imperceptible; the respiration is laborious and irregular, as is the pulse; and the dog is frequently sick. To be kept quiet. 6 P.M.--Another change: he lies panting and groaning piteously; his limbs are bathed in sweat, with convulsive struggles. At twenty minutes past six he died. A post-mortem examination presented general marks of inflammation; the small intestines were extremely red, while the large ones were in a gangrenous state and most offensive, with a rupture of the colon. I did not expect to meet with the rupture, and am at a loss to account for it. The liver was of a pale ashen colour, and very light. I put a piece of it into some water, and it floated on the surface. The other contents of the abdomen did not show the slightest appearance of disease. September 2d, 1843.--A black pug-bitch, 18 months old, was yesterday taken violently sick; the vomiting continued at intervals the greater part of the day, and she had not eaten during the last 24 hours. I could not possibly get at her, on account of her ferocity: as she had not had the distemper, and as I was misled by her age and the watery discharge from her eyes, and as she had had several motions yesterday, I imagined that the attack might be the beginning of that disease. Learning that she was fond of sweet things, I prepared an emetic containing a grain of calomel and a grain of tartar emetic: she took it readily, and I promised to call on the following day. Sept. 3.--The weakness at the eyes had disappeared, but there had been no motion. On getting at her by main force I found her belly very tense and rather hot: she had again been sick, was very eager for water, and still refused to eat. The disease was now evident. As she appeared too unmanageable for anything else, I produced a physic-ball, in giving which I was bitten. Six hours afterwards I again went: no fæces had passed: I administered two enemas, the second of which was returned with a small quantity of hardened fæces and an intolerable smell. I ordered the water to be removed, and broth to be substituted. Sept. 4.--The dog is in good spirits, has eaten heartily, and had no motion, probably because it was habitually cleanly, and had not been taken out of doors. Her owner considered her as quite well, and dismissed me. Three days afterwards a servant came to say that all was going on very well. PERITONITIS. Chronic inflammation of the 'peritoneal membrane' is a frequent disease among dogs. The animal loses his appetite and spirits; he sometimes eats a little and sometimes not; he becomes thin, his belly is tucked up, and when we closely examine him we find it contracted and hard, and those longitudinal columns of which I have already spoken are peculiarly dense and almost unyielding. He now and then utters a half-suppressed whine, and he occasionally seeks to hide himself. In the greater number of cases he after a while recovers; but he too often pines away and dies. On examination after death the case is plain enough. There is inflammation of the peritoneal membrane, more indicated by undue congestion of the bowels than by the general blush of the membrane. The inflammation has now spread to the muscular coat, and the whole of the intestine is corrugated and thickened. There is another peritoneal affection, aggravated by combination with a rheumatic tendency, to which the dog is more disposed than any other domesticated animal. It has its most frequent origin in cold, or being too much fed on stimulating and acrid food, and probably from other causes which have not yet been sufficiently developed. Here also no drastic purgative is to be admitted; it would be adding fuel to fire: not a grain of calomel should be used, if the life of the animal is valued. The castor oil mixture will afford the most certain relief, a drop or two of the oil of peppermint being added to it. COLIC. The dog is also subject to fits of 'colic', principally to be traced to improper food, or a sudden change of food, or exposure to cold. This is particularly the case with puppies. There is no redness of the eye, no heat of the mouth, no quickened respiration; but the animal labours under fits of pain. He is not quiet for a minute. He gets into one corner and another, curling himself closely up, but he does not lie there more than a minute or two; another fit of pain comes on; he utters his peculiar yelp, and seeks some new place in which he may possibly find rest. It is with considerable diffidence that I offer an opinion on this subject contrary to that of Mr. Blaine. He states that the treatment of this species of colic is seldom successful, and that which has seemed the most efficacious has been mercurial purgatives; namely, calomel one grain, aloes a scruple, and opium a quarter of a grain, until the bowels are opened. I have seldom found much difficulty in relieving the patient suffering under this affection; and I gave no aloes nor calomel, but the oleaginous mixture to which I have so often referred. I should not so much object to the aloes, for they constitute an excellent purgative for the dog; nor to a dog that I was preparing for work, or that was suffering from worms, should I object to two or three grains of calomel intimately mixed with the aloes: from the combined effect of the two, some good might be obtained. CALCULUS IN THE INTESTINES Many persons have a very foolish custom of throwing stones, that their dogs may dive or run after them, and bring them to their owner's feet: the consequence is, that their teeth are soon worn down, and there are too many cases on record in which the stone has been swallowed. It has been impeded in its progress through the intestinal canal, inflammation has ensued, and the animal has been lost, after having suffered the most dreadful torture. Professor Simonds relates a case in which a dog was thus destroyed. The animal for some days previous to his admission into the hospital had refused his food, and there was obstinate constipation of the bowels, to remove which aperient medicine had been given. The pulse was accelerated, there was distension of the abdomen with evident tenderness on pressure, the extremities were cold, no fæces were voided, and he occasionally vomited. Some aperient medicine was given, which was retained on the stomach, and enemas and external stimulants were resorted to, but two days afterwards he died. The intestines were examined, and the offending body was found to be a common pebble. The dog had long been accustomed to fetch stones out of the water. One of these stones had passed through the stomach into the intestines, and, after proceeding some distance along them, had been impacted there. The inflammation was most intense so far as the stone had gone; but in the part of the intestine to which it had not reached there was not any. This was an interesting and instructive case, and should make its due impression. Another account of the strange contents of the intestines of a bitch may be here introduced. A valuable pointer-bitch was sent to the infirmary of Mr. Godwin of Litchfield. She presented a very emaciated appearance, and had done so for four or five months. Her evacuations for a day or two were very thin and copious, and afterwards for several days nothing was passed. When pressing the abdomen with both hands, a hard substance was distinctly felt in the inferior part of the umbilical region. She was destroyed, and, upon 'post-mortem' examination, a calculus was discovered in the ileum about the size and shape of a hen's egg, the nucleus of which was a portion of hair. The coats of the intestines were considerably thickened and enlarged, so as to form a kind of sac for its retention. Anterior to this was another substance, consisting of a ball of hair, covered with a layer of earthy matter about the eighth of an inch thick, and next to this another ball of hair of less dimensions, intermixed with a gritty substance. The stomach contained a large quantity of hair, and a portion of the omentum, about the size of n crown piece, was thickly studded with small white calculi, the largest about the size of a pea, and exceedingly hard. INTUSSUSCEPTION. If 'peritonitis'--inflammation--is neglected, or drastic purgatives are too often and too plentifully administered, a peculiar contraction of the muscular membrane of the intestine takes place, and one portion of the bowel is received within another--there is 'intussusception'. In most cases, a portion of the anterior intestine is received into that which is posterior to it. Few of us have opened a dog that had been labouring under this peculiar affection without being struck with the collapsed state of the canal in various parts, and in some much more than in others. Immediately posterior to this collapsed portion, it is widened to a considerable extent. The peristaltic motion of the intestine goes on, and the consequence is, that the constricted portion is received into that which is widened, the anterior portion is invaginated in the posterior: obstruction of the intestinal passage is the necessary consequence, and the animal dies, either from the general disturbance of the system which ensues, or the inflammation which is set up in the invaginated part. I will say nothing of medical treatment in this case; for I do not know the symptoms of intussusception, or how it is to be distinguished from acute inflammation of the bowels. Acute inflammation will not long exist without producing it; and, if its existence should be strongly suspected, the treatment would be the same as for inflammation. The domesticated dog, from the nature of his food, more than from any constitutional tendency, is liable to constipation. This should never be neglected. If two or three days should pass without an evacuation, the case should be taken in hand; otherwise inflammation will be very soon established. In order to procure an evacuation, the aloetic ball, with one or two grains of calomel, should be given. Beyond that, however, I should not dare to go; but, if the constipation continued, I should have recourse to the castor-oil mixture. I should previously examine and empty the rectum, and have frequent recourse to the enema-syringe; and I should continue both. It would be my object to evacuate the intestinal canal with as little increased action as possible. DIARRHOEA is the discharge of fæces more frequently than usual, and thinner than their natural consistence, but otherwise not materially altered in quality; and the mucous coat of the intestines being somewhat congested, if not inflamed. It is the consequence of over-feeding, or the use of improper food. Sometimes it is of very short continuance, and disappears without any bad consequence; the health being unaffected, and the character of the fæces not otherwise altered than by assuming a fluid character. It may not be bad practice to wait a day, or possibly two, as it is desirable for the action of the intestines to be restored without the aid of art. I should by no means give a physic-ball, or a grain of calomel, in simple diarrhoea. I should fear the establishment of that species of purging which is next to be described. The castor-oil mixture usually affords the best hope of success. Habitual diarrhoea is not an unfrequent disease in petted dogs: in some it is constitutional, in others it is the effect of neglected constipation. A state of chronic inflammation is induced, which has become part of the constitution of the dog; and, if repressed in the intestines, it will appear under a more dangerous form in some other place. DYSENTERY is a far more serious complaint. In most cases a considerable degree of inflammation of the mucous coat exists, and the mucus is separated from the membrane beneath, and discharged per anum. The mucus thus separated from the intestinal membrane assumes an acrid character. It not only produces inflammation of the membrane, dangerous and difficult to treat, but it excoriates the anus and neighbouring parts, and produces pain and tenesmus. This disease has sometimes been fatally misunderstood. A great deal of irritation exists in the intestinal membrane generally, and in the lower part of the rectum particularly. The fæces passing over this denuded surface cause a considerable degree of pain, and there is much straining, and a very small bit or portion of faces is evacuated. This has often been seen by the careless observer; and, as he has taken it as an indication of costiveness, some drastic purgative has been administered, and the animal quickly killed. No one that had ascertained the real nature of the disease would administer calomel in any form or combination; but the anodyne mixture as an enema, and also administered by the mouth, is the only medicine from which benefit can be expected. COSTIVENESS is a disease when it becomes habitual. It is connected with disease of the intestinal canal. Many dogs have a dry constipated habit, often greatly increased by the bones on which they are too frequently fed. This favours the disposition to mange and to many diseases depending on morbid secretions. It produces indigestion, encourages worms, blackens the teeth, and causes fetid breath. The food often accumulates in the intestines, and the consequence is inflammation of these organs. A dog should never be suffered to remain costive more than a couple of days. An aloetic ball or some Epsom salts should then be administered; and this failing to produce the desired effect, the castor-oil mixture, with spirits of buckthorn and white poppies, should be administered, and the use of the clyster-pipe resorted to. It may be necessary to introduce the finger or the handle of a spoon when the fæcal matter is more than usually hard, and it is with difficulty broken down; small doses of castor-oil should be afterwards resorted to, and recourse occasionally be had to boiled liver, which the dog will rarely refuse. The best means, however, of preventing costiveness in dogs, as well as in men, is regular exercise. A dog who is kept chained up in a kennel should be taken out and have a certain quantity of exercise once in the twenty-four hours. When this cannot be done, the food should consist chiefly of well-boiled farinaceous matter. DROPSY Another disease, which is not confined to the abdominal cavity, is dropsy: but, as in the dog it most commonly assumes that form which is termed ascites, or dropsy of the abdomen, it may be noticed in this place. It is seldom an idiopathic or primary affection, but is generally the consequence of some other disease, most commonly of an inflammatory kind. Dropsy is a collection of fluid in some part of the frame, either from increased exhalation, or from diminished absorption, the consequence of inflammation. The divisions of dropsy are into active and passive, or acute and chronic. The causes are also very properly arranged as predisposing and exciting. The diseases on which dropsy most frequently supervenes are fevers and visceral inflammations and obstructions. The dog is peculiarly subject to 'ascites' or 'dropsy of the belly', and the quantity of fluid contained in the abdomen is sometimes almost incredible. It is usually accompanied or characterised by a weak, unequal, small, and frequent pulse--paleness of the lips, tongue, and gums--flaccidity of the muscles, hurried breathing on the least exertion, feebleness of the joints, swellings of the lower limbs, effusion of fluid into the integuments or among the muscles, before there is any considerable effusion into the thorax or the abdomen, and an unhealthy appearance of the cutaneous surface. The urine seldom coagulates. This form of dropsy is usually seated in the abdomen or cellular tissue. The treatment of ascites is seldom perfectly successful. The great extent of the peritoneum, the number and importance of the viscera with which it is connected, and of the absorbent glands which it encloses, the number and weakness of the veins which transmit their blood to the portal vessels, and the absence of valves, in some measure account for the frequent accumulation of fluid in this cavity. It appears in both sexes from the usual causes of inflammatory disease. Unwholesome diet, the drastic operation of purgatives, external injuries, the suppression of accustomed secretions and discharges, all are exciting causes of dropsy. The animal has suffered materially from mange, which has been apparently cured: the itchiness and eruption altogether disappear, but many weeks do not elapse ere ascites begins to be seen, and the abdomen is gradually distended with fluid. When this appears in young and healthy animals, it may be conquered; but when there has been previous disease of almost any kind, comparatively few patients permanently recover. Irritability of the stomach, and a small and accelerated pulse, are unfavourable. If the operation of tapping has taken place, at all times there is danger; but, if there is a thick, brown, albuminous or fetid discharge, it is very unlikely that any permanent advantage will result from the operation. We will introduce a few cases as they occur in our clinical records. 'November 7th, 1821'.--A spaniel, nine years old, had been, during four months, alternately asthmatic or mangy, or both. Within the last few days she had apparently increased in size. I was sent for. The first touch of the abdomen betrayed considerable fluctuation. She likewise had piles, sore and swelled. I ordered an alterative ball to be given morning and night. '8th'. One of the balls has been given, and two doses of castor oil; but no effect has been produced. An injection was administered. '9th'. A small evacuation of water has been produced, and the bowels have been slightly opened. Give a dose of the castor-oil mixture. '10th'. The obstruction has been removed; the enlargement is somewhat diminished; much water has passed. Give an alterative ball every morning. '14th'. The alteratives have been continued, and there is a slow but evident decrease of the abdomen. '18th'. I cannot detect any effusion in the abdomen. Give a pill every alternate day for a fortnight. At the expiration of this period the dog was apparently well. 'April 23d', 1822.--A terrier, ten years old, had cough and mange, which ceased. The belly for the first time began to enlarge, and on feeling the dog considerable fluctuation was evident. He would not eat, but he drank immoderately. Give daily a ball consisting of tonic and physic mist., with powdered digitalis and tartrate of iron. 'May 6th'.--He is in better spirits, feeds tolerably well, but is rather increased in size. Give daily a ball of tartrate of iron, digitalis, ginger, and a grain of calomel. 22'd'. Much thinner, the belly very considerably diminished: a slight fluctuation is still to be perceived. Continue medicine, with a half-grain only of calomel. 'July 17th'.--The medicine has been regularly given, and the water of the abdomen has rapidly disappeared, until a fortnight ago: since that time it has been once more filling. The medicine was ordered to be repeated. 'August 6th'.--The medicine has once more produced its proper effect, and the fluid has disappeared. On the '16th', however, the fluctuation was again too plainly felt, and the owner determined to have nothing more to do with the case. The animal was never brought again, nor could I trace it. The dog might have been saved if the owner had done it justice. As soon as dropsy appears to be established, proper medicines must be resorted to. Foxglove, nitre, and ginger should be first tried in the proportional doses of one, ten, and eight grains, given morning and night. If this does not succeed, iodine from half-a-grain to a grain may be given morning and night, and a weak solution of iodine rubbed on the belly. This being ineffectual, recourse may be had to tapping, taking care that the trocar is not plunged sufficiently deep to wound the intestines. The place for the operation is directly on the 'linea alba', or middle line of the belly, and about midway between the pubis and the navel. The whole of the intestinal fluid may be suffered to escape. A bandage should then be applied round the belly, and retained there a week or more. Mr. Blaine very properly states, that the difference between fatness and dropsy is, that the belly hangs pendulous in dropsy, while the back bone stands up, and the hips are protruded through the skin; while the hair is rough, and the feeling of the coat is peculiarly harsh. It may be distinguished from pregnancy by the teats enlarging, in the latter case, as gestation advances, and the young ones may occasionally be felt to move. In addition to this it may be stated, that the presence of water is readily and unerringly detected. If the right hand is laid on one side of the belly, and the other side is gently struck with the left hand, an undulating motion will be readily perceived. In old dogs, dropsy, under the title of "anasarca," is an unfrequent but occasional accompaniment of ascites. If pressure is made on any particular parts, they yield and continue depressed for a longer or shorter period of time, and slowly and by degrees regain their natural form. The skin is dry and distended, and with no natural action; the circulation is languid and small, the muscular powers are diminished, the animal is unquiet, the thirst is great, the tongue is pale, the appetite diminished, and the limbs are swelled. The best mode, of treatment is the infliction of some very small punctures in the distended skin, and the application of gentle friction. The majority of cases of this kind are usually fatal, and so is almost every case of encysted dropsy. A dog had cough in February, 1825. Various medicines were administered, and at length the cough almost suddenly ceased, and evident ascites appeared. The thirst was insatiable, the dog would not touch food, and he was unable to lie down more than two minutes at a time. Digitalis, cream of tartar, and hydrarg. submur. were given on the 9th April. On the 13th he was much worse, and apparently dying. He had been unable to rise for the last twelve hours, and lay panting. I punctured the abdomen, and four quarts of fluid were evacuated. '14th'. The panting continues. The dog will not eat, but he can lie down in any posture. '15th'. The panting is diminished, the appetite is returning, and water continues to ooze from the wound, '17th'. The wound healed on the night of the 15th, and already the fluid begins to collect. The medicine still continued. '20th'. The spirits good, and strength improving; but the belly is evidently filling, and matter is discharged from both the nose and eyes. '26th'. The swelling a little diminished, respiration easy, and the dog walking comfortably about, and feeding well. 'May 13th'.--The swelling, which for some days past diminished, is now again increasing; but the dog is strong and breathes easily. Medicine as before. '24th.'. The dog is thinner, weaker, filling fast, and the thirst excessive. [Symbol: Rx]: Crem. tart., ferri tart. [Symbol: ounce] ij., pulv. flor. anthemid. [Symbol: ounce] iiij., conser. ros. q. s.: divide in bol. xii.: cap. in dies. '27th'. During two days he has been unable to lie down more than a minute at a time. Again tapped: fully as much fluid was evacuated as before; but there is now blood mingling with it. 30th. Much relieved by the tapping, and breathes with perfect ease; but, now that the enormous belly is reduced, the dog is very thin. Bol. continued. June 8th. Within the last three days the animal has filled again with extraordinary rapidity. [Symbol: Rx;]: Ferr. tart. [Symbol: scruple] j., opii. gr. 1/4, pulv. gentianæ [Symbol: scruple] j., cons. ros. q. s.: f. bol. capiend. in dies. 13th. Is again strangely distended; I advised, or rather solicited, that it might be destroyed; but this not being granted, I once more tapped him. At least a gallon of dark-coloured fluid was evacuated. 22d. Again rapidly filling, but not losing either flesh or strength. July 4th.--Once more punctured, and a gallon of dark-coloured fluid evacuated. 12th. Again filling and rapidly losing flesh and strength. 26th. Once more tapped: immediately after which he appeared to be revived, but almost immediately began again to fill. Aug. 2d.--He had eaten tolerably; appeared to have nothing more than usual the matter with him, when, being missed for an hour, he was found dead. No examination was permitted. In 1824 a spaniel, six years old, was brought to the infirmary. It had had an asthmatic cough, which had left it. It was now hollow in the flanks, the belly pendulous, and an evident fluctuation of water. The owner would not consent to any operation. An aloetic physic-ball, however, was given every fifth day, and a ball, composed of tartrate of iron, digitalis, nitre, and antimonial powder, on every intermediate morning and night. The water evidently accumulated; the dog was sent for, and died in the course of a week. There are a few medicines that may be useful in arresting the effusion of the fluid; but they too often fail in producing any considerable benefit. The fox-glove is, perhaps, possessed of the greatest power, combined with nitre, squills, and bitartrate of potash. At other times chamomile, squills, and spirit of nitrous ether, may be tried. The following case, treated by the administration of iodine, by Professor Dick, is important:-- A black and tan coloured retriever was sent to me labouring under ascites. He was tapped, and two quarts of fluid abstracted. Tonics, combined with diuretics were given, but the fluid continued to accumulate, and in three weeks he was again tapped, and another two quarts drawn away. The disease still went on, and a fortnight afterwards a similar quantity was withdrawn. Various remedies were tried in order to check the power of the disease, but without effect, and the abdomen again became as much distended with the effused serum as before. He was then put under a course of iodine, which soon began to show its beneficial influence by speedily allaying his excessive thirst; and in about a month the whole of the effused fluid was absorbed, although from the size of the abdomen it must have amounted to a similar quantity to that drawn off on the previous occasions. The dog's appetite soon returned; he gained flesh rapidly, and has continued quite well, and, from being a perfect skeleton, soon became overloaded with fat. Induced by the great benefit derived in this case from the iodine, I took the opportunity of trying it on a Newfoundland dog similarly affected. He was put on a course of iodine, and the quantity of the drug was gradually increased. As absorption rapidly commenced, the fluid was completely taken up; but, partly in consequence of pushing the medicine too far, and partly from extensive disease in the liver, unfavourable symptoms took place, and he sunk rather unexpectedly. Still, however, from the obvious and decided advantage derived from the medicine, I have no doubt that iodine will be found one of the most efficient remedies in dropsy in dogs. Iodine is a truly valuable drug. When first introduced into veterinary practice it was observed that it readily accomplished the reduction of the enlarged glands that frequently remain after catarrh; but it was presently evident that it reduced almost every kind of tumour, even the growth of tubercles in the lungs. Professor Morton, in his Manual of Pharmacy, has admirably described the different combinations of iodine. THE LIVER of the dog seems to follow a law of comparative anatomy, that its bulk shall be in an inverse proportion of that of the lungs. The latter are necessarily capacious; for they need a large supply of arterial blood, in order to answer to their rapid expenditure when the utmost exertion of strength and speed is required. The liver is, therefore, restricted in its size and growth. Nevertheless, it has an important duty to fulfil, namely, to receive the blood that is returned from the intestines, to separate from the blood, or to secrete, by means of it, the bile; and then to transmit the remaining portion of it to the lungs, where it undergoes the usual process of purification, and is changed to arterial blood. In the performance of this office, the liver often undergoes a state of inflammation, and disease ensues, inveterate, and setting at defiance every means of cure. Both the skin and the urine become tinged with a yellow effusion. The animal is dull, and gradually wastes away. In a few days the yellow hue becomes more intense, and particularly on the cuticle, the conjunctiva, the iris, the gums, and the lips. A state of fever becomes more and more perceptible, and there are alternations of cold and heat. The pulse varies from 80 to 120; the dry tongue hangs from the mouth; the appetite ceases, but the animal is peculiarly desirous of cold water. The dog becomes restless; he seeks to hide himself; and he groans, if the parts in the neighbourhood of the liver are pressed upon. Frequent vomitings now appear, slimy, and evidently containing gall. The animal becomes visibly thinner, obstinately refuses all solid food, and only manifests thirst. He begins to stagger as he walks; he withdraws himself from observation; he anxiously seeks some dark place where he may lay himself with his chest and belly resting on the cold ground, his fore legs stretched out before him, and his hind legs almost as far behind him. The fever increases, the skin becomes of a dark yellow colour, the mucous membrane of the mouth and conjunctiva is of a dirty red, the expired air is evidently hot, the gaze is anxious, the urine is of a saffron yellow, or even darker: in short, there now appears every symptom of inflammation of the liver, with jaundice. As the disease proceeds the animal begins to vomit masses of a yellowish green substance, occasionally mixed with blood. He wastes away to a skeleton, he totters in his walk, he is half unconscious, the pulse becomes weak and interrupted, the temperature sinks, and death ensues. The duration and course of the disease are deceptive. It occasionally proceeds so insidiously that several days are suffered to pass before the owner perceives any marks of disease, or seeks any aid. The duration of the disease is usually from ten to twelve days. It terminates in congestion of blood in the liver, or a gradual restoration to health. The latter can only take place in cases where the inflammation has proceeded very slowly; where the commencement and progress of the disease could be discovered by debility and slight yellowness of the skin, and especially where speedy recourse has been had to medical aid. The predisposing causes of this disease are often difficult to discover. The dog, in warm climates, seems to have a natural disposition to it. As exciting causes, atmospheric influence may be reckoned, sultry days, cold nights, and damp weather. Other occasional causes may be found in violent falls, bruises, and overfeeding. Fat petted dogs that are easily overheated by exertion are often attacked by this disease. The result of the disease depends on its duration, course, and complication. If it is attended to early, it can generally be cured. If it has existed for several days, and the fever has taken on a typhoid character--if the yellow hue is perceptible--the appetite failing, and vomiting ensuing, the cure is doubtful; and, if inflammation of the stomach has taken place, with high fever, vomiting of blood, wasting away, and fits occurring, there is no chance of cure. When simple jaundice alone is visible, a moderate laxative of sulphate of magnesia and tartaric acid, in conjunction with some aromatic and mucilaginous fluid, or, quite in the beginning of the disease, an emetic, will be found of considerable service; but, when the yellow colour has become more intense, and the animal will no longer eat, and the fever and weakness are increased, it is necessary to give calomel, tartar-emetic, camphor, and opium, in the form of pills, and to rub some strong liniment on the region of the liver: the doses of calomel, however, must be very small. If inflammation of the stomach appears, mucilaginous fluids only must be given. Bleeding may be of service in the commencement of the disease, but afterward it is hurtful. This is an account of hepatitis as it occasionally appears, and particularly on the Continent; but it does not often assume so virulent a character in our country. There is often restlessness, thirst, and sickness, accompanied by much prostration of strength; or general heat and tenderness. Occasionally there is purging; but much oftener constipation, that bids defiance to almost every medicine. The principal or almost only hope of cure consists in bleeding, physicking, and blistering on the right side. Of bilious disease, assuming the character of inflammation, we have too many cases. It may be spontaneous or brought on by the agency of other affections. Long-continued and inveterate mange will produce it. It is often connected with, or produced by, distemper, or a dull inflammatory disease of the liver, and it is generally accompanied by pustular eruption on the belly. The skin is usually tinged of a yellow hue, and the urine is almost invariably impregnated with bile. The suffusion which takes place is recognised among sportsmen by the term "yellows." The remedy should be some mercurial, with gentian and aloes given twice in the day, and mercurial ointment well rubbed in once in the day. If this treatment is steadily pursued, and a slight soreness induced in the mouth, the treatment will usually be successful. Mr. Blaine observes, "A moderate soreness of the mouth is to be encouraged and kept up. I have never succeeded in removing the complaint without it." JAUNDICE. M. W. Leblanc, of Paris, has given an interesting account of the causes and treatment of 'jaundice' in the dog. The prevailing symptom of this disease in the dog is a yellow discoloration of the skin and the mucous membranes of greater or less intensity. It generally announces the existence of very serious disease, as inflammation of the liver and its excretory ducts, or of the gall-bladder, or the stomach, or small intestines, or contraction or 'obliteration' of the excretory ducts of the liver, in consequence of inflammation of these vessels, or the presence of concrete substances formed from the bile. The dogs in which he found the most decided traces of this disease laboured under diarrhea, with stools of a reddish brown or black colour for one, two or three days. The causes of jaundice are chiefly over-fatigue (thus, greyhounds are more subject to it than pointers), immersions in water, fighting, emetics or purgatives administered in over-doses, the repeated use of poisonous substances not sufficiently strong at once to destroy the animal, the swallowing of great quantities of indigestible food, and contusions of the abdominal viscera, especially about the region of the liver. The most serious, if not the most common cause, is cold after violent and long-continued exercise; and especially when the owners of dogs, seeing them refuse their food after a long chase, give them powerful purgatives or emetics. The treatment should have strict relation to the real or supposed cause of jaundice, and its most evident concomitant circumstances. Some of these symptoms are constant and others variable. Among the first, whatever be the cause of the disease, we reckon acceleration of the pulse; fever, with paroxysms of occasional intensity; and a yellow or reddish-yellow discoloration of the urine. Among the second are constipation, diarrhoea, the absence or increase of colour in the faecal matter, whether solid or fluid. When they are solid, they are usually void of much colour; when, on the contrary, there is diarrhea, the fæces are generally mingled with blood more or less changed. Sometimes the dejections are nearly black, mixed with mucus. It is not unusual for a chest affection to be complicated with the lesions of the digestive organs, which are the cause of jaundice. With these leading symptoms there are often others connected that are common to many diseases; such as dryness and heat of the mouth, a fetid smell, a staggering gait, roughness of the hair, and particularly of that of the back; an insatiable thirst, accompanied by the refusal of all food; loss of flesh, which occasionally proceeds with astonishing rapidity; a tucked-up flank, with hardness and tenderness of the anterior part of the belly. The jaundice which is not accompanied with fever, nor indeed with any morbid change but the colour of the skin, will require very little treatment. It will usually disappear in a reasonable time, and M. Leblanc has not found that any kind of treatment would hasten that disappearance. When any new symptom becomes superadded to jaundice, it must be immediately combated. Fever, injection of the vessels of the conjunctiva, constipation, diarrhoea, or the discoloration of the urine, require one bleeding at least, with some mucilaginous drinks. Purgatives are always injurious at the commencement of the disease. "I consider," says M. Leblanc, "this fact to be of the utmost importance. Almost the whole of the dogs that have been brought to me seriously ill with jaundice, have been purged once or more; and either kitchen salt, or tobacco, or jalap, or syrup of buckthorn, or emetic tartar, or some unknown purgative powders, have been administered. "Bleeding should be resorted to, and repeated if the fever continues, or the animal coughs, or the respiration be accelerated. When the pulse is subdued, and the number of pulsations are below the natural standard--if the excrements are still void of their natural colour--if the constipation continues, or the animal refuses to feed--an ounce of manna dissolved in warm water should be given, and the dog often drenched with linseed tea. If watery diarrhoea should supervene, and the belly is not hot nor tender, a drachm or more, according to the size of the dog, of the sulphate of magnesia or soda should be administered, and this medicine should be repeated if the purging continues; more especially should this aperient be had recourse to when the fæces are more or less bloody, there being no fever nor peculiar tenderness of the belly. "When the liquid excrement contains much blood, and that blood is of a deep colour, all medicines given by the mouth should be suspended, and frequent injections should be thrown up, consisting of thin starch, with a few drops of laudanum. Too much cold water should not be allowed in this stage of the disease. Injections, and drinks composed of starch and opium, are the means most likely to succeed in the black diarrhoea, which is so frequent and so fatal, and which almost always precedes the fatal termination of all the diseases connected with jaundice. "In simple cases of jaundice the neutral salts have seldom produced much good effect; but I have obtained considerable success from the diascordium, in doses of half a drachm to a drachm. "Great care should be taken with regard to the diet of the dog that has had jaundice, with bloody or black diarrhoea; for the cases of relapse are frequent and serious and almost always caused by improper or too abundant food. A panada of bread, with a little butter, will constitute the best nourishment when the dog begins to recover his appetite. From this he may be gradually permitted to return to his former food. Most especially should the animal not be suffered to take cold, or to be left in a low or damp situation. This attention to the food of the convalescent dog may be thought to be pushed a little too far; but experience has taught me to consider it of the utmost importance, and it is neither expensive nor troublesome." THE SPLEEN AND PANCREAS. The spleen is generally regarded as an appendage to the absorbent system. Tiedemann and Gmelin consider that its specific function is to secrete from the blood a fluid which possesses the property of coagulation, and which is carried to the thoracic duct, and then, being united with the chyle, converts it into blood, and causes an actual communication between the arterial and absorbent systems. According, however, to Dr. Bostock, there is a fatal objection to this, namely, that animals have been known to live an indefinite length of time after the removal of the spleen, without any obvious injury to their functions, which could not have been the case if the spleen had been essentially necessary for so important a process. A knowledge of the diseases of the spleen in the dog appears to be less advanced than in any other animal. In the cases that I have seen, the earliest indications were frequent vomiting, and the discharge of a yellow, frothy mucus. The animal appeared uneasy, shivering, the ears cold, the eyes unnaturally protuberant, the nostrils dilated, the flanks agitated, the respiration accelerated, and the mucous membranes pale. The best treatment I know is the administration, twice in the day, of a ball composed of a grain of calomel and the same quantity of aloes, and five grains of ginger. The dog frequently cries out, both when he is moved and when he lies on his bed. In the course of three days the yellow mucus is generally disappearing, and the expression of pain is materially diminished. If the bowels are much constipated after two days have passed, two scruples of aloes may be given, and a grain of calomel; frequent injections may also be administered. We are almost totally ignorant of the functions of the 'pancreas'. It probably is concerned in assimilating the food, and converting the chyme of the stomach into chyle. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEY is a serious and dangerous malady. This organ is essentially vascular in its texture; and although it is small in volume, yet, on account of the quantity of blood which it contains, and the rapidity with which its secretions are performed, it is disposed to frequent and dangerous inflammation. The immediate causes of inflammatory action in this viscus are blows and contusions in the lumbar region; hard work long continued, and the imprudent use of stimulating substances employed as aphrodisiacs; the presence of calculi in the kidney, and the arrest of the urine in the bladder. The whole of the kidney may be affected with anæmia or defect of blood, or this may be confined to the cortical substance, or even to the tubular. The kidneys are occasionally much larger than usual, without any other change of structure; or simple hypertrophy may affect but one of them. They are subject to atrophy, which may be either general or partial; or one of the kidneys may be completely wanting, and this evidently the consequence of violence or disease. Hydatids, though seldom met with in the human kidney, are not unfrequently found in that of the dog. All these are circumstances that have not received sufficient attention. CALCULOUS CONCRETIONS are of more frequent occurrence than is generally imagined, but they are not confined to the kidneys; there is scarcely a portion of the frame in which they have not been found, particularly in the brain, the glandular substance, and the coats of the intestines. I cannot say with Mr. Blaine that I have seen not less than 40 or 50 calculi in my museum; but I have seen too many fearful examples of the complaint. There has been usually great difficulty in the urinary evacuation; and at length one of the calculi enters the urethra, and so blocks up the flow of the urine that mortification ensues. M. Lautour relates a case of renal calculus in a dog. He had occasionally voided his urine with some difficulty, and had walked slowly and with evident pain. August 30, 1827, a sudden exacerbation came on, and the dog was dreadfully agitated. He barked and rolled himself on the ground almost every minute; be made frequent attempts to void his urine, which came from him drop by drop. When compelled to walk, his hind and fore legs seemed to mingle together, and his loins were bent into a perfect curve; his flanks were drawn in; he could scarcely be induced to eat; and he evidently suffered much in voiding his fæces. Mild and demulcent liquids were his only food. Warm baths and injections were applied almost unceasingly, and in eight days he seemed to have perfectly gained his health. In March, in the following year, the symptoms returned with greater intensity. His hind limbs were dragged after him; he rapidly lost flesh, and his howlings were fearful and continuous. The same mode of treatment was adopted without any good effect, and, his cries continuing, he was destroyed. The stomach and intestines were healthy. The bladder was enlarged from the thickness and induration of its parietes; the mucous membrane of it was covered with ecchymoses; the kidneys were three or four times their natural size; and the pelvis contained a calculus weighing 126 grains, composed of 58 grains of uric acid and 58 of ammonia, with 10 grains of phosphate of lime. Of the nature and causes of urinary calculi in the bladder we know very little. We only know that some solid body finds its way or is formed there, gradually increases in size, and at length partially or entirely occupies the bladder. Boerhaave has given a singular and undeniable proof of this. He introduced a small round pebble into the bladder of a dog. The wound perfectly healed. A few months afterwards the animal was killed, and there was found a calculus of considerable size, of which the pebble was the nucleus. Occasionally the pressure of the bladder on the calculus which it contains is exceedingly great, so much so, indeed, as to crush the calculus. A small calculus may sometimes be forcibly extracted, or cut down upon and removed; but when the calculus is large, a catheter or bougie must be passed up the penis as far as the curve in the urethra, and then somewhat firmly held with the left hand, and pressing against the urethra. A scalpel should be taken, and an incision made into the urethra. The catheter being now withdrawn, and the finger or a pair of forceps introduced into the bladder, the calculus may be grasped and extracted. There are some instances in which as many as 20 or 30 small calculi have been taken from the bladder of a dog. Twice I have seen calculi absolutely crushed in the bladder of a dog; and Mr. Blaine says that he found no fewer than 40 or 50 in the bladder of a Newfoundland dog. One of them had passed out into the urethra, and had so blocked up the passage that the flow of urine was prevented, and the animal died of mortification. With much pleasure I refer to the details of Mr. Blaine with regard to the management of 'vesical calculi'. "When a small calculus," says he, "obstructs the urethra, and can be felt, it may be attempted to be forced forward through the urethra to the point of the penis, whence it may be extracted by a pair of forceps. If it cannot be so moved, it may be cut down upon and removed with safety; but when one or more stones are within the bladder, we must attempt lithotomy, after having fully satisfied ourselves of their existence there by the introduction of the sound; to do which it must be remembered that the urethra of the dog in passing the bladder proceeds nearly in a direct line backwards, and then, making an acute angle, it passes again forwards to the bladder. It must be therefore evident, that when it becomes necessary to introduce a catheter, sound, or bougie, it must first be passed up the penis to the extremity of this angle; the point of the instrument must then be cut down upon, and from this opening the instrument may be readily passed forward into the bladder. The examination made, and a stone detected, it may, if a very small one, be attempted to be pushed forward by means of a finger passed up the anus into the urethra; but, as this could be practicable only where the dog happened to be a large one, it is most probable that nothing short of the operation of lithotomy would succeed. To this end, the sound being introduced, pass a very small gorget, or otherwise a bistoury, along its groove into the bladder, to effect an opening sufficient to admit of the introduction of a fine pair of forceps, by which the stone may be laid up and extracted." 'Blaine's Canine Pathology', p. 180. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER is of frequent occurrence in the dog; it is also occasionally observed in the horse and the ox. It sometimes appears as an epizootic. It is generally announced by anxiety, agitation, trembling of the hinder limbs, frequent attempts to urine, vain efforts to accomplish it, the evacuation small in quantity, sometimes clear and aqueous, and at other times mucous, laden with sediment, thick and bloody, escaping by jets, painfully and with great difficulty, and then suddenly rushing out in great quantity. To this list of symptoms colic may often be added. The animal drinks with avidity, but seldom eats much, unless at the commencement of the complaint. The skin is hard and dry, he looks at his flanks, and his back and flanks are tender when pressed upon. During the latter portion of my connexion with Mr. Blaine, this disease assumed an epidemic character. There was a great drought through almost every part of the country. The disease was characterised by general uneasiness; continual shifting of the posture; a tucked-up appearance; an anxious countenance; a quick and noisy pulse; continued panting; the urine voided in small quantities, sometimes discharged drop by drop, or complete stoppage of it. The belly hot, swelled, and tender to the touch; the dog becoming strangely irritable, and ready to bite even his master. '1st May', 1824.--Two dogs had been making ineffectual attempts to void their urine for nearly two days. The first was a terrier, and the other a Newfoundland. The terrier was bled, placed in a warm bath, and an aloetic ball, with calomel, administered. He was bled a second time in the evening, and a few drops of water were discharged. On the following day, the urine slowly passed involuntarily from him; but when he attempted to void any, his efforts were totally ineffectual. Balls composed of camphor, pulv. uva ursi, tinct. ferri mur., mass purg., and pulv. lini. et gum. arab., were administered morning, noon, and night. On the 5th the urine still passed involuntarily. Cold lotions were employed, and tonic and astringent medicines administered, with castor oil. He gradually got well, and no trace of the disease remained until June the 6th, when he again became thin and weak, and discharged much bloody urine, but apparently without pain. The uva ursi, oak bark, and powdered gum-arabic were employed. On the 12th he had become much better, and so continued until the 1st of July, when he again exhibited the same complaint more violently than before. He was exceedingly tender on the loins, and screamed when he was touched. He was bled, returned to his uva ursi and powdered gum, and recovered. I saw him two years afterwards apparently well. The Newfoundland dog exhibited a similar complaint, with nearly the same accompaniments. 'May' 1.--He was disinclined to move; his belly was hard and hot, and he was supposed to be costive. Gave an aloetic ball with iron. 2d. He has endeavoured, in vain, several times to void his urine. He walks stiffly with his back bound. Subtract eight ounces of blood; give another physic-ball, and apply cold affusion to the loins. 3d. He frequently attempts to stale, and passes a little urine at each time; he still walks and stands with his back bound. Syr. papav. et rhamni, with tinct. ferr. mur., a large spoonful being given morning and night. 4th. He again tries, ineffectually, to void his urine. Mist. et pulv. 5th. Unable to void a drop of urine; nose hot; tongue hangs down; pants considerably; will not eat; the countenance has an anxious character. Bleed to twelve ounces; apply cold affusion. Medicine as before, with cold affusion. 6th. Appears to be in very great pain; not a drop of water has passed from him. Medicine and other treatment as before. In the evening he lay down quietly. On the next morning he was found dead. All the viscera were sound except the bladder, which was ruptured; the abdomen contained two quarts of bloody fluid. The mucous membrane of the bladder appeared to be in the highest state of inflammation. It was almost black with extravasated blood. On the neck of the bladder was an enlargement of the size of a goose's egg, and almost filling the cavity of the pelvis. On cutting into it, more than two ounces of pus escaped. On June 29, 1833, a poodle was brought to me. He had not been observed to pass any urine for two days. He made frequent attempts to void it, and cried dreadfully. The bladder could be felt distended in the abdomen. I put him into a warm bath, and took from him a pound of blood. He seemed to be a little relieved. I did not leave him until after midnight, but was soon roused by his loud screams, and the dog was also retching violently. The cries and retching gradually abated, and he died. The bladder had burst, and the parietes were in a dreadful state of inflammation. A dog had laboured under incontinence of urine more than two months. The water was continually dropping from him. The servant told me that, three months before, he had been shut into a room two days, and, being a cleanly animal, would not stale until he was liberated. Soon after that the incontinence of urine was observed. I gave the usual tonic balls, with a small portion of opium, night and morning, and ordered cold water to be frequently dashed on the perinæum. A month afterwards he was quite well. Comparatively speaking, 'profuse staling' is not a common disease, except when it is the consequence of bad food, or strong diuretics, or actual inflammation. The cause and the result of the treatment are often obscure. Bleeding, purging, and counter irritation, would be indicated to a certain extent, but the lowering system must not be carried too far. The medicine would probably be catechu, uva ursi, and opium. At times blood mingles with the urine, with or without coagulation. The cause and the source of it may or may not be determined. Generally speaking it is the result of some strain or blow. A terrier bitch, in January, 1820, had incontinence of urine. No swelling or injury could be detected. I used with her the simple tonic balls. 10th January'.--She is now considerably better, and only a few drops are observed. 2d February'.--The disease which had seemingly been conquered began again to reappear; the medicine had been neglected. Again have recourse to it. 4'th March'.--The disease now appears to be quite checked by the cold lotion and the balls. A CASE OF RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER This is a singular account, and stands almost alone. The patient was a valuable spaniel belonging to that breed known as "The Duke of Norfolk's," and now possessed in its full perfection by the Earl of Albemarle. Professor Simonds shall give his own account: I was informed that almost from a puppy to the time when he was two years old, the dog had always been delicate in his appearance, and was observed to void his urine with difficulty; but there were not sufficient indications of disease for the owner to suppose that medical attendance was necessary until within a few days of his death, and then, finding that the act of staling was effected with increased difficulty, and accompanied with extreme pain; that the dog refused his food, was feverish; that at length there were frequent or ineffective efforts to expel the urine, the dog crying out from extremity of pain, and it was sufficiently evident that great mischief was going on, he was placed under my care; and even then he was walked a mile and a half to my infirmary. My attention was immediately directed to him; the man who brought him informing me that he seemed much easier since he left home. On examination, I at once pronounced that he could not recover; in fact, that he was rapidly sinking; but, from his then state, I could give no opinion with regard to the precise nature or extent of his disease. He was placed upon a bed in an appropriate apartment, with directions not to be disturbed, and in a few hours he died. The 'post-mortem' appearances were the abdomen containing from four to five pints of fluid, having much the character of, but more bloody than, that found in cases of ascites. The peritoneum seemed to be dyed from its immersion in this fluid, as it showed a general red hue, not apparently deeper in some parts than in others. There was an absence, to a great extent, of that beautiful appearance and well-marked course of the minute blood-vessels which accompany many cases of original peritonitis. Extending the examination, I found the bladder to be ruptured, and that the fluid of which I have spoken was to a large extent composed of urine, mingled with some other secretion from the peritoneal investure of the abdomen and its viscera, probably produced from the presence of an irritant, the urine being brought into direct contact with the membrane. Farther research showed that this rupture of the bladder was caused in the manner which I have stated. The 'post-mortem' examination displayed a chronic enlargement of the prostate gland of a considerable size, causing by its pressure a mechanical obstruction to the passage of the urine. Death in this instance was not immediately brought about by the abnormal state of the original organ affected; but the prostate gland, having early in the life of the animal become diseased, and, being gradually increased in size, became a cause of still more serious disease, attacking more important organs. WORMS. There are various kinds of worms to which the dog is subject; they have occasionally been confounded with each other; but they are essentially different in the situations which they occupy, and the effects which they produce. The 'ascarides' are small thread-like worms, generally not more than six or ten lines in length, of a white colour, the head obtuse, and the tail terminating in a transparent prolongation. They are principally found in the rectum. They seem to possess considerable agility; and the itching which they set up is sometimes absolutely intolerable. To relieve this, the dog often drags the fundament along the ground. All the domesticated animals are subject to the annoyance which these worms occasion. They roll themselves into balls as large as a nut, and become entangled so much with each other that it is difficult to separate them. Sometimes they appear in the stomach, and in such large masses that it is almost impossible to remove them by the act of vomiting. It has been said that packets of ascarides have been collected in the stomach containing more than one hundred worms. These collections are rarely or never got entirely rid of. Enormous doses of medicine may be given, and the worms may not be seen again for several weeks; but, at length, they reappear as numerous as ever. Young dogs are exceedingly subject to them, and are with great difficulty perfectly freed from their attacks. Another species of worm is the 'teres'. It would resemble the earth-worm in its appearance, were it not white instead of a red colour. They are very common among dogs, especially young dogs, in whom they are often attended by fits. Occasionally they crawl into the stomach, and there produce a great deal of irritation. Another, and the most injurious of the intestinal worms, is the 'taenia', or 'tape-worm'. It is many inches in length, almost flat in the greater part of its extent, and its two extremities are nearly or quite equal. Tape-worms associate in groups like the others, but they are not so numerous; they chiefly frequent the small intestines. They are sometimes apt to coil themselves, and form a mechanical obstruction which is fatal to the dog. The presence of all these worms is readily detected. There is generally a dry, short cough, a staring coat, a hot and fetid breath, a voracious appetite, and a peculiar state of the bowels; alternately constipated to a great degree, or peculiarly loose and griping. In young dogs the emaciated appearance, stinted growth, fetid breath, and frequent fits, are indications not to be mistaken. At other times, however, the dog is filled with worms with scarcely any indication of their presence. Mr. Blaine very properly remarks that it docs not follow, because no worms are seen to pass away, that there are none: neither when they are not seen does it follow even that none pass; for, if they remain long in the intestines after they are dead, they become digested like other animal matter. The means of expelling or destroying worms in the intestines of the dog are twofold: the first and apparently the most natural mode of proceeding, is the administration of purgatives, and usually of drastic ones; but there is much danger connected with this; not merely the fæces will be expelled, but a greater or less portion of the mucus that lines the intestinal canal. The consequence of this will be griping and inflammation to a very dangerous extent. Frequent doses of Epsom salts have been given; but not always with success, and frequently with griping. Mercurial medicines have been tried; but they have not always succeeded, and have often produced salivation. One method of expelling the worm has been adopted which has rarely failed, without the slightest mischief--the administration of glass finely powdered. Not a particle of it penetrates through the mucus that lines the bowels, while it destroys every intestinal worm. The powdered glass is made into a ball with lard and ginger. The following account of the symptoms caused by taenia may be interesting. A dog used to be cheerful, and particularly fond of his master; but gradually his countenance became haggard, his eyes were red, his throat was continually filled with a frothy spume, and he stalked about with an expression of constant inquietude and suffering. These circumstances naturally excited considerable fear with regard to the nature of his disease, and he was shut up in a court, with the intention of his being destroyed. Thus shut up, he furiously threw himself upon every surrounding object, and tore them with his teeth whenever he could seize them. He retired into one of the corners of the court, and there he was continually rubbing his nose, as it were to extract some foreign body; sometimes he bit and tore up the earth, barking and howling violently; his hair stood on end, and his flanks were hollow. During the whole of his disease he continued to recognise his master. He ran to him at the slightest word. He refused nothing to drink; but he would not eat. He was killed on account of the fear excited among the neighbours. The veterinary surgeon who attended him suspected that there was some affection of the head, on account of the strange manner in which he had rubbed and beaten it. The superior part of the nose was opened, and two tæniæ; lanceolatæ were found: it was plain enough that they were the cause of all the mischief. The proprietor of the dog nevertheless believed that it was a case of rabies; he had the caustic applied to his hands, and could not persuade himself that he was safe until he had been at the baths of Bourbonne. [4] There is a worm inhabiting the stomach of young dogs, the 'Ascaris Marginata', a frequent source of sickness and occasionally of spasmodic colic, by rolling itself into knots. It seems occasionally to take a dislike to its assigned residence, and wanders into the oesophagus, but rarely into the larger intestines. A dog had a severe cough, which could not be subdued by bleeding or physic, or sedative or opiate medicines. He was destroyed, and one of these ascarides was found in the trachea. Others find their way into the nasal cavity; and a dreadful source of irritation they are when they are endeavouring to escape, in order to undergo one of the changes of form to which they are destined, or when they have been forced into the nostril in the act of vomiting. I once had a dog as a patient, whose case, I confess, I did not understand. He would sneeze and snort, and rub his head and nose along the carpet. I happened to say that the symptoms in some respects resembled those of rabies, and yet, that I could not satisfy myself that the dog was rabid. The mention of rabies was sufficient, and in defiance of my remonstrances the animal was destroyed. The previous symptoms led me to examine the nasal cavity, and I found two of these ascarides, one concealed in the middle and the other in the upper meatus, through neither of which could any strong current of air be forced, and from which the ascarides could not be dislodged. Worms may be the cause of sudden death in a dog. The following case, communicated by Professor Dick, illustrates this fact: I lately had the body of a dog sent to me: his owner sent the following letter by the same conveyance. "My keeper went out shooting yesterday morning with the dog which I now send to you. He was quite lively, and apparently well, during the former part of the day; but towards evening he was seized with violent vomiting. When he came home he refused to eat, and this morning about eight o'clock he died. As I have lost all my best dogs rather suddenly, I will thank you to have him examined, and the contents of his stomach analyzed; and have the kindness to inform me whether he has been poisoned, or what was the cause of his death." On opening the abdomen, the viscera appeared quite healthy: the stomach was removed, and the contents were found to be more decidedly acid than usual. The acids were the muriatic and acetic: the finding of an increased quantity of these is far from being unusual. There was not a trace of arsenical, mercurial, nor any other metallic poison present. Of the vegetable poisons, I can only say there was not the slightest trace of the morbid effects of any of them. The pericardium and the left side of the thorax contained a small quantity of bloody serous fluid, and the heart was full of black blood. The left lung was a little inflamed. The trachea contained some frothy yellow mucous matter, similar to the contents of the stomach. In the larynx was found one of those worms occasionally inhabiting the cavities of the nose, and which had probably escaped from the nose while the dog had been hunting; and, lodging in the larynx, had destroyed the animal by producing spasms of the larynx. The worm was about one inch and a half in length, and had partly penetrated through the rima glottidis. Another worm about the same size was found in the left bronchia, and a still smaller one among the mucus of the trachea: there were also four others in the nose. Some years ago I found some worms of the filacia species in the right ventricle of the heart of a dog, which had produced sudden death by interrupting the action of the valves. The following is a curious case of tape-worm, by Mr. Reynold: On an estate where a great quantity of rabbits are annually destroyed in the month of November, we have observed that several dogs that were previously in good health and condition soon became weak, listless, and excessively emaciated, frequently passing large portions of the tape-worm. This induced us to examine the intestines of several hares and rabbits; and, with, very few exceptions, we found each to contain a perfect tape-worm three to four feet in length. We then caused two of the dogs whose cases appeared the worst to be separated from the others, feeding them on potatoes, &c.; and, in eight or ten days, after voiding several feet of the worms, they were perfectly restored to their former strength and appearance. The worm disease, hitherto so formidable to the spaniel and pointer, may in a great measure be fairly attributed to the custom of giving them the intestines of their game, under the technical appellation of "the paunch." The facts above stated, in explaining the cause of the disease, at the same time suggest the remedy. 'A worm in the urethra of a dog'. M. Séon, veterinary surgeon of the Lancers of the Body Guard, was requested to examine a dog who strained in vain to void his urine, often uttering dreadful cries, and then eagerly licking his penis. M. Séon, after having tried in vain to abate the irritation, endeavoured to pass an elastic bougie. He perceived a conical body half an inch long protruding from the urethra with each effort of the dog to void his urine, and immediately afterwards returning into the urethra. He crushed it with a pair of forceps, and drew it out. It proved to be a worm resembling a strongylus, four and a half inches long. It was living, and moving about. M. Séon could not ascertain its species. The worm being extracted, the urine flowed, and the dog soon recovered. [5] FISTULA IN THE ANUS. This is a too frequent consequence of piles. It is often the result of the stagnation of hardened fæces in the rectum, which produces inflammation and ulceration, and frequently leaves a fistulous opening. If we may judge what the quadruped suffers by the sufferings of human beings, it is a sadly painful affair, whether the fistula is external or internal. Whether it may be cured by a mild stimulant daily inserted to the bottom of the abscess, or whether there is a communication with the opening of the rectum which buries itself in the cellular tissues around it, and requires an operation for its cure, it will require the assistance of a skilful surgeon to effect a cure in this case. [Footnote 1: Tetanus observed on a Dog, by M. Debeaux.--'Pract. Med. Vet.' 1829, p. 543] [Footnote 2: 'Blaine's Canine Pathology', p. 151.] [Footnote 3: 'Proceedings of the Veterinary Medical Association', 1839-40] [Footnote 4: 'Prat. Méd. Vét.' 1824, p. 14.] [Footnote 5: 'Prat. Méd. Vét.', Fév. 1828.] * * * * * CHAPTER XIII. BLEEDING; TORSION; CASTRATION, PARTURITION; AND SOME DISEASES CONNECTED WITH THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. BLEEDING. This operation is exceedingly useful in many accidents and diseases. It is, in fact, as in the horse, the sheet-anchor of the practitioner in the majority of cases of an inflammatory character. There is some difference, however, in the instrument to be used. The lancet is the preferable instrument in the performance of this operation. The fleam should be banished from among the instruments of the veterinary surgeon. A ligature being passed round the lower part of the neck, and the head being held up a little on one side, the vein will protrude on either side of the windpipe. It will usually be advisable to cut away a little of the hair over the spot designed to be punctured. When a sufficient quantity of blood is abstracted, it will generally be necessary, and especially if the dog is large, to pass a pin through both edges of the orifice, and secure it with a little tow. When no lancet is at hand, the inside of the flap of the ear may be punctured with a pen-knife, the course of a vein being selected for this purpose. In somewhat desperate cases a small portion of the tail may be amputated. The 'superficial brachial vein', the 'cephalic' vein of the human subject, and the 'plat' vein of the farrier, may be resorted to in all lamenesses of the fore limb, and especially in all shoulder-wrenches, strains of the loins, and of the thigh and the leg, and muscular and ligamentous extensions of any part of the hind limbs; the 'vena saphena major', and the 'anterior tibial' vein may be punctured in such cases. The quantity of blood to be abstracted must be regulated according to the size and strength of the dog and the degree of inflammation. One or two ounces may be sufficient for a very small dog, and seven or eight for a large one. TORSION To M. Amusat, of Paris, we are indebted for the introduction of the artery-forceps for the arresting of hemorrhage. I shall do but justice to him by describing his mode of proceeding. He seizes the divided vessel with a pair of torsion-forceps in such a manner as to hold and close the mouth of the vessel in its teeth. The slide of the forceps then shuts its blade, and the artery is held fast. The artery is then drawn from out of the tissues surrounding it, to the extent of a few lines, and freed, with another forceps, from its cellular envelope, so as to lay bare its external coat. The index and thumb of the left hand are then applied above the forceps, in order to press back the blood in the vessel. He then begins to twist the artery. One of the methods consists in continuing the torsion until the part held in the forceps is detached. When, however, the operator does not intend to produce that effect, he ceases, after from four to six revolutions of the vessel on its axis for the small arteries, and from eight to twelve for the large ones. The hemorrhage instantly stops. The vessel which had been drawn out is then replaced, as the surrounding parts give support to the knot which has been formed at its extremities. The knot becomes further concealed by the retraction of the artery, and this retraction will be proportionate to the shortening which takes place by the effect of the twisting, so that it will be scarcely visible on the surface of the stump. It is of the utmost importance to seize the artery perfectly, and to make the stated number of twists, as otherwise the security against the danger of consecutive hemorrhage will not be perfect. Mr. W. B. Costello, of London, was present when the operation was performed at Paris. He brought back a full account of it as performed there, and availed himself of an early opportunity of putting it to the test before some of our metropolitan surgeons. A dog was placed on the table, the forceps were applied, and the operation perfectly succeeded. A few days afterwards a pointer bitch was brought to my infirmary, with a large scirrhous tumour near the anterior teat on the left side. It had been gradually increasing during the last five months. It was becoming more irregular in its form, and on one of its tuberculous prominences was a reddish spot, soft and somewhat tender, indicating that the process of suppuration was about to commence. I had often, or almost uniformly, experienced the power of iodine in dispersing glandular enlargements in the neck of the dog, and also those indurated tumours of various kinds which form about the joints of some domesticated animals, particularly of cattle; but frequent disappointment had convinced me that it was, if not inert, yet very uncertain in its effect in causing absorption of tumours about the mammæ of the bitch. Having also been taught that the ultimate success of the excision of these enlargements depended on their removal before suppuration had taken place, and the neighbouring parts had been inoculated by the virus which so plentifully flowed from the ulcer, I determined on an immediate operation; and, as the tumour was large, and she was in high condition, I thought it a good case for 'the first trial of torsion'. She was well physicked, and on the third day was produced before my class and properly secured. I had not provided myself with the 'torsion forceps', but relied on the hold I should have on the vessel by means of a pair of common artery forceps; and the effect of imperfect instruments beautifully established the power of torsion in arresting hemorrhage. Two elliptical incisions were made on the face of the tumour, and prolonged anteriorly and posteriorly about an inch from it. The portion of integument that could be spared was thus enclosed, while the opposed edges of the wound could be neatly and effectually brought together after the operation. The dissection of the integument from the remaining part of the face of the tumour was somewhat slow and difficult, for it was in a manner identified with the hardened mass beneath; but the operation soon proceeded more quickly, and we very soon had the scirrhus exposed, and adhering to the thorax by its base. About two ounces of venous blood had now been lost. I was convinced that I should find the principal artery, by which the excrescence was fed, at its anterior extremity, and not far from the spot where the suppuration seemed to be preparing: therefore, beginning posteriorly, I very rapidly cut through the cellular texture, elevating the tumour and turning it back, until I arrived at the inner and anterior point, and there was the only source of supply; the artery was plainly to be seen. In order to give the experiment a fair chance, I would not enclose it in the forceps, but I cut through it. A jet of blood spirted out. I then seized the vessel as quickly as I could, and began to turn the forceps, but before I could effect more than a turn and a half I lost my hold on the artery. I was vexed, and paused, waiting for the renewed gush of blood that I might seize the vessel again; but to my surprise not a drop more blood came from the arterial trunk. That turn and a half, considerable pressure having been used, had completely arrested the hemorrhage. I can safely say that not more than four drachms of arterial blood were lost. The wound was sponged clean: there remained only a very slight oozing from two or three points; the flaps were brought together, secured by the ordinary sutures, and the proper bandages applied. The weight of the tumour was twenty-two ounces; there was no after-bleeding, no unpleasant occurrences; but the wound, which had been nearly six inches in length, was closed in little more than three weeks. He will essentially promote the cause of science, and the cause of humanity, who will avail himself of the opportunity which country practice affords of putting the effect of torsion to the test: and few things will be more gratifying than the consciousness of rescuing our patients from the unnecessary infliction of torture. In docking, it will be found perfectly practicable: our patients will escape much torture, and tetanus will often be avoided. The principal danger from castration has arisen from the severity with which the iron has been employed. The colt, the sheep, and the dog will be fair subjects for experiment. The cautery, as it regards the first, and the brutal violence too frequently resorted to in operating upon the others, have destroyed thousands of animals. CASTRATION. This operation is performed on a great portion of our domestic animals. It renders them more docile, and gives them a disposition to fatten. It is followed by fewest serious accidents when it is performed on young animals. The autumn or spring should, if possible, be chosen for the operation, for the temperature of the atmosphere is then generally uniform and moderate. It should be previously ascertained that the animal is in perfect health; and he should be prepared by a mash diet and bleeding, if he is in a plethoric state, or possessed of considerable determination. If it is a young animal that is to be operated upon, an incision may be made into the scrotum, the testicle may be protruded, and the cord cut without much precaution, for the blood will soon be stayed; but for older animals it will be advisable to use a ligature, applied moderately tightly round the spermatic cord a little more than an inch beyond its insertion into the testicle; the scalpel is then used, and a separation effected between the ligature and the testis. The vas derens needs not to be included; a great deal of pain will then be spared to the animal. The ordinary consequences of castration are pain, inflammation, engorgement, and suppuration. The pain and suppuration are inevitable, but generally yield to emollient applications. The engorgement is often considerable at first, but soon subsides, and the suppuration usually abates in the course of a few days. It has been said that the castrated dog is more attached and faithful to his master than he who has not been deprived of his genital powers: this, however, is to be much doubted. He has, generally speaking, lost a considerable portion of his courage, his energy, and his strength. He is apt to become idle, and is disposed to accumulate fat more rapidly. His power of scent is also very considerably diminished and he is less qualified for the sports of the field. Of this there can be no doubt. It has been said that he is more submissive: I very much doubt the accuracy of that opinion. He may not be so savage as in his perfect state; he may not be so eager in his feeding; but there is not the devotion to his master, and the quickness of comprehension which belongs to the perfect dog. The removal of the ovaries, or spaying of the female, used to be often practised, and packs of spayed bitches were, and still are, occasionally kept. In performing this operation, an opening is made into the flank on one side, and the finger introduced--one of the ovaries is laid hold of and drawn a little out of the belly; a ligature is then applied round it, just above the bifurcation of the womb, and it is cut through, the end of the ligature being left hanging out of the wound. The other ovary is then felt for and drawn out, and excised and secured by a ligature. The wound is then sewed up, and a bandage is placed over the incision. Some farriers do not apply any ligature, but simply sew up the wound, and in the majority of cases the edges adhere, and no harm comes of the operation, except that the general character of the animal is essentially changed. She accumulates a vast quantity of fat, becomes listless and idle, and is almost invariably short-lived. The female dog, therefore, should always be allowed to breed. Breeding is a necessary process; and the female prevented from it is sure to be affected with disease sooner or later; enormous collections and indurations will form, that will inevitably terminate in scirrhus or ulceration. A troublesome process often occurs when the female is not permitted to have young ones; namely, the accumulation of milk in the teats, especially if at any previous time, however distant, she may have had puppies once. The foundation is laid for many unpleasant and unmanageable complaints. If she is suffered to bring up one litter after another, she will have better health than those that are debarred from intercourse with the male. The temporary union which takes placed between the male and female at the period at which they are brought together is a very singular one. The corpora cavernosa of the male and the clitoris of the female being suddenly distended with blood, it is impossible to withdraw either of them until the turgescence of the parts has entirely ceased. PARTURITION The pupping usually takes place from the sixty-second to the sixty-fourth day; and the process having commenced, from a quarter to three quarters of an hour generally takes place between the production of each puppy. Great numbers of bitches are lost every year in the act of parturition: there seems to be a propensity in the females to associate with dogs larger than themselves, and they pay for it with their lives. The most neglected circumstance during the period of pregnancy is the little exercise which the mother is permitted to take, while, in point of fact, nothing tends more to safe and easy parturition than her being permitted or compelled to take a fair quantity of exercise. When the time of parturition has arrived, and there is evident difficulty in producing the foetus, recourse should be had to the ergot of rye, which should be given every hour or half hour, according to circumstances. If after a certain time some, although little, progress has been made, the ergot must be continued in smaller doses, or perhaps suspended for a while; but, if all progress is evidently suspended, recourse must be had to the hook or the forceps. By gentle but continued manipulation much may be done, especially when the muzzle of the puppy can be brought into the passage. As little force as possible must be used, and especially the foetus little broken. Many a valuable animal is destroyed by the undue application of force. If the animal seems to be losing strength, a small quantity of laudanum and ether may be administered. "The patience of bitches in labour is extreme," says Mr. Blaine; "and their distress, if not removed, is most striking and affecting. Their look is at such time particularly expressive and apparently imploring." When the pupping is protracted, and the young ones are evidently dead, the mother may be saved, if none of the puppies have been broken. In process of time the different puppies may, one after another, be extracted; but when violence has been used at the commencement, or almost at any part of the process, death will assuredly follow. 'June' 15, 1832.--A spaniel bitch was brought to my infirmary to-day, who has been in great and constant pain since yesterday, making repeated but fruitless efforts to expel her puppies. She is in a very plethoric habit of body; her bowels are much confined, and she exhibits some general symptoms of febrile derangement, arising, doubtless, from her protracted labour. This is her first litter. Upon examination, no young could be distinctly felt. Place her in a warm bath, and give her a dose of castor oil, morning and evening. 'June' 16.--The bitch appears in the same state as yesterday, except that the medicine has operated freely upon the bowels, and the febrile symptoms have somewhat decreased. Her strainings are as frequent and distressing as ever. Take two scruples of the ergot of rye, and divide into six doses, of which let one be given every half hour. In about ten minutes after the exhibition of the last dose of this medicine, she brought forth, with great difficulty, one dead puppy, upon taking which away from her, she became so uneasy that I was induced to return it to her. In about a quarter of an hour after this I paid her another visit: the puppy could not now be found; but a suspicious appearance in the mother's eye betrayed at once that she had devoured it. I immediately administered an emetic; and in a very short time the whole foetus was returned in five distinct parts, viz., the four quarters and the head. After this, the bitch began to amend very fast; she produced no other puppy; and as her supply of milk was small, she was soon convalescent. Twelve months afterwards she was again taken in labour, about eleven o'clock in the morning, and after very great difficulty, one puppy was produced. After this the bitch appeared in great pain, but did not succeed in expelling another foetus, in consequence of which I was sent for about three o'clock, P.M. I found her very uneasy breathing laboriously; the mouth hot, and the bowels costive; but I could not discover any trace of another foetus. She was put into a warm bath, and a dose of opening medicine was administered. About five o'clock she got rid of one dead and two living puppies. '2d'. She is still very ill; she evinces great pain when pressed upon the abdomen; and it is manifest that she has another foetus within her. I ordered a dose of the ergot, and in about twenty minutes a large puppy was produced, nearly dying. She survived with due care. I cannot refrain from inserting the following case at considerable length. 'Sept.' 4, 1820.--A very diminutive terrier, weighing not 5 lbs. was sent to my hospital in order to lie in. She was already restless and panting. About eight o'clock at night the labour pains commenced; but until eleven scarcely any progress was made. The 'os uteri' would not admit my finger, although I frequently attempted it. At half-past eleven, the membranes began to protrude; at one the head had descended into the pelvis and the puppy was dead. In a previous labour she had been unable to produce her young, although the ergot of rye had been freely used. I was obliged to use considerable force, and she fought terribly with me throughout the whole process. At half-past one, and after applying considerable force, I brought away a large foetus, compared with her own size. On passing my finger as high as possible, I felt another foetus living, but the night passed and the whole of the following day, and she ate and drank, and did not appear to be much injured. Several times in the day I gave her some strong soup and the ergot. Some slight pains now returned, and by pressing on the belly the nose of the foetus was brought to the superior edge of the pelvis. The pains again ceased, the pudenda began to swell from frequent examination, the bitch began to stagger, and made frequent attempts to void her urine, with extreme difficulty in accomplishing it. I now resorted to the crotchet; and after many unsuccessful attempts, in which the superior part of the vagina must have been considerably bruised, I fixed it sufficiently firmly to draw the head into the cavity of the pelvis. Here for a while the shoulder resisted every attempt which I could make without the danger of detruncating the foetus. At length by working at the side of the head until my nails were soft and my fingers sore, I extracted one fore leg. The other was soon brought down; another large puppy was produced, but destroyed by the means necessary for its production. This was the fruit of two hours' hard work. She was completely exhausted, and scarcely able to stand. When placed on the ground she staggered and fell at almost every step. Her efforts to void her urine were frequent and ineffectual. At four o'clock I again examined her; the external pudenda were sore and swelled, and beginning to assume a black hue. It was with considerable difficulty that I could introduce my finger. A third foetus irregularly presented was detected. I could just feel one of the hind legs. No time was to be lost. I introduced a small pair of forceps by the side of my finger, and succeeded in laying hold of the leg without much difficulty, and, with two or three weak efforts from the mother,--I could scarcely call them pains,--I brought the leg down until it was in the cavity of the pelvis. I solicited it forward with my finger, and, by forcibly pressing back the 'labia pudendi', I could just grasp it with the finger and thumb of the right hand. Holding it there, I introduced the finger of the right hand, and continued to get down the other leg, and then found little difficulty until the head was brought to the superior edge of the pelvis. After a long interval, and with considerable force, this was brought into the pelvis, and another puppy extracted. This fully occupied two hours. The bitch now appeared almost lifeless. As she was unable to stand, and seemed unconscious of every thing around her, I concluded that she was lost: I gave her one or two drops of warm brandy and water, covered her up closely, and put her to bed. To my surprise, on the following morning, she was curled round in her basket; she licked my hands, and ate a bit of bread and butter; but when put on her legs staggered and fell. The pudendum was dreadfully swollen, and literally black. In the afternoon she again took a little food: she came voluntarily from her basket, wagged her tail when spoken to, and on the following day she was taken in her basket a journey of 70 miles, and afterwards did well; no one could be more rejoiced than was her master, who was present at, and superintended the greater part of the proceedings. 'The beneficial effect of Ergot of Rye in difficult Parturition'.--The following case is from the pen of Professor Dick: On the 10th instant, a pointer bitch produced two puppies; and it was thought by the person having her in charge that she had no more. She was put into a comfortable box, and with a little care was expected to do well. On the next morning, however, she was sick and breathed heavily, and continued rather uneasy all the day. On the forenoon of the following day I was requested to see her. I found her with her nose dry, breath hot, respiration frequent, mouth hot and parched, coat staring, back roached, pulse 120, and a black fetid discharge from the vagina. Pressure on the abdomen gave pain. A pup could be obscurely felt; the secretion of milk was suppressed, and the skin had lost its natural elasticity. Tepid water with a little soap dissolved in it was immediately injected into the uterus, which in a considerable degree excited its action; and this injection was repeated two or three times with the same effect. After waiting for half an hour, the foetus was not discharged nor brought forward; therefore a scruple of the ergot of rye was then made into an infusion with two ounces of water, and one-third of it given as a dose; in half an hour, another one-third of it; the injections of warm water and soap being also continued. Soon after the second dose of the infusion, a dead puppy was expelled; the bitch rapidly recovered, and, with the exception of deficiency of milk, is now quite well. This case would seem to prove the great power of the ergot of rye over the uterus; but, until more experiments are made, it is necessary to be cautious in ascribing powers to medicines which have not been much tried in our practice. It is not improbable that the warm water and soap might have roused the uterus into action without the aid of the ergot; and it is therefore necessary that those who repeat this experiment should try the effects of the medicine unaided by the auxiliary. The Professor adds, that the great power which this drug is said to have on the human being, and the apparent effect in the case just given, suggest the propriety of instituting a further trial of it, and of our extending our observations to cattle, amongst which difficult cases of calving so frequently occur. Mr. Simpson thus concludes some remarks on ergot in difficult parturition. This medicine possesses a very great power over the uterus, rousing its dormant or debilitated contractility, and stimulating it to an extra performance of this necessary function after its natural energy has been in some measure destroyed by forcible but useless action. The direct utility of the ergot was manifested in cases where the uterus appeared quite exhausted by its repeated efforts; and certainly it is but fair to ascribe the decidedly augmented power of the organ to the stimulus of the ergot, for no other means were resorted to in order to procure the desired effect. Its action, too, is prompt. Within ten minutes of the administration of a second or third dose, when nature has been nearly exhausted, the parturition has been safely effected. 'Puerperal Fits'. Nature, proportions the power and resources of the mother to the wants of her offspring. In her wild undomesticated state she is able to suckle her progeny to the full time; but, in the artificial state in which we have placed her, we shorten the interval between each period of parturition, we increase the number of her young ones at each birth, we diminish her natural powers of affording them nutriment, and we give her a degree of irritability which renders her whole system liable to be excited and deranged by causes that would otherwise be harmless: therefore it happens that, when the petted bitch is permitted to suckle the whole of her litter, her supply of nutriment soon becomes exhausted, and the continued drain upon her produces a great degree of irritability. She gets rapidly thin; she staggers, is half unconscious, neglects her puppies, and suddenly falls into a fit of a very peculiar character. It begins with, and is sometimes confined to, the respiratory apparatus: she lies on her side and pants violently, and the sound of her laboured breathing may be heard at the distance of twenty yards. Sometimes spasms steal over her limbs; at other times the diaphragm and respiratory muscles alone are convulsed. In a few hours she is certainly lost; or, if there are moments of remission, they are speedily succeeded by increased heavings. The practitioner unaccustomed to this fearful state of excitation, and forgetful or unaware of its cause, proceeds to bleed her, and he seals her fate. Although one system is thus convulsively labouring, it is because others are suddenly and perfectly exhausted; and by abstraction of the vital current he reduces this last hold of life to the helpless condition of the rest. There is not a more common or fatal error than this. The veterinary practitioner is unable to apply the tepid bath to his larger patients, in order to quiet the erythism of certain parts of the system, and produce an equable diffusion of nervous influence and action; and he often forgets it when he has it in his power to save the smaller ones. Let the bitch in a fit be put into a bath, temperature 96° Fahrenheit, and covered with the water, her head excepted. It will he surprising to see how soon the simple application of this equable temperament will quiet down the erythism of the excited system. In ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour, she may be taken out of the bath evidently relieved, and then, a hasty and not very accurate drying having taken place, she is wrapped in a blanket and placed in some warm situation, a good dose of physic having been previously administered. She soon breaks out in a profuse perspiration. Everything becomes gradually quiet, and she falls into a deep and long sleep, and at length awakes somewhat weak, but to a certain degree restored. If, then, all her puppies except one or two are taken from her, and her food is, for a day or two, somewhat restricted, and after that given again of its usual quantity and kind, she will live and do well; but a bleeding at the time of her fit, or suffering all her puppies to return to her, will inevitably destroy her. A bitch that was often brought to my house was suckling a litter of puppies. She was foolishly taken up and thrown into the Serpentine in the month of April. The suppression of milk was immediate and complete. There was also a determination to the head, and attacks resembling epilepsy. The puppies that were suffered to remain with the mother, were very soon as epileptic as she was, and were destroyed. A seton was inserted on each side of her neck. Ipecacuanha was administered; and that having sufficiently worked, a small quantity of diluted sulphuric acid was given. A fortnight afterwards she was perfectly well. 'Inversion of the Uterus in a Bull Bitch after Pupping. Extirpation and Cure.' By M. Cross, M. V., Milan.--In July, 1829, I was desired to attend a small bull bitch six years old, and who had had puppies four times. The uterus was completely inverted, and rested all its weight on the vaginal orifice of the urethra, preventing the discharge of the urine, and thus being the cause of great pain when the animal endeavoured to void it, or the faecal matter. The uterus was become of almost a black colour, swelled, softened, and exhaling an insupportable odour. Judging from this that the preservation of the uterus was impossible, and reckoning much on the good constitution of the patient, I warned the proprietor of the danger of its reduction, even supposing that it was practicable, and proposed to him the complete extirpation of the uterus as the only means that remained of saving the bitch. Armed with his consent, I passed a ligature round the neck of the uterus, at the bottom of the vagina, and drew it as tight as I possibly could. On the following day I again tightened the ligature, in order to complete the mortification of the part, and the separation of the womb. On the third day I extirpated the womb entirely, close to the haunch. There was very slight loss of blood, but there ran from the walls of the vagina a small quantity of ichorous fluid, with a strong fetid smell. The operation was scarcely completed ere she voided a considerable quantity of urine, and then searched about for something to eat and to drink. The portion of the uterus that was removed weighed fourteen ounces. The mucous membrane by which it was lined was in a highly disorganized state. From time to time injections of a slight infusion of aromatic plants were introduced into the vagina, and the animal was nourished with liquid food of easy digestion. The first day passed without the animal being in the slightest degree affected; but, on the following day, in despite of all our care, an ichorous fluid was discharged, which the dog would lick notwithstanding all our efforts to prevent it. The general health of the animal did not seem to be in the slightest degree affected. On the fourth day after the operation, the cords that had served as a ligature fell off, and all suppuration from the part gradually ceased. 'October 20th'.--Three months have passed since the operation, and she is perfectly well. * * * * * CHAPTER XIV. THE DISTEMPER. By this singular name is distinguished a prevalent disease now about to come under our consideration, which was first observed on the continent. The rapidity with which it spread, the strange protean appearances which it assumed, and its too frequent fatal termination, surprised and puzzled the veterinary surgeons; and they called it "la maladie des chiens," the disease or distemper in dogs. It is comparatively a new disease. It was imported from France about one hundred years since, although some French authors have strangely affirmed that it is of British origin. Having once gained footing among us, it has established itself in our country, to the vexation and loss of the sportsman, and the annoyance of the veterinary surgeon. However keepers, or even men of education, may boast of their specifics, it is a sadly fatal disease, and destroys fully one-third of the canine race. Dogs of all ages are subject to its attack. Many, nine and ten years old, have died of pure distemper; and I have seen puppies of only three weeks fall victims to it; but it oftenest appears between the sixth and twelfth month of the animal's life. If it occurs at an early period, it proves fatal in the great majority of cases; and, if the dog is more than four years old, it generally goes hard with him. It is undeniably highly contagious, yet it is frequently generated. In this it bears an analogy to mange, and to farcy and glanders in the horse. One attack of the disease, and even a severe one, is no absolute security against its return; although the dog that has once laboured under distemper possesses a certain degree of immunity; or, if he is attacked a second time, the malady usually assumes a milder type. I have, however, known it occur three times in the same animal, and at last destroy him. Violent catarrh will often terminate in distemper; and low and insufficient feeding will produce it. It frequently follows mange, and especially if mercury has been used in the cure of the malady. When we see a puppy with mange, and that peculiar disease in which the skin becomes corrugated, and more especially if it is a spaniel, and pot-bellied or rickety, we generally say that we can cure the mange, but it will not be long before the animal dies of distemper; and so it happens in three cases out of four. Whatever debilitates the constitution predisposes it for the reception or the generation of distemper. It, however, frequently occurs without any apparent exciting cause. That it is highly contagious cannot admit of doubt. A healthy dog can seldom, for many days, be kept with another that labours under distemper without becoming affected; and the disease is communicated by the slightest momentary contact. There is, however, a great deal of caprice about this. I have more than once kept a dog in the foul-yard of my hospital for several successive weeks, and he has not become diseased. Inoculation with the matter that flows from the nose, either limpid or purulent, and in an early or advanced stage of the distemper, will, with few exceptions, produce the disease; yet I have failed to communicate it even by this method. Inoculation used to be recommended as producing a milder and less fatal disease. So far as my experience goes, the contrary has been the result. Distemper is also epidemic. It occurs more frequently in the spring and autumn than in the winter and summer. If one or two dogs in a certain district are affected, we may be assured that it will soon extensively prevail there; and where the disease could not possibly be communicated by contagion. Sometimes it rages all over the country. At other times it is endemic, and confined to some particular district. Not only is the disease epidemic or endemic, but the form which it assumes is so. In one season, almost every dog with distemper has violent fits; at another, in the majority of cases, there will be considerable chest affection, running on to pneumonia; a few months afterwards, a great proportion of the distempered dogs will be worn down by diarrhoea, which no medicine will arrest; and presently it will be scarcely distinguishable from mild catarrh. It varies much with different breeds. The shepherd's dog, generally speaking, cares little about it; he is scarcely ill a day. The cur is not often seriously affected. The terrier has it more severely, especially the white terrier. The hound comes next in the order of severity; and after him the setter. With the small spaniel it is more dangerous; and still more so with the pointer, especially if he has the disease early. Next in the order of fatality comes the pug; and it is most fatal of all with the Newfoundland dog. Should a foreign dog be affected, he almost certainly dies. The greater part of the northern dogs brought by Captain Parry did not survive a twelvemonth; and the delicate Italian greyhound has little chance, when imported from abroad. Not only does it thus differ in different species of dogs, but in different breeds of the same species. I have known several gentlemen who have laboured in vain for many years, to rear particular and valuable breeds of pointers and greyhounds. The distemper would uniformly carry off five out of six. Other sportsmen laugh at the supposed danger of distemper, and declare that they seldom lose a dog. This hereditary predisposition to certain kinds of disease cannot be denied, and is not sufficiently attended to. When a peculiar fatality has often followed a certain breed, the owner should cross it from another kennel, and especially from the kennel of one who boasts of his success in the treatment of distemper. This has occasionally succeeded far beyond expectation. It is time to proceed to the symptoms of this disease; but here there is very considerable difficulty, for it is a truly protean malady, and it is impossible to fix on any symptom that will invariably characterise it. An early and frequent symptom is a gradual loss of appetite, spirits, and condition: the dog is less obedient to his master, and takes less notice of him. The eyes appear weak and watery; and there will be a very slight limpid discharge from the nose. In the morning there will, perhaps, be a little indurated mucus at the inner corner of the eye. This may continue two or three weeks without serious or scarcely recognizable illness. Then a peculiar husky cough is heard, altogether different from the sonorous cough of catarrh, or the wheezing of asthma. It is an apparent attempt to get something from the fauces or throat. By degrees the discharge from the eyes and nose, and particularly the former, will increase. More mucus will collect in the corners of the eye; and the eye will sometimes be closed in the morning. The conjunctiva and particularly that portion which covers the sclerotica, will be considerably injected, but there will not be the usual intense redness of inflammation. The vessels will be large and turgid rather than numerous, and frequently of a darkish hue. Occasionally, however, the inflammation of the conjunctiva will be exceedingly intense, the membrane vividly red, and the eye impatient of light. An opacity spreads over the cornea, and this is quickly succeeded by ulceration. The first spot of ulceration is generally found precisely in the centre of the cornea, and is perfectly circular; this will distinguish it from a scratch or other injury. The ulcer widens and deepens, and sometimes eats through the cornea, and the aqueous humour escapes. Fungous granulations spring from it, protrude through the lids, and the animal evidently suffers extreme torture. A remarkable peculiarity attends this affection of the eye. However violent may be the inflammation, and by whatever disorganization it may be accompanied, if we can cure the distemper, the granulations will disappear, the ulcer will heal, the opacity will clear away, and the eye will not eventually suffer in the slightest degree. One-fourth part of the mischief in other cases, unconnected with distemper, would inevitably terminate in blindness; but permanent blindness is rarely the consequence of distemper. It may not be improper here shortly to revert to the different appearance of the eye in rabies. In the early stage of this malady there is an unnatural and often terrific brightness of the eye; but the cornea in distemper is from the first rather clouded. In rabies there is frequent strabismus, with the axis of the eye distorted outwards. The apparent squinting of the eye in distemper is caused by the probably unequal protrusion of the membrana nictitans over a portion of the eye at the inner canthus, in order to protect it from the light. In rabies, the white cloudiness which I have described, and the occasional ulceration with very little cloudiness, and the ulceration, are confined to the cornea; but a dense green opacity comes on, speedily followed by ulceration and disorganization of every part of the eye. The dog will, at this stage of distemper, be evidently feverish, and will shiver and creep to the fire. He will more evidently and rapidly lose flesh. The huskiness will be more frequent and troublesome, and the discharge from the nose will have greater consistence. It will be often and violently sneezed out, and will gradually become more or less purulent. It will stick about the nostrils and plug them up, and thus afford a considerable mechanical obstruction to the breathing. The progress of the disease is now uncertain. Sometimes fits come on, speedily following intense inflammation of the eye; or the inflammation of the nasal cavity appears to be communicated, by proximity, to the membrane of the brain. One fit is a serious thing. If it is followed by a second within a day or two, the chances of cure are diminished; and if they rapidly succeed each other, the dog is almost always lost. These fits seldom appear without warning; and, if their approach is carefully watched, they may possibly be prevented. However indisposed to eat the dog may previously have been, the appetite returns when the fits are at hand, and the animal becomes absolutely voracious. Nature seems to be providing for the great expenditure of power which epilepsy will soon occasion. The mucus almost entirely disappears from the eyes, although the discharge from the nose may continue unabated; and for an hour or more before the fit there will be a champing of the lower jaw, frothing at the mouth, and discharge of saliva. The champing of the lower jaw will be seen at least twelve hours before the first fit, and will a little while precede every other. There will also be twitchings of some part of the frame, and usually of the mouth, cheek, or eyelid. It is of some consequence to attend to these, as enabling us to distinguish between fits of distemper and those of teething, worms, or unusual excitement. The latter come on suddenly. The dog is apparently well, and racing about full of spirits, and without a moment's warning he falls into violent convulsions. We may here, likewise, be enabled to distinguish between rabies and distemper. When a person, unacquainted with dogs, sees a dog struggling in a fit, or running along unconscious of every surrounding object, or snapping at everything in his way, whether it be a human being or a stone, he raises the cry of "mad dog," and the poor brute is often sacrificed. The very existence of a fit is proof positive that the dog is not mad. No epilepsy accompanies rabies in any stage of that disease. The inflammation of the membrane of the nose and fauces is sometimes propagated along that of the windpipe, and the dog exhibits unequivocal proofs of chest affection, or decided pneumonia. At other times the bowels become affected, and a violent purging comes on. The fæces vary from white with a slight tinge of gray, to a dark slate or olive colour. By degrees mucus begins to mingle with the fæcal discharge, and then streaks of blood. The fæcal matter rapidly lessens, and the whole seems to consist of mingled mucus and blood; and, from first to last, the stools are insufferably offensive. When the mingled blood and mucus appear, so much inflammation exists in the intestinal canal that the case is almost hopeless. The discharge from the nose becomes decidedly purulent. While it is white and without smell, and the dog is not too much emaciated, the termination may be favourable; but when it becomes of a darker colour, and mingled with blood, and offensive, the ethmoid or turbinated bones are becoming carious, and death supervenes. This will particularly be the case if the mouth and lips swell, and ulcers begin to appear on them, and the gums ulcerate, and a sanious and highly offensive discharge proceeds from the mouth. A singular, half-fetid smell arising from the dog, is the almost invariable precursor of death. When the disease first visited the continent, it was regarded as a humoral disease. Duhamel, who was one of the earliest to study the character of the malady, contended that the biliary sac contained the cause of the complaint; the bile assumed a concrete form, and its superabundance was the cause of disease. Barrier, one of the earliest writers on the subject, described it as a violent irregular bilious fever. Others regarded it as a mucous discharge, or a depurative; and others, as a salutary crisis, removing from the constitution that which oppressed the different organs. Others had recourse to inoculation, in order to give it a more benign character; and others, and among them Chabert, considered that it possessed a character of peculiar malignity, and he gave it a name expressive of its nature and situation--'nasal catarrh'. It exhibited the ordinary symptoms of coryza: it was a catarrhal affection in its early stage; but it afterwards degenerated into a species of palsy. The causes were unknown. By some, they were attributed to the natural voracity of the dog; by others, to his occasional lasciviousness; by others, to his frequent feeding on carrion, or the refuse of fat and soups. There is no doubt that nasal catarrh is, to a very considerable degree, contagious on the continent. It often spreads over a wide extent of country, and includes numerous animals of various descriptions. It is complicated with various diseases; and particularly, at an early stage, with ophthalmia. It may be interesting to the reader to trace the progress of the disease among our continental neighbours. It commences with a certain depression of spirits; a diminution of appetite; a heaviness of the head; a heat of the mouth; an attempt to get something from the throat; an insatiable thirst; an elevated temperature of the body; a dry and painful suffocating cough; and all these circumstances continue twenty to thirty days, until at length the dog droops and dies. The duration of distemper is uncertain. It sometimes runs its course in five or six days; or it may linger on two or three months. In some cases the emaciation is rapid and extreme: danger is then to be apprehended. When the muscles of the loins are much attenuated, or almost wasted, there is little hope; and, although other symptoms may remit, and the dog may be apparently recovering, yet, if he continues to lose flesh, we may be perfectly assured that he will not live. On the other hand, let the discharge from the nose be copious, and the purging violent, and every other symptom threatening, yet if the animal gains a little flesh, we may confidently predict his recovery. When the dog is much reduced in strength and flesh, a spasmodic affection or twitching of the muscles will sometimes be observed. It is usually confined at first to one limb; but the most decisive treatment is required, or these spasms will spread until the animal is altogether unable to stand; and while he lies every limb will be in motion, travelling, as it were, at the rate of twenty miles an hour, until the animal is worn out, and dies of absolute exhaustion. When these spasms become universal and violent, they are accompanied by constant and dreadful moans and cries. In the pointer and the hound, and particularly when there is little discharge from the eyes or nose, an intense yellowness often suddenly appears all over the dog. He falls away more in twenty-four hours than it would be thought possible; his bowels are obstinately constipated; he will neither eat nor move; and in two or three days he is dead. In the pointer, hound, and greyhound, there sometimes appears on the whole of the chest and belly a pustular eruption, which peels off in large scales. The result is usually unfavourable. A more general eruption, however, either wearing the usual form of mange, or accompanied by minute pustules, may be regarded as a favourable symptom. The disease is leaving the vital parts, and expending its last energy on the integument. The 'post-mortem' appearances are exceedingly unsatisfactory: they do not correspond with the original character of the disease, but with its strangely varying symptoms. If the dog has died in fits, we have inflammation of the brain or its membranes, and particularly at the base of the brain, with considerable effusion of a serous or bloody fluid. If the prevailing symptoms have led our attention to the lungs, we find inflammation of the bronchial passages, or, in a few instances, of the substance of the lungs, or the submucous tissue of the cells. We rarely have inflammation of the pulmonary pleura, and never to any extent of the intercostal pleura. In a few lingering cases, tubercles and vomicæ of the lungs have been found. If the bowels have been chiefly attacked, we have intense inflammation of the mucous membrane, and, generally speaking, the small intestines are almost filled with worms. If the dog has gradually wasted away, which is often the case when purging to any considerable extent has been encouraged or produced, we have contraction of the whole canal, including even the stomach, and sometimes considerable enlargement of the mesenteric glands [1]. The membrane of the nose will always exhibit marks of inflammation, and particularly in the frontal sinuses and ethmoidal cells; and I have observed the portion of membrane on the septum, or cartilaginous division of the nostrils, between the frontal sinuses and ethmoidal cells, to be studded with small miliary tubercles. In advanced stages of the disease, attended with much defluxion from the nose, the cells of the ethmoidal bone and the frontal sinuses are filled with pus. Ulceration is sometimes found on the membrane of the nose, oftenest on the spot to which I have referred--occasionally confined to that; and now and then spreading over the whole of the septum, and even corroding and eating through it; generally equal on both sides of the septum; in a few instances extending into the fauces; seldom found in the larynx, but occasionally seen in the bronchial passages. The other viscera rarely present any remarkable morbid appearance. The distemper is clearly a disease of the mucous membranes, usually commencing in the membrane of the nose, and resembling nasal catarrh. In the early stage it is 'coryza', or nasal catarrh; but the affection rapidly extends, and seems to attack the mucous membranes generally, determined to some particular one, either by atmospheric influence or accidental causes, or constitutional predisposition. The fits arise from general disturbance of the system, or from the proximity of the brain to the early seat of inflammation. This account of the nature and treatment of distemper will, perhaps, be unsatisfactory to some readers. One thing, however, is clear, that for a disease which assumes such a variety of forms, there can be no specific; yet there is not a keeper who is not in possession of some supposed infallible nostrum. Nothing can be more absurd. A disease attacking so many organs, and presenting so many and such different symptoms, must require a mode of treatment varying with the organ attacked and the symptom prevailing. The faith in these boasted specifics is principally founded on two circumstances--atmospheric influence and peculiarity of breed. There are some seasons when we can scarcely save a dog; there are others when we must almost wilfully destroy him in order to lose him. There are some breeds in which, generation after generation, five out of six die of distemper, while there are others in which not one out of a dozen dies. When the season is favourable, and the animal, by hereditary influence, is not disposed to assume the virulent type of the disease, these two important agents are overlooked, and the immunity from any fatal result is attributed to medicine. The circumstances most conducive to success will be the recollection that it is a disease of the mucous surfaces, and that we must not carry the depleting and lowering system too far. Keeping this in view, we must accommodate ourselves to the symptoms as they arise. The natural medicine of the dog seems to be an emetic. The act of vomiting is very easily excited in him, and, feeling the slightest ailment, he flies to the dog-grass, unloads his stomach, and is at once well. In distemper, whatever be the form which it assumes, an emetic is the first thing to be given. Common salt will do when nothing else is at hand; but the best emetic, and particularly in distemper, consists of equal parts of calomel and tartar emetic. From half a grain to a grain and a half of each will constitute the dose. This will act first as an emetic, and afterwards as a gentle purgative. Then, if the cough is urgent, and there is heaving at the flanks, and the nose is hot, a moderate quantity of blood may be taken--from three to twelve ounces--and this, if there has been previous constipation, may be followed by a dose of sulphate of magnesia, from two to six drachms. In slight cases this will often be sufficient to effect a cure: but, if the dog still droops, and particularly if there is much huskiness, the antimonial or James's powder, nitre and digitalis, in the proportion of from half a grain to a grain of digitalis, from two to five grains of the James's powder, and from a scruple to a drachm of nitre, should be administered twice or thrice in a day. If on the third or fourth day the huskiness is not quite removed, the emetic should be repeated. In these affections of the mucous membranes, it is absolutely necessary to avoid or to get rid of every source of irritation, and worms will generally be found a very considerable one in young dogs. If we can speedily get rid of them, distemper will often rapidly disappear; but, if they are suffered to remain, diarrhoea or fits are apt to supervene: therefore some worm medicine should be administered. I have said that vomiting is very easily excited in the dog; and that for this reason we are precluded from the use of a great many medicines in our treatment of him. Calomel, aloes, jalap, scammony, and gamboge will generally produce sickness. We are, therefore, driven to some mechanical vermifuge; and a very effectual one, and that will rarely fail of expelling even the tape-worm, is tin filings or powdered glass. From half a drachm to a drachm of either may be advantageously given twice in the day. There may generally be added to them digitalis, James's powder, and nitre, made into balls with palm oil and a little linseed meal. This course should be pursued in usual cases until two or three emetics have been given, and a ball morning and night on the intermediate days. Should the huskiness not diminish after the first two or three days, if the dog has not rapidly lost flesh, I should be disposed to take a little more blood, and to put a seton in the poll. It should be inserted between the ears, and reaching from ear to ear. When there is fever and huskiness, and the dog is not much emaciated, a seton is an excellent remedy; but, if it is used indiscriminately, and when the animal is already losing ground, and is violently purging, we shall only hasten his doom, or rather make it more sure. It is now, if ever, that pneumonia will be perceived. The symptoms of inflammation in the lungs of the dog can scarcely be mistaken. The quick and laborious breathing, the disinclination or inability to lie down, the elevated position of the head, and the projection of the muzzle, will clearly mark it. More blood must be subtracted, a seton inserted, the bowels opened with Epsom salts, and the digitalis, nitre, and James's powder given more frequently and in larger doses than before. Little aid is to be derived from observation of the pulse of the dog; it differs materially in the breed, and size, and age of the animal. Many years' practice have failed in enabling me to draw any certain conclusion from it. The best place to feel the pulse of the dog is at the side. We may possibly learn from it whether digitalis is producing an intermittent pulse, which it frequently will do, and which we wish that it should do: it should then be given a little more cautiously, and in smaller quantities. If the pneumonia is evidently conquered, or we have proceeded thus far without any considerable inflammatory affection of the chest, we must begin to change our plan of treatment. If the huskiness continues, and the discharge from the nose is increased and thicker, and the animal is losing flesh and becoming weak, we must give only half the quantity of the sedative and diuretic medicine, and add some mild tonic, as gentian, chamomile, and ginger, with occasional emetics, taking care to keep the bowels in a laxative but not purging state. The dog should likewise be urged to eat; and, if he obstinately refuses ail food, he should be forced with strong beef jelly, for a very great degree of debility will now ensue We have thus far considered the treatment of distemper from its commencement; but it may have existed several days before we were consulted, and the dog may be thin and husky, and refusing to eat. In such case we should give an emetic, and then a dose of salts, and after that proceed to the tonic and fever balls. Should the strength of the animal continue to decline, and the discharge from the nose become purulent and offensive, the fever medicine must be omitted, and the tonic balls, with carbonate of iron, administered. Some veterinary surgeons are very fond of gum resins and balsams. Mr. Blaine, in his excellent treatise on the distemper in his Canine Pathology, recommends myrrh and benjamin, and balsam of Peru and camphor. I much doubt the efficacy of these drugs. They are beginning to get into disrepute in the practice of human medicine; and I believe that if they were all banished from the veterinary Materia Medica we should experience no loss. When the dog begins to recover, although not so rapidly as we could wish, the tonic balls, without the iron, may be advantageously given, with now and then an emetic, if huskiness should threaten to return; but mild and wholesome food, and country or good air, will be the best tonics. If the discharge from the nose become very offensive, the lips swelled and ulcerated, and the breath fetid, half an ounce of yeast may be administered every noon, and the tonics morning and night; and the mouth should be frequently washed with a solution of chloride of lime. At this period of the disease the sub-maxillary glands are sometimes very much enlarged, and a tumour or abscess is formed, which, if not timely opened, breaks, and a ragged, ill-conditioned ulcer is formed, very liable to spread, and very difficult to heal. It is prudent to puncture this tumour as soon as it begins to point, for it will never disperse. After the opening, a poultice should be applied to cleanse the ulcer; after which it should be daily washed with the compound tincture of benjamin, and dressed with calamine ointment. Some balls should be given, and the animal liberally fed. Should the fits appear in an early stage, give a strong emetic; then bleed, and open the bowels with five or six grains of calomel and a quarter grain of opium: after this insert a seton, and then commence the tonic balls. The progress of fits in the early stages of the disease may thus be arrested. The occurrence of two or three should not make us despair; but, if they occur at a later period, and when the dog is much reduced, there is little hope. This additional expenditure of animal power will probably soon carry him off. All that is to be done, is to administer a strong emetic, obviate costiveness by castor oil, and give the tonic balls with opium. Of the treatment of the yellow disease little can be said; we shall not succeed in one case in twenty. When good effect has been produced, it has been by one large bleeding, opening the bowels well with Epsom salts, and then giving grain doses of calomel twice a day in a tonic ball. While it is prudent to obviate costiveness, we should recollect that there is nothing more to be dreaded, in every stage of distemper, than diarrhoea. The purging of distemper will often bid defiance to the most powerful astringents. This shows the folly of giving violent cathartics in distemper; and, when I have heard of the ten, and twenty, and thirty grains of calomel that are sometimes given, I have thought it fortunate that the stomach of the dog is so irritable. The greater part of these kill-or-cure doses is ejected, otherwise the patient would soon be carried off by super-purgation. There is an irritability about the whole of the mucous membrane that may be easily excited, but cannot be so readily allayed; and, therefore, except in the earliest stage of distemper, or in fits, or limiting ourselves to the small portion of calomel which enters into our emetic, I would never give a stronger purgative than castor-oil or Epsom salts. It is of the utmost consequence that the purging of distemper should be checked as soon as possible. In some diseases a sudden purging, and even one of considerable violence, constitutes what is called the crisis. It is hailed as a favourable symptom, and from that moment the animal begins to recover; but this is never the case in distemper: it is a morbid action which is then going on, and which produces a dangerous degree of debility. The proper treatment of purging in cases of distemper, is first to give a good dose of Epsom salts, in order to carry away anything that may offend, and then to ply the animal with mingled absorbents and astringents. A scruple of powdered chalk, ten grains of catechu, and five of ginger, with a quarter of a grain of opium, made into a ball with palm oil, may be given to a middle-sized dog twice or thrice every day. To this may be added injections of gruel, with the compound chalk mixture and opium. When the twitchings which I have described begin to appear, a seton is necessary, whatever may be the degree to which the animal is reduced. Some stimulating embrocation, such as tincture of cantharides, may be rubbed along the whole course of the spine; and the medicine which has oftenest, but not always, succeeded, is castor-oil, syrup of buckthorn, and syrup of white poppies, given morning and night, and a tonic ball at noon. If the dog will not now feed, he should be forced with strong soup. As soon, however, as the spasms spread over him, accompanied by a moaning that increases to a cry, humanity demands that we put an end to that which we cannot cure. Until this happens I would not despair; for many dogs have been saved that have lain several days perfectly helpless. As to the chorea which I have mentioned as an occasional sequel of distemper, if the dog is in tolerable condition, and especially if he is gaining flesh, and the spring or summer is approaching, there is a chance of his doing well. A seton is the first thing; the bowels should be preserved from constipation; and the nitrate of silver, in doses of one-eighth of a grain, made into a pill with linseed meal, and increased to a quarter of a grain, should be given morning and night. We should never make too sure of the recovery of a distempered dog, nor commit ourselves by too early a prognosis. It is a treacherous disease; the medicines should be continued until every symptom has fairly disappeared; and for a month at least. It may be interesting to add the following account of the distemper in dogs, by Dr. Jenner. Several of our modern writers have copied very closely from him. "That disease among dogs which has familiarly been called the 'distemper,' has not hitherto, I believe, been, much noticed by medical men. My situation in the country favouring my wishes to make some observations on this singular malady, I availed myself of it, during several successive years, among a large number of foxhounds belonging to the Earl of Berkeley; and, from observing how frequently it has been confounded with hydrophobia, I am induced to lay the result of my inquiries before the Medical and Chirurgical Society. It may be difficult, perhaps, precisely to ascertain the period of its first appearance in Britain. In this and the neighbouring counties, I have not been able to trace it back beyond the middle of the last century; but it has since spread universally. I knew a gentleman who, about forty-five years ago, destroyed the greater part of his hounds, from supposing them mad, when the distemper first broke out among them; so little was it then known by those most conversant with dogs. On the continent I find it has been known for a much longer period; it is as contagious among dogs as the small-pox, measles, or scarlet fever among the human species; and the contagious miasmata, like those arising from the diseases just mentioned, retain their infectious properties a long time after separation from the distempered animal. Young hounds, for example, brought in a state of health into a kennel, where others have gone through the distemper, seldom escape it. I have endeavoured to destroy the contagion by ordering every part of a kennel to be carefully washed with water, then whitewashed, and finally to be repeatedly fumigated with the vapour of marine acid, but without any good result. "The dogs generally sicken early in the second week after exposure to the contagion; it is more commonly a violent disease than otherwise, and cuts off at least one in three that are attacked by it. It commences with inflammation of the substance of the lungs, and generally of the mucous membrane of the bronchi. The inflammation at the same time seizes on the membranes of the nostrils, and those lining the bones of the nose, particularly the nasal portion of the ethmoid bone. These membranes are often inflamed to such a degree as to occasion extravasation of blood, which I have observed coagulated on their surface. The breathing is short and quick, and the breath is often fetid; the teeth are covered with a dark mucus. There is frequently a vomiting of a glairy fluid. The dog commonly refuses food, but his thirst seems insatiable, and nothing cheers him like the sight of water. The bowels, although generally constipated as the disease advances, are frequently affected with diarrhoea at its commencement. The eyes are inflamed, and the sight is often obscured by mucus secreted from the eyelids, or by opacity of the cornea. The brain is often affected as early as the second day after the attack; the animal becomes stupid, and his general habits are changed. In this state, if not prevented by loss of strength, he sometimes wanders from his home. He is frequently endeavouring to expel by forcible expirations the mucus from the trachea and fauces, with a peculiar rattling noise. His jaws are generally smeared with it, and it sometimes flows out in a frothy state, from his frequent champing. "During the progress of the disease, especially in its advanced stages, he is disposed to bite and gnaw anything within his reach; he has sometimes epileptic fits, and a quick succession of general though slight convulsive spasms of the muscles. If the dog survive, this affection of the muscles continues through life. He is often attacked with fits of a different description; he first staggers, then tumbles, rolls, cries as if whipped, and tears up the ground with his teeth and fore feet: he then lies down senseless and exhausted. On recovering, he gets up, moves his tail, looks placid, comes to a whistle, and appears in every respect much better than before the attack. The eyes, during this paroxysm, look bright, and, unless previously rendered dim by mucus, or opacity of the cornea, seem as if they were starting from their sockets. He becomes emaciated, and totters from feebleness in attempting to walk, or from a partial paralysis of the hind legs. In this state he sometimes lingers on till the third or fourth week, and then either begins to show signs of returning health (which seldom happens when the symptoms have continued with this degree of violence), or expires. During convalescence, he has sometimes, though rarely, profuse hæmorrhage from the nose. "When the inflammation of the lungs is very severe, he frequently dies on the third day. I know one instance of a dog dying within twenty-four hours after the seizure; and in that short space of time the greater portion of the lungs was, from exudation, converted into a substance nearly as solid as the liver of a sound animal. In this case the liver itself was considerably inflamed, and the eyes and flesh universally were tinged with yellow, though I did not observe anything obstructing the biliary ducts. In other instances I have also observed the eyes looking yellow. "The above is a description of the disease in its several forms; but in this, as in the diseases of the human body, there is every gradation in its violence. "There is also another affinity to some human diseases, viz., that the animal which has once gone through it very rarely meets with a second attack. Fortunately this distemper is not communicable to man. Neither the effluvia from the diseased dog nor the bite have proved in any instance infectious; but, as it has often been confounded with canine madness, as I have before observed, it is to be wished that it were more generally understood; for those who are bitten by a dog in this state are sometimes thrown into such perturbation that hydrophobia symptoms have actually arisen from the workings of the imagination. Mr. John Hunter used to speak of a case somewhat of this description in his lectures. "A gentleman who received a severe bite from a dog, soon after fancied the animal was mad. He felt a horror at the sight of liquids, and was actually convulsed on attempting to swallow them. So uncontrollable were his prepossessions, that Mr. Hunter conceived he would have died had not the dog which inflicted the wound been found and brought into his room in perfect health. This soon restored his mind to a state of tranquillity. The sight of water no longer afflicted him, and he quickly recovered." [2] Palsy, more or less complete, is sometimes the termination of the distemper in dogs. It is usually accompanied by chorea, and it is then, in the majority of cases, hopeless. Setons should be inserted in the poll, being then, as nearly as possible, at the commencement of the spinal cord. They should be well stimulated and worn a considerable time. If they fail, a plaster composed of common pitch, with a very small quantity of yellow wax and some powdered cantharides, spread on sheep's-skin, should be placed over the whole of the lumbar and sacral regions, extending half-way down the thigh on either side. The bowels should be kept open by mild aperients, in order that every source of irritation may be removed from the intestinal canal. Some mild and general tonic will likewise be useful, such as gentian and ginger. [Footnote 1: The following is a very frequent and unexaggerated history of distemper, when calomel has been given in too powerful doses: 'August 30, 1828'.--A spaniel, six months old, has been ailing a fortnight, and three doses of calomel have been given by the owner. He has violent purging, with tenesmus and blood. Half an ounce of caster-oil administered. '31st.' Astringents, morning, noon, and night. 'Sept. 6.' The astringents have little effect, or, if the purging is restrained one day, it returns with increased violence on the following day. Getting rapidly thin. Begins to husk. Astringents continued. '10th'. The purging is at last overcome, but the huskiness has rapidly increased, accompanied by laborious and hurried respiration.--Bleed to the extent of three ounces. '11th'. The breathing relieved, but he obstinately refuses to eat, and is forced several times in the day with arrow-root or strong soup. '18th'. He had become much thinner and weaker, and died in the evening. No appearance of inflammation on the thoracic viscera, nor in any part of the alimentary canal. The intestines are contracted through the whole extent. 'Veterinarian', ii. 290.] [Footnote 2: 'Medico-Chirurgical Transitions', 31st March, 1809.] * * * * * CHAPTER XV. SMALL-POX; MANGE; WARTS; CANCER; FUNGUS HÆMATODES; SORE FEET. SMALL-POX. In 1809, there was observed, at the Royal Veterinary School at Lyons, an eruptive malady among the dogs, to which they gave the name of 'small-pox'. It appeared to be propagated from dog to dog by contagion. It was not difficult of cure; and it quickly disappeared when no other remedies were employed than mild aperients and diaphoretics. A sheep was inoculated from one of these dogs. There was a slight eruption of pustules formed on the place of inoculation, but nowhere else; nor was there the least fever. At another time, also, at the school at Lyons, a sheep died of the regular sheep-pox. A part of the skin was fastened, during four-and-twenty hours, on a healthy sheep, and the other part of it on a dog, both of them being in apparent good health. No effect was produced on the dog, but the sheep died of confluent sheep-pox. The essential symptoms of small-pox in dogs succeed each other in the following order: the skin of the belly, the groin, and the inside of the fore arm, becomes of a redder colour than in its natural state, and sprinkled with small red spots irregularly rounded. They are sometimes isolated, sometimes clustered together. The near approach of this eruption is announced by an increase of fever. On the second day the spots are larger, and the integument is slightly tumefied at the centre of each. On the third day the spots are generally enlarged, and the skin is still more prominent at the centre. On the fourth day the summit of the tumour is yet more prominent. Towards the end of that day, the redness of the centre begins to assume a somewhat gray colour. On the following days, the pustules take on their peculiar characteristic appearance, and cannot be confounded with any other eruption, On the summit is a white circular point, corresponding with a certain quantity of nearly transparent fluid which it contains, and covered by a thin and transparent pellicle. This fluid becomes less and less transparent, until it acquires the colour and consistence of pus. The pustule, during its serous state, is of a rounded form. It is flattened when the fluid acquires a purulent character, and even slightly depressed towards the close of the period of suppuration, and when that of desiccation is about to commence, which ordinarily happens towards the ninth or tenth day of the eruption. The desiccation and the desquamation occupy an exceedingly variable length of time; and so, indeed, do all the different periods of the disease. What is the least inconstant, is the duration of the serous eruption, which is about four days, if it has been distinctly produced and guarded from all friction. If the general character of the pustules is considered, it will be observed, that, while some of them are in a state of serous secretion, others will only have begun to appear. The eruption terminates when desiccation commences in the first pustules; and, if some red spots show themselves at that period of the malady, they disappear without being followed by the development of pustules. They are a species of abortive pustules. After the desiccation, the skin remains covered by brown spots, which, by degrees, die away. There remains no trace of the disease, except a few superficial cicatrices on which the hair does not grow. The causes which produce the greatest variation in the periods of the eruption are, the age of the dog, and the temperature of the situation and of the season. The eruption runs through its different stages with much more rapidity in dogs from one to five months old than in those of greater age. I have never seen it in dogs more than eighteen months old. An elevated temperature singularly favours the eruption, and also renders it confluent and of a serous character. A cold atmosphere is unfavourable to the eruption, or even prevents it altogether. Death is almost constantly the result of the exposure of dogs having small-pox to any considerable degree of cold. A moderate temperature is most favourable to the recovery of the animal. A frequent renewal or change of air, the temperature remaining nearly the same, is highly favourable to the patient; consequently close boxes or kennels should be altogether avoided. I have often observed, that the perspiration or breath of dogs labouring under variola emits a very unpleasant odour. This smell is particularly observed at the commencement of the desiccation of the pustules, and when the animals are lying upon dry straw; for the friction of the bed against the pustules destroys their pellicles, and permits the purulent matter to escape; and the influence of this purulent matter is most pernicious. The fever is increased, and also the unpleasant smell from the mouth, and that of the fæces. In this state there is a disposition which is rapidly developed in the lungs to assume the character of pneumonia. This last complication is a most serious one, and almost always terminates fatally. It has a peculiar character. It shows itself suddenly, and with all its alarming symptoms. It is almost immediately accompanied by a purulent secretion from the bronchi, and the second day does not pass without the characters of pneumonia being completely developed. The respiration is accompanied by a mucous 'râle' which often becomes sibilant. The nasal cavities are filled with a purulent fluid. The dog that coughs violently at the commencement of the disease, employs himself, probably, on the following day, in ejecting, by a forcible expulsion from the nostrils, the purulent secretion which is soon and plentifully developed. When he is lying quiet, and even when he seems to be asleep, there is a loud, stertorous, guttural breathing. MANGE. The existence of certain insects found burrowing under the skin of the human being, and of various tribes of animals, has been acknowledged from the 12th century. In the 17th century, correct engravings of these insects were produced. On the other hand many doubted their existence, because it had not been their lot to see them. In 1812, Galés, a pupil in the hospital of St. Louis, pretended to have found some of them. They were put into the hands of M. Raspail, of Paris, who proved that they were nothing more than the common cheese-mites; and substituted by Galés for those seen by Bonomo. Professor Hertwig, of Berlin, has given a graphic sketch of these insects (Veterinarian, vol. xi. pp. 373, 489). Mr. Holthouse states that, "placed on the skin of a healthy individual, they excite a disease in the part to which they were confined, having all the characters of scabies; that insects taken from mangy sheep, horses, and dogs, and transplanted to healthy individuals of the same species, produce in them a disease analogous to that in the animals from which they were taken; and that there are too many well-attested cases on record to permit us to doubt of scabies having been communicated from animals to man." Mange may in some degree be considered as an hereditary disease. A mangy dog is liable to produce mangy puppies, and the progeny of a mangy bitch will certainly become affected sooner or later. In many cases a propensity to the disease will be speedily produced. If the puppies are numerous, and confined in close situations, the effluvia of their transpiration and fæcal discharges will often be productive of mange very difficult to be removed. Close confinement, salted food, and little exercise, are frequent causes of mange. 'The Scabby Mange' is a frequent form which this disease assumes. It assumes a pustular and scabby form in the red mange, particularly in white-haired dogs, when there is much and painful inflammation. A peculiar eruption, termed surfeit, which resembles mange, is sometimes the consequence of exposure to cold after a hot sultry day. Large blotches appear, from which the hair falls and leaves the skin bare and rough. Acute mange sometimes takes on the character of erysipelas; at other times there is considerable inflammation. The animal exhibits heat and restlessness, and ulcerations of different kinds appear in various parts, superficial but extensive. Bleeding, aperient and cooling medicines are indicated, and also applications of the subacetate of lead, or spermaceti ointment. A weak infusion of tobacco may be resorted to when other things fail, but it must be used with much caution. The same may be said of all mercurial preparations. The tanner's pit has little efficacy, except in slight cases. Slight bleedings may be serviceable, and especially in full habits; setons may be resorted to in obstinate cases. A change in the mode of feeding will often be useful. Mild purgatives, and especially Epsom salts, are often beneficial, and also mercurial alternatives, as Æthiop's mineral with cream of tartar and nitre. The external applications require considerable caution. If mercury is used, care must be taken that the dog does not lick it. The diarrhoea produced by mercury often has a fatal effect. Unguents are useful, but considerable care must be taken in their application. They must be applied to the actual skin, not over the hair. In old and bad cases much time and patience will be requisite. Mr. Blaine had a favourite setter who had virulent mange five years. He was ordered to be dressed every day, or every second day, before the disease was complete conquered. Cutaneous affections have lately been prevalent to an extent altogether unprecedented on this and on the other side of the channel. In the latter part of 1843 the disease assumed a character which had not been known among us for many years. The common mange, which we used to think we could easily grapple with, was now little seen: even the usual red mange with the fox-coloured stain was not of more frequent occurrence than usual, but an intolerable itchiness with comparatively little redness of skin, and rarely sufficient to account for the torture which the animal seemed to endure, and often with not the slightest discoloration of the integument, came before us almost every day, and under its influence the dog became ill-tempered, dispirited, and emaciated, until he sunk under its influence. All unguents were thrown away here. Lotions of corrosive sublimate, decoction of bark, infusion of digitalis or tobacco, effected some little good; but the persevering use of the iodine of potassium, purgatives, and the abstraction of blood very generally succeeded. The sudden appearance of redness of the skin, and exudation from it, and actual sores attending the falling off of the hair, and itching, that seemed to be intolerable, have also been prevalent to an unprecedented extent. This mange, however, is to a certain degree manageable. A dose or two of physic should he given, with an application of a calamine powder, and the administration of the iodide of potassium. Mr. Blaine gives a most valuable account of mange in the dog, part of which I shall quote somewhat at length. Mange exerts a morbid constitutional action on the skin; it is infectious from various miasmata, and it is contagious from personal communication. In some animals it may be produced by momentary contact; it descends to other animals of various descriptions; there is no doubt that it is occasionally hereditary: it is generated by effluvia of many various kinds; almost every kind of rancid or stimulating food is the parent of it. High living with little exercise is a frequent cause of it, and the near approach of starvation is not unfavorable to it. The scabby mange is the common form under which it generally appears. In red mange the whole integument is in a state of acute inflammation; surfeit, or blotches, a kind of cuticular eruption breaks out on particular parts of the body without the slightest notice, and, worse than all, a direct febrile attack, with swelling and ulceration, occurs, under which the dog evidently suffers peculiar heat and pain. Last of all comes local mange. Almost every eruptive disease, whether arising from the eye, the ear, the scrotum, or the feet, is injurious to the quality as well as the health of every sporting dog: the scent invariably becomes diseased, and the general powers are impaired. There are several accounts of persons who, having handled mangy dogs, have been affected with an eruption very similar to the mange. A gentleman and his wife who had been in the habit of fondling a mangy pug dog, were almost covered with an eruption resembling mange. Several of my servants in the dog-hospital have experienced a similar attack; and the disease was once communicated to a horse by a cat that was accustomed to lie on his back as he stood in the stall. WARTS. These are often unpleasant things to have to do with. A Newfoundland dog had the whole of the inside of his mouth lined with warts. I applied the following caustic:--Hyd. suc-corrosivi [Symbol: ounce] j., acidi mur. [Symbol: ounce], alcoholis [Symbol: ounce] iiij., aquæ [Symbol: ounce] ij. The warts were touched twice every day, and in less than a fortnight they had all disappeared. Another dog had its mouth filled with warts, and the above solution was applied. In four days considerable salivation came on, and lasted a week, but at the expiration of that time the warts had vanished. The owner of the dog had applied the solution with the tip of her finger; she experienced some salivation, which she attributed to this cause. The skin of the dog, from the feebleness of its perspiratory functions, is little sensible to the influence of diaphoretics: therefore we trust so much to external applications for the cure of diseases of the skin of that animal. CANCER This is a disease too frequent among females of the dog tribe, and occasionally seen in the male. Its symptoms, local and general, are various. They are usually very obscure in their commencement; they increase without any limit; they are exasperated by irritants of any kind; and in the majority of cases their reproduction is almost constant, and perfectly incurable. With regard to the female, it is mostly connected with the secretion of milk. Two or three years may pass, and at almost every return of the period of oestrum, there will be some degree of enlargement or inflammation of the teats. Some degree of fever also appears; but, after a few weeks have passed away, and one or two physic balls have been administered, everything goes on well. In process of time, however, the period of oestrum is attended by a greater degree of fever and enlargement of the teats, and at length some diminutive hardened nuclei, not exceeding in size the tip of a finger, are felt within one of the teats. By degrees they increase in size; they become hard, hot, and tender. A considerable degree of redness begins to appear. Some small enlargements are visible. The animal evidently exhibits considerable pain when these enlargements are pressed upon. They rapidly increase, they become more hot and red, various shining protuberances appear about the projection, and at length the tumour ulcerates. A considerable degree of sanious matter flows from the aperture. The tumours, however, after a while diminish in size; the heat and redness diminish; the ulcer partly or entirely closes, but, after a while, and especially when the next period of oestrum arrives, the tumour again increases, and with far greater rapidity than before, and then comes the necessity of the removal of the tumour, or if not, the destruction of the animal. In the great majority of cases, the removal of the cancer does not destroy the dog, but lessens its torture. The knife and the forceps must usually be resorted to, and in the hands of a skilful surgeon the life of the animal will be saved. When the cancer is attached to the neighbouring parts by cellular substance alone, no difficulty will be experienced in detaching the whole of it. The operation will be speedily performed, and there will be an end of the matter; but, if the tumour has been neglected, and the muscular, the cellular, or even the superficial parts have been attacked, the utmost caution is requisite that every diseased portion shall be removed. Mr. Blaine adds to this that "it must also be taken into the account, that, although in the canine cancer ulceration does not often reappear in the intermediate part, when the operation has been judiciously performed, yet, when the constitution has been long affected with this ulcerative action, it is very apt to show itself in some neighbouring part soon after." FUNGUS HÆMATODES. In the month of March, 1836, a valuable pointer dog was sent to Mr. Adam of Beaufort, quite emaciated, with total loss of appetite and with a large fungus hæmatodes about the middle of the right side of his neck. It had begun to appear about five months before, and was not at first larger than a pea. Mr. Adam gave him a purgative of Barbadoes aloes, which caused the discharge of much fetid matter from the intestines. At the expiration of three days he removed the tumour with the knife. There was a full discharge of healthy matter from the wound. During the period of its healing the animal was well fed, and ferruginous tonics were given. In a little more than three weeks the wound had completely filled up with healthy granulations, and the dog was sent home to all appearance quite well. At the expiration of three months another tumour made its appearance near the situation of the former one, growing fast; it had attained nearly the size of the other. Mr. Adam removed it immediately, ordering a system of nutritive feeding and tonics. It appeared at first to go on favourable; but, five days after the removal of the second one, a third made its appearance. This was removed at the expiration of another five days; but the animal was totally unable to walk, with very laborious breathing and cold extremities. A cathartic was given and the legs bandaged; but the wounds made no progress towards healing, and at the end of three days he died. On exposing the cavity of the thorax it was almost covered with variously formed tumours, from the size of a pigeon's egg to that of a small pea. The intercostal muscles had many of these adhering to them, and a few small ones were developed on the heart. There were three on the diaphragm, in the centre of which matter was formed. The blood-vessels, kidneys, &c., were free from disease. These tumours were white, or nearly so, rather hard, and of a glandular substance. The external ones were soft, red, and almost destitute of blood-vessels, except the first, which bled considerably. There was dropsy of the abdomen. SORE FEET Sore feet constitute a frequent and troublesome complaint. It consists of inflammation of the vascular substance, between the epidermis and the parts beneath. It is the result of numerous slight contusions, produced by long travelling in dry weather, or hunting over a hard and rough country, or one covered with frost and snow. The irritation with which it commences continues to increase and a certain portion of fluid is determined to the feet, and tubercles are formed, hard, hot, and tender, until the whole foot is in a diseased state, considerably enlarged. The animal sadly suffers, and is scarcely able to stand up for a minute. Sometimes the ardour of the chase will make him for a while forget all this; but on his return, and when he endeavours to repose himself, it is with difficulty that he can be got up again. The toes become enlarged, the skin red and tender, and the horny sole becomes detached and drops. Local fever, and that to a considerable extent, becomes established; it reacts on the general economy of the animal, who scarcely moves from his bed, and at length refuses all food. At other times a separation takes place between the dermis and the epidermis, which is a perfect mass of serosity. Still, however, it is only when all this has much increased, or has been neglected, that any permanently dangerous consequences take place. When violent inflammation has set in, the feet must be carefully attended to, or the dog may be lamed for life. One or two physic-balls may be given; all salted meat should be removed, and the animal supplied with food without being compelled to move from his bed. The feet should be bathed with warm water, and a poultice of linseed meal applied to them twice in the day. If, as is too often the case, he should tear this off, the feet should be often fomented. It is bad practice in any master of dogs to suffer them to be at all neglected when there are any tokens of inflammation of the feet. The neglect of even a few days may render a dog a cripple for life. If there are evident appearances of pus collecting about the claws, or any part of the feet, the abscess should be opened, well bathed with warm water, and friar's balsam applied to the feet. When the feet have been neglected, the nail is apt to grow very rapidly, and curve round and penetrate into the foot. The forceps should he applied, and the claws reduced to their proper size. If there are any indications of fever, or if the dog should be continually lying down, or he should hold up his feet, and keep them apart as much as he can, scarifications or poultices, or both, should be resorted to. When the feet of a dog become sore in travelling, the foolish habit of washing them with brine should never be permitted, although it is very commonly resorted to. Warm fomentations, or warm pot-liquor, or poultices of linseed meal should be applied, or, if matter is apparently forming, the lancet may be resorted to. Dogs are frequently sent to the hospital with considerable redness between the toes, and ichorous discharge, and the toes thickened round the base of the nails, as if they were inclined to drop off. The common alterative medicine should be given, and a lotion composed of hydrarg. oxym. gr. vi., alcohol [Symbol: ounce] j., et aq. calcis [Symbol: ounce] iiij., should he applied to the feet three times every day. Leathern gloves should be sewn on them. These cases are often very obstinate. Generally speaking, the dog has five toes on the fore feet, and four on the hind feet, with a mere rudiment of a fifth metatarsal bone in some feet; but, in others, the fifth bone is long and well proportioned, and advances as far as the origin of the first phalanx of the neighbouring toe. [The editor begs leave to add a more detailed and systematic treatise of the affections generally attacking the feet and limbs of our dogs. DISEASES OF THE FEET. SORE FEET. Inflammation of the feet, a disease somewhat analogous to founder in horses, and often attended with equally bad results, particularly in the English kennels, is comparatively rare with us, although there are few sportsmen but have met with some cases among their dogs. The feet become tender, swollen, and hot, violent inflammatory action sets in, the toes become sore, the claws diseased, and the balls very painful, and often suppurate. The animal is thus speedily rendered useless; not being able to support his body, owing to the intense pain, he remains in his house, and employs the most of his time in temporarily assuaging his sufferings by constantly licking the diseased members. 'Causes'.--Running long distances over frozen or stony grounds, hunting over a rough and ill-cleaned country, over-feeding, confinement, and lazy habits, are all conducive in some measure to this affection. This form of disease is not uncommon among those dogs used in toling ducks on the Chesapeake bay, these animals being obliged to run incessantly to and fro over the gravel shores, in their efforts to attract the canvass-back. We have seen many dogs that have been made cripples by this arduous work, and rendered prematurely old while yet in their prime. It would certainly be wise and humane on the part of those who pursue this sport either for pleasure or gain, to provide suitable boots for these sagacious animals, who in return would repay such kindness by increased ardour and length of service. These articles might be made of leather, or some other durable substance, in such a manner that they could be laced on every morning before commencing their labours. The claws should be allowed to project through openings in the boot, as this arrangement will give much more freedom to the feet, and the boot itself will not be destroyed so soon by the penetration of the toes through its substance. Boots thus neatly made will neither interfere with his locomotive nor swimming powers, but add greatly to the comfort of the animal, and secure his services for many years. 'Treatment'.--No stimulating applications to the feet are to be used, such as salt water, ley, fish brine, or urine, but rather emollient poultices and cooling washes. These last-mentioned remedies should be carefully applied, and the dog confined to his house as much as possible: in fact, there is little difficulty in restraining him in this respect, as he has but little inclination or ability to move about. Purging balls should be administered every night, and blood abstracted if there be much fever, as indicated in the heat, swelling, and pain of the limbs. If the balls continue to swell, and there is a collection of pus within them, they may be opened by the lancet, and the contents evacuated, after which apply a linseed poultice. When the inflammation has subsided, simple dressings of melted butter or fresh lard will generally effect a cure. PUSTULAR AFFECTION OF THE FEET. Dogs frequently have a pustular eruption between the toes, either accompanying mange or some other skin disease, or entirely independent of any other affection. 'Causes'.--Want of cleanliness, bad housing, improper food, vermin, and depraved constitution. 'Treatment'.--Frequent washing with castile soap and water will correct this disease; the feet and legs after washing should be rubbed dry, particularly between the toes. When the pustules are large, they may be opened with the lancet and a poultice applied. If the disease appears complicated with mange, or dependent upon other general causes, the primary affection must be removed by the proper remedies, which generally carries off with the secondary disease. SPRAINS It is not an uncommon occurrence for dogs, while running, climbing fences, or jumping ditches, to sprain themselves very severely in the knee, or more frequently in the shoulder-joint; and if not properly attended to, will remain cripples for life, owing to enlargement of the tendon and deposition of matter. We once had a fine, large, powerful bull-dog, that sprained himself in the shoulder while running very violently in the street after another dog, and in some way, owing to the great eagerness to overtake the other, tripped up when at the top of his speed, fell on his chest, and when he arose commenced limping, and evidently suffered from considerable pain. On taking him home, we examined his feet, limbs, and chest very particularly, expecting to find a luxation or fracture of some of the bones of the leg or feet, or perhaps the presence of a piece of glass or other article deeply imbedded in the ball. None of the above accidents, however, being brought to light by our examination, or that of a medical friend who expressed a wish to see our patient, we concluded that a simple sprain of some of the tendons had taken place. On the following day there was slight swelling and tenderness of the shoulder-joint, accompanied by great unwillingness to put the foot to the ground, owing to the pain that seemed to be produced by the extension of the leg. The limb was fomented, and the dog confined for several days, till the swelling and tenderness disappeared; but, greatly to our astonishment and that of others, he still remained lame as before. This lameness continued for several months, when we parted with him, sending him to a relative in the country, who informed us that he never recovered the use of his limb, but that it became shrivelled and deformed for want of use. The cause of lameness in this dog is as unaccountable as some cases of lameness we see in horses. We are convinced that there was neither fracture nor luxation, nor any other unnatural displacement of the parts, and can attribute it to nothing but enlargement of one of the tendons of the shoulder-joint resulting from inflammation. If it had been in our power, we should have liked to have examined this animal after death. 'Treatment'.--Hot fomentations to the part affected, together with purging balls and bleeding, if there be great tenderness and swelling of the limb. When the inflammation and tumefaction have disappeared, rub the parts with opodeldoc, or other stimulating mixtures. WOUNDS OF THE FEET. Dogs are apt to cut their feet by stepping upon sharp tools, bits of oyster-shell, old iron, &c., or by the introduction of thorns, burrs, nails, bits of glass, and other articles, into their balls. 'Treatment'.--If the cut be very deep, or divides the ball, the foot must be washed in tepid water, and the edges of the wound drawn together and retained in their position by a couple of sutures or a strap or two of adhesive plaster, and the animal confined. Where thorns or sand-burrs have pierced the foot, diligent search should be made to extract them, or the wound will suppurate, and the dog continue lame for a long time. This caution is particularly necessary when minute particles of glass have entered the foot. A poultice in such cases should be applied, after removing every particle within our reach, and the, foot be wrapped up, or, what is better, enclosed in a boot of some kind, sufficiently strong to protect it from the dirt or other small particles which otherwise would enter the wound and prevent its healing. In a case of great emergency, one of our friends hunted a setter dog three successive days in a leather boot, which we instructed a country cobbler to put on him to protect his foot from a recent and deep cut, that he had received from treading upon some farming utensils. The boot was taken off every night, the foot nicely cleaned, the leather oiled and replaced ready for the following day. The wound afterwards healed up, and no trace of the incision now remains. The boot should be made of stout, flexible leather, and extend beyond the first joint; the seam must be in front, so as not to interfere with the dog's tread. There should be openings for the claws, and the sole large enough to allow the expansion of the ball pads when in motion: a small layer of tow had better be laid on the bottom of the foot before putting on the boot. It is often very difficult to tell the exact spot where a briar or thorn has entered the foot, owing to its penetrating so far into the substance of the ball as to be entirely concealed under the skin, or by the swelling of the parts surrounding it. In all such cases the bottom of the foot should he gently pressed by the thumb, and the point where the dog exhibits symptoms of must pain should be, particularly examined, and, if necessary, cut down upon to extract the extraneous substance, no matter what it may be. LONG NAILS OR CLAWS. The nails of some dogs require occasional cutting, otherwise they grow so long and fast that they turn in and penetrate the ball of the foot. If we cut them, a strong, sharp knife is necessary for the purpose; filing them off we consider far preferable. LAMENESS Dogs, as well as horses, become lame from stiff joints, splints, and sprains. Stiff joints are occasioned by anchylosis, or the deposit of calcareous or osseous matter within the ligament or around the head of the bone, which latter defect is known as ring-bone in the horse. 'Treatment'.--Stimulating friction to the parts, such as spirits of camphor, or camphorated liniment, mercurial ointment, tincture of iodine, opodeldoc, blistering, c.--L.] * * * * * CHAPTER XVI. FRACTURES These are of not unfrequent occurrence in the dog; and I once had five cases in my hospital at the same time. In the human subject, fractures are more frequent in adults, and, perhaps, in old men, than in infants; but this is not the case with the smaller animals generally, and particularly with dogs. Five-sixths of the fractures occur between the time of weaning and the animal being six months old; not, perhaps, because of their chemical composition, that the bones are more fragile at this age; but because young dogs are more exposed to fall from the hands of the persons who carry them, and from the places to which they climb; and the extremities of the bones, then being in the state of epiphysis, are easily separated from the body of the bone. When the fracture takes place in the body of the bone, it is transverse or somewhat oblique, but there is scarcely any displacement. A simple bandage will be sufficient for the reduction of these fractures, which may be removed in ten or twelve days, when the preparatory callus has acquired some consistence. One only out of twenty dogs that were brought to me with fractures of the extremities, in the year 1834, died. Two dogs had their jaws fractured by kicks from horses, and lost several of their teeth. In one of them the anterior part of the jaw was fractured perpendicularly; in the other, both branches were fractured. Plenty of good soup was injected into their mouths. Ten or twelve days afterwards, they were suffered to lap it; and in a little while they were dismissed cured. It will be desirable, perhaps, to describe our usual method of reducing the greater part of the fractures which come under our notice. I.--The 'humerus' was fractured just above the elbow and close to the joint. The limb was enclosed in adhesive plaster, and supported by a firm bandage. The bones were beginning to unite, when, by some means concerning which I could never satisfy myself, the 'tibia' was broken a little above the hock. Nothing could well be done with this second fracture; but great care was taken with regard to the former. The lower head of the humerus remained somewhat enlarged; but the lameness became very slight, and in three weeks had nearly or quite disappeared. Nothing was done to the second fracture; in fact, nothing more than a slight, annular enlargement, surrounding the part, remained--a proof of the renovating power of nature. II.--A spaniel was run over by a light carriage. It was unable to put the left hind leg to the ground, and at the upper tuberosity of the ileum some crepitus could be distinguished. I subtracted six ounces of blood, administered a physic-ball, and ordered the patient to be well fomented with warm water several times during the night. On the following day no wound could be discovered, but there was great tenderness. I continued the fomentation. Two or three days afterwards she was evidently easier. I then had the hair cut close, and covered the loins and back with a pitch-plaster. At the expiration of six days the plaster was getting somewhat loose, and was replaced by another with which a very small quantity of powdered cantharides was mingled. At the expiration of the fifth week she was quite well. III.--The 'thigh-bone' had been broken a fortnight. It was a compound fracture: the divided edges of the bone protruded through the integuments, and there was no disposition to unite. It is not in one case in a hundred that an animal thus situated can be saved. We failed in our efforts, and the dog was ultimately destroyed. IV.--The 'femur' was broken near the hip. I saw it on the third day, when much heat and swelling had taken place. I ordered the parts to be frequently bathed with warm water. The heat and tenderness to a considerable degree subsided, and the pitch-plaster was carefully applied. At the expiration of a week the plaster began to be loosened. A second one was applied, and when a fortnight longer had passed, a slight degree of tenderness alone remained. V.--The following account is characteristic of the bull terrier. The 'radius' had been broken, and was set, and the bones were decidedly united, when the dog, in a moment of frantic rage, seized his own leg and crushed some of the bones. They were once more united, but his wrist bent under him in the form of a concave semicircle, as if some of the ligaments of the joint had been ruptured in the moment of rage. It was evident on the following day that it was impossible to control him, and he was destroyed. VI.--A spaniel, three months old, became fractured half-way between the wrist and the 'elbow'. A surgeon bound it up, and it became swollen to an enormous size, from the adhesive plaster that had been applied and the manner of placing the splints. I removed the splints. On the following morning I had the arm frequently fomented: a very indistinct crepitus could be perceived at the point of the humerus: I applied another plaster higher up, and including the elbow. The hair not having been cut sufficiently close, the plaster was removed, applied much more neatly and closely, and the original fracture was firmly bound together. No crepitus was now to be perceived. I saw no more of our patient for four days, when I found that he had fallen, and that the elbow on the other side was fractured within the capsular ligament. A very distinct crepitus could be felt, and the dog cried sadly when the joint was moved. I would have destroyed him, but he was a favourite with his master, and we tried what a few days more would produce. I enclosed the whole of the limb in a plaster of pitch, and bound it up without splints. Both the bandages remained on nearly a fortnight, when the fractures were found to be perfectly united, and the lameness in both legs gradually disappeared. VII.--July 22, 1843. A spaniel was frightened with something on the bed, and fell from it, and cried very much. The instep, or wrist, of the right leg, before was evidently bowed, and there was considerable heat and tenderness. It was well fomented on the two following days, and then set, and adhesive plaster was tightly applied, and a splint bound over that. 24th. The foot began to swell, and was evidently painful. The outer bandage was loosened a little, but the inner bandage was not touched. Aug. 4. The bandage, that had not been meddled with for eleven days, now appeared to give him some pain. For the last two days he has been gently licking and gnawing it. The splints were removed; but the adhesive plaster appearing even and firm, was suffered to remain. 26th. Everything appeared to be going on well, when he again leaped from his bed. The wrist was much more bowed, and was tender and hot. Simple lint and a firm calico bandage were had recourse to. 27th. He is unable to put his foot to the ground, and the joint is certainly enlarging. An adhesive plaster, made by a Frenchman, was applied at the owners request, over which was placed a splint. The dog soon began to gnaw the plaster, which formed a sticky but not very adhesive mass. Before night the pain appeared to be very great, and the dog cried excessively. I was sent for. We well fomented the leg, and then returned to our former treatment. There was evidently a great deal of pain, but it gradually passed over, and a slight degree of lameness alone remained. I have great pleasure in adding the following accounts of the successful treatment of fractures in dogs by Mr. Percivall: "Hopeless as cases of fracture in horses generally are, from the difficulty experienced in managing the patient, they are by no means to be so regarded in dogs. I have in several instances seen dogs recover, and with very good use of the parts, if not perfect restoration of them, when the accidents have been considered, at the time they took place, of a nature so irremediable as to render it advisable to destroy the animals. "May 4, 1839. A valuable Irish spaniel fell from a high wall, and fractured his 'off shoulder'. On examination, I found the 'os humeri' fractured about an inch above its radial extremity, causing the limb to drop pendulously from the side, and depriving the animal of all use of it. The arm, by which I mean the fore arm, was movable in any direction upon the shoulder, and there was distinct crepitus: in a word, the nature of the accident was too plain to admit of doubt; nor was there any splinter or loose piece of bone discoverable. I directed that the animal might be laid flat upon his sound side in a hamper, or covered basket or box, of sufficient dimensions, but not large enough to admit of his moving about; to have his hind legs fettered, his mouth muzzled, and his injured parts covered with a linen cloth wetted with a spirit lotion. 'May' 5. The parts are tumefied, but not more, nor even so much as one night have expected. Continue the lotion. '6th'. At my request, Mr. Youatt was called in to give his opinion as to the probability of effecting a cure. He thought from the inconvenient situation of the fracture, that the chances of success were doubtful; and recommended that a plaster, composed of thick sheep-skin and pitch, cut to the shape of the parts, should be applied, extending from the upper part of the shoulder down upon the arm, and reaching to the knee; and that the whole should be enveloped in well-applied bandages, one of them being carried over the shoulders and brought round between the fore legs, to support the limb, and aid in retaining the fractured ends in apposition. Prior to the application of the pitch plaster the hair was closely shorn off. Thus bound up, the dog was replaced in his hamper, and had some aperient medicine given to him. '8th'. The medicine has operated; and he appears going on well, his appetite continuing unimpaired. '10th'. He growls when I open the basket to look at him. On examining him (while his keeper had hold of him), I found the plaster loosening from its adhesion; I took it off altogether, and applied a fresh one, composed of the stopping composition I use for horses' feet. June 7. Up to this time everything appears to have been going on properly. The fracture feels as if it were completely united, and, as the plaster continues to adhere firmly, I thought the bandages enveloping it, as they were often getting loose, might now he dispensed with, and that the dog might with benefit be chained to a kennel, instead of being so closely confined as he has been. In moving, he does not attempt to use the fractured limb, but hops along upon the three other legs. July. He has acquired pretty good use of the limb. Being now at liberty, he runs about a good deal; halting, from there being some shortness of the limb, but not so much as to prevent him being serviceable, as a 'slow' hunter, in the sporting-field. "About a twelvemonth ago," continues Mr. Percivall, "I was consulted concerning a blood-hound of great size and beauty, and of the cost of £50, that had been a cripple in one of his hind limbs for some considerable time past, owing, it was said or thought, to having received some injury. After a very careful handling, and examination of the parts about the hips, the places where he expressed pain, I came to the conclusion that there had been, and still existed, some fracture of 'the ischial portion of the pelvis', but precisely where, or of what nature, I could not determine; and all the treatment I could recommend was, that the animal should be shut up within a basket or box of some, sort, of dimensions only sufficient to enable him to lie at ease, and that he be kept there for at least six months, without being taken out, save for the purpose of having his bed cleansed or renewed. His owner had previously made up his mind to have him destroyed; understanding, however, from me, that there still remained a chance of his recovery, he ordered his groom to procure a proper basket, and see that the dog's confinement was such as I had prescribed. The man asked me to allow him to have his kennel, which, being no larger than was requisite for him, I did not object to; and to this he had an iron lattice-door made, converting it into a sort of wild beast cage. After two months' confinement, I had him let out for a short run, and perceived evident amendment. I believe altogether that he was imprisoned five months, and then was found so much improved that I had him chained to his kennel for the remaining month, and this, I believe, was continued for another month. The issue was the complete recovery of the animal, very much to the gratification and joy of his master, by whom he is regarded as a kind of unique or unobtainable production. "The fractures of dogs and other animals must, of course, be treated in accordance with all the circumstances of their cases; but I have always considered it a most essential part of their treatment that such portable patients as dogs and cats, &c., should be placed and kept in a state of confinement, where they either could not, or were not likely to, use or move the fractured parts; and, moreover, I have thought that failure, where it has resulted after such treatment, has arisen from its not having been sufficiently long persisted in." In the opinion of Professor Simonds, when there is fracture of the bones of the extremities, a starch bandage is the best that can be employed. If applied wet, it adapts itself to the irregularities of the limbs; and if allowed to remain on twelve hours undisturbed, it forms a complete case for the part, and affords more equal support than anything else that can possibly be used. The following case was one of considerable interest. It came under the care of Professor Simonds. Two gentlemen were playing at quoits, and the dog of one of them was struck on the head by a quoit, and supposed to be killed. His owner took him up, and found that he was not dead, although dreadfully injured. It being near the Thames, his owner took him to the edge of the river, and dashed some water over him, and he rallied a little. Professor Simonds detected a fracture of the skull, with pressure on the brain, arising from a portion of depressed bone. The dog was perfectly unconscious, frequently moaning, quite incapable of standing, and continually turning round upon his belly, his straw, or his bed. It was a case of coma; he took no food, and the pulsation at the heart was very indistinct. "I told the proprietor that there was no chance of recovery except by an operation; and, even then, I thought it exceedingly doubtful. I was desired to operate, and I took him home. "The head was now almost twice as large as when the accident occurred, proceeding from a quantity of coagulated blood that had been effused under the skin covering the skull. I gave him a dose of aperient medicine, and on the following morning commenced my operation. "The hair was clipped from the head, and an incision carried immediately from between the eye-brows to the back part of the skull, in the direction of the sagittal suture. Another incision was made from this towards the root of the ear. This triangular flap was then turned back, in order to remove the coagulated blood and make a thorough exposure of the skull. I was provided with a trephine, thinking that only a portion of the bone had been depressed on the brain, and it would be necessary, with that instrument, to separate it from its attachment, and then with an elevator remove it; but I found that the greater part of the parietal bone was depressed, and that the fracture extended along the sagittal suture from the coronal and lamdoidal sutures. At three-fourths of the width of the bone, the fracture ran parallel with the sagittal suture, and this large portion was depressed upon the tunics of the brain, the dura mater being considerably lacerated. The depressed bone was raised with an elevator, and I found, from its lacerated edges and the extent of the mischief done, that it was far wiser to remove it entirely, than to allow it to remain and take the chance of its uniting. "In a few days, the dog began to experience relief from the operation, and to be somewhat conscious of what was taking place around him. He still requires care and attention, and proper medicinal agents to be administered from time to time; but with the exception of occasionally turning round when on the floor, he takes his food well, and obeys his master's call."[1] [Footnote 1: Trans. Vet. Med. Assoc., i. 51.] * * * * * CHAPTER XVII. MEDICINES USED IN THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES OF THE DOG. These are far more numerous and complicated than would, on the first consideration of them, be imagined. The Veterinary Surgeon has a long list of them, suited to the wants and dangers, imaginary or real, of his patients; and he who is not scientifically acquainted with them, will occasionally blunder in the choice of remedies, or the application of the means of cure which he adopts. Little attention may, perhaps, be paid to the medical treatment of the dog; yet it requires not a little study and experience. I will endeavour to give a short account of the drugs, and mode of using them, generally employed. The administering of medicines to dogs is, generally speaking, simple and safe, if a little care is taken about the matter, and especially if two persons are employed in the operation. The one should be sitting with the dog between his knees, and the hinder part of the animal resting on the floor. The mouth is forced open by the pressure of the fore-finger and thumb upon the lips of the upper jaw, and the medicine can be conveniently introduced with the other hand, and passed sufficiently far into the throat to insure its not being returned. The mouth should be closed and kept so, until the bolus has been seen to pass down. Mr. Blaine thus describes the difference between the administration of liquid and solid medicines: "A little attention will prevent all danger. A ball or bolus should be passed completely over the root of the tongue, and pushed some way backward and forward. When a liquid is given, if the quantity is more than can be swallowed at one effort, it should be removed from the mouth at each deglutition, or the dog may be strangled. Balls of a soft consistence, and those composed of nauseous ingredients, should be wrapped in thin paper, or they may disgust the dog and produce sickness." Dogs labouring under disease should be carefully nursed: more depends on this than many persons seem to be aware. A warm and comfortable bed is of a great deal more consequence than many persons who are fond of their dogs imagine. Cleanliness is also an essential point. Harshness of manner and unkind treatment will evidently aggravate many of their complaints. I have sometimes witnessed an angry word spoken to a healthy dog produce instant convulsions in a distempered one that happened to be near; and the fits that come on spontaneously in distemper, almost instantly leave the dog by soothing notice of him. 'Acidum Acetum (Vinegar)'.--This is useful for sprains, bruises, and fomentations. 'Acidum Nitricum (Nitric Acid; Aqua Fortis)'.--This may be used with advantage to destroy warts or fungous excrescences. A little of the acid should be dropped on the part and bound tightly down. The protuberance will slough off and healthy granulations will spring up. A surer application, however, is the nitrate of silver. 'Acidum Hydrocyanicum (Prussic Acid)'.--This is an excellent application for the purpose of allaying irritation of the skin in dogs; but it must be very carefully watched. I have seen a drachm of it diluted with a pint of distilled water, rapidly allay cuticular inflammation. The dreadful degree of itching which had been observed during the last two or three years yielded to this application alone; and to that it has almost invariably yielded, a little patience being used. 'Acupuncturation' is a practice lately introduced into veterinary surgery. It denotes the insertion of a needle into the skin or flesh of a person or animal suffering severely from some neuralgic affection. The needle is small and sharp: it is introduced by a slight pressure and semi-rotating motion between the thumb and forefinger, and afterwards withdrawn with the same motion. This should always employ a quarter of an hour at least, and in cases of very great pain it should continue two hours; but when the object is to afford an exit to the fluid collected, mere puncture is sufficient. It is attended with very little pain; and therefore it may be employed at least with safety if not with advantage. The operation was known and practised in Japan, many years ago; but it was only in the seventeenth century that its singular value was ascertained. In 1810 some trials of it were made in Paris, and M. Chenel look the lead. He had a young dog that he had cured of distemper, except that a spasmodic affection of the left hind leg remained. He applied a needle, and with fair success. He failed with another dog; but M. Prevost, of Geneva, relieved two mares from rheumatism, and an entire horse that had been lame sixteen months. In the Veterinary School at Lyons acupuncturation was tried on two dogs. One had chorea, and the other chronic paralysis of the muscles of the neck. The operation had no effect on the first; the other came out of the hospital completely cured. In the following year acupuncturation was tried without success in the same school. Four horses and two dogs were operated upon in vain. 'Adeps (Hog's Lard)' forms the basis of all our ointments. It is tasteless, inodorous and free from every stimulating quality. 'Alcohol (Rectified Spirit)'.--This is principally used in tinctures, and seldom or never administered to the dog in a pure state. 'Aloes, Barbadoes'.--From these are formed the safest and best aperients for the dog--consisting of powdered aloes, eight parts; antimonial powder, one part; ginger, one part; and palm oil, five parts; beaten well together, and the size of the ball varying from half a drachm to two drachms, and a ball administered every fourth or fifth hour. Mr. Blaine considers it to be the safest general purgative. He says that such is the peculiarity of the bowels of the dog, that while a man can take with impunity as much calomel as would kill two large dogs, a moderate-sized dog will take a quantity of aloes sufficient to destroy two stout men. The smallest dog can take 15 or 20 grains; half a drachm is seldom too much; but the smaller dose had better be tried first, for hundreds of dogs are every year destroyed by temerity in this particular. Medium-sized dogs usually require a drachm; and some large dogs have taken two or even three drachms. 'Alteratives' are medicines that effect some slow change in the diseased action of certain parts, without interfering with the food or work. The most useful consist of five parts of sublimed sulphur, one of nitre, one of linseed meal, and two of lard or palm oil. 'Alum' is a powerful astringent, whether employed externally or internally. It is occasionally administered in doses of from 10 to 15 grains in obstinate diarrhoea. In some obstinate cases, alum whey has been employed in the form of a clyster. 'Oxide of Antimony', in the form of a compound powder, and under the name of James's powder, is employed as a sudorific, or to cause a determination to the skin. The 'Antimonii Potassio Tartras (Tartar Emetic)', besides its effect on the skin, is a useful nauseant, and invaluable in inflammation of the lungs and catarrhal affections of every kind. The 'Black Sesquisulphuret of Antimony' is a compound of sulphur and antimony, and an excellent alterative. 'Argenti Nitras--Nitrate of Silver (Lunar Caustic)'.--I have already strongly advocated the employment of this caustic for empoisoned wounds and bites of rabid animals. In my opinion it supersedes the use of every other caustic, and generally of the knife. I have also given it internally as a tonic to the dog, in cases of chorea, in doses from an eighth to a quarter of a grain. A dilute solution may be employed as an excitant to wounds, in which the healing process has become sluggish. For this purpose, ten grains or more may be dissolved in a fluid ounce of distilled water. A few fibres of tow dipped in this solution, being drawn through the channel which is left on the removal of a seton, quickly excite the healing action. Occasionally one or two drops of this solution may be introduced into the eye for the purpose of removing opalescence of the cornea. In cases of fungoid matter being thrown out on the cornea, the fungus may be touched with a rod of nitrate of silver, and little pain will follow. The 'Peruvian Bark', or its active principle the disulphate of quina, is a valuable tonic in distemper, especially when combined with the iodide of iron; the iron increasing with the general tone of the system, and the iodine acting as a stimulant to the absorbents. 'Blisters' are occasionally useful or indispensable in some of the casualties and diseases to which the dog is liable. They are mostly of the same description, and act upon the same principles as in the horse, whether in the form of plaster, or ointment, or stimulating fluid. Blisters can be kept on the dog with difficulty: nothing short of a wire muzzle will suffice; Mr. Blaine says, that for very large dogs, he used to be compelled to make use of a perforated tin one. The judgment of the practitioner will determine in these cases, as well as with regard to the horse, whether the desired effect should be produced by severe measures or by those of a milder character, by active blisters or by milder stimulants; the difficulty of the measures to be adopted, and the degree of punishment that may be inflicted, being never forgotten by the operator. We have stated in our work on the Horse, that "the art of blistering consists in cutting or rather shaving the hair perfectly close; then well rubbing in the ointment, and afterwards, and, what is the greatest consequence of all, plastering a little more of the ointment lightly over the part, and leaving it. As soon as the vesicles have perfectly risen, which will be in twenty or twenty-four hours, the torture of the animal may be somewhat relieved by the application of olive or neat's-foot oil, or any emollient ointment. "An infusion of two ounces of the cantharides in a pint of oil of turpentine, for several days, is occasionally used as a languid blister; and when sufficiently lowered with common oil, it is called a 'sweating' oil, for it maintains a certain degree of irritation and inflammation on the skin, yet not sufficient to blister; and thus gradually abates or removes some old or deep inflammation, or cause of lameness." [1] Iodine in various cases is now rapidly superseding the cantharides and the turpentine. 'Calomel'--Sufficient has been said of this dangerous medicine in the course of the present work. I should rarely think of exhibiting it, except in small doses for the purpose of producing that specific influence on the liver, which we know to be the peculiar property of this drug. In large doses it will to a certain extent produce vomiting; and, if it finds its way into the intestines, it acts as a powerful drastic purgative. 'Castor Oil (Oleum Ricini)'.--This is a most valuable medicine. It is usually combined with the syrup of buckthorn and white poppies, in the proportions of three parts of the oil to two of the buckthorn and one of the poppy-syrup; which form a combination of ingredients in which the oleaginous, stimulant, and narcotic ingredients happily blend. 'Catechu.'--This is an extract from the wood of an acacia-tree '(Acacia catechu)', and possesses a powerful astringent property. It is given in cases of superpurgation, united with opium, chalk, and powdered gum. A tincture of it is very useful for the purpose of hastening the healing principle of wounds. Professor Morton says, that he considers it as the most valuable of the vegetable astringents. 'Clysters.'--Professor Morton gives an account of the use of clysters. The objects, he says, for which they are administered, are--1. To empty the bowels of fæces: thus they act as an aperient. Also, to induce a cathartic to commence its operations, when, from want of exercise or due preparation, it is tardy in producing the desired effect. Clysters operate in a twofold way: first, by softening the contents of the intestines; and, secondly, by exciting an irritation in one portion of the canal which is communicated throughout the whole; hence they become valuable when the nature and progress of the disease require a quick evacuation of the bowels. The usual enema is warm water, but this may be rendered more stimulating by the addition of salt, oil, or aloes. 2. For the purpose of killing worms that are found in the rectum and large intestines: in this case it is usually of an oleaginous nature. 3. For restraining diarrhoea: sedatives and astringents being then employed. 4. For nourishing the body when food cannot be received by the mouth. Gruel is generally the aliment thus given. 5. For allaying spasms in the stomach and bowels. 'Copper'--Both the verdigris, or subacetate, and the blue vitriol of sulphate of copper, are now comparatively rarely used. They are employed either in the form of a fine powder, or mixed with an equal quantity of the acetate of lead in order to destroy proud flesh or stimulate old ulcers. They also form a part of the ægyptiacum of the farrier. There are many better drugs to accomplish the same purpose. 'Creosote' is seldom used for the dog. We have applications quite as good and less dangerous. It may be employed as a very gentle excitant and antiseptic. 'Creta Preparata (Chalk)', in combination with ginger, catechu, and opium, is exceedingly useful; indeed, it is our most valuable medicine in all cases of purging, and particularly the purging of distemper. 'Digitalis' is an exceedingly valuable drug. It is a direct and powerful sedative, a mild diuretic, and useful in every inflammatory and febrile complaint. 'Gentian' and 'Ginger' are both valuable; the first as a stomachic and tonic, and the last as a cordial and tonic. It is occasionally necessary, or at least desirable, to draw this distinction between them. 'Chloride of Lime' is a useful application for ill-conditioned wounds and for the frequent cleansing of the kennel. 'Epsom Salts', or 'Sulphate of Magnesia', are mild yet effective in their action: with regard to cattle and sheep, they supersede every other aperient; for the dog, however, they must yield to the castor-oil mixture. 'Mercury'--The common mercurial ointment is now comparatively little used. It has given way to the different preparations of iodine. In direct and virulent mange, it is yet, however, employed under the form of calomel, and combined with aloes, but in very small doses, never exceeding three grains. It is also useful in farcy and jaundice. The corrosive sublimate is occasionally used for mange in the dog, and to destroy vermin; but it is a very uncertain and dangerous medicine. 'Palm Oil' would be an excellent emollient, if it were not so frequently adulterated with turmeric root in powder. It is far milder than the common lard. 'Nitrate of Potash' is a valuable cooling and mild diuretic, in doses of eight or ten grains. 'Sulphur' is the basis of the most effectual applications for mange. It is a good alterative, combined usually with antimonials and nitre, and particularly useful in mange, surfeit, grease, hide-bound, and want of condition. 'Turpentine' is an excellent diuretic and antispasmodic; it is also a most effectual sweating blister and highly useful in strains. 'The Sulphate of Zinc' is valuable as an excitant to wounds, and promotes adhesion between divided surfaces and the 'radix'. [Footnote 1: The Horse, p. 501.] * * * * * APPENDIX. THE NEW LAWS OF COURSING, 'As Revised and Enlarged at a Meeting of Noblemen and Gentlemen, held at the Thatched House Tavern, St. James's Street, June 1, 1839'. I. Two stewards shall be appointed by the members at dinner each day, to act in the field the following day, and to preside at dinner. They shall regulate the plan of beating the ground, under the sanction of the owner or occupier of the soil. II. Three or five members, including the secretary for the time being, shall form a Committee of Management, and shall name a person, for the approbation of the members, to judge all courses--all doubtful cases shall be referred to them. III. All courses shall be from slips, by a brace of greyhounds only. IV. The time of putting the first brace of dogs in the slips shall be declared at dinner on the day preceding. If a prize is to be run for, and only one dog is ready, he shall run a by, and his owner shall receive forfeit: should neither be ready, the course shall be run when the Committee shall think fit. In a match, if only one dog be ready, his owner shall receive forfeit; if neither be present, the match shall be placed the last in the list. V. If any person shall enter a greyhound by a name different from that in which he last appeared in public, without giving notice of such alteration, he shall be disqualified from winning, and shall forfeit his match. VI. No greyhounds shall be entered as puppies unless born on or after the 1st of January of the year preceding the day of running. VII. Any member, or other person, running a greyhound at the meeting, having a dog at large which shall join in the course then running, shall forfeit one sovereign; and, if belonging to either of the parties running, the course shall be decided against him. VIII. The judge ought to be in a position where he can see the dogs leave the slips, and to decide by the colour of the dogs to a person appointed for that purpose: his decision shall be final. IX. If, in running for prizes, the judge shall be of opinion that the course has not been of sufficient length to enable him to decide as to the merits of the dogs, he shall inquire of the Committee whether he is to decide the course or not; if in the negative, the dogs shall be immediately put again into the slips. X. The judge shall not answer any questions put to him regarding a course, unless such questions are asked by the Committee. XI. If any member make any observation in the hearing of the judge respecting a course, during the time of running, or before he shall have delivered his judgment, he shall forfeit one sovereign to the fund; and, if either dog be his own, he shall lose the course. If he impugn the decision of the judge, he shall forfeit two sovereigns. XII. When a course of an average length is so equally divided that the judge shall be unable to decide it, the owners of the dogs may toss for it; but, if either refuse, the dogs shall be again put in the slips, at such time as the Committee may think fit; but, if either dog be drawn, the winning dog shall not be obliged to run again. XIII. In running a match the judge may declare the course to be undecided. XIV. If a member shall enter more than one greyhound, 'bonâ fide' his own property, for a prize, his dogs shall not run together, if it be possible to avoid it; and, if two greyhounds, the property of the same member, remain to the last tie, he may run it out or draw either, as he shall think fit. XV. When dogs engaged are of the same colour, the last drawn shall wear a collar. XVI. If a greyhound stand still in a course when a hare is in his or her sight, the owner shall lose the course; but, if a greyhound drops from exhaustion, and it shall be the opinion of the judge that the merit up to the time of falling was greatly in his or her favour, then the judge shall have power to award the course to the greyhound so falling, if he think fit. XVII. Should two hares be on foot, and the dogs separate before reaching the hare slipped at, the course shall be undecided, and shall be run over again at such time as the Committee shall think fit, unless the owners of the dogs agree to toss for it, or to draw one dog; and if the dogs separate after running some time, it shall be at the discretion of the Committee whether the course shall be decided up to the point of separation. XVIII. A course shall end if either dog be so unsighted as to cause an impediment in the course. XIX. If any member or his servant ride over his opponent's dog when running, so as to injure him in the course, the dog so ridden over shall be deemed to win the course. XX. It is recommended to all union meetings to appoint a committee of five, consisting of members of different clubs, to determine all difficulties and cases of doubt. 'The following general rules are recommended to judges for their guidance:' The features of merit are: The race from slips, and the first turn or wrench of the hare (provided it be a fair slip), and a straight run-up. Where one dog gives the other a go-by when both are in their full speed, and turns or wrenches the hare. (N. B. If one dog be in the stretch, and the other only turning at the time he passes, it is not a fair go-by.) Where one dog turns the hare when she is leading homewards, and keeps the lead so as to serve himself, and makes a second turn of the hare without losing the lead. A catch or kill of the hare, when she is running straight and leading homewards, is fully equal to a turn of the hare when running in the same direction, or perhaps more, if he show the speed over the other dog in doing it. If a dog draws the fleck from the hare, and causes her to wrench or rick only, it is equal to a turn of the hare when leading homewards. When a dog wrenches or ricks a hare twice following, without losing the lead, it is equal to a turn. N. B. It often happens when a hare has been turned, and she is running from home, that she turns of her own accord to gain ground homeward, when both dogs are on the stretch after her; in such a case the judge should not give the leading dog a turn. There are often other minor advantages in a course, such as one dog showing occasional superiority of speed, turning on less ground, and running the whole course with more fire than his opponent, which must be led to the discretion of the judge, who is to decide on the merits. LOCAL RULES. I. The number of members shall be regulated by the letters in the Alphabet, and the two junior members shall take the letters X and Z, if required. II. The members shall be elected by ballot, seven to constitute a ballot, and two black balls to exclude. III. The name of every person proposed to be balloted for as a member, shall be placed over the chimney-piece one day before the ballot can take place. IV. No proposition shall be balloted for unless put up over the chimney-piece, with the names of the proposer and seconder, at or before dinner preceding the day of the ballot, and read to the members at such dinner. V. Every member shall, at each meeting, run a greyhound his own property, or forfeit a sovereign to the Club. VI. No member shall be allowed to match more than two greyhounds in the first class, under a penalty of two sovereigns to the fund, unless such member has been drawn or run out for the prizes, in which case he shall be allowed to run three dogs in the first class. VII. If any member shall absent himself two seasons without sending his subscription, he shall be deemed out of the Society, and another chosen in his place. VIII. No greyhound shall be allowed to start if any arrears are due to this Society from the owner. IX. Any member lending another a greyhound for the purpose of saving his forfeit (excepting by consent of the members present) shall forfeit five sovereigns. X. Any member running the dog of a stranger in a match shall cause the name of the owner to be inserted after his own name in the list, under a penalty of one sovereign. XI. No stranger shall be admitted into the Society's room, unless introduced by a member, who shall place the name of his friend over the chimney-piece, with his own attached to it; and no member shall introduce more than one friend. XII. The members of the [erased] Clubs shall be honorary members of this Society, and when present shall be allowed to run their greyhounds on payment of the annual subscription. XIII. This Society to meet on the [erased] in [erased], and course on the [erased] following days. * * * * * INDEX. Acupuncturation, used in neuralgic affections mode of performing Adam, Mr., on fungus hæmatodes Adeps, the basis of all ointments African wild dog, description of the Agasæi, British hunting dogs, description of Age, the indications of Albanian dog, description of the Alcohol, only used in tinctures Alicant dog, description of the Aloes, Barbadoes, the best purgative Alpine spaniel, description of Alteratives, the most useful Alum, a powerful astringent Amaurosis, symptoms of American wild dogs, description of the Anæmia, description of causes of 'post-mortem' appearances Anasarca, nature of Andalusian dog, description of the Angina, nature of Antimony, the oxide of, a sudorific the black sesquisulphuret of, an alterative Anubis, an Egyptian deity with the head of a dog Anus, polypus in the fistula in the Aquafortis, a caustic Argus, the dog of Ulysses Arrian on hunting Artois dog, description of the Ascarides, a species of worms Ascites, 'see' Dropsy Attention, an important faculty Auscultation, use of Australasian dog, description of the Barbary dog, description of the Barbet, description of the Bark, Peruvian, a valuable tonic Barry, a celebrated Bernardine dog, anecdote of Bath, use of in puerperal fits Beagle, description of the Bell, Professor, opinion on the origin of the dog Bernardine dog, description of the Billy, a celebrated terrier Bladder, inflammation of the rupture of the Blain, nature, causes, treatment, and 'post-mortem' appearances of Blaine, Mr., opinion on kennel lameness on tetanus on dropsy on calculus on distemper on mange Bleeding, best place for directions for useful in epilepsy useful in distemper Blenheim spaniel, description of the Blisters, uses of composition mode of applying and guarding Bloodhound, description of the Brain, comparative bulk of in different animals description of the Breaking-in of hounds cruelty disadvantageous Breeding of greyhounds should always be permitted British hunting-dogs, Agasæi, description of Bronchocele, nature of causes and treatment of Búánsú, or Nepâl dog, description of Buffon, opinion as to the origin of the dog Bull-dog, description of the crossed with the greyhound Bull terrier, description of the Cæcum, description of the Calculus, nature, causes, and treatment of, in the intestines, causes of, cases, Calomel, a dangerous medicine should not be used in enteritis Cancer, symptoms of treatment of Canis, genus Canker in the ear, causes, symptoms and treatment of cases of Canute, laws concerning greyhounds by Cardia, description of the Castor oil, a valuable purgative Castration, proper time for mode of performing not recommended Catechu, an astringent Caustic, lunar, the best Cayotte, description of the Chabert, anecdote of the dog of Chalk, an astringent Charles I, anecdote of the dog of Charles II's spaniel, description of Chest, anatomy and diseases of the proper form of, in the greyhound in the fox-hound Chest-founder, nature, causes, and treatment of Chloride of lime, uses of Chorea, nature of, causes, treatment cases in distemper Chryseus scylex, or dhole, description of the Claret, a celebrated greyhound Classification, zoological Climate, effect of Clysters, uses of Coach-dog, description of the Cocker, description of the Colic, causes, symptoms, and treatment of Colon, the rupture of the Colour of the greyhound of the pointer Constipation, causes and treatment of Copper, preparations of, and their uses Coryza, the early stage of distemper Costiveness, causes and treatment of means of preventing Cough, spasmodic, nature and treatment of Coursing, Ovid's description of anecdotes of laws of general rules for the guidance of judges local rules Creosote, a dangerous medicine useful in canker Creta, an astringent Cropping of the ears deafness frequently caused by disapproved of proper method of Cross-breeding, effect of Cuba, mastiff of Cur, description of the Cyprus, greyhounds of, described Cynosaurus cristatus, an useful emetic Czarina, a celebrated greyhound Dakhun wild dog, description of the Dalmatian dog, description of the Danish sacrifices of dogs, description of dog, description of the Deab, description of the Deafness frequently caused by cropping Deer-hound, description of the Delafond, Professor, his table of the diagnostic symptoms of pleurisy and pneumonia Dentition, formula of Dew-claws their removal unnecessary Dhole, description of the Diaphragm, description of the Diarrhoea, causes, nature, and treatment of habitual Dick, Professor, on rabies on the use of ergot of rye Digestion, the process of Digitalis, the uses of Digitigrade, an order of animals Dingo, description of the Distemper, origin of the name is a new disease causes of is contagious is epidemic effects on different breeds symptoms nature of duration 'post-mortem' appearances treatment a cause of epilepsy sometimes terminates in palsy Dog, early history of the used as a beast of draught for food uses of the skin of the origin of mention of, in the Old and New Testaments anecdotes of the sagacity and fidelity of changes produced in, by breeding and climate zoological description of natural divisions of sacrificed by the Greeks and Romans by the Danes and Swedes African wild Albanian Alicant Alpine spaniel American wild Andalusian Artois Australasian Barbary barbet beagle black and tan spaniel Blenheim spaniel blood-hound British bull bull terrier coach cocker cur Dakhun Dalmatian Danish drover's Egyptian Esquimaux fox-hound French matin French pointer gasehound Grecian Grecian greyhound greyhound Hare Indian harrier Highland greyhound Hyrcanian Iceland Irish greyhound Italian greyhound Italian wolf Javanese King Charles's spaniel Lapland lion Locrian lurcher Mahratta Maltese mastiff Molossian Nepal Newfoundland New Zealand otter Pannonian pariah Persian greyhound pointer Polugar poodle Portuguese pointer Russian greyhound Russian pointer Scotch greyhound Scotch terrier setter sheep shock southern hound spaniel Spanish pointer springer stag-hound Sumatran wild terrier Thibet Turkish Turkish greyhound water-spaniel wild wolf Dog-carts, prohibition of, disapproved should be licensed Dog-pits Dog-stealing Dog's-tail grass, the use of Dogs, Isle of, origin of the name Dropsy, causes of cases of treatment of Drover's dog, description of the Duodenum, the Dupuy, M., on diseases of the spinal marrow Dysentery, nature of treatment of Ear, diseases of the vegetating excrescences in the eruptions in the cropping of the polypi in the, nature and treatment of pain of, an early symptom of rabies Egyptian worship of the dog dog, description of the Elfric, King of Mercia, possessed greyhounds Emetic tartar, uses of Enteritis, causes, symptoms, and treatment of Epiglottis, description of the Epilepsy, causes of treatment of cases puerperal in distemper Epsom salts, a purgative Ergot of rye, use of, in parturition Esquimaux dog, description of the Ethiopia, a dog elected king of Ethmoid bones, description of the Extremities, bones of the Eye, distinctive form of the diseases of the construction of the cases of disease of the congenital blindness ophthalmia cataract amaurosis appearance of in rabies appearance of in distemper Familiaris, sub-genus Feet, sore Femur, fracture of the Fighting-pits First division of varieties Fistula in the anus, causes and treatment of Fits, symptoms of treatment of distemper puerperal Fitzhardinge, Lord, his management of hounds Flogging hounds, disapproved of Food, the dog used for of the greyhound of the foxhound insufficient, a cause of distemper Fore-arm, fracture of the Foxhound, description of the size and proper conformation of pupping treatment of whelps breaking in management in the field general management and food of Lord Fitzhardinge's management Fractures, most frequent in young dogs of the humerus of the thigh of the femur of the radius of the fore-arm of the shoulder of the pelvis of the skull French pointer, description of the Fungus hæmatodes, a case of 'post-mortem' appearances Gasehound, description of Gêlert, the dog of Llewellyn, poem on the death of Gentian, a stomachic and tonic Ghoo-khan, or wild ass, hunted by Persian greyhounds Giddiness, nature and treatment of Ginger, a cordial and tonic Glass, powdered, the best vermifuge Goître, nature of cause and treatment of Good qualities of the dog Goodwood kennel, description of plan of Grecian dogs, description of sacrifices of dogs greyhound, description of the Greyhound, description of the puppies, out of origin of known in England in the Anglo-Saxon period old verses describing the cross with the bull-dog proper conformation of colour of breeding rules for age food training laws for coursing with English Grecian Highland Irish Italian Persian Russian Scotch Turkish Grognier, Professor, description of the French sheep-dog Gullet, description of the Hare Indian dog, description of the Harrier, description of the Head, bones of the form of in the foxhound Heart, description of the action of the rupture of the Hecate, dogs sacrificed to Hepatitis, causes, symptoms, and treatment of Hertwich, Professor, on rabies Highland greyhound, description of the Hindoos regard the dog unclean Hogg, James, anecdotes of his dog Hog's lard, the basis of all ointments Hound, the various kinds of blood fox otter southern stag Humerus, fracture of the Hunting with dogs first mentioned by Oppian Hunting-kennels Huntsman, the requisites of a Hydatids in the kidney Hydrocyanic acid, useful in cases of irritation of the skin Hydrophobia, 'see' Rabies Hyrcanian dog, description of the Iceland dog, description of the Ileum, description of the Incontinence of urine India, degeneration of dogs in Inflammation of the lungs of the stomach of the intestines of the peritoneal membrane of the liver of the kidney of the bladder of the feet Intelligence of the dog anecdotes illustrative of the Intestines, description of the inflammation of the Intussusception, nature and causes of treatment Iodine, a valuable medicine in goître in dropsy Irish greyhound, description of the wolf-dog setter Italian greyhound, description of the wolf-dog James's powder, a sudorific Jaundice, causes, symptoms, and treatment of Javanese dog, description of the Jejunum, description of the Jenner, Dr., on distemper Jews regard the dog with abhorrence John, kept many dogs received greyhounds in lieu of fines Kamtschatka, uses of the dog as a beast of draught in Karáráhé or New Zealand dog, description of the Kennel, description of Goodwood Plan of Goodwood for watch-dog construction of hare, use of lameness, nature of causes of means of prevention Kidney, inflammation of the hydatids in the King Charles's spaniel, description of Lachrymal duct, description of the Lapland dog, description of the Lard, the basis of all ointments Larynx, description of the inflammation of the Laws of coursing Leblanc, M., on jaundice Léonard, M., his exhibition of dogs Lime, chloride of, the uses of Lion dog, description of the Lips, functions of the swellings of the Liver, description of the functions of the inflammation of the Llewellyn, poem on the dog of Locrian dog, description of the Lunar caustic, the best recommended for bites of rabid dogs Lungs, inflammation of the congestion of the Lurcher, description of the Madness, canine, 'see' Rabies Magnesia, sulphate of, a purgative Mahratta dog description of the Majendie, his experiments on the olfactory nerves Major, a celebrated greyhound Maltese dog, description of the Mammalia, a class of animals Management of the pack Mange, nature of is hereditary the scabby treatment causes of frequently causes goître Mastiff, description of the used in Cuba to hunt the Indians Mâtin, description of the Maxillary bones, description of the Meatus, description of the Medicines, a list of the most useful mode of administering Medullary substance of the brain Memory of the dog Mercury, preparations of uses of Milk, accumulation of, in the teats secretion of, connected with cancer Mohammedan abhorrence of dogs Molossian dog, description of the Moral qualities of the dog Nasal bones, description of the catarrh, nature of cavity, polypus in the Neck, should be long in the greyhound Nepal dog, description of the Nerves, description of the Nervous system, diseases of Newfoundland dog, description of the New Holland dog, description of the New Zealand dog, description of the Nimrod, opinion on kennel lameness Nitrate of potash, a useful diuretic Nitrate of silver, a caustic recommended for the bites of rabid dogs useful in chorea in canker Nitric acid, a caustic Norfolk spaniel, description of the Nose, anatomy of the diseases of the discharge from the, in distemper Olfactory nerves, size of, in different animals development of the description of the Ophthalmia, symptoms of causes of treatment of Oppian, the first who mentions hunting with dogs description of British dogs by Orbit of the eye, form of the Orford, Lord, first crossed greyhounds with the bull-dog death of Otter-hound, description of the Ovaries, removal of the Ovid, description of coursing by Ozæna, nature and treatment of Palate, veil of the inflammation of the Palsy, causes of treatment of a consequence of chorea consequence of distemper Palm oil, an emollient Pancreas, functions of the Pannonian dog, description of the Pariah, description of the Parry, Captain, description of the Esquimaux dog Parturition, time of management during use of the ergot of of rye inversion of the uterus after Pelvis, fracture of the Percival, Mr., on fractures Pericardium, description of the case of a wound in the Peritonitis, symptoms and treatment of Persian greyhound, description of the Peruvian bark, a valuable tonic Phlegmonous tumour, nature and treatment of Pleurisy, nature of diagnostic symptoms of Pneumonia, nature and treatment of diagnostic symptoms of in distemper a consequence of small-pox Pointer, compared with the setter, 136; early training of, 144; breaking-in, 149; English, 140; French, 142; Spanish, 142 Pollux, the introduction of hunting with dogs attributed to Polugar dog, description of the Polypus in the ear in the nasal and anal cavities in the vagina Pomeranian wolf-dog, description of Poodle, description of the Portuguese pointer, description of the Potash, the nitrate of, a useful diuretic Prussic acid, useful in cases of irritation of the skin Puerperal fits, causes, nature, and treatment of Pulse of various animals Pupping, 'see' Parturition Purging in distemper should be avoided Pythagoras, his high opinion of the virtues of the dog Rabies, cases early symptoms progress 'post-mortem' appearances causes period of incubation duration nature of the virus nature of the disease treatment of persons bitten in the horse in the rabbit in the guinea-pig in the cat in the fowl in the badger in the wolf trials concerning the death of persons by Radius, fracture of the Radcliffe, D., on scent Rectum, the Retriever, Newfoundland dog used as Rheumatism, nature, causes, and treatment of Richard II, anecdote of the dog of Richmond, the third Duke of, built Goodwood kennel Roman sacrifices of dogs, description of Rottenness of the lungs Rupture of the heart, case of 'post-mortem' appearances of the colon of the bladder Russian greyhound, description of the pointer, description of the Saliva, state of in rabies Salts, a purgative Scabby mange, nature and treatment of Scent, the term description of influence of the atmosphere upon Scotch greyhound, description of the terrier, description of the Scott, Sir Walter, anecdote of the dog of verses on the dogs of Second division of varieties Seton, useful in epilepsy Setter, description of the early training of compared with the pointer Sheep-dog, description of the anecdotes of the supposed by Buffon to be the original type French, description of the Shock-dog, description of the Shoulder, fracture of the proper form of the, in the greyhound Siberian dog, description of the Simonds, Professor, on fractures Simpson, Mr., on the use of the ergot of rye Skeleton, description of the Skin, uses of the Skull, form of, adopted as the arrangement of the varieties of the dog fracture of the Small-pox, symptoms of causes of treatment Smell, the sense of Snowball, a celebrated greyhound Sore feet, causes of treatment Southern hound, description of the Spaniel, origin of the description of the Blenheim King Charles's Norfolk water Spanish pointer, description of the Spasmodic cough, nature and treatment of Spaying, mode of performing Spleen, functions of the diseases of the Springer, description of the Staghound, description of the anecdotes of the Staling, profuse Starch, bandage, useful in fractures Stealing of dogs Stomach, anatomy and diseases of the case of the retention of a sharp instrument in the Strychnia, a valuable medicine in palsy Sulphur, the basis of applications for mange a good alterative Sumatra, description of the wild dog of Surfeit, an eruption resembling mange Swedish sacrifices of dogs, description of Sympathetic nerves Tænia, a species of worm Tailing Tape-worm, the Tapping in cases of dropsy Tartar emetic, a useful medicine Teeth, distinctive arrangement of the description of the cuts showing various signs of growth and decay supernumerary diseases of the very early lost by the Turkish dog Teres, a species of worm Terrier, description of the training of the anecdotes of the Scotch, description of the Tetanus, causes of symptoms and treatment of Thibet dog, description of the Thigh, fracture of the Third division of varieties Thyroid cartilage, description of the Toes, sore number of Tongue, description of the mode of drinking worming blain Torsion, mode of performing forceps Training of the greyhound of the foxhound of the pointer or setter Trimmer. Mr., description of the Spanish sheep-dog Trunk, bones of the Tumour, phlegmonous, nature and treatment of Turkish dog, description of the greyhound, description of the Turnside, nature and treatment of Turnspit, description of the Turpentine, uses of Unguents, use of, in mange Unguiculata, a tribe of animals Uterus, case of inversion of the extirpation and cure Vagina, polyps in the Van Diemen Land, ravages of wild dogs in Varieties, three divisions of first division of second division of third division of Vatel, his observations on the pulse of different animals Vegetating excrescences in the ear, nature and treatment of Vermifuge, glass the most effectual Vertebrated animals, what Vinegar, useful for fomentations Voice, change of in rabies Vyner. Mr., opinion on kennel lameness Warts, treatment of Washing of hounds disapproved of Watch-dog, frequent ill-usage of the Water-spaniel, description of the anecdotes of the Wild dog, description of the of Africa of Australia of Van Diemen Land Williamson, Captain, account of the wild dogs of Nepâl on the degeneration of dogs in India description of the dhole Wolf, supposed to be the origin of the dog anecdotes of the Wolf-dog, Irish Italian Worms, varieties of symptoms of means of expelling cases of a cause of sudden death causes of a cause of epilepsy a cause of distemper Yellow distemper, nature of treatment of Yellows, the Zinc, sulphate of, a valuable excitant Zoological classification of the dog * * * * * APPENDIX INDEX TO THE EDITOR'S ADDITIONS. Affection of dogs Age of the pointer Alexander the Great, dog sent to Aloes, effects of Amaurosis, causes and treatment of American greyhound Anecdotes of rabid dogs Arctic fox Bengal, le braque de Blindness, congenital Brazen dog of Jupiter Byron, Lord, his opinion of the dog's memory Canes Ceteres Canine fidelity, anecdote of Canine pathology, Introduction to Canis Lagopus Canis Latrans Canker of the ear of the flap Captain Lyon's account of the Esquimaux dog Catlin's remarks on the Indian dog Chesapeake bay, ducks of the Chorea, accidental cure of Chronic opthalmia, causes and treatment of Circulation, state of the Claims of dogs upon us Cocker, method of breaking the his style of hunting Colonel Hawker's account of dog-stealing Colonel Thornton's Spanish pointer Collyria Congenital blindness Cornea, ulceration of the spots on the Coursing, ancient mode of Gay's poems descriptive of Cropping, a barbarous fancy recommended by Mr. Skinner Cross of dog with fox between the wolf and, opinions of the Cynegetical writers respecting opinions of the moderns Cure of diseases, remedial means for of chorea, accidental Daniel Lambert's dogs, their price &c. Dead bodies, dogs kept to devour Dew-claws, removal of, Mr. Blaine's opinion in reference to Diana, spotted dogs given by Pan to Disease, symptoms of of the eye of the ear of the tongue of the feet Disposition of the dog to hunt by scent Dog, considered as an animal of draught length of intestines in the Molossian fidelity of the of Santa Fé and the Chihuahuas of the Mexicans, worthless prophylactic properties of the crossed with the fox with the wolf Indian social invitations extended to self-broken claim of, upon man hospitals for rabid, anecdotes of, 234; Esquimaux, 95 Duck of the Chesapeake bay, manner of toling the discovery of this method Duke of Norfolk's breed of King Charles' spaniel Ear, canker of the, causes and treatment of wounds of the warts on the polypus of the mangy edges in the Editor's remarks on rabies his preventive treatment for English pointer, size and appearance of Entropium Epilepsy, treatment of mistaken for rabies Esquimaux dog, Captain Lyons' account of Extirpation of the eye Eye and its diseases simple inflammation of extirpation of the protrusion of the weak washes for the Eyelids, ulceration of the inversion of the, operation for Eye-washes, various Feet, diseases of the Fidelity of the dog Fistula lachrymalis Flap, tumours of the Fouilloux, Jacques du, his recipes for rabies Fox, Arctic cross of dog with the Glossitis, causes and treatment of Gay's poems descriptive of coursing Greeks, ancient, domestic manners of the, respecting their dogs greyhound of Greek sportsman's care of his dogs Greyhound of America, 55; of ancient Greece, 56 Gutta serena Hawker, Colonel, his account of dog-stealing Hembel, Mr., his anecdotes of rabid dogs Herds of the Mexicans, immense, 48 Hippocrates, prophylactic properties of the dog recommended by Horse doctors Hospitals for dogs Hydrophthalmia, treatment of Indian dog Introduction to Canine Pathology Irish setter, inductive reasoning in an Jacques du Fouilloux, his recipes for rabies Keyworth, Mr., springer belonging to Lambert, Daniel, the price of his dogs Lord Byron's opinion of the dog's memory Louisiana marmot Lyon, Captain, his account of the Esquimaux dog, 95 Mangy edges, treatment of Marmot, the Louisiana Mexicans, immense herds of the, 48 Mexico, shepherd dogs of their introduction into this country Molossian dogs, 26 Newfoundland dog, as a retriever two varieties of account of two imported into this country Nictitating membrane of the eye Norfolk, Duke of, his breed of King Charles' spaniels Nux vomica, effects of Ophthalmia chronic treatment of traumatic sympathetic Otorrhoea, simple, treatment of Ozæna, injection for Pathology, Canine, Introduction to Pointer, English, his size and appearance; merits of, compared with those of the setter; age of; origin of; his disposition to hunt by scent; tailing of the Polypus in the ear Predisposition to disease in dogs Preventative treatment for rabies Prophylactic properties of the dog, as recommended by Pliny, Hippocrates, Aristotle, and others Protrusion of the eye Pustular affection of the feet Rabid dogs, anecdotes of Rabies, epilepsy taken For; remarks on; recipes for the cure of; preventive treatment for Remedial means for the cure of diseases Rheumatism, causes and varieties of Scent, disposition of the dog to hunt by Self-broken dogs Setter, old document respecting the training of; merits of, compared with those of the pointer; Irish, inductive reasoning in Shepherd's dog, importance of the, to our agriculturists; of Mexico; their introduction into this country Shepherds of Mexico Skinner. Mr., cropping recommended by Social invitations extended to dogs Sow, account of one finding and standing game Spaniel, King Charles', breed of Spanish pointer, Colonel Thornton's Spirits of turpentine, effects of Sportsman, Greek, his care of his dogs Spots on the cornea Spotted dogs given by Pan to Diana Sprains Springer Stealing dogs, Colonel Hawke's account of Symptoms of disease Tailing, objections to of pointers Thornton, Colonel, his Spanish pointer Throat, foreign articles in the Toling ducks Tongue, appearance of the, in disease Traumatic ophthalmia, treatment of Turnside, uncommon in the country Ulceration of the cornea; of the eyelids Youatt, Mr., his opinion approved Warts of the ear Weak eyes Wounds of the ear * * * * *